text: Global climate change, ozone layer depletion, desertification, and biodiversity loss are among global environmental issues presently on the agenda in Kyrgyzstan.

entity_name: Climate change

text: Global climate change

entity_name: Ozone depletion

text: ozone layer depletion

entity_name: Desertification

text: desertification

text: , and biodiversity loss are among global environmental issues presently on the agenda in

entity_name: Kyrgyzstan

text: Kyrgyzstan

text: The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth’s surface at a higher intensity. Ozone levels have dropped by a worldwide average of about 4 percent since the late 1970s. For approximately 5 percent of the Earth's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as "ozone holes". The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced by Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin, in a paper which appeared in Nature on May 16, 1985.

text: The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth’s surface at a higher intensity. Ozone levels have dropped by a worldwide average of about 4 percent since the late 1970s. For approximately 5 percent of the Earth's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as "ozone holes". The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced by

entity_name: Joe Farman

text: Joe Farman

entity_name: Brian G. Gardiner

text: Brian Gardiner

text: and

entity_name: Jon Shanklin

text: Jonathan Shanklin

text: , in a paper which appeared in

entity_name: Nature (journal)

text: Nature

text: on May 16, 1985.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: The chemistry of the Antarctic polar vortex has created severe ozone depletion. The nitric acid in polar stratospheric clouds reacts with chlorofluorocarbons to form chlorine, which catalyzes the photochemical destruction of ozone. Chlorine concentrations build up during the polar winter, and the consequent ozone destruction is greatest when the sunlight returns in spring. These clouds can only form at temperatures below about . Since there is greater air exchange between the Arctic and the mid-latitudes, ozone depletion at the north pole is much less severe than at the south. Accordingly, the seasonal reduction of ozone levels over the Arctic is usually characterized as an "ozone dent", whereas the more severe ozone depletion over the Antarctic is considered an "ozone hole". This said, chemical ozone destruction in the 2011 Arctic polar vortex attained, for the first time, a level clearly identifiable as an Arctic "ozone hole".

text: The chemistry of the Antarctic polar vortex has created severe

text: ozone depletion

text: . The nitric acid in

entity_name: Polar stratospheric cloud

text: polar stratospheric cloud

text: s reacts with

entity_name: Chlorofluorocarbon

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s to form

entity_name: Chlorine

text: chlorine

text: , which

entity_name: Catalysis

text: catalyzes

text: the photochemical destruction of

entity_name: Ozone

text: ozone

text: . Chlorine concentrations build up during the polar winter, and the consequent ozone destruction is greatest when the sunlight returns in spring. These clouds can only form at temperatures below about . Since there is greater air exchange between the Arctic and the mid-latitudes, ozone depletion at the north pole is much less severe than at the south. Accordingly, the seasonal reduction of ozone levels over the Arctic is usually characterized as an "ozone dent", whereas the more severe ozone depletion over the Antarctic is considered an "ozone hole". This said, chemical ozone destruction in the 2011 Arctic polar vortex attained, for the first time, a level clearly identifiable as an Arctic "

text: ozone hole

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

method: UNH-qee

text: After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at ahearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1974. As a result, significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis. NAS continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade.

text: After publishing their pivotal paper in June 1974, Rowland and Molina testified at ahearing before the U.S. House of Representatives in December 1974. As a result, significant funding was made available to study various aspects of the problem and to confirm the initial findings. In 1976, the U.S.

entity_name: National Academy of Sciences

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: (NAS) released a report that confirmed the scientific credibility of the ozone depletion hypothesis. NAS continued to publish assessments of related science for the next decade.

text: One important thing to consider when assessing the urban forest's effect on air quality is that trees emit some biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs). These are the chemicals (primarily isoprene and monoterpenes) that make up the essential oils, resins, and other organic compounds that plants use to attract pollinators and repel predators. As mentioned above, VOCs react with nitrogen oxides (NOx) to form ozone. BVOCs account for less than 10% of the total amount of BVOCs emitted in urban areas. This means that BVOC emissions from trees can contribute to the formation of ozone. Although their contribution may be small compared with other sources, BVOC emissions could exacerbate a smog problem.

text: One important thing to consider when assessing the urban forest's effect on

entity_name: Air pollution

text: air quality

text: is that trees emit some biogenic

entity_name: Volatile organic compound

text: volatile organic compounds

text: (BVOCs). These are the chemicals (primarily

entity_name: Isoprene

text: isoprene

text: and

entity_name: Monoterpene

text: monoterpene

text: s) that make up the

entity_name: Essential oil

text: essential oil

text: s,

entity_name: Resin

text: resin

text: s, and other organic compounds that plants use to attract pollinators and repel predators. As mentioned above, VOCs react with nitrogen oxides (NOx) to form ozone. BVOCs account for less than 10% of the total amount of BVOCs emitted in urban areas. This means that BVOC emissions from trees can contribute to the formation of ozone. Although their contribution may be small compared with other sources, BVOC emissions could exacerbate a smog problem.

text: Since the adoption and strengthening of the Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in the emissions of CFCs, atmospheric concentrations of the most-significant compounds have been declining. These substances are being gradually removed from the atmosphere; since peaking in 1994, the Effective Equivalent Chlorine (EECl) level in the atmosphere had dropped about 10 percent by 2008. The decrease in ozone-depleting chemicals has also been significantly affected by a decrease in bromine-containing chemicals. The data suggest that substantial natural sources exist for atmospheric methyl bromide (). The phase-out of CFCs means that nitrous oxide (), which is not covered by the Montreal Protocol, has become the most highly emitted ozone-depleting substance and is expected to remain so throughout the 21st century.

text: Since the adoption and strengthening of the Montreal Protocol has led to reductions in the emissions of CFCs, atmospheric concentrations of the most-significant compounds have been declining. These substances are being gradually removed from the atmosphere; since peaking in 1994, the Effective Equivalent Chlorine (EECl) level in the atmosphere had dropped about 10 percent by 2008. The decrease in ozone-depleting chemicals has also been significantly affected by a decrease in

entity_name: Bromine

text: bromine

text: -containing chemicals. The data suggest that substantial natural sources exist for atmospheric

entity_name: Bromomethane

text: methyl bromide

text: (). The phase-out of CFCs means that

entity_name: Nitrous oxide

text: nitrous oxide

text: (), which is not covered by the Montreal Protocol, has become the most highly emitted ozone-depleting substance and is expected to remain so throughout the 21st century.

text: The ozone-destroying chemicals were classified into two groups, Class I and Class II. Class I consists of substances, including chlorofluorocarbons, that have an ozone depletion potential (ODP) (HL) of 0.2 or higher. Class II lists substances, including hydrochlorofluorocarbons, that are known to or may be detrimental to the stratosphere. Both groups have a timeline for phase-out:

text: The ozone-destroying chemicals were classified into two groups, Class I and Class II. Class I consists of substances, including chlorofluorocarbons, that have an

entity_name: Ozone depletion potential

text: ozone depletion potential

text: (ODP) (HL) of 0.2 or higher. Class II lists substances, including hydrochlorofluorocarbons, that are known to or may be detrimental to the stratosphere. Both groups have a timeline for phase-out:

text: Reactions that take place on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play an important role in enhancing ozone depletion. PSCs form more readily in the extreme cold of the Arctic and Antarctic stratosphere. This is why ozone holes first formed, and are deeper, over Antarctica. Early models failed to take PSCs into account and predicted a gradual global depletion, which is why the sudden Antarctic ozone hole was such a surprise to many scientists.

text: There are many things which can negatively affect good air quality such as, vehicle and transport emissions, energy production, some industrial processes, waste and agriculture. The emissions that are produced by these activities can significantly damage air quality which can lead to health problems, depletion of the ozone layer and changes to other natural habitats.

text: There are many things which can negatively affect good air quality such as, vehicle and transport emissions, energy production, some industrial processes, waste and agriculture. The

entity_name: Exhaust gas

text: emissions

text: that are produced by these activities can significantly damage air quality which can lead to health problems, depletion of the

entity_name: Ozone layer

text: ozone layer

text: and changes to other natural habitats.

text: Due to its vulnerable state, the powerful forces of climate change, ozone depletion, air pollution, and construction threaten the tundra's survival. The melting of permafrost increases as a result of global warming, which could drastically alter both the landscape and the biodiversity of the region. The ozone depletion at both the North and South Poles increase the strength of ultraviolet rays that harm the tundra. Air pollution around the world creates smog clouds that contaminate the lichen in the ecosystem, which is a major food source in the region. The construction of pipelines and roads to obtain oil, gas, and minerals cause physical disturbances and habitat fragmentation. There are a number of possible solutions, according to National Geographic, including switching to alternative energy, establishing protected areas and park reserves to restrict human influence, limit road construction, mining activities, and the building of pipelines in tundra habitat, and limiting tourism and respecting local cultures. The creation of the Arctic National Refuge is an example of a measure being enacted to protect the North American tundra. The Arctic Refuge was originally created in 1960 by the Public Land Order 2214, which was created “for the purpose of preserving unique wildlife, wilderness and recreational values” and “withdrawn from all forms of appropriation under the public land laws, including the mining but not the mineral leasing laws, nor disposals of materials”. In 1980, the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) re-designated the Range as a part of the larger Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, and declared “that the ‘production of oil and gas from the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is prohibited and no leasing or other development leading to production of oil and gas from the [Refuge] shall be undertaken until authorized by an act of Congress’”.

text: According to 2006 data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency, industrial sources make up only about 20% of all anthropogenic sources, and include the production of nylon, and the burning of fossil fuel in internal combustion engines. Human activity is thought to account for 30%; tropical soils and oceanic release account for 70%. However, a 2008 study by Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen suggests that the amount of nitrous oxide release attributable to agricultural nitrate fertilizers has been seriously underestimated, most of which would presumably come under soil and oceanic release in the Environmental Protection Agency data. Atmospheric levels have risen by more than 15% since 1750. Nitrous oxide also causes ozone depletion. A new study suggests that NO emission currently is the single most important ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emission and is expected to remain the largest throughout the 21st century.

text: According to 2006 data from the

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: , industrial sources make up only about 20% of all

entity_name: Human impact on the environment

text: anthropogenic

text: sources, and include the production of

entity_name: Nylon

text: nylon

text: , and the burning of fossil fuel in internal combustion engines. Human activity is thought to account for 30%; tropical soils and oceanic release account for 70%. However, a 2008 study by Nobel Laureate

entity_name: Paul J. Crutzen

text: Paul Crutzen

text: suggests that the amount of nitrous oxide release attributable to agricultural nitrate fertilizers has been seriously underestimated, most of which would presumably come under soil and oceanic release in the Environmental Protection Agency data. Atmospheric levels have risen by more than 15% since 1750. Nitrous oxide also causes

text: ozone depletion

text: . A new study suggests that NO emission currently is the single most important ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emission and is expected to remain the largest throughout the 21st century.

text: Bob Watson, successfully united the international science community in 1985 to act on the problem with the ozone hole, before a consensus existed.

text: These are fires whose fuel is flammable or combustible liquid or gas.  The US system designates all such fires "Class B".  In the European/Australian system, flammable liquids are designated "Class B", while burning gases are separately designated "Class C".  These fires follow the same basic fire tetrahedron (heat, fuel, oxygen, chemical reaction) as ordinary combustible fires, except that the fuel in question is a flammable liquid such as gasoline, or gas such as natural gas. A solid stream of water should never be used to extinguish this type because it can cause the fuel to scatter, spreading the flames. The most effective way to extinguish a liquid or gas fueled fire is by inhibiting the chemical chain reaction of the fire, which is done by dry chemical and Halon extinguishing agents, although smothering with CO or, for liquids, foam is also effective. Halon has fallen out of favor in recent times because it is an ozone-depleting material; the Montreal Protocol declares that Halon should no longer be used. Chemicals such as FM-200 are now the recommended halogenated suppressant.

text: These are fires whose fuel is flammable or combustible liquid or gas.  The US system designates all such fires "Class B".  In the European/Australian system, flammable liquids are designated "Class B", while burning gases are separately designated "Class C".  These fires follow the same basic fire tetrahedron (heat, fuel, oxygen, chemical reaction) as ordinary combustible fires, except that the fuel in question is a flammable liquid such as gasoline, or gas such as

entity_name: Natural gas

text: natural gas

text: . A solid stream of water should never be used to extinguish this type because it can cause the fuel to scatter, spreading the flames. The most effective way to extinguish a liquid or gas fueled fire is by inhibiting the chemical chain reaction of the fire, which is done by dry chemical and

entity_name: Halomethane

text: Halon

text: extinguishing agents, although smothering with CO or, for liquids, foam is also effective. Halon has fallen out of favor in recent times because it is an ozone-depleting material; the Montreal Protocol declares that Halon should no longer be used. Chemicals such as

text: are now the recommended halogenated suppressant.

text: In recent decades, the incidence and severity of sunburn has increased worldwide, partly because of chemical damage to the atmosphere's ozone layer. Between the 1970s and the 2000s, average stratospheric ozone decreased by approximately 4%, contributing an approximate 4% increase to the average UV intensity at the earth's surface. Ozone depletion and the seasonal "ozone hole" have led to much larger changes in some locations, especially in the southern hemisphere.

text: In recent decades, the incidence and severity of sunburn has increased worldwide, partly because of chemical damage to the atmosphere's ozone layer. Between the 1970s and the 2000s, average stratospheric ozone decreased by approximately 4%, contributing an approximate 4% increase to the average UV intensity at the earth's surface.

text: Ozone depletion

text: and the seasonal "ozone hole" have led to much larger changes in some locations, especially in the southern hemisphere.

text: This change in the law reflected significant changes in scientific understanding of ozone formation and depletion. Ozone absorbs UVC light and shorter wave UVB, and lets through UVA, which is largely harmless to people. Ozone exists naturally in the stratosphere, not the troposphere. It is laterally distributed because it is destroyed by strong sunlight, so there is more ozone at the poles. Ozone is created when O comes in contact with photons from solar radiation. Therefore, a decrease in the intensity of solar radiation also results in a decrease in the formation of ozone in the stratosphere. This exchange is known as the Chapman mechanism:

text: This change in the law reflected significant changes in scientific understanding of

text: ozone

text: formation and depletion. Ozone absorbs

entity_name: Ultraviolet

text: UVC light

text: and shorter wave

entity_section: Subtypes

text: UVB

text: , and lets through UVA, which is largely harmless to people. Ozone exists naturally in the

entity_name: Stratosphere

text: stratosphere

text: , not the troposphere. It is laterally distributed because it is destroyed by strong sunlight, so there is more ozone at the poles. Ozone is created when O comes in contact with photons from solar radiation. Therefore, a decrease in the intensity of solar radiation also results in a decrease in the formation of ozone in the stratosphere. This exchange is known as the Chapman mechanism:

text: Some plants (e.g. cultivars of Cannabis sativa subsp. indica), can give off strong odors as they grow, resulting in detection of illegal growing operations. Growers frequently use carbon scrubbers and ventilation to control odors. This typically involves forcing air from the grow room through a device containing activated carbon, then venting it outdoors. Others use an ozone generator. Ozone reacts with odor molecules in the air, permanently eliminating them. However, ozone can build up to levels that may be hazardous both for grower and plant. As a last resort, keeping windows firmly shut and using strong air fresheners can control smells.  Checking outside to see if any smells are emanating from indoors is often a necessary precaution, as many growers become acclimated to the smell, and fail to realize just how pervasive the odor may be. Many store plants in more isolated areas such as a basement or attic to prevent smell detection. Another less common solution is to simply grow a strain with a weaker odor.

text: Some plants (e.g. cultivars of Cannabis sativa subsp. indica), can give off strong odors as they grow, resulting in detection of illegal growing operations. Growers frequently use carbon scrubbers and ventilation to control odors. This typically involves forcing air from the grow room through a device containing activated carbon, then venting it outdoors. Others use an

entity_section: Production

text: ozone generator

text: . Ozone reacts with odor molecules in the air, permanently eliminating them. However, ozone can build up to levels that may be hazardous both for grower and plant. As a last resort, keeping windows firmly shut and using strong air fresheners can control smells.  Checking outside to see if any smells are emanating from indoors is often a necessary precaution, as many growers become acclimated to the smell, and fail to realize just how pervasive the odor may be. Many store plants in more isolated areas such as a

entity_name: Basement

text: basement

text: or

entity_name: Attic

text: attic

text: to prevent smell detection. Another less common solution is to simply grow a strain with a weaker odor.

text: Blowing agents (also known as 'pneumatogens') or related mechanisms to create holes in a matrix producing cellular materials, have been classified as follows: Physical blowing agents e.g. CFCs (however, these are ozone depletants,  banned by Montreal Protocol of 1989), HCFCs (replaced CFCs, but are still ozone depletants, therefore being phased out), hydrocarbons (e.g. pentane, isopentane, cyclopentane), liquid CO. The bubble/foam-making process is irreversible and endothermic, i.e. it needs heat (e.g. from a melt process or the chemical exotherm due to cross-linking), to volatile a liquid blowing agent. However, on cooling the blowing agent will condense, i.e. a reversible process.

text: Blowing agents (also known as 'pneumatogens') or related mechanisms to create holes in a matrix producing cellular materials, have been classified as follows: Physical blowing agents e.g. CFCs (however, these are ozone depletants,  banned by

entity_name: Montreal Protocol

text: Montreal Protocol

text: of 1989), HCFCs (replaced CFCs, but are still ozone depletants, therefore being phased out), hydrocarbons (e.g.

entity_name: Pentane

text: pentane

text: isopentane

text: cyclopentane

text: ), liquid CO. The bubble/foam-making process is irreversible and endothermic, i.e. it needs heat (e.g. from a melt process or the chemical exotherm due to cross-linking), to volatile a liquid blowing agent. However, on cooling the blowing agent will condense, i.e. a reversible process.

text: A November 2010 report by scientists at the Institute of Zoology in London found that whales off the coast of California have shown a sharp rise in sun damage, and these scientists "fear that the thinning ozone layer is to blame". The study photographed and took skin biopsies from over 150 whales in the Gulf of California and found "widespread evidence of epidermal damage commonly associated with acute and severe sunburn", having cells that form when the DNA is damaged by UV radiation. The findings suggest "rising UV levels as a result of ozone depletion are to blame for the observed skin damage, in the same way that human skin cancer rates have been on the increase in recent decades."

text: As previously discussed, CFCs were phased out via the Montreal Protocol due to their part in ozone depletion. However, the atmospheric impacts of CFCs are not limited to its role as an active ozone reducer. This anthropogenic compound is also a greenhouse gas, with a much higher potential to enhance the greenhouse effect than CO.

text: As previously discussed, CFCs were phased out via the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: due to their part in ozone depletion. However, the atmospheric impacts of CFCs are not limited to its role as an active ozone reducer. This anthropogenic compound is also a

text: greenhouse gas

text: , with a much higher potential to enhance the greenhouse effect than CO.

text: The long term effects from a nearby burst are more dangerous. Gamma rays cause chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving oxygen and nitrogen molecules, creating first nitrogen oxide then nitrogen dioxide gas. The nitrogen oxides cause dangerous effects on three levels. First, they deplete ozone, with models showing a possible global reduction of 25-35%, with as much as 75% in certain locations, an effect that would last for years. This reduction is enough to cause a dangerously elevated UV index at the surface. Secondly, the nitrogen oxides cause photochemical smog, which darkens the sky and blocks out parts of the sunlight spectrum. This would affect photosynthesis, but models show only about a 1% reduction of the total sunlight spectrum, lasting a few years. However, the smog could potentially cause a cooling effect on Earth's climate, producing a "cosmic winter" (similar to an impact winter, but without an impact), but only if it occurs simultaneously with a global climate instability. Thirdly, the elevated nitrogen levels in the atmosphere would wash out and produce nitric acid rain. Nitric acid is toxic to a variety of organisms, including amphibian life, but models show that it cannot reach levels that would cause a serious global effect. The nitrates might in fact be of benefit to some plants.

text: The long term effects from a nearby burst are more dangerous. Gamma rays cause chemical reactions in the atmosphere involving

text: oxygen

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: molecules

text: , creating first

text: nitrogen oxide

text: then

text: nitrogen dioxide

text: gas. The nitrogen oxides cause dangerous effects on three levels. First, they deplete

text: ozone

text: , with models showing a possible global reduction of 25-35%, with as much as 75% in certain locations, an effect that would last for years. This reduction is enough to cause a dangerously elevated

text: UV index

text: at the surface. Secondly, the nitrogen oxides cause

text: photochemical smog

text: , which darkens the sky and blocks out parts of the

text: sunlight

text: spectrum. This would affect

text: photosynthesis

text: , but models show only about a 1% reduction of the total sunlight spectrum, lasting a few years. However, the smog could potentially cause a cooling effect on Earth's climate, producing a "cosmic winter" (similar to an

text: impact winter

text: , but without an impact), but only if it occurs simultaneously with a global climate instability. Thirdly, the elevated nitrogen levels in the atmosphere would wash out and produce

text: nitric acid rain

text: Nitric acid

text: is toxic to a variety of organisms, including amphibian life, but models show that it cannot reach levels that would cause a serious global effect. The

text: nitrates

text: might in fact be of benefit to some plants.

text: The Rowland–Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The Chair of the Board of DuPont was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale … a load of rubbish … utter nonsense". Robert Abplanalp, the President of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of UC Irvine to complain about Rowland's public statements. Nevertheless, within three years most of the basic assumptions made by Rowland and Molina were confirmed by laboratory measurements and by direct observation in the stratosphere. The concentrations of the source gases (CFCs and related compounds) and the chlorine reservoir species (HCl and ) were measured throughout the stratosphere, and demonstrated that CFCs were indeed the major source of stratospheric chlorine, and that nearly all of the CFCs emitted would eventually reach the stratosphere. Even more convincing was the measurement, by James G. Anderson and collaborators, of chlorine monoxide (ClO) in the stratosphere. ClO is produced by the reaction of Cl with ozone—its observation thus demonstrated that Cl radicals not only were present in the stratosphere but also were actually involved in destroying ozone. McElroy and Wofsy extended the work of Rowland and Molina by showing that bromine atoms were even more effective catalysts for ozone loss than chlorine atoms and argued that the brominated organic compounds known as halons, widely used in fire extinguishers, were a potentially large source of stratospheric bromine. In 1976 the United States National Academy of Sciences released a report concluding that the ozone depletion hypothesis was strongly supported by the scientific evidence. Scientists calculated that if CFC production continued to increase at the going rate of 10 percent per year until 1990 and then remain steady, CFCs would cause a global ozone loss of 5–7 percent by 1995, and a 30–50 percent loss by 2050. In response the United States, Canada and Norway banned the use of CFCs in aerosol spray cans in 1978. However, subsequent research, summarized by the National Academy in reports issued between 1979 and 1984, appeared to show that the earlier estimates of global ozone loss had been too large.

text: The Rowland–Molina hypothesis was strongly disputed by representatives of the aerosol and halocarbon industries. The Chair of the Board of

text: DuPont

text: was quoted as saying that ozone depletion theory is "a science fiction tale … a load of rubbish … utter nonsense".

text: Robert Abplanalp

text: , the President of Precision Valve Corporation (and inventor of the first practical aerosol spray can valve), wrote to the Chancellor of

text: UC Irvine

text: brominated organic compounds

text: known as

text: halons

text: , widely used in fire extinguishers, were a potentially large source of stratospheric bromine. In 1976 the

text: United States National Academy of Sciences

text: released a report concluding that the ozone depletion hypothesis was strongly supported by the scientific evidence. Scientists calculated that if CFC production continued to increase at the going rate of 10 percent per year until 1990 and then remain steady, CFCs would cause a global ozone loss of 5–7 percent by 1995, and a 30–50 percent loss by 2050. In response the United States, Canada and Norway banned the use of CFCs in

text: aerosol spray cans

text: in 1978. However, subsequent research, summarized by the National Academy in reports issued between 1979 and 1984, appeared to show that the earlier estimates of global ozone loss had been too large.

text: Research in 2012 showed that the same process that produces the ozone hole over Antarctica occurs over summer storm clouds in the United States, and thus may be destroying ozone there as well.

text: This differential effect of ozone on health holds true for asthma and ozone exposure as well. In a longitudinal, prospective study, men who were exposed to a 27 parts per billion increase were found to have a 2-fold increase in asthma diagnosis. Although this trend was not found for women, the size of this ozone effect was not diminished when the researchers considered other air pollutants such as (PM10, SO4, NO2, and SO2). Additionally, it was found that after ozone levels equaled or exceeded 0.11 ppm, there was a 37% increase in hospital visits for asthma for African American families in low income areas.  These gender, socioeconomic status and race differences need to be investigated further and solidify ozone exposure as a public health problem to be solved in the coming years.

text: Considering light which is scattered only once in the atmosphere, the light received by the instrument at surface is contributed by light scattered downward from all the levels in the atmosphere. The amount of light contributed by scattering at any particular level depends on (a) the number of air molecules at that level and (b) the absorption by ozone and scattering by air moleculaes both before and after scattering. As the height increases contribution of effect (a) decreases and contribution of effect (b) increases. For a given zenith angle, the scattered light contribution comes from well defined layer of atmosphere, which can be termed as an effective scattering height. The effective scattering height depends on the ozone absorption coefficient and on the solar zenith angle, increasing as with each of these. The effective scattering height will always be higher for shorter wavelength which is more strongly absorbed. As the sun approaches the horizon, the two intensities decreases, but intensity I decreasing more rapidly than I' . However, when the effective scattering height for the short wavelength is above the ozone maximum, I decreases more slowly than I' , because the ozone absorption occurs mostly in the shorter vertical path after the scattering event, and the ratio I/I increases until the effective scattering height for I'  is also above the ozone maximum. This reversal (Umkehr) or inversion implies the existence of maximum of ozone concentration at some level in the atmosphere.

text: There may be unintended climatic consequences of solar radiation management, such as significant changes to the hydrological cycle that might not be predicted by the models used to plan them. Such effects may be cumulative or chaotic in nature. Ozone depletion is a risk of techniques involving sulfur delivery into the stratosphere. Not all side effects are negative, and an increase in agricultural productivity has been predicted by some studies due to the combination of more diffuse light and elevated carbon dioxide concentration.

text: There may be unintended climatic consequences of solar radiation management, such as significant changes to the

text: hydrological cycle

text: that might not be predicted by the

text: models

text: used to plan them. Such effects may be cumulative or

text: chaotic

text: in nature.

text: Ozone depletion

text: is a risk of techniques involving

text: sulfur

text: delivery into the

text: stratosphere

text: . Not all side effects are negative, and an increase in

text: agricultural productivity

text: has been predicted by some studies due to the combination of more diffuse light and elevated carbon dioxide concentration.

text: In 1974, Drs. Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario J. Molina proposed that chlorofluorocarbons, used as propellants in aerosol sprays, contributed to the depletion of Earth's ozone layer. In response to this theory, the U.S. Congress passed amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1977 authorizing the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The United Nations Environment Programme called for ozone layer research that same year, and, in 1981, authorized a global framework convention on ozone layer protection. In 1985, Joe Farman, Brian G. Gardiner, and Jon Shanklin published the first scientific paper detailing the hole in the ozone layer. That same year, the Vienna Convention was signed in response to the UN's authorization. Two years later, the Montreal Protocol, which regulated the production of CFCs was formally signed. It came into effect in 1989. The U.S. formally phased out CFCs in 1995.

text: In 1974, Drs.

text: Frank Sherwood Rowland

text: and

text: Mario J. Molina

text: proposed that

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: , used as propellants in aerosol sprays, contributed to the depletion of Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: . In response to this theory, the

text: U.S. Congress

text: passed amendments to the

text: Clean Air Act

text: in 1977 authorizing the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: to regulate the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The

text: United Nations Environment Programme

text: called for ozone layer research that same year, and, in 1981, authorized a global framework convention on ozone layer protection. In 1985,

text: Joe Farman

text: Brian G. Gardiner

text: , and

text: Jon Shanklin

text: published the first scientific paper detailing the hole in the ozone layer. That same year, the

entity_name: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

text: Vienna Convention

text: was signed in response to the UN's authorization. Two years later, the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , which regulated the production of CFCs was formally signed. It came into effect in 1989. The U.S. formally phased out CFCs in 1995.

text: Significant amounts of ozone can be produced. Even small amounts of ozone can cause ozone cracking in many polymers over time, in addition to the damage by the radiation itself.

text: Significant amounts of

text: ozone

text: can be produced. Even small amounts of ozone can cause

text: ozone cracking

text: in many polymers over time, in addition to the damage by the radiation itself.

text: HC-12a, also called ES-12a, OZ-12a, and Hydrocarbon Blend B, is a "drop-in" replacement refrigerant for Freon-12 and to a lesser extent, R-134a. HC-12a is a mixture of hydrocarbons, specifically propane (R-290) and isobutane (R-600a), and is therefore considered nearly non-ozone-depleting when compared to dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12, Freon-12) or 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R-134a). The mixture can be used in refrigeration systems designed for R-12. HC-12a provides better cooling than an R-12 system retrofitted to R-134a, with much greater energy efficiency as well. Unlike R-134a, HC-12a is completely compatible with the hoses and oils used in R-12 systems, making the conversion much easier to accomplish. HC-12a is also patent-free due to its non-synthetic nature.

text: HC-12a, also called ES-12a, OZ-12a, and Hydrocarbon Blend B, is a "drop-in" replacement

text: refrigerant

text: for

text: and to a lesser extent,

text: . HC-12a is a mixture of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s, specifically

text: propane

text: (R-290) and

text: isobutane

text: (R-600a), and is therefore considered nearly non-ozone-depleting when compared to

text: dichlorodifluoromethane

text: (R-12, Freon-12) or

text: (R-134a). The mixture can be used in refrigeration systems designed for R-12. HC-12a provides better cooling than an R-12 system retrofitted to R-134a, with much greater energy efficiency as well. Unlike R-134a, HC-12a is completely compatible with the hoses and oils used in R-12 systems, making the conversion much easier to accomplish. HC-12a is also patent-free due to its non-synthetic nature.

text: The discovery of the Antarctic "ozone hole" by British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin (first reported in a paper in Nature in May 1985) came as a shock to the scientific community, because the observed decline in polar ozone was far larger than anyone had anticipated. Satellite measurements showing massive depletion of ozone around the south pole were becoming available at the same time. However, these were initially rejected as unreasonable by data quality control algorithms (they were filtered out as errors since the values were unexpectedly low); the ozone hole was detected only in satellite data when the raw data was reprocessed following evidence of ozone depletion in in situ observations. When the software was rerun without the flags, the ozone hole was seen as far back as 1976.

text: The discovery of the Antarctic "ozone hole" by

text: British Antarctic Survey

text: scientists

text: Farman

text: Gardiner

text: and

text: Shanklin

text: (first reported in a paper in

text: Nature

text: in May 1985) came as a shock to the scientific community, because the observed decline in polar ozone was far larger than anyone had anticipated. Satellite measurements showing massive depletion of ozone around the

text: south pole

text: were becoming available at the same time. However, these were initially rejected as unreasonable by data quality control algorithms (they were filtered out as errors since the values were unexpectedly low); the ozone hole was detected only in satellite data when the raw data was reprocessed following evidence of ozone depletion in in situ observations. When the

text: software

text: was rerun without the flags, the ozone hole was seen as far back as 1976.

text: As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).

text: As explained above, the primary cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing source gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically enhanced in the presence of

text: polar stratospheric cloud

text: s (PSCs).

text: The ozone layer is higher in altitude in the tropics, and lower in altitude outside the tropics, especially in the polar regions. This altitude variation of ozone results from the slow circulation that lifts the ozone-poor air out of the troposphere into the stratosphere. As this air slowly rises in the tropics, ozone is produced as the sun overhead photolyzes oxygen molecules. As this slow circulation levels off and flows towards the mid-latitudes, it carries the ozone-rich air from the tropical middle stratosphere to the lower stratosphere middle and high latitudes . The high ozone concentrations at high latitudes are due to the accumulation of ozone at lower altitudes.

text: A 2005 IPCC review of ozone observations and model calculations concluded that the global amount of ozone has now approximately stabilized. Although considerable variability is expected from year to year, including in polar regions where depletion is largest, the ozone layer is expected to begin to recover in coming decades due to declining ozone-depleting substance concentrations, assuming full compliance with the Montreal Protocol.

text: A 2005

entity_name: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: IPCC

text: review of ozone observations and model calculations concluded that the global amount of ozone has now approximately stabilized. Although considerable variability is expected from year to year, including in polar regions where depletion is largest, the ozone layer is expected to begin to recover in coming decades due to declining ozone-depleting substance concentrations, assuming full compliance with the Montreal Protocol.

text: Difluoromethane is a refrigerant that has zero ozone depletion potential.  Difluoromethane in a zeotropic (50%/50%) m/m mixture with pentafluoroethane (R-125) is known as R-410A, a common replacement for various chlorofluorocarbons (aka Freon) in new refrigerant systems, especially for air-conditioning. The zeotropic mix of difluoromethane with pentafluoroethane (R-125) and tetrafluoroethane (R-134a) is known as R-407A through R-407E depending on the composition. Likewise the azeotropic (48.2%/51.8% m/m) mixture with chlorotrifluoromethane (R13). As a refrigerant difluoromethane is classified as A2L - slightly flammable. Although it has zero ozone depletion potential, it has global warming potential 675 times that of carbon dioxide, based on a 100-year time frame.

text: Difluoromethane is a

text: refrigerant

text: that has zero

text: ozone depletion potential

text: .  Difluoromethane in a

text: zeotropic

text: (50%/50%) m/m mixture with

text: pentafluoroethane

text: ) is known as

text: , a common replacement for various

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: (aka

text: Freon

text: ) in new

text: refrigerant

text: systems, especially for air-conditioning. The

text: zeotropic

text: mix of difluoromethane with

text: pentafluoroethane

text: ) and

text: tetrafluoroethane

text: ) is known as

text: through

text: depending on the composition. Likewise the

text: azeotropic

text: (48.2%/51.8% m/m) mixture with

text: chlorotrifluoromethane

text: (R13). As a refrigerant difluoromethane is classified as A2L - slightly flammable. Although it has zero ozone depletion potential, it has

text: global warming potential

text: 675 times that of carbon dioxide, based on a 100-year time frame.

text: Tiny traces of ozone in the air will attack double bonds in rubber chains, with natural rubber, polybutadiene, styrene-butadiene rubber and nitrile rubber being most sensitive to degradation. Every repeat unit in the first three materials has a double bond, so every unit can be degraded by ozone. Nitrile rubber is a copolymer of butadiene and acrylonitrile units, but the proportion of acrylonitrile is usually lower than butadiene, so attack occurs. Butyl rubber is more resistant but still has a small number of double bonds in its chains, so attack is possible. Exposed surfaces are attacked first, the density of cracks varying with ozone gas concentration. The higher the concentration, the greater the number of cracks formed.

text: Tiny traces of ozone in the air will attack

text: double bond

text: s in rubber chains, with

text: natural rubber

text: polybutadiene

text: styrene-butadiene

text: rubber and

text: nitrile rubber

text: being most sensitive to degradation. Every

text: repeat unit

text: in the first three materials has a

text: double bond

text: , so every unit can be degraded by ozone.

text: Nitrile rubber

text: is a

text: copolymer

text: of

text: butadiene

text: and

text: acrylonitrile

text: units, but the proportion of acrylonitrile is usually lower than butadiene, so attack occurs.

text: Butyl rubber

text: is more resistant but still has a small number of double bonds in its chains, so attack is possible. Exposed surfaces are attacked first, the density of cracks varying with ozone gas concentration. The higher the concentration, the greater the number of cracks formed.

text: Ozone gas attacks any polymer possessing olefinic or double bonds within its chain structure, such as natural rubber, nitrile rubber, and styrene-butadiene rubber. Products made using these polymers are especially susceptible to attack, which causes cracks to grow longer and deeper with time, the rate of crack growth depending on the load carried by the rubber component and the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere. Such materials can be protected by adding antiozonants, such as waxes, which bond to the surface to create a protective film or blend with the material and provide long term protection. Ozone cracking used to be a serious problem in car tires for example, but the problem is now seen only in very old tires. On the other hand, many critical products, like gaskets and O-rings, may be attacked by ozone produced within compressed air systems. Fuel lines made of reinforced rubber are also susceptible to attack, especially within the engine compartment, where some ozone is produced by electrical components. Storing rubber products in close proximity to a DC electric motor can accelerate ozone cracking. The commutator of the motor generates sparks which in turn produce ozone.

text: Ozone gas attacks any

text: polymer

text: possessing olefinic or

text: double bond

text: s within its chain structure, such as

text: natural rubber

text: nitrile rubber

text: , and

text: styrene-butadiene

text: rubber. Products made using these polymers are especially susceptible to attack, which causes cracks to grow longer and deeper with time, the rate of crack growth depending on the load carried by the rubber component and the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere. Such materials can be protected by adding

text: antiozonant

text: s, such as waxes, which bond to the surface to create a protective film or blend with the material and provide long term protection.

text: Ozone cracking

text: used to be a serious problem in car tires for example, but the problem is now seen only in very old tires. On the other hand, many critical products, like

text: gasket

text: s and

text: O-ring

text: s, may be attacked by ozone produced within compressed air systems.

text: Fuel line

text: s made of reinforced rubber are also susceptible to attack, especially within the engine compartment, where some ozone is produced by electrical components. Storing rubber products in close proximity to a

text: DC

text: electric motor

text: can accelerate ozone cracking. The

text: commutator

text: of the motor generates sparks which in turn produce ozone.

text: R-22 is often used as an alternative to the highly ozone-depleting CFC-11 and CFC-12, because of its relatively low ozone depletion potential of 0.055, among the lowest for chlorine-containing haloalkanes.  However, even this lower ozone depletion potential is no longer considered acceptable.

text: R-22 is often used as an alternative to the highly ozone-depleting

text: and

text: , because of its relatively low ozone depletion potential of 0.055, among the lowest for

text: chlorine

text: -containing

text: haloalkane

text: s.  However, even this lower ozone depletion potential is no longer considered acceptable.

text: At that time Ozon was continuously broadcasting (live) meetings and demonstrations, statements of political parties' leaders, public persons and citizens. It was the time when Ozon started taking over informative programs of B92 Radio, larger anti-regime station from Belgrade, though with very obscure techniques.

text: At that time Ozon was continuously broadcasting (live) meetings and demonstrations, statements of political parties' leaders, public persons and citizens. It was the time when Ozon started taking over informative programs of

text: Radio, larger anti-regime station from

text: Belgrade

text: , though with very obscure techniques.

text: In 2009, however, Ward noticed that the lowest levels of total column ozone since measurements began in 1927 occurred in 1992 and 1993 following the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo —the largest volcanic eruption since 1912. He subsequently found that similar depletion of ozone follows most volcanic eruptions, even small ones. From these observations, he argued that sulfate in ice cores is an important measure of the rate of volcanic activity, but that warming appears to result from ozone depletion by volcanic emissions of chlorine and bromine, which allows more ultraviolet-B radiation to reach Earth's surface, cooling the stratosphere and warming Earth. All eruptions deplete ozone, causing warming, but explosive eruptions, unlike effusive eruptions, also form stratospheric aerosols, which reflect and scatter sunlight, causing net cooling. He also argued that chlorine from man-made chlorofluorocarbon gases (CFCs) apparently caused the global warming observed from 1970 to 1998 by depleting the ozone layer, and that reduction of CFC emissions mandated by the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer led to the Global Warming Hiatus from 1998 to 2013, during which no statistically significant warming occurred.  Warming began again in August 2014 when Bárðarbunga volcano in Central Iceland erupted 85 square kilometers of basaltic lava in six months—the largest effusive volcanic eruption since 1783. As with most effusive volcanic eruptions, this one did not form cooling aerosols in the stratosphere.

text: In 2009, however, Ward noticed that the lowest levels of total column ozone since measurements began in 1927 occurred in 1992 and 1993 following the 1991 eruption of

text: Mount Pinatubo

text: —the largest volcanic eruption since 1912. He subsequently found that similar depletion of ozone follows most volcanic eruptions, even small ones. From these observations, he argued that sulfate in ice cores is an important measure of the rate of volcanic activity, but that warming appears to result from ozone depletion by volcanic emissions of chlorine and bromine, which allows more ultraviolet-B radiation to reach Earth's surface, cooling the stratosphere and warming Earth. All eruptions deplete ozone, causing warming, but explosive eruptions, unlike effusive eruptions, also form stratospheric aerosols, which reflect and scatter sunlight, causing net cooling. He also argued that chlorine from man-made chlorofluorocarbon gases (CFCs) apparently caused the global warming observed from 1970 to 1998 by depleting the ozone layer, and that reduction of CFC emissions mandated by the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer led to the

text: Global Warming Hiatus

text: from 1998 to 2013, during which no statistically significant warming occurred.  Warming began again in August 2014 when

text: Bárðarbunga

text: volcano in Central Iceland erupted 85 square kilometers of basaltic lava in six months—the largest effusive volcanic eruption since 1783. As with most effusive volcanic eruptions, this one did not form cooling aerosols in the stratosphere.

text: Pollution from China has already affected other countries, and some ozone-forming particles have travelled across the Pacific Ocean to the United States, contributing to a relatively high level of ozone on the American West Coast. While these particles, along with other ozone-related chemicals, can be carried up to 30,000 feet above the ground, researchers in the United States predict that these pollutants may play a bigger role in the near future.

text: Pollution from China has already affected other countries, and some ozone-forming particles have travelled across the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: to the

text: United States

text: , contributing to a relatively high level of ozone on the American West Coast. While these particles, along with other ozone-related chemicals, can be carried up to 30,000 feet above the ground, researchers in the United States predict that these pollutants may play a bigger role in the near future.

text: Atmospheric freon and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) contribute to ozone depletion (Chlorine is a catalytic agent in ozone destruction). Following discovery of the ozone hole in 1985, the 1987 Montreal Protocol successfully implemented a plan to replace CFCs and was viewed by some environmentalists as an example of what is possible for the future of environmental issues, if the political will is present.

text: Atmospheric

text: freon

text: and

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: (CFCs) contribute to ozone depletion (Chlorine is a catalytic agent in ozone destruction). Following discovery of the ozone hole in 1985, the 1987

text: Montreal Protocol

text: successfully implemented a plan to replace CFCs and was viewed by some environmentalists as an example of what is possible for the future of environmental issues, if the political will is present.

text: In October 2008, Jewel-Osco opened its first LEED certified store at Kinzie & Des Plaines in Chicago.  This new store was built with recycled materials and recycled 98% of its construction debris. It features a rooftop garden, uses water-saving devices, has non-ozone-depleting refrigerants in cooling equipment, uses a refrigerant detection system, and has energy efficient lighting.

text: In October 2008, Jewel-Osco opened its first

entity_name: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

text: LEED

text: certified store at Kinzie & Des Plaines in Chicago.  This new store was built with recycled materials and recycled 98% of its construction debris. It features a rooftop garden, uses water-saving devices, has non-ozone-depleting refrigerants in cooling equipment, uses a refrigerant detection system, and has energy efficient lighting.

text: Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the Vienna Convention, which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances. After the discovery of the ozone hole it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal.

text: Also in 1985, 20 nations, including most of the major CFC producers, signed the

text: Vienna Convention

text: , which established a framework for negotiating international regulations on ozone-depleting substances. After the discovery of the ozone hole it only took 18 months to reach a binding agreement in Montreal.

text: Excessive ozone levels can occur due to of industrial activities; nearby Houston is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States. The industries located along the ship channel are a major cause of the pollution.

text: Excessive

text: ozone

text: levels can occur due to of industrial activities; nearby Houston is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States. The industries located along the ship channel are a major cause of the pollution.

text: In 1930 Thomas Midgley, Jr. discovered dichlorodifluoromethane, a chlorinated fluorocarbon (CFC) known as freon. CFCs rapidly replaced traditional refrigerant substances, including CO (which proved hard to compress for domestic use), for use in heat pumps and refrigerators. But from the 1980s CFCs began to lose favor as refrigerant when their damaging effects on the ozone layer were discovered. Two alternative types of refrigerant, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), also lost favour when they were identified as greenhouse gases (additionally, HCFCs were found to be more damaging to the ozone layer than originally thought).  The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the Montreal Protocol and the Kyoto Protocol call for the complete abandonment of such refrigerants by 2030.

text: In 1930

text: Thomas Midgley, Jr.

text: discovered dichlorodifluoromethane, a chlorinated fluorocarbon (

text: CFC

text: ) known as

text: freon

text: . CFCs rapidly replaced traditional refrigerant substances, including CO (which proved hard to compress for domestic use), for use in

text: heat pumps

text: and

text: refrigerators

text: . But from the 1980s CFCs began to lose favor as refrigerant when their damaging effects on the

text: ozone layer

text: were discovered. Two alternative types of refrigerant, hydrofluorocarbons (

text: HFCs

text: ) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (

text: HCFCs

text: ), also lost favour when they were identified as

text: greenhouse gases

text: (additionally, HCFCs were found to be more damaging to the ozone layer than originally thought).  The

text: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

text: , the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: and the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: call for the complete abandonment of such refrigerants by 2030.

text: From the end of March 1999 Ozon temporarily discontinued work, as state of war was declared. Two days upon forbidding B92, Federal inspector for radio communications, assisted by special police, grabbed broadcasting technical equipment of TV Cacak and tried to do the same with Ozon Radio. But Ozon team had timely hidden their equipment and so saved it for the future.

text: Goés' research focuses on new methods to evaluate and predict the effects of Ozone depletion and its implications for human health and ecosystems as well as methods for managing and minimizing these risks.

text: In 1969, Paul Crutzen discovered that NOx (oxides of nitrogen) could be an efficientcatalyst for the destruction of the ozone layer/stratospheric ozone. With studies on the potential effects of NOx generated by engine heat in stratosphere flying Supersonic Transport (SST) airplanes in the 1970s serving as a backdrop, John Hampson in 1974 suggested in the journal Nature that due to the nuclear fireballs creation of atmospheric NOx, a full-scale nuclear exchange could result in depletion of the ozone shield, possibly subjecting the earth to ultraviolet radiation for a year or more. Hampson's hypothesis "led directly", in 1975, to the United States National Research Council (NRC) reporting on the models of ozone depletion following nuclear war in the book Long-Term Worldwide Effects of Multiple Nuclear-Weapons Detonations. In this 1975 book it states that a nuclear war involving 4000Mt (megaton) from present arsenals would probably deposit much less dust in the stratosphere than the Krakatoa eruption, judging that the effect of dust and oxides of nitrogen would probably be slight climatic cooling which "would probably lie within normal global climatic variability, but the possibility of climatic changes of a more dramatic nature cannot be ruled out". While on the issue of fireball generated NOx and ozone layer loss therefrom, its model calculations in the early-to-mid 1970s on the effects of a nuclear war with the use of large numbers of multi-megaton yield detonations returned conclusions that this could reduce ozone levels by 50 per cent or more in the northern hemisphere.

text: In 1969,

text: Paul Crutzen

text: discovered that

text: NOx

text: oxide

text: s of

text: nitrogen

text: ) could be an efficientcatalyst for the destruction of the

text: ozone layer

text: stratospheric ozone

text: . With studies on the potential effects of NOx generated by engine heat in stratosphere flying

text: Supersonic Transport

text: (SST) airplanes in the 1970s serving as a backdrop, John Hampson in 1974 suggested in the journal Nature that due to the

text: nuclear fireball

text: s creation of atmospheric NOx, a full-scale nuclear exchange could result in depletion of the ozone shield, possibly subjecting the earth to ultraviolet radiation for a year or more. Hampson's hypothesis "led directly", in 1975, to the

entity_name: National Research Council (United States)

text: United States National Research Council

text: (NRC) reporting on the models of ozone depletion following nuclear war in the book Long-Term Worldwide Effects of Multiple Nuclear-Weapons Detonations. In this 1975 book it states that a nuclear war involving 4000Mt (megaton) from present arsenals would probably deposit much less dust in the stratosphere than the Krakatoa eruption, judging that the effect of dust and oxides of nitrogen would probably be slight climatic cooling which "would probably lie within normal global climatic variability, but the possibility of climatic changes of a more dramatic nature cannot be ruled out". While on the issue of fireball generated NOx and ozone layer loss therefrom, its model calculations in the early-to-mid 1970s on the effects of a nuclear war with the use of large numbers of multi-megaton yield detonations returned conclusions that this could reduce ozone levels by 50 per cent or more in the northern hemisphere.

text: Ruben Wills represents the 28th District on the New York City Council. He is a Democrat. The district includes portions of Jamaica, John F. Kennedy International Airport, Ozone Park, Richmond Hill, South Ozone Park and Springfield Gardens in Queens.

text: Ruben Wills represents the 28th District on the

text: New York City Council

text: . He is a

text: Democrat

text: . The district includes portions of

text: Jamaica

text: John F. Kennedy International Airport

text: Ozone Park

text: Richmond Hill

text: South Ozone Park

text: and

text: Springfield Gardens

text: in

text: Queens

text: CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern, leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in sunburn, skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.

text: CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful

text: UVB

text: wavelengths (280–315 nm) of

text: ultraviolet

text: light (UV light) from passing through the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern, leading to adoption of the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: that bans the production of CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as

text: carbon tetrachloride

text: and

text: trichloroethane

text: . It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in

text: sunburn

text: skin cancer

text: cataract

text: s, damage to plants, and reduction of

text: plankton

text: populations in the ocean's

text: photic zone

text: may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.

text: Prior to the Montreal Protocol, large quantities of carbon tetrachloride were used to produce the chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants R-11 (trichlorofluoromethane) and R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane). However, these refrigerants play a role in ozone depletion and have been phased out.  Carbon tetrachloride is still used to manufacture less destructive refrigerants. Carbon tetrachloride has also been used in the detection of neutrinos.

text: Prior to the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , large quantities of carbon tetrachloride were used to produce the

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: refrigerants R-11 (

text: trichlorofluoromethane

text: ) and R-12 (

text: dichlorodifluoromethane

text: ). However, these refrigerants play a role in

text: ozone depletion

text: and have been phased out.  Carbon tetrachloride is still used to manufacture less destructive refrigerants. Carbon tetrachloride has also been used in the detection of

text: neutrino

text: s.

text: The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), HCFCs, freons, halons). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased.

text: The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most important process in both is

text: catalytic

text: destruction of ozone by atomic

text: halogen

text: s. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is

text: photodissociation

text: of man-made

text: halocarbon

text: refrigerants

text: solvents

text: propellants

text: , and foam-

text: blowing agent

text: s (

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: (CFCs), HCFCs,

text: freon

text: s,

text: halons

text: ). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased.

text: One common example of chemically assisted degradation is the degradation of rubber by ozone particles. Ozone is a naturally occurring atmospheric molecule that is produced by electric discharge or through a reaction of Oxygen with solar radiation. Ozone is also produced with atmospheric pollutants reacted with ultraviolet radiation. For a reaction to occur, ozone concentrations only have to be as low as 3-5 parts per hundred million (pphm) and when these concentrations are reached, a reaction occurs with a thin surface layer (5 x10-7 metres) of the material.The ozone molecules react with the rubber which in most cases is unsaturated (contains double bonds), however a reaction will still occur in saturated polymers (those containing only single bonds). When reaction occurs, scission of the polymer chain (breaking of double covalent bonds) takes place forming decomposition products:

text: One common example of chemically assisted degradation is the degradation of

text: rubber

text: by ozone particles.

text: Ozone

text: is a naturally occurring atmospheric molecule that is produced by electric discharge or through a reaction of

text: Oxygen

text: with solar radiation. Ozone is also produced with atmospheric pollutants reacted with

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation. For a reaction to occur, ozone concentrations only have to be as low as 3-5 parts per hundred million (pphm) and when these concentrations are reached, a reaction occurs with a thin surface layer (5 x10-7 metres) of the material.The ozone molecules react with the rubber which in most cases is unsaturated (contains double bonds), however a reaction will still occur in saturated polymers (those containing only single bonds). When reaction occurs, scission of the polymer chain (breaking of double covalent bonds) takes place forming

text: decomposition

text: products:

text: G.M.B. Dobson (Exploring the Atmosphere, 2nd Edition, Oxford, 1968) mentioned that when springtime ozone levels in the Antarctic over Halley Bay were first measured in 1956, he was surprised to find that they were ~320 DU, or about 150 DU below spring Arctic levels of ~450 DU. These were at that time the only known Antarctic ozone values available. What Dobson describes is essentially the baseline from which the ozone hole is measured: actual ozone hole values are in the 150–100 DU range.

text: G.M.B. Dobson

text: (Exploring the Atmosphere, 2nd Edition, Oxford, 1968) mentioned that when springtime ozone levels in the Antarctic over

text: Halley Bay

text: were first measured in 1956, he was surprised to find that they were ~320 DU, or about 150 DU below spring Arctic levels of ~450 DU. These were at that time the only known Antarctic ozone values available. What Dobson describes is essentially the baseline from which the ozone hole is measured: actual ozone hole values are in the 150–100 DU range.

text: Ozone depletion occurs within the polar vortices – particularly over the Southern Hemisphere – reaching a maximum depletion in the spring.

text: Ozone depletion

text: occurs within the polar vortices – particularly over the Southern Hemisphere – reaching a maximum depletion in the spring.

text: Nitrogen compounds are also formed during the combustion process from reactions with atmospheric nitrogen. At low altitudes this is not thought to be especially harmful, but for supersonic aircraft that fly in the stratosphere some destruction of ozone may occur.

text: A chlorine mechanism such as the one below is the main cause of ozone destruction.

text: Some people thought that the ozone hole should be above the sources of CFCs. However, CFCs are well mixed globally in the troposphere and stratosphere. The reason for occurrence of the ozone hole above Antarctica is not because there are more CFCs concentrated but because the low temperatures help form polar stratospheric clouds. In fact, there are findings of significant and localized "ozone holes" above other parts of the earth.

text: Some people thought that the ozone hole should be above the sources of CFCs. However, CFCs are well mixed globally in the

text: troposphere

text: and

text: stratosphere

text: . The reason for occurrence of the ozone hole above Antarctica is not because there are more CFCs concentrated but because the low temperatures help form polar stratospheric clouds. In fact, there are findings of significant and localized "ozone holes" above other parts of the earth.

text: Thinner originally contained toluene, which was banned due to its toxicity. Later, it contained 1,1,1-trichloroethane, a skin irritant now widely banned under the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, and then the slightly safer trichloroethylene.  Thinners currently used with correction fluid include bromopropane.

text: Thinner originally contained

text: toluene

text: , which was banned due to its toxicity. Later, it contained

text: , a skin irritant now widely banned under the

text: Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer

text: , and then the slightly safer

text: trichloroethylene

text: .  Thinners currently used with correction fluid include

text: bromopropane

text: The commission focuses on setting up networks to promote environmental stewardship. Most of these networks make connections between governments and non-government entities. One such network is Bill Clinton's Council on Sustainable Development. In this council government and business leaders come together to share ideas on how to encourage sustainable development. The Brundtland Commission has been the most successful in forming international ties between governments and multinational corporations. The 1992 and 2002 Earth Summits were the direct result of the Brundtland Commission. The international structure and scope of the Brundtland Commission allow multiple problems (such as deforestation and ozone depletion) to be looked at from a holistic approach.

text: The commission focuses on setting up networks to promote environmental stewardship. Most of these networks make connections between governments and non-government entities. One such network is Bill Clinton's Council on Sustainable Development. In this council government and business leaders come together to share ideas on how to encourage sustainable development. The Brundtland Commission has been the most successful in forming international ties between governments and multinational corporations. The 1992 and 2002

text: Earth Summit

text: s were the direct result of the Brundtland Commission. The international structure and scope of the Brundtland Commission allow multiple problems (such as

text: deforestation

text: and

text: ozone depletion

text: ) to be looked at from a holistic approach.

text: A single chlorine atom would keep on destroying ozone (thus a catalyst) for up to two years (the time scale for transport back down to the troposphere) were it not for reactions that remove them from this cycle by forming reservoir species such as hydrogen chloride (HCl) and chlorine nitrate (). On a per atom basis, bromine is even more efficient than chlorine at destroying ozone, but there is much less bromine in the atmosphere at present. As a result, both chlorine and bromine contribute significantly to overall ozone depletion. Laboratory studies have shown that fluorine and iodine atoms participate in analogous catalytic cycles. However, in the Earth's stratosphere, fluorine atoms react rapidly with water and methane to form strongly bound HF, while organic molecules containing iodine react so rapidly in the lower atmosphere that they do not reach the stratosphere in significant quantities.

text: A single chlorine atom would keep on destroying ozone (thus a catalyst) for up to two years (the time scale for transport back down to the troposphere) were it not for reactions that remove them from this cycle by forming reservoir species such as

text: hydrogen chloride

text: (HCl) and

text: chlorine nitrate

text: (). On a per atom basis, bromine is even more efficient than chlorine at destroying ozone, but there is much less bromine in the atmosphere at present. As a result, both chlorine and bromine contribute significantly to overall ozone depletion. Laboratory studies have shown that fluorine and iodine atoms participate in analogous catalytic cycles. However, in the Earth's stratosphere, fluorine atoms react rapidly with water and methane to form strongly bound

text: HF

text: , while organic molecules containing iodine react so rapidly in the lower atmosphere that they do not reach the stratosphere in significant quantities.

text: The total column amount of ozone generally increases as we move from the tropics to higher latitudes in both hemispheres. However, the overall column amounts are greater in the northern hemisphere high latitudes than in the southern hemisphere high latitudes. In addition, while the highest amounts of column ozone over the Arctic occur in the northern spring (March–April), the opposite is true over the Antarctic, where the lowest amounts of column ozone occur in the southern spring (September–October).

text: Obsolescence- Obsolescence Management- Ocean colonization- Ocean Dumping Act- Ocean Dumping Ban Act- Office of the Gene Technology Regulator- Ogallala Aquifer- Oglala National Grassland- Oil desulfurization- Oklo- Old growth forest- Oncomouse- One-child policy- Ontario Nature- Open pollination- Operation Crossroads- Operation Grapple- Operation Plumbbob- Orchard- Organic certification- Organic electronics- Organic farming- Organic food- Organic gardening- Organic horticulture- Organic lawn management- Organic light-emitting diode- Organic movement- Organochlorine compound- Our Common Future- Our Posthuman Future- Outline of forestry- Over-consumption- Overpopulation- Oxygen saturation- Ozone depletion- Ozone depletion potential- Ozone layer- Ozone-oxygen cycle

text: Obsolescence

text: Obsolescence Management

text: Ocean colonization

entity_name: Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

text: Ocean Dumping Act

text: Ocean Dumping Ban Act

text: Office of the Gene Technology Regulator

text: Ogallala Aquifer

text: Oglala National Grassland

text: Oil desulfurization

text: Oklo

text: Old growth forest

text: Oncomouse

text: One-child policy

text: Ontario Nature

text: Open pollination

text: Operation Crossroads

text: Operation Grapple

text: Operation Plumbbob

text: Orchard

text: Organic certification

text: Organic electronics

text: Organic farming

text: Organic food

text: Organic gardening

text: Organic horticulture

text: Organic lawn management

text: Organic light-emitting diode

text: Organic movement

text: Organochlorine compound

text: Our Common Future

text: Our Posthuman Future

text: Outline of forestry

text: Over-consumption

text: Overpopulation

text: Oxygen saturation

text: Ozone depletion

text: Ozone depletion potential

text: Ozone layer

text: Ozone-oxygen cycle

text: Regional nuclear conflicts could also inflict significant damage to the ozone. A 2008 study found that a regional nuclear weapons exchange could create a near-global ozone hole, triggering human health problems and impacting agriculture for at least a decade. This effect on the ozone would result from heat absorption by soot in the upper stratosphere, which would modify wind currents and draw in ozone-destroying nitrogen oxides. These high temperatures and nitrogen oxides would reduce ozone to the same dangerous levels we now experience below the ozone hole above Antarctica every spring.

text: Unfortunately, chlorine- and fluorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. In the stratosphere, CFCs break up due to UV radiation, releasing their chlorine free radicals. These chlorine free radicals act as catalysts in the breakdown of ozone through chain reactions. One CFC molecule can cause thousands of ozone molecules to break down. This causes severe damage to the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from the Sun's strong UV radiation, and has been shown to lead to increased rates of skin cancer. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle, forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12.

text: Unfortunately, chlorine- and fluorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. In the

text: stratosphere

text: , CFCs break up due to

text: UV

text: radiation, releasing their chlorine free radicals. These chlorine free radicals act as

text: catalyst

text: s in the breakdown of ozone through chain reactions. One CFC molecule can cause thousands of ozone molecules to break down. This causes severe damage to the

text: ozone layer

text: that shields the Earth's surface from the Sun's strong UV radiation, and has been shown to lead to increased rates of skin cancer. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle, forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12.

text: Following legislative regulations on ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), substances used as substitute refrigerants such as perfluorocarbons (FCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have also come under criticism. They are currently subject to prohibition discussions on account of their harmful effect on the climate. In 1997, FCs and HFCs were included in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. In 2006, the EU adopted a Regulation on fluorinated greenhouse gases, which makes stipulations regarding the use of FCs and HFCs with the intention of reducing their emissions. The provisions do not affect climate-neutral refrigerants.

text: Following legislative regulations on ozone depleting

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) and

text: hydrochlorofluorocarbon

text: s (HCFCs), substances used as substitute refrigerants such as

text: perfluorocarbon

text: s (FCs) and

text: hydrofluorocarbon

text: s (HFCs) have also come under criticism. They are currently subject to prohibition discussions on account of their harmful effect on the climate. In 1997, FCs and HFCs were included in the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. In 2006, the EU adopted a Regulation on

text: fluorinated greenhouse gases

text: , which makes stipulations regarding the use of FCs and HFCs with the intention of reducing their emissions. The provisions do not affect climate-neutral refrigerants.

text: Description: This paper warned of the danger of ozone depletion due to man-made chlorofluorocarbons. The main atmospheric sink for these compounds was identified as ultraviolet photolysis, liberating chlorine atoms which catalyze the destruction of stratospheric ozone and have the potential to significantly deplete the ozone layer.

text: Description: This paper warned of the danger of

text: ozone depletion

text: due to man-made

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: . The main atmospheric sink for these compounds was identified as ultraviolet

text: photolysis

text: , liberating chlorine atoms which catalyze the destruction of

text: stratospheric

text: ozone and have the potential to significantly deplete the ozone layer.

text: The overall effect is a decrease in the amount of ozone, though the rate of these processes can be decreased by the effects of null cycles. More complicated mechanisms have been discovered that lead to ozone destruction in the lower stratosphere as well.

text: The overall effect is a decrease in the amount of ozone, though the rate of these processes can be decreased by the effects of

text: null cycle

text: s. More complicated mechanisms have been discovered that lead to ozone destruction in the lower stratosphere as well.

text: Electron precipitation can lead to a substantial, short-term loss of ozone (capping out at around 90%). However, this phenomena also correlates to some long term ozone depletion as well. Studies have revealed that 60 major electron precipitation events occurred from 2002 to 2012. Different measurement tools (see below) read different ozone depletion averages ranging from 5-90%. However, some of the tools (specifically the ones that reported lower averages) did not take accurate readings or missed a couple of years. Typically, ozone depletion resulting from electron precipitation is more common during the winter season. The largest EEP event from the studies during 2002 to 2012 was recorded in October 2003. This event caused an ozone depletion of up to 92%. It lasted for 15 days and the ozone layer was fully restored a couple of days afterwards. EEP ozone depletion studies are important for monitoring the safety of Earth's environment and variations in the solar cycle.

text: solar cycle

text: Although CFCs are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the Montreal Protocol, which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to ozone depletion rather than by their contribution to global warming. Note that ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming though the two processes often are confused in the media. On 15 October 2016, negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme reached a legally binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol.

text: Although

text: CFCs

text: are greenhouse gases, they are regulated by the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , which was motivated by CFCs' contribution to

text: ozone depletion

text: rather than by their contribution to global warming. Note that ozone depletion has only a minor role in greenhouse warming though the two processes often are confused in the media. On 15 October 2016, negotiators from over 170 nations meeting at the summit of the

text: United Nations Environment Programme

text: reached a legally binding accord to phase out

text: hydrofluorocarbons

text: (HFCs) in an amendment to the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: The Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion is a sequence of reports sponsored by WMO/UNEP. The most recent is the 2014 report.The reports were set up to inform the Montreal Protocol and amendments about ozone depletion.

text: The Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion is a sequence of reports sponsored by

text: WMO

text: UNEP

text: . The most recent is the 2014 report.The reports were set up to inform the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: and amendments about

text: ozone depletion

text: Deep: clubDeep Ozon was an event held on July 14, 2002 at the Club Ozon in Nagoya, Japan.

text: Deep: clubDeep Ozon was an event held on July 14, 2002 at the Club Ozon in

text: Nagoya

text: Japan

text: The Chemical Sciences Division (CSD) studies chemical processes in the Earth's atmosphere that affect climate, air quality, and the ozone layer.

text: Ozone can be harmful if it is ground-level, but if it is in the stratosphere, it protects the Earth from ultraviolet rays from the sun. The stratosphere blocks some of the light called ultraviolet B, which can cause skin cancer and eye damage. It can also damage plant life on land and in the ocean. Some of the main pollutants that are harmful to the stratosphere are called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They come from aerosols such as hairspray, air conditioners, and some other types. They were banned in the 1970s. In the 1980s, scientists found that there were holes in the ozone around the South Pole. As a result, over 190 countries, including the United States, signed the 1987 Montreal Protocol. This agreement is designated to eliminating chemicals that harm the stratosphere. The 1990 Clean Air Act "phased out" the most harmful chemicals and in 1996, production of CFCs, halons, and methyl chloroform ended in the United States. There are still holes in the ozone that will take approximately 60 years to close up because of the chemicals that are already in the stratosphere.

text: Ozone can be harmful if it is ground-level, but if it is in the

text: stratosphere

text: , it protects the Earth from

text: ultraviolet

text: rays from the sun. The stratosphere blocks some of the light called ultraviolet B, which can cause skin cancer and eye damage. It can also damage plant life on land and in the ocean. Some of the main pollutants that are harmful to the stratosphere are called

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: (CFCs). They come from aerosols such as hairspray, air conditioners, and some other types. They were banned in the 1970s. In the 1980s, scientists found that there were holes in the ozone around the South Pole. As a result, over 190 countries, including the United States, signed the 1987

text: Montreal Protocol

text: . This agreement is designated to eliminating chemicals that harm the stratosphere. The 1990 Clean Air Act "phased out" the most harmful chemicals and in 1996, production of CFCs,

text: halons

text: , and

text: methyl chloroform

text: ended in the United States. There are still holes in the ozone that will take approximately 60 years to close up because of the chemicals that are already in the stratosphere.

text: Because deep ice is under pressure and can deform, for cores deeper than about 300 m the hole will tend to close if there is nothing to supply back pressure.  The hole is filled with a fluid to keep the hole from closing.  The fluid, or mixture of fluids, must simultaneously satisfy criteria for density, low viscosity, frost resistance, as well as workplace safety and environmental compliance. The fluid must also satisfy other criteria, for example those stemming from the analytical methods employed on the ice core. A number of different fluids and fluid combinations have been tried in the past. Since GISP2 (1990–1993) the US Polar Program has utilized a single-component fluid system, n-butyl acetate, but the toxicology, flammability, aggressive solvent nature, and longterm liabilities of n-butyl acetate raises serious questions about its continued application. The European community, including the Russian program, has concentrated on the use of two-component drilling fluid consisting of low-density hydrocarbon base (brown kerosene was used at Vostok) boosted to the density of ice by addition of halogenated-hydrocarbon densifier. Many of the proven densifier products are now considered too toxic, or are no longer available due to efforts to enforce the Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting substances. In April 1998 on the Devon Ice Cap filtered lamp oil was used as a drilling fluid.  In the Devon core it was observed that below about 150 m the stratigraphy was obscured by microfractures.

text: Because deep ice is under pressure and can deform, for cores deeper than about 300 m the hole will tend to close if there is nothing to supply back pressure.  The hole is filled with a fluid to keep the hole from closing.  The fluid, or mixture of fluids, must simultaneously satisfy criteria for density, low viscosity, frost resistance, as well as workplace safety and environmental compliance. The fluid must also satisfy other criteria, for example those stemming from the analytical methods employed on the ice core. A number of different fluids and fluid combinations have been tried in the past. Since

text: GISP

text: 2 (1990–1993) the

text: US Polar Program

text: has utilized a single-component fluid system,

text: n-butyl acetate

text: , but the toxicology, flammability, aggressive solvent nature, and longterm liabilities of n-butyl acetate raises serious questions about its continued application. The European community, including the Russian program, has concentrated on the use of two-component drilling fluid consisting of low-density hydrocarbon base (brown

text: kerosene

text: was used at Vostok) boosted to the density of ice by addition of

text: halogenated-hydrocarbon

text: densifier. Many of the proven densifier products are now considered too toxic, or are no longer available due to efforts to enforce the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: on ozone-depleting substances. In April 1998 on the

text: Devon Ice Cap

text: filtered

text: lamp oil

text: was used as a drilling fluid.  In the Devon core it was observed that below about 150 m the

text: stratigraphy

text: was obscured by microfractures.

text: The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with ozone depletion, i.e., the destruction of stratospheric ozone (e.g., the ozone layer) by chlorofluorocarbons. Although there are a few areas of linkage, the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures, while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger warming effect.

text: The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with

text: ozone depletion

text: , i.e., the destruction of

text: stratospheric ozone (e.g., the ozone layer)

text: by

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: . Although there are a few

text: areas of linkage

text: , the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures, while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger warming effect.

text: The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic ozone depletion is greatest during spring. During winter, even though PSCs are at their most abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive chemical reactions. During the spring, however, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive photochemical reactions and melt the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing considerable ClO, which drives the hole mechanism. Further warming temperatures near the end of spring break up the vortex around mid-December. As warm, ozone and -rich air flows in from lower latitudes, the PSCs are destroyed, the enhanced ozone depletion process shuts down, and the ozone hole closes.

text: The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (NO), hydroxyl (OH), atomic chlorine (Cl), and atomic bromine (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these species, the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man-made organohalogen compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and bromofluorocarbons. These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the stratosphere, where Cl and Br radicals are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities.

text: The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including

text: nitric oxide

text: (NO),

text: nitrous oxide

text: (NO),

text: hydroxyl

text: (OH), atomic

text: chlorine

text: (Cl), and atomic

text: bromine

text: (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these

text: species

text: , the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man-made

text: organohalogen

text: compounds, especially

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) and

text: bromofluorocarbons

text: . These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the

text: stratosphere

text: , where Cl and Br

text: radicals

text: are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities.

text: Equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC) provides an estimate of the total effective amount of halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the stratosphere. It is calculated from  emission of chlorofluorocarbon and related halogenated compounds into the troposphere (lower atmosphere) and their efficiency in contributing to stratospheric ozone depletion (ozone depletion potential, ODP),  and by making assumptions on transport times into the upper atmosphere (stratosphere). This parameter is used to quantify man-made ozone depletion and its changes with time. As a consequence of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments  phasing out ozone-depleting substances (ODS), the EESC reached maximum in the late 1990s and is now slowly decreasing.

text: Equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC) provides an estimate of the total effective amount of

text: halogens

text: chlorine

text: and

text: bromine

text: ) in the

text: stratosphere

text: . It is calculated from  emission of

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: and related halogenated compounds into the

text: troposphere

text: (lower atmosphere) and their efficiency in contributing to stratospheric ozone depletion (ozone depletion potential, ODP),  and by making assumptions on transport times into the upper atmosphere (

text: stratosphere

text: ). This parameter is used to quantify man-made

text: ozone depletion

text: and its changes with time. As a consequence of the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: and its amendments  phasing out ozone-depleting substances (ODS), the EESC reached maximum in the late 1990s and is now slowly decreasing.

text: Ozone therapy consists of the introduction of ozone into the body via various methods, usually involving its mixture with various gases and liquids before injection, with potential routes including the vagina, rectum, intramuscular (in a muscle), subcutaneously (under the skin), or intravenously (directly into veins).  Ozone can also be introduced via autohemotherapy, in which blood is drawn from the patient, exposed to ozone and re-injected into the patient.

text: Ozone therapy consists of the introduction of ozone into the body via various methods, usually involving its mixture with various gases and liquids before injection, with potential routes including the

text: vagina

text: rectum

text: intramuscular

text: (in a muscle),

text: subcutaneously

text: (under the skin), or intravenously (directly into veins).  Ozone can also be introduced via

text: autohemotherapy

text: , in which blood is drawn from the patient, exposed to ozone and re-injected into the patient.

text: However from the historical data, a far more authoritative source, a paper in 1973 as it appeared in the journal Nature depicts both the stratospheric ozone levels worldwide overlayed upon the number of nuclear detonations during the era of atmospheric testing, the authors conclude that neither the data nor their models show any correlation between the 500 or so megatons in historical atmospheric testing and when ozone increased or decreased in concentration. In 1976 a study on the experimental measurements of an earlier atmospheric nuclear test as it affected the ozone layer, also found that nuclear detonations are tentatively exonerated in depleting ozone, after the at first, alarming model calculations of the time. Similarly a 1981 paper found that models on ozone destruction from one test, and physical measurements taken, were in disagreement, as no destruction was observed. In total about 500 megatons were atmospherically detonated between 1945 and 1971, with a peak occurring in 1961–62, when 340 megatons were detonated in the atmosphere by the United States and Soviet Union. During this 1–2 year peak, counting only the multi-megaton range detonations in the two nations nuclear test series, a total yield estimated at 300 megatons of energy was released, due to this, 3 × 10 additional molecules of nitric oxide (about 5000 tons per megaton, "5 x 10^9 g per Mton") are believed to have entered the stratosphere, and while ozone depletion of 2.2 percent was noted in 1963, the decline had started prior to 1961 and is believed to have been caused by other meteorological effects, thus the 1985 book The Effects on the Atmosphere of a Major Nuclear Exchange states: "one can not draw definite conclusions about the effects of nuclear explosions on stratospheric ozone".

text: However from the historical data, a far more authoritative source, a paper in 1973 as it appeared in the journal Nature depicts both the stratospheric ozone levels worldwide overlayed upon the number of nuclear detonations during the era of atmospheric testing, the authors conclude that neither the data nor their models show any correlation between the 500 or so megatons in historical atmospheric testing and when ozone increased or decreased in concentration. In 1976 a study on the experimental measurements of an earlier

text: atmospheric nuclear test

text: as it affected the ozone layer, also found that nuclear detonations are tentatively

text: exonerated

text: in depleting ozone, after the at first, alarming model calculations of the time. Similarly a 1981 paper found that models on ozone destruction from one test, and physical measurements taken, were in disagreement, as no destruction was observed. In total about 500 megatons were atmospherically detonated between 1945 and 1971, with a peak occurring in 1961–62, when 340 megatons were detonated in the atmosphere by the United States and Soviet Union. During this 1–2 year peak, counting only the multi-megaton range detonations in the

text: two nations nuclear test series

text: , a total yield estimated at 300 megatons of energy was released, due to this,

text: 3 × 10 additional molecules

text: of

text: nitric oxide

text: (about 5000 tons per megaton, "5 x 10^9 g per Mton") are believed to have entered the stratosphere, and while ozone depletion of 2.2 percent was noted in 1963, the decline had started prior to 1961 and is believed to have been caused by other meteorological effects, thus the 1985 book The Effects on the Atmosphere of a Major Nuclear Exchange states: "one can not draw definite conclusions about the effects of nuclear explosions on stratospheric ozone".

text: Ozone is also produced by the action of sunlight on volatile organic liquids or VOLs, such as gasoline vapour present in the air of towns and cities, in a problem known as photochemical smog. The ozone formed can drift many miles before it is destroyed by further reactions.

text: Ozone is also produced by the action of

text: sunlight

text: on volatile organic liquids or VOLs, such as gasoline vapour present in the air of towns and cities, in a problem known as

text: photochemical smog

text: . The ozone formed can drift many miles before it is destroyed by further reactions.

text: R-22 has been mostly phased out in new equipment in the United States under the Montreal Protocol, and has been replaced by other refrigerants with lower ozone depletion potential such as propane (R-290), pentafluoroethane, R-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane), and blended mixtures of HFCs such as R-409A, R-410A, R-438A, and R-507A. See refrigerant for specific components of the R-400 and R-500 HFC blends used to replace R-22.

text: R-22 has been mostly phased out in new equipment in the United States under the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , and has been replaced by other refrigerants with lower ozone depletion potential such as

text: propane

text: pentafluoroethane

text: (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane), and blended mixtures of HFCs such as

text: , and

text: . See

text: refrigerant

text: for specific components of the R-400 and R-500 HFC blends used to replace R-22.

text: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 26 August 1987, and entered into force on 26 August 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone eight revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali, adopted, but not in force). As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.  Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol". In comparison, effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on the Kyoto Protocol has  failed to do so. In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.

text: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the

text: ) is an international

text: treaty

text: designed to protect the

text: ozone layer

text: by phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for

text: ozone depletion

text: . It was agreed on 26 August 1987, and entered into force on 26 August 1989, followed by a first meeting in

text: Helsinki

text: , May 1989. Since then, it has undergone eight revisions, in 1990 (

text: London

text: ), 1991 (

text: Nairobi

text: ), 1992 (

text: Copenhagen

text: ), 1993 (

text: Bangkok

text: ), 1995 (

text: Vienna

text: ), 1997 (

text: Montreal

text: ), 1998 (

text: Australia

text: ), 1999 (

text: Beijing

text: ) and 2016 (

text: Kigali

text: , adopted, but not in force). As a result of the international agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering. Climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.  Due to its widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-operation, with

text: Kofi Annan

text: quoted as saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol". In comparison, effective burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among the success factors for the

text: ozone depletion

text: challenge, where global regulation based on the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: has  failed to do so. In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established. Also, overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.

text: In 1987 and 1988, NASA conducted atmospheric ozone-layer depletion studies using two piloted NASA aircraft, a modified Douglas DC-8 jetliner and a Lockheed ER-2, a civilian version of the U-2 spy plane. However, operating the ER-2 over Antarctica, where ozone depletion took place, was regarded as risky, since if the pilot had to bail out, survival was unlikely. In addition, the ER-2 had a ceiling of 20 kilometers (65,000 feet), while ozone depletion takes place at 30 kilometers (100,000 feet), and the ER-2 could not stay aloft long enough to study ozone changes during a full day-night cycle.

text: In 1987 and 1988, NASA conducted atmospheric ozone-layer depletion studies using two piloted NASA aircraft, a modified

text: Douglas DC-8

text: jetliner and a

text: Lockheed ER-2

text: , a civilian version of the U-2 spy plane. However, operating the ER-2 over

text: Antarctica

text: , where

text: ozone

text: depletion took place, was regarded as risky, since if the pilot had to bail out, survival was unlikely. In addition, the ER-2 had a ceiling of 20 kilometers (65,000 feet), while ozone depletion takes place at 30 kilometers (100,000 feet), and the ER-2 could not stay aloft long enough to study ozone changes during a full day-night cycle.

text: The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In terms of ozone depletion potential  (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs have lower ODPs (0.01 – 0.5). In terms of global warming potential (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have lower GWPs (76 – 2,270).

text: The HCFCs are transitional CFCs replacements, used as refrigerants, solvents, blowing agents for plastic foam manufacture, and fire extinguishers. In terms of

text: ozone depletion potential

text: (ODP), in comparison to CFCs that have ODP 0.6 – 1.0, these HCFCs have lower ODPs (0.01 – 0.5). In terms of

text: global warming potential

text: (GWP), in comparison to CFCs that have GWP 4,680 – 10,720, HCFCs have lower GWPs (76 – 2,270).

text: Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted, "There's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years, and what is out there in the popular culture."  An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming.

text: Science historian

text: Naomi Oreskes

text: has noted, "There's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years, and what is out there in the popular culture."  An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the

text: scientific consensus on global warming

text: Between 1960 and 1970, the BEE field grew from around 100 to 150. However, beginning in 1970, with the formation of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the career field experienced an exponential growth in Federal regulations. These laws require BEEs to monitor Air Force operations for their effects on personnel and the environment. Several major catastrophes and other events focused keen Congressional interest on environment, safety and occupational health (ESOH), leading to new, mandatory compliance programs. Love Canal, Bhopal, atmospheric ozone depletion, and other incidents spawned new laws governing the Installation Restoration Program; Hazard Communication; community-right-to-know; Process Safety Management; and hazardous material inventory, control and reduction. These have continually driven additional, corresponding requirements for BEEs.

text: Between 1960 and 1970, the BEE field grew from around 100 to 150. However, beginning in 1970, with the formation of the

entity_name: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

text: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

text: (OSHA), the U.S.

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA), and the

text: Nuclear Regulatory Commission

text: , the career field experienced an exponential growth in Federal regulations. These laws require BEEs to monitor Air Force operations for their effects on personnel and the environment. Several major catastrophes and other events focused keen Congressional interest on environment, safety and occupational health (ESOH), leading to new, mandatory compliance programs.

text: Love Canal

text: Bhopal

text: , atmospheric

text: ozone depletion

text: , and other incidents spawned new laws governing the

text: Installation Restoration Program

text: Hazard Communication

entity_name: Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act

text: community-right-to-know

text: Process Safety Management

text: ; and hazardous material inventory, control and reduction. These have continually driven additional, corresponding requirements for BEEs.

text: Isobutane is used as a refrigerant.  The use in refrigerators started in 1993 when Greenpeace presented the Greenfreeze project with the German company Foron. In this regard, blends of pure, dry "isobutane" (R-600a) (that is, isobutane mixtures) have negligible ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential (having a value of 3.3 times the GWP of carbon dioxide) and can serve as a functional replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a, and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.

text: Isobutane is used as a

text: refrigerant

text: .  The use in refrigerators started in 1993 when

text: Greenpeace

text: presented the Greenfreeze project with the German company Foron. In this regard, blends of pure, dry "isobutane" (R-600a) (that is, isobutane mixtures) have negligible

text: ozone depletion potential

text: and very low

text: global warming potential

text: (having a value of 3.3 times the GWP of carbon dioxide) and can serve as a functional replacement for

text: , and other

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: or

text: hydrofluorocarbon

text: refrigerant

text: s in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.

text: On March 15, 2011, a record ozone layer loss was observed, with about half of the ozone present over the Arctic having been destroyed. The change was attributed to increasingly cold winters in the Arctic stratosphere at an altitude of approximately , a change associated with global warming in a relationship that is still under investigation. By March 25, the ozone loss had become the largest compared to that observed in all previous winters with the possibility that it would become an ozone hole. This would require that the quantities of ozone to fall below 200 Dobson units, from the 250 recorded over central Siberia. It is predicted that the thinning layer would affect parts of Scandinavia and Eastern Europe on March 30–31.

text: 1993 Ozonia North America was founded after Ozonia AG acquired "Griffin". The new American subsidiary manufactured ozone generators compliant with the North American standards.

text: As a result, it is estimated that human life-years lost as a result of the chronic effects of ozone exposure will be about 2,300,000 lower in 2010 than in 1990. In addition, there will be approximately 47,500 fewer premature deaths resulting from ozone and particulate matter in the air. Furthermore, the amount of vegetation exposed to excessive ozone levels will be reduced by 44% from 1990 levels.

text: As a result, it is estimated that human life-years lost as a result of the

text: chronic

text: effects of ozone exposure will be about 2,300,000 lower in 2010 than in 1990. In addition, there will be approximately 47,500 fewer premature deaths resulting from ozone and particulate matter in the air. Furthermore, the amount of

text: vegetation

text: exposed to excessive ozone levels will be reduced by 44% from 1990 levels.

text: Because ozone filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, the discovery of holes in the ozone layer of the earth's atmosphere has raised concern about how much ultraviolet light reaches the earth's surface. Of particular concern are the questions of how deeply into sea water ultraviolet radiation penetrates and how it affects marine organisms, especially plankton (floating microorganisms) and viruses that attack plankton. Plankton form the base of the marine food chains and are believed to affect our planet's temperature and weather by uptake of CO

text: Because

text: ozone

text: filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, the discovery of holes in the

text: ozone

text: layer of the earth's atmosphere has raised concern about how much

text: ultraviolet light

text: reaches the earth's surface. Of particular concern are the questions of how deeply into sea water ultraviolet radiation penetrates and how it affects

text: marine organisms

text: , especially

text: plankton

text: (floating microorganisms) and

text: viruses

text: that attack

text: plankton

text: Plankton

text: form the base of the marine food chains and are believed to affect our planet's temperature and weather by uptake of CO

text: UVB radiation can cause direct DNA damage. This cancer connection is one reason for concern about ozone depletion and the ozone hole.

text: UVB radiation can cause direct DNA damage. This cancer connection is one reason for concern about

text: ozone depletion

text: and the ozone hole.

text: Trees should not be labeled as polluters because their total benefits on air quality and emissions reduction far outweigh the possible consequences of BVOC emissions on ozone concentrations. Emission of BVOCs increase exponentially with temperature. Therefore, higher emissions will occur at higher temperatures. In desert climates, locally native trees adapted to drought conditions emit significantly less BVOCs than plants native to wet regions. As discussed above, the formation of ozone is also temperature dependent. Thus, the best way to slow the production of ozone and emission of BVOCs is to reduce urban temperatures and the effect of the urban heat island. As suggested earlier, the most effective way to lower temperatures is with an increased canopy cover.

text: Trees should not be labeled as polluters because their total benefits on air quality and emissions reduction far outweigh the possible consequences of BVOC emissions on ozone concentrations. Emission of BVOCs increase exponentially with temperature. Therefore, higher emissions will occur at higher temperatures. In

text: desert climate

text: s, locally native trees adapted to drought conditions emit significantly less BVOCs than plants native to wet regions. As discussed above, the formation of ozone is also temperature dependent. Thus, the best way to slow the production of ozone and emission of BVOCs is to reduce urban temperatures and the effect of the urban heat island. As suggested earlier, the most effective way to lower temperatures is with an increased canopy cover.

text: In the past, the main drivers of global change have been solar variation, plate tectonics, volcanism, proliferation and abatement of life, meteorite impact, resource depletion, changes in Earth’s orbit around the sun and changes in the tilt of Earth on its axis. There is overwhelming evidence that now the main driver of planetary-scale change, or global change, is  the growing human population’s demand for energy, food, goods, services and information, and its disposal of its waste products. In the last 250 years, global change has caused climate change, widespread species extinctions, fish-stock collapse, desertification, ocean acidification, ozone depletion, pollution, and other large-scale shifts.

text: In the past, the main drivers of global change have been

text: solar variation

text: plate tectonics

text: volcanism

text: , proliferation and abatement of

text: life

text: meteorite

text: impact, resource depletion, changes in

text: Earth

text: ’s orbit around the sun and changes in the tilt of Earth on its axis. There is overwhelming evidence that now the main driver of planetary-scale change, or global change, is  the growing human population’s

text: demand for energy

text: , food, goods, services and information, and its

text: disposal

text: of its

text: waste

text: products. In the last 250 years, global change has caused

text: climate change

text: widespread species extinction

text: s, fish-stock collapse,

text: desertification

text: ocean acidification

text: ozone depletion

text: pollution

text: , and other large-scale shifts.

text: Sheldon Ungar, a Canadian sociologist, compares the different public reactions towards ozone depletion and global warming. The public opinion failed to tie climate change to concrete events which could be used as a threashold or beacon to signify immediate danger. Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of two to three degrees Celsius over several decades do not respond with people, e.g. in North America, that experience similar swings during a single day. As scientists define global warming a problem of the future, a liability in "attention economy", pessimistic outlooks in general and assigning extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed (compare Gore effect) in the public arena. While the greenhouse effect per se is essential for life on earth, the case was quite different with the ozone shield and other metaphors about the ozone depletion. The scientific assessment of the ozone problem also had large uncertainties. But the metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) reflected better with lay people and their concerns.

text: Sheldon Ungar, a Canadian sociologist, compares the different public reactions towards

text: ozone depletion and global warming

text: . The public opinion failed to tie climate change to concrete events which could be used as a threashold or beacon to signify immediate danger. Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of two to three degrees Celsius over several decades do not respond with people, e.g. in North America, that experience similar swings during a single day. As scientists define global warming a problem of the future, a liability in "

text: attention economy

text: ", pessimistic outlooks in general and assigning extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed (compare

text: Gore effect

text: ) in the public arena. While the

text: greenhouse effect

text: per se

text: is essential for life on earth, the case was quite different with the

text: ozone shield

text: and other metaphors about the ozone depletion. The scientific assessment of the ozone problem also had large uncertainties. But the metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) reflected better with lay people and their concerns.

text: Furthermore, ·NO participates in ozone layer depletion. In this process, nitric oxide reacts with stratospheric ozone to form O and nitrogen dioxide:

text: Furthermore, ·NO participates in

text: ozone layer depletion

text: . In this process, nitric oxide reacts with stratospheric

text: ozone

text: to form O and nitrogen dioxide:

text: There is a great deal of evidence to show that ground level ozone can harm lung function and irritate the respiratory system. Exposure to ozone (and the pollutants that produce it) is linked to premature death, asthma, bronchitis, heart attack, and other cardiopulmonary problems.

text: There is a great deal of evidence to show that ground level ozone can harm lung function and irritate the

text: respiratory system

text: . Exposure to ozone (and the pollutants that produce it) is linked to premature

text: death

text: asthma

text: bronchitis

text: heart attack

text: , and other cardiopulmonary problems.

text: The most direct effect of climate change on humans might be the impacts of hotter temperatures themselves. Extreme high temperatures increase the number of people who die on a given day for many reasons: people with heart problems are vulnerable because one's cardiovascular system must work harder to keep the body cool during hot weather, heat exhaustion, and some respiratory problems increase. Global warming could mean more cardiovascular diseases, doctors warn. Higher air temperature also increase the concentration of ozone at ground level. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is a harmful pollutant. It damages lung tissues and causes problems for people with asthma and other lung diseases.

text: The most direct effect of climate change on humans might be the impacts of hotter temperatures themselves. Extreme high temperatures increase the number of people who die on a given day for many reasons: people with heart problems are vulnerable because one's cardiovascular system must work harder to keep the body cool during hot weather, heat exhaustion, and some respiratory problems increase. Global warming could mean more

text: cardiovascular disease

text: s, doctors warn. Higher air temperature also increase the concentration of ozone at ground level. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is a harmful pollutant. It damages lung tissues and causes problems for people with asthma and other lung diseases.

text: There is a large area of low ozone concentration or "ozone hole" over Antarctica. This hole covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2008, when the longest lasting hole on record remained until the end of December. The hole was detected by scientists in 1985 and has tended to increase over the years of observation. The ozone hole is attributed to the emission of chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs into the atmosphere, which decompose the ozone into other gases.

text: There is a large area of low ozone concentration or "

text: ozone hole

text: " over Antarctica. This hole covers almost the whole continent and was at its largest in September 2008, when the longest lasting hole on record remained until the end of December. The hole was detected by scientists in 1985 and has tended to increase over the years of observation. The ozone hole is attributed to the

text: emission

text: of

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s or CFCs into the atmosphere, which decompose the

text: ozone

text: into other gases.

text: Reilly played a pivotal role in crafting and securing passage of a new Clean Air bill, enacted by Congress and signed into law by President Bush in November 1990.  Breaking a 10-year stalemate in reauthorizing the Clean Air Act,, this law created the first full-scale, fully operational cap-and-trade system as an innovative, market-oriented mechanism to cut sulfur dioxide pollution in half at a time when acid rain was a major environmental problem. The 1990 amendments to the Act also addressed ozone depletion, established a national permits program for stationary emitting sources, promoted the use of alternative fuels, required major reductions in air toxic emissions,  and laid out realistic timetables and commitments to assure steady progress in reducing ozone in cities that have not yet attained air quality standards while increasing EPA's enforcement authority.

text: Reilly played a pivotal role in crafting and securing passage of a new Clean Air bill, enacted by Congress and signed into law by President Bush in November 1990.  Breaking a 10-year stalemate in reauthorizing the

text: Clean Air Act,

text: , this law created the first full-scale, fully operational

text: cap-and-trade

text: system as an innovative, market-oriented mechanism to cut

text: sulfur dioxide pollution

text: in half at a time when

text: acid rain

text: was a major environmental problem. The 1990 amendments to the Act also addressed

text: ozone depletion

text: , established a national permits program for stationary emitting sources, promoted the use of

text: alternative fuels

text: , required major reductions in air toxic emissions,  and laid out realistic timetables and commitments to assure steady progress in reducing ozone in cities that have not yet attained air quality standards while increasing EPA's enforcement authority.

text: ||-|MTV Video Music Award – Best Rap Video||-|rowspan="2"|2006|Grammy Awards – Best Rap Song||-|Grammy Awards – Best Rap Performance By a Duo or Group||-|2007|Doctor's Advocate|Ozone Awards – Best West Coast Rap Album||-|2008|The Game|Ozone Awards – Best West Coast Rap Artist||}

text: ||-|MTV Video Music Award –

entity_name: MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video

text: Best Rap Video

text: Grammy Awards

text: Best Rap Song

text: ||-|Grammy Awards –

entity_name: Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group

text: Best Rap Performance By a Duo or Group

text: Doctor's Advocate

text: Ozone Awards

text: – Best West Coast Rap Album||-|2008|The Game|Ozone Awards – Best West Coast Rap Artist||}

text: Watson had a role in either the regulation efforts of Ozone depletion and global warming. The Montreal and Vienna conventions were installed long before a scientific consensus was established. Until the 1980s EU, NASA, NAS, UNEP, WMO and the British government had dissenting scientific reports. Watson played a crucial role in the process of unified assessments and did so as well for the IPCC.

text: Watson had a role in either the regulation efforts of

text: Ozone depletion and global warming

text: . The Montreal and Vienna conventions were installed long before a scientific consensus was established. Until the 1980s EU, NASA, NAS, UNEP, WMO and the British government had dissenting scientific reports. Watson played a crucial role in the process of unified assessments and did so as well for the IPCC.

text: There is environmental concern regarding conventional refrigeration technologies including contribution to ozone layer depletion and global warming. Refrigerators which contain ozone depleting and global warming substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), in their insulation foam or their refrigerant cycle, are the most harmful. After CFCs were banned in the 1980s, they were replaced with substances such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which are ozone-depleting substances and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). Both are environmentally destructive as potential global warming chemicals. If a conventional refrigerator is inefficient or used inefficiently, it will also contribute more to global warming than a highly efficient refrigerator. The use of solar energy to power refrigeration strives to minimize the negative impacts refrigerators have on the environment.

text: There is environmental concern regarding conventional

text: refrigeration

text: technologies including contribution to

text: ozone layer

text: depletion and

text: global warming

text: . Refrigerators which contain

text: ozone depleting

text: and global warming substances such as

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: (CFCs), in their insulation foam or their refrigerant cycle, are the most harmful. After CFCs were banned in the 1980s, they were replaced with substances such as

text: hydrochlorofluorocarbons

text: (HCFCs), which are ozone-depleting substances and

text: hydrofluorocarbons

text: (HFCs). Both are environmentally destructive as potential global warming chemicals. If a conventional refrigerator is inefficient or used inefficiently, it will also contribute more to global warming than a highly efficient refrigerator. The use of solar energy to power refrigeration strives to minimize the negative impacts refrigerators have on the environment.

text: Ozone is a highly reactive molecule, easily reducing to the more stable oxygen form with the assistance of a catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a variety of catalytic cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (), taking an oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen molecule (). The ClO can react with a second molecule of ozone, releasing the chlorine atom and yielding two molecules of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:

text: Ozone is a highly reactive molecule, easily reducing to the more stable oxygen form with the assistance of a catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a variety of

text: catalytic

text: cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (), taking an oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen molecule (). The ClO can react with a second molecule of ozone, releasing the chlorine atom and yielding two molecules of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:

text: Air pollution is caused by anthropogenic factors, such as power plants, factories, and automobiles. It is related to acid rain and water pollution. Vegetation in high elevation is easy to collect pollutants. Acid rain damages the plants and makes streams more acidic. Acidic water affects aquatic species, such as fish, salamanders, and also vegetation. Air pollution affects ground ozone, which experience a biochemical change with sun light. The ground ozone damages plants. In the National Park Service, 30 plants species were damaged by the ground ozone and plants in higher elevation are prone damage.

text: Air pollution

text: is caused by anthropogenic factors, such as power plants, factories, and automobiles. It is related to

text: acid rain

text: and

text: water pollution

text: . Vegetation in high elevation is easy to collect pollutants. Acid rain damages the plants and makes streams more acidic. Acidic water affects aquatic species, such as fish, salamanders, and also vegetation. Air pollution affects

text: ground ozone

text: , which experience a biochemical change with sun light. The ground ozone damages plants. In the National Park Service, 30 plants species were damaged by the ground ozone and plants in higher elevation are prone damage.

text: Air quality regulation must identify the substances and energies which qualify as "pollution" for purposes of further control. While specific labels vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, there is broad consensus among many governments regarding what constitutes air pollution. For example, the United States Clean Air Act identifies ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides (NO), sulfur dioxide (SO), and lead (Pb) as "criteria" pollutants requiring nationwide regulation. EPA has also identified over 180 compounds it has classified as "hazardous" pollutants requiring strict control. Other compounds have been identified as air pollutants due to their adverse impact on the environment (e.g., CFCs as agents of ozone depletion), and on human health (e.g., asbestos in indoor air). A broader conception of air pollution may also incorporate noise, light, and radiation. The United States has recently seen controversy over whether carbon dioxide (CO) and other greenhouse gases should be classified as air pollutants.

text: Air quality regulation must identify the substances and energies which qualify as "

text: pollution

text: " for purposes of further control. While specific labels vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, there is broad consensus among many governments regarding what constitutes air pollution. For example, the United States Clean Air Act identifies

text: ozone

text: particulate matter

text: carbon monoxide

text: nitrogen oxides

text: (NO),

text: sulfur dioxide

text: (SO), and

text: lead

text: (Pb) as "criteria" pollutants requiring nationwide regulation. EPA has also identified over 180 compounds it has classified as "hazardous" pollutants requiring strict control. Other compounds have been identified as air pollutants due to their adverse impact on the environment (e.g.,

text: CFCs

text: as agents of

text: ozone depletion

text: ), and on human health (e.g.,

text: asbestos

text: in indoor air). A broader conception of air pollution may also incorporate

text: noise

text: light

text: , and

text: radiation

text: . The United States has recently seen controversy over whether

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) and other

text: greenhouse gases

text: should be classified as air pollutants.

text: The unique part of ozone oxidation is its in-situ application. Because, unlike other oxidants used in ISCO, it is a gas, it needs to be injected into the contamination site from the bottom rather than the top. Tubes are built into the ground to transport the ozone to its starting place; the bubbles then rise to the surface. Whatever volatile substances are left over are sucked up by a vacuum pump. Because the bubbles travel more vertically than horizontally, close placement of ozone injection wells is needed for uniform distribution.

text: The unique part of ozone oxidation is its in-situ application. Because, unlike other oxidants used in ISCO, it is a gas, it needs to be injected into the contamination site from the bottom rather than the top. Tubes are built into the ground to transport the ozone to its starting place; the bubbles then rise to the surface. Whatever

text: volatile

text: substances are left over are sucked up by a vacuum pump. Because the bubbles travel more vertically than horizontally, close placement of ozone injection wells is needed for uniform distribution.

text: In ozone water disinfection, microbes are destroyed by ozone gas (O) provided by an ozone generator. Common in Europe, ozone gas is now becoming widely adopted in the United States. It is emerging across a wide array of industries; from municipal water treatment plants, to food processing plants, to healthcare organizations. It is being adopted due to its ability to sanitize water and surfaces without wasting water, and because there are no by-products. When its job is done, ozone gas quickly degrades into oxygen. Ozone is more effective than chlorine in destroying viruses and bacteria.

text: According to scientists with the US EPA, susceptible people can be adversely affected by ozone levels as low as 40 nmol/mol. In the EU, the current target value for ozone concentrations is 120 µg/m which is about 60 nmol/mol. This target applies to all member states in accordance with Directive 2008/50/EC. Ozone concentration is measured as a maximum daily mean of 8 hour averages and the target should not be exceeded on more than 25 calendar days per year, starting from January 2010. Whilst the directive requires in the future a strict compliance with 120 µg/m limit (i.e. mean ozone concentration not to be exceeded on any day of the year), there is no date set for this requirement and this is treated as a long-term objective.

text: However, ozone has many properties that pose problems. Ozone reacts with a variety of contaminants, but the problem is that it also reacts quickly with many other substances such as minerals, organic matter, etc. that are not the targeted substances. Again, it is not very soluble and stays in gas form in the water, which makes ozone prone to nonuniform distribution and rising up to the top of contamination site by the shortest routes rather than traveling through the entire material. In addition, ozone must be generated, and that requires a huge amount of energy.

text: In atmospheric chemistry, a null cycle is a catalytic cycle that simply interconverts chemical species without leading to net production or removal of any component. In the stratosphere, null cycles are very important in contrasting series of reactions that lead to net depletion in the ozone layer.

text: In

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: , a null cycle is a

text: catalytic cycle

text: that simply interconverts chemical species without leading to net production or removal of any component. In the

text: stratosphere

text: , null cycles are very important in contrasting series of

text: reactions

text: that lead to net

text: depletion

text: in the

text: ozone layer

text: In 1911 the line was extended to Horikawa (since closed), and the Horikawa - Ozone section was duplicated in 1914. The Ozone - Owari Seto section was duplicated between 1921 and 1929.

text: Since 1981 the United Nations Environment Programme, under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization, has sponsored a series of technical reports on the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion, based on satellite measurements. The 2007 report showed that the hole in the ozone layer was recovering and the smallest it had been for about a decade.The 2010 report found, "Over the past decade, global ozone and ozone in the Arctic and Antarctic regions is no longer decreasing but is not yet increasing. The ozone layer outside the Polar regions is projected to recover to its pre-1980 levels some time before the middle of this century. In contrast, the springtime ozone hole over the Antarctic is expected to recover much later."In 2012, NOAA and NASA reported "Warmer air temperatures high above the Antarctic led to the second smallest season ozone hole in 20 years averaging 17.9 million square kilometres. The hole reached its maximum size for the season on Sept 22, stretching to 21.2 million square kilometres." A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.

text: Since 1981 the

text: United Nations Environment Programme

text: , under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization, has sponsored a series of technical reports on the

entity_name: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion

text: Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion

text: , based on satellite measurements. The 2007 report showed that the hole in the ozone layer was recovering and the smallest it had been for about a decade.The 2010 report found, "Over the past decade, global ozone and ozone in the Arctic and Antarctic regions is no longer decreasing but is not yet increasing. The ozone layer outside the Polar regions is projected to recover to its pre-1980 levels some time before the middle of this century. In contrast, the springtime ozone hole over the Antarctic is expected to recover much later."In 2012,

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: NOAA

text: and

text: NASA

text: reported "Warmer air temperatures high above the Antarctic led to the second smallest season ozone hole in 20 years averaging 17.9 million square kilometres. The hole reached its maximum size for the season on Sept 22, stretching to 21.2 million square kilometres." A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.

text: In 1962 a book by U.S. biologist Rachel Carson  started a storm of concerns about environmental pollution, first focused on DDT and other pesticides, some of them also halocarbons. These concerns were amplified when in 1966 Swedish chemist Soren Jensen reported widespread residues of PCBs among Arctic and sub-Arctic fish and birds . In 1974, mexican chemist Mario Molina and U.S. chemist Sherwood Rowland predicted that common halocarbon refrigerants, the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), would accumulate in the upper atmosphere and destroy protective ozone . Within a few years, ozone depletion was being observed above Antarctica, leading to bans on production and use of chlorofluorocarbons in many countries. In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) said halocarbons were a direct cause of global warming.

text: In 1962 a book by U.S. biologist

text: Rachel Carson

text: started a storm of concerns about environmental

text: pollution

text: , first focused on

text: DDT

text: and other

text: pesticide

text: s, some of them also halocarbons. These concerns were amplified when in 1966 Swedish chemist Soren Jensen reported widespread residues of

text: PCB

text: s among Arctic and sub-Arctic fish and birds . In 1974, mexican chemist

text: Mario Molina

text: and U.S. chemist

text: Sherwood Rowland

text: predicted that common halocarbon

text: refrigerant

text: s, the

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs), would accumulate in the upper

text: atmosphere

text: and destroy protective

text: ozone

text: . Within a few years,

text: ozone

text: depletion was being observed above

text: Antarctica

text: , leading to bans on production and use of

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s in many countries. In 2007, the

text: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: (IPCC) said halocarbons were a direct cause of global warming.

text: In the early 1990s, Young learned that Terry Higgins, a former Young Talent Time studio director, had contracted HIV. By 1993, Young had financially supported Higgins who sought alternative ozone therapy. Young was arrested in the Philippines under charges of involvement in running an illegal AIDS clinic after accompanying Higgins there. Young was tested for AIDS and threatened with deportation. Subsequently all charges were dropped, but Young's public image was damaged by media coverage of rumours regarding his sexuality. ABC Television produced an episode on Australian Story in February 2000 in which he discussed the events and their effect on his life and career. A year after seeking the ozone therapy, Higgins died with Young still supporting him.

text: In the early 1990s, Young learned that Terry Higgins, a former Young Talent Time studio director, had contracted HIV. By 1993, Young had financially supported Higgins who sought alternative

text: ozone therapy

text: . Young was arrested in the

text: Philippines

text: under charges of involvement in running an illegal AIDS clinic after accompanying Higgins there. Young was tested for

text: AIDS

text: and threatened with deportation. Subsequently all charges were dropped, but Young's public image was damaged by media coverage of rumours regarding his sexuality. ABC Television produced an episode on

text: Australian Story

text: in February 2000 in which he discussed the events and their effect on his life and career. A year after seeking the ozone therapy, Higgins died with Young still supporting him.

text: Alternatives to Halon 1301 in fire extinguishing systems are being deployed. Many installations from which halon is removed can be protected with fire sprinklers, depending on the level of damage the equipment in the space will incur by exposure to water. In other cases, different total flooding agents can be used. The alternatives for normally occupied areas include (PFC-410 or CEA-410), CF (PFC-218 or CEA-308), HCFC Blend A (NAF S-III), HFC-23 (FE 13), HFC-227ea (FM 200), IG-01 (argon), IG-55 (argonite), HFC-125, or HFC-134a. For normally unoccupied areas, the alternatives include carbon dioxide, powdered Aerosol C, CFI, HCFC-22, HCFC-124, HFC-125, HFC-134a, gelled halocarbon/dry chemical suspension (PGA), blend of inert gas, high expansion foam systems and powdered aerosol (FS 0140), and IG-541 (Inergen).Perfluorocarbons, i.e., PFCs such as CF, have very long atmospheric lifetimes and very high global warming potentials.  Hydrochlorofluorocarbons, i.e., HCFCs including HCFC containing NAF S-III, contain chlorine and are stratospheric ozone layer depleters, although less so than Halon 1301.  Their selection for usage as Halon replacements should consider those factors, and is restricted in some countries.

text: Alternatives to Halon 1301 in fire extinguishing systems are being deployed. Many installations from which halon is removed can be protected with

text: fire sprinkler

text: s, depending on the level of damage the equipment in the space will incur by exposure to water. In other cases, different total flooding agents can be used. The alternatives for normally occupied areas include (PFC-410 or CEA-410), CF (PFC-218 or CEA-308), HCFC Blend A (NAF S-III),

text: (FE 13),

text: (FM 200), IG-01 (

text: argon

text: ), IG-55 (

text: argonite

text: , or

text: . For normally unoccupied areas, the alternatives include

text: carbon dioxide

text: , powdered

text: Aerosol C

text: CFI

text: , gelled halocarbon/dry chemical suspension (PGA), blend of inert gas, high expansion foam systems and powdered aerosol (FS 0140), and IG-541 (

text: Inergen

text: ).Perfluorocarbons, i.e., PFCs such as CF, have very long atmospheric lifetimes and very high global warming potentials.  Hydrochlorofluorocarbons, i.e., HCFCs including HCFC containing NAF S-III, contain chlorine and are stratospheric ozone layer depleters, although less so than Halon 1301.  Their selection for usage as Halon replacements should consider those factors, and is restricted in some countries.

text: Sydney Chapman gave a correct description of the source of stratospheric ozone and its ability to generate heat within the stratosphere; he also wrote that ozone may be destroyed by reacting with atomic oxygen, making two molecules of molecular oxygen. We now know that there are additional ozone loss mechanisms, and that these mechanisms are catalytic meaning that a small amount of the catalyst can destroy a great number of ozone molecules. The first is due to the reaction of hydroxyl radicals OH· with ozone. OH is formed by the reaction of electronically excited oxygen atoms produced by ozone photolysis, with water vapor. While the stratosphere is dry, additional water vapor is produced in situ by the photochemical oxidation of methane (CH). The HO radical produced by the reaction of OH with O is recycled to OH by reaction with oxygen atoms or ozone. Laughing gas or Nitrous oxide (NO) is produced by biological activity at the surface and is oxidised to NO in the stratosphere; the so-called NOx radical cycles also deplete stratospheric ozone. Finally, chlorofluorocarbon molecules are photolysed in the stratosphere releasing chlorine atoms that react with ozone giving ClO and O. The chlorine atoms are recycled when ClO reacts with O in the upper stratosphere, or when ClO reacts with itself in the chemistry of the Antarctic ozone hole. Paul J. Crutzen, Mario J. Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 for their work describing the formation and decomposition of stratospheric ozone.

text: Sydney Chapman gave a correct description of the source of stratospheric ozone and its ability to generate heat within the stratosphere; he also wrote that ozone may be destroyed by reacting with atomic oxygen, making two molecules of molecular oxygen. We now know that there are additional ozone loss mechanisms, and that these mechanisms are catalytic meaning that a small amount of the catalyst can destroy a great number of ozone molecules. The first is due to the reaction of hydroxyl radicals OH· with ozone. OH is formed by the reaction of electronically excited oxygen atoms produced by ozone photolysis, with water vapor. While the stratosphere is dry, additional water vapor is produced in situ by the photochemical oxidation of

text: methane

text: (CH). The HO radical produced by the reaction of OH with O is recycled to OH by reaction with oxygen atoms or ozone. Laughing gas or

text: Nitrous oxide

text: (NO) is produced by biological activity at the surface and is oxidised to NO in the stratosphere; the so-called NOx radical cycles also deplete stratospheric ozone. Finally,

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: molecules are photolysed in the stratosphere releasing chlorine atoms that react with ozone giving ClO and O. The chlorine atoms are recycled when ClO reacts with O in the upper stratosphere, or when ClO reacts with itself in the chemistry of the Antarctic ozone hole. Paul J. Crutzen, Mario J. Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 for their work describing the formation and decomposition of stratospheric ozone.

text: The inert nature of many halons, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), with the benefits of their being nonflammable and nontoxic, made them good choices as refrigerants, but their stability in the atmosphere and their corresponding global warming potential and ozone depletion potential raised concerns about their usage. In order from the highest to the lowest potential of ozone depletion are Bromochlorofluorocarbon, CFC then HCFC. Though HFC and PFC are non-ozone depleting, many have global warming potentials that are thousands of times greater than CO.  Some other refrigerants such as propane and ammonia are not inert, and are flammable or toxic if released.

text: The inert nature of many

text: halons

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFC) and

text: hydrochlorofluorocarbon

text: s (HCFC), with the benefits of their being nonflammable and nontoxic, made them good choices as refrigerants, but their stability in the atmosphere and their corresponding

text: global warming potential

text: and

text: ozone depletion potential

text: raised concerns about their usage. In order from the highest to the lowest potential of ozone depletion are Bromochlorofluorocarbon, CFC then HCFC. Though

text: HFC

text: and

text: PFC

text: are non-ozone depleting, many have global warming potentials that are thousands of times greater than CO.  Some other refrigerants such as

text: propane

text: and

text: ammonia

text: are not inert, and are flammable or toxic if released.

text: On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer may be slowing down because of the international regulation of ozone-depleting substances. In a study organized by the American Geophysical Union, three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper-atmosphere ozone-depletion rate slowed down significantly during the previous decade. Some breakdown can be expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases which are already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes, ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.

text: On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer may be slowing down because of the international regulation of ozone-depleting substances. In a study organized by the

text: American Geophysical Union

text: , three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper-atmosphere ozone-depletion rate slowed down significantly during the previous decade. Some breakdown can be expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases which are already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes, ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.

text: Ozone reacts directly with some hydrocarbons such as aldehydes and thus begins their removal from the air, but the products are themselves key components of smog. Ozone photolysis by UV light leads to production of the hydroxyl radical HO• and this plays a part in the removal of hydrocarbons from the air, but is also the first step in the creation of components of smog such as peroxyacyl nitrates, which can be powerful eye irritants. The atmospheric lifetime of tropospheric ozone is about 22 days; its main removal mechanisms are being deposited to the ground, the above-mentioned reaction giving HO•, and by reactions with OH and the peroxy radical HO•.

text: Ozone reacts directly with some hydrocarbons such as

text: aldehyde

text: s and thus begins their removal from the air, but the products are themselves key components of

text: smog

text: . Ozone

text: photolysis

text: by UV light leads to production of the

text: hydroxyl radical

text: HO• and this plays a part in the removal of hydrocarbons from the air, but is also the first step in the creation of components of smog such as

text: peroxyacyl nitrates

text: , which can be powerful eye irritants. The atmospheric lifetime of tropospheric ozone is about 22 days; its main removal mechanisms are being deposited to the ground, the above-mentioned reaction giving HO•, and by reactions with OH and the peroxy radical HO•.

text: In September 2006 NASA satellite data revealed that the Antarctic ozone hole was larger than at any other time on record, at . The impacts of the depleted ozone layer on climate changes occurring in Antarctica are not well understood.

text: In September 2006

text: NASA

text: satellite data revealed that the Antarctic

text: ozone hole

text: was larger than at any other time on record, at . The impacts of the depleted ozone layer on climate changes occurring in Antarctica are not well understood.

text: Ozone Magazine Award Show: Blastro teamed up with AllHipHop.com for the 2008 Ozone Awards in Houston, Texas.

text: Depletion on the ozone layer is one more threat. An ozone hole has been detected above Antarctica. The cause of the depletion of the ozone layer is due to chlorofluorocarbons and other greenhouse gases. The other main reason is due to man made gases that are released into the atmosphere. There are many environmental effects due to this because the gases that are being released five times faster than they are destroyed.

text: Depletion on the

text: ozone layer

text: is one more threat. An

text: ozone hole

text: has been detected above Antarctica. The cause of the depletion of the ozone layer is due to

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s and other

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. The other main reason is due to man made gases that are released into the atmosphere. There are many environmental effects due to this because the gases that are being released five times faster than they are destroyed.

text: On October 2, 2011, a study was published in the journal Nature, which said that between December 2010 and March 2011 up to 80 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere at about  above the surface was destroyed. The level of ozone depletion was severe enough that scientists said it could be compared to the ozone hole that forms over Antarctica every winter. According to the study, "for the first time, sufficient loss occurred to reasonably be described as an Arctic ozone hole." The study analyzed data from the Aura and CALIPSO satellites, and determined that the larger-than-normal ozone loss was due to an unusually long period of cold weather in the Arctic, some 30 days more than typical, which allowed for more ozone-destroying chlorine compounds to be created. According to Lamont Poole, a co-author of the study, cloud and aerosol particles on which the chlorine compounds are found "were abundant in the Arctic until mid March 2011—much later than usual—with average amounts at some altitudes similar to those observed in the Antarctic, and dramatically larger than the near-zero values seen in March in most Arctic winters".

text: On October 2, 2011, a study was published in the journal

text: Nature

text: , which said that between December 2010 and March 2011 up to 80 percent of the ozone in the atmosphere at about  above the surface was destroyed. The level of ozone depletion was severe enough that scientists said it could be compared to the ozone hole that forms over Antarctica every winter. According to the study, "for the first time, sufficient loss occurred to reasonably be described as an Arctic ozone hole." The study analyzed data from the

text: Aura

text: and

text: CALIPSO

text: satellites, and determined that the larger-than-normal ozone loss was due to an unusually long period of cold weather in the Arctic, some 30 days more than typical, which allowed for more ozone-destroying chlorine compounds to be created. According to Lamont Poole, a co-author of the study, cloud and aerosol particles on which the chlorine compounds are found "were abundant in the Arctic until mid March 2011—much later than usual—with average amounts at some altitudes similar to those observed in the Antarctic, and dramatically larger than the near-zero values seen in March in most Arctic winters".

text: In January 2008, a team of British Antarctic Survey scientists, led by Hugh Corr and David Vaughan, reported that 2,200 years ago a volcano erupted under Antarctica's ice sheet (based on airborne survey with radar images). The biggest eruption in the last 10,000 years, the volcanic ash was found deposited on the ice surface under the Hudson Mountains, close to Pine Island Glacier.The British Antarctic Survey are also responsible for the discovery of the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. The discovery was made in 1985 by a team of three BAS scientists named Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin. Their work was confirmed by satellite data, and was met with world-wide concern.

text: In January 2008, a team of British Antarctic Survey scientists, led by Hugh Corr and David Vaughan, reported that 2,200 years ago a

text: volcano

text: erupted under

text: Antarctica

text: 's ice sheet (based on

text: airborne survey

text: with radar images). The biggest eruption in the last 10,000 years, the volcanic ash was found deposited on the ice surface under the

text: Hudson Mountains

text: , close to

text: Pine Island Glacier

text: .The British Antarctic Survey are also responsible for the discovery of the hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. The discovery was made in 1985 by a team of three BAS scientists named Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin. Their work was confirmed by satellite data, and was met with world-wide concern.

text: In the U.S., air purifiers emitting low levels of ozone have been sold. This kind of air purifier is sometimes claimed to imitate nature's way of purifying the air without filters and to sanitize both it and household surfaces. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has declared that there is "evidence to show that at concentrations that do not exceed public health standards, ozone is not effective at removing many odor-causing chemicals" or "viruses, bacteria, mold, or other biological pollutants". Furthermore, its report states that "results of some controlled studies show that concentrations of ozone considerably higher than these [human safety] standards are possible even when a user follows the manufacturer’s operating instructions". A couple kept repeating health claims for the generator they sold, without supporting scientific studies. In 1998, a federal jury convicted them, among others things, of illegally distributing an ozone generator and of wire fraud.

text: In the U.S.,

text: air purifier

text: s emitting low levels of ozone have been sold. This kind of air purifier is sometimes claimed to imitate nature's way of purifying the air without filters and to sanitize both it and household surfaces. The

text: (EPA) has declared that there is "evidence to show that at concentrations that do not exceed public health standards, ozone is not effective at removing many odor-causing chemicals" or "viruses, bacteria, mold, or other biological pollutants". Furthermore, its report states that "results of some controlled studies show that concentrations of ozone considerably higher than these [human safety] standards are possible even when a user follows the manufacturer’s operating instructions". A couple kept repeating health claims for the generator they sold, without supporting scientific studies. In 1998, a federal jury convicted them, among others things, of illegally distributing an ozone generator and of

text: wire fraud

text: At a time when many home and business owners are seeking to avoid more expensive methods - cleaning or removal of building material, in extreme cases the abandonment of sick buildings - high ozone shock treatment is a cheap and fast alternative.  Ozone treatment can remove unpleasant odors, including those caused by mold, and can also kill vermin.

text: At a time when many home and business owners are seeking to avoid more expensive methods - cleaning or removal of building material, in extreme cases the abandonment of sick buildings - high ozone shock treatment is a cheap and fast alternative.  Ozone treatment can remove

text: unpleasant odor

text: s, including those caused by mold, and can also kill vermin.

text: Chlorotrifluoromethane, R-13, CFC-13, or Freon 13, is a non-flammable, non-corrosive chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and also a mixed halomethane. It is used as a refrigerant, however, due to concerns about its ozone-depleting potential, its use has been phased out due to the Montreal Protocol.

text: Chlorotrifluoromethane, R-13, CFC-13, or Freon 13, is a non-flammable, non-corrosive

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: (CFC) and also a mixed

text: halomethane

text: . It is used as a

text: refrigerant

text: , however, due to concerns about its ozone-depleting potential, its use has been phased out due to the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated interactions with other ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric altitudes it cruised. It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet meant overall ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible. In 1995, David Fahey, of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the United States, warned that a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft with exhausts similar to Concorde might produce in a 2 per cent drop in global ozone levels, much higher than previously thought. Each 1 per cent drop in ozone is estimated to increase the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer worldwide by 2 per cent. Dr Fahey said if these particles are produced by highly oxidised sulphur in the fuel, as he believed, then removing sulphur in the fuel will reduce the ozone-destroying impact of supersonic transport.

text: Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated interactions with other ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the

text: ozone layer

text: at the

text: stratospheric

text: altitudes it cruised. It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet meant overall ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible. In 1995, David Fahey, of the

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: in the United States, warned that a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft with exhausts similar to Concorde might produce in a 2 per cent drop in global ozone levels, much higher than previously thought. Each 1 per cent drop in ozone is estimated to increase the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer worldwide by 2 per cent. Dr Fahey said if these particles are produced by highly oxidised sulphur in the fuel, as he believed, then removing sulphur in the fuel will reduce the ozone-destroying impact of supersonic transport.

text: On average, a single chlorine atom is able to react with 100,000 ozone molecules before it is removed from the catalytic cycle. This fact plus the amount of chlorine released into the atmosphere yearly by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)  demonstrates how dangerous CFCs and HCFCs are to the environment.

text: The Hole is a small neighborhood in New York City on the border between Brooklyn and Queens. It is a low-lying area, with a ground level that is 10 meters lower than the surrounding area. The area is run-down, and suffers from frequent flooding. It has been described as a "lost neighborhood", and as resembling a border town from the Wild West. Nearby neighborhoods include East New York, Lindenwood, Howard Beach and Ozone Park.

text: The Hole is a small neighborhood in

text: New York City

text: on the border between

text: Brooklyn

text: and

text: Queens

text: . It is a low-lying area, with a ground level that is 10 meters lower than the surrounding area. The area is run-down, and suffers from frequent flooding. It has been described as a "lost neighborhood", and as resembling a border town from the Wild West. Nearby neighborhoods include

text: East New York

text: Lindenwood

text: Howard Beach

text: and

text: Ozone Park

text: According to Sheldon Ungar's comparison with global warming, the actors in the ozone depletion case had a better understanding of scientific ignorance and uncertainties. The ozone case communicated to lay persons "with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture" and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance", while the public opinion on climate change sees no imminent danger. The stepwise mitigation of the ozone layer challenge was based as well on successfully reducing regional burden sharing conflicts. In case of the IPCC conclusions and the failure of the Kyoto Protocol, varying regional cost-benefit analysis and burden-sharing conflicts with regard to the distribution of emission reductions remain an unsolved problem. In the UK, a report for a House of Lords committee asked to urge the IPCC to involve better assessments of costs and benefits of climate change but the Stern Review ordered by the UK government made a stronger argument in favor to combat human-made climate change.

text: According to Sheldon Ungar's comparison with global warming, the actors in the ozone depletion case had a better understanding of scientific ignorance and uncertainties. The ozone case communicated to lay persons "with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the

text: popular culture

text: " and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance", while the

text: public opinion on climate change

text: sees no imminent danger. The stepwise mitigation of the ozone layer challenge was based as well on successfully reducing regional burden sharing conflicts. In case of the IPCC conclusions and the failure of the Kyoto Protocol, varying regional cost-benefit analysis and burden-sharing conflicts with regard to the distribution of emission reductions remain an unsolved problem. In the UK, a report for a House of Lords committee asked to urge the IPCC to involve better assessments of costs and benefits of climate change but the

text: Stern Review

text: ordered by the UK government made a stronger argument in favor to combat human-made climate change.

text: MnO decomposes near room temperature, explosively so above 55 °C. The explosion can be initiated by striking the sample or by its exposure to oxidizable organic compounds. The products are MnO and O. Ozone is also produced, giving a strong smell to the substance. The ozone can spontaneously ignite a piece of paper impregnated with an alcohol solution. The production of manganese heptoxide is an undesirable byproduct in many situations.

text: MnO decomposes near room temperature, explosively so above 55 °C. The explosion can be initiated by striking the sample or by its exposure to oxidizable organic compounds. The products are

text: MnO

text: and

text: O

text: Ozone

text: is also produced, giving a strong smell to the substance. The ozone can spontaneously ignite a piece of paper impregnated with an alcohol solution. The production of manganese heptoxide is an undesirable byproduct in many situations.

text: The behavior seen in the Antarctic ozone hole is completely different. Instead of staying constant, early springtime ozone levels suddenly drop from their already low winter values, by as much as 50 percent, and normal values are not reached again until December.

text: The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

text: The

text: ozone layer

text: of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount of

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As

text: DNA

text: is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

text: The Stratospheric Ozone Protection is under section 602 of the Clean Air Act of 1990. This regulation aims to decrease emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chemicals that are destroying the stratospheric ozone layer. The protection initiative categorizes ozone-depleting substances into two classes: Class I, and Class II.

text: The Stratospheric Ozone Protection is under section 602 of the

text: Clean Air Act

text: of 1990. This regulation aims to decrease emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chemicals that are destroying the stratospheric ozone layer. The protection initiative categorizes ozone-depleting substances into two classes: Class I, and Class II.

text: It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer. However, it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs, the main chemical agents causing ozone depletion. These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol.

text: It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the

text: ozone layer

text: . However, it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of

text: CFC

text: s, the main chemical agents causing

text: ozone depletion

text: . These are laid out in the accompanying

text: Montreal Protocol

text: Fluorinated compounds often display distinct solubility properties.  Dichlorodifluoromethane and chlorodifluoromethane were widely used refrigerants. CFCs have potent ozone depletion potential due to the homolytic cleavage of the carbon-chlorine bonds; their use is largely prohibited by the Montreal Protocol. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), such as tetrafluoroethane, serve as CFC replacements because they do not catalyze ozone depletion.  Oxygen exhibits a high solubility in perfluorocarbon compounds, reflecting again on their lipophilicity.  Perfluorodecalin has been demonstrated as a blood substitutes, transporting oxygen to the lungs.

text: Fluorinated compounds often display distinct solubility properties.

text: Dichlorodifluoromethane

text: and

text: chlorodifluoromethane

text: were widely used refrigerants. CFCs have potent

text: ozone depletion

text: potential due to the

text: homolytic cleavage

text: of the carbon-chlorine bonds; their use is largely prohibited by the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: Hydrofluorocarbons

text: (HFCs), such as

text: tetrafluoroethane

text: , serve as CFC replacements because they do not catalyze ozone depletion.

text: Oxygen

text: exhibits a high solubility in perfluorocarbon compounds, reflecting again on their lipophilicity.

text: Perfluorodecalin

text: has been demonstrated as a

text: blood substitutes

text: , transporting oxygen to the lungs.

text: Nevertheless environmental experts see the production of oxides of nitrogen as a major menace in the formation of greenhouse gases and photochemical smog.  The interaction of NOx with hydrocarbons from vehicle exhausts and sunlight, can also form low level ozone. In the stratosphere (some 25 km up). Ozone is helpful by absorbing the fiercer part of the ultraviolet radiation of the sun, but at ground level it damages materials and vegetation. It irritates throat, lungs and eyes, and strenuous exercise or work can become painful. Furthermore, the effectiveness of nitrous oxide as a greenhouse gas is magnified by its longer life than carbon dioxide, methane and CFC's.

text: Nevertheless environmental experts see the production of oxides of nitrogen as a major menace in the formation of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es and

text: photochemical smog

text: .  The interaction of

text: NOx

text: with hydrocarbons from vehicle

text: exhausts

text: and sunlight, can also form low level

text: ozone

text: . In the

text: stratosphere

text: (some 25 km up). Ozone is helpful by absorbing the fiercer part of the

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: of the sun, but at ground level it damages materials and vegetation. It irritates throat, lungs and eyes, and strenuous exercise or work can become painful. Furthermore, the effectiveness of

text: nitrous oxide

text: as a greenhouse gas is magnified by its longer life than

text: carbon dioxide

text: methane

text: and CFC's.

text: Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts, the most important of which are the hydroxyl radical (OH·), nitric oxide radical (NO·), chlorine radical (Cl·) and  bromine radical (Br·). The dot is a common notation to indicate that all of these species have an unpaired electron and are thus extremely reactive. All of these have both natural and man-made sources; at the present time, most of the OH· and NO· in the stratosphere is of natural origin, but human activity has dramatically increased the levels of chlorine and bromine. These elements are found in certain stable organic compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons, which may find their way to the stratosphere without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are liberated from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light, e.g.

text: Ozone can be destroyed by a number of

text: free radical

text: catalysts, the most important of which are the

text: hydroxyl radical

text: (OH·),

text: nitric oxide

text: radical (NO·),

text: chlorine

text: radical (Cl·) and

text: bromine

text: radical (Br·). The dot is a common notation to indicate that all of these species have an unpaired electron and are thus extremely reactive. All of these have both natural and man-made sources; at the present time, most of the OH· and NO· in the stratosphere is of natural origin, but human activity has dramatically increased the levels of chlorine and bromine. These elements are found in certain stable organic compounds, especially

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s, which may find their way to the stratosphere without being destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl and Br atoms are liberated from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light, e.g.

text: Public misconceptions and misunderstandings of complex issues like the ozone depletion are common. The limited scientific knowledge of the public led to a confusion with global warming or the perception of global warming as a subset of the "ozone hole".In the beginning, classical green NGOs refrained from using CFC depletion for campaigning, as they assumed the topic was too complicated. They became active much later, e.g. in Greenpeace's support for a CFC-free fridge produced by the former East German company VEB dkk Scharfenstein.

text: Public misconceptions and misunderstandings of complex issues like the ozone depletion are common. The limited scientific knowledge of the public led to a confusion with global warming or the perception of global warming as a subset of the "ozone hole".In the beginning, classical green NGOs refrained from using CFC depletion for campaigning, as they assumed the topic was too complicated. They became active much later, e.g. in Greenpeace's support for a CFC-free fridge produced by the former East German company

text: VEB

text: dkk Scharfenstein.

text: Blended of pure, dry propane (refrigerant designator R-290) and isobutane (R-600a) the blend "R-290a" has negligible ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential and can serve as a functional replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.

text: Blended of pure, dry propane (refrigerant designator R-290) and

text: isobutane

text: (R-600a) the blend "R-290a" has negligible

text: ozone depletion potential

text: and very low

text: global warming potential

text: and can serve as a functional replacement for

text: and other

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: or

text: hydrofluorocarbon

text: refrigerant

text: Oxygenation of alkanes can be catalyzed by a magic acid–SOClF solution in the presence of ozone. The mechanism is similar to that of protolysis of alkanes, with an electrophilic insertion into the single σ bonds of the alkane. The hydrocarbon–ozone complex transition state has the form of a penta-coordinated ion.

text: Oxygenation of alkanes can be catalyzed by a magic acid–SOClF solution in the presence of

text: ozone

text: . The mechanism is similar to that of protolysis of alkanes, with an electrophilic insertion into the single σ bonds of the alkane. The hydrocarbon–ozone complex transition state has the form of a penta-coordinated ion.

text: The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international agreement that seeks to phase out chemicals that damage the ozone layer. The Montreal protocol was signed in 1987, went into practice in 1989, and was further amended in London in 1990 and in Copenhagen in 1992. The protocol set a quicker timetable for industrialized nations to phase out chemicals than it did for developing nations. For example, developed countries were to phase-out chlorofluorocarbons by 1995, but developing counties have until 2010 to phase out this chemical. Other chemicals that it wanted to phase out were halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, hydrochloroforlourocarbons, hydrobromofluorocarbons, and methyl bromide.

text: The

text: Montreal Protocol

text: on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international agreement that seeks to phase out chemicals that damage the ozone layer. The Montreal protocol was signed in 1987, went into practice in 1989, and was further amended in London in 1990 and in Copenhagen in 1992. The protocol set a quicker timetable for industrialized nations to phase out chemicals than it did for developing nations. For example, developed countries were to

text: phase-out chlorofluorocarbons

text: by 1995, but developing counties have until 2010 to phase out this chemical. Other chemicals that it wanted to phase out were halons,

text: carbon tetrachloride

text: methyl chloroform

text: , hydrochloroforlourocarbons, hydrobromofluorocarbons, and

text: methyl bromide

text: The amount of pesticide that migrates from the intended application area is influenced by the particular chemical's properties: its propensity for binding to soil, its vapor pressure, its water solubility, and its resistance to being broken down over time. Factors in the soil, such as its texture, its ability to retain water, and the amount of organic matter contained in it, also affect the amount of pesticide that will leave the area. Some pesticides contribute to global warming and the depletion of the ozone layer.

text: The amount of pesticide that migrates from the intended application area is influenced by the particular chemical's properties: its propensity for binding to soil, its

text: vapor pressure

text: , its water

text: solubility

text: , and its resistance to being broken down over time. Factors in the soil, such as its texture, its ability to retain water, and the amount of organic matter contained in it, also affect the amount of pesticide that will leave the area. Some pesticides contribute to

text: global warming

text: and the depletion of the

text: ozone layer

text: A 2008 study by Michael J. Mills and coauthors, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, found that a nuclear weapons exchange between Pakistan and India using their current arsenals could create a near-global ozone hole, triggering human health problems and causing environmental damage for at least a decade. The computer-modeling study looked at a nuclear war between the two countries involving 50 Hiroshima-sized nuclear devices on each side, producing massive urban fires and lofting as much as five million metric tons of soot about  into the mesosphere. The soot would absorb enough solar radiation to heat surrounding gases, causing a series of surface chemistry reactions that would break down the stratospheric ozone layer protecting Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

text: A 2008 study by Michael J. Mills and coauthors, published in the

entity_name: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

text: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

text: , found that a nuclear weapons exchange between Pakistan and India using their current arsenals could create a near-global ozone hole, triggering human health problems and causing environmental damage for at least a decade. The computer-modeling study looked at a nuclear war between the two countries involving 50 Hiroshima-sized nuclear devices on each side, producing massive urban fires and lofting as much as five million metric tons of soot about  into the

text: mesosphere

text: . The soot would absorb enough solar radiation to heat surrounding gases, causing a series of

text: surface chemistry

text: reactions that would break down the stratospheric ozone layer protecting Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

text: Amended Regulations 12 concerns control and record keeping of Ozone Depleting Substances.

text: Freon was used as the original brand name for electronic gases produced and marketed by DuPont. With the depletion of the ozone layer and the subsequent phase-out of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gas compounds, the company rebranded this product line to differentiate from refrigerant gases that had been using the same Freon brand name.

text: Freon

text: was used as the original brand name for electronic gases produced and marketed by DuPont. With the depletion of the

text: ozone layer

text: and the subsequent

text: phase-out

text: of

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: (CFC) gas compounds, the company rebranded this product line to differentiate from

text: refrigerant

text: gases that had been using the same Freon brand name.

text: A team of scientists are studying ozone depletion while living in a lab in the Amazon Rainforest when they are attacked by a clinical lycanthrope who has gone insane because of over-exposure to the sun's ultraviolet rays, caused by the hole in the ozone layer.

text: A team of scientists are studying

text: ozone

text: depletion while living in a lab in the

text: Amazon Rainforest

text: when they are attacked by a

text: clinical lycanthrope

text: who has gone

text: insane

text: because of over-exposure to the sun's

text: ultraviolet

text: rays, caused by the hole in the

text: ozone layer

text: Even though the use of CFCs was banned in many countries, CFCs can stay in the atmosphere for about 50-500 years. This cause many chlorine radicals to be produced and hence a significant amount of ozone molecules are decomposed before the chlorine radicals are able to react with chlorine monoxide to form Dichlorine monoxide.

text: Even though the use of CFCs was banned in many countries, CFCs can stay in the atmosphere for about 50-500 years. This cause many chlorine radicals to be produced and hence a significant amount of ozone molecules are decomposed before the chlorine radicals are able to react with chlorine monoxide to form

text: Dichlorine monoxide

text: The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33 percent of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an atmospheric container. Within this polar vortex, over 50 percent of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.

text: The Antarctic ozone hole is an area of the Antarctic stratosphere in which the recent ozone levels have dropped to as low as 33 percent of their pre-1975 values. The ozone hole occurs during the Antarctic spring, from September to early December, as strong westerly winds start to circulate around the continent and create an atmospheric container. Within this

text: polar vortex

text: , over 50 percent of the lower stratospheric ozone is destroyed during the Antarctic spring.

text: The song "Lost in the Ozone" gave its name to Ozone House, an organization dealing with runaways and the needs of at-risk youth.

text: The song "Lost in the Ozone" gave its name to

text: Ozone House

text: , an organization dealing with runaways and the needs of at-risk youth.

text: Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15–20 percent of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet fully understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the effect of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One study showed that a 10 percent increase in UVB radiation was associated with a 19 percent increase in melanomas for men and 16 percent for women. A study of people in Punta Arenas, at the southern tip of Chile, showed a 56 percent increase in melanoma and a 46 percent increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer over a period of seven years, along with decreased ozone and increased UVB levels.

text: Another form of skin cancer, malignant

text: melanoma

text: , is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15–20 percent of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet fully understood, but it appears that both UVB and UVA are involved. Because of this uncertainty, it is difficult to estimate the effect of ozone depletion on melanoma incidence. One study showed that a 10 percent increase in UVB radiation was associated with a 19 percent increase in melanomas for men and 16 percent for women. A study of people in

text: Punta Arenas

text: , at the southern tip of

text: Chile

text: , showed a 56 percent increase in melanoma and a 46 percent increase in nonmelanoma skin cancer over a period of seven years, along with decreased ozone and increased UVB levels.

text: Freon () is a registered trademark of The Chemours Company, which uses it for a number of halocarbon products. They are stable, nonflammable, moderately toxic gases or liquids which have typically been used as refrigerants and as aerosol propellants. These include the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that cause ozone depletion (such as chlorodifluoromethane), but also include newer refrigerants which typically include fluorine instead of chlorine and do not deplete the ozone layer. Not all refrigerant is labelled as "Freon" since Freon is a brand name for the refrigerants R-12, R-13B1, R-22, R-502, and R-503 manufactured by The Chemours Company.

text: Freon () is a registered

text: trademark

text: of

text: The Chemours Company

text: , which uses it for a number of

text: halocarbon

text: products. They are stable, nonflammable, moderately toxic gases or liquids which have typically been used as

text: refrigerants

text: and as

text: aerosol propellant

text: s. These include the

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) that cause

text: ozone depletion

text: (such as

text: chlorodifluoromethane

text: ), but also include newer refrigerants which typically include fluorine instead of chlorine and do not deplete the ozone layer. Not all refrigerant is labelled as "Freon" since Freon is a brand name for the refrigerants

text: , R-502, and R-503 manufactured by The Chemours Company.

text: Office of the Deputy Prime Minister- Official Journal of the European Union- Old Corrugated Containers- Ozone Depleting Substance

entity_name: Department for Communities and Local Government

text: Office of the Deputy Prime Minister

text: Official Journal of the European Union

text: Old Corrugated Containers

text: Ozone Depleting Substance

text: Gottfried attended the following New York City public schools: P.S. 207 in Howard Beach, Queens, Robert H. Goddard Junior High School 202 in Ozone Park, Queens, andJohn Adams High School (New York City) in Ozone Park, Queens.

text: Gottfried attended the following New York City public schools: P.S. 207 in

text: Howard Beach, Queens

text: , Robert H. Goddard Junior High School 202 in

text: Ozone Park, Queens

text: , and

text: John Adams High School (New York City)

text: in

text: Ozone Park, Queens

text: Very violent volcanic eruptions can inject HCl into the stratosphere, but researchers have shown that the contribution is not significant compared to that from CFCs.A similar erroneous assertion is that soluble halogen compounds from the volcanic plume of Mount Erebus on Ross Island, Antarctica are a major contributor to the Antarctic ozone hole.

text: Very violent volcanic eruptions can inject HCl into the stratosphere, but researchers have shown that the contribution is not significant compared to that from CFCs.A similar erroneous assertion is that soluble halogen compounds from the volcanic plume of

text: Mount Erebus

text: on Ross Island, Antarctica are a major contributor to the Antarctic ozone hole.

text: Ozone can also be present in indoor air pollution, partly as a result of electronic equipment such as photocopiers. A connection has also been known to exist between the increased pollen, fungal spores, and ozone caused by thunderstorms and hospital admissions of asthma sufferers.

text: Ozone can also be present in

text: indoor air pollution

text: , partly as a result of electronic equipment such as photocopiers. A connection has also been known to exist between the increased pollen, fungal spores, and ozone caused by thunderstorms and hospital admissions of

text: asthma

text: sufferers.

text: Victor is a French short film released in 1993, written by Nicolas Mercier and François Ozon, starring François Genty, and directed by François Ozon.

text: Victor is a French short film released in

text: , written by Nicolas Mercier and

text: François Ozon

text: , starring

text: François Genty

text: , and directed by

text: François Ozon

text: There was some uncertainty on whether detonating a nuclear weapon at such high altitudes would cause a hole in the ozone layer. After multiple underwater tests there was evidence to show the energy created by the blast would create ozone. Project leads determined some destruction of ozone would occur which would then be replaced by the ozone created from the explosion, it was agreed upon that if this theory were wrong the hole created in the ozone layer would be minuscule enough to cause no harm. Upon completion of Operation Newsreel, it was determined that there was very little evidence of any harm being caused to the natural ozone layer.

text: There was some uncertainty on whether detonating a nuclear weapon at such high altitudes would cause a hole in the

text: ozone layer

text: . After multiple

text: underwater tests

text: there was evidence to show the energy created by the blast would create

text: ozone

text: . Project leads determined some destruction of ozone would occur which would then be replaced by the ozone created from the explosion, it was agreed upon that if this theory were wrong the hole created in the ozone layer would be minuscule enough to cause no harm. Upon completion of Operation Newsreel, it was determined that there was very little evidence of any harm being caused to the natural ozone layer.

text: Rocket launches used for space exploration continue to gain popularity as the human population grows and technology advances toward the future. Large increases in rocket launch demand could come about for a variety of reasons, including national decisions regarding security, space exploration, significant reductions in launch costs, or the emergence of new markets such as space tourism, manufacturing, or solar power. Rocket launches can affect the natural environment, most specifically the composition of the atmosphere as they travel through it. A major environmental problem faced today is the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere by rockets and other molecular species such as chlorofluorocarbons. Up to forty percent of the total ozone present in the wake of a rocket is destroyed from rocket plumes. Ozone concentrations are calculated using ultraviolet and visible light radiometers attached to rockets. Calculations analyzed from these radiometers are where scientists first noticed the depletion of ozone caused by rockets.

text: Rocket launches used for space exploration continue to gain popularity as the human population grows and technology advances toward the future. Large increases in

text: rocket launch

text: demand could come about for a variety of reasons, including

text: national decisions regarding security

text: space exploration

text: , significant reductions in launch costs, or the emergence of new markets such as space tourism, manufacturing, or solar power. Rocket launches can affect the natural environment, most specifically the composition of the atmosphere as they travel through it. A major environmental problem faced today is the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere by rockets and other molecular species such as

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: . Up to forty percent of the total ozone present in the wake of a rocket is destroyed from rocket plumes. Ozone concentrations are calculated using

text: ultraviolet

text: and visible light

text: radiometers

text: attached to rockets. Calculations analyzed from these radiometers are where scientists first noticed the depletion of ozone caused by rockets.

text: Ozone can damage the lungs, causing chest pain, coughing, shortness of breath and throat irritation. It can also worsen chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma and compromise the ability of the body to fight respiratory infections—even in healthy people. People who have asthma and allergy are most prone to the adverse effects of high levels of ozone. For example, increasing ozone concentrations to unsafe levels can increase the risk of asthma attacks.

text: Melting of sea ice releases molecular chlorine, which reacts with UV radiation to produce chlorine radicals. Because chlorine radicals are highly reactive, they can expedite the degradation of methane and tropospheric ozone and the oxidation of mercury to more toxic forms. Ozone production rises during heat waves, because plants absorb less ozone. It is estimated that curtailed ozone absorption by plants is responsible for the loss of 460 lives in the UK in the hot summer of 2006. A similar investigation to assess the joint effects of ozone and heat during the European heat waves in 2003, concluded that these appear to be additive.

text: Melting of

text: sea ice

text: releases molecular

text: chlorine

text: , which reacts with UV radiation to produce chlorine radicals. Because chlorine radicals are highly reactive, they can expedite the degradation of

text: methane

text: and tropospheric ozone and the oxidation of

text: mercury

text: to more toxic forms. Ozone production rises during heat waves, because plants absorb less ozone. It is estimated that curtailed ozone absorption by plants is responsible for the loss of 460 lives in the UK in the hot summer of 2006. A similar investigation to assess the joint effects of ozone and heat during the European heat waves in 2003, concluded that these appear to be additive.

text: The haloalkanes (also known, as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of chemical compounds derived from alkanes containing one or more halogens. They are a subset of the general class of halocarbons, although the distinction is not often made. Haloalkanes are widely used commercially and, consequently, are known under many chemical and commercial names. They are used as flame retardants, fire extinguishants, refrigerants, propellants, solvents, and pharmaceuticals. Subsequent to the widespread use in commerce, many halocarbons have also been shown to be serious pollutants and toxins. For example, the chlorofluorocarbons have been shown to lead to ozone depletion. Methyl bromide is a controversial fumigant. Only haloalkanes which contain chlorine, bromine, and iodine are a threat to the ozone layer, but fluorinated volatile haloalkanes in theory may have activity as greenhouse gases. Methyl iodide, a naturally occurring substance, however, does not have ozone-depleting properties and the United States Environmental Protection Agency has designated the compound a non-ozone layer depleter. For more information, see Halomethane. Haloalkane or alkyl halides are the compounds which have the general formula "RX" where R is an alkyl or substituted alkyl group and X is a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I).

text: The haloalkanes (also known, as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of

text: chemical compound

text: s derived from

text: alkane

text: s containing one or more

text: halogen

text: s. They are a subset of the general class of

text: halocarbon

text: s, although the distinction is not often made. Haloalkanes are widely used commercially and, consequently, are known under many chemical and commercial names. They are used as

text: flame retardants

text: fire extinguishants

text: refrigerant

text: s,

text: propellant

text: s,

text: solvent

text: s, and

text: pharmaceutical

text: s. Subsequent to the widespread use in commerce, many halocarbons have also been shown to be serious

text: pollutant

text: s and toxins. For example, the

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s have been shown to lead to

text: ozone depletion

text: Methyl bromide

text: is a controversial fumigant. Only haloalkanes which contain chlorine, bromine, and iodine are a threat to the

text: ozone layer

text: , but fluorinated volatile haloalkanes in theory may have activity as

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.

text: Methyl iodide

text: , a naturally occurring substance, however, does not have ozone-depleting properties and the United States Environmental Protection Agency has designated the compound a non-ozone layer depleter. For more information, see

text: Halomethane

text: . Haloalkane or alkyl halides are the compounds which have the general formula "RX" where R is an alkyl or substituted alkyl group and X is a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I).

text: Most of the ozone that is destroyed is in the lower stratosphere, in contrast to the much smaller ozone depletion through homogeneous gas phase reactions, which occurs primarily in the upper stratosphere.

text: Susan Solomon, an atmospheric chemist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), proposed that chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused a massive, though localized and seasonal, increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone-destroying forms. The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low temperatures, as low as −80 °C, and early spring conditions. In such conditions the ice crystals of the cloud provide a suitable surface for conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily.

text: Susan Solomon

text: , an atmospheric chemist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), proposed that chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused a massive, though localized and seasonal, increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone-destroying forms. The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low temperatures, as low as −80 °C, and early spring conditions. In such conditions the ice crystals of the cloud provide a suitable surface for conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily.

text: Two years later, Consumer Reports stated that the Quadra could be dangerous to consumers' health, because of the trace levels of ozone produced by the unit.  As a result, sales plummeted, and the stores took back units, even ones that were years old, for a cash refund.  The Sharper Image's response was to work with the Engelhard Corporation and create an ozone catalyst that would reduce the purified air of excess ozone before it circulated throughout the room.

text: Two years later, Consumer Reports stated that the Quadra could be dangerous to consumers' health, because of the trace levels of

text: ozone

text: produced by the unit.  As a result, sales plummeted, and the stores took back units, even ones that were years old, for a cash refund.  The Sharper Image's response was to work with the

text: Engelhard Corporation

text: and create an ozone

text: catalyst

text: that would reduce the purified air of excess ozone before it circulated throughout the room.

text: Despite their effectiveness, chemical fire extinguishing agents are not without disadvantages. In the early 20th century, carbon tetrachloride was extensively used as a dry cleaning solvent, a refrigerant and as a fire extinguishing agent. In time, it was found carbon tetrachloride could lead to severe health effects. From the mid-1960s Halon 1301 was the industry standard for protecting high-value assets from the threat of fire.  Halon 1301 had many benefits as a fire suppression agent; it is fast-acting, safe for assets and required minimal storage space.  Halon 1301's major drawbacks are that it depletes atmospheric ozone and is potentially harmful to humans. Since 1987, some 191 nations have signed The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.  Among these were halogenated hydrocarbons often used in fire suppression. As a result, manufacturers have focused on alternatives to Halon 1301 and Halon 1211 (halogenated hydrocarbons). A number of countries have also taken steps to mandate the removal of installed Halon systems.  Most notably these include Germany and Australia, the first two countries in the world to require this action.  In both of these countries complete removal of installed Halon systems has been completed except for a very few essential-use applications. The European Union is currently undergoing a similar mandated removal of installed Halon systems.

text: Despite their effectiveness, chemical fire extinguishing agents are not without disadvantages. In the early 20th century,

text: carbon tetrachloride

text: was extensively used as a dry cleaning solvent, a refrigerant and as a fire extinguishing agent. In time, it was found carbon tetrachloride could lead to severe health effects. From the mid-1960s

text: Halon 1301

text: was the industry standard for protecting high-value assets from the threat of fire.  Halon 1301 had many benefits as a fire suppression agent; it is fast-acting, safe for assets and required minimal storage space.  Halon 1301's major drawbacks are that it depletes atmospheric

text: ozone

text: and is potentially harmful to humans. Since 1987, some 191 nations have signed The

text: Montreal Protocol

text: on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.  Among these were

text: halogenated hydrocarbons

text: often used in fire suppression. As a result, manufacturers have focused on alternatives to Halon 1301 and Halon 1211 (halogenated hydrocarbons). A number of countries have also taken steps to mandate the removal of installed Halon systems.  Most notably these include Germany and Australia, the first two countries in the world to require this action.  In both of these countries complete removal of installed Halon systems has been completed except for a very few essential-use applications. The

text: European Union

text: is currently undergoing a similar mandated removal of installed Halon systems.

text: <blockquote>We, the presidents, rectors, and vice chancellors of universities from all regions of the world are deeply concerned about the unprecedented scale and speed of environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural resources. Local, regional, and global air pollution; accumulation and distribution of toxic wastes; destruction and depletion of forests, soil, and water; depletion of the ozone layer and emission of "green house" gases threaten the survival of humans and thousands of other living species, the integrity of the earth and its biodiversity, the security of nations, and the heritage of future generations. These environmental changes are caused by inequitable and unsustainable production and consumption patterns that aggravate poverty in many regions of the world.

text: The first ever gas powered airsoft guns were commonly referred to as "classic" guns, owing to their age. These guns were most commonly powered by liquid propellants such as R-12 (which was marketed by the Japanese as FLON-12 or DuPont tradename Freon 12) CFC feeding system with a majority of the configurations containing two tanks, one containing the R-12 and one used as an expansion tank, and the gun itself.  R-12 was a commonly used refrigerant for car air conditioning and refrigerators, and is considered a highly potent ozone-depleting substance and listed as a Class I Ozone Depleting Substance by the US EPA.  Its use as a general purpose aerosol propellant has been banned by the US EPA since March 1978 under 43 FR 11301 for use in aerosol use with a very few exceptions.  Its use is also banned in many countries under United Nations treaties.  On Dec 31, 2008, the use of CFCs for medical inhalers were banned.

text: The first ever gas powered airsoft guns were commonly referred to as "classic" guns, owing to their age. These guns were most commonly powered by liquid propellants such as

text: (which was marketed by the Japanese as FLON-12 or

text: DuPont

text: tradename Freon 12)

text: CFC

text: feeding system with a majority of the configurations containing two tanks, one containing the R-12 and one used as an expansion tank, and the gun itself.  R-12 was a commonly used refrigerant for car air conditioning and refrigerators, and is considered a highly potent ozone-depleting substance and listed as a Class I Ozone Depleting Substance by the US EPA.  Its use as a general purpose aerosol propellant has been banned by the US EPA since March 1978 under 43 FR 11301 for use in aerosol use with a very few exceptions.  Its use is also banned in many countries under United Nations treaties.  On Dec 31, 2008, the use of CFCs for medical inhalers were banned.

text: There is a discrepancy between what behaviour consumers think is socially and environmentally sustainable and what behaviour actually is. For instance, many people in the U.S. limit their use of spray cans as they want to minimize their contribution to the impact on the ozone layer. Their behaviour is not environmentally significant because the substances that affect the ozone layer have already been banned in the U.S. long ago.  This can be due to consumers’ lack of knowledge about general environmental impacts of consumption.

text: There is a discrepancy between what behaviour consumers think is socially and environmentally sustainable and what behaviour actually is. For instance, many people in the U.S. limit their use of spray cans as they want to minimize their contribution to the impact on the

text: ozone layer

text: . Their behaviour is not environmentally significant because the substances that affect the ozone layer have already been banned in the U.S. long ago.  This can be due to consumers’ lack of knowledge about general environmental impacts of consumption.

text: Its ozone depletion potential (ODP) is 1.0 and it is included in list of Class I Ozone-Depleting Substances.

text: Its

text: ozone depletion potential

text: (ODP) is 1.0 and it is included in list of Class I Ozone-Depleting Substances.

text: Ozone is most commonly created by a process called “corona discharge”, which causes oxygen molecules (O) to temporarily re-combine into ozone (O). This gas is very unstable, and the 3rd oxygen molecule reacts with pathogens by penetrating the cell walls of bacteria and viruses. This destroys the organisms.

text: Ozone amounts over the continental United States (25°N to 49°N) are highest in the northern spring (April and May). These ozone amounts fall over the course of the summer to their lowest amounts in October, and then rise again over the course of the winter. Again, wind transport of ozone is principally responsible for the seasonal changes of these higher latitude ozone patterns.

text: The depletion of the ozone layer over the South Pole has been reported as being responsible for blindness and skin cancer in sheep in Tierra del Fuego, and concerns for human health and ecosystems.

text: The depletion of the

text: ozone layer

text: over the

text: South Pole

text: has been reported as being responsible for blindness and skin cancer in sheep in Tierra del Fuego, and concerns for human health and ecosystems.

text: Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) — 0

text: Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) — 0

text: Ozone layer depletion: Gas dusters sold in many countries are ozone safe as they use "zero ODP" (zero ozone depletion potential) gases; tetrafluoroethane, for example, has insignificant ODP. This is a separate issue from the global warming concern.

text: Ozone layer

text: depletion: Gas dusters sold in many countries are

text: ozone

text: safe as they use "zero ODP" (zero

text: ozone depletion potential

text: ) gases; tetrafluoroethane, for example, has insignificant ODP. This is a separate issue from the global warming concern.

text: Rowland performed many measurements of the atmosphere. One experiment included collecting air samples at various cities and locations around the globe to determine CClF North-South mixing. By measuring the concentrations at different latitudes, Rowland was able to see that CClF was mixing between hemispheres quite rapidly. The same measurement was repeated 8 years later and the results showed a steady increase in CClF concentrations. Rowland's work also showed how the density of the ozone layer varied by season increasing in November and decreasing until April where it levels out for the summer only to increase in November. Data gained throughout successive years showed that although the pattern was consistent, the overall ozone levels were dropping. Rowland  and his colleagues interacted both with the public and the political side and suggested various solutions, which allowd to step wise reduce the CFC impact. CFC emissions were regulated first within Canada, the United States, Sweden and Norway. In the 1980s, the Vienna Agreement and the Montreal Protocol allowed for global regulation.

text: Excessive ozone levels can occur due to industrial activities; nearby Houston is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States. The industries located along the ship channel and the bay are a major cause of the pollution.

text: Excessive

text: ozone

text: levels can occur due to industrial activities; nearby Houston is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States. The industries located along the ship channel and the bay are a major cause of the pollution.

text: An increasingly important environmental concern is the disposal of old refrigerators— initially because freon coolant damages the ozone layer—but as older generation refrigerators wear out, the destruction of CFC-bearing insulation also causes concern. Modern refrigerators usually use a refrigerant called HFC-134a (1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane), which does not deplete the ozone layer, instead of Freon. A R-134a is now becoming very uncommon in Europe. Newer refrigerants are being used instead. The main refrigerant now used is R-600a, or isobutane. This refrigerant is naturally occurring, and has a smaller effect on the atmosphere if released. There have been reports of refrigerators exploding if the refrigerant leaks gas in the presence of a spark.

text: An increasingly important environmental concern is the disposal of old refrigerators— initially because freon coolant damages the

text: ozone layer

text: —but as older generation refrigerators wear out, the destruction of CFC-bearing insulation also causes concern. Modern refrigerators usually use a refrigerant called HFC-134a (

text: ), which does not deplete the ozone layer, instead of Freon. A R-134a is now becoming very uncommon in Europe. Newer refrigerants are being used instead. The main refrigerant now used is R-600a, or

text: isobutane

text: . This refrigerant is naturally occurring, and has a smaller effect on the atmosphere if released. There have been reports of refrigerators exploding if the refrigerant leaks gas in the presence of a spark.

text: Ozonia North America also opened a new facility in Leonia, New Jersey, to address the growing ozone and UV markets in North America.

text: On a global scale today, rockets have a negligible impact on destruction of the ozone layer. With the increase in rocket launches predicted to occur in the future, rockets may have a larger impact on the ozone layer. It is important to consider changes in fuel sources to minimize the effects. Advancements have been made to make liquid rocket fuel non nitrogen-based to reduce the effects of nitric oxide caused ozone loss. Using chlorine-free rocket fuel is another future approach to help eliminate the effect of chlorine radicals destroying ozone. Chlorine is shown to cause the most damage to the ozone layer from rocket fuel as well as overall due to it being used in a catalytic cycle of destruction. Eliminating chlorine from rocket fuel could have a large impact on protecting the ozone layer from future rocket launches. Solid fueled rockets contribute negligibly to ozone depletion on a global scale due to the understanding of its harmful affects on the ozone layer. With the increasing abundance of space exploration, the use of these solid fueled rockets should be taken into consideration, as they will increase the impact on the global ozone layer. Solid rocket motors cause over sixty times more damage to the ozone layer compared to liquid rocket engines. It is shown to be more efficient to use liquid rocket fueled compared to the traditionally used solid rocket fuel. Rocket emissions have remained unregulated. Rocket launches will continue to increase in abundance into the future and will cause future problems when it comes to the earth’s precious ozone layer.  The chlorine-free rocket fuels will help decrease the destruction of ozone molecules in the atmosphere due to rocket launches.

text: On a global scale today, rockets have a negligible impact on destruction of the ozone layer. With the increase in rocket launches predicted to occur in the future, rockets may have a larger impact on the ozone layer. It is important to consider changes in fuel sources to minimize the effects. Advancements have been made to make liquid rocket fuel non nitrogen-based to reduce the effects of

text: nitric oxide

text: caused ozone loss. Using chlorine-free rocket fuel is another future approach to help eliminate the effect of chlorine radicals destroying ozone.

text: Chlorine

text: Because the only CFCs available to countries adhering to the treaty is from recycling, their prices have increased considerably. A worldwide end to production should also terminate the smuggling of this material. However, there are current CFC smuggling issues, as recognized by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) in a 2006 report titled "Illegal Trade in Ozone Depleting Substances". UNEP estimates that between 16,000–38,000 tonnes of CFCs passed through the black market in the mid-1990s. The report estimated between 7,000 and 14,000 tonnes of CFCs are smuggled annually into developing countries. Asian countries are those with the most smuggling; as of 2007, China, India and South Korea were found to account for around 70% of global CFC production, South Korea later to ban CFC production in 2010. Possible reasons for continued CFC smuggling were also examined: the report noted that many banned CFC producing products have long lifespans and continue to operate. The cost of replacing the equipment of these items is sometimes cheaper than outfitting them with a more ozone-friendly appliance. Additionally, CFC smuggling is not considered a significant issue, so the perceived penalties for smuggling are low. While the eventual phaseout of CFCs is likely, efforts are being taken to stem these current non-compliance problems.

text: Because the only CFCs available to countries adhering to the treaty is from recycling, their prices have increased considerably. A worldwide end to production should also terminate the smuggling of this material. However, there are current CFC smuggling issues, as recognized by the

text: United Nations Environmental Programme

text: On July 25, 2010, the song "Done" was released by Ozone Entertainment as downloadable content on the Rock Band Network for Xbox 360.  On August 3, 2011, the first Rock Band mashup song "American Hero vs. Done" mixed by Robin Skouteris and featuring Ron Wasserman and The Giraffes was also released by Ozone Entertainment as downloadable content on the Rock Band Network for Xbox 360.

text: On July 25, 2010, the song "Done" was released by Ozone Entertainment as

text: downloadable content

text: on the

text: Rock Band Network

text: for

text: Xbox 360

text: .  On August 3, 2011, the first

text: Rock Band

text: mashup song "American Hero vs. Done" mixed by Robin Skouteris and featuring

text: Ron Wasserman

text: and

text: The Giraffes

text: was also released by Ozone Entertainment as

text: downloadable content

text: on the

text: Rock Band Network

text: for

text: Xbox 360

text: There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made. Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere, thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse.  However, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories, while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed. Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies, for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information. While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion, in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halocarbons, which are held responsible for ozone depletion, are important greenhouse gasses. Furthermore, natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect.

text: There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made. Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere, thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse.  However, the

text: and the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: that amended it are seen as success stories, while the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed. Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies, for example with regard to

text: data reporting

text: and policy design and further exchanging of information. While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion, in fact ozone and chemicals such as

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) and other

text: halocarbon

text: s, which are held responsible for ozone depletion, are important

text: greenhouse gas

text: ses. Furthermore, natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect.

text: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS) are mainly responsible for man-made chemical ozone depletion. The total amount of effective halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the stratosphere can be calculated and are known as the equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC).

text: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halogenated ozone depleting substances (ODS) are mainly responsible for man-made chemical ozone depletion. The total amount of effective halogens (chlorine and bromine) in the stratosphere can be calculated and are known as the

entity_name: Equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine

text: equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine

text: (EESC).

text: One widely adopted replacement refrigerant is the hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) known as R-134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane). Heat pumps using R-134a replaced R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) and have similar thermodynamic properties but with insignificant ozone depletion potential and a somewhat lower global warming potential. Other substances such as liquid R-717 ammonia are widely used in large-scale systems, or occasionally the less corrosive but more flammable propane or butane, can also be used.

text: One widely adopted replacement refrigerant is the hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) known as

text: (1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane). Heat pumps using R-134a replaced

text: (dichlorodifluoromethane) and have similar thermodynamic properties but with insignificant

text: ozone depletion potential

text: and a somewhat lower

text: global warming potential

text: . Other substances such as liquid R-717

text: ammonia

text: are widely used in large-scale systems, or occasionally the less corrosive but more flammable

text: propane

text: or

text: butane

text: , can also be used.

text: Ozone is effective against pollutants for the same reason; it will react with long-chain carbon (organic) molecules, and break them down into less complex (and typically less harmful) molecules through oxidation.

text: The process of ozone creation and destruction is called the Chapman cycle and starts with the photolysis of molecular oxygen

text: The process of ozone creation and destruction is called the

text: Chapman cycle

text: and starts with the photolysis of molecular oxygen

text: UNEP banned the use of Halon gases in the Montreal Protocol treaty in 1987 due to the Ozone depletion and the Ozone depleting effect of Halon gases.The development countries were granted with extension in their permit to still be using Halon until 2010. It is after 2010 considered important by UNEP that also the development countries replace their Halon with Ozone friendly alternatives according to the signed treaty.

text: UNEP

text: banned the use of Halon gases in the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: treaty in 1987 due to the

text: Ozone depletion

text: and the Ozone depleting effect of Halon gases.The development countries were granted with extension in their permit to still be using

text: Halon

text: until 2010. It is after 2010 considered important by

text: UNEP

text: that also the development countries replace their Halon with Ozone friendly alternatives according to the signed treaty.

text: In 1916 Arthur Dempster showed that H gas was unstable, but at the same time also confirmed that the cation existed. In 1917 Gerald Wendt and William Duane discovered that hydrogen gas subjected to alpha particles shrank in volume and thought that diatomic hydrogen was converted to triatomic. After this researchers thought that active hydrogen could be the triatomic form. Joseph Lévine went so far as to postulate that low pressure systems on the Earth happened due to triatomic hydrogen high in the atmosphere.In 1920 Wendt and Landauer named the substance "Hyzone" in analogy to ozone and its extra reactivity over normal hydrogen. Earlier Gottfried Wilhelm Osann believed he had discovered a form of hydrogen analogous to ozone which he called "Ozonwasserstoff". It was made by electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid. In those days no one knew that ozone was triatomic so he did not announce triatomic hydrogen. This was later shown to be a mixture with sulfur dioxide, and not a new form of hydrogen.

text: In 1916

text: Arthur Dempster

text: showed that H gas was unstable, but at the same time also confirmed that the cation existed. In 1917

text: Gerald Wendt

text: and

text: William Duane

text: discovered that hydrogen gas subjected to

text: alpha particles

text: shrank in volume and thought that diatomic hydrogen was converted to triatomic. After this researchers thought that

text: active hydrogen

text: could be the triatomic form.

text: Joseph Lévine

text: went so far as to postulate that low pressure systems on the Earth happened due to triatomic hydrogen high in the atmosphere.In 1920 Wendt and Landauer named the substance "Hyzone" in analogy to

text: ozone

text: and its extra reactivity over normal hydrogen. Earlier Gottfried Wilhelm Osann believed he had discovered a form of hydrogen analogous to ozone which he called "Ozonwasserstoff". It was made by electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid. In those days no one knew that ozone was triatomic so he did not announce triatomic hydrogen. This was later shown to be a mixture with sulfur dioxide, and not a new form of hydrogen.

text: These phenomena can be effected from other principles and applied conditions in electrolysis. In this process and during the production of ozone, a penetrating smell of ozone in the region of the reactor outlet is clear. By continuing this process and maintaining stable conditions, production of ozone can be continued up to the maximum dissolution of ozone in water. The solubility of ozone in 20˚C water is 570 mg per liter and 1050 mg per liter in water at zero degree Celsius. In the next stage, with little change in reaction conditions and the voltage and potential level, hydrogen peroxide is produced.It should be noted that for producing ozone and hydrogen peroxide, there are different half reactions with different levels of reduction potential and in practice each of them may occur.

text: The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) is on board the NASA Aura. OMI can distinguish between aerosol types, such as smoke, dust, and sulfates, and can measure cloud pressure and coverage, which provide data to derive tropospheric ozone. OMI follows in the heritage of TOMS, SBUV, GOME, SCIAMACHY, and GOMOS. It is a wide-field-imaging spectrometer with a 114° across-track viewing angle range that provides a 2600 km wide swath, enabling measurements with a daily global coverage. OMI is continuing the TOMS record for total ozone and other atmospheric parameters related to ozone chemistry and climate.

text: The Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) is on board the

text: NASA

text: Aura

text: . OMI can distinguish between aerosol types, such as smoke, dust, and

text: sulfates

text: , and can measure cloud pressure and coverage, which provide data to derive

text: tropospheric ozone

text: . OMI follows in the heritage of

text: TOMS

text: , SBUV, GOME,

text: SCIAMACHY

text: , and

entity_name: Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultation of Stars

text: GOMOS

text: . It is a wide-field-imaging spectrometer with a 114° across-track viewing angle range that provides a 2600 km wide swath, enabling measurements with a daily global coverage. OMI is continuing the TOMS record for total ozone and other atmospheric parameters related to ozone chemistry and climate.

text: Poisonous bromomethane was widely used as pesticide to fumigate soil and to fumigate housing, by the tenting method. Ethylene bromide was similarly used. These volatile organobromine compounds are all now regulated as ozone depletion agents. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer scheduled the phase out for the ozone depleting chemical by 2005, and organobromide pesticides are no longer used (in housing fumagation they have been replaced by such compounds as sulfuryl fluoride, which contain neither the chlorine or bromine organics which harm ozone). Before the Montreal protocol in 1991 (for example) an estimated 35,000 tonnes of the chemical were used to control nematodes, fungi, weeds and other soil-borne diseases.

text: Poisonous

text: bromomethane

text: was widely used as

text: pesticide

text: to

text: fumigate

text: soil and to fumigate housing, by the tenting method. Ethylene bromide was similarly used. These volatile organobromine compounds are all now regulated as

text: ozone depletion

text: agents. The

text: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

text: scheduled the phase out for the

text: ozone depleting

text: chemical by 2005, and organobromide pesticides are no longer used (in housing fumagation they have been replaced by such compounds as

text: sulfuryl fluoride

text: , which contain neither the chlorine or bromine organics which harm ozone). Before the Montreal protocol in 1991 (for example) an estimated 35,000 tonnes of the chemical were used to control

text: nematode

text: s,

text: fungi

text: weed

text: s and other soil-borne diseases.

text: The Vienna Conference was the first international conference on ozone layer depletion. It was held in Vienna, Austria in 1985 when a hole in the stratospheric ozone layer was observed in the South Pole marked by increased UV-B infiltration over Antarctica. A 'hole', marked by significant drop in ozone molecules in the layer, as large as that of United States was discovered by a British team.  The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was agreed at the conference and it entered into force in 1987.

text: The Vienna Conference was the first international conference on

text: ozone layer depletion

text: . It was held in

text: Vienna, Austria

text: in 1985 when a hole in the stratospheric ozone layer was observed in the South Pole marked by increased UV-B infiltration over Antarctica. A 'hole', marked by significant drop in ozone molecules in the layer, as large as that of United States was discovered by a British team.  The

text: was agreed at the conference and it entered into force in 1987.

text: A statistical study of 95 large urban communities in the United States found significant association between ozone levels and premature death. The study estimated that a one-third reduction in urban ozone concentrations would save roughly 4000 lives per year (Bell et al., 2004). Tropospheric Ozone causes approximately 22,000 premature deaths per year in 25 countries in the European Union. (WHO, 2008)

text: Long-term exposure to ozone has been shown to increase risk of death from respiratory illness. A study of 450,000 people living in United States cities saw a significant correlation between ozone levels and respiratory illness over the 18-year follow-up period. The study revealed that people living in cities with high ozone levels, such as Houston or Los Angeles, had an over 30% increased risk of dying from lung disease.

text: Long-term exposure to ozone has been shown to increase risk of death from

text: respiratory illness

text: . A study of 450,000 people living in United States cities saw a significant correlation between ozone levels and respiratory illness over the 18-year follow-up period. The study revealed that people living in cities with high ozone levels, such as Houston or Los Angeles, had an over 30% increased risk of dying from lung disease.

text: Ozone production rises during heat waves, because plants absorb less ozone. It is estimated that curtailed ozone absorption by plants was responsible for the loss of 460 lives in the UK in the hot summer of 2006. A similar investigation to assess the joint effects of ozone and heat during the European heat waves in 2003, concluded that these appear to be additive.

text: Of course, since it wouldn't comply with regime policy of Slobodan Milošević they were banned and there were often attempts to shut  down the station and arrest staff. Federal inspector for radio communications, assisted by the police, forbade work of Ozon Radio on November 29, 1996. Five-day protests followed at the town square in Cacak where from 3000 to 5000 people gathered day after day. To people's insisting Ozon continued programs broadcasting.

text: Of course, since it wouldn't comply with regime policy of

text: Slobodan Milošević

text: they were banned and there were often attempts to shut  down the station and arrest staff. Federal inspector for radio communications, assisted by the police, forbade work of Ozon Radio on November 29, 1996. Five-day protests followed at the town square in Cacak where from 3000 to 5000 people gathered day after day. To people's insisting Ozon continued programs broadcasting.

text: The stratospheric injection of sulfate aerosols would cause the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer to be applicable, due to their possible deleterious effects on stratospheric ozone. That treaty generally obligates its Parties to enact policies to control activities which "have or are likely to have adverse effects resulting from modification or likely modification of the ozone layer." The Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention prohibits the production of certain ozone depleting substances, via phase outs. Sulfates are presently not among the prohibited substances.

text: The stratospheric injection of sulfate aerosols would cause the

text: to be applicable, due to their possible deleterious effects on stratospheric ozone. That treaty generally obligates its Parties to enact policies to control activities which "have or are likely to have adverse effects resulting from modification or likely modification of the ozone layer." The

text: Montreal Protocol

text: to the Vienna Convention prohibits the production of certain ozone depleting substances, via phase outs. Sulfates are presently not among the prohibited substances.

text: Environmental indicators are simple measures that tell us what is happening in the environment. Since the environment is very complex, indicators provide a more practical and economical way to track the state of the environment than if we attempted to record every possible variable in the environment. For example, concentrations of ozone depleting substances (ODS) in the atmosphere, tracked over time, is a good indicator with respect to the environmental issue of stratospheric ozone depletion..

text: Environmental indicators are simple measures that tell us what is happening in the

text: environment

text: . Since the environment is very complex, indicators provide a more practical and economical way to track the state of the environment than if we attempted to record every possible variable in the environment. For example, concentrations of ozone depleting substances (ODS) in the atmosphere, tracked over time, is a good indicator with respect to the

text: environmental issue

text: of stratospheric ozone depletion..

text: Nowadays, the study of geophysics is less present in the base. Nonetheless, several tools are still in use, notably  a tide gauge, a cosmic rays detector, a GPS to measure the dip of the Antarctica into the Upper Mantle, and a lidar, which allows the analysis of the ozone depletion and the ozone holes.

text: Nowadays, the study of geophysics is less present in the base. Nonetheless, several tools are still in use, notably  a tide gauge, a cosmic rays detector, a GPS to measure the dip of the Antarctica into the Upper Mantle, and a

text: lidar

text: , which allows the analysis of the ozone depletion and the ozone holes.

text: In the House () is a 2012 French mystery drama directed by François Ozon. The film's screenplay by Ozon is based on Juan Mayorga's play El chico de la última fila (The Boy in the Last Row).

text: In the House () is a 2012 French

text: mystery

text: drama

text: directed by

text: François Ozon

text: . The film's screenplay by Ozon is based on

text: Juan Mayorga

text: 's play El chico de la última fila (The Boy in the Last Row).

text: 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane, or R-114, also known as cryofluorane (INN), is a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) with the molecular formula ClFCCFCl.  Its primary use has been as a refrigerant.  It is a non-flammable gas with a sweetish, chloroform-like odor with the critical point occurring at 145.6 °C and 3.26 MPa.  When pressurized or cooled, it is a colorless liquid.  It is listed on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's list of ozone depleting chemicals, and is classified as a Montreal Protocol Class I, group 1 ozone depleting substance.

text: 1,2-Dichlorotetrafluoroethane, or R-114, also known as cryofluorane (

text: INN

text: ), is a

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: (CFC) with the molecular formula ClFCCFCl.  Its primary use has been as a

text: refrigerant

text: .  It is a non-flammable gas with a sweetish,

text: chloroform

text: -like odor with the

text: critical point

text: occurring at 145.6 °C and 3.26 MPa.  When pressurized or cooled, it is a colorless liquid.  It is listed on the

text: 's list of ozone depleting chemicals, and is classified as a

text: Montreal Protocol

text: Class I, group 1 ozone depleting substance.

text: As part of the restructuring, the GEF was entrusted to become the financial mechanism for both the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. In partnership with the Montreal Protocol of the Vienna Convention on Ozone Layer Depleting Substances, the GEF started funding projects that enable the Russian Federation and nations in Eastern Europe and Central Asia to phase out their use of ozone-destroying chemicals.

text: Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the slant-path thickness and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth’s surface. UV-driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.

text: Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer

text: decreases exponentially

text: with the slant-path thickness and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth’s surface. UV-driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.

text: The Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) maintains air and atmospheric measurement equipment at Troll. Combined with a similar measuring station, Zeppelin in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, Norway. This allows the institute to collect such data from both polar regions. In particular, the facility measures aerosols, organic and inorganic pollution, ozone and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. NILU also creates air samples annually to generate data for trend analysis. The weekly air pollution measurements are compared to equivalent measurements at Zeppelin. Ground measurements are taken of ozone and mercury, two of the greatest pollution threats in the polar regions. Stratosphere measurements are conducted to measure ozone and UV levels, in particular to gain additional information about ozone depletion and the Antarctic ozone hole.

text: The

text: Norwegian Institute for Air Research

text: (NILU) maintains air and atmospheric measurement equipment at Troll. Combined with a similar measuring station,

text: Zeppelin

text: in

text: Ny-Ålesund

text: Svalbard

text: , Norway. This allows the institute to collect such data from both polar regions. In particular, the facility measures

text: aerosol

text: s, organic and inorganic pollution,

text: ozone

text: and

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) radiation. NILU also creates air samples annually to generate data for

text: trend analysis

text: . The weekly air pollution measurements are compared to equivalent measurements at Zeppelin. Ground measurements are taken of ozone and

text: mercury

text: , two of the greatest pollution threats in the polar regions.

text: Stratosphere

text: measurements are conducted to measure ozone and UV levels, in particular to gain additional information about

text: ozone depletion

text: and the Antarctic ozone hole.

text: The eruption had a significant effect on ozone levels in the atmosphere, causing a large increase in the destruction rate of ozone.  Ozone levels at mid-latitudes reached their lowest recorded levels, while in the southern hemisphere winter of 1992, the ozone hole over Antarctica reached its largest ever size until then, with the fastest recorded ozone depletion rates.  The eruption of Mount Hudson in Chile in August 1991 also contributed to southern hemisphere ozone destruction, with measurements showing a sharp decrease in ozone levels at the tropopause when the aerosol clouds from Pinatubo and Hudson arrived.

text: The eruption had a significant effect on

text: ozone

text: levels in the atmosphere, causing a large increase in the destruction rate of ozone.  Ozone levels at mid-latitudes reached their lowest recorded levels, while in the

text: southern hemisphere

text: winter of 1992, the

text: ozone hole

text: over

text: Antarctica

text: reached its largest ever size until then, with the fastest recorded ozone depletion rates.  The eruption of

text: Mount Hudson

text: in

text: Chile

text: in August 1991 also contributed to southern hemisphere ozone destruction, with measurements showing a sharp decrease in ozone levels at the

text: tropopause

text: when the aerosol clouds from Pinatubo and Hudson arrived.

text: Ozone depletion: Increased UV-B radiation reaching the Earth would pose risks to human health and the environment. In response, countries negotiated and adopted the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in 1985, and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987. The GEF supports projects in developing countries and countries with economies in transition (CEITs) that are not eligible for funding under the Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol, to implement activities to phase out ozone depleting substances (ODS) in a manner consistent with these countries’ obligations under the Montreal Protocol.

text: Ozone depletion

text: : Increased

text: UV-B

text: radiation reaching the Earth would pose risks to human health and the environment. In response, countries negotiated and adopted the

text: in 1985, and the

text: in 1987. The GEF supports projects in developing countries and countries with economies in transition (CEITs) that are not eligible for funding under the Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol, to implement activities to phase out ozone depleting substances (ODS) in a manner consistent with these countries’ obligations under the Montreal Protocol.

text: In middle latitudes, it is more accurate to speak of ozone depletion rather than holes. Total column ozone declined to about six percent below pre-1980 values between 1980 and 1996 for the mid-latitudes of 35–60°N and 35–60°S. In the northern mid-latitudes, it then increased from the minimum value by about two percent from 1996 to 2009 as regulations took effect and the amount of chlorine in the stratosphere decreased. In the Southern Hemisphere's mid-latitudes, total ozone remained constant over that time period.  In the tropics, there are no significant trends, largely because halogen-containing compounds have not yet had time to break down and release chlorine and bromine atoms at tropical latitudes.

text: Even before the Nimbus satellites began collecting their observations of Earth's ozone layer, scientists had some understanding of the processes that maintained or destroyed it. They were pretty sure they understood how the layer formed, and they knew from laboratory experiments that halogens could destroy ozone. Finally, weather balloons had revealed that the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere changed over time, and scientists suspected weather phenomena or seasonal change were responsible. But how all of these pieces of information worked together on a global scale was still unclear.

text: Even before the Nimbus satellites began collecting their observations of Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: , scientists had some understanding of the processes that maintained or destroyed it. They were pretty sure they understood how the layer formed, and they knew from laboratory experiments that

text: halogen

text: s could destroy

text: ozone

text: . Finally,

text: weather balloon

text: s had revealed that the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere changed over time, and scientists suspected weather phenomena or seasonal change were responsible. But how all of these pieces of information worked together on a global scale was still unclear.

text: Ozone depletion is the reduced concentration of ozone in the Earth's stratosphere (called the ozone layer), where it serves to block much of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which were used beginning in the 1930s in a number of important areas, were determined in 1974 to be responsible for much of the depletion of the ozone layer. Four years later, the EPA and FDA banned CFCs in aerosol cans. As research in the 1980s indicated that the problem was worse than before, and revealed a controversial massive hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica, three international agreements were made to reduce the ozone-damaging substances- the Vienna Convention, the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and a third agreement in 1990 in London. In the United States, the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments phased out production of CFCs and required recycling of CFC products.

text: Ozone depletion

text: is the reduced concentration of

text: ozone

text: in the Earth's

text: stratosphere

text: (called the ozone layer), where it serves to block much of the

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: from the

text: sun

text: Chlorofluorocarbons

text: (CFCs), which were used beginning in the 1930s in a number of important areas, were determined in 1974 to be responsible for much of the depletion of the ozone layer. Four years later, the EPA and

text: FDA

text: banned CFCs in aerosol cans. As research in the 1980s indicated that the problem was worse than before, and revealed a controversial massive hole in the ozone layer over

text: Antarctica

text: , three international agreements were made to reduce the ozone-damaging substances- the

text: Vienna Convention

text: , the 1987

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , and a third agreement in 1990 in London. In the United States, the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments phased out production of CFCs and required recycling of CFC products.

text: The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not harm the ozone layer). Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O) For a table of ozone-depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol see:

text: The treaty is structured around several groups of

text: halogenated hydrocarbon

text: s that deplete stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol contain either

text: chlorine

text: or

text: bromine

text: (substances containing only

text: fluorine

text: do not harm the ozone layer). Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O) For a table of ozone-depleting substances controlled by the Montreal Protocol see:

text: The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased surface UV radiation on human health. So far, ozone depletion in most locations has been typically a few percent and, as noted above, no direct evidence of health damage is available in most latitudes. If the high levels of depletion seen in the ozone hole were to be common across the globe, the effects could be substantially more dramatic. As the ozone hole over Antarctica has in some instances grown so large as to affect parts of Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Argentina, and South Africa, environmentalists have been concerned that the increase in surface UV could be significant.

text: The main public concern regarding the ozone hole has been the effects of increased surface UV radiation on human health. So far, ozone depletion in most locations has been typically a few percent and, as noted above, no direct evidence of health damage is available in most latitudes. If the high levels of depletion seen in the ozone hole were to be common across the globe, the effects could be substantially more dramatic. As the ozone hole over Antarctica has in some instances grown so large as to affect parts of

text: Australia

text: New Zealand

text: Chile

text: Argentina

text: , and

text: South Africa

text: , environmentalists have been concerned that the increase in surface UV could be significant.

text: Brian Gerard Gardiner is a retired British meteorologist, formerly working for the British Antarctic Survey. Together with Joe Farman and Jonathan Shanklin he discovered the "Ozone Hole". Their results were first published on May 16, 1985.

text: Brian Gerard Gardiner is a retired British

text: meteorologist

text: , formerly working for the

text: British Antarctic Survey

text: . Together with

text: Joe Farman

text: and

text: Jonathan Shanklin

text: he discovered the

text: "Ozone Hole"

text: . Their results were first published on May 16, 1985.

text: Mario Molina joined the lab of Professor F. Sherwood Rowland in 1973 as a postdoctoral fellow. Here, Molina continued Rowland's pioneering research into "hot atom" chemistry, which is the study of chemical properties of atoms with, and only with, excess translational energy owing to radioactive processes. This study soon led to research into chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which had been accumulating in the atmosphere. Rowland and Molina had investigated other compounds similar to CFCs before, and together they developed the CFC ozone depletion theory. Molina tried to figure out how CFCs might be destroyed in the lower atmosphere, but nothing seemed to work. He and Rowland knew that if CFCs released into the atmosphere do not decay by other processes, they continually rise to higher altitudes until they are destroyed by solar radiation. They discovered that chlorine atoms, produced by the decomposition of CFCs, catalytically destroy ozone. Rowland and Molina published their findings in Nature on June 28, 1974, and also made an effort to announce their findings outside of the scientific community, informing policy makers and the news media of their work. Attesting to the continuing importance of their discovery, to this day there are still laws that protect the ozone layer by regulating the use of CFCs.

text: Nature

text: on June 28, 1974, and also made an effort to announce their findings outside of the scientific community, informing policy makers and the news media of their work. Attesting to the continuing importance of their discovery, to this day there are still laws that protect the ozone layer by regulating the use of CFCs.

text: Sheldon Ungar, a Canadian sociologist, assumes that while the quantity of specialized knowledge is exploding, in contrast scientific ignorance among lay people is the norm and even increasing. Public opinion failed to tie climate change to concrete events which could be used as a threshold or beacon to signify immediate danger. Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of  to  over several decades do not resonate with people, for example in North America, who experience similar swings during a single day. As scientists define global warming as a problem of the future, a liability in the "attention economy", pessimistic outlooks in general and the attribution of extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed in the public arena (compare the Gore effect). Even when James Hansen tried to use the 1988–89 North American drought as a call to action, scientists kept stating, in line with the IPCC findings, that even extreme weather is not climate. While the greenhouse effect, per se, is essential for life on earth, the case was quite different with the ozone hole and other metaphors about ozone depletion. The scientific assessment of the ozone problem also had large uncertainties; both the ozone content of the upper atmosphere and its depletion are complicated to measure and the link between ozone depletion and rates of enhanced skin cancer is rather weak. But the metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) resonated better with lay people and their concerns.

text: Sheldon Ungar, a Canadian sociologist, assumes that while the quantity of specialized knowledge is exploding, in contrast scientific ignorance among lay people is the norm and even increasing. Public opinion failed to tie climate change to concrete events which could be used as a threshold or beacon to signify immediate danger. Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of  to  over several decades do not resonate with people, for example in North America, who experience similar swings during a single day. As scientists define global warming as a problem of the future, a liability in the "attention economy", pessimistic outlooks in general and the attribution of extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed in the public arena (compare the

text: Gore effect

text: ). Even when

text: James Hansen

text: tried to use the

text: 1988–89 North American drought

text: as a call to action, scientists kept stating, in line with the IPCC findings, that even extreme weather is not climate. While the greenhouse effect, per se, is essential for life on earth, the case was quite different with the

text: ozone hole

text: and other metaphors about ozone depletion. The scientific assessment of the ozone problem also had large uncertainties; both the ozone content of the upper atmosphere and its depletion are complicated to measure and the link between ozone depletion and rates of enhanced skin cancer is rather weak. But the metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) resonated better with lay people and their concerns.

text: Defining this agreement as a CAC approach is slightly problematic as the agreement does not directly instruct states how to meet their targets. However, the aim of the Montreal Protocol has been to eliminate the source of CFC emissions, as a result the only really feasible way for a state to achieve this would be through a ban on substances related to Ozone depletion. Montreal is considered by some to be a 'special case' of a successful CAC approach.

text: Bromomethane is readily photolyzed in the atmosphere to release elemental bromine, which is far more destructive to stratospheric ozone than chlorine. As such, it is subject to phase-out requirements of the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances.

text: Bromomethane is readily

text: photolyzed

text: in the atmosphere to release elemental bromine, which is far more destructive to stratospheric ozone than chlorine. As such, it is subject to phase-out requirements of the 1987

text: Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances

text: Some scientific studies suggest that ozone depletion may have a dominant role in governing climatic change in Antarctica (and a wider area of the Southern Hemisphere). Ozone absorbs large amounts of ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere. Ozone depletion over Antarctica can cause a cooling of around 6 °C in the local stratosphere. This cooling has the effect of intensifying the westerly winds which flow around the continent (the polar vortex) and thus prevents outflow of the cold air near the South Pole. As a result, the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet is held at lower temperatures, and the peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are subject to higher temperatures, which promote accelerated melting. Models also suggest that the ozone depletion/enhanced polar vortex effect also accounts for the recent increase in sea ice just offshore of the continent.

text: Some scientific studies suggest that ozone depletion may have a dominant role in governing climatic change in Antarctica (and a wider area of the Southern Hemisphere). Ozone absorbs large amounts of ultraviolet radiation in the

text: stratosphere

text: . Ozone depletion over Antarctica can cause a cooling of around 6 °C in the local stratosphere. This cooling has the effect of intensifying the westerly winds which flow around the continent (the

text: polar vortex

text: ) and thus prevents outflow of the cold air near the South Pole. As a result, the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet is held at lower temperatures, and the peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are subject to higher temperatures, which promote accelerated melting. Models also suggest that the ozone depletion/enhanced polar vortex effect also accounts for the recent increase in sea ice just offshore of the continent.

text: During springtime in the polar regions, unique photochemistry converts inert halide salt ions (e.g. Br) into reactive halogen species (e.g. Br atoms and BrO) that episodically deplete ozone in the atmospheric boundary layer to near zero levels.  Since their discovery in the late 1980s, research on these ozone depletion events (ODEs) has shown the central role ofbromine photochemistry.  Due to the autocatalytic nature of the reaction mechanism, it has been called bromine explosion. It's still not fully understood how salts are transported from the ocean and oxidized to become reactive halogen species in the air. Other halogens (chlorine and iodine) are also activated through mechanisms coupled to bromine chemistry. The main consequence of halogen activation is chemical destruction of ozone, which removes the primary precursor of atmospheric oxidation, and generation of reactive halogen atoms/oxides that become the primary oxidizing species. The different reactivity of halogens as compared to OH and ozone has broad impacts on atmospheric chemistry, including near complete removal and deposition of mercury, alteration of oxidation fates for organic gases, and export of bromine into the free troposphere. Recent changes in the climate of the Arctic and state of the Arctic sea ice cover are likely to have strong effects on halogen activation and ODEs.

text: During springtime in the polar regions, unique photochemistry converts inert halide salt ions (e.g. Br) into reactive

text: halogen

text: species (e.g. Br atoms and BrO) that episodically deplete

text: ozone

text: in the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: to near zero levels.  Since their discovery in the late 1980s, research on these ozone depletion events (ODEs) has shown the central role of

text: bromine

text: photochemistry.  Due to the

text: autocatalytic

text: nature of the reaction mechanism, it has been called bromine explosion. It's still not fully understood how salts are transported from the ocean and oxidized to become reactive halogen species in the air. Other halogens (

text: chlorine

text: and

text: iodine

text: ) are also activated through mechanisms coupled to bromine chemistry. The main consequence of halogen activation is chemical destruction of ozone, which removes the primary precursor of atmospheric oxidation, and generation of reactive halogen atoms/oxides that become the primary oxidizing species. The different reactivity of halogens as compared to OH and ozone has broad impacts on

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: , including near complete removal and deposition of

text: mercury

text: , alteration of oxidation fates for organic gases, and export of bromine into the free

text: troposphere

text: . Recent changes in the climate of the Arctic and state of the Arctic sea ice cover are likely to have strong effects on halogen activation and ODEs.

text: Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego (, ; abbreviated "OZN"; and often called "Ozon" (Polish for "ozone") was a Polish political party founded in 1937 by sections of the leadership in the Sanacja movement.

text: Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego (, ; abbreviated "OZN"; and often called "Ozon" (Polish for "

text: ozone

text: ") was a

text: Polish

text: political party

text: founded in 1937 by sections of the leadership in the

text: Sanacja

text: movement.

text: The ratio is determined by turning the R-dial, which  can be rotated a full 300°, on the instrument. The spectrometer compares two different wavelength intensities, UVB (305 nm) and UVA (325 nm), in order to calculate the amount of ozone. When turned, the R-dial filters and blocks out the light of the UVC wavelength until the intensity of the two wavelengths of light are equal. The ratio of the two wavelengths at incidence can be calculated once the filtered intensities are the same. The results are measured in Dobson Units, equal to 10 µm thickness of ozone compressed to Standard conditions for temperature and pressure (STP) in the column. If all of the ozone in the atmospheric column one was measuring were compressed to STP, the thickness of the compressed atmosphere in mm would equal an answer in Dobson Units divided by 100.

text: The ratio is determined by turning the R-dial, which  can be rotated a full 300°, on the instrument. The spectrometer compares two different wavelength intensities, UVB (305 nm) and UVA (325 nm), in order to calculate the amount of ozone. When turned, the R-dial filters and blocks out the light of the UVC wavelength until the intensity of the two wavelengths of light are equal. The ratio of the two wavelengths at incidence can be calculated once the filtered intensities are the same. The results are measured in

text: Dobson Unit

text: s, equal to 10 µm thickness of ozone compressed to

entity_name: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: (STP) in the column. If all of the ozone in the atmospheric column one was measuring were compressed to STP, the thickness of the compressed atmosphere in mm would equal an answer in Dobson Units divided by 100.

text: In 2012, Ozon had 14.5 million registered users and $250MM in revenue, a daily audience of 750 thousand visitors, 2.2 million SKU's and it employed 1,700 staff. Its revenues might reach $1 billion by 2014 according to Morgan Stanley research; Ozon is not only the largest e-commerce company in Russia, but also the most trusted by consumers both in terms of intention to purchase (25% of Russian online shoppers view Ozon as their favourite place to buy online, three times more than the second, which is no one other than eBay with 8%, and 4x the 3rd, Avito.ru with 6%) as well as in actual purchases (41% of Russian online shoppers have bought something on Ozon in the last year, twice as many as the 2nd, Avito with 21%, and 3rd, Biglion with 16%). The tenure of an average Ozon customer is 4 years vs. only 3 for an average Russian e-commerce company.

text: They are not ozone depleting as they contain no chlorine or bromine atoms, and indeed they are sometimes used as replacements for ozone-depleting chemicals. Unfortunately, the term fluorocarbon is used rather loosely to include any chemical containing fluorine and carbon, including chlorofluorocarbons, which are ozone depleting (for example here).

text: They are not

text: ozone depleting

text: as they contain no chlorine or bromine atoms, and indeed they are sometimes used as replacements for ozone-depleting chemicals. Unfortunately, the term fluorocarbon is used rather loosely to include any chemical containing fluorine and carbon, including

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s, which are ozone depleting (for example here).

text: Scientists conducted experiments from NASA experimental aircraft and proved that atmospheric chemicals such as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released from refrigerants and aerosol sprays did destroy ozone. As Nimbus 7 satellite observations accumulated between 1978 and 1994, it became increasingly clear that CFCs were creating an ozone hole each winter season over Antarctica. Not only that, but despite some year-to-year variations, it appeared the hole was becoming larger. The Nimbus measurements made clear how severe the ozone hole problem was.

text: Scientists conducted experiments from NASA experimental aircraft and proved that atmospheric chemicals such as the

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) released from

text: refrigerant

text: s and

text: aerosol spray

text: s did destroy ozone. As Nimbus 7 satellite observations accumulated between 1978 and 1994, it became increasingly clear that CFCs were creating an

text: ozone hole

text: each winter season over

text: Antarctica

text: . Not only that, but despite some year-to-year variations, it appeared the hole was becoming larger. The Nimbus measurements made clear how severe the ozone hole problem was.

text: Trifluoroiodomethane contains carbon, fluorine, and iodine atoms. Although iodine is several hundred times more efficient at destroying stratospheric ozone than chlorine, experiments have shown that because the weak C-I bond breaks easily under the influence of water (owing to the electron-attracting fluorine atoms), trifluoroiodomethane has an ozone depleting potential less than one-thousandth that of Halon 1301 (0.008-0.01). Its atmospheric lifetime, at less than 1 month, is less than 1 percent that of Halon 1301, and less even than hydrogen chloride formed from volcanoes.

text: Trifluoroiodomethane contains

text: carbon

text: fluorine

text: , and

text: iodine

text: atoms. Although iodine is several hundred times more efficient at destroying

text: stratospheric ozone

text: than chlorine, experiments have shown that because the weak C-I bond breaks easily under the influence of water (owing to the electron-attracting fluorine atoms), trifluoroiodomethane has an ozone depleting potential less than one-thousandth that of Halon 1301 (0.008-0.01). Its atmospheric lifetime, at less than 1 month, is less than 1 percent that of Halon 1301, and less even than

text: hydrogen chloride

text: formed from

text: volcano

text: es.

text: Newer refrigerants with reduced ozone depletion effect such as HCFCs (R-22, used in most homes today) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use. HCFCs in turn are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), such as R-410A, which lack chlorine.  However, CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs all have large global warming potential.

text: Newer refrigerants with reduced

text: ozone depletion

text: effect such as

text: HCFC

text: s (

text: , used in most homes today) and

text: HFC

text: s (

text: , used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use. HCFCs in turn are being phased out under the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: and replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), such as

text: , which lack

text: chlorine

text: .  However, CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs all have large

text: global warming potential

text: Ozone is G.I. Joe Team's ozone replenisher trooper. His real name is David Kunitz, and his rank is that of corporal E-4. Ozone was born in Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, and was first released as an action figure in 1991, as part of the Eco-Warriors line. He had two releases in 1993 and another in 1994. The last three were releases under the Star Brigade subgroup, establishing that the character has traveled into space.

text: Ozone is G.I. Joe Team's ozone replenisher trooper. His real name is David Kunitz, and his rank is that of corporal E-4. Ozone was born in Three Mile Island,

text: Pennsylvania

text: , and was first released as an action figure in 1991, as part of the Eco-Warriors line. He had two releases in 1993 and another in 1994. The last three were releases under the

text: Star Brigade

text: subgroup, establishing that the character has traveled into space.

text: Ozone depletion and climate change, or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms, are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted, for example in terms of global regulation, in various studies and books.

text: The Refuge or Hideaway is a 2009 French drama film directed by François Ozon and starring Isabelle Carré and French singer Louis-Ronan Choisy, who wrote the music for the film and the title song. The script was written by Ozon with Matthieu Hippeau.

text: The Refuge or Hideaway is a 2009 French

text: drama film

text: directed by

text: François Ozon

text: and starring

text: Isabelle Carré

text: and French singer

text: Louis-Ronan Choisy

text: , who wrote the music for the film and the title song. The script was written by Ozon with Matthieu Hippeau.

text: Jack Nicholls wrote in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, "A painfully low-budget disaster movie, Countdown: The Sky's on Fire has little to distinguish it except its lurid title. A hole in the ozone layer above the Pacific threatens to burn to death the population of the western United States. When this is discovered, a group of scientists, politicians, soldiers and journalists sit around and talk about fixing it while their womenfolk are threatened by insect swarms driven insane by the Sun's radiation. As the threat to humanity is invisible, and there was little money available to show its after-effects, the film is less a bad movie than a very dull one."

text: Jack Nicholls wrote in

text: The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction

text: , "A painfully low-budget disaster movie, Countdown: The Sky's on Fire has little to distinguish it except its lurid title. A hole in the ozone layer above the Pacific threatens to burn to death the population of the western United States. When this is discovered, a group of scientists, politicians, soldiers and journalists sit around and talk about fixing it while their womenfolk are threatened by insect swarms driven insane by the Sun's radiation. As the threat to humanity is invisible, and there was little money available to show its after-effects, the film is less a bad movie than a very dull one."

text: According to Miller, the environmental message was not a major part of the original script, but "In Australia, we're very, very aware of the ozone hole," he said, "and Antarctica is literally the canary in the coal mine for this stuff. So it sort of had to go in that direction." This influence led to a film with a more environmental tone. Miller said, "You can't tell a story about Antarctica and the penguins without giving that dimension."

text: According to Miller, the environmental message was not a major part of the original script, but "In

text: Australia

text: , we're very, very aware of the ozone hole," he said, "and Antarctica is literally the

text: canary in the coal mine

text: for this stuff. So it sort of had to go in that direction." This influence led to a film with a more environmental tone. Miller said, "You can't tell a story about Antarctica and the penguins without giving that dimension."

text: One review found tentative evidence that ozone injection is an effective treatment for herniated discs.

text: One review found tentative evidence that ozone injection is an effective treatment for

text: herniated disc

text: s.

text: In addition to the ash, a large amount of sulfur dioxide gas and aerosols were ejected in the eruption.  These contributed to those already in the atmosphere from the even larger Mount Pinatubo eruption earlier in the year and helped cause a worldwide cooling effect over the following years.  Ozone was also depleted, with the Antarctic ozone hole growing to its largest levels ever recorded in 1992 and 1993.

text: In addition to the ash, a large amount of

text: sulfur dioxide gas

text: and

text: aerosol

text: s were ejected in the eruption.  These contributed to those already in the atmosphere from the even larger

text: Mount Pinatubo

text: eruption earlier in the year and helped cause a worldwide cooling effect over the following years.  Ozone was also depleted, with the

text: Antarctic

text: ozone hole

text: growing to its largest levels ever recorded in 1992 and 1993.

text: Most people can detect about 0.01 μmol/mol of ozone in air where it has a very specific sharp odour somewhat resembling chlorine bleach. Exposure of 0.1 to 1 μmol/mol produces headaches, burning eyes and irritation to the respiratory passages.Even low concentrations of ozone in air are very destructive to organic materials such as latex, plastics and animal lung tissue.

text: Most people can detect about 0.01 μmol/mol of ozone in air where it has a very specific sharp odour somewhat resembling

text: chlorine bleach

text: . Exposure of 0.1 to 1 μmol/mol produces headaches, burning eyes and irritation to the respiratory passages.Even low concentrations of ozone in air are very destructive to organic materials such as latex, plastics and animal lung tissue.

text: The word transnational describes crimes that are not only international (that is, crimes that cross borders between countries), but crimes that by their nature involve cross-border transference as an essential part of the criminal activity. Transnational crimes also include crimes that take place in one country, but their consequences significantly affect another country and transit countries may also be involved. Examples of transnational crimes include: human trafficking, people smuggling, smuggling/trafficking of goods (such as arms trafficking and drug trafficking and illegal animal and plant products and other goods prohibited on environmental grounds (e.g. banned ozone depleting substances), sex slavery, terrorism offences, torture and apartheid.

text: The word transnational describes crimes that are not only international (that is, crimes that cross borders between countries), but crimes that by their nature involve cross-border transference as an essential part of the criminal activity. Transnational crimes also include crimes that take place in one country, but their consequences significantly affect another country and transit countries may also be involved. Examples of transnational crimes include:

text: human trafficking

text: people smuggling

text: , smuggling/trafficking of

text: goods

text: (such as

text: arms trafficking

text: and

text: drug trafficking

text: and illegal animal and plant products and other goods prohibited on environmental grounds (e.g. banned ozone depleting substances),

text: sex slavery

text: terrorism

text: offences,

text: torture

text: and

text: apartheid

text: Other rocket fuels used in rockets are liquid rocket fuels. Combustion of this type of fuel was once thought to cause some ozone destruction by a nitrogen mechanism. Nitric oxide is a known mechanism to destroy ozone and was once present or created from combustion of liquid rocket fuels; however this has mostly been eliminated.  The nitric oxide mechanism is not as ozone depleting as solid-fueled rockets. Destruction of ozone by nitric oxide is short and immediate after launch, minimizing the time window for destruction. This seems to not allow enough time for the rocket to reach the stratosphere, where ozone is most abundant. The nitric oxide mechanism also has a slower catalytic cycle compared to the hypochlorite mechanism. Overall, liquid rocket engines are less harmful to stratospheric ozone than solid rocket motors.

text: Other rocket fuels used in rockets are liquid rocket fuels.

text: Combustion

text: of this type of fuel was once thought to cause some ozone destruction by a nitrogen mechanism. Nitric oxide is a known mechanism to destroy ozone and was once present or created from combustion of liquid rocket fuels; however this has mostly been eliminated.  The nitric oxide mechanism is not as ozone depleting as solid-fueled rockets. Destruction of ozone by nitric oxide is short and immediate after launch, minimizing the time window for destruction. This seems to not allow enough time for the rocket to reach the

text: stratosphere

text: , where ozone is most abundant. The nitric oxide mechanism also has a slower

text: catalytic cycle

text: compared to the hypochlorite mechanism. Overall, liquid rocket engines are less harmful to stratospheric ozone than solid rocket motors.

text: CLaMS (Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere) is a modular chemistry transport model (CTM) system developed at Forschungszentrum Jülich, Germany.  CLaMS was first described by McKenna et al. (2000a,b) and was expanded into three dimensions by Konopka et al. (2004).  CLaMS has been employed in recent European field campaigns THESEO, EUPLEX, TROCCINOX SCOUT-O3, and RECONCILE with a focus on simulating ozone depletion and water vapour transport.

text: CLaMS (Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere) is a modular

text: chemistry transport model

text: (CTM) system developed at

text: Forschungszentrum Jülich

text: Germany

text: .  CLaMS was first described by McKenna et al. (2000a,b) and was expanded into three dimensions by Konopka et al. (2004).  CLaMS has been employed in recent European field campaigns

text: THESEO

text: EUPLEX

text: TROCCINOX

text: , and

text: RECONCILE

text: with a focus on simulating

text: ozone depletion

text: and

text: water vapour

text: transport.

text: Many systems still use HCFC refrigerants, which contribute to depletion of the Earth's ozone layer.  In countries adhering to the Montreal Protocol, HCFCs are due to be phased out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly HFCs.  However, systems using HFC refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using HCFCs.  HFCs also have an extremely large global warming potential, because they remain in the atmosphere for many years and trap heat more effectively than carbon dioxide.

text: Many systems still use

text: HCFC

text: refrigerant

text: s, which contribute to

text: depletion of the Earth's ozone layer

text: .  In countries adhering to the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , HCFCs are due to be phased out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly

text: HFC

text: s.  However, systems using HFC refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using HCFCs.  HFCs also have an extremely large

text: global warming potential

text: , because they remain in the atmosphere for many years and trap heat more effectively than

text: carbon dioxide

text: As winters that are colder are more affected, at times there is an ozone hole over Tibet. In 2006, a 2.5 million square kilometer ozone hole was detected over Tibet. Also again in 2011 an ozone hole appeared over mountainous regions of Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai and the Hindu Kush, along with an unprecedented hole over the Arctic, though the Tibet one is far less intense than the ones over the Arctic or Antarctic.

text: As winters that are colder are more affected, at times there is an ozone hole over Tibet. In 2006, a 2.5 million

text: square kilometer

text: ozone hole was detected over Tibet. Also again in 2011 an ozone hole appeared over mountainous regions of

text: Tibet

text: Xinjiang

text: Qinghai

text: and the

text: Hindu Kush

text: , along with an unprecedented hole over the Arctic, though the Tibet one is far less intense than the ones over the Arctic or Antarctic.

text: Blends of pure, dry "isopropane" (R-290a) (isobutane/propane mixtures) and isobutane (R-600a) have negligible ozone depletion potential and very low Global Warming Potential (having a value of 3.3 times the GWP of carbon dioxide) and can serve as a functional replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a, and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.

text: Blends of pure, dry "isopropane" (R-290a) (isobutane/propane mixtures) and

text: isobutane

text: (R-600a) have negligible

text: ozone depletion potential

text: and very low

text: Global Warming Potential

text: , and other

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: or

text: hydrofluorocarbon

text: refrigerant

text: The extreme conditions needed to create a hypercane could conceivably produce a system up to the size of North America, creating storm surges of  and an eye nearly  across. The waters could remain hot enough for weeks, allowing more hypercanes to be formed. A hypercane's clouds would reach  into the stratosphere. Such an intense storm would also damage the Earth's ozone. Water molecules in the stratosphere would react with ozone to accelerate decay into O and reduce absorption of ultraviolet light.

text: The extreme conditions needed to create a hypercane could conceivably produce a system up to the size of

text: North America

text: , creating

text: storm surge

text: s of  and an eye nearly  across. The waters could remain hot enough for weeks, allowing more hypercanes to be formed. A hypercane's clouds would reach  into the

text: stratosphere

text: . Such an intense storm would also damage the Earth's

text: ozone

text: . Water molecules in the stratosphere would react with

text: ozone

text: to accelerate decay into O and reduce absorption of

text: ultraviolet light

text: A common example is a burn ban. Residential and commercial burning of wood materials may be restricted during times of poor air quality, eliminating the immediate emission of particulate matter and requiring use of non-polluting heating methods. A more significant example is the widespread ban on the manufacture of dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon)), formerly the standard refrigerant in automobile air conditioning systems. This substance, often released into the atmosphere unintentionally as a result of refrigerant system leaks, was determined to have a significant ozone depletion potential, and its widespread use to pose a significant threat to the Earth's ozone layer. Its manufacture was prohibited as part of a suite of restrictions adopted internationally in the Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. Still another example is the ban on use of asbestos in building construction materials, to eliminate future exposure to carcinogenic asbestos fibers when the building materials are disturbed.

text: A common example is a burn ban. Residential and commercial burning of wood materials may be restricted during times of poor air quality, eliminating the immediate emission of particulate matter and requiring use of non-polluting heating methods. A more significant example is the widespread ban on the manufacture of

text: dichlorodifluoromethane

text: Freon

text: )), formerly the standard refrigerant in automobile air conditioning systems. This substance, often released into the atmosphere unintentionally as a result of refrigerant system leaks, was determined to have a significant

text: ozone depletion potential

text: , and its widespread use to pose a significant threat to the Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: . Its manufacture was prohibited as part of a suite of restrictions adopted internationally in the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: to the

text: . Still another example is the ban on use of

text: asbestos

text: in building construction materials, to eliminate future exposure to carcinogenic asbestos fibers when the building materials are disturbed.

text: The Antarctic ozone hole is expected to continue for decades. Ozone concentrations in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica will increase by 5–10 percent by 2020 and return to pre-1980 levels by about 2060–2075. This is 10–25 years later than predicted in earlier assessments, because of revised estimates of atmospheric concentrations of ozone-depleting substances, including a larger predicted future usage in developing countries. Another factor that may prolong ozone depletion is the drawdown of nitrogen oxides from above the stratosphere due to changing wind patterns. A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.

text: Deep: clubDeep: Challenge in Club Ozon was an event held on May 25, 2003 at Club Ozon in Nagoya, Japan.

text: Deep: clubDeep: Challenge in Club Ozon was an event held on May 25, 2003 at Club Ozon in

text: Nagoya

text: Japan

text: Ozone destruction occurs principally in polar regions, but the formation of ozone occurs principally in the tropics. Ozone is distributed around the planet by the Brewer-Dobson circulation. Therefore, the source and dispersal pattern of aerosols is critical in understanding their effect on the ozone layer.

text: Ozone destruction occurs principally in

text: polar region

text: s, but the formation of ozone occurs principally in the

text: tropics

text: . Ozone is distributed around the planet by the

text: Brewer-Dobson circulation

text: . Therefore, the source and dispersal pattern of aerosols is critical in understanding their effect on the ozone layer.

text: The use of CFC as a refrigerant was once common, being used in the refrigerants R-11 and R-12 (sold under the brand name Freon-12). Freon refrigerants were commonly used during the 20th century in air conditioners due to their superior stability and safety properties. However, these chlorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. Once the refrigerant reaches the stratosphere, UV radiation from the Sun homolytically cleaves the chlorine-carbon bond, yielding a chlorine radical. These chlorine radicals catalyze the breakdown of ozone into diatomic oxygen, depleting the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from strong UV radiation. Each chlorine radical remains active as a catalyst until it binds with another radical, forming a stable molecule and breaking the chain reaction.

text: The use of

text: CFC

text: as a refrigerant was once common, being used in the refrigerants R-11 and R-12 (sold under the brand name Freon-12). Freon refrigerants were commonly used during the 20th century in air conditioners due to their superior stability and safety properties. However, these chlorine-bearing refrigerants reach the

text: upper atmosphere

text: when they escape. Once the refrigerant reaches the

text: stratosphere

text: UV radiation

text: from the

text: Sun

text: homolytically cleaves

text: the chlorine-

text: carbon

text: bond

text: , yielding a chlorine

text: radical

text: . These chlorine radicals

text: catalyze

text: the breakdown of

text: ozone

text: into

text: diatomic

text: oxygen

text: , depleting the

text: ozone layer

text: that shields the Earth's surface from strong UV radiation. Each chlorine radical remains active as a catalyst until it binds with another radical, forming a stable

text: molecule

text: and breaking the

text: chain reaction

text: A hydrocarbon refrigerant was developed at a German technological institute, and in 1992 came to the attention of the non-governmental organization (NGO) Greenpeace.  The NGO was given the patent, called it "Greenfreeze," and by 2013 it was being used by some 40 percent of the refrigerator market.  In the U.S., however, change has been much slower.  To some extent, CFCs were being replaced by the less damaging hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), although concerns remain regarding HCFCs also. In some applications, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were being used to replace CFCs. HFCs, which contain no chlorine or bromine, do not contribute at all to ozone depletion although they are potent greenhouse gases. The best known of these compounds is probably HFC-134a (R-134a), which in the United States has largely replaced CFC-12 (R-12) in automobile air conditioners. In laboratory analytics (a former "essential" use) the ozone depleting substances can be replaced with various other solvents. The development and promotion of an ozone-safe hydrocarbon refrigerant was a breakthrough which occurred after the initiative of a non-governmental organization (NGO). Civil society including especially NGOs, in fact, played critical roles at all stages of policy development leading up to the Vienna Conference, the Montreal Protocol, and in assessing compliance afterwards. The major companies claimed that no alternatives to HFC existed.  By 1992, the NGO Greenpeace had learned that a Hamburg technological institute in Germany had formulated an ozone-safe refrigerant.  The rights were donated to Greenpeace, who called the refrigerant "Greenfreeze," and left the patent as open source.  The NGO then worked successfully first with a small and struggling company to market an appliance beginning in Europe, then Asia and later Latin America, receiving a 1997 UNEP award. By 1995, Germany had already made CFC refrigerators illegal. Production spread to companies like Electrolux, Bosch, and LG, with sales reaching some 300 million refrigerators by 2008.  However, the giant corporations all continued to refuse to apply the technology in Latin America.  In 2003, a domestic Argentinian company began Greenfreeze production, while the giant Bosch in Brazil began a year later.  Chemical companies like Du Pont, whose representatives even disparaged the green technology as "that German technology," maneuvered the EPA to block the technology in the U.S. until 2011.  Ben & Jerry's of Unilever and General Electric, spurred by Greenpeace, had expressed formal interest in 2008 which figured in the EPA's final approval. Currently, more than 600 million refrigerators have been sold, making up more than 40 percent of the market.  Since 2004, corporations like Coca-Cola, Carlsberg, and IKEA have been forming a coalition to promote the ozone-safe Greenfreeze units.

text: A hydrocarbon refrigerant was developed at a German technological institute, and in 1992 came to the attention of the non-governmental organization (NGO) Greenpeace.  The NGO was given the patent, called it "Greenfreeze," and by 2013 it was being used by some 40 percent of the refrigerator market.  In the U.S., however, change has been much slower.  To some extent, CFCs were being replaced by the less damaging hydrochlorofluorocarbons (

text: HCFC

text: s), although concerns remain regarding HCFCs also. In some applications, hydrofluorocarbons (

text: HFCs

text: ) were being used to replace CFCs. HFCs, which contain no chlorine or bromine, do not contribute at all to ozone depletion although they are potent greenhouse gases. The best known of these compounds is probably HFC-134a (

text: ), which in the United States has largely replaced CFC-12 (

text: A reviewer for the site Disaster Movie World shared the opinion: "The Sky's on Fire is a treat if you're into bad movie physics, plot holes and logical inconsistencies in general. Forget the fact that Our Heroes can fly all the way up to the ozone hole without being burned while people down on the ground get baked to death — the most absurd part of all is the final resolution when the ozone hole is sealing itself up in a matter of seconds! While there's some potential in the various animal attacks, those scenes are all rather short and lack any real energy... While this film is nowhere near being 'good', and descends into the downright ludicrous during the final third or so, the silliness of it all is kind of enjoyable."

text: Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to organisms. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by air pollution, chiefly from chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting substances.

text: Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of

text: chemical

text: s,

text: particulate matter

text: or

text: biological materials

text: that cause harm or discomfort to organisms.

text: Stratospheric

text: ozone depletion

text: is caused by air pollution, chiefly from

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: and other ozone-depleting substances.

text: Temperature and humidity play a large role in how much ozone is being produced using traditional generation methods (such as corona discharge and ultraviolet light). Old generation methods will produce less than 50% of nominal capacity if operated with humid ambient air, as opposed to very dry air. New generators, using electrolytic methods, can achieve higher purity and dissolution through using water molecules as the source of ozone production.

text: Dichlorofluoromethane was used as a propellant and refrigerant, but due to its ozone depletion it has been set to be phased out. It has ozone depletion potential 0.04. Production and consumption has been since 2004 reduced to 15% of level from 1989 and it is to be phased out in 2015 according to Montreal Protocol.

text: Dichlorofluoromethane was used as a

text: propellant

text: and refrigerant, but due to its

text: ozone depletion

text: it has been set to be phased out. It has

text: ozone depletion potential

text: 0.04. Production and consumption has been since 2004 reduced to 15% of level from 1989 and it is to be phased out in 2015 according to

text: Montreal Protocol

text: The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) resonated better with non-scientists and their concerns.  The ozone case was communicated to lay persons "with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture" and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance", while the public opinion on climate change sees no imminent danger. The ozone hole was much more seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk compared to global climate change, as lay people feared a depletion of the ozone layer (ozone shield) risked increasing severe consequences such skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone. This was not the case with global warming.

text: The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) resonated better with non-scientists and their concerns.  The ozone case was communicated to lay persons "with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the

text: popular culture

text: public opinion on climate change

text: sees no imminent danger. The ozone hole was much more seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk compared to global climate change, as lay people feared a depletion of the ozone layer (

text: ozone shield

text: ) risked increasing severe consequences such

text: skin cancer

text: cataract

text: s, damage to plants, and reduction of

text: plankton

text: populations in the ocean's

text: photic zone

text: . This was not the case with global warming.

text: Due to its large influence on local people, high ratings of listening and constant struggle with regime, Ozon radio greatly contributed winning of opposition at the local elections in Cacak. With change of local power, they finally moved from passenger trailer to temporary studio.  Ozon editors continued their fight against regime, but now, with new local government, they started to inform people on various cases of political and financial scams of new authorities.New authorities were not interesting in further work of Ozon, as they got to manage municipal Radio Cacak. There were many incidents with the new mayor of Cacak - Velimir Ilić including one, while he was sending message to Ozon members to 'watchout', his members crashed into studio of Radio Ozon.

text: Due to its large influence on local people, high ratings of listening and constant struggle with regime, Ozon radio greatly contributed winning of opposition at the local elections in Cacak. With change of local power, they finally moved from passenger trailer to temporary studio.  Ozon editors continued their fight against regime, but now, with new local government, they started to inform people on various cases of political and financial scams of new authorities.New authorities were not interesting in further work of Ozon, as they got to manage municipal Radio Cacak. There were many incidents with the new mayor of Cacak -

text: Velimir Ilić

text: including one, while he was sending message to Ozon members to 'watchout', his members crashed into studio of Radio Ozon.

text: Early in his career, Felix Dodds was active in UK politics and involved himself with the Anti-Apartheid Movement and the Anti-Nazi League. Dodds simultaneously began to engage with environmental issues such as acid rain, nuclear power and ozone depletion. He held numerous positions in the Liberal Party between 1983 and 1987, and became chairman of the party's "young wing" – the National League of Young Liberals (NLYL) – in 1985.

text: Early in his career, Felix Dodds was active in

text: UK politics

text: and involved himself with the

text: Anti-Apartheid Movement

text: and the

text: Anti-Nazi League

text: . Dodds simultaneously began to engage with environmental issues such as

text: acid rain

text: nuclear power

text: and

text: ozone depletion

text: . He held numerous positions in the

text: Liberal Party

text: between 1983 and 1987, and became chairman of the party's "young wing" – the

text: National League of Young Liberals

text: (NLYL) – in 1985.

text: There are various areas of linkage between ozone depletion and global warming science:

text: Other concerns were also added to the list, although the evidence for them was essentially non-existent. One was that the water vapor released by the engines into the stratosphere would envelop the earth in a "global gloom". Presidential Adviser Russell Train warned that a fleet of 500 SSTs flying at 65,000 ft. for a period of years could raise stratospheric water content by as much as 50% to 100%. According to Train, this could lead to greater ground-level heat and hamper the formation of ozone. Later, an additional threat to the ozone was found in the exhaust's nitrogen oxides, a threat that was later validated by MIT. More recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and others found that the drop in ozone would be from 1 to 2% if a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft was operated. Fahey expressed the opinion that this would not be a fatal obstacle for an advanced SST development.

text: Other concerns were also added to the list, although the evidence for them was essentially non-existent. One was that the water vapor released by the engines into the stratosphere would envelop the earth in a "global gloom". Presidential Adviser

text: Russell Train

text: warned that a fleet of 500 SSTs flying at 65,000 ft. for a period of years could raise stratospheric water content by as much as 50% to 100%. According to Train, this could lead to greater ground-level heat and hamper the formation of

text: ozone

text: . Later, an additional threat to the ozone was found in the exhaust's

text: nitrogen oxide

text: s, a threat that was later validated by

text: MIT

text: . More recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the

text: , and others found that the drop in ozone would be from 1 to 2% if a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft was operated. Fahey expressed the opinion that this would not be a fatal obstacle for an advanced SST development.

text: Large volcanic eruptions have been shown to have substantial albeit uneven ozone-depleting effects, as observed (for example) with the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinotubo in the Philippines.

text: Ozon was born in Paris, France. Having studied directing at the French film school La Femis, Ozon made several short films such as Une robe d'été (1996) and Scènes de lit (1998) that already display his defining style. His motion picture directing debut was Sitcom (also 1998), which was well received by both critics and audiences.

text: Ozon was born in

text: Paris

text: France

text: . Having studied directing at the French film school

text: La Femis

text: , Ozon made several short films such as

text: Une robe d'été

text: (1996) and Scènes de lit (1998) that already display his defining style. His motion picture directing debut was

text: Sitcom

text: (also 1998), which was well received by both critics and audiences.

text: However, some ozone escapes the filtering process in commercial printers, and ozone filters are not used at all in most smaller consumer printers. When a laser printer or copier is operated for a long period of time in a small, poorly ventilated space, these gases can build up to levels at which the odor of ozone or irritation may be noticed. A potential for creating a health hazard is theoretically possible in extreme cases.

text: Since the Montreal Protocol came into effect, the atmospheric concentrations of the most important chlorofluorocarbons and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have either leveled off or decreased. Halon concentrations have continued to increase, as the halons presently stored in fire extinguishers are released, but their rate of increase has slowed and their abundances are expected to begin to decline by about 2020. Also, the concentration of the HCFCs increased drastically at least partly because for many uses (e.g. used as solvents or refrigerating agents) CFCs were substituted with HCFCs. While there have been reports of attempts by individuals to circumvent the ban, e.g. by smuggling CFCs from undeveloped to developed nations, the overall level of compliance has been high. Statistical analysis from 2010 show a clear positive signal from the Montreal Protocol to the stratospheric ozone. In consequence, the Montreal Protocol has often been called the most successful international environmental agreement to date. In a 2001 report, NASA found the ozone thinning over Antarctica had remained the same thickness for the previous three years, however in 2003 the ozone hole grew to its second largest size. The most recent (2006) scientific evaluation of the effects of the Montreal Protocol states, "The Montreal Protocol is working: There is clear evidence of a decrease in the atmospheric burden of ozone-depleting substances and some early signs of stratospheric ozone recovery."

text: The Dobson Spectrometer measures the total ozone by measuring the relative intensity of the UVB radiation that reaches the Earth and comparing it to that of UVA radiation at ground level. If all of the ozone were removed from the atmosphere, the amount of UVB radiation would equal the amount of UVA radiation on the ground. As ozone does exist in the atmosphere, the Dobson Spectrometer can use the ratio between UVA and UVB radiation on the ground to determine how much ozone is present in the upper atmosphere to absorb the UVC radiation.

text: The Dobson Spectrometer measures the total ozone by measuring the relative intensity of the UVB radiation that reaches the Earth and comparing it to that of UVA radiation at ground level. If all of the ozone were removed from the atmosphere, the amount of UVB radiation would equal the amount of UVA radiation on the ground. As ozone does exist in the atmosphere, the Dobson Spectrometer can use the ratio between UVA and UVB radiation on the ground to determine how much ozone is present in the

text: upper atmosphere

text: to absorb the UVC radiation.

text: Although Ozone served as backup to Billy Preston and Syreeta, they are most remembered for their work with Teena Marie. They appeared on several tracks on Lady T in 1980. They were also featured on the song "Chains" from her album Irons in the Fire that same year. The majority of her songs horn arrangements were handled by Ozone

text: Although Ozone served as backup to

text: Billy Preston

text: and

text: Syreeta

text: , they are most remembered for their work with

text: Teena Marie

text: . They appeared on several tracks on

text: Lady T

text: in 1980. They were also featured on the song "Chains" from her album

text: Irons in the Fire

text: that same year. The majority of her songs horn arrangements were handled by Ozone

text: Like many other organisms, increasing ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation due to stratospheric ozone depletion and other factors may harm the DNA of amphibians, particularly their eggs. The amount of damage depends upon the life stage, the species type and other environmental parameters. Salamanders and frogs that produce less photolyase, an enzyme that counteracts DNA damage from UVB, are more susceptible to the effects of loss of the ozone layer. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation may not kill a particular species or life stage but may cause sublethal damage.

text: Like many other organisms, increasing

text: ultraviolet-B

text: (UVB) radiation due to stratospheric

text: ozone depletion

text: and other factors may harm the

text: DNA

text: of amphibians, particularly their eggs. The amount of damage depends upon the life stage, the species type and other environmental parameters. Salamanders and frogs that produce less

text: photolyase

text: , an enzyme that counteracts DNA damage from UVB, are more susceptible to the effects of loss of the ozone layer. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation may not kill a particular species or life stage but may cause sublethal damage.

text: Ozone, along with reactive forms of oxygen such as superoxide, singlet oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and hypochlorite ions, is naturally produced by white blood cells and other biological systems (such as the roots of marigolds) as a means of destroying foreign bodies. Ozone reacts directly with organic double bonds. Also, when ozone breaks down to dioxygen it gives rise to oxygen free radicals, which are highly reactive and capable of damaging many organic molecules. Moreover, it is believed that the powerful oxidizing properties of ozone may be a contributing factor of inflammation. The cause-and-effect relationship of how the ozone is created in the body and what it does is still under consideration and still subject to various interpretations, since other body chemical processes can trigger some of the same reactions. A team headed by Paul Wentworth Jr. of the Department of Chemistry at the Scripps Research Institute has shown evidence linking the antibody-catalyzed water-oxidation pathway of the human immune response to the production of ozone. In this system, ozone is produced by antibody-catalyzed production of trioxidane from water and neutrophil-produced singlet oxygen.

text: Ozone, along with reactive forms of oxygen such as

text: superoxide

text: singlet oxygen

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: , and

text: hypochlorite

text: ions, is naturally produced by

text: white blood cell

text: s and other biological systems (such as the roots of

text: marigold

text: s) as a means of destroying foreign bodies. Ozone reacts directly with organic double bonds. Also, when ozone breaks down to dioxygen it gives rise to oxygen

text: free radical

text: s, which are highly reactive and capable of damaging many

text: organic molecules

text: . Moreover, it is believed that the powerful oxidizing properties of ozone may be a contributing factor of

text: inflammation

text: . The cause-and-effect relationship of how the ozone is created in the body and what it does is still under consideration and still subject to various interpretations, since other body chemical processes can trigger some of the same reactions. A team headed by Paul Wentworth Jr. of the Department of Chemistry at the

text: Scripps Research Institute

text: has shown evidence linking the antibody-catalyzed water-oxidation pathway of the human

text: immune response

text: to the production of ozone. In this system, ozone is produced by antibody-catalyzed production of

text: trioxidane

text: from water and neutrophil-produced singlet oxygen.

text: The same  radiative forcing that produces global warming is expected to cool the stratosphere. This cooling, in turn, is expected to produce a relative increase in ozone () depletion in the polar area and in the frequency of ozone holes. Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radiative forcing of the climate system of about −0.15 ± 0.10 watts per square metre (W/m).

text: The same  radiative forcing that produces global warming is expected to cool the stratosphere. This cooling, in turn, is expected to produce a relative increase in ozone () depletion in the polar area and in the frequency of ozone holes. Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radiative forcing of the climate system of about −0.15 ± 0.10

text: watt

text: s per square metre (W/m).

text: The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the Earth's stratosphere were discovered by Sydney Chapman in 1930. Short-wavelength UV radiation splits an oxygen () molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone is removed when an oxygen atom and an ozone molecule "recombine" to form two oxygen molecules, i.e. O +  → 2. In the 1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in particular hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination reaction, reducing the overall amount of ozone. These free radicals were known to be present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the natural balance—it was estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it currently is.

text: The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the Earth's stratosphere were discovered by

text: Sydney Chapman

text: in 1930. Short-wavelength UV radiation splits an oxygen () molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone is removed when an oxygen atom and an ozone molecule "recombine" to form two oxygen molecules, i.e. O +  → 2. In the 1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in particular hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination reaction, reducing the overall amount of ozone. These free radicals were known to be present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the natural balance—it was estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it currently is.

text: Chlorine monoxide is a chemical radical with the chemical formula ClO. It plays an important role in the process of ozone depletion. In the stratosphere, chlorine atoms react with ozone molecules to form chlorine monoxide and oxygen.

text: Chlorine monoxide is a chemical

text: radical

text: with the chemical formula ClO. It plays an important role in the process of

text: ozone depletion

text: . In the

text: stratosphere

text: chlorine

text: atoms react with

text: ozone

text: molecules to form chlorine monoxide and

text: oxygen

text: There have also been some concerns over possible problems related to hydrogen gas leakage. Molecular hydrogen leaks slowly from most containment vessels. It has been hypothesized that if significant amounts of hydrogen gas (H) escape, hydrogen gas may, because of ultraviolet radiation, form free radicals (H) in the stratosphere. These free radicals would then be able to act as catalysts for ozone depletion. A large enough increase in stratospheric hydrogen from leaked H could exacerbate the depletion process. However, the effect of these leakage problems may not be significant. The amount of hydrogen that leaks today is much lower (by a factor of 10–100) than the estimated 10–20% figure conjectured by some researchers; for example, in Germany, the leakage rate is only 0.1% (less than the natural gas leak rate of 0.7%). At most, such leakage would likely be no more than 1–2% even with widespread hydrogen use, using present technology.

text: There have also been some concerns over possible problems related to hydrogen gas leakage. Molecular hydrogen leaks slowly from most containment vessels. It has been hypothesized that if significant amounts of hydrogen gas (H) escape, hydrogen gas may, because of ultraviolet radiation, form

text: free radicals

text: (H) in the stratosphere. These free radicals would then be able to act as catalysts for

text: ozone depletion

text: . A large enough increase in stratospheric hydrogen from leaked H could exacerbate the depletion process. However, the effect of these leakage problems may not be significant. The amount of hydrogen that leaks today is much lower (by a factor of 10–100) than the estimated 10–20% figure conjectured by some researchers; for example, in

text: Germany

text: , the leakage rate is only 0.1% (less than the natural gas leak rate of 0.7%). At most, such leakage would likely be no more than 1–2% even with widespread hydrogen use, using present technology.

text: Ozone Football Club was launched on 3 November 2015 by the Ozone Group with the goal of making the I-League by 2017. The club were quick to make a mark on the local football scene, winning the Bangalore Super Division in December 2015, within their first month of existence.

text: Ozone Football Club was launched on 3 November 2015 by the Ozone Group with the goal of making the

text: I-League

text: by 2017. The club were quick to make a mark on the local football scene, winning the

text: Bangalore Super Division

text: in December 2015, within their first month of existence.

text: Because of its high vapor pressure, it is used for quick-drying finishes and as a blowing agent for some polyurethane foam applications and as a replacement for CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs.  Methyl formate has zero ozone depletion potential and zero global warming potential. It is also used as an insecticide.

text: Because of its high

text: vapor pressure

text: , it is used for quick-drying finishes and as a

text: blowing agent

text: for some polyurethane foam applications and as a replacement for

text: CFC

text: s,

text: HCFC

text: s, and

text: HFC

text: s.  Methyl formate has zero

text: ozone depletion potential

text: and zero

text: global warming potential

text: . It is also used as an

text: insecticide

text: In 2007, the chemical industry trade association - the American Chemistry Council - gave Dow an award of 'Exceptional Merit' in recognition of longstanding energy efficiency and conservation efforts. Between 1995 and 2005, Dow reduced energy intensity (BTU per pound produced) by 22%. This is equivalent to saving enough electricity to power eight million US homes for a year. The same year, Dow subsidiary, Dow Agrosciences, won a United Nations Montreal Protocol Innovators Award for its efforts in helping replace methyl bromide  - a compound identified as contributing to the depletion of the ozone layer. In addition, Dow Agrosciences won an EPA "Best of the Best" Stratospheric Ozone Protection Award. The United States Environmental Protection Agency named Dow as a 2008 Energy Star Partner of the Year for excellence in energy management and reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.

text: In 2007, the chemical industry trade association - the

text: American Chemistry Council

text: - gave Dow an award of 'Exceptional Merit' in recognition of longstanding energy efficiency and conservation efforts. Between 1995 and 2005, Dow reduced energy intensity (

text: BTU

text: per pound produced) by 22%. This is equivalent to saving enough electricity to power eight million US homes for a year. The same year, Dow subsidiary, Dow Agrosciences, won a United Nations

text: Montreal Protocol

text: Innovators Award for its efforts in helping replace

text: methyl bromide

text: - a compound identified as contributing to the depletion of the

text: ozone layer

text: . In addition, Dow Agrosciences won an EPA "Best of the Best" Stratospheric Ozone Protection Award. The United States Environmental Protection Agency named Dow as a 2008

text: Energy Star

text: Partner of the Year for excellence in energy management and reductions in

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions.

text: 2003	"Ozone Depletion from Nearby Supernovae", N. Gehrels, C. Laird, C. Jackman, J. Cannizzo & B. Mattson, Astrophys. J., 585, 1169.

text: There are both links and major differences between ozone depletion and global warming and the way the two challenges have been handled. While in the case of atmospheric ozone depletion, in a situation of high uncertainty and against strong resistance, climate change regulation attempts at the international level such as the Kyoto Protocol have failed to reduce global emissions.The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol were both originally signed by only some member states of the United Nations (43 nations in the case of the Montreal Protocol in 1986) while Kyoto attempted to create a worldwide agreement from scratch. Expert consensus concerning CFCs in the form of the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion was reached long after the first regulatory steps were taken, and , all countries in the United Nations plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue and the supranational European Union had ratified the original Montreal Protocol. These countries have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, and Montreal amendments to the Protocol. , the Beijing amendments had not been ratified by two state parties.

text: There are both links and major differences between ozone depletion and global warming and the way the two challenges have been handled. While in the case of atmospheric ozone depletion, in a situation of high uncertainty and against strong resistance, climate change regulation attempts at the international level such as the Kyoto Protocol have failed to reduce global emissions.The

text: and the Montreal Protocol were both originally signed by only some member states of the

text: United Nations

text: (43 nations in the case of the Montreal Protocol in 1986) while Kyoto attempted to create a worldwide agreement from scratch. Expert consensus concerning

text: CFCs

text: in the form of the

text: was reached long after the first regulatory steps were taken, and , all countries in the United Nations plus the

text: Cook Islands

text: , the

text: Holy See

text: Niue

text: and the

text: supranational

text: European Union

text: had ratified the original Montreal Protocol. These countries have also ratified the London, Copenhagen, and Montreal amendments to the Protocol. , the Beijing amendments had not been ratified by two state parties.

text: There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change, ozone depletion and air pollution, as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance. Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change, ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed "monumental" and a combined synopsis provided.

text: There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of

text: climate change

text: ozone depletion

text: and

text: air pollution

text: , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major

text: historiographical

text: and political significance. Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change, ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed "monumental" and a combined synopsis provided.

text: The Ozone Awards is an annual awards ceremony hosted by Ozone Magazine. Ciara has received one award.

text: The

text: Ozone Awards

text: is an annual awards ceremony hosted by

text: Ozone Magazine

text: . Ciara has received one award.

text: The most-pronounced decrease in ozone has been in the lower stratosphere. However, the ozone hole is most usually measured not in terms of ozone concentrations at these levels (which are typically a few parts per million) but by reduction in the total column ozone above a point on the Earth's surface, which is normally expressed in Dobson units, abbreviated as "DU". Marked decreases in column ozone in the Antarctic spring and early summer compared to the early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).

text: The most-pronounced decrease in ozone has been in the lower stratosphere. However, the ozone hole is most usually measured not in terms of ozone concentrations at these levels (which are typically a few parts per million) but by reduction in the total column ozone above a point on the Earth's surface, which is normally expressed in

text: Dobson unit

text: s, abbreviated as "DU". Marked decreases in column ozone in the

text: Antarctic

text: spring and early summer compared to the early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the

text: Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer

text: (TOMS).

text: It is a class I ozone depleting substance (ODS).

text: It is a class I

text: ozone depleting substance

text: (ODS).

text: It was invented for use in fire extinguishers by the Germans during the mid-1940s, in an attempt to create a less-toxic, more effective alternative to carbon tetrachloride. This was a concern in aircraft and tanks as carbon tetrachloride produced highly toxic by-products when discharged onto a fire. CBM was slightly less toxic, and used up until the late 1960s, being officially banned by the NFPA for use in fire extinguishers in 1969, as safer and more effective agents such as halon 1211 and 1301 were developed. Due to its ozone depletion potential its production was banned from January 1, 2002, at the Eleventh Meeting of the Parties for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

text: It was invented for use in fire extinguishers by the Germans during the mid-1940s, in an attempt to create a less-toxic, more effective alternative to

text: carbon tetrachloride

text: . This was a concern in aircraft and tanks as carbon tetrachloride produced highly toxic by-products when discharged onto a fire. CBM was slightly less toxic, and used up until the late 1960s, being officially banned by the NFPA for use in fire extinguishers in 1969, as safer and more effective agents such as

text: halon 1211

text: and 1301 were developed. Due to its

text: ozone depletion potential

text: its production was banned from January 1, 2002, at the Eleventh Meeting of the Parties for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

text: Due to the high energy of C-F bonds, it is very inert and thus acts as an extremely stable greenhouse gas, with an atmospheric lifetime of 10,000 years (other sources: 500 years) and a global warming potential (GWP) of 9200. A calculated atmospheric lifetime range of 500 to 10,000 years has been reported.Atmospheric concentration of tetrafluoroethane is 3 pptv (increase by 3 pptv since 1750). However, it has a strong absorption potential in the infrared part of the spectrum. Radiative forcing is 0.001 W/m. Its ozone depletion potential (ODP) is 0.

text: Due to the high energy of C-F bonds, it is very inert and thus acts as an extremely stable

text: greenhouse gas

text: , with an atmospheric

text: lifetime

text: of 10,000 years (other sources: 500 years) and a

text: global warming potential

text: (GWP) of 9200. A calculated atmospheric lifetime range of 500 to 10,000 years has been reported.Atmospheric concentration of tetrafluoroethane is 3 pptv (increase by 3 pptv since 1750). However, it has a strong absorption potential in the infrared part of the spectrum.

text: Radiative forcing

text: is 0.001 W/m. Its

text: ozone depletion potential

text: (ODP) is 0.

text: "Recognizing that worldwide emissions of certain substances can significantly deplete and otherwise modify the ozone layer in a manner that is likely to result in adverse effects on human health and the environment.  Determined to protect the ozone layer by taking precautionary measures to control equitably total global emissions of substances that deplete it with the ultimate objective of their elimination on the basis of developments in scientific knowledge"

text: The fluids used in closed loops may be designed to be biodegradable and non-toxic, but the refrigerant used in the heat pump cabinet and in direct exchange loops was, until recently, chlorodifluoromethane, which is an ozone depleting substance. Although harmless while contained, leaks and improper end-of-life disposal contribute to enlarging the ozone hole.  For new construction, this refrigerant is being phased out in favor of the ozone-friendly but potent greenhouse gas R410A. The EcoCute water heater is an air-source heat pump that uses carbon dioxide as its working fluid instead of chlorofluorocarbons. Open loop systems (i.e. those that draw ground water as opposed to closed loop systems using a borehole heat exchanger) need to be balanced by reinjecting the spent water. This prevents aquifer depletion and the contamination of soil or surface water with brine or other compounds from underground.

text: The fluids used in closed loops may be designed to be biodegradable and non-toxic, but the refrigerant used in the heat pump cabinet and in direct exchange loops was, until recently,

text: chlorodifluoromethane

text: , which is an ozone depleting substance. Although harmless while contained, leaks and improper end-of-life disposal contribute to enlarging the

text: ozone hole

text: .  For new construction, this refrigerant is being phased out in favor of the ozone-friendly but potent greenhouse gas

text: . The

text: EcoCute

text: water heater is an air-source heat pump that uses

text: carbon dioxide

text: as its working fluid instead of

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: . Open loop systems (i.e. those that draw ground water as opposed to closed loop systems using a borehole heat exchanger) need to be balanced by reinjecting the spent water. This prevents

text: aquifer

text: depletion and the contamination of soil or surface water with brine or other compounds from underground.

text: LaRouche was part of what was called the "ozone backlash".  21st Century Science & Technology, which conducted what has been called "a very effective campaign of misinformation on the issue of ozone depletion", published The Holes in the Ozone Scare in 1992. The book, by LaRouche followers Rogelio Maduro and Ralf Schauerhammer, said that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were not destroying the ozone layer and opposed the proposal to ban them. It asserted that most chlorine in the atmosphere came from oceans, volcanoes, or other natural sources, and that CFCs were too heavy to reach the ozone layer. It went on to say that even if the ozone layer were depleted there would not be any harmful effects from additional ultraviolet radiation.  It predicted that a ban would result in an additional 20 to 40 million deaths due to food spoilage. Lewis DuPont Smith, an heir to the DuPont Chemical fortune and a LaRouche follower, told Maduro that the DuPont Company had schemed to ban CFCs, which they had invented but which had become generic, in order to replace them with more expensive proprietary compounds.  It has been called "probably the best known and most widely quoted text aimed at debunking the concept of ozone depletion".  Its assertions were repeated by Dixie Lee Ray in her 1993 book Environmental Overkill, by Rush Limbaugh, and by Ronald Bailey. Some atmospheric scientists have said that it is based on poor research.

text: LaRouche was part of what was called the "ozone backlash".  21st Century Science & Technology, which conducted what has been called "a very effective campaign of misinformation on the issue of ozone depletion", published The Holes in the Ozone Scare in 1992. The book, by LaRouche followers Rogelio Maduro and Ralf Schauerhammer, said that

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) were not destroying the

text: ozone layer

text: and opposed the proposal to ban them. It asserted that most chlorine in the atmosphere came from oceans, volcanoes, or other natural sources, and that CFCs were too heavy to reach the ozone layer. It went on to say that even if the ozone layer were depleted there would not be any harmful effects from additional ultraviolet radiation.  It predicted that a ban would result in an additional 20 to 40 million deaths due to food spoilage. Lewis DuPont Smith, an heir to the DuPont Chemical fortune and a LaRouche follower, told Maduro that the DuPont Company had schemed to ban CFCs, which they had invented but which had become generic, in order to replace them with more expensive proprietary compounds.  It has been called "probably the best known and most widely quoted text aimed at debunking the concept of ozone depletion".  Its assertions were repeated by

text: Dixie Lee Ray

text: in her 1993 book Environmental Overkill, by

text: Rush Limbaugh

text: , and by

text: Ronald Bailey

text: . Some atmospheric scientists have said that it is based on poor research.

text: The EPA’s Air Quality Index (AQI), showing air quality on a daily basis, lists no unhealthy days for the general population in all of northern Arizona and southern Utah counties. Unhealthy days for ozone-sensitive groups - those with asthma or lung disease – are also rare in these counties despite high natural background levels in the Intermountain West. Coconino County, with the highest occurrences, averages less than two unhealthy days per year, these occurring between March and June, suggesting a correlation with spring stratospheric ozone intrusions. NGS emissions are unlikely to have contributed to high ozone occurrences, as the plant is located at the northern border of Coconino County, and prevailing southwesterly winds in the spring blow toward counties to the north and east, which have not reported any days with unhealthy ozone levels.Moreover, Coconino County’s two ozone monitoring sites – Grand Canyon Hance Camp and Page – show significant differences within the county (the sites being 70 miles apart). During periods when ozone readings have been highest, peak concentrations in Page were noted to be more than 10 percent lower than those at the Grand Canyon.

text: The EPA’s Air Quality Index (AQI), showing air quality on a daily basis, lists no unhealthy days for the general population in all of northern Arizona and southern Utah counties. Unhealthy days for ozone-sensitive groups - those with asthma or lung disease – are also rare in these counties despite high natural background levels in the

text: Intermountain West

text: . Coconino County, with the highest occurrences, averages less than two unhealthy days per year, these occurring between March and June, suggesting a correlation with spring stratospheric ozone intrusions. NGS emissions are unlikely to have contributed to high ozone occurrences, as the plant is located at the northern border of Coconino County, and prevailing southwesterly winds in the spring blow toward counties to the north and east, which have not reported any days with unhealthy ozone levels.Moreover, Coconino County’s two ozone monitoring sites – Grand Canyon Hance Camp and Page – show significant differences within the county (the sites being 70 miles apart). During periods when ozone readings have been highest, peak concentrations in Page were noted to be more than 10 percent lower than those at the Grand Canyon.

text: Epidemiological studies suggest an association between ocular cortical cataracts and UVB exposure, using crude approximations of exposure and various cataract assessment techniques. A detailed assessment of ocular exposure to UVB was carried out in a study on Chesapeake Bay Watermen, where increases in average annual ocular exposure were associated with increasing risk of cortical opacity. In this highly exposed group of predominantly white males, the evidence linking cortical opacities to sunlight exposure was the strongest to date. Based on these results, ozone depletion is predicted to cause hundreds of thousands of additional cataracts by 2050.

text: 40.	Ozone hole and life on earth, Vidyarangam,Journal of Kerala state Public instruction department,  October 2007, p.22-23

text: Since the ozone layer absorbs UVB ultraviolet light from the sun, ozone layer depletion increases surface UVB levels (all else equal), which could lead to damage, including increase in skin cancer. This was the reason for the Montreal Protocol. Although decreases in stratospheric ozone are well-tied to CFCs and to increases in surface UVB, there is no direct observational evidence linking ozone depletion to higher incidence of skin cancer and eye damage in human beings. This is partly because UVA, which has also been implicated in some forms of skin cancer, is not absorbed by ozone, and because it is nearly impossible to control statistics for lifestyle changes over time.

text: Since the ozone layer absorbs

text: UVB

text: ultraviolet light from the sun, ozone layer depletion increases surface UVB levels (all else equal), which could lead to damage, including increase in skin cancer. This was the reason for the Montreal Protocol. Although decreases in stratospheric ozone are well-tied to CFCs and to increases in surface UVB, there is no direct observational evidence linking ozone depletion to higher incidence of skin cancer and eye damage in human beings. This is partly because

text: UVA

text: , which has also been implicated in some forms of skin cancer, is not absorbed by ozone, and because it is nearly impossible to control statistics for lifestyle changes over time.

text: François Ozon saw the play Potiche by Pierre Barillet and Jean-Pierre Grédy about ten years before he made the film. According to Ozon, the genesis of the film version was, partly, that he had been approached by the producers Éric and Nicolas Altmayer and asked to make a biographical film about Nicolas Sarkozy, and, partly, his experiences from the 2007 presidential campaign, where he followed the Socialist Party's candidate Ségolène Royal. While writing the screenplay, Ozon regularly met with Barillet, who gladly approved the tweaks made in order to enhance the story's relevance for contemporary society. The 1970s setting was, however, retained; this was both because the distance allowed the director to make a more humorous film, and because France was more politically divided in the 1970s, which made the class relations more remarkable. The political career of Suzanne was entirely Ozon's own addition to the story, which in its original incarnation ended when Robert returns to the factory.

text: François Ozon

text: saw the play Potiche by Pierre Barillet and Jean-Pierre Grédy about ten years before he made the film. According to Ozon, the genesis of the film version was, partly, that he had been approached by the producers Éric and Nicolas Altmayer and asked to make a biographical film about

text: Nicolas Sarkozy

text: , and, partly, his experiences from the

text: 2007 presidential campaign

text: , where he followed the

text: Socialist Party

text: 's candidate

text: Ségolène Royal

text: . While writing the screenplay, Ozon regularly met with Barillet, who gladly approved the tweaks made in order to enhance the story's relevance for contemporary society. The 1970s setting was, however, retained; this was both because the distance allowed the director to make a more humorous film, and because France was more politically divided in the 1970s, which made the class relations more remarkable. The political career of Suzanne was entirely Ozon's own addition to the story, which in its original incarnation ended when Robert returns to the factory.

text: A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is an organic compound that contains only carbon, chlorine, and fluorine, produced as volatile derivative of methane, ethane, and propane. They are also commonly known by the DuPont brand name Freon. The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12 or Freon-12). Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. Because CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere, the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol, and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) (e.g., R-410A) and R-134a.

text: A chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is an

text: organic compound

text: that contains only

text: carbon

text: chlorine

text: , and

text: fluorine

text: , produced as

text: volatile

text: derivative of

text: methane

text: ethane

text: , and

text: propane

text: . They are also commonly known by the

text: DuPont

text: brand name

text: Freon

text: . The most common representative is

text: dichlorodifluoromethane

text: (R-12 or Freon-12). Many CFCs have been widely used as

text: refrigerants

text: , propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. Because CFCs contribute to

text: ozone depletion

text: in the upper

text: atmosphere

text: , the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , and they are being replaced with other products such as

text: hydrofluorocarbon

text: s (HFCs) (e.g.,

text: ) and R-134a.

text: The full extent of the damage that CFCs have caused to the ozone layer is not known and will not be known for decades; however, marked decreases in column ozone have already been observed. The Montreal and Vienna conventions were installed long before a scientific consensus was established or important uncertainties in the science field were being resolved. The ozone case was understood comparably well by lay persons as e.g. Ozone shield or ozone hole were useful "easy-to-understand bridging metaphors". Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays, resulting in a 50 percent sales loss even before legislation was enforced.

text: While standard UV ozone generators tend to be less expensive, they usually produce ozone with a concentration of about 0.5% or lower. Another disadvantage of this method is that it requires the air (oxygen) to be exposed to the UV source for a longer amount of time, and any gas that is not exposed to the UV source will not be treated. This makes UV generators impractical for use in situations that deal with rapidly moving air or water streams (in-duct air sterilization, for example). Production of ozone is one of the potential dangers of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation. VUV ozone generators are used in swimming pool and spa applications ranging to millions of gallons of water. VUV ozone generators, unlike corona discharge generators, do not produce harmful nitrogen by-products and also unlike corona discharge systems, VUV ozone generators work extremely well in humid air environments. There is also not normally a need for expensive off-gas mechanisms, and no need for air driers or oxygen concentrators which require extra costs and maintenance.

text: While standard UV ozone generators tend to be less expensive, they usually produce ozone with a concentration of about 0.5% or lower. Another disadvantage of this method is that it requires the air (oxygen) to be exposed to the UV source for a longer amount of time, and any gas that is not exposed to the UV source will not be treated. This makes UV generators impractical for use in situations that deal with rapidly moving air or water streams (in-duct air

text: sterilization

text: , for example). Production of ozone is one of the

text: potential dangers

text: of

text: ultraviolet germicidal irradiation

text: . VUV ozone generators are used in swimming pool and

text: spa

text: applications ranging to millions of gallons of water. VUV ozone generators, unlike corona discharge generators, do not produce harmful nitrogen by-products and also unlike corona discharge systems, VUV ozone generators work extremely well in humid air environments. There is also not normally a need for expensive off-gas mechanisms, and no need for air driers or oxygen concentrators which require extra costs and maintenance.

text: A static discharge in the presence of air or oxygen can create ozone. Ozone can degrade rubber parts. Many elastomers are sensitive to ozone cracking. Exposure to ozone creates deep penetrative cracks in critical components like gaskets and O-rings. Fuel lines are also susceptible to the problem unless preventive action is taken. Preventive measures include adding anti-ozonants to the rubber mix, or using an ozone-resistant elastomer. Fires from cracked fuel lines have been a problem on vehicles, especially in the engine compartments where ozone can be produced by electrical equipment.

text: A static discharge in the presence of air or oxygen can create

text: ozone

text: . Ozone can degrade rubber parts. Many

text: elastomer

text: s are sensitive to

text: ozone cracking

text: . Exposure to ozone creates deep penetrative cracks in critical components like

text: gasket

text: s and

text: O-ring

text: s.

text: Fuel line

text: s are also susceptible to the problem unless preventive action is taken. Preventive measures include adding anti-ozonants to the rubber mix, or using an ozone-resistant elastomer. Fires from cracked fuel lines have been a problem on vehicles, especially in the engine compartments where ozone can be produced by electrical equipment.

text: Drew Shindell has used climate models to assess both climate change and ozone depletion. In his view, while research up to now has been more about the impact of CFC emissions on stratospheric ozone, the future will be more about the interaction between climate change and ozone feedback.  Ozone is a greenhouse gas itself. Many ozone-depleting substances are also greenhouse gases, some thousands of times more powerful agents of radiative forcing than carbon dioxide over the short and medium term. The increases in concentrations of these chemicals have produced 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m of radiative forcing, corresponding to about 14% of the total radiative forcing from increases in the concentrations of well-mixed greenhouse gases. Already the natural ozone variability in the stratosphere seems to be closely correlated with the 11-year solar cycle of irradiance changes and has, via a dynamic coupling between the stratosphere and troposphere, a significant impact on climate.

text: Drew Shindell

text: has used climate models to assess both climate change and ozone depletion. In his view, while research up to now has been more about the impact of CFC emissions on stratospheric ozone, the future will be more about the interaction between climate change and ozone feedback.  Ozone is a greenhouse gas itself. Many

text: ozone-depleting substances

text: are also greenhouse gases, some thousands of times more powerful agents of

text: radiative forcing

text: than carbon dioxide over the short and medium term. The increases in concentrations of these chemicals have produced 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m of radiative forcing, corresponding to about 14% of the total radiative forcing from increases in the concentrations of well-mixed greenhouse gases. Already the natural ozone variability in the stratosphere seems to be closely correlated with the 11-year solar cycle of irradiance changes and has, via a dynamic coupling between the stratosphere and troposphere, a significant impact on climate.

text: Since regime stations forbid, or censured  presentations of opposition candidates, some smaller stations took liberty to show that presentations, and Ozon was one of them. Ozon was the only free radio in wide area presenting informative programs and presentations candidates of opposition parties where they could present their political views and programs and listeners actively participate with their comments and questions.

text: Jeanne Lapoirie is a French cinematographer. She began her career in the 1980s, working as camera operator and cinematographer with directors such as Luc Besson and Agnès Varda. She is also known for her collaborations with André Téchiné and François Ozon. She was nominated for a César Award for Best Cinematography for her work in Ozon's 8 femmes in 2003 and Michael Kohlhaas in 2014.

text: Jeanne Lapoirie is a French

text: cinematographer

text: . She began her career in the 1980s, working as camera operator and cinematographer with directors such as

text: Luc Besson

text: and

text: Agnès Varda

text: . She is also known for her collaborations with

text: André Téchiné

text: and

text: François Ozon

text: . She was nominated for a

text: César Award for Best Cinematography

text: for her work in Ozon's

text: 8 femmes

text: in 2003 and

entity_name: Age of Uprising: The Legend of Michael Kohlhaas

text: Michael Kohlhaas

text: in 2014.

text: Net: 2O -> 3O	What occurs is chlorine (Cl) combines with ozone (O) after exposure to light to form a hypochlorite (ClO) molecule and diatomic oxygen (O). This results in affecting the oxygen available to breathe in.  The hypochlorite (ClO) then combines with another hypochlorite in the presence of a third body (M), which is just a solid surface that allows the reaction to take place. The reason this reaction is so harmful to ozone is the chlorine is able to be recycled and be eligible to destroy another ozone molecule again in a continuous cycle. On average, over five to ten molecules of ozone are consumed by every chlorine atom deposited in a rocket’s plume originating from the rocket fuel. Chlorine was confirmed to be the greatest contributor to ozone loss resulting from rocket plumes due to data collected in night rocket launches. This is due to the need of sunlight to activate the chlorine in order to initiate the destruction of ozone cycle by chlorine molecules.

text: Net: 2O -> 3O	What occurs is chlorine (Cl) combines with

text: ozone

text: (O) after exposure to light to form a

text: hypochlorite

text: (ClO) molecule and

text: diatomic oxygen

text: (O). This results in affecting the oxygen available to breathe in.  The hypochlorite (ClO) then combines with another hypochlorite in the presence of a third body (M), which is just a solid surface that allows the reaction to take place. The reason this reaction is so harmful to ozone is the chlorine is able to be recycled and be eligible to destroy another ozone molecule again in a continuous cycle. On average, over five to ten molecules of ozone are consumed by every chlorine atom deposited in a rocket’s

text: plume

text: originating from the rocket fuel. Chlorine was confirmed to be the greatest contributor to ozone loss resulting from rocket plumes due to data collected in night rocket launches. This is due to the need of

text: sunlight

text: to activate the chlorine in order to initiate the destruction of ozone cycle by chlorine molecules.

text: Ozonated water is used to launder clothes and to sanitize food, drinking water, and surfaces in the home. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), it is "amending the food additive regulations to provide for the safe use of ozone in gaseous and aqueous phases as an antimicrobial agent on food, including meat and poultry." Studies at California Polytechnic University demonstrated that 0.3 μmol/mol levels of ozone dissolved in filtered tapwater can produce a reduction of more than 99.99% in such food-borne microorganisms as salmonella, E. coli 0157:H7 and Campylobacter. This quantity is 20,000 times the WHO-recommended limits stated above.Ozone can be used to remove pesticide residues from fruits and vegetables.

text: Ozonated water is used to launder clothes and to sanitize food, drinking water, and surfaces in the home. According to the

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA), it is "amending the

text: food additive

text: regulations to provide for the safe use of ozone in gaseous and aqueous phases as an

text: antimicrobial agent

text: on food, including meat and poultry." Studies at

text: California Polytechnic University

text: demonstrated that 0.3 μmol/mol levels of ozone dissolved in filtered tapwater can produce a reduction of more than 99.99% in such food-borne microorganisms as salmonella, E. coli 0157:H7 and Campylobacter. This quantity is 20,000 times the

text: WHO

text: -recommended limits stated above.Ozone can be used to remove

text: pesticide

text: residues from

text: fruit

text: s and

text: vegetable

text: s.

text: Then, in 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin published results of abnormally low ozone concentrations above Halley Bay near the South Pole. They speculated that this was connected to increased levels of CFCs in the atmosphere. It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real and significant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings. The impact of these studies, the metaphor 'ozone hole', and the colourful visual representation in a time lapse animation proved shocking enough for negotiators in Montreal to take the issue seriously.

text: Then, in 1985,

text: British Antarctic Survey

text: scientists

text: Joe Farman

text: Brian Gardiner

text: and

text: Jonathan Shanklin

text: published results of abnormally low ozone concentrations above

text: Halley Bay

text: near the

text: South Pole

text: . They speculated that this was connected to increased levels of CFCs in the atmosphere. It took several other attempts to establish the Antarctic losses as real and significant, especially after NASA had retrieved matching data from its satellite recordings. The impact of these studies, the metaphor 'ozone hole', and the colourful visual representation in a time lapse animation proved shocking enough for negotiators in Montreal to take the issue seriously.

text: Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete combustion products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the air to produce nitrogen oxides ().  is hazardous to both plant and animal health, and leads to the production of ozone (O). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere by the reaction of  and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the same chemical substance, ground-level ozone should not be confused with stratospheric ozone, or the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.

text: Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete combustion products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and

text: nitrogen

text: in the air to produce

text: nitrogen oxide

text: s ().  is hazardous to both plant and animal health, and leads to the production of

text: ozone

text: (O). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere by the reaction of  and

text: volatile organic compound

text: s in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the same chemical substance, ground-level ozone should not be confused with

text: stratospheric ozone

text: , or the

text: ozone layer

text: , which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.

text: Ozone depletion also explains much of the observed reduction in stratospheric and upper tropospheric temperatures. The source of the warmth of the stratosphere is the absorption of UV radiation by ozone, hence reduced ozone leads to cooling. Some stratospheric cooling is also predicted from increases in greenhouse gases such as  and CFCs themselves; however the ozone-induced cooling appears to be dominant.

text: Ozone depletion also explains much of the observed reduction in stratospheric and upper tropospheric temperatures. The source of the warmth of the stratosphere is the absorption of UV radiation by ozone, hence reduced ozone leads to cooling. Some stratospheric cooling is also predicted from increases in

text: greenhouse gas

text: es such as  and CFCs themselves; however the ozone-induced cooling appears to be dominant.

text: Ozone is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidizing agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful protozoa that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is made by passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a "cold" electrical discharge. To use ozone as a disinfectant, it must be created on-site and added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the advantages of ozone include the production of fewer dangerous by-products and the absence of taste and odour problems (in comparison to chlorination). Another advantage of ozone is that it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water. Ozone has been used in drinking water plants since 1906 where the first industrial ozonation plant was built in Nice, France. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has accepted ozone as being safe; and it is applied as an anti-microbiological agent for the treatment, storage, and processing of foods. However, although fewer by-products are formed by ozonation, it has been discovered that ozone reacts with bromide ions in water to produce concentrations of the suspected carcinogen bromate.  Bromide can be found in fresh water supplies in sufficient concentrations to produce (after ozonation) more than 10 parts per billion (ppb) of bromate — the maximum contaminant level established by the USEPA.

text: Ozone

text: is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a powerful oxidizing agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful protozoa that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is made by passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a "cold" electrical discharge. To use ozone as a disinfectant, it must be created on-site and added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the advantages of ozone include the production of fewer dangerous by-products and the absence of taste and odour problems (in comparison to

text: chlorination

text: ). Another advantage of ozone is that it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water. Ozone has been used in drinking water plants since 1906 where the first industrial ozonation plant was built in

text: Nice

text: , France. The

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: has accepted ozone as being safe; and it is applied as an anti-microbiological agent for the treatment, storage, and processing of foods. However, although fewer by-products are formed by ozonation, it has been discovered that ozone reacts with bromide ions in water to produce concentrations of the suspected carcinogen

text: bromate

text: .  Bromide can be found in fresh water supplies in sufficient concentrations to produce (after ozonation) more than 10 parts per billion (ppb) of bromate — the maximum contaminant level established by the USEPA.

text: Energy changes in UV irradiance involved in production and loss of ozone have atmospheric effects. The 30 HPa Atmospheric pressure level changed height in phase with solar activity during solar cycles 20–23. UV irradiance increase caused higher ozone production, leading to stratospheric heating and to poleward displacements in the stratospheric and tropospheric wind systems.

text: Energy changes in UV irradiance involved in production and loss of

text: ozone

text: have atmospheric effects. The 30

text: HPa

text: Atmospheric pressure

text: level changed height in phase with solar activity during solar cycles 20–23. UV irradiance increase caused higher ozone production, leading to stratospheric heating and to poleward displacements in the

text: stratospheric

text: and

text: tropospheric

text: wind systems.

text: Very pure forms of butane, especially isobutane, can be used as refrigerants and have largely replaced the ozone-layer-depleting halomethanes, for instance in household refrigerators and freezers. The system operating pressure for butane is lower than for the halomethanes, such as R-12, so R-12 systems such as in automotive air conditioning systems, when converted to pure butane will not function optimally and therefor a mix of Isobutane and Propane is used to give cooling system performance comparable to R-12.

text: Very pure forms of butane, especially isobutane, can be used as

text: refrigerant

text: s and have largely replaced the

text: ozone-layer-depleting

text: halomethane

text: s, for instance in household refrigerators and freezers. The system operating pressure for butane is lower than for the halomethanes, such as

text: , so R-12 systems such as in automotive air conditioning systems, when converted to pure butane will not function optimally and therefor a mix of Isobutane and Propane is used to give cooling system performance comparable to R-12.

text: The news reports in this story seem to have some significance to this story as the author mentions it at every transition in Leeland's life. The various reports at first seem very random and irrelevant but a closer look tells the reader something more about the characters. One report says "a strange hole has appeared in the ozone layer". After this bad news the family receives bad news of their own when the baby nearly dies of fever because of the long distance it takes to get to the hospital. One point of view could be that human error causes many natural processes to go wrong. The constant pollution of the Earth results in the depletion of the Earth's ozone layer similar to Leeland's decision to feed the baby alcohol so that it would stop crying.

text: To support successful regulation attempts, the ozone case was communicated to lay persons "with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture" and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance". The specific metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) proved quite useful and, compared to global climate change, the ozone case was much more seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk. Lay people were cautious about a depletion of the ozone layer and the risks of skin cancer.

text: Note that the angular distribution of the O(D) is not uniform – more of the atoms fly toward the north or south pole than to the equator.  In this case, the north-south axis is parallel to the polarization direction of the light that dissociated the ozone.  Ozone molecules that absorb the polarized light are those in a particular alignment distribution, with a line connecting the end oxygen atoms in O roughly parallel to the polarization.  Because the ozone dissociates more rapidly than it rotates, the O and O products recoil predominantly along this polarization axis.  But there is more detail as well.  A close examination shows that the peak in the angular distribution is not actually exactly at the north or south pole, but rather at an angle of about 45 degrees.  This has to do with the polarization of the laser that ionizes the O(D), and can be analyzed to show that the angular momentum of this atom (which has 2 units) is aligned relative to the velocity of recoil.  More detail can be found elsewhere.

text: Note that the angular distribution of the O(D) is not uniform – more of the atoms fly toward the north or south pole than to the equator.  In this case, the north-south axis is parallel to the

text: polarization

text: direction of the light that dissociated the ozone.  Ozone molecules that absorb the polarized light are those in a particular alignment distribution, with a line connecting the end oxygen atoms in O roughly parallel to the polarization.  Because the ozone dissociates more rapidly than it rotates, the O and O products recoil predominantly along this polarization axis.  But there is more detail as well.  A close examination shows that the peak in the angular distribution is not actually exactly at the north or south pole, but rather at an angle of about 45 degrees.  This has to do with the polarization of the laser that ionizes the O(D), and can be analyzed to show that the

text: angular momentum

text: of this atom (which has 2 units) is aligned relative to the velocity of recoil.  More detail can be found elsewhere.

text: Bromodifluoromethane was used as a refrigerant and in fire extinguishers. It is a class I ozone depleting substance with ozone depletion potential ODP = 0.74. It was banned by Montreal Protocol in 2000.

text: Bromodifluoromethane was used as a

text: refrigerant

text: and in

text: fire extinguishers

text: . It is a class I

text: ozone depleting substance

text: with

text: ozone depletion potential

text: ODP = 0.74. It was banned by

text: Montreal Protocol

text: in 2000.

text: Certain plants (e.g. most strains of cannabis) emit a distinctive odor during their reproductive phase. This presents difficulties to those who are cultivating in places where it is illegal, or for growers who may prefer discretion for other reasons. The most common way of eliminating odor is by pulling odorous air through a carbon filter. Many cultivators simply attach a large carbon filter to their air extraction system, thereby filtering any smell before the air is expelled from the grow-room. Another way of eliminating odor is by installing an ozone generator in the extraction ducting. The air is forced past the ozone generator by the extraction fan, and the odorous air is neutralized as it mixes with the ozone; however the cultivator must ensure that the air is thoroughly mixed before it is expelled outside, lest some odor escape. Care must be taken to prevent excessive ozone concentrations in the garden itself, or where it might be inhaled by the grower or his/her family. Ozone itself has a distinctive smell and is harmful to living things, although the molecule breaks down quickly (20 minutes to an hour) in atmospheric conditions.

text: Certain plants (e.g. most strains of

text: cannabis

text: ) emit a distinctive odor during their reproductive phase. This presents difficulties to those who are cultivating in places where it is illegal, or for growers who may prefer discretion for other reasons. The most common way of eliminating odor is by pulling odorous air through a

text: carbon filter

text: . Many cultivators simply attach a large carbon filter to their air extraction system, thereby filtering any smell before the air is expelled from the grow-room. Another way of eliminating odor is by installing an

text: ozone

text: generator in the extraction ducting. The air is forced past the ozone generator by the extraction fan, and the odorous air is neutralized as it mixes with the ozone; however the cultivator must ensure that the air is thoroughly mixed before it is expelled outside, lest some odor escape. Care must be taken to prevent excessive ozone concentrations in the garden itself, or where it might be inhaled by the grower or his/her family. Ozone itself has a distinctive smell and is harmful to living things, although the molecule breaks down quickly (20 minutes to an hour) in atmospheric conditions.

text: The first SAGE instrument was launched February 18, 1979, to collect data on the various gases in the atmosphere, including ozone. The data collected on  and the following instrument , which began taking measurements in , were critical to the discovery of the Earth's ozone hole and the creation of 1987 Montreal Protocol, which banned ozone-depleting substances, such as chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).

text: The first SAGE instrument was launched February 18, 1979, to collect data on the various gases in the atmosphere, including ozone. The data collected on  and the following instrument , which began taking measurements in , were critical to the discovery of the Earth's

text: ozone hole

text: and the creation of 1987

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , which banned ozone-depleting substances, such as

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: (CFC).

text: Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.

text: Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of

text: ozone

text: in

text: Earth's

text: stratosphere

text: (the

text: ozone layer

text: ), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar

text: tropospheric ozone depletion events

text: By the late 1970s researched had shifted focus to the stratosphere. This shift was driven by the fear of ozone depletion due to manufactured gases, and by the time the ozone hole was discovered. Lauder had begun measuring UV radiation, ozone, and other gases associated with ozone depletion.

text: By the late 1970s researched had shifted focus to the stratosphere. This shift was driven by the fear of

text: ozone depletion

text: due to manufactured gases, and by the time the ozone hole was discovered. Lauder had begun measuring UV radiation, ozone, and other gases associated with ozone depletion.

text: Trifluoromethane and chlorodifluoromethane are both used as refrigerants in some applications.  Trihalomethanes released to the environment break down faster than chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), thereby doing much less damage to the ozone layer .  Chlorodifluoromethane is a refrigerant HCFC, or hydrochlorofluorocarbon, while fluoroform is an HFC, or hydrofluorocarbon. Fluoroform is not ozone depleting.

text: Trifluoromethane

text: and

text: chlorodifluoromethane

text: are both used as

text: refrigerant

text: s in some applications.  Trihalomethanes released to the environment break down faster than

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: (CFCs), thereby doing much less damage to the

text: ozone layer

text: .  Chlorodifluoromethane is a refrigerant

text: HCFC

text: , or

text: hydrochlorofluorocarbon

text: , while fluoroform is an HFC, or

text: hydrofluorocarbon

text: . Fluoroform is not ozone depleting.

text: EPA Ghana has an ozone unit, tasked with phasing out ozone-depleting substances (ODS) after Ghana signed the Montreal Protocol, and information on ODS uss was collated for the multilateral fund and ozone secretariats. Refrigeration shops were monitored to ensure good practice and identify refrigerant brands on the market. Few shops had CFC12 and R134a, and shops with a mixture of refrigerants had them seized. R-406A, a new refrigerant compatible with CFC12 and HFC134a systems, was found in use. Seminars, with more than 1,420 participants, were held on good refrigeration practice, hydrocarbon as an alternative refrigerant and hydrocarbon technology transfer. The import of equipment using chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) was banned in 2010, and customs officers were trained in their detection. Applications for financial incentives from three cold-storage facilities were approved, and the facilities were inspected. EPA officers visited the three major foam-producing factories in Accra and Nsawam to ensure worker safety and environmental compliance.

text: EPA Ghana has an ozone unit, tasked with phasing out

text: ozone-depleting

text: substances (ODS) after Ghana signed the Montreal Protocol, and information on ODS uss was collated for the multilateral fund and ozone secretariats. Refrigeration shops were monitored to ensure good practice and identify

text: refrigerant

text: brands on the market. Few shops had CFC12 and

text: , and shops with a mixture of refrigerants had them seized.

text: , a new refrigerant compatible with CFC12 and HFC134a systems, was found in use. Seminars, with more than 1,420 participants, were held on good refrigeration practice,

text: hydrocarbon

text: as an alternative refrigerant and hydrocarbon

text: technology transfer

text: . The import of equipment using

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) was banned in 2010, and customs officers were trained in their detection. Applications for financial incentives from three cold-storage facilities were approved, and the facilities were inspected. EPA officers visited the three major foam-producing factories in Accra and Nsawam to ensure worker safety and environmental compliance.

text: Ozone depletion would magnify all of the effects of UV on human health, both positive (including production of Vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts). In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.

text: Ozone depletion would magnify all of the

text: effects of UV on human health

text: , both positive (including production of Vitamin D) and negative (including sunburn, skin cancer, and cataracts). In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.

text: The episode purports the common misconception that ozone layer depletion and the greenhouse effect are identical or that the causes are identical. While some gases play a role in both, methane (one of the gases contained in flatulence) is considered a greenhouse gas but has no part in ozone depletion.

text: The episode purports the common misconception that

text: ozone layer depletion

text: and the

text: greenhouse effect

text: are identical or that the causes are identical. While some gases play a role in both,

text: methane

text: (one of the gases contained in flatulence) is considered a greenhouse gas but has no part in ozone depletion.

text: MOZART (Model for OZone And Related chemical Tracers) is a chemistry transport model (CTM) developed jointly by the (US) National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), and the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology (MPI-Met) to simulate changes in ozone concentrations in the Earth's atmosphere. MOZART was designed to simulate tropospheric chemical and transport processes, but has been extended into the stratosphere and mesosphere. It can be driven by standard meteorological fields from, e.g.,

text: MOZART (Model for OZone And Related chemical Tracers) is a

text: chemistry transport model

text: (CTM) developed jointly by the (

text: US

entity_name: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: (NCAR), the

text: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory

text: (GFDL), and the

text: Max Planck Institute for Meteorology

text: (MPI-Met) to simulate changes in

text: ozone

text: concentrations

text: in the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: atmosphere

text: . MOZART was designed to simulate

text: tropospheric

text: chemical and transport processes, but has been extended into the

text: stratosphere

text: and

text: mesosphere

text: . It can be driven by standard

text: meteorological

text: fields from, e.g.,

text: The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) are not "exact" in the scientific sense. The "ozone hole" is more of a depression, less "a hole in the windshield". The ozone does not disappear through the layer, nor is there a uniform "thinning" of the ozone layer. However they resonated better with non-scientists and their concerns.The ozone hole was seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk as lay people feared severe personal consequences such skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone. Not only on the policy level,  ozone regulation compared to climate change fared much better in public opinion. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays before legislation was enforced, while climate change failed to achieve comparable concern and public action. The sudden recognition in 1985 that there was a substantial "hole" was widely reported in the press. The especially rapid ozone depletion in Antarctica had previously been dismissed as a measurement error. Scientific consensus was established after regulation.

text: The metaphors used in the CFC discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) are not "exact" in the scientific sense. The "ozone hole" is more of a depression, less "a hole in the windshield". The ozone does not disappear through the layer, nor is there a uniform "thinning" of the ozone layer. However they resonated better with non-scientists and their concerns.The ozone hole was seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk as lay people feared severe personal consequences such skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone. Not only on the policy level,

text: ozone regulation compared to climate change

text: fared much better in public opinion. Americans voluntarily switched away from aerosol sprays before legislation was enforced, while climate change failed to achieve comparable concern and public action. The sudden recognition in 1985 that there was a substantial "hole" was widely reported in the press. The especially rapid ozone depletion in Antarctica had previously been dismissed as a measurement error. Scientific consensus was established after regulation.

text: The southern half of Western Australia is greatly affected by the depletion of atmospheric ozone.  While the rate of increase in the size of the ozone hole is slowing, 2006 figures produced by NASA show that the size of the hole that year was the biggest on record, averaging 27.4 million square kilometers in extent.  As a result, the figures that suggest that 1/3 of Western Australians will in the course of their life suffer from skin cancers, has caused a huge change in popular behavior.  From being a part of a nation of sun-loving beach-goers, Western Australians have adopted a habit of "slipping" on a shirt, "slopping" on a 15+ sunscreen and "slapping" on a hat.  Unfortunately the effects of the ozone hole on Western Australian livestock, or on our native flora and fauna is much less understood.  The increase in numbers of blind kangaroo suffering from ultraviolet caused cataracts has been recorded in local newspapers, but the overall effects has not been studied.

text: Deep: clubDeep Ozon was an event held on November 10, 2002 at the Club Ozon in Nagoya, Japan.

text: Deep: clubDeep Ozon was an event held on November 10, 2002 at the Club Ozon in

text: Nagoya

text: Japan

text: Models predict a latitudinal effect in response to climate change. These would be expected to be first obvious in polar and subpolar regions. The decline of arctic ocean summer ice coverage was assumed to be one such sign, however, the reversal of that trend leaves the question open as the origins of the now reversed 30 year trend. In 1979, the cover of Time magazine was illustrated with an image of arctic ice covering and expanding BEYOND the arctic basin, opinion seems to have little value. Real data reveal the trend of ice coverage to be on the increase. If this increase will continue, only time will tell.  Developed nations ceased the production and use of chlorofluorocarbons and the atmospheric abundance and consequent ozone depletion are generally on the decrease. ozone hole Breaking-off of polar ice shelves is a continuing process with increases in Western Antarctica balanced by decreases in Eastern Antarctica. Careful study has revealed that the volume of ice in Western Antarctica was incorrectly estimated and shows no significant change attributable to climate change over the observation period.

text: Models predict a latitudinal effect in response to climate change. These would be expected to be first obvious in polar and subpolar regions. The decline of arctic ocean summer ice coverage was assumed to be one such sign, however, the reversal of that trend leaves the question open as the origins of the now reversed 30 year trend. In 1979, the cover of Time magazine was illustrated with an image of arctic ice covering and expanding BEYOND the arctic basin, opinion seems to have little value. Real data reveal the trend of ice coverage to be on the increase. If this increase will continue, only time will tell.  Developed nations ceased the production and use of chlorofluorocarbons and the atmospheric abundance and consequent ozone depletion are generally on the decrease.

text: ozone hole

text: Breaking-off of polar ice shelves is a continuing process with increases in Western Antarctica balanced by decreases in Eastern Antarctica. Careful study has revealed that the volume of ice in Western Antarctica was incorrectly estimated and shows no significant change attributable to climate change over the observation period.

text: The dominating parameter influencing ozone generation efficiency is the gas temperature, which is controlled by cooling water temperature and/or gas velocity. The cooler the water, the better the ozone synthesis. The lower the gas velocity, the higher the concentration (but the lower the net ozone produced). At typical industrial conditions, almost 90% of the effective power is dissipated as heat and needs to be removed by a sufficient cooling water flow.

text: One infamous area of Ozone Park is known as "The Hole", and includes the area bounded by 75th (Ruby) Street, South Conduit Avenue, 78th Street and Linden Boulevard. It is named as such because the houses in this area were built below grade. In the 1930s, the city of New York decided to install sewers and sewer lines in Ozone Park to stop the serious flooding that was a major problem. In order to install the sewers, the houses had to be raised almost an entire floor. Owners were given a stipend to raise their homes but some chose not to do so. The first floor in some of the non-raised homes subsequently became basements. And even today, there are still a few homes that remain below grade.

text: One infamous area of Ozone Park is known as

text: "The Hole"

text: , and includes the area bounded by 75th (Ruby) Street, South Conduit Avenue, 78th Street and Linden Boulevard. It is named as such because the houses in this area were built below grade. In the 1930s, the city of New York decided to install sewers and sewer lines in Ozone Park to stop the serious flooding that was a major problem. In order to install the sewers, the houses had to be raised almost an entire floor. Owners were given a stipend to raise their homes but some chose not to do so. The first floor in some of the non-raised homes subsequently became basements. And even today, there are still a few homes that remain below grade.

text: Trichlorotrifluoroethane, also called 1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane or CFC-113 is a chlorofluorocarbon. It has the formula ClFC-CClF.  This colorless gas is a versatile solvent.  It has attracted much attention for its role in the depletion of stratospheric ozone. The amount of CFC-113 in the atmosphere has remained at about 80 parts per trillion, since the early 1990s.  It is isomeric with 1,1,1-Trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane, known as CFC-113a, which has the structural formula CF-CCl.  The Montreal Protocol in 1987 called for the phase out of all CFC’s, including CFC-113 by 2010.

text: Trichlorotrifluoroethane, also called 1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane or CFC-113 is a

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: . It has the formula ClFC-CClF.  This colorless gas is a versatile solvent.  It has attracted much attention for its role in the depletion of stratospheric ozone. The amount of CFC-113 in the atmosphere has remained at about 80 parts per trillion, since the early 1990s.  It is

text: isomer

text: ic with

text: , known as CFC-113a, which has the structural formula CF-CCl.  The

text: Montreal Protocol

text: in 1987 called for the phase out of all CFC’s, including CFC-113 by 2010.

text: Ozone is a specialist in environmental health and various forms of airborne sludge and other harmful chemicals. He carriers equipment designed to neutralize these harmful substances while at the same time replenishing the ozone layer. He can do this while wearing a cumbersome environmental suit and fighting Cobra forces.

text: From the 1990s Lauder has also monitored the effects of ozone depletion on solar UV irradiance.

text: From the 1990s Lauder has also monitored the effects of ozone depletion on solar

text: UV

text: irradiance.

text: Chlorodifluoromethane or difluoromonochloromethane is a hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC).  This colorless gas is better known as HCFC-22, or R-22.  It is commonly used as a propellant and refrigerant.  These applications are being phased out in developed countries due to the compound's ozone depletion potential (ODP) and high global warming potential (GWP), although global use of R-22 continues to increase because of high demand in developing countries.  R-22 is a versatile intermediate in industrial organofluorine chemistry, e.g. as a precursor to tetrafluoroethylene.  R-22 cylinders are colored light green.

text: Chlorodifluoromethane or difluoromonochloromethane is a

text: hydrochlorofluorocarbon

text: (HCFC).  This colorless gas is better known as HCFC-22, or R-22.  It is commonly used as a

text: propellant

text: and

text: refrigerant

text: .  These applications are being phased out in

text: developed countries

text: due to the compound's

text: ozone depletion potential

text: (ODP) and high

text: global warming potential

text: (GWP), although global use of R-22 continues to increase because of high demand in

text: developing countries

text: .  R-22 is a versatile intermediate in industrial

text: organofluorine chemistry

text: , e.g. as a precursor to

text: tetrafluoroethylene

text: .  R-22 cylinders are colored

text: light green

text: Second, the Treasury Select Committee can call on the OBR to give evidence on its work at any time;

text: Second, the

text: Treasury Select Committee

text: can call on the OBR to give evidence on its work at any time;

text: In December 2006, Tween Brands Inc., a retailer of girls' clothing and accessories in the United States, was fined $109,800 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency for "allegedly distributing canned confetti string damaging to the ozone."  EPA said the product marketed under various names by the retailer damages the stratospheric ozone layer. The production and use of chemicals harmful to that layer is controlled by U.S. federal law.

text: In December 2006, Tween Brands Inc., a retailer of girls' clothing and accessories in the United States, was fined $109,800 by the

text: for "allegedly distributing canned confetti string damaging to the

text: ozone

text: ."  EPA said the product marketed under various names by the retailer damages the

text: stratospheric

text: ozone layer

text: . The production and use of chemicals harmful to that layer is controlled by U.S. federal law.

text: Salby was the first to document the influence of meteorological variability on long-term stratospheric ozone changes. This role of natural variability on stratospheric ozone depletion has inspired related studies and large research projects  and has been recognised in several WMO Ozone Depletion Assessments.

text: Salby was the first to document the influence of meteorological variability on long-term stratospheric ozone changes. This role of natural variability on stratospheric ozone depletion has inspired related studies and large research projects  and has been recognised in several

text: WMO

text: Ozone Depletion Assessments.

text: It includes the species Apusomonas proboscidea.

text: In addition to the communities of Binza Ozone, Binza Météo, Binza Delvaux and Binza I.P.N., the area also accommodates: