text: Research has shown that Americans are aware of climate change, but do not consider it to be a serious problem due to the lack of an affective response. Many people report as not having experienced the consequences of climate change or that it is a long-term consequence that will not happen in the near future. Therefore, it is considered to be of lower priority and not much is done as a solution to global climate change. Nonetheless, recent research has highlighted the important role of affect in guiding public risk perceptions of climate change.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: In order to constitute the Holocene as an extinction event, scientists must determine exactly when anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions began to measurably alter natural atmospheric levels at a global scale and when these alterations caused changes to global climate. Employing chemical proxies from Antarctic ice cores, researchers have estimated the fluctuations of carbon dioxide (C02) and methane gases (CH4) in the earth’s atmosphere for the late Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. Based on these studies, general argumentation of when the peak of the Anthropocene occurred pertains to the timeframe within the previous two centuries; typically beginning with the Industrial Revolution, when greenhouse gas levels were recorded by contemporary methods at its highest.  However, scientists that are employing a variance of archaeological and paleoecological data argue that the processes contributing to substantial human modification of the environment spanned many thousands of years ago on a global scale and thus, not originating as early as the Industrial Revolution. Gaining popularity on his uncommon hypothesis, Palaeoclimatologist William Ruddiman in 2003, stipulated that in the early Holocene 11,000 years ago, atmospheric carbon dioxide  and methane levels has fluctuated at a different pattern than the Pleistocene epoch before it. He argued that the patterns of the significant decline of CO2 levels during the last ice age of the Pleistocene inversely correlates to the Holocene where there has been dramatic increases of CO2 around 8000 years ago and CH4 levels 3000 years after that. The correlation between the downfall of CO2 in the Pleistocene and the uprising of it during the Holocene implies that the causation of this spark of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere are due to the growth of human agriculture during the Holocene such as the anthropogenic expansion of land and irrigation.

text: In order to constitute the

entity_name: Holocene

text: Holocene

text: as an

entity_name: Extinction event

text: extinction event

text: , scientists must determine exactly when anthropogenic

entity_name: Greenhouse gas

text: greenhouse gas emissions

text: began to measurably alter natural atmospheric levels at a global scale and when these alterations caused changes to global climate. Employing chemical proxies from Antarctic ice cores, researchers have estimated the fluctuations of

entity_name: Carbon dioxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: (C02) and

entity_name: Methane

text: methane gases

text: (CH4) in the earth’s atmosphere for the

entity_name: Late Pleistocene

text: late Pleistocene

text: and Holocene epochs. Based on these studies, general argumentation of when the peak of the Anthropocene occurred pertains to the timeframe within the previous two centuries; typically beginning with the

entity_name: Industrial Revolution

text: Industrial Revolution

text: , when greenhouse gas levels were recorded by contemporary methods at its highest.  However, scientists that are employing a variance of

entity_name: Archaeology

text: archaeological

text: and paleoecological data argue that the processes contributing to substantial human modification of the environment spanned many thousands of years ago on a global scale and thus, not originating as early as the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: . Gaining popularity on his uncommon hypothesis, Palaeoclimatologist

entity_name: William Ruddiman

text: William Ruddiman

text: in 2003, stipulated that in the early Holocene 11,000 years ago, atmospheric carbon dioxide  and methane levels has fluctuated at a different pattern than the

entity_name: Pleistocene

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch before it. He argued that the patterns of the significant decline of CO2 levels during the last ice age of the Pleistocene inversely correlates to the Holocene where there has been dramatic increases of CO2 around 8000 years ago and CH4 levels 3000 years after that. The correlation between the downfall of CO2 in the

text: Pleistocene

text: and the uprising of it during the

text: Holocene

text: implies that the causation of this spark of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere are due to the growth of

entity_name: Agriculture

text: human agriculture

text: during the Holocene such as the anthropogenic expansion of land and

entity_name: Irrigation

text: irrigation

method: UNH-qee

text: In this article, "climate change" means a change in climate that persists over a sustained period of time. The World Meteorological Organization defines this time period as 30 years. Examples of climate change include increases in global surface temperature (global warming), changes in rainfall patterns, and changes in the frequency of extreme weather events. Changes in climate may be due to natural causes, e.g., changes in the sun's output, or due to human activities, e.g., changing the composition of the atmosphere. Any human-induced changes in climate will occur against a background of natural climatic variations and of variations in human activity such as population growth on shores or in arid areas which increase or decrease climate vulnerability.

text: In this article, "

entity_name: Climate change

text: climate change

text: " means a change in climate that persists over a sustained period of time. The

entity_name: World Meteorological Organization

text: World Meteorological Organization

text: defines this time period as 30 years. Examples of climate change include increases in global surface temperature (global warming), changes in

entity_name: Rain

text: rainfall

text: patterns, and changes in the frequency of

entity_name: Extreme weather

text: extreme weather

text: events. Changes in climate may be due to natural causes, e.g., changes in the

entity_name: Sun

text: sun

text: 's output, or due to human activities, e.g., changing the composition of the atmosphere. Any human-induced changes in climate will occur against a background of natural climatic variations and of variations in human activity such as population growth on shores or in arid areas which increase or decrease climate vulnerability.

text: In addition to paleosubspecies of Gallinula chloropus, the doubtfully distinct Late Pliocene to  Pleistocene Gallinula mortierii reperta was described, referring to the population of the Tasmanian nativehen that once inhabited mainland Australia and became extinct at the end of the last ice age. It may be that apart from climate change it was driven to extinction by the introduction of the dingo, which as opposed to the marsupial predators hunted during the day, but this would require a survival of mainland Gallinula mortierii to as late as about 1500 BC.

text: In addition to

entity_name: Chronospecies

text: paleosubspecies

text: of Gallinula chloropus, the doubtfully distinct

entity_name: Piacenzian

text: Late Pliocene

text: to  Pleistocene Gallinula mortierii reperta was described, referring to the population of the

entity_name: Tasmanian nativehen

text: Tasmanian nativehen

text: that once inhabited mainland Australia and became extinct at the end of the

entity_name: Last glacial period

text: last ice age

text: . It may be that apart from

text: climate change

text: it was driven to extinction by the introduction of the

entity_name: Dingo

text: dingo

text: , which as opposed to the

entity_name: Marsupial

text: marsupial

text: predators hunted during the day, but this would require a survival of mainland Gallinula mortierii to as late as about 1500 BC.

text: There is significant current interest and research focus on the phenomenon of recent anthropogenic climate changes, or global warming. Focus is on identifying the current impacts of climate change on biodiversity, and predicting these effects into the future.

text: There is significant current interest and research focus on the phenomenon of recent

entity_name: Human impact on the environment

text: anthropogenic

text: climate changes, or

entity_name: Global warming

text: global warming

text: . Focus is on identifying the current impacts of climate change on biodiversity, and predicting these effects into the future.

text: Climate engineering projects have been proposed in order to reduce global warming. The effect of rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere on global climate is a warming effect on the planet. By modifying the albedo of the Earth's surface, or by preventing sunlight reaching the Earth by using a solar shade, this warming effect can be cancelled out—although the cancellation is imperfect, with regional discrepancies remaining.

text: Climate engineering projects have been proposed in order to reduce

text: global warming

text: . The effect of rising greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere on

entity_name: Climate

text: global climate

text: is a warming effect on the planet. By modifying the albedo of the Earth's surface, or by preventing sunlight reaching the Earth by using a

entity_name: Space sunshade

text: solar shade

text: , this warming effect can be cancelled out—although the cancellation is imperfect, with regional discrepancies remaining.

text: Six million years ago at the close of the Miocene era, the earth's climate was gradually cooling and this would lead to the glaciations of the Pliocene and the Pleistocene (the Ice Age). In many areas the forests and savannahs were being replaced with steppe or grasslands and only those creatures that could adapt would survive. On opposite sides of the planet, two very different lineages would adapt to these changes and their evolution would produce two species that would become the most widely distributed of mammals. In southern North America, small woodland foxes were growing bigger and becoming more adapted to running, and by the late Miocene the first of the genus Canis had arisen, the ancestors of coyotes, wolves and the domestic dog. In eastern Africa, a split was occurring among the large primates. Some would remain in the trees, while others would move out of the trees, learn to walk upright, develop enlarged brains, and learn to avoid predators while becoming a predator themselves in the more open country. The two lineages would ultimately meet on the Eurasian continent. "They were individual animals and people involved, from our perspective, in a biological and cultural process that involved linking not only their lives but the evolutionary fate of their heirs in ways, we must assume, they could never have imagined."

text: Six million years ago at the close of the

entity_name: Miocene

text: Miocene

text: era, the earth's climate was gradually cooling and this would lead to the glaciations of the

entity_name: Pliocene

text: Pliocene

text: and the

text: Pleistocene

text: (the Ice Age). In many areas the forests and savannahs were being replaced with steppe or grasslands and only those creatures that could adapt would survive. On opposite sides of the planet, two very different lineages would adapt to these changes and their evolution would produce two species that would become the most widely distributed of mammals. In southern North America, small woodland foxes were growing bigger and becoming more adapted to running, and by the late Miocene the first of the genus Canis had arisen, the ancestors of coyotes, wolves and the domestic dog. In eastern Africa, a split was occurring among the large primates. Some would remain in the trees, while others would move out of the trees, learn to walk upright, develop enlarged brains, and learn to avoid predators while becoming a predator themselves in the more open country. The two lineages would ultimately meet on the Eurasian continent. "They were individual animals and people involved, from our perspective, in a biological and cultural process that involved linking not only their lives but the evolutionary fate of their heirs in ways, we must assume, they could never have imagined."

text: Suzuki says that despite this growing consensus, many in the public and the media seemed doubtful about the science for many years. The reason for the confusion about climate change, in Suzuki's view, was due to a well organized campaign of disinformation about the science involved. "A very small number of critics" denies that climate change exists and that humans are the cause. These climate change "skeptics" or "deniers", Suzuki claims, tend not to be climate scientists and do not publish in peer-reviewed scientific journals but rather target the media, the general public, and policy makers. Their goal: "delaying action on climate change." According to Suzuki, the skeptics have received significant funding from coal and oil companies, including ExxonMobil. They are linked to "industry-funded lobby groups", such as the Information Council on the Environment (ICE), whose aim is to "reposition global warming as theory (not fact)."

text: Suzuki says that despite this growing consensus, many in the public and the media seemed doubtful about the science for many years. The reason for the confusion about climate change, in Suzuki's view, was due to a well organized campaign of disinformation about the science involved. "A very small number of critics" denies that climate change exists and that humans are the cause. These climate change "skeptics" or "deniers", Suzuki claims, tend not to be climate scientists and do not publish in peer-reviewed scientific journals but rather target the media, the general public, and policy makers. Their goal: "delaying action on climate change." According to Suzuki, the skeptics have received significant funding from coal and oil companies, including

entity_name: ExxonMobil

text: ExxonMobil

text: . They are linked to "industry-funded lobby groups", such as the

entity_name: Information Council on the Environment

text: Information Council on the Environment

text: (ICE), whose aim is to "reposition global warming as theory (not fact)."

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: 10:10 was established by the team that produced climate change docudrama The Age of Stupid, and originally focused on helping people and organisations reduce their carbon emissions by 10% in 2010. By uniting people around a simple short term target, 10:10 aimed to demonstrate public commitment to action on climate change, and build pressure for a strong global treaty at the 2009 UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen.

text: 10:10 was established by the team that produced climate change

entity_name: Docudrama

text: docudrama

entity_name: The Age of Stupid

text: The Age of Stupid

text: , and originally focused on helping people and organisations reduce their carbon emissions by 10% in 2010. By uniting people around a simple short term target, 10:10 aimed to demonstrate public commitment to action on climate change, and build pressure for a strong global treaty at the

entity_name: 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference

text: 2009 UN Climate Change Conference

text: in Copenhagen.

text: Among the causes of algal blooms are chemical wastes, primarily of phosphorus and nitrates from fertilizers, climate change with its resultant global warming and low water levels in inland waterways and lakes which reduces water flow and increases water temperatures. Climate change, according to NOAA scientists, contributes to warmer waters which makes conditions more favorable for algae growth in more regions and farther north. Global warming is also considered a key factor for algal blooms in the Southern hemisphere, acknowledged by scientists in Australia. In general, still, warm, shallow water, combined with high-nutrient conditions in lakes or rivers, increases the risk of harmful algal blooms.

text: Among the causes of algal blooms are chemical wastes, primarily of

entity_name: Phosphorus

text: phosphorus

text: and

entity_name: Nitrate

text: nitrates

text: from fertilizers, climate change with its resultant

text: global warming

text: and low water levels in inland waterways and lakes which reduces water flow and increases water temperatures. Climate change, according to NOAA scientists, contributes to warmer waters which makes conditions more favorable for algae growth in more regions and farther north. Global warming is also considered a key factor for algal blooms in the Southern hemisphere, acknowledged by scientists in Australia. In general, still, warm, shallow water, combined with high-nutrient conditions in lakes or rivers, increases the risk of harmful algal blooms.

text: Kauri is found growing in its natural ecosystem north of 38°S latitude. Its southern limit stretches from the Kawhia Harbour in the west to the eastern Kaimai Range.However, its distribution has changed greatly over geological time because of climate change. This is shown in the recent Holocene epoch by its migration southwards after the peak of the last ice age. During this time when frozen ice sheets covered much of the world's continents, kauri was able to survive only in isolated pockets, its main refuge being in the very far north. Radiocarbon dating is one technique used by scientists to uncover the history of the tree's distribution, with stump kauri from peat swamps used for measurement. The coldest period in recent times occurred about 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, when time kauri was apparently confined north of Kaitaia, near the northernmost point of the North Island, North Cape. Kauri requires a mean temperature of 17 °C or more for most of the year. The tree's retreat can be used as a proxy for temperature changes during this period.

text: Kauri is found growing in its natural ecosystem north of 38°S

entity_name: Latitude

text: latitude

text: . Its southern limit stretches from the

entity_name: Kāwhia Harbour

text: Kawhia Harbour

text: in the west to the eastern

entity_name: Kaimai Range

text: Kaimai Range

text: .However, its distribution has changed greatly over

entity_name: Geologic time scale

text: geological time

text: because of

text: climate change

text: . This is shown in the recent

text: Holocene

text: epoch by its migration southwards after the peak of the last

entity_name: Ice age

text: ice age

text: . During this time when frozen

entity_name: Ice sheet

text: ice sheet

text: s covered much of the world's continents, kauri was able to survive only in isolated pockets, its main refuge being in the very far north.

entity_name: Radiocarbon dating

text: Radiocarbon dating

text: is one technique used by scientists to uncover the history of the tree's distribution, with stump kauri from

entity_name: Peat

text: peat

text: swamps used for measurement. The coldest period in recent times occurred about 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, when time kauri was apparently confined north of Kaitaia, near the northernmost point of the North Island,

entity_name: North Cape (New Zealand)

text: North Cape

text: . Kauri requires a mean temperature of 17 °C or more for most of the year. The tree's retreat can be used as a

entity_name: Proxy (climate)

text: proxy

text: for temperature changes during this period.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Land surface effects on climate are wide-ranging and vary by region.  Deforestation and exploitation of natural landscapes play a significant role. Some of these environmental changes are similar to those caused by the effects of global warming.

text: Land surface effects on climate are wide-ranging and vary by region.  Deforestation and exploitation of

entity_name: Natural landscape

text: natural landscape

text: s play a significant role. Some of these environmental changes are similar to those caused by the

entity_name: Effects of global warming

text: effects of global warming

text: The encyclical states that developed nations are morally obligated to assist developing nations in combating the climate-change crisis. Poor nations, the pontiff says, are ill-prepared to adapt to the effects of climate change and will bear the brunt of its effects.  Linking the issues of poverty, which has been a major issue in his papacy, and the environment, he insists that the world must "hear both the cry of the earth and the cry of the poor".

text: The encyclical states that

entity_name: Developed country

text: developed nation

text: s are morally obligated to assist

entity_name: Developing country

text: developing nation

text: s in combating the climate-change crisis. Poor nations, the pontiff says, are ill-prepared to

entity_name: Climate change adaptation

text: adapt to the effects of climate change

text: and will bear the brunt of its

text: effects

text: .  Linking the issues of

entity_name: Poverty

text: poverty

text: , which has been a major issue in his papacy, and the environment, he insists that the world must "hear both the cry of the earth and the cry of the poor".

text: Ice sheet dynamics and continental positions (and linked vegetation changes) have been important factors in the long term evolution of the earth's climate. There is also a close correlation between CO and temperature, where CO has a strong control over global temperatures in Earth history.

text: Ice sheet

text: dynamics and continental positions (and linked vegetation changes) have been important factors in the long term evolution of the earth's climate. There is also a close correlation between CO and temperature, where CO has a strong control over global temperatures in Earth history.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: In the context of climate variation, anthropogenic factors are human activities which affect the climate. The scientific consensus on climate change is "that climate is changing and that these changes are in large part caused by human activities,"and it "is largely irreversible."

text: In the context of climate variation, anthropogenic factors are human activities which affect the climate. The

entity_name: Scientific opinion on climate change

text: scientific consensus on climate change

text: is "that climate is changing and that these changes are in large part caused by human activities,"and it "is largely irreversible."

text: Both long-term and short-term variations in solar activity are theorized to affect global climate, but it has proven challenging to quantify the link between solar variation and climate.

text: The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) reaffirmed its position on global warming and "expressed grave concerns that the illegal release of private emails stolen from the University of East Anglia should not cause policy-makers and the public to become confused about the scientific basis of global climate change. Scientific integrity demands robust, independent peer review, however, and AAAS therefore emphasised that investigations are appropriate whenever significant questions are raised regarding the transparency and rigour of the scientific method, the peer-review process, or the responsibility of individual scientists. The responsible institutions are mounting such investigations." Alan I. Leshner, CEO of the AAAS and executive publisher of the journal Science, said "AAAS takes issues of scientific integrity very seriously. It is fair and appropriate to pursue answers to any allegations of impropriety. It’s important to remember, though, that the reality of climate change is based on a century of robust and well-validated science."

text: The

entity_name: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: (AAAS) reaffirmed its position on global warming and "expressed grave concerns that the illegal release of private emails stolen from the University of East Anglia should not cause policy-makers and the public to become confused about the scientific basis of global climate change. Scientific integrity demands robust, independent peer review, however, and AAAS therefore emphasised that investigations are appropriate whenever significant questions are raised regarding the transparency and rigour of the scientific method, the peer-review process, or the responsibility of individual scientists. The responsible institutions are mounting such investigations."

entity_name: Alan I. Leshner

text: Alan I. Leshner

text: , CEO of the AAAS and executive publisher of the journal

entity_name: Science (journal)

text: Science

text: , said "AAAS takes issues of scientific integrity very seriously. It is fair and appropriate to pursue answers to any allegations of impropriety. It’s important to remember, though, that the reality of climate change is based on a century of robust and well-validated science."

text: Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) have investigated the potential impacts climate change could have on agriculture, and how this would affect attempts at alleviating poverty in the developing world. They argued that the effects from moderate climate change are likely to be mixed for developing countries. However, the vulnerability of the poor in developing countries to short term impacts from climate change, notably the increased frequency and severity of adverse weather events is likely to have a negative impact. This, they say, should be taken into account when defining agricultural policy.

text: Researchers at the

entity_name: Overseas Development Institute

text: Overseas Development Institute

text: (ODI) have investigated the potential impacts climate change could have on agriculture, and how this would affect attempts at alleviating poverty in the

text: developing world

text: . They argued that the effects from moderate climate change are likely to be mixed for developing countries. However, the vulnerability of the poor in developing countries to short term impacts from climate change, notably the increased frequency and severity of adverse weather events is likely to have a negative impact. This, they say, should be taken into account when defining

text: agricultural policy

text: Poland is a country in Central Europe with an area of 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq. mi.), and mostly temperate climate. Generally speaking, Poland is an almost unbroken plain reaching from the Baltic Sea in the north, to the Carpathian Mountains in the south. Within that plain, terrain variations run in bands east to west. The Baltic coast has two natural harbors, the larger one in the Gdańsk-Gdynia region, and a smaller one near Szczecin in the far northwest. The northeastern region also known as Masurian Lake District with more than 2,000 lakes, is densely wooded, sparsely populated. To the south of the lake district, and across central Poland a vast region of plains extends all the way to the Sudetes on the Czech and Slovak borders southwest, and to the Carpathians on the Czech, Slovak and Ukrainian borders southeast. The central lowlands had been formed by glacial erosion in the Pleistocene ice age. The neighboring countries are Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and Lithuania and the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad to the northeast.

text: Poland

text: is a country in

text: Central Europe

text: with an area of 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq. mi.), and mostly temperate climate. Generally speaking, Poland is an almost unbroken plain reaching from the

text: Baltic Sea

text: in the north, to the

text: Carpathian Mountains

text: in the south. Within that plain, terrain variations run in bands east to west. The Baltic coast has two natural

text: harbor

text: s, the larger one in the

text: Gdańsk-Gdynia

text: region, and a smaller one near

text: Szczecin

text: in the far northwest. The northeastern region also known as

text: Masurian Lake District

text: with more than 2,000 lakes, is densely wooded, sparsely populated. To the south of the lake district, and across central Poland a vast region of plains extends all the way to the

text: Sudetes

text: on the

text: Czech

text: and

text: Slovak

text: borders southwest, and to the

text: Carpathians

text: on the Czech, Slovak and

text: Ukrainian

text: borders southeast. The central lowlands had been formed by

text: glacial erosion

text: in the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age

text: . The neighboring countries are Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and

text: Belarus

text: to the east, and

text: Lithuania

text: and the

text: Russia

text: n exclave of

text: Kaliningrad

text: to the northeast.

text: He has also written several books on global warming and climate change, one of his primary areas of research.  Those books include Managing the Global Commons: The Economics of Climate Change (1994), which won the 2006 Award for “Publication of Enduring Quality” from the Association of Environmental and Resource Economics. Another book, with Joseph Boyer, is Warming the World: Economic Models of Global Warming (2000). His most recent book is The Climate Casino: Risk, Uncertainty, and Economics for a Warming World.

text: He has also written several books on

text: global warming

text: and

text: climate change

text: , one of his primary areas of research.  Those books include Managing the Global Commons: The Economics of Climate Change (1994), which won the 2006 Award for “Publication of Enduring Quality” from the Association of Environmental and Resource Economics. Another book, with Joseph Boyer, is Warming the World: Economic Models of Global Warming (2000). His most recent book is The Climate Casino: Risk, Uncertainty, and Economics for a Warming World.

text: The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide. The climate models on which the IPCC report Number 4 is based give a range of predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, showing near-complete to complete loss in September anywhere from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. More recently, the Catlin Arctic Survey concluded that summer ice loss would occur around 2029. It has been apparent though since 2007, that those models grossly underestimate sea ice loss.

text: The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years.

text: Climate model

text: s predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide. The climate models on which the IPCC report Number 4 is based give a range of predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, showing near-complete to complete loss in September anywhere from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. More recently, the

text: Catlin Arctic Survey

text: concluded that summer ice loss would occur around 2029. It has been apparent though since 2007, that those models grossly underestimate sea ice loss.

text: Systems may respond in an irregular, discontinuous, abrupt, and unpredictable way to climate change (Smith et al., 2001). This may apply to physical, biological and human systems. Available records of climate variability, for example, reveal sudden fluctuations of key variables at all time scales. Some changes in systems may be "irreversible." Some irreversible changes may be reversible over long time periods, for example, the partial melting of the Greenland ice sheet (IPCC, 2001d:93). Other changes may be intrinsically irreversible, for example, the extinction of species.

text: Systems may respond in an irregular, discontinuous, abrupt, and unpredictable way to climate change (Smith et al., 2001). This may apply to physical, biological and human systems. Available records of climate variability, for example, reveal sudden fluctuations of key variables at all time scales. Some changes in systems may be "irreversible." Some irreversible changes may be reversible over long time periods, for example, the partial melting of the

text: Greenland ice sheet

text: (IPCC, 2001d:93). Other changes may be intrinsically irreversible, for example, the extinction of species.

text: NOAA scientists are at the forefront of studying climate change and modeling what the effects will be on the Earth. Researchers at NOAA’s Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL) have developed the Coupled Hydrosphere-Atmosphere Research Model (CHARM) to enable a valid assessment of the impact of how climate change might affect the climate and ecology of the Great Lakes. The CHARM model provides a realistic surface-atmosphere feedback portrayal, and accounts for runoff from land surfaces. It allows researchers to predict that global warming likely will bring higher temperatures and increased precipitation to the Great Lakes. Development of a second generation of CHARM is underway to help answer questions about greenhouse warming effects on Great Lakes water quantity.

text: NOAA scientists are at the forefront of studying climate change and modeling what the effects will be on the Earth. Researchers at NOAA’s Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL) have developed the Coupled Hydrosphere-Atmosphere Research Model (CHARM) to enable a valid assessment of the impact of how

text: climate change

text: might affect the climate and

text: ecology

text: of the

text: Great Lakes

text: . The CHARM model provides a realistic surface-atmosphere feedback portrayal, and accounts for runoff from land surfaces. It allows researchers to predict that

text: global warming

text: likely will bring higher

text: temperature

text: s and increased

text: precipitation

text: to the Great Lakes. Development of a second generation of CHARM is underway to help answer questions about

text: greenhouse warming

text: effects on Great Lakes water quantity.

text: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan describes measures with the objective to prepare the country for the impacts of climate change.  Water resources in Jordan are scarce. Besides the rapid population growth, the impacts of climate change are likely to further exacerbate the problem. Temperatures will increase and the total annual precipitation is likely to decrease, however with a fair share of uncertainty. Hence, existing and new activities with the objective to minimize the gap between water supply and demand contribute to adapt Jordan to tomorrow’s climate. This might be accompanied by activities improving Jordan’s capacity to monitor and project meteorological and hydrological data and assess its own vulnerability to climate change. This article focuses on the impacts of climate change on the Jordanian water sector.

text: Adaptation to climate change in Jordan describes measures with the objective to prepare the country for the impacts of climate change.

text: Water resources

text: in

text: Jordan

text: are scarce. Besides the rapid population growth, the

text: impacts of climate change

text: are likely to further exacerbate the problem. Temperatures will increase and the total annual precipitation is likely to decrease, however with a fair share of uncertainty. Hence, existing and new activities with the objective to minimize the gap between water supply and demand contribute to adapt Jordan to tomorrow’s climate. This might be accompanied by activities improving Jordan’s capacity to monitor and project meteorological and hydrological data and assess its own vulnerability to

text: climate change

text: . This article focuses on the impacts of climate change on the Jordanian water sector.

text: In contrast to meteorology, which focuses on short term weather systems lasting up to a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather events over years to millennia, as well as changes in long-term average weather patterns, in relation to atmospheric conditions. Climatologists study both the nature of climates – local, regional or global – and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology considers the past and can help predict future climate change.

text: In contrast to

text: meteorology

text: , which focuses on short term

text: weather

text: systems lasting up to a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather events over years to millennia, as well as changes in long-term average weather patterns, in relation to atmospheric conditions.

text: Climatologists

text: study both the nature of climates – local, regional or global – and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology considers the past and can help

text: predict

text: future

text: climate change

text: Because the solubility of  in water increases with lower temperatures, glacial periods would have led to the faster absorption of atmospheric  by the oceans. In addition, any carbon stored in the glaciers would be depleted in  over the life of the glacier; when the glacier melted as the climate warmed, the depleted carbon would be released, reducing the global / ratio. The changes in climate would also cause changes in the biosphere, with warmer periods leading to more plant and animal life. The effect of these factors on radiocarbon dating is not known.

text: Abdussamatov presented papers at the fourth and ninth International Conference on Climate Change, events sponsored by the Heartland Institute and, according to the organiser, bringing together "think tank cosponsors and [...] scientists who dispute the claim that the science is settled". Abdussamatov claims that "global warming results not from the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, but from an unusually high level of solar radiation and a lengthy—almost throughout the last century—growth in its intensity." This view contradicts the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change. He has asserted that "parallel global warmings—observed simultaneously on Mars and on Earth—can only be a straightline consequence of the effect of the one same factor: a long-time change in solar irradiance."This claim has not been accepted by the broader scientific community. Some of Abdussamatov's opponents have stated that "the idea just isn't supported by the theory or by the observations" and that it "doesn't make physical sense."

text: Abdussamatov presented papers at the fourth and ninth

entity_name: International Conference on Climate Change

text: International Conference on Climate Change

text: , events sponsored by the

text: Heartland Institute

text: and, according to the organiser, bringing together "think tank cosponsors and [...] scientists who dispute the claim that the science is settled". Abdussamatov claims that "global warming results not from the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, but from an unusually high level of solar radiation and a lengthy—almost throughout the last century—

text: growth in its intensity

text: ." This view contradicts the

text: mainstream scientific opinion on climate change

text: . He has asserted that "parallel global warmings—observed simultaneously on Mars and on Earth—can only be a straightline consequence of the effect of the one same factor: a long-time

text: change in solar irradiance

text: ."This claim has not been accepted by the broader scientific community. Some of Abdussamatov's opponents have stated that "the idea just isn't supported by the theory or by the observations" and that it "doesn't make physical sense."

text: Ice cap climates have only existed in ice ages. There have been at least five such ice ages in the Earth's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is currently in an ice age, in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

text: Ice cap climates have only existed in

text: ice ages

text: . There have been at least five such ice ages in the

text: Earth

text: 's past. Outside these ages, the Earth seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes. By the geologic definition, Earth is

text: currently in an ice age

text: , in that the planet has permanent ice caps. Factors that cause ice ages include changes to the atmosphere, the arrangement of continents, the energy received from the sun, volcanos, and meteor impacts.

text: SEPA recognises that climate change is the single greatest threat to our future. The organisation has produced its own climate change plan which contains details about how it will reduce its carbon emissions. This five year climate change plan introduces SEPA's specific role in climate change mitigation.

text: In the beginning, recognition came slowly, but later, the theory was proven to be accurate. Project CLIMAP (Climate: Long Range Investigation, Mapping and Production) finally resolved the dispute and proved the theory of Milankovitch cycles.In 1972, scientists compiled a time scale of climatic events in the past 700,000 years from deep-sea cores. They performed the analysis of the cores and four years later, came to the conclusion that in the past 500,000 years, climate has changed depending on the inclination of the Earth's axis  of rotation and its precession. In 1988, a new major project COHMAP (Cooperative Holocene MappingProject) reconstructed the patterns of global climate change over the last 18,000 years, again demonstrating the key role of astronomical factors. In 1989, the project SPECMAP (Spectral Mapping Project), showed that the climate changes are responses to changes in solar radiation of each of the three astronomical cycles.

text: In the beginning, recognition came slowly, but later, the theory was proven to be accurate. Project

entity_name: Climate: Long range Investigation, Mapping, and Prediction

text: CLIMAP

text: (Climate: Long Range Investigation, Mapping and Production) finally resolved the dispute and proved the theory of Milankovitch cycles.In 1972, scientists compiled a time scale of climatic events in the past 700,000 years from deep-sea cores. They performed the analysis of the cores and four years later, came to the conclusion that in the past 500,000 years, climate has changed depending on the

text: inclination

text: of the

text: Earth's axis

text: of

text: rotation

text: and its

text: precession

text: . In 1988, a new major project

text: COHMAP

text: (Cooperative Holocene MappingProject) reconstructed the patterns of global climate change over the last 18,000 years, again demonstrating the key role of astronomical factors. In 1989, the project

text: SPECMAP

text: (Spectral Mapping Project), showed that the climate changes are responses to changes in solar radiation of each of the three astronomical cycles.

text: The flux of sediment from an undisturbed drainage basin changes over the short-term as rainstorms come and go, individual hillslopes fail in mass movements, and riverbanks collapse. Over the long-term, the flux of sediment from a drainage basin oscillates around a mean value, producing a dynamic steady state, unless there are significant changes in boundary conditions such as climate, vegetation cover, or uplift rate.

text: The world's oceans are warming due to climate change. Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect, variation in the sun's energy that reaches Earth, and changes in reflectivity within Earth's atmosphere and its surface. The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight. Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space. Greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth. Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect.

text: Certain regions of Mars display scalloped-shaped depressions. The depressions are believed to be the remains of an ice-rich mantle deposit.  Scallops are created when ice sublimates from frozen soil.  This mantle material probably fell from the air as ice formed on dust when the climate was different due to changes in the tilt of the Mars pole. The scallops are typically tens of meters deep and from a few hundred to a few thousand meters across.  They can be almost circular or elongated.  Some appear to have coalesced, thereby causing a large heavily pitted terrain to form.  A study published in Icarus, found that the landforms of scalloped topography can be made by the subsurface loss of water ice by sublimation under current Martian climate conditions.  Their model predicts similar shapes when the ground has large amounts of pure ice, up to many tens of meters in depth.The process of producing the terrain may begin with sublimation from a crack because there are often polygon cracks where scallops form.

text: Certain regions of Mars display

text: scalloped-shaped depressions

text: . The depressions are believed to be the remains of an ice-rich mantle deposit.  Scallops are created when ice sublimates from frozen soil.  This mantle material probably fell from the air as ice formed on dust when the climate was different due to changes in the tilt of the Mars pole. The scallops are typically tens of meters deep and from a few hundred to a few thousand meters across.  They can be almost circular or elongated.  Some appear to have coalesced, thereby causing a large heavily pitted terrain to form.  A study published in Icarus, found that the landforms of scalloped topography can be made by the subsurface loss of water ice by sublimation under current Martian climate conditions.  Their model predicts similar shapes when the ground has large amounts of pure ice, up to many tens of meters in depth.The process of producing the terrain may begin with sublimation from a crack because there are often polygon cracks where scallops form.

text: In 2007, the Green Day slogan was "Keep on Rockin' For a Green World" and the focus was on climate change and global warming.

text: In 2007, the Green Day slogan was "Keep on Rockin' For a Green World" and the focus was on

text: climate change

text: and

text: global warming

text: In 2009 the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) confirmed a change in time period for the Pleistocene, changing the start date from 1.806 to 2.588 million years BP, and accepted the base of the Gelasian as the base of the Pleistocene, namely the base of the Monte San Nicola GSSP. The IUGS has yet to approve a type section, Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), for the upper Pleistocene/Holocene boundary (i.e. the upper boundary). The proposed section is the North Greenland Ice Core Project ice core 75° 06' N 42° 18' W. The lower boundary of the Pleistocene Series is formally defined magnetostratigraphically as the base of the Matuyama (C2r) chronozone, isotopic stage 103. Above this point there are notable extinctions of the calcareous nanofossils: Discoaster pentaradiatus and Discoaster surculus.

text: In 2009 the

entity_name: International Union of Geological Sciences

text: International Union of Geological Sciences

text: (IUGS) confirmed a change in time period for the Pleistocene, changing the start date from 1.806 to 2.588 million years BP, and accepted the base of the

text: Gelasian

text: as the base of the Pleistocene, namely the base of the

text: Monte San Nicola

entity_name: Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point

text: GSSP

text: . The IUGS has yet to approve a

text: type section

text: Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point

text: (GSSP), for the upper Pleistocene/Holocene boundary (i.e. the upper boundary). The proposed section is the North Greenland Ice Core Project ice core 75° 06' N 42° 18' W. The lower boundary of the Pleistocene Series is formally defined

text: magnetostratigraphically

text: as the base of the Matuyama (C2r)

text: chronozone

text: , isotopic stage 103. Above this point there are notable extinctions of the calcareous

text: nanofossil

text: s:

text: Discoaster pentaradiatus and Discoaster surculus

text: The Planning & Climate Change Coalition, which has been brought together by Friends of the Earth and the TCPA, includes over 60 cross-sector organisations and individuals. The Coalition has worked to ensure that the planning system makes a full contribution to meeting the climate change challenge. They have developed planning guidance and model policies on climate change for local authorities in England. The aim of the Coalition is to build a consensus amongst a wide range of stakeholders on the benefits of guidance on planning for climate change, working with local authorities, Local Enterprise Partnerships and communities. The Coalition has no core funding and no political or corporate affiliations.

text: The Planning & Climate Change Coalition, which has been brought together by

text: Friends of the Earth

text: and the TCPA, includes over 60 cross-sector organisations and individuals. The Coalition has worked to ensure that the planning system makes a full contribution to meeting the climate change challenge. They have developed planning guidance and model policies on climate change for local authorities in England. The aim of the Coalition is to build a consensus amongst a wide range of stakeholders on the benefits of guidance on planning for climate change, working with local authorities, Local Enterprise Partnerships and communities. The Coalition has no core funding and no political or corporate affiliations.

text: Climate LIFE - the 5th revolution is an “emotional and strong story” of a journey across the world in search of the solutions so urgently needed for avoiding a world climate life gone a wreck. It is produced in the realisation that we need a new climate agenda in order to achieve a transition to a sustainable society. The Copenhagen Climate Council has stated it is “necessary” to tell the story of climate change using a new positive language that can appeal to new audiences. Particularly, the Copenhagen Climate Council wishes to use “evocative and emotional storytelling” to get behind the real motivations, which has made pioneers, community leaders and others act on climate changes. Through compelling and evocative story-telling, the audiences will themselves feel the urgency of the quest and be inspired to take action.Climate LIFE will be a follow-up to Al Gore's 'An inconvenient truth'. Where Al Gore opened the world's eyes to the massiveness of climate change, Climate LIFE intends to tell the new convenient truth of climate change - that the knowledge and solutions we know today give us the opportunity to create communities that enhance quality of life; that it is possible to build a greener, safer and more sustainable Earth.Climate Life - the 5th revolution aims to show that the precondition for the success is already present. A short feature will be launched at the World Business Summit on Climate Change and subsequently it will be shown at events, on the web, and will also be distributed to TV broadcasters across the world.The film is produced in collaboration with Koncern Film and TV.

text: Climate LIFE - the 5th revolution is an “emotional and strong story” of a journey across the world in search of the solutions so urgently needed for

text: avoiding a world climate life gone a wreck

text: Some scientists now consider that the effects of global dimming have masked the effect of global warming to some extent and that resolving global dimming may therefore lead to increases in predictions of future temperature rise. According to Beate Liepert, "We lived in a global warming plus a global dimming world and now we are taking out global dimming. So we end up with the global warming world, which will be much worse than we thought it will be, much hotter."  The magnitude of this masking effect is one of the central problems in climate change with significant implications for future climate changes and policy responses to global warming.

text: Some scientists now consider that the effects of global dimming have masked the effect of

text: global warming

text: to some extent and that resolving global dimming may therefore lead to increases in predictions of future temperature rise. According to Beate Liepert, "We lived in a global warming plus a global dimming world and now we are taking out global dimming. So we end up with the global warming world, which will be much worse than we thought it will be, much hotter."  The magnitude of this masking effect is one of the central problems in climate change with significant implications for future climate changes and policy responses to global warming.

text: The climate system can spontaneously generate changes in global temperature for years to decades at a time but long-term changes in global temperature require external forcings. These forcings are "external" to the climate system but not necessarily external to Earth. Examples of external forcings include changes in atmospheric composition (e.g., increased concentrations of greenhouse gases), solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun.

text: The climate system can spontaneously generate changes in global temperature for years to decades at a time but long-term changes in global temperature require external forcings. These forcings are "external" to the climate system but not necessarily external to Earth. Examples of external forcings include changes in atmospheric composition (e.g., increased concentrations of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es),

text: solar luminosity

text: volcanic

text: eruptions, and

text: variations in Earth's orbit

text: around the Sun.

text: The sea level on earth regularly rises and falls due to climatic changes. During cold periods more of the Earth’s water is stored as ice in glaciers while during warm periods it is released and sea levels rise to cover more land. Sea levels are currently quite high, while just 18,000 years ago during the Pleistocene ice age they were quite low. Global warming may result in further rises in the future, which presents a risk to coastal cities as most would be flooded by only small rises. As sea levels rise, fjords and rias form. Fjords are flooded glacial valleys and rias are flooded river valleys. Fjords typically have steep rocky sides, while rias have dendritic drainage patterns typical of drainage zones. As tectonic plates move about the Earth they can rise and fall due to changing pressures and the presence of glaciers. If a beach is moving upwards relative to other plates this is known as isostatic change and raised beaches can be formed.

text: The sea level on earth regularly rises and falls due to climatic changes. During cold periods more of the Earth’s water is stored as ice in glaciers while during warm periods it is released and sea levels rise to cover more land. Sea levels are currently quite high, while just 18,000 years ago during the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age they were quite low.

text: Global warming

text: may result in further rises in the future, which presents a risk to coastal cities as most would be flooded by only small rises. As sea levels rise,

text: fjords

text: and

text: ria

text: s form. Fjords are flooded

text: glacial valleys

text: and rias are flooded river valleys. Fjords typically have steep rocky sides, while rias have dendritic drainage patterns typical of drainage zones. As

text: tectonic plates

text: move about the Earth they can rise and fall due to changing pressures and the presence of glaciers. If a beach is moving upwards relative to other plates this is known as isostatic change and

text: raised beaches

text: can be formed.

text: In a speech on 16 September 2005 to the 60th Session of the UN General Assembly, Prime Minister Maatia Toafa emphasized the impact of climate change as a "broader security issue which relates to environmental security. Living in a very fragile island environment, our long-term security and sustainable development is closely linked to issues of climate change, preserving biodiversity, managing our limited forests and waterresources."

text: In a speech on 16 September 2005 to the 60th Session of the UN General Assembly, Prime Minister

text: Maatia Toafa

text: emphasized the impact of climate change as a "broader security issue which relates to environmental security. Living in a very fragile island environment, our long-term security and sustainable development is closely linked to issues of climate change, preserving biodiversity, managing our limited forests and waterresources."

text: Requiem for a Species: Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non-fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications. It argues that climate change will bring about large-scale, harmful consequences for habitability for life  on Earth including humans, which it is too late to prevent. Hamilton explores why politicians, corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality. He invokes a variety of explanations, including wishful thinking, ideology, consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry. The book builds on the author's fifteen-year prior history of writing about these subjects, with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher: The Dirty Politics of Climate Change.

text: Requiem for a Species: Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010

text: non-fiction

text: book by Australian academic

text: Clive Hamilton

text: which explores

text: climate change denial

text: and its implications. It argues that

text: climate change

text: will bring about large-scale, harmful consequences for

text: habitability

text: for life  on Earth including humans, which it is too late to prevent. Hamilton explores why politicians, corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality. He invokes a variety of explanations, including

text: wishful thinking

text: ideology

text: consumer culture

text: and

text: active lobbying

text: by the

text: fossil fuel

text: industry. The book builds on the author's fifteen-year prior history of writing about these subjects, with previous books including

text: Growth Fetish

text: and

entity_name: Scorcher: The Dirty Politics of Climate Change

text: Scorcher: The Dirty Politics of Climate Change

text: This does not mean, however, that all remaining differences between models and observations have been resolved. The observed changes in some climate variables, such as Arctic sea ice, some aspects of precipitation, and patterns of surface pressure, appear to be proceeding much more rapidly than models have projected. The reasons for these differences are not well understood. Nevertheless, the bottom-line conclusion from climate fingerprinting is that most of the observed changes studied to date are consistent with each other, and are also consistent with our scientific understanding of how the climate system would be expected to respond to the increase in heat-trapping gases resulting from human activities.

text: A 2013 paper in Environmental Research Letters reviewed 11,944 abstracts of scientific papers matching "global warming" or "global climate change". They found 4,014 which discussed the cause of recent global warming, and of these "97.1% endorsed the consensus position that humans are causing global warming".

text: A 2013 paper in

text: Environmental Research Letters

text: reviewed 11,944 abstracts of scientific papers matching "global warming" or "global climate change". They found 4,014 which discussed the cause of recent global warming, and of these "97.1% endorsed the consensus position that humans are causing global warming".

text: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations, set up at the request of member governments, dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective, scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts. It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53. Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP.The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is the main international treaty on climate change. The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic [i.e., human-induced] interference with the climate system". IPCC reports cover "the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation."

text: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific and

text: intergovernmental body

text: under the auspices of the

text: United Nations

text: , set up at the request of member governments, dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective, scientific view of

text: climate change

text: and its political and economic impacts. It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations, the

text: World Meteorological Organization

text: (WMO) and the

text: United Nations Environment Programme

text: (UNEP), and later endorsed by the

text: United Nations General Assembly

text: through Resolution 43/53. Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP.The IPCC produces reports that support the

entity_name: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

text: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

text: (UNFCCC), which is the main international treaty on climate change. The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic [i.e., human-induced] interference with the climate system". IPCC reports cover "the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change,

text: its potential impacts

text: and options for

text: adaptation

text: and

text: mitigation

text: Scientists do not know the exact tipping points of climate change and can only estimate the timescales.  When a tipping point- the critical threshold- is reached, a small change in human activity can have long-term consequences on the environment.  Two of the nine tipping points for major climate changes forecast for the next century are directly related to forest diebacks.  Scientists are worried that forest dieback in the Amazon rain forest and the Boreal evergreen forest will trigger a tipping point in the next 50 years.

text: Scientists do not know the exact tipping points of climate change and can only estimate the timescales.  When a tipping point- the critical threshold- is reached, a small change in human activity can have long-term consequences on the

text: environment

text: .  Two of the nine tipping points for major climate changes forecast for the next century are directly related to forest diebacks.  Scientists are worried that forest dieback in the Amazon rain forest and the Boreal evergreen forest will trigger a tipping point in the next 50 years.

text: In the past, weathering of silicate rocks sequestered CO, a negative feedback loop which maintained Earth’s climate within a habitable range over millions of years. When atmospheric CO concentration rise, temperature and precipitation increase and thereby enhance chemical weathering. The last time global temperature reached a long-term maximum was during the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum, 51–53 million years ago (See also Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum). Only over the past 34 million years have CO concentrations been low, temperatures relatively cool, and the poles glaciated. This long- term shift in Earth’s climatic state resulted, in part from differences in volcanic emissions, which were particularly high during parts of the Palaeocene and Eocene epochs (about 40–60 million years ago) but have diminished since then.

text: In the past,

text: weathering of silicate rocks

text: sequestered CO

text: , a negative feedback loop which maintained Earth’s climate within a habitable range over millions of years. When atmospheric CO concentration rise, temperature and precipitation increase and thereby enhance chemical weathering. The last time global temperature reached a long-term maximum was during the

text: Early Eocene Climatic Optimum

text: , 51–53 million years ago (See also

text: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum

text: ). Only over the past 34 million years have CO concentrations been low, temperatures relatively cool, and the poles glaciated. This long- term shift in Earth’s climatic state resulted, in part from differences in volcanic emissions, which were particularly high during parts of the

text: Palaeocene

text: and

text: Eocene

text: epochs (about 40–60 million years ago) but have diminished since then.

text: In 1993, there was an episode on global warming entitled "Plan it for the Planet".  On December 9, 2007, Nick News had shown another global warming special entitled "A Global Warning From the Kids of the World". Both specials looked at different regions of the Earth like Australia, Alaska, the Netherlands, the Philippines, California and Kenya, showing the changes in the climate and the effects of those changes. During the later part of the December 9, 2007, episode, Nobel Prize winner Al Gore appeared to talk to children about the problems that global warming is causing to ordinary people.

text: In 1993, there was an episode on global warming entitled "Plan it for the Planet".  On December 9, 2007, Nick News had shown another global warming special entitled "A Global Warning From the Kids of the World". Both specials looked at different regions of the Earth like Australia,

text: Alaska

text: , the

text: Netherlands

text: , the

text: Philippines

text: California

text: and

text: Kenya

text: , showing the changes in the climate and the effects of those changes. During the later part of the December 9, 2007, episode,

text: Nobel Prize

text: winner

text: Al Gore

text: appeared to talk to children about the problems that global warming is causing to ordinary people.

text: Without resolute counteraction, climate change will overstretch many societies’ adaptive capacities within the coming decades. This could result in destabilization and violence, jeopardizing national and international security to a new degree. However, climate change could also unite the international community, provided that it recognizes climate change as a threat to humankind and soon sets the course for the avoidance of dangerous anthropogenic climate change by adopting a dynamic and globally coordinated climate policy. If it fails to do so, climate change will draw ever-deeper lines of division and conflict in international relations, triggering numerous conflicts between and within countries over the distribution of resources, especially water and land, over the management of migration, or over compensation payments between the countries mainly responsible for climate change and those countries most affected by its destructive effects. That is the backdrop against which WBGU, in this flagship report, summarizes the state-of-the-art of science on the subject of “Climate Change as a Security Risk”. It is based on the findings of research into environmental conflicts, the causes of war, and of climate impact research. It appraises past experience but also ventures to cast a glance far into the future in order to assess the likely impacts of climate change on societies, nation-states, regions and the international system.

text: Climate change is a lasting variation in the global climate in response to natural and/or human factors.  Climate change, and more specifically global warming, can cause glaciers to melt and sea levels to rise, pushing saltwater into freshwater systems. Significant changes like the salinization of water push species to new locations, directly impacting global ecosystems. Climatic changes affect weather patterns, increasing the frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, and extreme weather events. These types of conditions also result in natural disasters. While climate change is not solely destructive, the negative impacts of global warming on health and agriculture are greater than the benefits for the majority of the world and increase as global temperatures rise. A two-degree rise in temperature threatens 25 percent of all plant and animal species on the planet with extinction. These climatic changes cause the most harm for the most vulnerable populations or those who lack the ability to cope with and adapt to climate change because of a lack of access to essential resources. Marginalized groups like women, children, the elderly, and the impoverished have less access to and control over resources and therefore are more negatively impacted by climate change.

text: Climate change is a lasting variation in the global climate in response to natural and/or human factors.  Climate change, and more specifically global warming, can cause glaciers to melt and sea levels to rise, pushing saltwater into freshwater systems. Significant changes like the salinization of water push species to new locations, directly impacting global ecosystems. Climatic changes affect weather patterns, increasing the frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, and extreme weather events. These types of conditions also result in natural disasters. While climate change is not solely destructive, the negative impacts of global warming on health and agriculture are greater than the benefits for the majority of the world and increase as global temperatures rise. A two-degree rise in

text: temperature

text: threatens 25 percent of all plant and animal species on the planet with

text: extinction

text: . These climatic changes cause the most harm for the most vulnerable populations or those who lack the ability to cope with and adapt to climate change because of a lack of access to essential resources. Marginalized groups like women, children, the elderly, and the impoverished have less access to and control over

text: resources

text: and therefore are more negatively impacted by climate change.

text: A climate justice perspective addresses global warming by looking at who is harmed by climatic change, and how, and who is responsible for the emissions that caused the warming. In practical terms this means FoEA campaigns for Australia to reduce its carbon emissions to a 'globally equitable' level whilst also agreeing to accept a quota of 'climate refugees'. In 2009 it launched the Coalition for Climate Displacement and also broadened its campaign work into state based activity against the expansion of coal mining and export.

text: A climate justice perspective addresses global warming by looking at who is harmed by climatic change, and how, and who is responsible for the emissions that caused the warming. In practical terms this means FoEA campaigns for Australia to reduce its carbon emissions to a 'globally equitable' level whilst also agreeing to accept a quota of '

text: climate refugees

text: '. In 2009 it launched the Coalition for Climate Displacement and also broadened its campaign work into state based activity against the expansion of coal mining and export.

text: Christiana Figueres, executive secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change said: "I salute the countries who made this agreement. They have all laid aside some cherished objectives of their own to meet a common purpose, a long-term solution to climate change."

text: Christiana Figueres

text: , executive secretary of the

text: UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

text: said: "I salute the countries who made this agreement. They have all laid aside some cherished objectives of their own to meet a common purpose, a long-term solution to climate change."

text: Feeling the Heat: Dispatches from the Frontlines of Climate Change was published in 2004; it tracks the phenomenon of global warming and its effects on the environment and in communities.

text: By the 1970s, scientists were becoming increasing aware that estimates of global temperatures showed cooling since 1945, as well as the possibility of large scale warming due to emissions of greenhouse gases.  In the scientific papers which considered climate trends of the 21st century, less than 10% inclined towards future cooling, while most papers predicted future warming.  The general public had little awareness of carbon dioxide's effects on climate, but Science News in May 1959 forecast a 25% increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide in the 150 years from 1850 to 2000, with a consequent warming trend. The actual increase in this period was 29%. Paul R. Ehrlich mentioned climate change from greenhouse gases in 1968. By the time the idea of global cooling reached the public press in the mid-1970s temperatures had stopped falling, and there was concern in the climatological community about carbon dioxide's warming effects. In response to such reports, the World Meteorological Organization issued a warning in June 1976 that "a very significant warming of global climate" was probable.

text: By the 1970s, scientists were becoming increasing aware that estimates of global temperatures showed cooling since 1945, as well as the possibility of large scale warming due to emissions of greenhouse gases.  In the scientific papers which considered climate trends of the 21st century, less than 10% inclined towards future cooling, while most papers predicted future warming.  The general public had little awareness of carbon dioxide's effects on climate, but

text: Science News

text: in May 1959 forecast a 25% increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide in the 150 years from 1850 to 2000, with a consequent warming trend. The actual increase in this period was 29%.

text: Paul R. Ehrlich

text: mentioned climate change from

text: greenhouse gases

text: in 1968. By the time the idea of global cooling reached the public press in the mid-1970s temperatures had stopped falling, and there was concern in the climatological community about

text: carbon dioxide

text: 's warming effects. In response to such reports, the

text: World Meteorological Organization

text: issued a warning in June 1976 that "a very significant warming of global climate" was probable.

text: The Paleoceanography group uses information gathered from sea floor sediments to discover how changes in circulation, temperature, sea ice and glacier mass have affected the global climate system throughout Earth’s history. These data from the past are used to assess present and future climate changes. The main focus of this group's research is on the Arctic Ocean and its history during the past several million years.

text: Other measures affecting industry include the Climate Change Levy & Climate Change Agreements.

text: Other measures affecting industry include the

text: Climate Change Levy

text: Climate Change Agreement

text: s.

text: Here is a list of international, national, regional, and local political initiatives to take action on climate change (global warming).

text: Here is a list of international, national, regional, and local political initiatives to take action on

text: climate change

text: global warming

text: The Climate System Sciences Section of ASRC, started in November 1989, conducts research to understand the Earth's global and regional climate system and to assess and evaluate the effects of climate change caused by both human activities and nature.

text: The Climate System Sciences Section of ASRC, started in November 1989, conducts research to understand the Earth's global and regional climate system and to assess and evaluate the effects of

text: climate change

text: caused by both human activities and nature.

text: In time, thanks to the refinement of geology, it has been demonstrated that there were several periods of glacial advance and retreat and that past temperatures on Earth were very different from today.In particular, the Milankovitch cycles of Milutin Milankovitch are based on the premise that variations in incoming solar radiation are a fundamental factor controlling Earth's climate.

text: In time, thanks to the refinement of geology, it has been demonstrated that there were several periods of glacial advance and retreat and that past temperatures on Earth were very different from today.In particular, the

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: of

text: Milutin Milankovitch

text: are based on the premise that variations in incoming

text: solar radiation

text: are a fundamental factor controlling Earth's climate.

text: The Earth's climate is changing ever faster, and human activities play a role in speeding up this change. But there are consequences. Learn more about how climate change affects our health.

text: Tests have been done on the velocity of these large bifaces, and it has been clearly shown that they are capable of wounding and killing modern elephants. The occurrence of tool marks, and bifaces found at kill sites leaves no doubt that Clovis people did in fact kill and hunt mastodons, mammoths, camel, horses, and bison. But could this hunting have caused the mass extinction that came at the end of the Pleistocene, or was it the climate change that did it? A third theory is also emerging, that the colonists and possibly domesticated dogs brought disease with them that caused this extinction.

text: Tests have been done on the velocity of these large bifaces, and it has been clearly shown that they are capable of wounding and killing modern elephants. The occurrence of tool marks, and bifaces found at kill sites leaves no doubt that

text: Clovis people

text: did in fact kill and hunt

text: mastodon

text: s,

text: mammoth

text: s, camel, horses, and bison. But could this hunting have caused the mass extinction that came at the end of the

text: Pleistocene

text: , or was it the

text: climate change

text: that did it? A third theory is also emerging, that the colonists and possibly domesticated dogs brought disease with them that caused this extinction.

text: In the context of the US National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change (National Assessment on Climate Change) published in 2000, which was part of the US Global Change Research Program (Global Change Research Act), the National Ecology Institute of the National University of Mexico (UNAM) carried out a study on Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability in Mexico for the Mexican Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. According to the study Mexico will experience less or normal summer precipitation and increased precipitation during winter. The report also details predicted impact by regions. For example, in the Lerma-Chapala basin the predicted increase in temperature coupled with a decrease in rainfall could result in severe water supply shortages, exacerbated by growth in population and industries. In northern areas and regions with large populations, especially in Central Mexico erosion and drought severity will increase with higher temperatures and rainfall variations in these arid and semi arid regions. Agricultural practices may also have to change, with a severe drought in Chihuahua in 2012, which some scientists attribute to climate change, leading to 350,000 head of cattle starving to death due to a shortage of pasture caused by a lack of rain.

text: In the context of the US National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change (

text: National Assessment on Climate Change

text: ) published in 2000, which was part of the US Global Change Research Program (

text: Global Change Research Act

text: ), the National Ecology Institute of the National University of Mexico (UNAM) carried out a study on Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability in Mexico for the Mexican Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. According to the study Mexico will experience less or normal summer precipitation and increased precipitation during winter. The report also details predicted impact by regions. For example, in the Lerma-Chapala basin the predicted increase in temperature coupled with a decrease in rainfall could result in severe water supply shortages, exacerbated by growth in population and industries. In northern areas and regions with large populations, especially in Central Mexico erosion and drought severity will increase with higher temperatures and rainfall variations in these arid and semi arid regions. Agricultural practices may also have to change, with a severe drought in Chihuahua in 2012, which some scientists attribute to climate change, leading to 350,000 head of cattle starving to death due to a shortage of pasture caused by a lack of rain.

text: Angle does not believe in man-made global warming. "I'm a clean-air proponent," she stated. "I don't, however, buy into the whole man-caused global warming, man-caused climate change mantra of the left. I believe that there's not sound science to back that up."

text: Angle does not believe in man-made

text: global warming

text: . "I'm a clean-air proponent," she stated. "I don't, however, buy into the whole man-caused global warming, man-caused climate change mantra of

text: the left

text: . I believe that there's not sound science to back that up."

text: Ball has said he opposes the scientific opinion on climate change and has stated that he believes global warming is occurring but he believes that human production of carbon dioxide is not the cause. Ball rejects not only greenhouse gas–induced climate change but the existence of the greenhouse effect itself.

text: Ball has said he opposes the

text: scientific opinion on climate change

text: and has stated that he believes global warming is occurring but he believes that human production of

text: carbon dioxide

text: is not the cause. Ball rejects not only greenhouse gas–induced climate change but the existence of the

text: greenhouse effect

text: itself.

text: Although many of these corporations have now become interested in halting climate change by 2050 through USCAP, both Yvo de Boer, UN Climate Chief and the EU have heavily criticized this long term plan for reductions as offering no short or mid-term solutions to the immediate problems of climate change.

text: Although many of these corporations have now become interested in halting climate change by 2050 through USCAP, both

text: Yvo de Boer

text: , UN Climate Chief and the EU have heavily criticized this long term plan for reductions as offering no short or mid-term solutions to the immediate problems of climate change.

text: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.  Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming.

text: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to

text: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis

text: , which was the 996 page contribution of

entity_section: Working Group I (WGI): The Physical Science Basis

text: Working Group I

text: to the

entity_name: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: IPCC

text: Fourth Assessment Report

text: .  Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of

text: global warming

text: There is evidence that geomagnetic excursions may be associated with episodes of rapid short-term climatic cooling during periods of continental glaciation (ice ages).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rampino|first=Michael R.|title=Possible relationships between changes in global ice volume, geomagnetic excursions, and the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit|journal=Geology|year=1979|volume=7|issue=12|pages=584–587|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1979)7

text: There is evidence that geomagnetic excursions may be associated with episodes of rapid short-term climatic cooling during periods of continental glaciation (

text: ice age

text: s).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rampino|first=Michael R.|title=Possible relationships between changes in global ice volume, geomagnetic excursions, and the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit|journal=Geology|year=1979|volume=7|issue=12|pages=584–587|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1979)7

text: Another worker, William Ruddiman, has suggested a model that explains the 100,000-year cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (26,000-year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000- and 26,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that the Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the second or third cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80,000 and 120,000 years. This theory is consistent with a simple empirical multi-state model proposed by Didier Paillard. Paillard suggests that the late Pleistocene glacial cyclescan be seen as jumps between three quasi-stable climate states. The jumps are induced by the orbital forcing, while in the early Pleistocene the 41,000-year glacial cycles resulted from jumps between only two climate states. A dynamicalmodel explaining this behavior was proposed by Peter Ditlevsen. This is in support of the suggestion that the late Pleistocene glacial cycles are not due to the weak 100,000-year eccentricity cycle, but a non-linear response to mainly the 41,000-year obliquity cycle.

text: Another worker,

text: William Ruddiman

text: , has suggested a model that explains the 100,000-year cycle by the

text: modulating

text: effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (26,000-year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000- and 26,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by

text: Peter Huybers

text: who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that the Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the second or third cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80,000 and 120,000 years. This theory is consistent with a simple empirical multi-state model proposed by

text: Didier Paillard

text: . Paillard suggests that the late Pleistocene glacial cyclescan be seen as jumps between three quasi-stable climate states. The jumps are induced by the

text: orbit

text: al forcing, while in the early Pleistocene the 41,000-year glacial cycles resulted from jumps between only two climate states. A dynamicalmodel explaining this behavior was proposed by Peter Ditlevsen. This is in support of the suggestion that the late

text: Pleistocene

text: glacial cycles are not due to the weak 100,000-year eccentricity cycle, but a non-linear response to mainly the 41,000-year obliquity cycle.

text: A gigatonne of Carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2eq) is a unit used by the UN climate change panel, IPCC, to measure the effect of a technology or process on global warming.

text: A gigatonne of

text: Carbon dioxide equivalent

text: (GtCO2eq) is a unit used by the UN climate change panel,

text: IPCC

text: , to measure the effect of a technology or process on

text: global warming

text: The ACRIM2 instrument on the UARS satellite measured the total solar irradiance (TSI), the total solar radiant energy reaching Earth, continuing the climate change database begun in 1980 by the ACRIM1 experiment on the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). The ACRIM1 experiment's results provided the first discoveries of intrinsic variations in the TSI and their relationships to solar magnetic activity phenomena. ACRIM experiments have confirmed TSI variation occurs on virtually every timescale from their 2-minute observation cadence to the decades-long length of the TSI record to date. A precise knowledge of the TSI and its variation over time is essential to understanding climate change. Recent findings indicate that instrinsic TSI variation has had a much larger role (up to 50%) in global warming during the industrial era than previously predicted by global circulation models (GCM’s). The profound sociological and economic implications of understanding the relative climate change contributions of natural and anthropogenic forcings makes it essential that the TSI database, a critical component of climate change research, be carefully sustained into the foreseeable future. The UARS/ACRIM2 experiment was an important part of providing the long term TSI database.

text: Chameides is an outspoken global warming activist, and has testified before the U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on Science, Space and Technology on the matter. In his testimony, delivered on April 25, 2013, he said that global warming is occurring, is primarily caused by human activity, and that it will have many negative effects on the United States, including, but not limited to, "more intense and frequent heat waves, risks to coastal communities from sea level rise, greater drying of the arid Southwest, and increased public health risks." He currently runs a blog on the Nicholas School of the Environment website called "The Green Grok," and has also blogged about global warming and other environmental issues on the Huffington Post and for Popular Science. Chameides has also written about the economics of climate change mitigation for both Science and for The Guardian. Additionally, after Joe Bastardi claimed on Fox News Channel that carbon dioxide can't cause global warming because of the first law of thermodynamics and Le Chatelier's principle, Media Matters for America contacted Chameides by email, who referred to Bastardi's claims as "utter nonsense." He has also, along with Alan Leshner, criticized the North Carolina government's proposal of a law in response to a report stating that sea levels were projected to rise about 39 inches over the next century. In an article for the News & Observer, they accused the law's supporters of trying to "disregard projections of sea level rise" and trying to "outlaw climate change." The law, which would prevent the government from using sea-level data based on anything except "historical data" for the next four years, was passed despite Chameides' objections. He has also criticized the cash for clunkers program by pointing out that, while one of its goals is to decrease CO emissions by promoting the purchase of more fuel-efficient cars, manufacturing new cars results in the production of carbon dioxide—he puts the figure at between 3 and 12 tons per car. He has also calculated that trading in a clunker that gets 18 mpg for a new car that gets 22 mpg would necessitate 5 and a half years of typical driving to offset the car's carbon footprint. Chameides has also written about other environmental issues, like chemicals used in certain consumer products. For example, when interviewed by the Taipei Times about the safety of optical brighteners in laundry detergent, he said that scientific studies on the topic have been "inconclusive."

text: Chameides is an outspoken global warming activist, and has testified before the

text: U.S. House of Representatives

text: ' Committee on Science, Space and Technology on the matter. In his testimony, delivered on April 25, 2013, he said that global warming is occurring, is primarily caused by human activity, and that it will have many negative effects on the United States, including, but not limited to, "more intense and frequent heat waves, risks to coastal communities from sea level rise, greater drying of the arid Southwest, and increased public health risks." He currently runs a blog on the Nicholas School of the Environment website called "The Green Grok," and has also blogged about global warming and other environmental issues on the

text: Huffington Post

text: and for

text: Popular Science

text: . Chameides has also written about the

text: economics of climate change mitigation

text: for both

text: Science

text: and for

text: The Guardian

text: . Additionally, after

text: Joe Bastardi

text: claimed on

text: Fox News Channel

text: that carbon dioxide can't cause global warming because of the

text: first law of thermodynamics

text: and

text: Le Chatelier's principle

text: Media Matters for America

text: contacted Chameides by email, who referred to Bastardi's claims as "utter nonsense." He has also, along with

text: Alan Leshner

text: , criticized the North Carolina government's proposal of a law in response to a report stating that sea levels were projected to rise about 39 inches over the next century. In an article for the News & Observer, they accused the law's supporters of trying to "disregard projections of sea level rise" and trying to "outlaw climate change." The law, which would prevent the government from using sea-level data based on anything except "historical data" for the next four years, was passed despite Chameides' objections. He has also criticized the

text: cash for clunkers

text: program by pointing out that, while one of its goals is to decrease CO emissions by promoting the purchase of more fuel-efficient cars, manufacturing new cars results in the production of carbon dioxide—he puts the figure at between 3 and 12 tons per car. He has also calculated that trading in a clunker that gets 18 mpg for a new car that gets 22 mpg would necessitate 5 and a half years of typical driving to offset the car's carbon footprint. Chameides has also written about other environmental issues, like chemicals used in certain consumer products. For example, when interviewed by the

text: Taipei Times

text: about the safety of

text: optical brightener

text: s in laundry detergent, he said that scientific studies on the topic have been "inconclusive."

text: There is no widely accepted theory for the cause of Olson's Extinction. Recent research has indicated that climate change may be a possible cause. Extreme environments were observed from the Permian of Kansas which resulted from a combination of hot climate and acidic waters particularly coincident with Olson’s Extinction. Whether this climate change was a result of Earth's natural processes or exacerbated by another event is unknown.

text: At the end of the last Ice Age, between 8000–7000 BCE Kentucky's climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and technology advances, resulting in more sedentary lifestyle. This warming trend killed the Pleistocene big game megafauna, such as the mammoth, mastodon, giant beavers, tapirs, short faced bear, giant ground sloths, saber-toothed tiger, horse, bison, musk ox, stag-moose, and peccary, all of which were native to Kentucky during the Ice Age, became extinct or moved north as the glacial ice retreated.

text: At the end of the last

text: Ice Age

text: , between 8000–7000 BCE Kentucky's climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and technology advances, resulting in more sedentary lifestyle. This warming trend killed the

text: Pleistocene

text: big game

text: megafauna

text: , such as the

text: mammoth

text: mastodon

text: giant beavers

text: tapirs

text: short faced bear

text: giant ground sloths

text: saber-toothed tiger

text: horse

text: bison

text: musk ox

text: stag-moose

text: , and

text: peccary

text: , all of which were native to Kentucky during the Ice Age, became extinct or moved north as the glacial ice retreated.

text: The potential dangers of global warming are being increasingly studied by a wide global consortium of scientists. These scientists are increasingly concerned about the potential long-term effects of global warming on our natural environment and on the planet. Of particular concern is how climate change and global warming caused by anthropogenic, or human-made releases of greenhouse gases, most notably carbon dioxide, can act interactively, and have adverse effects upon the planet, its natural environment and humans' existence. It is clear the planet is warming, and warming rapidly.–This warming is also responsible for the extinction of natural habitats,which in turn leads to a reduction in wildlife population.The most recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (the group of the leading climate scientists in the world) concluded that the earth will warm anywhere from 2.7 to almost 11 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 to 6 degrees Celsius) between 1990 and 2100.Efforts have been increasingly focused on the mitigation of greenhouse gases that are causing climatic changes, on developing adaptative strategies to global warming, to assist humans, other animal, and plant species, ecosystems, regions and nations in adjusting to the effects of global warming. Some examples of recent collaboration to address climate change and global warming include:

text: The potential dangers of

text: global warming

text: are being increasingly studied by a wide global consortium of scientists. These scientists are increasingly concerned about the potential long-term effects of global warming on our natural environment and on the planet. Of particular concern is how

text: climate change

text: and global warming caused by

text: anthropogenic

text: , or human-made releases of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es, most notably

text: carbon dioxide

text: , can act interactively, and have adverse effects upon the planet, its natural environment and humans' existence. It is clear the planet is warming, and warming rapidly.–This warming is also responsible for the extinction of natural habitats,which in turn leads to a reduction in wildlife population.The most recent report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (the group of the leading climate scientists in the world) concluded that the earth will warm anywhere from 2.7 to almost 11 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 to 6 degrees Celsius) between 1990 and 2100.Efforts have been increasingly focused on the

text: mitigation

text: of greenhouse gases that are causing climatic changes, on

text: developing adaptative strategies

text: to global warming, to assist humans, other animal, and plant species, ecosystems, regions and

text: nation

text: s in adjusting to the

text: effects of global warming

text: . Some examples of recent collaboration to address climate change and global warming include:

text: Voris also criticized the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops for launching the Catholic Coalition on Climate Change in 2006 (which sent out teaching materials to all Catholic schools in the US which encouraged school children to reduce their carbon footprints), and the Catholic Climate Covenant in 2009 which encouraged Catholics to take a "St. Francis Pledge". The person taking the pledge promises to "Pray and reflect on the duty to care for God’s Creation and protect the poor and vulnerable. Learn about and educate others on the causes and moral dimensions of climate change. Assess how we—as individuals and in our families, parishes and other affiliations—contribute to climate change by our own energy use, consumption, waste, etc. Act to change our choices and behaviors to reduce the ways we contribute to climate change. Advocate for Catholic principles and priorities in climate change discussions and decisions, especially as they impact those who are poor and vulnerable." Voris declared, "This is total propaganda. It blindly accepts all of the nonsense put out by the Climate Change crowd...it's disingenuous to pass this off as if it's the truth and accepted Catholic teaching." He took umbrage that the Bishops called for Sunday homilies that coincided with Earth Day to be about climate change "during the sacrifice of the Holy Mass", and suggested petitions be given at Mass to call for divine assistance in using "our technological inventiveness to undo the damage we have done to Your creation". Voris declared such moves by the Bishops' groups as "offensive to religious sensibilities...passing off as a truth something which is a lie or at best a mistake. You don't get to do this."

text: Voris also criticized the

entity_name: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops

text: United States Conference of Catholic Bishops

text: for launching the Catholic Coalition on Climate Change in 2006 (which sent out teaching materials to all Catholic schools in the US which encouraged school children to reduce their

text: carbon footprint

text: s), and the Catholic Climate Covenant in 2009 which encouraged Catholics to take a "St. Francis Pledge". The person taking the pledge promises to "Pray and reflect on the duty to care for God’s Creation and protect the poor and vulnerable. Learn about and educate others on the causes and moral dimensions of climate change. Assess how we—as individuals and in our families, parishes and other affiliations—contribute to climate change by our own energy use, consumption, waste, etc. Act to change our choices and behaviors to reduce the ways we contribute to climate change. Advocate for Catholic principles and priorities in climate change discussions and decisions, especially as they impact those who are poor and vulnerable." Voris declared, "This is total propaganda. It blindly accepts all of the nonsense put out by the Climate Change crowd...it's disingenuous to pass this off as if it's the truth and accepted Catholic teaching." He took umbrage that the Bishops called for Sunday homilies that coincided with

text: Earth Day

text: to be about climate change "during the sacrifice of the

text: Holy Mass

text: ", and suggested petitions be given at Mass to call for divine assistance in using "our technological inventiveness to undo the damage we have done to Your creation". Voris declared such moves by the Bishops' groups as "offensive to religious sensibilities...passing off as a truth something which is a lie or at best a mistake. You don't get to do this."

text: In 2008, Farley wrote: "... examine the change in temperature and solar forcing between glaciation (ice age) and interglacial (no ice age) periods. The change in temperature, revealed in ice core samples, is 5 °C, while the change in solar forcing is 7.1 W/m. The computed climate sensitivity is therefore 5/7.1 = 0.7 K(W/m). We can use this empirically derived climate sensitivity to predict the temperature rise from a forcing of 4 W/m, arising from a doubling of the atmospheric  from pre-industrial levels. The result is a predicted temperature increase of 3 °C."

text: In 2008, Farley wrote: "... examine the change in temperature and solar forcing between

text: glaciation

text: (ice age) and

text: interglacial

text: (no ice age) periods. The change in temperature, revealed in

text: ice core

text: samples, is 5 °C, while the change in solar forcing is 7.1 W/m. The computed climate sensitivity is therefore 5/7.1 = 0.7 K(W/m). We can use this empirically derived climate sensitivity to predict the temperature rise from a forcing of 4 W/m, arising from a doubling of the atmospheric  from pre-industrial levels. The result is a predicted temperature increase of 3 °C."

text: In 2009, Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of "The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics". While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term, he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises, and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions. His issue is not with the reality of climate change, but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken (or not taken) to meet the challenges of that climate change. He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems, such as AIDS, malaria and malnutrition. In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Lomborg stated: "Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat."  In 2011 and 2012, Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy "for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change".

text: In 2009,

text: Business Insider

text: cited Lomborg as one of "The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics". While Lomborg campaigned against the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term, he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises, and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions. His issue is not with the reality of climate change, but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken (or not taken) to meet the challenges of that climate change. He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems, such as AIDS, malaria and malnutrition. In his critique of the 2012

text: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

text: , Lomborg stated: "Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat."  In 2011 and 2012, Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by

text: Foreign Policy

text: "for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change".

text: Literature assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the US Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) have considered the possibility of future projected climate change leading to a rapid increase in atmospheric methane. The IPCC Third Assessment Report, published in 2001, looked at possible rapid increases in methane due either to reductions in the atmospheric chemical sink or from the release of buried methane reservoirs. In both cases, it was judged that such a release would be "exceptionally unlikely"(less than a 1% chance, based on expert judgement).The CCSP assessment, published in 2008, concluded that an abrupt release of methane into the atmosphere appeared "very unlikely"(less than 10% probability, based on expert judgement).The CCSP assessment, however, noted that climate change would "very likely" (greater than 90% probability, based on expert judgement) accelerate the pace of persistent emissions from both hydrate sources and wetlands.

text: Literature

text: assessments by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the US

text: Climate Change Science Program

text: (CCSP) have considered the possibility of future

text: projected climate change

text: leading to a rapid increase in atmospheric methane. The

text: IPCC Third Assessment Report

text: , published in 2001, looked at possible rapid increases in methane due either to reductions in the atmospheric chemical sink or from the release of buried methane reservoirs. In both cases, it was judged that such a release would be "exceptionally unlikely"(less than a 1% chance, based on expert judgement).The CCSP assessment, published in 2008, concluded that an abrupt release of methane into the atmosphere appeared "very unlikely"(less than 10% probability, based on expert judgement).The CCSP assessment, however, noted that climate change would "very likely" (greater than 90% probability, based on expert judgement) accelerate the pace of persistent emissions from both hydrate sources and wetlands.

text: While researchers acknowledge there are possible benefits of global warming, most agree that the negative consequences of climate change will outweigh any potential benefits and instead the shifting climate will result in more benefits to developed countries and more detriments to developing countries; exacerbating the discrepancy between wealthy and impoverished nations.  By thoughtful and proactive efforts, climate change can be mitigated by addressing these issues with a multidisciplinary approach that works on a global, national and community basis that recognizes the uniqueness of each country’s situation. 	According to a study of East Africa’s smallholder farms, impacts of climate change on agriculture are already being seen there resulting in changes to farming practices such as intercropping, crop, soil, land, water and livestock management systems, and introduction of new technologies and seed varieties by some of the farmers. Some other suggestions such as eliminating supply chain and household food waste, encouraging diverse and vegetable-rich diets, and providing global access to foods (food aid programs) have been suggested as ways to adapt. Many researchers agree that agricultural innovation is essential to addressing the potential issues of climate change. This includes better management of soil, water-saving technology, matching crops to environments, introducing different crop varieties, crop rotations, appropriate fertilization use, and supporting community-based adaptation strategies.  On a government and global level, research and investments into agricultural productivity and infrastructure must be done to get a better picture of the issues involved and the best methods to address them. Government policies and programs must provide environmentally sensitive government subsidies, educational campaigns and economic incentives as well as funds, insurance and safety nets for vulnerable populations.  In addition, providing early warning systems, and accurate weather forecasts to poor or remote areas will allow for better preparation; by using and sharing the available technology, the global issue of climate change can be addressed and mitigated by the global community.

text: While researchers acknowledge there are possible

text: benefits of global warming

text: , most agree that the negative consequences of climate change will outweigh any potential benefits and instead the shifting climate will result in more benefits to developed countries and more detriments to developing countries; exacerbating the discrepancy between wealthy and impoverished nations.  By thoughtful and proactive efforts, climate change can be mitigated by addressing these issues with a

text: multidisciplinary approach

text: that works on a

text: global

text: nation

text: al and

text: community

text: basis that recognizes the uniqueness of each country’s situation. 	According to a study of

text: East Africa

text: ’s smallholder farms, impacts of climate change on agriculture are already being seen there resulting in changes to farming practices such as

text: intercropping

text: , crop, soil, land, water and livestock management systems, and introduction of new technologies and seed varieties by some of the farmers. Some other suggestions such as eliminating

text: supply chain

text: and household food waste, encouraging diverse and vegetable-rich diets, and providing global access to foods (

text: food aid

text: programs) have been suggested as ways to adapt. Many researchers agree that agricultural innovation is essential to addressing the potential issues of climate change. This includes better management of soil, water-saving technology, matching crops to environments, introducing different crop varieties, crop rotations, appropriate

text: fertilization

text: use, and supporting community-based adaptation strategies.  On a government and global level, research and investments into

text: agricultural productivity

text: and

text: infrastructure

text: must be done to get a better picture of the issues involved and the best methods to address them.

text: Government policies

text: and programs must provide environmentally sensitive government

text: subsidies

text: , educational campaigns and economic incentives as well as funds,

text: insurance

text: and safety nets for vulnerable populations.  In addition, providing

text: early warning systems

text: , and accurate

text: weather forecasts

text: to poor or remote areas will allow for better preparation; by using and sharing the available technology, the global issue of climate change can be addressed and mitigated by the global community.

text: So far, the effects of regional climate change on agriculture have been relatively limited. Changes in crop phenology provide important evidence of the response to recent regional climate change. Phenology is the study of natural phenomena that recur periodically, and how these phenomena relate to climate and seasonal changes. A significant advance in phenology has been observed for agriculture and forestry in large parts of the Northern Hemisphere.

text: So far, the effects of regional climate change on agriculture have been relatively limited. Changes in crop

text: phenology

text: provide important evidence of the response to recent regional climate change. Phenology is the study of natural phenomena that recur periodically, and how these phenomena relate to climate and seasonal changes. A significant advance in phenology has been observed for agriculture and forestry in large parts of the Northern Hemisphere.

text: Climate is a measure of the long-term trends in the weather. Various factors are known to influence the climate, including ocean currents, surface albedo, greenhouse gases, variations in the solar luminosity, and changes to the Earth's orbit. Based on historical records, the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including ice ages.

text: Climate is a measure of the long-term trends in the weather. Various factors are known to

text: influence the climate

text: , including ocean currents, surface

text: albedo

text: greenhouse gas

text: es, variations in the solar luminosity, and changes to the Earth's orbit. Based on historical records, the Earth is known to have undergone drastic climate changes in the past, including

text: ice age

text: s.

text: Climate change and global warming reflects the notion of the modern climate. The changes of climate over the past century, have been attributed to various factors which have resulted in a global warming. This warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Some effects on both the natural environment and human life are, at least in part, already being attributed to global warming. A 2001 report by the IPCC suggests that glacier retreat, ice shelf disruption such as that of the Larsen Ice Shelf, sea level rise, changes in rainfall patterns, and increased intensity and frequency of extreme weather events are attributable in part to global warming. Other expected effects include water scarcity in some regions and increased precipitation in others, changes in mountain snowpack, and adverse health effects from warmer temperatures.

text: Climate change

text: and

text: global warming

text: reflects the notion of the modern

text: climate

text: . The changes of climate over the past century, have been

text: attributed to various factors

text: which have resulted in a

text: global warming

text: . This warming is the increase in the

text: average temperature

text: of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Some effects on both the

text: natural environment

text: and

text: human life

text: are, at least in part, already being attributed to global warming. A 2001 report by the IPCC suggests that

text: glacier retreat

text: ice shelf disruption

text: such as that of the

text: Larsen Ice Shelf

text: sea level rise

text: , changes in rainfall patterns, and increased intensity and frequency of extreme weather events are attributable in part to global warming. Other expected effects include water scarcity in some regions and increased precipitation in others, changes in mountain snowpack, and adverse health effects from warmer temperatures.

text: The primary goal of the USCRN is to provide future long-term high-quality observations of surface air temperature and precipitation that can be coupled to past long-term observations for the detection and attribution of present and future climate change. It records data with minimal time dependent biases affecting the interpretation of decadal to centennial climate variability and change.

text: Late ice age climatic changes caused plant communities and animal populations to change. Groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. Small bands utilized hunting and gathering during the spring and summer months, then broke into smaller direct family groups for the fall and winter. Family groups moved every 3–6 days, possibly covering up to  a year.  Diets were often sustaining and rich in protein due to successful hunting. Clothing was made from a variety of animal hides that were also used for shelter construction. During much of the Early and Middle Paleo-Indian periods, inland bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct megafauna. Large Pleistocene mammals were the giant beaver, steppe wisent, musk ox, mastodons, woolly mammoths and ancient reindeer (early caribou).

text: Late ice age climatic changes caused plant communities and animal populations to change. Groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. Small bands utilized hunting and gathering during the spring and summer months, then broke into smaller direct family groups for the fall and winter. Family groups moved every 3–6 days, possibly covering up to  a year.  Diets were often sustaining and rich in protein due to successful hunting. Clothing was made from a variety of animal hides that were also used for shelter construction. During much of the Early and Middle Paleo-Indian periods, inland bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct

text: megafauna

text: . Large Pleistocene mammals were the

text: giant beaver

text: steppe wisent

text: musk ox

text: mastodons

text: woolly mammoths

text: and

text: ancient reindeer

text: (early caribou).

text: Developed by DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum,  the report is meant to serve as a new tool to assess global vulnerability to various effects of climate change within different nations.

text: Developed by

text: DARA

text: and the

text: Climate Vulnerable Forum

text: ,  the report is meant to serve as a new tool to assess global vulnerability to various effects of climate change within different nations.

text: The Pleistocene Epoch lasted from 3 million to 12,000 years. This epoch featured the ice ages that resulted from the cooling effect that started in the Mid-Eocene Epoch of the Paleogene Period. As the ice progressively migrated towards the equator, the area outside of the tropic lines featured intense winters yet mild summers. Meanwhile, Africa experienced intense droughts, which resulted in the creation of the Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari deserts. To cope, many animals, including mammoths, giant ground sloths, dire wolves, evolved and most famously Homo sapiens. The worst droughts of Africa ended 100,000 years ago, and marked the expansion of primitive man. As the Pleistocene Epoch drew to a close, one of the largest die-outs caused many mega-fauna to die off, including the last hominid species (excluding Homo sapiens). All continents were affected, but Africa less so.

text: The Pleistocene Epoch lasted from 3 million to 12,000 years. This epoch featured the ice ages that resulted from the cooling effect that started in the Mid-Eocene Epoch of the Paleogene Period. As the ice progressively migrated towards the equator, the area outside of the tropic lines featured intense winters yet mild summers. Meanwhile, Africa experienced intense droughts, which resulted in the creation of the Sahara, Namib, and Kalahari deserts. To cope, many animals, including

text: mammoths

text: giant ground sloths

text: dire wolves

text: , evolved and most famously

text: Homo sapiens

text: . The worst droughts of Africa ended 100,000 years ago, and marked the expansion of primitive man. As the Pleistocene Epoch drew to a close, one of the largest die-outs caused many mega-fauna to die off, including the last hominid species (excluding Homo sapiens). All continents were affected, but Africa less so.

text: In discussions of threats to biodiversity, extinction debt is analogous to the "climate commitment" in climate change, which states that inertia will cause the earth to continue to warm for centuries even if no more greenhouse gasses are emitted. Similarly, the current extinction may continue long after human impacts on species halt.

text: In discussions of

text: threats to biodiversity

text: , extinction debt is analogous to the "

text: climate commitment

text: " in

text: climate change

text: , which states that

text: inertia

text: will cause the earth to continue to warm for centuries even if no more

text: greenhouse gasses

text: are emitted. Similarly, the

text: current extinction

text: may continue long after

text: human impacts

text: on species halt.

text: The Climatic Research Unit had as an early priority the objective of filling gaps in available information "to establish the past record of climate over as much of the world as possible, as far back in time as was feasible, and in enough detail to recognise and establish the basic processes, interactions, and evolutions in the Earth's fluid envelopes and those involving the Earth's crust and its vegetation cover". Through the 1970s the unit worked on interpreting documentary historical records. From 1978 onward CRU began production of its gridded data set of land air temperature anomalies based on instrumental temperature records held by National Meteorological Organisations around the world. In 1986 sea temperatures were added to form a synthesis of data which was the first global temperature record, demonstrating unequivocally that the globe has warmed by almost 0.8 °C over the last 157 years. From 1989 this work proceeded in conjunction with the Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research, and their work demonstrated global warming of almost 0.8 °C over the last 157 years.

text: The

text: Climatic Research Unit

text: had as an early priority the objective of filling gaps in available information "to establish the past record of climate over as much of the world as possible, as far back in time as was feasible, and in enough detail to recognise and establish the basic processes, interactions, and evolutions in the Earth's fluid envelopes and those involving the Earth's crust and its vegetation cover". Through the 1970s the unit worked on interpreting documentary historical records. From 1978 onward CRU began production of its gridded

text: data set

text: of land air temperature anomalies based on

text: instrumental temperature record

text: s held by

text: National Meteorological Organisations

text: around the world. In 1986 sea temperatures were added to form a synthesis of data which was the first global temperature record, demonstrating unequivocally that the globe has warmed by almost 0.8 °C over the last 157 years. From 1989 this work proceeded in conjunction with the

text: Met Office

text: Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research

text: , and their work demonstrated

text: global warming

text: of almost 0.8 °C over the last 157 years.

text: Foremost among many changes is that forests are today centre-stage in the global debate on how to tackle climate change. Almost 20 per cent of global carbon emissions are caused by deforestation, and so curbing forest loss is a way to reduce global warming. Also the promotion of biofuels by governments concerned about global warming is driving forest clearance in some areas.

text: Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).  Article 2 of the Convention states its ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., human) interference with the climate system." The natural, technical, and social sciences can provide information on decisions relating to this objective, e.g., the possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes. However, the IPCC has also concluded that the decision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary between different regions of the world. Factors that might affect this decision include the local consequences of climate change impacts, the ability of a particular region to adapt to climate change (adaptive capacity), and the ability of a region to reduce its GHG emissions (mitigative capacity).

text: Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).  Article 2 of the Convention states its ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (i.e., human) interference with the climate system." The

text: natural

text: , technical, and

text: social sciences

text: can provide information on decisions relating to this objective, e.g., the possible magnitude and rate of future climate changes. However, the IPCC has also concluded that the decision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference requires value judgements, which will vary between different regions of the world. Factors that might affect this decision include the local consequences of climate change impacts, the ability of a particular region to

text: adapt to climate change

text: (adaptive capacity), and the ability of a region to

text: reduce its GHG emissions

text: (mitigative capacity).

text: Because of the extreme but constant habitats, small disruption or damage could alter the polar systems. Although they are remote from human world, polar seas are not 'pristine' environments. Compared with the Antarctic region, the Arctic has long history of interaction with man. The polar food web structure can be sensitive to man's 'top-down' control especially with the development and growth of industrial fishing.Climate change is a natural phenomenon that influences life in polar areas. There is observational evidence that the Antarctica climate is a bellwether for climate change in the northern hemisphere, leading by about 1000 years. The study of Antarctic ice, its distribution, changes in ice volume, and other indicators of the continental climate in Antarctica are at an early stage of development and even earlier stage of understanding. Techniques for studying the terrain beneath the ice are just being explored. Lake Vostok, buried under miles of ice, has not been penetrated to date. There is evidence that it has been out of contact with the atmosphere for millions of years, making it a possible treasure trove of information.

text: Recent scientific assessments find that most of the warming of the Earth's surface over the past 50 years has been caused by human activities (see also the section on scientific literature and opinion). This conclusion rests on multiple lines of evidence. Like the warming "signal" that has gradually emerged from the "noise" of natural climate variability, the scientific evidence for a human influence on global climate has accumulated over the past several decades, from many hundreds of studies. No single study is a "smoking gun." Nor has any single study or combination of studies undermined the large body of evidence supporting the conclusion that human activity is the primary driver of recent warming.

text: Recent scientific assessments find that most of the warming of the Earth's surface over the past 50 years has been caused by human activities (see also the section on

text: scientific literature and opinion

text: ). This conclusion rests on multiple lines of evidence. Like the warming "signal" that has gradually emerged from the "noise" of natural climate variability, the scientific evidence for a human influence on global climate has accumulated over the past several decades, from many hundreds of studies. No single study is a "

text: smoking gun

text: ." Nor has any single study or combination of studies undermined the large body of evidence supporting the conclusion that human activity is the primary driver of recent warming.

text: The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the Great Famine of 1315–17. The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age, which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures. The years 1313–14 and 1317–21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures. The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.

text: The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the

text: Great Famine of 1315–17

text: . The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the

text: Medieval Warm Period

text: to the

text: Little Ice Age

text: , which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures. The years 1313–14 and 1317–21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures. The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.

text: Based on computer models, the presence of the Moon appears to stabilize the obliquity of the Earth, which may help the planet to avoid dramatic climate changes. This stability is achieved because the Moon increases the precession rate of the Earth's spin axis (that is, the precession motion of the ecliptic), thereby avoiding resonances between the precession of the spin and precession of the planet's orbital plane relative to that of Jupiter. However, as the semimajor axis of the Moon's orbit continues to increase, this stabilizing effect will diminish. At some point, perturbation effects will probably cause chaotic variations in the obliquity of the Earth, and the axial tilt may change by angles as high as 90° from the plane of the orbit. This is expected to occur between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now.

text: Based on computer models, the presence of the Moon appears to stabilize the obliquity of the Earth, which may help the planet to avoid dramatic climate changes. This stability is achieved because the Moon increases the

text: precession

text: rate of the Earth's spin axis (that is, the precession motion of the

text: ecliptic

text: ), thereby avoiding resonances between the precession of the spin and precession of the planet's orbital plane relative to that of Jupiter. However, as the semimajor axis of the Moon's orbit continues to increase, this stabilizing effect will diminish. At some point, perturbation effects will probably cause chaotic variations in the obliquity of the Earth, and the

text: axial tilt

text: may change by angles as high as 90° from the plane of the orbit. This is expected to occur between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now.

text: Because confidence in expected outcomes is often greater in the short-term (e.g., 20 years) than the long-term future, it may be more reasonable to use short-term projections to guide actions. However, it is also important to consider whether the climate will remain suitable long enough for colonizing species to mature and reproduce, if that is the management goal.

text: The Burgess Shale has attracted the interest of paleoclimatologists who want to study and predict long-term future changes in Earth's climate. According to Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee in the 2003 book The Life and Death of Planet Earth, climatologists study the fossil records in the Burgess Shale to understand the climate of the Cambrian Explosion, and use it to predict what Earth's climate in the future when a warming and expanding Sun combined with declining CO and oxygen levels eventually heat the Earth toward temperatures not seen since the Archean Eon 3 billion years ago, before the first plants and animals appeared, and therefore understand how and when the last living things will die out. See also Future of the Earth.

text: The Burgess Shale has attracted the interest of paleoclimatologists who want to study and predict long-term future changes in Earth's climate. According to Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee in the 2003 book The Life and Death of Planet Earth, climatologists study the fossil records in the Burgess Shale to understand the climate of the Cambrian Explosion, and use it to predict what Earth's climate in the future when a warming and expanding Sun combined with declining

text: CO

text: and oxygen levels eventually heat the Earth toward temperatures not seen since the

text: Archean

text: Eon 3 billion years ago, before the first plants and animals appeared, and therefore understand how and when the last living things will die out. See also

text: Future of the Earth

text: Ice ages during the Pleistocene brought a cooler and wetter pluvial climate to the region starting 2 to 3 million years ago. The added precipitation increased runoff and the erosive ability of streams (especially from spring melt water and flash floods in summer). With a greatly increased flow volume the Colorado cut faster than ever before and started to quickly excavate the Grand Canyon 2 million years before present, almost reaching the modern depth by 1.2 million years ago.

text: Ice age

text: s during the

text: Pleistocene

text: brought a cooler and wetter

text: pluvial

text: climate to the region starting 2 to 3 million years ago. The added

text: precipitation

text: increased runoff and the erosive ability of streams (especially from spring melt water and

text: flash flood

text: s in summer). With a greatly increased flow volume the Colorado cut faster than ever before and started to quickly excavate the Grand Canyon 2 million years before present, almost reaching the modern depth by 1.2 million years ago.

text: Glacial isostatic adjustment also plays an important role in understanding recent global warming and climate change.

text: Glacial

text: isostatic

text: adjustment also plays an important role in understanding recent global warming and climate change.

text: Climatic conditions in the area gradually changed through the Cenozoic as plate tectonics moved North America northwest from a sub-tropical to a  temperate zone by the Pliocene epoch. The onset of a series of glaciations in the Pleistocene epoch saw the introduction of large glaciers in the Teton and surrounding ranges, which flowed all the way to Jackson Hole during at least three ice ages. Cascade, Garnet, Death and Granite Canyons were all carved by successive periods of glaciation.

text: Climatic

text: conditions in the area gradually changed through the Cenozoic as plate tectonics moved North America northwest from a

text: sub-tropical

text: to a

text: temperate zone

text: by the Pliocene epoch. The onset of a series of

text: glaciation

text: s in the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch saw the introduction of large

text: glacier

text: s in the Teton and surrounding ranges, which flowed all the way to Jackson Hole during at least three

text: ice age

text: s.

text: Cascade

text: Garnet

text: Death

text: and

text: Granite Canyon

text: s were all carved by successive periods of glaciation.

text: He had previously claimed that the Climate Change Act 2008 was "the most expensive piece of legislation ever put through Parliament", and likely to cost hundreds of billions over the next 40 years.In May 2009 Booker spoke at an International Conference on Climate Change organised by The Heartland Institute.In the Autumn of 2009, he published The Real Global Warming Disaster. The book, which became his best-selling work, claims that there is not actually a consensus on climate change, and postulates that the measures taken by governments to combat climate change "will turn out to be one of the most expensive, destructive, and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made". The book was characterised by Philip Ball in The Observer as being as "the definitive climate sceptics' manual", in which "he has rounded up just about every criticism ever made of the majority scientific view that global warming, most probably caused by human activity, is under way, and presented them unchallenged". Ball went on to note that Booker's position required the reader to believe that "1) Most of the world's climate scientists, for reasons unspecified, decided to create a myth about human-induced global warming and have managed to twist endless measurements and computer models to fit their case, without the rest of the scientific community noticing. George W Bush and certain oil companies have, however, seen through the deception. 2) Most of the world's climate scientists are incompetent and have grossly misinterpreted their data and models, yet their faulty conclusions are not, as you might imagine, a random chaos of assertions, but all point in the same direction."

text: He had previously claimed that the

text: Climate Change Act 2008

text: was "the most expensive piece of legislation ever put through Parliament", and likely to cost hundreds of billions over the next 40 years.In May 2009 Booker spoke at an

text: organised by

text: The Heartland Institute

text: .In the Autumn of 2009, he published

text: The Real Global Warming Disaster

text: . The book, which became his best-selling work, claims that there is not actually a consensus on climate change, and postulates that the measures taken by governments to combat climate change "will turn out to be one of the most expensive, destructive, and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made". The book was characterised by

text: Philip Ball

text: in The Observer as being as "the definitive climate sceptics' manual", in which "he has rounded up just about every criticism ever made of the majority scientific view that global warming, most probably caused by human activity, is under way, and presented them unchallenged". Ball went on to note that Booker's position required the reader to believe that "1) Most of the world's climate scientists, for reasons unspecified, decided to create a myth about human-induced global warming and have managed to twist endless measurements and computer models to fit their case, without the rest of the scientific community noticing. George W Bush and certain oil companies have, however, seen through the deception. 2) Most of the world's climate scientists are incompetent and have grossly misinterpreted their data and models, yet their faulty conclusions are not, as you might imagine, a random chaos of assertions, but all point in the same direction."

text: Relatively small changes in the orientation of the Earth's axis or length of the seasons can be a major influence on the Earth's climate. An example are the ice ages of the past 2.6 million years (the Quaternary period), which are assumed to have been caused by astronomic cycles. Climate change can influence the global sea level (and thus the amount of accommodation space in sedimentary basins) and sediment supply from a certain region. Eventually, small changes in astronomic parameters can cause large changes in sedimentary environment and sedimentation.

text: Relatively small changes in the orientation of the Earth's axis or length of the seasons can be a major influence on the Earth's climate. An example are the

text: ice ages of the past 2.6 million years

text: (the

text: Quaternary

text: period

text: ), which are assumed to have been caused by astronomic cycles. Climate change can influence the global sea level (and thus the amount of accommodation space in sedimentary basins) and sediment supply from a certain region. Eventually, small changes in astronomic parameters can cause large changes in sedimentary environment and sedimentation.

text: The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones, such as Hurricanes Katrina, Wilma, and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public, and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events. Time Magazine, for example, published an article titled, "Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina?"—however, the article itself addressed hurricanes in general, rather than Katrina specifically, and was inconclusive.

text: The tremendous destruction caused by recent

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: tropical cyclone

text: s, such as Hurricanes Katrina,

text: Wilma

text: , and

text: Sandy

text: caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of

text: global warming

text: by news media and the wider public, and concerns that global

text: climatic change

text: may have played a significant role

text: in those events.

text: Time Magazine

text: , for example, published an article titled, "Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina?"—however, the article itself addressed hurricanes in general, rather than Katrina specifically, and was inconclusive.

text: This section of the report, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, assessed current scientific knowledge of "the natural and human drivers of climate change" as well as observed changes in climate. It looked at the ability of science to attribute changes to different causes, and made projections of future climate change.

text: A disjunct northern population of T. oreades grows together with T. mongaensis in the southern Monga Valley in southern New South Wales, with some hybrids reported. Crisp and Weston concluded that the two species for the most part did not hybridise there. However, a genetic study using microsatellites found there was extensive hybridisation, with much of the presumed pure T. oreades showing a close relation to T. mongaensis. The populations of waratahs are thought to have grown and shrunk with the ebb and flow of ice ages in the Pleistocene, finally stranding a population of  T. oreades located alongside T. mongaensis as conditions suitable for waratahs changed in southeastern Australia.

text: A

text: disjunct

text: northern population of T. oreades grows together with T. mongaensis in the southern

text: Monga Valley

text: in southern New South Wales, with some

text: hybrid

text: s reported. Crisp and Weston concluded that the two species for the most part did not

text: hybridise

text: there. However, a genetic study using microsatellites found there was extensive hybridisation, with much of the presumed pure T. oreades showing a close relation to T. mongaensis. The populations of waratahs are thought to have grown and shrunk with the ebb and flow of ice ages in the

text: Pleistocene

text: , finally stranding a population of  T. oreades located alongside T. mongaensis as conditions suitable for waratahs changed in southeastern Australia.

text: The encyclical highlights the role of fossil fuels in causing climate change.   "We know that technology based on the use of highly polluting fossil fuels – especially coal, but also oil and, to a lesser degree, gas – needs to be progressively replaced without delay", Francis says. "Until greater progress is made in developing widely accessible sources of renewable energy, it is legitimate to choose the less harmful alternative or to find short-term solutions."  The encyclical's comments on climate change are consistent with the scientific consensus on climate change.

text: The encyclical highlights the role of

text: fossil fuel

text: s in causing climate change.   "We know that technology based on the use of highly polluting fossil fuels – especially coal, but also oil and, to a lesser degree, gas – needs to be progressively replaced without delay", Francis says. "Until greater progress is made in developing widely accessible sources of renewable energy, it is legitimate to choose the less harmful alternative or to find short-term solutions."  The encyclical's comments on climate change are consistent with the

text: scientific consensus on climate change

text: Seventy percent of the Earth is covered by water, so information about the marine environment is vital in understanding how the Earth's surface system works. Nick McCave's research looks at perturbations in the deep oceans, using evidence from micro-fossils combined with carbon dating, to obtain information on pre-historical climate change. It is important to understand the normal cycles of climate change, in order to assess the degree to which the global warming we are experiencing now is caused by man, and the likely consequences by analysis of past analogues. One problem is the interaction between atmospheric climate change and the observed changes in the ocean currents. There is a 'chicken and egg' question: are the perturbations seen in atmospheric CO concentrations forced by the vigour of the deep ocean currents, or vice versa?

text: Seventy percent of the Earth is covered by water, so information about the marine environment is vital in understanding how the Earth's surface system works. Nick McCave's research looks at perturbations in the deep oceans, using evidence from

text: micro-fossils

text: combined with

text: carbon dating

text: , to obtain information on pre-historical

text: climate change

text: . It is important to understand the normal cycles of climate change, in order to assess the degree to which the global warming we are experiencing now is caused by man, and the likely consequences by analysis of past analogues. One problem is the interaction between atmospheric climate change and the observed changes in the

text: ocean current

text: s. There is a 'chicken and egg' question: are the perturbations seen in atmospheric CO concentrations forced by the vigour of the deep ocean currents, or vice versa?

text: Samper's tenure at the museum was not without controversy. In May 2007, Robert Sullivan, the former associate director in charge of exhibitions at the National Museum of Natural History, charged that Samper and Smithsonian Undersecretary for Science David Evans (Samper's supervisor) ordered "last minute" changes in the exhibit "Arctic: A Friend Acting Strangely" to tone down the role of human beings in the discussion of global warming, and to make global warming seem more uncertain than originally depicted. Samper denied that he knew of any scientific objections to the changes, and said that no political pressure had been applied to the Smithsonian to make the changes. In November 2007, The Washington Post reported that an interagency group of scientists from the Department of the Interior, NASA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and National Science Foundation believed that, despite Samper's denial, the museum "acted to avoid criticism from congressional appropriators and global-warming skeptics in the Bush administration". The changes were discussed as early as mid-August 2005, and Dr. Waleed Abdalati, manager of NASA's Cryospheric Sciences Program, noted at the time that "There was some discussion of the political sensitivities of the exhibit." Although the exhibit was due to open in October 2005, the Post reported that Samper ordered a six-month delay to allow for even further changes. The newspaper also reported that it had obtained a memo drafted by Samper shortly after October 15, 2005, in which Samper said the museum should not "replicate" work by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. A few weeks later, a NOAA climate researcher advised a superior that the delay was due to "the debate within the administration and the science community over the existence and cause of global warming". During the delay, Samper asked high-level officials in other government agencies and departments to review the script for the exhibit, ordered his museum staff to make additionals changes, and rearranged the sequence of the exhibit panels so that the discussion of climate change was not immediately encountered by museum visitors. Shortly before the exhibit opened in April 2006, officials at NOAA and the United States Department of Commerce expressed to their superiors their opinion that the exhibit had been changed to accommodate political concerns. In an interview with The Washington Post in November 2007, Samper said he felt the exhibit displayed a scientific certainty that did not exist, and expressed his belief that the museum should present evidence on both sides and let the public make up its own mind.

text: Samper's tenure at the museum was not without controversy. In May 2007, Robert Sullivan, the former associate director in charge of exhibitions at the National Museum of Natural History, charged that Samper and Smithsonian Undersecretary for Science David Evans (Samper's supervisor) ordered "last minute" changes in the exhibit "Arctic: A Friend Acting Strangely" to tone down the role of human beings in the discussion of

text: global warming

text: , and to make global warming seem more uncertain than originally depicted. Samper denied that he knew of any scientific objections to the changes, and said that no political pressure had been applied to the Smithsonian to make the changes. In November 2007,

text: The Washington Post

text: reported that an interagency group of scientists from the

entity_name: United States Department of the Interior

text: Department of the Interior

text: NASA

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: (NOAA), and

text: National Science Foundation

text: believed that, despite Samper's denial, the museum "acted to avoid criticism from congressional appropriators and global-warming skeptics in the Bush administration". The changes were discussed as early as mid-August 2005, and Dr.

text: Waleed Abdalati

text: , manager of NASA's Cryospheric Sciences Program, noted at the time that "There was some discussion of the political sensitivities of the exhibit." Although the exhibit was due to open in October 2005, the Post reported that Samper ordered a six-month delay to allow for even further changes. The newspaper also reported that it had obtained a memo drafted by Samper shortly after October 15, 2005, in which Samper said the museum should not "replicate" work by the

text: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: . A few weeks later, a NOAA climate researcher advised a superior that the delay was due to "the debate within the administration and the science community over the existence and cause of global warming". During the delay, Samper asked high-level officials in other government agencies and departments to review the script for the exhibit, ordered his museum staff to make additionals changes, and rearranged the sequence of the exhibit panels so that the discussion of climate change was not immediately encountered by museum visitors. Shortly before the exhibit opened in April 2006, officials at NOAA and the

text: United States Department of Commerce

text: expressed to their superiors their opinion that the exhibit had been changed to accommodate political concerns. In an interview with The Washington Post in November 2007, Samper said he felt the exhibit displayed a scientific certainty that did not exist, and expressed his belief that the museum should present evidence on both sides and let the public make up its own mind.

text: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change, written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery, which asserts that natural changes, and not CO emissions, are the cause of Global Warming. Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006, the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007.

text: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change, written by

text: Siegfried Fred Singer

text: and

text: Dennis T. Avery

text: , which asserts that natural changes, and not

text: CO emissions

text: , are the cause of

text: Global Warming

text: . Published by

text: Rowman & Littlefield

text: in 2006, the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007.

text: He contributed to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as a Lead Author of the Chapter on detection of change and attribution of causes, and was a Review Editor for the chapter on predictions of global climate change for the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.  His research focuses on the attribution of recent climate change and assessing what these changes mean for global climate simulations of the future.

text: He contributed to the

text: Third Assessment Report

text: of the

text: as a Lead Author of the Chapter on detection of change and attribution of causes, and was a Review Editor for the chapter on predictions of global climate change for the

text: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

text: .  His research focuses on the

text: attribution of recent climate change

text: and assessing what these changes mean for

text: global climate simulations

text: of the future.

text: It is important to understand that states have limited resources to devote to the climate issue, and their strict budget requirements can put long-term climate policies in jeopardy. States also lack certain powers that would be crucial to a comprehensive climate change policy, such as the authority to enter into international agreements. Finally, when states take individual approaches on the issue, a "patchwork quilt" of policies can result across the nation. This patchwork of policies may be inefficient for complying business and may result in some states duplicating the work done in other states. While some states are delivering real reductions of GHG emissions only in a few cases do the reduction targets commensurate with what will be needed on a global scale.

text: Smith et al. (2001:942) predicted that climate change would likely result in pronounced non-market impacts. Most of impacts were predicted to be negative. The literature assessment by Smith et al. (2001) suggested that climate change would cause substantial negative health impacts in developing countries. Smith et al. (2001) noted that few of the studies they reviewed had adequately accounted for adaptation. In a literature assessment, Confalonieri et al. (2007:415) found that in the studies that had included health impacts, those impacts contributed substantially to the total costs of climate change.

text: Carbon dioxide () has a large warming effect on global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. Although individual CO molecules have a short residence time in the atmosphere, it takes an extremely long time for carbon dioxide levels to sink after sudden rises, due to e.g. volcanic eruptions or human activity and among the many long-lasting greenhouse gases, it is the most important because it makes up the largest fraction of the atmosphere.Since the industrial revolution, the CO concentration in the atmosphere has risen from about 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm. Although the amount of CO introduced makes up only a small portion of the global carbon cycle, carbon dioxide's long residence time makes these emissions relevant for the total carbon balance. The increased carbon dioxide concentration strengthens the greenhouse effect, causing changes to the global climate. Of the increased amounts of carbon dioxide that are introduced to the atmosphere each year, approximately 80% are from the combustion of fossil fuels and cement production. The other ~20% originate from land use change and deforestation. Because gaseous carbon dioxide does not react quickly with other chemicals, the main processes that change the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere involve exchanges with the earth's other carbon reservoirs, as explained in the following sections.

text: Carbon dioxide () has a large warming effect on global temperatures through the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Although individual CO molecules have a short

text: residence time

text: in the atmosphere, it takes an extremely long time for carbon dioxide levels to sink after sudden rises, due to e.g. volcanic eruptions or human activity and among the many long-lasting greenhouse gases, it is the most important because it makes up the largest fraction of the atmosphere.Since the

text: industrial revolution

text: , the CO concentration in the atmosphere has risen from about 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm. Although the amount of CO introduced makes up only a small portion of the global carbon cycle, carbon dioxide's long residence time makes these emissions relevant for the total carbon balance. The increased carbon dioxide concentration strengthens the greenhouse effect, causing changes to the global

text: climate

text: . Of the increased amounts of carbon dioxide that are introduced to the atmosphere each year, approximately 80% are from the combustion of fossil fuels and cement production. The other ~20% originate from land use change and deforestation. Because gaseous carbon dioxide does not react quickly with other chemicals, the main processes that change the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere involve exchanges with the earth's other carbon reservoirs, as explained in the following sections.

text: A number of initiatives are underway to monitor and track flows of international climate finance. Analysts at Climate Policy Initiative have tracked public and private sector climate finance flows from a variety of sources on a yearly basis since 2011. This work has fed into the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Biennial Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows  and the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report chapter on climate finance. These works, as well as research for Climate Funds Update, a joint project of the Overseas Development Institute and the Heinrich Böll Foundation, suggest the need for progress on a number of issues to make the monitoring of these flows more effective. In particular, they suggest that funds can do better at synchronizing their reporting of data, being consistent in the way that they report their figures, and providing detailed information on the implementation of projects and programmes over time. The Climate & Development Knowledge Network works to ensure developing nations benefit from climate finance.

text: A number of initiatives are underway to monitor and track flows of international climate finance. Analysts at Climate Policy Initiative have tracked public and private sector climate finance flows from a variety of sources on a yearly basis since 2011. This work has fed into the

text: Biennial Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows  and the

text: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report

text: chapter on climate finance. These works, as well as research for Climate Funds Update, a joint project of the

text: Overseas Development Institute

text: and the

text: Heinrich Böll Foundation

text: , suggest the need for progress on a number of issues to make the monitoring of these flows more effective. In particular, they suggest that funds can do better at synchronizing their reporting of data, being consistent in the way that they report their figures, and providing detailed information on the implementation of projects and programmes over time. The

entity_name: Climate and Development Knowledge Network

text: Climate & Development Knowledge Network

text: works to ensure developing nations benefit from climate finance.

text: Landscape Development: The diverse landscape present in Zuffenhausen is due to a troubled geological history involving very different stabilities and solubilities in the different soils and stones in the municipal area. The mostly flat area composed largely of Loess, Brown and Black soils, thanks to a Pleistocene era ice age, made for very optimal prerequisites for later use beginning at around the time of the Neolithic Revolution. Though these fertile soils were spread generously across the river valley, some areas were less fertile than others and were thus better suited for pastures than agricultural adaptation. In the succeeding Holocene epoch, the landscape changed from Tundra into Deciduous forest. The Linear Pottery culture began the decades-long process of deforestation that would forever change the climate of Europe in the mid 6th Millennium BC. They were the first to repurpose the soil those forests once stood on and it made for such prosperous agriculture that hunting began to account for only 10% of all consumed food. However, pieces of that primordial forest still exist as the "Hofkammerwald" (named after the man who once owned the land), an area of over  that has been operated by the City of Stuttgart as a community forest since 1968. The eastern part of the forest is the present city park, the northern section near Neuwirtshaus is now Schützenwies Forest, the westernmost part in Weilimdorf is now called the Maierwald.

text: Landscape Development: The diverse landscape present in Zuffenhausen is due to a troubled geological history involving very different stabilities and solubilities in the different soils and stones in the municipal area. The mostly flat area composed largely of

text: Loess

text: Brown

text: and

text: Black soil

text: s, thanks to a

text: Pleistocene

text: era

text: ice age

text: , made for very optimal prerequisites for later use beginning at around the time of the

text: Neolithic Revolution

text: . Though these fertile soils were spread generously across the river valley, some areas were less fertile than others and were thus better suited for

text: pasture

text: s than

text: agricultural

text: adaptation. In the succeeding

text: Holocene

text: epoch

text: , the landscape changed from

text: Tundra

text: into

text: Deciduous forest

text: . The

text: Linear Pottery culture

text: began the decades-long process of deforestation that would forever change the climate of Europe in the mid 6th Millennium BC. They were the first to repurpose the soil those forests once stood on and it made for such prosperous agriculture that hunting began to account for only 10% of all consumed food. However, pieces of that primordial forest still exist as the "Hofkammerwald" (named after the man who once owned the land), an area of over  that has been operated by the City of Stuttgart as a

text: community forest

text: since 1968. The eastern part of the forest is the present city park, the northern section near Neuwirtshaus is now Schützenwies Forest, the westernmost part in

text: Weilimdorf

text: is now called the Maierwald.

text: Other theories of the causes of climate change fared no better. The principal advances were in observational paleoclimatology, as scientists in various fields of geology worked out methods to reveal ancient climates.  Wilmot H. Bradley found that annual varves of clay laid down in lake beds showed climate cycles. An Arizona astronomer, Andrew Ellicott Douglass, saw strong indications of climate change in tree rings. Noting that the rings were thinner in dry years, he reported climate effects from solar variations, particularly in connection with the 17th-century dearth of sunspots (the Maunder Minimum) noticed previously by William Herschel and others. Other scientists, however, found good reason to doubt that tree rings could reveal anything beyond random regional variations. The value of tree rings for climate study was not solidly established until the 1960s.

text: Other theories of the causes of climate change fared no better. The principal advances were in observational

text: paleoclimatology

text: , as scientists in various fields of

text: geology

text: worked out methods to reveal ancient climates.

text: Wilmot H. Bradley

text: found that annual

text: varve

text: s of clay laid down in lake beds showed climate cycles. An Arizona astronomer,

text: Andrew Ellicott Douglass

text: , saw strong indications of climate change in

text: tree rings

text: . Noting that the rings were thinner in dry years, he reported climate effects from solar variations, particularly in connection with the 17th-century dearth of

text: sunspots

text: (the

text: Maunder Minimum

text: ) noticed previously by

text: William Herschel

text: and others. Other scientists, however, found good reason to doubt that tree rings could reveal anything beyond random regional variations. The value of tree rings for climate study was not solidly established until the 1960s.

text: The appearance of mountains in the western United States during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, a period of some 25 million years, created a continental climate favorable to the evolution of grasslands. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread. Following the Pleistocene ice ages, grasslands expanded in range in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide.

text: The appearance of mountains in the

text: western United States

text: during the

text: Miocene

text: and

text: Pliocene

text: epochs, a period of some 25 million years, created a continental climate favorable to the evolution of grasslands. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread. Following the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age

text: s, grasslands expanded in range in the hotter, drier climates, and began to become the dominant land feature worldwide.

text: The links between the gradual environmental degradation of climate change and displacement are complex: as the decision to migrate is taken at the household level, it is difficult to measure the respective influence of climate change in these decisions with regard to other influencing factors, such as poverty, population growth or employment options. This situates the debate on environmental migration in a highly contested field: the use of the term 'environmental refugee', although commonly used in some contexts, is disrecommended by agencies such as the UNHCR who argue that the term 'refugee' has a strict legal definition which does not apply to environmental migrants. Neither the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change nor the Kyoto Protocol, an international agreement on climate change, includes any provisions concerning specific assistance or protection for those who will be directly affected by climate change.

text: The links between the gradual environmental degradation of climate change and displacement are complex: as the decision to migrate is taken at the household level, it is difficult to measure the respective influence of climate change in these decisions with regard to other influencing factors, such as

text: poverty

text: population growth

text: or

text: employment

text: options. This situates the debate on

text: environmental migration

text: in a highly contested field: the use of the term 'environmental refugee', although commonly used in some contexts, is disrecommended by agencies such as the

entity_name: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

text: UNHCR

text: who argue that the term 'refugee' has a strict legal definition which does not apply to environmental migrants. Neither the

text: nor the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: , an international agreement on climate change, includes any provisions concerning specific assistance or protection for those who will be directly affected by climate change.

text: Scientists warn that climate change could increase the intensity of typhoons as climate change projections show that the difference in temperature between the ocean – the heat source for cyclones – and the storm tops – the cold parts of cyclones – are likely to increase. Climate change is predicted to increase the frequency of high-intensity storms in selected ocean basins. While the effect changing climate is having on tropical storms remains largely unresolved scientists and president of Vanuatu Baldwin Lonsdale say the devastation caused by Pam, was aggravated by climate change.

text: Scientists warn that

text: climate change

text: could increase the intensity of typhoons as climate change projections show that the difference in temperature between the ocean – the heat source for cyclones – and the storm tops – the cold parts of cyclones – are likely to increase. Climate change is predicted to increase the frequency of high-intensity storms in selected ocean basins. While the effect changing climate is having on tropical storms remains largely unresolved scientists and president of

text: Vanuatu

text: Baldwin Lonsdale

text: say the devastation caused by

text: Pam

text: , was aggravated by climate change.

text: It has been suggested that runaway global warming (runaway climate change) might cause Earth to become searingly hot like Venus. In less extreme scenarios, it could cause the end of civilization as we know it.

text: It has been suggested that runaway global warming (

text: runaway climate change

text: ) might cause Earth to become searingly hot like Venus. In less extreme scenarios, it could cause the end of civilization as we know it.

text: In the 1990s and 2000s, another theory regarding the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture emerged based on climatic change that took place at the end of their culture's existence that is known as the Blytt–Sernander Sub-Boreal phase. Beginning around 3200 BC, the earth's climate became colder and drier than it had ever been since the end of the last Ice age, resulting in the worst drought in the history of Europe since the beginning of agriculture. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture relied primarily on farming, which would have collapsed under these climatic conditions in a scenario similar to the Dust Bowl of the American Midwest in the 1930s. According to The American Geographical Union, However, the Blytt–Sernander approach as a way to identify stages of technology in Europe with specific climate periods is an oversimplification not generally accepted. A conflict with that theoretical possibility is that during the warm Atlantic period, Denmark was occupied by Mesolithic cultures, rather than Neolithic, notwithstanding the climatic evidence. Moreover, the technology stages varied widely globally. To this must be added that the first period of the climate transformation ended 500 years before the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture and the second approximately 1400 years after.

text: In the 1990s and 2000s, another theory regarding the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture emerged based on climatic change that took place at the end of their culture's existence that is known as the

text: Blytt–Sernander Sub-Boreal

text: phase. Beginning around 3200 BC, the earth's climate became colder and drier than it had ever been since the end of the last

text: Ice age

text: , resulting in the worst drought in the history of Europe since the beginning of agriculture. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture relied primarily on farming, which would have collapsed under these climatic conditions in a scenario similar to the

text: Dust Bowl

text: of the American Midwest in the 1930s. According to The American Geographical Union, However, the Blytt–Sernander approach as a way to identify stages of technology in Europe with specific climate periods is an oversimplification not generally accepted. A conflict with that theoretical possibility is that during the warm

text: Atlantic period

text: Denmark

text: was occupied by

text: Mesolithic

text: cultures, rather than

text: Neolithic

text: , notwithstanding the climatic evidence. Moreover, the technology stages varied widely globally. To this must be added that the first period of the climate transformation ended 500 years before the end of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture and the second approximately 1400 years after.

text: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration, and the 2 °C (3.6 °F) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming. Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm.

text: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: concentration, and the 2 °C (3.6 °F) ceiling on

text: global warming

text: thought necessary to avoid the most serious

text: effects of global warming

text: . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550

text: ppm

text: Like other parts of the world, climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth.  Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes.  The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s.  Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry, are driving research efforts across the state at university, state, and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho.

text: Like other parts of the world,

text: climate

text: in

text: Idaho

text: has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth.  Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes.  The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s.  Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry, are driving research efforts across the state at university, state, and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho.

text: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (see IPCC) states that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that increased quantities within the atmosphere will "very likely" lead to higher average temperatures on a global scale (global warming); concerns regarding the potential for such warming to change the global climate prompted IPCC recommendations calling for large cuts to CO emissions worldwide.

text: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (see

text: IPCC

text: ) states that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and that increased quantities within the atmosphere will "very likely" lead to higher average temperatures on a global scale (

text: global warming

text: ); concerns regarding the potential for such warming to change the global climate prompted IPCC recommendations calling for large cuts to CO emissions worldwide.

text: AMOS has issued a Statement on Climate Change, wherein they conclude, “Global climate change and global warming are real and observable…It is highly likely that those human activities that have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have been largely responsible for the observed warming since 1950. The warming associated with increases in greenhouse gases originating from human activity is called the enhanced greenhouse effect. The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased by more than 30% since the start of the industrial age and is higher now than at any time in at least the past 650,000 years. This increase is a direct result of burning fossil fuels, broad-scale deforestation and other human activity.”

text: AMOS has issued a Statement on Climate Change, wherein they conclude, “Global

text: climate change

text: and

text: global warming

text: are real and observable…It is highly likely that those human activities that have increased the concentration of

text: greenhouse gases

text: in the

text: atmosphere

text: have been largely responsible for the observed warming since 1950. The warming associated with increases in greenhouse gases originating from human activity is called the enhanced

text: greenhouse effect

text: . The atmospheric concentration of

text: carbon dioxide

text: has increased by more than 30% since the start of the

text: industrial age

text: and is higher now than at any time in at least the past 650,000 years. This increase is a direct result of burning

text: fossil fuels

text: , broad-scale

text: deforestation

text: and other human activity.”

text: Abram’s research expertise spans Antarctic and tropical climate systems. She uses Porites corals, Speleothem samples from caves and Ice core samples to reconstruct climate changes in the past to provide a crucial long-term perspective on recent and projected future climate changes. Abram's publication record includes first-author papers across the scientific journals of Science, Nature, Nature Geoscience, and Nature Climate Change.

text: Abram’s research expertise spans Antarctic and tropical climate systems. She uses

text: Porites

text: corals,

text: Speleothem

text: samples from caves and

text: Ice core

text: samples to reconstruct climate changes in the past to provide a crucial long-term perspective on recent and projected future climate changes. Abram's publication record includes first-author papers across the scientific journals of

text: Science

text: Nature

text: Nature Geoscience

text: , and

text: Nature Climate Change

text: Climate change has been actively discussed and progressed on the agenda since 2009 for the Noosa Biosphere Reserve. Active steps have been taken by Noosa Biosphere Limited to address climate change, including continually educating and engaging the community about climate change and its potential effect on the area, gathering community feedback on the issue, promoting government initiatives such as the Queensland Premier’s ClimateSmart Sustainability Awards and Earth Hour, engaging climate change experts for advice and guidance, supporting carbon pollution legislation, and a draft ‘Noosa Climate Action Plan’ created in 2011. In addition to the above, Noosa Biosphere Limited has also compiled and updated lists of both fauna and flora present in the area, noting issues such as state significance, commonwealth significance, scientific names, conservation status, and regionally specific comments. A key project for the reserve, starting from the 2012/2013 financial year, is the production of the ‘State of the Biosphere Report’ to measure its progress. Research is supported by the Noosa Biosphere Reserve, with a research centre proposed for the area. Lastly, Noosa Biosphere Limited is an active advocate of upgrading conservation statuses of protected zones. This will provide further stability for all species in the area, along with all of the other measures currently endorsed by the Noosa Biosphere Reserve.

text: In Europe, the leopard is known at least since the Pleistocene. Fossil bones and teeth dating from the Pliocene were found in Perrier in France, northeast of London, and in Valdarno (Italy). Similar fossils dating back to the Pleistocene were excavated mostly in loess and caves at 40 sites in the continent - from near Lisbon, near Gibraltar, and Santander Province in northern Spain to several sites in France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Germany, in the north up to Derby in England, in the east to Přerov in the Czech Republic, and the Baranya in southern Hungary. The Pleistocene leopards of Europe can be divided into four subsequent subspecies. The first European leopard subspecies P. p. begoueni is known from the beginning of the early Pleistocene and was replaced about 0.6 million years ago by P. p. sickenbergi, which in turn was replaced by P. p. antiqua around 0.3 million years ago. The most recent form, the Late Pleistocene Ice Age leopard (P. p. spelaea), appeared at the beginning of the Late Pleistocene and survived until about 24,000 years ago in several parts of Europe.

text: In Europe, the leopard is known at least since the Pleistocene. Fossil bones and teeth dating from the

text: Pliocene

text: were found in

text: Perrier

text: in

text: France

text: , northeast of

text: London

text: , and in

text: Valdarno

text: Italy

text: ). Similar fossils dating back to the

text: Pleistocene

text: were excavated mostly in

text: loess

text: and caves at 40 sites in the continent - from near

text: Lisbon

text: , near

text: Gibraltar

text: , and

text: Santander Province

text: in northern

text: Spain

text: to several sites in France,

text: Switzerland

text: , Italy,

text: Austria

text: Germany

text: , in the north up to

text: Derby

text: in

text: England

text: , in the east to

text: Přerov

text: in the

text: Czech Republic

text: , and the

text: Baranya

text: in southern

text: Hungary

text: . The Pleistocene leopards of Europe can be divided into four subsequent subspecies. The first European leopard subspecies P. p. begoueni is known from the beginning of the early Pleistocene and was replaced about 0.6 million years ago by P. p. sickenbergi, which in turn was replaced by P. p. antiqua around 0.3 million years ago. The most recent form, the

text: Late Pleistocene Ice Age leopard

text: (P. p. spelaea), appeared at the beginning of the

text: Late Pleistocene

text: and survived until about 24,000 years ago in several parts of Europe.

text: The term sometimes is used to refer specifically to climate change caused by human activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earth's natural processes.In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term climate change has become synonymous with anthropogenic global warming. Within scientific journals, global warming refers to surface temperature increases while climate change includes global warming and everything else that increasing greenhouse gas levels affect.

text: The term sometimes is used to refer specifically to climate change caused by human activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earth's natural processes.In this sense, especially in the context of

text: environmental policy

text: , the term climate change has become synonymous with

text: anthropogenic

text: global warming

text: . Within scientific journals, global warming refers to surface temperature increases while climate change includes global warming and everything else that increasing

text: greenhouse gas

text: levels affect.

text: The conference was officially referred to as the 17th session of the Conference of the Parties  to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 7th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties  to the Kyoto Protocol. In addition, the two permanent subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC – the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) – were likely to hold their 35th sessions. The 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference extended the mandates of the two temporary subsidiary bodies – the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (AWG-LCA) – so they were expected to meet as well.

text: The conference was officially referred to as the 17th session of the Conference of the Parties  to the

text: (UNFCCC) and the 7th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties  to the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: . In addition, the two permanent subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC – the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) – were likely to hold their 35th sessions. The

entity_name: 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference

text: 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference

text: extended the mandates of the two temporary subsidiary bodies – the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (AWG-LCA) – so they were expected to meet as well.

text: As the climate changes, prey and predators have to adapt to survive. This poses a problem for southern rockhopper penguins. Depending on how Crustaceans and other prey adapt to survive, penguins will have to adapt or disperse as well. E. chrysocome's foraging behavior is largely dependent and shaped by the environment, including factors like weather and food availability. As temperatures around the world increase then something will have to change once more in order for the species to survive. Penguins are able to live and thrive in a variety of climates due to the penguins' phenotypic plasticity. However, they are predicted to respond by dispersal, not adaptation this time. This is explained due to their long life spans and slow microevolution. Penguins in the subantarctic have very different foraging behavior than the subtropical waters, it would be very hard to survive and keep up with the fast changing climate because these behaviors took years to shape.

text: As the climate changes, prey and predators have to adapt to survive. This poses a problem for southern rockhopper penguins. Depending on how Crustaceans and other prey adapt to survive, penguins will have to adapt or disperse as well. E. chrysocome's foraging behavior is largely dependent and shaped by the environment, including factors like weather and food availability. As temperatures around the world increase then something will have to change once more in order for the species to survive. Penguins are able to live and thrive in a variety of climates due to the penguins'

text: phenotypic plasticity

text: . However, they are predicted to respond by

text: dispersal

text: , not adaptation this time. This is explained due to their long life spans and slow

text: microevolution

text: . Penguins in the subantarctic have very different foraging behavior than the subtropical waters, it would be very hard to survive and keep up with the fast changing climate because these behaviors took years to shape.

text: The Brothers' War, referenced in the set Antiquities and the Urza block, has thrown Dominaria into a drastic climate change. The temperature has dropped sharply and a new Ice Age has begun. Most of society has been lost; all that remains are the soldier nation of Kjeldor, the barbarians of Balduvia, and the elvish society of Fyndhorn. These people must battle against the necromancer Lim-Dûl who has begun to conduct twisted experiments. Meanwhile, the wizard Zur the Enchanter trains new wizards to survive in the harsh environment.

text: The Brothers' War, referenced in the set

text: Antiquities

text: and the Urza block, has thrown Dominaria into a drastic climate change. The temperature has dropped sharply and a new Ice Age has begun. Most of society has been lost; all that remains are the soldier nation of Kjeldor, the barbarians of Balduvia, and the elvish society of Fyndhorn. These people must battle against the

text: necromancer

text: Lim-Dûl who has begun to conduct twisted experiments. Meanwhile, the wizard Zur the Enchanter trains new wizards to survive in the harsh environment.

text: Environmental efforts include research on the global carbon cycle and possible mitigation of the impacts of climate change. When it started in 1978, BER's Climate Change Research Program was the first U.S. research program to investigate the effects of greenhouse gases on climate and environment. The Office of Science climate change research program is now the third largest in the U.S.

text: Environmental efforts include research on the

text: global carbon cycle

text: and possible mitigation of the impacts of

text: climate change

text: . When it started in 1978, BER's Climate Change Research Program was the first U.S. research program to investigate the effects of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es on climate and environment. The Office of Science climate change research program is now the third largest in the U.S.

text: Climate change in Finland  discuss the climate change issues in Finland.

text: Climate change in Finland  discuss the

text: climate change

text: issues in

text: Finland

text: It is accepted by the International Commission on Stratigraphy that the Holocene started approximately 11,700 years ago. The epoch follows the Pleistocene and the last glacial period (local names for the last glacial period include the Wisconsinan in North America, the Weichselian in Europe, the Devensian in Britain, the Llanquihue in Chile and the Otiran in New Zealand). The Holocene can be subdivided into five time intervals, or chronozones, based on climatic fluctuations:

text: It is accepted by the

entity_name: International Commission on Stratigraphy

text: International Commission on Stratigraphy

text: that the Holocene started approximately 11,700 years ago. The epoch follows the

text: Pleistocene

text: and the

text: last glacial period

text: (local names for the last glacial period include the

text: Wisconsinan

text: in North America, the

text: Weichselian

text: in Europe, the Devensian in Britain, the

text: Llanquihue

text: in Chile and the Otiran in New Zealand). The Holocene can be subdivided into five time intervals, or

text: chronozone

text: s, based on climatic fluctuations:

text: Tong has been at the forefront of raising global awareness about catastrophic risks caused by climate change.  With his atoll nation of Kiribati rising an average height of two meters above sea level, rising sea levels due to climate change pose an existential threat to Kiribati and other small island states in the Pacific. Tong directed Kiribati’s purchase of approximately 20 square kilometers of land in Fiji in 2014  as an contingency refuge for his people.  This follows advice from the IPCC following its fifth assessment that many Pacific Island states such as Kiribati could be submerged by rising sea levels within a few decades.  Tong has said the purchase of land in Fiji was partly an investment in property, partly for food security purposes since it is prime farming land, but also a last resort it could be a home for the I-Kiribati people fleeing from the effects of climate change.  Anote Tong, dubbed as a ‘climate warrior’, pioneered the notion of ‘migration with dignity’ to avoid the people of Kiribati from becoming ‘climate refugees’.

text: Tong has been at the forefront of raising global awareness about catastrophic risks caused by climate change.  With his atoll nation of Kiribati rising an average height of two meters above sea level,

text: rising sea levels

text: due to

text: climate change

text: pose an existential threat to Kiribati and other small island states in the Pacific. Tong directed Kiribati’s purchase of approximately 20 square kilometers of land in

text: Fiji

text: in 2014  as an contingency refuge for his people.  This follows advice from the

text: IPCC

text: following its

text: fifth assessment

text: that many Pacific Island states such as Kiribati could be submerged by rising sea levels within a few decades.  Tong has said the purchase of land in Fiji was partly an investment in property, partly for food security purposes since it is prime farming land, but also a last resort it could be a home for the I-Kiribati people fleeing from the effects of climate change.  Anote Tong, dubbed as a ‘climate warrior’, pioneered the notion of ‘migration with dignity’ to avoid the people of Kiribati from becoming ‘climate refugees’.

text: Changes in the Walker circulation with time occur in conjunction with changes in surface temperature.  Some of these changes are forced externally, such as the seasonal shift of the sun into the Northern Hemisphere in summer.  Other changes appear to be the result of coupled ocean-atmosphere feedback in which, for example,  easterly winds cause the sea surface temperature to fall in the east, enhancing the zonal heat contrast and hence intensifying easterly winds across the basin. These anomalous easterlies induce more equatorial upwelling and raise the thermocline in the east, amplifying the initial cooling by the southerlies. This coupled ocean-atmosphere feedback was originally proposed by Bjerknes. From an oceanographic point of view, the equatorial cold tongue is caused by easterly winds. Were the Earth climate symmetric about the equator, cross-equatorial wind would vanish, and the cold tongue would be much weaker and have a very different zonal structure than is observed today.

text: Changes in the Walker circulation with time occur in conjunction with changes in surface temperature.  Some of these changes are forced externally, such as the seasonal shift of the sun into the Northern Hemisphere in summer.  Other changes appear to be the result of coupled ocean-atmosphere feedback in which, for example,  easterly winds cause the sea surface temperature to fall in the east, enhancing the zonal heat contrast and hence intensifying easterly winds across the basin. These anomalous easterlies induce more equatorial

text: upwelling

text: and raise the thermocline in the east, amplifying the initial cooling by the southerlies. This coupled ocean-atmosphere feedback was originally proposed by Bjerknes. From an oceanographic point of view, the equatorial cold tongue is caused by easterly winds. Were the Earth climate symmetric about the equator, cross-equatorial wind would vanish, and the cold tongue would be much weaker and have a very different zonal structure than is observed today.

text: Between two million years ago the Pleistocene epoch, glaciation took place in the area. Large parts of northern North America were repeatedly covered with glacial ice sheets, at times reaching over  in thickness. Periodic climate changes resulted in corresponding advances and retreats of ice.

text: Between two million years ago the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch,

text: glaciation

text: took place in the area. Large parts of northern North America were repeatedly covered with glacial ice sheets, at times reaching over  in thickness. Periodic climate changes resulted in corresponding advances and retreats of ice.

text: Climate change became a major issue for governments, populations and scientists. Debates on global warming and its causes made significant progress, as climate change denials were refuted by most scientific studies. Decisive reports such as the Stern Review and the 2007 IPCC Report almost established a climate change consensus. NGOs' actions and the commitment of political personalities (such as former U.S. Vice President Al Gore) also urged to international reactions against climate change. Documentary films An Inconvenient Truth and Home may have had a decisive impact.

text: Climate change became a major issue for governments, populations and scientists.

text: Debates on global warming

text: and its causes made significant progress, as

text: climate change denial

text: s were refuted by

text: most scientific studies

text: . Decisive reports such as the

text: Stern Review

text: and the

text: 2007 IPCC Report

text: almost established a climate change consensus. NGOs' actions and the commitment of political personalities (such as former U.S. Vice President

text: Al Gore

text: ) also urged to international reactions against climate change. Documentary films

text: An Inconvenient Truth

text: and

text: Home

text: may have had a decisive impact.

text: The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century, affected the climate substantially, subsequently global temperatures decreased by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) for up to three years. Thus, the cooling over large parts of the Earth reduced surface temperatures in 1991-93, the equivalent to a reduction in net radiation of 4 watts per square meter. The Mount Tambora eruption in 1815 caused the Year Without a Summer. Much larger eruptions, known as large igneous provinces, occur only a few times every fifty - hundred million years - through flood basalt, and caused in Earth past global warming and mass extinctions.

text: The eruption of

text: Mount Pinatubo

text: in 1991, the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century, affected the climate substantially, subsequently global temperatures decreased by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) for up to three years. Thus, the cooling over large parts of the Earth reduced surface temperatures in 1991-93, the equivalent to a reduction in net radiation of 4 watts per square meter. The

text: Mount Tambora

text: eruption in 1815 caused the

text: Year Without a Summer

text: . Much larger eruptions, known as

text: large igneous province

text: s, occur only a few times every fifty - hundred million years - through

text: flood basalt

text: , and caused in Earth past global warming and

text: mass extinction

text: s.

text: The Government of Australia acknowledges the impacts of changing climatic conditions, and its Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency has established the Australian Climate Change Science Program (ACCSP), which aims to understand the causes, nature, timing, and consequences of climate change so as to inform the Australian response. The ACCSP will dedicate $14.4 million per year towards climate change research and has already made substantial progress with a recent publication, Australian Climate Change Research: Perspectives on Successes, Challenges, and Future Directions.

text: The Government of Australia acknowledges the impacts of changing climatic conditions, and its

entity_name: Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency

text: Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency

text: has established the Australian Climate Change Science Program (ACCSP), which aims to understand the causes, nature, timing, and consequences of climate change so as to inform the Australian response. The ACCSP will dedicate $14.4 million per year towards climate change research and has already made substantial progress with a recent publication, Australian Climate Change Research: Perspectives on Successes, Challenges, and Future Directions.

text: In early 2010, Plimer and Christopher Monckton toured Australia giving lectures on climate change, and Plimer's views came to be associated with Monckton's claim that the international left created the threat of catastrophic global warming. On this association, left-wing columnist Phillip Adams commented: "Praise the lord for Lord Monckton! For Ian Plimer! For [conservative columnist] Andrew Bolt! Not only does this evil axis of scientists tell lies [about the Greenhouse Effect] but they've also doctored the weather to frighten people with huge droughts, cyclones and tsunamis to prove what they now call 'global warming'." Plimer’s book Not for Greens expanded this view, in  their review for this book by publishers Connorcourt Publishing  state “Much of the green movement has now morphed into an unelected extremist political pressure group accountable to no one. Greens create problems, many of which are concocted, and provide no solutions because of a lack of basic knowledge. This book examines green policies in the light of established knowledge and shows that they are unrealistic.” Climate scientist  Ian McHugh "Fact Checks" some of the claims in the book  and finds a numbers of issues. He does not address the political questions raised in the book.

text: In early 2010, Plimer and

entity_name: Christopher Monckton, 3rd Viscount Monckton of Brenchley

text: Christopher Monckton

text: toured Australia giving lectures on climate change, and Plimer's views came to be associated with Monckton's claim that the international left created the threat of catastrophic global warming. On this association, left-wing columnist

text: Phillip Adams

text: commented: "Praise the lord for Lord Monckton! For Ian Plimer! For [conservative columnist] Andrew Bolt! Not only does this evil axis of scientists tell lies [about the Greenhouse Effect] but they've also doctored the weather to frighten people with huge droughts, cyclones and tsunamis to prove what they now call 'global warming'." Plimer’s book Not for Greens expanded this view, in  their review for this book by publishers Connorcourt Publishing  state “Much of the green movement has now morphed into an unelected extremist political pressure group accountable to no one. Greens create problems, many of which are concocted, and provide no solutions because of a lack of basic knowledge. This book examines green policies in the light of established knowledge and shows that they are unrealistic.” Climate scientist  Ian McHugh "Fact Checks" some of the claims in the book  and finds a numbers of issues. He does not address the political questions raised in the book.

text: Since the 1990s, a significant part of the US conservative movement has worked to challenge climate science and climate policy. Republicans are divided over acknowledging the human causes of climate change and global warming. While the scientific consensus for human activity created climate-warming is around 97%, according to a Pew Research survey, 44% of American adults in the general public acknowledged human activity as the cause of climate change, and 23% of Republicans. Republican views on global warming and scientific consensus on climate change show a similar trend, and few Republican lawmakers support climate policy that builds on international consensus.

text: Since the 1990s, a significant part of the US conservative movement has worked to challenge climate science and climate policy. Republicans are divided over acknowledging the human causes of climate change and global warming. While the scientific consensus for human activity created climate-warming is around 97%, according to a

text: Pew Research

text: survey, 44% of American adults in the general public acknowledged human activity as the cause of climate change, and 23% of Republicans. Republican views on global warming and scientific consensus on climate change show a similar trend, and few Republican lawmakers support climate policy that builds on international consensus.

text: The present pattern of ice ages began about  and then intensified during the Pleistocene about . High-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 40,000–. The last continental glaciation ended 10,000 years ago.

text: The present pattern of

text: ice age

text: s began about  and then intensified during the

text: Pleistocene

text: about . High-

text: latitude

text: regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 40,000–. The last continental glaciation ended 10,000 years ago.

text: The common kestrels of Europe living during cold periods of the Quaternary glaciation differed slightly in size from the current population; they are sometimes referred to as paleosubspecies F. t. atavus (see also Bergmann's Rule). The remains of these birds, which presumably were the direct ancestors of the living F. t. tinnunculus (and perhaps other subspecies), are found throughout the then-unglaciated parts of Europe, from the Late Pliocene (ELMA Villanyian/ICS Piacenzian, MN16) about 3 million years ago to the Middle Pleistocene Saalian glaciation which ended about 130,000 years ago, when they finally gave way to birds indistinguishable from those living today. Some of the voles the Ice Age common kestrels ate—such as European pine voles (Microtus subterraneus)—were indistinguishable from those alive today. Other prey species of that time evolved more rapidly (like M. malei, the presumed ancestor of today's tundra vole M. oeconomus), while yet again others seem to have gone entirely extinct without leaving any living descendants—for example Pliomys lenki, which apparently fell victim to the Weichselian glaciation about 100,000 years ago.

text: The common kestrels of Europe living during cold periods of the

text: Quaternary glaciation

text: differed slightly in size from the current population; they are sometimes referred to as

text: paleosubspecies

text: F. t. atavus (see also

text: Bergmann's Rule

text: ). The remains of these birds, which presumably were the direct ancestors of the living F. t. tinnunculus (and perhaps other subspecies), are found throughout the then-unglaciated parts of Europe, from the

text: Late Pliocene

text: ELMA

text: Villanyian

text: ICS

text: Piacenzian

text: ) about 3

text: million years ago

text: to the

text: Middle Pleistocene

text: Saalian

text: glaciation which ended about 130,000 years ago, when they finally gave way to birds indistinguishable from those living today. Some of the

text: vole

text: s the Ice Age common kestrels ate—such as

text: European pine vole

text: s (Microtus subterraneus)—were indistinguishable from those alive today. Other prey species of that time

text: evolve

text: d more rapidly (like

text: M. malei

text: , the presumed ancestor of today's

text: tundra vole

text: M. oeconomus), while yet again others seem to have gone entirely

text: extinct

text: without leaving any living descendants—for example

text: Pliomys lenki

text: , which apparently fell victim to the

text: Weichselian glaciation

text: about 100,000 years ago.

text: Sanctuary staff are currently looking at how short term changes in climate can affect local conditions across large areas. Their work on the role of variability in jet stream trajectory and strength in determining seasonal variability in central Siberia allows a new and significantly more accurate ability to forecast the arrival of harsh winters several months in advance. This work has contributed to a better, more mechanistic understanding of the connectedness of climate processes across the Northern Hemisphere, from Siberia all the way to the US West Coast. More recently, they are looking at how these same processes manifest in long term data on winds along the Central and Southern California coast to see how climate variability signals can affect local winds in the Santa Barbara Channel area. Variation in wind strength has ecological effects by driving upwelling and also has a practical implication for local mariners: if climate change causes more windy days, there are fewer days for boating and fishing in the sanctuary. Additionally, the sanctuary’s ongoing maintenance of a network of moorings provides a continuous data series of oceanographic conditions in nearshore waters that is informing climate variability studies.

text: Ebell has been given extensive media coverage, frequently cited or interviewed by journalists in a way that presents a false balance by giving Ebell's lay views equal weight with those of expert climatologists, and thus misrepresents the consensus of scientific opinion on climate change. A study of false equivalence in the media used as an example the Scripps Howard media company "incredibly" giving equal space to Ebell's comments that reports of recent warming from the World Meteorological Organisation and the National Climatic Data Center were unsurprising because of the Little Ice Age, so "it isn’t much to worry about", and of a Science paper by Thomas R. Karl and Kevin Trenberth that "the Karl-Trenberth analysis is nothing new — it's just kind of a summary of what the establishment thinks is true".

text: Ebell has been given extensive media coverage, frequently cited or interviewed by journalists in a way that presents a

text: false balance

text: by giving Ebell's lay views equal weight with those of expert climatologists, and thus misrepresents the consensus of

text: scientific opinion on climate change

text: . A study of false equivalence in the media used as an example the

text: Scripps Howard media company

text: "incredibly" giving equal space to Ebell's comments that reports of recent warming from the

text: World Meteorological Organisation

text: and the

text: National Climatic Data Center

text: were unsurprising because of the

text: Little Ice Age

text: , so "it isn’t much to worry about", and of a

text: Science

text: paper by

text: Thomas R. Karl

text: and

text: Kevin Trenberth

text: that "the Karl-Trenberth analysis is nothing new — it's just kind of a summary of what the establishment thinks is true".

text: Changes in climate similar to the Younger Dryas period or the Little Ice Age punctuate human history. The local effects of these changes may cause crop failures in multiple consecutive years, leading to warfare as a last-ditch effort at survival. The triggers for climate change are still debated, but ancient peoples could not have predicted or coped with substantial climate changes.

text: Changes in climate similar to the

text: Younger Dryas

text: period or the

text: Little Ice Age

text: punctuate human history. The local effects of these changes may cause crop failures in multiple consecutive years, leading to warfare as a last-ditch effort at survival. The triggers for climate change are still debated, but ancient peoples could not have predicted or coped with substantial climate changes.

text: About climate change, Jensen said in December 2008 that "we can see that climate changes are happening, but they have been happening for as long as the world has existed. The question is whether they are man-made or not, or whether they are dangerous or not. Just some 30 years ago, all these scientists said that the world was getting colder, and now they have changed their mind and say that the world is getting warmer. So is that what's happening, or isn't it?" Regardless, she is largely supportive of expanding and researching into renewable energy production. In January 2010 she attacked the IPCC, accusing the report from the panel of being based on fraudulent data. She referred to the erroneous statement of Himalayan glaciers melting by 2035, ice melting predictions by Al Gore and Jonas Gahr Støre, questions of statistical sampling, and emails from climate scientists at the Climatic Research Unit.

text: About

text: climate change

text: , Jensen said in December 2008 that "we can see that climate changes are happening, but they have been happening for as long as the world has existed. The question is whether they are man-made or not, or whether they are dangerous or not. Just some 30 years ago, all these scientists said that the world was getting colder, and now they have changed their mind and say that the world is getting warmer. So is that what's happening, or isn't it?" Regardless, she is largely supportive of expanding and researching into renewable energy production. In January 2010 she attacked the

text: IPCC

text: , accusing the report from the panel of being based on fraudulent data. She referred to the erroneous statement of

text: Himalaya

text: n

text: glacier

text: s melting by 2035, ice melting predictions by

text: Al Gore

text: and

text: Jonas Gahr Støre

text: , questions of

text: statistical sampling

text: , and emails from climate scientists at the

entity_name: Climatic Research Unit email controversy

text: Climatic Research Unit

text: Much of the effect of global warming is felt through its influence on rain and snow.  Regions may become wetter, drier, or may experience changes in the intensity of precipitation - such as moving from a damp climate to one defined by a mixture of floods and droughts.  These changes may have a very severe impact on both the natural world and human civilisation, as both naturally occurring and farmed plants experience regional climate change that is beyond their ability to tolerate.

text: Much of the effect of

text: global warming

text: is felt through its influence on

text: rain and snow

text: .  Regions may become wetter, drier, or may experience changes in the intensity of precipitation - such as moving from a damp climate to one defined by a mixture of floods and droughts.  These changes may have a very severe impact on both the natural world and human civilisation, as both naturally occurring and farmed plants experience regional climate change that is beyond their ability to tolerate.

text: The Pacific Climate Change Science Program Report (2011) describes the year-by-year volatility in the sea-level as resulting from the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO):

text: The Pacific Climate Change Science Program Report (2011) describes the year-by-year volatility in the sea-level as resulting from the

text: El Niño–Southern Oscillation

text: (ENSO):

text: There is no demonstrated predictability for when the AMO will switch, in any deterministic sense. Computer models, such as those that predict El Niño, are far from being able to do this. Enfield and colleagues have calculated the probability that a change in the AMO will occur within a given future time frame, assuming that historical variability persists. Probabilistic projections of this kind may prove to be useful for long-term planning in climate sensitive applications, such as water management.

text: There is no demonstrated predictability for when the AMO will switch, in any deterministic sense. Computer models, such as those that predict

text: El Niño

text: , are far from being able to do this. Enfield and colleagues have calculated the probability that a change in the AMO will occur within a given future time frame, assuming that historical variability persists. Probabilistic projections of this kind may prove to be useful for long-term planning in climate sensitive applications, such as water management.

text: CLIMAP has been a cornerstone of paleoclimate research and remains the most used sea surface temperature reconstruction of the global ocean during the last glacial maximum (Yin and Battisti 2001), but it has also been persistently controversial. CLIMAP resulted in estimates of global cooling of only 3.0 ± 0.6 °C relative to the modern day (Hoffert and Covey 1992). The climate change during an ice age that occurs far from the continental ice sheets themselves is believed to be primarily controlled by changes in greenhouse gases, hence the conditions during the last glacial maximum provide a natural experiment for measuring the impact of changes in greenhouse gases on climate. The cited estimates of 3.0 °C implies a climate sensitivity to carbon dioxide changes at the low end of the range proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .

text: CLIMAP has been a cornerstone of

text: paleoclimate

text: research and remains the most used sea surface temperature reconstruction of the global ocean during the last glacial maximum (Yin and Battisti 2001), but it has also been persistently controversial. CLIMAP resulted in estimates of global cooling of only 3.0 ± 0.6 °C relative to the modern day (Hoffert and Covey 1992). The

text: climate change

text: during an

text: ice age

text: that occurs far from the continental

text: ice sheet

text: s themselves is believed to be primarily controlled by changes in

text: greenhouse gas

text: es, hence the conditions during the last glacial maximum provide a natural experiment for measuring the impact of changes in greenhouse gases on climate. The cited estimates of 3.0 °C implies a climate sensitivity to

text: carbon dioxide

text: changes at the low end of the range proposed by the

text: An eruption column is a cloud of hot volcanic ash suspended in volcanic gas emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption. The ash forms a column that may rise many kilometres into the air above the vent of the volcano. In the most explosive eruptions, the eruption column may rise over 40 km, penetrating the stratosphere. Stratospheric injection of aerosols by volcanoes is a major cause of short-term climate change.

text: An eruption column is a cloud of hot

text: volcanic ash

text: suspended in

text: volcanic gas

text: emitted during an explosive

text: volcanic eruption

text: . The ash forms a column that may rise many kilometres into the air above the vent of the volcano. In the most explosive eruptions, the eruption column may rise over 40 km, penetrating the

text: stratosphere

text: . Stratospheric injection of

text: aerosols

text: by volcanoes is a major cause of short-term

text: climate change

text: The IPCC defines "climate change" as "a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. It refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity." In its latest assessment on climate change, the IPCC found that "warming of the climate system is unequivocal" and that the anthropogenic component of this warming over the last thirty years has likely had a discernible influence on observed changes in many physical and biological systems. The properties of greenhouse gases are such that they retain heat in the atmosphere, which would otherwise escape to space. GHGs accumulate in the atmosphere when they are emitted faster than they can be naturally removed, and that accumulation prompts changes in the climate system. Once emitted into the atmosphere, GHGs influence the Earth's energy balance for a period of decades to centuries. Consistent with their long-lasting impacts, the IPCC found that even if the concentrations of all GHGs had been kept constant at year 2000 levels, a further warming of approximately 0.1C per decade would be expected. The fact that GHGs are long-lived in the atmosphere also means that they become well mixed across the globe – hence the global nature of the problem.

text: In late night negotiations over wording, the IPCC added clarifications including "due to natural variability, trends based on short records are very sensitive to the beginning and end dates and do not in general reflect long-term climate trends", but at the press conference releasing the IPCC Summary for Policymakers on 27 September, journalists focussed questions on the "pause" rather than the overall conclusions. This focus resulted in headlines such as "Global Warming Slowdown Seen as Emissions Rise to Record" from Reuters. The National Post used the subheading "IPCC report skeptics seize on lull in global warming". Even Nature headlined their news report "IPCC: Despite hiatus, climate change here to stay", though it said that "the 'hiatus' since the record hot year of 1998 — probably due to increased heat uptake by the oceans — is no sign that global warming has stopped, as some would like to hope", and quoted climatologist Thomas Stocker saying that "Comparing short-term observations with long-term model projections is inappropriate", and adding "We know that there is a lot of natural fluctuation in the climate system. A 15-year hiatus is not so unusual even though the jury is out as to what exactly may have caused the pause." He said that claims dismissing climate models would only be justified if "temperature were to remain constant for the next 20 years", and Brian Hoskins said other factors showed climate change.

text: In late night negotiations over wording, the IPCC added clarifications including "due to natural variability, trends based on short records are very sensitive to the beginning and end dates and do not in general reflect long-term climate trends", but at the press conference releasing the IPCC Summary for Policymakers on 27 September, journalists focussed questions on the "pause" rather than the overall conclusions. This focus resulted in headlines such as "Global Warming Slowdown Seen as Emissions Rise to Record" from Reuters. The

text: National Post

text: used the subheading "IPCC report skeptics seize on lull in global warming". Even

text: Nature

text: headlined their news report "IPCC: Despite hiatus, climate change here to stay", though it said that "the 'hiatus' since the record hot year of 1998 — probably due to increased heat uptake by the oceans — is no sign that global warming has stopped, as some would like to hope", and quoted climatologist

text: Thomas Stocker

text: saying that "Comparing short-term observations with long-term model projections is inappropriate", and adding "We know that there is a lot of natural fluctuation in the climate system. A 15-year hiatus is not so unusual even though the jury is out as to what exactly may have caused the pause." He said that claims dismissing climate models would only be justified if "temperature were to remain constant for the next 20 years", and

text: Brian Hoskins

text: said other factors showed climate change.

text: The Pleistocene (, often colloquially referred to as the Ice Age) is the geological epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the world's most recent period of repeated glaciations. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the last glacial period and also with the end of the Paleolithic age used in archaeology.

text: The Pleistocene (, often colloquially referred to as the Ice Age) is the geological

text: epoch

text: which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the world's most recent period of repeated

text: glaciation

text: s. The end of the Pleistocene corresponds with the end of the

text: last glacial period

text: and also with the end of the

text: Paleolithic

text: age used in

text: archaeology

text: The effect of climate change on agriculture varies among regions and Montana’s agricultural production may not change substantially as global temperatures continue to increase over the short term according to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. Major challenges are projected for crops that are near the warm end of their suitable range or depend on highly utilized water resources .

text: The effect of

text: climate change

text: on

text: agriculture

text: varies among regions and Montana’s agricultural production may not change substantially as global temperatures continue to increase over the short term according to the

text: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

text: . Major challenges are projected for crops that are near the warm end of their suitable range or depend on highly utilized water resources .

text: The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with ozone depletion, i.e., the destruction of stratospheric ozone (e.g., the ozone layer) by chlorofluorocarbons. Although there are a few areas of linkage, the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures, while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger warming effect.

text: The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with

text: ozone depletion

text: , i.e., the destruction of

text: stratospheric ozone (e.g., the ozone layer)

text: by

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: . Although there are a few

text: areas of linkage

text: , the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures, while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger warming effect.

text: A number of studies have used climate models to study the effect of extremely large wind farms. One study reports simulations that show detectable changes in global climate for very high wind farm usage, on the order of 10% of the world's land area. Wind power has a negligible effect on global mean surface temperature, and it would deliver "enormous global benefits by reducing emissions of  and air pollutants". Another peer-reviewed study suggested that using wind turbines to meet 10 percent of global energy demand in 2100 could actually have a warming effect, causing temperatures to rise by  in the regions on land where the wind farms are installed, including a smaller increase in areas beyond those regions. This is due to the effect of wind turbines on both horizontal and vertical atmospheric circulation. Whilst turbines installed in water would have a cooling effect, the net impact on global surface temperatures would be an increase of . Author Ron Prinn cautioned against interpreting the study "as an argument against wind power, urging that it be used to guide future research".  "We’re not pessimistic about wind," he said. "We haven’t absolutely proven this effect, and we’d rather see that people do further research".

text: Since the 1990s, research on climate change has expanded and grown, linking many fields such as atmospheric sciences, numeric modeling, behavioral sciences, geology and economics.  Articles on climate change science are now frequently published in major journals such as Science by the American Association for the Advancement of Science  and Nature, in addition there are focused journals on climate change research such as Nature Climate Change, Climate Change, Journal of Climate, Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, and International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management; furthermore, many journals on related subjects continue to publish articles that build out the science behind climate change (e.g. Quaternary Research ).

text: Since the 1990s, research on climate change has expanded and grown, linking many fields such as atmospheric sciences, numeric modeling, behavioral sciences, geology and economics.  Articles on climate change science are now frequently published in major journals such as

text: Science

text: by the

text: and

text: Nature

text: , in addition there are focused journals on climate change research such as

text: Nature Climate Change

text: , Climate Change,

text: Journal of Climate

text: , Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, and International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management; furthermore, many journals on related subjects continue to publish articles that build out the science behind climate change (e.g.

text: Quaternary Research

text: Climate change is a serious concern in Canada’s northern territories. This region has already felt the impacts of the change of environment on their food supply. There are very distinctive Aboriginal cultural groups in the north and they are the Yukon First Nation, Dene, Metis, Gwich’in, and Inuit. Approximately 70% of Aboriginal adults in the North hunt and fish as a means of sustenance and 96% of those adults rely on the food they receive from natural resources. Climate change has been found to have an impacts on the movement of animals and the hunting conditions. Sea ice travel is a main component of hunting for Inuit people. They must travel across ice roads to gain access to wildlife resources. If the ice is not as strong or does not reach as far than this results in less hunting time and a lesser chance of bringing home a substantial amount of food. The implications of less hunting time have a severe effect on the nutritional value of the Inuit diet. The decreased ice road time also hinders the delivery of market foods and increases the price of these staples when other modes of transportation (such as flying) have to be employed. Other weather conditions such as increased winds, higher rainfall records, decreased snowfall, lack of extreme cold temperatures, increased coastal erosion, decreased animal population growth and lower fresh water levels all contribute to food insecurity in certain northern Inuit communities. Establishing a community based food supply is a viable option for northern and remote Aboriginal communities because it ensures that everyone is meeting the nutritional needs that are essential for survival.  These communities need to adapt to the changing environment or their food security will decline substantially.

text: Climate change

text: is a serious concern in Canada’s northern territories. This region has already felt the impacts of the change of environment on their food supply. There are very distinctive Aboriginal cultural groups in the north and they are the

text: Yukon First Nation

text: Dene

text: Metis

text: Gwich’in

text: , and

text: Inuit

text: . Approximately 70% of Aboriginal adults in the North hunt and fish as a means of sustenance and 96% of those adults rely on the food they receive from natural resources. Climate change has been found to have an impacts on the movement of animals and the hunting conditions. Sea ice travel is a main component of hunting for Inuit people. They must travel across ice roads to gain access to wildlife resources. If the ice is not as strong or does not reach as far than this results in less hunting time and a lesser chance of bringing home a substantial amount of food. The implications of less hunting time have a severe effect on the nutritional value of the Inuit diet. The decreased ice road time also hinders the delivery of market foods and increases the price of these staples when other modes of transportation (such as flying) have to be employed. Other weather conditions such as increased winds, higher rainfall records, decreased snowfall, lack of extreme cold temperatures, increased

text: coastal erosion

text: , decreased animal population growth and lower fresh water levels all contribute to food insecurity in certain northern Inuit communities. Establishing a community based food supply is a viable option for northern and remote Aboriginal communities because it ensures that everyone is meeting the nutritional needs that are essential for survival.  These communities need to adapt to the changing environment or their food security will decline substantially.

text: Nicholas Stern of the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change, called the  "world’s top climate economist", endorses 350 ppm as “a very sensible long-term target.”

entity_name: Nicholas Stern, Baron Stern of Brentford

text: Nicholas Stern

text: of the

text: Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change

text: , called the  "world’s top climate economist", endorses 350 ppm as “a very sensible long-term target.”

text: Some ecosystems are likely to be especially affected by climate change (e.g., coral reefs). In the long-term (beyond 2050), climate change may become the major driver for biodiversity loss globally.

text: Shackleton was a key figure in the field of paleoceanography, publishing over two hundred scientific papers. He was a pioneer in the use of mass spectrometry to determine changes in climate as recorded in the oxygen isotope composition of calcareous microfossils. Shackleton also found evidence that the Earth's last magnetic field reversal was 780,000 years ago. He became internationally known, in 1976, with the publication of a paper, with James Hays and John Imbrie, in Science entitled "Variations in the Earth's orbit: Pacemaker of the ice ages". Using ocean sediment cores, Shackleton, Hays and Imbrie demonstrated that oscillations in climate over the past few million years could be correlated with variations in the orbital and positional relationship between the Earth and the Sun (see Milankovitch cycles).

text: Shackleton was a key figure in the field of

text: paleoceanography

text: , publishing over two hundred scientific papers. He was a pioneer in the use of

text: mass spectrometry

text: to determine changes in climate as recorded in the

text: oxygen isotope

text: composition of calcareous microfossils. Shackleton also found evidence that the Earth's last magnetic field reversal was 780,000 years ago. He became internationally known, in 1976, with the publication of a paper, with James Hays and John Imbrie, in Science entitled "Variations in the Earth's orbit: Pacemaker of the ice ages". Using ocean sediment cores, Shackleton, Hays and Imbrie demonstrated that oscillations in climate over the past few million years could be correlated with variations in the orbital and positional relationship between the Earth and the Sun (see

text: Milankovitch cycle

text: s).

text: The plaintiffs claimed that GHG emissions from the defendants' power plants have significantly contributed to global warming.  By contributing to global warming, the defendants were violating the federal common law of interstate nuisance.  According to the states and New York City, climate change poses risks to public lands, infrastructure, and human health.  The private land trusts claimed climate change may cause destruction of habitat of rare species, trees and plants inhabiting land owned by the trusts.

text: The core of the concept of runaway climate change is the idea of a large positive feedback within the climate system. When a change in global temperature causes an event to occur which itself changes global temperature, this is referred to as a feedback effect. If this effect acts in the same direction as the original temperature change, it is a destabilising positive feedback (e.g. warming causing more warming); and if in the opposite direction, it is a stabilising negative feedback (e.g. warming causing a cooling effect). If a sufficiently strong net positive feedback occurs, it is said that a climate tipping point has been passed and the temperature will continue to change until the changed conditions result in negative feedbacks that restabilise the climate.

text: The core of the concept of runaway climate change is the idea of a large positive feedback within the climate system. When a change in global temperature causes an event to occur which itself changes global temperature, this is referred to as a

text: feedback

text: effect. If this effect acts in the same direction as the original temperature change, it is a destabilising

text: positive feedback

text: (e.g. warming causing more warming); and if in the opposite direction, it is a stabilising

text: negative feedback

text: (e.g. warming causing a cooling effect). If a sufficiently strong net positive feedback occurs, it is said that a

text: climate tipping point

text: has been passed and the temperature will continue to change until the changed conditions result in negative feedbacks that restabilise the climate.

text: 2) Select whether to use climate change projections based on either a near term or far term projection period. The displayed climate change outcomes will be updated to reflect your choice.

text: For example, the scientific consensus on the causes of global warming is that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused primarily by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. The historian of science Naomi Oreskes published an article in Science reporting that a survey of the abstracts of 928 science articles published between 1993 and 2003 showed none which disagreed explicitly with the notion of anthropogenic global warming. In an editorial published in the Washington Post, Oreskes stated that those who opposed these scientific findings are amplifying the normal range of scientific uncertainty about any facts into an appearance that there is a great scientific disagreement, or a lack of scientific consensus. Oreskes's findings were replicated by other methods that require no interpretation.

text: For example, the

text: scientific consensus on the causes of global warming

text: is that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused primarily by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. The

text: historian of science

text: Naomi Oreskes

text: published an article in

text: Science

text: reporting that a survey of the abstracts of 928 science articles published between 1993 and 2003 showed none which disagreed explicitly with the notion of

text: anthropogenic global warming

text: . In an editorial published in the

text: Washington Post

text: , Oreskes stated that those who opposed these scientific findings are amplifying the normal range of scientific uncertainty about any facts into an appearance that there is a great scientific disagreement, or a lack of scientific consensus. Oreskes's findings were replicated by other methods that require no interpretation.

text: Obama's campaign to fight global warming has found more success at the international level than it has in Congress. Obama attended the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference, which drafted the non-binding Copenhagen Accord as a successor to the Kyoto Protocol. The deal provided for the monitoring of carbon emissions among developing countries, but it did not include Obama's proposal to commit to cutting greenhouse gas emissions in half by 2050. In 2014, Obama reached an agreement with China in which China pledged to reach peak carbon emission levels by 2030, while the US pledged to cut its emissions by 26-28 percent compared to its 2005 levels. The deal provided momentum for a potential multilateral global warming agreement among the world's largest carbon emitters. Many Republicans criticized Obama's climate goals as a potential drain on the economy. At the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference, nearly every country in the world agreed to a landmark climate deal in which each nation committed lowering their greenhouse gas emissions. The Paris Agreement created a universal accounting system for emissions, requires each country to monitor its emissions, and requires each country to create a plan to reduce its emissions. Several climate negotiators noted that the US-China climate deal and the EPA's emission limits helped make the deal possible. In 2016, the international community agreed to the Kigali accord, an amendment to the Montreal Protocol which seeks to reduce the use of HFCs, organic compounds that contribute to global warming.

text: Obama's campaign to fight global warming has found more success at the international level than it has in Congress. Obama attended the

text: 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference

text: , which drafted the non-binding

text: Copenhagen Accord

text: as a successor to the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: . The deal provided for the

text: monitoring

text: of

text: carbon emissions

text: among

text: developing countries

text: , but it did not include Obama's proposal to commit to cutting greenhouse gas emissions in half by 2050. In 2014, Obama reached an agreement with China in which China pledged to reach peak carbon emission levels by 2030, while the US pledged to cut its emissions by 26-28 percent compared to its 2005 levels. The deal provided momentum for a potential multilateral global warming agreement among the world's largest carbon emitters. Many Republicans criticized Obama's climate goals as a potential drain on the economy. At the

entity_name: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference

text: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference

text: , nearly every country in the world agreed to a landmark climate deal in which each nation committed lowering their greenhouse gas emissions. The

text: Paris Agreement

text: created a universal accounting system for emissions, requires each country to monitor its emissions, and requires each country to create a plan to reduce its emissions. Several climate negotiators noted that the US-China climate deal and the EPA's emission limits helped make the deal possible. In 2016, the international community agreed to the Kigali accord, an amendment to the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: which seeks to reduce the use of

text: HFCs

text: , organic compounds that contribute to global warming.

text: Milutin Milanković (, pronounced ; 28 May 1879 – 12 December 1958) was a Serbian mathematician, astronomer, climatologist, geophysicist,  civil engineer, doctor of technology, university professor and popularizer of science. Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science. The first contribution is the "Canon of the Earth’s Insolation", which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system. The second contribution is the explanation of Earth's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun, now known as Milankovitch cycles. This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth, as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future. He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system, Mercury, Venus, Mars, and the Moon, as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets. He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences, and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones.

text: Milutin Milanković (, pronounced ; 28 May 1879 – 12 December 1958) was a

text: Serbian

text: mathematician

text: astronomer

text: climatologist

text: geophysicist

text: civil engineer

text: doctor of technology

text: university professor

text: and

entity_section: Notable English-language popularizers of science

text: popularizer of science

text: . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science. The first contribution is the "Canon of the Earth’s

text: Insolation

text: ", which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the

text: Solar system

text: . The second contribution is the explanation of

text: Earth

text: 's long-term

text: climate change

text: s caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the

text: Sun

text: , now known as

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: . This explained the

text: ice age

text: s occurring in the geological past of the Earth, as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future. He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system,

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Mars

text: , and the

text: Moon

text: , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets. He demonstrated the interrelatedness of

text: celestial mechanics

text: and the Earth sciences, and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of

text: descriptive science

text: s into

text: exact ones

text: The purpose of the CVF is to channel input from the most vulnerable groups, creating new policies and promoting effective action on climate change as it evolves. The forum is recognized as a voice on international climate-change issues.

text: Why We Disagree About Climate Change is an exploration on how the idea of climate change has taken such a dominant position in modern politics and why it is so contested. In the book, the author looks at the differing views from various disciplines, including natural science, economics, ethics, social psychology and politics, to try to explain why people disagree about climate change. The book argues that climate change, rather than being a problem to be solved,  is an idea which reveals different individual and collective beliefs, values and attitudes about ways of living in the world.

text: Why We Disagree About Climate Change is an exploration on how the idea of

text: climate change

text: has taken such a dominant position in modern politics and why it is so contested. In the book, the author looks at the differing views from various disciplines, including natural science, economics, ethics, social psychology and politics, to try to explain why people disagree about climate change. The book argues that climate change, rather than being a problem to be solved,  is an idea which reveals different individual and collective beliefs, values and attitudes about ways of living in the world.

text: Although they do not fit the definition of refugees set out in the UN Convention, people displaced by the effects of climate change have often been termed "climate refugees" or "climate change refugees". The term 'environmental refugee' is also commonly used and an estimated 25 million people can currently be classified as such. The alarming predictions by the UN, charities and some environmentalists, that between 200 million and 1 billion people could flood across international borders to escape the impacts of climate change in the next 40 years are realistic. Case studies from Bolivia, Senegal and Tanzania, three countries extremely prone to climate change, show that people affected by environmental degradation rarely move across borders. Instead, they adapt to new circumstances by moving short distances for short periods, often to cities. Millions of people live in places that are vulnerable to the effects of climate change. They face extreme weather conditions such as droughts or floods. Their lives and livelihoods might be threatened in new ways and create new vulnerabilities.

text: Although they do not fit the definition of refugees set out in the UN Convention, people displaced by the effects of

text: climate change

text: have often been termed "climate refugees" or "climate change refugees". The term 'environmental refugee' is also commonly used and an estimated 25 million people can currently be classified as such. The alarming predictions by the UN, charities and some environmentalists, that between 200 million and 1 billion people could flood across international borders to escape the impacts of climate change in the next 40 years are realistic. Case studies from Bolivia, Senegal and Tanzania, three countries extremely prone to climate change, show that people affected by environmental degradation rarely move across borders. Instead, they adapt to new circumstances by moving short distances for short periods, often to cities. Millions of people live in places that are vulnerable to the effects of climate change. They face extreme weather conditions such as droughts or floods. Their lives and livelihoods might be threatened in new ways and create new vulnerabilities.

text: Three million years ago saw the start of the Pleistocene epoch, which featured dramatic climactic changes due to the ice ages. The ice ages led to the evolution of modern man in Saharan Africa and expansion. The mega-fauna that dominated fed on grasslands that, by now, had taken over much of the subtropical world. The large amounts of water held in the ice allowed for various bodies of water to shrink and sometimes disappear such as the North Sea and the Bering Strait. It is believed by many that a huge migration took place along Beringia which is why, today, there are camels (which evolved and became extinct in North America), horses (which evolved and became extinct in North America), and Native Americans. The ending of the last ice age coincided with the expansion of man, along with a massive die out of ice age mega-fauna. This extinction, nicknamed "the Sixth Extinction", has been going ever since.

text: Three million years ago saw the start of the Pleistocene epoch, which featured dramatic climactic changes due to the ice ages. The ice ages led to the evolution of modern man in Saharan Africa and expansion. The mega-fauna that dominated fed on grasslands that, by now, had taken over much of the subtropical world. The large amounts of water held in the ice allowed for various bodies of water to shrink and sometimes disappear such as the North Sea and the Bering Strait. It is believed by many that a huge migration took place along

text: Beringia

text: which is why, today, there are

text: camels

text: (which evolved and became extinct in North America),

text: horses

text: (which evolved and became extinct in North America), and Native Americans. The ending of the last ice age coincided with the expansion of man, along with a massive die out of ice age mega-fauna. This extinction, nicknamed "

text: the Sixth Extinction

text: ", has been going ever since.

text: The most general definition of climate change is a change in the statistical properties (principally its mean and spread) of the climate system when considered over long periods of time, regardless of cause. Accordingly, fluctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, such as El Niño, do not represent climate change.

text: The most general definition of climate change is a change in the statistical properties (principally its

text: mean

text: and

text: spread

text: ) of the climate system when considered over long periods of time, regardless of cause. Accordingly, fluctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, such as

text: El Niño

text: , do not represent climate change.

text: He is author of several reports on climate change, behaviour and lifestyle  Greening the Greys: Climate Change and the Over 50s,The Carbon Cost of Christmas and Growing Old in a Changing Climate: Meeting the Challenges of Climate Change and an Ageing Population. During 2006-2008 he coordinated a climate change communication campaign in Yorkshire Climate Talk in collaboration with BBC Radio and York Press.

text: In a literature assessment, Yohe et al. (2007:813) concluded that climate change would very likely make it more difficult for nations to achieve the MDGs for the middle of the century. In the short-term, it was judged very likely that climate change (as attributed with high confidence to human activities) would not be a significant extra impediment to nations reaching their 2015 Millennium Development Targets.

text: In Europe, opinion is not strongly divided among left and right parties. Although European political parties on the left, including Green parties, strongly support measures to address climate change, conservative European political parties maintain similar sentiments, most notably in Western and Northern Europe. For example, Margaret Thatcher, never a friend of the coal mining industry, was a strong supporter of an active climate protection policy and was instrumental in founding the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the British Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research. Some speeches, as to the Royal Society on 27 September 1988 and to the UN general assembly in November 1989 helped to put climate change, acid rain, and general pollution in the British mainstream.. After her career, however, Thatcher was less of a climate activist, as she called climate action a "marvelous excuse for supranational socialism," and called Al Gore an "apocalyptic hyperbole". France's center-right President Chirac pushed key environmental and climate change policies in France in 2005–2007. Conservative German administrations (under the Christian Democratic Union and Christian Social Union) in the past two decades have supported European Union climate change initiatives; concern about forest dieback and acid rain regulation were initiated under Kohl's archconservative minister of the interior Friedrich Zimmermann. In the period after former President George W. Bush announced that the United States was leaving the Kyoto Treaty, European media and newspapers on both the left and right criticized the move. The conservative Spanish La Razón, the Irish Times, the Irish Independent, the Danish Berlingske Tidende, and the Greek Kathimerini all condemned the Bush administration's decision, as did left-leaning newspapers.

text: In Europe, opinion is not strongly divided among

text: left and right parties

text: . Although European political parties on the left, including

text: Green parties

text: , strongly support measures to address climate change, conservative European political parties maintain similar sentiments, most notably in Western and Northern Europe. For example,

text: Margaret Thatcher

text: , never a friend of the coal mining industry, was a strong supporter of an active climate protection policy and was instrumental in founding the

text: and the British

text: . Some speeches, as to the Royal Society on 27 September 1988 and to the UN general assembly in November 1989 helped to put climate change, acid rain, and general pollution in the British mainstream.. After her career, however, Thatcher was less of a climate activist, as she called climate action a "marvelous excuse for supranational socialism," and called Al Gore an "apocalyptic hyperbole". France's center-right

text: President Chirac

text: pushed key environmental and climate change policies in France in 2005–2007. Conservative German administrations (under the

text: Christian Democratic Union

text: and

text: Christian Social Union

text: ) in the past two decades have supported

text: European Union

text: climate change initiatives; concern about

text: forest dieback

text: and

text: acid rain

text: regulation were initiated under Kohl's archconservative minister of the interior

text: Friedrich Zimmermann

text: . In the period after former President George W. Bush announced that the United States was leaving the

text: Kyoto Treaty

text: , European media and newspapers on both the left and right criticized the move. The conservative Spanish

text: La Razón

text: , the

text: Irish Times

text: , the

text: Irish Independent

text: , the Danish

text: Berlingske Tidende

text: , and the Greek

text: Kathimerini

text: all condemned the Bush administration's decision, as did left-leaning newspapers.

text: After Governor Scott took office in 2011, DEP employees were informed by regional administrators not to use the terms climate change, global warming or sustainability in publications or educational materials, because the DEP was the governor’s agency. The Florida Oceans and Coastal Council’s Annual Research Plan 2014-15 avoided the term climate change and used 'climate drivers' and 'climate-driven changes' instead. Some critical employees were terminated or gave their notice during that time. Until 2015, the term sea-level rise was not permitted and had to be replaced by the term 'nuisance flooding'.

text: After Governor Scott took office in 2011, DEP employees were informed by regional administrators not to use the terms

text: climate change

text: global warming

text: or

text: sustainability

text: in publications or educational materials, because the DEP was the governor’s agency. The Florida Oceans and Coastal Council’s Annual Research Plan 2014-15 avoided the term climate change and used 'climate drivers' and 'climate-driven changes' instead. Some critical employees were terminated or gave their notice during that time. Until 2015, the term

text: sea-level rise

text: was not permitted and had to be replaced by the term '

text: nuisance flooding

text: The primary aim of Pleistocene Park is to recreate the ancient taiga/tundra grasslands that were widespread in the region during the last ice age. The key concept is that animals, rather than climate, maintained that ecosystem. Reintroducing large herbivores to Siberia would then initiate a positive feedback loop promoting the reestablishment of grassland ecosystems. This argument is the basis for rewilding Pleistocene Park's landscape with megafauna that was previously abundant in the area, as evidenced by the fossil record.

text: The primary aim of Pleistocene Park is to recreate the ancient

text: taiga

text: tundra

text: grasslands that were widespread in the region during the last ice age. The key concept is that animals, rather than climate, maintained that ecosystem. Reintroducing large herbivores to Siberia would then initiate a positive feedback loop promoting the reestablishment of grassland ecosystems. This argument is the basis for

text: rewilding

text: Pleistocene Park's landscape with

text: megafauna

text: that was previously abundant in the area, as evidenced by the fossil record.

text: Oppenheimer is a long-time participant in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) which won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007, serving recently as a lead author of the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report and then as a coordinating lead author of the Fifth Assessment Report as well as a Special Report on climate extremes and disasters. In the late 1980s, Dr. Oppenheimer and a handful of other scientists organized two workshops under the auspices of the United Nations that helped precipitate the negotiations that resulted in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (signed at the 1992 Earth Summit) and the Kyoto Protocol. During that period, he co-founded the Climate Action Network. His research and advocacy work on acid rain also contributed to the passage of the 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act.

text: Oppenheimer is a long-time participant in the

text: (IPCC) which won the

text: Nobel Peace Prize in 2007

text: , serving recently as a lead author of the

text: IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report

text: and then as a coordinating lead author of the

text: Fifth Assessment Report

text: as well as a Special Report on climate extremes and disasters. In the late 1980s, Dr. Oppenheimer and a handful of other scientists organized two workshops under the auspices of the

text: United Nations

text: that helped precipitate the negotiations that resulted in the

text: (signed at the

text: 1992 Earth Summit

text: ) and the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: . During that period, he co-founded the

text: Climate Action Network

text: . His research and advocacy work on

text: acid rain

text: also contributed to the passage of the 1990 amendments to the

text: Clean Air Act

text: The authors found that 99.4% agreed that the global climate is changing but that "the debate of the causes of climate change is particularly virulent among them." Analyzing their responses, the authors labelled 36% of respondents 'comply with Kyoto', as "they express the strong belief that climate change is happening, that it is not a normal cycle of nature, and humans are the main or central cause." 'Regulation activists' (10%) "diagnose climate change as being both human- and naturally caused, posing a moderate public risk, with only slight impact on their personal life." Skeptical of anthropogenic warming (sum 51%) they labelled 'nature is overwhelming' (24%), 'economic responsibility' (10%), and 'fatalists' (17%). Respondents giving these responses disagreed in various ways with mainstream scientific opinion on climate change, expressing views such as that climate change is 'natural', that its causes are unknown, that it is harmless, or that regulation such as that represented by Kyoto Protocol is in itself harmful.

text: The authors found that 99.4% agreed that the global climate is changing but that "the debate of the causes of climate change is particularly virulent among them." Analyzing their responses, the authors labelled 36% of respondents 'comply with Kyoto', as "they express the strong belief that climate change is happening, that it is not a normal cycle of nature, and humans are the main or central cause." 'Regulation activists' (10%) "diagnose climate change as being both human- and naturally caused, posing a moderate public risk, with only slight impact on their personal life." Skeptical of anthropogenic warming (sum 51%) they labelled 'nature is overwhelming' (24%), 'economic responsibility' (10%), and 'fatalists' (17%). Respondents giving these responses disagreed in various ways with

text: , expressing views such as that climate change is 'natural', that its causes are unknown, that it is harmless, or that regulation such as that represented by

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: is in itself harmful.

text: Therefore, solar radiation management, or albedo modification, is considered to be a potential option for addressing climate change. As the National Academy of Sciences states in its 2015 report: "The two main options for responding to the risks of climate change involve mitigation—reducing and eventually eliminating human-caused emissions of CO and other greenhouse gases (GHGs)—and adaptation—reducing the vulnerability of human and natural systems to changes in climate. A third potentially viable option, currently under development but not yet widely deployed, is carbon dioxide removal (CDR) from the atmosphere accompanied by reliable sequestration. A fourth, more speculative family of approaches called albedo modification seeks to offset climate warming by greenhouse gases by increasing the amount of sunlight reflected back to space." In this context, solar radiation management is widely viewed as a complement, not a substitute, to climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. As The Royal Society concluded in its 2009 report: "Geoengineering methods are not a substitute for climate change mitigation, and should only be considered as part of a wider package of options for addressing climate change." Or put another way: "The safest and most predictable method of moderating climate change is to take early and effective action to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. No geoengineering method can provide an easy or readily acceptable alternative solution to the problem of climate change. Geoengineering methods could, however, potentially be useful in future to augment continuing efforts to mitigate climate change by reducing emissions, and so should be subject to more detailed research and analysis."

text: Therefore, solar radiation management, or albedo modification, is considered to be a potential option for addressing

text: climate change

text: . As the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: states in its 2015 report: "The two main options for responding to the risks of climate change involve mitigation—reducing and eventually eliminating human-caused emissions of CO and other greenhouse gases (GHGs)—and adaptation—reducing the vulnerability of human and natural systems to changes in climate. A third potentially viable option, currently under development but not yet widely deployed, is

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: (CDR) from the atmosphere accompanied by reliable sequestration. A fourth, more speculative family of approaches called albedo modification seeks to offset climate warming by greenhouse gases by increasing the amount of sunlight reflected back to space." In this context, solar radiation management is widely viewed as a complement, not a substitute, to climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. As The Royal Society concluded in its 2009 report: "Geoengineering methods are not a substitute for climate change mitigation, and should only be considered as part of a wider package of options for addressing climate change." Or put another way: "The safest and most predictable method of moderating climate change is to take early and effective action to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. No geoengineering method can provide an easy or readily acceptable alternative solution to the problem of climate change. Geoengineering methods could, however, potentially be useful in future to augment continuing efforts to mitigate climate change by reducing emissions, and so should be subject to more detailed research and analysis."

text: but too few Earth systems have a thermal inertia on a thousand-year timescale for any long-term changes to accumulate. The most common hypothesis looks to the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets, which might expand through a few shorter cycles until large enough to undergo a sudden collapse. The 100,000 year problem has been scrutinized by  José A. Rial, Jeseung Oh and Elizabeth Reischmann who find that master-slave synchronization between the climate systems natural frequencies and the eccentricity forcing started the 100ky ice ages of the late Pleistocene and explain their large amplitude.

text: Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions (such as more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes (such as oceanic circulation), biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions, and human-induced alterations of the natural world. The latter effect is currently causing global warming, and "climate change" is often used to describe human-specific impacts.

text: Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or "forcing mechanisms". These include processes such as variations in solar radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, variations in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents and oceans, mountain-building and continental drift and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. There are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the climate system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings, while others respond more quickly.  There are also key threshold factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change.

text: Factors that can shape climate are called

text: climate forcing

text: s or "forcing mechanisms". These include processes such as variations in

text: solar radiation

text: , variations in the Earth's orbit, variations in the

text: albedo

text: or reflectivity of the continents and oceans,

text: mountain-building

text: and

text: continental drift

text: and changes in

text: greenhouse gas

text: concentrations. There are a variety of

text: climate change feedbacks

text: that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the climate system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings, while others respond more quickly.  There are also key

text: threshold factors

text: which when exceeded can produce rapid change.

text: In the past, the main drivers of global change have been solar variation, plate tectonics, volcanism, proliferation and abatement of life, meteorite impact, resource depletion, changes in Earth’s orbit around the sun and changes in the tilt of Earth on its axis. There is overwhelming evidence that now the main driver of planetary-scale change, or global change, is  the growing human population’s demand for energy, food, goods, services and information, and its disposal of its waste products. In the last 250 years, global change has caused climate change, widespread species extinctions, fish-stock collapse, desertification, ocean acidification, ozone depletion, pollution, and other large-scale shifts.

text: In the past, the main drivers of global change have been

text: solar variation

text: plate tectonics

text: volcanism

text: , proliferation and abatement of

text: life

text: meteorite

text: impact, resource depletion, changes in

text: Earth

text: ’s orbit around the sun and changes in the tilt of Earth on its axis. There is overwhelming evidence that now the main driver of planetary-scale change, or global change, is  the growing human population’s

text: demand for energy

text: , food, goods, services and information, and its

text: disposal

text: of its

text: waste

text: products. In the last 250 years, global change has caused

text: climate change

text: widespread species extinction

text: s, fish-stock collapse,

text: desertification

text: ocean acidification

text: ozone depletion

text: pollution

text: , and other large-scale shifts.

text: Much of his research focuses on past climate change, including work on a variety of issues ranging from temperature reconstructions from deep marine sediments and corals, to theories for Pleistocene ice-age cycles, to further developing the preexisting Snowball Earth hypothesis with his colleague Paul F. Hoffman. Currently he is working with economists and engineers on technological approaches to mitigating future climate change.

text: Much of his research focuses on past

text: climate change

text: , including work on a variety of issues ranging from temperature reconstructions from deep marine sediments and corals, to theories for

text: Pleistocene

text: ice-age cycles, to further developing the preexisting

text: Snowball Earth

text: hypothesis with his colleague

text: Paul F. Hoffman

text: . Currently he is working with economists and engineers on technological approaches to

text: mitigating future climate change

text: Sheldon Ungar, a Canadian sociologist, compares the different public reactions towards ozone depletion and global warming. The public opinion failed to tie climate change to concrete events which could be used as a threashold or beacon to signify immediate danger. Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of two to three degrees Celsius over several decades do not respond with people, e.g. in North America, that experience similar swings during a single day. As scientists define global warming a problem of the future, a liability in "attention economy", pessimistic outlooks in general and assigning extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed (compare Gore effect) in the public arena. While the greenhouse effect per se is essential for life on earth, the case was quite different with the ozone shield and other metaphors about the ozone depletion. The scientific assessment of the ozone problem also had large uncertainties. But the metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) reflected better with lay people and their concerns.

text: Sheldon Ungar, a Canadian sociologist, compares the different public reactions towards

text: ozone depletion and global warming

text: . The public opinion failed to tie climate change to concrete events which could be used as a threashold or beacon to signify immediate danger. Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of two to three degrees Celsius over several decades do not respond with people, e.g. in North America, that experience similar swings during a single day. As scientists define global warming a problem of the future, a liability in "

text: attention economy

text: ", pessimistic outlooks in general and assigning extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed (compare

text: Gore effect

text: ) in the public arena. While the

text: greenhouse effect

text: per se

text: is essential for life on earth, the case was quite different with the

text: ozone shield

text: and other metaphors about the ozone depletion. The scientific assessment of the ozone problem also had large uncertainties. But the metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) reflected better with lay people and their concerns.

text: The challenges of climate change necessitate a transition to a low-carbon, climate-resilient development pathway. The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is expected to promote such a transition by providing support to developing countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change. Meaningful progress will be made through a combination of long-term commitments and immediate action based on international cooperation.

text: The most direct effect of climate change on humans might be the impacts of hotter temperatures themselves. Extreme high temperatures increase the number of people who die on a given day for many reasons: people with heart problems are vulnerable because one's cardiovascular system must work harder to keep the body cool during hot weather, heat exhaustion, and some respiratory problems increase. Global warming could mean more cardiovascular diseases, doctors warn. Higher air temperature also increase the concentration of ozone at ground level. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is a harmful pollutant. It damages lung tissues and causes problems for people with asthma and other lung diseases.

text: The most direct effect of climate change on humans might be the impacts of hotter temperatures themselves. Extreme high temperatures increase the number of people who die on a given day for many reasons: people with heart problems are vulnerable because one's cardiovascular system must work harder to keep the body cool during hot weather, heat exhaustion, and some respiratory problems increase. Global warming could mean more

text: cardiovascular disease

text: s, doctors warn. Higher air temperature also increase the concentration of ozone at ground level. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is a harmful pollutant. It damages lung tissues and causes problems for people with asthma and other lung diseases.

text: The Earth has entered another period of rapid climate change, known as global warming. Since the early 20th century, the global air and sea surface temperature has increased about , with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. It is important to consider this statistic as being a global average. The effects of climate change may be highly heterogeneous over the landscape effecting different areas in different ways and magnitudes. The current climate change regime could have effects on the movement, persistence, and competition within and between plant communities. Also, the fact that forests are major constituents of habitat raises concerns on the effects of forest movement on climate change and greenhouse gas risk factors. Also some concern on the effects of forest migrations should be evaluated for wildlife because of the possibilities of forest fragmentations and extirpations.

text: The Earth has entered another period of rapid

text: climate change

text: , known as

text: global warming

text: . Since the early 20th century, the global air and sea surface temperature has increased about , with about two-thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. It is important to consider this statistic as being a global average. The effects of climate change may be highly heterogeneous over the landscape effecting different areas in different ways and magnitudes. The current climate change regime could have effects on the movement, persistence, and competition within and between plant communities. Also, the fact that forests are major constituents of

text: habitat

text: raises concerns on the effects of forest movement on climate change and

text: greenhouse gas

text: risk factors. Also some concern on the effects of forest migrations should be evaluated for wildlife because of the possibilities of forest fragmentations and extirpations.

text: Furthermore, media coverage of climate change (particularly in tabloid journalism but also more generally), is concentrated around extreme weather events and projections of catastrophe, creating “a language of imminent terror” which some commentators argue has instilled policy-paralysis and inhibited response. Moser et al. suggest using solution-orientated frames will help inspire action to solve climate change. The predominance of catastrophe frames over solution frames may help explain the apparent value-action gap with climate change; the current discursive setting has generated concern over climate change but not inspired action.

text: Furthermore, media coverage of climate change (particularly in tabloid journalism but also more generally), is concentrated around extreme weather events and projections of catastrophe, creating “a language of imminent terror” which some commentators argue has instilled policy-paralysis and inhibited response. Moser et al. suggest using solution-orientated frames will help inspire action to solve climate change. The predominance of catastrophe frames over solution frames may help explain the apparent

text: value-action gap

text: with climate change; the current discursive setting has generated concern over climate change but not inspired action.

text: Global warming also affects weather patterns as they pertain to cyclones. Scientists have found that although there have been fewer cyclones than in the past, the intensity of each cyclone has increased. A simplified definition of what global warming means for the planet is that colder regions would get warmer and warmer regions would get much warmer. However, there is also speculation that the complete opposite could be true. A warmer earth could serve to moderate temperatures worldwide. There is still much that is not understood about the earth’s climate, because it is very difficult to make climate models. As such, predicting the effects that global warming might have on our planet is still an inexact science. Global warming is also causing the amout of hazards on the ocean to increase. It has cause the amount of fog on sea level harder for ships to navigate without crashing into other boats or other objects in the ocean. The warmness and dampness of the ground is causing the fog to come closer to the sea level of the ocean. As the rain falls it makes the ground wet, then the warm air rises leaving a layer of cold air that turns into fog causing an unsafe ocean for travels and for working conditions in the ocean. It is also causing the ocean to create more floods due to the fact that it is warming up and the ice bergs from the ice age are now melting away completely causing the sea levels to rise which the causes the ocean to take over part of the land and beaches. The ice bergs are melting at an alarming rate which is causing the ocean to rise faster than predictied. inside of these ice bergs there are traces of bubbles that are filled with CO that are then released into the atomosphere when they melt causing the greenhouse effect to grow at an even faster rate.

text: Global warming also affects weather patterns as they pertain to

text: cyclone

text: Existing ecological guidelines for designing networks independently focus on achieving either fisheries, biodiversity or climate change objectives or combinations of fisheries and biodiversity or biodiversity and climate change. These three goals have different implications for network design. The most important are reserve size and protection duration (permanent, long term, short term, or periodic closures).

text: The sponsorship of AGU by ExxonMobil became a source of concern for many members after evidence surfaced that ExxonMobil had known about climate change for decades but had actively worked to undermine climate science. On February 22, 2016, a letter signed by 100 scientists was delivered to the AGU, requesting that they cut all ties with ExxonMobil and other companies that foster climate misinformation. The AGU Board of Directors met on 22 April 2016 and voted to continue accepting sponsorship from ExxonMobil, arguing that there was not unequivocal evidence that ExxonMobil continues to participate in climate misinformation. Instead of making a short-term political statement, the Board wished to engage with the energy industry over the long term. In response, Senator Sheldon Whitehouse and Representative Ted Lieu sent a critical letter saying that ExxonMobil continues to fund climate denial and is misleading the AGU. The Union of Concerned Scientists also sent a letter urging them to reconsider. However, in a meeting on 23 September 2016, the Board upheld its previous decision.

text: The sponsorship of AGU by ExxonMobil became a source of concern for many members after evidence surfaced that ExxonMobil had known about climate change for decades but had actively worked to undermine climate science. On February 22, 2016, a letter signed by 100 scientists was delivered to the AGU, requesting that they cut all ties with ExxonMobil and other companies that foster climate misinformation. The AGU Board of Directors met on 22 April 2016 and voted to continue accepting sponsorship from ExxonMobil, arguing that there was not unequivocal evidence that ExxonMobil continues to participate in climate misinformation. Instead of making a short-term political statement, the Board wished to engage with the energy industry over the long term. In response, Senator Sheldon Whitehouse and Representative Ted Lieu sent a critical letter saying that ExxonMobil continues to fund climate denial and is misleading the AGU. The

text: Union of Concerned Scientists

text: also sent a letter urging them to reconsider. However, in a meeting on 23 September 2016, the Board upheld its previous decision.

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) website provides information on climate change: EPA Climate Change. Climate change is a problem that is affecting people and the environment. Human-induced climate change has, e.g., the potential to alter the prevalence and severity of extreme weathers such as heat waves, cold waves, storms, floods and droughts.  A report released in March 2012 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) confirmed that a strong body of evidence links global warming to an increase in heat waves, a rise in episodes of heavy rainfall and other precipitation, and more frequent coastal flooding.  The U.S. had its warmest March–May on record in 2012. (See March 2012 North American heat wave)

text: The

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: 's (EPA) website provides information on climate change: EPA Climate Change. Climate change is a problem that is affecting people and the environment. Human-induced climate change has, e.g., the potential to alter the prevalence and severity of

text: extreme weather

text: s such as heat waves,

text: cold wave

text: s,

text: storm

text: s,

text: flood

text: s and

text: drought

text: s.  A report released in March 2012 by the

text: (IPCC) confirmed that a strong body of evidence links global warming to an increase in heat waves, a rise in episodes of heavy rainfall and other precipitation, and more frequent

text: coastal flooding

text: .  The U.S. had its warmest March–May on record in 2012. (See

text: March 2012 North American heat wave

text: Global warming refers to the warming caused by human technology since the 19th century or earlier. Global warming reflects abnormal variations to the expected climate within the Earth's atmosphere and subsequent effects on other parts of the Earth. Projections of future climate change suggest further global warming, sea level rise, and an increase in the frequency and severity of some extreme weather events and weather-related disasters. Effects of global warming include loss of biodiversity, stresses to existing food-producing systems, increased spread of known infectious diseases such as malaria, and rapid mutation of microorganisms.

text: Global warming

text: refers to the warming caused by human technology since the 19th century or earlier. Global warming reflects abnormal variations to the expected climate within the Earth's atmosphere and subsequent effects on other parts of the Earth. Projections of future climate change suggest further global warming, sea level rise, and an increase in the frequency and severity of some extreme weather events and weather-related disasters. Effects of global warming include loss of biodiversity, stresses to existing food-producing systems, increased spread of known infectious diseases such as malaria, and rapid mutation of

text: microorganisms

text: For example, in the mid 19th century, James Croll published calculations of how the gravitational pulls of the Sun, Moon, and planets subtly affect the Earth's motion and orientation. The inclination of the Earth’s axis and the shape of its orbit around the Sun oscillate gently in cycles lasting tens of thousands of years. During some periods the Northern Hemisphere would get slightly less sunlight during the winter than it would get during other centuries. Snow would accumulate, reflecting sunlight and leading to a self-sustaining ice age. Most scientists, however, found Croll’s ideas—and every other theory of climate change—unconvincing.

text: For example, in the mid 19th century,

text: James Croll

text: published calculations of how the gravitational pulls of the Sun, Moon, and planets subtly affect the Earth's motion and orientation. The inclination of the Earth’s axis and the shape of its orbit around the Sun oscillate gently in cycles lasting tens of thousands of years. During some periods the Northern Hemisphere would get slightly less sunlight during the winter than it would get during other centuries. Snow would accumulate, reflecting sunlight and leading to a self-sustaining ice age. Most scientists, however, found Croll’s ideas—and every other theory of climate change—unconvincing.

text: Prior to the last Ice Age, the River Thames followed a more northerly route to the North Sea, from Reading via Marlow, Chorleywood, St Albans, Hertford and along the present Suffolk-Essex border. During this period, the Mole is thought to have merged with the River Wey near Byfleet and then flowed in a north-easterly direction via Richmond to meet the proto-Thames near Ware in Hertfordshire, (today the Mole and Wey are less than  apart at their closest point near Painshill Park). During the Middle Pleistocene period, a large ice sheet built up across much of the East of England, reaching as far south as St Albans and Chelmsford, blocking the path of the proto-Thames. Glacial meltwater from the Anglian ice sheet, caused the Thames to divert southwards and flood the valley of the Mole-Wey river, thus adopting its present route through London.

text: Prior to the last

text: Ice Age

text: , the River Thames followed a more northerly route to the

text: North Sea

text: , from

text: Reading

text: via

text: Marlow

text: Chorleywood

text: St Albans

text: Hertford

text: and along the present

text: Suffolk

text: Essex

text: border. During this period, the Mole is thought to have merged with the

text: River Wey

text: near

text: Byfleet

text: and then flowed in a north-easterly direction via

text: Richmond

text: to meet the proto-Thames near

text: Ware

text: in

text: Hertfordshire

text: , (today the Mole and Wey are less than  apart at their closest point near Painshill Park). During the

text: Middle Pleistocene

text: period, a large ice sheet built up across much of the East of England, reaching as far south as

text: St Albans

text: and

text: Chelmsford

text: , blocking the path of the proto-Thames.

text: Glacial meltwater

text: from the Anglian ice sheet, caused the Thames to divert southwards and flood the valley of the Mole-Wey river, thus adopting its present route through

text: London

text: The G8 Climate Change Roundtable developed 5 key principles for businesses to consider when crafting a climate change mitigation strategy. These principles are:

text: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused (directly or indirectly) by human emissions of greenhouse gases. There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring, and that human activities are the primary driver. Many impacts of climate change have already been observed, including glacier retreat, changes in the timing of seasonal events (e.g., earlier flowering of plants), and changes in agricultural productivity.

text: The effects of

text: global warming

text: are the environmental and social changes caused (directly or indirectly) by human emissions of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. There is

text: a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring

text: , and that human activities are the primary driver. Many impacts of climate change have already been observed, including

text: glacier retreat

text: , changes in the timing of seasonal events (e.g., earlier flowering of plants), and changes in agricultural productivity.

text: There is a scientific consensus linking human activities to global warming due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a global rise in average sea levels.

text: There is a

text: scientific consensus

text: linking human activities to

text: global warming

text: due to industrial carbon dioxide emissions. This is predicted to produce changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, more extreme temperature ranges, significant changes in weather and a

text: global rise in average sea levels

text: Mitigation of climate change involves actions that are designed to limit the amount of long-term climate change (Fisher et al., 2007:225). Mitigation may be achieved through the reduction of GHG emissions or through the enhancement of sinks that absorb GHGs, e.g., forests.

text: Mitigation of climate change involves actions that are designed to limit the amount of long-term climate change (Fisher et al., 2007:225). Mitigation may be achieved through the reduction of GHG emissions or through the enhancement of

text: sinks

text: that absorb GHGs, e.g., forests.

text: "Climate change merely increases the urgency of reforming trade policies to ensure that global food security needs are met" said C. Bellmann, ICTSD Programmes Director.  A 2009 ICTSD-IPC study by Jodie Keane suggests that climate change could cause farm output in sub-Saharan Africa to decrease by 12 percent by 2080 - although in some African countries this figure could be as much as 60 percent, with agricultural exports declining by up to one fifth in others. Adapting to climate change could cost the agriculture sector $14bn globally a year, the study finds.

text: Climate change

text: merely increases the urgency of reforming trade policies to ensure that global

text: food security

text: needs are met" said C. Bellmann,

entity_name: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development

text: ICTSD

text: Programmes Director.  A 2009 ICTSD-IPC study by Jodie Keane suggests that

text: climate change

text: could cause farm output in

text: sub-Saharan Africa

text: to decrease by 12 percent by 2080 - although in some African countries this figure could be as much as 60 percent, with

text: agricultural exports

text: declining by up to one fifth in others. Adapting to

text: climate change

text: could cost the agriculture sector $14bn globally a year, the study finds.

text: Co-published by DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum, The Climate Vulnerability Monitor was initiated in 2009 by the Government of the Maldives, the “Climate Vulnerability Monitor” provides an overview of countries´ susceptibility to short-term climate change (in 2010 and 2030), by using a barometer to assess the estimated effects on each country’s health, weather disasters, human habitat loss and economic stresses. The 2010 report was presented at the UN Cancun Summit in December, 2010.

text: Co-published by DARA and the

text: Climate Vulnerable Forum

text: , The Climate Vulnerability Monitor was initiated in 2009 by the Government of the

text: Maldives

text: , the “Climate Vulnerability Monitor” provides an overview of countries´ susceptibility to short-term climate change (in 2010 and 2030), by using a barometer to assess the estimated effects on each country’s health, weather disasters, human habitat loss and economic stresses. The 2010 report was presented at the UN

text: Cancun Summit

text: in December, 2010.

text: In addition, numerous species such as mammoths on Wrangel Island and St. Paul Island survived in human-free refugia despite changes in climate. This would not be expected if climate change were responsible (unless their maritime climates offered some protection against climate change not afforded to coastal populations on the mainland). Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more favorable climes.

text: In addition, numerous species such as mammoths on

text: Wrangel Island

text: and

text: St. Paul Island

text: survived in human-free

text: refugia

text: despite changes in climate. This would not be expected if climate change were responsible (unless their maritime climates offered some protection against climate change not afforded to coastal populations on the mainland). Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more favorable climes.

text: In March 2007, the European Academy of Sciences and Arts issued a formal declaration in which they stated, “Human activity is most likely responsible for climate warming. Most of the climatic warming over the last 50 years is likely to have been caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Documented long-term climate changes include changes in Arctic temperatures and ice, widespread changes in precipitation amounts, ocean salinity, wind patterns and extreme weather including droughts, heavy precipitation, heat waves and the intensity of tropical cyclones. The above development potentially has dramatic consequences for mankind’s future, and welcomed Live Earth and Save Our Selves initiatives, for beginning the process of mobilizing the people to take action on this matter.

text: In March 2007, the European Academy of Sciences and Arts issued a formal declaration in which they stated, “Human activity is most likely responsible for

text: climate warming

text: . Most of the climatic warming over the last 50 years is likely to have been caused by increased concentrations of

text: greenhouse gases

text: in the

text: atmosphere

text: . Documented long-term climate changes include changes in

text: Arctic

text: temperatures and ice, widespread changes in precipitation amounts, ocean salinity, wind patterns and

text: extreme weather

text: including

text: droughts

text: , heavy precipitation,

text: heat waves

text: and the intensity of tropical

text: cyclones

text: . The above development potentially has dramatic consequences for mankind’s future, and welcomed

text: Live Earth

text: and

text: Save Our Selves

text: initiatives, for beginning the process of mobilizing the people to take action on this matter.

text: During the late Pleistocene period, the climate began a dramatic change. It is unknown how and why exactly the climate changed, but scientists speculate that the Earth’s orbit around the sun changed, leading to an evident increase in the amount of sunlight exposed to the planet. As the Pleistocene period gave way to the Paleo-Indian period, so did the harsh winter climates give way to a suitable warm climate. Strong evidence for the warm climate is the many warm-weather plants that have been found during excavations at Barton Gulch.

text: During the late

text: Pleistocene period

text: , the climate began a dramatic change. It is unknown how and why exactly the climate changed, but scientists speculate that the Earth’s orbit around the sun changed, leading to an evident increase in the amount of sunlight exposed to the planet. As the Pleistocene period gave way to the Paleo-Indian period, so did the harsh winter climates give way to a suitable warm climate. Strong evidence for the warm climate is the many warm-weather plants that have been found during excavations at Barton Gulch.

text: Extreme events, such as droughts and floods, are forecast to increase as climate change and global warming takes hold. Ranging from overnight floods to gradually worsening droughts, these will have a range of effects on the agricultural sector. By 2040, almost the entire Nile region, which once included large areas of irrigated agricultural land, is expected to become hot desert where cultivation is impossible due to water limitation. According to the Climate & Development Knowledge Network report Managing Climate Extremes and Disasters in the Agriculture Sectors: Lessons from the IPCC SREX Report, the effects will include changing productivity and livelihood patterns, economic losses, and effects on infrastructure, markets and food security. Food security in future will be linked to our ability to adapt agricultural systems to extreme events. For example, the Garifuna women in Honduras are helping to ensure food security locally by reviving and improving production of traditional root crops, building up traditional methods of soil conservation, carrying out training in organic composting and pesticide use and creating the first Garifuna farmers' market. Sixteen towns have worked together to establish tool and seed banks. Efforts to plant wild fruit trees along the coast are helping to prevent soil erosion. The aim is to reduce the communities' vulnerability to the hazards of shifting weather patterns.

text: Extreme events, such as droughts and floods, are forecast to increase as climate change and

text: global warming

text: takes hold. Ranging from overnight floods to gradually worsening droughts, these will have a range of effects on the agricultural sector. By 2040, almost the entire Nile region, which once included large areas of irrigated agricultural land, is expected to become hot desert where cultivation is impossible due to water limitation. According to the

text: Climate & Development Knowledge Network

text: report Managing Climate Extremes and Disasters in the Agriculture Sectors: Lessons from the IPCC SREX Report, the effects will include changing productivity and livelihood patterns, economic losses, and effects on infrastructure, markets and food security. Food security in future will be linked to our ability to adapt agricultural systems to extreme events. For example, the Garifuna women in

text: Honduras

text: are helping to ensure food security locally by reviving and improving production of traditional root crops, building up traditional methods of soil conservation, carrying out training in organic composting and pesticide use and creating the first Garifuna farmers' market. Sixteen towns have worked together to establish tool and seed banks. Efforts to plant wild fruit trees along the coast are helping to prevent

text: soil erosion

text: . The aim is to reduce the communities' vulnerability to the hazards of shifting weather patterns.

text: In an article in the Daily Telegraph (2006), Ruth Lea, Director of the Centre for Policy Studies, questions the scientific consensus on climate change on which the Stern Review is based. She says that "authorities on climate science say that the climate system is far too complex for modest reductions in one of the thousands of factors involved in climate change (i.e., carbon emissions) to have a predictable effect in magnitude, or even direction." Lea questions the long-term economic projections made in the Review, commenting that economic forecasts for just two or three years ahead are usually wrong. Lea goes on to describe the problem of drawing conclusions from combining scientific and economic models as "monumentally complex", and doubts whether the international co-operation on climate change, as argued for in the Review, is really possible. In conclusion, Lea says that the real motive behind the Review is to justify increased tax on fuels.

text: In an article in the

text: Daily Telegraph

text: (2006), Ruth Lea, Director of the

text: Centre for Policy Studies

text: , questions the

text: scientific consensus on climate change

text: on which the Stern Review is based. She says that "authorities on climate science say that the climate system is far too complex for modest reductions in one of the thousands of factors involved in climate change (i.e., carbon emissions) to have a predictable effect in magnitude, or even direction." Lea questions the long-term economic projections made in the Review, commenting that economic forecasts for just two or three years ahead are usually wrong. Lea goes on to describe the problem of drawing conclusions from combining scientific and economic models as "monumentally complex", and doubts whether the international co-operation on climate change, as argued for in the Review, is really possible. In conclusion, Lea says that the real motive behind the Review is to justify increased tax on fuels.

text: Regional effects of global warming vary in nature.  Some are the result of a generalised global change, such as rising temperature, resulting in local effects, such as melting ice.  In other cases, a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system.  In such cases, the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend.

text: Regional

text: effects of global warming

text: vary in nature.  Some are the result of a generalised global change, such as rising temperature, resulting in local effects, such as melting ice.  In other cases, a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or

text: weather system

text: .  In such cases, the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend.

text: In a 2009 paper "An imperative for climate change planning: tracking Earth's global energy", Trenberth discussed the distribution of heat and how it was affected by climate forcings including greenhouse gas changes. This could be tracked from 1993 to 2003, but for the period from 2004 to 2008 it was not then possible to explain the relatively cool temperatures of 2008. In the Climatic Research Unit email controversy an unlawfully disclosed email from Trenberth about this paper was widely misrepresented: he wrote "The fact is that we can't account for the lack of warming at the moment and it is a travesty that we can't." Trenberth has stated: "It is amazing to see this particular quote lambasted so often. It stems from a paper I published this year bemoaning our inability to effectively monitor the energy flows associated with short-term climate variability. It is quite clear from the paper that I was not questioning the link between anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and warming, or even suggesting that recent temperatures are unusual in the context of short-term natural variability."

text: In a 2009 paper "An imperative for climate change planning: tracking Earth's global energy", Trenberth discussed the distribution of heat and how it was affected by

text: climate forcing

text: s including greenhouse gas changes. This could be tracked from 1993 to 2003, but for the period from 2004 to 2008 it was not then possible to explain the relatively cool temperatures of 2008. In the

text: Climatic Research Unit email controversy

text: an unlawfully disclosed email from Trenberth about this paper was widely misrepresented: he wrote "The fact is that we can't account for the lack of warming at the moment and it is a travesty that we can't." Trenberth has stated: "It is amazing to see this particular quote lambasted so often. It stems from a paper I published this year bemoaning our inability to effectively monitor the energy flows associated with short-term climate variability. It is quite clear from the paper that I was not questioning the link between anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and warming, or even suggesting that recent temperatures are unusual in the context of short-term natural variability."

text: The climate change initiative of Chicago Wilderness focuses primarily on addressing the effects of climate change on the Chicago wilderness region and ways to respond to these changes. Studies have shown the impact of climate change has on the world, but little is known about how it affects specific regions. Recently, both Chicago Wilderness and the Nature Conservancy published reports to address the issues the area faces as the climate changes, both from the perspective of the city and the region's wildlife.<ref>April, Kelly. "Conservationists around Great Lakes Plan for Climate Change - Chicago Tribune." Featured Articles From The Chicago Tribune. 28 Aug. 2011. Web. 10 Feb. 2012.

text: The

text: climate change

text: initiative of Chicago Wilderness focuses primarily on addressing the effects of climate change on the Chicago wilderness region and ways to respond to these changes. Studies have shown the impact of climate change has on the world, but little is known about how it affects specific regions. Recently, both Chicago Wilderness and the Nature Conservancy published reports to address the issues the area faces as the climate changes, both from the perspective of the city and the region's wildlife.<ref>April, Kelly. "Conservationists around Great Lakes Plan for Climate Change - Chicago Tribune." Featured Articles From The Chicago Tribune. 28 Aug. 2011. Web. 10 Feb. 2012.

text: Browning worked in various scientific fields, including artificial intelligence and bio-engineering, and eventually became interested in long-term weather forecasting and climate changes. He believed that climate fluctuations are caused by changes in the amount of particulate matter in the atmosphere.  The major source of these changes is volcanic activity.  He believed that volcanic activity can be triggered by land tidal forces caused by the Moon, Earth's elliptical orbit of the Sun, and the alignment of these three bodies.  His climate predictions assumed that the dust thrown into the atmosphere by those eruptions reflects sunlight, which results in climatic cooling.  Browning believed that climatic changes, especially cooling, are associated with increased troubles in human society, including famine, revolutions, and war.

text: In the Oligocene, from twenty-five to thirty-two million years ago, there was another significant restructuring of the global carbon cycle as grasses evolved a new mechanism of photosynthesis, C photosynthesis, and expanded their ranges. This new pathway evolved in response to the drop in atmospheric CO concentrations below 550 ppm. The relative abundance and distribution of biodiversity alters the dynamics between organisms and their environment such that ecosystems can be both cause and effect in relation to climate change. Human-driven modifications to the planet's ecosystems (e.g., disturbance, biodiversity loss, agriculture) contributes to rising atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. Transformation of the global carbon cycle in the next century is projected to raise planetary temperatures, lead to more extreme fluctuations in weather, alter species distributions, and increase extinction rates. The effect of global warming is already being registered in melting glaciers, melting mountain ice caps, and rising sea levels. Consequently, species distributions are changing along waterfronts and in continental areas where migration patterns and breeding grounds are tracking the prevailing shifts in climate. Large sections of permafrost are also melting to create a new mosaic of flooded areas having increased rates of soil decomposition activity that raises methane (CH) emissions. There is concern over increases in atmospheric methane in the context of the global carbon cycle, because methane is a greenhouse gas that is 23 times more effective at absorbing long-wave radiation than CO on a 100-year time scale. Hence, there is a relationship between global warming, decomposition and respiration in soils and wetlands producing significant climate feedbacks and globally altered biogeochemical cycles.

text: In the

text: Oligocene

text: , from twenty-five to thirty-two million years ago, there was another significant restructuring of the global

text: carbon cycle

text: as grasses evolved a new mechanism of photosynthesis,

text: C photosynthesis

text: , and expanded their ranges. This new pathway evolved in response to the drop in atmospheric CO concentrations below 550 ppm. The relative abundance and distribution of biodiversity alters the dynamics between organisms and their environment such that ecosystems can be both cause and effect in relation to climate change. Human-driven modifications to the planet's ecosystems (e.g., disturbance, biodiversity loss, agriculture) contributes to rising atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. Transformation of the global carbon cycle in the next century is projected to raise planetary temperatures, lead to more extreme fluctuations in weather, alter species distributions, and increase extinction rates. The effect of global warming is already being registered in melting glaciers, melting mountain ice caps, and rising sea levels. Consequently, species distributions are changing along waterfronts and in continental areas where migration patterns and breeding grounds are tracking the prevailing shifts in climate. Large sections of

text: permafrost

text: are also melting to create a new mosaic of flooded areas having increased rates of soil decomposition activity that raises methane (CH) emissions. There is concern over increases in atmospheric methane in the context of the global carbon cycle, because methane is a

text: greenhouse gas

text: that is 23 times more effective at absorbing long-wave radiation than CO on a 100-year time scale. Hence, there is a relationship between global warming, decomposition and respiration in soils and wetlands producing significant climate feedbacks and globally altered biogeochemical cycles.

text: One of the dominant manifestations of climate change is sea level rise. NOAA estimates that "since 1992, new methods of satellite altimetry (the measurement of elevation or altitude) indicate a rate of rise of 0.12 inches per year". In addition, NASA  calculates that average sea level rise is 3.41 mm per year and that sea level rise is directly caused by the expansion of water as it warms and the melting of polar ice caps. Both of these changes are dependent on global warming and thus climate change. Sea level rise is especially threatening to low-lying island nations because seas are encroaching upon limited habitable land and threatening existing cultures. As Stefan Rahmstorf, a professor of Ocean Physics at Potsdam University in Germany notes "even limiting warming to 2 degrees, in my view, will still commit some island nations and coastal cities to drowning."  However it is also important to consider recent research which contradicts the claim that rising sea levels will necessarily submerge island nations. Studies done by Paul Kench, a geomorphologist at the University of Auckland, have shown that "reef islands change shape and move around in response to shifting sediments, and that many of them are growing in size, not shrinking, as sea level inches upward". However at the same time Kench states that "for the areas that have been transformed by human development, such as the capitals of Kiribati, Tuvalu, and Maldives, the future is considerably gloomier" because these islands can not adapt to rising sea levels and are therefore greatly threatened.

text: One of the dominant manifestations of climate change is

text: sea level rise

text: NOAA

text: estimates that "since 1992, new methods of satellite altimetry (the measurement of elevation or altitude) indicate a rate of rise of 0.12 inches per year". In addition, NASA  calculates that average sea level rise is 3.41 mm per year and that sea level rise is directly caused by the expansion of water as it warms and the melting of polar ice caps. Both of these changes are dependent on global warming and thus climate change. Sea level rise is especially threatening to low-lying island nations because seas are encroaching upon limited habitable land and threatening existing cultures. As

text: Stefan Rahmstorf

text: , a professor of Ocean Physics at Potsdam University in Germany notes "even limiting warming to 2 degrees, in my view, will still commit some island nations and coastal cities to drowning."  However it is also important to consider recent research which contradicts the claim that rising sea levels will necessarily submerge island nations. Studies done by Paul Kench, a geomorphologist at the University of Auckland, have shown that "reef islands change shape and move around in response to shifting sediments, and that many of them are growing in size, not shrinking, as sea level inches upward". However at the same time Kench states that "for the areas that have been transformed by human development, such as the capitals of Kiribati, Tuvalu, and Maldives, the future is considerably gloomier" because these islands can not adapt to rising sea levels and are therefore greatly threatened.

text: The name SevenMeters derived from the realization that the water level will rise 7 meters if the global warming will melt all the ice in Greenland. In order to show what impact the possible climate change can have to the world, the SevenMeters group established 24 kilometers of red blinking LED-lights at 7 meters height during UN's climate summit in December 2009 in Copenhagen. The blinking LEDs were placed above the Bella Center where the climate debates were held, and they created a strong symbol of the urgency to act before the climate gets out of hand.

text: The name SevenMeters derived from the realization that the water level will rise 7 meters if the

text: global warming

text: will melt all the ice in

text: Greenland

text: . In order to show what impact the possible

text: climate change

text: can have to the world, the SevenMeters group established 24 kilometers of red blinking LED-lights at 7 meters height during UN's climate summit in December 2009 in Copenhagen. The blinking LEDs were placed above the

text: Bella Center

text: where the climate debates were held, and they created a strong symbol of the urgency to act before the climate gets out of hand.

text: Lenton et al. investigated tipping elements in the climate system.  These were regional effects of global warming, some of which had abrupt onset and may therefore be regarded as abrupt climate change.  They found that "Our synthesis of present knowledge suggests that a variety of tipping elements could reach their critical point within this century under anthropogenic climate change."

text: Lenton et al. investigated

text: tipping elements in the climate system

text: .  These were

text: regional effects of global warming

text: , some of which had abrupt onset and may therefore be regarded as abrupt climate change.  They found that "Our synthesis of present knowledge suggests that a variety of tipping elements could reach their critical point within this century under anthropogenic climate change."

text: The Climate Vulnerability Monitor reportedly takes a new approach to assessing the climate vulnerability of the world and its regions, countries and communities. The Monitor looks at pre-existing characteristics of society that are affected by climate change and maps the level of vulnerability and expected impact as implied by the effect that real or projected changes in the climate. The analysis is built around 4 "impact areas", and 5 "levels of vulnerability", focusing on the years 2010 and 2030.

text: The 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in Cancún, Mexico, from 29 November to 10 December 2010. The conference is officially referred to as the 16th session of the Conference of the Parties  to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 6th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties  to the Kyoto Protocol. In addition, the two permanent subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC — the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) — held their 33rd sessions. The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference extended the mandates of the two temporary subsidiary bodies, the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (AWG-LCA), and they met as well.

text: The 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in

text: Cancún

text: Mexico

text: , from 29 November to 10 December 2010. The conference is officially referred to as the 16th session of the Conference of the Parties  to the

text: (UNFCCC) and the 6th session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties  to the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: . In addition, the two permanent subsidiary bodies of the UNFCCC — the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) — held their 33rd sessions. The

text: extended the mandates of the two temporary subsidiary bodies, the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (AWG-LCA), and they met as well.

text: Grundmann and Stehr had themselves a controversy in the peer reviewed literature, when they clashed with Constance Lever-Tracy about the role of sociology in climate affairs. Grundmann stated a politicization of climate science which makes science, technology and society (STS) scholars feel uncomfortable with the topic of climate change. Grundmann identifies a problematic approach of climate scientists who believe to have a prerogative to make political suggestions in the field "which society at large should take up because scientists always know best" combined with a basic lack of actual feasible solution proposals. He sees climate change as a long term issue requiring more public involvement and debate, not less and asks social scientists to study the interaction between climate and society, Lever-Tracy was more about letting the climatologists having the lead.

text: Grundmann and Stehr had themselves a controversy in the peer reviewed literature, when they clashed with Constance Lever-Tracy about the role of sociology in climate affairs. Grundmann stated a politicization of climate science which makes

text: science, technology and society

text: (STS) scholars feel uncomfortable with the topic of climate change. Grundmann identifies a problematic approach of climate scientists who believe to have a prerogative to make political suggestions in the field "which society at large should take up because scientists always know best" combined with a basic lack of actual feasible solution proposals. He sees climate change as a long term issue requiring more public involvement and debate, not less and asks social scientists to study the interaction between climate and society, Lever-Tracy was more about letting the climatologists having the lead.

text: The Pleistocene epoch lasted from 2.6 million years ago until 12,000 years ago. During this period there were a number of glacial and inter-glacial periods. During the glacial periods there were large drops in sea level, so the coast-line was greatly modified.  The final major cold spell occurred from 25,000 to 18,000 years ago and is known as the Last Glacial Maximum when the Fenno-Scandinavian ice sheet covered much of northern Europe while the Alpine ice sheet occupied significant parts of central-southern Europe. However, there were several less cold periods after this. The epoch ends with the Younger Dryas when there were small ice sheets in Scotland and Scandinavia.

text: The

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch lasted from 2.6 million years ago until 12,000 years ago. During this period there were a number of glacial and inter-glacial periods. During the glacial periods there were large drops in sea level, so the coast-line was greatly modified.  The final major cold spell occurred from 25,000 to 18,000 years ago and is known as the Last Glacial Maximum when the Fenno-Scandinavian ice sheet covered much of northern Europe while the Alpine ice sheet occupied significant parts of central-southern Europe. However, there were several less cold periods after this. The epoch ends with the

text: Younger Dryas

text: when there were small ice sheets in Scotland and Scandinavia.

text: Her research is in the natural variability of climate and changes in climate due to natural and anthropogenic changes in radiative forcing (such as greenhouse warming, climate effects of volcanic eruptions and changes in solar radiation). Hegerl has also led well-known research on the attribution of modern climate change to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emission.

text: On the other hand, burning these high-carbon fuels will cause the start of high climate change, non-reversible for a thousand years. He reminds us that the average earth temperature difference between the latest ice-age (c.10, 000 BC) and 1950 is around +5 °C. According to the IPCC, the temperature will rise by +3 °C or +4 °C between 1950 and 2100 if the biggest polluting countries do not respect their commitments to the COP 21. The consequences, such as water stress, starvation, mass migrations, and wars, would be catastrophic.

text: In 1971 Lamb decided to base his pioneering research at a university, and he became the first Director of the Climatic Research Unit established in 1972 in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia. In 1973 and 1975 he arranged for two international conferences which were hosted in Norwich. He was known as “the ice man” because of his view that global cooling would lead to a future glacial period within 10,000 years with some abrupt cooling phases occurring "within one to two thousand years". However he also acknowledged that global warming could have serious effects within a century. His warnings of damage to agriculture, ice caps melting, and cities being flooded caught widespread attention and helped to shape public opinion. He gained the unit sponsorship from seven major insurance companies, who wanted to make use of the research of the unit when making their own studies of the implications of climate change for insurance against storm and flood damage. He retired from the unit in 1978, and his contributions to the unit were recognised in 1981 when he was granted an honorary Doctorate of Science.

text: In 1971 Lamb decided to base his pioneering research at a university, and he became the first Director of the

text: Climatic Research Unit

text: established in 1972 in the School of Environmental Sciences at the

text: University of East Anglia

text: . In 1973 and 1975 he arranged for two international conferences which were hosted in

text: Norwich

text: . He was known as “the ice man” because of his view that

text: global cooling

text: would lead to a future

text: glacial period

text: within 10,000 years with some abrupt cooling phases occurring "within one to two thousand years". However he also acknowledged that

text: global warming

text: could have serious effects within a century. His warnings of damage to agriculture, ice caps melting, and cities being flooded caught widespread attention and helped to shape public opinion. He gained the unit sponsorship from seven major insurance companies, who wanted to make use of the research of the unit when making their own studies of the implications of climate change for insurance against storm and flood damage. He retired from the unit in 1978, and his contributions to the unit were recognised in 1981 when he was granted an honorary Doctorate of Science.

text: A paleosubspecies (or palaeosubspecies) identifies an extinct subspecies which evolved into the currently existing form. This connection with relatively recent variations, usually from the Late Pleistocene, often relies on the additional information available in subfossil material. Most of the current species have changed in size adapting to the climatic changes during the last ice age (see Bergmann's Rule).

text: A paleosubspecies (or palaeosubspecies) identifies an extinct

text: subspecies

text: which evolved into the currently existing form. This connection with relatively recent variations, usually from the

text: Late Pleistocene

text: , often relies on the additional information available in

text: subfossil

text: material. Most of the current species have changed in size

text: adapting

text: to the climatic changes during the

text: last ice age

text: (see

text: Bergmann's Rule

text: According to the IPCC's 2014 assessment report, "Mitigation is a public good; climate change is a case of the 'tragedy of the commons. Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent (individual, institution or country) acts independently in its own selfish interest, (See International Cooperation and Emissions Trading) suggesting the need for collective action. Some adaptation actions, on the other hand, have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals, regions, or countries that undertake them, at least in the short term. Nevertheless, financing such adaptive activities remains an issue, particularly for poor individuals and countries."

text: According to the

text: IPCC's

text: assessment report

text: , "Mitigation is a public good; climate change is a case of the '

text: tragedy of the commons

text: . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent (individual, institution or country) acts independently in its own selfish interest, (See

text: International Cooperation

text: and

text: Emissions Trading

text: ) suggesting the need for collective action. Some adaptation actions, on the other hand, have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals, regions, or countries that undertake them, at least in the short term. Nevertheless, financing such adaptive activities remains an issue, particularly for poor individuals and countries."

text: In 2002, Lean et al. stated that while "There is ... growing empirical evidence for the Sun's role in climate change on multiple time scales including the 11-year cycle", "changes in terrestrial proxies of solar activity (such as the 14C and 10Be cosmogenic isotopes and the aa geomagnetic index) can occur in the absence of long-term (i.e., secular) solar irradiance changes ... because the stochastic response increases with the cycle amplitude, not because there is an actual secular irradiance change." They conclude that because of this, "long-term climate change may appear to track the amplitude of the solar activity cycles," but that "Solar radiative forcing of climate is reduced by a factor of 5 when the background component is omitted from historical reconstructions of total solar irradiance ...This suggests that general circulation model (GCM) simulations of twentieth century warming may overestimate the role of solar irradiance variability." A 2006 review suggested that solar brightness had relatively little effect on global climate, with little likelihood of significant shifts in solar output over long periods of time. Lockwood and Fröhlich, 2007, found "considerable evidence for solar influence on the Earth's pre-industrial climate and the Sun may well have been a factor in post-industrial climate change in the first half of the last century", but that "over the past 20 years, all the trends in the Sun that could have had an influence on the Earth's climate have been in the opposite direction to that required to explain the observed rise in global mean temperatures." In a study that considered geomagnetic activity as a measure of known solar-terrestrial interaction, Love et al. found a statistically significant correlation between sunspots and geomagnetic activity, but not between global surface temperature and either sunspot number or geomagnetic activity.

text: In 2002, Lean et al. stated that while "There is ... growing empirical evidence for the Sun's role in

text: climate change

text: on multiple time scales including the 11-year cycle", "changes in terrestrial proxies of solar activity (such as the 14C and 10Be cosmogenic isotopes and the aa geomagnetic index) can occur in the absence of long-term (i.e., secular) solar irradiance changes ... because the stochastic response increases with the cycle amplitude, not because there is an actual secular irradiance change." They conclude that because of this, "long-term climate change may appear to track the amplitude of the solar activity cycles," but that "Solar radiative forcing of climate is reduced by a factor of 5 when the background component is omitted from historical reconstructions of total solar irradiance ...This suggests that

text: general circulation model (GCM)

text: simulations of twentieth century warming may overestimate the role of solar irradiance variability." A 2006 review suggested that solar brightness had relatively little effect on global climate, with little likelihood of significant shifts in solar output over long periods of time. Lockwood and Fröhlich, 2007, found "considerable evidence for solar influence on the Earth's pre-industrial climate and the Sun may well have been a factor in post-industrial climate change in the first half of the last century", but that "over the past 20 years, all the trends in the Sun that could have had an influence on the Earth's climate have been in the opposite direction to that required to explain the observed rise in global mean temperatures." In a study that considered geomagnetic activity as a measure of known solar-terrestrial interaction, Love et al. found a statistically significant correlation between sunspots and geomagnetic activity, but not between global surface temperature and either sunspot number or geomagnetic activity.

text: Superimposed on the long-term evolution between hot and cold climates have been many short-term fluctuations in climate similar to, and sometimes more severe than, the varying glacial and interglacial states of the present ice age. Some of the most severe fluctuations, such as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, may be related to rapid climate changes due to sudden collapses of natural methane clathrate reservoirs in the oceans.

text: Superimposed on the long-term evolution between hot and cold climates have been many short-term fluctuations in climate similar to, and sometimes more severe than, the varying glacial and interglacial states of the present

text: ice age

text: . Some of the most severe fluctuations, such as the

text: Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum

text: , may be related to rapid climate changes due to sudden collapses of natural

text: methane clathrate

text: reservoirs in the oceans.

text: This book is an expansion on Lawson’s 2006 lecture to the Centre for Policy Studies, called "The Economics and Politics of Climate Change. An Appeal to Reason"  As explained in the introduction, the aim of the book is to examine each of the dimensions of the global warming issue, including the science, the economics, both from the perspective of long-term forecasting and cost-effectiveness analysis, the politics, and the ethical aspect.The book begins by arguing that "the science of global warming is far from settled." Although Lawson accepts that warming is real, he questions the validity of global climate models. Specifically, he highlights the lack of falsifiability of their predictions and the fact that all models failed to predict that there has been no further warming between 2001 and 2007. He also questions if indeed the sole cause of the warming is man-made CO and how great that contribution is. Lawson raises several issues regarding the IPCC process and its findings, including the Hockey stick controversy, and criticizes the Stern Report. After the introduction, the remainder of the book proceeds under the assumption that the IPCC majority view is correct.

text: This book is an expansion on Lawson’s 2006 lecture to the

text: Centre for Policy Studies

text: , called "The Economics and Politics of Climate Change. An Appeal to Reason"  As explained in the introduction, the aim of the book is to examine each of the dimensions of the global warming issue, including the science, the economics, both from the perspective of long-term forecasting and cost-effectiveness analysis, the politics, and the ethical aspect.The book begins by arguing that "the science of global warming is far from settled." Although Lawson accepts that warming is real, he questions the validity of

text: global climate model

text: s. Specifically, he highlights the lack of

text: falsifiability

text: of their predictions and the fact that all models failed to predict that there has been no further warming between 2001 and 2007. He also questions if indeed the sole cause of the warming is man-made CO and how great that contribution is. Lawson raises several issues regarding the IPCC process and its findings, including the

text: Hockey stick controversy

text: , and criticizes the

text: Stern Report

text: . After the introduction, the remainder of the book proceeds under the assumption that the IPCC majority view is correct.

text: May abolished the Department for Energy and Climate Change in a move widely criticised by Greenpeace which expressed concern the new government failed to see the threat from climate change, Friends of the Earth which said climate change is happening now while the new government lowers its priority, also by other more impartial people and groups. Climate change is included in the scope of a new Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy.

text: May abolished the

text: Department for Energy and Climate Change

text: in a move widely criticised by

text: Greenpeace

text: which expressed concern the new government failed to see the threat from climate change,

text: Friends of the Earth

text: which said climate change is happening now while the new government lowers its priority, also by other more impartial people and groups. Climate change is included in the scope of a new

entity_name: Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy

text: Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy

text: The last glacial period, commonly referred to as the 'Ice Age', spanned 125,000 YBP to 14,500 YBP and was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age which occurred during the last years of the Pleistocene era. The Ice Age reached its peak during the Last Glacial Maximum, when ice sheets commenced advancing from 33,000 YBP and reached their maximum positions 26,500 YBP. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere approximately 19,000 YBP and in Antarctica approximately 14,500 years YBP, which is consistent with evidence that this was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level 14,500 YBP. A vast, cold and dry Mammoth steppe stretched from Spain across Eurasia and over the Bering land bridge into Alaska and the Yukon where it was stopped by the Wisconsin glaciation. This land bridge existed because more of the planet's water was locked up in glaciation than now and therefore the sea-levels were lower. When the sea levels began to rise this bridge was inundated around 11,000 YBP. The fossil evidence from many continents points to the extinction mainly of large animals, termed Pleistocene megafauna, near the end of the last glaciation. Beringia was a refuge for animals and plants because it received more moisture than the rest of the Mammoth steppe.

text: The

text: last glacial period

text: , commonly referred to as the 'Ice Age', spanned 125,000 YBP to 14,500 YBP and was the most recent

text: glacial period

text: within the

text: current ice age

text: which occurred during the last years of the

text: Pleistocene

text: era. The Ice Age reached its peak during the

text: Last Glacial Maximum

text: , when

text: ice sheet

text: s commenced advancing from 33,000 YBP and reached their maximum positions 26,500 YBP. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere approximately 19,000 YBP and in Antarctica approximately 14,500 years YBP, which is consistent with evidence that this was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level 14,500 YBP. A vast, cold and dry

text: Mammoth steppe

text: stretched from Spain across Eurasia and over the

text: Bering land bridge

text: into Alaska and the Yukon where it was stopped by the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: . This land bridge existed because more of the planet's water was locked up in glaciation than now and therefore the sea-levels were lower. When the sea levels began to rise this bridge was inundated around 11,000 YBP. The fossil evidence from many continents points to the

text: extinction

text: mainly of large animals, termed

text: Pleistocene megafauna

text: , near the end of the last glaciation. Beringia was a refuge for animals and plants because it received more moisture than the rest of the Mammoth steppe.

text: The perceived slow process of efforts for countries to agree to a comprehensive global level binding agreements has led some countries to seek independent/voluntary steps and focus on alternative high-value voluntary activities like the creation of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants by the United States, Canada, Mexico, Bangladesh, and Sweden which seeks to regulate short-lived pollutants such as methane, black carbon and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) which together are believed to account for up to 1/3 of current global warming but whose regulation is not as fraught with wide economic impacts and opposition.  The Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (CCAC) was launched on February 16, 2012 to regulate short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) that together contribute up to 1/3 of global warming. The coalition's creation is seen as a necessary and pragmatic step given the slow pace of global climate change agreements under the UNFCCC.[1]

text: The perceived slow process of efforts for countries to agree to a comprehensive global level binding agreements has led some countries to seek independent/voluntary steps and focus on alternative high-value voluntary activities like the creation of the

entity_name: Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants

text: Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants

text: by the

text: United States

text: Canada

text: Mexico

text: Bangladesh

text: , and

text: Sweden

text: which seeks to regulate short-lived pollutants such as methane, black carbon and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) which together are believed to account for up to 1/3 of current global warming but whose regulation is not as fraught with wide economic impacts and opposition.  The

text: (CCAC) was launched on February 16, 2012 to regulate short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs) that together contribute up to 1/3 of global warming. The coalition's creation is seen as a necessary and pragmatic step given the slow pace of global climate change agreements under the UNFCCC.[1]

text: The gravitational force between the Sun and moon induces the precession in Earth's orbit, which is the major cause of the climate oscillation of Earth that has a period of 19,000 to 23,000 years. It follows that changes in Earth's orbital parameters (e.g., orbital inclination, the angle between Earth's rotation axis and its plane of orbit) is important to the study of Earth's climate, in particular to the study of past ice ages. (See also nodal precession. For precession of the lunar orbit see lunar precession).

text: The gravitational force between the Sun and moon induces the precession in Earth's orbit, which is the major cause of the climate oscillation of Earth that has a period of 19,000 to 23,000 years. It follows that changes in Earth's orbital parameters (e.g., orbital inclination, the angle between Earth's rotation axis and its plane of orbit) is important to the study of Earth's climate, in particular to the study of past ice ages. (See also

text: nodal precession

text: . For precession of the lunar orbit see

text: lunar precession

text: The Economist supports government action on global warming, declaring its view in a December editorial before the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference that the risk of catastrophic climate change and its effect on the economy outweighs the economic consequences of insuring against global warming now. It also stated its preference of setting a carbon price through tax, rather than through a cap-and-trade system as a means of cutting emissions, and was generally scathing of government subsidies.

text: The Economist supports government action on

text: global warming

text: , declaring its view in a December editorial before the

text: that the risk of catastrophic climate change and its effect on the economy outweighs the economic consequences of insuring against global warming now. It also stated its preference of setting a carbon price

text: through tax

text: , rather than through a

text: cap-and-trade

text: system as a means of cutting emissions, and was generally scathing of government subsidies.

text: In the 1970s, a series of scientific conferences concluded that the world's climate is cooling. Books such as The Cooling, The Weather Conspiracy, The Weather Machine & The Threat Of Ice, Climates Of Hunger, Ice Ages and Climate: Present, Past & Future, warned of a coming ice age within decades. In 1975, Newsweek ran an article entitled "The Cooling World" that foretold the decimation of agricultural productivity based on a dramatic decrease in the Earth's temperature. and the New York Times published the article "Scientists ask why world is changing; Major cooling may be ahead". In parallel, books such as A Blueprint for Survival, The Limits To Growth, and The Population Bomb, warned of multiple social, economic, ecological and population crises. At the same time, Hamaker continued to generate articles and bulletins as well as campaign, on what was by now his main pre-occupation, the remineralization of the world’s soils.

text: In the 1970s, a series of scientific conferences concluded that the world's climate is

text: cooling

text: . Books such as The Cooling, The Weather Conspiracy, The Weather Machine & The Threat Of Ice, Climates Of Hunger, Ice Ages and Climate: Present, Past & Future, warned of a coming ice age within decades. In 1975, Newsweek ran an article entitled "The Cooling World" that foretold the

text: decimation

text: of agricultural productivity based on a dramatic decrease in the Earth's

text: temperature

text: . and the New York Times published the article "Scientists ask why world is changing; Major cooling may be ahead". In parallel, books such as

text: A Blueprint for Survival

text: The Limits To Growth

text: , and

text: The Population Bomb

text: , warned of multiple

text: social

text: economic

text: ecological

text: and

text: population

text: crises

text: . At the same time, Hamaker continued to generate articles and bulletins as well as campaign, on what was by now his main pre-occupation, the remineralization of the world’s

text: soils

text: Tyson moves on to explain the asteroid impact that initiated the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, leaving small mammals as the dominate species on earth. Tyson proceeds to describe more recent geologic events such as the formation of the Mediterranean Sea due to the breaking of the natural dam at the Strait of Gibraltar, and how the geologic formation of the Isthmus of Panama broke the free flow of the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific, causing large-scale climate change such as turning the bulk of Africa from lush grasslands into arid plains and further influencing tree-climbing mammals' evolution towards walking long distances on two legs and using tools. Tyson further explains how the influence of other planets in the Solar System have small effects on the Earth's spin and tilt, creating the various ice ages, and how these changes influenced early human's nomadic behavior. Tyson explains that the climate then stabilized to become the current interglacial period, and finally that this stable period risks to be prematurely ended by the human activity of burning fossil fuels, which will threaten our environment and our ability to feed ourselves. Tyson concludes the episode by noting how Earth's landmasses are expected to change in the future, and postulates what may be the next great extinction event, and that there is a chance that our story will end with it.

text: Tyson moves on to explain the asteroid impact that initiated the

text: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event

text: , leaving small mammals as the dominate species on earth. Tyson proceeds to describe more recent geologic events such as the formation of the

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: due to the breaking of the natural dam at the

text: Strait of Gibraltar

text: , and how the geologic formation of the

text: Isthmus of Panama

text: broke the free flow of the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific, causing large-scale climate change such as turning the bulk of Africa from lush grasslands into arid plains and further influencing tree-climbing mammals' evolution towards walking long distances on two legs and using tools. Tyson further explains how the influence of other planets in the Solar System have small effects on the Earth's spin and tilt, creating the various

text: ice age

text: s, and how these changes influenced early human's nomadic behavior. Tyson explains that the climate then stabilized to become the current interglacial period, and finally that this stable period risks to be prematurely ended by the human activity of burning fossil fuels, which will threaten our environment and our ability to feed ourselves. Tyson concludes the episode by noting how Earth's landmasses are expected to change in the future, and postulates what may be the next great extinction event, and that there is a chance that our story will end with it.

text: The majority of people in the public express a greater concern for problems which appear to possess an immediate effect on everyday life such as hazardous waste or pesticide-use than for long-term problems that may affect future generations such as climate change or population growth. People greatly rely on the scientific community to assess the threat of environmental problems because they usually do not directly experience the effects of phenomena such as climate change. The exposure most people have to climate change has been impersonal; most people only have virtual experience though documentaries and news media in what may seem like a “remote” area of the world.<ref>Swim, Janet, Susan Clayton, Thomas Doherty, Robert Gifford, George Howard, Joseph Reser, Paul Stern, and Elke Weber. Psychology & Global Climate Change. Publication. American Psychological Association, 2010. Web. 10 Dec. 2010.

text: The traditional model of command and control typically involved areas of environmental concern being dealt with by national governments. In recent decades, transboundary environmental problems have risen in prominence. This shift has exposed many of the limitations of a command and control approach when it is applied to a larger and more complex arena. Climate change is often used to exemplify the perceived failings of this regulatory approach. Climate change is good example of a concern that is complex, full of uncertainties and difficult for many people to understand.  This may go someway in explaining the apparent incompatibility of climate change and a CAC approach. Mitigating climate change requires action of a much more proactive nature than traditional CAC models are able to deliver.One reason for the lack of compatibility with many international environmental agreements is the manner in which the international community is organised. International law cannot be implemented in the same way as law at national level. Given that the a CAC approach relies heavily on prohibiting certain activities and then enforcing it through sanctions makes the scaling-up to international level problematic. Without a strong international enforcement body it is unlikely that CAC will be an effective tool for dealing with most transboundary environmental issues, climate change included.

text: In environmental studies, the PD is evident in crises such as global climate-change. It is argued all countries will benefit from a stable climate, but any single country is often hesitant to curb  emissions. The immediate benefit to an individual country to maintain current behavior is perceived to be greater than the purported eventual benefit to all countries if behavior was changed, therefore explaining the impasse concerning climate-change in 2007.

text: In

text: environmental studies

text: , the PD is evident in crises such as global

text: climate-change

text: . It is argued all countries will benefit from a stable climate, but any single country is often hesitant to curb

text: emissions. The immediate benefit to an individual country to maintain current behavior is perceived to be greater than the purported eventual benefit to all countries if behavior was changed, therefore explaining the impasse concerning climate-change in 2007.

text: Global warming is a natural phenomenon that causes the Earth to naturally warm to regulate temperatures and ensure plant and human life can be sustained. However it has been found that humans have exemplified this process of heating by the depletion of the ozone layer and the release of Greenhouse Gases through industry, cars and many other methods, causing the earth to heat up to unnatural temperatures. This is causing externalities on the environment, such as melting icecaps, shifting biomes and extinction of many aquatic species, through ocean acidification and changing temperatures.

text: Global warming is a natural phenomenon that causes the Earth to naturally warm to regulate temperatures and ensure plant and human life can be sustained. However it has been found that humans have exemplified this process of heating by the depletion of the ozone layer and the release of

text: Greenhouse Gases

text: through industry, cars and many other methods, causing the earth to heat up to unnatural temperatures. This is causing externalities on the environment, such as melting icecaps, shifting

text: biome

text: s and extinction of many

text: aquatic

text: species, through

text: ocean acidification

text: and changing temperatures.

text: Investigating the impacts of anthropogenic activities and climate change in the deep sea is a theme that runs through all HERMIONE research.  To the biological communities on open slopes and in deep basins, seafloor warming through climate change is a major threat.  Up to 85% of methane reservoirs along the continental margin could be destabilised, which would not only release climate-warming methane gas into the atmosphere, but would also have unknown and potentially devastating consequences on benthic communities.  The role of climatic variation on deep-sea benthos is not well understood, although large-scale changes in the structure of seafloor communities have been observed over the last two decades.  The use of long-term, deep-sea observatories, e.g., the Hausgarten deep-sea observatory in the Arctic and the time-series analysis of the Catalan margin and Southern Adriatic Sea, will help HERMIONE scientists to examine recent changes in benthic communities, and to study decadal variability in physical processes, such as the dense shelf water cascading events in submarine canyons.

text: For most of the 20th century only a few regions had been studied and the names were relatively few. Today the geologists of different nations are taking more of an interest in Pleistocene glaciology. As a consequence, the number of names is expanding rapidly and will continue to expand. Many of the advances and stadials remain unnamed. Also, the terrestrial evidence for some of them has been erased or obscured by larger ones, but evidence remains from the study of cyclical climate changes.

text: The Oeschger Centre (OCCR) conducts research on the one hand into the long-term development and dynamics of the climate system and the climate of the present and the future. On the other hand, it investigates the impact of climate change on important land ecosystems as well as on the economy and society. In particular it works on strategies to adapt to the changing climate and to slow down climate change. At the centre of the OCCR's research is the climate system and its interaction with society and the economy.

text: In the past two decades a paradox has arisen between rising awareness about the causes and consequences of climate change and an increasing concern that the issues that surround it represent an intractable problem.Initially, climate change was approached as a global issue, and climate governance sought to address it on the international stage. This took the form of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), beginning with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) in 1992. With the exception of the Kyoto Protocol, international agreements between nations have been largely ineffective in achieving legally binding emissions cuts and with the end of the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period in 2012, starting from 2013 there is no legally binding Global climate regime. This inertia on the international political stage contributed to alternative political narratives that called for more flexible, cost effective and participatory approaches to addressing the multifarious problems of climate change. These narratives relate to the increasing diversity of methods that are being developed and deployed across the field of climate governance.

text: In the past two decades a paradox has arisen between rising awareness about the causes and consequences of

text: climate change

text: and an increasing concern that the issues that surround it represent an intractable problem.Initially, climate change was approached as a global issue, and climate governance sought to address it on the international stage. This took the form of

text: Multilateral Environmental Agreement

text: s (MEAs), beginning with the

text: (UNFCC) in 1992. With the exception of the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: international agreements

text: between nations have been largely ineffective in achieving legally binding emissions cuts and with the end of the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period in 2012, starting from 2013 there is no legally binding

text: Global climate regime

text: . This inertia on the international political stage contributed to alternative political narratives that called for more flexible, cost effective and participatory approaches to addressing the multifarious problems of climate change. These narratives relate to the increasing diversity of methods that are being developed and deployed across the field of climate governance.

text: The Quaternary glaciation, also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age, is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma (million years ago) to present.  During this period, ice sheets expanded, notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland, and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere (for example, the Laurentide ice sheet). The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents, modification of river systems, creation of millions of lakes, changes in sea level, development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins, isostatic adjustment of the crust, and abnormal winds. It affected oceans, flooding, and biological communities. The ice sheets themselves, by raising the albedo, affect a major feedback on climate cooling.

text: The Quaternary glaciation, also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age, is a series of glacial events separated by

text: interglacial

text: events during the

text: Quaternary

text: period from 2.58

text: Ma

text: (million years ago) to present.  During this period,

text: ice sheet

text: s expanded, notably from out of

text: Antarctica

text: and

text: Greenland

text: , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere (for example, the

text: Laurentide ice sheet

text: ). The major effects of the ice age are

text: erosion

text: and

text: deposition

text: of material over large parts of the continents, modification of

text: river systems

text: , creation of millions of

text: lake

text: s, changes in

text: sea level

text: , development of

text: pluvial lake

text: s far from the ice margins,

text: isostatic adjustment

text: of the

text: crust

text: , and abnormal winds. It affected oceans,

text: flood

text: ing, and biological communities. The ice sheets themselves, by raising the

text: albedo

text: , affect a major feedback on

text: climate

text: cooling.

text: Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history. However, with the recent increased emission of CO in the Earth's atmosphere, abrupt climate change has occurred. It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present (Van Hoof 2006).

text: Climate change

text: is a natural event that has occurred throughout history. However, with the recent increased emission of

text: CO

text: in the Earth's atmosphere,

text: abrupt climate change

text: has occurred. It has been hypothesized that

text: anthropogenic

text: greenhouse gas

text: forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000

text: before present

text: (Van Hoof 2006).

text: In a 2008 NASA article on usage, Erik M. Conway defined Global warming as "the increase in Earth’s average surface temperature due to rising levels of greenhouse gases", while Climate change was "a long-term change in the Earth’s climate, or of a region on Earth."  As effects such as changing patterns of rainfall and rising sea levels would probably have more impact than temperatures alone, he considered global climate change a more scientifically accurate term, and like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the NASA website would emphasize this wider context.

text: In a 2008 NASA article on usage,

text: Erik M. Conway

text: defined Global warming as "the increase in Earth’s average surface temperature due to rising levels of greenhouse gases", while Climate change was "a long-term change in the Earth’s climate, or of a region on Earth."  As effects such as changing patterns of rainfall and rising sea levels would probably have more impact than temperatures alone, he considered global climate change a more scientifically accurate term, and like the

text: , the NASA website would emphasize this wider context.

text: A 2007–2008 Gallup Poll surveyed individuals in 128 countries. This poll queried whether the respondent knew of global warming and, for those who were aware of the issue, whether or not they thought it was human-induced. Over a third of the world's population were unaware of global warming, with developing countries less aware than developed, and Africa the least aware. Of those aware, residents of Latin America and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change is a result of human activities while Africa, parts of Asia and the Middle East, and a few countries from the former Soviet Union led in the opposite. Opinion within the United Kingdom was divided.  Opinions in the United States vary intensely enough to be considered a culture war. A Gallup poll in 2014 concluded that 51 percent of Americans were a little or not at all worried about climate change, 24 percent a great deal and 25 percent a fair amount.

text: A 2007–2008

text: Gallup Poll

text: surveyed individuals in 128 countries. This poll queried whether the respondent knew of global warming and, for those who were aware of the issue, whether or not they thought it was

text: human-induced

text: . Over a third of the world's population were unaware of global warming, with developing countries less aware than

text: developed

text: , and Africa the least aware. Of those aware, residents of

text: Latin America

text: and developed countries in Asia led the belief that climate change is a result of human activities while Africa, parts of Asia and the Middle East, and a few countries from the

text: former Soviet Union

text: led in the opposite. Opinion within the United Kingdom was divided.  Opinions in the United States vary intensely enough to be considered a

text: culture war

text: . A Gallup poll in 2014 concluded that 51 percent of Americans were a little or not at all worried about climate change, 24 percent a great deal and 25 percent a fair amount.

text: After the publicity the MBH99 study had been given by the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), the hockey stick controversy developed in which the graph was targeted by those opposing ratification of the Kyoto Protocol on global warming, including Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas. Both were astrophysicists at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics:  Soon had for a long time said that climate change was primarily due to solar variation, while Baliunas had previously been noted for disputing that man-made chemicals (halocarbon refrigerants such as CFCs) were causing ozone depletion. They prepared a literature review which used data from previous papers to argue that the Medieval Warm Period had been warmer than the 20th century, and that recent warming was not unusual. They sent their paper to one of the editors of Climate Research,  Chris de Freitas, an opponent of action to curb carbon dioxide emissions who has been characterized by Fred Pearce as a "climate contrarian".<ref> describes de Freitas as "a man with known sceptical views" and a "climate contrarian" who "was a driving force behind the creation of an early sceptic organisation in Canada, Friends of Science",

text: After the publicity the MBH99 study had been given by the

text: IPCC Third Assessment Report

text: (TAR), the

text: hockey stick controversy

text: developed in which the graph was targeted by those opposing ratification of the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: on global warming, including

text: Willie Soon

text: and

text: Sallie Baliunas

text: . Both were astrophysicists at the

entity_name: Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: :  Soon had for a long time said that climate change was primarily due to

text: solar variation

text: , while Baliunas had previously been noted for disputing that man-made chemicals (

text: halocarbon

text: refrigerants such as

text: CFC

text: s) were causing

text: ozone depletion

text: . They prepared a

text: literature review

text: which used data from previous papers to argue that the Medieval Warm Period had been warmer than the 20th century, and that recent warming was not unusual. They sent their paper to one of the editors of

text: Climate Research

text: Chris de Freitas

text: , an opponent of action to curb carbon dioxide emissions who has been characterized by

text: Fred Pearce

text: as a "climate contrarian".<ref> describes de Freitas as "a man with known sceptical views" and a "climate contrarian" who "was a driving force behind the creation of an early sceptic organisation in Canada,

text: Friends of Science

text: Based on field surveys, a 50% decrease has been observed in the Seychelles terrapins, which include various Pelusios species.  Seychelles is considered a hotspot for biodiversity, as it is one of the most threatened reservoirs of plant life and animal life, as well as one of the richest environments.  The species are endangered due to threat of drainage, predation, and invasion by alien flora, combined with a shrunken living area.  Most habitat destruction is from human population expansion, specifically in the granitic islands due to increased development pressures. Hope for reversal of this trend is evidenced by the rapid population recovery of Pelusios subniger parietalis on Frégate Island after habitat improvement.Global climate change has recently been recognized as one of the largest threats to biodiversity.  This climate change has the ability to change species survival by causing changes in ecosystem structures, yet the effect is heightened in endemic species.  Several reviews undertaken for the study of potential effects of global warming on biodiversity have provided evidence for Africa being the most vulnerable of all continents.  Climate change is likely to be devastating for many species confined to small islands such as Seychelles.  Endemic species such as Pelusios could suffer the worst impact of climate change because of their restricted range and narrow ecological requirements.

text: Based on field surveys, a 50% decrease has been observed in the Seychelles terrapins, which include various Pelusios species.  Seychelles is considered a hotspot for

text: biodiversity

text: , as it is one of the most threatened reservoirs of plant life and animal life, as well as one of the richest environments.  The species are endangered due to threat of

text: drainage

text: predation

text: , and

text: invasion

text: by alien flora, combined with a shrunken living area.  Most

text: habitat destruction

text: is from human population expansion, specifically in the

text: granitic islands

text: due to increased development pressures. Hope for reversal of this trend is evidenced by the rapid population recovery of Pelusios subniger parietalis on

text: Frégate Island

text: after habitat improvement.Global

text: climate change

text: has recently been recognized as one of the largest threats to biodiversity.  This climate change has the ability to change species survival by causing changes in ecosystem structures, yet the effect is heightened in

text: endemic

text: species.  Several reviews undertaken for the study of potential effects of global warming on biodiversity have provided evidence for Africa being the most vulnerable of all continents.  Climate change is likely to be devastating for many species confined to small islands such as Seychelles.  Endemic species such as Pelusios could suffer the worst impact of climate change because of their restricted range and narrow ecological requirements.

text: During the last Ice Age, the most recent peak is known as the Last Glacial Maximum when a vast mammoth steppe stretched from Spain eastwards across Eurasia and over the Bering land bridge into Alaska and the Yukon. The continent of Europe was much colder and drier than it is today, with polar desert in the north and the remainder steppe or tundra. Forest and woodland were almost non-existent except for isolated pockets in the mountain ranges of southern Europe. The Late Pleistocene was characterized by a series of severe and rapid climate oscillations with regional temperature changes of up to 16 °C, which has been correlated with Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions. There is no evidence of megafaunal extinctions at the height of the Last Glacial Maximum, indicating that increasing cold and glaciation were not factors. Multiple events appear to have caused the rapid replacement of one species by one within the same genus, or one population by another within the same species, across a broad area. As some species became extinct, so too did the predators that depended on them. The ancestors of modern humans first reached Europe with their remains dated 43,000-45,000 years BP in Italy and in Britain.

text: During the last

text: Ice Age

text: , the most recent peak is known as the

text: Last Glacial Maximum

text: when a vast

text: mammoth steppe

text: stretched from

text: Spain

text: eastwards across

text: Eurasia

text: and over the

text: Bering land bridge

text: into

text: Alaska

text: and the

text: Yukon

text: . The continent of Europe was much colder and drier than it is today, with polar desert in the north and the remainder

text: steppe

text: or

text: tundra

text: . Forest and woodland were almost non-existent except for isolated pockets in the mountain ranges of southern Europe. The

text: Late Pleistocene

text: was characterized by a series of severe and rapid climate oscillations with regional temperature changes of up to 16 °C, which has been correlated with

text: Pleistocene megafauna

text: l

text: extinction

text: s. There is no evidence of megafaunal extinctions at the height of the

text: Last Glacial Maximum

text: , indicating that increasing cold and glaciation were not factors. Multiple events appear to have caused the rapid replacement of one species by one within the same

text: genus

text: , or one population by another within the same species, across a broad area. As some species became extinct, so too did the predators that depended on them. The ancestors of modern humans first reached Europe with their remains dated 43,000-45,000 years BP in

text: Italy

text: and in

text: Britain

text: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified. In the late 19th century, scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate. Many other theories of climate change were advanced, involving forces from volcanism to solar variation. In the 1960s, the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing. Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols (e.g., "pollution") could have cooling effects as well. During the 1970s, scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint. By the 1990s, as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages, a consensus position formed: greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming. Since the 1990s, scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded. Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations, links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically.  Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

text: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when

text: ice ages

text: and other natural changes in

text: paleoclimate

text: were first suspected and the natural

text: greenhouse effect

text: first identified. In the late 19th century, scientists first argued that human emissions of

text: greenhouse gases

text: could change the

text: climate

text: . Many other theories of climate change were advanced, involving forces from

text: volcanism

text: to

text: solar variation

text: . In the 1960s, the warming effect of

text: carbon dioxide

text: gas became increasingly convincing. Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric

text: aerosols

text: (e.g., "pollution") could have cooling effects as well. During the 1970s, scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint. By the 1990s, as a result of improving fidelity of

text: computer models

text: and observational work confirming the

text: Milankovitch theory

text: of the ice ages, a consensus position formed: greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible

text: global warming

text: . Since the 1990s, scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded. Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations, links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically.  Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the

text: Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds. A physicist by training, his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds. He is best known for his work on radiative forcing, climate sensitivity, contrails and geoengineering. He has contributed heavily to the writing of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports, including acting as a Lead Author for both the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report   and IPCC Fifth Assessment Report.

text: Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the

text: University of Leeds

text: . A physicist by training, his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds. He is best known for his work on

text: radiative forcing

text: climate sensitivity

text: contrails

text: and

text: geoengineering

text: . He has contributed heavily to the writing of

text: reports, including acting as a Lead Author for both the

text: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

text: and

text: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report

text: Broecker's areas of research include Pleistocene geochronology, radiocarbon dating and chemical oceanography, including oceanic mixing based on stable and radioisotope distribution. This includes research on the biogeochemical cycles of the element carbon and on the record of climate change contained in polar ice and ocean sediments.

text: Broecker's areas of research include

text: Pleistocene

text: geochronology

text: radiocarbon dating

text: and

text: chemical oceanography

text: , including oceanic mixing based on

text: stable

text: and

text: radioisotope

text: distribution. This includes research on the

text: biogeochemical cycle

text: s of the element

text: carbon

text: and on the record of

text: climate change

text: contained in

text: polar ice

text: and ocean sediments.

text: The whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages and the landscape is much affected by glaciation. From a geological perspective, the country has three main sub-divisions.

text: The whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice ages

text: and the landscape is much affected by glaciation. From a geological perspective, the country has three main sub-divisions.

text: Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts. Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming (in 2100) to around 2 °C or below, relative to pre-industrial levels. Without mitigation, increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 °C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to, and would increase the risk of negative impacts.

text: Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts. Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming (in 2100) to around 2

text: °C

text: or below, relative to pre-industrial levels. Without mitigation, increased

text: energy demand

text: and extensive use of

text: fossil fuel

text: s might lead to global warming of around 4 °C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to, and would increase the risk of negative impacts.

text: Scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming express varied opinions concerning the cause of global warming. Some say only that it has not yet been ascertained whether humans are the primary cause of global warming; others attribute global warming to natural variation; ocean currents; increased solar activity or cosmic rays. The consensus position is that solar radiation may have increased by 0.12 W/m since 1750, compared to 1.6 W/m for the net anthropogenic forcing. The TAR said, "The combined change in radiative forcing of the two major natural factors (solar variation and volcanic aerosols) is estimated to be negative for the past two, and possibly the past four, decades." The AR4 makes no direct assertions on the recent role of solar forcing, but the previous statement is consistent with the AR4's figure 4.

entity_name: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming

text: Scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming

text: express varied opinions concerning the cause of global warming. Some say only that it has not yet been ascertained whether humans are the primary cause of global warming; others attribute global warming to natural variation;

text: ocean current

text: s; increased

text: solar activity

text: or

text: cosmic ray

text: s. The consensus position is that solar radiation may have increased by 0.12 W/m since 1750, compared to 1.6 W/m for the net anthropogenic forcing. The TAR said, "The combined change in radiative forcing of the two major natural factors (solar variation and volcanic aerosols) is estimated to be negative for the past two, and possibly the past four, decades." The AR4 makes no direct assertions on the recent role of solar forcing, but the previous statement is consistent with the AR4's figure 4.

text: Dallas was also affected subtly by much younger geologic formations deposited by an older, more vigorous Trinity River.  The northern hemisphere Ice age occurred in Pleistocene time, when a continental ice sheet reached as far south as Kansas during the Wisconsin glaciation.  The ice age climate had two effects on the Trinity River: It caused downcutting (few people know that there is a  deep buried canyon beneath the Trinity in Dallas) , and a wetter climate caused much more water to flow in the river. The greater river flow generated great sedimentary river terraces.  From time to time these terrace deposits reveal bones of extinct giant mammals, such as Mastodons and Mammoths . The Pleistocene terraces affected the development of Dallas, providing a rich alluvial soil and a perched aquifer, very useful indeed during the early years.  Downtown Dallas is built on a series of these terraces, rising subtly eastward from the Trinity river.

text: Dallas was also affected subtly by much younger geologic formations deposited by an older, more vigorous Trinity River.  The northern hemisphere

text: Ice age

text: occurred in

text: Pleistocene

text: time, when a

text: continental ice sheet

text: reached as far south as

text: Kansas

text: during the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: .  The ice age climate had two effects on the Trinity River: It caused downcutting (few people know that there is a  deep buried canyon beneath the Trinity in Dallas) , and a wetter climate caused much more water to flow in the river. The greater river flow generated great sedimentary

text: river terrace

text: s.  From time to time these terrace deposits reveal bones of extinct giant mammals, such as

text: Mastodons

text: and

text: Mammoths

text: . The Pleistocene terraces affected the development of Dallas, providing a rich alluvial soil and a perched

text: aquifer

text: , very useful indeed during the early years.

text: Downtown Dallas

text: is built on a series of these terraces, rising subtly eastward from the Trinity river.

text: One of the areas of research for the IFPRI is the effects of climate change on developing countries. Climate change describes a global change in the climate, but this does not mean that all areas of the globe will be affected equally or that they will all experience the same type of climate change. Some areas may become warmer while others may become colder. The IFPRI has conducted studies to model the effects of climate change on developing populations.

text: One of the areas of research for the IFPRI is the effects of

text: climate change

text: on developing countries. Climate change describes a global change in the climate, but this does not mean that all areas of the globe will be affected equally or that they will all experience the same type of climate change. Some areas may become warmer while others may become colder. The IFPRI has conducted studies to model the effects of climate change on developing populations.

text: David John Karoly (born 1956) is an Australian atmospheric scientist. He is an expert in climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

text: David John Karoly (born 1956) is an Australian atmospheric scientist. He is an expert in

text: climate change

text: , stratospheric

text: ozone depletion

text: , and

text: climate variation

text: s due to the

text: El Niño-Southern Oscillation

text: (ENSO).

text: The time from roughly 15,000 to 5,000 BC was a time of transition, and swift and extensive environmental change, as the planet was moving from an Ice age, towards an interstadial (warm period). Sea levels rose dramatically (and are continuing to do so), land that was depressed by glaciers began lifting up again, forests and deserts expanded, and the climate gradually became more modern. In the process of warming up, the planet saw several "cold snaps" and "warm snaps", such as the Older Dryas and the Holocene climatic optimum, as well as heavier precipitation. In addition, the Pleistocene megafauna became extinct due to environmental and evolutionary pressures from the changing climate. This marked the end of the Quaternary extinction event, which was continued into the modern era by humans. The time around 11,700 years ago (9700 BC) is widely considered to be the end of the old age (Pleistocene, Paleolithic, Stone age, Wisconsin Ice Age), and the beginning of the modern world as we know it.

text: The time from roughly 15,000 to 5,000 BC was a time of transition, and swift and extensive environmental change, as the planet was moving from an

text: Ice age

text: , towards an

text: interstadial

text: (warm period).

text: Sea level

text: s rose dramatically (and are

text: continuing to do so

text: ), land that was depressed by glaciers began

text: lifting up again

text: , forests and deserts expanded, and the climate gradually became more modern. In the process of warming up, the planet saw several "cold snaps" and "warm snaps", such as the

text: Older Dryas

text: and the

text: Holocene climatic optimum

text: , as well as heavier precipitation. In addition, the

text: Pleistocene megafauna

text: became extinct due to environmental and

text: evolutionary pressure

text: s from the changing climate. This marked the end of the

text: Quaternary extinction event

text: , which was continued into the modern era

text: by humans

text: . The time around 11,700 years ago (9700 BC) is widely considered to be the end of the old age (

text: Pleistocene

text: Paleolithic

text: Stone age

text: Wisconsin Ice Age

text: ), and the beginning of the modern world as we know it.

text: Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change, the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial, hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate. Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none.

text: Although

text: scientific opinion on climate change

text: is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change, the

text: politics of global warming

text: have been affected by climate change denial, hindering efforts to

text: prevent climate change

text: and

text: adapt to the warming climate

text: . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none.

text: Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of  from fossil fuel use are a major cause of global warming, and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change.

text: Cumulative anthropogenic (i.e., human-emitted) emissions of  from fossil fuel use are a major cause of

text: global warming

text: , and give some indication of which countries have contributed most to human-induced climate change.

text: Also in the middle latitudes, the seasonal climate variations produced by changes in the length of daytime are the most marked, with very distinct periods of cold and heat, and other secondary seasonal changes such as snow and ice in winter that disappear in summer and so on. At high latitudes, it is cold most of the time, with constant snow and ice, so the seasons are less obvious; and in the tropics, it is hot most of the time, with no snow or ice at all, so again the seasons are less obvious.

text: Also in the

text: middle latitudes

text: , the seasonal climate variations produced by changes in the length of daytime are the most marked, with very distinct periods of cold and heat, and other secondary seasonal changes such as snow and ice in winter that disappear in summer and so on. At

text: high latitudes

text: , it is cold most of the time, with constant snow and ice, so the seasons are less obvious; and in the tropics, it is hot most of the time, with no snow or ice at all, so again the seasons are less obvious.

text: In 2011, Hill's research, which had used helioseismography to monitor streams below the surface of the sun, attracted considerable media attention. Although such streams tend to be the "spawning ground" for sunspots, and they had been expected to begin forming in 2008, the study found that these new streams had yet to form. The study in question therefore suggested that the sunspot cycle was going to take longer than expected to reach its next peak, or, according to Hill, might not happen at all. Although Hill and his colleagues refused to discuss the possible effects this weaker solar cycle would have on climate, this was reported on by some media, including the Global Warming Policy Foundation, as evidence that a "mini ice age" was imminent. Hill responded to these reports by telling Reuters that "We have not predicted a Little Ice Age," but rather that "We have predicted something going on with the Sun." In an NSO press release, Hill added that "In my opinion, it is a huge leap from that to an abrupt global cooling, since the connections between solar activity and climate are still very poorly understood. My understanding is that current calculations suggest only a 0.3 degree C decrease from a Maunder-like minimum, too small for an ice age."

text: In 2011, Hill's research, which had used

text: helioseismography

text: to monitor streams below the surface of the sun, attracted considerable media attention. Although such streams tend to be the "spawning ground" for sunspots, and they had been expected to begin forming in 2008, the study found that these new streams had yet to form. The study in question therefore suggested that the

text: sunspot cycle

text: was going to take longer than expected to reach its next peak, or, according to Hill, might not happen at all. Although Hill and his colleagues refused to discuss the possible effects this weaker solar cycle would have on climate, this was reported on by some media, including the

text: Global Warming Policy Foundation

text: , as evidence that a "mini ice age" was imminent. Hill responded to these reports by telling

text: Reuters

text: that "We have not predicted a Little Ice Age," but rather that "We have predicted something going on with the Sun." In an NSO press release, Hill added that "In my opinion, it is a huge leap from that to an abrupt global cooling, since the connections between solar activity and climate are still very poorly understood. My understanding is that current calculations suggest only a 0.3 degree C decrease from a Maunder-like minimum, too small for an

text: ice age

text: Climate change has severe impact on global warming particularly due to its close association with poverty. Since significant portion of the population is concentrated in low-income class, the living environments of developing countries are more vulnerable to climate changes. Especially, damages caused by climate change are the most critical among developing countries where people heavily depend on agriculture and lack sufficient infrastructure.

text: Climate change

text: has severe impact on

text: global warming

text: particularly due to its close association with poverty. Since significant portion of the population is concentrated in low-income class, the living environments of

text: developing countries

text: are more vulnerable to

text: climate change

text: s. Especially, damages caused by

text: climate change

text: are the most critical among

text: developing countries

text: where people heavily depend on agriculture and lack sufficient infrastructure.

text: Reporter Tyler Hamilton calls the book "a stinging critique of how poorly the mainstream media has covered global warming" and says that the book, like Romm's blog, "cuts through the crap in a way no mainstream media outlet has or will."  A review in TreeHugger termed the book "an essential guide to climate, energy, and politics for the blog era."  It continued, "nobody knows the game like Romm – both in terms of ability to interpret and explain the latest science, and in boasting expertise on the politics and policy process that, whether you like it our not, is going to be instrumental in mitigating climate change on a large scale."  Even for readers of Romm's blog, the book "provides an important narrative flow, and condenses everything you need to know about the current state of climate science and politics into a nice, quick read.  While extremely thorough, it may make some beginners' head spin, and it can get combative and wonky in places.  But such is the nature of this beast – climate change should make a beginner's head spin, and as Romm makes clear, addressing it is going to be messy, politically charged, and a daunting battle."  The Environmental Defense Fund review opined, "Straight Up is well-researched, provides insightful political analysis, and showcases compelling data on the economic benefits of climate change solutions."

text: Reporter

text: Tyler Hamilton

text: calls the book "a stinging critique of how poorly the mainstream media has covered global warming" and says that the book, like Romm's blog, "cuts through the crap in a way no mainstream media outlet has or will."  A review in

text: TreeHugger

text: termed the book "an essential guide to climate, energy, and politics for the blog era."  It continued, "nobody knows the game like Romm – both in terms of ability to interpret and explain the latest science, and in boasting expertise on the politics and policy process that, whether you like it our not, is going to be instrumental in mitigating climate change on a large scale."  Even for readers of Romm's blog, the book "provides an important narrative flow, and condenses everything you need to know about the current state of climate science and politics into a nice, quick read.  While extremely thorough, it may make some beginners' head spin, and it can get combative and wonky in places.  But such is the nature of this beast – climate change should make a beginner's head spin, and as Romm makes clear, addressing it is going to be messy, politically charged, and a daunting battle."  The

text: Environmental Defense Fund

text: review opined, "Straight Up is well-researched, provides insightful political analysis, and showcases compelling data on the economic benefits of climate change solutions."

text: With Ellsworth Huntington, Visher’s attention focused more and more on climatological changes and the effect on life on earth. In Climatic Changes, their Nature and Causes (1922) the authors claimed that changes in solar activity has had significant effects on earth’s climate. They also speculated that this was a chief (or at least important) driver of evolution (J. Fleming, 1998, 105). For instance, they speculated that dynamic solar activity ‘may be regarded as the great terrestrial contribution to the climatic environment which guides the development of life’ (Huntington and Visher 1922, 240).

text: Scientific understanding of global warming is increasing. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported in 2014 that scientists were more than 95% certain that global warming is mostly being caused by human (anthropogenic) activities, mainly increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases such as methane and carbon dioxide (CO).  Human activities have led to carbon dioxide concentrations above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years. Methane and other, often much more potent, greenhouse gases are also rising along with CO. Currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere. The rest is absorbed by vegetation and the oceans. Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further  for their lowest emissions scenario and  for the highest emissions scenario. These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing.

text: Scientific understanding of global warming

text: is increasing. The

text: (IPCC)

text: reported in 2014

text: that scientists were more than 95% certain that global warming is mostly being caused by

text: human (anthropogenic) activities

text: , mainly increasing concentrations of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es such as

text: methane

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO).  Human activities have led to

text: carbon dioxide

text: concentrations

text: above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years. Methane and other, often much more potent, greenhouse gases are also rising along with CO. Currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere. The rest is absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.

text: Climate model

text: projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further  for their lowest

text: emissions scenario

text: and  for the highest emissions scenario. These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing.

text: According to Plimer, he wrote Heaven and Earth after being "incensed by increasing public acceptance of the idea that humans have caused global warming" and set out to "knock out every single argument we hear about climate change." Although he does not dispute that climate change is happening, he argues that "It's got nothing to do with the atmosphere, it's about what happens in the galaxy" and that climate is driven by the sun, the Earth's orbit and plate tectonics rather than the levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Plimer says his book is for the "average punter in the street" who can "smell something is wrong in the climate debate but can't put a finger on what."

text: According to Plimer, he wrote Heaven and Earth after being "incensed by increasing public acceptance of the idea that humans have caused global warming" and set out to "knock out every single argument we hear about climate change." Although he does not dispute that climate change is happening, he argues that "It's got nothing to do with the atmosphere, it's about what happens in the galaxy" and that climate is driven by the sun, the Earth's orbit and plate tectonics rather than the levels of atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: . Plimer says his book is for the "average punter in the street" who can "smell something is wrong in the climate debate but can't put a finger on what."

text: Adults in Asia, with the exception of those in developed countries, are the least likely to perceive global warming as a threat. In the western world, individuals are the most likely to be aware and perceive it as a very or somewhat serious threat to themselves and their families; although Europeans are more concerned about climate change than those in the United States. However, the public in Africa, where individuals are the most vulnerable to global warming while producing the least carbon dioxide, is the least aware – which translates into a low perception that it is a threat.

text: At the time of the 2008 United Nations Climate Change conference, over 650 international scientists expressed doubt regarding the claims made about global climate change by scientists representing the UN, who have published papers providing evidence of climate change, such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007 Summary for Policymakers. Arguments exist over how sensitive our climate is to increasing levels of Carbon Dioxide. According to the International Policy Network (IPN), debates exist over Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPNN) claims' on climate change and how realistic these situations are.

text: There have been five known ice ages in the Earth's history, with the Earth experiencing the Quaternary Ice Age during the present time.  Within ice ages, there exist periods of  more severe glacial conditions and more temperate referred to as glacial periods and interglacial periods, respectively.  The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary Ice Age, with the last glacial period of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago with the start of the Holocene epoch. Based on climate proxies, paleoclimatologists study the different climate states originating from glaciation.

text: There have been five known

text: ice age

text: s in the Earth's history, with the Earth experiencing the

text: Quaternary Ice Age

text: during the present time.  Within ice ages, there exist periods of  more severe glacial conditions and more temperate referred to as

text: glacial period

text: s and

text: interglacial period

text: s, respectively.  The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary Ice Age, with the

text: last glacial period

text: of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago with the start of the

text: Holocene

text: epoch. Based on

text: climate proxies

text: paleoclimatologists

text: study the different

text: climate state

text: s originating from glaciation.

text: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming. The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide.  When the global temperature changes, the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth. In particular, land areas change more quickly than oceans, and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics, and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores.

text: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to

text: global warming

text: . The world average temperature is rising due to the

text: greenhouse effect

text: caused by increasing levels of

text: greenhouse gases

text: , especially

text: carbon dioxide

text: .  When the global temperature changes, the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the

text: Earth

text: . In particular, land areas change more quickly than oceans, and northern high

text: latitudes

text: change more quickly than the

text: tropics

text: , and the margins of

text: biome

text: regions change faster than do their cores.

text: The drainage system in the area was rearranged and steepened, causing streams to downcut faster and sometimes change course. Wetter times during the ice ages of the Pleistocene increased the rate of erosion.

text: The drainage system in the area was rearranged and steepened, causing streams to

text: downcut

text: faster and sometimes change course. Wetter times during the

text: ice age

text: s of the

text: Pleistocene

text: increased the rate of erosion.

text: The climate across the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg or formerly the K–T boundary) is very important to geologic time as it marks a catastrophic global extinction event. Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an asteroid known as the Chicxulub asteroid, volcanism, or sea level changes. While the mass extinction is well documented, there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event. The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known, which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in biodiversity that occurred before the Chicxulub crater impact. Oxygen isotopes across the K–T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the Late Cretaceous and through the boundary itself. Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K–T boundary suggest rapid, repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction, and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary, indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction. The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate, direct consequences of the impact.<ref>Cowen, Richard. "THE K-T EXTINCTION." The KT Extinction. University of Berkeley, California, June–July 1999. Web. 10 Nov. 2012.

text: The climate across the

text: Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary

text: (K–Pg or formerly the K–T boundary) is very important to

text: geologic time

text: as it marks a catastrophic global

text: extinction event

text: . Numerous theories have been proposed as to why this extinction event happened including an

text: asteroid

text: known as the Chicxulub asteroid,

text: volcanism

text: , or sea level changes. While the mass extinction is well documented, there is much debate about the immediate and long-term climatic and environmental changes caused by the event. The terrestrial climates at this time are poorly known, which limits the understanding of environmentally driven changes in

text: biodiversity

text: that occurred before the

text: Chicxulub crater

text: impact.

text: Oxygen isotope

text: s across the K–T boundary suggest that oceanic temperatures fluctuated in the

text: Late Cretaceous

text: and through the boundary itself. Carbon isotope measurements of benthic foramifinera at the K–T boundary suggest rapid, repeated fluctuations in oceanic productivity in the 3 million years before the final extinction, and that productivity and ocean circulation ended abruptly for at least tens of thousands of years just after the boundary, indicating devastation of terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Some researchers suggest that climate change is the main connection between the impact and the extinction. The impact perturbed the climate system with long-term effects that were much worse than the immediate, direct consequences of the impact.<ref>Cowen, Richard. "THE K-T EXTINCTION." The KT Extinction. University of Berkeley, California, June–July 1999. Web. 10 Nov. 2012.

text: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe. This includes the climate politics, contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe.

text: Climate change in Europe describes the

text: climate change

text: related issues in

text: Europe

text: . This includes the climate politics, contribution in the

text: global warming

text: and the influence of the global warming in Europe.

text: In his article published in The Sunday Telegraph in 2015, Berry argued that climate change "has more to do with the violent outbursts of energy that our solar system meets on its eternal passage through the Milky Way" than on the "fashionable theory of climate change caused by carbon dioxide" which "is contradicted by all the geological evidence." Berry served on the advisory committee of the Global Warming Policy Foundation (GWPF)—a think tank that promotes climate-change denial and warns against the "extremely damaging and harmful policies" proposed by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming.

text: In his article published in

text: The Sunday Telegraph

text: in 2015, Berry argued that

text: climate change

text: "has more to do with the violent outbursts of energy that our solar system meets on its eternal passage through the Milky Way" than on the "fashionable theory of climate change caused by carbon dioxide" which "is contradicted by all the geological evidence." Berry served on the advisory committee of the

text: Global Warming Policy Foundation

text: (GWPF)—a

text: think tank

text: that promotes

text: climate-change denial

text: and warns against the "extremely damaging and harmful policies" proposed by governments to

text: mitigate

text: anthropogenic

text: global warming

text: Another line of evidence against the sun having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed.Models and observations (see figure above, middle) show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the lower atmosphere at the surface (called the troposphere) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the stratosphere). Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants has also resulted in a cooling effect in the stratosphere. If the sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as increase solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen. The stratosphere has a reverse temperature gradient than the troposphere so as the temperature of the troposphere cools with altitude, the stratosphere rises with altitude. Hadley cells are the mechanism by which equatorial generated ozone in the tropics (highest area of UV irradiance in the stratosphere) is moved poleward. Global climate models suggest that climate change may widen the Hadley cells and push the jetstream northward thereby expanding the tropics region and resulting in warmer, dryer conditions in those areas overall.

text: Another line of evidence against the sun having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed.Models and observations (see figure above, middle) show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the lower atmosphere at the surface (called the

text: troposphere

text: ) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the

text: stratosphere

text: Depletion

text: of the

text: ozone layer

text: by chemical

text: refrigerant

text: s has also resulted in a cooling effect in the stratosphere. If the sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as increase solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen. The stratosphere has a reverse temperature gradient than the troposphere so as the temperature of the troposphere cools with altitude, the stratosphere rises with altitude.

text: Hadley cells

text: are the mechanism by which equatorial generated ozone in the tropics (highest area of UV irradiance in the stratosphere) is moved poleward. Global climate models suggest that climate change may widen the Hadley cells and push the jetstream northward thereby expanding the tropics region and resulting in warmer, dryer conditions in those areas overall.

text: In the late 19th century scientists experimentally discovered that  and  do not absorb infrared radiation (called, at that time, "dark radiation"), while water (both as true vapor and condensed in the form of microscopic droplets suspended in clouds) and  and other poly-atomic gaseous molecules do absorb infrared radiation. In the early 20th century researchers realized that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere made Earth's overall temperature higher than it would be without them. During the late 20th century, a scientific consensus evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system, with consequences for the environment and for human health.

text: In the late 19th century scientists experimentally discovered that  and  do not absorb infrared radiation (called, at that time, "dark radiation"), while water (both as true vapor and condensed in the form of microscopic droplets suspended in clouds) and  and other poly-atomic gaseous molecules do absorb infrared radiation. In the early 20th century researchers realized that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere made Earth's overall temperature higher than it would be without them. During the late 20th century, a

text: scientific consensus

text: evolved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause a substantial rise in global temperatures and changes to other parts of the climate system, with

text: consequences

text: for the

text: environment

text: and for

entity_name: Effects of global warming on human health

text: human health

text: Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places. It is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earth's surface was covered by ice. In addition, a zone of permafrost stretched southward from the edge of the glacial sheet, a few hundred kilometres in North America, and several hundred in Eurasia. The mean annual temperature at the edge of the ice was ; at the edge of the permafrost, .

text: Pleistocene climate was marked by repeated glacial cycles in which

text: continental glacier

text: s pushed to the 40th

text: parallel

text: in some places. It is estimated that, at maximum glacial extent, 30% of the Earth's surface was covered by ice. In addition, a zone of

text: permafrost

text: stretched southward from the edge of the glacial sheet, a few hundred kilometres in

text: North America

text: , and several hundred in

text: Eurasia

text: . The mean annual temperature at the edge of the ice was ; at the edge of the permafrost, .

text: According to NCAR senior climatologist Kevin E. Trenberth, "The answer to the oft-asked question of whether an event is caused by climate change is that it is the wrong question. All weather events are affected by climate change because the environment in which they occur is warmer and moister than it used to be." Although NOAA meteorologist Martin Hoerling attributes Sandy to "little more than the coincidental alignment of a tropical storm with an extratropical storm", Trenberth does agree that the storm was caused by "natural variability" but adds that it was "enhanced by global warming". One factor contributing to the storm's strength was abnormally warm sea surface temperatures offshore the East Coast of the United States—more than  above normal, to which global warming had contributed . As the temperature of the atmosphere increases, the capacity to hold water increases, leading to stronger storms and higher rainfall amounts.

text: According to

text: NCAR

text: senior climatologist

text: Kevin E. Trenberth

text: , "The answer to the oft-asked question of whether an event is caused by

text: climate change

text: is that it is the wrong question. All weather events are affected by climate change because the environment in which they occur is warmer and moister than it used to be." Although

text: NOAA

text: meteorologist Martin Hoerling attributes Sandy to "little more than the coincidental alignment of a tropical storm with an extratropical storm", Trenberth does agree that the storm was caused by "natural variability" but adds that it was "enhanced by global warming". One factor contributing to the storm's strength was abnormally warm

text: sea surface temperatures

text: offshore the

text: East Coast of the United States

text: —more than  above normal, to which global warming had contributed . As the temperature of the atmosphere increases, the capacity to hold water increases, leading to stronger storms and higher rainfall amounts.

text: Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record, whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations, and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it. Scientists have resolved many of these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing, that human activity is the cause, and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years. Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases (climate sensitivity), how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales, and what the consequences of global warming will be.

text: Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the

text: instrumental temperature record

text: , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations, and whether

text: human activities have contributed significantly to it

text: . Scientists have resolved many of these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing, that human activity is the cause, and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years. Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases (

text: climate sensitivity

text: ), how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales, and what the

text: consequences of global warming

text: will be.

text: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing, and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state. Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity, and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first. Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it.

text: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of

text: global warming

text: because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each

text: climate forcing

text: , and so play an important part in determining the

text: climate sensitivity

text: and future

text: climate state

text: Feedback

text: in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity, and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first.

text: Positive feedback

text: amplifies the change in the first quantity while

text: negative feedback

text: reduces it.

text: The Heartland Institute opposes the scientific consensus on climate change, but does not dispute that climate change itself is occurring. Rather, it says that human activities are not driving climate change, the amount of climate change is not catastrophic, and might be beneficial, and that the economic costs of trying to mitigate climate change exceed the benefits. According to the New York Times, Heartland is "the primary American organization pushing climate change skepticism." Heartland uses a characterization from The Economist, "the world’s most prominent think tank promoting skepticism about man-made climate change” as a banner on the main page of the environmental section of their website.

text: The Heartland Institute opposes the

text: scientific consensus on climate change

text: , but does not dispute that climate change itself is occurring. Rather, it says that human activities are not driving climate change, the amount of climate change is not catastrophic, and

text: might be beneficial

text: , and that the economic costs of trying to mitigate climate change exceed the benefits. According to the

text: New York Times

text: , Heartland is "the primary American organization pushing climate change skepticism." Heartland uses a characterization from The Economist, "the world’s most prominent think tank promoting skepticism about man-made climate change” as a banner on the main page of the environmental section of their website.

text: The Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009.  Toward the end of that period, CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations, changes in the atmosphere, expected climate change, impacts and adaptation, and risk management issues.  Shortly after President Obama took office, the program's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) which was also the program's name before 2002.  Nevertheless, the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy. Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and in some cases focused specifically on the United States, they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration.

text: The Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on

text: global warming

text: by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009.  Toward the end of that period, CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed

entity_section: Observations and causes of climate change

text: climate observations

text: , changes in the atmosphere, expected climate change,

text: impacts and adaptation

text: , and risk management issues.  Shortly after President Obama took office, the program's name was changed to U.S.

text: Global Change Research Program

text: (USGCRP) which was also the program's name before 2002.  Nevertheless, the

text: Obama Administration

text: generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy. Because those reports were mostly issued after the

text: Fourth Assessment Report

text: of the

text: (IPCC), and in some cases focused specifically on the United States, they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration.

text: Climate Change by NOOR is a long-term group project that focuses on two issues. The first, ‘Consequences by NOOR’ is an eyewitness record of the devastating effects of climate change around the globe. Produced in the autumn of 2009, these visual reportages show not ‘what might happen’ in the future but what is happening right now, emphasizing the urgency of addressing the issues at stake.

text: Climate Change

text: by NOOR is a long-term group project that focuses on two issues. The first, ‘Consequences by NOOR’ is an eyewitness record of the devastating effects of climate change around the globe. Produced in the autumn of 2009, these visual reportages show not ‘what might happen’ in the future but what is happening right now, emphasizing the urgency of addressing the issues at stake.

text: The inhomogeneities are not always errors. This is seen most clear for stations affected by warming due to the urban heat island effect. From the perspective of global warming, such local effects are undesirable, but to study the influence of climate on health such measurements are fine. Other inhomogeneities are due to compromises that have to be made been ventilation and protection against the sun and wetting in the design of a weather shelter. Trying to reduce one type of error (for a certain weather condition) in the design will often lead to the more errors from the other factors. Meteorological measurements are not made in the laboratory. Small errors are inevitable and may not be relevant for meteorological purposes, but if such an error changes, it may well be an inhomogeneity for climatology.

text: During the ice ages of the Pleistocene, a clear correlation existed between marine regressions and episodes of glaciation; as the balance shifts between the global cryosphere and hydrosphere, more of the planet's water in ice sheets means less in the oceans. At the height of the last ice age, at around 18,000 years before the present, the global sea level was 120 to 130 m (390-425 ft) lower than today. A cold spell around 6 million years ago was linked to an advance in glaciation, a marine regression, and the start of the Messinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean basin. Some major regressions of the past, however, seem unrelated to glaciation episodes — the regression that accompanied the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period being one example.

text: During the

text: ice age

text: s of the

text: Pleistocene

text: , a clear correlation existed between marine regressions and episodes of

text: glaciation

text: ; as the balance shifts between the global

text: cryosphere

text: and

text: hydrosphere

text: , more of the planet's water in ice sheets means less in the oceans. At the height of the last ice age, at around 18,000 years before the present, the global sea level was 120 to 130 m (390-425 ft) lower than today. A cold spell around 6 million years ago was linked to an advance in glaciation, a marine regression, and the start of the

text: Messinian salinity crisis

text: in the

text: Mediterranean

text: basin. Some major regressions of the past, however, seem unrelated to glaciation episodes — the regression that accompanied the mass extinction at the end of the

text: Cretaceous Period

text: being one example.

text: Environmental changes such as deforestation could increase local temperatures in the highlands thus could enhance the vectorial capacity of the anopheles. Anopheles mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of a number of diseases in the world, such as, malaria, lymphatic filariasis and viruses that can cause such ailments, like the O'nyong'nyong virus.Environmental changes, climate variability, and climate change are such factors that could affect biology and ecology of Anophelse vectors and their disease transmission potential. Climate change is expected to lead to latitudinal and altitudinal temperature increases. Global warming projections indicate that the best estimate of surface air warming for a “high scenario” is 4 C, with a likely range of 2.4-6.4 C by 2100.A temperature increase of this size would alter the biology and the ecology of many mosquito vectors and the dynamics of the diseases they transmit such as malaria. Arthropods critically depend on ambient temperature for survival and development, and their distribution range is limited by the temperature. Climate warming or any factor that alters the microclimate conditions of Anopheles mosquitoes (e.g., deforestation) in the highlands may facilitate the persistence of the mosquito population. Climate warming can mediate mosquito physiology and metabolic rate because metabolic rate increases exponentially rather than linearly with temperature ectotherms. Anopheles mosquitoes in highland areas are to experience a larger shift in their metabolic rate due to the climate change. This climate change is due to the deforestation in the highland areas where these mosquitoes dwell. When temperature rises, the larvae take a shorter time to mature  and, consequently, there is a greater capacity to produce more offspring. Microclimatic changes in human homes caused by the effects of deforestation can also significantly shorten the duration of the mosquitoes' gonotrophic cycle by 1.7 days (4.6 vs 2.9 days) The gonotrophic cycle is the period between the taking of a blood meal by a mosquito, including the digestion of the blood meal, until oviposition or egg laying. The decrease of the gonotrophic cycles implies an increase of the biting frequency from an average of once every five days to once every three days. In turn this could potentially lead to an increase in malaria transmission when infected humans are available.

text: Environmental changes such as deforestation could increase local temperatures in the highlands thus could enhance the vectorial capacity of the

text: anopheles

text: Anopheles

text: mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of a number of diseases in the world, such as,

text: malaria

text: lymphatic filariasis

text: and viruses that can cause such ailments, like the

text: O'nyong'nyong virus

text: .Environmental changes,

text: climate variability

text: , and climate change are such factors that could affect biology and ecology of Anophelse

text: vectors

text: and their

text: disease transmission

text: potential. Climate change is expected to lead to latitudinal and altitudinal temperature increases. Global warming projections indicate that the best estimate of surface air warming for a “high scenario” is 4 C, with a likely range of 2.4-6.4 C by 2100.A temperature increase of this size would alter the biology and the ecology of many mosquito vectors and the dynamics of the diseases they transmit such as malaria. Arthropods critically depend on ambient temperature for survival and development, and their distribution range is limited by the temperature. Climate warming or any factor that alters the

text: microclimate

text: conditions of Anopheles mosquitoes (e.g., deforestation) in the highlands may facilitate the persistence of the mosquito population. Climate warming can mediate mosquito

text: physiology

text: and

text: metabolic rate

text: because metabolic rate increases exponentially rather than linearly with temperature

text: ectotherms

text: . Anopheles mosquitoes in highland areas are to experience a larger shift in their metabolic rate due to the climate change. This climate change is due to the deforestation in the highland areas where these mosquitoes dwell. When temperature rises, the

text: larvae

text: take a shorter time to mature  and, consequently, there is a greater capacity to produce more offspring. Microclimatic changes in human homes caused by the effects of deforestation can also significantly shorten the duration of the mosquitoes' gonotrophic cycle by 1.7 days (4.6 vs 2.9 days) The gonotrophic cycle is the period between the taking of a blood meal by a mosquito, including the digestion of the blood meal, until

text: oviposition

text: or egg laying. The decrease of the gonotrophic cycles implies an increase of the biting frequency from an average of once every five days to once every three days. In turn this could potentially lead to an increase in malaria transmission when infected humans are available.

text: The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world, who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health, wealth and other factors, and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change. A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009, estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $125 billion in economic losses each year, and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries. This also raises questions of climate justice, since the 50 least developed countries of the world account for not more than 1% of worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases.

text: The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world, who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health,

text: wealth

text: and other factors, and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change. A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the

text: Global Humanitarian Forum

text: in 2009, estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $125 billion in economic losses each year, and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in

text: developing countries

text: . This also raises questions of

text: climate justice

text: , since the 50 least developed countries of the world account for not more than 1% of worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases.

text: Mark Urban has contributed to our understanding of climate change effects on species and communities. He described the biotic multipliers of climate change, which are species both sensitive to climate change and with disproportionate effects on communities and ecosystems. These species are often top predators, and should be the ones to study first because they might have the greatest effects on other species. He also helped develop the boxcar effect, whereby species in cooler regions prevent species in warmer regions from tracking their preferred thermal environment through competition. Urban also showed that only evolution might be able to protect all diversity from climate change effects. He recently found that the extinction risk from global warming not only increases with warmer temperatures, but actually accelerates. His work suggests that if we follow a business-as-usual emissions climate change scenario, then 1 in 6 species could become threatened with extinction from climate change. He has suggested that we still know too little about how climate change is affecting nature and need renewed efforts to predict and mediate its effects.

text: Mark Urban has contributed to our understanding of climate change effects on species and communities. He described the biotic multipliers of climate change, which are species both sensitive to climate change and with disproportionate effects on communities and ecosystems. These species are often top predators, and should be the ones to study first because they might have the greatest effects on other species. He also helped develop the boxcar effect, whereby species in cooler regions prevent species in warmer regions from tracking their preferred thermal environment through competition. Urban also showed that only evolution might be able to protect all diversity from climate change effects. He recently found that the

text: extinction risk from global warming

text: not only increases with warmer temperatures, but actually accelerates. His work suggests that if we follow a business-as-usual emissions

text: climate change scenario

text: , then 1 in 6 species could become threatened with extinction from climate change. He has suggested that we still know too little about how climate change is affecting nature and need renewed efforts to predict and mediate its effects.

text: Fatima Denton writes about topics including renewable energy, sustainable development, climate change, gender and climate change, climate change adaptation,  vulnerability,  food security and water and energy poverty.   She is a lead author for Working Group II's Fifth Assessment of the  Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and for the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN). She has served on a number of scientific committees including the Independent Science Panel (ISP) of the CGIAR Climate Change and Food Security Programme (CCAFS).

text: Fatima Denton writes about topics including

text: renewable energy

text: sustainable development

text: climate change

text: gender

text: and climate change,

text: climate change adaptation

text: vulnerability

text: food security

text: and water and

text: energy poverty

text: .   She is a lead author for Working Group II's Fifth Assessment of the

text: (IPCC), and for the IPCC Special Report on

entity_name: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation

text: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation

text: (SRREN). She has served on a number of scientific committees including the Independent Science Panel (ISP) of the

text: CGIAR

text: Climate Change and Food Security Programme (CCAFS).

text: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has published several major assessments on the effects of global warming. Its most recent comprehensive impact assessment was published in 2014. Publications describing the effects of climate change have also been produced by the following organizations:

text: The

text: (IPCC) has published several major assessments on the effects of global warming. Its most recent comprehensive impact assessment was published in 2014. Publications describing the effects of climate change have also been produced by the following organizations:

text: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter, reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming. Along with stratospheric aerosol injection, it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact.The intention is that increasing the Earth's albedo, in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction, carbon dioxide removal, and adaptation, would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment. If implemented, the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales. However, technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening. There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems.

text: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed

text: solar radiation management

text: climate engineering

text: technique that would make

text: cloud

text: s brighter, reflecting a small fraction of

text: incoming sunlight

text: back into space in order to offset

text: anthropogenic global warming

text: . Along with

entity_name: Stratospheric sulfate aerosols (geoengineering)

text: stratospheric aerosol injection

text: , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact.The intention is that increasing the Earth's

text: albedo

text: , in combination with

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions reduction

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: , and

text: adaptation

text: , would reduce climate change and its

text: risks to people and the environment

text: . If implemented, the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales. However, technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening. There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems.

text: The levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases have increased dramatically since the late 19th century. Until the late 1970s, scientists were unable to determine to what degree human behavior contributed to the increase in greenhouse gases. However, since then, scientists have recognized that the Earth is unable to dispose of the increasing levels of carbon dioxide naturally through the carbon cycle.  As a result, excessive levels of carbon dioxide trap heat in the earth's atmosphere and cause global warming.  The global warming of the earth's surface creates climate change that affects humans in a variety of ways, including: the melting of polar ice caps, increasing sea levels, droughts, storms, and floods.

text: The levels of

text: carbon dioxide

text: and other

text: greenhouse gases

text: have increased dramatically since the late 19th century. Until the late 1970s, scientists were unable to determine to what degree human behavior contributed to the increase in greenhouse gases. However, since then, scientists have recognized that the Earth is unable to dispose of the increasing levels of

text: carbon dioxide

text: naturally through the

text: carbon cycle

text: .  As a result, excessive levels of

text: carbon dioxide

text: trap heat in the earth's atmosphere and cause

text: global warming

text: .  The global warming of the earth's surface creates climate change that affects humans in a variety of ways, including: the melting of polar ice caps, increasing sea levels, droughts, storms, and floods.

text: Adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change, that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming. Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon, global warming and its effects will last many years, and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate. Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming. That is, the capacity and potential for humans to adapt (called adaptive capacity) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations, and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt (Schneider et al., 2007). Furthermore, the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues. Therefore, adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts. Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development (IPCC, 2007). The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades, though the amount of money needed is unknown. Donor countries promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún, concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming. The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change.

text: Adaptation is a response to

text: global warming

text: and

text: climate change

text: , that seeks to reduce the

text: vulnerability

text: of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the

text: effects of global warming

text: . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon, global warming and its effects will last many years, and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate. Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming. That is, the capacity and potential for humans to adapt (called

text: adaptive capacity

text: ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations, and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt (

text: Schneider

text: et al., 2007). Furthermore, the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues. Therefore, adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts. Adaptive capacity is closely linked to

text: social

text: and

text: economic development

text: (IPCC, 2007). The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades, though the amount of money needed is unknown. Donor countries promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the

text: Green Climate Fund

text: for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, while the fund was set up during

text: COP16 in Cancún

text: , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming. The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change.

text: According to a survey conducted IPCC WGI Co-Chairs and Technical Support Unit (TSU) on April 25, 2014, many of the polled authors stated that they saw the need for a better gender balance. This is reflected in the gender balance of contributors to the fifth IPCC assessment report. Only 27% of contributors to Working Group II, concerned with impacts, adaptation and vulnerability and 18,5% of contributors of Working Group I, concerned with the physical science basis, are female. This also applies to other organisation, as for example only 7% of leadership positions in the offices of National Weather Services are women. On a similar note, a study conducted by the University of Oxford in cooperation with the Nielsen Company found that 18 of the 22 ‘most influential spokespeople on climate change’ are male. Female spokespeople were neither politicians nor scientists and their direct connection to climate change is therefore doubtful. A list of prominent women scientists is available at Women in climate change.Some feminist scholars hold that the debate on climate change is not only dominated by men but also primarily shaped in ‘masculine’ principles, which limits discussions about climate change to a perspective that focuses on technical solutions. This perception of climate change hides subjectivity and power relations that actually condition climate change policy and science, leading to a phenomenon that Tuana terms ‘epistemic injustice’.Similarly, MacGregor criticizes the scientific discourse from a less quantitative perspective but focusses on discursive aspects. She attests that by framing climate change as an issue of ‘hard’ natural scientific conduct and natural security, it is kept within the traditional domains of hegemonic masculinity. Seager maintains that the 2 °C aim, which is a reoccurring topic in the climate change debate, is not, as often assumed, a safe goal for all people on the planet. Rather it will ensure the stability of a patriarchal capitalism and subsequently the continuity of power for those who are powerful today.

text: According to a survey conducted IPCC WGI Co-Chairs and Technical Support Unit (TSU) on April 25, 2014, many of the polled authors stated that they saw the need for a better gender balance. This is reflected in the gender balance of contributors to the fifth IPCC assessment report. Only 27% of contributors to Working Group II, concerned with impacts, adaptation and vulnerability and 18,5% of contributors of Working Group I, concerned with the physical science basis, are female. This also applies to other organisation, as for example only 7% of leadership positions in the offices of National Weather Services are women. On a similar note, a study conducted by the University of Oxford in cooperation with the Nielsen Company found that 18 of the 22 ‘most influential spokespeople on climate change’ are male. Female spokespeople were neither politicians nor scientists and their direct connection to climate change is therefore doubtful. A list of prominent women scientists is available at

text: Women in climate change

text: .Some feminist scholars hold that the debate on climate change is not only dominated by men but also primarily shaped in ‘masculine’ principles, which limits discussions about climate change to a perspective that focuses on technical solutions. This perception of climate change hides subjectivity and power relations that actually condition climate change policy and science, leading to a phenomenon that Tuana terms ‘epistemic injustice’.Similarly, MacGregor criticizes the scientific discourse from a less quantitative perspective but focusses on discursive aspects. She attests that by framing climate change as an issue of ‘hard’ natural scientific conduct and natural security, it is kept within the traditional domains of hegemonic masculinity. Seager maintains that the 2 °C aim, which is a reoccurring topic in the climate change debate, is not, as often assumed, a safe goal for all people on the planet. Rather it will ensure the stability of a patriarchal capitalism and subsequently the continuity of power for those who are powerful today.

text: Small changes caused by global warming, such as a longer growing season, a more temperate climate and increased  concentrations, may benefit Australian crop agriculture and forestry in the short term. However, such benefits are unlikely to be sustained with increasingly severe effects of global warming. Changes in precipitation and consequent water management problems will further exacerbate Australia's current water availability and quality challenges, both for commercial and residential use.

text: Small changes caused by

text: global warming

text: , such as a longer growing season, a more temperate climate and increased  concentrations, may benefit Australian crop agriculture and forestry in the short term. However, such benefits are unlikely to be sustained with increasingly severe effects of global warming. Changes in precipitation and consequent water management problems will further exacerbate Australia's current water availability and quality challenges, both for commercial and residential use.

text: Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue, rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature. This is done by relating  the effects of climate change to concepts of justice, particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality, human rights, collective rights, and the historical responsibilities for climate change. A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences.Occasionally, the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues.

text: Climate justice is a term used for framing

text: global warming

text: as an

text: ethical

text: and

text: political

text: issue, rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature. This is done by relating  the effects of

text: climate change

text: to concepts of

text: justice

text: , particularly

text: environmental justice

text: and

text: social justice

text: and by examining issues such as

text: equality

text: human rights

text: collective rights

text: , and the historical responsibilities for

text: climate change

text: . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences.Occasionally, the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues.

text: In 1988, the same year as the United Nations established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the Fourth Labour Government of New Zealand started developing policy for climate change. This was coordinated between agencies by the Ministry for the Environment. The Government asked the Royal Society of New Zealand to report on the scientific basis of climate change. A short report, 'Climate Change in New Zealand', was published in 1988 and the full report 'New Zealand Climate Report 1990' was published in 1989.

text: In 1988, the same year as the United Nations established the

text: , the

text: Fourth Labour Government of New Zealand

text: started developing policy for climate change. This was coordinated between agencies by the

entity_name: Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand)

text: Ministry for the Environment

text: . The Government asked the

text: Royal Society of New Zealand

text: to report on the scientific basis of climate change. A short report, 'Climate Change in New Zealand', was published in 1988 and the full report 'New Zealand Climate Report 1990' was published in 1989.

text: Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks, which contribute directly to further global warming. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report states that "Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible, depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change."

text: Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks, which contribute directly to further global warming. The

text: 's (IPCC)

text: Fourth Assessment Report

text: states that "Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible, depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change."

text: McGregor's research focuses on paleoclimate, using fossilised coral to provide information on the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) system. Her research on ENSO and its impacts on climate have contributed to understanding how climate change will impact Australia and the world.

text: While Grove does support increasing evidence of human activity is causing global warming, he sees definite and conclusive evidence in the field of climate change as almost an impossibility. Nevertheless, his consideration of the problem in his 2010 paper leads him to the conclusion that despite this inherent uncertainty, the evidence that human activity is causing global warming is substantial, and that it is therefore 'safer to act, to mitigate and adapt with the aim of slowing down change'. In his work about Mediterranean Europe he doubts the common wisdom of a 'Lost Eden,' a formerly fertile region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement.  The simplistic, environmental determinist notion of an Mediterranean Paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by destructive later civilizations dates however back to at least the eighteenth century and was fashionable in archaeological and historical circles for centuries. However the authors argue that this believe stems from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past as idealized by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern Enlightenment. Grove and Rackham tried to track the evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times till present and point out that climate has usually been unstable and plant cover accommodated to various extremes and became resilient with regard to various patterns of human activity. The authors assume that people had already transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe 4,000 years ago and the “humanization of the landscape” overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean climate. In so far humanization was not the cause of climate change. To the contrary, the wide ecological diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe was man made. The greatest human induced changes came since World War II as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies and left the traditional agricultural patterns towards setting sceneries for travelers, which resulted in more monotonous, large-scale formations. As real threats to Mediterranean landscapes they see the overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and the already mentioned loss of traditional acricultural occupations.

text: While Grove does support increasing evidence of human activity is causing global warming, he sees definite and conclusive evidence in the field of climate change as almost an impossibility. Nevertheless, his consideration of the problem in his 2010 paper leads him to the conclusion that despite this inherent uncertainty, the evidence that human activity is causing global warming is substantial, and that it is therefore 'safer to act, to mitigate and adapt with the aim of slowing down change'. In his work about Mediterranean Europe he doubts the common wisdom of a 'Lost Eden,' a formerly fertile region, that had been progressively degraded and desertified by human mismanagement.  The simplistic,

text: environmental determinist

text: There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth’s climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming meteorites and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young’s paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth’s surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of sun activity, including sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and massive solar radiation, can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth’s climate. Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind and geomagnetic activity. Despite the appearance that these events seem random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11 years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due to these ‘random’ events, though, is only about 0.1 percent. Overall, the total irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor affecting Earth climate. The total solar irradiation received by Earth’s surface can be calculated mathematically. This can be done through the following equation:

text: There are also forces external to Earth itself that affect Earth’s climate. Two examples of these external forces are meteors/asteroids becoming

text: meteorites

text: and striking the surface of the earth, and geomagnetic storms from the sun affecting the earth. Asteroids only about two kilometers in diameter, according to Young’s paper referencing original author Michael Paine, can cause craters in Earth’s surface about 40 kilometers in diameter. Such an impact could throw enormous quantities of dust into the sky, blocking out the sun and causing significant climate changes, somewhat similar in effect to a gigantic volcanic eruption. Among other things, meteorites striking Earth also “affect sea level, rainfall, temperature, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation”. Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of

text: sun activity

text: , including

text: sunspots

text: solar flares

text: solar wind

text: , and massive

text: solar radiation

text: , can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which together, act to affect Earth’s climate. Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind and

text: geomagnetic activity

text: . Despite the appearance that these events seem random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11 years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due to these ‘random’ events, though, is only about 0.1 percent. Overall, the total irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor affecting Earth climate. The total solar irradiation received by Earth’s surface can be calculated mathematically. This can be done through the following equation:

text: Climate change is global environmental issue at the top of the international agenda. Despite opposition, its effects have been researched and substantiated by many scientists worldwide, including but not limited to the UNFCCC and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Current trends indicate that the Earth's climate will increase by an average of 4 °C by the year 2050. In Kuwait, researchers have concluded that current trends of activity in the region, mainly stemming from Kuwait's oil production, can cause a 1.6 °C increase in climate regionally by 2035 if no mitigation occurs.

text: Climate change is global environmental issue at the top of the international agenda. Despite opposition, its effects have been researched and substantiated by many scientists worldwide, including but not limited to the UNFCCC and the

text: (IPCC). Current trends indicate that the Earth's climate will increase by an average of 4 °C by the year 2050. In Kuwait, researchers have concluded that current trends of activity in the region, mainly stemming from Kuwait's oil production, can cause a 1.6 °C increase in climate regionally by 2035 if no mitigation occurs.

text: In 2014, Bart Verheggen of the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency surveyed 1,868 climate scientists. They found that 90% of those surveyed with more than 10 peer-reviewed papers related to climate agreed that human production of greenhouse gases was the main cause of global warming.

text: In 2014, Bart Verheggen of the

entity_name: Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency

text: Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency

text: surveyed 1,868 climate scientists. They found that 90% of those surveyed with more than 10 peer-reviewed papers related to climate agreed that human production of greenhouse gases was the main cause of global warming.

text: The gradual accumulation of ice on the Laurentide ice sheet led to a gradual increase in its mass, as the "binge phase". Once the sheet reached a critical mass, the soft, unconsolidated sub-glacial sediment formed a "slippery lubricant" over which the ice sheet slid, in the "purge phase", lasting around 750 years. The original model (MacAyeal, 1993) proposed that geothermal heat caused the sub-glacial sediment to thaw once the ice volume was large enough to prevent the escape of heat into the atmosphere. The mathematics of the system are consistent with a 7,000-year periodicity, similar to that observed if H3 and H6 are indeed Heinrich events (Sarnthein et al. 2001). However, if H3 and H6 are not Heinrich events, the Binge-Purge model loses credibility, as the predicted periodicity is key to its assumptions.It may also appear suspect because similar events are not observed in other ice ages (Hemming 2004), although this may be due to the lack of high-resolution sediments.In addition, the model predicts that the reduced size of ice sheets during the Pleistocene should reduce the size, impact and frequency of Heinrich events, which is not reflected by the evidence.

text: The gradual accumulation of ice on the Laurentide ice sheet led to a gradual increase in its mass, as the "binge phase". Once the sheet reached a critical mass, the soft, unconsolidated sub-glacial sediment formed a "slippery lubricant" over which the ice sheet slid, in the "purge phase", lasting around 750 years. The original model (MacAyeal, 1993) proposed that

text: geothermal

text: heat caused the sub-glacial sediment to thaw once the ice volume was large enough to prevent the escape of heat into the atmosphere. The mathematics of the system are consistent with a 7,000-year periodicity, similar to that observed if H3 and H6 are indeed Heinrich events (Sarnthein et al. 2001). However, if H3 and H6 are not Heinrich events, the Binge-Purge model loses credibility, as the predicted periodicity is key to its assumptions.It may also appear suspect because similar events are not observed in other ice ages (Hemming 2004), although this may be due to the lack of high-resolution sediments.In addition, the model predicts that the reduced size of ice sheets during the

text: Pleistocene

text: should reduce the size, impact and frequency of Heinrich events, which is not reflected by the evidence.

text: Crichton included a statement of his views on global climate change as an afterword. In the "Author's message", Crichton states that the cause, extent, and threat of climate change is largely unknown and unknowable. He finishes by endorsing the management of wilderness and the continuation of research into all aspects of the Earth's environment.

text: Crichton included a statement of his views on global

text: climate change

text: as an afterword. In the "Author's message", Crichton states that the cause, extent, and threat of climate change is largely unknown and unknowable. He finishes by endorsing the management of wilderness and the continuation of research into all aspects of the

text: Earth

text: 's environment.

text: In 2014 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reported that bees, butterflies and other pollinators faced increased risk of extinction because of global warming due to alterations in the seasonal behaviour of species. Climate change was causing bees to emerge at different times in the year when flowering plants were not available.

text: In 2014 the

text: reported that bees, butterflies and other pollinators faced increased risk of extinction because of

text: global warming

text: due to alterations in the seasonal behaviour of species. Climate change was causing bees to emerge at different times in the year when flowering plants were not available.

text: Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores, and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors; recent warming is discussed in global warming. Global warming results in redistributions. For example, "a 3

text: Paleoclimatology

text: is the study of ancient climates. Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from

text: proxy variables

text: that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in

text: lake beds

text: and

text: ice core

text: s, and biotic evidence such as

text: tree rings

text: and coral.

text: Climate model

text: s are mathematical models of past, present and future climates.

text: Climate change

text: may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors; recent warming is discussed in

text: global warming

text: . Global warming results in redistributions. For example, "a 3

text: The effects of global warming on marine mammals are of growing concern. The effects can be both direct; like loss of habitat, temperature stress, and exposure to severe weather, and indirect; like changes in host pathogen associations, changes in body condition because of predator–prey interaction, changed in exposure to toxins, and increased human interactions. All of these are effects that are predicted that the marine mammals are living with because of the rapid climate change. The increase of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere is thought to be the main cause of climate change or global warming. Exactly how this will affect the ocean, which is home to marine mammals, is hard to predict since there are many factors, such as weather events and salinity that affect ocean ecosystems. How all these will interact is highly unpredictable. Using global climate models (GCM)s, scientists can get a general idea of how climate change will impact the ocean environment in the future.

text: The

text: effects of global warming

text: on

text: marine mammals

text: are of growing concern. The effects can be both direct; like loss of habitat, temperature stress, and exposure to severe weather, and indirect; like changes in host pathogen associations, changes in body condition because of predator–prey interaction, changed in exposure to toxins, and increased human interactions. All of these are effects that are predicted that the marine mammals are living with because of the rapid climate change. The increase of

text: carbon dioxide

text: and other

text: greenhouse gases

text: into the atmosphere is thought to be the main cause of

text: climate change

text: or

text: global warming

text: . Exactly how this will affect the ocean, which is home to marine mammals, is hard to predict since there are many factors, such as weather events and salinity that affect ocean ecosystems. How all these will interact is highly unpredictable. Using

text: global climate model

text: s (GCM)s, scientists can get a general idea of how climate change will impact the ocean environment in the future.

text: The 100,000-year problem is that the eccentricity variations have a significantly smaller impact on solar forcing than precession or obliquity – according to theory – and hence might be expected to produce the weakest effects.However, the greatest observed response in regard to the ice ages is at the 100,000-year timescale, even though the theoretical forcing is smaller at this scale.During the last 1 million years, the strongest climate signal is the 100,000-year cycle. In addition, despite the relatively great 100,000-year cycle, some have argued that the length of the climate record is insufficient to establish a statistically significant relationship between climate and eccentricity variations. Various explanations for this discrepancy have been proposed, including frequency modulation or various feedbacks (from carbon dioxide, cosmic rays, or from ice sheet dynamics).Some models can reproduce the 100,000-year cycles as a result of non-linear interactions between small changes in the Earth's orbit and internal oscillations of the climate system.

text: The 100,000-year problem is that the eccentricity variations have a significantly smaller impact on solar forcing than precession or obliquity – according to theory – and hence might be expected to produce the weakest effects.However, the greatest observed response in regard to the

text: ice age

text: s is at the 100,000-year timescale, even though the theoretical forcing is smaller at this scale.During the last 1 million years, the strongest climate signal is the 100,000-year cycle. In addition, despite the relatively great 100,000-year cycle, some have argued that the length of the climate record is insufficient to establish a statistically significant relationship between climate and eccentricity variations. Various explanations for this discrepancy have been proposed, including frequency modulation or various feedbacks (from

text: carbon dioxide

text: cosmic ray

text: s, or from

text: ice sheet dynamics

text: ).Some models can reproduce the 100,000-year cycles as a result of non-linear interactions between small changes in the Earth's orbit and internal oscillations of the climate system.

text: The effects of global warming include effects on human health. The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health.  This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations.

text: The

text: effects of global warming

text: include effects on human health. The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health.  This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations.

text: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system, after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback.   This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition.  These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming. Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state—as happened on Venus.

text: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a

text: tipping point

text: in the

text: climate system

text: , after accumulated

text: climate change

text: initiates a reinforcing

text: positive feedback

text: .   This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition.  These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid

text: global warming

text: . Some astronomers use the expression runaway

text: greenhouse effect

text: to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state—as happened on

text: Venus

text: The IPCC is divided into 3 "Working Groups" (WG) covering a section of the climate change (global warming) topic:

text: The IPCC is divided into 3 "Working Groups" (WG) covering a section of the

text: climate change

text: global warming

text: ) topic:

text: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent's environment, economy, and communities. Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change, according to the Stern Review and others, due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast.

text: Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that

text: global warming

text: will negatively impact the continent's environment, economy, and communities. Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to

text: climate change

text: , according to the

text: Stern Review

text: and others, due partially to the importance of its

text: agricultural

text: sector and the prominence of its coast.

text: Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development. The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation) and adapting to the impacts of climate change. Geoengineering is another policy option.

text: Future effects of climate change will vary depending on

text: climate change policies

text: and

text: social development

text: . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions (

text: climate change mitigation

text: ) and

text: adapting to the impacts

text: of climate change.

text: Geoengineering

text: is another policy option.

text: The climate gap refers to a body of data indicating disparities in how climate change impacts various racial, ethnic and socioeconomic groups in the United States. The data show that low socioeconomic status groups and racial and ethnic minorities will experience more negative health and economic impacts from the results of climate change than other populations in the United States. This term, climate gap, was first used in the May 2009 report, “The Climate Gap: Inequalities in How Climate Change Hurts Americans & How to Close the Gap”, as well as in a concurrent paper published in the journal, Environmental Justice, by Seth B. Shonkoff, Rachel Morello-Frosch and colleagues entitled, "Minding the Climate Gap: Implications of Environmental Health Inequities for Mitigation Policies in California".

text: The climate gap refers to a body of data indicating disparities in how climate change impacts various racial, ethnic and

text: socioeconomic

text: groups in the United States. The data show that low

text: socioeconomic status

text: groups and racial and ethnic minorities will experience more negative health and economic impacts from the results of climate change than other populations in the United States. This term, climate gap, was first used in the May 2009 report, “The Climate Gap: Inequalities in How Climate Change Hurts Americans & How to Close the Gap”, as well as in a concurrent paper published in the journal, Environmental Justice, by Seth B. Shonkoff, Rachel Morello-Frosch and colleagues entitled, "Minding the Climate Gap: Implications of Environmental Health Inequities for Mitigation Policies in California".

text: Laudato siList of climate scientists - List of geoengineering topics -List of ministers of climate change -List of proposed geoengineering projects -List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming -Little Ice Age -Long-term effects of global warming - Low-carbon emission

text: Laudato si

text: List of climate scientists

text: List of geoengineering topics

text: List of ministers of climate change

text: List of proposed geoengineering projects

text: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming

text: Little Ice Age

text: Long-term effects of global warming

text: Low-carbon emission

text: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five "reasons for concern." The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth's global mean temperature (i.e., global warming). The IPCC's five reasons for concern are: threats to endangered species and unique systems, damages from extreme climate events, effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries, global aggregate impacts (i.e., various measurements of total social, economic and ecological impacts), and large-scale high-impact events. The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below. The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC's Third (TAR) and Fourth Assessment Reports (AR4), published in 2001 and 2007, respectively.

text: The

text: (IPCC) has organized many of the risks of

text: climate change

text: into five "reasons for concern." The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth's global mean temperature (i.e.,

text: global warming

text: ). The IPCC's five reasons for concern are: threats to endangered species and unique systems, damages from extreme climate events, effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries, global aggregate impacts (i.e., various measurements of total social, economic and ecological impacts), and large-scale high-impact events. The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below. The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC's

text: Third (TAR)

text: and

text: Fourth Assessment Reports (AR4)

text: , published in 2001 and 2007, respectively.

text: Climate change is one of the most heavily discussed topics around the world today, both politically and scientifically. The climate that Earth is currently experiencing has been steadily changing over time due to both natural causes and human exploitation. Climate change has the potential to be detrimental to wildlife across the world, whether that be through rising sea levels, changes in temperatures through the years, or deforestation. These are just a few of the examples of the contributing factors to climate change.

text: Climate change

text: is one of the most heavily discussed topics around the world today, both politically and scientifically. The climate that Earth is currently experiencing has been steadily changing over time due to both natural causes and human exploitation. Climate change has the potential to be detrimental to wildlife across the world, whether that be through rising sea levels, changes in temperatures through the years, or

text: deforestation

text: . These are just a few of the examples of the contributing factors to climate change.

text: In an 8400-word official judgement issued on 21 July 2008 the British media regulator Ofcom declared that the final part of the film dealing with the politics of climate change had broken rules on "due impartiality on matters of major political and industrial controversy and major matters relating to current public policy". Ofcom also backed complaints by Sir David King, stating that his views were misrepresented, and Carl Wunsch, on the points that he had been misled as to its intent, and that the impression had been given that he agreed with the programme's position on climate change. Ofcom further ruled that the IPCC had not been given an adequate chance to respond to adverse claims that its work was politicised and that it had made misleading claims about malaria. However, the regulator said that because "the link between human activity and global warming... became settled before March 2007", in parts 1–4 the audience was not "materially misled so as to cause harm or offence". According to Ofcom the program caused no harm because "the discussion about the causes of global warming was to a very great extent settled by the date of broadcast", meaning that climate change was no longer a matter of political controversy.

text: In an 8400-word official judgement issued on 21 July 2008 the British media regulator

text: Ofcom

text: declared that the final part of the film dealing with the politics of climate change had broken rules on "due impartiality on matters of major political and industrial controversy and major matters relating to current public policy". Ofcom also backed complaints by Sir

text: David King

text: , stating that his views were misrepresented, and

text: Carl Wunsch

text: , on the points that he had been misled as to its intent, and that the impression had been given that he agreed with the programme's position on climate change. Ofcom further ruled that the IPCC had not been given an adequate chance to respond to adverse claims that its work was politicised and that it had made misleading claims about

text: malaria

text: . However, the regulator said that because "the link between human activity and global warming... became settled before March 2007", in parts 1–4 the audience was not "materially misled so as to cause harm or offence". According to Ofcom the program caused no harm because "the discussion about the causes of global warming was to a very great extent settled by the date of broadcast", meaning that climate change was no longer a matter of political controversy.

text: Flannery is an advisor on climate change to outgoing South Australian Premier Mike Rann, and is a member of the Queensland Climate Change Council established by the Queensland Minister for Sustainability, Climate Change and Innovation Andrew McNamara. In February 2011 it was announced that Flannery had been appointed to head the Climate Change Commission established by Prime Minister Julia Gillard to explain climate change and the need for a carbon price to the public.

text: Flannery is an advisor on climate change to outgoing South Australian Premier

text: Mike Rann

text: , and is a member of the Queensland Climate Change Council established by the Queensland Minister for Sustainability, Climate Change and Innovation

text: Andrew McNamara

text: . In February 2011 it was announced that Flannery had been appointed to head the Climate Change Commission established by Prime Minister

text: Julia Gillard

text: to explain climate change and the need for a

text: carbon price

text: to the public.

text: The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history, studied from climate proxies. The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium, Earth's energy balance. Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years, due to  emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere.

text: The main climate state change is between periodical

text: glacial

text: and

text: interglacial

text: cycles in Earth history, studied from

text: climate proxies

text: . The climate system is responding to the current

text: climate forcing

text: and adjusts following

text: climate sensitivity

text: to reach a

entity_section: Equilibrium and transient climate sensitivity

text: climate equilibrium

text: Earth's energy balance

text: . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years, due to  emissions - including complete

text: deglaciation

text: of the Northern Hemisphere.

text: The tundra is one of the first places on Earth we have noted the effects of climate change. As an indicator biome, the tundra is a crucial part of the whole global climate system and can help predict the changes the rest of the world will face. The Earth depends on regulating mechanisms and air circulation patterns the tundra provides to keep climates steady worldwide. Human-induced climate change is devastating the tundra because intense complications are present in remote areas, free from human interference. Changes in climate, permafrost, ice pack, and glacier formations pose a serious threat to the stability of global climate because these conditions are influenced and reinforced by positive feedback loops. Temperatures in the tundra are rising to the highest temperatures recorded in four centuries and are rising more rapidly than anywhere worldwide The land surfaces in the tundra are no longer reflecting radiation from the sun out of the atmosphere. Soils and open water are absorbing heat from the sun and leading to more warming. Changes in the tundra influence climate change in lower latitudes because air pressure changes are shifting global air and ocean circulation patterns. Sea ice extent in the tundra has reached lowest recorded levels in centuries and this will dramatically affect people and wildlife worldwide. Changes in climate will be noticed first and seen most intensely in the northern regions of the planet. The tundra will show effects from climate change the soonest and will hopefully serve as a catalyst for action for people all over the world.

text: The issue of climate change and global warming, their possible effects, and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century.

text: The issue of

text: climate change

text: and

text: global warming

text: , their possible effects, and related

text: human-environment interaction

text: have entered

text: popular culture

text: since the late 20th century.

text: Climate engineering, commonly referred to as geoengineering, also known as climate intervention, is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth’s climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse climate change. Climate engineering is an umbrella term for two types of measures: carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of climate change by removing one of the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere. Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation.

text: Climate engineering, commonly referred to as geoengineering, also known as climate intervention, is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth’s

text: climatic system

text: with the aim of limiting adverse

text: climate change

text: . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for two types of measures:

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: and

text: solar radiation management

text: . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of

text: climate change

text: by removing one of the

text: greenhouse gases

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) from the

text: atmosphere

text: . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the

text: Earth

text: to absorb less

text: solar radiation

text: In 2009, Aldrin commented on climate change by saying: "I think the climate has been changing for billions of years. If it's warming now, it may cool off later. I'm not in favor of just taking short-term isolated situations and depleting our resources to keep our climate just the way it is today. I'm not necessarily of the school that we are causing it all, I think the world is causing it."

text: In 2009, Aldrin commented on

text: climate change

text: by saying: "I think the climate has been changing for billions of years. If it's warming now, it may cool off later. I'm not in favor of just taking short-term isolated situations and depleting our resources to keep our climate just the way it is today. I'm not necessarily of the school that we are causing it all, I think the world is causing it."

text: In a continuation of these themes, Inhofe had a 20-page brochure published under the Seal of the United States Senate reiterating his "hoax" statement, comparing the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to a "Soviet style trial", and in a section headed "The IPCC Plays Hockey" he attacked what he called "Mann's flawed, limited research." The brochure restated themes from Inhofe's Senate speech, and in December 2003 he distributed copies of it in Milan at a meeting discussing the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, where he met "green activists" with posters quoting him as saying that global warming "is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people". He signed a poster for them, and thanked them for quoting him correctly. In an October 2004 Senate speech he said "Global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people. It was true when I said it before, and it remains true today. Perhaps what has made this hoax so effective is that we hear over and over that the science is settled and there is a consensus that, unless we fundamentally change our way of life by limiting greenhouse gas emissions, we will cause catastrophic global warming. This is simply a false statement." In January 2005 Inhofe told Bloomberg News that global warming was "the second-largest hoax ever played on the American people, after the separation of church and state", and that carbon dioxide would not be restricted by the Clear Skies Act of 2003. In a Senate Floor "update", he extended his argument against Mann's work by extensively citing Michael Crichton's fictional thriller, State of Fear, mistakenly describing Crichton as a "scientist".<ref name="Mooney Jan05">. Reprinted from The American Prospect,  January 10, 2005.

text: In a continuation of these themes, Inhofe had a 20-page brochure published under the

text: Seal of the United States Senate

text: reiterating his "hoax" statement, comparing the

text: (IPCC) to a "Soviet style trial", and in a section headed "The IPCC Plays Hockey" he attacked what he called "Mann's flawed, limited research." The brochure restated themes from Inhofe's Senate speech, and in December 2003 he distributed copies of it in

text: Milan

text: at a meeting discussing the

text: , where he met "green activists" with posters quoting him as saying that global warming "is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people". He signed a poster for them, and thanked them for quoting him correctly. In an October 2004 Senate speech he said "Global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people. It was true when I said it before, and it remains true today. Perhaps what has made this hoax so effective is that we hear over and over that the science is settled and there is a consensus that, unless we fundamentally change our way of life by limiting greenhouse gas emissions, we will cause catastrophic global warming. This is simply a false statement." In January 2005 Inhofe told

text: Bloomberg News

text: that global warming was "the second-largest hoax ever played on the American people, after the

entity_name: Separation of church and state in the United States

text: separation of church and state

text: ", and that

text: carbon dioxide

text: would not be restricted by the

text: Clear Skies Act of 2003

text: . In a Senate Floor "update", he extended his argument against Mann's work by extensively citing

text: Michael Crichton

text: 's fictional thriller,

text: State of Fear

text: , mistakenly describing Crichton as a "scientist".<ref name="Mooney Jan05">. Reprinted from

text: The American Prospect

text: ,  January 10, 2005.

text: This climatic event was probably a result of predictable changes in the Earth's orbit (Milankovitch cycles) and a continuation of changes that caused the end of the last glacial period.

text: This climatic event was probably a result of predictable changes in the Earth's orbit (

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: ) and a continuation of changes that caused the end of the last

text: glacial period

text: Boer was the Executive Secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change from 4 September 2006 to 1 July 2010 the body responsible for a multi-lateral response to the climate change challenge. He had been appointed by then Secretary-General Kofi Annan on 10 August 2006. De Boer announced on February 18, 2010 that he would resign from the position effective July 1, 2010  to join accountancy firm KPMG as its Special Global Advisor, Climate Change and Sustainability and global ambassador. Boer dismissed speculation that the events of the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference were a factor in the resignation. De Boer was succeeded as Executive Director of the UNFCC by Christiana Figueres on July 1, 2010.

text: Boer was the Executive Secretary of the

text: from 4 September 2006 to 1 July 2010 the body responsible for a multi-lateral response to the climate change challenge. He had been appointed by then

text: Secretary-General

text: Kofi Annan

text: on 10 August 2006. De Boer announced on February 18, 2010 that he would resign from the position effective July 1, 2010  to join accountancy firm

text: KPMG

text: as its Special Global Advisor,

text: Climate Change

text: and Sustainability and global ambassador. Boer dismissed speculation that the events of the

text: were a factor in the resignation. De Boer was succeeded as Executive Director of the UNFCC by

text: Christiana Figueres

text: on July 1, 2010.

text: Sri Lanka hosts the most diverse endemic species and is considered to be a biodiversity hot spot (Meegaskumbura, 2002). Sri Lanka is place for several endemic terrestrial species such as amphibians and birds, but also a declining marine ecosystem: with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments. As climate change occurs, Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects of climate change including climate variability and sea-level rise, directly affecting the overall abundance and security of endemic species within Sri Lanka (Mendelsohn, 2005). Being an island of 65,610 sq.km., climate change will drastically alter the climate conditions of Sri Lanka, equator (Wanasundera, N. P. (2002). Sri Lanka’s location in close proximity to the Equator is extremely imperative in understanding the severity of climate change. Countries located near the equator, receive additional direct sunlight with less area to heat up, causing temperatures in this region to be much warmer than say the North or South poles, and example can be seen in figure 2 (Climate change (n.d.). In 2011, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) prediction models show an increasing trend of temperature. The actual degree amount is very tough to pinpoint, however there are several variables that are included in each of the models; including the extent of global population growth, the development in all countries both economically and socially and the overall use of energy.  Figure 3 shows the three models that the IPCC have made depicting their projections for the future. The yellow line has the most drastic change in temperature which is based on the continual use of fossil fuels. on and economic state of the country, however includes possible alternative fuel sources and technologies. The green line is the lowest, focusing on transferring our economy from a producer-consumer to a service and information economy. Also using clean and efficiency fuel technologies (Climate Change Models Predict the Future. (n.d.). The importance for awareness through climate change education and local and global policy changes in the utmost important in controlling and offsetting CO2 emissions so tropical islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected. There are several species that will be affected from climate change including many birds’ species.

text: Sri Lanka

text: hosts the most diverse

text: endemic

text: species and is considered to be a biodiversity hot spot (Meegaskumbura, 2002). Sri Lanka is place for several endemic

text: terrestrial

text: species such as

text: amphibians

text: and birds, but also a declining marine

text: ecosystem

text: : with ongoing threats to the coastal

text: coral reef

text: environments. As climate change occurs, Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects of climate change including climate variability and sea-level rise, directly affecting the overall abundance and security of endemic species within Sri Lanka (Mendelsohn, 2005). Being an island of 65,610 sq.km., climate change will drastically alter the climate conditions of Sri Lanka, equator (Wanasundera, N. P. (2002). Sri Lanka’s location in close proximity to the

text: Equator

text: When sea levels fell during the Pleistocene ice age, including the last glacial maximum about 18,000 years ago, the Sahul Shelf was exposed as dry land. Evidence of the shoreline of this time has been identified in locations which now lie 100 to 140 metres below sea level.  A useful interactive timeline  of sea level changes has been developed by Monash University.  The Arafura Shelf formed a land bridge between Australia, New Guinea, and the Aru Islands, and these lands share many marsupial mammals, land birds, and freshwater fish as a result. Lydekker's Line, a biogeographical line, runs along the edge of Sahul Shelf where it drops off into the deep waters of the Wallacea biogeographical area. Wallacea sits in a gap between the Sahul Shelf and the Sunda Shelf, part of the continental shelf of Southeast Asia.

text: When

text: sea level

text: s fell during the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age

text: , including the

text: last glacial maximum

text: about 18,000 years ago, the Sahul Shelf was exposed as dry land. Evidence of the shoreline of this time has been identified in locations which now lie 100 to 140 metres below sea level.  A useful interactive timeline  of sea level changes has been developed by Monash University.  The Arafura Shelf formed a

text: land bridge

text: between Australia, New Guinea, and the Aru Islands, and these lands share many

text: marsupial mammals

text: , land birds, and freshwater fish as a result.

text: Lydekker's Line

text: , a

text: biogeographical

text: line, runs along the edge of Sahul Shelf where it drops off into the deep waters of the

text: Wallacea

text: biogeographical area. Wallacea sits in a gap between the Sahul Shelf and the

text: Sunda Shelf

text: , part of the continental shelf of

text: Southeast Asia

text: In popular press, and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations, the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation. This explains why the topic raises heated debates, and tends to widen the divide between developed countries, which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions, and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change. For vulnerable countries, loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change, and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation.

text: The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get." Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins. Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned.

text: The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get." Over

text: historical

text: time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including

text: latitude

text: , altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. These change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as

text: plate tectonics

text: . Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the

text: thermohaline circulation

text: of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (9 °F) warming of the northern

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: compared to other ocean basins. Other

text: ocean current

text: s redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to

text: global warming

text: or

text: global cooling

text: . The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned.

text: The Frontier Centre for Public Policy, a Canadian think tank, states that Ball has disputed anthropogenic global warming since the mid 1990s, instead asserting that global warming is due to natural variations. He has spoken twice at The Heartland Institute's International Conference on Climate Change, where he was presented as a former climatology professor at the University of Winnipeg. However, critics have observed that in fact Ball was a professor of geography there, has been retired since 1996, and that the University of Winnipeg does not have, nor has it ever had, a climatology department. However, Dr. Ball has disputed these claims, maintaining that the climate program at The University of Winnipeg was part of the geography department in the early 1980s. Also, he asserts that many false claims about his credentials and professional qualifications have been stated as factual by websites such as DeSmogBlog.

text: The

text: Frontier Centre for Public Policy

text: , a Canadian think tank, states that Ball has disputed

text: anthropogenic global warming

text: since the mid 1990s, instead asserting that global warming is due to natural variations. He has spoken twice at

text: The Heartland Institute

text: 's

text: , where he was presented as a former climatology professor at the University of Winnipeg. However, critics have observed that in fact Ball was a professor of geography there, has been retired since 1996, and that the University of Winnipeg does not have, nor has it ever had, a climatology department. However, Dr. Ball has disputed these claims, maintaining that the climate program at The University of Winnipeg was part of the geography department in the early 1980s. Also, he asserts that many false claims about his credentials and professional qualifications have been stated as factual by websites such as

text: DeSmogBlog

text: Union Environment and Forests Minister Javadekar said the exact causes of the flooding – whether the result of climate change or stemming from other causes – remained in "a grey area" as experts had differing opinions. Regarding the current floods, he said the United Nations would not deem the evidence conclusive enough to be able to reach a judgment. "One thing is sure, climate change brings such disasters more frequently. So [the] frequency, [the] ferocity of untimely rains increases, [along with] erratic monsoons, droughts and floods; all these are caused [by climate change]." he said. He subsequently clarified his position on the Tamil Nadu floods in a written statement addressed to the Rajya Sabha. According to Javadekar, the recent extreme rainfall across the region was "highly localised" and could not be definitively attributed to the effects of climate-change. "[The] extreme rainfall that occurred over [the] coastal districts of Tamil Nadu is part of the natural variability of the Indian monsoon system. Although some studies have reported an increase in frequency and intensity of extremes in rainfall during the past 40–50 years, their attribution to global warming is not established." Javadekar said the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and local assessments have indicated that extreme rainfall events will likely increase in frequency by the end of the 21st century.

text: Nearly all intermountain depressions in southern Siberia and northern Mongolia hosted glacier-dammed lakes during the Pleistocene ice ages.  Climatic changes and hydrostatic alterations of the ice dams were followed by repeated fillings and releases of the basin lakes. The lake outbursts had a cataclysmic character.  In accordance with climatic conditions, the glaciers would protrude again into the main drainage valleys immediately after dam deformations and lake outbursts and would again dam the basins.

text: Nearly all intermountain depressions in southern

text: Siberia

text: and northern

text: Mongolia

text: hosted

text: glacier

text: -dammed lakes during the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice ages

text: .  Climatic changes and hydrostatic alterations of the ice dams were followed by repeated fillings and releases of the basin lakes. The

text: lake outbursts

text: had a cataclysmic character.  In accordance with climatic conditions, the glaciers would protrude again into the main drainage valleys immediately after dam deformations and lake outbursts and would again dam the basins.

text: Ban early on identified global warming as one of the key issues of his administration. In a White House meeting with U.S. President George W. Bush in January, Ban urged Bush to take steps to curb greenhouse gas emissions. On 1 March 2007 in a speech before the UN General Assembly, Ban emphasized his concerns about global warming. Ban stated, "For my generation, coming of age at the height of the Cold War, fear of nuclear winter seemed the leading existential threat on the horizon. But the danger posed by war to all humanity—and to our planet—is at least matched by climate change" (referring to Global Warming, see P:GW portal). On 3 September 2009 he further emphasized his concerns at the World Climate Conference in Geneva, when he stated, "Our foot is stuck on the accelerator and we are heading towards an abyss". In September, 2014, Ban joined demonstrators in the People's Climate March in New York City, and also called together world leaders for the UN Climate Summit, in preparation for the United Nations Climate Change Conference to be held in Paris in late 2015.

text: Ban early on identified

text: global warming

text: as one of the key issues of his administration. In a

text: White House

text: meeting with U.S. President George W. Bush in January, Ban urged Bush to take steps to curb

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions. On 1 March 2007 in a speech before the UN General Assembly, Ban emphasized his concerns about global warming. Ban stated, "For my generation, coming of age at the height of the Cold War, fear of

text: nuclear winter

text: seemed the leading

text: existential threat

text: on the horizon. But the danger posed by war to all humanity—and to our planet—is at least matched by

text: climate change

text: " (referring to

text: Global Warming

text: , see

text: P:GW

text: portal). On 3 September 2009 he further emphasized his concerns at the World Climate Conference in Geneva, when he stated, "Our foot is stuck on the accelerator and we are heading towards an abyss". In September, 2014, Ban joined demonstrators in the

text: People's Climate March

text: in New York City, and also called together world leaders for the UN Climate Summit, in preparation for the

entity_name: United Nations Climate Change conference

text: United Nations Climate Change Conference

text: to be held in Paris in late 2015.

text: District has a warm climate, temperate, climate influenced by the Eastern Carpathians and Ukrainian Plain. The average annual temperature in this area is between 8-9 c degrees, in winter -4-4.5 c, sometimes reaching -20-25 degrees, 35-40 degrees in summer. In the present climate of this area has become warmer than bank last century. The fact is explained, as is known, the evolution of warm climate in Western and Eastern Europe, the temperature change caused by different natural and human factors.

text: District has a warm climate, temperate, climate influenced by the

text: Eastern Carpathians

text: and Ukrainian Plain. The average annual temperature in this area is between 8-9 c degrees, in winter -4-4.5 c, sometimes reaching -20-25 degrees, 35-40 degrees in summer. In the present climate of this area has become warmer than bank last century. The fact is explained, as is known, the evolution of warm climate in Western and Eastern Europe, the temperature change caused by different natural and human factors.

text: Paar is a global warming skeptic and is an advocate of a new ice age hypothesis. He argues that the rise of carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere is the effect - rather than the cause - of global climate change, and that the true cause lies in the change of Earth's orbit due to gravitational pull of Jupiter and other planets of the Solar System. Paar believes that the evidence against anthropogenic global warming is being deliberately suppressed.

text: Paar is a global warming skeptic and is an advocate of a new ice age hypothesis. He argues that the rise of

text: carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere

text: is the effect - rather than the cause - of global climate change, and that the true cause lies in the change of Earth's orbit due to gravitational pull of

text: Jupiter

text: and other planets of the

text: Solar System

text: . Paar believes that the evidence against anthropogenic global warming is being deliberately suppressed.

text: Ice age -Ice core -Ice sheet dynamics -Individual and political action on climate change -Insolation -Instrumental temperature record -Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation -Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change -International Conference on Climate Change -IPCC list of greenhouse gases

text: Ice age

text: Ice core

text: Ice sheet dynamics

entity_name: Individual and political action on climate change

text: Individual and political action on climate change

text: Insolation

text: Instrumental temperature record

text: Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation

text: IPCC list of greenhouse gases

text: Ernst (1983) surveyed the extensive geographical range of the twist-necked turtle and determined the presence of a dark subspecies in its western range. The author uses the "Quaternary forest refuge theory" to explain the existence of this subspecies. The theory is based on significant climatic changes occurring in and around the equator during the Quaternary period. During these climatic changes of glaciation, the northern rainforests of South America received less rainfall and deteriorated, then subsequently expanded during interglaciation. This change caused allopatric speciation to occur among many species and gave rise to a new subspecies - P. p. melanonota.

text: Ernst (1983) surveyed the extensive geographical range of the twist-necked turtle and determined the presence of a dark subspecies in its western range. The author uses the "Quaternary forest refuge theory" to explain the existence of this subspecies. The theory is based on significant climatic changes occurring in and around the equator during the

text: Quaternary period

text: . During these climatic changes of

text: glaciation

text: , the northern rainforests of South America received less rainfall and deteriorated, then subsequently expanded during interglaciation. This change caused

text: allopatric speciation

text: to occur among many species and gave rise to a new subspecies - P. p. melanonota.

text: The increase in the global climate over the past few decades has had a significant impact on the spread of this species. The northward range expansion coincides with the worldwide increase in temperature due to the greenhouse effect. Universally, species respond to fluctuations in climate by increasing or contracting their breeding ranges. If the opportunity arises for a species to expand its realised niche due to favourable conditions that have become available, it is advantageous for them to do so. In the 1950s the climate began to cool in the northern hemisphere, causing longer winters in southern Europe. This kept the long-winged coneheads in the southern part of the UK, where they were first sited, for a period of time. In 1975 the effects of the greenhouse gases began to neutralise the cooling effects from the previous decades, and as the climate in the United Kingdom slowly rose, the long-winged coneheads started to increase the limits of their range farther northward. However, the major expansion did not occur until 1980 when global warming caused a significant increase in temperature in the northern hemisphere. Since 1980 the temperature has risen linearly by  ±  per decade and the greatest impact fell between 40°N and 70°N latitude. This latitudinal region includes the United Kingdom and southern Europe, which explains why the long-wing conehead, and other European fauna, has responded most readily to the warming climate and expanded its range.

text: The increase in the global climate over the past few decades has had a significant impact on the spread of this species. The northward range expansion coincides with the worldwide increase in temperature due to the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Universally, species respond to fluctuations in climate by increasing or contracting their breeding ranges. If the opportunity arises for a species to expand its realised

text: niche

text: due to favourable conditions that have become available, it is advantageous for them to do so. In the 1950s the climate began to cool in the northern hemisphere, causing longer winters in southern Europe. This kept the long-winged coneheads in the southern part of the UK, where they were first sited, for a period of time. In 1975 the effects of the greenhouse gases began to neutralise the cooling effects from the previous decades, and as the climate in the United Kingdom slowly rose, the long-winged coneheads started to increase the limits of their range farther northward. However, the major expansion did not occur until 1980 when global warming caused a significant increase in temperature in the northern hemisphere. Since 1980 the temperature has risen linearly by  ±  per decade and the greatest impact fell between

text: and

text: latitude

text: . This latitudinal region includes the United Kingdom and southern Europe, which explains why the long-wing conehead, and other European fauna, has responded most readily to the warming climate and expanded its range.

text: Besides their role as a resource for fuel and building material, trees protect the environment by absorbing carbon dioxide and by creating oxygen.  The destruction of rain forests is one of the critical causes of climate change. Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces a layer in the atmosphere that traps radiation from the sun. The radiation converts to heat which causes global warming, which is better known as the greenhouse effect.

text: Besides their role as a resource for fuel and building material, trees protect the environment by absorbing carbon dioxide and by creating oxygen.  The destruction of rain forests is one of the critical causes of

text: climate change

text: . Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces a layer in the atmosphere that traps radiation from the sun. The radiation converts to heat which causes

text: global warming

text: , which is better known as the

text: greenhouse effect

text: The effects of glaciation were global. Antarctica was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene as well as the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap. There were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The current decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Ruwenzori Range in east and central Africa were larger. Glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains.

text: The effects of glaciation were global.

text: Antarctica

text: was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene as well as the preceding Pliocene. The

text: Andes

text: were covered in the south by the

text: Patagonia

text: n ice cap. There were glaciers in

text: New Zealand

text: and

text: Tasmania

text: . The current decaying glaciers of

text: Mount Kenya

text: Mount Kilimanjaro

text: , and the

text: Ruwenzori Range

text: in east and central Africa were larger. Glaciers existed in the mountains of

text: Ethiopia

text: and to the west in the

text: Atlas mountains

text: Much of the land of Sylvania Waters was 'reclaimed' from Gwawley Bay, effectively destroying the highly integrated mangrove flora of the bay. Sylvania Waters Estate was developed by L.J.Hooker in the 1960s; land offered had water frontages with boating facilities. Streets were named after Australian rivers to emphasise the association with water, such as Shoalhaven, Tweed, Murrumbidgee, Hawkesbury and Barwon.  The suburb has been identified as an area that is particularly vulnerable to inundation, should predictions of climate change, global warming and rising sea levels prove correct.

text: Much of the land of Sylvania Waters was 'reclaimed' from Gwawley Bay, effectively destroying the highly integrated mangrove flora of the bay. Sylvania Waters Estate was developed by L.J.Hooker in the 1960s; land offered had water frontages with boating facilities. Streets were named after Australian rivers to emphasise the association with water, such as

text: Shoalhaven

text: Tweed

text: Murrumbidgee

text: Hawkesbury

text: and

text: Barwon

text: .  The suburb has been identified as an area that is particularly vulnerable to inundation, should predictions of

text: climate change

text: global warming

text: and rising sea levels prove correct.

text: During the last Pleistocene ice age, Anangula and nearby Umnak Island formed the tip of a peninsula on the southern edge of the Bering land bridge and was covered by the Cordilleran ice sheet that dominated the  northwestern portion of North America. This made the area unsuitable for both animal and human habitation until the ice sheet began to recede about 10-12,000 years bp. The first human settlement on Anangula (and the oldest known evidence of human activity in the Aleutians), a small village and core and blade site on the southeastern end of the island, was established about 8,400 years bp. Although estimates of how long the settlement was occupied range from under 100 years to more than 1,500 years, it is generally agreed that it was abandoned after a major eruption at the Okmok volcano  northeast on Umnak buried the area under nearly two metres of ash.

text: During the

text: last

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age

text: , Anangula and nearby

text: Umnak Island

text: formed the tip of a peninsula on the southern edge of the

text: Bering land bridge

text: and was covered by the

text: Cordilleran ice sheet

text: that dominated the  northwestern portion of

text: North America

text: . This made the area unsuitable for both animal and human habitation until the ice sheet began to recede about 10-12,000 years

text: bp

text: . The first human settlement on Anangula (and the oldest known evidence of human activity in the Aleutians), a small village and

text: core

text: and

text: blade

text: site on the southeastern end of the island, was established about 8,400 years bp. Although estimates of how long the settlement was occupied range from under 100 years to more than 1,500 years, it is generally agreed that it was abandoned after a major eruption at the

text: Okmok volcano

text: northeast on Umnak buried the area under nearly two metres of ash.

text: The last glacial period is the best-known part of the current ice age, and has been intensively studied in North America, northern Eurasia, the Himalaya and other formerly glaciated regions around the world. The glaciations that occurred during this glacial period covered many areas, mainly in the Northern Hemisphere and to a lesser extent in the Southern Hemisphere. They have different names, historically developed and depending on their geographic distributions: Fraser (in the Pacific Cordillera of North America), Pinedale (in the Central Rocky Mountains), Wisconsinan or Wisconsin (in central North America), Devensian (in the British Isles), Midlandian (in Ireland), Würm (in the Alps), Mérida (in Venezuela), Weichselian or Vistulian (in Northern Europe and northern Central Europe), Valdai in Eastern Europe and Zyryanka in Siberia, Llanquihue in Chile, and Otira in New Zealand. The geochronological Late Pleistocene comprises the late glacial (Weichselian) and the immediately preceding penultimate interglacial (Eemian) preiond.

text: The last glacial period is the best-known part of the current ice age, and has been intensively studied in

text: North America

text: northern Eurasia

text: , the

text: Himalaya

text: and other formerly glaciated regions around the world. The glaciations that occurred during this glacial period covered many areas, mainly in the

text: Northern Hemisphere

text: and to a lesser extent in the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: . They have different names, historically developed and depending on their geographic distributions: Fraser (in the

text: Pacific Cordillera

text: of North America), Pinedale (in the

text: Central Rocky Mountains

text: ), Wisconsinan or

text: Wisconsin

text: (in central North America), Devensian (in the

text: British Isles

text: ), Midlandian (in

text: Ireland

text: Würm

text: (in the

text: Alps

text: ), Mérida (in

text: Venezuela

text: Weichselian

text: or

entity_section: Weichselian glaciation, Scandinavia and northern Europe

text: Vistulian

text: (in

text: Northern Europe

text: and northern

text: Central Europe

text: ), Valdai in

text: Eastern Europe

text: and Zyryanka in

text: Siberia

text: Llanquihue

text: in

text: Chile

text: , and Otira in

text: New Zealand

text: . The geochronological

text: Late Pleistocene

text: comprises the late glacial (Weichselian) and the immediately preceding

text: penultimate interglacial

text: (Eemian) preiond.

text: Ferrara has also written about climate change, asserting that human activity is not the main cause of global warming.

text: England is not a believer in global warming or climate change that is attributed to man but rather a believer in cyclic change due to many factors. A KWTV promo was featured in a Daily Show piece regarding global warming on June 14, 2007. The piece starts with comments by global warming skeptic and Oklahoma Senator James Inhofe regarding The Weather Channel's chief meteorologist's statement that the American Meteorological Society (AMS) should not certify anyone who does not accept global warming. Inhofe argued that The Weather Channel needs global warming in order to scare viewers and boost ratings. The Daily Show followed up Inhofe's comments by playing the KWTV's "Calm During The Storm" promo where a family is running from a massive tornado, cowering in the basement, the family hears England's voice on the television and the mother says to her son (clutched in her hands) "It's OK baby, listen to Gary England, he's going to tell us what's going on" in which then host Jon Stewart mocks the scene with "Listen to Gary England— OR YOUR CHILDREN WILL DIE!"  The Daily Show connects England and Inhofe as both being from Oklahoma.

text: England is not a believer in global warming or climate change that is attributed to man but rather a believer in cyclic change due to many factors. A KWTV promo was featured in a

text: Daily Show

text: piece regarding global warming on June 14, 2007. The piece starts with comments by global warming skeptic and Oklahoma Senator

text: James Inhofe

text: regarding

text: The Weather Channel

text: 's chief meteorologist's statement that the

text: American Meteorological Society

text: (AMS) should not certify anyone who does not accept global warming. Inhofe argued that The Weather Channel needs global warming in order to scare viewers and boost ratings. The Daily Show followed up Inhofe's comments by playing the KWTV's "Calm During The Storm" promo where a family is running from a massive tornado, cowering in the basement, the family hears England's voice on the television and the mother says to her son (clutched in her hands) "It's OK baby, listen to Gary England, he's going to tell us what's going on" in which then host

text: Jon Stewart

text: mocks the scene with "Listen to Gary England— OR YOUR CHILDREN WILL DIE!"  The Daily Show connects England and Inhofe as both being from Oklahoma.

text: Willis’s research focuses on reconstructing long term responses of ecosystems to environmental change, including climate change, human impact and sea level rise. She argues that understanding long-term records of ecosystem change is essential for a proper understanding of future ecosystem responses. Many scientific studies are limited to short-term datasets that rarely span more than 40 to 50 years, although many larger organisms, including trees and large mammals, have an average generation time which exceeds this timescale. Short-term records therefore are unable to reconstruct natural variability over time, or the rates of migration as a result of environmental change. She also argues that a short-term approach gives a static view of ecosystems, and an unrealistic "norm" which must be maintained or restored and protected. Her research group in the Oxford Long-term Ecology laboratory therefore focuses on the reconstruction of ecosystem responses to environmental change on timescales ranging from tens to millions of years, and the applications of long-term records in biodiversity conservation. She has argued that the impacts of contemporary climate change on plant biota is uncertain and potentially not as severe as researchers envision, and challenged assumptions made in the interpretation of spatially constrained temperature records. Kew's State of the World's Plants report (2016) pinpoints land cover change as the major threat to global biodiversity, not climate change.

text: Willis’s research focuses on reconstructing long term responses of

text: ecosystem

text: s to environmental change, including

text: climate change

text: human impact

text: and

text: sea level rise

text: . She argues that understanding long-term records of ecosystem change is essential for a proper understanding of future ecosystem responses. Many scientific studies are limited to short-term datasets that rarely span more than 40 to 50 years, although many larger organisms, including trees and large mammals, have an average generation time which exceeds this timescale. Short-term records therefore are unable to reconstruct natural variability over time, or the rates of migration as a result of environmental change. She also argues that a short-term approach gives a static view of ecosystems, and an unrealistic "norm" which must be maintained or restored and protected. Her research group in the Oxford Long-term Ecology laboratory therefore focuses on the reconstruction of ecosystem responses to environmental change on timescales ranging from tens to millions of years, and the applications of long-term records in

text: biodiversity

text: conservation. She has argued that the impacts of contemporary climate change on plant biota is uncertain and potentially not as severe as researchers envision, and challenged assumptions made in the interpretation of spatially constrained temperature records. Kew's State of the World's Plants report (2016) pinpoints land cover change as the major threat to global biodiversity, not climate change.

text: The Quaternary ice age (2.6 million BCE) began during the Pleistocene Epoch. Sitting snugly in the then much higher mountains was Glacial Teays Lake, extending from south Virginia through the New Kanawha River to its northerly drainage river, the ancient Teays River. It flowed through Ohio to central Indiana, then across Illinois to the Mississippi Valley. The Pittsburgh drainage basin is to the north of the river. The Mississippi River at the time was an embayment of the Gulf of Mexico reaching to Illinois. Glacial Teays Lake last occurrence was about two million years ago when it outburst and the wash build up created the final large prehistoric lake in the western part of the state. Lake Tight lasted 6500 years before it escaped its confines to form the Ohio Valley. The Ohio-Allegheny system (Ohio Valley) in western half of the state had its present form by the Middle Pleistocene, between 781 and 126 thousand years ago. The glacial Monongahela Lake was in the northern part of the state. It was blocked by ice terraces in the northwestern Pennsylvania. Upon the ice's retreat, it outburst through the basin to the north.

text: The

text: Quaternary

text: ice age (2.6 million BCE) began during the Pleistocene Epoch. Sitting snugly in the then much higher mountains was Glacial Teays Lake, extending from south Virginia through the New Kanawha River to its northerly drainage river, the ancient

text: Teays River

text: . It flowed through

text: Ohio

text: to central

text: Indiana

text: , then across

text: Illinois

text: to the

text: Mississippi Valley

text: . The Pittsburgh drainage basin is to the north of the river. The Mississippi River at the time was an embayment of the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: reaching to Illinois. Glacial Teays Lake last occurrence was about two million years ago when it outburst and the wash build up created the final large prehistoric lake in the western part of the state. Lake Tight lasted 6500 years before it escaped its confines to form the Ohio Valley. The Ohio-Allegheny system (Ohio Valley) in western half of the state had its present form by the

text: Middle Pleistocene

text: , between 781 and 126 thousand years ago. The glacial Monongahela Lake was in the northern part of the state. It was blocked by ice terraces in the northwestern Pennsylvania. Upon the ice's retreat, it outburst through the basin to the north.

text: In a 2010 interview, Johnson called scientists who attribute global warming to man-made causes "crazy", saying the theory is "lunacy" and attributing climate change to causes other than human activity. In February 2016, Johnson said "I've never denied climate change. The climate has always changed, and it always will". While on a radio talk show August 1, 2015, on Racine, Wisconsin's WRJN-AM, Johnson said that "the climate hasn't warmed in quite a few years. That is proven scientifically." Johnson is a cosponsor of the Energy Tax Prevention Act, which would block the EPA from imposing new rules on carbon emissions.

text: In a 2010 interview, Johnson called scientists who attribute

text: global warming

text: to man-made causes "crazy", saying the theory is "lunacy" and

text: attributing climate change

text: to causes other than human activity. In February 2016, Johnson said "I've never denied climate change. The climate has always changed, and it always will". While on a radio talk show August 1, 2015, on Racine, Wisconsin's WRJN-AM, Johnson said that "the climate hasn't warmed in quite a few years. That is proven scientifically." Johnson is a cosponsor of the

text: Energy Tax Prevention Act

text: , which would block the EPA from imposing new rules on carbon emissions.

text: Heiligendamm Process -Hell and High Water (book) -History of climate change science -Hockey stick graph -Hockey stick controversy -Holocene -Holocene Climatic Optimum -Homogenization -How Global Warming Works -Human impact of climate change -Hydraulic fracturing -Hydrological geoengineering -Hypermobile travellers

text: Heiligendamm Process

text: Hell and High Water (book)

text: History of climate change science

text: Hockey stick graph

text: Hockey stick controversy

text: Holocene

text: Holocene Climatic Optimum

text: Homogenization

text: How Global Warming Works

text: Human impact of climate change

text: Hydraulic fracturing

text: Hydrological geoengineering

text: Hypermobile travellers

text: The Abbassia Pluvial was an extended wet and rainy period in the climate history of North Africa. It began c. 120,000 years before the present (ybp), lasted approximately 30,000 years, and ended c. 90,000 ybp. The Abbassia Pluvial spanned the end of the Lower Paleolithic and the start of the Middle Paleolithic eras — an interval that is also sometimes identified as the Achulean (250–90 kybp). As with the subsequent Mousterian Pluvial, the Abbassia was brought about by global climate changes associated with the ice ages and interglacials of the Pleistocene Epoch.

text: The Abbassia Pluvial was an extended wet and rainy period in the

text: climate

text: history of

text: North Africa

text: . It began c. 120,000 years before the present (

text: ybp

text: ), lasted approximately 30,000 years, and ended c. 90,000 ybp. The Abbassia

text: Pluvial

text: spanned the end of the

text: Lower Paleolithic

text: and the start of the

text: Middle Paleolithic

text: eras — an interval that is also sometimes identified as the Achulean (250–90 kybp). As with the subsequent

text: Mousterian Pluvial

text: , the Abbassia was brought about by global climate changes associated with the

text: ice age

text: s and

text: interglacial

text: s of the

text: Pleistocene Epoch

text: During the last ice age, continental ice sheets repeatedly covered eastern Nebraska. The exact timing that these glaciations occurred remain uncertain. Likely, they occurred between two million to 600,000 years ago. During the last two million years, the climate alternated between cold and warm phases, respectively called "glacial" and "interglacial" periods instead of a continuous ice age. Clayey tills and large boulders, called "glacial erratics", were left on the hillsides during the period when ice sheets covered eastern Nebraska two or three times. During various periods of the remainder of the Pleistocene and into the Holocene, the glacial drift was buried by silty, wind-blown sediment called "loess".

text: During the last

text: ice age

text: , continental ice sheets repeatedly covered eastern Nebraska. The exact timing that these glaciations occurred remain uncertain. Likely, they occurred between two million to 600,000 years ago. During the last two million years, the climate alternated between

text: cold and warm phases

text: , respectively called "

text: glacial

text: " and "

text: interglacial

text: " periods instead of a continuous ice age.

text: Clay

text: ey tills and large

text: boulder

text: s, called "

text: glacial erratic

text: s", were left on the hillsides during the period when ice sheets covered eastern Nebraska two or three times. During various periods of the remainder of the Pleistocene and into the Holocene, the glacial drift was buried by silty, wind-blown sediment called "

text: loess

text: Although the Kyoto Protocol does not require Mexico to reduce its GHG emissions, the country has committed to reduce its emissions voluntarily. In May 2007, President Calderón announced the National Climate Change Strategy which focuses on climate change as a central part of Mexico's national development policy. The ENACC sets the long-term climate change agenda for the country, together with medium to long-term goals for adaptation and mitigation. In December 2008, Mexico announced that it would reduce its GHG emissions by 50% below 2002 levels by 2050.

text: Although the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: does not require Mexico to reduce its

text: GHG

text: emissions, the country has committed to reduce its emissions voluntarily. In May 2007, President

text: Calderón

text: announced the National Climate Change Strategy which focuses on climate change as a central part of Mexico's national development policy. The ENACC sets the long-term climate change agenda for the country, together with medium to long-term goals for adaptation and mitigation. In December 2008, Mexico announced that it would reduce its GHG emissions by 50% below 2002 levels by 2050.

text: Today's California condor is the sole surviving member of Gymnogyps and has no accepted subspecies. However, there is a Late Pleistocene form that is sometimes regarded as a palaeosubspecies, Gymnogyps californianus amplus. Current opinions are mixed regarding the classification of the form as a chronospecies or a separate species Gymnogyps amplus. Gymnogyps amplus occurred over much of the bird's historical range – even extending into Florida – but was larger, having about the same weight as the Andean condor. This bird also had a wider bill. As the climate changed during the last ice age, the entire population became smaller until it had evolved into the Gymnogyps californianus of today, although more recent studies by Syverson query that theory.

text: Today's California condor is the sole surviving member of Gymnogyps and has no accepted subspecies. However, there is a Late Pleistocene form that is sometimes regarded as a

text: palaeosubspecies

text: , Gymnogyps californianus amplus. Current opinions are mixed regarding the classification of the form as a chronospecies or a separate species Gymnogyps amplus. Gymnogyps amplus occurred over much of the bird's historical range – even extending into Florida – but was larger, having about the same weight as the

text: Andean condor

text: . This bird also had a wider bill. As the climate changed during the last

text: ice age

text: , the entire population became smaller until it had evolved into the Gymnogyps californianus of today, although more recent studies by Syverson query that theory.

text: Ice core samples were taken from Upper Fremont Glacier in 1990-1991. These ice cores were analyzed for climatic changes as well as alterations of atmospheric chemicals. In 1998 an unbroken ice core sample of  was taken from the glacier and subsequent analysis of the ice showed an abrupt change in the oxygen isotope ratio oxygen-18 to oxygen-16 in conjunction with what is widely regarded as the end of the Little Ice Age, a period of cooler global temperatures between the years 1550 and 1850. A linkage was established with a similar ice core study which had been undertaken on the Quelccaya Ice Cap in Peru, which also demonstrated the same changes in the oxygen isotope ratio during the same period. The climatic implications from the ice cores taken from both sites support evidence of a sudden global climate change during the mid 19th century.

text: Ice core

text: samples were taken from Upper Fremont Glacier in 1990-1991. These ice cores were analyzed for climatic changes as well as alterations of atmospheric chemicals. In 1998 an unbroken ice core sample of  was taken from the glacier and subsequent analysis of the ice showed an abrupt change in the

text: oxygen isotope ratio

text: to oxygen-16 in conjunction with what is widely regarded as the end of the

text: Little Ice Age

text: , a period of cooler global temperatures between the years 1550 and 1850. A linkage was established with a similar ice core study which had been undertaken on the

text: Quelccaya Ice Cap

text: in

text: Peru

text: , which also demonstrated the same changes in the oxygen isotope ratio during the same period. The climatic implications from the ice cores taken from both sites support evidence of a sudden global climate change during the mid 19th century.

text: Cypresses, such as the bald cypress, and their relatives once covered much of the northern temperate zone. It is thought that these trees disappeared from the BCCS area during the most recent Pleistocene glaciation ("Ice Age"), but then reappeared around 5,000 to 10,000 years ago as the climate warmed.

text: Cypress

text: es, such as the bald cypress, and their relatives once covered much of the northern

text: temperate zone

text: . It is thought that these trees disappeared from the BCCS area during the most recent

text: Pleistocene

text: glaciation

text: ("Ice Age"), but then reappeared around 5,000 to 10,000 years ago as the climate warmed.

text: Part I, comprising the first four chapters of the book, reviews the science of climate change, setting forth the evidence that humans are causing an unprecedented increase in carbon emissions that is, in turn causing global warming. The book describes the consequences of unchecked climate change, such as destruction of coastal cities due to rising sea levels and mega-hurricanes; increasing droughts and deadly water shortages; infestation of insects into new ranges; and increased famines, heat waves, forest fires and desertification. The book sets forth the research on "feedback loops" that would contribute to accelerating climate change, including:

text: Part I, comprising the first four chapters of the book, reviews the science of

text: climate change

text: , setting forth the evidence that humans are causing an unprecedented increase in carbon emissions that is, in turn causing global warming. The book describes the consequences of unchecked climate change, such as destruction of coastal cities due to rising sea levels and mega-hurricanes; increasing droughts and deadly water shortages; infestation of insects into new ranges; and increased famines, heat waves, forest fires and

text: desertification

text: . The book sets forth the research on "feedback loops" that would contribute to accelerating climate change, including:

text: δ records show isotopic depletions that are consistent with a sea-level highstand, but temperature effect cannot be confidently disentangled from glacioeustasy. Moreover, the collapse of at least one major ice sheet has to be inferred in order to produce similar high sea-levels, nevertheless, the stability of these ice sheets is one of the main questions in climate-change research: in fact, controversial geologic evidences suggest that present-day polar ice sheets might have been disrupted (or drastically shrunk) during previous Pleistocene interglacials.

text: δ

text: records show isotopic depletions that are consistent with a sea-level highstand, but temperature effect cannot be confidently disentangled from glacioeustasy. Moreover, the collapse of at least one major ice sheet has to be inferred in order to produce similar high sea-levels, nevertheless, the stability of these ice sheets is one of the main questions in climate-change research: in fact, controversial geologic evidences suggest that present-day polar ice sheets might have been disrupted (or drastically shrunk) during previous Pleistocene interglacials.

text: In contrast to meteorology, which studies short term weather systems lasting up to a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather events over years to millennia, as well as changes in long-term average weather patterns, in relation to atmospheric conditions. Climatologists, those who practice climatology, study both the nature of climates – local, regional or global – and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology considers the past and can help predict future climate change.

text: In contrast to

text: meteorology

text: , which studies short term

text: weather

text: Climatologists

text: , those who practice climatology, study both the nature of climates – local, regional or global – and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology considers the past and can help

text: predict

text: future

text: climate change

text: Recently the Canadian government has been accused of "hiding the truth" of global warming and cutting much needed funds to research and development programs. Graham Saul of Climate Action Network of Canada said, "This government says they take climate change seriously but they do nothing and try to hide the truth about climate change." The Guardian claims that 300,000 people die each year and 125 billion dollars are lost a year to gradual climate change caused by global warming. However, internal government documents show that media coverage regarding global warming have been cut by 80 percent, and strict rules and regulations have blocked scientists from talking to reporters. Several science research bases across Canada have run out of government funding and were forced to shut down. Funding for the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmosphere Sciences, which researches the melting of polar ice and frequency of Arctic storms, is also drying up. Many climatology researchers across the globe believe that Canada is falling behind in climate science and because of this the world is not getting any information about what is happening in the Canadian Arctic. The Canadian government has admitted to eliminating government-funded climate research so there won't be any "bad news" about what is happening.

text: In the 1950s, research suggested increasing temperatures, and a 1952 newspaper reported "climate change". This phrase next appeared in a November 1957 report in The Hammond Times which described Roger Revelle's research into the effects of increasing human-caused  emissions on the greenhouse effect, "a large scale global warming, with radical climate changes may result". Both phrases were only used occasionally until 1975, when Wallace Smith Broecker published a scientific paper on the topic; "Climatic Change: Are We on the Brink of a Pronounced Global Warming?" The phrase began to come into common use, and in 1976 Mikhail Budyko's statement that "a global warming up has started" was widely reported. Other studies, such as a 1971 MIT report, referred to the human impact as "inadvertent climate modification", but an influential 1979 National Academy of Sciences study headed by Jule Charney followed Broecker in using global warming for rising surface temperatures, while describing the wider effects of increased  as climate change.

text: In the 1950s, research suggested increasing temperatures, and a 1952 newspaper reported "climate change". This phrase next appeared in a November 1957 report in

text: The Hammond Times

text: which described

text: Roger Revelle

text: 's research into the effects of increasing human-caused  emissions on the

text: greenhouse effect

text: , "a large scale global warming, with radical climate changes may result". Both phrases were only used occasionally until 1975, when

text: Wallace Smith Broecker

text: published a scientific paper on the topic; "Climatic Change: Are We on the Brink of a Pronounced Global Warming?" The phrase began to come into common use, and in 1976

text: Mikhail Budyko

text: 's statement that "a global warming up has started" was widely reported. Other studies, such as a 1971

text: MIT

text: report, referred to the human impact as "inadvertent climate modification", but an influential 1979

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: study headed by

text: Jule Charney

text: followed Broecker in using global warming for rising surface temperatures, while describing the wider effects of increased  as climate change.

text: In the same general period that scientists first suspected climate change and ice ages, Joseph Fourier, in 1824, found that Earth's atmosphere kept the planet warmer than would be the case in a vacuum.  Fourier recognized that the atmosphere transmitted visible light waves efficiently to the earth's surface. The earth then absorbed visible light and emitted infrared radiation in response, but the atmosphere did not transmit infrared efficiently, which therefore increased surface temperatures.  He also suspected that human activities could influence climate, although he focused primarily on land use changes.  In an 1827 paper Fourier stated, "The establishment and progress of human societies, the action of natural forces, can notably change, and in vast regions, the state of the surface, the distribution of water and the great movements of the air. Such effects are able to make to vary, in the course of many centuries, the average degree of heat; because the analytic expressions contain coefficients relating to the state of the surface and which greatly influence the temperature."

text: In the same general period that scientists first suspected climate change and ice ages,

text: Joseph Fourier

text: , in 1824, found that Earth's atmosphere kept the planet warmer than would be the case in a vacuum.  Fourier recognized that the atmosphere transmitted

text: visible light

text: waves efficiently to the earth's surface. The earth then absorbed visible light and emitted

text: infrared radiation

text: in response, but the atmosphere did not transmit infrared efficiently, which therefore increased surface temperatures.  He also suspected that human activities could influence climate, although he focused primarily on land use changes.  In an 1827 paper Fourier stated, "The establishment and progress of human societies, the action of natural forces, can notably change, and in vast regions, the state of the surface, the distribution of water and the great movements of the air. Such effects are able to make to vary, in the course of many centuries, the average degree of heat; because the analytic expressions contain coefficients relating to the state of the surface and which greatly influence the temperature."

text: Through deforestation and agriculture, some scientists have proposed a human component in some historical climatic changes. Human-started fires have been implicated in the transformation of much of Australia from grassland to desert. If true, this would show that non-industrialized societies could have a role in influencing regional climate. Deforestation, desertification and the salinization of soils may have contributed to or caused other climatic changes throughout human history.

text: Through deforestation and agriculture, some scientists have proposed a human component in some historical climatic changes. Human-started fires have been implicated in the transformation of much of Australia from grassland to desert. If true, this would show that non-industrialized societies could have a role in influencing regional climate.

text: Deforestation

text: desertification

text: and the

text: salinization

text: of soils may have contributed to or caused other climatic changes throughout human history.

text: Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth's climate system and its related effects.  Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming. Although the increase of near-surface atmospheric temperature is the measure of global warming often reported in the popular press, most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has gone into the oceans. The rest has melted ice and warmed the continents and atmosphere. Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented over tens to thousands of years.

text: Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth's

text: climate system

text: and its related effects.  Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming. Although the increase of near-surface atmospheric temperature is the measure of global warming often reported in the popular press, most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has gone into the oceans. The rest has melted ice and warmed the continents and

text: atmosphere

text: . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented over tens to thousands of years.

text: Many species of Pleistocene megafauna, like the woolly rhinoceros, became extinct around the same time period. Human hunting is often cited as one cause. Other theories for the cause of the extinctions are climate change associated with the receding Ice age and the hyperdisease hypothesis (q.v. Quaternary extinction event). One of the more widely accepted theories states that, although the woolly rhinoceros was specialized for cold weather, it was capable of surviving in warmer climates (Shapiro). This suggests that climate change was not the only factor contributing to the rhinoceros's extinction (Naish). Other cold-adapted species, such as reindeer, muskox and wisent, survived this period of climatic change and many others like it, supporting the 'overkill' hypothesis for the woolly rhino.

text: Many species of Pleistocene

text: megafauna

text: , like the woolly rhinoceros, became extinct around the same time period. Human

text: hunting

text: is often cited as one cause. Other theories for the cause of the extinctions are climate change associated with the receding

text: Ice age

text: and the hyperdisease hypothesis (q.v.

text: Quaternary extinction event

text: ). One of the more widely accepted theories states that, although the woolly rhinoceros was specialized for cold weather, it was capable of surviving in warmer climates (Shapiro). This suggests that climate change was not the only factor contributing to the rhinoceros's extinction (Naish). Other cold-adapted species, such as

text: reindeer

text: muskox

text: and

text: wisent

text: , survived this period of climatic change and many others like it, supporting the 'overkill' hypothesis for the woolly rhino.

text: A 1990 meeting held in Grenoble, France, served as a site of discussion regarding national ice coring efforts and the possibility of international collaboration between the world’s top scientists.  As a result, nineteen nations worldwide, including Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Norway, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, the U.K. and the United States, teamed up to study the surface and subsurface record of Antarctica’s ice cores.  These countries agreed that an understanding of Antarctica’s climate and atmospheric composition (gathered through ice core examination) would provide greater insight into the understanding of climate change on a global level.

text: A 1990 meeting held in

text: Grenoble

text: France

text: , served as a site of discussion regarding national ice coring efforts and the possibility of international collaboration between the world’s top scientists.  As a result, nineteen nations worldwide, including

text: Australia

text: Brazil

text: Canada

text: China

text: France

text: Germany

text: Italy

text: Japan

text: Norway

text: Russia

text: Sweden

text: Switzerland

text: , the

text: U.K.

text: and the

text: United States

text: , teamed up to study the surface and subsurface record of Antarctica’s ice cores.  These countries agreed that an understanding of Antarctica’s climate and atmospheric composition (gathered through ice core examination) would provide greater insight into the understanding of climate change on a global level.

text: A question that frequently arises in popular discussion of climate change is whether there is a scientific consensus on climate change.  Several scientific organizations have explicitly used the term "consensus" in their statements:

text: Burnaby Lake is a glacial lake that formed about 12,000 years ago, at the end of the Pleistocene ice age.

text: Burnaby Lake is a

text: glacial lake

text: that formed about 12,000 years ago, at the end of the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age

text: The potential effects of climate change and the security of infrastructure will have the most direct effect on the poverty cycle. Areas of infrastructure effects will include water systems, housing and settlements, transport networks, utilities, and industry. Infrastructure designers can contribute in three areas for improving living environment for the poor, in building design, in settlement planning and design as well as in urban planning. The National Research Council has identified five climate changes of particular importance to infrastructure and factors that should be taken into consideration when designing future structures. These factors include: increases in very hot days and heat waves, increases in Arctic temperatures, rising sea levels, increases in intense precipitation events, and increases in hurricane intensity. The UK Climate Impacts Program established the Building Knowledge for a Changing Climate program, which works to strategize urban design in order to adapt to and diminish the effects of climate change (36). Under this program, architects, such as the American architect Michael Graves, consider that buildings, depending on their locations, are more vulnerable or more susceptible to flooding impacts. Green infrastructure, which absorbs rainwater, could alleviate some of these flood concerns, particularly in cities with little green space (36). Accordingly, transportation decision makers continually make short- and long-term investment decisions that affect how infrastructure will respond to climate change.

text: The potential effects of climate change and the security of

text: infrastructure

text: will have the most direct effect on the poverty cycle. Areas of infrastructure effects will include water systems, housing and settlements, transport networks, utilities, and industry. Infrastructure designers can contribute in three areas for improving living environment for the poor, in

text: building design

text: , in settlement planning and design as well as in

text: urban planning

text: . The

entity_name: National Research Council (United States)

text: National Research Council

text: has identified five climate changes of particular importance to infrastructure and factors that should be taken into consideration when designing future structures. These factors include: increases in very hot days and heat waves, increases in

text: Arctic

text: temperatures, rising sea levels, increases in intense

text: precipitation

text: events, and increases in hurricane intensity. The UK Climate Impacts Program established the Building Knowledge for a Changing Climate program, which works to strategize urban design in order to adapt to and diminish the effects of climate change (36). Under this program, architects, such as the American architect Michael Graves, consider that buildings, depending on their locations, are more vulnerable or more susceptible to flooding impacts.

text: Green infrastructure

text: , which absorbs rainwater, could alleviate some of these flood concerns, particularly in cities with little

text: green space

text: (36). Accordingly, transportation decision makers continually make short- and long-term investment decisions that affect how

text: infrastructure

text: will respond to climate change.

text: The popular media in the U.S. gives greater attention to climate change skeptics than the scientific community as a whole, and the level of agreement within the scientific community has not been accurately communicated. In some cases, news outlets have allowed climate change skeptics to explain the science of climate change instead of experts in climatology. US and UK media coverage differ from that presented in other countries, where reporting is more consistent with the scientific literature. Some journalists attribute the difference to climate change denial being propagated, mainly in the US, by business-centered organizations employing tactics worked out previously by the US tobacco lobby. In France, the US and the UK, the opinions of climate change skeptics appear much more frequently in conservative news outlets than other news, and in many cases those opinions are left uncontested.

text: The popular media in the U.S. gives greater attention to climate change skeptics than the scientific community as a whole, and the level of agreement within the scientific community has not been accurately communicated. In some cases, news outlets have allowed climate change skeptics to explain the science of climate change instead of experts in climatology. US and

text: UK

text: media coverage differ from that presented in other countries, where reporting is more consistent with the scientific literature. Some journalists attribute the difference to climate change denial being propagated, mainly in the US, by business-centered organizations employing tactics worked out previously by the

text: US tobacco lobby

text: . In

text: France

text: , the US and the UK, the opinions of climate change skeptics appear much more frequently in conservative news outlets than other news, and in many cases those opinions are left uncontested.

text: During the 2.5 million year span of the Pleistocene, numerous glacials, or significant advances of continental ice sheets in North America and Europe, have occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years. These long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and shorter interglacials.

text: During the 2.5 million year span of the

text: Pleistocene

text: , numerous glacials, or significant advances of continental ice sheets in North America and Europe, have occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years. These long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and shorter interglacials.

text: Christopher DeMuth, former AEI president, accepted that the earth has warmed in recent decades, but he stated that "it's not clear why this happened" and charged as well that the IPCC "has tended to ignore many distinguished physicists and meteorologists whose work casts doubt on the influence of greenhouse gases on global temperature trends". Fellow James Glassman also disputes the prevailing scientific opinion on climate change, having written numerous articles criticizing the Kyoto accords and climate science more generally for Tech Central Station.He has supported the views of U.S. Senator Jim Inhofe, who claims that “global warming is ‘the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people,’” and, like Green, cites Crichton's novel State of Fear, which "casts serious doubt on global warming and extremists who espouse it".Joel Schwartz, an AEI visiting fellow, stated: "The Earth has indeed warmed during the last few decades and may warm further in the future. But the pattern of climate change is not consistent with the greenhouse effect being the main cause."

text: Christopher DeMuth

text: , former AEI president, accepted that the earth has warmed in recent decades, but he stated that "it's not clear why this happened" and charged as well that the IPCC "has tended to ignore many distinguished physicists and meteorologists whose work casts doubt on the influence of greenhouse gases on global temperature trends". Fellow James Glassman also disputes the prevailing

text: scientific opinion on climate change

text: , having written numerous articles criticizing the Kyoto accords and climate science more generally for

text: Tech Central Station

text: .He has supported the views of U.S. Senator

text: Jim Inhofe

text: , who claims that “global warming is ‘the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people,’” and, like Green, cites Crichton's novel

text: State of Fear

text: , which "casts serious doubt on global warming and extremists who espouse it".Joel Schwartz, an AEI visiting fellow, stated: "The Earth has indeed warmed during the last few decades and may warm further in the future. But the pattern of climate change is not consistent with the greenhouse effect being the main cause."

text: Global warming is the result of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations which is caused primarily by the combustion of fossil energy sources such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas, and to an unknown extent by destruction of forests, increased methane, volcanic activity and cement production. Such massive alteration of the global carbon cycle has only been possible because of the availability and deployment of advanced technologies, ranging in application from fossil fuel exploration, extraction, distribution, refining, and combustion in power plants and automobile engines and advanced farming practices. Livestock contributes to climate change both thru the production of greenhouse gases and thru destruction of carbon sinks such as rain-forests. According to the 2006 United Nations/FAO report, 18% of all greenhouse gas emissions found in the atmosphere are due to livestock. The raising of livestock and the land needed to feed them has resulted in the destruction millions of acres of Rainforest and as global demand for meat rises, so too will the demand for land. Ninety-one percent of all rainforest land deforested since 1970 is now used for livestock.  Potential negative environmental impacts caused by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are rising global air temperatures, altered hydrogeological cycles resulting in more frequent and severe droughts, storms, and floods, as well as sea level rise and ecosystem disruption.

text: Global warming

text: is the result of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations which is caused primarily by the combustion of fossil energy sources such as petroleum, coal, and natural gas, and to an unknown extent by destruction of forests, increased methane, volcanic activity and cement production. Such massive alteration of the global carbon cycle has only been possible because of the availability and deployment of advanced technologies, ranging in application from fossil fuel exploration, extraction, distribution, refining, and combustion in power plants and automobile engines and advanced farming practices. Livestock contributes to climate change both thru the production of greenhouse gases and thru destruction of

text: carbon sinks

text: such as rain-forests. According to the 2006 United Nations/FAO report, 18% of all greenhouse gas emissions found in the atmosphere are due to livestock. The raising of livestock and the land needed to feed them has resulted in the destruction millions of acres of Rainforest and as global demand for meat rises, so too will the demand for land. Ninety-one percent of all rainforest land deforested since 1970 is now used for livestock.  Potential negative environmental impacts caused by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are rising global air temperatures, altered hydrogeological cycles resulting in more frequent and severe droughts, storms, and floods, as well as sea level rise and ecosystem disruption.

text: One of the major cycles that humans can contribute to that cause a major impact on climate change is the nitrogen cycle. This comes from nitrogen fertilizers that us humans are using. Gruber and Galloway have researched, "The massive acceleration of the nitrogen cycle caused by the production and industrial use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers worldwide has led to a range of environmental problems. Most important is how the availability of nitrogen will affect the capacity of Earth's biosphere to continue absorbing carbon from the atmosphere and to thereby continue helping to mitigate climate change."

text: One of the major cycles that humans can contribute to that cause a major impact on

text: climate change

text: is the

text: nitrogen cycle

text: . This comes from nitrogen fertilizers that us humans are using. Gruber and Galloway have researched, "The massive acceleration of the nitrogen cycle caused by the production and industrial use of artificial

text: nitrogen

text: fertilizers worldwide has led to a range of environmental problems. Most important is how the availability of nitrogen will affect the capacity of Earth's biosphere to continue absorbing

text: carbon

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: and to thereby continue helping to mitigate climate change."

text: The origins of the abrupt climate changes that occurred during the last ice age.

text: Early anthropocene -Earth Hour -Earth's atmosphere -Earth's energy budget -EarthLab -Earthshine -East Antarctic Ice Sheet -Eco-efficiency -Ecological Forecasting -Ecotax -Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity -Effects of climate change on marine mammals -Effects of global warming on oceans -Effects of global warming - Effects of global warming on Australia - Effects of global warming on India -Efficient energy use -El Niño (ENSO) -Emission inventory -Emission Reduction Unit -Emission standards -Emissions trading -Energie-Cités -Energy Autonomy -Energy conservation -Energy forestry -Energy poverty -Enteric fermentation -Environmental crime -Environmental impact of aviation -Environmental skepticism -European Climate Forum -Evidence of global warming - Externality

text: Early anthropocene

text: Earth Hour

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: Earth's energy budget

text: EarthLab

text: Earthshine

text: East Antarctic Ice Sheet

text: Eco-efficiency

text: Ecological Forecasting

text: Ecotax

entity_name: Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity

text: Effect of climate change on plant biodiversity

entity_name: Effects of global warming on marine mammals

text: Effects of climate change on marine mammals

text: Effects of global warming on oceans

text: Effects of global warming

text: Effects of global warming on Australia

text: Effects of global warming on India

text: Efficient energy use

text: El Niño

text: (ENSO) -

text: Emission inventory

text: Emission Reduction Unit

text: Emission standards

text: Emissions trading

text: Energie-Cités

entity_name: Energy Autonomy: The Economic, Social & Technological Case for Renewable Energy

text: Energy Autonomy

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy forestry

text: Energy poverty

text: Enteric fermentation

text: Environmental crime

text: Environmental impact of aviation

text: Environmental skepticism

text: European Climate Forum

text: Evidence of global warming

text: Externality

text: ExxonMobil was a significant influence in preventing ratification of the Kyoto Protocol by the United States. ExxonMobil funded organizations critical of the Kyoto Protocol and seeking to undermine public opinion about the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by the burning of fossil fuels. Exxon was a founding member of the board of directors of the Global Climate Coalition, composed of businesses opposed to greenhouse gas emission regulation. According to Mother Jones magazine, between 2000 and 2003 ExxonMobil channelled at least $8,678,450 to forty organizations that employed disinformation campaigns including "skeptic propaganda masquerading as journalism" to influence the opinion of the public and political leaders about global warming. ExxonMobil has funded, among other groups, the Competitive Enterprise Institute, George C. Marshall Institute, Heartland Institute, the American Legislative Exchange Council and the International Policy Network. Since the Kyoto Protocol, Exxon has given more than $20 million to organizations supporting climate change denial.

text: ExxonMobil was a significant influence in preventing ratification of the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: by the United States. ExxonMobil funded organizations critical of the Kyoto Protocol and seeking to undermine public opinion about the scientific consensus that

text: global warming

text: is caused by the burning of

text: fossil fuel

text: s. Exxon was a founding member of the board of directors of the

text: Global Climate Coalition

text: , composed of businesses opposed to greenhouse gas emission regulation. According to

text: Mother Jones

text: magazine, between 2000 and 2003 ExxonMobil channelled at least $8,678,450 to forty organizations that employed disinformation campaigns including "skeptic propaganda masquerading as journalism" to influence the opinion of the public and political leaders about global warming. ExxonMobil has funded, among other groups, the

text: Competitive Enterprise Institute

text: George C. Marshall Institute

text: Heartland Institute

text: , the

text: American Legislative Exchange Council

text: and the

text: International Policy Network

text: . Since the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: , Exxon has given more than $20 million to organizations supporting climate change denial.

text: Schmitt's view on climate change diverges from the frequently reported scientific consensus, as he emphasizes natural over human factors as driving climate.  Schmitt has expressed the view that the risks posed by climate change are overrated, and suggests instead that climate change is a tool for people who are trying to increase the size of government. He resigned his membership in the Planetary Society because of its stance on the subject, writing in his resignation letter that the "global warming scare is being used as a political tool to increase government control over American lives, incomes and decision-making." He spoke at the March 2009 International Conference on Climate Change sponsored by the Heartland Institute. He appeared in December that year on the Fox Business Network, saying "[t]he CO scare is a red herring".

text: Schmitt's view on climate change diverges from the frequently reported scientific consensus, as he emphasizes natural over human factors as driving climate.  Schmitt has expressed the view that the risks posed by climate change are overrated, and suggests instead that climate change is a tool for people who are trying to increase the size of government. He resigned his membership in the

text: Planetary Society

text: because of its stance on the subject, writing in his resignation letter that the "global warming scare is being used as a political tool to increase government control over American lives, incomes and decision-making." He spoke at the March 2009

text: sponsored by the

text: Heartland Institute

text: . He appeared in December that year on the

text: Fox Business Network

text: , saying "[t]he

text: CO

text: scare is a red herring".

text: The GRIP and GISP cores, each about 3000 m long, were drilled by European and US teams respectively on the summit of Greenland. Their usable record stretches back more than 100,000 years into the last interglacial. They agree (in the climatic history recovered) to a few metres above bedrock. However, the lowest portion of these cores cannot be interpreted, probably due to disturbed flow close to the bedrock. There is evidence the GISP2 cores contain an increasing structural disturbance which casts suspicion on features lasting centuries or more in the bottom 10% of the ice sheet. The more recent NorthGRIP ice core provides an undisturbed record to approx. 123,000 years before present. The results indicate that Holocene climate has been remarkably stable and have confirmed the occurrence of rapid climatic variation during the last ice age.

text: G8+5 -Geoengineering -GFDL CM2.X -Glacial period -Global Change Master Directory -Global climate model -Global cooling -Global climate model (General Circulation Model) -Global dimming -Global warming -Global warming controversy -Global warming hiatus -Global warming period -Global warming potential -Greenhouse and icehouse Earth -Greenhouse debt -Greenhouse effect -Greenhouse gas -Greenhouse gas accounting -Greenhouse gas inventory -Gulf Stream

text: Geoengineering

entity_name: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model

text: GFDL CM2.X

text: Glacial period

text: Global Change Master Directory

text: Global climate model

text: Global cooling

text: Global climate model

text: (General Circulation Model) -

text: Global dimming

text: Global warming

text: Global warming controversy

text: Global warming hiatus

text: Global warming period

text: Global warming potential

text: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth

text: Greenhouse debt

text: Greenhouse effect

text: Greenhouse gas

text: Greenhouse gas accounting

text: Greenhouse gas inventory

text: Gulf Stream

text: As the looming threat of climate change and environmental disturbances becomes more and more immediate, so does the need for policy to combat the issue. As a relatively new phenomenon, climate change has yet to receive the political attention it deserves. However, the climate justice and climate change movements are gaining momentum on an international scale as both grass roots campaigns and supranational organizations begin to gain influence.  However, the most significant and impacting changes come from national and state governments around the world, as they have the political and monetary power to more effectively enforce their proposals.

text: As the looming threat of

text: climate change

text: and environmental disturbances becomes more and more immediate, so does the need for policy to combat the issue. As a relatively new phenomenon, climate change has yet to receive the political attention it deserves. However, the climate justice and

text: climate change

text: movements are gaining momentum on an international scale as both grass roots campaigns and supranational organizations begin to gain influence.  However, the most significant and impacting changes come from national and state governments around the world, as they have the political and monetary power to more effectively enforce their proposals.

text: The correlation between the increasing intensity of storms and the progression of climate change was discussed by climate scientists. "Typhoons, hurricanes and all tropical storms draw their vast energy from the warmth of the sea. We know sea-surface temperatures are warming pretty much around the planet, so that's a pretty direct influence of climate change on the nature of the storm," said Will Steffen, director of the Australian National University climate change institute. Myles Allen, head of the climate dynamics group at the University of Oxford, said that "The current consensus is that climate change is not making the risk of hurricanes any greater, but there are physical arguments and evidence that there is a risk of more intense hurricanes." The Huffington Post made the point that the 70% deforestation of the Philippines since 1900, as reported by the national Forest Management Bureau, made far more lethal flooding from cyclones like Haiyan more likely. The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report had stated in September of the same year that "Time series of cyclone indices such as power dissipation, an aggregate compound of tropical cyclone frequency, duration, and intensity that measures total wind energy by tropical cyclones, show upward trends in the North Atlantic and weaker upward trends in the western North Pacific since the late 1970s."

text: The correlation between the increasing intensity of storms and the progression of climate change was discussed by climate scientists. "Typhoons, hurricanes and all tropical storms draw their vast energy from the warmth of the sea. We know sea-surface temperatures are warming pretty much around the planet, so that's a pretty direct influence of climate change on the nature of the storm," said

text: Will Steffen

text: , director of the

text: Australian National University

text: climate change institute.

text: Myles Allen

text: , head of the climate dynamics group at the

text: University of Oxford

text: , said that "The current consensus is that climate change is not making the risk of hurricanes any greater, but there are physical arguments and evidence that there is a risk of more intense hurricanes." The Huffington Post made the point that the 70%

text: deforestation of the Philippines

text: since 1900, as reported by the national

entity_name: Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Philippines)

text: Forest Management Bureau

text: , made far more lethal flooding from cyclones like Haiyan more likely. The

text: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report

text: had stated in September of the same year that "Time series of cyclone indices such as power dissipation, an aggregate compound of tropical cyclone frequency, duration, and intensity that measures total wind energy by tropical cyclones, show upward trends in the North Atlantic and weaker upward trends in the western North Pacific since the late 1970s."

text: Article 4.2 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions. The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC has provided only limited financial support to developing countries to assist them in climate change mitigation and adaptation. Additionally, private sector investment in mitigation and adaptation could be discouraged in the short and medium term because of the 2008 global financial crisis.

text: Article 4.2 of the

text: commits industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing emissions. The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC has provided only limited

text: financial

text: support to developing countries to assist them in climate change mitigation and

text: adaptation

text: . Additionally, private sector investment in mitigation and adaptation could be discouraged in the short and medium term because of the

text: 2008 global financial crisis

text: The socio-economic impacts of climate change are likely to be greatest in communities that face other stresses. For example, poor communities are vulnerable to extreme weather events, and are likely to be especially affected by climate change. In general, however, other changes (e.g., demographic and technological) are likely to have a greater effect on human society than climate change. On the other hand, major ("non-marginal") impacts could occur with abrupt changes in natural and social systems. Scientific understanding of abrupt changes is limited.

text: The end of the Ice Age brought changes to the flora and fauna, which led to the extinction of the large game hunted by Paleo-Indians, such as giant sloth, mammoth, and other Pleistocene megafauna. Humans adapted to the new conditions by relying more heavily on farming. The adoption of agriculture as the primary mode of subsistence was gradual, taking up most of the Archaic period. It was accompanied by cultural changes in burial practices, art, and tools.

text: The end of the Ice Age brought changes to the flora and fauna, which led to the extinction of the large game hunted by Paleo-Indians, such as

text: giant sloth

text: mammoth

text: , and other

text: Pleistocene megafauna

text: . Humans adapted to the new conditions by relying more heavily on farming. The adoption of agriculture as the primary mode of subsistence was gradual, taking up most of the Archaic period. It was accompanied by cultural changes in burial practices, art, and tools.

text: The Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change was produced by a team led by Stern at HM Treasury, and was released in October 2006. In the Review, climate change is described as an economic externality. Stern has subsequently referred to the climate change externality as the largest ever market failure:

text: The

text: Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change

text: was produced by a team led by Stern at HM Treasury, and was released in October 2006. In the Review,

text: climate change

text: is described as an economic

text: externality

text: . Stern has subsequently referred to the climate change externality as the largest ever market failure:

text: Global dimming, a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface, was observed from 1961 until at least 1990. Solid and liquid particles known as aerosols, produced by volcanoes and human-made pollutants, are thought to be the main cause of this dimming. They exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion – CO and aerosols – have partially offset one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been due to the increase in non-CO greenhouse gases such as methane. Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally limited due to the processes that remove aerosols from the atmosphere. Removal by clouds and precipitation gives tropospheric aerosols an atmospheric lifetime of only about a week, while stratospheric aerosols can remain for a few years. Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more, and as such, changes in aerosols will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide. Black carbon is second only to carbon dioxide for its contribution to global warming.

text: Global dimming

text: , a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct

text: irradiance

text: at the Earth's surface, was observed from 1961 until at least 1990.

text: Solid and liquid particles

text: known as aerosols, produced by volcanoes and human-made

text: pollutant

text: s, are thought to be the main cause of this dimming. They exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion – CO and aerosols – have partially offset one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been due to the increase in non-CO greenhouse gases such as methane. Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally limited due to the processes that remove aerosols from the atmosphere.

text: Removal by clouds and precipitation

text: gives tropospheric aerosols an

text: atmospheric lifetime

text: of only about a week, while

text: stratospheric

text: aerosols can remain for a few years. Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more, and as such, changes in aerosols will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide.

text: Black carbon

text: is second only to carbon dioxide for its contribution to global warming.

text: ICSD collaborated with the Southern Africa Faith Communities Environment Institute and The Interfaith Declaration on Climate Change to organize two events in conjunction with the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference. The events featured a number of religious leaders and scientists who called for immediate action to address climate change. The speakers included Bishop Geoff Davis representing Archbishop Emeritus Desmond Tutu, Christiana Figueres, head of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and Ela Gandhi, granddaughter of Mohandas Gandhi and a Member of Parliament in South Africa from 1994-2004.

text: ICSD collaborated with the Southern Africa Faith Communities Environment Institute and The Interfaith Declaration on Climate Change to organize two events in conjunction with the

entity_name: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference

text: 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference

text: . The events featured a number of religious leaders and scientists who called for immediate action to address

text: climate change

text: . The speakers included Bishop Geoff Davis representing Archbishop Emeritus

text: Desmond Tutu

text: Christiana Figueres

text: , head of the

text: , and

text: Ela Gandhi

text: , granddaughter of

text: Mohandas Gandhi

text: and a Member of

text: Parliament in South Africa

text: from 1994-2004.

text: Krosnick, who has run polls on public attitudes towards global warming since 2006, conducted a 2010 survey among 1000 Americans with the same questions as previous years in addition to new inquiries about recent and relevant controversies. One of which was a controversy in which the email archive of the Climate Research Unit of the University of East Anglia was hacked in 2009. The emails retrieved from the hacking supposedly revealed extensive data manipulation in studies on climate research. Krosnick's surveys revealed that 9% of the 32% of subjects who were aware of this controversy believed that it indicated that climate scientists should not be trusted. There was a subsequent controversy with the fourth report on Climate Change from the IPCC. 54% of the 13% of subjects who knew about this controversy believed it indicated that climate scientists were untrustworthy.

text: Krosnick, who has run polls on public attitudes towards global warming since 2006, conducted a 2010 survey among 1000 Americans with the same questions as previous years in addition to new inquiries about recent and relevant controversies. One of which was a

text: controversy

text: in which the email archive of the

text: Climate Research Unit

text: of the

text: University of East Anglia

text: was hacked in 2009. The emails retrieved from the hacking supposedly revealed extensive data manipulation in studies on climate research. Krosnick's surveys revealed that 9% of the 32% of subjects who were aware of this controversy believed that it indicated that climate scientists should not be trusted. There was a

entity_name: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

text: subsequent controversy

text: with the fourth report on Climate Change from the

text: IPCC

text: . 54% of the 13% of subjects who knew about this controversy believed it indicated that climate scientists were untrustworthy.

text: In his final term as President, President Jagdeo became a global advocate for international action to avert the worst extremes of climate change, and was described by the Chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Rajendra K. Pachauri, as "one of perhaps half a dozen Heads of Government who truly understands the issue". In line with the President's global advocacy, Guyana's Low Carbon Development Strategy sets out a national scale, replicable model to protect Guyana's 18 million hectare forest, to address the 17% of global greenhouse gas emissions that result from deforestation and forest degradation, and re-orient the Guyanese economy onto a long-term "low deforestation, low carbon, climate resilient trajectory".

text: In his final term as President, President Jagdeo became a global advocate for international action to avert the worst extremes of climate change, and was described by the Chairman of the

text: Rajendra K. Pachauri

text: , as "one of perhaps half a dozen Heads of Government who truly understands the issue". In line with the President's global advocacy, Guyana's Low Carbon Development Strategy sets out a national scale, replicable model to protect Guyana's 18 million hectare forest, to address the 17% of global greenhouse gas emissions that result from deforestation and forest degradation, and re-orient the Guyanese economy onto a long-term "low deforestation, low carbon, climate resilient trajectory".

text: The Climate Vulnerable Forum (CVF) is a global partnership of countries that are disproportionately affected by the consequences of global warming. The forum addresses the negative effects of global warming as a result of heightened socioeconomic and environmental vulnerabilities. These countries actively seek a firm and urgent resolution to the current intensification of climate change, domestically and internationally.

text: The Climate Vulnerable Forum (CVF) is a global partnership of countries that are disproportionately affected by the consequences of

text: global warming

text: . The forum addresses the negative effects of global warming as a result of heightened socioeconomic and environmental vulnerabilities. These countries actively seek a firm and urgent resolution to the current intensification of

text: climate change

text: , domestically and internationally.

text: The film argues that the consensus among climate scientists about global warming does not exist.

text: The film argues that the

text: consensus among climate scientists

text: about global warming does not exist.

text: NASA has released public data and tools to predict how temperature and rainfall patterns worldwide may change through to the year 2100 caused by increasing carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere. The dataset shows projected changes worldwide on a regional level simulated by 21 climate models. The data can be viewed on a daily timescale for individual cities and towns and may be used to conduct climate risk assessments to predict the local and global effects of weather dangers, for example droughts, floods, heat waves and declines in agriculture productivity, and help plan responses to global warming effects.

text: Hot Cities is an environmental documentary series broadcast in Autumn 2009 by BBC World News. It highlighted the effects of global warming and climate change on the world's most populous cities.

text: Hot Cities is an environmental

text: documentary

text: series broadcast in Autumn 2009 by

text: BBC World News

text: . It highlighted the effects of

text: global warming

text: and

text: climate change

text: on the world's most populous cities.

text: This article mostly focuses on the views of natural scientists. However, social scientists, medical experts, engineers and philosophers have also commented on climate change science and policies. Climate change policy is discussed in several articles: climate change mitigation, climate change adaptation, climate engineering, politics of global warming, climate ethics, and economics of global warming.

text: This article mostly focuses on the views of natural scientists. However, social scientists,

text: medic

text: al experts, engineers and philosophers have also commented on climate change science and policies. Climate change policy is discussed in several articles:

text: climate change mitigation

text: climate change adaptation

text: climate engineering

text: politics of global warming

text: climate ethics

text: , and

text: economics of global warming

text: Habibullo Abdussamatov (2004), head of space research at St. Petersburg's Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory in Russia, has argued that the sun is responsible for recently observed climate change. Journalists for news sources canada.com (Solomon, 2007b), National Geographic News (Ravillious, 2007), and LiveScience (Than, 2007) reported on the story of warming on Mars. In these articles, Abdussamatov was quoted. He stated that warming on Mars was evidence that global warming on Earth was being caused by changes in the sun.

text: Habibullo Abdussamatov

text: (2004), head of space research at St. Petersburg's

text: Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory

text: in

text: Russia

text: , has argued that the sun is responsible for recently observed climate change.

text: Journalist

text: s for

text: news

text: sources

text: canada.com

text: (Solomon, 2007b),

text: National Geographic News

text: (Ravillious, 2007), and

text: LiveScience

text: (Than, 2007) reported on the story of warming on

text: Mars

text: . In these articles, Abdussamatov was quoted. He stated that warming on Mars was evidence that global warming on Earth was being caused by changes in the sun.

text: For decades many features on Mars, including ones in Nilosyrtis Mensae, were believed to contain large amounts of ice.  This idea was confirmed by radar studies with the SHAllow RADar (SHARAD) on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.  It showed that lobate debris aprons (LDA) and lineated valley fill (LVF) contain pure water ice covered with a thin layer of rocks that insulated the ice. Ice was found in many locations in the northern hemisphere, including Nilosyrtis Mensae.The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis.  At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees   Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars.

text: For decades many features on Mars, including ones in Nilosyrtis Mensae, were believed to contain large amounts of ice.  This idea was confirmed by radar studies with the SHAllow RADar (SHARAD) on the

text: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: .  It showed that lobate debris aprons (LDA) and lineated valley fill (LVF) contain pure water ice covered with a thin layer of rocks that insulated the ice. Ice was found in many locations in the northern hemisphere, including Nilosyrtis Mensae.The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climate change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis.  At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees   Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars.

text: Insolation, which is simply a measure of the amount of solar radiation received on a given surface area in a given time period, is the fundamental factor behind the Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis. Due to variations in heat capacity, continents heat up faster than surrounding oceans during summer months when insolation is at its strongest and cool off faster than the surrounding oceans during winter months when insolation is at its weakest. The wind pattern that results from the continent/ocean insolation temperature gradient is known as a monsoon. Values of summer insolation are more important for a regions climate than winter values. This is because the winter phase of a monsoon is always dry. Thus the flora and fauna of a monsoonal climate are determined by the amount of rain that falls during the summer phase of the monsoon. Over periods of tens to hundreds of thousands of years the amount of insolation changes in a highly complex cycle that is based on orbital parameters. The result of this cycle of insolation is a waxing and waning in the strength of the monsoonal climates across the globe. A wide range of geologic evidence has shown that the North African Monsoon is particularly susceptible to insolation cycles, and long term trends in monsoonal strength can be linked to slow variations in insolation. However, the abrupt shifts back and forth from the "green Sahara" to the "desert Sahara" are not entirely explained by long term changes in the insolation cycle.

text: Insolation, which is simply a measure of the amount of solar radiation received on a given surface area in a given time period, is the fundamental factor behind the Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis. Due to variations in

text: heat capacity

text: , continents heat up faster than surrounding oceans during summer months when insolation is at its strongest and cool off faster than the surrounding oceans during winter months when insolation is at its weakest. The wind pattern that results from the continent/ocean insolation temperature gradient is known as a

text: monsoon

text: . Values of summer insolation are more important for a regions climate than winter values. This is because the winter phase of a monsoon is always dry. Thus the flora and fauna of a monsoonal climate are determined by the amount of rain that falls during the summer phase of the monsoon. Over periods of tens to hundreds of thousands of years the amount of insolation changes in a highly complex cycle that is based on orbital parameters. The result of this cycle of insolation is a waxing and waning in the strength of the monsoonal climates across the globe. A wide range of geologic evidence has shown that the North African Monsoon is particularly susceptible to insolation cycles, and long term trends in monsoonal strength can be linked to slow variations in insolation. However, the abrupt shifts back and forth from the "green Sahara" to the "desert Sahara" are not entirely explained by long term changes in the insolation cycle.

text: A hearing of the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, chaired by Senator John McCain, was held on 18 July 2000 to discuss the U.S. National Assessment on Climate Change (NACC) report on the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change which had been released in June for a 60-day public comment period. Witnesses included Fred Singer, whose statement cited the Oregon Petition against the Kyoto Protocol to claim that his skeptic views on human causes of climate change were not fringe. He said there had probably been no global warming since the 1940s, and "Satellite data show no appreciable warming of the global atmosphere since 1979. In fact, if one ignores the unusual El Nino year of 1998, one sees a cooling trend." From this, he concluded that "The post-1980 global warming trend from surface thermometers is not credible. The absence of such warming would do away with the widely touted 'hockey stick' graph (with its 'unusual' temperature rise in the past 100 years)". The NACC report as published stated that "New studies indicate that temperatures in recent decades are higher than at any time in at least the past 1,000 years" and featured graphs showing "1000 Years of Global  and Temperature Change". Its list of sources said that the temperature data was from MBH99, but the graph did not show error bars or show which part was reconstruction and which was the instrumental record.

text: A hearing of the

entity_name: United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation

text: United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation

text: , chaired by Senator

text: John McCain

text: , was held on 18 July 2000 to discuss the U.S.

text: National Assessment on Climate Change

text: (NACC) report on the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change which had been released in June for a 60-day public comment period. Witnesses included Fred Singer, whose statement cited the

text: Oregon Petition

text: against the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: to claim that his skeptic views on human causes of climate change were not fringe. He said there had probably been no global warming since the 1940s, and "Satellite data show no appreciable warming of the global atmosphere since 1979. In fact, if one ignores the unusual El Nino year of 1998, one sees a cooling trend." From this, he concluded that "The post-1980 global warming trend from surface thermometers is not credible. The absence of such warming would do away with the widely touted 'hockey stick' graph (with its 'unusual' temperature rise in the past 100 years)". The NACC report as published stated that "New studies indicate that temperatures in recent decades are higher than at any time in at least the past 1,000 years" and featured graphs showing "1000 Years of Global  and Temperature Change". Its list of sources said that the temperature data was from MBH99, but the graph did not show error bars or show which part was reconstruction and which was the instrumental record.

text: Climate change is beginning to lead the global population into a food shortage, greatly affecting our livestock supply. Although the change in our climate is causing us to lose food, these sources are also contributing to climate change, essentially, creating a feedback loop. Greenhouse gases, specifically from livestock, are one of the leading sources furthering global warming; these emissions, which drastically effect climatic change, are also beginning to harm our livestock in ways we could never imagine.

text: Climate change is beginning to lead the global population into a food shortage, greatly affecting our

text: livestock

text: supply. Although the change in our climate is causing us to lose food, these sources are also contributing to climate change, essentially, creating a

text: feedback loop

text: Greenhouse gases

text: , specifically from livestock, are one of the leading sources furthering global warming; these emissions, which drastically effect climatic change, are also beginning to harm our livestock in ways we could never imagine.

text: Callendar effect -Cap and Share -Carbon bubble -Carbon capture and storage -Carbon cycle -Carbon negative -Carbon neutral -Carbon price -Carbon project -Carbon sequestration -Carbon offset -Carbon sink -Carbon tax -Catastrophic climate change -Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change -Clathrate gun hypothesis -Clean coal technology -Clean Energy Trends -Climate -Climate change -Climate change acronyms -Climate Change Act 2008 -Climate change and agriculture -Climate change denial -Climate change feedback -Climate change in Japan -Climate change in popular culture -Climate change mitigation -Climate change mitigation -Climate change mitigation scenarios -Climate commitment -Climate crunch -Climate cycle -Climate engineering -Climate ethics -Climate governance-Climate Investment Funds -Climate model -Climate refugee -Climate risk management -Climate scientists (list) -Climate sensitivity -Climate stabilization wedge -Climate surprise -Climate variability -Climate Vulnerable Forum-Climatic Research Unit email controversy -Cloud feedback -Cloud reflectivity enhancement -Coal phase out -Contraction and Convergence -Contrail -Cool roof -Cool tropics paradox -Coral bleaching

text: Callendar effect

text: Cap and Share

text: Carbon bubble

text: Carbon capture and storage

text: Carbon cycle

text: Carbon negative

text: Carbon neutral

text: Carbon price

text: Carbon project

text: Carbon sequestration

text: Carbon offset

text: Carbon sink

text: Carbon tax

text: Catastrophic climate change

entity_name: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change

text: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change

text: Clathrate gun hypothesis

text: Clean coal technology

text: Clean Energy Trends

text: Climate

text: Climate change

text: Climate change acronyms

text: Climate Change Act 2008

text: Climate change and agriculture

text: Climate change denial

text: Climate change feedback

text: Climate change in Japan

text: Climate change in popular culture

text: Climate change mitigation

text: Climate change mitigation

text: Climate change mitigation scenarios

text: Climate commitment

text: Climate crunch

text: Climate cycle

text: Climate engineering

text: Climate ethics

text: Climate governance

text: Climate Investment Funds

text: Climate model

text: Climate refugee

text: Climate risk management

text: Climate scientists (list)

text: Climate sensitivity

text: Climate stabilization wedge

text: Climate surprise

text: Climate variability

text: Climate Vulnerable Forum

text: Cloud feedback

text: Cloud reflectivity enhancement

text: Coal phase out

text: Contraction and Convergence

text: Contrail

text: Cool roof

text: Cool tropics paradox

text: Coral bleaching

text: The effects of climate change on human systems, mostly due to warming or shifts in precipitation patterns, or both, have been detected worldwide. Production of wheat and maize globally has been impacted by climate change. While crop production has increased in some mid-latitude regions such as the UK and Northeast China, economic losses due to extreme weather events have increased globally. There has been a shift from cold- to heat-related mortality in some regions as a result of warming. Livelihoods of indigenous peoples of the Arctic have been altered by climate change, and there is emerging evidence of climate change impacts on livelihoods of indigenous peoples in other regions. Regional impacts of climate change are now observable at more locations than before, on all continents and across ocean regions.

text: The

text: effects of climate change on human systems

text: , mostly due to warming or shifts in

text: precipitation

text: patterns, or both, have been detected worldwide. Production of wheat and maize globally has been impacted by climate change. While crop production has increased in some mid-latitude regions such as the UK and Northeast China, economic losses due to extreme weather events have increased globally. There has been a shift from cold- to heat-related mortality in some regions as a result of warming. Livelihoods of

text: indigenous peoples of the Arctic

text: have been altered by climate change, and there is emerging evidence of climate change impacts on livelihoods of

text: indigenous peoples

text: in other regions. Regional impacts of climate change are now observable at more locations than before, on all continents and across ocean regions.

text: There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming.  Most discussion and research, including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports, concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100, with only an outline of the effects beyond this.

text: There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming.  Most discussion and research, including that by the

text: (IPCC) reports, concentrates on the effects of

text: global warming

text: up to 2100, with only an outline of the effects beyond this.

text: Earth’s eccentricity can also play a large role in Earth climate change. The role is perhaps not as large of an impact as Earth’s Obliquity, but still large nonetheless. Eccentricity is defined as the difference in shape between an ellipse and a perfect circle. It is also known by a simpler definition as simply being a measurement of how elliptical something is. In the case of climate, eccentricity is applied to the shape of Earth’s orbit. In a similar fashion to Earth’s obliquity, the more uniform Earth’s orbit is (more like a perfect circle), the less difference there is in climate change throughout the year. Unlike obliquity, eccentricity affects the entire planet approximately the same, instead of primarily changing polar climate. The base idea with eccentricity is this: “How far away is the earth as a whole from the sun?” If there is no eccentricity to Earth’s orbit, then Earth will remain at the same distance from the sun throughout the year, therefore producing no climate change, seeing as how the Earth’s orbit would be perfectly circular around the sun. On the other hand, if Earth’s orbit has a very high eccentricity, Earth would be very close to the sun (compared to a perfectly circular orbit) during two opposite seasons, and very far away from the sun during the other two opposite seasons. This effect can be seen by analyzing any ellipse, and observing how flat or how skinny the ellipse becomes as its eccentricity increases. Mathematically, the eccentricity of an ellipse is given by the following equation:

text: Earth’s eccentricity can also play a large role in Earth climate change. The role is perhaps not as large of an impact as Earth’s Obliquity, but still large nonetheless. Eccentricity is defined as the difference in shape between an

text: ellipse

text: and a perfect circle. It is also known by a simpler definition as simply being a measurement of how elliptical something is. In the case of climate, eccentricity is applied to the shape of Earth’s orbit. In a similar fashion to Earth’s obliquity, the more uniform Earth’s orbit is (more like a perfect circle), the less difference there is in climate change throughout the year. Unlike obliquity, eccentricity affects the entire planet approximately the same, instead of primarily changing polar climate. The base idea with eccentricity is this: “How far away is the earth as a whole from the sun?” If there is no eccentricity to Earth’s orbit, then Earth will remain at the same distance from the sun throughout the year, therefore producing no climate change, seeing as how the Earth’s orbit would be perfectly circular around the sun. On the other hand, if Earth’s orbit has a very high eccentricity, Earth would be very close to the sun (compared to a perfectly circular orbit) during two opposite seasons, and very far away from the sun during the other two opposite seasons. This effect can be seen by analyzing any ellipse, and observing how flat or how skinny the ellipse becomes as its eccentricity increases. Mathematically, the eccentricity of an ellipse is given by the following equation:

text: Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions; the latter are widely applied for understanding  and projecting climate change. The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts; however, atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area, such as wildfires.

text: Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions; the latter are widely applied for understanding  and projecting

text: climate change

text: . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in

text: tropical cyclone track

text: and

text: air quality

text: forecasts; however, atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area, such as

text: wildfire

text: s.

text: Climatic factors may be very important, but on a much longer time-scale than any other. Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will promote changes in communities. As the climate warmed at the end of each ice age, great successional changes took place. The tundra vegetation and bare glacial till deposits underwent succession to mixed deciduous forest. The greenhouse effect resulting in increase in temperature is likely to bring profound Allogenic changes in the next century. Geological and climatic catastrophes such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, avalanches, meteors, floods, fires, and high wind also bring allogenic changes.

text: Originally, the glacial and interglacial periods of the Quaternary Ice Age were named after characteristic geological features, and these names varied from region to region. It is now more common for researchers to refer to the periods by their marine isotopic stage number. The marine record preserves all the past glaciations; the land-based evidence is less complete because successive glaciations may wipe out evidence of their predecessors. Ice cores from continental ice accumulations also provide a complete record, but do not go as far back in time as marine data.  Pollen data from lakes and bogs as well as loess profiles provided important land-based correlation data. The names system has not been completely filled out since the technical discussion moved to using marine isotopic stage numbers.  For example, there are five Pleistocene glacial/interglacial cycles recorded in marine sediments during the last half million years, but only three classic interglacials were originally recognized on land during that period (Mindel, Riss and Würm).

text: Originally, the glacial and interglacial periods of the Quaternary Ice Age were named after characteristic geological features, and these names varied from region to region. It is now more common for researchers to refer to the periods by their

text: marine isotopic stage

text: number. The marine record preserves all the past glaciations; the land-based evidence is less complete because successive glaciations may wipe out evidence of their predecessors.

text: Ice cores

text: from continental ice accumulations also provide a complete record, but do not go as far back in time as marine data.

text: Pollen

text: data from lakes and bogs as well as

text: loess

text: profiles provided important land-based correlation data. The names system has not been completely filled out since the technical discussion moved to using marine isotopic stage numbers.  For example, there are five Pleistocene glacial/interglacial cycles recorded in marine sediments during the last half million years, but only three classic interglacials were originally recognized on land during that period (

text: Mindel

text: Riss

text: and

text: Würm

text: On September 14, 2007, Palin signed an administrative order creating a Climate Change Sub-Cabinet charged with preparing a climate change strategy for Alaska.  Palin ignored requests to establish an Alaska Office on Climate Change, an Alaska Climate Response Fund, and emissions reduction targets. Within her executive order, Palin described warming as a "global challenge" and sought "opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from Alaska sources, including the expanded use of alternative fuels, energy conservation, energy efficiency, renewable energy, land use management, and transportation planning." In April 2009 Palin acknowledged that "Simply waiting for low-carbon-emitting renewable capacity to be large enough will mean that it will be too late to meet the mitigation goals for reducing [carbon dioxide] that will be required under most credible climate-change models." But in December 2009 she wrote, "any potential benefits of proposed emissions reduction policies are far outweighed by their economic costs."

text: On September 14, 2007, Palin signed an administrative order creating a Climate Change Sub-Cabinet charged with preparing a climate change strategy for Alaska.  Palin ignored requests to establish an Alaska Office on Climate Change, an Alaska Climate Response Fund, and emissions reduction targets. Within her executive order, Palin described warming as a "global challenge" and sought "opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from Alaska sources, including the expanded use of

text: alternative fuel

text: s, energy conservation, energy efficiency, renewable energy, land use management, and transportation planning." In April 2009 Palin acknowledged that "Simply waiting for low-carbon-emitting renewable capacity to be large enough will mean that it will be too late to meet the mitigation goals for reducing [carbon dioxide] that will be required under most credible climate-change models." But in December 2009 she wrote, "any potential benefits of proposed emissions reduction policies are far outweighed by their economic costs."

text: Assessing the impact of long-term irradiance changes on climate requires greater instrument stability combined with reliable global surface temperature observations to quantify climate response processes to radiative forcing on decadal time scales. The observed 0.1% irradiance increase imparts 0.22 W m−2 climate forcing, which suggests a transient climate response of 0.6 °C per W m−2. This response is larger by a factor of 2 or more than in the IPCC-assessed 2008 models, possibly appearing in the models' heat uptake by the ocean.

text: Research in the Salawusu River Area in 1978 delineated the strata of the Salawusu River in the area of the Mu Us Sandy Land. This suggests that the prehistoric climate was mild and wet with numerous rivers and lakes, yet limited plant life and wildlife in the early stage of the Late Pleistocene age. The climate became dry and cold while eolian sand began to accumulate in the later stage of the Late Pleistocene age. The climate changed again to mild and wet early in the Holocene Epoch as lakes with marsh sediments formed. Later, the climate changed back to dry and cold, allowing a semi-arid steppe landscape to form. These climatic fluctuations were caused by the glacial and interglacial periods of the Northern Hemisphere. The Mu Us Sandy Land underwent a series of changes, including the formation shifting sands as well as the fixation and reduction of dunes.

text: Research in the Salawusu River Area in 1978 delineated the

text: strata

text: of the Salawusu River in the area of the Mu Us Sandy Land. This suggests that the prehistoric climate was mild and wet with numerous rivers and lakes, yet limited plant life and wildlife in the early stage of the

text: Late Pleistocene

text: age. The climate became dry and cold while

text: eolian

text: sand began to accumulate in the later stage of the Late Pleistocene age. The climate changed again to mild and wet early in the

text: Holocene Epoch

text: as lakes with marsh sediments formed. Later, the climate changed back to dry and cold, allowing a semi-arid steppe landscape to form. These climatic fluctuations were caused by the

text: glacial

text: and

text: interglacial

text: periods of the

text: Northern Hemisphere

text: . The Mu Us Sandy Land underwent a series of changes, including the formation shifting sands as well as the fixation and reduction of dunes.

text: Glaciation in the Pleistocene was a series of glacials and interglacials, stadials and interstadials, mirroring periodic changes in climate. The main factor at work in climate cycling is now believed to be Milankovitch cycles. These are periodic variations in regional and planetary solar radiation reaching the Earth caused by several repeating changes in the Earth's motion.

text: Glaciation in the Pleistocene was a series of glacials and interglacials, stadials and interstadials, mirroring periodic changes in climate. The main factor at work in climate cycling is now believed to be

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: . These are periodic variations in regional and planetary solar radiation reaching the Earth caused by several repeating changes in the Earth's motion.

text: In 1980, a group of scientists led by Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin set up an international program called the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), to determine whether the climate was changing, whether climate could be predicted and whether humans were in some way responsible for the change. The programme was sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization and the International Council for Science (ICSU). As time went on, there was a growing realisation that climate change was one part of a larger phenomenon, global change. In 1987, a team of researchers, led again by Bert Bolin, James McCarthy, Paul Crutzen, H. Oeschger and others,  successfully argued for an international research programme to investigate global change. This programme, sponsored by ICSU, is the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP). The programme has eight projects investigating different parts of the Earth system and links between them.

text: In 1980, a group of scientists led by Swedish meteorologist

text: Bert Bolin

text: set up an international program called the

text: World Climate Research Programme

text: (WCRP), to determine whether the climate was changing, whether climate could be predicted and whether humans were in some way responsible for the change. The programme was sponsored by the

text: World Meteorological Organization

text: and the

text: International Council for Science

text: (ICSU). As time went on, there was a growing realisation that climate change was one part of a larger phenomenon, global change. In 1987, a team of researchers, led again by Bert Bolin, James McCarthy,

text: Paul Crutzen

text: , H. Oeschger and others,  successfully argued for an international research programme to investigate global change. This programme, sponsored by ICSU, is the

text: International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme

text: (IGBP). The programme has eight projects investigating different parts of the Earth system and links between them.

text: There are many ways to date a core. Once dated, it gives valuable information about changes of climate and terrain. For example, cores in the ocean floor, soil and ice have altered the view of the geologic history of the Pleistocene entirely.

text: There are many ways to date a core. Once dated, it gives valuable information about changes of climate and

text: terrain

text: . For example, cores in the ocean floor, soil and ice have altered the view of the geologic history of the

text: Pleistocene

text: entirely.

text: A 2013 study published in the peer-reviewed journal Environmental Research Letters analyzed 11,944 abstracts from papers published in the peer-reviewed scientific literature between 1991 and 2011, identified by searching the ISI Web of Science citation index engine for the text strings "global climate change" or "global warming". The authors found that 3974 of the abstracts expressed a position on anthropogenic global warming, and that 97.1% of those endorsed the consensus that humans are causing global warming. The authors found that of the 11,944 abstracts, 3896 endorsed that consensus, 7930 took no position on it, 78 rejected the consensus, and 40 expressed uncertainty about it.

text: A 2013 study published in the peer-reviewed journal

text: Environmental Research Letters

text: analyzed 11,944 abstracts from papers published in the peer-reviewed scientific literature between 1991 and 2011, identified by searching the

text: ISI Web of Science

text: citation index

text: engine for the text strings "global climate change" or "global warming". The authors found that 3974 of the abstracts expressed a position on anthropogenic global warming, and that 97.1% of those endorsed the consensus that humans are causing global warming. The authors found that of the 11,944 abstracts, 3896 endorsed that consensus, 7930 took no position on it, 78 rejected the consensus, and 40 expressed uncertainty about it.

text: Environmental conditions play a key role in defining the function and distribution of plants, in combination with other factors. Changes in long term environmental conditions that can be collectively coined climate change are known to have had enormous impacts on plant diversity patterns in the future and are seen as having significant current impacts. It is predicted that climate change will remain one of the major drivers of biodiversity patterns in the future.

text: Environmental conditions play a key role in defining the function and

text: distribution

text: of

text: plants

text: , in combination with other factors. Changes in long term environmental conditions that can be collectively coined

text: climate change

text: are known to have had enormous impacts on plant diversity patterns in the future and are seen as having significant current impacts. It is predicted that climate change will remain one of the major drivers of

text: biodiversity

text: patterns in the future.

text: Brown coal has 3 times the climate change and global warming causing GHG emissions per KWh of electricity produced as natural gas. Hazelwood is commonly regarded as the most greenhouse gas polluting power station in Australia. If as is expected after the release of the report of the Garnaut Climate Change Review a cap and trade emissions trading scheme is adopted to reduce the effects of global warming on Australia, electricity produced by burning brown coal will be expected to increase significantly in price.An open cut mine for Hazelwood power plant caught fire, shrouding residents in Morwell with coal dust for about a monthCoal mines in Victoria currently operating:

text: Brown coal has 3 times the

text: climate change

text: and

text: global warming

text: causing GHG emissions per KWh of electricity produced as natural gas. Hazelwood is commonly regarded as the most greenhouse gas polluting power station in Australia. If as is expected after the release of the report of the

text: Garnaut Climate Change Review

text: a

text: cap and trade

text: emissions trading scheme

text: is adopted to reduce the

text: effects of global warming on Australia

text: , electricity produced by burning brown coal will be expected to increase significantly in price.An open cut mine for Hazelwood power plant caught fire, shrouding residents in Morwell with coal dust for about a monthCoal mines in Victoria currently operating:

text: Correlated with the most recent speciation was a climatic change period. It has been proposed that this climate change likely would have desiccated the central highlands of Eastern Madagascar. The change in climate and habitat is likely the cause of the recent speciation. Evidence for this is that the habitat for Goodman’s Lemur does not overlap with any other mouse lemurs. The habitat would have changed in such a way that the lemurs that would become Goodman's mouse lemur would be the only ones that could survive in that habitat.

text: The MAB also released reports in 2010, 2011, and 2014  The May 2014 report, "National Security and the Accelerating Risks of Climate Change" re-examines the impact of climate change on U.S. national security.

text: Some evidence weighs against climate change as a valid hypothesis as applied to Australia. It has been shown that the prevailing climate at the time of extinction (40,000–50,000 BP) was similar to that of today, and that the extinct animals were strongly adapted to an arid climate. The evidence indicates that all of the extinctions took place in the same short time period, which was the time when humans entered the landscape. The main mechanism for extinction was probably fire (started by humans) in a then much less fire-adapted landscape. Isotopic evidence shows sudden changes in the diet of surviving species, which could correspond to the stress they experienced before extinction.

text: The conference endorsed the work of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC), which is a group of skeptics led by Fred Singer that disputes the positions of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).Singer prepared a critique of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report called "Nature, Not Human Activity, Rules the Climate". This NIPCC report was published in March 2008 by the Heartland Institute. ABC News said the same month that unnamed climate scientists from NASA, Stanford, and Princeton who spoke to ABC about the report dismissed it as "fabricated nonsense." In a letter of complaint to ABC News, Singer said their piece used "prejudicial language, distorted facts, libelous insinuations, and anonymous smears". Singer also said that the anonymous scientists, "are easily identified as the well-known global warming zealots Jim Hansen, Michael Oppenheimer and Steve Schneider."

text: The conference endorsed the work of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC), which is a group of skeptics led by

text: Fred Singer

text: that disputes the positions of the

text: United Nations

text: (IPCC).Singer prepared a critique of the

text: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report

text: called "Nature, Not Human Activity, Rules the Climate". This NIPCC report was published in March 2008 by the Heartland Institute.

text: ABC News

text: said the same month that unnamed climate scientists from NASA, Stanford, and Princeton who spoke to ABC about the report dismissed it as "fabricated nonsense." In a letter of complaint to ABC News, Singer said their piece used "prejudicial language, distorted facts, libelous insinuations, and anonymous smears". Singer also said that the anonymous scientists, "are easily identified as the well-known global warming zealots

text: Jim Hansen

text: Michael Oppenheimer

text: and

text: Steve Schneider

text: Bennett et al. (1992) was among the first attempts to unify the themes of the Earth Summit (1992) - both biodiversity and climate change - into an adaptation response for land-use change at the regional and sub-continental level. The abbreviated "biolinks” has become a generic term in common use and in literature (Wilson 2009) reflecting a broad resonance of the original intent of the new land-use type within various communities (land-use planners, ecologists, community groups). In concept, biolink zones are equivalent to the "bold connectivity zones" later proposed by Opdam and Wascher (2004) for adaptation to climate change and are consistent with restoration of habitat connectivity to alleviate past and current fragmentation in Australia (Soule et al. 2004). Hilty et al. (2006) in a global review of wildlife corridors, suggests continental scale re-connectivity (biolinks) as the only realistic alternative for resolution of the global conservation issues of fragmentation and climate change. In fragmented, agricultural landscapes of Australia, biolink zones have been proposed between large areas of remaining native vegetation and potential climatic refugia with future landscapes supporting 30% > 50% of quality native vegetation and habitats, representing new bio-cultural landscapes more resilient under future climates (Mansergh et al. 2008 a, b). In more ecological intact landscapes, biolink zones become a purposeful aim of management (agencies) for explicit adaptation to climate change. Biolink zones can be viewed at scales from regional to continental. Establishment is compatible with carbon sequestration (soils and vegetation), improved landscape resilience and as part of a more holistic adaptation response of land-use to climate change (Mansergh 2009). In terms of policy development, defined biolink zones are a key policy direction for land-use change to increase the resilience of biodiversity in adapting future climates in Victoria (Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria 2009). In the US, the Natural Resources Climate Adaptation Act of 2009 (S. 1933) has been introduced to the Senate which would require federal agencies to produce a national strategy “to maximize the resilience of landscapes and to minimize adverse climate change impacts.”

text: Bennett et al. (1992) was among the first attempts to unify the themes of the

text: Earth Summit

text: (1992) - both biodiversity and climate change - into an adaptation response for land-use change at the regional and sub-continental level. The abbreviated "biolinks” has become a generic term in common use and in literature (Wilson 2009) reflecting a broad resonance of the original intent of the new land-use type within various communities (

text: land-use planners

text: ecologist

text: s, community groups). In concept, biolink zones are equivalent to the "bold connectivity zones" later proposed by Opdam and Wascher (2004) for adaptation to climate change and are consistent with restoration of habitat connectivity to alleviate past and current fragmentation in Australia (Soule et al. 2004). Hilty et al. (2006) in a global review of

text: wildlife corridor

text: s, suggests continental scale re-connectivity (biolinks) as the only realistic alternative for resolution of the global conservation issues of

text: fragmentation

text: and climate change. In fragmented, agricultural landscapes of Australia, biolink zones have been proposed between large areas of remaining native

text: vegetation

text: and potential climatic refugia with future landscapes supporting 30% > 50% of quality native vegetation and habitats, representing new bio-cultural landscapes more resilient under future climates (Mansergh et al. 2008 a, b). In more ecological intact landscapes, biolink zones become a purposeful aim of management (agencies) for explicit adaptation to climate change. Biolink zones can be viewed at scales from regional to continental. Establishment is compatible with

text: carbon sequestration

text: (soils and vegetation), improved landscape resilience and as part of a more holistic adaptation response of land-use to climate change (Mansergh 2009). In terms of policy development, defined biolink zones are a key policy direction for land-use change to increase the resilience of biodiversity in adapting future climates in

text: Victoria

text: (Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria 2009). In the US, the Natural Resources Climate Adaptation Act of 2009 (S. 1933) has been introduced to the Senate which would require federal agencies to produce a national strategy “to maximize the resilience of landscapes and to minimize adverse climate change impacts.”

text: The body of research providing evidence of global trends in climate change has led investors – pension funds, holders of insurance reserves – to begin to screen investments in terms of their impact on the perceived factors of climate change. Fossil fuel reliant industries are less attractive. In the UK, investment policies were particularly affected by the conclusions of the Stern Review in 2006, a report commissioned by the British government to provide an economic analysis of the issues associated with climate change. Its conclusions pointed towards the necessity of including considerations of climate change and environmental issues in all financial calculations and that the benefits of early action on climate change would outweigh its costs.

text: The body of research providing evidence of global trends in climate change has led investors – pension funds, holders of insurance reserves – to begin to screen investments in terms of their impact on the perceived factors of climate change. Fossil fuel reliant industries are less attractive. In the UK, investment policies were particularly affected by the conclusions of the

text: Stern Review

text: in 2006, a report commissioned by the British government to provide an economic analysis of the issues associated with climate change. Its conclusions pointed towards the necessity of including considerations of climate change and environmental issues in all financial calculations and that the benefits of early action on climate change would outweigh its costs.

text: Much of Weitzman's research is focused on climate change. Traditional cost-benefit analysis of climate change looks at the costs of reducing global warming (the cost of reducing greenhouse gas emissions) versus the benefits (potentially stopping or slowing climate change). However, in most analyses, the damages that would stem from dramatic climate change are not taken into consideration. Weitzman has added dramatic climate change to the cost-benefit analysis to show that immediate measures must be taken in regards to climate change regulation.

text: Much of Weitzman's research is focused on climate change. Traditional cost-benefit analysis of climate change looks at the costs of reducing

text: global warming

text: (the cost of reducing greenhouse gas emissions) versus the benefits (potentially stopping or slowing climate change). However, in most analyses, the damages that would stem from dramatic climate change are not taken into consideration. Weitzman has added dramatic

text: climate change

text: to the

text: cost-benefit analysis

text: to show that immediate measures must be taken in regards to climate change regulation.

text: Migration related to climate change is likely to be predominantly from rural areas in developing countries to towns and cities. In the short term climate stress is likely to add incrementally to existing migration patterns rather than generating entirely new flows of people.

text: Migration related to climate change is likely to be predominantly from

text: rural area

text: s in

text: developing countries

text: to towns and

text: cities

text: . In the short term climate stress is likely to add incrementally to existing migration patterns rather than generating entirely new flows of people.

text: Analogy is a usual geologist method, using the present day observations and project/adapt it to the ancient earth systems. The main problem of this technique is the time-scale considered and the observation methods used. Most of the time, observations of active ice-sheet processes are instantaneous at geological time-scale and hard to apply in the ancient. Furthermore, in the ancient, field and geophysical studies are carried out at lower resolution but on a wider scale (time and space). Finally, even if Subglacial lakes are observed below ice sheets, melt-water drainage system processes ongoing, especially like the tunnel valleys remain unobserved directly. The record of these huge subglacial "rivers" is mainly analysed via the recent ice ages imprints (Weichselian, Saalian and Pre-Illinoian or Elsterian stages) and in the ancient one (Late Ordovician and Permo-Carboniferous)	The idea of GRASP is to use methods commonly applied in the ancient onto recent glaciation record (Pleistocene). In the ancient, wide datasets are acquired by oil companies during exploration of sedimentary basins. By using the same type of data for the Pleistocene glacial record, the project tries to generate data comparable in between ancient and recent glaciations. The studied area is the North Sea that was glaciated during the Last Glacial Maximum as well as the Northwestern Europe. On the sea floor, around the North Sea and into the kilometre of sediments below, many traces and evidences of the glacial events are recorded. As this place is a petroleum province, many data, especially geophysics ones are currently released or could be borrowed for academic purposes.		So, by joining the skills of three different universities, with the help of many data providers and the funding of six oil companies, new income is made into the knowledge of paleo-glacial systems. Basin analysis containing geophysical, reservoir and sedimentological models are produced in a new way and in a new type of environment. In an economic point of view, oil companies are interested in these models to have comparable data with their oil fields. In an academic one, understanding the recent ice sheet dynamic and is associated subglacial meltwater flow is crucial in the context of climate changes or fundamentally solving the intricate glacial record equation of recent and past ice ages.

text: Analogy

text: is a usual geologist method, using the present day observations and project/adapt it to the ancient earth systems. The main problem of this technique is the time-scale considered and the observation methods used. Most of the time, observations of active ice-sheet processes are instantaneous at geological time-scale and hard to apply in the ancient. Furthermore, in the ancient, field and geophysical studies are carried out at lower resolution but on a wider scale (time and space). Finally, even if

text: Subglacial lake

text: s are observed below ice sheets, melt-water drainage system processes ongoing, especially like the

text: tunnel valley

text: s remain unobserved directly. The record of these huge subglacial "rivers" is mainly analysed via the recent ice ages imprints (

text: Weichselian

text: Saalian

text: and

text: Pre-Illinoian

text: or

text: Elsterian

text: stages) and in the ancient one (

text: Late Ordovician

text: and

text: Permo-Carboniferous

text: )	The idea of GRASP is to use methods commonly applied in the ancient onto recent glaciation record (

text: Pleistocene

text: ). In the ancient, wide datasets are acquired by oil companies during exploration of

text: sedimentary basin

text: s. By using the same type of data for the

text: Pleistocene

text: glacial record, the project tries to generate data comparable in between ancient and recent glaciations. The studied area is the

text: North Sea

text: that was glaciated during the

text: Last Glacial Maximum

text: as well as the Northwestern Europe. On the sea floor, around the North Sea and into the kilometre of sediments below, many traces and evidences of the glacial events are recorded. As this place is a petroleum province, many data, especially geophysics ones are currently released or could be borrowed for academic purposes.		So, by joining the skills of three different universities, with the help of many data providers and the funding of six oil companies, new income is made into the knowledge of paleo-glacial systems. Basin analysis containing geophysical, reservoir and sedimentological models are produced in a new way and in a new type of environment. In an economic point of view, oil companies are interested in these models to have comparable data with their oil fields. In an academic one, understanding the recent ice sheet dynamic and is associated subglacial meltwater flow is crucial in the context of

text: climate change

text: s or fundamentally solving the intricate glacial record equation of recent and past ice ages.

text: Climate change is a long-term hazard which can increase or decrease the risk of other weather hazards, and also directly endangers property due to sea level rise and biological organisms due to habitat destruction.

text: Climate change

text: is a long-term hazard which can increase or decrease the risk of other weather hazards, and also directly endangers property due to

text: sea level rise

text: and biological organisms due to

text: habitat

text: destruction.

text: The events at the K–Pg boundary were the influences of several theories on how the climate change and extinction event could have taken place. These hypotheses have centered on either impact events or increased volcanism or both. The consensus among paleontologists is that the main cause was an asteroid impact that severely disrupted the Earth's biosphere causing catastrophic changes to the Earth's climate and ushering in a new era of climate and life.

text: The events at the K–Pg boundary were the influences of several theories on how the climate change and extinction event could have taken place. These hypotheses have centered on either impact events or increased volcanism or both. The consensus among paleontologists is that the main cause was an asteroid impact that severely disrupted the Earth's

text: biosphere

text: causing catastrophic changes to the Earth's climate and ushering in a new era of climate and life.

text: Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. But recent calculations suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peatland emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with a range from 6 to 17%. Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces a layer in the atmosphere that traps radiation from the sun. The radiation converts to heat which causes global warming, which is better known as the greenhouse effect. Plants remove carbon in the form of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis, but release some carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can a tree or forest remove carbon, by storing it in plant tissues. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. In order for forests to take up carbon, there must be a net accumulation of wood. One way is for the wood to be harvested and turned into long-lived products, with new young trees replacing them. Deforestation may also cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forests can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide (see carbon dioxide sink and carbon cycle).

text: Deforestation is a contributor to global warming

text: , and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions. According to the

text: deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total

text: anthropogenic

text: carbon dioxide

text: emissions. But recent calculations suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding

text: peatland

text: emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with a range from 6 to 17%. Deforestation causes carbon dioxide to linger in the atmosphere. As carbon dioxide accrues, it produces a layer in the atmosphere that traps radiation from the sun. The radiation converts to heat which causes global warming, which is better known as the greenhouse effect. Plants remove

text: carbon

text: in the form of

text: carbon dioxide

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: during the process of

text: photosynthesis

text: , but release some carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can a tree or forest remove carbon, by storing it in plant tissues. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. In order for forests to take up carbon, there must be a net accumulation of wood. One way is for the wood to be harvested and turned into long-lived products, with new young trees replacing them. Deforestation may also cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forests can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide (see

text: carbon dioxide sink

text: and

text: carbon cycle

text: Schneider's research included modeling of the atmosphere, climate change, and the effect of global climate change on biological systems. Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications. He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II IPCC TAR and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) at the time of his death. During the 1980s, Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming. In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies. In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31% of its electricity generation coming from renewables.

text: Schneider's research included modeling of the

text: atmosphere

text: climate change

text: , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems. Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal

text: Climatic Change

text: and authored or co-authored over 450

text: scientific paper

text: s and other publications. He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II IPCC

text: TAR

text: and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the

text: Fourth Assessment Report

text: (AR4) at the time of his death. During the 1980s, Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions to combat

text: global warming

text: . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an

text: Adelaide Thinker in Residence

text: advising the

text: South Australian Government

text: of Premier

text: Mike Rann

text: on climate change and

text: renewable energy

text: policies. In ten years

text: South Australia

text: went from zero to 31% of its electricity generation coming from renewables.

text: Much adaptation takes place in relation to short-term climate variability, however this may cause maladaptation to longer-term climatic trends. For example, the expansion of irrigation in Egypt into the Western Sinai desert due to a period of higher river flows is a maladaptation when viewed in relation to the longer term projections of drying in the region). Adaptations at one scale can also create externalities at another by reducing the adaptive capacity of other actors. This is often the case when broad assessments of the costs and benefits of adaptation are examined at smaller scales and it is possible to see that whilst the adaptation may benefit some actors, it has a negative effect on others.

text: Much adaptation takes place in relation to short-term climate variability, however this may cause

text: maladaptation

text: to longer-term climatic trends. For example, the expansion of irrigation in Egypt into the Western Sinai desert due to a period of higher river flows is a maladaptation when viewed in relation to the longer term projections of drying in the region). Adaptations at one scale can also create externalities at another by reducing the adaptive capacity of other actors. This is often the case when broad assessments of the costs and benefits of adaptation are examined at smaller scales and it is possible to see that whilst the adaptation may benefit some actors, it has a negative effect on others.

text: Along with global warming, generalized climate change is an ongoing global commons concern.  Although global warming is now a generally accepted scientific observation, the precise causes of global warming are still a matter of research and debate. The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and prevent potentially harmful anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) interference in the climate system. There are 192 parties to the convention, including 191 states and the European Union, but not all have ratified and implemented the protocol.

text: Along with global warming, generalized

text: climate change

text: is an ongoing global commons concern.  Although global warming is now a generally accepted scientific observation, the precise causes of global warming are still a matter of research and debate. The

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: to the

text: (UNFCCC) is an international environmental treaty that sets binding obligations on industrialised countries to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and prevent potentially harmful anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) interference in the climate system. There are 192 parties to the convention, including 191 states and the

text: European Union

text: , but not all have ratified and implemented the protocol.

text: One difficulty in detecting climate cycles is that the Earth's climate has been changing in non-cyclic ways over most paleoclimatological timescales. For instance, we are now in a period of global warming that appears anthropogenic. In a larger timeframe, the Earth is emerging from the latest ice age, cooling from the Holocene climatic optimum and warming from the so-called "Little Ice Age", which means that climate has been constantly changing over the last 15,000 years or so. During warm periods, temperature fluctuations are often of a lesser amplitude. The Pleistocene period, dominated by repeated glaciations, developed out of more stable conditions in the Miocene and Pliocene climate. Holocene climate has been relatively stable. All of these changes complicate the task of looking for cyclical behavior in the climate.

text: One difficulty in detecting climate cycles is that the Earth's climate has been changing in non-cyclic ways over most paleoclimatological timescales. For instance, we are now in a period of global warming that appears anthropogenic. In a larger timeframe, the Earth is

text: emerging

text: from the latest ice age, cooling from the

text: Holocene climatic optimum

text: and warming from the so-called "

text: Little Ice Age

text: ", which means that climate has been constantly changing over the last 15,000 years or so. During warm periods, temperature fluctuations are often of a lesser amplitude. The

text: Pleistocene

text: period, dominated by repeated

text: glaciation

text: s, developed out of more stable conditions in the

text: Miocene

text: and

text: Pliocene

text: climate

text: . Holocene climate has been relatively stable. All of these changes complicate the task of looking for cyclical behavior in the climate.

text: The report claims that climate change fuelled by human activities is already interfering with the climate, leading to effects that are dangerous for people and the planet. According to the report, the rate of change and effects of heat, wind, rain, deserts, sea level, and other impacts result in 350,000 deaths per year. The report states that the effects of climate change could contribute to the deaths of 5 million people by 2020 and cause as many as 1 million deaths per year by 2030 if global warming isn't slowed. Heat, wind, and water shortages put pressure on the habitat of approximately 2.5 million people. Storms, floods, and wildfires are estimated to leave an additional $5 billion in damage each year, while rising seas cost 1% of GDP to the lowest-income countries – 4% in the Pacific – with 65 billion dollars annually lost from the world economy.

text: The report claims that climate change fuelled by human activities is already interfering with the climate, leading to effects that are dangerous for people and the planet. According to the report, the rate of change and effects of heat, wind, rain, deserts,

text: sea level

text: , and other impacts result in 350,000 deaths per year. The report states that the effects of climate change could contribute to the deaths of 5 million people by 2020 and cause as many as 1 million deaths per year by 2030 if

text: global warming

text: isn't slowed. Heat, wind, and

text: water shortage

text: s put pressure on the habitat of approximately 2.5 million people. Storms, floods, and wildfires are estimated to leave an additional $5 billion in damage each year, while rising seas cost 1% of GDP to the lowest-income countries – 4% in the

text: Pacific

text: – with 65 billion dollars annually lost from the

text: world economy

text: The Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age. It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs.

text: The Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR) was an important episode of cooling in the

text: climate

text: history of the Earth during the

text: deglaciation

text: at the close of the last

text: ice age

text: . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the

text: Pleistocene

text: to the

text: Holocene

text: Epochs.

text: El Nino affects the global climate and disrupts normal weather patterns, which as a result can lead to intense storms in some places and droughts in others.

text: Humlum is a member of the Norwegian organization Climate Realists which opposes the scientific assessment of climate change that is expressed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. He is active in Norwegian and Danish debate about the issue, arguing that current climate change is mainly a natural phenomenon. Together with Jan-Erik Solheim and Kjel Stordahl, he published the article "Identifying natural contributions to late Holocene climate change" in Global and Planetary Change in 2011. The article argued that changes in the sun's and moon's impact on earth explains most of both historical and current climate changes. The theory in the article was opposed by several scientists. He projected in 2013 that the climate most likely will become colder in the next 10–15 years.

text: Humlum is a member of the Norwegian organization

text: Climate Realists

text: which opposes the scientific assessment of climate change that is expressed by the

text: . He is active in Norwegian and Danish debate about the issue, arguing that current climate change is mainly a natural phenomenon. Together with Jan-Erik Solheim and Kjel Stordahl, he published the article "Identifying natural contributions to late Holocene climate change" in Global and Planetary Change in 2011. The article argued that changes in the sun's and moon's impact on earth explains most of both historical and current climate changes. The theory in the article was opposed by several scientists. He projected in 2013 that the climate most likely will become colder in the next 10–15 years.

text: Marine mammals have evolved to live in the ocean, but the effects of climate change are rapidly altering their habitat. The climate change for arctic marine mammals by studying the difference in their habitat, distribution, abundance, movement and migration, body conditions, behavior, and their sensitivity. The climate change is drastically changing, so it is hard for some arctic marine mammals to adapt to the new conditions as quickly as needed, so the arctic marine mammals are being studied to see what happens to them due to the high stress they are put in due to the rapidly changing climate change. These climate changes put the arctic marine mammals in immense pressure and stress, due to this many species who cannot adapt begin to slowly die off due to the extra stress. As levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increase they trap heat which causes an overall warming of the planet. During the last century, the global average land and sea surface temperature has increased dramatically. Warming has reached down to about 700 meters and more (per a study which finds that 30% of the ocean warming, over the past decade, has occurred in the deeper oceans below 700 meters). Many marine mammal species require specific temperature ranges in which they must live. The warming of the ocean will cause changes in the species migration or area that they inhibit. The species that cannot relocate due to some type of barrier will be forced to adapt to the increasingly warming sea waters or they will face extinction. Many of the species ranges are being pushed further and further north as water temperatures increase and they will soon have nowhere else to go.

text: Marine mammals have evolved to live in the ocean, but the effects of climate change are rapidly altering their habitat. The climate change for arctic marine mammals by studying the difference in their habitat, distribution, abundance, movement and migration, body conditions, behavior, and their sensitivity. The climate change is drastically changing, so it is hard for some arctic marine mammals to adapt to the new conditions as quickly as needed, so the arctic marine mammals are being studied to see what happens to them due to the high stress they are put in due to the rapidly changing climate change. These climate changes put the arctic marine mammals in immense pressure and stress, due to this many species who cannot adapt begin to slowly die off due to the extra stress. As levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increase they trap heat which causes an overall warming of the planet. During the last century, the global average land and

text: sea surface temperature

text: has increased dramatically. Warming has reached down to about 700 meters and more (per a study which finds that 30% of the ocean warming, over the past decade, has occurred in the deeper oceans below 700 meters). Many

text: marine mammal

text: species require specific temperature ranges in which they must live. The warming of the ocean will cause changes in the species migration or area that they inhibit. The species that cannot relocate due to some type of barrier will be forced to adapt to the increasingly warming sea waters or they will face extinction. Many of the species ranges are being pushed further and further north as water temperatures increase and they will soon have nowhere else to go.

text: Germany is one of the world's strongest supporters for ecological awareness in response to climate change and global warming.

text: Germany is one of the world's strongest supporters for ecological awareness in response to

text: climate change

text: and

text: global warming

text: Richard Siegmund Lindzen (born February 8, 1940) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere, atmospheric tides, and ozone photochemistry. He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books. From 1983 until his retirement in 2013, he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was a lead author of Chapter 7, "Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks," of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Third Assessment Report on climate change. He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change and what he has called "climate alarmism."

text: Richard Siegmund Lindzen (born February 8, 1940) is an American

text: atmospheric physicist

text: known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere,

text: atmospheric tides

text: , and

text: ozone

text: photochemistry

text: . He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books. From 1983 until his retirement in 2013, he was

text: Alfred P. Sloan

text: Professor of

text: Meteorology

text: at the

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

text: . He was a lead author of Chapter 7, "Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks," of the

text: 's

text: Third Assessment Report

text: on

text: climate change

text: . He has criticized the

text: scientific consensus about climate change

text: and what he has called "climate alarmism."

text: Unusual climatic extremes began to occur during the Pliocene epoch, four million years ago. In the Pleistocene epoch that followed, these fluctuations culminated in a number of extensive ice ages, which ended, in central Europe, around 12,000 years ago. (For details, see the last glacial period and climate history.)

text: Unusual climatic extremes began to occur during the

text: Pliocene

text: epoch, four million years ago. In the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch that followed, these fluctuations culminated in a number of extensive

text: ice age

text: s, which ended, in central Europe, around 12,000 years ago. (For details, see the

text: last glacial period

text: and

text: climate history

text: His reputation as a climate change denier became national when he and four government colleagues disagreed with others of their party in a dissenting committee report regarding climate change.

text: His reputation as a

text: climate change denier

text: became national when he and four government colleagues disagreed with others of their party in a dissenting

entity_name: Australian House of Representatives committees

text: committee

text: report regarding climate change.

text: Another potential effect of global warming to norther ecosystems is the melting of permafrost.  This can have significant effects on the plant communities that are adapted to the frozen soil, and may also have implications for further climate change.  As permafrost melts, any trees growing above it may die, and the land shifts from forest to peatland.  In the far north, shrubs may later take over what was formerly tundra.  The precise effect depends on whether the water that was locked up is able to drain off.  In either case, the habitat will undergo a shift.  Melting permafrost may also accelerate climate change in the future.  Within the permafrost, vast quantities of carbon are locked up.  If this soil melts, the carbon may be released into the air as either carbon dioxide or methane.  Both of these are greenhouse gases (Stokstad 2004).

text: Another potential effect of global warming to norther ecosystems is the melting of

text: permafrost

text: .  This can have significant effects on the plant communities that are adapted to the frozen soil, and may also have implications for further climate change.  As permafrost melts, any trees growing above it may die, and the land shifts from forest to peatland.  In the far north, shrubs may later take over what was formerly tundra.  The precise effect depends on whether the water that was locked up is able to drain off.  In either case, the habitat will undergo a shift.  Melting permafrost may also accelerate climate change in the future.  Within the permafrost, vast quantities of

text: carbon

text: are locked up.  If this soil melts, the carbon may be released into the air as either

text: carbon dioxide

text: or

text: methane

text: .  Both of these are

text: greenhouse gas

text: es (Stokstad 2004).

text: Two changes to the global atmosphere due to anthropogenic activity threaten marine mammals. The first is increases in ultraviolet radiation due to ozone depletion, and this mainly affects the Antarctic and other areas of the southern hemisphere. An increase in ultraviolet radiation has the capacity to decrease phytoplankton abundance, which forms the basis of the food chain in the ocean. The second effect of global climate change is global warming due to increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.  Raised sea levels, sea temperature and changed currents are expected to affect marine mammals by altering the distribution of important prey species, and changing the suitability of breeding sites and migratory routes. The Arctic food chain would be disrupted by the near extinction or migration of polar bears. Arctic sea ice is the polar bear's habitat. It has been declining at a rate of 13% per decade because the temperature is rising at twice the rate of the rest of the world. By the year 2050, up to two-thirds of the world's polar bears may vanish if the sea ice continues to melt at its current rate.

text: Two changes to the global

text: atmosphere

text: due to

text: anthropogenic activity

text: threaten marine mammals. The first is increases in

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: due to

text: ozone depletion

text: , and this mainly affects the

text: Antarctic

text: and other areas of the

text: southern hemisphere

text: . An increase in ultraviolet radiation has the capacity to decrease phytoplankton abundance, which forms the basis of the food chain in the ocean. The second effect of

text: global climate change

text: is

text: global warming

text: due to increased

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels in the atmosphere.  Raised sea levels, sea temperature and changed currents are expected to affect marine mammals by altering the distribution of important prey species, and changing the suitability of breeding sites and migratory routes. The Arctic food chain would be disrupted by the near extinction or migration of polar bears. Arctic sea ice is the polar bear's habitat. It has been declining at a rate of 13% per decade because the temperature is rising at twice the rate of the rest of the world. By the year 2050, up to two-thirds of the world's polar bears may vanish if the sea ice continues to melt at its current rate.

text: The software contains a library of information the player may use to familiarize themselves with the issues surrounding the game. The appearance of the library is a bookshelf with books titled "Climate change policy," "Some History," "Greenhouse Effect," "Climate Change Dubiety," "The Phenomena Behind Climate Change," and "Visions of the Future." By clicking on "Climate Change Dubiety," for example, the game will display a list of papers published which do not agree with the hypothesis of climate change that is used for the game. By clicking on "Some History," a list of noteworthy discoveries regarding climate change is displayed and sorted by year.

text: Modern process of climate change is the basis for the study of paleoclimate change. The northwest margin of the Asian summer monsoon is influenced by both the monsoon and the westerly winds, where the paleoclimate change reflects a certain degree of complexity. Through the study of the modern process of regional climate on modern time scales, the interaction between monsoon and westerly winds is obvious, and this modern process can be used to imply the long-term interaction between the two climate systems.

text: When deciding how to discount future climate change impacts, value judgements are necessary (Arrow et al.., 1996b:130). IPCC (2001a:9) found that there was no consensus on the use of long-term discount rates in this area. The prescriptive approach to discounting leads to long-term discount rates of 2-3% in real terms, while the descriptive approach leads to rates of at least 4% after tax - sometimes much higher (Halsnæs et al.., 2007:136).

text: It was believed that the extinction was due to the climate changes, but human activities as an extinction driver is still possible yet unproven. There is a growing consensus that the extinction of the megafauna was caused by progressive drying starting about 700,000 years ago (700 ka). It is revealed recently that there was a major change in glacial-interglacial cycles after ~450 ka. As for human involvement's contribution to the extinction, one argument is that the arrival of humans was coincident with the disappearance of all the extinct megafauna. It is supported by the claims that during MIS3, climatic conditions are relatively stable and no major climate change would cause the mass extinction of megafauna including Thylacoleo. Due to the lack of data, the human role in the extinction cannot be proven.

text: It was believed that the extinction was due to the climate changes, but human activities as an extinction driver is still possible yet unproven. There is a growing consensus that the extinction of the megafauna was caused by progressive drying starting about 700,000 years ago (700 ka). It is revealed recently that there was a major change in glacial-interglacial cycles after ~450 ka. As for human involvement's contribution to the extinction, one argument is that the arrival of humans was coincident with the disappearance of all the extinct megafauna. It is supported by the claims that during

text: , climatic conditions are relatively stable and no major climate change would cause the mass extinction of megafauna including Thylacoleo. Due to the lack of data, the human role in the extinction cannot be proven.

text: The Paleolithic is often held to finish at the end of the ice age (the end of the Pleistocene epoch), and Earth's climate became warmer. This may have caused or contributed to the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna, although it is also possible that the late Pleistocene extinctions were (at least in part) caused by other factors such as disease and overhunting by humans. New research suggests that the extinction of the woolly mammoth may have been caused by the combined effect of climatic change and human hunting. Scientists suggest that climate change during the end of the Pleistocene caused the mammoths' habitat to shrink in size, resulting in a drop in population. The small populations were then hunted out by Paleolithic humans. The global warming that occurred during the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the Holocene may have made it easier for humans to reach mammoth habitats that were previously frozen and inaccessible. Small populations of wooly mammoths survived on isolated Arctic islands, Saint Paul Island and Wrangel Island, till circa 3700 and 1700 BCE respectively. The Wrangel Island population became extinct around the same time the island was settled by prehistoric humans. There's no evidence of prehistoric human presence on Saint Paul island (though early human settlements dating as far back as 6500 BCE were found on the nearby Aleutian Islands).

text: The Paleolithic is often held to finish at the end of the ice age (the end of the Pleistocene epoch), and Earth's climate became warmer. This may have caused or contributed to the extinction of the

text: Pleistocene megafauna

text: , although it is also possible that the late

text: Pleistocene extinctions

text: were (at least in part) caused by other factors such as disease and overhunting by humans. New research suggests that the extinction of the

text: woolly mammoth

text: may have been caused by the combined effect of climatic change and human hunting. Scientists suggest that climate change during the end of the Pleistocene caused the mammoths' habitat to shrink in size, resulting in a drop in population. The small populations were then hunted out by Paleolithic humans. The global warming that occurred during the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the

text: Holocene

text: may have made it easier for humans to reach mammoth habitats that were previously frozen and inaccessible. Small populations of wooly mammoths survived on isolated Arctic islands,

text: Saint Paul Island

text: and

text: Wrangel Island

text: , till circa 3700 and 1700 BCE respectively. The Wrangel Island population became extinct around the same time the island was settled by prehistoric humans. There's no evidence of prehistoric human presence on Saint Paul island (though early human settlements dating as far back as 6500 BCE were found on the nearby

text: Aleutian Islands

text: Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds.  Seen from below, clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface, and so exert a warming effect; seen from above, clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space, and so exert a cooling effect.<ref name=hartmann-1997>{{cite journal |author1=Hartmann, D.L. |author2=M.E. Ockert-Bell |author3=M.L. Michelsen  |last-author-amp=yes |year=1992 |title=The Effect of Cloud Type on Earth's Energy Balance: Global Analysis |journal=J. Climate |volume=5 |pages=1281–1304 |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005

text: Global warming

text: is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds.  Seen from below, clouds emit

text: infrared radiation

text: back to the surface, and so exert a warming effect; seen from above, clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space, and so exert a cooling effect.<ref name=hartmann-1997>{{cite journal |author1=Hartmann, D.L. |author2=M.E. Ockert-Bell |author3=M.L. Michelsen  |last-author-amp=yes |year=1992 |title=The Effect of Cloud Type on Earth's Energy Balance: Global Analysis |journal=J. Climate |volume=5 |pages=1281–1304 |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005

text: In common with the rest of Scotland the Firth of Clyde was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages and the landscape is much affected by glaciation. Arran's highest peaks may have been nunataks at this time. After the last retreat of the ice sea level changes and the isostatic rise of land makes charting post glacial coastlines a complex task but the resultant clifflines behind raised beaches are a prominent feature of the entire coastline.

text: In common with the rest of Scotland the Firth of Clyde was covered by ice sheets during the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice ages

text: and the landscape is much affected by

text: glaciation

text: . Arran's highest peaks may have been

text: nunatak

text: s at this time. After the last retreat of the ice sea level changes and the

text: isostatic

text: rise of land makes charting

text: post glacial

text: coastlines a complex task but the resultant clifflines behind

text: raised beach

text: es are a prominent feature of the entire coastline.

text: The 1982/83 "mega-El Niño" devastated seabird populations on Kiritimati. In some species, mortality rose to 90% and breeding success dropped to zero during that time. In general, El Niño conditions will cause seabird populations to drop, taking several years to recover at the present density of predators. Global warming impact on Kiritimati is thus unpredictable. El Niño events seem to become shorter but more frequent in a warmer climate. Much of the island's infrastructure and habitation, with the notable exception of the airport area, is located to the leeward and thus somewhat protected from storms. A rising sea level does not appear to be particularly problematic; the increasing flooding of the subsidiary lagoons would provide easily observed forewarning, and might even benefit seabird populations by making the motus less accessible to predators. In fact, geological data suggests that Kiritimati has withstood prehistoric sea level changes well. The biggest hazard caused by a changing climate would seem to be more prolonged and/or severe droughts, which could even enforce the island's abandonment as they did in 1905. However, it is not clear how weather patterns would change, and it may be that precipitation increases.

text: The 1982/83 "mega-

text: El Niño

text: " devastated seabird populations on Kiritimati. In some species,

text: mortality

text: rose to 90% and breeding success dropped to zero during that time. In general, El Niño conditions will cause seabird populations to drop, taking several years to recover at the present density of predators.

text: Global warming

text: impact on Kiritimati is thus unpredictable. El Niño events seem to become shorter but more frequent in a warmer climate. Much of the island's infrastructure and habitation, with the notable exception of the airport area, is located to the

text: leeward

text: and thus somewhat protected from storms. A rising sea level does not appear to be particularly problematic; the increasing flooding of the subsidiary lagoons would provide easily observed forewarning, and might even benefit seabird populations by making the motus less accessible to predators. In fact, geological data suggests that Kiritimati has withstood prehistoric sea level changes well. The biggest hazard caused by a changing climate would seem to be more prolonged and/or severe droughts, which could even enforce the island's abandonment as they did in 1905. However, it is not clear how weather patterns would change, and it may be that precipitation increases.

text: President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa, in his opening speech at FD4, told the plenary “… it’s time for all of us to push, and push hard for the full incorporation of REDD+ into a long-term international climate change agreement.” In a passionate plea, the Mexican president also stressed, “Either we change our way of life now, or climate change will change it for us.”

text: President

text: Felipe Calderón Hinojosa

text: , in his opening speech at FD4, told the plenary “… it’s time for all of us to push, and push hard for the full incorporation of

entity_name: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation

text: REDD+

text: into a long-term international climate change agreement.” In a passionate plea, the Mexican president also stressed, “Either we change our way of life now, or climate change will change it for us.”

text: An approach based on sequential decision making recognises that, over time, decisions related to climate change can be revised in the light of improved information. This is particularly important with respect to climate change, due to the long-term nature of the problem. A near-term hedging strategy concerned with reducing future climate impacts might favour stringent, near-term emissions reductions. As stated earlier, carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere, and to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of , emissions would need to be drastically reduced from their present level (refer to diagram opposite). Stringent near-term emissions reductions allow for greater future flexibility with regard to a low stabilization target, e.g., 450 parts-per-million (ppm) . To put it differently, stringent near-term emissions abatement can be seen as having an option value in allowing for lower, long-term stabilization targets. This option may be lost if near-term emissions abatement is less stringent.

text: An approach based on sequential decision making recognises that, over time, decisions related to climate change can be revised in the light of improved

text: information

text: . This is particularly important with respect to climate change, due to the long-term nature of the problem. A near-term

text: hedging

text: strategy concerned with reducing future climate impacts might favour stringent, near-term emissions reductions. As stated earlier, carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere, and to stabilize the atmospheric concentration of , emissions would need to be drastically reduced from their present level (refer to diagram opposite). Stringent near-term emissions reductions allow for greater future flexibility with regard to a low stabilization target, e.g., 450

text: parts-per-million

text: (ppm) . To put it differently, stringent near-term emissions abatement can be seen as having an

text: option value

text: in allowing for lower, long-term stabilization targets. This option may be lost if near-term emissions abatement is less stringent.

text: Blumenthal estimated that the snow line had been as low as  in elevation during the Late Pleistocene. Such a snow line would have created an ice cap of  in extent. However, he observed a lack of any clear evidence of prehistoric moraines other than those which were close to the 1958 glacier tongues. Blumenthal explained the absence of such moraines by the lack of confining ridges to control glaciers, insufficient debris load in the ice to form moraines, and their burial by later eruptions. Years later, Birman observed on the south-facing slopes a possible moraine that extends at least  in altitude below the base of the 1958 ice cap at an elevation of . He also found two morainal deposits that were created by a Mount Ararat valley glacier of Pleistocene, possibly Wisconsinan (Last Glacial Maximum) age downvalley from Lake Balik Golu. The higher moraine lies at an altitude of about  and the lower moraine lies at an altitude of about . The lower moraine occurs about  downstream from Lake Balik Golu. Both moraines are about  high. It is suspected that Lake Balik Golu occupies a glacial basin.

text: Blumenthal estimated that the

text: snow line

text: had been as low as  in elevation during the Late

text: Pleistocene

text: . Such a snow line would have created an ice cap of  in extent. However, he observed a lack of any clear evidence of prehistoric

text: moraine

text: s other than those which were close to the 1958 glacier tongues. Blumenthal explained the absence of such moraines by the lack of confining ridges to control glaciers, insufficient debris load in the ice to form moraines, and their burial by later eruptions. Years later, Birman observed on the south-facing slopes a possible moraine that extends at least  in altitude below the base of the 1958 ice cap at an elevation of . He also found two morainal deposits that were created by a Mount Ararat valley glacier of Pleistocene, possibly

text: Wisconsinan

text: Last Glacial Maximum

text: ) age downvalley from Lake Balik Golu. The higher moraine lies at an altitude of about  and the lower moraine lies at an altitude of about . The lower moraine occurs about  downstream from Lake Balik Golu. Both moraines are about  high. It is suspected that Lake Balik Golu occupies a glacial basin.

text: During the last ice age most of the vegetation in the Riding Mountain region was eliminated, and it remained this way after the retreat of the glaciers 12,500 years ago. The Riding Mountain upland and surrounding plains and Manitoba Escarpment were mostly carved in the Tertiary era, but the ice sheets of the Pleistocene period modified the drainage and appearance of the land. Only the movement of the last ice sheet in this period left a visible effect on the features of the region. About 11,500 years ago a spruce dominated forest began to emerge in its place, with some of the vegetation being ash, juniper, sedges, buffaloberry, and trembling aspen. After this time the climate was dry, and  the percentage of spruce decreased. During the Holecene climatic optimum up until 6500 years ago the amount of herbs, shrubs and grasses in the park increased. At the end of this time beaked hazelnut appeared and the amount of bur oak increased, with the climate becoming cooler and moister. Up to 2,500 years ago the amount of grassland species in general decreased and boreal forests migrated into the Riding Mountain region. It was at this moment that ecosystems began to resemble those of today, with species such as tamarack, fir, alder, pine and spruce becoming more common. Several streams that run through the park have headwaters in Riding Mountain's lakes. Clear Lake's water comes from underground springs rather than from streams.

text: During the last ice age most of the vegetation in the Riding Mountain region was eliminated, and it remained this way after the retreat of the glaciers 12,500 years ago. The Riding Mountain upland and surrounding plains and Manitoba Escarpment were mostly carved in the

text: Tertiary

text: era, but the ice sheets of the

text: Pleistocene

text: period modified the drainage and appearance of the land. Only the movement of the last ice sheet in this period left a visible effect on the features of the region. About 11,500 years ago a spruce dominated forest began to emerge in its place, with some of the vegetation being ash,

text: juniper

text: sedges

text: buffaloberry

text: , and

text: trembling aspen

text: . After this time the climate was dry, and  the percentage of spruce decreased. During the

text: Holecene climatic optimum

text: up until 6500 years ago the amount of herbs, shrubs and grasses in the park increased. At the end of this time

text: beaked hazelnut

text: appeared and the amount of

text: bur oak

text: increased, with the climate becoming cooler and moister. Up to 2,500 years ago the amount of grassland species in general decreased and boreal forests migrated into the Riding Mountain region. It was at this moment that ecosystems began to resemble those of today, with species such as

text: tamarack

text: fir

text: alder

text: pine

text: and

text: spruce

text: becoming more common. Several streams that run through the park have headwaters in Riding Mountain's lakes. Clear Lake's water comes from underground springs rather than from streams.

text: The core was dated using two methods. The top was dated by counting annual layers to an age of 31,200 years ago. The bottom was dated using stratigraphic methods to an age of 67,748, years at the bottom of the core. The dating was more accurate than other Antarctic ice cores and enables a better understanding of the causes of previous climate changes. This information helps improve predictions of future climate changes.

text: According to scientists, global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina. Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average, nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas. If these trends continue, it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones.

text: According to scientists,

text: global warming

text: is predicted to have significant effects on the

text: climate of Argentina

text: . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average, nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas. If these trends continue, it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones.

text: Beginning in the latest Middle Pennsylvanian (late Moscovian) a cycle of aridification began. At the time of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, the climate became cooler and drier. This is reflected in the rock record as the Earth entered into a short, intense ice age. Sea levels dropped by 100 m, and glacial ice covered most of the southern continent of Gondwana. The cooler, drier climate conditions were not favourable to the growth of rainforests, and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests shrank into isolated patches, the islands of rainforest were mostly confined to wet valleys further and further apart. Little of the original lycopsid rainforest biome survived this initial climate crisis. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere crashed to one of its all time global lows in the Pennsylvanian and early Permian.

text: Beginning in the latest Middle Pennsylvanian (late Moscovian) a cycle of aridification began. At the time of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, the climate became cooler and drier. This is reflected in the rock record as the Earth entered into a short, intense ice age. Sea levels dropped by 100 m, and glacial ice covered most of the southern continent of

text: Gondwana

text: . The cooler, drier climate conditions were not favourable to the growth of rainforests, and much of the biodiversity within them. Rainforests shrank into isolated patches, the islands of rainforest were mostly confined to wet valleys further and further apart. Little of the original lycopsid rainforest biome survived this initial climate crisis. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere crashed to one of its all time global lows in the Pennsylvanian and early Permian.

text: Lamb's 1977 book Climatic History and the Future described studies of fossil pollen showing an abrupt change from a glacial era of pinewoods to oak trees, pointing to "great rapidity of climate change". He discussed research on the complex effects of human caused pollution, and suggested that "On balance, the effects of increased carbon dioxide on climate is almost certainly in the direction of warming but is probably much smaller than the estimates which have commonly been accepted."

text: Another policy response to climate change, known as climate change mitigation (Verbruggen, 2007) is to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere (through carbon sinks). Even the most effective reductions in emissions, however, would not prevent further climate change impacts, making the need for adaptation unavoidable (Klein et al., 2007). In a literature assessment, Klein et al. (2007) assessed options for adaptation. They concluded, with very high confidence, that in the absence of mitigation efforts, the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems. Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups  For human systems, the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high.

text: Another policy response to climate change, known as

text: climate change mitigation

text: (Verbruggen, 2007) is to reduce

text: greenhouse gas

text: (GHG) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from

text: the atmosphere

text: (through

text: carbon sink

text: s). Even the most effective reductions in emissions, however, would not prevent further climate change impacts, making the need for adaptation unavoidable (Klein et al., 2007). In a literature assessment, Klein et al. (2007) assessed options for adaptation. They concluded, with very high confidence, that in the absence of mitigation efforts, the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural

text: ecosystem

text: s. Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups  For human systems, the economic and

text: social cost

text: s of unmitigated climate change would be very high.

text: Hal Harris reviews in Chem Ed Change: "Since most chemistry teachers are not experts on climate change, they usually do not have convincing, understandable, and science-based responses...However, many will also [find] this May/June issue of Skeptical Inquirer useful, because it includes a short article on pages 5-6, "Battle of the Op-Eds: Scientists Defend Reality of Climate Change" containing [content] written by Dave Thomas..." but in 'The Irrelevance of Climate Skeptics' the content becomes a 'one-liner'. In The Albuquerque Journal in 2103 Thomas and 17 members and officers of New Mexicans for Science and Reason co-signed a column: 'Writer Wrong On Climate Change'. In Skeptical Inquirer in 2014 Thomas tries to dispel the confusion between the words 'skeptic' and 'denier'.

text: Hal Harris reviews in Chem Ed Change: "Since most chemistry teachers are not experts on climate change, they usually do not have convincing, understandable, and science-based responses...However, many will also [find] this May/June issue of

text: Skeptical Inquirer

text: useful, because it includes a short article on pages 5-6, "Battle of the Op-Eds: Scientists Defend Reality of Climate Change" containing [content] written by Dave Thomas..." but in 'The Irrelevance of Climate Skeptics' the content becomes a 'one-liner'. In

text: The Albuquerque Journal

text: in 2103 Thomas and 17 members and officers of

text: New Mexicans for Science and Reason

text: co-signed a column: 'Writer Wrong On Climate Change'. In Skeptical Inquirer in 2014 Thomas tries to dispel the confusion between the words 'skeptic' and 'denier'.

text: Adaptation to global warming involves actions to tolerate the effects of global warming. Collaborative research from the Institute of Development Studies draws links between adaptation and poverty to help develop an agenda for pro-poor adaptation that can inform climate-resilient poverty reduction. Adaptation to climate change will be "ineffective and inequitable if it fails to learn and build upon an understanding of the multidimensional and differentiated nature of poverty and vulnerability". Poorer countries tend to be more seriously affected by climate change, yet have reduced assets and capacities with which to adapt. This has led to more activities to integrate adaptation within development and poverty reduction programs. The rise of adaptation as a development issue has been influenced by concerns around minimizing threats to progress on poverty reduction, notably the Millennium Development Goals, and by the injustice of impacts that are felt hardest by those who have done least to contribute to the problem, framing adaptation as an equity and human rights issue.

text: Adaptation to global warming

text: involves actions to tolerate the effects of global warming. Collaborative research from the

text: Institute of Development Studies

text: draws links between adaptation and poverty to help develop an agenda for pro-poor adaptation that can inform climate-resilient poverty reduction. Adaptation to climate change will be "ineffective and inequitable if it fails to learn and build upon an understanding of the multidimensional and differentiated nature of poverty and vulnerability". Poorer countries tend to be more seriously affected by climate change, yet have reduced assets and capacities with which to adapt. This has led to more activities to integrate adaptation within development and poverty reduction programs. The rise of adaptation as a development issue has been influenced by concerns around minimizing threats to progress on poverty reduction, notably the

text: Millennium Development Goals

text: , and by the injustice of impacts that are felt hardest by those who have done least to contribute to the problem, framing adaptation as an equity and

text: human rights

text: issue.

text: Gender is a topic of increasing concern within climate change policy and science. Generally, gender approaches to climate change address gender- differentiated consequences of climate change, as well as unequal adaptation capacities and gendered contribution to climate change. Furthermore, the intersection of climate change and gender raises questions regarding the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it. These differences, however, are mostly not due to biological or physical differences, but are formed by the social, institutional and legal context. Subsequently, vulnerability is less an intrinsic feature of women and girls but rather a product of their marginalization.Roehr notes that, while the United Nations officially committed to gender mainstreaming, in practice gender equality is not reached in the context of climate change policies.  This is reflected in the fact that discourses of and negotiations over climate change are mostly dominated by men.Some feminist scholars hold that the debate on climate change is not only dominated by men but also primarily shaped in ‘masculine’ principles, which limits discussions about climate change to a perspective that focuses on technical solutions. This perception of climate change hides subjectivity and power relations that actually condition climate-change policy and science, leading to a phenomenon that Tuana terms ‘epistemic injustice’.Similarly, MacGregor attests that by framing climate change as an issue of ‘hard’ natural scientific conduct and natural security, it is kept within the traditional domains of hegemonic masculinity.

text: Gender is a topic of increasing concern within

text: climate change

text: policy and science. Generally, gender approaches to climate change address gender- differentiated consequences of climate change, as well as unequal

text: adaptation

text: capacities and gendered contribution to climate change. Furthermore, the intersection of climate change and gender raises questions regarding the complex and

text: intersecting

text: power relations arising from it. These differences, however, are mostly not due to biological or physical differences, but are formed by the social, institutional and legal context. Subsequently,

text: vulnerability

text: is less an intrinsic feature of women and girls but rather a product of their marginalization.Roehr notes that, while the

text: United Nations

text: officially committed to

text: gender mainstreaming

text: , in practice gender equality is not reached in the context of climate change policies.  This is reflected in the fact that discourses of and negotiations over climate change are mostly dominated by men.Some feminist scholars hold that the debate on climate change is not only dominated by men but also primarily shaped in ‘masculine’ principles, which limits discussions about climate change to a perspective that focuses on technical solutions. This perception of climate change hides subjectivity and power relations that actually condition climate-change policy and science, leading to a phenomenon that Tuana terms ‘epistemic injustice’.Similarly, MacGregor attests that by framing climate change as an issue of ‘hard’ natural scientific conduct and natural security, it is kept within the traditional domains of hegemonic masculinity.

text: This climatical reasons for change are the presence of the warm Niño Current during the summer months (December to April), the eventualEl Niño Phenomenon and the passing of Amazon Jungles clouds due to mountain openings and lower altitudes of the Andes Chain. Theseare the causes for a climate change in a short two- or three-hour trajectory that is visible between the Lambayeque Region and the Sechura Province, where not only geography changes but a temperature rise of  or more depending on the month. It is directly off the shores of the Sechura Region where the cold Humboldt current and warm el Niño current meet, at about 5° to 6° south of the equator. From this point warm temperatures are most common, and there are no true winters. Average temperatures range between . Clear skies, beautiful warm valleys, eroded terrains with reddish colored sands, rice fields, palm trees, savannas, bushy forests, dense rivers, beautiful warm turquoise beaches, orangey or yellowish terrains, clearer sands and a sun that hits like the African plateau,where shade is almost impossible.

text: This climatical reasons for change are the presence of the warm Niño Current during the summer months (December to April), the eventual

text: El Niño

text: Phenomenon and the passing of Amazon Jungles clouds due to mountain openings and lower altitudes of the Andes Chain. Theseare the causes for a climate change in a short two- or three-hour trajectory that is visible between the

text: Lambayeque Region

text: and the

text: Sechura Province

text: , where not only geography changes but a temperature rise of  or more depending on the month. It is directly off the shores of the

text: Sechura Region

text: where the cold Humboldt current and warm el Niño current meet, at about 5° to 6° south of the equator. From this point warm temperatures are most common, and there are no true winters. Average temperatures range between . Clear skies, beautiful warm valleys, eroded terrains with reddish colored sands, rice fields, palm trees, savannas, bushy forests, dense rivers, beautiful warm turquoise beaches, orangey or yellowish terrains, clearer sands and a sun that hits like the African plateau,where shade is almost impossible.

text: ECCC lists impacts of climate change consistent with global changes. Temperature-related changes include longer growing season, more heat waves and fewer cold spells, thawing permafrost, earlier river ice break-up, earlier spring runoff, and earlier budding of trees. Meteorological changes include an increase in precipitation and more snowfall in northwest Arctic. Highlighting that "Warming is not uniform ...(the) Arctic is warming even faster", ECCC notes 2012 had the lowest extent of Arctic sea ice on record up to 2014.

text: The book includes 36 short essays predicting the consequences of global warming.  The book reviews evidence of historical climate change and attempts to compare this with the current era. The book argues that if atmospheric carbon dioxide levels continue to increase at current rates, the resulting climate change will cause mass species extinctions.  The book also asserts that global temperatures have already risen enough to cause the annual monsoon rains in the Sahel region of Africa to diminish, causing droughts and desertification.  This in turn, according to Flannery, has caused the conflict in the Darfur region through competition for disappearing resources. Further consequences, argued in the book, include increasing hurricane intensity, and decline in the health of coral reefs.

text: The book includes 36 short essays predicting the

text: consequences

text: of

text: global warming

text: .  The book reviews evidence of historical

text: climate change

text: and attempts to compare this with the current era. The book argues that if atmospheric

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels continue to increase at current rates, the resulting climate change will cause mass

text: species

text: extinctions

text: .  The book also asserts that global temperatures have already risen enough to cause the annual

text: monsoon

text: rains in the

text: Sahel

text: region of Africa to diminish, causing

text: droughts

text: and

text: desertification

text: .  This in turn, according to Flannery, has caused the

text: conflict

text: in the

text: Darfur

text: region through competition for disappearing

text: resource

text: s. Further consequences, argued in the book, include increasing hurricane intensity, and decline in the health of coral reefs.

text: Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction, adaptation to its effects, building systems resilient to its effects, and possible future climate engineering. Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change. Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below  relative to pre-industrial levels, with efforts made to limit warming to .

text: Possible societal responses to global warming include

text: mitigation

text: by emissions reduction,

text: adaptation

text: to its effects, building systems

text: resilient

text: to its effects, and possible future

text: climate engineering

text: . Most countries are parties to the

text: (UNFCCC),whose ultimate objective is to

text: prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change

text: . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below  relative to pre-industrial levels, with efforts made to limit warming to .

text: In 1957 Cesare Emiliani was working on Foraminifera (microscopic protists whose remains are greatly abundant in the fossil record) and was particularly interested in great climate changes known to have occurred during the Pleistocene Age. He was sure these tiny shells deposited in the ubiquitous ooze that coats the sea bottom held important clues. For that reason he was looking at the time for a place to work where there were ships and trained personnel to help him to obtain core samples of the deep-sea sediments for his studies. An interview with Dr. Walton Smith convinced Cesare that the University of Miami’s Institute of Marine Science, later to become the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, was the right place to conduct his research and thus he moved there that same year. In 1967 he was named Chairman of the Division of Geology and Geophysics at the Institute. At that time he organized the department of Geological Sciences on the main campus of the University of Miami and remained its Chairman until his retirement in 1993.

text: In 1957 Cesare Emiliani was working on

text: Foraminifera

text: (microscopic protists whose remains are greatly abundant in the fossil record) and was particularly interested in great climate changes known to have occurred during the Pleistocene Age. He was sure these tiny shells deposited in the ubiquitous ooze that coats the sea bottom held important clues. For that reason he was looking at the time for a place to work where there were ships and trained personnel to help him to obtain core samples of the deep-sea sediments for his studies. An interview with Dr.

text: Walton Smith

text: convinced Cesare that the

text: University of Miami

text: ’s Institute of Marine Science, later to become the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, was the right place to conduct his research and thus he moved there that same year. In 1967 he was named Chairman of the Division of Geology and Geophysics at the Institute. At that time he organized the department of Geological Sciences on the main campus of the

text: University of Miami

text: and remained its Chairman until his retirement in 1993.

text: The role of Earth's orbital changes in controlling climate was first advanced by James Croll in the late 19th century. Later, Milutin Milanković, a Serbian geophysicist, elaborated on the theory and calculated these irregularities in Earth's orbit could cause the climatic cycles known as Milankovitch cycles. They are the result of  the additive behavior of several types of cyclical changes in Earth's orbital properties.

text: The role of Earth's orbital changes in controlling climate was first advanced by

text: James Croll

text: in the late 19th century. Later,

text: Milutin Milanković

text: , a Serbian

text: geophysicist

text: , elaborated on the theory and calculated these irregularities in Earth's orbit could cause the climatic cycles known as

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: . They are the result of  the additive behavior of several types of cyclical changes in Earth's orbital properties.

text: On a utilitarian basis, which has traditionally been used in welfare economics, an argument can be made for richer countries taking on most of the burdens of mitigation (Halsnæs et al., 2007). However, another result is possible with a different modeling of impacts. If an approach is taken where the interests of poorer people have lower weighting, the result is that there is a much weaker argument in favour of mitigation action in rich countries. Valuing climate change impacts in poorer countries less than domestic climate change impacts (both in terms of policy and the impacts of climate change) would be consistent with observed spending in rich countries on foreign aid (Hepburn, 2005; Helm, 2008:229).

text: On a

text: utilitarian

text: basis, which has traditionally been used in welfare economics, an argument can be made for richer countries taking on most of the burdens of mitigation (Halsnæs et al., 2007). However, another result is possible with a different modeling of impacts. If an approach is taken where the interests of poorer people have lower weighting, the result is that there is a much weaker argument in favour of mitigation action in rich countries. Valuing climate change impacts in poorer countries less than domestic climate change impacts (both in terms of policy and the impacts of climate change) would be consistent with observed spending in rich countries on foreign aid (Hepburn, 2005; Helm, 2008:229).

text: Natural climate variability can appear to slow down surface warming over short periods, but does not refute long-term climate change trends. Short-term hiatus periods of global warming are compatible with long-term climate change patterns. The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) leads to multidecadal variability in Northern Hemispheric mean surface temperature by 15–20 years through a delayed effect on the North Atlantic Ocean, and can be a useful predictor of multidecadal periods of warming and cooling in both AMO and Northern Hemispheric mean surface temperature.

text: To study climate change and variability long instrumental climate records are essential, but are best not used directly. These datasets are essential since they are the basis for assessing century-scale trends or for studying the natural (long-term) variability of climate, amongst others. The value of these datasets, however, strongly depends on the homogeneity of the underlying time series. A homogeneous climate record is one where variations are caused only by variations in weather and climate. Long instrumental records are rarely, if ever homogeneous.

text: Some large-scale changes could occur abruptly, i.e., over a short time period, and might also be irreversible. Examples of abrupt climate change are the rapid release of methane and carbon dioxide from permafrost, which would lead to amplified global warming, or the shutdown of thermohaline circulation. Scientific understanding of abrupt climate change is generally poor. The probability of abrupt change for some climate related feedbacks may be low. Factors that may increase the probability of abrupt climate change include higher magnitudes of global warming, warming that occurs more rapidly, and warming that is sustained over longer time periods.

text: Some large-scale changes could occur

text: abruptly

text: , i.e., over a short time period, and might also be

text: irreversible

text: . Examples of abrupt climate change are the rapid release of methane and carbon dioxide from

text: permafrost

text: , which would lead to amplified global warming, or the

text: shutdown of thermohaline circulation

text: . Scientific understanding of abrupt climate change is generally poor. The probability of abrupt change for some climate related feedbacks may be low. Factors that may increase the probability of abrupt climate change include higher magnitudes of global warming, warming that occurs more rapidly, and warming that is sustained over longer time periods.

text: Research on a possible connection between individual extreme weather events and long-term anthropogenic climate change is a new topic of scientific debate. Prior to the events of January 2014, several studies on the connection between extreme weather and the polar vortex were published suggesting a link between climate change and increasingly extreme temperatures experienced by mid-latitudes (e.g., central North America).<ref>

text: Research on a possible connection between individual extreme weather events and long-term

text: anthropogenic climate change

text: is a new topic of scientific debate. Prior to the events of January 2014, several studies on the connection between extreme weather and the

text: polar vortex

text: were published suggesting a link between

text: climate change

text: and increasingly extreme temperatures experienced by mid-latitudes (e.g., central North America).<ref>

text: Field Notes from a Catastrophe: Man, Nature, and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert. The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change. Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways. These locations include Alaska, Greenland, the Netherlands, and Iceland.  The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels, thawing permafrost, diminishing ice shelves, changes in migratory patterns, and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation. She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings. Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists. She also writes about America’s reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions. Leading this resistance, she explained, was the Bush administration, which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005. Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late.

text: Field Notes from a Catastrophe: Man, Nature, and Climate Change is a

text: non-fiction

text: book by

text: Elizabeth Kolbert

text: . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global

text: climate change

text: . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways. These locations include Alaska, Greenland, the Netherlands, and Iceland.  The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels, thawing permafrost, diminishing ice shelves, changes in migratory patterns, and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation. She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings. Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as

text: Exxon Mobil

text: and

text: General Motors

text: to influence politicians and discredit scientists. She also writes about America’s reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions. Leading this resistance, she explained, was the Bush administration, which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005. Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late.

text: In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term "climate change" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming. In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations.

text: In recent usage, especially in the context of

text: environmental policy

text: , the term "climate change" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface

text: temperature

text: known as

text: global warming

text: . In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in the

text: United Nations

text: Framework Convention on Climate Change

text: (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations.

text: To date, a neglected aspect of the climate change debate, much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health, food supply, economic growth, migration, security, societal change, and public goods, such as drinking water, than on the geophysical changes related to global warming. Human impacts can be both negative and positive. Climatic changes in Siberia, for instance, are expected to improve food production and local economic activity, at least in the short to medium term. Numerous studies suggest, however, that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative.

text: To date, a neglected aspect of the

text: climate change debate

text: , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health, food supply,

text: economic growth

text: migration

text: , security, societal change, and

text: public good

text: s, such as

text: drinking water

text: , than on the

text: geophysical

text: changes related to

text: global warming

text: . Human impacts can be both negative and positive. Climatic changes in

text: Siberia

text: , for instance, are expected to improve food production and local economic activity, at least in the short to medium term. Numerous studies suggest, however, that the

text: current and future impacts of climate change

text: on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative.

text: In a September 2006 Senate speech, Inhofe argued that the threat of global warming was exaggerated by "the media, Hollywood elites and our pop culture". He said that in the 1960s the media had switched from warning of global warming to warning of global cooling and a coming ice age, then in the 1970s had returned to warming to promote "climate change fears". In February 2007 he told Fox News that mainstream science increasingly attributed climate change to natural causes, and only "those individuals on the far left, such as Hollywood liberals and the United Nations" opposed this.

text: In a September 2006 Senate speech, Inhofe argued that the threat of global warming was exaggerated by "the media,

text: Hollywood

text: elites

text: and our pop culture". He said that in the 1960s

text: the media

text: had switched from warning of global warming to warning of

text: global cooling

text: and a coming

text: ice age

text: , then in the 1970s had returned to warming to promote "climate change fears". In February 2007 he told

text: Fox News

text: that mainstream science increasingly attributed climate change to natural causes, and only "those individuals on the far left, such as Hollywood liberals and the United Nations" opposed this.

text: Cadmium poisoning- Callendar effect- Calnev Pipeline- Cancer- Cancer Alley- Car Free Days- Carbofuran- Carbon audit regime- Carbon credit- Carbon cycle- Carbon dioxide sink- Carbon emissions trading- Carbon fixation- Carbon flux- Carbon footprint- Carbon intensity- Carbon offset- Carbon sequestering- Carbon tax- Carbon tetrachloride- Carfree Cities- Car-free movement- Car-free zone- Carl Garner Federal Lands Cleanup Day- Carpool- Carrying capacity- Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety- Cause of Environmental Degradation- Catch and release- Certified wood- Cetacean bycatch- Cetacean Conservation Center- Charles Darwin Foundation- Chartered Institute of Environmental Health- Chemical oxygen demand- Chemical toilet- Chemical warfare- Chemical waste- Chemical weapon designation- Chemical weapon proliferation- Chemical Weapons Convention- Cherenkov radiation- Chernobyl accident- Chernobyl2020- Chicago Climate Exchange- Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study- China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement- Chionophile- Chipko movement- Chlorofluorocarbon- Citizen Information Project- Citizens for Alternatives to Chemical Contamination- Citizens for Global Solutions- City Beautiful movement- Clark County Wetlands Park- Clean Air Act- Clean Air Act (1970)- Clean Air Act (1990)- Clean Air Act 1956- Clean coal- Clean Development Mechanism- Clean Energy Future Group- Clean Up Australia- Clean Water Act- Clear Skies Act- Clearfelling- Climate Audit- Climate change- Climate changes of 535-536- Climate commitment studies- Climate Diagnostics Center- Climate engineering- Climate Group- Climate house- Climate model- Climate modeller- Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory- Climate Outreach and Information Network- Climate sensitivity- Climate surprise- Climatic determinism- Clinton Global Initiative- Cloaca Maxima- Cloud forcing- Coastal Zone Management Act- Cogeneration- Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration- Common alcohol fuel mixtures- Community bicycle program- Community Climate System Model- Community Fisheries Control Agency- Community Forests in England- Community garden- Community gardening- Compact fluorescent lamp- Compactor- Compost- Compost windrow turner- Composting toilet- Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty- Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization- Compressed air energy storage- Computer Conservation Society- Computer recycling- Concrete recycling- Conservation agriculture- Conservation and Neocolonialism- Conservation and Research Center- Conservation area- Conservation areas in Singapore- Conservation areas of Portugal- Conservation Authorities Act- Conservation authority- Conservation biology- Conservation Centre Liverpool- Conservation designation- Conservation district- Conservation easement- Conservation ethic- Conservation genetics- Conservation Halton- Conservation headland- Conservation Law Foundation- Conservation medicine- Conservation movement- Conservation park- Conservation status- Conservation status (TNC)- Conservationist- Constructed wetland- Consumerism- Container composting- Cooler Heads Coalition- Coral bleaching- COSMIC- Country park- Countryside Agency- Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000- Countryside Commission- Critical Mass (cycling)- Critical Mass Energy Project- Current Population Survey- Cycling advocacy

text: Cadmium poisoning

text: Callendar effect

text: Calnev Pipeline

text: Cancer

text: Cancer Alley

text: Car Free Days

text: Carbofuran

text: Carbon audit regime

text: Carbon credit

text: Carbon cycle

text: Carbon dioxide sink

text: Carbon emissions trading

text: Carbon fixation

text: Carbon flux

text: Carbon footprint

text: Carbon intensity

text: Carbon offset

text: Carbon sequestering

text: Carbon tax

text: Carbon tetrachloride

text: Carfree Cities

text: Car-free movement

text: Car-free zone

text: Carl Garner Federal Lands Cleanup Day

text: Carpool

text: Carrying capacity

text: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

text: Cause of Environmental Degradation

text: Catch and release

text: Certified wood

text: Cetacean bycatch

text: Cetacean Conservation Center

text: Charles Darwin Foundation

entity_name: Chartered Institute of Environmental Health

text: Chartered Institute of Environmental Health

text: Chemical oxygen demand

text: Chemical toilet

text: Chemical warfare

text: Chemical waste

text: Chemical weapon designation

text: Chemical weapon proliferation

text: Chemical Weapons Convention

text: Cherenkov radiation

text: Chernobyl accident

text: Chicago Climate Exchange

entity_name: Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study

text: Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study

entity_name: China–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement

text: China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement

text: Chionophile

text: Chipko movement

text: Chlorofluorocarbon

text: Citizen Information Project

entity_name: Citizens for Alternatives to Chemical Contamination

text: Citizens for Alternatives to Chemical Contamination

text: Citizens for Global Solutions

text: City Beautiful movement

text: Clark County Wetlands Park

text: Clean Air Act

text: Clean Air Act (1970)

text: Clean Air Act (1990)

text: Clean Air Act 1956

text: Clean coal

text: Clean Development Mechanism

text: Clean Energy Future Group

text: Clean Up Australia

text: Clean Water Act

text: Clear Skies Act

text: Clearfelling

text: Climate Audit

text: Climate change

text: Climate changes of 535-536

text: Climate commitment studies

text: Climate Diagnostics Center

text: Climate engineering

text: Climate Group

text: Climate house

text: Climate model

text: Climate modeller

entity_name: Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory

text: Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory

text: Climate Outreach and Information Network

text: Climate sensitivity

text: Climate surprise

text: Climatic determinism

entity_section: Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) and CGI U

text: Clinton Global Initiative

text: Cloaca Maxima

text: Cloud forcing

text: Coastal Zone Management Act

text: Cogeneration

entity_name: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration

text: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration

text: Common alcohol fuel mixtures

text: Community bicycle program

text: Community Climate System Model

text: Community Fisheries Control Agency

text: Community Forests in England

text: Community garden

text: Community gardening

text: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Compactor

text: Compost

text: Compost windrow turner

text: Composting toilet

text: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

entity_name: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization

text: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization

text: Compressed air energy storage

text: Computer Conservation Society

text: Computer recycling

text: Concrete recycling

text: Conservation agriculture

text: Conservation and Neocolonialism

entity_name: Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute

text: Conservation and Research Center

text: Conservation area

text: Conservation areas in Singapore

text: Conservation areas of Portugal

text: Conservation Authorities Act

entity_name: Conservation authority (Ontario, Canada)

text: Conservation authority

text: Conservation biology

text: Conservation Centre Liverpool

text: Conservation designation

text: Conservation district

text: Conservation easement

text: Conservation ethic

text: Conservation genetics

text: Conservation Halton

text: Conservation headland

text: Conservation Law Foundation

text: Conservation medicine

text: Conservation movement

text: Conservation park

text: Conservation status

text: Conservation status (TNC)

text: Conservationist

text: Constructed wetland

text: Consumerism

text: Container composting

text: Cooler Heads Coalition

text: Coral bleaching

entity_name: Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

text: COSMIC

text: Country park

text: Countryside Agency

text: Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000

text: Countryside Commission

text: Critical Mass (cycling)

text: Critical Mass Energy Project

text: Current Population Survey

text: Cycling advocacy

text: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed "glacial periods" (or alternatively "glacials" or "glaciations" or colloquially as "ice age"), and intermittent warm periods are called "interglacials". Glaciologically, ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres. By this definition, we are in an interglacial period—the Holocene—of the ice age that began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch, because the Greenland, Arctic, and Antarctic ice sheets still exist.

text: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of

text: Earth

text: 's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar

text: ice sheet

text: s and alpine

text: glacier

text: s. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed "

text: glacial period

text: s" (or alternatively "glacials" or "glaciations" or colloquially as "ice age"), and intermittent warm periods are called "

text: interglacial

text: s".

text: Glaciologically

text: , ice age implies the presence of extensive

text: ice sheet

text: s in both northern and southern hemispheres. By this definition, we are in an interglacial period—the

text: Holocene

text: —of the ice age that began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch, because the

text: Greenland

text: Arctic

text: , and

text: Antarctic ice sheet

text: s still exist.

text: Climate change contributes to wildfires.

text: Dating to the much more recent Mesolithic era, stone blades and tools, as well as small stone human figurines, of the Capsian culture (named after Gafsa in Tunisia) are associated with the prehistoric presence of Berbers in North Africa. The Capsian is that archaic culture native to the Maghrib region, circa twelve to eight kya. During this period the Pleistocene came to an end with the last ice age, causing changes in the Mediterranean climate. The African shore slowly became drier as the "rain belts moved north". Also related to the Berbers are some of the prehistoric monuments built using very large rocks (dolmens). Located both in Europe and Africa, these dolmens are found at locations throughout the western Mediterranean. The Capsian culture was preceded by the Ibero-Maurusian in North Africa.

text: Dating to the much more recent

text: Mesolithic

text: era, stone blades and tools, as well as small stone human figurines, of the

text: Capsian culture

text: (named after

text: Gafsa

text: in Tunisia) are associated with the prehistoric presence of Berbers in

text: North Africa

text: . The Capsian is that archaic culture native to the

text: Maghrib

text: region, circa twelve to eight

text: kya

text: . During this period the

text: Pleistocene

text: came to an end with the last

text: ice age

text: , causing changes in the Mediterranean climate. The African shore slowly became drier as the "rain belts moved north". Also related to the Berbers are some of the prehistoric monuments built using very large rocks (

text: dolmens

text: ). Located both in Europe and Africa, these dolmens are found at locations throughout the western Mediterranean. The Capsian culture was preceded by the

text: Ibero-Maurusian

text: in North Africa.

text: Finally, there is extensive statistical evidence from so-called "fingerprint" studies. Each factor that affects climate produces a unique pattern of climate response, much as each person has a unique fingerprint. Fingerprint studies exploit these unique signatures, and allow detailed comparisons of modelled and observed climate change patterns. Scientists rely on such studies to attribute observed changes in climate to a particular cause or set of causes. In the real world, the climate changes that have occurred since the start of the Industrial Revolution are due to a complex mixture of human and natural causes. The importance of each individual influence in this mixture changes over time. Of course, there are not multiple Earths, which would allow an experimenter to change one factor at a time on each Earth, thus helping to isolate different fingerprints. Therefore, climate models are used to study how individual factors affect climate. For example, a single factor (like greenhouse gases) or a set of factors can be varied, and the response of the modelled climate system to these individual or combined changes can thus be studied.

text: Finally, there is extensive

text: statistical

text: evidence from so-called "fingerprint" studies. Each factor that affects climate produces a unique pattern of climate response, much as each person has a unique fingerprint. Fingerprint studies exploit these unique signatures, and allow detailed comparisons of modelled and observed climate change patterns. Scientists rely on such studies to attribute observed changes in climate to a particular cause or set of causes. In the real world, the climate changes that have occurred since the start of the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: are due to a complex mixture of human and natural causes. The importance of each individual influence in this mixture changes over time. Of course, there are not multiple Earths, which would allow an experimenter to change one factor at a time on each Earth, thus helping to isolate different fingerprints. Therefore, climate models are used to study how individual factors affect climate. For example, a single factor (like greenhouse gases) or a set of factors can be varied, and the response of the modelled climate system to these individual or combined changes can thus be studied.

text: The story was first broken by climate change critics on their blogs, with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term "Climategate" to describe the controversy. Climate change critics and others denying the significance of human caused climate change argued that the emails showed that global warming was a scientific conspiracy, in which they alleged that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics. The accusations were rejected by the CRU, who said that the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas.

text: Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a worldwide scale. Global warming is projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including temperature, precipitation and glacial run-off. These conditions determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for the human population and domesticated animals. Rising carbon dioxide levels would also have effects, both detrimental and beneficial, on crop yields.  Assessment of the effects of global climate changes on agriculture might help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to maximize agricultural production. Although the net impact of climate change on agricultural production is uncertain it is likely that it will shift the suitable growing zones for individual crops. Adjustment to this geographical shift will involve considerable economic costs and social impacts.

text: Climate change

text: and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of which take place on a worldwide scale.

text: Global warming

text: is projected to have significant impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including

text: temperature

text: precipitation

text: and glacial run-off. These conditions determine the

text: carrying capacity

text: of the

text: biosphere

text: to produce enough

text: food

text: for the

text: human population

text: and domesticated animals. Rising

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels would also have effects, both detrimental and beneficial, on crop yields.  Assessment of the effects of global climate changes on agriculture might help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to maximize

text: agricultural production

text: . Although the net impact of climate change on agricultural production is uncertain it is likely that it will shift the suitable growing zones for individual crops. Adjustment to this geographical shift will involve considerable economic costs and social impacts.

text: Indirectly, human-induced changes in the global climate cause widespread modifications to the terrestrial ecosystem's function in the carbon cycle. As local climates transition, locations that have long been conducive to one type of ecosystem can become more favorable for other ecosystem types. For example, warming in the Arctic has caused stress in North American boreal forests, thus decreasing primary production and carbon uptake, while the same warmer temperatures have led to increased shrub growth in the same areas, producing an opposite effect. Changes in weather patterns can also affect animals. For example, changed weather patterns may create favorable conditions for pine beetles, leading to large beetle outbreaks and forest destruction. Modified precipitation patterns can also lead to droughts or extreme precipitation events, causing additional stress for ecosystems and more erosion. Not only do such influences on the terrestrial ecosystem modify its carbon exchange with the atmosphere - they also can lead to increased outwashing of carbon into the oceans through the transport of organic material in rivers. These widespread changes in land cover also causes changes to the planetary albedo, inducing complex feedbacks in the Earth's planetary radiation budget.

text: Indirectly, human-induced changes in the global climate cause widespread modifications to the terrestrial ecosystem's function in the carbon cycle. As local climates transition, locations that have long been conducive to one type of ecosystem can become more favorable for other ecosystem types. For example, warming in the Arctic has caused stress in North American

text: boreal forest

text: s, thus decreasing primary production and carbon uptake, while the same warmer temperatures have led to increased shrub growth in the same areas, producing an opposite effect. Changes in weather patterns can also affect animals. For example, changed weather patterns may create favorable conditions for pine beetles, leading to large beetle outbreaks and forest destruction. Modified precipitation patterns can also lead to droughts or extreme precipitation events, causing additional stress for ecosystems and more erosion. Not only do such influences on the terrestrial ecosystem modify its carbon exchange with the atmosphere - they also can lead to increased outwashing of carbon into the oceans through the transport of organic material in rivers. These widespread changes in land cover also causes changes to the

text: planetary albedo

text: , inducing complex feedbacks in the Earth's planetary

text: radiation budget

text: Another goal of the MEP is to characterize both the current and past climate of Mars, as well as factors that influence climate change on Mars. Currently what is known is that the climate is regulated by seasonal changes of Mars' ice caps, movement of dust by the atmosphere, and the exchange of water vapor between the surface and the atmosphere. To understand these climatic phenomena means helping scientists more effectively model Mars' past climate, which brings a higher degree of understanding of the dynamics of Mars.

text: Another goal of the MEP is to characterize both the current and past

text: climate of Mars

text: , as well as factors that influence climate change on Mars. Currently what is known is that the climate is regulated by seasonal changes of Mars' ice caps, movement of dust by the atmosphere, and the exchange of water vapor between the surface and the atmosphere. To understand these climatic phenomena means helping scientists more effectively model Mars' past climate, which brings a higher degree of understanding of the dynamics of Mars.

text: SEPA's position on climate change recognises that it is the greatest threat to our physical and socio-economic future. The organisation has produced a climate change plan which contains details about how SEPA will reduce its own carbon emissions. This five year climate change plan introduces SEPA's specific role in climate change mitigation and what they will do over the next five years to further integrate climate change across the organisation.

text: Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth's environmental status quo. Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations. As sea levels continue to rise, island peoples and cultures are being threatened. As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, Christopher Loeak, noted "In the last year alone, my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north, and the biggest ever king tides in the south; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region."  Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational. Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015, which by no means an unqualified success, is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming.

text: Climate change

text: is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth's environmental status quo. Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on

text: island nations

text: . As sea levels continue to rise, island peoples and cultures are being threatened. As the former President of the

text: Republic of the Marshall Islands

text: Christopher Loeak

text: , noted "In the last year alone, my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north, and the biggest ever

text: king tide

text: s in the south; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region."  Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational. Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the

entity_name: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions

text: UN Climate Summit

text: in Paris in 2015, which by no means an unqualified success, is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming.

text: Throughout the history of the Earth, the planet's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states: the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth.  These two climate states last for  millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods, which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years. There are five known glaciations in Earth's climate history; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, changes in the Earth's orbit, and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics. Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth.

text: Throughout the

text: history of the Earth

text: , the planet's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant

text: climate state

text: s: the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth.  These two climate states last for  millions of years and should not be confused with

text: glacial

text: and

text: interglacial

text: periods, which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years. There are

text: five known glaciation

text: s in Earth's climate history; the main factors involved in changes of the

text: paleoclimate

text: are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric

text: carbon dioxide

text: , changes in the

text: Earth's orbit

text: , and oceanic and

text: orogenic

text: changes due to

text: tectonic plate dynamics

text: . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the

text: evolution

text: of life on Earth.

text: As the issues of global warming and climate change have gained traction and become more prominent since the early 1990s, the question of climate resilience has also emerged. Considering the global implications of the impacts induced by climate change, climate resilience has become a critical concept that scientific institutions, policymakers, governments, and international organizations have begun to rally around as a framework for designing the solutions that will be needed to address the effects of global warming.

text: As the issues of

text: global warming

text: and climate change have gained traction and become more prominent since the early 1990s, the question of climate resilience has also emerged. Considering the global implications of the impacts induced by climate change, climate resilience has become a critical concept that scientific institutions, policymakers, governments, and international organizations have begun to rally around as a framework for designing the solutions that will be needed to address the

text: effects of global warming

text: NOAA researchers closely monitor the Earth's atmosphere searching for clues about long-term changes in the global climate. The data collected worldwide by NOAA researchers contributes to the understanding of complex climatic systems and the ability to forecast changes.

text: Stemming from membership, CCP cities publicly demonstrate their recognition of global climate change as a ‘legitimate local concern,’ committed to controlling the threats of local greenhouse gas emissions, immediately focusing the CCP program upon city local climate policy agendas. Problematically, many city governments do not take action upon climate change as they see it as a ‘global issue,’ whereby local decision makers should not be concerned. However, member CCP program municipal governments succeed in ‘localising’ global climate concerns, governing a global issue at a local policy scale. CCP cities adhere to linking the controlling of GHG emission policies with issues already implemented upon their agendas. Climate concerns can be integrated into local policy sectors representing economic development, urban and land-use planning, traffic, housing and tax. In getting global climate change issues within local policy, many CCP cities localise the policies that govern the controlling of GHG emissions, as opposed to the intricate problems of climate change. This way, more issues enter government local policy agendas through the delivery of preferred policy options as a means of solution to climate change problems already being addressed by the government. Local ‘hooks’ is a term often used in US cities to relate the concern of GHG emissions with local issues such as air quality. Such local issues provide the ‘hooks’ by which climate change issues are hung, prompting local governments to retain and address climate change as a localised issue. If climate concerns at the local level are to matter, and to become a success, more municipal governments must become members of the CCP program, allowing their actions to positively contribute to GHG emissions.

text: The major changes during the Pleistocene were brought about by several recent ice ages. The most severe was the Anglian Glaciation, with ice up to 1,000 m (3300 ft) thick that reached as far south as London and Bristol. This took place between about 478,000 to 424,000 years ago, and was responsible for the diversion of the River Thames onto its present course.

text: The major changes during the

text: Pleistocene

text: were brought about by several recent

text: ice age

text: s. The most severe was the

text: Anglian Glaciation

text: , with ice up to 1,000 m (3300 ft) thick that reached as far south as

text: London

text: and

text: Bristol

text: . This took place between about 478,000 to 424,000 years ago, and was responsible for the diversion of the

text: River Thames

text: onto its present course.

text: The poles of the Earth are more sensitive to any change in the planet's climate than the rest of the planet.  In the face of ongoing global warming, the poles are warming faster than lower latitudes.  The primary cause of this phenomenon is ice-albedo feedback, whereby melting ice uncovers darker land or ocean beneath, which then absorbs more sunlight, causing more heating. The loss of the Arctic sea ice may represent a tipping point in global warming, when 'runaway' climate change starts, but on this point the science is not yet settled.

text: The poles of the Earth are more sensitive to any change in the planet's climate than the rest of the

text: planet

text: .  In the face of ongoing global warming, the poles are warming faster than lower latitudes.  The primary cause of this phenomenon is

text: ice-albedo feedback

text: , whereby melting ice uncovers darker land or ocean beneath, which then absorbs more sunlight, causing more heating. The loss of the Arctic sea ice may represent a

text: tipping point

text: in global warming, when

text: 'runaway' climate change

text: starts, but on this point the science is not yet settled.

text: Antofalla is located in an area of arid climate. Minimal precipitation primarily in the summit areas allows for some minimal glaciation on the main Antofalla summit since the Pliocene-Pleistocene. The rest of the complex is well preserved with little erosion other than gullying from spring thaw waters. Some ravines bear evidence of flash flood activity, possibly related to the melting of glacier caps at the end of ice ages. Today the snowline lies at about  altitude.

text: Antofalla is located in an area of

text: arid

text: climate. Minimal precipitation primarily in the summit areas allows for some minimal glaciation on the main Antofalla summit since the

text: Pliocene

text: Pleistocene

text: . The rest of the complex is well preserved with little erosion other than gullying from spring thaw waters. Some ravines bear evidence of

text: flash flood

text: activity, possibly related to the melting of glacier caps at the end of ice ages. Today the snowline lies at about  altitude.

text: Long-term climate simulations, based on CMIP5 climate modeling, project reduced sea ice cover. However, melting of Antarctic ice sheets could change vertical ocean temperature stratification and encourage sea ice growth.

text: Long-term climate simulations, based on

text: climate modeling, project reduced sea ice cover. However, melting of Antarctic ice sheets could change vertical ocean temperature

text: stratification

text: and encourage sea ice growth.

text: Climate models have been used to examine the role of the sun in recent climate change.Models are unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when they only take into account variations in total solar irradiance and volcanic activity. Models are, however, able to simulate the observed 20th century changes in temperature when they include all of the most important external forcings, including human influences and natural forcings. As has already been stated, Hegerl et al. (2007) concluded that greenhouse gas forcing had "very likely" caused most of the observed global warming since the mid-20th century. In making this conclusion, Hegerl et al. (2007) allowed for the possibility that climate models had been underestimated the effect of solar forcing.

text: There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects. This is important for the problem of climate change.

text: There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects. This is important for the problem of

text: climate change

text: The Pleistocene is a geological epoch that began about 2.6 million years ago.  The Holocene, the current geological epoch, begins about 11,700 years ago, when the Pleistocene ends.  Establishing the date of this boundary − which is defined by sharp climatic warming − as accurately as possible has been a goal of geologists for much of the 20th century.  At Two Creeks, in Wisconsin, a fossil forest was discovered (Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area), and subsequent research determined that the destruction of the forest was caused by the Valders ice readvance, the last southward movement of ice before the end of the Pleistocene in that area.  Before the advent of radiocarbon dating, the fossilized trees had been dated by correlating sequences of annually deposited layers of sediment at Two Creeks with sequences in Scandinavia. This led to estimates that the trees were between 24,000 and 19,000 years old, and hence this was taken to be the date of the last advance of the Wisconsin glaciation before its final retreat marked the end of the Pleistocene in North America.  In 1952 Libby published radiocarbon dates for several samples from the Two Creeks site and two similar sites nearby; the dates were averaged to 11,404 BP with a standard error of 350 years.  This result was uncalibrated, as the need for calibration of radiocarbon ages was not yet understood.  Further results over the next decade supported an average date of 11,350 BP, with the results thought to be most accurate averaging 11,600 BP.  There was initial resistance to these results on the part of Ernst Antevs, the palaeobotanist who had worked on the Scandinavian varve series, but his objections were eventually discounted by other geologists.  In the 1990s samples were tested with AMS, yielding (uncalibrated) dates ranging from 11,640 BP to 11,800 BP, both with a standard error of 160 years.  Subsequently, a sample from the fossil forest was used in an interlaboratory test, with results provided by over 70 laboratories.  These tests produced a median age of 11,788 ± 8 BP (2σ confidence) which when calibrated gives a date range of 13,730 to 13,550 cal BP.  The Two Creeks radiocarbon dates are now regarded as a key result in developing the modern understanding of North American glaciation at the end of the Pleistocene.

text: The

text: Pleistocene

text: is a geological epoch that began about 2.6 million years ago.  The

text: Holocene

text: , the current geological epoch, begins about 11,700 years ago, when the Pleistocene ends.  Establishing the date of this boundary − which is defined by sharp climatic warming − as accurately as possible has been a goal of geologists for much of the 20th century.  At

text: Two Creeks

text: , in Wisconsin, a fossil forest was discovered (

entity_name: Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area

text: Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area

text: ), and subsequent research determined that the destruction of the forest was caused by the Valders ice readvance, the last southward movement of ice before the end of the Pleistocene in that area.  Before the advent of radiocarbon dating, the fossilized trees had been dated by correlating sequences of annually deposited layers of sediment at Two Creeks with sequences in Scandinavia. This led to estimates that the trees were between 24,000 and 19,000 years old, and hence this was taken to be the date of the last advance of the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: before its final retreat marked the end of the Pleistocene in North America.  In 1952 Libby published radiocarbon dates for several samples from the Two Creeks site and two similar sites nearby; the dates were averaged to 11,404 BP with a standard error of 350 years.  This result was uncalibrated, as the need for calibration of radiocarbon ages was not yet understood.  Further results over the next decade supported an average date of 11,350 BP, with the results thought to be most accurate averaging 11,600 BP.  There was initial resistance to these results on the part of

text: Ernst Antevs

text: , the

text: palaeobotanist

text: who had worked on the Scandinavian varve series, but his objections were eventually discounted by other geologists.  In the 1990s samples were tested with AMS, yielding (uncalibrated) dates ranging from 11,640 BP to 11,800 BP, both with a standard error of 160 years.  Subsequently, a sample from the fossil forest was used in an interlaboratory test, with results provided by over 70 laboratories.  These tests produced a median age of 11,788 ± 8 BP (2σ confidence) which when calibrated gives a date range of 13,730 to 13,550 cal BP.  The Two Creeks radiocarbon dates are now regarded as a key result in developing the modern understanding of North American glaciation at the end of the Pleistocene.

text: 85% of electricity in Australia is generated by coal-fired power stations. They produce 42% of Australia's greenhouse gas emissions. The IPCC has recommended that developed nations such as Australia cut greenhouse gas emissions by 25 to 40% by 2020 and 80 to 95% by 2050. The Garnaut Climate Change Review found that Australia is highly vulnerable to global warming caused by climate change because of the effects of global warming on Australia. The Great Barrier Reef, Kakadu and Murray Darling Basin are all threatened by climate change. Sea level rise threatens much of the highly populated Australian coast line, including the Gold Coast. The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme and Mandatory Renewable Energy Target are intended to reduce Australia's emissions and the further development of techniques to harness solar thermal energy are critical to that effort.

text: 85% of electricity in Australia is generated by coal-fired power stations. They produce 42% of Australia's

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions. The

text: IPCC

text: has recommended that developed nations such as Australia cut greenhouse gas emissions by 25 to 40% by 2020 and 80 to 95% by 2050. The

text: Garnaut Climate Change Review

text: found that Australia is highly vulnerable to

text: global warming

text: caused by

text: climate change

text: because of the

text: effects of global warming on Australia

text: . The

text: Great Barrier Reef

text: Kakadu

text: and

text: Murray Darling Basin

text: are all threatened by climate change.

text: Sea level rise

text: threatens much of the highly populated Australian coast line, including the

text: Gold Coast

text: . The

text: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme

text: and

text: Mandatory Renewable Energy Target

text: are intended to reduce Australia's emissions and the further development of techniques to harness solar thermal energy are critical to that effort.

text: Extreme phases of short-term climate oscillations such as ENSO can result in characteristic patterns of floods and droughts (including megadroughts), monsoonal disruption and extreme temperatures in the form of heat waves and cold waves. Shorter-term climate oscillations typically do not directly result in longer-term climate change in temperatures. However, the effects of underlying climate trends such as recent global warming and oscillations can be cumulative to global temperature, producing shorter-term fluctuations in the instrumental and satellite temperature records.

text: Extreme phases of short-term climate oscillations such as ENSO can result in characteristic patterns of

text: flood

text: s and

text: drought

text: s (including

text: megadrought

text: s),

text: monsoon

text: al disruption and extreme temperatures in the form of

text: heat wave

text: s and

text: cold wave

text: s. Shorter-term climate oscillations typically do not directly result in longer-term

text: climate change

text: in temperatures. However, the effects of underlying climate trends such as recent

text: global warming

text: and oscillations can be cumulative to

text: global temperature

text: , producing shorter-term fluctuations in the

text: instrumental

text: and

text: satellite

text: temperature record

text: s.

text: The Earth has experienced a constantly changing climate in the time since plants first evolved. In comparison to the present day, this history has seen Earth as cooler, warmer, drier and wetter, and  (carbon dioxide) concentrations have been both higher and lower. These changes have been reflected by constantly shifting vegetation, for example forest communities dominating most areas in interglacial periods, and herbaceous communities dominating during glacial periods. It has been shown that past climatic change has been a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction. The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago. This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles.

text: The

text: Earth

text: has experienced a constantly changing

text: climate

text: in the time since plants first evolved. In comparison to the present day, this history has seen Earth as cooler, warmer, drier and wetter, and  (

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) concentrations have been both higher and lower. These changes have been reflected by constantly shifting

text: vegetation

text: , for example

text: forest

text: communities dominating most areas in

text: interglacial

text: periods, and

text: herbaceous

text: communities dominating during

text: glacial periods

text: . It has been shown that past climatic change has been a major driver of the processes of

text: speciation

text: and

text: extinction

text: . The best known example of this is the

text: Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse

text: which occurred 350 million years ago. This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles.

text: A study conducted in 2009 showed that increases in frequency and intensity of extreme weather due to climate change will lead to a decreased productivity of agriculture, revenue losses, and the potential for lay offs. Changing weather and precipitation patterns could require expensive adaptation measures, such as relocating crop cultivation, changing the composition or type of crops, and increasing inputs such as pesticides to adapt to changes in ecological composition, that lead to economic denigration and job loss. Climate change has adverse effects on agricultural productivity in California that cause laborers to be increasingly affected by job loss. For example, the two highest-value agricultural products in California’s $30 billion agriculture sector are dairy products (milk and cream, valued at $3.8 billion annually) and grapes ($3.2 billion annually). Climate change is expected to decrease dairy production by between 7–22 percent by the end of the century. It is also expected to adversely affect the ripening of wine grapes, substantially reducing their market value.

text: It's Tomorrow aims to sensitize the audience about climate change and global warming. It is a wake-up call to the world. The one-and-a-half-hour film explores what a worst-case scenario might look like and gives a glimpse of the kind of floods and other natural disaster that might visit us in future. The Earth introduces itself in the film and talks to the audience about its current state and what it is experiencing due to climate change. The film is a political drama revolving around the climate change phenomenon around the world. It has political giants, renowned scientist and actors playing minor roles throughout the film. Interestingly, the movie has the Earth talking to the audience directly and telling them about its plight caused by climate change and answering the question “Is it Global Warming or Global Cooling?”

text: It's Tomorrow aims to sensitize the audience about

text: climate change

text: and

text: global warming

text: . It is a wake-up call to the world. The one-and-a-half-hour film explores what a worst-case scenario might look like and gives a glimpse of the kind of

text: floods

text: and other

text: natural disaster

text: that might visit us in future. The Earth introduces itself in the film and talks to the audience about its current state and what it is experiencing due to climate change. The film is a political drama revolving around the climate change phenomenon around the world. It has political giants, renowned

text: scientist

text: and actors playing minor roles throughout the film. Interestingly, the movie has the Earth talking to the audience directly and telling them about its plight caused by climate change and answering the question “Is it

text: Global Warming

text: or

text: Global Cooling

text: This is a list of climate change books that describe, as a major theme, the effects of human activity on climate change.

text: This is a list of climate change books that describe, as a major theme, the effects of human activity on

text: climate change

text: The interim replacements for CFCs are hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which deplete stratospheric ozone, but to a much lesser extent than CFCs. Ultimately, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) will replace HCFCs. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs have an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0.  DuPont began producing hydrofluorocarbons as alternatives to Freon in the 1980s. These included Suva refrigerants and Dymel propellants. Natural refrigerants are climate friendly solutions that are enjoying increasing support from large companies and governments interested in reducing global warming emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning. Hydrofluorocarbons are included in the Kyoto Protocol because of their very high Global Warming Potential and are facing calls to be regulated under the Montreal Protocol due to the recognition of halocarbon contributions to climate change.

text: The interim replacements for CFCs are hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which deplete stratospheric ozone, but to a much lesser extent than CFCs. Ultimately,

text: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)

text: will replace HCFCs. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs have an ozone depletion potential (ODP) of 0.  DuPont began producing hydrofluorocarbons as alternatives to Freon in the 1980s. These included Suva refrigerants and Dymel propellants. Natural refrigerants are climate friendly solutions that are enjoying increasing support from large companies and governments interested in reducing global warming emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning. Hydrofluorocarbons are included in the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: because of their very high

text: Global Warming Potential

text: and are facing calls to be regulated under the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: due to the recognition of halocarbon contributions to climate change.

text: Human-induced climate change may lead to irreversible impacts on physical, biological, and social systems.  There are a number of examples of climate change impacts that may be irreversible, at least over the timescale of many human generations.  These include the large-scale singularities described above – changes in carbon cycle feedbacks, the melting of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, and changes to the AMOC. In biological systems, the extinction of species would be an irreversible impact. In social systems, unique cultures may be lost due to climate change. For example, humans living on atoll islands face risks due to sea-level rise, sea-surface warming, and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.

text: Human-induced climate change may lead to irreversible impacts on physical, biological, and social systems.  There are a number of examples of climate change impacts that may be irreversible, at least over the timescale of many human generations.  These include the large-scale singularities described above – changes in carbon cycle feedbacks, the melting of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, and changes to the AMOC. In biological systems, the extinction of species would be an irreversible impact. In social systems, unique

text: culture

text: s may be lost due to climate change. For example, humans living on

text: atoll

text: islands face risks due to sea-level rise, sea-surface warming, and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.

text: This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation.  It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate. However, the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like antropodgenic global warming for instance.

text: This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation.  It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of

text: greenhouse gases

text: as significant drivers of climate. However, the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like

text: antropodgenic global warming

text: for instance.

text: As the climate changes, prey and predators have to adapt to survive. This poses a problem for many animals, for example the Southern Rockhopper Penguins. These penguins are able to live and thrive in a variety of climates due to the penguins' phenotypic plasticity. However, they are predicted to respond by dispersal, not adaptation this time. This is explained due to their long life spans and slow microevolution. Penguins in the subantarctic have very different foraging behavior than the subtropical waters, it would be very hard to survive and keep up with the fast changing climate because these behaviors took years to shape.

text: As the climate changes, prey and predators have to adapt to survive. This poses a problem for many animals, for example the

text: Southern Rockhopper Penguins

text: . These penguins are able to live and thrive in a variety of climates due to the penguins' phenotypic plasticity. However, they are predicted to respond by dispersal, not adaptation this time. This is explained due to their long life spans and slow microevolution. Penguins in the subantarctic have very different foraging behavior than the subtropical waters, it would be very hard to survive and keep up with the fast changing climate because these behaviors took years to shape.

text: For his demonstration of the existence and nature of solar variations of long term and the consequences of these changes for climate and for mankind.

text: Global warming in the United States has been a salient topic since the Kyoto Protocol, as part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, that was established in 1992. The effects of global warming have been widely debated; however, there is evidence that suggests a slight increase in the core temperature of most states. In addition there seems to be a number of effects on ecological systems throughout the United States. In the state of Tennessee, one of the key effects of global warming seems to be the radical changes to the geological composition as well as wildlife health of the Ohio-Tennessee Basin.

text: Manufactured uncertainty over climate change, the fundamental strategy of climate change denial, has been very effective, particularly in the US. It has contributed to low levels of public concern and to government inaction worldwide. An Angus Reid poll released in 2010 indicates that global warming skepticism in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom has been rising. There may be multiple causes of this trend, including a focus on economic rather than environmental issues, and a negative perception of the United Nations and its role in discussing climate change.Another cause may be weariness from overexposure to the topic: secondary polls suggest that the public may have been discouraged by extremism when discussing the topic, while other polls show 54% of U.S. voters believe that "the news media make global warming appear worse than it really is." A poll in 2009 regarding the issue of whether "some scientists have falsified research data to support their own theories and beliefs about global warming" showed that 59% of Americans believed it "at least somewhat likely", with 35% believing it was "very likely".

text: Manufactured uncertainty

text: over climate change, the fundamental strategy of climate change denial, has been very effective, particularly in the US. It has contributed to low levels of public concern and to government inaction worldwide. An Angus Reid poll released in 2010 indicates that global warming skepticism in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom has been rising. There may be multiple causes of this trend, including a focus on economic rather than environmental issues, and a negative perception of the United Nations and its role in discussing climate change.Another cause may be weariness from overexposure to the topic: secondary polls suggest that the public may have been discouraged by extremism when discussing the topic, while other polls show 54% of U.S. voters believe that "the news media make global warming appear worse than it really is." A poll in 2009 regarding the issue of whether "some scientists have falsified research data to support their own theories and beliefs about global warming" showed that 59% of Americans believed it "at least somewhat likely", with 35% believing it was "very likely".

text: The Pleistocene epoch brought periodic ice ages and a cooler, wetter climate. This increased erosion at higher elevations with the introduction of alpine glaciers while mid-elevations were attacked by frost wedging and lower areas by more vigorous stream scouring.  Pluvial lakes also formed during this time. Glaciers and pluvial lakes disappeared and the climate warmed and became drier with the start of Holocene epoch.

text: The

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch brought periodic

text: ice age

text: s and a cooler, wetter climate. This increased erosion at higher elevations with the introduction of

text: alpine glacier

text: s while mid-elevations were attacked by

text: frost wedging

text: and lower areas by more vigorous stream scouring.

text: Pluvial

text: lakes also formed during this time. Glaciers and pluvial lakes disappeared and the climate warmed and became drier with the start of

text: Holocene

text: epoch.

text: In terms of climate change and REDD+, unlike other sectors that emit greenhouse gases, the land use sector (including agriculture and forestry) has the potential to mitigate climate change by actively removing greenhouse gases, in addition to simply reducing emissions, especially through reforestation and landscape restoration. This sector accounts for around 24% of anthropogenic emisisons - and a much greater proportion of emissions in many developing countries, where land use represents the largest potential for climate change mitigation. There are many interactions between climate change and agriculture so the case for integrated landscape management is again based on the need for landscape managers to consider multiple issues and achieve multiple objectives simultaneously (i.e. production of food and climate mitigation). Advocates of integrated landscape management argue that 'climate-smart agriculture' and implementation of the Cancun REDD+ safeguards can draw on integrated landscape management; for instance, multi-stakeholder planning, appropriate landscape governance and resource tenure, investment in the landscape, and monitoring social and climate goals at different scales.

text: The film was awarded the Best Documentary trophy at the Io Isabella film festival and was shortlisted for the Best Documentary prize in the British television industry's 2008 Broadcast Awards. An official judgement issued on 21 July 2008 by the British media regulator Ofcom found that the programme "did not fulfill obligations to be impartial and to reflect a range of views on controversial issues". It upheld complaints by Sir David King that his views had been misrepresented, and Carl Wunsch, on the points that he had been misled as to its intent, and that the impression had been given that he agreed with the programme's position on climate change. However, the regulator said that because "the link between human activity and global warming... became settled before March 2007" the audience was not "materially misled so as to cause harm or offence". Ofcom declined to rule on the accuracy of the programme, saying: "It is not within Ofcom's remit or ability in this case as the regulator of the 'communications industry' to establish or seek to adjudicate on 'facts' such as whether global warming is a man-made phenomenon".

text: The film was awarded the Best Documentary trophy at the

text: Io Isabella film festival

text: and was shortlisted for the Best Documentary prize in the British television industry's 2008 Broadcast Awards. An official judgement issued on 21 July 2008 by the British media regulator Ofcom found that the programme "did not fulfill obligations to be impartial and to reflect a range of views on controversial issues". It upheld complaints by Sir

text: David King

text: that his views had been misrepresented, and

text: Carl Wunsch

text: , on the points that he had been misled as to its intent, and that the impression had been given that he agreed with the programme's position on climate change. However, the regulator said that because "the link between human activity and global warming... became settled before March 2007" the audience was not "materially misled so as to cause harm or offence". Ofcom declined to rule on the accuracy of the programme, saying: "It is not within Ofcom's remit or ability in this case as the regulator of the 'communications industry' to establish or seek to adjudicate on 'facts' such as whether global warming is a man-made phenomenon".

text: Heaven and Earth is a sequel to a previous work by Plimer called A Short History of Planet Earth. Published in 2001, A Short History was based on a decade's worth of radio broadcasts by Plimer aimed mainly at rural Australians. It became a bestseller and won a Eureka Prize in 2002. However, Plimer was unable to find any major publisher willing to publish his follow-up book. He attributed this to there being "a lot of fear out there. No one wants to go against the popular paradigm." Plimer turned to Connor Court Publishing. The company has a history of publishing books on "culture, justice and religion", including many books on Christianity and Catholicism in particular. It has also published fellow Australian climate change skeptic Garth Paltridge's book, The Climate Caper, which likewise criticises the climate change consensus and the "politicisation of science". Crikey, an Australian webzine, commented that the publication of Heaven and Earth was a coup for conservatives, and said of the publisher: "The conservatives have a new friend in publishing".

text: Heaven and Earth is a sequel to a previous work by Plimer called A Short History of Planet Earth. Published in 2001, A Short History was based on a decade's worth of radio broadcasts by Plimer aimed mainly at rural Australians. It became a bestseller and won a

text: Eureka Prize

text: in 2002. However, Plimer was unable to find any major publisher willing to publish his follow-up book. He attributed this to there being "a lot of fear out there. No one wants to go against the popular paradigm." Plimer turned to

text: Connor Court Publishing

text: . The company has a history of publishing books on "culture, justice and religion", including many books on

text: Christianity

text: and

text: Catholicism

text: in particular. It has also published fellow Australian

text: climate change skeptic

text: Garth Paltridge

text: 's book, The Climate Caper, which likewise criticises the climate change consensus and the "politicisation of science".

text: Crikey

text: , an Australian

text: webzine

text: , commented that the publication of Heaven and Earth was a coup for conservatives, and said of the publisher: "The conservatives have a new friend in publishing".

text: Glaciers never reached Maryland during the later Ice Age. However, they still affected the local environment as when water was trapped frozen in glaciers it caused the local sea levels to drop. The local climate was cold and the local flora correspondingly different. The local wildlife was also different and included such animals as mastodons. During warmer periods the glaciers would melt and sea levels rise. Clams, oysters, and snails lived in these higher waters and were preserved in the eastern part of the state. On land, Pleistocene Maryland was home to a great diversity of mammals. During the middle of that epoch, Maryland was covered in a moist woodland habitat. Around this time a cavity in the limestone composing an Allegany County hill served as a death trap for many unwary animals over an extended period. Among the preserved remains were animals from very warm, intermediate and very cold climates, documenting the changes in the make up of the local wildlife in response to the planet's changing climate. The mammals typifying the warm "southern" fauna included some of the bats, peccaries, and a tapir. A crocodile added a reptilian element to this "southern" fauna. The intermediate latitude-type fauna was characterized by a badger, a variety of bears, deer, a mastodon, otter, and a puma-like animal. The mammals more typical of northern habitats included elk, a fisher, hare, lemming, mink, jumping mouse, muskrat, pika, porcupine, long tailed shrew, red squirrel, and wolverine. Large animals are conspicuously absent from the deposit and few of the fossils suggest anything larger than a modern black bear. Also conspicuous is the absence of many kinds of animal that are common in the Pleistocene deposits in the United States like bison, camels, giant ground sloths, musk oxen relatives of modern elephants, and saber teeth.

text: Glaciers never reached Maryland during the later Ice Age. However, they still affected the local environment as when water was trapped frozen in glaciers it caused the local sea levels to drop. The local climate was cold and the local flora correspondingly different. The local wildlife was also different and included such animals as mastodons. During warmer periods the glaciers would melt and sea levels rise. Clams, oysters, and snails lived in these higher waters and were preserved in the eastern part of the state. On land, Pleistocene Maryland was home to a great diversity of mammals. During the middle of that

text: epoch

text: , Maryland was covered in a moist

text: woodland

text: habitat. Around this time a cavity in the

text: limestone

text: composing an

text: Allegany County

text: hill

text: served as a death trap for many unwary animals over an extended period. Among the preserved remains were animals from very warm, intermediate and very cold climates, documenting the changes in the make up of the local wildlife in response to the planet's changing climate. The mammals typifying the warm "southern" fauna included some of the

text: bats

text: peccaries

text: , and a

text: tapir

text: . A

text: crocodile

text: added a

text: reptilian

text: element to this "southern" fauna. The intermediate latitude-type fauna was characterized by a

text: badger

text: , a variety of

text: bear

text: s, deer, a

text: mastodon

text: otter

text: , and a

text: puma

text: -like animal. The mammals more typical of northern habitats included

text: elk

text: , a

text: fisher

text: hare

text: lemming

text: mink

text: jumping mouse

text: muskrat

text: pika

text: porcupine

text: long tailed shrew

text: red squirrel

text: , and

text: wolverine

text: . Large animals are conspicuously absent from the deposit and few of the fossils suggest anything larger than a modern

text: black bear

text: . Also conspicuous is the absence of many kinds of animal that are common in the Pleistocene deposits in the United States like

text: bison

text: camels

text: giant ground sloths

text: musk oxen

text: relatives of modern elephants

text: , and

text: saber teeth

text: Atmospheric sciences is an umbrella term for the study of the Earth's atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. Meteorology includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics with a major focus on weather forecasting. Climatology is the study of atmospheric changes (both long and short-term) that define average climates and their change over time, due to both natural and anthropogenic climate variability. Aeronomy is the study of the upper layers of the atmosphere, where dissociation and ionization are important. Atmospheric science has been extended to the field of planetary science and the study of the atmospheres of the planets of the solar system.

text: Atmospheric sciences is an

text: umbrella term

text: for the study of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.

text: Meteorology

text: includes

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: and

text: atmospheric physics

text: with a major focus on

text: weather forecasting

text: Climatology

text: is the study of atmospheric changes (both long and short-term) that define average climates and their change over time, due to both natural and anthropogenic

text: climate variability

text: Aeronomy

text: is the study of the upper layers of the atmosphere, where

text: dissociation

text: and

text: ionization

text: are important. Atmospheric science has been extended to the field of

text: planetary science

text: and the study of the atmospheres of the

text: planet

text: s of the

text: solar system

text: Climate change and global warming have become one of the most pressing environmental concerns and the greatest global challenges in society today, despite the fact that a consensus has never been reached in the debates over its causes and consequences. As this issue continues to dominate the international agenda, researchers from different academic sectors have for long been devoting great efforts to explore effective solutions to climate change, with technologists and planners devising ways of mitigating and adapting to climate change; economists estimating the cost of climate change and the cost of tackling it; development experts exploring the impact of climate change on social services and public goods. However, Cammack (2007) points out two problems with many of the above discussions, namely the disconnection between the proposed solutions to climate change from different disciplines; and the devoid of politics in addressing climate change at the local level. Further, the issue of climate change is facing various other challenges, such as the problem of elite-resource capture, the resource constraints in developing countries and the conflicts that frequently result from such constraints, which have often been less concerned and stressed in suggested solutions. In recognition of these problems, it is advocated that “understanding the political economy of climate change is vital to tackling it”.

text: Climate change and

text: global warming

text: have become one of the most pressing

text: environmental concerns

text: and the greatest global challenges in society today, despite the fact that a consensus has never been reached in the debates over its causes and consequences. As this issue continues to dominate the international agenda, researchers from different academic sectors have for long been devoting great efforts to explore effective solutions to climate change, with technologists and planners devising ways of

text: mitigating

text: and

text: adapting

text: to climate change; economists estimating the cost of climate change and the cost of tackling it; development experts exploring the impact of climate change on social services and public goods. However, Cammack (2007) points out two problems with many of the above discussions, namely the disconnection between the proposed solutions to climate change from different disciplines; and the devoid of politics in addressing climate change at the local level. Further, the issue of climate change is facing various other challenges, such as the problem of elite-resource capture, the resource constraints in

text: developing countries

text: and the conflicts that frequently result from such constraints, which have often been less concerned and stressed in suggested solutions. In recognition of these problems, it is advocated that “understanding the political economy of climate change is vital to tackling it”.

text: The short-term changes in calcification rate and shell growth described by the aforementioned studies are based on experimental temperature elevation or latitudinal thermal gradients, but long-term temperature trends can also affect shell growth. Sclerochronology can reconstruct historical temperature data from growth increments in shells of many calcifying organisms based on differential growth rates at different temperatures. The visible markers for these growth increments are similar to growth rings, and are also present in fossil shells, enabling researchers to establish that clams such as Phacosoma balticum and Ruditapes philippinarum grew the fastest during times of warmer climate.

text: The short-term changes in calcification rate and shell growth described by the aforementioned studies are based on experimental temperature elevation or latitudinal thermal gradients, but long-term temperature trends can also affect shell growth.

text: Sclerochronology

text: can reconstruct historical temperature data from growth increments in shells of many calcifying organisms based on differential growth rates at different temperatures. The visible markers for these growth increments are similar to

text: growth rings

text: , and are also present in fossil shells, enabling researchers to establish that clams such as Phacosoma balticum and

text: Ruditapes philippinarum

text: grew the fastest during times of warmer climate.

text: Though the term "cli-fi" came into use in the late 2000s to describe fiction that deals with man-made climate change, historically, there have been any number of literary works that dealt with climate change as a natural disaster. One example is Jules Verne's 1889 novel The Purchase of the North Pole, which imagines a climate change due to tilting of Earth's axis. In his posthumous Paris in the Twentieth Century, written in 1883 and set during the 1960s, the titular city experiences a sudden drop in temperature, which lasts for three years. Several well-known dystopian works by British author J. G. Ballard deal with climate-related natural disasters: In  The Wind from Nowhere (1961), civilization is reduced by persistent hurricane-force winds, and The Drowned World (1962) describes a future of melted ice-caps and rising sea-levels caused by solar radiation. In The Burning World (1964, later called The Drought) his climate catastrophe is human-made, a drought due to disruption of the precipitation cycle by industrial pollution.

text: Though the term "cli-fi" came into use in the late 2000s to describe fiction that deals with man-made

text: climate change

text: , historically, there have been any number of literary works that dealt with climate change as a natural disaster. One example is

text: Jules Verne

text: 's 1889 novel

text: The Purchase of the North Pole

text: , which imagines a climate change due to tilting of Earth's axis. In his posthumous

text: Paris in the Twentieth Century

text: , written in 1883 and set during the 1960s, the titular city experiences a sudden drop in temperature, which lasts for three years. Several well-known dystopian works by British author

text: J. G. Ballard

text: deal with climate-related natural disasters: In

text: The Wind from Nowhere

text: (1961), civilization is reduced by persistent hurricane-force winds, and

text: The Drowned World

text: (1962) describes a future of melted ice-caps and rising sea-levels caused by solar radiation. In

text: The Burning World

text: (1964, later called The Drought) his climate catastrophe is human-made, a drought due to disruption of the precipitation cycle by industrial pollution.

text: Nowak suggested that during the Late Pleistocene two types of wolf evolved in the ice-free north of the Wisconsin glaciation, one in the Peary Land refugium in the far north of Greenland, the other in Alaska. Once the ice receded, the Peary Land wolves spread across Greenland and the Queen Elizabeth Islands. The Alaskan wolves spread to become the northern wolves referred to as Canis lupus arctos. Other wolves from south of the ice sheet would move north to interact with the northern wolves.

text: Nowak suggested that during the

text: Late Pleistocene

text: two types of wolf evolved in the ice-free north of the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: , one in the

text: Peary Land

text: refugium in the far north of Greenland, the other in Alaska. Once the ice receded, the Peary Land wolves spread across Greenland and the

text: Queen Elizabeth Islands

text: . The Alaskan wolves spread to become the northern wolves referred to as Canis lupus arctos. Other wolves from south of the ice sheet would move north to interact with the northern wolves.

text: Mandia is very active in advocacy that takes the position that climate change, specifically global warming, is a threat to contemporary human habitats. To this end, he maintains a website titled "Global Warming: Man or Myth?", included at the "Start Here" tab of RealClimate.org.  Mandia also writes about climate change and politics at his blog.

text: Mandia is very active in advocacy that takes the position that

text: climate change

text: , specifically

text: global warming

text: , is a threat to contemporary human habitats. To this end, he maintains a website titled "Global Warming: Man or Myth?", included at the "Start Here" tab of

text: RealClimate

text: .org.  Mandia also writes about climate change and politics at his blog.

text: Climate change, global warming caused by the greenhouse effect, and the resulting increase in global temperatures, are possibly causing tropical diseases and vectors to spread to higher altitudes in mountainous regions, and to higher latitudes that were previously spared, such as the Southern United States, the Mediterranean area, etc. For example, in the Monteverde cloud forest of Costa Rica, global warming enabled Chytridiomycosis, a tropical disease, to flourish and thus force into decline amphibian populations of the Monteverde Harlequin frog. Here, global warming raised the heights of orographic cloud formation, and thus produced cloud cover that would facilitate optimum growth conditions for the implicated pathogen, B. dendrobatidis.

text: Climate change

text: global warming

text: caused by the

text: greenhouse effect

text: , and the resulting increase in global

text: temperature

text: s, are possibly causing tropical diseases and vectors to spread to higher altitudes in mountainous regions, and to higher latitudes that were previously spared, such as the

text: Southern United States

text: , the Mediterranean area, etc. For example, in the Monteverde cloud forest of Costa Rica, global warming enabled Chytridiomycosis, a tropical disease, to flourish and thus force into decline amphibian populations of the Monteverde Harlequin frog. Here, global warming raised the heights of orographic cloud formation, and thus produced cloud cover that would facilitate optimum growth conditions for the implicated pathogen, B. dendrobatidis.

text: In December 2016, Breitbart News published an article positing that 2016 record-high global temperatures were not caused by climate change but were a direct consequence of the impact of El Nino. The article was a summary of a report which first appeared on the Daily Mail, drafted by well known scientists including Dr Gavin Schmidt, head of Nasa’s climate division. Both the Daily Mail and the Breitbart News stories are counter to the scientific consensus on climate change.

text: In December 2016, Breitbart News published an article positing that 2016 record-high global temperatures were not caused by climate change but were a direct consequence of the impact of El Nino. The article was a summary of a report which first appeared on the Daily Mail, drafted by well known scientists including Dr Gavin Schmidt, head of Nasa’s climate division. Both the

text: Daily Mail

text: and the Breitbart News stories are counter to the

text: scientific consensus on climate change

text: During the Pleistocene period, muskoxen were much more widespread. Fossil evidence shows that they lived across the Siberian and North American Arctic, from the Urals to Greenland. The ancestors of today's muskoxen came across the Bering Land Bridge to North America between 200,000 and 90,000 years ago. During the Wisconsinan, modern muskox thrived in the tundra south of the Laurentide ice sheet, in what is now the Midwest, the Appalachians and Virginia, while distant relatives Bootherium and Euceratherium lived in the forests of the Southern United States and the western shrubland, respectively. Though they were always less common than other Ice Age megafauna, muskox abundance peaked during the Würm II glaciation 20,000 years ago and declined afterwards, especially during the Pleistocene/Holocene extinction event, where its range was greatly reduced and only the populations in North America survived. The last known muskox population in Europe died out in Sweden 9,000 years ago, and the last one in Asia, which lived on Siberia's Taymyr Peninsula, about 2,000 years ago.

text: During the

text: Pleistocene

text: period, muskoxen were much more widespread. Fossil evidence shows that they lived across the Siberian and North American Arctic, from the

text: Urals

text: to

text: Greenland

text: . The ancestors of today's muskoxen came across the

text: Bering Land Bridge

text: to North America between 200,000 and 90,000 years ago. During the

text: Wisconsinan

text: , modern muskox thrived in the

text: tundra

text: south of the

text: Laurentide ice sheet

text: , in what is now the

text: Midwest

text: , the

text: Appalachians

text: and

text: Virginia

text: , while distant relatives

text: Bootherium

text: and

text: Euceratherium

text: lived in the forests of the

text: Southern United States

text: and the western shrubland, respectively. Though they were always less common than other Ice Age megafauna, muskox abundance peaked during the

text: Würm

text: II glaciation 20,000 years ago and declined afterwards, especially during the

text: Pleistocene

text: Holocene

text: extinction event

text: , where its range was greatly reduced and only the populations in North America survived. The last known muskox population in Europe died out in

text: Sweden

text: 9,000 years ago, and the last one in Asia, which lived on Siberia's

text: Taymyr Peninsula

text: , about 2,000 years ago.

text: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production. Like many crops, potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, temperature and precipitation, as well as interactions between these factors. As well as affecting potatoes directly, climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests.Potato is one of the world’s most important food crops. Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields.

text: Global warming

text: is predicted to have significant effects on global

text: potato

text: production. Like many crops, potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric

text: carbon dioxide

text: , temperature and precipitation, as well as interactions between these factors. As well as affecting potatoes directly, climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests.Potato is one of the world’s most important food crops. Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in

text: crop yields

text: The first World Climate Conference was held by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1979 in Geneva, Switzerland. The conference established that "continued expansion of man's activities on earth may cause significant extended regional and even global changes of climate".  The WMO created the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988 to provide a source of "objective information" on global climate change.  Then in 1992, 154 nations signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), which aimed to reduce emission levels in industrialized nations. The FCCC is a set of principles and does not legally bind a country to specific standards. Primarily, the FCCC seeks to "establish a set of principles, norms, and goals" amongst nations. In 1997, 159 nations signed the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol carries a legal obligation for nations to uphold specific standards in the reduction of greenhouse gases and emissions. The Kyoto Protocol defines countries as being "Annex 1 parties" or "non-Annex 1 parties".  Annex 1 parties are industrialized nations while non-Annex 1 refers to developing nations.

text: The first World Climate Conference was held by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1979 in Geneva, Switzerland. The conference established that "continued expansion of man's activities on earth may cause significant extended regional and even global changes of climate".  The WMO created the

text: (IPCC) in 1988 to provide a source of "objective information" on global climate change.  Then in 1992, 154 nations signed the

text: (FCCC), which aimed to reduce emission levels in industrialized nations. The FCCC is a set of principles and does not legally bind a country to specific standards. Primarily, the FCCC seeks to "establish a set of principles, norms, and goals" amongst nations. In 1997, 159 nations signed the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: . The Kyoto Protocol carries a legal obligation for nations to uphold specific standards in the reduction of greenhouse gases and emissions. The Kyoto Protocol defines countries as being "Annex 1 parties" or "non-Annex 1 parties".  Annex 1 parties are industrialized nations while non-Annex 1 refers to developing nations.

text: On June 25, 2014, Lenar Whitney stated in a campaign video that human-caused climate change is "the greatest deception in the history of mankind." Dismissing evidence of global warming presented in Al Gore's documentary An Inconvenient Truth and the consensus of scientific opinion that Earth's climate is being affected by human activities, Whitney claimed that in the past ten years the planet "has done nothing but get colder each year." As evidence, Whitney stated "any 10-year-old can invalidate [the theses of climate scientists] with one of the simplest scientific devices known to man: a thermometer." Fact checker website PolitiFact.com ruled that, "There is an overwhelming consensus among respected scientists that human-caused global warming is real, and Whitney's supporting evidence falls flat. We rate this claim Pants on Fire."

text: On June 25, 2014, Lenar Whitney stated in a campaign video that human-caused

text: climate change

text: is "the greatest deception in the history of mankind."

text: Dismissing evidence

text: of

text: global warming

text: presented in

text: Al Gore

text: 's documentary

text: An Inconvenient Truth

text: and the

text: consensus of scientific opinion

text: that Earth's climate is being affected by human activities, Whitney claimed that in the past ten years the planet "has done nothing but get colder each year." As evidence, Whitney stated "any 10-year-old can invalidate [the theses of climate scientists] with one of the simplest scientific devices known to man: a thermometer."

text: Fact checker

text: website

text: PolitiFact.com

text: ruled that, "There is an overwhelming consensus among respected scientists that human-caused global warming is real, and Whitney's supporting evidence falls flat. We rate this claim Pants on Fire."

text: On the day of publication, the ExxonMobil funded lobbying website Tech Central Station issued a press release headed "TCS Newsflash: Important Global Warming Study Audited -- Numerous Errors Found; New Research Reveals the UN IPCC 'Hockey Stick' Theory of Climate Change is Flawed" announcing that "Canadian business executive Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick have presented more evidence that the 20th century wasn't the warmest on record." In a Senate debate on 29 October, a day before the McCain-Lieberman bill vote, Senator Jim Inhofe misrepresented the claims made in the MM03 paper and said that it demonstrated high Medieval Warm Period temperatures in the 15th century (during the Little Ice Age). In attacking the MBH papers, he erroneously described Mann as being in charge of the IPCC. In the same debate, Senator Olympia Snowe used the hockey stick graph to demonstrate the reality of climate change. On the morning of the vote, USA Today carried an op-ed by Tech Central Station editor Nick Shulz saying that MM03 "upsets a key scientific claim about climate change", and that "Mann never made his data available online". The vote was 55–43 against the McCain-Lieberman bill. After Mann and associates showed the newspaper that the data was available online, as it had been for years, USA Today issued a correction on 13 November.

text: On the day of publication, the

text: ExxonMobil

text: funded lobbying website

text: Tech Central Station

text: issued a press release headed "TCS Newsflash: Important Global Warming Study Audited -- Numerous Errors Found; New Research Reveals the UN IPCC 'Hockey Stick' Theory of Climate Change is Flawed" announcing that "Canadian business executive Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick have presented more evidence that the 20th century wasn't the warmest on record." In a Senate debate on 29 October, a day before the

text: McCain-Lieberman bill

text: vote, Senator

text: Jim Inhofe

text: misrepresented the claims made in the MM03 paper and said that it demonstrated high

text: Medieval Warm Period

text: temperatures in the 15th century (during the

text: Little Ice Age

text: ). In attacking the MBH papers, he erroneously described Mann as being in charge of the

text: IPCC

text: . In the same debate, Senator

text: Olympia Snowe

text: used the hockey stick graph to demonstrate the reality of climate change. On the morning of the vote,

text: USA Today

text: carried an

text: op-ed

text: by

text: Tech Central Station

text: editor Nick Shulz saying that MM03 "upsets a key scientific claim about climate change", and that "Mann never made his data available online". The vote was 55–43 against the McCain-Lieberman bill. After Mann and associates showed the newspaper that the data was available online, as it had been for years, USA Today issued a correction on 13 November.

text: The hyperobject, a term Timothy Morton used in Philosophy and Ecology after the End of the World, explains why it is so hard to write about climate change in fiction. Part of Morton's book's summary at Project MUSE states, "Moving fluidly between philosophy, science, literature, visual and conceptual art, and popular culture, the book argues that hyperobjects show that the end of the world has already occurred in the sense that concepts such as world, nature, and even environment are no longer a meaningful horizon against which human events take place. Instead of inhabiting a world, we find ourselves inside a number of hyperobjects, such as climate, nuclear weapons, evolution, or relativity. Such objects put unbearable strains on our normal ways of reasoning. Insisting that we have to reinvent how we think to even begin to comprehend the world we now live in, hyperobjects takes the first steps, outlining a genuinely postmodern ecological approach to thought and action."  For that reason, authors often take a fragment of a climate change to blow up in a story. An example of this is with Barbara Kingsolver's novel Flight Behavior, which is centered around a new winter habitat for Monarch butterflies, after their traditional habitat is destroyed by flooding due to climate change.

text: The

text: hyperobject

text: , a term

text: Timothy Morton

text: used in Philosophy and Ecology after the End of the World, explains why it is so hard to write about climate change in fiction. Part of Morton's book's summary at Project MUSE states, "Moving fluidly between philosophy, science, literature, visual and conceptual art, and popular culture, the book argues that hyperobjects show that the end of the world has already occurred in the sense that concepts such as world, nature, and even environment are no longer a meaningful horizon against which human events take place. Instead of inhabiting a world, we find ourselves inside a number of hyperobjects, such as climate, nuclear weapons, evolution, or relativity. Such objects put unbearable strains on our normal ways of reasoning. Insisting that we have to reinvent how we think to even begin to comprehend the world we now live in, hyperobjects takes the first steps, outlining a genuinely postmodern ecological approach to thought and action."  For that reason, authors often take a fragment of a climate change to blow up in a story. An example of this is with Barbara Kingsolver's novel Flight Behavior, which is centered around a new winter habitat for Monarch butterflies, after their traditional habitat is destroyed by flooding due to climate change.

text: A rise in global temperatures is also predicted to correlate with an increase in global precipitation, but because of increased runoff, floods, increased rates of soil erosion, and mass movement of land, a decline in water quality is probable, while water will carry more nutrients, it will also carry more contaminants.  While most of the attention about climate change is directed towards global warming and greenhouse effect, some of the most severe effects of climate change are likely to be from changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, runoff, and soil moisture.  It is generally expected that, on average, global precipitation will increase, with some areas receiving increases and some decreases.

text: A rise in global temperatures is also predicted to correlate with an increase in global precipitation, but because of increased runoff, floods, increased rates of

text: soil erosion

text: , and mass movement of land, a decline in

text: water quality

text: is probable, while water will carry more nutrients, it will also carry more contaminants.  While most of the attention about climate change is directed towards global warming and

text: greenhouse effect

text: , some of the most severe effects of climate change are likely to be from changes in precipitation,

text: evapotranspiration

text: , runoff, and soil moisture.  It is generally expected that, on average, global precipitation will increase, with some areas receiving increases and some decreases.

text: The Storm Water Management Model Climate Adjustment Tool (SWMM-CAT) is a new addition to SWMM5 (December 2014).  It is a simple to use software utility that allows future climate change projections to be incorporated into the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). SWMM was recently updated to accept a set of monthly adjustment factors for each of these time series that could represent the impact of future changes in climatic conditions. SWMM-CAT provides a set of location-specific adjustments that derived from global climate change models run as part of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) archive (Figure 4).  SWMM-CAT is a utility that adds location-specific climate change adjustments to a Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) project file. Adjustments can be applied on a monthly basis to air temperature, evaporation rates, and precipitation, as well as to the 24-hour design storm at different recurrence intervals. The source of these adjustments are global climate change models run as part of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) archive. Downscaled results from this archive were generated and converted into changes with respect to historical values by USEPA's CREAT project (http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/climate/creat.cfm).

text: The Storm Water Management Model

text: Climate Adjustment Tool

text: (SWMM-CAT) is a new addition to SWMM5 (December 2014).  It is a simple to use software utility that allows future climate change projections to be incorporated into the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). SWMM was recently updated to accept a set of monthly adjustment factors for each of these time series that could represent the impact of future changes in climatic conditions. SWMM-CAT provides a set of location-specific adjustments that derived from global climate change models run as part of the

text: World Climate Research Programme

text: (WCRP) Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) archive (Figure 4).  SWMM-CAT is a utility that adds location-specific climate change adjustments to a Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) project file. Adjustments can be applied on a monthly basis to air temperature, evaporation rates, and precipitation, as well as to the 24-hour design storm at different recurrence intervals. The source of these adjustments are global climate change models run as part of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 3 (CMIP3) archive. Downscaled results from this archive were generated and converted into changes with respect to historical values by USEPA's CREAT project (http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/climate/creat.cfm).

text: Stott has been critical of terms like 'climate sceptic' and 'climate-change denier'; he believes in a distinction between the science of climate change and what he asserts is the Barthesian myth  of global warming, saying,

text: Stott has been critical of terms like 'climate sceptic' and 'climate-change denier'; he believes in a distinction between the science of climate change and what he asserts is the Barthesian myth  of

text: global warming

text: , saying,

text: Calculating unimparied runoff is also extremely important in identifying long-term climate change impacts.  By subtracting the known human influences on a long-term hydrologic record, the records may still show signs of a long-term change.  These long-term signals are sometimes described as long-term climate change.  It is still possible that the long-term climate signal is caused by larger scale antropogenic sources.

text: Calculating unimparied runoff is also extremely important in identifying long-term

text: climate change

text: impacts.  By subtracting the known human influences on a long-term hydrologic record, the records may still show signs of a long-term change.  These long-term signals are sometimes described as long-term climate change.  It is still possible that the long-term climate signal is caused by larger scale antropogenic sources.

text: Much of the original paleoecological research has focused on the last two million years (the Quaternary period), because older environments are less well represented in the fossil timeline of evolution. Indeed, many studies concentrate on the Holocene epoch (the last 11,500 years), or the last glacial stage of the Pleistocene epoch (the Wisconsin/Weichsel/Devensian/Würm glaciation of the ice age, from 50,000 to 11,500 years ago).  Such studies are useful for understanding the dynamics of ecosystem change and for reconstructing pre-industrialization ecosystems. Many public policy decision-makers have pointed to the importance of using palaeoecological studies as a basis for choices made in conservation ecology.

text: Much of the original paleoecological research has focused on the last two million years (the

text: Quaternary

text: period), because older environments are less well represented in the fossil

entity_name: Timeline of the evolutionary history of life

text: timeline of evolution

text: . Indeed, many studies concentrate on the

text: Holocene

text: epoch (the last 11,500 years), or the last glacial stage of the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch (the

text: Wisconsin/Weichsel/Devensian/Würm glaciation

text: of the

text: ice age

text: , from 50,000 to 11,500 years ago).  Such studies are useful for understanding the dynamics of ecosystem change and for reconstructing pre-industrialization ecosystems. Many

text: public policy

text: decision-makers have pointed to the importance of using palaeoecological studies as a basis for choices made in

text: conservation ecology

text: The material comprised more than 1,000 emails, 2,000 documents, as well as commented source code, pertaining to climate change research covering a period from 1996 until 2009. According to an analysis in The Guardian, the vast majority of the emails related to four climatologists: Phil Jones, the head of the CRU; Keith Briffa, a CRU climatologist specialising in tree ring analysis; Tim Osborn, a climate modeller at CRU; and Mike Hulme, director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research. The four were either recipients or senders of all but 66 of the 1,073 emails, with most of the remainder of the emails being sent from mailing lists. A few other emails were sent by, or to, other staff at the CRU. Jones, Briffa, Osborn and Hulme had written high-profile scientific papers on climate change that had been cited in reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

text: The material comprised more than 1,000 emails, 2,000 documents, as well as

text: commented

text: source code

text: , pertaining to

text: climate change

text: research covering a period from 1996 until 2009. According to an analysis in

text: The Guardian

text: , the vast majority of the emails related to four climatologists:

text: Phil Jones

text: , the head of the CRU;

text: Keith Briffa

text: , a CRU climatologist specialising in tree ring analysis; Tim Osborn, a climate modeller at CRU; and

text: Mike Hulme

text: , director of the

text: Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research

text: . The four were either recipients or senders of all but 66 of the 1,073 emails, with most of the remainder of the emails being sent from mailing lists. A few other emails were sent by, or to, other staff at the CRU. Jones, Briffa, Osborn and Hulme had written high-profile scientific papers on climate change that had been cited in reports by the

text: Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four major ice ages. These consisting of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated by interglacial periods. The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface albedo, reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse gases, such as by volcanic activity, can increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial period. Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents, variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the solar output, and volcanism.

text: Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four major

text: ice age

text: s. These consisting of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated by

text: interglacial

text: periods. The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface

text: albedo

text: , reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature. Increases in

text: greenhouse gas

text: es, such as by volcanic activity, can increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial period. Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the

text: continent

text: s, variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the solar output, and volcanism.

text: The Iowa Pleistocene snail was thought to be extinct until it was discovered in 1955 by a scientist working in northeastern Iowa. It was listed as endangered by the United States in 1978. The main cause of the snail's decline is climate change, as it is restricted to patches of cold habitat in warmer surroundings. The snail is considered a to be a relic of the ice age. About 75% of this snail’s original habitat has been destroyed since 1850. Other causes include loss of habitat to logging, quarrying, livestock, pesticides, the construction of roads, and predation by shrews.

text: The Iowa Pleistocene snail was thought to be extinct until it was discovered in 1955 by a scientist working in northeastern Iowa. It was listed as endangered by the United States in 1978. The main cause of the snail's decline is

text: climate change

text: , as it is restricted to patches of cold habitat in warmer surroundings. The snail is considered a to be a relic of the ice age. About 75% of this snail’s original habitat has been destroyed since 1850. Other causes include loss of habitat to

text: logging

text: quarry

text: ing,

text: livestock

text: pesticide

text: s, the construction of roads, and predation by

text: shrew

text: s.

text: One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming.  Most physiological processes are affected by temperature, and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth, reproduction and survival of animals and plants.  The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era. These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems.

text: One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is

text: global warming

text: .  Most physiological processes are affected by

text: temperature

text: , and so even small changes in

text: weather

text: and

text: climate

text: can lead to large changes in the growth, reproduction and survival of animals and plants.  The

text: scientific consensus

text: is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the

text: industrial era

text: . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems.

text: The Moorland Indicators of Climate Change Initiative was set up in 2008 to collect data on climate change in the area. Students investigated the interaction between people and the moorlands, and their overall effect on climate change, to discover whether the moorlands are a net carbon sink or source, based on the fact that upland areas of Britain are a significant global carbon store in the form of peat. Human interaction in terms of direct erosion and fire as well as the effects of global warming are the major variables that they considered.

text: The Moorland Indicators of Climate Change Initiative was set up in 2008 to collect data on climate change in the area. Students investigated the interaction between people and the moorlands, and their overall effect on climate change, to discover whether the moorlands are a net carbon sink or source, based on the fact that upland areas of Britain are a significant global carbon store in the form of

text: peat

text: . Human interaction in terms of direct erosion and fire as well as the effects of global warming are the major variables that they considered.

text: The book expands Solomon's National Post columns about those who he labeled as "Deniers" and who, in Solomon's opinion, dissented in some way from the mainstream opinion on global warming.  In the book, Solomon questions the assertion that the “science is settled”, which he believes is claimed by advocates of the "consensus theory" and criticizes the "alarmist" view on global warming. Among the issues raised and alleged flaws presented are the Hockey stick controversy; the Stern Review; hurricane frequency and intensity; the lack of signs of global warming in Antarctica's climate; reservations on the predictability of climate models and its lack of falsifiability; the Singer-Revelle-Gore controversy; and the alternate solar variation theory, regarding the hypotheses of the warming being driven by the interaction of the solar wind with cosmic rays affecting cloud formation. Each chapter includes end notes with references and website addresses.

text: The book expands Solomon's

text: National Post

text: columns about those who he labeled as "Deniers" and who, in Solomon's opinion, dissented in some way from the mainstream opinion on global warming.  In the book, Solomon questions the assertion that the “science is settled”, which he believes is claimed by advocates of the

text: "consensus theory"

text: and criticizes the "alarmist" view on global warming. Among the issues raised and alleged flaws presented are the

text: Hockey stick controversy

text: ; the

text: Stern Review

text: hurricane

text: frequency and intensity; the lack of

text: signs of global warming in Antarctica's climate

text: ; reservations on the predictability of

text: climate models

text: and its lack of

text: falsifiability

text: ; the

text: Singer

text: Revelle

text: Gore

text: controversy; and the alternate

text: solar variation theory

text: , regarding the

text: hypotheses

text: of the warming being driven by the interaction of the

text: solar

text: wind with

text: cosmic rays

text: affecting cloud formation. Each chapter includes end notes with references and website addresses.

text: As scientific knowledge of the effects of fossil fuel consumption and resulting increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations entered the public and political arena as "global warming", fiction about the problems of human-induced global warming began to appear. Susan M. Gaines's Carbon Dreams was an early example of a literary novel that "tells a story about the devastatingly serious issue of human-induced climate change," set in the 1980s and published before the term "cli-fi" was coined Michael Crichton's State of Fear (2004), a techno-thriller portrays climate change as "a vast pseudo-scientific hoax" and is critical of scientific opinion on climate change.

text: As scientific knowledge of the effects of fossil fuel consumption and resulting increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations entered the public and political arena as "

text: global warming

text: ", fiction about the problems of human-induced global warming began to appear.

text: Susan M. Gaines

text: 's

text: Carbon Dreams

text: was an early example of a literary novel that "tells a story about the devastatingly serious issue of human-induced climate change," set in the 1980s and published before the term "cli-fi" was coined

text: Michael Crichton

text: 's

text: State of Fear

text: (2004), a

text: techno-thriller

text: portrays climate change as "a vast pseudo-scientific hoax" and is critical of

text: scientific opinion on climate change

text: Layers can be a few meters thick or tens of meters thick. Recent research on these layers suggests that ancient climate change on Mars, caused by regular variation in the planet's tilt, may have caused the patterns in layers. On Earth, similar changes (astronomical forcing) of climate results in ice-age cycles.

text: Because global climate change is happening faster than predictions could ever have envisioned, education and public awareness is important in reducing our overall consumption of natural resources and limiting the amount of CO2 we emit, the main attributor to climate change. There are several nonprofit organizations within Sri Lanka petitioning for a more sustainable environment for both humans and species alike. The Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society (SLWCS) main purpose is to conserve the dwindling biodiversity of Sri Lanka. They have completing several conservation projects including a wetlands conservation project along with many habitat restoration missions. Currently the SLWCS has seven proposed projects they hope to take on in the near future (Forming Partnerships to Preserve Sri Lanka’s Biodiversity). Their mission for these proposed projects is as follows; “Our experience over the past 12 years indicates that agriculture, fisheries and tourism related activities have a great impact on our natural resources. Over 70% of our people depend on agricultural activities for their livelihoods. The SLWCS devotes most of its effort to introducing better land use and agricultural practices so that agricultural development can be sustained over the long-term” (SLWCS Mission). Even though this particular group features maintaining the well being of many elephants in Sri Lanka, they have similar goals and aspirations to build a better more sustainable environment for humans, plants and animals. Another amazing conservation group in Sri Lanka prides themselves in protecting natural habitats and educating children through wildlife camps about the importance of Sri Lanka’s rich biodiversity. Sri Lankan Wilds has been creating and maintaining natural habitats through knowledge and education. Currently in Sri Lanka there are several nature parks that preserve habitats for many animals. However, the challenge with conserving habitats also depends on the speed at which climate change occurs. Creating nature reserves is important however as climate change continues, the range for these endemic species may be altered, therefore habitat continuation is a must for the future, allowing for adequate corridor systems linking similar environments together so species will be able to adjust to the changing climate (Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka). 	As far as conserving the climate of Sri Lanka, the amount of CO2 that is emitted in Sri Lanka is small to none compared to many of the larger countries in the US. The National Climate Change Adaption Strategy (NCCAS) has prioritized a framework for combating and coping with climate change. There framework includes five key components that will be assessed from 2011 to 2016. The following is the framework the NCCAS will follow; 1. Mainstream Climate Change Adaptation into National Planning and Development2. Enable Climate Resilient and Healthy Human Settlements3. Minimize Climate Change Impacts on Food Security4. Improve Climate Resilience of Key Economic Drivers5. Safeguard Natural Resources and Biodiversity from Climate Change ImpactsThis framework will help Sri Lanka offset potential climate changes in the near future. The NCCAS understands that stopping climate change is unrealistic, so many of their goals have to do with preparing and understanding what they need to do to prepare both economically but also environmentally. 	Because Sri Lanka lies close to the equator, it undoubtedly receives more direct sunlight therefore causing increased temperatures. As all the effects of climate change set in, potential sea level rise will occur, changing both the marine and terrestrial environments. There is little the people of Sri Lanka can do to stop the effects of climate change, there is only adapting from this point on. The endemic species and their habitats will need to be protected through nature reserves, but also governments will need to implement strict development boundaries so precious habitats are not consumed with human population growth.

text: Climate Resilience

text: of Key Economic Drivers5. Safeguard Natural Resources and Biodiversity from Climate Change ImpactsThis framework will help Sri Lanka offset potential climate changes in the near future. The NCCAS understands that stopping climate change is unrealistic, so many of their goals have to do with preparing and understanding what they need to do to prepare both economically but also environmentally. 	Because Sri Lanka lies close to the equator, it undoubtedly receives more direct sunlight therefore causing increased temperatures. As all the effects of climate change set in, potential sea level rise will occur, changing both the marine and terrestrial environments. There is little the people of Sri Lanka can do to stop the effects of climate change, there is only adapting from this point on. The endemic species and their habitats will need to be protected through nature reserves, but also governments will need to implement strict development boundaries so precious habitats are not consumed with human population growth.

text: There are many global patterns that affect and contribute to the climate of the Eastern Temperate Forest region, such as global ocean currents, El Nino, La Nina, the Gulf Stream current, and global air circulation patterns. El Niño, caused by warmer sea-surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, can lead to “wet winters” and warm episodes occurring between the months of December and February in the southeastern region of the United States Eastern Temperate Forest. La Niña is caused by cooler than normal sea-surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, it leads to drier than normal conditions in the winter months in the Southeast region of the Eastern Temperate Forest. The global ocean current that effects the Eastern Temperate Forest most is the Gulf Stream current which brings a warm flow of water from South to North along the eastern coast of North America in the Atlantic Ocean, it keeps temperatures in this region relatively warm. The winds that have the greatest effect on the climate of the region are the prevailing westerlies and the tropical easterlies. The prevailing westerlies, caused by the Coriolis Effect, explain why most major events that occur in North America come from the west and proceed east, which is where the majority of the Eastern Temperate Forest is located.

text: A disjunct northern population of Telopea oreades grows together with T. mongaensis in the southern Monga Valley in southern New South Wales, with some hybrids reported. Michael Crisp and Peter Weston concluded that the two species for the most part did not hybridise there. However, a genetic study using microsatellites found there was extensive hybridisation, with much of the presumed pure T. oreades showing a close relation to T. mongaensis. The populations of waratahs are thought to have grown and shrunk with the ebb and flow of ice ages in the Pleistocene, finally stranding a population of  T. oreades located alongside T. mongaensis as conditions suitable for waratahs changed in southeastern Australia. Telopea mongaensis has also hybridised with T. speciosissima at the northern limits of its range in New South Wales, where it overlaps with the latter species.

text: A disjunct northern population of Telopea oreades grows together with T. mongaensis in the southern Monga Valley in southern New South Wales, with some

text: hybrid

text: s reported. Michael Crisp and Peter Weston concluded that the two species for the most part did not hybridise there. However, a genetic study using

text: microsatellites

text: found there was extensive hybridisation, with much of the presumed pure T. oreades showing a close relation to T. mongaensis. The populations of waratahs are thought to have grown and shrunk with the ebb and flow of ice ages in the Pleistocene, finally stranding a population of  T. oreades located alongside T. mongaensis as conditions suitable for waratahs changed in southeastern Australia. Telopea mongaensis has also hybridised with T. speciosissima at the northern limits of its range in New South Wales, where it overlaps with the latter species.

text: Abrupt climate change -The Age of Stupid -Albedo -An Inconvenient Truth -An Inconvenient Book -Antarctica cooling controversy -Antarctic Bottom Water -Antarctic Cold Reversal -Antarctic oscillation -Arctic amplification -Arctic Climate Impact Assessment -Arctic geoengineering -Arctic shrinkage -Arctic oscillation -Atlantic oscillation -Arctic Climate Impact Assessment -Arctic methane release -Arctic sea ice decline -Arctic shrinkage -Argo (oceanography) -ARkStorm -Athabasca oil sands -Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation -Atmospheric circulation -Atmospheric sciences -Atmospheric window -Attribution of recent climate change -Aviation and climate change -Aviation and the environment - Avoiding dangerous climate change

text: Abrupt climate change

text: The Age of Stupid

text: Albedo

text: An Inconvenient Truth

text: An Inconvenient Book

text: Antarctica cooling controversy

text: Antarctic Bottom Water

text: Antarctic Cold Reversal

text: Antarctic oscillation

text: Arctic amplification

text: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment

text: Arctic geoengineering

text: Arctic shrinkage

text: Arctic oscillation

text: Atlantic oscillation

text: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment

text: Arctic methane release

text: Arctic sea ice decline

text: Arctic shrinkage

text: Argo (oceanography)

text: ARkStorm

text: Athabasca oil sands

text: Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation

text: Atmospheric circulation

text: Atmospheric sciences

text: Atmospheric window

text: Attribution of recent climate change

text: Aviation and climate change

text: Aviation and the environment

text: Avoiding dangerous climate change

text: As the issue of climate change reaching the top of international agenda, the complexity of the environmental problems in combination with various other social political challenges have put great pressures on the scholars to explore a better understanding of the multiple actors and influencing factors that affect the climate change negotiation and to seek more effective solutions to tackle climate change. Analyzing these issues from a political economy perspective helps to explain the complex interactions between different stakeholders in respond to climate change impacts and provides broader opportunities to achieve better implementation of climate change policies.

text: As the issue of

text: climate change

text: reaching the top of international agenda, the complexity of the

text: environmental problems

text: in combination with various other social political challenges have put great pressures on the scholars to explore a better understanding of the multiple actors and influencing factors that affect the climate change negotiation and to seek more effective solutions to tackle climate change. Analyzing these issues from a political economy perspective helps to explain the complex interactions between different stakeholders in respond to climate change impacts and provides broader opportunities to achieve better implementation of

text: climate change policies

text: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change. Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human (anthropogenic) emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks, e.g., through reforestation. Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming.

text: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term

text: climate change

text: . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human (

text: anthropogenic

text: ) emissions of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es (GHGs). Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of

text: carbon sink

text: s, e.g., through

text: reforestation

text: . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming.

text: Arctic methane emissions indirectly caused by anthropogenic global warming also affect the carbon cycle, and contribute to further warming in what is known as climate change feedback.

text: Arctic methane emissions

text: indirectly caused by anthropogenic global warming also affect the carbon cycle, and contribute to further warming in what is known as

text: climate change feedback

text: As climate change is caused by a variety of activities. The effect that climate change has on bird extinction is immense. Due to the rapid changes in temperature and climate the bio diverse earth can not progress with these factors. Severe weather conditions and long seasons as well as a chemical atmosphere within their surroundings makes it difficult for many species of birds to keep up with.

text: In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120 countries, said that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

text: Watts rejects the scientific consensus on climate change. He believes that global warming is occurring, but that it is not as bad as has been reported, and that carbon dioxide plays a much smaller part than the sun in causing climatic change. Watts has written that variations in solar irradiance, the sun's magnetic field and solar wind are driving changes to the climate, contrary to the scientific consensus that the primary cause of climate change is an increase in greenhouse gasses, including carbon dioxide. Climate models have been used to examine the role of the sun in recent warming, and data collected on solar irradiance and ozone depletion, as well as comparisons of temperature readings at different levels of the atmosphere have shown that the sun is not a significant factor driving climate change.

text: Watts rejects the

text: scientific consensus on climate change

text: . He believes that global warming is occurring, but that it is not as bad as has been reported, and that

text: carbon dioxide

text: plays a much smaller part than the sun in causing climatic change. Watts has written that variations in

text: solar irradiance

text: , the sun's

text: magnetic field

text: and

text: solar wind

text: are driving changes to the climate, contrary to the scientific consensus that the primary cause of climate change is an increase in

text: greenhouse gasses

text: , including carbon dioxide. Climate models have been used to examine the role of the sun in recent warming, and data collected on solar irradiance and

text: ozone depletion

text: , as well as comparisons of temperature readings at different levels of the atmosphere have shown that the sun is not a significant factor driving climate change.

text: During the time that measurements have been taken, the glacier has advanced a few meters in only four years. Since the large glaciers react slowly to short-term climate changes, these advances cannot be accounted for by increased precipitation in the accumulation zone. On the high moraines to the left and right of the ice front, which are still nearly free of overgrowth, the enormous quantities of ice which were still being pushed down here at the end of the "Little Ice Age" in the middle of the 19th century can be seen.

text: During the time that measurements have been taken, the glacier has advanced a few meters in only four years. Since the large glaciers react slowly to short-term climate changes, these advances cannot be accounted for by increased precipitation in the accumulation zone. On the high

text: moraine

text: s to the left and right of the ice front, which are still nearly free of overgrowth, the enormous quantities of ice which were still being pushed down here at the end of the "

text: Little Ice Age

text: " in the middle of the 19th century can be seen.

text: The last glacial period, commonly referred to as the 'Ice Age', spanned 125,000 YBP to 14,500 YBP and was the most recent glacial period within the current ice age which occurred during the last years of the Pleistocene era. The Ice Age reached its peak during the Last Glacial Maximum, when ice sheets commenced advancing from 33,000 YBP and reached their maximum positions 26,500 YBP. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere approximately 19,000 YBP and in Antarctica approximately 14,500 years YBP, which is consistent with evidence that this was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level 14,500 YBP. Access into northern North America was blocked by the Wisconsin glaciation. The fossil evidence from many continents points to the extinction mainly of large animals, termed Pleistocene megafauna, near the end of the last glaciation.

text: The

text: last glacial period

text: glacial period

text: within the

text: current ice age

text: Pleistocene

text: Last Glacial Maximum

text: , when

text: ice sheet

text: s commenced advancing from 33,000 YBP and reached their maximum positions 26,500 YBP. Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere approximately 19,000 YBP and in Antarctica approximately 14,500 years YBP, which is consistent with evidence that this was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level 14,500 YBP. Access into northern North America was blocked by the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: . The fossil evidence from many continents points to the

text: extinction

text: mainly of large animals, termed

text: Pleistocene megafauna

text: , near the end of the last glaciation.

text: Before the last ice age in the Pleistocene, the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-called Urdonau (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today's landscape of the Swabian Alb. After the Upper Rhine valley had been eroded, most waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is but a meek reflection of the ancient one.

text: Before the last

text: ice age

text: in the

text: Pleistocene

text: , the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-called Urdonau (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today's landscape of the

text: Swabian Alb

text: . After the

text: Upper Rhine valley

text: had been eroded, most waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is but a meek reflection of the ancient one.

text: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has produced several reports where the economics literature on climate change is assessed. In 1995, the IPCC produced its second set of assessment reports on climate change. Working Group III of the IPCC produced a report on the "Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change." In the later third and fourth IPCC assessments, published in 2001 and 2007 respectively, the assessment of the economics literature is divided across two reports produced by IPCC Working Groups II and III. In 2011 IPCC Working Group III published a Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation.

text: The

text: (IPCC) has produced several reports where the economics literature on climate change is assessed. In 1995, the IPCC produced its

text: second

text: set of assessment reports on climate change. Working Group III of the IPCC produced a report on the "Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change." In the later

text: third

text: and

text: fourth

text: IPCC assessments, published in 2001 and 2007 respectively, the assessment of the economics literature is divided across two reports produced by IPCC Working Groups II and III. In 2011 IPCC Working Group III published a Special Report on

text: On 30 April 2007 the state and territory governments of Australia, at the request of Kevin Rudd, then leader of the Australian Labor Party and Leader of the Opposition, appointed Garnaut to examine the impacts of climate change on the Australian economy and recommend medium to long-term policies and policy frameworks to improve the prospects for sustainable prosperity. The Garnaut Climate Change Review was finalised on 30 September 2008, with a finalised update being released on 31 May 2011. Professor Garnaut concluded his role as Climate Change advisor for the Australian Government on 30 June 2011.

text: On 30 April 2007 the state and territory governments of Australia, at the request of

text: Kevin Rudd

text: , then leader of the

text: Australian Labor Party

text: and

text: Leader of the Opposition

text: , appointed Garnaut to examine the impacts of

text: climate change

text: on the Australian economy and recommend medium to long-term policies and policy frameworks to improve the prospects for sustainable prosperity. The

text: Garnaut Climate Change Review

text: was finalised on 30 September 2008, with a finalised update being released on 31 May 2011. Professor Garnaut concluded his role as Climate Change advisor for the Australian Government on 30 June 2011.

text: The Pleistocene saw the sea retreat from the basin as global sea-level fell due to accumulation of ice sheets. The major changes during the Pleistocene epoch have been brought about by several recent ice ages.  During glaciation, water was taken from the oceans to form the ice at high latitudes, causing global sea level to drop by about 120 meters, exposing the continental shelves and forming land-bridges between land-masses for animals to migrate. During deglaciation, the melted ice-water returned to the oceans, causing sea level to rise. This process can cause sudden shifts in coastlines and hydration systems resulting in newly submerged lands, emerging lands, collapsed ice dams resulting in salination of lakes, new ice dams creating vast areas of freshwater, and a general alteration in regional weather patterns on a large but temporary scale. It can even cause temporary reglaciation. This type of chaotic pattern of rapidly changing land, ice, saltwater and freshwater has been proposed as the likely model for the Baltic and Scandinavian regions, as well as much of central North America at the end of the last glacial maximum LGM, with the present-day coastlines only being achieved in the last few millennia of prehistory. Also, the effect of elevation on Scandinavia submerged a vast continental plain that had existed under much of what is now the North Sea, connecting the British Isles to Continental Europe.

text: The

text: Pleistocene

text: saw the sea retreat from the basin as global sea-level fell due to accumulation of ice sheets. The major changes during the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch have been brought about by several recent

text: ice age

text: s.  During glaciation, water was taken from the oceans to form the ice at high latitudes, causing global sea level to drop by about 120 meters, exposing the continental shelves and forming land-bridges between land-masses for animals to migrate. During deglaciation, the melted ice-water returned to the oceans, causing sea level to rise. This process can cause sudden shifts in coastlines and hydration systems resulting in newly submerged lands, emerging lands, collapsed

text: ice dam

text: s resulting in

text: salination

text: of lakes, new ice dams creating vast areas of freshwater, and a general alteration in regional weather patterns on a large but temporary scale. It can even cause temporary reglaciation. This type of chaotic pattern of rapidly changing land, ice, saltwater and freshwater has been proposed as the likely model for the Baltic and Scandinavian regions, as well as much of central North America at the end of the

text: last glacial maximum

text: LGM, with the present-day coastlines only being achieved in the last few millennia of prehistory. Also, the effect of elevation on Scandinavia submerged a vast continental plain that had existed under much of what is now the North Sea, connecting the British Isles to Continental Europe.

text: The Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change (CMCC) is a new Italian research centre dedicated to climate and climate related research, including climate variability, its causes and consequences, carried out through numerical models ranging from Global Earth System to Regional models within the Euro-Mediterranean area.

text: The impacts of climate change can be thought of in terms of sensitivity and vulnerability. "Sensitivity" is the degree to which a particular system or sector might be affected, positively or negatively, by climate change and/or climate variability. "Vulnerability" is the degree to which a particular system or sector might be adversely affected by climate change.

text: The impacts of climate change can be thought of in terms of sensitivity and vulnerability. "Sensitivity" is the degree to which a particular system or sector might be affected, positively or negatively, by climate change and/or

text: climate variability

text: . "Vulnerability" is the degree to which a particular system or sector might be adversely affected by climate change.

text: A concept related to adaptation is adaptive capacity, which is the ability of a system (human, natural or managed) to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with consequences. Unmitigated climate change (i.e., future climate change without efforts to limit greenhouse gas emissions) would, in the long term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural, managed and human systems to adapt.

text: A concept related to adaptation is

text: adaptive capacity

text: , which is the ability of a system (human, natural or managed) to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with consequences. Unmitigated climate change (i.e., future climate change without efforts to limit greenhouse gas emissions) would, in the long term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural, managed and human systems to adapt.

text: Contributions to climate change, whether they cool or warm the Earth, are often described in terms of the radiative forcing or imbalance they introduce to the planet's energy budget. Now and in the future, anthropogenic carbon dioxide is believed to be the major component of this forcing, and the contribution of other components is often quantified in terms of "parts-per-million CO-equivalent" (ppm COe), or the increment/decrement in carbon dioxide concentrations which would create a radiative forcing of the same magnitude.

text: Contributions to climate change, whether they cool or warm the

text: Earth

text: , are often described in terms of the

text: radiative forcing

text: or imbalance they introduce to the planet's

text: energy budget

text: . Now and in the future,

text: anthropogenic

text: carbon dioxide is believed to be the major component of this forcing, and the contribution of other components is often quantified in terms of "parts-per-million CO-equivalent" (

text: ppm

text: COe

text: ), or the increment/decrement in carbon dioxide concentrations which would create a radiative forcing of the same magnitude.

text: A related term is "climatic change".  In 1966, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) proposed the term "climatic change" to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10 years, regardless of cause.  Change was a given and climatic was used as an adjective to describe this kind of change (as opposed to political or economic change). When it was realized that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the climate, the term climate change replaced climatic change as the dominant term to reflect an anthropogenic cause. Climate change was incorporated in the title of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Climate change, used as a noun, became an issue rather than the technical description of changing weather.

text: A related term is "climatic change".  In 1966, the

text: World Meteorological Organization

text: (WMO) proposed the term "climatic change" to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10 years, regardless of cause.  Change was a given and climatic was used as an adjective to describe this kind of change (as opposed to political or economic change). When it was realized that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the climate, the term climate change replaced climatic change as the dominant term to reflect an anthropogenic cause. Climate change was incorporated in the title of the

text: (IPCC) and the

text: (UNFCCC). Climate change, used as a noun, became an issue rather than the technical description of changing weather.

text: Activities resulting in global climate change are expected to trigger droughts with a substantial impact on agriculture throughout the world, and especially in developing nations. Overall, global warming will result in increased world rainfall. Along with drought in some areas, flooding and erosion will increase in others. Paradoxically, some proposed solutions to global warming that focus on more active techniques, solar radiation management through the use of a space sunshade for one, may also carry with them increased chances of drought.

text: Activities resulting in global

text: climate change

text: are expected to trigger droughts with a

text: substantial impact on agriculture

text: throughout the world, and especially in

text: developing nation

text: s. Overall, global warming will result in increased world rainfall. Along with drought in some areas, flooding and erosion will increase in others. Paradoxically, some proposed

text: solutions to global warming

text: that focus on more active techniques,

text: solar radiation management

text: through the use of a

text: space sunshade

text: for one, may also carry with them increased chances of drought.

text: Three hypotheses have been proposed to explain the extinction of megafauna in the late Pleistocene. Of these, only two have much scientific credibility. Although Ross McPhee proposed that a hyper-disease may have been the cause of the extinction, a study by Lyons et al., demonstrated conclusively that a hyperdisease was unlikely to have caused the extinction. The two main theories to the extinction are climate change and human hunting. The climate change theory has suggested that a change in climate near the end of the late Pleistocene stressed the megafauna to the point of extinction. Some scientists favor abrupt climate change as the catalyst for the extinction of the mega-fauna at the end of the Pleistocene, but there are many who believe increased hunting from early modern humans also played a part, with others even suggesting that the two interacted.  In the Americas, a controversial explanation for the shift in climate is presented under the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis.

text: Three hypotheses have been proposed to explain the extinction of

text: megafauna

text: in the

text: late Pleistocene

text: . Of these, only two have much scientific credibility. Although Ross McPhee proposed that a hyper-disease may have been the cause of the extinction, a study by Lyons et al., demonstrated conclusively that a hyperdisease was unlikely to have caused the extinction. The two main theories to the extinction are

text: climate change

text: and

text: human hunting

text: . The climate change theory has suggested that a change in climate near the end of the late Pleistocene stressed the megafauna to the point of extinction. Some scientists favor abrupt climate change as the catalyst for the extinction of the mega-fauna at the end of the Pleistocene, but there are many who believe increased hunting from early modern humans also played a part, with others even suggesting that the two interacted.  In the Americas, a controversial explanation for the shift in climate is presented under the

text: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: Several of the larger Death Valley springs derive their water from a regional aquifer, which extends as far east as southern Nevada and Utah. Much of the water in this aquifer has been there for many thousands of years, since the Pleistocene ice ages, when the climate was cooler and wetter. Today's drier climate does not provide enough precipitation to recharge the aquifer at the rate at which water is being withdrawn.

text: Several of the larger Death Valley springs derive their water from a regional

text: aquifer

text: , which extends as far east as southern

text: Nevada

text: and

text: Utah

text: . Much of the water in this aquifer has been there for many thousands of years, since the

text: Pleistocene ice ages

text: , when the

text: climate

text: was cooler and wetter. Today's drier climate does not provide enough precipitation to recharge the aquifer at the rate at which water is being withdrawn.

text: The scientific consensus is that the anthropogenic greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of global warming.

text: The

text: scientific consensus

text: is that the

text: anthropogenic

text: greenhouse gases currently accumulating in the atmosphere are the main cause of

text: global warming

text: Climate change refers to a lasting change in the Earth's climate. The climate has ranged from ice ages to warmer periods when palm trees grew in Antarctica. It has been hypothesized that there was also a period called "snowball Earth" when all the oceans were covered in a layer of ice. These global climatic changes occurred slowly, prior to the rise of human civilization about 10 thousand years ago near the end of the last Major Ice Age when the climate became more stable. However, abrupt climate change on the decade time scale has occurred regionally. Since civilization originated during a period of stable climate, a natural variation into a new climate regime (colder or hotter) could pose a threat to civilization.

text: Climate change

text: refers to a lasting change in the Earth's climate. The climate has ranged from ice ages to warmer periods when palm trees grew in Antarctica. It has been hypothesized that there was also a period called "

text: snowball Earth

text: " when all the oceans were covered in a layer of ice. These global climatic changes occurred slowly, prior to the rise of human civilization about 10 thousand years ago near the end of the last

text: Major Ice Age

text: when the climate became more stable. However,

text: abrupt climate change

text: on the decade time scale has occurred regionally. Since civilization originated during a period of stable climate, a natural variation into a new climate regime (colder or hotter) could pose a threat to civilization.

text: Climate change research includes the observation, analysis, and establishing trends regarding the variations of long-term  extreme warm and cold temperature phenomena in central and south-eastern Europe. Of note is a prevailing warming trend when analysing both the warm and cold events during the 20th century. Also of note are changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns. Global Circulation Model (GCM) outputs are related to the region of the Czech Republic and central Europe. In addition, this department is developing a Regional Climate Model in conjunction with another Czech institute and Charles University. Included in this departments work are impact assessments by constructing climate change scenarios for selected experimental units in the Czech Republic.

text: Climate change research includes the observation, analysis, and establishing trends regarding the variations of long-term  extreme warm and cold temperature phenomena in central and south-eastern Europe. Of note is a prevailing warming trend when analysing both the warm and cold events during the 20th century. Also of note are changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns.

text: Global Circulation Model

text: (GCM) outputs are related to the region of the Czech Republic and central Europe. In addition, this department is developing a Regional Climate Model in conjunction with another Czech institute and

text: Charles University

text: . Included in this departments work are impact assessments by constructing climate change scenarios for selected experimental units in the Czech Republic.

text: The new power station is criticized in the climate change discussion by environmental associations and physical custodians, because electricity generation from lignite as fuel, in spite of advanced technology, is considerably less efficient than other generation sources. In the opinion of the environmentalists, the facility, with a planned lifespan of 40 years is noxious to climate and prevents with it necessary short-term change - careful and resource-careful renewable energy.

text: Patz has also held a variety of positions in which he has furthered the discussion on the public health effects of climate change. Beginning in 1998, Patz served as Co-chair of the Health Expert Panel for the first US National Assessment on Climate Variability and Change.  Patz also served as Founding President of the International Association for Ecology and Health from 2006-2010, convening diverse scientists and professionals around health crises stemming from global climate and ecological change. In 1997, he organized and led the first briefing on climate change and health to then EPA Administrator Carol Browner on why climate change matters to public safety. Patz has also cochaired the health expert panel of the first U.S. National Assessment on Climate Change, a report mandated by the U.S. Congress. Patz has testified on climate change and health in both houses of Congress, state legislatures, and has given invited presentations to the National Academy of Sciences (NAS).  He has served on five scientific committees of the NAS, and on a recent committee of the Presidential Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST).  He has also served on science advisory and FACA committees for several federal agencies. He was invited on two occasions to brief the Dalai Lama on the inequities posed by climate change, following a widely cited peer-reviewed quantitative assessment led by Patz in 2007, comparing carbon dioxide-emitting countries with countries burdened most by climate-sensitive diseases. Also in 2007, the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize, of which Jonathan Patz was a member alongside Al Gore, though Patz name is not on the medal.

text: Patz has also held a variety of positions in which he has furthered the discussion on the public health effects of climate change. Beginning in 1998, Patz served as Co-chair of the Health Expert Panel for the first US National Assessment on Climate Variability and Change.  Patz also served as Founding President of the International Association for Ecology and Health from 2006-2010, convening diverse scientists and professionals around health crises stemming from global climate and ecological change. In 1997, he organized and led the first briefing on climate change and health to then

text: EPA

text: Administrator

text: Carol Browner

text: on why climate change matters to public safety. Patz has also cochaired the health expert panel of the first U.S. National Assessment on Climate Change, a report mandated by the U.S. Congress. Patz has testified on climate change and health in both houses of Congress, state legislatures, and has given invited presentations to the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: (NAS).  He has served on five scientific committees of the NAS, and on a recent committee of the Presidential Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST).  He has also served on science advisory and FACA committees for several federal agencies. He was invited on two occasions to brief the Dalai Lama on the inequities posed by climate change, following a widely cited peer-reviewed quantitative assessment led by Patz in 2007, comparing carbon dioxide-emitting countries with countries burdened most by climate-sensitive diseases. Also in 2007, the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize, of which Jonathan Patz was a member alongside

text: Al Gore

text: , though Patz name is not on the medal.

text: The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate contemporary or past climates. Climate models produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century, but do not simulate all aspects of climate. Not all effects of global warming are accurately predicted by the climate models used by the IPCC. Observed Arctic shrinkage has been faster than that predicted. Precipitation increased proportionally to atmospheric humidity, and hence significantly faster than global climate models predict. Since 1990, sea level has also risen considerably faster than models predicted it would.

text: The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate contemporary or past climates. Climate models produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century, but do not simulate all aspects of climate. Not all

text: effects of global warming

text: are accurately predicted by the climate models used by the IPCC. Observed

text: Arctic shrinkage

text: has been faster than that predicted. Precipitation increased proportionally to atmospheric humidity, and hence significantly faster than global climate models predict. Since 1990, sea level has also risen considerably faster than models predicted it would.

text: Climate change denial, or global warming denial, is part of the global warming controversy. It involves denial, dismissal, unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which depart from the scientific opinion on climate change, including the extent to which it is caused by humans, its impacts on nature and human society, or the  potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions. In the global warming controversy, some deniers do endorse the term, but other often prefer the term climate change skepticism whereas scientists think it "inappropriate to allow those who deny [anthropogenic global warming] to don the mantle of skeptics"; in effect, the two terms form a continuous, overlapping range of views, and generally have the same characteristics: both reject, to a greater or lesser extent, mainstream scientific opinion on climate change. Climate change denial can also be implicit, when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action. Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism.

text: Climate change denial, or global warming denial, is part of the

text: global warming controversy

text: . It involves

text: denial

text: , dismissal, unwarranted doubt or

text: contrarian

text: views which depart from the

text: scientific opinion on climate change

text: , including the extent to which it is

text: caused by humans

text: , its

text: impacts

text: on

text: nature

text: and

text: human society

text: , or the  potential of

text: adaptation to global warming

text: by human actions. In the global warming controversy, some deniers do endorse the term, but other often prefer the term climate change skepticism whereas scientists think it "inappropriate to allow those who deny [anthropogenic global warming] to don the mantle of skeptics"; in effect, the two terms form a continuous, overlapping range of views, and generally have the same characteristics: both reject, to a greater or lesser extent, mainstream scientific opinion on climate change. Climate change denial can also be implicit, when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action. Several

text: social science

text: studies have analyzed these positions as forms of

text: denialism

text: In 2003, Hansen wrote a paper called "Can We Defuse the Global Warming Time Bomb?" in which he argued that human-caused forces on the climate are now greater than natural ones, and that this, over a long time period, can cause large climate changes. He further states that a lower limit on “dangerous anthropogenic interference” is set by the stability of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. His view on actions to mitigate climate change is that "halting global warming requires urgent, unprecedented international cooperation, but the needed actions are feasible and have additional benefits for human health, agriculture and the environment."

text: In 2003, Hansen wrote a paper called "Can We Defuse the Global Warming Time Bomb?" in which he argued that human-caused forces on the climate are now greater than natural ones, and that this, over a long time period, can cause large climate changes. He further states that a lower limit on “dangerous anthropogenic interference” is set by the stability of the Greenland and Antarctic

text: ice sheet

text: s. His view on actions to mitigate climate change is that "halting global warming requires urgent, unprecedented international cooperation, but the needed actions are feasible and have additional benefits for human health, agriculture and the environment."

text: Professor Mendelsohn's area of interest is resource economics, with special emphasis on valuing the environment. Over the last decade, he has been involved in measuring the impacts from climate change. Together with William Nordhaus and Daigee Shaw, they have invented the Ricardian technique, a cross-sectional analysis that reveals the climate sensitivity of agriculture. This method has been applied to the United States, Africa, Latin America, and other countries around the world. With Brent Sohngen, an ecological model of forests was combined with a dynamic economic model of the economy to predict a path of timber effects from climate change. With Wendy Morrison and Erin Mansur, cross-sectional information from households and firms was used to measure the impacts of climate change on energy. With James Neumann, Professor Mendelsohn led a consortium of leading impact researchers on a complete study of the effect of climate change on the United States economy. With Joel Smith, he led another consortium to study the effects of climate change in California. With Ariel Dinar, Niggol Seo, Pradeep Kurukulasuriya, and a host of country collaborators in Africa and Latin America, they have completed a series of studies of the impact of climate change on agriculture in those two continents. The results of this research suggest that climate change will hit low latitude countries especially hard. It appears that these countries will bear the brunt of climate change impacts. They have also used these models to understand the dynamics of climate change impacts. The net harmful effects of climate change will only become evident in the second half of this century. Mendelsohn's research has also concluded that the positive effects of global warming in Canada—such as longer growing seasons and the opening of the Northwest Passage—would outweigh the negative effects.

text: Professor Mendelsohn's area of interest is resource economics, with special emphasis on valuing the environment. Over the last decade, he has been involved in measuring the impacts from climate change. Together with

text: William Nordhaus

text: and Daigee Shaw, they have invented the Ricardian technique, a cross-sectional analysis that reveals the climate sensitivity of agriculture. This method has been applied to the United States, Africa, Latin America, and other countries around the world. With Brent Sohngen, an ecological model of forests was combined with a dynamic economic model of the economy to predict a path of timber effects from climate change. With Wendy Morrison and Erin Mansur, cross-sectional information from households and firms was used to measure the impacts of climate change on energy. With James Neumann, Professor Mendelsohn led a consortium of leading impact researchers on a complete study of the effect of climate change on the United States economy. With Joel Smith, he led another consortium to study the effects of

text: climate change in California

text: . With Ariel Dinar, Niggol Seo, Pradeep Kurukulasuriya, and a host of country collaborators in Africa and Latin America, they have completed a series of studies of the impact of climate change on agriculture in those two continents. The results of this research suggest that climate change will hit low latitude countries especially hard. It appears that these countries will bear the brunt of climate change impacts. They have also used these models to understand the dynamics of climate change impacts. The net harmful effects of climate change will only become evident in the second half of this century. Mendelsohn's research has also concluded that the positive effects of

text: global warming in Canada

text: —such as longer growing seasons and the opening of the

text: Northwest Passage

text: —would outweigh the negative effects.

text: Clinton accepts the scientific consensus on climate change and criticizes climate-change deniers "who still refuse to accept the settled science of climate change." Clinton called climate change "an urgent threat" and "the most consequential, urgent, sweeping collection of challenges we face as a nation and a world."

text: Clinton accepts the

text: scientific consensus on climate change

text: and criticizes

text: climate-change deniers

text: "who still refuse to accept the settled science of climate change." Clinton called climate change "an urgent threat" and "the most consequential, urgent, sweeping collection of challenges we face as a nation and a world."

text: Air pollution and global warming<br>Air pollution emanating from motor vehicles and industrial plants is damaging public health and increasing mortality rates. The concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is evidently the source of global warming and climate change. The extreme regional weather patterns and the rising sea levels caused by the warming may deteriorate future living conditions in many — if not all — parts of the world. The warming already poses a security threat to many nations and a 'threat multiplier' to geo-political stability.

text: Air pollution and global warming<br>Air pollution emanating from motor vehicles and industrial plants is

text: damaging public health and increasing mortality rates

text: . The concentration of

text: carbon dioxide

text: and other

text: greenhouse gas

text: es in the atmosphere is evidently the source of

text: global warming and climate change

text: . The

text: extreme regional weather patterns

text: and the

text: rising sea levels

text: caused by the warming may deteriorate future living conditions in many — if not all — parts of the world. The warming already poses a

text: security threat to many nations

text: and a

text: 'threat multiplier' to geo-political stability

text: El Niño events cause short-term (approximately 1 year in length) spikes in global average surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term cooling. Therefore, the relative frequency of El Niño compared to La Niña events can affect global temperature trends on decadal timescales. Over the last several decades, the number of El Niño events increased, and the number of La Niña events decreased, although observation of ENSO for much longer is needed to detect robust changes.

text: Climate variability is strongly dominated by dry season influences from the El Nino Southern Oscillation events. In 1986- 1987, El Nino caused the lowest recorded rainfall and highest temperature in Monteverde, Costa Rica. The shift of climate during El Nino is caused by the increased atmospheric pressure in the Atlantic and decreased in the Pacific. The wind reduced the amount of rains on the Pacific-facing slopes, and the temperature during the dry season was dramatically higher than usual. At that time, researchers were not certain if the toads were waiting for wetter mating conditions to return or if they had simply died off.

text: With very long wings, L. lüi was probably a good flyer that mainly relied on gliding and soaring on the thermal air currents available then, as the climate conditions in the region during the Middle Pleistocene was a lot warmer and more humid. L. lüi most likely relied on scavenging from Pleistocene megafauna for the bulk of its food source. The disappearance of Pleistocene megafauna and climate change are likely the primary causes of its extinction.

text: This support comes from Nunavut feeling the effects of global warming. Former Nunavut Premier Eva Aariak said in 2011, "Climate change is very much upon us. It is affecting our hunters, the animals, the thinning of the ice is a big concern, as well as erosion from permafrost melting." The region is warming about twice as fast as the global average, according to the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.

text: This support comes from Nunavut feeling the

text: effects of global warming

text: . Former Nunavut Premier

text: Eva Aariak

text: said in 2011, "

text: Climate change

text: is very much upon us. It is affecting our hunters, the animals, the thinning of the ice is a big concern, as well as erosion from

text: permafrost

text: melting." The region is

text: warming

text: about twice as fast as the global average, according to the UN's

text: The DDPP rejects an incrementalist approach to climate protection.  Instead, meeting the climate change mitigation challenge (as set out in the 2015 Paris Agreement) will require backcasting to a suitable attractor, such as complete decarbonization.  This method allows short-term policy options to be developed that are consistent with the selected long-term target.  Even so, there are numerous possible deep decarbonization pathways (DDP) for each country and stakeholders and policymakers will need to debate and choose one, building the necessary political consensus as they go.  DDPs can help avoid dead-end investments that reduce emissions in the short-term but obstruct deep decarbonization in the long-term and thereby reduce the risk of becoming stranded.

text: The DDPP rejects an incrementalist approach to climate protection.  Instead, meeting the

text: climate change mitigation

text: challenge (as set out in the 2015

text: Paris Agreement

text: ) will require

text: backcasting

text: to a suitable attractor, such as complete decarbonization.  This method allows short-term policy options to be developed that are consistent with the selected long-term target.  Even so, there are numerous possible deep decarbonization pathways (DDP) for each country and stakeholders and policymakers will need to debate and choose one, building the necessary political consensus as they go.  DDPs can help avoid dead-end investments that reduce emissions in the short-term but obstruct deep decarbonization in the long-term and thereby reduce the risk of becoming

text: stranded

text: Their efforts to promote a method to reverse or reduce the effects of global climate change by artificially recreating the conditions from the aftermath of a volcanic eruption gained media coverage following the release of the book SuperFreakonomics. Information in the fifth chapter of the book about global warming proposes that the global climate can be regulated by geo-engineering of a stratoshield based upon patented technology from Nathan Myhrvold's company. The chapter has been criticized by some economists and climate science experts who say it contains numerous misleading statements and discredited arguments, including this presentation of geoengineering as a replacement for CO emissions reduction.  Among the critics are Paul Krugman, Brad DeLong, The Guardian, and The Economist.  Elizabeth Kolbert, a science writer for The New Yorker who has written extensively on global warming, contends that "just about everything they [Levitt and Dubner] have to say on the topic is, factually speaking, wrong." In response, Levitt and Dubner have stated on their Freakonomics blog that global warming is man-made and an important issue. They warn against claims of an inevitable doomsday; instead they look to raise awareness of other, less traditional or popular, methods to tackle the potential problem of global warming.

text: Their efforts to promote a method to reverse or reduce the effects of global climate change by artificially recreating the conditions from the aftermath of a volcanic eruption gained media coverage following the release of the book

text: SuperFreakonomics

text: . Information in the fifth chapter of the book about

text: global warming

text: proposes that the global climate can be regulated by

text: geo-engineering

text: of a

text: stratoshield

text: based upon patented technology from Nathan Myhrvold's company. The chapter has been criticized by some economists and climate science experts who say it contains numerous misleading statements and discredited arguments, including this presentation of geoengineering as a replacement for CO emissions reduction.  Among the critics are

text: Paul Krugman

text: Brad DeLong

text: The Guardian

text: , and

text: The Economist

text: .  Elizabeth Kolbert, a science writer for

text: The New Yorker

text: who has written extensively on global warming, contends that "just about everything they [Levitt and Dubner] have to say on the topic is, factually speaking, wrong." In response, Levitt and Dubner have stated on their

text: Freakonomics

text: blog that global warming is

text: man-made

text: and an important issue. They warn against claims of an inevitable doomsday; instead they look to raise awareness of other, less traditional or popular, methods to tackle the potential problem of global warming.

text: Given black carbon’s relatively short lifespan, reducing black carbon emissions would reduce warming within weeks. Because black carbon remains in the atmosphere only for a few weeks, reducing black carbon emissions may be the fastest means of slowing climate change in the near term. Control of black carbon, particularly from fossil-fuel and biofuel sources, is very likely to be the fastest method of slowing global warming in the immediate future, and major cuts in black carbon emissions could slow the effects of climate change for a decade or two. Reducing black carbon emissions could help keep the climate system from passing the tipping points for abrupt climate changes, including significant sea-level rise from the melting of Greenland and/or Antarctic ice sheets.

text: Given black carbon’s relatively short lifespan, reducing black carbon emissions would reduce warming within weeks. Because black carbon remains in the atmosphere only for a few weeks, reducing black carbon emissions may be the fastest means of slowing climate change in the near term. Control of black carbon, particularly from fossil-fuel and biofuel sources, is very likely to be the fastest method of slowing global warming in the immediate future, and major cuts in black carbon emissions could slow the effects of climate change for a decade or two. Reducing black carbon emissions could help keep the climate system from passing the tipping points for

text: abrupt climate change

text: s, including significant sea-level rise from the melting of Greenland and/or Antarctic ice sheets.

text: Borneo is the third largest island in the world. In prehistoric times it was connected to the Asian mainland due to geological and climate changes. During the recent ice ages of the Pleistocene and the Holocene separation from the mainland caused extinctions and speciation of fauna on the island.

text: Borneo

text: is the third largest island in the world. In

text: prehistoric

text: times it was connected to the Asian mainland due to geological and climate changes. During the recent

text: ice age

text: s of the

text: Pleistocene

text: and the

text: Holocene

text: separation from the mainland caused extinctions and speciation of fauna on the island.

text: Animal migration – Avalanche – Carbon cycle – Climate change – Climate change and agriculture – Climate model – Climate oscillation – Clock of the Long Now – Ecology – El Niño/La Niña – Endometrium – Environmental geography – Global cooling – Global warming – Historical temperature record – Ice age – Transhumance – Milankovitch cycles – Monsoon – Pleistocene – Season – Sunspot – Tide – Timeline of meteorology – 1500-year climate cycle

text: Animal migration

text: Avalanche

text: Carbon cycle

text: Climate change

text: Climate change and agriculture

text: Climate model

text: Climate oscillation

text: Clock of the Long Now

text: Ecology

text: El Niño

text: La Niña

text: Endometrium

text: Environmental geography

text: Global cooling

text: Global warming

text: Historical temperature record

text: Ice age

text: Transhumance

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: Monsoon

text: Pleistocene

text: Season

text: Sunspot

text: Tide

text: Timeline of meteorology

text: 1500-year climate cycle

text: Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant.  When major climate change took place after the last ice age (c. 11,000 ), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons. These conditions favoured annual plants which die off in the long dry season, leaving a dormant seed or tuber. An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time.

text: Localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the

text: Levant

text: .  When major climate change took place after the last

text: ice age

text: (c. 11,000 ), much of the earth became subject to long dry seasons. These conditions favoured

text: annual plant

text: s which die off in the long dry season, leaving a

text: dormant

text: seed

text: or

text: tuber

text: . An abundance of readily storable wild grains and pulses enabled hunter-gatherers in some areas to form the first settled villages at this time.

text: After defeating each areas bosses, the player travels to the Big Core itself and destroys the cause of the climate change. The earth is restored to its natural climates and the player escapes the Big Core.

text: The climate was wetter when Bambandyanalo flourished (the "medieval warm period"), and archaeological evidence (carbonized seeds) shows that sorghum and millets were cultivated (Huffman 1996:57). Sometime around 1270 however, the climate changed for the worse ("the little ice age") and the settlement was abandoned as the crops repeatedly failed. This was the period when Great Zimbabwe began its rise to prominence, as it had a better climate due to its location by the South East escarpment.

text: The climate was wetter when Bambandyanalo flourished (the "

text: medieval warm period

text: "), and archaeological evidence (carbonized seeds) shows that sorghum and millets were cultivated (Huffman 1996:57). Sometime around 1270 however, the climate changed for the worse ("the

text: little ice age

text: ") and the settlement was abandoned as the crops repeatedly failed. This was the period when Great Zimbabwe began its rise to prominence, as it had a better climate due to its location by the South East escarpment.

text: In its earliest manifestations, the term “political economy” was basically a synonym of economics, while it is now a rather elusive term that typically refers to the study of the collective or political processes through which public economic decisions are made. In the climate change domain, Tanner and Allouche (2011) define the political economy as “the processes by which ideas, power and resources are conceptualised, negotiated and implemented by different groups at different scales”. While there have emerged a substantial literature on the political economy of environmental policy, which explains the “political failure” of the environmental programmes to efficiently and effectively protect the environment, systematic analysis on the specific issue of climate change using the political economy framework is relatively limited.

text: In its earliest manifestations, the term “political economy” was basically a

text: synonym

text: of

text: economics

text: , while it is now a rather elusive term that typically refers to the study of the collective or political processes through which public economic decisions are made. In the climate change domain, Tanner and Allouche (2011) define the political economy as “the processes by which ideas, power and resources are conceptualised, negotiated and implemented by different groups at different scales”. While there have emerged a substantial literature on the political economy of

text: environmental policy

text: , which explains the “political failure” of the environmental programmes to efficiently and effectively protect the environment, systematic analysis on the specific issue of climate change using the political economy framework is relatively limited.

text: The ratio of O to O in ice and deep sea cores is temperature dependent, and can be used as a proxy measure for reconstructing climate change. During colder periods of the Earth's history (glacials) such as during the ice ages, O is preferentially evaporated from the colder oceans, leaving the slightly heavier and more sluggish O behind. Organisms such as foraminifera which combine oxygen dissolved in the surrounding water with carbon and calcium to build their shells therefore incorporate the temperature-dependent O to O ratio. When these organisms die, they settle out on the sea bed, preserving a long and invaluable record of global climate change through much of the Quaternary. Similarly, ice cores on land are enriched in the heavier O relative to O during warmer climatic phases (interglacials) as more energy is available for the evaporation of the heavier O isotope. The oxygen isotope record preserved in the ice cores is therefore a "mirror" of the record contained in ocean sediments.

text: The ratio of O to O in ice and deep sea cores is temperature dependent, and can be used as a proxy measure for reconstructing climate change. During colder periods of the Earth's history (glacials) such as during the

text: ice age

text: s, O is preferentially evaporated from the colder oceans, leaving the slightly heavier and more sluggish O behind. Organisms such as

text: foraminifera

text: which combine oxygen dissolved in the surrounding water with carbon and calcium to build their shells therefore incorporate the temperature-dependent O to O ratio. When these organisms die, they settle out on the sea bed, preserving a long and invaluable record of global climate change through much of the

text: Quaternary

text: . Similarly, ice cores on land are enriched in the heavier O relative to O during warmer climatic phases (

text: interglacial

text: s) as more energy is available for the evaporation of the heavier O isotope. The oxygen isotope record preserved in the ice cores is therefore a "mirror" of the record contained in ocean sediments.

text: The effects of glaciation were global. Antarctica was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene. The Andes were covered in the south by the Patagonian ice cap. There were glaciers in New Zealand and Tasmania. The now decaying glaciers of Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Ruwenzori Range in east and central Africa were larger. Glaciers existed in the mountains of Ethiopia and to the west in the Atlas mountains. In the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one. The Cordilleran ice sheet covered the North American northwest; the Laurentide covered the east. The Fenno-Scandian ice sheet covered northern Europe, including Great Britain; the Alpine ice sheet covered the Alps. Scattered domes stretched across Siberia and the Arctic shelf. The northern seas were frozen. During the late Upper Paleolithic (Latest Pleistocene) c. 18,000 BP, the Beringia land bridge between Asia and North America was blocked by ice, which may have prevented early Paleo-Indians such as the Clovis culture from directly crossing Beringa to reach the Americas.

text: The effects of glaciation were global.

text: Antarctica

text: was ice-bound throughout the Pleistocene and the preceding Pliocene. The

text: Andes

text: were covered in the south by the

text: Patagonia

text: n ice cap. There were glaciers in

text: New Zealand

text: and

text: Tasmania

text: . The now decaying glaciers of

text: Mount Kenya

text: Mount Kilimanjaro

text: , and the

text: Ruwenzori Range

text: Ethiopia

text: and to the west in the

text: Atlas mountains

text: . In the northern hemisphere, many glaciers fused into one. The

text: Cordilleran ice sheet

text: covered the North American northwest; the

text: Laurentide

text: covered the east. The Fenno-Scandian ice sheet covered northern

text: Europe

text: , including

text: Great Britain

text: ; the Alpine ice sheet covered the Alps. Scattered domes stretched across

text: Siberia

text: and the Arctic shelf. The northern seas were frozen. During the late Upper Paleolithic (Latest Pleistocene) c. 18,000 BP, the

text: Beringia

text: land bridge between

text: Asia

text: and

text: North America

text: was blocked by ice, which

entity_section: Evidence of human habitation before Clovis

text: may have prevented

text: early

text: Paleo-Indian

text: s such as the

text: Clovis culture

text: from directly crossing Beringa to reach the Americas.

text: Until recently it was thought that Pachyornis australis became extinct at the Pleistocene-Holocene transition roughly 10,000 years ago (10,000 years BP) during a period of significant climatic upheaveal. In 2012 however radiocarbon dating of crested moa remains from Bulmer Cavern showed that the specimen died between 1396 and 1442 AD, over 100 years after humans first settled on the Island. During the climatic changes before the settlers arrived, the crested moa followed the changes in elevation of their sub-alpine habitats with little change in their population size. Their extinction (along with all of the other species of moa) relatively soon after the arrival of humans suggests that overhunting and habitat destruction were responsible. It is thought that the last of the crested moa survived in habitats that were less easily accessed by humans.

text: Until recently it was thought that Pachyornis australis became extinct at the

text: Pleistocene

text: Holocene

text: transition roughly 10,000 years ago (10,000 years

text: BP

text: ) during a period of significant climatic upheaveal. In 2012 however

text: radiocarbon dating

text: of crested moa remains from

text: Bulmer Cavern

text: showed that the specimen died between 1396 and 1442 AD, over 100 years after humans first settled on the Island. During the climatic changes before the settlers arrived, the crested moa followed the changes in elevation of their sub-alpine habitats with little change in their

text: population size

text: . Their extinction (along with all of the other species of moa) relatively soon after the arrival of humans suggests that overhunting and habitat destruction were responsible. It is thought that the last of the crested moa survived in habitats that were less easily accessed by humans.

text: IPCC (2007a) defined adaptation (to climate change) as "[initiatives] and measures to reduce the vulnerability of natural and human systems against actual or expected climate change effects" (p. 76). Vulnerability (to climate change) was defined as "the degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes" (p. 89).

text: The popular media in New Zealand often give equal weight to the those supporting anthropogenic climate change and those who deny it. This stance is out of step with the findings of the scientific community where the vast majority support the climate change scenarios. A survey carried out in 2007 on climate change gave the following responses:

text: The popular media in New Zealand often give equal weight to the those supporting

text: anthropogenic climate change

text: and those who deny it. This stance is out of step with the findings of the scientific community where the vast majority support the

text: climate change scenario

text: s. A survey carried out in 2007 on climate change gave the following responses:

text: Earth's climate has swung repeatedly between warm periods and ice ages during its history.  In the current climate the gain of the positive feedback effect from increased atmospheric water vapor, as well as Earth being too far away from the Sun at its current luminosity for such to occur is well below that which is required to boil away the oceans. Climate scientist John Houghton has written that "[there] is no possibility of [Venus's] runaway greenhouse conditions occurring on the Earth". However, climatologist James Hansen disagrees. In his Storms of My Grandchildren he says that burning coal and mining shale oil will result in runaway greenhouse on Earth. A re-evaluation in 2013 of the effect of water vapor in the climate models showed that James Hansen's outcome might be possible, but requires ten times the amount of CO we could release from burning all the oil, coal, and natural gas in Earth's crust.  Further, Benton and Twitchett have a different definition of a runaway greenhouse; events meeting this definition have been suggested as a cause for the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum and the great dying.

text: Earth's climate has swung repeatedly between warm periods and

text: ice age

text: s during its history.  In the current climate the gain of the positive feedback effect from increased atmospheric water vapor, as well as Earth being too far away from the Sun at its current luminosity for such to occur is well below that which is required to boil away the oceans. Climate scientist

text: John Houghton

text: has written that "[there] is no possibility of [Venus's] runaway greenhouse conditions occurring on the Earth". However, climatologist

text: James Hansen

text: disagrees. In his

text: Storms of My Grandchildren

text: he says that burning coal and mining

text: shale oil

text: will result in runaway greenhouse on Earth. A re-evaluation in 2013 of the effect of water vapor in the climate models showed that James Hansen's outcome might be possible, but requires ten times the amount of CO we could release from burning all the oil, coal, and natural gas in Earth's crust.  Further, Benton and Twitchett have a different definition of a runaway greenhouse; events meeting this definition have been suggested as a cause for the

text: Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum

text: and the

text: great dying

text: In February 2007, the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change released its fourth assessment report on climate change. The report noted many observed changes in the climate, including atmospheric composition, global average temperatures, ocean conditions, and others. The report concluded the observed increase in tropical cyclone intensity is larger than climate models predict. In addition, the report considered that it is likely that storm intensity will continue to increase through the 21st century, and declared it more likely than not that there has been some human contribution to the increases in tropical cyclone intensity. However, there is no universal agreement about the magnitude of the effects anthropogenic global warming has on tropical cyclone formation, track, and intensity. For example, critics such as Chris Landsea assert that man-made effects would be "quite tiny compared to the observed large natural hurricane variability". A statement by the American Meteorological Society on February 1, 2007 stated that trends in tropical cyclone records offer "evidence both for and against the existence of a detectable anthropogenic signal" in tropical cyclogenesis. Although many aspects of a link between tropical cyclones and global warming are still being "hotly debated", a point of agreement is that the strength of destructiveness no individual tropical cyclone or season can be attributed entirely to global warming. Research reported in the September 3, 2008 issue of Nature found that the strongest tropical cyclones are getting stronger, in particular over the North Atlantic and Indian oceans. Wind speeds for the strongest tropical storms increased from an average of  in 1981 to  in 2006, while the ocean temperature, averaged globally over all the regions where tropical cyclones form, increased from  to  during this period.

text: In February 2007, the

text: United Nations

text: released its

text: fourth assessment report

text: on

text: climate change

text: . The report noted many observed changes in the climate, including atmospheric composition, global average temperatures, ocean conditions, and others. The report concluded the observed increase in tropical cyclone intensity is larger than climate models predict. In addition, the report considered that it is likely that storm intensity will continue to increase through the 21st century, and declared it more likely than not that there has been some human contribution to the increases in tropical cyclone intensity. However, there is no universal agreement about the magnitude of the effects anthropogenic global warming has on tropical cyclone formation, track, and intensity. For example, critics such as

text: Chris Landsea

text: assert that man-made effects would be "quite tiny compared to the observed large natural hurricane variability". A statement by the

text: American Meteorological Society

text: on February 1, 2007 stated that trends in tropical cyclone records offer "evidence both for and against the existence of a detectable anthropogenic signal" in

text: tropical cyclogenesis

text: . Although many aspects of a link between tropical cyclones and global warming are still being "hotly debated", a point of agreement is that the strength of destructiveness no individual tropical cyclone or season can be attributed entirely to global warming. Research reported in the September 3, 2008 issue of Nature found that the strongest tropical cyclones are getting stronger, in particular over the North Atlantic and Indian oceans. Wind speeds for the strongest tropical storms increased from an average of  in 1981 to  in 2006, while the ocean temperature, averaged globally over all the regions where tropical cyclones form, increased from  to  during this period.

text: A General Circulation Model (GCM) is a mathematical model that can be used in computer simulations of the global circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean.  An atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) is essentially the same as a global numerical weather prediction model, and some (such as the one used in the UK Unified Model) can be configured for both short-term weather forecasts and longer-term climate predictions.  Along with sea ice and land-surface components, AGCMs and oceanic GCMs (OGCM) are key components of global climate models, and are widely applied for understanding the climate and projecting climate change.  For aspects of climate change, a range of man-made chemical emission scenarios can be fed into the climate models to see how an enhanced greenhouse effect would modify the Earth's climate.  Versions designed for climate applications with time scales of decades to centuries were originally created in 1969 by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton, New Jersey.  When run for multiple decades, computational limitations mean that the models must use a coarse grid that leaves smaller-scale interactions unresolved.

text: A General Circulation Model (GCM) is a

text: mathematical model

text: that can be used in computer simulations of the global circulation of a planetary

text: atmosphere

text: or ocean.  An atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM) is essentially the same as a global numerical weather prediction model, and some (such as the one used in the UK Unified Model) can be configured for both short-term weather forecasts and longer-term climate predictions.  Along with

text: sea ice

text: and land-surface components, AGCMs and oceanic GCMs (OGCM) are key components of global climate models, and are widely applied for understanding the

text: climate

text: and projecting

text: climate change

text: .  For aspects of climate change, a range of man-made chemical emission scenarios can be fed into the climate models to see how an enhanced

text: greenhouse effect

text: would modify the Earth's climate.  Versions designed for climate applications with time scales of decades to centuries were originally created in 1969 by

text: Syukuro Manabe

text: and

text: Kirk Bryan

text: at the

text: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory

text: in

text: Princeton, New Jersey

text: .  When run for multiple decades, computational limitations mean that the models must use a coarse grid that leaves smaller-scale interactions unresolved.

text: But the seasonal and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation received at Earth's surface does vary. The effect of sun angle on climate results in the change in solar energy in summer and winter.  For example, at latitudes of 65 degrees, this can vary by more than 25% as a result of Earth's orbital variation. Because changes in winter and summer tend to offset, the change in the annual average insolation at any given location is near zero, but the redistribution of energy between summer and winter does strongly affect the intensity of seasonal cycles. Such changes associated with the redistribution of solar energy are considered a likely cause for the coming and going of recent ice ages (see: Milankovitch cycles).

text: But the

text: seasonal

text: and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation received at Earth's surface does vary. The

text: effect of sun angle on climate

text: results in the change in solar energy in summer and winter.  For example, at

text: latitude

text: s of 65 degrees, this can vary by more than 25% as a result of Earth's orbital variation. Because changes in winter and summer tend to offset, the change in the annual average insolation at any given location is near zero, but the redistribution of energy between summer and winter does strongly affect the intensity of seasonal cycles. Such changes associated with the redistribution of solar energy are considered a likely cause for the coming and going of recent

text: ice age

text: s (see:

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it is "extremely likely" that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010. The IPCC defines "extremely likely" as indicating a probability of 95 to 100%, based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence.

text: According to the

text: (IPCC), it is "extremely likely" that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010. The IPCC defines "extremely likely" as indicating a probability of 95 to 100%, based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence.

text: Gaia Movement- Gaia philosophy- Gaia theory (science)- Gaian Greens- Garbology- Garden city movement- Gas-guzzler- Genetic engineering- Genetically modified food- Genetically modified organism- Geneva Protocol- Genotoxic- Genuine Progress Indicator- George W. Bush- Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite- German nuclear energy project- Ghost net- Give-away shop- Glass Recycling- Glassphalt- Gleaning- Gley soil- Global 200- Global 2000- Global 500 Roll of Honour- Global alert- Global Atmosphere Watch- Global Biodiversity Information Facility- Global change- Global Change Research Act- Global climate- Global Climate and Energy Project- Global Climate Coalition- Global climate model- Global cooling- Global dimming- Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS)- Global Ecolabelling Network- Global economic monoculture- Global Ecovillage Network- Global Energy Network Institute- Global Environment Facility- Global Environment Outlook- Global Greens- Global Greens Charter- Global health- Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project- Global political monoculture- Global strategic petroleum reserves- Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program- Global warming- Global warming and agriculture- Global warming controversy- Global warming potential- GLOBCOVER- GLOBE Program- Glossary of climate change- Gobi Desert- Goldman Environmental Prize- Great Lakes Commission- Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory- Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal- Great Smog of 1952- Green accounting- Green Alliance- Green ban- Green belt- Green belt (United Kingdom)- Green Belt Movement- Green building- Green Building (MIT)- Green certificate- Green chemistry- Green computing- Green consumerism- Green design- Green economics- Green energy- Green fertilizer- Green Gross Domestic Product- Green lane- Green lending- Green manure- Green money- Green painting- Green politics- Green Revolution- Green roof- Green syndicalism- Green tags- Green tax shift- Green technology- Green vehicle- Green Zionism- Green Zionist Alliance- GreenFacts- Greenguard Environmental Institute- Greenhouse effect- Greenhouse gas- Greening Australia- Greening Earth Society- Greenland ice core project- Greenpeace- Greenwash- Grey goo- Greywater- Gulf War oil spill

text: Gaia Movement

text: Gaia philosophy

text: Gaia theory (science)

text: Gaian Greens

text: Garbology

text: Garden city movement

text: Gas-guzzler

text: Genetic engineering

text: Genetically modified food

text: Genetically modified organism

text: Geneva Protocol

text: Genotoxic

text: Genuine Progress Indicator

text: George W. Bush

entity_name: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

text: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

text: German nuclear energy project

text: Ghost net

text: Give-away shop

text: Glass Recycling

text: Glassphalt

text: Gleaning

text: Gley soil

text: Global 200

text: Global 2000

text: Global 500 Roll of Honour

text: Global alert

text: Global Atmosphere Watch

entity_name: Global Biodiversity Information Facility

text: Global Biodiversity Information Facility

text: Global change

text: Global Change Research Act

text: Global climate

text: Global Climate and Energy Project

text: Global Climate Coalition

text: Global climate model

text: Global cooling

text: Global dimming

entity_name: Global Earth Observation System of Systems

text: Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS)

text: Global Ecolabelling Network

text: Global economic monoculture

text: Global Ecovillage Network

text: Global Energy Network Institute

text: Global Environment Facility

text: Global Environment Outlook

text: Global Greens

text: Global Greens Charter

text: Global health

entity_name: Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project

text: Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project

text: Global political monoculture

text: Global strategic petroleum reserves

entity_name: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program

text: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program

text: Global warming

text: Global warming and agriculture

text: Global warming controversy

text: Global warming potential

text: GLOBCOVER

text: GLOBE Program

text: Glossary of climate change

text: Gobi Desert

text: Goldman Environmental Prize

text: Great Lakes Commission

entity_name: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory

text: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory

entity_name: Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal

text: Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal

text: Great Smog of 1952

text: Green accounting

text: Green Alliance

text: Green ban

text: Green belt

text: Green belt (United Kingdom)

text: Green Belt Movement

text: Green building

text: Green Building (MIT)

text: Green certificate

text: Green chemistry

text: Green computing

text: Green consumerism

text: Green design

text: Green economics

text: Green energy

text: Green fertilizer

text: Green Gross Domestic Product

text: Green lane

text: Green lending

text: Green manure

text: Green money

text: Green painting

text: Green politics

text: Green Revolution

text: Green roof

text: Green syndicalism

entity_name: Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)

text: Green tags

text: Green tax shift

text: Green technology

text: Green vehicle

text: Green Zionism

text: Green Zionist Alliance

text: GreenFacts

text: Greenguard Environmental Institute

text: Greenhouse effect

text: Greenhouse gas

text: Greening Australia

text: Greening Earth Society

text: Greenland ice core project

text: Greenpeace

text: Greenwash

text: Grey goo

text: Greywater

text: Gulf War oil spill

text: Many states are participating in Regional climate change initiatives, such as the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative in the northeastern United States, the Western Governors' Association (WGA) Clean and Diversified Energy Initiative, and the Southwest Climate Change Initiative.

text: Many states are participating in

entity_name: Regional climate change initiatives in the United States

text: Regional climate change initiatives

text: , such as the

text: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative

text: in the northeastern United States, the

text: Western Governors' Association

text: (WGA) Clean and Diversified Energy Initiative, and the Southwest Climate Change Initiative.

text: The scientific consensus on global warming and climate change is that it is caused by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, the majority of which comes from burning fossil fuels with deforestation and some agricultural practices being also major contributors. A 2013 study showed that two thirds of the industrial greenhouse gas emissions are due to the fossil-fuel (and cement) production of just ninety companies around the world (between 1751 and 2010, with half emitted since 1986).

text: The

text: scientific consensus on global warming and climate change

text: is that it is caused by

text: anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions

text: , the majority of which comes from burning

text: fossil fuel

text: s with

text: deforestation

text: and some agricultural practices being also major contributors. A 2013 study showed that two thirds of the industrial greenhouse gas emissions are due to the fossil-fuel (and cement) production of just ninety companies around the world (between 1751 and 2010, with half emitted since 1986).

text: The prehistoric assumption of how the longleaf pine ecosystem was shaped comes from investigation of the time period of the ice age of the earth. Though the ice age period happened thousands of years ago, geologists feel certain about the reasoning of its start. The main ice cap of the original ice age extended southward to parts of the now present Ohio River of North America. From this phenomenon of freezing, the south portion of North America was affected with a cooler and dryer climate. As a result, vegetation such as the longleaf pine and other pine species were associated with the coastal regions of the unexposed ice cap areas. These unexposed areas consisted of now present states Florida to Mexico. In the periods to follow, as the earth’s climate slowly warmed, the ice caps receded northward. With this slow succession, the climate of the south progressively changed to warm and dry. Also as a factor of the climate change, evolving of the longleaf pine ecosystem took place.

text: The prehistoric assumption of how the

text: longleaf pine

text: ecosystem was shaped comes from investigation of the time period of the ice age of the earth. Though the

text: ice age

text: period happened thousands of years ago,

text: geologists

text: feel certain about the reasoning of its start. The main

text: ice cap

text: of the original ice age extended southward to parts of the now present

text: Ohio River

text: of

text: North America

text: . From this phenomenon of freezing, the south portion of

text: North America

text: was affected with a cooler and dryer

text: climate

text: . As a result, vegetation such as the longleaf pine and other pine species were associated with the coastal regions of the unexposed ice cap areas. These unexposed areas consisted of now present states

text: Florida

text: to

text: Mexico

text: . In the periods to follow, as the earth’s climate slowly warmed, the ice caps receded northward. With this slow succession, the climate of the south progressively changed to warm and dry. Also as a factor of the climate change, evolving of the longleaf pine ecosystem took place.

text: Climate change from global warming has already caused irregularities in the level of precipitation in Cazorla, which endangers the native plants and, by extension, the ecosystem.

text: Climate change

text: from

text: global warming

text: has already caused irregularities in the level of precipitation in Cazorla, which endangers the native plants and, by extension, the

text: ecosystem

text: In 2015, the twenty member countries in a forum chaired by the Philippines launched the official bloc of the forum, the 'V20' or 'Vulnerable Twenty', consisting of the top 20 nations from all over the world that are most affected by the catastrophes rooted from climate change. The members of the bloc are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Barbados, Bhutan, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Kiribati, Madagascar, Maldives, Nepal, Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Tanzania, Timor-Leste, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Vietnam. During the 2nd V20 Ministerial Dialogue in April 2016 in Washington DC, the V20 recognized the 23 new members that joined the CVF in 2015 as incoming members in the V20 initiative. These countries are currently and diversely affected by various climate change problems such as super storms, storm surges, tsunamis, droughts, famine due to climate factors, food shortage as by-product of climate change, power cutting, flash floods, mud slides, desertification, heatwaves, reduction of fresh water sources, and other effects of climate change. Climate change is globally believed and scientifically proven to have incurred from the economic activities of developed and developing nations and regions such as China, the United States, and Europe.

text: In 2015, the twenty member countries in a forum chaired by the

text: Philippines

text: launched the official bloc of the forum, the 'V20' or 'Vulnerable Twenty', consisting of the top 20 nations from all over the world that are most affected by the catastrophes rooted from climate change. The members of the bloc are

text: Afghanistan

text: Bangladesh

text: Barbados

text: Bhutan

text: Costa Rica

text: Ethiopia

text: Ghana

text: Kenya

text: Kiribati

text: Madagascar

text: Maldives

text: Nepal

text: Philippines

text: Rwanda

text: Saint Lucia

text: Tanzania

text: Timor-Leste

text: Tuvalu

text: Vanuatu

text: and

text: Vietnam

text: . During the 2nd V20 Ministerial Dialogue in April 2016 in Washington DC, the V20 recognized the 23 new members that joined the CVF in 2015 as incoming members in the V20 initiative. These countries are currently and diversely affected by various climate change problems such as super storms, storm surges, tsunamis, droughts, famine due to climate factors, food shortage as by-product of climate change, power cutting, flash floods, mud slides, desertification, heatwaves, reduction of fresh water sources, and other effects of climate change. Climate change is globally believed and scientifically proven to have incurred from the economic activities of developed and developing nations and regions such as

text: China

text: , the

text: United States

text: , and

text: Europe

text: The pre-history of Sweden begins at the end of the Pleistocene epoch at the beginning of Holocene epoch, following the last ice age, the Weichselian glaciation. At the end of the ice age, large parts of south and middle Sweden were covered by water.

text: The pre-history of Sweden begins at the end of the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch at the beginning of

text: Holocene

text: epoch, following the last

text: ice age

text: , the

text: Weichselian glaciation

text: . At the end of the ice age, large parts of south and middle Sweden were covered by water.

text: Milankovitch cycles are under the category of periodicity. These cycles describe the way that the earth moves and how the climatic changes vary depending on where the earth is in space. The orbital shape of the earth causes changes every 100,000 years. The axial tilt of the earth "wobbles" and alters the climate every 41 thousand years. The axial precession is the process in which the climate will change in terms of how the earth rotates about its own axis. Raup did find that every 26 million years, there will be a mass extinction. Roland Jansson and Mats Dynesius in their article The Fate of Clades in a World of Recurrent Climatic Change: Milankovitch Oscillations and Evolution, discuss how these cycles will cause orbitally forced range dynamics (ORD) in which the climate changes induced by the Milankovitch cycles cause changes in the geographic distribution of clades. Clades are a group of organisms that are theorized to have evolved from a common ancestor.

text: The end of the Pleistocene ice ages and the start of the Holocene began to change the area's climate from a cool, wet pluvial one to dryer semi-arid conditions similar to that of today. With less water to cut, the erosive ability of the Colorado was greatly reduced. Mass wasting processes thus began to become relatively more important than they were before. Steeper cliffs and further widening the Grand Canyon and its tributary canyon system occurred. An average of two debris flows per year reach the Colorado River from tributary canyons to form or expand rapids. This type of mass wasting is the main way the smaller and steeper side canyons transport sediment but it also plays a major role in excavating the larger canyons.

text: The end of the Pleistocene ice ages and the start of the

text: Holocene

text: began to change the area's climate from a cool, wet pluvial one to dryer semi-arid conditions similar to that of today. With less water to cut, the erosive ability of the Colorado was greatly reduced.

text: Mass wasting

text: processes thus began to become relatively more important than they were before. Steeper cliffs and further widening the Grand Canyon and its tributary canyon system occurred. An average of two

text: debris flow

text: s per year reach the Colorado River from tributary canyons to form or expand rapids. This type of mass wasting is the main way the smaller and steeper side canyons transport sediment but it also plays a major role in excavating the larger canyons.

text: In an effort to find patterns in Earth's climate history, Lisiecki researches ocean sediment cores. The history of Earth's climate lies in the composition of ocean sediments as scientists are able to derive millions of years worth of information through the alignment of these sedimentary layers. Through these layers, Lisiecki found a connection between earth’s climate cycle and earth’s orbital cycle; assuming glaciation and orbital eccentricity are both on 100,000-year cycles, she found that stronger changes in Earth’s orbit correlated with weaker changes in glaciation. The correlation between the two consists of complicated relations as 3 different elements of Earth's orbit; eccentricity, tilt and precession, must be taken into consideration alongside Earth's convoluted climate system.

text: In an effort to find patterns in Earth's climate history, Lisiecki researches ocean sediment cores. The history of Earth's climate lies in the composition of ocean sediments as scientists are able to derive millions of years worth of information through the alignment of these sedimentary layers. Through these layers, Lisiecki found a connection between earth’s climate cycle and earth’s orbital cycle; assuming

text: glaciation

text: and

text: orbital eccentricity

text: are both on 100,000-year cycles, she found that stronger changes in Earth’s orbit correlated with weaker changes in glaciation. The correlation between the two consists of complicated relations as 3 different elements of Earth's orbit; eccentricity, tilt and precession, must be taken into consideration alongside Earth's convoluted climate system.

text: This article is about the economics of climate change mitigation. Mitigation of climate change involves actions that are designed to limit the amount of long-term climate change (Fisher et al.., 2007:225). Mitigation may be achieved through the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions or through the enhancement of sinks that absorb GHGs, for example forests.

text: This article is about the economics of climate change mitigation.

text: Mitigation of climate change

text: involves actions that are designed to limit the amount of long-term

text: climate change

text: (Fisher et al.., 2007:225). Mitigation may be achieved through the reduction of

text: greenhouse gas

text: (GHG) emissions or through the enhancement of

text: sinks

text: that absorb GHGs, for example forests.

text: Global warming proceeds by changing the composition of gases in the Earth's atmosphere and Oceans by the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane. As warming proceeds, it brings about changes to the natural environment which may result in other changes. For example, warming may begin to melt the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet. At some level of temperature rise, the melt of the entire ice sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for millennia .  A tipping point may be passed without any immediately obvious consequences, nor any acceleration of the warming process. Carbon dioxide  makes up 396.18 ppm of Earth's atmosphere and monitoring stations in the Arctic spring 2012 measuring more than 400 ppm of the heat-trapping gas in the atmosphere.  James E. Hansen said that this tipping point had already been reached in April 2008 when the  level was 385 ppm. (Hansen states 350 ppm as the upper limit.)  "Further global warming of 1°C defines a critical threshold. Beyond that we will likely see changes that make Earth a different planet than the one we know."  He has further suggested potential projections of runaway climate change on Earth, in his book Storms of My Grandchildren.

text: Global warming

text: proceeds by changing the composition of gases in the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: and Oceans by the emission of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: methane

text: . As warming proceeds, it brings about changes to the

text: natural environment

text: which may result in other changes. For example, warming may begin to melt the

text: Greenland ice sheet

text: and/or

text: West Antarctic Ice Sheet

text: . At some level of temperature rise, the melt of the entire

text: ice sheet

text: will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for millennia .  A tipping point may be passed without any immediately obvious consequences, nor any acceleration of the warming process. Carbon dioxide  makes up 396.18

text: ppm

text: of Earth's atmosphere and monitoring stations in the

text: Arctic

text: spring 2012 measuring more than 400 ppm of the heat-trapping gas in the atmosphere.

text: James E. Hansen

text: said that this tipping point had already been reached in April 2008 when the  level was 385 ppm. (Hansen states 350 ppm as the upper limit.)  "Further global warming of 1

text: °C

text: defines a critical threshold. Beyond that we will likely see changes that make

text: Earth

text: a different planet than the one we know."  He has further suggested potential projections of

text: runaway climate change

text: on Earth, in his book

text: Storms of My Grandchildren

text: SRM is temporary in its effect, and thus and long-term restoration of the climate would rely on long-term SRM, unless carbon dioxide removal was subsequently used. However, short-term SRM programs are potentially beneficial.

text: SRM is temporary in its effect, and thus and long-term restoration of the climate would rely on long-term SRM, unless

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: was subsequently used. However, short-term SRM programs are potentially beneficial.

text: The severe climatic changes during the ice age had major impacts on the fauna and flora. With each advance of the ice, large areas of the continents became totally depopulated, and plants and animals retreating southward in front of the advancing glacier faced tremendous stress. The most severe stress resulted from drastic climatic changes, reduced living space, and curtailed food supply. A major extinction event of large mammals (megafauna), which included mammoths, mastodons, saber-toothed cats, glyptodons, ground sloths, Irish elk, cave bears, and short-faced bears, began late in the Pleistocene and continued into the Holocene. Neanderthals also became extinct during this period. At the end of the last ice age, cold-blooded animals, smaller mammals like wood mice, migratory birds, and swifter animals like whitetail deer had replaced the megafauna and migrated north.

text: The severe climatic changes during the ice age had major impacts on the fauna and flora. With each advance of the ice, large areas of the continents became totally depopulated, and plants and animals retreating southward in front of the advancing glacier faced tremendous stress. The most severe stress resulted from drastic climatic changes, reduced living space, and curtailed food supply. A

text: major extinction event

text: of large

text: mammal

text: s (

text: megafauna

text: ), which included

text: mammoth

text: s,

text: mastodon

text: s,

text: saber-toothed cats

text: glyptodon

text: s,

text: ground sloth

text: s,

text: Irish elk

text: cave bear

text: s, and

text: short-faced bears

text: , began late in the Pleistocene and continued into the Holocene.

text: Neanderthal

text: s also became extinct during this period. At the end of the last ice age,

text: cold-blooded

text: animals, smaller mammals like

text: wood mice

text: , migratory birds, and swifter animals like

text: whitetail deer

text: had replaced the megafauna and migrated north.

text: Mediterranean mountains bear no glaciers any more except small snow fields in some shaded cirques of the Taurus range. Even during the pleistocene snowlines were not much lower as in today's Alps. Glaciers were only of local significance in the Mediterranean enabling frost sensitive vegetation types to survive the climate changes of the Quaternary.Among the once glaciated Mediterranean mountains Orjen was outstanding for one of the biggest ice cap in the region. A 150 km² covered 1/3 of the area. All part above 900 m were buried under a thick sheet of ice from where several glacial tonges descended to 500 m above sea level. Traces of glacial activity are evident in any part of Orjen as in the Bijela gora plateaux. No glacial lakes survive today as they were extinguished due to the porosity of the karstified landscape.Many cirques, U-shaped valleys and moraines and jagged ridges and summits bear the evidence of the glacial erosion.In stoneage and Bronze Age humans settled in the Orjen region. This early human activity is depicted by rock paintings of deerhunt and humans in Lipci in Risan bay. A major Bronze Age excavation site is at Popovo polje to the north of Mount Orjen.

text: Mediterranean mountains bear no

text: glacier

text: s any more except small

text: snow field

text: s in some shaded cirques of the

text: Taurus

text: range. Even during the

text: pleistocene

text: snowlines were not much lower as in today's Alps. Glaciers were only of local significance in the Mediterranean enabling frost sensitive vegetation types to survive the climate changes of the

text: Quaternary

text: .Among the once glaciated Mediterranean mountains Orjen was outstanding for one of the biggest ice cap in the region. A 150 km² covered 1/3 of the area. All part above 900 m were buried under a thick sheet of ice from where several glacial tonges descended to 500 m above sea level. Traces of glacial activity are evident in any part of Orjen as in the

text: Bijela gora

text: plateaux. No glacial lakes survive today as they were extinguished due to the porosity of the karstified landscape.Many

text: cirques

text: , U-shaped valleys and

text: moraine

text: s and jagged ridges and summits bear the evidence of the glacial erosion.In

text: stoneage

text: and

text: Bronze Age

text: humans settled in the Orjen region. This early human activity is depicted by rock paintings of deerhunt and humans in Lipci in

text: Risan

text: bay. A major Bronze Age excavation site is at Popovo polje to the north of Mount Orjen.

text: Climate change could result in global, large-scale changes in natural and social systems. Examples include the possibility for the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation to slow- or shutdown, which in the instance of a shutdown would change weather in Europe and North America considerably, ocean acidification caused by increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and the long-term melting of ice sheets, which contributes to sea level rise.

text: Climate change could result in global, large-scale changes in

text: natural

text: and

text: social systems

text: . Examples include the possibility for the

text: Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation

text: to slow- or shutdown, which in the instance of a shutdown would change weather in Europe and North America considerably, ocean acidification caused by increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and the long-term melting of

text: ice sheet

text: s, which contributes to sea level rise.

text: The causes are complex, however, at that time a wake of famines had set in related to climatic changes (the "little ice age") and the economic situation for the rural poor had deteriorated. further, there were prophecies and talks about a new crusade. Also, indebtness to Jewish moneylenders had been apparently eliminated with their eviction by Philip the Fair in 1306; however, his son Louis X brought them back and became a partner in the recovery of their debts.

text: The causes are complex, however, at that time a wake of famines had set in related to climatic changes (the "

text: little ice age

text: ") and the economic situation for the rural poor had deteriorated. further, there were prophecies and talks about a new crusade. Also, indebtness to Jewish moneylenders had been apparently eliminated with their eviction by

text: Philip the Fair

text: in 1306; however, his son

text: Louis X

text: brought them back and became a partner in the recovery of their debts.

text: The effects of climate change are disproportionate in the world’s polar regions; temperatures are increasing twice as rapidly as the global average, and in the past few years there has been an extraordinary decrease in the amount of summer sea-ice cover. Fishing practices have been compromised as a result and the abundance and distribution of wild game for hunting has also begun to change. Severe weather events are becoming stronger and more frequent. These changes are dangerous to Indigenous populations because it prevents them from performing cultural moralities, such as fishing and hunting. Inuit populations in the Arctic are heavily dependent on the environment for their well-being but the onset of climate change has placed their environment at risk making them highly prone to the effects of climate change.

text: The effects of climate change are disproportionate in the world’s polar regions; temperatures are increasing twice as rapidly as the global average, and in the past few years there has been an extraordinary decrease in the amount of summer sea-ice cover.

text: Fishing

text: practices have been compromised as a result and the abundance and distribution of wild game for

text: hunting

text: has also begun to change. Severe weather events are becoming stronger and more frequent. These changes are dangerous to Indigenous populations because it prevents them from performing cultural moralities, such as fishing and hunting. Inuit populations in the Arctic are heavily dependent on the environment for their well-being but the onset of climate change has placed their environment at risk making them highly prone to the effects of climate change.

text: Climate change is not something that citizens can entirely prevent from happening even if they wanted to. There are many natural causes such as volcanic activity and the Earth's orbit around the sun that are strong contributing factors to the phenomena. There are, however, prevention measures that can be taken to prevent climate change from happening as quickly. The primary way to prevent climate change is for society to reduce the the amount of greenhouse gases that are present in the atmosphere. This can be done through the improving of energy efficiency in many buildings, the stoppage of deforestation so more carbon dioxide can be removed from the atmosphere, and mode switching.

text: Climate change is not something that citizens can entirely prevent from happening even if they wanted to. There are many natural causes such as

text: volcanic activity

text: and the Earth's orbit around the sun that are strong contributing factors to the phenomena. There are, however, prevention measures that can be taken to prevent climate change from happening as quickly. The primary way to prevent climate change is for society to reduce the the amount of

text: greenhouse gases

text: that are present in the atmosphere. This can be done through the improving of energy efficiency in many buildings, the stoppage of deforestation so more carbon dioxide can be removed from the atmosphere, and mode switching.

text: Climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates. Ice sheets grew on Antarctica. The formation of an Arctic ice cap around three million years ago is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds. Mid-latitude glaciation probably began before the end of the epoch. The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas.The Pleistocene climate was characterized by repeated glacial cycles during which continental glaciers pushed to the 40th parallel in some places. Four major glacial events have been identified, as well as many minor intervening events. A major event is a general glacial excursion, termed a "glacial". Glacials are separated by "interglacials". During a glacial, the glacier experiences minor advances and retreats. The minor excursion is a "stadial"; times between stadials are "interstadials". Each glacial advance tied up huge volumes of water in continental ice sheets 1500–3000 m deep, resulting in temporary sea level drops of 100 m or more over the entire surface of the Earth. During interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions.

text: Climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates.

text: Ice sheet

text: s grew on

text: Antarctica

text: . The formation of an Arctic ice cap around three million years ago is signaled by an abrupt shift in

text: oxygen

text: isotope

text: ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North

text: Atlantic

text: and North

text: Pacific ocean

text: beds. Mid-latitude

text: glaciation

text: probably began before the end of the epoch. The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of

text: grassland

text: s and

text: savanna

text: s.The

text: Pleistocene

text: climate was characterized by repeated glacial cycles during which

text: continental glacier

text: s pushed to the 40th

text: parallel

text: in some places. Four major glacial events have been identified, as well as many minor intervening events. A major event is a general glacial excursion, termed a "glacial". Glacials are separated by "interglacials". During a glacial, the glacier experiences minor advances and retreats. The minor excursion is a "stadial"; times between stadials are "interstadials". Each glacial advance tied up huge volumes of water in continental ice sheets 1500–3000 m deep, resulting in temporary sea level drops of 100 m or more over the entire surface of the Earth. During interglacial times, such as at present, drowned coastlines were common, mitigated by isostatic or other emergent motion of some regions.

text: Rahall believes that anthropogenic CO emissions are causing global warming, saying to the Register-Herald that denial of climate change is "to just put your head in the sand."

text: Rahall believes that anthropogenic

text: CO

text: emissions are causing

text: global warming

text: , saying to the Register-Herald that denial of climate change is "to just put your head in the sand."

text: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years).  Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities have also been identified as significant causes of recent climate change, often referred to as global warming.

text: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of

text: weather

text: patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years).  Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions (i.e., more or fewer

text: extreme weather

text: events). Climate change is caused by factors such as

text: biotic

text: processes, variations in

text: solar radiation

text: received by Earth,

text: plate tectonics

text: , and

text: volcanic eruptions

text: . Certain human activities have also been identified as significant causes of recent climate change, often referred to as

text: global warming

text: Sea ice provides an ecosystem for various polar species, particularly the polar bear, whose environment is being threatened as global warming causes the ice to melt a bit more as the Earth’s temperature gets warmer. Furthermore, the sea ice itself functions to help keep polar climates cool, since the ice exists in expansive enough amounts to maintain a cold environment. At this, sea ice’s relationship with global warming is cyclical; the ice helps to maintain cool climates, but as the global temperature increases, the ice melts, and is less effective in keeping those climates cold. The bright, shiny surface of the ice also serves a role in maintaining cooler polar temperatures by reflecting much of the sunlight that hits it back into space. As the sea ice melts, its surface area shrinks, diminishing the size of the reflective surface and therefore causing the earth to absorb more of the sun’s heat. Though the size of the ice floes is affected by the seasons, even a small change in global temperature can greatly affect the amount of sea ice, and due to the shrinking reflective surface that keeps the ocean cool, this sparks a cycle of ice shrinking and temperatures warming. As a result, the polar regions are the most susceptible places to climate change on the planet.

text: Sea ice provides an ecosystem for various polar species, particularly the

text: polar bear

text: , whose environment is being threatened as global warming causes the ice to melt a bit more as the Earth’s temperature gets warmer. Furthermore, the sea ice itself functions to help keep polar climates cool, since the ice exists in expansive enough amounts to maintain a cold environment. At this, sea ice’s relationship with global warming is cyclical; the ice helps to maintain cool climates, but as the global temperature increases, the ice melts, and is less effective in keeping those climates cold. The bright, shiny surface of the ice also serves a role in maintaining cooler polar temperatures by reflecting much of the sunlight that hits it back into space. As the sea ice melts, its surface area shrinks, diminishing the size of the reflective surface and therefore causing the earth to absorb more of the sun’s heat. Though the size of the

text: ice floes

text: is affected by the seasons, even a small change in global temperature can greatly affect the amount of sea ice, and due to the shrinking reflective surface that keeps the ocean cool, this sparks a cycle of ice shrinking and temperatures warming. As a result, the polar regions are the most susceptible places to climate change on the planet.

text: Since climate regimes tend to be dominated by vegetation of one region with relatively homogenous ecology, those that project climate change remap their results in the form of climate regimes as an alternative way to explain expected changes.

text: Since climate regimes tend to be dominated by vegetation of one region with relatively homogenous ecology, those that project

text: climate change

text: remap their results in the form of climate regimes as an alternative way to explain expected changes.

text: Several limitations have arisen when applying the adaptive governance strategy to climate governance. Firstly, when applied at local level, adaptive governance is evidently successful; however, Evans (2011) found problems when applying such techniques over a large scale. For example, the technique could have limited success when adapting to a national or international problem as the system may become too complex. A further weakness highlighted by Ostrom in 2007 is that many adaptive governance systems have been implemented to build resilience to gradual changes but anthropogenic climate change could cause rapid alterations and so challenge the robustness of the whole governance system. Finally, using this experimental approach for such a precarious and influential system as our climate has been considered too risky, especially as Earth is potentially nearing the 2 degree global warming tipping point.

text: Several limitations have arisen when applying the adaptive governance strategy to climate governance. Firstly, when applied at local level, adaptive governance is evidently successful; however, Evans (2011) found problems when applying such techniques over a large scale. For example, the technique could have limited success when adapting to a national or international problem as the system may become too complex. A further weakness highlighted by

text: Ostrom

text: in 2007 is that many adaptive governance systems have been implemented to build resilience to gradual changes but anthropogenic climate change could cause rapid alterations and so challenge the robustness of the whole governance system. Finally, using this experimental approach for such a precarious and influential system as our climate has been considered too risky, especially as Earth is potentially nearing the 2 degree global warming

text: tipping point

text: The CVF and DARA published the Climate Vulnerability Monitor, "The State of the Climate Crisis," in December 2010. The global study covered 184 countries affected by the short-term impacts of climate change in four key areas: health, weather disasters, habitat loss and economic stress.

text: The CVF and DARA published the

text: Climate Vulnerability Monitor

text: , "The State of the Climate Crisis," in December 2010. The global study covered 184 countries affected by the short-term impacts of climate change in four key areas: health, weather disasters, habitat loss and economic stress.

text: At the April 2010 meeting in Cape Town, environment ministers from the four countries called for a legally binding global agreement on long-term cooperative action under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol, to be concluded at the next UN Climate Change Conference in Cancun, Mexico in November 2010, or at the latest in South Africa by 2011, saying that slow legislative progress in the United States should not be allowed to dictate the pace of global agreement. The group's post-meeting statement also demanded that developed countries allow developing countries "equitable space for development" as well as providing them with finance, technology and capacity-building support, based on their "historical responsibility for climate change".

text: At the April 2010 meeting in Cape Town, environment ministers from the four countries called for a legally binding global agreement on long-term cooperative action under the

text: (UNFCCC) and its

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: , to be concluded at

text: the next UN Climate Change Conference

text: in Cancun, Mexico in November 2010, or at the latest in

text: South Africa

text: by 2011, saying that slow legislative progress in the United States should not be allowed to dictate the pace of global agreement. The group's post-meeting statement also demanded that developed countries allow developing countries "equitable space for development" as well as providing them with finance, technology and capacity-building support, based on their "historical responsibility for climate change".

text: Perhaps one of the most apparent factors contributing to Earth climate change is the angle at which the earth is tilted. This is the angle at which Earth’s axis of rotation is from the vertical, also known as Earth’s obliquity. Earth’s current tilt angle is approximately 23.5 degrees. The axial tilt angle affects climate largely by determining which parts of the earth get more sunlight during different stages of the year. This is the primary cause for the different seasons Earth experiences throughout the year, as well as the intensity of the seasons for higher latitudes. For example, in the Northern Hemisphere, if there were no axial tilt, i.e. Earth’s obliquity would be zero degrees, then there would be no change in the seasons from year to year. This would be because there would be no difference in the amount of solar irradiation received, year-round, anywhere on Earth. On the other hand, if Earth’s axial tilt angle was great (45+ degrees), the seasonality of each hemisphere, individually, would be highly exaggerated. Summers would be extremely hot, with substantially more hours of daylight than night each day. Winters would be extremely cold, with substantially more hours of night than daylight each day. This is because, during summer for the northern hemisphere, if the earth is tilted more (pointed towards the sun more), there would be more available hours in which the suns rays can strike any certain place, thereby increasing the number of daylight hours at any given place, with more and more daylight hours at higher latitudes. Also, because the northern hemisphere would be tilted much more towards the sun, it would be physically closer to the sun, thereby increasing the intensity of the sun’s rays hitting the northern hemisphere, thereby causing the northern hemisphere to become hotter. Likewise, during winter for the northern hemisphere, there would be fewer hours of daylight because the northern hemisphere would essentially be pointed away from the sun. Fewer daylight hours means less solar radiation hitting the northern hemisphere, especially at higher latitudes, and therefore causing the northern hemisphere to become colder. The same things can also be said about the southern hemisphere, particularly at high latitudes. In either case, the climate around the equator is not affected nearly as much as the higher latitudes, thereby creating a sizable difference in how obliquity affects different latitudes. This is all, of course, dependent on what the actual tilt angle is at any given point in time. The thing is, though, that Earth does in fact change obliquity over time in a cyclic pattern. Earth’s obliquity does not change much, though, as obliquity has been determined to cycle between the small range of 22.2 degrees to 24.5 degrees, in a cycle that lasts approximately 41,000 years. Therefore with the small tilt variation over time, the Earth has always been thought to have had a seasonal climate, at least in the high latitudes due to the solar affect of changing Earth obliquity.

text: Perhaps one of the most apparent factors contributing to Earth climate change is the angle at which the earth is tilted. This is the angle at which Earth’s axis of rotation is from the vertical, also known as Earth’s obliquity. Earth’s current tilt angle is approximately 23.5 degrees. The axial tilt angle affects climate largely by determining which parts of the earth get more sunlight during different stages of the year. This is the primary cause for the different

text: seasons

text: Earth experiences throughout the year, as well as the intensity of the seasons for higher

text: latitude

text: s. For example, in the

text: Northern Hemisphere

text: , if there were no axial tilt, i.e. Earth’s obliquity would be zero degrees, then there would be no change in the seasons from year to year. This would be because there would be no difference in the amount of

text: solar irradiation

text: This ice sheet was the primary feature of the Pleistocene epoch in North America, commonly referred to as the ice age. It was up to  thick in Nunavik, Quebec, Canada but much thinner at its edges where nunataks were common in hilly areas. It created much of the surface geology of southern Canada and the northern United States, leaving behind glacially scoured valleys, moraines, eskers and glacial till. It also caused many changes to the shape, size, and drainage of the Great Lakes. As but one of many examples, near the end of the last ice age, Lake Iroquois extended well beyond the boundaries of present-day Lake Ontario, and drained down the Hudson River into the Atlantic Ocean.

text: This ice sheet was the primary feature of the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch in North America, commonly referred to as the

text: ice age

text: . It was up to  thick in

text: Nunavik

text: Quebec

text: Canada

text: but much thinner at its edges where

text: nunatak

text: s were common in hilly areas. It created much of the surface geology of southern Canada and the northern United States, leaving behind glacially scoured valleys,

text: moraines

text: eskers

text: and

text: glacial till

text: . It also caused many changes to the shape, size, and drainage of the Great Lakes. As but one of many examples, near the end of the last ice age,

text: Lake Iroquois

text: extended well beyond the boundaries of present-day

text: Lake Ontario

text: , and drained down the Hudson River into the Atlantic Ocean.

text: If climatic factors such as temperature and precipitation change in a region beyond the tolerance of a species phenotypic plasticity, then distribution changes of the species may be inevitable. There is already evidence that plant species are shifting their ranges in altitude and latitude as a response to changing regional climates. Yet it is difficult to predict how species ranges will change in response to climate and separate these  changes from all the other man-made environmental changes such as eutrophication, acid rain and habitat destruction.

text: If climatic factors such as

text: temperature

text: and

text: precipitation

text: change in a region beyond the tolerance of a species

text: phenotypic plasticity

text: , then distribution changes of the species may be inevitable. There is already evidence that plant species are shifting their ranges in altitude and latitude as a response to changing regional climates. Yet it is difficult to predict how species ranges will change in response to climate and separate these  changes from all the other man-made environmental changes such as

text: eutrophication

text: acid rain

text: and

text: habitat destruction

text: Climate change is the main force behind changes in species distribution and abundance. Repeated changes in climate throughout the Quaternary Period are thought to have had a significant impact on the current vegetative species diversity present today. Functional and phylogenetic diversity are considered to be closely related to changing climatic conditions, this indicates that trait differences are extremely important in long term responses to climate change. During the transition from the last glaciation of the Pleistocene to the Holocene period, climate warming resulted in the expansion of taller plants and larger seed bearing plants which resulted in lower proportions of vegetative regeneration. Hence, low temperatures can be strong environmental filters that prevent tall and large-seeded plants from establishing in postglacial environments.Throughout Europe vegetation dynamics within the first half of the Holocene appear to have been influenced mainly by climate and the reorganization of atmospheric circulation associated with the disappearance of the North American ice sheet. This is evident in the rapid increase of forestation and changing biomes during the postglacial period between 11500ka and 8000ka before the present.Vegetation development periods of post-glacial land forms on Ellesmere Island, Northern Canada, is assumed to have been at least ca. 20,000 years in duration. This slow progression is mostly due to climatic restrictions such as an estimated annual rainfall amount of only 64mm and a mean annual temperature of -19.7 degrees Celsius. The length in time of vegetation development observed on Ellesmere Island is evidence that post glacial vegetation development is much more restricted in the Arctic and colder climates as compared to milder climatic regions such as the boreal, temperate and tropical zones.

text: Climate change is the main force behind changes in species distribution and abundance. Repeated changes in climate throughout the

text: Quaternary

text: Period are thought to have had a significant impact on the current vegetative species diversity present today. Functional and

text: phylogenetic

text: diversity are considered to be closely related to changing climatic conditions, this indicates that trait differences are extremely important in long term responses to climate change. During the transition from the last glaciation of the

text: Pleistocene

text: to the

text: Holocene period

text: , climate warming resulted in the expansion of taller plants and larger seed bearing plants which resulted in lower proportions of vegetative regeneration. Hence, low temperatures can be strong environmental filters that prevent tall and large-seeded plants from establishing in postglacial environments.Throughout Europe vegetation dynamics within the first half of the Holocene appear to have been influenced mainly by climate and the reorganization of atmospheric circulation associated with the disappearance of the North American ice sheet. This is evident in the rapid increase of forestation and changing biomes during the postglacial period between 11500ka and 8000ka before the present.Vegetation development periods of post-glacial land forms on

text: Ellesmere Island

text: , Northern Canada, is assumed to have been at least ca. 20,000 years in duration. This slow progression is mostly due to climatic restrictions such as an estimated annual rainfall amount of only 64mm and a mean annual temperature of -19.7 degrees Celsius. The length in time of vegetation development observed on Ellesmere Island is evidence that post glacial vegetation development is much more restricted in the Arctic and colder climates as compared to milder climatic regions such as the boreal, temperate and tropical zones.

text: This period is known as an ice age. The change in climate was felt worldwide, even at the equator. This ice age resulted to the lower water levels of rivers, lakes and oceans. The South China Sea water level went down to an estimate of 240 feet. Then the period of ice age was over and as polar ice began to retreat and glaciers began to melt, bodies of water began to fill. These fluctuations in water level due to the alternating climate resulted to the alternate exposing and covering of land bridges that connected land masses. These land bridges, when exposed made migration possible, since the technology of sailing was not elaborate (or even present at that time). Records show that ancient man did not only come to the Philippines for a temporary shelter during climatic change, but also, they began to settle down. The ancient man, not being a specialized form of being, made several adjustments to cope up with a new environment. Cultural artifacts showed evidences of adjustments as later social scientists found.

text: This period is known as an

text: ice age

text: . The change in climate was felt worldwide, even at the equator. This ice age resulted to the lower water levels of rivers, lakes and oceans. The

text: South China Sea

text: water level went down to an estimate of 240 feet. Then the period of ice age was over and as polar ice began to retreat and

text: glaciers

text: began to melt, bodies of water began to fill. These fluctuations in water level due to the alternating climate resulted to the alternate exposing and covering of land bridges that connected land masses. These land bridges, when exposed made migration possible, since the technology of sailing was not elaborate (or even present at that time). Records show that ancient man did not only come to the Philippines for a temporary shelter during climatic change, but also, they began to settle down. The ancient man, not being a specialized form of being, made several adjustments to cope up with a new environment. Cultural artifacts showed evidences of adjustments as later social scientists found.

text: Notably, the divergence between the northern clades seems to have occurred far too early for the Pleistocene ice ages to have played a major part. Rather, it appears that the common bush tanager evolved in and was always confined to montane cloud forest. Given its sedentary habits, the phylogeny seems to be a result of a combination of habitat expanding and constricting due to Pliocene climate changes and, less frequently, accidental dispersal (such as to the Sierra de los Tuxtlas and, earlier, to Mesoamerica in general).

text: Notably, the divergence between the northern clades seems to have occurred far too early for the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age

text: s to have played a major part. Rather, it appears that the common bush tanager

text: evolve

text: d in and was always confined to montane cloud forest. Given its sedentary habits, the

text: phylogeny

text: seems to be a result of a combination of habitat expanding and constricting due to

text: Pliocene climate

text: changes and, less frequently, accidental dispersal (such as to the Sierra de los Tuxtlas and, earlier, to Mesoamerica in general).

text: Projections are used in the TAR as a guide to the possible future effects of climate change, e.g., changes in global mean temperature and sea level. In the TAR, the word "projection" is favoured over "prediction".  This is because many future changes related to climate are highly uncertain.  For example, climate change projections are affected by highly uncertain changes in future GHG emissions.

text: Public opinion on climate change is significantly impacted by media coverage of climate change, and the effects of climate change denial campaigns. Campaigns to undermine public confidence in climate science have decreased public belief in climate change, which in turn have impacted legislative efforts to curb  emissions.

text: Public opinion on climate change is significantly impacted by

text: media coverage of climate change

text: , and the effects of climate change denial campaigns. Campaigns to undermine public confidence in climate science have decreased public belief in climate change, which in turn have impacted legislative efforts to curb  emissions.

text: The Indonesian archipelago nearly reached its present form in the Pleistocene period. For some periods, the Sundaland was still linked with Asian mainland, creating the landmass extension of Southeast Asia that enabled the migrations of some Asian animals and hominid species. Geologically the New Guinea island and the shallow seas of Arafura is the northern part of Australia tectonic plate and once connected as a land bridge identified as Sahulland. During the end of the last ice age (around 20,000–10,000 years ago), earth experienced global climate change; a global warming with the rising of average temperature caused the melting of polar ice caps and contributed to the rising of sea surface. Sundaland was submerged under shallow sea, creating Malacca Strait, South China Sea, Karimata Strait and Java Sea. During that period, Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the islands around them were formed. On the east, New Guinea and Aru Islands were separated from the Australia mainland. The rise of sea surface created isolated areas that separated plants, animals and hominid species, causing further evolution and specification.

text: The Indonesian archipelago nearly reached its present form in the

text: Pleistocene

text: period. For some periods, the

text: Sundaland

text: was still linked with Asian mainland, creating the landmass extension of Southeast Asia that enabled the migrations of some Asian animals and hominid species. Geologically the New Guinea island and the shallow seas of Arafura is the northern part of Australia tectonic plate and once connected as a land bridge identified as

text: Sahulland

text: . During the end of the last ice age (around 20,000–10,000 years ago), earth experienced global climate change; a global warming with the rising of average temperature caused the melting of polar ice caps and contributed to the rising of sea surface. Sundaland was submerged under shallow sea, creating

text: Malacca Strait

text: South China Sea

text: Karimata Strait

text: and

text: Java Sea

text: . During that period,

text: Malay peninsula

text: , Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the islands around them were formed. On the east,

text: New Guinea

text: and

text: Aru Islands

text: were separated from the Australia mainland. The rise of sea surface created isolated areas that separated plants, animals and hominid species, causing further evolution and specification.

text: The impacts that climate change has had on development in recent years are significant. According to McMichael, an International Professor of Development Sociology at Cornell University, the "development theory" signifies the market as "the vehicle for social change", for the market allocates resources (McMichael 2011) (4). Privatization then follows the market influence to enable or prevent development. In consideration of climate change, the market has most likely not yet invested enough in alternative energy research to reduce adverse climate change affects and enable social change in low-income communities around the world (4). To provide an example, during the Cold War, global capitalist expansion occurred, in order to secure markets and resources for the Western world (4). In the case of climate change, some, like McMichael, believe that the market has not yet invested enough in alternative energy research to reduce adverse climate change affects (4).

text: The impacts that climate change has had on

text: development

text: in recent years are significant. According to McMichael, an International Professor of Development

text: Sociology

text: at

text: Cornell University

text: , the "

text: development theory

text: " signifies the market as "the vehicle for

text: social change

text: ", for the market allocates resources (McMichael 2011) (4). Privatization then follows the

text: market

text: influence to enable or prevent development. In consideration of climate change, the market has most likely not yet invested enough in

text: alternative energy

text: research to reduce adverse climate change affects and enable

text: social change

text: in low-income communities around the world (4). To provide an example, during the

text: Cold War

text: , global capitalist expansion occurred, in order to secure markets and resources for the

text: Western world

text: (4). In the case of climate change, some, like McMichael, believe that the market has not yet invested enough in

text: alternative energy

text: research to reduce adverse climate change affects (4).

text: Another clue to the nature of climate change came in the mid-1960s from analysis of deep-sea cores by Cesare Emiliani and analysis of ancient corals by Wallace Broecker and collaborators. Rather than four long ice ages, they found a large number of shorter ones in a regular sequence. It appeared that the timing of ice ages was set by the small orbital shifts of the Milankovitch cycles. While the matter remained controversial, some began to suggest that the climate system is sensitive to small changes and can readily be flipped from a stable state into a different one.

text: Another clue to the nature of climate change came in the mid-1960s from analysis of deep-sea cores by

text: Cesare Emiliani

text: and analysis of ancient corals by

text: Wallace Broecker

text: and collaborators. Rather than four long

text: ice ages

text: , they found a large number of shorter ones in a regular sequence. It appeared that the timing of ice ages was set by the small orbital shifts of the

text: Milankovitch cycles

text: . While the matter remained controversial, some began to suggest that the climate system is sensitive to small changes and can readily be flipped from a stable state into a different one.

text: Unprecedented rates of climate change are predicted to occur over the next 100 years as a result of human activity. Phenotypic plasticity is a key mechanism with which organisms can cope with a changing climate, as it allows individuals to respond to change within their lifetime. This is thought to be particularly important for species with long generation times, as evolutionary responses via natural selection may not produce change fast enough to mitigate the effects of a warmer climate.

text: Unprecedented rates of

text: climate change

text: are predicted to occur over the next 100 years as a result of human activity. Phenotypic plasticity is a key mechanism with which organisms can cope with a changing climate, as it allows individuals to respond to change within their lifetime. This is thought to be particularly important for species with long generation times, as evolutionary responses via

text: natural selection

text: may not produce change fast enough to mitigate the effects of a warmer climate.

text: The recovery of higher-resolution ice cores spanning more of the past 1,000,000 years by the ongoing EPICA project may help  shed more light on the matter. A new, high-precision dating method developed by the team allows better correlation of the various factors involved and puts the ice core chronologies on a stronger temporal footing, endorsing the traditional Milankovitch hypothesis, that climate variations are controlled by insolation in the northern hemisphere. The new chronology is inconsistent with the "inclination" theory of the 100,000-year cycle. The establishment of leads and lags against different orbital forcing components with this method—which uses the direct insolation control over nitrogen-oxygen ratios in ice core bubbles—is in principle a great improvement in the temporal resolution of these records and another significant validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis. An international climate modelling exercise (Abe-ouchi et al., Nature, 2013) demonstrated that climate models can replicate the 100,000 year cyclicity given the orbital forcing and carbon dioxide levels of the late Pleistocene. The isostatic history of ice sheets was implicated in mediating the 100,000 year response to the orbital forcing. Larger ice sheets are lower in elevation because they depress the continental crust upon which they sit, and are therefore more vulnerable to melting.

text: The recovery of higher-

text: resolution

text: ice core

text: s spanning more of the past 1,000,000 years by the ongoing

entity_name: European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica

text: EPICA

text: project may help  shed more light on the matter. A new, high-precision dating method developed by the team allows better

text: correlation

text: of the various factors involved and puts the ice core chronologies on a stronger temporal footing, endorsing the traditional

text: Milankovitch

text: hypothesis, that climate variations are controlled by insolation in the northern hemisphere. The new chronology is inconsistent with the "inclination" theory of the 100,000-year cycle. The establishment of leads and lags against different orbital forcing components with this method—which uses the direct insolation control over nitrogen-oxygen ratios in ice core bubbles—is in principle a great improvement in the temporal resolution of these records and another significant validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis. An international climate modelling exercise (Abe-ouchi et al., Nature, 2013) demonstrated that climate models can replicate the 100,000 year cyclicity given the orbital forcing and carbon dioxide levels of the late Pleistocene. The isostatic history of ice sheets was implicated in mediating the 100,000 year response to the orbital forcing. Larger ice sheets are lower in elevation because they depress the continental crust upon which they sit, and are therefore more vulnerable to melting.

text: Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem, and this is a problem that is on going every day. By year 2050, the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people, thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people (Living Blue Planet 24). The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways. A main one is the temperature rise, and according to the report ”Our Changing Climate”, the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities (Walsh, et al. 20). Since 1895, the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 °F to 1.9 °F, with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 (Walsh, et al. 20).

text: In this article, the phrase “climate change” is used to describe a change in the climate, measured in terms of its statistical properties, e.g., the global mean surface temperature. In this context, “climate” is taken to mean the average weather. Climate can change over period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical time period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes, e.g., changes in the sun's output, or due human activities, e.g., changing the composition of the atmosphere. Any human-induced changes in climate will occur against the “background” of natural climatic variations (see attribution of recent climate change for more information).

text: In this article, the phrase “climate change” is used to describe a change in the climate, measured in terms of its statistical properties, e.g., the global

text: mean

text: surface

text: temperature

text: . In this context, “

text: climate

text: ” is taken to mean the average weather. Climate can change over period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical time period is 30 years, as defined by the

text: World Meteorological Organization

text: . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes, e.g., changes in the sun's output, or due

text: human activities

text: , e.g., changing the composition of

text: the atmosphere

text: . Any human-induced changes in climate will occur against the “background” of natural climatic variations (see

text: attribution of recent climate change

text: for more information).

text: His research is concerned with global climate change, climate variability, and atmospheric chemistry. He uses climate models to investigate chemical changes such as the depletion of the ozone layer, climate changes such as global warming, and the connections between these two. Among his research interests are:

text: His research is concerned with global climate change,

text: climate

text: variability, and

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: . He uses

text: climate model

text: s to investigate chemical changes such as the

text: depletion of the ozone layer

text: climate change

text: s such as

text: global warming

text: , and the connections between these two. Among his research interests are:

text: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming (AGW) -  have been undertaken since the 1990s. A 2016 paper (which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes, Peter Doran, William Anderegg, Bart Verheggen, Ed Maibach, J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook, and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors) concluded that “the finding of 97% consensus [that humans are causing recent global warming] in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies.”

text: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic

text: global warming

text: (AGW) -  have been undertaken since the 1990s. A 2016 paper (which was co-authored by

text: Naomi Oreskes

text: Peter Doran

text: , William Anderegg, Bart Verheggen, Ed Maibach, J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook, and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors) concluded that “the finding of 97% consensus [that humans are causing recent global warming] in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies.”

text: A pure capitalist approach has also been criticized in Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change to mitigation the effects of global warming in this excerpt ...

text: A pure capitalist approach has also been criticized in

text: to

text: mitigation

text: the

text: effects of global warming

text: in this excerpt ...

text: The team joined the International Formula Master championship in 2008.

text: The team joined the

text: International Formula Master

text: championship in

text: Examples of the environmental and health impacts are agricultural loss due to acid rain and particulate shading, damage to ecosystems, and pollution in the hydrosphere.Intensity of a volcanic eruption is a variable controlling the altitude and effect of ejected material. Though larger eruptions occur less often than smaller eruptions, larger eruptions still deliver more particulate matter into the atmosphere. This year round behavior of emitted material yields mild effects on the atmosphere in comparison to larger eruptions. Over time, changes in the composition of smaller scale eruptions yields changes to atmospheric cycles and the global climate. Larger scale eruptions cause changes to the atmosphere immediately, which in turn leads to climatic changes in the immediate vicinity. The larger the volcanic expulsion, the higher the altitude achieved by the ejected silicate materials. Higher altitude injections are caused by larger intensity eruptions. Larger eruptions do not emit as much, on average, as smaller eruptions. This is related to the return period of the eruptions and the amount of ejected material per eruption. "The injection height of sulfur into the atmosphere represents another important determinant of climate impact. More intense eruptions, i.e., those with higher magma discharge rates, are more likely to loft the reactive sulfur gases into the stratosphere where they can generate climatically effective aerosol."

text: Haminoea zelandiae, common name the white bubble shell, is a species of medium-sized sea snail or bubble snail, a marine opisthobranch gastropod mollusc in the family Haminoeidae, the bubble snails.

text: Haminoea zelandiae,

text: common name

text: the white bubble shell, is a

text: species

text: of medium-sized sea

text: snail

text: or bubble

text: snail

text: , a

text: marine

text: opisthobranch

text: gastropod

text: mollusc

text: in the

text: family

text: Haminoeidae

text: , the bubble snails.

text: Episode 9, "Moving a Mountain" (June 9, 2014): Hall concludes his journey to Bangladesh, where rising seas are expected to submerge 17% of the country. He learns that global warming is a human rights, public health and foreign policy issue. Sanjayan questions top climate scientists in their fields who collect data from the past, such as ice core samples, that explain how our climate is changing. Friedman interviews President Barack Obama on climate change and finds that climate can change so fast that it can wipe out a civilization and that "action taken to curb greenhouse emissions could have a measurable, helpful impact." Obama echoes this, saying "there's a lot we can do" about global warming. Obama notes that, as a father, he is deeply concerned but optimistic that, with persistence, America can make progress on battling global warming and can become a leader on the issue. Obama acknowledges that, to avoid the worst effects of global warming, we must leave some fossil fuels unexploited. He tells Friedman that "you've got to recognize [that global warming] is going to be one of the most significant long-term challenges, if not the most significant long-term challenge, that this country faces and that the planet faces. ... when [the effects of climate change] start multiplying, then people start thinking ... 'We're going to reward politicians who talk to us honestly and seriously about this problem.'"

text: Episode 9, "Moving a Mountain" (June 9, 2014): Hall concludes his journey to Bangladesh, where rising seas are expected to submerge 17% of the country. He learns that global warming is a human rights, public health and foreign policy issue. Sanjayan questions top climate scientists in their fields who collect data from the past, such as ice core samples, that explain how our climate is changing. Friedman interviews President

text: Barack Obama

text: on climate change and finds that climate can change so fast that it can wipe out a civilization and that "action taken to curb greenhouse emissions could have a measurable, helpful impact." Obama echoes this, saying "there's a lot we can do" about global warming. Obama notes that, as a father, he is deeply concerned but optimistic that, with persistence, America can make progress on battling global warming and can become a leader on the issue. Obama acknowledges that, to avoid the worst effects of global warming, we must leave some fossil fuels unexploited. He tells Friedman that "you've got to recognize [that global warming] is going to be one of the most significant long-term challenges, if not the most significant long-term challenge, that this country faces and that the planet faces. ... when [the effects of climate change] start multiplying, then people start thinking ... 'We're going to reward politicians who talk to us honestly and seriously about this problem.'"

text: The major changes during the Pleistocene epoch have been brought about by several recent ice ages. The most severe was the Anglian Stage, with ice up to 1,000 m (3300 ft) thick in the northwest which thinned considerably as it reached as far south as London and Bristol. This glaciation took place between about 500,000 to 400,000 years ago, and was responsible for the diversion of the River Thames onto its present course.

text: The major changes during the

text: Pleistocene

text: ice age

text: s. The most severe was the

text: Anglian Stage

text: , with ice up to 1,000 m (3300 ft) thick in the northwest which thinned considerably as it reached as far south as

text: London

text: and

text: Bristol

text: . This glaciation took place between about 500,000 to 400,000 years ago, and was responsible for the diversion of the

text: River Thames

text: onto its present course.

text: Professor Stephen Sparks FRS is the ACME Chair.

text: Professor

text: Stephen Sparks

text: FRS is the ACME Chair.

text: is the set of players and where the value function

text: File support

text: File support

text: The host site for the Final Four was Greensboro, North Carolina.

text: The host site for the Final Four was

text: Greensboro, North Carolina

text: Bloom was written "between countless sound checks and myriad experiences during two years of tour", and was recorded at Sonic Ranch in Tornillo, Texas. It was co-produced by Chris Coady (Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Blonde Redhead), who also produced the band's previous album Teen Dream. Beach House chose to record in west Texas after being captivated by the area while resting there during a tour. Bloom was mixed at Electric Lady Studios in New York City. The album took seven weeks to record.

text: Bloom was written "between countless sound checks and myriad experiences during two years of tour", and was recorded at

text: Sonic Ranch

text: in

text: Tornillo, Texas

text: . It was co-produced by

text: Chris Coady

text: Yeah Yeah Yeahs

text: Blonde Redhead

text: ), who also produced the band's previous album

text: Teen Dream

text: . Beach House chose to record in west Texas after being captivated by the area while resting there during a tour. Bloom was mixed at

text: Electric Lady Studios

text: in

text: New York City

text: . The album took seven weeks to record.

text: Beacham began working for the Northern Trust Company in 1979 where she held a variety of positions, including supervisor, division manager, trust officer and second vice president. She then relocated to Los Angeles, where she began working as the vice president and manager for Wells Fargo Bank. In 1990, she moved to Pasadena, where she retained her position with Wells Fargo Bank, and then moved back to Chicago in 1994. After leaving Wells Fargo in 1996, Beacham became the senior vice president and manager of Bank of America where she remained until 1999. Inspired by her daughters, Beacham became the founder and CEO of Money Savvy Generation with her husband, Michael Beacham, as the president.

text: Beacham began working for

text: the Northern Trust Company

text: in 1979 where she held a variety of positions, including supervisor, division manager, trust officer and second vice president. She then relocated to Los Angeles, where she began working as the vice president and manager for

text: Wells Fargo Bank

text: . In 1990, she moved to Pasadena, where she retained her position with Wells Fargo Bank, and then moved back to Chicago in 1994. After leaving Wells Fargo in 1996, Beacham became the senior vice president and manager of

text: Bank of America

text: where she remained until 1999. Inspired by her daughters, Beacham became the founder and CEO of Money Savvy Generation with her husband, Michael Beacham, as the president.

text: and, for isotropic materials,

text: and, for isotropic materials,

text: Robert Warren Spike (November 13, 1923 – October 17, 1966) was an American clergyman, theologian, and civil rights leader.

text: In later years, when it was clear that the climate was indeed warming, Bryson argued that while climate change and a global increase in temperature are real, he did not believe that they are caused by human activity. Rather, he argued that they are part of natural global climate cycles, particularly the end of the Little Ice Age:

text: In later years, when it was clear that the climate was indeed warming, Bryson argued that while

text: climate change

text: and a global increase in

text: temperature

text: are real, he did not believe that they are caused by human activity. Rather, he argued that they are part of natural global climate cycles, particularly the end of the

text: Little Ice Age

text: In 2016 ONE/OFF Printmaker Jack Glover received the Theresa Pollak award for excellence in the arts from Richmond Magazine.

text: In 2016 ONE/OFF Printmaker Jack Glover received the

text: Theresa Pollak

text: award for excellence in the arts from Richmond Magazine.

text: Jerry Afemata was born in Long Beach, California, and is of Samoan ancestry; before moving to California, his father serves as chief of the family village in Alao, Samoa. Raised in Compton, California, Afemata was the youngest of eight other siblings; seven brothers and a sister. He got the nickname "Boog" from his brothers, in reference to his inability while young to sit still. Stated J Boog, “I always wanted to go somewhere and do something." He and his siblings were raised by their parents in a household that drew on their Samoan roots. According to J Boog, "I pretty much grew up real traditional with my family and that gave us a strong bond with our culture, we're very family oriented. My family was very strict on everything, making sure we did not mess up in life. But growing up in Compton didn't really make it easy for us anyway from the start, so my parents had to do double work on us."

text: Jerry Afemata was born in

text: Long Beach, California

text: , and is of

text: Samoa

text: n ancestry; before moving to California, his father serves as chief of the family village in Alao, Samoa. Raised in

text: Compton, California

text: , Afemata was the youngest of eight other siblings; seven brothers and a sister. He got the nickname "Boog" from his brothers, in reference to his inability while young to sit still. Stated J Boog, “I always wanted to go somewhere and do something." He and his siblings were raised by their parents in a household that drew on their

text: Samoan

text: roots. According to J Boog, "I pretty much grew up real traditional with my family and that gave us a strong bond with our culture, we're very family oriented. My family was very strict on everything, making sure we did not mess up in life. But growing up in Compton didn't really make it easy for us anyway from the start, so my parents had to do double work on us."

text: In the 21st tournament he cleared the first two stages with ease. He then managed to beat the Cliff Hanger that he was disqualified on in the 18th tournament. He then beat the new Hang Climbing and Spider Flip. However on the last obstacle the Gliding Ring, a design error prevented the ring from easily gliding down the track as it was supposed to. Nagano had to force it down the track, and fell into the water upon reaching the end of the track.

text: In Paper Mario, Bowser again captures the Princess by raising her entire castle via an underground craft that he had built directly underneath it, thus trapping her in her own home again.

text: In

text: Paper Mario

text: , Bowser again captures the Princess by raising her entire castle via an underground craft that he had built directly underneath it, thus trapping her in her own home again.

text: Global warming is caused primarily by anthropogenic, human caused, CO2 emissions greenhouse gases. Other cumulative effects include ocean acidification, caused by increasing amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, resulting from human actions. Also the long-term melting of ice sheets, from global temperature increases, contributes to sea level rising.

text: Global warming

text: is caused primarily by

text: anthropogenic

text: , human caused, CO2 emissions

text: greenhouse gases

text: . Other cumulative effects include

text: ocean acidification

text: , caused by increasing amounts of

text: carbon dioxide

text: in the atmosphere, resulting from human actions. Also the long-term melting of

text: ice sheets

text: , from global temperature increases, contributes to

text: sea level

text: rising.

text: Singh played field hockey as a youth player for Surjit Hockey Academy which is based in his hometown of Jalandhar, Punjab.

text: Singh played field hockey as a youth player for Surjit Hockey Academy which is based in his hometown of

text: Jalandhar

text: Punjab

text: Participating employers include:

text: Participating employers include:

text: The vehicle was primarily intended for launching bulk products, like water, fuel, and other consumables, that are inexpensive to replace in the event of a launch failure. The target launch cost was $1 million. Aquarius was designed to be a single-stage vehicle 43 meters (141 ft) high and 4 meters (13.1 ft) in diameter and powered by a single pressure fed engine using liquid hydrogen and oxygen propellants stored in a composite pressure tank. Launch would have taken place from a floating position in the ocean to minimize launch infrastructure with the ability to place a 1,000-kilogram (2,200 lb) payload into a , 52-degree orbit. The payload, located in the base of the vehicle, would be extracted by an orbiting space tug for transfer to its ultimate destination, like the ISS or a propellant depot, after which the vehicle would de-orbit and be destroyed.

text: The vehicle was primarily intended for launching bulk products, like water, fuel, and other consumables, that are inexpensive to replace in the event of a launch failure. The target launch cost was $1 million. Aquarius was designed to be a single-stage vehicle 43 meters (141 ft) high and 4 meters (13.1 ft) in diameter and powered by a single

text: pressure fed

text: engine using

text: liquid hydrogen

text: and oxygen propellants stored in a

text: composite

text: pressure tank. Launch would have taken place from a floating position in the ocean to minimize launch infrastructure with the ability to place a 1,000-kilogram (2,200 lb) payload into a , 52-degree orbit. The payload, located in the base of the vehicle, would be extracted by an orbiting

text: space tug

text: for transfer to its ultimate destination, like the

text: ISS

text: or a

text: propellant depot

text: , after which the vehicle would de-orbit and be destroyed.

text: Julius f. Harder (739 High Speed Intercept Operator)

text: During his career, José Róbson do Nascimento has won several titles:

text: The larvae feed on Isachne rigifolia.

text: The larvae feed on

text: Isachne rigifolia

text: On a local or regional level, some specific effects of global warming might be considered beneficial.

text: On a local or regional level, some specific

text: effects of global warming might be considered beneficial

text: Jonathan Zaccaï (born 22 July 1970) is a Belgian actor, film director and screenwriter.

text: (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position in class) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap in class)

text: key

text: ) (Races in bold indicate pole position in class) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap in class)

text: A Million to One has been covered by many artists and some versions were charted hits on the Billboard Hot 100 (peak positions indicated below).

text: A Million to One has been covered by many artists and some versions were charted hits on the

text: Billboard Hot 100

text: (peak positions indicated below).

text: McFerrin married Sara Copper, another aspiring singer, in 1949.  The couple had two children, Robert Jr. (Bobby) and Brenda.

text: XXXIII Corps mounted Fourteenth Army's secondary drive down the Irrawaddy River valley against stiff resistance from the Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army. IV Corps made the main attack down the "Railway Valley", which was also followed by the Sittaung River. They began by striking at a Japanese delaying position (held by the remnants of the Japanese Thirty-Third Army) at Pyawbwe. The attackers were initially halted by a strong defensive position behind a dry waterway, but a flanking move by tanks and mechanised infantry struck the Japanese from the rear and shattered them.

text: XXXIII Corps mounted Fourteenth Army's secondary drive down the Irrawaddy River valley against stiff resistance from the

text: Japanese Twenty-Eighth Army

text: . IV Corps made the main attack down the "Railway Valley", which was also followed by the

text: Sittaung River

text: . They began by striking at a Japanese delaying position (held by the remnants of the

text: Japanese Thirty-Third Army

text: ) at

text: Pyawbwe

text: . The attackers were initially halted by a strong defensive position behind a dry waterway, but a flanking move by tanks and mechanised infantry struck the Japanese from the rear and shattered them.

text: Pablo Aja Fresnedo  (born 28 January 1986 Puebla, Mexico) is a Mexican footballer, who plays for Correcaminos UAT in Mexico's Ascenso MX. He is a product of Puebla FC's youth system.

text: Pablo Aja Fresnedo  (born 28 January 1986

text: Puebla

text: , Mexico) is a Mexican

text: footballer

text: , who plays for

text: Correcaminos UAT

text: in Mexico's

text: Ascenso MX

text: . He is a product of Puebla FC's youth system.

text: is the projection of vector

text: is the projection of vector

text: His eldest surviving son, Charles, the third Earl, also gained prominence as a statesman. He was Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Privy Seal, Secretary of State for both the Northern and Southern Departments, Lord President of the Council and First Lord of the Treasury. However, his political career was ruined by the South Sea Bubble of 1720. Lord Sunderland married as his second wife Lady Anne Churchill, second daughter of the distinguished soldier John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough and Sarah Jennings. The dukedom of Marlborough was allowed to descend to the Duke's daughters and their sons after a special Act of Parliament was passed in 1716. Sunderland was succeeded by his eldest surviving son by his second wife, Robert, the fourth Earl. He died unmarried in 1729 at the age of 27 and was succeeded by his younger brother, Charles, the fifth Earl. In 1733 he succeeded his maternal aunt Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough as third Duke of Marlborough. The barony of Spencer of Wormleighton and earldom of Sunderland have remained subsidiary titles of the dukedom ever since. Earl of Sunderland has been used as the courtesy title by the Duke's grandson.

text: His eldest surviving son, Charles, the third Earl, also gained prominence as a statesman. He was

text: Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland

text: Lord Privy Seal

text: , Secretary of State for both the Northern and Southern Departments,

text: Lord President of the Council

text: and

text: First Lord of the Treasury

text: . However, his political career was ruined by the

text: South Sea Bubble

text: of 1720. Lord Sunderland married as his second wife

entity_name: Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (1683–1716)

text: Lady Anne Churchill

text: , second daughter of the distinguished soldier

text: John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough

text: and

text: Sarah Jennings

text: . The dukedom of Marlborough was allowed to descend to the Duke's daughters and their sons after a special Act of Parliament was passed in 1716. Sunderland was succeeded by his eldest surviving son by his second wife, Robert, the fourth Earl. He died unmarried in 1729 at the age of 27 and was succeeded by his younger brother, Charles, the fifth Earl. In 1733 he succeeded his maternal aunt

entity_name: Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough

text: Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough

text: as third Duke of Marlborough. The barony of Spencer of Wormleighton and earldom of Sunderland have remained subsidiary titles of the dukedom ever since. Earl of Sunderland has been used as the

text: courtesy title

text: by the Duke's grandson.

text: It is possible to fit a shoulder stock on a pistol frame in place of a pistol grip, and, when combined with a 16" or longer barrel (see "Thompson Center Arms and the Supreme Court" below), a Contender may be legally converted from a pistol to a rifle or reversed. Although it is technically possible to fit a pistol grip on an original Contender rifle frame, and use a pistol barrel to convert it from being a rifle to a pistol, this is not legal in the USA, being an illegal creation of a pistol from a rifle. In order to be able to go back and forth, the receiver must have been originally sold as a pistol, per ATF rules.

text: It is possible to fit a shoulder stock on a pistol frame in place of a pistol grip, and, when combined with a 16" or longer barrel (see "Thompson Center Arms and the Supreme Court" below), a Contender may be legally converted from a pistol to a rifle or reversed. Although it is technically possible to fit a pistol grip on an original Contender rifle frame, and use a pistol barrel to convert it from being a rifle to a pistol, this is not legal in the USA, being an illegal creation of a pistol from a rifle. In order to be able to go back and forth, the receiver must have been originally sold as a pistol, per

entity_name: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives

text: ATF

text: rules.

text: During the year 1997, begins the great conversion of the olive groves of Lácara Cordobilla, all integrated in the Cooperative The Lácara, beginning its transformation into ECOLOGICAL OLIVARES, olive groves which can not be cast for its treatment any product not authorized by CEPA (Comité Extremeño Ecological Agricultural Production). In this way the oil was reorganized into oil from organic farming, since being registered and endorsed by the CRAEX (Agro Ecological Control Board Extremadura) under number 0011 / E. It is the largest homogeneous area of Extremadura organic oil production.

text: On June 6, 2013, it was reported that the film would bypass a theatrical release and would instead get a VOD release at an unspecified date.

text: On June 6, 2013, it was reported that the film would bypass a theatrical release and would instead get a

text: VOD

text: release at an unspecified date.

text: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance, and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing. Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse, Younger Dryas, Dansgaard-Oeschger events, Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum. The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime. One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states.

text: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new

text: climate state

text: at a rate that is determined by the climate system

text: energy-balance

text: , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing. Past events include the end of the

text: Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse

text: Younger Dryas

text: Dansgaard-Oeschger event

text: s,

text: Heinrich event

text: s and possibly also the

text: Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum

text: . The term is also used within the context of

text: global warming

text: to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime. One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that

text: feedback loop

text: s within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states.

text: In the 1990s, a variation known as Tropical Runts was available. The pineapple and mango Runts originated in this candy.

text: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, less than 1% (among the lowest in the world) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change, and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts. The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan, the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas, threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan. In Pakistan, such effects are projected to impact millions of lives. As a result of ongoing climate change, the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades; this trend is expected to continue.

text: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, less than 1% (among the lowest in the world) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change, and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts. The effects of climate change and

text: global warming

text: on Pakistan, the melting of

text: glaciers

text: in the

text: Himalayas

text: , threatening the

text: volumetric flow rate

text: of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan. In

text: Pakistan

text: , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives. As a result of ongoing

text: climate change

text: , the

text: climate of Pakistan

text: has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades; this trend is expected to continue.

text: Existentialism and phenomenology were prime interests of his.

text: Existentialism

text: and

text: phenomenology

text: were prime interests of his.

text: The Restionaceae family has been recognized by most taxonomists. The AP-Website [May 2006] assumes 58 genera and 520 species, which agrees well with the Flora of China.

text: She was scheduled to fight Katie Klimansky-Casimir at Shootboxing 2014: Act 1 on February 23, 2014 but the fight was scrapped when the American fighter encountered immigration issues.

text: Sikh Chola is Unisex Attire. Sikh Chola may also be decorated with heavy embroidery all over it or on chest.

text: Sikh Chola is Unisex Attire. Sikh Chola may also be decorated with heavy

text: embroidery

text: all over it or on chest.

text: The Gungahlin Community Council is the peak community representative organisation for the district.Gungahlin local sport teams include the Gungahlin Eagles (rugby union), the Gungahlin Bulls (rugby league), Gungahlin United (association football) and the Gungahlin Jets (Australian rules football). All four club play matches at Gungahlin Enclosed Oval. Gungahlin is also represented in the ACT Cricket Association by the North Canberra Gungahlin Cricket Club.

text: The Gungahlin Community Council is the peak community representative organisation for the district.Gungahlin local sport teams include the

text: Gungahlin Eagles

text: rugby union

text: ), the

text: Gungahlin Bulls

text: rugby league

text: Gungahlin United

text: association football

text: ) and the

text: Gungahlin Jets

text: Australian rules football

text: ). All four club play matches at

text: Gungahlin Enclosed Oval

text: . Gungahlin is also represented in the ACT Cricket Association by the North Canberra Gungahlin Cricket Club.

text: Women have been identified by some development institutions as a key to successful development, for example through financial inclusion. One example is the Women’s Development Business (WDB) in South Africa, a Grameen Bank microfinance replicator. According to WDB, the goal is to ensure “[…] that rural women are given the tools to free themselves from the chains of poverty […]” through allocation of financial resources directly to women including enterprise development programs. The idea is to use microfinance as a market-oriented tool to ensure access to financial services for disadvantaged and low-income people and therefore fostering economic development through financial inclusion.

text: Women have been identified by some development institutions as a key to successful development, for example through financial inclusion. One example is the Women’s Development Business (WDB) in South Africa, a

text: Grameen Bank

text: microfinance replicator. According to WDB, the goal is to ensure “[…] that rural women are given the tools to free themselves from the chains of poverty […]” through allocation of financial resources directly to women including enterprise development programs. The idea is to use microfinance as a market-oriented tool to ensure access to financial services for disadvantaged and low-income people and therefore fostering economic development through

text: financial inclusion

text: 3DCRT is still used extensively for many body sites but the use of IMRT is growing in more complicated body sites such as CNS, head and neck, prostate, breast, and lung. Unfortunately, IMRT is limited by its need for additional time from experienced medical personnel. This is because physicians must manually delineate the tumors one CT image at a time through the entire disease site which can take much longer than 3DCRT preparation. Then, medical physicists and dosimetrists must be engaged to create a viable treatment plan. Also, the IMRT technology has only been used commercially since the late 1990s even at the most advanced cancer centers, so radiation oncologists who did not learn it as part of their residency programs must find additional sources of education before implementing IMRT.

text: Matthieu Dreyer (born 20 March 1989) is a French football player who currently plays as a goalkeeper for Caen.

text: Matthieu Dreyer (born 20 March 1989) is a French

text: football

text: player who currently plays as a

text: goalkeeper

text: for

text: Caen

text: The substrate material, its surface morphology and textural properties greatly affect the resulting VANTA yield.   Some examples of commonly used substrates in CVD are quartz, silicon, silicon carbide, silica, alumina, zeolite, CaCO, and magnesium oxideLi et al. have produced VANTA consisting of Y- shaped carbon nanotubes by the pyrolysis of methane over cobalt- covered magnesium oxide catalyst on branched nanochannel alumina templates.Qu et al. used a pitch-based carbon fiber as a support for the growth of VANTA using a FePc carbon source.   The resulting array propagates radially on the surface of the carbon fiber. Zhong, et al. demonstrated the direct growth of VANTAs on metallic titanium (Ti) coatings with a Fe/Ti/Fe catalyst sputtered on SiO/Si wafers. Alvarez et al. reports the ability to spin-coat an alumoxane solution as a catalyst support for VANTA growths via CVD.   After a conventional Fe catalyst was evaporated onto the spin-coated support, the resulting VANTA growth yield was similar to conventional AlO powder supports.

text: The substrate material, its surface morphology and textural properties greatly affect the resulting VANTA yield.   Some examples of commonly used substrates in CVD are

text: quartz

text: , silicon, silicon carbide, silica, alumina,

text: zeolite

text: , CaCO, and magnesium oxideLi et al. have produced VANTA consisting of Y- shaped carbon nanotubes by the pyrolysis of methane over cobalt- covered magnesium oxide catalyst on branched nanochannel alumina templates.Qu et al. used a pitch-based carbon fiber as a support for the growth of VANTA using a FePc carbon source.   The resulting array propagates radially on the surface of the carbon fiber. Zhong, et al. demonstrated the direct growth of VANTAs on metallic

text: titanium

text: (Ti) coatings with a Fe/Ti/Fe catalyst sputtered on SiO/Si wafers. Alvarez et al. reports the ability to spin-coat an alumoxane solution as a catalyst support for VANTA growths via CVD.   After a conventional Fe catalyst was evaporated onto the spin-coated support, the resulting VANTA growth yield was similar to conventional AlO powder supports.

text: The Pleistocene covers the recent period of repeated glaciations. The name Plio-Pleistocene has, in the past, been used to mean the last ice age. The revised definition of the Quaternary, by pushing back the start date of the Pleistocene to 2.58 Ma, results in the inclusion of all the recent repeated glaciations within the Pleistocene.

text: The Pleistocene covers the recent period of repeated glaciations. The name

text: Plio-Pleistocene

text: has, in the past, been used to mean the last ice age. The revised definition of the

text: Quaternary

text: , by pushing back the start date of the Pleistocene to 2.58 Ma, results in the inclusion of all the recent repeated glaciations within the Pleistocene.

text: The Anambra waxbill (Estrilda poliopareia) is a species of estrildid finch found in wetter land of southern Nigeria. It has an estimated global extent of occurrence of 38,000 km.

text: The Anambra waxbill (Estrilda poliopareia) is a species of

text: estrildid finch

text: found in wetter land of southern

text: Nigeria

text: . It has an estimated global extent of occurrence of 38,000 km.

text: There are loungers, patios, observation decks and timber walkways and the temperatures and humidity within the structure are maintained at constant levels.

text: There is also a concept of Cauchy sequence in a group

text: 10.    Sitio Proper

text: 10.    Sitio Proper

text: The November moth (Epirrita dilutata) is a moth of the family Geometridae. The species can be found in the Palearctic ecozone  in Western Europe from Central Scandinavia to the  Mediterranean the Caucasus and Western Russia.

text: The November moth (Epirrita dilutata) is a

text: moth

text: of the family

text: Geometridae

text: . The species can be found in the

text: Palearctic ecozone

text: in Western Europe from Central Scandinavia to the  Mediterranean the

text: Caucasus

text: and Western Russia.

text: Different approaches to the guest speaker segments have been used. The opening speaking session is typically presented by the convention founder, with a "state of the union" discussion about the current state of Tolkien fandom, role-playing gaming community & industry, and the RPG Research project updates. Other sessions have sometimes been in a format called "Raw Hobbit", hosted by Tolkien essayist and author Michael Martinez as an homage to William Shatner's Raw Nerve talk show. Other sessions have included the interactive "Tolkien Youth Panel", while still other sessions generally include notable guest speakers (see list) with local and online audience participation in followup Q&A. The final sessions often overlap with episodes of Middle-earth Talk Radio as a live broadcast from the third day of the event with live audience participation both locally and online.

text: Different approaches to the guest speaker segments have been used. The opening speaking session is typically presented by the convention founder, with a "state of the union" discussion about the current state of Tolkien fandom, role-playing gaming community & industry, and the RPG Research project updates. Other sessions have sometimes been in a format called "Raw Hobbit", hosted by Tolkien essayist and author

text: Michael Martinez

text: as an homage to

text: William Shatner

text: 's

text: Raw Nerve

text: talk show. Other sessions have included the interactive "Tolkien Youth Panel", while still other sessions generally include notable guest speakers (see list) with local and online audience participation in followup Q&A. The final sessions often overlap with episodes of

text: Middle-earth Talk Radio

text: as a live broadcast from the third day of the event with live audience participation both locally and online.

text: The chest X-ray may show evenly distributed, fleck-like pulmonary shadows (snow storm appearance), increased pulmonary markings and enlargement of the right side of the heart.

text: The

text: chest X-ray

text: may show evenly distributed, fleck-like pulmonary shadows (snow storm appearance), increased pulmonary markings and enlargement of the right side of the

text: heart

text: •	Information Technology and Business

text: •	Information Technology and Business

text: Van Day and Bazar then decided to perform together, and formed a new band, Dollar. The band recorded and toured from 1978 to 1983, then again from 1986 to 1988. They had several top ten hits in the UK, including "Love's Gotta Hold on Me" and "Give Me Back My Heart". He also had a brief solo career as a movie actor, appearing as a devious handyman in the 1983 horror anthology film Screamtime with Dora Bryan and Jean Anderson. After a final top ten hit "O L'amour" in 1988, Dollar split for a second time, bringing their recording career to an end. Bazar left the music industry and moved to Australia.

text: Van Day and Bazar then decided to perform together, and formed a new band,

text: Dollar

text: . The band recorded and toured from 1978 to 1983, then again from 1986 to 1988. They had several top ten hits in the UK, including "

text: Love's Gotta Hold on Me

text: " and "

text: Give Me Back My Heart

text: ". He also had a brief solo career as a movie actor, appearing as a devious handyman in the 1983

text: horror anthology film

text: Screamtime

text: with

text: Dora Bryan

text: and

text: Jean Anderson

text: . After a final top ten hit "

text: O L'amour

text: " in 1988, Dollar split for a second time, bringing their recording career to an end. Bazar left the music industry and moved to

text: Australia

text: The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the British government on 30 October 2006, by economist Nicholas Stern, chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics. The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy.

text: The

text: is a 700-page report released for the

text: British government

text: on 30 October 2006, by economist

text: Nicholas Stern

text: , chair of the

entity_name: Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment

text: Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment

text: at the

text: London School of Economics

text: . The report discusses the effect of

text: global warming

text: on the world economy.

text: On October 09, 2011, Kevin Riordan of the Inquirer writes about  Tearson's Stuff That Works CD release. He interviewed Michael at his home studio, discussing the songs that are on the CD. Michael had said "The best compliment I've gotten about my album, is that different people pick wildly different songs as their favorite."

text: Romney put pressure on Amorello to step down. Amorello announced he would do so in 2007, after Romney would have left office. Romney continued to press the legislature to give him the power to remove members from the board, specifically the chairman, pointing to a series of financial and construction mishaps over the last several years. However, the legislature instead sought to keep Amorello on board by extending the terms of various board members to prevent Romney from removing Amorello.

text: Round 3 is Kim Hyun-joong's third Korean mini-album, which was released on July 22, 2013.

text: Round 3 is

text: Kim Hyun-joong

text: 's third Korean mini-album, which was released on July 22, 2013.

text: The station has two island platforms serving four tracks, with the two inner tracks used by the Tokoname Line and the two outer ones for the Nagoya Main Line.

text: The station has two

text: island platform

text: s serving four tracks, with the two inner tracks used by the Tokoname Line and the two outer ones for the Nagoya Main Line.

text: Radio Algoa

text: Radio Algoa

text: The final decision moved Germany from first to fourth place. The French then took the team gold, followed by the British for team silver, and the Americans for team bronze. In the individual competition, Hoy dropped down out of the medals, with British rider Leslie Law winning gold, American Kimberly Severson claiming silver, and British rider Pippa Funnell as the individual bronze winner. The German clemency plea for awarding 2 gold medals for the team (and not officially counting it for the medal list) was also declined.

text: The final decision moved Germany from first to fourth place. The French then took the team gold, followed by the British for team silver, and the Americans for team bronze. In the individual competition, Hoy dropped down out of the medals, with British rider

text: Leslie Law

text: winning gold, American

text: Kimberly Severson

text: claiming silver, and British rider

text: Pippa Funnell

text: as the individual bronze winner. The German clemency plea for awarding 2 gold medals for the team (and not officially counting it for the medal list) was also declined.

text: The proposals were opposed by WA Public Health lobbyists who preferred more funding and resources for research.

text: Rising temperatures, even if slight, will have catastrophic effects. One of the first predicted impacts of climate change is the melting of the Himalayan glaciers also known as “Water Towers of Asia”. A shrinking glacier will have serious effects on the livelihood of tens of thousands of people downstream that depend on its life-giving waters. Wetlands act as sponges or carbon sinks that remove carbon from the atmosphere. Film conclude as conservation of water resources such as wetlands is an important mitigation strategy against climate change and all nations across the globe will have to if they hope to meet the almost reduce their carbon emissions unthinkable challenges of a world short of water.

text: Kulongski announced May 8, 2007 that Oregon will join the Climate Registry to track dangerous greenhouse gas emissions.

text: Kulongski announced May 8, 2007 that Oregon will join the Climate Registry to track dangerous

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions.

text: However, as better data and models were created, Teller, in his later years, would come to deride much of what he saw as increasingly common exaggerations and general doomsdayism on the matter of climate change. Thus, he became one of the most prestigious signers of the Oregon Petition. The petition, drafted in 1998, states, in part: "There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide, methane, or other greenhouse gases is causing or will, in the foreseeable future, cause catastrophic heating of the Earth's atmosphere and disruption of the Earth's climate" [emphasis added].

text: However, as better data and models were created, Teller, in his later years, would come to deride much of what he saw as increasingly common exaggerations and general doomsdayism on the matter of climate change. Thus, he became one of the most prestigious signers of the

text: Oregon Petition

text: . The petition, drafted in 1998, states, in part: "There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide, methane, or other greenhouse gases is causing or will, in the foreseeable future, cause catastrophic heating of the Earth's atmosphere and disruption of the Earth's climate" [emphasis added].

text: In 2016, continuation of long term warming trends and sea ice loss are triggering extensive Arctic Changes.  Key highlights are featured on the Home Page, which includes a YouTube video that summarizes the Report Card.

text: The Mann, Bradley and Hughes reconstruction covering 1,000 years (MBH99) was submitted in October 1998 to Geophysical Research Letters which published it in March 1999 with the cautious title Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: inferences, uncertainties, and limitations to emphasise the increasing uncertainty involved in reconstructions of the period before 1400 when fewer proxies were available. A University of Massachusetts Amherst news release dated 3 March 1999 announced publication in the 15 March issue of Geophysical Research Letters, "strongly suggesting that the 1990s were the warmest decade of the millennium, with 1998 the warmest year so far." Bradley was quoted as saying "Temperatures in the latter half of the 20th century were unprecedented", while Mann said "As you go back farther in time, the data becomes sketchier. One can’t quite pin things down as well, but, our results do reveal that significant changes have occurred, and temperatures in the latter 20th century have been exceptionally warm compared to the preceding 900 years. Though substantial uncertainties exist in the estimates, these are nonetheless startling revelations." While the reconstruction supported theories of a relatively warm medieval period, Hughes said "even the warmer intervals in the reconstruction pale in comparison with mid-to-late 20th-century temperatures." The New York Times report had a colored version of the graph, distinguishing the instrumental record from the proxy evidence and emphasising the increasing range of possible error in earlier times, which MBH said would "preclude, as yet, any definitive conclusions" about climate before 1400.

text: The Mann, Bradley and Hughes reconstruction covering 1,000 years (MBH99) was submitted in October 1998 to

text: Geophysical Research Letters

text: which published it in March 1999 with the cautious title Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: inferences, uncertainties, and limitations to emphasise the increasing uncertainty involved in reconstructions of the period before 1400 when fewer proxies were available. A

text: University of Massachusetts Amherst

text: news release dated 3 March 1999 announced publication in the 15 March issue of Geophysical Research Letters, "strongly suggesting that the 1990s were the warmest decade of the millennium, with 1998 the warmest year so far." Bradley was quoted as saying "Temperatures in the latter half of the 20th century were unprecedented", while Mann said "As you go back farther in time, the data becomes sketchier. One can’t quite pin things down as well, but, our results do reveal that significant changes have occurred, and temperatures in the latter 20th century have been exceptionally warm compared to the preceding 900 years. Though substantial uncertainties exist in the estimates, these are nonetheless startling revelations." While the reconstruction supported theories of a relatively warm medieval period, Hughes said "even the warmer intervals in the reconstruction pale in comparison with mid-to-late 20th-century temperatures." The

text: New York Times

text: report had a colored version of the graph, distinguishing the instrumental record from the proxy evidence and emphasising the increasing range of possible error in earlier times, which MBH said would "preclude, as yet, any definitive conclusions" about climate before 1400.

text: In The New American, contributor William F. Jasper criticised the book's authors' characterization of those who engage in climate change denial as character assassination. He wrote that the labels "deniers" and "denialists" were non-constructive and cruel. Jasper disputed the book's thesis that individuals who disagreed with anthropogenic global warming were organised and financed by the fossil fuel industry.

text: In The New American, contributor William F. Jasper criticised the book's authors' characterization of those who engage in climate change denial as character assassination. He wrote that the labels "deniers" and "denialists" were non-constructive and cruel. Jasper disputed the book's thesis that individuals who disagreed with

text: anthropogenic global warming

text: were organised and financed by the fossil fuel industry.

text: Unfortunately, President Truman's initial reaction to the WSB's recommendations was also negative.  Based solely on press reports of the WSB report, Truman—vacationing in Key West, Florida—declared the recommendations to be economically destabilizing.

text: Unfortunately, President Truman's initial reaction to the WSB's recommendations was also negative.  Based solely on press reports of the WSB report, Truman—vacationing in

text: Key West, Florida

text: —declared the recommendations to be economically destabilizing.

text: Among the groups urging the University of Virginia to resist producing the data were: a letter published in Science signed by 255 members of the United States National Academy of Sciences, the American Civil Liberties Union and the AAUP.  Also in May 2010, the University of Virginia Faculty Senate Executive Council wrote a letter strongly rebuking Cuccinelli for his civil investigative demand of the Mann records, stating that "[Cuccinelli's] action and the potential threat of legal prosecution of scientific endeavor that has satisfied peer-review standards send a chilling message to scientists engaged in basic research involving Earth’s climate and indeed to scholars in any discipline."In 2011 in response to the escalating attacks from the Virginia AG's office, the Union of Concerned Scientists published a defense of scientific integrity and "Timeline: Legal Harassment of Climate Scientist Michael Mann".

text: Among the groups urging the University of Virginia to resist producing the data were: a letter published in

text: Science

text: signed by 255 members of the

text: United States National Academy of Sciences

text: , the

text: American Civil Liberties Union

text: and the AAUP.  Also in May 2010, the University of Virginia Faculty Senate Executive Council wrote a letter strongly rebuking Cuccinelli for his civil investigative demand of the Mann records, stating that "[Cuccinelli's] action and the potential threat of legal prosecution of scientific endeavor that has satisfied peer-review standards send a chilling message to scientists engaged in basic research involving Earth’s climate and indeed to scholars in any discipline."In 2011 in response to the escalating attacks from the Virginia AG's office, the

text: Union of Concerned Scientists

text: published a defense of scientific integrity and "Timeline: Legal Harassment of Climate Scientist Michael Mann".

text: Some climatological high-pressure areas acquire regionally based names. The land-based Siberian High often remains quasi-stationary for more than a month during the most frigid time of the year, making it unique in that regard.  It is also a bit larger and more persistent than its counterpart in North America.  Surface winds accelerating down valleys down the western Pacific ocean coastline, causing the winter monsoon.  Arctic high-pressure systems such as the Siberian High are cold core, meaning that they weaken with height.  The influence of the Azores High, also known as the Bermuda High, brings fair weather over much of the North Atlantic Ocean and mid to late summer heat waves in western Europe.  Along its southerly periphery, the clockwise circulation often impels easterly waves, and tropical cyclones that develop from them, across the ocean towards landmasses in the western portion of ocean basins during the hurricane season. The highest barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth was  measured in Tonsontsengel, Mongolia on 19 December 2001.

text: Some climatological high-pressure areas acquire regionally based names. The land-based

text: Siberian High

text: often remains quasi-stationary for more than a month during the most frigid time of the year, making it unique in that regard.  It is also a bit larger and more persistent than its counterpart in

text: North America

text: .  Surface winds accelerating down valleys down the western

text: Pacific ocean

text: coastline, causing the winter monsoon.  Arctic high-pressure systems such as the Siberian High are cold core, meaning that they weaken with height.  The influence of the

text: Azores High

text: , also known as the Bermuda High, brings fair weather over much of the North

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: and mid to late summer

text: heat wave

text: s in western

text: Europe

text: .  Along its southerly periphery, the clockwise circulation often impels

text: easterly wave

text: s, and tropical cyclones that develop from them, across the ocean towards landmasses in the western portion of ocean basins during the

text: hurricane season

text: . The highest barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth was  measured in

text: Tonsontsengel, Mongolia

text: on 19 December 2001.

text: With the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, 1992 saw a cooling in the global temperatures. There was speculation that this would cause the next couple years to be cooler because of the large serial correlation in the global temperatures. Bassett and Lin found the statistical odds of a new temperature record to be small. Hansen countered by saying that having insider information shifts the odds to those who know the physics of the climate system, and that whether there is a new temperature record depends upon the particular data set used.

text: With the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, 1992 saw a cooling in the global temperatures. There was speculation that this would cause the next couple years to be cooler because of the large

text: serial correlation

text: in the global temperatures. Bassett and Lin found the statistical odds of a new temperature record to be small. Hansen countered by saying that having insider information shifts the odds to those who know the physics of the climate system, and that whether there is a new temperature record depends upon the particular data set used.

text: The full impact of global warming is forecast to happen in the future, but climate scientists have cited season creep as an easily observable effect of climate change that has already occurred and continues to occur.A large systematic phenological examination of data on 542 plant species in 21 European countries from 1971–2000 showed that 78% of all leafing, flowering, and fruiting records advanced while only 3% were significantly delayed, and these observations were consistent with measurements of observed warming.Similar changes in the phenology of plants and animals are occurring across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial groups studied, and these changes are also consistent with the expected impact of global warming.

text: The full

text: impact of global warming

text: is forecast to happen in the future, but climate scientists have cited season creep as an easily observable effect of

text: climate change

text: that has already occurred and continues to occur.A large systematic phenological examination of data on 542 plant species in 21 European countries from 1971–2000 showed that 78% of all leafing, flowering, and fruiting records advanced while only 3% were significantly delayed, and these observations were consistent with measurements of observed warming.Similar changes in the phenology of plants and animals are occurring across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial groups studied, and these changes are also consistent with the expected impact of global warming.

text: The proposed plan of artificially increasing the height of Tahkovuori has raised much debate in Finland.

text: According to a report released by Greenpeace USA in September 2013, climate change denial and the campaigns designed to block adaptation measures grew mainly out of the 1990s negotiations slated to develop a global agreement.  During these talks, a number of lobby groups were established with an objective of developing doubt within policymakers and the media through the use of publications in the guise of true science.  This tactic, similar to those of large tobacco companies, was utilized by the lobby groups in the hopes of delaying action and blurring the lines between the valid scientific efforts to challenge climate change findings and those designed to merely undermine the credibility of the scientific community.  This strategy feeds into the “uncertainty argument” and develops an impression of debate through references to the uncertainty of scientific findings that exist in any research model.  Additional tactics that the lobbyist groups have used include releasing non-stories manufactured from stolen emails and communications plans to develop more media coverage of the uncertainty argument.

text: According to a

text: report

text: released by Greenpeace USA in September 2013, climate change denial and the campaigns designed to block adaptation measures grew mainly out of the 1990s negotiations slated to develop a global agreement.  During these talks, a number of lobby groups were established with an objective of developing doubt within policymakers and the media through the use of publications in the guise of true science.  This tactic, similar to those of large tobacco companies, was utilized by the lobby groups in the hopes of delaying action and blurring the lines between the valid scientific efforts to challenge climate change findings and those designed to merely undermine the credibility of the scientific community.  This strategy feeds into the “uncertainty argument” and develops an impression of debate through references to the uncertainty of scientific findings that exist in any research model.  Additional tactics that the lobbyist groups have used include releasing non-stories manufactured from stolen emails and communications plans to develop more media coverage of the uncertainty argument.

text: The region is named after the nearby inland sea, Hudson Bay, the second largest in the world. The entire area drains into the bay through rivers such as the Churchill, Severn, and Attawapiskat. The region is located in the extreme north of Ontario, extending into both Manitoba to the west and Quebec in the east, and covers around 25 percent of Ontario's total land area (approximately 227,400 km). The area was covered in ice during the last ice age, and then flooded as the ice receded, leaving behind plains that are slowly rising out of the ocean due to post-glacial rebound. Peatlands, both bogs and fens now cover much of the landscape, with other kinds of wetlands along rivers and the coast. The climate of the region depends largely on the water surface of the bay, which heats rapidly in the summer, breaking ice and bringing rains to the lowlands. In the winter the bay freezes over again, bringing freezing temperatures and winds. The vegetation is mostly conifer forest and peatland, with typical sub arctic and boreal plants.

text: The region is named after the nearby

text: inland sea

text: , Hudson Bay, the second largest in the world. The entire area drains into the bay through rivers such as the Churchill, Severn, and Attawapiskat. The region is located in the extreme north of Ontario, extending into both Manitoba to the west and Quebec in the east, and covers around 25 percent of Ontario's total land area (approximately 227,400 km). The area was covered in ice during the last ice age, and then flooded as the ice receded, leaving behind plains that are slowly rising out of the ocean due to post-glacial rebound. Peatlands, both bogs and fens now cover much of the landscape, with other kinds of wetlands along rivers and the coast. The climate of the region depends largely on the water surface of the bay, which heats rapidly in the summer, breaking ice and bringing rains to the lowlands. In the winter the bay freezes over again, bringing freezing temperatures and winds. The vegetation is mostly

text: conifer forest

text: and peatland, with typical sub arctic and boreal plants.

text: In 1965 Hubert Lamb, a pioneer of historical climatology, generalised from temperature records of central England by using historical, botanical and archeological evidence to popularise the idea of a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300, followed by a cold epoch culminating between 1550 and 1700.In 1972 he became the founding director of the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) in the University of East Anglia (UEA), which aimed to improve knowledge of climate history in both the recent and far distant past, monitor current changes in global climate, identify processes causing changes at different timescales, and review the possibility of advising about future trends in climate.During the cold years of the 1960s, Lamb had anticipated that natural cycles were likely to lead over thousands of years to a future ice age, but after 1976 he supported the emerging view that greenhouse gas emissions caused by humanity would cause detectable global warming "by about A.D. 2000".

text: In 1965

text: Hubert Lamb

text: , a pioneer of

text: historical climatology

text: , generalised from temperature records of central England by using historical, botanical and archeological evidence to popularise the idea of a

text: Medieval Warm Period

text: from around 900 to 1300, followed by a cold epoch culminating between 1550 and 1700.In 1972 he became the founding director of the

text: Climatic Research Unit

text: (CRU) in the

text: University of East Anglia

text: (UEA), which aimed to improve knowledge of climate history in both the recent and far distant past, monitor current changes in global climate, identify processes causing changes at different timescales, and review the possibility of advising about future trends in climate.During the cold years of the 1960s, Lamb had anticipated that natural cycles were likely to lead over thousands of years to a future ice age, but after 1976 he supported the emerging view that greenhouse gas emissions caused by humanity would cause detectable

text: global warming

text: "by about A.D. 2000".