text: The role, if any, that the meningeal lymphatics play in diseases of the nervous system is an area of active research - particularly with regard to neurological disorders in which immunity is a fundamental player such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s Disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Hennekam syndrome, and Prader-Willi syndrome. Importantly, however, preliminary data suggest that there seem to be identifiable meningeal lymphatic vessels in post-mortem human tissue, suggesting the possibility that they contribute to human disease.

text: The role, if any, that the meningeal lymphatics play in diseases of the nervous system is an area of active research - particularly with regard to neurological disorders in which immunity is a fundamental player such as

entity_name: Multiple sclerosis

text: multiple sclerosis

entity_name: Alzheimer's disease

text: Alzheimer’s Disease

entity_name: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

entity_name: Hennekam syndrome

text: Hennekam syndrome

text: , and

entity_name: Prader–Willi syndrome

text: Prader-Willi syndrome

text: . Importantly, however, preliminary data suggest that there seem to be identifiable meningeal lymphatic vessels in

entity_name: Autopsy

text: post-mortem

text: human tissue, suggesting the possibility that they contribute to human disease.

text: Born in Paris on 17 August 1828 he became a doctor of medicine in 1857 and conducted extensive research on the anatomy, pathology and functions of the central nervous system. In 1865 he published a treatise entitled Studies on the Structure, Functions and Diseases of the Cerebro-spinal System, this book was accompanied by a hand-drawn three-dimensional atlas of the brain. It was within this book that Luys provided the first description of the structure that is today called the subthalamic nucleus. Luys termed this nucleus the bandelette accessoire des olives supérieures (accessory band of the superior olives) and concluded that it was a centre for the dispersion of cerebellar influence upon the striatum. Luys also traced the projection from the subthalamic nucleus to the globus pallidus and the projection to the subthalamic nucleus from the cerebral cortex. Today these pathways and structures are thought to be central to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease, the subthalamic nucleus being one of the major targets for deep brain stimulation.

text: Born in

entity_name: Paris

text: Paris

text: on 17 August 1828 he became a doctor of medicine in 1857 and conducted extensive research on the anatomy, pathology and functions of the central nervous system. In 1865 he published a treatise entitled Studies on the Structure, Functions and Diseases of the Cerebro-spinal System, this book was accompanied by a hand-drawn three-dimensional atlas of the

entity_name: Brain

text: brain

text: . It was within this book that Luys provided the first description of the structure that is today called the

entity_name: Subthalamic nucleus

text: subthalamic nucleus

text: . Luys termed this nucleus the bandelette accessoire des olives supérieures (accessory band of the superior olives) and concluded that it was a centre for the dispersion of

entity_name: Cerebellum

text: cerebellar

text: influence upon the

entity_name: Striatum

text: striatum

text: . Luys also traced the projection from the subthalamic nucleus to the

entity_name: Globus pallidus

text: globus pallidus

text: and the projection to the subthalamic nucleus from the

entity_name: Cerebral cortex

text: cerebral cortex

text: . Today these pathways and structures are thought to be central to the

entity_name: Pathophysiology

text: pathophysiology

text: of

entity_name: Parkinson's disease

text: Parkinson's disease

text: , the subthalamic nucleus being one of the major targets for

entity_name: Deep brain stimulation

text: deep brain stimulation

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Acetylcholine has functions both in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and in the central nervous system (CNS) as a neuromodulator. In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine activates muscles, and is a major neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system.

text: Acetylcholine has functions both in the

entity_name: Peripheral nervous system

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) and in the

entity_name: Central nervous system

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) as a

entity_name: Neuromodulation

text: neuromodulator

text: . In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine activates muscles, and is a major neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system has been said to promote a "rest and digest" response, promotes calming of the nerves return to regular function, and enhancing digestion. Functions of nerves within the parasympathetic nervous system include:

text: Cholinergic nerves play an important role in the normal function of the central nervous, endrocrine, neuromuscular, immunological, and respiratory system. As all cholinergic fibers contain high concentrations of ACh and AChE at their terminals, inhibition of AChE can impair their function. So exposure to azinphosmethyl, whereas it inhibits AChEs, may disturb a lot of important systems and may have various effects.In the autonomic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine leads to the overstimulation of muscarinic receptors of the parasympathetic nervous system. This can affect exocrine glands (increased salivation, perspiration, lacrimation), the respiratory system (excessive bronchial secretions, tightness of the chest, and wheezing), the gastrointestinal tract (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), the eyes (miosis, blurred vision) and the cardiovascular system (decrease in blood pressure, and bradycardia). Overstimulation of the nicotinic receptors in the para- or sympathic nervous system may also cause adverse effects on the cardiovascular system, such as pallor, tachycardia and increased blood pressure. In the somatic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine may cause muscle fasciculation, paralysis, cramps, and flaccig or rigid tone. Overstimulation of the nerves in the central nervous system, specifically in the brain, may result in drowsiness, mental confusion and lethargy. More severe effects on the central nervous system include a state of coma without reflexes, cyanosis and depression of the respiratory centers. Thus the inhibition of the enzyme AChE may have a lot of different effects.

text: Cholinergic nerves play an important role in the normal function of the central nervous, endrocrine, neuromuscular, immunological, and respiratory system. As all cholinergic fibers contain high concentrations of ACh and AChE at their terminals, inhibition of AChE can impair their function. So exposure to azinphosmethyl, whereas it inhibits AChEs, may disturb a lot of important systems and may have various effects.In the autonomic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine leads to the overstimulation of muscarinic receptors of the parasympathetic nervous system. This can affect exocrine glands (increased

entity_name: Saliva

text: salivation

entity_name: Perspiration

text: perspiration

entity_name: Tears

text: lacrimation

text: ), the respiratory system (excessive

entity_name: Bronchus

text: bronchial

text: secretions, tightness of the chest, and wheezing), the gastrointestinal tract (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), the eyes (

entity_name: Miosis

text: miosis

text: , blurred vision) and the cardiovascular system (decrease in blood pressure, and

entity_name: Bradycardia

text: bradycardia

text: ). Overstimulation of the nicotinic receptors in the para- or sympathic nervous system may also cause adverse effects on the cardiovascular system, such as pallor, tachycardia and increased blood pressure. In the somatic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine may cause muscle fasciculation, paralysis, cramps, and

text: flaccig

text: or rigid tone. Overstimulation of the nerves in the central nervous system, specifically in the brain, may result in drowsiness, mental confusion and lethargy. More severe effects on the central nervous system include a state of coma without reflexes, cyanosis and depression of the respiratory centers. Thus the inhibition of the enzyme AChE may have a lot of different effects.

text: Multiple sclerosis is a disease that demyelinates the nerves of the central nervous system, leading to deteriorated bodily function. The underlying pathologies are mostly unknown and not understood. It is hypothesized by many that the demyelination in multiple sclerosis lesions leads to axonal transection and ultimately axonal degeneration. This axon death could potentially be the cause of the irreversible effects of multiple sclerosis. Using what is known about the axotomy response, doctors and researchers are looking to implement neuro-protective rehabilitation to patients suffering in the early stages of multiple sclerosis in order to prevent the disease from running its course and causing irreversible disability. These rehabilitations would include the utilization of trophic factors to aid in neuron survival and maintenance of synapsing function.

text: Multiple sclerosis

text: is a disease that

entity_name: Demyelinating disease

text: demyelinates

text: the nerves of the central nervous system, leading to deteriorated bodily function. The underlying pathologies are mostly unknown and not understood. It is hypothesized by many that the demyelination in multiple sclerosis lesions leads to axonal transection and ultimately axonal degeneration. This axon death could potentially be the cause of the irreversible effects of multiple sclerosis. Using what is known about the axotomy response, doctors and researchers are looking to implement neuro-protective rehabilitation to patients suffering in the early stages of multiple sclerosis in order to prevent the disease from running its course and causing irreversible disability. These rehabilitations would include the utilization of trophic factors to aid in neuron survival and maintenance of synapsing function.

text: Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and stroke, and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The boundaries between these specialties have been blurring recently as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. Brain imaging also enables objective, biological insights into mental illness, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and help assess patient progress over time.

entity_name: Neurology

text: Neurology

entity_name: Psychiatry

text: psychiatry

entity_name: Neurosurgery

text: neurosurgery

entity_name: Psychosurgery

text: psychosurgery

entity_name: Anesthesiology

text: anesthesiology

text: and

entity_name: Pain management

text: pain medicine

entity_name: Neuropathology

text: neuropathology

entity_name: Neuroradiology

text: neuroradiology

entity_name: Ophthalmology

text: ophthalmology

entity_name: Otorhinolaryngology

text: otolaryngology

entity_name: Clinical neurophysiology

text: clinical neurophysiology

entity_name: Addiction medicine

text: addiction medicine

text: , and

entity_name: Sleep medicine

text: sleep medicine

text: are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: (ALS) and

entity_name: Stroke

text: stroke

text: , and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on

entity_name: Affect (psychology)

text: affective

text: , behavioral,

entity_name: Cognition

text: cognitive

text: , and

entity_name: Perception

text: perceptual

text: disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The boundaries between these specialties have been blurring recently as they are all influenced by

entity_name: Research

text: basic research

text: in neuroscience.

entity_name: Neuroimaging

text: Brain imaging

text: also enables objective, biological insights into mental illness, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and help assess patient progress over time.

text: Insensitivity to pain may also result from abnormalities in the nervous system. This is usually the result of acquired damage to the nerves, such as spinal cord injury, diabetes mellitus (diabetic neuropathy), or leprosy in countries where that disease is prevalent. These individuals are at risk of tissue damage and infection due to undiscovered injuries. People with diabetes-related nerve damage, for instance, sustain poorly-healing foot ulcers as a result of decreased sensation.

text: Insensitivity to pain may also result from abnormalities in the

entity_name: Nervous system

text: nervous system

text: . This is usually the result of

entity_name: Acquired disorder

text: acquired

text: damage to the nerves, such as

entity_name: Spinal cord injury

text: spinal cord injury

entity_name: Diabetes mellitus

text: diabetes mellitus

entity_name: Diabetic neuropathy

text: diabetic neuropathy

text: ), or

entity_name: Leprosy

text: leprosy

text: in countries where that disease is prevalent. These individuals are at risk of tissue damage and infection due to undiscovered injuries. People with diabetes-related nerve damage, for instance, sustain poorly-healing foot ulcers as a result of decreased sensation.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Children should not take medication with bismuth subsalicylate while recovering from influenza or chicken pox, as epidemiologic evidence points to an association between the use of salicylate-containing medications during certain viral infections and the onset of Reye's syndrome. For the same reason, it is typically recommended that nursing mothers not use medication containing bismuth subsalicylate because small amounts of the medication are excreted in breast milk and pose a theoretical risk of Reye's syndrome to nursing children.

text: Children should not take medication with bismuth subsalicylate while recovering from

entity_name: Influenza

text: influenza

text: or

entity_name: Chickenpox

text: chicken pox

text: , as epidemiologic evidence points to an association between the use of

entity_name: Salicylic acid

text: salicylate

text: -containing medications during certain viral infections and the onset of

entity_name: Reye syndrome

text: Reye's syndrome

text: . For the same reason, it is typically recommended that nursing mothers not use medication containing bismuth subsalicylate because small amounts of the medication are excreted in breast milk and pose a theoretical risk of Reye's syndrome to nursing children.

text: In many English speaking countries neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. In contrast, there are a number of independent university chairs in neuropathology and even institutes of neuropathology in German speaking countries due to a different historical background.  A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist is a consultant for other physicians.  If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken and sent to the neuropathologist, who examines it using a microscope or certain molecular methods to make a definitive diagnosis.

text: In many English speaking countries neuropathology is considered a subfield of

entity_name: Anatomical pathology

text: anatomical pathology

text: . In contrast, there are a number of independent university chairs in neuropathology and even institutes of neuropathology in German speaking countries due to a different historical background.  A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist is a consultant for other physicians.  If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a

entity_name: Biopsy

text: biopsy

text: of

entity_name: Nervous tissue

text: nervous tissue

text: is taken and sent to the neuropathologist, who examines it using a microscope or certain molecular methods to make a definitive diagnosis.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: The initial evaluation of a patient with a newly diagnosed tumor of the nervous system is a critical step toward appropriate management and patient care. The most important portions of the initial evaluation are a detailed history and a thorough examination. This process serves to identify the extent and nature of neurological deficit, provides diagnostic clues, can help disclose a source of metastasis, or may identify a genetic process associated with a primary central nervous system tumor.

text: Neurogenetics studies the role of genetics in the development and function of the nervous system. It considers neural characteristics as phenotypes (i.e. manifestations, measurable or not, of the genetic make-up of an individual), and is mainly based on the observation that the nervous systems of individuals, even of those belonging to the same species, may not be identical. As the name implies, it draws aspects from both the studies of neuroscience and genetics, focusing in particular how the genetic code an organism carries affects its expressed traits. Mutations in this genetic sequence can have a wide range of effects on the quality of life of the individual. Neurological diseases, behavior and personality are all aspects of man studied in the context of neurogenetics. The field of neurogenetics emerged in the mid to late 1900s with advances closely following advancements made in available technology. Currently neurogenetics is the center of much research utilizing the cutting edge of research techniques.

text: Neurogenetics studies the role of

entity_name: Genetics

text: genetics

text: in the development and function of the

text: nervous system

text: . It considers neural characteristics as

entity_name: Phenotype

text: phenotype

text: s (i.e. manifestations, measurable or not, of the genetic make-up of an individual), and is mainly based on the observation that the nervous systems of individuals, even of those belonging to the same

entity_name: Species

text: species

text: , may not be identical. As the name implies, it draws aspects from both the studies of

entity_name: Neuroscience

text: neuroscience

text: and genetics, focusing in particular how the genetic code an organism carries affects its expressed

entity_name: Phenotypic trait

text: traits

entity_name: Mutation

text: Mutation

text: s in this genetic sequence can have a wide range of effects on the quality of life of the individual. Neurological diseases, behavior and personality are all aspects of man studied in the context of neurogenetics. The field of neurogenetics emerged in the mid to late 1900s with advances closely following advancements made in available technology. Currently neurogenetics is the center of much research utilizing the cutting edge of research techniques.

text: Lymphocytic pleocytosis is an abnormal increase in the amount of lymphocytes in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It is usually considered to be a sign of infection or inflammation within the nervous system, and is encountered in a number of neurological diseases, such as pseudomigraine, Susac's syndrome, and encephalitis. While lymphocytes make up roughly a quarter of all white blood cells (WBC) in the body, they are generally rare in the CSF. Under normal conditions, there are usually less than 5 white blood cells per µL of CSF.  In a pleocytic setting, the number of lymphocytes can jump to more than 1,000 cells per mm. Increases in lymphocyte count are often accompanied by an increase in cerebrospinal protein concentrations in addition to pleocytosis of other types of white blood cells.

text: Lymphocytic pleocytosis is an abnormal increase in the amount of

entity_name: Lymphocyte

text: lymphocytes

text: in the

entity_name: Cerebrospinal fluid

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF). It is usually considered to be a sign of

entity_name: Infection

text: infection

text: or inflammation within the

text: nervous system

text: , and is encountered in a number of

entity_name: Neurological disorder

text: neurological diseases

text: , such as pseudomigraine, Susac's syndrome, and encephalitis. While lymphocytes make up roughly a quarter of all

entity_name: White blood cell

text: white blood cells

text: (WBC) in the body, they are generally rare in the CSF. Under normal conditions, there are usually less than 5 white blood cells per µL of CSF.  In a pleocytic setting, the number of lymphocytes can jump to more than 1,000 cells per mm. Increases in lymphocyte count are often accompanied by an increase in cerebrospinal protein concentrations in addition to

entity_name: Pleocytosis

text: pleocytosis

text: of other types of

text: white blood cells

text: Another commonly used neuromodulation treatment developed in the 1980s is deep brain stimulation, which may be used to help limit symptoms of movement disorder in Parkinson's disease, dystonia, or essential tremor. It was approved in 2010 in Europe for the treatment of certain types of severe epilepsy. DBS also has shown promise, although still in research, for medically intractable psychiatric syndromes of depression, obsessive compulsive disorders, intractable rage, dementia, and morbid obesity. It has also shown promise for Tourette syndrome, torticollis, and tardive dyskinesia. DBS therapy, unlike spinal cord stimulation, has a variety of central nervous system targets, depending on the target pathology. For Parkinson's disease central nervous system targets include the subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus interna, and the ventral intermidus nucleus of the thalamus. Dystonias are often treated by implants targeting globus pallidus interna, or less often, parts of the ventral thalamic group. The anterior thalamus is the target for epilepsy.

text: Another commonly used neuromodulation treatment developed in the 1980s is

text: deep brain stimulation

text: , which may be used to help limit symptoms of movement disorder in

text: Parkinson's disease

text: dystonia

text: , or

text: essential tremor

text: . It was approved in 2010 in Europe for the treatment of certain types of severe epilepsy. DBS also has shown promise, although still in research, for medically intractable psychiatric syndromes of depression, obsessive compulsive disorders, intractable rage, dementia, and morbid obesity. It has also shown promise for Tourette syndrome, torticollis, and tardive dyskinesia. DBS therapy, unlike spinal cord stimulation, has a variety of central nervous system targets, depending on the target pathology. For Parkinson's disease central nervous system targets include the subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus interna, and the ventral intermidus nucleus of the thalamus. Dystonias are often treated by implants targeting globus pallidus interna, or less often, parts of the ventral thalamic group. The anterior thalamus is the target for epilepsy.

text: The first report of bacterial infection underlying meningitis was by the Austrian bacteriologist Anton Weichselbaum, who in 1887 described the meningococcus. Mortality from meningitis was very high (over 90%) in early reports. In 1906, antiserum was produced in horses; this was developed further by the American scientist Simon Flexner and markedly decreased mortality from meningococcal disease. In 1944, penicillin was first reported to be effective in meningitis. The introduction in the late 20th century of Haemophilus vaccines led to a marked fall in cases of meningitis associated with this pathogen, and in 2002, evidence emerged that treatment with steroids could improve the prognosis of bacterial meningitis. World Meningitis Day is celebrated on the 24th of April each year.

text: The first report of bacterial infection underlying meningitis was by the Austrian bacteriologist

text: Anton Weichselbaum

text: , who in 1887 described the meningococcus. Mortality from meningitis was very high (over 90%) in early reports. In 1906,

text: antiserum

text: was produced in horses; this was developed further by the American scientist

text: Simon Flexner

text: and markedly decreased mortality from meningococcal disease. In 1944,

text: penicillin

text: was first reported to be effective in meningitis. The introduction in the late 20th century of

text: Haemophilus

text: vaccines led to a marked fall in cases of meningitis associated with this pathogen, and in 2002, evidence emerged that treatment with steroids could improve the prognosis of bacterial meningitis. World Meningitis Day is celebrated on the 24th of April each year.

text: Like other neurons, α-MNs transmit signals as action potentials, rapid changes in electrical activity that propagate from the cell body to the end of the axon. To increase the speed at which action potentials travel, α-MN axons have large diameters and are heavily myelinated by both oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes myelinate the part of the α-MN axon that lies in the central nervous system (CNS), while Schwann cells myelinate the part that lies in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The transition between the CNS and PNS occurs at the level of the pia mater, the innermost and most delicate layer of meningeal tissue surrounding components of the CNS.

text: Like other neurons, α-MNs transmit signals as

text: action potential

text: s, rapid changes in electrical activity that propagate from the

text: cell body

text: to the end of the

text: axon

text: . To increase the speed at which action potentials travel, α-MN axons have large diameters and are heavily

text: myelin

text: ated by both

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s and

text: Schwann cell

text: s. Oligodendrocytes myelinate the part of the α-MN axon that lies in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), while Schwann cells myelinate the part that lies in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). The transition between the CNS and PNS occurs at the level of the

text: pia mater

text: , the innermost and most delicate layer of

text: meningeal tissue

text: surrounding components of the CNS.

text: The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue. Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of connective tissue membranes called meninges that separate the skull from the brain. Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another, forming the blood–brain barrier, which blocks the passage of many toxins and pathogens (though at the same time blocking antibodies and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain).

text: The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue. Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of

text: connective tissue

text: membrane

text: s called

text: meninges

text: that separate the skull from the brain.

text: Blood vessel

text: s enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another, forming the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: , which blocks the passage of many

text: toxin

text: s and

text: pathogen

text: s (though at the same time blocking

text: antibodies

text: and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain).

text: Dysautonomia may be due to inherited or degenerative neurologic diseases (primary dysautonomia) or it may occur due to injury of the autonomic nervous system from an acquired disorder (secondary dysautonomia). The most common causes of dysautonomia include:In the sympathetic nervous system predominant dysautonomia is common along with fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, and interstitial cystitis, raising the possibility that such dysautonomia could be their common clustering underlying pathogenesis.

text: Dysautonomia may be due to

text: inherited

text: or degenerative

text: neurologic diseases

text: (primary dysautonomia) or it may occur due to injury of the autonomic nervous system from an acquired disorder (secondary dysautonomia). The most common causes of dysautonomia include:In the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: predominant dysautonomia is common along with

text: fibromyalgia

text: chronic fatigue syndrome

text: irritable bowel syndrome

text: , and

text: interstitial cystitis

text: , raising the possibility that such dysautonomia could be their common clustering underlying pathogenesis.

text: Down syndrome (DS), caused by trisomy 21, is the most common birth defect associated with intellectual disability. Recently, the novel gene DSCAM has been identified in the DS critical region. DSCAM is predicted to be a transmembrane protein with a very high structural and sequence homology to the immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily of cell adhesion molecules. It is expressed in the developing nervous system with the highest level of expression occurring in the fetal brain.  When this gene is over-expressed in the developing fetal central nervous system, it leads to Down syndrome. Diverse glycoproteins of cell surfaces and extracellular matrices, operationally termed as 'adhesion molecules' are important in the specification of cell interactions during development as well as maintenance and regeneration of the nervous system.

text: Down syndrome

text: (DS), caused by

text: trisomy 21

text: , is the most common birth defect associated with

text: intellectual disability

text: . Recently, the novel gene DSCAM has been identified in the DS critical region. DSCAM is predicted to be a

text: transmembrane protein

text: with a very high structural and sequence homology to the

text: immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily

text: of

text: cell adhesion molecule

text: s. It is expressed in the developing nervous system with the highest level of expression occurring in the fetal brain.  When this gene is over-expressed in the developing fetal central nervous system, it leads to Down syndrome. Diverse

text: glycoprotein

text: s of cell surfaces and extracellular matrices, operationally termed as 'adhesion molecules' are important in the specification of cell interactions during development as well as maintenance and regeneration of the nervous system.

text: Hoff wrote more than 500 papers on psychiatry and neurology, including ten books. In his scientific work, he focused on experimental encephalitis studies, postural reflexes, psychosomatic problems, the influence of hypnotic orders on gastric and intestinal function, the psycho-vegetative circuit, the influence of endocrine glands by psychological factors, and the function of the hypothalamus , The central nervous system of the metabolism and the endocrine glands, brainpathological phenomena, the function of the frontal, thalamic and cerebellum, time lapse phenomena, nervous vascular regulation, sleep studies, adrenal disturbances in infectious diseases, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, psychopathy, The alcoholism.

text: Fibrous scarring can also be a complication within the subarachnoid space.  It is notoriously difficult to detect and evaluate.  Prior to the development of magnetic resonance imaging, the only way to ascertain the presence of arachnoiditis was by opening the dura.   In the days of CT scanning and Pantopaque and later, Metrizamide myelography, the presence of arachnoiditis could be speculated based on radiographic findings.  Often, myelography prior to the introduction of Metrizamide was the cause of arachnoiditis.   It can also be caused by the long term pressure brought about with either a severe disc herniation or spinal stenosis.   The presence of both epidural scarring and arachnoiditis in the same patient are probably quite common.  Arachnoiditis is a broad term denoting inflammation of the meninges and subarachnoid space. A variety of etiologies exist, including infectious, inflammatory, and neoplastic processes.Infectious etiologies include bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic agents. Noninfectious inflammatory processes include surgery, intrathecal hemorrhage, and the administration of intrathecal (inside the dural canal) agents such as myelographic contrast media, anesthetics (e.g. chloroprocaine), and steroids (e.g. Depo-Medrol, Kenalog). Lately iatrogenic arachnoiditis has been attributed to misplaced Epidural Steroid Injection therapy when accidentally administered intrathecally. The preservatives and suspension agents found in all steroid injectates, which aren't indicated for epidural administration by the U.S. Food & Drug Administration due to reports of severe adverse events including arachnoiditis, paralysis and death, have now been directly linked to the onset of the disease following the initial stage of chemical meningitis.  Neoplasia includes the hematogenous spread of systemic tumors, such as breast and lung carcinoma, melanoma, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Neoplasia also includes direct seeding of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from primary central nervous system (CNS) tumors such as glioblastoma multiforme, medulloblastoma, ependymoma, and choroid plexus carcinoma.    Strictly speaking, the most common cause of arachnoiditis in failed back syndrome is not infectious or from cancer.  It is due to non-specific scarring secondary to the surgery or the underlying pathology.

text: Fibrous scarring can also be a complication within the subarachnoid space.  It is notoriously difficult to detect and evaluate.  Prior to the development of

text: magnetic resonance imaging

text: , the only way to ascertain the presence of

text: arachnoiditis

text: was by opening the dura.   In the days of

text: CT

text: scanning and

text: Pantopaque

text: and later,

text: Metrizamide

text: myelography, the presence of arachnoiditis could be speculated based on radiographic findings.  Often, myelography prior to the introduction of Metrizamide was the cause of arachnoiditis.   It can also be caused by the long term pressure brought about with either a severe disc herniation or spinal stenosis.   The presence of both epidural scarring and arachnoiditis in the same patient are probably quite common.  Arachnoiditis is a broad term denoting inflammation of the meninges and subarachnoid space. A variety of etiologies exist, including infectious, inflammatory, and neoplastic processes.Infectious etiologies include bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic agents. Noninfectious inflammatory processes include surgery, intrathecal hemorrhage, and the administration of intrathecal (inside the dural canal) agents such as myelographic contrast media, anesthetics (e.g.

text: chloroprocaine

text: ), and steroids (e.g. Depo-Medrol, Kenalog). Lately iatrogenic arachnoiditis has been attributed to misplaced Epidural Steroid Injection therapy when accidentally administered intrathecally. The preservatives and suspension agents found in all steroid injectates, which aren't indicated for epidural administration by the U.S. Food & Drug Administration due to reports of severe adverse events including arachnoiditis, paralysis and death, have now been directly linked to the onset of the disease following the initial stage of chemical meningitis.  Neoplasia includes the hematogenous spread of systemic tumors, such as breast and lung carcinoma, melanoma, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Neoplasia also includes direct seeding of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from primary central nervous system (CNS) tumors such as

text: glioblastoma multiforme

text: medulloblastoma

text: ependymoma

text: , and

text: choroid plexus carcinoma

text: .    Strictly speaking, the most common cause of arachnoiditis in failed back syndrome is not infectious or from cancer.  It is due to non-specific scarring secondary to the surgery or the underlying pathology.

text: Human nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which comprises the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprising the nerve fibers that branch off from the spinal cord to all parts of the body. Both parts of the nervous system are actively involved in communicating signals between various parts of the body to ensure the smooth and efficient transfer of information that controls and coordinates the movement of muscles, and regulates organ functions. Neurons, which form the elemental unit of the nervous system, receive messages from their dendrites, relay the information as an electrical signal down the axon and releases chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters, thus converting the electrical signal into a chemical signal.

text: Human nervous system consists of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), which comprises the brain and spinal cord, and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) comprising the nerve fibers that branch off from the spinal cord to all parts of the body. Both parts of the nervous system are actively involved in communicating signals between various parts of the body to ensure the smooth and efficient transfer of information that controls and coordinates the movement of muscles, and regulates organ functions.

text: Neurons

text: , which form the elemental unit of the nervous system, receive messages from their

text: dendrite

text: s, relay the information as an electrical signal down the

text: axon

text: and releases chemical messengers known as

text: neurotransmitter

text: s, thus converting the electrical signal into a chemical signal.

text: Solomon’s research is on emerging brain infections, especially encephalitis (inflammation and swelling of the brain, usually caused by a virus). He is an expert on Japanese encephalitis, an emerging infectious disease that is a zoonosis   spread from animals to humans  by mosquitoes.    He showed that Japanese encephalitis virus can cause an illness with leg paralysis which could be confused for polio. He also highlighted the importance of dengue, a related mosquito-borne virus, as a cause of neurological disease. He works on the origins, evolution and spread of Japanese encephalitis. He has played a major role in the global campaign to control Japanese encephalitis through vaccination. This included developing the Liverpool Outcome Score for quantifying the disability caused by Japanese encephalitis, and helping produce the WHO Surveillance Standards for detecting the disease. He is also an expert on enterovirus 71, which causes hand foot and mouth disease and encephalitis. He works on improving the diagnosis, better understanding the disease mechanisms, and strengthening clinical management.

text: Solomon’s research is on emerging brain infections, especially

text: encephalitis

text: (inflammation and swelling of the brain, usually caused by a virus). He is an expert on

text: Japanese encephalitis

text: , an

text: emerging infectious disease

text: that is a

text: zoonosis

text: spread from animals to humans  by mosquitoes.    He showed that Japanese encephalitis virus can cause an illness with leg paralysis which could be confused for polio. He also highlighted the importance of

text: dengue

text: , a related mosquito-borne virus, as a cause of neurological disease. He works on the origins, evolution and spread of Japanese encephalitis. He has played a major role in the global campaign to control Japanese encephalitis through vaccination. This included developing the Liverpool Outcome Score for quantifying the disability caused by Japanese encephalitis, and helping produce the WHO Surveillance Standards for detecting the disease. He is also an expert on

text: enterovirus 71

text: , which causes hand foot and mouth disease and encephalitis. He works on improving the diagnosis, better understanding the disease mechanisms, and strengthening clinical management.

text: Muckle–Wells syndrome (MWS), also known as  urticaria-deafness-amyloidosis syndrome (UDA), is a rare autosomal dominant disease which causes sensorineural deafness, recurrent hives, and can lead to amyloidosis. Individuals with MWS often have episodic fever, chills, and joint pain. As a result, MWS is considered a type of periodic fever syndrome. MWS is caused by a defect in the CIAS1 gene which creates the protein cryopyrin. MWS is closely related to two other syndromes, familial cold urticaria and neonatal onset multisystem inflammatory disease—in fact, all three are related to mutations in the same gene and subsumed under the term cryopyrin-associated periodic syndromes (CAPS).

text: Muckle–Wells syndrome (MWS), also known as  urticaria-deafness-amyloidosis syndrome (UDA), is a

text: rare

text: autosomal dominant

text: disease which causes

text: sensorineural

text: deafness

text: , recurrent

text: hives

text: , and can lead to

text: amyloidosis

text: . Individuals with MWS often have episodic fever, chills, and

text: joint pain

text: . As a result, MWS is considered a type of

text: periodic fever syndrome

text: . MWS is caused by a defect in the

text: gene which creates the protein

text: cryopyrin

text: . MWS is closely related to two other syndromes,

text: familial cold urticaria

text: and

entity_name: Neonatal onset multisystem inflammatory disease

text: neonatal onset multisystem inflammatory disease

text: —in fact, all three are related to mutations in the same gene and subsumed under the term

text: cryopyrin-associated periodic syndrome

text: s (CAPS).

text: Semliki Forest virus (SFV) is a virus that naturally infects cells of the central nervous system and causes encephalitis. A genetically engineered form has been pre-clinically tested as an oncolytic virus against the severe brain tumour type glioblastoma. The SFV was genetically modified with microRNA target sequences so that it only replicated in brain tumour cells and not in normal brain cells. The modified virus reduced tumour growth and prolonged survival of mice with brain tumours. The modified virus was also found to efficiently kill human glioblastoma tumour cell lines.

text: Semliki Forest virus

text: (SFV) is a virus that naturally infects cells of the central nervous system and causes

text: encephalitis

text: . A

text: genetically engineered

text: form has been

text: pre-clinically tested

text: as an oncolytic virus against the severe brain tumour type

text: glioblastoma

text: . The SFV was genetically modified with

text: microRNA

text: target sequences so that it only replicated in brain tumour cells and not in normal brain cells. The modified virus reduced tumour growth and prolonged survival of mice with brain tumours. The modified virus was also found to efficiently kill human glioblastoma tumour cell lines.

text: After a typical human infection by bite, the virus enters the peripheral nervous system. It then travels along the nerves towards the central nervous system. During this phase, the virus cannot be easily detected within the host, and vaccination may still confer cell-mediated immunity to prevent symptomatic rabies. Once the virus reaches the brain, it rapidly causes encephalitis and symptoms appear. This is called the "prodromal" phase and at this time, treatment is usually unsuccessful. Rabies may also inflame the spinal cord producing myelitis.

text: After a typical human infection by bite, the virus enters the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . It then travels along the

text: nerve

text: s towards the

text: central nervous system

text: . During this phase, the virus cannot be easily detected within the host, and vaccination may still confer cell-mediated immunity to prevent symptomatic rabies. Once the virus reaches the

text: brain

text: , it rapidly causes

text: encephalitis

text: and symptoms appear. This is called the "prodromal" phase and at this time, treatment is usually unsuccessful. Rabies may also inflame the

text: spinal cord

text: producing

text: myelitis

text: The optic nerve is the second of twelve paired cranial nerves and is technically part of the central nervous system, rather than the peripheral nervous system because it is derived from an out-pouching of the diencephalon (optic stalks) during embryonic development. As a consequence, the fibers of the optic nerve are covered with myelin produced by oligodendrocytes, rather than Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system, and are encased within the meninges. Peripheral neuropathies like Guillain–Barré syndrome do not affect the optic nerve. However, most typically the optic nerve is grouped with the other eleven cranial nerves and considered to be part of the peripheral nervous system.

text: The optic nerve is the second of twelve paired

text: cranial nerve

text: s and is technically part of the

text: central nervous system

text: , rather than the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: because it is derived from an out-pouching of the

text: diencephalon

text: optic stalks

text: ) during embryonic development. As a consequence, the fibers of the optic nerve are covered with myelin produced by

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s, rather than

text: Schwann cell

text: s of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , and are encased within the

text: meninges

text: . Peripheral neuropathies like

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: do not affect the optic nerve. However, most typically the optic nerve is grouped with the other eleven cranial nerves and considered to be part of the peripheral nervous system.

text: Neuroinflammation is widely regarded as chronic, as opposed to acute, inflammation of the central nervous system. Acute inflammation usually follows injury to the central nervous system immediately, and is characterized by inflammatory molecules, endothelial cell activation, platelet deposition, and tissue edema.  Chronic inflammation is the sustained activation of glial cells and recruitment of other immune cells into the brain. It is chronic inflammation that is typically associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Common causes of chronic neuroinflammation include:

text: Neuroinflammation is widely regarded as chronic, as opposed to acute, inflammation of the

text: central nervous system

text: . Acute inflammation usually follows injury to the central nervous system immediately, and is characterized by inflammatory molecules,

text: endothelial cell

text: activation,

text: platelet

text: deposition, and tissue

text: edema

text: .  Chronic inflammation is the sustained activation of glial cells and recruitment of other immune cells into the brain. It is chronic inflammation that is typically associated with

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: . Common causes of chronic neuroinflammation include:

text: Sandhoff disease, also known as Sandhoff-Jatzkewitz disease, variant 0 of GM2-Gangliosidosis or Hexosaminidase A and B deficiency, is a lysosomal genetic, lipid storage disorder caused by the inherited deficiency to create functional beta-hexosaminidases A and B. These catabolic enzymes are needed to degrade the neuronal membrane components, ganglioside GM2, its derivative GA2, the glycolipid globoside in visceral tissues, and some oligosaccharides. Accumulation of these metabolites leads to a progressive destruction of the central nervous system and eventually to death. The rare autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder is clinically almost indistinguishable from Tay-Sachs disease, another genetic disorder that disrupts beta-hexosaminidases A and S.  There are three subsets of Sandhoff disease based on when first symptoms appear: classic infantile, juvenile and adult late onset.

text: Sandhoff disease, also known as Sandhoff-Jatzkewitz disease, variant 0 of GM2-Gangliosidosis or Hexosaminidase A and B deficiency, is a lysosomal genetic,

text: lipid storage disorder

text: caused by the inherited deficiency to create functional beta-hexosaminidases A and B. These catabolic enzymes are needed to degrade the neuronal membrane components, ganglioside GM2, its derivative GA2, the glycolipid globoside in visceral tissues, and some oligosaccharides. Accumulation of these metabolites leads to a progressive destruction of the central nervous system and eventually to death. The rare autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder is clinically almost indistinguishable from

text: Tay-Sachs disease

text: , another genetic disorder that disrupts beta-hexosaminidases A and S.  There are three subsets of Sandhoff disease based on when first symptoms appear: classic infantile, juvenile and adult late onset.

text: A few years after his retirement he was diagnosed with a degenerative syndrome of the central nervous system, later revealed to be transverse myelitis, which causes damage to the spine, and forced him into a wheelchair. Later, his former Springbok teammate, Joost van der Westhuizen developed a degenerative nervous disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

text: A few years after his retirement he was diagnosed with a degenerative syndrome of the central nervous system, later revealed to be

text: transverse myelitis

text: , which causes damage to the spine, and forced him into a wheelchair. Later, his former Springbok teammate,

text: Joost van der Westhuizen

text: developed a degenerative nervous disease,

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is a mosquito-borne viral pathogen that causes Venezuelan equine encephalitis or encephalomyelitis (VEE). VEE can affect all equine species, such as horses, donkeys, and zebras. After infection, equines may suddenly die or show progressive central nervous system disorders. Humans also can contract this disease. Healthy adults who become infected by the virus may experience flu-like symptoms, such as high fevers and headaches. People with weakened immune systems and the young and the elderly can become severely ill or die from this disease.

text: Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus is a

text: mosquito

text: -borne

text: viral

text: pathogen that causes Venezuelan equine encephalitis or encephalomyelitis (VEE). VEE can affect all equine species, such as

text: horse

text: s,

text: donkey

text: s, and

text: zebra

text: s. After infection, equines may suddenly die or show progressive

text: central nervous system

text: disorders. Humans also can contract this disease. Healthy adults who become infected by the virus may experience

text: flu

text: -like symptoms, such as high fevers and headaches. People with weakened immune systems and the young and the elderly can become severely ill or die from this disease.

text: In adults, the disease is more severe, though the incidence is much less common. Infection in adults is associated with greater morbidity and mortality due to pneumonia (either direct viral pneumonia or secondary bacterial pneumonia), bronchitis (either viral bronchitis or secondary bacterial bronchitis), hepatitis, and encephalitis. In particular, up to 10% of pregnant women with chickenpox develop pneumonia, the severity of which increases with onset later in gestation. In England and Wales, 75% of deaths due to chickenpox are in adults. Inflammation of the brain, or encephalitis, can occur in immunocompromised individuals, although the risk is higher with herpes zoster. Necrotizing fasciitis is also a rare complication.

text: In adults, the disease is more severe, though the incidence is much less common. Infection in adults is associated with greater morbidity and mortality due to

text: pneumonia

text: (either direct

text: viral pneumonia

text: or secondary

text: bacterial pneumonia

text: bronchitis

text: (either viral bronchitis or secondary bacterial bronchitis),

text: hepatitis

text: , and

text: encephalitis

text: . In particular, up to 10% of pregnant women with chickenpox develop pneumonia, the severity of which increases with onset later in gestation. In England and Wales, 75% of deaths due to chickenpox are in adults. Inflammation of the brain, or

text: encephalitis

text: , can occur in immunocompromised individuals, although the risk is higher with

text: herpes zoster

text: Necrotizing fasciitis

text: is also a rare complication.

text: Infants that are infected by the protozoanToxoplasma gondii in utero can be born with chorioretinitis or ocular toxoplasmosis. Globally, it is the most common cause of infections of the back of the eye. (posterior segment). The most common sign is decreased vision in one eye. Other signs and symptoms may appear after the neonatal period and include: miscarriage, stillbirth, chorioretinitis development later in life, intracranial calcification hydrocephalus or central nervous system abnormalities.

text: Infants that are infected by the protozoan

text: Toxoplasma gondii

text: in utero can be born with

text: chorioretinitis

text: or ocular toxoplasmosis. Globally, it is the most common cause of infections of the back of the eye. (posterior segment). The most common sign is decreased vision in one eye. Other signs and symptoms may appear after the neonatal period and include: miscarriage, stillbirth, chorioretinitis development later in life, intracranial calcification hydrocephalus or central nervous system abnormalities.

text: Although the ANS is also known as the visceral nervous system, the ANS is only connected with the motor side. Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction with the somatic nervous system which provides voluntary control.

text: Although the ANS is also known as the visceral nervous system, the ANS is only connected with the motor side. Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction with the

text: somatic nervous system

text: which provides voluntary control.

text: Infections most commonly associated with IRIS include Mycobacterium tuberculosis and cryptococcal meningitis. Persons living with AIDS are more at risk for IRIS if they are starting  for the first time, or if they have recently been treated for an opportunistic infection (OI). It is generally advised that when patients have low initial CD4 T cell count and opportunistic infection at the time of their HIV diagnosis, they receive treatment to control the opportunistic infections before HAART is initiated approximately two weeks later. This is true for most OIs, except for OIs involving the central nervous system.

text: Infections most commonly associated with IRIS include

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: and

text: cryptococcal meningitis

text: . Persons living with AIDS are more at risk for IRIS if they are starting  for the first time, or if they have recently been treated for an

text: opportunistic infection

text: (OI). It is generally advised that when patients have low initial CD4 T cell count and opportunistic infection at the time of their HIV diagnosis, they receive treatment to control the opportunistic infections before HAART is initiated approximately two weeks later. This is true for most OIs, except for OIs involving the

text: central nervous system

text: Meningiomas are a diverse set of tumors arising from the meninges, the membranous layers surrounding the central nervous system. Many meningiomas produce no symptoms throughout a person's life, and if discovered, require no treatment other than periodic observation. Typically, symptomatic meningiomas are treated with either radiosurgery or conventional surgery.

text: Meningiomas are a diverse set of tumors arising from the

text: meninges

text: , the membranous layers surrounding the

text: central nervous system

text: . Many meningiomas produce no symptoms throughout a person's life, and if discovered, require no treatment other than periodic observation. Typically, symptomatic meningiomas are treated with either

text: radiosurgery

text: or

text: conventional surgery

text: The specific causes of neurological problems vary, but can include genetic disorders, congenital abnormalities or disorders, infections, lifestyle or environmental health problems including malnutrition, and brain injury, spinal cord injury or nerve injury. The problem may start in another body system that interacts with the nervous system. For example, cerebrovascular disorders involve brain injury due to problems with the blood vessels (cardiovascular system) supplying the brain; autoimmune disorders involve damage caused by the body's own immune system; lysosomal storage diseases such as Niemann-Pick disease can lead to neurological deterioration.

text: The specific causes of neurological problems vary, but can include

text: genetic disorder

text: s,

text: congenital abnormalities

text: or

text: disorders

text: infections

text: lifestyle

text: or

text: environmental health

text: problems including

text: malnutrition

text: , and

text: brain injury

text: spinal cord injury

text: or

text: nerve injury

text: . The problem may start in another

text: body system

text: that interacts with the nervous system. For example,

text: cerebrovascular disorders

text: involve brain injury due to problems with the

text: blood vessels

text: cardiovascular system

text: ) supplying the brain;

text: autoimmune

text: disorders involve damage caused by the body's own

text: immune system

text: lysosomal storage diseases

text: such as

text: Niemann-Pick disease

text: can lead to neurological deterioration.

text: Neurodegenerative diseases are a heterogenous group of complex disorders linked by the degeneration of neurons in either the peripheral nervous system or the central nervous system. Their underlying causes are extremely variable and complicated by various genetic and/or environmental factors. These diseases cause progressive deterioration of the neuron resulting in decreased signal transduction and in some cases even neuronal death. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) diseases may be further categorized by the type of nerve cell (motor, sensory, or both) affected by the disorder. Effective treatment of these diseases is often prevented by lack of understanding of the underlying molecular and genetic pathology. Epigenetic therapy is being investigated as a method of correcting the expression levels of misregulated genes in neurodegenerative diseases.

text: Neurodegenerative disease

text: s are a heterogenous group of complex disorders linked by the degeneration of

text: neuron

text: s in either the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: or the

text: central nervous system

text: . Their underlying causes are extremely variable and complicated by various genetic and/or environmental factors. These diseases cause progressive deterioration of the neuron resulting in decreased

text: signal transduction

text: and in some cases even neuronal death. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) diseases may be further categorized by the type of nerve cell (

text: motor

text: sensory

text: , or both) affected by the disorder. Effective treatment of these diseases is often prevented by lack of understanding of the underlying molecular and genetic pathology.

text: Epigenetic therapy

text: is being investigated as a method of correcting the expression levels of misregulated genes in neurodegenerative diseases.

text: Meningitis can be diagnosed after death has occurred. The findings from a post mortem are usually a widespread inflammation of the pia mater and arachnoid layers of the meninges. Neutrophil granulocytes tend to have migrated to the cerebrospinal fluid and the base of the brain, along with cranial nerves and the spinal cord, may be surrounded with pus – as may the meningeal vessels.

text: Meningitis can be diagnosed after death has occurred. The findings from a

text: post mortem

text: are usually a widespread inflammation of the

text: pia mater

text: and

text: arachnoid

text: layers of the meninges.

text: Neutrophil granulocyte

text: s tend to have migrated to the cerebrospinal fluid and the base of the brain, along with

text: cranial nerve

text: s and the

text: spinal cord

text: , may be surrounded with

text: pus

text: – as may the meningeal vessels.

text: Glial scar formation is induced following damage to the nervous system. In the central nervous system, this glial scar formation significantly inhibits nerve regeneration, which leads to a loss of function. Several families of molecules are released that promote and drive glial scar formation. For instance, transforming growth factors B-1 and -2, interleukins, and cytokines play a role in the initiation of scar formation. The accumulation of reactive astrocytes at the site of injury and the up regulation of molecules that are inhibitory for neurite outgrowth contribute to the failure of neuroregeneration. The up-regulated molecules alter the composition of the extracellular matrix in a way that has been shown to inhibit neurite outgrowth extension. This scar formation involves several cell types and families of molecules.

text: If this wall of protection was to break down, then the infection could become more widespread. This property may be explained by looking at the location and arrangement of the SGCs, as they are centered on the neurons, allowing them to protect the neurons. It has also been proposed that SGCs may have a job in ridding the ganglia of the virus and in protecting and repairing the nervous system after the virus has left the dormant stage.

text: Mutations in human PHOX2B cause a rare disease of the visceral nervous system (dysautonomia): congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (associated with respiratory arrests during sleep and, occasionally, wakefulness), Hirschsprung's disease (partial agenesis of the enteric nervous system), ROHHAD, and tumours of the sympathetic ganglia.In most people, Exon 3 of the gene contains a sequence of 20 polyalanine repeats. An increase in the number of repeats is associated with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. There may also be other pathogenic mutations further along the gene.

text: Mutations in human PHOX2B cause a rare disease of the visceral nervous system (dysautonomia):

text: congenital central hypoventilation syndrome

text: (associated with respiratory arrests during sleep and, occasionally, wakefulness),

text: Hirschsprung's disease

text: (partial agenesis of the

text: enteric nervous system

text: ROHHAD

text: , and tumours of the

text: sympathetic ganglia

text: .In most people, Exon 3 of the gene contains a sequence of 20 polyalanine repeats. An increase in the number of repeats is associated with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. There may also be other pathogenic mutations further along the gene.

text: The most susceptible individuals are elderly frail individuals, or persons who are dehydrated from hot environments or inadequate fluid intake. More serious orthostatic hypotension is often the result of certain commonly prescribed medications such as diuretics, β-adrenergic blockers, other anti-hypertensives (including vasodilators), and nitroglycerin. In a small percentage of cases, the cause of orthostatic hypotensive faints is structural damage to the autonomic nervous system due to systemic diseases (e.g., amyloidosis or diabetes) or in neurological diseases (e.g., Parkinson's disease).

text: The most susceptible individuals are elderly frail individuals, or persons who are dehydrated from hot environments or inadequate fluid intake. More serious orthostatic hypotension is often the result of certain commonly prescribed medications such as diuretics,

text: β-adrenergic blockers

text: , other anti-hypertensives (including vasodilators), and

text: nitroglycerin

text: . In a small percentage of cases, the cause of orthostatic hypotensive faints is structural damage to the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: due to systemic diseases (e.g.,

text: amyloidosis

text: or diabetes) or in neurological diseases (e.g., Parkinson's disease).

text: Functional weakness is weakness of an arm or leg due to the nervous system not working properly. It is not caused by damage or disease of the nervous system. Patients with functional weakness experience symptoms of limb weakness which can be disabling and frightening such as problems walking or a ‘heaviness’ down one side, dropping things or a feeling that a limb just doesn’t feel normal or ‘part of them’.  Functional weakness may also be described as 'dissociative motor disorder' and less helpfully as "conversion disorder."

text: Functional weakness is weakness of an arm or leg due to the nervous system not working properly. It is not caused by damage or disease of the nervous system. Patients with functional weakness experience symptoms of limb weakness which can be disabling and frightening such as problems walking or a ‘heaviness’ down one side, dropping things or a feeling that a limb just doesn’t feel normal or ‘part of them’.  Functional weakness may also be described as 'dissociative motor disorder' and less helpfully as "

text: conversion disorder

text: The disease used to be classified as a "neurocristopathy", or disease of the neural crest because part of the autonomic nervous system (such as sympathetic ganglia) derives from the neural crest. However, this denomination is no longer favored because essential neurons of the autonomic nervous system, including those that underlie the defining symptom of the disease (respiratory arrests), are derived from the neural tube (the medulla), not from the neural crest, although such mixed embryological origins are also true for most other neurocristopathies.

text: The disease used to be classified as a "

text: neurocristopathy

text: ", or disease of the

text: neural crest

text: because part of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (such as sympathetic ganglia) derives from the neural crest. However, this denomination is no longer favored because essential neurons of the autonomic nervous system, including those that underlie the defining symptom of the disease (respiratory arrests), are derived from the

text: neural tube

text: (the

text: medulla

text: ), not from the neural crest, although such mixed embryological origins are also true for most other neurocristopathies.

text: In vertebrates, the enteric nervous system  includes efferent neurons, afferent neurons, and interneurons, all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of carrying reflexes in the absence of CNS input.  The sensory neurons report on mechanical and chemical conditions.  Through intestinal muscles, the motor neurons control peristalsis and churning of intestinal contents.  Other neurons control the secretion of enzymes.  The enteric nervous system also makes use of more than 30 neurotransmitters, most of which are identical to the ones found in CNS, such as acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin. More than 90% of the body's serotonin lies in the gut, as well as about 50% of the body's dopamine and the dual function of these neurotransmitters is an active part of gut-brain research.

text: In vertebrates, the enteric nervous system  includes

text: efferent neurons

text: afferent neuron

text: s, and

text: interneurons

text: , all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of carrying reflexes in the absence of CNS input.  The sensory neurons report on mechanical and chemical conditions.  Through intestinal muscles, the motor neurons control

text: peristalsis

text: and churning of intestinal contents.  Other neurons control the secretion of

text: enzymes

text: .  The enteric nervous system also makes use of more than 30

text: neurotransmitters

text: , most of which are identical to the ones found in CNS, such as

text: acetylcholine

text: dopamine

text: , and

text: serotonin

text: . More than 90% of the body's serotonin lies in the gut, as well as about 50% of the body's dopamine and the dual function of these neurotransmitters is an active part of gut-brain research.

text: Some parasites alter host behavior by infecting neurons in the host's central nervous system. The host's central nervous system responds to the parasite as it would to any other infection. The hallmarks of such response include local inflammation and the release of chemicals such as cytokine. The immune response itself is responsible for induced behavioral changes in many cases of parasitic infection. Parasites that are known to induce behavioral changes through central nervous system inflammation in their hosts include Toxoplasma gondii in rats, Trypanosoma cruzi in mice and Plasmodium mexicanum in the Mexican lizard.

text: Some parasites alter host behavior by infecting

text: neuron

text: s in the host's central nervous system. The host's central nervous system responds to the parasite

text: as it would to any other infection

text: . The hallmarks of such response include local inflammation and the release of chemicals such as

text: cytokine

text: . The immune response itself is responsible for induced behavioral changes in many cases of parasitic infection. Parasites that are known to induce behavioral changes through central nervous system inflammation in their hosts include

text: Toxoplasma gondii

text: in rats,

text: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: in mice and

text: Plasmodium mexicanum

text: in the Mexican lizard.

text: In 1871 he published his best-known work, Treatise on diseases of the nervous system. In early 1872 he traveled to California to visit his ailing friend Letterman. In 1874 he founded, with Silas Weir Mitchell and many others, the American Neurological Association. In 1878 "he was restored to the army [...] with the grade of brigadier general, without pay or allowances".

text: In 1871 he published his best-known work, Treatise on diseases of the nervous system. In early 1872 he traveled to California to visit his ailing friend Letterman. In 1874 he founded, with Silas Weir Mitchell and many others, the

text: American Neurological Association

text: . In 1878 "he was restored to the army [...] with the grade of brigadier general, without pay or allowances".

text: Dopamine plays a role in pain processing in multiple levels of the central nervous system including the spinal cord, periaqueductal gray, thalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate cortex. Decreased levels of dopamine have been associated with painful symptoms that frequently occur in Parkinson's disease. Abnormalities in dopaminergic neurotransmission also occur in several painful clinical conditions, including burning mouth syndrome, fibromyalgia, and restless legs syndrome.

text: Dopamine plays a role in

text: pain

text: processing in multiple levels of the

text: central nervous system

text: including the

text: spinal cord

text: periaqueductal gray

text: thalamus

text: basal ganglia

text: , and

text: cingulate cortex

text: . Decreased levels of dopamine have been associated with painful symptoms that frequently occur in

text: Parkinson's disease

text: . Abnormalities in dopaminergic neurotransmission also occur in several painful clinical conditions, including

text: burning mouth syndrome

text: fibromyalgia

text: , and

text: restless legs syndrome

text: Limbic encephalitis refers to inflammatory disease confined to the limbic system of the brain.  The clinical presentation often includes disorientation, disinhibition, memory loss, seizures, and behavioral anomalies.  MRI imaging reveals T2 hyperintensity in the structures of the medial temporal lobes, and in some cases, other limbic structures.  Some cases of limbic encephalitis are of autoimmune origin.

text: Limbic encephalitis refers to inflammatory disease confined to the

text: limbic system

text: of the brain.  The clinical presentation often includes disorientation, disinhibition, memory loss, seizures, and behavioral anomalies.  MRI imaging reveals T2 hyperintensity in the structures of the medial temporal lobes, and in some cases, other limbic structures.  Some cases of limbic encephalitis are of autoimmune origin.

text: Another recent perspective has been offered that the Kallikaks almost certainly had undiagnosed fetal alcohol syndrome. In addition to poverty and malnourishment, prenatal alcohol exposure can create craniofacial and other physical anomalies that could account for their peculiar facial features. Furthermore, prenatal alcohol exposure may also damage the central nervous system, which can result in impaired cognitive and behavioral functioning similar to that described by Goddard.

text: Another recent perspective has been offered that the Kallikaks almost certainly had undiagnosed

text: fetal alcohol syndrome

text: . In addition to poverty and malnourishment, prenatal alcohol exposure can create

text: craniofacial

text: and other physical anomalies that could account for their peculiar facial features. Furthermore, prenatal alcohol exposure may also damage the

text: central nervous system

text: , which can result in impaired

text: cognitive

text: and behavioral functioning similar to that described by Goddard.

text: In June 1886 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society   and in 1891 delivered their Croonian Lecture, jointly with his brother-in-law Francis Gotch, on the subject of the mammalian nervous system. In 1894 he won their Royal Medal for his investigations relating to the physiology of the nervous system, and of the thyroid gland, and to their applications to the treatment of disease.

text: In June 1886 he was elected a

text: Fellow of the Royal Society

text: and in 1891 delivered their

text: Croonian Lecture

text: , jointly with his brother-in-law

text: Francis Gotch

text: , on the subject of the mammalian nervous system. In 1894 he won their

text: Royal Medal

text: for his investigations relating to the physiology of the nervous system, and of the thyroid gland, and to their applications to the treatment of disease.

text: Chronic diseases of age have been saluted as prime candidates for parabiotic research because of the potential to conjoin an older animal with a younger animal. This process could be used to research cardiovascular disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease. As animals age, their oligodendrocytes reduce in efficiency, resulting in decreased myelination, causing negative effects on the central nervous system (CNS). Julia Ruckh and fellow researchers have used parabiosis to study remyelination from adult stem cells to see if conjoining young with older mice could reverse or delay this process. In the experiment, the two mice were conjoined and demyelination was induced via injection into the older mice. The experiment determined that factors from the younger mice reversed CNS demyelination in older mice by revitalizing the oligodendrocytes. The monocytes from the younger mice also enhanced the ability of the older mice to clear myelin debris because the young monocytes can clear lipids from myelin sheaths more effectively than older monocytes. The conjoining of the two animals reversed the effects of age on the myelination cells. The ability of the young mouse’s cells was unaffected. Enhanced immunity from the younger mouse also promoted the general health of the older mouse in each pair. The results of this experiment could lead to therapy processes for people with demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis.

text: Chronic diseases of age have been saluted as prime candidates for parabiotic research because of the potential to conjoin an older animal with a younger animal. This process could be used to research cardiovascular disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease. As animals age, their

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s reduce in efficiency, resulting in decreased myelination, causing negative effects on the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS). Julia Ruckh and fellow researchers have used parabiosis to study

text: remyelination

text: from adult stem cells to see if conjoining young with older mice could reverse or delay this process. In the experiment, the two mice were conjoined and demyelination was induced via injection into the older mice. The experiment determined that factors from the younger mice reversed CNS demyelination in older mice by revitalizing the oligodendrocytes. The

text: monocyte

text: s from the younger mice also enhanced the ability of the older mice to clear myelin debris because the young monocytes can clear lipids from myelin sheaths more effectively than older monocytes. The conjoining of the two animals reversed the effects of age on the myelination cells. The ability of the young mouse’s cells was unaffected. Enhanced immunity from the younger mouse also promoted the general health of the older mouse in each pair. The results of this experiment could lead to therapy processes for people with demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis.

text: Degenerative diseases of the human central nervous system such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Huntington's disease may also produce mood swings.

text: Degenerative diseases of the human

text: central nervous system

text: such as

text: Parkinson's disease

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: multiple sclerosis

text: , and

text: Huntington's disease

text: may also produce mood swings.

text: Additionally, HIV-1-infected patients often suffer from myelin degeneration in the central nervous system. These patients have elevated levels of sulfatide in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and anti-sulfatide antibodies in the serum. Elevated levels of anti-sulfatide antibodies can cause demyelination. This is caused by the binding of the anti-sulfatide antibodies to the surface of the myelin sheath and/or the surface of Schwann Cells, which then activates a complete cascade of demyelination. Also, advanced stage AIDS patients can develop Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS). Guillain–Barré syndrome is classified as an acute autoimmune polyneuropathy, which specifically affects the peripheral nervous system of the infected patient. Experimentation has shown that anti-sulfatide autoimmune antibodies may contribute to the development of Guillain–Barré syndrome in AIDS patients as well as the development of peripheral nervous system injury in HIV-1 infected patients.

text: Additionally, HIV-1-infected patients often suffer from myelin degeneration in the

text: central nervous system

text: . These patients have elevated levels of sulfatide in the

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF) and anti-sulfatide antibodies in the

text: serum

text: . Elevated levels of anti-sulfatide antibodies can cause

text: demyelination

text: . This is caused by the binding of the anti-sulfatide antibodies to the surface of the

text: myelin sheath

text: and/or the surface of

text: Schwann Cells

text: , which then activates a complete cascade of demyelination. Also, advanced stage

text: AIDS

text: patients can develop

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: (GBS). Guillain–Barré syndrome is classified as an acute

text: autoimmune

text: polyneuropathy

text: , which specifically affects the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: of the infected patient. Experimentation has shown that anti-sulfatide autoimmune antibodies may contribute to the development of Guillain–Barré syndrome in

text: AIDS

text: patients as well as the development of

text: peripheral nervous system

text: injury in HIV-1 infected patients.

text: While it was initially believed that both the brain and meninges were devoid of lymphatic vasculature, recent studies, the first by Antoine Louveau and Jonathan Kipnis at the University of Virginia, submitted in October 2014, and another confirming the discovery by Aleksanteri Aspelund and Kari Alitalo at the University of Helsinki submitted in December 2014, identified and described the basic biology of the meningeal lymphatics using a combination of histological, live-imaging, and genetic tools. In general, their work is thought to extend that of the Danish neuroscientist Maiken Nedergaard in identifying the pathway connecting the glymphatic system to the meningeal compartment.

text: While it was initially believed that both the brain and meninges were devoid of lymphatic vasculature, recent studies, the first by Antoine Louveau and

text: Jonathan Kipnis

text: at the

text: University of Virginia

text: , submitted in October 2014, and another confirming the discovery by Aleksanteri Aspelund and

text: Kari Alitalo

text: at the

text: University of Helsinki

text: submitted in December 2014, identified and described the basic biology of the meningeal lymphatics using a combination of

text: histological

text: live-imaging

text: , and

text: genetic

text: tools. In general, their work is thought to extend that of the Danish neuroscientist

text: Maiken Nedergaard

text: in identifying the pathway connecting the

text: glymphatic system

text: to the

text: meningeal compartment

text: If untreated, T. b. gambiense almost always results in death, with only a few individuals shown in a long-term 15 year follow-up to have survived after refusing treatment. T. b. rhodesiense, being a more acute and severe form of the disease, is consistently fatal if not treated.  Disease progression greatly varies depending on disease form.  For individuals which are infected by T. b. gambiense, which accounts for 98% of all of the reported cases, a person can be infected for months or even years without signs or symptoms until the advanced disease stage, where it is too late to be treated successfully. For individuals affected by T. b. rhodesiense, which accounts for 2% of all reported cases, symptoms appear within weeks or months of the infection. Disease progression is rapid and invades the central nervous system, causing death within a short amount of time.

text: Tau proteins (or τ proteins, after the Greek letter with that name) are proteins that stabilize microtubules. They are abundant in neurons of the central nervous system and are less common elsewhere, but are also expressed at very low levels in CNS astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Pathologies and dementias of the nervous system such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease  are associated with tau proteins that have become defective and no longer stabilize microtubules properly.

text: Tau proteins (or τ proteins, after the

text: Greek letter with that name

text: ) are proteins that

text: stabilize

text: microtubules

text: . They are abundant in

text: neuron

text: s of the

text: central nervous system

text: and are less common elsewhere, but are also expressed at very low levels in CNS

text: astrocyte

text: s and

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s. Pathologies and

text: dementia

text: s of the

text: nervous system

text: such as

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: and

text: Parkinson's disease

text: are associated with tau proteins that have become defective and no longer stabilize microtubules properly.

text: CNS demyelinating autoimmune diseases are autoimmune diseases which primarily affect the central nervous system.

text: CNS demyelinating autoimmune diseases are

text: autoimmune disease

text: s which primarily affect the

text: central nervous system

text: Spontaneous generation and propagation of waves is seen elsewhere in developing circuits. Similar synchronized spontaneous activity early in development has been seen in neurons of the hippocampus, spinal cord, and auditory nuclei.Patterned activity shaping neuronal connections and control of synaptic efficiency in multiple systems including the retina are important for understanding interaction between presynaptic and postsynaptic cells that create precise connections essential to the function of the nervous system.

text: Spontaneous generation and propagation of waves is seen elsewhere in developing circuits. Similar synchronized spontaneous activity early in development has been seen in neurons of the

text: hippocampus

text: spinal cord

text: , and auditory nuclei.Patterned activity shaping neuronal connections and control of synaptic efficiency in multiple systems including the retina are important for understanding interaction between

text: presynaptic

text: and

text: postsynaptic

text: cells that create precise connections essential to the function of the nervous system.

text: Meningococcal meningitis is a form of bacterial meningitis. Meningitis is a disease caused by inflammation and irritation of the meninges, the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. In meningococcal meningitis this is caused by bacteria invading the cerebrospinal fluid, circulating through the central nervous system. Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, Western Europe, the UK, and Ireland still face many challenges combating this disease, 200 years after the discovery of bacterial meningitis.

text: Meningococcal meningitis is a form of bacterial

text: meningitis

text: . Meningitis is a disease caused by inflammation and irritation of the

text: meninges

text: , the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. In meningococcal meningitis this is caused by bacteria invading the

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: , circulating through the

text: central nervous system

text: . Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, Western Europe, the UK, and Ireland still face many challenges combating this disease, 200 years after the discovery of bacterial meningitis.

text: HSV infection causes several distinct medical disorders.  Common infection of the skin or mucosa may affect the face and mouth (orofacial herpes), genitalia (genital herpes), or hands (herpetic whitlow).  More serious disorders occur when the virus infects and damages the eye (herpes keratitis), or invades the central nervous system, damaging the brain (herpes encephalitis).  People with immature or suppressed immune systems, such as newborns, transplant recipients, or people with AIDS,  are prone to severe complications from HSV infections. HSV infection has also been associated with cognitive deficits of bipolar disorder, and Alzheimer's disease, although this is often dependent on the genetics of the infected person.

text: HSV infection causes several distinct medical

text: disorders

text: .  Common infection of the skin or mucosa may affect the face and mouth (orofacial herpes), genitalia (genital herpes), or hands (

text: herpetic whitlow

text: ).  More serious disorders occur when the virus infects and damages the eye (

text: herpes keratitis

text: ), or invades the central nervous system, damaging the brain (herpes encephalitis).  People with immature or suppressed immune systems, such as newborns, transplant recipients, or people with AIDS,  are prone to severe complications from HSV infections. HSV infection has also been associated with cognitive deficits of

text: bipolar disorder

text: , and

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: , although this is often dependent on the

text: genetics

text: of the infected person.

text: When looking at the genetics of deafness, there are 2 different forms, syndromic and nonsyndromic. Syndromic deafness occurs when there are other signs or medical problems aside from deafness in an individual. This accounts for around 30% of deaf individuals who are deaf from a genetic standpoint. Nonsyndromic deafness occurs when there are no other signs or medical problems associated with an individual other than deafness. From a genetic standpoint, this accounts for the other 70% of cases, and represents the majority of hereditary hearing loss. Syndromic cases occur with diseases such as Usher syndrome, Stickler syndrome, Waardenburg syndrome, Alport's syndrome, and neurofibromatosis type 2. These are diseases that have deafness as one of the symptoms or as a common feature associated with it. Many of the genetic mutations giving rise to syndromic deafness have been identified. In nonsyndromic cases, where deafness is the only finding, it is more difficult to identify the genetic mutation although some have been discovered.

text: When looking at the genetics of deafness, there are 2 different forms, syndromic and

text: nonsyndromic

text: . Syndromic deafness occurs when there are other signs or medical problems aside from deafness in an individual. This accounts for around 30% of deaf individuals who are deaf from a genetic standpoint. Nonsyndromic deafness occurs when there are no other signs or medical problems associated with an individual other than deafness. From a genetic standpoint, this accounts for the other 70% of cases, and represents the majority of hereditary hearing loss. Syndromic cases occur with diseases such as

text: Usher syndrome

text: Stickler syndrome

text: Waardenburg syndrome

text: Alport's syndrome

text: , and

text: neurofibromatosis type 2

text: . These are diseases that have deafness as one of the symptoms or as a common feature associated with it. Many of the genetic mutations giving rise to syndromic deafness have been identified. In nonsyndromic cases, where deafness is the only finding, it is more difficult to identify the genetic mutation although some have been discovered.

text: Evaluation of any suspected disease of the somatosensory system is included in a neurological examination of the peripheral nervous system

text: Evaluation of any suspected disease of the somatosensory system is included in a

text: neurological examination of the peripheral nervous system

text: Neurocritical care or neurointensive care is a branch of medicine that emerged in the 1980s and deals with life-threatening diseases of the nervous system, which are those that involve the brain, spinal cord and nerves.  The doctors who practice this type of medicine are called neurointensivists, and can have medical training in many fields, including neurology, anesthesiology, emergency medicine, or neurosurgery.  Common diseases treated in neurointensive care units include strokes, ruptured aneurysms, brain and spinal cord injury from trauma, seizures (especially those that last for a long period of time- status epilepticus, and/or involve trauma to the patient, i.e., due to a stroke or a fall), swelling of the brain (intracranial edema), infections of the brain (encephalitis) and the brain's or spine's meninges (meningitis), brain tumors (especially malignant cases; with neurological oncology), and weakness of the muscles required to breathe (such as the diaphragm).  Besides dealing with critical illness of the nervous system, neurointensivists also treat the medical complications that may occur in their patients, including those of the heart, lung, kidneys, or any other body system, including treatment of infections.  Most neurocritical care units are a collaborative effort between neurointensivists, neurosurgeons, neurologists, radiologists, pharmacists, physician extenders (such as nurse practitioners or physician's assistants), critical care nurses, respiratory therapists, rehabilitation therapists, and social workers who all work together in order to provide coordinated care for the critically ill neurologic patient.  The Neurocritical Care Society was founded in 2002 in San Francisco, California to promote quality patient care, professional collaboration, research, training, education and advocacy with the goal of improving outcomes for patients with life-threatening neurologic diseases.  In 2003, the Society first met officially in Phoenix, Arizona.  Thomas P. Bleck MD was the first president.

text: Neurocritical care or neurointensive care is a branch of

text: medicine

text: that emerged in the 1980s and deals with life-threatening diseases of the

text: nervous system

text: , which are those that involve the brain, spinal cord and nerves.  The doctors who practice this type of medicine are called neurointensivists, and can have medical training in many fields, including neurology, anesthesiology, emergency medicine, or neurosurgery.  Common diseases treated in neurointensive care units include

text: strokes

text: , ruptured

text: aneurysms

text: , brain and

text: spinal cord injury

text: from trauma,

text: seizure

text: s (especially those that last for a long period of time-

text: status epilepticus

text: , and/or involve trauma to the patient, i.e., due to a stroke or a fall), swelling of the brain (

text: intracranial edema

text: ), infections of the brain (

text: encephalitis

text: ) and the brain's or spine's meninges (

text: meningitis

text: brain tumor

text: s (especially malignant cases; with neurological

text: oncology

text: ), and weakness of the muscles required to breathe (such as the

text: diaphragm

text: ).  Besides dealing with critical illness of the nervous system, neurointensivists also treat the medical complications that may occur in their patients, including those of the heart, lung, kidneys, or any other body system, including treatment of infections.  Most neurocritical care units are a collaborative effort between neurointensivists,

text: neurosurgeons

text: neurologists

text: radiologists

text: pharmacists

text: , physician extenders (such as nurse practitioners or physician's assistants), critical care nurses, respiratory therapists, rehabilitation therapists, and social workers who all work together in order to provide coordinated care for the critically ill neurologic patient.  The Neurocritical Care Society was founded in 2002 in

text: San Francisco, California

text: to promote quality patient care, professional collaboration, research, training, education and advocacy with the goal of improving outcomes for patients with life-threatening neurologic diseases.  In 2003, the Society first met officially in

text: Phoenix, Arizona

text: .  Thomas P. Bleck MD was the first president.

text: People afflicted by this disease also experience a loss of neurons. Loss of neurons is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. Due to the generally non-regenerative nature of neuronal cells in the adult central nervous system, this results in an irreversible and fatal process of neurodegeneration. There is also the presence of several movement related disorders including chorea, dystonia and bradykinesia, one of the more incapacitating ones includes Truncal spasms.

text: A dystenoid nervous system is an arrangement of ganglia in the anterior region of some molluscs in which the cerebral and pleural ganglia are situated closer to each other than they are in those molluscs with the more archaic hypoathroid nervous system but still farther apart than those animals with an evolutionarily more recent epiathroid nervous system.

text: A dystenoid nervous system is an arrangement of

text: ganglia

text: in the anterior region of some

text: mollusc

text: s in which the cerebral and pleural ganglia are situated closer to each other than they are in those molluscs with the more archaic

text: hypoathroid

text: nervous system but still farther apart than those animals with an evolutionarily more recent

text: epiathroid

text: nervous system.

text: Culex quinquefasciatus (earlier known as Culex fatigans), the southern house mosquito, is a medium-sized mosquito found in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is the vector of Wuchereria bancrofti, avian malaria, and arboviruses including St. Louis encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, zika virus and West Nile virus. It is taxonomically regarded as a member of the Culex pipiens species complex. Its genome was sequenced in 2010, and was shown to have 18,883 protein-coding genes.

text: Culex quinquefasciatus (earlier known as Culex fatigans), the southern house mosquito, is a medium-sized mosquito found in

text: tropical

text: and

text: subtropical

text: regions of the world. It is the

text: vector

text: of

text: Wuchereria bancrofti

text: avian malaria

text: , and

text: arboviruses

text: including

text: St. Louis encephalitis virus

text: Western equine encephalitis virus

text: zika virus

text: and

text: West Nile virus

text: . It is taxonomically regarded as a member of the

text: Culex pipiens

text: species complex

text: . Its

text: genome was sequenced

text: in 2010, and was shown to have 18,883 protein-coding genes.

text: Cryptococcal disease is a very rare disease that can affect the lungs (pneumonia) and nervous system (causing meningitis and focal brain lesions called cryptococcomas) in humans. The main complication of lung infection is respiratory failure. Central nervous system infection may lead to hydrocephalus, seizures and focal neurological deficit.

text: Cryptococcal disease is a very rare disease that can affect the lungs (

text: pneumonia

text: ) and nervous system (causing meningitis and focal brain lesions called cryptococcomas) in humans. The main complication of lung infection is respiratory failure. Central nervous system infection may lead to

text: hydrocephalus

text: , seizures and focal neurological deficit.

text: The central feature of the new realism was a rejection of the epistemological dualism of John Locke and of older forms of realism. The group maintained that, when one is conscious of, or knows, an object, it is an error to say that the object in itself and our knowledge of the object are two distinct facts. If we know a particular cow is black, is the blackness on that cow or in the observer's mind? Holt wrote; "That color out there is the thing in consciousness selected for such inclusion by the nervous system's specific response," Consciousness is not physically identical with the nervous system: it is "out there" with the cow, all throughout the field of sight (and smell, and hearing) and identical with the set of facts it knows at any moment. The nervous system is merely a system of selection.

text: The central feature of the new realism was a rejection of the

text: epistemological

text: dualism

text: of

text: John Locke

text: and of older forms of realism. The group maintained that, when one is conscious of, or knows, an object, it is an error to say that the object in itself and our knowledge of the object are two distinct facts. If we know a particular cow is black, is the blackness on that cow or in the observer's mind? Holt wrote; "That color out there is the thing in

text: consciousness

text: selected for such inclusion by the

text: nervous system

text: 's specific response," Consciousness is not physically identical with the

text: nervous system

text: : it is "out there" with the cow, all throughout the field of sight (and smell, and hearing) and identical with the set of facts it knows at any moment. The nervous system is merely a system of selection.

text: The chief diagnostic indications of lumbar puncture are for collection of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Analysis of CSF may exclude infectious, inflammatory, and neoplastic diseases affecting the central nervous system. The most common purpose is in suspected meningitis, since there is no other reliable tool with which meningitis, a life-threatening but highly treatable condition, can be excluded. A lumbar puncture can also be used to detect whether someone has 'Stage 1' or 'Stage 2' Trypanosoma brucei. Young infants commonly require lumbar puncture as a part of the routine workup for fever without a source. This is due to higher rates of meningitis than in older persons. Infants also do not reliably show classic symptoms of meningeal irritation (meningismus) like neck stiffness and headache the way adults do.  In any age group, subarachnoid hemorrhage, hydrocephalus, benign intracranial hypertension, and many other diagnoses may be supported or excluded with this test. It may also be used to detect the presence of malignant cells in the CSF, as in carcinomatous meningitis or medulloblastoma. CSF containing less than 10 red blood cells (RBCs)/mm³ constitutes a "negative" tap in the context of a workup for subarachnoid hemorrhage, for example. Taps that are "positive" have an RBC count of 100/mm³ or more.

text: The chief diagnostic indications of lumbar puncture are for collection of

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF). Analysis of CSF may exclude infectious, inflammatory, and neoplastic diseases affecting the central nervous system. The most common purpose is in suspected

text: meningitis

text: , since there is no other reliable tool with which meningitis, a life-threatening but highly treatable condition, can be excluded. A lumbar puncture can also be used to detect whether someone has 'Stage 1' or 'Stage 2'

text: Trypanosoma brucei

text: . Young infants commonly require lumbar puncture as a part of the routine workup for fever without a source. This is due to higher rates of meningitis than in older persons. Infants also do not reliably show classic symptoms of meningeal irritation (

text: meningism

text: us) like neck stiffness and headache the way adults do.  In any age group,

text: subarachnoid hemorrhage

text: hydrocephalus

text: benign intracranial hypertension

text: , and many other diagnoses may be supported or excluded with this test. It may also be used to detect the presence of malignant cells in the CSF, as in

text: carcinomatous meningitis

text: or

text: medulloblastoma

text: . CSF containing less than 10

text: red blood cells

text: (RBCs)/mm³ constitutes a "negative" tap in the context of a workup for subarachnoid hemorrhage, for example. Taps that are "positive" have an RBC count of 100/mm³ or more.

text: The most prominent member of Acanthamoebidae, Acanthamoeba, can be potentially pathogenic to humans and animals.  Typically, a person or animal with a normally functioning immune system can avoid infection; Edagawa et al. states, Acanthamoeba "are known to be the opportunistic pathogens in granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE), a chronic disease of immuno-compromised hosts such as AIDS patients and transplants recipients.”  GAE is the result of microscopic cysts that form in the central nervous system. Acanthamoeba can also be the source of infections in the lungs, sinuses, skin, and eyes.

text: The most prominent member of Acanthamoebidae, Acanthamoeba, can be potentially pathogenic to humans and animals.  Typically, a person or animal with a normally functioning immune system can avoid infection; Edagawa et al. states, Acanthamoeba "are known to be the opportunistic

text: pathogens

text: in

text: granulomatous amoebic encephalitis

text: (GAE), a chronic disease of immuno-compromised hosts such as

text: AIDS

text: patients and transplants recipients.”  GAE is the result of microscopic cysts that form in the central nervous system. Acanthamoeba can also be the source of infections in the lungs, sinuses, skin, and eyes.

text: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a viral infectious disease involving the central nervous system. The disease most often manifests as meningitis, encephalitis, or meningoencephalitis. Although TBE is most commonly recognized as a neurological disorder, mild fever can also occur. Long-lasting or permanent neuropsychiatric sequelae are observed in 10 to 20% of infected patients.

text: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a

text: viral

text: infectious disease

text: involving the

text: central nervous system

text: . The disease most often manifests as

text: meningitis

text: encephalitis

text: , or

text: meningoencephalitis

text: . Although TBE is most commonly recognized as a

text: neurological disorder

text: , mild fever can also occur. Long-lasting or permanent neuropsychiatric

text: sequela

text: e are observed in 10 to 20% of infected patients.

text: A hippocampus prosthesis  is a type of cognitive prosthesis (a prosthesis implanted into the nervous system in order to improve or replace the function of damaged brain tissue). Prosthetic devices replace normal function of a damaged body part; this can be simply a structural replacement (e.g. reconstructive surgery or glass eye) or a rudimentary, functional replacement (e.g. a pegleg or hook).  However, prosthetics involving the brain have some special categories and requirements.  "Input" prosthetics, such as retinal or cochlear implant, supply signals to the brain that the patient eventually learns to interpret as sight or sound.  "Output" prosthetics use brain signals to drive a bionic arm, hand or computer device, and require considerable training during which the patient learns to generate the desired action via their thoughts.  Both of these types of prosthetics rely on the plasticity of the brain to adapt to the requirement of the prosthesis, thus allowing the user to "learn" the use of his new body part.  A cognitive or "brain-to-brain" prosthesis involves neither learned input nor output signals, but the native signals used normally by the area of the brain to be replaced (or supported).  Thus, such a device must be able to fully replace the function of a small section of the nervous system - using that section′s normal mode of operation. In order to achieve this, developers require a deep understanding of the functioning of the nervous system. The scope of design must include a reliable mathematical model as well as the technology in order to properly manufacture and install a cognitive prosthesis. The primary goal of an artificial hippocampus is to provide a cure for Alzheimer's disease and other hippocampus—related problems. To do so, the prosthesis  has to be able to receive information directly from the brain, analyze the information and give an appropriate output to the cerebral cortex; in other words, it must behave just like a natural hippocampus.  At the same time, the artificial organ must be completely autonomous, since any exterior power source will greatly increase the risk of infection.

text: A hippocampus prosthesis  is a type of

text: cognitive prosthesis

text: (a prosthesis implanted into the nervous system in order to improve or replace the function of damaged brain tissue). Prosthetic devices replace normal function of a damaged body part; this can be simply a structural replacement (e.g. reconstructive surgery or glass eye) or a rudimentary, functional replacement (e.g. a pegleg or hook).  However, prosthetics involving the brain have some special categories and requirements.  "Input" prosthetics, such as retinal or

text: cochlear implant

text: , supply signals to the brain that the patient eventually learns to interpret as sight or sound.  "Output" prosthetics use brain signals to drive a

text: bionic

text: The enteric nervous system is one of the main divisions of the nervous system and is the main focus of neurogastroenterology.  The enteric nervous system refers to the entire system of neurons that govern the gastrointestinal system.  It is capable of operating independently of the brain and spinal cord, but does rely on innervation from the autonomic nervous system via the vagus nerve and prevertebral ganglia in healthy subjects.  However, studies have shown that the system is operable with a severed vagus nerve.  The neurons of the enteric nervous system control the motor functions of the system, in addition to the secretion of gastrointestinal enzymes.  These neurons communicate through many neurotransmitters similar to the CNS, including acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin.  The large presence of serotonin and dopamine in the gut are key areas of research for neurogastroenterologists.

text: The enteric nervous system is one of the main divisions of the

text: nervous system

text: and is the main focus of neurogastroenterology.  The enteric nervous system refers to the entire system of neurons that govern the gastrointestinal system.  It is capable of operating independently of the brain and spinal cord, but does rely on innervation from the autonomic nervous system via the

text: vagus nerve

text: and

text: prevertebral ganglia

text: in healthy subjects.  However, studies have shown that the system is operable with a severed vagus nerve.  The neurons of the enteric nervous system control the motor functions of the system, in addition to the secretion of gastrointestinal enzymes.  These neurons communicate through many

text: neurotransmitters

text: similar to the CNS, including

text: acetylcholine

text: dopamine

text: , and

text: serotonin

text: .  The large presence of serotonin and dopamine in the

text: gut

text: are key areas of research for neurogastroenterologists.

text: Granulomatous meningoencephalitis (GME) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) of dogs and, rarely, cats. It is a form of meningoencephalitis.  GME is likely second only to encephalitis caused by canine distemper virus as the most common cause of inflammatory disease of the canine CNS.  The disease is more common in female toy dogs of young and middle age.  It has a rapid onset.  The lesions of GME exist mainly in the white matter of the cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord.  The cause is only known to be noninfectious and is considered at this time to be idiopathic.  Because lesions resemble those seen in allergic meningoencephalitis, GME is thought to have an immune-mediated cause, but it is also thought that the disease may be based on an abnormal response to an infectious agent.  One study searched for viral DNA from canine herpesvirus, canine adenovirus, and canine parvovirus in brain tissue from dogs with GME, necrotizing meningoencephalitis, and necrotizing leukoencephalitis (see below for the latter two conditions), but failed to find any.

text: Granulomatous meningoencephalitis (GME) is an inflammatory disease of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) of

text: dog

text: s and, rarely,

text: cat

text: s. It is a form of

text: meningoencephalitis

text: .  GME is likely second only to

text: encephalitis

text: caused by

text: canine distemper virus

text: as the most common cause of inflammatory disease of the canine CNS.  The disease is more common in female toy dogs of young and middle age.  It has a rapid onset.  The lesions of GME exist mainly in the

text: white matter

text: of the

text: cerebrum

text: brainstem

text: cerebellum

text: , and

text: spinal cord

text: .  The cause is only known to be noninfectious and is considered at this time to be

text: idiopathic

text: .  Because lesions resemble those seen in allergic meningoencephalitis, GME is thought to have an

text: immune-mediated

text: cause, but it is also thought that the disease may be based on an abnormal response to an infectious agent.  One study searched for viral

text: DNA

text: from

text: canine herpesvirus

text: canine adenovirus

text: , and

text: canine parvovirus

text: in brain tissue from dogs with GME, necrotizing meningoencephalitis, and necrotizing leukoencephalitis (see below for the latter two conditions), but failed to find any.

text: Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges (membranes) of the brain and spinal cord. It is most often caused by a bacterial or viral infection. Fever, vomiting, and a stiff neck are all symptoms of meningitis.

text: Meningitis is an inflammation of the

text: meninges

text: (membranes) of the brain and spinal cord. It is most often caused by a bacterial or viral infection. Fever, vomiting, and a stiff neck are all symptoms of meningitis.

text: Herpes simplex encephalitis can be treated with acyclovir, but few of the other viral central nervous system infections have a specific therapy.

text: Herpes simplex encephalitis

text: can be treated with

text: acyclovir

text: , but few of the other viral central nervous system infections have a specific therapy.

text: By using a variety of sense receptors, plants sense light, gravity, temperature, humidity, chemical substances, chemical gradients, reorientation, magnetic fields, infections, tissue damage and mechanical pressure. The absence of a nervous system notwithstanding, plants interpret and respond to these stimuli by a variety of hormonal and cell-to-cell communication pathways that result in movement, morphological changes and physiological state alterations at the organism level, that is, result in plant behavior. Such physiological and cognitive functions are generally not believed to give rise to mental phenomena or qualia, however, as these are typically considered the product of nervous system activity. The emergence of mental phenomena from the activity of systems  functionally or computationally analogous to that of nervous systems is, however, a hypothetical possibility explored by some schools of thought in the philosophy of mind field, such as functionalism and computationalism.

text: It is important to note that, though they present with similar symptoms and often occur in tandem, meningitis and ventriculitis are two different diseases, so physicians must be able to distinguish between the two. Meningitis is the inflammation of the protective lining of the central nervous system, called meninges. Because of the similar pathologies and etiologies of the two types of inflammation, they are difficult to differentiate using chemical testing, but show very different visual effects in both the MRI and CT scans, hence their use as a validation that the patient does, in fact, have ventriculitis and not another, but deceptively similar condition such as meningitis.

text: It is important to note that, though they present with similar symptoms and often occur in tandem,

text: meningitis

text: and ventriculitis are two different diseases, so physicians must be able to distinguish between the two. Meningitis is the inflammation of the protective lining of the central nervous system, called

text: meninges

text: . Because of the similar

text: pathologies

text: and

text: etiologies

text: of the two types of inflammation, they are difficult to differentiate using chemical testing, but show very different visual effects in both the MRI and CT scans, hence their use as a validation that the patient does, in fact, have ventriculitis and not another, but deceptively similar condition such as meningitis.

text: The enteric nervous system is one of the main divisions of the nervous system and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal system; it has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the central nervous system (CNS) through the parasympathetic (e.g., via the vagus nerve) and sympathetic (e.g., via the prevertebral ganglia) nervous systems.  However, vertebrate studies show that when the vagus nerve is severed, the enteric nervous system continues to function.

text: The

text: enteric nervous system

text: is one of the main divisions of the

text: nervous system

text: and consists of a mesh-like system of

text: neuron

text: s that governs the function of the

text: gastrointestinal system

text: ; it has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) through the

text: parasympathetic

text: (e.g., via the

text: vagus nerve

text: ) and

text: sympathetic

text: (e.g., via the

text: prevertebral ganglia

text: ) nervous systems.  However,

text: vertebrate

text: studies show that when the

text: vagus nerve

text: is severed, the enteric nervous system continues to function.

text: Patients with severe infections may require hospitalization. They may become thrombocytopenic, hyponatremic, experience elevated liver enzymes, and other more pronounced symptoms.  It is not uncommon for severe cases to involve the respiratory system, central nervous system, gastrointestinal system or the renal system complications. This disease is worst for elderly patients, males, African-Americans, alcoholics, and patients with G6PD deficiency.

text: Patients with severe infections may require hospitalization. They may become

text: thrombocytopenic

text: hyponatremic

text: , experience elevated liver enzymes, and other more pronounced symptoms.  It is not uncommon for severe cases to involve the respiratory system, central nervous system, gastrointestinal system or the renal system complications. This disease is worst for elderly patients, males, African-Americans, alcoholics, and patients with

text: G6PD deficiency

text: In scleromyxedema, symptoms can occur on larger part of the body. Erythema and scleroderma-like induration occurs on the skin. In addition, the mobility of the lips, hands, arms, and legs is reduced. Proximal myopathy, inflammatory polyarthritis, central nervous system symptoms, esophageal aperistalsis, and hoarseness are among the notable systemic symptoms. If viscera is involved, the disease will be fatal. The dermatoneuro syndrome is a rare neurological complication of the disease presenting with fever, seizures and altered mental status.

text: In scleromyxedema, symptoms can occur on larger part of the body.

text: Erythema

text: and

text: scleroderma

text: -like induration occurs on the skin. In addition, the mobility of the lips, hands, arms, and legs is reduced. Proximal

text: myopathy

text: , inflammatory

text: polyarthritis

text: central nervous system

text: symptoms,

text: esophageal

text: aperistalsis, and hoarseness are among the notable systemic symptoms. If

text: viscera

text: is involved, the disease will be fatal. The

text: dermatoneuro syndrome

text: is a rare neurological complication of the disease presenting with fever, seizures and altered mental status.

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "fight or flight" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness.  This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. the norepinephrine and epinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart in order to feed the heart sympathetic nerve fibers to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction. as a result more blood is being circulated increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system in an effort to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system in order to optimize blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. this plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The para-sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "rest and digest" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and more obviously by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system in order to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. In order to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system in an effort to optimize blood flow to the digestive tract causing low heart and respiratory rates. parasympathetic plays no role in acute stress response (VanPutte Regan Russo 2014).

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "

text: fight or flight

text: Meningitis is the swelling of the membranes around the spinal cord and brain most often caused by Viral and Bacterial infection which incidentally are the only two types which could be passed through contact with door handles.[1] Although relatively rare, meningitis can be life threatening with rapidly developing symptoms. Bacterial Meningitis is the deadliest form of this disease but throughout the years, having become more aware of the disease and its causes, we have been able to significantly lower the amount of deaths due to meningitis each year. As a child, you are more at risk of contracting meningitis which is why recommended vaccines have been put in place across the UK for the three main bacteria types: Neisseria meningitides, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib).

text: Meningitis

text: is the swelling of the membranes around the spinal cord and brain most often caused by

text: Viral

text: and

text: Bacterial

text: infection which incidentally are the only two types which could be passed through contact with door handles.[1] Although relatively rare, meningitis can be life threatening with rapidly developing symptoms. Bacterial Meningitis is the deadliest form of this disease but throughout the years, having become more aware of the disease and its causes, we have been able to significantly lower the amount of deaths due to meningitis each year. As a child, you are more at risk of contracting meningitis which is why recommended vaccines have been put in place across the UK for the three main bacteria types: Neisseria meningitides, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib).

text: Hypersomnia can be secondary to disorders such as clinical depression, multiple sclerosis, encephalitis, epilepsy, or obesity. Hypersomnia can also be a symptom of other sleep disorders, like sleep apnea. It may occur as an adverse effect of taking certain medications, of withdrawal from some medications, or of drug or alcohol abuse. A genetic predisposition may also be a factor. In some cases it results from a physical problem, such as a tumor, head trauma, or dysfunction of the autonomic or central nervous system.

text: Hypersomnia can be secondary to disorders such as

text: clinical depression

text: multiple sclerosis

text: encephalitis

text: epilepsy

text: , or

text: obesity

text: . Hypersomnia can also be a symptom of other sleep disorders, like

text: sleep apnea

text: . It may occur as an

text: adverse effect

text: of taking certain medications, of withdrawal from some medications, or of drug or alcohol abuse. A genetic predisposition may also be a factor. In some cases it results from a physical problem, such as a tumor, head trauma, or dysfunction of the

text: autonomic

text: or

text: central nervous system

text: The next phase of T. regenti infection is represented by schistosomula migration in the central nervous system. This is accompanied by serious neurological malfunctions in birds that suffer from leg paralysis and balance disorders. At this stage, schistosomula feed on nervous tissue as demonstrated by detection of oligodendrocytes and neurons in the lumen of parasite’s intestine. A cysteine peptidase cathepsin B1 of T. regenti (TrCB1) localised in intestines of migrating schistosomula is capable of myelin basic protein degradation, thus probably serving for nervous tissue digestion. Nonetheless, the nervous tissue ingestion has likely only a minor pathogenic effect on the host central nervous tissue. This is underpinned by observations of leg paralysis only in immunocompromised hosts, whereas in experiments with immunocompetent mouse strains, the infected animals did not reveal any neurological disorders. The neurological symptoms originate probably in mechanical damage of the nervous tissue leading to dystrophic or even necrotic changes of neurons and axonal injury. The cause of it is large migrating schistosomula (approximately 340×80 μm) which are not destroyed by proper immune response.

text: The next phase of T. regenti infection is represented by schistosomula migration in the central nervous system. This is accompanied by serious neurological malfunctions in birds that suffer from leg paralysis and balance disorders. At this stage, schistosomula feed on nervous tissue as demonstrated by detection of oligodendrocytes and neurons in the lumen of parasite’s intestine. A cysteine peptidase

text: cathepsin

text: B1 of T. regenti (TrCB1) localised in intestines of migrating schistosomula is capable of

text: myelin basic protein

text: degradation, thus probably serving for nervous tissue digestion. Nonetheless, the nervous tissue ingestion has likely only a minor pathogenic effect on the host central nervous tissue. This is underpinned by observations of leg paralysis only in immunocompromised hosts, whereas in experiments with immunocompetent mouse strains, the infected animals did not reveal any neurological disorders. The neurological symptoms originate probably in mechanical damage of the nervous tissue leading to dystrophic or even necrotic changes of neurons and axonal injury. The cause of it is large migrating schistosomula (approximately 340×80 μm) which are not destroyed by proper immune response.

text: Pholedrine (Paredrinol, Pulsotyl, Veritol), also known as 4-hydroxy-N-methylamphetamine (4-HMA), 4-hydroxymethamphetamine, and para-hydroxymethamphetamine, is a drug that stimulates the sympathetic nervous system. It is administered as a topical eye drop form for the purpose of dilating the pupil and can be used to diagnose Horner's syndrome.

text: Pholedrine (Paredrinol, Pulsotyl, Veritol), also known as 4-hydroxy-N-methylamphetamine (4-HMA), 4-hydroxymethamphetamine, and para-hydroxymethamphetamine, is a

text: drug

text: that

text: stimulates

text: the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: . It is administered as a

text: topical

text: eye drop

text: form

text: for the purpose of dilating the

text: pupil

text: and can be used to diagnose

text: Horner's syndrome

text: The Liverpool Neurological Infectious Diseases Course (or NeuroID) is an annual two-day course aimed at medical professionals and students with an interest in neurological infectious diseases. The course is organised by the Liverpool Brain Infections Group, a division of the Institute of Infection and Global Health at the University of Liverpool, in collaboration with the Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, Alder Hey Children’s NHS Trust, Royal Liverpool University Hospital, and Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, and is chaired by the neurologist Tom Solomon. It takes place during May at the historic Liverpool Medical Institution, in Liverpool, UK. A variety of both national and international speakers contribute to a programme which covers clinical aspects of common central nervous system infections such as meningitis and encephalitis, as well as rarer neurological infections and talks on recent advances in related research. The course is accredited by the UK Royal College of Physicians, and attracts delegates from many countries worldwide.

text: The Liverpool Neurological Infectious Diseases Course (or NeuroID) is an annual two-day course aimed at medical professionals and students with an interest in neurological infectious diseases. The course is organised by the Liverpool Brain Infections Group, a division of the Institute of Infection and Global Health at the

text: University of Liverpool

text: , in collaboration with the

text: Walton Centre

text: NHS Foundation Trust,

text: Alder Hey

text: Children’s NHS Trust,

text: Royal Liverpool University Hospital

text: , and

text: Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine

text: , and is chaired by the neurologist

text: Tom Solomon

text: . It takes place during May at the historic

text: Liverpool Medical Institution

text: , in

text: Liverpool

text: UK

text: . A variety of both national and international speakers contribute to a programme which covers clinical aspects of common central nervous system infections such as

text: meningitis

text: and

text: encephalitis

text: , as well as rarer neurological infections and talks on recent advances in related research. The course is accredited by the UK

text: Royal College of Physicians

text: , and attracts delegates from many countries worldwide.

text: For >15 years, Dr. Trojanowski has conducted research on AD, PD, motor neuron disease, dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) and other aging related nervous system disorders. Most of his >500 publications focus on the pathobiology of neurodegenerative disorders, especially the role of abnormal protein aggregates (misfolded proteins) in these diseases. The major goal of his research now is to translate advances into understanding mechanisms of aging related neurodegenerative diseases into meaningful interventions to treat or prevent these disorders.

text: For >15 years, Dr. Trojanowski has conducted research on AD, PD, motor neuron disease,

text: dementia

text: with Lewy bodies (DLB),

text: frontotemporal lobar degeneration

text: (FTLD) and other aging related nervous system disorders. Most of his >500 publications focus on the pathobiology of neurodegenerative disorders, especially the role of abnormal protein aggregates (misfolded proteins) in these diseases. The major goal of his research now is to translate advances into understanding mechanisms of aging related neurodegenerative diseases into meaningful interventions to treat or prevent these disorders.

text: Wernicke's encephalopathy (or Wernicke's disease) refers to the presence of neurological symptoms caused by biochemical lesions of the central nervous system after exhaustion of B-vitamin reserves, in particular thiamine (vitamin B1). The condition is part of a larger group of diseases related to thiamine insufficiency, including beriberi in all its forms, and Korsakoff syndrome. When Wernicke's encephalopathy occurs simultaneously with Korsakoff syndrome it is known as Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome.

text: Wernicke's encephalopathy (or Wernicke's disease) refers to the presence of neurological symptoms caused by biochemical lesions of the

text: central nervous system

text: after exhaustion of B-vitamin reserves, in particular

text: thiamine

text: (vitamin B1). The condition is part of a larger group of diseases related to thiamine insufficiency, including

text: beriberi

text: in all its forms, and

text: Korsakoff syndrome

text: . When Wernicke's encephalopathy occurs simultaneously with Korsakoff syndrome it is known as

text: Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome

text: In the Yunani system, the root is used as a tonic for the liver and brain; effective against bronchitis, piles, lumbago, toothache, and boils of the scalp; it also is said to lessen inflammation and heal fractures. The root is said to be fragrant, bitter and useful in rheumatism and allied disorders, in which it is prescribed in a variety of forms. It is also used in the composition of several medicated oils for external application in rheumatism and diseases of the nervous system. In Chota Nagpur, the leaves are pounded into a paste and then applied to the body during fever. A compound decoction of this root is  administered in cases of Hemiplegia as some Indian physicians consider it useful in rheumatism and all nervous diseases. The leaves are pounded and the paste is applied to the body to bring down fever; the juice is dropped in the ear for the treatment of Otitis media and other inflammatory conditions. The roots are used in Dyspepsia, Bronchitis, Rheumatism, and also in fever; they are reported to possess antibacterial and anti-tubercular properties. The herb is also used for Sciatica. The leaves are used by the Santhal girls for making anklets.

text: In the

text: Yunani

text: system, the root is used as a tonic for the liver and brain; effective against bronchitis, piles, lumbago, toothache, and boils of the scalp; it also is said to lessen inflammation and heal fractures. The root is said to be fragrant, bitter and useful in rheumatism and allied disorders, in which it is prescribed in a variety of forms. It is also used in the composition of several medicated oils for external application in rheumatism and diseases of the nervous system. In Chota

text: Nagpur

text: , the leaves are pounded into a paste and then applied to the body during fever. A compound decoction of this root is  administered in cases of

text: Hemiplegia

text: as some Indian physicians consider it useful in rheumatism and all nervous diseases. The leaves are pounded and the paste is applied to the body to bring down fever; the juice is dropped in the ear for the treatment of

text: Otitis media

text: and other inflammatory conditions. The roots are used in

text: Dyspepsia

text: Bronchitis

text: Rheumatism

text: , and also in fever; they are reported to possess antibacterial and anti-tubercular properties. The herb is also used for

text: Sciatica

text: . The leaves are used by the

text: Santhal

text: girls for making anklets.

text: Central nervous system diseases, also known as central nervous system disorders, are a group of neurological disorders that affect the structure or function of either the spinal cord or brain, which collectively form the central nervous system (CNS).

text: Central nervous system diseases, also known as central nervous system disorders, are a group of

text: neurological disorder

text: s that affect the structure or function of either the

text: spinal cord

text: or

text: brain

text: , which collectively form the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS).

text: Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis is caused by amoeba infection of the central nervous system. It is characterized by neurological symptoms including headache, seizures, and mental status abnormalities. These worsen progressively over weeks to months, leading to death in most patients. Infection is generally associated with underlying conditions such as immunodeficiency, diabetes, malignancies, malnutrition, systemic lupus erythematosus, and alcoholism. The parasite enters the body through cuts in the skin or by being inhaled into the upper respiratory tract. The parasite then spreads through the blood into the central nervous system. Acanthamoeba crosses the blood–brain barrier by means that are not yet understood. Subsequent invasion of the connective tissue and induction of pro-inflammatory responses leads to neuronal damage that can be fatal within days. Pure granulomatous lesions are rare in patients with AIDS and other related immunodeficiency states as the patients do not have adequate numbers of CD+ve T-cells to mount a granulomatous response to Acanthamoeba infection in CNS and other organ and tissues. A perivascular cuffing with amoebae in necrotic tissue is usual finding in the AIDS and related T-cell immunodeficiency conditions.  A post mortem biopsy reveals severe oedema and hemorrhagic necrosis. A patient who has contracted this illness usually displays subacute symptoms, including altered mental status, headaches, fever, neck stiffness, seizures, focal neurological signs (such as cranial nerve palsies and coma), all leading to death within one week to several months. Due to the rarity of this parasite and a lack of knowledge, there are currently no good diagnoses or treatments for Acanthamoeba infection. Acanthamoeba keratitis cases in the past, when were managed by atropine given as an adjuvant therapy without anti-parasitic drugs added to the regime, had been reported to halt the vision loss. Recent publications debate these successes related to an action of Atropine on muscarinic receptors on Acanthamoeba spp.

text: Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis is caused by amoeba infection of the central nervous system. It is characterized by

text: neurological symptoms

text: including headache, seizures, and mental status abnormalities. These worsen progressively over weeks to months, leading to death in most patients. Infection is generally associated with underlying conditions such as

text: immunodeficiency

text: , diabetes, malignancies, malnutrition,

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: , and alcoholism. The parasite enters the body through cuts in the skin or by being inhaled into the upper respiratory tract. The parasite then spreads through the blood into the central nervous system. Acanthamoeba crosses the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: by means that are not yet understood. Subsequent invasion of the connective tissue and induction of pro-inflammatory responses leads to neuronal damage that can be fatal within days. Pure granulomatous lesions are rare in patients with AIDS and other related immunodeficiency states as the patients do not have adequate numbers of CD+ve T-cells to mount a granulomatous response to Acanthamoeba infection in CNS and other organ and tissues. A perivascular cuffing with amoebae in necrotic tissue is usual finding in the AIDS and related T-cell immunodeficiency conditions.  A post mortem

text: biopsy

text: reveals severe

text: oedema

text: and

text: hemorrhagic

text: necrosis

text: . A patient who has contracted this illness usually displays subacute symptoms, including altered mental status, headaches, fever, neck stiffness, seizures, focal neurological signs (such as cranial nerve palsies and coma), all leading to death within one week to several months. Due to the rarity of this parasite and a lack of knowledge, there are currently no good diagnoses or treatments for Acanthamoeba infection. Acanthamoeba keratitis cases in the past, when were managed by atropine given as an adjuvant therapy without anti-parasitic drugs added to the regime, had been reported to halt the vision loss. Recent publications debate these successes related to an action of Atropine on muscarinic receptors on Acanthamoeba spp.

text: Ochroconis gallopava was thought to cause epidemic fatal encephalitis only in fowls, turkeys, and poults at first, however recently it has been increasingly recognized as a pathogen for human following solid organ transplantation, such as kidney, liver, heart, and lung. The first O. gallopava infection in human was reported in 1986. Prior to 1986, O. gallopava was known as an agent of phaeohyphomycosis and fatal encephalitis mainly in poultry. Even though reports of human infection by this species have increased, O. gallopava remains an extremely uncommon agent of human disease. When it does occur in humans, a wide range of sites may become involved, including the lung, heart, brain, the superficial cutaneous or subcutaneous areas, and other parts of the body. Infection accompanies brain involvement, respiratory tract involvement, pulmonary infections, and skin infections and many others. O. gallopava infection can be divided into fatal disease and manageable disease. Once the fungus penetrates into the central nervous system and involves the brain, the probability of cure by antifungal therapy falls exceedingly. When the fungal infection only concerns with systemic involvement except the brain, the probability of cure is higher. In serious infections, the typical entry point is thought to be the   respiratory tract. Like other melanized fungi, the clinical presentation of O. gallopava is phaeohyphomycosis characterized by darkly colored lesions in affected tissues, acute or chronic inflammation, microabscesses, fibrosis, granulomas, and necrosis. The onset of symptoms in immunosuppressed individuals after transplantation is very slow, almost several months to years after organ transplantation surgery, but the infection can severely damage the host once it appears. When implicated, the median onset of the infection in organ transplanted patients is 22 months after surgery. Very rarely, O. gallopava infection has been observed in immunologically normal people. Unlike infections in immunocompromised individuals, these cases tend to have a high recovery rate.

text: Ochroconis gallopava was thought to cause epidemic fatal

text: encephalitis

text: only in fowls, turkeys, and poults at first, however recently it has been increasingly recognized as a pathogen for human following solid organ transplantation, such as kidney, liver, heart, and lung. The first O. gallopava infection in human was reported in 1986. Prior to 1986, O. gallopava was known as an agent of

text: phaeohyphomycosis

text: and fatal

text: encephalitis

text: mainly in poultry. Even though reports of human infection by this species have increased, O. gallopava remains an extremely uncommon agent of human disease. When it does occur in humans, a wide range of sites may become involved, including the lung, heart, brain, the superficial

text: cutaneous

text: or

text: subcutaneous

text: areas, and other parts of the body. Infection accompanies brain involvement, respiratory tract involvement, pulmonary infections, and skin infections and many others. O. gallopava infection can be divided into fatal disease and manageable disease. Once the fungus penetrates into the central nervous system and involves the brain, the probability of cure by antifungal therapy falls exceedingly. When the fungal infection only concerns with systemic involvement except the brain, the probability of cure is higher. In serious infections, the typical entry point is thought to be the   respiratory tract. Like other melanized fungi, the clinical presentation of O. gallopava is phaeohyphomycosis characterized by darkly colored lesions in affected tissues, acute or chronic inflammation, microabscesses, fibrosis,

text: granuloma

text: s, and necrosis. The onset of symptoms in immunosuppressed individuals after transplantation is very slow, almost several months to years after organ transplantation surgery, but the infection can severely damage the host once it appears. When implicated, the median onset of the infection in organ transplanted patients is 22 months after surgery. Very rarely, O. gallopava infection has been observed in

text: immunologically normal

text: people. Unlike infections in immunocompromised individuals, these cases tend to have a high recovery rate.

text: The function of nervous tissue is to form the communication network of the nervous system by conducting electric signals across tissue. In the CNS, grey matter, which contains the synapses, is important for information processing. White matter, containing myelinated axons, connects and facilitates nerve impulse between grey matter areas in the CNS.In the PNS, the ganglion tissue, containing the cell bodies and dendrites, contain relay points for nerve tissue impulses. The nerve tissue, containing myelinated axons bundles, carry action potential/nerve impulses.

text: The function of nervous tissue is to form the communication network of the

text: nervous system

text: by conducting electric signals across tissue. In the CNS, grey matter, which contains the

text: synapses

text: , is important for information processing. White matter, containing myelinated axons, connects and facilitates nerve impulse between grey matter areas in the CNS.In the PNS, the ganglion tissue, containing the cell bodies and dendrites, contain relay points for

text: nerve tissue

text: impulses. The nerve tissue, containing myelinated axons bundles, carry action potential/nerve impulses.

text: Central nervous system involvement, as described above, most often takes the form of meningeal leukemia, or invasion of the subarachnoid space by leukemic cells. This condition is usually considered separately from chloroma, as it requires different treatment modalities. True chloromas (i.e. solid leukemic tumors) of the central nervous system are exceedingly rare, but has been described.

text: Central nervous system

text: involvement, as described above, most often takes the form of meningeal leukemia, or invasion of the

text: subarachnoid space

text: by leukemic cells. This condition is usually considered separately from chloroma, as it requires different treatment modalities. True chloromas (i.e. solid leukemic tumors) of the central nervous system are exceedingly rare, but has been described.

text: The investigations completed at the Eberhard Karls University of Tuebingen in 2003 by Alfred Czarnetzki, Carsten M. Pusch and Erwin Schwaderer, showed that the owner of the skull suffered from a meningioma, which is an arachnoid tumor. Meningiomas are a diverse set of tumors that arise from the meninges, which is the membranous layers surrounding the central nervous system.

text: Anaplastic astrocytoma, Astrocytoma, Central neurocytoma, Choroid plexus carcinoma, Choroid plexus papilloma, Choroid plexus tumor, Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour, Ependymal tumor, Fibrillary astrocytoma, Giant-cell glioblastoma, Glioblastoma multiforme, Gliomatosis cerebri, Gliosarcoma, Hemangiopericytoma, Medulloblastoma, Medulloepithelioma, Meningeal carcinomatosis, Neuroblastoma, Neurocytoma, Oligoastrocytoma, Oligodendroglioma, Optic nerve sheath meningioma, Pediatric ependymoma, Pilocytic astrocytoma, Pinealoblastoma, Pineocytoma, Pleomorphic anaplastic neuroblastoma, Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma, Primary central nervous system lymphoma, Sphenoid wing meningioma, Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma, Subependymoma, Trilateral retinoblastoma.

text: Anaplastic astrocytoma

text: Astrocytoma

text: Central neurocytoma

text: Choroid plexus carcinoma

text: Choroid plexus papilloma

text: Choroid plexus tumor

text: Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour

text: Ependymal tumor

text: Fibrillary astrocytoma

text: Giant-cell glioblastoma

text: Glioblastoma multiforme

text: Gliomatosis cerebri

text: Gliosarcoma

text: Hemangiopericytoma

text: Medulloblastoma

text: Medulloepithelioma

text: Meningeal carcinomatosis

text: Neuroblastoma

text: Neurocytoma

text: Oligoastrocytoma

text: Oligodendroglioma

text: Optic nerve sheath meningioma

text: Pediatric ependymoma

text: Pilocytic astrocytoma

text: Pinealoblastoma

text: Pineocytoma

text: Pleomorphic anaplastic neuroblastoma

text: Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma

text: Primary central nervous system lymphoma

text: Sphenoid wing meningioma

text: Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma

text: Subependymoma

text: Trilateral retinoblastoma

text: Initial infection by the virus and primary spread of the virus causes the onset of non-specific symptoms such as headache and fever. Secondary spread and the multiplication of the virus in the CNS (central nervous system) causes symptoms such as stiff neck, lethargy and seizures.  It then can result in encephalitis, when inflammation of the brain, produced by infection by the virus, damages nerve cells, which affects signaling of the brain to the body.

text: Initial infection by the virus and primary spread of the virus causes the onset of

text: non-specific symptom

text: s such as headache and fever. Secondary spread and the multiplication of the virus in the CNS (central nervous system) causes symptoms such as stiff neck,

text: lethargy

text: and seizures.  It then can result in encephalitis, when inflammation of the brain, produced by infection by the virus, damages nerve cells, which affects signaling of the brain to the body.

text: Putnam was a founder member of the American Neurological Association in December 1874, and was its president in 1888, and also a founding member of the American Psychoanalytical Association in 1911, being its first president and continuing to hold the post the following year. He was appointed Professor of Diseases of the Nervous System at Harvard in 1893 and continued to his retirement in 1912.

text: Putnam was a founder member of the

text: American Neurological Association

text: in December 1874, and was its president in 1888, and also a founding member of the American Psychoanalytical Association in 1911, being its first president and continuing to hold the post the following year. He was appointed Professor of Diseases of the Nervous System at Harvard in 1893 and continued to his retirement in 1912.

text: The most important of Krka’s therapeutic groups include treatments for: cardiovascular diseases, alimentary tract diseases and metabolic disorders, and central nervous system diseases. They are followed by the medicines for the systemic treatment of infections, the medicines for the treatment of diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs, and the medicines for urinary tract diseases as well as the medicines for respiratory system diseases.

text: The most important of Krka’s therapeutic groups include treatments for:

text: cardiovascular disease

text: s,

entity_name: ICD-10 Chapter XI: Diseases of the digestive system

text: alimentary tract diseases

text: and metabolic disorders, and

text: central nervous system diseases

text: . They are followed by the medicines for the systemic treatment of infections, the medicines for the treatment of diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs, and the medicines for

entity_name: ICD-10 Chapter XIV: Diseases of the genitourinary system

text: urinary tract diseases

text: as well as the medicines for

text: respiratory system

text: diseases.

text: Mortality rates are less than 1% and most patients with encephalitis clinical symptoms recover completely; however, 20% of patients develop behavioral problems or recurrent seizures.Encephalitis disease in general occurs almost exclusively in children from 6 months to 16 years old.

text: A peripheral nerve interface is the bridge between the peripheral nervous system and a computer interface which serves as a bi‐directional information transducer recording and sending signals between the human body and a machine processor. Interfaces to the nervous system usually take the form of electrodes for stimulation and recording, though chemical stimulation and sensing are possible. Research in this area is focused on developing peripheral nerve interfaces for the restoration of function following disease or injury to minimize associated losses. Peripheral nerve interfaces also enable electrical stimulation and recording of the peripheral nervous system to study the form and function of the peripheral nervous system. Many researchers also focus in the area of neuroprosthesis, linking the human nervous system to bionics in order to mimic natural sensorimotor control and function. Successful implantation of peripheral nerve interfaces depend on a number of factors which include appropriate indication,  perioperative testing, differentiated planning, and functional training. Typically microelectrode devices are implanted adjacent to, around or within the nerve trunk to establish contact with the peripheral nervous system. Different approaches may be used depending on the type of signal desired and attainable.

text: A peripheral nerve interface is the bridge between the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and a

text: computer interface

text: which serves as a bi‐directional information

text: transducer

text: recording and sending signals between the human body and a

text: machine processor

text: . Interfaces to the nervous system usually take the form of electrodes for stimulation and recording, though chemical stimulation and sensing are possible. Research in this area is focused on developing peripheral nerve interfaces for the restoration of function following disease or injury to minimize associated losses. Peripheral nerve interfaces also enable electrical stimulation and recording of the peripheral nervous system to study the form and function of the peripheral nervous system. Many researchers also focus in the area of

text: neuroprosthesis

text: , linking the human nervous system to

text: bionics

text: in order to mimic natural

text: sensorimotor control

text: and function. Successful implantation of peripheral nerve interfaces depend on a number of factors which include appropriate

text: indication

text: perioperative testing

text: differentiated planning

text: , and functional training. Typically

text: microelectrode

text: devices are implanted adjacent to, around or within the nerve trunk to establish contact with the peripheral nervous system. Different approaches may be used depending on the type of signal desired and attainable.

text: He co-edited the standard work, Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System, with Sir William Gowers, and also published Paralysis and other Nervous Diseases of Childhood and Early Life in 1905.

text: He co-edited the standard work, Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System, with

text: Sir William Gowers

text: , and also published Paralysis and other Nervous Diseases of Childhood and Early Life in 1905.

text: The fundamental hypothesis of psychoneuroimmunology is concisely that the way people think and how they feel directly influences the electrochemistry of the brain and central nervous system, which in turn has a significant influence on the immune system and its capacity to defend the body against disease infection, and ill health. Meanwhile, the immune system affects brain chemistry and its electrical activity, which in turn has a considerable effect on the way we think and feel.

text: The fundamental hypothesis of psychoneuroimmunology is concisely that the way people think and how they feel directly influences the

text: electrochemistry

text: of the brain and

text: central nervous system

text: , which in turn has a significant influence on the

text: immune system

text: and its capacity to defend the body against

text: disease

text: infection

text: , and ill health. Meanwhile, the immune system affects

text: brain

text: chemistry

text: and its electrical activity, which in turn has a considerable effect on the way we think and feel.

text: Similar diseases that are spread by mosquitoes include: Western and Eastern equine encephalitis, Japanese encephalitis, Saint Louis encephalitis and West Nile virus.

text: Similar diseases that are spread by mosquitoes include:

text: Western

text: and

text: Eastern

text: equine encephalitis,

text: Japanese encephalitis

text: Saint Louis encephalitis

text: and

text: West Nile virus

text: There are many central nervous system disorders that are associated with olfactory dysfunction.  Most of these dysfunctions classify as degenerative neuropsychiatric disorders.  Some of these diseases are: Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Huntington's Disease, Korsakoff's Psychosis, Schizophrenia, Congenital Anosmia, Head Trauma, Brain Tumors, Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome(AIDS), and Multiple Sclerosis.

text: There are many

text: central nervous system disorders

text: that are associated with

text: olfactory dysfunction

text: .  Most of these dysfunctions classify as degenerative

text: neuropsychiatric disorders

text: .  Some of these diseases are:

text: Alzheimer's Disease

text: Parkinson's Disease

text: Huntington's Disease

text: Korsakoff's Psychosis

text: Schizophrenia

text: Congenital Anosmia

text: Head Trauma

text: Brain Tumors

text: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

text: (AIDS), and

text: Multiple Sclerosis

text: Humans are incidental hosts of this roundworm, and may become infected through ingestion of larvae in raw or undercooked snails or other vectors, or from contaminated water and vegetables. The larvae are then transported via the blood to the central nervous system (CNS), where they are the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis, a serious condition that can lead to death or permanent brain and nerve damage. Angiostrongyliasis is an infection of increasing public health importance as globalization contributes to the geographic spread of the disease.

text: Humans are incidental hosts of this roundworm, and may become infected through ingestion of larvae in raw or undercooked snails or other vectors, or from contaminated water and vegetables. The larvae are then transported via the blood to the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), where they are the most common cause of

text: eosinophilic meningitis

text: , a serious condition that can lead to death or permanent brain and nerve damage. Angiostrongyliasis is an infection of increasing public health importance as

text: globalization

text: contributes to the geographic spread of the disease.

text: If the cancer has central nervous system involvement, or with meningeal disease, intrathecal chemotherapy may be administered.

text: If the cancer has

text: central nervous system

text: involvement, or with meningeal disease,

text: intrathecal

text: chemotherapy may be administered.

text: Between 2011 and 2013, three German breeders of variegated squirrels (Sciurus variegatoides) had encephalitis with similar clinical signs and died 2 to 4 months after onset of the clinical symptoms. Genomic analysis found a previously unknown bornavirus in a contact squirrel and in brain tissue from the three men, the researchers reported, and it is the "likely causative agent" in their deaths. Prior to this, Bornavirus species were not thought to be responsible for human diseases.

text: Between 2011 and 2013, three German breeders of

text: variegated squirrel

text: s (Sciurus variegatoides) had encephalitis with similar clinical signs and died 2 to 4 months after onset of the clinical symptoms. Genomic analysis found a previously unknown bornavirus in a contact squirrel and in brain tissue from the three men, the researchers reported, and it is the "likely causative agent" in their deaths. Prior to this, Bornavirus species were not thought to be responsible for human diseases.

text: Central nervous system toxicity was first described by Paul Bert in 1878. He showed that oxygen was toxic to insects, arachnids, myriapods, molluscs, earthworms, fungi, germinating seeds, birds, and other animals. Central nervous system toxicity may be referred to as the "Paul Bert effect".

text: Central nervous system toxicity was first described by

text: Paul Bert

text: in 1878. He showed that oxygen was toxic to insects,

text: arachnids

text: myriapods

text: , molluscs, earthworms, fungi, germinating seeds, birds, and other animals. Central nervous system toxicity may be referred to as the "Paul Bert effect".

text: Japanese encephalitis (JE), formerly known as Japanese B encephalitis to distinguish it from Economo's A encephalitis—is a disease caused by the mosquito-borne Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV).

text: Japanese encephalitis (JE), formerly known as Japanese B encephalitis to distinguish it from

text: Economo

text: 's A encephalitis—is a disease caused by the

text: mosquito

text: -borne

text: Japanese encephalitis virus

text: (JEV).

text: Neuropathy, ataxia, and retinitis pigmentosa, also known as NARP syndrome, is a rare disease with mitochondrial inheritance that causes a variety of signs and symptoms chiefly affecting the nervous system Beginning in childhood or early adulthood, most people with NARP experience numbness, tingling, or pain in the arms and legs (sensory neuropathy); muscle weakness; and problems with balance and coordination (ataxia). Many affected individuals also have vision loss caused by changes in the light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eye (the retina). In some cases, the vision loss results from a condition called retinitis pigmentosa. This eye disease causes the light-sensing cells of the retina gradually to deteriorate.

text: Neuropathy, ataxia, and retinitis pigmentosa, also known as NARP syndrome, is a rare disease with mitochondrial inheritance that causes a variety of signs and symptoms chiefly affecting the

text: nervous system

text: Beginning in childhood or early adulthood, most people with NARP experience numbness, tingling, or pain in the arms and legs (

text: sensory neuropathy

text: ); muscle weakness; and problems with balance and coordination (

text: ataxia

text: ). Many affected individuals also have vision loss caused by changes in the light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eye (the

text: retina

text: ). In some cases, the vision loss results from a condition called

text: retinitis pigmentosa

text: . This eye disease causes the light-sensing cells of the retina gradually to deteriorate.

text: The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of the main divisions of the nervous system and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal system. It is now usually referred to as separate from the autonomic nervous system since it has its own independent reflex activity.

text: The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of the main divisions of the

text: nervous system

text: and consists of a mesh-like system of

text: neuron

text: s that governs the function of the

text: gastrointestinal system

text: . It is now usually referred to as separate from the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: since it has its own independent reflex activity.

text: A vaccine for horses (ATCvet code: ) based on killed viruses exists; some zoos have given this vaccine to their birds, although its effectiveness is unknown. Dogs and cats show few if any signs of infection. There have been no known cases of direct canine-human or feline-human transmission; although these pets can become infected, it is unlikely they are, in turn, capable of infecting native mosquitoes and thus continuing the disease cycle.AMD3100, which had been proposed as an antiretroviral drug for HIV, has shown promise against West Nile encephalitis. Morpholino antisense oligos conjugated to cell penetrating peptides have been shown to partially protect mice from WNV disease. There have also been attempts to treat infections using ribavirin, intravenous immunoglobulin, or alpha interferon. GenoMed, a U.S. biotech company, has found that blocking angiotensin II can treat the "cytokine storm" of West Nile virus encephalitis as well as other viruses.

text: A vaccine for horses (

entity_name: Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System

text: ATCvet

text: code: ) based on killed viruses exists; some

text: zoo

text: s have given this vaccine to their birds, although its effectiveness is unknown. Dogs and cats show few if any signs of infection. There have been no known cases of direct canine-human or feline-human transmission; although these pets can become infected, it is unlikely they are, in turn, capable of infecting native mosquitoes and thus continuing the disease cycle.

text: , which had been proposed as an antiretroviral drug for HIV, has shown promise against West Nile encephalitis.

text: Morpholino

text: antisense oligos conjugated to

text: cell penetrating peptide

text: s have been shown to partially protect mice from WNV disease. There have also been attempts to treat infections using

text: ribavirin

text: , intravenous

text: immunoglobulin

text: , or

text: alpha interferon

text: . GenoMed, a U.S. biotech company, has found that blocking angiotensin II can treat the "

text: cytokine storm

text: " of West Nile virus encephalitis as well as other viruses.

text: Currently, the role that the meningeal lymphatics play in neurological disease is yet to be explored. However, there is some speculation that they may contribute to autoimmune and inflammatory diseases of the CNS due to their role in connecting the immune and nervous systems.

text: Currently, the role that the meningeal lymphatics play in neurological disease is yet to be explored. However, there is some speculation that they may contribute to autoimmune and inflammatory diseases of the CNS due to their role in connecting the

text: immune

text: and

text: nervous

text: systems.

text: Regeneration of the central nervous system is much poorer than the peripheral nervous system and does not show the same capacity to regenerate itself. This is primarily due to the multifaceted nature of spinal cord injury. The multifaceted nature of spinal cord injuries presents a major challenge to therapeutic development however, as primary mechanical trauma to the cord induces secondary injury consisting of a complex cascade of molecular events that lead to the loss of the conductive myelin sheath (myelin degeneration) and the formation of an inhibitory glial scar.

text: The encephalitis is characterized by fever, drowsiness, and lack of mental alertness and orientation. Seizures occur in 50% of children.  Focal neurologic signs such as irregular and abnormal reflexes develop in 20% of children.  10% of patients develop coma.  The total duration of illness rarely exceeds 10–14 days.  Recurrent unprovoked seizures occur even after the illness has passed develops in 20% of patients, especially those who had seizures during the acute illness.  In adults, infection is asymptomatic, which means that the patient is a carrier of the infection, but experiences no symptoms or only mild feverish illness.

text: The theoretical basis of Burckhardt's action rested on three propositions. The first was that mental illness had a physical basis and that disordered minds were merely a reflection of disordered brains. Next, the associationist viewpoint of nerve functioning which conceived the nervous system as operating according to the following threefold division of labor: an input (or sensory or afferent) system, a connecting system which processed information and an output (or efferent or motor) system. The final assumption of Buckhardt's was that the brain was modular which meant that each mental module or mental faculty could be linked to a specific location in the brain. In accordance with such a viewpoint, Buckhardt postulated that lesions in specific areas of the brain might impact behavior in a specific manner. In other words, he thought that by cutting the connecting system, or second association state of brain's system of communication troubling symptoms might be alleviated without compromising either the nervous system's input or output systems. The procedure was aimed at relieving symptoms, not at curing a given mental disease. Thus, he wrote in 1891:

text: The theoretical basis of Burckhardt's action rested on three propositions. The first was that mental illness had a physical basis and that disordered minds were merely a reflection of disordered brains. Next, the

text: associationist

text: viewpoint of nerve functioning which conceived the nervous system as operating according to the following threefold division of labor: an input (or sensory or

text: afferent

text: ) system, a connecting system which processed information and an output (or

text: efferent

text: or motor) system. The final assumption of Buckhardt's was that the brain was modular which meant that each mental module or mental faculty could be linked to a specific location in the brain. In accordance with such a viewpoint, Buckhardt postulated that

text: lesions

text: in specific areas of the brain might impact behavior in a specific manner. In other words, he thought that by cutting the connecting system, or second association state of brain's system of communication troubling symptoms might be alleviated without compromising either the nervous system's input or output systems. The procedure was aimed at relieving symptoms, not at curing a given mental disease. Thus, he wrote in 1891:

text: Reyes, along with the other "Filipino invasion" players revolutionized the way pool is played by their introduction to the sport of pinpoint precision kicking (going into a rail with the cue ball and then hitting an object ball). Reyes' ability to "kick safe" and to kick balls into intended pockets is legendary. This ability, coupled with his superb skill at other aspects of the game, led U.S. professionals to give him the appellation "The Magician." Before Reyes and his compatriots came over to the U.S., no one there had seen anything like their kicking skill set.

text: Oocysts passed in the feces of the definitive host, such as canines or canids, are ingested by an intermediate host, such as cattle. After ingestion of an oocyst, motile and rapidly dividing tachyzoites are released. These tachyzoites disseminate throughout the host, and in response to the host immune response, differentiate into bradyzoites, which form cysts in muscle and tissue. Formation of these cysts results in chronic infection of the intermediate host.  Ingestion of infected intermediate host tissue by the definitive host completes the life cycle. A second route of transmission is the congenital transmission from mother to offspring.   Transplacental transmission (passage from mother to offspring during pregnancy) has also been shown to occur in dogs, cats, sheep and cattle. If the intermediate host acquires the disease during pregnancy, it activates these cysts, and active infection often causes spontaneous abortion.  In addition, if the aborted fetus and membranes are then eaten by the definitive host, they cause further infection and the cycle is complete.    Other carnivores, for example the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), may also be intermediate hosts, but they are not known to be definitive hosts.  Neospora caninum does not appear to be infectious to humans.  In dogs, Neospora caninum can cause neurological signs, especially in congenitally infected puppies, where it can form cysts in the central nervous system.

text: Oocyst

text: s passed in the feces of the

text: definitive host

text: , such as canines or canids, are ingested by an

text: intermediate host

text: , such as cattle. After ingestion of an oocyst, motile and rapidly dividing tachyzoites are released. These tachyzoites disseminate throughout the host, and in response to the host immune response, differentiate into bradyzoites, which form cysts in muscle and tissue. Formation of these cysts results in chronic infection of the intermediate host.  Ingestion of infected intermediate host tissue by the definitive host completes the life cycle. A second route of transmission is the congenital transmission from mother to offspring.

text: Transplacental

text: transmission (passage from mother to offspring during pregnancy) has also been shown to occur in dogs, cats, sheep and cattle. If the intermediate host acquires the disease during pregnancy, it activates these cysts, and active infection often causes spontaneous abortion.  In addition, if the aborted fetus and membranes are then eaten by the definitive host, they cause further infection and the cycle is complete.    Other

text: carnivore

text: s, for example the

text: red fox

text: (Vulpes vulpes), may also be intermediate hosts, but they are not known to be definitive hosts.  Neospora caninum does not appear to be infectious to humans.  In dogs, Neospora caninum can cause neurological signs, especially in

text: congenital

text: ly infected puppies, where it can form cysts in the

text: central nervous system

text: M. morganii  can produce the enzyme catalase, so is able to convert hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. This is a common enzyme found in most living organisms. In addition, it is indole test-positive representing this organism can split tryptophan to indole, pyruvate, and ammonia. Methyl red tests positive in M.morganii, an indicator dye that turns red in acidic solutions. Although a rare human pathogen, M. morganii has been reported as a cause of urinary tract infections, nosocomial surgical wound infections, peritonitis, central nervous system infection, endophthalmitis, pneumonia, chorioamnionitis, neonatal sepsis, pyomyositis, necrotizing fasciitis, and arthritis. Numerous cases of nosocomial infection have been described, usually as postsurgical wound infections or urinary tract infections. Patients in whom bacteremia develops are typically immunocompromised, diabetic, or elderly, or have at least one serious underlying disease.

text: M. morganii  can produce the enzyme

text: catalase

text: , so is able to convert

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: to water and oxygen. This is a common enzyme found in most living organisms. In addition, it is

text: indole test

text: -positive representing this organism can split tryptophan to indole, pyruvate, and ammonia.

text: Methyl red

text: tests positive in M.morganii, an indicator dye that turns red in acidic solutions. Although a rare human pathogen, M. morganii has been reported as a cause of urinary tract infections, nosocomial surgical wound infections, peritonitis, central nervous system infection, endophthalmitis, pneumonia, chorioamnionitis, neonatal sepsis, pyomyositis, necrotizing fasciitis, and arthritis. Numerous cases of nosocomial infection have been described, usually as postsurgical wound infections or urinary tract infections. Patients in whom bacteremia develops are typically immunocompromised, diabetic, or elderly, or have at least one serious underlying disease.

text: Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system that is caused by reactivation of a latent papovavirus (the JC polyomavirus) infection, that can cross the BBB. It affects immune-compromised patients and it is usually seen with patients suffering from AIDS.

text: Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy

text: (PML) is a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system that is caused by reactivation of a latent

text: papovavirus

text: (the

text: JC polyomavirus

text: ) infection, that can cross the BBB. It affects immune-compromised patients and it is usually seen with patients suffering from

text: AIDS

text: Inflammation in the body may lead to effects on the brain via the blood-brain barrier (BBB). During systemic inflammation, whether in the form of infection or sterile inflammation, the BBB may undergo changes which may be disruptive or non-disruptive. Such changes may be part of a productive host response to systemic inflammation, or may lead to deleterious consequences within the central nervous system. These BBB changes likely play a role in the generation of sickness behaviour during systemic infection (why we feel 'unwell' when we have an infection). These changes may also induce or accelerate disease within the brain, for example in multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease, and may be part of the reason why patients with these conditions can deteriorate during an infection. Also, in patients with neurological disease the BBB may be abnormally sensitive to the effects of systemic inflammation.

text: Inflammation in the body may lead to effects on the brain via the blood-brain barrier (BBB). During systemic inflammation, whether in the form of infection or sterile inflammation, the BBB may undergo changes which may be disruptive or non-disruptive. Such changes may be part of a productive host response to systemic inflammation, or may lead to deleterious consequences within the central nervous system. These BBB changes likely play a role in the generation of

text: sickness behaviour

text: during systemic infection (why we feel 'unwell' when we have an infection). These changes may also induce or accelerate disease within the brain, for example in

text: multiple sclerosis

text: and

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: , and may be part of the reason why patients with these conditions can deteriorate during an infection. Also, in patients with neurological disease the BBB may be abnormally sensitive to the effects of systemic inflammation.

text: The Drakh also grow parasitic extensions of their being, known as Keepers, on their bodies. The Keepers are partially sentient creatures resembling a large, flesh-covered nervous system with protruding legs that also function as probosci to insert and innervate the nervous systems of other beings. The Keepers function as remote control systems for the Drakh's conscripted servants; they attach a Keeper to a host organism as a means of controlling and monitoring the person through telepathic relay. This control, however, can be neutralized through the consumption of large quantities of certain chemicals, such as alcohol. A Keeper is primarily a passive agent that merely monitors and relays information, but is also capable of direct control and neurological interference such as pain induction, paralysis, or physical violence. In their conscious state, a Keeper is invisible. A Keeper can never be fully removed from the host; the internal segments will break away from the outer shell and regenerate the full body from inside. A Keeper can only be destroyed by killing the Drakh from which it was spawned.

text: There are documented benefits of mind-body interventions derived from scientific research firstly into their use in contributing to the treatment a range of conditions including headaches, coronary artery disease and chronic pain; secondly in ameliorating disease and the symptoms of  chemotherapy-induced nausea, vomiting, and localized physical pain in patients with cancer; thirdly in increasing the perceived capacity to cope with significant problems and challenges; and fourthly in improving the reported overall quality of life. In addition, there is evidence supporting the brain and central nervous system's influence on the immune system and the capacity for mind-body interventions to enhance immune function outcomes, including defense against and recovery from infection and disease.

text: There are documented benefits of mind-body interventions derived from

text: scientific research

text: firstly into their use in contributing to the treatment a range of conditions including

text: headache

text: s,

text: coronary artery disease

text: and

text: chronic pain

text: ; secondly in ameliorating

text: disease

text: and the

text: symptom

text: s of

text: chemotherapy-induced

text: nausea

text: vomiting

text: , and localized

text: physical pain

text: in patients with

text: cancer

text: ; thirdly in increasing the perceived capacity to

text: cope

text: with significant problems and challenges; and fourthly in improving the reported overall

text: quality of life

text: . In addition, there is evidence supporting the

text: brain

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: 's influence on the

text: immune system

text: and the capacity for mind-body interventions to enhance

text: immune function

text: outcomes, including defense against and recovery from

text: infection

text: and

text: disease

text: C.H. Boehringer Sohn AG & Ko. KG is the parent company of Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH, which was founded in 1885 by Albert Boehringer in Ingelheim am Rhein, Germany. The Boehringer Ingelheim group is one of the world's 20 leading pharmaceutical companies. Still headquartered in Ingelheim, it operates globally with 146 affiliates and more than 47,700 employees. The company's key assets of interest are: respiratory diseases, metabolism, immunology, oncology and diseases of the central nervous system. Boehringer Ingelheim is a full member of the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations EFPIA. The corporate logo of Boehringer Ingelheim depicts a stylized rendition of the central section of the imperial palace of Charlemagne.

text: C.H. Boehringer Sohn AG & Ko. KG is the parent company of Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH, which was founded in 1885 by Albert Boehringer in

text: Ingelheim am Rhein

text: , Germany. The Boehringer Ingelheim group is one of the world's 20 leading pharmaceutical companies. Still headquartered in Ingelheim, it operates globally with 146 affiliates and more than 47,700 employees. The company's key assets of interest are:

text: respiratory diseases

text: metabolism

text: immunology

text: oncology

text: and diseases of the

text: central nervous system

text: . Boehringer Ingelheim is a full member of the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations

entity_name: European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations

text: EFPIA

text: . The corporate logo of Boehringer Ingelheim depicts a stylized rendition of the central section of the imperial palace of

text: Charlemagne

text: GM1 Storage Disease, one of a family of conditions called GM1 gangliosidoses, is a recessive, genetic disorder that is inevitably fatal. It is caused by a deficiency of beta-galactosidase, with resulting abnormal storage of acidic lipid materials in cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems, but particularly in the nerve cells. Because PWDs are all rather closely related to one another and share a limited gene pool, PWDs who were GM1 Storage Disease carriers were able to be genetically identified, and the condition has now been almost entirely eliminated from the breed. All breeding stock should be tested for GM-1 storage disease or GM1 gangliosidoses, which is a fatal nerve disease that typically appears when a puppy is approximately six months of age. The affected puppy will show clinical signs of cerebellar dysfunction including ataxia, tremors, paresis, and seizures. The pet may also exhibit a change in temperament. Lesions of the retina and clouding of the cornea may occur. GM-1 storage disease is a recessive deficiency of betagalactosidase. The condition has been genetically identified and is no longer common.

text: GM1 Storage Disease

text: , one of a family of conditions called

text: GM1 gangliosidoses

text: , is a

text: recessive

text: , genetic disorder that is inevitably fatal. It is caused by a

text: deficiency

text: of

text: beta-galactosidase

text: , with resulting abnormal storage of acidic

text: lipid

text: materials in cells of the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: s, but particularly in the

text: nerve cell

text: s. Because PWDs are all rather closely related to one another and share a limited gene pool, PWDs who were GM1 Storage Disease carriers were able to be genetically identified, and the condition has now been almost entirely eliminated from the breed. All breeding stock should be tested for GM-1 storage disease or GM1 gangliosidoses, which is a fatal nerve disease that typically appears when a puppy is approximately six months of age. The affected puppy will show clinical signs of cerebellar dysfunction including ataxia, tremors, paresis, and seizures. The pet may also exhibit a change in temperament. Lesions of the retina and clouding of the cornea may occur. GM-1 storage disease is a recessive deficiency of betagalactosidase. The condition has been genetically identified and is no longer common.

text: Examples of cases where stretch marks are common, also given by the Mayo Clinic, include weight gain (in the form of fat and/or muscle), pregnancy, and adolescent growth spurts, though it is also noted that some medications, as well as other medical conditions and diseases, may increase the likelihood of stretch marks appearing. In the case of medication, the Clinic points to "Corticosteroid creams, lotions and pills and chronic use of oral or systemic steroids" as a common contributing factor; in the case of medical conditions that can contribute to stretch marks, examples given include Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Cushing's syndrome, Marfan syndrome, and "adrenal gland diseases".

text: Examples of cases where stretch marks are common, also given by the Mayo Clinic, include weight gain (in the form of

text: fat

text: and/or

text: muscle

text: pregnancy

text: , and

text: adolescent

text: growth spurt

text: s, though it is also noted that some medications, as well as other medical conditions and diseases, may increase the likelihood of stretch marks appearing. In the case of medication, the Clinic points to "

text: Corticosteroid

text: creams, lotions and pills and chronic use of oral or systemic

text: steroid

text: s" as a common contributing factor; in the case of medical conditions that can contribute to stretch marks, examples given include

text: Ehlers-Danlos syndrome

text: Cushing's syndrome

text: Marfan syndrome

text: , and "adrenal gland diseases".

text: Encephalitis lethargica or von Economo disease is an atypical form of encephalitis. Also known as "sleepy sickness" (distinct from tsetse fly-transmitted sleeping sickness), it was first described in 1917 by the neurologist Constantin von Economoand the pathologist Jean-René Cruchet.The disease attacks the brain, leaving some victims in a statue-like condition, speechless and motionless. Between 1915 and 1926, an epidemic of encephalitis lethargica spread around the world.  Nearly five million people were affected, a third of whom died in the acute stages. Many of those who survived never returned to their pre-existing "aliveness".  "They would be conscious and aware - yet not fully awake; they would sit motionless and speechless all day in their chairs, totally lacking energy, impetus, initiative, motive, appetite, affect or desire; they registered what went on about them without active attention, and with profound indifference.  They neither conveyed nor felt the feeling of life;  they were as insubstantial as ghosts, and as passive as zombies."  (Awakenings, Oliver Sacks, p 14)  No recurrence of the epidemic has since been reported, though isolated cases continue to occur.

text: Encephalitis lethargica or von Economo disease is an atypical form of

text: encephalitis

text: . Also known as "sleepy sickness" (distinct from

text: tsetse fly

text: -transmitted

text: sleeping sickness

text: ), it was first described in 1917 by the neurologist

text: Constantin von Economo

text: and the pathologist

text: Jean-René Cruchet

text: .The disease attacks the brain, leaving some victims in a statue-like condition, speechless and motionless. Between 1915 and 1926, an

text: epidemic

text: of encephalitis lethargica spread around the world.  Nearly five million people were affected, a third of whom died in the acute stages. Many of those who survived never returned to their pre-existing "aliveness".  "They would be conscious and aware - yet not fully awake; they would sit motionless and speechless all day in their chairs, totally lacking energy, impetus, initiative, motive, appetite, affect or desire; they registered what went on about them without active attention, and with profound indifference.  They neither conveyed nor felt the feeling of life;  they were as insubstantial as ghosts, and as passive as zombies."  (Awakenings, Oliver Sacks, p 14)  No recurrence of the epidemic has since been reported, though isolated cases continue to occur.

text: Insults to neurons in the central nervous system caused by infection, trauma, ischemia, stroke, autoimmune responses, or other neurodegenerative diseases may cause reactive astrocytes.

text: Insults to neurons in the

text: central nervous system

text: caused by infection, trauma, ischemia, stroke, autoimmune responses, or other neurodegenerative diseases may cause reactive astrocytes.

text: In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species — including all vertebrates — the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. The majority of the approximately 20–25,000 genes belonging to the human genome are expressed specifically in the brain. Due to the plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life. Thus the challenge of making sense of all this complexity is formidable.

text: In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the

text: central nervous system

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: ), and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . In many species — including all vertebrates — the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The

text: human brain

text: alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. The majority of the approximately 20–25,000 genes belonging to the human genome are expressed specifically in the brain. Due to the

text: plasticity

text: of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life. Thus the challenge of making sense of all this complexity is formidable.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system (usually abbreviated PSNS, not PNS, to avoid confusion with the peripheral nervous system [PNS]) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the sympathetic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion and defecation. Its action is described as being complementary to that of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system (usually abbreviated PSNS, not PNS, to avoid confusion with the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: [PNS]) is one of the two divisions of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , the other being the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: . The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including

text: sexual arousal

text: salivation

text: lacrimation

text: (tears),

text: urination

text: digestion

text: and

text: defecation

text: . Its action is described as being complementary to that of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the

text: fight-or-flight response

text: Incontinentia pigmenti (IP, also known as "Bloch–Siemens syndrome," "Bloch–Sulzberger disease," "Bloch–Sulzberger syndrome" "melanoblastosis cutis," and "nevus pigmentosus systematicus") is a genetic disorder that affects the skin, hair, teeth, nails, and central nervous system. It is named due to its microscopic appearance.

text: Incontinentia pigmenti (IP, also known as "Bloch–Siemens syndrome," "Bloch–Sulzberger disease," "Bloch–Sulzberger syndrome" "melanoblastosis cutis," and "nevus pigmentosus systematicus") is a

text: genetic disorder

text: that affects the skin, hair, teeth, nails, and central nervous system. It is named due to its microscopic appearance.

text: Symptoms include severe seborrheic dermatitis of the scalp, severe diarrhea, recurrent local and systemic infection, central nervous system problems, and failure to thrive. Other symptoms also include scaling on the trunk and limbs, red patches of skin on parts of the body that bend, fevers, reduced blood protein levels, thick red skin patches, peeling of the skin, itching, corneal ulcers. wasting of the lymph nodes,  underdeveloped lymphatics, anemia, wasting, and nervous system deficiency. The disease may then spread to the rest of the epidermis with the appearance of crusty, dry, moist or greasy scaling on the scalp. Scaling  could also appear behind the ears, nose or eyebrows, or around the mouth; peeling of the skin may also happen in these areas. If left untreated, the skin infections will cause loss of protein or electrolytes. Leiner’s Disease may also be accompanied by a systemic reaction that is most evident in its gastrointestinal manifestation.

text: Symptoms include severe

text: seborrheic dermatitis

text: of the scalp, severe diarrhea, recurrent local and systemic infection, central nervous system problems, and

text: failure to thrive

text: . Other symptoms also include scaling on the trunk and limbs, red patches of skin on parts of the body that bend, fevers, reduced blood protein levels, thick red skin patches, peeling of the skin, itching, corneal ulcers. wasting of the lymph nodes,  underdeveloped lymphatics, anemia, wasting, and nervous system deficiency. The disease may then spread to the rest of the epidermis with the appearance of crusty, dry, moist or greasy scaling on the scalp. Scaling  could also appear behind the ears, nose or eyebrows, or around the mouth; peeling of the skin may also happen in these areas. If left untreated, the skin infections will cause loss of protein or electrolytes. Leiner’s Disease may also be accompanied by a systemic reaction that is most evident in its gastrointestinal manifestation.

text: Neurodevelopment in the adult nervous system includes mechanisms such as remyelination, generation of new neurons, glia, axons, myelin or synapses. Neuroregeneration differs between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially, the extent and speed.

text: Neurodevelopment in the adult nervous system includes mechanisms such as

text: remyelination

text: , generation of new

text: neuron

text: s,

text: glia

text: axon

text: s,

text: myelin

text: or

text: synapse

text: s. Neuroregeneration differs between the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) and the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially, the extent and speed.

text: In spring training and the early part of the 2008 season, Reyes vocalized a plan to focus a little more on baseball, and a little less on the theatrics — such as his dugout dances after home runs — that drew criticism during the late part of 2007 when the Mets were struggling. One of the casualties of this change of focus was the Professor Reyes segment played between innings at Shea where he taught the fans Spanish words and phrases. This was replaced by 'Maine Street USA' with John Maine, and 'Do The Wright Thing' with David Wright, which failed to match the popularity of Reyes' spots. However, with some prodding by his teammates, Reyes was encouraged to continue playing with the same energy as he had previously.

text: In spring training and the early part of the 2008 season, Reyes vocalized a plan to focus a little more on baseball, and a little less on the theatrics — such as his dugout dances after home runs — that drew criticism during the late part of 2007 when the Mets were struggling. One of the casualties of this change of focus was the Professor Reyes segment played between innings at

text: Shea

text: where he taught the fans Spanish words and phrases. This was replaced by 'Maine Street USA' with

text: John Maine

text: , and 'Do The Wright Thing' with

text: David Wright

text: , which failed to match the popularity of Reyes' spots. However, with some prodding by his teammates, Reyes was encouraged to continue playing with the same energy as he had previously.

text: Both the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system may be involved. Emboli to the brain may cause stroke-like episodes, headache and episodes of loss of vision in one eye (known as amaurosis fugax). Emboli to the eye can be seen by ophthalmoscopy and are known as plaques of Hollenhorst. Emboli to the spinal cord may cause paraparesis (decreased power in the legs) or cauda equina syndrome, a group of symptoms due to loss of function of the distal part of the spinal cord - loss of control over the bladder, rectum and skin sensation around the anus. If the blood supply to a single nerve is interrupted by an embolus, the result is loss of function in the muscles supplied by that nerve; this phenomenon is called a mononeuropathy.

text: Both the

text: central nervous system

text: (brain and

text: spinal cord

text: ) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: may be involved. Emboli to the brain may cause

text: stroke

text: -like episodes,

text: headache

text: and episodes of loss of vision in one eye (known as

text: amaurosis fugax

text: ). Emboli to the eye can be seen by

text: ophthalmoscopy

text: and are known as

text: plaques of Hollenhorst

text: . Emboli to the spinal cord may cause

text: paraparesis

text: (decreased power in the legs) or

text: cauda equina syndrome

text: , a group of symptoms due to loss of function of the distal part of the spinal cord - loss of control over the

text: bladder

text: rectum

text: and skin sensation around the anus. If the blood supply to a single nerve is interrupted by an embolus, the result is loss of function in the muscles supplied by that nerve; this phenomenon is called a

text: mononeuropathy

text: There are numerous diseases affecting the central nervous system which can cause cognitive impairment. Many of these are associated with aging. Some common examples include Alzheimer's disease and Multi-infarct dementia. Many diseases may be neurological or psychiatric and may primarily affect the brain. Others may affect many other organs, like HIV, Hashimoto's thyroiditis causing hypothyroidism, or cancer. According to a 2015 report in The American Scholar, an assortment of neglected tropical diseases as well as some recently identified pathogens such as Pseudo-nitzschia have also been found to erode human intelligence.

text: There are numerous diseases affecting the

text: central nervous system

text: which can cause cognitive impairment. Many of these are associated with aging. Some common examples include

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: and

text: Multi-infarct dementia

text: . Many diseases may be

text: neurological

text: or

text: psychiatric

text: and may primarily affect the brain. Others may affect many other organs, like

text: HIV

text: Hashimoto's thyroiditis

text: causing

text: hypothyroidism

text: , or

text: cancer

text: . According to a 2015 report in The American Scholar, an assortment of neglected tropical diseases as well as some recently identified pathogens such as Pseudo-nitzschia have also been found to erode human intelligence.

text: Occasionally, a patient improves for a few days, then relapses with aseptic meningitis, or very rarely, meningoencephalitis.Patients with meningitis may have a stiff neck, fever, headache, myalgia, nausea and malaise. In some occasions, meningitis occurs without a prodromal syndrome. Meningoencephalitis is characterized by more profound neurological signs such as confusion, drowsiness, sensory abnormalities and motor signs. Under reported complications include myelitis, Guillain–Barré-type syndrome, cranial nerve palsies, transient or permanent hydrocephalus, sensorineural hearing loss, orchitis, arthritis and parotitis. LCMV infections have also been associated with pancreatitis, pneumonitis, myocarditis and pericarditis. The entire illness usually lasts 1 to 3 weeks, nonetheless,  temporary or permanent neurological damage is possible in all central nervous system infections, especially in cases of meningoencephalitis. Chronic infections have not been reported in humans and deaths rarely occur.

text: In 1980, after the CDC began cautioning physicians and parents about the association between Reye syndrome and the use of salicylates in children with chickenpox or virus-like illnesses, the incidence of Reye syndrome in the United States began to decline. However, the decline began prior to the FDA's issue of warning labels on aspirin in 1986. In the United States between 1980 and 1997, the number of reported cases of Reye syndrome decreased from 555 cases in 1980 to about 2 cases per year since 1994. During this time period 93% of reported cases for which racial data were available occurred in whites and the median age was six years. In 93% of cases a viral illness had occurred  in the preceding three-week period. For the period 1991-1994, the annual rate of hospitalizations due to Reye syndrome in the US was estimated to be between 0.2 and 1.1 per million population less than 18 years of age.

text: In 1980, after the CDC began cautioning physicians and parents about the association between Reye syndrome and the use of salicylates in children with chickenpox or virus-like illnesses, the incidence of Reye syndrome in the United States began to decline. However, the decline began prior to the

text: FDA

text: 's issue of warning labels on aspirin in 1986. In the United States between 1980 and 1997, the number of reported cases of Reye syndrome decreased from 555 cases in 1980 to about 2 cases per year since 1994. During this time period 93% of reported cases for which racial data were available occurred in whites and the median age was six years. In 93% of cases a viral illness had occurred  in the preceding three-week period. For the period 1991-1994, the annual rate of hospitalizations due to Reye syndrome in the US was estimated to be between 0.2 and 1.1 per million population less than 18 years of age.

text: An insect’s sensory, motor and physiological processes are controlled by the central nervous system along with the endocrine system. Being the principal division of the nervous system, it consists of a brain, a ventral nerve cord and a subesophageal ganglion. This is connected to the brain by two nerves, extending around each side of the oesophagus.

text: An insect’s sensory,

text: motor

text: and physiological processes are controlled by the

text: central nervous system

text: along with the

text: endocrine system

text: . Being the principal division of the nervous system, it consists of a

text: brain

text: , a

text: ventral nerve cord

text: and a

text: subesophageal ganglion

text: . This is connected to the brain by two nerves, extending around each side of the

text: oesophagus

text: Neuroborreliosis is a disorder of the central nervous system caused by infection with a spirochete of the genus Borrelia. The microbiological progression of the disease is similar to that of neurosyphilis, another spirochetal infection.

text: Neuroborreliosis is a disorder of the

text: central nervous system

text: caused by infection with a

text: spirochete

text: of the genus

text: Borrelia

text: . The microbiological progression of the disease is similar to that of

text: neurosyphilis

text: , another spirochetal infection.

text: The afferent leg of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for conveying sensory information to the brain, primarily from the sense organs like the skin. In the muscles, the muscle spindles convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception, the perception of body awareness. More easily demonstrated than explained, proprioception is the "unconscious" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. This can be demonstrated by anyone closing their eyes and waving their hand around. Assuming proper proprioceptive function, at no time will the person lose awareness of where the hand actually is, even though it is not being detected by any of the other senses.

text: The

text: afferent

text: leg of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for conveying sensory information to the brain, primarily from the sense organs like the skin. In the muscles, the

text: muscle spindle

text: s convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The

text: sense

text: of where our bodies are in space is called

text: proprioception

text: , the perception of body awareness. More easily demonstrated than explained, proprioception is the "unconscious" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. This can be demonstrated by anyone closing their eyes and waving their hand around. Assuming proper proprioceptive function, at no time will the person lose awareness of where the hand actually is, even though it is not being detected by any of the other senses.

text: Known as viremia, the presence of a virus in the bloodstream enables it to be widely distributed throughout the body. Poliovirus can survive and multiply within the blood and lymphatics for long periods of time, sometimes as long as 17 weeks. In a small percentage of cases, it can spread and replicate in other sites, such as brown fat, the reticuloendothelial tissues, and muscle. This sustained replication causes a major viremia, and leads to the development of minor influenza-like symptoms. Rarely, this may progress and the virus may invade the central nervous system, provoking a local inflammatory response. In most cases, this causes a self-limiting inflammation of the meninges, the layers of tissue surrounding the brain, which is known as nonparalytic aseptic meningitis. Penetration of the CNS provides no known benefit to the virus, and is quite possibly an incidental deviation of a normal gastrointestinal infection. The mechanisms by which poliovirus spreads to the CNS are poorly understood, but it appears to be primarily a chance event—largely independent of the age, gender, or socioeconomic position of the individual.

text: Known as

text: viremia

text: , the presence of a virus in the bloodstream enables it to be widely distributed throughout the body. Poliovirus can survive and multiply within the blood and lymphatics for long periods of time, sometimes as long as 17 weeks. In a small percentage of cases, it can spread and replicate in other sites, such as

text: brown fat

text: , the

text: reticuloendothelial

text: tissues, and muscle. This sustained replication causes a major viremia, and leads to the development of minor influenza-like symptoms. Rarely, this may progress and the virus may invade the central nervous system, provoking a local

text: inflammatory response

text: . In most cases, this causes a self-limiting inflammation of the

text: meninges

text: , the layers of tissue surrounding the

text: brain

text: , which is known as nonparalytic aseptic meningitis. Penetration of the CNS provides no known benefit to the virus, and is quite possibly an incidental deviation of a normal gastrointestinal infection. The mechanisms by which poliovirus spreads to the CNS are poorly understood, but it appears to be primarily a chance event—largely independent of the age, gender, or

text: socioeconomic

text: position of the individual.

text: Mitochondrial DNA can play a role in the onset of disease in a variety of ways. Point mutations in or alternative gene arrangements of mtDNA have been linked to several diseases that affect the heart, central nervous system, endocrine system, gastrointestinal tract, eye, and kidney.     Loss of the amount of mtDNA present in the mitochondria can lead to a whole subset of diseases known as mitochondrial depletion syndromes (MDDs) which affect the liver, central and peripheral nervous systems, smooth muscle and hearing in humans.   There have been mixed, and sometimes conflicting, results in studies that attempt to link mtDNA copy number to the risk of developing certain cancers.  Studies have been conducted that show an association between both increased and decreased mtDNA levels and the increased risk of developing breast cancer.  A positive association between increased mtDNA levels and an increased risk for developing kidney tumors has been observed but there does not appear to be a link between mtDNA levels and the development of stomach cancer.

text: Mitochondrial DNA can play a role in the onset of disease in a variety of ways.

text: Point mutations

text: in or alternative gene arrangements of mtDNA have been linked to several diseases that affect the heart,

text: central nervous system

text: , endocrine system, gastrointestinal tract, eye, and kidney.     Loss of the amount of mtDNA present in the mitochondria can lead to a whole subset of diseases known as mitochondrial depletion syndromes (MDDs) which affect the liver, central and

text: peripheral nervous

text: systems, smooth muscle and hearing in humans.   There have been mixed, and sometimes conflicting, results in studies that attempt to link mtDNA copy number to the risk of developing certain cancers.  Studies have been conducted that show an association between both increased and decreased mtDNA levels and the increased risk of developing

text: breast cancer

text: .  A positive association between increased mtDNA levels and an increased risk for developing kidney tumors has been observed but there does not appear to be a link between mtDNA levels and the development of

text: stomach cancer

text: Despite their naming, glia function more as partners to neurons than as "glue".They are also crucial in the development of the nervous system and in processes such as synaptic plasticity and synaptogenesis. Glia have a role in the regulation of repair of neurons after injury. In the central nervous system (CNS), glia suppress repair. Glial cells known as astrocytes enlarge and proliferate to form a scar and produce inhibitory molecules that inhibit regrowth of a damaged or severed axon. In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), glial cells known as Schwann cells promote repair. After axonal injury, Schwann cells regress to an earlier developmental state to encourage regrowth of the axon. This difference between the CNS and the PNS, raises hopes for the regeneration of nervous tissue in the CNS. For example, a spinal cord may be able to be repaired following injury or severance. Schwann cells are also known as neuri-lemmocytes.  These cells envelop nerve fibers of the PNS by winding repeatedly around a nerve fiber with the nucleus inside of it.  This process creates a myelin sheath, which not only aids in conductivity but also assists in the regeneration of damaged fibers.

text: Despite their naming, glia function more as partners to neurons than as "glue".They are also crucial in the development of the nervous system and in processes such as

text: synaptic plasticity

text: and

text: synaptogenesis

text: . Glia have a role in the regulation of repair of neurons after injury. In the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), glia suppress repair. Glial cells known as

text: astrocytes

text: enlarge and proliferate to form a scar and produce inhibitory molecules that inhibit regrowth of a damaged or severed axon. In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), glial cells known as

text: Schwann cell

text: s promote repair. After axonal injury, Schwann cells regress to an earlier developmental state to encourage regrowth of the axon. This difference between the CNS and the PNS, raises hopes for the regeneration of nervous tissue in the CNS. For example, a spinal cord may be able to be repaired following injury or severance. Schwann cells are also known as neuri-lemmocytes.  These cells envelop nerve fibers of the PNS by winding repeatedly around a nerve fiber with the nucleus inside of it.  This process creates a myelin sheath, which not only aids in conductivity but also assists in the regeneration of damaged fibers.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause (genotype) despite the widely varying set of medical characteristics (phenotype) that are clinically visible in the disorders.  Dandy–Walker syndrome is one such  disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies.  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles which are present in many cellular types throughout the human body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: , that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause (

text: genotype

text: ) despite the widely varying set of medical characteristics (

text: phenotype

text: ) that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: .  Dandy–Walker syndrome is one such  disease, part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: .  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: s which are present in many cellular types throughout the

text: human

text: body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often

text: multi-symptom

text: nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: The vertebrate nervous system relies on the myelin sheath for insulation and as a method of decreasing membrane capacitance in the axon. The action potential jumps from node to node, in a process called saltatory conduction, which can increase conduction velocity up to ten times, without an increase in axonal diameter. In this sense, Schwann cells are the peripheral nervous system's analogues of the central nervous system's oligodendrocytes. However, unlike oligodendrocytes, each myelinating Schwann cell provides insulation to only one axon (see image). This arrangement permits saltatory conduction of action potentials with repropagation at the nodes of Ranvier. In this way, myelination greatly increases speed of conduction and saves energy.

text: The

text: vertebrate

text: nervous system

text: relies on the myelin sheath for

text: insulation

text: and as a method of decreasing membrane

text: capacitance

text: in the axon. The

text: action potential

text: jumps from node to node, in a process called

text: saltatory conduction

text: , which can increase

text: conduction

text: velocity up to ten times, without an increase in axonal diameter. In this sense, Schwann cells are the peripheral nervous system's analogues of the

text: central nervous system

text: 's

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s. However, unlike oligodendrocytes, each myelinating Schwann cell provides insulation to only one axon (see image). This arrangement permits saltatory conduction of action potentials with

text: repropagation

text: at the

text: nodes of Ranvier

text: . In this way, myelination greatly increases speed of conduction and saves energy.

text: In general, a neurological examination is focused on finding out whether there are lesions in the central and peripheral nervous systems or there is another diffuse process that is troubling the patient. Once the patient has been thoroughly tested, it is then the role of the physician to determine whether these findings combine to form a recognizable medical syndrome or neurological disorder such as Parkinson's disease or motor neurone disease. Finally, it is the role of the physician to find the cause for why such a problem has occurred, for example finding whether the problem is due to inflammation or is congenital.

text: In general, a neurological examination is focused on finding out whether there are

text: lesion

text: s in the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: s or there is another diffuse process that is troubling the patient. Once the patient has been thoroughly tested, it is then the role of the

text: physician

text: to determine whether these findings combine to form a recognizable medical syndrome or

text: neurological disorder

text: such as

text: Parkinson's disease

text: or

text: motor neurone disease

text: . Finally, it is the role of the physician to find the cause for why such a problem has occurred, for example finding whether the problem is due to inflammation or is congenital.

text: Meningitis due to anaerobic bacteria is infrequent and may follow respiratory tract infection or complicate a cerebrospinal ﬂuid shunt. Nerological shunt infections are often caused by skin bacteria such as Propionibacterium acnes, or in instances of ventriculoperitoneal shunts that perforate the gut, by anaerobes of enteric origin (i.e. Bacteroides fragilis).Clostridium perfringens can cause of brain abscesses and meningitis following intracranial surgery or head trauma.

text: Meningitis

text: due to anaerobic bacteria is infrequent and may follow respiratory tract infection or complicate a cerebrospinal ﬂuid shunt. Nerological shunt infections are often caused by skin bacteria such as Propionibacterium acnes, or in instances of ventriculoperitoneal shunts that perforate the gut, by anaerobes of enteric origin (i.e. Bacteroides fragilis).Clostridium perfringens can cause of brain abscesses and meningitis following intracranial surgery or head trauma.

text: At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called hormones into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this "broadcast" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides "point-to-point" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.

text: At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called

text: hormone

text: s into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this "broadcast" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides "point-to-point" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.

text: Epilepsies with onset in childhood are a complex group of diseases with a variety of causes and characteristics. Some people have no obvious underlying neurological problems or metabolic disturbances. They may be associated with variable degrees of intellectual disability, elements of autism, other mental disorders, and motor difficulties. Others have underlying inherited metabolic diseases, chromosomal abnormalities, specific eye, skin and nervous system features, or malformations of cortical development. Some of these epilepsies can be categorized into the traditional epilepsy syndromes. Furthermore, a variety of clinical syndromes exist of which the main feature is not epilepsy but which are associated with a higher risk of epilepsy. For instance between 1 and 10% of those with Down syndrome and 90% of those with Angelman syndrome have epilepsy.

text: Epilepsies with onset in childhood are a complex group of diseases with a variety of causes and characteristics. Some people have no obvious underlying neurological problems or

text: metabolic

text: disturbances. They may be associated with variable degrees of intellectual disability, elements of

text: autism

text: , other

text: mental disorder

text: s, and motor difficulties. Others have underlying inherited metabolic diseases,

text: chromosomal

text: abnormalities,

text: specific eye, skin and nervous system features

text: , or malformations of cortical development. Some of these epilepsies can be categorized into the traditional epilepsy syndromes. Furthermore, a variety of clinical syndromes exist of which the main feature is not epilepsy but which are associated with a higher risk of epilepsy. For instance between 1 and 10% of those with

text: Down syndrome

text: and 90% of those with

text: Angelman syndrome

text: have epilepsy.

text: Neurocytoma (or neuroepithelioma) is a type of nervous system tumor which is primarily derived from nervous tissue. This is in contrast to the gliomas (such as oligodendroglioma), which are derived from glial cells, which are not derived from nervous tissue.

text: Neurocytoma (or neuroepithelioma) is a type of nervous system tumor which is primarily derived from

text: nervous tissue

text: . This is in contrast to the

text: glioma

text: s (such as

text: oligodendroglioma

text: ), which are derived from

text: glial cell

text: s, which are not derived from nervous tissue.

text: The Mexican Reyes should not be confused with the Cuban bassist Jorge Reyes, the Cuban author Jorge Ivan Reyes, the Brooklyn television writer Jorge A. Reyes,  or the Oregon baseball player Jorge Reyes.

text: The Mexican Reyes should not be confused with the Cuban bassist Jorge Reyes, the Cuban author

text: Jorge Ivan Reyes

text: , the Brooklyn television writer Jorge A. Reyes,  or the Oregon baseball player Jorge Reyes.

text: Central nervous system imaging: Central nervous system abnormalities, such as cortical or subependymal tubers and astrocytomas, are common in patients with TSC, including those with TSC-LAM, but are not found in women with S-LAM. Moss and associates reported that women with S-LAM and TSC-LAM may have an increased incidence of meningioma, but the significance of that finding has been challenged.

text: Central nervous system imaging: Central nervous system abnormalities, such as

text: cortical

text: or subependymal tubers and

text: astrocytomas

text: , are common in patients with TSC, including those with TSC-LAM, but are not found in women with S-LAM. Moss and associates reported that women with S-LAM and TSC-LAM may have an increased incidence of meningioma, but the significance of that finding has been challenged.

text: Reye syndrome progresses through five stages:

text: Though it does not produce severe immunodeficiency, visna shares many characteristics with human immunodeficiency virus, including the establishment of persistent infection with chronic active lymphoproliferation; however, visna virus does not infect T-lymphocytes. The relationship of visna and HIV as lentiviruses was first published in 1985 by visna researcher Janice E. Clements and colleagues in the HIV field. It has been postulated that the effects of maedi-visna infection in sheep are the "equivalent" of central nervous system disease and wasting syndrome found in human AIDS patients. Despite limited sequence homology with HIV, the genomic organization of visna is very similar, allowing visna infection to be used as an in vivo and in vitro model system for HIV infection.

text: Though it does not produce severe

text: immunodeficiency

text: , visna shares many characteristics with

text: human immunodeficiency virus

text: , including the establishment of persistent infection with chronic active lymphoproliferation; however, visna virus does not infect

text: T-lymphocyte

text: s. The relationship of visna and HIV as

text: lentivirus

text: es was first published in 1985 by visna researcher

text: Janice E. Clements

text: and colleagues in the HIV field. It has been postulated that the effects of maedi-visna infection in sheep are the "equivalent" of central nervous system disease and wasting syndrome found in human AIDS patients. Despite limited

text: sequence homology

text: with HIV, the genomic organization of visna is very similar, allowing visna infection to be used as an

text: in vivo

text: and

text: in vitro

text: model system

text: for HIV infection.

text: The hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES) is a disease characterized by a persistently elevated eosinophil count (≥ 1500 eosinophils/mm³) in the blood for at least six months without any recognizable cause, with involvement of either the heart, nervous system, or bone marrow.

text: The hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES) is a disease characterized by a persistently

text: elevated eosinophil count

text: (≥ 1500 eosinophils/mm³) in the blood for at least six months without any recognizable cause, with involvement of either the

text: heart

text: nervous system

text: , or

text: bone marrow

text: He was perhaps the first (1882) to recognize angioedema which is often referred to as "Quincke's edema". "Quincke's pulse", with redness and pallor seen under the fingernails, is one of the signs of aortic insufficiency. "Quincke's puncture" is a somewhat outdated eponym for lumbar puncture, used for the examination of the cerebrospinal fluid in numerous diseases such as meningitis and multiple sclerosis. In 1893 he described what is now known as idiopathic intracranial hypertension, which he labeled "serous meningitis".

text: He was perhaps the first (1882) to recognize

text: angioedema

text: which is often referred to as "Quincke's edema". "Quincke's pulse", with redness and pallor seen under the fingernails, is one of the signs of

text: aortic insufficiency

text: . "Quincke's puncture" is a somewhat outdated eponym for

text: lumbar puncture

text: , used for the examination of the

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: in numerous diseases such as

text: meningitis

text: and

text: multiple sclerosis

text: . In 1893 he described what is now known as

text: idiopathic intracranial hypertension

text: , which he labeled "serous meningitis".

text: Itraconazole has a broader spectrum of activity than fluconazole (but not as broad as voriconazole or posaconazole). In particular, it is active against Aspergillus, which fluconazole is not. It is also licensed for use in blastomycosis, sporotrichosis, histoplasmosis, and onychomycosis. Itraconazole is over 99% protein-bound and has virtually no penetration into cerebrospinal fluid. Therefore, it should never be used to treat meningitis or other central nervous system infections. According to the Johns Hopkins Abx Guide, it has "negligible CSF penetration, however treatment has been successful for cryptococcal and coccidioidal meningitis".

text: Itraconazole has a broader spectrum of activity than

text: fluconazole

text: (but not as broad as

text: voriconazole

text: or

text: posaconazole

text: ). In particular, it is active against

text: Aspergillus

text: , which fluconazole is not. It is also licensed for use in

text: blastomycosis

text: sporotrichosis

text: histoplasmosis

text: , and

text: onychomycosis

text: . Itraconazole is over 99% protein-bound and has virtually no penetration into

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: . Therefore, it should never be used to treat

text: meningitis

text: or other

text: central nervous system

text: infections. According to the Johns Hopkins Abx Guide, it has "negligible CSF penetration, however treatment has been successful for cryptococcal and coccidioidal meningitis".

text: Widal was the author of a remarkable series of essays on infectious diseases, erysipelas, diseases of the heart, liver, nervous system, etc., besides being a prolific contributor to various medical journals and encyclopedias. His name is associated with the Widal test, a diagnostic test for typhoid fever, and with hematologist Georges Hayem (1841-1933), he described acquired haemolytic anaemia, a disease that was historically referred to as "Hayem-Widal syndrome".

text: Widal was the author of a remarkable series of essays on infectious

text: disease

text: s,

text: erysipelas

text: , diseases of the

text: heart

text: liver

text: nervous system

text: , etc., besides being a prolific contributor to various

text: medical journal

text: s and

text: encyclopedia

text: s. His name is associated with the

text: Widal test

text: , a diagnostic test for

text: typhoid fever

text: , and with

text: hematologist

text: Georges Hayem

text: (1841-1933), he described acquired

text: haemolytic anaemia

text: , a disease that was historically referred to as "Hayem-Widal syndrome".

text: The middle element of the meninges is the arachnoid mater, so named because of its spider web-like appearance. It cushions the central nervous system. This thin, transparent membrane is composed of fibrous tissue and, like the pia mater, is covered by flat cells also thought to be impermeable to fluid.

text: The middle element of the meninges is the

text: arachnoid mater

text: , so named because of its

text: spider web

text: -like appearance. It cushions the

text: central nervous system

text: . This thin, transparent membrane is composed of fibrous tissue and, like the pia mater, is covered by flat cells also thought to be impermeable to fluid.

text: The witch's mark also factors into the theory proposed by M.M. Drymon that Lyme disease is a diagnosis for both witches and witch affliction, finding that many of the afflicted and accused in Salem and elsewhere lived in areas that were tick-risky, had a variety of red marks and rashes that looked like bite marks on their skin, and suffered from neurological and arthritic symptoms. The appearance of the witches' mark in Europe is only noted after Colombian contact with the New World in 1492 and may be the result of the transfer of a virulent form of borrelia infection from America into Europe, especially in areas under the control of the Spanish Empire, including parts of the Rhine River Valley that are now in Germany. This topic is the subject of a recent work in the study of witchcraft. This theory is an expansion of the idea first proposed by Laurie Winn Carlson that the bewitched in Salem suffered from encephalitis. Neurological Lyme disease is probably the only form of mild or acute encephalitis that is accompanied by a round red mark or bull's eye rash on the skin, which can appear after tick attachment.

text: The witch's mark also factors into the theory proposed by M.M. Drymon that

text: Lyme disease

text: is a diagnosis for both witches and witch affliction, finding that many of the afflicted and accused in Salem and elsewhere lived in areas that were tick-risky, had a variety of red marks and rashes that looked like bite marks on their skin, and suffered from neurological and arthritic symptoms. The appearance of the witches' mark in Europe is only noted after Colombian contact with the New World in 1492 and may be the result of the transfer of a virulent form of

text: borrelia infection

text: from America into Europe, especially in areas under the control of the

text: Spanish Empire

text: , including parts of the

text: Rhine

text: River Valley that are now in Germany. This topic is the subject of a recent work in the study of witchcraft. This theory is an expansion of the idea first proposed by Laurie Winn Carlson that the bewitched in Salem suffered from

text: encephalitis

text: . Neurological Lyme disease is probably the only form of mild or acute encephalitis that is accompanied by a round red mark or bull's eye rash on the skin, which can appear after tick attachment.

text: 1970s: Legionnaires' disease, Ebola, and Reye syndrome.

text: Legionnaires' disease

text: Ebola

text: , and

text: Reye syndrome

text: WEE was discovered in 1930 when a number of horses in the San Joaquin Valley of California, USA died of a mysterious encephalitis. Karl Friedrich Meyer investigated but was not able to isolate the pathogen from necropsies of horses that had been dead for some time and needed samples from an animal in the earlier stages of disease. When the team heard of a horse that appeared to have encephalitis, its owner threatened to shoot the scientists. However Meyer was able to convince the farmer's wife that the horse was dying anyway, and to secretly signal him when the farmer was asleep in exchange for $20 (as this was during the Great Depression, this was a substantial amount of money). Meyer and his colleagues hid in the bushes until the signal, euthanized the horse and stole its head. They successfully isolated WEEV from the brain tissue.

text: WEE was discovered in 1930 when a number of

text: horse

text: s in the

text: San Joaquin Valley

text: of California, USA died of a mysterious encephalitis.

text: Karl Friedrich Meyer

text: investigated but was not able to isolate the pathogen from

text: necropsies

text: of horses that had been dead for some time and needed samples from an animal in the earlier stages of disease. When the team heard of a horse that appeared to have encephalitis, its owner threatened to shoot the scientists. However Meyer was able to convince the farmer's wife that the horse was dying anyway, and to secretly signal him when the farmer was asleep in exchange for $20 (as this was during the

text: Great Depression

text: , this was a substantial amount of money). Meyer and his colleagues hid in the bushes until the signal,

text: euthanized

text: the horse and stole its head. They successfully isolated WEEV from the brain tissue.

text: This differentiates the central nervous system from the peripheral nervous system, which consists of neurons, axons and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the central and peripheral nervous system respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves. Axons in the central nervous system are often very short (barely a few millimeters) and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves do. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1m in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed.

text: This differentiates the central nervous system from the peripheral nervous system, which consists of neurons, axons and

text: Schwann cells

text: . Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the central and peripheral nervous system respectively. Both act to add

text: myelin

text: sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves. Axons in the central nervous system are often very short (barely a few millimeters) and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves do. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1m in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed.

text: The symptoms the fetus develops from CVV infection are largely age dependent. At less than 28 days of gestation, the embryo usually dies and is reabsorbed by the mother. Between 28 and 45 days of gestation, infection leads to malformations in the developing fetus and occasionally leads to abortions. Early in this window, between 28 and 36 days, the virus leads to both central nervous system and musculoskeletal defects, while after 36 days of gestation infection only leads to musculoskeletal deformities. Death of the fetus usually occurs between 27 and 35 days gestation, when the central nervous system tissues are most susceptible. After 45–50 days of gestation CVV infection is not expected to cause harmful effects. After 76 days the fetus has a functioning immune system and antibodies to the virus are produced.

text: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the motor system. The symptoms generally come on slowly over time. Early in the disease, the most obvious are shaking, rigidity, slowness of movement, and difficulty with walking. Thinking and behavioral problems may also occur. Dementia becomes common in the advanced stages of the disease. Depression and anxiety are also common occurring in more than a third of people with PD. Other symptoms include sensory, sleep, and emotional problems. The main motor symptoms are collectively called "parkinsonism", or a "parkinsonian syndrome".

text: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a long-term degenerative disorder of the

text: central nervous system

text: that mainly affects the

text: motor system

text: . The symptoms generally come on slowly over time. Early in the disease, the most obvious are

text: shaking

text: rigidity

text: slowness of movement

text: , and

text: difficulty with walking

text: Thinking

text: and behavioral problems may also occur.

text: Dementia

text: becomes common in the advanced stages of the disease.

text: Depression

text: and anxiety are also common occurring in more than a third of people with PD. Other symptoms include sensory,

text: sleep

text: , and

text: emotion

text: al problems. The main motor symptoms are collectively called "

text: parkinsonism

text: ", or a "parkinsonian syndrome".

text: Until the mid 1990s, infectious complications of the Central Nervous System (CNS) caused by VZV reactivation were regarded as rare.  The presence of rash, as well as speciﬁc neurological symptoms, were required to diagnose a CNS infection caused by VZV.  Since 2000, PCR testing has become more widely used, and the number of diagnosed cases of CNS infection has increased.

text: Until the mid 1990s, infectious complications of the

text: Central Nervous System

text: (CNS) caused by VZV reactivation were regarded as rare.  The presence of rash, as well as speciﬁc neurological symptoms, were required to diagnose a CNS infection caused by VZV.  Since 2000, PCR testing has become more widely used, and the number of diagnosed cases of CNS infection has increased.

text: While many approaches to defining butoh—as with any performative tradition—will focus on formalism or semantic layers, another approach is to focus on physical technique. While butoh does not have a codified classical technique rigidly adhered to within an authoritative controlled lineage, Hijikata Tatsumi did have a substantive methodical body of movement techniques called Butoh Fu. Butoh Fu can be described as a series of cues largely based on incorporating visualizations that directly affect the nervous system, producing qualities of movement that are then used to construct the form and expression of the dance. This mode of engaging the nervous system directly has much in common with other mimetic techniques to be found in the history of dance, such as Lecoq's range of nervous system qualities, Decroux's rhythm and density within movement, and Zeami Motokiyo's qualitative descriptions for character types.

text: While many approaches to defining butoh—as with any performative tradition—will focus on formalism or semantic layers, another approach is to focus on physical technique. While butoh does not have a codified classical technique rigidly adhered to within an authoritative controlled lineage, Hijikata Tatsumi did have a substantive methodical body of movement techniques called Butoh Fu. Butoh Fu can be described as a series of cues largely based on incorporating visualizations that directly affect the nervous system, producing qualities of movement that are then used to construct the form and expression of the dance. This mode of engaging the nervous system directly has much in common with other mimetic techniques to be found in the history of dance, such as

entity_name: L'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq

text: Lecoq

text: 's range of nervous system qualities,

text: Decroux

text: 's rhythm and density within movement, and Zeami Motokiyo's qualitative descriptions for character types.

text: Since physical abnormalities can affect all body parts along the midline of the body, many different body systems are at risk of being damaged. Those systems commonly affected are the nervous, digestive, cardiovascular, respiratory and reproductive. Typically, those diagnosed with either type of Opitz G/BBB syndrome will also have ocular hypertelorism, or eyes that are excessively spaced apart. Patients will commonly experience physical defects in the larynx, trachea and esophagus and will often cause breathing and swallowing difficulties. Further facial anomalies may occur, such as a prominent forehead, widow’s peak, broad nasal bridge. Those with the disease may also experience hypospadias (urinary opening in males is not at the head of the penis) and developmental delay, as well.

text: Since physical abnormalities can affect all body parts along the midline of the body, many different body systems are at risk of being damaged. Those systems commonly affected are the

text: nervous

text: digestive

text: cardiovascular

text: respiratory

text: and

text: reproductive

text: . Typically, those diagnosed with either type of Opitz G/BBB syndrome will also have

text: ocular hypertelorism

text: , or eyes that are excessively spaced apart. Patients will commonly experience physical defects in the

text: larynx

text: trachea

text: and

text: esophagus

text: and will often cause breathing and swallowing difficulties. Further facial

text: anomalies

text: may occur, such as a prominent forehead,

text: widow’s peak

text: , broad nasal bridge. Those with the disease may also experience

text: hypospadias

text: (urinary opening in males is not at the head of the penis) and

text: developmental delay

text: , as well.

text: Neuropathology is a specialty within the study of pathology focused on the disease of the brain, spinal cord, and neural tissue. This includes the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Tissue analysis comes from either surgical biopsies or post mortem autopsies. Common tissue samples include muscle fibers and nervous tissue. Common applications of neuropathology include studying samples of tissue in patients who have Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, dementia, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, mitochondria disease, and any disorder that has neural deterioration in the brain or spinal cord.

text: Neuropathology

text: is a specialty within the study of

text: pathology

text: focused on the disease of the brain, spinal cord, and neural tissue. This includes the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. Tissue analysis comes from either surgical

text: biopsies

text: or post mortem

text: autopsies

text: . Common tissue samples include muscle fibers and nervous tissue. Common applications of neuropathology include studying samples of tissue in patients who have

text: Parkinson's disease

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: dementia

text: Huntington's disease

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: mitochondria disease

text: , and any disorder that has neural deterioration in the brain or spinal cord.

text: The southern house mosquito can transmit zoonotic diseases that affect humans and wild and domestic animals, such as lymphatic filariasis, avian malaria, St. Louis encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis, and West Nile fever, and may be a vector of the Zika virus. It causes infection through biting during blood meal. In the southern U.S., it is the primary vector of St. Louis encephalitis virus. In India and Southeast Asia, it is the primary vector of Wuchereria bancrofti, a nematode that causes lymphatic filariasis. It acts as an intermediate host for the helminth parasite by harbouring the larval stages. It also transmits Plasmodium relictum, a malarial parasite of birds, and is the principal vector in Hawaii. It is the definitive host for malarial parasite as it harbours the sexual cycle.

text: The southern house mosquito can transmit

text: zoonotic diseases

text: that affect humans and wild and domestic animals, such as

text: lymphatic filariasis

text: avian malaria

text: St. Louis encephalitis

text: Western equine encephalitis

text: , and

text: West Nile fever

text: , and may be a

text: vector

text: of the

text: Zika virus

text: . It causes infection through biting during blood meal. In the southern U.S., it is the primary vector of St. Louis encephalitis virus. In India and Southeast Asia, it is the primary vector of Wuchereria bancrofti, a nematode that causes lymphatic filariasis. It acts as an intermediate host for the helminth parasite by harbouring the larval stages. It also transmits

text: Plasmodium relictum

text: , a malarial parasite of birds, and is the principal vector in

text: Hawaii

text: . It is the definitive host for malarial parasite as it harbours the sexual cycle.

text: The intestinal mucosal barrier, also referred to as intestinal barrier, refers to the property of the intestinal mucosa that ensures adequate containment of undesirable luminal contents within the intestine while preserving the ability to absorb nutrients. The separation it provides between the body and the gut prevents the uncontrolled translocation of luminal contents into the body proper. Its role in protecting the mucosal tissues and circulatory system from exposure to pro-inflammatory molecules, such as microorganisms, toxins, and antigens is vital for the maintenance of health and well-being. Intestinal mucosal barrier dysfunction has been implicated in numerous health conditions such as: food allergies, microbial infections, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, metabolic syndrome, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, diabetes, and septic shock.

text: The intestinal mucosal barrier, also referred to as intestinal barrier, refers to the property of the

text: intestinal mucosa

text: that ensures adequate containment of undesirable

text: luminal

text: contents within the intestine while preserving the ability to absorb

text: nutrient

text: s. The separation it provides between the body and the gut prevents the uncontrolled translocation of luminal contents into the body proper. Its role in protecting the mucosal tissues and

text: circulatory system

text: from exposure to

text: pro-inflammatory molecules

text: , such as

text: microorganism

text: s,

text: toxin

text: s, and

text: antigen

text: s is vital for the maintenance of health and well-being. Intestinal mucosal barrier dysfunction has been implicated in numerous health conditions such as:

text: food allergies

text: microbial infections

text: irritable bowel syndrome

text: inflammatory bowel disease

text: celiac disease

text: metabolic syndrome

text: non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

text: diabetes,

text: and

text: septic shock

text: Neurosyphilis refers to an infection involving the central nervous system. It may occur early, being either asymptomatic or in the form of syphilitic meningitis, or late as meningovascular syphilis, general paresis, or tabes dorsalis, which is associated with poor balance and lightning pains in the lower extremities. Late neurosyphilis typically occurs 4 to 25 years after the initial infection. Meningovascular syphilis typically presents with apathy and seizure, and general paresis with dementia and tabes dorsalis. Also, there may be Argyll Robertson pupils, which are bilateral small pupils that constrict when the person focuses on near objects but do not constrict when exposed to bright light.

text: Neurosyphilis

text: refers to an infection involving the

text: central nervous system

text: . It may occur early, being either asymptomatic or in the form of syphilitic

text: meningitis

text: , or late as meningovascular syphilis,

text: general paresis

text: , or

text: tabes dorsalis

text: , which is associated with poor balance and lightning pains in the lower extremities. Late neurosyphilis typically occurs 4 to 25 years after the initial infection. Meningovascular syphilis typically presents with apathy and

text: seizure

text: , and general paresis with

text: dementia

text: and

text: tabes dorsalis

text: . Also, there may be

text: Argyll Robertson pupil

text: s, which are bilateral small pupils that constrict when the person focuses on near objects but do not constrict when exposed to bright light.

text: Reyes was also a recording artist with two albums under her belt. Reyes became one of the hosts of DOCTORS ON TV, aired on UNTV.

text: Reyes was also a recording artist with two albums under her belt. Reyes became one of the hosts of DOCTORS ON TV, aired on

text: UNTV

text: Most healthy people clear the infection without treatment, but in 5 to 14 percent of individuals, the organisms disseminate and infect the liver, spleen, eye, or central nervous system. Although some experts recommend not treating typical CSD in immunocompetent patients with mild to moderate illness, treatment of all patients with antimicrobial agents (Grade 2B) is suggested due to the probability of disseminated disease. The preferred antibiotic for treatment is azithromycin since this agent is the only one studied in a randomized controlled study.

text: Most healthy people clear the infection without treatment, but in 5 to 14 percent of individuals, the organisms disseminate and infect the liver, spleen, eye, or central nervous system. Although some experts recommend not treating typical CSD in immunocompetent patients with mild to moderate illness, treatment of all patients with antimicrobial agents (Grade 2B) is suggested due to the probability of disseminated disease. The preferred antibiotic for treatment is

text: azithromycin

text: since this agent is the only one studied in a randomized controlled study.

text: Viral encephalitis is a type of encephalitis caused by a virus.

text: Viral encephalitis is a type of

text: encephalitis

text: caused by a

text: virus

text: Many different risk factors play a role in causing a neonatal stroke. Some maternal disorders that may contribute to neonatal strokes include: autoimmune disorders, coagulation disorders, prenatal cocaine exposure, infection, congenital heart disease, diabetes, and trauma. Placental disorders that increase the risk of stroke include placental thrombosis, placental abruption, placental infection, and chorioamnionitis. Other disorders that may increase the risk of a neonatal stroke are blood, homocysteine and lipid disorders, such as polycythemia, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy, prothrombin mutation, lipoprotein (a) deficiency, factor VIII deficiency (hemophilia A), and factor V Leiden mutation.  Infectious disorders such as central nervous system (CNS) infection or systemic infection may also contribute.

text: Many different risk factors play a role in causing a neonatal stroke. Some maternal disorders that may contribute to neonatal strokes include:

text: autoimmune disorders

text: coagulation

text: disorders,

text: prenatal cocaine exposure

text: infection

text: congenital heart disease

text: diabetes

text: , and trauma.

text: Placenta

text: l disorders that increase the risk of stroke include placental

text: thrombosis

text: placental abruption

text: , placental infection, and

text: chorioamnionitis

text: . Other disorders that may increase the risk of a neonatal stroke are blood,

text: homocysteine

text: and

text: lipid

text: disorders, such as

text: polycythemia

text: disseminated intravascular coagulopathy

text: prothrombin mutation

text: lipoprotein (a)

text: deficiency,

text: factor VIII

text: deficiency (hemophilia A), and

text: factor V Leiden

text: mutation.  Infectious disorders such as

text: central nervous system (CNS)

text: infection or

text: systemic infection

text: may also contribute.

text: Most reviews have been negative: "A SICKENING book", "truly grotesque", "from the title alone, you can tell that Melanie's Marvelous Measles is going to be a wild ride" and "atrocious". Some call the book's supporters "crazies", and the author "some hippie-dippie Age of Aquarius type who thinks Natural Equals Good". Other reviewers talk about the effects measles and other vaccine preventable illnesses have on children; Australian Medical Association President Steve Hambleton said: "Last time I saw a kid with measles with the rash they were carried into the surgery and the child looked like a rag doll. The mother was terrified. It's still fatal. About one in 10,000 children will die because of encephalitis". "Even in 'industrialized countries', measles can cause encephalitis, seizures, blindness, heart and nervous system disorders, and (rarely) death". David Gorski writes: "I'm sure children with whooping cough who are coughing so hard that they can't catch their breath for hours on end, with haemophilus influenzae type B who develop pneumonia or meningitis, with polio who develop paralysis, or with measles who develop pneumonia or subacute sclerosing panencephalitis will feel happy to 'embrace childhood disease', at least those who don't end up dead, who can't embrace anything other than the grave." William Sears says: "Complications of the disease include pneumonia and encephalitis, swelling of the brain, that can result in deafness or mental retardation. I've seen a case of measles encephalitis and it's not pretty. There's nothing awesome about it at all".

text: Most reviews have been negative: "A SICKENING book", "truly grotesque", "from the title alone, you can tell that Melanie's Marvelous Measles is going to be a wild ride" and "atrocious". Some call the book's supporters "crazies", and the author "some hippie-dippie Age of Aquarius type who thinks Natural Equals Good". Other reviewers talk about the effects measles and other vaccine preventable illnesses have on children;

text: Australian Medical Association

text: President Steve Hambleton said: "Last time I saw a kid with measles with the rash they were carried into the surgery and the child looked like a rag doll. The mother was terrified. It's still fatal. About one in 10,000 children will die because of encephalitis". "Even in 'industrialized countries', measles can cause encephalitis, seizures, blindness, heart and nervous system disorders, and (rarely) death".

text: David Gorski

text: writes: "I'm sure children with

text: whooping cough

text: who are coughing so hard that they can't catch their breath for hours on end, with

text: haemophilus influenzae

text: type B who develop pneumonia or

text: meningitis

text: , with

text: polio

text: who develop paralysis, or with measles who develop

text: pneumonia

text: or

text: subacute sclerosing panencephalitis

text: will feel happy to 'embrace childhood disease', at least those who don't end up dead, who can't embrace anything other than the grave."

text: William Sears

text: says: "Complications of the disease include pneumonia and encephalitis, swelling of the brain, that can result in deafness or mental retardation. I've seen a case of measles encephalitis and it's not pretty. There's nothing awesome about it at all".

text: The pathogenesis of BSE is not well understood or documented like other diseases of this nature. Even though BSE is disease that results in neurological defects, its pathogenesis occurs in areas that reside outside of the nervous system. There was a strong deposition of PrP initially located in the Ileal Peyer’s patches of the small intestine. The lymphatic system has been identified in the pathogenesis of scrapies, it has not, however, been determined to be an essential part of the pathogenesis of BSE. The Ileal Peyer’s patches have been the only organ from this system that has been found to play a major role in the pathogenesis. Infectivity of the Ileal Peyer's patches has been observed as early as 4 months after inoculation. PrP accumulation was found to occur mostly in tangible body macrophages of the Ileal Peyer’s patches. Tangible body macrophages involved in PrP clearance are thought to play a role in in PrP accumulation in the Peyer’s patches. Accumulation of PrP was also found in follicular dendritic cells; however, it was of a lesser degree. Six months after inoculation, there was no infectivity in any tissues, only that of the ileum. This led researchers to believe that the disease agent replicates here. In naturally confirmed cases, there have been no reports of infectivity in the Ileal Peyer’s patches. Generally, in clinical experiments, high doses of the disease are administered. In natural cases, it was hypothesized that low doses of the agent were present, and therefore, infectivity could not be observed.

text: P. brasiliensis causes a disease known as paracoccidioidomycosis characterized by slow, progressive granulomatous changes in the head mucosa, notably the nose and sinuses or the skin. Uncommonly, the disease affects the lymphatic system, the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal tract, or the skeletal system. Due to the high proportion of cases affecting the oral mucosa,  these tissues were originally thought to be the primary route of entry of fungus. However, strong evidence now indicates  the respiratory tract is the chief point of entry and P. brasiliensis lung lesions occur in nearly a third of progressive cases. The disease is not contagious.Paracoccidioidomycosis is more frequently seen in adult males than females. The hormone estrogen is thought to inhibit the transformation of the mycelial to the yeast form, as supported by in vitro experimental data, and this factor may account for the relative resistance of women to infection.

text: P. brasiliensis causes a disease known as

text: paracoccidioidomycosis

text: characterized by slow, progressive granulomatous changes in the head mucosa, notably the nose and sinuses or the skin. Uncommonly, the disease affects the lymphatic system, the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal tract, or the skeletal system. Due to the high proportion of cases affecting the oral mucosa,  these tissues were originally thought to be the primary route of entry of fungus. However, strong evidence now indicates  the respiratory tract is the chief point of entry and P. brasiliensis lung lesions occur in nearly a third of progressive cases. The disease is not contagious.Paracoccidioidomycosis is more frequently seen in adult males than females. The hormone

text: estrogen

text: is thought to inhibit the transformation of the mycelial to the yeast form, as supported by in vitro experimental data, and this factor may account for the relative resistance of women to infection.

text: Glial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia (Greek γλία and γλοία "glue"; pronounced in English as either  or ), are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems. In the central nervous system, glial cells include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells and microglia, and in the peripheral nervous system glial cells include Schwann cells and satellite cells.

text: Glial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia (

text: Greek

text: γλία and γλοία "glue"; pronounced in English as either  or ), are non-

text: neuron

text: al

text: cells

text: that maintain

text: homeostasis

text: , form

text: myelin

text: , and provide support and protection for

text: neuron

text: s in the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: s. In the central nervous system, glial cells include

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s,

text: astrocyte

text: s,

text: ependymal cell

text: s and

text: microglia

text: , and in the peripheral nervous system glial cells include

text: Schwann cell

text: s and

text: satellite cells

text: Orofaciodigital syndrome 1 (OFD1), also called Papillon-League and Psaume syndrome, is an X-linked congenital disorder characterized by malformations of the face, oral cavity, and digits with polycystic kidney disease and variable involvement of the central nervous system.

text: Orofaciodigital syndrome 1 (OFD1), also called Papillon-League and Psaume syndrome, is an

text: X-linked

text: congenital disorder

text: characterized by malformations of the

text: face

text: oral cavity

text: , and

text: digits

text: with

text: polycystic kidney disease

text: and variable involvement of the

text: central nervous system

text: The inflammation may be caused by infection with viruses, bacteria, or other microorganisms, and less commonly by certain drugs. Meningitis can be life-threatening because of the inflammation's proximity to the brain and spinal cord; therefore, the condition is classified as a medical emergency. A lumbar puncture diagnoses or excludes meningitis. A needle is inserted into the spinal canal to collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), that envelops the brain and spinal cord. The CSF is examined in a medical laboratory.

text: The inflammation may be caused by infection with

text: virus

text: es,

text: bacteria

text: , or other

text: microorganism

text: s, and less commonly by certain

text: drugs

text: . Meningitis can be life-threatening because of the inflammation's proximity to the brain and spinal cord; therefore, the condition is classified as a

text: medical emergency

text: . A

text: lumbar puncture

text: diagnoses or excludes meningitis. A needle is inserted into the

text: spinal canal

text: to collect a sample of

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF), that envelops the brain and spinal cord. The CSF is examined in a medical laboratory.

text: The hospital was founded in 1859 by Johanna Chandler and originally called The National Hospital for Diseases of the Nervous System including Paralysis and Epilepsy and later the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases.  The current name, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, came into use in 1988. It was merged in 1948 with the Maida Vale Hospital for Nervous Diseases (originally called The London Infirmary for Epilepsy and Paralysis), which in turn owed its foundation in 1866 to a German, Julius Althaus. Great neurologists of the time worked at The National, including John Hughlings Jackson, David Ferrier, MacDonald Critchley, Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, William Allen Sturge (discoverer of the Sturge-Weber syndrome), Sir Roger Bannister and many others.

text: The hospital was founded in 1859 by

text: Johanna Chandler

text: and originally called The National Hospital for Diseases of the Nervous System including Paralysis and Epilepsy and later the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases.  The current name, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, came into use in 1988. It was merged in 1948 with the Maida Vale Hospital for Nervous Diseases (originally called The London Infirmary for Epilepsy and Paralysis), which in turn owed its foundation in 1866 to a German,

text: Julius Althaus

text: . Great

text: neurologists

text: of the time worked at The National, including

text: John Hughlings Jackson

text: David Ferrier

text: MacDonald Critchley

text: Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard

text: William Allen Sturge

text: (discoverer of the

text: Sturge-Weber syndrome

text: ), Sir

text: Roger Bannister

text: and many others.

text: There are no currently known causes of this disease. There are studies currently proposing several theories of the causes which include inflammation of the adipose tissue, nervous system malfunction and endocrine malfunction. None of the theories that are currently proposed have been found viable. Since little is known about Dercum's Disease, there are currently no known modes of prevention. Some theories state that maintaining a healthy weight and diet can help prevent Dercum's although it has not been proven.

text: C cell– c-erbB-2– c-kit– CA 19-9 assay– CA-125– CA-125 test– cachexia– calcitonin– calcitriol– CAM– Campath-1H– camptothecin– camptothecin analog– cancer– cancer induction– Cancer Information Service– cancer of unknown primary origin– Cancer stem cell– cancer vaccine– Cancer.gov– Candidiasis– Candidosis– CAP-1– capecitabine– capsaicin– captopril– carbendazim– carbogen– carbon-11 acetate– carboplatin– carboxyamidotriazole– carboxypeptidase-G2– carcinoembryonic antigen– carcinoembryonic antigen peptide-1– carcinogen– carcinogenesis– carcinoid– carcinoid syndrome– carcinoma– carcinoma in situ– carcinomatosis– carcinosarcoma– carcinosis– carcinostatic– cardin (oncology)– carmustine– carnitine– carotenoid– carzelesin– case report– case series– case-control study– caspofungin acetate– Castleman's disease– CAT scan– catechol– cauterization– cauterize– cBR96-doxorubicin immunoconjugate– CC-1088– CC-49 monoclonal antibody– CC-5013– CC-8490– CCI-779– CD34 antigen– CD40-ligand– CEA– CEA assay– cecum– cefalexin– cefepime– cefixime– ceftriaxone– celecoxib– celiac disease– cell– cell differentiation– cell motility– cell proliferation– cell respiration– cell adhesion– cellular adoptive immunotherapy– cellular metabolism– cellulitis– central nervous system primitive neuroectodermal tumor– central venous access catheter– CEP-2563 dihydrochloride– CEP-701– cephalosporin– ceramide– cerebellar hemangioblastoma– cerebellopontine– cerebral hemisphere– cerebrospinal fluid– cerebrospinal fluid diversion– cervical– cervical intraepithelial neoplasia– cervix– cetuximab– cevimeline– CGP 48664– Chamberlain procedure– chemoembolization– chemoimmunotherapy– chemoprevention– chemoprevention studies– chemoprotective– chemoradiation– chemoradiotherapy– chemosensitivity– chemosensitivity assay– chemosensitizer– chemotherapeutic agent– chemotherapy– chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy– chest x-ray– chiasma– child-life worker– chitin– chlorambucil– chlorine– chloroma– chloroquinoxaline sulfonamide– cholangiocarcinoma– cholangiosarcoma– cholelith– cholestasis– chondrocyte– chondroitin sulfate– chondrosarcoma– chordoma– chorioallantoic membrane– choriocarcinoma– choroid plexus tumor– CHPP– chronic granulocytic leukemia– chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis– chronic leukemia– chronic lymphoblastic leukemia– chronic lymphocytic leukemia– chronic myelogenous leukemia– chronic myeloid leukemia– chronic myelomonocytic leukemia– chronic phase– chronic phase chronic myelogenous leukemia– CHS 828– CI-1033– CI-958– CI-980– CI-994– ciclosporin– cidofovir– cilengitide– cimetidine– Cipro– ciprofloxacin– circulatory system– cirrhosis– CIS– cisplatin– citric acid/potassium-sodium citrate– cladribine– clarithromycin– clear cell adenocarcinoma– clear-cell sarcoma– clear cell sarcoma of the kidney– clinical breast exam– clinical resistance– clinical series– clinical study– clinical trial– CLL– clodronate– clofarabine– CML– CMML– CMV– cnicin– CNS– CNS metastasis– CNS prophylaxis– CNS sanctuary– CNS tumor– co-culture– co-trimoxazole– coactivated T cell– cobalt 60– Cockayne syndrome– coenzyme Q10– cohort study– COL-3– cold nodule- Coley's toxins– collagen disease– collagenase– collecting duct– coloanal anastomosis– coloanal pull-through– Colorectal cancer (colon cancer)– colon polyp– colonoscope– colonoscopy– colony-stimulating factor– colorectal– colposcope– colposcopy– combination chemotherapy– combretastatin A4 phosphate– comedo carcinoma– common bile duct– comorbidity– compassionate use trial– complementary and alternative medicine– complete blood count (CBC)– complete hysterectomy– complete metastasectomy– complete remission– complete response– compound nevus– compression bandage– computed tomographic colonography– computed tomography– computed tomography colography– computerized axial tomography– computerized tomography– concurrent therapy– condylomata acuminata– cone biopsy– congestive heart failure– conization– consecutive case series– consolidation therapy– contiguous lymphoma– continent reservoir– contingency management– continuous hyperthermic peritoneal perfusion– continuous infusion– contralateral– control animal– control group– controlled clinical trial– controlled study– conventional therapy– conventional treatment– cooperative group– CoQ10– cordectomy– cordycepin– core biopsy– corticosteroid– Corynebacterium granulosum– coumestan– coumestrol– CP-358,774– CP-609,754– CP-724,714– CP4071– CpG 7909– CPT 11– CQS– craniopharyngioma– craniotomy– creatine– creatinine– cribriform– crisnatol mesylate– Crohn's disease– cryopreservation– cryosurgery– cryotherapy– cryptorchidism– CSF– CT scan– CT-2103– CT-2106– CT-2584– CTC– cultured cell– cultured cell line– cumulative dose– curcumin– cutaneous breast cancer– cutaneous T-cell lymphoma– cyanogenic glucoside– cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor– cyclophosphamide– cyclosporine– cyproheptadine– cyproterone acetate– cyst– cystectomy– cystosarcoma phyllodes– cystoscope– cystoscopy– cytarabine– cytochlor– cytogenetics– cytokine– cytology– cytomegalovirus– cytopenia– cytoplasm– cytotoxic– cytotoxic chemotherapy– cytotoxic T cell

text: C cell

text: c-kit

text: CA 19-9 assay

text: CA-125 test

text: cachexia

text: calcitonin

text: calcitriol

text: CAM

text: camptothecin

text: camptothecin analog

text: cancer

text: cancer induction

text: Cancer Information Service

text: cancer of unknown primary origin

text: Cancer stem cell

text: cancer vaccine

text: Cancer.gov

text: Candidiasis

text: Candidosis

text: capecitabine

text: capsaicin

text: captopril

text: carbendazim

text: carbogen

text: carbon-11 acetate

text: carboplatin

text: carboxyamidotriazole

text: carcinoembryonic antigen

text: carcinoembryonic antigen peptide-1

text: carcinogen

text: carcinogenesis

text: carcinoid

text: carcinoid syndrome

text: carcinoma

text: carcinoma in situ

text: carcinomatosis

text: carcinosarcoma

text: carcinosis

text: carcinostatic

text: cardin (oncology)

text: carmustine

text: carnitine

text: carotenoid

text: carzelesin

text: case report

text: case series

text: case-control study

text: caspofungin acetate

text: Castleman's disease

text: CAT scan

text: catechol

text: cauterization

text: cauterize

text: cBR96-doxorubicin immunoconjugate

text: CC-49 monoclonal antibody

text: CD34 antigen

text: CEA

text: CEA assay

text: cecum

text: cefalexin

text: cefepime

text: cefixime

text: ceftriaxone

text: celecoxib

text: celiac disease

text: cell

text: cell differentiation

text: cell motility

text: cell proliferation

text: cell respiration

text: cell adhesion

text: cellular adoptive immunotherapy

text: cellular metabolism

text: cellulitis

text: central nervous system primitive neuroectodermal tumor

text: central venous access catheter

text: CEP-2563 dihydrochloride

text: cephalosporin

text: ceramide

text: cerebellar hemangioblastoma

text: cerebellopontine

text: cerebral hemisphere

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: cerebrospinal fluid diversion

text: cervical

text: cervical intraepithelial neoplasia

text: cervix

text: cetuximab

text: cevimeline

text: CGP 48664

text: Chamberlain procedure

text: chemoembolization

text: chemoimmunotherapy

text: chemoprevention

text: chemoprevention studies

text: chemoprotective

text: chemoradiation

text: chemoradiotherapy

text: chemosensitivity

text: chemosensitivity assay

text: chemosensitizer

text: chemotherapeutic agent

text: chemotherapy

text: chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy

text: chest x-ray

text: chiasma

text: child-life worker

text: chitin

text: chlorambucil

text: chlorine

text: chloroma

text: chloroquinoxaline sulfonamide

text: cholangiocarcinoma

text: cholangiosarcoma

text: cholelith

text: cholestasis

text: chondrocyte

text: chondroitin sulfate

text: chondrosarcoma

text: chordoma

text: chorioallantoic membrane

text: choriocarcinoma

text: choroid plexus tumor

entity_name: Continuous hyperthermic peritoneal perfusion

text: CHPP

text: chronic granulocytic leukemia

text: chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis

text: chronic leukemia

text: chronic lymphoblastic leukemia

text: chronic lymphocytic leukemia

text: chronic myelogenous leukemia

text: chronic myeloid leukemia

text: chronic myelomonocytic leukemia

text: chronic phase

entity_name: Chronic phase chronic myelogenous leukemia

text: chronic phase chronic myelogenous leukemia

text: CHS 828

text: ciclosporin

text: cidofovir

text: cilengitide

text: cimetidine

text: Cipro

text: ciprofloxacin

text: circulatory system

text: cirrhosis

text: CIS

text: cisplatin

text: citric acid/potassium-sodium citrate

text: cladribine

text: clarithromycin

text: clear cell adenocarcinoma

text: clear-cell sarcoma

text: clear cell sarcoma of the kidney

text: clinical breast exam

text: clinical resistance

text: clinical series

text: clinical study

text: clinical trial

text: CLL

text: clodronate

text: clofarabine

text: CML

text: CMML

text: CMV

text: cnicin

text: CNS

text: CNS metastasis

text: CNS prophylaxis

text: CNS sanctuary

text: CNS tumor

text: co-culture

text: co-trimoxazole

text: coactivated T cell

text: cobalt 60

text: Cockayne syndrome

text: coenzyme Q10

text: cohort study

text: cold nodule

text: Coley's toxins

text: collagen disease

text: collagenase

text: collecting duct

text: coloanal anastomosis

text: coloanal pull-through

text: Colorectal cancer

text: (colon cancer)–

text: colon polyp

text: colonoscope

text: colonoscopy

text: colony-stimulating factor

text: colorectal

text: colposcope

text: colposcopy

text: combination chemotherapy

text: combretastatin A4 phosphate

text: comedo carcinoma

text: common bile duct

text: comorbidity

text: compassionate use trial

text: complementary and alternative medicine

text: complete blood count

text: (CBC)–

text: complete hysterectomy

text: complete metastasectomy

text: complete remission

text: complete response

text: compound nevus

text: compression bandage

text: computed tomographic colonography

text: computed tomography

text: computed tomography colography

text: computerized axial tomography

text: computerized tomography

text: concurrent therapy

text: condylomata acuminata

text: cone biopsy

text: congestive heart failure

text: conization

text: consecutive case series

text: consolidation therapy

text: contiguous lymphoma

text: continent reservoir

text: contingency management

text: continuous hyperthermic peritoneal perfusion

text: continuous infusion

text: contralateral

text: control animal

text: control group

text: controlled clinical trial

text: controlled study

text: conventional therapy

text: conventional treatment

text: cooperative group

text: cordectomy

text: cordycepin

text: core biopsy

text: corticosteroid

text: Corynebacterium granulosum

text: coumestan

text: coumestrol

text: CpG 7909

text: CPT 11

text: CQS

text: craniopharyngioma

text: craniotomy

text: creatine

text: creatinine

text: cribriform

text: crisnatol mesylate

text: Crohn's disease

text: cryopreservation

text: cryosurgery

text: cryotherapy

text: cryptorchidism

text: CSF

text: CT scan

text: CTC

text: cultured cell

text: cultured cell line

text: cumulative dose

text: curcumin

text: cutaneous breast cancer

text: cutaneous T-cell lymphoma

text: cyanogenic glucoside

text: cyclooxygenase-2 selective inhibitor

text: cyclophosphamide

text: cyclosporine

text: cyproheptadine

text: cyproterone acetate

text: cyst

text: cystectomy

text: cystosarcoma phyllodes

text: cystoscope

text: cystoscopy

text: cytarabine

text: cytochlor

text: cytogenetics

text: cytokine

text: cytology

text: cytomegalovirus

text: cytopenia

text: cytoplasm

text: cytotoxic

text: cytotoxic chemotherapy

text: cytotoxic T cell

text: The syndrome is named after Dr. Douglas Reye, who, along with fellow physicians Drs. Graeme Morgan and Jim Baral, published the first study of the syndrome in 1963 in The Lancet. In retrospect, the occurrence of the syndrome may have first been reported in 1929. Also in 1964, Dr. George Johnson and colleagues published an investigation of an outbreak of influenza B that described 16 children who developed neurological problems, four of whom had a profile remarkably similar to Reye syndrome.  Some investigators refer to this disorder as Reye-Johnson syndrome, although it is more commonly called Reye syndrome. In 1979, Dr. Karen Starko and colleagues conducted a case-control study in Phoenix, Arizona and found the first statistically significant link between aspirin use and Reye syndrome. Studies in Ohio and Michigan soon confirmed her findings  pointing to the use of aspirin during an upper respiratory tract or chickenpox infection as a possible trigger of the syndrome.  Beginning in 1980, the CDC cautioned physicians and parents about the association between Reye syndrome and the use of salicylates in children and teenagers with chickenpox or virus-like illnesses.  In 1982 the U.S. Surgeon General issued an advisory, and in 1986 the Food and Drug Administration required a Reye syndrome-related warning label for all aspirin-containing medications.

text: The syndrome is named after Dr.

text: Douglas Reye

text: , who, along with fellow physicians Drs. Graeme Morgan and Jim Baral, published the first study of the syndrome in 1963 in

text: The Lancet

text: . In retrospect, the occurrence of the syndrome may have first been reported in 1929. Also in 1964, Dr. George Johnson and colleagues published an investigation of an outbreak of influenza B that described 16 children who developed neurological problems, four of whom had a profile remarkably similar to Reye syndrome.  Some investigators refer to this disorder as Reye-Johnson syndrome, although it is more commonly called Reye syndrome. In 1979, Dr. Karen Starko and colleagues conducted a case-control study in Phoenix, Arizona and found the first statistically significant link between aspirin use and Reye syndrome. Studies in Ohio and Michigan soon confirmed her findings  pointing to the use of aspirin during an upper respiratory tract or chickenpox infection as a possible trigger of the syndrome.  Beginning in 1980, the CDC cautioned physicians and parents about the association between Reye syndrome and the use of salicylates in children and teenagers with chickenpox or virus-like illnesses.  In 1982 the U.S. Surgeon General issued an advisory, and in 1986 the

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: required a Reye syndrome-related warning label for all aspirin-containing medications.

text: Neuroscientists focus primarily on the study and research of the nervous system. The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord and nerve cells. Studies of the nervous system may focus on the cellular level, as in studies of the ion channels, or instead may focus on broader aspects of nervous system function as in behavioral studies. A significant portion of nervous system studies is devoted to understanding the diseases that affect the nervous system, like multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Lou Gehrig's. Research commonly occurs in private, government and public research institutions and universities.

text: Neuroscientists focus primarily on the study and research of the

text: nervous system

text: . The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord and

text: nerve

text: cells. Studies of the nervous system may focus on the cellular level, as in studies of the

text: ion channel

text: s, or instead may focus on broader aspects of nervous system function as in behavioral studies. A significant portion of nervous system studies is devoted to understanding the diseases that affect the nervous system, like

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Alzheimer's

text: Parkinson's

text: , and

text: Lou Gehrig's

text: . Research commonly occurs in private, government and public research institutions and universities.

text: California encephalitis virus belongs to the Bunyaviridae family of viruses. The La Crosse Virus from the same genus is also a common cause of encephalitis in the United States. Other viruses with similar disease symptoms but genetically unrelated include: St. Louis Encephalitis and West Nile Virus.

text: California encephalitis virus belongs to the

text: Bunyaviridae

text: family of viruses. The

text: La Crosse Virus

text: from the same genus is also a common cause of encephalitis in the United States. Other viruses with similar disease symptoms but genetically unrelated include:

text: St. Louis Encephalitis

text: and

text: West Nile Virus

text: All Down syndrome (DS) patients progress neuropathological changes identical to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease (AD) after their middle age, such as neurotic plaques and neuronal loss in their brain, Therefor, DS patients are perfect models to study AD pathogenesis. Chronic DSCR1 overexpression is related with DS and, while its shortage is reported in Huntington’s disease. DSCR1 expressed excessively in the Central nervous system of embryos during their development, this protein is later overexpressed in differentiating neurons regions such as Brains of DS patients. However, neurotrophic peptide PACAP (or Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide) which is responsible for the development, differentiation, and survival, and various parts of memory and learning, Target RCNA1 in a Down syndrome related gene, induces the expression of regulator of calcineurin 1, through activation of the PKA-CREB pathway, and this is important to understand the mechanisms of neural differentiation and aim for proper expression of RCAN1.

text: All Down syndrome (DS) patients progress neuropathological changes identical to the pathogenesis of

text: Alzheimer disease

text: (AD) after their middle age, such as neurotic plaques and neuronal loss in their brain, Therefor, DS patients are perfect models to study AD pathogenesis. Chronic DSCR1 overexpression is related with DS and, while its shortage is reported in

text: Huntington’s disease

text: . DSCR1 expressed excessively in the Central nervous system of embryos during their development, this protein is later overexpressed in differentiating neurons regions such as Brains of DS patients. However, neurotrophic peptide

entity_name: Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide

text: PACAP

text: (or Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide) which is responsible for the development, differentiation, and survival, and various parts of memory and learning, Target RCNA1 in a Down syndrome related gene, induces the expression of regulator of calcineurin 1, through activation of the PKA-CREB pathway, and this is important to understand the mechanisms of neural differentiation and aim for proper expression of RCAN1.

text: This criteria is typically validated through biopsy of the cutaneous lesions and imaging of the central nervous system. It is important to establish that the cutaneous lesions are benign. If not, then the melanocytic deposits in the central nervous system may be the result of metastasis of cutaneous melanoma and not neurocutaneous melanosis.

text: This criteria is typically validated through

text: biopsy

text: of the cutaneous lesions and imaging of the central nervous system. It is important to establish that the cutaneous lesions are benign. If not, then the melanocytic deposits in the central nervous system may be the result of metastasis of cutaneous melanoma and not neurocutaneous melanosis.

text: The serious symptoms of Reye syndrome appear to result from damage to cellular mitochondria, at least in the liver, and there are a number of ways that aspirin could cause or exacerbate mitochondrial damage. A potential increased risk of developing Reye syndrome is one of the main reasons that aspirin has not been recommended for use in children and teenagers, the age group for which the risk of lasting serious effects is highest.

text: The serious symptoms of Reye syndrome appear to result from damage to cellular

text: mitochondria

text: , at least in the liver, and there are a number of ways that aspirin could cause or exacerbate mitochondrial damage. A potential increased risk of developing Reye syndrome is one of the main reasons that aspirin has not been recommended for use in children and teenagers, the age group for which the risk of lasting serious effects is highest.

text: Other causes include medication side effects and various disease processes. The use of stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines which can result in urinary retention, and the use of CNS depressants and other psychoactive drugs can also lead to urinary retention and constipation thus leading to autonomic dysreflexia when in use over an extended period of time. Guillain–Barré syndrome is a demyelinating disease that can result in peripheral paralysis and can progress to encompass autonomic functions, leading to a loss of normal respiratory, bladder and bowel function resulting in autonomic dysreflexia. Severe head trauma and other brain injuries can instigate autonomic dysreflexia at the central nervous system by interfering with the reception of the signal that brings the urge to void the bladder and bowels and with the voluntary ability to micturate and defecate.Other causal theories for autonomic dysreflexia include  noxious stimuli, or painful stimuli arising from the peripheral sensory neurons. These stimuli are interrupted in their journey to the brain due to a transection of the spine result in a paradoxical stimulation of autonomic pathways of the autonomic nervous system.

text: Other causes include medication side effects and various disease processes. The use of stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines which can result in urinary retention, and the use of CNS depressants and other psychoactive drugs can also lead to urinary retention and constipation thus leading to autonomic dysreflexia when in use over an extended period of time.

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: is a demyelinating disease that can result in peripheral paralysis and can progress to encompass autonomic functions, leading to a loss of normal respiratory, bladder and bowel function resulting in autonomic dysreflexia. Severe head trauma and other brain injuries can instigate autonomic dysreflexia at the

text: central nervous system

text: by interfering with the reception of the signal that brings the urge to void the bladder and bowels and with the voluntary ability to micturate and defecate.Other causal theories for autonomic dysreflexia include

text: noxious stimuli

text: , or painful stimuli arising from the peripheral sensory neurons. These stimuli are interrupted in their journey to the brain due to a

text: transection

text: of the spine result in a paradoxical stimulation of autonomic pathways of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: Arbovirus encephalitis refers to encephalitis that is caused by arbovirus infection.

text: Arbovirus encephalitis refers to

text: encephalitis

text: that is caused by

text: arbovirus infection

text: Chaetomium atrobrunneum is a rare pathogen of humans that tends to infect the tissues of the central nervous system. Its pathogenicity is thought to be supported by its ability to grow at high temperatures. This species has been reported to be an agent of fatal brain abscesses in immunologically impaired people. It can also cause systemic disseminated phaeohyphomycosis affecting other organs including the lungs. Infections due to this species have typically occurred following invasive procedures such as intravenous drug administration and renal transplantation.

text: Chaetomium atrobrunneum is a rare pathogen of humans that tends to infect the tissues of the

text: central nervous system

text: . Its pathogenicity is thought to be supported by its ability to grow at high temperatures. This species has been reported to be an agent of fatal brain abscesses in immunologically impaired people. It can also cause systemic disseminated

text: phaeohyphomycosis

text: affecting other organs including the lungs. Infections due to this species have typically occurred following invasive procedures such as intravenous drug administration and renal transplantation.

text: The enteric nervous system has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the central nervous system (CNS) through the parasympathetic (e.g., via the vagus nerve) and sympathetic (e.g., via the prevertebral ganglia) nervous systems.  However, vertebrate studies show that when the vagus nerve is severed, the enteric nervous system continues to function.

text: The enteric nervous system has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) through the

text: parasympathetic

text: (e.g., via the

text: vagus nerve

text: ) and

text: sympathetic

text: (e.g., via the

text: prevertebral ganglia

text: ) nervous systems.  However,

text: vertebrate

text: studies show that when the

text: vagus nerve

text: Opsoclonus Myoclonus Syndrome (OMS), also known as Opsoclonus-Myoclonus-Ataxia (OMA), is a rare neurological disorder of unknown causes which appears to be the result of an autoimmune process involving the nervous system. It is an extremely rare condition, affecting as few as 1 in 10,000,000 people per year. It affects 2 to 3% of children with neuroblastoma and has been reported to occur with celiac disease and diseases of neurologic and autonomic dysfunction.

text: Opsoclonus Myoclonus Syndrome (OMS), also known as Opsoclonus-Myoclonus-Ataxia (OMA), is a rare

text: neurological

text: disorder

text: of unknown causes which appears to be the result of an

text: autoimmune

text: process involving the

text: nervous system

text: . It is an extremely rare condition, affecting as few as 1 in 10,000,000 people per year. It affects 2 to 3% of children with

text: neuroblastoma

text: and has been reported to occur with

text: celiac disease

text: and diseases of neurologic and autonomic dysfunction.

text: The major causes of CVI are as follows: asphyxia, hypoxia (a lack of sufficient oxygen in the body’s blood cells), or ischemia (not enough blood supply to the brain), all of which may occur during the birth process; developmental brain defects; head injury; hydrocephalus (when the cerebrospinal fluid does not circulate properly around the brain, and collects in the head, putting pressure on the brain); a stroke involving the occipital lobe; and infections of the central nervous system, such as meningitis and encephalitis.

text: The major causes of CVI are as follows: asphyxia, hypoxia (a lack of sufficient oxygen in the body’s blood cells), or ischemia (not enough blood supply to the brain), all of which may occur during the birth process; developmental brain defects; head injury; hydrocephalus (when the cerebrospinal fluid does not circulate properly around the brain, and collects in the head, putting pressure on the brain); a

text: stroke

text: involving the

text: occipital lobe

text: ; and infections of the central nervous system, such as meningitis and encephalitis.

text: The neuraxis or sometimes neuroaxis is the axis of the central nervous system. It denotes the direction in which the central nervous system lies. During embryological development, the neuraxis is bent by various flexures, contributing to the mature structure of the brain and spinal cord.

text: The neuraxis or sometimes neuroaxis is the axis of the

text: central nervous system

text: . It denotes the direction in which the central nervous system lies. During embryological development, the neuraxis is bent by various flexures, contributing to the mature structure of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: suPARnostic is a simplified double monoclonal antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) that measures the amount of soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (suPAR) in blood. Elevated plasma suPAR levels have been observed in various infectious, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.  suPAR concentration positively correlates to the activation level of the immune system. suPARnostic can be used as a prognostic tool to determine the severity of a disease within a patient, but is not used as a reliable diagnostic tool, as it can detect the severity of the immune response in a patient, but does not reveal the specific disease from which the patient may be suffering. Recently, increase suPAR levels were shown to be associated with increased risk of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS)/sepsis, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, infectious diseases, HIV, cancer tuberculosis, malaria, bacterial and viral CNS infections, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis and mortality in the general population.

text: suPARnostic is a simplified double monoclonal antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (

text: ELISA

text: ) that measures the amount of soluble urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (

text: suPAR

text: ) in blood. Elevated plasma suPAR levels have been observed in various

text: infectious

text: inflammatory

text: and

text: autoimmune diseases

text: .  suPAR concentration positively correlates to the activation level of the immune system. suPARnostic can be used as a prognostic tool to determine the severity of a disease within a patient, but is not used as a reliable diagnostic tool, as it can detect the severity of the immune response in a patient, but does not reveal the specific disease from which the patient may be suffering. Recently, increase suPAR levels were shown to be associated with increased risk of systemic inflammatory response syndrome (

text: SIRS

text: sepsis

text: cardiovascular disease

text: type 2 diabetes

text: infectious diseases

text: HIV

text: cancer

text: tuberculosis

text: malaria

text: , bacterial and viral

entity_name: List of infections of the central nervous system

text: CNS infection

text: s,

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: multiple sclerosis

text: and

text: mortality

text: in the general population.

text: Controversies were raised about the cooperation of Levi-Montalcini with the Italian pharmaceutical industry Fidia . While working for Fidia, she improved the understanding of gangliosides. Beginning in 1975, the scientist supported the drug Cronassial (a particular ganglioside) produced by Fidia from bovine brain tissue. Independent studies showed that the drug actually could be successful in treatment of intended diseases (periphrastic nervous system neuropathies). Years later, some patients under treatment with Cronassial reported a severe neurological syndrome (Guillain–Barré syndrome). As per the normal cautionary routine, Germany banned Cronassial in 1983, followed by other countries. Italy prohibited the drug only in 1993; at the same time, an investigation revealed that Fidia paid the Italian Ministry of Health for a quick approval of Cronassial and later paid for pushing use of the drug in treatment of diseases where it had not been tested.  Levi-Montalcini's relationship with the company was revealed during the investigation, and she was criticized publicly.

text: Controversies were raised about the cooperation of Levi-Montalcini with the Italian pharmaceutical industry

text: Fidia

text: . While working for Fidia, she improved the understanding of

text: gangliosides

text: . Beginning in 1975, the scientist supported the drug

text: Cronassial

text: (a particular ganglioside) produced by Fidia from bovine

text: brain

text: tissue. Independent studies showed that the drug actually could be successful in treatment of intended diseases (periphrastic nervous system neuropathies). Years later, some patients under treatment with Cronassial reported a severe neurological syndrome (

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: ). As per the normal cautionary routine, Germany banned Cronassial in 1983, followed by other countries. Italy prohibited the drug only in 1993; at the same time, an investigation revealed that Fidia paid the Italian Ministry of Health for a quick approval of Cronassial and later paid for pushing use of the drug in treatment of diseases where it had not been tested.  Levi-Montalcini's relationship with the company was revealed during the investigation, and she was criticized publicly.

text: Westphal reported the first documented case of post-viral cerebellar ataxia in 1872, where associations of reversible cerebellar syndrome were observed. Another early case was documented in 1905. Batten described in detail cases of post-infectious cerebellar ataxia in five children. The cause of the disease was unknown until 1978 when Weiss and Guberman proposed that ACA could be due to direct invasion of the central nervous system by infectious agents. Since then many case studies have followed to understand the underlying conditions, symptoms and causes of the disease. The largest study of retrospective childhood ACA was done in 1994 by Connolly. This disease is still commonly used as a reference in clinical practice for other inflammatory and autoimmune disorders of the nervous system.

text: CFS is not included as a coded term in the 1992 ICD-10, WHO created a new category G93, Other disorders of brain, in Chapter VI, Diseases of the Nervous System, and created a new code G93.3, post-viral fatigue syndrome (PVFS), a condition which was previously in the symptom chapter of ICD-9. WHO also moved benign myalgic encephalomyelitis to G93.3, subordinate to PVFS. The alphabetic index contains other terms, such as chronic fatigue syndrome, to which WHO assigned the same code.

text: CFS is not included as a coded term in the 1992

entity_name: ICD-10 Chapter VI: Diseases of the nervous system

text: , WHO created a new category G93, Other disorders of brain, in Chapter VI, Diseases of the Nervous System, and created a new code G93.3,

text: post-viral fatigue syndrome

text: (PVFS), a condition which was previously in the symptom chapter of ICD-9. WHO also moved benign myalgic encephalomyelitis to G93.3, subordinate to PVFS. The alphabetic index contains other terms, such as chronic fatigue syndrome, to which WHO assigned the same code.

text: The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-or-flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis. The sympathetic nervous system is described as being complementary to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "rest-and-digest" or "Feed and breed".

text: The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , the other being the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: . The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's

text: fight-or-flight response

text: . It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: . The sympathetic nervous system is described as being complementary to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "rest-and-digest" or "Feed and breed".

text: Tafamidis functions by kinetic stabilization of the correctly folded tetrameric form of the transthyretin (TTR) protein. In patients with FAP, this protein dissociates in a process that is rate limiting for aggregation including amyloid fibril formation, causing failure of the autonomic nervous system and/or the peripheral nervous system (neurodegeneration) initially and later failure of the heart. Kinetic Stabilization of tetrameric transthyretin in familial amyloid polyneuropathy patients provides the first pharmacologic evidence that the process of amyloid fibril formation causes this disease, as treatment with tafamidis dramatically slows the process of amyloid fibril formation and the degeneration of post-mitotic tissue. Sixty % of the patients enrolled in the initial clinical trial have the same or an improved neurologic impairment score after six years of taking tafamidis, whereas 30% of the patients progress at a rate ≤ 1/5 of that predicted by the natural history. Importantly, all of the V30M FAP patients remain stage 1 patients after 6 years on tafamidis out of four stages of disease progression. [Data presented orally by Professor Coelho in Brazil in 2013]

text: Tafamidis functions by kinetic stabilization of the correctly folded

text: tetrameric

text: form of the

text: transthyretin

text: (TTR) protein. In patients with FAP, this protein dissociates in a process that is rate limiting for aggregation including

text: amyloid

text: fibril formation, causing failure of the autonomic nervous system and/or the peripheral nervous system (

text: neurodegeneration

text: ) initially and later failure of the heart. Kinetic Stabilization of tetrameric transthyretin in familial amyloid polyneuropathy patients provides the first pharmacologic evidence that the process of amyloid fibril formation causes this disease, as treatment with tafamidis dramatically slows the process of amyloid fibril formation and the degeneration of post-mitotic tissue. Sixty % of the patients enrolled in the initial clinical trial have the same or an improved neurologic impairment score after six years of taking tafamidis, whereas 30% of the patients progress at a rate ≤ 1/5 of that predicted by the natural history. Importantly, all of the V30M FAP patients remain stage 1 patients after 6 years on tafamidis out of four stages of disease progression. [Data presented orally by Professor Coelho in Brazil in 2013]

text: Bees that have been infected with CBPV may house millions of viral particles, with half of them concentrated in the head region, allowing it to cause symptoms similar to diseases relating to nervous system damage. In fact, viral particles have been found to concentrate in two centers; mushroom bodies involved in sensory processing, memory, learning, and motor control as well as the center dealing with locomotive control, behavior and orientation, and arousal.,

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related. As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying symptoms apparent on clinical examination. Agenesis of the corpus callosum is one such disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies. The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell organelles that are present in many cellular types throughout the human body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases. Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: , that are now being found to be related. As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their

text: root cause

text: despite the widely varying

text: symptoms

text: apparent on clinical examination. Agenesis of the corpus callosum is one such disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: . The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: s that are present in many cellular types throughout the

text: human

text: body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often

text: multi-symptom

text: nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases. Known ciliopathies include

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: , and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: The most severe symptoms of Listeriosis result from involvement of the central nervous system (CNS). These severe and often fatal symptoms include meningitis, rhombencephalitis, and encephalitis.  These forms of disease are a direct result of Listeria pathogenicity mechanisms at the cellular level. Listerial infection involving the CNS can occur via three known routes: through the blood, through intracellular delivery, or through neuronal intracellular spread. Paracytophagous cell to cell spread offers Listeria access to the CNS by the latter two mechanisms.

text: The most severe symptoms of

text: Listeriosis

text: result from involvement of the central nervous system (CNS). These severe and often fatal symptoms include

text: meningitis

text: rhombencephalitis

text: , and

text: encephalitis

text: .  These forms of disease are a direct result of Listeria pathogenicity mechanisms at the cellular level. Listerial infection involving the CNS can occur via three known routes: through the blood, through intracellular delivery, or through neuronal intracellular spread. Paracytophagous cell to cell spread offers Listeria access to the CNS by the latter two mechanisms.

text: Together with the other component of the autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body's internal organs. Reaction to stress—as in the flight-or-fight response—is thought to counteract the parasympathetic system, which generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest. The comprehensive functions of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are not so straightforward, but this is a useful rule of thumb.

text: Together with the other component of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body's internal organs. Reaction to

text: stress

text: —as in the flight-or-fight response—is thought to counteract the

text: parasympathetic system

text: , which generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest. The comprehensive functions of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are not so straightforward, but this is a useful rule of thumb.

text: There are many central nervous system diseases and conditions, including infections of the central nervous system such as encephalitis and poliomyelitis, early-onset neurological disorders including ADHD and autism, late-onset neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and essential tremor, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, genetic disorders such as Krabbe's disease and Huntington's disease, as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and adrenoleukodystrophy. Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when malignant, can have very high mortality rates.

text: There are many central nervous system diseases and conditions, including

text: infections

text: of the central nervous system such as

text: encephalitis

text: and

text: poliomyelitis

text: , early-onset

text: neurological disorders

text: including

entity_name: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

text: ADHD

text: and

text: autism

text: , late-onset

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: such as

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: Parkinson's disease

text: , and

text: essential tremor

text: autoimmune

text: and inflammatory diseases such as

text: multiple sclerosis

text: and

text: acute disseminated encephalomyelitis

text: , genetic disorders such as

text: Krabbe's disease

text: and

text: Huntington's disease

text: , as well as

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: and

text: adrenoleukodystrophy

text: . Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when

text: malignant

text: , can have very high mortality rates.

text: Meningism, also called meningismus or pseudomeningitis, is a set  of symptoms similar to those of meningitis but not caused by meningitis. Whereas meningitis is inflammation of the meninges (membranes that cover the central nervous system), meningism is caused by nonmeningitic irritation of the meninges, usually associated with acute febrile illness, especially in children and adolescents. Meningism involves the triad (3-symptom syndrome) of nuchal rigidity (neck stiffness), photophobia (intolerance of bright light), and headache. It therefore requires differentiating from other CNS problems with similar symptoms, including meningitis and some types of intracranial hemorrhage. Related clinical signs include Kernig's sign and three signs all named Brudzinski's sign.

text: Meningism, also called meningismus or pseudomeningitis, is a set  of

text: symptom

text: s similar to those of

text: meningitis

text: but not caused by meningitis. Whereas meningitis is

text: inflammation

text: of the

text: meninges

text: (membranes that cover the central nervous system), meningism is caused by nonmeningitic irritation of the meninges, usually associated with acute

text: febrile

text: illness, especially in children and adolescents. Meningism involves the triad (3-symptom

text: syndrome

text: ) of nuchal rigidity (

text: neck stiffness

text: photophobia

text: (intolerance of bright light), and

text: headache

text: . It therefore requires

text: differentiating

text: from other CNS problems with similar symptoms, including meningitis and some types of

text: intracranial hemorrhage

text: . Related clinical signs include

text: Kernig's sign

text: and three signs all named

text: Brudzinski's sign

text: Alcelaphine herpesvirus 2 is primarily transmitted by nasal emissions, by contact with water, flood, feces, or close contact. It can be destroyed by prolonged exposure to sunlight, but has a very long incubation period and thus may have a long period of time to infect other animals. There are three forms usually seen. The first a nasal form with fever, nasal inflammation and digestive problems that is very mild and only lasts a few days. The second is a more severe form that involves fever, diarrhea, heavy nasal discharge, and lymph system failure, with a morbidity of 28 percent. The so-called "head and eye" form is the most lethal and serious form, which results in all known effects and central nervous system damage, predated by nervous shakes and eventually muscular failure. Morbidity in some cases is as high as 90 percent.

text: Alcelaphine herpesvirus 2 is primarily transmitted by nasal emissions, by contact with water, flood, feces, or close contact. It can be destroyed by prolonged exposure to sunlight, but has a very long

text: incubation period

text: and thus may have a long period of time to infect other animals. There are three forms usually seen. The first a nasal form with fever, nasal inflammation and digestive problems that is very mild and only lasts a few days. The second is a more severe form that involves fever, diarrhea, heavy nasal discharge, and lymph system failure, with a

text: morbidity

text: of 28 percent. The so-called "head and eye" form is the most lethal and serious form, which results in all known effects and

text: central nervous system

text: damage, predated by nervous shakes and eventually muscular failure. Morbidity in some cases is as high as 90 percent.

text: Adult patients with encephalitis present with acute onset of fever, headache, confusion, and sometimes seizures. Younger children or infants may present irritability, poor appetite and fever.Neurological examinations usually reveal a drowsy or confused patient. Stiff neck, due to the irritation of the meninges covering the brain, indicates that the patient has either meningitis or meningoencephalitis.

text: Adult patients with encephalitis present with acute onset of fever, headache, confusion, and sometimes seizures. Younger children or infants may present irritability, poor appetite and fever.Neurological examinations usually reveal a drowsy or confused patient. Stiff neck, due to the irritation of the meninges covering the brain, indicates that the patient has either meningitis or

text: meningoencephalitis

text: The nervous system and immune system require the appropriate degrees of cellular differentiation, organizational integrity, and neural network connectivity.  These operational features of the brain and nervous system may make signaling difficult to duplicate in severely diseased scenarios.  There are currently three classes of therapies that have been utilized in both animal models of disease and in human clinical trials.  These three classes include DNA methylation inhibitors, HDAC inhibitors, and RNA-based approaches.  DNA methylation inhibitors are used to activate previously silenced genes.  HDACs are a class of enzymes that have a broad set of biochemical modifications and can affect DNA demethylation and synergy with other therapeutic agents.  The final therapy includes using RNA-based approaches to enhance stability, specificity, and efficacy, especially in diseases that are caused by RNA alterations.  Emerging concepts concerning the complexity and versatility of the epigenome may suggest ways to target genomewide cellular processes.  Other studies suggest that eventual seminal regulator targets may be identified allowing with alterations to the massive epigenetic reprogramming during gametogenesis.  Many future treatments may extend beyond being purely therapeutic and may be preventable perhaps in the form of a vaccine. Newer high throughput technologies when combined with advances in imaging modalities such as in vivo optical nanotechnologies may give rise to even greater knowledge of genomic architecture, nuclear organization, and the interplay between the immune and nervous systems.

text: Nervous system lipomas are rare congenital benign tumors of the central nervous system, mostly located in the medial line and especially in the corpus callosum. Generally, patients with these lipomas present with strokes. However, patients with the Pai syndrome don’t. That is why it is suggested that isolated nervous system lipomas have a different embryological origin than the lipomas present in the Pai syndrome. The treatment of CNS lipomas mainly consists of observation and follow up.

text: Apolipoprotein E (APOE) is a class of apolipoprotein found in the chylomicron and Intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDLs) that is essential for the normal catabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoprotein constituents. In peripheral tissues, APOE is primarily produced by the liver and macrophages, and mediates cholesterol metabolism in an isoform-dependent manner. In the central nervous system, APOE is mainly produced by astrocytes, and transports cholesterol to neurons via APOE receptors, which are members of the low density lipoprotein receptor gene family. APOE is the principal cholesterol carrier in the brain. This protein is involved in Alzheimer’s disease and cardiovascular disease.

text: Apolipoprotein E (APOE) is a class of

text: apolipoprotein

text: found in the

text: chylomicron

text: and

text: Intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDLs)

text: that is essential for the normal catabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoprotein constituents. In peripheral tissues, APOE is primarily produced by the

text: liver

text: and

text: macrophages

text: , and mediates

text: cholesterol

text: metabolism in an

text: isoform

text: -dependent manner. In the

text: central nervous system

text: , APOE is mainly produced by

text: astrocytes

text: , and transports

text: cholesterol

text: to

text: neurons

text: via APOE receptors, which are members of the

entity_name: Low-density lipoprotein receptor gene family

text: low density lipoprotein receptor gene family

text: . APOE is the principal

text: cholesterol

text: carrier in the brain. This protein is involved in

text: Alzheimer’s disease

text: and

text: cardiovascular disease

text: Cockayne syndrome (CS), also called Neill-Dingwall syndrome, is a rare fatal autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by growth failure, impaired development of the nervous system, abnormal sensitivity to sunlight (photosensitivity), eye disorders and premature aging. Failure to thrive and neurological disorders are criteria for diagnosis, while photosensitivity, hearing loss, eye abnormalities, and cavities are other very common features.  Problems with any or all of the internal organs are possible.  It is associated with a group of disorders called leukodystrophies, which are conditions characterized by degradation of neurological white matter. The underlying disorder is a defect in a DNA repair mechanism. Unlike other defects of DNA repair, patients with CS are not predisposed to cancer or infection. Cockayne syndrome is a rare but destructive disease usually resulting in death within the first or second decade of life. The mutation of specific genes in Cockayne syndrome is known, but the widespread effects and its relationship with DNA repair is yet to be well understood.

text: Cockayne syndrome (CS), also called Neill-Dingwall syndrome, is a rare fatal

text: autosomal

text: recessive

text: neurodegenerative

text: disorder characterized by growth failure, impaired development of the

text: nervous system

text: , abnormal sensitivity to

text: sunlight

text: photosensitivity

text: ), eye disorders and

text: premature aging

text: Failure to thrive

text: and neurological disorders are criteria for diagnosis, while photosensitivity, hearing loss, eye abnormalities, and cavities are other very common features.  Problems with any or all of the internal organs are possible.  It is associated with a group of disorders called

text: leukodystrophies

text: , which are conditions characterized by degradation of neurological

text: white matter

text: . The underlying disorder is a defect in a

text: DNA repair

text: mechanism. Unlike other defects of DNA repair, patients with CS are not predisposed to cancer or infection. Cockayne syndrome is a rare but destructive disease usually resulting in death within the first or second decade of life. The mutation of specific genes in Cockayne syndrome is known, but the widespread effects and its relationship with DNA repair is yet to be well understood.

text: Other notable people include Mordechai Gebirtig, who was one of the most influential and popular writers of Yiddish songs and poems. He died there in 1942. Miriam Akavia, an Israeli writer, survived the Kraków ghetto and concentration camps.  Renowned dermatologist and co-discoverer of Reyes Syndrome, Dr Jim (Jacob) Baral was also a Kraków Ghetto survivor. Bernard Offen, born in 1929 in Kraków survived the Ghetto and several Nazi concentration camps.

text: Other notable people include

text: Mordechai Gebirtig

text: , who was one of the most influential and popular writers of Yiddish songs and poems. He died there in 1942.

text: Miriam Akavia

text: , an Israeli writer, survived the Kraków ghetto and concentration camps.  Renowned dermatologist and co-discoverer of

text: Reyes Syndrome

text: , Dr Jim (Jacob) Baral was also a Kraków Ghetto survivor.

text: Bernard Offen

text: , born in 1929 in Kraków survived the Ghetto and several Nazi concentration camps.

text: It has been known since the 1970s that when fat cells become too big, they may become bloated and dysfunctional, or “sick.”  It has also been known since the 1940s that if fat gain occurs in the belly or abdominal (visceral) region, that this is another example of sick fat that promotes metabolic diseases.  Finally, if fat growth exceeds its blood vessel supply, then the lack of oxygen delivery by the blood may also result in pathologic responses from fat tissue. In summary, it has been known for decades that adverse changes in fat cell and fat tissue anatomy result in sick fat which causes metabolic disease.More recently, an additional event that has prompted the concept and term of “adiposopathy” is the evolving recognition of the profound hormone and immune importance of fat tissue.  In the past, fat cells and fat tissue were considered by many as being inert, or hormonally and immunologically inactive.  However, this has been proven incorrect, and it is now generally accepted that fat tissue is an active hormone, and immune organ.Yet another historical event that moved medical science towards recognizing fat tissue as an underlying cause of metabolic disease has been the problematic issues that have arisen with the “metabolic syndrome.”  The metabolic syndrome is a commonly used medical term to describe atherosclerotic coronary heart disease risk factors that tend to cluster together.  Over the years, there have been at least 15 other similar terms used to generally describe the same clustering. According to one common definition, a patient is said to have “metabolic syndrome” if he or she has 3 or more the 5 following criteria: (1) abdominal obesity, (2) elevated triglycerides, (3) reduced high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, (4) high blood pressure, and (5) high blood sugar.  However, different scientific and medical organizations have different definitions for the “metabolic syndrome.” Also, the term “metabolic syndrome” does not describe, nor is it intended to describe a unifying cause of any disease.  Since “metabolic syndrome” is not a disease, regulatory agencies (such as the Food and Drug Administration) do not approve drugs to treat metabolic syndrome, as a specific indicated use.  Finally, the “metabolic syndrome” may be no better at predicting atherosclerotic coronary heart disease than an assessment of its individual components. As such, major scientific and medical organizations have questioned the usefulness of the metabolic syndrome, sometimes in open conflict with other major scientific and medical organizations.

text: It has been known since the 1970s that when fat cells become too big, they may become bloated and dysfunctional, or “sick.”  It has also been known since the 1940s that if fat gain occurs in the belly or abdominal (visceral) region, that this is another example of sick fat that promotes metabolic diseases.  Finally, if fat growth exceeds its blood vessel supply, then the lack of oxygen delivery by the blood may also result in pathologic responses from fat tissue. In summary, it has been known for decades that adverse changes in fat cell and fat tissue anatomy result in sick fat which causes metabolic disease.More recently, an additional event that has prompted the concept and term of “adiposopathy” is the evolving recognition of the profound

text: hormone

text: and

text: immune

text: importance of fat tissue.  In the past, fat cells and fat tissue were considered by many as being inert, or hormonally and immunologically inactive.  However, this has been proven incorrect, and it is now generally accepted that fat tissue is an active hormone, and immune organ.Yet another historical event that moved medical science towards recognizing fat tissue as an underlying cause of metabolic disease has been the problematic issues that have arisen with the “

text: metabolic syndrome

text: .”  The

text: metabolic syndrome

text: is a commonly used medical term to describe atherosclerotic coronary heart disease risk factors that tend to cluster together.  Over the years, there have been at least 15 other similar terms used to generally describe the same clustering. According to one common definition, a patient is said to have “metabolic syndrome” if he or she has 3 or more the 5 following criteria: (1) abdominal obesity, (2) elevated triglycerides, (3) reduced high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, (4) high blood pressure, and (5) high blood sugar.  However, different scientific and medical organizations have different definitions for the “metabolic syndrome.” Also, the term “

text: metabolic syndrome

text: ” does not describe, nor is it intended to describe a unifying cause of any disease.  Since “

text: metabolic syndrome

text: ” is not a disease, regulatory agencies (such as the

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: ) do not approve drugs to treat metabolic syndrome, as a specific indicated use.  Finally, the “

text: metabolic syndrome

text: ” may be no better at predicting atherosclerotic coronary heart disease than an assessment of its individual components. As such, major scientific and medical organizations have questioned the usefulness of the

text: metabolic syndrome

text: , sometimes in open conflict with other major scientific and medical organizations.

text: While advanced research at the University is carried out in virtually every field of modern medicine, its contribution is most widely recognized in such disciplines as immunology, endocrinology, oncology, nuclear medicine, anaesthesiology, surgery, nephrology, gynaecology and obstetrics (especially perinatology), ecology, parasitic and tropical diseases, AIDS, viral hepatitis, hematology, child oncology, cytophysiology and cytopathology, development of the central nervous system, immunology of skin diseases, clinical pharmacology, genetics, audiology, phoniatrics and optometry.

text: Neuro: of or having to do with the nervous system. Nervous System: An organ system that coordinates the activities of muscles, monitors organs, constructs and processes data received from the senses and initiates actions. The human nervous system coordinates the functions of itself and all organ systems including but not limited to the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, skin, digestive system, immune system, hormonal, metabolic, musculoskeletal, endocrine system, blood and reproductive system. Optimal function of the organism as a whole depends upon the proper function of the nervous system.

text: Neuro: of or having to do with the nervous system.

text: Nervous System

text: : An

text: organ

text: system that

text: coordinate

text: s the activities of muscles, monitors organs, constructs and processes data received from the senses and initiates actions. The human nervous system coordinates the functions of itself and all organ systems including but not limited to the

text: cardiovascular system

text: respiratory system

text: skin

text: digestive system

text: immune system

text: , hormonal, metabolic, musculoskeletal,

text: endocrine system

text: , blood and

text: reproductive system

text: . Optimal function of the organism as a whole depends upon the proper function of the nervous system.

text: At the same developmental time, it is expressed in the ventricular zone in the telecephalon and hindbrain.  PCP-2 was also detected in the developing inner nuclear layer of the retina, in the olfactory epithelium of the nasal cavities, and in the meningeal coverings of the brain.   In the developing chick nervous system, PCP-2 mRNA is expressed in the ventral midline of the neural tube and in the border between the midbrain and hindbrain, known as the mid-hindbrain boundary.  PCP-2 mRNA is also observed in the ventricular zone of the developing chick neural retina.

text: The phlebotomic action opens a channel for contamination of the host species with bacteria, viruses and blood-borne parasites contained in the hematophagous organism. Thus, many animal and human infectious diseases are transmitted by hematophagous species, such as the bubonic plague, Chagas disease, dengue fever, eastern equine encephalitis, filariasis, leishmaniasis, Lyme disease, malaria, rabies, sleeping sickness, St. Louis encephalitis, tularemia, typhus, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, West Nile fever, Zika fever, and many others.

text: The phlebotomic action opens a channel for contamination of the host species with

text: bacteria

text: viruses

text: and blood-borne

text: parasite

text: s contained in the hematophagous organism. Thus, many animal and human

text: infectious disease

text: s are transmitted by hematophagous species, such as the

text: bubonic plague

text: Chagas disease

text: dengue fever

text: eastern equine encephalitis

text: filariasis

text: leishmaniasis

text: Lyme disease

text: malaria

text: rabies

text: sleeping sickness

text: St. Louis encephalitis

text: tularemia

text: typhus

text: Rocky Mountain spotted fever

text: West Nile fever

text: Zika fever

text: , and many others.

text: The demyelinating diseases of the peripheral nervous system include:

text: The demyelinating diseases of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: include:

text: AIF1 is a protein that exists in the cytoplasm, and it is highly evolutionarily conserved. It is also possibly identical to three other proteins, Iba-1, MRF-1 (microglia response factor) and daintain. However complete functional profiles of all three proteins and how they overlap is unknown. IBA1 is a 17-kDa EF hand protein that is specifically expressed in macrophages / microglia and is upregulated during the activation of these cells. Iba1 expression is up-regulated in microglia following nerve injury, central nervous system ischemia, and several other brain diseases.

text: AIF1 is a protein that exists in the

text: cytoplasm

text: , and it is highly evolutionarily conserved. It is also possibly identical to three other proteins, Iba-1, MRF-1 (microglia response factor) and daintain. However complete functional profiles of all three proteins and how they overlap is unknown. IBA1 is a 17-

text: kDa

text: EF hand

text: protein that is specifically expressed in

text: macrophage

text: s /

text: microglia

text: and is upregulated during the activation of these cells. Iba1 expression is up-regulated in microglia following nerve injury, central nervous system ischemia, and several other brain diseases.

text: In adults, testing electrolytes, blood glucose and calcium levels is important to rule these out as causes, as is an electrocardiogram. A lumbar puncture may be useful to diagnose a central nervous system infection but is not routinely needed. Routine antiseizure medical levels in the blood are not required in adults or children. In children additional tests may be required.

text: In adults, testing electrolytes,

text: blood glucose

text: and calcium levels is important to rule these out as causes, as is an

text: electrocardiogram

text: . A lumbar puncture may be useful to diagnose a

text: central nervous system

text: infection but is not routinely needed. Routine antiseizure medical levels in the blood are not required in adults or children. In children additional tests may be required.

text: The nervous system also controls limb stiffness to modulate the degree of accuracy that is required for a given task. For example, the accuracy required to grab a cup off of a table if very different from that of a surgeon performing a precise task with a scalpel. To accomplish these tasks with varying degrees of required accuracy, the nervous system adjusts limb stiffness. To accomplish very accurate tasks higher stiffness is required, however, when performing tasks where accuracy is not as imperative, lower limb stiffness is needed. In the case of accurate movements, the central nervous system is able to precisely control limb stiffness to limit movement variability. The cerebellum also plays a large role in controlling for the accuracy of movements.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: also controls limb stiffness to modulate the degree of accuracy that is required for a given task. For example, the accuracy required to grab a cup off of a table if very different from that of a surgeon performing a precise task with a

text: scalpel

text: . To accomplish these tasks with varying degrees of required accuracy, the nervous system adjusts limb stiffness. To accomplish very accurate tasks higher stiffness is required, however, when performing tasks where accuracy is not as imperative, lower limb stiffness is needed. In the case of accurate movements, the central nervous system is able to precisely control limb stiffness to limit movement variability. The

text: cerebellum

text: also plays a large role in controlling for the accuracy of movements.

text: Anti-CASPR2 nervous system manifestations: Patients with anti-CASPIR2 antibodies develop symptoms from the CNS and/or the peripheral nervous system. The classic presentation is with Morvan’s syndrome, a disease with the features of neuromyotonia (i.e. peripheral hyperexcetability) and limbic encephalitis. Other patients present with isolated neuromyotonia or limbic encephalitis.

text: The causative agent for Japanese encephalitis virus is an enveloped virus of the genus flavivirus and is closely related to the West Nile virus and the St. Louis encephalitis virus. The positive sense single-stranded RNA genome is packaged in the capsid which is formed by the capsid protein. The outer envelope is formed by envelope protein and is the protective antigen. It aids in entry of the virus into the inside of the cell. The genome also encodes several nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2a, NS2b, NS3, N4a, NS4b, NS5). NS1 is produced as secretory form also. NS3 is a putative helicase, and NS5 is the viral polymerase. It has been noted that Japanese encephalitis infects the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and rapidly accumulates substantial amounts of viral proteins for the Japanese Encephalitis.

text: The causative agent for Japanese encephalitis virus is an enveloped virus of the genus

text: flavivirus

text: and is closely related to the

text: West Nile virus

text: and the

text: St. Louis encephalitis

text: virus. The positive sense single-stranded

text: RNA

text: genome is packaged in the

text: capsid

text: which is formed by the capsid protein. The outer envelope is formed by envelope protein and is the protective antigen. It aids in entry of the virus into the inside of the cell. The genome also encodes several nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2a, NS2b, NS3, N4a, NS4b, NS5). NS1 is produced as secretory form also. NS3 is a putative

text: helicase

text: , and NS5 is the viral

text: polymerase

text: . It has been noted that Japanese encephalitis infects the

text: lumen

text: of the

text: endoplasmic reticulum

text: (ER) and rapidly accumulates substantial amounts of viral proteins for the Japanese Encephalitis.

text: Tbx5 is a gene that is located on the long arm of chromosome 12. Tbx5 produces a protein called T-box 5 that acts as a transcription factor. The Tbx5 gene is involved with forelimb and heart development. This gene impacts the early development of the forelimb by triggering FGF-10 (Fibroblast Growth Factor 10). Tbx5 is involved with the development of the four chambers in the heart, the electrical conducting system, and the septum separating the right and left sides of the heart. A mutation in this gene can cause Holt-Oram syndrome or Amelia syndrome. Holt-Oram syndrome can cause several different defects. One effect of Holt-Oram syndrome is a hole in the septum. Another symptom of this syndrome is bone abnormalities in the fingers, wrists, or arms. An additional defect that Holt-Oram syndrome can cause is a conduction disease leading to abnormal heart rates and arrhythmias. Amelia syndrome is a condition where forelimb malformation occurs because FGF-10 is not triggered due to Tbx5 mutations. This condition can lead to the absence of one or both forelimbs.

text: Although the bodies of dead sea otters often sink at sea, necropsies of beached carcasses provide some insights into the causes of mortality. A study of 105 sea otters that had washed ashore between 1998 and 2001 determined the major causes of death to be protozoal encephalitis, acanthocephalan parasite infection, shark attack, and cardiac disease. Infectious disease alone caused 63.8% of deaths, and in most of these cases the disease was caused by parasites. Infection, particularly Toxoplasma gondii encephalitis, was often present in otters that had died of cardiac disease, suggesting that infection may have contributed to the onset of cardiac disease. T. gondii encephalitis was also strongly associated with shark bites, perhaps because the disease causes abnormal behavior that increases the likelihood of shark attack.

text: Although the bodies of dead sea otters often sink at sea,

text: necropsies

text: of beached carcasses provide some insights into the causes of mortality. A study of 105 sea otters that had washed ashore between 1998 and 2001 determined the major causes of death to be

text: protozoal

text: encephalitis

text: acanthocephalan

text: parasite infection,

text: shark

text: attack, and

text: cardiac disease

text: . Infectious disease alone caused 63.8% of deaths, and in most of these cases the disease was caused by parasites. Infection, particularly

text: Toxoplasma gondii

text: encephalitis, was often present in otters that had died of cardiac disease, suggesting that infection may have contributed to the onset of cardiac disease. T. gondii encephalitis was also strongly associated with shark bites, perhaps because the disease causes abnormal behavior that increases the likelihood of

text: shark attack

text: Research into autoimmune encephalitis have advanced a lot recently. Both tumour associated (paraneoplastic) and non-tumour associated conditions are recognized. Different antibodies are more or less selective for different parts of the brain. Antibodies are directed towards intracellular antigens in the classic paraneoplastic syndromes or synaptic proteins in paraneoplastic or non-tumour associated conditions. The VGKC-complex associated autoimmune encephalitis is an example of the latter form.

text: Research into

text: autoimmune encephalitis

text: have advanced a lot recently. Both tumour associated (paraneoplastic) and non-tumour associated conditions are recognized. Different antibodies are more or less selective for different parts of the brain. Antibodies are directed towards intracellular antigens in the classic paraneoplastic syndromes or synaptic proteins in paraneoplastic or non-tumour associated conditions. The VGKC-complex associated autoimmune encephalitis is an example of the latter form.

text: Bapineuzumab (nicknamed "bapi") is a humanized monoclonal antibody that acts on the nervous system and may have potential therapeutic value for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and possibly glaucoma. However, in 2012 it failed to produce significant cognitive improvements in patients in two major trials, despite lowering key biomarkers of AD, amyloid brain plaque and hyperphosphorylated tau protein in CSF.

text: Bapineuzumab (nicknamed "bapi") is a

text: humanized monoclonal antibody

text: that acts on the

text: nervous system

text: and may have potential therapeutic value for the treatment of

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: and possibly

text: glaucoma

text: . However, in 2012 it failed to produce significant cognitive improvements in patients in two major trials, despite lowering key biomarkers of AD, amyloid brain plaque and

text: hyperphosphorylated

text: tau protein

text: in

text: CSF

text: Chronic oral exposure in animals affects the liver, the kidney, the spleen, the adrenal and thyroid glands, the central nervous system, and the immune system.  Toxaphene stimulates the central nervous system by antagonizing neurons leading to hyperpolarization of neurons and increased neuronal activity.

text: Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada disease (VKH), also known as Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome and uveomeningitis syndrome, is a multisystem disease of presumed autoimmune  cause, that affects pigmented tissues, which have melanin. The most significant manifestation is bilateral, diffuse uveitis, which affects the eye. VKH may variably also involve the inner ear with effects on hearing, the skin, and the meninges of the central nervous system.

text: Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada disease (VKH), also known as Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome and uveomeningitis syndrome, is a multisystem disease of presumed

text: autoimmune

text: cause, that affects pigmented tissues, which have

text: melanin

text: . The most significant manifestation is bilateral, diffuse

text: uveitis

text: , which affects the eye. VKH may variably also involve the

text: inner ear

text: with effects on hearing, the skin, and the

text: meninges

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain. It is usually caused by a foreign substance or a viral infection. Symptoms of this disease include headache, neck pain, drowsiness, nausea, and fever. If caused by the West Nile virus, it may be lethal to humans, as well as birds and horses.

text: Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain. It is usually caused by a foreign substance or a

text: viral infection

text: . Symptoms of this disease include headache, neck pain, drowsiness, nausea, and fever. If caused by the

text: West Nile virus

text: , it may be lethal to humans, as well as birds and horses.

text: The large-scale inflammation that occurs in the subarachnoid space during meningitis is not a direct result of bacterial infection but can rather largely be attributed to the response of the immune system to the entry of bacteria into the central nervous system. When components of the bacterial cell membrane are identified by the immune cells of the brain (astrocytes and microglia), they respond by releasing large amounts of cytokines, hormone-like mediators that recruit other immune cells and stimulate other tissues to participate in an immune response. The blood–brain barrier becomes more permeable, leading to "vasogenic" cerebral edema (swelling of the brain due to fluid leakage from blood vessels). Large numbers of white blood cells enter the CSF, causing inflammation of the meninges and leading to "interstitial" edema (swelling due to fluid between the cells). In addition, the walls of the blood vessels themselves become inflamed (cerebral vasculitis), which leads to decreased blood flow and a third type of edema, "cytotoxic" edema. The three forms of cerebral edema all lead to increased intracranial pressure; together with the lowered blood pressure often encountered in acute infection, this means that it is harder for blood to enter the brain, consequently brain cells are deprived of oxygen and undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).

text: The large-scale

text: inflammation

text: that occurs in the subarachnoid space during meningitis is not a direct result of bacterial infection but can rather largely be attributed to the response of the

text: immune system

text: to the entry of bacteria into the

text: central nervous system

text: . When components of the bacterial

text: cell membrane

text: are identified by the immune cells of the brain (

text: astrocyte

text: s and

text: microglia

text: ), they respond by releasing large amounts of

text: cytokine

text: s, hormone-like mediators that recruit other immune cells and stimulate other tissues to participate in an immune response. The blood–brain barrier becomes more permeable, leading to

text: "vasogenic" cerebral edema

text: (swelling of the brain due to fluid leakage from blood vessels). Large numbers of

text: white blood cell

text: s enter the CSF, causing inflammation of the meninges and leading to

text: "interstitial" edema

text: (swelling due to fluid between the cells). In addition, the walls of the blood vessels themselves become inflamed (cerebral vasculitis), which leads to decreased blood flow and a third type of edema,

text: "cytotoxic" edema

text: . The three forms of cerebral edema all lead to increased

text: intracranial pressure

text: ; together with the lowered blood pressure often encountered in

text: acute infection

text: , this means that it is harder for blood to enter the brain, consequently

text: brain cell

text: s are deprived of oxygen and undergo

text: apoptosis

text: programmed cell death

text: Flaviviruses constitute a family of linear, single-stranded RNA(+) viruses. Flaviviruses include the West Nile virus, dengue virus, Tick-borne Encephalitis Virus, Yellow Fever Virus, and several other viruses. Many flavivirus species can replicate in both mammalian and insect cells. Most flaviviruses are arthropod borne and multiply in both vertebrates and arthropods. The viruses in this family that are of veterinary importance include Japanese encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, Israel turkey meningoencephalomyelitis virus, Sitiawan virus, Wesselsbron virus, yellow fever virus and the tick-borne flaviviruses e.g. louping ill virus.

text: Flavivirus

text: es constitute a family of linear, single-stranded RNA(+) viruses. Flaviviruses include the

text: West Nile virus

text: dengue virus

text: Tick-borne Encephalitis

text: Virus,

text: Yellow Fever

text: Virus, and several other viruses. Many flavivirus species can replicate in both mammalian and insect cells. Most flaviviruses are

text: arthropod

text: borne and multiply in both vertebrates and arthropods. The viruses in this family that are of veterinary importance include

text: Japanese encephalitis virus

text: St. Louis encephalitis virus

text: West Nile virus

text: Israel turkey meningoencephalomyelitis virus

text: Sitiawan virus

text: Wesselsbron virus

text: , yellow fever virus and the tick-borne flaviviruses e.g.

text: louping ill virus

text: Drinking more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine. Long-term alcohol abuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including cirrhosis of the liver, pancreatitis, epilepsy, polyneuropathy, alcoholic dementia, heart disease, nutritional deficiencies, peptic ulcers and sexual dysfunction, and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, alcoholic liver disease, and cancer. Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting a propensity to bone fractures.

text: Drinking more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease,

text: high blood pressure

text: atrial fibrillation

text: , and

text: stroke

text: . Risk is greater in younger people due to

text: binge drinking

text: which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine. Long-term alcohol abuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including

text: cirrhosis

text: of the liver,

text: pancreatitis

text: epilepsy

text: polyneuropathy

text: alcoholic dementia

text: , heart disease, nutritional deficiencies,

text: peptic ulcers

text: and

text: sexual dysfunction

text: , and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing

text: cardiovascular disease

text: malabsorption

text: alcoholic liver disease

text: , and

text: cancer

text: . Damage to the

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting a propensity to bone fractures.

text: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, or nAChRs, are neuron receptor proteins that respond to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Nicotinic receptors also respond to drugs, including the nicotinic receptor agonist nicotine. They are found in the central nervous system of humans, and also play two important roles in the peripheral nervous system: (1) they transmit outgoing signals from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cells within the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, and (2) they are the receptors found on skeletal muscle that receive acetylcholine released to signal for muscular contraction. Nicotinic receptors are also found in other creatures. In insects, the cholinergic system is limited to the central nervous system.

text: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, or nAChRs, are neuron receptor proteins that respond to the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: . Nicotinic receptors also respond to drugs, including the nicotinic receptor agonist

text: nicotine

text: . They are found in the central nervous system of humans, and also play two important roles in the peripheral nervous system: (1) they transmit outgoing signals from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cells within the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, and (2) they are the receptors found on skeletal muscle that receive acetylcholine released to signal for muscular contraction. Nicotinic receptors are also found in other creatures. In

text: insect

text: s, the

text: cholinergic

text: system is limited to the

text: central nervous system

text: There are documented benefits of mind-body interventions derived from scientific research firstly into their use in contributing to the treatment a range of conditions including headaches, coronary artery disease and chronic pain; secondly in ameliorating the symptoms of  chemotherapy-induced nausea, vomiting, and localised physical pain in patients with cancer; thirdly in increasing the perceived capacity to cope with significant problems and challenges; and fourthly in improving the reported overall quality-of-life. In addition, there is evidence supporting the brain and central nervous system's influence on the immune system and the capacity for mind-body interventions to enhance immune function outcomes, including defense against and recovery from infection and disease.

text: There are documented benefits of mind-body interventions derived from scientific research firstly into their use in contributing to the treatment a range of conditions including

text: headache

text: s,

text: coronary artery disease

text: and

text: chronic pain

text: ; secondly in ameliorating the symptoms of

text: chemotherapy-induced

text: nausea

text: vomiting

text: , and localised physical pain in patients with

text: cancer

text: ; thirdly in increasing the perceived capacity to cope with significant problems and challenges; and fourthly in improving the reported overall

text: quality-of-life

text: . In addition, there is evidence supporting the brain and

text: central nervous system's

text: influence on the

text: immune system

text: and the capacity for mind-body interventions to enhance immune function outcomes, including defense against and recovery from

text: infection

text: and disease.

text: Rabies is a deadly viral disease of the central nervous system. In almost all cases, the virus is passed on through the bite, contact with infected saliva, nervous tissues, open wounds or the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth of an infected animal. Like all other animals, if bats get infected with this disease, they will die. (Bat conservation)

text: Rabies is a deadly viral disease of the

text: central nervous system

text: . In almost all cases, the virus is passed on through the bite, contact with infected saliva, nervous tissues, open wounds or the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth of an infected animal. Like all other animals, if bats get infected with this disease, they will die. (Bat conservation)

text: The meninges (, singular: meninx ( or ), from , adjectival: meningeal ) are the three membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord. In mammals, the meninges are the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. Cerebrospinal fluid is located in the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous system.

text: The meninges (, singular: meninx ( or ), from , adjectival: meningeal ) are the three

text: membrane

text: s that envelop the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . In mammals, the meninges are the

text: dura mater

text: , the

text: arachnoid mater

text: , and the

text: pia mater

text: Cerebrospinal fluid

text: is located in the

text: subarachnoid space

text: between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous system.

text: Neuropathic itch can originate at any point along the afferent pathway as a result of damage of the nervous system. They could include diseases or disorders in the central nervous system or peripheral nervous system. Examples of neuropathic itch in origin are notalgia paresthetica, brachioradial pruritus, brain tumors, multiple sclerosis, peripheral neuropathy, and nerve irritation.

text: Neuropathic itch can originate at any point along the afferent pathway as a result of damage of the

text: nervous system

text: . They could include diseases or disorders in the

text: central nervous system

text: or

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . Examples of neuropathic itch in origin are notalgia paresthetica,

text: brachioradial pruritus

text: brain tumors

text: multiple sclerosis

text: peripheral neuropathy

text: , and

text: nerve irritation

text: Conventional SSEPs monitor the functioning of the part of the somatosensory system involved in sensations such as touch and vibration. The part of the somatosensory system that transmits pain and temperature signals is monitored using laser evoked potentials (LEP). LEPs are evoked by applying finely focused, rapidly rising heat to bare skin using a laser. In the central nervous system they can detect damage to the spinothalamic tract, lateral brain stem, and fibers carrying pain and temperature signals from the thalamus to the cortex. In the peripheral nervous system pain and heat signals are carried along thin (C and A delta) fibers to the spinal cord, and LEPs can be used to determine whether a neuropathy is located in these small fibers as opposed to larger (touch, vibration) fibers.

text: Conventional SSEPs monitor the functioning of the part of the somatosensory system involved in sensations such as touch and vibration. The part of the somatosensory system that transmits pain and temperature signals is monitored using laser evoked potentials (LEP). LEPs are evoked by applying finely focused, rapidly rising heat to bare skin using a laser. In the central nervous system they can detect damage to the

text: spinothalamic tract

text: , lateral

text: brain stem

text: , and fibers carrying pain and temperature signals from the

text: thalamus

text: to the

text: cortex

text: . In the peripheral nervous system pain and heat signals are carried along thin (

text: C

text: and

text: A delta

text: ) fibers to the spinal cord, and LEPs can be used to determine whether a

text: neuropathy

text: is located in these small fibers as opposed to larger (touch, vibration) fibers.

text: A mutation in this gene leads to infant and child blindness, a disease known as Leber Congenital Amaurosis. As of today, 35 different mutations in CEP290 are responsible for causing LCA. Other mutations in CEP290 have also been identified in causing Meckel Syndrome and Joubert Syndrome, a few among many syndromes. A defective CEP290 gene is usually the cause of these disorders due to abnormal cilia.  It is unknown how one mutation in a gene can cause so many different types of syndromes, particularly many of which affect the Central Nervous System.

text: MLD is directly caused by a deficiency of the enzyme arylsulfatase A (ARSA) and is characterized by enzyme activity in leukocytes that is less than 10% of normal controls.  However, assay of the ARSA enzyme activity alone is not sufficient for diagnosis; ARSA pseudodeficiency, which is characterized by enzyme activity that is 5~20% of normal controls does not cause MLD.  Without this enzyme, sulfatides build up in many tissues of the body, eventually destroying the myelin sheath of the nervous system. The myelin sheath is a fatty covering that protects nerve fibers. Without it, the nerves in the brain (central nervous system - CNS) and the peripheral nerves (peripheral nervous system - PNS) which control, among other things the muscles related to mobility, cease to function properly.

text: MLD is directly caused by a deficiency of the enzyme

text: arylsulfatase A

text: (ARSA) and is characterized by enzyme activity in leukocytes that is less than 10% of normal controls.  However, assay of the ARSA enzyme activity alone is not sufficient for diagnosis; ARSA pseudodeficiency, which is characterized by enzyme activity that is 5~20% of normal controls does not cause MLD.  Without this enzyme,

text: sulfatide

text: s build up in many tissues of the body, eventually destroying the myelin sheath of the nervous system. The myelin sheath is a fatty covering that protects nerve fibers. Without it, the nerves in the brain (central nervous system - CNS) and the peripheral nerves (peripheral nervous system - PNS) which control, among other things the muscles related to mobility, cease to function properly.

text: Recent findings in genetic research have suggested that a large number of genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that were not previously related in the medical literature, may be, in fact, highly related in the root cause of the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorder.  These have been grouped as an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies.  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary/immotile cilia, organelles which are present in many diverse cellular types throughout the human body.  Cilia defects adversely affect numerous critical developmental signaling pathways essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, Sensenbrenner syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: Recent findings in genetic research have suggested that a large number of

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: , that were not previously related in the medical literature, may be, in fact, highly related in the

text: root cause

text: of the widely varying set of medical

text: symptoms

text: that are clinically visible in the

text: disorder

text: .  These have been grouped as an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: .  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary/immotile cilia,

text: organelle

text: s which are present in many diverse cellular types throughout the

text: human

text: body.  Cilia defects adversely affect numerous critical developmental signaling pathways essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often

text: multi-symptom

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: Sensenbrenner syndrome

text: and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: The nervous system of vertebrates (including humans) is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

text: The nervous system of

text: vertebrate

text: s (including humans) is divided into the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS).

text: Phantasmidine is a nicotinic agonist that acts at acetylcholine receptors. It mimics the effects of acetylcholine on the body’s neuronal-based nervous systems (both the central nervous system [CNS] and the peripheral nervous system [PNS]) and the muscle-based nervous system (the somatic nervous system).

text: Phantasmidine is a

text: nicotinic agonist

text: that acts at acetylcholine receptors. It mimics the effects of acetylcholine on the body’s neuronal-based nervous systems (both the

text: central nervous system

text: [CNS] and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: [PNS]) and the muscle-based nervous system (the

text: somatic nervous system

text: Neonatal meningitis is a serious medical condition in infants. Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges (the protective membranes of the central nervous system (CNS)) and is more common in the neonatal period (infants less than 44 days old) than any other time in life and is an important cause of morbidity and mortality globally. Mortality is roughly half in developing countries and ranges from 8%-12.5% in developed countries.

text: Neonatal meningitis is a serious medical condition in infants.

text: Meningitis

text: is an inflammation of the

text: meninges

text: (the protective membranes of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS)) and is more common in the neonatal period (infants less than 44 days old) than any other time in life and is an important cause of morbidity and mortality globally. Mortality is roughly half in developing countries and ranges from 8%-12.5% in developed countries.

text: The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (everything else).  The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system (voluntary processes) and the autonomic nervous system (involuntary processes). The autonomic nervous system is divided into the parasympathetic nervous system (normal functioning) and the sympathetic nervous system (emergency functioning). The lateral grey column mediates the functions of the sympathetic nervous system.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: is divided into the

text: central nervous system

text: (brain and spinal cord) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (everything else).  The peripheral nervous system is divided into the

text: somatic nervous system

text: (voluntary processes) and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (involuntary processes). The autonomic nervous system is divided into the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: (normal functioning) and the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: (emergency functioning). The lateral grey column mediates the functions of the sympathetic nervous system.

text: Forty percent of deaths in PNG are caused by six diseases that can be easily and inexpensively treated at aid posts. Diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, pneumonia, diarrheal diseases, meningitis and HIV/AIDS account for about half of all deaths in PNG. Of every 1,000 children born, 69 will die before age five and another 53 won’t even survive their infancy. Five women die in childbirth every day and only two in five deliver at a health facility.

text: Forty percent of deaths in PNG are caused by six diseases that can be easily and inexpensively treated at aid posts. Diseases such as malaria,

text: tuberculosis

text: pneumonia

text: diarrhea

text: l diseases,

text: meningitis

text: and

text: HIV

text: AIDS

text: account for about half of all deaths in PNG. Of every 1,000 children born, 69 will die before age five and another 53 won’t even survive their

text: infancy

text: . Five women

text: die in childbirth

text: every day and only two in five deliver at a health facility.

text: Treponema pallidum invades the nervous system within three to eighteen months after the primary infection. The initial series of events is asymptomatic meningitis, which can remain in the human body system and produce more damage within the body. Every form of neurosyphilis has meningitis as a component; however, every case differs in severity. The individual is infected with syphilis through a gram negative bacteria that only humans can obtain. Syphilis has four stages of infection, which are primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary. If syphilis is not treated, the disease can affect various other systems in the body, including the brain, heart, and vessels. The infection of the heart and vessels leads to meningovascular syphilis, which is usually presented during the secondary stage of syphilis. If syphilis is prolonged, it can affect the nervous system, which is known as neurosyphilis. Meningeal syphilis is a component of neurosyphilis, which usually occurs in the tertiary stage of syphilis.

text: Treponema pallidum invades the

text: nervous system

text: within three to eighteen months after the primary infection. The initial series of events is

text: asymptomatic meningitis

text: , which can remain in the human body system and produce more damage within the body. Every form of neurosyphilis has meningitis as a component; however, every case differs in severity. The individual is infected with syphilis through a

text: gram negative bacteria

text: that only humans can obtain. Syphilis has four stages of infection, which are primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary. If syphilis is not treated, the disease can affect various other systems in the body, including the

text: brain

text: heart

text: , and

text: vessels

text: . The infection of the heart and vessels leads to

text: meningovascular syphilis

text: , which is usually presented during the secondary stage of syphilis. If syphilis is prolonged, it can affect the

text: nervous system

text: , which is known as

text: neurosyphilis

text: . Meningeal syphilis is a component of neurosyphilis, which usually occurs in the tertiary stage of syphilis.

text: The initial project dealt with new techniques for diagnosing diseases of the nervous system, in particular, the changes in cell content and chemistry of cerebro-spinal fluid in various diseases. Other projects in the early days involved bacteriology, at the time the Institute was started, the advancing edge of scientific medicine, and its application to the management of infectious disease in man. In the 1930s microbiology was a focus, with many of those projects reliant upon blood cultures and the techniques developed were published in a monograph – "Blood Cultures and their Significance" by H Butler in 1937. The Monograph Series lasted until 1974 – with 9 published. They covered anaesthesia, tumours, the cardiovascular system and scleroderma.

text: The initial project dealt with new techniques for diagnosing diseases of the nervous system, in particular, the changes in cell content and chemistry of

text: cerebro-spinal fluid

text: in various diseases. Other projects in the early days involved

text: bacteriology

text: , at the time the Institute was started, the advancing edge of scientific medicine, and its application to the management of

text: infectious disease

text: in man. In the 1930s microbiology was a focus, with many of those projects reliant upon

text: blood cultures

text: and the techniques developed were published in a monograph – "Blood Cultures and their Significance" by H Butler in 1937. The Monograph Series lasted until 1974 – with 9 published. They covered

text: anaesthesia

text: tumours

text: , the

text: cardiovascular system

text: and

text: scleroderma

text: The first reports of kidney failure occurring in individuals with chronic liver diseases were from the late 19th century by Frerichs and Flint.  However, the hepatorenal syndrome was first defined as acute kidney failure that occurred in the setting of biliary surgery.  The syndrome was soon re-associated with advanced liver disease, and, in the 1950s, was clinically defined by Sherlock, Hecker, Papper and Vessin as being associated with systemic hemodynamic abnormalities and high mortality.  Hecker and Sherlock specifically identified that individuals with HRS had low urinary output, very low sodium in the urine, and no protein in the urine.  Murray Epstein was the first to characterize splanchnic vasodilation and kidney vasoconstriction as the key alterations in hemodynamics in patients with the syndrome.  The functional nature of the kidney impairment in HRS was crystallized by studies demonstrating that kidneys transplanted from patients with hepatorenal syndrome returned to function in the new host, leading to the hypothesis that hepatorenal syndrome was a systemic condition and not a kidney disease. The first systematic attempt to define hepatorenal syndrome was made in 1994 by the International Ascites Club, a group of liver specialists. The more recent history of HRS has involved elucidation of the various vasoactive mediators that cause the splanchnic and kidney blood flow abnormalities of the condition.

text: The first reports of kidney failure occurring in individuals with chronic liver diseases were from the late 19th century by Frerichs and Flint.  However, the hepatorenal syndrome was first defined as acute kidney failure that occurred in the setting of

text: biliary surgery

text: .  The syndrome was soon re-associated with advanced liver disease, and, in the 1950s, was clinically defined by

text: Sherlock

text: , Hecker, Papper and Vessin as being associated with systemic hemodynamic abnormalities and high mortality.  Hecker and Sherlock specifically identified that individuals with HRS had low urinary output, very low

text: sodium

text: in the urine, and no protein in the urine.  Murray Epstein was the first to characterize splanchnic vasodilation and kidney vasoconstriction as the key alterations in hemodynamics in patients with the syndrome.  The functional nature of the kidney impairment in HRS was crystallized by studies demonstrating that kidneys transplanted from patients with hepatorenal syndrome returned to function in the new host, leading to the hypothesis that hepatorenal syndrome was a systemic condition and not a kidney disease. The first systematic attempt to define hepatorenal syndrome was made in 1994 by the International Ascites Club, a group of

text: liver specialists

text: . The more recent history of HRS has involved elucidation of the various vasoactive mediators that cause the splanchnic and kidney blood flow abnormalities of the condition.

text: Because this disease is so rare in humans, accurate diagnostic techniques have not been developed. CT scans and MRI’s are useful for detecting fluid filled cysts in all areas of the body, and some serological and microscopic tests can confirm the presence of Taenia larvae once surgery has taken place and a portion of the cyst can be removed to undergo examination and biopsy. Because of the lack of specificity in diagnostic technique, coenurosis can be misdiagnosed as neurocysticercosis or echinococcosis, other parasitic diseases affecting nervous system tissue.

text: Behaviourists also rejected the method of introspection but criticized functionalism because it was not based on controlled experiments and its theories provided little predictive ability. B.F. Skinner was a developer of behaviourism. He did not think that considering how the mind affects behaviour was worthwhile, for he considered behaviour simply as a learned response to an external stimulus. Yet, such behaviourist concepts tend to deny the human capacity for random, unpredictable, sentient decision-making, further blocking the functionalist concept that human behaviour is an active process driven by the individual. Perhaps, a combination of both the functionalist and behaviourist perspectives provides scientists with the most empirical value, but, even so, it remains philosophically (and physiologically) difficult to integrate the two concepts without raising further questions about human behaviour. For instance, consider the interrelationship between three elements: the human environment, the human autonomic nervous system (our fight or flight muscle responses), and the human somatic nervous system (our voluntary muscle control). The behaviourist perspective explains a mixture of both types of muscle behaviour, whereas the functionalist perspective resides mostly in the somatic nervous system. It can be argued that all behavioural origins begin within the nervous system, prompting all scientists of human behaviour to possess basic physiological understandings, something very well understood by the functionalist founder William James.

text: Behaviourist

text: s also rejected the method of introspection but criticized functionalism because it was not based on controlled experiments and its theories provided little predictive ability.

text: B.F. Skinner

text: From November 1995 to November 1996 in France, a national survey of pediatric departments for children under 15 years of age with unexplained encephalopathy and a threefold (or greater) increase in serum aminotransferase and/or ammonia led to the identification of nine definite cases of Reye syndrome (0.79 cases per million children).  Eight of the nine children with Reye syndrome were found to have been exposed to aspirin.  In part because of this survey result, the French Medicines Agency reinforced the international attention to the relationship between aspirin and Reye syndrome by issuing its own public and professional warnings about this relationship.

text: From November 1995 to November 1996 in France, a national survey of pediatric departments for children under 15 years of age with unexplained

text: encephalopathy

text: and a threefold (or greater) increase in serum aminotransferase and/or ammonia led to the identification of nine definite cases of Reye syndrome (0.79 cases per million children).  Eight of the nine children with Reye syndrome were found to have been exposed to aspirin.  In part because of this survey result, the French Medicines Agency reinforced the international attention to the relationship between aspirin and Reye syndrome by issuing its own public and professional warnings about this relationship.

text: For those who have progressed to stage 2 or beyond, the disease is incurable. For patients in the terminal phase of the disease there is a palliative care and treatment scheme—this involves anticonvulsant therapy (to help with the body's progressive loss of control of the nervous system causing gradually more intensive spasms/convulsions) alongside supportive measures to help maintain vital functioning. It is fairly standard as the infection spreads and symptoms intensify that feeding tubes need to be inserted to keep a nutritional balance. As the disease progresses to its most advanced phase, the patient will need constant nursing as normal bodily function declines to the complete collapse of the nervous system.Combinations of treatment for SSPE include:

text: For those who have progressed to stage 2 or beyond, the disease is incurable. For patients in the terminal phase of the disease there is a

text: palliative care

text: and treatment scheme—this involves anticonvulsant therapy (to help with the body's progressive loss of control of the nervous system causing gradually more intensive spasms/convulsions) alongside supportive measures to help maintain vital functioning. It is fairly standard as the infection spreads and symptoms intensify that feeding tubes need to be inserted to keep a nutritional balance. As the disease progresses to its most advanced phase, the patient will need constant nursing as normal bodily function declines to the complete collapse of the nervous system.Combinations of treatment for SSPE include:

text: In order to study Onuf’s nucleus from the opposite perspective (meaning cases where it was not preserved) studies were done on Shy–Drager syndrome. Shy–Drager syndrome is a rare neurodegenerative disease that attacks the autonomic nervous system. Since the main symptom of Shy–Drager syndrome is incontinence it makes it a good candidate to study its effects on Onuf’s nucleus. When the sacral sections of the spinal cord were studied in patients with Shy–Drager syndrome, it was revealed that cell death was confined to the area of Onuf’s nucleus. This, once again, verified the role Onuf’s nucleus in vesicorectal function.

text: In order to study Onuf’s nucleus from the opposite perspective (meaning cases where it was not preserved) studies were done on

text: Shy–Drager syndrome

text: . Shy–Drager syndrome is a rare neurodegenerative disease that attacks the autonomic nervous system. Since the main symptom of Shy–Drager syndrome is incontinence it makes it a good candidate to study its effects on Onuf’s nucleus. When the sacral sections of the spinal cord were studied in patients with Shy–Drager syndrome, it was revealed that cell death was confined to the area of Onuf’s nucleus. This, once again, verified the role Onuf’s nucleus in vesicorectal function.

text: Although meningitis is a notifiable disease in many countries, the exact incidence rate is unknown. In 2013 meningitis resulted in 303,000 deaths – down from 464,000 deaths in 1990. In 2010 it was estimated that meningitis resulted in 420,000 deaths, excluding cryptococcal meningitis.

text: Although meningitis is a

text: notifiable disease

text: in many countries, the exact

text: incidence

text: rate is unknown. In 2013 meningitis resulted in 303,000 deaths – down from 464,000 deaths in 1990. In 2010 it was estimated that meningitis resulted in 420,000 deaths, excluding

text: cryptococcal meningitis

text: While conducting research into the (afferent) sensory nervous system with evoked potentials, Sgro also began to investigate devices and techniques to determine the state of the (efferent) motor nervous system using TMS with the goal of more effective detection of sub-clinical diseases and increased sensitivity of the motor system during intra-operative patient monitoring. Sgro  and his associates studied the theoretical and practical issues involved in the design of a high magnetic field strength and rapid transcranial magnetic stimulator which could exceed the historical safety limit of electrical brain stimulation (40 uC/cm2/phase at a stimulation rate of 20 to 50 Hertz over several hours).  These studies resulted in the construction of a rapid high magnetic field strength device   which was suitable for safety studies.  The safety of  TMS in rats with a maximal field strength of 3.4 Tesla at 8 Herz for 20 minutes or 10uC/cm2/phase was demonstrated in Sgro

text: While conducting research into the (afferent)

text: sensory nervous system

text: with evoked potentials, Sgro also began to investigate devices and techniques to determine the state of the (efferent)

text: motor nervous system

text: using

text: TMS

text: with the goal of more effective detection of sub-clinical diseases and increased sensitivity of the motor system during intra-operative patient monitoring. Sgro  and his associates studied the theoretical and practical issues involved in the design of a high magnetic field strength and rapid transcranial magnetic stimulator which could exceed the historical safety limit of

text: electrical brain stimulation

text: (40 uC/cm2/phase at a stimulation rate of 20 to 50 Hertz over several hours).  These studies resulted in the construction of a rapid high magnetic field strength device   which was suitable for safety studies.  The safety of  TMS in rats with a maximal field strength of 3.4

text: Tesla

text: at 8 Herz for 20 minutes or 10uC/cm2/phase was demonstrated in Sgro

text: Anyone bitten by a mosquito in an area where the virus is circulating can get infected. Historically, most cases of encephalitis have 'occurred' in the Northern states of the U.S. ie. have been reported to CDC's passive surveillance tool ArboNET from there. JCV disease most likely has a broader distribution, but is under-reported, because the virus remains often unidentified, as testing is not considered and not straightforward. In 2013, of 10 states reporting cases, eight states (Georgia, Idaho, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island) reported their first JCV cases. In August 2015 the Iowa Department of Public Health announced that one case of JCV) has been confirmed.

text: The nervous system is divided into two subsections: the CNS and the PNS. The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, while the PNS consists of nerves that originate from the brain and spinal cord and innervate the rest of the body.

text: As discussed, stem cells are used to treat degenerative diseases. One form of a degenerative disease that can occur in the brain as well as throughout the body is an autoimmune disease. Autoimmune diseases cause the body to "attack" its own cells and therefore destroys those cells as well as whatever functional purpose those cells have or contribute to. One form of an autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system is multiple sclerosis. In this disease the body attacks the glial cells that form myelin coats around the axons on neurons. This causes the nervous system to essentially "short circuit" and pass information very slowly. Stem cells therapy has been used to try to cure some of the damage caused by the body in MS. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation has been used to try and cure MS patients by essentially "reprogramming" their immune system. The main risk encountered with this form of treatment is the possibility of rejection of the stem cells. If the hematopoetic stem cells can be harvested from the individual, risk of rejection is much lower. But, there can be the risk of those cells being programmed to induce MS. However, if the tissue is donated from another individual there is high risk of rejection leading to possibly fatal toxicity in the recipient's body. Considering that there are fairly good treatments for MS, the use of stem cells in this case may have a higher cost than the benefits they produce. However, as research continues perhaps stem cells will truly become a viable treatment for MS as well as other autoimmune diseases.

text: As discussed, stem cells are used to treat degenerative diseases. One form of a degenerative disease that can occur in the brain as well as throughout the body is an

text: autoimmune disease

text: . Autoimmune diseases cause the body to "attack" its own cells and therefore destroys those cells as well as whatever functional purpose those cells have or contribute to. One form of an autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system is

text: multiple sclerosis

text: . In this disease the body attacks the

text: glial cells

text: that form myelin coats around the axons on neurons. This causes the nervous system to essentially "short circuit" and pass information very slowly. Stem cells therapy has been used to try to cure some of the damage caused by the body in MS.

text: Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

text: has been used to try and cure MS patients by essentially "reprogramming" their immune system. The main risk encountered with this form of treatment is the possibility of rejection of the stem cells. If the hematopoetic stem cells can be harvested from the individual, risk of rejection is much lower. But, there can be the risk of those cells being programmed to induce MS. However, if the tissue is donated from another individual there is high risk of rejection leading to possibly fatal toxicity in the recipient's body. Considering that there are fairly good treatments for MS, the use of stem cells in this case may have a higher cost than the benefits they produce. However, as research continues perhaps stem cells will truly become a viable treatment for MS as well as other autoimmune diseases.

text: The meningeal lymphatic vessels (or meningeal lymphatics) are a recently discovered network of conventional lymphatic vessels located parallel to the dural sinuses and meningeal arteries of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). As a part of the lymphatic system, the meningeal lymphatics are responsible for draining immune cells, small molecules, and excess fluid from the CNS and into the deep cervical lymph nodes.

text: The meningeal lymphatic vessels (or meningeal lymphatics) are a recently discovered network of conventional lymphatic vessels located parallel to the

text: dural sinuses

text: and

text: meningeal arteries

text: of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). As a part of the

text: lymphatic system

text: , the meningeal lymphatics are responsible for draining

text: immune cells

text: , small molecules, and excess fluid from the CNS and into the

text: deep cervical lymph nodes

text: Peripherin is a type III Intermediate filament (IF) protein expressed mainly in neurons of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). It is also found in neurons of the central nervous system (CNS) that have projections toward peripheral structures, such as spinal motor neurons. Its size, structure, and sequence/location of protein motifs is similar to other type III IF proteins such as desmin, vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). Like these proteins, peripherin can self-assemble to form homopolymeric filamentous networks (networks formed from peripherin protein dimers), but it can also heteropolymerize with neurofilaments in several neuronal types. This protein in humans is encoded by the PRPH gene. Peripherin is thought to play a role in neurite elongation during development and axonal regeneration after injury, but its exact function is unknown. It is also associated with some of the major neuropathologies that characterize amyotropic lateral sclerosis (ALS), but despite extensive research into how neurofilaments and peripherin contribute to ALS, their role in this disease is still unidentified.

text: Peripherin is a type III

text: Intermediate filament

text: (IF) protein expressed mainly in neurons of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). It is also found in neurons of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) that have projections toward peripheral structures, such as spinal motor neurons. Its size, structure, and sequence/location of protein motifs is similar to other type III IF proteins such as

text: desmin

text: vimentin

text: and

text: glial fibrillary acidic protein

text: (GFAP). Like these proteins, peripherin can self-assemble to form homopolymeric filamentous networks (networks formed from peripherin

text: protein dimer

text: s), but it can also heteropolymerize with

text: neurofilaments

text: in several neuronal types. This

text: protein

text: in humans is encoded by the PRPH

text: gene

text: . Peripherin is thought to play a role in neurite elongation during development and axonal regeneration after injury, but its exact function is unknown. It is also associated with some of the major neuropathologies that characterize

text: amyotropic lateral sclerosis

text: (ALS), but despite extensive research into how neurofilaments and peripherin contribute to ALS, their role in this disease is still unidentified.

text: The sympathoadrenal system is a physiological connection between the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla and is crucial in an organism’s physiological response to outside stimuli. When the body receives sensory information, the sympathetic nervous system sends a signal to preganglionic nerve fibers, which activate the adrenal medulla through acetylcholine. Once activated, norepinephrine and epinephrine are released directly into the blood by postganglionic nerve fibers where they act as the bodily mechanism for “fight or flight” responses. Because of this, the sympathoadrenal system plays a large role in maintaining glucose levels, sodium levels, blood pressure, and various other metabolic pathways that couple with bodily responses to the environment. During numerous diseased states, such as hypoglycemia or even stress, the body’s metabolic processes are skewed. The sympathoadrenal system works to return the body to homeostasis through the activation or inactivation of the adrenal gland. However, more severe disorders of the sympathoadrenal system such as phaeochromocytoma (a tumor on the adrenal medulla) can affect the body’s ability to maintain a homeostatic state. In such cases, curative agents such as adrenergic agonists and antagonists are used to modify epinephrine and norepinephrine levels released by the adrenal medulla.

text: The sympathoadrenal system is a physiological connection between the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: adrenal medulla

text: and is crucial in an organism’s physiological response to outside stimuli. When the body receives sensory information, the sympathetic nervous system sends a signal to

text: preganglionic nerve fibers

text: , which activate the adrenal medulla through

text: acetylcholine

text: . Once activated,

text: norepinephrine

text: and

text: epinephrine

text: are released directly into the blood by

text: postganglionic nerve fibers

text: where they act as the bodily mechanism for “

text: fight or flight

text: ” responses. Because of this, the sympathoadrenal system plays a large role in maintaining glucose levels, sodium levels, blood pressure, and various other metabolic pathways that couple with bodily responses to the environment. During numerous diseased states, such as

text: hypoglycemia

text: or even stress, the body’s metabolic processes are skewed. The sympathoadrenal system works to return the body to

text: homeostasis

text: through the activation or inactivation of the

text: adrenal gland

text: . However, more severe disorders of the sympathoadrenal system such as

text: phaeochromocytoma

text: (a tumor on the adrenal medulla) can affect the body’s ability to maintain a homeostatic state. In such cases, curative agents such as

text: adrenergic agonist

text: s and

text: antagonists

text: are used to modify epinephrine and norepinephrine levels released by the

text: adrenal medulla

text: Cryopyrin-associated periodic syndrome (CAPS) is a group of rare, heterogeneous autoinflammatory disease characterized by interleukin 1β-mediated systemic inflammation and clinical symptoms involving skin, joints, central nervous system, and eyes. It encompasses  a spectrum of three clinically overlapping autoinflammatory syndromes including familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome (FCAS, formerly termed familial cold-induced urticaria), the Muckle-Wells syndrome (MWS), and neonatal-onset multisystem inflammatory disease (NOMID, also called chronic infantile neurologic cutaneous and articular syndrome or CINCA) that were originally thought to be distinct entities, but in fact share a single genetic mutation and pathogenic pathway.

text: Cryopyrin-associated periodic syndrome (CAPS) is a group of rare, heterogeneous autoinflammatory disease characterized by

text: interleukin 1β

text: -mediated systemic inflammation and clinical symptoms involving skin, joints, central nervous system, and eyes. It encompasses  a spectrum of three clinically overlapping

text: autoinflammatory syndrome

text: s including

text: familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome

text: (FCAS, formerly termed familial cold-induced urticaria), the

text: Muckle-Wells syndrome

text: (MWS), and

text: neonatal-onset multisystem inflammatory disease

text: (NOMID, also called chronic infantile neurologic cutaneous and articular syndrome or CINCA) that were originally thought to be distinct entities, but in fact share a single genetic mutation and pathogenic pathway.

text: The genus is typically the cause oral-cervicofacial disease.  It is characterized by a painless "lumpy jaw".  Lymphadenopathy is uncommon in this form of the disease.  Another form of actinomycosis is thoracic disease, which is often misdiagnosed as a neoplasm, as it forms a mass that extends to the chest wall.  It arises from aspiration of organisms from the oropharynx.  Symptoms include chest pain, fever, and weight loss.  Abdominal disease is another manifestation of actinomycosis.  This can lead to a sinus tract that drains to the abdominal wall or the perianal area.  Symptoms include fever, abdominal pain, and weight loss.  Actinomyces species have also been shown to infect the central nervous system in a dog "without history or evidence of previous trauma or other organ involvement."

text: The PNS can be divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can be divided into the parasympathetic, sympathetic, and enteric nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system regulates the “fight or flight” responses. The parasympathetic nervous system regulates the “rest and digest” responses. The enteric nervous system innervates the viscera (gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and gall bladder). The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system and motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle. The somatic nervous system engages in voluntary reactions, and the autonomic nervous system engages in involuntary reactions.

text: Urofacial Syndrome occurs due to either disruption or mutation of a gene on chromosome 10q23q24. The gene is located on a 1 centimorgan interval between D10S1433 and D10S603. Alteration of this gene leads to alteration of facial and urinary developmental fields. This gene is believed to be the HPSE2 gene. The HPSE2 gene is expressed in both the central nervous system as well as the bladder. Heparanase 2 is protein coded by exons 8 and 9 on the HPSE2 gene. This protein is believed to be altered in the case of this syndrome. Studies performed on mice indicate that HPSE2 has no enzymatic activity.

text: Urofacial Syndrome occurs due to either disruption or mutation of a gene on

text: chromosome

text: . The gene is located on a 1

text: centimorgan

text: interval between D10S1433 and D10S603. Alteration of this gene leads to alteration of facial and urinary developmental fields. This gene is believed to be the

text: gene. The

text: gene is expressed in both the central nervous system as well as the bladder.

text: Heparanase 2

text: is protein coded by exons 8 and 9 on the

text: gene. This protein is believed to be altered in the case of this syndrome. Studies performed on mice indicate that

text: has no

text: enzymatic activity

text: Salicylate therapy, particularly aspirin, remains an important part of the treatment (though questioned by some) but salicylates alone are not as effective as IVIG. Aspirin therapy is started at high doses until the fever subsides, and then is continued at a low dose when the patient returns home, usually for two months to prevent blood clots from forming. Except for Kawasaki disease and a few other indications, aspirin is otherwise normally not recommended for children due to its association with Reye's syndrome. Because children with Kawasaki disease will be taking aspirin for up to several months, vaccination against varicella and influenza is required, as these infections are most likely to cause Reye's syndrome.High-dose aspirin is associated with anemia and does not confer benefit to disease outcomes.

text: Salicylate

text: therapy, particularly aspirin, remains an important part of the treatment (though questioned by some) but salicylates alone are not as effective as IVIG. Aspirin therapy is started at high doses until the fever subsides, and then is continued at a low dose when the patient returns home, usually for two months to prevent blood clots from forming. Except for Kawasaki disease and a few other indications, aspirin is otherwise normally not recommended for children due to its association with

text: Reye's syndrome

text: . Because children with Kawasaki disease will be taking aspirin for up to several months, vaccination against

text: varicella

text: and

text: influenza

text: is required, as these infections are most likely to cause Reye's syndrome.High-dose aspirin is associated with anemia and does not confer benefit to disease outcomes.

text: While there is some overlap between biological psychiatry and neurology, the latter generally focuses on disorders where gross or visible pathology of the nervous system is apparent, such as epilepsy, cerebral palsy, encephalitis, neuritis, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis. There is some overlap with neuropsychiatry, which typically deals with behavioral disturbances in the context of apparent brain disorder. In contrast biological psychiatry describes the basic principles and then delves deeper into various disorders. It is structured to follow the organisation of the DSM-IV, psychiatry's primary diagnostic and classification guide. The contributions of this field explore functional neuroanatomy, imaging and neuropsychology and pharmacotherapeutic possibilities for depression, anxiety and mood disorders, substance abuse and eating disorders, schizophrenia and psychotic disorders, and cognitive and personality disorders.

text: While there is some overlap between biological psychiatry and

text: neurology

text: , the latter generally focuses on disorders where gross or visible pathology of the nervous system is apparent, such as

text: epilepsy

text: cerebral palsy

text: encephalitis

text: neuritis

text: Parkinson's disease

text: and

text: multiple sclerosis

text: . There is some overlap with

text: neuropsychiatry

text: , which typically deals with behavioral disturbances in the context of apparent brain disorder. In contrast biological psychiatry describes the basic principles and then delves deeper into various disorders. It is structured to follow the organisation of the DSM-IV, psychiatry's primary diagnostic and classification guide. The contributions of this field explore functional neuroanatomy, imaging and neuropsychology and pharmacotherapeutic possibilities for

text: depression

text: anxiety

text: and

text: mood disorder

text: s,

text: substance abuse

text: and

text: eating disorder

text: s,

text: schizophrenia

text: and

text: psychotic disorder

text: s, and cognitive and

text: personality disorder

text: s.

text: On January 27, 2011, former Lt. Col. George Rabusa, who was budget officer when Reyes was Armed Forces chief, testified before a Senate panel and accused Reyes of receiving P50 million in "send-off" money when he retired from the Armed Forces, as part of a decades-old military tradition. Reyes denied receiving such funds for his own use and sought to cross-examine Rabusa, but was refused the opportunity. Reyes then did not attend subsequent hearings in both the Senate and the House of Representatives.

text: On January 27, 2011, former Lt. Col. George Rabusa, who was budget officer when Reyes was Armed Forces chief, testified before a

text: Senate

text: panel and accused Reyes of receiving P50 million in "send-off" money when he retired from the Armed Forces, as part of a decades-old military tradition. Reyes denied receiving such funds for his own use and sought to cross-examine Rabusa, but was refused the opportunity. Reyes then did not attend subsequent hearings in both the Senate and the

entity_name: House of Representatives of the Philippines

text: House of Representatives

text: Other body systems affected by Lyme-like Disease. More common than EM are symptoms due to invasion by the spirochaete of the nervous system, heart, muscles and joints. These may start weeks or months after the tickbite. Initially, they may include flu-like illness, fever, headache, sore throat, fatigue, aching muscles and joints. More serious are meningitis, Bell's palsy (weakness of the face muscles), swelling of joints, and heart problems with palpitations and breathlessness. Lyme disease is difficult to distinguish from many other illnesses like Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) because the symptoms may be similar. If you have symptoms that could be Lyme disease, even if you do not remember a tickbite, see your doctor. Diagnosis is helped by a blood test called a Western Blot test, but your doctor will consider whether any other illness could be causing your symptoms and may do some other tests.

text: Reye's syndrome, a rare but severe illness characterized by acute encephalopathy and fatty liver, can occur when children or adolescents are given aspirin for a fever or other illness or infection. From 1981 through 1997, 1207 cases of Reye's syndrome in people younger than 18 were reported to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Of these, 93% reported being ill in the three weeks preceding the onset of Reye's syndrome, most commonly with a respiratory infection, chickenpox, or diarrhea. Salicylates were detectable in 81.9% of children for whom test results were reported. After the association between Reye's syndrome and aspirin was reported, and safety measures to prevent it (including a Surgeon General's warning, and changes to the labeling of aspirin-containing drugs) were implemented, aspirin taken by children declined considerably in the United States, as did the number of reported cases of Reye's syndrome; a similar decline was found in the United Kingdom after warnings against pediatric aspirin use were issued. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration now recommends aspirin (or aspirin-containing products) should not be given to anyone under the age of 12 who has a fever, and the British Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency recommends children who are under 16 years of age should not take aspirin, unless it is on the advice of a doctor.

text: Reye's syndrome, a rare but severe illness characterized by acute

text: encephalopathy

text: and

text: fatty liver

text: , can occur when children or adolescents are given aspirin for a fever or other illness or infection. From 1981 through 1997, 1207 cases of Reye's syndrome in people younger than 18 were reported to the U.S.

entity_name: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: . Of these, 93% reported being ill in the three weeks preceding the onset of Reye's syndrome, most commonly with a

text: respiratory infection

text: chickenpox

text: , or

text: diarrhea

text: . Salicylates were detectable in 81.9% of children for whom test results were reported. After the association between Reye's syndrome and aspirin was reported, and safety measures to prevent it (including a

text: Surgeon General

text: 's warning, and changes to the labeling of aspirin-containing drugs) were implemented, aspirin taken by children declined considerably in the United States, as did the number of reported cases of Reye's syndrome; a similar decline was found in the United Kingdom after warnings against pediatric aspirin use were issued. The

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: now recommends aspirin (or aspirin-containing products) should not be given to anyone under the age of 12 who has a fever, and the British

entity_name: Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency

text: Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency

text: recommends children who are under 16 years of age should not take aspirin, unless it is on the advice of a doctor.

text: Tuberculosis may affect the central nervous system (meninges, brain or spinal cord) in which case it is called TB meningitis, TB cerebritis, and TB myelitis respectively; the standard treatment is 12 months of drugs (2HREZ/10HR) and steroid are mandatory.

text: Tuberculosis may affect the central nervous system (meninges, brain or spinal cord) in which case it is called

text: TB meningitis

text: , TB cerebritis, and TB myelitis respectively; the standard treatment is 12 months of drugs (2HREZ/10HR) and steroid are mandatory.

text: Multiple sclerosis, briefly MS, is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS). The immune system attacks the CNS which leads to demyelination. Myelin forms a layer, the myelin sheath, around the axons and neurons. When this sheath is damaged the transport of action potentials will no longer work effectively. The cause of this disease is still unknown but there is a possible chance that the disease is induced or worsened by viral infection. It appears to be that cobra venoms such as cobratoxin have an ‘antiviral, immunomodultory and a neuromodulatory activity’. These properties make it a suitable candidate for a study in subjects with MS and contribute to the disease process. Clinical studies showed that when a chemical detoxification step is employed, the medication has minimal side effects. Modified cobratoxin is thus a possible therapy for MS.

text: Eye blinking can be a criterion for diagnosing medical conditions. For example, excessive blinking may help to indicate the onset of Tourette syndrome, strokes or disorders of the nervous system. A reduced rate of blinking is associated with Parkinson's disease.

text: Eye blinking can be a criterion for diagnosing medical conditions. For example, excessive blinking may help to indicate the onset of

text: Tourette syndrome

text: stroke

text: s or disorders of the

text: nervous system

text: . A reduced rate of blinking is associated with

text: Parkinson's disease

text: Meningitis inflames and breaks down any protective membrane and cells surrounding the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of the nervous system. Bacterial meningitis is normally caused by a bacterial infection that enters the bloodstream and enters the blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier consists of tight junctions. These tight junctions help to enclose endothelial cells that line the brain capillaries. Only certain water-soluble substances can move across the blood-brain barrier, while lipid-soluble substances can easily move across the blood-brain barrier. However, when any form of bacteria gets through to the blood-brain barrier, a bacterial infection can result in the cerebrospinal fluid.

text: Meningitis

text: inflames and breaks down any protective

text: membrane

text: and cells surrounding the

text: brain

text: spinal cord

text: , and other parts of the

text: nervous system

text: Bacterial meningitis

text: is normally caused by a bacterial infection that enters the bloodstream and enters the

text: blood-brain barrier

text: . The blood-brain barrier consists of tight junctions. These tight junctions help to enclose

text: endothelial cells

text: that line the

text: brain capillaries

text: . Only certain water-soluble substances can move across the blood-brain barrier, while lipid-soluble substances can easily move across the blood-brain barrier. However, when any form of bacteria gets through to the blood-brain barrier, a bacterial infection can result in the

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: In September 2009, PTC has entered into an agreement with Roche for the development of orally bioavailable small molecules for central nervous system diseases.

text: In September 2009, PTC has entered into an agreement with

text: Roche

text: for the development of orally bioavailable

text: small molecule

text: s for

text: central nervous system

text: diseases.

text: Meningococcal disease causes life-threatening meningitis and sepsis conditions. In the case of meningitis, bacteria attack the lining between the brain and skull called the meninges. Infected fluid from the meninges then passes into the spinal cord, causing symptoms including stiff neck, fever and rashes. The meninges (and sometimes the brain itself) begin to swell, which affects the central nervous system.

text: Meningococcal disease causes life-threatening meningitis and sepsis conditions. In the case of meningitis, bacteria attack the lining between the brain and skull called the

text: meninges

text: . Infected fluid from the meninges then passes into the

text: spinal cord

text: , causing symptoms including stiff neck,

text: fever

text: and

text: rash

text: es. The meninges (and sometimes the brain itself) begin to swell, which affects the

text: central nervous system

text: Many of these interactions and effects cause stress in the fish, which can be a major factor in facilitating fish disease. For many parasites, infestation depends on the host's degree of mobility, the density of the host population and vulnerability of the host's defence system. Sea lice are the primary parasitic problem for finfish in aquaculture, high numbers causing widespread skin erosion and haemorrhaging, gill congestion, and increased mucus production. There are also a number of prominent viral and bacterial pathogens that can have severe effects on internal organs and nervous systems.

text: Many of these interactions and effects cause stress in the fish, which can be a major factor in facilitating fish disease. For many parasites, infestation depends on the host's degree of mobility, the density of the host population and vulnerability of the host's defence system. Sea lice are the primary parasitic problem for finfish in aquaculture, high numbers causing widespread skin erosion and haemorrhaging, gill congestion, and increased mucus production. There are also a number of prominent viral and bacterial

text: pathogens

text: that can have severe effects on internal organs and nervous systems.

text: Neurons lack molecules necessary to present viral peptides on the surface to killer cells, which means they provide a safe house for viruses to replicate. Once viruses get in neurons they can persist for the hosts lifetime and can influence the factors that disturb the function of neurons and the homeostasis of the nervous system, leading to nervous system diseases.

text: The normal function of the sympathoadrenal system is to help the body regulate responses to environmental stimuli. These stimuli travel through the sympathetic nervous system by means of preganglionic nerve fibers that emerge from the thoracic spinal chord. Since both the sympathetic nerve fibers and adrenal medulla are part of the central nervous system (CNS), electrical impulses carried by the nervous system are converted to a chemical response in the adrenal gland. Chromaffin cells contained in the adrenal medulla act as postganglionic nerve fibers that release this chemical response into the blood as circulating messenger. The sympathoadrenal system can activate and discharge chemical messengers as a single unit to activate an organism’s “fight or flight” response. This “sympathoadrenal discharge” causes an increase in heart rate, cardiac output, blood pressure, and glucose levels. These sympathoadrenal functions show the combined responses of the central nervous system on a multitude of external stimuli.

text: The normal function of the sympathoadrenal system is to help the body regulate responses to environmental stimuli. These stimuli travel through the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: by means of

text: preganglionic nerve fibers

text: that emerge from the

text: thoracic spinal chord

text: . Since both the sympathetic nerve fibers and adrenal medulla are part of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), electrical impulses carried by the nervous system are converted to a chemical response in the adrenal gland.

text: Chromaffin cell

text: s contained in the adrenal medulla act as

text: postganglionic nerve fibers

text: that release this chemical response into the blood as circulating messenger. The sympathoadrenal system can activate and discharge chemical messengers as a single unit to activate an organism’s “fight or flight” response. This “sympathoadrenal discharge” causes an increase in heart rate, cardiac output, blood pressure, and glucose levels. These sympathoadrenal functions show the combined responses of the central nervous system on a multitude of external stimuli.

text: Meningitis is an acute inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known collectively as the meninges. The most common symptoms are fever, headache and neck stiffness. Other symptoms include confusion or altered consciousness, vomiting, and an inability to tolerate light or loud noises. Young children often exhibit only nonspecific symptoms, such as irritability, drowsiness, or poor feeding. If a rash is present, it may indicate a particular cause of meningitis; for instance, meningitis caused by meningococcal bacteria may be accompanied by a characteristic rash.

text: Meningitis is an

text: acute

text: inflammation

text: of the protective membranes covering the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: , known collectively as the

text: meninges

text: . The most common symptoms are

text: fever

text: headache

text: and

text: neck stiffness

text: . Other symptoms include

text: confusion

text: or altered

text: consciousness

text: , vomiting, and an

text: inability to tolerate light

text: or

text: loud noises

text: . Young children often exhibit only

text: nonspecific symptoms

text: , such as irritability, drowsiness, or poor feeding. If a

text: rash

text: is present, it may indicate a particular cause of meningitis; for instance,

text: meningitis caused by meningococcal bacteria

text: may be accompanied by a characteristic rash.

text: There are two antidotes that are frequently used in the hospital setting and these are Naloxone and Flumazenil. Naloxone is an opioid antagonist and reverses the central nervous depressive effects seen in opioid overdose. In the setting of a colonoscopy, Naloxone is rarely administered but when it is administered, its half life is shorter than some common opioid agonists. Therefore, the patient may still exhibit central nervous system depression after Naloxone has been cleared. Typically, Naloxone is administered in short intervals with relatively small doses in order to prevent the occurrence of withdrawal, pain, and sympathetic nervous system activation. Flumazenil is a benzodiazepine antagonists and blocks the binding of benzodiazepines to GABAa. Similarly to Naloxone, Flumazenil has a short half life, and this needs to be taken into account because the patient may exhibit central nervous depression after the antidote has been cleared. Benzodiazepines are used in the treatment of seizures and subsequently, the administration of Flumazenil may result in seizures. Therefore, slow administration of Flumazenil is necessary to prevent the occurrence of a seizure. These agents are rarely used in the setting of a colonoscopy as 98.8% of colonoscopies use sedatives but only 0.8% of them result in the administration of one of these antidotes. Even if they are rarely used in colonoscopies they are important in preventing the patient from entering a coma or developing respiratory depression when sedatives are not properly dosed. Outside of the colonoscopy setting, these agents are used for other procedures and in the case of drug overdose.

text: As of 2008 this syndrome has only been reported in five individuals within three generations of the same family; two young children, their mother, their uncle and their maternal grandmother. This most recent generation to be diagnosed with Ramos-Arroyo syndrome supports the hypothesis that this disease is a distinct autosomaldominant disorder. If this syndrome could be identified in other families it may help to discriminate the gene responsible.

text: The Government Accountability Office (GAO), the investigative arm of Congress, studied the Reyes death, in late 2007, for a report released to the House of Representatives. The GAO report said Reyes had more than 30 cuts and bruises on his body when he died. The staff had interpreted Reyes’ symptoms – including falling down frequently, complaining of muscle soreness, vomiting and involuntarily urinating and defecating on himself – as rebellion.

text: The

text: Government Accountability Office

text: (GAO), the investigative arm of Congress, studied the Reyes death, in late 2007, for a report released to the House of Representatives. The GAO report said Reyes had more than 30 cuts and bruises on his body when he died. The staff had interpreted Reyes’ symptoms – including falling down frequently, complaining of muscle soreness, vomiting and involuntarily urinating and defecating on himself – as rebellion.

text: After a typical human infection by bite, the virus enters the peripheral nervous system. It then travels along the afferent nerves toward the central nervous system. During this phase, the virus cannot be easily detected within the host, and vaccination may still confer cell-mediated immunity to prevent symptomatic rabies. When the virus reaches the brain, it rapidly causes encephalitis, the prodromal phase, which is the beginning of the symptoms. Once the patient becomes symptomatic, treatment is almost never effective and mortality is over 99%. Rabies may also inflame the spinal cord, producing transverse myelitis.

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . It then travels along the

text: afferent nerve

text: s toward the

text: central nervous system

text: . During this phase, the virus cannot be easily detected within the host, and vaccination may still confer cell-mediated immunity to prevent symptomatic rabies. When the virus reaches the

text: brain

text: , it rapidly causes

text: encephalitis

text: , the prodromal phase, which is the beginning of the symptoms. Once the patient becomes symptomatic, treatment is almost never effective and mortality is over 99%. Rabies may also inflame the

text: spinal cord

text: , producing

text: transverse myelitis

text: Cytomegalic inclusion body disease (CIBD) is a series of signs and symptoms caused by cytomegalovirus infection, toxoplasmosis or other rare infections such as herpes or rubella viruses. It can produce massive calcification of the central nervous system, and often the kidneys.

text: Cytomegalic inclusion body disease (CIBD) is a series of signs and symptoms caused by

text: cytomegalovirus

text: infection,

text: toxoplasmosis

text: or other rare infections such as

text: herpes

text: or

text: rubella

text: viruses. It can produce massive

text: calcification

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: , and often the

text: kidneys

text: Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is the virus associated with tick-borne encephalitis.

text: Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) is the virus associated with

text: tick-borne encephalitis

text: Kipnis is credited with the 2014 discovery of meningeal lymphatic vessels, a recently discovered network of conventional lymphatic vessels located parallel to the dural sinuses and meningeal arteries of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). As a part of the lymphatic system, the meningeal lymphatics are responsible for draining immune cells, small molecules, and excess fluid from the CNS and into the deep cervical lymph nodes.

text: Kipnis is credited with the 2014 discovery of

text: meningeal lymphatic vessels

text: , a recently discovered network of conventional lymphatic vessels located parallel to the dural sinuses and meningeal arteries of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). As a part of the lymphatic system, the meningeal lymphatics are responsible for draining immune cells, small molecules, and excess fluid from the CNS and into the deep cervical lymph nodes.

text: Langat virus (LGTV) is a virus of the genus Flavivirus. The virus was first isolated in Malaysia in 1956 from a hard tick of the Ixodes genus. This virus is antigenically related to Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, Kyasanur forest disease virus, Alkhurma virus, Louping ill virus and other viruses of the   tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) complex. The Langat virus does not pose a significant epidemiological threat in comparison with TBEV. There are no known cases of human diseases associated with LGTV. The Malaysian strain (LGT strain TP21, also known as the Yelantsev virus) is naturally attenuated and induces neutralizing antibodies to tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and protection against other TBEV complex viruses in animals.

text: Langat virus (LGTV) is a virus of the genus

text: Flavivirus

text: . The virus was first isolated in Malaysia in 1956 from a hard tick of the

text: Ixodes

text: genus. This virus is antigenically related to

text: Omsk hemorrhagic fever

text: virus,

text: Kyasanur forest disease

text: virus,

text: Alkhurma virus

text: Louping ill virus

text: and other viruses of the

text: tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) complex

text: . The Langat virus does not pose a significant epidemiological threat in comparison with TBEV. There are no known cases of human diseases associated with LGTV. The Malaysian strain (LGT strain TP21, also known as the Yelantsev virus) is naturally attenuated and induces neutralizing antibodies to

text: tick-borne encephalitis virus

text: (TBEV) and protection against other TBEV complex viruses in animals.

text: Physicians M. Fowler and R. F. Carter first described human disease caused by amebo-flagellates in Australia in 1965. Their work on amebo-flagellates has provided an example of how a protozoan can effectively live both freely in the environment, and in a human host.  Since 1965, more than 144 cases have been confirmed in different countries. In 1966, Fowler termed the infection resulting from N. fowleri, primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) to distinguish this central nervous system (CNS) invasion from other secondary invasions made by other amoebae such as Entamoeba histolytica. A retrospective study determined the first documented case of PAM possibly occurred in Britain in 1909.

text: Physicians M. Fowler and R. F. Carter first described human disease caused by amebo-flagellates in Australia in 1965. Their work on amebo-flagellates has provided an example of how a protozoan can effectively live both freely in the environment, and in a human host.  Since 1965, more than 144 cases have been confirmed in different countries. In 1966, Fowler termed the infection resulting from N. fowleri, primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) to distinguish this central nervous system (CNS) invasion from other secondary invasions made by other amoebae such as

text: Entamoeba histolytica

text: . A retrospective study determined the first documented case of PAM possibly occurred in Britain in 1909.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the nervous system that consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord.  The main function of the PNS is to connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the limbs and organs, essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the bone of spine and skull, or by the blood–brain barrier, which leaves it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is mainly divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.  In the somatic nervous system, the cranial nerves are part of the PNS with the exception of cranial nerve II, the optic nerve, along with the retina. The second cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract of the diencephalon. Cranial nerve ganglia originate in the CNS. However, the remaining ten cranial nerve axons extend beyond the brain and are therefore considered part of the PNS. The Autonomic nervous system is an involuntary control of smooth muscle. The connection between CNS and organs allows the system to be in two different functional states: sympathetic and parasympathetic.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the

text: nervous system

text: that consists of the nerves and

text: ganglia

text: outside of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: .  The main function of the PNS is to connect the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) to the limbs and organs, essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the

text: bone

text: of spine and skull, or by the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: , which leaves it exposed to

text: toxin

text: s and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is mainly divided into the

text: somatic nervous system

text: and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: .  In the somatic nervous system, the

text: cranial nerve

text: s are part of the PNS with the exception of cranial nerve II, the optic nerve, along with the retina. The second cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract of the diencephalon. Cranial nerve ganglia originate in the CNS. However, the remaining ten cranial nerve

text: axons

text: extend beyond the brain and are therefore considered part of the PNS. The Autonomic nervous system is an involuntary control of smooth muscle. The connection between CNS and organs allows the system to be in two different functional states:

text: sympathetic

text: and

text: parasympathetic

text: Throughout his career, Johnson had contributed to understanding of infections of the central nervous system.

text: The first detailed description of Reye syndrome was in 1963 by Douglas Reye. Children are most commonly affected. It affects less than one in a million children a year. The general recommendation to use aspirin in children was withdrawn because of Reye syndrome, with use of aspirin only recommended in Kawasaki disease.

text: The first detailed description of Reye syndrome was in 1963 by

text: Douglas Reye

text: . Children are most commonly affected. It affects less than one in a million children a year. The general recommendation to use aspirin in children was withdrawn because of Reye syndrome, with use of aspirin only recommended in

text: Kawasaki disease

text: Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. The sympathetic system is often considered the "fight or flight" system, while the parasympathetic system is often considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system.

text: Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. The sympathetic system is often considered the "

text: fight or flight

text: " system, while the parasympathetic system is often considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system.

text: The significant increase in the size of the cerebral hemisphere through evolution has been made possible in part through the evolution of the vascular pia mater, which allows nutrient blood vessels to penetrate deep into the intertwined cerebral matter, providing the necessary nutrients in this larger neural mass.  Throughout the course of life on earth, the nervous system of animals has continued to evolve to a more compact and increased organization of neurons and other nervous system cells.  This process is most evident in vertebrates and especially mammals in which the increased size of the brain is generally condensed into a smaller space through the presence of sulci or fissures on the surface of the hemisphere divided into gyri allowing more superficies of the cortical grey matter to exist.  The development of the meninges and the existence of a defined pia mater was first noted in the vertebrates, and has been more and more significant membrane in the brains of mammals with larger brains.

text: Sterzi wrote the following textbooks: “Il Sistema nervoso centrale dei vertebrati” (The vertebrate central nervous system), 1907-1912; and “Anatomia del sistema nervoso centrale dell'uomo” (Anatomy of the human central nervous system),1914-1915. Following the publication of the first book, John Black Johnston (1908), one of Sterzi's illustrious American contemporaries, wrote in a review published in The Anatomical Record: “Sterzi's work promises to be the most extensive work in any language dealing with the central nervous system of vertebrates.” “Meninges of the Spinal Medulla and of the Brain” (1899–1902) is a series of seven articles that represents the progression of his thesis and that includes a monograph on medullary meninges. Sterzi illustrates the comparative anatomy of meninges from the amphioxus to man. Contrary to previous reports the spinal meninges, both in the adult lower vertebrates and in the early developmental stages of the more advanced vertebrates, are very simple. From the mesenchyme surrounding the neural tube only a single leaflet forms the primitive meninx. In the following phylo- and ontogenetic stages, the latter divides into an internal leaflet: the secondary meninx, and into an external one: the dura mater. Finally, in higher vertebrates, even the secondary meninx divides into the arachnoid and the pia. In the same animals, Sterzi demonstrated that, while in the spinal medulla the dura keeps its identity, in the skull it fuses with the periosteum (Sterzi,1902). He also demonstrated the continuity of all meninges with the envelopes of nerves and with the filum terminale.

text: Fungal meningitis refers to meningitis caused by a fungal infection.

text: Fungal meningitis refers to

text: meningitis

text: caused by a

text: fungal infection

text: Fibromyalgia is classed as a disorder of pain processing due to abnormalities in how pain signals are processed in the central nervous system. The American College of Rheumatology classify fibromyalgia as being a functional somatic syndrome. The expert committee of the European League Against Rheumatism classify fibromyalgia as a neurobiological disorder and as a result exclusively give pharmacotherapy their highest level of support. The International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) lists fibromyalgia as a diagnosable disease under "Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue," under the code M79-7, and states that fibromyalgia syndrome should be classified as a functional somatic syndrome rather than a mental disorder. Although mental disorders and some physical disorders commonly are co-morbid with fibromyalgia – especially anxiety, depression, irritable bowel syndrome, and chronic fatigue syndrome – the ICD states that these should be diagnosed separately.

text: Fibromyalgia is classed as a disorder of pain processing due to abnormalities in how pain signals are processed in the central nervous system. The

text: American College of Rheumatology

text: classify fibromyalgia as being a functional somatic syndrome. The expert committee of the

text: European League Against Rheumatism

text: classify fibromyalgia as a neurobiological disorder and as a result exclusively give pharmacotherapy their highest level of support. The

text: International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10)

text: lists fibromyalgia as a diagnosable disease under "Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue," under the code M79-7, and states that fibromyalgia syndrome should be classified as a

text: functional somatic syndrome

text: rather than a mental disorder. Although mental disorders and some physical disorders commonly are co-morbid with fibromyalgia – especially anxiety, depression,

text: irritable bowel syndrome

text: , and

text: chronic fatigue syndrome

text: – the ICD states that these should be diagnosed separately.

text: The syndrome was first reported in 1987 in two sisters who had similar craniofacial abnormalities, Dandy-Walker phenotype, and congenital heart abnormalities. Neither of the parents was affected, indicating that the disorder was transmitted in an autosomal recessive pattern. The syndrome's symptoms were further refined in 1989 when the third case of the syndrome was reported, with similar craniofacial abnormalities to the first two cases, ventricular septal defect, and enlargement of the cisterna magna and fourth ventricle of the brain.

text: The syndrome was first reported in 1987 in two sisters who had similar craniofacial abnormalities, Dandy-Walker phenotype, and congenital heart abnormalities. Neither of the parents was affected, indicating that the disorder was transmitted in an autosomal recessive pattern. The syndrome's symptoms were further refined in 1989 when the third case of the syndrome was reported, with similar craniofacial abnormalities to the first two cases,

text: ventricular septal defect

text: , and enlargement of the

text: cisterna magna

text: and

text: fourth ventricle

text: of the brain.

text: Menkes disease (MNK), also known as Menkes syndrome, is an X-linked recessive disorder that affects copper levels in the body, leading to copper deficiency.   The onset of Menkes disease typically begins during infancy, affecting about 1 in 100,000 to 250,000 newborns. Infants with MNK syndrome often do not live past the age of 3. It is more common in males than females, because it only takes one copy of the X-linked recessive gene to be expressed for a male to develop the disease. In order for females to develop the disorder they would need to express two copies of the gene, one on each X chromosome to develop the disorder.  MNK is characterized by kinky hair, growth failure, and deterioration of the nervous system. It is caused by mutations in the copper transport gene, ATP7A, which is responsible for making a protein that is important for regulating the copper levels in the body.

text: Menkes disease (MNK), also known as Menkes syndrome, is an

text: X-linked

text: recessive disorder that affects

text: copper

text: levels in the body, leading to copper deficiency.   The onset of Menkes disease typically begins during infancy, affecting about 1 in 100,000 to 250,000 newborns. Infants with MNK syndrome often do not live past the age of 3. It is more common in males than females, because it only takes one copy of the X-linked recessive gene to be expressed for a male to develop the disease. In order for females to develop the disorder they would need to express two copies of the gene, one on each X chromosome to develop the disorder.  MNK is characterized by kinky hair, growth failure, and deterioration of the nervous system. It is caused by mutations in the copper transport gene, ATP7A, which is responsible for making a protein that is important for regulating the copper levels in the body.

text: The Company addresses a wide range of therapeutic areas but has a particular focus on cardiovascular disorders, inflammatory conditions, pain, infections and diseases of the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal and urology fields.

text: The Department's research focuses on the nervous system, and a wide range of approaches are used to study normal brain function and the causes of many neurological and psychiatric diseases.

text: Cardiovascular systems are regulated by the autonomic nervous systems, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.  A distinct balance between these two systems is crucial for the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease.  Chronic stress has been widely studied on its effects of the body resulting in an elevated heart rate (HR), reduced HR variability, elevated sympathetic tone, and intensified cardiovascular activity.  Consequently, stress promotes an autonomic imbalance in favor of the sympathetic nervous system.  The activation of the sympathetic nervous system contributes to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, atherosclerosis, insulin resistance, and increased incidence of arrhythmias.   An imbalance in the autonomic nervous system has been documented in mood disorders; It is commonly regarded as a mediator between mood disorders and cardiovascular disorders.

text: Cardiovascular systems are regulated by the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: s, which includes the sympathetic and

text: parasympathetic nervous systems

text: .  A distinct balance between these two systems is crucial for the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease.

text: Chronic stress

text: has been widely studied on its effects of the body resulting in an elevated heart rate (HR), reduced HR variability, elevated sympathetic tone, and intensified cardiovascular activity.  Consequently, stress promotes an autonomic imbalance in favor of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: .  The activation of the sympathetic nervous system contributes to

text: endothelial

text: dysfunction,

text: hypertension

text: atherosclerosis

text: , insulin resistance, and increased incidence of arrhythmias.   An imbalance in the autonomic nervous system has been documented in mood disorders; It is commonly regarded as a mediator between mood disorders and cardiovascular disorders.

text: The Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) itself is a virus from the family Flaviviridae, part of the Japanese encephalitis serocomplex of 9 genetically and antigenically related viruses, some which are particularly severe in horses, and four known to infect humans including West Nile virus.

text: The Japanese

text: encephalitis

text: virus (JEV) itself is a

text: virus

text: from the family

text: Flaviviridae

text: , part of the Japanese encephalitis serocomplex of 9 genetically and

text: antigen

text: ically related viruses, some which are particularly severe in

text: horses

text: , and four known to infect humans including

text: West Nile virus

text: Due to the importance of IFT in maintaining functional cilia, defective IFT machinery has now been implicated in many disease phenotypes generally associated with non-functional (or absent) cilia. IFT88, for example, encodes a protein also known as Tg737 or Polaris in mouse and human, and the loss of this protein has been found to cause an autosomal-recessive polycystic kidney disease model phenotype in mice. Other human diseases such as retinal degeneration, situs inversus (a reversal of the body's left-right axis), Senior-Loken syndrome, liver disease, primary ciliary dyskinesia, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, Sensenbrenner syndrome, Jeune syndrome, and Bardet-Biedl syndrome, which causes both cystic kidneys and retinal degeneration, have been linked to the IFT machinery. This diverse group of genetic syndromes and genetic diseases are now understood to arise due to malfunctioning cilia, and the term "ciliopathy" is now used to indicate their common origin.These and possibly many more disorders may be better understood via study of IFT.

text: Due to the importance of IFT in maintaining functional cilia, defective IFT machinery has now been implicated in many disease

text: phenotype

text: s generally associated with non-functional (or absent) cilia. IFT88, for example, encodes a protein also known as Tg737 or Polaris in mouse and human, and the loss of this protein has been found to cause an

text: autosomal

text: recessive

text: polycystic kidney disease

text: model phenotype in mice. Other human diseases such as

text: retinal degeneration

text: situs inversus

text: (a reversal of the body's left-right axis),

text: Senior-Loken syndrome

text: liver disease

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: Sensenbrenner syndrome

text: Jeune syndrome

text: , and

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: , which causes both cystic kidneys and retinal degeneration, have been linked to the IFT machinery. This diverse group of

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: are now understood to arise due to malfunctioning cilia, and the term "

text: ciliopathy

text: " is now used to indicate their common origin.These and possibly many more disorders may be better understood via study of IFT.

text: Paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity (PSH) is a syndrome that causes episodes of increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system can manifest as increased heart rate, increased respiration, increased blood pressure, diaphoresis, and hyperthermia.Previously, this syndrome has been identified as general dysautonomia but now is considered a specific form of it. It has also been referred to as paroxysmal sympathetic instability with dystonia, or PAID, and sympathetic storm. Recently, however, studies have adopted the name paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity to ensure specificity. PSH is observed more in younger patients than older ones. It is also seen more commonly in men than women. There is no known reason why this is the case, although it is suspected pathophysiological links may exist. In patients surviving traumatic brain injury, the occurrence of these episodes is one in every three. PSH can also be associated with severe anoxia, subarachnoid and intracerebral hemorrhage, and hydrocephalus.

text: Paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity (PSH) is a syndrome that causes episodes of increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system can manifest as increased heart rate, increased respiration, increased blood pressure,

text: diaphoresis

text: , and

text: hyperthermia

text: .Previously, this syndrome has been identified as general

text: dysautonomia

text: but now is considered a specific form of it. It has also been referred to as paroxysmal sympathetic instability with

text: dystonia

text: , or PAID, and sympathetic storm. Recently, however, studies have adopted the name paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity to ensure specificity. PSH is observed more in younger patients than older ones. It is also seen more commonly in men than women. There is no known reason why this is the case, although it is suspected pathophysiological links may exist. In patients surviving traumatic brain injury, the occurrence of these episodes is one in every three. PSH can also be associated with severe

text: anoxia

text: subarachnoid

text: and

text: intracerebral

text: hemorrhage, and

text: hydrocephalus

text: The signs and symptoms of Kikuchi disease are fever, lymphadenopathy, skin rashes, and headache. Rarely, hepatosplenomegaly and nervous system involvement resembling meningitis are seen.  Often a bout of extreme fatigue can occur - often taking hold during latter parts of the day and the patient can be more prone to fatigue from exercise.Differential diagnosis includes systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), disseminated tuberculosis, lymphoma, sarcoidosis, and viral lymphadenitis. Clinical findings sometimes may include positive results for IgM/IgG/IgA antibodies.

text: The signs and symptoms of Kikuchi disease are

text: fever

text: lymphadenopathy

text: , skin rashes, and

text: headache

text: . Rarely, hepatosplenomegaly and nervous system involvement resembling

text: meningitis

text: are seen.  Often a bout of extreme fatigue can occur - often taking hold during latter parts of the day and the patient can be more prone to fatigue from exercise.Differential diagnosis includes systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), disseminated

text: tuberculosis

text: lymphoma

text: sarcoidosis

text: , and viral lymphadenitis. Clinical findings sometimes may include positive results for IgM/IgG/IgA antibodies.

text: The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary responses to regulate physiological functions. The brain and spinal cord from central nervous system are connected with organs that have smooth muscle, such as the heart, bladder, and other cardiac, exocrine, and endocrine related organs, by ganglionic neurons. The most notable physiological effects from autonomic activity are pupil constriction and dilation, and salivation of saliva. The autonomic nervous system is always activated, but is either in the sympathetic or parasympathetic state. Depending on the situation, one state can overshadow the other, resulting in a release of different kinds of neurotransmitters. There is a lesser known division of the autonomic nervous system known as the enteric nervous system. Located only around the digestive tract, this system allows for local control without input from the sympathetic or the parasympathetic branches, though it can still receive and respond to signals from the rest of the body. The enteric system is responsible for various functions related to gastrointestinal system.

text: The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: controls involuntary responses to regulate physiological functions. The brain and spinal cord from

text: central nervous system

text: are connected with organs that have smooth muscle, such as the heart, bladder, and other cardiac, exocrine, and endocrine related organs, by ganglionic neurons. The most notable physiological effects from autonomic activity are pupil constriction and dilation, and salivation of saliva. The autonomic nervous system is always activated, but is either in the sympathetic or parasympathetic state. Depending on the situation, one state can overshadow the other, resulting in a release of different kinds of

text: neurotransmitters

text: . There is a lesser known division of the autonomic nervous system known as the

text: enteric nervous system

text: . Located only around the digestive tract, this system allows for local control without input from the sympathetic or the parasympathetic branches, though it can still receive and respond to signals from the rest of the body. The enteric system is responsible for various functions related to gastrointestinal system.

text: Tarlov cysts, also known as perineural cysts, are type II innervated meningeal cysts, cerebrospinal-fluid-filled (CSF) sacs most frequently located in the spinal canal of the S1-to-S5 region of the spinal cord (much less often in the cervical, thoracic or lumbar spine), and can be distinguished from other meningeal cysts by their nerve-fiber-filled walls. Tarlov cysts are defined as cysts formed within the nerve-root sheath at the dorsal root ganglion.  Since Tarlov cysts are cysts of the spinal meninges, symptomatic Tarlov cysts by definition cause myelopathy. The etiology of these cysts is not well understood; some current theories explaining this phenomenon have not yet been tested or challenged but include increased pressure in CSF,  filling of congenital cysts with one-way valves, inflammation in response to trauma and disease. They are named for neurologist Isadore Tarlov, who described them in 1938.

text: Tarlov cysts, also known as perineural cysts, are type II innervated meningeal cysts,

text: cerebrospinal-fluid

text: -filled (CSF) sacs most frequently located in the spinal canal of the S1-to-S5 region of the

text: spinal cord

text: (much less often in the cervical, thoracic or lumbar spine), and can be distinguished from other

text: meningeal cyst

text: s by their nerve-fiber-filled walls. Tarlov cysts are defined as cysts formed within the nerve-root sheath at the

text: dorsal root ganglion

text: .  Since Tarlov cysts are cysts of the spinal meninges, symptomatic Tarlov cysts by definition cause myelopathy. The

text: etiology

text: of these cysts is not well understood; some current theories explaining this phenomenon have not yet been tested or challenged but include increased pressure in CSF,  filling of congenital cysts with one-way valves, inflammation in response to trauma and disease. They are named for neurologist

text: Isadore Tarlov

text: , who described them in 1938.

text: The incubation period - the time between when infection occurs and when symptoms appear - varies from virus to virus, but is usually limited between 2 and 15 days for arboviruses. The majority of infections, however, are asymptomatic. Among cases in which symptoms do appear, symptoms tend to be non-specific, resembling a flu-like illness, and are not indicative of a specific causative agent. These symptoms include fever, headache, malaise, rash and fatigue. Rarely, vomiting and hemorrhagic fever may occur. The central nervous system can also be affected by infection, as encephalitis and meningitis are sometimes observed. Prognosis is good for most people, but is poor in those who develop severe symptoms, with up to a 20% mortality rate in this population depending on the virus. The very young, elderly, pregnant women, and people with immune deficiencies are more likely to develop severe symptoms.

text: The incubation period - the time between when infection occurs and when symptoms appear - varies from virus to virus, but is usually limited between 2 and 15 days for arboviruses. The majority of infections, however, are asymptomatic. Among cases in which symptoms do appear, symptoms tend to be non-specific, resembling a

text: flu-like illness

text: , and are not indicative of a specific causative agent. These symptoms include fever, headache, malaise, rash and fatigue. Rarely, vomiting and hemorrhagic fever may occur. The central nervous system can also be affected by infection, as encephalitis and meningitis are sometimes observed. Prognosis is good for most people, but is poor in those who develop severe symptoms, with up to a 20% mortality rate in this population depending on the virus. The very young, elderly, pregnant women, and people with immune deficiencies are more likely to develop severe symptoms.

text: Clinical neurophysiology is a medical specialty that studies the central and peripheral nervous systems through the recording of bioelectrical activity, whether spontaneous or stimulated. It encompasses both research regarding the pathophysiology along with clinical methods used to diagnose diseases involving both central and peripheral nervous systems.  Examinations in the clinical neurophysiology field are not limited to tests conducted in a laboratory. It is thought of as an extension of a neurologic consultation. Tests that are conducted are concerned with measuring the electrical functions of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves in the limbs and muscles. It can give the precise definition of site, the type and degree of the lesion, along with revealing the abnormalities that are in question. Due to these abilities, clinical neurophysiology is used to mainly help diagnose diseases rather than treat them.

text: Clinical neurophysiology is a

text: medical

text: specialty that studies the central and peripheral nervous systems through the recording of bioelectrical activity, whether spontaneous or stimulated. It encompasses both research regarding the pathophysiology along with clinical methods used to diagnose diseases involving both central and peripheral nervous systems.  Examinations in the clinical neurophysiology field are not limited to tests conducted in a laboratory. It is thought of as an extension of a neurologic consultation. Tests that are conducted are concerned with measuring the electrical functions of the

text: brain

text: spinal cord

text: , and

text: nerves

text: in the limbs and muscles. It can give the precise definition of site, the type and degree of the lesion, along with revealing the abnormalities that are in question. Due to these abilities, clinical neurophysiology is used to mainly help diagnose diseases rather than treat them.

text: While the more specific underlying causes of leukodystrophy are dependent upon the type, there are, however, common pathophysiological patterns that can be seen amongst all types. First and foremost, leukodystrophy is a neurodegenerative disease that is always the result of both impairment and maintenance of myelin sheaths surrounding neuronal axons in the central nervous system as the result of a genetic mutation. Myelin is a fatty white substance that acts as an electrical insulator and coats axons in order to speed up impulses (i.e. action potentials) traveling down the axon. Thus, the natural result of a loss of this substance is decreased efficiency in impulse propagation.  As myelin is produced by oligodendrocytes (a type of glial cell) in the central nervous system, an easy place to look for the cause is a mutation or malfunctioning of these cells and in other glial cells.

text: While the more specific underlying causes of leukodystrophy are dependent upon the type, there are, however, common pathophysiological patterns that can be seen amongst all types. First and foremost, leukodystrophy is a neurodegenerative disease that is always the result of both impairment and maintenance of

text: myelin

text: sheaths surrounding neuronal

text: axons

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: as the result of a

text: genetic mutation

text: . Myelin is a fatty white substance that acts as an

text: electrical insulator

text: and coats axons in order to speed up impulses (i.e.

text: action potentials

text: ) traveling down the axon. Thus, the natural result of a loss of this substance is decreased efficiency in impulse propagation.  As myelin is produced by

text: oligodendrocytes

text: (a type of

text: glial cell

text: ) in the central nervous system, an easy place to look for the cause is a

text: mutation

text: or malfunctioning of these cells and in other glial cells.

text: A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of Southern California reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. Prematurity in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing Infant respiratory distress syndrome, gastrointestinal, and hematologic diseases, central nervous system (CNS) problems such as hearing loss, are more prone to infections, and at risk for hearing and vision loss.

text: A previous study conducted in the Los Angeles Basin of Southern California reported a consistent association between levels of CO and particulate matter during the first trimester and the last six weeks prior to birth and risk of preterm birth. Prematurity in babies is accompanied by an array of health complications. Children born prematurely are at highest risk for developing

text: Infant respiratory distress syndrome

text: , gastrointestinal, and hematologic diseases, central nervous system (CNS) problems such as hearing loss, are more prone to infections, and at risk for hearing and vision loss.

text: Meningitis may occur as the result of several non-infectious causes: spread of cancer to the meninges (malignant or neoplastic meningitis) and certain drugs (mainly non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antibiotics and intravenous immunoglobulins). It may also be caused by several inflammatory conditions, such as sarcoidosis (which is then called neurosarcoidosis), connective tissue disorders such as systemic lupus erythematosus, and certain forms of vasculitis (inflammatory conditions of the blood vessel wall), such as Behçet's disease. Epidermoid cysts and dermoid cysts may cause meningitis by releasing irritant matter into the subarachnoid space. Rarely, migraine may cause meningitis, but this diagnosis is usually only made when other causes have been eliminated.

text: Meningitis may occur as the result of several non-infectious causes: spread of

text: cancer

text: to the meninges (

text: malignant or neoplastic meningitis

text: ) and certain

text: drugs

text: (mainly

text: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug

text: s,

text: antibiotic

text: s and

text: intravenous immunoglobulin

text: s). It may also be caused by several inflammatory conditions, such as

text: sarcoidosis

text: (which is then called

text: neurosarcoidosis

text: ), connective tissue disorders such as

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: , and certain forms of

text: vasculitis

text: (inflammatory conditions of the blood vessel wall), such as

text: Behçet's disease

text: Epidermoid cyst

text: s and

text: dermoid cyst

text: s may cause meningitis by releasing irritant matter into the subarachnoid space. Rarely,

text: migraine

text: may cause meningitis, but this diagnosis is usually only made when other causes have been eliminated.

text: Although the clinical disease caused by Angiostrongylus invasion into the central nervous system is commonly referred to as "eosinophilic meningitis", the actual pathophysiology is of a meningoencephalitis with invasion not just of the meninges, or superficial lining of the brain, but also deeper brain tissue. Initial invasion through the lining of the brain, the meninges, may cause a typical inflammation of the meninges and a classic meningitis picture of headache, stiff neck and often fever. The parasites subsequently invade deeper into the brain tissue, causing specific localizing neurologic symptoms depending on where in the brain parenchyma they migrate. Neurologic findings and symptoms wax and wane as initial damage is done by the physical in-migration of the worms and secondary damage is done by the inflammatory response to the presence of dead and dying worms. This inflammation can lead in the short term to paralysis, bladder dysfunction, visual disturbance and coma and in the long term to permanent nerve damage, mental retardation, nerve damage, permanent brain damage or death.

text: Although the clinical disease caused by Angiostrongylus invasion into the central nervous system is commonly referred to as "eosinophilic meningitis", the actual pathophysiology is of a meningoencephalitis with invasion not just of the meninges, or superficial lining of the brain, but also deeper brain tissue. Initial invasion through the lining of the brain, the meninges, may cause a typical inflammation of the meninges and a classic meningitis picture of headache, stiff neck and often fever. The parasites subsequently invade deeper into the brain tissue, causing specific localizing neurologic symptoms depending on where in the brain

text: parenchyma

text: they migrate. Neurologic findings and symptoms wax and wane as initial damage is done by the physical in-migration of the worms and secondary damage is done by the inflammatory response to the presence of dead and dying worms. This inflammation can lead in the short term to paralysis, bladder dysfunction, visual disturbance and coma and in the long term to permanent nerve damage, mental retardation, nerve damage, permanent brain damage or death.

text: HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) are neurological disorders associated with HIV infection and AIDS.  HAND may include neurological disorders of various severity. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders are associated with a metabolic encephalopathy induced by HIV infection and fueled by immune activation of macrophages and microglia. These cells are actively infected with HIV and secrete neurotoxins of both host and viral origin. The essential features of ADC are disabling cognitive impairment accompanied by motor dysfunction, speech problems and behavioral change. Cognitive impairment is characterised by mental slowness, trouble with memory and poor concentration. Motor symptoms include a loss of fine motor control leading to clumsiness, poor balance and tremors. Behavioral changes may include apathy, lethargy and diminished emotional responses and spontaneity. Histopathologically, it is identified by the infiltration of monocytes and macrophages into the central nervous system (CNS), gliosis, pallor of myelin sheaths, abnormalities of dendritic processes and neuronal loss.

text: HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) are neurological disorders associated with

text: HIV

text: infection

text: and

text: AIDS

text: .  HAND may include neurological disorders of various severity. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders are associated with a metabolic

text: encephalopathy

text: induced by

text: HIV

text: infection and fueled by immune activation of

text: macrophage

text: s and

text: microglia

text: . These cells are actively infected with HIV and secrete

text: neurotoxin

text: s of both host and viral origin. The essential features of ADC are disabling cognitive impairment accompanied by motor dysfunction, speech problems and behavioral change. Cognitive impairment is characterised by mental slowness, trouble with

text: memory

text: and poor

text: concentration

text: . Motor symptoms include a loss of fine motor control leading to clumsiness, poor balance and tremors. Behavioral changes may include

text: apathy

text: lethargy

text: and diminished emotional responses and spontaneity.

text: Histopathologically

text: , it is identified by the infiltration of

text: monocyte

text: s and

text: macrophage

text: s into the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS),

text: gliosis

text: , pallor of

text: myelin sheath

text: s, abnormalities of

text: dendritic

text: processes and

text: neuron

text: al loss.

text: Limbic encephalitis is a form of encephalitis, a disease characterised by inflammation of the brain. Limbic encephalitis is caused by autoimmunity: an abnormal state where the body produces antibodies against itself. Some cases are associated with cancer and some are not. Although the disease is known as "limbic" encephalitis, it is seldom limited to the limbic system and post-mortem studies usually show involvement of other parts of the brain. The disease was first described by Brierley and others in 1960 as a series of three cases. The link to cancer was first noted in 1968 and confirmed by later investigators.

text: Limbic encephalitis is a form of

text: encephalitis

text: , a disease characterised by inflammation of the brain. Limbic encephalitis is caused by

text: autoimmunity

text: : an abnormal state where the body produces antibodies against itself. Some cases are associated with cancer and some are not. Although the disease is known as "limbic" encephalitis, it is seldom limited to the

text: limbic system

text: and post-mortem studies usually show involvement of other parts of the brain. The disease was first described by Brierley and others in 1960 as a series of three cases. The link to cancer was first noted in 1968 and confirmed by later investigators.

text: The role of the chemicals in the brain, particularly neurotransmitters, in aggression has also been examined. This varies depending on the pathway, the context and other factors such as gender. A deficit in serotonin has been theorized to have a primary role in causing impulsivity and aggression. Nevertheless, low levels of serotonin transmission may explain a vulnerability to impulsiveness, potential aggression, and may have an effect through interactions with other neurochemical systems. These include dopamine systems which are generally associated with attention and motivation toward rewards, and operate at various levels. Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, may influence aggression responses both directly and indirectly through the hormonal system, the sympathetic nervous system or the central nervous system (including the brain). It appears to have different effects depending on the type of triggering stimulus, for example social isolation/rank versus shock/chemical agitation which appears not to have a linear relationship with aggression. Similarly, GABA, although associated with inhibitory functions at many CNS synapses, sometimes shows a positive correlation with aggression, including when potentiated by alcohol.

text: The role of the chemicals in the brain, particularly

text: neurotransmitters

text: , in aggression has also been examined. This varies depending on the pathway, the context and other factors such as gender. A deficit in

text: serotonin

text: has been theorized to have a primary role in causing impulsivity and aggression. Nevertheless, low levels of serotonin transmission may explain a vulnerability to impulsiveness, potential aggression, and may have an effect through interactions with other neurochemical systems. These include

text: dopamine

text: systems which are generally associated with attention and motivation toward rewards, and operate at various levels.

text: Norepinephrine

text: , also known as noradrenaline, may influence aggression responses both directly and indirectly through the hormonal system, the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: or the

text: central nervous system

text: (including the brain). It appears to have different effects depending on the type of triggering stimulus, for example social isolation/rank versus shock/chemical agitation which appears not to have a linear relationship with aggression. Similarly,

text: GABA

text: , although associated with inhibitory functions at many CNS synapses, sometimes shows a positive correlation with aggression, including when potentiated by alcohol.

text: Gliogenesis results in the formation of non-neuronal glia populations derived from multipotent neural stem cells. In this capacity, glial cells provide multiple functions to both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Subsequent differentiation of glial cell populations results in function-specialized glial lineages. Glial cell-derived astrocytes are specialized lineages responsible for modulating the chemical environment by altering ion gradients and neurotransmitter transduction. Similarly derived, oligodendrocytes produce myelin, which insulates axons to facilitate electric signal transduction. Finally, microglial cells are derived from glial precursors and carry-out macrophage like properties to remove cellular and foreign debris within the central nervous system ref. Functions of glial-derived cell lineages are reviewed by Baumann and Hauw. Gliogenesis itself, and differentiation of glial-derived lineages are activated upon stimulation of specific signaling cascades. Similarly, inhibition of these pathways is controlled by distinct signaling cascades that control proliferation and differentiation. Thus, elaborate intracellular-mechanisms based on environmental signals are present to regulate the formation of these cells. As regulation is much more known in the CNS, its mechanisms and components will be focused on here. Understanding the mechanisms in which gliogenesis is regulated provides the potential to harness the ability to control the fate of glial cells and, consequently, the ability to reverse neurodegenerative diseases.

text: Gliogenesis results in the formation of non-neuronal

text: glia

text: populations derived from

text: multipotent

text: neural stem cells. In this capacity, glial cells provide multiple functions to both the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). Subsequent

text: differentiation

text: of glial cell populations results in function-specialized glial lineages. Glial cell-derived

text: astrocytes

text: are specialized lineages responsible for modulating the chemical environment by altering

text: ion gradients

text: and

text: neurotransmitter

text: transduction. Similarly derived,

text: oligodendrocytes

text: produce

text: myelin

text: , which insulates

text: axon

text: s to facilitate electric signal transduction. Finally,

text: microglial cells

text: are derived from glial precursors and carry-out

text: macrophage

text: like properties to remove cellular and foreign debris within the central nervous system ref. Functions of glial-derived cell lineages are reviewed by Baumann and Hauw. Gliogenesis itself, and differentiation of glial-derived lineages are activated upon stimulation of specific signaling cascades. Similarly, inhibition of these pathways is controlled by distinct signaling cascades that control proliferation and differentiation. Thus, elaborate intracellular-mechanisms based on environmental signals are present to regulate the formation of these cells. As regulation is much more known in the CNS, its mechanisms and components will be focused on here. Understanding the mechanisms in which gliogenesis is regulated provides the potential to harness the ability to control the fate of glial cells and, consequently, the ability to reverse

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous Greek anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus. These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research. They also conducted vivisections on the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance – Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls then veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus’s knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the course of disease. Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum  During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins – the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons  and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis. Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle  Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves.

text: Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous Greek anatomists and physiologists of the third century were

text: Herophilus

text: and

text: Erasistratus

text: . These two physicians helped pioneer human

text: dissection

text: for medical research. They also conducted

text: vivisection

text: There is currently no treatment or cure for MLD. Children with advanced juvenile or adult onset and late infantile patients displaying symptoms receive treatment limited to pain and symptom management.  Presymptomatic late infantile MLD patients, as well as those with juvenile or adult MLD that are either presymptomatic or displaying mild to moderate symptoms, have the option of bone marrow transplantation (including stem cell transplantation), which is under investigation to see if it may slow down progression of the disease or stop its progression in the central nervous system. However, results in the peripheral nervous system have been less dramatic, and the long-term results of these therapies have been mixed. Recent success has involved stem cells being taken from the bone marrow of children with the disorder and infecting the cells with a retro-virus, replacing the stem cells mutated gene with the repaired gene before re-injecting it back into the patient where they multiplied. The children by the age of five where all in good condition and going to kindergarten when normally by this age, children with the disease can not even speak.

text: There is currently no treatment or cure for MLD. Children with advanced juvenile or adult onset and late infantile patients displaying symptoms receive treatment limited to pain and symptom management.  Presymptomatic late infantile MLD patients, as well as those with juvenile or adult MLD that are either presymptomatic or displaying mild to moderate symptoms, have the option of

text: bone marrow transplantation

text: (including

text: stem cell transplantation

text: ), which is under investigation to see if it may slow down progression of the disease or stop its progression in the central nervous system. However, results in the peripheral nervous system have been less dramatic, and the long-term results of these therapies have been mixed. Recent success has involved stem cells being taken from the bone marrow of children with the disorder and infecting the cells with a retro-virus, replacing the stem cells mutated gene with the repaired gene before re-injecting it back into the patient where they multiplied. The children by the age of five where all in good condition and going to kindergarten when normally by this age, children with the disease can not even speak.

text: There are two types of axons occurring in the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system: unmyelinated and myelinated axons. Myelin is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of glial cells: Schwann cells ensheathing peripheral neurons and oligodendrocytes insulating those of the central nervous system. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as nodes of Ranvier occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltatory conduction. Demyelination of axons causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease multiple sclerosis.

text: There are two types of axons occurring in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and the central nervous system:

text: unmyelinated

text: and

text: myelinated

text: axons.

text: Myelin

text: is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of

text: glial cells

text: Schwann cell

text: s ensheathing

text: peripheral

text: neurons and

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s insulating those of the

text: central nervous system

text: . Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as

text: nodes of Ranvier

text: occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called

text: saltatory conduction

text: . Demyelination of axons causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Diseases transmitted by mosquitoes include: malaria, dengue, West Nile virus, chikungunya, yellow fever, filariasis, Japanese encephalitis, Saint Louis encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis, Eastern equine encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, La Crosse encephalitis and Zika fever.

text: Diseases transmitted by mosquitoes include:

text: malaria

text: dengue

text: West Nile virus

text: chikungunya

text: yellow fever

text: filariasis

text: Japanese encephalitis

text: Saint Louis encephalitis

text: Western equine encephalitis

text: Eastern equine encephalitis

text: Venezuelan equine encephalitis

text: La Crosse encephalitis

text: and

text: Zika fever

text: Electric stimulation treatment was used to treat nervous disorders where the nervous system was unable to stimulate a required glandular secretion or muscle activity.  It had previously been successfully used to treat some forms of asthma.  Bird used his apparatus to treat Sydenham's chorea (St Vitus's dance) and other forms of spasm, some forms of paralysis (although the treatment was of no use where nerves had been physically damaged), opiate overdose (since it kept the patient awake), bringing on menstruation where this had failed (amenorrhoea), and hysteria, a supposed disease of women.  Paralysed bladder function in young girls was attributed to the now archaic condition of hysteria.  It was treated with the application of a strong electric current between the sacrum and the pubis.  Although the treatment worked, in that it caused the bladder to empty, Bird suspected in many cases it did so more through fear and pain than any therapeutic property of electricity.

text: Electric stimulation treatment was used to treat nervous disorders where the nervous system was unable to stimulate a required glandular secretion or muscle activity.  It had previously been successfully used to treat some forms of asthma.  Bird used his apparatus to treat

text: Sydenham's chorea

text: (St Vitus's dance) and other forms of

text: spasm

text: , some forms of paralysis (although the treatment was of no use where nerves had been physically damaged),

text: opiate

text: overdose (since it kept the patient awake), bringing on

text: menstruation

text: where this had failed (

text: amenorrhoea

text: ), and

text: hysteria

text: , a supposed disease of women.  Paralysed bladder function in young girls was attributed to the now archaic condition of hysteria.  It was treated with the application of a strong electric current between the

text: sacrum

text: and the

text: pubis

text: .  Although the treatment worked, in that it caused the bladder to empty, Bird suspected in many cases it did so more through fear and pain than any therapeutic property of electricity.

text: In 1975, Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen, at the University of Rochester, advanced PNI with their demonstration of classic conditioning of immune function, and they subsequently coined the term "psychoneuroimmunology". Ader was investigating how long conditioned responses (in the sense of Pavlov's conditioning of dogs to drool when they heard a bell ring) might last in laboratory rats. To condition the rats, he used a combination of saccharin-laced water (the conditioned stimulus) and the drug Cytoxan, which unconditionally induces nausea and taste aversion and suppression of immune function. Ader was surprised to discover that after conditioning, just feeding the rats saccharin-laced water was associated with the death of some animals and he proposed that they had been immunosuppressed after receiving the conditioned stimulus. Ader (a psychologist) and Cohen (an immunologist) directly tested this hypothesis by deliberately immunizing conditioned and unconditioned animals, exposing these and other control groups to the conditioned taste stimulus, and then measuring the amount of antibody produced.  The highly reproducible results revealed that conditioned rats exposed to the conditioned stimulus were indeed immuno suppressed. In other words, a signal via the nervous system (taste) was affecting immune function. This was one of the first scientific experiments that demonstrated that the nervous system can affect the immune system.

text: In 1975,

text: Robert Ader

text: and

text: Nicholas Cohen

text: , at the

text: University of Rochester

text: , advanced PNI with their demonstration of

text: classic conditioning

text: of immune function, and they subsequently coined the term "psychoneuroimmunology". Ader was investigating how long conditioned responses (in the sense of

text: Pavlov

text: 's conditioning of dogs to drool when they heard a bell ring) might last in laboratory rats. To condition the rats, he used a combination of

text: saccharin

text: -laced water (the conditioned stimulus) and the drug

text: Cytoxan

text: , which unconditionally induces

text: nausea and taste aversion

text: and suppression of immune function. Ader was surprised to discover that after conditioning, just feeding the rats saccharin-laced water was associated with the death of some animals and he proposed that they had been immunosuppressed after receiving the conditioned stimulus. Ader (a psychologist) and Cohen (an immunologist) directly tested this hypothesis by deliberately immunizing conditioned and unconditioned animals, exposing these and other control groups to the conditioned taste stimulus, and then measuring the amount of antibody produced.  The highly reproducible results revealed that conditioned rats exposed to the conditioned stimulus were indeed immuno suppressed. In other words, a signal via the nervous system (taste) was affecting immune function. This was one of the first scientific experiments that demonstrated that the nervous system can affect the immune system.

text: The nerve tissue that lies outside of the central nervous system is collectively known as the peripheral nervous system. This system can be further divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous system. The autonomic system can be referred to as the involuntary component that regulates bodily organs and mechanisms, such as digestion and respiration. The somatic system is responsible for relaying messages back and forth from the brain to various parts of the body, whether it is taking in sensory stimuli and sending it to the brain or sending messages from the brain in order for muscles to contract and relax.

text: The nerve tissue that lies outside of the central nervous system is collectively known as the peripheral nervous system. This system can be further divided into the

text: autonomic

text: and

text: somatic nervous system

text: . The autonomic system can be referred to as the involuntary component that regulates bodily organs and mechanisms, such as digestion and respiration. The somatic system is responsible for relaying messages back and forth from the brain to various parts of the body, whether it is taking in sensory stimuli and sending it to the brain or sending messages from the brain in order for muscles to contract and relax.

text: Setaria cervi is a species of parasitic roundworm belonging to the genus Setaria. It infects cattle, bison, yak, reindeer, buffalo, moose, and sheep all over the world. It is most prevalent in Europe and Asia. Different species of Aedes mosquito can transmit the filarial worm. Stable fly Haematobia stimulans is the major vector. The mature roundworms are primarily present in the abdominal (peritoneal) cavity, but are capable of migrating to central nervous system causing serious neurological disease.

text: Setaria cervi is a species of parasitic

text: roundworm

text: belonging to the genus

text: Setaria

text: . It infects cattle, bison, yak, reindeer, buffalo, moose, and sheep all over the world. It is most prevalent in Europe and Asia. Different species of

text: Aedes

text: mosquito can transmit the filarial worm. Stable fly Haematobia stimulans is the major vector. The mature roundworms are primarily present in the

text: abdominal (peritoneal) cavity

text: , but are capable of migrating to

text: central nervous system

text: causing serious

text: neurological disease

text: In the 20th Century, Lysinibacillus fusiformis was believed to cause a form of pathogenicity in humans relating to tropical ulcer formations and dermal and/or respiratory infections. Some researchers believed that L. fusiformis infections could only occur as a symbiotic relationship with certain spirochaete species. Multiple experiments to prove the existence of pathogenicity have turned up inconclusive In 2010, researchers identified a strain of L. fusiformis, B-1, from 16S rRNA gene analysis. This strain has been found exclusively in the toxin of the puffer fish, Takifugu obscurus. This toxin is a tetrodotoxin, which is a highly fatal neurotoxin that destroys the central nervous system of humans causing paralysis. L. fusiformis is shown to be sensitive to the common broad-spectrum antibiotic known as tetracycline.

text: In the 20th Century, Lysinibacillus fusiformis was believed to cause a form of

text: pathogenicity

text: in

text: humans

text: relating to

text: tropical ulcer

text: formations and

text: dermal

text: and/or

text: respiratory

text: infections

text: . Some

text: researchers

text: believed that L. fusiformis

text: infections

text: could only occur as a

text: symbiotic

text: relationship with certain

text: spirochaete

text: species

text: . Multiple

text: experiments

text: to prove the existence of

text: pathogenicity

text: have turned up inconclusive In 2010, researchers identified a

text: strain

text: of L. fusiformis, B-1, from

text: 16S rRNA

text: gene

text: analysis. This strain has been found exclusively in the

text: toxin

text: of the

text: puffer fish

text: Takifugu

text: obscurus. This

text: toxin

text: is a

text: tetrodotoxin

text: , which is a highly

text: fatal

text: neurotoxin

text: that destroys the

text: central nervous system

text: of

text: humans

text: causing

text: paralysis

text: . L. fusiformis is shown to be sensitive to the common

text: broad-spectrum antibiotic

text: known as

text: tetracycline

text: Disorders of oxidative phosphorylation, the process by which cells produce their main energy source of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), may be caused by mutations in either mtDNA or in nuclear encoded genes. The latter account for the majority of Leigh disease, although it is not always possible to identify the specific mutation responsible for the condition in a particular individual. Four out of the five protein complexes involved in oxidative phosphorylation are most commonly disrupted in Leigh syndrome, either because of malformed protein or because of an error in the assembly of these complexes. Regardless of the genetic basis, it results in an inability of the complexes affected by the mutation to perform their role in oxidative phosphorylation. In the case of Leigh disease, crucial cells in the brain stem and basal ganglia are affected. This causes a chronic lack of energy in the cells, which leads to cell death and in turn, affects the central nervous system and inhibits motor functions. The heart and other muscles also require a lot of energy and are affected by cell death caused by chronic energy deficiencies in Leigh syndrome.

text: Disorders of

text: oxidative phosphorylation

text: , the process by which cells produce their main energy source of

text: adenosine triphosphate

text: (ATP), may be caused by mutations in either mtDNA or in nuclear encoded genes. The latter account for the majority of Leigh disease, although it is not always possible to identify the specific mutation responsible for the condition in a particular individual. Four out of the five

text: protein complex

text: es involved in oxidative phosphorylation are most commonly disrupted in Leigh syndrome, either because of malformed protein or because of an error in the assembly of these complexes. Regardless of the genetic basis, it results in an inability of the complexes affected by the mutation to perform their role in oxidative phosphorylation. In the case of Leigh disease, crucial cells in the

text: brain stem

text: and basal ganglia are affected. This causes a chronic lack of energy in the cells, which leads to cell death and in turn, affects the central nervous system and inhibits motor functions. The heart and other muscles also require a lot of energy and are affected by cell death caused by chronic energy deficiencies in Leigh syndrome.

text: It was believed the waters benefited diseases of the skin and blood, nervous affections, rheumatism and kindred diseases, and the "various diseases of women".  In the case of tuberculosis and lung diseases, and acute and inflammatory diseases, the use of the waters was considered injurious and in many cases very dangerous.

text: It was believed the waters benefited diseases of the skin and blood, nervous affections, rheumatism and kindred diseases, and the "various diseases of women".  In the case of

text: tuberculosis

text: and lung diseases, and acute and inflammatory diseases, the use of the waters was considered injurious and in many cases very dangerous.

text: His name is associated with Redlich-Obersteiner's Zone; the anatomical location where the central nervous system meets the peripheral nervous system. He also described a type of abortive disseminated encephalomyelitis with lesions scattered throughout the spinal cord and brain. This disorder was to become known as "Redlich-Flatau syndrome", named along with Edward Flatau (1868-1932), who stated that a virus could be the cause of the disease.

text: His name is associated with

text: Redlich-Obersteiner's Zone

text: ; the anatomical location where the

text: central nervous system

text: meets the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . He also described a type of abortive disseminated

text: encephalomyelitis

text: with lesions scattered throughout the

text: spinal cord

text: and brain. This disorder was to become known as "Redlich-Flatau syndrome", named along with

text: Edward Flatau

text: (1868-1932), who stated that a

text: virus

text: could be the cause of the disease.

text: Due to concerns about Reye syndrome, the U.K. NHS, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the U.S. Surgeon General, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommend that aspirin and combination products containing aspirin not be given to children or teenagers during episodes of fever-causing illnesses. However, the decreased use of aspirin, with the converse increased use of acetaminophen/paracetamol, has been linked to the increase in asthma and other autoimmune disorders by several studies. Physicians recommending acetaminophen/paracetamol should use caution and be especially attentive to any genetic or environmental predisposition to asthma or other autoimmune disorders.

text: Due to concerns about

text: Reye syndrome

text: , the U.K.

text: NHS

text: , the U.S.

text: (CDC), the

text: U.S. Surgeon General

text: , the

text: American Academy of Pediatrics

text: (AAP) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommend that aspirin and

text: combination product

text: s containing aspirin not be given to children or teenagers during episodes of fever-causing illnesses. However, the decreased use of aspirin, with the converse increased use of acetaminophen/paracetamol, has been linked to the increase in

text: asthma

text: and other

text: autoimmune disorders

text: by several studies. Physicians recommending acetaminophen/paracetamol should use caution and be especially attentive to any genetic or environmental predisposition to asthma or other autoimmune disorders.

text: The earthworm's nervous system has three parts: the central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system.

text: The earthworm's nervous system has three parts: the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS),

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: Encephalitis is a sudden onset inflammation of the brain. Encephalitis with meningitis is known as meningoencephalitis. Symptoms include headache, fever, confusion, drowsiness, and fatigue. Further symptoms include seizures or convulsions, tremors, hallucinations, stroke, and memory problems. In 2013, encephalitis was estimated to have resulted in 77,000 deaths worldwide, down from 92,000 in 1990. The word is from Ancient Greek ἐγκέφαλος, enképhalos "brain", composed of ἐν, en, "in" and κεφαλή, kephalé, "head", and the medical suffix -itis "inflammation".

text: Encephalitis is a

text: sudden onset

text: inflammation

text: of the

text: brain

text: . Encephalitis with

text: meningitis

text: is known as

text: meningoencephalitis

text: . Symptoms include

text: headache

text: fever

text: confusion

text: drowsiness

text: , and

text: fatigue

text: . Further symptoms include

text: seizure

text: s or

text: convulsion

text: s,

text: tremor

text: s,

text: hallucination

text: s,

text: stroke

text: , and

text: memory problem

text: s. In 2013, encephalitis was estimated to have resulted in 77,000 deaths worldwide, down from 92,000 in 1990. The word is from

text: Ancient Greek

text: ἐγκέφαλος, enképhalos "brain", composed of ἐν, en, "in" and κεφαλή, kephalé, "head", and the medical suffix -itis "inflammation".

text: In conjunction with the other meningeal membranes, pia mater functions to cover and protect the central nervous system (CNS), to protect the blood vessels and enclose the venous sinuses near the CNS, to contain the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and to form partitions with the skull.  The CSF, pia mater, and other layers of the meninges work together as a protection device for the brain, with the CSF often referred to as the fourth layer of the meninges.

text: In conjunction with the other meningeal membranes, pia mater functions to cover and protect the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), to protect the blood vessels and enclose the venous sinuses near the CNS, to contain the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and to form partitions with the skull.  The CSF, pia mater, and other layers of the meninges work together as a protection device for the brain, with the CSF often referred to as the fourth layer of the meninges.

text: Oligodendrocyte transcription factor (OLIG2) is a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor encoded by the Olig2 gene. The protein is of 329 amino acids in length, 32kDa in size and contains 1 basic helix-loop-helix DNA-binding domain. It is one of the three members of the bHLH family. The other two members are OLIG1 and OLIG3. The expression of OLIG2 is mostly restricted in central nervous system, where it acts as both an anti-neurigenic and a neurigenic factor at different stages of development. OLIG2 is well known for determining motor neuron and oligodendrocyte differentiation, as well as its role in sustaining replication in early development. It is mainly involved in diseases such as brain tumor and Down syndrome.

text: Oligodendrocyte transcription factor (OLIG2) is a basic helix-loop-helix (

text: bHLH

text: ) transcription factor encoded by the Olig2 gene. The protein is of 329 amino acids in length, 32kDa in size and contains 1 basic helix-loop-helix DNA-binding domain. It is one of the three members of the bHLH family. The other two members are

text: and OLIG3. The expression of OLIG2 is mostly restricted in

text: central nervous system

text: , where it acts as both an anti-neurigenic and a neurigenic factor at different stages of development. OLIG2 is well known for determining

text: motor neuron

text: and

text: oligodendrocyte

text: differentiation, as well as its role in sustaining replication in early development. It is mainly involved in diseases such as brain tumor and

text: Down syndrome

text: While the disease is usually caused by a bite, it can also occur from close contact with rodents or ingestion of contaminated food or water. The latter is known as Haverhill fever. The disease typically presents with chills and fever accompanied by headache, vomiting, and muscle pain. A rash and arthritis develop 2–4 days after the initial onset. Less commonly the infection can cause pneumonitis, endocarditis or meningitis. As these symptoms are common to many febrile diseases, this is often classified as a fever of unknown origin (FUO). If untreated, death will occur in approximately 10% of cases.

text: He was a son of William T. G. Morton, whose name is connected with the first anaesthetic use of ether. He was educated at the Boston Latin School, Harvard University and Vienna. On his graduation there, in 1872, his thesis on “Anaesthetics,” gained him the Boylston Prize. He practised medicine at Bar Harbor, Maine, and in Boston. He went to Kimberley, South Africa, where, besides practising his profession, he engaged in diamond mining. Settling in New York City, he became editor of the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. From 1882 to 1885, he was adjunct professor of nervous diseases at the New York Post-Graduate Medical School, served as neurologist to the New York Infant Asylum, 1887–90, and was afterward professor of nervous diseases and electrotherapeutics at the New York Post-Graduate School.

text: He was a son of

text: William T. G. Morton

text: , whose name is connected with the first anaesthetic use of ether. He was educated at the

text: Boston Latin School

text: Harvard University

text: and

text: Vienna

text: . On his graduation there, in 1872, his thesis on “Anaesthetics,” gained him the Boylston Prize. He practised medicine at

text: Bar Harbor, Maine

text: , and in Boston. He went to

text: Kimberley, South Africa

text: , where, besides practising his profession, he engaged in diamond mining. Settling in

text: New York City

text: , he became editor of the

text: Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease

text: . From 1882 to 1885, he was adjunct professor of nervous diseases at the

text: New York Post-Graduate Medical School

text: , served as neurologist to the New York Infant Asylum, 1887–90, and was afterward professor of nervous diseases and electrotherapeutics at the New York Post-Graduate School.

text: Diseases and illnesses that harm the brain and the hippocampus can also damage spatial view cells, which are located in the hippocampus. Strokes, meningitis, and encephalitis are only a few of the various illnesses that can cause harm to the spatial view cells. Some clinical symptoms present in patients with damage to the central nervous system include: fever, altered mental status, and neck stiffness. Lesion studies have shown that damage to the hippocampus or to some of its connections, such as the fornix, in monkeys produces deficits in learning about the places of objects and about the places where responses should be made. This sort of damage to the brain often results in impaired object-place memory. Object-place memory tasks require the monkey to not only remember the object seen, but they must also remember where the object was seen in the environment. It has been shown that posterior para-hippocampal lesions in macaques impair even a simple type of object-place learning in which only one pair of unique stimuli are needed for memory.

text: Diseases

text: and

text: illnesses

text: that harm the

text: brain

text: and the

text: hippocampus

text: can also damage spatial view cells, which are located in the hippocampus.

text: Stroke

text: s,

text: meningitis

text: , and

text: encephalitis

text: are only a few of the various illnesses that can cause harm to the spatial view cells. Some clinical

text: symptoms

text: present in

text: patients

text: with damage to the

text: central nervous system

text: include:

text: fever

text: altered mental status

text: , and

text: neck stiffness

text: Lesion

text: studies have shown that damage to the hippocampus or to some of its connections, such as the

text: fornix

text: , in monkeys produces deficits in

text: learning

text: about the places of objects and about the places where responses should be made. This sort of damage to the brain often results in impaired object-place memory. Object-place memory tasks require the monkey to not only remember the object seen, but they must also remember where the object was seen in the environment. It has been shown that posterior para-hippocampal lesions in

text: macaques

text: impair even a simple type of object-place learning in which only one pair of unique stimuli are needed for memory.

text: On this appeal plaintiff has expressly abandoned her claim of punitive damages.  It is alleged that proper diagnosis of plaintiff's condition would have included taking X-rays of her entire skeletal structure, and that such procedure would have revealed the fracture of her skull. Defendants negligently failed to take such X-rays, and thereby negligently failed to diagnose her true condition. It is further alleged that proper medical treatment of plaintiff's battered child syndrome would have included reporting her injuries to local law enforcement authorities or juvenile probation department. Such a report would have resulted in an investigation by the concerned agencies, followed by a placement of plaintiff in protective custody until her safety was assured. Defendants negligently failed to make such report.The complaint avers that as a proximate result of the foregoing negligence plaintiff was released from the San Jose Hospital without proper diagnosis and treatment of her battered child syndrome, and was returned to the custody of her mother and Reyes who resumed physically abusing her until she sustained traumatic blows to her right eye and back, puncture wounds over her left lower leg and across her back, severe bites on her face, and second and third degree burns on her left hand.

text: On this appeal plaintiff has expressly abandoned her claim of

text: punitive damages

text: When psychologically stressed, the human body produces stress hormones like cortisol, which are able to trigger interleukin 6 release into the circulation. Interleukin-6's antagonistic position to T-Cells, seems to be at least partly mediated by the inhibiting effect of PGE on the signaling-function of T-Cells. PGE gets released in response to an activation by IL-6, leading not only to a greater chance of catching a virus but increasing the chance that a disease developes some sort of severity before the immune-system fully kicks in. It is mainly the T4-helper-cells that have an important signaling function, either communicating B-Cells to produce antibodies or informing killer T-Cells about certain antigens that need to be destroyed. Therefore IL-6 seems to play a major role in the process of acute or chronic stress (f.e. depression, anxiety) suppressing the immune-system. High levels of IL-6 in cancer-patients or in children with encephalitis (as mentioned below) could therefore be explained by the high levels of psychological stress these diseases trigger in the patients minds.

text: When psychologically stressed, the human body produces stress hormones like cortisol, which are able to trigger interleukin 6 release into the circulation. Interleukin-6's antagonistic position to T-Cells, seems to be at least partly mediated by the inhibiting effect of

text: PGE

text: on the signaling-function of T-Cells. PGE gets released in response to an activation by IL-6, leading not only to a greater chance of catching a virus but increasing the chance that a disease developes some sort of severity before the immune-system fully kicks in. It is mainly the T4-helper-cells that have an important signaling function, either communicating B-Cells to produce antibodies or informing killer T-Cells about certain antigens that need to be destroyed. Therefore IL-6 seems to play a major role in the process of acute or chronic stress (f.e. depression, anxiety) suppressing the immune-system. High levels of IL-6 in cancer-patients or in children with encephalitis (as mentioned below) could therefore be explained by the high levels of psychological stress these diseases trigger in the patients minds.

text: A viral infection may also result in encephalitis triggered by an autoimmune response. The most ubiquitous form, anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis, is thought to be commonly initiated by herpes infections resulting in an autoimmune response to the NR1 subunit of the NMDA receptor. Lymphocytic pleocytosis is involved in the initial stages of the disease. During this period, lymphocytes can number in the hundreds per mm, while later on, lymphocyte levels have a tendency to return to equilibrium. It has been proposed that this early spike in lymphocytic concentration is the result of the breaching of the blood-brain barrier during the initial viral infection, giving peripheral antibodies access to the central nervous system and leading to the development of autoimmunity.

text: A viral infection may also result in encephalitis triggered by an autoimmune response. The most ubiquitous form,

text: anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis

text: , is thought to be commonly initiated by herpes infections resulting in an autoimmune response to the NR1 subunit of the

text: NMDA receptor

text: . Lymphocytic pleocytosis is involved in the initial stages of the disease. During this period, lymphocytes can number in the hundreds per mm, while later on, lymphocyte levels have a tendency to return to equilibrium. It has been proposed that this early spike in lymphocytic concentration is the result of the breaching of the

text: blood-brain barrier

text: during the initial viral infection, giving peripheral antibodies access to the central nervous system and leading to the development of autoimmunity.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorders.  Exencephaly is one such  disease that has recently been identified as part of an emerging class of diseases called cilopathies.  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles which are present in many cellular types throughout the human body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alström syndrome, Meckel–Gruber syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: , that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their

text: root cause

text: despite the widely varying set of medical

text: symptoms

text: that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: .  Exencephaly is one such  disease that has recently been identified as part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: cilopathies

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: human

text: multi-symptom

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet–Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alström syndrome

text: Meckel–Gruber syndrome

text: and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a highly active interdisciplinary science that collaborates with many other fields. The scope of neuroscience has broadened recently to include molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system. Theoretical studies of neural networks are being complemented with techniques for imaging sensory and motor tasks in the brain.According to a 2008 paper, neuroscience explanations of psychological phenomena currently have a "seductive allure", and "seem to generate more public interest" than explanations which do not contain neuroscientific information. They found that subjects who were not neuroscience experts "judged that explanations with logically irrelevant neuroscience information were more satisfying than explanations without.

text: Neuroscience

text: is the scientific study of the

text: nervous system

text: . It is a highly active

text: interdisciplinary

text: science that collaborates with many other fields. The scope of neuroscience has broadened recently to include

text: molecular

text: cellular

text: developmental

text: structural

text: functional

text: evolutionary

text: computational

text: , and

text: medical

text: aspects of the nervous system. Theoretical studies of

text: neural network

text: s are being complemented with techniques for

text: imaging

text: sensory and motor tasks in the

text: brain

text: .According to a 2008 paper, neuroscience explanations of psychological phenomena currently have a "seductive allure", and "seem to generate more public interest" than explanations which do not contain neuroscientific information. They found that subjects who were not neuroscience experts "judged that explanations with logically irrelevant neuroscience information were more satisfying than explanations without.

text: Nuchal rigidity due to irritation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord is one of the main symptoms of meningitis.

text: Nuchal rigidity due to irritation of the

text: lining of the brain and spinal cord

text: is one of the

text: main symptoms of meningitis

text: Her scientific interests were chronic feral nidal infections of the nervous system (tick-borne (Russian spring-summer) encephalitis, Lyme disease). She wrote nearly 160 articles, and "Tick-Borne Encephalitis: A Clinical Guide for Practicing Physicians and Medical Students" (in collaboration with Academician K.V. Bunin and Professor A.I. Chukavina, 1976).

text: Her scientific interests were chronic feral nidal infections of the

text: nervous system

text: tick-borne (Russian spring-summer) encephalitis

text: Lyme disease

text: ). She wrote nearly 160 articles, and "Tick-Borne Encephalitis: A Clinical Guide for Practicing Physicians and Medical Students" (in collaboration with Academician K.V. Bunin and Professor A.I. Chukavina, 1976).

text: Phakomatoses (or neuro-oculo-cutaneous syndromes, neurocutaneous disorders) are multisystem disorders that have characteristic central nervous system, ocular, and cutaneous lesions of variable severity. The skin and the brain have a common ectodermal origin, so there are many genetic and acquired diseases that affect both tissues. However, in some conditions, such as von Hippel-Lindau disease, ectodermal presentation is minimal.

text: Phakomatoses (or neuro-oculo-cutaneous syndromes, neurocutaneous disorders) are multisystem disorders that have characteristic

text: central nervous system

text: , ocular, and cutaneous lesions of variable severity. The skin and the brain have a common

text: ectoderm

text: al origin, so there are many genetic and acquired diseases that affect both tissues. However, in some conditions, such as

text: von Hippel-Lindau disease

text: , ectodermal presentation is minimal.

text: The overall incidence of the condition is unknown. According to the California Encephalitis Project, the disease has a higher incidence than its individual viral counterparts in patients younger than 30. The largest case series to date characterized 577 patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. The epidemiological data were limited, but this study provides the best approximation of disease distribution. It found that women are disproportionally affected, with 81% of cases reported in female patients. Disease onset is skewed toward children, with a median age of diagnosis of 21 years. Over a third of cases were children, while only 5% of cases were patients over the age of 45. This same review found that 394 out of 501 patients (79%) had a good outcome by 24 months. 30 patients (6%) died, and the rest were left with mild to severe deficits. The study also confirmed that patients with the condition are more likely to be of Asian or African origin.

text: The overall

text: incidence

text: of the condition is unknown. According to the California Encephalitis Project, the disease has a higher incidence than its individual viral counterparts in patients younger than 30. The largest case series to date characterized 577 patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. The

text: epidemiological

text: data were limited, but this study provides the best approximation of disease distribution. It found that women are disproportionally affected, with 81% of cases reported in female patients. Disease onset is skewed toward children, with a median age of diagnosis of 21 years. Over a third of cases were children, while only 5% of cases were patients over the age of 45. This same review found that 394 out of 501 patients (79%) had a good outcome by 24 months. 30 patients (6%) died, and the rest were left with mild to severe deficits. The study also confirmed that patients with the condition are more likely to be of Asian or African origin.

text: A slow virus disease is a disease that, after an extended period of latency, follows a slow, progressive course spanning months to years, frequently involving the central nervous system and ultimately leading to death. Examples include the Visna-Maedi virus, in the genus Lentivirus (family Retroviridae), that causes encephalitis and chronic pneumonitis in sheep, and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis which is apparently caused by the measles virus, as well as Pagets Disease of Bone (Osteitis Deformans) which is associated with paramyxoviridae, especially RSV and Rubeola (Measles).

text: A slow virus disease is a disease that, after an extended period of latency, follows a slow, progressive course spanning months to years, frequently involving the

text: central nervous system

text: and ultimately leading to death. Examples include the

text: Visna-Maedi virus

text: , in the

text: genus

text: Lentivirus

text: (family

text: Retroviridae

text: ), that causes

text: encephalitis

text: and chronic

text: pneumonitis

text: in

text: sheep

text: , and

text: subacute sclerosing panencephalitis

text: which is apparently caused by the

text: measles virus

text: , as well as Pagets Disease of Bone (Osteitis Deformans) which is associated with paramyxoviridae, especially RSV and Rubeola (Measles).

text: In vertebrates, the enteric nervous system  includes efferent neurons, afferent neurons, and interneurons, all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of carrying reflexes and acting as an integrating center in the absence of CNS input.  The sensory neurons report on mechanical and chemical conditions.  Through intestinal muscles, the motor neurons control peristalsis and churning of intestinal contents.  Other neurons control the secretion of enzymes.  The enteric nervous system also makes use of more than 30 neurotransmitters, most of which are identical to the ones found in CNS, such as acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin. More than 90% of the body's serotonin lies in the gut, as well as about 50% of the body's dopamine, which is currently being studied to further our understanding of its utility in the brain.

text: efferent neurons

text: afferent neuron

text: s, and

text: interneurons

text: , all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of carrying reflexes and acting as an

text: integrating center

text: in the absence of CNS input.  The sensory neurons report on mechanical and chemical conditions.  Through intestinal muscles, the motor neurons control

text: peristalsis

text: enzymes

text: neurotransmitters

text: acetylcholine

text: dopamine

text: , and

text: serotonin

text: . More than 90% of the body's serotonin lies in the gut, as well as about 50% of the body's dopamine, which is currently being studied to further our understanding of its utility in the brain.

text: Along with the similar 2-iodomorphine as well as iodinated analogs of dihydromorphine, dihydrocodeine, heroin, and the fluorinated, chlorinated, and brominated analogues of this series, this change may not impact the activity of the drug to a notable extent but 1- and 2-iodomorphine are used in pharmacological, neurological, metabolic, and endocrine research as it allows the tagging of morphine with iodine-131 or iodine-129.  Such research was important in the discovery of opioid receptors in the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and other tissues in humans, mammals, birds, and some reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, and arthropods.

text: Along with the similar

text: as well as iodinated analogs of

text: dihydromorphine

text: dihydrocodeine

text: heroin

text: , and the fluorinated, chlorinated, and brominated analogues of this series, this change may not impact the activity of the drug to a notable extent but 1- and 2-iodomorphine are used in pharmacological, neurological, metabolic, and endocrine research as it allows the tagging of morphine with

text: or

text: .  Such research was important in the discovery of

text: opioid receptors

text: in the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and other tissues in humans, mammals, birds, and some reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, and arthropods.

text: Reyes is an acronym for Renders Everything You Ever Saw (the name is also a pun on Point Reyes, California, near where Lucasfilm was located) and is suggestive of processes connected with optical imaging systems. According to Robert L. Cook, Reyes is written with only the first letter capitalized, as it is in the 1987 Cook/Carpenter/Catmull SIGGRAPH paper.

text: Reyes is an acronym for Renders Everything You Ever Saw (the name is also a pun on

text: Point Reyes

text: , California, near where Lucasfilm was located) and is suggestive of processes connected with optical imaging systems. According to

text: Robert L. Cook

text: , Reyes is written with only the first letter capitalized, as it is in the 1987 Cook/Carpenter/Catmull SIGGRAPH paper.

text: Because humans are adapted to survive, the "most important" movements tend to be reflexes -- pain or defensive reflexes needed to be carried out in very short time scales in order for ancient humans to survive their harsh environment. Most of our movements, though, are voluntary; voluntary control had historically been under-emphasized or even disregarded altogether. Bernstein saw voluntary movements as structured around a "motor problem" where the nervous system needed two factors to act: a full and complete perception of reality, as accomplished by multisensory integration, and objectivity of perception through constant and correct recognition of signals by the nervous system. Only with both may the nervous system choose an appropriate motor solution.

text: Because humans are adapted to survive, the "most important" movements tend to be

text: reflex

text: es --

text: pain

text: or defensive reflexes needed to be carried out in very short time scales in order for ancient humans to survive their harsh environment. Most of our movements, though, are voluntary; voluntary control had historically been under-emphasized or even disregarded altogether. Bernstein saw voluntary movements as structured around a "motor problem" where the nervous system needed two factors to act: a full and complete perception of reality, as accomplished by

text: multisensory integration

text: , and objectivity of perception through constant and correct recognition of

text: signals

text: by the nervous system. Only with both may the nervous system choose an appropriate motor solution.

text: Lymphoma can also spread to the central nervous system, often around the brain in the meninges, known as lymphomatous meningitis (LM).

text: Lymphoma can also spread to the

text: central nervous system

text: , often around the brain in the

text: meninges

text: , known as lymphomatous meningitis (LM).

text: Nervous tissue is composed of neurons, also called nerve cells, and neuroglial cells. Typically, nervous tissue is categorized into four types of tissue. In the central nervous system (CNS), the tissue types found are grey matter and white matter. In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the tissue types are nerves and ganglia. The tissue is categorized by its neuronal and neuroglial components.

text: Nervous tissue is composed of

text: neurons

text: , also called nerve cells, and

text: neuroglial cells

text: . Typically, nervous tissue is categorized into four types of tissue. In the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), the tissue types found are

text: grey matter

text: and

text: white matter

text: . In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), the tissue types are

text: nerve

text: s and

text: ganglia

text: . The tissue is categorized by its neuronal and neuroglial components.

text: West Nile fever is a mosquito-borne infection by the West Nile virus. Approximately 80% of West Nile virus infections in humans have few or no symptoms. In the cases where symptoms do occur—termed West Nile fever in cases without neurological disease—the time from infection to the appearance of symptoms is typically between 2 and 15 days. Symptoms may include fever, headaches, feeling tired, muscle pain or aches, nausea, loss of appetite, vomiting, and rash. Less than 1% of the cases are severe and result in neurological disease when the central nervous system is affected. People of advanced age, the very young, or those with immunosuppression, either medically induced, such as those taking immunosupressive drugs, or due to a pre-existing medical condition such as HIV infection, are most susceptible. The specific neurological diseases that may occur are West Nile encephalitis, which causes inflammation of the brain, West Nile meningitis, which causes inflammation of the meninges, which are the protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord, West Nile meningoencephalitis, which causes inflammation of the brain and also the meninges surrounding it, and West Nile poliomyelitis—spinal cord inflammation, which results in a syndrome similar to polio, which may cause acute flaccid paralysis.

text: West Nile fever is a

text: mosquito-borne

text: infection by the West Nile virus. Approximately 80% of West Nile virus infections in humans have

text: few

text: or

text: no symptoms

text: . In the cases where symptoms do occur—termed West Nile fever in cases without neurological disease—the time from infection to the appearance of symptoms is typically between 2 and 15 days. Symptoms may include

text: fever

text: headache

text: s,

text: feeling tired

text: muscle pain

text: or

text: aches

text: nausea

text: loss of appetite

text: vomiting

text: , and

text: rash

text: . Less than 1% of the cases are severe and result in neurological disease when the

text: central nervous system

text: is affected. People of advanced age, the very young, or those with

text: immunosuppression

text: , either medically induced, such as those taking

text: immunosupressive drug

text: s, or due to a pre-existing medical condition such as

text: HIV infection

text: , are most susceptible. The specific neurological diseases that may occur are West Nile

text: encephalitis

text: , which causes

text: inflammation

text: of the

text: brain

text: , West Nile

text: meningitis

text: , which causes inflammation of the

text: meninges

text: , which are the protective

text: membrane

text: s that cover the brain and

text: spinal cord

text: , West Nile meningoencephalitis, which causes inflammation of the brain and also the meninges surrounding it, and West Nile

text: poliomyelitis

text: —spinal cord inflammation, which results in a syndrome similar to

text: polio

text: , which may cause

text: acute flaccid paralysis

text: A central nervous system cyst is a cyst that primarily presents in the tissue of the central nervous system.

text: A central nervous system cyst is a

text: cyst

text: that primarily presents in the tissue of the

text: central nervous system

text: Aspirin should not be taken by people who are allergic to ibuprofen or naproxen, or who have salicylate intolerance or a more generalized drug intolerance to NSAIDs, and caution should be exercised in those with asthma or NSAID-precipitated bronchospasm. Owing to its effect on the stomach lining, manufacturers recommend people with peptic ulcers, mild diabetes, or gastritis seek medical advice before using aspirin. Even if none of these conditions is present, the risk of stomach bleeding is still increased when aspirin is taken with alcohol or warfarin. People with hemophilia or other bleeding tendencies should not take aspirin or other salicylates. Aspirin is known to cause hemolytic anemia in people who have the genetic disease glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, particularly in large doses and depending on the severity of the disease. Use of aspirin during dengue fever is not recommended owing to increased bleeding tendency. People with kidney disease, hyperuricemia, or gout should not take aspirin because it inhibits the kidneys' ability to excrete uric acid, thus may exacerbate these conditions. Aspirin should not be given to children or adolescents to control cold or influenza symptoms, as this has been linked with Reye's syndrome.

text: Aspirin should not be taken by people who are allergic to

text: ibuprofen

text: or

text: naproxen

text: , or who have

text: salicylate intolerance

text: or a more generalized

text: drug intolerance

text: to NSAIDs, and caution should be exercised in those with

text: asthma

text: or NSAID-precipitated

text: bronchospasm

text: . Owing to its effect on the stomach lining, manufacturers recommend people with

text: peptic ulcer

text: s, mild

text: diabetes

text: , or

text: gastritis

text: seek medical advice before using aspirin. Even if none of these conditions is present, the risk of

text: stomach bleeding

text: is still increased when aspirin is taken with

text: alcohol

text: or

text: warfarin

text: . People with

text: hemophilia

text: or other bleeding tendencies should not take aspirin or other salicylates. Aspirin is known to cause

text: hemolytic anemia

text: in people who have the genetic disease

text: glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency

text: , particularly in large doses and depending on the severity of the disease. Use of aspirin during

text: dengue fever

text: is not recommended owing to increased bleeding tendency. People with

text: kidney disease

text: hyperuricemia

text: , or

text: gout

text: should not take aspirin because it inhibits the kidneys' ability to excrete

text: uric acid

text: , thus may exacerbate these conditions. Aspirin should not be given to children or adolescents to control cold or influenza symptoms, as this has been linked with

text: Reye's syndrome

text: The diagnosis is achieved through functional testing of the autonomic nervous system, focusing on the organ system affected. Investigations may be performed to identify underlying disease processes that may have led to the development of symptoms or autonomic neuropathy. Symptomatic treatment is available for many symptoms associated with dysautonomia, and some disease processes can be treated directly.

text: The diagnosis is achieved through functional testing of the autonomic nervous system, focusing on the

text: organ system

text: affected. Investigations may be performed to identify underlying disease processes that may have led to the development of symptoms or autonomic neuropathy. Symptomatic treatment is available for many symptoms associated with dysautonomia, and some disease processes can be treated directly.

text: Central Nervous System Nerve Regeneration would be able to repair or regenerate the damage caused to the spinal cord. It would restore functions lost due to the disease.

text: GJB1 functions as a radial diffusion pathway, allowing the communication and diffusion of nutrients, ions and small molecules between cells. The GJB1 protein is found in a number of organs, including the liver, kidney, pancreas and nervous system.  In normal circumstances this protein is located in the cell membrane of Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes, specialised cells of the nervous system., These cells typically encapsulate nerves that are involved in the assembly and preservation of myelin, to ensure reliable and rapid transmission of nerve signals., Typically the GJB1 protein forms channels through the myelin to the internal Schwann cell or oligodendrocyte, allowing effective transportation and communication.,

text: GJB1 functions as a radial diffusion pathway, allowing the communication and diffusion of nutrients, ions and small molecules between cells. The GJB1 protein is found in a number of organs, including the

text: liver

text: kidney

text: pancreas

text: and

text: nervous system

text: .  In normal circumstances this protein is located in the cell

text: membrane

text: of

text: Schwann cells

text: and

text: oligodendrocytes

text: , specialised cells of the nervous system., These cells typically encapsulate nerves that are involved in the assembly and preservation of

text: myelin

text: , to ensure reliable and rapid transmission of nerve signals., Typically the GJB1 protein forms channels through the myelin to the internal Schwann cell or oligodendrocyte, allowing effective transportation and communication.,

text: Dr Robert Whytt (1714 – 1766) was a Scottish physician. His work, on unconscious reflexes, tubercular meningitis, urinary bladder stones, and hysteria, is remembered now most for his book on diseases of the nervous system. He served as President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.

text: Dr Robert Whytt (1714 – 1766) was a Scottish physician. His work, on unconscious reflexes, tubercular meningitis, urinary bladder stones, and

text: hysteria

text: , is remembered now most for his book on diseases of the

text: nervous system

text: . He served as President of the

entity_name: Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh

text: Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh

text: XLA patients are specifically susceptible to viruses of the Enterovirus family, and mostly to: polio virus, coxsackie virus (hand, foot, and mouth disease) and  Echoviruses. These may cause severe central nervous system conditions as chronic encephalitis, meningitis and death. An experimental anti-viral agent, pleconaril, is active against picornaviruses. XLA patients, however, are apparently immune to the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), as they lack mature B cells (and so HLA co-receptors) needed for the viral infection. Patients with XLA are also more likely to have a history of septic arthritis.

text: XLA patients are specifically susceptible to viruses of the

text: Enterovirus

text: family, and mostly to:

text: polio virus

text: coxsackie virus

text: (hand, foot, and mouth disease) and

text: Echovirus

text: es. These may cause severe

text: central nervous system

text: conditions as chronic

text: encephalitis

text: meningitis

text: and death. An experimental anti-viral agent,

text: pleconaril

text: , is active against

text: picornaviruses

text: . XLA patients, however, are apparently immune to the

text: Epstein-Barr virus

text: (EBV), as they lack mature

text: B cells

text: (and so HLA co-receptors) needed for the viral infection. Patients with XLA are also more likely to have a history of septic arthritis.

text: The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over body movement. Like a central computer, it interprets information from our eyes (sight), ears (sound), nose (smell), tongue (taste) and skin (touch), as well as from internal organs such as the stomach. It controls all voluntary movement, such as speech and walking, and involuntary movement like blinking and breathing. It is the core of our thoughts, perceptions and emotions.

text: A further important contribution is to have given his friend, the psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926), important ideas to the differentiation and systematisation of mental illness. Moebius had only made one, on the causes of diseases based classification of nervous and mental diseases. Its subdivision in endogenous and exogenous errors has long been preserved and was leading the way for the psychiatry and neurology of the 20th century. Endogenous errors established in the nervous system itself, manifested as degeneration.  In the long term Möbius thus paved to way for eugenics and the crimes of psychic and neurotic disease in German naziism. Also, Möbius syndrome bears his name, which he first described in 1888; and he pointed the way to understanding the cause of the endocrinological disorder Graves' disease.

text: A further important contribution is to have given his friend, the psychiatrist

text: Emil Kraepelin

text: (1856-1926), important ideas to the differentiation and systematisation of mental illness. Moebius had only made one, on the causes of diseases based classification of nervous and mental diseases. Its subdivision in endogenous and exogenous errors has long been preserved and was leading the way for the psychiatry and neurology of the 20th century. Endogenous errors established in the nervous system itself, manifested as

text: degeneration

text: .  In the long term Möbius thus paved to way for

text: eugenics

text: and the crimes of psychic and neurotic disease in German

text: naziism

text: . Also, Möbius syndrome bears his name, which he first described in 1888; and he pointed the way to understanding the cause of the endocrinological disorder

text: Graves' disease

text: Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in multiple states including aggression, pain, sleep, appetite, anxiety, depression, migraine, and vomiting. In humans the effects of excess serotonin were first noted in 1960 in patients receiving a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) and tryptophan. The syndrome is caused by increased serotonin in the central nervous system. It was originally suspected that agonism of 5-HT receptors in central grey nuclei and the medulla was responsible for the development of the syndrome. Further study has determined that overstimulation of primarily the 5-HT receptors appears to contribute substantially to the condition. The 5-HT receptor may still contribute through a pharmacodynamic interaction in which increased synaptic concentrations of a serotonin agonist saturate all receptor subtypes. Additionally, noradrenergic CNS hyperactivity may play a role as CNS norepinephrine concentrations are increased in serotonin syndrome and levels appear to correlate with the clinical outcome. Other neurotransmitters may also play a role; NMDA receptor antagonists and GABA have been suggested as affecting the development of the syndrome.  Serotonin toxicity is more pronounced following supra-therapeutic doses and overdoses, and they merge in a continuum with the toxic effects of overdose.

text: Serotonin

text: is a

text: neurotransmitter

text: involved in multiple states including aggression, pain, sleep, appetite, anxiety, depression, migraine, and vomiting. In humans the effects of excess serotonin were first noted in 1960 in patients receiving a

text: monoamine oxidase inhibitor

text: (MAOI) and

text: tryptophan

text: . The syndrome is caused by increased serotonin in the

text: central nervous system

text: . It was originally suspected that

text: agonism

text: of

text: 5-HT receptors

text: in

text: central grey

text: nuclei and the medulla was responsible for the development of the syndrome. Further study has determined that overstimulation of primarily the

text: 5-HT receptors

text: appears to contribute substantially to the condition. The 5-HT receptor may still contribute through a

text: pharmacodynamic

text: interaction in which increased synaptic concentrations of a serotonin agonist saturate all receptor subtypes. Additionally, noradrenergic CNS hyperactivity may play a role as CNS

text: norepinephrine

text: concentrations are increased in serotonin syndrome and levels appear to correlate with the clinical outcome. Other neurotransmitters may also play a role;

text: NMDA receptor

text: antagonists and

text: GABA

text: have been suggested as affecting the development of the syndrome.  Serotonin toxicity is more pronounced following supra-therapeutic doses and

text: overdose

text: s, and they merge in a continuum with the toxic effects of overdose.

text: As the syndrome involves a lack of essential fat, more than half of those diagnosed are underweight, sometimes to the point of sickliness and emaciation.  Females are impacted more often than males, and while the syndrome can occur at any age, it is most frequently diagnosed in early adulthood.  The most common co-morbid conditions include mental and behavioral disorders including eating disorders and depression, infectious diseases including tuberculosis and acute gastroenteritis, and nervous system diseases including muscular dystrophy, Parkinson's disease, and cerebral palsy.

text: As the syndrome involves a lack of essential fat, more than half of those diagnosed are

text: underweight

text: , sometimes to the point of sickliness and

text: emaciation

text: .  Females are impacted more often than males, and while the syndrome can occur at any age, it is most frequently diagnosed in early adulthood.  The most common co-morbid conditions include mental and behavioral disorders including eating disorders and depression, infectious diseases including tuberculosis and acute gastroenteritis, and nervous system diseases including muscular dystrophy, Parkinson's disease, and cerebral palsy.

text: The symptoms appear 12 hours after consumption and may include vomiting, dizziness, a burning sensation in the throat, headache, abdominal pain, and occasionally diarrhea. After roughly two days, the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat become swollen, and swallowing is sometimes difficult. The papillae of the tip of the edges of the tongue swell and may remain enlarged for two months. Drowsiness may occur early. The patient may respond when spoken to but rapidly falls asleep again. Other nervous system signs may be present. The severity of the condition can vary depending upon the amount of meat consumed. Mild cases show mouth and throat symptoms while in severe cases central nervous system signs are always present. The patient may remain unconscious for a week or more. The mortality rate in cases which develop central nervous system signs is very high.

text: In traditional medicine Kalanchoe species are used to treat several ailments, e.g. infections, rheumatism and inflammation. Kalanchoe sp. extracts have immonosuppressive effects. Two of the five Kalanchoe daigremontiana glycosides - daigremontianin and bersaldegenin 1,3,5-orthoacetate have shown to have sedative effect and with an increase in the dose an increasing effect on the central nervous system besides having strong positive inotropic effect associated with cardiac glycosides.

text: In traditional medicine Kalanchoe species are used to treat several ailments, e.g. infections, rheumatism and inflammation. Kalanchoe sp. extracts have

text: immonosuppressive

text: effects. Two of the five Kalanchoe daigremontiana glycosides - daigremontianin and

text: bersaldegenin 1,3,5-orthoacetate

text: have shown to have

text: sedative

text: effect and with an increase in the dose an increasing effect on the

text: central nervous system

text: besides having strong positive

text: inotropic

text: effect associated with cardiac glycosides.

text: Some of the commonly encountered conditions treated by neurologists include headaches, radiculopathy, neuropathy, stroke, dementia, seizures and epilepsy, Alzheimer's Disease, Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Parkinson's Disease, Tourette's syndrome, multiple sclerosis, head trauma, sleep disorders, neuromuscular diseases, and various infections and tumors of the nervous system.  Neurologists are also asked to evaluate unresponsive patients on life support in order to confirm brain death.

text: Some of the commonly encountered conditions treated by neurologists include headaches,

text: radiculopathy

text: neuropathy

text: stroke

text: dementia

text: seizure

text: s and

text: epilepsy

text: Alzheimer's Disease

text: Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder

text: Parkinson's Disease

text: Tourette's syndrome

text: multiple sclerosis

text: head trauma

text: sleep disorder

text: s,

text: neuromuscular disease

text: s, and various infections and tumors of the nervous system.  Neurologists are also asked to evaluate unresponsive patients on

text: life support

text: in order to confirm

text: brain death

text: The three main characteristics of MS are the formation of lesions in the central nervous system (also called plaques), inflammation, and the destruction of myelin sheaths of neurons. These features interact in a complex and not yet fully understood manner to produce the breakdown of nerve tissue and in turn the signs and symptoms of the disease. Additionally, MS is believed to be an immune-mediated disorder that develops from an interaction of the individual's genetics and as yet unidentified environmental causes. Damage is believed to be caused, at least in part, by attack on the nervous system by a person's own immune system.

text: The three main characteristics of MS are the formation of lesions in the

text: central nervous system

text: (also called plaques), inflammation, and the destruction of

text: myelin sheath

text: s of neurons. These features interact in a complex and not yet fully understood manner to produce the breakdown of nerve tissue and in turn the signs and symptoms of the disease. Additionally, MS is believed to be an

text: immune-mediated

text: disorder that develops from an interaction of the individual's genetics and as yet unidentified environmental causes. Damage is believed to be caused, at least in part, by attack on the nervous system by a person's own immune system.

text: Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease (PMD) is a rare central nervous system disorder in which coordination, motor abilities, and intellectual function are delayed to variable extents.

text: Pelizaeus–Merzbacher disease (PMD) is a rare

text: central nervous system

text: disorder in which coordination, motor abilities, and intellectual function are delayed to variable extents.

text: Besides La Crosse virus, other arboviruses producing similar disease in a similar geographic location include first and foremost West Nile virus, Powassan virus,  Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Saint Louis encephalitis and Western equine encephalitis virus, the latter two not being reportable to CDC. For 2013, CDC reported that of 22 JCV disease cases, 15 (68%) were neuroinvasive, which is a slightly higher percentage than for West Nile virus (51%), but less common than for the other arboviruses with La Crosse virus being 91%,  Eastern equine encephalitis virus 100% and Powassan virus 80% neuroinvasive.

text: Besides La Crosse virus, other arboviruses producing similar disease in a similar geographic location include first and foremost

text: West Nile virus

text: Powassan virus

text: Eastern equine encephalitis virus

text: Saint Louis encephalitis

text: and

text: Western equine encephalitis virus

text: , the latter two not being reportable to CDC. For 2013, CDC reported that of 22 JCV disease cases, 15 (68%) were neuroinvasive, which is a slightly higher percentage than for West Nile virus (51%), but less common than for the other arboviruses with La Crosse virus being 91%,  Eastern equine encephalitis virus 100% and Powassan virus 80% neuroinvasive.

text: Diseases of the peripheral nervous system can be specific to one or more nerves, or affect the system as a whole.

text: Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is divided in white and gray matter. This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of axons and oligodendrocytes, while the gray matter consists of neurons and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of glial cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the central nervous system. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during neurogenesis such as bergmann glia, while others such as microglia are a specialized form of macrophage, involved in the immune system of the brain as well as the clearance of various metabolites from the brain tissue. Astrocytes may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the capillaries of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing gliosis, a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons.

text: Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the central nervous system and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . The central nervous system is divided in

text: white

text: and

text: gray matter

text: . This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of

text: axon

text: s and

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s, while the gray matter consists of

text: neuron

text: s and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of

text: glia

text: l cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the central nervous system. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during

text: neurogenesis

text: such as

text: bergmann glia

text: , while others such as

text: microglia

text: are a specialized form of

text: macrophage

text: , involved in the

text: immune system

text: of the brain as well as the clearance of various

text: metabolites

text: from the

text: brain tissue

text: Astrocytes

text: may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the

text: capillaries

text: of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing

text: gliosis

text: , a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons.

text: This fluid circulates through the brain and spinal cord, and it is produced in the choroid plexuses. The meninges consists of three connective tissues that cover the spinal cord and brain. They are lined with vertebral cavities, which is used as protection for the central nervous system. When the cerebrospinal fluid is infected, the meninges become inflamed and can start to deteriorate. This inflammation of the membranes causes meningitis.

text: This fluid circulates through the brain and spinal cord, and it is produced in the

text: choroid plexuses

text: . The

text: meninges

text: consists of three connective tissues that cover the spinal cord and brain. They are lined with

text: vertebral cavities

text: , which is used as protection for the

text: central nervous system

text: . When the cerebrospinal fluid is infected, the meninges become inflamed and can start to deteriorate. This inflammation of the membranes causes

text: meningitis

text: Other viral diseases like  epidemic polyarthritis, Rift Valley fever, Ross River fever, St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile virus (WNV), Japanese encephalitis, La Crosse encephalitis and several other encephalitic diseases are carried by several different mosquitoes. Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) and Western equine encephalitis (WEE) occurs in the United States where it causes disease in humans, horses, and some bird species. Because of the high mortality rate, EEE and WEE are regarded as two of the most serious mosquito-borne diseases in the United States. Symptoms range from mild flu-like illness to encephalitis, coma and death.

text: Other viral diseases like

text: epidemic polyarthritis

text: Rift Valley fever

text: Ross River fever

text: St. Louis encephalitis

text: West Nile virus

text: (WNV),

text: Japanese encephalitis

text: La Crosse encephalitis

text: and several other

text: encephalitic

text: diseases are carried by several different mosquitoes.

text: Eastern equine encephalitis

text: (EEE) and

text: Western equine encephalitis

text: (WEE) occurs in the United States where it causes disease in humans, horses, and some bird species. Because of the high mortality rate, EEE and WEE are regarded as two of the most serious mosquito-borne diseases in the United States. Symptoms range from mild flu-like illness to encephalitis, coma and death.

text: The most important test in identifying or ruling out meningitis is analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid through lumbar puncture (LP, spinal tap). However, lumbar puncture is contraindicated if there is a mass in the brain (tumor or abscess) or the intracranial pressure (ICP) is elevated, as it may lead to brain herniation. If someone is at risk for either a mass or raised ICP (recent head injury, a known immune system problem, localizing neurological signs, or evidence on examination of a raised ICP), a CT or MRI scan is recommended prior to the lumbar puncture. This applies in 45% of all adult cases. If a CT or MRI is required before LP, or if LP proves difficult, professional guidelines suggest that antibiotics should be administered first to prevent delay in treatment, especially if this may be longer than 30 minutes. Often, CT or MRI scans are performed at a later stage to assess for complications of meningitis.

text: The most important test in identifying or ruling out meningitis is analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid through

text: lumbar puncture

text: (LP, spinal tap). However, lumbar puncture is contraindicated if there is a mass in the brain (tumor or abscess) or the

text: intracranial pressure

text: (ICP) is elevated, as it may lead to

text: brain herniation

text: . If someone is at risk for either a mass or raised ICP (recent head injury, a known immune system problem, localizing neurological signs, or evidence on examination of a raised ICP), a

text: CT

text: or

text: MRI

text: scan is recommended prior to the lumbar puncture. This applies in 45% of all adult cases. If a CT or MRI is required before LP, or if LP proves difficult, professional guidelines suggest that antibiotics should be administered first to prevent delay in treatment, especially if this may be longer than 30 minutes. Often, CT or MRI scans are performed at a later stage to assess for complications of meningitis.

text: In the Central Nervous System:

text: In the Central Nervous System:

text: Recurrent bacterial meningitis may be caused by persisting anatomical defects, either congenital or acquired, or by disorders of the immune system. Anatomical defects allow continuity between the external environment and the nervous system. The most common cause of recurrent meningitis is a skull fracture, particularly fractures that affect the base of the skull or extend towards the sinuses and petrous pyramids. Approximately 59% of recurrent meningitis cases are due to such anatomical abnormalities, 36% are due to immune deficiencies (such as complement deficiency, which predisposes especially to recurrent meningococcal meningitis), and 5% are due to ongoing infections in areas adjacent to the meninges.

text: Recurrent bacterial meningitis may be caused by persisting anatomical defects, either

text: congenital

text: or acquired, or by disorders of the

text: immune system

text: . Anatomical defects allow continuity between the external environment and the

text: nervous system

text: . The most common cause of recurrent meningitis is a

text: skull fracture

text: , particularly fractures that affect the base of the skull or extend towards the

text: sinuses

text: and

text: petrous pyramids

text: . Approximately 59% of recurrent meningitis cases are due to such anatomical abnormalities, 36% are due to immune deficiencies (such as

text: complement deficiency

text: , which predisposes especially to recurrent meningococcal meningitis), and 5% are due to ongoing infections in areas adjacent to the meninges.

text: Electroporation can also be used to help deliver drugs or genes into the cell by applying short and intense electric pulses that transiently permeabilize cell membrane, thus allowing transport of molecules otherwise not transported through a cellular membrane. This procedure is referred to as electrochemotherapy when the molecules to be transported are chemotherapeutic agents or gene electrotransfer when the molecule to be transported is DNA. Scientists from Karolinska Institutet and the University of Oxford use electroporation of exosomes to deliver siRNAs, antisense oligonucleotides, chemotherapeutic agents and proteins specifically to neurons after inject them systemically (in blood). Because these exosomes are able to cross the blood brain barrier this protocol could solve the issue of poor delivery of medications to the central nervous system and cure Alzheimer's, Parkinson's Disease and brain cancer among other diseases.

text: Electroporation can also be used to help deliver drugs or genes into the cell by applying short and intense electric pulses that transiently permeabilize cell membrane, thus allowing transport of molecules otherwise not transported through a cellular membrane. This procedure is referred to as

text: electrochemotherapy

text: when the molecules to be transported are chemotherapeutic agents or

text: gene electrotransfer

text: when the molecule to be transported is DNA. Scientists from

text: Karolinska Institutet

text: and the

text: University of Oxford

text: use electroporation of

text: exosomes

text: to deliver siRNAs, antisense oligonucleotides, chemotherapeutic agents and proteins specifically to neurons after inject them systemically (in blood). Because these exosomes are able to cross the blood brain barrier this protocol could solve the issue of poor delivery of medications to the central nervous system and cure Alzheimer's, Parkinson's Disease and brain cancer among other diseases.

text: Connective tissue (CT) is one of the four types of biological tissue that supports, connects or separates different types of tissues and organs in the body. It develops from the mesoderm. The other three types are epithelial, muscle, and nervous tissue. Connective tissue is found in between other tissues everywhere in the body, including the nervous system. In the central nervous system, the three outer membranes (the meninges) that envelop the brain and  spinal cord are composed of connective tissue.

text: Connective tissue (CT) is one of the four types of biological

text: tissue

text: that supports, connects or separates different types of tissues and organs in the body. It develops from the

text: mesoderm

text: . The other three types are

text: epithelial

text: muscle

text: , and

text: nervous

text: tissue. Connective tissue is found in between other tissues everywhere in the body, including the

text: nervous system

text: . In the

text: central nervous system

text: , the three outer membranes (the

text: meninges

text: ) that envelop the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: are composed of connective tissue.

text: Slower degeneration of the distal segment than that which occurs in the peripheral nervous system also contributes to the inhibitory environment because inhibitory myelin and axonal debris are not cleared away as quickly. All these factors contribute to the formation of what is known as a glial scar, which axons cannot grow across. The proximal segment attempts to regenerate after injury, but its growth is hindered by the environment. It is important to note that central nervous system axons have been proven to regrow in permissive environments; therefore, the primary problem to central nervous system axonal regeneration is crossing or eliminating the inhibitory lesion site.

text: Slower degeneration of the distal segment than that which occurs in the peripheral nervous system also contributes to the inhibitory environment because inhibitory myelin and axonal debris are not cleared away as quickly. All these factors contribute to the formation of what is known as a

text: glial scar

text: , which axons cannot grow across. The proximal segment attempts to regenerate after injury, but its growth is hindered by the environment. It is important to note that central nervous system axons have been proven to regrow in permissive environments; therefore, the primary problem to central nervous system axonal regeneration is crossing or eliminating the inhibitory lesion site.

text: The burden of having a large population of people who carry meningitis has had a huge social and economic impact on entire countries.

text: The precise mechanism by which Reye syndrome occurs is unknown. This serious condition is described as a "syndrome" rather than a disease as the clinical features that physicians use to diagnose it are quite broad.

text: The precise mechanism by which Reye syndrome occurs is unknown. This serious condition is described as a "

text: syndrome

text: " rather than a

text: disease

text: as the clinical features that physicians use to diagnose it are quite broad.

text: Dysarthrias are classified in multiple ways based on the presentation of symptoms. Specific dysarthrias include spastic (resulting from bilateral damage to the upper motor neuron), flaccid (resulting from bilateral or unilateral damage to the lower motor neuron), ataxic (resulting from damage to cerebellum), unilateral upper motor neuron (presenting milder symptoms than bilateral UMN damage), hyperkinetic and hypokinetic (resulting from damage to parts of the basal ganglia, such as in Huntington's disease or Parkinsonism), and the mixed dysarthrias (where symptoms of more than one type of dysarthria are present). The majority of dysarthric patients are diagnosed as having 'mixed' dysarthria, as neural damage resulting in dysarthria is rarely contained to one part of the nervous system — for example, multiple strokes, traumatic brain injury, and some kinds of degenerative illnesses (such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) usually damage many different sectors of the nervous system.

text: Dysarthrias are classified in multiple ways based on the presentation of symptoms. Specific dysarthrias include

text: spastic

text: (resulting from bilateral damage to the

text: upper motor neuron

text: flaccid

text: (resulting from bilateral or unilateral damage to the

text: lower motor neuron

text: ataxic

text: (resulting from damage to cerebellum), unilateral

text: upper motor neuron

text: (presenting milder symptoms than bilateral UMN damage), hyperkinetic and hypokinetic (resulting from damage to parts of the

text: basal ganglia

text: , such as in Huntington's disease or

text: Parkinsonism

text: ), and the mixed dysarthrias (where symptoms of more than one type of dysarthria are present). The majority of dysarthric patients are diagnosed as having 'mixed' dysarthria, as neural damage resulting in dysarthria is rarely contained to one part of the nervous system — for example, multiple strokes,

text: traumatic brain injury

text: , and some kinds of degenerative illnesses (such as

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: ) usually damage many different sectors of the nervous system.

text: In boa constrictors, the first signs may include off and on regurgitation, and some develop head tremors. Dysecdysis (abnormal shedding) may occur. Some develop chronic regurgitation and anorexia [lack of appetite or refusal to feed]. However, not all infected snakes may regurgitate. Boas lose weight and may develop clogged nares (nostrils), stomatitis or secondary pneumonia. The disease can rapidly progress to produce nervous system disorders, such as disorientation, corkscrewing of the head and neck, holding the head in abnormal and unnatural positions, rolling onto the back or stargazing. Stomatitis, pneumonia, undifferentiated cutaneous sarcomas, lymphoproliferative disorders, and leukemia have all been observed in affected specimens. Burmese pythons generally show signs of central nervous system disease without manifestation of other clinical signs and regurgitation is not seen in Burmese pythons, only in boas. These are symptoms similar to those seen in specimens infected by Chlamydia–specifically Chlamydophila psittaci, the so-called parrot's disease.

text: In boa constrictors, the first signs may include off and on regurgitation, and some develop head tremors. Dysecdysis (abnormal shedding) may occur. Some develop chronic regurgitation and anorexia [lack of appetite or refusal to feed]. However, not all infected snakes may regurgitate. Boas lose weight and may develop clogged nares (nostrils), stomatitis or secondary pneumonia. The disease can rapidly progress to produce nervous system disorders, such as disorientation, corkscrewing of the head and neck, holding the head in abnormal and unnatural positions, rolling onto the back or stargazing. Stomatitis, pneumonia, undifferentiated cutaneous sarcomas, lymphoproliferative disorders, and leukemia have all been observed in affected specimens. Burmese pythons generally show signs of central nervous system disease without manifestation of other clinical signs and regurgitation is not seen in Burmese pythons, only in boas. These are symptoms similar to those seen in specimens infected by

text: Chlamydia

text: –specifically

text: Chlamydophila psittaci

text: , the so-called parrot's disease.

text: Metachromatic leukodystrophy, also known as MLD, is a recessive lysosomal storage disorder. It is believed to be caused by a deficiency in arylsulfatase A. Arylsulfatase A is a lysosomal sulfatase that is able to hydrolyze the 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide and 3-O-sulfolactosylceramide. Both 3-O-sulfolactosylceramide and 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide can be located mainly in the central nervous system as well as in the peripheral nervous system. When lacking the lysosomal enzyme or mutations in the gene coding for saposin B occur, this can lead to the accumulation of lysosomal sulfatide, which then develops into metachromatic leukodystrophy.

text: Metachromatic leukodystrophy

text: , also known as MLD, is a

text: recessive

text: lysosomal storage disorder

text: . It is believed to be caused by a deficiency in

text: arylsulfatase A

text: . Arylsulfatase A is a

text: lysosomal

text: sulfatase

text: that is able to hydrolyze the 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide and 3-O-sulfolactosylceramide. Both 3-O-sulfolactosylceramide and 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide can be located mainly in the

text: central nervous system

text: as well as in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . When lacking the lysosomal enzyme or

text: mutations

text: in the gene coding for saposin B occur, this can lead to the accumulation of

text: lysosomal sulfatide

text: , which then develops into

text: metachromatic leukodystrophy

text: A motor signal from the central nervous system (CNS) to the periphery is called an efference, and a copy of this signal is called an efference copy. Sensory information coming from sensory receptors in the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system is called afference. On a similar basis, nerves into the nervous system are afferent nerves and ones out are termed efferent nerves.

text: A motor signal from the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) to the periphery is called an efference, and a copy of this signal is called an efference copy. Sensory information coming from

text: sensory receptors

text: in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: to the central nervous system is called afference. On a similar basis, nerves into the nervous system are

text: afferent nerve

text: s and ones out are termed

text: efferent nerve

text: s.

text: Bickerstaff's encephalitis is a rare inflammatory disorder of the central nervous system, first described by Edwin Bickerstaff in 1951. It may also affect the peripheral nervous system, and has features in common with both Miller Fisher syndrome and Guillain–Barré syndrome.

text: Bickerstaff's encephalitis is a rare

text: inflammatory

text: disorder of the

text: central nervous system

text: , first described by

text: Edwin Bickerstaff

text: in 1951. It may also affect the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , and has features in common with both

text: Miller Fisher syndrome

text: and

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: An interpretation of her sickness has been given, on the basis of medical records gathered by the diocesan inquiry, and also a medical examination performed in 1942 by two doctors (Jean Dechaume, professor at Lyon Faculty of Medicine and a surgeon, André Ricard). She may have been suffering from lethargic encephalitis, also called von Economo disease, an inflammatory infection of the nervous system.

text: An interpretation of her sickness has been given, on the basis of medical records gathered by the diocesan inquiry, and also a medical examination performed in 1942 by two doctors (Jean Dechaume, professor at Lyon Faculty of Medicine and a surgeon, André Ricard). She may have been suffering from

text: lethargic encephalitis

text: , also called von Economo disease, an inflammatory infection of the nervous system.

text: In Hunter syndrome, GAG builds up in cells throughout the body due to a deficiency or absence of the enzyme iduronate-2-sulfatase (I2S). This buildup interferes with the way certain cells and organs in the body function and leads to a number of serious symptoms. As the buildup of GAG continues throughout the cells of the body, signs of Hunter syndrome become more visible. Physical manifestations for some people with Hunter syndrome include distinct facial features and large head. In some cases of Hunter syndrome, central nervous system involvement leads to developmental delays and nervous system problems. Not all people with Hunter syndrome are affected by the disease in exactly the same way, and the rate of symptom progression varies widely. However, Hunter syndrome is always severe, progressive, and life-limiting, even when diagnosed as the "mild" or "attenuated" form.

text: In Hunter syndrome, GAG builds up in cells throughout the body due to a

text: deficiency

text: or absence of the

text: enzyme

text: (I2S). This buildup interferes with the way certain cells and organs in the body function and leads to a number of serious symptoms. As the buildup of GAG continues throughout the cells of the body, signs of Hunter syndrome become more visible. Physical manifestations for some people with Hunter syndrome include distinct facial features and large head. In some cases of Hunter syndrome,

text: central nervous system

text: involvement leads to developmental delays and

text: nervous system

text: problems. Not all people with Hunter syndrome are affected by the disease in exactly the same way, and the rate of symptom progression varies widely. However, Hunter syndrome is always severe,

text: progressive

text: , and life-limiting, even when diagnosed as the "mild" or "attenuated" form.

text: In June, July, and August 2006, the Shuguo Yanyi Restaurant in Beijing served raw Amazonian snail meat and, as a result, 70 diners were diagnosed with angiostrongylus meningitis. The snail meat contained Angiostrongylus cantonesis, "a parasite that harms people's nervous system" causing headaches, vomiting, stiff necks, and fevers. No one died from the meningitis outbreak and the Beijing Municipal Office of Health inspection did not find any more raw snails in 2,000 other restaurants. However, the Beijing Municipal Office of Health prohibited restaurants from serving raw or half-cooked snails and disciplined the Shuguo Yanyi Restaurant. The Beijing Friendship Hospital, where the first meningitis case was treated, began a program to educate doctors on the treatment of angiostrongylus meningitis. The Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention explained that these meningitis cases were the first outbreaks since the 1980s.

text: In June, July, and August 2006, the Shuguo Yanyi Restaurant in Beijing served raw Amazonian snail meat and, as a result, 70 diners were diagnosed with angiostrongylus meningitis. The snail meat contained

text: Angiostrongylus cantonesis

text: , "a parasite that harms people's nervous system" causing headaches, vomiting, stiff necks, and fevers. No one died from the meningitis outbreak and the Beijing Municipal Office of Health inspection did not find any more raw snails in 2,000 other restaurants. However, the Beijing Municipal Office of Health prohibited restaurants from serving raw or half-cooked snails and disciplined the Shuguo Yanyi Restaurant. The Beijing Friendship Hospital, where the first meningitis case was treated, began a program to educate doctors on the treatment of angiostrongylus meningitis. The Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention explained that these meningitis cases were the first outbreaks since the 1980s.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a collective term for the nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.  The large majority of the axon bundles called nerves are considered to belong to the PNS, even when the cell bodies of the neurons to which they belong reside within the brain or spinal cord.  The PNS is divided into somatic and visceral parts.  The somatic part consists of the nerves that innervate the skin, joints, and muscles.  The cell bodies of somatic sensory neurons lie in dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord.  The visceral part, also known as the autonomic nervous system, contains neurons that innervate the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands.  The autonomic nervous system itself consists of two parts: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.  Some authors also include sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the periphery (for senses such as hearing) as part of the PNS; others, however, omit them.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a collective term for the nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.  The large majority of the axon bundles called nerves are considered to belong to the PNS, even when the cell bodies of the neurons to which they belong reside within the brain or spinal cord.  The PNS is divided into

text: somatic

text: and

text: visceral

text: parts.  The somatic part consists of the nerves that innervate the skin, joints, and muscles.  The cell bodies of somatic sensory neurons lie in

text: dorsal root ganglia

text: of the spinal cord.  The visceral part, also known as the autonomic nervous system, contains neurons that innervate the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands.  The autonomic nervous system itself consists of two parts: the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: .  Some authors also include sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the periphery (for senses such as hearing) as part of the PNS; others, however, omit them.

text: The virus enters the central nervous system in about 1% of infections. Most patients with CNS involvement develop nonparalytic aseptic meningitis, with symptoms of headache, neck, back, abdominal and extremity pain, fever, vomiting, lethargy, and irritability. About one to five in 1000 cases progress to paralytic disease, in which the muscles become weak, floppy and poorly controlled, and, finally, completely paralyzed; this condition is known as acute flaccid paralysis.  Depending on the site of paralysis, paralytic poliomyelitis is classified as spinal, bulbar, or bulbospinal. Encephalitis, an infection of the brain tissue itself, can occur in rare cases, and is usually restricted to infants. It is characterized by confusion, changes in mental status, headaches, fever, and, less commonly, seizures and spastic paralysis.

text: The virus enters the central nervous system in about 1% of infections. Most patients with CNS involvement develop nonparalytic

text: aseptic meningitis

text: , with symptoms of headache, neck, back, abdominal and extremity pain, fever, vomiting,

text: lethargy

text: , and irritability. About one to five in 1000 cases progress to

text: paralytic

text: disease, in which the muscles become weak, floppy and poorly controlled, and, finally, completely paralyzed; this condition is known as

text: acute flaccid paralysis

text: .  Depending on the site of paralysis, paralytic poliomyelitis is classified as spinal,

text: bulbar

text: , or bulbospinal.

text: Encephalitis

text: , an infection of the brain tissue itself, can occur in rare cases, and is usually restricted to infants. It is characterized by confusion, changes in mental status, headaches, fever, and, less commonly,

text: seizure

text: s and

text: spastic paralysis

text: Alpers' disease, also called Alpers' syndrome, Alpers-Huttenlocher syndrome (AHS), progressive sclerosing poliodystrophy, and progressive infantile poliodystrophy, is a progressive degenerative disease of the central nervous system first recognized by Alfons Maria Jakob, a German neuropathologist, that occurs mostly in infants and children. It is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by certain genetic mutations in the POLG gene.

text: Alpers' disease, also called Alpers' syndrome, Alpers-Huttenlocher syndrome (AHS), progressive sclerosing poliodystrophy, and progressive infantile poliodystrophy, is a progressive degenerative disease of the

text: central nervous system

text: first recognized by

text: Alfons Maria Jakob

text: , a German neuropathologist, that occurs mostly in infants and children. It is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by certain genetic mutations in the

text: POLG

text: gene.

text: Some viral replication of an echovirus occurs in the nasopharynx after infection and then spreads to regional lymph nodes. However, most viral particles are swallowed and they reach the lower gut tract, where the virus is presumed to bind to specific receptors. The virus then spreads to the lower intestinal tract, replicating but not causing any major cellular effects along the way. Next, the virus spreads to many secondary sites in the body such as the central nervous system, liver, spleen, bone marrow, heart and finally the lungs. Additional replication of the virus will occur, causing symptoms 4 to 6 days after infection. The most deadly part however is delayed when symptoms of a central nervous system disease start to appear. Enteroviruses are capable of infecting any cell in the body. These viruses are highly infectious. They can spread through the air to other hosts 1–3 weeks after infection and can spread through feces to other hosts eight weeks after infection.

text: Some viral replication of an echovirus occurs in the

text: nasopharynx

text: after infection and then spreads to regional

text: lymph node

text: s. However, most viral particles are swallowed and they reach the lower

text: gut tract

text: , where the virus is presumed to bind to specific

text: receptors

text: . The virus then spreads to the lower

text: intestinal tract

text: , replicating but not causing any major cellular effects along the way. Next, the virus spreads to many secondary sites in the body such as the

text: central nervous system

text: liver

text: spleen

text: bone marrow

text: heart

text: and finally the

text: lung

text: s. Additional replication of the virus will occur, causing symptoms 4 to 6 days after infection. The most deadly part however is delayed when symptoms of a central nervous system disease start to appear. Enteroviruses are capable of infecting any cell in the body. These viruses are highly infectious. They can spread through the air to other hosts 1–3 weeks after infection and can spread through feces to other hosts eight weeks after infection.

text: Until recently, medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related. As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorders. Anencephaly is one such disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies. The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles present in many cellular types throughout the human body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and, thus, offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases. Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alström syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: Until recently, medical literature did not indicate a connection among many

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: root cause

text: symptoms

text: that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: . Anencephaly is one such disease, part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: s present in many cellular types throughout the

text: human

text: body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and, thus, offer a plausible hypothesis for the often

text: multi-symptom

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alström syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: , and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: From 1934 onwards, outbreaks of a previously unknown illness began to be recorded by doctors. Initially  considered to be occurrences of  poliomyelitis, the illness was subsequently referred to as "epidemic neuromyasthenia". In the 1950s, the term "benign myalgic encephalomyelitis" was used in relation to a comparable outbreak at the Royal Free Hospital in London. The descriptions of each outbreak were varied but included symptoms of malaise, tender lymph nodes, sore throat, pain, and signs of encephalomyelitis. The cause of the condition was not identified although it appeared to be infectious, and the term "benign myalgic encephalomyelitis" was chosen to reflect the lack of mortality, the severe muscular pains, evidence of damage to the nervous system, and to the presumed inflammatory nature of the disorder. The syndrome appeared in sporadic as well as epidemic cases and in 1969, benign myalgic encephalomyelitis appeared as an entry to the International Classification of Diseases under Diseases of the nervous system.

text: A neurotropic virus is said to be neuroinvasive if it is capable of accessing or entering the nervous system and neurovirulent if it is capable of causing disease within the nervous system. Both terms are often applied to central nervous system infections, although some neurotropic viruses are highly neuroinvasive for the peripheral nervous system (i.e. herpes simplex virus). Important neuroinvasive viruses include poliovirus, which is highly neurovirulent but weakly neuroinvasive, and rabies virus, which is highly neurovirulent but requires tissue trauma (often resulting from an animal bite) to become neuroinvasive. Using these definitions, herpes simplex virus is highly neuroinvasive for the peripheral nervous system and rarely neuroinvasive for the central nervous system, but in the latter case may cause herpesviral encephalitis and is therefore considered highly neurovirulent. Many arthropod-borne neurotropic viruses, like West Nile virus, spread to the brain primarily via the blood system by crossing the blood-brain barrier in what is called hematogenous dissemination.

text: A neurotropic virus is said to be neuroinvasive if it is capable of accessing or entering the

text: nervous system

text: and neurovirulent if it is capable of causing disease within the nervous system. Both terms are often applied to

text: central nervous system

text: infections, although some neurotropic viruses are highly neuroinvasive for the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (i.e.

text: herpes simplex virus

text: ). Important neuroinvasive viruses include

text: poliovirus

text: , which is highly neurovirulent but weakly neuroinvasive, and

text: rabies virus

text: , which is highly neurovirulent but requires tissue trauma (often resulting from an animal bite) to become neuroinvasive. Using these definitions, herpes simplex virus is highly neuroinvasive for the peripheral nervous system and rarely neuroinvasive for the central nervous system, but in the latter case may cause

text: herpesviral encephalitis

text: and is therefore considered highly neurovirulent. Many

text: arthropod-borne

text: neurotropic viruses, like

text: West Nile virus

text: , spread to the brain primarily via the

text: blood system

text: by crossing the

text: blood-brain barrier

text: in what is called

text: hematogenous dissemination

text: Certain parasitic or protozoal infestations, such as toxoplasmosis, malaria, or primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, can also cause encephalitis in people with compromised immune systems. Lyme disease and/or Bartonella henselae may also cause encephalitis.

text: Certain

text: parasitic

text: or

text: protozoa

text: l infestations, such as

text: toxoplasmosis

text: malaria

text: , or

text: primary amoebic meningoencephalitis

text: , can also cause encephalitis in people with

text: compromised

text: immune system

text: s.

text: Lyme disease

text: and/or

text: Bartonella henselae

text: may also cause encephalitis.

text: Nervous tissue or Nerve tissue is the main tissue component of the two parts of the nervous system; the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity. It is composed of neurons, or nerve cells, which receive and transmit impulses, and  neuroglia, also known as glial cells or more commonly as just glia (from the Greek, meaning glue), which assist the propagation of the nerve impulse as well as providing nutrients to the neuron.

text: Nervous tissue or Nerve tissue is the main

text: tissue

text: component of the two parts of the

text: nervous system

text: ; the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity. It is composed of

text: neuron

text: s, or nerve cells, which receive and transmit impulses, and

text: neuroglia

text: , also known as glial cells or more commonly as just glia (from the Greek, meaning glue), which assist the propagation of the

text: nerve impulse

text: as well as providing

text: nutrients

text: to the neuron.

text: The complement system is also becoming increasingly implicated in diseases of the central nervous system such as Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative conditions such as spinal cord injuries.

text: The complement system is also becoming increasingly implicated in diseases of the central nervous system such as

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: and other neurodegenerative conditions such as spinal cord injuries.

text: Bone changes can be seen in the archaeological record through lesions on the surface on the bone. In venereal syphilis the bone change is characterized by damage to the knees and joints. The damaged joints could be the source of infection or they could be damaged because of disruption in the nervous systems and ability to feel. In the beginning stages of the disease, the bone forms small lesions on the skull and tibiae. These lesions are caused mostly by inflammation of the marrow. In the final stages of the disease the bones start to be destroyed. Lesions that are formed tend to look similar to "worm holes" in the bone and are seen in the skull as well as large bones in the body. Most of the bone that is destroyed is due to secondary infections.

text: Several important diseases of the nervous system are associated with dysfunctions of the dopamine system, and some of the key medications used to treat them work by altering the effects of dopamine. Parkinson's disease, a degenerative condition causing tremor and motor impairment, is caused by a loss of dopamine-secreting neurons in an area of the midbrain called the substantia nigra. Its metabolic precursor L-DOPA can be manufactured, and in its pure form marketed as Levodopa is the most widely used treatment for the condition. There is evidence that schizophrenia involves altered levels of dopamine activity, and most antipsychotic drugs used to treat this are dopamine antagonists which reduce dopamine activity. Similar dopamine antagonist drugs are also some of the most effective anti-nausea agents. Restless legs syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are associated with decreased dopamine activity.  Dopaminergic stimulants can be addictive in high doses, but some are used at lower doses to treat ADHD.  Dopamine itself is available as a manufactured medication for intravenous injection: although it cannot reach the brain from the bloodstream, its peripheral effects make it useful in the treatment of heart failure or shock, especially in newborn babies.

text: Several important diseases of the nervous system are associated with dysfunctions of the dopamine system, and some of the key medications used to treat them work by altering the effects of dopamine.

text: Parkinson's disease

text: , a degenerative condition causing tremor and motor impairment, is caused by a loss of dopamine-secreting neurons in an area of the

text: midbrain

text: called the

text: substantia nigra

text: . Its metabolic precursor L-DOPA can be manufactured, and in its pure form marketed as Levodopa is the most widely used treatment for the condition. There is evidence that

text: schizophrenia

text: involves altered levels of dopamine activity, and most

text: antipsychotic drugs

text: used to treat this are

text: dopamine antagonist

text: s which reduce dopamine activity. Similar dopamine antagonist drugs are also some of the most effective

text: anti-nausea agents

text: Restless legs syndrome

text: and

text: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

text: (ADHD) are associated with decreased dopamine activity.

text: Dopaminergic

text: stimulants

text: can be addictive in high doses, but some are used at lower doses to treat ADHD.

text: Dopamine

text: itself is available as a manufactured

text: medication

text: for

text: intravenous injection

text: : although it cannot reach the brain from the bloodstream, its peripheral effects make it useful in the treatment of

text: heart failure

text: or

text: shock

text: , especially in newborn babies.

text: Ian Anthony Meinertzhagen (born 1944, in Kent, United Kingdom) is a Canadian neurobiologist, a University Research Professor at Dalhousie University, in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Senior Fellow at the Janelia Research Campus of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Ashburn, Virginia.  He is a graduate of the Universities of Aberdeen (BSc) and St. Andrews (PhD, DSc) and undertook postdoctoral work at the Australian National University and Harvard University.  His research has pioneered studies on simple nervous systems of invertebrate species, especially the  Drosophila visual system and the diminutive chordate nervous system of the ascidian tadpole larva,. He has examined structurally identified circuits of neurons, their functional anatomy, their origins in both ontogeny and evolution, and their plasticity in adult animals.  He has been closely associated with the newly designated field of connectomics in .

text: Ian Anthony Meinertzhagen (born 1944, in

text: Kent

text: United Kingdom

text: ) is a

text: Canadian

text: neurobiologist

text: , a University Research Professor at

text: Dalhousie University

text: , in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Senior Fellow at the Janelia Research Campus of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Ashburn, Virginia.  He is a graduate of the Universities of Aberdeen (BSc) and St. Andrews (PhD, DSc) and undertook postdoctoral work at the

text: Australian National University

text: and

text: Harvard University

text: .  His research has pioneered studies on simple nervous systems of invertebrate species, especially the  Drosophila visual system and the diminutive chordate nervous system of the ascidian tadpole larva,. He has examined structurally identified circuits of neurons, their functional anatomy, their origins in both ontogeny and evolution, and their plasticity in adult animals.  He has been closely associated with the newly designated field of connectomics in .

text: The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain, retina, and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of all the nerves outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system is made up of "afferent" neurons, which bring sensory information from the sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the muscles. The autonomic nervous system also has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic, which are important for regulating the body's basic internal organ functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, like somatic nerves, contain afferent and efferent fibers.

text: The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) consists of the

text: brain

text: retina

text: , and

text: spinal cord

text: , while the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) is made up of all the nerves outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The

text: somatic nervous system

text: is made up of "afferent" neurons, which bring sensory information from the sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the muscles. The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: also has two subdivisions, the

text: sympathetic

text: and the

text: parasympathetic

text: , which are important for regulating the body's basic internal organ functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, like somatic nerves, contain afferent and efferent fibers.

text: Patients with NMDAR encephalitis are frequently young women who present with fever, headache and fatigue. This is often misdiagnosed as influenza, but progresses to severe behavioural and personality disturbance, delusions, paranoia and hallucinations. Patients may therefore initially be admitted to a psychiatric ward for acute psychosis or schizophrenia. The disease then progresses to catatonia, seizures and loss of consciousness. The next stage is hypoventilation (inadequate breathing) requiring intubation, orofacial dyskinesia and autonomic instability (dramatic fluctuations in blood pressure, temperature and heart rate).

text: Patients with

text: NMDAR encephalitis

text: are frequently young women who present with fever, headache and fatigue. This is often misdiagnosed as influenza, but progresses to severe behavioural and personality disturbance, delusions, paranoia and hallucinations. Patients may therefore initially be admitted to a psychiatric ward for acute psychosis or

text: schizophrenia

text: . The disease then progresses to catatonia, seizures and loss of consciousness. The next stage is

text: hypoventilation

text: (inadequate breathing) requiring

text: intubation

text: , orofacial dyskinesia and autonomic instability (dramatic fluctuations in blood pressure, temperature and heart rate).

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is divided into the somatic nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system. However, it is the somatic nervous system, responsible for body movement and the reception of external stimuli, which allows one to understand how cutaneous innervation is made possible by the action of specific sensory fibers located on the skin, as well as the distinct pathways they take to the central nervous system. The skin, which is part of the integumentary system, plays an important role in the somatic nervous system because it contains a range of nerve endings that react to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury.

text: The

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) is divided into the

text: somatic nervous system

text: , the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , and the

text: enteric nervous system

text: . However, it is the somatic nervous system, responsible for body movement and the reception of external stimuli, which allows one to understand how cutaneous innervation is made possible by the action of specific

text: sensory fibers

text: located on the

text: skin

text: , as well as the distinct pathways they take to the central nervous system. The skin, which is part of the

text: integumentary system

text: , plays an important role in the somatic nervous system because it contains a range of

text: nerve endings

text: that react to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury.

text: The exact cause is unknown. However, autoreactive antibodies can be detected in a variety of peripheral (e.g. myasthenia gravis, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome) and central nervous system (e.g. paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis) disorders. Their causative role has been established in some of these diseases but not all. Neuromyotonia is considered to be one of these with accumulating evidence for autoimmune origin over the last few years. Autoimmune neuromyotonia is typically caused by antibodies that bind to potassium channels on the motor nerve resulting in continuous/hyper-excitability.  Onset is typically seen between the ages of 15–60, with most experiencing symptoms before the age of 40. Some neuromyotonia cases do not only improve after plasma exchange but they may also have antibodies in their serum samples against voltage-gated potassium channels. Moreover, these antibodies have been demonstrated to reduce potassium channel function in neuronal cell lines.

text: The exact cause is unknown. However, autoreactive antibodies can be detected in a variety of peripheral (e.g.

text: myasthenia gravis

text: Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome

text: ) and central nervous system (e.g.

text: paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration

text: paraneoplastic limbic encephalitis

text: ) disorders. Their causative role has been established in some of these diseases but not all. Neuromyotonia is considered to be one of these with accumulating evidence for

text: autoimmune origin

text: over the last few years. Autoimmune neuromyotonia is typically caused by antibodies that bind to

text: potassium channels

text: on the

text: motor nerve

text: resulting in continuous/hyper-excitability.  Onset is typically seen between the ages of 15–60, with most experiencing symptoms before the age of 40. Some neuromyotonia cases do not only improve after

text: plasma

text: exchange but they may also have antibodies in their

text: serum

text: samples against

text: voltage-gated potassium channel

text: s. Moreover, these antibodies have been demonstrated to reduce potassium channel function in neuronal cell lines.

text: Neurotoxicity is toxicity in the nervous system. It occurs when exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances, which are called neurotoxins, alters the normal activity of the nervous system in such a way as to cause damage to nervous tissue. This can eventually disrupt or even kill neurons, key cells that transmit and process signals in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurotoxicity can result from exposure to substances used in chemotherapy, radiation treatment, drug therapies, certain drug abuse, and organ transplants, as well as exposure to heavy metals, certain foods and food additives, pesticides, industrial and/or cleaning solvents, cosmetics, and some naturally occurring substances. Symptoms may appear immediately after exposure or be delayed. They may include limb weakness or numbness, loss of memory, vision, and/or intellect, uncontrollable obsessive and/or compulsive behaviors, delusions, headache, cognitive and behavioral problems and sexual dysfunction. Individuals with certain disorders may be especially vulnerable to neurotoxins.

text: Neurotoxicity is

text: toxicity

text: in the

text: nervous system

text: . It occurs when exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances, which are called

text: neurotoxin

text: s, alters the normal activity of the nervous system in such a way as to cause damage to nervous tissue. This can eventually disrupt or even kill

text: neuron

text: s, key cells that transmit and process signals in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurotoxicity can result from exposure to substances used in

text: chemotherapy

text: radiation treatment

text: drug therapies

text: , certain

text: drug abuse

text: , and

text: organ transplant

text: s, as well as exposure to

text: heavy metals

text: , certain

text: food

text: s and

text: food additive

text: s,

text: pesticide

text: s, industrial and/or cleaning

text: solvent

text: s,

text: cosmetics

text: , and some naturally occurring substances. Symptoms may appear immediately after exposure or be delayed. They may include limb weakness or numbness, loss of memory, vision, and/or intellect, uncontrollable obsessive and/or compulsive behaviors, delusions, headache, cognitive and behavioral problems and sexual dysfunction. Individuals with certain disorders may be especially vulnerable to neurotoxins.

text: The primary purpose of a neural interface is to enable two-way exchange of information with the nervous system for a sustained period of time to enable effective and high density stimulation and recording. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is responsible for relaying information from the brain and spinal cord to the extremities of the body and back. The function of a peripheral nerve interface is to assist the nervous system when peripheral nerve function is compromised. To supplement the roles of the nervous system, interfaces need to augment motor function as well as discern sensory information. The feasibility of peripheral nerve stimulation to achieve a desired motor output has been demonstrated and is one of the major driving forces for this area of research.  Information throughout the nervous system is exchanged primarily through action potentials. These signals occur at varying numbers and intervals dependent on both the neuroanatomical and neurochemical make up of the individual and localized region. Information may be either introduced or read out by inducing or recovering action potentials from the body. Successful development and implementation of a peripheral nerve interface would allow for both the introduction of information to the nervous system, and extraction information from the nervous system.

text: The primary purpose of a

text: neural interface

text: is to enable two-way exchange of information with the nervous system for a sustained period of time to enable effective and high density stimulation and recording. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is responsible for relaying information from the brain and spinal cord to the extremities of the body and back. The function of a peripheral nerve interface is to assist the nervous system when peripheral nerve function is compromised. To supplement the roles of the nervous system, interfaces need to augment motor function as well as discern sensory information. The feasibility of peripheral nerve stimulation to achieve a desired motor output has been demonstrated and is one of the major driving forces for this area of research.  Information throughout the nervous system is exchanged primarily through

text: action potential

text: s. These signals occur at varying numbers and intervals dependent on both the

text: neuroanatomical

text: and

text: neurochemical

text: make up of the individual and localized region. Information may be either introduced or read out by inducing or recovering action potentials from the body. Successful development and implementation of a peripheral nerve interface would allow for both the introduction of information to the nervous system, and extraction information from the nervous system.

text: Séguin was in Paris from 1869 to 1870 to study diseases of the nervous system.  He studied under Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard and Jean-Martin Charcot.  Upon his return to New York in 1870, he joined the practice of William Draper, a prominent physician to whom he introduced the practice of thermometry.  The following year, Séguin was named to the Chair of Diseases of the Nervous System at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and founded its neurological clinic.  In 1876, he left the practice.

text: Séguin was in Paris from 1869 to 1870 to study

text: diseases

text: of the

text: nervous system

text: .  He studied under

text: Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard

text: and

text: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: .  Upon his return to New York in 1870, he joined the practice of

text: William Draper

text: , a prominent physician to whom he introduced the practice of

text: thermometry

text: .  The following year, Séguin was named to the Chair of Diseases of the Nervous System at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and founded its neurological clinic.  In 1876, he left the practice.

text: P2X receptors are expressed in cells from a wide variety of animal tissues. On presynaptic and postsynaptic nerve terminals and glial cells throughout the central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, P2X receptors have been shown to modulate synaptic transmission. Furthermore, P2X receptors are able to initiate contraction in cells of the heart muscle, skeletal muscle, and various smooth muscle tissues, including that of the vasculature, vas deferens and urinary bladder. P2X receptors are also expressed on leukocytes, including lymphocytes and macrophages, and are present on blood platelets. There is some degree of subtype specificity as to which P2X receptor subtypes are expressed on specific cell types, with P2X receptors being particularly prominent in smooth muscle cells, and P2X being widespread throughout the autonomic nervous system. However, such trends are very general and there is considerable overlap in subunit distribution, with most cell types expressing more than one subunits. For example, P2X and P2X subunits are commonly found co-expressed in sensory neurons, where they often co-assemble into functional P2X receptors.

text: P2X receptors are expressed in cells from a wide variety of animal

text: tissues

text: . On presynaptic and postsynaptic

text: nerve terminals

text: and

text: glial

text: cells throughout the

text: central

text: peripheral

text: and

text: autonomic

text: nervous systems, P2X receptors have been shown to modulate

text: synaptic transmission

text: . Furthermore, P2X receptors are able to initiate

text: contraction

text: in cells of the

text: heart muscle

text: skeletal muscle

text: , and various

text: smooth muscle

text: tissues, including that of the

text: vasculature

text: vas deferens

text: and

text: urinary bladder

text: . P2X receptors are also expressed on

text: leukocytes

text: , including lymphocytes and macrophages, and are present on blood

text: platelet

text: s. There is some degree of subtype specificity as to which P2X receptor subtypes are expressed on specific cell types, with P2X receptors being particularly prominent in smooth muscle cells, and P2X being widespread throughout the autonomic nervous system. However, such trends are very general and there is considerable overlap in subunit distribution, with most cell types expressing more than one subunits. For example, P2X and P2X subunits are commonly found co-expressed in

text: sensory neuron

text: s, where they often co-assemble into functional P2X receptors.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorders.  Ellis–van Creveld syndrome is one such  disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies.  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles which are present in many cellular types throughout the human body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel–Gruber syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: root cause

text: symptoms

text: that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: .  Ellis–van Creveld syndrome is one such  disease, part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: human

text: multi-symptom

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet–Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel–Gruber syndrome

text: and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: In order to accurately report the conditions of a humanitarian emergency to the rest of the world and to governing bodies, data on a number of factors are collected during each field mission. The rate of malnutrition in children is used to determine the malnutrition rate in the population, and then to determine the need for feeding centres. Various types of mortality rates are used to report the seriousness of a humanitarian emergency, and a common method used to measure mortality in a population is to have staff constantly monitoring the number of burials at cemeteries. By compiling data on the frequency of diseases in hospitals, MSF can track the occurrence and location of epidemic increases (or "seasons") and stockpile vaccines and other drugs. For example, the "Meningitis Belt" (sub-Saharan Africa, which sees the most cases of meningitis in the world) has been "mapped" and the meningitis season occurs between December and June. Shifts in the location of the Belt and the timing of the season can be predicted using cumulative data over many years.

text: In order to accurately report the conditions of a humanitarian emergency to the rest of the world and to governing bodies, data on a number of factors are collected during each field mission. The rate of malnutrition in children is used to determine the malnutrition rate in the population, and then to determine the need for feeding centres. Various types of

text: mortality rate

text: s are used to report the seriousness of a humanitarian emergency, and a common method used to measure mortality in a population is to have staff constantly monitoring the number of burials at cemeteries. By compiling data on the frequency of diseases in hospitals, MSF can track the occurrence and location of epidemic increases (or "seasons") and stockpile vaccines and other drugs. For example, the "Meningitis Belt" (sub-Saharan Africa, which sees the most cases of meningitis in the world) has been "mapped" and the meningitis season occurs between December and June. Shifts in the location of the Belt and the timing of the season can be predicted using cumulative data over many years.

text: Meningitis is typically caused by an infection with microorganisms. Most infections are due to viruses, with bacteria, fungi, and protozoa being the next most common causes. It may also result from various non-infectious causes. The term aseptic meningitis refers to cases of meningitis in which no bacterial infection can be demonstrated. This type of meningitis is usually caused by viruses but it may be due to bacterial infection that has already been partially treated, when bacteria disappear from the meninges, or pathogens infect a space adjacent to the meninges (e.g. sinusitis). Endocarditis (an infection of the heart valves which spreads small clusters of bacteria through the bloodstream) may cause aseptic meningitis. Aseptic meningitis may also result from infection with spirochetes, a type of bacteria that includes Treponema pallidum (the cause of syphilis) and Borrelia burgdorferi (known for causing Lyme disease). Meningitis may be encountered in cerebral malaria (malaria infecting the brain) or amoebic meningitis, meningitis due to infection with amoebae such as Naegleria fowleri, contracted from freshwater sources.

text: Meningitis is typically caused by an

text: infection

text: with

text: microorganisms

text: . Most infections are due to viruses, with

text: bacteria

text: fungi

text: , and

text: protozoa

text: being the next most common causes. It may also result from various non-infectious causes. The term

text: aseptic meningitis

text: refers to cases of meningitis in which no bacterial infection can be demonstrated. This type of meningitis is usually caused by viruses but it may be due to bacterial infection that has already been partially treated, when bacteria disappear from the meninges, or pathogens infect a space adjacent to the meninges (e.g.

text: sinusitis

text: Endocarditis

text: (an infection of the

text: heart valve

text: s which spreads small clusters of bacteria through the bloodstream) may cause aseptic meningitis. Aseptic meningitis may also result from infection with

text: spirochete

text: s, a type of bacteria that includes

text: Treponema pallidum

text: (the cause of

text: syphilis

text: ) and

text: Borrelia burgdorferi

text: (known for causing

text: Lyme disease

text: ). Meningitis may be encountered in

text: cerebral malaria

text: (malaria infecting the brain) or

text: amoebic meningitis

text: , meningitis due to infection with

text: amoebae

text: such as

text: Naegleria fowleri

text: , contracted from freshwater sources.

text: Lifestyle modifications play a crucial role in management of cardiovascular and neurological diseases.  Physical activity and a well-balanced diet favor cardiovascular conditioning and improves performance and capacity.  Exercise has a positive effect on the metabolism, which controls glucose levels, especially for stress-related pathology and brain disorders such as depression, which impose a heavy burden on the cardiovascular system.  Many studies are currently being done for more information and knowledge regarding the common mediators for cardiovascular disease and the central nervous system.  The brain-heart interaction is considered bidirectional, however the majority of times the central nervous system is regulated more over the heart and blood vessels.

text: More severe symptoms occur after the disease progresses and there is much more damage to the myelin sheaths in the peripheral nervous system.  These can present as deabilitating tremors that prevent patients from doing normal tasks, complete sensory loss on limbs, and, in some cases, extensive muscle atrophy.

text: More severe symptoms occur after the disease progresses and there is much more damage to the myelin sheaths in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: .  These can present as deabilitating tremors that prevent patients from doing normal tasks, complete sensory loss on limbs, and, in some cases, extensive

text: muscle atrophy

text: Functions of the nervous system are sensory input, integration, control of muscles and glands, homeostasis, and mental activity.

text: Functions of the nervous system are

text: sensory

text: input, integration, control of

text: muscle

text: s and

text: gland

text: s,

text: homeostasis

text: , and

text: mental activity

text: The health condition of the boy who was before the admission to the Maribor paediatric department mainly healthy, as confirmed by parents and proved with his school report, except for a "cold", worsened despite taking antibiotics. He was admitted to the emergency department of the Pediatric Clinic in Maribor at 18:00. In an interview published in April 2009, the doctor treating him told that after she had obtained the results of the ordered laboratory tests, among them the level of ammonia, she diagnosed Reye syndrome on the basis of Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics and began to treat him. In the morning, after a consultation, the doctors there called the colleagues at the University Clinical Centre in Ljubljana and ordered his transport there. The treating physician did not directly communicate with Ljubljana.

text: The health condition of the boy who was before the admission to the Maribor paediatric department mainly healthy, as confirmed by parents and proved with his school report, except for a "cold", worsened despite taking antibiotics. He was admitted to the emergency department of the Pediatric Clinic in Maribor at 18:00. In an interview published in April 2009, the doctor treating him told that after she had obtained the results of the ordered laboratory tests, among them the level of ammonia, she diagnosed Reye syndrome on the basis of

text: Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics

text: and began to treat him. In the morning, after a consultation, the doctors there called the colleagues at the University Clinical Centre in Ljubljana and ordered his transport there. The treating physician did not directly communicate with Ljubljana.

text: Poliomyelitis is a disease of the central nervous system. However, CD155 is believed to be present on the surface of most or all human cells. Therefore, receptor expression does not explain why poliovirus preferentially infects certain tissues. This suggests that tissue tropism is determined after cellular infection. Recent work has suggested that the type I interferon response (specifically that of interferon alpha and beta) is an important factor that defines which types of cells support poliovirus replication. In mice expressing CD155 (through genetic engineering) but lacking the type I interferon receptor, poliovirus not only replicates in an expanded repertoire of tissue types, but these mice are also able to be infected orally with the virus.

text: Poliomyelitis is a disease of the central nervous system. However, CD155 is believed to be present on the surface of most or all human cells. Therefore, receptor expression does not explain why poliovirus preferentially infects certain tissues. This suggests that tissue

text: tropism

text: is determined after cellular infection. Recent work has suggested that the

text: type I interferon

text: response (specifically that of interferon alpha and beta) is an important factor that defines which types of cells support poliovirus replication. In mice expressing CD155 (through genetic engineering) but lacking the type I interferon receptor, poliovirus not only replicates in an expanded repertoire of tissue types, but these mice are also able to be infected orally with the virus.

text: Flatau dealt with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the brain; treatment of muscle diseases, child neurology, peripheral nerve surgery, anatomy of the nervous system, histopathology of the nerve tissue, experimental oncology, neurophysiology, nervous system pathophysiology. Scientific career Edward Flatau is described in number of works. The most comprehensive are biographies written in Polish by his pupil and subsequent professor of neurology in the post-war Poland Eugeniusz Herman. Other Polish publications include Besides these contributions there are several written in English and GermanA good source of information is the Jubilee Book of Edward Flatau (written in German, French and Polish), published during his lifetime, which contains contributions from his scientific collaborators as well as a bibliography and biography written by his student  Maurycy Bornsztajn. In 1937 Warszawskie Czasopismo Lekarskie published special edition devoted to Flatau contributed mostly by his pupils.

text: Flatau dealt with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the brain; treatment of muscle diseases, child neurology, peripheral nerve surgery, anatomy of the nervous system, histopathology of the nerve tissue, experimental oncology, neurophysiology, nervous system pathophysiology. Scientific career Edward Flatau is described in number of works. The most comprehensive are biographies written in Polish by his pupil and subsequent professor of neurology in the post-war Poland

text: Eugeniusz Herman

text: . Other Polish publications include Besides these contributions there are several written in English and GermanA good source of information is the Jubilee Book of Edward Flatau (written in German, French and Polish), published during his lifetime, which contains contributions from his scientific collaborators as well as a bibliography and biography written by his student

text: Maurycy Bornsztajn

text: . In 1937

text: Warszawskie Czasopismo Lekarskie

text: published special edition devoted to Flatau contributed mostly by his pupils.

text: Although the text was written over 40 years ago, the topics covered in the text are quite similar to those that would be covered in a contemporary voice textbook, which shows how much further along the study of phoniatry was compared to other subdivisions of Speech Language Pathology at the time. For example, topics covered in this text included: speech acoustics, observational methods, treatment of laryngeal electromyography, physiology of respiration and voice production, genetic factors in voice, development of voice throughout the lifespan, professional voice, voice therapy; pathology of the larynx, nodules, asymetries, genetic defects of voice and laryngeal web, sulcus glottides, voice related endocrine problems, the effects of peripheral nerve lesions, the sympathetic nervous system; laryngeal myopathy, central lesions of the nervous system, laryngeal trauma, cordectomy, joint disorders, alaryngeal voice, vasomotor effects on vocal fold function, functional dysphonias, contact ulcers, ventricular voice, and psychogenic voice disorders.

text: Although the text was written over 40 years ago, the topics covered in the text are quite similar to those that would be covered in a contemporary voice textbook, which shows how much further along the study of

text: phoniatry

text: was compared to other subdivisions of

text: Speech Language Pathology

text: at the time. For example, topics covered in this text included:

text: speech

text: acoustics

text: observational methods

text: , treatment of

text: laryngeal electromyography

text: , physiology of

text: respiration

text: and voice production,

text: genetic

text: factors in voice, development of voice throughout the lifespan, professional voice,

text: voice therapy

text: ; pathology of the

text: larynx

text: nodules

text: asymetries

text: , genetic defects of voice and

text: laryngeal web

text: sulcus glottides

text: , voice related

text: endocrine

text: problems, the effects of

text: peripheral nerve lesions

text: , the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: laryngeal myopathy

text: , central lesions of the nervous system,

text: laryngeal trauma

text: cordectomy

text: joint disorder

text: s,

text: alaryngeal voice

text: vasomotor effect

text: s on vocal fold function,

text: functional dysphonias

text: contact ulcer

text: s,

text: ventricular voice

text: , and

text: psychogenic voice disorder

text: s.

text: Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, including the biological features of the cells involved, and how they communicate. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called neuroendocrine integration, to regulate the physiological processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the hypothalamus, controls secretion of pituitary gland hormones, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.

text: Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interaction between the

text: nervous system

text: and the

text: endocrine system

text: , including the biological features of the cells involved, and how they communicate. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called

text: neuroendocrine integration

text: , to regulate the

text: physiological

text: processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the

text: hypothalamus

text: , controls secretion of

text: pituitary gland

text: hormone

text: s, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.

text: Flynn–Aird syndrome is a rare, hereditary, neurological disease that is inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion. The syndrome involves defects in the nervous, auditory, skeletal, visual, and endocrine systems and encompasses numerous symptoms, bearing striking similarity to other known syndromes of neuroectodermal nature such as: Werner syndrome, Cockayne syndrome and Refsum syndrome.

text: Flynn–Aird syndrome is a rare, hereditary, neurological disease that is inherited in an

text: autosomal dominant

text: fashion. The syndrome involves defects in the nervous, auditory, skeletal, visual, and endocrine systems and encompasses numerous symptoms, bearing striking similarity to other known syndromes of neuroectodermal nature such as:

text: Werner syndrome

text: Cockayne syndrome

text: and

text: Refsum syndrome

text: Atienza had a mild stroke in 2010 and 2014. In 2013, he was hospitalized for almost a week and was diagnosed to have Guillain–Barré syndrome, a rare disease that attacks the nervous system due to a virus or bacterial infection.

text: Atienza had a mild stroke in 2010 and 2014. In 2013, he was hospitalized for almost a week and was diagnosed to have

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: , a rare disease that attacks the

text: nervous system

text: due to a virus or bacterial infection.

text: Neurocutaneous conditions are due organic nervous system disease or are psychiatric in etiology.

text: Neurocutaneous conditions are due

text: organic

text: nervous system

text: disease or are

text: psychiatric

text: in

text: etiology

text: Emerging evidence suggests that abnormal IFN production contributes to immune dysfunction and mediates tissue inflammation and organ damage in a number of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM), Sjogren’s syndrome (SS) and multiple sclerosis (MS). Increased serum IFN-α and IFN-α-induced gene expression are frequently observed in patients with SLE, and many of SLE clinical manifestations such as fever, fatigue and leukopenia are similar to those observed in patients suffering from influenza or as a side effect of IFN-therapy, suggesting that type I IFNs are important in the molecular pathogenesis of SLE. A heritable pattern of high circulating type I IFN has been observed in SLE families, suggesting that high IFN is a heritable risk factor for SLE.  Furthermore, patients with non-autoimmune diseases treated with IFN-α can develop a “lupus-like” syndrome,  including antinuclear antibodies like antinuclear antibodies (ANA) and anti-double stranded DNA (ds-DNA) which usually resolve after IFN-α therapy discontinuation.  As noted above, IRFs are proteins which regulate transcription of IFNs.  Genetic variations in the IRF genes have been associated with risk of developing SLE, and these genetic variations have also been linked to increased IFN-α production and with SLE-associated autoantibody formation.Several observations suggest that type I IFN is involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory myopathies. Patients with dermatomyositis and polymyositis have increased IFN serum levels which in some studies correlate with disease activity or myositis-specific autoantibodies. Also, studies have suggested a genetic or heritable component to the high type I IFN observed in myositis patients, similar to SLE.Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disorder of the central nervous system characterized by inflammation, demyelination and neurodegeneration with presumed autoimmune origin. Whereas type I IFNs are thought to induce some autoimmune conditions such as SLE as noted above, MS is effectively treated by administering recombinant human IFN-β.  MS patients have lower levels of circulating type I interferon compared to patients with other autoimmune diseases. However, a number of patients with relapsing-remitting MS have a high IFN signature as well as more clinical and MRI attacks before therapy and these patients often do not response to IFN-β therapy. Interestingly, neuromyelitis optica, another autoimmune disorder similar to MS which does not respond to IFN therapy, is associated with higher baseline circulating IFN levels.

text: Eosinophils compose about 2-4% of the WBC total. This count fluctuates throughout the day, seasonally, and during menstruation. It rises in response to allergies, parasitic infections, collagen diseases, and disease of the spleen and central nervous system. They are rare in the blood, but numerous in the mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, and lower urinary tracts.

text: Eosinophils compose about 2-4% of the WBC total. This count fluctuates throughout the day, seasonally, and during

text: menstruation

text: . It rises in response to allergies, parasitic infections, collagen diseases, and disease of the spleen and central nervous system. They are rare in the blood, but numerous in the mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, and lower urinary tracts.

text: Viruses that cause meningitis include enteroviruses, herpes simplex virus (generally type 2, which produces most genital sores; less commonly type 1), varicella zoster virus (known for causing chickenpox and shingles), mumps virus, HIV, and LCMV.  Mollaret's meningitis is a chronic recurrent form of herpes meningitis; it is thought to be caused by herpes simplex virus type 2.

text: Viruses that cause meningitis include

text: enterovirus

text: es,

text: herpes simplex virus

text: (generally type 2, which produces most genital sores; less commonly type 1),

text: varicella zoster virus

text: (known for causing

text: chickenpox

text: and

text: shingles

text: mumps virus

text: HIV

text: , and

text: LCMV

text: Mollaret's meningitis

text: is a chronic recurrent form of herpes meningitis; it is thought to be caused by

text: herpes simplex virus type 2

text: Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy is the dominant mode of acquisition of HIV infection in children and has been associated with an increased risk of mortality and developmental delay. Children with AIDS appear to have neurological diseases as a consequence of HIV-1 infection. In HIV-1 infected newborn and children, central nervous system (CNS) is infected with HIV-1 weeks after primary infection, causing neuronal damage and cell death. Although neurological dysfunctions have been associated to HIV infection of the CNS, it is unclear how the pathogenesis of neurological disorders has been established.

text: For unclear reasons, hypoxic death of cells within the central nervous system can result in liquefactive necrosis. This is a process in which lysosomes turn tissues into pus as a result of lysosomal release of digestive enzymes. Loss of tissue architecture means that the tissue can be liquefied. This process is not associated with bacterial action or infection. Ultimately, in a living patient most necrotic cells and their contents disappear.

text: For unclear reasons,

text: hypoxic

text: death of cells within the central nervous system can result in liquefactive necrosis. This is a process in which

text: lysosome

text: s turn tissues into pus as a result of lysosomal release of digestive enzymes. Loss of tissue architecture means that the tissue can be liquefied. This process is not associated with bacterial action or infection. Ultimately, in a living patient most necrotic cells and their contents disappear.

text: Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord (these membranes are known as meninges). Meningitis is most commonly caused by infections with various pathogens, examples of which are Streptococcus pneumoniae  and Haemophilus influenzae. When the meninges are inflamed, the blood–brain barrier may be disrupted. This disruption may increase the penetration of various substances (including either toxins or antibiotics) into the brain. Antibiotics used to treat meningitis may aggravate the inflammatory response of the central nervous system by releasing neurotoxins from the cell walls of bacteria - like lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Depending on the causative pathogen, whether it is bacterial, fungal, or protozoan, treatment with third-generation or fourth-generation cephalosporin or amphotericin B is usually prescribed.

text: Meningitis

text: is an inflammation of the membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord (these membranes are known as

text: meninges

text: ). Meningitis is most commonly caused by infections with various

text: pathogen

text: s, examples of which are

text: Streptococcus pneumoniae

text: and

text: Haemophilus influenzae

text: . When the meninges are inflamed, the blood–brain barrier may be disrupted. This disruption may increase the penetration of various substances (including either

text: toxin

text: s or antibiotics) into the brain. Antibiotics used to treat meningitis may aggravate the inflammatory response of the central nervous system by releasing neurotoxins from the cell walls of bacteria - like

text: lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

text: . Depending on the causative pathogen, whether it is bacterial, fungal, or protozoan, treatment with

text: third-generation or fourth-generation cephalosporin

text: or

text: amphotericin B

text: is usually prescribed.

text: In addition, there is evidence supporting the brain and central nervous system's influence on the immune system and the capacity for mind-body interventions to enhance immune function outcomes, including defense against and recovery from infection and disease.

text: In addition, there is evidence supporting the

text: brain

text: and central nervous system's influence on the immune system and the capacity for mind-body interventions to enhance immune function outcomes, including defense against and recovery from infection and disease.

text: B. burgdorferi can spread throughout the body during the course of the disease, and has been found in the skin, heart, joints, peripheral nervous system, and central nervous system. Many of the signs and symptoms of Lyme disease are a consequence of the immune response to the spirochete in those tissues.

text: Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that results due to the death of dopamine producing cells within the central nervous system.  Because of the death of these cells, less dopamine is available within the brain, resulting in tremors and other side effects within motor functions.  The reason for the deaths of these cells is a topic of current research, with some theories suggesting a contribution of oxidative stress due to free radicals and inflammation.  Currently, there are no treatments to cure Parkinson’s disease, yet a variety of treatment options are available to alleviate the symptoms including medication and dietary changes.

text: H. gingivalis is uncommon in humans so far. However, its rare effects are lethal as there is inflammation of the central nervous system, leading to brain dysfunction and meningoencephalomyelitis. This disease causes increased concentration of eosinophils in the cerebrospinal fluid. In horses (where the parasite is most studied), infection of the brain is common, followed by the kidneys, oral and nasal cavities, lymph nodes, lungs, spinal cord, and adrenal gland, and also reports of infection of heart, liver, stomach and bone.  A rare triple fatality from Halicephalobus was reported in the UK, where infected kidneys were transplanted to two recipients.

text: H. gingivalis is uncommon in humans so far. However, its rare effects are lethal as there is inflammation of the central nervous system, leading to brain dysfunction and meningoencephalomyelitis. This disease causes increased concentration of

text: eosinophils

text: in the cerebrospinal fluid. In horses (where the parasite is most studied), infection of the brain is common, followed by the kidneys, oral and nasal cavities, lymph nodes, lungs, spinal cord, and adrenal gland, and also reports of infection of heart, liver, stomach and bone.  A rare triple fatality from Halicephalobus was reported in the UK, where infected kidneys were transplanted to two recipients.

text: Activation of nociceptors is not necessary to cause the sensation of pain. Damage or injury to nerve fibers that normally respond to innocuous stimuli like light touch may lower their activation threshold needed to respond; this change causes the organism to feel intense pain from the lightest of touch.  Neuropathic pain syndromes are caused by lesions or diseases of the parts of the nervous system that normally signal pain. There are four main classes:

text: The mumps virus can infect ependymal cells in the central nervous system.

text: The mumps virus can infect

text: ependymal cells

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: The autonomic nervous system controls a wide range of involuntary and unconscious body functions.  Its main branches are the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.  Broadly speaking, the function of the sympathetic nervous system is to mobilize the body for action:  the slogan often used for it is fight-or-flight. The function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to put the body in a state conducive to rest, regeneration, digestion, and reproduction:  it is sometimes described using the slogans "rest and digest" or "feed and breed".  Both branches use acetylcholine, but in different ways.

text: The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: controls a wide range of involuntary and unconscious body functions.  Its main branches are the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: .  Broadly speaking, the function of the sympathetic nervous system is to mobilize the body for action:  the slogan often used for it is

text: fight-or-flight

text: . The function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to put the body in a state conducive to rest, regeneration, digestion, and reproduction:  it is sometimes described using the slogans "rest and digest" or "feed and breed".  Both branches use acetylcholine, but in different ways.

text: The symptoms usually appear psychiatric in nature, which may confound the differential diagnosis. In many cases, this leads to the illness going undiagnosed. As the disease progresses, the symptoms become medically urgent and often include autonomic dysfunction, hypoventilation, cerebellar ataxia, hemiparesis, loss of consciousness, or catatonia. During this acute phase, most patients require treatment in an intensive care unit to stabilize breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Loss of feeling in one side of the body can be a symptom. One distinguishing characteristic of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is the concurrent presence of many of the above listed symptoms. The majority of patients experience at least four symptoms, with many experiencing six or seven over the course of the disease.

text: The symptoms usually appear psychiatric in nature, which may confound the differential diagnosis. In many cases, this leads to the illness going undiagnosed. As the disease progresses, the symptoms become medically urgent and often include

text: autonomic dysfunction

text: hypoventilation

text: cerebellar ataxia

text: hemiparesis

text: , loss of consciousness, or

text: catatonia

text: . During this acute phase, most patients require treatment in an intensive care unit to stabilize breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Loss of feeling in one side of the body can be a symptom. One distinguishing characteristic of anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is the concurrent presence of many of the above listed symptoms. The majority of patients experience at least four symptoms, with many experiencing six or seven over the course of the disease.

text: Loss of myelin in the central nervous system is considered to be a main pathogenic factor. Research uses animal models carrying the underlying mutation for Niemann–Pick disease, e.g. a mutation in the NPC1 gene as seen in Niemann-Pick type C disease. In this model, the expression of myelin gene regulatory factor (MRF) has been shown to be significantly decreased. MRF is a transcription factor of critical importance in the development and maintenance of myelin sheaths. A perturbation of oligodendrocyte maturation and the myelination process might, therefore, be an underlying mechanism of the neurological deficits.

text: Loss of

text: myelin

text: in the central nervous system is considered to be a main pathogenic factor. Research uses animal models carrying the underlying mutation for Niemann–Pick disease, e.g. a mutation in the NPC1 gene as seen in Niemann-Pick type C disease. In this model, the expression of

text: myelin gene regulatory factor

text: (MRF) has been shown to be significantly decreased. MRF is a

text: transcription factor

text: of critical importance in the development and maintenance of

text: myelin sheath

text: s. A perturbation of oligodendrocyte maturation and the myelination process might, therefore, be an underlying mechanism of the neurological deficits.

text: The genetic conditions ataxia telangiectasia and Niemann Pick disease type C, as well as cerebellar essential tremor, involve the progressive loss of Purkinje cells.In Alzheimer's disease, spinal pathology is sometimes seen, as well as loss of dendritic branches of the Purkinje cells. Purkinje cells can also be damaged by the rabies virus as it migrates from the site of infection in the periphery to the central nervous system.

text: The genetic conditions

text: ataxia telangiectasia

text: and

text: Niemann Pick disease

text: type C, as well as cerebellar

text: essential tremor

text: , involve the progressive loss of Purkinje cells.In Alzheimer's disease, spinal pathology is sometimes seen, as well as loss of dendritic branches of the Purkinje cells. Purkinje cells can also be damaged by the

text: rabies

text: virus as it migrates from the site of infection in the periphery to the central nervous system.

text: In 1934 Armstrong isolated a previously undescribed neurotropic virus found during the experimental transmission of encephalitis virus from the 1933 St. Louis epidemic from which it was differentiated and he demonstrated the virus in the central nervous system, spinal fluid, blood and urine of monkeys and in the brain and blood of mice during the experimental disease.In the majority of the monkeys there was more or less diffuse and irregular cellular infiltration of the meninges. In most animals there was a more or less pronounced swelling, edema and lymphocytic infiltration of the choroid plexus, i.e. the cellular membrane lining the intracerebral  ventricles, which led him to name the disease lymphocytic choriomeningitis.

text: In 1934 Armstrong isolated a previously undescribed neurotropic virus found during the experimental transmission of encephalitis virus from the 1933

text: St. Louis epidemic

text: from which it was differentiated and he demonstrated the virus in the central nervous system, spinal fluid, blood and urine of monkeys and in the brain and blood of mice during the experimental disease.In the majority of the monkeys there was more or less diffuse and irregular

text: cellular infiltration

text: of the

text: meninges

text: . In most animals there was a more or less pronounced swelling, edema and lymphocytic infiltration of the

text: choroid plexus

text: , i.e. the cellular membrane lining the intracerebral

text: ventricles

text: , which led him to name the disease lymphocytic choriomeningitis.

text: The Department of Neurogenetics, led by Klaus-Armin Nave, uses transgenic techniques, natural and engineered mouse mutants and the tools of molecular and cellular biology to study neural development and the pathomechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases. A major focus of their research is on neuron-glia interactions that result in the assembly of myelin in the nervous system. Neuronal processes (axons) exhibit signaling molecules that are recognized by Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes. These highly specialized glial cells wrap and electrically insulate axons in the peripheral and central nervous system, respectively. Myelin allows the fast propagation of electrical impulses, but glial cells are also required for axonal maintenance. This line of research helps us to understand the molecular mechanisms of human neurological diseases in which genetic mutations cause myelin loss and defects of motor and cognitive function.

text: The Department of Neurogenetics, led by Klaus-Armin Nave, uses transgenic techniques, natural and engineered mouse mutants and the tools of

text: molecular

text: and

text: cellular biology

text: to study neural development and the

text: pathomechanisms

text: of

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: . A major focus of their research is on

text: neuron

text: glia

text: interactions that result in the assembly of

text: myelin

text: in the

text: nervous system

text: . Neuronal processes (axons) exhibit signaling molecules that are recognized by

text: Schwann cells

text: and

text: oligodendrocytes

text: . These highly specialized glial cells wrap and electrically insulate

text: axons

text: in the

text: peripheral

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: , respectively. Myelin allows the fast propagation of electrical impulses, but glial cells are also required for axonal maintenance. This line of research helps us to understand the molecular mechanisms of

text: human neurological diseases

text: in which genetic mutations cause myelin loss and defects of

text: motor

text: and

text: cognitive function

text: A number sign (#) is used with this entry because the phenotype is caused by mutation in the gene encoding N-sulfoglucosamine sulfohydrolase (SGSH; MIM 605270). The Sanfilippo syndrome, or mucopolysaccharidosis III, is a lysosomal storage disease due to impaired degradation of heparan sulfate. MPS III includes 4 types, each due to the deficiency of a different enzyme: heparan N-sulfatase (type A); alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase (type B; MIM 252920); acetyl CoA:alpha-glucosaminide acetyltransferase (type C; MIM 252930); and N-acetylglucosamine 6-sulfatase (type D; MIM 252940). The Sanfilippo syndrome is characterized by severe central nervous system degeneration, but only mild somatic disease. Onset of clinical features usually occurs between 2 and 6 years; severe neurologic degeneration occurs in most patients between 6 and 10 years of age, and death occurs typically during the second or third decade of life. Type A has been reported to be the most severe, with earlier onset and rapid progression of symptoms and shorter survival.

text: A number sign (#) is used with this entry because the phenotype is caused by mutation in the gene encoding

text: N-sulfoglucosamine sulfohydrolase

text: (SGSH; MIM 605270). The

text: Sanfilippo syndrome

text: , or mucopolysaccharidosis III, is a

text: lysosomal storage disease

text: due to impaired degradation of

text: heparan sulfate

text: . MPS III includes 4 types, each due to the deficiency of a different enzyme: heparan N-sulfatase (type A); alpha-N-acetylglucosaminidase (type B; MIM 252920); acetyl CoA:alpha-glucosaminide acetyltransferase (type C; MIM 252930); and N-acetylglucosamine 6-sulfatase (type D; MIM 252940). The Sanfilippo syndrome is characterized by severe central nervous system degeneration, but only mild somatic disease. Onset of clinical features usually occurs between 2 and 6 years; severe neurologic degeneration occurs in most patients between 6 and 10 years of age, and death occurs typically during the second or third decade of life. Type A has been reported to be the most severe, with earlier onset and rapid progression of symptoms and shorter survival.

text: The voltage-gated potassium channel (VGKC) complex Abs are the second most commonly identified Abs in CNS Ab-mediated diseases, but the clinical spectrum and treatment responses are very different from those of the NMDAR Ab encephalitis. The clinical spectrum includes both central and peripheral nervous system disorders

text: Meningeal syphilis (as known as syphilitic aseptic meningitis or meningeal neurosyphilis) is a chronic form of syphilis infection that affects the central nervous system. Treponema pallidum, which is a spirochate bacterium, is the main cause of syphilis, which spreads drastically throughout the body and can infect all the systems of the body if not treated appropriately. The bacterium is the main cause of the onset of meningeal syphilis and other treponemal diseases, and it consists of a cytoplasmic and outer membrane that can cause a diverse array of diseases in the central nervous system and brain.

text: Meningeal syphilis (as known as syphilitic aseptic meningitis or meningeal neurosyphilis) is a chronic form of

text: syphilis

text: infection that affects the

text: central nervous system

text: Treponema pallidum

text: , which is a spirochate bacterium, is the main cause of syphilis, which spreads drastically throughout the body and can infect all the systems of the body if not treated appropriately. The

text: bacterium

text: is the main cause of the onset of meningeal syphilis and other treponemal diseases, and it consists of a cytoplasmic and

text: outer membrane

text: that can cause a diverse array of diseases in the

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: brain

text: Other forms of PH are far more common. In systemic scleroderma, the incidence has been estimated to be 8 to 12% of all patients; in rheumatoid arthritis it is rare. However, in systemic lupus erythematosus it is 4 to 14%, and in sickle cell disease, it ranges from 20 to 40%. Up to 4% of people who suffer a pulmonary embolism go on to develop chronic thromboembolic disease including pulmonary hypertension. A small percentage of patients with COPD develop pulmonary hypertension with no other disease to explain the high pressure. On the other hand, obesity-hypoventilation syndrome is very commonly associated with right heart failure due to pulmonary hypertension.

text: Other forms of PH are far more common. In

text: systemic scleroderma

text: , the incidence has been estimated to be 8 to 12% of all patients; in

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: it is rare. However, in

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: it is 4 to 14%, and in sickle cell disease, it ranges from 20 to 40%. Up to 4% of people who suffer a

text: pulmonary embolism

text: go on to develop chronic thromboembolic disease including pulmonary hypertension. A small percentage of patients with

text: COPD

text: develop pulmonary hypertension with no other disease to explain the high pressure. On the other hand,

text: obesity-hypoventilation syndrome

text: is very commonly associated with right

text: heart failure

text: due to pulmonary hypertension.

text: Patients with autoimmune encephalitis have antibodies towards synaptic proteins with neuronal functions. The antibodies are presumed to be disease causing, just like the acetylcholine receptor antibodies in myasthenia gravis.

text: Patients with autoimmune encephalitis have antibodies towards synaptic proteins with neuronal functions. The antibodies are presumed to be disease causing, just like the

text: acetylcholine receptor

text: antibodies in

text: myasthenia gravis

text: Other signs include increased urination (and accompanying increased thirst), persistent high blood pressure (due to cortisol's enhancement of epinephrine's vasoconstrictive effect) and insulin resistance (especially common with ACTH production outside the pituitary), leading to high blood sugar and insulin resistance which can lead to diabetes mellitus.  Insulin resistance is accompanied by skin changes such as acanthosis nigricans in the axilla and around the neck, as well as skin tags in the axilla. Untreated Cushing's syndrome can lead to heart disease and increased mortality. Cortisol can also exhibit mineralocorticoid activity in high concentrations, worsening the hypertension and leading to hypokalemia (common in ectopic ACTH secretion). Furthermore, excessive cortisol may lead to gastrointestinal disturbances, opportunistic infections, and impaired wound healing related to cortisol's suppression of the immune and inflammatory responses. Osteoporosis is also an issue in Cushing's syndrome since osteoblast activity is inhibited. Additionally, Cushing's syndrome may cause sore and aching joints, particularly in the hip, shoulders, and lower back.  Cushing’s syndrome includes all the causes of increased cortisol leading to the diseased state.  Cushing’s disease is a specific type of Cushing’s syndrome caused by a pituitary tumor leading to excessive production of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone). Excessive ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce high levels of cortisol, producing the disease state. Cushing's disease due to excess ACTH may also result in hyperpigmentation. This is due to Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone production as a byproduct of ACTH synthesis from Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). Alternatively, it is proposed that the high levels of ACTH, β-lipotropin, and γ-lipotropin, which contain weak MSH function, can act on the melanocortin 1 receptor. A variant of Cushing's disease can be caused by ectopic, i.e. extrapituitary, ACTH production from, for example, a small-cell lung cancer. When Cushing's syndrome is caused by an increase of cortisol at the level of the adrenal glands (via an adenoma or hyperplasia), negative feedback ultimately reduces ACTH production in the pituitary. In these cases, ACTH levels remain low and no hyperpigmentation develops.  While all Cushing’s disease gives Cushing’s syndrome, not all Cushing’s syndrome is due to Cushing’s disease.

text: Other signs include

text: increased urination

text: (and accompanying

text: increased thirst

text: ), persistent

text: high blood pressure

text: (due to cortisol's enhancement of

text: epinephrine

text: 's vasoconstrictive effect) and

text: insulin resistance

text: (especially common with ACTH production outside the pituitary), leading to

text: high blood sugar

text: and insulin resistance which can lead to

text: diabetes mellitus

text: .  Insulin resistance is accompanied by skin changes such as

text: acanthosis nigricans

text: in the

text: axilla

text: and around the neck, as well as

text: skin tag

text: s in the axilla. Untreated Cushing's syndrome can lead to

text: heart disease

text: and increased

text: mortality

text: . Cortisol can also exhibit

text: mineralocorticoid

text: activity in high concentrations, worsening the hypertension and leading to

text: hypokalemia

text: (common in ectopic ACTH secretion). Furthermore, excessive cortisol may lead to

text: gastrointestinal

text: disturbances, opportunistic infections, and impaired wound healing related to cortisol's suppression of the immune and inflammatory responses.

text: Osteoporosis

text: is also an issue in Cushing's syndrome since osteoblast activity is inhibited. Additionally, Cushing's syndrome may cause sore and aching joints, particularly in the hip, shoulders, and lower back.  Cushing’s syndrome includes all the causes of increased cortisol leading to the diseased state.  Cushing’s disease is a specific type of Cushing’s syndrome caused by a pituitary tumor leading to excessive production of

text: ACTH

text: (adrenocorticotropic hormone). Excessive ACTH stimulates the

text: adrenal cortex

text: to produce high levels of cortisol, producing the disease state. Cushing's disease due to excess

text: ACTH

text: may also result in

text: hyperpigmentation

text: . This is due to

text: Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone

text: production as a byproduct of ACTH synthesis from Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). Alternatively, it is proposed that the high levels of ACTH,

text: β-lipotropin

text: , and

text: γ-lipotropin

text: , which contain weak MSH function, can act on the

text: melanocortin 1 receptor

text: . A variant of Cushing's disease can be caused by ectopic, i.e. extrapituitary, ACTH production from, for example, a small-cell lung cancer. When Cushing's syndrome is caused by an increase of cortisol at the level of the adrenal glands (via an adenoma or hyperplasia), negative feedback ultimately reduces ACTH production in the pituitary. In these cases, ACTH levels remain low and no hyperpigmentation develops.  While all Cushing’s disease gives Cushing’s syndrome, not all Cushing’s syndrome is due to Cushing’s disease.

text: There is as yet no vaccine against dementia. It has been theorized that a vaccine could activate the body's own immune system to combat the beta amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease. One problem to overcome is overreaction from the immune system, leading to encephalitis.

text: There is as yet no

text: vaccine

text: against dementia. It has been theorized that a vaccine could activate the body's own

text: immune system

text: to combat the

text: beta amyloid

text: plaques in Alzheimer's disease. One problem to overcome is overreaction from the immune system, leading to

text: encephalitis

text: Dengue fever virus (DENV) is an RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae; genus Flavivirus. Other members of the same genus include yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kyasanur forest disease virus, and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus. Most are transmitted by arthropods (mosquitoes or ticks), and are therefore also referred to as arboviruses (arthropod-borne viruses).

text: Dengue fever virus (DENV) is an

text: RNA virus

text: of the family

text: Flaviviridae

text: ; genus

text: Flavivirus

text: . Other members of the same genus include

text: yellow fever virus

text: West Nile virus

text: St. Louis encephalitis virus

text: Japanese encephalitis virus

text: tick-borne encephalitis virus

text: Kyasanur forest disease virus

text: , and

text: Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus

text: . Most are transmitted by

text: arthropod

text: s (mosquitoes or

text: tick

text: s), and are therefore also referred to as

text: arbovirus

text: es (arthropod-borne viruses).

text: Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia. In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system. The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal organs, including the stomach.

text: Nervous tissue

text: is composed of many nerve cells known as

text: neuron

text: s which transmit information. In some slow-moving

text: radially symmetrical

text: marine animals such as

text: ctenophore

text: s and

text: cnidarian

text: s (including

text: sea anemone

text: s and

text: jellyfish

text: ), the nerves form a

text: nerve net

text: , but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as

text: chemoreceptor

text: s and

text: photoreceptors

text: are found in groups and send messages along

text: neural networks

text: to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in

text: ganglia

text: . In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a

text: central nervous system

text: (brain and spinal cord) and a

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . The latter consists of

text: sensory nerves

text: that transmit information from sense organs and

text: motor nerves

text: that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the

text: somatic nervous system

text: which conveys sensation and controls

text: voluntary muscle

text: , and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: which involuntarily controls

text: smooth muscle

text: , certain glands and internal organs, including the

text: stomach

text: Pericytes play a crucial role in the formation and functionality of the selectively permeable space between the circulatory system and central nervous system. This space is known as the blood–brain barrier. This barrier is composed of endothelial cells and assures the protection and functionality of the brain and central nervous system. Although it had been theorized that astrocytes were crucial to the postnatal formation of this barrier, it has been found that pericytes are now largely responsible for this role. Pericytes are responsible for tight junction formation and vesicle trafficking amongst endothelial cells. Furthermore, they allow the formation of the blood–brain barrier by inhibiting the effects of CNS immune cells (which can damage the formation of the barrier) and by reducing the expression of molecules that increase vascular permeability.

text: Pericytes play a crucial role in the formation and functionality of the selectively permeable space between the

text: circulatory system

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: . This space is known as the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: . This barrier is composed of endothelial cells and assures the protection and functionality of the brain and central nervous system. Although it had been theorized that astrocytes were crucial to the postnatal formation of this barrier, it has been found that pericytes are now largely responsible for this role. Pericytes are responsible for

text: tight junction

text: formation and

text: vesicle trafficking

text: amongst endothelial cells. Furthermore, they allow the formation of the blood–brain barrier by inhibiting the effects of CNS

text: immune cells

text: (which can damage the formation of the barrier) and by reducing the expression of molecules that increase vascular permeability.

text: Though the disease carries the name of Joszef Balo, it was first described by Otto Marburg in 1906 Later, in 1928, Joszef Balo studied the encephalitis periaxialis concentrica in a Hungarian patient, showing also demyelination of the peripheral nervous system.

text: Though the disease carries the name of Joszef Balo, it was first described by

text: Otto Marburg

text: in 1906 Later, in 1928, Joszef Balo studied the encephalitis periaxialis concentrica in a Hungarian patient, showing also demyelination of the peripheral nervous system.

text: Developmental delays of the brain and nervous system are also common in both types I and II of the disease. 50% of people with Opitz G/BBB Syndrome will experience developmental delay and mild intellectual disability. This can impact motor skills, speech and learning capabilities. Some of these instances are likened to autistic spectrum disorders. Close to half of the people with Opitz G/BBB Syndrome also have a cleft lip (hole in the lip opening) and possibly a cleft palate (hole in the roof of the mouth), as well. Less than half of the people diagnosed have heart defects, imperforate anus (obstructed anal opening), and brain defects. Of all the impairments, female carriers of X-linked Type I Opitz G/BBB Syndrome usually only have ocular hypertelorism.

text: Developmental delays of the brain and nervous system are also common in both types I and II of the disease. 50% of people with Opitz G/BBB Syndrome will experience developmental delay and mild

text: intellectual disability

text: . This can impact

text: motor skills

text: speech

text: and learning capabilities. Some of these instances are likened to

text: autistic spectrum

text: disorders. Close to half of the people with Opitz G/BBB Syndrome also have a

text: cleft lip

text: (hole in the lip opening) and possibly a

text: cleft palate

text: (hole in the roof of the mouth), as well. Less than half of the people diagnosed have

text: heart defects

text: imperforate anus

text: (obstructed anal opening), and

text: brain

text: defects

text: . Of all the impairments, female carriers of X-linked Type I Opitz G/BBB Syndrome usually only have

text: ocular hypertelorism

text: Like peripheral lymphatic vessels, the meningeal lymphatics were shown to serve both the tissue drainage and immune cell trafficking functions of the lymphatic system. First, multiphoton live imaging experiments performed on anesthetized mice demonstrated that the meningeal lymphatics are capable of draining fluorescent dyes injected intracisternally into the CSF, indicating that the meningeal lymphatics are capable of draining fluid from their surrounding environment. In addition, histological analysis revealed that the meningeal lymphatics constitutively contain T cells, B cells, and MHC class II-expressing myeloid cells, demonstrating that meningeal lymphatic vessels are capable of carrying immune cells.

text: Like peripheral lymphatic vessels, the meningeal lymphatics were shown to serve both the tissue drainage and immune cell trafficking functions of the lymphatic system. First, multiphoton live imaging experiments performed on anesthetized mice demonstrated that the meningeal lymphatics are capable of draining fluorescent dyes injected intracisternally into the CSF, indicating that the meningeal lymphatics are capable of draining fluid from their surrounding environment. In addition, histological analysis revealed that the meningeal lymphatics constitutively contain

text: T cells

text: B cells

text: , and

text: MHC class II

text: -expressing

text: myeloid

text: cells, demonstrating that meningeal lymphatic vessels are capable of carrying immune cells.

text: The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing, and serves many aspects of communication and controls various  systems and functions. The special senses consist of vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The eyes, ears, tongue, and nose gather information about the body's environment.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: consists of the

text: central nervous system

text: (the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: ) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: consists of the

text: nerves

text: and

text: ganglia

text: outside of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing, and serves many aspects of communication and controls various  systems and functions. The

text: special senses

text: consist of

text: vision

text: hearing

text: taste

text: , and

text: smell

text: . The

text: eyes

text: ear

text: s,

text: tongue

text: , and

text: nose

text: gather information about the body's environment.

text: At a more integrative level, the primary function of the nervous system is to control the body. It does this by extracting information from the environment using sensory receptors, sending signals that encode this information into the central nervous system, processing the information to determine an appropriate response, and sending output signals to muscles or glands to activate the response. The evolution of a complex nervous system has made it possible for various animal species to have advanced perception abilities such as vision, complex social interactions, rapid coordination of organ systems, and integrated processing of concurrent signals. In humans, the sophistication of the nervous system makes it possible to have language, abstract representation of concepts, transmission of culture, and many other features of human society that would not exist without the human brain.

text: Rudolf Nieuwenhuys, M.D., PhD (born 11 June 1927, Amsterdam) is a Dutch neuroanatomist, Emeritus Professor of Neuroanatomy at The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. He is recognised for his contribution to the field of comparative neuroanatomy. Professor Nieuwenhuys graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Amsterdam in 1955 and in 1960 obtained a PhD at the same institute with the dissertation Het Telencephalon der Actinopterygii. He is author of important works in neuroanatomy including The Central Nervous System Of The Vertebrates and The Human Central Nervous System.

text: Rudolf Nieuwenhuys, M.D., PhD (born 11 June 1927,

text: Amsterdam

text: ) is a Dutch neuroanatomist, Emeritus Professor of Neuroanatomy at The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. He is recognised for his contribution to the field of comparative neuroanatomy. Professor Nieuwenhuys graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Amsterdam in 1955 and in 1960 obtained a PhD at the same institute with the dissertation Het Telencephalon der Actinopterygii. He is author of important works in neuroanatomy including The Central Nervous System Of The Vertebrates and The Human Central Nervous System.

text: In the natural host, the virus exhibits pathogenesis similar to that of herpes simplex virus (HSV) in humans. Conversely, when humans are zoonotically infected with B virus, patients can present with severe central nervous system disease, resulting in permanent neurological dysfunction or death. Severity of the disease increases for untreated patients, with a case fatality rate of approximately 80%. Early diagnosis and subsequent treatment are crucial to human survival of the infection.

text: In the natural host, the

text: virus

text: exhibits

text: pathogenesis

text: similar to that of

text: herpes simplex virus

text: (HSV) in humans. Conversely, when humans are

text: zoonotic

text: ally infected with B virus, patients can present with severe

text: central nervous system

text: disease, resulting in permanent neurological dysfunction or death. Severity of the disease increases for untreated patients, with a

text: case fatality rate

text: of approximately 80%. Early diagnosis and subsequent treatment are crucial to human survival of the infection.

text: Alternatively, a condition might first be detected through the presence of abnormalities in mental functioning, and further assessment may indicate an underlying neurological disorder. There are sometimes unclear boundaries in the distinction between disorders treated within neurology, and mental disorders treated within the other medical specialty of psychiatry, or other mental health professions such as clinical psychology. In practice, cases may present as one type but be assessed as more appropriate to the other. Neuropsychiatry deals with mental disorders arising from specific identified diseases of the nervous system.

text: Alternatively, a condition might first be detected through the presence of abnormalities in mental functioning, and further assessment may indicate an underlying neurological disorder. There are sometimes unclear boundaries in the distinction between disorders treated within neurology, and

text: mental disorders

text: treated within the other medical specialty of

text: psychiatry

text: , or other

text: mental health professions

text: such as

text: clinical psychology

text: . In practice, cases may present as one type but be assessed as more appropriate to the other.

text: Neuropsychiatry

text: deals with

text: mental disorders

text: arising from specific identified diseases of the nervous system.

text: For those studying neural based diseases, NAAG is one of the three most prevalent neurotransmitters found in the central nervous system and when it catylizes the reaction to produce glutamate it is also producing another neurotransmitter. Glutamate is a common and abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; however, if there is too much glutamate transmission, this can kill or at least damage neurons and has been implicated in many neurological diseases and disorders therefore the balance that NAAG peptidase contributes to is quite important.

text: Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either small surgical biopsies or whole-body autopsies. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of anatomic pathology, neurology, and neurosurgery. It should not be confused with neuropathy, which refers to disorders of the nerves themselves (usually in the peripheral nervous system).

text: Neuropathology is the study of

text: disease

text: of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either small surgical biopsies or whole-body autopsies. Neuropathology is a subspecialty of

text: anatomic pathology

text: neurology

text: , and

text: neurosurgery

text: . It should not be confused with

text: neuropathy

text: , which refers to disorders of the nerves themselves (usually in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: Negative effects of synergy are a form of contraindication.  For example, a combination of depressant drugs that affect the central nervous system (CNS), such as alcohol and Valium, can cause a greater reaction than simply the sum of the individual effects of each drug if they were used separately. In this particular case, the most serious consequence of drug synergy is exaggerated respiratory depression, which can be fatal if left untreated.  Mixing drugs can produce potentially fatal reactions within the brain, such as serotonin syndrome, due to synergistic reactions changing chemical and receptor activity.  In the case of Monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) medications, mainly used as last-straw antidepressants, mixing certain foods and drugs may cause hypertension or hyperserotonemia.

text: Negative effects of synergy are a form of

text: contraindication

text: .  For example, a combination of

text: depressant drug

text: s that affect the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), such as

text: alcohol

text: and

text: Valium

text: , can cause a greater reaction than simply the sum of the individual effects of each drug if they were used separately. In this particular case, the most serious consequence of drug synergy is exaggerated

text: respiratory depression

text: , which can be fatal if left untreated.  Mixing drugs can produce potentially fatal reactions within the brain, such as serotonin syndrome, due to synergistic reactions changing chemical and receptor activity.  In the case of

text: Monoamine oxidase inhibitor

text: MAOI

text: ) medications, mainly used as last-straw antidepressants, mixing certain foods and drugs may cause

text: hypertension

text: or

text: hyperserotonemia

text: In the essay "Bligh's Bounty", Stephen Jay Gould noted that if one looks at vertebrates with very low encephalization quotient, their brains are slightly less massive than their spinal cords. Theoretically, intelligence might correlate with the absolute amount of brain an animal has after subtracting the weight of the spinal cord from the brain. This formula is useless for invertebrates because they do not have spinal cords, or in some cases, central nervous systems.

text: In the essay "Bligh's Bounty",

text: Stephen Jay Gould

text: noted that if one looks at vertebrates with very low encephalization quotient, their brains are slightly less massive than their spinal cords. Theoretically, intelligence might correlate with the absolute amount of brain an animal has after subtracting the weight of the spinal cord from the brain. This formula is useless for invertebrates because they do not have spinal cords, or in some cases, central nervous systems.

text: How do axons and dendrites form during development? How do axons know where to target and how to reach these targets? How do neurons migrate to the proper position in the central and peripheral systems?  How do synapses form? We know from molecular biology that distinct parts of the nervous system release distinct chemical cues, from growth factors to hormones that modulate and influence the growth and development of functional connections between neurons.

text: How do

text: axons

text: and

text: dendrites

text: form during development? How do axons know where to target and how to reach these targets? How do neurons migrate to the proper position in the central and peripheral systems?  How do synapses form? We know from

text: molecular biology

text: that distinct parts of the nervous system release distinct chemical cues, from

text: growth factors

text: to

text: hormones

text: that modulate and influence the growth and development of functional connections between neurons.

text: Syphilis is a disease classified in a category of Treponemal disease. This group includes diseases like pinta, yaws, endemic syphilis and venereal syphilis. These diseases have symptoms that include inflammatory changes in tissues throughout the body. Initially the infected person may notice an area of inflammation at the site where the bacteria entered the body. Then the individual can expect more widespread soft tissue changes and lastly the diseases start to affect the bones. However, Only 10-20 percent of people infected with venereal syphilis show bone changes. Venereal syphilis has more severe symptoms than the other types of treponemal disease. Nervous system and circulatory disruption are unique to venereal syphilis and are not seen in yaws, endemic syphilis or pinta.

text: Syphilis is a disease classified in a category of

text: Treponemal disease

text: . This group includes diseases like pinta, yaws, endemic syphilis and venereal syphilis. These diseases have symptoms that include inflammatory changes in tissues throughout the body. Initially the infected person may notice an area of inflammation at the site where the bacteria entered the body. Then the individual can expect more widespread soft tissue changes and lastly the diseases start to affect the bones. However, Only 10-20 percent of people infected with venereal syphilis show bone changes. Venereal syphilis has more severe symptoms than the other types of treponemal disease. Nervous system and circulatory disruption are unique to venereal syphilis and are not seen in yaws, endemic syphilis or pinta.

text: Flavivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. This genus includes the West Nile virus, dengue virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, yellow fever virus, Zika virus and several other viruses which may cause encephalitis, as well as insect-specific flaviviruses (ISFs) such as cell fusing agent virus (CFAV), Palm Creek virus (PCV), and Parramatta River virus (PaRV).

text: Flavivirus is a genus of viruses in the family

text: Flaviviridae

text: . This genus includes the

text: West Nile virus

text: dengue virus

text: tick-borne encephalitis virus

text: yellow fever virus

text: Zika virus

text: and several other

text: virus

text: es which may cause

text: encephalitis

text: , as well as insect-specific flaviviruses (ISFs) such as cell fusing agent virus (CFAV),

text: Palm Creek virus

text: (PCV), and

text: Parramatta River virus

text: (PaRV).

text: Calcineurin inhibitors are prescribed for adult rheumatoid arthritis (RA) as a single drug or in combination with methotrexate. The microemulsion formulation is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for treatment of severely active RA. It is also prescribed for: psoriatic arthritis, psoriasis, acute ocular Behçet’s disease, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, adult and juvenile polymyositis and dermatomyositis, adult and juvenile systemic lupus erythematosus, adult lupus membranous nephritis, systemic sclerosis, aplastic anemia, steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome, atopic dermatitis, severe corticosteroid-dependent asthma, severe ulcerative colitis, pemphigus vulgaris, myasthenia gravis, and dry eye disease, with or without Sjögren's syndrome (administered as ophthalmic emulsion).

text: Calcineurin inhibitors are prescribed for adult

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: (RA) as a single drug or in combination with methotrexate. The microemulsion formulation is approved by the U.S.

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: for treatment of severely active RA. It is also prescribed for:

text: psoriatic arthritis

text: psoriasis

text: , acute ocular

text: Behçet’s disease

text: juvenile idiopathic arthritis

text: , adult and juvenile

text: polymyositis

text: and

text: dermatomyositis

text: , adult and juvenile

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: , adult lupus

text: membranous nephritis

text: systemic sclerosis

text: aplastic anemia

text: , steroid-resistant

text: nephrotic syndrome

text: atopic dermatitis

text: , severe corticosteroid-dependent

text: asthma

text: , severe

text: ulcerative colitis

text: pemphigus vulgaris

text: myasthenia gravis

text: , and

text: dry eye disease

text: , with or without

text: Sjögren's syndrome

text: (administered as ophthalmic emulsion).

text: Cockayne was particularly interested in endocrinology, and rare, genetic diseases of children. In 1946 he recognized a disease that would be named after him, called Cockayne's syndrome. This is a rare multisystem disorder characterized by dwarfism, pigmentary retinopathy, impaired nervous system development, and facial abnormalities. This disease has since been divided into three subtypes:

text: Cockayne was particularly interested in

text: endocrinology

text: , and rare, genetic diseases of children. In 1946 he recognized a disease that would be named after him, called

text: Cockayne's syndrome

text: . This is a rare multisystem disorder characterized by

text: dwarfism

text: , pigmentary

text: retinopathy

text: , impaired

text: nervous system

text: development, and facial abnormalities. This disease has since been divided into three subtypes:

text: Tuberculous meningitis is also known as TB meningitis or tubercular meningitis.  Tuberculous meningitis is Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of the meninges—the system of membranes which envelop the central nervous system.

text: Tuberculous meningitis is also known as TB meningitis or tubercular meningitis.  Tuberculous

text: meningitis

text: is

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: infection of the

text: meninges

text: —the system of

text: membrane

text: s which envelop the

text: central nervous system

text: The study of the nervous system dates back to ancient Egypt but only in the ninetieth century it became more detailed. With the invention of the microscope and a technique of staining developed by Camillo Golgi, it was possible to study individual neurons. This scientist started to impregnate nervous tissue with metal, as silver. The reaction consists in fixing particles of silver chromate to the neurilemma, and resulted in a stark black deposit in the soma, axon and dendrites of the neuron. Thus, it was possible to identify different types of neurons, as Golgi Cell, Golgi I and Golgi II.In 1885 there was a German medical researcher called Franz Nissl who developed another staining technique now known by Nissl staining. This technique is slightly different from Golgi staining since it stains the cell body and the endoplasmic reticulum.In 1887, a Spanish scientist called Santiago Ramon y Cajal learned the staining technique with Golgi and started his famous work of neuroanatomy.  With this technique he made an extensive study of several areas of the brain and in different species. He also described very precisely the purkinje cells, the chick cerebellum and the neuronal circuit of the rodent hippocampus.In 1941 Dr. Albert Coons used for the first time a revolutionary technique that uses the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in the tissues. He created an immunoflorescent technique for labelling the antibodies.  This technique continues to be widely used in neuroscience studies for identifying different structures. The most important neural markers used nowadays are the GFAB, Nestin, NeuroD antibodies and others. For the past years there are still creating new neural markers for immunocytochemistry or/and immunohistochemistry.In 1953 Heinrich Klüver invented a new staining technique called, Luxol Fast Blue stain or LFB, and with this technique it’s possible to detect demyelination in the central nervous system. Myelin sheath will be stained blue, but other structures will be stained as well.The next revolutionary technique was invented in 1969 by an American scientist called Joseph G. Gall. This technique is called in situ Hybridization and it is used in a large variety of studies but mainly used in developmental biology. With this technique it is possible to mark some genes expressed in determined areas of the animal. In neurobiology, it's very useful for understanding the formation of the nervous system.

text: The study of the nervous system dates back to ancient Egypt but only in the ninetieth century it became more detailed. With the invention of the microscope and a technique of staining developed by

text: Camillo Golgi

text: , it was possible to study individual neurons. This scientist started to impregnate nervous tissue with metal, as silver. The reaction consists in fixing particles of silver chromate to the

text: neurilemma

text: , and resulted in a stark black deposit in the soma, axon and dendrites of the neuron. Thus, it was possible to identify different types of neurons, as

text: Golgi Cell

text: Golgi I

text: and

text: Golgi II

text: .In 1885 there was a German medical researcher called

text: Franz Nissl

text: who developed another staining technique now known by

text: Nissl staining

text: . This technique is slightly different from Golgi staining since it stains the cell body and the endoplasmic reticulum.In 1887, a Spanish scientist called

text: Santiago Ramon y Cajal

text: learned the staining technique with Golgi and started his famous work of

text: neuroanatomy

text: .  With this technique he made an extensive study of several areas of the brain and in different species. He also described very precisely the

text: purkinje cells

text: , the chick

text: cerebellum

text: and the neuronal circuit of the rodent

text: hippocampus

text: .In 1941 Dr.

text: Albert Coons

text: used for the first time a revolutionary technique that uses the principle of

text: antibodies

text: binding specifically to

text: antigens

text: in the tissues. He created an immunoflorescent technique for labelling the antibodies.  This technique continues to be widely used in neuroscience studies for identifying different structures. The most important neural markers used nowadays are the GFAB, Nestin,

text: NeuroD

text: antibodies and others. For the past years there are still creating new neural markers for

text: immunocytochemistry

text: or/and

text: immunohistochemistry

text: .In 1953

text: Heinrich Klüver

text: invented a new staining technique called,

text: Luxol Fast Blue stain

text: or LFB, and with this technique it’s possible to detect

text: demyelination

text: in the central nervous system.

text: Myelin sheath

text: will be stained blue, but other structures will be

text: stained

text: as well.The next revolutionary technique was invented in 1969 by an American scientist called

text: Joseph G. Gall

text: . This technique is called

text: in situ Hybridization

text: and it is used in a large variety of studies but mainly used in developmental biology. With this technique it is possible to mark some genes expressed in determined areas of the animal. In

text: neurobiology

text: , it's very useful for understanding the formation of the nervous system.

text: Parseghian, who is married to the former Kathleen Davis, also became involved with medical causes later in life. Along with Mike and Cindy Parseghian, his son and daughter-in-law, he founded the Ara Parseghian Medical Research Foundation in 1994. The foundation is seeking a cure for Niemann-Pick disease Type C, a genetic disorder affecting children that causes the buildup of cholesterol in cells, resulting in damage to the nervous system and eventually death. Three of his grandchildren, Michael, Marcia, and Christa Parseghian, died from the disease. He is also active in the cause to find a cure for multiple sclerosis; his daughter Karan was diagnosed with the disease.

text: Parseghian, who is married to the former Kathleen Davis, also became involved with medical causes later in life. Along with Mike and Cindy Parseghian, his son and daughter-in-law, he founded the Ara Parseghian Medical Research Foundation in 1994. The foundation is seeking a cure for

text: Niemann-Pick disease

text: Type C, a genetic disorder affecting children that causes the buildup of cholesterol in cells, resulting in damage to the nervous system and eventually death. Three of his grandchildren, Michael, Marcia, and Christa Parseghian, died from the disease. He is also active in the cause to find a cure for multiple sclerosis; his daughter Karan was diagnosed with the disease.

text: There are several diagnostic tools which have become invaluable to diagnosing viral infections of the nervous system. In the past, more invasive methods of obtaining samples for diagnosis were needed such as the use of brain biopsy. Now, with the advancement of technology, less invasive means are used more frequently, such as Neuroimaging and the analysis of Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

text: There are several diagnostic tools which have become invaluable to diagnosing viral infections of the nervous system. In the past, more invasive methods of obtaining samples for diagnosis were needed such as the use of

text: brain biopsy

text: . Now, with the advancement of technology, less invasive means are used more frequently, such as

text: Neuroimaging

text: and the analysis of

text: Cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF).

text: Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) is a late onset neurodegenerative disorder associated with problems of movement, memory, and the autonomic nervous system. It is related to the disease fragile X syndrome, although FXTAS is a clinically distinct syndrome. In fragile X syndrome (FXS),the fragile X mental retardation 1 gene, FMR1, is silenced; in FXTAS FMR1 is overexpressed and interferes with brain function.

text: Fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS) is a late onset neurodegenerative disorder associated with problems of movement, memory, and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . It is related to the disease

text: fragile X syndrome

text: , although FXTAS is a clinically distinct syndrome. In

text: fragile X syndrome

text: (FXS),the fragile X mental retardation 1 gene,

text: , is silenced; in FXTAS

text: is overexpressed and interferes with brain function.

text: A type of taeniasis called cysticercosis is caused by accidental infection with the eggs of T. solium from contaminated food and water. It is known as the most pathogenic form caused by tapeworms. A specific form of cysticercosis called neurocysticercosis is said to be the most common infection of the central nervous system.

text: A type of taeniasis called

text: cysticercosis

text: is caused by accidental infection with the eggs of T. solium from contaminated food and water. It is known as the most

text: pathogenic

text: form caused by tapeworms. A specific form of cysticercosis called

text: neurocysticercosis

text: is said to be the most common infection of the

text: central nervous system

text: Nervous system injuries affect over 90,000 people every year. It is estimated that spinal cord injuries alone affect 10,000 each year. As a result of this high incidence of neurological injuries, nerve regeneration and repair, a subfield of neural tissue engineering, is becoming a rapidly growing field dedicated to the discovery of new ways to recover nerve functionality after injury. The nervous system is divided into two parts: the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which consists of cranial and spinal nerves along with their associated ganglia. While the peripheral nervous system has an intrinsic ability for repair and regeneration, the central nervous system is, for the most part, incapable of self-repair and regeneration. There is currently no treatment for recovering human nerve function after injury to the central nervous system. In addition, multiple attempts at nerve re-growth across the PNS-CNS transition have not been successful. There is simply not enough knowledge about regeneration in the central nervous system. In addition, although the peripheral nervous system has the capability for regeneration, much research still needs to be done to optimize the environment for maximum regrowth potential. Neuroregeneration is important clinically, as it is part of the pathogenesis of many diseases, including multiple sclerosis.

text: Nervous system injuries

text: affect over 90,000 people every year. It is estimated that

text: spinal cord injuries

text: alone affect 10,000 each year. As a result of this high incidence of neurological injuries, nerve

text: regeneration

text: and repair, a subfield of

text: neural tissue engineering

text: , is becoming a rapidly growing field dedicated to the discovery of new ways to recover nerve functionality after injury. The nervous system is divided into two parts: the

text: central nervous system

text: , which consists of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: , and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , which consists of

text: cranial

text: and

text: spinal nerve

text: s along with their associated

text: ganglia

text: . While the peripheral nervous system has an intrinsic ability for repair and regeneration, the central nervous system is, for the most part, incapable of self-repair and regeneration. There is currently no treatment for recovering human nerve function after injury to the central nervous system. In addition, multiple attempts at nerve re-growth across the PNS-CNS transition have not been successful. There is simply not enough knowledge about regeneration in the central nervous system. In addition, although the peripheral nervous system has the capability for regeneration, much research still needs to be done to optimize the environment for maximum regrowth potential. Neuroregeneration is important clinically, as it is part of the

text: pathogenesis

text: of many diseases, including

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Meningitis is the inflammation of the pia and arachnoid mater. This is often due to bacteria that have entered the subarachnoid space, but can also be caused by viruses, fungi, as well as non-infectious causes such as certain drugs.  It is believed that bacterial meningitis is caused by bacteria that enter the central nervous system through the blood stream.  The molecular tools these pathogens would require to cross the meningeal layers and the blood–brain barrier are not yet well understood.  Inside the subarachnoid, bacteria replicate and cause inflammation from released toxins such as hydrogen peroxide (HO) . These toxins have been found to damage the mitochondria and produce a large scale immune response.  Headache and meningismus are often signs of inflammation relayed via trigeminal sensory nerve fibers within the pia mater.  Disabling neuropsychological effects are seen in up to half of bacterial meningitis survivors.  Research into how bacteria invade and enter the meningeal layers is the next step in prevention of the progression of meningitis.

text: Meningitis is the inflammation of the pia and arachnoid mater. This is often due to bacteria that have entered the subarachnoid space, but can also be caused by viruses, fungi, as well as non-infectious causes such as certain drugs.  It is believed that bacterial meningitis is caused by bacteria that enter the central nervous system through the blood stream.  The molecular tools these pathogens would require to cross the meningeal layers and the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: are not yet well understood.  Inside the subarachnoid, bacteria replicate and cause inflammation from released toxins such as

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: (HO) . These toxins have been found to damage the

text: mitochondria

text: and produce a large scale immune response.  Headache and

text: meningism

text: us are often signs of inflammation relayed via trigeminal sensory nerve fibers within the pia mater.  Disabling neuropsychological effects are seen in up to half of bacterial meningitis survivors.  Research into how bacteria invade and enter the meningeal layers is the next step in prevention of the progression of meningitis.

text: The tertiary stage is known as the final stage of syphilis or "late" syphilis. This deadly stage starts after three years of exposure and infection to syphilis. Typically, the person is no longer contagious with the disease, but the gram-negative bacteria in the body can reactivate, reproduce, multiply, and spread drastically throughout the body. At this point, the infection spreads to all the systems in the human body, including the nervous system, bones, eyes, and heart. Neurosyphilis at this point can cause several damages to the body, including tabes dorsalis. When the nervous system is infected at this particular stage, the individual is at risk for meningeal syphilis, which in turn slowly shuts down the entire body. The tertiary stages can also cause the growth of many tumors, and lead to cancerous affects in the body. This stage can be diagnosed through specific tests in serology. The nonspecific tests may be negative. At this point, there is little treatment the individual can pursue, and the body shuts down as a whole.

text: The tertiary stage is known as the final stage of syphilis or "late" syphilis. This deadly stage starts after three years of exposure and infection to syphilis. Typically, the person is no longer contagious with the disease, but the gram-negative bacteria in the body can reactivate, reproduce, multiply, and spread drastically throughout the body. At this point, the infection spreads to all the systems in the human body, including the nervous system, bones, eyes, and heart. Neurosyphilis at this point can cause several damages to the body, including

text: tabes dorsalis

text: . When the nervous system is infected at this particular stage, the individual is at risk for meningeal syphilis, which in turn slowly shuts down the entire body. The tertiary stages can also cause the growth of many

text: tumors

text: , and lead to cancerous affects in the body. This stage can be diagnosed through specific tests in

text: serology

text: . The nonspecific tests may be negative. At this point, there is little treatment the individual can pursue, and the body shuts down as a whole.

text: The nervous system is the system of neurons, or nerve cells, that relay electrical signals through the brain and body. A nerve cell receives signals from other nerve cells through tree-branch-like extensions called dendrites and passes signals on through a long extension called an axon (or nerve fiber). Synapses are places where one cell's axon passes information to another cell's dendrite by sending chemicals called neurotransmitters across a small gap called a synaptic cleft. Synapses occur in various locations, including ganglia (singular: ganglion), which are masses of nerve cell bodies.   Preganglionic nerve cells in the sympathetic nervous system (all of which come from the lateral grey column), use the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, while postganglionic sympathetic nerve cells use norepinephrine. Grey matter in the brain and spinal cord is any accumulation of cell bodies and neuropil (neuropil is tissue rich in nerve cell bodies and dendrites).  White matter consists of axon tracts (groups of axons) and commissures (axon tracts that cross the brain's midline).

text: The

text: nervous system

text: is the system of

text: neurons

text: , or nerve cells, that relay electrical signals through the brain and body. A nerve cell receives signals from other nerve cells through tree-branch-like extensions called

text: dendrites

text: and passes signals on through a long extension called an

text: axon

text: (or nerve fiber).

text: Synapses

text: are places where one cell's axon passes information to another cell's dendrite by sending chemicals called

text: neurotransmitters

text: across a small gap called a

text: synaptic cleft

text: . Synapses occur in various locations, including

text: ganglia

text: (singular: ganglion), which are masses of nerve cell bodies.   Preganglionic nerve cells in the sympathetic nervous system (all of which come from the lateral grey column), use the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: , while postganglionic sympathetic nerve cells use

text: norepinephrine

text: Grey matter

text: in the brain and spinal cord is any accumulation of cell bodies and

text: neuropil

text: (neuropil is tissue rich in nerve cell bodies and dendrites).

text: White matter

text: consists of axon tracts (groups of axons) and

text: commissures

text: (axon tracts that cross the brain's midline).

text: The following twelve viruses have been linked to disease in humans: Alenquer virus, Bhanja virus, Candiru virus, Chagres virus, Naples virus, Punta Toro virus, Rift Valley fever, Sicilian virus, Toscana virus, Uukuniemi virus, Heartland virus (the first tick-borne phlebovirus known to cause disease in the Western Hemisphere, discovered in 2009), and the Sandfly Turkey virus (discovered in China in 2011).They cause symptoms ranging from short self-limiting fevers, such as pappataci fever, to encephalitis and fatal haemorrhagic fever.

text: The following twelve viruses have been linked to disease in humans:

text: Alenquer virus

text: Bhanja virus

text: Candiru virus

text: Chagres virus

text: Naples virus

text: Punta Toro virus

text: Rift Valley fever

text: Sicilian virus

text: Toscana virus

text: Uukuniemi virus

text: Heartland virus

text: (the first tick-borne phlebovirus known to cause disease in the Western Hemisphere, discovered in 2009), and the

text: Sandfly Turkey virus

text: (discovered in China in 2011).They cause symptoms ranging from short self-limiting fevers, such as

text: pappataci fever

text: , to

text: encephalitis

text: and fatal

text: haemorrhagic fever

text: The nervous system can be described as a control system that interconnects the other body systems. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, and other nerve tissues throughout the body. The system's primary function is to react to internal and external stimuli in the human body. It uses electrical and chemical signals to send out responses to different parts of the body, and it is made up of the nerve cells also called neurons. Through the system, messages are transmitted to body tissues such as a muscle. There are two major subdivisions in the nervous system known as the central and peripheral nervous system.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: can be described as a control system that interconnects the other body systems. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, and other nerve tissues throughout the body. The system's primary function is to react to internal and external stimuli in the human body. It uses electrical and chemical signals to send out responses to different parts of the body, and it is made up of the nerve cells also called neurons. Through the system, messages are transmitted to body tissues such as a muscle. There are two major subdivisions in the nervous system known as the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors have a more complex mechanism, and affect target cells over a longer time frame. In mammals, five subtypes of muscarinic receptors have been identified, labeled M1 through M5. All of them function as G protein-coupled receptors, meaning that they exert their effects via a second messenger system. The M1, M3, and M5 subtypes are G-coupled; they increase intracellular levels of IP and calcium by activating phospholipase C.  Their effect on target cells is usually excitatory.  The M2 and M4 subtypes are G/G-coupled; they decrease intracellular levels of cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase.  Their effect on target cells is usually inhibitory.  Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are found in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system of the heart, lungs, upper gastrointestinal tract, and sweat glands.

text: Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor

text: s have a more complex mechanism, and affect target cells over a longer time frame. In mammals, five subtypes of muscarinic receptors have been identified, labeled M1 through M5. All of them function as

text: G protein-coupled receptor

text: s, meaning that they exert their effects via a

text: second messenger system

text: . The M1, M3, and M5 subtypes are

text: G

text: -coupled; they increase intracellular levels of

text: IP

text: and

text: calcium

text: by activating

text: phospholipase C

text: .  Their effect on target cells is usually excitatory.  The M2 and M4 subtypes are

text: G/G

text: -coupled; they decrease intracellular levels of

text: cAMP

text: by inhibiting

text: adenylate cyclase

text: .  Their effect on target cells is usually inhibitory.  Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are found in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system of the heart, lungs, upper gastrointestinal tract, and sweat glands.

text: Messages that the body uses to influence thoughts, senses, movements, and survival are directed by nerve impulses transmitted across brain tissue and to the rest of the body.  Neurons are the basic functional unit of the nervous system and are highly specialized cells that are capable of sending these signals that operate high and low level functions needed for survival and quality of life.  Neurons have special electro-chemical properties that allow them to process information and then transmit that information to other cells.  Neuronal activity is dependent upon neural membrane potential and the changes that occur along and across it.  A constant voltage, known as the membrane potential, is normally maintained by certain concentrations of specific ions across neuronal membranes. Disruptions or variations in this voltage create an imbalance, or polarization, across the membrane.  Depolarization of the membrane past its threshold potential generates an action potential, which is the main source of signal transmission, known as neurotransmission of the nervous system.  An action potential results in a cascade of ion flux down and across an axonal membrane, creating an effective voltage spike train or "electrical signal" which can transmit further electrical changes in other cells.  Signals can be generated by electrical, chemical, magnetic, optical, and other forms of stimuli that influence the flow of charges, and thus voltage levels across neural membranes(He 2005).

text: Messages that the body uses to influence thoughts, senses, movements, and survival are directed by nerve impulses transmitted across brain tissue and to the rest of the body.

text: Neuron

text: s are the basic functional unit of the nervous system and are highly specialized cells that are capable of sending these signals that operate high and low level functions needed for survival and quality of life.  Neurons have special electro-chemical properties that allow them to process information and then transmit that information to other cells.  Neuronal activity is dependent upon neural membrane potential and the changes that occur along and across it.  A constant voltage, known as the

text: membrane potential

text: , is normally maintained by certain concentrations of specific ions across neuronal membranes. Disruptions or variations in this voltage create an imbalance, or polarization, across the membrane.

text: Depolarization

text: of the membrane past its

text: threshold potential

text: generates an action potential, which is the main source of signal transmission, known as

text: neurotransmission

text: of the nervous system.  An

text: action potential

text: results in a cascade of ion flux down and across an axonal membrane, creating an effective voltage spike train or "electrical signal" which can transmit further electrical changes in other cells.  Signals can be generated by electrical, chemical, magnetic, optical, and other forms of stimuli that influence the flow of charges, and thus voltage levels across neural membranes(He 2005).

text: Since Dayman first got involved with the meningitis cause in 1982, significant breakthroughs have been made in combating the disease. These include the development of the Hib vaccine which was introduced into the Childhood Immunisation Programme in the UK in 1992, the meningitis C vaccine in 1999, and a vaccine to protect against pneumococcal meningitis in 2006. Since its introduction, the meningitis C vaccine has reduced cases of group C disease by over 90 per cent. Estimates show that in its first year, the pneumococcal vaccine prevented over 300 cases of serious childhood illness such as pneumococcal meningitis. In January 2010 the Department of Health announced it would be introducing a new vaccine to combat pneumococcal disease to be introduced in spring 2010.

text: Since Dayman first got involved with the meningitis cause in 1982, significant breakthroughs have been made in combating the disease. These include the development of the

text: Hib vaccine

text: which was introduced into the Childhood Immunisation Programme in the UK in 1992, the meningitis C vaccine in 1999, and a vaccine to protect against

text: pneumococcal meningitis

text: in 2006. Since its introduction, the meningitis C vaccine has reduced cases of group C disease by over 90 per cent. Estimates show that in its first year, the pneumococcal vaccine prevented over 300 cases of serious childhood illness such as pneumococcal meningitis. In January 2010 the Department of Health announced it would be introducing a new vaccine to combat pneumococcal disease to be introduced in spring 2010.

text: The life cycle begins in infected meningeal tissues in the central nervous system where adult worms lay eggs. The eggs are dislodged from the central nervous system and pass into the lungs where they hatch. The larvae are then coughed up, swallowed, and proceed through the gastrointestinal tract. Snails and slugs then serve as intermediate hosts which are later eaten by ungulates allowing the process to continue. Changes in climate and habitat beginning in the early 1900s have expanded range overlap between white-tailed deer and moose, increasing the frequency of infection within the moose population. This increase in infection is a concern for wildlife managers.

text: The life cycle begins in infected

text: meningeal

text: tissues in the central nervous system where adult worms lay eggs. The eggs are dislodged from the central nervous system and pass into the lungs where they hatch. The larvae are then coughed up, swallowed, and proceed through the gastrointestinal tract. Snails and slugs then serve as intermediate hosts which are later eaten by ungulates allowing the process to continue. Changes in climate and habitat beginning in the early 1900s have expanded range overlap between white-tailed deer and moose, increasing the frequency of infection within the moose population. This increase in infection is a concern for wildlife managers.

text: Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system.  The nervous system is divided into two sub-systems: the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system.

text: Neuroscience is the study of the

text: nervous system

text: .  The nervous system is divided into two sub-systems: the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and the central nervous system.

text: The nervous system is the part of an animal's body that coordinates its actions and transmits signals to and from different parts of its body. Nervous tissue first arose in wormlike organisms about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrate species it consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or axons, that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called motor or efferent nerves, while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called sensory or afferent. Most nerves serve both functions and are called mixed nerves. The PNS is divided into a) somatic and b) autonomic nervous system, and c) the enteric nervous system. Somatic nerves mediate voluntary movement. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The enteric nervous system functions to control the gastrointestinal system. Both autonomic and enteric nervous systems function involuntarily. Nerves that exit from the cranium are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.

text: The nervous system is the part of an

text: animal

text: 's body that coordinates its actions and transmits signals to and from different parts of its body.

text: Nervous tissue

text: first arose in

text: wormlike organisms

text: about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrate species it consists of two main parts, the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). The CNS contains the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . The PNS consists mainly of

text: nerve

text: s, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or

text: axon

text: s, that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called motor or efferent nerves, while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called sensory or afferent. Most nerves serve both functions and are called mixed nerves. The PNS is divided into a) somatic and b) autonomic nervous system, and c) the enteric nervous system. Somatic nerves mediate voluntary movement. The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: is further subdivided into the

text: sympathetic

text: and the

text: parasympathetic

text: nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The

text: enteric nervous system

text: functions to control the

text: gastrointestinal

text: system. Both autonomic and enteric nervous systems function involuntarily. Nerves that exit from the cranium are called

text: cranial nerves

text: while those exiting from the spinal cord are called

text: spinal nerves

text: In about 10–20% of cases, VZV reactivates later in life, producing a disease known as shingles or herpes zoster.  VZV can also infect the central nervous system, with a 2013 article reporting an incidence rate of 1.02 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in Switzerland, and an annual incidence rate of 1.8 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in Sweden.

text: In about 10–20% of cases, VZV reactivates later in life, producing a disease known as

text: shingles or herpes zoster

text: .  VZV can also infect the central nervous system, with a 2013 article reporting an incidence rate of 1.02 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in Switzerland, and an annual incidence rate of 1.8 cases per 100,000 inhabitants in Sweden.

text: Reyes's career stalled in the 1980s as she suffered from a drinking problem and drug addiction In her later years, Reyes reportedly suffered from depression. In 2006, she accused a former live-in partner Eulogio "Mang Ely" Disonglo with domestic abuse, leading to his eventual criminal conviction for violating the Anti-Violence Against Women and Children Law.

text: During human development, ERBB3 is expressed in skin, bone, muscle, nervous system, heart, lungs, and intestinal epithelium. ERBB3 is expressed in normal adult human gastrointestinal tract, reproductive system, skin, nervous system, urinary tract, and endocrine system.

text: Research by Melnick found that the most common way that polio was spread was by fecal contamination, usually by soiled hands, and that the poliovirus could survive for extended periods in sewage. Other viruses, such as hepatitis, were also found in sewage, leading to improved purification standards. Higher levels of the polio virus were found in sewage during the summer, at the same time of year that the outbreaks of the disease were at their most severe, which John R. Paul observed "spoke loudly in favor of the idea that polio viruses circulate widely in the population and environment only during epidemic seasons". Together with Dorothy Horstmann, Melnick published the results of a study that showed that polio could be transmitted by flies, though they were not the primary vector for the disease. He was among the first to discover that the polio virus belonged to a larger class now known as the enteroviruses — a form of virus that could enter the central nervous system under certain conditions — and was among those who discovered that polio and other enteroviruses only rarely invade the central nervous system.

text: Research by Melnick found that the most common way that polio was spread was by fecal contamination, usually by soiled hands, and that the

text: poliovirus

text: could survive for extended periods in sewage. Other viruses, such as

text: hepatitis

text: , were also found in sewage, leading to improved purification standards. Higher levels of the polio virus were found in sewage during the summer, at the same time of year that the outbreaks of the disease were at their most severe, which John R. Paul observed "spoke loudly in favor of the idea that polio viruses circulate widely in the population and environment only during epidemic seasons". Together with

text: Dorothy Horstmann

text: , Melnick published the results of a study that showed that polio could be transmitted by flies, though they were not the primary vector for the disease. He was among the first to discover that the polio virus belonged to a larger class now known as the

text: enterovirus

text: es — a form of virus that could enter the

text: central nervous system

text: under certain conditions — and was among those who discovered that polio and other enteroviruses only rarely invade the central nervous system.

text: From the point of entry, the virus is neurotropic, traveling quickly along the neural pathways into the central nervous system. The virus usually first infects muscle cells close to the site of infection, where they are able to replicate without being 'noticed' by the host's immune system. Once enough virus has been replicated, they begin to bind to acetyl choline receptors (p75NR) at the neuromuscular junction. The virus then travels through the nerve cell axon via retrograde transport, as its P protein interacts with dynein, a protein present in the cytoplasm of nerve cells. Once the virus reaches the cell body it travels rapidly to the Central Nervous System (CNS), replicating in motor neurons and eventually reaching the brain. After the brain is infected, the virus travels centrifugally to the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, eventually migrating to the salivary glands, where it is ready to be transmitted to the next host.

text: From the point of entry, the virus is

text: neurotropic

text: , traveling quickly along the neural pathways into the

text: central nervous system

text: . The virus usually first infects muscle cells close to the site of infection, where they are able to replicate without being 'noticed' by the host's immune system. Once enough virus has been replicated, they begin to bind to acetyl choline receptors (p75NR) at the neuromuscular junction. The virus then travels through the nerve cell axon via retrograde transport, as its P protein interacts with dynein, a protein present in the cytoplasm of nerve cells. Once the virus reaches the cell body it travels rapidly to the Central Nervous System (CNS), replicating in motor neurons and eventually reaching the brain. After the brain is infected, the virus travels centrifugally to the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, eventually migrating to the salivary glands, where it is ready to be transmitted to the next host.

text: In the 1930s, St. Louis encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis and western equine encephalitis emerged in the US. The virus that causes La Crosse encephalitis was discovered in the 1960s, and West Nile virus arrived in New York   in 1999. As of 2010, dengue virus is the most prevalent arbovirus and increasingly virulent strains of the virus have spread across Asia and the Americas.

text: In the 1930s,

text: St. Louis encephalitis

text: eastern equine encephalitis

text: and

text: western equine encephalitis

text: emerged in the US. The virus that causes

text: La Crosse encephalitis

text: was discovered in the 1960s, and

text: West Nile virus

text: arrived in

text: New York

text: in 1999. As of 2010, dengue virus is the most prevalent arbovirus and increasingly virulent strains of the virus have spread across Asia and the Americas.

text: The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is so named because it integrates information it receives from, and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish—and it contains the majority of the nervous system. Many consider the retina and the optic nerve (2nd cranial nerve), as well as the olfactory nerves (1st) and olfactory epithelium as parts of the CNS, synapsing directly on brain tissue without intermediate ganglia. Following this classification the olfactory epithelium is the only central nervous tissue in direct contact with the environment, which opens up for therapeutic treatments. The CNS is contained within the dorsal body cavity, with the brain housed in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in the spinal canal. In vertebrates, the brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae, both enclosed in the meninges.

text: The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the

text: nervous system

text: consisting of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . The central nervous system is so named because it integrates information it receives from, and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of

text: bilaterally symmetric animals

text: —that is, all multicellular animals except

text: sponge

text: s and

text: radially symmetric animals

text: such as

text: jellyfish

text: —and it contains the majority of the nervous system. Many consider the

text: retina

text: and the

text: optic nerve

text: cranial nerve

text: ), as well as the

text: olfactory nerves

text: (1st) and

text: olfactory epithelium

text: as parts of the CNS, synapsing directly on brain tissue without intermediate

text: ganglia

text: . Following this classification the

text: olfactory epithelium

text: is the only central nervous tissue in direct contact with the environment, which opens up for

text: therapeutic

text: treatments. The CNS is contained within the

text: dorsal body cavity

text: , with the

text: brain

text: housed in the

text: cranial cavity

text: and the spinal cord in the

text: spinal canal

text: . In vertebrates, the brain is protected by the

text: skull

text: , while the spinal cord is protected by the

text: vertebrae

text: , both enclosed in the

text: meninges

text: Abdallat–Davis–Farrage syndrome is a form of phakomatosis, a disease of the central nervous system accompanied by skin abnormalities. It is characterized by the out of the ordinary pigment of skin that is abnormal to one's genetics or the color perceived on a basis..

text: Abdallat–Davis–Farrage syndrome is a form of

text: phakomatosis

text: , a disease of the central nervous system accompanied by skin abnormalities. It is characterized by the out of the ordinary pigment of skin that is abnormal to one's genetics or the color perceived on a basis..

text: The disease, which affects about 1/30,000 infants of both genders, may become clinically evident at any time from infancy through early adulthood. The age of onset of Wilson's disease ranges from 3 to 50 years of age. Initial symptoms include hepatic, neurologic, or psychiatric disorders and, rarely, renal, skeletal, or endocrine symptomatology. The disease progresses with deepening jaundice and the development of encephalopathy, severe clotting abnormalities, occasionally associated with intravascular coagulation, and terminal renal insufficiency. A peculiar type of tremor in the upper extremities, slowness of movement, and changes in temperament become apparent. Kayser-Fleischer rings, a rusty brown discoloration at the outer rims of the iris due to copper deposition noted in 90% of patients, become evident as copper begins to accumulate and affect the nervous system.

text: The disease, which affects about 1/30,000 infants of both genders, may become clinically evident at any time from infancy through early adulthood. The age of onset of Wilson's disease ranges from 3 to 50 years of age. Initial symptoms include

text: hepatic

text: , neurologic, or psychiatric disorders and, rarely,

text: renal

text: , skeletal, or

text: endocrine

text: symptomatology. The disease progresses with deepening

text: jaundice

text: and the development of

text: encephalopathy

text: , severe clotting abnormalities, occasionally associated with

text: intravascular coagulation

text: , and terminal renal insufficiency. A peculiar type of tremor in the upper extremities, slowness of movement, and changes in temperament become apparent.

text: Kayser-Fleischer rings

text: , a rusty brown discoloration at the outer rims of the iris due to copper deposition noted in 90% of patients, become evident as copper begins to accumulate and affect the nervous system.

text: Nervous system disease refers to a general class of medical conditions affecting the nervous system.

text: Nervous system disease refers to a general class of

text: medical condition

text: s affecting the

text: nervous system

text: In Central and South America, the most common incidence of chronic megacolon is that observed in about 20% of patients affected with Chagas disease. Chagas is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, a flagellate protozoan transmitted by the feces of a hematophagous insect, the assassin bug, when it feeds. Chagas can also be acquired congenitally, through blood transfusion or organ transplant, and rarely through contaminated food (for example garapa). There are several theories on how megacolon (and also megaesophagus) develops in Chagas disease. The  Austrian-Brazilian physician and pathologist Fritz Köberle was the first to propose the neurogenic hypothesis based on the documented destruction of the Auerbach's plexus in the walls of the intestinal tracts of Chagas patients. In this, the destruction of the autonomic nervous system innervation of the colon leads to a loss of the normal smooth muscle tone of the wall and subsequent gradual dilation. His research proved that, by extensively quantifying the number of neurons of the autonomic nervous system in the Auerbach's plexus, that:

text: In

text: Central

text: and

text: South America

text: , the most common incidence of chronic megacolon is that observed in about 20% of patients affected with

text: Chagas disease

text: . Chagas is caused by

text: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: , a flagellate

text: protozoan

text: transmitted by the feces of a

text: hematophagous

text: insect

text: , the

text: assassin bug

text: , when it feeds. Chagas can also be acquired congenitally, through

text: blood transfusion

text: or organ transplant, and rarely through contaminated food (for example

text: garapa

text: ). There are several theories on how megacolon (and also

text: megaesophagus

text: ) develops in Chagas disease. The

text: Austrian

text: Brazilian

text: physician

text: and

text: pathologist

text: Fritz Köberle

text: was the first to propose the neurogenic hypothesis based on the documented destruction of the Auerbach's plexus in the walls of the intestinal tracts of Chagas patients. In this, the destruction of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: innervation of the colon leads to a loss of the normal

text: smooth muscle

text: tone of the wall and subsequent gradual dilation. His research proved that, by extensively quantifying the number of neurons of the autonomic nervous system in the Auerbach's plexus, that:

text: They may very rarely cause enough damage to produce serious neurological deficits (such as ataxia or respiratory paralysis) from worms entering the central nervous system. The CNS is compromised by trichinosis in 10–24% of reported cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, a very rare form of stroke (3-4 cases per million annual incidence in adults). Trichinosis can be fatal depending on the severity of the infection; death can occur 4–6 weeks after the infection, and is usually caused by myocarditis, encephalitis, or pneumonia.

text: They may very rarely cause enough damage to produce serious neurological deficits (such as

text: ataxia

text: or

text: respiratory paralysis

text: ) from worms entering the

text: central nervous system

text: . The CNS is compromised by trichinosis in 10–24% of reported cases of

text: cerebral venous sinus thrombosis

text: , a very rare form of stroke (3-4 cases per million annual incidence in adults). Trichinosis can be fatal depending on the severity of the infection; death can occur 4–6 weeks after the infection, and is usually caused by

text: myocarditis

text: encephalitis

text: , or

text: pneumonia

text: In children younger than age two, posturing is not a reliable finding because their nervous systems are not yet developed.  However, Reye's syndrome and traumatic brain injury can both cause decorticate posturing in children.

text: In children younger than age two, posturing is not a reliable finding because their nervous systems are not yet developed.  However,

text: Reye's syndrome

text: and traumatic brain injury can both cause decorticate posturing in children.

text: A large number of neurological disorders have been described as listed. These can affect the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system and the muscular system.

text: A large number of neurological disorders have been described as

entity_name: List of neurological conditions and disorders

text: listed

text: . These can affect the central nervous system (

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: ), the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system and the

text: muscular system

text: The mission of the NINDS, as stated on their website, is "to reduce the burden of neurological disease—a burden borne by every age group, every segment of society, and people all over the world". The NINDS notes that there are over 600 such disorders, with some of the common being stroke, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, and autism. In an effort to achieve their goal, the NINDS "supports and conducts research, both basic and clinical, on the normal and diseased nervous system, fosters the training of investigators in the basic and clinical neurosciences, and seeks better understanding, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of neurological disorders."

text: The mission of the NINDS, as stated on their website, is "to reduce the burden of neurological disease—a burden borne by every age group, every segment of society, and people all over the world". The NINDS notes that there are over 600 such disorders, with some of the common being

text: stroke

text: epilepsy

text: Parkinson's disease

text: , and

text: autism

text: . In an effort to achieve their goal, the NINDS "supports and conducts research, both basic and clinical, on the normal and

text: disease

text: d nervous system, fosters the training of investigators in the basic and clinical neurosciences, and seeks better understanding,

text: diagnosis

text: , treatment, and prevention of neurological disorders."

text: Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) is a central nervous system disease caused by certain species of free-living amoebae, especially species of Acanthamoeba and Balamuthia mandrillaris.

text: Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) is a

text: central nervous system

text: disease caused by certain species of free-living

text: amoeba

text: e, especially species of

text: Acanthamoeba

text: and

text: Balamuthia mandrillaris

text: Poliomyelitis, a viral disease, has the potential to damage the central nervous system and leave children paralyzed. Jonas Salk developed an attenuated vaccine to combat the rising prevalence of the disease around the world. In 1955 the results from the preliminary trial of Salk’s vaccine were announced to the general public and within 2 hours it was licensed. Due to a lack of regulations on pharmaceutical manufacturers the vaccine was not always as pure as possible or done correctly to prevent adverse effects associated with inserting an attenuated virus into a healthy person. The famous Cutter Incident resulted in many recipients of the defective polio virus from the Cutter company contracting a virulent strain of polio causing paralysis. Vaccine trials and manufacturing must be handled with extreme caution to avoid infecting recipients or causing adverse effects. The public has not returned to the same confidence level in science and vaccines since the Cutter Incident, which risks public health for everyone.

text: Poliomyelitis

text: , a viral disease, has the potential to damage the

text: central nervous system

text: and leave children paralyzed.

text: Jonas Salk

text: developed an

text: attenuated vaccine

text: to combat the rising prevalence of the disease around the world. In 1955 the results from the preliminary trial of Salk’s vaccine were announced to the general public and within 2 hours it was licensed. Due to a lack of regulations on pharmaceutical manufacturers the vaccine was not always as pure as possible or done correctly to prevent adverse effects associated with inserting an attenuated virus into a healthy person. The famous

text: Cutter Incident

text: resulted in many recipients of the defective polio virus from the Cutter company contracting a virulent strain of polio causing paralysis. Vaccine trials and manufacturing must be handled with extreme caution to avoid infecting recipients or causing adverse effects. The public has not returned to the same confidence level in science and vaccines since the Cutter Incident, which risks public health for everyone.

text: Sulfatides in brain tissue has been studied by looking at apolipoprotein E (apoE), specifically the ε4 allele. The ε4 allele of apolipoprotein E is the only known genetic risk factor to significantly indicate late onset Alzheimer's disease. Possessing the apoE ε4 allele has been associated with a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. ApoE is a protein that is involved in the transport of many lipids, including cholesterol, and thus, regulates how much sulfatide is in the central nervous system and mediates the homeostasis of the system. It has been found that higher levels of apoE are positively correlated with greater sulfatide depletion. ApoE-associated proteins take sulfatide from the myelin sheath and then degrade sulfatide into various compounds, such as sulfate. When apoE is increased, the amount of sulfatide that is taken from the myelin sheath is also increased; hence, there is more sulfatide depletion.

text: Sulfatides in brain tissue has been studied by looking at

text: apolipoprotein E

text: (apoE), specifically the ε4 allele. The ε4 allele of apolipoprotein E is the only known genetic risk factor to significantly indicate late onset Alzheimer's disease. Possessing the

text: apoE

text: ε4 allele has been associated with a higher risk of developing Alzheimer's disease. ApoE is a protein that is involved in the transport of many

text: lipids

text: , including

text: cholesterol

text: , and thus, regulates how much sulfatide is in the

text: central nervous system

text: and mediates the

text: homeostasis

text: of the system. It has been found that higher levels of apoE are positively correlated with greater sulfatide depletion. ApoE-associated proteins take sulfatide from the

text: myelin sheath

text: and then degrade sulfatide into various compounds, such as

text: sulfate

text: . When apoE is increased, the amount of sulfatide that is taken from the myelin sheath is also increased; hence, there is more sulfatide depletion.

text: The nervous system comprises networks made up of neurons and synapses connected to and controlling tissues as well as impacting human thoughts and behavior. In modeling neural networks of the nervous system one has to consider many factors. The brain and the neural network should be considered as an integrated and self-contained firmware system that includes hardware (organs), software (programs), memory (short term and long term), database (centralized and distributed), and a complex network of active elements (such as neurons, synapses, and tissues) and passive elements (such as parts of visual and auditory system) that carry information within and in-and-out of the body.

text: The myenteric plexus functions as a part of the enteric nervous system (digestive system). The enteric nervous system can and does function autonomously, but normal digestive function requires communication links between this intrinsic system and the central nervous system. The ENS contains sensory receptors, primary afferent neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. The events that are controlled, at least in part, by the ENS are multiple and include motor activity, secretion, absorption, blood flow, and interaction with other organs such as the gallbladder or pancreas. These links take the form of parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers that connect either the central and enteric nervous systems or connect the central nervous system directly with the digestive tract. Through these cross connections, the gut can provide sensory information to the CNS, and the CNS can affect gastrointestinal function. Connection to the central nervous system also means that signals from outside of the digestive system can be relayed to the digestive system: for instance, the sight of appealing food stimulates secretion in the stomach.

text: Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is a viral infection of the human central nervous system. It is estimated to affect at least 1 in 500,000 individuals per year and some studies suggest an incidence rate of 5.9 cases per 100,000 live births. The majority of cases of herpes encephalitis are caused by herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1), the same virus that causes cold sores. 57% of American adults are infected with HSV-1,  which is spread through droplets, casual contact, and sometimes sexual contact, though most infected people never have cold sores. About 10% of cases of herpes encephalitis are due to HSV-2, which is typically spread through sexual contact. About 1 in 3 cases of HSE result from primary HSV-1 infection, predominantly occurring in individuals under the age of 18; 2 in 3 cases occur in seropositive persons, few of whom have history of recurrent orofacial herpes. Approximately 50% of individuals that develop HSE are over 50 years of age.

text: Herpes simplex

text: encephalitis

text: (HSE) is a viral infection of the human

text: central nervous system

text: . It is estimated to affect at least 1 in 500,000 individuals per year and some studies suggest an incidence rate of 5.9 cases per 100,000 live births. The majority of cases of herpes encephalitis are caused by herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1), the same virus that causes cold sores. 57% of American adults are infected with HSV-1,  which is spread through droplets, casual contact, and sometimes sexual contact, though most infected people never have cold sores. About 10% of cases of herpes encephalitis are due to HSV-2, which is typically spread through sexual contact. About 1 in 3 cases of HSE result from primary HSV-1 infection, predominantly occurring in individuals under the age of 18; 2 in 3 cases occur in

text: seropositive

text: persons, few of whom have history of recurrent orofacial herpes. Approximately 50% of individuals that develop HSE are over 50 years of age.

text: American crows succumb easily to West Nile virus infection. This was originally a mosquito-borne African virus causing encephalitis in humans and livestock since about 1000 AD, and was accidentally introduced to North America in 1999, apparently by an infected air traveller who got bitten by a mosquito after arrival. It is estimated that the American crow population has dropped by up to 45% since 1999. Despite this decline, the crow is considered a species of least concern.The disease runs most rampant in the subtropical conditions which encourage reproduction of its mosquito vectors among which Culex tarsalis is most significant. Mortality rates appear to be higher than those in other birds, causing local population losses of up to 72% in a single season. Because of this, American crows are a sentinel species indicating the presence of West Nile virus in an area. Crows cannot transmit the virus to humans directly.

text: American crows succumb easily to

text: West Nile virus

text: infection. This was originally a

text: mosquito

text: -borne

text: Africa

text: n virus causing

text: encephalitis

text: in humans and

text: livestock

text: since about 1000 AD, and was accidentally introduced to North America in 1999, apparently by an infected air traveller who got bitten by a mosquito after arrival. It is estimated that the American crow population has dropped by up to 45% since 1999. Despite this decline, the crow is considered a species of least concern.The disease runs most rampant in the

text: subtropical

text: conditions which encourage reproduction of its mosquito

text: vector

text: s among which

text: Culex tarsalis

text: is most significant. Mortality rates appear to be higher than those in other birds, causing local population losses of up to 72% in a single season. Because of this, American crows are a

text: sentinel species

text: indicating the presence of West Nile virus in an area. Crows cannot transmit the virus to humans directly.

text: The involvement of the peripheral or central nervous system is relatively rare and only occurs in 3% of persons affected with RP, and is sometimes seen in a relation with concomitant vasculitis.The most common neurological manifestation are palsies of the cranial nerves V and VII. Also hemiplegia, ataxia, myelitis and polyneuropathy have been reported in scientific literature. Very rare neurological manifestations include aseptic meningitis, meningoencephalitis, stroke, focal or generalized seizures and intracranial aneurysm.Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the brain shows multifocal areas of enhancement consistent with cerebral vasculitis in some cases.

text: The involvement of the

text: peripheral

text: or

text: central nervous system

text: is relatively rare and only occurs in 3% of persons affected with RP, and is sometimes seen in a relation with concomitant vasculitis.The most common neurological manifestation are palsies of the

text: cranial nerves

text: V and VII. Also

text: hemiplegia

text: ataxia

text: myelitis

text: and

text: polyneuropathy

text: have been reported in scientific literature. Very rare neurological manifestations include

text: aseptic meningitis

text: meningoencephalitis

text: stroke

text: , focal or generalized

text: seizures

text: and

text: intracranial aneurysm

text: .Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the brain shows multifocal areas of enhancement consistent with

text: cerebral vasculitis

text: in some cases.

text: TAHV is maintained in an enzootic life cycle involving several species of mosquito vectors, with hares, rabbits, hedgehogs, and rodents serving as amplifying hosts. Human TAHV infections generally occur in summer and early fall, with symptoms of fever, headache, malaise, conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, and nausea.  TAHV disease can progress to involve the central nervous system, but fatalities have not been reported.  Human infections are common in endemic areas, with  neutralizing antibodies present in 60 to 80% of the elderly population.

text: TAHV is maintained in an

text: enzootic

text: life cycle involving several species of

text: mosquito

text: vectors, with

text: hares

text: rabbits

text: hedgehogs

text: , and

text: rodents

text: serving as amplifying

text: hosts

text: . Human TAHV infections generally occur in summer and early fall, with symptoms of

text: fever

text: headache

text: malaise

text: conjunctivitis

text: pharyngitis

text: , and

text: nausea

text: .  TAHV disease can progress to involve the

text: central nervous system

text: , but

text: fatalities

text: have not been reported.  Human infections are common in

text: endemic

text: areas, with

text: neutralizing antibodies

text: present in 60 to 80% of the elderly population.

text: Culex is a genus of mosquitoes, several species of which serve as vectors of one or more important diseases of birds, humans and other animals. The diseases they vector include arbovirus infections such as West Nile virus, Japanese encephalitis, or St. Louis encephalitis, but also filariasis, and avian malaria.  They occur worldwide except for the extreme northern parts of the temperate zone, and are the most common form of mosquito encountered in some major US cities such as Los Angeles.

text: Culex is a

text: genus

text: of

text: mosquito

text: es, several species of which serve as

text: vectors

text: of one or more important diseases of birds, humans and other animals. The diseases they vector include

text: arbovirus

text: infections such as

text: West Nile virus

text: Japanese encephalitis

text: , or

text: St. Louis encephalitis

text: , but also

text: filariasis

text: , and

text: avian malaria

text: .  They occur worldwide except for the extreme northern parts of the

text: temperate zone

text: , and are the most common form of mosquito encountered in some major US cities such as Los Angeles.

text: The central nervous system functions to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others and to receive feedback. Malfunction of the nervous system can occur as a result of genetic defects, physical damage due to trauma or toxicity, infection or simply of ageing. The medical specialty of neurology studies disorders of the nervous system and looks for interventions that can prevent or treat them.  In the peripheral nervous system, the most common problem is the failure of nerve conduction, which can be due to different causes including diabetic neuropathy and demyelinating disorders such as multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

text: The central nervous system functions to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others and to receive feedback. Malfunction of the nervous system can occur as a result of genetic defects, physical damage due to trauma or toxicity, infection or simply of ageing. The medical specialty of

text: neurology

text: studies disorders of the nervous system and looks for interventions that can prevent or treat them.  In the peripheral nervous system, the most common problem is the failure of nerve conduction, which can be due to different causes including

text: diabetic neuropathy

text: and demyelinating disorders such as

text: multiple sclerosis

text: and

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: Eosinophilic meningitis is commonly defined by the increased number of eosinophils in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). In most cases, eosinophil levels rise to 10 or more eosinophils per μL in the cerebrospinal fluid, accounting for at least 10% of the total CSF leukocyte count. The chemical analysis of the CSF typically resembles the findings in "aseptic meningitis" with slightly elevated protein levels, normal glucose levels and negative bacterial cultures. Presence of a significantly decreased glucose on CSF analysis is an indicator of severe meningoencephalitis and may indicate a poor prognosis. Initial CSF analysis early in the disease process may occasionally show no increase of eosinophils only to have classical increases in eosinophils in subsequent spinal fluid analysis. Caution should be advised in using eosinophilic meningitis as the only criterion for diagnosing angiostrongylus infestation in someone with classic symptoms as the disease evolves with the migration of the worms into the central nervous system.

text: Eosinophilic meningitis is commonly defined by the increased number of eosinophils in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). In most cases, eosinophil levels rise to 10 or more eosinophils per μL in the cerebrospinal fluid, accounting for at least 10% of the total CSF leukocyte count. The chemical analysis of the CSF typically resembles the findings in "

text: aseptic meningitis

text: " with slightly elevated protein levels, normal glucose levels and negative bacterial cultures. Presence of a significantly decreased glucose on CSF analysis is an indicator of severe meningoencephalitis and may indicate a poor prognosis. Initial CSF analysis early in the disease process may occasionally show no increase of eosinophils only to have classical increases in eosinophils in subsequent spinal fluid analysis. Caution should be advised in using eosinophilic meningitis as the only criterion for diagnosing angiostrongylus infestation in someone with classic symptoms as the disease evolves with the migration of the worms into the central nervous system.

text: A central nervous system viral disease is a viral infection that affects the central nervous system.

text: A central nervous system viral disease is a

text: viral infection

text: that affects the

text: central nervous system

text: Neuroimmunology is a field combining neuroscience, the study of the nervous system, and immunology, the study of the immune system.  Neuroimmunologists seek to better understand the interactions of these two complex systems during development, homeostasis, and response to injuries.  A long-term goal of this rapidly developing research area is to further develop our understanding of the pathology of certain neurological diseases, some of which have no clear etiology. In doing so, neuroimmunology contributes to development of new pharmacological treatments for several neurological conditions.  Many types of interactions involve both the nervous and immune systems including the physiological functioning of the two systems in health and disease, malfunction of either and or both systems that leads to disorders, and the physical, chemical, and environmental stressors that affect the two systems on a daily basis.

text: Neuroimmunology is a field combining

text: neuroscience

text: , the study of the

text: nervous system

text: , and

text: immunology

text: , the study of the

text: immune system

text: .  Neuroimmunologists seek to better understand the interactions of these two complex systems during development, homeostasis, and response to injuries.  A long-term goal of this rapidly developing research area is to further develop our understanding of the pathology of certain neurological

text: diseases

text: , some of which have no clear

text: etiology

text: . In doing so, neuroimmunology contributes to development of new pharmacological treatments for several neurological conditions.  Many types of interactions involve both the nervous and immune systems including the

text: physiological

text: functioning of the two systems in

text: health

text: and disease, malfunction of either and or both systems that leads to disorders, and the physical, chemical, and environmental stressors that affect the two systems on a daily basis.

text: Apart from his Andalusian accent Reyes was known for his appearance: long, bald with spiky hair and a mustache. Reyes died of a heart attack on 25 March 2015 in Valencia.

text: Apart from his

text: Andalusia

text: n accent Reyes was known for his appearance: long, bald with spiky hair and a mustache. Reyes died of a heart attack on 25 March 2015 in

text: Valencia

text: The genomic variations have direct implications on the clinical symptoms of tick borne Lyme disease. For example, B. burgdorferi s.s.’s tick borne Lyme disease may manifest with arthritis-like symptoms. In contrast, B. garinii’s tick borne Lyme disease may cause an infection of the central nervous system.

text: The genomic variations have direct implications on the clinical symptoms of tick borne Lyme disease. For example, B. burgdorferi s.s.’s tick borne Lyme disease may manifest with

text: arthritis

text: -like symptoms. In contrast, B. garinii’s tick borne Lyme disease may cause an infection of the

text: central nervous system

text: One form of fungal meningitis is cryptococcal meningitis.   Patients treated for cancer or chronic illnesses where treatments and/or the disease itself compromise the patient's immune system are particularly vulnerable.  Most common in AIDS patients, cryptococcal fungal meningitis cases have increased globally during the past decade. National health data estimates the incidence to be approximately 1,500 cases annually in the U.S.

text: One form of fungal meningitis is

text: cryptococcal meningitis

text: .   Patients treated for cancer or chronic illnesses where treatments and/or the disease itself compromise the patient's immune system are particularly vulnerable.  Most common in

text: AIDS

text: patients, cryptococcal fungal meningitis cases have increased globally during the past decade. National health data estimates the incidence to be approximately 1,500 cases annually in the U.S.

text: The meningeal covering of the central nervous system may be the site of tumor growth. Breast cancer, lung cancer and melanoma are the most common tumors.

text: The

text: meningeal

text: covering of the

text: central nervous system

text: may be the site of tumor growth.

text: Breast cancer

text: lung cancer

text: and

text: melanoma

text: are the most common tumors.

text: As a result of the mass vaccination, there were 46 cases of encephalitis, or inflammation of the brain and spinal cord, resulting in 8 deaths in the following weeks. However, brain tissue was examined from all 8 fatalities, and in a report on the outbreak written by Commissioner of Health Weinstein, he stated that they had other diseases of the central nervous system and none had encephalitis. Three deaths were clearly related to other complications of the vaccine—a 66-year-old man who developed sepsis from an infected vaccination site, and two infants with eczema who developed generalized vaccinia after contact with others who had been vaccinated. Two additional victims who received the smallpox vaccine and died were named in newspaper reports—Benjamin F. Cohen, age 41, of Newark, N.J., who died on May 5, a little more than two weeks after being vaccinated, and Nancy Jean Vanderhoof, age 3, of New Providence, N.J., who died May 7, a week after receiving her vaccination. According to the Center for Disease Control, the rate for post-vaccination encephalitis following the smallpox vaccine is 3 to 12 per million, and the fatality rate is about 1 in a million. (Since this was the largest vaccination campaign ever, it is likely to have contributed substantially to the C.D.C.'s data and estimates.)

text: As a result of the mass vaccination, there were 46 cases of encephalitis, or inflammation of the brain and spinal cord, resulting in 8 deaths in the following weeks. However, brain tissue was examined from all 8 fatalities, and in a report on the outbreak written by Commissioner of Health Weinstein, he stated that they had other diseases of the central nervous system and none had encephalitis. Three deaths were clearly related to other complications of the vaccine—a 66-year-old man who developed sepsis from an infected vaccination site, and two infants with eczema who developed generalized vaccinia after contact with others who had been vaccinated. Two additional victims who received the smallpox vaccine and died were named in newspaper reports—Benjamin F. Cohen, age 41, of

text: Newark

text: N.J.

text: , who died on May 5, a little more than two weeks after being vaccinated, and Nancy Jean Vanderhoof, age 3, of

text: New Providence

text: , N.J., who died May 7, a week after receiving her vaccination. According to the

text: Center for Disease Control

text: , the rate for post-vaccination encephalitis following the smallpox vaccine is 3 to 12 per million, and the fatality rate is about 1 in a million. (Since this was the largest vaccination campaign ever, it is likely to have contributed substantially to the C.D.C.'s data and estimates.)

text: Cells comprising the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous (or neural) tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissues form the brain and spinal cord. In the peripheral nervous system, neural tissues forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, inclusive of the motor neurons.

text: Cells comprising the

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: are classified as nervous (or neural) tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissues form the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . In the peripheral nervous system, neural tissues forms the

text: cranial nerves

text: and

text: spinal nerve

text: s, inclusive of the

text: motor neuron

text: s.

text: Devices which support the function of autonomous nervous system include the implant for bladder control. In the somatic nervous system attempts to aid conscious control of movement include Functional electrical stimulation and the lumbar anterior root stimulator.

text: Devices which support the function of

text: autonomous nervous system

text: include the

text: implant for bladder control

text: . In the somatic nervous system attempts to aid conscious control of movement include

text: Functional electrical stimulation

text: and the

text: lumbar anterior root stimulator

text: Central nervous system lesions occur occasionally. Cerebral granulomatous disease may be caused by S. japonicum eggs in the brain. Communities in China affected by S. japonicum have been found to have rates of seizures eight times higher than baseline. Similarly, granulomatous lesions from S. mansoni and S. haematobium eggs in the spinal cord can lead to transverse myelitis with flaccid paraplegia. Eggs are thought to travel to the central nervous system via embolization.

text: Central nervous system

text: lesions occur occasionally. Cerebral granulomatous disease may be caused by S. japonicum eggs in the

text: brain

text: . Communities in China affected by S. japonicum have been found to have rates of

text: seizures

text: eight times higher than baseline. Similarly, granulomatous lesions from S. mansoni and S. haematobium eggs in the

text: spinal cord

text: can lead to

text: transverse myelitis

text: with flaccid

text: paraplegia

text: . Eggs are thought to travel to the central nervous system via

text: embolization

text: Improved functional neuroimaging is paving the way for better understanding, assessment, and management of many neurologic and neuro-ophthalmologic conditions. As our understanding of neuroscience evolves, neuro-ophthalmologists are becoming increasingly better at treatment, rather than only diagnosis, and novel therapies are emerging to treat traditionally vision-devastating disease. For example, clinical trials began in February 2014 to use gene therapy to treat Leber hereditary optic neuropathy, which is one of the first uses of gene therapy in the central nervous system. Progress has also been made in understanding retinal ganglion cell regeneration and in re-establishing synaptic connections from the optic nerve to the brain, more than in other regions of the central nervous system. One of the goals of the National Institutes of Health is to use the visual system as a window to understand neural plasticity and regenerative medicine in the central nervous system, an area of neuroscience that has a promising future and is intimately intertwined with neuro-ophthalmology.

text: Improved

text: functional neuroimaging

text: is paving the way for better understanding, assessment, and management of many neurologic and neuro-ophthalmologic conditions. As our understanding of

text: neuroscience

text: evolves, neuro-ophthalmologists are becoming increasingly better at treatment, rather than only

text: diagnosis

text: , and novel therapies are emerging to treat traditionally vision-devastating disease. For example, clinical trials began in February 2014 to use

text: gene therapy

text: to treat

text: Leber hereditary optic neuropathy

text: , which is one of the first uses of

text: gene therapy

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: . Progress has also been made in understanding

text: retinal ganglion cell

text: regeneration and in re-establishing

text: synaptic connections

text: from the

text: optic nerve

text: to the

text: brain

text: , more than in other regions of the

text: central nervous system

text: . One of the goals of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: is to use the

text: visual system

text: as a window to understand

text: neural plasticity

text: and

text: regenerative medicine

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: , an area of

text: neuroscience

text: that has a promising future and is intimately intertwined with neuro-ophthalmology.

text: In 2013 meningitis occurred in about 16 million people worldwide. This resulted in 303,000 deaths – down from 464,000 deaths in 1990. With appropriate treatment the risk of death in bacterial meningitis is less than 15%. Outbreaks of bacterial meningitis occur between December and June each year in an area of sub-Saharan Africa known as the meningitis belt. Smaller outbreaks may also occur in other areas of the world. The word meningitis is from Greek μῆνιγξ méninx, "membrane" and the medical suffix -itis, "inflammation".

text: In 2013 meningitis occurred in about 16 million people worldwide. This resulted in 303,000 deaths – down from 464,000 deaths in 1990. With appropriate treatment the risk of death in bacterial meningitis is less than 15%. Outbreaks of bacterial meningitis occur between December and June each year in an area of

text: sub-Saharan Africa

text: known as the

text: meningitis belt

text: . Smaller outbreaks may also occur in other areas of the world. The word meningitis is from

text: Greek

text: μῆνιγξ méninx, "membrane" and the medical suffix -itis, "inflammation".

text: In the March 1979 report in Neurology, Drs. Susac, Hardman and Selhorst reported two patients with the triad of encephalopathy, hearing loss and microangiopathy of the retina. The first patient underwent brain biopsy, which revealed sclerosis of the media and adventitia of small pial and cortical vessels, suggestive of a healed angiitis. Both patients underwent fluorescein retinal angiography that demonstrated multifocal retinal artery occlusions without evidence of embolic disease. Though the exact pathogenesis of this disorder is unknown, the retinal and brain biopsy findings suggest a small vessel vasculopathy leading to arteriolar occlusion and microinfarction of cerebral, retinal and cochlear tissue. Demyelination is not a typical feature of Susac's syndrome. Muscle biopsies from such patients are usually normal, but some have also shown nonspecific signs of inflammation such as dense hyaline material surrounding endomysial capillaries. This suggests a possible systemic component of this disease, despite the predominance of central nervous system features.  The latest thinking is that an antibody directed against endothelial cells is the pathogenic mechanism in this disease which causes the microscopic strokes in the brain, retina, and inner ear.

text: In the March 1979 report in Neurology, Drs. Susac, Hardman and Selhorst reported two patients with the triad of

text: encephalopathy

text: , hearing loss and microangiopathy of the retina. The first patient underwent brain biopsy, which revealed sclerosis of the media and adventitia of small pial and cortical vessels, suggestive of a healed angiitis. Both patients underwent fluorescein retinal angiography that demonstrated multifocal retinal artery occlusions without evidence of embolic disease. Though the exact

text: pathogenesis

text: of this disorder is unknown, the retinal and brain biopsy findings suggest a small vessel vasculopathy leading to arteriolar occlusion and microinfarction of cerebral, retinal and cochlear tissue. Demyelination is not a typical feature of Susac's syndrome. Muscle biopsies from such patients are usually normal, but some have also shown nonspecific signs of inflammation such as dense hyaline material surrounding endomysial capillaries. This suggests a possible systemic component of this disease, despite the predominance of central nervous system features.  The latest thinking is that an antibody directed against endothelial cells is the pathogenic mechanism in this disease which causes the microscopic strokes in the brain, retina, and inner ear.

text: Next two very similar neuropathies were ruled out. Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) induces an acute autoimmune response which affects the Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. GBS is usually triggered by an infection that causes weakness and tingling that may lead to muscle loss. This condition may be life-threatening if muscle atrophy ascends to affect the pulmonary or cardiac systems. So far, no infectious agents have been found that relate to the current disease, progressive infammatory neuropathy. They looked at chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP) which is characterized by progressive weakness and sensory impairment in the arms and legs. Damage occurs to the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system. As doctors at the Mayo Clinic were beginning to note, the problem they were seeing in progressive inflammatory neuropathy was occurring in the spinal nerve roots.

text: Next two very similar

text: neuropathies

text: were ruled out.

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: (GBS) induces an acute

text: autoimmune

text: response which affects the

text: Schwann cell

text: s in the peripheral nervous system. GBS is usually triggered by an infection that causes weakness and tingling that may lead to muscle loss. This condition may be life-threatening if muscle

text: atrophy

text: ascends to affect the pulmonary or cardiac systems. So far, no infectious agents have been found that relate to the current disease, progressive infammatory neuropathy. They looked at

entity_name: Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy

text: chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy

text: (CIDP) which is characterized by progressive weakness and sensory impairment in the arms and legs. Damage occurs to the

text: myelin

text: sheath in the peripheral nervous system. As doctors at the Mayo Clinic were beginning to note, the problem they were seeing in progressive inflammatory neuropathy was occurring in the spinal nerve roots.

text: In 1912 he first described a circulatory disease marked by an association of ovarian insufficiency and acrocyanosis with vasomotor-trophic disturbance of the skin, and disturbances of sensitivity caused by dysregulation of the vegetative nervous system which has been given the eponymic name of "Cassirer's syndrome" or "Crocq-Cassirer syndrome".

text: In 1912 he first described a

text: circulatory disease

text: marked by an association of ovarian insufficiency and

text: acrocyanosis

text: with vasomotor-trophic disturbance of the skin, and disturbances of sensitivity caused by dysregulation of the

text: vegetative nervous system

text: which has been given the eponymic name of "Cassirer's syndrome" or "Crocq-Cassirer syndrome".

text: If the leukemic cells invade the central nervous system, then neurological symptoms (notably headaches) can occur. Uncommon neurological symptoms like migraines, seizures, or coma can occur as a result of brain stem pressure. All symptoms associated with leukemia can be attributed to other diseases. Consequently, leukemia is always diagnosed through medical tests.

text: If the leukemic cells invade the

text: central nervous system

text: , then neurological symptoms (notably

text: headache

text: s) can occur. Uncommon neurological symptoms like

text: migraines

text: seizures

text: , or

text: coma

text: can occur as a result of brain stem pressure. All symptoms associated with leukemia can be attributed to other diseases. Consequently, leukemia is always diagnosed through

text: medical test

text: s.

text: As a Motorsport Model at the 2010 Australian Grand Prix, Reyes broke the Guinness World Record at Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit in Albert Park for Putting on the Most Pairs of Under Pants in 60 Seconds: 22 Pairs.  On 20 June 2011, Reyes appeared on the set of Channel Seven's, The Morning Show hosted by Larry Emdur and Kylie Gillies and broke her existing World Record for the second time.  On 28 July 2011, Reyes broke the World Record for the third time on the set of Channel Seven's, Sunrise competing against Australian Television Personality Grant Denyer.  Reyes currently maintains the new Guinness World Record Title for Putting on the Most Pairs of Under Pants in 60 Seconds: 36 Pairs.

text: As a Motorsport Model at the

text: 2010 Australian Grand Prix

text: , Reyes broke the

text: Guinness World Record

text: at

text: Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit

text: in

text: Albert Park

text: for Putting on the Most Pairs of Under Pants in 60 Seconds: 22 Pairs.  On 20 June 2011, Reyes appeared on the set of

text: Channel Seven's

text: The Morning Show

text: hosted by

text: Larry Emdur

text: and

text: Kylie Gillies

text: and broke her existing World Record for the second time.  On 28 July 2011, Reyes broke the World Record for the third time on the set of

text: Channel Seven's

text: Sunrise

text: competing against Australian Television Personality

text: Grant Denyer

text: .  Reyes currently maintains the new

text: Guinness World Record Title

text: for Putting on the Most Pairs of Under Pants in 60 Seconds: 36 Pairs.

text: Historically, for many years the predominant view of the function of the nervous system was as a stimulus-response associator.  In this conception, neural processing begins with stimuli that activate sensory neurons, producing signals that propagate through chains of connections in the spinal cord and brain, giving rise eventually to activation of motor neurons and thereby to muscle contraction, i.e., to overt responses.  Descartes believed that all of the behaviors of animals, and most of the behaviors of humans, could be explained in terms of stimulus-response circuits, although he also believed that higher cognitive functions such as language were not capable of being explained mechanistically.  Charles Sherrington, in his influential 1906 book The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, developed the concept of stimulus-response mechanisms in much more detail, and Behaviorism, the school of thought that dominated Psychology through the middle of the 20th century, attempted to explain every aspect of human behavior in stimulus-response terms.

text: Historically, for many years the predominant view of the function of the nervous system was as a stimulus-response associator.  In this conception, neural processing begins with stimuli that activate sensory neurons, producing signals that propagate through chains of connections in the spinal cord and brain, giving rise eventually to activation of motor neurons and thereby to muscle contraction, i.e., to overt responses.  Descartes believed that all of the behaviors of animals, and most of the behaviors of humans, could be explained in terms of stimulus-response circuits, although he also believed that higher cognitive functions such as language were not capable of being explained mechanistically.

text: Charles Sherrington

text: , in his influential 1906 book The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, developed the concept of stimulus-response mechanisms in much more detail, and

text: Behaviorism

text: , the school of thought that dominated

text: Psychology

text: through the middle of the 20th century, attempted to explain every aspect of human behavior in stimulus-response terms.

text: In the UK he works on the causes of encephalitis, and other brain infections, and improving patient care. He led the development of National Guidelines for Managing Patients with Encephalitis, and coordinates the Brain Infections UK portfolio of research studies on different central nervous system infections including meningitis, encephalitis and HIV.

text: About 70% of individuals with velocardiofacial syndrome (VCFS) have minor auricular malformations, or malformations of the ear. In this syndrome, the ears are typically low-set and somewhat posteriorly rotated. In addition to external malformations, individuals with VCFS are more vulnerable to otitis media because of the presence of a cleft or other form of velopharyngeal inadequacy. The hearing loss associated with VCFS is conductive when otitis media is present (Peterson-Falzone et al., 2001). There are also sporadic reports of sensorineural hearing loss and a mixed hearing loss. Of individuals with VCFS who have a hearing loss, only 11% had a sensorineural loss and 5% a mixed loss (Reyes et al., 1999).

text: About 70% of individuals with velocardiofacial syndrome (VCFS) have minor auricular malformations, or malformations of the ear. In this syndrome, the ears are typically low-set and somewhat posteriorly rotated. In addition to external malformations, individuals with VCFS are more vulnerable to

text: otitis media

text: because of the presence of a cleft or other form of

text: velopharyngeal inadequacy

text: . The hearing loss associated with VCFS is conductive when

text: otitis media

text: is present (Peterson-Falzone et al., 2001). There are also sporadic reports of

text: sensorineural hearing loss

text: and a mixed hearing loss. Of individuals with VCFS who have a hearing loss, only 11% had a sensorineural loss and 5% a mixed loss (Reyes et al., 1999).

text: An ocular manifestation of a systemic disease is an eye condition that directly or indirectly results from a disease process another part of the body. There are many diseases known to cause ocular or visual changes. Diabetes, for example, is the leading cause of new cases of blindness in those aged 20–74, with ocular manifestations such as diabetic retinopathy and macular edema affecting up to 80% of those who have had the disease for 15 years or more. Other diseases such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and hypertension are commonly found to have associated ocular symptoms.

text: An ocular manifestation of a

text: systemic disease

text: is an eye condition that directly or indirectly results from a

text: disease

text: process another part of the body. There are many diseases known to cause ocular or visual changes.

text: Diabetes

text: , for example, is the leading cause of new cases of

text: blindness

text: in those aged 20–74, with ocular manifestations such as

text: diabetic retinopathy

text: and

text: macular edema

text: affecting up to 80% of those who have had the disease for 15 years or more. Other diseases such as

text: acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

text: (AIDS) and

text: hypertension

text: are commonly found to have associated ocular symptoms.

text: Medical psychologists are trained and equipped to modify physical disease states and the actual cytoarchitecture and functioning of the central nervous and related systems using psychological and pharmacological techniques (when allowed by statute), and to provide prevention for the progression of disease having to do with poor personal and life-style choices and conceptualization, behavioral patterns, and chronic exposure to the effects of negative thinking, choosing, attitudes, and negative contexts. The specialties that constitute medical psychology strive to integrate the major components of an individual’s psychological, biological, and social functioning and are designed to contribute to that person’s well-being in a way that respects the natural interface among these components. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts when it comes to providing comprehensive and sensible behavioral healthcare.

text: Medical psychologists are trained and equipped to modify physical disease states and the actual

text: cytoarchitecture

text: and functioning of the central nervous and related systems using psychological and pharmacological techniques (when allowed by statute), and to provide prevention for the progression of disease having to do with poor personal and life-style choices and conceptualization, behavioral patterns, and chronic exposure to the effects of negative thinking, choosing, attitudes, and negative contexts. The specialties that constitute medical psychology strive to integrate the major components of an individual’s psychological, biological, and social functioning and are designed to contribute to that person’s well-being in a way that respects the natural interface among these components. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts when it comes to providing comprehensive and sensible behavioral healthcare.

text: Although the question of how the nervous system selects which particular degrees of freedom (DOFs) to use in a movement may be a problem to scientists, the abundance of DOFs is almost certainly an advantage to the mammalian and the invertebrate nervous systems. The human body has redundant anatomical DOFs (at muscles and joints), redundant kinematic DOFs (movements can have different trajectories, velocities, and accelerations and yet achieve the same goal), and redundant neurophysiological DOFs (multiple motoneurons synapsing on the same muscle, and vice versa). How the nervous system "chooses" a subset of these near-infinite DOFs is an overarching difficulty in understanding motor control and motor learning.

text: Although the question of how the

text: nervous system

text: selects which particular

text: degrees of freedom

text: (DOFs) to use in a movement may be a problem to scientists, the abundance of DOFs is almost certainly an advantage to the

text: mammal

text: ian and the

text: invertebrate

text: nervous system

text: s. The human body has redundant

text: anatomical

text: DOFs (at

text: muscle

text: s and

text: joint

text: s), redundant

text: kinematic

text: DOFs (movements can have different trajectories, velocities, and accelerations and yet achieve the same goal), and redundant

text: neurophysiological

text: DOFs (multiple

text: motoneurons

text: synapsing

text: on the same muscle, and vice versa). How the nervous system "chooses" a subset of these near-infinite DOFs is an overarching difficulty in understanding

text: motor control

text: and

text: motor learning

text: Disease organisms transmitted by mosquitoes include West Nile virus, Saint Louis encephalitis virus, Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus, Everglades virus, Highlands J virus, La Crosse Encephalitis virus in the United States; dengue fever, yellow fever, Ilheus virus, malaria, Zika virus and filariasis in the American tropics; Rift Valley fever, Wuchereria bancrofti, Japanese Encephalitis, chikungunya, malaria and filariasis in Africa and Asia; and Murray Valley encephalitis in Australia.

text: Disease organisms transmitted by mosquitoes include

text: West Nile virus

text: Saint Louis encephalitis virus

text: Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus

text: Everglades virus

text: Highlands J virus

text: La Crosse Encephalitis

text: virus in the United States;

text: dengue fever

text: yellow fever

text: Ilheus virus

text: malaria

text: Zika virus

text: and

text: filariasis

text: in the

text: American tropics

text: Rift Valley fever

text: Wuchereria bancrofti

text: Japanese Encephalitis

text: chikungunya

text: malaria

text: and filariasis in Africa and Asia; and

text: Murray Valley encephalitis

text: in Australia.

text: Human nervous system – the part of the human body that coordinates a person's voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of the body. The human nervous system consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are long fibers that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS includes motor neurons, mediating voluntary movement, the autonomic nervous system, comprising the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system and regulating involuntary functions, and the enteric nervous system, a semi-independent part of the nervous system whose function is to control the gastrointestinal system.

text: Human nervous system

text: – the part of the

text: human body

text: that coordinates a person's voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of the body. The human nervous system consists of two main parts, the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). The CNS contains the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . The PNS consists mainly of

text: nerve

text: s, which are long fibers that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS includes

text: motor neuron

text: s, mediating voluntary movement, the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , comprising the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: and regulating involuntary functions, and the

text: enteric nervous system

text: , a semi-independent part of the nervous system whose function is to control the gastrointestinal system.

text: In Encephalitis, the inflammation of the brain leads to a breakdown in neurological function, causing the patient to suffer from symptoms such as fever, confusion, amnesia, personality changes, paralysis, seizures and language dysfunction. A viral infection can directly cause encephalitis or trigger a cascade ending in autoimmunity, with both mechanisms eventually leading to a rise in CSF lymphocyte concentration.

text: In

text: Encephalitis

text: , the inflammation of the brain leads to a breakdown in neurological function, causing the patient to suffer from symptoms such as fever, confusion,

text: amnesia

text: , personality changes,

text: paralysis

text: seizures

text: and language dysfunction. A viral infection can directly cause encephalitis or trigger a cascade ending in autoimmunity, with both mechanisms eventually leading to a rise in CSF lymphocyte concentration.

text: REST/NRSF is an important silencer element that binds to regulatory regions to control the expression of certain proteins involved in neural functions. The mechanistic actions of huntingtin are still not fully understood, but a correlation between Htt and REST/NRSF exists in HD development. By attaching to the REST/NRSF, the mutated huntingtin protein inhibits the action of the silencer element, and retains it in the cytosol. Thus, REST/NRSF cannot enter the nucleus and bind to the 21 base-pair RE-1/NRSE regulatory element. An adequate repression of specific target genes are of fundamental importance, as many are involved in the proper development of neuronal receptors, neurotransmitters, synaptic vesicle proteins, and channel proteins. A deficiency in the proper development of these proteins can cause the neural dysfunctions seen in Huntington's disease. In addition to the lack of repression due to the inactive REST/NRSF, mutated huntingtin protein can also decrease the transcription of the brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) gene. BDNF influences the survival and development of neurons in the central nervous system as well as the peripheral nervous system. This abnormal repression occurs when the RE1/NRSE region within the BDNF promoter region is activated by the binding of REST/NRSF, which leads to the lack of transcription of the BDNF gene.  Hence, the anomalous repression of the BDNF protein suggests a significant impact in Huntington's disease.

text: REST/NRSF is an important silencer element that binds to regulatory regions to control the expression of certain proteins involved in neural functions. The mechanistic actions of huntingtin are still not fully understood, but a correlation between Htt and REST/NRSF exists in HD development. By attaching to the REST/NRSF, the mutated huntingtin protein inhibits the action of the silencer element, and retains it in the cytosol. Thus, REST/NRSF cannot enter the nucleus and bind to the 21 base-pair RE-1/NRSE regulatory element. An adequate repression of specific target genes are of fundamental importance, as many are involved in the proper development of neuronal receptors,

text: neurotransmitters

text: , synaptic vesicle proteins, and channel proteins. A deficiency in the proper development of these proteins can cause the neural dysfunctions seen in Huntington's disease. In addition to the lack of repression due to the inactive REST/NRSF, mutated huntingtin protein can also decrease the transcription of the

text: brain-derived neurotropic factor

text: (BDNF) gene. BDNF influences the survival and development of neurons in the central nervous system as well as the peripheral nervous system. This abnormal repression occurs when the RE1/NRSE region within the BDNF promoter region is activated by the binding of REST/NRSF, which leads to the lack of transcription of the BDNF gene.  Hence, the anomalous repression of the BDNF protein suggests a significant impact in Huntington's disease.

text: This disease of the central nervous system, like many other procedural-memory related disorders, involves changes in the associated subcortical brain area known as the striatum. This area and the brain circuits closely interacting with it from the basal ganglia are affected both structurally and at a more functional level in the people affected by Gilles De La Tourette Syndrome; more commonly referred to as Tourette Syndrome.   Current literature on this topic provides evidence for there being many unique forms of procedural memory. Interestingly, the one most relevant to procedural memory and most common in Tourette's is related to the skill-acquisition process that ties stimuli to response during the learning part of procedural memory.

text: This disease of the central nervous system, like many other procedural-memory related disorders, involves changes in the associated subcortical brain area known as the striatum. This area and the brain circuits closely interacting with it from the basal ganglia are affected both structurally and at a more functional level in the people affected by Gilles De La Tourette Syndrome; more commonly referred to as

text: Tourette Syndrome

text: .   Current literature on this topic provides evidence for there being many unique forms of procedural memory. Interestingly, the one most relevant to procedural memory and most common in Tourette's is related to the skill-acquisition process that ties stimuli to response during the learning part of procedural memory.

text: In the host, WSSV infects a wide variety of cells from ectodermal and mesodermal origin. Histological changes are seen in the gill epithelium, antennal gland, haematopoeitic tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue and intestinal epithelial tissue. Infected cells have prominent intranuclear occlusions that initially stain eosinophilic, but become basophilic with age; hypertrophied nuclei with chromatin margination; and cytoplasmic clearing. Pathogenesis involves widespread tissue necrosis and disintegration.

text: In the host, WSSV infects a wide variety of

text: cell

text: s from ectodermal and mesodermal origin. Histological changes are seen in the

text: gill

text: epithelium,

text: antennal gland

text: haematopoeitic tissue

text: nervous tissue

text: connective tissue

text: and intestinal

text: epithelial tissue

text: . Infected cells have prominent intranuclear occlusions that initially stain

text: eosinophilic

text: , but become

text: basophilic

text: with age; hypertrophied nuclei with chromatin margination; and cytoplasmic clearing. Pathogenesis involves widespread tissue necrosis and disintegration.

text: "Just as different genes can contribute to similar diseases, so the same genes and families of genes can play a part in a range of different diseases."  For example, in just two of the diseases caused by malfunctioning cilia, Meckel-Gruber syndrome and Bardet-Biedl syndrome, patients who carry mutations in genes associated with both diseases "have unique symptoms that are not seen in either condition alone."  The genes linked to the two different conditions "interact with each other during development."  Systems biologists are endeavoring to define functional modules containing multiple genes and then look at disorders whose phenotypes fit into such modules.

text: "Just as different genes can contribute to similar diseases, so the same genes and families of genes can play a part in a range of different diseases."  For example, in just two of the diseases caused by malfunctioning cilia,

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: and

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: , patients who carry mutations in genes associated with both diseases "have unique symptoms that are not seen in either condition alone."  The genes linked to the two different conditions "interact with each other during development."

text: Systems biologists

text: are endeavoring to define functional modules containing multiple genes and then look at disorders whose

text: phenotype

text: s fit into such modules.

text: Blood pressure is continuously regulated by the autonomic nervous system, using an elaborate network of receptors, nerves, and hormones to balance the effects of the sympathetic nervous system, which tends to raise blood pressure, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which lowers it. The vast and rapid compensation abilities of the autonomic nervous system allow normal individuals to maintain an acceptable blood pressure over a wide range of activities and in many disease states.

text: Blood pressure is continuously regulated by the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , using an elaborate network of

text: receptors

text: nerve

text: s, and

text: hormone

text: s to balance the effects of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , which tends to raise blood pressure, and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: , which lowers it. The vast and rapid compensation abilities of the autonomic nervous system allow normal individuals to maintain an acceptable blood pressure over a wide range of activities and in many disease states.

text: In a paper published in the January 2010 issue of Science, an international team of researchers announced that devil facial tumour disease likely originated in the Schwann cells of a single devil. Schwann cells are found in the peripheral nervous system, and produce myelin and other proteins essential for the functions of nerve cells in the peripheral nervous system. The researchers sampled 25 tumours and found that the tumours were genetically identical. Using deep sequencing technology, they then profiled the tumours' transcriptome, the set of genes that are active in tumours. The transcriptomes closely matched those of Schwann cells, revealing high activity in many of the genes coding for myelin basic protein production. Several specific markers were identified by the team, including the MBP and PRX genes, which may enable veterinarians to more easily distinguish DFTD from other types of cancer, and may eventually help identify a genetic pathway that can be targeted to treat it.

text: In a paper published in the January 2010 issue of

text: Science

text: , an international team of researchers announced that devil facial tumour disease likely originated in the

text: Schwann cell

text: s of a single devil. Schwann cells are found in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , and produce

text: myelin

text: and other proteins essential for the functions of nerve cells in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . The researchers sampled 25 tumours and found that the tumours were genetically identical. Using

text: deep sequencing

text: technology, they then profiled the tumours'

text: transcriptome

text: , the set of genes that are

text: active

text: in tumours. The transcriptomes closely matched those of Schwann cells, revealing high activity in many of the genes coding for

text: myelin basic protein

text: production. Several specific markers were identified by the team, including the MBP and PRX genes, which may enable veterinarians to more easily distinguish DFTD from other types of cancer, and may eventually help identify a genetic pathway that can be targeted to treat it.

text: Peripheral neuropathies are greatly increased in people who have GSE. In clinical CD there is an obvious reason; avitaminosis and the inability to adsorb essential fatty acids and vitamins can lead to nervous system problems, including sensitivity of the peripheral nervous system. In addition to these problems there are a number or rare autoimmune conditions, secondary autoimmunities, such as fibromyalgia that are more frequent in GSE than in the normal population. Gulliane-Barre syndrome is associated with peripheral neuropathies, and it has been found that anti-ganglioside autoantibodies take part in the binding to axons and schwann cells. Antibodies to these gangliosides have been found elevated in coeliac disease

text: Peripheral neuropathies

text: are greatly increased in people who have GSE. In clinical CD there is an obvious reason; avitaminosis and the inability to adsorb essential fatty acids and vitamins can lead to nervous system problems, including sensitivity of the peripheral nervous system. In addition to these problems there are a number or rare autoimmune conditions, secondary autoimmunities, such as fibromyalgia that are more frequent in GSE than in the normal population. Gulliane-Barre syndrome is associated with peripheral neuropathies, and it has been found that

text: anti-ganglioside autoantibodies

text: take part in the binding to axons and schwann cells. Antibodies to these gangliosides have been found elevated in coeliac disease

text: Neurology (from , neuron, and the suffix-λογία -logia "study of") is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the central and peripheral nervous system (and its subdivisions, the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system); including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle. Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, which is the scientific study of the nervous system.

text: Neurology (from , neuron, and the suffix-λογία

text: -logia

text: "study of") is a branch of

text: medicine

text: dealing with

text: disorders of the nervous system

text: . Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (and its subdivisions, the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: and the

text: somatic nervous system

text: ); including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle. Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of

text: neuroscience

text: , which is the scientific study of the

text: nervous system

text: Although there are nearly forty different types of leukodystrophies, many are lacking in formal and comprehensive research.  Most of the research so far has been done on five types: (1) Metachromatic Leukodystrophy (MLD), (2) Krabbe Disease, (3) X-Linked adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD), (4) Canavan Disease, and (5) Alexander Disease.  Each type of leukodystrophy has a unique pathophysiology, but all five of these in some way affect a subset of glial cells, therefore disrupting myelin production and maintenance, and usually involve a mutation involving genes that code for enzymes necessary for the catabolism of  very long chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) that are toxic to the myelin-producing cells of the central nervous system.

text: Although there are nearly forty different types of leukodystrophies, many are lacking in formal and comprehensive research.  Most of the research so far has been done on five types: (1)

text: Metachromatic Leukodystrophy

text: (MLD), (2)

text: Krabbe Disease

text: , (3) X-Linked

text: adrenoleukodystrophy

text: (ALD), (4)

text: Canavan Disease

text: , and (5)

text: Alexander Disease

text: .  Each type of leukodystrophy has a unique

text: pathophysiology

text: , but all five of these in some way affect a subset of glial cells, therefore disrupting myelin production and maintenance, and usually involve a mutation involving genes that code for enzymes necessary for the catabolism of

text: very long chain fatty acids

text: (VLCFAs) that are toxic to the myelin-producing cells of the central nervous system.

text: Diagnosing encephalitis is done via a variety of tests:

text: Leigh disease (also called Leigh syndrome and subacute necrotizing encephalomyelopathy ) is a rare inherited neurometabolic disorder that affects the central nervous system. It is named after Archibald Denis Leigh, a British neuropsychiatrist who first described the condition in 1951.

text: Leigh disease (also called Leigh syndrome and subacute necrotizing encephalomyelopathy ) is a rare inherited neurometabolic disorder that affects the

text: central nervous system

text: . It is named after

text: Archibald Denis Leigh

text: , a British

text: neuropsychiatrist

text: who first described the condition in 1951.

text: A Meningeal biopsy is a biopsy performed of the meninges of the central nervous system.

text: A Meningeal biopsy is a

text: biopsy

text: performed of the

text: meninges

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: The onset of the disease results in proliferation of EBV-infected malignant B-cells and a cytotoxic T-cell response which in turn leads to organ infiltration and dysfunction of the affected organs. The disease typically always relapse after successful treatment due to inability of the immune system and current viral drugs to eliminate an EBV-infection. If the onset of the disease can be linked to use of immunosuppressive drugs then discontinuation of these drugs may hinder a relapse. Organs usually affected are the skin, lungs, central nervous system while liver and kidney are affected to lesser extent. The pulmonary complications are usually what leads to death, however, CNS involvement that affects up to one third of the patients can be very severe with mental status changes, ataxia, hemiparesis, seizures, unconsciousness and death, typically followed in that order.

text: The onset of the disease results in proliferation of EBV-infected malignant

text: B-cell

text: s and a cytotoxic

text: T-cell

text: response which in turn leads to organ infiltration and dysfunction of the affected organs. The disease typically always relapse after successful treatment due to inability of the immune system and current viral drugs to eliminate an EBV-infection. If the onset of the disease can be linked to use of immunosuppressive drugs then discontinuation of these drugs may hinder a relapse. Organs usually affected are the skin, lungs, central nervous system while liver and kidney are affected to lesser extent. The pulmonary complications are usually what leads to death, however, CNS involvement that affects up to one third of the patients can be very severe with mental status changes,

text: ataxia

text: hemiparesis

text: seizures

text: , unconsciousness and death, typically followed in that order.

text: Astellas' franchise areas are urology, immunology (transplantation), dermatology, cardiology, and infectious disease.  Priority areas for R&D are infectious diseases, diabetes, gastrointestinal diseases, oncology, and diseases of the central nervous system.

text: Astellas' franchise areas are

text: urology

text: immunology

text: transplantation

text: dermatology

text: cardiology

text: , and

text: infectious disease

text: .  Priority areas for R&D are

text: infectious disease

text: s,

text: diabetes

text: gastrointestinal disease

text: s,

text: oncology

text: , and diseases of the

text: central nervous system

text: In 15–20% of active cases, the infection spreads outside the lungs, causing other kinds of TB. These are collectively denoted as "extrapulmonary tuberculosis". Extrapulmonary TB occurs more commonly in immunosuppressed persons and young children. In those with HIV, this occurs in more than 50% of cases. Notable extrapulmonary infection sites include the pleura (in tuberculous pleurisy), the central nervous system (in tuberculous meningitis), the lymphatic system (in scrofula of the neck), the genitourinary system (in urogenital tuberculosis), and the bones and joints (in Pott disease of the spine), among others. When it spreads to the bones, it is also known as "osseous tuberculosis", a form of osteomyelitis. Sometimes, bursting of a tubercular abscess through skin results in tuberculous ulcer. An ulcer originating from nearby infected lymph nodes is painless, slowly enlarging and has an appearance of "wash leather". A potentially more serious, widespread form of TB is called "disseminated tuberculosis", also known as miliary tuberculosis. Miliary TB makes up about 10% of extrapulmonary cases.

text: In 15–20% of active cases, the infection spreads outside the lungs, causing other kinds of TB. These are collectively denoted as "extrapulmonary tuberculosis". Extrapulmonary TB occurs more commonly in

text: immunosuppressed

text: persons and young children. In those with HIV, this occurs in more than 50% of cases. Notable extrapulmonary infection sites include the

text: pleura

text: (in tuberculous pleurisy), the

text: central nervous system

text: (in tuberculous

text: meningitis

text: ), the

text: lymphatic system

text: (in

text: scrofula

text: of the neck), the

text: genitourinary system

text: (in

text: urogenital tuberculosis

text: ), and the bones and joints (in

text: Pott disease

text: of the spine), among others. When it spreads to the bones, it is also known as "osseous tuberculosis", a form of

text: osteomyelitis

text: . Sometimes, bursting of a tubercular abscess through skin results in tuberculous ulcer. An ulcer originating from nearby infected lymph nodes is painless, slowly enlarging and has an appearance of "wash leather". A potentially more serious, widespread form of TB is called "disseminated tuberculosis", also known as

text: miliary tuberculosis

text: . Miliary TB makes up about 10% of extrapulmonary cases.

text: Myoclonus can occur by itself, but most often as one of several symptoms associated with a variety of nervous system disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Opsoclonus Myoclonus, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, Lyme Disease and lupus. Myoclonic jerks commonly occur in persons with epilepsy, a disorder in which the electrical activity in the brain becomes disordered leading to seizures. It is also found in MERRF (Myoclonic Epilepsy with Ragged Red Fibers), a rare mitochondrial encephalomyopathy. Myoclonus can be a coexisting condition with Tourette syndrome.

text: Myoclonus can occur by itself, but most often as one of several symptoms associated with a variety of nervous system disorders, including

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Parkinson's disease

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: Opsoclonus Myoclonus

text: Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

text: Lyme Disease

text: and

text: lupus

text: . Myoclonic jerks commonly occur in persons with

text: epilepsy

text: , a disorder in which the electrical activity in the brain becomes disordered leading to seizures. It is also found in MERRF (

text: Myoclonic Epilepsy with Ragged Red Fibers

text: ), a rare

text: mitochondrial encephalomyopathy

text: . Myoclonus can be a coexisting condition with

text: Tourette syndrome

text: The peripheral nervous system is divided into somatic nervous system, sensory nervous systems, and autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control, and transmits signals from the brain to end organs such as muscle

text: The peripheral nervous system is divided into somatic nervous system, sensory nervous systems, and autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control, and transmits signals from the brain to end organs such as

text: muscle

text: Rocky Mountain spotted fever can be a very severe illness and patients often require hospitalization. Because R. rickettsii infects the cells lining blood vessels throughout the body, severe manifestations of this disease may involve the respiratory system, central nervous system, gastrointestinal system, or kidneys.

text: Rocky Mountain spotted fever can be a very severe illness and patients often require hospitalization. Because R. rickettsii infects the cells lining

text: blood vessel

text: s throughout the body, severe manifestations of this disease may involve the

text: respiratory system

text: central nervous system

text: gastrointestinal system

text: , or

text: kidneys

text: The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) is a part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH). It conducts and funds research on brain and nervous system disorders and has a budget of just over US$1.5 billion. The mission of NINDS is "to reduce the burden of neurological disease—a burden borne by every age group, every segment of society, and people all over the world". NINDS has established two major branches for research: an extramural branch that funds studies outside the NIH, and an intramural branch that funds research inside the NIH. Most of NINDS' budget goes to fund extramural research. NINDS' basic science research focuses on studies of the fundamental biology of the brain and nervous system, genetics, neurodegeneration, learning and memory, motor control, brain repair, and synapses. NINDS also funds clinical research related to diseases and disorders of the brain and nervous system, e.g. AIDS, Alzheimer disease, epilepsy, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson disease, spinal cord injury, stroke, and traumatic brain injury.

text: The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) is a part of the U.S.

text: National Institutes of Health

text: (NIH). It conducts and funds research on

text: brain

text: and

text: nervous system

text: disorders and has a budget of just over US$1.5 billion. The mission of NINDS is "to reduce the burden of neurological disease—a burden borne by every age group, every segment of society, and people all over the world". NINDS has established two major branches for research: an extramural branch that funds studies outside the NIH, and an intramural branch that funds research inside the NIH. Most of NINDS' budget goes to fund extramural research. NINDS' basic science research focuses on studies of the fundamental biology of the brain and nervous system,

text: genetics

text: , neurodegeneration, learning and memory, motor control, brain repair, and

text: synapses

text: . NINDS also funds clinical research related to diseases and disorders of the brain and nervous system, e.g.

text: AIDS

text: Alzheimer disease

text: epilepsy

text: muscular dystrophy

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Parkinson disease

text: spinal cord

text: injury,

text: stroke

text: , and

text: traumatic brain injury

text: Types of encephalitis include:

text: Types of encephalitis include:

text: Traumatic spinal cord damage causes a permanent loss of motor and sensory functions in the central nervous system, termed paraplegia or tetraplegia based on the site of the injury. Other detrimental effects may take place in the respiratory system and renal system as a result of the injury. Unlike the peripheral nervous system, the central nervous system is unable to regenerate damaged axons, so its synaptic connections are lost forever. Current treatment is limited and the primary potential methods are either controversial or noneffective. Studies dating back to the 1990s have begun researching the olfactory system of mammals, rats in particular, to gain a greater understanding of axonal regeneration and neurogenesis, and the possible implementation of these cells at the site of the spinal cord injury. Transplantation of OEG into the spinal cord has become a possible therapy for spinal cord damage and other neural diseases in animal models. Several recent studies have reported that preventing OEG inhibition will present a uniform population of cells in the spinal cord, creating an environment in which damaged axons can be repaired.  In October 2014, the Polish firefighter Darek Fidyka became the first paraplegic patient to regain mobility after OEG transplantation.

text: Traumatic spinal cord damage

text: causes a permanent loss of motor and sensory functions in the central nervous system, termed

text: paraplegia

text: or

text: tetraplegia

text: based on the site of the injury. Other detrimental effects may take place in the

text: respiratory system

text: and

text: renal system

text: as a result of the injury. Unlike the peripheral nervous system, the central nervous system is unable to regenerate damaged axons, so its synaptic connections are lost forever. Current treatment is limited and the primary potential methods are either controversial or noneffective. Studies dating back to the 1990s have begun researching the olfactory system of mammals, rats in particular, to gain a greater understanding of axonal regeneration and

text: neurogenesis

text: , and the possible implementation of these cells at the site of the spinal cord injury. Transplantation of OEG into the spinal cord has become a possible therapy for spinal cord damage and other neural diseases in animal models. Several recent studies have reported that preventing OEG inhibition will present a uniform population of cells in the spinal cord, creating an environment in which damaged axons can be repaired.  In October 2014, the Polish firefighter

text: Darek Fidyka

text: became the first paraplegic patient to regain mobility after OEG transplantation.

text: There are two approaches to treating Chagas disease: antiparasitic treatment, to kill the parasite; and symptomatic treatment, to manage the symptoms and signs of the infection. Management uniquely involves addressing selective incremental failure of the parasympathetic nervous system. Autonomic disease imparted by Chagas may eventually result in megaesophagus, megacolon and accelerated dilated cardiomyopathy. The mechanisms that explain why Chagas targets the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system and spares the sympathetic autonomic nervous system remain poorly understood.

text: There are two approaches to treating Chagas disease:

text: antiparasitic

text: treatment, to kill the parasite; and symptomatic treatment, to manage the symptoms and signs of the infection. Management uniquely involves addressing selective incremental failure of the parasympathetic nervous system. Autonomic disease imparted by Chagas may eventually result in megaesophagus, megacolon and accelerated dilated cardiomyopathy. The mechanisms that explain why Chagas targets the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system and spares the sympathetic autonomic nervous system remain poorly understood.

text: The great variation in insect respiratory cycles can largely be explained by differences in spiracle function, body size and metabolic rate. Gas exchange may occur through a single open spiracle, or the coordination of several spiracles. Spiracle function is controlled almost entirely by the nervous system. In most insects that demonstrate discontinuous gas exchange, spiracle movements and active ventilation are closely coordinated by the nervous system to generate unidirectional air flow within the tracheal system. This coordination leads to the highly regulated bursting pattern of CO release. Building CO levels during the flutter phase may either directly affect spiracular opening, affect the nervous system while being pumped through the haemolymph, or both. However, the effects of CO on both spiracles and the nervous system do not appear to be related to changes in pH.

text: The great variation in

text: insect

text: respiratory cycles can largely be explained by differences in

text: spiracle

text: function, body size and

text: metabolic rate

text: Gas exchange

text: may occur through a single open spiracle, or the coordination of several spiracles. Spiracle function is controlled almost entirely by the

text: nervous system

text: . In most insects that demonstrate discontinuous gas exchange, spiracle movements and active ventilation are closely coordinated by the nervous system to generate unidirectional air flow within the tracheal system. This coordination leads to the highly regulated bursting pattern of CO release. Building CO levels during the flutter phase may either directly affect spiracular opening, affect the nervous system while being pumped through the

text: haemolymph

text: , or both. However, the effects of CO on both spiracles and the nervous system do not appear to be related to changes in

text: pH

text: At the tissue level, the nervous system is composed of neurons, glial cells, and extracellular matrix. Both neurons and glial cells come in many types (see, for example, the nervous system section of the list of distinct cell types in the adult human body). Neurons are the information-processing cells of the nervous system: they sense our environment, communicate with each other via electrical signals and chemicals called neurotransmitters across synapses, and produce our memories, thoughts and movements. Glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce myelin, and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons. Some glial cells (astrocytes) can even propagate intercellular calcium waves over long distances in response to stimulation, and release gliotransmitters in response to changes in calcium concentration. The extracellular matrix also provides support on the molecular level for the brain's cells.

text: At the tissue level, the nervous system is composed of

text: neurons

text: glial cells

text: , and

text: extracellular matrix

text: . Both neurons and glial cells come in many types (see, for example, the nervous system section of the

entity_name: List of distinct cell types in the adult human body

text: list of distinct cell types in the adult human body

text: ). Neurons are the information-processing cells of the nervous system: they sense our environment, communicate with each other via electrical signals and chemicals called neurotransmitters across

text: synapse

text: s, and produce our memories, thoughts and movements. Glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce

text: myelin

text: , and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons. Some glial cells (

text: astrocytes

text: ) can even propagate intercellular

text: calcium waves

text: over long distances in response to stimulation, and release

text: gliotransmitter

text: s in response to changes in calcium concentration. The

text: extracellular matrix

text: also provides support on the molecular level for the brain's cells.

text: Restorative neurology is a branch of neurology dedicated to improve functions of the impaired nervous system through selective structural or functional modification of abnormal neurocontrol according to underlying mechanisms and clinically unrecognized residual functions.  It is applied in a wide range of disorders of the nervous system, including upper motor neuron dysfunctions like spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis and acquired brain injury including stroke, and neuromuscular diseases as well as for control of pain and spasticity. Instead of applying a reconstructive neurobiological approach, i.e. structural modifications, restorative neurology relies on improving residual function.

text: Restorative neurology is a branch of

text: neurology

text: dedicated to improve functions of the impaired

text: nervous system

text: through selective structural or functional modification of abnormal neurocontrol according to underlying mechanisms and clinically unrecognized residual functions.  It is applied in a wide range of disorders of the nervous system, including

text: upper motor neuron dysfunctions

text: like

text: spinal cord injury

text: cerebral palsy

text: multiple sclerosis

text: and

text: acquired brain injury

text: including

text: stroke

text: , and

text: neuromuscular disease

text: s as well as for control of

text: pain

text: and

text: spasticity

text: . Instead of applying a reconstructive

text: neurobiological

text: approach, i.e. structural modifications, restorative neurology relies on improving residual function.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of two subsystems: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. When a physical stressor acts upon the body the sensory-somatic nervous system is triggered through stimulation of the body's sensory nerves. The signal acts as a nerve impulse and travels through the body in a process of electrical cell-to-cell communication until it reaches the autonomic nervous system. Activation of the autonomic nervous system immediately triggers a series of involuntary chemical responses throughout the body.  Preganglionic neurons release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). This stimulates postganglionic neurons which release noradrenaline. The noradrenaline flows directly into the bloodstream ensuring that all cells in the body's nervous and endocrine systems have been activated even in areas which the ganglionic neurons are unable to reach.

text: The

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) consists of two subsystems: the

text: somatic nervous system

text: and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . When a physical stressor acts upon the body the sensory-somatic nervous system is triggered through stimulation of the body's

text: sensory nerves

text: . The signal acts as a nerve impulse and travels through the body in a process of electrical cell-to-cell communication until it reaches the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . Activation of the autonomic nervous system immediately triggers a series of involuntary chemical responses throughout the body.

text: Preganglionic neurons

text: release the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: (ACh). This stimulates

text: postganglionic neurons

text: which release

text: noradrenaline

text: . The noradrenaline flows directly into the bloodstream ensuring that all cells in the body's nervous and endocrine systems have been activated even in areas which the ganglionic neurons are unable to reach.

text: The peripheral nervous system is then composed of three sub-systems: the somatic nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the visceral nervous system.  The autonomic nervous system is also broken down into the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system.  The nervous system responsible for voluntary motion, including lower limb motion, is the somatic nervous system.  Though the somatic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system, motion also involves use of elements of the central nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord.

text: The peripheral nervous system is then composed of three sub-systems: the

text: somatic nervous system

text: , the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , and the

text: visceral nervous system

text: .  The autonomic nervous system is also broken down into the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: , and the

text: enteric nervous system

text: .  The nervous system responsible for voluntary motion, including lower limb motion, is the

text: somatic nervous system

text: .  Though the somatic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system, motion also involves use of elements of the central nervous system: the

text: brain

text: and the

text: spinal cord

text: Histoplasma duboisii infections have been known to occur in HIV patients in endemic zones, particularly in individuals whose CD4+ cell count is below 50 cells/mm. These infections are often of the disseminated type. Unlike classical histoplasmosis, infections caused by H. duboisii are often restricted to the skin or subcutaneous layer occasionally involving bone. It is most frequently seen in immunodeficient individuals although the disease is well known in the immunocompetent. Lung disease manifesting as classical miliary infiltrates and nodular lesions has also been recorded. Superficial cutaneous lesions are characterized by nodules and papules that may ulcerate at a later stage of disease progression. A hyperpigmented halo sometimes surrounds the nodule. Subcutaneous lesions are warm, firm and tender, sometimes rupturing to release a yellowish discharge containing the fungus prior to evolving into cold abscesses. Subcutaneous lesions may also develop draining sinuses. Lesions can be localised or disseminated, appearing simultaneously and sometimes in large numbers. Disseminated disease is especially common in immunocompromised individuals, and can involve any organs but infection of the heart and central nervous system are rare. Dissemination to lymph nodes and visceral organs is associated with high mortality. The ability of yeast cells to multiply within phagocytic cells contributes to the formation of pus-producing necrotic granulomas. Uncommonly, both H. duboisii and H. capsulatum have been found to co-occur in immunosuppressed patients with HIV disease. It has also been known to co-occur with Aspergillus fumigatus, Pseudallescheria boydii, Microsporum gypseum, Malbranchea gypsea and species of Chrysosporium. Fewer than 300 cases reports of African histoplasmosis are known prior to 2007, and the disease is thought to be significantly under-reported.

text: Histoplasma duboisii infections have been known to occur in

text: HIV

text: patients in endemic zones, particularly in individuals whose

text: + cell count is below 50 cells/mm. These infections are often of the disseminated type. Unlike classical histoplasmosis, infections caused by H. duboisii are often restricted to the

text: skin

text: or

text: subcutaneous layer

text: occasionally involving

text: bone

text: . It is most frequently seen in immunodeficient individuals although the disease is well known in the immunocompetent. Lung disease manifesting as classical miliary infiltrates and nodular lesions has also been recorded. Superficial cutaneous lesions are characterized by

text: nodules

text: and

text: papule

text: s that may ulcerate at a later stage of disease progression. A hyperpigmented halo sometimes surrounds the nodule. Subcutaneous lesions are warm, firm and tender, sometimes rupturing to release a yellowish discharge containing the fungus prior to evolving into

text: cold abscess

text: es. Subcutaneous lesions may also develop draining sinuses. Lesions can be localised or disseminated, appearing simultaneously and sometimes in large numbers. Disseminated disease is especially common in

text: immunocompromised

text: individuals, and can involve any organs but infection of the

text: heart

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: are rare. Dissemination to

text: lymph node

text: s and visceral organs is associated with high mortality. The ability of yeast cells to multiply within

text: phagocytic cells

text: contributes to the formation of

text: pus

text: -producing

text: necrotic

text: granuloma

text: s. Uncommonly, both H. duboisii and H. capsulatum have been found to co-occur in immunosuppressed patients with HIV disease. It has also been known to co-occur with

text: Aspergillus fumigatus

text: Pseudallescheria boydii

text: Microsporum gypseum

text: , Malbranchea gypsea and species of

text: Chrysosporium

text: . Fewer than 300 cases reports of African histoplasmosis are known prior to 2007, and the disease is thought to be significantly under-reported.

text: Dural ectasia, the weakening of the connective tissue of the dural sac encasing the spinal cord, can result in a loss of quality of life. It can be present for a long time without producing any noticeable symptoms. Symptoms that can occur are lower back pain, leg pain, abdominal pain, other neurological symptoms in the lower extremities, or headachessymptoms which usually diminish when lying flat. On X-ray however dural ectasia is not often visible in the early stages. A worsening of symptoms might warrant an MRI of the lower spine. Dural ectasia that has progressed to this stage would appear in an MRI as a dilated pouch wearing away at the lumbar vertebrae. Other spinal issues associated with Marfan syndrome include degenerative disc disease, spinal cysts and dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system.

text: Dural ectasia

text: , the weakening of the connective tissue of the dural sac encasing the

text: spinal cord

text: , can result in a loss of

text: quality of life

text: . It can be present for a long time without producing any noticeable symptoms. Symptoms that can occur are lower back pain, leg pain, abdominal pain, other neurological symptoms in the lower extremities, or headachessymptoms which usually diminish when lying flat. On

text: X-ray

text: however dural ectasia is not often visible in the early stages. A worsening of symptoms might warrant an

text: MRI

text: of the lower spine. Dural ectasia that has progressed to this stage would appear in an MRI as a dilated pouch wearing away at the

text: lumbar vertebrae

text: . Other spinal issues associated with Marfan syndrome include

text: degenerative disc disease

text: , spinal

text: cyst

text: s and

text: dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system

text: The simulation of disease states is of particular interest, as modeling both the neurons and their genes and proteins allows linking genetic mutations and protein abnormalities to pathological effects in the central nervous system. Among those diseases suggested as being possible targets of computational neurogenetic modeling based analysis are epilepsy, schizophrenia, mental retardation, brain aging and Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease.

text: In 2012, E. rostratum was responsible for the nationwide outbreak of fungal meningitis in the U.S caused by contaminated corticosteroid injections from the New England Compounding Center (NECC) in Framingham, Massachusetts. As of October 23, 2013, there were 751 total infected individuals with 64 total deaths. Three hundred and twenty-five individuals presented with spinal or paraspinal infections, 233 of whom had meningitis and the balance presented with paraspinal or peripheral joint infections. In this incident, E.rostratum became highly virulent in the host after inoculation of the fungus into the spine. The preservative-free methylprednisolone acetate (MPA) injection caused limited immunological responsiveness at the site of inoculation, allowed the fungus to be vasculotropic thus resulting in a necrotizing fatal disease of the Central nervous system (CNS).  Post-mortem histological analysis also revealed that E. rostratum was angioinvasive, eliciting an inflammatory response with neutrophil predominance.

text: In 2012, E. rostratum was responsible for the nationwide outbreak of fungal meningitis in the U.S caused by contaminated corticosteroid injections from the

text: New England Compounding Center

text: (NECC) in Framingham, Massachusetts. As of October 23, 2013, there were 751 total infected individuals with 64 total deaths. Three hundred and twenty-five individuals presented with spinal or paraspinal infections, 233 of whom had meningitis and the balance presented with paraspinal or peripheral joint infections. In this incident, E.rostratum became highly virulent in the host after inoculation of the fungus into the spine. The preservative-free

text: methylprednisolone

text: acetate (MPA) injection caused limited immunological responsiveness at the site of inoculation, allowed the fungus to be vasculotropic thus resulting in a necrotizing fatal disease of the Central nervous system (CNS).  Post-mortem histological analysis also revealed that E. rostratum was angioinvasive, eliciting an inflammatory response with neutrophil predominance.

text: There are five main causes of infections of the central nervous system (CNS): bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal, and prionic.

text: There are five main causes of

text: infection

text: s of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS):

text: bacteria

text: l,

text: viral

text: fungal

text: protozoa

text: l, and

text: prion

text: ic.

text: Evolution of the mandible has also been hypothesized to provide the necessary physiology required for speech. However, these changes are also linked to the development of obstructive sleep apnea. Furthermore, the evolution of the maxilo-mandibular system has been linked to encephalization. As the jaw changed and the muscles become weaker, the pressure on the cranial sutures lowered, and encephalization occurred. In addition, the overall changes in the mandible and the maxilla have led to the ability for humans to speak.

text: Doggett begins looking into ways to save Reyes, noting an anomaly in her electrocardiograph that suggests stifled brain activity. While visiting her room, Doggett runs into Audrey who tells her that Reyes' soul is not gone yet. Audrey walks to her room in the basement, where a model of the hospital has been built. By concentrating her mind, she is able to move into the floating hospital where Reyes is trapped. Once there, she finds Reyes who asks her to tell Doggett that he's a "dog person", a reference to a conversation the two had before Reyes' crash. After relaying the message, Doggett is determined that Reyes is not gone and, following Audrey, learns about her hospital model.

text: Doggett begins looking into ways to save Reyes, noting an anomaly in her

text: electrocardiograph

text: that suggests stifled brain activity. While visiting her room, Doggett runs into Audrey who tells her that Reyes' soul is not gone yet. Audrey walks to her room in the basement, where a model of the hospital has been built. By concentrating her mind, she is able to move into the floating hospital where Reyes is trapped. Once there, she finds Reyes who asks her to tell Doggett that he's a "dog person", a reference to a conversation the two had before Reyes' crash. After relaying the message, Doggett is determined that Reyes is not gone and, following Audrey, learns about her hospital model.

text: Parkinson' disease causes constipation and gastric dysmotility that is severe enough to endanger comfort and even health. A factor in this is the appearance of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites even before these affect the functioning of the substantia nigra in the neurons in the enteric nervous system that control gut functions.

text: Parkinson' disease causes

text: constipation

text: and

text: gastric dysmotility

text: that is severe enough to endanger comfort and even health. A factor in this is the appearance of Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites even before these affect the functioning of the substantia nigra in the neurons in the

text: enteric nervous system

text: that control gut functions.

text: The complaint avers that as a proximate result of the foregoing negligence plaintiff was released from the San Jose Hospital without proper diagnosis and treatment of her battered child syndrome, and was returned to the custody of her mother and Reyes who resumed physically abusing her until she sustained traumatic blows to her right eye and back, puncture wounds over her left lower leg and across her back, severe bites on her face, and second and third degree burns on her left hand.

text: The complaint avers that as a proximate result of the foregoing negligence plaintiff was released from the San Jose Hospital without proper diagnosis and treatment of her

text: battered child syndrome

text: , and was returned to the custody of her mother and Reyes who resumed physically abusing her until she sustained traumatic blows to her right eye and back, puncture wounds over her left lower leg and across her back, severe bites on her face, and second and third degree burns on her left hand.

text: Saint Louis encephalitis is a disease caused by the Mansonia pseudotitillans mosquito borne Saint Louis encephalitis virus. Saint Louis encephalitis virus is related to Japanese encephalitis virus and is a member of the Flaviviridae subgroup. This disease mainly affects the United States. Occasional cases have been reported from Canada and Mexico.

text: Saint Louis encephalitis is a disease caused by the

text: Mansonia pseudotitillans

text: mosquito

text: borne Saint Louis encephalitis virus. Saint Louis encephalitis virus is related to

text: Japanese encephalitis virus

text: and is a member of the

text: Flaviviridae

text: subgroup. This disease mainly affects the United States. Occasional cases have been reported from Canada and Mexico.

text: In general, the word choline refers to the various quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation. Found in most animal tissues, choline is a primary component of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and functions with inositol as a basic constituent of lecithin. It prevents fat deposits in the liver and facilitates the movement of fats into the cells. The richest sources of choline are liver, kidney, brain, wheat germ, brewer's yeast, and egg yolk. Neurologically, cholinergic is the abbreviated term referring to acetylcholine.  The parasympathetic nervous system, which uses acetylcholine almost exclusively to send its messages, is said to be almost entirely cholinergic. Neuromuscular junctions, preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, the basal forebrain, and brain stem complexes are also cholinergic. In addition, the receptor for the merocrine sweat glands are also cholinergic, since acetylcholine is released from postganglionic sympathetic neurons.

text: In general, the word

text: choline

text: refers to the various

text: quaternary ammonium salts

text: containing the

text: N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium

text: cation

text: . Found in most animal tissues, choline is a primary component of the

text: neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: and functions with

text: inositol

text: as a basic constituent of

text: lecithin

text: . It prevents fat deposits in the liver and facilitates the movement of fats into the cells. The richest sources of choline are liver, kidney, brain, wheat germ, brewer's yeast, and egg yolk. Neurologically, cholinergic is the abbreviated term referring to

text: acetylcholine

text: .  The

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: , which uses acetylcholine almost exclusively to send its messages, is said to be almost entirely cholinergic. Neuromuscular junctions, preganglionic neurons of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , the

text: basal forebrain

text: , and brain stem complexes are also cholinergic. In addition, the receptor for the merocrine sweat glands are also cholinergic, since acetylcholine is released from postganglionic sympathetic neurons.

text: There is no penetration into the central nervous system and therefore cefazolin is not effective in treating meningitis.

text: There is no penetration into the

text: central nervous system

text: and therefore cefazolin is not effective in treating meningitis.

text: Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. A useful mnemonic to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system is SSLUDD (sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion and defecation).

text: Sympathetic

text: and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. A useful mnemonic to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system is SSLUDD (

text: sexual arousal

text: saliva

text: tion,

text: lacrimation

text: urination

text: digestion

text: and

text: defecation

text: Several snakes have been seen with proliferative pneumonia, while inclusions are commonly seen in the liver, kidney, and pancreas. Cases have also been observed where there are only very few inclusions. In a few snakes with signs of central nervous system disease, and with a severe encephalitis, no inclusions have been seen in any cells. While the presence of characteristic inclusions is diagnostic for the disease, the absence of such inclusions does not necessarily indicate that the snake is not diseased or is free from the IBD virus. While cells having inclusions may show mild degenerative changes, inflammation is rarely seen in visceral tissues. In the brain, mild to severe encephalitis occurs, with lymphocytic perivascular cuffing. Several snakes with lymphoproliferative disorders have been identified with lymphoid infiltrates in multiple organs.

text: Acid-Sensing Ion Channels (ASICs) are neuronal voltage-insensitive sodium channels activated by extracellular protons. ASIC proteins are a subfamily of the ENaC/Deg superfamily of ion channels. In mammalian genomes, the ASIC is encoded by five genes, ASIC1, ASIC2, ASIC3, ASIC4, and ASIC5. These genes have splice variants that encode for several isoforms that are marked by a suffix. For example, two major products of ASIC1 gene are called as ASIC1a and ASIC1b. ASICs are trimeric and can be made up of different combinations of subunits. ASIC2b is non-functional on its own but modulates channel activity when participating in heteromultimers. ASIC4 has no known function. All ASICs are expressed in the peripheral nervous system while ASIC1a, 2a, 2b, 3 and 4 are expressed in the central nervous system. ASICs are Na permeable with ASIC1a showing low Ca permeability.

text: Acid-Sensing Ion Channels (ASICs) are neuronal voltage-insensitive sodium channels activated by extracellular protons. ASIC proteins are a subfamily of the

text: ENaC

text: /Deg superfamily of

text: ion channels

text: . In mammalian genomes, the ASIC is encoded by five genes,

text: , and

text: . These genes have

text: splice variant

text: s that encode for several isoforms that are marked by a suffix. For example, two major products of ASIC1 gene are called as ASIC1a and ASIC1b. ASICs are trimeric and can be made up of different combinations of subunits. ASIC2b is non-functional on its own but modulates channel activity when participating in heteromultimers. ASIC4 has no known function. All ASICs are expressed in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: while ASIC1a, 2a, 2b, 3 and 4 are expressed in the

text: central nervous system

text: . ASICs are Na permeable with ASIC1a showing low Ca permeability.

text: Harlequin syndrome is a condition characterized by asymmetric sweating and flushing on the upper thoracic region of the chest, the neck, and the face.  It is caused by sustaining an injury to the sympathetic nervous system.  Listed as a rare disease, Harlequin syndrome affects fewer than 200,000 people in the United States.

text: Harlequin syndrome is a condition characterized by

text: asymmetric

text: sweating and flushing on the

text: upper thoracic

text: region of the chest, the neck, and the face.  It is caused by sustaining an injury to the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: .  Listed as a

text: rare disease

text: , Harlequin syndrome affects fewer than 200,000 people in the United States.

text: He published the Handbook on Diseases of the Nervous System in 1898.

text: The ancient Greeks also dissected the nervous system. For example, Aristotle (although he misunderstood the function of the brain) describes the meninges and also distinguishes between the cerebrum and the cerebellum. Slightly later, in Rome, Galen performed many dissections of the nervous system in a variety of species, including the ape. One particular discovery he made was of the importance of the recurrent laryngeal nerves. Originally, he cut through them accidentally while performing an experiment on the nerves that control breathing by vivisection of a strapped-down, squealing pig. The pig immediately stopped squealing, but continued struggling. Galen then performed the same experiment on a variety of animals, including dogs, goats, bears, lions, cows and monkeys, finding similar results each time. Finally, to publicise this new result, Galen demonstrated the experiment on a pair of pigs to a large audience in Rome, telling them: "there is a hairlike pair [of nerves] in the muscles of the larynx on both left and right, which if ligated or cut render the animal speechless without damaging either its life or functional activity"

text: The ancient Greeks also dissected the nervous system. For example,

text: Aristotle

text: (although he misunderstood the function of the brain) describes the meninges and also distinguishes between the

text: cerebrum

text: and the

text: cerebellum

text: . Slightly later, in Rome,

text: Galen

text: performed many dissections of the

text: nervous system

text: in a variety of species, including the ape. One particular discovery he made was of the importance of the

text: recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: s. Originally, he cut through them accidentally while performing an experiment on the nerves that control breathing by

text: vivisection

text: of a strapped-down, squealing pig. The pig immediately stopped squealing, but continued struggling. Galen then performed the same experiment on a variety of animals, including dogs, goats, bears, lions, cows and monkeys, finding similar results each time. Finally, to publicise this new result, Galen demonstrated the experiment on a pair of pigs to a large audience in Rome, telling them: "there is a hairlike pair [of nerves] in the muscles of the larynx on both left and right, which if ligated or cut render the animal speechless without damaging either its life or functional activity"

text: Neuroepithelial cells are the "stem cells" of the nervous system, deriving from actual stem cells in several different stages of neural development. These neural stem cells then differentiate further into multiple types of cells, like neurons, astrocytes and other glial cells. They appear during embryonic development of the neural tube as well as in adult neurogenesis in specific areas of the central nervous system. They are also associated with several neurodegenerative diseases. These cells have often been called neuroblasts in an effort to delineate them as precursors to neurons and glial cells.

text: Neuroepithelial cells are the "stem cells" of the nervous system, deriving from actual

text: stem cells

text: in several different stages of neural development. These neural stem cells then differentiate further into multiple types of cells, like

text: neuron

text: s,

text: astrocyte

text: s and other

text: glial cell

text: s. They appear during embryonic development of the

text: neural tube

text: as well as in adult

text: neurogenesis

text: in specific areas of the

text: central nervous system

text: . They are also associated with several

text: neurodegenerative disease

text: s. These cells have often been called

text: neuroblast

text: s in an effort to delineate them as precursors to neurons and glial cells.

text: A system on a module (SOM) is a Board level circuit that integrates a system function in a single module. This is analogous to a system as referred to in the life sciences as in the human body - digestive-system, and nervous system that go to form functional humans or organisms. The organism being an equivalent of a computer, robot, automotive etc. It may integrate digital and analog functions on a single board.  A typical application is in the area of embedded systems. Unlike a Single Board computer, SOM serves a special function like a SoC. The device integrated on the SOM typically requires a high level of interconnection for reasons such as speed, timing, bus-width etc., in a highly integrated module. There are benefits in building an SOM, as for SoC, one notable result is to reduce the cost of the base board or the main PCB.  A major advantage of SOM is design-reuse and that it can be integrated into many embedded computer applications.

text: A system on a module (SOM) is a Board level circuit that integrates a system function in a single module. This is analogous to a system as referred to in the life sciences as in the human body - digestive-system, and nervous system that go to form functional humans or organisms. The organism being an equivalent of a computer,

text: robot

text: automotive

text: etc. It may integrate digital and analog functions on a single board.  A typical application is in the area of

text: embedded systems

text: . Unlike a Single Board computer, SOM serves a special function like a

text: SoC

text: . The device integrated on the SOM typically requires a high level of interconnection for reasons such as speed, timing, bus-width etc., in a highly integrated module. There are benefits in building an SOM, as for SoC, one notable result is to reduce the cost of the base board or the main PCB.  A major advantage of SOM is design-reuse and that it can be integrated into many embedded computer applications.

text: 40 doctoral degrees and over 150 PhD's of sciences were presented in his Institute, many of them are chiefs of major scientific centers in Ukraine and other republics. It is noteworthy that under the leadership of Amosov, one of his disciples Victor Skumin discovered a previously unknown disease. Now it is called Skumin syndrome (a disorder of the central nervous system of some patients after a prosthetic heart valve).

text: 40 doctoral degrees and over 150 PhD's of sciences were presented in his Institute, many of them are chiefs of major scientific centers in Ukraine and other republics. It is noteworthy that under the leadership of Amosov, one of his disciples

text: Victor Skumin

text: discovered a previously unknown disease. Now it is called

text: Skumin syndrome

text: (a disorder of the

text: central nervous system

text: of some

text: patient

text: s after a

text: prosthetic heart valve

text: Meningohydroencephalocoele (AmE: meningohydroencephalocele) is a form of meningocele (AmE) - a developmental abnormality of the central nervous system.

text: Meningohydroencephalocoele (

text: AmE

text: : meningohydroencephalocele) is a form of

text: meningocele

text: AmE

text: ) - a

text: developmental abnormality

text: of the central nervous system.

text: Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices or the (b) midline diencephalic region, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.  There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease can also affect memory and cognition.Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder that affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored.  Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory by widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons within the prefrontal cortex.

text: Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as

text: amnesia

text: . Amnesia can result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices or the (b) midline diencephalic region, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.  There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other

text: neurological

text: disorders such as

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: and

text: Parkinson's disease

text: can also affect memory and cognition.

text: Hyperthymesia

text: , or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder that affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored.

text: Korsakoff's syndrome

text: , also known as Korsakoff's psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory by widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons within the prefrontal cortex.

text: Pigeons infected with S. calchasi show a biphasic disease with polyuria, diarrhea and apathy. In the later periods of infection, severe central nervous signs such as torticollis and opisthotonus associated with severe brain lesions have been observed. Mature tissue cysts were observed in skeletal muscles in the post infection stage. Encephalitis has been reported to be associated with the schizont stage of the parasite’s development.

text: Data support an association between exposure to salicylic acid and Reye's Syndrome. The National Reye's Syndrome Foundation cautions against the use of these and other substances similar to aspirin on children and adolescents. Epidemiological research associated the development of Reye's Syndrome and the use of aspirin for treating the symptoms of influenza-like illnesses, chicken pox, colds, etc. The U.S. Surgeon General, the FDA, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend that aspirin and combination products containing aspirin not be given to children under 19 years of age during episodes of fever-causing illnesses.

text: Data support an association between exposure to salicylic acid and

text: Reye's Syndrome

text: . The National Reye's Syndrome Foundation cautions against the use of these and other substances similar to aspirin on children and adolescents. Epidemiological research associated the development of Reye's Syndrome and the use of aspirin for treating the symptoms of influenza-like illnesses, chicken pox, colds, etc. The U.S. Surgeon General, the FDA, the

text: and the

text: American Academy of Pediatrics

text: recommend that aspirin and combination products containing aspirin not be given to children under 19 years of age during episodes of fever-causing illnesses.

text: Neurolixis is a biopharmaceutical company focused on novel drugs for the treatment of human central nervous system diseases.

text: The mortality rate of the virus largely depends on the immune status of the infected dogs.  Puppies experience the highest mortality rate, where complications such as pneumonia and encephalitis are more common.  In older dogs that develop distemper encephalomyelitis, vestibular disease may present. Around 15% of canine inflammatory central nervous system diseases are a result of CDV.

text: The mortality rate of the virus largely depends on the immune status of the infected dogs.  Puppies experience the highest mortality rate, where complications such as

text: pneumonia

text: and

text: encephalitis

text: are more common.  In older dogs that develop distemper

text: encephalomyelitis

text: vestibular disease

text: may present. Around 15% of canine inflammatory central nervous system diseases are a result of CDV.

text: Each form of the disease is caused by the differences in the various mutations of the genome, in particular the codons on the 14 exons in the HEX B gene located within chromosome 5 (see figure bottom), leading to the differences in severities of the symptoms.  The difference in the codons has the consequence of inhibiting two enzymes located in the lysosomes of the neurons of the central nervous system. Lysosomes contain various enzymes to break down byproducts and toxins to ensure they do not accumulate enough to interfere with the function of the central nervous system.

text: Each form of the disease is caused by the differences in the various mutations of the genome, in particular the

text: codons

text: on the 14

text: exons

text: in the HEX B gene located within chromosome 5 (see figure bottom), leading to the differences in severities of the symptoms.  The difference in the codons has the consequence of inhibiting two enzymes located in the

text: lysosome

text: s of the neurons of the central nervous system.

text: Lysosomes

text: contain various enzymes to break down byproducts and toxins to ensure they do not accumulate enough to interfere with the function of the central nervous system.

text: Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy and stereotyped organization of nervous systems. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems, and thus we can make much more precise statements about their neuroanatomy. In vertebrates, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the brain and spinal cord (together called the central nervous system, or CNS) and the routes of the nerves that connect to the rest of the body (known as the peripheral nervous system, or PNS). The delineation of distinct structures and regions of the nervous system has been critical in investigating how it works. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or "lesions" to specific brain areas affects behavior or other neural functions.

text: Neuroanatomy is the study of the

text: anatomy

text: and stereotyped organization of

text: nervous system

text: s. In contrast to animals with

text: radial symmetry

text: , whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with

text: bilateral symmetry

text: have segregated, defined nervous systems, and thus we can make much more precise statements about their neuroanatomy. In

text: vertebrates

text: , the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: (together called the

text: central nervous system

text: , or CNS) and the routes of the nerves that connect to the rest of the body (known as the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , or PNS). The delineation of distinct structures and regions of the nervous system has been critical in investigating how it works. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or "lesions" to specific brain areas affects

text: behavior

text: or other neural functions.

text: Neurology is the medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. It deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems.

text: Neurology

text: is the medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. It deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems.

text: On May 3, 2009, Reyes was placed on the DL due to a calf injury. Reyes was expected to be back in early June but when rehabbing the injury he pulled himself from an extended spring training game; an MRI the following day revealed the tear, which Reyes confirmed was different than the initial injury. A September return was considered possible but he suffered yet another injury, a torn right hamstring while doing rehab work in August.

text: Because many other body systems, including the vascular, nervous, and integumentary systems, are interrelated, disorders of one of these systems may also affect the musculoskeletal system and complicate the diagnosis of the disorder's origin. Diseases of the musculoskeletal system mostly encompass functional disorders or motion discrepancies; the level of impairment depends specifically on the problem and its severity. In a study of hospitalizations in the United States, the most common inpatient OR procedures in 2012 involved the musculoskeletal system: knee arthroplasty, laminectomy, hip replacement, and spinal fusion.

text: Because many other body systems, including the

text: vascular

text: nervous

text: , and

text: integumentary system

text: s, are interrelated, disorders of one of these systems may also affect the musculoskeletal system and complicate the diagnosis of the disorder's origin. Diseases of the musculoskeletal system mostly encompass functional disorders or motion discrepancies; the level of impairment depends specifically on the problem and its severity. In a study of hospitalizations in the United States, the most common inpatient OR procedures in 2012 involved the musculoskeletal system: knee arthroplasty, laminectomy, hip replacement, and spinal fusion.

text: Alphaherpesvirinae is a subfamily of Herpesviridae, primarily distinguished by reproducing more quickly than other subfamilies of Herpesviridae. In animal virology the most important herpesviruses belong to the Alphaherpesvirinae. Pseudorabies virus is the causative agent of Aujeszky's disease in pigs and bovine herpesvirus 1 is the causative agent of bovine infectious rhinotracheitis and pustular vulvovaginitis. Mammals serve as natural hosts. There are currently 37 species in this subfamily, divided among 5 genera. Diseases associated with this subfamily include: HHV-1 and HHV-2: skin vesicles or mucosal ulcers, rarely encephalitis and meningitis HHV-3: chickenpox (varicella) and shingles gaHV-2: Marek's disease.

text: Alphaherpesvirinae is a subfamily of

text: Herpesviridae

text: , primarily distinguished by reproducing more quickly than other subfamilies of Herpesviridae. In

text: animal virology

text: the most important herpesviruses belong to the Alphaherpesvirinae.

text: Pseudorabies virus

text: is the causative agent of

text: Aujeszky's disease

text: in pigs and bovine herpesvirus 1 is the causative agent of bovine infectious rhinotracheitis and pustular vulvovaginitis. Mammals serve as natural hosts. There are currently 37 species in this subfamily, divided among 5 genera. Diseases associated with this subfamily include: HHV-1 and HHV-2: skin vesicles or mucosal ulcers, rarely encephalitis and meningitis HHV-3: chickenpox (varicella) and shingles gaHV-2:

text: Marek's disease

text: His discovery of the metabotropic glutamate receptors opened a major new research area and currently the G-protein coupled metabotropic glutamate receptors (GRMs/mGluRs) have been implicated in the aetiology of schizophrenia, in amyloid beta-peptide toxicity, Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and Fragile X syndrome. His discovery of adult mammalian central nervous system stem cells has generated two new and important perspectives. First, neural development continues throughout the lifetime of adult mammals. Second, insights into ongoing adult cell production will allow for the use of stem cells to repair neural tissue and allow for functional recovery from brain and spinal cord injury or disease. Dr. Weiss has shown how prolactin increases the production of new brain cells and that new stem cell-generated brain cells can be redirected to part of the rodent brain that are damaged after stroke which results in partial improvement of the animals ability to move its limbs. Currently he is trying to link the two to aid stroke recovery.

text: His discovery of the metabotropic glutamate receptors opened a major new research area and currently the G-protein coupled metabotropic glutamate receptors (

text: GRMs/mGluRs

text: ) have been implicated in the aetiology of

text: schizophrenia

text: , in

text: amyloid beta-peptide toxicity

text: Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

text: and

text: Fragile X syndrome

text: . His discovery of adult mammalian central nervous system stem cells has generated two new and important perspectives. First, neural development continues throughout the lifetime of adult mammals. Second, insights into ongoing adult cell production will allow for the use of stem cells to repair

text: neural tissue

text: and allow for functional recovery from brain and spinal cord injury or disease. Dr. Weiss has shown how

text: prolactin

text: increases the production of new brain cells and that new stem cell-generated brain cells can be redirected to part of the rodent brain that are damaged after

text: stroke

text: which results in partial improvement of the animals ability to move its limbs. Currently he is trying to link the two to aid stroke recovery.

text: The committee recommended that all benzodiazepine treatment be withdrawn gradually and recommended that benzodiazepine treatment be used only in carefully selected patients and that therapy be limited to short-term use only. It was noted in the review that alcohol can potentiate the central nervous system-depressant effects of benzodiazepines and should be avoided. The central nervous system-depressant effects of benzodiazepines may make driving or operating machinery dangerous, and the elderly are more prone to these adverse effects. High single doses or repeated low doses have been reported to produce hypotonia, poor sucking, and hypothermia in the neonate, and irregularities in the fetal heart. The committee recommended that benzodiazepines be avoided in lactation.

text: The committee recommended that all benzodiazepine treatment be withdrawn gradually and recommended that benzodiazepine treatment be used only in carefully selected patients and that therapy be limited to short-term use only. It was noted in the review that alcohol can potentiate the

text: central nervous system

text: -depressant effects of benzodiazepines and should be avoided. The central nervous system-depressant effects of benzodiazepines may make driving or operating machinery dangerous, and the elderly are more prone to these adverse effects. High single doses or repeated low doses have been reported to produce

text: hypotonia

text: , poor sucking, and

text: hypothermia

text: in the

text: neonate

text: , and irregularities in the

text: fetal

text: heart. The committee recommended that benzodiazepines be avoided in

text: lactation

text: Cholinergic systems are implicated in numerous neurologic functions. Alteration in some cholinergic neurons may account for the disturbances of Alzheimer disease. The protein encoded by this gene synthesizes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine acts at two classes of receptors in the central nervous system – muscarinic and nicotinic – which are each implicated in different physiological responses. The role of acetylcholine at the nicotinic receptor is still under investigation. It is likely implicated in the reward/reinforcement pathways, as indicated by the addictive nature of nicotine, which also binds to the nicotinic receptor. The muscarinic action of acetylcholine in the CNS is implicated in learning and memory. The loss of cholinergic innervation in the neocortex has been associated with memory loss, as is evidenced in advanced cases of Alzheimer's disease. In the peripheral nervous system, cholinergic neurons are implicated in the control of visceral functions such as, but not limited to, cardiac muscle contraction and gastrointestinal tract function.

text: Cholinergic

text: systems are implicated in numerous neurologic functions. Alteration in some cholinergic neurons may account for the disturbances of

text: Alzheimer disease

text: . The protein encoded by this gene synthesizes the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: . Acetylcholine acts at two classes of receptors in the

text: central nervous system

text: muscarinic

text: and

text: nicotinic

text: – which are each implicated in different physiological responses. The role of acetylcholine at the nicotinic receptor is still under investigation. It is likely implicated in the reward/reinforcement pathways, as indicated by the addictive nature of

text: nicotine

text: , which also binds to the nicotinic receptor. The muscarinic action of acetylcholine in the CNS is implicated in learning and memory. The loss of cholinergic innervation in the

text: neocortex

text: has been associated with memory loss, as is evidenced in advanced cases of Alzheimer's disease. In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , cholinergic neurons are implicated in the control of visceral functions such as, but not limited to, cardiac muscle contraction and gastrointestinal tract function.

text: On September 8, 2014, AED president Brian McGuire published a letter to the editor in USA Today in response to the newspaper's then-recent editorial "Calif. drought bares national lessons". In his letter, McGuire compared the crisis of a drought to the broader crisis of funding national infrastructure projects. Specifically, McGuire urged the protection of what is called "state revolving funds," which amounted to $2.35 billion for sewage and drinking water projects. McGuire wrote, "You rightly observed that 'unlike an earthquake or a tornado, a drought is a slowly unfolding disaster.' I find that imagery very powerful because the broader crisis faced by our nation's infrastructure has been just that."

text: On September 8, 2014, AED president Brian McGuire published a letter to the editor in USA Today in response to the newspaper's then-recent editorial "Calif. drought bares national lessons". In his letter, McGuire compared the crisis of a drought to the broader crisis of funding national infrastructure projects. Specifically, McGuire urged the protection of what is called "

text: state revolving funds

text: ," which amounted to $2.35 billion for sewage and drinking water projects. McGuire wrote, "You rightly observed that 'unlike an earthquake or a tornado, a drought is a slowly unfolding disaster.' I find that imagery very powerful because the broader crisis faced by our nation's infrastructure has been just that."

text: A demyelinating disease is any disease of the nervous system in which the myelin sheath of neurons is damaged.  This damage impairs the conduction of signals in the affected nerves. In turn, the reduction in conduction ability causes deficiency in sensation, movement, cognition, or other functions depending on which nerves are involved.

text: A demyelinating disease is any

text: disease

text: of the

text: nervous system

text: in which the

text: myelin

text: sheath of

text: neuron

text: s is damaged.  This damage impairs the conduction of signals in the affected nerves. In turn, the reduction in conduction ability causes deficiency in sensation, movement, cognition, or other functions depending on which nerves are involved.

text: As a songwriter he wrote the Top 40 single Somebody Who Loves Me for the Dutch artist Jeronimo van Ballegoijen (known as Jeronimo) and produced another song Unheard on his album. He also co-wrote Movie Star for Canadian teen star Carson Lueders. As an artist he produced, wrote and released singles with Tiffany Alvord - Our Balloons, Sandra Cires - Riki Raka  and the Canadian twin sisters Carmen and Camille - Little Bit Of Love. His music videos reached several million unique views on YouTube and were on MTV, Viva, Bild.de  and Mc Donald's TV.

text: As a songwriter he wrote the Top 40 single Somebody Who Loves Me for the Dutch artist

text: Jeronimo van Ballegoijen

text: (known as Jeronimo) and produced another song Unheard on his album. He also co-wrote Movie Star for Canadian teen star Carson Lueders. As an artist he produced, wrote and released singles with

text: Tiffany Alvord

text: - Our Balloons, Sandra Cires - Riki Raka  and the Canadian twin sisters

text: Carmen and Camille

text: - Little Bit Of Love. His music videos reached several million unique views on YouTube and were on MTV, Viva, Bild.de  and Mc Donald's TV.

text: Hamlin and Tafolla married and had two children together.  Their son, Joey Tafolla, is well known Jag Panzer guitarist. In 1963, Hamlin retired from singing to spend time with her family.

text: Angela Vincent (born 1942) is a professor at Somerville College of Oxford University. She is the head of a research group, which is located in the West Wing within the John Radcliffe Hospital, and works on a wide range of biological disciplines encompassing molecular biology, biochemistry, cellular immunology and intracellular neurophysiology. The group's research is focused on autoimmune and genetic disorders of the neuromuscular junction, peripheral nerves and more recently the exciting field of central nervous system diseases. The principal autoimmune diseases studied are myasthenia gravis, the Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome, limbic encephalitis, other types of autoimmune encephalitis and acquired neuromyotonia.

text: Angela Vincent (born 1942) is a professor at

text: Somerville College

text: of

text: Oxford University

text: . She is the head of a research group, which is located in the West Wing within the John Radcliffe Hospital, and works on a wide range of

text: biological

text: disciplines encompassing

text: molecular biology

text: biochemistry

text: , cellular

text: immunology

text: and intracellular

text: neurophysiology

text: . The group's research is focused on autoimmune and

text: genetic disorder

text: s of the neuromuscular junction, peripheral nerves and more recently the exciting field of central nervous system diseases. The principal autoimmune diseases studied are

text: myasthenia gravis

text: , the

text: Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome

text: limbic encephalitis

text: , other types of

text: autoimmune encephalitis

text: and acquired

text: neuromyotonia

text: As a teenager, Winslow learned to play guitar from his grandfather, Thomas Winslow. He was a band member of the Reverend Gary Davis, a country-folk musician from the first half of the 20th century. He toured throughout the United States during the 1960s and 1970s, sometimes as a solo act, as well as with his family act, The Winslows. In the 1960s, he worked at Vassar College in the equestrian program, and off-season, as a construction worker at Albany, New York's Empire State Plaza.

text: As a teenager, Winslow learned to play guitar from his grandfather, Thomas Winslow. He was a band member of the

text: Reverend Gary Davis

text: , a country-folk musician from the first half of the 20th century. He toured throughout the United States during the 1960s and 1970s, sometimes as a solo act, as well as with his family act, The Winslows. In the 1960s, he worked at

text: Vassar College

text: in the

text: equestrian

text: program, and off-season, as a

text: construction

text: worker at

text: Albany, New York

text: 's

text: Empire State Plaza

text: One reason for neglect for these disease is that they are not commercial and consequently patents and profit play no role in stimulating innovation. Like all non-commercial areas, these diseases are the responsibility of governments and philanthropy (including industry philanthropy).  Currently, the pharmaceutical industry views research and development as highly risky. For this reason, resources are not often put into the field of NTDs (as diseases of the poor) and new chemical products are often expensive. A review of public and private initiatives found that of the 1393 new chemical products that were marketed in the period of 1975 and 1999, just 16 related to tropical diseases and tuberculosis. The same review additionally found that there was a 13-fold greater chance of a drug entering the marking being for central-nervous-system disorders and cancer than an NTD.

text: One reason for neglect for these disease is that they are not commercial and consequently patents and profit play no role in stimulating innovation. Like all non-commercial areas, these diseases are the responsibility of governments and philanthropy (including industry philanthropy).  Currently, the pharmaceutical industry views

entity_name: Neglected tropical disease research and development

text: research and development

text: as highly risky. For this reason, resources are not often put into the field of NTDs (as diseases of the poor) and new chemical products are often expensive. A review of public and private initiatives found that of the 1393 new chemical products that were marketed in the period of 1975 and 1999, just 16 related to tropical diseases and tuberculosis. The same review additionally found that there was a 13-fold greater chance of a drug entering the marking being for central-nervous-system disorders and cancer than an NTD.

text: Third-party programs have been created, including software that will automatically change the screen orientation when the phone is tilted, programs that simulate the sounds of a Star Wars lightsaber when the phone is waved through the air, allow you to mute the phone by turning it face-down, and many more.

text: Third-party programs have been created, including software that will automatically change the screen orientation when the phone is tilted, programs that simulate the sounds of a

text: Star Wars

text: lightsaber

text: when the phone is waved through the air, allow you to mute the phone by turning it face-down, and many more.

text: "Primary" Central Nervous System (CNS) vasculitis is said to be present if there is no underlying cause. The exact mechanism of the primary disease is unknown, but the fundamental mechanism of all vasculitides is auto-immune. Other possible causes of cerebral vasculitis are infections, systemic auto-immune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheumatoid arthritis, medications and drugs (amphetamine, cocaine and heroin), some forms of cancer (lymphomas, leukemia and lung cancer) and other forms of systemic vasculitis such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis, polyarteritis nodosa or Behçet's disease. It may imitate, and is in turn imitated by, a number of other diseases that affect the blood vessels of the brain diffusely such as fibromuscular dysplasia and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura.

text: "Primary" Central Nervous System (CNS) vasculitis is said to be present if there is no underlying cause. The exact mechanism of the primary disease is unknown, but the fundamental mechanism of all vasculitides is

text: auto-immune

text: . Other possible causes of cerebral vasculitis are

text: infection

text: s, systemic auto-immune diseases such as

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: (SLE) and

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: medication

text: s and

text: drugs

text: amphetamine

text: cocaine

text: and

text: heroin

text: ), some forms of

text: cancer

text: lymphoma

text: s,

text: leukemia

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: ) and other forms of systemic vasculitis such as

text: granulomatosis with polyangiitis

text: polyarteritis nodosa

text: or

text: Behçet's disease

text: . It may imitate, and is in turn imitated by, a number of other diseases that affect the blood vessels of the brain diffusely such as

text: fibromuscular dysplasia

text: and

text: thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura

text: In the central nervous system, glia develop from the ventricular zone of the neural tube. These glia include the oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, and astrocytes. In the peripheral nervous system, glia derive from the neural crest. These PNS glia include Schwann cells in nerves and satellite glial cells in ganglia.

text: Neurourology concerns nervous system control of the genitourinary system, and of conditions causing abnormal urination. Neurological diseases and disorders such as a stroke, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and spinal cord injury can disrupt the lower urinary tract and result in conditions such as urinary incontinence, detrusor overactivity, urinary retention, and detrusor sphincter dyssynergia. Urodynamic studies play an important diagnostic role in neurourology. Therapy for nervous system disorders includes clean intermittent self-catheterization of the bladder, anticholinergic drugs, injection of Botulinum toxin into the bladder wall and advanced and less commonly used therapies such as sacral neuromodulation.Less marked neurological abnormalities can cause urological disorders as well—for example, abnormalities of the sensory nervous system are thought by many researchers to play a role in disorders of painful or frequent urination (e.g. painful bladder syndrome also known as interstitial cystitis).

text: Neurourology concerns

text: nervous system

text: control of the genitourinary system, and of conditions causing abnormal

text: urination

text: . Neurological diseases and disorders such as a stroke,

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Parkinson's disease

text: , and

text: spinal cord injury

text: can disrupt the lower urinary tract and result in conditions such as

text: urinary incontinence

text: detrusor

text: overactivity,

text: urinary retention

text: , and

text: detrusor sphincter dyssynergia

text: Urodynamic studies

text: play an important diagnostic role in neurourology. Therapy for nervous system disorders includes clean intermittent self-catheterization of the bladder, anticholinergic drugs, injection of Botulinum toxin into the bladder wall and advanced and less commonly used therapies such as sacral

text: neuromodulation

text: .Less marked neurological abnormalities can cause urological disorders as well—for example, abnormalities of the sensory nervous system are thought by many researchers to play a role in disorders of painful or frequent urination (e.g. painful bladder syndrome also known as

text: interstitial cystitis

text: Reyes' outgoing personality began to make him a fan favorite in New York. He became well known for the elaborate handshakes he creates with his teammates to celebrate runs scored. In his spots as 'Professor Reyes', Reyes taught the Shea faithful the Spanish language between innings on the stadium's Diamond Vision screen, helping to make him one of the Mets' most popular players.

text: Reyes' outgoing personality began to make him a fan favorite in New York. He became well known for the elaborate handshakes he creates with his teammates to celebrate runs scored. In his spots as 'Professor Reyes', Reyes taught the

text: Shea

text: faithful the Spanish language between innings on the stadium's Diamond Vision screen, helping to make him one of the Mets' most popular players.

text: The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the peripheral nervous system that influences the function of internal organs. The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and the freeze-and-dissociate response.

text: The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: that influences the function of

text: internal organs

text: . The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the

text: heart rate

text: digestion

text: respiratory rate

text: pupillary response

text: urination

text: , and

text: sexual arousal

text: . This system is the primary mechanism in control of the

text: fight-or-flight response

text: and the freeze-and-dissociate response.

text: In addition to pituitary tumors, tumors in various locations in the central nervous system may cause depressive symptoms and be misdiagnosed as depression.

text: In addition to pituitary tumors, tumors in various locations in the

text: central nervous system

text: may cause depressive symptoms and be misdiagnosed as depression.