text: Following her residency in pediatrics and a fellowship in pediatric infectious disease at Johns Hopkins, O'Brien joined the bacterial Respiratory Diseases Branch at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as an Epidemic Intelligence Officer.  She returned to Johns Hopkins in 1998 to join the Center for American Indian Health where she leads the Center’s Infectious Disease group conducting clinical trials of vaccines for diseases of importance to American Indian tribes; she also serves as the Deputy Director of Research for PneumoADIP which aims to accelerate the development and introduction of pneumococcal vaccines for children globally.  She has also worked on rotavirus disease, conducting a large phase III trial of rotavirus vaccine among American Indian children.  Most recently she has completed a 6-year trial of a monoclonal antibody, motavizumab, against RSV lower and upper respiratory infections among otherwise healthy American Indian infants who are known to be a significantly increased risk of RSV hospitalization than children in the general US population.  During the PneumoADIP from 2004 to 2009, she focused on strategic issues of the pneumococcal research agenda and providing leadership to special studies such as the Pneumococcal Global Serotype Project (GSP) and the Hib and Pneumococcal Global Disease Burden Project (Hib/SP GDB). The GSP elucidates the role that different serotypes of S.pneumoniae play in causing pneumococcal disease in different regions around the world.  This research is critical to understanding pneumococcal vaccine needs and potential efficacy in different regions.  The Hib/SP GDP established far more reliable estimates of the burden of disease of both S.pneumoniae and H.influenzae on a country level globally.  This research is essential to understanding the scope of these diseases which are the leading causes of pneumonia, an illness that kills approximately 2 million children under five each and every year. Since 2009, she has served as the Deputy Director of IVAC, providing strategic direction and a leading role in projects such as the PERCH study which aims to establish pneumonia etiology among children less than 5 years of age in seven countries around the world, the PCV Dosing Landscape Project which aims to evaluate the relative impact of various PCV dosing regimens on disease, immunogenicity and colonization and to thereby provide guidance to WHO for vaccine schedule decisions, and the PCV Serotype Replacement Project aiming to more fully understand the evidence on serotype replacement following PCV implementation.

text: Following her residency in pediatrics and a fellowship in pediatric infectious disease at Johns Hopkins, O'Brien joined the bacterial Respiratory Diseases Branch at the

entity_name: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: as an Epidemic Intelligence Officer.  She returned to Johns Hopkins in 1998 to join the Center for American Indian Health where she leads the Center’s Infectious Disease group conducting clinical trials of vaccines for diseases of importance to American Indian tribes; she also serves as the Deputy Director of Research for PneumoADIP which aims to accelerate the development and introduction of pneumococcal vaccines for children globally.  She has also worked on

entity_name: Rotavirus

text: rotavirus

method: UNH-qee

text: Kalhan is board certified in internal medicine, pulmonary disease and critical care medicine. He is a member of the American Thoracic Society's clinical problems assembly program committee, and previously served on the society's publications policy committee. He is a fellow of the American College of Chest Physicians. He also serves on the scientific program committee of Chicago Respiratory Society.

text: Kalhan is board certified in

entity_name: Internal medicine

text: internal medicine

text: , pulmonary disease and critical care medicine. He is a member of the

entity_name: American Thoracic Society

text: American Thoracic Society

text: 's clinical problems assembly program committee, and previously served on the society's publications policy committee. He is a fellow of the

entity_name: American College of Chest Physicians

text: American College of Chest Physicians

text: . He also serves on the scientific program committee of Chicago Respiratory Society.

text: Immunopathology is a branch of clinical pathology that deals with an organism’s immune response to a certain disease. When a foreign antigen enters the body, there is either an antigen specific or nonspecific response to it. These responses are the immune system fighting off the foreign antigens, whether they are deadly or not. Immunopathology could refer to how the foreign antigens cause the immune system to have a response or problems that can arise from an organism’s own immune response on itself. There are certain problems or faults in the immune system that can lead to more serious illness or disease. These diseases can come from one of the following problems. The first would be Hypersensitivity reactions, where there would be a stronger immune response than normal. There are four different types (type one, two, three and four), all with varying types and degrees of an immune response. The problems that arise from each type vary from small allergic reactions to more serious illnesses such as tuberculosis or arthritis. The second kind of complication in the immune system is Autoimmunity, where the immune system would attack itself rather than the antigen. Inflammation is a prime example of autoimmunity, as the immune cells used are self-reactive. A few examples of autoimmune diseases are Type 1 diabetes, Addison’s disease and Celiac disease. The third and final type of complication with the immune system is Immunodeficiency, where the immune system lacks the ability to fight off a certain disease. The immune system’s ability to combat it is either hindered or completely absent. The two types are Primary Immunodeficiency, where the immune system is either missing a key component or does not function properly, and Secondary Immunodeficiency, where disease is obtained from an outside source, like radiation or heat, and therefore cannot function properly. Diseases that can cause immunodeficiency include HIV, AIDS and leukemia. In all vertebrates, there are two different kinds of immune responses: Innate and Adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is used to fight off non-changing antigens and is therefore considered nonspecific. It is usually a more immediate response than the adaptive immune system, usually responding within minutes to hours. It is composed of physical blockades such as the skin, but also contains nonspecific immune cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, T Cells, and basophils. The second for of immunity is Adaptive immunity. This form of immunity requires recognition of the foreign antigen before a response is produced. Once the antigen is recognized, a specific response is produced in order to destroy the specific antigen. Because of this idea, adaptive immunity is considered to be specific immunity. A key part of adaptive immunity that separates it from innate is the use of memory to combat the antigen in the future. When the antigen is originally introduced, the organism does not have any receptors for the antigen so it must generate them from the first time the antigen is present. The immune system then builds a memory of that antigen, which enables it to recognize the antigen quicker in the future and be able to combat it quicker and more efficiently. The more the system is exposed to the antigen, the quicker it will build up its responsiveness.

text: Aspergillosis is the name given to a wide variety of diseases caused by infection by fungi of the genus Aspergillus. The majority of cases occur in people with underlying illnesses such as tuberculosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), but with otherwise healthy immune systems. Most commonly, aspergillosis occurs in the form of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA), aspergilloma or allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA). Some forms are intertwined; for example ABPA and simple aspergilloma can progress to CPA.

text: Aspergillosis is the name given to a wide variety of diseases caused by infection by

entity_name: Fungus

text: fungi

text: of the genus

entity_name: Aspergillus

text: Aspergillus

text: . The majority of cases occur in people with underlying illnesses such as

entity_name: Tuberculosis

text: tuberculosis

text: or

entity_name: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD), but with otherwise healthy

entity_name: Immune system

text: immune system

text: s. Most commonly, aspergillosis occurs in the form of

entity_name: Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis

text: chronic pulmonary aspergillosis

text: (CPA),

entity_name: Aspergilloma

text: aspergilloma

text: or

entity_name: Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis

text: allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis

text: (ABPA). Some forms are intertwined; for example ABPA and simple aspergilloma can progress to CPA.

method: UNH-ecn

text: In people with unexplained cough, gastroesophageal reflux disease should be considered. This occurs when acidic contents of the stomach come back up into the esophagus. Symptoms usually associated with GERD include heartburn, sour taste in the mouth, or a feeling of acid reflux in the chest, although, more than half of the people with cough from GERD don’t have any other symptoms. An esophageal pH monitor can confirm the diagnosis of GERD. Sometimes GERD can complicate respiratory ailments related to cough, such as asthma or bronchitis. The treatment involves anti-acid medications and lifestyle changes with surgery indicated in cases not manageable with conservative measures.

text: In people with unexplained cough,

entity_name: Gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: should be considered. This occurs when acidic contents of the stomach come back up into the esophagus. Symptoms usually associated with

text: GERD

text: include heartburn, sour taste in the mouth, or a feeling of acid reflux in the chest, although, more than half of the people with cough from GERD don’t have any other symptoms. An esophageal pH monitor can confirm the diagnosis of GERD. Sometimes GERD can complicate respiratory ailments related to cough, such as asthma or bronchitis. The treatment involves anti-acid medications and lifestyle changes with surgery indicated in cases not manageable with conservative measures.

text: The organization was founded in 1904 to fight tuberculosis as the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis by Edward Livingston Trudeau, Robert Hall Babcock, Henry Martyn Hall, Lawrence Flick, and S. Adolphus Knopf. Earlier in 1892, Flick had founded the Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Tuberculosis, the world's first society dedicated to the prevention of TB. The NASPT was Renamed the National Tuberculosis Association (NTA) in 1918, and then the National Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association (NTRDA) in 1968; it adopted its current name in 1973.

text: The organization was founded in 1904 to fight

text: tuberculosis

text: as the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis by

entity_name: Edward Livingston Trudeau

text: Edward Livingston Trudeau

text: , Robert Hall Babcock, Henry Martyn Hall,

entity_name: Lawrence Flick

text: Lawrence Flick

text: , and

entity_name: Sigard Adolphus Knopf

text: S. Adolphus Knopf

text: . Earlier in 1892, Flick had founded the Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Tuberculosis, the world's first society dedicated to the prevention of TB. The NASPT was Renamed the National Tuberculosis Association (NTA) in 1918, and then the National Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association (NTRDA) in 1968; it adopted its current name in 1973.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Mammalian orthoreovirus does not really cause a significant disease in humans. Even though the virus is fairly common, the infection produced is either asymptomatic or causes a mild disease which is self-limiting in the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory region for children and infants. Symptoms are similar to what a person might have when they have the common cold, such as a low-grade fever and pharyngitits. However, in other animals such as baboons and reptiles, other known orthoreoviruses fusogenic strains can cause more serious illness. In baboons it can cause neurological illness while in reptiles it can be the cause of pneumonia. In birds this virus may even cause death.

text: Mammalian orthoreovirus does not really cause a significant disease in humans. Even though the virus is fairly common, the infection produced is either

entity_name: Asymptomatic

text: asymptomatic

text: or causes a mild disease which is self-limiting in the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory region for children and infants. Symptoms are similar to what a person might have when they have the common cold, such as a low-grade fever and pharyngitits. However, in other animals such as baboons and reptiles, other known orthoreoviruses fusogenic strains can cause more serious illness. In baboons it can cause neurological illness while in reptiles it can be the cause of pneumonia. In birds this virus may even cause death.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: The word "emphysema" is derived from the Greek ἐμφυσᾶν emphysan meaning "inflate" -itself composed of ἐν en, meaning "in", and φυσᾶν physan, meaning "breath, blast. The term chronic bronchitis came into use in 1808 while the term COPD is believed to have first been used in 1965. Previously it has been known by a number of different names, including chronic obstructive bronchopulmonary disease, chronic obstructive respiratory disease, chronic airflow obstruction, chronic airflow limitation, chronic obstructive lung disease, nonspecific chronic pulmonary disease, and diffuse obstructive pulmonary syndrome. The terms chronic bronchitis and emphysema were formally defined in 1959 at the CIBA guest symposium and in 1962 at the American Thoracic Society Committee meeting on Diagnostic Standards.

text: The word "emphysema" is derived from the

entity_name: Greek language

text: Greek

text: ἐμφυσᾶν emphysan meaning "inflate" -itself composed of ἐν en, meaning "in", and φυσᾶν physan, meaning "breath, blast. The term chronic bronchitis came into use in 1808 while the term COPD is believed to have first been used in 1965. Previously it has been known by a number of different names, including chronic obstructive bronchopulmonary disease, chronic obstructive respiratory disease, chronic airflow obstruction, chronic airflow limitation, chronic obstructive lung disease, nonspecific chronic pulmonary disease, and diffuse obstructive pulmonary syndrome. The terms chronic bronchitis and emphysema were formally defined in 1959 at the

entity_name: Novartis

text: CIBA

text: guest symposium and in 1962 at the

text: American Thoracic Society

text: Committee meeting on Diagnostic Standards.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: Asbestos can cause lung cancer that is identical to lung cancer from other causes. Exposure to asbestos is associated with all major histological types of lung carcinoma  (adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, large-cell carcinoma and small-cell carcinoma). The latency period between exposure and development of lung cancer is 20 to 30 years. It is estimated that 3%-8% of all lung cancers are related to asbestos. The risk of developing lung cancer depends on the level, duration, and frequency of asbestos exposure (cumulative exposure). Smoking and individual susceptibility are other contributing factors towards lung cancer. Smokers who have been exposed to asbestos are at far greater risk of lung cancer. Smoking and asbestos exposure have a multiplicative (synergistic) effect on the risk of lung cancer. Symptoms include chronic cough, chest pain, breathlessness, haemoptysis (coughing up blood), wheezing or hoarseness of the voice, weight loss and fatigue. Treatment involves surgical removal of the cancer, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or a combination of these (multimodality treatment). Prognosis is generally poor unless the cancer is detected in its early stages. Out of all patients diagnosed with lung cancer, only 15% survive for five years after diagnosis.

text: Asbestos can cause

entity_name: Lung cancer

text: lung cancer

text: that is identical to lung cancer from other causes. Exposure to asbestos is associated with all major histological types of lung carcinoma  (

entity_name: Adenocarcinoma

text: adenocarcinoma

entity_name: Squamous cell carcinoma

text: squamous cell carcinoma

entity_name: Large-cell lung carcinoma

text: large-cell carcinoma

text: and

entity_name: Small-cell carcinoma

text: small-cell carcinoma

text: ). The latency period between exposure and development of lung cancer is 20 to 30 years. It is estimated that 3%-8% of all lung cancers are related to asbestos. The risk of developing lung cancer depends on the level, duration, and frequency of asbestos exposure (cumulative exposure). Smoking and individual susceptibility are other contributing factors towards lung cancer. Smokers who have been exposed to asbestos are at far greater risk of lung cancer. Smoking and asbestos exposure have a multiplicative (

entity_name: Synergy

text: synergistic

text: ) effect on the risk of lung cancer. Symptoms include chronic cough, chest pain, breathlessness,

entity_name: Hemoptysis

text: haemoptysis

text: (coughing up blood), wheezing or hoarseness of the voice, weight loss and fatigue. Treatment involves surgical removal of the cancer, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or a combination of these (multimodality treatment). Prognosis is generally poor unless the cancer is detected in its early stages. Out of all patients diagnosed with lung cancer, only 15% survive for five years after diagnosis.

text: Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV)  is a coronavirus which infects chickens, causing the associated disease, infectious bronchitis (IB). It is a highly infectious avian pathogen which affects the respiratory tract, gut, kidney and reproductive systems of chickens.

text: Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV)  is a

entity_name: Coronavirus

text: coronavirus

text: which infects

entity_name: Chicken

text: chicken

text: s, causing the associated disease,

entity_name: Avian infectious bronchitis

text: infectious bronchitis

text: (IB). It is a highly infectious avian pathogen which affects the

entity_name: Respiratory tract

text: respiratory tract

entity_name: Gastrointestinal tract

text: gut

entity_name: Kidney

text: kidney

text: and

entity_name: Reproductive system

text: reproductive system

text: s of

text: chicken

text: s.

text: Radon has a short half-life (3.8 days) and decays into other solid particulate radium-series radioactive nuclides.Two of these decay products, polonium-218 and 214, present a significant radiologic hazard.If the gas is inhaled, the radon atoms decay in the airways or the lungs, resulting in radioactive polonium and ultimately lead atoms attaching to the nearest tissue. If dust or aerosol is inhaled that already carries radon decay products, the deposition pattern of the decay products in the respiratory tract depends on the behaviour of the particles in the lungs. Smaller diameter particles diffuse further into the respiratory system, whereas the larger — tens to hundreds of micron-sized — particles often deposit higher in the airways and are cleared by the body's mucociliary staircase. Deposited radioactive atoms or dust or aerosol particles continue to decay, causing continued exposure by emitting energetic alpha radiation with some associated gamma radiation too, that can damage vital molecules in lung cells,by either creating free radicals or causing DNA breaks or damage,perhaps causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous. In addition, through ingestion and blood transport, following crossing of the lung membrane by radon, radioactive progeny may also be transported to other parts of the body.

text: Radon has a short half-life (3.8 days) and decays into other solid particulate

entity_name: Decay chain

entity_section: Radium series

text: radium-series

text: radioactive nuclides.Two of these decay products, polonium-218 and 214, present a significant radiologic hazard.If the gas is inhaled, the radon atoms decay in the airways or the lungs, resulting in radioactive polonium and ultimately lead atoms attaching to the nearest tissue. If dust or aerosol is inhaled that already carries radon decay products, the deposition pattern of the decay products in the respiratory tract depends on the behaviour of the particles in the lungs. Smaller diameter particles diffuse further into the respiratory system, whereas the larger — tens to hundreds of micron-sized — particles often deposit higher in the airways and are cleared by the body's mucociliary staircase. Deposited radioactive atoms or dust or aerosol particles continue to decay, causing continued exposure by emitting energetic

entity_name: Alpha decay

text: alpha radiation

text: with some associated gamma radiation too, that can damage vital molecules in lung cells,by either creating

entity_name: Radical (chemistry)

text: free radical

text: s or causing

entity_name: DNA

text: DNA

text: breaks or damage,perhaps causing mutations that sometimes turn cancerous. In addition, through ingestion and blood transport, following crossing of the lung membrane by radon, radioactive progeny may also be transported to other parts of the body.

text: Richard Morton (1637–1698) was an English physician who was the first to state that tubercles were always present in the tuberculosis disease of the lungs. In Morton's time, this wasting disease was termed consumption, or by its Greek name of phthisis.  Recognition of the many possible symptoms of this infection belonging to a single disease was not until the 1820s and it was J.L. Schönlein in 1839 who introduced the term "tuberculosis".

text: Richard Morton (1637–1698) was an English physician who was the first to state that

entity_name: Tubercle

text: tubercles

text: were always present in the

text: tuberculosis

text: disease of the lungs. In Morton's time, this wasting disease was termed consumption, or by its Greek name of phthisis.  Recognition of the many possible symptoms of this infection belonging to a single disease was not until the 1820s and it was

entity_name: Johann Lukas Schönlein

text: J.L. Schönlein

text: in 1839 who introduced the term "tuberculosis".

text: It is used in ointments, plasters, herbal steam bath, inhalations. Young fertilized branches are used as all-purpose healing, anthelmintic, diuretic treatment; baths with infusions were used against neuralgia, arthritis, rheumatism, lumbago, gout, skin diseases. Young fertilized branches and needles in the form of tea were taken as an anti-scorbutic, expectorant and disinfecting treatment;  inhalations were used to treat respiratory and pulmonary diseases.

text: The prognosis of dysautonomia depends on several factors, individuals with chronic, progressive, generalized dysautonomia in the setting of central nervous system degeneration such as Parkinson's disease or multiple system atrophy have a generally poorer long-term prognosis. Consequently, dysautonomia could be fatal due to pneumonia, acute respiratory failure, or sudden cardiopulmonary arrest.

text: The prognosis of dysautonomia depends on several factors, individuals with chronic, progressive, generalized dysautonomia in the setting of central nervous system degeneration such as Parkinson's disease or multiple system atrophy have a generally poorer long-term prognosis. Consequently, dysautonomia could be fatal due to

entity_name: Pneumonia

text: pneumonia

entity_name: Respiratory failure

text: acute respiratory failure

text: , or sudden

entity_name: Cardiac arrest

text: cardiopulmonary arrest

text: Since 1994, in Europe, it was allowed to treat cattle by prescription only. In 1999, swine were included. By 2005, horses were allowed as well. In the United States, approval is pending for treatment of bovine respiratory disease. Even so, this is only available by prescription.

text: Type 1 respiratory failure is defined as a low level of oxygen in the blood (hypoxemia) without an increased level of carbon dioxide in the blood (hypercapnia), and indeed the PCO may be normal or low. It is typically caused by a ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) mismatch; the volume of air flowing in and out of the lungs is not matched with the flow of blood to the lungs. The basic defect in type 1 respiratory failure is failure of oxygenation characterized by:

text: Type 1 respiratory failure is defined as a

entity_name: Hypoxemia

text: low level of oxygen in the blood (hypoxemia)

text: without an increased level of

entity_name: Hypercapnia

text: carbon dioxide in the blood (hypercapnia)

text: , and indeed the PCO may be normal or low. It is typically caused by a ventilation/perfusion (

entity_name: Ventilation/perfusion ratio

text: V/Q

text: ) mismatch; the volume of air flowing in and out of the lungs is not matched with the flow of blood to the lungs. The basic defect in type 1 respiratory failure is failure of oxygenation characterized by:

text: The main consequence of impaired ciliary function is reduced or absent mucus clearance from the lungs, and susceptibility to chronic recurrent respiratory infections, including sinusitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, and otitis media.  Progressive damage to the respiratory system is common, including progressive bronchiectasis beginning in early childhood, and sinus disease (sometimes becoming severe in adults).  However, diagnosis is often missed early in life despite the characteristic signs and symptoms. In males, immotility of sperm can lead to infertility, although conception remains possible through the use of in vitro fertilization and, as well as this, there have been reported cases where sperm were able to move. Trials have also shown that there is a marked reduction in fertility in female sufferers of Kartagener's Syndrome due to dysfunction of the oviductal cilia.

text: The main consequence of impaired ciliary function is reduced or absent

entity_name: Mucus

text: mucus

text: clearance from the

entity_name: Lung

text: lung

text: s, and susceptibility to chronic recurrent respiratory infections, including

entity_name: Sinusitis

text: sinusitis

entity_name: Bronchitis

text: bronchitis

text: pneumonia

text: , and

entity_name: Otitis media

text: otitis media

text: .  Progressive damage to the respiratory system is common, including progressive bronchiectasis beginning in early childhood, and sinus disease (sometimes becoming severe in adults).  However, diagnosis is often missed early in life despite the characteristic signs and symptoms. In males, immotility of sperm can lead to

entity_name: Infertility

text: infertility

text: , although conception remains possible through the use of

entity_name: In vitro fertilisation

text: in vitro fertilization

text: and, as well as this, there have been reported cases where sperm were able to move. Trials have also shown that there is a marked reduction in fertility in female sufferers of Kartagener's Syndrome due to dysfunction of the oviductal cilia.

text: The incidence of tuberculosis grew progressively during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, displacing leprosy, peaking between the 18th and 19th century as field workers moved to the cities looking for work. When he released his study in 1808, William Woolcombe was astonished at the prevalence of tuberculosis in 18th century England. Of the 1,571 deaths in the English city of Bristol between 1790 and 1796, 683 were due to tuberculosis. Remote towns, initially isolated from the disease, slowly succumbed. The consumption deaths in the village of Holycross in Shropshire between 1750 and 1759 were one in six (1:6); ten years later, 1:3. In the metropolis of London, 1:7 died from consumption at the dawn of the 18th century, by 1750 that proportion grew to 1:5.25 and surged to 1:4.2 by around the start of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution coupled with poverty and squalor created the optimal environment for the propagation of the disease.

text: The incidence of tuberculosis grew progressively during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, displacing

entity_name: Leprosy

text: leprosy

text: , peaking between the 18th and 19th century as field workers moved to the cities looking for work. When he released his study in 1808,

text: William Woolcombe

text: was astonished at the prevalence of tuberculosis in 18th century England. Of the 1,571 deaths in the English city of

entity_name: Bristol

text: Bristol

text: between 1790 and 1796, 683 were due to tuberculosis. Remote towns, initially isolated from the disease, slowly succumbed. The consumption deaths in the village of Holycross in

entity_name: Shropshire

text: Shropshire

text: between 1750 and 1759 were one in six (1:6); ten years later, 1:3. In the metropolis of London, 1:7 died from consumption at the dawn of the 18th century, by 1750 that proportion grew to 1:5.25 and surged to 1:4.2 by around the start of the 19th century. The

entity_name: Industrial Revolution

text: Industrial Revolution

text: coupled with poverty and squalor created the optimal environment for the propagation of the disease.

text: A biolung is a device designed to fully support the respiratory needs of adult patients as a bridge to lung transportation or lung recovery. The lung is used for carrying both the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Some types of chronic disease that affect the lungs are pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema.

text: A biolung is a device designed to fully support the

entity_name: Respiratory system

text: respiratory

text: needs of adult patients as a bridge to

text: lung

text: transportation or lung recovery. The lung is used for carrying both the oxygenated and deoxygenated

entity_name: Blood

text: blood

text: . Some types of

entity_name: Chronic condition

text: chronic disease

text: that affect the lungs are

entity_name: Pulmonary fibrosis

text: pulmonary fibrosis

text: and

text: emphysema

text: People can become infected with respiratory illnesses such as influenza or the common cold, for example, if they do not wash their hands before touching their eyes, nose, or mouth. As a general rule, hand washing protects people poorly or not at all from droplet and airborne diseases, such as measles, chickenpox, influenza, and tuberculosis.  It protects best against diseases transmitted through fecal-oral routes (such as many forms of gastroenteritis) and direct physical contact (such as impetigo).

text: People can become infected with respiratory illnesses such as influenza or the common cold, for example, if they do not wash their hands before touching their eyes, nose, or mouth. As a general rule, hand washing protects people poorly or not at all from droplet and

text: airborne disease

text: s, such as

text: measles

text: chickenpox

text: influenza

text: , and

text: tuberculosis

text: .  It protects best against diseases

text: transmitted

text: through

text: fecal-oral route

text: s (such as many forms of

text: gastroenteritis

text: ) and direct physical contact (such as

text: impetigo

text: There are characteristics that are particularly important for the terrestrial lifestyle of arachnids, such as internal respiratory surfaces in the form of tracheae, or modification of the book gill into a book lung, an internal series of vascular lamellae used for gas exchange with the air. While the tracheae are often individual systems of tubes, similar to those in insects, ricinuleids, pseudoscorpions, and some spiders possess sieve tracheae, in which several tubes arise in a bundle from a small chamber connected to the spiracle. This type of tracheal system has almost certainly evolved from the book lungs, and indicates that the tracheae of arachnids are not homologous with those of insects.

text: There are characteristics that are particularly important for the terrestrial lifestyle of arachnids, such as internal respiratory surfaces in the form of

text: trachea

text: e, or modification of the

text: book gill

text: into a

text: book lung

text: , an internal series of

text: vascular

text: lamella

text: e used for

text: gas exchange

text: with the air. While the tracheae are often individual systems of tubes, similar to those in insects, ricinuleids, pseudoscorpions, and some spiders possess sieve tracheae, in which several tubes arise in a bundle from a small chamber connected to the

text: spiracle

text: . This type of tracheal system has almost certainly evolved from the book lungs, and indicates that the tracheae of arachnids are not

text: homologous

text: with those of insects.

text: Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. About 5% of adults are affected and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. It occurs more often in the winter. More than 10 million people in the United States visit a doctor each year for this condition with about 70% receiving antibiotics which are mostly not needed. There are efforts to decrease the use of antibiotics in acute bronchitis.

text: Physical exercise is an integral part of Australian cultural, from team sports, recreational pursuits or individual fitness; around two-thirds of Australian males participated in some kind of physical activity in between 2009 and 2010. The type of activity and facilities used differed, with walking and outdoor facilities ranking as the most popular and cycling and structured facilities as the least popular. An ABS survey done in 2009–10, found that the age of a male influenced his involvement in sport, with the highest participation being among 15- to 17-year-olds and the lowest being men 60 years and over, with participation in some kind of physical activity being around 60%. Among the main physical health problems that are life-threatening for men in Australia are stroke, type 2 diabetes, chronic lower respiratory disease, blood and lymph cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer and colorectal cancer with the leading cause of death in males being ischaemic heart disease.

text: Chopin was diagnosed with tuberculosis and treated for it in accordance with contemporary practice, including bloodletting and purging. Tuberculosis figured in his death certificate, despite the alleged absence of typical organ changes. Critics of  alternative hypotheses about Chopin's disease point out the abundant evidence for tuberculosis. Chronic coughs and hemoptysis are common symptoms of tuberculosis; complications may include both pericarditis, causing right-heart insufficiency, and bronchiectasis, manifesting in productive cough and respiratory failure.

text: Chopin was diagnosed with tuberculosis and treated for it in accordance with contemporary practice, including

text: bloodletting

text: and

text: purging

text: . Tuberculosis figured in his death certificate, despite the alleged absence of typical organ changes. Critics of  alternative hypotheses about Chopin's disease point out the abundant evidence for tuberculosis. Chronic coughs and hemoptysis are common symptoms of tuberculosis; complications may include both

text: pericarditis

text: , causing right-heart insufficiency, and

text: bronchiectasis

text: , manifesting in productive cough and respiratory failure.

text: C. pneumoniae infection was first associated with wheezing, asthmatic bronchitis, and adult-onset asthma in 1991. Subsequent studies of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from pediatric patients with asthma and also other severe chronic respiratory illnesses have demonstrated that over 50 percent had evidence of C. pneumoniae by direct organism identification.  C. pneumoniae infection triggers acute wheezing, if it becomes chronic then it is diagnosed as asthma. These observations suggest that acute C. pneumoniae infection is capable of causing protean manifestations of chronic respiratory illness which lead to asthma.

text: The lake has a surface area of , a water volume of , a length of  and a width between  and  while the maximum depth reaches . The lake is situated in a depression having no links to the Ialomița River. Because of the lack of a year-round constant fresh water supply and because of the evaporation process triggered by the dry climate, the concentration of salts in the lake is quite high. The hypertonic water is rich in sulphate salts, bicarbonate, chlorides, iodides, bromides and magnesium salts which led to the formation of a therapeutic mud used to treat different illnesses. The general mineral concentration of the water is around 9.8g/l. The sapropelic mud contains around 40% organic and 41% mineral substances. The mud is recommended to people with affections of the locomotory system, with gynaecologic affections (especially sterility) and dermatosis patients of all kinds. The mud is not recommended to people with cardiovascular diseases, Graves' disease, asthma or infectious diseases.

text: The lake has a surface area of , a water volume of , a length of  and a width between  and  while the maximum depth reaches . The lake is situated in a

text: depression

text: having no links to the

text: Ialomița River

text: . Because of the lack of a year-round constant fresh water supply and because of the evaporation process triggered by the dry climate, the concentration of salts in the lake is quite high. The

text: hypertonic water

text: is rich in

text: sulphate salts

text: bicarbonate

text: chloride

text: s,

text: iodide

text: s,

text: bromide

text: s and

text: magnesium salts

text: which led to the formation of a therapeutic mud used to treat different illnesses. The general mineral concentration of the water is around 9.8g/l. The

text: sapropelic mud

text: contains around 40% organic and 41% mineral substances. The mud is recommended to people with affections of the

text: locomotory system

text: , with

text: gynaecologic affections

text: (especially

text: sterility

text: ) and

text: dermatosis patients

text: of all kinds. The mud is not recommended to people with

text: cardiovascular disease

text: s,

text: Graves' disease

text: asthma

text: or

text: infectious disease

text: s.

text: Bogue died in 1994 in Joshua Tree, California of respiratory failure brought on by pulmonary disease and emphysema.

text: Bogue died in 1994 in

text: Joshua Tree, California

text: of respiratory failure brought on by pulmonary disease and emphysema.

text: Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) is a complex disease. Modified Live Vaccines (MLV) vaccines are the primary immunological tool for its control, but PRRS control goes way beyond than just vaccination, and in order to achieve sustainable results, a systematic approach should be implemented.  It requires a full understanding of the disease and a set of tools to achieve a long term success, therefore a standardized 5 step process has been developed to successfully achieve PRRS control.  A strong platform to consolidate PRRS control in pig farms, large production systems and even geographical areas has been developed. This platform is a pig population approach having as main goals:- to maximize immunity, - reduce PRRS virus (PRRSv) exposure and - prevent new PRRSv infections.   The Complexity of PRRS has allowed implementing successfully this methodology in the Swine Industry around the globe.

text: The Mongolian government agency recorded a 45% increase in the rate of respiratory illness in the past five years (reported in September 2014). Bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and interstitial pneumonia were the most common ailments treated by area hospitals. Levels of premature death, chronic bronchitis, and cardiovascular disease are increasing at a rapid rate.

text: Levofloxacin is used for the treatment of pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and abdominal infections.  As of 2007 the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) and the American Thoracic Society recommended levofloxacin and other respiratory fluoroquinolines as first line treatment for community acquired pneumonia when co-morbidities such as heart, lung, or liver disease are present or when in-patient treatment is required. Levofloxacin also plays an important role in recommended treatment regimens for ventilator-associated and healthcare-associated pneumonia.

text: Levofloxacin is used for the treatment of pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and abdominal infections.  As of 2007 the

text: Infectious Disease Society of America

text: (IDSA) and the

text: American Thoracic Society

text: recommended levofloxacin and other respiratory fluoroquinolines as first line treatment for community acquired pneumonia when co-morbidities such as heart, lung, or liver disease are present or when in-patient treatment is required. Levofloxacin also plays an important role in recommended treatment regimens for ventilator-associated and healthcare-associated pneumonia.

text: Exposure to environmental hazards may cause chronic diseases, so the magnitude of their contribution to the Canada's total disease burden is not well-understood. In order to give an initial estimate of the environmental burden of disease for four major categories of disease, the  developed by the WHO, EAFs developed by other researchers, and data from Canadian public health institutions were used. Results showed a total of 10,000–25,000 deaths, with 78,000–194,000 hospitalizations; 600,000–1.5 million days spent in hospital; 1.1–1.8 million restricted activity days for sufferers of asthma; 8000–24,000 new cases of cancer; 500–2,500 babies with low birth weights; and C$3.6–9.1 billion in costs each year due to respiratory disease, cardiovascular illness, cancer, and congenital affliction associated with adverse environmental exposures.

text: Exposure to environmental hazards may cause

text: chronic disease

text: s, so the magnitude of their contribution to the Canada's total disease burden is not well-understood. In order to give an initial estimate of the environmental burden of disease for four major categories of disease, the  developed by the WHO, EAFs developed by other researchers, and data from Canadian public health institutions were used. Results showed a total of 10,000–25,000 deaths, with 78,000–194,000 hospitalizations; 600,000–1.5 million days spent in hospital; 1.1–1.8 million restricted activity days for sufferers of

text: asthma

text: ; 8000–24,000 new cases of cancer; 500–2,500 babies with low

text: birth weight

text: s; and

text: C$

text: 3.6–9.1 billion in costs each year due to respiratory disease, cardiovascular illness, cancer, and congenital affliction associated with adverse environmental exposures.

text: M. pneumoniae is known to cause a host of symptoms such as primary atypical pneumonia, tracheobronchitis, and upper respiratory tract disease. Primary atypical pneumonia is one of the most severe types of manifestation, with tracheobronchitis being the most common symptom and another 15% of cases, usually adults, remain asymptomatic. Symptomatic infections tend to develop over a period of several days and manifestation of pneumonia can be confused with a number of other bacterial pathogens and conditions that cause pneumonia. Tracheobronchitis is most common in children due to a reduced immune system capacity, and up to 18% of infected children require hospitalization. Common mild symptoms include sore throat, wheezing and coughing, fever, headache, coryza, myalgia and feelings of unease, in which symptom intensity and duration can be limited by early treatment with antibiotics. Rarely, M. pneumoniae pneumonia results in death due to lesions and ulceration of the epithelial lining, pulmonary edema, and bronchiolitis obliterans. Extrapulmonary symptoms such as autoimmune responses, central nervous system complications, and dermatological disorders have been associated with M. pneumoniae infections in up to 25% of cases.

text: M. pneumoniae is known to cause a host of symptoms such as

text: primary atypical pneumonia

text: tracheobronchitis

text: , and

text: upper respiratory tract disease

text: . Primary atypical pneumonia is one of the most severe types of manifestation, with tracheobronchitis being the most common symptom and another 15% of cases, usually adults, remain asymptomatic. Symptomatic infections tend to develop over a period of several days and manifestation of pneumonia can be confused with a number of other bacterial pathogens and conditions that cause pneumonia. Tracheobronchitis is most common in children due to a reduced immune system capacity, and up to 18% of infected children require

text: hospitalization

text: . Common mild symptoms include

text: sore throat

text: wheezing

text: and

text: coughing

text: fever

text: headache

text: coryza

text: myalgia

text: and

text: feelings of unease

text: , in which symptom intensity and duration can be limited by early treatment with

text: antibiotics

text: . Rarely, M. pneumoniae pneumonia results in death due to

text: lesions

text: and

text: ulceration

text: of the epithelial lining,

text: pulmonary edema

text: , and

text: bronchiolitis obliterans

text: . Extrapulmonary symptoms such as autoimmune responses,

text: central nervous system

text: complications, and

text: dermatological

text: disorders have been associated with M. pneumoniae infections in up to 25% of cases.

text: The journal was established in March 1917 as the American Review of Tuberculosis. Since then there have been several title changes. In 1953 a subtitle was added, "A Journal of Pulmonary Diseases." In 1955 the title became the American Review of Tuberculosis and Pulmonary Diseases, and in 1959 the American Review of Respiratory Diseases (the final "s" was dropped in 1966). The journal obtained its current title in 1994.

text: A physical examination will often reveal decreased intensity of breath sounds, wheezing,  rhonchi, and prolonged expiration.  Most physicians rely on the presence of a persistent dry or wet cough as evidence of bronchitis.

text: A

text: physical examination

text: will often reveal decreased intensity of breath sounds, wheezing,

text: rhonchi

text: , and prolonged

text: expiration

text: .  Most physicians rely on the presence of a persistent dry or wet cough as evidence of bronchitis.

text: Asthma is associated with exposure to indoor allergens. Common indoor allergens include dust mites, cockroaches, animal dander (fragments of fur or feathers), and mold. Efforts to decrease dust mites have been found to be ineffective on symptoms in sensitized subjects. Certain viral respiratory infections, such as respiratory syncytial virus and rhinovirus, may increase the risk of developing asthma when acquired as young children. Certain other infections, however, may decrease the risk.

text: Asthma is associated with exposure to indoor allergens. Common indoor allergens include

text: dust mite

text: s,

text: cockroach

text: es,

text: animal dander

text: (fragments of fur or feathers), and mold. Efforts to decrease dust mites have been found to be ineffective on symptoms in sensitized subjects. Certain viral respiratory infections, such as

text: respiratory syncytial virus

text: and

text: rhinovirus

text: , may increase the risk of developing asthma when acquired as young children. Certain other infections, however, may decrease the risk.

text: Simple CWP is marked by the presence of 1–2 mm nodular aggregations of anthracotic macrophages, supported by a fine collagen network, within the lungs. Those 1–2 mm in diameter are known as coal macules, with larger aggregations known as coal nodules. These structures occur most frequently around the initial site of coal dust accumulation — the upper regions of the lungs around respiratory bronchioles. The coal macule is the basic pathological feature of CWP and has a surrounding area of enlargement of the airspace, known as focal emphysema.

text: Simple CWP is marked by the presence of 1–2 mm nodular aggregations of anthracotic macrophages, supported by a fine collagen network, within the lungs. Those 1–2 mm in diameter are known as coal macules, with larger aggregations known as coal nodules. These structures occur most frequently around the initial site of coal dust accumulation — the upper regions of the lungs around

text: respiratory bronchiole

text: s. The coal macule is the basic pathological feature of CWP and has a surrounding area of enlargement of the airspace, known as focal emphysema.

text: Acute bronchitis usually lasts a few days or weeks. It may accompany or closely follow a cold or the flu, or  may occur on its own. Bronchitis usually begins with a dry cough, including waking the sufferer at night. After a few days, it progresses to a wetter or productive cough, which may be accompanied by fever, fatigue, and headache. The fever, fatigue, and malaise may last only a few days; but the wet cough may last up to several weeks.

text: Rats serve as outstanding vectors for transmittance of diseases because they can carry bacteria and viruses in their systems. A number of bacterial diseases are common to rats, and these include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Corynebacterium kutsheri, Bacillus piliformis, Pasteurella pneumotropica, and Streptobacillus moniliformis, to name a few. All of these bacteria are disease causing agents in humans. In some cases, these diseases are incurable.

text: Rats serve as outstanding vectors for transmittance of diseases because they can carry bacteria and viruses in their systems. A number of bacterial diseases are common to rats, and these include

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: Corynebacterium kutsheri

text: Bacillus piliformis

text: Pasteurella pneumotropica

text: , and

text: Streptobacillus moniliformis

text: , to name a few. All of these bacteria are disease causing agents in humans. In some cases, these diseases are incurable.

text: Taubes states in the book that it's not about fat people eating too much and exercising too little or skinny people eating well and exercising a lot.  In hunter-gather time periods, humans' lives were spent finding food so when they found a surplus the human body would go into storage mode.  Today we don't have the problem of finding food yet our body is still set up to eat as much as possible and store as much as possible for famine times.  This leads to excess weight to be put on.  Taubes compares getting fat to smoking cigarettes: "Not every long-term smoker gets lung cancer — in fact, only a minority do — but among people with lung cancer, smoking is by far the most common cause.  In a world without cigarettes, lung cancer would be a rare disease, as it once was," he writes. "In a world without carbohydrate-rich diets, obesity would be a rare condition as well."

text: Avian infectious bronchitis (IB) is an acute and highly contagious respiratory disease of chickens. The disease is caused by avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), a coronavirus, and characterized by respiratory signs including gasping, coughing, sneezing, tracheal rales, and nasal discharge. In young chickens, severe respiratory distress may occur. In layers, respiratory distress, nephritis, decrease in egg production, and loss of internal (watery egg white) and external (fragile, soft, irregular or rough shells, shell-less) egg quality are reported.

text: Avian infectious bronchitis (IB) is an acute and highly contagious

text: respiratory disease

text: of

text: chicken

text: s. The disease is caused by

text: avian infectious bronchitis virus

text: (IBV), a

text: coronavirus

text: , and characterized by respiratory signs including gasping, coughing, sneezing,

text: tracheal

text: rales

text: , and nasal discharge. In young chickens, severe

text: respiratory distress

text: may occur. In layers, respiratory distress,

text: nephritis

text: , decrease in egg production, and loss of internal (watery egg white) and external (fragile, soft, irregular or rough shells, shell-less) egg quality are reported.

text: In 2001 the principal causes of mortality in the urban population were circulatory system diseases (20.4 percent); perinatal diseases (9.3 percent); cancer (8.5 percent); endocrinological, nutritional, and metabolic diseases (7.6 percent); respiratory system diseases (6.9 percent); and infectious and parasitic diseases (4.7 percent).

text: In 2001 the principal causes of

text: mortality

text: in the urban population were circulatory system diseases (20.4 percent); perinatal diseases (9.3 percent);

text: cancer

text: (8.5 percent); endocrinological, nutritional, and

text: metabolic disease

text: s (7.6 percent); respiratory system diseases (6.9 percent); and infectious and

text: parasitic disease

text: s (4.7 percent).

text: Respiratory tract infection refers to any of a number of infectious diseases involving the respiratory tract. An infection of this type is normally further classified as an upper respiratory tract infection (URI or URTI) or a lower respiratory tract infection (LRI or LRTI). Lower respiratory infections, such as pneumonia, tend to be far more serious conditions than upper respiratory infections, such as the common cold.

text: Respiratory tract infection refers to any of a number of

text: infectious disease

text: s involving the

text: respiratory tract

text: . An infection of this type is normally further classified as an

text: upper respiratory tract infection

text: (URI or URTI) or a

text: lower respiratory tract infection

text: (LRI or LRTI). Lower respiratory infections, such as

text: pneumonia

text: , tend to be far more serious conditions than upper respiratory infections, such as the

text: common cold

text: Acute diarrheal disease, intestinal infectious diseases, perinatal infections, malnutrition and acute respiratory infections are among the leading causes of infant death in Haiti. Infectious diseases and parasitic diseases are the most common causes of death in young children. Adolescent death is often a result of HIV/AIDS, violence, tuberculosis, typhoid and maternal death. AIDS, intestinal infections and complications during pregnancy are responsible for most maternal deaths.

text: JÓZEF - spring discovered in 1986. It is used in treatment of the digestive system disorders, diseases of the upper and lower respiratory tracts, rheumatologic diseases, obesity and osteoporosis.

text: Mycoplasma pneumoniae is spread through respiratory droplet transmission. Once attached to the mucosa of a host organism, M. pneumoniae extracts nutrients, grows, and reproduces by binary fission. Attachment sites include the upper and lower respiratory tract, causing pharyngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia. The infection caused by this bacterium is called atypical pneumonia because of its protracted course and lack of sputum production and wealth of extrapulmonary symptoms. Chronic Mycoplasma infections have been implicated in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatological diseases.

text: Mycoplasma pneumoniae is spread through

text: respiratory droplet transmission

text: . Once attached to the mucosa of a host organism, M. pneumoniae extracts nutrients, grows, and reproduces by

text: binary fission

text: . Attachment sites include the upper and lower respiratory tract, causing

text: pharyngitis

text: bronchitis

text: , and

text: pneumonia

text: . The infection caused by this bacterium is called

text: atypical pneumonia

text: because of its protracted course and lack of sputum production and wealth of extrapulmonary symptoms. Chronic Mycoplasma infections have been implicated in the pathogenesis of

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: and other rheumatological diseases.

text: A cough can be the result of a respiratory tract infection such as the common cold, acute bronchitis, pneumonia, pertussis, or tuberculosis. In the vast majority of cases, acute coughs, i.e. coughs shorter than 3 weeks, are due to the common cold. In people with a normal chest X-ray, tuberculosis is a rare finding. Pertussis is increasingly being recognised as a cause of troublesome coughing in adults.

text: A cough can be the result of a

text: respiratory tract infection

text: such as the

text: common cold

text: acute bronchitis

text: pneumonia

text: pertussis

text: , or

text: tuberculosis

text: . In the vast majority of cases, acute coughs, i.e. coughs shorter than 3 weeks, are due to the common cold. In people with a normal chest X-ray, tuberculosis is a rare finding. Pertussis is increasingly being recognised as a cause of troublesome coughing in adults.

text: He died of respiratory disease in Guwahati in 1960.

text: He died of

text: respiratory disease

text: in

text: Guwahati

text: in 1960.

text: Icos developed several drugs whose purpose was to disrupt the process of inflammation in the body. The research program focused on the underlying causes of inflammation rather than specific disorders. The compounds developed by Icos were tested in clinical trials in the areas of sepsis, multiple sclerosis, ischemic stroke, heart attack, pancreatitis, pulmonary arterial hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, interstitial cystitis, psoriasis, hemorrhagic shock, sexual dysfunction, benign prostatic hyperplasia, rheumatoid arthritis, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and acute respiratory distress syndrome.

text: Icos developed several drugs whose purpose was to disrupt the process of inflammation in the body. The research program focused on the underlying causes of inflammation rather than specific disorders. The compounds developed by Icos were tested in clinical trials in the areas of

text: sepsis

text: multiple sclerosis

text: ischemic stroke

text: heart attack

text: pancreatitis

text: pulmonary arterial hypertension

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: interstitial cystitis

text: psoriasis

text: hemorrhagic shock

text: sexual dysfunction

text: benign prostatic hyperplasia

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: emphysema

text: chronic bronchitis

text: , and

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: COPD has been referred to as "smoker's lung". People with emphysema have been known as "pink puffers" or "type A" due to their frequent pink complexion, fast respiratory rate and pursed lips, and people with chronic bronchitis have been referred to as "blue bloaters" or "type B" due to the often bluish color of the skin and lips from low oxygen levels and their ankle swelling. This terminology is no longer accepted as useful as most people with COPD have a combination of both emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

text: COPD has been referred to as "smoker's lung". People with emphysema have been known as "pink puffers" or "type A" due to their frequent pink complexion, fast respiratory rate and pursed lips, and people with chronic bronchitis have been referred to as "blue bloaters" or "type B" due to the often

text: bluish color of the skin and lips

text: from low oxygen levels and their ankle swelling. This terminology is no longer accepted as useful as most people with COPD have a combination of both emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

text: Her period as Minister of National Health and Welfare coincided with the introduction of the Canada Pension Plan and the drafting of what was to become Canada's Medicare system. Besides shepherding the Medicare bill through parliament, she also became the first major western-world government official to oppose tobacco smoking publicly. On June 17, 1963, she rose to speak on the floor of the House of Commons and declared: "There is scientific evidence that cigarette smoking is a contributory cause of lung cancer and that it may also be associated with chronic bronchitis and coronary heart disease."  As Secretary of State, she presided over the Canadian Centennial celebrations in 1967, and established the Royal Commission on the Status of Women.

text: Her period as Minister of National Health and Welfare coincided with the introduction of the

text: Canada Pension Plan

text: and the drafting of what was to become Canada's

text: Medicare

text: system. Besides shepherding the Medicare bill through parliament, she also became the first major western-world government official to oppose tobacco smoking publicly. On June 17, 1963, she rose to speak on the floor of the House of Commons and declared: "There is scientific evidence that cigarette smoking is a contributory cause of lung cancer and that it may also be associated with chronic bronchitis and coronary heart disease."  As Secretary of State, she presided over the

text: Canadian Centennial

text: celebrations in 1967, and established the

text: Royal Commission on the Status of Women

text: Berlin's regulation encompassing the Environmental Zone focuses on reducing PM 10 and NO2 particles that are commonly produced from the fossil fuels in the oil in vehicles.  PM10 consists of organic and inorganic particles that are found suspended within air particles and have health damaging effects as it acts as a trigger for cardiovascular and respiratory disease in humans.  NO2, while also found in air, have scientifically been shown to cause bronchitis as well as reduce lung function growth in children

text: Berlin's regulation encompassing the Environmental Zone focuses on reducing PM 10 and NO2 particles that are commonly produced from the

text: fossil fuels

text: in the oil in vehicles.  PM10 consists of organic and inorganic particles that are found suspended within air particles and have health damaging effects as it acts as a trigger for cardiovascular and respiratory disease in humans.  NO2, while also found in air, have scientifically been shown to cause bronchitis as well as reduce lung function growth in children

text: The disease used to be classified as a "neurocristopathy", or disease of the neural crest because part of the autonomic nervous system (such as sympathetic ganglia) derives from the neural crest. However, this denomination is no longer favored because essential neurons of the autonomic nervous system, including those that underlie the defining symptom of the disease (respiratory arrests), are derived from the neural tube (the medulla), not from the neural crest, although such mixed embryological origins are also true for most other neurocristopathies.

text: The disease used to be classified as a "

text: neurocristopathy

text: ", or disease of the

text: neural crest

text: because part of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (such as sympathetic ganglia) derives from the neural crest. However, this denomination is no longer favored because essential neurons of the autonomic nervous system, including those that underlie the defining symptom of the disease (respiratory arrests), are derived from the

text: neural tube

text: (the

text: medulla

text: ), not from the neural crest, although such mixed embryological origins are also true for most other neurocristopathies.

text: Bronchitis describes the swelling or inflammation of the bronchial tubes. Additionally, bronchitis is described as either acute or chronic depending on its presentation and is also further described by the causative agent. Acute bronchitis can be defined as acute bacterial or viral infection of the larger airways in healthy patients with no history of recurrent disease. It affects over 40 adults per 1000 each year and consists of transient inflammation of the major bronchi and trachea. Most often it is caused by viral infection and hence antibiotic therapy is not indicated in immunocompetent individuals. Viral bronchitis can sometimes be treated using antiviral medications depending on the virus causing the infection, and medications such as anti-inflammatory drugs and expectorants can help mitigate the symptoms. Treatment of acute bronchitis with antibiotics is common but controversial as their use has only moderate benefit weighted against potential side effects (nausea and vomiting), increased resistance, and cost of treatment in a self-limiting condition. Beta2 agonists are sometimes used to relieve the cough associated with acute bronchitis. In a recent systematic review it was found there was no evidence to support their use.

text: Bronchitis

text: describes the swelling or inflammation of the bronchial tubes. Additionally, bronchitis is described as either acute or chronic depending on its presentation and is also further described by the causative agent. Acute bronchitis can be defined as acute bacterial or viral infection of the larger airways in healthy patients with no history of recurrent disease. It affects over 40 adults per 1000 each year and consists of transient inflammation of the major bronchi and trachea. Most often it is caused by viral infection and hence antibiotic therapy is not indicated in immunocompetent individuals. Viral bronchitis can sometimes be treated using antiviral medications depending on the virus causing the infection, and medications such as anti-inflammatory drugs and expectorants can help mitigate the symptoms. Treatment of acute bronchitis with antibiotics is common but controversial as their use has only moderate benefit weighted against potential side effects (nausea and vomiting), increased resistance, and cost of treatment in a self-limiting condition. Beta2 agonists are sometimes used to relieve the cough associated with acute bronchitis. In a recent systematic review it was found there was no evidence to support their use.

text: Some historians argue that European disease did not appear to be a serious factor until after 1829. Other historians including Geoffrey Blainey and Keith Windschuttle, point to introduced disease as the main cause of the destruction of the full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal population. Keith Windschuttle argues that while smallpox never reached Tasmania, respiratory diseases such as influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis and the effects of venereal diseases devastated the Tasmanian Aboriginal population whose long isolation from contact with the mainland compromised their resistance to introduced disease. The work of historian James Bonwick and anthropologist H. Ling Roth, both writing in the 19th century, also point to the significant role of epidemics and infertility without clear attribution of the sources of the diseases as having been introduced through contact with Europeans. Bonwick, however, did note that Tasmanian Aboriginal women were infected with venereal diseases by Europeans. Introduced venereal disease not only directly caused deaths but, more insidiously, left a significant percentage of the population unable to reproduce. Josephine Flood, archaeologist, wrote: "Venereal disease sterilised and chest complaints – influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis – killed."

text: Some historians argue that European disease did not appear to be a serious factor until after 1829. Other historians including

text: Geoffrey Blainey

text: and

text: Keith Windschuttle

text: , point to introduced disease as the main cause of the destruction of the full-blooded Tasmanian Aboriginal population. Keith Windschuttle argues that while smallpox never reached Tasmania, respiratory diseases such as influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis and the effects of venereal diseases devastated the Tasmanian Aboriginal population whose long isolation from contact with the mainland compromised their resistance to introduced disease. The work of historian James Bonwick and anthropologist H. Ling Roth, both writing in the 19th century, also point to the significant role of epidemics and infertility without clear attribution of the sources of the diseases as having been introduced through contact with Europeans. Bonwick, however, did note that Tasmanian Aboriginal women were infected with venereal diseases by Europeans. Introduced venereal disease not only directly caused deaths but, more insidiously, left a significant percentage of the population unable to reproduce. Josephine Flood, archaeologist, wrote: "Venereal disease sterilised and chest complaints – influenza, pneumonia and tuberculosis – killed."

text: Malignant tumors of the respiratory system, particularly primary carcinomas of the lung, are a major health problem responsible for 15% of all cancer diagnoses and 30% of all cancer deaths. The majority of respiratory system cancers are attributable to smoking tobacco.

text: Malignant tumors of the respiratory system, particularly

text: primary carcinomas of the lung

text: , are a major health problem responsible for 15% of all cancer diagnoses and 30% of all cancer deaths. The majority of respiratory system cancers are attributable to smoking

text: tobacco

text: SFTPA1 genetic variants, SNPs, haplotypes, and other genetic variations have been associated with acute and chronic lung disease in several populations of neonates, children, and adults. Genetic variations in SFTPA1 have been associated with susceptibility to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, a lung disease characterized by shortness of breath, pulmonary infiltrates and inflammation that results in acute lung injury with subsequent scarring of lung tissue. Genetic variations in SFTPA1 are also a cause of susceptibility to respiratory distress syndrome in premature infants, a lung disease characterized by deficient gas exchange, diffuse atelectasis, high-permeability lung edema and fibrin-rich alveolar deposits .The ratio of SP-A1 to total SP-A has been correlated with lung disease (e.g. asthma, cystic fibrosis) and aging. Methylation of SFTPA1 promoter sequences has also been found in lung cancer tissue.

text: SFTPA1 genetic variants,

text: SNPs

text: , haplotypes, and other genetic variations have been associated with acute and chronic

text: lung disease

text: in several populations of neonates, children, and adults. Genetic variations in SFTPA1 have been associated with susceptibility to

text: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

text: , a lung disease characterized by shortness of breath, pulmonary infiltrates and

text: inflammation

text: that results in acute

text: lung injury

text: with subsequent

text: scarring

text: of lung tissue. Genetic variations in SFTPA1 are also a cause of susceptibility to

text: respiratory distress syndrome

text: in premature infants, a lung disease characterized by deficient gas exchange, diffuse atelectasis, high-permeability lung edema and fibrin-rich alveolar deposits .The ratio of SP-A1 to total SP-A has been correlated with lung disease (e.g.

text: asthma

text: cystic fibrosis

text: ) and aging. Methylation of SFTPA1 promoter sequences has also been found in lung cancer tissue.

text: Lysyl oxidase has also proven crucial to the development of the respiratory system and the skin, as collagen and elastin represent 50-60% of the composition of the lung, and 75% of the skin. In LOX double knockout models (Lox -/-), function of LOX was reduced by up to 80%, and the phenotype of the lungs resembles those of human patients with emphysema and dilated distal airways.

text: Lysyl oxidase has also proven crucial to the development of the

text: respiratory system

text: and the skin, as collagen and elastin represent 50-60% of the composition of the lung, and 75% of the skin. In LOX double knockout models (Lox -/-), function of LOX was reduced by up to 80%, and the phenotype of the lungs resembles those of human patients with

text: emphysema

text: and dilated distal airways.

text: Initially M. pneumoniae was considered as a virus rather than a bacterium, when Eaton and colleagues cultured the causative agent of human primary atypical pneumonia (PAP) or "walking pneumonia".  The terms 'walking pneumonia' and 'atypical pneumonia' were coined to describe the unresponsiveness of pneumonia inducing M. pneumoniae infections to antibiotics like penicillin. Eaton's agent could be grown in chicken embryos and passed through a filter that excluded normal bacteria. Eaton suggested the possibility that the disease was caused by a mycoplasma, but the agent did not grow on the standard pleuropneumonia-like organism (PPLO) media of the time.  These observations led to the conclusion that the causative agent of PAP was a virus.  Researchers at that time showed that the cultured agent could induce disease in experimentally infected cotton rats and hamsters.  In spite of controversy whether the researchers had truly isolated the causative agent of PAP (based largely on the unusual immunological response of patients with PAP), in retrospect their evidence along with that of colleagues and competitors appears to have been quite conclusive.  There were reports linking Eaton agent to the PPLOs or mycoplasmas, well known then as parasites of cattle and rodents, due to sensitivity to antimicrobials.  Studies that followed until 1963 determined that Eaton’s agent was a bacterium that caused human lower respiratory tract infections.

text: Initially M. pneumoniae was considered as a

text: virus

text: rather than a bacterium, when Eaton and colleagues cultured the causative agent of human

text: primary atypical pneumonia

text: (PAP) or "

text: walking pneumonia

text: ".  The terms '

text: walking pneumonia

text: ' and 'atypical pneumonia' were coined to describe the unresponsiveness of

text: pneumonia

text: inducing M. pneumoniae infections to

text: antibiotics

text: like

text: penicillin

text: . Eaton's agent could be grown in chicken

text: embryos

text: and passed through a filter that excluded normal bacteria. Eaton suggested the possibility that the disease was caused by a mycoplasma, but the agent did not grow on the standard

text: pleuropneumonia-like organism

text: (PPLO) media of the time.  These observations led to the conclusion that the causative agent of PAP was a virus.  Researchers at that time showed that the cultured agent could induce disease in experimentally infected cotton rats and hamsters.  In spite of controversy whether the researchers had truly isolated the causative agent of PAP (based largely on the unusual immunological response of patients with PAP), in retrospect their evidence along with that of colleagues and competitors appears to have been quite conclusive.  There were reports linking Eaton agent to the PPLOs or mycoplasmas, well known then as parasites of cattle and rodents, due to sensitivity to antimicrobials.  Studies that followed until 1963 determined that Eaton’s agent was a

text: bacterium

text: that caused human

text: lower respiratory tract infection

text: s.

text: Interest in the syndemics perspective has been driven by growing evidence of the regularity of interactions among diseases and recognition that this interaction influences disease course, expression, severity, transmission, and diffusion.  Several different kinds of interaction among diseases have been described, including both indirect (changes caused by one disease that facilitate another through an intermediary) and direct interface (diseases act in direct tandem).  In some syndemic interactions—such as the one between diabetes and SARS—changes in biochemistry or damage to organ systems caused by one disease (in this case, diabetes), such as weakening of the immune system, promotes the progression of another disease (SARS). This type of relationship also connects HIV infection and a host of "opportunistic" bacterial (e.g. mycobacterial (Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium), fungal (e.g. candidiasis), protozoal (e.g. toxoplasmosis), and viral (e.g. Human Papilloma Virus) infections and possibly viral-caused malignancies (Kaposi's Sarcoma).  Similarly, there is evidence that periodontitis, which can lead to tooth loss, may arise from a syndemic.  Periodontitis is known to be caused by bacteria of several different species (e.g., Porphyromonas gingivalis, Dialister pneumosintes, Prevotella intermedia) that adhere to and reproduce on tooth surfaces, especially under the gum line.  Multiplication of these pathogens may be inhibited by bodily defenses unless these are weakened by a herpesvirus infection of the periodontium.

text: Interest in the syndemics perspective has been driven by growing evidence of the regularity of interactions among diseases and recognition that this interaction influences disease course, expression, severity, transmission, and diffusion.  Several different kinds of interaction among diseases have been described, including both indirect (changes caused by one disease that facilitate another through an intermediary) and direct interface (diseases act in direct tandem).  In some syndemic interactions—such as the one between

text: diabetes

text: and

text: SARS

text: —changes in biochemistry or damage to organ systems caused by one disease (in this case, diabetes), such as weakening of the immune system, promotes the progression of another disease (SARS). This type of relationship also connects HIV infection and a host of "opportunistic" bacterial (e.g. mycobacterial (

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: Mycobacterium avium

text: ), fungal (e.g.

text: candidiasis

text: ), protozoal (e.g.

text: toxoplasmosis

text: ), and viral (e.g.

text: Human Papilloma Virus

text: ) infections and possibly viral-caused malignancies (

text: Kaposi's Sarcoma

text: ).  Similarly, there is evidence that

text: periodontitis

text: , which can lead to

text: tooth loss

text: , may arise from a syndemic.  Periodontitis is known to be caused by bacteria of several different species (e.g.,

text: Porphyromonas gingivalis

text: , Dialister pneumosintes,

text: Prevotella intermedia

text: ) that adhere to and reproduce on tooth surfaces, especially under the gum line.  Multiplication of these pathogens may be inhibited by bodily defenses unless these are weakened by a

text: herpesvirus

text: infection of the

text: periodontium

text: Early work of the institute focused on respiratory diseases, pigbel (clostridial necrotizing enteritis), and kuru. Since then, major research programs have been established in respiratory diseases, malaria, malnutrition, enteric diseases, sexual health, women's health, and others.

text: Early work of the institute focused on respiratory diseases,

text: pigbel

text: (clostridial necrotizing enteritis), and

text: kuru

text: . Since then, major research programs have been established in respiratory diseases,

text: malaria

text: malnutrition

text: , enteric diseases, sexual health, women's health, and others.

text: Currently, there is no cure for infantile Refsum disease syndrome, nor is there a standard course of treatment. Infections should be guarded against to prevent such complications as pneumonia and respiratory distress. Other treatment is symptomatic and supportive. Patients show variable lifespans with some individuals surviving until adulthood and into old age.

text: Currently, there is no cure for infantile Refsum disease syndrome, nor is there a standard course of treatment. Infections should be guarded against to prevent such complications as

text: pneumonia

text: and respiratory distress. Other treatment is symptomatic and supportive. Patients show variable lifespans with some individuals surviving until adulthood and into old age.

text: A metered-dose inhaler (MDI) is a device that delivers a specific amount of medication to the lungs, in the form of a short burst of aerosolized medicine that is usually self-administered by the patient via inhalation. It is the most commonly used delivery system for treating asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and other respiratory diseases. The medication in a metered dose inhaler is most commonly a bronchodilator, corticosteroid or a combination of both for the treatment of asthma and COPD. Other medications less commonly used but also administered by MDI are mast cell stabilizers, such as cromoglicate or nedocromil.

text: A metered-dose inhaler (MDI) is a device that delivers a specific amount of medication to the

text: lung

text: s, in the form of a short burst of aerosolized medicine that is usually self-administered by the patient via inhalation. It is the most commonly used delivery system for treating

text: asthma

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD) and other respiratory diseases. The medication in a metered dose inhaler is most commonly a

text: bronchodilator

text: corticosteroid

text: or a combination of both for the treatment of asthma and COPD. Other medications less commonly used but also administered by MDI are mast cell stabilizers, such as

text: cromoglicate

text: or

text: nedocromil

text: Various body systems, including the urinary, respiratory and skeletal systems, interact to maintain the body's proper pH levels. Certain conditions, such as kidney disease, cause an imbalance and lowering of pH levels due to the build-up of H+ ions in the blood. In response to the acidic conditions, bone tissue will dissolve to release calcium carbonate into the bloodstream. The carbonate ions act to neutralize some of the acidity of the blood. However, the loss of calcium carbonate can lead to osteomalacia, the softening of the bones due to the inability to properly construct new bone. With osteomalacia, there is a higher risk for breaks and fractures, similar to osteoporosis.

text: Various body systems, including the urinary, respiratory and skeletal systems, interact to maintain the body's proper

text: pH

text: levels. Certain conditions, such as

text: kidney disease

text: , cause an imbalance and lowering of pH levels due to the build-up of

text: H+ ions

text: in the blood. In response to the acidic conditions, bone tissue will dissolve to release

text: calcium carbonate

text: into the bloodstream. The carbonate ions act to neutralize some of the acidity of the blood. However, the loss of calcium carbonate can lead to

text: osteomalacia

text: , the softening of the bones due to the inability to properly construct new bone. With osteomalacia, there is a higher risk for breaks and fractures, similar to osteoporosis.

text: The unit conducts research into enteric diseases, including cholera, and respiratory diseases including pneumonia and tuberculosis. The unit also conducts continuous surveillance of suspected cases of kuru

text: The unit conducts research into enteric diseases, including

text: cholera

text: , and respiratory diseases including

text: pneumonia

text: and

text: tuberculosis

text: . The unit also conducts continuous surveillance of suspected cases of kuru

text: The vascular disease in cats that occurs when the L larvae invade the pulmonary arteries is more severe than in dogs.  A syndrome related to this inflammatory reaction has been identified in cats: heartworm-associated respiratory disease, which can occur three to four months after the initial infection, and is caused by the presence of the L larvae in the vessels.  The subsequent inflammation of the pulmonary vasculature and lungs can be easily misdiagnosed as feline asthma or allergic bronchitis.

text: The vascular disease in cats that occurs when the L larvae invade the

text: pulmonary arteries

text: is more severe than in dogs.  A syndrome related to this inflammatory reaction has been identified in cats: heartworm-associated respiratory disease, which can occur three to four months after the initial infection, and is caused by the presence of the L larvae in the vessels.  The subsequent inflammation of the pulmonary vasculature and lungs can be easily misdiagnosed as

text: feline asthma

text: or allergic bronchitis.

text: Bio-Fluid Dynamics, may be considered as the discipline of biological engineering or biomedical engineering in which the fundamental principles of fluid dynamics are used to explain the mechanisms of biological flows and their interrelationships with physiological processes, in health and in diseases/disorder. It can be considered as the conjuncture of mechanical engineering and biological engineering. It spans from cells to organs, covering diverse aspects of functionality of systemic physiology, including cardiovascular, respiratory, reproductive, urinary, musculoskeletal and neurological systems etc. Bio fluid dynamics and its simulations through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) apply to both internal as well as external flows. Internal flows such as cardiovascular blood flow and respiratory airflow, and external flows such as flying and aquatic locomotion (i.e., swimming). Biological fluid Dynamics (or Bio fluid Dynamics) involves the study of the motion of biological fluids  (e.g. blood flow in arteries, animal flight, fish swimming, etc.). It can be either circulatory system or respiratory systems. Understanding the circulatory system is one of the major areas of research . The respiratory system is very closely linked to the circulatory system and is very complex to study and understand. The study of Bio fluid Dynamics is also directed towards finding solutions to some of the human body related diseases and disorders. The usefulness of the subject can also be understood by seeing the use of Bio fluid Dynamics in the areas of physiology in order to explain how living things work and about their motions, in developing an understanding of the origins and development of various diseases related to human body and diagnosing them, in finding the cure for the diseases related to cardiovascular and pulmonary systems.

text: In 2014, US communities with non-hospital-based urgent care centers (UCCs) were mainly urban, located in areas with higher income levels and higher levels of private insurance.Kaissi et al considered local multi-hospital systems in Florida, Maryland, Nevada, Texas, Virginia and Washington.  In 2012 50% of 117 hospital-based "clusters" included either UCCs, retail clinics, or both. 57% of systems in Washington operated an UCC, compared to 36% of systems in Washington, while systems in Florida had the largest share of UCCs (17.6%).  Authors noted unexplained state-by-state variation in hospital system partnership with UCC and retail clinic models.  Corwin et al considered Medicare beneficiaries presenting to an UCC (n=1,426,354) emergency department (ED) (n=334,841) or physicians office (n=8,359,498) with upper respiratory or urinary tract infections, bronchitis, sprains or contusions, and back or arthritic pain, in 2012.  Patients who presented to an ED were more likely to be female (67% of ED presentations) compared to those who presented to a UCC or physicians office (65% and 64% respectively).  Patients who presented to an UCC were significantly more likely to be aged over 85 (27%, compared to 15% of physicians office presentations, and 13% of ED presentations) or Black (11%, compared to 6% of physicians office presentations, and 4% of ED presentations).In 2014, 3.1% of Family Physicians in the United States worked primarily in UCCs, with a male:female ratio of workforce is 6:7, and an urban:rural ratio of 2:1.  This compares to 3.6% of Family Physicians working primarily in Emergency Care, with a male:female ratio of 5:3 and urban:rural ratio approaching 1:2.

text: The Fowl adenoviruses are associated with many disease conditions in domestic fowl like Inclusion body hepatitis, Hydropericardium syndrome, Egg drop syndrome, Quail bronchitis and many respiratory conditions.They have also been isolated from wild kites (Milvus migrans).

text: Beryllium and beryllium compounds are classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as Group 1 carcinogens; they are carcinogenic to both animals and humans. Chronic berylliosis is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Between 1% – 15% of people are sensitive to beryllium and may develop an inflammatory reaction in their respiratory system and skin, called chronic beryllium disease or berylliosis. The body's immune system recognises the beryllium as foreign particles and mounts an attack against them, usually in the lungs where they are breathed in. This can cause fever, fatigue, weakness, night sweats and difficulty in breathing.

text: Beryllium and beryllium compounds are classified by the

entity_name: International Agency for Research on Cancer

text: International Agency for Research on Cancer

text: as

text: Group 1 carcinogens

text: ; they are carcinogenic to both animals and humans. Chronic

text: berylliosis

text: is a

text: pulmonary

text: and

text: systemic

text: granulomatous

text: disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Between 1% – 15% of people are sensitive to beryllium and may develop an inflammatory reaction in their

text: respiratory system

text: and

text: skin

text: , called chronic beryllium disease or

text: berylliosis

text: . The body's

text: immune system

text: recognises the beryllium as foreign particles and mounts an attack against them, usually in the lungs where they are breathed in. This can cause fever, fatigue, weakness, night sweats and difficulty in breathing.

text: There have been a  limited number of studies that have looked at the effects of smoking cannabis on the respiratory system.  Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause significant abnormalities in lung function.

text: There have been a  limited number of studies that have looked at the

text: effects of smoking cannabis

text: on the respiratory system.  Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause significant abnormalities in lung function.

text: Longini studies stochastic processes applied to epidemiological problems. He has specialized in the mathematical and statistical theory of epidemics, which involves constructing and analyzing mathematical models of disease transmission, disease progression and the analysis of infectious disease data based on these models.  He designs and analyses vaccine and infectious disease prevention trials and observational studies.  He has worked on the analysis of epidemics of influenza, HIV, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria, rhinovirus, rotavirus, measles and other infectious agents.

text: Longini studies

text: stochastic process

text: es applied to epidemiological problems. He has specialized in the mathematical and statistical theory of epidemics, which involves constructing and analyzing mathematical models of disease transmission, disease progression and the analysis of infectious disease data based on these models.  He designs and analyses vaccine and infectious disease prevention trials and observational studies.  He has worked on the analysis of epidemics of influenza, HIV, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria, rhinovirus, rotavirus, measles and other infectious agents.

text: Some commentators have argued that physicians have duties to serve as role models for the general public in matters of health, for example by not smoking cigarettes. Indeed, in most western nations relatively few physicians smoke, and their professional knowledge does appear to have a beneficial effect on their health and lifestyle. According to a study of male physicians, life expectancy is slightly higher for physicians (73.0 years for white and 68.7 for black) than lawyers or many other highly educated professionals. Causes of death less likely in physicians than the general population include respiratory disease (including pneumonia, pneumoconioses, COPD, but excluding emphysema and other chronic airway obstruction), alcohol-related deaths, rectosigmoidal and anal cancers, and bacterial diseases.

text: Some commentators have argued that physicians have duties to serve as role models for the general public in matters of health, for example by not smoking cigarettes. Indeed, in most western nations relatively few physicians smoke, and their professional knowledge does appear to have a beneficial effect on their health and lifestyle. According to a study of male physicians,

text: life expectancy

text: is slightly higher for physicians (73.0 years for white and 68.7 for black) than lawyers or many other highly educated professionals. Causes of death less likely in physicians than the general population include respiratory disease (including

text: pneumonia

text: pneumoconioses

text: COPD

text: , but excluding

text: emphysema

text: and other

text: chronic airway obstruction

text: ), alcohol-related deaths, rectosigmoidal and anal cancers, and bacterial diseases.

text: Chronic, non-communicable diseases account for an estimated 80% of total deaths and 70% of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost in China. Cardiovascular diseases, chronic respiratory disease, and cancer are the leading causes of both death and of the burden of disease, and exposure to risk factors is high: more than 300 million men smoke cigarettes and 160 million adults are hypertensive, most of whom are not being treated.  An obesity epidemic is imminent, with more than 20% of children aged 7–17 years in big cities now overweight or obese.  Rates of death from chronic disease in middle-aged people are higher in China than in some high-income countries.

text: Chronic

text: non-communicable disease

text: s account for an estimated 80% of total

text: deaths

text: and 70% of

text: disability-adjusted life years

text: (DALYs) lost in

text: China

text: Cardiovascular diseases

text: chronic respiratory disease

text: , and

text: cancer

text: are the leading causes of both death and of the burden of

text: disease

text: , and exposure to

text: risk factor

text: s is high: more than 300 million men

text: smoke cigarettes

text: and 160 million adults are

text: hypertensive

text: , most of whom are not being treated.  An

text: obesity

text: epidemic

text: is imminent, with more than 20% of children aged 7–17 years in big cities now

text: overweight

text: or

text: obese

text: .  Rates of death from chronic disease in

text: middle-aged

text: people are higher in China than in some high-income countries.

text: Like other forms of smoking, cigar smoking poses a significant health risk depending on dosage: risks are greater for those who inhale more when they smoke, smoke more cigars, or smoke them longer. The risk of dying from any cause is significantly greater for cigar smokers, with the risk particularly higher for smokers less than 65 years old, and with risk for moderate and deep inhalers reaching levels similar to cigarette smokers. The increased risk for those smoking 1–2 cigars per day is too small to be statistically significant, and the health risks of the 3/4 of cigar smokers who smoke less than daily are not known and are hard to measure. Although it has been claimed that people who smoke few cigars have no increased risk, a more accurate statement is that their risks are proportionate to their exposure. Health risks are similar to cigarette smoking in nicotine addiction, periodontal health, tooth loss, and many types of cancer, including cancers of the mouth, throat, and esophagus. Cigar smoking also can cause cancers of the lung and larynx, where the increased risk is less than that of cigarettes. Many of these cancers have extremely low cure rates. Cigar smoking also increases the risk of lung and heart diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

text: Like other forms of smoking,

text: cigar

text: smoking poses a significant health risk depending on dosage: risks are greater for those who inhale more when they smoke, smoke more cigars, or smoke them longer. The risk of dying from any cause is significantly greater for cigar smokers, with the risk particularly higher for smokers less than 65 years old, and with risk for moderate and deep inhalers reaching levels similar to cigarette smokers. The increased risk for those smoking 1–2 cigars per day is too small to be statistically significant, and the health risks of the 3/4 of cigar smokers who smoke less than daily are not known and are hard to measure. Although it has been claimed that people who smoke few cigars have no increased risk, a more accurate statement is that their risks are proportionate to their exposure. Health risks are similar to

text: cigarette

text: smoking in

text: nicotine

text: addiction,

text: periodontal

text: health, tooth loss, and many types of cancer, including cancers of the

text: mouth

text: , throat, and

text: esophagus

text: . Cigar smoking also can cause cancers of the

text: lung

text: and

text: larynx

text: , where the increased risk is less than that of cigarettes. Many of these cancers have extremely low cure rates. Cigar smoking also increases the risk of lung and heart diseases such as

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: Charles Badham, FRS (17 April 1780 – 10 November 1845) was a physician from London, England who gave bronchitis its name.

text: Charles Badham, FRS (17 April 1780 – 10 November 1845) was a physician from London, England who gave

text: bronchitis

text: its name.

text: Cryptococcal disease is a very rare disease that can affect the lungs (pneumonia) and nervous system (causing meningitis and focal brain lesions called cryptococcomas) in humans. The main complication of lung infection is respiratory failure. Central nervous system infection may lead to hydrocephalus, seizures and focal neurological deficit.

text: Cryptococcal disease is a very rare disease that can affect the lungs (

text: pneumonia

text: ) and nervous system (causing meningitis and focal brain lesions called cryptococcomas) in humans. The main complication of lung infection is respiratory failure. Central nervous system infection may lead to

text: hydrocephalus

text: , seizures and focal neurological deficit.

text: Cilomilast (INN, codenamed SB-207,499, proposed trade name Ariflo) is a drug which was developed for the treatment of respiratory disorders such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It is orally active and acts as a selective phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor.

text: Cilomilast (

text: INN

text: , codenamed SB-207,499, proposed trade name Ariflo) is a drug which was developed for the treatment of respiratory disorders such as

text: asthma

text: and

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD). It is orally active and acts as a selective

text: phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitor

text: Zimbabwe is ranked among the 22 countries, where tuberculosis occurs frequently. In 2000, the incidence rate of tuberculosis reached 726 incidents per 100,000 people, where as in 2011, the number decreased to 603 incidents per 100,000 people. In 2011, the number of incidences of tuberculosis in Zimbabwe was 80 thousand, and the amount of deaths from this disease was 3.4 thousand. Africa is the top continent where tuberculosis occurs frequently, as it reached an estimated value of 2.3 million for incidences in 2010 by the World Health Organization.

text: Zimbabwe is ranked among the 22 countries, where

text: tuberculosis

text: occurs frequently. In 2000, the incidence rate of tuberculosis reached 726 incidents per 100,000 people, where as in 2011, the number decreased to 603 incidents per 100,000 people. In 2011, the number of incidences of tuberculosis in Zimbabwe was 80 thousand, and the amount of deaths from this disease was 3.4 thousand. Africa is the top continent where tuberculosis occurs frequently, as it reached an estimated value of 2.3 million for incidences in 2010 by the

text: World Health Organization

text: The World Health Organization (2003)  has labeled poor adherence to prescription medications and treatment a "worldwide problem of striking magnitude". Adherence according to the WHO (2003) is defined as "the extent to which a person's behavior—taking medication, following a diet, and/or executing lifestyle changes, corresponds with agreed recommendations from a health care provider" (Haynes, 1979; Rand, 1993 ).  Non-adherence influences health care utilization and costs, morbidity, and health outcomes (Drotar, 2000). Potentially effective treatments become ineffective by non-adherence and clinical benefits are not received. For example, up to 20% of patients fail to fill new prescriptions and 50% of people with chronic health conditions discontinue their medication within six months. Adherence to behavioral treatments is also poor. For example, no more than 30% of patients quit smoking at their provider's request, even those with lung conditions. At the same rate, the leading causes of death (Heart disease, cancer, stroke and chronic lower respiratory diseases- see http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lcod.htm) contain behavioral related causes and treatments. Therefore, adherence is a lifelong, mortality risk.

text: Signs of respiratory disease include tachycardia and tachypnea with pyrexia, dyspnea, mucoid nasal discharge, hypersalivation and abnormal lung sounds. Systemic signs such as lethargy and anorexia are seen.

text: Signs of respiratory disease include

text: tachycardia

text: and

text: tachypnea

text: with

text: pyrexia

text: dyspnea

text: , mucoid nasal discharge,

text: hypersalivation

text: and abnormal lung sounds. Systemic signs such as lethargy and

text: anorexia

text: are seen.

text: Chronic Mycoplasma pneumonia and Chlamydia pneumonia infections are associated with the onset and exacerbation of asthma.  These microbial infections result in chronic lower airway inflammation, impaired mucociliary clearance, an increase in mucous production and eventually asthma. Furthermore, children who experience severe viral respiratory infections early in life have a high possibility of having asthma later in their childhood. These viral respiratory infections are mostly caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and human rhinovirus (HRV). Although RSV infections increase the risk of asthma in early childhood, the association between asthma and RSV decreases with increasing age. HRV on the other hand is an important cause of bronchiolitis and is strongly associated with asthma development. In children and adults with established asthma, viral upper respiratory tract infections (URIs), especially HRVs infections, can produce acute exacerbations of asthma. Thus, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and human rhinoviruses are microbes that play a major role in non-atopic asthma.

text: Chronic

text: Mycoplasma pneumonia

text: and Chlamydia pneumonia infections are associated with the onset and exacerbation of

text: asthma

text: .  These microbial infections result in chronic lower airway

text: inflammation

text: , impaired mucociliary clearance, an increase in mucous production and eventually asthma. Furthermore, children who experience severe viral respiratory infections early in life have a high possibility of having asthma later in their childhood. These viral respiratory infections are mostly caused by

text: respiratory syncytial virus

text: (RSV) and human

text: rhinovirus

text: (HRV). Although RSV infections increase the risk of asthma in early childhood, the association between asthma and RSV decreases with increasing age. HRV on the other hand is an important cause of

text: bronchiolitis

text: and is strongly associated with asthma development. In children and adults with established asthma, viral

text: upper respiratory tract infections

text: (URIs), especially HRVs infections, can produce acute exacerbations of asthma. Thus,

text: Chlamydia pneumoniae

text: Mycoplasma pneumoniae

text: and human rhinoviruses are microbes that play a major role in non-atopic asthma.

text: The collapse of the World Trade Center produced enormous clouds of dust that covered Manhattan for days.  On September 18, 2001, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)  issued a statement assuring the public that the air in Manhattan was "safe to breathe". In a report published in 2003, however, the EPA's inspector general found that the agency did not at that time have sufficient data to make such a statement. In fact, the collapse of the World Trade Center resulted in serious reductions in air quality and is likely the cause of many respiratory illnesses among first responders, residents, and office workers in lower Manhattan. Asbestosis is such an illness, and asbestos would have been present in the dust. In 2011 significant long term medical and psychological effects were found among first responders including elevated levels of asthma, sinusitis, gastroesophageal reflux disease and posttraumatic stress disorder.

text: The collapse of the World Trade Center produced enormous clouds of dust that covered Manhattan for days.  On September 18, 2001, the

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA)  issued a statement assuring the public that the air in Manhattan was "safe to breathe". In a report published in 2003, however, the EPA's inspector general found that the agency did not at that time have sufficient data to make such a statement. In fact, the collapse of the World Trade Center resulted in serious reductions in air quality and is likely the cause of many respiratory illnesses among first responders, residents, and office workers in lower Manhattan. Asbestosis is such an illness, and

text: asbestos

text: would have been present in the dust. In 2011 significant long term medical and psychological effects were found among first responders including elevated levels of

text: asthma

text: sinusitis

text: gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: and

text: posttraumatic stress disorder

text: Pneumonia is a common illness affecting approximately 450 million people a year and occurring in all parts of the world. It is a major cause of death among all age groups resulting in 4 million deaths (7% of the world's total death) yearly. Rates are greatest in children less than five, and adults older than 75 years. It occurs about five times more frequently in the developing world than in the developed world. Viral pneumonia accounts for about 200 million cases. In the United States, as of 2009, pneumonia is the 8th leading cause of death.

text: Pneumonia is a common illness affecting approximately 450 million people a year and occurring in all parts of the world. It is a major cause of death among all age groups resulting in 4 million deaths (7% of the world's total death) yearly. Rates are greatest in children less than five, and adults older than 75 years. It occurs about five times more frequently in the

text: developing world

text: than in the

text: developed world

text: . Viral pneumonia accounts for about 200 million cases. In the United States, as of 2009, pneumonia is the 8th leading cause of death.

text: The violence directed towards women during the conflict was extraordinarily brutal. Militias were indiscriminate about the ages of those assaulted, and there was a marked tendency towards younger women and girls believed to be virgins. Some women were raped with such violence they bled to death following the assault. A report by MSF showed that fifty five per cent of survivors had suffered gang rape, with the attacks usually involving insertion of objects such as knives and burning firewood into the vagina. There were reports of pregnant women being eviscerated with rebels placing wagers on the gender of the unborn child. Thirty four per cent of survivors have reported that they have caught a sexually transmitted disease, and a further fifteen per cent have reported being ostracised by their family's due to having been raped. Six percent reported that they had been forcibly impregnated. Women who had been kidnapped and who had spent years living in the bush have reported severe health problems, such as tuberculosis, malnutrition, malaria, skin and intestinal infections, and respiratory diseases.

text: The violence directed towards women during the conflict was extraordinarily brutal. Militias were indiscriminate about the ages of those assaulted, and there was a marked tendency towards younger women and girls believed to be virgins. Some women were raped with such violence they bled to death following the assault. A report by MSF showed that fifty five per cent of survivors had suffered

text: gang rape

text: , with the attacks usually involving insertion of objects such as knives and burning firewood into the vagina. There were reports of pregnant women being eviscerated with rebels placing wagers on the gender of the unborn child. Thirty four per cent of survivors have reported that they have caught a sexually transmitted disease, and a further fifteen per cent have reported being ostracised by their family's due to having been raped. Six percent reported that they had been

text: forcibly impregnated

text: . Women who had been kidnapped and who had spent years living in the bush have reported severe health problems, such as tuberculosis, malnutrition, malaria, skin and intestinal infections, and respiratory diseases.

text: For years, the industrial emissions in the Cornwall area fuelled public health concerns about respiratory disease and cancer.  In 1995 Health Canada reported the rate of hospitalization for asthma was approximately double that of cities such as Hamilton, Sudbury and Windsor.  Further research, showed that infants under two years of age had four times the expected hospital admission rate for asthma.  Lung and male rectal cancer rates were also elevated in comparison with the rest of the province.

text: For years, the industrial emissions in the Cornwall area fuelled public health concerns about respiratory disease and cancer.  In 1995 Health Canada reported the rate of hospitalization for asthma was approximately double that of cities such as

text: Hamilton

text: Sudbury

text: and

text: Windsor

text: .  Further research, showed that infants under two years of age had four times the expected hospital admission rate for asthma.  Lung and male rectal cancer rates were also elevated in comparison with the rest of the province.

text: Infection usually results in disease of the gastrointestinal or respiratory tract. Infection may also cause ocular or generalised signs and may contribute to enzootic pneumonia, depending on the serotype of the virus. However, infection may not always result in disease as the virus can be isolated in healthy cattle.

text: Infection usually results in disease of the gastrointestinal or respiratory tract. Infection may also cause

text: ocular

text: or generalised signs and may contribute to

text: enzootic pneumonia

text: , depending on the serotype of the virus. However, infection may not always result in disease as the virus can be isolated in healthy cattle.

text: Both H. influenzae and S. pneumoniae can be found in the upper respiratory system of humans. In an in vitro study of competition, S. pneumoniae always overpowered H. influenzae by attacking it with hydrogen peroxide and stripping off the surface molecules H. influenzae needs for survival.

text: Both H. influenzae and

text: S. pneumoniae

text: can be found in the upper respiratory system of humans. In an in vitro study of competition, S. pneumoniae always overpowered H. influenzae by attacking it with

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: and stripping off the surface molecules H. influenzae needs for survival.

text: Air trapping, also called gas trapping, is an abnormal retention of air in the lungs where it is difficult to exhale completely.  It is observed in obstructive lung diseases such as asthma, bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

text: Air trapping, also called gas trapping, is an abnormal retention of air in the

text: lungs

text: where it is difficult to exhale completely.  It is observed in

text: obstructive lung disease

text: s such as

text: asthma

text: , bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome and

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: s such as

text: emphysema

text: and

text: chronic bronchitis

text: Second-hand smoke is a mixture of smoke from the burning end of a cigarette, pipe or cigar, and the smoke exhaled from the lungs of smokers. It is involuntarily inhaled, lingers in the air hours after cigarettes have been extinguished, and may cause a wide range of adverse health effects, including cancer, respiratory infections and asthma. Non-smokers who are exposed to second-hand smoke at home or work are thought, due to a wide variety of statistical studies, to increase their heart disease risk by 25–30% and their lung cancer risk by 20–30%. Second-hand smoke has been estimated to cause 38,000 deaths per year, of which 3,400 are deaths from lung cancer in non-smokers.

text: Second-hand smoke is a mixture of smoke from the burning end of a cigarette, pipe or cigar, and the smoke exhaled from the lungs of smokers. It is involuntarily inhaled, lingers in the air hours after cigarettes have been extinguished, and may cause a wide range of adverse health effects, including cancer,

text: respiratory infections

text: and

text: asthma

text: . Non-smokers who are exposed to second-hand smoke at home or work are thought, due to a wide variety of statistical studies, to increase their heart disease risk by 25–30% and their lung cancer risk by 20–30%. Second-hand smoke has been estimated to cause 38,000 deaths per year, of which 3,400 are deaths from lung cancer in non-smokers.

text: The Hunter's Point shipyard's toxic waste pollution has been cited for elevated rates of asthma and other respiratory diseases among residents.  Clean-up of the site is underway.

text: The Hunter's Point shipyard's

text: toxic waste

text: pollution has been cited for elevated rates of asthma and other respiratory diseases among residents.  Clean-up of the site is underway.

text: Because of their constant exposure to cook fires, women and children are particularly at risk. Indoor air pollution causes 56% of deaths and 80% of the global burden of disease for children under the age of five. Indoor air pollution also increases the risk of acute lower respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and is associated with tuberculosis, perinatal mortality, low birth weight, asthma, otitis media, cancer of the upper airway, and cataracts. Respiratory disease in children is the leading cause of death for children, though malaria and diarrheal diseases are better known. Indoor air pollution also disproportionately effects refugee, poor urban, and HIV/AIDs populations living in crowded and poorly ventilated conditions, and already carrying the burden of disease.

text: Because of their constant exposure to cook fires, women and children are particularly at risk.

entity_name: Indoor air pollution in developing nations

text: Indoor air pollution

text: causes 56% of deaths and 80% of the

text: global burden of disease

text: for children under the age of five. Indoor air pollution also increases the risk of acute lower respiratory infections,

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: , and is associated with tuberculosis,

text: perinatal mortality

text: , low birth weight, asthma,

text: otitis media

text: , cancer of the upper airway, and

text: cataract

text: s. Respiratory disease in children is the leading cause of death for children, though

text: malaria

text: and diarrheal diseases are better known. Indoor air pollution also disproportionately effects refugee, poor urban, and HIV/AIDs populations living in crowded and poorly ventilated conditions, and already carrying the burden of disease.

text: There is an association between pneumococcal pneumonia and influenza. Damage to the lining of the airways (respiratory epithelium) and upper respiratory system caused by influenza may facilitate pneumococcal entry and infection.

text: There is an association between pneumococcal pneumonia and

text: influenza

text: . Damage to the lining of the airways (

text: respiratory epithelium

text: ) and

text: upper respiratory system

text: caused by influenza may facilitate pneumococcal entry and infection.

text: The beneficiaries of World Friends’ projects come from backgrounds marked by poverty, violence, criminality, prostitution, the precariousness of housing and work, pollution, diseases. The health problems found by the health workers of World Friends are innumerable: gastroenteritis and severe respiratory diseases, especially in children; a permanent status of malnutrition and the presence of typhoid fever and malaria. Tuberculosis is in evident recrudescence; the number of children with physical handicaps is high. The diagnosis of ailments requiring surgery and the incidence of cancer – the latter showing a clear increase – is often delayed due to the intrinsic inefficiencies of the health systems in African countries. The lack of specialist services for diagnosis and treatment accessible to the poor worsens the outcomes of traumas and burns, very frequent among children, often causing permanent disabilities in a context where physical integrity is linked to the survival of the individual. The transmission of sexual diseases is very widespread, AIDS in particular being a very real scourge.

text: The beneficiaries of World Friends’ projects come from backgrounds marked by

text: poverty

text: violence

text: criminality

text: prostitution

text: , the precariousness of housing and work,

text: pollution

text: , diseases. The health problems found by the health workers of World Friends are innumerable:

text: gastroenteritis

text: and severe

text: respiratory diseases

text: , especially in children; a permanent status of

text: malnutrition

text: and the presence of

text: typhoid fever

text: and

text: malaria

text: . Tuberculosis is in

text: evident recrudescence

text: ; the number of children with physical

text: handicaps

text: is high. The diagnosis of ailments requiring surgery and the incidence of

text: cancer

text: – the latter showing a clear increase – is often delayed due to the intrinsic inefficiencies of the

text: health systems

text: in African countries. The lack of specialist services for diagnosis and treatment accessible to the poor worsens the outcomes of traumas and burns, very frequent among children, often causing permanent disabilities in a context where physical integrity is linked to the survival of the individual. The transmission of

text: sexual diseases

text: is very widespread, AIDS in particular being a

text: very real scourge

text: There are a wide range of chemicals utilized in textile production for dyeing and printing, which these workers can be exposed to.  These chemicals include but are not limited to bleaching agents and azo dyes.  Azo dyes, such as aniline and benzadine, are the most prevalent in use currently, accounting for over 50% of dyes produced annually.  This is due to its high stability in light and washing as well as resistance to microbial activity.  The toxic effects of these dyes include hypersensitivity and irritant effects such as contact dermatitis and asthma, as well as exposure related concerns for such malignancies as bladder, nasal, esophagus, stomach, colon, rectal, nasopharyngeal and lung cancers.  Studies have postulated that hypersensitivity effects may be due to alterations in neutrophil function and sensitization, contributing to chronic inflammatory diseases of the skin and respiratory tract.  Once this sensitization has occurred, an individual becomes more susceptible to developing allergic disease on subsequent contact with the offending agent. Exposure from these chemicals typically occurs via direct contact with the skin or inhalation of dye particles. While there is no evidence to suggest that most dyestuffs currently in use in these industries are harmful at the levels workers are generally exposed to, the concern lies with long term or accidental over-exposure.  This long term or excessive exposure can sensitize the worker’s immune system, leading to hypersensitivity reactions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis on subsequent exposure as mentioned above.  Additionally, studies have demonstrated concerns regarding exposure to textile dyes and occupational bladder cancer due to aniline dye intermediates such as beta-naphthylamine and benzidine, which has long been identified as a human urinary carcinogen. The latency period between exposure and diagnosis has been estimated at up to 23 years.  Current screening recommendations for detection of long term health effects from dye exposure include hematologic testing to look for microcytic anemia and leukopenia.  However, many females working in this industry do not have access to such screening and surveillance due to lack of quality medical care.

text: Lung cancer is one of the most lethal and common forms of cancer worldwide. Pollution, smoking (active and passive), radiation (in the form of x-rays or gamma rays) and asbestos are risk factors for lung cancer. Symptoms may include persistent cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fatigue, and swelling of the neck and face. There are different types of lung cancers, which can metastasize. Treatments include chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation. The treatment aimed at killing the cancer can also eliminate functioning lung cells (leukocytes).Specific genetic factors can add to the risk of developing lung cancer. There are regions on chromosomes which are highly susceptible to mutation and, if present, increase the risk of developing lung cancer. These loci are the specific locations of a gene or a DNA sequence on a chromosome. Several loci are associated with an increased risk of developing lung cancer.Approximately 26 different genes can mutate into one type of lung cancer, known as carcinoma. An example is the MAP pathway, which is inhibited by ME (a lung cancer treatment). The risk of developing lung cancer is higher for those with a family history of the disease. A second way the risk could go up is if the individual lives with a smoker.

text: Lung cancer is one of the most lethal and common forms of cancer worldwide. Pollution, smoking (active and

text: passive

text: radiation

text: (in the form of x-rays or gamma rays) and

text: asbestos

text: are risk factors for lung cancer. Symptoms may include persistent cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fatigue, and swelling of the neck and face. There are different types of lung cancers, which can

text: metastasize

text: . Treatments include

text: chemotherapy

text: , surgery, and

text: radiation

text: . The treatment aimed at killing the cancer can also eliminate functioning lung cells (leukocytes).Specific genetic factors can add to the risk of developing lung cancer. There are regions on chromosomes which are highly susceptible to mutation and, if present, increase the risk of developing lung cancer. These loci are the specific locations of a gene or a DNA sequence on a chromosome. Several loci are associated with an increased risk of developing lung cancer.Approximately 26 different genes can mutate into one type of lung cancer, known as carcinoma. An example is the MAP pathway, which is inhibited by ME (a lung cancer treatment). The risk of developing lung cancer is higher for those with a family history of the disease. A second way the risk could go up is if the individual lives with a smoker.

text: His research involved studies on tuberculosis, respiratory, circulatory, metabolic and infectious diseases. With Gustav von Bergmann, he published the second edition of the Handbuch der inneren Medizin (1925-1931).

text: His research involved studies on

text: tuberculosis

text: respiratory

text: circulatory

text: metabolic

text: and

text: infectious diseases

text: . With

text: Gustav von Bergmann

text: , he published the second edition of the Handbuch der inneren Medizin (1925-1931).

text: Eco-cities aid in creating healthier urban populations through the implementation of sustainable practices that improve environmental standards and, as a result, decrease the strain on public health. By employing practices that aim to reduce air pollution, eco-city standards have an indirect effect on decreasing rates of respiratory disease within urban areas. According to the World Health Organization, urban outdoor air pollution is responsible for over 1.3 million deaths worldwide per year. Additionally, “the mortality in cities with high levels of pollution exceeds that observed in relatively cleaner cities by 15–20%."  Through the implementation of “clean” practices, eco-cities greatly assist in decreasing the disease burden placed on urban residents by decreasing the risk factors associated with cardiovascular and respiratory diseases as well as various forms of cancer.

text: Eco-cities aid in creating healthier urban populations through the implementation of sustainable practices that improve environmental standards and, as a result, decrease the strain on

text: public health

text: . By employing practices that aim to reduce

text: air pollution

text: , eco-city standards have an indirect effect on decreasing rates of

text: respiratory disease

text: within urban areas. According to the

text: World Health Organization

text: , urban outdoor air pollution is responsible for over 1.3 million deaths worldwide per year. Additionally, “the mortality in cities with high levels of pollution exceeds that observed in relatively cleaner cities by 15–20%."  Through the implementation of “clean” practices, eco-cities greatly assist in decreasing the disease burden placed on urban residents by decreasing the risk factors associated with cardiovascular and respiratory diseases as well as various forms of cancer.

text: The leading causes of death in children under 5 can be attributed to prematurity, pneumonia, “other,” birth asphyxia, and congenital abnormalities.Leading causes of death in the population are diseases of the circulatory system, neoplasms, “other,” accidents and injuries, and diseases of respiratory and digestive systems. Infectious diseases are still the source of significant health problems, especially tuberculosis. As in the rest of the former Soviet Union, especially among men, tobacco is a major contribution to the burden of disease; more than half of the population's males are tobacco users. Child immunization rates are surprisingly low and stood between 30-50% in the early 1990s, rising to 70-90% in the early 2000s.

text: In 1963 she caught a respiratory disease and was interned in a tuberculosis sanitarium in Belo Horizonte. She got better but began to breathe with only a small area of her lungs until her death in 1985.

text: In 1963 she caught a respiratory disease and was interned in a tuberculosis sanitarium in

text: Belo Horizonte

text: . She got better but began to breathe with only a small area of her lungs until her death in 1985.

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) has provided a set of detailed guidelines for measuring disease burden at the local or national level.  In 2004, the health issue leading to the highest YLD for both men and women was unipolar depression; in 2010, it was lower back pain. According to an article in The Lancet published in November 2014, disorders in those aged 60 years and older represent "23% of the total global burden of disease" and leading contributors to disease burden in this group in 2014 were "cardiovascular diseases (30.3%), malignant neoplasms (15.1%), chronic respiratory diseases (9.5%), musculoskeletal diseases (7.5%), and neurological and mental disorders (6.6%)."

text: The

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) has provided a set of detailed guidelines for measuring disease burden at the local or national level.  In 2004, the health issue leading to the highest YLD for both men and women was

text: unipolar depression

text: ; in 2010, it was

text: lower back pain

text: . According to an article in The Lancet published in November 2014, disorders in those aged 60 years and older represent "23% of the total global burden of disease" and leading contributors to disease burden in this group in 2014 were "cardiovascular diseases (30.3%), malignant neoplasms (15.1%), chronic respiratory diseases (9.5%), musculoskeletal diseases (7.5%), and neurological and mental disorders (6.6%)."

text: Toward the end of the 19th century, kumis had a strong enough reputation as a cure-all to support a small industry of "kumis cure" resorts, mostly in south-eastern Russia, where patients were "furnished with suitable light and varied amusement" during their treatment, which consisted of drinking large quantities of kumis. W. Gilman Thompson's 1906 Practical Diatetics reported kumis has been cited as beneficial for a range of chronic diseases, including tuberculosis, bronchitis, catarrh,  and anemia. Gilman also said a large part of the credit for the successes of the "kumis cure" is due not to the beverage, but to favorable summer climates at the resorts. Among notables to try the cure were writers Leo Tolstoy and Anton Chekhov. Chekhov, long-suffering from tuberculosis, checked into a "kumis cure" resort in 1901. Drinking four bottles a day for two weeks, he gained 12 pounds, but no cure.

text: Toward the end of the 19th century, kumis had a strong enough reputation as a

text: cure-all

text: to support a small industry of "kumis cure" resorts, mostly in south-eastern Russia, where patients were "furnished with suitable light and varied amusement" during their treatment, which consisted of drinking large quantities of kumis. W. Gilman Thompson's 1906 Practical Diatetics reported kumis has been cited as beneficial for a range of

text: chronic diseases

text: , including

text: tuberculosis

text: bronchitis

text: catarrh

text: ,  and

text: anemia

text: . Gilman also said a large part of the credit for the successes of the "kumis cure" is due not to the beverage, but to favorable summer climates at the resorts. Among notables to try the cure were writers

text: Leo Tolstoy

text: and

text: Anton Chekhov

text: . Chekhov, long-suffering from tuberculosis, checked into a "kumis cure" resort in 1901. Drinking four bottles a day for two weeks, he gained 12 pounds, but no cure.

text: UNICEF, the World Health Organization, and many national government health agencies recommend that babies are breastfed exclusively for their first six months of life. Studies have shown that breastfed babies are less likely to suffer from serious illnesses, including gastroenteritis, asthma, eczema, and respiratory and ear infections. Adults who were breastfed as babies may be less likely to develop risk factors for heart disease such as obesity and high blood pressure. There are benefits for mothers too: women who don't breastfeed have increased risk of developing heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol, breast cancer, ovarian cancer and hip fractures in later life. The BFHI aims to increase the numbers of babies who are exclusively breastfed worldwide, a goal which the WHO estimates could contribute to avoiding over a million child deaths each year, and potentially many premature maternal deaths as well.

text: UNICEF, the World Health Organization, and many national government health agencies recommend that babies are

text: breastfed exclusively

text: for their first six months of life. Studies have shown that breastfed babies are less likely to suffer from serious illnesses, including

text: gastroenteritis

text: asthma

text: eczema

text: , and respiratory and ear infections. Adults who were breastfed as babies may be less likely to develop risk factors for

text: heart disease

text: such as

text: obesity

text: and

text: high blood pressure

text: . There are benefits for mothers too: women who don't breastfeed have increased risk of developing heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, high cholesterol,

text: breast cancer

text: ovarian cancer

text: and hip fractures in later life. The BFHI aims to increase the numbers of babies who are exclusively breastfed worldwide, a goal which the WHO estimates could contribute to avoiding over a million child deaths each year, and potentially many premature maternal deaths as well.

text: In June 2012 the British Lung Foundation released a report looking at the health impacts of smoking cannabis. In one section, the report claimed "each cannabis cigarette increases the chances of developing lung cancer by as much as an entire packet of 20 tobacco cigarettes". The report referenced a 2008 study, "Cannabis use and risk of lung cancer: a case-control study" (Aldington et al.), published in the European Respiratory Journal, to support the claim, which was repeated by the charity's then chief executive, Dame Helena Shovelton, in media interviews. This study was refuted 7 months later in the European Respiratory Journal, long before the BLF's claim. In a BBC radio interview, Kevin Williamson, author of "Drugs and the Party line", said that there was "no scientific basis to the claim", citing an earlier study of 2200 people published in Cancer Epidemiological Biomarkers and Prevention that had found "that the association of these cancers with marijuana, even long-term or heavy use, is not strong and may be below practically detectable limits". It is unknown why these findings were omitted in the BLF's claim of "one joint is as bad as 20 cigarettes".  Williamson then asked the charity's representative, to cite the research that supported the charity's claim. When he declined to do so, Williamson accused the charity of "putting out bogus information" for "headline grabbing". Online journalist Keelan Balderson  accused the charity of peddling "a long debunked myth" (claiming that it was not the first such incident, citing an earlier BLF claim that "3 joints are equal to 20 cigarettes", taken from a report published in 2002, before the publication of the European Respiratory Journal study.). Peter Reynolds, leader of the political party Cannabis Law Reform (Clear), described the report as a "dangerously irresponsible mix of conjecture, extremist opinion and scaremongering". The British Lung Foundation’s responded by asserting that the report was based on sound research, and that "the report references over 80 peer-reviewed research papers, is the most comprehensive report of its kind yet compiled, and has itself been peer-reviewed by independent experts".

text: In June 2012 the British Lung Foundation released a report looking at the health impacts of smoking cannabis. In one section, the report claimed "each cannabis cigarette increases the chances of developing lung cancer by as much as an entire packet of 20 tobacco cigarettes". The report referenced a 2008 study, "Cannabis use and risk of lung cancer: a case-control study" (Aldington et al.), published in the European Respiratory Journal, to support the claim, which was repeated by the charity's then chief executive,

text: Dame Helena Shovelton

text: , in media interviews. This study was refuted 7 months later in the European Respiratory Journal, long before the BLF's claim. In a BBC radio interview,

text: Kevin Williamson

text: Chronic:  Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia, respiratory bronchiolitis associated interstitial lung disease, desquamative interstitial pneumonia, drug-induced lung diseases, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis

text: Lung cancer is a large and exceptionally heterogeneous family of malignancies. Over 50 different histological variants of lung cancer are explicitly recognized within the fourth (2004) revision of the World Health Organization Classification of Lung Tumours ("WHO-2004"). Many of these entities are quite rare, have only been recently described, and remain poorly understood.

text: Lung cancer is a large and exceptionally

text: heterogeneous

text: family of malignancies. Over 50 different histological variants of lung cancer are explicitly recognized within the fourth (2004) revision of the

text: World Health Organization

text: Classification of Lung Tumours ("WHO-2004"). Many of these entities are quite rare, have only been recently described, and remain poorly understood.

text:
Most pet owners are not aware that their pet has an oral problem so an examination of the Oral Cavity Overview should form part of every physical examination. Oral examination in a conscious animal can only give limited information and a definitive oral examination can only be performed under general anaesthesia.

It is important to examine the whole animal, even when the primary complaint is the mouth. Some dental diseases may be the result of a systemic problem and some may result in systemic complications. In all cases, dental procedures require a general anaesthetic so it is important to establish the cardiovascular and respiratory status and canine and feline physiological values of the patient to avoid risks or complications.

Pain originating from dental problems is very rarely recognized by owners or professionals. Seldom will an animal become anorexic due to a dental problem. The exception to this is in the case of severe soft tissue injury, for example chronic gingivostomatitis. In general dental pain is a chronic pain, and it is only after treatment that an owner reports how much better their pet is doing. Pain is often mistaken for a pet just getting old.Very few clients examine their pets’ teeth unless they are carrying out daily home care, so actual dental problems often go unnoticed.

It is important to recognize symptoms that may have a link to dental diseases such as a nasal discharge or external facial swellings. In some cases, dental patients may even present with what appear to be neurological symptoms.

The main signs of oral disease include :

text: Most pet owners are not aware that their pet has an oral problem so an examination of the Oral Cavity Overview should form part of every physical examination. Oral examination in a conscious animal can only give limited information and a definitive oral examination can only be performed under general

text: anaesthesia

text:
.

It is important to examine the whole animal, even when the primary complaint is the mouth. Some dental diseases may be the result of a systemic problem and some may result in systemic complications. In all cases, dental procedures require a general anaesthetic so it is important to establish the cardiovascular and respiratory status and canine and feline physiological values of the patient to avoid risks or complications.

Pain originating from dental problems is very rarely recognized by owners or professionals. Seldom will an animal become anorexic due to a dental problem. The exception to this is in the case of severe soft tissue injury, for example chronic gingivostomatitis. In general dental pain is a chronic pain, and it is only after treatment that an owner reports how much better their pet is doing. Pain is often mistaken for a pet just getting old.Very few clients examine their pets’ teeth unless they are carrying out daily home care, so actual dental problems often go unnoticed.

It is important to recognize symptoms that may have a link to dental diseases such as a nasal discharge or external facial swellings. In some cases, dental patients may even present with what appear to be neurological symptoms.

The main signs of oral disease include :

text: 1956 Following a decline in TB deaths, National Tuberculosis Association voted to include other respiratory diseases its mission.

text: 1956 Following a decline in TB deaths, National Tuberculosis Association voted to include other

text: respiratory diseases

text: its mission.

text: Parachlamydia acanthamoebae has been shown to infect and multiply in simian and human cells.  Experimental models were able to demonstrate that this bacterium can enter, replicate, and lyse in human macrophages and pneumocytes. A study in 2003 examined P. acanthamoebae’s ability to enter and survive in human macrophages.  These researchers collected human macrophages and placed these cells on growth plates in conjunction with P. acanthamoebae.  The results for this study showed that after an 8-hour time period, eighty percent of the macrophages incubated with live P. acanthamoebae were infected with an average of 3.8 bacteria and were located in vacuoles.  Their results also shows that the P. acanthamoebae cells continued to replicate within the macrophages, and eventually caused apoptosis.  Although research on this bacterium and how it can affect humans is minimal, there are several studies that link P. acanthamoebae to the onset of illnesses in humans.  The diseases that have been connected to this bacterium primarily affect the respiratory system.  Research shows that pneumonia, bronchitis, and atherosclerosis are among the most common complications that have arisen from ingestion of this bacterium by humans. Although these studies show that P. acanthamoebae is linked to human diseases, researchers have not been able to isolate this bacteria directly from a human.

text: Parachlamydia acanthamoebae has been shown to infect and multiply in

text: simian

text: and human cells.  Experimental models were able to demonstrate that this

text: bacterium

text: can enter, replicate, and

text: lyse

text: in human

text: macrophages

text: and

text: pneumocytes

text: . A study in 2003 examined P. acanthamoebae’s ability to enter and survive in human

text: macrophages

text: .  These researchers collected human

text: macrophages

text: and placed these cells on growth plates in conjunction with P. acanthamoebae.  The results for this study showed that after an 8-hour time period, eighty percent of the

text: macrophages

text: incubated with live P. acanthamoebae were infected with an average of 3.8

text: bacteria

text: and were located in

text: vacuoles

text: .  Their results also shows that the P. acanthamoebae cells continued to replicate within the

text: macrophages

text: , and eventually caused

text: apoptosis

text: .  Although research on this

text: bacterium

text: and how it can affect humans is minimal, there are several studies that link P. acanthamoebae to the onset of illnesses in humans.  The diseases that have been connected to this

text: bacterium

text: primarily affect the

text: respiratory system

text: .  Research shows that

text: pneumonia

text: bronchitis

text: , and

text: atherosclerosis

text: are among the most common complications that have arisen from ingestion of this

text: bacterium

text: by humans. Although these studies show that P. acanthamoebae is linked to human diseases, researchers have not been able to isolate this

text: bacteria

text: directly from a human.

text: Mycoplasma pneumoniae parasitizes the respiratory tract epithelium of humans. Adherence to the respiratory epithelial cells is thought to occur via the attachment organelle, followed by evasion of host immune system by intracellular localization and adjustment of the cell membrane composition to mimic the host cell membrane.

text: Mycoplasma pneumoniae

text: parasitizes

text: the

text: respiratory tract

text: epithelium

text: of humans. Adherence to the respiratory epithelial cells is thought to occur via the attachment organelle, followed by evasion of

text: host

text: immune system

text: by

text: intracellular

text: localization and adjustment of the

text: cell membrane

text: composition to mimic the host cell membrane.

text: Porcine enzootic pneumonia is caused by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and describes an important respiratory disease of pigs.

text: Porcine enzootic pneumonia is caused by

text: Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae

text: and describes an important respiratory disease of pigs.

text: Traditionally, clinicians have classified pneumonia by clinical characteristics, dividing them into "acute" (less than three weeks duration) and "chronic" pneumonias. This is useful because chronic pneumonias tend to be either non-infectious, or mycobacterial, fungal, or mixed bacterial infections caused by airway obstruction. Acute pneumonias are further divided into the classic bacterial bronchopneumonias (such as Streptococcus pneumoniae), the atypical pneumonias (such as the interstitial pneumonitis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae or Chlamydia pneumoniae), and the aspiration pneumonia syndromes.

text: Traditionally, clinicians have classified pneumonia by clinical characteristics, dividing them into "acute" (less than three weeks duration) and "chronic" pneumonias. This is useful because chronic pneumonias tend to be either non-infectious, or mycobacterial, fungal, or mixed bacterial infections caused by airway obstruction. Acute pneumonias are further divided into the classic bacterial bronchopneumonias (such as

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: ), the atypical pneumonias (such as the interstitial pneumonitis of

text: Mycoplasma pneumoniae

text: or

text: Chlamydia pneumoniae

text: ), and the aspiration pneumonia syndromes.

text: The most important of Krka’s therapeutic groups include treatments for: cardiovascular diseases, alimentary tract diseases and metabolic disorders, and central nervous system diseases. They are followed by the medicines for the systemic treatment of infections, the medicines for the treatment of diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs, and the medicines for urinary tract diseases as well as the medicines for respiratory system diseases.

text: The most important of Krka’s therapeutic groups include treatments for:

text: cardiovascular disease

text: s,

entity_name: ICD-10 Chapter XI: Diseases of the digestive system

text: alimentary tract diseases

text: and metabolic disorders, and

text: central nervous system diseases

text: . They are followed by the medicines for the systemic treatment of infections, the medicines for the treatment of diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs, and the medicines for

entity_name: ICD-10 Chapter XIV: Diseases of the genitourinary system

text: urinary tract diseases

text: as well as the medicines for

text: respiratory system

text: diseases.

text: The USPHS continued to study the uranium miners, eventually including 4,000 American Indian and non-Indian underground uranium miners.  They added miners in 1951, 1953, 1954, 1957 and 1960. In 1962, the USPHS published the first account of the effects of radon exposure. It found a significant correlation between radon exposure and cancer. Additional studies were published in 1968, 1973, 1976, 1981, 1987, 1995 and 1997; these demonstrated linear relationships between radon exposure and lung cancer, a latency period of about 20 years between radon exposure and health effects, and noted that, while smoking tobacco caused a shorter latency period for the development of cancer, it did not fully explain the relationship between radon and cancer. Similar reports found instances of other diseases such as pneumoconiosis, tuberculosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), as well as diseases of the blood. A 2000 study of the number of cancer cases among Navajo uranium mine workers concluded that the miners were 28.6 times more likely to contract the disease than the study's control group.

text: The USPHS continued to study the uranium miners, eventually including 4,000

text: American Indian

text: and non-Indian underground uranium miners.  They added miners in 1951, 1953, 1954, 1957 and 1960. In 1962, the USPHS published the first account of the effects of radon exposure. It found a significant

text: correlation

text: between radon exposure and cancer. Additional studies were published in 1968, 1973, 1976, 1981, 1987, 1995 and 1997; these demonstrated linear relationships between radon exposure and lung cancer, a latency period of about 20 years between radon exposure and health effects, and noted that, while smoking

text: tobacco

text: caused a shorter latency period for the development of cancer, it did not fully explain the relationship between radon and cancer. Similar reports found instances of other diseases such as

text: pneumoconiosis

text: tuberculosis

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD), as well as diseases of the

text: blood

text: . A 2000 study of the number of cancer cases among Navajo uranium mine workers concluded that the miners were 28.6 times more likely to contract the disease than the study's control group.

text: Care needs to be exercised in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, such as emphysema, especially in those known to retain carbon dioxide (type II respiratory failure). Such patients may further accumulate carbon dioxide and decreased pH (hypercapnation) if administered supplemental oxygen, possibly endangering their lives. This is primarily as a result of ventilation–perfusion imbalance (see Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). In the worst case, administration of high levels of oxygen in patients with severe emphysema and high blood carbon dioxide may reduce respiratory drive to the point of precipitating respiratory failure, with an observed increase in mortality compared with those receiving titrated oxygen treatment. However, the risk of the loss of respiratory drive are far outweighed by the risks of withholding emergency oxygen, and therefore emergency administration of oxygen is never contraindicated. Transfer from field care to definitive care, where oxygen use can be carefully calibrated, typically occurs long before significant reductions to the respiratory drive.

text: Care needs to be exercised in patients with

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: , such as

text: emphysema

text: , especially in those known to retain

text: carbon dioxide

text: (type II respiratory failure). Such patients may further accumulate carbon dioxide and decreased pH (hypercapnation) if administered supplemental oxygen, possibly endangering their lives. This is primarily as a result of

text: ventilation–perfusion imbalance

text: (see

entity_name: Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: Effect of oxygen on chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: ). In the worst case, administration of high levels of oxygen in patients with severe emphysema and high blood carbon dioxide may reduce respiratory drive to the point of precipitating respiratory failure, with an observed increase in mortality compared with those receiving titrated oxygen treatment. However, the risk of the loss of respiratory drive are far outweighed by the risks of withholding emergency oxygen, and therefore emergency administration of oxygen is never contraindicated. Transfer from field care to definitive care, where oxygen use can be carefully calibrated, typically occurs long before significant reductions to the respiratory drive.

text: Tuberculosis is caused by infection with the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Almost one in four people in the world is infected with TB bacteria. Only when the bacteria become active do people become ill with TB. Bacteria become active as a result of anything that can reduce the person’s immunity, such as HIV, advancing age, or some medical conditions. TB can usually be treated with a course of four standard, or first-line, anti-TB drugs (i.e., isoniazid, rifampin and any fluoroquinolone).

text: Tuberculosis is caused by infection with the bacteria

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: . Almost one in four people in the world is infected with TB bacteria. Only when the bacteria become active do people become ill with TB. Bacteria become active as a result of anything that can reduce the person’s

text: immunity

text: , such as HIV, advancing age, or some medical conditions. TB can usually be treated with a course of four standard, or first-line, anti-TB drugs (i.e.,

text: isoniazid

text: rifampin

text: and any

text: fluoroquinolone

text: S-1– S-phase fraction– safingol– salpingo-oophorectomy– salvage therapy– samarium 153– saponin– saquinavir mesylate– sarCNU– sarcoma– sarcosinamide nitrosourea– sargramostim– satraplatin– SC-70935– SCH 54031– SCH 66336– SCH-58500– Schiller test– Schwann cell– schwannoma– scintimammography– scleroderma– screening mammogram– Scutellaria barbata– SDX-102– SDX-105– second primary cancer– second-line therapy– second-look surgery– secondary cancer– sedoxantrone trihydrochloride– segmental cystectomy– segmental mastectomy– selective estrogen receptor modulator– selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor– sella turcica– semaxanib– seminal vesicle biopsy– seminoma– semiparasitic– semustine– senile keratosis– sentinel lymph node– sentinel lymph node biopsy– sentinel lymph node mapping– seocalcitol– SERM– serotonin– sertraline– serum albumin– serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase– Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase– serum tumor marker test– sesquiterpene lactone– sestamibi breast imaging– severe myelosuppression– Sézary syndrome– SGN-00101– SGN-15– SGOT– SGPT– sham therapy– shave biopsy– Sho-saiko-to– sialic acid– sialyl Tn-KLH– side-to-end coloanal anastomosis– sideropenic dysphagia– sigmoidoscope– sigmoidoscopy– signal transduction inhibitor– signet ring cell carcinoma– SIL– sildenafil– Silybum marianum– silymarin– simple mastectomy– simple nephrectomy– single blind study– single-photon emission computed tomography– siplizumab– sirolimus– small cell lung cancer– small intestine– smoldering leukemia– smoldering myeloma– SMT-487– SnET2– SNX 111– soblidotin– sodium borocaptate– sodium salicylate– sodium sulfite– sodium thiosulfate– soft tissue sarcoma– solar keratosis– solid tumor– somatic cell– somatic mutation– somnolence syndrome– sonogram– sorivudine– specific immune cell– SPECT– SPF– spiculated mass– spindle cell cancer– spindle cell sarcoma– spiral CT scan– splenomegaly– sputum cytology– squalamine lactate– squamous cell– squamous cell carcinoma– squamous intraepithelial lesion– SR-29142– SR-45023A– SR49059– SSRI– staging– staurosporine– stavudine– stellate– stem cell– stem cell factor– stem cell transplantation– stent– stereotactic biopsy– stereotactic body radiation therapy– stereotactic external-beam radiation– stereotactic injection– stereotactic radiation therapy– stereotactic radiosurgery– stereotaxic radiosurgery– stereotaxis– steroid therapy– STI481– STI571– stoma– stomatitis– streptavidin– streptozocin– Stromagen– stromal tumor– strontium-89– Sturge-Weber syndrome– SU011248– SU101– SU5416– SU6668– subcutaneous port– subependymal– suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid– subglottis– subset analysis– subtenon– sucralfate– sulfonamide– sulindac– superior vena cava– superior vena cava syndrome– supraclavicular lymph node– supraglottic laryngectomy– supraglottis– supratentorial– suramin– surgical oncologist– survival rate– symptom management– syncytium– syngeneic bone marrow transplantation– syngeneic stem cell transplantation– synovial membrane– synovial sarcoma– synthetic protegrin analog– synthetic retinoid– systemic chemotherapy– systemic disease– systemic lupus erythematosus– systemic therapy

text: S-phase fraction

text: safingol

text: salpingo-oophorectomy

text: salvage therapy

text: samarium 153

text: saponin

text: saquinavir mesylate

text: sarCNU

text: sarcoma

text: sarcosinamide nitrosourea

text: sargramostim

text: satraplatin

text: SCH 54031

text: SCH 66336

text: Schiller test

text: Schwann cell

text: schwannoma

text: scintimammography

text: scleroderma

text: screening mammogram

text: Scutellaria barbata

text: second primary cancer

text: second-line therapy

text: second-look surgery

text: secondary cancer

text: sedoxantrone trihydrochloride

text: segmental cystectomy

text: segmental mastectomy

text: selective estrogen receptor modulator

text: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

text: sella turcica

text: semaxanib

text: seminal vesicle biopsy

text: seminoma

text: semiparasitic

text: semustine

text: senile keratosis

text: sentinel lymph node

text: sentinel lymph node biopsy

text: sentinel lymph node mapping

text: seocalcitol

text: SERM

text: serotonin

text: sertraline

text: serum albumin

text: serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase

text: Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase

text: serum tumor marker test

text: sesquiterpene lactone

text: sestamibi breast imaging

text: severe myelosuppression

text: Sézary syndrome

text: SGOT

text: SGPT

text: sham therapy

text: shave biopsy

text: Sho-saiko-to

text: sialic acid

text: sialyl Tn-KLH

text: side-to-end coloanal anastomosis

text: sideropenic dysphagia

text: sigmoidoscope

text: sigmoidoscopy

text: signal transduction inhibitor

text: signet ring cell carcinoma

text: SIL

text: sildenafil

text: Silybum marianum

text: silymarin

text: simple mastectomy

text: simple nephrectomy

text: single blind study

entity_name: Single-photon emission computed tomography

text: single-photon emission computed tomography

text: siplizumab

text: sirolimus

text: small cell lung cancer

text: small intestine

text: smoldering leukemia

text: smoldering myeloma

text: SNX 111

text: soblidotin

text: sodium borocaptate

text: sodium salicylate

text: sodium sulfite

text: sodium thiosulfate

text: soft tissue sarcoma

text: solar keratosis

text: solid tumor

text: somatic cell

text: somatic mutation

text: somnolence syndrome

text: sonogram

text: sorivudine

text: specific immune cell

text: SPECT

text: SPF

text: spiculated mass

text: spindle cell cancer

text: spindle cell sarcoma

text: spiral CT scan

text: splenomegaly

text: sputum cytology

text: squalamine lactate

text: squamous cell

text: squamous cell carcinoma

text: squamous intraepithelial lesion

text: SSRI

text: staging

text: staurosporine

text: stavudine

text: stellate

text: stem cell

text: stem cell factor

text: stem cell transplantation

text: stent

text: stereotactic biopsy

text: stereotactic body radiation therapy

text: stereotactic external-beam radiation

text: stereotactic injection

text: stereotactic radiation therapy

text: stereotactic radiosurgery

text: stereotaxic radiosurgery

text: stereotaxis

text: steroid therapy

text: stoma

text: stomatitis

text: streptavidin

text: streptozocin

text: Stromagen

text: stromal tumor

text: Sturge-Weber syndrome

text: subcutaneous port

text: subependymal

text: suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid

text: subglottis

text: subset analysis

text: subtenon

text: sucralfate

text: sulfonamide

text: sulindac

text: superior vena cava

text: superior vena cava syndrome

text: supraclavicular lymph node

text: supraglottic laryngectomy

text: supraglottis

text: supratentorial

text: suramin

text: surgical oncologist

text: survival rate

text: symptom management

text: syncytium

text: syngeneic bone marrow transplantation

text: syngeneic stem cell transplantation

text: synovial membrane

text: synovial sarcoma

text: synthetic protegrin analog

text: synthetic retinoid

text: systemic chemotherapy

text: systemic disease

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: systemic therapy

text: Treatment of respiratory system cancer depends on the type of cancer. Surgical removal of part of a lung (lobectomy, segmentectomy, or wedge resection) or of an entire lung pneumonectomy), along with chemotherapy and radiotherapy, are all used. The chance of surviving lung cancer depends on the cancer stage at the time the cancer is diagnosed, and to some extent on the histology, and is only about 14-17% overall. In the case of metastases to the lung, treatment can occasionally be curative but only in certain, rare circumstances.

text: Treatment of respiratory system cancer depends on the type of cancer. Surgical removal of part of a lung (

text: lobectomy

text: segmentectomy

text: , or

text: wedge resection

text: ) or of an entire lung

text: pneumonectomy

text: ), along with chemotherapy and

text: radiotherapy

text: , are all used. The chance of surviving lung cancer depends on the cancer stage at the time the cancer is diagnosed, and to some extent on the

text: histology

text: , and is only about 14-17% overall. In the case of metastases to the lung, treatment can occasionally be curative but only in certain, rare circumstances.

text: LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4 contribute to allergic airways reactions such as asthma, certain non-allergic hypersensitivity airways reactions, and other lung diseases involving bronchoconstriction by contracting these airways and promoting in these airways inflammation, micro-vascular permeability, and mucus secretion; they likewise contribute to various allergic and non-allergic reactions involving rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and urticaria (see LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4). Certain of these peptide-leukotrienes have been shown to promote the growth of cultured human breast cancer and chronic lymphocytic leukemia cell lines thereby suggesting that ALOX5 may contribute to the progression of these diseases.

text: LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4 contribute to allergic airways reactions such as

text: asthma

text: , certain non-allergic hypersensitivity airways reactions, and other lung diseases involving

text: bronchoconstriction

text: by contracting these airways and promoting in these airways inflammation, micro-vascular permeability, and mucus secretion; they likewise contribute to various allergic and non-allergic reactions involving

text: rhinitis

text: conjunctivitis

text: , and

text: urticaria

text: (see

text: , and

text: ). Certain of these peptide-leukotrienes have been shown to promote the growth of cultured human breast cancer and

text: chronic lymphocytic leukemia

text: cell lines thereby suggesting that ALOX5 may contribute to the progression of these diseases.

text: Jaagsiekte is a chronic and contagious disease of the lungs in sheep and goats first described in 1865. Its name derives from Afrikaans and means "chasing sickness" such that animals afflicted with the disease are in respiratory distress as if they are out of breath from being chased. It is also referred to as ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (OPA). During end-stage disease, animals exude a foamy white fluid from the nose which is thought to be the mode of transmission between animals.  Dissected lungs from afflicted sheep are interspersed with multifocal tumors. Some of these are small discrete nodules and others will involve the entire half of a lung lobule. The disease is caused by a retrovirus called the jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus (JSRV) that acutely transforms the lung epithelia into cancerous cells. Specifically, type-2 pneumocytes and club cells of the lung are the likely target for JSRV transformation. The tumors formed there exhibit the overactive secretory functions which are a hallmark of OPA.

text: Jaagsiekte is a chronic and contagious disease of the lungs in sheep and goats first described in 1865. Its name derives from

text: Afrikaans

text: and means "chasing sickness" such that animals afflicted with the disease are in respiratory distress as if they are out of breath from being chased. It is also referred to as ovine pulmonary

text: adenocarcinoma

text: (OPA). During end-stage disease, animals exude a foamy white fluid from the nose which is thought to be the mode of transmission between animals.  Dissected lungs from afflicted sheep are interspersed with multifocal

text: tumors

text: . Some of these are small discrete

text: nodules

text: and others will involve the entire half of a lung lobule. The disease is caused by a

text: retrovirus

text: called the

text: jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus

text: (JSRV) that acutely transforms the lung

text: epithelia

text: into cancerous cells. Specifically, type-2

text: pneumocytes

text: and

text: club cell

text: s of the lung are the likely target for JSRV transformation. The tumors formed there exhibit the overactive secretory functions which are a hallmark of OPA.

text: In a literature review published in the journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, J.T. Zelikoff concludes that there are a wide variety of health risks posed by residential wood combustion. She writes:The Washington Department of Ecology also published a booklet explaining why wood smoke can be dangerous. It explains that human lung and respiratory systems are unable to filter particles emitted by wood combustion, which penetrate deeply into the lungs. For months, cancer causing chemicals can continue to cause changes and structural damage within the respiratory system. Young children, seniors, pregnant women, smokers and individuals with respiratory disorders are most vulnerable. Wood smoke can cause disease and even death in children because it is associated with lower respiratory tract infections. Home fireplaces have caused fatal carbon monoxide poisoning.

text: In a literature review published in the journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, J.T. Zelikoff concludes that there are a wide variety of health risks posed by residential wood combustion. She writes:The

text: Washington Department of Ecology

text: also published a booklet explaining why wood smoke can be dangerous. It explains that human lung and respiratory systems are unable to filter particles emitted by wood combustion, which penetrate deeply into the lungs. For months, cancer causing chemicals can continue to cause changes and structural damage within the respiratory system. Young children, seniors, pregnant women, smokers and individuals with respiratory disorders are most vulnerable. Wood smoke can cause disease and even death in children because it is associated with

text: lower respiratory tract infection

text: s. Home fireplaces have caused fatal

text: carbon monoxide poisoning

text: Chronic bronchitis is defined as a productive cough that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years. Most people with chronic bronchitis have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Tobacco smoking is the most common cause, with a number of other factors such as air pollution and genetics playing a smaller role. Treatments include quitting smoking, vaccinations, rehabilitation, and often inhaled bronchodilators and steroids. Some people may benefit from long-term oxygen therapy or lung transplantation.

text: Chronic bronchitis

text: is defined as a

text: productive cough

text: that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years. Most people with chronic bronchitis have

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD).

text: Tobacco smoking

text: is the most common cause, with a number of other factors such as

text: air pollution

text: and

text: genetics

text: playing a smaller role. Treatments include

text: quitting smoking

text: vaccination

text: s,

text: rehabilitation

text: , and often inhaled

text: bronchodilator

text: s and

text: steroids

text: . Some people may benefit from

text: long-term oxygen therapy

text: or

text: lung transplantation

text: Asthma is clinically classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV), and peak expiratory flow rate. Asthma may also be classified as atopic (extrinsic) or non-atopic (intrinsic), based on whether symptoms are precipitated by allergens (atopic) or not (non-atopic). While asthma is classified based on severity, at the moment there is no clear method for classifying different subgroups of asthma beyond this system. Finding ways to identify subgroups that respond well to different types of treatments is a current critical goal of asthma research.

text: Asthma is clinically classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (

text: FEV

text: ), and

text: peak expiratory flow rate

text: . Asthma may also be classified as atopic (extrinsic) or non-atopic (intrinsic), based on whether symptoms are precipitated by allergens (atopic) or not (non-atopic). While asthma is classified based on severity, at the moment there is no clear method for classifying different subgroups of asthma beyond this system. Finding ways to identify subgroups that respond well to different types of treatments is a current critical goal of asthma research.

text: In developed countries, tuberculosis is less common and is mainly an urban disease. In the United Kingdom, the national average was 15 per 100,000 in 2007, and the highest incidence rates in Western Europe were 30 per 100,000 in Portugal and Spain. These rates compared with 98 per 100,000 in China and 48 per 100,000 in Brazil. In the United States, the overall tuberculosis case rate was 4 per 100,000 persons in 2007. In Canada, tuberculosis is still endemic in some rural areas.

text: In developed countries, tuberculosis is less common and is mainly an urban disease. In the United Kingdom, the national average was 15 per 100,000 in 2007, and the highest incidence rates in

text: Western Europe

text: were 30 per 100,000 in Portugal and Spain. These rates compared with 98 per 100,000 in

text: China

text: and 48 per 100,000 in

text: Brazil

text: . In the United States, the overall tuberculosis case rate was 4 per 100,000 persons in 2007. In Canada, tuberculosis is still endemic in some rural areas.

text: Other Prevotella spp. are members of the  oral and vaginal microbiota, and are recovered from anaerobic infections of the respiratory tract. These infections include aspiration pneumonia, lung abscess, pulmonary empyema, and chronic otitis media and sinusitis. Other species have been isolated from abscesses and burns in the vicinity of the mouth, bites, paronychia, urinary tract infection, brain abscesses, osteomyelitis, and bacteremia associated with upper respiratory tract infections. Prevotella spp. predominate in periodontal disease and periodontal abscesses.  The genus also includes gut bacteria. Prevotella species dominate with high fiber, plant-based diets.

text: Other Prevotella spp. are members of the  oral and

entity_name: List of microbiota species of the lower reproductive tract of women

text: vaginal microbiota

text: , and are recovered from

text: anaerobic infection

text: s of the respiratory tract. These infections include

text: aspiration pneumonia

text: , lung

text: abscess

text: , pulmonary empyema, and chronic

text: otitis media

text: and

text: sinusitis

text: . Other species have been isolated from abscesses and burns in the vicinity of the mouth,

text: bites

text: paronychia

text: urinary tract infection

text: brain abscess

text: es,

text: osteomyelitis

text: , and

text: bacteremia

text: associated with

text: upper respiratory tract infections

text: . Prevotella spp. predominate in

text: periodontal disease

text: and periodontal abscesses.  The genus also includes gut bacteria. Prevotella species dominate with high fiber, plant-based diets.

text: The presence of subcutaneous emphysema in a person who appears quite ill and febrile after bout of vomiting followed by left chest pain is very suggestive of the diagnosis of Boerhaave's syndrome, which is a life-threatening emergency caused by rupture of the distal esophagus.

text: The presence of subcutaneous emphysema in a person who appears quite ill and febrile after bout of vomiting followed by left chest pain is very suggestive of the diagnosis of

text: Boerhaave's syndrome

text: , which is a life-threatening emergency caused by rupture of the distal esophagus.

text: On the southwestern edge of Süddorf, there is the Satteldüne sanitorium, which specialises in the treatment of diseases of the respiratory system of children and adolescents. Moreover, Amrum's school house, the Öömrang Skuul with elementary and secondary divisions, is located in this part of Nebel.

text: On the southwestern edge of Süddorf, there is the Satteldüne

text: sanitorium

text: , which specialises in the treatment of diseases of the

text: respiratory system

text: of children and adolescents. Moreover, Amrum's school house, the Öömrang Skuul with

text: elementary

text: and

text: secondary

text: divisions, is located in this part of Nebel.

text: Hypercapnia is generally caused by hypoventilation, lung disease, or diminished consciousness. It may also be caused by exposure to environments containing abnormally high concentrations of carbon dioxide, such as from volcanic or geothermal activity, or by rebreathing exhaled carbon dioxide. It can also be an initial effect of administering supplemental oxygen on a patient with sleep apnea. In this situation the hypercapnia can also be accompanied by respiratory acidosis.

text: Hypercapnia is generally caused by

text: hypoventilation

text: lung disease

text: , or diminished

text: consciousness

text: . It may also be caused by exposure to environments containing abnormally high concentrations of carbon dioxide, such as from volcanic or geothermal activity, or by

text: rebreathing

text: exhaled

text: carbon dioxide

text: . It can also be an initial effect of administering supplemental oxygen on a patient with sleep apnea. In this situation the hypercapnia can also be accompanied by

text: respiratory acidosis

text: After Nikki broke up with Sean she moved back into No.6.  Later on her mother Margi returned from Brussels.  Margi and Jimmy became close and after a while Margi planned to ask Jimmy to marry her.  Margi was stunned however when Jimmy beat her to it and asked her.  Margi was thrilled and agreed.  Later on however when Jimmy found out there was a possibility he had lung cancer he broke off the engagement, not wanting to be a burden to Margi and make her a widow twice over.  Jimmy didn't want anyone to know about his lung cancer and so did not explain this to Margi, leaving her furious with Jimmy.  Nikki was also furious with Jimmy and said she would never forgive him.  Later when Jimmy found that he didn't have lung cancer, but another fatal disease, asbestosis he explained to Nikki and she forgave him.

text: After Nikki broke up with Sean she moved back into No.6.  Later on her mother Margi returned from Brussels.  Margi and Jimmy became close and after a while Margi planned to ask Jimmy to marry her.  Margi was stunned however when Jimmy beat her to it and asked her.  Margi was thrilled and agreed.  Later on however when Jimmy found out there was a possibility he had

text: lung cancer

text: he broke off the engagement, not wanting to be a burden to Margi and make her a widow twice over.  Jimmy didn't want anyone to know about his lung cancer and so did not explain this to Margi, leaving her furious with Jimmy.  Nikki was also furious with Jimmy and said she would never forgive him.  Later when Jimmy found that he didn't have lung cancer, but another fatal disease,

text: asbestosis

text: he explained to Nikki and she forgave him.

text: Approximately 98% of lung cancers are carcinoma, a term for malignant neoplasms derived from cells of epithelial lineage, and/or that exhibit cytological or tissue architectural features characteristically found in epithelial cells.<ref name='TravisTravis'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Travis WD, Travis LB, Devesa SS |title=Lung cancer |journal=Cancer |volume=75 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=191–202 |date=January 1995 |pmid=8000996 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(19950101)75:1+

text: Approximately 98% of lung cancers are

text: carcinoma

text: , a term for malignant neoplasms derived from cells of epithelial lineage, and/or that exhibit cytological or tissue architectural features characteristically found in epithelial cells.<ref name='TravisTravis'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Travis WD, Travis LB, Devesa SS |title=Lung cancer |journal=Cancer |volume=75 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=191–202 |date=January 1995 |pmid=8000996 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(19950101)75:1+

text: Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. About 5% of adults are affected and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. It occurs more often in the winter. More than 10 million people in the United States visit a doctor each year for this condition with approximately 70% receiving antibiotics, most of which are not needed. There are efforts to decrease the use of antibiotics in acute bronchitis.

text: Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. About 5% of adults are affected and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. It occurs more often in the winter. More than 10 million people in the United States visit a

text: doctor

text: each year for this condition with approximately 70% receiving antibiotics, most of which are not needed. There are efforts to decrease the use of antibiotics in acute bronchitis.

text: Asthma is caused by a combination of complex and incompletely understood environmental and genetic interactions. These factors influence both its severity and its responsiveness to treatment. It is believed that the recent increased rates of asthma are due to changing epigenetics (heritable factors other than those related to the DNA sequence) and a changing living environment. Onset before age 12 is more likely due to genetic influence, while onset after 12 is more likely due to environmental influence.

text: Asthma is caused by a combination of complex and incompletely understood environmental and genetic interactions. These factors influence both its severity and its responsiveness to treatment. It is believed that the recent increased rates of asthma are due to changing

text: epigenetic

text: s (

text: heritable

text: factors other than those related to the

text: DNA sequence

text: ) and a changing living environment. Onset before age 12 is more likely due to genetic influence, while onset after 12 is more likely due to environmental influence.

text: Lung cancer is the most common cancer in the world, both in terms of cases (1.6 million cases; 12.7% of total cancer cases) and deaths (1.4 million deaths; 18.2% of total cancer deaths).  Lung cancer is largely caused by tobacco smoke.  Risk estimates for lung cancer in the United States indicate that tobacco smoke is responsible for 90% of lung cancers.  Other factors are implicated in lung cancer, and these factors can interact synergistically with smoking so that total attributable risk adds up to more than 100%.  These factors include occupational exposure to carcinogens (about 9-15%), radon (10%) and outdoor air pollution (1-2%).  Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of more than 5,300 identified chemicals.  The most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke have been determined by a “Margin of Exposure” approach.  Using this approach, the most important tumorigenic compounds in tobacco smoke were, in order of importance, acrolein, formaldehyde, acrylonitrile, 1,3-butadiene, cadmium, acetaldehyde, ethylene oxide, and isoprene.  Most of these compounds cause DNA damage by forming DNA adducts or by inducing other alterations in DNA.  DNA damages are subject to error-prone DNA repair or can cause replication errors.  Such errors in repair or replication can result in mutations in tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes leading to cancer.

text: Lung cancer

text: A great deal is known about the pathogenesis of HIV disease, even though important details remain to be elucidated. However, a complete understanding of the pathogenesis of a disease is not a prerequisite to knowing its cause. Most infectious agents have been associated with the disease they cause long before their pathogenic mechanisms have been discovered. Because research in pathogenesis is difficult when precise animal models are unavailable, the disease-causing mechanisms in many diseases, including tuberculosis and hepatitis B, are poorly understood, but the pathogens responsible are very well established.

text: A great deal is known about the

text: pathogenesis

text: of HIV disease, even though important details remain to be elucidated. However, a complete understanding of the pathogenesis of a disease is not a prerequisite to knowing its cause. Most infectious agents have been associated with the disease they cause long before their pathogenic mechanisms have been discovered. Because research in pathogenesis is difficult when precise animal models are unavailable, the disease-causing mechanisms in many diseases, including

text: tuberculosis

text: and

text: hepatitis B

text: , are poorly understood, but the pathogens responsible are very well established.

text: Subcutaneous emphysema can result from puncture of parts of the respiratory or gastrointestinal systems.  Particularly in the chest and neck, air may become trapped as a result of penetrating trauma (e.g., gunshot wounds or stab wounds) or blunt trauma. Infection  (e.g., gas gangrene) can cause gas to be trapped in the subcutaneous tissues. Subcutaneous emphysema can be caused by medical procedures and medical conditions that cause the pressure in the alveoli of the lung to be higher than that in the tissues outside of them.  Its most common causes are pneumothorax and a chest tube that has become occluded by a blood clot or fibrinous material.  It can also occur spontaneously due to rupture of the alveoli with dramatic presentation.  When the condition is caused by surgery it is called surgical emphysema. The term spontaneous subcutaneous emphysema is used when the cause is not clear. Subcutaneous emphysema is not typically dangerous in and of itself, however it can be a symptom of very dangerous underlying conditions, such as pneumothorax.  Although the underlying conditions require treatment, subcutaneous emphysema usually does not; small amounts of air are reabsorbed by the body.  However, subcutaneous emphysema can be uncomfortable and may interfere with breathing, and is often treated by removing air from the tissues, for example by using large bore needles, skin incisions or subcutaneous catheterization.

text: Subcutaneous emphysema can result from puncture of parts of the

text: respiratory

text: or

text: gastrointestinal system

text: s.  Particularly in the

text: chest

text: and neck, air may become trapped as a result of

text: penetrating trauma

text: (e.g.,

text: gunshot wound

text: s or stab wounds) or

text: blunt trauma

text: Infection

text: (e.g.,

text: gas gangrene

text: ) can cause gas to be trapped in the subcutaneous tissues. Subcutaneous emphysema can be caused by medical procedures and medical conditions that cause the pressure in the

text: alveoli

text: of the lung to be higher than that in the tissues outside of them.  Its most common causes are

text: pneumothorax

text: and a

text: chest tube

text: that has become occluded by a blood clot or fibrinous material.  It can also occur spontaneously due to rupture of the alveoli with dramatic presentation.  When the condition is caused by surgery it is called surgical emphysema. The term spontaneous subcutaneous emphysema is used when the cause is not clear. Subcutaneous emphysema is not typically dangerous in and of itself, however it can be a symptom of very dangerous underlying conditions, such as pneumothorax.  Although the underlying conditions require treatment, subcutaneous emphysema usually does not; small amounts of air are reabsorbed by the body.  However, subcutaneous emphysema can be uncomfortable and may interfere with breathing, and is often treated by removing air from the tissues, for example by using large bore needles, skin incisions or subcutaneous catheterization.

text: In herbal medicine, Pelargonium has been used for intestinal problems, wounds and respiratory ailments, but Pelargonium species have also been used for fevers, kidney complaints and other conditions. Geranium (Pelargonium) oil is considered a relaxant in aromatherapy, and in recent years, respiratory/cold remedies made from P. sidoides and P. reniforme have been sold in Europe and the United States. P. sidoides along with Echinacea is used for bronchitis. P. odoratissimum is used for its astringent, tonic and antiseptic effects.  It is used internally for debility, gastroenteritis, and hemorrhage and externally for skin complaints, injuries, and neuralgia and throat infections. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. It is also used to balance the hormonal system, menstrual flow, and clean the body of toxins.

text: In

text: herbal medicine

text: , Pelargonium has been used for intestinal problems, wounds and respiratory ailments, but Pelargonium species have also been used for

text: fever

text: s,

text: kidney

text: complaints and other conditions. Geranium (Pelargonium) oil is considered a relaxant in

text: aromatherapy

text: , and in recent years, respiratory/cold remedies made from P. sidoides and P. reniforme have been sold in Europe and the United States. P. sidoides along with Echinacea is used for

text: bronchitis

text: . P. odoratissimum is used for its astringent, tonic and antiseptic effects.  It is used internally for debility,

text: gastroenteritis

text: , and

text: hemorrhage

text: and externally for skin complaints, injuries, and

text: neuralgia

text: and

text: throat infection

text: s. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy. It is also used to balance the hormonal system, menstrual flow, and clean the body of toxins.

text: Respiratory disease

text: Respiratory disease

text: The first results from the PFR were reported in 1970 in the scientific journal Nature. The research underpinned the recommendations for more stringent airborne dust standards in British coalmines and the PFR was ultimately used as the basis for many national dust standards around the world.  IOM's research in coal mining continued until about 1990, with many important scientific papers on respiratory diseases amongst miners having been published. In 1985, an important association between risk of pathological emphysema and dust exposure was demonstrated, leading ultimately to recognition of this disease as a quantifiable risk of coal mining. Recent analysis of the mortality of a subset of the miners originally studied has found an association between the risk of lung cancer and quartz exposure,  and raised mortality from chronic lung disease and pneumoconiosis associated with increasing dust exposure.

text: The first results from the PFR were reported in 1970 in the scientific

text: journal Nature

text: . The research underpinned the recommendations for more stringent airborne dust standards in British coalmines and the PFR was ultimately used as the basis for many national dust standards around the world.  IOM's research in coal mining continued until about 1990, with many important scientific papers on respiratory diseases amongst miners having been published. In 1985, an important association between risk of pathological

text: emphysema

text: and dust exposure was demonstrated, leading ultimately to recognition of this disease as a quantifiable risk of coal mining. Recent analysis of the

text: mortality

text: of a subset of the miners originally studied has found an association between the risk of lung cancer and quartz exposure,  and raised mortality from chronic lung disease and

text: pneumoconiosis

text: associated with increasing dust exposure.

text: In 1953, Waldbott was the first to recognize and describe a new disease he called "Smoker's Respiratory Syndrome." This was the first association between tobacco smoking and chronic respiratory disease. Up until that point, the condition was known as idiopathic asthma.

text: Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB). Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections do not have symptoms, known as latent tuberculosis. About 10% of latent infections progress to active disease which, if left untreated, kills about half of those infected. The classic symptoms of active TB are a chronic cough with blood-containing sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. The historical term "consumption" came about due to the weight loss. Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms.

text: Tuberculosis (TB) is an

text: infectious disease

text: caused by the bacterium

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: (MTB). Tuberculosis generally affects the

text: lung

text: s, but can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections do not have symptoms, known as

text: latent tuberculosis

text: . About 10% of latent infections progress to active disease which, if left untreated, kills about half of those infected. The classic symptoms of active TB are a chronic

text: cough

text: with

text: blood-containing

text: sputum

text: fever

text: night sweats

text: , and

text: weight loss

text: . The historical term "consumption" came about due to the weight loss. Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms.

text: The toxins emitted by the swine CAFOs can produce a variety of symptoms and illnesses ranging from respiratory disorders, headaches, and shortness of breath to hydrogen sulfide poisoning, bronchitis, and asthma. The potential for spray field runoff or lagoon leakage puts nearby residents in danger of contaminated drinking water, which can lead to diseases like samonellosis, giardiasis, Chlamydia, meningitis, crytosporidiosis, worms, and influenza.

text: The toxins emitted by the swine CAFOs can produce a variety of symptoms and illnesses ranging from respiratory disorders, headaches, and shortness of breath to hydrogen sulfide poisoning, bronchitis, and asthma. The potential for spray field runoff or lagoon leakage puts nearby residents in danger of contaminated drinking water, which can lead to diseases like

text: samonellosis

text: giardiasis

text: Chlamydia

text: meningitis

text: , crytosporidiosis,

text: worm

text: s, and

text: influenza

text: C.H. Boehringer Sohn AG & Ko. KG is the parent company of Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH, which was founded in 1885 by Albert Boehringer in Ingelheim am Rhein, Germany. The Boehringer Ingelheim group is one of the world's 20 leading pharmaceutical companies. Still headquartered in Ingelheim, it operates globally with 146 affiliates and more than 47,700 employees. The company's key assets of interest are: respiratory diseases, metabolism, immunology, oncology and diseases of the central nervous system. Boehringer Ingelheim is a full member of the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations EFPIA. The corporate logo of Boehringer Ingelheim depicts a stylized rendition of the central section of the imperial palace of Charlemagne.

text: C.H. Boehringer Sohn AG & Ko. KG is the parent company of Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH, which was founded in 1885 by Albert Boehringer in

text: Ingelheim am Rhein

text: , Germany. The Boehringer Ingelheim group is one of the world's 20 leading pharmaceutical companies. Still headquartered in Ingelheim, it operates globally with 146 affiliates and more than 47,700 employees. The company's key assets of interest are:

text: respiratory diseases

text: metabolism

text: immunology

text: oncology

text: and diseases of the

text: central nervous system

text: . Boehringer Ingelheim is a full member of the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations

entity_name: European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations

text: EFPIA

text: . The corporate logo of Boehringer Ingelheim depicts a stylized rendition of the central section of the imperial palace of

text: Charlemagne

text: COPD is a type of obstructive lung disease in which chronic incompletely reversible poor airflow (airflow limitation) and inability to breathe out fully (air trapping) exist. The poor airflow is the result of breakdown of lung tissue (known as emphysema) and small airways disease (known as obstructive bronchiolitis). The relative contributions of these two factors vary between people. Severe destruction of small airways can lead to the formation of large air pockets—known as bullae—that replace lung tissue. This form of disease is called bullous emphysema.

text: COPD is a type of

text: obstructive lung disease

text: in which chronic incompletely reversible poor airflow (airflow limitation) and inability to breathe out fully (air trapping) exist. The poor airflow is the result of breakdown of lung tissue (known as emphysema) and small airways disease (known as obstructive bronchiolitis). The relative contributions of these two factors vary between people. Severe destruction of small airways can lead to the formation of large air pockets—known as bullae—that replace lung tissue. This form of disease is called bullous emphysema.

text: The diagnosis of DPB requires analysis of the lungs and bronchiolar tissues, which can require a lung biopsy, or the more preferred high resolution computed tomography (HRCT) scan of the lungs. The diagnostic criteria include severe inflammation in all layers of the respiratory bronchioles and lung tissue lesions that appear as nodules within the terminal and respiratory bronchioles in both lungs. The nodules in DPB appear as opaque lumps when viewed on X-rays of the lung, and can cause airway obstruction, which is evaluated by a pulmonary function test, or PFT.   Lung X-rays can also reveal dilation of the bronchiolar passages, another sign of DBP. HRCT scans often show blockages of some bronchiolar passages with mucus, which is referred to as the "tree-in-bud" pattern.  Hypoxemia, another sign of breathing difficulty, is revealed by measuring the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the blood, using a blood test called arterial blood gas. Other findings observed with DPB include the proliferation of lymphocytes (white blood cells that fight infection), neutrophils, and foamy histiocytes (tissue macrophages) in the lung lining. Bacteria such as H. influenzae and P. aeruginosa are also detectable, with the latter becoming more prominent as the disease progresses. The white blood, bacterial and other cellular content of the blood can be measured by taking a complete blood count (CBC). Elevated levels of IgG and IgA (classes of immunoglobulins) may be seen, as well as the presence of rheumatoid factor (an indicator of autoimmunity). Hemagglutination, a clumping of red blood cells in response to the presence of antibodies in the blood, may also occur. Neutrophils, beta-defensins, leukotrienes, and chemokines can also be detected in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid injected then removed from the bronchiolar airways of individuals with DPB, for evaluation.

text: The diagnosis of DPB requires

text: analysis

text: of the lungs and bronchiolar tissues, which can require a lung

text: biopsy

text: , or the more preferred

text: high resolution computed tomography

text: (HRCT) scan of the lungs. The diagnostic criteria include severe inflammation in all layers of the respiratory bronchioles and lung tissue lesions that appear as nodules within the

text: terminal

text: and respiratory bronchioles in both lungs. The nodules in DPB appear as

text: opaque

text: lumps when viewed on

text: X-ray

text: s of the lung, and can cause

text: airway obstruction

text: , which is evaluated by a

text: pulmonary function test

text: , or PFT.   Lung X-rays can also reveal dilation of the bronchiolar passages, another sign of DBP. HRCT scans often show blockages of some bronchiolar passages with mucus, which is referred to as the

text: "tree-in-bud"

text: pattern.  Hypoxemia, another sign of breathing difficulty, is revealed by measuring the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the blood, using a blood test called

text: arterial blood gas

text: . Other findings observed with DPB include the proliferation of

text: lymphocyte

text: s (

text: white blood cell

text: s that fight infection), neutrophils, and

text: foamy histiocytes

text: (tissue

text: macrophage

text: s) in the lung

text: lining

text: . Bacteria such as H. influenzae and P. aeruginosa are also detectable, with the latter becoming more prominent as the disease progresses. The white blood, bacterial and other cellular content of the blood can be measured by taking a

text: complete blood count

text: (CBC). Elevated levels of

text: IgG

text: and

text: IgA

text: (classes of

text: immunoglobulin

text: s) may be seen, as well as the presence of

text: rheumatoid factor

text: (an indicator of

text: autoimmunity

text: Hemagglutination

text: , a clumping of red blood cells in response to the presence of

text: antibodies

text: in the blood, may also occur. Neutrophils, beta-defensins, leukotrienes, and chemokines can also be detected in

text: bronchoalveolar lavage

text: fluid injected then removed from the bronchiolar airways of individuals with DPB, for evaluation.

text: KCNRG has been found to be predominantly expressed in lung tissue. Additionally, KCNRG transcripts are also found in liver and some other tissues, but in lower extent.Researchers at Uppsala University have found that KCNRG is found in the lower lung and constitutes an autoantigen in a rare disorder named autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1 (APS1). As a subset of patients with APS1 suffer from respiratory disease, an autoimmune reaction against KCNRG may explain the respiratory disease in these patients. KCNRG may also be connected to common nonfatal diseases like asthma and chronic bronchitis.

text: KCNRG has been found to be predominantly expressed in lung tissue. Additionally, KCNRG transcripts are also found in liver and some other tissues, but in lower extent.Researchers at

text: Uppsala University

text: have found that KCNRG is found in the lower lung and constitutes an autoantigen in a rare disorder named

entity_name: Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1

text: autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1

text: (APS1). As a subset of patients with APS1 suffer from respiratory disease, an autoimmune reaction against KCNRG may explain the respiratory disease in these patients. KCNRG may also be connected to common nonfatal diseases like

text: asthma

text: and chronic

text: bronchitis

text: Studies have shown that people who are atopic (sensitive), already suffer from allergies, asthma, or compromised immune systems and occupy damp or moldy buildings are at an increased risk of health problems such as inflammatory and toxic responses to mold spores, metabolites and other components. The most common health problem is an allergic reaction. Other problems are respiratory and/or immune system responses including respiratory symptoms, respiratory infections, exacerbation of asthma, and rarely hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allergic alveolitis, chronic rhinosinusitis and allergic fungal sinusitis. Severe reactions are rare but possible. A person's reaction to mold depends on their sensitivity and other health conditions, the amount of mold present, length of exposure and the type of mold or mold products.

text: Studies have shown that people who are

text: atopic

text: (sensitive), already suffer from

text: allergies

text: asthma

text: , or compromised

text: immune system

text: s and occupy damp or moldy buildings are at an increased risk of health problems such as inflammatory and toxic responses to mold spores, metabolites and other components. The most common health problem is an allergic reaction. Other problems are respiratory and/or immune system responses including respiratory symptoms, respiratory infections, exacerbation of asthma, and rarely hypersensitivity pneumonitis, allergic alveolitis, chronic rhinosinusitis and allergic fungal sinusitis. Severe reactions are rare but possible. A person's reaction to mold depends on their sensitivity and other health conditions, the amount of mold present, length of exposure and the type of mold or mold products.

text: Air pollution has been shown to negatively effect humans' cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Lung tissue can be damaged with direct exposure to air pollutants such as ozone, potentially causing lung inflammation and impairment of lung function. As Environment Canada mentions "impacts from exposure can range from "minor breathing problems to premature death". Some of the main respiratory diseases caused by air pollution include asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer.  Specific cardiovascular disease and problems caused by air pollution include heart attack, hypertension, inflammation around the heart, stroke and arrhythmias.

text: Air pollution has been shown to negatively effect humans' cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Lung tissue can be damaged with direct exposure to air pollutants such as ozone, potentially causing lung inflammation and impairment of lung function. As Environment Canada mentions "impacts from exposure can range from "minor breathing problems to premature death". Some of the main respiratory diseases caused by air pollution include

text: asthma

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: , and

text: lung cancer

text: .  Specific cardiovascular disease and problems caused by air pollution include

text: heart attack

text: hypertension

text: , inflammation around the heart,

text: stroke

text: and

text: arrhythmias

text: Pneumonia occurs in a variety of situations and treatment must vary according to the situation. It is classified as either community or hospital acquired depending on where the patient contracted the infection. It is life-threatening in the elderly or those who are immunocompromised. The most common treatment is antibiotics and these vary in their adverse effects and their effectiveness. Pneumonia is also the leading cause of death in children less than five years of age. The most common cause of pneumonia is pneumococcal bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae accounts for 2/3 of bacteremic pneumonias. This is a dangerous type of lung infection with a mortality rate of around 25%.For optimal management of a pneumonia patient, the following must be assessed: pneumonia severity (including treatment location, e.g., home, hospital or intensive care), identification of causative organism, analgesia of chest pain, the need for supplemental oxygen, physiotherapy, hydration, bronchodilators and possible complications of emphysema or lung abscess.

text: Pneumonia

text: occurs in a variety of situations and treatment must vary according to the situation. It is classified as either community or hospital acquired depending on where the patient contracted the infection. It is life-threatening in the elderly or those who are immunocompromised. The most common treatment is antibiotics and these vary in their adverse effects and their effectiveness. Pneumonia is also the leading cause of death in children less than five years of age. The most common cause of pneumonia is pneumococcal bacteria,

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: accounts for 2/3 of bacteremic pneumonias. This is a dangerous type of lung infection with a mortality rate of around 25%.For optimal management of a pneumonia patient, the following must be assessed: pneumonia severity (including treatment location, e.g., home, hospital or intensive care), identification of causative organism, analgesia of chest pain, the need for supplemental oxygen, physiotherapy, hydration, bronchodilators and possible complications of emphysema or lung abscess.

text: Respiratory DiseasesThere are three genetically based respiratory diseases that can directly correspond with ecological functions that not only induce but can prevent future involvement of vaccines. These include lung cancer and the upper and lower respiratory tract associated with a serum Ig A deficiency.

text: A lowered or elevated FRC is often an indication of some form of respiratory disease. For instance, in emphysema, FRC is increased, because the lungs are more compliant and the equilibrium between the inward recoil of the lungs and outward recoil of the chest wall is disturbed. As such, patients with emphysema often have noticeably broader chests due to the relatively unopposed outward recoil of the chest wall. Total lung capacity also increases, largely as a result of increased functional residual capacity. In healthy humans, FRC changes with body posture.  Obese patients will have a lower FRC in the supine position due to the added tissue weight opposing the outward recoil of the chest wall.

text: A lowered or elevated FRC is often an indication of some form of

text: respiratory disease

text: . For instance, in

text: emphysema

text: , FRC is increased, because the lungs are more

text: compliant

text: and the equilibrium between the inward recoil of the lungs and outward recoil of the chest wall is disturbed. As such, patients with emphysema often have noticeably broader chests due to the relatively unopposed outward recoil of the chest wall.

text: Total lung capacity

text: also increases, largely as a result of increased functional residual capacity. In healthy humans, FRC changes with body posture.  Obese patients will have a lower FRC in the supine position due to the added tissue weight opposing the outward recoil of the chest wall.

text: Some diseases are difficult to evaluate in the archaeology, however, tuberculosis can be found and dates as far back as the Neolithic period. Tuberculosis is presumed to have been transmitted from domesticated cattle to humans through ingestion of contaminated meats and the drinking of contaminated milk. It is also possible to contract tuberculosis through contact with infected persons. When an infected person coughs, they eject infected mucus from their body which can possibly infect those close by. There are several types of tuberculosis, the kind that affect cold-blooded animals, the kind that affects birds and the bovine type that causes disease in humans. Because bovine tuberculosis is often found in children, it may be that the disease is spread through the consumption of contaminated milk.

text: Some diseases are difficult to evaluate in the archaeology, however, tuberculosis can be found and dates as far back as the

text: Neolithic period

text: . Tuberculosis is presumed to have been transmitted from domesticated cattle to humans through ingestion of contaminated meats and the drinking of contaminated milk. It is also possible to contract tuberculosis through contact with infected persons. When an infected person coughs, they eject infected mucus from their body which can possibly infect those close by. There are several types of tuberculosis, the kind that affect cold-blooded animals, the kind that affects birds and the bovine type that causes disease in humans. Because bovine tuberculosis is often found in children, it may be that the disease is spread through the consumption of contaminated milk.

text: The previously known Government TB Sanatorium has been taken over by the Department of Respiratory Medicine. Located in Pulayanarkottah it was initially constructed for isolation of tuberculosis patients. The Respiratory Medicine department functions are here except for the Out Patient Department and Intensive Care unit which is in the Medical College block itself. Government TB Sanatorium has been renamed to Chest Diseases Hospital and now homes two departments in collaboration, the Department of Respiratory medicine of Medical College, and Department of Respiratory medicine of the Health Services.

text: Pneumonia has been a common disease throughout human history. The word is from Greek πνεύμων (pneúmōn) meaning “lung”. The symptoms were described by Hippocrates (c. 460 BC – 370 BC): "Peripneumonia, and pleuritic affections, are to be thus observed: If the fever be acute, and if there be pains on either side, or in both, and if expiration be if cough be present, and the sputa expectorated be of a blond or livid color, or likewise thin, frothy, and florid, or having any other character different from the common... When pneumonia is at its height, the case is beyond remedy if he is not purged, and it is bad if he has dyspnoea, and urine that is thin and acrid, and if sweats come out about the neck and head, for such sweats are bad, as proceeding from the suffocation, rales, and the violence of the disease which is obtaining the upper hand." However, Hippocrates referred to pneumonia as a disease "named by the ancients". He also reported the results of surgical drainage of empyemas. Maimonides (1135–1204 AD) observed: "The basic symptoms that occur in pneumonia and that are never lacking are as follows: acute fever, sticking pleuritic pain in the side, short rapid breaths, serrated pulse and cough." This clinical description is quite similar to those found in modern textbooks, and it reflected the extent of medical knowledge through the Middle Ages into the 19th century.

text: Pneumonia has been a common disease throughout human history. The word is from Greek πνεύμων (pneúmōn) meaning “lung”. The symptoms were described by

text: Hippocrates

text: (c. 460 BC – 370 BC): "Peripneumonia, and pleuritic affections, are to be thus observed: If the fever be acute, and if there be pains on either side, or in both, and if expiration be if cough be present, and the sputa expectorated be of a blond or livid color, or likewise thin, frothy, and florid, or having any other character different from the common... When pneumonia is at its height, the case is beyond remedy if he is not purged, and it is bad if he has dyspnoea, and urine that is thin and acrid, and if sweats come out about the neck and head, for such sweats are bad, as proceeding from the suffocation, rales, and the violence of the disease which is obtaining the upper hand." However, Hippocrates referred to pneumonia as a disease "named by the ancients". He also reported the results of surgical drainage of empyemas.

text: Maimonides

text: (1135–1204 AD) observed: "The basic symptoms that occur in pneumonia and that are never lacking are as follows: acute fever, sticking

text: pleuritic

text: pain in the side, short rapid breaths, serrated

text: pulse

text: and cough." This clinical description is quite similar to those found in modern textbooks, and it reflected the extent of medical knowledge through the

text: Middle Ages

text: into the 19th century.

text: Blue eye disease is a viral disease that is commonly identified by encephalitis, pneumonia, and respiratory diseases in piglets. It also causes reproductive failure in adult pigs, and rarely identifies with corneal opacity, an eye disorder characterized by scarring of the cornea.

text: Pulmonary contusion can result in respiratory failure—about half of such cases occur within a few hours of the initial trauma. Other severe complications, including infections and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) occur in up to half of cases.  Elderly people and those who have heart, lung, or kidney disease prior to the injury are more likely to stay longer in hospital and have complications from the injury. Complications occur in 55% of people with heart or lung disease and 13% of those without. Of people with pulmonary contusion alone, 17% develop ARDS, while 78% of people with at least two additional injuries develop the condition. A larger contusion is associated with an increased risk. In one study, 82% of people with 20% or more of the lung volume affected developed ARDS, while only 22% of people with less than 20% did so.

text: NIOSH announced NORA's 21 priority research areas in 1996. On the strength of industry support and bipartisan backing, Congress increased funding for NIOSH and investment in NORA grew from $15.4 million in 1996 to $72.3 million in 1999. Following Rosenstock's resignation in 2000, Dr. John Howard continued to press and expand the NORA approach as NIOSH's new director. Since 1996, NORA's projects have covered topics such as slip, trip, and fall (STF) injuries; green tobacco sickness; extended work hours; latex allergies; vehicle and mobile equipment-related injury; silica, lung cancer, and respiratory disease; and biomechanical stress in drywall installation.Since 2006, the program has been organized by industrial sector as defined in the North American Industry Classification System. NORA sector councils, which head the research for the sectors, help to implement the national research agenda. The current NORA sectors are as follows:

text: NIOSH announced NORA's 21 priority research areas in 1996. On the strength of industry support and bipartisan backing,

text: Congress

text: increased funding for NIOSH and investment in NORA grew from $15.4 million in 1996 to $72.3 million in 1999. Following Rosenstock's resignation in 2000, Dr. John Howard continued to press and expand the NORA approach as NIOSH's new director. Since 1996, NORA's projects have covered topics such as

text: slip, trip, and fall

text: (STF) injuries;

text: green tobacco sickness

text: ; extended work hours;

text: latex allergies

text: ; vehicle and mobile equipment-related injury;

text: silica

text: lung cancer

text: , and

text: respiratory disease

text: ; and biomechanical stress in drywall installation.Since 2006, the program has been organized by industrial sector as defined in the

entity_name: North American Industry Classification System

text: North American Industry Classification System

text: . NORA sector councils, which head the research for the sectors, help to implement the national research agenda. The current NORA sectors are as follows:

text: The study of respiratory disease is known as pulmonology. A doctor who specializes in respiratory disease is known as a pulmonologist, a chest medicine specialist, a respiratory medicine specialist, a respirologist or a thoracic medicine specialist.

text: The study of respiratory disease is known as

text: pulmonology

text: . A doctor who specializes in respiratory disease is known as a pulmonologist, a chest medicine specialist, a respiratory medicine specialist, a respirologist or a thoracic medicine specialist.

text: Respiratory bronchiolitis interstitial lung disease refers to a form of idiopathic interstitial pneumonia associated with smoking.

text: Respiratory bronchiolitis interstitial lung disease refers to a form of

text: idiopathic interstitial pneumonia

text: associated with smoking.

text: S. pneumoniae is part of the normal upper respiratory tract flora, but, as with many natural flora, it can become pathogenic under the right conditions, like if the immune system of the host is suppressed. Invasins, such as pneumolysin, an anti-phagocytic capsule, various adhesins and immunogenic cell wall components are all major virulence factors. Once it colonizes the alveoli, the body responds by stimulating the inflammatory response. This causes plasma, blood, and WBC's to fill the alveoli, This condition is called pneumonia.

text: S. pneumoniae is part of the normal

text: upper respiratory tract

text: flora

text: , but, as with many natural flora, it can become pathogenic under the right conditions, like if the immune system of the host is

text: suppressed

text: . Invasins, such as

text: pneumolysin

text: , an anti-

text: phagocytic

text: capsule

text: , various

text: adhesins

text: and

text: immunogenic

text: cell wall components

text: are all major

text: virulence factors

text: . Once it colonizes the alveoli, the body responds by stimulating the inflammatory response. This causes plasma, blood, and WBC's to fill the alveoli, This condition is called pneumonia.

text: The risks to the lungs are not fully understood, and concern exists regarding the negative effects on lung function. There is limited evidence on the long-term health effects to the lungs. Many ingredients used in e-liquids have not been examined in the lung. The effects of e-cigarette use in respect to asthma and other respiratory diseases are unknown. A 2015 review found e-cigarettes may induce acute lung disease. A 2015 study found that e-cigarette vapors can induce oxidative stress in lung endothelial cells. Constant lung inflammation as a result of the vapor could result in lung pathogenesis and induce serious diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and fibrosis. The limited evidence suggests that e-cigarettes produce less short-term effects on lung function than traditional cigarettes. A 2014 case report observed the correlation between sub-acute bronchiolitis and vaping. After quitting vaping the symptoms improved.

text: The risks to the lungs are not fully understood, and concern exists regarding the negative effects on

text: lung function

text: . There is limited evidence on the long-term health effects to the lungs. Many ingredients used in e-liquids have not been examined in the lung. The effects of e-cigarette use in respect to asthma and other respiratory diseases are unknown. A 2015 review found e-cigarettes may induce acute lung disease. A 2015 study found that e-cigarette vapors can induce

text: oxidative stress

text: in lung endothelial cells. Constant lung inflammation as a result of the vapor could result in lung pathogenesis and induce serious diseases, including

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: and

text: fibrosis

text: . The limited evidence suggests that e-cigarettes produce less short-term effects on lung function than traditional cigarettes. A 2014 case report observed the correlation between

text: sub-acute

text: bronchiolitis

text: and vaping. After quitting vaping the symptoms improved.

text: The end of the first world war brought awareness of a national housing shortage and, in 1919, legislation to encourage house-building for poorer people (known as the "homes for heroes" Act). In the 1920s many city councils and other public bodies embarked on building projects. Along with voluntary associations, often supported by church leaders, they planned to provide healthy new housing. This was a continuation of late 19th century campaigns for better conditions for the urban poor - "Disease of the respiratory or breathing system is the natural scourge of the crowded quarters." - and a series of Acts of Parliament on the "Housing of the Working Classes", starting in 1885.

text: The end of

text: the first world war

text: brought awareness of a national housing shortage and, in 1919, legislation to encourage house-building for poorer people (known as the "homes for heroes"

text: Act

text: ). In the 1920s many

text: city council

text: s and other public bodies embarked on building projects. Along with voluntary associations, often supported by church leaders, they planned to provide healthy new housing. This was a continuation of late 19th century campaigns for better conditions for the urban poor - "Disease of the respiratory or breathing system is the natural scourge of the crowded quarters." - and a series of Acts of

text: Parliament

text: on the "Housing of the Working Classes", starting in 1885.

text: Because PPS can fatigue facial muscles, as well as cause dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), dysarthria (difficulty speaking) or aphonia (inability to produce speech), persons with PPS may become malnourished due to difficulty eating. Compensatory routines can help relieve these symptoms such as eating smaller portions at a time and sitting down whilst eating. PPS with respiratory involvement requires special management such as breathing exercises, chest percussion with a stethoscope on regular occasions for observation of the disease and management of secretions. Failure to properly assess PPS with respiratory involvement can increase the risk of missing aspiration pneumonia (an infection of the lower respiratory tract) in an individual. Severe cases may require permanent ventilation or tracheostomy. Sleep apnoea may also occur. Other management strategies that may lead to improvement include smoking cessation, treatment of other respiratory diseases and vaccination against respiratory infections such as influenza.

text: Because PPS can fatigue facial muscles, as well as cause

text: dysphagia

text: (difficulty swallowing),

text: dysarthria

text: (difficulty speaking) or

text: aphonia

text: (inability to produce speech), persons with PPS may become malnourished due to difficulty eating. Compensatory routines can help relieve these symptoms such as eating smaller portions at a time and sitting down whilst eating. PPS with respiratory involvement requires special management such as breathing exercises, chest percussion with a stethoscope on regular occasions for observation of the disease and management of secretions. Failure to properly assess PPS with respiratory involvement can increase the risk of missing aspiration

text: pneumonia

text: (an infection of the lower respiratory tract) in an individual. Severe cases may require permanent ventilation or

text: tracheostomy

text: Sleep apnoea

text: may also occur. Other management strategies that may lead to improvement include

text: smoking cessation

text: , treatment of other respiratory diseases and

text: vaccination

text: against respiratory infections such as

text: influenza

text: Zhedna village falls in the region of sub Yuzhnokraishtenskata of Kraishtenska area. Situated in the southern part of the extensive Radomirsko field on the northern slope of the hills of Gologlavskite Koniavska-Milevsky mountain range. Rises from the southwest hill Kolosh. The village is situated at the beginning of the pass through Koniavska mountain town of Bobov Dol. Transport is very well designed. Buses with the direction Zhedna-Sofia depart three times daily. The distance to Sofia in the bus is about .Winter is cold and cool summer. Due to constant circulation of air masses through the gorge of Bobov Dol, the climate is very favorable for the treatment of patients with asthma and other respiratory diseases. The village is suitable for air-conditioning treatment, as demonstrated by studies of air masses in the past.The village is supplied with water by 1958, and electricity by 1946, the Are built irrigation and drainage systems on land which is not currently exploited.The soils are mainly black earth-Stafanovo, forest soils, and near river valleys and alluvial-meadow. Forests are oak and pine (artificially afforested).In the land of the village there are deposits of brown coal, which until recently operated by mine Ivan Roussev "at the Bobov Dol mines.

text: Even though Guatemala has improved its health care system substantially since the end of the Guatemalan Civil War, mortality rates for communicable diseases still show that considerable progress needs to be made  to remove the burden of infectious diseases on the population. In a country like Guatemala, water is poor and frequently contaminated. In order to decrease common communicable diseases like diarrhea, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and respiratory disease, clean water and sanitation are necessary. With the health care system's provision of both clean water and food, the incidence of infectious and communicable diseases will decrease.

text: Even though Guatemala has improved its health care system substantially since the end of the Guatemalan Civil War, mortality rates for communicable diseases still show that considerable progress needs to be made  to remove the burden of infectious diseases on the population. In a country like Guatemala, water is poor and frequently contaminated. In order to decrease common communicable diseases like diarrhea,

text: tuberculosis

text: pneumonia

text: , and respiratory disease, clean water and sanitation are necessary. With the health care system's provision of both clean water and food, the incidence of infectious and communicable diseases will decrease.

text: Helium-3 nuclei have an intrinsic nuclear spin of , and a relatively high magnetogyric ratio. Helium-3 can be hyperpolarized using non-equilibrium means such as spin-exchange optical pumping. During this process, circularly polarized infrared laser light, tuned to the appropriate wavelength, is used to excite electrons in an alkali metal, such as caesium or rubidium inside a sealed glass vessel. The angular momentum is transferred from the alkali metal electrons to the noble gas nuclei through collisions. In essence, this process effectively aligns the nuclear spins with the magnetic field in order to enhance the NMR signal. The hyperpolarized gas may then be stored at pressures of 10 atm, for up to 100 hours. Following inhalation, gas mixtures containing the hyperpolarized helium-3 gas can be imaged with an MRI scanner to produce anatomical and functional images of lung ventilation. This technique is also able to produce images of the airway tree, locate unventilated defects, measure the alveolar oxygen partial pressure, and measure the ventilation/perfusion ratio. This technique may be critical for the diagnosis and treatment management of chronic respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),  emphysema, cystic fibrosis, and asthma.

text: Helium-3 nuclei have an intrinsic

text: nuclear spin

text: of , and a relatively high

text: magnetogyric ratio

text: . Helium-3 can be

text: hyperpolarized

text: using non-equilibrium means such as spin-exchange optical pumping. During this process,

text: circularly polarized

text: infrared laser light, tuned to the appropriate wavelength, is used to excite electrons in an

text: alkali metal

text: , such as

text: caesium

text: or

text: rubidium

text: inside a sealed glass vessel. The

text: angular momentum

text: is transferred from the alkali metal electrons to the noble gas nuclei through collisions. In essence, this process effectively aligns the nuclear spins with the magnetic field in order to enhance the

text: NMR

text: signal. The hyperpolarized gas may then be stored at pressures of 10 atm, for up to 100 hours. Following inhalation, gas mixtures containing the hyperpolarized helium-3 gas can be imaged with an MRI scanner to produce anatomical and functional images of lung ventilation. This technique is also able to produce images of the airway tree, locate unventilated defects, measure the

text: alveolar oxygen partial pressure

text: , and measure the

text: ventilation/perfusion ratio

text: . This technique may be critical for the diagnosis and treatment management of chronic respiratory diseases such as

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

text: emphysema

text: cystic fibrosis

text: , and

text: asthma

text: Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short-term inflammation of the bronchi (large and medium-sized airways) of the lungs. The most common symptom is a cough. Other symptoms include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. The infection may last from a few to ten days. The cough may persist for several weeks afterwards with the total duration of symptoms usually around three weeks. Some have symptoms for up to six weeks.

text: Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short-term

text: inflammation

text: of the

text: bronchi

text: (large and medium-sized airways) of the

text: lung

text: s. The most common symptom is a

text: cough

text: . Other symptoms include

text: coughing up mucus

text: wheezing

text: shortness of breath

text: fever

text: , and chest discomfort. The infection may last from a few to ten days. The cough may persist for several weeks afterwards with the total duration of symptoms usually around three weeks. Some have symptoms for up to six weeks.

text: When a person is diagnosed with occupational asthma, it can result in serious socio-economic consequences not only for the workers but also for the employer and the healthcare system because the worker must change positions. The probability of being re-employed is lower for those with occupational asthma compared to those with normal asthma. The employer not only pays compensation to the employee, but will also have to spend a considerable amount of time and energy and funds for hiring and training new personnel. In the United States, it was estimated that the direct cost of occupational asthma in 1996 was $1.2 billion and the indirect cost $0.4 billion, for a total cost of $1.6 billion.

text: Studies performed on lab mice revealed that mice previously infected with N. brasiliensis had developed massive emphysema with dilation of distal airspaces due to the loss of alveolar septa. The study shows that a N. brasiliensis infection can result in deterioration of the lung, destruction to the alveoli and long-term airway hyperresponsiveness which is consistent with emphysema and Chronic Obstructive Pulminary Disorder (COPD). This infection can lead to a chronic low level hemorrhaging of the lung. The damage to the lung tissue can result in the development of COPD and emphysema. Among respiratory problems, a N. brasiliensis infection can also result in the loss of both body mass and red blood cell (RBC) density. Biphasic anorexia is also prevalent in laboratory rats infected with this parasite. The first phase coincides with the parasites invasion of the lung and the second phase occurs when the parasite matures inside the intestine.

text: Professor Alimuddin Zumla was the guest editor of the Lancet TB Series which addressed key issues around TB treatment and diagnosis.The launch was held at the World Health Organisation (WHO) in Geneva on 18 May 2010. , Zumla is the director of the Centre for Infectious Diseases and International Health at University College London Medical School, as well as a consultant in infectious diseases at University College Hospital. His current research interests include tuberculosis (particularly drug clinical trials, biomarkers, MDR-TB and TB in London), HIV/AIDS, tropical diseases, respiratory infections (and rapid diagnostics thereof), endocarditis, biomarkers, and transrenal DNA.

text: Professor Alimuddin Zumla was the guest editor of the Lancet TB Series which addressed key issues around TB treatment and diagnosis.The launch was held at the World Health Organisation (WHO) in Geneva on 18 May 2010. , Zumla is the director of the Centre for Infectious Diseases and International Health at

text: University College London Medical School

text: , as well as a consultant in infectious diseases at

text: University College Hospital

text: . His current research interests include tuberculosis (particularly drug

text: clinical trials

text: biomarkers

text: MDR-TB

text: and TB in London), HIV/AIDS, tropical diseases, respiratory infections (and rapid diagnostics thereof), endocarditis, biomarkers, and transrenal DNA.

text: In 2012, 1,043,292, or 55% of all deaths in Russia were caused by cardiovascular disease. The second leading cause of death was cancer which claimed 287,840 lives (15.2%). External causes of death such as suicide (1.5%), road accidents (1.5%), murders (0.8%), accidental alcohol poisoning (0.4%), and accidental drowning (0.5%), claimed 202,175 lives in total (10.6%). Other major causes of death were diseases of the digestive system (4.6%), respiratory disease (3.6%), infectious and parasitic diseases (1.6%), and tuberculosis (0.9%). The infant mortality rate in 2012 was 7.6 deaths per 1,000 (down from 8.2 in 2009 and 16.9 in 1999).

text: In 2012, 1,043,292, or 55% of all deaths in Russia were caused by

text: cardiovascular disease

text: . The second leading cause of death was cancer which claimed 287,840 lives (15.2%). External causes of death such as suicide (1.5%), road accidents (1.5%), murders (0.8%), accidental alcohol poisoning (0.4%), and accidental drowning (0.5%), claimed 202,175 lives in total (10.6%). Other major causes of death were diseases of the digestive system (4.6%), respiratory disease (3.6%), infectious and parasitic diseases (1.6%), and tuberculosis (0.9%). The

text: infant mortality rate

text: in 2012 was 7.6 deaths per 1,000 (down from 8.2 in 2009 and 16.9 in 1999).

text: Childhood obesity however can also lead to life-threatening conditions including diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, sleep problems, cancer, and other disorders. Some of the other disorders would include liver disease, early puberty or menarche, eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia, skin infections, and asthma and other respiratory problems. Asthma severity is not affected by obesity however.

text: Childhood obesity however can also lead to life-threatening conditions including

text: diabetes

text: high blood pressure

text: heart disease

text: sleep problems

text: cancer

text: , and other disorders. Some of the other disorders would include

text: liver disease

text: early puberty

text: or

text: menarche

text: , eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia, skin infections, and asthma and other respiratory problems. Asthma severity is not affected by obesity however.

text: One of the most adverse impacts of poor waste management, especially municipal waste, is the incidence and prevalence of diseases such as malaria and respiratory problems, as well as other illnesses through the contamination of ground water. Biomedical wastes pose great danger in Bangladesh too as a report estimated that 20% of the biomedical waste is "highly infectious" and is a hazard since it is often disposed of into the sewage system or drains.  Such poor sanitation has serious consequences for the health of the residents and a report suggests that "most of the child mortality could be related with this problem".  With regards to the living standards, solid waste leads to blockage in the drainage system which leads to flooding in the streets. Consequently, mosquitoes and bad odour are among the negative impacts resulted.

text: One of the most adverse impacts of poor waste management, especially municipal waste, is the incidence and prevalence of diseases such as

text: malaria

text: and respiratory problems, as well as other illnesses through the contamination of ground water.

text: Biomedical wastes

text: pose great danger in Bangladesh too as a report estimated that 20% of the biomedical waste is "highly infectious" and is a hazard since it is often disposed of into the

text: sewage system

text: or drains.  Such poor

text: sanitation

text: has serious consequences for the health of the residents and a report suggests that "most of the

text: child mortality

text: could be related with this problem".  With regards to the living standards, solid waste leads to blockage in the drainage system which leads to flooding in the streets. Consequently,

text: mosquitoes

text: and bad odour are among the negative impacts resulted.

text: Lower respiratory tract infections are generally more serious than upper respiratory infections. LRIs are the leading cause of death among all infectious diseases. The two most common LRIs are bronchitis and pneumonia. Influenza affects both the upper and lower respiratory tracts, but more dangerous strains such as the highly pernicious H5N1 tend to bind to receptors deep in the lungs.

text: Lower respiratory tract infections are generally more serious than upper respiratory infections. LRIs are the leading cause of death among all

text: infectious disease

text: s. The two most common LRIs are

text: bronchitis

text: and

text: pneumonia

text: Influenza

text: affects both the upper and lower respiratory tracts, but more dangerous strains such as the highly pernicious

text: tend to bind to receptors deep in the lungs.

text: The long-term effects regarding respiratory flow resistance are unknown. E-cigarettes could harm the respiratory system. The immediate effects of e-cigarettes after 5 minutes of use on pulmonary function resulted in considerable increases in resistance to lung airflow. A 2013 review found an instant increase in airway resistance after using a single e-cigarette. Any reported harmful effects to cardiovascular and respiratory functions after short-term use of e-cigarettes were appreciably milder in comparison to cigarette smoke. When used in the short-term, an e-cigarette resulted in a rise of respiratory resistance comparatively to traditional cigarettes. E-cigarette use could result in respiratory diseases among youth.

text: The long-term effects regarding respiratory flow resistance are unknown. E-cigarettes could harm the

text: respiratory system

text: . The immediate effects of e-cigarettes after 5 minutes of use on pulmonary function resulted in considerable increases in resistance to lung airflow. A 2013 review found an instant increase in airway resistance after using a single e-cigarette. Any reported harmful effects to cardiovascular and respiratory functions after short-term use of e-cigarettes were appreciably milder in comparison to cigarette smoke. When used in the short-term, an e-cigarette resulted in a rise of respiratory resistance comparatively to traditional cigarettes. E-cigarette use could result in respiratory diseases among youth.

text: If the cancer has spread elsewhere, symptoms related to metastatic disease may appear. Common sites of spread include nearby lymph nodes, the liver, lungs and bone.  Liver metastasis can cause jaundice and abdominal swelling (ascites). Lung metastasis can cause, among other symptoms, impaired breathing due to excess fluid around the lungs (pleural effusion), and dyspnea (the feelings often associated with impaired breathing).

text: If the cancer has spread elsewhere, symptoms related to

text: metastatic disease

text: may appear. Common sites of spread include nearby

text: lymph node

text: s, the

text: liver

text: lungs

text: and bone.

text: Liver metastasis

text: can cause

text: jaundice

text: and abdominal swelling (

text: ascites

text: ). Lung metastasis can cause, among other symptoms, impaired breathing due to excess fluid around the lungs (

text: pleural effusion

text: ), and

text: dyspnea

text: (the feelings often associated with impaired breathing).

text: The album's second single, titled "Pneumonia" was released on August 19, 2016. The track features background vocals from Schoolboy Q and production from Evian Christ. A music video for "Pneumonia" was released on October 13, 2016.

text: The album's second single, titled "Pneumonia" was released on August 19, 2016. The track features background vocals from

text: Schoolboy Q

text: and production from

text: Evian Christ

text: . A music video for "Pneumonia" was released on October 13, 2016.

text: Conditions within this group include asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and viral upper respiratory infections.

text: Conditions within this group include

text: asthma

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: , and viral

text: upper respiratory infection

text: s.

text: There is no cure available for asbestosis. Oxygen therapy at home is often necessary to relieve the shortness of breath and correct underlying low blood oxygen levels. Supportive treatment of symptoms includes respiratory physiotherapy to remove secretions from the lungs by postural drainage, chest percussion, and vibration. Nebulized medications may be prescribed in order to loosen secretions or treat underlying chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Immunization against pneumococcal pneumonia and annual influenza vaccination is administered due to increased sensitivity to the diseases. Those with asbestosis are at increased risk for certain cancers. If the person smokes, quitting the habit reduces further damage. Periodic pulmonary function tests, chest x-rays, and clinical evaluations, including cancer screening/evaluations, are given to detect additional hazards.

text: There is no cure available for asbestosis.

text: Oxygen therapy

text: at home is often necessary to relieve the shortness of breath and correct underlying low blood oxygen levels. Supportive treatment of symptoms includes respiratory

text: physiotherapy

text: to remove secretions from the lungs by postural drainage, chest percussion, and vibration.

text: Nebulized

text: medications may be prescribed in order to loosen secretions or treat underlying

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: . Immunization against

text: pneumococcal pneumonia

text: and annual

text: influenza

text: vaccination is administered due to increased sensitivity to the diseases. Those with asbestosis are at increased risk for certain cancers. If the person smokes, quitting the habit reduces further damage. Periodic pulmonary function tests, chest x-rays, and clinical evaluations, including cancer screening/evaluations, are given to detect additional hazards.

text: M. pneumonia infection is responsible for triggering exacerbation of asthma in 3.3 to 50% in such cases.  Furthermore, M. pneumonia may also precede the onset of asthma, because patients with an acute infection by M. pneumonia, followed by the development of asthma, have significant improvement in lung function and asthma symptoms after they are given antimicrobial treatment that against M. pneumonia. The release of proinflammatory cytokines in response to M. pneumoniae infection has been indicated as a possible mechanism leading to bronchial asthma.  This is because the increase of cytokine production results in a continuing inflammatory response in the airway, followed by negative effects such as immunopathological tissue damage and scarring as described in the C. pneumonia’s role in asthma section. Furthermore, patients with asthma are found to have an increased release of type II cytokines, especially IL4 and IL5, but a normal or low level of type I cytokine production. Similarly, M. pneumoniae infection promotes a T helper type 2 response, which is why M pneumoniae-positive patients with asthma have increased airways expression of tumour necrosis factor a, IL4 and IL5. The T helper type 2 predominant airways disease caused by M. pneumonia infection may lead to IgE-related hyper-responsiveness and eosinophil function, resulting in an onset of asthma.  There is also a possibility that M. pneumoniae infection may destroy respiratory mucosal cells and facilitate the penetration of antigens into the mucosa.  A study done by Laitinen et al. (1976) suggests that M. pneumoniae infection denude the epithelial surface and expose irritant receptors.  On top of that, M. pneumoniae induces the activation of mast cells by releasing serotonin and hexosaminidase.  By producing antigen, M. pneumonia is capable of initiating an antibody response. Its antigen interacts with IgE that attaches to mast cells, leading to the stimulation of histamine release followed by airway obstruction.

text: Ribozymes, antisense oligonucleotides, and more recently RNAi have been used to target mRNA molecules involved in asthma. These experiments have suggested that siRNA may be used to combat other respiratory diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cystic fibrosis. COPD is characterized by goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus hypersecretion. Mucus secretion was found to be reduced when the transforming growth factor (TGF)-α was targeted by siRNA in NCI-H292 human airway epithelial cells. In addition to mucus hypersecretion, chronic inflammation and damaged lung tissue are characteristic of COPD and asthma. The transforming growth factor TGF-β is thought to play a role in these manifestations. As a result, when interferon (IFN)-γ was used to knock down TGF-β, fibrosis of the lungs, caused by damage and scarring to lung tissue, was improved.

text: Ribozymes, antisense oligonucleotides, and more recently RNAi have been used to target mRNA molecules involved in

text: asthma

text: . These experiments have suggested that siRNA may be used to combat other respiratory diseases, such as

text: and

text: cystic fibrosis

text: . COPD is characterized by

text: goblet cell

text: hyperplasia

text: and

text: mucus

text: hypersecretion

text: . Mucus secretion was found to be reduced when the

text: transforming growth factor (TGF)-α

text: was targeted by siRNA in NCI-H292 human airway

text: epithelial cells

text: . In addition to mucus hypersecretion,

text: chronic inflammation

text: and damaged lung tissue are characteristic of COPD and asthma. The

text: transforming growth factor TGF-β

text: is thought to play a role in these manifestations. As a result, when

text: interferon (IFN)-γ

text: was used to knock down TGF-β,

text: fibrosis

text: of the lungs, caused by damage and scarring to lung tissue, was improved.

text: Higgins died from respiratory disease in July 1986, in Los Angeles, at the age of 49.

text: Higgins died from

text: respiratory disease

text: in July 1986, in Los Angeles, at the age of 49.

text: Second-hand smoke is a mixture of smoke from the burning end of a cigarette, and the smoke exhaled from the lungs of smokers. It is involuntarily inhaled, lingers in the air hours after cigarettes have been extinguished, and can cause a wide range of adverse health effects, including cancer, respiratory infections, and asthma. Nonsmokers who are exposed to second-hand smoke at home or work increase their heart disease risk by 25–30% and their lung cancer risk by 20–30%. Second-hand smoke has been estimated to cause 38,000 deaths per year, of which 3,400 are deaths from lung cancer in nonsmokers. Sudden infant death syndrome, ear infections, respiratory infections, and asthma attacks can occur in children who are exposed to second-hand smoke.  Scientific evidence shows no level of exposure to second-hand smoke is safe.

text: Second-hand smoke

text: is a mixture of smoke from the burning end of a cigarette, and the smoke exhaled from the lungs of smokers. It is involuntarily inhaled, lingers in the air hours after cigarettes have been extinguished, and can cause a wide range of adverse health effects, including cancer,

text: respiratory infections

text: , and

text: asthma

text: . Nonsmokers who are exposed to second-hand smoke at home or work increase their heart disease risk by 25–30% and their lung cancer risk by 20–30%. Second-hand smoke has been estimated to cause 38,000 deaths per year, of which 3,400 are deaths from lung cancer in nonsmokers. Sudden infant death syndrome, ear infections, respiratory infections, and asthma attacks can occur in children who are exposed to second-hand smoke.  Scientific evidence shows no level of exposure to second-hand smoke is safe.

text: Usually, gathering energy resources in the developing countries in particular sub Saharan countries is undertaken by women. And women spend much time on cooking in a kitchen. They spend much time on harvesting energy resources and thus correspondingly consume their physical energy, which bring chronic fatigue to women. Moreover, the women and children, who spend much time in their kitchens to serve their families and stick around their moms to help moms' house chores, respectively, are in danger of long-term exposure to indoor air pollution caused by burning the traditional biomass. During the combustion, carbon monoxide, particles, benzene, and the likes threat their health. Expected diseases are acute respiratory infections, lung cancer, asthma, and other diseases. "The health consequences of using biomass in an unsustainable way are staggering. According to the World Health Organization, exposure to indoor air pollution is responsible for the nearly two million excess deaths, primarily women and children, from cancer, respiratory infections and lung diseases and for four percent of the global burden of disease. In relative terms, deaths related to biomass pollution kill more people than malaria (1.2 million) and tuberculosis (1.6 million) each year around the world."

text: Respiratory(suppurative lung disease)

text: Respiratory(suppurative lung disease)

text: Exposure to respiratory infectious diseases like tuberculosis (caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and influenza can be reduced with the use of respirators; this exposure is a significant occupational hazard for health care professionals. Exposure to dangerous chemicals, including chemotherapy drugs, is another potential occupational risk. These drugs can cause cancer and other health conditions. Healthcare workers are also at risk for diseases that are contracted through extended contact with a patient, including scabies. Health professionals are also at risk for contracting blood-borne diseases like hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV/AIDS through needlestick injuries or through contact with bodily fluids. This risk can be mitigated with vaccination when there is a vaccine available, like with hepatitis B. In epidemic situations, such as the 2014-2016 West African Ebola virus epidemic or the 2003 SARS outbreak, healthcare workers are at even greater risk, and were disproportionately affected in both the Ebola and SARS outbreaks. In general, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) is the first-line mode of protection for healthcare workers from infectious diseases. For it to be effective against highly contagious diseases, personal protective equipment must be watertight and prevent the skin and mucous membranes from contacting infectious material. Different levels of personal protective equipment created to unique standards are used in situations where the risk of infection is different. Practices such as triple gloving and multiple respirators do not provide a higher level of protection and present a burden to the worker, who is additionally at increased risk of exposure when removing the PPE. Compliance with appropriate personal protective equipment rules may be difficult in certain situations, such as tropical environment or low-resource settings. A 2016 Cochrane systematic review found low quality evidence that using more breathable fabric in PPE, double gloving, and active training reduce the risk of contamination.

text: Exposure to respiratory infectious diseases like

text: tuberculosis

text: (caused by

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: ) and

text: influenza

text: can be reduced with the use of

text: respirator

text: s; this exposure is a significant occupational hazard for health care professionals. Exposure to dangerous chemicals, including

text: chemotherapy

text: drugs, is another potential occupational risk. These drugs can cause cancer and other health conditions. Healthcare workers are also at risk for diseases that are contracted through extended contact with a patient, including

text: scabies

text: . Health professionals are also at risk for contracting blood-borne diseases like

text: hepatitis B

text: hepatitis C

text: , and

text: HIV/AIDS

text: through

text: needlestick injuries

text: or through contact with bodily fluids. This risk can be mitigated with vaccination when there is a vaccine available, like with hepatitis B. In epidemic situations, such as the 2014-2016

text: West African Ebola virus epidemic

text: or the

text: 2003 SARS outbreak

text: , healthcare workers are at even greater risk, and were disproportionately affected in both the Ebola and SARS outbreaks. In general, appropriate

text: personal protective equipment

text: (PPE) is the first-line mode of protection for healthcare workers from infectious diseases. For it to be effective against highly contagious diseases, personal protective equipment must be watertight and prevent the skin and mucous membranes from contacting infectious material. Different levels of personal protective equipment created to unique standards are used in situations where the risk of infection is different. Practices such as triple gloving and multiple respirators do not provide a higher level of protection and present a burden to the worker, who is additionally at increased risk of exposure when removing the PPE. Compliance with appropriate personal protective equipment rules may be difficult in certain situations, such as tropical environment or low-resource settings. A 2016 Cochrane systematic review found low quality evidence that using more breathable fabric in PPE, double gloving, and active training reduce the risk of contamination.

text: Bilevel positive airway pressure (BPAP) is a mode used during noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV).  First used in 1988 by Professor Benzer in Austria, it delivers a preset inspiratory positive airway pressure (IPAP) and expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP).  BPAP can be described as a Continuous Positive Airway Pressure system with a time-cycled change of the applied CPAP level. CPAP, BPAP and other non-invasive ventilation modes have been shown to be effective management tools for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute respiratory failure.

text: Bilevel positive airway pressure

text: (BPAP) is a mode used during noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV).  First used in 1988 by Professor Benzer in Austria, it delivers a preset inspiratory positive airway pressure (IPAP) and expiratory positive airway pressure (EPAP).  BPAP can be described as a Continuous Positive Airway Pressure system with a time-cycled change of the applied CPAP level. CPAP, BPAP and other non-invasive ventilation modes have been shown to be effective management tools for

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: and

text: acute respiratory failure

text: Chronic Conditions dermatological sensitivity; respiratory disease including lung fibrosis and chronic bronchitis; asthma-like syndromes; cancer; and neurological symptoms.

text: While respiratory disease intrigued him, it is clear even from his earliest writings that his developing fervour was for neurology. His Cambridge M.D thesis 'On disturbances of sensation with especial reference to the pain of visceral disease,' was based upon patients Head had seen and was later published in Brain (Head, 1893). Which begins:  "Several years ago I was led to examine the positions occupied by pain in disorders of the stomach and I soon came to the conclusion that the usual description was incomplete in several respects.... I then began to investigate the distribution of herpes zoster in the hope that a skin lesion which was notoriously of nervous origin might throw some light on the meaning and significance of the tender areas in visceral disease.... I next attempted to determine to what level of the nervous system these areas belonged, with the help of cases in which gross organic lesions were present.... This opened up the whole question of sensation in its various forms, but in this paper I shall not do more than touch upon the relations between the distribution of the sensations of pain, of heat, of cold and of touch." This early work on sensation was later to form the basis for one of his most ground-breaking studies 'A Human Experiment in Nerve Division.'

text: While respiratory disease intrigued him, it is clear even from his earliest writings that his developing fervour was for neurology. His Cambridge M.D thesis 'On disturbances of sensation with especial reference to the pain of visceral disease,' was based upon patients Head had seen and was later published in Brain (Head, 1893). Which begins:  "Several years ago I was led to examine the positions occupied by pain in disorders of the stomach and I soon came to the conclusion that the usual description was incomplete in several respects.... I then began to investigate the distribution of herpes zoster in the hope that a skin lesion which was notoriously of nervous origin might throw some light on the meaning and significance of the tender areas in visceral disease.... I next attempted to determine to what level of the nervous system these areas belonged, with the help of cases in which gross organic lesions were present.... This opened up the whole question of sensation in its various forms, but in this paper I shall not do more than touch upon the relations between the distribution of the sensations of pain, of heat, of cold and of touch." This early work on sensation was later to form the basis for one of his most ground-breaking studies '

text: A Human Experiment in Nerve Division

text: W.H.O (world health organisation) defines pneumonia as a form of acute respiratory infection that affects the lung parenchyma and oxygenation. When a patient with pneumonia is an alcoholic the mortality rate exceeds by 50% if they are needing to be placed into intensive care(ICU). According to Kershaw, C 2008 page 1 "As of 2001, pneumonia was the sixth most common cause of death in the united states". Alcoholics are at an increased risk for infection with tissue-damaging gram-negative pathogens or for the spread of bacteria in the blood.

text: W.H.O

text: (world health organisation) defines pneumonia as a form of acute respiratory infection that affects the lung parenchyma and oxygenation. When a patient with pneumonia is an alcoholic the mortality rate exceeds by 50% if they are needing to be placed into intensive care(ICU). According to Kershaw, C 2008 page 1 "As of 2001, pneumonia was the sixth most common cause of death in the united states". Alcoholics are at an increased risk for infection with tissue-damaging gram-negative pathogens or for the spread of bacteria in the blood.

text: Originally a tuberculosis sanatorium, Barlow Respiratory Hospital is a long-term acute care facility in Los Angeles that specializes in respiratory diseases and also treats related secondary ailments.  The hospital treats approximately 750 patients a year and sets the national benchmark in ventilator weaning at nearly 60%.

text: Originally a

text: tuberculosis sanatorium

text: , Barlow Respiratory Hospital is a long-term acute care facility in Los Angeles that specializes in respiratory diseases and also treats related secondary ailments.  The hospital treats approximately 750 patients a year and sets the national benchmark in

text: ventilator

text: weaning at nearly 60%.

text: Yeoh was heavily criticised by the media subsequently for his handling of the SARS outbreak in 2003. On 14 March 2003, despite the rising number of SARS cases in Hong Kong, Yeoh insisted there were no signs of a widespread outbreak of pneumonia - this was seen as misleading the public into not taking enough health care precautions. At a hearing at a LegCo select committee, he later explained that he had intended to distinguish the then unnamed disease from other forms of community-acquired pneumonia and to correct the Chinese-language media who had equated "atypical pneumonia" with SARS synonymously before the WHO officially named it. He apologised for the misunderstanding in his commincations.

text: Yeoh was heavily criticised by the media subsequently for his handling of the

text: SARS

text: outbreak in 2003. On 14 March 2003, despite the rising number of SARS cases in Hong Kong, Yeoh insisted there were no signs of a widespread

text: outbreak

text: of

text: pneumonia

text: - this was seen as misleading the public into not taking enough health care precautions. At a hearing at a LegCo select committee, he later explained that he had intended to distinguish the then unnamed disease from other forms of

text: community-acquired pneumonia

text: and to correct the Chinese-language media who had equated "

text: atypical pneumonia

text: " with SARS synonymously before the

text: WHO

text: officially named it. He apologised for the misunderstanding in his commincations.

text: The efficacy of cough medication is questionable, particularly in children. A 2014 Cochrane review concluded that "There is no good evidence for or against the effectiveness of OTC medicines in acute cough". Some cough medicines may be no more effective than placebos for acute coughs in adults, including coughs related to upper respiratory tract infections. The American College of Chest Physicians emphasizes that cough medicines are not designed to treat whooping cough, a cough that is caused by bacteria and can last for months. No over-the-counter cough medicines have been found to be effective in cases of pneumonia. They are not recommended in those who have COPD or chronic bronchitis. There is not enough evidence to make recommendations for those who have a cough and cancer.

text: The efficacy of cough medication is questionable, particularly in children. A 2014 Cochrane review concluded that "There is no good evidence for or against the effectiveness of OTC medicines in acute cough". Some cough medicines may be no more effective than

text: placebo

text: s for acute coughs in adults, including coughs related to upper respiratory tract infections. The

text: American College of Chest Physicians

text: emphasizes that cough medicines are not designed to treat

text: whooping cough

text: , a cough that is caused by bacteria and can last for months. No over-the-counter cough medicines have been found to be effective in cases of

text: pneumonia

text: . They are not recommended in those who have

text: COPD

text: or chronic bronchitis. There is not enough evidence to make recommendations for those who have a cough and

text: cancer

text: While goats are generally considered hardy animals and in many situations receive little medical care, they are subject to a number of diseases. Among the conditions affecting goats are respiratory diseases including pneumonia, foot rot, internal parasites, pregnancy toxosis and feed toxicity. Feed toxicity can vary based on breed and location. Certain foreign fruits and vegetables can be toxic to different breeds of goats.

text: While goats are generally considered hardy animals and in many situations receive little medical care, they are subject to a number of diseases. Among the conditions affecting goats are respiratory diseases including

text: pneumonia

text: , foot rot, internal parasites, pregnancy toxosis and feed toxicity. Feed toxicity can vary based on breed and location. Certain foreign fruits and vegetables can be toxic to different breeds of goats.

text: In the differential diagnosis (finding the correct diagnosis between diseases that have overlapping features) of some obstructive lung diseases, DPB is often considered. A number of DPB symptoms resemble those found with other obstructive lung diseases such as asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Wheezing, coughing with sputum production, and shortness of breath are common symptoms in such diseases, and obstructive respiratory functional impairment is found on pulmonary function testing. Cystic fibrosis, like DPB, causes severe lung inflammation, excess mucus production, and infection; but DPB does not cause disturbances of the pancreas nor the electrolytes, as does CF, so the two diseases are different and probably unrelated.  DPB is distinguished by the presence of lesions that appear on X-rays as nodules in the bronchioles of both lungs; inflammation in all tissue layers of the respiratory bronchioles; and its higher prevalence among individuals with East Asian lineage.

text: In the

text: differential diagnosis

text: (finding the correct diagnosis between diseases that have overlapping features) of some obstructive lung diseases, DPB is often considered. A number of DPB symptoms resemble those found with other obstructive lung diseases such as

text: asthma

text: chronic bronchitis

text: , and

text: emphysema

text: Wheezing

text: , coughing with

text: sputum

text: production, and shortness of breath are common symptoms in such diseases, and obstructive respiratory functional impairment is found on

text: pulmonary function testing

text: . Cystic fibrosis, like DPB, causes severe lung inflammation, excess mucus production, and infection; but DPB does not cause disturbances of the pancreas nor the

text: electrolyte

text: s, as does CF, so the two diseases are different and probably unrelated.  DPB is distinguished by the presence of lesions that appear on X-rays as nodules in the bronchioles of both lungs; inflammation in all

text: tissue

text: layers of the respiratory bronchioles; and its higher prevalence among individuals with East Asian lineage.

text: Over centuries, kava has been used in the traditional medicine of the South Pacific Islands for central nervous system and peripheral effects. As noted in one literature review: "Peripherally, [kava] is indicated in traditional Pacific medicine for urogenital conditions (gonorrhea infections, chronic cystitis, difficulty urinating), reproductive and women's health (...), gastrointestinal upsets, respiratory ailments (asthma, coughs, and tuberculosis), skin diseases and topical wounds, and as an analgesic, with significant subtlety and nuance attending the precise strain, plant component (leaf, stem, root, etc.) and preparative method to be used".

text: Over centuries, kava has been used in the

text: traditional medicine

text: of the South

text: Pacific Islands

text: for

text: central nervous system

text: and peripheral effects. As noted in one literature review: "Peripherally, [kava] is indicated in traditional Pacific medicine for urogenital conditions (

text: gonorrhea

text: infections, chronic

text: cystitis

text: , difficulty urinating), reproductive and women's health (...), gastrointestinal upsets, respiratory ailments (

text: asthma

text: , coughs, and

text: tuberculosis

text: ), skin diseases and topical wounds, and as an

text: analgesic

text: , with significant subtlety and nuance attending the precise strain, plant component (leaf, stem, root, etc.) and preparative method to be used".

text: Clinical features may include initial symptoms of an upper respiratory tract infection mimicking a viral infection, usually associated with fevers, often low-grade. This may progress to the lower respiratory tract in a few days, with features often resembling those of a wheezy bronchitis. Sputum may be difficult to expectorate and is often grey or creamy in color. The cough may persist for weeks without appropriate treatment. Many cases are diagnosed after presenting chest infections do not respond to penicillins or first-generation cephalosporins.

text: Clinical features may include initial symptoms of an

text: upper respiratory tract infection

text: mimicking a viral infection, usually associated with fevers, often low-grade. This may progress to the lower respiratory tract in a few days, with features often resembling those of a wheezy bronchitis. Sputum may be difficult to expectorate and is often grey or creamy in color. The cough may persist for weeks without appropriate treatment. Many cases are diagnosed after presenting chest infections do not respond to penicillins or first-generation cephalosporins.

text: In summary, there is good evidence of a weekend effect in a spectrum of respiratory disease, including COPD, PE and pneumonia.

text: ChestEze (or Do-Do ChestEze) is a British over-the-counter pharmaceutical product manufactured by Novartis for "relief of bronchial cough, wheezing, breathlessness and other symptoms of asthmatic bronchitis and to clear the chest of mucus following upper respiratory tract infection." It contains 30mg caffeine, 18.31mg ephedrine hydrochloride and 100mg anhydrous theophylline.

text: ChestEze (or Do-Do ChestEze) is a

text: British

text: over-the-counter

text: pharmaceutical

text: product manufactured by

text: Novartis

text: for "relief of

text: bronchial

text: cough

text: wheezing

text: breathlessness

text: and other

text: symptom

text: s of

text: asthma

text: tic

text: bronchitis

text: and to clear the

text: chest

text: of

text: mucus

text: following

text: upper respiratory tract

text: infection

text: ." It contains 30mg

text: caffeine

text: , 18.31mg

text: ephedrine

text: hydrochloride

text: and 100mg

text: anhydrous

text: theophylline

text: Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Environmental factors include exposure to air pollution and allergens. Other potential triggers include medications such as aspirin and beta blockers. Diagnosis is usually based on the pattern of symptoms, response to therapy over time, and spirometry. Asthma is classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate. It may also be classified as atopic or non-atopic where atopy refers to a predisposition toward developing a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction.

text: Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of

text: genetic

text: and

text: environmental factor

text: s. Environmental factors include exposure to

text: air pollution

text: and

text: allergen

text: s. Other potential triggers include medications such as

text: aspirin

text: and

text: beta blockers

text: . Diagnosis is usually based on the pattern of symptoms, response to therapy over time, and

text: spirometry

text: . Asthma is classified according to the frequency of symptoms,

text: forced expiratory volume in one second

text: (FEV1), and

text: peak expiratory flow rate

text: . It may also be classified as

text: atopic

text: or non-atopic where atopy refers to a predisposition toward developing a

text: type 1 hypersensitivity

text: reaction.

text: The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the nose or mouth to the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs, in which branches no longer contain cartilage or glands in their submucosa. They are branches of the bronchi, and are part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system. The bronchioles divide further into smaller terminal bronchioles which are still in the conducting zone and these then divide into the smaller respiratory bronchioles which mark the beginning of the respiratory region.

text: The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the

text: nose

text: or

text: mouth

text: to the

text: alveoli

text: (air sacs) of the lungs, in which branches no longer contain

text: cartilage

text: or

text: gland

text: s in their

text: submucosa

text: . They are branches of the

text: bronchi

text: , and are part of the

text: conducting zone

text: of the

text: respiratory system

text: . The bronchioles divide further into smaller terminal bronchioles which are still in the conducting zone and these then divide into the smaller respiratory bronchioles which mark the beginning of the respiratory region.

text: Since physical abnormalities can affect all body parts along the midline of the body, many different body systems are at risk of being damaged. Those systems commonly affected are the nervous, digestive, cardiovascular, respiratory and reproductive. Typically, those diagnosed with either type of Opitz G/BBB syndrome will also have ocular hypertelorism, or eyes that are excessively spaced apart. Patients will commonly experience physical defects in the larynx, trachea and esophagus and will often cause breathing and swallowing difficulties. Further facial anomalies may occur, such as a prominent forehead, widow’s peak, broad nasal bridge. Those with the disease may also experience hypospadias (urinary opening in males is not at the head of the penis) and developmental delay, as well.

text: Since physical abnormalities can affect all body parts along the midline of the body, many different body systems are at risk of being damaged. Those systems commonly affected are the

text: nervous

text: digestive

text: cardiovascular

text: respiratory

text: and

text: reproductive

text: . Typically, those diagnosed with either type of Opitz G/BBB syndrome will also have

text: ocular hypertelorism

text: , or eyes that are excessively spaced apart. Patients will commonly experience physical defects in the

text: larynx

text: trachea

text: and

text: esophagus

text: and will often cause breathing and swallowing difficulties. Further facial

text: anomalies

text: may occur, such as a prominent forehead,

text: widow’s peak

text: , broad nasal bridge. Those with the disease may also experience

text: hypospadias

text: (urinary opening in males is not at the head of the penis) and

text: developmental delay

text: , as well.

text: Leukotrienes contribute to the pathophysiology of asthma, especially in patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), and cause or potentiate the following symptoms:

text: Leukotrienes contribute to the

text: pathophysiology

text: of

text: asthma

text: , especially in patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (

text: AERD

text: ), and cause or

text: potentiate

text: the following

text: symptom

text: s:

text: Reiser died in Palm Springs, California, of respiratory disease, at age 62, and was buried at Desert Memorial Park in Cathedral City, California.

text: Reiser died in

text: Palm Springs, California

text: , of

text: respiratory disease

text: , at age 62, and was buried at

text: Desert Memorial Park

text: in

text: Cathedral City, California

text: Bronchitis is another common infection that takes place in the lower respiratory tract. It is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. There are two forms of this infection: acute bronchitis, which is treatable and can go away without treatment, or chronic bronchitis, which comes and goes, but will always affect one's lungs. Bronchitis increases the amount of mucus that is natural in your respiratory tract.  Chronic bronchitis is common in smokers, because the tar from smoking accumulates over time, causing the lungs to work harder to repair themselves. (7)

text: Bronchitis

text: is another common infection that takes place in the lower respiratory tract. It is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. There are two forms of this infection: acute bronchitis, which is treatable and can go away without treatment, or chronic bronchitis, which comes and goes, but will always affect one's lungs. Bronchitis increases the amount of mucus that is natural in your respiratory tract.  Chronic bronchitis is common in smokers, because the tar from smoking accumulates over time, causing the lungs to work harder to repair themselves. (7)

text: The term "bronchiolitis" generally refers to inflammation of the bronchioles. DPB is classified as a form of "primary bronchiolitis", which means that the underlying cause of bronchiolitis is originating from or is confined to the bronchioles. Along with DPB, additional forms of primary bronchiolitis include bronchiolitis obliterans, follicular bronchiolitis, respiratory bronchiolitis, mineral dust airway disease, and a number of others. Unlike DPB, bronchiolitis that is not considered "primary" would be associated with diseases of the larger airways, such as chronic bronchitis.

text: The term "bronchiolitis" generally refers to inflammation of the bronchioles. DPB is classified as a form of "primary bronchiolitis", which means that the underlying cause of bronchiolitis is originating from or is confined to the bronchioles. Along with DPB, additional forms of primary bronchiolitis include

text: bronchiolitis obliterans

text: , follicular bronchiolitis,

entity_name: Respiratory bronchiolitis interstitial lung disease

text: respiratory bronchiolitis

text: mineral dust airway disease

text: , and a number of others. Unlike DPB, bronchiolitis that is not considered "primary" would be associated with diseases of the larger airways, such as

text: chronic bronchitis

text: Effects of nitrogen mustard exposure can be long-term or permanent; it is also a known carcinogen, reprotoxin, and developmental toxin after chronic and acute exposure, causing skin cancer and airway cancers in particular. Blindness from an acute exposure is usually temporary, resolving in days to months depending on severity. Chronic respiratory and eye infections are also common after acute nitrogen mustard exposure. Other consequences of acute exposure include ageusia, anosmia, pulmonary fibrosis, scarring, bronchitis, chronic respiratory disease, mental illness, and central nervous system damage. Consequences of chronic exposure beyond cancer include permanent kidney damage and immunosuppression.

text: Effects of nitrogen mustard exposure can be long-term or permanent; it is also a known

text: carcinogen

text: reprotoxin

text: , and

text: developmental toxin

text: after chronic and acute exposure, causing

text: skin cancer

text: and airway cancers in particular. Blindness from an acute exposure is usually temporary, resolving in days to months depending on severity. Chronic

text: respiratory

text: and

text: eye infections

text: are also common after acute nitrogen mustard exposure. Other consequences of acute exposure include ageusia, anosmia,

text: pulmonary fibrosis

text: , scarring,

text: bronchitis

text: , chronic respiratory disease,

text: mental illness

text: , and

text: central nervous system damage

text: . Consequences of chronic exposure beyond cancer include permanent

text: kidney damage

text: and immunosuppression.

text: "Deaths from acute respiratory infections, diarrhoeal diseases, measles, AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis account for more than 85% of the mortality from infection worldwide. Resistance to first-line drugs in most of the pathogens causing these diseases ranges from zero to almost 100%. In some instances resistance to second- and thirdline agents is seriously compromising treatment outcome. Added to this is the significant global burden of resistant, hospital-acquired infections, the emerging problems of antiviral resistance and the increasing problems of drug resistance in the neglected parasitic diseases of poor and marginalized populations." - WHO Global Strategy for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance 2010

text: "Deaths from acute respiratory infections,

text: diarrhoeal diseases

text: measles

text: AIDS

text: malaria

text: , and

text: tuberculosis

text: account for more than 85% of the mortality from infection worldwide. Resistance to first-line drugs in most of the pathogens causing these diseases ranges from zero to almost 100%. In some instances resistance to second- and thirdline agents is seriously compromising treatment outcome. Added to this is the significant global burden of resistant, hospital-acquired infections, the emerging problems of antiviral resistance and the increasing problems of drug resistance in the neglected parasitic diseases of poor and marginalized populations." - WHO Global Strategy for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance 2010

text: The World Health Organization cites diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDS, meningitis, and respiratory infections as common causes of death in Haiti. Ninety percent of Haiti's children suffer from waterborne diseases and intestinal parasites.  HIV infection is found in 1.8% of Haiti's population. The incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in Haiti is more than ten times as high as in the rest of Latin America. Approximately 30,000 Haitians fall ill with malaria each year.

text: The

text: World Health Organization

text: cites

text: diarrhea

text: l diseases,

text: HIV/AIDS

text: meningitis

text: , and respiratory infections as common causes of death in Haiti. Ninety percent of Haiti's children suffer from

text: waterborne disease

text: s and

text: intestinal parasite

text: s.  HIV infection is found in 1.8% of Haiti's population. The incidence of

text: tuberculosis

text: (TB) in Haiti is more than ten times as high as in the rest of Latin America. Approximately 30,000 Haitians fall ill with

text: malaria

text: each year.

text: Mycobacterium elephantis has the potential to impact diagnostic evaluation when patients display untraceable tuberculosis symptoms. A patient in Asia was hospitalized due to chronic respiratory disease. A chest X-ray showed signs including a shadow in her right region of her chest, which is known to be a common sign of tuberculosis .  Without physical evidence of tuberculosis by the absence of the species Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the physicians misdiagnosed her with tuberculosis; but the testing of the patient’s bronchial lavage found coccobacillary, acid-fast microbes.  After further testing, the isolate organism showed high similarity of up to 100% to Mycobacterium elephantis. This demonstrates the difficulty of diagnosing humans with tuberculosis in different geographic areas. Misdiagnosis can be a huge factor in patient care and rehabilitation, and further research on this organism can diminish this problem. Mycobacterium elephantis should not be ruled out in future diagnostics of chronic respiratory diseases.

text: Mycobacterium elephantis has the potential to impact

text: diagnostic

text: evaluation when patients display untraceable

text: tuberculosis

text: symptom

text: s. A patient in

text: Asia

text: was hospitalized due to

text: chronic respiratory disease

text: . A chest

text: X-ray

text: showed signs including a shadow in her right region of her chest, which is known to be a common sign of tuberculosis .  Without physical evidence of tuberculosis by the absence of the species

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: , the

text: physician

text: s misdiagnosed her with tuberculosis; but the testing of the patient’s

text: bronchial lavage

text: found

text: coccobacillary

text: acid-fast

text: microbes

text: .  After further testing, the isolate organism showed high similarity of up to 100% to Mycobacterium elephantis. This demonstrates the difficulty of diagnosing humans with tuberculosis in different geographic areas. Misdiagnosis can be a huge factor in patient care and

text: rehabilitation

text: , and further research on this organism can diminish this problem. Mycobacterium elephantis should not be ruled out in future diagnostics of chronic respiratory diseases.

text: It is a histological finding, not a pathological description. When associated with disease, it is known as "Respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease" or "RB-ILD".

text: It has been found in human respiratory infections and is associated with chronic bronchitis in immunosuppressed patients. It has been observed to possess gliding motility, a protruding polar tip resembling that of M. gallepticum, and cytoskeletal structure at its polar tip similar to M. pneumonia's. Those infected show symptoms of lower respiratory tract infections such as increased respiratory rates and increased pulse rates.

text: It has been found in human

text: respiratory infection

text: s and is associated with chronic

text: bronchitis

text: in immunosuppressed patients. It has been observed to possess

text: gliding motility

text: , a protruding polar tip resembling that of

text: M. gallepticum

text: , and cytoskeletal structure at its polar tip similar to

text: M. pneumonia

text: 's. Those infected show symptoms of

text: lower respiratory tract infection

text: s such as increased

text: respiratory rate

text: s and increased

text: pulse rate

text: s.

text: The Global Asthma Network currently has 280 centres located in 120 countries throughout the world and the number is growing. The GAN Steering Group, consisting of 11 scientists and clinicians selected from The Union and the former ISAAC network, and the smaller Executive Team are responsible for the administration of GAN and its activities. The GAN Steering Group includes members from New Zealand, Switzerland, France, Taiwan, Sudan, Spain, Chile, Australia and the United Kingdom, and many are members of or are advisors to other international bodies. The GAN Steering Group meets quarterly (via Skype) and annually in-person. The GAN Data Centre provides central co-ordination, receives data from GAN centres, and advises at all levels on methodology and other aspects of the programme.The Global Asthma Network has established worldwide networks with organizations concerned with health in developing countries such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease, the Forum of International Respiratory Societies(FIRS), the International Congress on Pediatric Pulmonology (CIPP), NCD Child and the American Thoracic Society (ATS).

text: The Global Asthma Network currently has 280 centres located in 120 countries throughout the world and the number is growing. The GAN Steering Group, consisting of 11 scientists and clinicians selected from The Union and the former ISAAC network, and the smaller Executive Team are responsible for the administration of GAN and its activities. The GAN Steering Group includes members from New Zealand, Switzerland, France, Taiwan, Sudan, Spain, Chile, Australia and the United Kingdom, and many are members of or are advisors to other international bodies. The GAN Steering Group meets quarterly (via Skype) and annually in-person. The GAN Data Centre provides central co-ordination, receives data from GAN centres, and advises at all levels on methodology and other aspects of the programme.The Global Asthma Network has established worldwide networks with organizations concerned with health in developing countries such as the

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO), the

entity_name: International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease

text: International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease

text: , the

entity_name: Forum of International Respiratory Societies

text: Forum of International Respiratory Societies

text: (FIRS), the International Congress on Pediatric Pulmonology (CIPP), NCD Child and the

text: American Thoracic Society

text: (ATS).

text: Arsenic has been shown to cause skin cancer, bladder cancer and lung cancer, and lead damages the nervous system. Coal ash contaminants are also linked to respiratory diseases and other health and developmental problems, and have disrupted local aquatic life.  Coal ash also releases a variety of toxic contaminants into nearby air, posing a health threat to those who breath in fugitive coal dust.

text: Arsenic has been shown to cause

text: skin cancer

text: bladder cancer

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: , and lead damages the

text: nervous system

text: . Coal ash contaminants are also linked to respiratory diseases and other health and developmental problems, and have disrupted local aquatic life.  Coal ash also releases a variety of toxic contaminants into nearby air, posing a health threat to those who breath in fugitive coal dust.

text: Between 1944 and 1989, 3.9 million tons of uranium ore were mined from the mountains and plains. In 1950, the US Public Health Service made a massive study of uranium miners. In 1962 it published the first report to show a statistical correlation between cancer and uranium mining. The federal government finally regulated the standard amount of radon in mines, setting the level at .3 WL on January 1, 1969. The Environmental Protection Agency was established on December 2, 1970. But, environmental regulation could not repair the damage already suffered. Navajo miners contracted lung cancer at much higher rates than the rest of the population, and they have suffered higher rates of other lung diseases caused by breathing in radon.

text: Between 1944 and 1989, 3.9 million tons of uranium ore were mined from the mountains and plains. In 1950, the

text: US Public Health Service

text: made a massive study of uranium miners. In 1962 it published the first report to show a statistical correlation between cancer and uranium mining. The federal government finally regulated the standard amount of

text: radon

text: in mines, setting the level at .3 WL on January 1, 1969. The

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: was established on December 2, 1970. But, environmental regulation could not repair the damage already suffered. Navajo miners contracted

text: lung cancer

text: at much higher rates than the rest of the population, and they have suffered higher rates of other lung diseases caused by breathing in radon.

text: A 1995 report published by American Public Health Association found: “excess mortality rates for lung cancer, pneumoconioses and other respiratory diseases, and tuberculosis for Navajo uranium miners. Increasing duration of exposure to underground uranium mining was associated with increased mortality risk for all three diseases… The most important long-term mortality risks for the Navajo uranium miners continue to be lung cancer and pneumoconioses and other nonmalignant respiratory diseases.” That is to say, not stomach cancer, which the Navajo people naturally have a higher rate of experiencing than the national US average.

text: A 1995 report published by

text: American Public Health Association

text: found: “excess mortality rates for lung cancer, pneumoconioses and other respiratory diseases, and tuberculosis for Navajo uranium miners. Increasing duration of exposure to underground uranium mining was associated with increased mortality risk for all three diseases… The most important long-term mortality risks for the Navajo uranium miners continue to be lung cancer and pneumoconioses and other nonmalignant respiratory diseases.” That is to say, not stomach cancer, which the Navajo people naturally have a higher rate of experiencing than the national US average.

text: EHV-4 is an upper respiratory disease restricted to the infection of the respiratory tract epithelium and its associated lymph nodes. EHV 4 and its close relative EHV 1 are clinically and pathologically indistinguishable and are the primary pathogens that causing respiratory tract disease in young horses from weanling to 2 years of age. Incubation period of Equine Herpiesvirus is 2–10 days. Symptoms include fever (38.9–41.7 °C), loss of appetite, and a nasal discharge giving it the nickname "snots". Without antibiotic treatment, the damage to the respiratory mucosal barrier predisposes infected horses to secondary infections and the involvement of the lower airways (ex. bronchiolitis or pneumonia); Increasing the duration, severity and the mortality of the disease.  EHV-4 rarely causes abortion in infected pregnant mares unlike its EHV-1 counterpart.  Although there is no specific treatment for the disease once a horse is infected, vaccination against EHV-1 and EHV-4 is recommended as part of preventative herd health for those at high risk of infection. Multiple vaccines are available (Duvaxyn EHV1,4, EquiGuard, EquiVac EHV-1/4, etc.), most in an inactivated virus form.

text: A wheeze (formally called "sibilant rhonchi" in medical terminology) is a continuous, coarse, whistling sound produced in the respiratory airways during breathing. For wheezes to occur, some part of the respiratory tree must be narrowed or obstructed, or airflow velocity within the respiratory tree must be heightened. Wheezing is commonly experienced by persons with a lung disease; the most common cause of recurrent wheezing is asthma attacks, though it can also be a symptom of lung cancer, congestive heart failure, and certain types of heart diseases.

text: A wheeze (formally called "sibilant rhonchi" in medical terminology) is a continuous, coarse, whistling sound produced in the respiratory

text: airway

text: s during breathing. For wheezes to occur, some part of the respiratory tree must be narrowed or obstructed, or airflow velocity within the respiratory tree must be heightened. Wheezing is commonly experienced by persons with a

text: lung disease

text: ; the most common cause of recurrent wheezing is

text: asthma attacks

text: , though it can also be a symptom of

text: lung cancer

text: congestive heart failure

text: , and certain types of

text: heart disease

text: s.

text: The oxygen tent had been introduced in the 1920s, and Barach turned the device into a closed system by adding ice chunks for cooling and soda lime for the absorption of the patient's exhaled carbon dioxide. He also introduced portable oxygen systems for emphysema patients and authored the first modern report of supplemental oxygen use for patients hospitalized with pneumonia. In 1950, Barach was one of three contributors to the first set of minimum standards for training programs in inhalation therapy (later known as respiratory therapy).

text: The

text: oxygen tent

text: had been introduced in the 1920s, and Barach turned the device into a closed system by adding ice chunks for cooling and

text: soda lime

text: for the absorption of the patient's exhaled

text: carbon dioxide

text: . He also introduced portable oxygen systems for

text: emphysema

text: patients and authored the first modern report of supplemental oxygen use for patients hospitalized with

text: pneumonia

text: . In 1950, Barach was one of three contributors to the first set of minimum standards for training programs in inhalation therapy (later known as

text: respiratory therapy

text: Respiratory sensitiser — causing occupational asthma

text: Following is an overview of the main obstructive lung diseases. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is mainly a combination of chronic bronchitis and emphysema, but may be more or less overlapping with all conditions.

text: Patients who suffer from muscle weakness due to myasthenia gravis or have poor respiratory reserves due to severe chronic bronchitis, emphysema, or other lung disease, or have sleep apnoea cannot safely take zopiclone, nor can a patient with any untreated abnormality of the thyroid gland.

text: Patients who suffer from muscle weakness due to

text: myasthenia gravis

text: or have poor respiratory reserves due to severe

text: chronic bronchitis

text: emphysema

text: , or other lung disease, or have

text: sleep apnoea

text: cannot safely take zopiclone, nor can a patient with any untreated abnormality of the

text: thyroid gland

text: Subcutaneous emphysema indicates backpressure created by undrained air, often caused by a clogged drain or insufficient negative pressure.

text: Subcutaneous emphysema

text: indicates backpressure created by undrained air, often caused by a clogged drain or insufficient negative pressure.

text: Parasternal heave occurs in the setting of right ventricular enlargement (hypertrophy) or very rarely severe left atrial enlargement. Hypertrophy of the right side of the heart will occur when the right side of the heart chronically contracts against higher pressure. This occurs in the setting of valvular disease i.e. pulmonary valve, and in the setting of respiratory disease whereby the pressure in the pulmonary artery becomes elevated (e.g., Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). An example of a condition where parasternal heave can be felt is Cor pulmonale. This impulse may also be felt in dilated right ventricular myopathy. The palpation of dilated myopathy differs in that the impulse tends to be vigorous and brief. This is in contrast with the sustained impulse of the hypertrophied right ventricle. A parasternal heave may also be felt in mitral stenosis.

text: Parasternal heave occurs in the setting of right ventricular enlargement (

text: hypertrophy

text: ) or very rarely severe left atrial enlargement. Hypertrophy of the right side of the heart will occur when the right side of the heart chronically contracts against higher pressure. This occurs in the setting of valvular disease i.e. pulmonary valve, and in the setting of respiratory disease whereby the pressure in the pulmonary artery becomes elevated (e.g.,

text: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: ). An example of a condition where parasternal heave can be felt is

text: Cor pulmonale

text: . This impulse may also be felt in dilated right ventricular myopathy. The palpation of dilated myopathy differs in that the impulse tends to be vigorous and brief. This is in contrast with the sustained impulse of the hypertrophied right ventricle. A parasternal heave may also be felt in mitral stenosis.

text: Chronic lung disease develops in more than 25% of people with A-T. Three major types of lung disease can develop: (1) recurrent and chronic sinopulmonary infections; (2) lung disease caused by ineffective cough, swallowing dysfunction, and impaired airway clearance; and (3) restrictive interstitial lung disease. It is common for individuals with A-T to have more than one of these lung conditions. Chronic lung disease can occur because of recurrent lung infections due to immunodeficiency. Individuals with this problem are at risk of developing bronchiectasis, a condition in which bronchial tubes are permanently damaged, resulting in recurrent lower airway infections. Gamma globulin for people with antibody deficiency and/or chronic antibiotic treatment may reduce the problems of infection. Other individuals with A-T have difficulty with taking deep breaths and may have an ineffective cough, making it difficult to clear oral and bronchial secretions. This can lead to prolonged respiratory symptoms following common viral respiratory illnesses. Techniques that allow clearance of mucus can be helpful in some individuals during respiratory illnesses. Some people will develop swallowing problems as they age, increasing their risk of aspiration pneumonia. Recurrent injury to the lungs caused by chronic infections or aspiration may cause lung fibrosis and scarring. This process may be enhanced by inadequate tissue repair in ATM-deficient cells. A small number of individuals develop interstitial lung disease. They have decreased pulmonary reserve, trouble breathing, a need for supplemental oxygen and chronic cough in the absence of lung infections. They may respond to systemic steroid treatment or other drugs to reduce inflammation.

text: Rolipram has several activities that make it a continuing focus for research.  The etiology of many neurodegenerative diseases involves misfolded and clumped proteins which accumulate in the brain. Cells have a mechanism to dispose of such proteins called the proteasome.  However, in Alzheimer's disease and some other conditions the activity of these proteasomes is impaired leading to a buildup of toxic aggregates. Research in mice suggests that rolipram has the ability to ramp up the activity of proteasomes and reduce the burden of these aggregates. Preliminary evidence suggests that this can improve spatial memory in mice engineered to have aggregate build-up. It continues to be used in research as a well-characterized PDE4 inhibitor.  It has been used in studies to understand whether PDE4 inhibition could be useful in autoimmune diseases,  Alzheimer's disease, cognitive enhancement, spinal cord injury, and respiratory diseases like asthma and COPD.

text: Rolipram has several activities that make it a continuing focus for research.  The etiology of many neurodegenerative diseases involves misfolded and clumped proteins which accumulate in the brain. Cells have a mechanism to dispose of such proteins called the proteasome.  However, in Alzheimer's disease and some other conditions the activity of these proteasomes is impaired leading to a buildup of toxic aggregates. Research in mice suggests that rolipram has the ability to ramp up the activity of proteasomes and reduce the burden of these aggregates. Preliminary evidence suggests that this can improve spatial memory in mice engineered to have aggregate build-up. It continues to be used in research as a well-characterized PDE4 inhibitor.  It has been used in studies to understand whether PDE4 inhibition could be useful in

text: autoimmune diseases

text: ,  Alzheimer's disease, cognitive enhancement, spinal cord injury, and respiratory diseases like asthma and

text: COPD

text: Since many other skin disorders can be characterized by abnormal papules or nodules, a dermatologist will determine if a patient has Kyrle disease by the depth of penetrating keratotic plugs, localized distribution of the plugs, size of plugs, and the age of onset. A physician will also have to test for disorders, such as, diabetes, hepatic, and renal disease to help bolster the diagnosis of Kyrle disease. Other underlying diseases that Kyrle disease is observed with are tuberculosis, pulmonary aspergillosis, scabies, atopic dermatitis, AIDS, neurodermatitis, and endocrinological disorders.

text: Since many other skin disorders can be characterized by abnormal papules or nodules, a dermatologist will determine if a patient has Kyrle disease by the depth of penetrating keratotic plugs, localized distribution of the plugs, size of plugs, and the age of onset. A physician will also have to test for disorders, such as, diabetes, hepatic, and renal disease to help bolster the diagnosis of Kyrle disease. Other underlying diseases that Kyrle disease is observed with are

text: tuberculosis

text: , pulmonary

text: aspergillosis

text: scabies

text: atopic dermatitis

text: AIDS

text: neurodermatitis

text: , and endocrinological disorders.

text: SARS-CoV virus causes SARS disease, and MERS-CoV virus causes MERS "Middle East Respiratory Syndrome" disease.

text: SARS-CoV

text: virus causes

text: SARS

text: disease, and

entity_name: Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus

text: MERS-CoV virus

text: causes

text: MERS

text: "Middle East Respiratory Syndrome" disease.

text: The study linked the effects of various indoor and outdoor pollutants with respiratory diseases and lung cancer.

text: In the outskirts of Bobbio there are many water springs rich in sodium chloride, bromine and iodine. When their curative properties were not known these waters were exploited to obtain salt. Indeed, already during the Longobard Age, the army leader Sundrarit enjoyed the income of the salt-works sited on the right side of the river Trebbia. Now in San Martino, 1.5 km. from the centre of the town, the spa building Therm of Bobbio, first opened in July 1904 and is currently undergoing restoration for the creation of a modern health center and a spa where you will be treated diseases of the respiratory system and the skin.

text: In the outskirts of Bobbio there are many water springs rich in sodium chloride, bromine and iodine. When their curative properties were not known these waters were exploited to obtain salt. Indeed, already during the Longobard Age, the army leader Sundrarit enjoyed the income of the salt-works sited on the right side of the river

text: Trebbia

text: . Now in San Martino, 1.5 km. from the centre of the town, the spa building Therm of Bobbio, first opened in July 1904 and is currently undergoing restoration for the creation of a modern health center and a spa where you will be treated diseases of the respiratory system and the skin.

text: The Lung Association works at the national, provincial and community levels to improve and promote lung health. Its focus is primarily on chronic lung diseases like asthma and COPD, infectious diseases like TB, flu, and pneumonia,  breathing disorders like sleep apnea, cystic fibrosis and lung cancer They provide information to both citizens and governments, and advocate for improved care for lung disease patients.To prevent lung diseases, the CLA conducts numerous initiatives including programs to inform people about the effects of air pollution and tobacco use. This includes providing help to smokers who are trying to quit, and providing educational material and programs to reduce the number of people who take up smoking. Transportation, radon and woodsmoke issues are the subjects of numerous Lung Association education and advocacy efforts across the country. They also encourage governments at every level to create regulations, laws and policies that strengthen societal lung health in Canada in general.

text: The Lung Association works at the national, provincial and community levels to improve and promote lung health. Its focus is primarily on

text: chronic

text: lung diseases like

text: asthma

text: and

text: COPD

text: infectious disease

text: s like TB,

text: flu

text: , and

text: pneumonia

text: ,  breathing disorders like

text: sleep apnea

text: , cystic fibrosis and lung cancer They provide information to both citizens and governments, and advocate for improved care for lung disease patients.To prevent lung diseases, the CLA conducts numerous initiatives including programs to inform people about the effects of

text: air pollution

text: and tobacco use. This includes providing help to

text: smokers

text: who are trying to quit, and providing

text: education

text: al material and programs to reduce the number of people who take up smoking. Transportation, radon and woodsmoke issues are the subjects of numerous Lung Association education and advocacy efforts across the country. They also encourage

text: government

text: s at every level to create regulations, laws and policies that strengthen societal lung health in Canada in general.

text: Other causes include medication side effects and various disease processes. The use of stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines which can result in urinary retention, and the use of CNS depressants and other psychoactive drugs can also lead to urinary retention and constipation thus leading to autonomic dysreflexia when in use over an extended period of time. Guillain–Barré syndrome is a demyelinating disease that can result in peripheral paralysis and can progress to encompass autonomic functions, leading to a loss of normal respiratory, bladder and bowel function resulting in autonomic dysreflexia. Severe head trauma and other brain injuries can instigate autonomic dysreflexia at the central nervous system by interfering with the reception of the signal that brings the urge to void the bladder and bowels and with the voluntary ability to micturate and defecate.Other causal theories for autonomic dysreflexia include  noxious stimuli, or painful stimuli arising from the peripheral sensory neurons. These stimuli are interrupted in their journey to the brain due to a transection of the spine result in a paradoxical stimulation of autonomic pathways of the autonomic nervous system.

text: Other causes include medication side effects and various disease processes. The use of stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines which can result in urinary retention, and the use of CNS depressants and other psychoactive drugs can also lead to urinary retention and constipation thus leading to autonomic dysreflexia when in use over an extended period of time.

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: is a demyelinating disease that can result in peripheral paralysis and can progress to encompass autonomic functions, leading to a loss of normal respiratory, bladder and bowel function resulting in autonomic dysreflexia. Severe head trauma and other brain injuries can instigate autonomic dysreflexia at the

text: central nervous system

text: by interfering with the reception of the signal that brings the urge to void the bladder and bowels and with the voluntary ability to micturate and defecate.Other causal theories for autonomic dysreflexia include

text: noxious stimuli

text: , or painful stimuli arising from the peripheral sensory neurons. These stimuli are interrupted in their journey to the brain due to a

text: transection

text: of the spine result in a paradoxical stimulation of autonomic pathways of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: Gunter died at her home in Baton Rouge on August 4, 2005, of respiratory problems and emphysema.  She was 66.

text: Gunter died at her home in Baton Rouge on August 4, 2005, of respiratory problems and

text: emphysema

text: .  She was 66.

text: Respiratory acidosis results from a build-up of carbon dioxide in the blood (hypercapnia) due to hypoventilation. It is most often caused by pulmonary problems, although head injuries, drugs (especially anaesthetics and sedatives), and brain tumors can cause this acidemia. Pneumothorax, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, severe pneumonia, and aspiration are among the most frequent causes. It can also occur as a compensatory response to chronic metabolic alkalosis.

text: Respiratory acidosis

text: results from a build-up of carbon dioxide in the blood (hypercapnia) due to

text: hypoventilation

text: . It is most often caused by

text: pulmonary

text: problems, although

text: head injuries

text: , drugs (especially

text: anaesthetic

text: s and

text: sedative

text: s), and

text: brain tumor

text: s can cause this acidemia.

text: Pneumothorax

text: emphysema

text: , chronic

text: bronchitis

text: asthma

text: , severe

text: pneumonia

text: , and

text: aspiration

text: are among the most frequent causes. It can also occur as a compensatory response to chronic

text: metabolic alkalosis

text: HRCT is used for diagnosis and assessment of Interstitial lung disease, such as pulmonary fibrosis, and other generalized lung diseases such as emphysema, bronchiectasis.

text: HRCT is used for diagnosis and assessment of

text: Interstitial lung disease

text: , such as pulmonary fibrosis, and other generalized lung diseases such as

text: emphysema

text: bronchiectasis

text: Restrictive lung diseases are a category of respiratory disease characterized by a loss of lung compliance, causing incomplete lung expansion and increased lung stiffness, such as in infants with respiratory distress syndrome.

text: Restrictive lung disease

text: s are a category of respiratory disease characterized by a loss of

text: lung compliance

text: , causing incomplete lung expansion and increased lung stiffness, such as in infants with respiratory distress syndrome.

text: Scientists have identified a positive correlation between particulate matter concentrations being the causative factor of respiratory and cardiovascular disease.  Particulate matter may also be responsible for as many as 20,000 deaths annually, and exacerbation of asthma.  Quantification of dose, determining total number of particles deposited in the pulmonary region, surface area of particles, acidity of particles, and shape are important in determining health impacts.  A larger surface area will cause more toxins to be available for absorption into the mucus.  Particles such as asbestos have the ability to become permanently enlodged into the alveoli causing cancer in some cases.

text: Scientists have identified a positive correlation between particulate matter concentrations being the causative factor of respiratory and cardiovascular disease.  Particulate matter may also be responsible for as many as 20,000 deaths annually, and exacerbation of asthma.  Quantification of dose, determining total number of particles deposited in the pulmonary region, surface area of particles, acidity of particles, and shape are important in determining health impacts.  A larger surface area will cause more toxins to be available for absorption into the mucus.  Particles such as

text: asbestos

text: have the ability to become permanently enlodged into the alveoli causing cancer in some cases.

text: On September 16, 1986, Crawley died from respiratory disease.

text: On September 16, 1986, Crawley died from

text: respiratory disease

text: There has been limited research into the impacts of polio in Pakistan in recent years, but a 1988 health survey found that the most common handicaps among polio sufferers were associated with mobility, occupation, and social integration. The survey found differences in participants based on whether they lived in a village or a slum area: there was a higher rate of handicap in the village population, and higher frequencies of infectious, respiratory, and digestive diseases in the slum area. Both areas saw polio victims suffer from a higher incidence of musculoskeletal system diseases, as well as infections of the ear, and respiratory tract. Given 1–2 years with occupational therapists, 80% of patients with handicaps showed improvement in function.

text: Foodborne and infectious diseases can result in malnutrition, and malnutrition exacerbates infectious disease. Poor nutrition leaves children and adults more susceptible to contracting life-threatening diseases such as diarrheal infections and respiratory infections. According to the WHO, in 2011, 6.9 million children died of infectious diseases like pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, and neonatal conditions, of which at least one third were associated with undernutrition.

text: Cryptosporidiosis, also known as crypto, is a parasitic disease caused by Cryptosporidium, a genus of protozoan parasites in the phylum Apicomplexa. It affects the distal small intestine and can affect the respiratory tract in both immunocompetent (i.e., individuals with a normal functioning immune system) and immunocompromised (e.g., persons with HIV/AIDS or autoimmune disorders) individuals, resulting in watery diarrhea with or without an unexplained cough. In immunocompromised individuals, the symptoms are particularly severe and can be fatal. It is primarily spread through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water; recent evidence suggests that it can also be transmitted via fomites in respiratory secretions.

text: Cryptosporidiosis, also known as crypto, is a

text: parasitic disease

text: caused by

text: Cryptosporidium

text: , a genus of

text: protozoa

text: n

text: parasite

text: s in the phylum

text: Apicomplexa

text: . It affects the

text: distal small intestine

text: and can affect the

text: respiratory tract

text: in both

text: immunocompetent

text: (i.e., individuals with a normal functioning

text: immune system

text: ) and

text: immunocompromised

text: (e.g., persons with

text: HIV/AIDS

text: or

text: autoimmune disorders

text: ) individuals, resulting in

text: watery diarrhea

text: with or without an unexplained cough. In immunocompromised individuals, the symptoms are particularly severe and can be fatal. It is primarily spread through the

text: fecal-oral route

text: , often through contaminated water; recent evidence suggests that it can also be transmitted via

text: fomite

text: s in respiratory secretions.

text: In a hospital setting, a sputum culture is most commonly ordered if a patient has a pneumonia. The Infectious Diseases Society of America recommends that sputum cultures be done in pneumonia requiring hospitalization, while the American College of Chest Physicians does not.  One reason for such a discrepancy is that normal, healthy lungs have bacteria, and sputum cultures collect both normal and pathogenic bacteria.  However, pure cultures of common respiratory pathogens in the absence of upper respiratory flora combined with symptoms of respiratory distress provides strong evidence of the infectious agent, and its significance. Such pathogens include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and the highly infectious M tuberculosis, which are transmitted by inhaling aerosols. For this reason, laboratory processing of sputum for respiratory pathogens are performed with the aid of a biological safety cabinet.

text: In a hospital setting, a sputum culture is most commonly ordered if a patient has a

text: pneumonia

text: . The

text: Infectious Diseases Society of America

text: recommends that sputum cultures be done in pneumonia requiring hospitalization, while the

text: American College of Chest Physicians

text: does not.  One reason for such a discrepancy is that normal, healthy lungs have bacteria, and sputum cultures collect both normal and pathogenic bacteria.  However, pure cultures of common respiratory pathogens in the absence of upper respiratory flora combined with symptoms of respiratory distress provides strong evidence of the infectious agent, and its significance. Such pathogens include

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: and the highly infectious

text: M tuberculosis

text: , which are transmitted by inhaling aerosols. For this reason, laboratory processing of sputum for respiratory pathogens are performed with the aid of a

text: biological safety cabinet

text: Respiratory diseases (including lung cancer) are responsible for over 10% of hospitalizations and over 16% of deaths in Canada.

text: The respiratory reactions to aspirin vary in severity, ranging from mild nasal congestion and eye watering to lower respiratory symptoms including wheezing, coughing, an asthma attack, and in rare cases, anaphylaxis. In addition to the typical respiratory reactions, about 10% of patients with AERD manifest skin symptoms like urticaria and/or gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain or vomiting during their reactions to aspirin.In addition to aspirin, patients usually also react to other NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, and to any medication that inhibits the cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) enzyme, although paracetamol (acetaminophen) in low doses is generally considered safe.  NSAID that are highly selective in blocking COX-2 and do not block its closely related paralog, COX-1, such as the COX-2 inhibitors celecoxib and rofecoxib, are also regarded as safe.  Nonetheless, recent studies do find that these types of drugs, e.g. acetaminophen and celecoxib, may trigger adverse reactions in these patients; caution is recommended in using any COX inhibitors.  In addition to aspirin and NSAIDs, consumption of even small amounts of alcohol also produces uncomfortable respiratory reactions in many patients.

text: The respiratory reactions to aspirin vary in severity, ranging from mild nasal congestion and eye watering to lower respiratory symptoms including wheezing, coughing, an asthma attack, and in rare cases,

text: anaphylaxis

text: . In addition to the typical respiratory reactions, about 10% of patients with AERD manifest skin symptoms like

text: urticaria

text: and/or gastrointestinal symptoms such as abdominal pain or vomiting during their reactions to aspirin.In addition to aspirin, patients usually also react to other

text: NSAIDs

text: such as

text: ibuprofen

text: , and to any medication that inhibits the cyclooxygenase-1 (

text: ) enzyme, although

text: paracetamol

text: acetaminophen

text: ) in low doses is generally considered safe.  NSAID that are highly selective in blocking

text: and do not block its closely related

text: paralog

text: , such as the

text: COX-2 inhibitor

text: s

text: celecoxib

text: and

text: rofecoxib

text: , are also regarded as safe.  Nonetheless, recent studies do find that these types of drugs, e.g. acetaminophen and celecoxib, may trigger adverse reactions in these patients; caution is recommended in using any COX inhibitors.  In addition to aspirin and NSAIDs, consumption of even small amounts of alcohol also produces uncomfortable respiratory reactions in many patients.

text: A lifetime smoker, Patato had emphysema and died of respiratory failure in Cleveland, Ohio on December 4, 2007.

text: A lifetime smoker, Patato had

text: emphysema

text: and died of respiratory failure in

text: Cleveland, Ohio

text: on December 4, 2007.

text: According to the National Resources Defense Council, cancer causing pollutants such as benzene, formaldehyde, and diesel have been found in the air near fracking sites. These pollutants generate wastewater, which is linked to groundwater contamination, threatening nearby drinking water and causing concern for anyone who is exposed. Studies done by The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, found that “Fracking also uses crystalline silica, which is a type of sand that’s used to keep the fractures open.”  Exposure to this, along with dust and other air pollutants produced from fracking, can cause respiratory problems. The Environmental Working Group states that;"Silica can impede breathing and cause respiratory irritation, cough, airway obstruction and poor lung function and Chronic or long-term exposure can lead to lung inflammation, bronchitis and emphysema and produce a severe lung disease known as silicosis, a form of pulmonary fibrosis. Silica-related lung disease is incurable and can be fatal."

text: Silicosis can become "complicated" by the development of severe scarring (progressive massive fibrosis, or also known as conglomerate silicosis), where the small nodules gradually become confluent, reaching a size of 1 cm or greater.  PMF is associated with more severe symptoms and respiratory impairment than simple disease. Silicosis can also be complicated by other lung disease, such as tuberculosis, non-tuberculous mycobacterial infection, and fungal infection, certain autoimmune diseases, and lung cancer. Complicated silicosis is more common with accelerated silicosis than with the chronic variety.

text: Silicosis can become "complicated" by the development of severe scarring (

text: progressive massive fibrosis

text: , or also known as conglomerate silicosis), where the small nodules gradually become confluent, reaching a size of 1 cm or greater.  PMF is associated with more severe symptoms and respiratory impairment than simple disease. Silicosis can also be complicated by other lung disease, such as tuberculosis, non-tuberculous mycobacterial infection, and fungal infection, certain autoimmune diseases, and

text: lung cancer

text: . Complicated silicosis is more common with accelerated silicosis than with the chronic variety.

text: Oil spills present a localized threat to otter populations, especially in coastal areas. Water pollution and other diminution of aquatic and wetland habitats may limit distribution and pose long-term threats if the enforcement of water quality standards is not upheld. Acid drainage from coal mines is a persistent water quality issue in some areas, as it eliminates otter prey. This dilemma prevents, and consequently inhibits, recolonization or growth of otter populations. Recently, long-term genetic consequences of reintroduction projects on remnant otter populations has been discussed. Similarly, many perceived threats to otters, such as pollution and habitat alterations, have not been rigorously evaluated. Little effort has gone into assessing the threat of disease to wild river otter populations, so it is poorly understood and documented. River otters may be victims of canine distemper, rabies, respiratory tract disease, and urinary infection. In addition, North American river otters can contract jaundice, hepatitis, feline panleucopenia, and pneumonia. They host numerous endoparasites, such as nematodes, cestodes, trematodes, the sporozoan Isopora, and acanthocephalans. Ectoparasites include ticks, sucking lice(Latagophthirus rauschi), and fleas (Oropsylla arctomys).

text: Oil spills present a localized threat to otter populations, especially in coastal areas. Water pollution and other diminution of aquatic and wetland habitats may limit distribution and pose long-term threats if the enforcement of water quality standards is not upheld.

text: Acid drainage

text: from

text: coal mines

text: is a persistent water quality issue in some areas, as it eliminates otter prey. This dilemma prevents, and consequently inhibits, recolonization or growth of otter populations. Recently, long-term genetic consequences of reintroduction projects on remnant otter populations has been discussed. Similarly, many perceived threats to otters, such as pollution and habitat alterations, have not been rigorously evaluated. Little effort has gone into assessing the threat of disease to wild river otter populations, so it is poorly understood and documented. River otters may be victims of

text: canine distemper

text: rabies

text: , respiratory tract disease, and

text: urinary infection

text: . In addition, North American river otters can contract

text: jaundice

text: hepatitis

text: feline panleucopenia

text: , and

text: pneumonia

text: . They host numerous

text: endoparasites

text: , such as

text: nematodes

text: cestodes

text: trematodes

text: , the

text: sporozoan

text: Isopora, and

text: acanthocephala

text: ns.

text: Ectoparasites

text: include

text: ticks

text: sucking lice

text: (Latagophthirus rauschi), and

text: flea

text: s (Oropsylla arctomys).

text: Tuberculosis may infect any part of the body, but most commonly occurs in the lungs (known as pulmonary tuberculosis). Extrapulmonary TB occurs when tuberculosis develops outside of the lungs, although extrapulmonary TB may coexist with pulmonary TB.

text: ‘In IgA-deficient patients, the common finding is a maturation defect in B cells to produce IgA’. ‘In IgA deficiency, B cells express IgA; however, they are of immature phenotype with the coexpression of IgM and IgD, and they cannot fully develop into IgA-secreting plasma cells’.There is an inherited inability to produce immunoglobulin A (IgA), a part of the body's defenses against infection at the body's surfaces (mainly the surfaces of the respiratory and digestive systems).  As a result, bacteria at these locations are somewhat more able to cause disease.

text: ‘In IgA-deficient patients, the common finding is a maturation defect in B cells to produce IgA’. ‘In IgA deficiency, B cells express IgA; however, they are of immature phenotype with the coexpression of IgM and IgD, and they cannot fully develop into IgA-secreting plasma cells’.There is an inherited inability to produce

text: immunoglobulin A (IgA)

text: , a part of the body's defenses against infection at the body's surfaces (mainly the surfaces of the respiratory and digestive systems).  As a result, bacteria at these locations are somewhat more able to cause disease.

text: Humans are the only known reservoirs of M. tuberculosis. There are misconceptions that M. tuberculosis can be spread by shaking hands, making contact with toilet seats, sharing food or drink, sharing toothbrushes, or kissing. M. tuberculosis can only be spread through air droplets originating from a person either coughing, sneezing, speaking, or singing that has the disease.

text: Humans are the only known reservoirs of M. tuberculosis. There are misconceptions that M. tuberculosis can be spread by shaking hands, making contact with toilet seats, sharing food or drink, sharing toothbrushes, or kissing. M. tuberculosis can only be spread through

text: air droplets

text: originating from a person either coughing, sneezing, speaking, or singing that has the disease.

text: The term was introduced in the 1930s and was contrasted with the bacterial pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, at that time the best known and most commonly occurring form of pneumonia. The distinction was historically considered important, as it differentiated those more likely to present with "typical" respiratory symptoms and lobar pneumonia from those more likely to present with "atypical" generalized symptoms (such as fever, headache, sweating and myalgia) and bronchopneumonia.

text: The term was introduced in the 1930s and was contrasted with the

text: bacterial pneumonia

text: caused by

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: , at that time the best known and most commonly occurring form of pneumonia. The distinction was historically considered important, as it differentiated those more likely to present with "typical" respiratory symptoms and

text: lobar pneumonia

text: from those more likely to present with "atypical" generalized symptoms (such as

text: fever

text: headache

text: sweating

text: and

text: myalgia

text: ) and

text: bronchopneumonia

text: Symptoms of alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency include shortness of breath, wheezing, rhonchi, and rales. The patient's symptoms may resemble recurrent respiratory infections or asthma that does not respond to treatment. Individuals with A1AD may develop emphysema during their thirties or forties even without a history of significant smoking, though smoking greatly increases the risk for emphysema. A1AD causes impaired liver function in some patients and may lead to cirrhosis and liver failure (15%). In newborns, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency has indicators that include early onset jaundice followed by prolonged jaundice. It is a leading indication for liver transplantation in newborns.

text: Symptoms of alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency include

text: shortness of breath

text: wheezing

text: rhonchi

text: , and

text: rales

text: . The patient's symptoms may resemble recurrent respiratory infections or

text: asthma

text: that does not respond to treatment. Individuals with A1AD may develop

text: emphysema

text: during their thirties or forties even without a history of significant

text: smoking

text: , though smoking greatly increases the risk for emphysema. A1AD causes impaired liver function in some patients and may lead to

text: cirrhosis

text: and

text: liver failure

text: (15%). In newborns, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency has indicators that include early onset jaundice followed by prolonged jaundice. It is a leading indication for

text: liver transplantation

text: in newborns.

text: In addition to safety risks, many jobs also present risks of disease, illness and other long-term health problems. Among the most common occupational diseases are various forms of pneumoconiosis, including silicosis and coal worker's pneumoconiosis (black lung disease). Asthma is another respiratory illness that many workers are vulnerable to. Workers may also be vulnerable to skin diseases, including eczema, dermatitis, urticaria, sunburn, and skin cancer. Other occupational diseases of concern include carpal tunnel syndrome and lead poisoning.

text: In addition to

text: safety

text: risks, many jobs also present risks of disease, illness and other long-term health problems. Among the most common

text: occupational diseases

text: are various forms of

text: pneumoconiosis

text: , including

text: silicosis

text: and

text: coal worker's pneumoconiosis (black lung disease)

text: Asthma

text: is another

text: respiratory illness

text: that many workers are vulnerable to. Workers may also be vulnerable to skin diseases, including

text: eczema

text: dermatitis

text: urticaria

text: sunburn

text: , and

text: skin cancer

text: . Other occupational diseases of concern include

text: carpal tunnel syndrome

text: and

text: lead poisoning

text: There are many prevalent diseases in Ecuador, mainly due to environmental conditions, geographical location, and lack of health care. Specific health problems that are common in Ecuador: infant mortality, acute respiratory infection, diarrhetic diseases, dengue fever, malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, health problems due to smoking, malnutrition.In Ecuador, there are approximately 14000 cases of TB per year. The HIV prevalence rate among persons aged 15–49 is 0.3%. Stunting from chronic malnutrition affects 26% of children under 5. There are approximately 686 malaria cases per 100,000 people.

text: The incidence of disease does not appear be related to season or geography, however infection tends to occur more frequently during the summer and fall months when other respiratory pathogens are less prevalent. Reinfection and epidemic cycling is thought to be a result of P1 adhesin subtype variation. Approximately 40% of community-acquired pneumonia is due to M. pneumoniae infections, with children and elderly individuals being most susceptible, however no personal risk factors for acquiring M. pneumoniae induced pneumonia have been determined. Transmission of M. pneumoniae can only occur through close contact and exchange of aerosols by coughing due to the increased susceptibility of the cell wall-lacking organism to desiccation. Outbreaks of M. pneumoniae infections tend to occur within groups of people in close and prolonged proximity, including schools, institutions, military bases, and households.

text: The incidence of disease does not appear be related to season or geography, however infection tends to occur more frequently during the summer and fall months when other respiratory

text: pathogens

text: are less prevalent. Reinfection and

text: epidemic

text: cycling is thought to be a result of P1

text: adhesin

text: subtype variation. Approximately 40% of community-acquired

text: pneumonia

text: is due to M. pneumoniae infections, with children and elderly individuals being most

text: susceptible

text: , however no personal risk factors for acquiring M. pneumoniae induced pneumonia have been determined.

text: Transmission

text: of M. pneumoniae can only occur through close contact and exchange of

text: aerosols

text: by coughing due to the increased susceptibility of the

text: cell wall

text: -lacking organism to

text: desiccation

text: Outbreak

text: s of M. pneumoniae infections tend to occur within groups of people in close and prolonged proximity, including schools, institutions, military bases, and

text: households

text: Acute respiratory acidosis occurs when an abrupt failure of ventilation occurs. This failure in ventilation may be caused by depression of the central respiratory center by cerebral disease or drugs, inability to ventilate adequately due to neuromuscular disease (e.g., myasthenia gravis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Guillain–Barré syndrome, muscular dystrophy), or airway obstruction related to asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbation.

text: Acute respiratory acidosis occurs when an abrupt failure of ventilation occurs. This failure in ventilation may be caused by depression of the

text: central respiratory center

text: by cerebral disease or drugs, inability to ventilate adequately due to

text: neuromuscular disease

text: (e.g.,

text: myasthenia gravis

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: muscular dystrophy

text: ), or airway obstruction related to asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbation.

text: Asthma affects four to eight out of a hundred pregnant women. This is due to the fact that during pregnancy, there is an immunological shift due to hormonal fluctuations. In some cases, there is an increase in Estrogen levels which in turn reduce the activity of natural killer cells, Th1 cell production of inflammatory cytokines, and production of anti-inflammatory cytokines. As we have seen, these play an important role in the pathophysiology of asthma.

text: During the 1990s he devoted his time to restoring the aging family home of Castle Leslie which eventually opened to the public. He later relocated to Nice, France. Emphysema claimed his life in Antibes in 2001, aged 79.

text: During the 1990s he devoted his time to restoring the aging family home of

text: Castle Leslie

text: which eventually opened to the public. He later relocated to

text: Nice

text: France

text: Emphysema

text: claimed his life in

text: Antibes

text: in 2001, aged 79.

text: Pneumonia occurs when the lungs become infected, causing inflammation (swelling). Symptoms of pneumonia usually include:

text: If the underlying disease or injurious factor is not removed, the quantity of inflammatory mediators released by the lungs in ARDS may result in a systemic inflammatory response syndrome or sepsis if there is lung infection. The evolution towards shock or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome follows paths analogous to the pathophysiology of sepsis. This leads to the impaired oxygenation which is the central problem of ARDS, as well as to respiratory acidosiswhich is often caused by ventilation techniques such as permissive hypercapnia, which attempt to limit ventilator-induced lung injury in ARDS. The result is a critical illness in which the 'endothelial disease' of severe sepsis or SIRS is worsened by the pulmonary dysfunction, which further impairs oxygen delivery.

text: If the underlying disease or injurious factor is not removed, the quantity of inflammatory mediators released by the lungs in ARDS may result in a

text: systemic inflammatory response syndrome

text: or sepsis if there is lung infection. The evolution towards

text: shock

text: or

text: multiple organ dysfunction syndrome

text: follows paths analogous to the pathophysiology of sepsis. This leads to the impaired oxygenation which is the central problem of ARDS, as well as to

text: respiratory acidosis

text: which is often caused by ventilation techniques such as

text: permissive hypercapnia

text: , which attempt to limit ventilator-induced lung injury in ARDS. The result is a critical illness in which the 'endothelial disease' of severe sepsis or

text: SIRS

text: is worsened by the pulmonary dysfunction, which further impairs oxygen delivery.

text: A natural bobtail can be found in some members of the breed, which is not a mutation of the T-box gene, and so is allowed under conformation show rules. Health-related research on the breed has been limited, with no major studies conducted in Britain. However, it has been included in studies outside the UK, including by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) in the United States. The King Charles Spaniel has a number of eye and respiratory system disorders common to brachycephalic dogs, and endocrine and metabolic diseases common to small breeds, as well as specific breed-associated health conditions. The average lifespan is 10 to 12 years, and the breed should be able to reproduce naturally.

text: A

text: natural bobtail

text: can be found in some members of the breed, which is not a mutation of the

text: T-box

text: gene, and so is allowed under conformation show rules. Health-related research on the breed has been limited, with no major studies conducted in Britain. However, it has been included in studies outside the UK, including by the

text: Orthopedic Foundation for Animals

text: (OFA) in the United States. The King Charles Spaniel has a number of eye and respiratory system disorders common to

text: brachycephalic

text: dogs, and

text: endocrine

text: and

text: metabolic

text: diseases common to small breeds, as well as specific breed-associated health conditions. The average lifespan is 10 to 12 years, and the breed should be able to reproduce naturally.

text: Symptoms of DPB include chronic sinusitis (inflamed paranasal sinuses), wheezing, crackles (respiratory sounds made by obstructions such as phlegm and secretions in the lungs), dyspnea (shortness of breath), and a severe cough that yields large amounts of sputum (coughed-up phlegm). There may be pus in the sputum, and affected individuals may have fever. Typical signs of DPB progression include dilation (enlargement) of the bronchiolar passages and hypoxemia (low levels of oxygen in the blood). If DPB is left untreated, bronchiectasis will occur; it is characterized by dilation and thickening of the walls of the bronchioles, inflammatory damage to respiratory and terminal bronchioles, and pooling of mucus in the lungs. DPB is associated with progressive respiratory failure, hypercapnia (increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood), and can eventually lead to pulmonary hypertension (high blood pressure in the pulmonary vein and artery) and cor pulmonale (dilation of the right ventricle of the heart, or "right heart failure").

text: Symptoms of DPB include

text: chronic sinusitis

text: (inflamed

text: paranasal sinus

text: es), wheezing,

text: crackles

text: respiratory sounds

text: made by obstructions such as phlegm and

text: secretion

text: s in the lungs),

text: dyspnea

text: (shortness of breath), and a severe cough that yields large amounts of sputum (coughed-up phlegm). There may be

text: pus

text: in the sputum, and affected individuals may have fever. Typical signs of DPB progression include

text: dilation

text: (enlargement) of the bronchiolar passages and

text: hypoxemia

text: (low levels of oxygen in the blood). If DPB is left untreated, bronchiectasis will occur; it is characterized by dilation and thickening of the walls of the bronchioles, inflammatory damage to respiratory and

text: terminal bronchiole

text: s, and pooling of mucus in the lungs. DPB is associated with progressive

text: respiratory failure

text: hypercapnia

text: (increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood), and can eventually lead to

text: pulmonary hypertension

text: (high blood pressure in the

text: pulmonary vein

text: and

text: artery

text: ) and

text: cor pulmonale

text: (dilation of the

text: right ventricle

text: of the heart, or "right heart failure").

text: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

text: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD) includes diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

text: Tuberculosis (TB) is unique among infections associated with HIV because it is transmissible to immunocompetent people via the respiratory route, and is not easily treatable once identified. Multidrug resistance is a serious problem. Tuberculosis with HIV co-infection (TB/HIV) is a major world health problem according to the World Health Organization: in 2007, 456,000 deaths among incident TB cases were HIV-positive, a third of all TB deaths and nearly a quarter of the estimated 2 million HIV deaths in that year. Even though its incidence has declined because of the use of directly observed therapy and other improved practices in Western countries, this is not the case in developing countries where HIV is most prevalent. In early-stage HIV infection (CD4 count >300 cells per µL), TB typically presents as a pulmonary disease. In advanced HIV infection, TB often presents atypically with extrapulmonary (systemic) disease a common feature. Symptoms are usually constitutional and are not localized to one particular site, often affecting bone marrow, bone, urinary and gastrointestinal tracts, liver, regional lymph nodes, and the central nervous system.

text: Tuberculosis

text: (TB) is unique among infections associated with HIV because it is transmissible to immunocompetent people via the respiratory route, and is not easily treatable once identified.

text: Multidrug resistance

text: is a serious problem.

text: Tuberculosis

text: with HIV co-infection (TB/HIV) is a major world health problem according to the

text: World Health Organization

text: : in 2007, 456,000 deaths among incident TB cases were HIV-positive, a third of all TB deaths and nearly a quarter of the estimated 2 million HIV deaths in that year. Even though its incidence has declined because of the use of directly observed therapy and other improved practices in Western countries, this is not the case in developing countries where HIV is most prevalent. In early-stage HIV infection (CD4 count >300 cells per µL), TB typically presents as a pulmonary disease. In advanced HIV infection, TB often presents atypically with extrapulmonary (systemic) disease a common feature. Symptoms are usually constitutional and are not localized to one particular site, often affecting

text: bone marrow

text: bone

text: , urinary and

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: s,

text: liver

text: , regional

text: lymph node

text: s, and the

text: central nervous system

text: Respimat, commonly referred to as Respimat SMI (SMI indicates "Soft Mist Inhaler") is an advanced drug delivery device in comparison to MDIs (metered-dose inhalers) or DPIs (dry powder inhalers) used for the treatment of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other respiratory conditions.

text: Respimat, commonly referred to as Respimat SMI (SMI indicates "Soft Mist Inhaler") is an advanced drug delivery device in comparison to MDIs (

text: metered-dose inhaler

text: s) or DPIs (

text: dry powder inhaler

text: s) used for the treatment of

text: asthma

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD), and other respiratory conditions.

text: Symptoms such as difficulty breathing and chest pain may be present if the disease is present in the ribs, scapula, or thoracic vertebrae. These may indicate that the disease has spread from the bone into the chest cavity. The breathing problems may be misdiagnosed as asthma, because the damage done to the lungs can cause the same types of changes to lung function testing that are seen in asthma. Extension of the lesions into the chest may lead to the development of chylous pleural and pericardial effusions. Chyle is rich in protein and white blood cells that are important in fighting infection. The loss of chyle into the chest can have serious consequences, including infection, malnutrition, and respiratory distress and failure. These complications or their symptoms, such as difficulty breathing, chest pain, poor growth or weight loss, and infection have sometimes been the first indications of the condition.

text: Symptoms such as difficulty breathing and chest pain may be present if the disease is present in the ribs,

text: scapula

text: , or

text: thoracic vertebrae

text: . These may indicate that the disease has spread from the bone into the chest cavity. The breathing problems may be misdiagnosed as

text: asthma

text: , because the damage done to the lungs can cause the same types of changes to lung function testing that are seen in asthma. Extension of the lesions into the chest may lead to the development of chylous

text: pleural

text: and

text: pericardial effusions

text: Chyle

text: is rich in protein and white blood cells that are important in fighting infection. The loss of chyle into the chest can have serious consequences, including infection, malnutrition, and respiratory distress and failure. These complications or their symptoms, such as difficulty breathing, chest pain, poor growth or weight loss, and infection have sometimes been the first indications of the condition.

text: Obstructive lung disease is a category of respiratory disease characterized by airway obstruction. Many obstructive diseases of the lung result from narrowing of the smaller bronchi and larger bronchioles, often because of excessive contraction of the smooth muscle itself. It is generally characterized by inflamed and easily collapsible airways, obstruction to airflow, problems exhaling and frequent medical clinic visits and hospitalizations. Types of obstructive lung disease include; asthma, bronchiectasis, bronchitis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).  Although COPD shares similar characteristics with all other obstructive lung diseases, such as the signs of coughing and wheezing, they are distinct conditions in terms of disease onset, frequency of symptoms and reversibility of airway obstruction.  Cystic fibrosis is also sometimes included in obstructive pulmonary disease.

text: Obstructive lung disease is a category of

text: respiratory disease

text: characterized by

text: airway obstruction

text: . Many obstructive diseases of the lung result from narrowing of the smaller bronchi and larger bronchioles, often because of excessive contraction of the smooth muscle itself. It is generally characterized by inflamed and easily collapsible airways, obstruction to airflow, problems exhaling and frequent medical clinic visits and hospitalizations. Types of obstructive lung disease include;

text: asthma

text: bronchiectasis

text: bronchitis

text: and

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD).  Although COPD shares similar characteristics with all other obstructive lung diseases, such as the signs of

text: coughing

text: and

text: wheezing

text: , they are distinct conditions in terms of disease onset, frequency of symptoms and reversibility of airway obstruction.

text: Cystic fibrosis

text: is also sometimes included in obstructive pulmonary disease.

text: Prevotella spp. are part of the normal human oral and vaginal flora and are the predominant anaerobic, Gram-negative bacilli recovered from anaerobic infections of the respiratory tract. These include aspiration pneumonia, lung abscesses, and chronic otitis media and sinusitis. They have been recovered also from abscesses and burns around the oral cavity, human bites, paronychia, urinary tract infection, brain abscesses, osteomyelitis, and bacteremia associated with upper respiratory tract infections. Prevotella spp. play a major role in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease and periodontal abscesses. The prevalence of P. melaninogenics is high in the dental plaque of persons with Down syndrome.This bacterium synthesizes collagenase in periodontal disease.

text: Prevotella spp. are part of the normal human oral and

text: vaginal flora

text: and are the predominant anaerobic, Gram-negative bacilli recovered from

text: anaerobic infection

text: s of the respiratory tract. These include aspiration pneumonia, lung abscesses, and chronic

text: otitis media

text: and

text: sinusitis

text: . They have been recovered also from

text: abscesses

text: and

text: burn

text: s around the oral cavity, human

text: bites

text: paronychia

text: urinary tract infection

text: , brain abscesses,

text: osteomyelitis

text: , and

text: bacteremia

text: associated with upper respiratory tract infections. Prevotella spp. play a major role in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease and periodontal abscesses. The prevalence of P. melaninogenics is high in the

text: dental plaque

text: of persons with

text: Down syndrome

text: .This bacterium synthesizes

text: collagenase

text: in

text: periodontal disease

text: In 2008, 1,185,993, or 57% of all deaths in Russia were caused by cardiovascular disease. The second leading cause of death was cancer which claimed 289,257 lives (14%). External causes of death such as suicide (1.8%), road accidents (1.7%), murders (1.1%), accidental alcohol poisoning (1.1%), and accidental drowning (0.5%), claimed 244,463 lives in total (11%). Other major causes of death were diseases of the digestive system (4.3%), respiratory disease (3.8%), infectious and parasitic diseases (1.6%), and tuberculosis (1.2%).

text: In 2008, 1,185,993, or 57% of all deaths in Russia were caused by

text: cardiovascular disease

text: . The second leading cause of death was cancer which claimed 289,257 lives (14%). External causes of death such as suicide (1.8%), road accidents (1.7%), murders (1.1%), accidental alcohol poisoning (1.1%), and accidental drowning (0.5%), claimed 244,463 lives in total (11%). Other major causes of death were diseases of the digestive system (4.3%), respiratory disease (3.8%), infectious and parasitic diseases (1.6%), and tuberculosis (1.2%).

text: Workers in the mining industry are often exposed to dust from freshly fractured mineral deposits. When these workers use inadequate, or lack, respiratory protection completely, the consequences are devastating. A prime example of this is the Hawks Nest mining activity in West Virginia beginning in 1927. During the boring of a tunnel, deposits of silica were identified and mined; however, the workers did not use respiratory protection during the operations. Estimates of the proportion of workers who died, often within a few years, are typically about 30% of the 2,000 exposed workers. This rapidly lethal form of silicosis has been called "acute silicosis," which is characterized by alveolar proteinosis and interstitial inflammation. The respiratory effects are not exactly like those one would expect from simple silicosis, a disease that usually requires decades to develop after prolonged exposure to lower concentrations of silica dust. The latter disease is characterized by silicotic nodules that are clearly distinct from surrounding tissue and often surrounded by an inflammatory response.

text: An example of an ASA status classification system is that used by dental professionals.  Many include the 'functional limitation' or 'anxiety' to determine classification which is not mentioned in the actual definition but may prove to be beneficial when dealing with certain complex cases. Often different anesthesia providers assign different grades to the same case. The word 'systemic' in this classification creates a lot of confusion. For example, heart attack (myocardial infarction), though grave, is a 'local' disease and is not a 'systemic' disease, so a recent (or old) heart attack, in the absence of any other systemic disease, does not truly fit in any category of the ASA classification, yet has poor post-surgery survival rates. Similarly cirrhosis of the liver, COPD, severe asthma, peri-nephric abscess, badly infected wounds, intestinal perforation, skull fracture etc. are not systemic diseases. These, and other severe heart, liver, lung, intestinal or kidney diseases, although they greatly affect physical status and risk for poor outcomes, cannot be labelled as “systemic disease” (which means a generalized disorder of the whole body like hypertension or diabetes mellitus). Local diseases can also change physical status but has not been mentioned in ASA classification.

text: An example of an ASA status classification system is that used by dental professionals.  Many include the 'functional limitation' or 'anxiety' to determine classification which is not mentioned in the actual definition but may prove to be beneficial when dealing with certain complex cases. Often different anesthesia providers assign different grades to the same case. The word 'systemic' in this classification creates a lot of confusion. For example, heart attack (

text: myocardial infarction

text: ), though grave, is a 'local' disease and is not a 'systemic' disease, so a recent (or old) heart attack, in the absence of any other

text: systemic disease

text: , does not truly fit in any category of the ASA classification, yet has poor post-surgery survival rates. Similarly

text: cirrhosis

text: of the liver,

text: COPD

text: , severe

text: asthma

text: peri-nephric abscess

text: , badly infected wounds,

text: intestinal perforation

text: skull fracture

text: etc. are not

text: systemic disease

text: s. These, and other severe heart, liver, lung, intestinal or kidney diseases, although they greatly affect physical status and risk for poor outcomes, cannot be labelled as “

text: systemic disease

text: ” (which means a generalized disorder of the whole body like

text: hypertension

text: or

text: diabetes mellitus

text: Local disease

text: s can also change physical status but has not been mentioned in ASA classification.

text: The organization serves people living with lung disease through community-based interventions, including assisting with grants for research, creating policy initiatives that address long-term concerns on respiratory diseases, and developing programs to prevent lung disease.

text: Donnelly's research investigates statistical and biomathematical methods to analyse epidemiological patterns of infectious diseases such as Influenza A virus subtype H1N1 and Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), the Ebola virus disease, zoonoses and HIV. She has interests in ecology, conservation, and animal welfare having worked on Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) and Foot-and-mouth disease in cattle, bovine tuberculosis and policies regarding badger culling in the United Kingdom.

text: Donnelly's research investigates statistical and

text: biomathematical methods

text: to analyse epidemiological patterns of

text: infectious disease

text: s such as

text: Influenza A virus subtype H1N1

text: and

text: Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

text: Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)

text: , the

text: Ebola virus disease

text: zoonoses

text: and

text: HIV

text: . She has interests in

text: ecology

text: conservation

text: , and

text: animal welfare

text: having worked on

text: Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)

text: and

text: Foot-and-mouth disease

text: in cattle,

text: bovine tuberculosis

text: and policies regarding

text: badger culling in the United Kingdom

text: Scientists have reconstructed the respiratory system of Majungasaurus based on a superbly preserved series of vertebrae (UA 8678) recovered from the Maevarano Formation. Most of these vertebrae and some of the ribs contained cavities (pneumatic foramina) that may have resulted from the infiltration of avian-style lungs and air sacs. In birds, the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac, the upper back vertebrae by the lung, and the lower back and sacral (hip) vertebrae by the abdominal air sac. Similar features in Majungasaurus vertebrae imply the presence of these air sacs. These air sacs may have allowed for a basic form of avian-style 'flow-through ventilation,' where air flow through the lungs is one-way, so that oxygen-rich air inhaled from outside the body is never mixed with exhaled air laden with carbon dioxide. This method of respiration, while complicated, is highly efficient.

text: Scientists have reconstructed the

text: respiratory system

text: of Majungasaurus based on a superbly preserved series of vertebrae (

text: UA

text: 8678) recovered from the Maevarano Formation. Most of these vertebrae and some of the ribs contained cavities (pneumatic

text: foramina

text: ) that may have resulted from the infiltration of

text: avian

text: -style

text: lungs and air sacs

text: . In birds, the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac, the upper back vertebrae by the

text: lung

text: , and the lower back and

text: sacral

text: (hip) vertebrae by the abdominal air sac. Similar features in Majungasaurus vertebrae imply the presence of these air sacs. These air sacs may have allowed for a basic form of avian-style 'flow-through ventilation,' where air flow through the lungs is one-way, so that

text: oxygen

text: -rich air inhaled from outside the body is never mixed with exhaled air laden with

text: carbon dioxide

text: . This method of respiration, while complicated, is highly efficient.

text: Lung cancer is one of the major tumor localizations, both by incidence (about 15% for both men and women in USA and in Europe) and by mortality (25% for women and 30% for men). One major reason why the mortality lies higher than corresponding to the incidence is that lung cancer is mostly detected and diagnosed at a late stage. Early detection would reduce the mortality. Another reason is that lung cancer, particularly small cell lung cancer, is very aggressive with very low 5 year survival rates.

text: Lung cancer

text: is one of the major tumor localizations, both by incidence (about 15% for both men and women in USA and in Europe) and by mortality (25% for women and 30% for men). One major reason why the mortality lies higher than corresponding to the incidence is that lung cancer is mostly detected and diagnosed at a late stage. Early detection would reduce the mortality. Another reason is that lung cancer, particularly small cell lung cancer, is very aggressive with very low 5 year survival rates.

text: Second-hand smoke causes many of the same diseases as direct smoking, including cardiovascular diseases, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases. These diseases include:

text: Second-hand smoke causes many of the same diseases as direct smoking, including

text: cardiovascular disease

text: s,

text: lung cancer

text: , and

text: respiratory disease

text: s. These diseases include:

text: There has been a limited amount of studies that have looked at the effects of smoking cannabis on the respiratory system.  Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown  to cause significant abnormalities in lung function. Short-term use of cannabis is associated with bronchodilation.

text: There has been a limited amount of studies that have looked at the

text: effects of smoking cannabis

text: on the respiratory system.  Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown  to cause significant abnormalities in lung function. Short-term use of cannabis is associated with

text: bronchodilation

text: Edward Robb Ellis died in 1998 of emphysema.

text: Richmond Medical Center offers Health Education workshops to educate their members about healthy lifestyles. There is a Breast Health Clinic. The hospital has a dedicated HIV services unit to assist patients who are HIV-positive. Home Health Care and Chronic Conditions departments provide advice on home care those with chronic conditions such as dementia, asthma, diabetes, or epilepsy, and also helps people with common afflictions such as seasonal allergies or influenza. There is a Respiratory Care department which is dedicated specifically to those with asthma, an illness which has a high incidence in Richmond. The rehabilitation department oversees physical therapy for those who have suffered severe injuries or amputations. There is an occupational health department which is dedicated to educating and treating patients with work related injuries. There is a speech therapy department which assists autistic children. The medical center has a teen clinic where adolescents may attend without the accompaniment or consent of an adult and without going to Pediatrics; it has a focus on sexual health and substance use. That unit works with the chemical dependency department which provides health care for those with addictions and recreational use of various narcotics such as alcohol, marijuana, prescription abuse, crack cocaine, and others. Toddlers are taken to the Early Start unit which provides motor skills and cognitive development and disease screening and offers classes for parents.

text: Richmond Medical Center offers Health Education workshops to educate their members about healthy lifestyles. There is a Breast Health Clinic. The hospital has a dedicated

text: HIV

text: services unit to assist patients who are

text: HIV-positive

text: . Home Health Care and Chronic Conditions departments provide advice on home care those with chronic conditions such as

text: dementia

text: asthma

text: diabetes

text: , or

text: epilepsy

text: , and also helps people with common afflictions such as seasonal

text: allergies

text: or

text: influenza

text: . There is a Respiratory Care department which is dedicated specifically to those with asthma, an illness which has a high incidence in Richmond. The rehabilitation department oversees physical therapy for those who have suffered severe injuries or

text: amputation

text: s. There is an

text: occupational health

text: department which is dedicated to educating and treating patients with work related injuries. There is a

text: speech therapy

text: department which assists

text: autistic

text: children. The medical center has a

text: teen

text: clinic where adolescents may attend without the accompaniment or consent of an adult and without going to Pediatrics; it has a focus on

text: sexual health

text: and

text: substance use

text: . That unit works with the chemical dependency department which provides health care for those with

text: addictions

text: and recreational use of various

text: narcotics

text: such as

text: alcohol

text: marijuana

text: , prescription abuse,

text: crack cocaine

text: , and others. Toddlers are taken to the Early Start unit which provides

text: motor skills

text: and

text: cognitive development

text: and disease

text: screening

text: and offers classes for parents.

text: Endobronchial valves may be the first successful medical device treatment of emphysema, a disease that affects billions of patients worldwide and has no known cure, being managed traditionally by lung transplantation and/or lung volume reduction surgery (though some patients do not meet the eligibility requirements for one or both of these invasive procedures). Endobronchial valves are typically implanted using a flexible delivery catheter advanced through a bronchoscope, and thus they are minimally invasive. The valves are also removable if they are not working properly. When properly used and correctly implanted, endobronchial valves have been shown to improve patients' ability to breathe, walk, exercise and perform their daily activities. Although not yet approved by the Food and Drug Administration for emphysema treatment in the United States, endobronchial valves are available in many other locations throughout the world and should be available in the U.S. eventually.

text: Endobronchial valves may be the first successful medical device treatment of emphysema, a disease that affects billions of patients worldwide and has no known cure, being managed traditionally by

text: lung transplantation

text: and/or

text: lung volume reduction surgery

text: (though some patients do not meet the eligibility requirements for one or both of these invasive procedures). Endobronchial valves are typically implanted using a flexible delivery

text: catheter

text: advanced through a

text: bronchoscope

text: , and thus they are minimally invasive. The valves are also removable if they are not working properly. When properly used and correctly implanted, endobronchial valves have been shown to improve patients' ability to breathe, walk, exercise and perform their daily activities. Although not yet approved by the

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: for emphysema treatment in the United States, endobronchial valves are available in many other locations throughout the world and should be available in the U.S. eventually.

text: They are also being considered for inflammatory respiratory disease.

text: They are also being considered for

text: inflammatory respiratory disease

text: Molar incisor hypomineralization, which is increasing in prevalence. It is caused by systemic factors such as high levels of dioxins or polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in the mother’s milk, premature birth and oxygen deprivation at birth, and certain disorders during the child’s first 3 years such as such as mumps, diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, hypoparathyroidism, malnutrition, malabsorption, hypovitaminosis D, chronic respiratory diseases, or undiagnosed and untreated coeliac disease, which usually presents with mild or absent gastrointestinal symptoms.

text: Molar incisor hypomineralization, which is increasing in prevalence. It is caused by systemic factors such as high levels of

text: dioxins

text: or

text: polychlorinated biphenyl

text: (PCB) in the mother’s milk,

text: premature birth

text: and oxygen deprivation at birth, and certain disorders during the child’s first 3 years such as such as

text: mumps

text: diphtheria

text: scarlet fever

text: measles

text: hypoparathyroidism

text: malnutrition

text: malabsorption

text: hypovitaminosis D

text: , chronic

text: respiratory disease

text: s, or undiagnosed and untreated

text: coeliac disease

text: , which usually presents with mild or absent gastrointestinal symptoms.

text: Some diseases are capable of changing from local to disseminated diseases.  Pneumonia, for example, is generally confined to one or both lungs but can become disseminated through sepsis, in which the microbe responsible for the pneumonia "seeds" the bloodstream or lymphatic system and is transported to distant sites in the body. When that occurs, the process is no longer described as a localized disease, but rather as a disseminated disease.

text: Some diseases are capable of changing from local to disseminated diseases.

text: Pneumonia

text: , for example, is generally confined to one or both

text: lungs

text: but can become disseminated through

text: sepsis

text: , in which the

text: microbe

text: responsible for the pneumonia "seeds" the

text: bloodstream

text: or

text: lymphatic system

text: and is transported to distant sites in the body. When that occurs, the process is no longer described as a localized disease, but rather as a disseminated disease.

text: Nearly 40% of lung cancers are adenocarcinoma, which usually originates in peripheral lung tissue. Although most cases of adenocarcinoma are associated with smoking, adenocarcinoma is also the most common form of lung cancer among people who have smoked fewer than 100 cigarettes in their lifetimes ("never-smokers") and ex-smokers with a modest smoking history. A subtype of adenocarcinoma, the bronchioloalveolar carcinoma, is more common in female never-smokers, and may have a better long-term survival.

text: Nearly 40% of lung cancers are adenocarcinoma, which usually originates in peripheral lung tissue. Although most cases of adenocarcinoma are associated with smoking, adenocarcinoma is also the most common form of lung cancer among people who have smoked fewer than 100 cigarettes in their lifetimes ("never-smokers") and ex-smokers with a modest smoking history. A subtype of adenocarcinoma, the

text: bronchioloalveolar carcinoma

text: , is more common in female never-smokers, and may have a better long-term survival.

text: Sylvia Fine Kaye died of emphysema at the age of 78 in her Manhattan apartment in 1991. She is buried with her husband at Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York. In 1992, her daughter, Dena Kaye, was quoted in a newspaper article, recalling Fine's advice to her and the influence it had in her life. Both Fine and Kaye were determined not to influence their daughter's choices as she grew up. In a 1954 interview, Kaye stated that, "Whatever she (Dena) wants to be she will be without interference from her mother nor from me."

text: Sylvia Fine Kaye died of

text: emphysema

text: at the age of 78 in her

text: Manhattan

text: apartment in 1991. She is buried with her husband at

text: Kensico Cemetery

text: in

text: Valhalla, New York

text: . In 1992, her daughter, Dena Kaye, was quoted in a newspaper article, recalling Fine's advice to her and the influence it had in her life. Both Fine and Kaye were determined not to influence their daughter's choices as she grew up. In a 1954 interview, Kaye stated that, "Whatever she (Dena) wants to be she will be without interference from her mother nor from me."

text: During its course, the disease can progress to an atypical pneumonia, which can result in a life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome, whereby such symptoms usually occur during the first four to five days of infection.

text: During its course, the disease can progress to an

text: atypical pneumonia

text: , which can result in a life-threatening

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: , whereby such symptoms usually occur during the first four to five days of infection.

text: Among the tobacco-specific nitrosamines, nicotine-derived nitrosamine ketone (NNK) and N-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) are the most carcinogenic. Others include N′-nitrosoanatabine (NAT) and N-nitrosoanabasine (NAB).  NNK and its metabolite 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol (NNAL) are potent systemic lung carcinogens in rats. Tumors of the nasal cavity, liver, and pancreas are also observed in NNK- or NNAL-treated rats. NNN is an effective esophageal carcinogen in the rat, and induces respiratory tract tumors in mice, hamsters, and mink. A mixture of NNK and NNN caused oral tumors when swabbed in the rat oral cavity. Thus, considerable evidence supports the role of tobacco-specific nitrosamines as important causative factors for cancers of the lung, pancreas, esophagus, and oral cavity in people who use tobacco products.

text: Among the tobacco-specific nitrosamines,

text: nicotine-derived nitrosamine ketone

text: (NNK) and

text: N-nitrosonornicotine

text: (NNN) are the most carcinogenic. Others include

text: N′-nitrosoanatabine

text: (NAT) and

text: N-nitrosoanabasine

text: (NAB).  NNK and its metabolite

text: 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol

text: (NNAL) are potent systemic lung carcinogens in rats. Tumors of the nasal cavity, liver, and pancreas are also observed in NNK- or NNAL-treated rats. NNN is an effective esophageal carcinogen in the rat, and induces

text: respiratory tract tumor

text: s in mice, hamsters, and mink. A mixture of NNK and NNN caused

text: oral tumor

text: s when swabbed in the rat oral cavity. Thus, considerable evidence supports the role of tobacco-specific nitrosamines as important causative factors for cancers of the

text: lung

text: pancreas

text: esophagus

text: , and

text: oral cavity

text: in people who use tobacco products.

text: The most common lower respiratory tract infection is pneumonia, an infection of the lungs which is usually caused by bacteria, particularly Streptococcus pneumoniae in Western countries. Worldwide, tuberculosis is an important cause of pneumonia. Other pathogens such as viruses and fungi can cause pneumonia for example severe acute respiratory syndrome and pneumocystis pneumonia. A pneumonia may develop complications such as a lung abscess, a round cavity in the lung caused by the infection, or may spread to the pleural cavity.

text: The most common lower respiratory tract infection is

text: pneumonia

text: , an infection of the lungs which is usually caused by bacteria, particularly

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: in Western countries. Worldwide,

text: tuberculosis

text: is an important cause of pneumonia. Other pathogens such as viruses and fungi can cause pneumonia for example

text: severe acute respiratory syndrome

text: and

text: pneumocystis pneumonia

text: . A pneumonia may develop complications such as a lung abscess, a round cavity in the lung caused by the infection, or may spread to the

text: pleural cavity

text: In 2003, an epidemic of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) broke out in China. (See Progress of the SARS outbreak.) The spread of SARS brought to light substantial weaknesses in the country's public health system. After the SARS epidemic was brought under control, the Chinese government implemented a series of measures to strengthen its public health system. This effort coincided with acceleration in efforts to control tuberculosis. Within 3 years, implementation of the WHO-recommended DOTS (Directly Observed Therapy, Shortcourse) strategy to control tuberculosis increased from 68% to 100% of counties and the detection of cases of smear-positive tuberculosis by the public health system more than doubled, from 30% of new cases to 80%. Together with a tuberculosis treatment success rate of more than 90%, China achieved the 2005 global targets for tuberculosis control.

text: In 2003, an

text: epidemic

text: of

text: severe acute respiratory syndrome

text: (SARS) broke out in China. (See

text: Progress of the SARS outbreak

text: .) The spread of SARS brought to light substantial weaknesses in the country's public health system. After the SARS epidemic was brought under control, the

text: Chinese government

text: implemented a series of measures to strengthen its

text: public health system

text: . This effort coincided with acceleration in efforts to control tuberculosis. Within 3 years, implementation of the WHO-recommended

entity_name: DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment, Short-Course)

text: DOTS

text: Directly Observed Therapy, Shortcourse

text: ) strategy to control tuberculosis increased from 68% to 100% of counties and the detection of cases of smear-positive tuberculosis by the public health system more than doubled, from 30% of new cases to 80%. Together with a tuberculosis treatment success rate of more than 90%, China achieved the 2005 global targets for tuberculosis control.

text: Like most adrenocortical steroids, methylprednisolone is typically used for its anti-inflammatory effects. However, glucocorticoids have a wide range of effects, including changes to metabolism and immune responses. The list of medical conditions for which methylprednisolone is prescribed is rather long, and is similar to other corticosteroids such as prednisolone. Common uses include arthritis therapy and short-term treatment of bronchial inflammation or acute bronchitis due to various respiratory diseases. It is used both in the treatment of acute periods and long-term management of autoimmune diseases, most notably systemic lupus erythematosus. It is also used as a treatment for multiple sclerosis.

text: Like most

text: adrenocortical steroids

text: , methylprednisolone is typically used for its

text: anti-inflammatory

text: effects. However, glucocorticoids have a wide range of effects, including changes to metabolism and immune responses. The list of medical conditions for which methylprednisolone is prescribed is rather long, and is similar to other

text: corticosteroid

text: s such as

text: prednisolone

text: . Common uses include

text: arthritis

text: therapy and short-term treatment of

text: bronchial

text: inflammation

text: or

text: acute bronchitis

text: due to various respiratory diseases. It is used both in the treatment of acute periods and long-term management of

text: autoimmune disease

text: s, most notably

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: . It is also used as a treatment for

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Ochoa Salas died of respiratory disease in Mexico City on December 7, 2009.

text: Ochoa Salas died of

text: respiratory disease

text: in

text: Mexico City

text: on December 7, 2009.

text: MacLeod was diverted from research on Streptococcus pneumoniae and DNA to health and science issues related to the Second World War. At the time, microbial diseases such as typhus fever, malaria, and pneumonia posed significant threats to the health of U.S. military personnel. During the war, MacLeod was one of many university-based scientists and physicians who advised the federal government on medical matters “when asked.” In 1941, he was appointed Chairman of the Department of Microbiology at New York University School of Medicine, and worked as a consultant to the U.S. Secretary of War. He became an official member of the Army Epidemiological Board, which in 1949 was enlarged to include all the armed forces and renamed the Armed Forces Epidemiological Board. MacLeod became president of the board in 1947, a position he held until 1955. The organization of the AFEB into twelve disease-related commissions foreshadowed the organization of the US-Japan Cooperative Medical Science Program into its disease-related panels.

text: MacLeod was diverted from research on Streptococcus pneumoniae and DNA to health and science issues related to the Second World War. At the time, microbial diseases such as

text: typhus fever

text: malaria

text: , and

text: pneumonia

text: posed significant threats to the health of U.S. military personnel. During the war, MacLeod was one of many university-based scientists and physicians who advised the federal government on medical matters “when asked.” In 1941, he was appointed Chairman of the Department of Microbiology at

text: New York University

text: School of Medicine, and worked as a consultant to the

text: U.S. Secretary of War

text: . He became an official member of the Army Epidemiological Board, which in 1949 was enlarged to include all the armed forces and renamed the

text: Armed Forces Epidemiological Board

text: . MacLeod became president of the board in 1947, a position he held until 1955. The organization of the AFEB into twelve disease-related commissions foreshadowed the organization of the US-Japan Cooperative Medical Science Program into its disease-related panels.

text: Chronic illnesses cause about 70% of deaths in the US and in 2002 chronic conditions (heart disease, cancers, stroke, chronic respiratory diseases, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, mental illness and kidney diseases) were 6 of the top ten causes of mortality in the general US population. In the United States, 90% of seniors have at least one chronic disease, and 77% have two or more chronic conditions.

text: In the United States, nearly one in two Americans (133 million) has at least one chronic medical condition, with most subjects (58%) between the ages of 18 and 64. The number is projected to increase by more than one percent per year by 2030, resulting in an estimated chronically ill population of 171 million. The most common chronic conditions are high blood pressure, arthritis, respiratory diseases like emphysema, and high cholesterol.

text: In the United States, nearly one in two Americans (133 million) has at least one chronic medical condition, with most subjects (58%) between the ages of 18 and 64. The number is projected to increase by more than one percent per year by 2030, resulting in an estimated chronically ill population of 171 million. The most common chronic conditions are

text: high blood pressure

text: arthritis

text: , respiratory diseases like

text: emphysema

text: , and

text: high cholesterol

text: Antibiotics do not help the many lower respiratory infections which are caused by parasites or viruses. While acute bronchitis often does not require antibiotic therapy, antibiotics can be given to patients with acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. The indications for treatment are increased dyspnoea, and an increase in the volume or purulence of the sputum. The treatment of bacterial pneumonia is selected by considering the age of the patient, the severity of the illness and the presence of underlying disease. Amoxycillin and doxycycline are suitable for many of the lower respiratory tract infections seen in general practice.

text: The TNM staging system of lung cancer is:

text: The

text: TNM staging system

text: of

text: lung cancer

text: is:

text: In a study of the effect of Cycloidal Vibration on the pulmonary ventilation of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease it was shown that treatment with CVT decreased the Respiratory minute volume, decreased respiratory rate and increased tidal volume, suggestive of a decrease in the work of breathing and more efficient ventilation. In a study on patients with fractured ribs and patients who were unable to tolerate percussion or manual vibration, low frequency Cycloidal Vibration (16–20 Hz) was able to provide pain relief, relaxation, deeper breathing and was effective for sputum clearance and cough stimulation,and similarly in mentally handicapped children.

text: In a study of the effect of Cycloidal Vibration on the pulmonary

text: ventilation

text: of patients with

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: it was shown that treatment with CVT decreased the

text: Respiratory minute volume

text: , decreased

text: respiratory rate

text: and increased

text: tidal volume

text: , suggestive of a decrease in the work of breathing and more efficient ventilation. In a study on patients with fractured ribs and patients who were unable to tolerate percussion or manual vibration, low frequency Cycloidal Vibration (16–20 Hz) was able to provide pain relief, relaxation, deeper breathing and was effective for

text: sputum

text: clearance and cough stimulation,and similarly in mentally handicapped children.

text: The M. tuberculosis complex evolved in Africa and most probably in the Horn of Africa. The M. tuberculosis group has a number of members that include Mycobacterium africanum, Mycobacterium bovis (Dassie's bacillus), Mycobacterium caprae, Mycobacterium microti, Mycobacterium mungi, Mycobacterium orygis, and Mycobacterium pinnipedii. This group may also include the Mycobacterium canettii clade.

text: The M. tuberculosis complex evolved in

text: Africa

text: and most probably in the

text: Horn of Africa

text: . The M. tuberculosis group has a number of members that include

text: Mycobacterium africanum

text: Mycobacterium bovis

text: (Dassie's bacillus),

text: Mycobacterium caprae

text: Mycobacterium microti

text: , Mycobacterium mungi, Mycobacterium orygis, and

text: Mycobacterium pinnipedii

text: . This group may also include the Mycobacterium canettii clade.

text: The rubella vaccine should be administered to non-pregnant females who have tested nonimmune or have a rubella titer less than 1:10. As rubella causes upper respiratory disease that leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis, rubella vaccine is beneficial to control exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma.

text: The rubella vaccine should be administered to non-pregnant females who have tested nonimmune or have a rubella titer less than 1:10. As rubella causes upper respiratory disease that leads to complications of

text: pneumonia

text: and

text: bronchitis

text: , rubella vaccine is beneficial to control exacerbations of

text: and

text: asthma

text: The genus Orthopneumovirus consists of pathogens that target the upper respiratory tract within their specific hosts. Every orthopneumovirus is characterized as host specific, and has a range of diseases involved with respiratory illness. Orthopneumoviruses can cause diseases that range from a less-severe upper-respiratory illness to severe bronchiolitis or pneumonia. Orthopneumoviruses are found among sheep, cows, and most importantly humans. In humans, the orthopneumovirus that specifically impacts infants and small children is known as the Human respiratory syncytial virus. Pneumoviruses have been traced by researchers from the Center for Disease Control and the University Medica Centre in Utrecht, Netherlands on how pneumoviruses attack infants and small children.

text: The genus Orthopneumovirus consists of pathogens that target the upper respiratory tract within their specific hosts. Every orthopneumovirus is characterized as host specific, and has a range of diseases involved with respiratory illness. Orthopneumoviruses can cause diseases that range from a less-severe upper-respiratory illness to severe

text: bronchiolitis

text: or

text: pneumonia

text: . Orthopneumoviruses are found among sheep, cows, and most importantly humans. In humans, the orthopneumovirus that specifically impacts infants and small children is known as the

text: Human respiratory syncytial virus

text: . Pneumoviruses have been traced by researchers from the Center for Disease Control and the University Medica Centre in Utrecht, Netherlands on how pneumoviruses attack infants and small children.

text: Rates of asthma have increased significantly between the 1960s and 2008 with it being recognized as a major public health problem since the 1970s. Some 9% of US children had asthma in 2001, compared with just 3.6% in 1980. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that some 10% of the Swiss population have asthma as of 2007, compared with 2% some 25–30 years ago. In the United States the age-adjusted prevalence of asthma increased from 7.3 to 8.2 percent during the years 2001 through 2009.

text: Rates of asthma have increased significantly between the 1960s and 2008 with it being recognized as a major public health problem since the 1970s. Some 9% of US children had asthma in 2001, compared with just 3.6% in 1980. The

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) reports that some 10% of the Swiss population have asthma as of 2007, compared with 2% some 25–30 years ago. In the United States the age-adjusted prevalence of asthma increased from 7.3 to 8.2 percent during the years 2001 through 2009.

text: Some evidence links HPV to benign and malignant tumors of the upper respiratory tract. The International Agency for Research on Cancer  has found that people with lung cancer were significantly more likely to have several high-risk forms of HPV antibodies compared to those who did not have lung cancer. Researchers looking for HPV among 1,633 lung cancer patients and 2,729 people without the lung disease found that people with lung cancer had more types of HPV than noncancer patients did, and among lung cancer patients, the chances of having eight types of serious HPV were significantly increased. In addition, expression of HPV structural proteins by immunohistochemistry and in vitro studies suggest HPV presence in bronchial cancer and its precursor lesions. Another study detected HPV in the EBC, bronchial brushing and neoplastic lung tissue of cases, and found a presence of an HPV infection in 16.4% of the subjects affected by nonsmall cell lung cancer, but in none of the controls. The reported average frequencies of HPV in lung cancers were 17% and 15% in Europe and the Americas, respectively, and the mean number of HPV in Asian lung cancer samples was 35.7%, with a considerable heterogeneity between certain countries and regions.

text: M. gallisepticum causes respiratory disease and weakens the immune system which makes the bird vulnerable to any disease that they come into contact with. Small bubbles will appear in the corners of the eyes and sinuses will swell up. Once infected, they are carriers for the disease for life. Some birds have good resistance to the disease while others may die; some become ill and recover and others may not show any symptoms at all. There is currently no risk to humans.  For domestic animals, there is a high concern and there should be a prevention of any interaction between wild birds and domestic poultry. Wild bird species affected by the disease are infectious and are often found in close contact with domestic species.

text: Medication is the most important treatment of most diseases of pulmonology, either by inhalation (bronchodilators and steroids) or in oral form (antibiotics, leukotriene antagonists). A common example being the usage of inhalers in the treatment of inflammatory lung conditions such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Oxygen therapy is often necessary in severe respiratory disease (emphysema and pulmonary fibrosis). When this is insufficient, the patient might require mechanical ventilation.

text: Medication

text: is the most important treatment of most diseases of pulmonology, either by inhalation (

text: bronchodilator

text: s and

text: steroid

text: s) or in oral form (

text: antibiotic

text: s,

text: leukotriene antagonist

text: s). A common example being the usage of

text: inhalers

text: in the treatment of inflammatory lung conditions such as

text: asthma

text: or

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: Oxygen therapy

text: is often necessary in severe respiratory disease (

text: emphysema

text: and

text: pulmonary fibrosis

text: ). When this is insufficient, the patient might require

text: mechanical ventilation

text: Tuberculosis is one of the deadliest public health threats today. Traditionally, tuberculosis is mostly being diagnosed by a combination of chest X-rays, the staining of sputum with special dyes followed by microscopy, the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in culture and the Mantoux test. The sputum smear microscopy is easy to do and is very cheap and combined with chest X-rays has been used for a long time by TB control agencies worldwide.  However the sputum smear microscopy(sputum AFB ) test has some problems in HIV-positive patients and children also in patients with low bacterial load.The Xpert MTB/RIF test exhibits high sensitivity and specificity for detecting pulmonary TB disease. An in vitro study demonstrated a limit of detection of as few as 131 colony-forming units/mL of MTB, compared with approximately 10,000 colony-forming units/mL with conventional smear microscopy. Drug susceptibility could only be diagnosed from the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in culture which can take as long as six weeks and needs high bio safety labs and costly. The determination of drug susceptibility is particularly relevant because Mycobacterium tuberculosis becomes increasingly resistant to two of the major anti-tuberculosis drugs, isoniazide and rifampicin. This form of tuberculosis is called multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is rapidly on the rise globally. MDR-TB cases need different antibiotics and are more difficult to treat owing to higher costs of drugs and longer regimens .

text: Tuberculosis

text: is one of the deadliest public health threats today. Traditionally, tuberculosis is mostly being

text: diagnosed

text: by a combination of chest X-rays, the staining of

text: sputum

text: with special dyes followed by microscopy, the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in culture and the

text: Mantoux test

text: . The sputum smear microscopy is easy to do and is very cheap and combined with chest X-rays has been used for a long time by TB control agencies worldwide.  However the sputum smear microscopy(sputum AFB ) test has some problems in HIV-positive patients and children also in patients with low bacterial load.The Xpert MTB/RIF test exhibits high sensitivity and specificity for detecting pulmonary TB disease. An in vitro study demonstrated a limit of detection of as few as 131 colony-forming units/mL of MTB, compared with approximately 10,000 colony-forming units/mL with conventional smear microscopy. Drug susceptibility could only be diagnosed from the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in culture which can take as long as six weeks and needs high bio safety labs and costly. The determination of drug susceptibility is particularly relevant because Mycobacterium tuberculosis becomes increasingly resistant to two of the major anti-tuberculosis drugs,

text: isoniazide

text: and

text: rifampicin

text: . This form of tuberculosis is called

text: multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis

text: (MDR-TB) is rapidly on the rise globally. MDR-TB cases need different antibiotics and are more difficult to treat owing to higher costs of drugs and longer regimens .

text: The Immigrant Hospital saw an incredible range of disease, from tuberculosis, cholera, trachoma, and diphtheria, to tropical diseases imported from the opposite side of the earth. The hospital was considered to be one of the most extensive public health systems in the world, using advanced methods in medicine that had just been introduced, such as fluoroscopy and an autoclave that could sterilize entire mattresses. For many immigrants, new medical equipment was unfamiliar and scary. According to one New York Times article, “those less fortunate had to submit to physical inspections that required stripping off all of one’s clothing – an entirely foreign concept, particularly to many immigrant women. Some immigrants had no idea what X-ray machines did; others were fearful that their clothing – or the money sewn inside its seams – would be stolen.”

text: The Immigrant Hospital saw an incredible range of disease, from

text: tuberculosis

text: cholera

text: trachoma

text: , and

text: diphtheria

text: , to tropical diseases imported from the opposite side of the earth. The hospital was considered to be one of the most extensive public health systems in the world, using advanced methods in medicine that had just been introduced, such as fluoroscopy and an

text: autoclave

text: that could sterilize entire mattresses. For many immigrants, new medical equipment was unfamiliar and scary. According to one New York Times article, “those less fortunate had to submit to physical inspections that required stripping off all of one’s clothing – an entirely foreign concept, particularly to many immigrant women. Some immigrants had no idea what X-ray machines did; others were fearful that their clothing – or the money sewn inside its seams – would be stolen.”

text: Lung cancers have been historically classified using two major paradigms. Histological classification systems group lung cancers according to the appearance of the cells and surrounding tissues when they are viewed under a microscope. Clinical classification systems divide lung cancers into groups based on medical criteria, particularly their response to different treatment regimens.

text: Lung cancers have been historically classified using two major paradigms.

text: Histological

text: classification systems group lung cancers according to the appearance of the cells and surrounding tissues when they are viewed under a microscope.

text: Clinical

text: classification systems divide lung cancers into groups based on medical criteria, particularly their response to different treatment regimens.

text: Short time after arriving in Paraguay, Doctor Boettner published several valuable studies about medicine. In 1930 he published his work about “Evolution of Tuberculosis”, “Study of the Vertebral Spine”, “Congenital Malformations of the Respiratory System”, “Respiratory Pathology”, “Manual about Tuberculosis” in 1939, “Silicosis in Paraguay”, “Greek and Latin Etymology for Medical uses” in 1945.

text: OPA is an infectious disease of sheep and recently has been used as an animal model for human lung cancer. It is common in the UK and in South Africa. The disease has a long incubation period and is not seen until sheep reach at least 2 years of age. Clinical symptoms include weight loss, loss of appetite, and respiratory difficulty which is associated with obvious movement of the abdomen and high pitched noises. Fluid accumulates in the respiratory tract and the disease ultimately causes death. The retroviral antigen levels of JSRV are very high in OPA tumors and can be detected in the lung secretions of infected sheep. A common field assessment for jaagsiekte is the "wheelbarrow test" where one lifts the hind legs of the animal above the head to observe lung exudate flow out the nose and mouth.  This fluid contains infectious JSRV. It is thought that infected animals secrete the virus before showing clinical symptoms and the virus is therefore easily spread within flocks.  The disease is histologically similar to human bronchioalveolar carcinoma which accounts for approximately 25% of all diagnosed human lung cancers.

text: OPA is an infectious disease of sheep and recently has been used as an animal model for human lung cancer. It is common in the UK and in South Africa. The disease has a long incubation period and is not seen until sheep reach at least 2 years of age. Clinical symptoms include weight loss, loss of appetite, and respiratory difficulty which is associated with obvious movement of the abdomen and high pitched noises. Fluid accumulates in the respiratory tract and the disease ultimately causes death. The retroviral

text: antigen

text: levels of JSRV are very high in OPA tumors and can be detected in the lung secretions of infected sheep. A common field assessment for jaagsiekte is the "

text: wheelbarrow test

text: " where one lifts the hind legs of the animal above the head to observe lung

text: exudate

text: flow out the nose and mouth.  This fluid contains infectious JSRV. It is thought that infected animals secrete the virus before showing clinical symptoms and the virus is therefore easily spread within flocks.  The disease is

text: histologically

text: similar to human

text: bronchioalveolar carcinoma

text: which accounts for approximately 25% of all diagnosed human lung cancers.

text: Its principle dose-limiting side effects are liver damage, lung disease and immunosuppression. The most common side effects (occurring in >1% of those treated with it) are, in approximately descending order of frequency: diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, hair loss, high blood pressure, rash, nausea, bronchitis, headache, abdominal pain, abnormal liver function tests, back pain, indigestion, urinary tract infection, dizziness, infection, joint disorder, itchiness, weight loss, loss of appetite, cough, gastroenteritis, pharyngitis, stomatitis, tenosynovitis, vomiting, weakness, allergic reaction, chest pain, dry skin, eczema, paraesthesia, pneumonia, rhinitis, synovitis, cholelithiasis and shortness of breath. Whereas uncommon side effects (occurring in 0.1-1% of those treated with the drug) include: constipation, oral thrush, stomatitis, taste disturbance, thrombocytopenia and hives. Rarely (in 0.1% of those treated with it) it can cause: anaphylaxis, angiooedema, anaemia, agranulocytosis, eosinophilia, leucopenia, pancytopenia, vasculitis, toxic epidermal necrolysis, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, cutaneous lupus erythematosus, severe infection, interstitial lung disease, cirrhosis and liver failure.

text: Its principle dose-limiting side effects are liver damage, lung disease and immunosuppression. The most common side effects (occurring in >1% of those treated with it) are, in approximately descending order of frequency: diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, hair loss,

text: high blood pressure

text: , rash, nausea, bronchitis, headache, abdominal pain, abnormal

text: liver function test

text: s, back pain,

text: indigestion

text: , urinary tract infection, dizziness, infection, joint disorder, itchiness, weight loss, loss of appetite, cough, gastroenteritis,

text: pharyngitis

text: stomatitis

text: tenosynovitis

text: , vomiting, weakness, allergic reaction, chest pain, dry skin, eczema,

text: paraesthesia

text: pneumonia

text: rhinitis

text: synovitis

text: cholelithiasis

text: and

text: shortness of breath

text: . Whereas uncommon side effects (occurring in 0.1-1% of those treated with the drug) include: constipation,

text: oral thrush

text: stomatitis

text: , taste disturbance,

text: thrombocytopenia

text: and

text: hives

text: . Rarely (in 0.1% of those treated with it) it can cause:

text: anaphylaxis

text: angiooedema

text: anaemia

text: agranulocytosis

text: eosinophilia

text: leucopenia

text: pancytopenia

text: vasculitis

text: toxic epidermal necrolysis

text: Stevens-Johnson syndrome

text: , cutaneous

text: lupus erythematosus

text: , severe infection,

text: interstitial lung disease

text: cirrhosis

text: and

text: liver failure

text: Training health professionals in shared decision-making attracts the attention of policy makers when it shows potential for addressing chronic problems in healthcare systems such as the overuse of drugs or screening tests. One such program, designed for primary care physicians in Quebec, Canada, showed that shared decision-making can reduce use of antibiotics for acute respiratory problems (ear aches, sinusitis, bronchitis, etc.) which are often caused by viruses and do not respond to antibiotics.

text: Chest pain in children is usually evaluated in cardiology clinics and in emergency room departments. It can be distressing for parents and children. Pediatric chest pain differs from chest pain in adults because it is most often unrelated to the heart. The causes of pediatric chest pain vary according to the organ or tissue in the child. that generates the pain. Generally, muscular skeletal pain, which includes costochondritis, is the reason for the emergency room visit. Pain that is felt in the chest but is due to muscular skeletal inflammation or an unknown cause and  accounts for 7% and 69% visits. Muscular skeletal pain is described and defined differently as a diagnosis of exclusion or is documented as being associated with idiopathic causes. Asthma and other respiratory symptoms are the second most common presentation. Respiratory associated causes compose 13% to 24% of pediatric chest pain symptoms. Gastrointestinal and psychogenic symptoms reported by parents and patients occur less than 10% of the time. Cardiac causes of pediatric chest pain are found infrequently and are not identified more than 5% of the time. Unknown causes, were estimated to account for 20% to 61% of the final diagnosis given. Patients who receive a diagnosis of cardiac disease are more apt to have acute pain. This pain often awakes them from sleep or presents with fever or abnormal observations found during the physical examination. Trauma can also be a cause for chest pain and has been found to be associated with the pain in 5% of the patients.

text: Chest pain in children is usually evaluated

text: in cardiology

text: clinic

text: s and in emergency room departments. It can be distressing for parents and children. Pediatric chest pain differs from chest pain in adults because it is most often unrelated to the heart. The causes of pediatric chest pain vary according to the organ or tissue in the child. that generates the pain. Generally, muscular skeletal pain, which includes

text: costochondritis

text: , is the reason for the

text: emergency room

text: visit. Pain that is felt in the chest but is due to muscular skeletal inflammation or an unknown cause and  accounts for 7% and 69% visits.

text: Muscular skeletal

text: pain is described and defined differently as a diagnosis of exclusion or is documented as being associated with idiopathic causes.

text: Asthma

text: and other respiratory symptoms are the second most common presentation. Respiratory associated causes compose 13% to 24% of pediatric chest pain symptoms.

text: Gastrointestinal

text: and

text: psychogenic

text: symptoms reported by parents and patients occur less than 10% of the time.

text: Cardiac

text: causes of pediatric chest pain are found infrequently and are not identified more than 5% of the time. Unknown causes, were estimated to account for 20% to 61% of the final diagnosis given. Patients who receive a diagnosis of cardiac disease are more apt to have acute pain. This pain often awakes them from sleep or presents with fever or abnormal observations found during the physical examination. Trauma can also be a cause for chest pain and has been found to be associated with the pain in 5% of the patients.

text: The hospital and its 126 beds serve the Marakwet tribe in the area. Among its facilities are four dispensaries that provide essential healthcare. It offers mobile maternal and child health clinics that can travel up to . The hospital offers antiretroviral therapy, curative in-patient services, family planning, HIV counseling and testing as well as immunizations. Amongst the approximately 4,000 inpatient admissions and 15,000 outpatient visits per year, the most common diagnoses for children constitute pneumonia, malaria, gastrointestinal infections, meningitis, and injuries/fractures. The majority of the diseases are communicable ranging from: HIV/AIDS, diarrheal diseases, lower respiratory tract infections, malaria, diarrheal diseases, neonatal preterm births, tuberculosis, measles, and tuberculosis.

text: The hospital and its 126 beds serve the

text: Marakwet

text: tribe in the area. Among its facilities are four dispensaries that provide essential healthcare. It offers mobile maternal and child health clinics that can travel up to . The hospital offers antiretroviral therapy, curative in-patient services, family planning, HIV counseling and testing as well as immunizations. Amongst the approximately 4,000 inpatient admissions and 15,000 outpatient visits per year, the most common diagnoses for children constitute pneumonia, malaria, gastrointestinal infections, meningitis, and injuries/fractures. The majority of the diseases are communicable ranging from: HIV/AIDS, diarrheal diseases, lower respiratory tract infections, malaria, diarrheal diseases, neonatal preterm births, tuberculosis, measles, and tuberculosis.

text: Asthma is a common pulmonary condition defined by chronic inflammation of respiratory tubes, tightening of respiratory smooth muscle, and episodes of bronchoconstriction. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that 1 in 11 children and 1 in 12 adults have asthma in the United States of America. According to the World Health Organization, asthma effects 235 million people worldwide. There are two major categories of asthma: allergic and non-allergic. The focus of this article will be allergic asthma. In both cases, bronchoconstriction is prominent.

text: Asthma

text: is a common pulmonary condition defined by chronic inflammation of respiratory tubes, tightening of respiratory smooth muscle, and episodes of bronchoconstriction. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that 1 in 11 children and 1 in 12 adults have asthma in the United States of America. According to the World Health Organization, asthma effects 235 million people worldwide. There are two major categories of asthma: allergic and non-allergic. The focus of this article will be allergic asthma. In both cases, bronchoconstriction is prominent.

text: It has recently been shown that transneuronal degeneration can also be caused after respiratory chain-deficient neurons develop from de novo mitochondrial DNA mutations, which are normally associated with mammalian ageing. The respiratory chain-deficient neurons have adverse effect on normal adjacent neurons, inducing death by means of transneuronal degeneration. Transneuronal degeneration in these cases is accelerated during the ageing process since other cellular maintenance systems are already damaged as well as in the presence of mitochondrial disease, where non-neuronal cells like glial cells and astrocytes also have respiratory chain deficiency. This also means that transneuronal degeneration could enhance the consequences of patients with degenerative processes like Alzheimer’s disease (see associated diseases) because of the neuronal damage from lesions already present. Since neurons are linked in trophic units, this transneuronal degeneration can lead to substantial cell death over time.

text: It has recently been shown that transneuronal degeneration can also be caused after respiratory chain-deficient neurons develop from

text: de novo

text: mitochondrial DNA mutations, which are normally associated with mammalian ageing. The respiratory chain-deficient neurons have adverse effect on normal adjacent neurons, inducing death by means of transneuronal degeneration. Transneuronal degeneration in these cases is accelerated during the ageing process since other cellular maintenance systems are already damaged as well as in the presence of

text: mitochondrial disease

text: , where non-neuronal cells like

text: glial cells

text: and

text: astrocytes

text: also have respiratory chain deficiency. This also means that transneuronal degeneration could enhance the consequences of patients with degenerative processes like Alzheimer’s disease (

text: see associated diseases

text: ) because of the neuronal damage from lesions already present. Since neurons are linked in trophic units, this transneuronal degeneration can lead to substantial cell death over time.

text: He is also a member of the editorial committee of the Magazine of Respiratory diseases - official publication of the French Society of pneumology (SPLF).

text: According to data released in 2009 by the Scientific and Environmental Research Institute, atmospheric suspended particulate matter (SPM) in Kolkata was 511. This made Kolkata the most polluted metropolitan city in India, followed respectively by Mumbai, Delhi and Chennai. In a 6-years long study completed in 2007, the Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute (CNCI) found that 70% of residents of Kolkata suffer from respiratory diseases, like lung cancer, dyspnea and asthma, caused by air pollution. According to the CNCI study, 18.4 cases of lung cancer per 100,000 people were reported from Kolkata.

text: According to data released in 2009 by the

text: Scientific and Environmental Research Institute

text: , atmospheric

text: suspended particulate matter

text: (SPM) in Kolkata was 511. This made Kolkata the most polluted

text: metropolitan city in India

text: , followed respectively by

text: Mumbai

text: Delhi

text: and

text: Chennai

text: . In a 6-years long study completed in 2007, the

text: Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute

text: (CNCI) found that 70% of residents of Kolkata suffer from

text: respiratory disease

text: s, like

text: lung cancer

text: dyspnea

text: and

text: asthma

text: , caused by

text: air pollution

text: . According to the CNCI study, 18.4 cases of lung cancer per 100,000 people were reported from Kolkata.

text: The Applied Respiratory Psychophysiology Section promotes scientific and clinical activities in the area of respiratory retraining for treating psychological and physical symptoms, and the management of respiratory diseases. The section fosters research on the causes and effects of hyperventilation and effects of respiratory rhythms on other physiological systems including the body’s homeostatic reflexes.

text: The Applied Respiratory Psychophysiology Section promotes scientific and clinical activities in the area of respiratory retraining for treating psychological and physical symptoms, and the management of respiratory diseases. The section fosters research on the causes and effects of

text: hyperventilation

text: and effects of respiratory rhythms on other physiological systems including the body’s homeostatic reflexes.

text: Asthma, chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are all obstructive lung diseases characterised by airway obstruction. This limits the amount of air that is able to enter alveoli because of constriction of the bronchial tree, due to inflammation. Obstructive lung diseases are often identified because of symptoms and diagnosed with pulmonary function tests such as spirometry. Many obstructive lung diseases are managed by avoiding triggers (such as dust mites or smoking), with symptom control such as bronchodilators, and with suppression of inflammation (such as through corticosteroids) in severe cases. One common cause of COPD and emphysema is smoking, and common causes of bronchiectasis include severe infections and cystic fibrosis. The definitive cause of asthma is not yet known.

text: Asthma

text: , chronic

text: bronchitis

text: bronchiectasis

text: and

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD) are all

text: obstructive lung disease

text: s characterised by

text: airway obstruction

text: . This limits the amount of air that is able to enter alveoli because of constriction of the bronchial tree, due to inflammation. Obstructive lung diseases are often identified because of symptoms and diagnosed with

text: pulmonary function tests

text: such as

text: spirometry

text: . Many obstructive lung diseases are managed by avoiding triggers (such as

text: dust mite

text: s or

text: smoking

text: ), with symptom control such as

text: bronchodilator

text: s, and with suppression of inflammation (such as through

text: corticosteroid

text: s) in severe cases. One common cause of COPD and

text: emphysema

text: is smoking, and common causes of

text: bronchiectasis

text: include severe infections and

text: cystic fibrosis

text: . The definitive cause of

text: asthma

text: is not yet known.

text: Of the Acinetobacter, A. baumannii is the greatest cause of human disease, having been implicated in a number of hospital-acquired infections such as bacteremia, urinary tract infections (UTIs), secondary meningitis, infective endocarditis, and wound and burn infections. In particular, A. baumannii is frequently isolated as the cause of hospital-acquired pneumonia among patients admitted to the intensive care unit. Risk factors include long-term intubation and tracheal or lung aspiration. In most cases of ventilator-associated pneumonia, the equipment used for artificial ventilation such as endotracheal tubes or bronchoscopes serve as the source of infection and result in the colonization of the lower respiratory tract by A. baumannii. In some cases, the bacteria can go on to enter the bloodstream, resulting in bacteremia with mortality rates ranging from 32% to 52%. UTIs caused by A. baumannii appear to be associated with continuous catheterization, as well as antibiotic therapy. A. baumannii has also been reported to infect skin and soft tissue in traumatic injuries and postsurgical wounds. A. baumannii commonly infects burns and may result in complications owing to difficulty in treatment and eradication. Though less common, some evidence also links this bacterium to meningitis, most often following invasive surgery, and in very rare cases, to community-acquired primary meningitis wherein the majority of the victims were children. Case reports also link A. baumannii to endocarditis, keratitis, peritonitis, and very rarely fatal neonatal sepsis.

text: Of the Acinetobacter, A. baumannii is the greatest cause of human disease, having been implicated in a number of hospital-acquired infections such as bacteremia, urinary tract infections (UTIs), secondary meningitis, infective endocarditis, and wound and burn infections. In particular, A. baumannii is frequently isolated as the cause of hospital-acquired pneumonia among patients admitted to the

text: intensive care unit

text: . Risk factors include long-term intubation and tracheal or lung aspiration. In most cases of ventilator-associated pneumonia, the equipment used for artificial ventilation such as endotracheal tubes or bronchoscopes serve as the source of infection and result in the colonization of the lower respiratory tract by A. baumannii. In some cases, the bacteria can go on to enter the bloodstream, resulting in bacteremia with mortality rates ranging from 32% to 52%. UTIs caused by A. baumannii appear to be associated with continuous catheterization, as well as antibiotic therapy. A. baumannii has also been reported to infect skin and soft tissue in traumatic injuries and postsurgical wounds. A. baumannii commonly infects burns and may result in complications owing to difficulty in treatment and eradication. Though less common, some evidence also links this bacterium to meningitis, most often following invasive surgery, and in very rare cases, to community-acquired primary meningitis wherein the majority of the victims were children. Case reports also link A. baumannii to endocarditis, keratitis, peritonitis, and very rarely fatal neonatal sepsis.

text: In 1997, the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center posthumously honored Morial with the dedication of the Ernest N. Morial Asthma, Allergy and Respiratory Disease Center. The facility is Louisiana's first comprehensive center for the education, prevention, treatment and research of asthma and other respiratory diseases. "Dutch" suffered and eventually died from complications associated with asthma.

text: Lung cancer is responsible for 1.3 million deaths worldwide annually, and is the most common cause of cancer-related death in men and the second most common in women. The most common cause of lung cancer is long-term exposure to tobacco smoke. Lung cancer in non-smokers, who account for approximately 15% of cases, is often attributed to a combination of genetic factors, radon gas, asbestos, and air pollution. The main types of lung cancer are non-small cell lung carcinoma and small cell lung carcinoma, the two being distinguished histologically as well as by how they are treated; non-small cell lung carcinoma is primarily treated with surgery if feasible, while small cell lung carcinoma is more frequently treated with chemotherapy and radiation.

text: Lung cancer is responsible for 1.3 million deaths worldwide annually, and is the most common cause of cancer-related death in men and the second most common in women. The most common cause of lung cancer is long-term exposure to

text: tobacco smoke

text: . Lung cancer in non-smokers, who account for approximately 15% of cases, is often attributed to a combination of

text: genetic factors

text: radon

text: gas,

text: asbestos

text: , and

text: air pollution

text: . The main types of lung cancer are

text: non-small cell lung carcinoma

text: and

text: small cell lung carcinoma

text: , the two being distinguished

text: histologically

text: as well as by how they are treated; non-small cell lung carcinoma is primarily treated with

text: surgery

text: if feasible, while small cell lung carcinoma is more frequently treated with

text: chemotherapy

text: and

text: radiation

text: Most Fijian men would have Yagona or Kava to drink before having dinner. Kava is a drink made from powdered roots of yagona plants. The powder is placed in a muslin cloth and small amounts of water are added to extract the juice out of the powder. With meals people often drink water. This drink will make your tongue go numb, due to the ingredients.Kava is not unique to the Fijian culture, it is widely consumed in amongst other Pacific nations.  It has religious and tribal significance and often used as peace offering "sevusevu" during Fijian functions. Consumption beyond this is habitual, it is addictive and people find it difficult to ween off once it gets hold. Consumption in smaller quantities have been found to be of therapeutical value, especially amongst people who suffer from sleeping disorders. Kava is used to calm anxiety, stress, and restlessness, and treat sleep problems (insomnia). It is also used for attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), epilepsy, psychosis, depression, migraines and other headaches, chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), common cold and other respiratory tract infections, tuberculosis, muscle pain, and cancer prevention.Some people use kava for urinary tract infections (UTIs), pain and swelling of the uterus, venereal disease, menstrual discomfort, and to arouse sexual desire. Kava is applied to the skin for skin diseases including leprosy, to promote wound healing, and as a painkiller. It is also used as a mouthwash for canker sores and toothaches.

text: Most Fijian men would have Yagona or Kava to drink before having dinner.

text: Kava

text: Erin Koch has utilized Paul Farmer’s concept of “structural” violence as a perspective for understanding how “institutions, environment, poverty, and power reproduce, solidify, and naturalize the uneven distribution of disease and access to resources”.  She has also studied the effectiveness of the DOTS protocol in the widespread disease of tuberculosis in the Georgian prison system. Unlike the DOTS passive case finding utilized for the general Georgian public, the multiple-level surveillance in the prison system has proven more successful in reducing the spread of tuberculosis while increasing rates of cure.

text: Erin Koch has utilized

text: Paul Farmer

text: ’s concept of

text: “structural” violence

text: as a perspective for understanding how “institutions, environment, poverty, and power reproduce, solidify, and naturalize the uneven distribution of disease and access to resources”.  She has also studied the effectiveness of the DOTS protocol in the widespread disease of tuberculosis in the Georgian prison system. Unlike the DOTS passive case finding utilized for the general Georgian public, the multiple-level surveillance in the prison system has proven more successful in reducing the spread of tuberculosis while increasing rates of cure.

text: Feline asthma is a common allergic respiratory disease in cats, affecting at least one percent of all adult cats worldwide.  It is a chronic progressive disease for which there is no cure. Common symptoms include wheezing, coughing, labored breathing and potentially life-threatening bronchoconstriction. There is conjecture that the disease is becoming more common due to increased exposure to industrial pollutants.

text: Feline asthma is a common

text: allergic

text: respiratory disease in

text: cat

text: s, affecting at least one percent of all adult cats worldwide.  It is a chronic progressive disease for which there is no cure. Common symptoms include

text: wheezing

text: cough

text: ing, labored breathing and potentially life-threatening

text: bronchoconstriction

text: . There is conjecture that the disease is becoming more common due to increased exposure to industrial

text: pollutants

text: Asthma is an obstructive lung disease where the bronchial tubes (airways) are extra sensitive (hyperresponsive). The airways become inflamed and produce excess mucus and the muscles around the airways tighten making the airways narrower. Asthma is usually triggered by breathing in things in the air such as dust or pollen that produce an allergic reaction. It may be triggered by other things such as an upper respiratory tract infection, cold air, exercise or smoke. Asthma is a common condition and affects over 300 million people around the world.Asthma causes recurring episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing, particularly at night or in the early morning.

text: Asthma is an obstructive lung disease where the

text: bronchial

text: tubes (airways) are extra sensitive (

text: hyperresponsive

text: ). The airways become inflamed and produce excess mucus and the muscles around the airways tighten making the airways narrower. Asthma is usually triggered by breathing in things in the air such as dust or pollen that produce an allergic reaction. It may be triggered by other things such as an

text: upper respiratory tract infection

text: , cold air, exercise or smoke. Asthma is a common condition and affects over 300 million people around the world.Asthma causes recurring episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing, particularly at night or in the early morning.

text: The common cold/flu is the most common cause for the upper respiratory tract infection, which can cause more serious illness that can develop in the lower respiratory tract. Pneumonia is the most common, and frequent lower respiratory tract infection. This can be either viral, bacterial, or fungal. This infection is very common, because pneumonia can be airborne, and when you inhale this infection in the air, the particles enter the lungs and move into the air sacs. This infection quickly develops in the lower part of the lung, and fills the lung with fluid, and excess mucus. This causes difficulty in breathing, and coughing as the lower respiratory tract tries to get rid of the fluid in the lungs. You can be more prone to developing this infection if you have asthma, flu, heart disease, or cancer(7)

text: The common cold/flu is the most common cause for the upper respiratory tract infection, which can cause more serious illness that can develop in the lower respiratory tract.

text: Pneumonia

text: is the most common, and frequent lower respiratory tract infection. This can be either viral, bacterial, or fungal. This infection is very common, because pneumonia can be airborne, and when you inhale this infection in the air, the particles enter the lungs and move into the air sacs. This infection quickly develops in the lower part of the lung, and fills the lung with fluid, and excess mucus. This causes difficulty in breathing, and coughing as the lower respiratory tract tries to get rid of the fluid in the lungs. You can be more prone to developing this infection if you have asthma, flu, heart disease, or cancer(7)

text: When in the lungs, M. tuberculosis is taken up by alveolar macrophages, but they are unable to digest and eradicate the bacterium. Its cell wall prevents the fusion of the phagosome with the lysosome, which contains a host of antimycobacterial factors. Specifically, M. tuberculosis blocks the bridging molecule, early endosomal autoantigen 1 (EEA1); however, this blockade does not prevent fusion of vesicles filled with nutrients. Consequently, the bacteria multiply unchecked within the macrophage. The bacteria also carry the UreC gene, which prevents acidification of the phagosome. In addition, production of the diterpene isotuberculosinol prevents maturation of the phagosome.  The bacteria also evade macrophage-killing by neutralizing reactive nitrogen intermediates.

text: When in the lungs, M. tuberculosis is taken up by alveolar

text: macrophages

text: , but they are unable to digest and eradicate the bacterium. Its cell wall prevents the fusion of the

text: phagosome

text: with the

text: lysosome

text: , which contains a host of antimycobacterial factors. Specifically, M. tuberculosis blocks the bridging molecule, early endosomal autoantigen 1 (EEA1); however, this blockade does not prevent fusion of vesicles filled with nutrients. Consequently, the bacteria multiply unchecked within the macrophage. The bacteria also carry the UreC gene, which prevents acidification of the phagosome. In addition, production of the diterpene

text: isotuberculosinol

text: prevents maturation of the phagosome.  The bacteria also evade macrophage-killing by neutralizing reactive nitrogen intermediates.

text: If later exposure to the same allergen occurs, the allergen can bind to the IgE molecules held on the surface of the mast cells or basophils. Cross-linking of the IgE and Fc receptors occurs when more than one IgE-receptor complex interacts with the same allergenic molecule, and activates the sensitized cell. Activated mast cells and basophils undergo a process called degranulation, during which they release histamine and other inflammatory chemical mediators (cytokines, interleukins, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins) from their granules into the surrounding tissue causing several systemic effects, such as vasodilation, mucous secretion, nerve stimulation, and smooth muscle contraction. This results in rhinorrhea, itchiness, dyspnea, and anaphylaxis. Depending on the individual, allergen, and mode of introduction, the symptoms can be system-wide (classical anaphylaxis), or localized to particular body systems; asthma is localized to the respiratory system and eczema is localized to the dermis.

text: If later exposure to the same allergen occurs, the allergen can bind to the IgE molecules held on the surface of the mast cells or basophils. Cross-linking of the IgE and Fc receptors occurs when more than one IgE-receptor complex interacts with the same allergenic molecule, and activates the sensitized cell. Activated mast cells and basophils undergo a process called

text: degranulation

text: , during which they release

text: histamine

text: and other inflammatory chemical mediators (

text: cytokine

text: s,

text: interleukin

text: s,

text: leukotriene

text: s, and

text: prostaglandin

text: s) from their

text: granules

text: into the surrounding tissue causing several systemic effects, such as

text: vasodilation

text: mucous

text: secretion,

text: nerve

text: stimulation, and

text: smooth muscle

text: contraction. This results in

text: rhinorrhea

text: , itchiness, dyspnea, and

text: anaphylaxis

text: . Depending on the individual, allergen, and mode of introduction, the symptoms can be system-wide (classical anaphylaxis), or localized to particular body systems; asthma is localized to the respiratory system and eczema is localized to the

text: dermis

text: Human lungs can be affected by a variety of diseases. Pulmonology is the medical speciality that deals with diseases involving the respiratory tract, and cardiothoracic surgery is the surgical field that deals with surgery of the lungs.

text: Human lungs can be affected by a variety of diseases.

text: Pulmonology

text: is the

text: medical speciality

text: that deals with

text: diseases

text: involving the

text: respiratory tract

text: , and

text: cardiothoracic surgery

text: is the surgical field that deals with surgery of the lungs.

text: ISAAC has demonstrated that asthma and allergies are a global health problem and environmental factors are key. The scientific value of ISAAC is attested to by the large number of publications produced by ISAAC collaborators, who have published more than 340 articles in over 100 journals including the Lancet, the British Medical Journal, the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Thorax and the European Respiratory Journal. The major effect of the findings has been to stimulate debates concerning the causes of the global variations in asthma, rhinitis and eczema, aided by the hypotheses suggested by the findings of the ecological analyses. ISAAC findings are cited by any organisation involved in monitoring and preventing Chronic Respiratory Diseases (CRD’s) and are used to inform Global Health Initiatives which include WHO, and its NGO (Non Governmental Organisation) the Global Alliance against Chronic Respiratory Diseases (GARD). ISAAC publications are included in the ‘GARD Basket’, a package of information, offered to countries by WHO to assist policy decisions relating to CRD’s.

text: ISAAC has demonstrated that asthma and allergies are a global health problem and environmental factors are key. The scientific value of ISAAC is attested to by the large number of publications produced by ISAAC collaborators, who have published more than 340 articles in over 100 journals including the Lancet, the British Medical Journal, the American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Thorax and the European Respiratory Journal. The major effect of the findings has been to stimulate debates concerning the causes of the global variations in asthma, rhinitis and eczema, aided by the hypotheses suggested by the findings of the ecological analyses. ISAAC findings are cited by any organisation involved in monitoring and preventing Chronic Respiratory Diseases (CRD’s) and are used to inform

text: Global Health Initiatives

text: which include WHO, and its NGO (Non Governmental Organisation) the Global Alliance against Chronic Respiratory Diseases (GARD). ISAAC publications are included in the ‘GARD Basket’, a package of information, offered to countries by WHO to assist policy decisions relating to CRD’s.

text: Al-Ali died from respiratory disease on January 3, 2002.,

text: Al-Ali died from

text: respiratory disease

text: on January 3, 2002.,

text: If the respiratory system is the main way of receipt of harmful substances in the body, and if the use of other means of protection does not allow to reduce the impact to an acceptable value, employee must use respirators. They should be selected taking into account their effectiveness (it depends on the respirator type); masks should be chosen for employees personally; and workers should be learned, and trained - in accordance with legal requirements. This reduces the risk of occupational diseases as much as possible.

text: Recent data suggest an association of HCoV-NL63 infection with Kawasaki disease, a systemic vasculitis in childhood that may result in aneurysms of the coronary arteries. In the developed world, Kawasaki disease is the most common cause of acquired heart disease in children. Further analysis of HCoV-NL63 pathogenicity seems warranted, in particular because of recent evidence that this virus uses the same cellular receptor as SARS-CoV (ACE2). HCoV-NL63 has also been found in the intestinal tract of infected individuals and linked to gastroenteritis. This type of infection is the direct result of the viral invasion of the mucosal lining of the intestines.  The role of HCoV-NL63 in gastroenteritis is unclear due to typical co-infection with other viruses in this condition. HCoV-NL63 is likely under-detected due its role in many mild to moderate respiratory infections and comorbidity with other disease.  Researchers have suggested that more comprehensive, population-based studies are necessary to determine the effects of this virus on systems outside of the respiratory tract.

text: Recent data suggest an association of HCoV-NL63 infection with

text: Kawasaki disease

text: , a systemic

text: vasculitis

text: in childhood that may result in

text: aneurysm

text: s of the coronary arteries. In the developed world, Kawasaki disease is the most common cause of acquired heart disease in children. Further analysis of HCoV-NL63 pathogenicity seems warranted, in particular because of recent evidence that this virus uses the same cellular receptor as

text: SARS-CoV

text: ). HCoV-NL63 has also been found in the intestinal tract of infected individuals and linked to

text: gastroenteritis

text: . This type of infection is the direct result of the viral invasion of the

text: mucosal lining

text: of the intestines.  The role of HCoV-NL63 in gastroenteritis is unclear due to typical co-infection with other viruses in this condition. HCoV-NL63 is likely under-detected due its role in many mild to moderate respiratory infections and comorbidity with other disease.  Researchers have suggested that more comprehensive, population-based studies are necessary to determine the effects of this virus on systems outside of the respiratory tract.

text: Oxygen concentrators are considered sufficiently foolproof to be supplied to individual patients as a prescription item for use in their homes. Typically they are used as an adjunct to CPAP treatment of severe sleep apnea. There also are other medical uses for oxygen concentrators, including emphysema and other respiratory diseases.

text: Oxygen concentrators are considered sufficiently foolproof to be supplied to individual patients as a prescription item for use in their homes. Typically they are used as an adjunct to

text: CPAP

text: treatment of severe

text: sleep apnea

text: . There also are other medical uses for oxygen concentrators, including

text: emphysema

text: and other respiratory diseases.

text: Alexander & Baldwin has drawn repeated criticism from Maui residents over the use of pre-harvest field burning by its subsidiary Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Company. HC&S cultivates approximately 35,000 acres of sugarcane on Maui, with roughly 400 acres per week being burned from March to November each year to remove dried leaves from the cane before it is harvested and processed. A spokesman for HC&S claimed that "burning, in the field, is the only economical means HC&S has found to-date of removing the dried leafy material from its crop." Maui environmentalists and physicians have countered by asserting that the burning process has caused increased rates of asthma and respiratory disease, especially among children, released carcinogens from burning PVC pipes used in the irrigation system, and resulted in highway closures and car crashes. Community organizers have called on A&B to replace burning with green harvesting methods, and in 2012, presented the Hawaii Department of Health with a petition signed by 8,700 Maui residents, asking it to deny the company a burning permit for the coming year.

text: Alexander & Baldwin has drawn repeated criticism from

text: Maui

text: residents over the use of pre-harvest field burning by its subsidiary Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Company. HC&S cultivates approximately 35,000 acres of sugarcane on Maui, with roughly 400 acres per week being burned from March to November each year to remove dried leaves from the cane before it is harvested and processed. A spokesman for HC&S claimed that "burning, in the field, is the only economical means HC&S has found to-date of removing the dried leafy material from its crop." Maui environmentalists and physicians have countered by asserting that the burning process has caused increased rates of asthma and respiratory disease, especially among children, released carcinogens from burning PVC pipes used in the irrigation system, and resulted in highway closures and car crashes. Community organizers have called on A&B to replace burning with green harvesting methods, and in 2012, presented the Hawaii Department of Health with a petition signed by 8,700 Maui residents, asking it to deny the company a burning permit for the coming year.

text: Populations of microbes (such as bacteria and yeasts) inhabit the skin and mucosal surfaces in various parts of the body. Their role forms part of normal, healthy human physiology, however if microbe numbers grow beyond their typical ranges (often due to a compromised immune system) or if microbes populate  (such as through poor hygiene or injury) areas of the body normally not colonized or sterile (such as the blood, or the lower respiratory tract, or the abdominal cavity), disease can result (causing, respectively, bacteremia/sepsis, pneumonia, and peritonitis).

text: Populations of microbes (such as

text: bacteria

text: and

text: yeast

text: s) inhabit the skin and mucosal surfaces in various parts of the body. Their role forms part of normal, healthy human physiology, however if microbe numbers grow beyond their typical ranges (often due to a compromised immune system) or if microbes populate  (such as through poor hygiene or injury) areas of the body normally not colonized or sterile (such as the blood, or the lower respiratory tract, or the abdominal cavity), disease can result (causing, respectively, bacteremia/sepsis, pneumonia, and peritonitis).

text: In 2013, the principal cause of death for women in Croatia were diseased of circulatory system at 54.3%, followed by tumors at 23.6%. Other significant causes of death are injuries, poisonings and other external causes (4.3%), respiratory system diseases (3.5%), digestive system diseases (3.3%), and endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (2.8%).

text: Medically relevant gram-negative cocci include the four types that cause a sexually transmitted disease (Neisseria gonorrhoeae), a meningitis (Neisseria meningitidis), and respiratory symptoms (Moraxella catarrhalis, Haemophilus influenzae).

text: Medically relevant gram-negative

text: cocci

text: include the four types that cause a

text: sexually transmitted disease

text: Neisseria gonorrhoeae

text: ), a

text: meningitis

text: Neisseria meningitidis

text: ), and respiratory symptoms (

text: Moraxella catarrhalis

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: Lung cancer is an extremely heterogeneous family of malignant neoplasms, with well over 50 different histological variants recognized under the 4th revision of the World Health Organization (WHO) typing system ("WHO-2004"), currently the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme. Because these variants have differing genetic, biological, and clinical properties, including response to treatment, correct classification of lung cancer cases are necessary to assure that lung cancer patients receive optimum management.

text: Lung cancer

text: is an extremely

text: heterogeneous

text: family of malignant

text: neoplasm

text: s, with well over 50 different

text: histological

text: variants recognized under the 4th revision of the

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) typing system ("WHO-2004"), currently the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme. Because these variants have differing genetic, biological, and clinical properties, including response to treatment, correct classification of lung cancer cases are necessary to assure that lung cancer patients receive optimum management.

text: Mathewson grew up in Factoryville, Pennsylvania, and began playing semiprofessional baseball when he was 14 years old. He played in the minor leagues in 1899, recording a record of 21 wins and two losses. He pitched for the New York Giants the next season but was sent back to the minors. He would eventually return to the Giants and go on to win 373 games in his career, a National League record. He led the Giants to victory in the 1905 World Series by pitching three shutouts. Mathewson never pitched on Sundays, owing to his Christian beliefs. Mathewson served in the United States Army's Chemical Warfare Service in World War I, and was accidentally exposed to chemical weapons during training. His respiratory system was weakened from the exposure, causing him to contract tuberculosis, from which he died in Saranac Lake, New York. in 1925.

text: Mathewson grew up in

text: Factoryville, Pennsylvania

text: , and began playing semiprofessional baseball when he was 14 years old. He played in the minor leagues in 1899, recording a record of 21 wins and two losses. He pitched for the

entity_name: History of the New York Giants (baseball)

text: New York Giants

text: the next season but was sent back to the minors. He would eventually return to the Giants and go on to win 373 games in his career, a

text: National League

text: record. He led the Giants to victory in the

text: 1905 World Series

text: by pitching three

text: shutouts

text: . Mathewson never pitched on

text: Sundays

text: , owing to his Christian beliefs. Mathewson served in the

text: United States Army

text: 's

text: Chemical Warfare Service

text: in World War I, and was accidentally exposed to

text: chemical weapon

text: s during training. His respiratory system was weakened from the exposure, causing him to contract

text: tuberculosis

text: , from which he died in

text: Saranac Lake, New York

text: . in 1925.

text: Pneumonia can be classified in several ways, most commonly by where it was acquired (hospital versus community), but may also by the area of lung affected or by the causative organism. There is also a combined clinical classification, which combines factors such as age, risk factors for certain microorganisms, the presence of underlying lung disease or systemic disease, and whether the person has recently been hospitalized.

text: Pneumonia

text: can be classified in several ways, most commonly by where it was acquired (hospital versus community), but may also by the area of lung affected or by the causative organism. There is also a combined clinical classification, which combines factors such as age, risk factors for certain microorganisms, the presence of underlying lung disease or systemic disease, and whether the person has recently been hospitalized.

text: Coronaviruses also cause a range of diseases in farm animals and domesticated pets, some of which can be serious and are a threat to the farming industry. Economically significant coronaviruses of farm animals include porcine coronavirus (transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus, TGE) and bovine coronavirus, which both result in diarrhea in young animals. Feline Coronavirus: two forms, Feline enteric coronavirus is a pathogen of minor clinical significance, but spontaneous mutation of this virus can result in feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), a disease associated with high mortality. Similarly, there are two types of coronavirus that infect ferrets: Ferret enteric coronavirus causes a gastrointestinal syndrome known as epizootic catarrhal enteritis (ECE), and a more lethal systemic version of the virus (like FIP in cats) known in ferrets as ferret systemic coronavirus (FSC). There are two types of canine coronavirus (CCoV), one that causes mild gastrointestinal disease and one that has been found to cause respiratory disease.  Mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) is a coronavirus that causes an epidemic murine illness with high mortality, especially among colonies of laboratory mice.

text: Coronaviruses also cause a range of diseases in farm animals and domesticated pets, some of which can be serious and are a threat to the farming industry. Economically significant coronaviruses of farm animals include

text: porcine

text: coronavirus (

text: transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus

text: , TGE) and

text: bovine

text: coronavirus, which both result in

text: diarrhea

text: in young animals.

text: Feline Coronavirus

text: : two forms, Feline enteric coronavirus is a pathogen of minor clinical significance, but spontaneous mutation of this virus can result in

text: feline infectious peritonitis

text: (FIP), a disease associated with high mortality. Similarly, there are two types of coronavirus that infect ferrets: Ferret enteric coronavirus causes a gastrointestinal syndrome known as epizootic catarrhal enteritis (ECE), and a more lethal systemic version of the virus (like FIP in cats) known in ferrets as ferret systemic coronavirus (FSC). There are two types of

text: canine coronavirus

text: (CCoV), one that causes mild gastrointestinal disease and one that has been found to cause respiratory disease.

text: Mouse hepatitis virus

text: (MHV) is a coronavirus that causes an epidemic

text: murine

text: illness with high mortality, especially among colonies of laboratory mice.

text: Tuberculosis has existed throughout history, but the name has changed frequently over time. In 1720, though, the history of tuberculosis started to take shape into what is known of it today; as the physician Benjamin Marten described in his A Theory of Consumption, tuberculosis may be caused by small living creatures transmitted through the air to other patients.

text: Tuberculosis has existed throughout history, but the name has changed frequently over time. In 1720, though, the history of tuberculosis started to take shape into what is known of it today; as the physician

text: Benjamin Marten

text: described in his A Theory of Consumption, tuberculosis may be caused by small living creatures transmitted through the air to other patients.

text: As per AHS 2010-11, district's effective literacy rate was 67.6 (Rural - 66.5, Urban - 80.9) for males it stood at 77.1 (Rural - 76.4, Urban - 85.8) and for females it was 56.9 (Rural - 55.3, Urban - 75.3). Also, 1.518% of total population had some kind of disability and rate of severe injury was 188 per 100,000 person while rate of major injury was 122 per 100,000 person and rate of minor injury stood at 423 per 100,000 person. Out of 100,000 person 691 were suffering from Diarrhoea/Dysentery, 966 out of 100,000 person were suffering from Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI), out of 100,000 person 3,698 suffered from some kind of Fever, 5,592 out of 100,000 suffered from one or another type of Acute Illness. 98.3% of persons suffering from Acute Illness were taking treatment from any source (6.6% taking treatment from Government Source). Out of 100,000 person 5036 were having some kind of Symptoms of Chronic Illness of which 83.1% sought Medical Care. 139 out of 100,000 person were suffering from Diabetes. 418 out of 100,000 person were suffering from Hypertension. 234 out of 100,000 person were suffering from Tuberculosis. 578 out of 100,000 person were suffering from Asthma/Chronic Respiratory Diseases. 801 out of 100,000 person were suffering from Arthritis. 4964 out of 100,000 person were suffering from any kind of Chronic Illness of which 45.5% were getting Regular Treatment (20.3% getting Regular Treatment from Government Source).

text: As per

text: AHS 2010-11

text: , district's

text: effective literacy rate

text: was 67.6 (Rural - 66.5, Urban - 80.9) for males it stood at 77.1 (Rural - 76.4, Urban - 85.8) and for females it was 56.9 (Rural - 55.3, Urban - 75.3). Also, 1.518% of total population had some kind of disability and rate of severe injury was 188 per 100,000 person while rate of major injury was 122 per 100,000 person and rate of minor injury stood at 423 per 100,000 person. Out of 100,000 person 691 were suffering from

text: Diarrhoea

text: Dysentery

text: , 966 out of 100,000 person were suffering from

text: Acute Respiratory Infection

text: (ARI), out of 100,000 person 3,698 suffered from some kind of

text: Fever

text: , 5,592 out of 100,000 suffered from one or another type of Acute Illness. 98.3% of persons suffering from Acute Illness were taking treatment from any source (6.6% taking treatment from Government Source). Out of 100,000 person 5036 were having some kind of Symptoms of Chronic Illness of which 83.1% sought Medical Care. 139 out of 100,000 person were suffering from

text: Diabetes

text: . 418 out of 100,000 person were suffering from

text: Hypertension

text: . 234 out of 100,000 person were suffering from

text: Tuberculosis

text: . 578 out of 100,000 person were suffering from

text: Asthma

text: /Chronic Respiratory Diseases. 801 out of 100,000 person were suffering from

text: Arthritis

text: . 4964 out of 100,000 person were suffering from any kind of Chronic Illness of which 45.5% were getting Regular Treatment (20.3% getting Regular Treatment from Government Source).

text: The bacterium that causes TB is called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Inactive tuberculosis means that one can even unconsciously and unknowingly acquire the bacteria for tuberculosis within them but not even know about it because it is inactive. Whereas, active tuberculosis is the start of the bacteria developing, and the signs and symptoms begin to be visible. This is when tuberculosis is active within you, and is a serious issue leading to even more serious results. Although the TB bacteria can infect any organ (e.g., kidney, lymph nodes, bones, joints) in the body, the disease commonly occurs in the lungs. . Around 80% of all TB cases are related to pulmonary or lung.

text: The bacterium that causes TB is called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Inactive tuberculosis means that one can even unconsciously and unknowingly acquire the bacteria for tuberculosis within them but not even know about it because it is inactive. Whereas,

text: active tuberculosis

text: is the start of the bacteria developing, and the signs and symptoms begin to be visible. This is when tuberculosis is active within you, and is a serious issue leading to even more serious results. Although the TB bacteria can infect any organ (e.g., kidney, lymph nodes, bones, joints) in the body, the disease commonly occurs in the lungs. . Around 80% of all TB cases are related to pulmonary or lung.

text: A similar outbreak of a mysterious respiratory disease was reported among healthcare workers in Hong Kong.

text: The main cause of TB is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), a small, aerobic, nonmotile bacillus. The high lipid content of this pathogen accounts for many of its unique clinical characteristics. It divides every 16 to 20 hours, which is an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour. Mycobacteria have an outer membrane lipid bilayer. If a Gram stain is performed, MTB either stains very weakly "Gram-positive" or does not retain dye as a result of the high lipid and mycolic acid content of its cell wall. MTB can withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a host organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in the laboratory.

text: The main cause of TB is

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: (MTB), a small,

text: aerobic

text: , nonmotile

text: bacillus

text: . The high

text: lipid

text: content of this pathogen accounts for many of its unique clinical characteristics. It

text: divides

text: every 16 to 20 hours, which is an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour. Mycobacteria have an

text: outer membrane

text: lipid bilayer. If a

text: Gram stain

text: is performed, MTB either stains very weakly "Gram-positive" or does not retain dye as a result of the high lipid and

text: mycolic acid

text: content of its cell wall. MTB can withstand weak

text: disinfectant

text: s and survive in a

text: dry state

text: for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a

text: host

text: organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured

text: in the laboratory

text: Smoking during pregnancy can cause adverse health effects in both the woman and the fetus.  The 2008 US Guideline determined that "person-to-person psychosocial interventions" (typically including "intensive counseling") increased abstinence rates in pregnant women who smoke to 13.3%, compared with 7.6% in usual care. Mothers who smoke during pregnancy have a greater tendency towards premature births. Their babies are often underdeveloped,  have smaller organs, and weigh much less compared with the normal baby. In addition, these babies have worse immune systems, making them more susceptible to many diseases in early childhood, such as middle ear inflammations and asthmatic bronchitis which can bring about a lot of agony and suffering. As well, there is a high chance that they will become smokers themselves when grown up.

text: Smoking during pregnancy

text: can cause adverse health effects in both the woman and the fetus.  The 2008 US Guideline determined that "person-to-person psychosocial interventions" (typically including "intensive counseling") increased abstinence rates in pregnant women who smoke to 13.3%, compared with 7.6% in usual care. Mothers who smoke during pregnancy have a greater tendency towards premature births. Their babies are often underdeveloped,  have smaller organs, and weigh much less compared with the normal baby. In addition, these babies have worse immune systems, making them more susceptible to many diseases in early childhood, such as middle ear inflammations and asthmatic bronchitis which can bring about a lot of agony and suffering. As well, there is a high chance that they will become smokers themselves when grown up.

text: In 2011, respiratory disease with ventilator support accounted for 93.3% of ICU utilization in the United States.

text: Szczeklik's main research interest included: cardiopulmonary diseases, aspirin-induced asthma, chemical mediators in diseases of circulatory and respiratory systems with special reference to eicosanoids.

text: Szczeklik's main research interest included:

text: cardiopulmonary

text: diseases, aspirin-induced

text: asthma

text: , chemical mediators in diseases of

text: circulatory

text: and

text: respiratory system

text: s with special reference to

text: eicosanoid

text: s.

text: Asthma as a result of (or worsened by) workplace exposures, is a commonly reported occupational disease. Many cases however are not reported or recognized as such. It is estimated that 5–25% of asthma cases in adults are work–related. A few hundred different agents have been implicated with the most common being: isocyanates, grain and wood dust, colophony, soldering flux, latex, animals, and aldehydes. The employment associated with the highest risk of problems include: those who spray paint, bakers and those who process food, nurses, chemical workers, those who work with animals, welders, hairdressers and timber workers.

text: Asthma as a result of (or worsened by) workplace exposures, is a commonly reported

text: occupational disease

text: . Many cases however are not reported or recognized as such. It is estimated that 5–25% of asthma cases in adults are work–related. A few hundred different agents have been implicated with the most common being:

text: isocyanates

text: , grain and wood dust,

text: colophony

text: soldering flux

text: latex

text: , animals, and

text: aldehydes

text: . The employment associated with the highest risk of problems include: those who

text: spray paint

text: , bakers and those who process food, nurses, chemical workers, those who work with animals,

text: welders

text: , hairdressers and timber workers.

text: Tilmicosin is a macrolide antibiotic.  It is used in veterinary medicine for the treatment of bovine respiratory disease and bovine respiratory disease associated with Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica.

text: Tilmicosin is a

text: macrolide antibiotic

text: .  It is used in veterinary medicine for the treatment of

text: bovine respiratory disease

text: and

text: bovine respiratory disease

text: associated with Mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica.

text: Major causes of deaths in Finland are cardiovascular diseases, malignant tumors, dementia and alzheimers disease, respiratory diseases, alcohol related diseases and accidental poisoning by alcohol. In 2010 the leading causes of death among men aged 15 to 64 were alcohol related deaths, ischaemic heart disease, accident, suicides, lung cancer and cerbrovascular diseases. Among women the leading causes were breast cancer, alcohol related deaths, accidents, suicides, ischaemic heart disease and lung cancer.

text: A 20-year American Cancer Society study found that cumulative exposure also increases the likelihood of premature death from a respiratory disease, implying the 8-hour standard may be insufficient.

text: A 20-year

text: American Cancer Society

text: study found that cumulative exposure also increases the likelihood of premature death from a respiratory disease, implying the 8-hour standard may be insufficient.

text: Pneumonia affects approximately 450 million people globally (7% of the population) and results in about 4 million deaths per year. Pneumonia was regarded by William Osler in the 19th century as "the captain of the men of death". With the introduction of antibiotics and vaccines in the 20th century, survival improved. Nevertheless, in developing countries, and among the very old, the very young, and the chronically ill, pneumonia remains a leading cause of death. Pneumonia often shortens suffering among those already close to death and has thus been called "the old man's friend".

text: Pneumonia affects approximately 450 million people globally (7% of the population) and results in about 4 million deaths per year. Pneumonia was regarded by

text: William Osler

text: in the 19th century as "the captain of the men of death". With the introduction of antibiotics and vaccines in the 20th century, survival improved. Nevertheless, in developing countries, and among the very old, the very young, and the

text: chronically ill

text: , pneumonia remains a

text: leading cause of death

text: . Pneumonia often shortens suffering among those already close to death and has thus been called "the old man's friend".

text: Secondhand smoke is a major cause of disease and premature death, including lung cancer, heart disease, and respiratory problems in nonsmoking adults. According to the U.S. Surgeon General, there is no safe level of secondhand smoke exposure. Children exposed to secondhand smoke are at increased risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and are more susceptible to respiratory infections, asthma, and ear infections. One study showed that children who live in homes in which no one smokes inside have a 45% increase in cotinine levels if they live in multi-unit housing compared with detached homes, due to seepage through walls and shared ventilation systems.

text: Secondhand smoke is a major cause of disease and premature death, including lung cancer, heart disease, and respiratory problems in nonsmoking adults. According to the

text: U.S. Surgeon General

text: , there is no safe level of secondhand smoke exposure. Children exposed to secondhand smoke are at increased risk of

text: Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

text: (SIDS) and are more susceptible to respiratory infections, asthma, and ear infections. One study showed that children who live in homes in which no one smokes inside have a 45% increase in

text: cotinine

text: levels if they live in multi-unit housing compared with detached homes, due to seepage through walls and shared ventilation systems.

text: Plastic bronchitis (PB) is a disorder in which branching casts of the airways are expectorated.  PB has been previously identified by many names including fibrinous bronchitis, bronchitis pseudomembranosa, and Hoffmann bronchitis and is now uniformly termed plastic bronchitis.  PB is not a single disease with a defined mechanism that explains the cast formation in all conditions.  Examples of diseases associated with expectoration of casts, and which sometimes are labeled PB include tuberculosis, atypical mycobacterial disease, allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis and asthma.

text: Pneumonia has historically been characterized as either typical or atypical depending on the presenting symptoms and thus the presumed underlying organism. Attempting to make this distinction based on symptoms however has not been found to be accurate and The American Thoracic Society does not recommend it use.

text: Pneumonia has historically been characterized as either typical or

text: atypical

text: depending on the presenting symptoms and thus the presumed underlying organism. Attempting to make this distinction based on symptoms however has not been found to be accurate and

text: The American Thoracic Society

text: does not recommend it use.

text: Haiershen is a relatively recent addition to the Chung Yao Chi New Chinese Materia Medica (), having been officially added in 1959, based upon local and ethnic use. It is weaker than Panax ginseng. The herb is a mild adaptogen, demulcent, an immune tonic, nutritive, and a pectoral herb.  In Chinese terms it tonifies the yin.  Accordingly, the herb is restorative for lung damage due to excess heat or dryness including hot or dry asthma, pleurisy, bronchitis, bacterial pneumonia, wheezing, dry cough, and emphysema.  Scientific research shows that this Pseudostellaria aids in protecting the mucin layer that lines the respiratory tract and functions as an immune defense system. In the form Li Gan Zi Shen Tang (, "Regulate the Liver & Enrich the Kidneys Decoction") it is used to treat yin deficiency associated with diabetes mellitus. The polysaccharide fractions have in vitro anti-tumor properties. A lectin in the roots is being studied  for anti HIV purposes.

text: Haiershen is a relatively recent addition to the Chung Yao Chi New Chinese Materia Medica (), having been officially added in 1959, based upon local and ethnic use. It is weaker than

text: Panax ginseng

text: . The herb is a mild

text: adaptogen

text: demulcent

text: , an immune tonic,

text: nutritive

text: , and a

text: pectoral

text: herb.  In Chinese terms it tonifies the

text: yin

text: .  Accordingly, the herb is restorative for lung damage due to excess heat or dryness including hot or dry

text: asthma

text: pleurisy

text: bronchitis

text: bacterial pneumonia

text: wheezing

text: dry cough

text: , and

text: emphysema

text: .  Scientific research shows that this Pseudostellaria aids in protecting the mucin layer that lines the

text: respiratory tract

text: and functions as an immune defense system. In the form Li Gan Zi Shen Tang (, "Regulate the Liver & Enrich the Kidneys Decoction") it is used to treat yin deficiency associated with

text: diabetes mellitus

text: . The polysaccharide fractions have

text: in vitro

text: anti-tumor

text: properties. A

text: lectin

text: in the roots is being studied  for anti

text: HIV

text: purposes.

text: Ozone can damage the lungs, causing chest pain, coughing, shortness of breath and throat irritation. It can also worsen chronic respiratory diseases such as asthma and compromise the ability of the body to fight respiratory infections—even in healthy people. People who have asthma and allergy are most prone to the adverse effects of high levels of ozone. For example, increasing ozone concentrations to unsafe levels can increase the risk of asthma attacks.

text: 1950s: Intestinal ailments and respiratory diseases (including bronchitis, emphysema, asthma and pneumonia) cause roughly 3/4 of all infant deaths.

text: As measles and rubella cause upper respiratory disease that leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis which are also caused by varicella, MMR vaccine is beneficial to control exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma.

text: As measles and rubella cause upper respiratory disease that leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis which are also caused by varicella, MMR vaccine is beneficial to control exacerbations of

text: and

text: asthma

text: Asthma is a respiratory disease that can begin or worsen due to exposure at work and is characterized by episodic narrowing of the respiratory tract. Occupational asthma has a variety of causes, including sensitization to a specific substance, causing an allergic response; or a reaction to an irritant that is inhaled in the workplace. Exposure to various substances can also worsen pre-existing asthma. People who work in isocyanate manufacturing, who use latex gloves, or who work in an indoor office environment are at higher risk for occupational asthma than the average US worker. Approximately 2 million people in the US have occupational asthma.

text: Asthma

text: is a respiratory disease that can begin or worsen due to exposure at work and is characterized by episodic narrowing of the respiratory tract. Occupational asthma has a variety of causes, including

text: sensitization

text: to a specific substance, causing an

text: allergic response

text: ; or a reaction to an

text: irritant

text: that is inhaled in the workplace. Exposure to various substances can also worsen pre-existing asthma. People who work in

text: isocyanate

text: manufacturing, who use

text: latex glove

text: s, or who work in an indoor office environment are at higher risk for occupational asthma than the average US worker. Approximately 2 million people in the US have occupational asthma.

text: In metabolomics the IMS is used to detect lung cancer, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, Sarcoidosis, potential rejections after Lung transplantation and relations to bacteria within the lung, see Breath gas analysis.

text: In

text: metabolomics

text: the IMS is used to detect

text: lung cancer

text: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: Sarcoidosis

text: , potential rejections after

text: Lung transplantation

text: and relations to

text: bacteria

text: within the

text: lung

text: , see

text: Breath gas analysis

text: Pulmonary bronchial hygiene is used for preventing infections such as pneumonia.  It is also used in the management of conditions such as pneumonia and cystic fibrosis.  For people with chronic lung diseases, bronchial hygiene  is used to prevent infections and lung abscesses.  Bronchial hygiene is also used to prevent acute respiratory distress syndrome after chest trauma.

text: Pulmonary bronchial hygiene is used for preventing infections such as

text: pneumonia

text: .  It is also used in the management of conditions such as pneumonia and

text: cystic fibrosis

text: .  For people with chronic

text: lung disease

text: s, bronchial hygiene  is used to prevent infections and

text: lung abscess

text: es.  Bronchial hygiene is also used to prevent

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: after chest trauma.

text: The effects of particles on the respiratory system include de novo causation of clinical disease as well as exacerbation of existing disease. If particulate inhalation is to directly cause disease, the exposure levels typically must be at levels that are encountered in industrial settings. For example, silicosis is a well-known disease of persons working for years in conditions in which dust containing quartz is inhaled. Epidemiological studies show that ambient dust levels such as those that are encountered in some cities can exacerbate respiratory conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. At certain times, sand dust that originates in Asia or Arizona, for example, has been associated with exacerbation of allergenic respiratory inflammation.

text: General health maintenance should be the therapeutic emphasis in Freeman–Sheldon syndrome. The focus is on limiting exposure to infectious diseases because the musculoskeletal abnormalities make recovery from routine infections much more difficult in FSS. Pneumonitis and bronchitis often follow seemingly mild upper respiratory tract infections. Though respiratory challenges and complications faced by a patient with FSS can be numerous, the syndrome’s primary involvement is limited to the musculoskeletal systems, and satisfactory quality and length of life can be expected with proper care.

text: General health maintenance should be the therapeutic emphasis in Freeman–Sheldon syndrome. The focus is on limiting exposure to

text: infectious disease

text: s because the musculoskeletal abnormalities make recovery from routine infections much more difficult in FSS.

text: Pneumonitis

text: and

text: bronchitis

text: often follow seemingly mild

text: upper respiratory tract infection

text: s. Though respiratory challenges and complications faced by a patient with FSS can be numerous, the syndrome’s primary involvement is limited to the musculoskeletal systems, and satisfactory quality and length of life can be expected with proper care.

text: CIP2A is over-expressed in several common human malignancies including, human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC),  colon cancer, gastric cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer. Notably, in these cancer types CIP2A over-expression is observed with very high frequency;  in breast cancer around 40% of cancer patients are over-expressing CIP2A whereas in all other studied cancer types the frequency is between 65-87 percent. In breast cancer CIP2A expression correlates with disease aggressivity whereas in gastric and lung cancer CIP2A expression predicts for poor patient survival. To date high CIP2A expression has been observed to predict poor patient prognosis in more than dozen human cancer types, which makes it one of the most frequently altered human oncoprotein with clinical relevance.

text: CIP2A is over-expressed in several common human malignancies including, human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (

text: HNSCC

text: ),  colon cancer, gastric cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer and lung cancer. Notably, in these cancer types CIP2A over-expression is observed with very high frequency;  in breast cancer around 40% of cancer patients are over-expressing CIP2A whereas in all other studied cancer types the frequency is between 65-87 percent. In breast cancer CIP2A expression correlates with disease aggressivity whereas in gastric and lung cancer CIP2A expression predicts for poor patient survival. To date high CIP2A expression has been observed to predict poor patient prognosis in more than dozen human cancer types, which makes it one of the most frequently altered human oncoprotein with clinical relevance.

text: Bronchospasm are caused by a number of reasons. Lower respiratory tract conditions such as pneumonia, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and emphysema can result in contraction of the airways. Other causes are side effects of topical decongestants such as oxymetazoline and phenylephrine. Both of these medications activate alpha-1 adrenergic receptors that result in smooth muscle constriction. Non-selective beta blockers are known to facilitate bronchospasm as well. Beta blockers bind into the β2 receptors and block the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine from binding to its receptors, causing shortness of breath.

text: Bronchospasm are caused by a number of reasons. Lower respiratory tract conditions such as

text: pneumonia

text: asthma

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD), and

text: emphysema

text: can result in contraction of the airways. Other causes are side effects of topical decongestants such as

text: oxymetazoline

text: and

text: phenylephrine

text: . Both of these medications activate alpha-1 adrenergic receptors that result in smooth muscle constriction. Non-selective

text: beta blockers

text: are known to facilitate bronchospasm as well. Beta blockers bind into the β2 receptors and block the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine from binding to its receptors, causing shortness of breath.

text: Viswanathan was credited with pioneering research in bronchopulmonary diseases and was reported to be the first researcher to propose tropical eosinophilia as a distinct clinical entity in 1936. His studies of autopsy reports of the patients died of tropical eosinophilia helped to define the pathology of the disease for the first time and established positive leucocyte adhesion phenomenon with M. bancrofit. He developed a novel bronchography technique and made innovations in tomography procedures. His researches also covered several other diseases such as cerebral malaria, basal tuberculosis, lung atelectasis, bronchiectasis, emphysema, bagassosis, byssinosis, and high altitude pulmonary oedema, among others. He published seven books  which included Pulmonary Tuberculosis, Diseases of the Chest, Medical Problems of Old Age and more than 230 medical articles in peer reviewed journals, Epidemiology, Infectious hepatitis in Delhi (1955-56): a critical study-epidemiology and A review of the literature on the epidemiology of infectious hepatitis being some of the notable ones; his articles and books have been cited in several medical journals and text books, too. He also founded a medical journal, the Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences (IJCDAS) in 1959 as the publishing arm of Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute.

text: Viswanathan was credited with pioneering research in bronchopulmonary diseases and was reported to be the first researcher to propose

text: tropical eosinophilia

text: as a distinct clinical entity in 1936. His studies of autopsy reports of the patients died of tropical eosinophilia helped to define the pathology of the disease for the first time and established positive leucocyte adhesion phenomenon with M. bancrofit. He developed a novel

text: bronchography

text: technique and made innovations in

text: tomography

text: procedures. His researches also covered several other diseases such as

text: cerebral malaria

text: , basal

text: tuberculosis

text: , lung

text: atelectasis

text: bronchiectasis

text: emphysema

text: bagassosis

text: byssinosis

text: , and high altitude

text: pulmonary oedema

text: , among others. He published seven books  which included Pulmonary Tuberculosis, Diseases of the Chest, Medical Problems of Old Age and more than 230 medical articles in peer reviewed journals, Epidemiology, Infectious hepatitis in Delhi (1955-56): a critical study-epidemiology and A review of the literature on the epidemiology of infectious hepatitis being some of the notable ones; his articles and books have been cited in several medical journals and text books, too. He also founded a medical journal, the Indian Journal of Chest Diseases and Allied Sciences (IJCDAS) in 1959 as the publishing arm of

text: Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute

text: The World Health Organization recommends vaccinating against measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), and varicella (chickenpox) because the risks of these diseases far outweigh the risks of vaccinating against them. In particular, the World Health Organization recommends varicella vaccination in countries where the vaccine is affordable, the disease is a relatively important problem, and high and sustained coverage can be achieved. The U.S. and a few other countries have widely implemented this. MMR and varicella vaccine are given at roughly the same time and a booster injection is recommended for both. The MMRV vaccine, a combined MMR and varicella vaccine, simplifies administration of the vaccines. As measles and rubella cause upper respiratory disease that leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis which are also caused by varicella, MMR vaccine is beneficial to reduce exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma.

text: The

text: World Health Organization

text: recommends vaccinating against

text: measles

text: mumps

text: rubella (German measles)

text: , and

text: varicella (chickenpox)

text: because the risks of these diseases far outweigh the risks of vaccinating against them. In particular, the World Health Organization recommends

text: varicella vaccination

text: in countries where the vaccine is affordable, the disease is a relatively important problem, and high and sustained coverage can be achieved. The U.S. and a few other countries have widely implemented this. MMR and varicella vaccine are given at roughly the same time and a booster injection is recommended for both. The MMRV vaccine, a combined MMR and varicella vaccine, simplifies administration of the vaccines. As measles and rubella cause upper respiratory disease that leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis which are also caused by varicella, MMR vaccine is beneficial to reduce exacerbations of

text: and

text: asthma

text: Several diseases can present with similar signs and symptoms to pneumonia, such as: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, pulmonary edema, bronchiectasis, lung cancer, and pulmonary emboli. Unlike pneumonia, asthma and COPD typically present with wheezing, pulmonary edema presents with an abnormal electrocardiogram, cancer and bronchiectasis present with a cough of longer duration, and pulmonary emboli presents with acute onset sharp chest pain and shortness of breath.

text: Several diseases can present with similar signs and symptoms to pneumonia, such as:

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD),

text: asthma

text: pulmonary edema

text: bronchiectasis

text: lung cancer

text: , and

text: pulmonary emboli

text: . Unlike pneumonia, asthma and COPD typically present with

text: wheezing

text: , pulmonary edema presents with an abnormal

text: electrocardiogram

text: , cancer and bronchiectasis present with a cough of longer duration, and pulmonary emboli presents with acute onset sharp chest pain and

text: shortness of breath

text: In 2010, environmental groups criticized the Ex-Im Bank Directors for approving $917 million worth of financing for the 3,960 megawatt coal-fired Sasan Ultra Mega Power Project in India after initially rejecting the project on climate change grounds. Environmental groups say that in reversing the decision the agency's Chairman, Fred Hochberg and Board of Directors "caved in" to political pressure from Wisconsin politicians. In 2011, several environmental groups protested at Export–Import Bank headquarters, unsuccessfully urging Chairman Hochberg and Board of Directors to reject $805 million in financing for the 4,800 megawatt Kusile coal-fired power plant in South Africa, which environmental groups say is the largest carbon emitting project in the agency's history, which will not alleviate poverty but will emit excessive local air pollution, which health experts say causes damage the respiratory, cardiovascular, and nervous systems and deaths resulting from heart disease, cancer, stroke, and chronic lower respiratory diseases.

text: In 2010, environmental groups criticized the Ex-Im Bank Directors for approving $917 million worth of financing for the 3,960 megawatt coal-fired

text: Sasan Ultra Mega Power Project

text: in India after initially rejecting the project on climate change grounds. Environmental groups say that in reversing the decision the agency's Chairman, Fred Hochberg and Board of Directors "caved in" to political pressure from Wisconsin politicians. In 2011, several environmental groups protested at Export–Import Bank headquarters, unsuccessfully urging Chairman Hochberg and Board of Directors to reject $805 million in financing for the 4,800 megawatt Kusile coal-fired power plant in

text: South Africa

text: , which environmental groups say is the largest carbon emitting project in the agency's history, which will not alleviate poverty but will emit excessive local air pollution, which health experts say causes damage the respiratory, cardiovascular, and nervous systems and deaths resulting from heart disease, cancer, stroke, and chronic lower respiratory diseases.

text: People with silicosis have an approximately 30-fold greater risk for developing TB. Silica particles irritate the respiratory system, causing immunogenic responses such as phagocytosis, which results in high lymphatic vessel deposits. It is probably this interference and blockage of macrophage function that increases the risk of tuberculosis. Persons with chronic renal failure and also on hemodialysis have an increased risk.Given that silicosis greatly increases the risk of tuberculosis, more research about the effect of various indoor or outdoor air pollutants on the disease would be necessary. Some possible indoor sources of silica include paint, concrete, and Portland cement. Crystalline silica is found in concrete, masonry, sandstone, rock, paint, and other abrasives. The cutting, breaking, crushing, drilling, grinding, or abrasive blasting of these materials may produce fine silica dust. It can also be in soil, mortar, plaster, and shingles.

text: People with

text: silicosis

text: have an approximately 30-fold greater risk for developing TB. Silica particles irritate the respiratory system, causing immunogenic responses such as

text: phagocytosis

text: , which results in high lymphatic vessel deposits. It is probably this interference and blockage of

text: macrophage

text: function that increases the risk of tuberculosis. Persons with chronic renal failure and also on hemodialysis have an increased risk.Given that silicosis greatly increases the risk of tuberculosis, more research about the effect of various indoor or outdoor air pollutants on the disease would be necessary. Some possible indoor sources of silica include paint,

text: concrete

text: , and

text: Portland cement

text: . Crystalline silica is found in concrete, masonry, sandstone, rock, paint, and other abrasives. The cutting, breaking, crushing, drilling, grinding, or abrasive blasting of these materials may produce fine silica dust. It can also be in soil, mortar, plaster, and shingles.

text: Stough went on to work with emphysema patients at the Philadelphia Naval Hospital and, when the doctors he was associated with were moved, he followed them to the largest military hospital on the East coast, St. Alban's in New York City. There, the medical staff felt that Stough must have been changing the diaphragm and this led to the first images of a moving diaphragm with a then relatively new technology called fluoroscopy. Those films showed that it was possible to redevelop the movement of the diaphragm inside the rib cage, increasing the amount of used air being exhaled, and creating more space for fresh oxygen to be absorbed by the lungs.Stough also worked at the Veteran's Administration Medical Center in West Haven, Connecticut, which was the largest hospital for patients with respiratory diseases on the East Coast at the time. There he met Dr. Robert Nimbs, then the chief of pulmonary medicine, who later said about Stough:

text: Stough went on to work with emphysema patients at the Philadelphia Naval Hospital and, when the doctors he was associated with were moved, he followed them to the largest military hospital on the East coast, St. Alban's in New York City. There, the medical staff felt that Stough must have been changing the diaphragm and this led to the first images of a moving diaphragm with a then relatively new technology called

text: fluoroscopy

text: . Those films showed that it was possible to redevelop the movement of the diaphragm inside the rib cage, increasing the amount of used air being exhaled, and creating more space for fresh oxygen to be absorbed by the lungs.Stough also worked at the Veteran's Administration Medical Center in West Haven, Connecticut, which was the largest hospital for patients with respiratory diseases on the East Coast at the time. There he met Dr. Robert Nimbs, then the chief of

text: pulmonary medicine

text: , who later said about Stough:

text: Johnny Boy died of Emphysema in late 1986 at the age of 62. Not long before his death, he saw the incarceration of many of his fellow DiMeo family associates due to Fabian "Febby" Petrulio becoming a government witness; it is stated that he never recovered from the news of Febby's betrayal and it may have hastened his demise.

text: Jean Baker Miller died on July 29, 2006, at the age of 78 due to respiratory failure caused by emphysema and post-polio complications.

text: Jean Baker Miller died on July 29, 2006, at the age of 78 due to respiratory failure caused by

text: emphysema

text: and post-polio complications.

text: He held foreign (Denmark, France) scientific internships mainly in the field of functional tests and rehabilitation of the respiratory system. He was an honorary member of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease located in Paris. In Poland, he received an honorary membership of the Polish Physiatry and Pulmonology Association. Kuczborski published 70 works, mainly on tuberculosis (TB) chemotherapy, physiopathology of breathing, rehabilitation and intensive care of the respiratory system diseases.

text: Approximately 98% of lung cancers are carcinoma, a term describing malignancies derived from transformed cells exhibiting characteristics of epithelium. About 2% of all lung cancers are non-carcinoma (mainly sarcoma, tumors of hematopoietic origin, or germ cell tumors.<ref name='TravisTravis'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Travis WD, Travis LB, Devesa SS |title=Lung cancer |journal=Cancer |volume=75 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=191–202 |date=January 1995 |pmid=8000996 |doi= 10.1002/1097-0142(19950101)75:1+

text: Approximately 98% of lung cancers are

text: carcinoma

text: , a term describing malignancies derived from transformed cells exhibiting characteristics of

text: epithelium

text: . About 2% of all lung cancers are non-carcinoma (mainly

text: sarcoma

text: , tumors of

text: hematopoietic

text: origin, or

text: germ cell

text: tumors.<ref name='TravisTravis'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Travis WD, Travis LB, Devesa SS |title=Lung cancer |journal=

text: Cancer

text: |volume=75 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=191–202 |date=January 1995 |pmid=8000996 |doi= 10.1002/1097-0142(19950101)75:1+

text: Xiyanping (喜炎平) is an anti-inflammatory and antiviral preparation developed and licensed for use in China. It is a semi-synthetic injectable product derived from the active component of the plant Andrographis paniculata (Chuan Xin Lian, 穿心蓮), which is used in Traditional Chinese medicine. Xiyanping is primarily composed of 9-dehydro-17-hydro-andrographolide and sodium 9-dehydro-17-hydro-andrographolide-19-yl sulfate. It is used mainly in the treatment of hand, foot and mouth disease, diarrhea, upper respiratory tract infections and viral pneumonia, though one case report suggested it may also be useful in the treatment of Zika fever.

text: Xiyanping (喜炎平) is an

text: anti-inflammatory

text: and

text: antiviral

text: preparation developed and licensed for use in

text: China

text: . It is a

text: semi-synthetic

text: injectable product derived from the active component of the plant

text: Andrographis paniculata

text: (Chuan Xin Lian, 穿心蓮), which is used in

text: Traditional Chinese medicine

text: . Xiyanping is primarily composed of 9-dehydro-17-hydro-andrographolide and sodium 9-dehydro-17-hydro-andrographolide-19-yl sulfate. It is used mainly in the treatment of

text: hand, foot and mouth disease

text: diarrhea

text: upper respiratory tract infection

text: s and

text: viral pneumonia

text: , though one case report suggested it may also be useful in the treatment of

text: Zika fever

text: Spirometry is used to measure lung function.  The total lung capacity (TLC), functional residual capacity (FRC), residual volume (RV), and vital capacity (VC) are all values that can be tested using this method.  Spirometry is used to help detect, but not diagnose, respiratory issues like COPD, and asthma.  It is a simple and cost effective screening method. Further evaluation of a person's respiratory function can be done by assessing the minute ventilation, forced vital capacity (FVC), and forced expiratory volume (FEV). These values differ in men and women because men tend to be larger than women.

text: Spirometry

text: is used to measure lung function.  The

text: total lung capacity

text: (TLC),

text: functional residual capacity

text: (FRC),

text: residual volume

text: (RV), and

text: vital capacity

text: (VC) are all values that can be tested using this method.  Spirometry is used to help detect, but not diagnose, respiratory issues like

text: COPD

text: , and asthma.  It is a simple and cost effective screening method. Further evaluation of a person's respiratory function can be done by assessing the

text: minute ventilation

text: forced vital capacity

text: (FVC), and

text: forced expiratory volume

text: (FEV). These values differ in men and women because men tend to be larger than women.

text: Tuberculosis, cardiopathies, vascular diseases, diseases of the hematopoietic system (some forms of anemia), kidney diseases, hepatic and pancreatic diseases, gastro-intestinal diseases, pregnancy-related chorea, myasthenia gravis, tumors, all these diseases are claimed to be motives for indications.

text: PIR insulation can be a mechanical irritant to skin, eyes, and upper respiratory system during fabrication (such as dust).  No statistically significant increased risks of respiratory diseases have been found in studies

text: A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of Southern California reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. Prematurity in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing Infant respiratory distress syndrome, gastrointestinal, and hematologic diseases, central nervous system (CNS) problems such as hearing loss, are more prone to infections, and at risk for hearing and vision loss.

text: A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of Southern California reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. Prematurity in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing

text: Infant respiratory distress syndrome

text: , gastrointestinal, and hematologic diseases, central nervous system (CNS) problems such as hearing loss, are more prone to infections, and at risk for hearing and vision loss.

text: Evidence suggests that the decline in lung function observed in chronic bronchitis may be slowed with smoking cessation. Chronic bronchitis is treated symptomatically and may be treated in a nonpharmacologic manner or with pharmacologic therapeutic agents. Typical nonpharmacologic approaches to the management of COPD including bronchitis may include: pulmonary rehabilitation, lung volume reduction surgery, and lung transplantation. Inflammation and edema of the respiratory epithelium may be reduced with inhaled corticosteroids. Wheezing and shortness of breath can be treated by reducing bronchospasm (reversible narrowing of smaller bronchi due to constriction of the smooth muscle)  with bronchodilators such as inhaled long acting β-adrenergic receptor agonists (e.g., salmeterol) and inhaled anticholinergics such as ipratropium bromide or tiotropium bromide. Mucolytics may have a small therapeutic effect on acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Supplemental oxygen is used to treat hypoxemia (too little oxygen in the blood) and has been shown to reduce mortality in chronic bronchitis patients. Oxygen supplementation can result in decreased respiratory drive, leading to increased blood levels of carbon dioxide (hypercapnea) and subsequent respiratory acidosis.

text: Evidence suggests that the decline in lung function observed in chronic bronchitis may be slowed with smoking cessation. Chronic bronchitis is treated symptomatically and may be treated in a nonpharmacologic manner or with pharmacologic therapeutic agents. Typical nonpharmacologic approaches to the management of COPD including bronchitis may include:

text: pulmonary rehabilitation

text: lung volume reduction surgery

text: , and

text: lung transplantation

text: . Inflammation and edema of the respiratory epithelium may be reduced with inhaled

text: corticosteroid

text: s. Wheezing and shortness of breath can be treated by reducing

text: bronchospasm

text: (reversible narrowing of smaller bronchi due to constriction of the

text: smooth muscle

text: )  with

text: bronchodilator

text: s such as inhaled

text: long acting β-adrenergic receptor agonist

text: s (e.g.,

text: salmeterol

text: ) and inhaled

text: anticholinergic

text: s such as

text: ipratropium bromide

text: or

text: tiotropium bromide

text: Mucolytics

text: may have a small therapeutic effect on acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis.

text: Supplemental oxygen

text: is used to treat

text: hypoxemia

text: (too little oxygen in the blood) and has been shown to reduce mortality in chronic bronchitis patients. Oxygen supplementation can result in decreased

text: respiratory drive

text: , leading to increased blood levels of

text: carbon dioxide

text: hypercapnea

text: ) and subsequent

text: respiratory acidosis

text: Chronic care refers to medical care which addresses pre-existing or long term illness, as opposed to acute care which is concerned with short term or severe illness of brief duration. Chronic medical conditions include asthma, diabetes, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, congestive heart disease, cirrhosis of the liver, hypertension and depression. Without effective treatment chronic conditions may lead to disability.

text: Chronic care refers to

text: medical care

text: which addresses pre-existing or long term illness, as opposed to

text: acute care

text: which is concerned with short term or severe illness of brief duration.

text: Chronic medical conditions

text: include

text: asthma

text: diabetes

text: emphysema

text: , chronic

text: bronchitis

text: , congestive heart disease,

text: cirrhosis of the liver

text: hypertension

text: and

text: depression

text: . Without effective treatment chronic conditions may lead to

text: disability

text: The term pneumonia is sometimes more broadly applied to any condition resulting in inflammation of the lungs (caused for example by autoimmune diseases, chemical burns or drug reactions); however, this inflammation is more accurately referred to as pneumonitis.

text: The term pneumonia is sometimes more broadly applied to any condition resulting in

text: inflammation

text: of the lungs (caused for example by

text: autoimmune disease

text: s, chemical burns or drug reactions); however, this inflammation is more accurately referred to as

text: pneumonitis

text: The DTG was dissolved in 1945, and congresses resumed only in 1947 after the Society was re-established under the chairmanship of Franz Ickert (1883-1954).Renewed rampant tuberculosis dominated the work of the DTG in the postwar period. Despite different approaches, the prevalence of the disease followed a similar pattern in both German states. Whereas the German Democratic Republic (GDR) sought to combat tuberculosis through statewide centralized preventive measures (BCG vaccination and serial x-ray screening), the Federal Republic of Germany achieved dramatic results with the early use of new tuberculosis antibiotics. As tuberculosis rates fell in both German states in the 1950s, sanatoria were gradually replaced by special chest hospitals that focused on diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema (COPD), interstitial lung disease and general environmental and occupational lung diseases.This evolution in developments is reflected in changes in the names of the two scientific respiratory societies in East and West Germany. Initially, the names contained only the term tuberculosis; lung disease was added in the early 1960s, and finally the terms "respiratory diseases and tuberculosis" (1980 West) and "bronchopulmonary diseases and tuberculosis" (1976 East), respectively.

text: The DTG was dissolved in 1945, and congresses resumed only in 1947 after the Society was re-established under the chairmanship of Franz Ickert (1883-1954).Renewed rampant tuberculosis dominated the work of the DTG in the

text: postwar period

text: . Despite different approaches, the

text: prevalence

text: of the disease followed a similar pattern in both German states. Whereas the

text: German Democratic Republic

text: (GDR) sought to combat tuberculosis through

text: statewide centralized preventive measures

text: BCG vaccination

text: and

text: serial x-ray screening

text: ), the

text: Federal Republic of Germany

text: achieved dramatic results with the early use of new tuberculosis

text: antibiotics

text: . As tuberculosis rates fell in both German states in the 1950s, sanatoria were gradually replaced by special chest hospitals that focused on diseases such as

text: lung cancer

text: asthma

text: chronic bronchitis

text: and

text: emphysema

text: (COPD),

text: interstitial lung disease

text: and general environmental and occupational lung diseases.This evolution in developments is reflected in changes in the names of the two scientific respiratory societies in East and West Germany. Initially, the names contained only the term tuberculosis; lung disease was added in the early 1960s, and finally the terms "

text: respiratory diseases

text: and tuberculosis" (1980 West) and "bronchopulmonary diseases and tuberculosis" (1976 East), respectively.

text: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is a respiratory disease that can encompass chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema. 15% of the cases of COPD in the United States can be attributed to occupational exposure, including exposure to silica and coal dust. People who work in mining, construction, manufacturing (specifically textiles, rubber, plastic, and leather), building, and utilities are at higher risk for COPD than the average US worker.

text: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: is a respiratory disease that can encompass chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema. 15% of the cases of COPD in the United States can be attributed to occupational exposure, including exposure to

text: silica

text: and

text: coal dust

text: . People who work in mining, construction, manufacturing (specifically textiles, rubber, plastic, and leather), building, and utilities are at higher risk for COPD than the average US worker.

text: The use of soil conservation practices such as crop rotation, cover crops, and windbreaks was expanded following the drought experiences of the dirty thirties. Literally layers and layers of topsoil would be blowing away during this time. Bow River Irrigation Project, Red Deer River Project and the St. Mary Irrigation project of Alberta, were a few of the major projects undertaken by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act (P.F.R.A.) resulting in reservoirs, and distribution systems. A current project is soil liming at the Land Resource Research Institute.Wheat diseases such as wheat bunt and stinking smut can be successfully treated with a fungicide.Disease of plants and animals can break an agricultural producer.  Tuberculosis in animals was an early threat, and cattle needed to be tested, and areas accredited in 1956. The newer disease such as chronic wasting disease or transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) affects both elk and deer. Elk and deer raising is a pioneer field of domestication, has had a setback with this disease. Mad cow disease in cattle  and scrapie of sheep are monitored by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency. The poultry sector was plagued by Pullorum disease, and by controlling the flock via poultry husbandry, this disease has been brought under control.

text: The use of

text: soil conservation

text: practices such as

text: crop rotation

text: , cover crops, and windbreaks was expanded following the drought experiences of the dirty thirties. Literally layers and layers of topsoil would be blowing away during this time.

text: Bow River

text: Irrigation Project,

text: Red Deer River

text: Project and the St. Mary Irrigation project of Alberta, were a few of the major projects undertaken by the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act (P.F.R.A.) resulting in reservoirs, and distribution systems. A current project is

text: soil liming

text: at the Land Resource Research Institute.Wheat diseases such as wheat bunt and

text: stinking smut

text: can be successfully treated with a fungicide.Disease of plants and animals can break an agricultural producer.

text: Tuberculosis

text: in animals was an early threat, and cattle needed to be tested, and areas accredited in 1956. The newer disease such as

text: chronic wasting disease

text: or

text: transmissible spongiform encephalopathy

text: (TSE) affects both elk and deer. Elk and deer raising is a pioneer field of domestication, has had a setback with this disease.

text: Mad cow disease

text: in cattle  and

text: scrapie

text: of sheep are monitored by the

text: Canadian Food Inspection Agency

text: . The poultry sector was plagued by Pullorum disease, and by controlling the flock via poultry husbandry, this disease has been brought under control.

text: Public Health England and Mr Mark Woodlock have stressed that if any current or former student experiences any symptoms of tuberculosis, immediate medical advice should be sought. This includes a dry or mucousy cough lasting three weeks or more, rapid and unexplained weight loss, night sweats, chest pain whilst breathing, fatigue, blood in sputum and chills. Young children, the elderly, those who are immunocompromised, those who are from a high risk background or have recently visited a country where TB rates are high and those that have had previous or current lung or respiratory diseases are also at very high risk and should immediately seek medical advice if they experience any symptoms of tuberculosis.

text: Public Health England

text: and Mr Mark Woodlock have stressed that if any current or former student experiences any symptoms of

text: tuberculosis

text: , immediate medical advice should be sought. This includes a dry or mucousy cough lasting three weeks or more, rapid and unexplained weight loss, night sweats, chest pain whilst breathing, fatigue, blood in sputum and chills. Young children, the elderly, those who are immunocompromised, those who are from a high risk background or have recently visited a country where TB rates are high and those that have had previous or current lung or respiratory diseases are also at very high risk and should immediately seek medical advice if they experience any symptoms of

text: tuberculosis

text: The true impact of the study is difficult to gauge, as smoking was not considered a public health problem in the 1950s, and the appreciation of the problem would only grow in the ensuing decades. Nevertheless, the British Doctors' Study was to provide conclusive evidence of linkage between smoking and lung cancer, myocardial infarction, respiratory disease and other smoking-related illnesses.

text: Parasitic pneumonia is an infection of the lungs by parasites. It is a rare cause of pneumonia, occurring almost exclusively in immunocompromised persons (persons with a weakened or absent immune system). This is a respiratory infection that may or may not be serious.

text: Parasitic pneumonia is an infection of the lungs by

text: parasite

text: s. It is a rare cause of

text: pneumonia

text: , occurring almost exclusively in

text: immunocompromised

text: persons (persons with a weakened or absent

text: immune system

text: ). This is a respiratory infection that may or may not be serious.

text: Johnson also served on the board of directors for the Newfoundland Tuberculosis and Respiratory Association and the Association for the Help of Retarded Children. In 1980 he was made a life member of the CAHA and in 1982 was inducted into the Newfoundland Sports Hall of Fame. He also was a sports columnist for the Evening Telegram.

text: Johnson also served on the board of directors for the

text: Newfoundland Tuberculosis and Respiratory Association

text: and the

text: Association for the Help of Retarded Children

text: . In 1980 he was made a life member of the CAHA and in 1982 was inducted into the

text: Newfoundland Sports Hall of Fame

text: . He also was a sports columnist for the

text: Evening Telegram

text: Studies show that cats between the ages of two and eight years have the greatest risk of developing a respiratory disease. As well as Siamese and Himalayan breeds and breed mixes seem to be most prone to asthma. Some studies also indicate that more female cats seem to be affected by asthma than male cats.

text: Studies show that cats between the ages of two and eight years have the greatest risk of developing a respiratory disease. As well as Siamese and Himalayan breeds and

text: breed

text: mixes seem to be most prone to asthma. Some studies also indicate that more female cats seem to be affected by asthma than male cats.

text: The bacterium is found naturally in fresh water. It can contaminate hot water tanks, hot tubs, and cooling towers of large air conditioners. It is usually spread by breathing in mist that contains the bacteria. It can also occur when contaminated water is aspirated. It typically does not spread directly between people and most people who are exposed do not become infected. Risk factors for infection include older age, history of smoking, chronic lung disease, and poor immune function. It is recommended that those with severe pneumonia and those with pneumonia and a recent travel history be tested for the disease. Diagnosis is by a urinary antigen test and sputum culture.

text: The bacterium is found naturally in

text: fresh water

text: . It can contaminate hot water tanks, hot tubs, and

text: cooling towers

text: of large

text: air conditioner

text: s. It is usually spread by breathing in mist that contains the bacteria. It can also occur when contaminated water is

text: aspirated

text: . It typically does not spread directly between people and most people who are exposed do not become infected. Risk factors for infection include older age, history of smoking,

text: chronic lung disease

text: , and

text: poor immune function

text: . It is recommended that those with severe pneumonia and those with pneumonia and a recent travel history be tested for the disease. Diagnosis is by a urinary

text: antigen test

text: and

text: sputum culture

text: Meningococcus if spread from person to person through the exchange of respiratory and throat secretions such as spit. It is not spread by causal contact or by simply breathing the air where a person with the disease has been. People who are in close contact with someone who has the disease are at increased risk of infection. In the case of infection, these people are contacted to receive prophylaxis which is when a person is treated with antibiotics to prevent infection from the disease.

text: The fungus is a medicinal mushroom which is highly prized by practitioners of Tibetan medicine, Chinese medicine and traditional folk medicines, in which it is used as a treatment for a variety of ailments; as a reputed curative for many diseases, anti-aging, hypoglycemic, aphrodisiac and also treatment against cancer. It has also been used to stimulate the immune system, and to treat kidney and lung problems, fatigue, respiratory disease, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, asthenia after severe illness, arrhythmias and other heart diseases and liver disease.

text: The fungus is a

text: medicinal mushroom

text: which is highly prized by practitioners of

text: Tibetan medicine

text: , Chinese medicine and traditional folk medicines, in which it is used as a treatment for a variety of ailments; as a reputed curative for many diseases, anti-aging, hypoglycemic, aphrodisiac and also treatment against cancer. It has also been used to stimulate the immune system, and to treat kidney and lung problems, fatigue, respiratory disease, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, asthenia after severe illness, arrhythmias and other heart diseases and liver disease.

text: Feline asthma and other respiratory diseases may be prevented by cat owners by eliminating as many allergens as possible. Allergens that can be found in a cat’s habitual environment include: pollen, molds, dust from cat litter, perfumes, room fresheners, carpet deodorizers, hairspray, aerosol cleaners, cigarette smoke, and some foods. Avoid using cat litters that create lots of dust, scented cat litters or litter additives.  Of course eliminating all of these can be very difficult and unnecessary, especially since a cat is only affected by one or two. It can be very challenging to find the allergen that is creating asthmatic symptoms in a particular cat and requires a lot of work on both the owner’s and the veterinarian's part. But just like any disease, the severity of an asthma attack can be propelled by more than just the allergens, common factors include: obesity, stress, parasites and pre-existing heart conditions.  Dry air encourages asthma attacks so keep a good humidifier going especially during winter months.

text: Feline asthma and other respiratory diseases may be prevented by cat owners by eliminating as many

text: allergen

text: s as possible. Allergens that can be found in a cat’s habitual environment include:

text: pollen

text: mold

text: s, dust from cat litter, perfumes, room fresheners, carpet deodorizers, hairspray, aerosol cleaners, cigarette smoke, and some foods. Avoid using cat litters that create lots of dust, scented cat litters or litter additives.  Of course eliminating all of these can be very difficult and unnecessary, especially since a cat is only affected by one or two. It can be very challenging to find the allergen that is creating asthmatic symptoms in a particular cat and requires a lot of work on both the owner’s and the veterinarian's part. But just like any disease, the severity of an asthma attack can be propelled by more than just the allergens, common factors include:

text: obesity

text: stress

text: parasites

text: and pre-existing heart conditions.  Dry air encourages asthma attacks so keep a good humidifier going especially during winter months.

text: As its name implies, heartsease has a long history of use in herbalism. It has been recommended, among other uses, for epilepsy, asthma, skin diseases and eczema. V. tricolor has a history in folk medicine of helping respiratory problems such as bronchitis, asthma, and cold symptoms. It has expectorant properties, and so has been used in the treatment of chest complaints such as bronchitis and whooping cough. It is also a diuretic, leading to its use in treating rheumatism and cystitis.

text: As its name implies, heartsease has a long history of use in

text: herbalism

text: . It has been recommended, among other uses, for epilepsy, asthma, skin diseases and eczema. V. tricolor has a history in

text: folk medicine

text: of helping respiratory problems such as bronchitis, asthma, and cold symptoms. It has expectorant properties, and so has been used in the treatment of chest complaints such as bronchitis and whooping cough. It is also a

text: diuretic

text: , leading to its use in treating rheumatism and cystitis.

text: The human body can adapt to high altitude through both immediate and long-term acclimatization. At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the carotid bodies, which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (hyperpnea). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of respiratory alkalosis, inhibiting the respiratory center from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.

text: The human body can adapt to high altitude through both immediate and long-term acclimatization. At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the

text: carotid bodies

text: , which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (

text: hyperpnea

text: ). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: , inhibiting the

text: respiratory center

text: from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.

text: Acute bronchitis can be caused by contagious pathogens, most commonly viruses. Typical viruses include respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus, influenza, and others. Bacteria are uncommon pathogens but may include Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Bordetella pertussis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenzae.

text: Acute bronchitis can be caused by contagious

text: pathogen

text: s, most commonly viruses. Typical viruses include

text: respiratory syncytial virus

text: rhinovirus

text: influenza

text: , and others. Bacteria are uncommon pathogens but may include

text: Mycoplasma pneumoniae

text: Chlamydophila pneumoniae

text: Bordetella pertussis

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: , and

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: Sandhoff disease symptoms are clinically indeterminable from Tay-Sachs Disease. The classic infantile form of the disease has the most severe symptoms and is incredibly hard to diagnose at this early age.  The first signs of symptoms begin before 6 months of age and the parents’ notice when the child begins digressing in their development.  If the children had the ability to sit up by themselves or crawl they will lose this ability.  This is caused by a slow deterioration of the muscles in the child’s body from the buildup of GM2 gangliosides.  Since the body is unable to create the enzymes it needs within the central nervous system it is unable to attach to these gangliosides to break them apart and make them non-toxic.  With this buildup there are several symptoms that begin to appear such as muscle/motor weakness, sharp reaction to loud noises, blindness, deafness, inability to react to stimulants, respiratory problems and infections, mental retardation, seizures, cherry red spots in the retina, enlarged liver and spleen (hepatosplenomegaly), pneumonia, or bronchopneumonia.

text: Sandhoff disease symptoms are clinically indeterminable from

text: Tay-Sachs Disease

text: . The classic infantile form of the disease has the most severe symptoms and is incredibly hard to diagnose at this early age.  The first signs of symptoms begin before 6 months of age and the parents’ notice when the child begins digressing in their development.  If the children had the ability to sit up by themselves or crawl they will lose this ability.  This is caused by a slow deterioration of the muscles in the child’s body from the buildup of GM2

text: gangliosides

text: .  Since the body is unable to create the

text: enzymes

text: it needs within the

text: central nervous system

text: it is unable to attach to these gangliosides to break them apart and make them non-toxic.  With this buildup there are several symptoms that begin to appear such as muscle/motor weakness, sharp reaction to loud noises, blindness, deafness, inability to react to stimulants, respiratory problems and infections, mental retardation, seizures, cherry red spots in the retina, enlarged liver and spleen (

text: hepatosplenomegaly

text: pneumonia

text: , or

text: bronchopneumonia

text: Acute exacerbations of chronic respiratory diseases, mainly asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), are assessed as emergencies and treated with oxygen therapy, bronchodilators, steroids or theophylline, have an urgent chest X-ray and arterial blood gases and are referred for intensive care if necessary. Noninvasive ventilation in the ED has reduced the requirement for tracheal intubation in many cases of severe exacerbations of COPD.

text: Acute exacerbations of chronic respiratory diseases, mainly

text: asthma

text: and

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD), are assessed as emergencies and treated with

text: oxygen therapy

text: bronchodilator

text: s,

text: steroid

text: s or

text: theophylline

text: , have an urgent

text: chest X-ray

text: and

text: arterial blood gas

text: es and are referred for

text: intensive care

text: if necessary.

text: Noninvasive ventilation

text: in the ED has reduced the requirement for

text: tracheal intubation

text: in many cases of severe exacerbations of COPD.

text: There are a variety of specific-action FATS which have been studied and documented. These include acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors, respiratory irritants, respiratory blockers,  dioxin,  central nervous system seizure agents, and uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation. Acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme which degrades acetylcholine an important neurotransmitter, has been demonstrated to be inhibited by particular toxicants like organophosphates and carbamates. Respiratory irritants bind to respiratory tissue membranes, which are the first tissue membranes available for exposure. Respiratory blockers are known to affect the electron transport chain in the mitochondria of cells. Central Nervous System seizure agents are associated with effects such as partial or whole body seizures and coughing. Dioxin is recognized as having a different mode of action than the others, but has not been studied by the FATS method.

text: There are a variety of specific-action FATS which have been studied and documented. These include

text: acetylcholinesterase

text: (AChE) inhibitors,

text: respiratory

text: irritants, respiratory blockers,

text: dioxin

text: central nervous system

text: seizure agents, and uncouplers of oxidative phosphorylation.

text: Acetylcholinesterase

text: , an enzyme which degrades

text: acetylcholine

text: an important

text: neurotransmitter

text: , has been demonstrated to be inhibited by particular toxicants like organophosphates and carbamates. Respiratory irritants bind to respiratory tissue membranes, which are the first tissue membranes available for exposure. Respiratory blockers are known to affect the electron transport chain in the

text: mitochondria

text: of cells. Central Nervous System seizure agents are associated with effects such as partial or whole body seizures and coughing. Dioxin is recognized as having a different mode of action than the others, but has not been studied by the FATS method.

text: Infections of the lung tissue are called pneumonia, of the respiratory tract are called bronchitis or bronchiolitis, and of the pleurae surrounding the lungs pleurisy. Many infections are due to bacteria or viruses, however not all causes of pneumonia or bronchial tree inflammation are caused by infection. One important cause of bacterial pneumonia is tuberculosis. Chronic infections often occur in those with immunodeficiency and can include a fungal infection by Aspergillus fumigatus that can lead to an aspergilloma forming in the lung.

text: Infections of the lung tissue are called

text: pneumonia

text: , of the respiratory tract are called

text: bronchitis

text: or

text: bronchiolitis

text: , and of the

text: pleurae

text: surrounding the lungs

text: pleurisy

text: . Many infections are due to

text: bacteria

text: or

text: virus

text: es, however not all causes of pneumonia or bronchial tree inflammation are caused by infection. One important cause of

text: bacterial pneumonia

text: is

text: tuberculosis

text: Chronic

text: infections often occur in those with

text: immunodeficiency

text: and can include a

text: fungal infection

text: by

text: Aspergillus fumigatus

text: that can lead to an

text: aspergilloma

text: forming in the lung.

text: Most complications have occurred among previously healthy individuals, with obesity and respiratory disease as the strongest risk factors. Pulmonary complications are common. Primary influenza pneumonia occurs most commonly in adults and may progress rapidly to acute lung injury requiring mechanical ventilation. Secondary bacterial infection is more common in children. Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant strains, is an important cause of secondary bacterial pneumonia with a high mortality rate; streptococcus pneumoniae is the second most important cause of secondary bacterial pneumonia for children and primary for adults. Neuromuscular and cardiac complications are unusual but may occur.

text: Most complications have occurred among previously healthy individuals, with

text: obesity

text: and

text: respiratory disease

text: as the strongest risk factors.

text: Pulmonary

text: complications are common. Primary influenza

text: pneumonia

text: occurs most commonly in adults and may progress rapidly to acute lung injury requiring

text: mechanical ventilation

text: . Secondary

text: bacterial infection

text: is more common in children.

text: Staphylococcus aureus

text: , including methicillin-resistant strains, is an important cause of secondary bacterial pneumonia with a high mortality rate;

text: streptococcus pneumoniae

text: is the second most important cause of secondary bacterial pneumonia for children and primary for adults.

text: Neuromuscular

text: and

text: cardiac

text: complications are unusual but may occur.

text: Most cases of chronic bronchitis are caused by smoking cigarettes or other forms of tobacco. Additionally, chronic inhalation of air pollution or irritating fumes or dust from hazardous exposures in occupations such as coal mining, grain handling, textile manufacturing, livestock farming, and metal moulding may also be a risk factor for the development of chronic bronchitis. Protracted bacterial bronchitis is usually caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Non-typable Haemophilus influenzae, or Moraxella catarrhalis.

text: Most cases of chronic bronchitis are caused by smoking cigarettes or other forms of tobacco. Additionally, chronic inhalation of air pollution or irritating fumes or dust from hazardous exposures in occupations such as coal mining, grain handling, textile manufacturing, livestock farming, and metal moulding may also be a risk factor for the development of chronic bronchitis. Protracted bacterial bronchitis is usually caused by

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: Non-typable Haemophilus influenzae

text: , or

text: Moraxella catarrhalis

text: Moxifloxacin is a fourth-generation synthetic fluoroquinolone antibacterial agent developed by Bayer AG (initially called BAY 12-8039). It is marketed worldwide (as the hydrochloride) under the brand names Avelox, Avalox, and Avelon for oral treatment. In most countries, the drug is also available in parenteral form for intravenous infusion. Moxifloxacin is also sold in an ophthalmic solution (eye drops) under the brand names Vigamox, and Moxeza for the treatment of conjunctivitis (pink eye). Its antibacterial spectrum includes enteric Gram-(−) rods (Escherichia coli, Proteus species, Klebsiella species), Haemophilus influenzae, atypical bacteria (Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, Legionella), and Streptococcus pneumoniae, and anaerobic bacteria.  It differs from earlier antibacterials of the fluoroquinolone class such as levofloxacin and ciprofloxacin in having greater activity against Gram-positive bacteria and anaerobes. Because of its potent activity against the common respiratory pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae, it is considered a "respiratory quinolone."

text: Moxifloxacin is a fourth-generation synthetic

text: fluoroquinolone

text: antibacterial agent

text: developed by Bayer AG (initially called BAY 12-8039). It is marketed worldwide (as the hydrochloride) under the brand names Avelox, Avalox, and Avelon for oral treatment. In most countries, the drug is also available in parenteral form for intravenous infusion. Moxifloxacin is also sold in an ophthalmic solution (eye drops) under the brand names Vigamox, and Moxeza for the treatment of

text: conjunctivitis

text: (pink eye). Its antibacterial spectrum includes enteric Gram-(−) rods (

text: Escherichia coli

text: , Proteus species,

text: Klebsiella

text: species),

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: , atypical bacteria (

text: Mycoplasma

text: Chlamydia

text: Legionella

text: ), and

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: , and

text: anaerobic bacteria

text: .  It differs from earlier antibacterials of the fluoroquinolone class such as

text: levofloxacin

text: and

text: ciprofloxacin

text: in having greater activity against

text: Gram-positive bacteria

text: and

text: anaerobe

text: s. Because of its potent activity against the common respiratory pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae, it is considered a "respiratory quinolone."

text: When macrophages are activated by cord factor, they can arrange into granulomas around M. tuberculosis cells.  Activated macrophages and neutrophils also cause an increase in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is important for angiogenesis, a step in granuloma formation.  The granulomas can be formed either with or without T-cells, indicating that they can be foreign-body-type or hypersensitivity-type. This means cord factor can stimulate a response by acting as a foreign molecule or by causing harmful reactions from the immune system if the host is already immunized. Thus, cord factor can act as a nonspecific irritant or a T-cell dependent antigen. Granulomas enclose M. tuberculosis cells to halt the bacteria from spreading, but they also allow the bacteria to remain in the host. From there, the tissue can become damaged and the disease can transmit further with cord factor. Alternatively, the activated macrophages can kill the M. tuberculosis cells through reactive nitrogen intermediates to remove the infection.

text: When macrophages are activated by cord factor, they can arrange into

text: granulomas

text: around M. tuberculosis cells.  Activated macrophages and neutrophils also cause an increase in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which is important for angiogenesis, a step in granuloma formation.  The granulomas can be formed either with or without T-cells, indicating that they can be foreign-body-type or hypersensitivity-type. This means cord factor can stimulate a response by acting as a foreign molecule or by causing harmful reactions from the immune system if the host is already immunized. Thus, cord factor can act as a nonspecific irritant or a T-cell dependent antigen. Granulomas enclose M. tuberculosis cells to halt the bacteria from spreading, but they also allow the bacteria to remain in the host. From there, the tissue can become damaged and the disease can transmit further with cord factor. Alternatively, the activated macrophages can kill the M. tuberculosis cells through reactive nitrogen intermediates to remove the infection.

text: The health effects of wildfire smoke exposure include exacerbation and development of respiratory illness such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder; increased risk of lung cancer, mesothelioma and tuberculosis; increased airway hyper-responsiveness; changes in levels of inflammatory mediators and coafulation factors; and respiratory tract infection.  It may also have intrauterine effects on fetal development, resulting in low birth weight newborns.  Because wildfire smoke travels and is often not isolated to a single geographic region, the health effects are widespread among populations.The suppression of wild fires also takes up a large amount of a country’s gross domestic product which directly affects the country’s economy.  In the United States, it was reported that approximately $6 million was spent between 2004-2008 to suppress wildfires in the country.

text: The health effects of wildfire smoke exposure include exacerbation and development of respiratory illness such as

text: asthma

text: and

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder

text: ; increased risk of

text: lung cancer

text: mesothelioma

text: and

text: tuberculosis

text: ; increased airway hyper-responsiveness; changes in levels of inflammatory mediators and coafulation factors; and

text: respiratory tract infection

text: .  It may also have intrauterine effects on fetal development, resulting in

text: low birth weight

text: newborns.  Because wildfire smoke travels and is often not isolated to a single geographic region, the health effects are widespread among populations.The suppression of wild fires also takes up a large amount of a country’s

text: gross domestic product

text: which directly affects the country’s economy.  In the United States, it was reported that approximately $6 million was spent between 2004-2008 to suppress wildfires in the country.

text: S. pneumoniae resides asymptomatically in the nasopharynx of healthy carriers. The respiratory tract, sinuses, and nasal cavity are the parts of host body that are usually infected. However, in susceptible individuals, such as elderly and immunocompromised people and children, the bacterium may become pathogenic, spread to other locations and cause disease.  S. pneumoniae is the main cause of community acquired pneumonia and meningitis in children and the elderly, and of septicemia in HIV-infected persons. The methods of transmission include sneezing, coughing, and direct contact with an infected person.

text: S. pneumoniae resides asymptomatically in the

text: nasopharynx

text: of healthy carriers. The respiratory tract, sinuses, and nasal cavity are the parts of host body that are usually infected. However, in susceptible individuals, such as elderly and

text: immunocompromised

text: people and children, the bacterium may become

text: pathogen

text: ic, spread to other locations and cause disease.  S. pneumoniae is the main cause of

text: community acquired pneumonia

text: and

text: meningitis

text: in children and the elderly, and of

text: septicemia

text: in

text: HIV

text: -infected persons. The methods of transmission include sneezing, coughing, and direct contact with an infected person.

text: Lung cancer, also known as lung carcinoma, is a malignant lung tumor characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. If left untreated, this growth can spread beyond the lung by the process of metastasis into nearby tissue or other parts of the body. Most cancers that start in the lung, known as primary lung cancers, are carcinomas. The two main types are small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) and non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). The most common symptoms are coughing (including coughing up blood), weight loss, shortness of breath, and chest pains.

text: Lung cancer, also known as lung carcinoma, is a malignant

text: lung tumor

text: characterized by uncontrolled

text: cell growth

text: in

text: tissues

text: of the

text: lung

text: . If left untreated, this growth can spread beyond the lung by the process of

text: metastasis

text: into nearby tissue or other parts of the body. Most

text: cancer

text: s that start in the lung, known as primary lung cancers, are

text: carcinomas

text: . The two main types are

text: small-cell lung carcinoma

text: (SCLC) and

text: non-small-cell lung carcinoma

text: (NSCLC). The most common

text: symptom

text: s are coughing (including

text: coughing up blood

text: ), weight loss, shortness of breath, and

text: chest pain

text: s.

text: Pontiac fever  is an acute, nonfatal respiratory disease caused by various species of Gram-negative bacteria in the genus Legionella. It causes a mild upper respiratory infection that resembles acute influenza. Pontiac fever resolves spontaneously and often goes undiagnosed. Both Pontiac fever and the more severe Legionnaire's disease are caused by the same bacteria, but Pontiac fever does not include pneumonia.

text: Pontiac fever  is an acute, nonfatal respiratory disease caused by various species of

text: Gram-negative bacteria

text: in the genus

text: Legionella

text: . It causes a mild upper respiratory infection that resembles acute influenza. Pontiac fever resolves spontaneously and often goes undiagnosed. Both Pontiac fever and the more severe

text: Legionnaire's disease

text: are caused by the same bacteria, but Pontiac fever does not include pneumonia.

text: NO reacts with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form nitric acid vapor and related particles. Small particles can penetrate deeply into sensitive lung tissue and damage it, causing premature death in extreme cases. Inhalation of such particles may cause or worsen respiratory diseases, such as emphysema or bronchitis, or may also aggravate existing heart disease.

text: NO reacts with

text: ammonia

text: , moisture, and other compounds to form

text: nitric acid

text: vapor and related particles. Small particles can penetrate deeply into sensitive lung tissue and damage it, causing premature death in extreme cases. Inhalation of such particles may cause or worsen respiratory diseases, such as

text: emphysema

text: or

text: bronchitis

text: , or may also aggravate existing heart disease.

text: The incubation time (from infection until symptoms arrive) is 4–5 days.For adults, HRSV produces mainly mild symptoms, often indistinguishable from common colds and minor illnesses. The Centers for Disease Control consider HRSV to be the "most common cause of bronchiolitis (inflammation of the small airways in the lung) and pneumonia in children under 1 year of age in the United States".For some children, RSV can cause bronchiolitis, leading to severe respiratory illness requiring hospitalization and, rarely, causing death. This is more likely to occur in patients that are immunocompromised or infants born prematurely. Other HRSV symptoms common among infants include listlessness, poor or diminished appetite, and a possible fever.

text: The incubation time (from infection until symptoms arrive) is 4–5 days.For adults, HRSV produces mainly mild symptoms, often indistinguishable from

text: common cold

text: s and minor illnesses. The Centers for Disease Control consider HRSV to be the "most common cause of

text: bronchiolitis

text: (inflammation of the small airways in the lung) and

text: pneumonia

text: in children under 1 year of age in the United States".For some children, RSV can cause bronchiolitis, leading to severe respiratory illness requiring hospitalization and, rarely, causing death. This is more likely to occur in patients that are

text: immunocompromised

text: or infants

text: born prematurely

text: . Other HRSV symptoms common among infants include listlessness, poor or diminished appetite, and a possible fever.

text: In swimming pools, chloramines are formed by the reaction of free chlorine with organic substances. Chloramines, compared to free chlorine, are both less effective as a sanitizer and, if not managed correctly, more irritating to the eyes of swimmers.  Chloramines are also responsible for the reported "chlorine" smell of swimming pools.  Some pool test kits designed for use by homeowners are not able to distinguish free chlorine and chloramines, which can be misleading and lead to non-optimal levels of chloramines in the pool water.There is also evidence that exposure to chloramine can contribute to respiratory problems, including asthma, among swimmers.  Respiratory problems related to chloramine exposure are common and prevalent among competitive swimmers.

text: In swimming pools, chloramines are formed by the reaction of free chlorine with organic substances. Chloramines, compared to free chlorine, are both less effective as a sanitizer and, if not managed correctly, more irritating to the eyes of swimmers.  Chloramines are also responsible for the reported "chlorine" smell of swimming pools.  Some pool test kits designed for use by homeowners are not able to distinguish free chlorine and chloramines, which can be misleading and lead to non-optimal levels of chloramines in the pool water.There is also evidence that exposure to chloramine can contribute to respiratory problems, including

text: asthma

text: , among

text: swimmers

text: .  Respiratory problems related to chloramine exposure are common and prevalent among competitive swimmers.

text: Among the factors contributing to contracting HAP are mechanical ventilation (ventilator-associated pneumonia), old age, decreased filtration of inspired air, intrinsic respiratory, neurologic, or other disease states that result in respiratory tract obstruction, trauma, (abdominal) surgery, medications, diminished lung volumes, or decreased clearance of secretions may diminish the defenses of the lung.  Also, poor hand-washing and inadequate disinfection of respiratory devices cause cross-infection and are important factors.

text: Among the factors contributing to contracting HAP are

text: mechanical ventilation

text: ventilator-associated pneumonia

text: ), old age, decreased filtration of inspired air, intrinsic respiratory, neurologic, or other disease states that result in respiratory tract obstruction, trauma, (abdominal) surgery, medications, diminished

text: lung volumes

text: , or decreased clearance of secretions may diminish the defenses of the lung.  Also, poor hand-washing and inadequate disinfection of respiratory devices cause

text: cross-infection

text: and are important factors.

text: The most common form of plastic bronchitis follows cardiac surgery for congenital heart disease, especially the Fontan procedure.  Systemic blood flow is diverted to pulmonary flow, elevating pressures in the pulmonary venous system, and promoting leaks of proteinaceous and lipid-rich fluids from the lymphatics into the bronchial tree.

text: The preparation is used in acute and chronic bronchitis, pneumonia, bronchiectasis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, infectious and inflammatory diseases of the upper respiratory tract.

text: This partially explains the observation that some patients with emphysema might have an increase in PCO (partial pressure of arterial dissolved carbon dioxide) following administration of supplemental oxygen even if content of CO stays equal.

text: This partially explains the observation that some patients with

text: emphysema

text: might have an increase in PCO (partial pressure of arterial dissolved carbon dioxide) following administration of supplemental oxygen even if content of CO stays equal.

text: His work focussed on cardiac, respiratory, vascular and joint diseases, and emphasised postmortem examination. He published a number of important medical texts, including Diseases of the Heart, but it was his work on gout, from which he suffered himself, that made him famous.

text: His work focussed on

text: cardiac

text: respiratory

text: vascular

text: and

text: joint

text: diseases, and emphasised

text: postmortem

text: examination. He published a number of important medical texts, including Diseases of the Heart, but it was his work on

text: gout

text: , from which he suffered himself, that made him famous.

text: The bacterium that causes tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis,  is generally spread when an infected person coughs and another person inhales the bacteria. Once inhaled TB frequently grows in the lungs, but can spread to any part of the body.  Although TB is highly contagious, in most cases the human body is able to fend off the bacteria.  But, TB can remain dormant in the body for years, and become active unexpectedly. If and when the disease does become active in the body, it can multiply rapidly, causing the person to develop many symptoms including cough (sometimes with blood), night sweats, fever, chest pains, loss of appetite and loss of weight. This disease can occur in both adults and children and is especially common among those with weak or undeveloped immune systems.

text: The

text: bacterium

text: that causes

text: tuberculosis

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: ,  is generally spread when an infected person

text: cough

text: s and another person inhales the bacteria. Once inhaled TB frequently grows in the

text: lungs

text: , but can spread to any part of the body.  Although TB is highly contagious, in most cases the human body is able to fend off the bacteria.  But, TB can remain

text: dormant

text: in the body for years, and become active unexpectedly. If and when the disease does become active in the body, it can multiply rapidly, causing the person to develop many symptoms including cough (sometimes with blood), night sweats, fever, chest pains, loss of appetite and loss of weight. This disease can occur in both adults and children and is especially common among those with weak or undeveloped

text: immune system

text: s.

text: Numerous etiologies of subcutaneous emphysema have been described. Pneumomediastinum was first recognized as a medical entity by Laennec, who reported it as a consequence of trauma in 1819. Later, in 1939, at The Johns Hopkins Hospital, Dr. Louis Hamman described it in postpartum woman; indeed, subcutaneous emphysema is sometimes known as Hamman's syndrome. However, in some medical circles, it can instead be more commonly known as Macklin's Syndrome after L. Macklin, in 1939, and M.T. and C.C. Macklin, in 1944, who cumulatively went on to describe the pathophysiology in more detail.

text: Numerous etiologies of subcutaneous emphysema have been described.

text: Pneumomediastinum

text: was first recognized as a medical entity by

text: Laennec

text: , who reported it as a consequence of trauma in 1819. Later, in 1939, at

text: The Johns Hopkins Hospital

text: , Dr. Louis Hamman described it in

text: postpartum

text: woman; indeed, subcutaneous emphysema is sometimes known as

text: Hamman's syndrome

text: . However, in some medical circles, it can instead be more commonly known as

text: Macklin's Syndrome

text: after L. Macklin, in 1939, and M.T. and C.C. Macklin, in 1944, who cumulatively went on to describe the pathophysiology in more detail.

text: Ust-Kamenogorsk is known to be the leader in Kazakhstan by the number of people having respiratory problems and the diseases of immune system. The statistics shows that the most frequent diseases are respiratory diseases and the urogenital system diseases. In the last years, the number of people having cancer is also increasing.

text: Global rates of asthma have increased significantly between the 1960s and 2008 with it being recognized as a major public health problem since the 1970s. Rates of asthma have plateaued in the developed world since the mid-1990s with recent increases primarily in the developing world. Asthma affects approximately 7% of the population of the United States and 5% of people in the United Kingdom. Canada, Australia and New Zealand have rates of about 14–15%.

text: In medicine, describing a disease as acute denotes that it is of short duration and, as a corollary of that, of recent onset. The quantitation of how much time constitutes "short" and "recent" varies by disease and by context, but the core denotation of "acute" is always qualitatively in contrast with "chronic", which denotes long-lasting disease (for example, in acute leukemia and chronic leukemia). In addition, "acute" also often connotes two other meanings: sudden onset and severity, such as in acute myocardial infarction (AMI), where suddenness and severity are both established aspects of the meaning. It thus often connotes that the condition is fulminant (as in the AMI example), but not always (as in acute rhinitis, which is usually synonymous with the common cold). The one thing that acute MI and acute rhinitis have in common is that they are not chronic. They can happen again (as in recurrent pneumonia, that is, multiple acute pneumonia episodes), but they are not the same case ongoing for months or years (unlike chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, which is).

text: In

text: medicine

text: , describing a

text: disease

text: as acute

text: denotes

text: that it is of short

text: duration

text: and, as a

text: corollary

text: of that, of recent

text: onset

text: . The

text: quantitation

text: of how much time constitutes "short" and "recent" varies by disease and by context, but the core denotation of "acute" is always

text: qualitatively

text: in contrast with "

text: chronic

text: ", which denotes long-lasting disease (for example, in

text: acute leukemia

text: and

text: chronic leukemia

text: ). In addition, "acute" also often

text: connotes

text: two other meanings:

text: sudden

text: onset and

text: severity

text: , such as in

text: acute myocardial infarction

text: (AMI), where suddenness and severity are both established aspects of the meaning. It thus often connotes that the condition is

text: fulminant

text: (as in the AMI example), but not always (as in acute

text: rhinitis

text: , which is usually

text: synonym

text: ous with the

text: common cold

text: ). The one thing that acute MI and acute rhinitis have in common is that they are not chronic. They can happen again (as in recurrent

text: pneumonia

text: , that is, multiple acute pneumonia episodes), but they are not the same

text: case

text: ongoing for months or years (unlike

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: , which is).

text: Exposure to particulate matter for a long time can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer and heart attacks. The Global burden of disease study for 2010, published in 2013, had found that outdoor air pollution was the fifth-largest killer in India and around 620,000 early deaths occurred from air pollution-related diseases in 2010. According to a WHO study, 13 of the 20 most-polluted cities in the world are in India; however, the accuracy and methodology of the WHO study was questioned by the Government of India led by Manmohan Singh.

text: Exposure to

text: particulate matter

text: for a long time can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, lung cancer and heart attacks. The

text: Global burden of disease

text: study for 2010, published in 2013, had found that outdoor air pollution was the fifth-largest killer in India and around 620,000 early deaths occurred from air pollution-related diseases in 2010. According to a WHO study, 13 of the 20 most-polluted cities in the world are in India; however, the accuracy and methodology of the WHO study was questioned by the Government of India led by Manmohan Singh.

text: Syrian hamsters are used to model the human medical conditions including various cancers, metabolic diseases, non-cancer respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, infectious diseases, and general health concerns. In 2006-07, Syrian hamsters accounted for 19% of the total animal research participants in the United States.

text: Syrian hamsters

text: are used to model the human medical conditions including various cancers, metabolic diseases, non-cancer respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, infectious diseases, and general health concerns. In 2006-07, Syrian hamsters accounted for 19% of the total animal research participants in the United States.

text: Mortality remained elevated for months after the fog. A preliminary report, never finalised, blamed the ongoing deaths on an influenza epidemic. Emerging evidence revealed that only a fraction of the deaths could be from influenza. Most of the deaths were caused by respiratory tract infections, from hypoxia and as a result of mechanical obstruction of the air passages by pus arising from lung infections caused by the smog. The lung infections were mainly bronchopneumonia or acute purulent bronchitis superimposed upon chronic bronchitis.

text: Mortality remained elevated for months after the fog. A preliminary report, never finalised, blamed the ongoing deaths on an influenza epidemic. Emerging evidence revealed that only a fraction of the deaths could be from influenza. Most of the deaths were caused by

text: respiratory tract

text: infections, from

text: hypoxia

text: and as a result of mechanical obstruction of the air passages by

text: pus

text: arising from lung infections caused by the smog. The lung infections were mainly

text: bronchopneumonia

text: or acute

text: purulent

text: bronchitis

text: superimposed upon chronic

text: bronchitis

text: P. canis can be found in healthy domesticated, farm-raised, and wild animals, such as dogs, cats, rabbits, horses, sheep, cattle, ferrets, deer, and even California sea lions.  The bacteria are normally isolated from the oral cavities and respiratory tracts of these animals.  P. canis biotype 1 was shown to secrete a toxin analogous to P. multocida toxin, but its identity is unknown.  P. canis is responsible for a number of canine infections, including systemic infection, external otitis, bacterial rhinitis, vertebral osteomyelitis, meningomyelitis (a type of myelitis), bronchopneumonia, tracheitis, paranasal sinus inflammation, and toxicosis.  Horses infected with the bacteria may develop arthritis.  The bacteria also cause pneumonia in cattle and various infections in sheep, cats, rabbits, and deer.

text: P. canis can be found in healthy domesticated, farm-raised, and wild animals, such as dogs, cats, rabbits, horses, sheep, cattle, ferrets, deer, and even California sea lions.  The bacteria are normally isolated from the oral cavities and respiratory tracts of these animals.  P. canis biotype 1 was shown to secrete a

text: toxin

text: analogous to P. multocida toxin, but its identity is unknown.  P. canis is responsible for a number of canine infections, including systemic infection, external otitis, bacterial

text: rhinitis

text: vertebral osteomyelitis

text: , meningomyelitis (a type of

text: myelitis

text: bronchopneumonia

text: tracheitis

text: paranasal sinus

text: inflammation

text: , and toxicosis.  Horses infected with the bacteria may develop

text: arthritis

text: .  The bacteria also cause

text: pneumonia

text: in cattle and various infections in sheep, cats, rabbits, and deer.

text: The final oxygen concentration delivered by a simple face mask is dependent upon the amount of room air that mixes with the oxygen the patient breathes.  The air mixing is determined by how much air any individual is breathing at the moment, combined with the fit of the mask. Because of the variability in these factors, the final oxygen concentration is uncontrolled. A venturi device attached to the mask can be used to control to some degree the concentration of oxygen delivered, usually this is used to prevent respiratory depression in emphysema patients who have lost the ability to fully inhale. The effectiveness of the therapy can be continuously monitored using a pulse oximeter, though more clinically useful data can only by obtained by drawing arterial blood gas.

text: The final oxygen concentration delivered by a simple face mask is dependent upon the amount of room air that mixes with the oxygen the patient breathes.  The air mixing is determined by how much air any individual is breathing at the moment, combined with the fit of the mask. Because of the variability in these factors, the final oxygen concentration is uncontrolled. A

text: venturi

text: device attached to the mask can be used to control to some degree the concentration of oxygen delivered, usually this is used to prevent respiratory depression in

text: emphysema

text: patients who have lost the ability to fully

text: inhale

text: . The effectiveness of the therapy can be continuously monitored using a

text: pulse oximeter

text: , though more clinically useful data can only by obtained by drawing

text: arterial blood gas

text: The live vaccine has non specific effects such as preventing respiratory infections that may be greater than those of measles prevention. These benefits were greater when used before a year of age. A high titre vaccine resulted in worse outcomes in girls and thus is no longer recommended by the world health organization. As measles causes upper respiratory disease that leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis, measles vaccine is beneficial to reduce exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma.

text: The live vaccine has

text: non specific effects

text: such as preventing respiratory infections that may be greater than those of measles prevention. These benefits were greater when used before a year of age. A high titre vaccine resulted in worse outcomes in girls and thus is no longer recommended by the world health organization. As measles causes upper respiratory disease that leads to complications of pneumonia and bronchitis, measles vaccine is beneficial to reduce exacerbations of

text: and

text: asthma

text: Burri died from a respiratory failure at Pasteur Hospital in Nice in February 1995 at the age of 79; he suffered from emphysema.

text: Burri died from a

text: respiratory failure

text: at Pasteur Hospital in

text: Nice

text: in February 1995 at the age of 79; he suffered from

text: emphysema

text: The harmful properties of lunar dust are not well known. However, based on studies of dust found on Earth, it is expected that exposure to lunar dust will result in greater risks to health both from direct exposure (acute) and if exposure is over time (chronic). This is because lunar dust is more chemically reactive and has larger surface areas composed of sharper jagged edges than Earth dust. If the chemical reactive particles are deposited in the lungs, they may cause respiratory disease. Long-term exposure to the dust may cause a more serious respiratory disease similar to silicosis. During lunar exploration, the astronauts' spacesuits will become contaminated with lunar dust. The dust will be released into the atmosphere when the suits are removed. The methods used to mitigate exposure will include providing high air recirculation rates in the airlock, the use of a "Double Shell Spacesuit", the use of dust shields, the use of high–grade magnetic separation, and the use of solar flux to sinter and melt the regolith.

text: The harmful properties of lunar dust are not well known. However, based on studies of dust found on Earth, it is expected that exposure to lunar dust will result in greater risks to health both from direct exposure (acute) and if exposure is over time (chronic). This is because lunar dust is more chemically reactive and has larger surface areas composed of sharper jagged edges than Earth dust. If the chemical reactive particles are deposited in the lungs, they may cause respiratory disease. Long-term exposure to the dust may cause a more serious respiratory disease similar to

text: silicosis

text: . During lunar exploration, the astronauts' spacesuits will become contaminated with lunar dust. The dust will be released into the atmosphere when the suits are removed. The methods used to mitigate exposure will include providing high air recirculation rates in the airlock, the use of a "Double Shell Spacesuit", the use of dust shields, the use of high–grade magnetic separation, and the use of solar flux to sinter and melt the regolith.

text: It has been shown that GSNOR may have an important role in respiratory diseases such as asthma.  GSNOR expression has been inversely correlated with s-nitrosothiol (SNO) levels in the alveolar lining fluid in the lung and with responsiveness to methacholine challenge in patients with mild asthma compared to normal subjects. Furthermore, there are lowered SNOs in tracheal irrigations in asthmatic children with respiratory failure in comparison to normal children undergoing elective surgery and NO species are elevated in asthma patients when exposed to antigen.

text: It has been shown that GSNOR may have an important role in respiratory diseases such as asthma.  GSNOR expression has been inversely correlated with

text: s-nitrosothiol

text: (SNO) levels in the alveolar lining fluid in the lung and with responsiveness to methacholine challenge in patients with mild asthma compared to normal subjects. Furthermore, there are lowered SNOs in tracheal irrigations in asthmatic children with respiratory failure in comparison to normal children undergoing elective surgery and NO species are elevated in asthma patients when exposed to antigen.

text: Tuberculosis has been present in humans since antiquity. The earliest unambiguous detection of M. tuberculosis involves evidence of the disease in the remains of bison in Wyoming dated to around 17,000 years ago. However, whether tuberculosis originated in bovines, then was transferred to humans, or whether it diverged from a common ancestor, is currently unclear. A comparison of the genes of M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in humans to MTBC in animals suggests humans did not acquire MTBC from animals during animal domestication, as was previously believed. Both strains of the tuberculosis bacteria share a common ancestor, which could have infected humans even before the Neolithic Revolution.

text: Tuberculosis has been present in humans since

text: antiquity

text: . The earliest unambiguous detection of M. tuberculosis involves evidence of the disease in the remains of bison in Wyoming dated to around 17,000 years ago. However, whether tuberculosis originated in bovines, then was transferred to humans, or whether it diverged from a common ancestor, is currently unclear. A comparison of the

text: gene

text: s of M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in humans to MTBC in animals suggests humans did not acquire MTBC from animals during animal domestication, as was previously believed. Both strains of the tuberculosis bacteria share a common ancestor, which could have infected humans even before the

text: Neolithic Revolution

text: Family members, and especially children, who have family members with the disease are most at risk. The disease is believed to be spread through respiratory droplets in close quarters like its relative Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and similarly requires extended exposure to an individual in most situations, so outsiders and healthcare workers are normally not infected (except with the most infective individuals such as those in the most progressed lepromatous forms, as those patients have the highest bacterial loads).

text: The Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute (LRRI) is a private not-for-profit biomedical research organization dedicated to improving public health through research into the prevention, treatment and cure of respiratory disease. LRRI employs over 500 staff in New Mexico and in 2008 is spending more than $60 million in the fight against respiratory diseases such as asthma, emphysema, lung cancer, bronchitis and allergies.  LRRI currently has two main locations, both located in Albuquerque, New Mexico.  Most of LRRI's funding comes from United States government and private grants.

text: The Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute (LRRI) is a private

text: not-for-profit

text: biomedical research

text: organization dedicated to improving

text: public health

text: through research into the prevention, treatment and cure of

text: respiratory disease

text: . LRRI employs over 500 staff in New Mexico and in 2008 is spending more than $60 million in the fight against respiratory diseases such as

text: asthma

text: emphysema

text: lung cancer

text: bronchitis

text: and

text: allergies

text: .  LRRI currently has two main locations, both located in

text: Albuquerque, New Mexico

text: .  Most of LRRI's funding comes from United States government and private grants.

text: Frequent coughing usually indicates the presence of a disease. Many viruses and bacteria benefit evolutionarily by causing the host to cough, which helps to spread the disease to new hosts. Most of the time, irregular coughing is caused by a respiratory tract infection but can also be triggered by choking, smoking, air pollution, asthma, gastroesophageal reflux disease, post-nasal drip, chronic bronchitis, lung tumors, heart failure and medications such as ACE inhibitors.

text: Frequent coughing usually indicates the presence of a disease. Many

text: virus

text: es and

text: bacteria

text: benefit evolutionarily by causing the

text: host

text: to cough, which helps to spread the disease to new hosts. Most of the time, irregular coughing is caused by a

text: respiratory tract infection

text: but can also be triggered by

text: choking

text: smoking

text: air pollution

text: asthma

text: gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: post-nasal drip

text: chronic bronchitis

text: lung tumors

text: heart failure

text: and medications such as

text: ACE inhibitor

text: s.

text: Lung disease results from clogging of the airways due to mucus build-up, decreased mucociliary clearance, and resulting inflammation. Inflammation and infection cause injury and structural changes to the lungs, leading to a variety of symptoms. In the early stages, incessant coughing, copious phlegm production, and decreased ability to exercise are common. Many of these symptoms occur when bacteria that normally inhabit the thick mucus grow out of control and cause pneumonia.In later stages, changes in the architecture of the lung, such as pathology in the major airways (bronchiectasis), further exacerbate difficulties in breathing. Other signs include coughing up blood (hemoptysis), high blood pressure in the lung (pulmonary hypertension), heart failure, difficulties getting enough oxygen to the body (hypoxia), and respiratory failure requiring support with breathing masks, such as bilevel positive airway pressure machines or ventilators. Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the three most common organisms causing lung infections in CF patients. In addition to typical bacterial infections, people with CF more commonly develop other types of lung disease. Among these is allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, in which the body's response to the common fungus Aspergillus fumigatus causes worsening of breathing problems. Another is infection with Mycobacterium avium complex, a group of bacteria related to tuberculosis, which can cause lung damage and does not respond to common antibiotics.

text: Lung disease results from clogging of the airways due to mucus build-up, decreased

text: mucociliary clearance

text: , and resulting

text: inflammation

text: . Inflammation and infection cause injury and structural changes to the lungs, leading to a variety of symptoms. In the early stages, incessant coughing, copious

text: phlegm

text: production, and decreased ability to exercise are common. Many of these symptoms occur when

text: bacteria

text: that normally inhabit the thick mucus grow out of control and cause pneumonia.In later stages, changes in the architecture of the lung, such as pathology in the major airways (

text: bronchiectasis

text: ), further exacerbate difficulties in breathing. Other signs include coughing up blood (

text: hemoptysis

text: ), high

text: blood pressure

text: in the lung (

text: pulmonary hypertension

text: heart failure

text: , difficulties getting enough

text: oxygen

text: to the body (

text: hypoxia

text: ), and respiratory failure requiring support with breathing masks, such as

text: bilevel positive airway pressure

text: machines or

text: ventilators

text: Staphylococcus aureus

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: , and

text: Pseudomonas aeruginosa

text: are the three most common organisms causing lung infections in CF patients. In addition to typical bacterial infections, people with CF more commonly develop other types of lung disease. Among these is

text: allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis

text: , in which the body's response to the common

text: fungus

text: Aspergillus fumigatus

text: causes worsening of breathing problems. Another is infection with

text: Mycobacterium avium

text: complex, a group of bacteria related to

text: tuberculosis

text: , which can cause lung damage and does not respond to common antibiotics.

text: Asthma and respiratory illnesses<br>Asthma is a major reason for childhood hospitalizations as well as absenteeism from schools.  Asthmatic children living in homes with cockroaches, mice and mold may be especially prone to episodes requiring medical care.  Direct health care costs of asthma totaled more than $14.7 billion in 2008.  $5 billion annually in indirect costs, primarily from lost productivity, can be added to the total.  According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, almost 13 million lost school days, 4 million asthma attacks and nearly 4,000 deaths yearly are associated with asthma. Water infiltration and poor ventilation increases the likelihood that moisture will be an issue in a home, which can lead to infestation of pests and to mold growth, known triggers of allergies and asthma.

text: Asthma and respiratory illnesses<br>

text: Asthma

text: is a major reason for childhood hospitalizations as well as absenteeism from schools.  Asthmatic children living in homes with cockroaches, mice and mold may be especially prone to episodes requiring medical care.  Direct health care costs of asthma totaled more than $14.7 billion in 2008.  $5 billion annually in indirect costs, primarily from lost productivity, can be added to the total.  According to the

text: , almost 13 million lost school days, 4 million asthma attacks and nearly 4,000 deaths yearly are associated with asthma. Water infiltration and poor ventilation increases the likelihood that moisture will be an issue in a home, which can lead to infestation of pests and to mold growth, known triggers of allergies and asthma.

text: Among cyanotoxins are some of the most powerful natural poisons known, including poisons which can cause rapid death by respiratory failure. The toxins include potent neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins, and endotoxins. Despite the similarity in name, they are not cyanides. Recreational exposure to cyanobacteria can result in gastro-intestinal and hay fever symptoms or pruritic skin rashes. Exposure to the cyanobacteria neurotoxin BMAA may be an environmental cause of neurodegenerative diseases such as ALS, Parkinson's Disease and Alzheimer's Disease.  There is also an interest in the military potential of biological neurotoxins such as cyanotoxins, which "have gained increasing significance as potential candidates for weaponization."

text: Among cyanotoxins are some of the most powerful natural poisons known, including poisons which can cause rapid death by respiratory failure. The toxins include potent

text: neurotoxins

text: hepatotoxins

text: cytotoxins

text: , and

text: endotoxins

text: . Despite the similarity in name, they are not

text: cyanide

text: s. Recreational exposure to cyanobacteria can result in gastro-intestinal and hay fever symptoms or

text: pruritic

text: skin rashes. Exposure to the cyanobacteria neurotoxin

text: BMAA

text: may be an environmental cause of neurodegenerative diseases such as

text: ALS

text: Parkinson's Disease

text: and

text: Alzheimer's Disease

text: .  There is also an interest in the military potential of biological

text: neurotoxins

text: such as cyanotoxins, which "have gained increasing significance as potential candidates for weaponization."

text: Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia or noninfectious pneumonia is a class of diffuse lung diseases. They include diffuse alveolar damage, organizing pneumonia, nonspecific interstitial pneumonia, lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia, desquamative interstitial pneumonia, respiratory bronchiolitis interstitial lung disease, and usual interstitial pneumonia.

text: Idiopathic interstitial pneumonia or noninfectious pneumonia is a class of

text: diffuse lung disease

text: s. They include

text: diffuse alveolar damage

entity_name: Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia

text: organizing pneumonia

text: nonspecific interstitial pneumonia

text: lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia

text: desquamative interstitial pneumonia

text: respiratory bronchiolitis interstitial lung disease

text: , and

text: usual interstitial pneumonia

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an obligate pathogenic bacterial species in the family Mycobacteriaceae and the causative agent of tuberculosis. First discovered in 1882 by Robert Koch, M. tuberculosis has an unusual, waxy coating on its cell surface (primarily  due to the presence of mycolic acid), which makes the cells impervious to Gram staining; M. tuberculosis can appear Gram-negative and Gram-positive in clinical settings. The Lowenstein-Jensen Agar, or acid-fast stain, is used instead. The physiology of M. tuberculosis is highly aerobic and requires high levels of oxygen. Primarily a pathogen of the mammalian respiratory system, it infects the lungs. The most frequently used diagnostic methods for tuberculosis are the tuberculin skin test, acid-fast stain, and chest radiographs.

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an obligate

text: pathogen

text: ic

text: bacteria

text: l species in the family

text: Mycobacteriaceae

text: and the causative agent of

text: tuberculosis

text: . First discovered in 1882 by

text: Robert Koch

text: , M. tuberculosis has an unusual, waxy coating on its cell surface (primarily  due to the presence of

text: mycolic acid

text: ), which makes the cells impervious to

text: Gram stain

text: ing; M. tuberculosis can appear Gram-negative and Gram-positive in clinical settings. The Lowenstein-Jensen Agar, or acid-fast stain, is used instead. The physiology of M. tuberculosis is highly

text: aerobic

text: and requires high levels of oxygen. Primarily a pathogen of the mammalian

text: respiratory system

text: , it infects the lungs. The most frequently used diagnostic methods for tuberculosis are the tuberculin skin test, acid-fast stain, and chest radiographs.

text: Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. About 5% of adults are affected and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. It occurs more often in the winter.

text: Increased smoking among people with schizophrenia has a number of impacts on this population. One well-documented consequence is the increase in premature death among people with schizophrenia. Life expectancy among people with schizophrenia is generally 80-85% that of the general population, which results from both unnatural causes such as suicide but also natural causes such as cardiovascular disease, to which smoking is an important contributor. People with schizophrenia have a higher incidence of smoking diseases, with heart disease deaths 30% more likely and respiratory disease deaths 60% more likely. 2/3 of people with schizophrenia die from coronary heart disease, versus less than 1/2 of the general population. Ten-year coronary heart disease risk is significantly elevated in people with schizophrenia, as well as diabetes and hypertension.

text: Increased smoking among people with schizophrenia has a number of impacts on this population. One well-documented consequence is the increase in premature death among people with schizophrenia. Life expectancy among people with schizophrenia is generally 80-85% that of the general population, which results from both unnatural causes such as

text: suicide

text: but also natural causes such as

text: cardiovascular disease

text: , to which smoking is an important contributor. People with schizophrenia have a higher incidence of smoking diseases, with heart disease deaths 30% more likely and respiratory disease deaths 60% more likely. 2/3 of people with schizophrenia die from

text: coronary heart disease

text: , versus less than 1/2 of the general population. Ten-year coronary heart disease risk is significantly elevated in people with schizophrenia, as well as

text: diabetes

text: and

text: hypertension

text: The uncharacteristically rapid spread of the plague could be due to respiratory droplet transmission, and low levels of immunity in the European population at that period. Historical examples of pandemics of other diseases in populations without previous exposure, such as smallpox and tuberculosis transmitted by aerosol amongst Native Americans, show that the first instance of an epidemic spreads faster and is far more virulent than later instances among the descendants of survivors, for whom natural selection has produced characteristics that are protective against the disease.

text: The uncharacteristically rapid spread of the plague could be due to respiratory droplet transmission, and low levels of immunity in the European population at that period. Historical examples of pandemics of other diseases in populations without previous exposure, such as

text: smallpox

text: and

text: tuberculosis

text: transmitted by aerosol amongst

text: Native Americans

text: , show that the first instance of an epidemic spreads faster and is far more virulent than later instances among the descendants of survivors, for whom natural selection has produced characteristics that are protective against the disease.

text: Administration to opioid-dependent individuals may cause symptoms of opioid withdrawal, including restlessness, agitation, nausea, vomiting, a fast heart rate and sweating. To prevent this, small doses every few minutes can be given until the desired effect is reached. In those with previous heart disease or taking medications that negatively affect the heart, further heart problems have occurred. It appears to be safe in pregnancy, after having been given to a limited number of women. Naloxone is a pure opioid antagonist. It works by reversing the depression of the central nervous system and respiratory system caused by opioids.

text: Administration to opioid-dependent individuals may cause symptoms of

text: opioid withdrawal

text: , including restlessness, agitation, nausea, vomiting, a

text: fast heart rate

text: and sweating. To prevent this, small doses every few minutes can be given until the desired effect is reached. In those with previous heart disease or taking medications that negatively affect the heart, further heart problems have occurred. It appears to be safe in pregnancy, after having been given to a limited number of women. Naloxone is a pure

text: opioid antagonist

text: . It works by reversing the depression of the central nervous system and respiratory system caused by opioids.

text: Chronic diseases are a huge issue in America and are the main reason behind the use of health care services in the U.S. Three fourths of the nation’s spending on health care is spent on a person with chronic illness. According to Altarum Institute chronic disease is defined as "a long-lasting illness which imposes a great burden on a person." Chronic disease such as asthma, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and depression are the number one health threat to residents of Fresno kill about 3,500 people.

text: In compliance with the educational and awareness-raising mission laid down in its statutes, the Society promotes cooperation with professional and specialist organizations with similar objectives, including the Deutsche Atemwegsliga e.V. (DAL), the Deutsche Lungenstiftung e.V. (DLS), the Deutsches Zentralkomitee zur Bekämpfung der Tuberkulose e.V. (DZK, "German Central Committee against Tuberculosis") and the Bundesverband der Pneumologen ("Federal Association of Pneumologists"). The DGP is also the co-founder of initiatives such as the Deutscher Lungentag ("German Lung Day"), the Institut für Lungenforschung (ILF, "Institute for Lung Research") and the Aktionsbündnis Nichtrauchen e.V. (ABNR, the "Alliance for Non-smoking"). The DGP also successfully pushed for the creation of the Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung (DZL, "German Centre for Lung Research"), an association initiated by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) that brings together scientists working in lung research in Germany inside and outside the universities. The DGP also organizes concerted actions to promote pulmonary research, strengthen the position of respiratory medicine in medical education and training and to lobby politicians and parties for e.g. the protection of non-smokers. The DGP maintains close relations with international organizations such as the European Respiratory Society (ERS), the Union Européenne des Médicins Spécialistes (UEMS), the American Lung Association, the American Thoracic Society (ATS), the American College of Chest Physicians (ACCP), the British Thoracic Society (BTS) and the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases (IUATLD, The Union). The DGP participates as an organization in projects of these bodies, and individual DGP members have fulfilled and continue to fulfil important functions, for instance the publication of the European Lung White Book of the ERS (2nd edition 2013) or the ERS HERMES programme (Harmonized Education in Respiratory Medicine for European Specialists).

text: In compliance with the educational and

text: awareness-raising mission

text: laid down in its statutes, the Society promotes cooperation with professional and specialist organizations with similar objectives, including the Deutsche Atemwegsliga e.V. (DAL), the Deutsche Lungenstiftung e.V. (DLS), the Deutsches Zentralkomitee zur Bekämpfung der Tuberkulose e.V. (DZK, "German Central Committee against

text: Tuberculosis

text: ") and the Bundesverband der Pneumologen ("Federal Association of Pneumologists"). The DGP is also the co-founder of initiatives such as the Deutscher Lungentag ("German Lung Day"), the Institut für Lungenforschung (ILF, "Institute for Lung Research") and the Aktionsbündnis Nichtrauchen e.V. (ABNR, the "Alliance for

text: Non-smoking

text: "). The DGP also successfully pushed for the creation of the Deutsches Zentrum für Lungenforschung (DZL, "German Centre for Lung Research"), an association initiated by the

entity_name: Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Germany)

text: Federal Ministry of Education and Research

text: (BMBF) that brings together scientists working in lung research in Germany inside and outside the universities. The DGP also organizes concerted actions to promote pulmonary research, strengthen the position of respiratory medicine in medical education and training and to

text: lobby politicians

text: and parties for e.g. the protection of non-smokers. The DGP maintains close relations with international organizations such as the

text: European Respiratory Society

text: (ERS), the Union Européenne des Médicins Spécialistes (UEMS), the

text: American Lung Association

text: , the

text: American Thoracic Society

text: (ATS), the

text: American College of Chest Physicians

text: (ACCP), the

text: British Thoracic Society

text: (BTS) and the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases (

text: IUATLD

text: , The Union). The DGP participates as an organization in projects of these bodies, and individual DGP members have fulfilled and continue to fulfil important functions, for instance the publication of the European Lung

text: White Book

text: of the ERS (2nd edition 2013) or the ERS HERMES programme (Harmonized Education in Respiratory Medicine for European Specialists).

text: Kawangware has a scarcity of safe drinking water. Water supplied by the city authority is not available every day or is otherwise expensive. There are waterborne diseases, respiratory pneumonia, malaria as well as an increase in cases of airborne diseases due to the poor sewerage system in Kawangware. Many people in Kawangware are HIV-positive.

text: Kawangware has a scarcity of safe

text: drinking water

text: . Water supplied by the city authority is not available every day or is otherwise expensive. There are

text: waterborne diseases

text: , respiratory pneumonia,

text: malaria

text: as well as an increase in cases of

text: airborne disease

text: s due to the poor

text: sewerage

text: system in Kawangware. Many people in Kawangware are

text: HIV

text: -positive.

text: Levofloxacin is used to treat infections including: respiratory tract infections, cellulitis, urinary tract infections, prostatitis, anthrax, endocarditis, meningitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, traveler's diarrhea, tuberculosis, and plague.

text: Levofloxacin is used to treat infections including:

text: respiratory tract infections

text: cellulitis

text: urinary tract infections

text: prostatitis

text: anthrax

text: endocarditis

text: meningitis

text: pelvic inflammatory disease

text: traveler's diarrhea

text: tuberculosis

text: , and

text: plague

text: Barrett is also active in working with local hospitals, teaching his Harmonica for Fun & Health classes to people with COPD (Emphysema), asthma and heart disease. David, in conjunction with Dr. Dennis Bucko, developed a harmonica based pulmonary therapy program and book/CD designed to help people with respiratory problems [Better Breathers]

text: The first sign in pigs is usually pyrexia and there may be sudden deaths in the herd. Respiratory disease, with pneumonia, nasal discharge and respiratory difficulties, may also be present. Neurological signs result from meningitis, and signs may be severe, ranging from tremors to seizures and death. Joints may become infected and pigs may be lame or have swollen limbs. Skin disease is another presentation, and reproductive disease can also occur. Meningitis is the most common presentation in humans.

text: The first sign in pigs is usually pyrexia and there may be sudden deaths in the herd. Respiratory disease, with pneumonia, nasal discharge and respiratory difficulties, may also be present. Neurological signs result from

text: meningitis

text: , and signs may be severe, ranging from tremors to seizures and death. Joints may become infected and pigs may be lame or have swollen limbs. Skin disease is another presentation, and reproductive disease can also occur. Meningitis is the most common presentation in humans.

text: When tuberculosis settles in other organs (rather than lungs) or other parts of the body (such as the skeletal), symptoms may be different from when it settles in the lungs (such as the symptoms listed above). Thus, without the cough or flu-like symptoms, a person can have active tuberculosis. Other symptoms include back pain, flank pain, PID symptoms, confusion, coma, difficulty swallowing, and many other symptoms that would be a part of other diseases. (Please see the reference for more information on symptoms.) Therefore, seeing a physician and asking for a tuberculosis test is absolutely necessary to rule out tuberculosis when a patient has symptoms without a diagnosis of disease.

text: People with BS start their life with a low weight and length when they are born. Even as adults, they typically remain under 5 feet tall. Individuals with BS are characterized by low weight and height and abnormal facial features, particularly a long, narrow face with a small lower jaw, a large nose and prominent ears. Most also develop photosensitivity, which causes the blood vessels to be dilated and leads to reddening of the skin, usually presented as a "butterfly-shaped patch of reddened skin across the nose and cheeks".Other characteristics of BS include learning disabilities, an increased risk of diabetes, gastroesophageal reflux (GER), and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). GER may also lead to recurrent infections of the upper respiratory tract, ears, and lungs during infancy. BS causes infertility in males and reduced fertility and early-onset menopause in females. In line with any RecQ-associated PS, people with BS have an increased risk of developing cancer, often more than one type.

text: People with BS start their life with a low weight and length when they are born. Even as adults, they typically remain under 5 feet tall. Individuals with BS are characterized by low weight and height and abnormal facial features, particularly a long, narrow face with a small lower jaw, a large nose and prominent ears. Most also develop

text: photosensitivity

text: , which causes the blood vessels to be

text: dilated

text: and leads to reddening of the skin, usually presented as a "butterfly-shaped patch of reddened skin across the nose and cheeks".Other characteristics of BS include

text: learning disabilities

text: , an increased risk of

text: diabetes

text: gastroesophageal reflux

text: (GER), and

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD). GER may also lead to recurrent

text: infections of the upper respiratory tract

text: ears

text: , and lungs during infancy. BS causes

text: infertility

text: in males and reduced fertility and early-onset

text: menopause

text: in females. In line with any RecQ-associated PS, people with BS have an increased risk of developing cancer, often more than one type.

text: The 2002 American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society (ATS/ERS) classification of IIPs was updated in 2013. In this new classification there are three main categories of idiopathic interstitial pneumonias (IIPs): major IIPs, rare IIPs, and unclassifiable IIPs. The major IIPs are grouped into chronic fibrosing IPs (this includes IPF and non-specific interstitial pneumonia [NSIP]); smoking-related IPs (i.e. respiratory bronchiolitis–interstitial lung disease [RB-ILD] and desquamative interstitial pneumonia [DIP]); and acute/subacute IPs (i.e. cryptogenic organizing pneumonia [COP] and acute interstitial pneumonia [AIP].

text: The 2002

text: American Thoracic Society

text: European Respiratory Society

text: (ATS/ERS) classification of IIPs was updated in 2013. In this new classification there are three main categories of

text: idiopathic

text: interstitial pneumonias (IIPs): major IIPs, rare IIPs, and unclassifiable IIPs. The major IIPs are grouped into

text: chronic

text: fibrosing IPs (this includes IPF and

text: non-specific interstitial pneumonia

text: [NSIP]); smoking-related IPs (i.e. respiratory bronchiolitis–interstitial lung disease [RB-ILD] and

text: desquamative interstitial pneumonia

text: [DIP]); and acute/subacute IPs (i.e.

text: cryptogenic organizing pneumonia

text: [COP] and

text: acute interstitial pneumonia

text: [AIP].

text: Whooping cough, also called pertussis, is a contagious disease that affects the respiratory tract. The infection is caused by a bacterium that sticks to the cilia of the lungs, and can be very contagious. Pertussis can be especially dangerous for babies, whose immune system are not yet fully developed, and can develop into pneumonia or result in the baby having trouble breathing. DTaP is the primary vaccine given against pertussis, and children typically receive five doses before the age of seven. Tdap is the booster for pertussis, and is advised in the US to be administered every ten years, and during every pregnancy for mothers. Tdap can also be used as a booster against tetanus.

text: Whooping cough, also called pertussis, is a contagious disease that affects the respiratory tract. The infection is caused by a bacterium that sticks to the cilia of the lungs, and can be very contagious. Pertussis can be especially dangerous for babies, whose immune system are not yet fully developed, and can develop into pneumonia or result in the baby having trouble breathing.

text: DTaP

text: is the primary vaccine given against pertussis, and children typically receive five doses before the age of seven. Tdap is the booster for pertussis, and is advised in the US to be administered every ten years, and during every pregnancy for mothers. Tdap can also be used as a booster against tetanus.

text: Lung cancers are classified according to histological type. This classification is important for determining management and predicting outcomes of the disease. Lung cancers are carcinomas—malignancies that arise from epithelial cells. Lung carcinomas are categorized by the size and appearance of the malignant cells seen by a histopathologist under a microscope. For therapeutic purposes, two broad classes are distinguished: non-small-cell lung carcinoma and small-cell lung carcinoma.

text: Lung cancers are classified according to

text: histological type

text: . This classification is important for determining management and predicting outcomes of the disease. Lung cancers are

text: carcinoma

text: s—malignancies that arise from

text: epithelial cell

text: s. Lung carcinomas are categorized by the size and appearance of the malignant cells seen by a histopathologist under a

text: microscope

text: . For therapeutic purposes, two broad classes are distinguished:

text: non-small-cell lung carcinoma

text: and

text: small-cell lung carcinoma

text: Humans have two lungs, a right lung and a left lung. They are situated within the thoracic cavity of the chest. The right lung is bigger than the left, which shares space in the chest with the heart. The lungs together weigh approximately , and the right is heavier. The lungs are part of the lower respiratory tract that begins at the trachea and branches into the bronchi and bronchioles and which receive air breathed in via the conducting zone. These divide until air reaches microscopic alveoli, where the process of gas exchange takes place. Together, the lungs contain approximately  of airways and 300 to 500 million alveoli. The lungs are enclosed within a sac called the pleural sac which allows the inner and outer walls to slide over each other whilst breathing takes place, without much friction. This sac encloses each lung and also divides each lung into sections called lobes. The right lung has three lobes and the left has two. The lobes are further divided into  bronchopulmonary segments and lobules. The lungs have a unique blood supply, receiving deoxygenated blood sent from the heart for the purposes of receiving oxygen (the pulmonary circulation) and a separate supply of oxygenated blood (the bronchial circulation).

text: Humans have two lungs, a right lung and a left lung. They are situated within the

text: thoracic cavity

text: of the

text: chest

text: . The right lung is bigger than the left, which shares space in the chest with the

text: heart

text: . The lungs together weigh approximately , and the right is heavier. The lungs are part of the

text: lower respiratory tract

text: that begins at the

text: trachea

text: and branches into the

text: bronchi

text: and

text: bronchioles

text: and which receive

text: air

text: breathed in

text: via the

text: conducting zone

text: . These divide until air reaches microscopic

text: alveoli

text: , where the process of

text: gas exchange

text: takes place. Together, the lungs contain approximately  of airways and 300 to 500 million alveoli. The lungs are enclosed within a sac called the

text: pleural sac

text: which allows the

text: inner and outer walls

text: to slide over each other whilst

text: breathing

text: takes place, without much friction. This sac encloses each lung and also divides each lung into sections called

text: lobes

text: . The right lung has three lobes and the left has two. The lobes are further divided into

text: bronchopulmonary segment

text: s and lobules. The lungs have a unique blood supply, receiving deoxygenated blood sent from the heart for the purposes of receiving oxygen (the

text: pulmonary circulation

text: ) and a separate supply of oxygenated blood (the

text: bronchial circulation

text: Changes in volume of the thoracic cavity can also be inferred from displacements of the rib cage and diaphragm. Motion of the rib cage can be directly assessed, whereas the motion of the diaphragm is indirectly assessed as the outward movement of the anterolateral abdominal wall. However, accuracy issues arise when trying to assess accurate respiratory volumes from a single respiration band placed either at the thorax, abdomen or midline. Due to differences in posture and thoraco-abdominal respiratory synchronization it is not possible to obtain accurate respiratory volumes with a single band. Furthermore, the shape of the acquired waveform tends to be non-linear due to the non-exact co-ordination of the two respiratory compartments. This further limits quantification of many useful respiratory indices and limits utility to only respiration rates and other basic timing indices.  Therefore, to accurately perform volumetric respiratory measurements, a dual band respiratory sensor system must be required.

text: Changes in volume of the thoracic cavity can also be inferred from displacements of the rib cage and

text: diaphragm

text: . Motion of the rib cage can be directly assessed, whereas the motion of the diaphragm is indirectly assessed as the outward movement of the anterolateral abdominal wall. However, accuracy issues arise when trying to assess accurate respiratory volumes from a single respiration band placed either at the thorax, abdomen or midline. Due to differences in posture and thoraco-abdominal respiratory synchronization it is not possible to obtain accurate respiratory volumes with a single band. Furthermore, the shape of the acquired waveform tends to be non-linear due to the non-exact co-ordination of the two respiratory compartments. This further limits quantification of many useful respiratory indices and limits utility to only respiration rates and other basic timing indices.  Therefore, to accurately perform volumetric respiratory measurements, a dual band respiratory sensor system must be required.

text: Clay was diagnosed with severe emphysema at the age of 37. With a membership in excess of 285,000 at the time of Clay's pensioning off due to illness in September 1989, no labor organization unaffiliated with the Trades Union Congress surpassed the RCN in size, and none had a greater rate of expansion. Clay's respiratory disease claimed his life, aged 57, in 1994.

text: Clay was diagnosed with severe

text: emphysema

text: at the age of 37. With a membership in excess of 285,000 at the time of Clay's pensioning off due to illness in September 1989, no labor organization unaffiliated with the Trades Union Congress surpassed the RCN in size, and none had a greater rate of expansion. Clay's respiratory disease claimed his life, aged 57, in 1994.

text: Pneumonia is usually caused by infection with viruses or bacteria and less commonly by other microorganisms, certain medications and conditions such as autoimmune diseases. Risk factors include other lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis, COPD, and asthma, diabetes, heart failure, a history of smoking, a poor ability to cough such as following a stroke, or a weak immune system. Diagnosis is often based on the symptoms and physical examination. Chest X-ray, blood tests, and culture of the sputum may help confirm the diagnosis. The disease may be classified by where it was acquired with community, hospital, or health care associated pneumonia.

text: Pneumonia is usually caused by infection with

text: virus

text: es or

text: bacteria

text: and less commonly by other

text: microorganism

text: s, certain

text: medications

text: and conditions such as

text: autoimmune disease

text: s. Risk factors include other lung diseases such as

text: cystic fibrosis

text: COPD

text: , and

text: asthma

text: diabetes

text: heart failure

text: , a history of

text: smoking

text: , a poor ability to cough such as following a

text: stroke

text: , or a

text: weak immune system

text: . Diagnosis is often based on the symptoms and

text: physical examination

text: Chest X-ray

text: , blood tests, and

text: culture

text: of the

text: sputum

text: may help confirm the diagnosis. The disease may be classified by where it was acquired with community, hospital, or health care associated pneumonia.

text: DPB and bronchiolitis obliterans are two forms of primary bronchiolitis. Specific overlapping features of both diseases include strong cough with large amounts of often pus-filled sputum; nodules viewable on lung X-rays in the lower bronchi and bronchiolar area; and chronic sinusitis. In DPB, the nodules are more restricted to the respiratory bronchioles, while in OB they are often found in the membranous bronchioles (the initial non-cartilaginous section of the bronchiole, that divides from the tertiary bronchus) up to the secondary bronchus. OB is a bronchiolar disease with worldwide prevalence, while DPB has more localized prevalence, predominantly in Japan. Prior to clinical recognition of DPB in recent years, it was often misdiagnosed as bronchiectasia, COPD, IPF, phthisis miliaris, sarcoidosis or alveolar cell carcinoma.

text: DPB and

text: bronchiolitis obliterans

text: are two forms of primary bronchiolitis. Specific overlapping features of both diseases include strong cough with large amounts of often pus-filled sputum; nodules viewable on lung X-rays in the lower bronchi and bronchiolar area; and chronic sinusitis. In DPB, the nodules are more restricted to the respiratory bronchioles, while in OB they are often found in the membranous bronchioles (the initial non-cartilaginous section of the bronchiole, that divides from the

text: tertiary bronchus

text: ) up to the

text: secondary bronchus

text: . OB is a bronchiolar disease with worldwide prevalence, while DPB has more localized prevalence, predominantly in Japan. Prior to clinical recognition of DPB in recent years, it was often misdiagnosed as

text: bronchiectasia

text: COPD

text: IPF

text: phthisis miliaris

text: sarcoidosis

text: or

text: alveolar cell carcinoma

text: Seven out of ten childhood deaths are due to infectious diseases: acute respiratory infection, diarrhea, measles, and malaria. Acute respiratory infection such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis account for 30% of childhood deaths; 95% of pneumonia cases occur in the developing world. Diarrhea is the second-largest cause of childhood mortality in the world, while malaria causes 11% of childhood deaths. Measles is the fifth-largest cause of childhood mortality. Folic acid for mothers is one way to combat iron deficiency. A few public health measures used to lower levels of iron deficiency anemia include iodize salt or drinking water, and include vitamin A and multivitamin supplements into a mother's diet. A deficiency of this vitamin causes certain types of anemia (low red blood cell count).

text: Seven out of ten childhood deaths are due to infectious diseases:

text: acute respiratory infection

text: diarrhea

text: measles

text: , and

text: malaria

text: . Acute respiratory infection such as

text: pneumonia

text: bronchitis

text: , and

text: bronchiolitis

text: account for 30% of childhood deaths; 95% of pneumonia cases occur in the developing world. Diarrhea is the second-largest cause of childhood mortality in the world, while malaria causes 11% of childhood deaths. Measles is the fifth-largest cause of childhood mortality.

text: Folic acid

text: for mothers is one way to combat iron deficiency. A few

text: public health

text: measures used to lower levels of iron deficiency anemia include iodize salt or drinking water, and include vitamin A and multivitamin supplements into a mother's diet. A deficiency of this vitamin causes certain types of

text: anemia

text: (low red blood cell count).

text: Lung cancers are now considered a large and extremely heterogeneous family of neoplasms that feature widely varying genetic, biological, and clinical characteristics. About 50 different lung cancer variants are recognized under the 2004 revision of the World Health Organization ("WHO-2004") histological typing system, the most widely recognized and used lung cancer classification scheme. Recent studies have shown beyond doubt that the old classification paradigm of "small cell carcinoma vs. non-small cell carcinoma" is now obsolete, and that the correct "subclassification" of lung cancer cases is necessary to assure that patients receive optimum management.

text: Lung cancers are now considered a large and extremely

text: heterogeneous

text: family of

text: neoplasms

text: that feature widely varying

text: gene

text: tic,

text: biological

text: , and

text: clinical

text: characteristics. About 50 different lung cancer variants are recognized under the 2004 revision of the

text: World Health Organization

text: histological

text: typing system, the most widely recognized and used lung cancer classification scheme. Recent studies have shown beyond doubt that the old classification paradigm of "small cell carcinoma vs. non-small cell carcinoma" is now obsolete, and that the correct "subclassification" of lung cancer cases is necessary to assure that patients receive optimum

text: management

text: Cat flu is the common name for a feline upper respiratory tract disease. While feline upper respiratory disease can be caused by several different pathogens, there are  few symptoms that they have in common.

text: Cat flu is the common name for a

text: feline

text: upper

text: respiratory

text: tract disease. While feline upper respiratory disease can be caused by several different pathogens, there are  few symptoms that they have in common.

text: 13 M.D.Tuberculosis and Respiratory Diseases

text: Mono-nitrogen oxides NO and NO (whether produced this way or naturally by lightning) react with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form nitric acid vapor and related particles. Small particles can penetrate deeply into sensitive lung tissue and damage it, causing premature death in extreme cases. Inhalation of such particles may cause or worsen respiratory diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis. It may also aggravate existing heart disease.  In a 2005 U.S. EPA study the largest emissions of NOx came from on road motor vehicles, with the second largest contributor being non-road equipment which is mostly gasoline and diesel stations.

text: Mono-nitrogen oxides NO and NO (whether produced this way or naturally by

text: lightning

text: ) react with

text: ammonia

text: , moisture, and other compounds to form

text: nitric acid

text: vapor and related particles. Small particles can penetrate deeply into sensitive lung tissue and damage it, causing premature death in extreme cases. Inhalation of such particles may cause or worsen respiratory diseases such as

text: emphysema

text: and

text: bronchitis

text: . It may also aggravate existing heart disease.  In a 2005

text: U.S. EPA

text: study the largest emissions of NOx came from on road motor vehicles, with the second largest contributor being

text: non-road equipment

text: which is mostly gasoline and diesel stations.

text: In order to keep patients safe, hospitals use a range of technologies to combat airborne pathogens.  Isolation rooms can be designed to feature positive or negative air-pressure flows.  Positive-pressure rooms are used when there are patients who are extremely susceptible to disease, such as HIV patients. For these patients, it is paramount to prevent the ingress of any microorganisms, including common fungi and bacteria that may be harmless to healthy people.  These systems filter the air before delivery with a HEPA filter and then pump it into the isolation room at high pressure, which forces air from the isolation room out into the hallway.  In a negative-pressure system, the focus is on keeping infectious diseases isolated by controlling the airflow and directing harmful aerosols away from health care workers and other occupied areas. Negative pressure isolation rooms keep contaminants and pathogens from reaching external areas. The most common application of these rooms in the health industry today is for isolating tuberculosis patients.  To do this, the air is exhausted from the room at a rate greater than that at which it is being delivered.  This makes it difficult for airborne disease to go from a contaminated area to a hospital hallway, because air is constantly being drawn into the room rather than escaping from it.

text: In order to keep patients safe, hospitals use a range of technologies to combat airborne pathogens.  Isolation rooms can be designed to feature positive or negative air-pressure flows.  Positive-pressure rooms are used when there are patients who are extremely susceptible to disease, such as

text: HIV

text: patients. For these patients, it is paramount to prevent the ingress of any microorganisms, including common fungi and bacteria that may be harmless to healthy people.  These systems filter the air before delivery with a HEPA filter and then pump it into the isolation room at high pressure, which forces air from the isolation room out into the hallway.  In a

text: negative-pressure system

text: , the focus is on keeping infectious diseases isolated by controlling the airflow and directing harmful aerosols away from health care workers and other occupied areas. Negative pressure isolation rooms keep contaminants and pathogens from reaching external areas. The most common application of these rooms in the health industry today is for isolating tuberculosis patients.  To do this, the air is exhausted from the room at a rate greater than that at which it is being delivered.  This makes it difficult for airborne disease to go from a contaminated area to a hospital hallway, because air is constantly being drawn into the room rather than escaping from it.

text: M. tuberculosis is highly aerobic and requires high levels of oxygen. [Theoretically, a chemical that interferes with the bacteria's absorption of oxygen will defeat it.] It is primarily a pathogen of the mammalian respiratory system, infecting the lungs.

text: Increased production and excretion of LTE4 has been linked to several respiratory diseases, and urinary LTE4 levels are increased during severe asthma attacks and are especially high in people with aspirin-induced asthma, also known as Samter’s Triad or aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD).

text: Increased production and excretion of LTE4 has been linked to several respiratory diseases, and urinary LTE4 levels are increased during severe asthma attacks and are especially high in people with

text: aspirin-induced asthma

text: , also known as Samter’s Triad or aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD).

text: Diffuse alveolar damage is a histological pattern in lung disease.  It is seen in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), transfusion related acute lung injury (TRALI) and acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP).

text: Diffuse alveolar damage is a

text: histological

text: pattern in lung disease.  It is seen in

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: (ARDS),

text: transfusion related acute lung injury

text: (TRALI) and

text: acute interstitial pneumonia

text: (AIP).

text: With emphysema the shortness of breath due to effective bronchoconstriction from excessive very thick mucous blockage (it is so thick that great difficulty is encountered in expelling it resulting in near exhaustion at times) can bring on panic attacks unless the individual expects this and has effectively learned pursed lip breathing to more quickly transfer oxygen to the blood via the damaged alveoli resulting from the disease.  The most common cause of emphysema is smoking and smoking cessation is mandatory if this incurable disease is to be treated.  Prevention of bronchoconstriction by this pathway is vital for emphysema sufferers and there are several anticholinergic medications that can greatly improve the quality of life for these individuals.  In combination with mucous thinning agents such as Guaifenesin significant improvement in breathing can be accomplished.

text: With emphysema the shortness of breath due to effective bronchoconstriction from excessive very thick mucous blockage (it is so thick that great difficulty is encountered in expelling it resulting in near exhaustion at times) can bring on panic attacks unless the individual expects this and has effectively learned pursed lip breathing to more quickly transfer oxygen to the blood via the damaged alveoli resulting from the disease.  The most common cause of emphysema is smoking and

text: smoking cessation

text: is mandatory if this incurable disease is to be treated.  Prevention of bronchoconstriction by this pathway is vital for emphysema sufferers and there are several

text: anticholinergic

text: medications that can greatly improve the quality of life for these individuals.  In combination with mucous thinning agents such as

text: Guaifenesin

text: significant improvement in breathing can be accomplished.

text: Reduced food intake, while hunger is held on to, may also be responsible for significant weight loss. Restrictive diets can lead to significant weight loss, as can psychological problems, depression and social problems and issues; Anorexia nervosa, in the case where a denial of weight loss and thinness and were maintaining the same physical activity; Certain digestive diseases or ENT (discomfort food) can induce weight loss. Weight loss can also occur with a normal or even sometimes reduced food intake. An infectious disease that is accompanied by fever, tuberculosis, HIV infection, endocarditis or chronic inflammatory disease with febrile vasculitis, Behcet’s disease, connective, Still’s disease, sarcoidosis, certain cancers or blood diseases; A chronic disease without fever, cancer, metabolic diseases, respiratory insufficiency, hepatic or digestive diseases associated with signs of deficiency. Some neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s disease  may also be the cause of weight loss significantly. Poisoning like chronic alcoholism, drug addiction or taking drugs by mistake are also common causes. Taking too much medication is a major cause of weight loss in the elderly and weak people where the single dose capsules or tablets is able to suppress appetite.

text: Reduced food intake, while hunger is held on to, may also be responsible for significant weight loss. Restrictive diets can lead to significant weight loss, as can psychological problems, depression and social problems and issues; Anorexia nervosa, in the case where a denial of weight loss and thinness and were maintaining the same physical activity; Certain digestive diseases or ENT (discomfort food) can induce weight loss. Weight loss can also occur with a normal or even sometimes reduced food intake. An infectious disease that is accompanied by fever, tuberculosis, HIV infection, endocarditis or chronic inflammatory disease with

text: febrile vasculitis

text: Behcet’s disease

text: , connective,

text: Still’s disease

text: sarcoidosis

text: , certain cancers or blood diseases; A chronic disease without fever, cancer, metabolic diseases, respiratory insufficiency, hepatic or digestive diseases associated with signs of deficiency. Some neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s disease  may also be the cause of weight loss significantly. Poisoning like chronic alcoholism, drug addiction or taking drugs by mistake are also common causes. Taking too much medication is a major cause of weight loss in the elderly and weak people where the single dose capsules or tablets is able to suppress appetite.

text: Pneumonia can cause respiratory failure by triggering acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which results from a combination of infection and inflammatory response. The lungs quickly fill with fluid and become stiff. This stiffness, combined with severe difficulties extracting oxygen due to the alveolar fluid, may require long periods of mechanical ventilation for survival.

text: Pneumonia can cause respiratory failure by triggering

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: (ARDS), which results from a combination of infection and inflammatory response. The lungs quickly fill with fluid and become stiff. This stiffness, combined with severe difficulties extracting oxygen due to the alveolar fluid, may require long periods of

text: mechanical ventilation

text: for survival.

text: Approximately 98% of lung cancers are carcinoma, or tumors derived from transformed cells of epithelial lineage.<ref name='TravisTravis'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Travis WD, Travis LB, Devesa SS |title=Lung cancer |journal=Cancer |volume=75 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=191–202 |date=January 1995 |pmid=8000996 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(19950101)75:1+

text: Approximately 98% of lung cancers are

text: carcinoma

text: , or tumors derived from transformed cells of

text: epithelial

text: lineage.<ref name='TravisTravis'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Travis WD, Travis LB, Devesa SS |title=Lung cancer |journal=Cancer |volume=75 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=191–202 |date=January 1995 |pmid=8000996 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(19950101)75:1+

text: The lungs are the primary organs of respiration in humans and many other animals including a few fish and some snails. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their function in the respiratory system is to extract oxygen from the atmosphere and transfer it into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of gas exchange. Respiration is driven by different muscular systems in different species. Mammals, reptiles and birds use their musculoskeletal systems to support and foster breathing. In early tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping, a mechanism still seen in amphibians. In humans, the primary muscle that drives breathing is the diaphragm. The lungs also provide airflow that makes vocal sounds including human speech possible.

text: The lungs are the primary

text: organs of respiration

text: in humans and many other animals including a few

text: fish

text: and some

text: snail

text: s. In

text: mammal

text: s and most other

text: vertebrate

text: s, two lungs are located near the

text: backbone

text: on either side of the

text: heart

text: . Their function in the

text: respiratory system

text: is to extract

text: oxygen

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: and transfer it into the

text: bloodstream

text: , and to release

text: carbon dioxide

text: from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of

text: gas exchange

text: Respiration

text: is driven by different

text: muscular systems

text: in different species. Mammals,

text: reptile

text: s and

text: bird

text: s use their

text: musculoskeletal system

text: s to support and foster

text: breathing

text: . In early

text: tetrapod

text: s, air was driven into the lungs by the

text: pharyngeal muscles

text: via

text: buccal pumping

text: , a mechanism still seen in

text: amphibian

text: s. In humans, the primary muscle that drives breathing is the

text: diaphragm

text: . The lungs also provide airflow that makes vocal sounds including human

text: speech

text: possible.

text: Penafiel is the centre for therapeutic treatments and spas, highlighted by the São Vicente Spa and the Inatel Entre-os Rios Spa. The São Vicente is known for the characteristic quality of its waters: the spa is known for the hyper-mineralized waters, that include concentrated sulphurous and carbonaceous akline silicates and fluoridated water. It is considered the most alkaline among the sulphurous waters of Portugal and Europe, with temperatures of about , advocated for the treatment of respiratory diseases and musculo-skeletal system ailments.

text: According to a US report published in 2004, coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year in the US (2,800 from lung cancer). The U.S. EPA estimates that a range of 13,000 to 34,000 premature deaths will be avoided by reductions in PM2.5 and ozone expected by the end of the several-years time needed to complete implementation of the coal plant cleanup of the Final Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR). Additionally, the CSAPR is estimated to prevent 15,000 another (non-fatal) heart attacks, 19,000 cases of acute bronchitis; 420,000 upper and lower respiratory symptoms, 400,000 aggravated asthma attacks; and 19,000 hospital and ER trips.  Implementation of the CSAPR is expected to reduce days missed at work or school by 1.8 million.

text: According to a US report published in 2004, coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year in the US (2,800 from

text: lung cancer

text: ). The U.S. EPA estimates that a range of 13,000 to 34,000 premature deaths will be avoided by reductions in

text: and ozone expected by the end of the several-years time needed to complete implementation of the coal plant cleanup of the Final

text: Cross-State Air Pollution Rule

text: (CSAPR). Additionally, the CSAPR is estimated to prevent 15,000 another (non-fatal) heart attacks, 19,000 cases of acute bronchitis; 420,000 upper and lower respiratory symptoms, 400,000 aggravated asthma attacks; and 19,000 hospital and

text: ER

text: trips.  Implementation of the CSAPR is expected to reduce days missed at work or school by 1.8 million.

text: At the age of 61, Don Pietromonaco, actor and veteran voiceover coach, died from complications due to emphysema.

text: *Chow Yam-nam, 76, Thai mystic, respiratory disease.

text: Chow Yam-nam

text: , 76, Thai mystic, respiratory disease.

text: At the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, Crofton was appointed Chair of the Respiratory Diseases and Tuberculosis in 1952. In Scotland, he developed what came to be known as the "Edinburgh Method" for tuberculosis treatment. The essence of the method was the use of multiple drugs taken simultaneously to reduce the chance for drug-resistant strains of the tubercle bacilli to develop; this combined with careful monitoring of patients to ensure that they adhered to the prescribed medication regime. His team were able to demonstrate that mortality, and the spread of the disease in the community, could be reduced almost to zero if medication was properly prescribed and properly taken. The incidence of tuberculosis in Edinburgh declined rapidly, and Crofton spent much of the rest of his career travelling around the UK and the wider world attempting to get this message across.

text: At the

text: University of Edinburgh

text: , Scotland, Crofton was appointed Chair of the Respiratory Diseases and Tuberculosis in 1952. In Scotland, he developed what came to be known as the "Edinburgh Method" for tuberculosis treatment. The essence of the method was the use of multiple drugs taken simultaneously to reduce the chance for drug-resistant strains of the tubercle bacilli to develop; this combined with careful monitoring of patients to ensure that they adhered to the prescribed medication regime. His team were able to demonstrate that mortality, and the spread of the disease in the community, could be reduced almost to zero if medication was properly prescribed and properly taken. The incidence of tuberculosis in Edinburgh declined rapidly, and Crofton spent much of the rest of his career travelling around the UK and the wider world attempting to get this message across.

text: New criteria by the ABPA Complicated Asthma ISHAM Working Group suggests a 6-stage criteria for the diagnosis of ABPA, though this is yet to be formalised into official guidelines. This would replace the current gold standard staging protocol devised by Patterson and colleagues. Stage 0 would represent an asymptomatic form of ABPA, with controlled asthma but still fulfilling the fundamental diagnostic requirements of a positive skin test with elevated total IgE (>1000 IU/mL). Stage 6 is an advanced ABPA, with the presence of type II respiratory failure or pulmonary heart disease, with radiological evidence of severe fibrosis consistent with ABPA on a high-resolution CT scan. It must be diagnosed after excluding the other, reversible causes of acute respiratory failure.

text: New criteria by the ABPA Complicated Asthma ISHAM Working Group suggests a 6-stage criteria for the diagnosis of ABPA, though this is yet to be formalised into official guidelines. This would replace the current gold standard staging protocol devised by Patterson and colleagues. Stage 0 would represent an asymptomatic form of ABPA, with controlled asthma but still fulfilling the fundamental diagnostic requirements of a positive skin test with elevated total IgE (>1000 IU/mL). Stage 6 is an advanced ABPA, with the presence of type II respiratory failure or

text: pulmonary heart disease

text: , with radiological evidence of severe fibrosis consistent with ABPA on a high-resolution CT scan. It must be diagnosed after excluding the other, reversible causes of

text: acute respiratory failure

text: Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting beef cattle in the world. It is a complex, bacterial infection that causes pneumonia in calves and can possibly be fatal. The infection is usually a sum of three codependent factors: Stress, an underlying viral infection, and a new bacterial infection. The diagnosis of the disease is complex since there are multiple possible causes.

text: Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is the most common and costly disease affecting beef cattle in the world. It is a complex, bacterial infection that causes

text: pneumonia

text: in calves and can possibly be fatal. The infection is usually a sum of three codependent factors: Stress, an underlying viral infection, and a new bacterial infection. The diagnosis of the disease is complex since there are multiple possible causes.

text: There are some varieties of mold that contain toxic compounds (mycotoxins). However, exposure to hazardous levels of mycotoxin via inhalation is not possible in most cases, as toxins are produced by the fungal body and are not at significant levels in the released spores. The primary hazard of mold growth, as it relates to indoor air quality, comes from the allergenic properties of the spore cell wall. More serious than most allergenic properties is the ability of mold to trigger episodes in persons that already have asthma, a serious respiratory disease.

text: There are some varieties of mold that contain toxic compounds (mycotoxins). However, exposure to hazardous levels of mycotoxin via inhalation is not possible in most cases, as toxins are produced by the fungal body and are not at significant levels in the released spores. The primary hazard of mold growth, as it relates to indoor air quality, comes from the allergenic properties of the spore cell wall. More serious than most allergenic properties is the ability of mold to trigger episodes in persons that already have

text: asthma

text: , a serious respiratory disease.

text: Alfred Marcin Sokołowski (born 11 November 1849 - 8 March 1924) was a Polish pulmonologist and professor of the University of Warsaw. He specialised in the field of Phthisiatry (study of tuberculosis) and he was one of the pioneers of modern treatment to diseases of the respiratory system.

text: Alfred Marcin Sokołowski (born 11 November 1849 - 8 March 1924) was a

text: Polish

text: pulmonologist

text: and professor of the

text: University of Warsaw

text: . He specialised in the field of

text: Phthisiatry

text: (study of

text: tuberculosis

text: ) and he was one of the pioneers of modern treatment to diseases of the respiratory system.

text: The Union publishes two scientific journals; the International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IJTLD) and Public Health Action (PHA). The IJTLD is distributed to over 165 countries world-wide and has an impact factor of 2.76. The IJTLD is the reference for clinical research and epidemiological studies on tuberculosis. It is also the only peer-reviewed journal dedicated to lung health, including articles on non-tuberculosis-related respiratory diseases such as asthma, acute respiratory infection, COPD and the hazards of tobacco and pollution. Public Health Action is The Union's open-access online journal which is published quarterly. PHA addresses the need for showcasing operational research that addresses issues in health systems and services and aims to provide new knowledge to improve access, equity, quality and efficiency of health systems and services.

text: The Union publishes two scientific journals; the International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IJTLD) and Public Health Action (PHA). The IJTLD is distributed to over 165 countries world-wide and has an

text: impact factor

text: of 2.76. The IJTLD is the reference for clinical research and epidemiological studies on tuberculosis. It is also the only peer-reviewed journal dedicated to lung health, including articles on non-tuberculosis-related respiratory diseases such as asthma, acute respiratory infection, COPD and the hazards of tobacco and pollution. Public Health Action is The Union's open-access online journal which is published quarterly. PHA addresses the need for showcasing operational research that addresses issues in health systems and services and aims to provide new knowledge to improve access, equity, quality and efficiency of health systems and services.

text: The leading causes of mortality for all age groups are cerebrovascular diseases (11.6%); ischemic heart disease (9.9%); immunity disorders (7.1%); diseases of the respiratory system (6.8%); diseases of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease (6.6%); endocrine and metabolic diseases (5.5%); diseases of other parts of the Digestive System (5.2%); violence (5.1%); certain condition originating in the prenatal period (4.3%); and hypertensive diseases (3.9%). The ten leading causes of morbidity for all age groups are, in decreasing order: malaria; acute respiratory infections; symptoms, signs and ill defined or unknown conditions; hypertension; accident and injuries; acute diarrhoeal disease; diabetes mellitus; worm infestation; rheumatic arthritis; and mental and nervous disorders.

text: Small-cell carcinoma (SCC) of the cervix is an exceptional member of the neuroendocrine group of cervical carcinomas that is frequently intermixed with a non-SCC component in the form of an adenocarcinoma (ADC) or squamous carcinoma.  SCC is an aggressive tumor that spreads very quickly early on; this leads to a fatal clinical course and minimal chances of survival for the patients.  It resembles small-cell cancer of the lungs and accounts for less than 3% of all cervical cancers.  Like small-cell cancer in the lungs, the lymph nodes play a major role in spreading the cancer throughout the body.  SCC begins in the inner part of the cervix and is very hard to diagnose.  Due to the involvement of the lymph nodes, in its late and fatal stages, it can spread beyond the pelvic region to other organs.  The prevalence of the lymph nodes involvement and that systemic metastasis is much higher in SCC than in non-SCC, thus more complex treatments are required for SCC.  “Because of the distinct natural history of small cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix, and because patients with this condition are considered to have a systemic disease, the treatment strategies for this disease are different from those of other carcinomas” (ajronline.org).  According to a report (Yang, et al. 2003), multi-agent chemotherapy and pelvic radiotherapy before surgery (radical hysterectomy) followed by chemotherapy after surgery produce better outcomes for its patients.  Unfortunately, Pap smears alone are not adequate for the diagnosis of SCC; patients may be misdiagnosed with non-SCC on the basis of Pap smear results alone.  Imaging studies are necessary for proper diagnosis; it has been proposed that MRI is the highest standard for the imaging evaluation of uterine cervical cancer.  The major problem with early accurate diagnosis of SCC is the limitation of routine screening, namely the Pap smear.

text: Small-cell carcinoma (SCC) of the

text: cervix

text: is an exceptional member of the neuroendocrine group of cervical carcinomas that is frequently intermixed with a non-SCC component in the form of an

text: adenocarcinoma

text: (ADC) or

text: squamous carcinoma

text: .  SCC is an aggressive

text: tumor

text: that spreads very quickly early on; this leads to a fatal clinical course and minimal chances of survival for the patients.  It resembles small-cell cancer of the lungs and accounts for less than 3% of all cervical cancers.  Like small-cell cancer in the lungs, the

text: lymph nodes

text: play a major role in spreading the cancer throughout the body.  SCC begins in the inner part of the

text: cervix

text: and is very hard to diagnose.  Due to the involvement of the

text: lymph nodes

text: , in its late and fatal stages, it can spread beyond the pelvic region to other organs.  The prevalence of the lymph nodes involvement and that systemic

text: metastasis

text: is much higher in SCC than in non-SCC, thus more complex treatments are required for SCC.  “Because of the distinct natural history of small cell carcinoma of the

text: uterine

text: cervix

text: , and because patients with this condition are considered to have a

text: systemic disease

text: , the treatment strategies for this disease are different from those of other

text: carcinomas

text: ” (ajronline.org).  According to a report (Yang, et al. 2003), multi-agent

text: chemotherapy

text: and pelvic

text: radiotherapy

text: before surgery (radical

text: hysterectomy

text: ) followed by

text: chemotherapy

text: after surgery produce better outcomes for its patients.  Unfortunately, Pap smears alone are not adequate for the

text: diagnosis

text: of SCC; patients may be misdiagnosed with non-SCC on the basis of

text: Pap smear

text: results alone.  Imaging studies are necessary for proper diagnosis; it has been proposed that

text: MRI

text: is the highest standard for the imaging evaluation of uterine

text: cervical cancer

text: .  The major problem with early accurate diagnosis of SCC is the limitation of routine screening, namely the

text: Pap smear

text: They are in use since a very long time in Hindu medicine or Ayurveda . Bitter melon has been used in various Asian and African herbal medicine systems for a long time. In Turkey, it has been used as a folk remedy for a variety of ailments, particularly stomach complaints. In traditional medicine of India different parts of the plant are used as claimed treatments for diabetes, as a stomachic, laxative, antibilious, emetic, anthelmintic agent, for the treatment of cough, respiratory diseases, skin diseases, wounds, ulcer, gout, and rheumatism.

text: They are in use since a very long time in Hindu medicine or

text: Ayurveda

text: . Bitter melon has been used in various Asian and African

text: herbal medicine

text: systems for a long time. In Turkey, it has been used as a folk remedy for a variety of ailments, particularly stomach complaints. In

text: traditional medicine

text: of India different parts of the plant are used as claimed treatments for

text: diabetes

text: , as a

text: stomachic

text: laxative

text: , antibilious,

text: emetic

text: anthelmintic

text: agent, for the treatment of

text: cough

text: , respiratory diseases, skin diseases, wounds,

text: ulcer

text: gout

text: , and

text: rheumatism

text: Airborne pathogens or allergens often cause inflammation in the nose, throat, sinuses and the lungs. This is caused by the inhalation of these pathogens that affect a person's respiratory system or even the rest of the body. Sinus congestion, coughing and sore throats are examples of inflammation of the upper respiratory air way due to these airborne agents. Air pollution plays a significant role in airborne diseases which is linked to asthma. Pollutants are said to influence lung function by increasing air way inflammation.

text: Airborne pathogens or

text: allergens

text: often cause

text: inflammation

text: in the nose, throat, sinuses and the lungs. This is caused by the inhalation of these pathogens that affect a person's respiratory system or even the rest of the body. Sinus congestion, coughing and sore throats are examples of inflammation of the upper respiratory air way due to these airborne agents. Air pollution plays a significant role in airborne diseases which is linked to

text: asthma

text: Pollutants

text: are said to influence lung function by increasing air way inflammation.

text: Pneumonia frequently starts as an upper respiratory tract infection that moves into the lower respiratory tract. It is pneumonitis (lung inflammation) combined with consolidation (liquid in spaces normally inflated with air).

text: Pneumonia frequently starts as an

text: upper respiratory tract infection

text: that moves into the lower respiratory tract. It is

text: pneumonitis

text: (lung inflammation) combined with

text: consolidation

text: (liquid in spaces normally inflated with air).

text: Tuberculosis is a major public health problem in China. China has the world's third largest cases of tuberculosis (after India and Indonesia), but progress in tuberculosis control was slow during the 1990s. Detection of tuberculosis had stagnated at around 30% of the estimated total of new cases, and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis was a major problem. These signs of inadequate tuberculosis control can be linked to a malfunctioning health system. The spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003, brought to light substantial weaknesses in the country's public health system. After the government realized the impact that the SARS outbreak had on the country, they increased leadership in their health department. After the SARS epidemic was brought under control, the government increased its commitment and leadership to tackle public health problems and, among other efforts, increased public health funding, revised laws that concerned the control of infectious diseases, implemented the world's largest internet-based disease reporting system to improve transparency, reach and speed, and started a program to rebuild local public health facilities and national infrastructure.

text: Tuberculosis

text: is a major

text: public health

text: problem in

text: China

text: . China has the world's third largest cases of

text: tuberculosis

text: (after

text: India

text: and

text: Indonesia

text: ), but progress in tuberculosis control was slow during the 1990s. Detection of tuberculosis had stagnated at around 30% of the estimated total of new cases, and

text: multidrug-resistant

text: tuberculosis was a major problem. These signs of inadequate tuberculosis control can be linked to a malfunctioning

text: health system

text: . The spread of

text: severe acute respiratory syndrome

text: (SARS) in 2003, brought to light substantial weaknesses in the country's

text: public health system

text: . After the government realized the impact that the SARS outbreak had on the country, they increased leadership in their health department. After the

text: SARS epidemic

text: was brought under control, the government increased its commitment and leadership to tackle public health problems and, among other efforts, increased public health funding, revised laws that concerned the control of infectious diseases, implemented the world's largest internet-based disease reporting system to improve transparency, reach and speed, and started a program to rebuild local public health facilities and national infrastructure.

text: The Lung Centre specializes in the treatment of pulmonary conditions such as asthma, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis, lung cancer, occupational and environmental lung diseases, sarcoidosis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, pulmonary hypertension and interstitial lung disease.

text: The Lung Centre specializes in the treatment of pulmonary conditions such as asthma, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis, lung cancer, occupational and environmental lung diseases, sarcoidosis, pneumonia, tuberculosis,

text: pulmonary hypertension

text: and interstitial lung disease.

text: For the public, chronic exposure to  can cause respiratory effects including airway inflammation in healthy people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma.  creates ozone which causes eye irritation and exacerbates respiratory conditions, leading to increased visits to emergency departments and hospital admissions for respiratory issues, especially asthma.

text: For the public, chronic exposure to  can cause respiratory effects including airway inflammation in healthy people and increased respiratory symptoms in people with asthma.  creates

text: ozone

text: which causes eye irritation and exacerbates respiratory conditions, leading to increased visits to emergency departments and hospital admissions for respiratory issues, especially asthma.

text: Recurrent airway obstruction, also known as broken wind, heaves, wind-broke horse, or sometimes by the term usually reserved for humans, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or disorder (COPD) – it is a respiratory disease or chronic condition of horses involving an allergic bronchitis characterised by wheezing, coughing and laboured breathing.

text: Recurrent airway obstruction, also known as broken wind, heaves, wind-broke horse, or sometimes by the term usually reserved for humans,

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: or disorder (COPD) – it is a

text: respiratory disease

text: or

text: chronic

text: condition of horses involving an

text: allergic

text: bronchitis

text: characterised by wheezing, coughing and laboured breathing.

text: Measurement of airway pressure (Paw), flow (F) and volume (Vol) during mechanical ventilation assists in the differential diagnosis of respiratory failure. Airway occlusion technique makes possible to carefully characterize the mechanics of the lung, chest wall, and the total respiratory system. Patients with  acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) can have a modified elastance due to a stiffer lung or a stiffer chest wall depending in the origin of the disease. Patients with ARDS of pulmonary origin are at greater risk of ventilator lung injury than those of non pulmonary origin.

text: Measurement of airway pressure (Paw), flow (F) and volume (Vol) during mechanical ventilation assists in the differential diagnosis of respiratory failure. Airway occlusion technique makes possible to carefully characterize the mechanics of the lung, chest wall, and the total respiratory system. Patients with

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)

text: can have a modified elastance due to a stiffer lung or a stiffer chest wall depending in the origin of the disease. Patients with ARDS of pulmonary origin are at greater risk of ventilator lung injury than those of non pulmonary origin.

text: Bronchodilator:A bronchodilator is a substance that dilates the bronchi and bronchioles, decreasing resistance in the respiratory airway and increasing airflow to the lungs. Bronchodilators may be endogenous (originating naturally within the body), or they may be medications administered for the treatment of breathing difficulties. They are most useful in obstructive lung diseases, of which asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are the most common conditions. Although this remains somewhat controversial, they might be useful in bronchiolitis and Bronchiectasis. They are often prescribed but of unproven significance in restrictive lung diseases.

text: Bronchodilator:A bronchodilator is a substance that dilates the bronchi and bronchioles, decreasing resistance in the

text: respiratory airway

text: and increasing airflow to the

text: lung

text: s. Bronchodilators may be endogenous (originating naturally within the body), or they may be

text: medication

text: s administered for the treatment of breathing difficulties. They are most useful in

text: obstructive lung disease

text: s, of which

text: asthma

text: and

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: are the most common conditions. Although this remains somewhat controversial, they might be useful in

text: bronchiolitis

text: and

text: Bronchiectasis

text: . They are often prescribed but of unproven significance in

text: restrictive lung disease

text: s.

text: In cells of non-haematopoietic lineage, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and chemotherapy induce LTC biosynthesis by transcriptionally upregulating and activating the enzyme microsomal glutathione-S-transferase 2 (MGST2). ER stress and chemotherapy also trigger nuclear translocation of the two LTC receptors. Acting in an intracrine manner, LTC then elicits nuclear translocation of NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4), ROS accumulation and oxidative DNA damage. Besides being a potent lipid mediator in asthma and inflammation, LTC was reported to be involved in several other diseases, such as allergic airway diseases, dermatological diseases, cardiovascular diseases, liver injury, atherosclerosis and colon cancer.

text: In cells of non-

text: haematopoietic

text: lineage,

text: endoplasmic reticulum

text: (ER) stress and

text: chemotherapy

text: induce LTC biosynthesis by transcriptionally upregulating and activating the enzyme

text: microsomal glutathione-S-transferase 2

text: (MGST2). ER stress and chemotherapy also trigger nuclear translocation of the two LTC receptors. Acting in an

text: intracrine

text: manner, LTC then elicits nuclear translocation of

text: NADPH oxidase 4

text: (NOX4), ROS accumulation and oxidative DNA damage. Besides being a potent lipid mediator in asthma and inflammation, LTC was reported to be involved in several other diseases, such as allergic airway diseases, dermatological diseases, cardiovascular diseases, liver injury, atherosclerosis and colon cancer.

text: Both Haemophilus influenzae (H. influenzae) and S. pneumoniae can be found in the human upper respiratory system.  A study of competition in vitro revealed  S. pneumoniae overpowered H. influenzae by attacking it with  hydrogen peroxide.

text: Both

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: (H. influenzae) and S. pneumoniae can be found in the human

text: upper respiratory system

text: .  A study of competition

text: in vitro

text: revealed  S. pneumoniae overpowered H. influenzae by attacking it with

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: Many different conditions can lead to the feeling of dyspnea (shortness of breath). DiagnosisPro, an online medical expert system, listed 497 in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are acute myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure while common pulmonary causes include: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumothorax, and pneumonia.

text: Many different conditions can lead to the feeling of

text: dyspnea

text: (shortness of breath).

text: DiagnosisPro

text: , an online medical expert system, listed 497 in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are

text: acute myocardial infarction

text: and

text: congestive heart failure

text: while common pulmonary causes include:

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: asthma

text: pneumothorax

text: , and

text: pneumonia

text: RPL-554 (LS-193,855) is a drug candidate for respiratory diseases.  It is an analog of trequinsin, and like trequinsin, is a dual inhibitor of the phosphodiesterase enzymes PDE-3 and PDE-4.  As of October 2015, inhaled RPL-554 delivered via a nebulizer was in development for COPD and had been studied in asthma.

text: RPL-554 (LS-193,855) is a drug candidate for respiratory diseases.  It is an analog of

text: trequinsin

text: , and like trequinsin, is a dual inhibitor of the

text: phosphodiesterase

text: enzymes PDE-3 and PDE-4.  As of October 2015, inhaled RPL-554 delivered via a

text: nebulizer

text: was in development for COPD and had been studied in asthma.

text: Tobacco use leads most commonly to diseases affecting the heart, liver and lungs. Smoking is a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (including emphysema and chronic bronchitis), and cancer (particularly lung cancer, cancers of the larynx and mouth, and pancreatic cancer). It also causes peripheral vascular disease and hypertension. The effects depend on the number of years that a person smokes and on how much the person smokes. Starting smoking earlier in life and smoking cigarettes higher in tar increases the risk of these diseases. Also, environmental tobacco smoke, or secondhand smoke, has been shown to cause adverse health effects in people of all ages. Tobacco use is a significant factor in miscarriages among pregnant smokers, and it contributes to a number of other health problems of the fetus such as premature birth, low birth weight, and increases by 1.4 to 3 times the chance of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Incidence of erectile dysfunction is approximately 85 percent higher in male smokers compared to non-smokers.

text: Tobacco use leads most commonly to diseases affecting the heart, liver and lungs. Smoking is a major risk factor for

text: heart attacks

text: stroke

text: s,

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD) (including

text: emphysema

text: and

text: chronic bronchitis

text: ), and

text: cancer

text: (particularly

text: lung cancer

text: cancers of the larynx and mouth

text: , and

text: pancreatic cancer

text: ). It also causes peripheral vascular disease and

text: hypertension

text: . The effects depend on the number of years that a person smokes and on how much the person smokes. Starting smoking earlier in life and smoking cigarettes higher in

text: tar

text: increases the risk of these diseases. Also, environmental tobacco smoke, or

text: secondhand smoke

text: , has been shown to cause adverse health effects in people of all ages. Tobacco use is a significant factor in miscarriages among

text: pregnant smokers

text: , and it contributes to a number of other health problems of the fetus such as

text: premature birth

text: low birth weight

text: , and increases by 1.4 to 3 times the chance of

text: sudden infant death syndrome

text: (SIDS). Incidence of

text: erectile dysfunction

text: is approximately 85 percent higher in male smokers compared to non-smokers.

text: In order to be eligible for compensation, a worker must have been employed by a listed company, and have received an occupational radiation dose. Then the claimant must have developed cancer of the bladder, bone, brain and central nervous system, breast or uterus (for female workers), colon, liver, oesophagus, respiratory or lung, prostate, ovary, skin (non-Melanoma), thyroid or other tissues. Other compensable diseases include cataracts and leukaemias (with two exceptions). Some diseases are excluded on the basis that there is no convincing epidemiological evidence to link them with ionising radiation exposure. Excluded diseases include: Hodgkin’s disease, hairy cell leukaemia, chronic lymphatic leukaemia (CLL), malignant melanoma and mesothelioma.

text: In order to be eligible for compensation, a worker must have been employed by a listed company, and have received an occupational radiation dose. Then the claimant must have developed

text: cancer

text: of the

text: bladder

text: bone

text: brain

text: and central nervous system,

text: breast

text: or

text: uterus

text: (for female workers),

text: colon

text: liver

text: oesophagus

text: , respiratory or

text: lung

text: , prostate,

text: ovary

text: , skin (non-Melanoma),

text: thyroid

text: or other tissues. Other compensable diseases include

text: cataracts

text: and

text: leukaemias

text: (with two exceptions). Some diseases are excluded on the basis that there is no convincing epidemiological evidence to link them with ionising radiation exposure. Excluded diseases include:

text: Hodgkin’s disease

text: hairy cell leukaemia

text: chronic lymphatic leukaemia

text: (CLL),

text: malignant melanoma

text: and

text: mesothelioma

text: In 2006, St. Louis Children's Hospital and Washington University School of Medicine collaborated to establish the Children's Discovery Institute with a goal of accelerating cures for childhood disease in four areas: congenital heart disease, cancer, lung and respiratory disorders, and musculoskeletal diseases.

text: In 2006, St. Louis Children's Hospital and

entity_name: Washington University School of Medicine

text: Washington University School of Medicine

text: collaborated to establish the Children's Discovery Institute with a goal of accelerating cures for childhood disease in four areas: congenital heart disease, cancer, lung and respiratory disorders, and musculoskeletal diseases.

text: Middle Eastern Respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), a betacoronavirus, was reported in 2012 in Saudi Arabia. Although scientists have retroactively determined that the first case occurred in Jordan in 2012.  causes Middle Eastern Respiratory syndrome- a disease of the upper respiratory system. Typical symptoms include fever, cough, shortness of breath, and cold-like symptoms; more rare symptoms are pneumonia, gastroenteritis, and in worst cases, kidney failure. The fatality rate in the 2012 outbreak was 30-40%. Patients often die due to pulmonary edema in the final stages of the disease. The reservoir of the virus is still being investigated, but scientists believe it originated in bats and spread to camels; infections in humans are zoonotic. Inter-human transmission appears to be via direct contact with low communicability; long term interaction with an infected individual seems to be very important for transmission. Recent outbreaks have resulted from nosocomial infections and have been geographically limited to the Saudi peninsula (the 2015 South Korean outbreak originated with a traveler coming from Saudi Arabia). Currently, there is no vaccine for MERS-CoV. There is no anti-viral treatment for MERS; most patients receive symptomatic treatment and supportive care for vital organ function.

text: During the latter part of her career, Pereira rejected abstract expressionism and experienced difficulties with gallery owners and museum directors. She believed that art and literature were being swallowed up in "a chaotic void of mindlessness." Eventually, she left New York permanently and moved to Spain. She died of emphysema on January 11, 1971 in Marbella, Spain.

text: During the latter part of her career, Pereira rejected

text: abstract expressionism

text: and experienced difficulties with gallery owners and museum directors. She believed that art and literature were being swallowed up in "a chaotic void of mindlessness." Eventually, she left New York permanently and moved to Spain. She died of emphysema on January 11, 1971 in

text: Marbella

text: , Spain.

text: As calculated by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, in order to maintain a normal pH of 7.4 in the blood (whereby the pKa of carbonic acid is 6.1 at physiological temperature), a 20:1 bicarbonate to carbonic acid must constantly be maintained; this homeostasis is mainly mediated by pH sensors in the medulla oblongata of the brain and probably in the kidneys, linked via negative feedback loops to effectors in the respiratory and renal systems. In the blood of most animals, the bicarbonate buffer system is coupled to the lungs via respiratory compensation, the process by which the rate of breathing changes to compensate for changes in the blood concentration of CO. By Le Chȃtlier’s Principle, the release of CO from the lungs pushes the reaction above to the left, causing carbonic anhydrase to form CO until all excess acid is removed. Bicarbonate concentration is also further regulated by renal compensation, the process by which the kidneys regulate the concentration of bicarbonate ions by excreting H ions into the urine while, at the same time, secreting HCO ions into the blood plasma, or vice versa, depending on whether the plasma pH is falling or rising, respectively.

text: As calculated by the

text: Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

text: , in order to maintain a normal pH of 7.4 in the blood (whereby the pKa of carbonic acid is 6.1 at physiological temperature), a 20:1 bicarbonate to carbonic acid must constantly be maintained; this

text: homeostasis

text: is mainly mediated by pH sensors in the

text: medulla oblongata

text: of the brain and probably in the

text: kidney

text: s, linked via negative feedback loops to effectors in the

text: respiratory

text: and

text: renal

text: systems. In the blood of most animals, the bicarbonate buffer system is coupled to the

text: lung

text: s via

text: respiratory compensation

text: , the process by which the rate of breathing changes to compensate for changes in the blood concentration of CO. By

text: Le Chȃtlier’s Principle

text: , the release of CO from the lungs pushes the reaction above to the left, causing carbonic anhydrase to form CO until all excess acid is removed. Bicarbonate concentration is also further regulated by

text: renal compensation

text: , the process by which the kidneys regulate the concentration of bicarbonate ions by excreting H ions into the urine while, at the same time, secreting HCO ions into the blood plasma, or vice versa, depending on whether the plasma pH is falling or rising, respectively.

text: The medical profession warns that individuals with respiratory diseases such as asthma and emphysema should not inhale too much oxygen.Higher than normal oxygen partial pressure can also indirectly cause carbon dioxide narcosis in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).The FDA warns that in some situations, droplets of flavoring oil can be inhaled, which may contribute to an inflammation of the lungs. Some oxygen bar companies offer safe water-based aromas for flavoring in order to maintain compliance and stay within FDA guidelines.

text: The medical profession warns that individuals with respiratory diseases such as

text: asthma

text: and

text: emphysema

text: should not inhale too much oxygen.Higher than normal oxygen

text: partial pressure

text: can also indirectly cause

text: carbon dioxide narcosis

text: in patients with

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD).The

text: FDA

text: warns that in some situations, droplets of flavoring oil can be inhaled, which may contribute to an inflammation of the

text: lungs

text: . Some oxygen bar companies offer safe water-based aromas for flavoring in order to maintain compliance and stay within FDA guidelines.

text: In 2007 the American Association for Respiratory Care (AARC) began developing recommendations for the promotion of the field of respiratory care in the United States in response to increased concern regarding licensure and credentialing issues as well as international recognition of those practicing in the United States.  The task force decided to recommend that by 2015 the minimum education requirement for licensure and certification as a Respiratory Therapist be a bachelor of science in respiratory therapy (BSRT).  The AARC task force also recommended the American Respiratory Care Foundation change its scholarship policies and only award assistance and grants to those working toward a bachelor's degree.   The Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care (CoARC) was asked by the AARC task force to change its accreditation standards and no longer accredit associates level respiratory care programs.  The CoARC replied by a press release rejecting the recommendation.  In 2011 legislation introduced by the AARC will help improve the use of Respiratory Therapists in clinical applications by allowing them to manage patients suffering from asthma and COPD seeing a clinic for routine checkups.  Similar bills have been introduced before and have died in committee.

text: In 2007 the

entity_name: American Association for Respiratory Care

text: American Association for Respiratory Care

text: (AARC) began developing recommendations for the promotion of the field of respiratory care in the United States in response to increased concern regarding licensure and credentialing issues as well as international recognition of those practicing in the United States.  The task force decided to recommend that by 2015 the minimum education requirement for licensure and certification as a Respiratory Therapist be a

text: bachelor of science in respiratory therapy

text: (BSRT).  The AARC task force also recommended the

text: American Respiratory Care Foundation

text: change its scholarship policies and only award assistance and grants to those working toward a bachelor's degree.   The

entity_name: Commission on Accreditation for Respiratory Care

text: Committee on Accreditation for Respiratory Care

text: (CoARC) was asked by the AARC task force to change its accreditation standards and no longer accredit associates level respiratory care programs.  The CoARC replied by a press release rejecting the recommendation.  In 2011 legislation introduced by the AARC will help improve the use of Respiratory Therapists in clinical applications by allowing them to manage patients suffering from

text: asthma

text: and

text: COPD

text: seeing a clinic for routine checkups.

text: Similar bills

text: have been introduced before and have died in committee.

text: Acute sinusitis is usually precipitated by an earlier upper respiratory tract infection, generally of viral origin, mostly caused by rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and influenza viruses, others caused by adenoviruses, human parainfluenza viruses, human respiratory syncytial virus, enteroviruses other than rhinoviruses, and metapneumovirus. If the infection is of bacterial origin, the most common three causative agents are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis. Until recently, Haemophilus influenzae was the most common bacterial agent to cause sinus infections. However, introduction of the H. influenza type B (Hib) vaccine has dramatically decreased H. influenza type B infections and now non-typable H. influenza (NTHI) are predominantly seen in clinics. Other sinusitis-causing bacterial pathogens include Staphylococcus aureus and other streptococci species, anaerobic bacteria and, less commonly, gram negative bacteria. Viral sinusitis typically lasts for 7 to 10 days, whereas bacterial sinusitis is more persistent. Approximately 0.5% to 2% of viral sinusitis results in subsequent bacterial sinusitis. It is thought that nasal irritation from nose blowing leads to the secondary bacterial infection.

text: Acute

text: sinusitis is usually precipitated by an earlier

text: upper respiratory tract infection

text: , generally of

text: viral

text: origin, mostly caused by

text: rhinovirus

text: es,

text: coronavirus

text: es, and

text: influenza viruses

text: , others caused by

text: adenoviruses

text: human parainfluenza viruses

text: human respiratory syncytial virus

text: enterovirus

text: es other than rhinoviruses, and

text: metapneumovirus

text: . If the infection is of bacterial origin, the most common three causative agents are

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: , and

text: Moraxella catarrhalis

text: . Until recently,

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: was the most common bacterial agent to cause sinus infections. However, introduction of the H. influenza type B (Hib) vaccine has dramatically decreased H. influenza type B infections and now non-typable H. influenza (NTHI) are predominantly seen in clinics. Other sinusitis-causing

text: bacterial

text: pathogen

text: s include

text: Staphylococcus aureus

text: and other

text: streptococci

text: species

text: anaerobic bacteria

text: and, less commonly,

text: gram negative

text: bacteria. Viral sinusitis typically lasts for 7 to 10 days, whereas bacterial sinusitis is more persistent. Approximately 0.5% to 2% of viral sinusitis results in subsequent bacterial sinusitis. It is thought that nasal irritation from

text: nose blowing

text: leads to the secondary bacterial infection.

text: For several decades, primary lung cancers were consistently dichotomously classified for treatment and research purposes into small cell lung carcinomas (SCLC's) and non-small cell lung carcinomas (NSCLC's), based on an oversimplified approach that is now clearly outmoded. The new paradigm recognizes that lung cancers are a large and extremely heterogeneous family of malignant neoplasms, with over 50 different histological variants included in the 4th (2004) revision of the World Health Organization typing system, the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme ("WHO-2004"). These variants are increasingly appreciated as having different genetic, biological, and clinical properties, including prognoses and responses to treatment regimens, and therefore, that correct and consistent histological classification of lung cancers are necessary to validate and implement optimum management strategies.

text: For several decades, primary lung cancers were consistently dichotomously classified for treatment and research purposes into

text: small cell lung carcinomas

text: (SCLC's) and

text: non-small cell lung carcinomas

text: (NSCLC's), based on an oversimplified approach that is now clearly outmoded. The new paradigm recognizes that lung cancers are a large and extremely

text: heterogeneous

text: family of malignant

text: neoplasms

text: , with over 50 different histological variants included in the 4th (2004) revision of the

text: World Health Organization

text: typing system, the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme ("WHO-2004"). These variants are increasingly appreciated as having different

text: genetic

text: biological

text: , and

text: clinical

text: properties, including

text: prognoses

text: and responses to

text: treatment

text: regimens, and therefore, that correct and consistent histological classification of lung cancers are necessary to validate and implement optimum management strategies.

text: Tobacco smoke, besides being an irritant and significant indoor air pollutant, is known to cause lung cancer, heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, and other serious diseases in smokers (and, according to some, in non-smokers as well). The actual mechanisms by which smoking can cause so many diseases remain largely unknown. Many attempts have been made to produce lung cancer in animals exposed to tobacco smoke by the inhalation route, without success. It is only by collecting the "tar" and repeatedly painting this on to mice that tumors are produced, and these tumors are very different from those tumors exhibited by smokers. Tobacco smoke is associated with an increased risk of developing respiratory conditions such as bronchitis, pneumonia, and asthma. Tobacco smoke aerosols generated at temperatures below 400 ℃ did not test positive in the Ames assay.

text: Tobacco smoke, besides being an

text: irritant

text: and significant

text: indoor air pollutant

text: , is known to cause

text: lung cancer

text: heart disease

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD),

text: emphysema

text: , and other serious diseases in smokers (and, according to some, in non-smokers as well). The actual mechanisms by which smoking can cause so many diseases remain largely unknown. Many attempts have been made to produce lung cancer in animals exposed to tobacco smoke by the inhalation route, without success. It is only by collecting the "tar" and repeatedly painting this on to mice that tumors are produced, and these tumors are very different from those tumors exhibited by smokers. Tobacco smoke is associated with an increased risk of developing respiratory conditions such as

text: bronchitis

text: pneumonia

text: , and

text: asthma

text: . Tobacco smoke aerosols generated at temperatures below 400 ℃ did not test positive in the

text: Ames assay

text: In order to be eligible for compensation, an affected uranium industry worker must have developed lung cancer, fibrosis of the lung, pulmonary fibrosis, cor pulmonale related to fibrosis of the lung, silicosis or pneumoconiosis following their employment. In the case of uranium mill workers and ore transporters, renal cancer and chronic renal disease are also compensable conditions.

text: In order to be eligible for compensation, an affected uranium industry worker must have developed

text: lung cancer

text: , fibrosis of the lung,

text: pulmonary fibrosis

text: cor pulmonale

text: related to fibrosis of the lung,

text: silicosis

text: or

text: pneumoconiosis

text: following their employment. In the case of uranium mill workers and ore transporters,

text: renal cancer

text: and

text: chronic renal disease

text: are also compensable conditions.

text: A cough in children may be either a normal physiological reflex or due to an underlying cause. In healthy children it may be normal in the absence of any disease to cough ten times a day. The most common cause of an acute or subacute cough is a viral respiratory tract infection. In adults with a chronic cough, i.e. a cough longer than 8 weeks, more than 90% of cases are due to post-nasal drip, asthma, eosinophilic bronchitis, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. The causes of chronic cough are similar in children with the addition of bacterial bronchitis.

text: A cough in children may be either a normal physiological reflex or due to an underlying cause. In healthy children it may be normal in the absence of any disease to cough ten times a day. The most common cause of an acute or subacute cough is a viral

text: respiratory tract infection

text: . In adults with a chronic cough, i.e. a cough longer than 8 weeks, more than 90% of cases are due to

text: post-nasal drip

text: asthma

text: eosinophilic bronchitis

text: , and

text: gastroesophageal reflux disease

text: . The causes of chronic cough are similar in children with the addition of

text: bacterial bronchitis

text: It is used to diagnose pneumothorax, emphysema and other diseases. It can be used to assess the respiratory mobility of the thorax.

text: It is used to diagnose

text: pneumothorax

text: emphysema

text: and other

text: disease

text: s. It can be used to assess the respiratory mobility of the thorax.

text: Titanium dioxide dust, when inhaled, has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as an IARC Group 2B carcinogen, meaning it is possibly carcinogenic to humans. The findings of the IARC are based on the discovery that high concentrations of pigment-grade (powdered) and ultrafine titanium dioxide dust caused respiratory tract cancer in rats exposed by inhalation and intratracheal instillation. The series of biological events or steps that produce the rat lung cancers (e.g. particle deposition, impaired lung clearance, cell injury, fibrosis, mutations and ultimately cancer) have also been seen in people working in dusty environments. Therefore, the observations of cancer in animals were considered, by IARC, as relevant to people doing jobs with exposures to titanium dioxide dust. For example, titanium dioxide production workers may be exposed to high dust concentrations during packing, milling, site cleaning and maintenance, if there are insufficient dust control measures in place. However, the human studies conducted so far do not suggest an association between occupational exposure to titanium dioxide and an increased risk for cancer. The safety of the use of nano-particle sized titanium dioxide, which can penetrate the body and reach internal organs, has been criticized. Studies have also found that titanium dioxide nanoparticles cause inflammatory response and genetic damage in mice. The mechanism by which  may cause cancer is unclear. Molecular research suggests that cell cytotoxicity due to  results from the interaction between   nanoparticles and the lysosomal compartment, independently of the known apoptotic signalling pathways.

text: Titanium dioxide dust, when inhaled, has been classified by the

text: (IARC) as an

text: IARC Group 2B carcinogen

text: cytotoxicity

text: due to  results from the interaction between   nanoparticles and the

text: lysosomal

text: compartment

text: , independently of the known

text: apoptotic

text: signalling pathways.

text: In respiratory physiology, ventilation is the movement of air between the environment and the lungs via inhalation and exhalation. Thus, for organisms with lungs, it is synonymous with breathing. Ventilation usually happens in a rhythmic pattern, and the frequency of that pattern is called the ventilation rate (or, by long-standing convention, the respiratory rate, although in precise usage ventilation is a hyponym, not a synonym, of respiration).

text: In

text: respiratory physiology

text: , ventilation is the movement of air between the environment and the

text: lung

text: s via

text: inhalation

text: and

text: exhalation

text: . Thus, for organisms with lungs, it is

text: synonym

text: ous with

text: breathing

text: . Ventilation usually happens in a rhythmic pattern, and the

text: frequency

text: of that pattern is called the

text: ventilation rate

text: (or, by long-standing convention, the

text: respiratory rate

text: , although in precise

text: usage

text: ventilation is a

text: hyponym

text: , not a

text: synonym

text: , of

text: respiration

text: Chronic bronchitis is defined clinically as a persistent cough that produces sputum (phlegm) and mucus, for at least three months in two consecutive years. Chronic bronchitis is often the cause of "smoker's cough". The tobacco smoke causes inflammation, secretion of mucus into the airway, and difficulty clearing that mucus out of the airways. Coughing helps clear those secretions out. May be treated by quitting smoking. May also be caused by pneumoconiosis and long-term fume inhalation.

text: Chronic bronchitis

text: is defined clinically as a persistent cough that produces sputum (phlegm) and mucus, for at least three months in two consecutive years. Chronic bronchitis is often the cause of "

text: smoker's cough

text: ". The tobacco smoke causes inflammation, secretion of mucus into the airway, and difficulty clearing that mucus out of the airways. Coughing helps clear those secretions out. May be treated by quitting smoking. May also be caused by

text: pneumoconiosis

text: and long-term fume inhalation.

text: The roots of the DGP go back to the Vereinigung der Lungenheilanstaltsärzte ("Association of Tuberculosis Sanatorium Physicians") founded by, among others, Ludolph Brauer (1865-1951) in 1910. In 1920 it formed a working alliance with the Deutsche Gesellschaft der Tuberkuloseärzte ("German Society of Tuberculosis Physicians"), and in 1925 the two organizations merged to form the Deutsche Tuberkulose-Gesellschaft (DTG – "German Tuberculosis Society"). At the beginning of the twentieth century tuberculosis was the second most common cause of death in Germany. Since the nineteenth century the disease had been a regular topic in medical diagnostics and therapy. Factors such as the publicity given to tuberculosis at congresses of the German Society of Internal Medicine (DGIM), the discovery of the bacillus that caused tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) by Robert Koch in 1882, the popularization of the sanatorium movement in Germany by Peter Dettweiler from 1892 onwards and the foundation of the predecessor of the DZK (1895) were milestones in the fight against the disease. The key principle was not so much the promotion of specialized research activities as an interdisciplinary approach to "gather together the knowledge of tuberculosis scattered and hidden in all the different disciplines".The official celebration of the founding of the DTG took place in Danzig in 1925 on the occasion of a joint meeting of the coalition of the tuberculosis sanatorium physicians and the tuberculosis public health specialists under the chairmanship of Otto Ziegler (1879-1931), medical director of the Heidehaus Sanatorium.The DPG explicitly made a point of working not only with physicians, but also with "representatives of the medical sciences (in particular universities)". It hoped that greater cooperation at both the medical level – a "unanimous collaboration between care institutions, sanatoria and clinics" – and at the level of political parties and organizations would send a clear message to the authorities and the general public. It also emphasized the significance of phthisiology, the forerunner of pneumology, as a separate medical speciality. Among the founders of the DTG were renowned tuberculosis specialists such as Ludolph Brauer, Otto Ziegler, Franz Redeker, Johannes Ritter, Oskar Pischinger and Ernst von Romberg and surgeons such as Ferdinand Sauerbruch. Initially, activities focused on DTG meetings, the detailed minutes (“proceedings”) of which appeared in Beiträge zur Klinik der Tuberkulose ("Contributions to the Clinic for Tuberculosis") published by Ludolph Brauer.

text: The roots of the DGP go back to the Vereinigung der Lungenheilanstaltsärzte ("Association of Tuberculosis

text: Sanatorium

text: Physicians

text: ") founded by, among others, Ludolph Brauer (1865-1951) in 1910. In 1920 it formed a working alliance with the Deutsche Gesellschaft der Tuberkuloseärzte ("German Society of Tuberculosis Physicians"), and in 1925 the two organizations merged to form the Deutsche Tuberkulose-Gesellschaft (DTG – "German Tuberculosis Society"). At the beginning of the twentieth century tuberculosis was the second most common cause of death in Germany. Since the nineteenth century the disease had been a regular topic in

text: medical diagnostics

text: and

text: therapy

text: . Factors such as the publicity given to tuberculosis at congresses of the German Society of

text: Internal Medicine

text: (DGIM), the discovery of the

text: bacillus

text: that caused tuberculosis (

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: ) by

text: Robert Koch

text: in 1882, the popularization of the sanatorium movement in Germany by Peter Dettweiler from 1892 onwards and the foundation of the predecessor of the DZK (1895) were milestones in the fight against the disease. The key principle was not so much the promotion of specialized research activities as an interdisciplinary approach to "gather together the knowledge of tuberculosis scattered and hidden in all the different disciplines".The official celebration of the founding of the DTG took place in

text: Danzig

text: in 1925 on the occasion of a joint meeting of the coalition of the tuberculosis sanatorium physicians and the tuberculosis

text: public health

text: specialists under the chairmanship of Otto Ziegler (1879-1931), medical director of the Heidehaus Sanatorium.The DPG explicitly made a point of working not only with physicians, but also with "representatives of the

text: medical sciences

text: (in particular universities)". It hoped that greater cooperation at both the medical level – a "unanimous collaboration between care institutions, sanatoria and clinics" – and at the level of political parties and organizations would send a clear message to the authorities and the general public. It also emphasized the significance of

text: phthisiology

text: , the forerunner of

text: pneumology

text: , as a separate medical speciality. Among the founders of the DTG were renowned tuberculosis specialists such as Ludolph Brauer, Otto Ziegler, Franz Redeker, Johannes Ritter, Oskar Pischinger and Ernst von Romberg and

text: surgeons

text: such as

text: Ferdinand Sauerbruch

text: . Initially, activities focused on DTG meetings, the detailed minutes (“proceedings”) of which appeared in Beiträge zur Klinik der Tuberkulose ("Contributions to the Clinic for Tuberculosis") published by Ludolph Brauer.

text: Most cases of Capillaria aerophila infestation in dogs and cats are without serious clinical symptoms.  Heavy infestations may result in inflammation of the respiratory tract (rhinitis, tracheitis or bronchitis), or secondary bacterial infections of the respiratory tract, including bronchopneumonia.  These developments are usually characterized by a whistling sound when the animal breathes, frequent sneezing, or a deep, wheezing cough.

text: Most cases of Capillaria aerophila infestation in dogs and cats are without serious clinical symptoms.  Heavy infestations may result in inflammation of the respiratory tract (

text: rhinitis

text: tracheitis

text: or

text: bronchitis

text: ), or secondary

text: bacterial infection

text: s of the respiratory tract, including

text: bronchopneumonia

text: .  These developments are usually characterized by a whistling sound when the animal breathes, frequent sneezing, or a deep, wheezing cough.

text: Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. About 5% of adults are affected and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. In 2010, COPD affects 329 million people or nearly 5% of the global population. In 2013, it resulted in 2.9 million deaths, up from 2.4 million deaths in 1990.

text: People with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), most commonly emphysema or chronic bronchitis, frequently have chronic shortness of breath and a chronic productive cough. An acute exacerbation presents with increased shortness of breath and sputum production. COPD is a risk factor for pneumonia; thus this condition should be ruled out. In an acute exacerbation treatment is with a combination of anticholinergics, beta-adrenoceptor agonists, steroids and possibly positive pressure ventilation.

text: People with

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD), most commonly

text: emphysema

text: or

text: chronic bronchitis

text: , frequently have chronic shortness of breath and a chronic productive cough. An

entity_name: Acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: acute exacerbation

text: presents with increased shortness of breath and

text: sputum

text: production.

text: COPD

text: is a risk factor for

text: pneumonia

text: ; thus this condition should be ruled out. In an acute exacerbation treatment is with a combination of

text: anticholinergics

text: beta-adrenoceptor agonists

text: steroids

text: and possibly

text: positive pressure ventilation

text: In examining the statistics of chronic disease among the living elderly, it is also important to make note of the statistics pertaining to fatalities as a result of chronic disease. Heart disease is the leading cause of death from chronic disease for adults older than 65, followed by cancer, stroke, diabetes, chronic lower respiratory diseases, influenza and pneumonia, and, finally, Alzheimer’s disease. Though the rates of chronic disease differ by race for those living with chronic illness, it is interesting to note that the statistics for leading causes of death among elderly are nearly identical across racial/ethnic groups.

text: Wood smoke from wildfires produces particulate matter that has damaging effects to human health.  The primary pollutants in wood smoke are carbon monoxide and nitric oxide.  Through the destruction of forests and human-designed infrastructure, wildfire smoke releases other toxic and carcinogenic compounds, such as formaldehyde and hydrocarbons.  These pollutants damage human health by evading the mucociliary clearance system and depositing in the upper respiratory tract, where they exert toxic effects. Research by Naeher and colleagues. found that physician visits for respiratory diseases increased by 45-80% during wildfire activity in urban British Columbia.

text: Wood smoke from wildfires produces

text: particulate matter

text: that has damaging effects to human health.  The primary pollutants in wood smoke are

text: carbon monoxide

text: and

text: nitric oxide

text: .  Through the destruction of

text: forests

text: and human-designed

text: infrastructure

text: wildfire

text: smoke releases other toxic and carcinogenic compounds, such as

text: formaldehyde

text: and

text: hydrocarbon

text: s.  These pollutants damage human health by evading the

text: mucociliary clearance

text: system and depositing in the

text: upper respiratory tract

text: , where they exert toxic effects. Research by Naeher and colleagues. found that physician visits for respiratory diseases increased by 45-80% during wildfire activity in urban British Columbia.

text: Pulmonologists are involved in both clinical and basic research of the respiratory system, ranging from the anatomy of the respiratory epithelium to the most effective treatment of pulmonary hypertension. Scientific research also takes place to look for causes and possible treatment in diseases such as pulmonary tuberculosis and lung cancer.

text: Pulmonologists are involved in both clinical and basic research of the

text: respiratory system

text: , ranging from the anatomy of the

text: respiratory epithelium

text: to the most effective treatment of

text: pulmonary hypertension

text: . Scientific research also takes place to look for causes and possible treatment in diseases such as

text: pulmonary tuberculosis

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: According to the World Health Organization, chronic diseases are defined as diseases of long duration which generally show slow progression (WHO, 2012a). Examples of chronic diseases are cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, stroke, cancer, and diabetes. The main risk factors associated with chronic diseases are tobacco and alcohol use, physical inactivity and unhealthy diets (WHO, 2011). Almost 80% of Ontarians over the age of 45 have a chronic condition, and treatment for these diseases amount to 55% of Ontario’s total health costs (MOHLTC, 2007). In Northern Ontario the rates of chronic diseases are higher than the average provincial rates (MOHLTC, 2011).

text: According to the

text: World Health Organization

text: , chronic diseases are defined as diseases of long duration which generally show slow progression (WHO, 2012a). Examples of chronic diseases are

text: cardiovascular disease

text: respiratory disease

text: stroke

text: cancer

text: , and

text: diabetes

text: . The main risk factors associated with chronic diseases are tobacco and alcohol use, physical inactivity and unhealthy diets (WHO, 2011). Almost 80% of Ontarians over the age of 45 have a chronic condition, and treatment for these diseases amount to 55% of Ontario’s total health costs (MOHLTC, 2007). In Northern Ontario the rates of chronic diseases are higher than the average provincial rates (MOHLTC, 2011).

text: The factory faced many protests as it turned out to be a heavily polluting unit. The management avoided the use of any pollution control measures, citing profitability concerns.  A large quantity of pollutants produced by Grasim ended up in the Chaliyar river which flows beside the factory. The thick effluents recklessly released by the factory have been identified as poisonous. Besides the water pollution, the factory was also a serious air polluter. The impact of the pollution could be seen in the every aspect of the town. Cases of asthma and other respiratory diseases shot up. There was a marked decline in the fish population. Thousands of dead fishes and other aquatic forms surfaced from Chaliyar river. Environmental organizations started agitations focusing on this aspect of the factory. E N Peethambaran master was a significant figure who worked for restoration of the environmental cleanliness, as well as ensuring justice to the workers of the factory. A series of labour strikes and heightened trade union was also witnessed at the plant.  All these factors contributed to the shut down of Gwalior Rayons in 2001.  (See also The First Environmental Movement In Kerala.)  The closure of factory caused loss of employment around 3000 people.

text: The factory faced many protests as it turned out to be a heavily polluting unit. The management avoided the use of any pollution control measures, citing profitability concerns.  A large quantity of pollutants produced by Grasim ended up in the Chaliyar river which flows beside the factory. The thick effluents recklessly released by the factory have been identified as poisonous. Besides the water pollution, the factory was also a serious air polluter. The impact of the pollution could be seen in the every aspect of the town. Cases of asthma and other respiratory diseases shot up. There was a marked decline in the fish population. Thousands of dead fishes and other aquatic forms surfaced from Chaliyar river. Environmental organizations started agitations focusing on this aspect of the factory. E N Peethambaran master was a significant figure who worked for restoration of the environmental cleanliness, as well as ensuring justice to the workers of the factory. A series of labour strikes and heightened trade union was also witnessed at the plant.  All these factors contributed to the shut down of Gwalior Rayons in 2001.  (See also

text: The First Environmental Movement In Kerala

text: .)  The closure of factory caused loss of employment around 3000 people.

text: Research activities at JFM continue to provide material and technical workstations as well as personal development, improving the quality of the teaching staff and increasing their qualifications, and are therefore crucial for the development of the faculty as a whole. The school is gradually profiling itself through six major research areas: the respiratory system in health and disease, diseases of the central and peripheral nervous system related to care for mothers and children, malignant cancers, selected internal disorders, and the working environments' adverse effect on the human health.

text: Research activities at JFM continue to provide material and technical workstations as well as personal development, improving the quality of the teaching staff and increasing their qualifications, and are therefore crucial for the development of the faculty as a whole. The school is gradually profiling itself through six major research areas: the respiratory system in health and disease, diseases of the central and peripheral

text: nervous system

text: related to care for mothers and children, malignant cancers, selected internal disorders, and the working environments' adverse effect on the human health.

text: AIC contributes to the goal of the National Strategic Plan in care and treatment by offering Palliative Care Basic –Health Care (PCBHC). PCBHC includes psychosocial support, screening for and treatment of opportunistic infections (including Tuberculosis), as well as the provision of the basic health care package. The basic health care package includes prevention of malaria, respiratory and central nervous system diseases among PLHAs.

text: Respiratory diseases such as silicosis and higher incidence of tuberculosis among workers involved in the agate industry has been reported from India and China.

text: Respiratory diseases such as

text: silicosis

text: and higher

text: incidence

text: of

text: tuberculosis

text: among workers involved in the agate industry has been reported from India and China.

text: When the company applied its electronics expertise to its long established clinical air pumps, this resulted in the first switch mode circuit being designed and patented in Australia. This circuit, which can operate on either 12Volt DC or 90 to 260Volts AC enabled suffers of asthma, emphysema, cystic fibrosis and other respiratory ailments to be fully mobile as the pump could operate in a car and aeroplane or from any domestic electricity system around the world.

text: Aspirin-induced asthma is also termed Samter's triad, Samter's syndrome, aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), and recently by an appointed task force of the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology/World Allergy Organization (EAACI/WAO) Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs-exacerbated respiratory disease (N-ERD).  The syndrome, which EAACI/WHO classifies as one of 5 types of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug hypersensitivity or NSAID hypersensitivity reactions, is a medical condition initially defined as consisting of three key features viz., asthma, respiratory symptoms exacerbated by aspirin, and nasal/ethmoidal polyposis; however, the syndrome's symptoms are exacerbated by a large variety of other NSAID besides aspirin. The symptoms of respiratory reactions in this syndrome are hypersensitivity reactions to NSAIDs rather than the typically described true allergic reactions that trigger other common allergen-induced asthma, rhinitis, or hives. The NSAID-induced reactions do not appear to involve the common mediators of true allergic reactions, immunoglobulin E or T cells.  Rather, AERD is a type of NSAID-induced hypersensitivity syndrome.

text: Aspirin-induced asthma is also termed Samter's triad, Samter's syndrome, aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), and recently by an appointed task force of the

entity_name: European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology

text: European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology

text: World Allergy Organization

text: (EAACI/WAO) Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs-exacerbated respiratory disease (N-ERD).  The syndrome, which EAACI/WHO classifies as one of 5 types of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug hypersensitivity or

text: NSAID hypersensitivity reactions

text: , is a medical condition initially defined as consisting of three key features viz.,

text: asthma

text: , respiratory symptoms exacerbated by aspirin, and nasal/ethmoidal

text: polyposis

text: ; however, the syndrome's symptoms are exacerbated by a large variety of other

text: NSAID

text: besides aspirin. The symptoms of respiratory reactions in this syndrome are

text: hypersensitivity reaction

text: s to NSAIDs rather than the typically described true

text: allergic reactions

text: that trigger other common

text: allergen

text: -induced asthma, rhinitis, or hives. The NSAID-induced reactions do not appear to involve the common mediators of true allergic reactions,

text: immunoglobulin E

text: or

text: T cells

text: .  Rather, AERD is a type of NSAID-induced hypersensitivity syndrome.

text: A dry-powder inhaler (DPI) is a device that delivers medication to the lungs in the form of a dry powder.  DPIs are commonly used to treat respiratory diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, emphysema and COPD although DPIs (such as inhalable insulin Afrezza) have also been used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

text: A dry-powder inhaler (DPI) is a device that delivers medication to the lungs in the form of a dry powder.  DPIs are commonly used to treat

text: respiratory disease

text: s such as

text: asthma

text: bronchitis

text: emphysema

text: and

text: COPD

text: although DPIs (such as

text: inhalable insulin Afrezza

text: ) have also been used in the treatment of

text: diabetes mellitus

text: One of the main problems of citizens living in the area of the investment is the bad air quality of Silesia region and Rybnik city in particular. On the 21st of November 2011 European Commission has sued Poland to the European Court of Justice for lack of progress in transposition of the Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe (CAFE) Directive (2008/50/EC), which should have been implemented in Poland by the 11th of June 2010. The directive requires in particular that the PM10 (larger dust particles) level does not exceed 50 miligrams/m³ more than 35 times a year. However this PM10 level is breached with much higher frequency in most Polish metropolitan areas including Rybnik and Jaworzno in the Silesia region. Recently a group of residents of Rybnik have taken the Polish state to court over the bad air quality and the lack of clear plans to improve the situation in the perceivable future. The local health effects from coal mining, transportation and combustion are also of a significant concern, and communities living in a proximity to these activities are experiencing adverse social effects, such as loss of amenity, displacement, and loss of social capital as well as facing increased risks of respiratory disease, heart disease, and lung cancer.

text: One of the main problems of citizens living in the area of the investment is the bad air quality of

text: Silesia

text: region and

text: Rybnik

text: city in particular. On the 21st of November 2011 European Commission has sued Poland to the European Court of Justice for lack of progress in transposition of the Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe (CAFE) Directive (2008/50/EC), which should have been implemented in Poland by the 11th of June 2010. The directive requires in particular that the

text: (larger dust particles) level does not exceed 50 miligrams/m³ more than 35 times a year. However this PM10 level is breached with much higher frequency in most Polish metropolitan areas including Rybnik and Jaworzno in the Silesia region. Recently a group of residents of Rybnik have taken the Polish state to court over the bad air quality and the lack of clear plans to improve the situation in the perceivable future. The local health effects from coal mining,

text: transportation

text: and

text: combustion

text: are also of a significant concern, and communities living in a proximity to these activities are experiencing adverse social effects, such as loss of amenity, displacement, and loss of social capital as well as facing increased risks of respiratory disease, heart disease, and lung cancer.

text: Tuberculosis, is categorized into two types of infection: latent infection or active TB disease.

text: Intubation may be necessary for a patient with decreased oxygen content and oxygen saturation of the blood caused when their breathing is inadequate (hypoventilation), suspended (apnea), or when the lungs are unable to sufficiently transfer gasses to the blood. Such patients, who may be awake and alert, are typically critically ill with a multisystem disease or multiple severe injuries. Examples of such conditions include cervical spine injury, multiple rib fractures, severe pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), or near-drowning. Specifically, intubation is considered if the arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO) is less than 60 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) while breathing an inspired O concentration (FIO) of 50% or greater. In patients with elevated arterial carbon dioxide, an arterial partial pressure of CO (PaCO) greater than 45 mm Hg in the setting of acidemia would prompt intubation, especially if a series of measurements demonstrate a worsening respiratory acidosis. Regardless of the laboratory values, these guidelines are always interpreted in the clinical context.

text: Intubation may be necessary for a patient with

text: decreased oxygen content

text: and

text: oxygen saturation

text: of the blood caused when their breathing is inadequate (

text: hypoventilation

text: ), suspended (

text: apnea

text: ), or when the lungs are unable to sufficiently

text: transfer gasses to the blood

text: . Such patients, who may be awake and alert, are typically critically ill with a multisystem disease or

text: multiple severe injuries

text: . Examples of such conditions include

text: cervical spine injury

text: multiple rib fractures

text: , severe

text: pneumonia

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: (ARDS), or near-

text: drowning

text: . Specifically, intubation is considered if the

text: arterial

text: partial pressure

text: of oxygen (PaO) is less than 60

text: millimeters of mercury

text: (mm Hg) while breathing an inspired O concentration (

text: FIO

text: ) of 50% or greater. In patients with

text: elevated arterial carbon dioxide

text: , an arterial partial pressure of CO (PaCO) greater than 45 mm Hg in the setting of

text: acidemia

text: would prompt intubation, especially if a series of measurements demonstrate a worsening

text: respiratory acidosis

text: . Regardless of the laboratory values, these guidelines are always interpreted in the clinical context.

text: To enable the absorption of sufficient amounts of water and heat, the expiratory stream of respiratory gas must be fully filtered through the HME. Leakages in the system, such as may be caused by bronchial fistulae, will render this system less effective. Other negative effects of this technology include increased secretions (i.e. mucus) and nosebleeds, either or which may clog an HME. In such cases, the application of active respiratory gas humidifiers is recommended.

text: Bronchitis may be indicated by an expectorating cough, shortness of breath (dyspnea), and wheezing. On occasion, chest pains, fever, and fatigue or malaise may also occur. In addition, bronchitis caused by Adenoviridae may cause systemic and gastrointestinal symptoms as well. However, the coughs due to bronchitis can continue for up to three weeks or more even after all other symptoms have subsided.

text: Bronchitis may be indicated by an

text: expectorating

text: cough

text: , shortness of breath (

text: dyspnea

text: ), and wheezing. On occasion,

text: chest pain

text: s,

text: fever

text: , and

text: fatigue

text: or

text: malaise

text: may also occur. In addition, bronchitis caused by

text: Adenoviridae

text: may cause systemic and gastrointestinal symptoms as well. However, the coughs due to bronchitis can continue for up to three weeks or more even after all other symptoms have subsided.

text: In normal functioning, MUC-4 is known to play anti-adhesive roles in the body, such as in lubricating the reproductive lining. It is also found in the respiratory tract - particularly in the trachea and lung - and the digestive tract - in the esophagus and colon - as well as in the visual and auditory systems. In these roles, MUC-4 serves to protect and lubricate the epithelium, which facilitates transport and traps foreign particles. One example of its function in the reproductive lining relates to blastocyst implantation resulting from MUC4 downregulation. It is found to be overexpressed during the luteal phase of menstruation. MUC-4 may also have a role in fetal morphogenic development. It should be noted that MUC-4 is not found in the gallbladder, pancreas, or liver except in abnormal conditions such as cancer. MUC-4, however, may normally be found in bodily fluids like saliva, tears, and milk. In the soluble form, MUC-4 appears to lubricate the epithelial mucosa.

text: In normal functioning, MUC-4 is known to play anti-adhesive roles in the body, such as in lubricating the reproductive lining. It is also found in the

text: respiratory tract

text: - particularly in the

text: trachea

text: and

text: lung

text: - and the

text: digestive tract

text: - in the

text: esophagus

text: and

text: colon

text: - as well as in the visual and auditory systems. In these roles, MUC-4 serves to protect and lubricate the epithelium, which facilitates transport and traps foreign particles. One example of its function in the reproductive lining relates to blastocyst implantation resulting from MUC4 downregulation. It is found to be overexpressed during the luteal phase of

text: menstruation

text: . MUC-4 may also have a role in fetal morphogenic development. It should be noted that MUC-4 is not found in the

text: gallbladder

text: pancreas

text: , or liver except in abnormal conditions such as cancer. MUC-4, however, may normally be found in bodily fluids like saliva, tears, and milk. In the soluble form, MUC-4 appears to lubricate the epithelial mucosa.

text: Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) are diseases of the airways and other structures of the lung. This disease could be characterized by a high inflammatory cells recruitment (neutrophil)  and/or destructive cycle of infection, (e.g. mediated by Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Some of the most common are asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or acute respiratory distress syndrome . CRDs are not curable, however, various forms of treatment that help dilate major air passages and improve shortness of breath can help control symptoms and increase the quality of life for people with the disease.

text: Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) are diseases of the airways and other structures of the lung. This disease could be characterized by a high inflammatory cells recruitment (

text: neutrophil

text: )  and/or destructive cycle of

text: infection

text: , (e.g. mediated by

text: Pseudomonas aeruginosa

text: ). Some of the most common are

text: asthma

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: , or

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: . CRDs are not curable, however, various forms of treatment that help dilate major air passages and improve shortness of breath can help control symptoms and increase the quality of life for people with the disease.

text: As it has been previously mentioned, smoking is attributable to the majority of lung cancer cases. Over the years lung cancer mortality has dramatically increased among women. “In 1987, lung cancer surpassed breast cancer to become the leading cause of cancer death among U.S. women.”  Smoking now accounts for 80% of lung cancer deaths specifically among women. Although, there has been a more pronounced campaign to raise funds for breast cancer research and a possible cure, more women are dying from lung cancer. Research also continues to question whether women tend to be more susceptible to lung cancer, regardless of similar exposure as their male counterparts. However, making a definitive answer has been difficult, thus the issue remains controversial. In looking at other aspects of the respiratory system, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is another major issue among women who  smoke. The risk of having COPD is increased with amount and duration and smoking accounts for 90 percent of COPD mortalities.

text: As it has been previously mentioned, smoking is attributable to the majority of lung cancer cases. Over the years lung cancer mortality has dramatically increased among women. “In 1987, lung cancer surpassed breast cancer to become the leading cause of cancer death among U.S. women.”  Smoking now accounts for 80% of lung cancer deaths specifically among women. Although, there has been a more pronounced campaign to raise funds for breast cancer research and a possible cure, more women are dying from lung cancer. Research also continues to question whether women tend to be more susceptible to lung cancer, regardless of similar exposure as their male counterparts. However, making a definitive answer has been difficult, thus the issue remains controversial. In looking at other aspects of the respiratory system,

text: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD) is another major issue among women who  smoke. The risk of having COPD is increased with amount and duration and smoking accounts for 90 percent of COPD mortalities.

text: – Respiratory and inflammatory diseases

text: Respiratory

text: and inflammatory diseases

text: Infantile hypophosphatasia presents in the first 6 months of life, with the onset of poor feeding and inadequate weight gain. Clinical manifestations of rickets often appear at this time. Although cranial sutures appear to be wide, this reflects hypomineralization of the skull, and there is often “functional” craniosynostosis. If the patient survives infancy, these sutures can permanently fuse. Defects in the chest, such as flail chest resulting from rib fractures, lead to respiratory compromise and pneumonia. Elevated calcium in the blood (hypercalcemia) and urine (hypercalcenuria) are also common, and may explain the renal problems and recurrent vomiting seen is this disease.

text: Infantile hypophosphatasia presents in the first 6 months of life, with the onset of poor feeding and inadequate weight gain. Clinical manifestations of

text: rickets

text: often appear at this time. Although cranial sutures appear to be wide, this reflects hypomineralization of the skull, and there is often “functional”

text: craniosynostosis

text: . If the patient survives infancy, these sutures can permanently fuse. Defects in the chest, such as

text: flail chest

text: resulting from rib fractures, lead to respiratory compromise and

text: pneumonia

text: . Elevated calcium in the blood (

text: hypercalcemia

text: ) and urine (

text: hypercalcenuria

text: ) are also common, and may explain the renal problems and recurrent vomiting seen is this disease.

text: Tanox became the first major acquisition of Genentech in an all-cash buyout deal (US$919 million) in August 2007 (Genentech itself became wholly owned by Roche in March 2009). The acquisition of Tanox has boosted Roche/Genentech’s product pipeline substantially. In addition to the enhancement of the anti-IgE franchise by the increased rights on Xolair (omalizumab) and by the potential utility of TNX-901 (Talizumab), the other pipeline products that have gained considerable prominence include TNX-355 (Ibalizumab), a unique anti-CD4 antibody for treating AIDS, TNX-650 (Lebrikizumab), an anti-interleukin-13 antibody for treating asthma, and TNX-224, an Fab fragment of a humanized antibody against Factor D of the human immune complement system to be tested for treating geographic atrophy associated with dry age-related macular degeneration. Based on Tanox’s invention of the “anti-CεmX (also referred to anti-M1’) approach”, Genentech is developing Quilizumab, an antibody specifically targeting mIgE on B cells, for asthma and allergic diseases.

text: Tanox became the first major acquisition of

text: Genentech

text: in an all-cash buyout deal (US$919 million) in August 2007 (Genentech itself became wholly owned by

text: Roche

text: in March 2009). The acquisition of Tanox has boosted Roche/Genentech’s product pipeline substantially. In addition to the enhancement of the anti-IgE franchise by the increased rights on

text: Xolair

text: omalizumab

text: ) and by the potential utility of

text: Talizumab

text: ), the other pipeline products that have gained considerable prominence include

text: Ibalizumab

text: ), a unique anti-CD4 antibody for treating

text: AIDS

text: Lebrikizumab

text: ), an anti-

text: antibody for treating asthma, and TNX-224, an Fab fragment of a humanized antibody against Factor D of the human immune

text: complement system

text: to be tested for treating geographic atrophy associated with dry age-related macular degeneration. Based on Tanox’s invention of the “anti-CεmX (also referred to anti-M1’) approach”, Genentech is developing

text: Quilizumab

text: , an antibody specifically targeting mIgE on B cells, for asthma and allergic diseases.

text: As an organic solvent, its vapour can irritate the skin and eyes, damage the lungs and respiratory system, as well as the central nervous system when inhaled, and cause renal failure when ingested, among other things. Being combustible, it also poses a fire hazard. Because turpentine can cause spasms of the airways particularly in people with asthma and whooping cough, it can contribute to a worsening of breathing issues in persons with these diseases if inhaled.

text: As an

text: organic

text: solvent, its vapour can irritate the skin and eyes, damage the

text: lungs

text: and respiratory system, as well as the

text: central nervous system

text: when inhaled, and cause

text: renal failure

text: when ingested, among other things. Being combustible, it also poses a fire hazard. Because turpentine can cause spasms of the airways particularly in people with asthma and whooping cough, it can contribute to a worsening of breathing issues in persons with these diseases if inhaled.

text: There are a number of symptoms that are characteristic of lower respiratory tract infections.  The two most common are bronchitis and pneumonia. Influenza affects both the upper and lower respiratory tracts.

text: There are a number of symptoms that are characteristic of

text: lower respiratory tract

text: infections.  The two most common are bronchitis and pneumonia.

text: Influenza

text: affects both the upper and lower respiratory tracts.

text: In addition to pneumonia, Klebsiella can also cause infections in the urinary tract, lower biliary tract, and surgical wound sites. The range of clinical diseases includes pneumonia, thrombophlebitis, urinary tract infection, cholecystitis, diarrhea, upper respiratory tract infection, wound infection, osteomyelitis, meningitis, and bacteremia and septicemia. For patients with an invasive device in their bodies, contamination of the device becomes a risk; for example, neonatal ward devices, respiratory support equipment, and urinary catheters put patients at increased risk. Also, the use of antibiotics can be a factor that increases the risk of nosocomial infection with Klebsiella bacteria. Sepsis and septic shock can follow entry of the bacteria into the blood.

text: In addition to pneumonia, Klebsiella can also cause infections in the

text: urinary

text: tract, lower

text: biliary

text: tract, and surgical wound sites. The range of clinical diseases includes pneumonia,

text: thrombophlebitis

text: urinary tract infection

text: cholecystitis

text: diarrhea

text: , upper

text: respiratory

text: tract infection, wound infection,

text: osteomyelitis

text: meningitis

text: , and bacteremia and

text: septicemia

text: . For patients with an invasive device in their bodies, contamination of the device becomes a risk; for example, neonatal ward devices, respiratory support equipment, and urinary catheters put patients at increased risk. Also, the use of antibiotics can be a factor that increases the risk of nosocomial infection with Klebsiella bacteria.

text: Sepsis

text: and septic shock can follow entry of the bacteria into the blood.

text: In 2005, Vanja Drach was operated for a tumor on his vocal cords, but eventually the cancer spread to his lungs. He died in the Clinical Hospital "Jordanovac", a respiratory disease clinic (today part of the University Hospital Centre).

text: In 2005, Vanja Drach was operated for a tumor on his vocal cords, but eventually the cancer spread to his lungs. He died in the Clinical Hospital "Jordanovac", a

text: respiratory disease

text: clinic (today part of the

text: University Hospital Centre

text: In the UK, approximately 1 in 7 individuals are affected by some form of chronic lung disease, most commonly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, which includes asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

text: In the UK, approximately 1 in 7 individuals are affected by some form of chronic lung disease, most commonly

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: , which includes

text: asthma

text: chronic bronchitis

text: and

text: emphysema

text: Nebulizers are commonly used for the treatment of cystic fibrosis, asthma, COPD and other respiratory diseases or disorders.

text: Nebulizers are commonly used for the treatment of

text: cystic fibrosis

text: asthma

text: COPD

text: and other

text: respiratory disease

text: s or disorders.

text: Pneumonia is  due to infections caused primarily by bacteria or viruses and less commonly by fungi and parasites. Although there are more than 100 strains of infectious agents identified, only a few are responsible for the majority of the cases. Mixed infections with both viruses and bacteria may occur in up to 45% of infections in children and 15% of infections in adults. A causative agent may not be isolated in approximately half of cases despite careful testing.

text: Pneumonia is  due to infections caused primarily by

text: bacteria

text: or

text: virus

text: es and less commonly by

text: fungi

text: and

text: parasites

text: . Although there are more than 100 strains of infectious agents identified, only a few are responsible for the majority of the cases. Mixed infections with both viruses and bacteria may occur in up to 45% of infections in children and 15% of infections in adults. A causative agent may not be isolated in approximately half of cases despite careful testing.

text: As the century continued, medical advances made tuberculosis a less serious threat in the United States. Because of this, the tuberculosis sanatorium shifted its focus towards chronic respiratory diseases and secondary related diseases.

text: While shortness of breath is generally caused by disorders of the cardiac or respiratory system, other systems such as  neurological, musculoskeletal, endocrine, hematologic, and psychiatric may be the cause. DiagnosisPro, an online medical expert system, listed 497 distinct causes in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are acute myocardial infarction and congestive heart failure while common pulmonary causes include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumothorax, pulmonary edema and pneumonia. On a pathophysiological basis the causes can be divided into: (1) an increased awareness of normal breathing such as during an anxiety attack, (2) an increase in the work of breathing and (3) an abnormality in the ventilatory system.

text: While shortness of breath is generally caused by disorders of the

text: cardiac

text: or

text: respiratory system

text: , other systems such as

text: neurological

text: musculoskeletal

text: endocrine

text: hematologic

text: , and psychiatric may be the cause.

text: DiagnosisPro

text: , an online medical expert system, listed 497 distinct causes in October 2010. The most common cardiovascular causes are

text: acute myocardial infarction

text: and

text: congestive heart failure

text: while common pulmonary causes include

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: asthma

text: pneumothorax

text: , pulmonary edema and

text: pneumonia

text: . On a pathophysiological basis the causes can be divided into: (1) an increased awareness of normal breathing such as during an anxiety attack, (2) an increase in the work of breathing and (3) an abnormality in the ventilatory system.

text: The effects of inhaling particulate matter that have been widely studied in humans and animals include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, respiratory diseases, premature delivery, birth defects, and premature death.

text: The effects of inhaling particulate matter that have been widely studied in humans and animals include

text: asthma

text: , lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, respiratory diseases,

text: premature delivery

text: , birth defects, and premature death.

text: Tuberculosis exists in all countries in the world. Some countries have a larger number of people infected with tuberculosis than others. For each 100,000 people, Swaziland has the greatest number (627) of tuberculosis cases in the world. Second is Cambodia (560), followed in third position by Zambia (445), fourth is Djibouti (382), fifth is Indonesia (321), sixth is Mali (295), seventh is Zimbabwe (291), eighth is Kenya (291), ninth is Papua New Guinea (283) and tenth is Gambia (283).

text: Lung cancer can start in various portions of the lung. From there it spreads in fairly predictable pattern. Typically, if lung cancer spreads, it first goes to close-by lymph nodes, followed by lymph nodes further away located between the lungs in a space called the mediastinum. In the mediastinum, the lung cancer tends at first to stay on the side where the original tumor started.  Once it crosses the mediastinal midline, it denotes more advanced, surgically unresectable disease. Lung cancer can also spread to distant organs, for example, the liver or adrenal glands, which constitutes the most advanced stage of the disease called stage IV.

text: Lung cancer can start in various portions of the lung. From there it spreads in fairly predictable pattern. Typically, if lung cancer spreads, it first goes to close-by

text: lymph nodes

text: , followed by lymph nodes further away located between the lungs in a space called the

text: mediastinum

text: . In the mediastinum, the lung cancer tends at first to stay on the side where the original

text: tumor

text: started.  Once it crosses the mediastinal midline, it denotes more advanced, surgically unresectable disease. Lung cancer can also spread to distant organs, for example, the liver or adrenal glands, which constitutes the most advanced stage of the disease called stage IV.

text: Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the lungs, to allow the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the external environment into and out of the blood. "Breathing" sometimes also refers to the equivalent process using other respiratory organs such as gills in fish and spiracles in certain arthropods. For organisms with lungs, breathing is also called pulmonary ventilation, which consists of inhalation (breathing in) and exhalation (breathing out). Breathing is one part of physiological respiration required to sustain life. Aerobic organisms (all animals, most plants and many micro-organisms) require oxygen at cellular level to release energy by metabolizing energy-rich molecules such as fatty acids and glucose. This is often referred to as cellular respiration. Breathing is only one of the processes that delivers oxygen to where it is needed in the body and removes excess carbon dioxide. After breathing, the next process in this chain of events is the transport of these gases throughout the body by the circulatory system, and then their uptake or release from the respiring cells. Breathing fulfills another vital function: that of regulating the pH of the extracellular fluids of the body. It is, in fact, this homeostatic function which determines the rate and depth of breathing. The medical term for normal relaxed breathing is eupnea.

text: Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the

text: lung

text: s, to allow the diffusion of

text: oxygen

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: to and from the external environment into and out of the blood. "Breathing" sometimes also refers to the equivalent process using other

text: respiratory organ

text: s such as

text: gill

text: s in fish and

text: spiracles

text: in certain

text: arthropods

text: . For organisms with lungs, breathing is also called

text: pulmonary ventilation

text: , which consists of

text: inhalation

text: (breathing in) and

text: exhalation

text: (breathing out). Breathing is one part of

text: physiological respiration

text: required to sustain

text: life

text: Aerobic

text: organism

text: s (all animals, most plants and many micro-organisms) require oxygen at cellular level to release energy by

text: metabolizing

text: energy-rich

text: molecule

text: s such as

text: fatty acids

text: and

text: glucose

text: . This is often referred to as

text: cellular respiration

text: . Breathing is only one of the processes that delivers

text: oxygen

text: to where it is needed in the body and removes excess

text: carbon dioxide

text: . After breathing, the next process in this chain of events is the transport of these gases throughout the body by the circulatory system, and then their uptake or release from the respiring cells. Breathing fulfills another vital function: that of

text: regulating the pH

text: of the

text: extracellular fluids

text: of the body. It is, in fact, this

text: homeostatic

text: function which determines the rate and depth of breathing. The medical term for normal relaxed breathing is

text: eupnea

text: Complications of smallpox arise most commonly in the respiratory system and range from simple bronchitis to fatal pneumonia. Respiratory complications tend to develop on about the eighth day of the illness and can be either viral or bacterial in origin. Secondary bacterial infection of the skin is a relatively uncommon complication of smallpox. When this occurs, the fever usually remains elevated.

text: Complications of smallpox arise most commonly in the

text: respiratory system

text: and range from simple

text: bronchitis

text: to fatal

text: pneumonia

text: . Respiratory complications tend to develop on about the eighth day of the illness and can be either viral or bacterial in origin. Secondary

text: bacteria

text: l infection of the skin is a relatively uncommon complication of smallpox. When this occurs, the fever usually remains elevated.

text: Approximately 98% of lung cancers are carcinoma, which are tumors composed of cells with epithelial characteristics.<ref name='TravisTravis'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Travis WD, Travis LB, Devesa SS |title=Lung cancer |journal=Cancer |volume=75 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=191–202 |date=January 1995|pmid=8000996 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(19950101)75:1+

text: Approximately 98% of lung cancers are

text: carcinoma

text: , which are tumors composed of cells with

text: epithelial

text: characteristics.<ref name='TravisTravis'>{{cite journal |vauthors=Travis WD, Travis LB, Devesa SS |title=Lung cancer |journal=Cancer |volume=75 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=191–202 |date=January 1995|pmid=8000996 |doi=10.1002/1097-0142(19950101)75:1+

text: The influenza vaccine is recommended by the World Health Organization and United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for high-risk groups, such as children, the elderly, health care workers, and people who have chronic illnesses such as asthma, diabetes, heart disease, or are immuno-compromised among others. In healthy adults it is modestly effective in decreasing the amount of influenza-like symptoms in a population. Evidence is supportive of a decreased rate of influenza in children over the age of two. In those with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease vaccination reduces exacerbations, it is not clear if it reduces asthma exacerbations. Evidence supports a lower rate of influenza-like illness in many groups who are immunocompromised such as those with: HIV/AIDS, cancer, and post organ transplant. In those at high risk immunization may reduce the risk of heart disease. Whether immunizing health care workers affects patient outcomes is controversial with some reviews finding insufficient evidence and others finding tentative evidence.

text: The

text: influenza vaccine

text: is recommended by the

text: World Health Organization

text: and United States

text: for high-risk groups, such as children, the elderly, health care workers, and people who have chronic illnesses such as

text: asthma

text: diabetes

text: heart disease

text: , or are immuno-compromised among others. In healthy adults it is modestly effective in decreasing the amount of influenza-like symptoms in a population. Evidence is supportive of a decreased rate of influenza in children over the age of two. In those with

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: vaccination reduces exacerbations, it is not clear if it reduces asthma exacerbations. Evidence supports a lower rate of influenza-like illness in many groups who are immunocompromised such as those with:

text: HIV/AIDS

text: cancer

text: , and post organ transplant. In those at high risk immunization may reduce the risk of

text: heart disease

text: . Whether immunizing health care workers affects patient outcomes is controversial with some reviews finding insufficient evidence and others finding tentative evidence.

text: The increase in respiration rate from the low range to the high range is sudden and occurs in response to hyperthermia. Birds lack sweat glands, so when placed under stress due to heat, they heavily rely upon increased evaporation from the respiratory system for heat transfer. This rise in respiration rate however is not necessarily associated with a greater rate of oxygen consumption. Therefore, unlike other birds, the ostrich is able to dissipate heat through panting without experiencing respiratory alkalosis by modifying ventilation of the respiratory medium. During hyperpnea ostriches pant at a respiratory rate of 40–60 cycles per minute, versus their resting rate of 6–12 cycles per minute. Hot, dry and moisture lacking properties of the ostrich respiratory medium affects oxygen's diffusion rate (Henry's Law).

text: The increase in respiration rate from the low range to the high range is sudden and occurs in response to

text: hyperthermia

text: . Birds lack sweat glands, so when placed under stress due to heat, they heavily rely upon increased evaporation from the respiratory system for heat transfer. This rise in

text: respiration rate

text: however is not necessarily associated with a greater rate of oxygen consumption. Therefore, unlike other birds, the ostrich is able to dissipate heat through panting without experiencing

text: respiratory alkalosis

text: by modifying ventilation of the respiratory medium. During

text: hyperpnea

text: ostriches pant at a respiratory rate of 40–60 cycles per minute, versus their resting rate of 6–12 cycles per minute. Hot, dry and moisture lacking properties of the ostrich respiratory medium affects oxygen's diffusion rate (

text: Henry's Law

text: A 2005 study of Japanese patients at Bangkok Hospital (11,200 patients, about one-eight of all non-Thai patients at the hospital that year) found that most patients were men in their 30s, 40s, and 50s; women and patients in their 20s were notably fewer. Focusing just on the patients who were actually resident in Thailand, as opposed to travellers, their health complaints showed a number of dissimilarities with local Thai patients. Again according to ICD-10 coding, "certain infectious and parasitic diseases" were uncommon among Japanese patients and common among Thai patients, while "diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue" showed the reverse trend. Comparing Japanese expatriate patients in Thailand to patients in Japan found that "endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases" and "mental and behavioral disorders" were diagnosed less frequently among the former group, while "diseases of the respiratory system" and "certain infectious and parasitic diseases" were more frequent among the former group.

text: A 2005 study of Japanese patients at

text: Bangkok Hospital

text: (11,200 patients, about one-eight of all non-Thai patients at the hospital that year) found that most patients were men in their 30s, 40s, and 50s; women and patients in their 20s were notably fewer. Focusing just on the patients who were actually resident in Thailand, as opposed to travellers, their health complaints showed a number of dissimilarities with local Thai patients. Again according to ICD-10 coding, "certain infectious and parasitic diseases" were uncommon among Japanese patients and common among Thai patients, while "diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue" showed the reverse trend. Comparing Japanese expatriate patients in Thailand to patients in Japan found that "endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases" and "mental and behavioral disorders" were diagnosed less frequently among the former group, while "diseases of the respiratory system" and "certain infectious and parasitic diseases" were more frequent among the former group.

text: There has been a  limited amount of studies that have looked at the effects of smoking cannabis on the respiratory system.  Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, coughing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause significant abnormalities in lung function.

text: There has been a  limited amount of studies that have looked at the

text: effects of smoking cannabis

text: on the respiratory system.  Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, coughing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis. Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause significant abnormalities in lung function.

text: On chest radiographs, progressive fibrotic changes with loss of lung volume particularly affect the upper lobes. Nodular or ground-glass opacities are not present. Features of emphysema are found on significant chest films and CT scans.

text: Adherence of M. pneumoniae to a host cell (usually a respiratory tract cell, but occasionally an erythrocyte or urogenital lining cell) is the initiating event for pneumonic disease and related symptoms. The specialized attachment organelle is a polar, electron dense and elongated cell extension that facilitates motility and cytadherence to host cells. It is composed of a central filament surrounded by an intracytoplasmic space, along with a number of adhesins and structural and accessory proteins localized at the tip of the organelle.A variety of proteins are known to contribute to the formation and functionality of the attachment organelle, including the accessory proteins HMW1–HMW5, P30, P56, and P90 that confer structure and adhesin support, and P1, P30 and P116 which are involved directly in attachment. This network of proteins participates not only in the initiation of attachment organelle formation and adhesion but also in motility. The P1 adhesin (trypsin-sensitive protein) is a 120 kDa protein highly clustered on the surface of the attachment organelle tip in virulent mycoplasmas. Both the presence of P1 and its concentration on the cell surface are required for the attachment of M. pneumoniae to the host cell. M. pneumoniae cells treated with monoclonal antibodies specific to the immunogenic C-terminus of the P1 adhesin have been shown to be inhibited in their ability to attach to the host cell surface by approximately 75%, suggesting P1 is a major component in cytadherence. These antibodies also decreased the ability of the cell to glide quickly, which may contribute to decreased adherence to the host by hindering their capacity to locate a host cell. Furthermore, mutations in P1 or degradation by trypsin treatment yield avirulent M. pneumoniae cells. Loss of proteins in the cytoskeleton involved in the localization of P1 in the tip structure, such as HMW1–HMW3, also cause avirulence due to the lack of adhesin clustering. Another protein considered to play an important role in cytadherence is P30, as M. pneumoniae cells with mutations in this protein or that have had antibodies raised against P30 are incapable of adhering to host cells. P30 is not involved in the localization of P1 in the tip structure since P1 is trafficked to the attachment organelle in P30 mutants, but rather it may function as a receptor-binding accessory adhesin. P30 mutants also display distinct morphological features such as multiple lobes and a rounded shape as opposed to elongated, which suggests P30 may interact with the cytoskeleton during formation of the attachment organelle.A number of eukaryotic cell surface components have been implicated in the adherence of M. pneumoniae cells to the respiratory tract epithelium. Among them are sialoglycoconjugates, sulfated glycolipids, glycoproteins, fibronectin, and neuraminic acid receptors. Lectins on the surface of the bacterial cells are capable of binding oligosaccharide chains on glycolipids and glycoproteins to facilitate attachment, in addition to the proteins TU and pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 β, which bind to fibronectin.

text: Adherence of M. pneumoniae to a host cell (usually a

text: respiratory tract

text: cell, but occasionally an

text: erythrocyte

text: or

text: urogenital lining

text: cell) is the initiating event for

text: pneumonic disease

text: and related symptoms. The specialized attachment

text: organelle

text: is a

text: polar

text: electron dense

text: and elongated cell extension that facilitates

text: motility

text: and cytadherence to host cells. It is composed of a central

text: filament

text: surrounded by an intra

text: cytoplasm

text: ic space, along with a number of

text: adhesins

text: and structural and accessory

text: proteins

text: localized at the tip of the organelle.A variety of proteins are known to contribute to the formation and functionality of the attachment organelle, including the accessory proteins HMW1–HMW5, P30, P56, and P90 that confer structure and adhesin support, and P1, P30 and P116 which are involved directly in attachment. This network of proteins participates not only in the initiation of attachment organelle formation and adhesion but also in

text: motility

text: . The P1 adhesin (trypsin-sensitive protein) is a 120

text: kDa

text: protein highly clustered on the surface of the attachment organelle tip in

text: virulent

text: mycoplasmas. Both the presence of P1 and its concentration on the cell surface are required for the attachment of M. pneumoniae to the host cell. M. pneumoniae cells treated with

text: monoclonal antibodies

text: specific to the

text: immunogenic

text: C-terminus

text: of the P1 adhesin have been shown to be inhibited in their ability to attach to the host cell surface by approximately 75%, suggesting P1 is a major component in cytadherence. These antibodies also decreased the ability of the cell to

text: glide

text: quickly, which may contribute to decreased adherence to the host by hindering their capacity to locate a host cell. Furthermore, mutations in P1 or degradation by

text: trypsin

text: treatment yield avirulent M. pneumoniae cells. Loss of proteins in the

text: cytoskeleton

text: involved in the localization of P1 in the tip structure, such as HMW1–HMW3, also cause

text: avirulence

text: due to the lack of adhesin clustering. Another protein considered to play an important role in cytadherence is P30, as M. pneumoniae cells with mutations in this protein or that have had

text: antibodies

text: raised against P30 are incapable of adhering to host cells. P30 is not involved in the localization of P1 in the tip structure since P1 is trafficked to the attachment organelle in P30 mutants, but rather it may function as a

text: receptor

text: -binding accessory adhesin. P30 mutants also display distinct

text: morphological

text: features such as multiple

text: lobes

text: and a rounded shape as opposed to elongated, which suggests P30 may interact with the cytoskeleton during formation of the attachment organelle.A number of

text: eukaryotic

text: cell surface components have been implicated in the adherence of M. pneumoniae cells to the respiratory tract

text: epithelium

text: . Among them are

text: sialoglycoconjugates

text: , sulfated

text: glycolipids

text: glycoproteins

text: fibronectin

text: , and

text: neuraminic acid

text: receptors.

text: Lectins

text: on the surface of the bacterial cells are capable of binding

text: oligosaccharide

text: chains on glycolipids and glycoproteins to facilitate attachment, in addition to the proteins TU and

text: pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 β

text: , which bind to fibronectin.

text: IgE, the IgE synthesis pathway, and the IgE-mediated allergic/inflammatory pathway are all important targets in intervening with the pathological processes of allergy, asthma, and other IgE-mediated diseases. The B lymphocyte differentiation and maturation pathway that eventually generate IgE-secreting plasma cells go through the intermediate steps of IgE-expressing B lymphoblasts and involves the interaction with IgE-expressing memory B cells. Tanox, a biotech company based in Houston, Texas, proposed in 1987 that by targeting membrane-bound IgE (mIgE) on B lymphoblast and memory B cells, those cells can be lysed or down-regulated, thus achieving the inhibition of the production of antigen-specific IgE and hence a shift of immune balance toward non-IgE mechanisms. Two approaches targeting the IgE pathway were evolved and both are in active development. In the first approach, the anti-IgE antibody drug omalizumab (trade name Xolair) recognises IgE not bound to its receptors and is used to neutralise or mop-up existing IgE and prevent it from binding to the receptors on mast cells and basophils. Xolair has been approved in many countries for treating severe, persistent allergic asthma. It has also been approved in March 2014 in the European Union and the U. S. for treating chronic spontaneous urticaria, which cannot be adequately treated with H1-antihistamines. In the second approach, antibodies specific for a domain of 52 amino acid residues, referred to as CεmX or M1’ (M1 prime), present only on human mIgE on B cells and not on free, soluble IgE, have been prepared and are under clinical development for the treatment of allergy and asthma. An anti-M1’ humanized antibody, quilizumab, is in phase IIb clinical trial.

text: IgE, the IgE synthesis pathway, and the IgE-mediated allergic/inflammatory pathway are all important targets in intervening with the pathological processes of allergy, asthma, and other IgE-mediated diseases. The B lymphocyte differentiation and maturation pathway that eventually generate IgE-secreting plasma cells go through the intermediate steps of IgE-expressing B lymphoblasts and involves the interaction with IgE-expressing memory B cells.

text: Tanox

text: , a biotech company based in Houston, Texas, proposed in 1987 that by targeting membrane-bound IgE (mIgE) on B lymphoblast and memory B cells, those cells can be lysed or down-regulated, thus achieving the inhibition of the production of antigen-specific IgE and hence a shift of immune balance toward non-IgE mechanisms. Two approaches targeting the IgE pathway were evolved and both are in active development. In the first approach, the

text: anti-IgE

text: antibody drug

text: omalizumab

text: (trade name

text: Xolair

text: ) recognises IgE not bound to its receptors and is used to neutralise or mop-up existing IgE and prevent it from binding to the receptors on mast cells and basophils. Xolair has been approved in many countries for treating severe, persistent allergic asthma. It has also been approved in March 2014 in the European Union and the U. S. for treating

text: chronic spontaneous urticaria

text: , which cannot be adequately treated with H1-

text: antihistamines

text: . In the second approach, antibodies specific for a domain of 52 amino acid residues, referred to as CεmX or M1’ (M1 prime), present only on human mIgE on B cells and not on free, soluble IgE, have been prepared and are under clinical development for the treatment of allergy and asthma. An anti-M1’ humanized antibody,

text: quilizumab

text: , is in phase IIb clinical trial.

text: Lung cancer can can either arise directly from lung tissue or as a result of metastasis from another part of the body. There are two main types of primary tumour described as either small-cell or non-small-cell lung carcinomas. The major risk factor for cancer is smoking. Once a cancer is identified it is staged using scans such as a CT scan and a sample of tissue (a biopsy) is taken. Cancers may be treated by surgically removing the tumour, radiotherapy, chemotherapy or combinations thereof, or with the aim of symptom control.Lung cancer screening is being recommended in the United States for high-risk populations.

text: Lung cancer

text: can can either arise directly from lung tissue or as a result of

text: metastasis

text: from another part of the body. There are two main types of primary tumour described as either

text: small-cell

text: or

text: non-small-cell lung carcinoma

text: s. The major risk factor for cancer is

text: smoking

text: . Once a cancer is identified it is

text: staged

text: using scans such as a

text: CT scan

text: and a sample of tissue (a

text: biopsy

text: ) is taken. Cancers may be treated by surgically removing the tumour,

text: radiotherapy

text: chemotherapy

text: or combinations thereof, or with the aim of

text: symptom control

text: Lung cancer screening

text: is being recommended in the United States for high-risk populations.

text: In addition to their roles in cancer development and chemotherapeutic drug resistance, GSTs are implicated in a variety of diseases by virtue of their involvement with GSH. Although the evidence is minimal for the influence of GST polymorphisms of the alpha, mu, pi, and theta classes on susceptibility to various types of cancer, numerous studies have implicated such genotypic variations in asthma, atherosclerosis, allergies, and other inflammatory diseases.

text: In addition to their roles in cancer development and chemotherapeutic drug resistance, GSTs are implicated in a variety of diseases by virtue of their involvement with GSH. Although the evidence is minimal for the influence of GST

text: polymorphisms

text: of the alpha, mu, pi, and theta classes on susceptibility to various types of cancer, numerous studies have implicated such genotypic variations in

text: asthma

text: atherosclerosis

text: allergies

text: , and other

text: inflammatory

text: diseases.

text: When inhaled, virus will attach to glycoprotein receptors containing sialic acid on ciliated epithelial cells of the respiratory epithelium. The respiratory replication will result in loss of ciliary activity,  mucus accumulation, necrosis and desquamation, causing respiratory distress, râles and asphyxia. Local virus replication will result in viremia, spreading the infection into other tissues and organs. Other respiratory diseases of chickens (Mycoplasma gallisepticum, avian infectious laryngotracheitis (Gallid herpesvirus 1), Newcastle disease (Avian Paramyxovirus 1), avian metapneumovirus infection may be confused clinically to infectious bronchitis.

text: When inhaled, virus will attach to

text: glycoprotein

text: receptors containing

text: sialic acid

text: on ciliated epithelial cells of the respiratory epithelium. The respiratory replication will result in loss of ciliary activity,  mucus accumulation, necrosis and desquamation, causing respiratory distress, râles and

text: asphyxia

text: . Local virus replication will result in viremia, spreading the infection into other tissues and organs. Other respiratory diseases of chickens (

text: Mycoplasma gallisepticum

text: , avian infectious laryngotracheitis (

text: Gallid herpesvirus 1

text: ), Newcastle disease (

text: Avian Paramyxovirus 1

text: ), avian metapneumovirus infection may be confused clinically to infectious bronchitis.

text: Lung cancer is a large and exceptionally heterogeneous family of malignancies. Over 50 different histological variants are explicitly recognized within the 2004 revision of the World Health Organization (WHO) typing system ("WHO-2004"), currently the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme. Many of these entities are rare, recently described, and poorly understood. However, since different forms of malignant tumors generally exhibit diverse genetic, biological, and clinical properties — including response to treatment — accurate classification of lung cancer cases are critical to assuring that patients with lung cancer receive optimum management.

text: heterogeneous

text: family of malignancies. Over 50 different

text: histological

text: variants are explicitly recognized within the 2004 revision of the

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) typing system ("WHO-2004"), currently the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme. Many of these entities are rare, recently described, and poorly understood. However, since different forms of malignant tumors generally exhibit diverse genetic, biological, and clinical properties — including response to treatment — accurate classification of lung cancer cases are critical to assuring that patients with lung cancer receive optimum management.

text: In Australia and the United Kingdom, clinical physiology is not a medical specialty for physicians. Rather, clinical physiologist is a term used in these systems to refer to an allied health professional, scientist, or technologist who may work as a cardiac scientist, vascular scientist, respiratory scientist, sleep scientist or in Ophthalmic and Vision Science as an Ophthalmic Science Practitioner (UK).  These professionals also aid in the diagnosis of disease and manage patients, with an emphasis on understanding physiological and pathophysiological pathways.

text: SNOMED CT "Concepts" are representational units that categorize all the things that characterize health care processes and need to be recorded therein. In 2011, SNOMED CT included more than 311,000 concepts, which are uniquely identified by a concept ID, i.e. the concept 22298006 refers to Myocardial infarction. All SNOMED CT concepts are organized into acyclic taxonomic (is-a) hierarchies; for example, Viral pneumonia IS-A Infectious pneumonia IS-A Pneumonia IS-A Lung disease.  Concepts may have multiple parents, for example Infectious pneumonia is also a child of Infectious disease. The taxonomic structure allows data to be recorded and later accessed at different levels of aggregation.SNOMED CT concepts are linked by approximately 1,360,000 links, called relationships.

text: SNOMED CT "Concepts" are representational units that categorize all the things that characterize health care processes and need to be recorded therein. In 2011, SNOMED CT included more than 311,000 concepts, which are uniquely identified by a concept ID, i.e. the concept 22298006 refers to Myocardial infarction. All SNOMED CT concepts are organized into acyclic taxonomic (is-a) hierarchies; for example, Viral pneumonia IS-A Infectious pneumonia IS-A Pneumonia IS-A Lung disease.  Concepts may have multiple parents, for example Infectious pneumonia is also a

text: child

text: of Infectious disease. The taxonomic structure allows data to be recorded and later accessed at different levels of aggregation.SNOMED CT concepts are linked by approximately 1,360,000 links, called relationships.

text: The closing capacity (CC) is the volume in the lungs at which its smallest airways, the respiratory bronchioles, collapse. The alveoli lack supporting cartilage and so depend on other factors to keep them open. The closing capacity is greater than the residual volume (RV), the amount of gas that normally remains in the lungs during respiration, and specifically, after forced expiration. This is because closing capacity is equal to closing volume plus residual volume. This means that there is normally enough air within the lungs to keep these airways open throughout both inhalation and exhalation. As the lungs age, there is a gradual increase in the closing capacity (i.e. The small airways begin to collapse at a higher volume/before expiration is complete). This also occurs with certain disease processes, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and pulmonary edema. Any process that increases the CC by increasing the functional residual capacity (FRC)  can increase an individual's risk of hypoxemia, as the small airways may collapse during exhalation, leading to air trapping and atelectasis.

text: The closing capacity (CC) is the volume in the

text: lung

text: s at which its smallest airways, the respiratory bronchioles, collapse. The alveoli lack supporting

text: cartilage

text: and so depend on other factors to keep them open. The closing capacity is greater than the

text: residual volume

text: (RV), the amount of gas that normally remains in the lungs during

text: respiration

text: , and specifically, after forced expiration. This is because closing capacity is equal to closing volume plus residual volume. This means that there is normally enough air within the lungs to keep these airways open throughout both

text: inhalation

text: and

text: exhalation

text: . As the lungs age, there is a gradual increase in the closing capacity (i.e. The small airways begin to collapse at a higher volume/before expiration is complete). This also occurs with certain disease processes, such as

text: asthma

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: , and

text: pulmonary edema

text: . Any process that increases the CC by increasing the

text: functional residual capacity

text: (FRC)  can increase an individual's risk of

text: hypoxemia

text: , as the small airways may collapse during exhalation, leading to

text: air trapping

text: and

text: atelectasis

text: There are other health risks for respiratory- related illness and disease such as asthma and allergies. Also, for those who work with certain species, there is risk of toxicity due to venomous exposure.

text: There are other health risks for respiratory- related illness and disease such as

text: asthma

text: and

text: allergies

text: . Also, for those who work with certain species, there is risk of toxicity due to venomous exposure.

text: Hedgehogs are prone to many diseases, including cancer, which spreads quickly in hedgehogs, and wobbly hedgehog syndrome, a neurological syndrome. Some symptoms of wobbly hedgehog syndrome resemble those of multiple sclerosis (MS) in humans, therefore the condition the animal experiences can be compared with what MS patients experience. A possible cause of WHS is a genetic flaw allowing a virus to attack the hedgehog's nervous system. The nose can display a variety of symptoms of a troubled hedgehog, especially respiratory illnesses such as pneumonia. In many cases, the form of pneumonia that affects hedgehogs is bacterial in nature. If acted upon quickly, antibiotics can have a very positive effect. Signs to watch for include bubbles, excessive dripping, or constant sneezing.

text: Hedgehogs are prone to many diseases, including

text: cancer

text: , which spreads quickly in hedgehogs, and

text: wobbly hedgehog syndrome

text: , a neurological syndrome. Some symptoms of wobbly hedgehog syndrome resemble those of

text: multiple sclerosis

text: (MS) in humans, therefore the condition the animal experiences can be compared with what MS patients experience. A possible cause of WHS is a genetic flaw allowing a virus to attack the hedgehog's nervous system. The nose can display a variety of symptoms of a troubled hedgehog, especially respiratory illnesses such as pneumonia. In many cases, the form of pneumonia that affects hedgehogs is bacterial in nature. If acted upon quickly, antibiotics can have a very positive effect. Signs to watch for include bubbles, excessive dripping, or constant sneezing.

text: Increasing evidence indicates that four main physiological systems are effected: hypertension and heart disease, wound-healing, musculoskeletal disorders, gastro-intestinal disorders, and impaired immuno-competence. Additional disorders generally recognized as stress-induced include: bronchitis, coronary heart disease, mental illness, thyroid disorders, skin diseases, certain types of rheumatoid arthritis, obesity, tuberculosis, headaches and migraine, peptic ulcers and ulcerative colitis, and diabetes.

text: Increasing evidence indicates that four main physiological systems are effected: hypertension and heart disease, wound-healing, musculoskeletal disorders, gastro-intestinal disorders, and impaired immuno-competence. Additional disorders generally recognized as stress-induced include:

text: bronchitis

text: coronary heart disease

text: mental illness

text: thyroid disorders

text: skin diseases

text: , certain types of

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: obesity

text: tuberculosis

text: headaches

text: and

text: migraine

text: peptic ulcers

text: and

text: ulcerative colitis

text: , and

text: diabetes

text: Marius Nasta's research, carried out either by himself or in teams, covered the most important fields of phthisiology such as bacteriology, immunology and the physiophathology of respiratory diseases. In the field of tuberculosis, his research focused on the immunology of the disease, mycobacterium tuberculosis, vaccines (Bacillus Calmette Guerin vaccine or BCG) as well as on the detection, chemotherapy, pathology of pulmonary and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. Nasta's research on experimental chemoprophylaxis and immuno-prophylaxis of tuberculosis was cutting edge. It enabled the introduction of specific and practical methods for the prevention of the disease throughout Romania. He also studied tuberculosis and bronchopathy in specific living and working environments and established a link between such environments and the proliferation of these diseases.

text: Marius Nasta's research, carried out either by himself or in teams, covered the most important fields of phthisiology such as bacteriology, immunology and the physiophathology of respiratory diseases. In the field of tuberculosis, his research focused on the immunology of the disease, mycobacterium tuberculosis, vaccines (

text: Bacillus Calmette Guerin vaccine or BCG

text: ) as well as on the detection,

text: chemotherapy

text: pathology

text: of pulmonary and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. Nasta's research on experimental

text: chemoprophylaxis

text: and immuno-prophylaxis of tuberculosis was cutting edge. It enabled the introduction of specific and practical methods for the prevention of the disease throughout Romania. He also studied tuberculosis and bronchopathy in specific living and working environments and established a link between such environments and the proliferation of these diseases.

text: Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung affecting primarily the microscopic air sacs known as alveoli. Typical signs and symptoms include a varying severity and combination of productive or dry cough, chest pain, fever, and trouble breathing, depending on the underlying cause.

text: Pneumonia is an

text: inflammatory

text: condition of the

text: lung

text: affecting primarily the microscopic air sacs known as

text: alveoli

text: . Typical signs and symptoms include a varying severity and combination of

text: productive

text: or dry

text: cough

text: chest pain

text: fever

text: , and

text: trouble breathing

text: , depending on the underlying cause.

text: Children and adults with chronic dry cough, increased work of breathing (fast respiratory rate, shortness of breath at rest or with activities) and absence of an infectious process to explain respiratory symptoms should be evaluated for interstitial lung disease or another intrapulmonary process. Evaluation by a Pulmonologist and a CT scan of the chest should be considered in individuals with symptoms of interstitial lung disease or to rule other non-infectious pulmonary processes. People diagnosed with interstitial lung disease may benefit from systemic steroids.

text: Asthma is marked by hyperresponsiveness of the bronchi with an inflammatory component, often in response to allergens.

text: Asthma

text: is marked by

text: hyperresponsiveness of the bronchi

text: with an inflammatory component, often in response to

text: allergen

text: s.

text: Mansur Ali Khan was an Indian cricketer and former captain of the Indian cricket team. He was  Nawab of Bhopal until 1971, when India abolished royal entitlements through the 26th Amendment to the Constitution of India. He was an Indian Cricket Cricketer of the Year in 1962, and a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1968. He published an autobiography, Tiger's Tale, in 1969. He was the manager of the India team in 1974–75, and referee for two Ashes Tests in 1993. He was later a member of the council of the Indian Premier League. Mr. Pataudi was admitted to New Delhi's Sir Ganga Ram Hospital on 22 September 2011 with an acute lung infection caused by chronic interstitial lung disease which prevented his lungs from exchanging oxygen properly. He died of respiratory failure the same day.

text: Mansur Ali Khan was an Indian

text: cricketer

text: and former captain of the

text: Indian cricket team

text: . He was

text: Nawab of Bhopal

text: until 1971, when India abolished royal entitlements through the 26th Amendment to the

text: Constitution of India

text: . He was an

text: Indian Cricket

text: Cricketer of the Year in 1962, and a

text: Wisden Cricketer of the Year

text: in 1968. He published an autobiography, Tiger's Tale, in 1969. He was the manager of the India team in 1974–75, and referee for two Ashes Tests in 1993. He was later a member of the council of the

text: Indian Premier League

text: . Mr. Pataudi was admitted to New Delhi's

text: Sir Ganga Ram Hospital

text: on 22 September 2011 with an acute lung infection caused by chronic

text: interstitial lung disease

text: which prevented his lungs from exchanging oxygen properly. He died of

text: respiratory failure

text: the same day.

text: Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of pollution-related diseases and health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer. The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.

text: Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of

text: pollution-related diseases

text: and health conditions including respiratory infections, heart disease,

text: COPD

text: , stroke and lung cancer. The health effects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing,

text: asthma

text: and worsening of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. Children aged less than five years that live in developing countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.

text: In 2013, 242 million people globally had asthma up from 183 million in 1990. It caused about 489,000 deaths in 2013, most of which occurred in the developing world. It often begins in childhood. The rates of asthma have increased significantly since the 1960s. Asthma was recognized as early as Ancient Egypt. The word asthma is from the Greek ἅσθμα, ásthma which means "panting".

text: In 2013, 242 million people globally had asthma up from 183 million in 1990. It caused about 489,000 deaths in 2013, most of which occurred in the

text: developing world

text: . It often begins in childhood. The rates of asthma have increased significantly since the 1960s. Asthma was recognized as early as

text: Ancient Egypt

text: . The word asthma is from the Greek ἅσθμα, ásthma which means "panting".

text: There is also the Marlioz Spa. This is located in a park of . It uses water from springs discovered around 1850. A first private institution was built in 1860, then entirely rebuilt in 1980. This spa is particularly suitable for the release of the respiratory system and heals diseases of the mouth. Treated ENT diseases are otitis, rhinitis, sinusitis, the pharyngitis, tonsillitis, the laryngitis, surgical preparations and post-surgical in ENT. Also treated are pathologies in pneumology, tracheitis, bronchitis, bronchial dilation and finally asthma.

text: There is also the Marlioz Spa. This is located in a park of . It uses water from springs discovered around 1850. A first private institution was built in 1860, then entirely rebuilt in 1980. This spa is particularly suitable for the release of the respiratory system and heals diseases of the

text: mouth

text: . Treated

text: ENT

text: diseases are otitis, rhinitis, sinusitis, the pharyngitis, tonsillitis, the laryngitis, surgical preparations and post-surgical in ENT. Also treated are pathologies in

text: pneumology

text: , tracheitis, bronchitis, bronchial dilation and finally asthma.

text: SARS, or Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, is the disease caused by SARS coronavirus. It causes an often severe illness marked initially by systemic symptoms of muscle pain, headache, and fever, followed in 2–14 days by the onset of respiratory symptoms, mainly cough, dyspnea, and pneumonia. Another common finding in SARS patients is a decrease in the number of lymphocytes circulating in the blood.

text: SARS, or

text: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

text: , is the disease caused by SARS coronavirus. It causes an often severe illness marked initially by systemic symptoms of

text: muscle pain

text: headache

text: , and

text: fever

text: , followed in 2–14 days by the onset of respiratory symptoms, mainly cough, dyspnea, and pneumonia. Another common finding in SARS patients is a decrease in the number of lymphocytes circulating in the blood.

text: The non-cancer health effects of chlordane compounds, which include diabetes, insulin resistance, migraines, respiratory infections, immune-system activation, anxiety, depression, blurry vision, confusion, intractable seizures as well as permanent neurological damage, probably affects more people than cancer. Recently, trans-nonachlor and oxychlordane in serum of mothers during gestation has been linked with behaviors associated with autism in offspring at age 4-5. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) has defined a concentration of chlordane compounds of 20 ng/M as the Minimal Risk Level (MRLs). ATSDR defines Minimal Risk Level as an estimate of daily human exposure to a dose of a chemical that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of adverse non-cancerous effects over a specific duration of exposure.  Recent results from 8 large epidemiological studies in the United States, using CDC's NHANES data, have consistently shown of all the chemicals found in the blood of Americans, heptachlor epoxides and oxychlordane have the highest associated risk with insulin resistance and diabetes.

text: The non-cancer health effects of chlordane compounds, which include diabetes, insulin resistance, migraines, respiratory infections, immune-system activation, anxiety, depression, blurry vision, confusion, intractable seizures as well as permanent neurological damage, probably affects more people than cancer. Recently, trans-nonachlor and oxychlordane in serum of mothers during gestation has been linked with behaviors associated with autism in offspring at age 4-5. The

entity_name: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

text: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

text: (ATSDR) has defined a concentration of chlordane compounds of 20 ng/M as the Minimal Risk Level (MRLs). ATSDR defines Minimal Risk Level as an estimate of daily human exposure to a dose of a chemical that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of adverse non-cancerous effects over a specific duration of exposure.  Recent results from 8 large epidemiological studies in the United States, using CDC's NHANES data, have consistently shown of all the chemicals found in the blood of Americans, heptachlor epoxides and oxychlordane have the highest associated risk with insulin resistance and diabetes.

text: The three cysteinyl leukotrienes, LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4, are potent bronchoconstrictors, increasers of vascular permeability in postcapillary venules, and stimulators of mucus secretion that are released from the lung tissue of asthmatic subjects exposed to specific allergens. They play a pathophysiological role in diverse types of immediate hypersensitivity reactions. Drugs that block their activation of the CYSLTR1 receptor viz., montelukast, zafirlukast, and pranlukast, are used clinically as maintenance treatment for allergen-induced asthma and rhinitis; nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced asthma and rhinitis (see Aspirin-induced asthma); exercise- and cold-air induced asthma (see Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction); and childhood sleep apnea due to adenotonsillar hypertrophy (see Acquired non-inflammatory myopathy). When combined with antihistamine drug therapy, they also appear useful for treating urticarial diseases such as hives.

text: The three cysteinyl leukotrienes, LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4, are potent bronchoconstrictors, increasers of vascular permeability in postcapillary

text: venule

text: s, and stimulators of

text: mucus

text: secretion that are released from the lung tissue of asthmatic subjects exposed to specific allergens. They play a pathophysiological role in diverse types of

text: immediate hypersensitivity

text: reactions. Drugs that block their activation of the

text: receptor viz.,

text: montelukast

text: zafirlukast

text: , and

text: pranlukast

text: , are used clinically as maintenance treatment for allergen-induced

text: asthma

text: and

text: rhinitis

text: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: -induced asthma and rhinitis (see

text: Aspirin-induced asthma

text: ); exercise- and cold-air induced asthma (see

text: Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction

text: ); and childhood

text: sleep apnea

text: due to adenotonsillar hypertrophy (see

text: Acquired non-inflammatory myopathy

text: ). When combined with

text: antihistamine

text: drug therapy, they also appear useful for treating

text: urticaria

text: l diseases such as hives.

text: Deficiencies in nutrition inflict long-term damage to both individuals and society. Compared with their better-fed peers, nutrition-deficient individuals are more likely to have infectious diseases such as pneumonia and tuberculosis, which lead to a higher mortality rate. In addition, nutrition-deficient individuals are less productive at work. Low productivity not only gives them low pay that traps them in a vicious circle of under-nutrition, but also brings inefficiency to the society, especially in India where labour is a major input factor for economic production. On the other hand, over-nutrition also has severe consequences. In India national obesity rates in 2010 were 14% for women and 18% for men with some urban areas having rates as high as 40%. Obesity causes several non-communicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancers and chronic respiratory diseases.

text: Deficiencies in nutrition inflict long-term damage to both individuals and society. Compared with their better-fed peers, nutrition-deficient individuals are more likely to have infectious diseases such as pneumonia and tuberculosis, which lead to a higher mortality rate. In addition, nutrition-deficient individuals are less productive at work. Low productivity not only gives them low pay that traps them in a vicious circle of under-nutrition, but also brings inefficiency to the society, especially in India where labour is a major input factor for economic production. On the other hand, over-nutrition also has severe consequences. In India national obesity rates in 2010 were 14% for women and 18% for men with some urban areas having rates as high as 40%. Obesity causes several

text: non-communicable disease

text: s such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancers and chronic respiratory diseases.

text: While using a gas stove, it is advised to also use ventilation. Studies show that in homes with gas stoves, if ventilation is used while using gas stoves, then children have lower odds of asthma, wheezing and bronchitis as compared to children in homes that never used ventilation. If venting isn’t possible, then replacing gas stoves with electric stove could be another option. Replacing gas stoves with electric ranges could greatly reduce the exposure to indoor NO2 and improve the respiratory function of children with asthma. It is important to keep gas stoves and heaters in good repair so they are not polluting extra NO2. 2015 International Residential Code that requires that vent hoods are used for all stoves and set standards for residential buildings. This requires that all range hoods have a vent that discharges outside. You can also prevent NO2 exposure by avoiding cigarette smoking and not idling your car whenever possible.

text: Occupational lung diseases are occupational diseases affecting the respiratory system, including occupational asthma, black lung disease (coalworker's pneumoconiosis), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), mesothelioma, and silicosis.  Infectious lung diseases can also be acquired in an occupational context. Exposure to substances like flock and silica can cause fibrosing lung disease, whereas exposure to carcinogens like asbestos and beryllium can cause lung cancer. Occupational cases of interstitial lung disease may be misdiagnosed as COPD, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, or a myriad of other diseases; leading to a delay in identification of the causative agent.

text: Occupational lung diseases are

text: occupational disease

text: s affecting the

text: respiratory system

text: , including

text: occupational asthma

text: black lung disease

text: (coalworker's pneumoconiosis),

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD),

text: mesothelioma

text: , and

text: silicosis

text: .  Infectious lung diseases can also be acquired in an occupational context. Exposure to substances like

text: flock

text: and

text: silica

text: can cause fibrosing lung disease, whereas exposure to carcinogens like

text: asbestos

text: and

text: beryllium

text: can cause

text: lung cancer

text: . Occupational cases of

text: interstitial lung disease

text: may be misdiagnosed as COPD, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, or a myriad of other diseases; leading to a delay in identification of the causative agent.

text: This virus may be spread from person to person through respiratory droplets or by fomites (non-living material) due to its ability to survive on surfaces for short durations. Influenza viruses have a relatively short incubation period (lapse of time from exposure to pathogen to the appearance of symptoms) of 18–72 hours and infect the epithelial cells of the respiratory tract. Influenza virus C tends to cause mild upper respiratory infections. Cold-like symptoms are associated with the virus including fever (38-40ᵒC), dry cough, rhinorrhea (nasal discharge), headache, muscle pain, and achiness. The virus may lead to more severe infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia.

text: This virus may be spread from person to person through respiratory droplets or by

text: fomite

text: s (non-living material) due to its ability to survive on surfaces for short durations. Influenza viruses have a relatively short

text: incubation period

text: (lapse of time from exposure to pathogen to the appearance of symptoms) of 18–72 hours and infect the

text: epithelial cells

text: of the

text: respiratory tract

text: . Influenza virus C tends to cause mild upper respiratory infections. Cold-like symptoms are associated with the virus including fever (38-40ᵒC), dry cough,

text: rhinorrhea

text: (nasal discharge), headache, muscle pain, and achiness. The virus may lead to more severe infections such as

text: bronchitis

text: and

text: pneumonia

text: Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions, also termed alcohol-induced asthma and alcohol-induced respiratory symptoms, are increasingly recognized as a pathological bronchoconstriction response to the consumption of alcohol that afflicts many people with a "classical" form of asthma, the airway constriction disease evoked by the inhalation of allergens.  Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions reflect the operation of different and often racially related mechanisms that differ from those of classical, allergen-induced asthma.

text: Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions, also termed alcohol-induced asthma and alcohol-induced respiratory symptoms, are increasingly recognized as a pathological

text: bronchoconstriction

text: response to the consumption of alcohol that afflicts many people with a "classical" form of

text: asthma

text: , the airway constriction disease evoked by the inhalation of allergens.  Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions reflect the operation of different and often racially related mechanisms that differ from those of classical, allergen-induced asthma.

text: The Institute of Chest diseases was commissioned on 20 September 1990 by the then Chief Minister of Kerala, E.K. Nayanar. The Institute is located 200 m away from the main hospital complex. It stated as a 100 bedded centre for respiratory diseases. The institute has facilities like sleep lab, medical thoracoscopy, pulmonary function tests, and a well-equipped intensive respiratory care unit. The Institute undertakes community orientation projects in implementing the DOTS programme for treatment of tuberculosis.

text: The Institute of Chest diseases was commissioned on 20 September 1990 by the then Chief Minister of Kerala,

text: E.K. Nayanar

text: . The Institute is located 200 m away from the main hospital complex. It stated as a 100 bedded centre for respiratory diseases. The institute has facilities like sleep lab, medical

text: thoracoscopy

text: , pulmonary function tests, and a well-equipped intensive respiratory care unit. The Institute undertakes community orientation projects in implementing the DOTS programme for treatment of tuberculosis.

text: Early reports compared the virus to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and it has been referred to as Saudi Arabia's SARS-like virus. The first person, in June 2012, had a "seven-day history of fever, cough, expectoration, and shortness of breath." One review of 47 laboratory confirmed cases in Saudi Arabia gave the most common presenting symptoms as fever in 98%, cough in 83%, shortness of breath in 72% and myalgia in 32% of people. There were also frequent gastrointestinal symptoms with diarrhea in 26%, vomiting in 21%, abdominal pain in 17% of people. 72% of people required mechanical ventilation. There were also 3.3 males for every female. One study of a hospital-based outbreak of MERS had an estimated incubation period of 5.5 days (95% confidence interval 1.9 to 14.7 days). MERS can range from asymptomatic disease to severe pneumonia leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Kidney failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), and pericarditis have also been reported.

text: Early reports compared the

text: virus

text: to

text: severe acute respiratory syndrome

text: SARS

text: ), and it has been referred to as

text: Saudi Arabia

text: 's SARS-like virus. The first person,

entity_name: 2012 Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus outbreak

text: in June 2012

text: , had a "seven-day history of

text: fever

text: cough

text: expectoration

text: , and shortness of breath." One review of 47 laboratory confirmed cases in Saudi Arabia gave the most common presenting symptoms as fever in 98%, cough in 83%, shortness of breath in 72% and

text: myalgia

text: in 32% of people. There were also frequent gastrointestinal symptoms with diarrhea in 26%, vomiting in 21%, abdominal pain in 17% of people. 72% of people required

text: mechanical ventilation

text: . There were also 3.3 males for every female. One study of a hospital-based outbreak of MERS had an estimated

text: incubation period

text: of 5.5 days (95%

text: confidence interval

text: 1.9 to 14.7 days). MERS can range from asymptomatic disease to severe

text: pneumonia

text: leading to

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: (ARDS).

text: Kidney failure

text: disseminated intravascular coagulation

text: (DIC), and

text: pericarditis

text: have also been reported.

text: They may very rarely cause enough damage to produce serious neurological deficits (such as ataxia or respiratory paralysis) from worms entering the central nervous system. The CNS is compromised by trichinosis in 10–24% of reported cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, a very rare form of stroke (3-4 cases per million annual incidence in adults). Trichinosis can be fatal depending on the severity of the infection; death can occur 4–6 weeks after the infection, and is usually caused by myocarditis, encephalitis, or pneumonia.

text: They may very rarely cause enough damage to produce serious neurological deficits (such as

text: ataxia

text: or

text: respiratory paralysis

text: ) from worms entering the

text: central nervous system

text: . The CNS is compromised by trichinosis in 10–24% of reported cases of

text: cerebral venous sinus thrombosis

text: , a very rare form of stroke (3-4 cases per million annual incidence in adults). Trichinosis can be fatal depending on the severity of the infection; death can occur 4–6 weeks after the infection, and is usually caused by

text: myocarditis

text: encephalitis

text: , or

text: pneumonia

text: Tuberculosis is the second most common cause of death from infectious disease (after HIV). The absolute number of tuberculosis cases has been decreasing since 2005 and new cases since 2002. China has achieved particularly dramatic progress, with an 80 percent decline in its TB mortality rate. The distribution of tuberculosis is not uniform across the globe; about 80% of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive in tuberculin tests, while only 5–10% of the U.S. population test positive.

text: When inhaled or ingested, sufficient quantities of toxaphene can damage the lungs, nervous system, and kidneys, and may cause death. The major health effects of toxaphene involve central nervous system stimulation leading to convulsive seizures.  The dose necessary to induce nonfatal convulsions in humans is about 10 milligrams per kilogram body weight per day. Several deaths linked to toxaphene have been documented in which an unknown quantity of toxaphene was ingested intentionally or accidentally from food contamination.  The deaths are attributed to respiratory failure resulting from seizures. Chronic inhalation exposure in humans results in reversible respiratory toxicity.

text: When inhaled or ingested, sufficient quantities of toxaphene can damage the

text: lungs

text: nervous system

text: , and

text: kidneys

text: , and may cause

text: death

text: . The major health effects of toxaphene involve central nervous system stimulation leading to convulsive

text: seizures

text: .  The dose necessary to induce nonfatal convulsions in humans is about 10 milligrams per kilogram body weight per day. Several deaths linked to toxaphene have been documented in which an unknown quantity of toxaphene was ingested intentionally or accidentally from food contamination.  The deaths are attributed to

text: respiratory

text: failure resulting from seizures. Chronic inhalation exposure in humans results in reversible respiratory toxicity.

text: Chronic bronchitis is defined as a productive cough that lasts for three months or more per year for at least two years. Most people with chronic bronchitis have chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Protracted bacterial bronchitis is defined as a chronic productive cough with a positive bronchoalveolar lavage that resolves with antibiotics. Symptoms of chronic bronchitis may include wheezing and shortness of breath, especially upon exertion and low oxygen saturations. The cough is often worse soon after awakening and the sputum produced may have a yellow or green color and may be streaked with specks of blood.

text: Chronic bronchitis

text: is defined as a

text: productive cough

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD). Protracted bacterial bronchitis is defined as a chronic productive cough with a positive

text: bronchoalveolar lavage

text: that resolves with

text: antibiotic

text: s. Symptoms of chronic bronchitis may include wheezing and shortness of breath, especially upon exertion and low oxygen saturations. The cough is often worse soon after awakening and the sputum produced may have a yellow or green color and may be streaked with specks of blood.

text: Krka’s line of business is supplemented by health-resort and tourist services of the subsidiary, the Terme Krka Group. It unites the business units of the spa complexes and hotels Terme Dolenjske Toplice, Terme Šmarješke Toplice, the coastal centre Talaso Strunjan, Hoteli Otočec with the only hotel in a castle in Slovenia, and the business Hotel Krka. Terme Krka’s basic line of business is the medical rehabilitation after cardiovascular and respiratory system diseases, as well as mobility problems.

text: Krka’s line of business is supplemented by health-resort and tourist services of the subsidiary, the Terme Krka Group. It unites the business units of the spa complexes and hotels Terme

text: Dolenjske Toplice

text: , Terme

text: Šmarješke Toplice

text: , the coastal centre Talaso

text: Strunjan

text: , Hoteli

text: Otočec

text: with the only hotel in a castle in Slovenia, and the business Hotel Krka. Terme Krka’s basic line of business is the medical

text: rehabilitation

text: after cardiovascular and respiratory system diseases, as well as mobility problems.

text: Early descriptions of probable emphysema include: in 1679 by T. Bonet of a condition of "voluminous lungs" and in 1769 by Giovanni Morgagni of lungs which were "turgid particularly from air". In 1721 the first drawings of emphysema were made by Ruysh. These were followed with pictures by Matthew Baillie in 1789 and descriptions of the destructive nature of the condition. In 1814 Charles Badham used "catarrh" to describe the cough and excess mucus in chronic bronchitis. René Laennec, the physician who invented the stethoscope, used the term "emphysema" in his book A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest and of Mediate Auscultation (1837) to describe lungs that did not collapse when he opened the chest during an autopsy. He noted that they did not collapse as usual because they were full of air and the airways were filled with mucus. In 1842, John Hutchinson invented the spirometer, which allowed the measurement of vital capacity of the lungs. However, his spirometer could only measure volume, not airflow. Tiffeneau and Pinelli in 1947 described the principles of measuring airflow.

text: Early descriptions of probable emphysema include: in 1679 by T. Bonet of a condition of "voluminous lungs" and in 1769 by

text: Giovanni Morgagni

text: of lungs which were "turgid particularly from air". In 1721 the first drawings of emphysema were made by Ruysh. These were followed with pictures by

text: Matthew Baillie

text: in 1789 and descriptions of the destructive nature of the condition. In 1814

text: Charles Badham

text: used "catarrh" to describe the cough and excess mucus in chronic bronchitis.

text: René Laennec

text: , the physician who invented the

text: stethoscope

text: , used the term "emphysema" in his book A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest and of Mediate Auscultation (1837) to describe lungs that did not collapse when he opened the chest during an autopsy. He noted that they did not collapse as usual because they were full of air and the airways were filled with mucus. In 1842,

text: John Hutchinson

text: invented the

text: spirometer

text: , which allowed the measurement of

text: vital capacity

text: of the lungs. However, his spirometer could only measure volume, not airflow. Tiffeneau and Pinelli in 1947 described the principles of measuring airflow.

text: McPartland’s political interests include health care, with a particular focus on cancer treatment and respiratory diseases; education, science and technology, including satellite technology; international trade; policing; addiction treatment; urban regeneration and government procurement of IT projects.

text: Respiratory disease is a medical term that encompasses pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, and includes conditions of the upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura and pleural cavity, and the nerves and muscles of breathing. Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, to life-threatening entities like bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism,  acute asthma and lung cancer.

text: Respiratory disease is a medical term that encompasses

text: pathological

text: conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange possible in higher organisms, and includes conditions of the

text: upper respiratory tract

text: trachea

text: bronchi

text: bronchioles

text: alveoli

text: pleura

text: and

text: pleural cavity

text: , and the nerves and muscles of

text: breathing

text: . Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the

text: common cold

text: , to life-threatening entities like

text: bacterial pneumonia

text: pulmonary embolism

text: acute asthma

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: Increased mucus production in the respiratory tract is a symptom of many common illnesses, such as the common cold and influenza. Hypersecretion of mucus can occur in inflammatory respiratory diseases such as respiratory allergies, asthma, and chronic bronchitis. The presence of mucus in the nose and throat is normal, but increased quantities can impede comfortable breathing and must be cleared by blowing the nose or expectorating phlegm from the throat.

text: Increased mucus production in the respiratory tract is a symptom of many common illnesses, such as the

text: common cold

text: and

text: influenza

text: . Hypersecretion of mucus can occur in inflammatory respiratory diseases such as respiratory

text: allergies

text: asthma

text: , and

text: chronic bronchitis

text: . The presence of mucus in the

text: nose

text: and

text: throat

text: is normal, but increased quantities can impede comfortable breathing and must be cleared by blowing the nose or

text: expectorating

text: phlegm

text: from the throat.

text: Daytime hypopnea events, however, are mostly limited to those with severely compromised respiratory muscles, as occurs in certain neuromuscular diseases or compromised central respiratory drive, as occurs in conditions such as acquired or congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (ACHS or CCHS). Daytime hypopnea can also cause a drop in blood oxygen level.

text: Daytime hypopnea events, however, are mostly limited to those with severely compromised

text: respiratory muscles

text: , as occurs in certain

text: neuromuscular diseases

text: or compromised

text: central respiratory drive

text: , as occurs in conditions such as acquired or congenital

text: central hypoventilation syndrome

text: (ACHS or CCHS). Daytime hypopnea can also cause a drop in blood oxygen level.

text: M. catarrhalis has recently been gaining attention as an emerging human pathogen.  It has been identified as an important cause in bronchopulmonary infection, causing infection through pulmonary aspiration in the upper pulmonary tract. Additionally, it causes bacterial pneumonia, especially in adults with a compromised immune system. It has also been known to cause infective exacerbations in adults with chronic lung disease, and it is an important cause in acute sinusitis, maxillary sinusitis, bacteremia, meningitis, conjunctivitis, acute purulent irritation of chronic bronchitis, urethritis, septicemia (although this is rare), septic arthritis (which is also a rare occurrence),and acute laryngitis in adults and acute otitis media in children.  M. catarrhalis is an opportunistic pulmonary invader, and causes harm especially in patients who have compromised immune systems or any underlying chronic disease.

text: M. catarrhalis has recently been gaining attention as an emerging human pathogen.  It has been identified as an important cause in

text: bronchopulmonary infection

text: , causing infection through

text: pulmonary aspiration

text: in the upper pulmonary tract. Additionally, it causes

text: bacterial pneumonia

text: , especially in adults with a compromised

text: immune system

text: . It has also been known to cause infective exacerbations in adults with chronic lung disease, and it is an important cause in acute sinusitis, maxillary sinusitis, bacteremia, meningitis, conjunctivitis, acute purulent

text: irritation

text: of

text: chronic bronchitis

text: urethritis

text: septicemia

text: (although this is rare),

text: septic arthritis

text: (which is also a rare occurrence),and acute

text: laryngitis

text: in adults and acute

text: otitis media

text: in children.  M. catarrhalis is an opportunistic

text: pulmonary

text: invader, and causes harm especially in patients who have compromised immune systems or any underlying

text: chronic disease

text: Home factors that can lead to exacerbation of asthma include dust, animal dander (especially cat and dog hair), cockroach allergens and mold. Perfumes are a common cause of acute attacks in women and children. Both viral and bacterial infections of the upper respiratory tract can worsen the disease. Psychological stress may worsen symptoms—it is thought that stress alters the immune system and thus increases the airway inflammatory response to allergens and irritants.

text: Home factors that can lead to exacerbation of asthma include

text: dust

text: , animal

text: dander

text: (especially cat and dog hair), cockroach

text: allergen

text: s and

text: mold

text: Perfume

text: s are a common cause of acute attacks in women and children. Both

text: viral

text: and bacterial

text: infection

text: s of the upper respiratory tract can worsen the disease. Psychological

text: stress

text: may worsen symptoms—it is thought that stress alters the immune system and thus increases the airway inflammatory response to allergens and irritants.

text: A study conducted in a contiguous six-county area of southeastern Michigan investigated the relationship between moderate arsenic levels and 23 selected disease outcomes. Disease outcomes included several types of cancer, diseases of the circulatory and respiratory system, diabetes mellitus, and kidney and liver diseases. Elevated mortality rates were observed for all diseases of the circulatory system. The researchers acknowledged a need to replicate their findings.

text: According to the Elegants website, Freddie Redmond died of emphysema in 2006, and was replaced by original member, James Moschella. As of 2012, the Elegants are still performing at concerts and events throughout the United States, under the name "Vito Picone & The Elegants". They still perform "Little Star", as well as their interpretations of many golden oldies.  The Elegants band consists of Mike Catalano on bass guitar, Joe Lucenti on lead guitar, Mark Garni on keyboards and Sal Albanese on drums.

text: According to the Elegants website, Freddie Redmond died of

text: emphysema

text: in 2006, and was replaced by original member, James Moschella. As of 2012, the Elegants are still performing at concerts and events throughout the United States, under the name "Vito Picone & The Elegants". They still perform "Little Star", as well as their interpretations of many golden oldies.  The Elegants band consists of Mike Catalano on bass guitar, Joe Lucenti on lead guitar, Mark Garni on keyboards and Sal Albanese on drums.

text: Recognizing IPF in clinical practice can be challenging as symptoms often appear similar to those of more common diseases, such asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and congestive heart failure (www.diagnoseipf.com). The key issue facing clinicians is whether the presenting history, symptoms (or signs), radiology, and pulmonary function testing are collectively in keeping with the diagnosis of IPF or whether the findings are due to another process. It has long been recognized that patients with ILD related to asbestos exposure, drugs (such as chemotherapeutic agents or nitrofurantoin), rheumatoid arthritis and scleroderma/systemic sclerosis may be difficult to distinguish from IPF. Other differential diagnostic considerations include interstitial lung disease related to mixed connective tissue disease, advanced sarcoidosis, chronic hypersensitivity pneumonitis, pulmonary Langerhan’s cell histiocytosis and radiation-induced lung injury.

text: Recognizing IPF in clinical practice can be challenging as

text: symptoms

text: often appear similar to those of more common diseases, such

text: asthma

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD) and

text: congestive heart failure

text: (www.diagnoseipf.com). The key issue facing clinicians is whether the presenting history,

text: symptoms

text: (or signs),

text: radiology

text: , and

text: pulmonary function testing

text: are collectively in keeping with the diagnosis of IPF or whether the findings are due to another process. It has long been recognized that patients with ILD related to

text: asbestos

text: exposure,

text: drugs

text: (such as

text: chemotherapeutic

text: agents or

text: nitrofurantoin

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: and

text: scleroderma

text: systemic sclerosis

text: may be difficult to distinguish from IPF. Other differential diagnostic considerations include interstitial lung disease related to

text: mixed connective tissue disease

text: , advanced

text: sarcoidosis

text: , chronic

text: hypersensitivity pneumonitis

text: , pulmonary

text: Langerhan’s cell histiocytosis

text: and

text: radiation-induced lung injury

text: The hospital has occupied a leading position in UK interventional cardiology, cardiac imaging, cardiac electrophysiology and cardiothoracic surgery for over four decades. One of only six UK  heart and lung transplantation centres, it is now developing a rapidly evolving Ventricular Assist Device programme. Further nationally recognised departments include respiratory medicine, burns and plastics, as well as cancer and breast care services. The hospital is also recognised in the region and nationally for the quality of its  teaching, research and development. Major research programmes focus on cancer, lung disease, wound management and medical education.

text: The hospital has occupied a leading position in UK

text: interventional cardiology

text: , cardiac imaging,

text: cardiac electrophysiology

text: and cardiothoracic surgery for over four decades. One of only six UK  heart and lung transplantation centres, it is now developing a rapidly evolving Ventricular Assist Device programme. Further nationally recognised departments include respiratory medicine, burns and plastics, as well as cancer and breast care services. The hospital is also recognised in the region and nationally for the quality of its  teaching, research and development. Major research programmes focus on cancer, lung disease, wound management and medical education.

text: In the midst of this city was the largest heavy oil-fired power station and refinery in Japan during this time period. Unfortunately, this refinery was not equipped with machines that could lower the sulfur dioxide emissions before releasing them into the air. In the early 1960s, respiratory diseases began to emerge within the general population of Yokkaichi and even in some of the neighboring districts. This increase in respiratory problems was then specified as Yokkaichi asthma. This form of asthma was incredibly prevalent within Yokkaichi—so much in fact that 5–10% of inhabitants age 40 in Yokkaichi were reported to suffer from chronic bronchitis, whereas less than 3% suffered from the same disease in non-polluted areas.

text: In the midst of this city was the largest heavy oil-fired power station and refinery in Japan during this time period. Unfortunately, this refinery was not equipped with machines that could lower the

text: sulfur dioxide

text: emissions before releasing them into the air. In the early 1960s, respiratory diseases began to emerge within the general population of Yokkaichi and even in some of the neighboring districts. This increase in respiratory problems was then specified as

text: Yokkaichi asthma

text: . This form of asthma was incredibly prevalent within Yokkaichi—so much in fact that 5–10% of inhabitants age 40 in Yokkaichi were reported to suffer from chronic bronchitis, whereas less than 3% suffered from the same disease in non-polluted areas.

text: Asthma is characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing. Sputum may be produced from the lung by coughing but is often hard to bring up. During recovery from an attack, it may appear pus-like due to high levels of white blood cells called eosinophils. Symptoms are usually worse at night and in the early morning or in response to exercise or cold air. Some people with asthma rarely experience symptoms, usually in response to triggers, whereas others may have marked and persistent symptoms.

text: Asthma is characterized by recurrent episodes of

text: wheezing

text: shortness of breath

text: , chest tightness, and

text: cough

text: ing.

text: Sputum

text: may be produced from the lung by coughing but is often hard to bring up. During recovery from an attack, it may appear

text: pus-like

text: due to high levels of white blood cells called

text: eosinophils

text: . Symptoms are usually worse at night and in the early morning or in response to exercise or cold air. Some people with asthma rarely experience symptoms, usually in response to triggers, whereas others may have marked and persistent symptoms.

text: Fungal pneumonia can be diagnosed in a number of ways. The simplest and cheapest method is to culture the fungus from a patient's respiratory fluids.  However, such tests are not only insensitive but take time to develop which is a major drawback because studies have shown that slow diagnosis of fungal pneumonia is linked to high mortality. Microscopy is another method but is also slow and imprecise. Supplementing these classical methods is the detection of antigens.  This technique is significantly faster but can be less sensitive and specific than the classical methods.

text: Fungal pneumonia can be diagnosed in a number of ways. The simplest and cheapest method is to culture the fungus from a patient's respiratory fluids.  However, such tests are not only insensitive but take time to develop which is a major drawback because studies have shown that slow diagnosis of fungal pneumonia is linked to high mortality. Microscopy is another method but is also slow and imprecise. Supplementing these classical methods is the detection of

text: antigen

text: s.  This technique is significantly faster but can be less sensitive and specific than the classical methods.

text: With high confidence, Confalonieri et al. (2007) projected that climate change would increase cardio-respiratory morbidity and mortality associated with ground-level ozone. Ground-level ozone is both naturally occurring and is the primary constituent of urban smog. Ozone in smog is formed through chemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides and other compounds. The reaction is a photochemical reaction, meaning that it involves electromagnetic radiation, and occurs in the presence of bright sunshine and high temperatures. Exposure to elevated concentrations of ozone is associated with increased hospital admissions for pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, allergic rhinitis and other respiratory diseases, and with premature mortality.

text: With high confidence, Confalonieri et al. (2007) projected that climate change would increase cardio-respiratory morbidity and mortality associated with ground-level

text: ozone

text: . Ground-level ozone is both naturally occurring and is the primary constituent of urban

text: smog

text: . Ozone in smog is formed through chemical reactions involving

text: nitrogen oxide

text: s and other compounds. The reaction is a

text: photochemical reaction

text: , meaning that it involves

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: , and occurs in the presence of bright sunshine and high temperatures. Exposure to elevated concentrations of ozone is associated with increased hospital admissions for

text: pneumonia

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: asthma

text: , allergic

text: rhinitis

text: and other respiratory diseases, and with premature mortality.

text: The primary route of exposure to radon and its progeny is inhalation. Radiation exposure from radon is indirect. The health hazard from radon does not come primarily from radon itself, but rather from the radioactive products formed in the decay of radon. The general effects of radon to the human body are caused by its radioactivity and consequent risk of radiation-induced cancer. Lung cancer is the only observed consequence of high concentration radon exposures; both human and animal studies indicate that the lung and respiratory system are the primary targets of radon daughter-induced toxicity.

text: The primary route of exposure to radon and its progeny is inhalation. Radiation exposure from radon is indirect. The health hazard from radon does not come primarily from radon itself, but rather from the radioactive products formed in the decay of radon. The general effects of radon to the human body are caused by its radioactivity and consequent risk of

text: radiation-induced cancer

text: . Lung cancer is the only observed consequence of high concentration radon exposures; both human and animal studies indicate that the lung and respiratory system are the primary targets of radon daughter-induced toxicity.

text: Rural Kenya has been the site of various applied research projects to determine the intensity of emissions that commonly occur from use of biomass fuels, particularly wood, dung, and crop residue. Smoke is the result of the incomplete combustion of solid fuel which women and children are exposed to up to seven hours each day in closed environments.These emissions vary from day to day, season to season and with changes in the amount of airflow within the residence. Exposure in poor homes far exceeds accepted safety levels by as much as one hundred times over. Because many Kenyan women utilize a three-stone fire, the worst offender, one kilogram of burning wood produces tiny particles of soot which can clog and irritate the bronchial pathways. The smoke also contains various poisonous gases such as aldehydes, benzene, and carbon monoxide. Exposure to IAP from combustion of solid fuels has been implicated, with varying degrees of evidence, as a causal agent of several diseases.  Acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are the leading causes of disease and death from exposure to smoke. Cataracts and blindness, lung cancer, tuberculosis, premature births and low birth weight are also suspected of being caused by IAP.

text: Rural Kenya has been the site of various applied research projects to determine the intensity of emissions that commonly occur from use of biomass fuels, particularly wood, dung, and crop residue.

text: Smoke

text: is the result of the incomplete

text: combustion

text: of

text: solid fuel

text: which women and children are exposed to up to seven hours each day in closed environments.These emissions vary from day to day, season to season and with changes in the amount of airflow within the residence. Exposure in poor homes far exceeds accepted safety levels by as much as one hundred times over. Because many Kenyan women utilize a three-stone fire, the worst offender, one kilogram of burning wood produces tiny particles of soot which can clog and irritate the bronchial pathways. The smoke also contains various poisonous gases such as

text: aldehydes

text: benzene

text: , and

text: carbon monoxide

text: . Exposure to IAP from combustion of solid fuels has been implicated, with varying degrees of evidence, as a causal agent of several diseases.  Acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) and

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD) are the leading causes of disease and death from exposure to smoke.

text: Cataracts

text: and

text: blindness

text: lung cancer

text: tuberculosis

text: , premature births and low birth weight are also suspected of being caused by IAP.

text: Susan Johnson-Kehn died of emphysema in 2003 in Sacramento, California, aged 75, survived by her daughter Corianne, from her third marriage.

text: Susan Johnson-Kehn died of

text: emphysema

text: in 2003 in

text: Sacramento, California

text: , aged 75, survived by her daughter Corianne, from her third marriage.

text: Usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) is a form of lung disease characterized by progressive scarring of both lungs. The scarring (fibrosis) involves the supporting framework (interstitium) of the lung. UIP is thus classified as a form of interstitial lung disease. The term "usual" refers to the fact that UIP is the most common form of interstitial fibrosis. "Pneumonia" indicates "lung abnormality", which includes fibrosis and inflammation. A term previously used for UIP in the British literature is cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis, a term that has fallen out of favor since the basic underlying pathology is now thought to be fibrosis, not inflammation.

text: Usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) is a form of lung disease characterized by progressive scarring of both lungs. The scarring (

text: fibrosis

text: ) involves the supporting framework (interstitium) of the lung. UIP is thus classified as a form of

text: interstitial lung disease

text: . The term "usual" refers to the fact that UIP is the most common form of interstitial fibrosis. "Pneumonia" indicates "lung abnormality", which includes fibrosis and inflammation. A term previously used for UIP in the British literature is cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis, a term that has fallen out of favor since the basic underlying pathology is now thought to be fibrosis, not inflammation.

text: A misperception regarding hospice is that only individuals suffering from cancer or AIDS can receive hospice care. Hospice in the United States did evolve around the model of cancer care, with its predictable pattern of deterioration, and according to 2002's The Case Against Assisted Suicide: For the Right to End-of-life Care, "60% of hospice patients have cancer and many of the rest have AIDS". However, patients can be on hospice for cancer, end-stage heart and lung diseases, stroke, renal failure, Alzheimers or many other conditions. Any diagnosis that would be an acceptable cause of death on a death certificate is, if expected to be terminal, an acceptable diagnosis for hospice care.

text: A misperception regarding hospice is that only individuals suffering from

text: cancer

text: or

text: AIDS

text: can receive hospice care. Hospice in the United States did evolve around the model of cancer care, with its predictable pattern of deterioration, and according to 2002's The Case Against Assisted Suicide: For the Right to End-of-life Care, "60% of hospice patients have cancer and many of the rest have AIDS". However, patients can be on hospice for cancer, end-stage

text: heart

text: and

text: lung disease

text: s,

text: stroke

text: renal failure

text: Alzheimers

text: or many other conditions. Any diagnosis that would be an acceptable cause of death on a

text: death certificate

text: is, if expected to be terminal, an acceptable diagnosis for hospice care.

text: Bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi (large and medium-sized airways) in the lungs. Symptoms include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, and chest discomfort. Bronchitis is divided into two types: acute and chronic. Acute bronchitis is also known as a chest cold.

text: Bronchitis is inflammation of the

text: bronchi

text: (large and medium-sized airways) in the

text: lung

text: s. Symptoms include coughing up

text: mucus

text: wheezing

text: shortness of breath

text: , and chest discomfort. Bronchitis is divided into two types:

text: acute

text: and

text: chronic

text: . Acute bronchitis is also known as a chest cold.

text: Lung cancer is a large and exceptionally heterogeneous family of malignancies. Over 50 different histological variants are explicitly recognized within the 2004 revision of the World Health Organization (WHO) typing system ("WHO-2004"), currently the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme.

text: heterogeneous

text: histological

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) typing system ("WHO-2004"), currently the most widely used lung cancer classification scheme.

text: Diseases of the bronchioles include asthma, bronchiolitis obliterans, respiratory syncytial virus infections, and influenza.

text: Diseases of the bronchioles include

text: asthma

text: bronchiolitis obliterans

text: respiratory syncytial virus

text: infections, and

text: influenza

text: Bronchiectasis may result from a number of infective and acquired causes, including pneumonia, tuberculosis, immune system problems, and cystic fibrosis. Cystic fibrosis eventually results in severe bronchiectasis in nearly all cases. The cause in 10-50% of those without cystic fibrosis is unknown. The mechanism of disease is breakdown of the airways due to an excessive inflammatory response. Involved airways (bronchi) become enlarged and thus less able to clear secretions. These secretions increase the amount of bacteria in the lungs, result in airway blockage and further breakdown of the airways. It is classified as an obstructive lung disease, along with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. The diagnosis is suspected based on a person's symptoms and confirmed using computed tomography. Cultures of the mucus produced may be useful to determine treatment in those who have acute worsening and at least once a year.

text: Bronchiectasis may result from a number of

text: infective

text: and acquired causes, including

text: pneumonia

text: tuberculosis

text: immune system

text: problems, and

text: cystic fibrosis

text: . Cystic fibrosis eventually results in severe bronchiectasis in nearly all cases. The cause in 10-50% of those without cystic fibrosis is unknown. The mechanism of disease is breakdown of the airways due to an excessive inflammatory response. Involved airways (

text: bronchi

text: ) become enlarged and thus less able to clear secretions. These secretions increase the amount of

text: bacteria

text: in the lungs, result in airway blockage and further breakdown of the airways. It is classified as an

text: obstructive lung disease

text: , along with

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: and

text: asthma

text: . The diagnosis is suspected based on a person's symptoms and confirmed using

text: computed tomography

text: Cultures of the mucus

text: produced may be useful to determine treatment in those who have acute worsening and at least once a year.

text: Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive motor neuron disease caused by mutations in the SMN1 gene (Brzustowicz et al., 1990). Symptoms vary greatly with each subset of SMA and the stage of the disease. General symptoms include overall muscle weakness and poor muscle tone including extremities and respiratory muscles leading to difficulty walking, breathing, and feeding. Depending on the type of SMA, the disease can present itself from infancy through adulthood. As SMN protein generally promotes the survival of motor neurons, mutations in SMN1 results in slow degeneration motor neurons leading to progressive system-wide muscle wasting. Specifically, over time, decreased levels of SMN protein results in gradual death of the alpha motor neurons in the anterior horn of the spinal cord and brain. Muscles depend on connections to motor neurons and the central nervous system to stimulate muscle maintenance and therefore degeneration of motor neurons and subsequent denervation of muscles lead to loss of muscle control and muscle atrophy. The muscles of the lower extremities are often affected first followed by upper extremities and sometime the muscles of respiration and mastication. In general, proximal muscle are always affected more than distal muscle.

text: Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive motor neuron disease caused by mutations in the

text: gene (Brzustowicz et al., 1990). Symptoms vary greatly with each subset of SMA and the stage of the disease. General symptoms include overall muscle weakness and poor muscle tone including extremities and respiratory muscles leading to difficulty walking, breathing, and feeding. Depending on the type of SMA, the disease can present itself from infancy through adulthood. As SMN protein generally promotes the survival of motor neurons, mutations in SMN1 results in slow degeneration motor neurons leading to progressive system-wide muscle wasting. Specifically, over time, decreased levels of SMN protein results in gradual death of the

text: alpha motor neuron

text: s in the

text: anterior horn of the spinal cord

text: and brain. Muscles depend on connections to motor neurons and the central nervous system to stimulate muscle maintenance and therefore degeneration of motor neurons and subsequent denervation of muscles lead to loss of muscle control and muscle atrophy. The muscles of the lower extremities are often affected first followed by upper extremities and sometime the muscles of respiration and mastication. In general, proximal muscle are always affected more than distal muscle.

text: Apart from respiratory involvement, illnesses and presentations of adenovirus include gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, cystitis, and rash illness. Symptoms of respiratory illness caused by adenovirus infection range from the common cold syndrome to pneumonia, croup, and bronchitis. Patients with compromised immune systems are especially susceptible to severe complications of adenovirus infection. Acute respiratory disease (ARD), first recognized among military recruits during World War II, can be caused by adenovirus infections during conditions of crowding and stress.

text: Apart from respiratory involvement, illnesses and presentations of adenovirus include

text: gastroenteritis

text: conjunctivitis

text: cystitis

text: , and rash illness. Symptoms of respiratory illness caused by adenovirus infection range from the

text: common cold

text: syndrome to

text: pneumonia

text: croup

text: , and

text: bronchitis

text: . Patients with compromised immune systems are especially susceptible to severe complications of adenovirus infection. Acute respiratory disease (ARD), first recognized among military recruits during World War II, can be caused by adenovirus infections during conditions of crowding and stress.

text: No significant difference appears in treatment success rates between linezolid, glycopeptides, or appropriate beta-lactam antibiotics in the treatment of pneumonia. Clinical guidelines for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia developed by the American Thoracic Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommend that linezolid be reserved for cases in which MRSA has been confirmed as the causative organism, or when MRSA infection is suspected based on the clinical presentation. The guidelines of the British Thoracic Society do not recommend it as first-line treatment, but rather as an alternative to vancomycin. Linezolid is also an acceptable second-line treatment for community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia when penicillin resistance is present.

text: No significant difference appears in treatment success rates between linezolid, glycopeptides, or appropriate beta-lactam antibiotics in the treatment of pneumonia.

text: Clinical guideline

text: s for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia developed by the

text: American Thoracic Society

text: and the

text: Infectious Diseases Society of America

text: recommend that linezolid be reserved for cases in which MRSA has been confirmed as the causative organism, or when MRSA infection is suspected based on the clinical presentation. The guidelines of the

text: British Thoracic Society

text: do not recommend it as first-line treatment, but rather as an alternative to vancomycin. Linezolid is also an acceptable second-line treatment for community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia when penicillin resistance is present.

text: Mycobacterium leprae has the longest doubling time of all known bacteria and has thwarted every effort at culture in the laboratory.  Comparing the genome sequence of M. leprae with that of M. tuberculosis provides clear explanations for these properties, and reveals an extreme case of reductive evolution. Less than half of the genome contains functional genes. Gene deletion and decay appear to have eliminated many important metabolic activities, including siderophore production, part of the oxidative and most of the microaerophilic and anaerobic respiratory chains, and numerous catabolic systems and their regulatory circuits.

text: Mycobacterium leprae has the longest

text: doubling time

text: of all known bacteria and has thwarted every effort at culture in the laboratory.  Comparing the

text: genome

text: sequence of M. leprae with that of

text: M. tuberculosis

text: provides clear explanations for these properties, and reveals an extreme case of reductive

text: evolution

text: . Less than half of the genome contains functional

text: genes

text: . Gene deletion and decay appear to have eliminated many important

text: metabolic

text: activities, including

text: siderophore

text: production, part of the oxidative and most of the

text: microaerophilic

text: and

text: anaerobic

text: respiratory

text: chains, and numerous

text: catabolic

text: systems and their regulatory circuits.

text: Research into AM functionality has been on the rise since AMs are one of the first lines of a defense against invasive pathogens. One of the most prominent fields is investigating liposomes as deliverers of antibiotics for treatment of respiratory intracellular infections.  Intracellular parasites, such as M. tuberculosis, C. pneumoniae, L. monocytogenes, L. pneumophila, and F. tularensis, (to name a few) are taken up by AMs via phagocytosis, but are resistant to the biocidal mechanisms of AMs and can survive intracellularly, thus inducing severe respiratory infections.  Pulmonary tuberculosis is caused by M. tuberculosis, and is now a major infectious disease worldwide and its incidence is increasing, especially in association with the AIDS pandemic. For sterilization of intracellular parasites in AMs, antibiotics are normally given orally or intravenously, but much of the antibiotics disperse to many different tissues, diminishing its effectiveness. Pulmonary administration of mannosylated liposomes is a much more direct, efficient route in targeting AMs; it enhances antimicrobial effect, reduces the dosage needed, and avoids unnecessary distribution to the blood.  Since mannose receptors are exclusively expressed on the surface of AM, mannosylation of liposomes is an appealing approach to cell-selective targeting to AM. The efficacy of pulmonary administration of ciprofloxacin (CPFX) incorporated into mannosylated liposomes (mannosylated CPFX-lipososomes) was examined in rats, and determined to be an efficient means to target AMs.

text: During the cold season, there is an increased use of energy for heating purposes, and as a result increased levels of air pollution. During the winter, the three diesel power plants in Ulaanbaatar release 4.5 million cubic meters of gaseous pollutants. Over 250 steam boilers burn 400,000 tons of coal every year, and gers and houses with manual heating burn over 200,000 cubic meters of fuel wood every year. Suspended particulate matter, (caused by dust storms and pollution) has been shown to peak in winter months. Daily averages of particulate concentration in the air can range from two-to-three times higher than international standards. Particulate concentrations have been shown to correlate with premature death. In the cold seasons, the atmospheric content of carbon monoxide is 2-4 times the permissible amount and acute respiratory diseases (such as tuberculosis and other lung diseases) are reported to be higher during winter as well.

text: The AQHI is aimed towards two populations: 1. The “general” population; and 2. The “at-risk” populations.  The later consists of children, the elderly and people with existing respiratory or cardiovascular conditions, such as those with asthma, and people suffering from diabetes, heart disease or lung disease.

text: The AQHI is aimed towards two populations: 1. The “general” population; and 2. The “at-risk” populations.  The later consists of children, the elderly and people with existing respiratory or cardiovascular conditions, such as those with

text: asthma

text: , and people suffering from

text: diabetes

text: heart disease

text: or

text: lung disease

text: During an asthma episode, inflamed airways react to environmental triggers such as smoke, dust, or pollen. The airways narrow and produce excess mucus, making it difficult to breathe.In essence, asthma is the result of an immune response in the bronchial airways.

text: During an asthma episode, inflamed

text: airways

text: react to environmental triggers such as smoke, dust, or pollen. The airways narrow and produce excess

text: mucus

text: , making it difficult to breathe.In essence, asthma is the result of an

text: immune response

text: in the

text: bronchial

text: airways.

text: The ability of bioaerosols to cause human disease depend not only on their chemical composition and biological characteristics, but also on the quantity of bioaerosol inhaled and their size distribution, which determines the site of bioaerosol deposition to human respiratory systems. Bioaerosols larger than 10 µm in aerodynamic diameter are generally blocked by the nasal region of the respiratory tract, those between 5-10 µm mainly deposit in the upper respiratory system and usually induce symptoms like allergic rhinitis, and particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 5 µm can reach the alveoli and hence lead to serious illnesses such as allergic alveolitis.

text: The ability of bioaerosols to cause human

text: disease

text: depend not only on their

text: chemical composition

text: and biological characteristics, but also on the quantity of bioaerosol inhaled and their size distribution, which determines the site of bioaerosol deposition to human

text: respiratory system

text: s. Bioaerosols larger than 10 µm in aerodynamic diameter are generally blocked by the nasal region of the

text: respiratory tract

text: , those between 5-10 µm mainly deposit in the upper respiratory system and usually induce symptoms like allergic

text: rhinitis

text: , and particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 5 µm can reach the alveoli and hence lead to serious illnesses such as allergic

text: alveolitis

text: Professor Clancy and his team's groundbreaking research into Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease concentrated on the link between the gut and the lung, and was able to provide evidence that the best way to create immunity against infection in the respiratory tract was to stimulate the gut immune system, whereby these activated cells migrate to the lung and make antibodies against organisms responsible for the infection.

text: Professor Clancy and his team's groundbreaking research into Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease concentrated on the link between the

text: gut

text: and the

text: lung

text: , and was able to provide evidence that the best way to create immunity against infection in the

text: respiratory tract

text: was to stimulate the gut immune system, whereby these activated cells migrate to the lung and make antibodies against organisms responsible for the infection.

text: In humans, after an incubation period of 5–19 days, the symptoms of the disease range from inapparent illness to systemic illness with severe pneumonia.  It presents chiefly as an atypical pneumonia.  In the first week of psittacosis the symptoms mimic typhoid fever: prostrating high fevers, joint pains, diarrhea, conjunctivitis, nose bleeds and low level of white blood cells in the blood.  Rose spots can appear and these are called Horder's spots.  Spleen enlargement is common towards the end of the first week. Diagnosis can be suspected in case of respiratory infection associated with splenomegaly and/or epistaxis.  Headache can be so severe that it suggests meningitis and some nuchal rigidity is not unusual.  Towards the end of the first week stupor or even coma can result in severe cases.

text: In humans, after an incubation period of 5–19 days, the symptoms of the disease range from inapparent illness to systemic illness with severe

text: pneumonia

text: .  It presents chiefly as an atypical pneumonia.  In the first week of psittacosis the symptoms mimic

text: typhoid fever

text: : prostrating high

text: fever

text: s,

text: joint pains

text: diarrhea

text: conjunctivitis

text: nose bleeds

text: and

text: low level of white blood cells

text: in the blood.  Rose spots can appear and these are called Horder's spots.

text: Spleen enlargement

text: is common towards the end of the first week. Diagnosis can be suspected in case of respiratory infection associated with splenomegaly and/or epistaxis.

text: Headache

text: can be so severe that it suggests

text: meningitis

text: and some

text: nuchal rigidity

text: is not unusual.  Towards the end of the first week stupor or even

text: coma

text: can result in severe cases.

text: Chronic Respiratory Disease is a quarterly peer-reviewed medical journal that covers research in the field of respiratory disease, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, respiratory failure, and obstructive sleep apnea. The editors-in-chief are Mike Morgan (Glenfield Hospital), Carolyn Rochester (Yale University), and Sally Singh (Glenfield Hospital). It was established in 2004 and is published by SAGE Publications.

text: Chronic Respiratory Disease is a quarterly

text: peer-reviewed

text: medical journal

text: that covers research in the field of

text: respiratory disease

text: , including

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: respiratory failure

text: , and

text: obstructive sleep apnea

text: . The

text: editors-in-chief

text: are Mike Morgan (

text: Glenfield Hospital

text: ), Carolyn Rochester (

text: Yale University

text: ), and Sally Singh (

text: Glenfield Hospital

text: ). It was established in 2004 and is published by

text: SAGE Publications

text: Although approved by regulatory authorities for the treatment of respiratory infections, ciprofloxacin is not recommended for respiratory infections by most treatment guidelines due in part to its modest activity against the common respiratory pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae.  "Respiratory quinolones" such as levofloxacin, having greater activity against this pathogen, are recommended as first line agents for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in patients with important co-morbidities and in patients requiring hospitalization (Infectious Diseases Society of America 2007). Similarly, ciprofloxacin is not recommended as a first-line treatment for acute sinusitis.

text: Although approved by regulatory authorities for the treatment of respiratory infections, ciprofloxacin is not recommended for respiratory infections by most treatment guidelines due in part to its modest activity against the common respiratory pathogen

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: .  "Respiratory quinolones" such as

text: levofloxacin

text: , having greater activity against this pathogen, are recommended as first line agents for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in patients with important co-morbidities and in patients requiring hospitalization (Infectious Diseases Society of America 2007). Similarly, ciprofloxacin is not recommended as a first-line treatment for

text: acute sinusitis

text: In the past, mortality rates for females in child-bearing age groups were higher than for males at the same age. This is no longer the case, and female human life expectancy is considerably higher than that of males. The reasons for this are not entirely certain. Traditional arguments tend to favor socio-environmental factors: historically, men have generally consumed more tobacco, alcohol and drugs than women in most societies, and are more likely to die from many associated diseases such as lung cancer, tuberculosis and cirrhosis of the liver. Men are also more likely to die from injuries, whether unintentional (such as occupational, war or car accidents) or intentional (suicide). Men are also more likely to die from most of the leading causes of death (some already stated above) than women. Some of these in the United States include: cancer of the respiratory system, motor vehicle accidents, suicide, cirrhosis of the liver, emphysema, prostate cancer, and coronary heart disease. These far outweigh the female mortality rate from breast cancer and cervical cancer.

text: In the past,

text: mortality rates for females in child-bearing age groups

text: were higher than for males at the same age. This is no longer the case, and female human life expectancy is considerably higher than that of males. The reasons for this are not entirely certain. Traditional arguments tend to favor socio-environmental factors: historically, men have generally consumed more

text: tobacco

text: alcohol

text: and

text: drug

text: s than women in most societies, and are more likely to die from many associated diseases such as

text: lung cancer

text: tuberculosis

text: and

text: cirrhosis of the liver

text: . Men are also more likely to die from injuries, whether unintentional (such as

text: occupational

text: war

text: or

text: car accidents

text: ) or intentional (

text: suicide

text: ). Men are also more likely to die from most of the leading causes of death (some already stated above) than women. Some of these in the United States include: cancer of the respiratory system, motor vehicle accidents, suicide, cirrhosis of the liver, emphysema, prostate cancer, and coronary heart disease. These far outweigh the female mortality rate from breast cancer and cervical cancer.

text: On this basis, its respiratory system would likely have been parabronchi, with multiple pulmonary air sacs as in avian lungs, and a flow-through lung. An avian respiratory system would need a lung volume of about  compared with a mammalian requirement of , which would exceed the space available. The overall thoracic volume of Apatosaurus has been estimated at , allowing for a , four-chambered heart and a  lung capacity. That would allow about  for the necessary tissue. Evidence for the avian system in Apatosaurus and other sauropods is also present in the pneumaticity of the vertebrae. Though this plays a role in reducing the weight of the animal, Wedel (2003) states they are also likely connected to air sacs, as in birds.

text: On this basis, its respiratory system would likely have been

text: parabronchi

text: , with multiple pulmonary air sacs as in

text: avian lungs

text: , and a flow-through lung. An avian respiratory system would need a lung volume of about  compared with a mammalian requirement of , which would exceed the space available. The overall thoracic volume of Apatosaurus has been estimated at , allowing for a , four-chambered heart and a  lung capacity. That would allow about  for the necessary tissue. Evidence for the avian system in Apatosaurus and other sauropods is also present in the

text: pneumaticity

text: of the vertebrae. Though this plays a role in reducing the weight of the animal, Wedel (2003) states they are also likely connected to air sacs, as in birds.

text: Prince was born and raised in Los Angeles, California.  After graduating as valedictorian from Dixie College (St. George, Utah), he served a two-year mission in Brazil for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) at age 19.  Upon returning to the United States in 1969, Prince attended graduate school at the University of California, Los Angeles, receiving a D.D.S. (valedictorian) in 1973 and a Ph.D in pathology in 1975.  In 1975 he and his wife, JaLynn Rasmussen, moved to Washington D.C., for a post-doctoral fellowship at the National Institutes of Health.  After spending more than a decade at NIH and Johns Hopkins University, he co-founded Virion Systems, Inc. (VSI), a biotechnology company focused on the prevention and treatment of pediatric infectious diseases.  Building on discoveries that Prince made as a doctoral student, VSI pioneered the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) disease in high-risk infants through the use of monoclonal antibody.  (RSV is the primary cause of infant pneumonia throughout the world.)  VSI's technologies were licensed to MedImmune, Inc., and the collaborative efforts of the two companies and other partners resulted in the approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration of Synagis, a drug that is currently given to approximately a quarter-million high-risk infants throughout the world each year.  Prince currently serves as president and CEO of VSI.

text: Prince was born and raised in

text: Los Angeles, California

text: .  After graduating as valedictorian from

text: Dixie College

text: St. George, Utah

text: ), he served a two-year

text: mission

text: in

text: Brazil

text: for

entity_name: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

text: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

text: (LDS Church) at age 19.  Upon returning to the United States in 1969, Prince attended

text: graduate school

text: at the

text: University of California, Los Angeles

text: , receiving a D.D.S. (valedictorian) in 1973 and a

text: Ph.D

text: in

text: pathology

text: in 1975.  In 1975 he and his wife,

text: JaLynn Rasmussen

text: , moved to

text: Washington D.C.

text: , for a post-doctoral fellowship at the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: .  After spending more than a decade at NIH and

text: Johns Hopkins University

text: , he co-founded Virion Systems, Inc. (VSI), a biotechnology company focused on the prevention and treatment of pediatric infectious diseases.  Building on discoveries that Prince made as a doctoral student, VSI pioneered the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) disease in high-risk infants through the use of monoclonal antibody.  (RSV is the primary cause of infant pneumonia throughout the world.)  VSI's technologies were licensed to MedImmune, Inc., and the collaborative efforts of the two companies and other partners resulted in the approval by the

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: of

text: Synagis

text: , a drug that is currently given to approximately a quarter-million high-risk infants throughout the world each year.  Prince currently serves as president and CEO of VSI.

text: Tuberculosis manifests itself in the archaeological record through DNA extraction from the skeletal remains of people. Tuberculosis rarely manifests itself in the skeleton of individuals and when it does, it is usually only in advanced stages of the disease. The tuberculosis bacteria stays in the growth centers and spongy areas of the bone. This disease has a very long period of maturation, or the time it takes the disease to reach its full destructive potential. Because of the long period of development in the body, tuberculosis damages the body and then the body has time to repair itself. The evidence of the disease in bones can be seen in the destruction and healing of the bone structures especially in joints. Tuberculosis therefore appears in the archaeology record in the knee and hip joints and also the spine.

text: Tuberculosis manifests itself in the archaeological record through

text: DNA

text: extraction from the skeletal remains of people. Tuberculosis rarely manifests itself in the skeleton of individuals and when it does, it is usually only in advanced stages of the disease. The tuberculosis bacteria stays in the growth centers and spongy areas of the bone. This disease has a very long period of maturation, or the time it takes the disease to reach its full destructive potential. Because of the long period of development in the body, tuberculosis damages the body and then the body has time to repair itself. The evidence of the disease in bones can be seen in the destruction and healing of the bone structures especially in joints. Tuberculosis therefore appears in the archaeology record in the knee and hip joints and also the spine.

text: Recurrent sinus and lung infections can lead to the development of chronic lung disease. Such infections should be treated with appropriate antibiotics to prevent and limit lung injury. Administration of antibiotics should be considered when children and adults have prolonged respiratory symptoms (greater than 7 days), even following what was presumed to have been a viral infection. To help prevent respiratory illnesses from common respiratory pathogens, annual influenza vaccinations should be given and pneumococcal vaccines should be administered when appropriate. Antibiotic treatment should also be considered in children with chronic coughs that are productive of mucous, those who do not respond to aggressive pulmonary clearance techniques and in children with muco-purulent secretions from the sinuses or chest. A wet cough can also be associated with chronic aspiration which should be ruled out through proper diagnostic studies, however aspiration and respiratory infections are not necessarily exclusive of each other. In children and adults with bronchiectasis, chronic antibiotic therapy should be considered to slow chronic lung disease progression.

text: Pneumonia is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical signs and a chest X-ray. However, the underlying cause can be difficult to confirm, as there is no definitive test able to distinguish between bacterial and non-bacterial origin. The World Health Organization has defined pneumonia in children clinically based on either a cough or difficulty breathing and a rapid respiratory rate, chest indrawing, or a decreased level of consciousness. A rapid respiratory rate is defined as greater than 60 breaths per minute in children under 2 months old, 50 breaths per minute in children 2 months to 1 year old, or greater than 40 breaths per minute in children 1 to 5 years old. In children, increased respiratory rate and lower chest indrawing are more sensitive than hearing chest crackles with a stethoscope. Grunting and nasal flaring may be other useful signs in children less than five.

text: Pneumonia is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical signs and a

text: chest X-ray

text: . However, the underlying cause can be difficult to confirm, as there is no definitive test able to distinguish between bacterial and non-bacterial origin.

text: The World Health Organization

text: has defined pneumonia in children clinically based on either a

text: cough

text: or difficulty breathing and a rapid respiratory rate, chest indrawing, or a decreased level of consciousness. A rapid respiratory rate is defined as greater than 60 breaths per minute in children under 2 months old, 50 breaths per minute in children 2 months to 1 year old, or greater than 40 breaths per minute in children 1 to 5 years old. In children, increased respiratory rate and lower chest indrawing are more

text: sensitive

text: than hearing chest

text: crackles

text: with a

text: stethoscope

text: . Grunting and nasal flaring may be other useful signs in children less than five.

text: More than 300 million people worldwide have asthma. The rate of asthma increases as countries become more urbanized and in many parts of the world those who develop asthma do not have access to medication and medical care. Within the United States, African Americans and Latinos are four times more likely to suffer from severe asthma than whites. The disease is closely tied to poverty and poor living conditions.  Asthma is also prevalent in children in low income countries. Homes with roaches and mice, as well as mold and mildew put children at risk for developing asthma as well as exposure to cigarette smoke.

text: More than 300 million people worldwide have

text: asthma

text: . The rate of asthma increases as countries become more urbanized and in many parts of the world those who develop asthma do not have access to medication and medical care. Within the United States, African Americans and Latinos are four times more likely to suffer from severe asthma than whites. The disease is closely tied to poverty and poor living conditions.  Asthma is also prevalent in children in low income countries. Homes with roaches and mice, as well as mold and mildew put children at risk for developing asthma as well as exposure to cigarette smoke.

text: Howard Davis died on 5 February 2008 of a respiratory disease. His wife, Virginia Black, and their two sons survive him.

text: Bronchitis is defined as inflammation of the bronchi,  which can either be acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viral or bacterial infections.  Most sufferers of chronic bronchitis also suffer from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and this is usually associated with smoking or long-term exposure to irritants.

text: Bronchitis

text: is defined as

text: inflammation

text: of the bronchi,  which can either be

text: acute

text: or

text: chronic

text: . Acute bronchitis is usually caused by

text: viral

text: or

text: bacterial infections

text: .  Most sufferers of chronic bronchitis also suffer from

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD), and this is usually associated with

text: smoking

text: or long-term exposure to

text: irritants

text: A pulmonary lobule is the portion of the lung ventilated by one bronchiole. Bronchioles are approximately 1mm or less in diameter and their walls consist of ciliated cuboidal epithelium and a layer of smooth muscle. Bronchioles divide into even smaller bronchioles, called terminal, which are 0.5mm or less in diameter. Terminal bronchioles in turn divide into smaller respiratory bronchioles which divide into alveolar ducts. Terminal bronchioles mark the end of the conducting division of air flow in the respiratory system while respiratory bronchioles are the beginning of the respiratory division where actual gas exchange takes place.

text: A pulmonary lobule is the portion of the

text: lung

text: ventilated by one bronchiole. Bronchioles are approximately 1mm or less in diameter and their walls consist of

text: ciliated

text: cuboidal

text: epithelium

text: and a layer of

text: smooth muscle

text: . Bronchioles divide into even smaller bronchioles, called terminal, which are 0.5mm or less in diameter. Terminal bronchioles in turn divide into smaller respiratory bronchioles which divide into

text: alveolar ducts

text: . Terminal bronchioles mark the end of the conducting division of air flow in the

text: respiratory system

text: while respiratory bronchioles are the beginning of the respiratory division where actual

text: gas exchange

text: takes place.

text: Beyond these, many other recurrent infections have been observed, including recurrent fungal infections and recurrent viral infections (including molluscum contagiosum, herpes simplex, and herpes zoster), recurrent upper respiratory infection (including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, respiratory syncytial virus, and adenovirus), recurrent sinusitis, recurrent otitis media, mastoiditis, pneumonia, bronchitis with bronchiectasis, osteomyelitis, candidiasis, meningitis (caused by cryptococcus or H. influenzae), pericarditis, salmonella enteritis, and giardiasis. Other dermatologic problems include squamous-cell carcinoma/dysplasia (vulvar, anal, and facial). Immune problems are also common, including autoimmune hemolytic anemia, severe allergies (both food and environmental), asthma, and reactive airway disease. The nervous system may also be affected; observed conditions in DOCK8 deficient people include hemiplegia, ischemic stroke, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and facial paralysis. Vascular complications are common, including aortic aneurysm, cerebral aneurysm, vessel occlusion and underperfusion, and leukocytoclastic vasculitis.

text: Beyond these, many other recurrent infections have been observed, including recurrent fungal infections and recurrent viral infections (including

text: molluscum contagiosum

text: herpes simplex

text: , and

text: herpes zoster

text: ), recurrent

text: upper respiratory infection

text: (including

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: respiratory syncytial virus

text: , and

text: adenovirus

text: ), recurrent

text: sinusitis

text: , recurrent

text: otitis media

text: mastoiditis

text: pneumonia

text: bronchitis

text: with

text: bronchiectasis

text: osteomyelitis

text: candidiasis

text: meningitis

text: (caused by

text: cryptococcus

text: or H. influenzae),

text: pericarditis

text: salmonella enteritis

text: , and

text: giardiasis

text: . Other dermatologic problems include

text: squamous-cell carcinoma

text: /dysplasia (vulvar, anal, and facial). Immune problems are also common, including

text: autoimmune hemolytic anemia

text: , severe

text: allergies

text: (both

text: food

text: and

text: environmental

text: asthma

text: , and

text: reactive airway disease

text: . The nervous system may also be affected; observed conditions in DOCK8 deficient people include

text: hemiplegia

text: ischemic stroke

text: subarachnoid hemorrhage

text: , and

text: facial paralysis

text: . Vascular complications are common, including

text: aortic aneurysm

text: cerebral aneurysm

text: , vessel occlusion and underperfusion, and

text: leukocytoclastic vasculitis

text: Lifestyle diseases (also sometimes called diseases of longevity or diseases of civilization interchangeably) are defined as diseases linked with the way people live their life. This is commonly caused by alcohol, drug and smoking abuse as well as lack of physical activity and unhealthy eating.  Diseases that impact on our lifestyle are heart disease, stroke, obesity and type II diabetes. The diseases that appear to the increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and people live longer. They can include Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, atherosclerosis, asthma, cancer, chronic liver disease or cirrhosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, metabolic syndrome, chronic renal failure, osteoporosis, stroke, depression, and obesity. In the U.K the death rate is four times higher from respiratory disease caused by an unhealthy lifestyle

text: Lifestyle diseases (also sometimes called diseases of longevity or diseases of civilization interchangeably) are defined as diseases linked with the way people live their life. This is commonly caused by

text: alcohol

text: drug

text: and

text: smoking

text: abuse as well as lack of physical activity and unhealthy eating.  Diseases that impact on our lifestyle are heart disease, stroke, obesity and type II diabetes. The

text: disease

text: s that appear to the increase in frequency as countries become more industrialized and people live longer. They can include

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: arthritis

text: atherosclerosis

text: asthma

text: cancer

text: chronic liver disease

text: or

text: cirrhosis

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: type 2 diabetes

text: heart disease

text: metabolic syndrome

text: chronic renal failure

text: osteoporosis

text: stroke

text: depression

text: , and

text: obesity

text: . In the U.K the death rate is four times higher from respiratory disease caused by an unhealthy lifestyle

text: Chicken respiratory diseases are difficult to differentiate and may not be diagnosed based on respiratory signs and lesions. Other diseases such as mycoplasmosis by Mycoplasma gallisepticum (chronic respiratory disease), Newcastle disease by mesogenic strains of Newcastle diseases virus (APMV-1), avian metapneumovirus, infectious laryngotracheitis, avian infectious coryza in some stages may clinically resemble IB. Similar kidney lesions may be caused by different etiologies, including other viruses, such as infectious bursal disease virus (the cause of Gumboro disease) and toxins (for instance ochratoxins of Aspergillus ochraceus), and dehydration.

text: Chicken respiratory diseases are difficult to differentiate and may not be diagnosed based on respiratory signs and lesions. Other diseases such as mycoplasmosis by

text: Mycoplasma gallisepticum

text: (chronic respiratory disease),

text: Newcastle disease

text: by mesogenic strains of Newcastle diseases virus (

text: ), avian

text: metapneumovirus

text: , infectious laryngotracheitis, avian infectious coryza in some stages may clinically resemble IB. Similar kidney lesions may be caused by different etiologies, including other viruses, such as

text: infectious bursal disease

text: virus (the cause of Gumboro disease) and toxins (for instance

text: ochratoxin

text: s of

text: Aspergillus

text: ochraceus), and

text: dehydration

text: This hypothesis maintains that schizophrenics possess a physiological advantage in the form of disease or infection resistance, a theory that has found basis in diseases such as sickle-cell anemia. In one particular study, NAD, an energy carrier found in animals and yeast, is found to be capable of diminishing infectivity of tuberculosis when present in large quantities; this is done by repressing gene expression. However, M. tuberculosis bacterium has been shown to be capable of acting as a drain on NAD supply. Studies in kynurenine pathway activation reveal that M. tuberculosis infection of the pathway causes niacin receptors in the pathway to indicate high levels of niacin, a precursor to NAD that makes de novo synthesis of NAD from tryptophan unnecessary. This change creates the illusion that NAD levels are adequate and that tryptophan conversion is unnecessary. Coevolution with M. tuberculosis has resulted in an attempt to overcome this illusion in a variety of manners, including the up-regulation of niacin receptors and up-regulation of de novo synthesis of NAD from tryptophan via the kynurenine pathway. An enzyme implicated in the initiation of the kynurenine pathway, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2) is found to activate during niacin-deficient conditions and is also found to be in increased levels in schizophrenic brains. In the postmortem brain tissue of schizophrenics, the protein for the high affinity niacin receptor was significantly decreased and, as a result, would allow for the up-regulation of mRNA transcript for the niacin receptor.

text: This hypothesis maintains that schizophrenics possess a physiological advantage in the form of disease or infection resistance, a theory that has found basis in diseases such as

text: sickle-cell anemia

text: . In one particular study,

text: NAD

text: , an energy carrier found in animals and yeast, is found to be capable of diminishing infectivity of

text: tuberculosis

text: when present in large quantities; this is done by repressing

text: gene expression

text: . However, M. tuberculosis bacterium has been shown to be capable of acting as a drain on NAD supply. Studies in

text: kynurenine pathway

text: activation reveal that M. tuberculosis infection of the pathway causes

text: niacin receptor

text: s in the pathway to indicate high levels of niacin, a precursor to NAD that makes

text: de novo synthesis

text: of NAD from

text: tryptophan

text: unnecessary. This change creates the illusion that NAD levels are adequate and that tryptophan conversion is unnecessary.

text: Coevolution

text: with M. tuberculosis has resulted in an attempt to overcome this illusion in a variety of manners, including the up-regulation of niacin receptors and up-regulation of de novo synthesis of NAD from tryptophan via the kynurenine pathway. An enzyme implicated in the initiation of the kynurenine pathway, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO2) is found to activate during niacin-deficient conditions and is also found to be in increased levels in schizophrenic brains. In the

text: postmortem

text: brain tissue of schizophrenics, the protein for the high affinity niacin receptor was significantly decreased and, as a result, would allow for the up-regulation of

text: mRNA

text: transcript for the niacin receptor.

text: N. meningitidis is a major cause of illness, developmental impairment and death during childhood in industrialized countries and has been responsible for epidemics in Africa and in Asia. Every year, about 2,500 to 3,500 people become infected with N. meningitidis in the US, with a frequency of about 1 in 100,000. Children younger than 5 years are at greatest risk, followed by teenagers of high school age. Rates in the African meningitis belt were as high as 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 100 before introduction of a vaccine in 2010. The incidence of meningococcal disease is highest among infants (children younger than 1-year-old) whose immune system is relatively immature. In industrialized countries there is a second peak of incidence in young adults, who are congregating closely, living in dormitories or smoking. Vaccine development is ongoing.It is spread through saliva and other respiratory secretions during coughing, sneezing, kissing, and chewing on toys. Inhalation of respiratory droplets from a carrier which may be someone who is themselves in the early stages of disease can transmit the bacteria. Close contact with a carrier is the predominant risk factor.  Other risk factors include a weakened general or local immune response, such as a recent upper respiratory infection, smoking, and complement deficiency. The incubation period is short, from 2 to 10 days. In susceptible individuals, N. meningitidis may invade the bloodstream and cause a systemic infection, sepsis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, breakdown of circulation, and septic shock.

text: N. meningitidis is a major cause of illness, developmental impairment and death during childhood in industrialized countries and has been responsible for epidemics in Africa and in Asia. Every year, about 2,500 to 3,500 people become infected with N. meningitidis in the US, with a frequency of about 1 in 100,000. Children younger than 5 years are at greatest risk, followed by teenagers of high school age. Rates in the

text: African meningitis belt

text: were as high as 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 100 before introduction of a vaccine in 2010. The

text: incidence

text: of meningococcal disease is highest among infants (children younger than 1-year-old) whose immune system is relatively immature. In industrialized countries there is a second peak of incidence in young adults, who are congregating closely, living in dormitories or smoking. Vaccine development is ongoing.It is spread through saliva and other respiratory secretions during coughing, sneezing, kissing, and chewing on toys. Inhalation of respiratory droplets from a

text: carrier

text: which may be someone who is themselves in the early stages of disease can

text: transmit

text: the bacteria. Close contact with a carrier is the predominant

text: risk factor

text: .  Other risk factors include a weakened general or local immune response, such as a recent upper respiratory infection, smoking, and

text: complement deficiency

text: . The

text: incubation period

text: is short, from 2 to 10 days. In susceptible individuals, N. meningitidis may invade the bloodstream and cause a

text: systemic infection

text: , sepsis,

text: disseminated intravascular coagulation

text: , breakdown of circulation, and

text: septic shock

text: Traumatic spinal cord damage causes a permanent loss of motor and sensory functions in the central nervous system, termed paraplegia or tetraplegia based on the site of the injury. Other detrimental effects may take place in the respiratory system and renal system as a result of the injury. Unlike the peripheral nervous system, the central nervous system is unable to regenerate damaged axons, so its synaptic connections are lost forever. Current treatment is limited and the primary potential methods are either controversial or noneffective. Studies dating back to the 1990s have begun researching the olfactory system of mammals, rats in particular, to gain a greater understanding of axonal regeneration and neurogenesis, and the possible implementation of these cells at the site of the spinal cord injury. Transplantation of OEG into the spinal cord has become a possible therapy for spinal cord damage and other neural diseases in animal models. Several recent studies have reported that preventing OEG inhibition will present a uniform population of cells in the spinal cord, creating an environment in which damaged axons can be repaired.  In October 2014, the Polish firefighter Darek Fidyka became the first paraplegic patient to regain mobility after OEG transplantation.

text: Traumatic spinal cord damage

text: causes a permanent loss of motor and sensory functions in the central nervous system, termed

text: paraplegia

text: or

text: tetraplegia

text: based on the site of the injury. Other detrimental effects may take place in the

text: respiratory system

text: and

text: renal system

text: as a result of the injury. Unlike the peripheral nervous system, the central nervous system is unable to regenerate damaged axons, so its synaptic connections are lost forever. Current treatment is limited and the primary potential methods are either controversial or noneffective. Studies dating back to the 1990s have begun researching the olfactory system of mammals, rats in particular, to gain a greater understanding of axonal regeneration and

text: neurogenesis

text: , and the possible implementation of these cells at the site of the spinal cord injury. Transplantation of OEG into the spinal cord has become a possible therapy for spinal cord damage and other neural diseases in animal models. Several recent studies have reported that preventing OEG inhibition will present a uniform population of cells in the spinal cord, creating an environment in which damaged axons can be repaired.  In October 2014, the Polish firefighter

text: Darek Fidyka

text: became the first paraplegic patient to regain mobility after OEG transplantation.

text: Capnography provides information about  production, pulmonary (lung) perfusion, alveolar ventilation, respiratory patterns, and elimination of  from the anesthesia breathing circuit and ventilator. The shape of the curve is affected by some forms of lung disease; in general there are obstructive conditions such as bronchitis, emphysema and asthma, in which the mixing of gases within the lung is affected.

text: Capnography provides information about  production,

text: pulmonary

text: (lung) perfusion,

text: alveolar

text: ventilation,

text: respiratory patterns

text: , and elimination of  from the anesthesia breathing circuit and ventilator. The shape of the curve is affected by some forms of lung disease; in general there are obstructive conditions such as

text: bronchitis

text: emphysema

text: and

text: asthma

text: , in which the mixing of gases within the lung is affected.

text: If the afflicted child was less than one month old at their time of death, there may have been premature birth. Without the complex life support technology available in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, this would often prove fatal due to the lack of sufficient infant respiratory development. Other than that, newborn infants might also perish from sharing beds with their parents, who might roll over and smother them inadvertently during sleep; negligent parental alcohol abuse and impaired standards of care; administration of alcohol to prevent infant cries; and the associated use of soporific drugs such as laudanum and chlorodyne. In the case of prostitutes and single pregnant women, sexually transmitted diseases might be passed on to their newborn infants during prenatal development, while inadequately warm clothing might affect mortality for the newborn infants of the poor. Infant malnutrition might occur due to lack of awareness of the benefits of breastfeeding for infants, as well as the absence of medical treatment for conditions such as bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, whooping cough, diphtheria, diarrhoea, enteritis, gastritis, ileus, inherited syphilis and tuberculosis.

text: If the afflicted child was less than one month old at their time of death, there may have been premature birth. Without the complex life support technology available in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, this would often prove fatal due to the lack of sufficient infant respiratory development. Other than that, newborn infants might also perish from sharing beds with their parents, who might roll over and smother them inadvertently during sleep; negligent parental

text: alcohol

text: abuse and impaired standards of care; administration of alcohol to prevent infant cries; and the associated use of soporific drugs such as

text: laudanum

text: and

text: chlorodyne

text: . In the case of

text: prostitute

text: s and single pregnant women,

text: sexually transmitted diseases

text: might be passed on to their newborn infants during prenatal development, while inadequately warm clothing might affect mortality for the newborn infants of the poor. Infant malnutrition might occur due to lack of awareness of the benefits of

text: breastfeeding

text: for infants, as well as the absence of medical treatment for conditions such as

text: bronchitis

text: pneumonia

text: influenza

text: whooping cough

text: diphtheria

text: diarrhoea

text: enteritis

text: gastritis

text: ileus

text: , inherited

text: syphilis

text: and

text: tuberculosis

text: After World War II with the development of the antibiotic streptomycin TB became a curable disease, although it would be decades before it could be considered under control in developed countries. To reflect the expanding scope of the organization's goals, the name was changed to the National Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association in the late 1960s.  The NTRDA became the American Lung Association in 1973, though the 1974 seals continue to show the NTRDA inscription on the sheet margin.

text: After

text: World War II

text: with the development of the antibiotic

text: streptomycin

text: TB became a curable disease, although it would be decades before it could be considered under control in developed countries. To reflect the expanding scope of the organization's goals, the name was changed to the National Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association in the late 1960s.  The NTRDA became the

text: American Lung Association

text: in 1973, though the 1974 seals continue to show the NTRDA inscription on the sheet margin.

text: Each species of pathogen has a characteristic spectrum of interactions with its human hosts. Some organisms, such as Staphylococcus or Streptococcus, can cause skin infections, pneumonia, meningitis and even overwhelming sepsis, a systemic inflammatory response producing shock, massive vasodilation and death. Yet these organisms are also part of the normal human flora and usually exist on the skin or in the nose without causing any disease at all. Other organisms invariably cause disease in humans, such as the Rickettsia, which are obligate intracellular parasites able to grow and reproduce only within the cells of other organisms. One species of Rickettsia causes typhus, while another causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Chlamydia, another phylum of obligate intracellular parasites, contains species that can cause pneumonia, or urinary tract infection and may be involved in coronary heart disease. Finally, some species, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cenocepacia, and Mycobacterium avium, are opportunistic pathogens and cause disease mainly in people suffering from immunosuppression or cystic fibrosis.

text: Each species of pathogen has a characteristic spectrum of interactions with its human

text: hosts

text: . Some organisms, such as

text: Staphylococcus

text: or

text: Streptococcus

text: , can cause skin infections,

text: pneumonia

text: meningitis

text: and even overwhelming

text: sepsis

text: , a systemic

text: inflammatory response

text: producing

text: shock

text: , massive

text: vasodilation

text: and death. Yet these organisms are also part of the normal human flora and usually exist on the skin or in the

text: nose

text: without causing any disease at all. Other organisms invariably cause disease in humans, such as the

text: Rickettsia

text: , which are

text: obligate intracellular parasite

text: s able to grow and reproduce only within the cells of other organisms. One species of Rickettsia causes

text: typhus

text: , while another causes

text: Rocky Mountain spotted fever

text: Chlamydia

text: , another phylum of obligate intracellular parasites, contains species that can cause pneumonia, or

text: urinary tract infection

text: and may be involved in

text: coronary heart disease

text: . Finally, some species, such as

text: Pseudomonas aeruginosa

text: Burkholderia cenocepacia

text: , and

text: Mycobacterium avium

text: , are

text: opportunistic pathogens

text: and cause disease mainly in people suffering from

text: immunosuppression

text: or

text: cystic fibrosis

text: William Stark proposed that ordinary lung tubercles could eventually evolve into ulcers and cavities, believing that the different forms of tuberculosis were simply different manifestations of the same disease. Unfortunately, Stark died at the age of thirty (while studying scurvy) and his observations were discounted. In his Systematik de speziellen Pathologie und Therapie, J. L. Schönlein, Professor of Medicine in Zurich, proposed that the word "tuberculosis" be used to describe the affliction of tubercles.

text: William Stark

text: proposed that ordinary lung tubercles could eventually evolve into ulcers and cavities, believing that the different forms of tuberculosis were simply different manifestations of the same disease. Unfortunately, Stark died at the age of thirty (while studying

text: scurvy

text: ) and his observations were discounted. In his Systematik de speziellen Pathologie und Therapie,

text: J. L. Schönlein

text: , Professor of Medicine in Zurich, proposed that the word "tuberculosis" be used to describe the affliction of tubercles.

text: Although asthma is a chronic obstructive condition, it is not considered as a part of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as this term refers specifically to combinations of disease that are irreversible such as bronchiectasis, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema. Unlike these diseases, the airway obstruction in asthma is usually reversible; however, if left untreated, the chronic inflammation from asthma can lead the lungs to become irreversibly obstructed due to airway remodeling. In contrast to emphysema, asthma affects the bronchi, not the alveoli.

text: Although asthma is a chronic

text: obstructive

text: condition, it is not considered as a part of

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: as this term refers specifically to combinations of disease that are irreversible such as

text: bronchiectasis

text: chronic bronchitis

text: , and

text: emphysema

text: . Unlike these diseases, the airway obstruction in asthma is usually reversible; however, if left untreated, the chronic inflammation from asthma can lead the lungs to become irreversibly obstructed due to airway remodeling. In contrast to

text: emphysema

text: , asthma affects the bronchi, not the

text: alveoli

text: The particular climatic characteristics of the area around the lake, make particularly good air for those who have respiratory diseases.  Near the lake is the only center in Italy for the care of childhood asthma.

text: The particular climatic characteristics of the area around the lake, make particularly good air for those who have respiratory diseases.  Near the lake is the only center in

text: Italy

text: for the care of childhood

text: asthma

text: Worldwide, lung cancer is the most common cancer among men in terms of both incidence and mortality, and among women has the third highest incidence, and is second after breast cancer in mortality. In 2012, there were 1.82 million new cases globally, and 1.56 million deaths due to lung cancer, representing 19.4% of all deaths from cancer. The highest rates are in North America, Europe and East Asia, with over a third of new cases in 2012 in China.  Rates in Africa and South Asia are much lower.

text: Worldwide, lung cancer is the most common cancer among men in terms of both

text: incidence

text: and mortality, and among women has the third highest incidence, and is second after

text: breast cancer

text: in mortality. In 2012, there were 1.82 million new cases globally, and 1.56 million deaths due to lung cancer, representing 19.4% of all deaths from cancer. The highest rates are in North America, Europe and East Asia, with over a third of new cases in 2012 in China.  Rates in Africa and South Asia are much lower.

text: Among these diesel emission components, particulate matter has been a serious concern for human health due to its direct and broad impact on the respiratory organs. In earlier times, health professionals associated PM10 (diameter < 10 μm) with chronic lung disease, lung cancer, influenza, asthma, and increased mortality rate. However, recent scientific studies suggest that these correlations be more closely linked with fine particles (PM2.5) and ultra-fine particles (PM0.1).

text: Among these

text: diesel

text: emission components,

text: particulate matter

text: has been a serious concern for human health due to its direct and broad impact on the respiratory organs. In earlier times, health professionals associated PM10 (diameter < 10

text: μm

text: ) with chronic lung disease,

text: lung cancer

text: influenza

text: asthma

text: , and increased

text: mortality rate

text: . However, recent scientific studies suggest that these correlations be more closely linked with fine particles (PM2.5) and ultra-fine particles (PM0.1).

text: Respiratory Therapists are sometimes referred to as Respiratory Scientists who are specialists in pulmonary function.  Respiratory Therapists work with Pulmonologists in both clinical and general research of the respiratory system, ranging from the anatomy of the respiratory epithelium to the most effective treatment of pulmonary hypertension in pediatrics.  Scientific research also takes place to look for causes and possible treatment in diseases such as asthma and lung cancer.

text: Respiratory Therapists are sometimes referred to as Respiratory Scientists who are specialists in pulmonary function.  Respiratory Therapists work with

text: Pulmonologist

text: s in both clinical and general research of the

text: respiratory system

text: , ranging from the anatomy of the

text: respiratory epithelium

text: to the most effective treatment of

text: pulmonary hypertension

text: in pediatrics.  Scientific research also takes place to look for causes and possible treatment in diseases such as

text: asthma

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: Disease is theoretically surmountable via technology. In short, it is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism, something the body shouldn't typically have to deal with its natural make up. Human understanding of genetics is leading to cures and treatments for myriad previously incurable diseases. The mechanisms by which other diseases do their damage are becoming better understood. Sophisticated methods of detecting diseases early are being developed. Preventative medicine is becoming better understood. Neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's may soon be curable with the use of stem cells. Breakthroughs in cell biology and telomere research are leading to treatments for cancer. Vaccines are being researched for AIDS and tuberculosis. Genes associated with type 1 diabetes and certain types of cancer have been discovered, allowing for new therapies to be developed. Artificial devices attached directly to the nervous system may restore sight to the blind. Drugs are being developed to treat a myriad of other diseases and ailments.

text: Disease is theoretically surmountable via

text: technology

text: . In short, it is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism, something the body shouldn't typically have to deal with its natural make up. Human understanding of

text: genetics

text: is leading to cures and treatments for myriad previously incurable diseases. The mechanisms by which other diseases do their damage are becoming better understood. Sophisticated methods of detecting diseases early are being developed.

text: Preventative medicine

text: is becoming better understood. Neurodegenerative diseases like

text: Parkinson's

text: and

text: Alzheimer's

text: may soon be curable with the use of

text: stem cells

text: . Breakthroughs in

text: cell biology

text: and

text: telomere

text: research are leading to treatments for

text: cancer

text: Vaccine

text: s are being researched for

text: AIDS

text: and

text: tuberculosis

text: . Genes associated with

text: type 1 diabetes

text: and certain types of cancer have been discovered, allowing for new therapies to be developed. Artificial devices attached directly to the

text: nervous system

text: may restore sight to the blind. Drugs are being developed to treat a myriad of other diseases and ailments.

text: Tuberculosis is one of many other infections that occurs in the lower respiratory tract. You can contract this infection from airborne droplets, and if inhaled you are at risk of this disease. This is a bacterial infection which deteriorates the lung tissue resulting in coughing up blood. (7) This infection is deadly if not treated.

text: Tuberculosis

text: is one of many other infections that occurs in the lower respiratory tract. You can contract this infection from airborne droplets, and if inhaled you are at risk of this disease. This is a bacterial infection which deteriorates the lung tissue resulting in coughing up blood. (7) This infection is deadly if not treated.

text: Asthma affects approximately 7% of the population of the United States and causes approximately 4,210 deaths per year. In 2005, asthma affected more than 22 million people, including 6 million children, and accounted for nearly 500,000 hospitalizations that same year.  In 2010, asthma accounted for more than one-quarter of admitted emergency department visits in the U.S. among children aged 1–9 years, and it was a frequent diagnosis among children aged 10–17 years.  From 2000 through 2010, the rate of pediatric hospital stays for asthma declined from 165 to 130 per 100,000 population, respectively, whereas the rate for adults remained about 119 per 100,000 population.

text: Its fame owes to the achievements of the local specialists in the healing of diseases of the respiratory, the cardiovascular, the nervous and the digestive systems, of metabolic and different kinds of allergic conditions.

text: Its fame owes to the achievements of the local specialists in the healing of diseases of the

text: respiratory

text: , the

text: cardiovascular

text: , the nervous and the digestive systems, of metabolic and different kinds of allergic conditions.

text: The respiratory system of birds is vulnerable to impurities in the air, which can cause a bird to choke. Impurities in the air can come from cigarette smoke, carbon monoxide, scented candles, cooking smoke such as burned oil, incense, carpet powders, or household sprays. All these impurities can harm the bird's respiratory system and cause respiratory diseases.

text: The

text: respiratory system

text: of birds is vulnerable to

text: impurities

text: in the air, which can cause a bird to choke. Impurities in the air can come from

text: cigarette smoke

text: carbon monoxide

text: , scented candles, cooking smoke such as burned

text: oil

text: incense

text: , carpet powders, or household sprays. All these impurities can harm the bird's respiratory system and cause respiratory diseases.

text: The medical facility in Kfar Saba was opened to the public on July 15, 1956, as a hospital for Tuberculosis and diseases of the respiratory system. Later in 1962, Meir was  turned  into a general hospital and is now part of the Sapir Medical Center.

text: The medical facility in Kfar Saba was opened to the public on July 15, 1956, as a hospital for

text: Tuberculosis

text: and diseases of the

text: respiratory system

text: . Later in 1962, Meir was  turned  into a

text: general hospital

text: and is now part of the Sapir Medical Center.

text: While asthma is a well-recognized condition, there is not one universal agreed upon definition. It is defined by the Global Initiative for Asthma as "a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a role. The chronic inflammation is associated with airway hyper-responsiveness that leads to recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and coughing particularly at night or in the early morning. These episodes are usually associated with widespread but variable airflow obstruction within the lung that is often reversible either spontaneously or with treatment".

text: While asthma is a well-recognized condition, there is not one universal agreed upon definition. It is defined by the

text: Global Initiative for Asthma

text: as "a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a role. The chronic inflammation is associated with airway hyper-responsiveness that leads to recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and coughing particularly at night or in the early morning. These episodes are usually associated with widespread but variable airflow obstruction within the lung that is often reversible either spontaneously or with treatment".

text: The length of an adult fly ranges between 8 and 12 millimeters. The abdominal tergites (the segments of the dorsal portion of the fly) have narrow darker bands and the legs are black or dark-brown. Only the bases of the wings are infuscated; the wings have a glassy appearance. The anterior spiracles (small openings on the surface for the respiratory system) range from dark-brown to orange.<ref name="Padil">Old World Screwworm Fly (Chrysomya bezziana). May 2005. Pests and Disease Image Library. Mar. 2009

text: The length of an adult fly ranges between 8 and 12 millimeters. The abdominal

text: tergites

text: (the segments of the dorsal portion of the fly) have narrow darker bands and the legs are black or dark-brown. Only the bases of the wings are infuscated; the wings have a glassy appearance. The anterior

text: spiracles

text: (small openings on the surface for the respiratory system) range from dark-brown to orange.<ref name="Padil">Old World Screwworm Fly (Chrysomya bezziana). May 2005. Pests and Disease Image Library. Mar. 2009

text: The tissue of the lungs can be affected by a number of diseases, including pneumonia and lung cancer. Chronic diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and emphysema can be related to smoking or exposure to harmful substances. Diseases such as bronchitis can also affect the respiratory tract.

text: The

text: tissue of the lungs

text: can be affected by a

text: number of diseases

text: , including

text: pneumonia

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: . Chronic diseases such as

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: and

text: emphysema

text: can be related to

text: smoking

text: or exposure to harmful substances. Diseases such as

text: bronchitis

text: can also affect the

text: respiratory tract

text: Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short term inflammation of the bronchi of the lungs. The most common symptom is a cough. Other symptoms include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. The infection may last from a few to ten days. The cough may persist for several weeks afterwards with the total duration of symptoms usually around three weeks. Some have symptoms for up to six weeks.

text: Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short term

text: inflammation

text: of the

text: bronchi

text: of the

text: lung

text: s. The most common symptom is a

text: cough

text: . Other symptoms include

text: coughing up mucus

text: wheezing

text: shortness of breath

text: fever

text: Asthma is associated with a procoagulant state in the bronchoalveolar space.

text: Asthma is associated with a

text: procoagulant

text: state in the bronchoalveolar space.

text: Several snakes have been seen with proliferative pneumonia, while inclusions are commonly seen in the liver, kidney, and pancreas. Cases have also been observed where there are only very few inclusions. In a few snakes with signs of central nervous system disease, and with a severe encephalitis, no inclusions have been seen in any cells. While the presence of characteristic inclusions is diagnostic for the disease, the absence of such inclusions does not necessarily indicate that the snake is not diseased or is free from the IBD virus. While cells having inclusions may show mild degenerative changes, inflammation is rarely seen in visceral tissues. In the brain, mild to severe encephalitis occurs, with lymphocytic perivascular cuffing. Several snakes with lymphoproliferative disorders have been identified with lymphoid infiltrates in multiple organs.

text: In 2007 the use of coal and biomass (collectively referred to as solid fuels) for domestic purposes was nearly ubiquitous in rural households but declining in urban homes.  At that time, estimates put the number of premature deaths due to indoor air pollution at 420,000 per year, which is even higher than due to outdoor air pollution, estimated at around 300,000 deaths per year.  The specific mechanisms for death cited have been respiratory illnesses, lung cancer, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), weakening of the immune system, and reduction in lung function.  Measured pollution levels in homes using solid fuels generally exceeded China's IAQ air quality standards.  Technologies exist to improve indoor air quality, notably the installation of a chimney and modernized bioenergy but need more support to make a larger difference.

text: In 2007 the use of coal and

text: biomass

text: (collectively referred to as solid fuels) for domestic purposes was nearly ubiquitous in rural households but declining in urban homes.  At that time, estimates put the number of premature deaths due to indoor air pollution at 420,000 per year, which is even higher than due to outdoor air pollution, estimated at around 300,000 deaths per year.  The specific mechanisms for death cited have been respiratory illnesses,

text: lung cancer

text: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

text: (COPD), weakening of the immune system, and reduction in lung function.  Measured pollution levels in homes using solid fuels generally exceeded China's IAQ air quality standards.  Technologies exist to improve indoor air quality, notably the installation of a chimney and modernized bioenergy but need more support to make a larger difference.

text: She died in June 1824, apparently of a respiratory ailment, probably tuberculosis.

text: She died in June 1824, apparently of a respiratory ailment, probably

text: tuberculosis

text: In small-cell lung carcinoma, the TNM classification is often used along with an additional categorization, the Veterans Administration Lung Cancer Study Group system.  The VA scheme has two stages. Limited-stage disease is confined to an area that is tolerably treated by one radiotherapy area ("port"), but excludes cancers with pleural and pericardial effusions. All other small-cell lung cancers are extensive-stage in this scheme. There has been some drift over time in what this definition means.

text: In

text: small-cell lung carcinoma

text: , the TNM classification is often used along with an additional categorization, the Veterans Administration Lung Cancer Study Group system.  The VA scheme has two stages. Limited-stage disease is confined to an area that is tolerably treated by one

text: radiotherapy

text: area ("port"), but excludes cancers with pleural and pericardial effusions. All other small-cell lung cancers are extensive-stage in this scheme. There has been some drift over time in what this definition means.

text: Consequences of pulmonary aspiration range from no injury at all, to chemical pneumonitis or pneumonia, to death within minutes from asphyxiation. These consequences depend in part on the volume, chemical composition, particle size, presence or absence of infectious agents, and underlying health status of the person. In healthy people, aspiration of small quantities of material is common and rarely results in disease or injury. People with significant underlying disease or injury, especially hospitalized patients, are at greater risk for developing respiratory complications following pulmonary aspiration because of certain factors such as depressed level of consciousness and impaired airway defenses (gag reflex and/or respiratory tract antimicrobial defense system). As the lumen of the right main bronchus is more vertical and of slightly wider diameter than that of the left, aspirated material is more likely to end up in this bronchus or one of its subsequent bifurcations.

text: Consequences of pulmonary aspiration range from no injury at all, to

text: chemical pneumonitis

text: or

text: pneumonia

text: , to death within minutes from

text: asphyxia

text: tion. These consequences depend in part on the volume, chemical composition, particle size, presence or absence of infectious agents, and underlying

text: health status

text: of the person. In healthy people, aspiration of small quantities of material is common and rarely results in disease or injury. People with significant underlying disease or injury, especially hospitalized patients, are at greater risk for developing respiratory

text: complications

text: following pulmonary aspiration because of certain factors such as

text: depressed level of consciousness

text: and impaired airway defenses (

text: gag reflex

text: and/or

entity_name: Respiratory tract antimicrobial defense system

text: respiratory tract antimicrobial defense system

text: ). As the

text: lumen

text: of the

text: right main bronchus

text: is more vertical and of slightly wider diameter than that of the

text: left

text: , aspirated material is more likely to end up in this bronchus or one of its subsequent

text: bifurcations

text: This is a common lower respiratory disease that can be caused by exposure to harmful chemicals, or prolonged use of tobacco. This disease is chronic and progressive, the damage to your lungs is irreversible and eventually fatal. This disease destroys the alveoli, and lung tissue. Damage to these air sacs, and tissue makes breathing very difficult, causing shortness in breath, hyperventilation, and raised chest. The decreased amount of alveoli causes loss of oxygen (O2) to the lungs, and more accumulation of carbon monoxide (CO). There are two types of emphysema: primary and secondary. Primary emphysema can be found in younger adults. This type of emphysema  deteriorates the air sacs, and lung mass. Secondary emphysema can be found in older adults who smoke/have smoked and have a history of chronic bronchitis.(5)

text: This is a common lower respiratory disease that can be caused by exposure to harmful chemicals, or prolonged use of tobacco. This disease is chronic and progressive, the damage to your lungs is irreversible and eventually fatal. This disease destroys the alveoli, and lung tissue. Damage to these air sacs, and tissue makes breathing very difficult, causing shortness in breath, hyperventilation, and raised chest. The decreased amount of alveoli causes loss of oxygen (O2) to the lungs, and more accumulation of carbon monoxide (CO). There are two types of

text: emphysema

text: : primary and secondary. Primary emphysema can be found in younger adults. This type of emphysema  deteriorates the air sacs, and lung mass. Secondary emphysema can be found in older adults who smoke/have smoked and have a history of chronic bronchitis.(5)

text: She moved to Harare, Zimbabwe after 1994. Norma Kitson died from emphysema in 2002, aged 68 years.

text: She moved to

text: Harare, Zimbabwe

text: after 1994. Norma Kitson died from

text: emphysema

text: in 2002, aged 68 years.

text: Dr. Reddy’s entered into a marketing agreement with Eurodrug Laboratories, a pharmaceutical company based in Netherlands, for improving its product portfolio for respiratory diseases. It introduced a second-generation xanthine bronchodilator, Doxofylline, which is used for the treatment of asthma and COPD patients.

text: Dr. Reddy’s entered into a marketing agreement with Eurodrug Laboratories, a pharmaceutical company based in

text: Netherlands

text: , for improving its product portfolio for respiratory diseases. It introduced a second-generation xanthine bronchodilator, Doxofylline, which is used for the treatment of

text: asthma

text: and COPD patients.

text: An autopsy to determine the cause of Peterson's death was scheduled by the Weld County coroner for  with the results of the autopsy and toxicology tests released on September 2, 2015. The medical examiner determined that Peterson died of an accidental drug overdose. According to the coroner's report, Peterson had undergone a hysterectomy shortly before her death and was prescribed Gabapentin for post surgical pain management. Peterson was taking morphine at the time of her death; according to the report, she obtained the drug from a friend a week before she died. The report noted Peterson had prescription medications present in her system when she died that included drugs for treating lung and heart disease,anti-psychotics, and an anti-anxiety medication.  Opiates and marijuana were also detected in her system.  The coroner's report concluded Peterson experienced a "morphine effect" that triggered respiratory failure leading to her death.

text: An autopsy to determine the cause of Peterson's death was scheduled by the Weld County coroner for  with the results of the autopsy and toxicology tests released on September 2, 2015. The medical examiner determined that Peterson died of an accidental drug overdose. According to the coroner's report, Peterson had undergone a

text: hysterectomy

text: shortly before her death and was prescribed

text: Gabapentin

text: for post surgical pain management. Peterson was taking

text: morphine

text: at the time of her death; according to the report, she obtained the drug from a friend a week before she died. The report noted Peterson had prescription medications present in her system when she died that included drugs for treating lung and heart disease,anti-psychotics, and an anti-anxiety medication.  Opiates and marijuana were also detected in her system.  The coroner's report concluded Peterson experienced a "morphine effect" that triggered respiratory failure leading to her death.

text: Trauma to parts of the respiratory system other than the lungs, such as rupture of a bronchial tube, may also cause subcutaneous emphysema. Air may travel upward to the neck from a pneumomediastinum that results from a bronchial rupture, or downward from a torn trachea or larynx into the soft tissues of the chest. It may also occur with fractures of the facial bones, neoplasms, during asthma attacks, when the Heimlich maneuver is used, and during  childbirth.  It is estimated to occur with pneumomediastinum in one in every 2000–100,000 deliveries. Injury with pneumatic tools, those that are driven by air, is also known to cause subcutaneous emphysema, even in extremities (the arms and legs).  It can also occur as a result of rupture of the esophagus; when it does, it is usually as a late sign.

text: Trauma to parts of the respiratory system other than the lungs, such as rupture of a

text: bronchial tube

text: , may also cause subcutaneous emphysema. Air may travel upward to the neck from a pneumomediastinum that results from a bronchial rupture, or downward from a torn trachea or

text: larynx

text: into the soft tissues of the chest. It may also occur with

text: fractures

text: of the

text: facial bone

text: s,

text: neoplasm

text: s, during

text: asthma

text: attacks, when the

text: Heimlich maneuver

text: is used, and during

text: childbirth

text: .  It is estimated to occur with pneumomediastinum in one in every 2000–100,000 deliveries. Injury with

text: pneumatic tool

text: s, those that are driven by air, is also known to cause subcutaneous emphysema, even in extremities (the arms and legs).  It can also occur as a result of rupture of the

text: esophagus

text: ; when it does, it is usually as a late sign.

text: Çetin Altan was taken to the hospital of the Fatih University Medicine Faculty at Maltepe, Istanbul on September 2015, where he was treated after being diagnosed with multiple health problems including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), respiratory failure, bronchiectasis, pneumonia, urinary tract infection and sepsis. On 19 October Altan was hospitalized again due to a urinary tract infection. He died on 22 October 2015 at 11:05 hours local time at age 88 due to respiratory failure as a result of pneumonia and septic shock.

text: Çetin Altan was taken to the hospital of the

text: Fatih University

text: Medicine Faculty at

text: Maltepe, Istanbul

text: on September 2015, where he was treated after being diagnosed with multiple health problems including

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: (COPD),

text: respiratory failure

text: bronchiectasis

text: pneumonia

text: urinary tract infection

text: and

text: sepsis

text: . On 19 October Altan was hospitalized again due to a urinary tract infection. He died on 22 October 2015 at 11:05 hours local time at age 88 due to respiratory failure as a result of pneumonia and

text: septic shock

text: Tuberculosis not affecting the lungs is called extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. Disease of the central nervous system is specifically excluded from this classification.

text: Tuberculosis not affecting the lungs is called extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. Disease of the

text: central nervous system

text: is specifically excluded from this classification.

text: Acute interstitial pneumonitis is often categorized as both an interstitial lung disease and a form of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) but it is distinguished from the chronic forms of interstitial pneumonia such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

text: Acute interstitial pneumonitis is often categorized as both an

text: interstitial lung disease

text: and a form of

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: (ARDS) but it is distinguished from the chronic forms of interstitial pneumonia such as

text: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

text: Feline viral rhinotracheitis (FVR) is an upper respiratory or pulmonary infection of cats caused by feline herpesvirus 1, of the family Herpesviridae.  It is also commonly referred to as feline influenza, feline coryza, and feline pneumonia but, as these terms describe other very distinct collections of respiratory symptoms, they are misnomers for the condition. Viral respiratory diseases in cats can be serious, especially in catteries and kennels.  Causing one-half of the respiratory diseases in cats, FVR is the most important of these diseases and is found worldwide.  The other important cause of feline respiratory disease is feline calicivirus.

text: Feline viral rhinotracheitis (FVR) is an upper respiratory or pulmonary infection of

text: cat

text: s caused by feline herpesvirus 1, of the family

text: Herpesviridae

text: .  It is also commonly referred to as feline influenza, feline coryza, and feline pneumonia but, as these terms describe other very distinct collections of respiratory symptoms, they are misnomers for the condition.

text: Viral

text: respiratory diseases in cats can be serious, especially in

text: catteries

text: and

text: kennel

text: s.  Causing one-half of the respiratory diseases in cats, FVR is the most important of these diseases and is found worldwide.  The other important cause of feline respiratory disease is

text: feline calicivirus

text: He joined the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, where he discovered the human respiratory syncytial virus, which is the cause of respiratory tract infections in children each winter, and is one of the most common causes of illness. Asked the best means to prevent the disease, Chanock quipped "one thing you can tell them is to have their babies in the spring". A research team led by Chanock announced in 1962 the discovery that one of the causes of atypical pneumonia is Mycoplasma pneumoniae, a bacterium that can be treated with antibiotics. Chanock was named head of the NIAID's Laboratory of Infectious Diseases in 1968. Researchers working with Chanock developed vaccines to prevent adenovirus infection, Hepatitis A and rotavirus, the most common cause of severe diarrhoea in infants and young children, as well as an influenza virus vaccine in the form of a nasal spray. Efforts were underway to create a vaccine to deal with dengue fever, though efforts to create immunizations for para-influenza viruses and respiratory syncytial virus were unsuccessful.

text: He joined the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, where he discovered the

text: human respiratory syncytial virus

text: , which is the cause of respiratory tract infections in children each winter, and is one of the most common causes of illness. Asked the best means to prevent the disease, Chanock quipped "one thing you can tell them is to have their babies in the spring". A research team led by Chanock announced in 1962 the discovery that one of the causes of

text: atypical pneumonia

text: is

text: Mycoplasma pneumoniae

text: , a bacterium that can be treated with antibiotics. Chanock was named head of the NIAID's Laboratory of Infectious Diseases in 1968. Researchers working with Chanock developed vaccines to prevent

text: adenovirus infection

text: Hepatitis A

text: and

text: rotavirus

text: , the most common cause of severe

text: diarrhoea

text: in infants and young children, as well as an influenza virus vaccine in the form of a

text: nasal spray

text: . Efforts were underway to create a vaccine to deal with

text: dengue fever

text: , though efforts to create immunizations for para-influenza viruses and respiratory syncytial virus were unsuccessful.

text: Claude is the current editor-in-chief of the European Journal of Epidemiology. (Sanna 2003) He decided to include more than just disease-related studies into the journal: he emphasized methodology and encouraged submissions on statistical analyses, experiment designs, and others of the sort. Another development during his time was the creation of joint division editing for the journal; the editing staff would concentrate their efforts on their subject of expertise. These editors were physicians that would concentrate in cancer, statistics, bacteriology, genetics, cardiology, respiratory, methodological, tropical disease, infectious disease, or virology. (Hofman 2003)

text: In 2014 she is a consultant GMS / OASYS at Grant Management Solutions Mali25 August [What ?] - November 30, 2013 Mali OASYS / GMS Consultant Technical support for strengthening the CCM- Mali (review and update documents, system Mali CCM governance, role and responsibilities of members of the Technical Secretariat building, training of members on strategic monitoring June 9 -. 10 August 2013 Cote d' Ivoire PEPFAR / USAID Chief Branch Health System Strengthening 've Ensure monitoring and technical and programmatic support SSR activities and ongoing advice and support to start up new activities feed: - Pilot project leadership, decentralized management in two regions of Côte d' Ivoire ( implemented by LMG ) - Draft support decentralization of the pharmaceutical supply chain ( MSH / SCMS ) - February 2, 2013 Consultant UNDP Mali Facilitator workshop Organization Self-Assessment of national systems for monitoring and evaluation of the fight - Projects SHOPS 27 Jan against HIV / AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis July–August 2012 Burkina DAT / UNAIDS. Consultant Development Sector Policy Commitment tripartite between actors in the fight against HIV and AIDS in the workplace in BURKINA FASO December 2011. NA DAT / UNAIDS. Playback quality consultant and interim report analyzing the epidemic, determinants of vulnerability and response to HIV / AIDS in the countries of the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) insurance. August to October 2011 Guinea UNAIDS / RST Consultant Strengthening Institutional Capacity of the CCM / Guinea for the governance of the Global Fund Grants to Fight against AIDS, Tuberculosis and lepaludisme. Functional analysis of the CCM - Guinea Supporting development and institutional organization of the CCM - Guinea Development of Governance Manual for Training Guinea CCM CCM and PR in the strategic monitoring of grants FM Abuja in June 2011 UNAIDS / RST Consultant consultations with ComitésJuin 2011 Abuja UNAIDS / RST Consultant consultations with National Committees for the Fight against AIDS ( CNLS) and ECOWAS Forum ECOWAS partners on HIV and AIDS. UNAIDS / ECOWAS. From August 2010 to June 2011 Dakar Abuja UNAIDS / RST Consultant Development of Regional Strategic Plan to fight against HIV and AIDS in ECOWAS. UNAIDS / RST. From February to March 2010 DRC DAT / UNAIDS Consultant Review of institutional and organizational framework for the fight against AIDS in the Democratic Republic of Congo DRC. August to September 2009 Niger DAT / UNAIDS Consultant Technical Assistance Mission to the Programmatic Management Control Unit Health Sector against STI / HIV / AIDS of the Ministry of Health of Niger. From September 2007 to May 2009 gov t Senegal Minister of Health Coordinating the development and validation of the National Health Development Plan of Senegal (PNDS 2009-2018), Evaluation and monitoring of the implementation of the Declaration of Commitment country health ; development of National health Accounts, development and validation of a policy of maintenance of medical equipment ; Evaluation of Hospital Reform after 10 years of development oeuvre.au Senegal ; development of advocacy materials in the promotion of health, the fight against disease and universal coverage of health insurance. Co- Chair of the International Conference on AIDS in Africa ( ICASA) in Dakar in December 2008. Co-organizer of the International Exhibition of health and medical equipment in November 2008 in Dakar. From April to September 2007 UNDP Senegal National Adviser of the UN system on HIV Facilitation and support to riposteconjointe of UN agencies at national HIV Strengthen collaboration between the UN system and the government, civil society, the private sector, development Partners and the National Network of People Living with HIV Support to national efforts in monitoring and evaluation, social mobilization and development of policies and programs against AIDS from September 2003 to March 2007 Senegal national Council fight against AIDS ( CNLS) Officer of the Global Fund Monitoring and evaluation of program implementation grants from the Global Fund Selection and capacity building of sub-recipients, performance evaluation of sub-recipients Coordination of the preparation of technical documents ( Plan supply management, monitoring and evaluation plan ) Preparation of progress reports and requests dedécaissement Support CCM Senegal for the establishment, the definition and development of working documents ( Terms of Reference, Rules of Procedure) from April to September 2006 Senegal SE / CNLS Officer Coordinating the development of the National Strategic Plan for the Fight against AIDS (NSP 2007-2011 ) program. From January 2002 to September 2003 Senegal DLSI / Ministry of Health Head Office Support HIV planning, support for implementation, supervision of activities Coordination of the National Steering Committee of Voluntary Counselling and Testing Coordination Committee drafting standards and Guidelines Centres Coordination Councils and Voluntary Testing the definition and implementation work of the decentralization policy initiative Senegalese antiretroviral access in areas Member of the editorial boards of documents on standards supported with antiretrovirals at health posts, health centers and hospitals member group a number of technical documents : the National Policy on injection Safety in Senegal Senegal 's proposals to the Global Fund to Fight against AIDS, tuberculosis and Malaria ; Guides syndromic management of STIs; Guides counseling and support for HIV strategic Plan 2002-2006 contrele fight AIDS ; strategic Plan to Fight against AIDS 2007-2011.2002 Chad Guinea technical support for the development of AIDS proposal to the Global Fund and the establishment of the CCM for different countries of West Africa and Central Republic of Chad Republic of Guinea Guinea Bissau 2003 technical Assistance for development of the Global Fund to fight against AIDS project in Guinea Bissau as well as for the implementation of the CCM from August 1999 - December Senegal ANRS 2001 / IMEA Physician Clinical Coordination and monitoring test cohort 1st clinical trials of antiretrovirals in Dakar 12-06 ANRS 1999 and ANRS 12-04 Senegal CREMSA Consultant needs assessment in the diagnosis and management of Respiratory infections in Low prescribers in Senegal " with CREMSA ( Rhône Poulenc Centre Médico - social Studies in Francophone Africa) Methodology and data analysis research project OBSAIRV on" antibiotic Lower Respiratory infections in Dakar "with CREMSA ( Rhône Poulenc Centre of social Medicine Studies in Francophone Africa ) 1998 Senegal UNHCR / OFADEC Consultant Physician Consultant UNHCR / OFADEC for refugee Assistance Project Office for Social Orientation urban refugees Dakar January in December 1997 Senegal Senegal NACP research Assistant Coordinator operational research on " intervention strategies among female sex workers in Dakar " supervisions activities support and STI prevention in health districts and centers support TS (IST center ) Training of trainers on the use of guides syndromic management of STIs in the place of doctors, nurses and midwives, 1995-1996 Senegal Ministry of Health epidemiological Investigations Investigator on: diagnostic capability STD health centers in the districts of Rufisque, Tambacounda and Kolda NAP preliminary investigation for the implementation of the program to fight against diabetes in Richard Toll in northern Senegal in 1995 Morbidity and mortality related to malaria in the Thies region with the program against malaria and the infectious diseases in 1994.Since February 19, 2014 due to the favor of a decree of the Prime Minister, she was appointed Executive Secretary of CNLS National Council for the Fight against AIDS Ibra Ndoye succeeding Dr.

text: In 2014 she is a consultant GMS / OASYS at Grant Management Solutions Mali25 August [What ?] - November 30, 2013 Mali OASYS / GMS Consultant Technical support for strengthening the CCM- Mali (review and update documents, system Mali CCM governance, role and responsibilities of members of the Technical Secretariat building, training of members on strategic monitoring June 9 -. 10 August 2013 Cote d' Ivoire PEPFAR / USAID Chief Branch Health System Strengthening 've Ensure monitoring and technical and programmatic support SSR activities and ongoing advice and support to start up new activities feed: - Pilot project leadership, decentralized management in two regions of Côte d' Ivoire ( implemented by LMG ) - Draft support decentralization of the pharmaceutical supply chain ( MSH / SCMS ) - February 2, 2013 Consultant UNDP Mali Facilitator workshop Organization Self-Assessment of national systems for

text: monitoring and evaluation

text: Having a weak immune system and pre-existing conditions such as asthma can be leading factors in catching an orthopneumovirus. In elderly adults, having chronic heart or lung disease is also risk factor. Being in close proximity to a host who has been infected with an orthopneumovirus can also be a risk since most  transmission happens via respiratory.

text: Having a weak immune system and pre-existing conditions such as

text: asthma

text: can be leading factors in catching an orthopneumovirus. In elderly adults, having chronic heart or lung disease is also risk factor. Being in close proximity to a host who has been infected with an orthopneumovirus can also be a risk since most  transmission happens via respiratory.

text: Since both the digestive system and the respiratory system are connected by the pharynx, there are many problems and diseases that occur when the body is unable to regulate passage of food and air into the appropriate tracts. Perhaps the most preventable cause of damage to these reflexes originates from smoking. One study has shown that, when compared to non-smokers, the threshold volumes (in other words the lowest volume at which one of these reflexes is triggered) for both the pharyngo-upper esophageal sphincter contractile reflex and reflexive pharyngeal swallowing is increased.

text: Khewra Salt Mine is a major tourist attraction, with around 250,000 visitors a year, earning it considerable revenue. Visitors are taken into the mine on a train.  There are numerous pools of salty water inside. The Badshahi Mosque was built in the mining tunnels with multi-colored salt bricks about fifty years ago. Other artistic carvings in the mine include a replica of Minar-e-Pakistan, a statue of Allama Iqbal, an accumulation of crystals that form the name of Muhammad in Urdu script, a model of the Great Wall of China and another of the Mall Road of Murree. In 2003 two phases of development of tourist facilities and attractions were carried out, at a total cost of 9 million rupees. A clinical ward with 20 beds was established in 2007, costing 10 million rupees, for the treatment of asthma and other respiratory diseases using salt therapy. The "Visit Pakistan Year 2007" event included a train safari visit of Khewra Salt Mine. In February 2011 Pakistan railways started operating special trains for tourists from Lahore and Rawalpindi to Khewra. For this purpose the railway station of Khewra was refurbished with the help of a private firm.

text: Khewra Salt Mine is a major tourist attraction, with around 250,000 visitors a year, earning it considerable revenue. Visitors are taken into the mine on a train.  There are numerous pools of salty water inside. The Badshahi Mosque was built in the mining tunnels with multi-colored salt bricks about fifty years ago. Other artistic carvings in the mine include a replica of

text: Minar-e-Pakistan

text: , a statue of

text: Allama Iqbal

text: , an accumulation of crystals that form the name of

text: Muhammad

text: in

text: Urdu

text: script, a model of the

text: Great Wall of China

text: and another of the Mall Road of

text: Murree

text: . In 2003 two phases of development of tourist facilities and attractions were carried out, at a total cost of 9 million rupees. A clinical ward with 20 beds was established in 2007, costing 10 million rupees, for the treatment of

text: asthma

text: and other respiratory diseases using

text: salt therapy

text: . The "Visit Pakistan Year 2007" event included a

text: train safari

text: visit of Khewra Salt Mine. In February 2011

text: Pakistan railways

text: started operating special trains for tourists from

text: Lahore

text: and

text: Rawalpindi

text: to Khewra. For this purpose the railway station of Khewra was refurbished with the help of a private firm.

text: These measures contributed to acceleration in efforts to control tuberculosis. By 2005, the detection of cases of tuberculosis had increased to 80% of the estimated total new cases, permitting China to achieve the 2005 global tuberculosis control targets. At the same time, specific efforts to improve tuberculosis control also contributed to strengthening of the public health system. In this case, the strengthening of the disease control program and the public health system had worked together to achieve a desired health outcome.

text: Another area of uncertainty lies in the descriptions of disease given by tenants as to the cause of their relatives' deaths. Though the 1851 census has been rightly criticised as underestimating the true extent of mortality, it does provide a framework for the medical history of the Great Famine. The diseases that badly affected the population fell into two categories: famine-induced diseases and diseases of nutritional deficiency. Of the nutritional deficiency diseases, the most commonly experienced were starvation and marasmus, as well as a condition at the time called dropsy. Dropsy (oedema) was a popular name given for the symptoms of several diseases, one of which, kwashiorkor, is associated with starvation. However, the greatest mortality was not from nutritional deficiency diseases, but from famine-induced ailments. The malnourished are very vulnerable to infections; therefore, these were more severe when they occurred. Measles, diarrhoea, tuberculosis, most respiratory infections, whooping cough, many intestinal parasites, and cholera were all strongly conditioned by nutritional status. Potentially lethal diseases, such as smallpox and influenza, were so virulent that their spread was independent of nutrition.

text: Another area of uncertainty lies in the descriptions of disease given by tenants as to the cause of their relatives' deaths. Though the 1851 census has been rightly criticised as underestimating the true extent of mortality, it does provide a framework for the medical history of the Great Famine. The diseases that badly affected the population fell into two categories: famine-induced diseases and diseases of

text: nutritional deficiency

text: . Of the nutritional deficiency diseases, the most commonly experienced were starvation and

text: marasmus

text: , as well as a condition at the time called dropsy. Dropsy (

text: oedema

text: ) was a popular name given for the symptoms of several diseases, one of which,

text: kwashiorkor

text: , is associated with starvation. However, the greatest mortality was not from nutritional deficiency diseases, but from famine-induced ailments. The malnourished are very vulnerable to

text: infection

text: s; therefore, these were more severe when they occurred.

text: Measles

text: diarrhoea

text: tuberculosis

text: , most

text: respiratory infection

text: s,

text: whooping cough

text: , many

text: intestinal parasite

text: s, and cholera were all strongly conditioned by nutritional status. Potentially lethal diseases, such as smallpox and influenza, were so virulent that their spread was independent of nutrition.

text: In 1970 Patrick was appointed national honorary chairman of the American Lung Association's  Christmas Seals campaign. She accepted the post as "a meaningful way" to pay tribute to her Perry Mason colleagues who died of respiratory disease associated with tobacco smoking: Ray Collins, who died of emphysema; William Talman, who publicly blamed cigarettes for his lung cancer; and William Hopper, who died from pneumonia following a stroke. "I have a personal share in the untimely loss of my co-workers, for they were my friends, too," Patrick said.

text: In 1970 Patrick was appointed national honorary chairman of the

text: American Lung Association

text: 's

text: Christmas Seals campaign

text: . She accepted the post as "a meaningful way" to pay tribute to her Perry Mason colleagues who died of respiratory disease associated with tobacco smoking:

text: Ray Collins

text: , who died of emphysema;

text: William Talman

text: , who publicly blamed cigarettes for his lung cancer; and

text: William Hopper

text: , who died from pneumonia following a stroke. "I have a personal share in the untimely loss of my co-workers, for they were my friends, too," Patrick said.

text: EV68 almost exclusively causes respiratory illness, which varies from mild to severe, but can cause a range of symptoms, from none at all, to subtle flu-like symptoms, to debilitating respiratory illness and a suspected rare involvement in a syndrome with polio-like symptoms. Like all enteroviruses, it can cause variable skin rashes, abdominal pain and soft stools. Initial symptoms are similar to those for the common cold, including a runny nose, sore throat, cough, and fever. As the disease progresses, more serious symptoms may occur, including difficulty breathing as in pneumonia, reduced alertness, a reduction in urine production, and dehydration, and may lead to respiratory failure.

text: EV68 almost exclusively causes

text: respiratory illness

text: , which varies from mild to severe, but can cause a range of symptoms, from none at all, to subtle flu-like symptoms, to debilitating respiratory illness and a suspected rare involvement in a syndrome with

text: polio

text: -like symptoms. Like all enteroviruses, it can cause variable skin

text: rash

text: es, abdominal pain and soft stools. Initial symptoms are similar to those for the

text: common cold

text: , including a runny nose, sore throat, cough, and fever. As the disease progresses, more serious symptoms may occur, including difficulty breathing as in

text: pneumonia

text: , reduced alertness, a reduction in urine production, and dehydration, and may lead to

text: respiratory failure

text: Chronic lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and cystic fibrosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide with a considerable human, societal and financial burden. So there is an urgent need for effective cell therapy and lung tissue engineering.Several protocols have been developed for generation of the most cell types of the respiratory system, which may be useful for deriving patient-specific therapeutic cells.

text: Chronic lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and cystic fibrosis or

text: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

text: and

text: asthma

text: are leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide with a considerable human, societal and financial burden. So there is an urgent need for effective cell therapy and

text: lung

text: tissue engineering

text: .Several protocols have been developed for generation of the most cell types of the

text: respiratory system

text: , which may be useful for deriving patient-specific therapeutic cells.

text: While at a Jets mini-camp in 1993, Esiason was notified that his two-year-old son, Gunnar, had to be taken to the hospital with breathing difficulties. Soon after, Gunnar was diagnosed with cystic fibrosis, a disease of the respiratory and digestive systems. The Boomer Esiason Foundation (BEF) was formed soon afterward to fund research to find a cure for the disease. The Foundation also provides scholarships, transplant grants, hospital grants, education and awareness of cystic fibrosis as to provide higher quality of life for people with CF. The foundation has raised in excess of $100 million as of March 2, 2013, and has supported numerous hospitals, including Cincinnati Children's Hospital with the Gunnar H Esiason CF/Lung Center and Columbia Presbyterian in NYC with the Gunnar H Esiason Adult CF and Lung Program. The foundation has given over $2 million in scholarship grants to CF patients. The foundation is located in New York City and runs numerous events around the country. The Boomer Esiason Foundation annually receives four stars from Charity Navigator.

text: While at a Jets mini-camp in 1993, Esiason was notified that his two-year-old son, Gunnar, had to be taken to the hospital with breathing difficulties. Soon after, Gunnar was diagnosed with

text: cystic fibrosis

text: , a disease of the respiratory and digestive systems. The Boomer Esiason Foundation (BEF) was formed soon afterward to fund research to find a cure for the disease. The Foundation also provides scholarships, transplant grants, hospital grants, education and awareness of cystic fibrosis as to provide higher quality of life for people with CF. The foundation has raised in excess of $100 million as of March 2, 2013, and has supported numerous hospitals, including Cincinnati Children's Hospital with the Gunnar H Esiason CF/Lung Center and Columbia Presbyterian in NYC with the Gunnar H Esiason Adult CF and Lung Program. The foundation has given over $2 million in scholarship grants to CF patients. The foundation is located in New York City and runs numerous events around the country. The Boomer Esiason Foundation annually receives four stars from

text: Charity Navigator

text: Macroscopic emphysema is rarely seen although large apical bullae in a paraseptal distribution have been described with secondary spontaneous pneumothorax as a complication.

text: The majority of PB cases are associated with an underlying disease.  Several systemic illnesses have been associated with plastic bronchitis:

text: Lithoglyphus apertus is a species of freshwater snail with an operculum, an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family Lithoglyphidae.

text: Lithoglyphus apertus is a

text: species

text: of

text: freshwater snail

text: with an

text: operculum

text: , an

text: aquatic

text: gastropod

text: mollusk

text: in the

text: family

text: Lithoglyphidae

text: The Journal of Asthma is a peer-reviewed medical journal that covers asthma and related conditions.

text: The Journal of Asthma is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: medical journal

text: that covers

text: asthma

text: and related conditions.

text: Chronic alcohol ingestion can impair multiple critical cellular functions in the lung. These cellular impairments can lead to increased susceptibility to serious complications from lung disease. Recent research cites alcoholic lung disease as comparable to liver disease in alcohol-related mortality. Alcoholics have a higher risk of developing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and experience higher rates of mortality from ARDS when compared to non-alcoholics. Despite these effects, a large prospective study has shown a protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption on respiratory mortality.

text: Chronic alcohol ingestion can impair multiple critical cellular functions in the lung. These cellular impairments can lead to increased susceptibility to serious complications from lung disease. Recent research cites

text: alcoholic lung disease

text: as comparable to liver disease in alcohol-related mortality. Alcoholics have a higher risk of developing

text: acute respiratory distress syndrome

text: (ARDS) and experience higher rates of mortality from ARDS when compared to non-alcoholics. Despite these effects, a large prospective study has shown a protective effect of moderate alcohol consumption on respiratory mortality.

text: Beltola is a prime residential area in the southern part of Guwahati, Assam. It is an adjoining area of the Dispur Capital Complex, the capital of Assam. Though most of the buildings and roads were newly constructed, Beltola has a long history which dates back mythical ages. During Ahom reign, Beltola was a small kingdom, whose ruler assisted in the  administration of the Borphukan in Guwahati, the Ahom Viceroy of Lower Assam and in maintaining relations with the communities of Khasi Hills. The Kingdom of Beltola survives under the British rule and it existed till India's independence in 1947 CE.

text: Beltola is a prime residential area in the southern part of

text: Guwahati

text: Assam

text: . It is an adjoining area of the

text: Dispur

text: Capital Complex, the capital of Assam. Though most of the buildings and roads were newly constructed, Beltola has a long history which dates back mythical ages. During Ahom reign, Beltola was a small kingdom, whose ruler assisted in the  administration of the

text: Borphukan

text: in

text: Guwahati

text: , the

text: Ahom

text: Viceroy of

text: Lower Assam

text: and in maintaining relations with the communities of Khasi Hills. The Kingdom of Beltola survives under the British rule and it existed till India's independence in 1947 CE.

text: Asthma specialists work with clinics, hospitals and schools as an educator for teachers, parents, patients and practitioners on asthma and allergies.   Respiratory Therapists in the role as an Asthma Educator additionally help diagnose and treat asthma and other respiratory illness.  Additionally, an Asthma Educator is the resource clinician in inpatient and outpatient environments for evaluating and advising physicians on treatment plans and helping facilitate patient understanding and compliance with the plan. In the United States, Certified Asthma Educators (AE-C) are credentialed by the National Asthma Education Certification Board (NAECB).

text: Asthma

text: specialists work with clinics, hospitals and schools as an educator for teachers, parents, patients and practitioners on asthma and allergies.   Respiratory Therapists in the role as an Asthma Educator additionally help diagnose and treat asthma and other respiratory illness.  Additionally, an Asthma Educator is the resource clinician in inpatient and outpatient environments for evaluating and advising physicians on treatment plans and helping facilitate patient understanding and compliance with the plan. In the United States, Certified Asthma Educators (AE-C) are credentialed by the

text: National Asthma Education Certification Board

text: (NAECB).

text: Sequencing of the M. pneumoniae genome in 1996 revealed it is 816,394 bp in size. The genome contains 687 genes that encode for proteins, of which about 56.6% code for essential metabolic enzymes; notably those involved in glycolysis and organic acid fermentation. M. pneumoniae is consequently very susceptible to loss of enzymatic function by gene mutations, as the only buffering systems against functional loss by point mutations are for maintenance of the pentose phosphate pathway and nucleotide metabolism. Loss of function in other pathways is suggested to be compensated by host cell metabolism. In addition to the potential for loss of pathway function, the reduced genome of M. pneumoniae outright lacks a number of pathways, including the TCA cycle, respiratory electron transport chain, and biosynthesis pathways for amino acids, fatty acids, cholesterol and purines and pyrimidines. These limitations make M. pneumoniae dependent upon import systems to acquire essential building blocks from their host or the environment that cannot be obtained through glycolytic pathways.Along with energy costly protein and RNA production, a large portion of energy metabolism is exerted to maintain proton gradients (up to 80%) due to the high surface area to volume ratio of M. pneumoniae cells. Only 12 – 29% of energy metabolism is directed at cell growth, which is unusually low for bacterial cells, and is thought to be an adaptation of its parasitic lifestyle.  Unlike other bacteria, M. pneumoniae uses the codon UGA to code for tryptophan rather than using it as a stop codon.

text: Sequencing

text: of the M. pneumoniae genome in 1996 revealed it is 816,394 bp in size. The genome contains 687 genes that encode for proteins, of which about 56.6% code for essential metabolic

text: enzymes

text: ; notably those involved in

text: glycolysis

text: and

text: organic acid

text: fermentation

text: . M. pneumoniae is consequently very susceptible to loss of

text: enzymatic function

text: by

text: gene mutation

text: s, as the only buffering systems against functional loss by point mutations are for maintenance of the

text: pentose phosphate pathway

text: and

text: nucleotide

text: metabolism. Loss of function in other pathways is suggested to be compensated by host cell metabolism. In addition to the potential for loss of pathway function, the reduced genome of M. pneumoniae outright lacks a number of pathways, including the

text: TCA cycle

text: respiratory electron transport chain

text: , and

text: biosynthesis

text: pathways for

text: amino acids

text: fatty acids

text: cholesterol

text: and

text: purines

text: and

text: pyrimidines

text: . These limitations make M. pneumoniae dependent upon import systems to acquire essential building blocks from their host or the environment that cannot be obtained through

text: glycolytic pathways

text: .Along with energy costly protein and

text: RNA

text: production, a large portion of energy metabolism is exerted to maintain

text: proton gradient

text: s (up to 80%) due to the high

text: surface area to volume ratio

text: of M. pneumoniae cells. Only 12 – 29% of energy metabolism is directed at

text: cell growth

text: , which is unusually low for bacterial cells, and is thought to be an

text: adaptation

text: of its parasitic lifestyle.  Unlike other bacteria, M. pneumoniae uses the

text: codon

text: UGA to code for

text: tryptophan

text: rather than using it as a stop codon.

text: Airway resistance is not constant. As shown above airway resistance is markedly affected by changes in the diameter of the airways, therefore diseases affecting the respiratory tract can increase airway resistance. Airway resistance can change over time, for example, in asthma during an attack the airways constrict causing an increase in airway resistance. Airway resistance can also vary between inspiration and expiration, for example, in emphysema there is destruction of the elastic tissue of the lungs which help hold the small airways open, therefore during expiration, particularly forced expiration, these airways may collapse causing increased airway resistance.

text: Airway resistance is not constant. As shown above airway resistance is markedly affected by changes in the diameter of the airways, therefore diseases affecting the respiratory tract can increase airway resistance. Airway resistance can change over time, for example, in asthma during an attack the airways constrict causing an increase in airway resistance. Airway resistance can also vary between inspiration and expiration, for example, in

text: emphysema

text: there is destruction of the elastic tissue of the lungs which help hold the small airways open, therefore during expiration, particularly forced expiration, these airways may collapse causing increased airway resistance.

text: The name is taken from one of the individual hills in the range, called Campsie; meaning "crooked fairy hill", from the Scottish Gaelic cam, meaning crooked, and sìth meaning fairy. "Fell" originates from the Old Norse word fjal, meaning hill.

text: The name is taken from one of the individual hills in the range, called Campsie; meaning "crooked fairy hill", from the

text: Scottish Gaelic

text: cam, meaning crooked, and sìth meaning fairy. "Fell" originates from the

text: Old Norse

text: word fjal, meaning hill.

text: To train pilots for the Royal Air Force, there have been many flying training schools, which are listed here.

text: Pneumonia is an illness which can result from a variety of causes, including infection with bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. Pneumonia can occur in any animal with lungs, including mammals, birds, and reptiles.

text: Pneumonia is an illness which can result from a variety of causes, including

text: infection

text: with

text: bacteria

text: virus

text: es,

text: fungi

text: , or

text: parasite

text: s. Pneumonia can occur in any animal with

text: lung

text: s, including

text: mammals

text: birds

text: , and

text: reptiles

text: Elevated levels of eotaxin-2 has been seen in patients with aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), such as asthma. People with lower plasma levels of eotaxin-2 have not been showing tendency to develop aspirin inducible asthma.

text: Elevated levels of eotaxin-2 has been seen in patients with

text: aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease

text: (AERD), such as asthma. People with lower plasma levels of eotaxin-2 have not been showing tendency to develop aspirin inducible asthma.

text: Infants may develop respiratory symptoms as a result of exposure to a specific type of fungal mold, called Penicillium. Signs that an infant may have mold-related respiratory problems include (but are not limited to) a persistent cough and/or wheeze. Increased exposure increases the probability of developing respiratory symptoms during their first year of life.  Studies have shown that a correlation exists between the probability of developing asthma and increased exposure to Penicillium. The levels are deemed ‘no mold’  to ‘low level’ , from ‘low’  to ‘intermediate’ , and from ‘intermediate’  to ‘high’.

text: There are over 250 toxins and carcinogens in cigarette smoke. The risks of developing lung cancer, brain tumors, and acute myeloid leukemia and the incidence of heart disease and benign respiratory diseases increase with the inhalation of sidestream smoke. Additionally, the chance of developing breast cancer and cervical cancer also increases with the inhalation of sidestream smoke.

text: There are over 250 toxins and carcinogens in cigarette smoke. The risks of developing

text: lung cancer

text: brain tumor

text: s, and acute myeloid

text: leukemia

text: and the incidence of

text: heart disease

text: and

text: benign

text: respiratory diseases

text: increase with the inhalation of sidestream smoke. Additionally, the chance of developing

text: breast cancer

text: and

text: cervical cancer

text: also increases with the inhalation of sidestream smoke.

text: It was revived as a ballet with choreography by Sergei Vanaev and conducted by Marc Niemann at the Stadttheater Bremerhaven in 2016.

text: It was revived as a ballet with choreography by Sergei Vanaev and conducted by Marc Niemann at the

text: Stadttheater Bremerhaven

text: in 2016.

text: Although epidemiologic characteristics of the adenoviruses vary by type, all are transmitted by direct contact, fecal-oral transmission, and occasionally waterborne transmission. Some types are capable of establishing persistent asymptomatic infections in tonsils, adenoids, and intestines of infected hosts, and shedding can occur for months or years. Some adenoviruses (e.g., serotypes 1, 2, 5, and 6) have been shown to be endemic in parts of the world where they have been studied, and infection is usually acquired during childhood. Other types cause sporadic infection and occasional outbreaks; for example, epidemic keratoconjunctivitis is associated with adenovirus serotypes 8, 19, and 37. Epidemics of febrile disease with conjunctivitis are associated with waterborne transmission of some adenovirus types, often centering on inadequately chlorinated swimming pools and small lakes. ARD is most often associated with adenovirus types 4 and 7 in the United States. Enteric adenoviruses 40 and 41 cause gastroenteritis, usually in children. For some adenovirus serotypes, the clinical spectrum of disease associated with infection varies depending on the site of infection; for example, infection with adenovirus 7 acquired by inhalation is associated with severe lower respiratory tract disease, whereas oral transmission of the virus typically causes no or mild disease. Outbreaks of adenovirus-associated respiratory disease have been more common in the late winter, spring, and early summer; however, adenovirus infections can occur throughout the year.

text: Although

text: epidemiologic

text: characteristics of the adenoviruses vary by type, all are transmitted by direct contact, fecal-oral transmission, and occasionally waterborne transmission. Some types are capable of establishing persistent asymptomatic infections in tonsils, adenoids, and intestines of infected hosts, and shedding can occur for months or years. Some adenoviruses (e.g., serotypes 1, 2, 5, and 6) have been shown to be endemic in parts of the world where they have been studied, and infection is usually acquired during childhood. Other types cause sporadic infection and occasional outbreaks; for example, epidemic

text: keratoconjunctivitis

text: is associated with adenovirus serotypes 8, 19, and 37. Epidemics of febrile disease with conjunctivitis are associated with waterborne transmission of some adenovirus types, often centering on inadequately chlorinated swimming pools and small lakes. ARD is most often associated with adenovirus types 4 and 7 in the United States. Enteric adenoviruses 40 and 41 cause gastroenteritis, usually in children. For some adenovirus serotypes, the clinical spectrum of disease associated with infection varies depending on the site of infection; for example, infection with adenovirus 7 acquired by inhalation is associated with severe lower respiratory tract disease, whereas oral transmission of the virus typically causes no or mild disease. Outbreaks of adenovirus-associated respiratory disease have been more common in the late winter, spring, and early summer; however, adenovirus infections can occur throughout the year.

text: The Life Foundation was introduced in The Amazing Spider-Man Vol. 1, #298-299 and went on to appear in Issues #320-321, #324, and #351-352, as well as the "Hero Killers" storyline that ran through The Amazing Spider-Man Annual Vol. 1, #26, The Spectacular Spider-Man Annual Vol. 1, #12, Web of Spider-Man Annual Vol. 1, #8 and The New Warriors Annual Vol. 1, #2. The organization was subsequently featured in Venom: Lethal Protector #3-5 and Spider-Man: The Arachnis Project #1-6, and made its last appearance to date in a flashback sequence in Venom: Separation Anxiety #2.

text: The Life Foundation was introduced in

text: The Amazing Spider-Man

text: Vol. 1, #298-299 and went on to appear in Issues #320-321, #324, and #351-352, as well as the "Hero Killers" storyline that ran through The Amazing Spider-Man Annual Vol. 1, #26,

text: The Spectacular Spider-Man

text: Annual Vol. 1, #12,

text: Web of Spider-Man

text: Annual Vol. 1, #8 and The

text: New Warriors

text: Annual Vol. 1, #2. The organization was subsequently featured in

text: Venom: Lethal Protector

text: #3-5 and Spider-Man: The Arachnis Project #1-6, and made its last appearance to date in a flashback sequence in

text: Venom: Separation Anxiety

text: Sean McCormack is a former United States Assistant Secretary of State.

text: Sean McCormack

text: is a former United States Assistant Secretary of State.

text: In spite of the other receptors cited as being responsive to CysLTs, CysLTR1 appears to be critical in mediating many of the pathological responses to CysLTs in humans. Montelukast, Zafirlukast, and Pranlukast are selective receptor antagonists for the CysLTR1 but not CysLTR2. These drugs are in use and/or shown to be effective as prophalaxis and chronic treatments for allergic and non-allergic diseases such as: allergen-induced asthma and rhinitis; nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced asthma and rhinitis (see Aspirin-induced asthma); exercise- and cold-air induced asthma (see Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction); and childhood sleep apnea due to adenotonsillar hypertrophy (see Acquired non-inflammatory myopathy). However, responses to these lukast drugs vary greatly with the drugs showing fairly high rates of poor responses and ~20% of patients reporting no change in symptoms after treatment with these agents. It seems possible that the responses of CysLTR2, GPR99, or other receptors to CysLT's may be contributing to these diseases.

text: In spite of the other receptors cited as being responsive to CysLTs, CysLTR1 appears to be critical in mediating many of the pathological responses to CysLTs in humans.

text: Montelukast

text: Zafirlukast

text: , and

text: Pranlukast

text: are selective

text: receptor antagonists

text: for the CysLTR1 but not CysLTR2. These drugs are in use and/or shown to be effective as prophalaxis and chronic treatments for allergic and non-allergic diseases such as: allergen-induced

text: asthma

text: and

text: rhinitis

text: nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: -induced asthma and rhinitis (see

text: Aspirin-induced asthma

text: Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction

text: ); and childhood

text: sleep apnea

text: due to adenotonsillar hypertrophy (see

text: Acquired non-inflammatory myopathy

text: ). However, responses to these lukast drugs vary greatly with the drugs showing fairly high rates of poor responses and ~20% of patients reporting no change in symptoms after treatment with these agents. It seems possible that the responses of CysLTR2, GPR99, or other receptors to CysLT's may be contributing to these diseases.