text: All of the fossils are oval in outline.  Elongated specimens illustrate that the organism was capable of stretching in an anterior-posterior direction, perhaps by as much as a factor of two. The only type of symmetry visible in the White Sea specimens is bilateral; there is no sign of any of the kinds of radial symmetry that are normal in the Cnidaria, the group that includes jellyfish, sea anemones and hydras. The Australian fossils were originally described as a type of jellyfish, but this is inconsistent with the bilateral symmetry in the fossils. The White Sea fossils and the surrounding sediments also show that Kimberella lived on the surface of the sea-floor.

text: All of the fossils are oval in outline.  Elongated specimens illustrate that the organism was capable of stretching in an anterior-posterior direction, perhaps by as much as a factor of two. The only type of

entity_name: Symmetry in biology

text: symmetry

text: visible in the White Sea specimens is bilateral; there is no sign of any of the kinds of radial symmetry that are normal in the

entity_name: Cnidaria

text: Cnidaria

text: , the group that includes

entity_name: Jellyfish

text: jellyfish

entity_name: Sea anemone

text: sea anemone

text: s and

entity_name: Hydrozoa

text: hydra

text: s. The Australian fossils were originally described as a type of jellyfish, but this is inconsistent with the bilateral symmetry in the fossils. The White Sea fossils and the surrounding sediments also show that Kimberella lived on the

entity_name: Benthos

text: surface of the sea-floor

text: Fossils of plant remains are rare, but include up to 29 genera of plants.  The most common plant fossils found are leafy shoots of the dawn redwood, Metasequoia, and the floating fern Azolla primaeva as mats of plants or as isolated fossils. Leaves of alder (Alnus sp.) are also found, as well as the leaves or needles and seeds of pines (Pinus sp.), the golden larch (Pseudolarix sp.), cedars (Chamaecyparis and/or Thuja spp.), redwood (Sequoia sp.), and rare Ginkgo and sassafras (Sassafras hesperia) leaves. A permineralized pine cone (Pinus driftwoodensis) and associated 2-needle foliage was described from the site in the 1980s. Rare flowers and the seeds of flowering plants have been collected, including Ulmus, Florissantia, and Dipteronia, a genus of trees related to maples (Acer. spp.) that today grows in eastern Asia.

text: Fossils of plant remains are rare, but include up to 29

entity_name: Genus

text: genera

text: of plants.  The most common plant fossils found are leafy shoots of the dawn redwood,

entity_name: Metasequoia

text: Metasequoia

text: , and the floating fern

entity_name: Azolla primaeva

text: Azolla primaeva

text: as mats of plants or as isolated fossils. Leaves of alder (

entity_name: Alder

text: Alnus

text: sp.) are also found, as well as the leaves or needles and seeds of pines (

entity_name: Pine

text: Pinus

text: sp.), the golden larch (

entity_name: Pseudolarix

text: Pseudolarix

text: sp.), cedars (

entity_name: Chamaecyparis

text: Chamaecyparis

text: and/or

entity_name: Thuja

text: Thuja

text: spp.), redwood (

entity_name: Sequoia (genus)

text: Sequoia

text: sp.), and rare

entity_name: Ginkgo

text: Ginkgo

text: and

entity_name: Sassafras

text: sassafras

entity_name: Sassafras hesperia

text: Sassafras hesperia

text: ) leaves. A permineralized pine cone (

entity_name: Pinus driftwoodensis

text: Pinus driftwoodensis

text: ) and associated 2-needle foliage was described from the site in the 1980s. Rare flowers and the seeds of flowering plants have been collected, including

entity_name: Elm

text: Ulmus

entity_name: Florissantia

text: Florissantia

text: , and

entity_name: Dipteronia

text: Dipteronia

text: , a genus of trees related to maples (

entity_name: Maple

text: Acer

text: . spp.) that today grows in eastern Asia.

text: When looking back at extinct organisms, there are some groups of organisms (or lineages) that have gaps in their fossil records. These organisms or species may be closely related to one another, but there are no traces in the fossil records or sediment beds that might shed some light on their origins. A classic example is the coelacanth, a type of fish related to the lungfishes and to primitive tetrapods. It seems that coelacanths have also been around for the past 80 million years, but have failed to leave us any fossils to look at. The reason for this is their environment, which is deep water near volcanic islands; therefore, these sediments are hard to get to, giving these coelacanths an 80 million year gap or ghost lineage. Another ghost lineage was that of the averostran theropods, a ghost lineage now reduced considerably thanks to the discovery of Tachiraptor.

text: When looking back at extinct organisms, there are some groups of organisms (or lineages) that have gaps in their fossil records. These organisms or species may be closely related to one another, but there are no traces in the fossil records or sediment beds that might shed some light on their origins. A classic example is the

entity_name: Coelacanth

text: coelacanth

text: , a type of fish related to the lungfishes and to primitive tetrapods. It seems that coelacanths have also been around for the past 80 million years, but have failed to leave us any fossils to look at. The reason for this is their environment, which is deep water near volcanic islands; therefore, these sediments are hard to get to, giving these coelacanths an 80 million year gap or ghost lineage. Another ghost lineage was that of the

entity_name: Averostra

text: averostra

text: n theropods, a ghost lineage now reduced considerably thanks to the discovery of

entity_name: Tachiraptor

text: Tachiraptor

method: dangnt-nlp

text: The fossils found in the Sonbhadra Fossils Park are algae and stromatolites types of fossils. The park is spread over an area of about 25 hectares in Kaimur Range, adjacent to Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary. It comes under jurisdiction of the State forest department.

text: The fossils found in the Sonbhadra Fossils Park are

entity_name: Algae

text: algae

text: and

entity_name: Stromatolite

text: stromatolites

text: types of fossils. The park is spread over an area of about 25 hectares in

entity_name: Kaimur Range

text: Kaimur Range

text: , adjacent to

entity_name: Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary

text: Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary

text: . It comes under jurisdiction of the State forest department.

text: Pseudofossils are inorganic objects, markings, or impressions that might be mistaken for fossils. Pseudofossils may be misleading, as some types of mineral deposits can mimic lifeforms by forming what appear to be highly detailed or organized structures. One common example is when manganese oxides crystallize with a characteristic treelike or dendritic pattern along a rock fracture. The formation of frost dendrites on a window is another common example of this crystal growth. Concretions are sometimes thought to be fossils, and occasionally one contains a fossil, but are generally not fossils themselves. Chert or flint nodules in limestone can often take forms that resemble fossils.

text: Pseudofossils are

entity_name: Inorganic compound

text: inorganic

text: objects, markings, or impressions that might be mistaken for

entity_name: Fossil

text: fossil

text: s. Pseudofossils may be misleading, as some types of mineral deposits can mimic lifeforms by forming what appear to be highly detailed or organized structures. One common example is when

entity_name: Manganese

text: manganese

text: oxides

entity_name: Crystallization

text: crystallize

text: with a characteristic treelike or

entity_name: Dendrite (crystal)

text: dendritic

text: pattern along a rock fracture. The formation of

entity_name: Frost

text: frost

text: dendrites on a window is another common example of this crystal growth.

entity_name: Concretion

text: Concretion

text: s are sometimes thought to be fossils, and occasionally one contains a fossil, but are generally not fossils themselves.

entity_name: Chert

text: Chert

text: or

entity_name: Flint

text: flint

text: nodules in

entity_name: Limestone

text: limestone

text: can often take forms that resemble fossils.

text: Greenschist, as a rock type, is defined by the presence of the minerals chlorite and actinolite and may contain albite or epidote.Greenschist often has a lepidoblastic, nematoblastic or schistose texture defined primarily by chlorite and actinolite. Greenschists often have some foliation resulting in mineral alignment, especially of chlorite and actinolite.Grain size is rarely coarse, due primarily to the mineral assemblage. Chlorite and to a lesser extent actinolite typically exhibit small, flat or acicular crystal habits.

text: Greenschist, as a rock type, is defined by the presence of the minerals chlorite and actinolite and may contain albite or epidote.Greenschist often has a lepidoblastic, nematoblastic or schistose texture defined primarily by chlorite and actinolite. Greenschists often have some

entity_name: Foliation (geology)

text: foliation

text: resulting in mineral alignment, especially of chlorite and actinolite.Grain size is rarely coarse, due primarily to the mineral assemblage. Chlorite and to a lesser extent actinolite typically exhibit small, flat or acicular crystal habits.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: When an insect is partly or wholly replaced by minerals, usually completely articulated and with three-dimensional fidelity, is called Mineral replication. This is also called petrifaction, as in “petrified” wood. Insects preserved this way are often, but not always, preserved as concretions, or within nodules of minerals that formed around the insect as its nucleus. Such deposits generally form where the sediments and water are laden with minerals, and where there is also quick mineralization of the carcass by coats of bacteria.

text: In 1806, Binny & Ronaldson acquired from William Duane some tools and equipment that Benjamin Franklin had purchased from Pierre Simon Fournier in France twenty years earlier. In 1812 the foundry issued the first type specimen book ever produced in the United States. Archibald Binny created a spring lever, which improved the efficiency of type casting. Binny patented three improvements to type-founding: an improved printer's mold, a method of "smoothing or rubbing printers' types", and molds for casting printing types.

text: In 1806, Binny & Ronaldson acquired from William Duane some tools and equipment that

entity_name: Benjamin Franklin

text: Benjamin Franklin

text: had purchased from

entity_name: Pierre Simon Fournier

text: Pierre Simon Fournier

text: in France twenty years earlier. In 1812 the foundry issued the first type specimen book ever produced in the United States. Archibald Binny created a spring lever, which improved the efficiency of type casting. Binny patented three improvements to type-founding: an improved printer's mold, a method of "smoothing or rubbing printers' types", and molds for casting printing types.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Some basic fossil trackway types:

text: Some basic fossil trackway types:

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: Aphaenogaster mayri is known from a series of fossil insects which are compression-impression fossils preserved in fine shales of the Florissant formation in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the Old World. When A. mayri was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be Miocene in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Successive research and fossil descriptions moved the age older and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an Oligocene age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of sanidine crystals has resulted in an age of 34 million years old.  This places the formation in the Eocene Priabonian stage.

text: Aphaenogaster mayri is known from a series of fossil insects which are

entity_name: Compression fossil

text: compression-impression fossils

text: preserved in fine

entity_name: Shale

text: shale

text: s of the

entity_name: Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument

text: Florissant formation

text: in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the Old World. When A. mayri was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be

entity_name: Miocene

text: Miocene

text: in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Successive research and fossil descriptions moved the age older and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an

entity_name: Oligocene

text: Oligocene

text: age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of

entity_name: Sanidine

text: sanidine crystals

text: has resulted in an age of 34 million years old.  This places the formation in the Eocene Priabonian stage.

text: The history of Peytoia is entangled with that of "Laggania" and Anomalocaris: all three were initially identified as isolated body parts and only later discovered to belong to one type of animal. This was due in part due to their makeup of a mixture of mineralized and unmineralized body parts; the mouth and feeding appendage was considerably harder and more easily fossilized than the delicate body.

text: The history of Peytoia is entangled with that of "Laggania" and

entity_name: Anomalocaris

text: Anomalocaris

text: : all three were initially identified as isolated body parts and only later discovered to belong to one type of animal. This was due in part due to their makeup of a mixture of

entity_name: Mineralization (biology)

text: mineralized

text: and unmineralized body parts; the mouth and feeding appendage was considerably harder and more easily

text: fossilized

text: than the delicate body.

text: Jurahylobittacus astictus is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen numbers "CNU-M-NN2007002-1" and "CNU-M-NN2007002-2" for the part and counterpart respectively.  The specimen is composed of an almost complete specimen of unidentified sex and is preserved as a compression fossil in a sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed in the Wuhua Township by Chung-Kun Shih.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the Key Lab of Insect Evolution & Environmental Changes collections housed in the Capital Normal University, located in Beijing, China.  Jurahylobittacus was first studied by Yan-Li Li, Dong Ren and ChungKun Shih of the Capital Normal University.  Their 2008 type description of the genus and species was published online and then in print in the journal Zootaxa.  The generic name was coined by Li, Ren and Shih from a combination of "Jura" a reference to the Jurassic; and the modern Bittacidae genus Hylobittacus to which Jurahylobittacus is related.  The etymology of the specific epithet astictus is in reference to the lack of maculae present on any of the holotype specimens' wings.

text: Jurahylobittacus astictus is known only from one fossil, the

entity_name: Holotype

text: holotype

text: , specimen numbers "CNU-M-NN2007002-1" and "CNU-M-NN2007002-2" for the

text: part and counterpart

text: respectively.  The specimen is composed of an almost complete specimen of unidentified sex and is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in a sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed in the Wuhua Township by Chung-Kun Shih.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

entity_name: Evolution of insects

text: Key Lab of Insect Evolution & Environmental Changes

text: collections housed in the

entity_name: Capital Normal University

text: Capital Normal University

text: , located in

entity_name: Beijing

text: Beijing

entity_name: China

text: China

text: .  Jurahylobittacus was first studied by Yan-Li Li, Dong Ren and ChungKun Shih of the Capital Normal University.  Their 2008

entity_name: Type (biology)

text: type description

text: of the genus and species was published online and then in print in the journal

entity_name: Zootaxa

text: Zootaxa

text: .  The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Li, Ren and Shih from a combination of "Jura" a reference to the Jurassic; and the modern Bittacidae genus

entity_name: Hylobittacus apicalis

text: Hylobittacus

text: to which Jurahylobittacus is related.  The

entity_name: Etymology

text: etymology

text: of the

entity_name: Species

text: specific epithet

text: astictus is in reference to the lack of

text: maculae

text: present on any of the holotype specimens' wings.

text: Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds ("permanent molds"), usually made from metal. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold. However, gas pressure or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called slush casting, produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and steel are also cast in graphite molds. Permanent molds, while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before wearing out.

text: Permanent mold casting is a

entity_name: Casting (metalworking)

text: metal casting

text: process that employs reusable

entity_name: Molding (process)

text: molds

text: ("permanent molds"), usually made from

entity_name: Metal

text: metal

text: . The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold. However, gas pressure or a

entity_name: Vacuum

text: vacuum

text: are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called

entity_name: Permanent mold casting

entity_section: Slush

text: slush casting

text: , produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are

entity_name: Aluminium

text: aluminum

entity_name: Magnesium

text: magnesium

text: , and

entity_name: Copper

text: copper

text: alloys. Other materials include

entity_name: Tin

text: tin

entity_name: Zinc

text: zinc

text: , and

entity_name: Lead

text: lead

text: alloys and

entity_name: Iron

text: iron

text: and steel are also cast in

entity_name: Graphite

text: graphite

text: molds. Permanent molds, while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before wearing out.

text: In 2001, Ralph E. Molnar published a survey of pathologies in theropod dinosaur bone. He found pathological features in 21 genera from 10 families. Pathologies were found in theropods of all body size although they were less common in fossils of small theropods, although this may be an artifact of preservation. They are very widely represented throughout the different parts of theropod anatomy. The most common sites of preserved injury and disease in theropod dinosaurs are the ribs and tail vertebrae. Despite being abundant in ribs and vertebrae, injuries seem to be "absent... or very rare" on the bodies' primary weight supporting bones like the sacrum, femur, and tibia. The lack of preserved injuries in these bones suggests that they were selected by evolution for resistance to breakage. The least common sites of preserved injury are the cranium and forelimb, with injuries occurring in about equal frequency at each site. Most pathologies preserved in theropod fossils are the remains of injuries like fractures, pits, and punctures, often likely originating with bites. Some theropod paleopathologies seem to be evidence of infections, which tended to be confined only to small regions of the animal's body. Evidence for congenital malformities have also been found in theropod remains. Such discoveries can provide information useful for understanding the evolutionary history of the processes of biological development. Unusual fusions in cranial elements or asymmetries in the same are probably evidence that one is examining the fossils of an extremely old individual rather than a diseased one.

text: In 2001,

entity_name: Ralph Molnar

text: Ralph E. Molnar

text: published a survey of

entity_name: Pathology

text: pathologies

text: in

entity_name: Theropoda

text: theropod

text: dinosaur bone. He found pathological features in 21

text: genera

text: from 10

text: families

text: . Pathologies were found in theropods of all body size although they were less common in fossils of small theropods, although this may be an artifact of preservation. They are very widely represented throughout the different parts of theropod anatomy. The most common sites of preserved injury and disease in theropod dinosaurs are the

text: ribs

text: and

text: tail vertebrae

text: . Despite being abundant in ribs and vertebrae, injuries seem to be "absent... or very rare" on the bodies' primary weight supporting bones like the

text: sacrum

text: femur

text: , and

text: tibia

text: . The lack of preserved injuries in these bones suggests that they were selected by evolution for resistance to breakage. The least common sites of preserved injury are the

text: cranium

text: and forelimb, with injuries occurring in about equal frequency at each site. Most pathologies preserved in theropod fossils are the remains of injuries like fractures, pits, and punctures, often likely originating with bites. Some theropod paleopathologies seem to be evidence of

text: infections

text: , which tended to be confined only to small regions of the animal's body. Evidence for congenital malformities have also been found in theropod remains. Such discoveries can provide information useful for understanding the evolutionary history of the processes of biological development. Unusual

text: fusion

text: s in cranial elements or

text: asymmetries

text: in the same are probably evidence that one is examining the fossils of an extremely old individual rather than a diseased one.

text: Die-casting is the process of forcing metal into steel molds so that smooth casting are produced without machining. H. H. Franklin launched commercial die-casting and was considered the "Godfather" of the process. He also pioneered the fabrication of aluminum.

text: Die-casting

text: is the process of forcing metal into steel molds so that smooth

text: casting

text: are produced without machining. H. H. Franklin launched commercial die-casting and was considered the "Godfather" of the process. He also pioneered the fabrication of aluminum.

text: The Solite Quarry, is which straddles the border between Virginia and North Carolina is another source of Late Triassic fossils. The vertebrate fauna it preserved included crocodilians, phytosaurs, and lizard-like animals. These left behind fragmentary skeletal remains like teeth and a few bones, as well as trace fossils like footprints. Dinosaur footprints were also laid down here during the Triassic. Despite the vertebrate fossils, the Solite Quarry is most famous for its fossil insects. This is the only place on earth where complete well-preserved Triassic insects are known from. The oldest known examples of many living groups have been preserved here. Insects of the Solite Quarry include staphylinid beetles, caddis-flies, belostomatids, and thrips. Fossil insects are common at other places in Virginia and North Carolina as well. Small specimens were often preserved in association with unusually rich concentrations of conchostracans.

text: The Solite Quarry, is which straddles the border between Virginia and North Carolina is another source of Late Triassic fossils. The vertebrate fauna it preserved included crocodilians, phytosaurs, and

text: lizard

text: -like animals. These left behind fragmentary skeletal remains like teeth and a few bones, as well as trace fossils like footprints. Dinosaur footprints were also laid down here during the Triassic. Despite the vertebrate fossils, the Solite Quarry is most famous for its fossil

text: insects

text: . This is the only place on earth where complete well-preserved Triassic insects are known from. The oldest known examples of many living groups have been preserved here. Insects of the Solite Quarry include

text: staphylinid

text: beetle

text: s,

text: caddis-flies

text: belostomatids

text: , and

text: thrips

text: . Fossil insects are common at other places in Virginia and North Carolina as well. Small specimens were often preserved in association with unusually rich concentrations of

text: conchostracans

text: Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy, paleontology and biology. It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition. It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils.

text: Biomineralogy is a cross-over field between mineralogy,

text: paleontology

text: and

text: biology

text: . It is the study of how plants and animals stabilize minerals under biological control, and the sequencing of mineral replacement of those minerals after deposition. It uses techniques from chemical mineralogy, especially isotopic studies, to determine such things as growth forms in living plants and animals as well as things like the original mineral content of fossils.

text: Additional support for the aquatic nature of the Princeton Chert deposits comes from animal fossils. Several fossils of a freshwater fish, Amia (bowfin), have been found in the shale overlying the plant deposits, along with remains of the freshwater fishes Amyzon and Libotoniusm, and a soft-shelled turtle.Once the lacustrine nature of the fossils has been established, it seems fairly likely they were preserved in situ, especially considering the method of preservation. The growth position, large number of plant organs of the same type, preservation of delicate plant material, and presence of rooted axes all provide further evidence for the preservation of plants where they grew.

text: Additional support for the aquatic nature of the Princeton Chert deposits comes from animal fossils. Several fossils of a freshwater fish,

text: Amia

text: (bowfin), have been found in the shale overlying the plant deposits, along with remains of the freshwater fishes

text: Amyzon

text: and Libotoniusm, and a soft-shelled turtle.Once the lacustrine nature of the fossils has been established, it seems fairly likely they were preserved in situ, especially considering the method of preservation. The growth position, large number of plant organs of the same type, preservation of delicate plant material, and presence of rooted axes all provide further evidence for the preservation of plants where they grew.

text: Type III has relatively high early strength.  Its typical compound composition is: 57% (CS), 19% (CS), 10% (CA), 7% (CAF), 3.0% MgO, 3.1% (SO), 0.9% Ignition loss, and 1.3% free CaO.  This cement is similar to type I, but ground finer.  Some manufacturers make a separate clinker with higher CS and/or CA content, but this is increasingly rare, and the general purpose clinker is usually used, ground to a specific surface area typically 50–80% higher.  The gypsum level may also be increased a small amount.  This gives the concrete using this type of cement a three-day compressive strength equal to the seven-day compressive strength of types I and II.  Its seven-day compressive strength is almost equal to 28-day compressive strengths of types I and II.  The only downside is that the six-month strength of type III is the same or slightly less than that of types I and II.  Therefore, the long-term strength is sacrificed a little.  It is usually used for precast concrete manufacture, where high one-day strength allows fast turnover of molds.  It may also be used in emergency construction and repairs and construction of machine bases and gate installations.

text: Type III has relatively high early strength.  Its typical compound composition is: 57% (CS), 19% (CS), 10% (CA), 7% (CAF), 3.0% MgO, 3.1% (SO), 0.9% Ignition loss, and 1.3% free CaO.  This cement is similar to type I, but ground finer.  Some manufacturers make a separate clinker with higher CS and/or CA content, but this is increasingly rare, and the general purpose clinker is usually used, ground to a

text: specific surface area

text: typically 50–80% higher.  The gypsum level may also be increased a small amount.  This gives the concrete using this type of cement a three-day compressive strength equal to the seven-day compressive strength of types I and II.  Its seven-day compressive strength is almost equal to 28-day compressive strengths of types I and II.  The only downside is that the six-month strength of type III is the same or slightly less than that of types I and II.  Therefore, the long-term strength is sacrificed a little.  It is usually used for precast concrete manufacture, where high one-day strength allows fast turnover of molds.  It may also be used in emergency construction and repairs and construction of machine bases and gate installations.

text: Wallace created two different models, which were followed by two additional models, so, in all, there were four types of Wallace fountains varying in such properties as height and motif.  The material that was used to create them was cast-iron.  Inexpensive, easy to mold, and robust, it was one of the most popular materials of the age.  The majority of the cost was paid for by Wallace.  The city of Paris allocated 1,000 francs for the large model and 450 francs for the wall-mounted model.

text: Conservationists today are faced with a serious dilemma.  They are certain that the use of fossil fuels is leading toward a global catastrophe.  But at the same time they are increasingly aware that many types of renewable energy, because of the large amount of land that they require, will have a seriously detrimental impact on the natural world, especially if their use expands.

text: Conservationists today are faced with a serious dilemma.  They are certain that the use of

text: fossil fuel

text: s is leading toward a global catastrophe.  But at the same time they are increasingly aware that many types of renewable energy, because of the large amount of land that they require, will have a seriously detrimental impact on the natural world, especially if their use expands.

text: Evidence for the existence of sharks dates from the Ordovician period, 450–420 million years ago, before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonized the continents. Only scales have been recovered from the first sharks and not all paleontologists agree that these are from true sharks, suspecting that these scales are actually those of thelodont agnathans. The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, in the Silurian period. The first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. The majority of modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers. Partial skeletons and even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that sharks grow tens of thousands of teeth over a lifetime, which explains the abundant fossils. The teeth consist of easily fossilized calcium phosphate, an apatite. When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms. Preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments.

text: Evidence for the existence of sharks dates from the

text: Ordovician

text: period, 450–420 million years ago, before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonized the continents. Only scales have been recovered from the first sharks and not all paleontologists agree that these are from true sharks, suspecting that these scales are actually those of

text: thelodont

text: agnathans. The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, in the

text: Silurian

text: period. The first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. The majority of modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers. Partial skeletons and even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that sharks grow tens of thousands of teeth over a lifetime, which explains the abundant fossils. The teeth consist of easily fossilized

text: calcium phosphate

text: , an

text: apatite

text: . When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms. Preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments.

text: This list of Mesozoic theropod type specimens is a list of fossils serving as the official standard-bearers for inclusion in the Mesozoic species and genera of the dinosaur clade Theropoda, which includes the carnivorous dinosaurs like Tyrannosaurus and Velociraptor, their herbivorous relatives like the therizinosaurs, and birds. Type specimens are those which are definitionally members of biological taxa and additional specimens can only be "referred" to these taxa if an expert deems them sufficiently similar to the type.

text: This list of Mesozoic theropod type specimens is a list of fossils serving as the official standard-bearers for inclusion in the

text: Mesozoic

text: species

text: and

text: genera

text: of the

text: dinosaur

text: clade

text: Theropoda

text: , which includes the carnivorous dinosaurs like

text: Tyrannosaurus

text: and

text: Velociraptor

text: , their herbivorous relatives like the

text: therizinosaurs

text: , and

text: birds

text: . Type specimens are those which are definitionally members of biological

text: taxa

text: and additional specimens can only be "referred" to these taxa if an expert deems them sufficiently similar to the type.

text: In fact, if we consider files of length N, if all files were equally probable, then for any lossless compression that reduces the size of some file, the expected length of a compressed file (averaged over all possible files of length N) must necessarily be greater than N. So if we know nothing about the properties of the data we are compressing, we might as well not compress it at all. A lossless compression algorithm is useful only when we are more likely to compress certain types of files than others; then the algorithm could be designed to compress those types of data better.

text: Replacement is a complex form of neomorphism in which the recrystallization process involves the dissolution of one mineral and the almost immediate "precipitation" of another in its place; the resultant mineral differs from its predecessor in terms of its chemical composition. Replacement occurs without any substantial changes in volume between the original and the reformed minerals, and the process is often characterized as being either fabric-destructive or fabric-preserving, which refer to texture loss and texture retention, respectively. The replacement of fossils with chert, for example, is often fabric-preserving, while the replacement of aragonite and calcite with dolomite is fabric-destructive. On a side note, this particular process (the replacement of aragonite and calcite with dolomite) is the most common form of recrystallization by replacement. Being similar to wet polymorphic transformations, recrystallization by replacement occurs on a variety of minerals, including chert, pyrite, hematite, apatite, anhydrite, and dolomite, among others.

text: Replacement is a complex form of neomorphism in which the recrystallization process involves the dissolution of one mineral and the almost immediate "precipitation" of another in its place; the resultant mineral differs from its predecessor in terms of its chemical composition. Replacement occurs without any substantial changes in volume between the original and the reformed minerals, and the process is often characterized as being either fabric-destructive or fabric-preserving, which refer to texture loss and texture retention, respectively. The replacement of

text: fossil

text: s with

text: chert

text: , for example, is often fabric-preserving, while the replacement of

text: aragonite

text: and

text: calcite

text: with

text: dolomite

text: is fabric-destructive. On a side note, this particular process (the replacement of aragonite and calcite with dolomite) is the most common form of recrystallization by replacement. Being similar to wet polymorphic transformations, recrystallization by replacement occurs on a variety of minerals, including chert,

text: pyrite

text: hematite

text: apatite

text: anhydrite

text: , and dolomite, among others.

text: Fossils in general provide geologic clues to the environment of deposition, rock formation,  and the types of biological activities present at the time. Index fossils are more helpful in providing geologic references or reference markers.

text: Fossils in general provide geologic clues to the environment of deposition, rock formation,  and the types of biological activities present at the time.

text: Index fossils

text: are more helpful in providing geologic references or reference markers.

text: Dating of these abandoned terrace surfaces (treads) is possible using a variety of geochronologic techniques.  The type of technique used, however, is dependent on the composition and age of the terraces.  Currently used techniques are magnetostratigraphy, low temperature thermochronology, cosmogenic nuclides, radiocarbon, thermoluminescence, optically stimulated luminescence, and U-Th disequilibria. Additionally, if there is a succession of preserved fossils, biostratigraphy can be used.

text: Dating of these abandoned terrace surfaces (treads) is possible using a variety of

text: geochronologic

text: techniques.  The type of technique used, however, is dependent on the composition and age of the terraces.  Currently used techniques are

text: magnetostratigraphy

text: , low temperature

text: thermochronology

text: cosmogenic nuclide

text: s,

text: radiocarbon

text: thermoluminescence

text: optically stimulated luminescence

text: , and

text: U-Th disequilibria

text: . Additionally, if there is a succession of preserved fossils,

text: biostratigraphy

text: can be used.

text: CAT scans can be used to infer the 3D structure of a fossil egg's interior by compiling images taken of slices through the egg in small regular increments. Scientists have tried to use CAT scans to look for embryo fossils contained inside the egg without having to damage the egg itself by physically extracting them. However, as of Ken Carpenter's 1999 book on dinosaur eggs, Eggs, Nests, and Baby Dinosaurs, all alleged embryos discovered using this method were actually false alarms. Variations in the type of infilling mineral or cement binding the infilling sediment into rock sometimes resemble bones in CAT scan images. Sometimes eggshell fragments that fell back into the egg when it hatched have been mistaken for embryonic bones. The use of CAT scans to search for embryonic remains is actually conceptually flawed since embryonic bones have not yet mineralized. Since the infilling sediment is their only source of minerals they will be preserved at basically the same density and therefore have poor visibility in the scan. The validity of this issue has been confirmed by performing Cat scans on fossil eggs known to have embryos inside and noting their poor visibility in the scan images. The only truly reliable way to discover a dinosaur embryo is to cut the egg open or dissolve some of its eggshell away.

text: CAT scans

text: can be used to infer the 3D structure of a fossil egg's interior by compiling images taken of slices through the egg in small regular increments. Scientists have tried to use CAT scans to look for embryo fossils contained inside the egg without having to damage the egg itself by physically extracting them. However, as of Ken Carpenter's 1999 book on dinosaur eggs, Eggs, Nests, and Baby Dinosaurs, all alleged embryos discovered using this method were actually false alarms. Variations in the type of infilling mineral or cement binding the infilling sediment into rock sometimes resemble bones in CAT scan images. Sometimes eggshell fragments that fell back into the egg when it hatched have been mistaken for embryonic bones. The use of CAT scans to search for embryonic remains is actually conceptually flawed since embryonic bones have not yet

text: mineralized

text: . Since the infilling sediment is their only source of minerals they will be preserved at basically the same density and therefore have poor visibility in the scan. The validity of this issue has been confirmed by performing Cat scans on fossil eggs known to have embryos inside and noting their poor visibility in the scan images. The only truly reliable way to discover a dinosaur embryo is to cut the egg open or dissolve some of its eggshell away.

text: Few details were known of its origin or preparation, but it was concluded that the type of preservation indicated a Mörnsheim formation origin, which overlies the Solnhofen proper and is slightly younger. Since the best-known vertebrate Mörnsheim fossils come from the Daiting quarry, the eighth specimen is thought to have originated there. However, it remains possible that it came instead from a quarry near Mülheim.

text: The type species of Whatcheeria, W. deltae, was named in 1995. Whatcheeria is named after What Cheer, Iowa, the hometown of the man who discovered the first skeletons of the animal. The species is named after Delta, Iowa, the location where the fossils were uncovered. Hundreds of tetrapod fossils were found in the locality, and the majority of these specimens are thought to belong to Whatcheeria. Fish and plant fossils have also been found in the same deposits. Several other tetrapods, including temnospondyls and embolomeres, are known from the Delta locality.

text: The

text: type species

text: of Whatcheeria, W. deltae, was named in 1995. Whatcheeria is named after

text: What Cheer, Iowa

text: , the hometown of the man who discovered the first skeletons of the animal. The species is named after

text: Delta, Iowa

text: , the location where the fossils were uncovered. Hundreds of tetrapod fossils were found in the locality, and the majority of these specimens are thought to belong to Whatcheeria. Fish and plant fossils have also been found in the same deposits. Several other tetrapods, including

text: temnospondyl

text: s and

text: embolomere

text: s, are known from the Delta locality.

text: An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as  per day (as well as LNG), as back-up power plants burning fossil fuels try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan's nuclear power capacity.

text: An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as  per day (as well as LNG), as back-up power plants burning

text: fossil fuel

text: s try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan's nuclear power capacity.

text: Fossils appear in casts and molds, as well as original material.

text: Although it is an extremely difficult task to figure out the evolution of the hominins, knowledge of these hominins has been growing. As indicated in the image of the family tree of the evolution of hominins, Kenyanthropus platyops were previously known to be one of the older hominins until the finding of the fossils in Kenya in the year 1999.  Kenyanthropus platyops actually made the evolutionary path of the hominins more confusing, because of the fact that the specific species represented a new type of species and genus.  However, after the discovery of the fossil in Kenya, it came to the notion that the K. platyops were one of the earlier species, living in the same time of the Australopithecus afarensis. After the finding of the K. platyops skull, the common ancestor has shifted to the K. platyops from the A. afarensis.

text: At the time of description the species was known from a series of forty-one type fossils and over two hundred good fossils were examined for the species description.  The holotype was deposited in the Museum of Comparative Zoology paleontology collections at Harvard University.  Along with a number of other insect type specimens, the A. mayri holotype is part of the Samuel Hubbard Scudder insect collection donated to Harvard in 1902.  The fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist Frank M. Carpenter of the Museum of Comparative Zoology with his 1930 type description of the new species being published in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.  The etymology for the specific epithet mayri was not given with the type description.  A. mayri was one of two Aphaenogaster species which Carpenter described in the paper, the other species being Aphaenogaster donisthorpei, both from the Florissant Formation.

text: At the time of description the species was known from a series of forty-one type fossils and over two hundred good fossils were examined for the species description.  The

text: holotype

text: was deposited in the

text: Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: paleontology collections at

text: Harvard University

text: .  Along with a number of other insect type specimens, the A. mayri holotype is part of the

text: Samuel Hubbard Scudder

text: insect collection donated to Harvard in 1902.  The fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist

text: Frank M. Carpenter

text: of the Museum of Comparative Zoology with his 1930

text: type description

text: of the new species being published in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.  The

text: etymology

text: for the

text: specific epithet

text: mayri was not given with the type description.  A. mayri was one of two Aphaenogaster species which Carpenter described in the paper, the other species being

text: Aphaenogaster donisthorpei

text: , both from the Florissant Formation.

text: As of 2014, an estimated 80% of all gearing produced worldwide is produced by net shape molding.Molded gearing is usually either powder metallurgy or plastic. Many gears are done when they leave the mold (including injection molded plastic and die cast metal gears), but powdered metal gears require sintering and sand castings or investment castings require gear cutting or other machining to finish them. The most common form of gear cutting is hobbing, but gear shaping, milling, and broaching also exist. 3D printing as a production method is expanding rapidly. For metal gears in the transmissions of cars and trucks, the teeth are heat treated to make them hard and more wear resistant while leaving the core soft and tough. For large gears that are prone to warp, a quench press is used.

text: As of 2014, an estimated 80% of all gearing produced worldwide is produced by

text: net shape

text: molding.Molded gearing is usually either

text: powder metallurgy

text: or plastic. Many gears are done when they leave the mold (including

text: injection molded

text: plastic and

text: die cast

text: metal gears), but powdered metal gears require

text: sintering

text: and

text: sand casting

text: s or

text: investment casting

text: s require

text: gear cutting

text: or other

text: machining

text: to finish them. The most common form of gear cutting is

text: hobbing

text: , but

text: gear shaping

text: milling

text: , and

text: broaching

text: also exist.

text: 3D printing

text: as a production method is expanding rapidly. For metal gears in the

text: transmissions

text: of cars and trucks, the teeth are

text: heat treated

text: to make them hard and more

text: wear resistant

text: while leaving the core soft and

text: tough

text: . For large gears that are prone to warp, a

text: quench press

text: is used.

text: At the time, the technology for including these hints in fonts was carefully guarded, and the hinted fonts were compressed and encrypted into what Adobe called a Type 1 Font (also known as PostScript Type 1 Font, PS1, T1 or Adobe Type 1). Type 1 was effectively a simplification of the PS system to store outline information only, as opposed to being a complete language (PDF is similar in this regard). Adobe would then sell licenses to the Type 1 technology to those wanting to add hints to their own fonts. Those who did not license the technology were left with the Type 3 Font (also known as PostScript Type 3 Font, PS3 or T3). Type 3 fonts allowed for all the sophistication of the PostScript language, but without the standardized approach to hinting.

text: At the time, the technology for including these hints in fonts was carefully guarded, and the hinted fonts were compressed and encrypted into what Adobe called a

text: Type 1 Font

text: (also known as PostScript Type 1 Font, PS1, T1 or Adobe Type 1). Type 1 was effectively a simplification of the PS system to store outline information only, as opposed to being a complete language (PDF is similar in this regard). Adobe would then sell licenses to the Type 1 technology to those wanting to add hints to their own fonts. Those who did not license the technology were left with the

text: Type 3 Font

text: (also known as PostScript Type 3 Font, PS3 or T3). Type 3 fonts allowed for all the sophistication of the PostScript language, but without the standardized approach to hinting.

text: The preservational regime of Beecher's Trilobite Bed (Upper Ordovician) and other similar localities involves the replacement of soft tissues with pyrite, producing a three-dimensional fossil replicating the anatomy of the original organism. Only gross morphological information is preserved (unlike Orsten type phosphate replacement), although the fossils are compressed some relief is preserved (unlike Burgess Shale type preservation).

text: The preservational regime of

text: Beecher's Trilobite Bed

text: (Upper

text: Ordovician

text: ) and other similar localities involves the replacement of soft tissues with

text: pyrite

text: , producing a three-dimensional

text: fossil

text: replicating the anatomy of the original organism. Only gross morphological information is preserved (unlike

text: Orsten

text: type

text: phosphate

text: replacement), although the fossils are compressed some relief is preserved (unlike

text: Burgess Shale type preservation

text: The Bureau of Natural History holds a diverse collection of about 250,000 specimens which have historic and cultural significance, in addition to their scientific value.  The natural history collections are especially strong in industrial minerals and ores, paleontology specimens (fossils), osteology specimens (bones), modern shells, and a systematic study skin component.  Smaller sub-collections include pinned insects, fluid-preserved fauna, taxidermy mounts and glass lantern slides.  The bureau is also the repository for about 300 type (first documented) specimens of Paleozoic and Mesozoic fossils, as well as a large number of fossils documenting the Paleozoic strata within the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area.  Minerals from the zinc-mining locality of Franklin-Sterling Hill are well represented, including the largest number of fluorescent mineral species in the world, as are mine-specific specimens from New Jersey’s industrial iron mining past.  Specimens from beyond New Jersey are used for comparative purposes in exhibitions and educational programming, to augment the systematic collections, and for research purposes.

text: The Bureau of Natural History holds a diverse collection of about 250,000 specimens which have historic and cultural significance, in addition to their scientific value.  The natural history collections are especially strong in industrial

text: minerals

text: and

text: ores

text: paleontology

text: specimens (fossils),

text: osteology

text: specimens (bones), modern shells, and a systematic study skin component.  Smaller sub-collections include pinned

text: insects

text: , fluid-preserved

text: fauna

text: taxidermy

text: mounts and glass lantern slides.  The bureau is also the repository for about 300 type (first documented) specimens of

text: Paleozoic

text: and

text: Mesozoic

text: fossils

text: , as well as a large number of fossils documenting the Paleozoic

text: strata

text: within the

entity_name: Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area

text: Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area

text: .  Minerals from the zinc-mining locality of Franklin-Sterling Hill are well represented, including the largest number of fluorescent mineral

text: species

text: in the world, as are mine-specific specimens from New Jersey’s industrial iron mining past.  Specimens from beyond New Jersey are used for comparative purposes in exhibitions and educational programming, to augment the systematic collections, and for research purposes.

text: The species was described from a series of type specimens, the holotype specimen USNM 355036, which is currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections of the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. and nine paratype specimens which are in the University of Florida collections. The fossils were part of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, A. W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: The species was described from a series of

text: type specimens

text: , the

text: holotype

text: specimen USNM 355036, which is currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of the

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: and nine

text: paratype

text: specimens which are in the

text: University of Florida

text: collections. The fossils were part of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, A. W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: Differences in preservation and diagenesis make it difficult to confidently identify eggshell pathologies in the fossil record. Multilayered eggshell identification can be complicated if the secondary eggshell is disconnected from the original. When this happens the two shells can vary in structure and may even be mistaken as coming from different types of eggs. Stacked eggshells from collapsed or compressed eggs may resemble multilayered eggshells but in thin cross-sections viewed under a microscope the stacked shell will have mammilae facing opposite directions whereas egg shells that developed in layers on top of each other will have mammilae facing the same direction. Also, in stacked shells the layer separating the shells will resemble the sediment surrounding the fossil and in multilayer the layer between shells will resemble the primary shell more than the surrounding sediment.

text: Differences in preservation and

text: diagenesis

text: make it difficult to confidently identify eggshell

text: pathologies

text: in the fossil record. Multilayered eggshell identification can be complicated if the secondary eggshell is disconnected from the original. When this happens the two shells can vary in structure and may even be mistaken as coming from different types of eggs. Stacked eggshells from collapsed or compressed eggs may resemble multilayered eggshells but in thin cross-sections viewed under a microscope the stacked shell will have

text: mammilae

text: facing opposite directions whereas egg shells that developed in layers on top of each other will have mammilae facing the same direction. Also, in stacked shells the layer separating the shells will resemble the sediment surrounding the fossil and in multilayer the layer between shells will resemble the primary shell more than the surrounding sediment.

text: The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-expendable casting. It is further broken down by the mold material, such as sand or metal, and pouring method, such as gravity, vacuum, or low pressure.

text: The starter bar, also called a dummy bar, has a free end portion which is flexible for storage and a substantially rigid portion at the end which plugs the mold. The starter bar is constructed in discrete blocks secured to one side of a planar spine provided in segments and arranged end to end. Adjustable spacers in the form of tapered blocks are disposed between the blocks of the bar to allow the starter bar to be self-supporting in a curved configuration corresponding to the casting path. A more flexible spine in the end portion of the starter bar allows the starter bar to be curved to a tighter radius than that of the casting path while the blocks fan out in an unsupported configuration. A storage ramp is provided to support the flexible end in the stored position. Before a cast is started, the starter bars are fed through the caster (in reverse direction of casting) using hydraulic actuators. Once fed all the way to the bottom of the mold, the process of packing the mold can continue to ensure a smooth start up.

text: National Fossil Park, Thiruvakkarai is the first fossil park in India.  It is maintained by the Geological Survey of India. The wood fossils are spread over 247 acres in nine separate enclaves around Thiruvakkarai.

text: One motivation behind taphonomy is to better understand biases present in the fossil record. Fossils are ubiquitous in sedimentary rocks, yet paleontologists cannot draw the most accurate conclusions about the lives and ecology of the fossilized organisms without knowing about the processes involved in their fossilization. For example, if a fossil assemblage contains more of one type of fossil than another, one can infer either that the organism was present in greater numbers, or that its remains were more resistant to decomposition.

text: One motivation behind taphonomy is to better understand biases present in the

text: fossil

text: record. Fossils are ubiquitous in sedimentary rocks, yet

text: paleontologist

text: s cannot draw the most accurate conclusions about the lives and ecology of the fossilized organisms without knowing about the processes involved in their fossilization. For example, if a fossil assemblage contains more of one type of fossil than another, one can infer either that the organism was present in greater numbers, or that its remains were more resistant to decomposition.

text: Greg Retallack's hypothesis that Ediacaran organisms were lichens is not widely accepted by the scientific community. He argues that the fossils are not as squashed as known fossil jellyfish, and their relief is closer to compressed woody branches whose compaction can be estimated as compressed cylinders. He points out the chitinous walls of lichen colonies would provide a similar resistance to compaction, and claims the large size of the organisms (up to 1.5 metres long, far larger than any of the preserved burrows) also hints against classification with animals. Finally, Ediacaran fossils from classic localities of the Flinders Ranges have been found in growth position within red calcareous and gypsiferous paleosols, interpreted as soils of well-drained temperate desert soils. Such habitats limit interpretive options for fractal Ediacaran fossils such as Dickinsonia to lichenised or unlichenised fungi, but other Ediacaran fossils could have been slime moulds or microbial colonies.

text: Greg Retallack

text: 's hypothesis that Ediacaran organisms were

text: lichen

text: s is not widely accepted by the scientific community. He argues that the fossils are not as squashed as known fossil jellyfish, and their relief is closer to compressed woody branches whose compaction can be estimated as compressed cylinders. He points out the

text: chitin

text: ous walls of lichen colonies would provide a similar resistance to compaction, and claims the large size of the organisms (up to 1.5 metres long, far larger than any of the preserved burrows) also hints against classification with animals. Finally, Ediacaran fossils from classic localities of the Flinders Ranges have been found in growth position within red calcareous and gypsiferous

text: paleosol

text: s, interpreted as soils of well-drained temperate desert soils. Such habitats limit interpretive options for fractal Ediacaran fossils such as

text: Dickinsonia

text: to lichenised or unlichenised fungi, but other Ediacaran fossils could have been slime moulds or microbial colonies.

text: The primary facade of the building displays the high-style characteristics of Roman architecture with sweeping steps leading to the pedimented portico. The two-story portico, capped by an enclosed pediment with modillions, is composed of six full-height, fluted granite columns, each capped by cast-iron capitals designed in the Corinthian order. Centered under the projecting portico is a pair of entrance doors flanked by elongated windows embellished with granite surrounds. Single-leaf entry doors at the corners of the ground floor were originally designed as separate male and female entrances to the Post Office lobby. Window openings, placed between the strong vertical forms of the Corinthian pilasters, pierce the symmetrically fenestrated side elevations of the building. The openings are embellished with molded granite surrounds, pedimented lintels, flat arches, and bracketed sills. The building is richly adorned by a classically inspired cast-iron entablature with frieze, modillions, and molded cornice.

text: The primary facade of the building displays the high-style characteristics of Roman architecture with sweeping steps leading to the pedimented portico. The two-story portico, capped by an enclosed pediment with modillions, is composed of six full-height, fluted granite columns, each capped by cast-iron capitals designed in the

text: Corinthian order

text: . Centered under the projecting portico is a pair of entrance doors flanked by elongated windows embellished with granite surrounds. Single-leaf entry doors at the corners of the ground floor were originally designed as separate male and female entrances to the Post Office lobby. Window openings, placed between the strong vertical forms of the Corinthian pilasters, pierce the symmetrically fenestrated side elevations of the building. The openings are embellished with molded granite surrounds, pedimented lintels, flat arches, and bracketed sills. The building is richly adorned by a classically inspired cast-iron entablature with frieze, modillions, and molded cornice.

text: In Petrified Forest National Park, most of the logs in the park retained their original external form during petrification but lost their internal structure. However, a small fraction of the logs and most of the park’s petrified animal bones have cells and other spaces that are mineral-filled but still retain much of their original organic structure. With these permineralized fossils, it is possible to study the cellular make-up of the original organisms with the aid of a microscope. Other organic matter—typically leaves, seeds, cones, pollen grains, spores, small stems, and fish, insect, and animal remains—have been preserved in the park as compression fossils, flattened by the weight of the sediments above until only a thin film remains in the rock.

text: In Petrified Forest National Park, most of the logs in the park retained their original external form during

text: petrification

text: but lost their internal structure. However, a small fraction of the logs and most of the park’s petrified animal bones have

text: cells

text: and other spaces that are mineral-filled but still retain much of their original organic structure. With these

text: permineralized

text: fossils, it is possible to study the cellular make-up of the original organisms with the aid of a microscope. Other organic matter—typically leaves, seeds, cones, pollen grains,

text: spore

text: s, small stems, and fish, insect, and animal remains—have been preserved in the park as

text: compression fossil

text: s, flattened by the weight of the sediments above until only a thin film remains in the rock.

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common types are wood, bones, and shells. Fossilisation is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so further back in time. Despite this, it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. There are also biases in the fossil record: different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although there are 30-plus phyla of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. The most common types are wood, bones, and shells. Fossilisation is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by

text: erosion

text: or

text: metamorphism

text: before they can be observed. Hence the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so further back in time. Despite this, it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. There are also biases in the fossil record: different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already

text: mineralised

text: are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although there are 30-plus

text: phyla

text: of living animals, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

text: Hydriomena? protrita is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen "AMNH-FI-19033". It is a single, complete forewing, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained shale.  The shale specimen is one of a group of fossils obtained in 1909 by George Sternberg, Terry Duce, and Willard Rusk from the Florissant Formation, named for its outcrop around Florissant.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the paleoentomological collections housed in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, USA.  H.? protrita was first studied by Dr Theodore D. A. Cockerell of the University of Colorado, with his 1922 type description being published in the journal American Museum Novitates.  Though Cockerell did not provide an explicit explanation for the specific epithet protrita  The description of the specimen was delayed for five years due expectation that the description of the fossil would be completed by another researcher in 1910. However, after the description failed to be presented, Cockerell wrote the American Museum Novitates article rather than let the fossil continue to go undescribed.

text: Hydriomena? protrita is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen "AMNH-FI-19033". It is a single, complete

text: forewing

text: , preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained

text: shale

text: .  The

text: shale

text: specimen is one of a group of fossils obtained in 1909 by George Sternberg, Terry Duce, and Willard Rusk from the

text: Florissant Formation

text: , named for its outcrop around Florissant.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: paleoentomological

text: collections housed in the

text: American Museum of Natural History

text: New York City

text: , USA.  H.? protrita was first studied by

text: Dr Theodore D. A. Cockerell

text: of the

text: University of Colorado

text: , with his 1922

text: type description

text: being published in the journal American Museum Novitates.  Though Cockerell did not provide an explicit

text: explanation

text: for the

text: specific epithet

text: protrita  The description of the specimen was delayed for five years due expectation that the description of the fossil would be completed by another researcher in 1910. However, after the description failed to be presented, Cockerell wrote the American Museum Novitates article rather than let the fossil continue to go undescribed.

text: The genus is notable as the first well-preserved example of a North American oviraptorosaur. According to Sues, "for almost a hundred years, the presence of oviraptorosaurs in North America was only known from a few bits of skeleton, and the details of their appearance and biology remained a mystery. With the discovery of A. wyliei, we finally have the fossil evidence to show what this species looked like and how it is related to other dinosaurs."

text: Aciculopoda is an extinct prawn which existed in what is now Oklahoma approximately . It was described in 2010 on the basis of a single fossil from Oklahoma. The single species, Aciculopoda mapesi, was named by Rodney Feldmann and Carrie Schweitzer in honour of Royal Mapes, a paleontologist who discovered the type specimen. It is only the third unambiguous fossil decapod from before the Mesozoic.

text: Aciculopoda is an extinct

text: prawn

text: which existed in what is now

text: Oklahoma

text: approximately . It was described in 2010 on the basis of a single

text: fossil

text: from

text: Oklahoma

text: . The single species, Aciculopoda mapesi, was named by Rodney Feldmann and Carrie Schweitzer in honour of Royal Mapes, a paleontologist who discovered the

text: type specimen

text: . It is only the third unambiguous fossil

text: decapod

text: from before the

text: Mesozoic

text: This page lists the Small Shelly Fossils, ordered by their type.

text: This page lists the

text: Small Shelly Fossils

text: , ordered by their type.

text: Undichna simplicitas is a fish-fin, or fish-swimming fossil trackway left as a fossil impression on a substrate; this type of fossil is an ichnofossil, and in this case an ichnospecies. The ichnogenus for the fish-fin, or fish tracks is named Undichna.

text: Undichna simplicitas is a

text: fish

text: -fin, or fish-swimming

text: fossil trackway

text: left as a

text: fossil

text: impression on a substrate; this type of fossil is an

text: ichnofossil

text: , and in this case an

text: ichnospecies

text: . The ichnogenus for the fish-fin, or fish tracks is named

text: Undichna

text: The fossils occur in a section of mudstone 50 meters thick in the Yuanshan Member of the Qiongzhusi Formation. The Yuanshan Member is extensive, covering tens of thousands of square kilometers of eastern Yunnan Province, where there are many scattered outcrops yielding fossils. Studies of the strata are consistent with a tropical environment with sea level changes and tectonic activity. The region is believed to have been a shallow sea with a muddy bottom. The preserved fauna is primarily benthic and was likely buried by periodic turbidity currents, since most fossils do not show evidence of post-mortem transport. Like the younger Burgess Shale fossils, the paleo-environment enabled preservation of non-mineralized, soft body parts. Fossils are found in thin layers less than an inch thick. The soft parts are preserved as aluminosilicate films, often with high oxidized iron content and often exhibiting exquisite details.

text: The fossils occur in a section of mudstone 50 meters thick in the Yuanshan Member of the Qiongzhusi Formation. The Yuanshan Member is extensive, covering tens of thousands of square kilometers of eastern Yunnan Province, where there are many scattered outcrops yielding fossils. Studies of the strata are consistent with a tropical environment with sea level changes and tectonic activity. The region is believed to have been a shallow sea with a muddy bottom. The preserved fauna is primarily

text: benthic

text: and was likely buried by periodic

text: turbidity current

text: s, since most fossils do not show evidence of post-mortem transport. Like the younger Burgess Shale fossils, the paleo-environment enabled preservation of non-mineralized, soft body parts. Fossils are found in thin layers less than an inch thick. The soft parts are preserved as aluminosilicate films, often with high oxidized iron content and often exhibiting exquisite details.

text: As a part of a sedimentary or metamorphic rock, fossils undergo the same diagenetic processes as does the containing rock. A shell consisting of calcite can, for example, dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by blood vessels, vascular tissue or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called permineralization. The most common minerals involved in permineralization are cements of carbonates (especially calcite), forms of amorphous silica (chalcedony, flint, chert) and pyrite. In the case of silica cements, the process is called lithification.

text: As a part of a sedimentary or metamorphic rock, fossils undergo the same

text: diagenetic processes

text: as does the containing rock. A shell consisting of calcite can, for example, dissolve while a cement of silica then fills the cavity. In the same way, precipitating minerals can fill cavities formerly occupied by

text: blood vessel

text: s,

text: vascular tissue

text: or other soft tissues. This preserves the form of the organism but changes the chemical composition, a process called

text: permineralization

text: . The most common minerals involved in permineralization are cements of

text: carbonate

text: s (especially calcite), forms of

text: amorphous silica

text: chalcedony

text: flint

text: chert

text: ) and

text: pyrite

text: . In the case of silica cements, the process is called

text: lithification

text: Her speciality was in the Middle Cretaceous Upper Greenland in the Vale of Wardour and her collection was one of the largest and most diverse of its time resulting in many visitors to her home. Some fossils within her collection were the first to be illustrated and described whilst some were extremely rare or incredibly well preserved. Bennett had contact with many authors of fossil works including the Sowerbys. Forty-one of her specimens were included in Sowerby's Mineral Conchology, a major fossil reference work, which was the second highest number of contributed fossils in which many were the best quality available at the time. After seeing part of her collection, and assuming she was male, Tsar Nicholas I granted her a Doctorate of Civil Law from the University of St Petersberg at a time when women were not admitted into higher education institutions. As an early female geologist and as a response to her honorary doctorate, Bennett noted 'that scientific people in general have a very low opinion of the abilities of my sex.

text: Her speciality was in the

text: Middle Cretaceous

text: Upper Greenland in the Vale of

text: Wardour

text: and her collection was one of the largest and most diverse of its time resulting in many visitors to her home. Some fossils within her collection were the first to be illustrated and described whilst some were extremely rare or incredibly well preserved. Bennett had contact with many authors of fossil works including the

text: Sowerbys

text: . Forty-one of her specimens were included in Sowerby's Mineral Conchology, a major fossil reference work, which was the second highest number of contributed fossils in which many were the best quality available at the time. After seeing part of her collection, and assuming she was male, Tsar Nicholas I granted her a Doctorate of Civil Law from the University of St Petersberg at a time when women were not admitted into higher education institutions. As an early female geologist and as a response to her honorary doctorate, Bennett noted 'that scientific people in general have a very low opinion of the abilities of my sex.

text: The large size of Deinosuchus has generally been recognized despite the fragmentary nature of the fossils assigned to it. However, estimates of how large it really was have varied considerably over the years. The original estimate from 1954 for the type specimen of the then-named "Phobosuchus riograndensis" were based on a skull of  and a lower jaw of  long, reconstructed with similar proportions to the Cuban crocodile giving  a total estimated length of . However, this reconstruction is currently considered to be inaccurate. Using more complete remains, it was estimated in 1999 that the size attained by specimens of Deinosuchus varied from  with weights from . This was later corroborated when it was noted that most known specimens of D. rugosus usually had skulls of about  with estimated total lengths of  and weights of . A reasonably well-preserved skull specimen discovered in Texas indicated the animal's head measured about , and its body length was estimated at . However, the largest fragmentary remains of D. riograndensis were 1.5 times the size of those of the average D. rugosus and it was determined that the largest individuals of this species may have been up to  in length and perhaps weighed as much as .

text: The large size of Deinosuchus has generally been recognized despite the fragmentary nature of the fossils assigned to it. However, estimates of how large it really was have varied considerably over the years. The original estimate from 1954 for the type specimen of the then-named "Phobosuchus riograndensis" were based on a skull of  and a lower jaw of  long, reconstructed with similar proportions to the

text: Cuban crocodile

text: giving  a total estimated length of . However, this reconstruction is currently considered to be inaccurate. Using more complete remains, it was estimated in 1999 that the size attained by specimens of Deinosuchus varied from  with weights from . This was later corroborated when it was noted that most known specimens of D. rugosus usually had skulls of about  with estimated total lengths of  and weights of . A reasonably well-preserved skull specimen discovered in

text: Texas

text: indicated the animal's head measured about , and its body length was estimated at . However, the largest fragmentary remains of D. riograndensis were 1.5 times the size of those of the average D. rugosus and it was determined that the largest individuals of this species may have been up to  in length and perhaps weighed as much as .

text: The museum's collections contain over 126 million specimens of plants, animals, fossils, minerals, rocks, meteorites, human remains, and human cultural artifacts. With 8 million visitors in 2013, it is the most visited of all of the Smithsonian museums and is also home to about 185 professional natural history scientists — the largest group of scientists dedicated to the study of natural and cultural history in the world.

text: The museum's collections contain over 126 million specimens of

text: plant

text: s,

text: animal

text: s,

text: fossil

text: s,

text: mineral

text: s,

text: rocks

text: meteorite

text: s, human remains, and human

text: cultural artifact

text: s. With 8 million visitors in 2013, it is the most visited of all of the Smithsonian museums and is also home to about 185 professional natural history

text: scientist

text: s — the largest group of scientists dedicated to the study of natural and cultural history in the world.

text: The type fossil for P. eocenica is a female gyne that was preserved as a lateral imprint in the matrix.  Overall the body length as preserved is  with fore-wings that are  long.  The eyes, funicular segment, tibial spurs and pretarsal claws are all missing or not preserved in the only known fossil.  The head capsule is longer than wide, and The scape is 1.5 times as long as the head capsule, extending beyond the occipital margin. Over half of the head length is composed of the mandibles, which are triangular in outline, with no tooth dentition preserved.

text: The type fossil for P. eocenica is a female gyne that was preserved as a lateral imprint in the matrix.  Overall the body length as preserved is  with fore-wings that are  long.  The eyes, funicular segment, tibial spurs and pretarsal claws are all missing or not preserved in the only known fossil.  The head capsule is longer than wide, and The

text: scape

text: is 1.5 times as long as the head capsule, extending beyond the occipital margin. Over half of the head length is composed of the mandibles, which are triangular in outline, with no tooth dentition preserved.

text: The preserved remains presently visitable comprise:

text: Catcott left his book collection and two cabinets of his fossils and minerals as a bequest to Bristol's public library. These were housed in the Old Library on King Street and were one of the first public displays of fossils in the country. Later transferred to the Bristol Museum, the fossils were destroyed in World War II. However Catcott's books were in the new Central Library building and survived.

text: Catcott left his book collection and two cabinets of his

text: fossil

text: s and

text: mineral

text: s as a bequest to Bristol's public library. These were housed in the

text: Old Library

text: on

text: King Street

text: and were one of the first public displays of fossils in the country. Later transferred to the

text: Bristol Museum

text: , the fossils were destroyed in

text: World War II

text: . However Catcott's books were in the new

text: Central Library

text: building and survived.

text: The Argiles de Châtillon is a geologic formation in France. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period.  Dinosaur remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific genus.

text: The Argiles de Châtillon is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: France

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Jurassic

text: period

text: Dinosaur

text: remains are among the fossils that have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific

text: genus

text: A riser is categorized based on three criteria: where it is located, whether it is open to the atmosphere, and how it is filled. If the riser is located on the casting then it is known as a top riser, but if it is located next to the casting it is known as a side riser. Top risers are advantageous because they take up less space in the flask than a side riser, plus they have a shorter feeding distance. If the riser is open to the atmosphere it is known as an open riser, but if the risers is completely contained in the mold it is known as a blind riser. An open riser is usually bigger than a blind because the open riser loses more heat to mold through the top of the riser. Finally, if the riser receives material from the gating system and fills before the mold cavity it is known as a live riser or hot riser. If the riser fills with material that has already flowed through the mold cavity it is known as a dead riser or cold riser. Live risers are usually smaller than dead risers. Top risers are almost always dead risers and risers in the gating system are almost always live risers.

text: The dispute centred upon an attempt by the Miners Federation of Great Britain, the main trade union representing coal miners, to secure a minimum wage for miners in their district, and to replace the complicated wage structure then in place, which often made it difficult for a miner to earn a fair days wage. The same issues had caused a major dispute the previous year in South Wales, and had become a national issue.  The strike was a repeat of the unsuccessful strike of 1894, which also sought a minimum wage.

text: The dispute centred upon an attempt by the

text: Miners Federation of Great Britain

text: , the main

text: trade union

text: representing coal miners, to secure a

text: minimum wage

text: for miners in their district, and to replace the complicated wage structure then in place, which often made it difficult for a miner to earn a fair days wage. The same issues had caused

text: a major dispute

text: the previous year in

text: South Wales

text: , and had become a national issue.  The strike was a repeat of the unsuccessful strike of 1894, which also sought a minimum wage.

text: Co-processing is the use of waste as raw material, or as a source of energy, or both to replace natural mineral resources (material recycling) and fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and gas (energy recovery) in industrial processes, mainly in energy intensive industries (EII) such as cement, lime, steel, glass, and power generation. Waste materials used for Co-processing are referred to as alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR).

text: Co-processing is the use of

text: waste

text: as raw material, or as a source of energy, or both to replace natural mineral resources (material recycling) and fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and gas (energy recovery) in industrial processes, mainly in energy intensive industries (EII) such as

text: cement

text: lime

text: steel

text: glass

text: , and

text: power generation

text: . Waste materials used for Co-processing are referred to as alternative fuels and raw materials (AFR).

text: The sea withdrew from Minnesota for the duration of the ensuing Silurian period. At this time local sediments were eroded away rather than deposited, so there are no rocks in which contemporary local wildlife could have been fossilized. During the ensuing Devonian period, the sea returned to southern Minnesota and local sediment deposition resumed. Brachiopods, cephalopods, corals, and trilobites lived there. Late Devonian life of Minnesota also included brachiopods and corals. Their remains were preserved in Fillmore, Freeborn, and Mower Counties. Fishes were present but none of the local fossils are complete, and only fragments remain to testify of their presence. This is where the local Paleozoic fossil record ends, as Minnesota has no Carboniferous or Permian rocks wherein fossil of those ages could have been preserved.

text: The sea withdrew from Minnesota for the duration of the ensuing

text: Silurian

text: period. At this time local sediments were eroded away rather than deposited, so there are no rocks in which contemporary local wildlife could have been fossilized. During the ensuing

text: Devonian

text: period, the sea returned to southern Minnesota and local sediment deposition resumed. Brachiopods, cephalopods, corals, and trilobites lived there.

text: Late Devonian

text: life of Minnesota also included brachiopods and corals. Their remains were preserved in

text: Fillmore

text: Freeborn

text: , and

text: Mower Counties

text: Fishes

text: were present but none of the local fossils are complete, and only fragments remain to testify of their presence. This is where the local Paleozoic fossil record ends, as Minnesota has no

text: Carboniferous

text: or

text: Permian

text: rocks wherein fossil of those ages could have been preserved.

text: Gas-guzzlers are not only seeing a scale back in engine size and weight but also in the type of fuel used to power it to prevent environmental damage caused by the use of fossil fuels. The problem with these alternative fuel technologies is that they are either too expensive for widespread use and/or they are scarcely available especially in smaller countries.

text: Historically, taperes were almost always wedge-shaped - the boundaries beginning at defined points on the outer reef and running inland to enclose an ever narrowing strip of land until converging at a point in or near the center of the island. By this type of delineation, any one tapere included every category of soil type and land surface of the island, from the typically mountainous interior, where forest products were collected, through fertile valleys where the major food crops were grown, across the rocky coastal strip of elevated fossil coral (makatea), out to the lagoon and fringing reef.

text: Some fossils discovered in the Eureka Sound Formation were Paleogene land vertebrates that include fish, turtles, and several types of mammals. Other types of fossils found were reptilian species and several types of birds.  Fresh water molluscs were also found.

text: Some fossils discovered in the Eureka Sound Formation were Paleogene land vertebrates that include fish, turtles, and several types of mammals. Other types of fossils found were reptilian species and several types of birds.  Fresh water

text: molluscs

text: were also found.

text: Burrow fossils are the remains of holes or tunnels excavated into the ground or seafloor by animals to create a space suitable for habitation, temporary refuge, or as a byproduct of locomotion preserved in the rock record. Because burrow fossils represent the preserved byproducts of behavior rather than physical remains, they are considered a kind of trace fossil.

text: Burrow fossils are the remains of holes or tunnels excavated into the ground or seafloor by

text: animals

text: to create a space suitable for habitation, temporary refuge, or as a byproduct of

text: locomotion

text: preserved in the

text: rock record

text: . Because burrow fossils represent the preserved byproducts of behavior rather than physical remains, they are considered a kind of

text: trace fossil

text: The earliest fossils of chytrids are from the Scottish Rhynie chert, a Devonian-age lagerstätte with anatomical preservation of plants and fungi. Among the microfossils are chytrids preserved as parasites on rhyniophytes. These fossils closely resemble the modern genus Allomyces. Holocarpic chytrid remains were found in cherts from Combres in central France that date back to the late Visean. These remains were found along with eucarpic remains and are ambiguous in nature although they are thought to be of chytrids. Other chytrid-like fossils were found in cherts from the upper Pennsylvanian in the Saint-Etienne Basin in France, dating between 300 and 350ma.

text: The earliest

text: fossil

text: s of chytrids are from the

text: Scottish

text: Rhynie chert

text: , a

text: Devonian

text: -age

text: lagerstätte

text: with anatomical preservation of

text: plant

text: s and fungi. Among the microfossils are chytrids preserved as

text: parasite

text: s on

text: rhyniophyte

text: s. These fossils closely resemble the modern genus

text: Allomyces

text: . Holocarpic chytrid remains were found in cherts from Combres in central France that date back to the late

text: Visean

text: . These remains were found along with eucarpic remains and are ambiguous in nature although they are thought to be of chytrids. Other chytrid-like fossils were found in cherts from the upper

text: Pennsylvanian

text: in the

text: Saint-Etienne

text: Basin in

text: France

text: , dating between 300 and 350

text: ma

text: Most of the vertebrate fossils are preserved by CaCo permineralization. This type of preservation preserves high levels of detail, even down to the microscopic level. However, it also leaves specimens vulnerable to weathering when exposed to the surface.

text: Most of the vertebrate fossils are preserved by

text: CaCo

text: permineralization

text: . This type of preservation preserves high levels of detail, even down to the microscopic level. However, it also leaves specimens vulnerable to

text: weathering

text: when exposed to the surface.

text: Mollusks (silicified) in casts and molds.

text: Mollusk

text: s (silicified) in casts and molds.

text: Powerpoint:  What are fossils, reasons for formation, types of fossils and why we study fossils. Clay practical included(Grade 5 - 7: Social Sciences / History).

text: Cast during the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600–1050 B.C.), this wine vessel is representative of the highly evolved piece-mold technologies developed within China’s Bronze Age. Due to the large number of surviving bronze vessels from this era, scholars have deduced that this age in China’s history must have been a highly developed state with strong control over resources such as copper, tin, and lead, needed to create the alloy bronze. Additionally, the Chinese technique of using piece-mold casting was considered extremely sophisticated compared to the lost-wax method used by other world cultures during their own Bronze Ages. During piece-mold casting, the object to be created is first designed as a model, and then enclosed in a clay mold that can be cut into pieces to remove it from the model. These clay pieces are then decorated or stamped with intricate designs before being fired back together, creating a mold for the bronze casting. For vessels such as this one, the central cavity of the container would have been created by placing a core inside the mold before casting with molten bronze. By casting the objects into molds already decorated with designs, craftsmen were able to use this technique to attain a higher level of definition than in any previously utilized casting methods. Furthermore, unlike many other early bronze wine vessels, guang have no history of prior ceramic prototypes, marking them as unique casts specifically from the Shang and Zhou dynasties.

text: Cast during the

text: Shang dynasty

text: ca.

text: 1600–1050 B.C.), this wine vessel is representative of the highly evolved piece-mold technologies developed within

text: China’s Bronze Age

text: . Due to the large number of surviving bronze vessels from this era, scholars have deduced that this age in China’s history must have been a highly developed state with strong control over resources such as copper, tin, and lead, needed to create the alloy bronze. Additionally, the Chinese technique of using piece-mold casting was considered extremely sophisticated compared to the

text: lost-wax

text: method used by other world cultures during their own Bronze Ages. During piece-mold casting, the object to be created is first designed as a model, and then enclosed in a clay mold that can be cut into pieces to remove it from the model. These clay pieces are then decorated or stamped with intricate designs before being fired back together, creating a mold for the bronze casting. For vessels such as this one, the central cavity of the container would have been created by placing a core inside the mold before casting with molten bronze. By casting the objects into molds already decorated with designs, craftsmen were able to use this technique to attain a higher level of definition than in any previously utilized casting methods. Furthermore, unlike many other early bronze wine vessels, guang have no history of prior ceramic prototypes, marking them as unique casts specifically from the Shang and

text: Zhou

text: dynasties.

text: Couch was also interested in Cornish geology, and did useful work in developing the difficult subject of Cornish fossil remains. From 1848 onwards he was curator of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, and contributed to its Transactions several valuable papers, as well as annual reports. The diseases of the Cornish miners were a subject of his careful investigation, and his papers on the mortality of miners in the Polytechnic Reports (185760) are, as far as they go, of permanent value; they were translated into French.

text: Couch was also interested in

text: Cornish geology

text: , and did useful work in developing the difficult subject of Cornish fossil remains. From 1848 onwards he was curator of the

text: Royal Geological Society of Cornwall

text: , and contributed to its Transactions several valuable papers, as well as annual reports. The diseases of the Cornish miners were a subject of his careful investigation, and his papers on the mortality of miners in the Polytechnic Reports (185760) are, as far as they go, of permanent value; they were translated into French.

text: C. longiventris was originally described 132 years before C. inversa and the erection of a new genus for the species.  The species was based on a group of seven separate fossil ants, which were preserved as compression fossils in sedimentary rock from the Radoboj area of what is now Croatia.  The deposits are the result of sedimentation in an inland sea basin, possibly a shallow lagoon environment, during the Burdigalian of the Early Miocene.  The fossil impressions are preserved in micrite limestones, resulting in low quality preservation of fine details. The fossils were first studied by Oswald Heer, then a professor with the University of Zürich, who placed the fossils into the genus Formica as F. longiventris in 1849.  This placement was not changed until a re-examination of two of Heers type specimens was published in 2014.  Examination by Dlussky and Putyatina of two of Heers "syntypes" resulted in the removal of the species from Formica and placement into Casaleia.  Of the two specimens, one was designated lectotype for the species, while the second was determined not to belong to the genus.

text: C. longiventris was originally described 132 years before C. inversa and the erection of a new genus for the species.  The species was based on a group of seven separate fossil ants, which were preserved as

text: compression fossil

text: s in sedimentary rock from the

text: Radoboj

text: area of what is now Croatia.  The deposits are the result of sedimentation in an inland sea basin, possibly a shallow lagoon environment, during the

text: Burdigalian

text: of the

text: Early Miocene

text: .  The fossil impressions are preserved in

text: micrite

text: limestones, resulting in low quality preservation of fine details. The fossils were first studied by

text: Oswald Heer

text: , then a professor with the

text: University of Zürich

text: , who placed the fossils into the genus

text: Formica

text: as F. longiventris in 1849.  This placement was not changed until a re-examination of two of Heers type specimens was published in 2014.  Examination by Dlussky and Putyatina of two of Heers "

text: syntype

text: s" resulted in the removal of the species from Formica and placement into Casaleia.  Of the two specimens, one was designated

text: lectotype

text: for the species, while the second was determined not to belong to the genus.

text: A few specimens preserve actual stomach contents. Unfortunately, none of these preserve the skull, so direct correlation between their known diet and snout/tooth shape cannot be made. Eoalulavis was found to have the remains of exoskeletons from aquatic crustaceans preserved in its digestive tract, and Enantiophoenix preserved corpuscles of amber among the fossilized bones, suggesting that this animal fed on tree sap, much like modern sapsuckers and other birds. The sap would have fossilized and become amber.

text: A few specimens preserve actual stomach contents. Unfortunately, none of these preserve the skull, so direct correlation between their known diet and snout/tooth shape cannot be made.

text: Eoalulavis

text: was found to have the remains of

text: exoskeleton

text: s from aquatic

text: crustacean

text: s preserved in its digestive tract, and

text: Enantiophoenix

text: preserved corpuscles of amber among the fossilized bones, suggesting that this animal fed on tree sap, much like modern

text: sapsucker

text: s and other birds. The sap would have fossilized and become amber.

text: The museum's collection of taxidermied birds is one of the largest in the country.  The museum also has some skeletons of animal species, including primates, whale as well as extinct species such as dodo and woolly rhinoceros. Also included in the display are fossils and minerals. Insects displayed include over 650 types of butterfly. Victorian curiosities such as a hoax merman are also found in the museum.

text: The museum's collection of

text: taxidermied

text: birds is one of the largest in the country.  The museum also has some skeletons of animal species, including primates, whale as well as extinct species such as

text: dodo

text: and

text: woolly rhinoceros

text: . Also included in the display are fossils and minerals. Insects displayed include over 650 types of butterfly. Victorian curiosities such as a hoax

text: merman

text: are also found in the museum.

text: Another type of Michigan fossil site is the quarry drop off.  This is when quarries put backfill in areas that have been dubbed unusable or abandoned for building. These sites are usually large piles of rock that appear to be out of place, and usually  are in public places. The advantages to these sites is that they are easy to find, and are easy to access. They usually yield close to quarry-quality fossils, and require no digging to access, but the fossils have been exposed to the weather and have been picked up and transported by large vehicles, thus some fossils are scraped and gouged.

text: Another type of Michigan fossil site is the quarry drop off.  This is when quarries put

text: backfill

text: in areas that have been dubbed unusable or abandoned for building. These sites are usually large piles of rock that appear to be out of place, and usually  are in public places. The advantages to these sites is that they are easy to find, and are easy to access. They usually yield close to quarry-quality fossils, and require no digging to access, but the fossils have been exposed to the weather and have been picked up and transported by large vehicles, thus some fossils are scraped and gouged.

text: Denaeaspis chelonopsis is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen number "USNM 58373".  The specimen is composed of a complete specimen of unidentified sex which is preserved as a compression fossil in sedimentary rock.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Green River Formations Parachute Member at the Denson site,locality 42053, in Garfield County, Colorado, USA.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the Department of Paleobiology collections housed in the National Museum of Natural History, located in Washington, D.C., USA.  Denaeaspis was first studied by Caroline S. Chaboo and Michael S. Engel of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA.  Their 2009 type description of the genus and species was published online and in print in the journal Systematic Entomology.  The generic name was coined by Chaboo and Engel from a combination of the Greek denaios meaning "old" and the Greek word aspis meaning "shield".  The etymology of the specific epithet chelonopsis, from the Greek chelone for "tortoise" and opsis for "lookalike", is in reference to tortoise beetles, the common name of the group.

text: Denaeaspis chelonopsis is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "USNM 58373".  The specimen is composed of a complete specimen of unidentified sex which is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in sedimentary rock.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the

text: Green River Formation

text: s Parachute Member at the Denson site,locality 42053, in

text: Garfield County, Colorado

text: , USA.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: Department of Paleobiology

text: collections housed in the

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: , located in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: , USA.  Denaeaspis was first studied by Caroline S. Chaboo and

text: Michael S. Engel

text: of the

text: University of Kansas

text: Lawrence, Kansas

text: , USA.  Their 2009

text: type description

text: of the genus and species was published online and in print in the journal

text: Systematic Entomology

text: .  The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Chaboo and Engel from a combination of the

text: Greek

text: denaios meaning "old" and the Greek word aspis meaning "shield".  The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: chelonopsis, from the Greek chelone for "tortoise" and opsis for "lookalike", is in reference to tortoise beetles, the common name of the group.

text: Profitable operations as well as market demand prompted a major commitment to build a Continuous Casting department in 1967 with the announcement of four curved mold continuous casting strands and six lines of three induction slab reheaters. Two additional 110 ton BOP vessels were also added to replace old and obsolete equipment (the 60 ton vessels). With these improvements to McLouth's steel making process, McLouth became the first steel mill to eventually produce 100% of its product by the continuous casting process, which added significantly to the efficiency of the operations and improved the quality of the finished product.

text: Profitable operations as well as market demand prompted a major commitment to build a

text: Continuous Casting

text: department in 1967 with the announcement of four curved mold continuous casting strands and six lines of three induction slab reheaters. Two additional 110 ton BOP vessels were also added to replace old and obsolete equipment (the 60 ton vessels). With these improvements to McLouth's steel making process, McLouth became the first steel mill to eventually produce 100% of its product by the continuous casting process, which added significantly to the efficiency of the operations and improved the quality of the finished product.

text: In geology the term compression refers to a set of stress directed toward the center of a rock mass. Compressive strength refers to the maximum compressive stress that can be applied to a material before failure occurs. When the maximum compressive stress is in a horizontal orientation, thrust faulting can occur, resulting in the shortening and thickening of that portion of the crust. When the maximum compressive stress is vertical, a section of rock will often fail in normal faults, horizontally extending and vertically thinning a given layer of rock. Compressive stresses can also result in folding of rocks. Because of the large magnitudes of lithostatic stress in tectonic plates, tectonic-scale deformation is always subjected to net compressive stress.

text: In

text: geology

text: the term compression refers to a set of stress directed toward the center of a rock mass.

text: Compressive strength

text: refers to the maximum

text: compressive stress

text: that can be applied to a material before failure occurs. When the maximum compressive stress is in a horizontal orientation,

text: thrust fault

text: ing can occur, resulting in the shortening and thickening of that portion of the

text: crust

text: . When the maximum compressive stress is vertical, a section of rock will often fail in

text: normal fault

text: s, horizontally extending and vertically thinning a given layer of rock. Compressive stresses can also result in

text: folding

text: of rocks. Because of the large magnitudes of

text: lithostatic stress

text: in

text: tectonic plate

text: s, tectonic-scale

text: deformation

text: is always subjected to net compressive stress.

text: The nearby site of Estaquería may provide clues to the remarkable preservation of the numerous bodies in these cemeteries. At that site, archeologists found wooden pillars initially thought to have been used for astronomical sightings. However, it is now believed that the posts were used to dry bodies in a mummification process. This may account for the high degree of preservation seen in thousand-year-old bodies which still have hair and the remains of soft tissue, such as skin.

text: The nearby site of

text: Estaquería

text: may provide clues to the remarkable preservation of the numerous bodies in these cemeteries. At that site, archeologists found wooden pillars initially thought to have been used for astronomical sightings. However, it is now believed that the posts were used to dry bodies in a mummification process. This may account for the high degree of preservation seen in thousand-year-old bodies which still have hair and the remains of soft tissue, such as skin.

text: Emiliana alexandri is known only from one fossil, the part and counterpart holotype, specimen number "PIN no. 4621/546". The specimen is composed of a single isolated tegmen which is preserved as a compression fossil in sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered by David Kohls of Colorado Mountain College and A. P. Rasnitsyn of the Russian Academy of Sciences from outcrops of the Green River Formations Parachute Member exposed in the Anvil Points area of Garfield County, Colorado, USA. The type specimen is currently preserved in the paleoentomology collections housed in the Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, located in Moscow, Russia. Emiliana was first studied by Dmitry Shcherbakov of the Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences with his 2006 type description of the tribe, genus and species being published in the Russian Entomological Journal. The generic name was coined by Shcherbakov in recognition of the world authority in planthoppers, A. F. Emeljanov, with the tribe name being a derivative of the genus name. The etymology of the specific epithet alexandri is in reference to Emeljanov's first name Alexandr.

text: Emiliana alexandri is known only from one fossil, the

text: part and counterpart

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "PIN no. 4621/546". The specimen is composed of a single isolated

text: tegmen

text: which is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered by David Kohls of

text: Colorado Mountain College

text: and A. P. Rasnitsyn of the

text: Russian Academy of Sciences

text: from outcrops of the

text: Green River Formation

text: s Parachute Member exposed in the Anvil Points area of

text: Garfield County, Colorado

text: , USA. The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: paleoentomology collections

text: housed in the

entity_name: Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences

text: Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences

text: , located in

text: Moscow

text: , Russia. Emiliana was first studied by Dmitry Shcherbakov of the Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences with his 2006

text: type description

text: of the tribe, genus and species being published in the Russian Entomological Journal. The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Shcherbakov in recognition of the world authority in planthoppers, A. F. Emeljanov, with the tribe name being a derivative of the genus name. The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: alexandri is in reference to Emeljanov's first name Alexandr.

text: Replacement, the second process involved in petrification, occurs when water containing dissolved minerals dissolves the original solid material of an organism, which is then replaced by minerals.  This can take place extremely slowly, replicating the microscopic structure of the organism.  The slower the rate of the process, the better defined the microscopic structure will be.  The minerals commonly involved in replacement are calcite, silica, pyrite, and hematite. It is rare to find organisms preserved by replacement alone (as opposed to in combination with permineralization), but these fossils present significant importance to paleontologists because these fossils tend to be very detailed.

text: When described Agroecomyrmex was known only from five separate fossils, the holotype worker, number 639/10246 plus three paratype workers and a single paratype female, which are fossilized as inclusions in transparent chunks of Baltic amber.  Baltic amber is approximately forty six million years old, having been deposited during Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene.  There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by, with evidence supporting relatives of either an Agathis relative or a Pseudolarix relative.  All the type specimens were collected over 125 years ago, and when first described were part of the University of Königsberg amber collection.  The fossils were first studied by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr who placed the species in the living genus Myrmica.  Mayr's 1868 type description of the new species was published in the journal Beitrage zur Naturkunde Preussens.The species was moved to the new genus Agroecomyrmex in a short note in 1910 by William Morton Wheeler.  Wheeler expanded upon and gave a full description of the new genus in his 1915 paper The ants of the Baltic amber.  In the description Wheeler recognized the very distinct morphology of the species, and that it was not closely related to the Myrmica species.  Since its description two other related genera have been described, the late Eocene genus Eulithomyrmex from the Florissant Formation of Colorado, and the living genus Tatuidris from Central and South America.  Placement of the group has changed several times, with the genera being placed in the Myrmicinae tribe Agroecomyrmecini from 1930 until 2003.  The placement of the tribe was challenged in 2003 by Barry Bolton who suggested a closer relationship between the group and the "poneromorph" subfamilies.  in addition to the suggested relationship, Bolton moved the tribe from Myrmicinae to a new subfamily, Agroecomyrmecinae.

text: When described Agroecomyrmex was known only from five separate fossils, the

text: holotype

text: worker, number 639/10246 plus three

text: paratype

text: workers and a single paratype female, which are fossilized as

text: inclusions

text: in transparent chunks of

text: Baltic amber

text: .  Baltic amber is approximately forty six million years old, having been deposited during

text: Lutetian

text: stage of the

text: Middle Eocene

text: .  There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by, with evidence supporting relatives of either an

text: Agathis

text: relative or a

text: Pseudolarix

text: relative.  All the type specimens were collected over 125 years ago, and when first described were part of the

text: University of Königsberg

text: amber collection.  The fossils were first studied by Austrian entomologist

text: Gustav Mayr

text: who placed the species in the living genus

text: Myrmica

text: .  Mayr's 1868

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the journal

text: Beitrage zur Naturkunde Preussens

text: .The species was moved to the new genus Agroecomyrmex in a short note in 1910 by

text: William Morton Wheeler

text: .  Wheeler expanded upon and gave a full description of the new genus in his 1915 paper The ants of the Baltic amber.  In the description Wheeler recognized the very distinct morphology of the species, and that it was not closely related to the Myrmica species.  Since its description two other related genera have been described, the late Eocene genus

text: Eulithomyrmex

text: from the

text: Florissant Formation

text: of Colorado, and the living genus

text: Tatuidris

text: from Central and South America.  Placement of the group has changed several times, with the genera being placed in the

text: Myrmicinae

text: tribe Agroecomyrmecini from 1930 until 2003.  The placement of the tribe was challenged in 2003 by

text: Barry Bolton

text: who suggested a closer relationship between the group and the "poneromorph" subfamilies.  in addition to the suggested relationship, Bolton moved the tribe from Myrmicinae to a new subfamily,

text: Agroecomyrmecinae

text: The type represents one of the few remaining examples of humans' original domestic dog and its physical features are the same as those of the dogs whose fossil remains have been found in various parts of the world, from very early remains in Israel and China to later ones such as those found in the volcanic lava at Pompeii, near Naples in Italy.

text: The type represents one of the few remaining examples of humans' original

text: domestic dog

text: and its physical features are the same as those of the dogs whose

text: fossil

text: remains have been found in various parts of the world, from very early remains in Israel and

text: China

text: to later ones such as those found in the

text: volcanic

text: lava at

text: Pompeii

text: , near

text: Naples

text: in

text: Italy

text: Hope diamond, dinosaur fossils, gems, and minerals.

text: La Hermana del Hombre Bóveda was hollow cast in a multi-part mold in Madrid in 1963.

text: The most common form of manufacture for kits is injection molded polystyrene plastic, using carbon steel molds. Today, this takes place mostly in China, Taiwan, the Philippines, South Korea, and Eastern Europe. Injection molding allows a high degree of precision and automation not available in the other manufacturing processes used for models but the molds are expensive and require large production runs to cover the cost of making them. Smaller and cheaper runs can be done with cast copper molds, and some companies do even smaller runs using cast resin or rubber molds, but the durability is of a lower standard than carbon steel and labour costs are higher.

text: The most common form of manufacture for kits is

text: injection molded

text: polystyrene

text: plastic, using carbon steel molds. Today, this takes place mostly in China, Taiwan, the Philippines, South Korea, and Eastern Europe. Injection molding allows a high degree of precision and automation not available in the other manufacturing processes used for models but the molds are expensive and require large production runs to cover the cost of making them. Smaller and cheaper runs can be done with cast copper molds, and some companies do even smaller runs using cast resin or rubber molds, but the durability is of a lower standard than carbon steel and labour costs are higher.

text: The fossil record is an important source for scientists when tracing the evolutionary history of organisms. However, because of limitations inherent in the record, there are not fine scales of intermediate forms between related groups of species. This lack of continuous fossils in the record is a major limitation in tracing the descent of biological groups. When transitional fossils are found that show intermediate forms in what had previously been a gap in knowledge, they are often popularly referred to as "missing links".

text: The fossil record is an important source for scientists when tracing the evolutionary history of organisms. However, because of limitations inherent in the record, there are not fine scales of intermediate forms between related groups of species. This lack of continuous fossils in the record is a major limitation in tracing the descent of biological groups. When

text: transitional fossil

text: s are found that show intermediate forms in what had previously been a gap in knowledge, they are often popularly referred to as "missing links".

text: As of the 2015 description of P. petrosum six species of Proceratium had been described from fossils. P. denticulatum, P. dominicanum, P. gibberum and P. poinari are younger then P. petrosum, being described from the Middle Miocene Dominican amber.  P. eocenicum from Baltic amber is of similar age to P. petrosum, and the only other species with a described fossil male.  Of the six fossil species, P. petrosum was the first to be described from a compression fossil.

text: As of the 2015 description of P. petrosum six species of

text: Proceratium

text: had been described from fossils.

text: P. denticulatum

text: P. dominicanum

text: P. gibberum

text: and

text: P. poinari

text: are younger then P. petrosum, being described from the

text: Middle Miocene

text: Dominican amber

text: P. eocenicum

text: from

text: Baltic amber

text: is of similar age to P. petrosum, and the only other species with a described fossil male.  Of the six fossil species, P. petrosum was the first to be described from a compression fossil.

text: When first examined, Aphaenogaster sommerfeldti was described from a pair of type specimen workers which are fossilized as inclusions in transparent chunks of Baltic amber.  Baltic amber is approximately forty six million years old, having been deposited during Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene.  There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by, with evidence supporting relatives of either an Agathis relative or a Pseudolarix relative.  All the type specimens were collected over 125 years ago, and when first described were part of the University of Königsberg amber collection.  The fossils were first studied by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr who placed the species in the genus Aphaenogaster.  Mayr's 1868 type description of the new species was published in the Königsberg journal Beiträge zur Naturkunde Preussens.

text: When first examined, Aphaenogaster sommerfeldti was described from a pair of

text: type specimen

text: workers which are fossilized as

text: inclusions

text: in transparent chunks of

text: Baltic amber

text: Lutetian

text: stage of the

text: Middle Eocene

text: Agathis

text: relative or a

text: Pseudolarix

text: University of Königsberg

text: Gustav Mayr

text: who placed the species in the genus Aphaenogaster.  Mayr's 1868

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the Königsberg journal

text: Beiträge zur Naturkunde Preussens

text: Some fossil species have been discovered in amber and as compression fossils in rock:

text: Some

text: fossil

text: species have been discovered in

text: amber

text: and as

text: compression fossil

text: s in rock:

text: Greene amassed most of the fossils in his collection, totaling about 75,000 specimens, during the 1880s and 1890s.  The majority of these specimens come from the Silurian Niagara Formation and the Devonian Hamilton Formation in the vicinity of southeastern Wisconsin.  Preserved mostly as internal molds in dolomite, these fossils include a wide range of Silurian marine invertebrate groups including trilobites, crinoids, tabulate and rugose corals, brachiopods, cephalopods, and gastropods.  Devonian fossils consist mainly of fish and plant remains.  All of these fossils were collected from quarry outcrops that no longer exist, making the collection irreplaceable.

text: Before firing, the bolt body is separated from the locked bolt head by a stiff spring. As the shotgun recoils after firing, inertia causes the bolt body to remain stationary while the recoiling gun and locked bolt head move rearward. This movement compresses the spring between the bolt head and bolt body, storing the energy required to cycle the action. Since the spring can only be compressed a certain amount, this limits the amount of force the spring can absorb, and provides an inherent level of self-regulation to the action, allowing a wide range of shotshells to be used, from standard to magnum loads, as long as they provide the minimum recoil level to compress the spring.  Note that the shotgun must be free to recoil for this to work—the compressibility of the shooter's body is sufficient to allow this movement, but firing the shotgun from a secure position in a rest or with the stock against the ground will not allow it to recoil sufficiently to operate the mechanism. Likewise, weapons of this type must be modified (with the addition of extended magazines or stock saddled ammunition slings on shotguns, for example) with care, as any sizable increase in weapon mass can reduce the force of recoil below that required to cycle the action.

text: Before firing, the bolt body is separated from the locked bolt head by a stiff spring. As the shotgun recoils after firing, inertia causes the bolt body to remain stationary while the recoiling gun and locked bolt head move rearward. This movement compresses the spring between the bolt head and bolt body, storing the energy required to cycle the action. Since the spring can only be compressed a certain amount, this limits the amount of force the spring can absorb, and provides an inherent level of self-regulation to the action, allowing a wide range of

text: shotshell

text: s to be used, from standard to magnum loads, as long as they provide the minimum recoil level to compress the spring.  Note that the shotgun must be free to recoil for this to work—the compressibility of the shooter's body is sufficient to allow this movement, but firing the shotgun from a secure position in a rest or with the stock against the ground will not allow it to recoil sufficiently to operate the mechanism. Likewise, weapons of this type must be modified (with the addition of extended magazines or stock saddled ammunition slings on shotguns, for example) with care, as any sizable increase in weapon mass can reduce the force of recoil below that required to cycle the action.

text: Agile tooling is the design and fabrication of manufacturing related-tools such as dies, molds, patterns, jigs and fixtures in a configuration that aims to maximise the tools' performance, minimise manufacturing time and cost, and avoid delay in prototyping.  A fully functional agile tooling laboratory consists of CNC milling, turning and routing equipment. It can also include additive manufacturing platforms (such as fused filament fabrication, selective laser sintering, Stereolithography, and direct metal laser sintering), hydroforming, vacuum forming, die casting, stamping, injection molding and welding equipment.

text: Agile tooling is the design and fabrication of

text: manufacturing

text: related-tools such as

text: die

text: s,

text: molds

text: patterns

text: jigs

text: and

text: fixtures

text: in a configuration that aims to maximise the tools' performance, minimise manufacturing time and cost, and avoid delay in

text: prototyping

text: .  A fully functional agile tooling laboratory consists of

text: CNC milling

text: turning

text: and

text: routing

text: equipment. It can also include

text: additive manufacturing

text: platforms (such as

text: fused filament fabrication

text: selective laser sintering

text: Stereolithography

text: , and

text: direct metal laser sintering

text: hydroforming

text: vacuum forming

text: die casting

text: stamping

text: injection molding

text: and

text: welding

text: equipment.

text: Although there is no formal classification system for EVEs, they are categorised according to the taxonomy of their viral origin. Indeed, all known viral genome types and replication strategies, as defined by the Baltimore classification, have been found in the genomic fossil record. Acronyms have been designated to describe different types of viral fossil.

text: Although there is no formal classification system for EVEs, they are categorised according to the taxonomy of their viral origin. Indeed, all known viral genome types and replication strategies, as defined by the

text: Baltimore classification

text: , have been found in the genomic fossil record. Acronyms have been designated to describe different types of viral fossil.

text: The fossil record of roots – or rather, infilled voids where roots rotted after death – spans back to the late Silurian. Their identification is difficult, because casts and molds of roots are so similar in appearance to animal burrows. They can be discriminated using a range of features.

text: The fossil record of roots – or rather, infilled voids where roots rotted after death – spans back to the late

text: Silurian

text: . Their identification is difficult, because casts and molds of roots are so similar in appearance to animal burrows. They can be discriminated using a range of features.

text: Behind the mold disk is the type metal pot, which contains molten type metal. A piston in the pot pushes the molten metal down into the pot, which forces the metal through the pot throat and into the mold, forcing it against the faces of the matrices. These have character shapes cut into them, so the result is a cast slug with the character shapes of the line on its front face. The mold disk is sometimes water-cooled, and often air-cooled with a blower, to carry away the heat of the molten type metal and allow the cast slugs to solidify quickly.

text: Behind the mold disk is the type metal pot, which contains molten

text: type metal

text: . A piston in the pot pushes the molten metal down into the pot, which forces the metal through the pot throat and into the mold, forcing it against the faces of the matrices. These have character shapes cut into them, so the result is a cast slug with the character shapes of the line on its front face. The mold disk is sometimes water-cooled, and often air-cooled with a blower, to carry away the heat of the molten type metal and allow the cast slugs to solidify quickly.

text: Both of the destroyers were upgraded in 2011. The four Type 76A guns were replaced by two Type 730 CIWS on top of the helicopter hangar. The Crotale/HHQ-7 short-range SAM may have been replaced by the newer model (FM-90?) which provides better interception against sea-skimming AShMs. Two Type 726-4 decoy launchers were installed on both sides of the forward bridge for better self-protection. Various onboard systems were integrated together (to a certain degree) by a Thomson-CSF TAVITAC combat data system which is thought to have been replaced by a new indigenous C3I system (ZJK-4B or a newer model). The Thomson-CSF Sea Tiger air/surface search radar was first replaced by an indigenous Type 518 Hai Ying radar, and now replaced by a Type 517M long-range air search radar. The Type 362 air/surface radar installed on top of the aft mast has been replaced by a Type 364. A pair of SATCOM antennas have been installed on top of the helicopter hangar as well.

text: Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that the different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. The Continental shelf of the Americas fit closely to Africa and Europe, and Antarctica, Australia, India and Madagascar fitted next to the tip of Southern Africa. But Wegener only took action after reading a paper in 1911 and seeing that a flooded land-bridge contradicts isostasy. Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid-1912. He presented his Continental Drift hypothesis on 6 January 1912. He analyzed both sides of the Atlantic Ocean for rock type, geological structures and fossils. He noticed that there was a significant similarity between matching sides of the continents, especially in fossil plants.

text: Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that the different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. The

text: Continental shelf

text: of the Americas fit closely to Africa and Europe, and Antarctica, Australia, India and Madagascar fitted next to the tip of Southern Africa. But Wegener only took action after reading a paper in 1911 and seeing that a flooded land-bridge contradicts

text: isostasy

text: . Wegener's main interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid-1912. He presented his Continental Drift hypothesis on 6 January 1912. He analyzed both sides of the Atlantic Ocean for rock type, geological structures and fossils. He noticed that there was a significant similarity between matching sides of the continents, especially in

text: fossil plants

text: In some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold. If this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An endocast or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the internal cavity of an organism, such as the inside of a bivalve or snail or the hollow of a skull.

text: In some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold. If this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An

text: endocast

text: or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the internal cavity of an organism, such as the inside of a

text: bivalve

text: or

text: snail

text: or the hollow of a

text: skull

text: There are very few fossil remains of Kimmerosaurus known. In fact, nothing has been found to show what Kimmerosaurus may have looked like below the neck, although the atlas and the axis are similar to those of the plesiosaur Colymbosaurus. It is this lack of any post-cranial fossils, and the bone similarities that has led to the belief that Kimmerosaurus fossils could be the missing head of Colymbosaurus, a  similar plesiosaur with no known skull fossils.

text: There are very few fossil remains of Kimmerosaurus known. In fact, nothing has been found to show what Kimmerosaurus may have looked like below the

text: neck

text: , although the

text: atlas

text: and the

text: axis

text: are similar to those of the plesiosaur

text: Colymbosaurus

text: . It is this lack of any post-

text: cranial

text: fossils, and the bone similarities that has led to the belief that Kimmerosaurus fossils could be the missing head of Colymbosaurus, a  similar plesiosaur with no known skull fossils.

text: Bicycles are allowed on half of the trails; equestrians and hikers on all of the trails. Dogs are allowed. Cows, calves, steers and an occasional free-ranging bull can be encountered on the trails; their grazing keeps the grass short for summer fire safety. Deer, coons, and skunks can be seen, as well as hawks, vultures and an occasional eagle.  The commonest trees are California bay laurel and coast live oak. Some of the exposed rocks contain compressed layers of fossils.

text: Protostephanus is known only from a single fossil, the holotype, specimen number "2035" and formerly number 13913 of the Samuel Hubbard Scudder collection.  The specimen is housed in the fossil collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, part of Harvard University.  The specimen is composed of a partially complete adult female crown wasp that has been preserved as an compression fossil in shale of fine volcanic ash from the Florissant Formation in Colorado.  When the fossil was first recovered and studied, the age of the Florissant Formation was not firmly determined, and a tentative Miocene date was advocated.  The formation has subsequently been determined to be late Eocene in age.  The Protostephanus  fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Cockerell's 1906 type description of the new genus and species was published in the journal Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College.  The genus name Protostephanus was coined by Cockerell as a combination of the Greek word proto meaning "first" and the stephanid genus Stephanus.  The specific epithet ashmeadi was coined in honor of William Harris Ashmead whose entomology works were referenced by Cockerell to determine the affinities of the insect.  Protostephanus is the first crown wasp genus to have been described from a fossil, and is the youngest fossil genus in the family.  Cockerell was uncertain of his placement for the Protostephanus as a crown wasp, not being able to see all the features typical of the family.  This uncertainty remained until the holotype was reexamined by Alexandre Aguiar and Jens-Wilhelm Janzen in 1999.  Aguiar and Janzen concluded that the placement was sound with most of the expected features being present partly or fully.  The incomplete nature of the specimen lead to the genus being left unplaced in the subfamily Stephaninae when it was subdivided into tribes.

text: Protostephanus is known only from a single fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "2035" and formerly number 13913 of the

text: Samuel Hubbard Scudder

text: collection.  The specimen is housed in the fossil collection of the

text: Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: , part of

text: Harvard University

text: .  The specimen is composed of a partially complete adult female crown wasp that has been preserved as an

text: compression fossil

text: in shale of fine volcanic ash from the

text: Florissant Formation

text: in

text: Colorado

text: .  When the fossil was first recovered and studied, the age of the Florissant Formation was not firmly determined, and a tentative

text: Miocene

text: date was advocated.  The formation has subsequently been determined to be

text: late Eocene

text: in age.  The Protostephanus  fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist

text: Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell

text: of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Cockerell's 1906

text: type description

text: of the new genus and species was published in the journal Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College.  The genus name Protostephanus was coined by Cockerell as a combination of the

text: Greek

text: word proto meaning "first" and the stephanid genus

text: Stephanus

text: .  The

text: specific epithet

text: ashmeadi was coined in honor of

text: William Harris Ashmead

text: whose entomology works were referenced by Cockerell to determine the affinities of the insect.  Protostephanus is the first crown wasp genus to have been described from a fossil, and is the youngest fossil genus in the family.  Cockerell was uncertain of his placement for the Protostephanus as a crown wasp, not being able to see all the features typical of the family.  This uncertainty remained until the holotype was reexamined by Alexandre Aguiar and Jens-Wilhelm Janzen in 1999.  Aguiar and Janzen concluded that the placement was sound with most of the expected features being present partly or fully.  The incomplete nature of the specimen lead to the genus being left unplaced in the subfamily Stephaninae when it was subdivided into

text: tribes

text: Fairyflies are well represented in fossil amber inclusions, copal, and compression fossils. Their fossils have been found from the Early Cretaceous up to the Miocene epoch. It is, in fact, the only family of chalcid wasps definitely known to date back to the Cretaceous period.

text: Fairyflies are well represented in

text: fossil

text: amber inclusion

text: s,

text: copal

text: , and

text: compression fossil

text: s. Their fossils have been found from the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: up to the

text: Miocene

text: epoch

text: . It is, in fact, the only family of chalcid wasps definitely known to date back to the

text: Cretaceous

text: period.

text: Vertebrate fossils found in the Boquillas Formation include mosasaurs, fish bones, and shark's teeth. Invertebrate fossils found in the formation include ammonites, swimming crinoids, inoceramid clams, sea urchins, oysters, and foraminifera

text: Vertebrate

text: fossil

text: s found in the Boquillas Formation include

text: mosasaur

text: s,

text: fish

text: bones, and

text: shark

text: 's teeth.

text: Invertebrate

text: fossil

text: s found in the formation include

text: ammonite

text: s, swimming

text: crinoid

text: s,

text: inoceramid

text: clams,

text: sea urchin

text: s,

text: oyster

text: s, and

text: foraminifera

text: Europe is relatively rich in fossils from the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary, and much of what is known about European dinosaurs dates from this time.  As the timeline below illustrates, there are substantial gaps in our knowledge from the rest of the Mesozoic.  The absence of dinosaur genera from this time is because few fossils have been discovered, and almost certainly not because Europe contained few types of dinosaur—except, perhaps, immediately after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event.

text: Europe is relatively rich in fossils from the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary, and much of what is known about European dinosaurs dates from this time.  As the timeline below illustrates, there are substantial gaps in our knowledge from the rest of the Mesozoic.  The absence of dinosaur

text: genera

text: from this time is because few fossils have been discovered, and almost certainly not because Europe contained few types of dinosaur—except, perhaps, immediately after the

text: Triassic–Jurassic extinction event

text: This is a special form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism (or fragment of organism) can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, resulting in a nodule forming around it. If this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization.

text: This is a special form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism (or fragment of organism) can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, resulting in a nodule forming around it. If this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous

text: Mazon Creek fossil beds

text: of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization.

text: Langebaanweg has been an important mining center, with its mai minerals consisting of phosphorites, primarily calcium phosphate. The mining uncovered fossils dating from the late Miocene and early Pliocene, approximately 5 million years ago.  Fossil species found there include invertebrates and also a type of rhinoceros, as well as a mousebird and a diving petrel. The West Coast Fossil Park includes displays of fossils found in a former phosphate mine. Brett Hendey, formally of the Iziko South African Museum, documented the significance of the Langebaanweg fossil sites.

text: Langebaanweg has been an important

text: mining

text: center, with its mai minerals consisting of

text: phosphorites

text: , primarily

text: calcium phosphate

text: . The mining uncovered

text: fossils

text: dating from the late Miocene and early Pliocene, approximately 5 million years ago.  Fossil species found there include

text: invertebrates

text: and also a type of

text: rhinoceros

text: , as well as a

text: mousebird

text: and a

text: diving petrel

text: . The

text: West Coast Fossil Park

text: includes displays of fossils found in a former phosphate mine. Brett Hendey, formally of the

text: Iziko South African Museum

text: , documented the significance of the Langebaanweg fossil sites.

text: In addition to mollusk shells, various other natural history specimens are susceptible to this form of decay, including eggshells and some fossils and mineral samples that are composed of calcium carbonate. This condition is of concern for museum scientists, and also for anyone who has a private collection of specimens of these kinds. In order to avoid Bynesian decay, the use of metal, non-reactive polymers and acid-free materials of archival quality are preferred over common paper, wood-based materials, ordinary glues and varnishes in collection environments. Management of affected specimens includes washing and thorough drying, with a subsequent realocation to an archival setting.

text: In addition to mollusk shells, various other

text: natural history

text: specimen

text: s are susceptible to this form of decay, including

text: eggshell

text: s and some

text: fossil

text: s and

text: mineral

text: samples that are composed of

text: calcium carbonate

text: . This condition is of concern for

text: museum

text: scientists, and also for anyone who has a private collection of specimens of these kinds. In order to avoid Bynesian decay, the use of metal, non-reactive polymers and acid-free materials of archival quality are preferred over common paper, wood-based materials, ordinary glues and varnishes in collection environments. Management of affected specimens includes washing and thorough drying, with a subsequent realocation to an archival setting.

text: The subsequent describers have always dedicated much effort at restoring the armour configuration. Hulke understood that Polacanthus had a large "pelvic shield" or "sacral shield", a single fused sheet of dermal bone over its hips (sacral area) which perhaps was not attached to the underlying bone and decorated with tubercles. This feature is shared with other "polacanthine" (basal nodosaurids) dinosaurs such as Gastonia and Mymoorapelta. With the holotype, this shield is 108 centimetres wide and 90 centimetres long. It features four horizontal rows of larger keeled osteoderms per side, surrounded by smaller ossicles. These latter are sometimes completely fused to form flat armour plates. Hulke thought that on the tail there were two rows of keeled osteoderms per side. Of a set of spikes found with the fossil, he assumed they had adorned the sides of the rump. A different arrangement was hypothesised by Nopcsa. He thought that both the tail and the front of the body including the neck featured two parallel rows of spikes, one per side. On the front body each row would have consisted of five spikes and he claimed that seven of these had been conserved with the fossil, five of the right side and two of the left. The tail rows would have consisted of twenty-two shorter pairs, fifteen spikes being still extant, eight of the left side and seven of the right. As the spikes are asymmetrical their position can more or less be deduced. Blows in 1987 basically agreed with Nopcsa but also distinguished three spike types, a Type A, B and C, allowing him to classify additional fossil finds, which often differed from the holotype spikes in several details.

text: The subsequent describers have always dedicated much effort at restoring the armour configuration. Hulke understood that Polacanthus had a large "pelvic shield" or "sacral shield", a single fused sheet of dermal bone over its hips (sacral area) which perhaps was not attached to the underlying bone and decorated with tubercles. This feature is shared with other "

text: polacanthine

text: basal

text: nodosaurids) dinosaurs such as

text: Gastonia

text: and

text: Mymoorapelta

text: . With the holotype, this shield is 108 centimetres wide and 90 centimetres long. It features four horizontal rows of larger keeled

text: osteoderms

text: per side, surrounded by smaller ossicles. These latter are sometimes completely fused to form flat armour plates. Hulke thought that on the tail there were two rows of keeled osteoderms per side. Of a set of spikes found with the fossil, he assumed they had adorned the sides of the rump. A different arrangement was hypothesised by Nopcsa. He thought that both the tail and the front of the body including the neck featured two parallel rows of spikes, one per side. On the front body each row would have consisted of five spikes and he claimed that seven of these had been conserved with the fossil, five of the right side and two of the left. The tail rows would have consisted of twenty-two shorter pairs, fifteen spikes being still extant, eight of the left side and seven of the right. As the spikes are asymmetrical their position can more or less be deduced. Blows in 1987 basically agreed with Nopcsa but also distinguished three spike types, a Type A, B and C, allowing him to classify additional fossil finds, which often differed from the holotype spikes in several details.

text: One of the greatest threats to the long-term well being of human remains in museum collections is improper storage and packing. Proper storage of human human remains is not only necessary for their physical preservation, but it also demonstrates the respect that sensitive materials such as these should be accorded. The ideal storage location for sacred artifacts and human remains is a designated space away from the rest of the collection; however, there are often many constraints which prevent this from being possible. At the minimum, ethical guidelines suggest that remains from different individuals should be stored in separate boxes or compartments from each other.Generally speaking, human remains are best preserved in cool, dark, dry conditions while wrapped in acid-free (non-buffered) tissue and packing materials. Corporeal materials should not be stored in or near any wood or in any containers which previously housed wood due to potentially increased lignin levels, which produce an acid that can lead to the deterioration of DNA and proteins in the remains. Excessive exposure to light should be avoided in order to prevent bleaching of materials, especially bone.

text: One of the greatest threats to the long-term well being of human remains in museum collections is improper storage and packing. Proper storage of human human remains is not only necessary for their physical preservation, but it also demonstrates the respect that sensitive materials such as these should be accorded. The ideal storage location for sacred artifacts and human remains is a designated space away from the rest of the collection; however, there are often many constraints which prevent this from being possible. At the minimum, ethical guidelines suggest that remains from different individuals should be stored in separate boxes or compartments from each other.Generally speaking, human remains are best preserved in cool, dark, dry conditions while wrapped in acid-free (non-buffered) tissue and packing materials. Corporeal materials should not be stored in or near any wood or in any containers which previously housed wood due to potentially increased

text: lignin

text: levels, which produce an acid that can lead to the deterioration of DNA and proteins in the remains. Excessive exposure to light should be avoided in order to prevent bleaching of materials, especially bone.

text: The best fossils of leaves are found preserved in fine layers of sediment that have been compressed in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the deposited sediment.  Since leaves are basically flat, the resulting distortion is minimal.  Plant stems and other three-dimensional plant structures do not preserve as well under compression. Typically, only the basic outline and surface features are preserved in compression fossils; internal anatomy is not preserved.  These fossils may be studied while still partially entombed in the sedimentary rock matrix where they are preserved, or once lifted out of the matrix by a peel or transfer technique.

text: The best fossils of

text: leaves

text: are found preserved in fine layers of

text: sediment

text: that have been compressed in a direction

text: perpendicular

text: to the plane of the deposited sediment.  Since leaves are basically flat, the resulting distortion is minimal.

text: Plant stem

text: s and other three-dimensional plant structures do not preserve as well under compression. Typically, only the basic outline and surface features are preserved in compression fossils; internal

text: anatomy

text: is not preserved.  These fossils may be studied while still partially entombed in the sedimentary rock matrix where they are preserved, or once lifted out of the matrix by a peel or transfer technique.

text: Uintascorpio halandrasorum is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen number "DMNH No. 6004". The specimen is composed of a single entire adult that is preserved as a compression fossil in finely bedded, light gray shale. The fossil was recovered by Gus and Christine Halandras of Meeker, Colorado from outcrops of the Green River Formations Parachute Member exposing sediments of Lake Unitah, Rio Blanco County, Colorado, USA. The type specimen is currently preserved in the paleoentomology collections housed in the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, located in Denver, Colorado, USA. Uintascorpio was first studied by M. L. Perry with his 1995 brief description type description of the genus and species being published in a Grand Junction Geological Society publication. The generic name was coined by Perry as a combination of the Latin "scorpio" for scorpion, and "Uintah" referring to Lake Uintah of the Green River Formation. The etymology of the specific epithet halandrasorum is in recognition of Gus and Christine Halandras. The species name was originally spelled halandrasi by Perry, however, per the naming regulations in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the species name was corrected to halandrasorum in the 2004 redescription of Uintascorpio.

text: Uintascorpio halandrasorum is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "DMNH No. 6004". The specimen is composed of a single entire adult that is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in finely bedded, light gray

text: shale

text: . The fossil was recovered by Gus and Christine Halandras of

text: Meeker, Colorado

text: from outcrops of the

text: Green River Formation

text: s Parachute Member exposing sediments of

text: Lake Unitah

text: Rio Blanco County, Colorado

text: paleoentomology collections

text: housed in the

text: Denver Museum of Nature and Science

text: , located in

text: Denver

text: , Colorado, USA. Uintascorpio was first studied by M. L. Perry with his 1995 brief description

text: type description

text: of the genus and species being published in a Grand Junction Geological Society publication. The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Perry as a combination of the Latin "scorpio" for scorpion, and "Uintah" referring to Lake Uintah of the Green River Formation. The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: halandrasorum is in recognition of Gus and Christine Halandras. The species name was originally spelled halandrasi by Perry, however, per the naming regulations in the

entity_name: International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

text: International Code of Zoological Nomenclature

text: , the species name was corrected to halandrasorum in the 2004 redescription of Uintascorpio.

text: The pyroxenites are often subject serpentinization under low temperature retrograde metamorphism and weathering. The rocks are often completely replaced by serpentines, which sometimes preserve the original structures of the primary minerals, such as the lamination of hypersthene and the rectangular cleavage of augite. Under pressure-metamorphism hornblende is developed and various types of amphibolite and hornblende-schist are produced. Occasionally rocks rich in pyroxene are found as basic facies of nepheline syenite; a good example is provided by the melanite pyroxenites associated with the borolanite variety found in the Loch Borralan igneous complex of Scotland.

text: The pyroxenites are often subject

text: serpentinization

text: under low temperature retrograde metamorphism and

text: weathering

text: . The rocks are often completely replaced by

text: serpentine

text: s, which sometimes preserve the original structures of the primary minerals, such as the lamination of hypersthene and the rectangular cleavage of augite. Under pressure-metamorphism hornblende is developed and various types of

text: amphibolite

text: and hornblende-

text: schist

text: are produced. Occasionally rocks rich in pyroxene are found as basic facies of

text: nepheline syenite

text: ; a good example is provided by the

text: melanite

text: pyroxenites associated with the borolanite variety found in the Loch Borralan igneous complex of

text: Scotland

text: Helminthochiton Grayiae was recognised as the type species for Septemchiton. This was named for Elizabeth Gray who collected fossils at Girvan.

text: Helminthochiton Grayiae was recognised as the type species for Septemchiton. This was named for

text: Elizabeth Gray

text: who collected fossils at

text: Girvan

text: A geologist's hammer, rock hammer, rock pick, or geological pick is a hammer used for splitting and breaking rocks. In field geology, they are used to obtain a fresh surface of a rock to determine its composition, nature, mineralogy, history, and field estimate of rock strength. In fossil and mineral collecting, they are employed to break rocks with the aim of revealing fossils inside. Geologist's hammers are also sometimes used for scale in a photograph.

text: A geologist's hammer, rock hammer, rock pick, or geological pick is a

text: hammer

text: used for splitting and breaking rocks. In field geology, they are used to obtain a fresh surface of a rock to determine its composition, nature,

text: mineralogy

text: , history, and field estimate of rock strength. In

text: fossil

text: and

text: mineral collecting

text: , they are employed to break rocks with the aim of revealing fossils inside. Geologist's hammers are also sometimes used for scale in a photograph.

text: There are two basic types, the smaller type (ca. 3 cm) cast in molds, and the larger (ca. 5 cm) wrought from sheet metal. A type of bone pendants found in Iron Age (Biblical period) Palestine is also associated with the Club-of-Hercules jewelry of the Roman era (Platt 1978). A votive mace made of bronze found in Willingham Fen, Cambridgeshire in 1857 follows the Roman model in shape and the representation of wooden knobs on the club, but adding indigenous (Celtic) iconography by depicting animal heads, anthropomorphic figures and a wheel at the club's base.

text: There are two basic types, the smaller type (ca. 3 cm) cast in molds, and the larger (ca. 5 cm) wrought from sheet metal. A type of bone pendants found in Iron Age (Biblical period) Palestine is also associated with the Club-of-Hercules jewelry of the Roman era (Platt 1978). A votive mace made of bronze found in

text: Willingham Fen, Cambridgeshire

text: in 1857 follows the Roman model in shape and the representation of wooden knobs on the club, but adding indigenous (Celtic) iconography by depicting animal heads, anthropomorphic figures and a wheel at the club's base.

text: A number of E. britannicus fossils are known and were described under three different names.  The oldest descriptions are that of Theodore Cockerell who named both Dolichoderus britannicus and Dolichoderus ovigerus, citing small wing differences tentatively separating the two species.  A third species, Emplastus emeryi, was named by Horace Donisthorpe in 1920, and was the type species of the genus Emplastus.  In the time since the initial descriptions of the species, a number of additional queens and several males have been found, and a group of over twenty body fossils plus twenty seven wing fossils were studied by Dlussky and Perfilieva and published in 2014.  The fossils showed a spectrum of wing morphology that bridged all three species, and as such they deemed both D. ovigerus and E. emeryi to be synonyms of the first published species name D. britannicus. However the propodeum is different than that of Dolichoderus species, being rounded in profile, and as such the species was retained in the genus Emplastus.

text: A number of E. britannicus fossils are known and were described under three different names.  The oldest descriptions are that of

text: Theodore Cockerell

text: who named both Dolichoderus britannicus and Dolichoderus ovigerus, citing small wing differences tentatively separating the two species.  A third species, Emplastus emeryi, was named by

text: Horace Donisthorpe

text: in 1920, and was the type species of the genus Emplastus.  In the time since the initial descriptions of the species, a number of additional queens and several males have been found, and a group of over twenty body fossils plus twenty seven wing fossils were studied by Dlussky and Perfilieva and published in 2014.  The fossils showed a spectrum of wing morphology that bridged all three species, and as such they deemed both D. ovigerus and E. emeryi to be synonyms of the first published species name D. britannicus. However the

text: propodeum

text: is different than that of Dolichoderus species, being rounded in profile, and as such the species was retained in the genus Emplastus.

text: In British archaeology a Watching Brief is a method of preserving archaeological remains by record in the face of development threat.<ref><br>

text: In

text: British

text: archaeology

text: a Watching Brief is a method of preserving archaeological remains by record in the face of development threat.<ref><br>

text: Tilia johnsoni was described from a single type specimen, a leaf, the holotype being UW 39712, in the paleobotanical collections of Burke Museum, and its counterpart UCMP 9291 in the University of California Museum of Paleontology in California. Working from this specimen, collected in the Republic, Washington area in the early 1980s, the fossil was studied by Jack A. Wolfe of the University of California and Wesley C. Wehr of the Burke Museum.  They published their 1987 type description for the species in a United States Geological Survey monograph on the North Eastern Washington dicot fossils.  The specific epithet johnsoni is a patronym recognizing the help provided to Wolfe and Wehr by a young  Kirk Johnson, now director of the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History.  Wolfe and Wehr noted that, at the time of publication, T. johnsoni was the oldest macrofossil occurrence for the genus to be described,; older microfossil records of pollen date near to the Paleocene – Eocene boundary, and fruits of an extinct Tilia relative are known from the Eocene of England.

text: Tilia johnsoni was described from a single

text: type specimen

text: , a leaf, the

text: holotype

text: being UW 39712, in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of

text: Burke Museum

text: , and its

text: counterpart

text: UCMP 9291 in the

entity_name: University of California Museum of Paleontology

text: University of California Museum of Paleontology

text: in

text: California

text: . Working from this specimen, collected in the Republic, Washington area in the early 1980s, the fossil was studied by

text: Jack A. Wolfe

text: of the

text: University of California

text: and

text: Wesley C. Wehr

text: of the Burke Museum.  They published their 1987

text: type description

text: for the species in a

text: United States Geological Survey

text: monograph

text: on the North Eastern Washington dicot fossils.  The

text: specific epithet

text: johnsoni is a

text: patronym

text: recognizing the help provided to Wolfe and Wehr by a young

text: Kirk Johnson

text: , now director of the

text: Smithsonian

text: 's

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: .  Wolfe and Wehr noted that, at the time of publication, T. johnsoni was the oldest macrofossil occurrence for the genus to be described,; older microfossil records of pollen date near to the

text: Paleocene – Eocene boundary

text: , and fruits of an extinct Tilia relative are known from the Eocene of England.

text: The majority of fossil trackways are foot impressions on land, or subsurface water, but other types of creatures will leave distinctive impressions. Examples of creatures supported, or partially supported, in a water environment are known. The fossil "millipede-type" genus Arthropleura left its multi-legged/feet trackways on land.

text: The majority of fossil trackways are

text: foot

text: impressions on land, or subsurface water, but other types of creatures will leave distinctive impressions. Examples of creatures supported, or partially supported, in a

text: water

text: environment are known. The fossil "

text: millipede

text: -type" genus

text: Arthropleura

text: left its multi-legged/feet trackways on land.

text: Internally, an enlarged-bore 3.8 L (231 in³),  DOHC straight-6 replaced the previous 3.4 L (210 in³)  unit.  The B-type head of the Mark VIII was retained, but with a chamfer at the bottom of the combustion chamber to accommodate the enlarged bore.  Twin HD6 1.75" SU carburettors were fitted.  A smaller electromagnetically controlled auxiliary carburettor was placed between the main pair of carburettors to act as a choke. It often proved troublesome in operation and many were converted to manual switching . Standard compression ratio was 8:1, but a higher performance 9:1 compression ratio was also available, as was a 7:1 compression ratio for export markets, such as Africa, where quality of petrol was sometimes a problem.

text: Internally, an enlarged-bore 3.8 L (231 in³),

text: DOHC

text: replaced the previous 3.4 L (210 in³)  unit.  The B-type head of the Mark VIII was retained, but with a chamfer at the bottom of the combustion chamber to accommodate the enlarged bore.  Twin HD6 1.75" SU carburettors were fitted.  A smaller electromagnetically controlled auxiliary carburettor was placed between the main pair of carburettors to act as a choke. It often proved troublesome in operation and many were converted to manual switching . Standard compression ratio was 8:1, but a higher performance 9:1 compression ratio was also available, as was a 7:1 compression ratio for export markets, such as Africa, where quality of petrol was sometimes a problem.

text: The original type description of the new species by Dr. Edward W. Berry, based on a compression fossil leaf specimen, was published in 1929.  When first published the holotype specimen's type locality was misidentified as being from the Latah Formation in Spokane.  Rowland W. Brown corrected the type locality to the older Republic area strata in a 1937 paper, but occasional confusion as to the species' age still occurred: notably Daniel I. Axelrod in this 1966 paper on the Copper Basin flora of Nevada misidentified the age of S. hesperia as Oligocene.

text: The original

text: type description

text: of the new species by Dr.

text: Edward W. Berry

text: , based on a

text: compression fossil

text: leaf specimen, was published in 1929.  When first published the holotype specimen's

text: type locality

text: was misidentified as being from the Latah Formation in Spokane.

text: Rowland W. Brown

text: corrected the type locality to the older

text: Republic area

text: strata in a 1937 paper, but occasional confusion as to the species' age still occurred: notably

text: Daniel I. Axelrod

text: in this 1966 paper on the Copper Basin flora of Nevada misidentified the age of S. hesperia as Oligocene.

text: Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the history of the Earth. They contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains.

text: Sedimentary rocks contain important information about the

text: history of the Earth

text: . They contain

text: fossil

text: s, the preserved remains of ancient

text: plant

text: s and

text: animal

text: s. Coal is considered a type of sedimentary rock. The composition of sediments provides us with clues as to the original rock. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains.

text: La Voulte-sur-Rhône is a marine Lagerstätte (sedimentary deposit) located in France. It is Middle Jurassic (Callovian) in age, and is known for the variety of fossils it produces, including cephalopods, such as Proteroctopus ribeti, Rhomboteuthis lehmani, and Vampyronassa rhodanica. Fossilized cephalopods are rare, and Voulte-sur-Rhône is prized among paleontologists as one of only a few known localities known to produce such cephalopod fossils. Fossil preservation is by pyrite, a geologically rare process. Other sites with pyrite preserved fossils are Beecher's Trilobite Bed and the Hunsrück Slate.Also found at the site are ophiuroids, crustaceans, fish, and other pyritized specimens. The exceptional preservation of the fossils at this site is most likely due to the result of oxygen deficient water at the time of the deposition of the fossils, and possibly repeated sediment blanketing.

text: La Voulte-sur-Rhône is a marine

text: Lagerstätte

text: (sedimentary deposit) located in

text: France

text: . It is

text: Middle Jurassic

text: Callovian

text: ) in age, and is known for the variety of

text: fossil

text: s it produces, including

text: cephalopod

text: s, such as

text: Proteroctopus ribeti

text: Rhomboteuthis lehmani

text: , and

text: Vampyronassa rhodanica

text: . Fossilized cephalopods are rare, and Voulte-sur-Rhône is prized among

text: paleontologists

text: as one of only a few known localities known to produce such cephalopod fossils. Fossil preservation is by

text: pyrite

text: , a geologically rare process. Other sites with pyrite preserved fossils are

text: Beecher's Trilobite Bed

text: and the

text: Hunsrück Slate

text: .Also found at the site are

text: ophiuroids

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: fish

text: , and other pyritized specimens. The exceptional preservation of the fossils at this site is most likely due to the result of oxygen deficient water at the time of the deposition of the fossils, and possibly repeated sediment blanketing.

text: In paleobotany, two terms were formerly used in the codes of nomenclature, "form genera" and "organ genera", to mean groups of fossils of a particular part of a plant, such as a leaf or seed, whose parent plant is not known because the fossils were preserved unattached to the parent plant. A later term "morphotaxa" also allows for differences in preservational state. These three terms have been replaced as of 2011 by provisions for "fossil-taxa" that are more similar to the provisions for other types of plants.

text: In

text: paleobotany

text: , two terms were formerly used in the

entity_name: International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

text: codes of nomenclature

text: , "form genera" and "organ genera", to mean groups of fossils of a particular part of a plant, such as a leaf or seed, whose parent plant is not known because the fossils were preserved unattached to the parent plant. A later term "morphotaxa" also allows for differences in preservational state. These three terms have been replaced as of 2011 by provisions for "fossil-taxa" that are more similar to the provisions for other types of plants.

text: Y. orthosemos is known only from one fossil, a part and counterpart holotype, specimen number RBCM.EH2015.004.0001.001A&B, which is housed in the collections of the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria, British Columbia.  Ypresiosirex was described from a specimen which was recovered from outcrops of the early Eocene, Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds near Cache Creek, British Columbia.  The unnamed formation outcropping at the McAbee Fossil Beds preserve an upland temperate flora that was first interpreted as being Microthermal, although further study has shown them to be more mesothermal in nature.  The plant community preserved in the McAbee Fossil Beds site is mostly broadleaf pollen with alder and elm dominating, and may represent a successional forest involving multiple volcanic ash eruptions.

text: Y. orthosemos is known only from one fossil, a

text: part and counterpart

text: holotype

text: , specimen number RBCM.EH2015.004.0001.001A&B, which is housed in the collections of the

text: Royal British Columbia Museum

text: in

text: Victoria, British Columbia

text: .  Ypresiosirex was described from a specimen which was recovered from outcrops of the early Eocene,

text: Ypresian

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: near

text: Cache Creek, British Columbia

text: .  The unnamed formation outcropping at the McAbee Fossil Beds preserve an upland temperate flora that was first interpreted as being

text: Microthermal

text: , although further study has shown them to be more

text: mesothermal

text: in nature.  The plant community preserved in the McAbee Fossil Beds site is mostly broadleaf pollen with

text: alder

text: and

text: elm

text: dominating, and may represent a successional forest involving multiple volcanic ash eruptions.

text: In September 2008 Oktar issued a challenge offering "10 trillion Turkish lira to anyone who produces a single intermediate-form fossil demonstrating evolution". He has stated: "Not one [fossil] belongs to strange-looking creatures in the course of development of the kind supposed by evolutionists." Dr Kevin Padian at the University of California has criticized the notion that such fossils do not exist, stating that Oktar "does not have any sense of what we know about how things change through time. If he sees a fossil crab, he says, 'It looks just like a regular crab, there's no evolution.'"

text: In September 2008 Oktar issued a challenge offering "10

text: trillion

text: Turkish lira

text: to anyone who produces a single

text: intermediate-form fossil

text: demonstrating evolution". He has stated: "Not one [fossil] belongs to strange-looking creatures in the course of development of the kind supposed by evolutionists." Dr

text: Kevin Padian

text: at the University of California has criticized the notion that such fossils do not exist, stating that Oktar "does not have any sense of what we know about how things change through time. If he sees a fossil crab, he says, 'It looks just like a regular crab, there's no evolution.'"

text: Palliser shot was made of cast iron, the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite molds with a metal, water-cooled portion for the head. At times there were defects that led to cracking in the projectiles, but these were overcome with time.  Bronze studs were installed into the outside of the projectile so as to engage the rifling grooves in the gun barrel. The base had a hollow pocket but was not filled with powder or explosive: the cavity was necessitated by difficulties in casting large solid projectiles without their cracking when they cooled, because the nose and base of the projectiles cooled at different rates, and in fact a larger cavity facilitated a better-quality casting. The hole at the base was threaded to accept a copper gas check.  This prevented propellant gases from blowing around the projectile, providing obturation as the driving band had yet to be perfected. Later designs did away with the studs on the projectile body, with the gas checks being set with grooves to impart spin to the projectile.

text: Palliser shot was made of

text: cast iron

text: , the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite molds with a metal, water-cooled portion for the head. At times there were defects that led to cracking in the projectiles, but these were overcome with time.

text: Bronze

text: studs were installed into the outside of the projectile so as to engage the rifling grooves in the gun barrel. The base had a hollow pocket but was not filled with powder or explosive: the cavity was necessitated by difficulties in

text: casting

text: large solid projectiles without their cracking when they cooled, because the nose and base of the projectiles cooled at different rates, and in fact a larger cavity facilitated a better-quality casting. The hole at the base was threaded to accept a copper gas check.  This prevented propellant gases from blowing around the projectile, providing obturation as the

text: driving band

text: had yet to be perfected. Later designs did away with the studs on the projectile body, with the gas checks being set with grooves to impart spin to the projectile.

text: The entire mineral and rock collection includes more than 30 types of exotic rocks, fossil stones, crystal, agate, sandstone, and petrified wood.

text: Today the museum contains Fabre's collections of fossils, minerals, 594 watercolors of mushrooms, manuscripts, a private herbarium of more than 20,000 specimens including plants harvested by Fabre during his stay in Corsica (1849-1852), and the small table on which his manuscripts were written, most notably the Souvenirs Entomologiques. The gardens contain 20 historic trees and over 500 plant species, as well as trails and a pool, and a small cold greenhouse built in 1880.

text: Today the museum contains Fabre's collections of

text: fossil

text: s,

text: mineral

text: s, 594

text: watercolor

text: s of

text: mushroom

text: s, manuscripts, a private

text: herbarium

text: of more than 20,000 specimens including plants harvested by Fabre during his stay in

text: Corsica

text: (1849-1852), and the small table on which his manuscripts were written, most notably the Souvenirs Entomologiques. The gardens contain 20 historic trees and over 500 plant

text: species

text: , as well as trails and a pool, and a small cold

text: greenhouse

text: built in 1880.

text: Most trace fossils are known from marine deposits. Essentially, there are two types of traces, either exogenic ones, which are made on the surface of the sediment (such as tracks) or endogenic ones, which are made within the layers of sediment (such as burrows).

text: Priabona is known from a compression-impression fossil preserved in fine shale of the Florissant formation in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern Southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the Old World.  When Priabona was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be Miocene in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Subsequent research and fossil descriptions permitted a re-examined dating, and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an Oligocene age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of sanidine crystals has resulted in an age of 34 million years, which places the formation in the Late Eocene Priabonian stage.

text: Priabona is known from a

text: compression-impression fossil

text: preserved in fine

text: shale

text: of the

text: Florissant formation

text: in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern Southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the Old World.  When Priabona was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be

text: Miocene

text: in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Subsequent research and fossil descriptions permitted a re-examined dating, and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an

text: Oligocene

text: sanidine crystals

text: has resulted in an age of 34 million years, which places the formation in the Late Eocene

text: Priabonian

text: stage.

text: Sole marks are sedimentary structures found on the bases of certain strata, that indicate small-scale (usually on the order of centimetres) grooves or irregularities.  This usually occurs at the interface of two differing lithologies and/or grain sizes.  They are commonly preserved as casts of these indents on the bottom of the overlying bed (like flute casts).  This is similar to casts and molds in fossil preservation.  Occurring as they do only at the bottom of beds, and their distinctive shapes, they can make useful way up structures and paleocurrent indicators.

text: Sole marks are

text: sedimentary structures

text: found on the bases of certain strata, that indicate small-scale (usually on the order of centimetres) grooves or irregularities.  This usually occurs at the interface of two differing

text: lithologies

text: and/or grain sizes.  They are commonly preserved as casts of these indents on the bottom of the overlying bed (like flute casts).  This is similar to

text: casts and molds

text: in fossil preservation.  Occurring as they do only at the bottom of beds, and their distinctive shapes, they can make useful

text: way up structure

text: s and

text: paleocurrent

text: indicators.

text: Most fossils preserve only the hard parts of organisms, e.g. shells. The rare cases where soft-bodied fossils are preserved (the remains of soft-bodied organisms and also of the soft parts of organisms for which only hard parts such as shells are usually found) are extremely valuable because they provide information about organisms that are hardly ever fossilized and much more information than is usually available about those for which only the hard parts are usually preserved. Microbial mats help to preserve soft-bodied fossils  by:

text: The Creede Formation is a geologic formation in Colorado. It preserves fossils dating back to the Paleogene period, particularly many well-preserved fossil plants from Oligocene strata.

text: The Creede Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Colorado

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Paleogene

text: period

text: , particularly many well-preserved fossil plants from

text: Oligocene

text: strata.

text: The engineering properties of soils are affected by four main factors: the predominant size of the mineral particles, the type of mineral particles, the grain size distribution, and the relative quantities of mineral, water and air present in the soil matrix. Fine particles (fines) are defined as particles less than 0.075 mm in diameter.

text: A. elongatus was described from a single side of a compression fossil found from the Middle Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds, Kamloops Group, near Cache Creek, British Columbia. The incomplete specimen of a queen, numbered 2003.2.8CDM032, is currently preserved in the paleontology collections housed at the Courtenay and District Museum, Courtenay, British Columbia.  Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the specific epithet from the Latin "elongatus"  meaning "prolonged" in reference to the elongated morphology of the type specimen.  The species is discernible from the other two species of Avitomyrmex by its notably larger size, the preserved portion of the ant being over 20 millimetres (0.8 inches). The forewings are almost as large as the specimen, measuring around 18 millimetres (0.7 inches) while the hindwings are too poorly preserved to be studied. The holotype is preserved with a partly disarticulated gaster and is missing her head.

text: A. elongatus was described from a

text: single

text: side

text: of a compression fossil found from the Middle Ypresian

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: , Kamloops Group, near

text: Cache Creek

text: , British Columbia. The incomplete specimen of a queen, numbered 2003.2.8CDM032, is currently preserved in the

text: paleontology

text: collections housed at the

text: Courtenay and District Museum

text: Courtenay

text: , British Columbia.  Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the

text: specific epithet

text: from the

text: Latin

text: "elongatus"  meaning "prolonged" in reference to the elongated morphology of the type specimen.  The species is discernible from the other two species of Avitomyrmex by its notably larger size, the preserved portion of the ant being over 20 millimetres (0.8 inches). The forewings are almost as large as the specimen, measuring around 18 millimetres (0.7 inches) while the hindwings are too poorly preserved to be studied. The

text: holotype

text: is preserved with a partly disarticulated

text: gaster

text: and is missing her head.

text: "Nama-type preservation" is an Ediacaran type preservation that presents sandstone castings of fossil creatures in which organisms are preserved in three dimensions, within fine-grained beds that were deposited in single storm or mudflow events: an example is Ausia fenestrata.

text: "Nama-type preservation" is an

text: Ediacaran type preservation

text: that presents sandstone castings of fossil creatures in which organisms are preserved in three dimensions, within fine-grained beds that were deposited in single storm or mudflow events: an example is

text: Ausia fenestrata

text: F. funerata was found in the Florissant Formation, which has produced seven other species of snakefly, six in Raphidia and one in the Inocelliida genus Fibla. Out of the described snakefly specimens from the Florissant Formation, the F. funerata holotype is the most complete.  Preserved as a compression fossil, the female individual is fossilized in a resting position giving a side view to the body and wings.  Including the ovipositor, F. funerata is  and has a forewing length of .  Of the known snakefly species, F. funerata is closest in appearance to the extinct F. mortua, which is also known from the Florissant Formation.  The two cogeneric species can be separated by several features of the forewing, including a lack of terminal forks in veins along the posterior margin of the wing in F. funerata, and the radial cell bordering the pterostigma narrowing at the base in F. mortua.  F. funerata was originally assigned to the genus Raphidia, but this assignment was made with hesitation by Dr. Engel as the characteristics used to separate living genera, the reproductive structures, are not preserved in most fossils and very rarely in compression fossils.  Engel considered it is possible the Florrisant Formation species are members of one of the two nearctic genera Alena or Agulla. In a 2014 study Vladimir N. Makarkin and S. Bruce Archibald removed the species F. mortua and F. funerata from the genus Raphidia, and transferred them to a new, separate genus which the authors named Florissantoraphidia.

text: F. funerata was found in the

text: Florissant Formation

text: , which has produced seven other species of snakefly, six in Raphidia and one in the

text: Inocelliida

text: genus

text: Fibla

text: . Out of the described snakefly specimens from the Florissant Formation, the F. funerata holotype is the most complete.  Preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: , the female individual is fossilized in a resting position giving a side view to the body and wings.  Including the

text: ovipositor

text: , F. funerata is  and has a forewing length of .  Of the known snakefly species, F. funerata is closest in appearance to the extinct

text: F. mortua

text: , which is also known from the Florissant Formation.  The two

text: cogeneric

text: species can be separated by several features of the forewing, including a lack of terminal forks in veins along the posterior margin of the wing in F. funerata, and the radial cell bordering the pterostigma narrowing at the base in F. mortua.  F. funerata was originally assigned to the genus Raphidia, but this assignment was made with hesitation by Dr. Engel as the characteristics used to separate living genera, the reproductive structures, are not preserved in most fossils and very rarely in compression fossils.  Engel considered it is possible the Florrisant Formation species are members of one of the two

text: nearctic

text: genera

text: Alena

text: or

text: Agulla

text: . In a 2014 study Vladimir N. Makarkin and S. Bruce Archibald removed the species F. mortua and F. funerata from the genus Raphidia, and transferred them to a new, separate genus which the authors named Florissantoraphidia.

text: Belemnotheutis fossils are sometimes found in remarkable states of preservation, some specimens retaining permineralized soft tissue. The mantle, fins, head, arms, and hooks are well-documented from remains preserved in Lagerstätten. One specimen recovered from Christian Malford, Wiltshire and currently displayed in the Paleontology Department of the Natural History Museum in London is fossilized clasping a fish.

text: Belemnotheutis fossils are sometimes found in remarkable states of preservation, some specimens retaining

text: permineralized

text: soft tissue. The

text: mantle

text: , fins, head,

text: arms

text: , and hooks are well-documented from remains preserved in

text: Lagerstätte

text: n. One specimen recovered from

text: Christian Malford

text: Wiltshire

text: and currently displayed in the Paleontology Department of the

text: Natural History Museum

text: in London is fossilized clasping a fish.

text: Mineral admixtures are becoming more popular in recent decades. The use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have complementary and valuable properties. The most conspicuous of these are fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants, ground granulated blast furnace slag, a byproduct of steelmaking, and silica fume, a byproduct of industrial electric arc furnaces. The use of these materials in concrete reduces the amount of resources required, as the mineral admixtures act as a partial cement replacement. This displaces some cement production, an energetically expensive and environmentally problematic process, while reducing the amount of industrial waste that must be disposed of. Mineral admixtures can be pre-blended with the cement during its production for sale and use as a blended cement, or mixed directly with other components when the concrete is produced.

text: Mineral admixtures

text: are becoming more popular in recent decades. The use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have complementary and valuable properties. The most conspicuous of these are

text: fly ash

text: , a by-product of

text: coal-fired power plants

text: ground granulated blast furnace slag

text: , a byproduct of

text: steelmaking

text: , and

text: silica fume

text: , a byproduct of industrial

text: electric arc furnace

text: s. The use of these materials in concrete reduces the amount of resources required, as the mineral admixtures act as a partial cement replacement. This displaces some cement production, an energetically expensive and environmentally problematic process, while reducing the amount of industrial waste that must be disposed of. Mineral admixtures can be pre-blended with the cement during its production for sale and use as a blended cement, or mixed directly with other components when the concrete is produced.

text: The 383rd 'Miners' Rifle Division () was a formation of the Red Army, created during the Second World War. The division was officially created on 18 August 1941. It was given the name Shakhterskaya (which in Russian literally means 'miners'), as it was originally composed completely of miners from the Donets Basin, Ukrainian SSR (now Ukraine). During the course of the war, its losses were continually replaced, and thus it began to consist not only of miners from Donbass.

text: The 383rd '

text: Miners

text: ' Rifle Division () was a formation of the

text: Red Army

text: , created during the

text: Second World War

text: . The division was officially created on 18 August 1941. It was given the name Shakhterskaya (which in Russian literally means 'miners'), as it was originally composed completely of miners from the

text: Donets Basin

text: Ukrainian SSR

text: (now

text: Ukraine

text: ). During the course of the war, its losses were continually replaced, and thus it began to consist not only of miners from

text: Donbass

text: For SEM, a specimen is normally required to be completely dry, since the specimen chamber is at high vacuum. Hard, dry materials such as wood, bone, feathers, dried insects, or shells (including egg shells) can be examined with little further treatment, but living cells and tissues and whole, soft-bodied organisms usually require chemical fixation to preserve and stabilize their structure.

text: For SEM, a specimen is normally required to be completely dry, since the specimen chamber is at high vacuum. Hard, dry materials such as wood, bone, feathers, dried insects, or shells (including egg shells) can be examined with little further treatment, but living cells and tissues and whole, soft-bodied organisms usually require chemical

text: fixation

text: to preserve and stabilize their structure.

text: Since the genus and first species descriptions, another series of species have been described from fossils found in Russia.  The three species were described from compression fossils preserved in diatomite deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site. Located in the Pozharsky District, on the Pacific Coast of Russia, the fossil bearing rocks preserve possibly Priabonian plants and animals which lived in a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the Maksimovka or Salibez Formations and compared to the Bembridge Marls and Florissant Formation, both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: Since the genus and first species descriptions, another series of species have been described from fossils found in Russia.  The three species were described from compression fossils preserved in

text: diatomite

text: deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site. Located in the

text: Pozharsky District

text: , on the Pacific Coast of Russia, the fossil bearing rocks preserve possibly

text: Priabonian

text: plants and animals which lived in a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the

text: Maksimovka

text: or

text: Salibez Formation

text: s and compared to the Bembridge Marls and

text: Florissant Formation

text: , both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: Scale miniatures of real production vehicles, designed as kits for children or the enthusiast to construct, can be made of plastic, die-cast metal, resin, and even wood. In plastic model kits, parts are molded in single cast 'trees' with thin connections that can be easily severed for painting and assembly. Parts come molded in a variety of colors, white being the most common in the 1960s and 1970s. Some parts are chrome plated to simulate real bumpers, grilles, wheels, and other pieces that might be chrome on the actual vehicle. Tires are most commonly molded in rubber. Water 'slide-on' decals are usually included along with an instruction brochure.

text: Scale miniatures of real production vehicles, designed as kits for children or the enthusiast to construct, can be made of

text: plastic

text: die-cast metal

text: , resin, and even wood. In plastic model kits, parts are molded in single cast 'trees' with thin connections that can be easily severed for painting and assembly. Parts come molded in a variety of colors, white being the most common in the 1960s and 1970s. Some parts are chrome plated to simulate real bumpers, grilles, wheels, and other pieces that might be chrome on the actual vehicle. Tires are most commonly molded in rubber. Water 'slide-on' decals are usually included along with an instruction brochure.

text: The quality of a compression method often is measured by the Peak signal-to-noise ratio. It measures the amount of noise introduced through a lossy compression of the image, however, the subjective judgment of the viewer also is regarded as an important measure, perhaps, being the most important measure.

text: The quality of a compression method often is measured by the

text: Peak signal-to-noise ratio

text: . It measures the amount of noise introduced through a lossy compression of the image, however, the subjective judgment of the viewer also is regarded as an important measure, perhaps, being the most important measure.

text: The Mineral Kingdom displays a comprehensive collection of rocks, minerals and fossils. Part of the exhibition is hands-on. Another part of The Mineral Kingdom is dedicated to the Hvalfjörður Tunnel. The tunnel, opened in 1998, is the only undersea tunnel in Iceland.

text: The Mineral Kingdom displays a comprehensive collection of rocks, minerals and fossils. Part of the exhibition is hands-on. Another part of The Mineral Kingdom is dedicated to the

text: Hvalfjörður Tunnel

text: . The tunnel, opened in 1998, is the only undersea tunnel in Iceland.

text: Orontium wolfei has been identified from a group of exposures of the Allenby Formation and a group of exposures of the related Klondike Mountain Formation.  The type locality is at the "One mile Creek" exposure of the Allenby Formation near Princeton, British Columbia and additional fossils have been recovered from the Lamont Creek site near Princeton. The Allenby Formation is currently considered to be Early Eocene in age, based on Potassium–argon radiometric dating of plagioclase and biotite crystals.  The second group of fossils have been recovered from three outcrops of the early to early Middle Eocene Klondike Mountain Formation around Republic, Washington.  Fossils in the Klondike Mountain Formation are found in mudstone and shale layers of the lower part of the formation.  The lakes which produced these fossils are estimated to have been active between 48 and 49 million years ago, with the lava flows in the formation dating between 42 and 50 million years old.  Fossils of O. wolfei found in the Klondike Mountain Formation have been noted, prior to the species description, as belonging to the extinct morphogenus Zingiberopsis in collections and publications.  Zingiberopsis is a form taxon for Upper Cretaceous to Oligocene fossil leaves found in Western North America which are related to the modern Zingiberales, a plant order which includes modern bananas and gingers.   This identification was made by Jack A. Wolfe for specimens in the paleobotanical collection of the Burke Museum, Seattle, Washington.

text: Orontium wolfei has been identified from a group of exposures of the

text: Allenby Formation

text: and a group of exposures of the related

text: Klondike Mountain Formation

text: .  The

text: type locality

text: is at the "One mile Creek" exposure of the Allenby Formation near

text: Princeton, British Columbia

text: and additional fossils have been recovered from the Lamont Creek site near Princeton. The Allenby Formation is currently considered to be Early Eocene in age, based on

text: Potassium–argon

text: radiometric dating

text: of

text: plagioclase

text: and

text: biotite

text: crystals.  The second group of fossils have been recovered from three outcrops of the early to early Middle Eocene Klondike Mountain Formation around

text: Republic, Washington

text: .  Fossils in the Klondike Mountain Formation are found in

text: mudstone

text: and

text: shale

text: layers of the lower part of the formation.  The lakes which produced these fossils are estimated to have been active between 48 and 49 million years ago, with the lava flows in the formation dating between 42 and 50 million years old.  Fossils of O. wolfei found in the Klondike Mountain Formation have been noted, prior to the species description, as belonging to the extinct

text: morphogenus

text: Zingiberopsis

text: in collections and publications.  Zingiberopsis is a form taxon for

text: Upper Cretaceous

text: to

text: Oligocene

text: fossil leaves found in Western North America which are related to the modern

text: Zingiberales

text: , a plant order which includes modern bananas and gingers.   This identification was made by

text: Jack A. Wolfe

text: for specimens in the paleobotanical collection of the

text: Burke Museum

text: Seattle, Washington

text: Generally, the casting materials used for competing processes like metal die casting and injection molding are similar, but not suitable for spin casting.  For example, a typical zinc die-casting alloy such as zamak 3 can be used but will solidify too rapidly from a molten state when cast with centrifugal force. This typically results in incomplete filling of the mold as well as a rough, porous finish, called orange peel. Zamak 2, of a slightly different composition, was originally developed as a gravity-cast alloy with greater finished strength but was found to work well with spin-casting. Its extra copper content encourages the eutectic behaviour and gives a lower freezing point. It has become known as 'Kirksite' and has given rise to a range of dedicated spin-casting alloys, some with additional components such as magnesium, to control the surface finish.

text: Generally, the casting materials used for competing processes like metal

text: die casting

text: and

text: injection molding

text: are similar, but not suitable for spin casting.  For example, a typical zinc die-casting alloy such as

text: zamak 3

text: can be used but will solidify too rapidly from a molten state when cast with centrifugal force. This typically results in incomplete filling of the mold as well as a rough, porous finish, called

text: orange peel

text: . Zamak 2, of a slightly different composition, was originally developed as a gravity-cast alloy with greater finished strength but was found to work well with spin-casting. Its extra copper content encourages the eutectic behaviour and gives a lower freezing point. It has become known as 'Kirksite' and has given rise to a range of dedicated spin-casting alloys, some with additional components such as magnesium, to control the surface finish.

text: Many commercially available soap molds are made of silicone or various types of plastic, although many soapmaking hobbyists may use cardboard boxes lined with a plastic film. Wooden molds, unlined or lined with silicone sleeves, are also readily available to the general public. Soaps can be made in long bars that are cut into individual portions, or cast into individual molds.

text: The oldest and most important of type in Latin America, the museum includes over 700 sculptures, all replicas of the originals made by die casting or copied from a mold taken from the original. Many are "first castings" of original works in the Berlin State Museums, the British Museum, the Louvre, or L'Accademia, Florence. The museum also maintains a library and an art print collection displaying works by artists trained at the institution.

text: The oldest and most important of type in Latin America, the museum includes over 700 sculptures, all replicas of the originals made by

text: die casting

text: or copied from a

text: mold

text: taken from the original. Many are "first castings" of original works in the

text: Berlin State Museums

text: , the

text: British Museum

text: , the

text: Louvre

text: , or L'

text: Accademia, Florence

text: . The museum also maintains a library and an

text: art print

text: collection displaying works by artists trained at the institution.

text: The beds are found in the Hampshire Basin, and are well exposed in the cliffs of Barton, Hordle, and on the Isle of Wight. The cliffs at Barton are the world type locality for the Barton Beds. The beds consist of grey, greenish and brown clays with bands of sand and have long been well known for the abundance and excellent preservation of their fossils. More than 500 species have been recorded, of which, over half are molluscs, including numerous turret shells and lamellibranchs. Sharks teeth are common, and the beds have yielded remains of corals, fishes, mammals, reptiles, and birds. Plant fossils are also abundant. In the 1840s fossils were found in the "crocodile bed" at Hordle cliff, which belonged to an extinct species of alligator, which was subsequently named Diplocynodon hantoniensis, after the county of Hampshire (Hantonia being a Latinization based on the Anglo-Saxon name Hantescire). Above the highly fossiliferous Barton Clay, there is a sandy series with few fossils; these are the Headon Hill or Barton Sands. Today, the Barton Beds are rather poorly exposed in many sections due to coastal protection works.

text: The beds are found in the

text: Hampshire Basin

text: , and are well exposed in the cliffs of

text: Barton

text: Hordle

text: , and on the

text: Isle of Wight

text: . The cliffs at Barton are the world type locality for the Barton Beds. The beds consist of grey, greenish and brown

text: clay

text: s with bands of

text: sand

text: and have long been well known for the abundance and excellent preservation of their fossils. More than 500 species have been recorded, of which, over half are

text: molluscs

text: , including numerous turret shells and lamellibranchs.

text: Sharks teeth

text: are common, and the beds have yielded remains of

text: coral

text: s,

text: fish

text: es,

text: mammal

text: s,

text: reptile

text: s, and

text: bird

text: s. Plant fossils are also abundant. In the 1840s fossils were found in the "crocodile bed" at Hordle cliff, which belonged to an extinct species of alligator, which was subsequently named

text: Diplocynodon

text: hantoniensis, after the county of

text: Hampshire

text: (Hantonia being a Latinization based on the Anglo-Saxon name Hantescire). Above the highly

text: fossiliferous

text: Barton Clay, there is a sandy series with few

text: fossil

text: s; these are the Headon Hill or Barton Sands. Today, the Barton Beds are rather poorly exposed in many sections due to coastal protection works.

text: A Geodiversity audit of the site was carried out in 2004, which highlighted the limestone strata and fossils identified. These include Carboniferous Limestone overlain by Triassic Mercia Mudstones and Sandstones with geodes, which were formed by siliceous mineral replacement.

text: A

text: Geodiversity

text: audit of the site was carried out in 2004, which highlighted the limestone strata and fossils identified. These include Carboniferous Limestone overlain by

text: Triassic

text: Mercia Mudstones and Sandstones with geodes, which were formed by siliceous mineral replacement.

text: Triebold Paleontology Incorporated supplies real and replicated fossil specimens to museums and collectors.  Leases on over 30 private localities rich in Late Cretaceous fossils are held and regularly prospected by TPI paleontologists.  Triebold Paleontology Incorporated provides every fossil-related service in the museums service industry including molding and casting, preparation and restoration, prospecting and collecting, and mounting and remounting fossils and fossil casts.

text: Dictyopteridium is an extinct genus of plants belonging to Glossopteridaceae, but the name is used only for compression fossils of elongate multiovulate reproductive structures adnate to Glossopteris leaves. Permineralized remains identical to Dictyopteridium have been referred to the organ genus Homevaleia

text: Dictyopteridium is an extinct

text: genus

text: of plants belonging to

text: Glossopteridaceae

text: , but the name is used only for compression fossils of elongate multiovulate reproductive structures adnate to Glossopteris leaves. Permineralized remains identical to Dictyopteridium have been referred to the organ genus Homevaleia

text: The term compressed data structure arises in the computer science subfields of algorithms, data structures, and theoretical computer science.  It refers to a data structure whose operations are roughly as fast as those of a conventional data structure for the problem, but whose size can be substantially smaller.  The size of the compressed data structure is typically highly dependent upon the entropy of the data being represented.

text: The term compressed data structure arises in the

text: computer science

text: subfields of

text: algorithms

text: data structures

text: , and

text: theoretical computer science

text: .  It refers to a data structure whose operations are roughly as fast as those of a conventional data structure for the problem, but whose size can be substantially smaller.  The size of the compressed data structure is typically highly dependent upon the entropy of the data being represented.

text: A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are aluminium and cast iron. However, other metals, such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.

text: A foundry is a

text: factory

text: that produces

text: metal

text: casting

text: s. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing the mold material or casting after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals processed are

text: aluminium

text: and

text: cast iron

text: . However, other metals, such as

text: bronze

text: brass

text: steel

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: zinc

text: , are also used to produce castings in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed.

text: Y. orbiculata was described from a single part and counterpart compression fossil found at the Middle Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds, Kamloops Group, near Cache Creek, British Columbia. The type specimens numbered UCCIPR L-18 F-749 and UCCIPR L-18 F-750 for the part and counterpart is currently preserved in the palaeoentomology collections housed at Thompson Rivers University, in Kamloops, British Columbia. Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the specific epithet from the Latin "orbiculatus",  meaning "rounded" or "circular", in reference to the shape of the head. The species is discernible from the other two species of Ypresiomyrma by its notably rounded head capsule, and by the shape of the petiole which has a smoothly sloping convex shape with a node in the center. The petiole is similar in appearance to Prionomyrmex janzeni, and the propodeum is round. The queen is estimated to have been approximately . The compound eyes are large and oval shape, but the antennae cannot be described due to poor preservation. The mandibles are large, containing seven to eight teeth. A well-developed stinger is also present.

text: Y. orbiculata was described from a single part and counterpart

text: compression fossil

text: found at the

text: Middle Ypresian

text: McAbee Fossil Beds, Kamloops Group, near

text: Cache Creek, British Columbia

text: . The

text: type specimens

text: numbered UCCIPR L-18 F-749 and UCCIPR L-18 F-750 for the part and counterpart is currently preserved in the

text: palaeoentomology

text: collections housed at

text: Thompson Rivers University

text: , in

text: Kamloops, British Columbia

text: . Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the

text: specific epithet

text: from the

text: Latin

text: "orbiculatus",  meaning "rounded" or "circular", in reference to the shape of the head. The species is discernible from the other two species of Ypresiomyrma by its notably rounded head capsule, and by the shape of the

text: petiole

text: which has a smoothly sloping convex shape with a node in the center. The petiole is similar in appearance to

text: Prionomyrmex janzeni

text: , and the propodeum is round. The queen is estimated to have been approximately . The compound eyes are large and oval shape, but the antennae cannot be described due to poor preservation. The mandibles are large, containing seven to eight teeth. A well-developed stinger is also present.

text: It has been suggested that one type of molecular clock and one approach to interpretation of the fossil record both place the evolutionary origins of eumetazoa in the Ediacaran. However, the earliest eumetazoans may not have left a clear impact on the fossil record and other interpretations of molecular clocks suggest the possibility of an earlier origin. The discoverers of Vernanimalcula describe it as the fossil of a bilateral triploblastic animal that appeared at the end of the Marinoan glaciation prior to the Ediacaran Period, implying an even earlier origin for eumetazoans.

text: It has been suggested that one type of

text: molecular clock

text: and one approach to interpretation of the fossil record both place the evolutionary origins of eumetazoa in the

text: Ediacaran

text: . However, the earliest eumetazoans may not have left a clear impact on the fossil record and other interpretations of molecular clocks suggest the possibility of an earlier origin. The discoverers of

text: Vernanimalcula

text: describe it as the fossil of a

text: bilateral

text: triploblastic

text: animal that appeared at the end of the

text: Marinoan

text: glaciation prior to the

text: Ediacaran

text: Period, implying an even earlier origin for eumetazoans.

text: Afropone oculata was described from two fossils, the holotype specimen number BP/2/28072a/2, identified as a female, and an additional poorly preserved fossil, number BP/2/26631-17. Afropone (?) orapa was based on a single holotype male, specimen BP/2/26628/1, and tentatively placed into the genus based on overall morphology.  The specimens are mostly complete with variation in the quantity of detail, and are preserved as compression fossils in shale. The shales and mudstones of the Orapa site were rapidly deposited in a crater lake formed as the result of a large volcanic eruption in the Cretaceous. The sediment originated as an epiclastic kimberlite and derives from rapid weathering and decomposition of the sides of the kimberlite crater. Of the four major sedimentation types that have been observe at Orapa, fossils are found in only two, the granular mass flows and the fine-grained sediments:  woody debris fossils are found in the granular mass flows, but well-preserved fossils are only recovered in the fine-grained sediments. The fossil-bearing stratum was uncovered during mining of the underlying diamond-bearing rocks at the site.  Radiometric dating of the kimberlite pipe reported in 1977 gave an age in the general range of .  Further dating utilizing zircon crystals reported on in 2004 gave more defined age of approximately  placing the date in the Turonian age of the late Cretaceous.

text: Afropone oculata was described from two fossils, the

text: holotype

text: specimen number BP/2/28072a/2, identified as a female, and an additional poorly preserved fossil, number BP/2/26631-17. Afropone (?) orapa was based on a single holotype male, specimen BP/2/26628/1, and tentatively placed into the genus based on overall morphology.  The specimens are mostly complete with variation in the quantity of detail, and are preserved as compression fossils in shale. The shales and mudstones of the Orapa site were rapidly deposited in a

text: crater lake

text: formed as the result of a large volcanic eruption in the Cretaceous. The sediment originated as an epiclastic

text: kimberlite

text: and derives from rapid weathering and decomposition of the sides of the kimberlite crater. Of the four major sedimentation types that have been observe at Orapa, fossils are found in only two, the granular mass flows and the fine-grained sediments:  woody debris fossils are found in the granular mass flows, but well-preserved fossils are only recovered in the fine-grained sediments. The fossil-bearing stratum was uncovered during mining of the underlying

text: diamond-bearing rocks at the site

text: Radiometric dating

text: of the kimberlite pipe reported in 1977 gave an age in the general range of .  Further dating utilizing zircon crystals reported on in 2004 gave more defined age of approximately  placing the date in the

text: Turonian age

text: of the late Cretaceous.

text: The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts (headings). This form of mining utilizes horizontal or nearly horizontal (slightly declined) shafts for ore extraction from sandstone or crag. Drifts and galleries are the most widespread type of mining form in Kargaly. The form and size of the galleries is not fixed, but flexible depending on the composition of the ore layers and the different characteristics of the deposit. These criteria are assessed by the miners during underground and surface gophering for copper minerals. This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries, which often have no regular geometric profile and no strict direction. The predominance of the so-called nest, or lens accumulations of copper minerals in Kargaly led to the appearance of huge underground halls derived from galleries. Their ceilings are twenty meters high and are connected to other galleries and drifts. In some cases they were blind underground headings (strecks). Prospecting or trial pits are laid into the loam surface layer for the clearing of subsoil and are created in order to search for traces of copper minerals. The copper deposits are usually surrounded by residue of argillaceous soil and sandy loam.

text: The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts (headings). This form of mining utilizes horizontal or nearly horizontal (slightly declined) shafts for

text: ore extraction

text: from sandstone or crag. Drifts and galleries are the most widespread type of mining form in Kargaly. The form and size of the galleries is not fixed, but flexible depending on the composition of the ore layers and the different characteristics of the deposit. These criteria are assessed by the miners during underground and surface

text: gophering

text: for copper minerals. This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries, which often have no regular geometric profile and no strict direction. The predominance of the so-called nest, or lens accumulations of copper minerals in Kargaly led to the appearance of huge underground halls derived from galleries. Their ceilings are twenty meters high and are connected to other galleries and drifts. In some cases they were blind underground headings (

text: streck

text: s).

text: Prospecting or trial pits

text: are laid into the loam surface layer for the clearing of subsoil and are created in order to search for traces of copper minerals. The copper deposits are usually surrounded by residue of argillaceous soil and

text: sandy loam

text: Geologists use both large fossils (called macrofossils) and microscopic fossils (called microfossils) for this process, known as biostratigraphy.  Macrofossils have the advantage of being easy to see in the field, but they are rarer, and microfossils are very commonly used by oil prospectors and other industries interested in mineral resources when accurate knowledge of the age of the rocks being looked at is needed.

text: Geologist

text: s use both large fossils (called

text: macrofossil

text: s) and microscopic fossils (called microfossils) for this process, known as

text: biostratigraphy

text: .  Macrofossils have the advantage of being easy to see in the field, but they are rarer, and microfossils are very commonly used by

text: oil

text: prospectors and other industries interested in

text: mineral

text: resources when accurate knowledge of the age of the rocks being looked at is needed.

text: The next phase is the replacement of the hyaline cartilage and woven bone with lamellar bone. The replacement process is known as endochondral ossification with respect to the hyaline cartilage and bony substitution with respect to the woven bone. Substitution of the woven bone with lamellar bone precedes the substitution of the hyaline cartilage with lamellar bone. The lamellar bone begins forming soon after the collagen matrix of either tissue becomes mineralized. At this point, the mineralized matrix is penetrated by channels, each containing a microvessel and numerous osteoblasts. The osteoblasts form new lamellar bone upon the recently exposed surface of the mineralized matrix. This new lamellar bone is in the form of  trabecular bone. Eventually, all of the woven bone and cartilage of the original fracture callus is replaced by trabecular bone, restoring most of the bone's original strength.

text: The next phase is the replacement of the hyaline cartilage and woven bone with

text: lamellar bone

text: . The replacement process is known as

text: endochondral ossification

text: with respect to the hyaline cartilage and bony substitution with respect to the woven bone. Substitution of the woven bone with lamellar bone precedes the substitution of the hyaline cartilage with lamellar bone. The lamellar bone begins forming soon after the collagen matrix of either tissue becomes mineralized. At this point, the mineralized matrix is penetrated by channels, each containing a

text: microvessel

text: and numerous

text: osteoblast

text: s. The osteoblasts form new lamellar bone upon the recently exposed surface of the mineralized matrix. This new lamellar bone is in the form of

text: trabecular bone

text: . Eventually, all of the woven bone and cartilage of the original fracture callus is replaced by trabecular bone, restoring most of the bone's original strength.

text: The compression molding starts, with an allotted amount of plastic or gelatin placed over or inserted into a mold. Afterward the material is heated to a pliable state in and by the mold. Shortly there after the hydraulic press compresses the pliable plastic against the mold, resulting in a perfectly molded piece, retaining the shape of the inside surface of the mold. After the hydraulic press releases, an ejector pin in the bottom of the mold quickly ejects the finished piece out of the mold and then the process is finished. Depending on the type of plunger used in the press, there will or won't be excess material on the mold.

text: Stigmaria are a type of branching tree root fossil found in Carboniferous rocks. They were the roots of coal forest lycopsid trees such as Sigillaria and Lepidodendron. Each trunk tended to have four of those roots. Stigmaria is a form taxon, as the genus and species of the plant bearing the root is not identified.

text: Stigmaria are a type of branching tree root fossil found in

text: Carboniferous

text: rocks. They were the roots of

text: coal forest

text: lycopsid

text: trees such as

text: Sigillaria

text: and

text: Lepidodendron

text: . Each trunk tended to have four of those roots. Stigmaria is a

text: form taxon

text: , as the genus and species of the plant bearing the root is not identified.

text: Perhaps the oldest of the bunch, paleontology is the study of fossils. It involves the discovery, excavation, dating, and paleoecological understanding of any type of fossil, microbial or dinosaur, trace or body fossil. Micropaleontology is particularly relevant to geobiology. Putative bacterial microfossils and ancient stromatolites are used as evidence for the rise of metabolisms such as oxygenic photosynthesis. The search for molecular fossils, such as lipid biomarkers like steranes and hopanes, has also played an important role in geobiology and organic geochemistry. Relevant sub-disciples include paleoecology and paleobiogeoraphy.

text: Perhaps the oldest of the bunch,

text: paleontology

text: is the study of fossils. It involves the discovery, excavation, dating, and paleoecological understanding of any type of fossil, microbial or dinosaur, trace or body fossil.

text: Micropaleontology

text: is particularly relevant to geobiology. Putative bacterial

text: microfossils

text: and ancient

text: stromatolite

text: s are used as evidence for the rise of metabolisms such as oxygenic photosynthesis. The search for molecular fossils, such as lipid biomarkers like steranes and hopanes, has also played an important role in geobiology and organic geochemistry. Relevant sub-disciples include

text: paleoecology

text: and

text: paleobiogeoraphy

text: In the field of video compression a video frame is compressed using different algorithms with different advantages and disadvantages, centered mainly around amount of data compression.  These different algorithms for video frames are called picture types or frame types.  The three major picture types used in the different video algorithms are I, P and B.  They are different in the following characteristics:

text: In the field of

text: video compression

text: a

text: video frame

text: is compressed using different

text: algorithm

text: s with different advantages and disadvantages, centered mainly around amount of

text: data compression

text: .  These different algorithms for video frames are called picture types or frame types.  The three major picture types used in the different video algorithms are I, P and B.  They are different in the following characteristics:

text: The best localities for exceptionally preserved fossils are in the communities of Bundenbach and Gemünden. The slates were widely quarried in the past, mainly for roofing tiles from small pits, of which over 600 are known. Today, only a single quarry remains open in the main fossiliferous region of Bundenbach. There are also areas of the Hunsrück Slates where fossils are neither well preserved, nor pyritized, indicating that there also existed environments with shallow and fully oxygenated water.

text: The northern coast of Kangaroo Island contains important fossil-bearing deposits, dating from the late Lower Cambrian, such as the Emu Bay Shale (late Botomian, 517 million years old). A variety of primordial marine arthropods left their remains in this Burgess shale type preservation, but the larger grain size of the Emu Bay rock means that the quality of preservation is lower.

text: The northern coast of Kangaroo Island contains important fossil-bearing deposits, dating from the late Lower

text: Cambrian

text: , such as the

text: Emu Bay Shale

text: (late

text: Botomian

text: , 517 million years old). A variety of primordial marine arthropods left their remains in this

text: Burgess shale type preservation

text: , but the larger grain size of the Emu Bay rock means that the quality of preservation is lower.

text: As the sediment is transported, the unstable minerals are abraded or dissolve to leave more stable minerals, such as quartz. Mature sediments, which contain stable minerals, generally have a smaller variety of minerals than immature sediments, which can contain both stable and unstable minerals.  One measure of this maturity is the ZTR index which is a measure of the common resistant minerals found in ultra-weathered sediments: zircon, tourmaline, and rutile.

text: As the sediment is transported, the unstable minerals are abraded or dissolve to leave more stable minerals, such as

text: quartz

text: . Mature sediments, which contain stable minerals, generally have a smaller variety of minerals than immature sediments, which can contain both stable and unstable minerals.  One measure of this maturity is the

text: ZTR index

text: which is a measure of the common resistant minerals found in ultra-weathered sediments:

text: zircon

text: tourmaline

text: , and

text: rutile

text: The Rußkohlenflötz Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.

text: The Rußkohlenflötz Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

text: in the scope of distribution. In that same year, the product line was expanded with the inclusion of Orthopeg, Microtex, Gynoglove, and Syntec NEOPRENE specialist surgical gloves, as well as Texident gloves designed for dentists, gloves designed for procedures involving increased risk of infection, ProHand sterile examination gloves, and powder-free vinyl gloves. The decision to purchase the medical gloves production plant in Thailand resulted in the introduction of a new group of products, i.e. dressings that included the following: gauze compresses, non-woven fabric compresses, high-absorbency compresses, adhesive tapes on various types of carriers, dressings for the fastening of cannula, surgical dressings, plaster bandages, stabilising supports, and net bandages.

text: The original data contains a certain amount of information, and there is a lower limit to the size of file that can carry all the information. Basic information theory says that there is an absolute limit in reducing the size of this data. When data is compressed, its entropy increases, and it cannot increase indefinitely. As an intuitive example, most people know that a compressed ZIP file is smaller than the original file, but repeatedly compressing the same file will not reduce the size to nothing. Most compression algorithms can recognize when further compression would be pointless and would in fact increase the size of the data.

text: The original data contains a certain amount of information, and there is a lower limit to the size of file that can carry all the information. Basic

text: information theory

text: says that there is an absolute limit in reducing the size of this data. When data is compressed, its entropy increases, and it cannot increase indefinitely. As an intuitive example, most people know that a compressed

text: ZIP

text: file is smaller than the original file, but repeatedly compressing the same file will not reduce the size to nothing. Most compression algorithms can recognize when further compression would be pointless and would in fact increase the size of the data.

text: Saadanius is known from a single specimen, the holotype, named "SGS-UM 2009-002", stored in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, at the Paleontology Unit of the Saudi Geological Survey (SGS). Its type locality, or the place it was discovered, was on top of an oolitic ironstone fossil bed of the middle Shumaysi Formation located in the southwest corner of Harrat Al Ujayfa, in western Saudi Arabia, close to Mecca. The specimen was discovered in February 2009 by paleontologist Iyad Zalmout, who had traveled to the region to search for ancient whale and dinosaur fossils.  While looking for dinosaur fossils in an area that, according to the maps he was working from, contained rock layers that dated to the Cretaceous (145–66 mya), Zalmout found the jawbone of a hippo-like creature, called an anthracotheriid (a close relative of whales and hippos), which dated to Eocene or Oligocene.  This indicated that the rock layers were much younger than what was dated on the maps.  The following day, he noticed fossil teeth, which he immediately recognized as those of a primate.  Zalmout emailed a photo of the teeth to paleontologist Philip D. Gingerich, with whom he was working as a postdoctoral fellow. Gingerich, an expert on ancient primates and whales, confirmed that it was indeed a primate.  Due to a tight schedule, Zalmout had to leave the exposed fossil embedded in the rock for the next few days because collecting it would require days of work.  The fossil was soon recovered by a joint expedition involving the SGS and the University of Michigan.

text: Saadanius is known from a single specimen, the

text: holotype

text: , named "SGS-UM 2009-002", stored in

text: Jeddah

text: , Saudi Arabia, at the Paleontology Unit of the

text: Saudi Geological Survey

text: (SGS). Its

text: type locality

text: , or the place it was discovered, was on top of an

text: oolitic

text: ironstone

text: fossil bed of the middle

text: Shumaysi Formation

text: located in the southwest corner of Harrat Al Ujayfa, in western Saudi Arabia, close to Mecca. The specimen was discovered in February 2009 by paleontologist Iyad Zalmout, who had traveled to the region to search for

text: ancient whale

text: and

text: dinosaur

text: fossils.  While looking for dinosaur fossils in an area that, according to the maps he was working from, contained rock layers that dated to the

text: Cretaceous

text: (145–66 mya), Zalmout found the jawbone of a hippo-like creature, called an

text: anthracotheriid

text: (a close relative of whales and hippos), which dated to

text: Eocene

text: or Oligocene.  This indicated that the rock layers were much younger than what was dated on the maps.  The following day, he noticed fossil teeth, which he immediately recognized as those of a primate.  Zalmout emailed a photo of the teeth to paleontologist

text: Philip D. Gingerich

text: , with whom he was working as a postdoctoral fellow. Gingerich, an expert on ancient primates and whales, confirmed that it was indeed a primate.  Due to a tight schedule, Zalmout had to leave the exposed fossil embedded in the rock for the next few days because collecting it would require days of work.  The fossil was soon recovered by a joint expedition involving the SGS and the

text: University of Michigan

text: Some minerals may replace other existing minerals while preserving the original's habit: this process is called pseudomorphous replacement. A classic example is tiger's eye quartz, crocidolite asbestos replaced by silica. While quartz typically forms prismatic (elongate, prism-like) crystals, in tiger's eye the original fibrous habit of crocidolite is preserved.

text: Some minerals may replace other existing minerals while preserving the original's habit: this process is called

text: pseudomorphous replacement

text: . A classic example is

text: tiger's eye

text: quartz

text: crocidolite

text: asbestos

text: replaced by

text: silica

text: . While quartz typically forms prismatic (elongate, prism-like) crystals, in tiger's eye the original fibrous habit of crocidolite is preserved.

text: Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell" of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include cast iron, aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium-sized.

text: Shell molding is similar to sand casting, but the molding cavity is formed by a hardened "shell" of sand instead of a flask filled with sand. The sand used is finer than sand casting sand and is mixed with a resin so that it can be heated by the pattern and hardened into a shell around the pattern. Because of the resin and finer sand, it gives a much finer surface finish. The process is easily automated and more precise than sand casting. Common metals that are cast include

text: cast iron

text: , aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. This process is ideal for complex items that are small to medium-sized.

text: Wave Dragon is a floating, slack-moored energy converter of the 'overtopping' type which can be deployed as a single unit, or in arrays of up to 200 units; the output of such an array would have a capacity comparable to traditional fossil-fuel power plants.

text: The gating system required to produce castings in a mold yields leftover metal — including heads, risers, and sprue (sometimes collectively called sprue) — that can exceed 50% of the metal required to pour a full mold. Since this metal must be remelted as salvage, the yield of a particular gating configuration becomes an important economic consideration when designing various gating schemes, to minimize the cost of excess sprue, and thus overall melting costs.

text: Resin casting is a method of plastic casting where a mold is filled with a liquid synthetic resin, which then hardens. It is primarily used for small-scale production like industrial prototypes and dentistry. It can be done by amateur hobbyists with little initial investment, and is used in the production of collectible toys, models and figures, as well as small-scale jewelry production.

text: Resin casting is a method of plastic

text: casting

text: where a

text: mold

text: is filled with a liquid

text: synthetic resin

text: , which then hardens. It is primarily used for small-scale production like industrial prototypes and dentistry. It can be done by amateur

text: hobby

text: ists with little initial investment, and is used in the production of collectible toys, models and figures, as well as small-scale jewelry production.

text: A cement plant consumes 3 to 6 GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln (referred to as co-processing), replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale, and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns to give ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix.

text: A cement plant consumes 3 to 6

text: GJ

text: of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln (referred to as

text: co-processing

text: ), replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay,

text: shale

text: , and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns to give ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix.

text: Burrows are also commonly preserved in the fossil record as a type of trace fossil.

text: Burrows are also commonly preserved in the fossil record as a type of

text: trace fossil

text: Bog Bodies are human remains which have been found in peat bogs in various locations around the world. They have been preserved naturally in varying degrees due to the specific conditions of peat bogs. Despite their natural preservation, these remains are sensitive to deterioration after being removed from their original locations. Freeze-drying is an accepted method of preserving bog bodies in museum collections. Some notable bog body discoveries include the Tollund Man of Denmark, the Elling Woman of Denmark, the Cashel Man of Ireland, the Huldremose Woman of Denmark, the Girl of the Uchter Moor of Germany, the Lindow Man of England, and the Yde Girl of the Netherlands. For a more comprehensive list of examples, see List of bog bodies.

text: Bog Bodies

text: are human remains which have been found in peat bogs in various locations around the world. They have been preserved naturally in varying degrees due to the specific conditions of peat bogs. Despite their natural preservation, these remains are sensitive to deterioration after being removed from their original locations. Freeze-drying is an accepted method of preserving bog bodies in museum collections. Some notable bog body discoveries include the

text: Tollund Man

text: of Denmark, the

text: Elling Woman

text: of Denmark, the

text: Cashel Man

text: of Ireland, the

text: Huldremose Woman

text: of Denmark, the

text: Girl of the Uchter Moor

text: of Germany, the

text: Lindow Man

text: of England, and the

text: Yde Girl

text: of the Netherlands. For a more comprehensive list of examples, see

text: List of bog bodies

text: Plaxhaplous was a genus of glyptodont, an extinct relative of the modern armadillo.  It lived in the Pleistocene epoch.   The type species is Plaxhaplous canaliculatus.  Plaxhaplous canaliculatus fossils were found in Argentina, near  Luján in Buenos Aires Province.  Plaxhaplous fossils have also been found in Uruguay.  The name Plaxhaplous means simple, flat surface.

text: Plaxhaplous was a genus of

text: glyptodont

text: , an extinct relative of the modern

text: armadillo

text: .  It lived in the

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch.   The

text: type species

text: is Plaxhaplous canaliculatus.  Plaxhaplous canaliculatus fossils were found in Argentina, near

text: Luján

text: in

text: Buenos Aires Province

text: .  Plaxhaplous fossils have also been found in

text: Uruguay

text: .  The name Plaxhaplous means simple, flat surface.

text: Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody tissue of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called trace fossils, examples of which are burrows, footprints, etc.

text: Fossils can be both the direct remains or imprints of organisms and their skeletons. Most commonly preserved are the harder parts of organisms such as bones, shells, and the woody

text: tissue

text: of plants. Soft tissue has a much smaller chance of being fossilized, and the preservation of soft tissue of animals older than 40 million years is very rare. Imprints of organisms made while they were still alive are called

text: trace fossil

text: s, examples of which are

text: burrow

text: s,

text: footprint

text: s, etc.

text: In chapter 10, Sterelny discusses the fossil evidence of Cambrian fauna, and how this provides the basis for Gould's challenge to gradualistic orthodoxy. About 543 million years ago, at the base of the Cambrian, the Ediacaran fauna, characterised by small shelly fossils, fossilised tracks, and burrows, apparently disappeared. From available evidence, diversity of fauna was very limited at the beginning of the Cambrian Period. "By the middle of the Cambrian, about 520 million years ago, animal life was rich and diverse", (p. 116) as demonstrated by the Maotianshan Shales fossils, in Chengjiang, China, which "are as spectacular as the Burgess Shale fauna, and significantly older." (p. 116) "Thus the fossil record seems to show that most of the major animal groups appeared simultaneously. In the 'Cambrian explosion', we find segmented worms, velvet worms, starfish and their allies, molluscs (bivalves, snails, squid and their relatives), sponges, brachiopods and other shelled animals appearing all at once, with their basic organisation, organ systems and sensory mechanisms already operational." (p. 116) "This explosive evolutionary radiation of the Cambrian seems to be unique. Plants seem to have arisen somewhat more gradually ... nor was there a similar radiation when animals invaded the land ... the colonisation of the land saw no new ways of making an animal." (p. 117) Despite adaptations, the basic body plans remain recognisable. One possibility is that the 'Cambrian explosion' is "an illusion generated by the failure of earlier Precambrian fossils to survive to our times," (p. 117) that there is a long history of hidden evolution preceding the appearance of multi-celled animals in the fossil record. "This remains a live option. There are fossil embryos of animals from China dating to about 570 million years ago", (p. 120) and there are many animal lineages for which there is no fossil record, possibly due to being small and soft-bodied, so leaving no detectable traces. Certainly Precambrian animal life is evidenced by the Ediacaran fossils, but the relationship between fauna from these two periods remains unclear. Gould was inclined to support the view that the Ediacaran fauna became wholly extinct prior to the Cambrian, thus were not Cambrian ancestors, "hence their existence does not extend the timeframe of animal evolution into the Precambrian". (p. 120)

text: In chapter 10, Sterelny discusses the fossil evidence of Cambrian fauna, and how this provides the basis for Gould's challenge to gradualistic orthodoxy. About 543 million years ago, at the base of the Cambrian, the

text: Ediacaran

text: fauna, characterised by small shelly fossils, fossilised tracks, and burrows, apparently disappeared. From available evidence, diversity of fauna was very limited at the beginning of the Cambrian Period. "By the middle of the Cambrian, about 520 million years ago, animal life was rich and diverse", (p. 116) as demonstrated by the

text: Maotianshan Shale

text: s fossils, in

text: Chengjiang

text: , China, which "are as spectacular as the Burgess Shale fauna, and significantly older." (p. 116) "Thus the fossil record seems to show that most of the major animal groups appeared simultaneously. In the '

text: Cambrian explosion

text: ', we find segmented worms,

text: velvet worms

text: starfish

text: and their allies,

text: molluscs

text: bivalves

text: snails

text: squid

text: and their relatives),

text: sponges

text: brachiopods

text: and other shelled animals appearing all at once, with their basic organisation, organ systems and sensory mechanisms already operational." (p. 116) "This explosive evolutionary radiation of the Cambrian seems to be unique. Plants seem to have arisen somewhat more gradually ... nor was there a similar radiation when animals invaded the land ... the colonisation of the land saw no new ways of making an animal." (p. 117) Despite adaptations, the basic body plans remain recognisable. One possibility is that the 'Cambrian explosion' is "an illusion generated by the failure of earlier Precambrian fossils to survive to our times," (p. 117) that there is a long history of hidden evolution preceding the appearance of multi-celled animals in the fossil record. "This remains a live option. There are

text: fossil embryos

text: of animals from China dating to about 570 million years ago", (p. 120) and there are many animal lineages for which there is no fossil record, possibly due to being small and soft-bodied, so leaving no detectable traces. Certainly

text: Precambrian

text: animal life is evidenced by the Ediacaran fossils, but the relationship between fauna from these two periods remains unclear. Gould was inclined to support the view that the Ediacaran fauna became wholly extinct prior to the Cambrian, thus were not Cambrian ancestors, "hence their existence does not extend the timeframe of animal evolution into the Precambrian". (p. 120)

text: Syndesus ambericus is known from a single fossil insect which is an inclusion in a transparent chunk of Dominican amber.  The amber was produced by the extinct Hymenaea protera, which formerly grew on Hispaniola, across northern South America and up to southern Mexico.  The fossil was first noted as interesting in 1983 in a private amber collection in the Dominican Republic. It was subsequently reported as an unidentified lucanid in a 1992 paper.  Between the first examination in 1983 and reexamination of the fossil in 1998 the fossil was broken and subsequently repaired.  The holotype amber specimen, number 502873, is currently housed in the Department of Paleobiology in the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C..  The holotype fossil is composed of a complete adult individual that was collected from an amber mine, possibly the Palo Quemado mine, in fossil bearing rocks of the Cordillera Septentrional mountains, northern Dominican Republic.  The amber dates from at least the Burdigalian stage of the Miocene, based on studying the associated fossil foraminifera and may be as old as the Middle Eocene, based on the associated fossil coccoliths.  This age range due to the host rock being secondary deposits for the amber and the Miocene the age range is only the youngest that it might be. The fossil was examined by entomologist Robert E. Woodruff of the Florida State Collection of Arthropods.  Woodruff's 2009 type description of the new species was published in the entomology systematics journal Insecta Mundi.  The specific epithet ambericus is in recognition of the amber mining company Amberica, which has helped to bring notable amber fossils to the attention of paleontologists.

text: Syndesus ambericus is known from a single fossil insect which is an

text: inclusion

text: in a transparent chunk of

text: Dominican amber

text: .  The amber was produced by the extinct

text: Hymenaea protera

text: , which formerly grew on

text: Hispaniola

text: , across northern South America and up to southern Mexico.  The fossil was first noted as interesting in 1983 in a private amber collection in the

text: Dominican Republic

text: . It was subsequently reported as an unidentified lucanid in a 1992 paper.  Between the first examination in 1983 and reexamination of the fossil in 1998 the fossil was broken and subsequently repaired.  The

text: holotype

text: amber specimen, number 502873, is currently housed in the Department of Paleobiology in the

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: .  The

text: holotype

text: fossil is composed of a complete adult individual that was collected from an amber mine, possibly the Palo Quemado mine, in fossil bearing rocks of the

text: Cordillera Septentrional

text: mountains, northern

text: Dominican Republic

text: .  The amber dates from at least the

text: Burdigalian

text: stage of the Miocene, based on studying the associated fossil

text: foraminifera

text: and may be as old as the Middle Eocene, based on the associated fossil

text: coccoliths

text: .  This age range due to the host rock being secondary deposits for the amber and the Miocene the age range is only the youngest that it might be. The fossil was examined by entomologist Robert E. Woodruff of the Florida State Collection of Arthropods.  Woodruff's 2009

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the

text: entomology

text: systematics journal Insecta Mundi.  The

text: specific epithet

text: ambericus is in recognition of the amber mining company Amberica, which has helped to bring notable amber fossils to the attention of paleontologists.

text: Several species have been referred to the genus, most of which are now considered as dubious species, or members of different genera, and the genus is now often considered to include only the type species, Ornithocheirus simus. Species have been referred to Ornithocheirus from the mid-Cretaceous period of both Europe and South America, but O. simus is known only from the UK. Because O. simus was originally named based on poorly preserved fossil material, the genus Ornithocheirus has suffered enduring problems of zoological nomenclature.

text: Several species have been referred to the genus, most of which are now considered as dubious species, or members of different genera, and the genus is now often considered to include only the

text: type species

text: , Ornithocheirus simus. Species have been referred to Ornithocheirus from the mid-

text: Cretaceous

text: period of both

text: Europe

text: and

text: South America

text: , but O. simus is known only from the

text: UK

text: . Because O. simus was originally named based on poorly preserved fossil material, the genus Ornithocheirus has suffered enduring problems of

text: zoological nomenclature

text: In a one-dimensional relaxation test, the material is subjected to a sudden strain that is kept constant over the duration ofthe test, and the stress is measured over time. The initial stress is due to the elastic response of the material. Then, thestress relaxes over time due to the viscous effects in the material. Typically, either a tensile, compressive, bulkcompression, or shear strain is applied. The resulting stress vs. time data can be fitted with a number of equations, calledmodels. Only the notation changes depending of the type of strain applied: tensile-compressive relaxation is denoted

text: Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) is a technology to capture the large quantities of carbon dioxide () normally released into the atmosphere from the use of fossil fuel in power generation and other industries, transport the captured/compressed  to a location for permanent storage site, and inject it into deep underground geologic formations to securely store it or convert it into useful materials.

text: Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) is a technology to capture the large quantities of

text: carbon dioxide

text: () normally released into the atmosphere from the use of fossil fuel in power generation and other industries, transport the captured/compressed  to a location for permanent storage site, and inject it into deep underground geologic formations to securely store it or convert it into useful materials.

text: The Earth Lab is a gallery that centres around geology, and contains specimens of fossils, minerals and rocks. The "Lab Area" is only open to reserved groups and allows an interactive approach to the gallery, allowing the use of microscopes. It is currently the only gallery in the red-zone without step free access. Earth's Treasury shows specimens of rocks, minerals and gemstones behind glass in a dimly lit gallery. Lasting Impressions is a small gallery containing specimens of rocks, plants and minerals, of which most can be touched.

text: The Earth Lab is a gallery that centres around

text: geology

text: , and contains specimens of

text: fossils

text: minerals

text: and rocks. The "Lab Area" is only open to reserved groups and allows an interactive approach to the gallery, allowing the use of

text: microscope

text: s. It is currently the only gallery in the red-zone without step free access. Earth's Treasury shows specimens of rocks, minerals and gemstones behind glass in a dimly lit gallery. Lasting Impressions is a small gallery containing specimens of rocks, plants and minerals, of which most can be touched.

text: A note about spelling: when used to describe something which is physically formed again, such as re-casting it in a mold/mould, or a band that gets back together, the proper term is re-form (with a hyphen), not "reform".

text: A note about

text: spelling

text: : when used to describe something which is physically formed again, such as re-

text: casting

text: it in a

text: mold/mould

text: , or a

text: band

text: that gets back together, the proper term is re-form (with a

text: hyphen

text: ), not "reform".

text: Most of these eleven fossils include impressions of feathers. Because these feathers are of an advanced form (flight feathers), these fossils are evidence that the evolution of feathers began before the Late Jurassic. The type specimen of Archaeopteryx was discovered just two years after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species. Archaeopteryx seemed to confirm Darwin's theories and has since become a key piece of evidence for the origin of birds, the transitional fossils debate, and confirmation of evolution.

text: Most of these eleven fossils include impressions of feathers. Because these feathers are of an advanced form (

text: flight feather

text: s), these fossils are evidence that the evolution of feathers began before the Late Jurassic. The

text: type specimen

text: of Archaeopteryx was discovered just two years after

text: Charles Darwin

text: published

text: On the Origin of Species

text: . Archaeopteryx seemed to confirm Darwin's theories and has since become a key piece of evidence for the origin of birds, the transitional fossils debate, and confirmation of

text: evolution

text: The Somerville Collection is approximately one third fossil and two thirds mineral specimens and is features some of the finest and rarest examples of minerals from around the world and scientifically significant fossils from Australia.

text: The Somerville Collection is approximately one third fossil and two thirds

text: mineral

text: specimens and is features some of the finest and rarest examples of minerals from around the world and scientifically significant fossils from Australia.

text: The remains of Hilarcotherium were discovered by José Alfredo Castañeda, who found them in the Malnombre Creek in the Hilarco village located near the town of Purificación, in Tolima. This area, in the valley of the Upper Magdalena River, correspond to the La Victoria Formation, that along the Villavieja Formation makes the Honda Group, dating from the Middle Miocene, made between 13-11.8 million years ago and it has provided a remarkable fossil site known as La Venta, although the lack of key fossil does not allow establish accurately the membership of the Hilarco site to the formation. The remains of Hilarcotherium were collected by dr. María Páramo and Gerardo Vargas, who took them to the Geological Museum José Royo y Gómez of Ingeominas (former name of Colombian Geological Service) in Bogotá for study and preservation. In February 2015 these remains were officially named, although the name Hilarcotherium castanedaii was released earlier and informally in conference abstracts. The genus name is derived from the Hilarco site and the term in Latinized Greek therium, meaning "beast", while the species name castanedaii is in recognition to Castañeda, by finding and reporting the find.

text: The remains of Hilarcotherium were discovered by José Alfredo Castañeda, who found them in the Malnombre Creek in the Hilarco village located near the town of

text: Purificación

text: , in Tolima. This area, in the valley of the Upper

text: Magdalena River

text: , correspond to the La Victoria Formation, that along the Villavieja Formation makes the Honda Group, dating from the Middle Miocene, made between 13-11.8 million years ago and it has provided a remarkable fossil site known as

text: La Venta

text: , although the lack of key fossil does not allow establish accurately the membership of the Hilarco site to the formation. The remains of Hilarcotherium were collected by dr. María Páramo and Gerardo Vargas, who took them to the Geological Museum José Royo y Gómez of

text: Ingeominas

text: (former name of Colombian Geological Service) in

text: Bogotá

text: for study and preservation. In February 2015 these remains were officially named, although the name Hilarcotherium castanedaii was released earlier and informally in conference abstracts. The genus name is derived from the Hilarco site and the term in

text: Latin

text: ized

text: Greek

text: therium, meaning "beast", while the species name castanedaii is in recognition to Castañeda, by finding and reporting the find.

text: The museum is the home of the famous Cretaceous fossil Gillicus in Xiphactinus, better known as the "fish within a fish," which shows a small fossil fish inside the stomach of a larger fossil fish.

text: The museum is the home of the famous

text: Cretaceous

text: fossil Gillicus in Xiphactinus, better known as the "fish within a fish," which shows a small fossil fish inside the stomach of a larger fossil fish.

text: After burial various factors are at work to endanger the current fossil's preserved state. Chemical alteration would change the mineral composition of the fossil, but generally not its appearance, lithification would distort its appearance, the fossil itself may be fully or partially dissolved leaving only a fossil mold.

text: After burial various factors are at work to endanger the current fossil's preserved state. Chemical alteration would change the mineral composition of the fossil, but generally not its appearance,

text: lithification

text: would distort its appearance, the fossil itself may be fully or partially dissolved leaving only a fossil mold.

text: In the oxidized zone, ore minerals include native silver and argentite have been replaced by cerargyrite, iodobromite, bromyrite, embolite, iodyrite. In the supergene sulfide enriched zone, ore minerals include pearceite, proustite, tetrahedrite, polybasite, and pyrargyrite.

text: In the oxidized zone, ore minerals include native silver and

text: argentite

text: have been replaced by

text: cerargyrite

text: , iodobromite,

text: bromyrite

text: , embolite,

text: iodyrite

text: . In the supergene sulfide enriched zone, ore minerals include

text: pearceite

text: proustite

text: tetrahedrite

text: polybasite

text: , and

text: pyrargyrite

text: In a process called microsporogenesis, four haploid microspores are produced from each diploid sporogenous cell (microsporocyte, pollen mother cell or meiocyte), after meiotic division. After the formation of the four microspores, which are contained by callose walls, the development of the pollen grain walls begins. The callose wall is broken down by an enzyme called callase and the freed pollen grains grow in size and develop their characteristic shape and form a resistant outer wall called the exine and an inner wall called the intine. The exine is what is preserved in the fossil record. Two basic types of microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive. In simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed prior to cytokinesis, whereas in successive microsporogenesis cytokinesis follows. While there may be a continuum with intermediate forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance. The predominant form amongst the monocots is successive, but there are important exceptions.

text: In a process called microsporogenesis, four haploid

text: microspore

text: s are produced from each diploid sporogenous cell (microsporocyte, pollen mother cell or

text: meiocyte

text: ), after

text: meiotic division

text: . After the formation of the four microspores, which are contained by callose walls, the development of the pollen grain walls begins. The callose wall is broken down by an enzyme called callase and the freed pollen grains grow in size and develop their characteristic shape and form a resistant outer wall called the exine and an inner wall called the intine. The exine is what is preserved in the fossil record. Two basic types of microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive. In simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed prior to

text: cytokinesis

text: , whereas in successive microsporogenesis cytokinesis follows. While there may be a continuum with intermediate forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance. The predominant form amongst the

text: monocots

text: is successive, but there are important exceptions.

text: Petrified wood is a fossil in which the organic remains have been replaced by minerals in the slow process of being replaced with stone. This petrification process generally results in a quartz chalcedony mineralization. Special rare conditions must be met in order for the fallen stem to be transformed into fossil wood or petrified wood. In general, the fallen plants get buried in an environment free of oxygen (anaerobic environment), which preserves the original plant structure and general appearance. The other conditions include a regular access to mineral rich water in contact with the tissues, replacing the organic plant structure with inorganic minerals. The end result is petrified wood, a plant, with its original basic structure in place, replaced by stone. Exotic minerals allow the red and green hues that can be seen in rarer specimens.

text: Most of the fossils are found as impressions of soft-bodied organisms in the shape of disks, ribbons or fronds. There are also trace fossils that provide evidence that some of these Precambrian organisms were most-likely worm-like creatures that were locomotive. Most of these fossils lack any recognizable heads, mouths or digestive organs, and are thought to have fed via absorptive mechanisms and symbiotic relationships with chemoautotrophs (Chemotroph), photoautotrophs (Phototroph) or osmoautotrophs. The ribbon-like fossils resemble tentacled organisms, and are thought to have fed by capturing prey. The frondose fossils resemble sea pens and other cnidarians. The trace fossils suggest that there were annelid type creatures, and the disk fossils resemble sponges. Despite these similarities, much of the identification is speculation since the fossils do not show very distinct structures. Other fossils do not resemble any known lineages.

text: Most of the fossils are found as impressions of soft-bodied organisms in the shape of disks, ribbons or fronds. There are also trace fossils that provide evidence that some of these Precambrian organisms were most-likely worm-like creatures that were locomotive. Most of these fossils lack any recognizable heads, mouths or digestive organs, and are thought to have fed via absorptive mechanisms and symbiotic relationships with chemoautotrophs (

text: Chemotroph

text: ), photoautotrophs (

text: Phototroph

text: ) or osmoautotrophs. The ribbon-like fossils resemble tentacled organisms, and are thought to have fed by capturing prey. The frondose fossils resemble sea pens and other

text: cnidarians

text: . The

text: trace fossils

text: suggest that there were

text: annelid

text: type creatures, and the disk fossils resemble sponges. Despite these similarities, much of the identification is speculation since the fossils do not show very distinct structures. Other fossils do not resemble any known lineages.

text: The oldest near-complete fossil lobopodians date to the Lower Cambrian; some are also known from Ordovician, Silurian and Carboniferous Lagerstätten.  Some bear toughened claws, plates or spines, which are commonly preserved as carbonaceous or mineralized microfossils in Cambrian strata.

text: The oldest near-complete

text: fossil

text: lobopodians date to the

text: Lower Cambrian

text: ; some are also known from Ordovician,

text: Silurian

text: and Carboniferous Lagerstätten.  Some bear toughened claws, plates or spines, which are commonly preserved as

text: carbonaceous

text: or

text: mineralized

text: microfossils in Cambrian strata.

text: The Sylvania Sandstone is a geologic formation in Ohio and Michigan. Its type locality is Sylvania, Ohio. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.

text: The Sylvania Sandstone is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Ohio

text: and

text: Michigan

text: . Its type locality is Sylvania, Ohio. It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Devonian

text: period

text: There are a number of problems that can be encountered during the casting process. The main types are: gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mold material defects, pouring metal defects, and metallurgical defects.

text: A scientific name had not yet been given to the new species, the specimen usually being referred to as the Grand Animal fossile des Carrières de Maëstricht or "Great Fossil Animal of the Maastricht quarries". In 1822 William Daniel Conybeare named it Mosasaurus after the Latin name (Mosa) of the Maas (Meuse) River passing along Mount Saint Peter, the second skull being the holotype, MNHNP AC9648. The specific name (epithet) hoffmannii was added by Gideon Mantell in 1829, honouring Hoffmann, on the presumption he was the discoverer of the type specimen. The emendated form hoffmanni often used today, is contrary to the rules of the ICZN that state "the original spelling of a name [...] is to be preserved."

text: A scientific name had not yet been given to the new species, the specimen usually being referred to as the Grand Animal fossile des Carrières de Maëstricht or "Great Fossil Animal of the Maastricht quarries". In 1822

text: William Daniel Conybeare

text: named it Mosasaurus after the Latin name (Mosa) of the Maas (Meuse) River passing along Mount Saint Peter, the second skull being the

text: holotype

text: , MNHNP AC9648. The

text: specific name

text: (epithet) hoffmannii was added by

text: Gideon Mantell

text: in 1829, honouring Hoffmann, on the presumption he was the discoverer of the type specimen. The emendated form hoffmanni often used today, is contrary to the rules of the

text: ICZN

text: that state "the original spelling of a name [...] is to be preserved."

text: These types of plasters are created with the cooperation of american scientists and militaries. C. Patrick Dann who works on this project promises that these plasters will appear on the market by 2025. At this stage of technological development they definitely cannot totally replace food consumption. However, at some extreme cases, such as battlefield or catastrophe, it can help people to survive for a longer time without proper food or water consumption. C. Patrick Dann also states that these kinds of plasters can be helpful for civilians e.g. miners.

text: The plant is known from compression fossils of its flowers, fruits, and pollen.

text: The plant is known from

text: compression fossils

text: of its flowers,

text: fruit

text: s, and

text: pollen

text: Pseudofossils are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as dendrites, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and moss agates, which look like moss or plant leaves. Concretions, spherical or ovoid-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be dinosaur eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well.

text: Pseudofossils are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as

text: dendrite

text: s, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and

text: moss agate

text: s, which look like moss or plant leaves.

text: Concretion

text: s, spherical or ovoid-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be

text: dinosaur

text: eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well.

text: The type specimen, DGM-DNPM 647P was taken from Albian deposits of the Romualdo Member in the Santana Formation. It is a fossil of a complete fish, around 4 centimeters long from snout to the base of the tail. At least two dozen specimens are kept by the American Museum of Natural History as AMNH 20050-20075. Some specimens of Santanichthys were taken from the fossilized stomach contents of other, larger fish such as AMNH 19439 and AMNH 12826.

text: The

text: type specimen

text: , DGM-DNPM 647P was taken from

text: Albian

text: deposits of the Romualdo Member in the Santana Formation. It is a fossil of a complete fish, around 4 centimeters long from snout to the base of the tail. At least two dozen specimens are kept by the

text: American Museum of Natural History

text: as AMNH 20050-20075. Some specimens of Santanichthys were taken from the fossilized stomach contents of other, larger fish such as AMNH 19439 and AMNH 12826.

text: The West Coast Fossil Park is a fossil park near Langebaanweg, Western Cape, South Africa, approximately  north of Cape Town. The fossil sites of Langebaanweg have exceptionally well-preserved remains of fossil fauna that date to circa 5.2 million years ago.  In this period sea levels were higher and many now extinct animals lived in the riverine forests, wooded savanna and along the sea coast near the present day Langebaanweg site. Phosphate mining operations at Langebaanweg uncovered these rich fossil deposits. The fossils include bones of over 200 different animal species. This represents possibly the greatest diversity of five-million-year-old fossils found anywhere in the world. The fossil park was formed after mining operations ceased in 1993. The park is partnered with the Iziko South African Museum.

text: The West Coast Fossil Park is a

text: fossil park

text: near

text: Langebaanweg

text: Western Cape

text: , South Africa, approximately  north of

text: Cape Town

text: . The fossil sites of Langebaanweg have exceptionally well-preserved remains of fossil fauna that date to circa 5.2 million years ago.  In this period sea levels were higher and many now extinct animals lived in the riverine forests, wooded

text: savanna

text: and along the sea coast near the present day Langebaanweg site.

text: Phosphate

text: mining operations at Langebaanweg uncovered these rich fossil deposits. The fossils include bones of over 200 different animal species. This represents possibly the greatest diversity of five-million-year-old fossils found anywhere in the world. The fossil park was formed after mining operations ceased in 1993. The park is partnered with the

text: Iziko South African Museum

text: However, this type of construction means that, during the bending process, the inner radius compresses and the outer radius stretches as the cable core moves. Initially, this works quite well, because the elasticity of the material is still sufficient, but material fatigue can set in and cause permanent deformations. The cores move and begin to make their own compressing and stretching zones, which can lead to a “corkscrew” shape, and ultimately, core rupture.

text: Polymer cores are not as common as metal cores and are usually only used for moldings that require simple internal surface details. They are usually  thick hollow cross-sections that are molded in two halves and are ultrasonically welded together. Their greatest advantage is that they can be molded in traditional injection molding machines that the company already has instead of investing into new die casting equipment and learning how to use it. Because of this polymer core materials are most adventitious for small production runs that cannot justify the added expense of metal cores. Unfortunately it is not as recyclable as the metal alloys used in cores, because 10% new material must be added with the recycled material.

text: Polymer cores are not as common as metal cores and are usually only used for moldings that require simple internal surface details. They are usually  thick hollow cross-sections that are molded in two halves and are

text: ultrasonically welded

text: together. Their greatest advantage is that they can be molded in traditional injection molding machines that the company already has instead of investing into new die casting equipment and learning how to use it. Because of this polymer core materials are most adventitious for small production runs that cannot justify the added expense of metal cores. Unfortunately it is not as recyclable as the metal alloys used in cores, because 10% new material must be added with the recycled material.

text: The fossil was first found in the Omkyk Member from Rietoog in southern Namibia, in association with another calcifying fossil, Cloudina.

text: The fossil was first found in the Omkyk Member from Rietoog in southern

text: Namibia

text: , in association with another calcifying fossil,

text: Cloudina

text: Chalk () is a soft, white, porous sedimentary carbonate rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite. Calcite is an ionic salt called calcium carbonate or CaCO. It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite shells (coccoliths) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores. Flint (a type of chert unique to chalk) is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as nodules embedded in chalk. It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction. Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified (i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint).

text: Chalk () is a soft, white, porous

text: sedimentary

text: carbonate rock

text: , a form of

text: limestone

text: composed of the

text: mineral

text: calcite

text: . Calcite is an ionic salt called

text: calcium carbonate

text: or CaCO. It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute

text: calcite

text: shells (

text: coccoliths

text: ) shed from micro-organisms called

text: coccolithophores

text: Flint

text: (a type of chert unique to chalk) is very common as bands parallel to the

text: bedding

text: or as

text: nodule

text: s embedded in chalk. It is probably derived from

text: sponge spicule

text: s or other

text: siliceous

text: organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction. Flint is often deposited around larger

text: fossil

text: s such as

text: Echinoidea

text: which may be

text: silicified

text: (i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint).

text: Thomas A. Greene Memorial Museum, also known as Greene Geological Museum or Greene Museum, is a mineral and fossil museum in Milwaukee, Wisconsin administered by the Department of Geosciences at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.  The current curator is Dr. Stephen Q. Dornbos, a paleontologist and Associate Professor of Geosciences at UWM.

text: Thomas A. Greene Memorial Museum, also known as Greene Geological Museum or Greene Museum, is a

text: mineral

text: and

text: fossil

text: museum in

text: Milwaukee, Wisconsin

text: administered by the Department of Geosciences at the

text: University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee

text: .  The current curator is Dr. Stephen Q. Dornbos, a paleontologist and Associate Professor of Geosciences at UWM.

text: One famous example is the coelacanth, which was thought to have become extinct in the very late Cretaceous – until a live specimen was caught in 1938.  The animals known as "Burgess Shale type fauna" are best known from rocks of the Early and Middle Cambrian periods. Since 2006, though, a few fossils of similar animals have been found in rocks from the Ordovician, Silurian, and Early Devonian periods, in other words up to 100 million years after the Burgess Shale. The particular way in which such animals have been fossilized may depend on types of ocean chemistry that were present for limited periods of time.

text: One famous example is the

text: coelacanth

text: , which was thought to have become extinct in the very late

text: Cretaceous

text: – until a live specimen was caught in 1938.  The animals known as "

text: Burgess Shale type fauna

text: " are best known from rocks of the Early and Middle

text: Cambrian

text: periods. Since 2006, though, a few fossils of similar animals have been found in rocks from the

text: Ordovician

text: Silurian

text: , and Early

text: Devonian

text: periods, in other words up to 100 million years after the Burgess Shale. The

text: particular way

text: in which such animals have been fossilized may depend on types of ocean chemistry that were present for limited periods of time.

text: Foraminifera can also be used in archaeology in the provenancing of some stone raw material types. Some stone types, such as limestone, are commonly found to contain fossilised Foraminifera.  The types and concentrations of these fossils within a sample of stone can be used to match that sample to a source known to contain the same "fossil signature".

text: Foraminifera can also be used in

text: archaeology

text: in the

text: provenancing

text: of some stone raw material types. Some stone types, such as

text: limestone

text: , are commonly found to contain fossilised Foraminifera.  The types and concentrations of these fossils within a sample of stone can be used to match that sample to a source known to contain the same "fossil signature".

text: In metalworking, casting means a process, in which liquid metal is poured into a mold, that contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

text: In

text: metalworking

text: , casting means a process, in which liquid metal is poured into a

text: mold

text: , that contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

text: The head of this specimen, entirely covered with skin and very well-preserved, was first discovered in 2002. After hearing about the discovery, a polar explorer carried out the expedition with his team to extract the remains from the permafrost. One of the members of the team was the French polar explorer, "Mammoth-Hunter" Bernard Buigues, known for carrying out expeditions to the North Pole, Siberia since the 1990s. It took three excavation trips to gather and put the Yukagir fossil together. Although mammoth fossils are not a rarity, few are as notable as this specimen.

text: The head of this specimen, entirely covered with skin and very well-preserved, was first discovered in 2002. After hearing about the discovery, a polar explorer carried out the expedition with his team to extract the remains from the permafrost. One of the members of the team was the French polar explorer, "Mammoth-Hunter"

text: Bernard Buigues

text: , known for carrying out expeditions to the North Pole, Siberia since the 1990s. It took three excavation trips to gather and put the Yukagir fossil together. Although mammoth fossils are not a rarity, few are as notable as this specimen.

text: The site of the Princeton Chert (Ashnola in older sources) and its fossils have been known since the 1950s, but have recently attracted increased attention. This may be due to the rare type of silica permineralized fossil Lagerstätten found, which has preserved plants and animals in minute 3D detail, with exceptional internal cellular detail. This has meant anatomical descriptions and reconstruction of whole plants from isolated parts has been possible in many species. Few plant fossils elsewhere in the world exhibit such excellence in both preservation and diversity. Similar aged fossil beds in Eocene lake sediments are found elsewhere in British Columbia, including in Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park near Smithers in northern British Columbia, and the McAbee Fossil Beds west of Kamloops, about  NNW of the Princeton Chert beds.

text: The site of the Princeton Chert (Ashnola in older sources) and its fossils have been known since the 1950s, but have recently attracted increased attention. This may be due to the rare type of silica permineralized fossil

text: Lagerstätten

text: found, which has preserved plants and animals in minute 3D detail, with exceptional internal cellular detail. This has meant anatomical descriptions and reconstruction of whole plants from isolated parts has been possible in many species. Few plant fossils elsewhere in the world exhibit such excellence in both preservation and diversity. Similar aged fossil beds in

text: Eocene

text: lake sediments are found elsewhere in

text: British Columbia

text: , including in

text: Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park

text: near

text: Smithers

text: in northern British Columbia, and the

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: west of

text: Kamloops

text: , about  NNW of the Princeton Chert beds.

text: Compression fossils are formed most commonly in environments where fine sediment is deposited, such as in river deltas, lagoons, along rivers, and in ponds.  The best rocks in which to find these fossils preserved are clay and shale, although volcanic ash may sometimes preserve plant fossils as well.

text: Compression fossils are formed most commonly in

text: environment

text: s where fine sediment is deposited, such as in

text: river delta

text: s,

text: lagoon

text: s, along

text: river

text: s, and in

text: pond

text: s.  The best rocks in which to find these fossils preserved are

text: clay

text: and

text: shale

text: , although

text: volcanic ash

text: may sometimes preserve plant fossils as well.

text: When first described, Protopone was known from a single fossil insect included in a transparent chunk of Sakhalin amber. When the fossil was described it was part of the amber collections housed in the Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences.  The amber was recovered from fossil bearing rocks in the Sakhalin region of Eastern Russia.  At the time of description, the amber was estimated to date from the Paleocene.  Further research has revised the amber, which originates from the Lower Due Formation, to be of Middle Eocene age.  The amber fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist Gennady Dlussky of the Russian Academy of Sciences, with his 1988 type description for the species was published in  Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal.  In 2012 an additional six species were identified from compression-impression fossils preserved in layers of soft sedimentary rock.  Along with other well preserved insect fossils, the Protopone specimens were collected from layers of Lutetian Messel Formation rock in the Messel pit World Heritage Site.  The Messel formation is composed of brown coals, oil shales, and bituminous shale, which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds, reptiles, and terrestrial mammals as a notable lagerstätten.  The area is a preserved maar lake which initially formed approximately 47 million years ago as the result of volcanic explosions.

text: When first described, Protopone was known from a single fossil insect

text: included

text: in a transparent chunk of Sakhalin amber. When the fossil was described it was part of the amber collections housed in the

text: .  The amber was recovered from fossil bearing rocks in the Sakhalin region of Eastern Russia.  At the time of description, the amber was estimated to date from the

text: Paleocene

text: .  Further research has revised the amber, which originates from the Lower Due Formation, to be of Middle Eocene age.  The amber fossil was first studied by paleoentomologist Gennady Dlussky of the Russian Academy of Sciences, with his 1988

text: type description

text: for the species was published in  Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal.  In 2012 an additional six species were identified from

text: compression-impression fossils

text: preserved in layers of soft

text: sedimentary

text: rock.  Along with other well preserved insect fossils, the Protopone specimens were collected from layers of

text: Lutetian

text: Messel Formation

text: rock in the

text: Messel pit

text: World Heritage Site

text: .  The Messel formation is composed of brown coals, oil shales, and

text: bituminous shale

text: , which preserved numerous insects, fish, birds, reptiles, and terrestrial mammals as a notable

text: lagerstätten

text: .  The area is a preserved

text: maar lake

text: which initially formed approximately 47 million years ago as the result of volcanic explosions.

text: The description of this species by paleobotanists Kathleen Pigg, Steven Manchester, and Wesley Wehr was based on the study of thirty-four compression fossil specimens found at the UWBM sites B4131 and A0307, the latter being designated the type locality. The specimens are twelve infructescences with attached involucres containing nuts or nut casts, fourteen involucres, and eight isolated paired or single nuts. The holotype specimen is number "SR 98-01-02 A&B", an infructescence with involucre, and is housed in the Stonerose Interpretive Center in Republic, Washington.   The species epithet johnsonii was coined in honor of Kirk R. Johnson for his continuing work on, and recognition of the importance of, the Republic Flora.

text: The description of this species by

text: paleobotanist

text: s Kathleen Pigg, Steven Manchester, and Wesley Wehr was based on the study of thirty-four

text: compression fossil

text: specimens found at the

entity_name: Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture

text: UWBM

text: sites B4131 and A0307, the latter being designated the

text: type locality

text: . The specimens are twelve

text: infructescence

text: s with attached

text: involucres

text: containing

text: nuts

text: or nut casts, fourteen involucres, and eight isolated paired or single nuts. The

text: holotype

text: specimen is number "SR 98-01-02 A&B", an infructescence with involucre, and is housed in the

text: Stonerose Interpretive Center

text: in

text: Republic, Washington

text: .   The species epithet johnsonii was coined in honor of

text: Kirk R. Johnson

text: for his continuing work on, and recognition of the importance of, the

text: Republic Flora

text: Dinosaur fossils with Dakota's degree of preservation are extremely rare because many different factors must come together to allow it to occur. The carcass first must escape scavengers as well as degradation by the elements. The soft tissue must then be mineralized before it decomposes. Finally, as with all fossils, the mineralized body must escape destruction by geological forces over millions of years.

text: Dinosaur fossils with Dakota's degree of preservation are extremely rare because many different factors must come together to allow it to occur. The carcass first must escape

text: scavenger

text: s as well as degradation by the elements. The soft tissue must then be mineralized before it

text: decomposes

text: . Finally, as with all fossils, the mineralized body must escape destruction by geological forces over millions of years.

text: Undulopsychopsis alexi is known only from one fossil, the part and counterpart holotype, specimen number CYNB044, which is housed in the collections of the Chaoyang Bird Fossil National Geopark Chaoyang, Liaoning, China.  The specimen is preserved as a compression fossil in silty yellow to grayish mudstone, dating from the Lower Barremian to Upper Aptian in age, which was recovered from outcrops of the Yixian Formation.  Undulopsychopsis was first studied by the paleoentomologists Yuanyuan Peng and Dong Ren from the Capital Normal University in Beijing with Xiaodong Wang from Chaoyang Bird Fossil National Geopark and Vladimir N. Makarkin of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.  Their 2011 type description of the new genus and species was published in the online journal ZooKeys.  The genus name Undulopsychopsis was coined by the researchers as a combination of the silky lacewing type genus Psychopsis and the Late Latin word undula meaning "small wave" which is in reference to the distinctly wavy nature of the wing margins.  The specific epithet alexi is in honor of the distinguished Russian paleoentomologist Alexandr Pavlovich Rasnitsyn.

text: Undulopsychopsis alexi is known only from one fossil, the

text: part and counterpart

text: holotype

text: , specimen number CYNB044, which is housed in the collections of the

text: Chaoyang Bird Fossil National Geopark

text: Chaoyang, Liaoning

text: , China.  The specimen is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in silty yellow to grayish

text: mudstone

text: , dating from the

text: Lower Barremian

text: to Upper

text: Aptian

text: in age, which was recovered from outcrops of the

text: Yixian Formation

text: .  Undulopsychopsis was first studied by the paleoentomologists Yuanyuan Peng and Dong Ren from the

text: Capital Normal University

text: in

text: Beijing

text: with Xiaodong Wang from Chaoyang Bird Fossil National Geopark and Vladimir N. Makarkin of the

text: Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences

text: .  Their 2011

text: type description

text: of the new genus and species was published in the online journal

text: ZooKeys

text: .  The genus name Undulopsychopsis was coined by the researchers as a combination of the silky lacewing type genus

text: Psychopsis

text: and the

text: Late Latin

text: word undula meaning "small wave" which is in reference to the distinctly wavy nature of the wing margins.  The

text: specific epithet

text: alexi is in honor of the distinguished Russian paleoentomologist

text: Alexandr Pavlovich Rasnitsyn

text: When the pattern is to be removed from the sand mold, there is a possibility that any leading edges may break off, or get damaged in the process. To avoid this, a taper is provided on the pattern, so as to facilitate easy removal of the pattern from the mold, and hence reduce damage to edges. The taper angle provided is called the Draft angle. The value of the draft angle depends upon the complexity of the pattern, the type of molding (hand molding or machine molding), height of the surface, etc. Draft provided on the casting 1 to 3 degrees on external surface ( 5 to 8 internal castings).

text: Deinodryinus areolatus is known only from a single fossil, the holotype, specimen number PIN No. 964/60, which is housed in the A.A. Borissiak Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, in Moscow.  The specimen is composed of a fully complete adult female wasp.  The specimen is preserved as an inclusion in a transparent chunk of amber.  The amber dates to between forty and forty-five million years old, and, being Baltic amber dispersed in the sea, a more specific type location than the Baltic region is not possible to identify.  Deinodryinus areolatus was first studied by the Russian paleoentomologist Nadezdha Ponomarenko in 1975, with a redescription by paleoentomologists Adalgisa Guglielmino and Massimo Olmi, both of the University of Tuscia.  Ponomarenko's 1975 type description of the new genus and species was published in the Russian journal Paleontologicheskiy Zhurnal, with the species placed by her into a new genus Electrodryinus.  Electrodryinus  was subsequently synonymized with Deinodryinus in a 1984 paper by Massimo Olmi, resulting in the current binomial Deinodryinus areolatus.  D. areolatus was the first of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the fossil record.  Deinodryinus velteni is also known from a fossil preserved in Baltic amber, while Deinodryinus? aptianus is known only from a Mongolian compression fossil in marl.

text: Deinodryinus areolatus is known only from a single fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number PIN No. 964/60, which is housed in the A.A. Borissiak

text: , in

text: Moscow

text: .  The specimen is composed of a fully complete adult female wasp.  The specimen is preserved as an

text: inclusion

text: in a transparent chunk of

text: amber

text: .  The amber dates to between forty and forty-five million years old, and, being

text: Baltic amber

text: dispersed in the sea, a more specific

text: type location

text: than the Baltic region is not possible to identify.  Deinodryinus areolatus was first studied by the Russian paleoentomologist Nadezdha Ponomarenko in 1975, with a redescription by paleoentomologists Adalgisa Guglielmino and Massimo Olmi, both of the

text: University of Tuscia

text: .  Ponomarenko's 1975

text: type description

text: of the new genus and species was published in the Russian journal

text: Paleontologicheskiy Zhurnal

text: , with the species placed by her into a new genus Electrodryinus.  Electrodryinus  was subsequently

text: synonymized

text: with Deinodryinus in a 1984 paper by Massimo Olmi, resulting in the current binomial Deinodryinus areolatus.  D. areolatus was the first of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the fossil record.

text: Deinodryinus velteni

text: is also known from a fossil preserved in Baltic amber, while

text: Deinodryinus? aptianus

text: is known only from a Mongolian

text: compression fossil

text: in

text: marl

text: The type specimens of C. pauli were collected from the Jiufotang Formation, dating from the early Albian and now belong to the collection of the Paleontology Museum of Beipiao, in Liaoning, China. They are referred to by the inventory numbers LPM 0200, the holotype; LPM 0201, its counterslab (slab and counterslab together represent the earlier BPM 1 3-13); and the paratype LPM 0159, a smaller skeleton. Both individuals are preserved as articulated compression fossils; they are reasonably complete but partially damaged.

text: The

text: type specimen

text: s of C. pauli were collected from the

text: Jiufotang Formation

text: , dating from the early

text: Albian

text: and now belong to the collection of the Paleontology Museum of Beipiao, in

text: Liaoning

text: , China. They are referred to by the inventory numbers LPM 0200, the

text: holotype

text: ; LPM 0201, its counterslab (slab and counterslab together represent the earlier BPM 1 3-13); and the

text: paratype

text: LPM 0159, a smaller skeleton. Both individuals are preserved as articulated compression fossils; they are reasonably complete but partially damaged.

text: Kamoyapithecus is known exclusively by its teeth and jaws. The type specimen, KNM-LS 7, was a right maxillary jaw fragment found during the expedition in 1948. Through this fossil as well as more recent fragments of mandibles and teeth, it has been found that Kamoyapithecus had very large and robust anterior teeth. The incisors are found to be compressed on the sides, but expanded from top to bottom.

text: Kamoyapithecus is known exclusively by its

text: teeth

text: and

text: jaw

text: s. The type specimen, KNM-LS 7, was a right

text: maxilla

text: ry jaw fragment found during the expedition in 1948. Through this fossil as well as more recent fragments of

text: mandible

text: s and teeth, it has been found that Kamoyapithecus had very large and robust anterior teeth. The

text: incisor

text: s are found to be compressed on the sides, but expanded from top to bottom.

text: A chill is an object used to promote solidification in a specific portion of a metal casting mold. Normally the metal in the mold cools at a certain rate relative to thickness of the casting.  When the geometry of the molding cavity prevents directional solidification from occurring naturally, a chill can be strategically placed to help promote it. There are two types of chills: internal and external chills.

text: A chill is an object used to promote solidification in a specific portion of a

text: metal casting

text: mold

text: . Normally the metal in the mold cools at a certain rate relative to thickness of the casting.  When the geometry of the molding cavity prevents

text: directional solidification

text: from occurring naturally, a chill can be strategically placed to help promote it. There are two types of chills: internal and external chills.

text: The Field Museum hired a specialized moving company with experience in transporting delicate items to move the bones to Chicago. The truck arrived at the museum in October 1997. Two new research laboratories funded by McDonald's were created and staffed by Field Museum preparators whose job was to slowly and carefully remove all the rock, or "matrix", from the bones. One preparation lab was at the Field Museum itself, the other was at the newly opened Animal Kingdom in Disney World in Orlando. Millions of visitors observed the preparation of Sue's bones through glass windows in both labs. Footage of the work was also put on the museum's website. Several of the fossil's bones had never been discovered, so preparators produced models of the missing bones from plastic to complete the exhibit. The modeled bones were colored in a purplish hue so that visitors could observe which bones were real and which bones were plastic. The preparators also poured molds of each bone. All the molds were sent to a company outside Toronto to be cast in hollow plastic. Field Museum kept one set of disarticulated casts in its research collection. The other sets were incorporated into mounted cast skeletons. One set of the casts was sent to Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida to be presented for public display. Two other mounted casts were placed into a traveling tour that was sponsored by the McDonald's Corporation.

text: The Field Museum hired a specialized moving company with experience in transporting delicate items to move the bones to Chicago. The truck arrived at the museum in October 1997. Two new research laboratories funded by McDonald's were created and staffed by Field Museum preparators whose job was to slowly and carefully remove all the rock, or "matrix", from the bones. One preparation lab was at the Field Museum itself, the other was at the newly opened

text: Animal Kingdom

text: in Disney World in Orlando. Millions of visitors observed the preparation of Sue's bones through glass windows in both labs. Footage of the work was also put on the museum's website. Several of the fossil's bones had never been discovered, so preparators produced models of the missing bones from

text: plastic

text: to complete the exhibit. The modeled bones were colored in a purplish hue so that visitors could observe which bones were real and which bones were plastic. The preparators also poured molds of each bone. All the molds were sent to a company outside Toronto to be cast in hollow plastic. Field Museum kept one set of disarticulated casts in its research collection. The other sets were incorporated into mounted cast skeletons. One set of the casts was sent to

text: Disney's Animal Kingdom

text: in

text: Florida

text: to be presented for public display. Two other mounted casts were placed into a traveling tour that was sponsored by the McDonald's Corporation.

text: Casting achieves a specific form by pouring molten metal into a mold and allowing it to cool, with no mechanical force. Forms of casting include:

text: The museum has two floors in which it displays fossils, gemstones, meteorites, minerals,  and mining artifacts. The museum acts as the Colorado state repository for mineral heritage.

text: The museum has two floors in which it displays

text: fossil

text: s,

text: gemstone

text: s,

text: meteorite

text: s,

text: mineral

text: s,  and

text: mining

text: artifacts. The museum acts as the Colorado state repository for mineral heritage.

text: Pseudomorphs are also common in paleontology. Fossils are often formed by pseudomorphic replacement of the remains by mineral matter. Examples include petrified wood and pyritized gastropod shells.

text: Pseudomorphs are also common in

text: paleontology

text: Fossil

text: s are often formed by pseudomorphic replacement of the remains by mineral matter. Examples include petrified wood and

text: pyritized

text: gastropod

text: shells.

text: is a concept on one's bodily tendency in sensitivity, temperament, movement and personality. The concept was established by , who was the founder and a teacher of  in Japan. Noguchi said that man's tendency of sensitivity can be divided into five categories, each of which is divided into two types, one of which is active (odd-numbered types) whereas the other of which is passive (even-numbered types). In addition, there are two anomalous types. Thus, 12 types of taiheki in total have been defined. Among them, odd-numbered types have a tendency to release of compressed energy in an active way, whereas even-numbered types are passive and require others' attention to release compressed energy. The 12 types are like pure colors in color, and they are usually mixed up with each other in one person (this is called complex taiheki).

text: is a concept on one's bodily tendency in sensitivity, temperament, movement and

text: personality

text: . The concept was established by , who was the founder and a teacher of  in Japan. Noguchi said that man's tendency of sensitivity can be divided into five categories, each of which is divided into two types, one of which is active (odd-numbered types) whereas the other of which is passive (even-numbered types). In addition, there are two anomalous types. Thus, 12 types of taiheki in total have been defined. Among them, odd-numbered types have a tendency to release of compressed energy in an active way, whereas even-numbered types are passive and require others' attention to release compressed energy. The 12 types are like pure colors in color, and they are usually mixed up with each other in one person (this is called complex taiheki).

text: The idea that the body and clothes of a deceased individual would be preserved at the time of disinternment was seen as a sign of sanctity in Anglo-Saxon England, as it had also been in Gaul. Bede recorded that during the disinternments of both St Æthelthryth and St Cuthbert, their bodies were found to have been miraculously preserved and undecayed. In the nineteenth century, a medical examination of St Cuthbert's remains found that there was still some evidence of fleshly preservation, thus lending credence to the Anglo-Saxon claim that his body was preserved following its original burial. Such preservation may have resulted from the particular conditions of the soil into which he had been placed, or it may have been that the body had been deliberately embalmed; the latter concept was known in Anglo-Saxon England, for instance appearing in a reference by Bede.

text: The idea that the body and clothes of a deceased individual would be preserved at the time of disinternment was seen as a sign of sanctity in Anglo-Saxon England, as it had also been in Gaul. Bede recorded that during the disinternments of both St Æthelthryth and St Cuthbert, their bodies were found to have been miraculously preserved and undecayed. In the nineteenth century, a medical examination of St Cuthbert's remains found that there was still some evidence of fleshly preservation, thus lending credence to the Anglo-Saxon claim that his body was preserved following its original burial. Such preservation may have resulted from the particular conditions of the soil into which he had been placed, or it may have been that the body had been deliberately

text: embalmed

text: ; the latter concept was known in Anglo-Saxon England, for instance appearing in a reference by Bede.

text: The following article lists the available programs for fixing a specific type of archive that has been corrupted (for example by downloading via the internet). Although some file archivers also have the function to repair certain types of archives, it is not always clear which type of archive can be repaired with it. This list intents to clear this up, and also mention dedicated repair programs (that may not be able to decompress or compress the file type they can repair).

text: The following article lists the available programs for fixing a specific type of archive that has been corrupted (for example by downloading via the internet). Although some

text: file archivers

text: also have the function to repair certain types of archives, it is not always clear which type of archive can be repaired with it. This list intents to clear this up, and also mention dedicated repair programs (that may not be able to decompress or compress the file type they can repair).

text: -Rock Types: Sandy slate with coral fossils.

text: The earliest reptile eggshells probably had leathery membranes instead of hard shells. Eggs like this decay so quickly that fossilization is very unlikely. Therefore the fossil record is too incomplete for scientists to determine what kinds of eggshell most fossil reptile groups had. A 5.9 cm by 3.79 cm fossil from the Lower Permian was described in 1939 by Alfred Romer and Lewellyn Price as the oldest hard-shelled fossil egg. However, in a 1979 paper Karl Hirsch disputed Romer and Price's claim, since the fossil in question didn't show evidence for a calcite shell. Hirsch found enough phosphorus in the object's outer layer to propose that the fossil was actually an egg with a leathery shell. If the contentious fossil really is a reptile egg, it's the oldest known.

text: The earliest reptile eggshells probably had leathery membranes instead of hard shells. Eggs like this decay so quickly that fossilization is very unlikely. Therefore the fossil record is too incomplete for scientists to determine what kinds of eggshell most fossil reptile groups had. A 5.9 cm by 3.79 cm fossil from the

text: Lower Permian

text: was described in 1939 by

text: Alfred Romer

text: and

text: Lewellyn Price

text: as the oldest hard-shelled fossil egg. However, in a 1979 paper Karl Hirsch disputed Romer and Price's claim, since the fossil in question didn't show evidence for a

text: calcite

text: shell. Hirsch found enough

text: phosphorus

text: in the object's outer layer to propose that the fossil was actually an egg with a leathery shell. If the contentious fossil really is a reptile egg, it's the oldest known.

text: Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossil-containing rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known as the fossil record. A preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago. Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from the Archaean Eon, up to 3.4 billion years old.

text: Fossils are the preserved remains or

text: traces

text: of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossil-containing

text: rock

text: formations and

text: sedimentary

text: layers (

text: strata

text: ) is known as the fossil record. A preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago. Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the

text: Holocene

text: Epoch to the oldest from the

text: Archaean

text: Eon, up to 3.4

text: billion

text: years old.

text: Three types of molds used are the flash plunger-type, straight plunger-type, and the "landed" plunger-type molds.  The flash type mold must have an accurate charge of plastic and produces a horizontal flash (excess material protruding from the mold).  The straight plunger-type mold allows for some inaccuracy in the charge of plastic and produces a vertical flash.  The landed plunger type mold must have an accurate charge of plastic, and no flash is produced. Further details are explained in Ref 3.

text: Of the type specimen, most parts of the skull have become detached so that its shape is difficult to determine, but it was generally short and broad. Eleven teeth have been preserved scattered throughout the matrix, that are recurved with a broader base and have a length of three millimetres. The authors identified lower jaws with a preserved length of fifteen millimetres. The cervical vertebrae are short and broad. Six dorsal vertebrae have been preserved, nine ribs and six belly ribs at the left side. The tail has a preserved length of five centimetres, but part of this is accounted for by a section that might have been added to enhance the value of the fossil. The tail vertebrae at the base, the authenticity of which is certain, are short.

text: Oregon remained partially covered by the sea into the Cenozoic. Contemporary marine life included fig and turret-shelled snails. During the Tertiary, Oregon trees like Alniphyllum, ash, beech, cinnamon, Gargura, hemlock, hickory, hornbeam, oak, persimmon, pine, redwood, and sycamore grew in Oregon. Alders were also present. The most common local trees were the redwoods and sycamores. The Tertiary petrified wood of Oregon is sometimes partially opalized. Oregon's sea levels fluctuated rapidly during the Eocene to Oligocene interval.  Mollusks were diverse in Oregon during the Eocene, with at least 25 species known from the Fern Ridge Dam area. From the Eocene to the Oligocene, the Sunset Highway area was covered in seawater. During this interval it was inhabited by invertebrates like crinoids, crustaceans, echinoderms, gastropods, and scaphopods. Local Eocene sharks left their teeth behind in the Rocky Point Quarry to the west of the Nehalem River. Crocodiles lived in Oregon from 60 to 45 million years ago.  The local flora from this interval also left behind remains that would later fossilize. As the Cenozoic proceeded, the climate of Oregon became cooler and drier. Local marine life took on a more modern aspect. These were inhabited by creatures like bear dogs, camels, cats, deer, gomphotheres, and horses. Local mountain building added the Cascade and Coast ranges to the local topography. Oligocene crinoids were preserved near Vernonia. During the early Oligocene, Oregon's terrestrial environments were home to Cinnamomum, cycads, palms, the primitive sycamore Platanophyllum angustilobus, and walnuts. The plant fossil sites to the east of Clarno's Ferry are one of the few places in the world where the fruits, leaves, and wood, of prehistoric plants were preserved in a single location. Late Oligocene fossil salamanders were preserved near north Goshen. During the Oligocene and Miocene, volcanic eruption-emitted clouds of ash buried many animals. During the Pleistocene, mountains developed icy caps. A variety of environments filled the flatter areas of the state. Among these were arid plains, forests, and savannahs. Volcanic eruptions occurred sporadically in the Cascade Mountains throughout the rest of the Cenozoic.  During the Pleistocene, relatives of modern elephants left behind teeth and fragmentary skeletal remains in the Spencer Creek area and other parts of the Willamette Valley.

text: Oregon remained partially covered by the sea into the

text: Cenozoic

text: . Contemporary marine life included

text: fig

text: and turret-shelled snails. During the Tertiary, Oregon trees like

text: Alniphyllum

text: , ash, beech, cinnamon,

text: Gargura

text: , hemlock, hickory, hornbeam, oak, persimmon, pine, redwood, and sycamore grew in Oregon. Alders were also present. The most common local trees were the redwoods and sycamores. The

text: Tertiary

text: petrified wood

text: of Oregon is sometimes partially

text: opalized

text: . Oregon's

text: sea level

text: s fluctuated rapidly during the

text: Eocene

text: to

text: Oligocene

text: interval.

text: Mollusks

text: were diverse in Oregon during the Eocene, with at least 25 species known from the

text: Fern Ridge Dam

text: area. From the Eocene to the Oligocene, the

text: Sunset Highway

text: area was covered in seawater. During this interval it was inhabited by invertebrates like

text: crinoids

text: crustaceans

text: echinoderms

text: gastropods

text: , and

text: scaphopods

text: . Local Eocene sharks left their teeth behind in the Rocky Point Quarry to the west of the

text: Nehalem River

text: Crocodile

text: s lived in Oregon from 60 to 45 million years ago.  The local flora from this interval also left behind remains that would later fossilize. As the Cenozoic proceeded, the climate of Oregon became cooler and drier. Local marine life took on a more modern aspect. These were inhabited by creatures like

text: bear dog

text: s, camels, cats, deer,

text: gomphotheres

text: , and horses. Local mountain building added the

text: Cascade

text: and

text: Coast

text: ranges to the local topography. Oligocene crinoids were preserved near

text: Vernonia

text: . During the early Oligocene, Oregon's terrestrial environments were home to

text: Cinnamomum

text: cycads

text: palms

text: , the primitive sycamore

text: Platanophyllum angustilobus

text: , and walnuts. The plant fossil sites to the east of

text: Clarno's Ferry

text: are one of the few places in the world where the fruits, leaves, and wood, of prehistoric plants were preserved in a single location. Late Oligocene fossil

text: salamanders

text: were preserved near north

text: Goshen

text: . During the Oligocene and

text: Miocene

text: volcanic eruption

text: -emitted clouds of

text: ash

text: buried many animals. During the Pleistocene, mountains developed icy caps. A variety of environments filled the flatter areas of the state. Among these were arid plains, forests, and savannahs. Volcanic eruptions occurred sporadically in the Cascade Mountains throughout the rest of the Cenozoic.  During the

text: Pleistocene

text: relatives of modern elephants

text: left behind teeth and fragmentary skeletal remains in the

text: Spencer Creek

text: area and other parts of the

text: Willamette Valley

text: Compression is useful because it helps reduce resource usage, such as data storage space or transmission capacity. Because compressed data must be decompressed to use, this extra processing imposes computational or other costs through decompression; this situation is far from being a free lunch. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off.

text: Theropod paleopathology is the study of injury and disease in theropod dinosaurs. In 2001, Ralph E. Molnar published a survey of pathologies in theropod dinosaur bone that uncovered pathological features in 21 genera from 10 theropod families. Pathologies have been seen on most theropod body parts, with the most common sites of preserved injury and disease being the ribs and tail vertebrae. The least common sites of preserved pathology are the weight-bearing bones like the tibia, femur and sacrum. Most pathologies preserved in theropod fossils are the remains of injuries, but infections and congenital deformities have also been documented. Pathologies are less frequently documented in small theropods, although this may simply be because the larger bones of correspondingly larger animals would be more likely to fossilize in the first place.

text: Theropod paleopathology is the study of

text: injury

text: and

text: disease

text: in

text: theropod

text: dinosaurs

text: . In 2001,

text: Ralph E. Molnar

text: published a survey of

text: pathologies

text: in

text: theropod

text: dinosaur bone that uncovered pathological features in 21

text: genera

text: from 10 theropod

text: families

text: . Pathologies have been seen on most theropod body parts, with the most common sites of preserved injury and disease being the

text: ribs

text: and

text: tail vertebrae

text: . The least common sites of preserved pathology are the weight-bearing bones like the

text: tibia

text: femur

text: and

text: sacrum

text: . Most pathologies preserved in theropod fossils are the remains of injuries, but

text: infections

text: and

text: congenital deformities

text: have also been documented. Pathologies are less frequently documented in small theropods, although this may simply be because the larger bones of correspondingly larger animals would be more likely to fossilize in the first place.

text: Carbonate mineralization involves the formation of coal balls. Coal balls are the fossilizations of many different plants and their tissues.  They often occur in the presence of seawater or acidic peat. Coal balls are calcareous permineralizations of peat by calcium and magnesium carbonates. Often spherical in shape and ranging from a few grams to several hundred kilograms in mass, coal balls are formed when water containing carbonate permeates the cells of an organism.  This type of fossilization yields information about plant life in the Upper Carboniferous Period (325 to 280 million years ago).

text: Carbonate mineralization involves the formation of coal balls.

text: Coal ball

text: s are the fossilizations of many different plants and their tissues.  They often occur in the presence of seawater or acidic peat. Coal balls are calcareous permineralizations of peat by

text: calcium

text: and

text: magnesium

text: carbonates. Often spherical in shape and ranging from a few grams to several hundred kilograms in mass, coal balls are formed when water containing carbonate permeates the cells of an organism.  This type of fossilization yields information about plant life in the Upper

text: Carboniferous

text: Period (325 to 280 million years ago).

text: Epigenetic change (secondary processes) may be arranged under a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks or rock-forming minerals, though usually more than one of these alterations will be found in progress in the same rock. Silicification, the replacement of the minerals by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is most common in felsic rocks, such as rhyolite, but is also found in serpentine, etc. Kaolinization is the decomposition of the feldspars, which are the most common minerals in igneous rocks, into kaolin (along with quartz and other clay minerals); it is best shown by granites and syenites. Serpentinization is the alteration of olivine to serpentine (with magnetite); it is typical of peridotites, but occurs in most of the mafic rocks. In uralitization, secondary hornblende replaces augite; chloritization is the alteration of augite (biotite or hornblende) to chlorite, and is seen in many diabases, diorites and greenstones. Epidotization occurs also in rocks of this group, and consists in the development of epidote from biotite, hornblende, augite or plagioclase feldspar.

text: Epigenetic change (secondary processes) may be arranged under a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks or rock-forming minerals, though usually more than one of these alterations will be found in progress in the same rock.

text: Silicification

text: , the replacement of the minerals by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is most common in

text: felsic

text: rocks, such as

text: rhyolite

text: , but is also found in serpentine, etc.

text: Kaolinization

text: is the decomposition of the

text: feldspar

text: s, which are the most common minerals in igneous rocks, into

text: kaolin

text: (along with quartz and other

text: clay minerals

text: ); it is best shown by

text: granite

text: s and

text: syenite

text: s.

text: Serpentinization

text: is the alteration of

text: olivine

text: to

text: serpentine

text: (with

text: magnetite

text: ); it is typical of

text: peridotite

text: s, but occurs in most of the

text: mafic

text: rocks. In

text: uralitization

text: , secondary

text: hornblende

text: replaces

text: augite

text: chloritization

text: is the alteration of augite (biotite or hornblende) to

text: chlorite

text: , and is seen in many diabases,

text: diorite

text: s and

text: greenstones

text: Epidotization

text: occurs also in rocks of this group, and consists in the development of

text: epidote

text: from biotite, hornblende, augite or plagioclase feldspar.

text: Different compression levels are used for each type of material being distributed. The reason for this is that some material compresses much better than others. Movies and MP3 files are already compressed with near maximum capacity. Repacking them would just create larger files and increase decompression time. Ripped movies are still packaged due to the large file size, but compression is disallowed and the RAR format is used only as a container. Because of this, modern playback software can easily play a release directly from the packaged files, and even stream it as the release is downloaded (if the network is fast enough).

text: Different compression levels are used for each type of material being distributed. The reason for this is that some material compresses much better than others. Movies and

text: files are already compressed with near maximum capacity. Repacking them would just create larger files and increase decompression time. Ripped movies are still packaged due to the large file size, but compression is disallowed and the RAR format is used only as a container. Because of this, modern playback software can easily play a release directly from the packaged files, and even stream it as the release is downloaded (if the network is fast enough).

text: Theropods exhibit a wide range of diets, from insectivores to herbivores and carnivores. Strict carnivory has always been considered the ancestral diet for theropods as a group, and a wider variety of diets was historically considered a characteristic exclusive to the avian theropods (birds). However, discoveries in the late 20th and early 21st centuries showed that a variety of diets existed even in more basal lineages. All early finds of theropod fossils showed them to be primarily carnivorous. Fossilized specimens of early theropods known to scientists in the 19th and early 20th centuries all possessed sharp teeth with serrated edges for cutting flesh, and some specimens even showed direct evidence of predatory behavior. For example, a Compsognathus longipes fossil was found with a lizard in its stomach, and a Velociraptor mongoliensis specimen was found locked in combat with a Protoceratops andrewsi (a type of ornithischian dinosaur).

text: Theropods exhibit a wide range of diets, from insectivores to herbivores and carnivores. Strict carnivory has always been considered the ancestral diet for theropods as a group, and a wider variety of diets was historically considered a characteristic exclusive to the avian theropods (birds). However, discoveries in the late 20th and early 21st centuries showed that a variety of diets existed even in more basal lineages. All early finds of theropod fossils showed them to be primarily

text: carnivorous

text: . Fossilized specimens of early theropods known to scientists in the 19th and early 20th centuries all possessed sharp teeth with serrated edges for cutting flesh, and some specimens even showed direct evidence of predatory behavior. For example, a

text: Compsognathus longipes

text: fossil was found with a

text: lizard

text: in its stomach, and a

text: Velociraptor mongoliensis

text: specimen was found locked in combat with a

text: Protoceratops andrewsi

text: (a type of

text: ornithischian

text: dinosaur).

text: Sometimes, for smaller fossils, a stiff brush may simply be used to dust off and clean the fossil. For larger fossils, a chisel can be used to remove large bits of dirt, however, you run the risk of damaging the fossil.Running water can cause some types of fossils to either dislodge from the rock, or even crumble and break apart, for they are very fragile. Dental tools are sometimes used to remove small amounts of rock from the fossil.

text: Neoephemera antiqua is known only from one fossil, the holotype, number "UWBM76324". It is a single, mostly complete naiad of undetermined sex, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained shale.  The fossil specimen is from the University of Washington site number UWBM A0307B which works sediments from the Tom thumb tuff member of the Klondike Mountain Formation. Outcrops of the formation are found in and around Republic.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections housed in the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, part of the University of Washington in Seattle, Washington, USA.  N. antiqua was first studied by Nina D. Sinitchenkova of the Paleontological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, with her 1999 type description being published in the Russian text Palaeontological Journal.  The specific epithet antiqua was coined from the Latin "antiquus", meaning old.

text: Neoephemera antiqua is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , number "UWBM76324". It is a single, mostly complete

text: naiad

text: of undetermined sex, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained

text: shale

text: .  The fossil specimen is from the

text: University of Washington

text: site number UWBM A0307B which works sediments from the Tom thumb tuff member of the

text: Klondike Mountain Formation

text: . Outcrops of the formation are found in and around Republic.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections housed in the

text: Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture

text: , part of the

text: University of Washington

text: in

text: Seattle, Washington

text: , USA.  N. antiqua was first studied by

text: Nina D. Sinitchenkova

text: of the

text: Paleontological Institute

text: of the

text: Russian Academy of Sciences

text: , with her 1999

text: type description

text: being published in the Russian text Palaeontological Journal.  The

text: specific epithet

text: antiqua was coined from the

text: Latin

text: "antiquus", meaning old.

text: The genus is known from a single male specimen, the holotype, currently deposited in the collections of the Kelowna Centennial Museum in Kelowna, British Columbia, as number "NH.998.015.002".  The type specimen is well preserved in early Early Eocene Hat Creek amber from deposits between Cache Creek and Lillooet, British Columbia, that are part of the greater Okanagan Highlands paleoenvironment. The fossil was first studied by Bruce Archibald of Simon Fraser University and Vladimir Makarkin of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.  Archibald and Makarkin published their type description in the journal The Canadian Entomologist volume 136 published in 2004. The genus name is a combination of the Greek mikros meaning "small" and Berotha, a genus in the family Berothidae.  The species name is in honor of Terry McCullough, a supporter of paleontological research at the type locality. "Mac" is used in the species epithet to conform to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature recommendations regarding names from personal names.

text: The genus is known from a single male specimen, the

text: holotype

text: , currently deposited in the collections of the Kelowna Centennial Museum in

text: Kelowna

text: British Columbia

text: , as number "NH.998.015.002".  The type specimen is well preserved in early

text: Early Eocene

text: Hat Creek amber

text: from deposits between

text: Cache Creek

text: and

text: Lillooet, British Columbia

text: , that are part of the greater

text: Okanagan Highlands

text: paleoenvironment. The fossil was first studied by Bruce Archibald of

text: Simon Fraser University

text: and

text: Vladimir Makarkin

text: of the

text: .  Archibald and Makarkin published their

text: type description

text: in the journal

text: The Canadian Entomologist

text: volume 136 published in 2004. The genus name is a combination of the

text: Greek

text: mikros meaning "small" and

text: Berotha

text: , a genus in the family Berothidae.  The species name is in honor of Terry McCullough, a supporter of paleontological research at the type locality. "Mac" is used in the species epithet to conform to the

text: recommendations regarding names from personal names.

text: The species is known only from three fossils, the holotype and an additional fossil not designated a type specimen. The holotype, number "No. 2003", is a single male specimen consisting of part and counterpart fossils, originally part of the Samuel Hubbard Scudder collection as specimens "No. 13,709" and "No. 11,388". The additional specimen, "No.8444", is a female; all three fossils are currently residing in  Harvard University's Museum of Comparative Zoology paleoentomology collections.  A. exhumatum was first studied by Theodore Cockerell, who published the type description in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, 1906. The derivation and meaning of the specific epithet exhumatum ("dug up") was not specified by Cockerell in the type description.

text: The species is known only from three fossils, the holotype and an additional fossil not designated a

text: type specimen

text: . The holotype, number "No. 2003", is a single male specimen consisting of

text: part and counterpart

text: fossils, originally part of the

text: Samuel Hubbard Scudder

text: collection as specimens "No. 13,709" and "No. 11,388". The additional specimen, "No.8444", is a female; all three fossils are currently residing in

text: Harvard University

text: 's

text: Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: paleoentomology

text: collections.  A. exhumatum was first studied by

text: Theodore Cockerell

text: , who published the

text: type description

text: in the

text: Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: , 1906. The derivation and meaning of the

text: specific epithet

text: exhumatum ("dug up") was not specified by Cockerell in the type description.

text: Data compression methods allow in many cases (such as a database) to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string ("compress") and reconstruct the original string ("decompress") when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage (tens of percents) for many types of data at the cost of more computation (compress and decompress when needed). Analysis of trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not.

text: Data compression

text: methods allow in many cases (such as a database) to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string ("compress") and reconstruct the original string ("decompress") when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage (tens of percents) for many types of data at the cost of more computation (compress and decompress when needed). Analysis of trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not.

text: Undichna britannica is a fish-fin, or fish-swimming fossil trackway left as a fossil impression on a substrate; this type of fossil is an ichnofossil, and in this case an ichnospecies.

text: Undichna britannica is a

text: fish

text: -fin, or fish-swimming

text: fossil trackway

text: left as a

text: fossil

text: ichnofossil

text: , and in this case an

text: ichnospecies

text: Much of Colorado was covered by an expanding sea during the ensuing Cretaceous period. This sea is known as the Western Interior Seaway. Algae, fish, molluscs, and marine reptiles inhabited its waters. The mosasaur Platecarpus was one such marine reptile. When the Graneros Shale was being deposited in Colorado, the plesiosaur Thalassomedon lived in the state. This was a truly huge plesiosaur that could exceed 45 feet in length. Beyond the shores of this sea were forests and swamps where early flowering plants grew. Later in the Cretaceous, the sea withdrew. Dinosaurs were still present, but the vegetation had undergone significant changes. The forests were now made of broadleafed trees and palms. At this point the local Rocky Mountains began to rise. During the Cretaceous cephalopods with coiled shells and clams were preserved at Monument Creek. Fish were present in Coloradan waters and left behind scales that would later fossilize. On land the flora also left behind leaves that would later fossilize. The sediments of the Benton Formation preserved both invertebrates and marine reptiles. The bivalve Ostrea congesta was preserved in the Colorado Niobrara Formation. The Niobrara's vertebrate life included sharks, which left behind fossil teeth. Colorado was home to bivalves and straight shelled cephalopods when the Pierre shale was being deposited. The Pierre shale are mound-shaped bioherms up to 15 inches in diameter. A sixty to seventy foot plesiosaur was preserved in what is now Baca County, which is in the southeastern region of the state. Marine mollusks were preserved in the Fox Hills Formation. Oysters and other mollusks were preserved in the sediments now composing the Dakota Formation. Aspects of the Coloradan flora were also preserved from this time. The most common plant fossils of the Dakota are the leaves of deciduous trees. Other contemporary plants included ferns and palms.

text: Much of Colorado was covered by an expanding sea during the ensuing

text: Cretaceous

text: period. This sea is known as the

text: Western Interior Seaway

text: . Algae, fish, molluscs, and marine reptiles inhabited its waters. The

text: mosasaur

text: Platecarpus

text: was one such marine reptile. When the

text: Graneros Shale

text: was being deposited in Colorado, the

text: plesiosaur

text: Thalassomedon

text: lived in the state. This was a truly huge plesiosaur that could exceed 45 feet in length. Beyond the shores of this sea were forests and swamps where early flowering plants grew. Later in the Cretaceous, the sea withdrew. Dinosaurs were still present, but the vegetation had undergone significant changes. The forests were now made of broadleafed trees and palms. At this point the local Rocky Mountains began to rise. During the

text: Cretaceous

text: cephalopods

text: with coiled shells and clams were preserved at

text: Monument Creek

text: Fish

text: were present in Coloradan waters and left behind

text: scale

text: s that would later fossilize. On land the flora also left behind

text: leaves

text: that would later fossilize. The sediments of the

text: Benton Formation

text: preserved both

text: invertebrates

text: and

text: marine reptiles

text: . The

text: bivalve

text: Ostrea congesta

text: was preserved in the Colorado

text: Niobrara Formation

text: . The Niobrara's vertebrate life included

text: sharks

text: , which left behind fossil teeth. Colorado was home to bivalves and straight shelled cephalopods when the Pierre shale was being deposited. The Pierre shale are mound-shaped

text: bioherm

text: s up to 15 inches in diameter. A sixty to seventy foot

text: plesiosaur

text: was preserved in what is now

text: Baca County

text: , which is in the southeastern region of the state. Marine

text: mollusks

text: were preserved in the

text: Fox Hills Formation

text: Oysters

text: and other mollusks were preserved in the sediments now composing the

text: Dakota Formation

text: . Aspects of the Coloradan flora were also preserved from this time. The most common plant fossils of the Dakota are the leaves of

text: deciduous trees

text: . Other contemporary plants included

text: fern

text: s and

text: palms

text: Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation.

text: Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn

text: coal

text: or

text: hydrocarbon

text: fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal,

text: petroleum

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: . Another fossil fuel,

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles,

text: industrial process

text: es, or

text: electrical power generation

text: type variables are integer values. Addition and subtraction between variables of the same type is allowed without any specific cast but multiplication and division is somewhat more risky and requires an explicit cast. Casts are also required for converting  variables to and from integer types. However, the cast will not throw an exception if the value is not specified by the  type definition.

text: A eucalyptus fossil found at Ghughua is the oldest fossil of its type ever discovered and this find supports its origins from Gondwana. Additional notable discoveries include a dinosaur egg fossil.

text: A

text: eucalyptus

text: fossil found at Ghughua is the oldest fossil of its type ever discovered and this find supports its origins from Gondwana. Additional notable discoveries include a dinosaur egg fossil.

text: Under Kistiakowsky's leadership, X-Division designed the complex explosive lenses needed to compress the fissile plutonium pit. These employed two explosives with significantly different velocities of detonation in order to produce the required wave form. Kistiakowsky chose Baratol for the slow explosive. After experimenting with various fast explosives, X-Division settled on Composition B. Work on molding the explosives into the right shape continued into 1945. The lenses needed to be flawless, and techniques for casting Composition B and Baratol had to be developed. The ERL managed to accomplish this by devising a procedure for preparing Baratol in a form that was easy to cast. In March 1945, Kistiakowsky became part of the Cowpuncher Committee, so-called because it rode herd on the implosion effort. On July 16, 1945, Kistiakowsky watched as the first device was detonated in the Trinity test. A few weeks later a Fat Man implosion-type nuclear weapon was dropped on Nagasaki.

text: Under Kistiakowsky's leadership, X-Division designed the complex explosive lenses needed to compress the fissile plutonium

text: pit

text: . These employed two explosives with significantly different

text: velocities of detonation

text: in order to produce the required wave form. Kistiakowsky chose

text: Baratol

text: for the slow explosive. After experimenting with various fast explosives, X-Division settled on Composition B. Work on molding the explosives into the right shape continued into 1945. The lenses needed to be flawless, and techniques for casting Composition B and Baratol had to be developed. The ERL managed to accomplish this by devising a procedure for preparing Baratol in a form that was easy to cast. In March 1945, Kistiakowsky became part of the Cowpuncher Committee, so-called because it rode herd on the implosion effort. On July 16, 1945, Kistiakowsky watched as the first device was detonated in the

text: Trinity test

text: . A few weeks later a

text: Fat Man

text: implosion-type nuclear weapon was dropped on

text: Nagasaki

text: Phosphatotherium lacked a trunk. The tooth rows extend back to roughly 45% of its total skull length. The dental structures suggests that P. escuillei is a Heterodont, meaning it possesses more than one type of tooth morphology. This is evident due to the fact that they possessed more than one type of molar upon fossil examinations. The various dental formations of Heterodonts suggest that this animal, unlike later proboscideans, may have been omnivorous.

text: Phosphatotherium lacked a trunk. The tooth rows extend back to roughly 45% of its total skull length. The dental structures suggests that P. escuillei is a

text: Heterodont

text: , meaning it possesses more than one type of tooth morphology. This is evident due to the fact that they possessed more than one type of molar upon fossil examinations. The various dental formations of Heterodonts suggest that this animal, unlike later proboscideans, may have been omnivorous.

text: The first type is mold erosion, which is the wearing away of the mold as the liquid metal fills the mold. This type of defect usually only occurs in sand castings because most other casting processes have more robust molds. The castings produced have rough spots and excess material. The molding sand becomes incorporated into the casting metal and decreases the ductility, fatigue strength, and fracture toughness of the casting. This can be caused by a sand with too little strength or a pouring velocity that is too fast. The pouring velocity can be reduced by redesigning the gating system to use larger runners or multiple gates. A related source of defects are drops, in which part of the molding sand from the cope drops into the casting while it is still a liquid. This also occurs when the mold is not properly rammed.

text: The first type is mold erosion, which is the wearing away of the

text: mold

text: as the liquid metal fills the mold. This type of defect usually only occurs in

text: sand casting

text: s because most other casting processes have more robust molds. The castings produced have rough spots and excess material. The

text: molding sand

text: becomes incorporated into the casting metal and decreases the

text: ductility

text: fatigue strength

text: , and

text: fracture toughness

text: of the casting. This can be caused by a sand with too little strength or a pouring velocity that is too fast. The pouring velocity can be reduced by redesigning the gating system to use larger runners or multiple gates. A related source of defects are drops, in which part of the molding sand from the

text: cope

text: drops into the casting while it is still a liquid. This also occurs when the mold is not properly rammed.

text: Acropora secale is a species of branching staghorn  stony coral. It is found in shallow parts of the Indo-Pacific Ocean and the type locality is Sri Lanka. The oldest fossils found date back to the Pleistocene.

text: Acropora secale is a

text: species

text: of branching staghorn

text: stony

text: coral

text: . It is found in shallow parts of the Indo-Pacific Ocean and the

text: type locality

text: is

text: Sri Lanka

text: . The oldest fossils found date back to the

text: Pleistocene

text: Lichenized Glomeromycota may extend well back into the Precambrian. Winfrenatia, an early zygomycetous (Glomeromycota) lichen symbiosis that may have involved controlled parasitism, is permineralized in the Rhynie Chert of Scotland, of early Devonian age. Lichen-like fossils consisting of coccoid cells (cyanobacteria?) and thin filaments (mucoromycotinan Glomeromycota?) are permineralized in marine phosphorite of the Doushantuo Formation in southern China. These fossils are thought to be 551 to 635 million years old or Ediacaran. Ediacaran acritarchs also have many similarities with Glomeromycotan vesicles and spores. It has also been claimed that Ediacaran fossils including Dickinsonia, were lichens, although this claim is controversial. Endosymbiotic Glomeromycota comparable with living Geosiphon may extend back into the Proterozoic in the form of 1500 million year old Horodyskia and 2200 million year old Diskagma. Discovery of these fossils suggest that fungi developed symbiotic partnerships with photoautotrophs long before the evolution of vascular plants.

text: Lichenized

text: Glomeromycota

text: may extend well back into the Precambrian. Winfrenatia, an early zygomycetous (

text: Glomeromycota

text: ) lichen symbiosis that may have involved controlled parasitism, is permineralized in the

text: Rhynie Chert

text: of Scotland, of early

text: Devonian

text: age. Lichen-like fossils consisting of coccoid cells (

text: cyanobacteria

text: ?) and thin filaments (mucoromycotinan

text: Glomeromycota

text: ?) are permineralized in marine

text: phosphorite

text: of the

text: Doushantuo Formation

text: in southern China. These fossils are thought to be 551 to 635 million years old or

text: Ediacaran

text: . Ediacaran acritarchs also have many similarities with

text: Glomeromycota

text: n vesicles and spores. It has also been claimed that

text: Ediacaran fossils

text: including

text: Dickinsonia

text: , were lichens, although this claim is controversial. Endosymbiotic

text: Glomeromycota

text: comparable with living

text: Geosiphon

text: may extend back into the

text: Proterozoic

text: in the form of 1500 million year old

text: Horodyskia

text: and 2200 million year old

text: Diskagma

text: . Discovery of these fossils suggest that fungi developed symbiotic partnerships with photoautotrophs long before the evolution of vascular plants.

text: She was refitted in the mid-1960s, replacing the Type 960 long-range air warning radar with Type 965. The lattice mainmast was replaced by a plated structure to support the heavier AKE1 aerial used by the Type 965. The Type 293Q target designation radar on the foremast was replaced by Type 993. New ESM and SCCM equipment was installed on the foremast. It was intended that Seacat missile would replace the 40 mm gun, but this was not done to save money.

text: Mummified wood are fossils of wood that have not permineralized. They are formed when trees are buried rapidly in dry cold or hot environments. They are valued in paleobotany because they retain original cells and tissues capable of being examined with the same techniques used with extant plants in dendrology.

text: Mummified wood are fossils of wood that have not

text: permineralized

text: . They are formed when trees are buried rapidly in dry cold or hot environments. They are valued in paleobotany because they retain original cells and tissues capable of being examined with the same techniques used with extant plants in

text: dendrology

text: Trilobites appear to have been exclusively marine organisms, since the fossilized remains of trilobites are always found in rocks containing fossils of other salt-water animals such as brachiopods, crinoids, and corals. Within the marine paleoenvironment, trilobites were found in a broad range from extremely shallow water to very deep water. Trilobites, like brachiopods, crinoids, and corals, are found on all modern continents, and occupied every ancient ocean from which Paleozoic fossils have been collected. The remnants of trilobites can range from the preserved body to pieces of the exoskeleton, which it sheds in the process known as ecdysis. In addition, the tracks left behind by trilobites living on the sea floor are often preserved as trace fossils.

text: Trilobites appear to have been exclusively marine organisms, since the fossilized remains of trilobites are always found in rocks containing fossils of other salt-water animals such as brachiopods, crinoids, and corals. Within the marine paleoenvironment, trilobites were found in a broad range from extremely shallow water to very deep water. Trilobites, like brachiopods, crinoids, and corals, are found on all modern continents, and occupied every ancient ocean from which Paleozoic fossils have been collected. The remnants of trilobites can range from the preserved body to pieces of the exoskeleton, which it sheds in the process known as ecdysis. In addition, the tracks left behind by trilobites living on the sea floor are often preserved as

text: trace fossil

text: s.

text: Early modern times and the 19th century saw the previous resource base partially replaced respectively supplemented by large scale chemical synthesis and by the use of fossil and mineral resources respectively. Besides the still central role of wood, there is a sort of renaissance of renewable products based on modern agriculture, genetic research and extraction technology. Besides fears about an upcoming global shortage of fossil fuels, local shortages due to boycotts, war and blockades or just transportation problems in remote regions have contributed to different methods of replacing or substituting fossil resources based on renewables.

text: Early modern times and the 19th century saw the previous resource base partially replaced respectively supplemented by large scale chemical synthesis and by the use of fossil and mineral resources respectively. Besides the still central role of wood, there is a sort of renaissance of renewable products based on modern agriculture, genetic research and extraction technology. Besides fears about an upcoming

text: global shortage of fossil fuels

text: , local shortages due to boycotts, war and blockades or just transportation problems in remote regions have contributed to different methods of replacing or substituting fossil resources based on renewables.

text: Most known Albertosaurus individuals were aged 14 years or more at the time of death. However, the youngest individual known is a juvenile two-year-old, and the oldest is an adult 28-year-old. The two-year-old was discovered in the Dry Island bonebed, weighed an estimated , and was about  in length. The 28-year-old specimen from the same quarry measured  long. Juvenile animals are rarely found as fossils for several reasons, mainly preservation bias, where the smaller bones of younger animals were less likely to be preserved by fossilization than the larger bones of adults, and collection bias, where smaller fossils are less likely to be noticed by collectors in the field. Young Albertosaurus are relatively large for juvenile animals, but their remains are still rare in the fossil record compared with adults. It has been suggested that this phenomenon is a consequence of life history, rather than bias, and that fossils of juvenile Albertosaurus are rare because they simply did not die as often as adults did.

text: Most known Albertosaurus individuals were aged 14 years or more at the time of death. However, the youngest individual known is a juvenile two-year-old, and the oldest is an adult 28-year-old. The two-year-old was discovered in the Dry Island bonebed, weighed an estimated , and was about  in length. The 28-year-old specimen from the same quarry measured  long. Juvenile animals are rarely found as fossils for several reasons, mainly

text: preservation bias

text: , where the smaller bones of younger animals were less likely to be preserved by fossilization than the larger bones of adults, and collection bias, where smaller fossils are less likely to be noticed by collectors in the field. Young Albertosaurus are relatively large for juvenile animals, but their remains are still rare in the fossil record compared with adults. It has been suggested that this phenomenon is a consequence of

text: life history

text: , rather than bias, and that fossils of juvenile Albertosaurus are rare because they simply did not die as often as adults did.

text: The United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Denmark have produced a number of bog bodies, mummies of people deposited in sphagnum bogs, apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, low temperature and lack of oxygen combined to tan the body's skin and soft tissues. The skeleton typically disintegrates over time. Such mummies are remarkably well preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the decedent's last meal by examining stomach contents. A famous case is that of the Haraldskær Woman, who was discovered by labourers in a bog in Jutland in 1835. She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royal sarcophagus at the Saint Nicolai Church, Vejle, where she currently remains. Another famous bog body, also from Denmark, known as the Tollund Man was discovered in 1950. The corpse was noted for its excellent preservation of the face and feet, which appeared as if the man had recently died. To this day, only the head of Tollund Man remains, due to the decomposition of the rest of his body, which was not preserved along with the head.

text: The

text: United Kingdom

text: , the

text: Republic of Ireland

text: Germany

text: , the

text: Netherlands

text: Sweden

text: , and

text: Denmark

text: have produced a number of

text: bog bodies

text: , mummies of people deposited in

text: sphagnum bogs

text: , apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, low temperature and lack of oxygen combined to

text: tan

text: the body's skin and soft tissues. The skeleton typically disintegrates over time. Such mummies are remarkably well preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the decedent's last meal by examining

text: stomach

text: contents. A famous case is that of the

text: Haraldskær Woman

text: , who was discovered by labourers in a bog in

text: Jutland

text: in 1835. She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royal

text: sarcophagus

text: at the Saint Nicolai Church,

text: Vejle

text: , where she currently remains. Another famous bog body, also from Denmark, known as the

text: Tollund Man

text: was discovered in 1950. The corpse was noted for its excellent preservation of the face and feet, which appeared as if the man had recently died. To this day, only the head of Tollund Man remains, due to the decomposition of the rest of his body, which was not preserved along with the head.

text: Ironstones consist of 15% iron or more in composition. This is necessary for the rock to even be considered an iron-rich sedimentary rock. Generally, they are from the Phanerozoic which means that they range in age from the present to 540 million years ago.  They can contain iron minerals from the following groups: oxides, carbonates, and silicates. Some examples of minerals in iron-rich rocks containing oxides are limonite, hematite, and magnetite. An example of a mineral in iron-rich rock containing carbonates is siderite and an example of minerals in an iron-rich rock containing silicate is chamosite.  They are often interbedded with limestones, shales, and fine-grained sandstones. They are typically nonbanded, however they can be very coarsely banded on occasion.  They are hard and noncherty.  The components of the rock range in size from sand to mud, but do not contain a lot of silica.  They are also more aluminous. They are not laminated and sometimes contain ooids. Ooids can be a distinct characteristic though they are not normally a main component of ironstones. Within ironstones, ooids are made up of iron silicates and/or iron oxides and sometimes occur in alternating laminae. They normally contain fossil debris and sometimes the fossils are partly or entirely replaced by iron minerals. A good example of this is pyritization.  They are smaller in size and less likely to be deformed or metamorphosed than iron formations.  The term iron ball is occasionally used to describe an ironstone nodule.

text: Ironstones consist of 15% iron or more in composition. This is necessary for the rock to even be considered an iron-rich sedimentary rock. Generally, they are from the Phanerozoic which means that they range in age from the present to 540 million years ago.  They can contain iron minerals from the following groups:

text: oxides

text: carbonates

text: , and

text: silicates

text: . Some examples of minerals in iron-rich rocks containing oxides are

text: limonite

text: , hematite, and magnetite. An example of a mineral in iron-rich rock containing carbonates is siderite and an example of minerals in an iron-rich rock containing silicate is

text: chamosite

text: .  They are often interbedded with

text: limestones

text: shale

text: s, and fine-grained

text: sandstone

text: s. They are typically nonbanded, however they can be very coarsely banded on occasion.  They are hard and non

text: chert

text: y.  The components of the rock range in size from sand to mud, but do not contain a lot of

text: silica

text: .  They are also more aluminous. They are not laminated and sometimes contain

text: ooid

text: s. Ooids can be a distinct characteristic though they are not normally a main component of ironstones. Within ironstones, ooids are made up of iron silicates and/or iron oxides and sometimes occur in alternating laminae. They normally contain

text: fossil

text: debris and sometimes the fossils are partly or entirely replaced by iron minerals. A good example of this is

text: pyritization

text: .  They are smaller in size and less likely to be deformed or

text: metamorphosed

text: than iron formations.  The term iron ball is occasionally used to describe an ironstone

text: nodule

text: The difficulties continued, partly because giving plants scientific names relies on "type specimens". Ultimately, if botanists want to know whether a particular plant is an example of, say, Mammillaria mammillaris, they should be able to compare it with the type specimen to which this name is permanently attached.  Type specimens are normally prepared by compression and drying, after which they are stored in herbaria to act as definitive references. However, cacti are very difficult to preserve in this way; they have evolved to resist drying and their bodies do not easily compress. A further difficulty is that many cacti were given names by growers and horticulturalists rather than botanists; as a result, the provisions of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (which governs the names of cacti, as well as other plants) were often ignored. Curt Backeberg, in particular, is said to have named or renamed 1,200 species without one of his names ever being attached to a specimen, which, according to David Hunt, ensured he "left a trail of nomenclatural chaos that will probably vex cactus taxonomists for centuries."

text: The difficulties continued, partly because giving plants scientific names relies on "

text: type specimens

text: ". Ultimately, if botanists want to know whether a particular plant is an example of, say, Mammillaria mammillaris, they should be able to compare it with the type specimen to which this name is permanently attached.  Type specimens are normally prepared by compression and drying, after which they are stored in

text: herbaria

text: to act as definitive references. However, cacti are very difficult to preserve in this way; they have evolved to resist drying and their bodies do not easily compress. A further difficulty is that many cacti were given names by growers and horticulturalists rather than botanists; as a result, the provisions of the

text: International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants

text: (which governs the names of cacti, as well as other plants) were often ignored.

text: Curt Backeberg

text: , in particular, is said to have named or renamed 1,200 species without one of his names ever being attached to a specimen, which, according to

text: David Hunt

text: , ensured he "left a trail of nomenclatural chaos that will probably vex cactus taxonomists for centuries."

text: The samples examined were probably once mud that for millions to tens of millions of years could have hosted living organisms.  This wet environment had neutral pH, low salinity, and variable redox states of both iron and sulfur species. These types of iron and sulfur could have been used by living organisms. C, H, O, S, N, and P were measured directly as key biogenic elements, and by inference, P is assumed to have been there as well. The two samples, John Klein and Cumberland, contain basaltic minerals, Ca-sulfates, Fe oxide/hydroxides, Fe-sulfides, amorphous material, and trioctahedral smectites (a type of clay). Basaltic minerals in the mudstone are similar to those in nearby aeoliandeposits. However, the mudstone has far less Fe-forsterite plus magnetite, so Fe-forsterite (type of olivine) was probably altered to form smectite (a type of clay) and magnetite.  A Late Noachian/EarlyHesperian or younger age indicates that clay mineral formation on Mars extended beyond Noachian time; therefore, in this location neutral pH lasted longer than previously thought.

text: The samples examined were probably once mud that for millions to tens of millions of years could have hosted living organisms.  This wet environment had neutral

text: pH

text: , low

text: salinity

text: , and variable

text: redox

text: states of both

text: iron

text: and

text: sulfur

text: species. These types of iron and sulfur could have been used by living organisms.

text: C

text: H

text: O

text: S

text: N

text: , and

text: P

text: were measured directly as key biogenic elements, and by inference, P is assumed to have been there as well. The two samples,

text: John Klein

text: and

text: Cumberland

text: , contain basaltic minerals, Ca-sulfates, Fe oxide/hydroxides, Fe-sulfides, amorphous material, and trioctahedral

text: smectite

text: s (a type of clay). Basaltic minerals in the

text: mudstone

text: are similar to those in nearby

text: aeolian

text: deposits. However, the mudstone has far less Fe-

text: forsterite

text: plus

text: magnetite

text: , so Fe-forsterite (type of

text: olivine

text: ) was probably altered to form smectite (a type of clay) and

text: magnetite

text: .  A Late

text: Noachian

text: /Early

text: Hesperian

text: or younger age indicates that clay mineral formation on Mars extended beyond Noachian time; therefore, in this location neutral pH lasted longer than previously thought.

text: Most known Albertosaurus individuals were aged 14 years or more at the time of death. Juvenile animals are rarely found as fossils for several reasons, mainly preservation bias, where the smaller bones of younger animals were less likely to be preserved by fossilization than the larger bones of adults, and collection bias, where smaller fossils are less likely to be noticed by collectors in the field. Young Albertosaurus are relatively large for juvenile animals, but their remains are still rare in the fossil record compared with adults. It has been suggested that this phenomenon is a consequence of life history, rather than bias, and that fossils of juvenile Albertosaurus are rare because they simply did not die as often as adults did.

text: Most known Albertosaurus individuals were aged 14 years or more at the time of death. Juvenile animals are rarely found as fossils for several reasons, mainly

text: preservation bias

text: life history

text: The fossils are in molds and casts and include:

text: F. paleosibirica is known from a group of ants found in Russia.  The specimens were described from compression fossils preserved in diatomite deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site.  Located in the Pozharsky District, on the Pacific Coast of Russia, the fossil-bearing rocks preserve possibly Priabonian plants and animals which lived in a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the Maksimovka or Salibez Formations and compared to the Bembridge Marls and Florissant Formation, both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: F. paleosibirica is known from a group of ants found in Russia.  The specimens were described from

text: compression fossil

text: s preserved in

text: diatomite

text: deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site.  Located in the

text: Pozharsky District

text: , on the Pacific Coast of Russia, the fossil-bearing rocks preserve possibly

text: Priabonian

text: Maksimovka

text: or

text: Salibez Formation

text: s and compared to the

text: Bembridge Marl

text: s and

text: Florissant Formation

text: , both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: In studies reported in Science in April 2007, Asara and colleagues concluded that seven traces of collagen proteins detected in purified Tyrannosaurus rex bone most closely match those reported in chickens, followed by frogs and newts. The discovery of proteins from a creature tens of millions of years old, along with similar traces the team found in a mastodon bone at least 160,000 years old, upends the conventional view of fossils and may shift paleontologists' focus from bone hunting to biochemistry. Until these finds, most scientists presumed that fossilization replaced all living tissue with inert minerals. Paleontologist Hans Larsson of McGill University in Montreal, who was not part of the studies, called the finds "a milestone", and suggested that dinosaurs could "enter the field of molecular biology and really slingshot paleontology into the modern world".

text: In studies reported in Science in April 2007, Asara and colleagues concluded that seven traces of

text: collagen

text: proteins detected in purified Tyrannosaurus rex bone most closely match those reported in

text: chicken

text: s, followed by frogs and newts. The discovery of proteins from a creature tens of millions of years old, along with similar traces the team found in a mastodon bone at least 160,000 years old, upends the conventional view of fossils and may shift paleontologists' focus from bone hunting to biochemistry. Until these finds, most scientists presumed that fossilization replaced all living tissue with inert minerals. Paleontologist Hans Larsson of McGill University in Montreal, who was not part of the studies, called the finds "a milestone", and suggested that dinosaurs could "enter the field of molecular biology and really slingshot paleontology into the modern world".

text: Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron) is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete the process, although a final stage of "cold work" may follow on the finished cast. Casting may be used to form hot liquid metals or various materials that cold set after mixing of components (such as epoxies, concrete, plaster and clay). Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting is a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BC. Specific techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting and sand casting.

text: Casting

text: is a group of manufacturing processes by which a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron) is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete the process, although a final stage of "cold work" may follow on the finished cast. Casting may be used to form hot liquid metals or various materials that cold set after mixing of components (such as

text: epoxies

text: concrete

text: plaster

text: and

text: clay

text: ). Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting is a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BC. Specific techniques include

text: lost-wax casting

text: plaster mold casting

text: and

text: sand casting

text: The compression can be optimized for specific types of data. If one is using the library to always compress specific types of data, then using a specific strategy may improve compression and performance. For example, if the data contain long lengths of repeated bytes, the RLE (run-length encoding) strategy may give good results at higher speed. For general data, the default strategy is preferred.

text: The compression can be optimized for specific types of data. If one is using the library to always compress specific types of data, then using a specific strategy may improve compression and performance. For example, if the data contain long lengths of repeated bytes, the RLE (

text: run-length encoding

text: ) strategy may give good results at higher speed. For general data, the default strategy is preferred.

text: P. aberrans is known from a single ant found in Russia.  The specimen was described from a compression fossil preserved in diatomite deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site. The site is exposed on the bank of Barachek Creek  upstream from the creek's confluence with the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya River in the Pozharsky District, on the Pacific Coast of Russia. The fossil-bearing rocks preserve possibly Priabonian plants and animals which lived in and around a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the Maksimovka or Salibez Formations and compared to the Bembridge Marls and Florissant Formation, both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: P. aberrans is known from a single ant found in Russia.  The specimen was described from a

text: compression fossil

text: preserved in

text: diatomite

text: deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site. The site is exposed on the bank of Barachek Creek  upstream from the creek's confluence with the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya River in the

text: Pozharsky District

text: , on the Pacific Coast of Russia. The fossil-bearing rocks preserve possibly

text: Priabonian

text: plants and animals which lived in and around a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the

text: Maksimovka

text: or

text: Salibez Formation

text: s and compared to the

text: Bembridge Marl

text: s and

text: Florissant Formation

text: , both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: Tortrix? florissantana is known only from one fossil, the holotype, number "NHM-I.8429" for part side and "UCM 8579" for the counterpart side. It is a single, mostly complete adult female, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained shale.  The shale specimen is from the fossiliferous outcrops at Station 14, part of the Florissant Formation which outcrops around Florissant.  One side of the type specimen is currently preserved in the paleoentomological collections housed in the Natural History Museum located in London, England, while the other side is in the collections of the University of Colorado.  T.? florissantana was first studied by Dr Theodore D. A. Cockerell of the University of Colorado, with his 1907 type description being published in the journal Canadian Entomologist.  Dr Cockerell did not provide an explanation for the specific epithet florissantana.

text: Tortrix? florissantana is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , number "NHM-I.8429" for part side and "UCM 8579" for the counterpart side. It is a single, mostly complete

text: adult

text: female, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained

text: shale

text: .  The

text: shale

text: specimen is from the fossiliferous outcrops at Station 14, part of the

text: Florissant Formation

text: which outcrops around Florissant.  One side of the type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: paleoentomological

text: collections housed in the

text: Natural History Museum

text: located in

text: London

text: , England, while the other side is in the collections of the

text: University of Colorado

text: .  T.? florissantana was first studied by

text: Dr Theodore D. A. Cockerell

text: of the University of Colorado, with his 1907

text: type description

text: being published in the journal

text: Canadian Entomologist

text: .  Dr Cockerell did not provide an

text: explanation

text: for the

text: specific epithet

text: florissantana.

text: In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

text: In

text: metalworking

text: casting

text: involves pouring liquid metal into a

text: mold

text: , which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

text: The sārīraka (Sanskrit śarīra) or dhātu cetiya, the remains of Gautama Buddha's body, are the category commonly considered "relics" today by Western observers, and were responsible for major forms of Buddhist art and symbolism, although they only constitute one of the three categories of reminders. Most frequently preserved parts of Buddha's body are tooth and bone, because these parts would remain after the rest of the body decayed. The relic of the tooth of the Buddha in Sri Lanka is the most notable site where a relic is visibly preserved, but hundreds of such sites were created, in the architectural form now called a stupa. In Thai, these stupas are called chedī, retaining the second half of the phrase dhātu cetiya; in Lao, they are called that after the first half. Beyond the stupa itself, sārīraka are used across the Buddhist world, in such quantity that not all could be legitimate; in this sense the sārīraka functions mainly as a symbol, with the importance of authenticity varying between cultures.

text: The sārīraka (Sanskrit

text: śarīra

text: ) or dhātu cetiya, the remains of Gautama Buddha's body, are the category commonly considered "relics" today by Western observers, and were responsible for major forms of Buddhist art and symbolism, although they only constitute one of the three categories of reminders. Most frequently preserved parts of Buddha's body are tooth and bone, because these parts would remain after the rest of the body decayed. The

text: relic of the tooth of the Buddha

text: in Sri Lanka is the most notable site where a relic is visibly preserved, but hundreds of such sites were created, in the architectural form now called a

text: stupa

text: . In Thai, these stupas are called chedī, retaining the second half of the phrase dhātu cetiya; in Lao, they are called that after the first half. Beyond the stupa itself, sārīraka are used across the Buddhist world, in such quantity that not all could be legitimate; in this sense the sārīraka functions mainly as a symbol, with the importance of authenticity varying between cultures.

text: Grès à Reptiles is a French fossil site in the département of Var preserving the remains of several types of dinosaurs and other extinct organisms.

text: Grès à Reptiles is a

text: French

text: fossil site in the

text: département

text: of

text: Var

text: preserving the remains of several types of

text: dinosaur

text: s and other extinct organisms.

text: The fossil is of the compressed insect exoskeleton. The holotype (CNU-MEC-NN-2010-050P/C) is now at the Key Laboratory of Insect Evolution and Environmental Changes of the Capital Normal University. It consists of a nearly complete body (less than  in length) with its four wings present, however, the wing apexes, genital region, and parts of antennae and legs are missing.  The compound eyes are prominent and occupy most of the lateral head that was originally exposed. The legs are extremely long and gracile, and are covered by numerous circular pubescence. Up to eight segments of the abdomen are preserved, but the terminal ones are missing making it impossible to determine the sex. The most important diagnostic features are the wings, the branches and venation of which are strikingly similar to those of the ginkgoean leaves. The resemblance is further augmented by specific patterns of spots and stripes on the wings. These make it almost indistinguishable between the two. In fact the researchers initially overlooked it as anything among the fossils of ginkgo leaves.  But upon closer look they found that it was nothing short of novel insect that probably lived hanging on the leaves.

text: The

text: fossil

text: is of the

text: compressed

text: insect

text: exoskeleton

text: . The

text: holotype

text: (CNU-MEC-NN-2010-050P/C) is now at the Key Laboratory of Insect Evolution and Environmental Changes of the

text: Capital Normal University

text: . It consists of a nearly complete body (less than  in length) with its four wings present, however, the wing apexes, genital region, and parts of

text: antennae

text: and legs are missing.  The

text: compound eye

text: s are prominent and occupy most of the lateral head that was originally exposed. The legs are extremely long and gracile, and are covered by numerous circular pubescence. Up to eight segments of the

text: abdomen

text: are preserved, but the terminal ones are missing making it impossible to determine the sex. The most important

text: diagnostic features

text: are the wings, the branches and venation of which are strikingly similar to those of the ginkgoean leaves. The resemblance is further augmented by specific patterns of spots and stripes on the wings. These make it almost indistinguishable between the two. In fact the researchers initially overlooked it as anything among the fossils of ginkgo leaves.  But upon closer look they found that it was nothing short of novel insect that probably lived hanging on the leaves.

text: In silicification, silicate minerals are released due to the weathering of rocks. The silica makes its way into a body of still water.  Eventually, the mineral laden water permeates the pores and cells of some dead organism, where it becomes a gel.  Over time, the gel will dehydrate, forming an opaline crystal structure that is an internal cast of the organism.  This accounts for the detail found in permineralizations. Silicification reveals information about what type of environment the organism was likely to live in. Most fossils that have been silicified are bacteria, algae, and other plant life.  Silicification is the most common type of permineralization.

text: In silicification,

text: silicate

text: minerals are released due to the

text: weathering

text: of rocks. The

text: silica

text: makes its way into a body of still water.  Eventually, the mineral laden water permeates the pores and cells of some dead organism, where it becomes a gel.  Over time, the gel will dehydrate, forming an

text: opal

text: ine crystal structure that is an internal cast of the organism.  This accounts for the detail found in permineralizations. Silicification reveals information about what type of environment the organism was likely to live in. Most

text: fossil

text: s that have been silicified are bacteria,

text: algae

text: , and other plant life.  Silicification is the most common type of permineralization.

text: Mongolbittacus daohugoensis is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen number "NIGPAS 133709".  The specimen is composed of an almost complete female specimen which is preserved as a two dimensional compression fossil in a well cemented calcareous grey siltstone.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed near Daohugou by Di-Ying Huang.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the geology collections housed in the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, located in Nanjing, China.  Mongolbittacus was first studied by Julián F. Petrulevicius of the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris, France, Di-Ying Huang of 2Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, and Dong Ren of Capital Normal University in Beijing.  Their 2007 type description of the genus and species was published in the journal African Invertebrates.  The generic name was coined by Petrulevicius, Huang and Ren from a combination of "Mongol", a reference to the region of discovery; and the modern Bittacidae genus Bittacus to which Mongolbittacus is related.  The etymology of the specific epithet daohugoensis is in reference type locality where the fossil preserved.

text: Mongolbittacus daohugoensis is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "NIGPAS 133709".  The specimen is composed of an almost complete female specimen which is preserved as a two dimensional

text: compression fossil

text: in a well cemented

text: calcareous

text: grey

text: siltstone

text: .  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed near Daohugou by Di-Ying Huang.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: geology

text: collections housed in the

text: Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology

text: , located in

text: Nanjing

text: China

text: .  Mongolbittacus was first studied by Julián F. Petrulevicius of the

entity_name: National Museum of Natural History (France)

text: Muséum national d'histoire naturelle

text: in

text: Paris, France

text: , Di-Ying Huang of 2Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, and Dong Ren of

text: Capital Normal University

text: in

text: Beijing

text: .  Their 2007

text: type description

text: of the genus and species was published in the journal

text: African Invertebrates

text: .  The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Petrulevicius, Huang and Ren from a combination of "Mongol", a reference to the region of discovery; and the modern Bittacidae genus

text: Bittacus

text: to which Mongolbittacus is related.  The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: daohugoensis is in reference type locality where the fossil preserved.

text: The following are the four steps in traditional die casting, also known as , these are also the basis for any of the die casting variations: die preparation, filling, ejection, and shakeout. The dies are prepared by spraying the mold cavity with lubricant. The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting. The dies are then closed and molten metal is injected into the dies under high pressure; between . Once the mold cavity is filled, the pressure is maintained until the casting solidifies. The dies are then opened and the shot (shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot) is ejected by the ejector pins. Finally, the shakeout involves separating the scrap, which includes the gate, runners, sprues and flash, from the shot. This is often done using a special trim die in a power press or hydraulic press. Other methods of shaking out include sawing and grinding. A less labor-intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily broken; separation of gates from finished parts must follow. This scrap is recycled by remelting it. The yield is approximately 67%.

text: The following are the four steps in traditional die casting, also known as , these are also the basis for any of the die casting variations: die preparation, filling, ejection, and shakeout. The dies are prepared by spraying the mold cavity with

text: lubricant

text: . The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting. The dies are then closed and molten metal is injected into the dies under high pressure; between . Once the mold cavity is filled, the pressure is maintained until the casting solidifies. The dies are then opened and the shot (shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die, yielding multiple castings per shot) is ejected by the ejector pins. Finally, the shakeout involves separating the scrap, which includes the

text: gate

text: runner

text: s,

text: sprues

text: and

text: flash

text: , from the shot. This is often done using a special trim die in a power press or hydraulic press. Other methods of shaking out include sawing and grinding. A less labor-intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily broken; separation of gates from finished parts must follow. This scrap is recycled by remelting it. The yield is approximately 67%.

text: Some compression functions have different size of the two inputs but the output usually is the same size as one of the inputs. For instance, input A might be 256 bits, input B 128 bits and they are compressed together to a single output of 128 bits. That is, a total of 384 input bits are compressed together to 128 output bits.

text: Excavation also makes a return from the previous titles, however, some changes occur. Minerals and other various items can now be picked up after scanning without excavation. If the player finds a Spectrobe fossil (contained within a mystery pod), it may be taken to the patrol cruiser or to a save point to access the lab menu. From here the Spectrobe can be excavated via the use of the excavation tools such as a drill and laser. After the fossil is excavated, it can then be awakened into a Spectrobe. In some cases, a rare mineral may be found in a mystery pod rather than a Spectrobe.

text: The gravity process begins by preheating the mold to 150–200 °C (300–400 °F) to ease the flow and reduce thermal damage to the casting. The mold cavity is then coated with a refractory material or a mold wash, which prevents the casting from sticking to the mold and prolongs the mold life. Any sand or metal cores are then installed and the mold is clamped shut. Molten metal is then poured into the mold. Soon after solidification the mold is opened and the casting removed to reduce chances of hot tears. The process is then started all over again, but preheating is not required because the heat from the previous casting is adequate and the refractory coating should last several castings. Because this process is usually carried out on large production run work-pieces automated equipment is used to coat the mold, pour the metal, and remove the casting.

text: The gravity process begins by preheating the mold to 150–200 °C (300–400 °F) to ease the flow and reduce thermal damage to the casting. The mold cavity is then coated with a

text: refractory

text: material or a

text: mold wash

text: , which prevents the casting from sticking to the mold and prolongs the mold life. Any sand or metal

text: cores

text: are then installed and the mold is clamped shut.

text: Molten metal

text: is then poured into the mold. Soon after solidification the mold is opened and the casting removed to reduce chances of

text: hot tear

text: s. The process is then started all over again, but preheating is not required because the heat from the previous casting is adequate and the refractory coating should last several castings. Because this process is usually carried out on large production run work-pieces automated equipment is used to coat the mold, pour the metal, and remove the casting.

text: The morphogenus is defined by the rhizomes and attached frond bases preserved by permineralization.  The stipe shows the presence of two hippocampiform vascular bundles and the dictyostele is composed of forking meristeles.

text: The morphogenus is defined by the rhizomes and attached frond bases preserved by permineralization.  The

text: stipe

text: shows the presence of two hippocampiform vascular bundles and the

text: dictyostele

text: is composed of forking

text: meristeles

text: ZPAQ is an open source (GPL) command line archiver for Windows and Linux. It uses a journaling or append-only format which can be rolled back to an earlier state to retrieve older versions of files and directories. It supports fast incremental update by adding only files whose last-modified date has changed since the previous update. It compresses using deduplication and several algorithms (LZ77, BWT, and context mixing) depending on the data type and the selected compression level. To preserve forward and backward compatibility between versions as the compression algorithm is improved, it stores the decompression algorithm in the archive. The ZPAQ source code includes a public domain API, libzpaq, which provides compression and decompression services to C++ applications. The format is believed to be unencumbered by patents.

text: ZPAQ is an

text: open source

text: GPL

text: command line

text: archiver

text: for

text: Windows

text: and

text: Linux

text: . It uses a journaling or append-only format which can be rolled back to an earlier state to retrieve older versions of files and directories. It supports fast incremental update by adding only files whose last-modified date has changed since the previous update. It compresses using

text: deduplication

text: and several algorithms (

text: BWT

text: , and

text: context mixing

text: ) depending on the data type and the selected compression level. To preserve forward and backward compatibility between versions as the compression algorithm is improved, it stores the decompression algorithm in the archive. The ZPAQ source code includes a

text: public domain

text: API

text: , libzpaq, which provides compression and decompression services to

text: C++

text: applications. The format is believed to be unencumbered by

text: patent

text: s.

text: Like extant organisms, fossils vary in size from microscopic, even single bacterial cells one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs and trees many meters long and weighing many tons. A fossil normally preserves only a portion of the deceased organism, usually that portion that was partially mineralized during life, such as the bones and teeth of vertebrates, or the chitinous or calcareous exoskeletons of invertebrates. Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or feces (coprolites). These types of fossil are called trace fossils (or ichnofossils), as opposed to body fossils. Finally, past life leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical signals; these are known as chemofossils or biosignatures.

text: Like

text: extant

text: organisms, fossils vary in size from

text: microscopic

text: , even single bacterial cells one

text: micrometer

text: in diameter, to gigantic, such as

text: dinosaur

text: s and trees many meters long and weighing many tons. A fossil normally preserves only a portion of the deceased organism, usually that portion that was partially

text: mineralized

text: during life, such as the

text: bone

text: s and teeth of

text: vertebrate

text: s, or the

text: chitin

text: ous or

text: calcareous

text: exoskeleton

text: s of

text: invertebrate

text: s. Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as

text: animal tracks

text: or

text: feces

text: coprolite

text: s). These types of fossil are called

text: trace fossil

text: s (or ichnofossils), as opposed to body fossils. Finally,

text: past life

text: leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of

text: biochemical

text: signals; these are known as chemofossils or

text: biosignature

text: s.

text: The Ziegelschiefer Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.

text: The Ziegelschiefer Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

text: The mesohyl functions as an endoskeleton in most sponges, and is the only skeleton in soft sponges that encrust hard surfaces such as rocks. More commonly, the mesohyl is stiffened by mineral spicules, by spongin fibers or both. Demosponges use spongin, and in many species, silica spicules and in some species, calcium carbonate exoskeletons. Demosponges constitute about 90% of all known sponge species, including all freshwater ones, and have the widest range of habitats. Calcareous sponges, which have calcium carbonate spicules and, in some species, calcium carbonate exoskeletons, are restricted to relatively shallow marine waters where production of calcium carbonate is easiest. The fragile glass sponges, with "scaffolding" of silica spicules, are restricted to polar regions and the ocean depths where predators are rare. Fossils of all of these types have been found in rocks dated from . In addition Archaeocyathids, whose fossils are common in rocks from , are now regarded as a type of sponge.

text: The mesohyl functions as an

text: endoskeleton

text: in most sponges, and is the only skeleton in soft sponges that encrust hard surfaces such as rocks. More commonly, the mesohyl is stiffened by

text: mineral

text: spicules

text: , by

text: spongin

text: fibers or both.

text: Demosponge

text: s use spongin, and in many species,

text: silica

text: spicules and in some species,

text: calcium carbonate

text: exoskeleton

text: s. Demosponges constitute about 90% of all known sponge species, including all freshwater ones, and have the widest range of habitats.

text: Calcareous sponge

text: s, which have calcium carbonate spicules and, in some species, calcium carbonate exoskeletons, are restricted to relatively shallow marine waters where production of calcium carbonate is easiest. The fragile

text: glass sponge

text: s, with "

text: scaffolding

text: " of silica spicules, are restricted to polar regions and the ocean depths where predators are rare. Fossils of all of these types have been found in rocks dated from . In addition

text: Archaeocyathid

text: s, whose fossils are common in rocks from , are now regarded as a type of sponge.

text: Langeria magnifica was described from a series of type specimens, the actual holotype specimen being UW 39713, in the paleobotanical collections of Burke Museum, University of Washington, and its counterpart being UCMP 9273, currently preserved in the University of California Museum of Paleontology. An additional eight leaves from both the Burke Museum and UC Museum of Paleontology were designated paratypes specimens. Working from those specimens, collected in the Republic, Washington area in the early 1980s, the fossils were studied by Jack A. Wolfe of the University of California and Wesley C. Wehr of the Burke Museum. They published their 1987 type description for the genus and species in a United States Geological Survey monograph on the North Eastern Washington dicot fossils. The genus name Langeria is a matronym honoring the American philosopher of mind, Susanne K. Langer, who influenced the analysis and organization of scientific data. The specific epithet magnifica would imply "magnificently large". Wolfe and Wehr note that the extinct species "Fortunearia" weedi is distinctly similar to Langeria magnifica and might turn out to be congeneric.

text: Langeria magnifica was described from a series of

text: type specimens

text: , the actual

text: holotype

text: specimen being UW 39713, in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of

text: Burke Museum

text: , University of Washington, and its

text: counterpart

text: being UCMP 9273, currently preserved in the

text: . An additional eight leaves from both the Burke Museum and UC Museum of Paleontology were designated

text: paratype

text: s specimens. Working from those specimens, collected in the

text: Republic, Washington

text: area in the early 1980s, the fossils were studied by

text: Jack A. Wolfe

text: of the

text: University of California

text: and

text: Wesley C. Wehr

text: of the Burke Museum. They published their 1987

text: type description

text: for the genus and species in a

text: United States Geological Survey

text: monograph

text: on the North Eastern Washington dicot fossils. The genus name Langeria is a

text: matronym

text: honoring the American

text: philosopher of mind

text: Susanne K. Langer

text: , who influenced the analysis and organization of scientific data. The

text: specific epithet

text: magnifica would imply "magnificently large". Wolfe and Wehr note that the extinct species

text: "Fortunearia" weedi

text: is distinctly similar to Langeria magnifica and might turn out to be

text: congeneric

text: Aphaenogaster donisthorpei is known from a solitary fossil insect which is a compression-impression fossil preserved in fine shales of the Florissant formation in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern Southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the old world. When A. donisthorpei was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be Miocene in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Subsequent research and fossil descriptions re-examined the dating, and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an Oligocene age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of sanidine crystals has resulted in an age of 34 million years old.  This places the formation in the Late Eocene Priabonian stage.

text: Aphaenogaster donisthorpei is known from a solitary fossil insect which is a

text: compression-impression fossil

text: preserved in fine

text: shale

text: s of the

text: Florissant formation

text: in Colorado.  The formation is composed of successive lake deposits which have preserved a diverse assemblage of insects.  The insects and plants suggest a climate similar to modern Southeastern North America, with a number of taxa represented that are now found in the subtropics to tropics and confined to the old world. When A. donisthorpei was described, the Florissant formation was considered to be

text: Miocene

text: in age, based on the flora and fauna preserved.  Subsequent research and fossil descriptions re-examined the dating, and by 1985 the formation had been reassigned to an

text: Oligocene

text: sanidine crystals

text: has resulted in an age of 34 million years old.  This places the formation in the Late Eocene

text: Priabonian

text: stage.

text: Brooks was said to prefer butter over clay as a molding medium. The latter had to kept moist and wrapped to prevent it from cracking, was not as sensitive for sculptural manipulation, and was more difficult to cast. Brooks had conquered the major disadvantage of butter simply by using ice. She discovered that she could even use butter for casting. After preserving her original butter Dreaming Iolanthe for a half a year, she desired a method which would not require keeping it in cold storage. Without knowing ahead of time what the results may be, she mixed up some plaster and poured it onto the butter sculpture. The plaster quickly set, and she cut a hole in the bottom of the milk pan which held her creation. Brooks then set the pan over a container of boiling water, and the butter melted and drained out of the hole. She removed the remainder of the bottom of the pan, and was left with a greased plaster negative. She placed more plaster inside and, after some difficulty removing the outer layer, was left with a successful plaster positive. Brooks was issued a patent in 1877 for her process of creating lubricated plaster molds. She did not, however, use plaster casts to reproduce her butter sculptures, instead preferring to sculpt a new one for each exhibit.

text: Brooks was said to prefer butter over clay as a molding medium. The latter had to kept moist and wrapped to prevent it from cracking, was not as sensitive for sculptural manipulation, and was more difficult to cast. Brooks had conquered the major disadvantage of butter simply by using ice. She discovered that she could even use butter for casting. After preserving her original butter Dreaming Iolanthe for a half a year, she desired a method which would not require keeping it in cold storage. Without knowing ahead of time what the results may be, she mixed up some plaster and poured it onto the butter sculpture. The plaster quickly set, and she cut a hole in the bottom of the milk pan which held her creation. Brooks then set the pan over a container of boiling water, and the butter melted and drained out of the hole. She removed the remainder of the bottom of the pan, and was left with a greased plaster negative. She placed more plaster inside and, after some difficulty removing the outer layer, was left with a successful plaster positive. Brooks was issued a

text: patent

text: in 1877 for her process of creating lubricated plaster molds. She did not, however, use plaster casts to reproduce her butter sculptures, instead preferring to sculpt a new one for each exhibit.

text: Ichnologic studies are based on the discovery and analysis of biogenic structures: features caused by living organisms. Thus, burrows, trackways, trails and borings are all examples of biogenic structures, but not casts or molds of dead shells or other bodily remains. To keep body and trace fossils nomenclatorially separate, ichnospecies are erected for trace fossils. Ichnotaxa are classified somewhat differently in zoological nomenclature than taxa based on body fossils (see trace fossil classification for more information).

text: Ichnologic studies are based on the discovery and analysis of biogenic structures: features caused by living organisms. Thus, burrows,

text: trackway

text: s, trails and borings are all examples of biogenic structures, but not casts or molds of dead shells or other bodily remains. To keep body and trace fossils nomenclatorially separate, ichnospecies are erected for trace fossils.

text: Ichnotaxa

text: are classified somewhat differently in

text: zoological nomenclature

text: than taxa based on body fossils (see

text: trace fossil classification

text: for more information).

text: Liometopum incognitum is known from single specimen which is a mostly complete adult queen in dorsal view.  The holotype insect was discovered preserved as a compression fossil found in Russia.  The specimen preserved in diatomite deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site. Located in the Pozharsky District, on the Pacific Coast of Russia, the fossil bearing rocks preserve possibly Priabonian plants and animals which lived in a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the Maksimovka or Salibez Formations and compared to the Bembridge Marls and Florissant Formation, both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: Liometopum incognitum is known from single specimen which is a mostly complete adult queen in dorsal view.  The

text: holotype

text: insect was discovered preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: found in Russia.  The specimen preserved in

text: diatomite

text: Pozharsky District

text: Priabonian

text: Maksimovka

text: or

text: Salibez Formation

text: s and compared to the

text: Bembridge Marl

text: s and

text: Florissant Formation

text: , both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: Fossiliferous limestone is any type of limestone, made mostly of calcium carbonate (CaCO) in the form of the minerals calcite or aragonite, that contains an abundance of fossils or fossil traces. The fossils in these rocks may be of macroscopic or microscopic size. The sort of macroscopic fossils often include crinoid stems, brachiopods, gastropods, and other hard shelled mollusk remains.

text: Fossiliferous limestone is any type of

text: limestone

text: , made mostly of

text: calcium carbonate

text: (CaCO) in the form of the

text: mineral

text: s

text: calcite

text: or

text: aragonite

text: , that contains an abundance of

text: fossil

text: s or

text: fossil traces

text: . The fossils in these rocks may be of

text: macroscopic

text: or

text: microscopic

text: size. The sort of macroscopic fossils often include

text: crinoid

text: stems,

text: brachiopod

text: s,

text: gastropods

text: , and other hard shelled

text: mollusk

text: remains.

text: The Ladera Sandstone is a geologic formation in California. It preserves fossils dating to the Neogene period.

text: The Ladera Sandstone is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: California

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating to the

text: Neogene

text: period

text: Another series of species were described from compression fossils found in thin layers and concretions of micrite from the "insect bed" and older stratum of the Bembridge Marls.  The marls are exposed at a number of locations along the north coast of the Isle of Wight in England. Part of the Bouldnor Formation, the marls have been dated to the Late Eocene in age.  The marls have not preserved any Symphya hymenopterans, suggesting that the paleotemperature of the marls was as warm or possibly warmer than either the Baltic amber or Florissant Formation forests, while the presence of the wasp family Scelionidae suggests generally mesic moisture conditions.

text: Another series of species were described from compression fossils found in thin layers and concretions of micrite from the "insect bed" and older stratum of the

text: Bembridge Marls

text: .  The

text: marl

text: s are exposed at a number of locations along the north coast of the

text: Isle of Wight

text: in England. Part of the

text: Bouldnor Formation

text: , the marls have been dated to the Late Eocene in age.  The marls have not preserved any

text: Symphya

text: hymenopterans, suggesting that the paleotemperature of the marls was as warm or possibly warmer than either the

text: Baltic amber

text: or

text: Florissant Formation

text: forests, while the presence of the wasp family

text: Scelionidae

text: suggests generally

text: mesic

text: moisture conditions.

text: Fossils (from Classical Latin fossilis; literally, "obtained by digging") are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous (fossil-containing) rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known as the fossil record.

text: Fossils (from Classical

text: Latin

text: fossilis; literally, "obtained by digging") are the preserved remains or

text: traces

text: of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous (fossil-containing)

text: rock

text: formations and

text: sedimentary

text: layers (

text: strata

text: ) is known as the fossil record.

text: Push-to-pull, push-to-connect, push-in, push-fit, or instant fittings are a type of compression fitting or quick connect fitting that allows an air (or water) line to be attached, nominally without the use of tools (a tool is still usually required for cutting tubing to length). These fittings act similar to the way regular compression fittings work, but use a resilient O-ring for sealing, and a grip ring to hold the (possibly grooved) tube in place. With metal tubing, a groove is needed to hold the tube in place. With PTFE tubing, the tube deforms around the grip ring.

text: Push-to-pull, push-to-connect, push-in, push-fit, or instant fittings are a type of

text: compression fitting

text: or

text: quick connect fitting

text: that allows an air (or water) line to be attached, nominally without the use of tools (a tool is still usually required for cutting tubing to length). These fittings act similar to the way regular compression fittings work, but use a resilient

text: O-ring

text: for sealing, and a grip ring to hold the (possibly grooved) tube in place. With metal tubing, a groove is needed to hold the tube in place. With

text: PTFE

text: tubing, the tube deforms around the grip ring.

text: After appearing on each of the four Greater Antillean Islands about 50 million years ago, Anolis lizards spread on each island to occupy niches in the island's trees. Some living in the tree canopy area, others low on the tree trunk near the ground; others in the mid-trunk area, others on twigs. Each new species developed its own distinct body type, called an ecomorph, adapted to the tree niche where it lived. Together the different species occupied their various niches in the trees as a "community". A study of lizard fossils trapped in amber, show the lizard communities have existed for about 20 million years or more. Four modern ecomorph body types, trunk-crown, trunk-ground, trunk and twig are represented in the amber fossils study. Close comparison of the lizard fossils with their descendants alive today in the Caribbean shows the lizards  have changed little in the millions of years.

text: After appearing on each of the four Greater Antillean Islands about 50 million years ago, Anolis lizards spread on each island to occupy niches in the island's trees. Some living in the tree canopy area, others low on the tree trunk near the ground; others in the mid-trunk area, others on twigs. Each new species developed its own distinct body type, called an

text: ecomorph

text: , adapted to the tree niche where it lived. Together the different species occupied their various niches in the trees as a "

text: community

text: ". A study of lizard fossils trapped in amber, show the lizard communities have existed for about 20 million years or more. Four modern ecomorph body types, trunk-crown, trunk-ground, trunk and twig are represented in the amber fossils study. Close comparison of the lizard fossils with their descendants alive today in the Caribbean shows the lizards  have changed little in the millions of years.

text: Excavation also makes a return from the original title. Players may use a variety of tools to retrieve either a fossil, a mineral, a cube, or a mystery stone from the ground. Sometimes, players may find an invisible hexagon shaped door that allows them to enter a secret map area provided they have the correct Child Spectrobe type (Corona, Aurora, or Flash) accompanying them. In certain areas, special tools may have to be used to get past the terrain; for example, a flame thrower for ice, a water nozzle for lava, etc. Each of these drills must be used meticulously and with precision to master excavation.

text: Deinodryinus velteni is known only from a single fossil, the holotype, an unnumbered specimen which is housed in the Paläontologie–Sektion Bernstein of the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart in Germany.  The specimen is a fully complete adult female wasp.  The specimen is preserved as an inclusion in a transparent chunk of amber.  The amber dates to between forty and forty-five million years old, and, being Baltic amber that has been redistributed by the sea,  a more specific type location than the Baltic region is not possible to identify.  Deinodryinus velteni was first studied by paleoentomologists Adalgisa Guglielmino and Massimo Olmi, both of the University of Tuscia.  Guglielmino and Olmi's 2011 type description of the new species was published in the online journal ZooKeys.  The specific epithet velteni is in honor of Jürgen Velten who loaned the authors specimens that they studied.  D. velteni is the most recent of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the fossil record:  Deinodryinus areolatus is also known from a fossil preserved in Baltic amber, while Deinodryinus? aptianus is known only from a Mongolian compression fossil in marl.

text: Deinodryinus velteni is known only from a single fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , an unnumbered specimen which is housed in the Paläontologie–Sektion Bernstein of the

entity_name: State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart

text: State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart

text: in

text: Germany

text: .  The specimen is a fully complete adult female wasp.  The specimen is preserved as an

text: inclusion

text: in a transparent chunk of amber.  The amber dates to between forty and forty-five million years old, and, being

text: Baltic amber

text: that has been redistributed by the sea,  a more specific

text: type location

text: than the Baltic region is not possible to identify.  Deinodryinus velteni was first studied by paleoentomologists Adalgisa Guglielmino and Massimo Olmi, both of the

text: University of Tuscia

text: .  Guglielmino and Olmi's 2011

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the online journal

text: ZooKeys

text: .  The

text: specific epithet

text: velteni is in honor of Jürgen Velten who loaned the authors specimens that they studied.  D. velteni is the most recent of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the fossil record:

text: Deinodryinus areolatus

text: is also known from a fossil preserved in

text: Baltic amber

text: , while

text: Deinodryinus? aptianus

text: is known only from a Mongolian

text: compression fossil

text: in

text: marl

text: Alloys of zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminium, and magnesium are useful in die casting as well as spin casting, especially in the automotive, electrical, and hardware industries. These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak. An example of this is zinc aluminium. The low melting point together with the low viscosity of the alloy makes possible the production of small and intricate shapes. The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of the cast products and fast production for assembly. Another alloy, marketed under the brand name Prestal, contains 78% zinc and 22% aluminium, and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic. This superplasticity of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts made of ceramics and cement.

text: Alloys of zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminium, and magnesium are useful in

text: die casting

text: as well as

text: spin casting

text: , especially in the automotive, electrical, and hardware industries. These alloys are marketed under the name

text: Zamak

text: . An example of this is

text: zinc aluminium

text: . The low melting point together with the low

text: viscosity

text: of the alloy makes possible the production of small and intricate shapes. The low working temperature leads to rapid cooling of the cast products and fast production for assembly. Another alloy, marketed under the brand name Prestal, contains 78% zinc and 22% aluminium, and is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic. This

text: superplasticity

text: of the alloy allows it to be molded using die casts made of ceramics and cement.

text: Petrified wood are fossils of wood that have turned to stone through the process of permineralization. All organic materials are replaced with minerals while maintaining the original structure of the wood.

text: Petrified wood are fossils of wood that have turned to stone through the process of

text: permineralization

text: . All organic materials are replaced with minerals while maintaining the original structure of the wood.

text: The type specimen or holotype of Sinovenator changii is IVPP 12615, a partial skull and disarticulated skeleton. An additional specimen was by the original publication scientifically described and assigned as the paratype of the species: an incomplete but articulated postcranial skeleton, numbered IVPP 12583. A third specimen was referred: IVPP V14322, a fragmentary skeleton. All three are in the collection of the IVPP in Beijing, China. However, Sinovenator fossils appear to be common in the Lujiatun Beds. In a 2006 survey of the Jehol Biota, Xu and Norell reported that hundreds of undescribed specimens are known. The fossils have been preserved three-dimensionally, not strongly compressed on a slab.

text: The

text: type specimen

text: or

text: holotype

text: of Sinovenator changii is IVPP 12615, a partial skull and disarticulated skeleton. An additional specimen was by the original publication scientifically described and assigned as the

text: paratype

text: of the species: an incomplete but articulated postcranial skeleton, numbered IVPP 12583. A third specimen was referred: IVPP V14322, a fragmentary skeleton. All three are in the collection of the IVPP in Beijing, China. However, Sinovenator fossils appear to be common in the Lujiatun Beds. In a 2006 survey of the

text: Jehol Biota

text: , Xu and Norell reported that hundreds of undescribed specimens are known. The fossils have been preserved three-dimensionally, not strongly compressed on a slab.

text: Different phyllosilicates are associated with different anatomical regions. This seems to be a result of when they formed. Phyllosilicates primarily form by filling voids. Voids formed in the fossils as the carbon films were heated and released volatile components. Different types of kerogen – reflecting different initial conditions – mature (i.e. volatilize) at different temperatures and pressures. The first kerogens to mature are those that replace labile tissue such as guts and organs; cuticular regions produce more robust kerogens that mature later. Kaolinite (rich in Al/Si, low in Mg) is the first phyllosilicate to form, once the rock is metamorphosed to the oil window, and thus replicates the most labile regions of the fossil. Once the rock is heated and compressed further, to the gas window, illite (rich in K/Al) and chlorite (rich in Fe/Mg) start to form; once all the available K is used up, no further illite forms, so the last tissues to mature are replicated exclusively in chlorite. The precise mineral formation depends on the porewater (and thus rock) chemistry; the thickness of the films increases as metamorphism continues; and the minerals align with the prevailing strain. They are not present in comparable deposits with very little metamorphism.

text: Different phyllosilicates are associated with different anatomical regions. This seems to be a result of when they formed. Phyllosilicates primarily form by filling voids. Voids formed in the fossils as the carbon films were heated and released volatile components. Different types of kerogen – reflecting different initial conditions – mature (i.e. volatilize) at different temperatures and pressures. The first kerogens to mature are those that replace labile tissue such as guts and organs; cuticular regions produce more robust kerogens that mature later.

text: Kaolinite

text: (rich in Al/Si, low in Mg) is the first phyllosilicate to form, once the rock is metamorphosed to the oil window, and thus replicates the most labile regions of the fossil. Once the rock is heated and compressed further, to the gas window,

text: illite

text: (rich in K/Al) and chlorite (rich in Fe/Mg) start to form; once all the available K is used up, no further illite forms, so the last tissues to mature are replicated exclusively in chlorite. The precise mineral formation depends on the porewater (and thus rock) chemistry; the thickness of the films increases as metamorphism continues; and the minerals align with the prevailing strain. They are not present in comparable deposits with very little metamorphism.

text: The organism was first interpreted as a trace fossil, and has also been considered to represent an agglutinating foraminiferan.  However, the discovery of the Chinese fossils, which have preserved organic matter, ruled out these interpretations, because the Burgess shale type preservation displayed required relatively robust organic material to start with.  Its spiral form has also led to comparison with the fossil embryos also preserved in the Doushantuo formation; the jury will remain out on this verdict until intermediate forms are found.

text: The organism was first interpreted as a

text: trace fossil

text: , and has also been considered to represent an agglutinating

text: foraminifera

text: n.  However, the discovery of the Chinese fossils, which have preserved organic matter, ruled out these interpretations, because the

text: Burgess shale type preservation

text: displayed required relatively robust organic material to start with.  Its spiral form has also led to comparison with the

text: fossil embryos

text: also preserved in the Doushantuo formation; the jury will remain out on this verdict until intermediate forms are found.

text: Diadectes was first named and described by the American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in 1878, based on part of a lower jaw (AMNH 4360) from the Permian of Texas. Cope noted: "Teeth with short and much compressed crowns, whose long axis is transverse to that of the jaws," the feature expressed in the generic name Diadectes "crosswise biter" (from Greek dia "crosswise" + Greek dēktēs "biter"). He described the animal as "in all probability, herbivorous." Cope's Neo-Latin type species name sideropelicus (from Greek sidēros "iron" + Greek pēlos "clay" + -ikos) "of iron clay" alluded to the Wichita beds in Texas, where the fossil was found.Diadectes fossil remains are known from a number of locations across North America, especially the Texas Red Beds (Wichita and Clear Fork).

text: Diadectes was first named and described by the American paleontologist

text: Edward Drinker Cope

text: in 1878, based on part of a lower jaw (AMNH 4360) from the Permian of Texas. Cope noted: "Teeth with short and much compressed crowns, whose long axis is transverse to that of the jaws," the feature expressed in the generic name Diadectes "crosswise biter" (from Greek dia "crosswise" + Greek dēktēs "biter"). He described the animal as "in all probability, herbivorous." Cope's Neo-Latin type species name sideropelicus (from Greek sidēros "iron" + Greek pēlos "clay" + -ikos) "of iron clay" alluded to the Wichita beds in Texas, where the fossil was found.Diadectes fossil remains are known from a number of locations across North America, especially the Texas

text: Red Beds

text: Wichita

text: and Clear Fork).

text: Permineralzed remains from the Late Permian Blackwater Coal Measures near Homevale Station, Queesnland are evidence that the following paleobotanical organ genera were part of the same plant species: Dictyopteridium sporiferum impression of ovulate structure, Homevaleia gouldii permineralized ovuulate structure, Glossopteris communis impressions of leaves, Eretmonia hinjridaensis pollen organ, Protohaploxypinus limpidus pollen, Araucarioxylon bengalense wood, and  Vertebraria australis chambered roots.

text: The carriages were built at the Addington and Otahuhu Workshops. Later two first class cars were reseated as 37-seat second class cars. Some were altered to car-vans. In 1963-65 some were fitted with multiple-unit type seats for 63 passengers and used for suburban service; initially 7 and later another 10, total 17.  By 1974 some were used on the Rewanui Branch for miners’ trains.  The Taieri Gorge Railway used to have four of the 50-foot carriages, but has been replacing them with 56-foot carriages.

text: The carriages were built at the

text: Addington

text: and

text: Otahuhu Workshops

text: . Later two first class cars were reseated as 37-seat second class cars. Some were altered to car-vans. In 1963-65 some were fitted with multiple-unit type seats for 63 passengers and used for suburban service; initially 7 and later another 10, total 17.  By 1974 some were used on the

text: Rewanui Branch

text: for miners’ trains.  The

text: Taieri Gorge Railway

text: used to have four of the 50-foot carriages, but has been replacing them with

text: 56-foot carriages

text: Paleontology in Washington refers to paleontological research occurring within or conducted by people from the U.S. state of Washington. Washington has a rich fossil record spanning almost the entire geologic column. Its fossil record shows an unusually great diversity of preservational types including carbonization, petrifaction, permineralization, molds, and cast. Early Paleozoic Washington would come to be home to creatures like archaeocyathids, brachiopods, bryozoans, cephalopods, corals, and trilobites. While some Mesozoic fossils are known, few dinosaur remains have been found in the state. Only about two thirds of the state's land mass had come together by the time the Mesozoic ended. In the Cenozoic the state's sea began to withdraw towards the west, while local terrestrial environments were home to a rich variety of trees and insects. Vertebrates would come to include the horse Hipparion, bison, camels, caribou, oreodonts. Later, during the Ice Age, the northern third of the state was covered in glaciers while creatures like bison, caribou, woolly mammoths, mastodons, and rhinoceros roamed elsewhere in the state. The Pleistocene Columbian Mammoth, Mammuthus columbi is the Washington state fossil.

text: Paleontology in Washington refers to

text: paleontological

text: research occurring within or conducted by people from the

text: U.S. state

text: of

text: Washington

text: . Washington has a rich

text: fossil

text: record

text: spanning almost the entire

text: geologic column

text: . Its fossil record shows an unusually great diversity of preservational types including

text: carbonization

text: petrifaction

text: permineralization

text: molds

text: , and

text: cast

text: . Early

text: Paleozoic

text: Washington would come to be home to creatures like

text: archaeocyathids

text: brachiopod

text: s,

text: bryozoa

text: ns,

text: cephalopod

text: s,

text: coral

text: s, and

text: trilobite

text: s. While some

text: Mesozoic

text: fossils are known, few

text: dinosaur

text: remains have been found in the state. Only about two thirds of the state's land mass had come together by the time the Mesozoic ended. In the

text: Cenozoic

text: the state's sea began to withdraw towards the west, while local

text: terrestrial

text: environments were home to a rich variety of trees and

text: insects

text: . Vertebrates would come to include the

text: horse

text: Hipparion

text: bison

text: camel

text: s,

text: caribou

text: oreodonts

text: . Later, during the

text: Ice Age

text: , the northern third of the state was covered in glaciers while creatures like bison, caribou,

text: woolly mammoths

text: mastodon

text: s, and

text: rhinoceros

text: roamed elsewhere in the state. The

text: Pleistocene

text: Columbian Mammoth

text: Mammuthus columbi

text: is the Washington

text: state fossil

text: Compression garments are pieces of clothing, such as socks, pantyhose, sleeves, etc., that provide support that is especially useful for people who have to stand for long periods, or people with poor circulation. The garments can come in varying degrees of compression. Higher degree sleeves, such as sleeves that provide compression of 20-30 mmHg or higher, typically require a doctor's prescription. Compression garments worn on the legs can help prevent deep vein thrombosis and reduce swelling, especially while traveling.

text: Compression garments are pieces of clothing, such as socks,

text: pantyhose

text: , sleeves, etc., that provide support that is especially useful for people who have to stand for long periods, or people with poor

text: circulation

text: . The garments can come in varying degrees of compression. Higher degree sleeves, such as sleeves that provide compression of 20-30 mmHg or higher, typically require a doctor's prescription. Compression garments worn on the legs can help prevent

text: deep vein thrombosis

text: and reduce swelling, especially while traveling.

text: Pikermi features a paleontological site which has more than forty mammal species from the late Miocene (8 million years ago). What is special about Pikermi is that it is one of the first localities to be discovered. It was discovered in 1839 by Bavarian soldiers of king Otto. Since it was one of the first localities, many of the species named there are type species. Similar fossils are found on Samos Island in Greece and Shanxi China.

text: Pikermi features a paleontological site which has more than forty mammal species from the late

text: Miocene

text: (8 million years ago). What is special about Pikermi is that it is one of the first localities to be discovered. It was discovered in 1839 by Bavarian soldiers of king

text: Otto

text: . Since it was one of the first localities, many of the species named there are

text: type species

text: . Similar fossils are found on

text: Samos Island

text: in Greece and

text: Shanxi

text: China.

text: There are approximately 60 types of minerals that are extracted commercially in Bulgaria. The mineral resources are divided into three groups: fossil fuels, metals and industrial minerals.

text: There are approximately 60 types of minerals that are extracted commercially in Bulgaria. The mineral resources are divided into three groups:

text: fossil fuel

text: s,

text: metal

text: s and

text: industrial mineral

text: s.

text: The pattern is made out of wax, wood, plastic, or metal. The molds are constructed by several different processes dependent upon the type of foundry, metal to be poured, quantity of parts to be produced,  size of the casting, and complexity of the casting. These mold processes include:

text: Sinomeganeura huangheensis is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen number "CNU-NX200". It is a single, mostly complete fore-wing, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained sedimentary rock.  The fossil specimen is from exposures of the Tupo Formation in the Qilianshan Mountains.  Insect fossils from this formation, referred to as part of the "Qilianshan biota", are the first Namurian insects found in the far east and are the oldest insects known from China.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the Key Lab of Insect Evolution & Environmental Changes collections housed in the Capital Normal University, located in Beijing, China.  Sinomeganeura was first studied by Dong Ren of Capital Normal University, André Nel of the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris, France and Jakub Prokop of Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic.  Their 2008 type description of the genus and species was published in the journal Insect Systematic Evolution.  The generic name was coined by Prokop, Nel, and Ren from a combination of the Latin sino meaning China and the name of the related genus Meganeura. The etymology of the specific epithet huangheensis is a reference to the Yellow River which flows next to the type locality outcrop.

text: Sinomeganeura huangheensis is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "CNU-NX200". It is a single, mostly complete

text: fore-wing

text: , preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in fine grained sedimentary rock.  The fossil specimen is from exposures of the

text: Tupo Formation

text: in the Qilianshan Mountains.  Insect fossils from this formation, referred to as part of the "Qilianshan biota", are the first Namurian insects found in the far east and are the oldest insects known from China.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: collections housed in the

text: Capital Normal University

text: , located in

text: Beijing

text: China

text: .  Sinomeganeura was first studied by Dong Ren of Capital Normal University, André Nel of the

text: Muséum national d'histoire naturelle

text: in

text: Paris, France

text: and Jakub Prokop of

text: Charles University

text: in

text: Prague, Czech Republic

text: .  Their 2008

text: type description

text: of the genus and species was published in the journal Insect Systematic Evolution.  The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Prokop, Nel, and Ren from a combination of the

text: Latin

text: sino meaning China and the name of the related genus

text: Meganeura

text: . The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: huangheensis is a reference to the

text: Yellow River

text: which flows next to the type locality outcrop.

text: It was first studied by a group of researchers consisting of Selena Smith, Randolph Currah and Ruth Stockey, all from the University of Alberta.  Smith and colleagues published their 2004 type description in the journal Mycologia volume 96.  The generic epithet Quatsinoporites coined from a combination of Quatsino in reference to the nearness of the type locality to Quatsino Sound and "porites" to reflect that it is a polypore fungus.  The specific epithet "cranhamii" chosen in honor of Gerald Cranham in recognition of his contribution of a number of Vancouver Island plant fossils to the University of Alberta for study.

text: It was first studied by a group of researchers consisting of

text: Selena Smith

text: Randolph Currah

text: and

text: Ruth Stockey

text: , all from the

text: University of Alberta

text: .  Smith and colleagues published their 2004

text: type description

text: in the journal

text: Mycologia

text: volume 96.  The generic epithet Quatsinoporites coined from a combination of Quatsino in reference to the nearness of the type locality to Quatsino Sound and "porites" to reflect that it is a

text: polypore

text: fungus.  The specific epithet "cranhamii" chosen in honor of Gerald Cranham in recognition of his contribution of a number of Vancouver Island plant fossils to the University of Alberta for study.

text: More recently, in the 2000s, Seismosaurus was found to be the same as Diplodocus, a previously known dinosaur of similar age from the western United States. Dinosaur fossils continue to be found in new locations within the United States. It was not until 2004 that any dinosaur fossils were reported from Louisiana. Currently, within the United States, dinosaur fossils are known from Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, D.C., Washington and Wyoming, but not in Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, New Hampshire, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia, or Wisconsin. Washington is the latest state to have found their first dinosaur bone, it was recovered in 2012 but was not publicly identified until May 21, 2015. Some states contain rocks of the appropriate type and age to preserve dinosaur fossils, so the list of states with known dinosaur fossils is likely to increase in the future.

text: More recently, in the 2000s, Seismosaurus was found to be the same as

text: Diplodocus

text: , a previously known dinosaur of similar age from the western United States. Dinosaur fossils continue to be found in new locations within the United States. It was not until 2004 that any

text: dinosaur

text: fossils were reported from Louisiana. Currently, within the United States, dinosaur fossils are known from

text: Alabama

text: Alaska

text: Arizona

text: Arkansas

text: California

text: Colorado

text: Connecticut

text: Delaware

text: Georgia

text: Idaho

text: Iowa

text: Kansas

text: Louisiana

text: Maryland

text: Massachusetts

text: Minnesota

text: Mississippi

text: Missouri

text: Montana

text: Nebraska

text: Nevada

text: New Jersey

text: New Mexico

text: New York

text: North Carolina

text: North Dakota

text: Oklahoma

text: Pennsylvania

text: South Carolina

text: South Dakota

text: Tennessee

text: Texas

text: Utah

text: Virginia

text: Washington, D.C.

text: Washington

text: and

text: Wyoming

text: , but not in

text: Florida

text: Hawaii

text: Illinois

text: Indiana

text: Kentucky

text: Maine

text: Michigan

text: New Hampshire

text: Ohio

text: Oregon

text: Rhode Island

text: Vermont

text: West Virginia

text: , or

text: Wisconsin

text: . Washington is the latest state to have found their first dinosaur bone, it was recovered in 2012 but was not publicly identified until May 21, 2015. Some states contain rocks of the appropriate type and age to preserve dinosaur fossils, so the list of states with known dinosaur fossils is likely to increase in the future.

text: Eucommia montana was first described by Roland W. Brown in 1940 from the late Eocene Renova Formation which outcrops near Grant in Beaverhead County, Montana.  Further collecting in outcrops of Passamari Formation in the Ruby River Basin of southwestern Montana lead to the description of another species, Eucommia brownii by Herman F. Becker in 1960.  This was based on an apparent smaller size to the fruits found in the Passamari formation.  However, further collecting in the 1960s showed a range of size greater than first thought and led to Becker reassigning the fossils to E. montana in 1969.  The Fossils were again examined in 1997 by paleobotanists Victor B. Call and David L. Dilcher, both of the University of Florida in Gainesville.  In the reassessment of the species, Call and Dilcher expanded both the chronostratigraphic and geographic range for the species by assigning a number of fossils from locations across western North America to E. montana.  In addition to the Ruby basin and Grant fossils, fossils from middle Eocene rocks in the Beaverhead Basins of Beaverhead County (Montana) were assigned to E. montana.  The oldest occurrence of the species is now from the fossils found in the Early Eocene Klondike Mountain Formation in Northern Washington state. Fossils recovered from the Green River Formation outcrops near Rainbow, Utah, Wardell Ranch and Douglas Pass, Colorado extended the geographic range to the south.  Fossils of the Middle Eocene outcrops near Quilchena, British Columbia added to the northern range of the species and are associated with a second species of Eucommia, E. rowlandii.  Fossils from both the middle Eocene Clarno Formation and the late Eocene John Day Formation extended the southwestern range of the species into Central Oregon.  Among the youngest occurrences of the species are fossils from the Late Eocene Florissant Formation of Colorado.  All the fossils studied from Washington, British Columbia, Oregon, Colorado, and Utah fall into the range of variation seen in specimens from the Renova Formation.  The Clarno formation specimens show a slightly lower average length to width ratio, but were still assigned to E. montana.

text: Eucommia montana was first described by

text: Roland W. Brown

text: in 1940 from the late Eocene

text: Renova Formation

text: which outcrops near Grant in

text: Beaverhead County, Montana

text: .  Further collecting in outcrops of

text: Passamari Formation

text: in the Ruby River Basin of southwestern Montana lead to the description of another species, Eucommia brownii by Herman F. Becker in 1960.  This was based on an apparent smaller size to the fruits found in the Passamari formation.  However, further collecting in the 1960s showed a range of size greater than first thought and led to Becker reassigning the fossils to E. montana in 1969.  The Fossils were again examined in 1997 by paleobotanists Victor B. Call and David L. Dilcher, both of the

text: University of Florida

text: in

text: Gainesville

text: .  In the reassessment of the species, Call and Dilcher expanded both the

text: chronostratigraphic

text: and geographic range for the species by assigning a number of fossils from locations across western North America to E. montana.  In addition to the Ruby basin and Grant fossils, fossils from middle Eocene rocks in the Beaverhead Basins of Beaverhead County (Montana) were assigned to E. montana.  The oldest occurrence of the species is now from the fossils found in the

text: Early Eocene

text: Klondike Mountain Formation

text: in Northern

text: Washington state

text: . Fossils recovered from the

text: Green River Formation

text: outcrops near

text: Rainbow, Utah

text: , Wardell Ranch and

text: Douglas Pass

text: Colorado

text: extended the geographic range to the south.  Fossils of the Middle Eocene outcrops near

text: Quilchena, British Columbia

text: added to the northern range of the species and are associated with a second species of Eucommia, E. rowlandii.  Fossils from both the middle Eocene

text: Clarno Formation

text: and the late Eocene

text: John Day Formation

text: extended the southwestern range of the species into Central Oregon.  Among the youngest occurrences of the species are fossils from the Late Eocene

text: Florissant Formation

text: of Colorado.  All the fossils studied from Washington, British Columbia, Oregon, Colorado, and Utah fall into the range of variation seen in specimens from the Renova Formation.  The Clarno formation specimens show a slightly lower average length to width ratio, but were still assigned to E. montana.

text: Because of the very select processes that cause preservation, not all organisms have the same chance of being preserved. Any factor that affects the likelihood that an organism is preserved as a fossil is a potential source of bias. It is thus arguably the most important goal of taphonomy to identify the scope of such biases such that they can be quantified to allow correct interpretations of the relative abundances of organisms that make up a fossil biota. Some of the most common sources of bias are listed below.

text: Termitaradus dominicanus is known from a single fossil insect which is an inclusion in a transparent chunk of Dominican amber  in size.  The amber specimen, HE-4-52, is currently housed in the fossil collection of the University of California, Berkeley in Berkeley, California.  The holotype fossil is composed of a complete adult individual that was collected from an unidentified amber mine between Puerto Plata and Santiago de los Caballeros.  Dominican amber is recovered from fossil-bearing rocks in the Cordillera Septentrional mountains of the northern Dominican Republic.  The amber dates from at least the Burdigalian stage of the Miocene, based on studying the associated fossil foraminifera, and may be as old as the Middle Eocene, based on the associated fossil coccoliths. Due to the host rock being secondary deposits for the amber, the age range is only the youngest that it might be.  The holotype was first studied by paleoentomologists George Poinar, Jr. of Oregon State University and Ernst Heiss of Innsbruck, Austria.  Poinar's 2011 type description of the species was published in the paleontology journal Palaeodiversity.  The specific epithet dominicanus was coined as a reference to the country of the type locality, the Dominican Republic.

text: Termitaradus dominicanus is known from a single fossil insect which is an

text: inclusion

text: in a transparent chunk of Dominican amber  in size.  The amber specimen, HE-4-52, is currently housed in the fossil collection of the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: in

text: Berkeley, California

text: .  The

text: holotype

text: fossil is composed of a complete adult individual that was collected from an unidentified amber mine between

text: Puerto Plata

text: and

text: Santiago de los Caballeros

text: .  Dominican amber is recovered from fossil-bearing rocks in the

text: Cordillera Septentrional

text: mountains of the northern

text: Dominican Republic

text: .  The amber dates from at least the

text: Burdigalian

text: foraminifera

text: , and may be as old as the Middle Eocene, based on the associated fossil

text: coccoliths

text: . Due to the host rock being secondary deposits for the amber, the age range is only the youngest that it might be.  The holotype was first studied by paleoentomologists

text: George Poinar, Jr.

text: of

text: Oregon State University

text: and Ernst Heiss of

text: Innsbruck, Austria

text: .  Poinar's 2011

text: type description

text: of the species was published in the

text: paleontology

text: journal

text: Palaeodiversity

text: .  The

text: specific epithet

text: dominicanus was coined as a reference to the country of the type locality, the Dominican Republic.

text: Among the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. Unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. Often these fossils may only be visible under magnification.

text: Among the three major types of rock, fossils are most commonly found in sedimentary rock. Unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remnants. Often these fossils may only be visible under

text: magnification

text: The process of fossilization varies according to tissue type and external conditions.

text: When a user acquires a lossily compressed file, (for example, to reduce download time) the retrieved file can be quite different from the original at the bit level while being indistinguishable to the human ear or eye for most practical purposes. Many compression methods focus on the idiosyncrasies of human physiology, taking into account, for instance, that the human eye can see only certain wavelengths of light. The psychoacoustic model describes how sound can be highly compressed without degrading perceived quality. Flaws caused by lossy compression that are noticeable to the human eye or ear are known as compression artifacts.

text: When a user acquires a lossily compressed file, (for example, to reduce download time) the retrieved file can be quite different from the original at the

text: bit

text: level while being indistinguishable to the human ear or eye for most practical purposes. Many compression methods focus on the idiosyncrasies of

text: human physiology

text: , taking into account, for instance, that the human eye can see only certain wavelengths of light. The

text: psychoacoustic model

text: describes how sound can be highly compressed without degrading perceived quality. Flaws caused by lossy compression that are noticeable to the human eye or ear are known as

text: compression artifact

text: s.

text: Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that employs reusable molds ("permanent molds"), usually made from metal. The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold, however gas pressure or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called slush casting, produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are aluminium, magnesium, and copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and steel are also cast in graphite molds.

text: Permanent mold casting is a

text: metal casting

text: process that employs reusable

text: molds

text: ("permanent molds"), usually made from

text: metal

text: . The most common process uses gravity to fill the mold, however gas pressure or a

text: vacuum

text: are also used. A variation on the typical gravity casting process, called slush casting, produces hollow castings. Common casting metals are

text: aluminium

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: copper

text: alloys. Other materials include

text: tin

text: zinc

text: , and

text: lead

text: alloys and

text: iron

text: and steel are also cast in

text: graphite

text: molds.

text: At the end of the 19th century the property was acquired by the Peñoles Mining Company. This was one of the first mining operations of this company. At the beginning of the 20th century there were problems with the mining exploitation due to the conflicts and struggles originated by the Mexican Revolution and with the additional problem of the water presence inside the mine. At the end of the revolution the operation continued but soon the mineral reserves were exhausted and the company decided to lease it to a local miners co-operative, therefore the town was gradually abandoned. Now there is no mining activity. However, there are a few fossil, rock and stone sellers and some tour guides.

text: At the end of the 19th century the property was acquired by the

text: Peñoles

text: Mining Company. This was one of the first mining operations of this company. At the beginning of the 20th century there were problems with the mining exploitation due to the conflicts and struggles originated by the

text: Mexican Revolution

text: and with the additional problem of the water presence inside the

text: mine

text: . At the end of the revolution the operation continued but soon the mineral reserves were exhausted and the company decided to lease it to a local miners co-operative, therefore the town was gradually abandoned. Now there is no mining activity. However, there are a few

text: fossil

text: , rock and stone sellers and some tour guides.

text: In principle for every genus a type species must be indicated to serve as its type in an ostensive definition. Traditionally, C. medius had been considered the type species of Cetiosaurus. In 1888 Richard Lydekker had formally assigned C. oxoniensis as the type species but by the modern rules of the ICZN one of the species named by the original author, in this case Owen, must be selected. In 2003, Paul Upchurch and John Martin determined that C. "hypoolithicus" and C. "epioolithicus" could not be used because they were nomina nuda. Of the four species named in Owen's second 1842 article, C. brevis, C. brachyurus, C. longus and C. medius, only C. brevis  would not be a nomen dubium. This they interpreted as implying that C. brevis was the type species. This conclusion, if correct, would cause considerable taxonomic instability, because the genus Pelorosaurus had since been based on its fossils, and recognized as a totally different kind of sauropod. Therefore, Upchurch & Martin suggested to request the ICZN to change the type species into C. oxoniensis, the best known species from the Middle Jurassic, which the genus Cetiosaurus had generally come to be identified with.

text: In principle for every genus a

text: type species

text: must be indicated to serve as its type in an

text: ostensive definition

text: . Traditionally, C. medius had been considered the type species of Cetiosaurus. In 1888

text: Richard Lydekker

text: had formally assigned C. oxoniensis as the type species but by the modern rules of the

entity_name: International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature

text: ICZN

text: one of the species named by the original author, in this case Owen, must be selected. In 2003,

text: Paul Upchurch

text: and

text: John Martin

text: determined that C. "hypoolithicus" and C. "epioolithicus" could not be used because they were nomina nuda. Of the four species named in Owen's second 1842 article, C. brevis, C. brachyurus, C. longus and C. medius, only C. brevis  would not be a

text: nomen dubium

text: . This they interpreted as implying that C. brevis was the type species. This conclusion, if correct, would cause considerable taxonomic instability, because the genus

text: Pelorosaurus

text: had since been based on its fossils, and recognized as a totally different kind of sauropod. Therefore, Upchurch & Martin suggested to request the ICZN to change the type species into C. oxoniensis, the best known species from the Middle Jurassic, which the genus Cetiosaurus had generally come to be identified with.

text: Penelopognathus ("wild duck jaw") is a genus of dinosaur which lived during the Early Cretaceous. It was an iguanodont ancestral to hadrosaurids. Fossils have been found in the Bayin-Gobi Formation in what is now China. The type species, Penelopognathus weishampeli, was described by Godefroit, Li, and Shang in 2005, based on fragmentary jaw fossils.

text: Penelopognathus ("wild duck jaw") is a

text: genus

text: of

text: dinosaur

text: which lived during the Early

text: Cretaceous

text: . It was an

text: iguanodont

text: ancestral to

text: hadrosaurid

text: s. Fossils have been found in the

text: Bayin-Gobi Formation

text: in what is now

text: China

text: . The

text: type species

text: , Penelopognathus weishampeli, was described by Godefroit, Li, and Shang in 2005, based on fragmentary jaw fossils.

text: Plant fossils almost always represent disarticulated parts of plants; even small herbaceous plants are rarely preserved whole.  Those few examples of plant fossils that appear to be the remains of whole plants in fact are incomplete as the internal cellular tissue and fine micromorphological detail is normally lost during fossilisation.  Plant remains can be preserved in a variety of ways, each revealing different features of the original parent plant.

text: The depositional environment of the majority of Burgess-Shale-type assemblages is outer shelf, deeper water. The Emu Bay Shale in contrast, appears to represent deposition in restricted basins on the inner shelf, indicating that soft tissue preservation occurred in a range of environmental settings during the Cambrian. Some Emu Bay fossils display extensive mineralization of soft tissues, most often of blocky apatite or fibrous calcium carbonate, including the oldest phosphatized muscle tissue – along with records from Sirius Passet in Greenland, the first thus far reported from the Cambrian. Mid-gut glands are preserved three-dimensionally in calcium phosphate in the arthropods Isoxys and Oestokerkus, as in related species from the Burgess Shale.

text: The

text: depositional environment

text: of the majority of Burgess-Shale-type assemblages is outer shelf, deeper water. The Emu Bay Shale in contrast, appears to represent deposition in restricted basins on the inner shelf, indicating that soft tissue preservation occurred in a range of environmental settings during the Cambrian. Some Emu Bay fossils display extensive mineralization of soft tissues, most often of blocky

text: apatite

text: or fibrous

text: calcium carbonate

text: , including the oldest phosphatized muscle tissue – along with records from

text: Sirius Passet

text: in Greenland, the first thus far reported from the

text: Cambrian

text: . Mid-gut glands are preserved three-dimensionally in calcium phosphate in the arthropods Isoxys and Oestokerkus, as in related species from the Burgess Shale.

text: In his type description Longman noted the incomplete nature of the fossil and hoped that more complete specimens would be found.  Despite this, the type specimen remains the only known specimen of the species.

text: An endocast or endocranial cast is a cast made of the mold formed by the impression the brain makes on the inside of the neurocranium (braincase), providing a replica of the brain with most of the details of its outer surface. Endocasts can also form naturally, when sediments fill the empty skull, after which the skull is destroyed and the cast fossilized. Scientists are increasingly utilizing computerized tomography scanning technology to create digital endocasts without damaging valuable specimens.  This gives a 3D representation of the brain.  Brain size and complexity can then be determined.

text: An endocast or endocranial cast is a cast made of the mold formed by the impression the

text: brain

text: makes on the inside of the

text: neurocranium

text: (braincase), providing a replica of the brain with most of the details of its outer surface. Endocasts can also form naturally, when sediments fill the empty

text: skull

text: , after which the skull is destroyed and the cast

text: fossil

text: ized. Scientists are increasingly utilizing

text: computerized tomography

text: scanning technology to create digital endocasts without damaging valuable specimens.  This gives a 3D representation of the brain.  Brain size and complexity can then be determined.

text: One of the processes involved in petrification is permineralization.  The fossils created through this process tend to contain a large amount of the original material of the specimen.  This process occurs when groundwater containing dissolved minerals (most commonly quartz, calcite, pyrite, siderite (iron carbonate), and apatite (calcium phosphate) ), fills pore spaces and cavities of specimens, particularly bone, shell or wood.  The pores of the organisms' tissues are filled when these minerals precipitate out of the water.  Two common types of permineralization are silicification and pyritization.

text: One of the processes involved in petrification is permineralization.  The fossils created through this process tend to contain a large amount of the original material of the specimen.  This process occurs when groundwater containing dissolved minerals (most commonly

text: quartz

text: calcite

text: pyrite

text: siderite

text: (iron carbonate), and

text: apatite

text: (calcium phosphate) ), fills pore spaces and cavities of specimens, particularly bone, shell or wood.  The pores of the organisms' tissues are filled when these minerals precipitate out of the water.  Two common types of permineralization are silicification and pyritization.

text: Two types of molds, namely single-piece mold and multi-piece mold, are frequently used to produce mold-blown vessels. The former allows the finished glass object to be removed in one movement by pulling it upwards from the single-piece mold and is largely employed to produce tableware and utilitarian vessels for storage and transportation. Whereas the latter is made in multi-paneled mold segments that join together, thus permitting the development of more sophisticated surface modeling, texture and design.

text: Unearthed at a few vineyards in Rehborn have been plant and animal fossils from Rotliegend times in the Permian, some 290,000,000 years ago. Among the animal fossils that have been found are fishes, amphibians and reptiles.

text: Unearthed at a few

text: vineyard

text: s in Rehborn have been plant and animal

text: fossil

text: s from

text: Rotliegend

text: times in the

text: Permian

text: , some 290,000,000 years ago. Among the animal fossils that have been found are

text: fish

text: es,

text: amphibian

text: s and

text: reptile

text: s.

text: The geology of India is diverse. Different regions of India contain rocks belonging to different geologic periods, dating as far back as the Eoarchean Era. Some of the rocks are very deformed and altered. Other deposits include recently deposited alluvium that has yet to undergo diagenesis. Mineral deposits of great variety are found in the Indian subcontinent in huge quantity. Even India's fossil record is impressive in which stromatolites, invertebrates, vertebrates and plant fossils are included.India's geographical land area can be classified into the Deccan Traps, Gondwana and Vindhyan.

text: The geology of India is diverse. Different regions of India contain

text: rock

text: s belonging to different

text: geologic periods

text: , dating as far back as the

text: Eoarchean Era

text: . Some of the

text: rock

text: s are very

text: deformed

text: and

text: altered

text: . Other deposits include recently deposited

text: alluvium

text: that has yet to undergo

text: diagenesis

text: Mineral

text: deposits

text: of great variety are found in the

text: Indian subcontinent

text: in huge quantity. Even India's

text: fossil

text: record is impressive in which

text: stromatolite

text: s,

text: invertebrate

text: s,

text: vertebrate

text: s and plant

text: fossil

text: s are included.India's geographical land area can be classified into the

text: Deccan Traps

text: Gondwana

text: and

text: Vindhyan

text: Casting urethanes is similar in that polyurethanes are injected into a tool. But with cast urethanes, the tool is a soft tool, typically made with a type of silicone mold. The mold is created via a master pattern. Master patterns for cast urethanes can be created with CNC machining (which is a common process for injection molding) but cast urethane master patterns are often created with additive manufacturing (or 3D Printing) and the reasons for this vary.

text: Casting urethanes is similar in that

text: polyurethanes

text: are injected into a tool. But with cast urethanes, the tool is a soft tool, typically made with a type of

text: silicone

text: mold. The mold is created via a master pattern. Master patterns for cast urethanes can be created with

text: CNC machining

text: (which is a common process for injection molding) but cast urethane master patterns are often created with additive manufacturing (or

text: 3D Printing

text: ) and the reasons for this vary.

text: [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]] is type-safe (but not statically type-safe). It has support for untyped pointers, but this must be accessed using the "unsafe" keyword which can be prohibited at the compiler level. It has inherent support for run-time cast validation. Casts can be validated by using the "as" keyword that will return a null reference if the cast is invalid, or by using a C-style cast that will throw an exception if the cast is invalid. See C Sharp conversion operators.

text: [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]] is type-safe (but not statically type-safe). It has support for untyped pointers, but this must be accessed using the "unsafe" keyword which can be prohibited at the compiler level. It has inherent support for run-time cast validation. Casts can be validated by using the "as" keyword that will return a null reference if the cast is invalid, or by using a C-style cast that will throw an exception if the cast is invalid. See

text: C Sharp conversion operators

text: A derived, reworked or remanié fossil is a fossil found in rock that accumulated significantly later than when the fossilized animal or plant died: Reworked fossils are created by erosion exhuming (freeing) fossils from the rock formation in which they were originally deposited and their redeposition in an younger sedimentary deposit.

text: Special splices (two piece splices) are required on SD-type conductors as the gap between the trapezoidal aluminium layer and the steel core prevents the compression force on the splice to the steel core to be adequate. A two-piece design has a splice for the steel core and a longer and larger diameter splice for the aluminium portion. The outer splice must be threaded on first and slid along the conductor and the steel splice compressed first and then the outer splice is slid back over the smaller splice and then compressed. This complicated process can easily result in a poor splice.

text: Studies have determined that replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources, such as biofuels, have the capability of reducing  emissions by up to 80%.  An algae-based system could capture approximately 80% of the  emitted from a power plant when sunlight is available.  Although this  will later be released into the atmosphere when the fuel is burned, this  would have entered the atmosphere regardless.  The possibility of reducing total  emissions therefore lies in the prevention of the release of  from fossil fuels.  Furthermore, compared to fuels like diesel and petroleum, and even compared to other sources of biofuels, the production and combustion of algal biofuel does not produce any sulfur oxides or nitrous oxides, and produces a reduced amount of carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and reduced emission of other harmful pollutants. Since terrestrial plant sources of biofuel production simply do not have the production capacity to meet current energy requirements, microalgae may be one of the only options to approach complete replacement of fossil fuels.

text: Changes in the abundance and diversity of some types of fossil have been interpreted as evidence for "attacks" by animals or other organisms. Stromatolites, stubby pillars built by colonies of microorganisms, are a major constituent of the fossil record from about , but their abundance and diversity declined steeply after about . This decline has been attributed to disruption by grazing and burrowing animals.

text: Changes in the abundance and diversity of some types of fossil have been interpreted as evidence for "attacks" by animals or other organisms. Stromatolites, stubby pillars built by colonies of

text: microorganism

text: s, are a major constituent of the fossil record from about , but their abundance and diversity declined steeply after about . This decline has been attributed to disruption by grazing and burrowing animals.

text: Specs of the OM616 used in the Trax SUV:Model OM - 616(D-98)* Type 4 Cylinder, 4 Stroke, IDI Bore/Stroke (mm.) 90.9 X 92.4 Displacement (cc.) 2399 Compression Ratio 21:1 Max.Output 43.5 kW (ISO) at 4000 RPM Max. Torque 130 Nm @ 1800-2000 RPM Air filter Oil Bath Type Oil filter Bye pass flow type paper filter Fuel filter Dual filter Oil sump capacity (Lts) 6.5

text: Described from a single worker fossil in Chartense amber, the species has an estimated body length of , though shrinking of the ant after entombment made accurate measurements difficult.  The head has small indistinct compound eyes and no visible ocelli.  The antennae are composed of 12 segments and the type description indicated the scape was notably longer than other Cretaceous genera.   However, in reexamination the scape was determined to be shorter than thought, and distortion of the fossil had caused the error with the type description.  The mandibles have the typical shape seen in the genus, overlapping slightly when closed, and with apical and subapical teeth.  The clypeus sports approximately 32 denticles, though the type description originally placed the denticles on the labrum. While the type description mentioned the lack of a sting, the 2016 review of the fossil suggested the sting may have been missing prior to entombment.  The species name was derived from "Cretaceous", the age of the fossil.

text: The fossils are preserved as carbonaceous films in a Burgess Shale type preservational fashion.

text: The fossils are preserved as carbonaceous films in a

text: Burgess Shale type preservation

text: al fashion.

text: • The fossils are found in their original state.  The hard shells have not been permeated by groundwater and not replaced by minerals.

text: O-type main-sequence stars tend to appear in the spiral arms of spiral galaxies. This is because of the fact that, as a spiral arm moves through space, it compresses any molecular clouds in its way. The initial compression of these molecular clouds leads to the formation of stars, some of which are O- and B-type stars. Also, as these stars have shorter lifetimes, they cannot move great distances before their death and so they stay in or relatively near to the spiral arm in which they formed. On the other hand, less massive stars live longer and thus are found throughout the galactic disc, including in between the spiral arms.

text: O-type main-sequence stars tend to appear in the spiral arms of spiral galaxies. This is because of the fact that, as a spiral arm moves through space, it compresses any

text: molecular cloud

text: s in its way. The initial compression of these molecular clouds leads to the formation of stars, some of which are O- and

text: B-type star

text: s. Also, as these stars have shorter lifetimes, they cannot move great distances before their death and so they stay in or relatively near to the spiral arm in which they formed. On the other hand, less massive stars live longer and thus are found throughout the

text: galactic disc

text: , including in between the spiral arms.

text: The oldest probable fossils of Davidia are permineralized fruits from the Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) Horseshoe Canyon Formation of Dinosaur Provincial Park near Drumheller, Alberta, Canada. Those fruits are smaller than those of D. involucrata and have fewer locules, but are otherwise similar in morphology to the extant genus.

text: The oldest probable fossils of Davidia are permineralized fruits from the

text: Upper Cretaceous

text: Campanian

text: Horseshoe Canyon Formation

text: of

text: Dinosaur Provincial Park

text: near

text: Drumheller

text: Alberta

text: Canada

text: . Those fruits are smaller than those of D. involucrata and have fewer locules, but are otherwise similar in morphology to the extant genus.

text: It was first described by Edwin H. Colbert from dental fossils collected by Walter W. Granger in the Ma Kai Valley in northern Yunnan ten miles south of the town of Ma kai in Guangnan County as part of the program of the Central Asiatic Expeditions of the American Museum of Natural History in the winter of 1926–1927. They were the most numerous fossils of a single type of animal in the Ma Kai Valley deposits.

text: It was first described by

text: Edwin H. Colbert

text: from dental fossils collected by

text: Walter W. Granger

text: in the Ma Kai Valley in northern

text: Yunnan

text: ten miles south of the town of Ma kai in

text: Guangnan County

text: as part of the program of the Central Asiatic Expeditions of the

text: American Museum of Natural History

text: in the winter of 1926–1927. They were the most numerous fossils of a single type of animal in the Ma Kai Valley deposits.

text: superMHL supports delivery of video up to 8K 120fps using 6 lanes (e.g. superMHL connector), 8K 60fps using 4 lanes (e.g. USB Type-C / superMHL connector) and 4K 60fps using 1 lane (e.g. micro-USB / HDMI Type-A / USB Type-C / superMHL connector). The superMHL standard makes use of VESA's Display Stream Compression (DSC) standard version 1.1 to allow for 2.0x, 2.5x, or 3.0x compression. This allows a superMHL source-to-sink connection to transfer 108Gbit/s of visually lossless (mathematically lossy) data.

text: superMHL supports delivery of video up to

text: 120fps using 6 lanes (e.g. superMHL connector), 8K 60fps using 4 lanes (e.g. USB Type-C / superMHL connector) and 4K 60fps using 1 lane (e.g. micro-USB / HDMI Type-A / USB Type-C / superMHL connector). The superMHL standard makes use of VESA's Display Stream Compression (DSC) standard version 1.1 to allow for 2.0x, 2.5x, or 3.0x compression. This allows a superMHL source-to-sink connection to transfer 108Gbit/s of visually lossless (mathematically lossy) data.

text: Galverpeton is an extinct genus of prehistoric salamander. It lived during the Barremian-Aptian stages in the Early Cretaceous, in what is now Western Europe. The type species, Galverpeton ibericum, was described by Estes and Sanchíz in 1982. It was found in the El Castellar formation, part of the Galve fossil assemblage. The fossil is in the Institut Paleontologic Miquel Crusafont, Sabadell.

text: Galverpeton is an extinct

text: genus

text: of prehistoric

text: salamander

text: . It lived during the

text: Barremian

text: Aptian

text: stages in the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: , in what is now Western

text: Europe

text: . The

text: type species

text: , Galverpeton ibericum, was described by Estes and Sanchíz in 1982. It was found in the

text: El Castellar

text: formation, part of the

text: Galve fossil assemblage

text: . The fossil is in the Institut Paleontologic Miquel Crusafont, Sabadell.

text: The same kinds of fossils are found from areas known to be adjacent to one another in the past but that, through the process of continental drift, are now in widely divergent geographic locations. For example, fossils of the same types of ancient amphibians, arthropods and ferns are found in South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica, which can be dated to the Paleozoic Era, when these regions were united as a single landmass called Gondwana. Sometimes the descendants of these organisms can be identified and show unmistakable similarity to each other, even though they now inhabit very different regions and climates.

text: The same kinds of fossils are found from areas known to be adjacent to one another in the past but that, through the process of

text: continental drift

text: , are now in widely divergent geographic locations. For example, fossils of the same types of ancient amphibians, arthropods and ferns are found in South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica, which can be dated to the

text: Paleozoic

text: Era, when these regions were united as a single landmass called

text: Gondwana

text: . Sometimes the descendants of these organisms can be identified and show unmistakable similarity to each other, even though they now inhabit very different regions and climates.

text: This is the type species, and is an important index fossil in the continental Devonian sequence of northern Scotland deposited in the Orcadian Basin. It is only present at and below the Upper Eifelian Achanarras limestone level.

text: This is the type species, and is an important

text: index fossil

text: in the continental Devonian sequence of northern Scotland deposited in the

text: Orcadian Basin

text: . It is only present at and below the Upper Eifelian Achanarras limestone level.

text: Ceramic mold casting, also known ambiguously as ceramic molding, is a group of metal casting processes that use ceramics as the mold material. It is a combination of plaster mold casting and investment casting. There are two types of ceramic mold casting: the Shaw process and the Unicast process.

text: Ceramic mold casting, also known ambiguously as

text: ceramic molding

text: , is a group of

text: metal casting

text: processes that use

text: ceramic

text: s as the

text: mold

text: material. It is a combination of

text: plaster mold casting

text: and

text: investment casting

text: . There are two types of ceramic mold casting: the Shaw process and the Unicast process.

text: Sub-gingival calculus (tartar) is composed almost entirely of two components: fossilized anaerobic bacteria whose biologic composition has been replaced by calcium phosphate salts, and calcium phosphate salts that have joined the fossilized bacteria in calculus formations.  The initial attachment mechanism and the development of mature calculus formations are based on electrical charge.  Unlike calcium phosphate, the primary component of teeth, calcium phosphate salts exist as electrically unstable ions. The following minerals are detectable in calculus by X-ray diffraction: brushite (), octacalcium phosphate (CaH(PO).5HO), magnesium-containing whitlockite (Ca(MgFe)(PO)POOH), and carbonate-containing hydroxyapatite (approximately Ca(PO)(OH) but containing some carbonate).

text: Sub-gingival calculus (tartar) is composed almost entirely of two components: fossilized anaerobic bacteria whose biologic composition has been replaced by

text: calcium phosphate

text: salts, and calcium phosphate salts that have joined the fossilized bacteria in calculus formations.  The initial attachment mechanism and the development of mature calculus formations are based on electrical charge.  Unlike calcium phosphate, the primary component of teeth, calcium phosphate salts exist as electrically unstable ions. The following minerals are detectable in calculus by

text: X-ray diffraction

text: brushite

text: octacalcium phosphate

text: (CaH(PO).5HO), magnesium-containing

text: whitlockite

text: (Ca(MgFe)(PO)POOH), and carbonate-containing

text: hydroxyapatite

text: (approximately Ca(PO)(OH) but containing some carbonate).

text: The fossils usually comprise a reflective film; when the part bears an opaque, silvery film composed of organic carbon (kerogen), the counterpart's film is blue, less reflective, and more translucent. A carbon film seems to be common to all BST deposits, although the carbon may 'evaporate' as rocks are heated, potentially to be replaced with other minerals.

text: The fossils usually comprise a reflective film; when the part bears an opaque, silvery film composed of organic carbon (

text: kerogen

text: ), the counterpart's film is blue, less reflective, and more translucent. A carbon film seems to be common to all BST deposits, although the carbon may 'evaporate' as rocks are heated, potentially to be replaced with other minerals.

text: Hash fossils are not actually one fossil, they are many fossils in the same rock. The term hash fossil describes the fossil formed when all the organic material in an environment falls to the ocean floor and fossilizes, hence the name "hash". When you look at a hash fossil, you actually are looking at a piece of ancient seabed. In hash fossils you can usually find the pieces of corals, crinoids, bryzoans, and brachiopods. Also you can rarely find a piece of a trilobite.  Hash fossils are very common, and are most easily found in limestone.

text: Hash fossils are not actually one

text: fossil

text: , they are many fossils in the same

text: rock

text: . The term hash fossil describes the fossil formed when all the

text: organic material

text: in an environment falls to the ocean floor and fossilizes, hence the name "

text: hash

text: ". When you look at a hash fossil, you actually are looking at a piece of ancient

text: seabed

text: . In hash fossils you can usually find the pieces of

text: coral

text: s,

text: crinoid

text: s,

text: bryzoan

text: s, and

text: brachiopod

text: s. Also you can rarely find a piece of a

text: trilobite

text: .  Hash fossils are very common, and are most easily found in limestone.

text: Long's paleontological research has involved field work collecting and studying Palaeozoic fishes throughout Australia, Antarctica, South Africa, Iran, Vietnam, Thailand and China.Long's early research led to the refinement of a new biostratigraphic scheme for dating Palaeozoic sequences in Victoria, Australia. Most of his later research has focussed on collecting and describing the well-preserved 3-dimensional Devonian fishes from the Gogo Formation, Western Australia. His major discoveries from his field expeditions to the Gogo fossil sites (1986–2008) included the first complete skull of an osteolepiform fish, Gogonasus, and a new specimen showing that Gogonasus had large spiracles opening on top of its head. Other discoveries include several new types of dipnoans and arthrodires, and the discovery of the first Devonian fishes showing embryos inside them. This later discovery, published in the journal Nature (May 2008) was the first time that reproduction by internal fertilisation was demonstrated in the extinct Class Placodermi, and the oldest evidence for vertebrate viviparity yet discovered. One of the specimens, named Materpiscis, was also the only known fossil to show a mineralised umbilical structure linked to the unborn embryo. Nature magazine made a short documentary video about this discovery. Other Gogo fish fossils have been found showing remarkable preservation of 3-D muscle tissues, nerve cells and microcapillaries, making this one of the world's most extraordinary sites for exceptional preservation of fossils of this age. One of Long's discoveries, the placoderm Mcnamaraspis, made history by becoming Australia's first official state fossil emblem when it was declared by the Governor as the Western Australian fossil emblem on 5 December 1995.

text: Long's paleontological research has involved field work collecting and studying Palaeozoic fishes throughout Australia, Antarctica, South Africa, Iran, Vietnam, Thailand and China.Long's early research led to the refinement of a new

text: biostratigraphic

text: scheme for dating Palaeozoic sequences in Victoria, Australia. Most of his later research has focussed on collecting and describing the well-preserved 3-dimensional Devonian fishes from the Gogo Formation, Western Australia. His major discoveries from his field expeditions to the Gogo fossil sites (1986–2008) included the first complete skull of an osteolepiform fish, Gogonasus, and a new specimen showing that Gogonasus had large spiracles opening on top of its head. Other discoveries include several new types of dipnoans and arthrodires, and the discovery of the first Devonian fishes showing embryos inside them. This later discovery, published in the journal

text: Nature

text: (May 2008) was the first time that reproduction by internal fertilisation was demonstrated in the extinct Class Placodermi, and the oldest evidence for vertebrate

text: viviparity

text: yet discovered. One of the specimens, named

text: Materpiscis

text: , was also the only known fossil to show a mineralised umbilical structure linked to the unborn embryo. Nature magazine made a short documentary video about this discovery. Other Gogo fish fossils have been found showing remarkable preservation of 3-D muscle tissues, nerve cells and microcapillaries, making this one of the world's most extraordinary sites for exceptional preservation of fossils of this age. One of Long's discoveries, the placoderm

text: Mcnamaraspis

text: , made history by becoming Australia's first official state fossil emblem when it was declared by the Governor as the Western Australian fossil emblem on 5 December 1995.

text: The sedimentary formation preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period.

text: The

text: sedimentary formation

text: preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Neogene

text: period

text: A sequence of fossil-bearing sedimentary rocks can be subdivided on the basis of the occurrence of particular fossil taxa. A unit defined in this way is known as a biostratigraphic unit, generally shortened to biozone. The five commonly used types of biozone are assemblage, range, abundance, interval and lineage zones.

text: A sequence of

text: fossil

text: -bearing sedimentary rocks can be subdivided on the basis of the occurrence of particular fossil

text: taxa

text: . A unit defined in this way is known as a biostratigraphic unit, generally shortened to

text: biozone

text: . The five commonly used types of biozone are assemblage, range, abundance, interval and lineage zones.

text: Zinc-aluminium (ZA) alloys are alloys whose main constituents are zinc and aluminium. Other alloying elements include magnesium and copper. This type of alloy was originally developed for gravity casting. Noranda, New Jersey Zinc Co. Ltd., St. Joe Mineral Co. and the International Lead Zinc Research Organization (ILZRO) were the main companies that pioneered the ZA alloys between the 1950s and the 1970s. They were designed to compete with bronze, cast iron and aluminium using sand and permanent mold casting methods. Distinguishing features of ZA alloys include high as-cast strength, excellent bearing properties, as well as low energy requirements (for melting).

text: Zinc-aluminium (ZA)

text: alloy

text: s are alloys whose main constituents are

text: zinc

text: and

text: aluminium

text: . Other alloying elements include

text: magnesium

text: and

text: copper

text: . This type of alloy was originally developed for

text: gravity casting

text: . Noranda, New Jersey Zinc Co. Ltd., St. Joe Mineral Co. and the International Lead Zinc Research Organization (ILZRO) were the main companies that pioneered the ZA alloys between the 1950s and the 1970s. They were designed to compete with

text: bronze

text: cast iron

text: and aluminium using

text: sand

text: and

text: permanent mold

text: casting methods. Distinguishing features of ZA alloys include high as-cast strength, excellent bearing properties, as well as low energy requirements (for melting).

text: As demand for silver increased and large-scale manufacturing techniques emerged, silver products became much more standardized. For special-order objects that would likely only be made once, silversmiths generally used lost-wax casting, in which a sculpted object was carved out of wax, an investment casting was made, and the wax was melted away. The molds produced in this manner could only be used once, which made them inconvenient for standard objects like handles and buckles. Permanent mold casting, an industrial casting technique focused on high-volume production, allowed smiths to reuse molds to make exact replicas of the most commonly used items they sold. In creating these molds and developing standardized manufacturing processes, silversmiths could begin delegating some work to apprentices and journeymen. For instance, after 1780, Paul Revere's sons took on more significant roles in his shop, and his silver pieces often included wooden handles made by carpenters more experienced with woodwork. For even some of the most successful artisans like Revere, artisan was not a profitable enterprise compared to mass-production using iron or bronze casting. Creating products that could be replicated for multiple customers, adopting new business practices and labor policies, and new equipment made manufacturing more ultimately efficient. These changes, in tandem with new techniques and requirements defined by changing social standards, led to the introduction of new manufacturing techniques in Colonial America that preceded and anticipated the industrial revolution.

text: As demand for silver increased and large-scale manufacturing techniques emerged, silver products became much more standardized. For special-order objects that would likely only be made once, silversmiths generally used

text: lost-wax casting

text: , in which a sculpted object was carved out of wax, an

text: investment casting

text: was made, and the wax was melted away. The molds produced in this manner could only be used once, which made them inconvenient for standard objects like handles and buckles.

text: Permanent mold casting

text: , an industrial casting technique focused on high-volume production, allowed smiths to reuse molds to make exact replicas of the most commonly used items they sold. In creating these molds and developing standardized manufacturing processes, silversmiths could begin delegating some work to

text: apprentices

text: and

text: journeymen

text: . For instance, after 1780, Paul Revere's sons took on more significant roles in his shop, and his silver pieces often included wooden handles made by carpenters more experienced with woodwork. For even some of the most successful artisans like Revere, artisan was not a profitable enterprise compared to mass-production using iron or bronze casting. Creating products that could be replicated for multiple customers, adopting new business practices and labor policies, and new equipment made manufacturing more ultimately efficient. These changes, in tandem with new techniques and requirements defined by changing social standards, led to the introduction of new manufacturing techniques in Colonial America that preceded and anticipated the industrial revolution.

text: Each matrix contains the letter form for a single character of a font of type; i.e., a particular type design in a particular size. The letter form is engraved into one side of the matrix. For sizes up to 14 points, and in some matrices of size 16 to 24 points, the matrix has two letter forms on it, the normal and auxiliary positions. The normal position has the upright (Roman) form of a given character, and on the auxiliary, the slanted (Italic) form of that character will be used, but this can also be the boldface form or even a different font entirely. The machine operator can select which of the two will be cast by operating the auxiliary rail of the assembler, or, when setting entire lines of italics, by using the flap, which is a piece that can be turned under a portion of the first elevator column. This is the origin of the old typesetting terms upper rail for italic and lower rail for Roman characters. These terms have persisted in phototypesetting technology even though the mechanics of the auxiliary rail do not exist there. The character on a Linotype matrix, when viewed, is not inverted as a letter for conventional movable type would be, and the letter is incised below the surface rather than raised above it. This is because the matrix is not used directly to print onto the paper—rather, it is used as part of a mold from which a metal slug will be cast. The slug has its features reversed: therefore, the matrix does not.

text: Each matrix contains the letter form for a single character of a

text: font

text: of type; i.e., a particular type design in a particular size. The letter form is engraved into one side of the matrix. For sizes up to 14

text: points

text: , and in some matrices of size 16 to 24 points, the matrix has two letter forms on it, the normal and auxiliary positions. The normal position has the upright (Roman) form of a given character, and on the auxiliary, the slanted (Italic) form of that character will be used, but this can also be the boldface form or even a different font entirely. The machine operator can select which of the two will be cast by operating the auxiliary rail of the assembler, or, when setting entire lines of italics, by using the flap, which is a piece that can be turned under a portion of the first elevator column. This is the origin of the old typesetting terms upper rail for italic and lower rail for Roman characters. These terms have persisted in phototypesetting technology even though the mechanics of the auxiliary rail do not exist there. The character on a Linotype matrix, when viewed, is not inverted as a letter for conventional movable type would be, and the letter is incised below the surface rather than raised above it. This is because the matrix is not used directly to print onto the paper—rather, it is used as part of a mold from which a metal slug will be cast. The slug has its features reversed: therefore, the matrix does not.

text: Its forms and its characteristics are similar to those of the base of word formation postulated for proto-Afroasiatic. The composition and the reduplication/doubling process whose traces are preserved in all the Afroasiatic branches, including Semitic where they are fossilized  in the quadrilaterals and quintiliterals, constitute the type of word formation at that stage of Berber.

text: When first described Holcorpa was identified from a single fossil which is preserved as a compression fossil in fine shales of the Florissant Formation. At the time of description, the Florissant formation was considered to be Oligocene in age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of sanidine crystals has resulted in an age of 34 million years old, which places the formation in the Eocene Chadronian stage. Adjustment to the stages of the Eocene placed the formation in the Priabonian as of 2010.  The second species is known from a single fossil that was discovered in silty medium brown Kamloops group shale in the McAbee Fossil Beds near Cache Creek, British Columbia. The McAbee Fossil Beds have been dated in 1981 to the early Eocene Ypresian stage.

text: When first described Holcorpa was identified from a single fossil which is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in fine shales of the

text: Florissant Formation

text: . At the time of description, the Florissant formation was considered to be

text: Oligocene

text: in age.  Further refinement of the formation's age using radiometric dating of

text: sanidine crystals

text: has resulted in an age of 34 million years old, which places the formation in the Eocene Chadronian stage. Adjustment to the stages of the Eocene placed the formation in the Priabonian as of 2010.  The second species is known from a single fossil that was discovered in silty medium brown Kamloops group

text: shale

text: in the

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: near

text: Cache Creek, British Columbia

text: . The McAbee Fossil Beds have been dated in 1981 to the early Eocene Ypresian stage.

text: A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid or pliable material such as plastic, glass, metal, or ceramic raw material. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold is the counterpart to a cast.  The very common bi-valve molding process uses two molds, one for each half of the object. Piece-molding uses a number of different molds, each creating a section of a complicated object. This is generally only used for larger and more valuable objects.

text: A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid or pliable material such as

text: plastic

text: glass

text: metal

text: , or

text: ceramic

text: raw material. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold is the counterpart to a

text: cast

text: .  The very common bi-valve molding process uses two molds, one for each half of the object. Piece-molding uses a number of different molds, each creating a section of a complicated object. This is generally only used for larger and more valuable objects.

text: The mirror was cast in a mold with 36 raised mold blocks (similar in shape to a waffle iron). This created a honeycomb mirror that cut the amount of Pyrex needed down from over 40 tons to just 20 tons, making a mirror that would cool faster in use and have multiple "mounting points" on the back to evenly distribute its weight (note – see external links 1934 article for drawings) . The shape of a central hole was also part of the mold so light could pass through the finished mirror when it was used in a Cassegrain configuration (a Pyrex plug for this hole was also made to be used during the grinding and polishing process). While the glass was being poured into the mold during the first attempt to cast the 200-inch mirror, the intense heat caused several of the molding blocks to break loose and float to the top, ruining the mirror. The defective mirror was used to test the annealing process. After the mold was re-engineered, a second mirror was successfully cast.

text: The mirror was cast in a mold with 36 raised mold blocks (similar in shape to a

text: waffle iron

text: ). This created a

text: honeycomb mirror

text: that cut the amount of Pyrex needed down from over 40 tons to just 20 tons, making a mirror that would cool faster in use and have multiple "mounting points" on the back to evenly distribute its weight (note – see external links 1934 article for drawings) . The shape of a central hole was also part of the mold so light could pass through the finished mirror when it was used in a

text: Cassegrain

text: configuration (a Pyrex plug for this hole was also made to be used during the grinding and polishing process). While the glass was being poured into the mold during the first attempt to cast the 200-inch mirror, the intense heat caused several of the molding blocks to break loose and float to the top, ruining the mirror. The defective mirror was used to test the annealing process. After the mold was re-engineered, a second mirror was successfully cast.

text: According to Peter Larson, who attempted to re-trace the origins of the specimen, the holotype fossil of Raptorex (currently designated  LH PV18 and housed in the collections of the Long Hao Institute of Geology and Paleontology in Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China) was purchased from a Mongolian fossil dealer by an American businessman in Tokyo, Japan, and subsequently taken to the United States, where it was again put up for sale at the Tucson, Arizona Gem, Mineral and Fossil Show. There it was sold by Hollis Butts to Dr. Henry Kriegstein, an ophthalmologist and fossil collector. Up until this point, the specimen had been identified as a juvenile specimen of Tarbosaurus, which had been collected from Mongolia. Kriegstein notified American paleontologist Paul Sereno of the specimen, who proposed it represented a subadult of a new species from the Yixian Formation of China. Sereno arranged to publish a description of the specimen and to have it sent to China, from where he assumed it had been smuggled.

text: According to Peter Larson, who attempted to re-trace the origins of the specimen, the holotype fossil of Raptorex (currently designated  LH PV18 and housed in the collections of the Long Hao Institute of Geology and Paleontology in Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, China) was purchased from a Mongolian fossil dealer by an American businessman in Tokyo, Japan, and subsequently taken to the United States, where it was again put up for sale at the Tucson, Arizona Gem, Mineral and Fossil Show. There it was sold by Hollis Butts to Dr. Henry Kriegstein, an ophthalmologist and fossil collector. Up until this point, the specimen had been identified as a juvenile specimen of Tarbosaurus, which had been collected from Mongolia. Kriegstein notified American paleontologist

text: Paul Sereno

text: of the specimen, who proposed it represented a subadult of a new species from the Yixian Formation of China. Sereno arranged to publish a description of the specimen and to have it sent to China, from where he assumed it had been smuggled.

text: Collenia is genus of fossil cyanobacteria that form a particular type of stromatolites.

text: Collenia is

text: genus

text: of

text: fossil

text: cyanobacteria

text: that form a particular type of

text: stromatolites

text: Permineralization is a process of fossilization in which mineral deposits form internal casts of organisms. Carried by water, these minerals fill the spaces within organic tissue. Because of the nature of the casts, permineralization is particularly useful in studies of the internal structures of organisms, usually of plants.

text: Permineralization is a process of

text: fossil

text: ization in which mineral deposits form internal

text: casts

text: of organisms. Carried by water, these minerals fill the spaces within organic tissue. Because of the nature of the casts, permineralization is particularly useful in studies of the internal structures of organisms, usually of plants.

text: Butterfield sees carbonaceous compressions as the main pathway of Burgess Shale-type preservation, but an alternative has been proposed. The fossils actually comprise aluminosilicate films (except for some localized carbonaceous regions, such as the sclerites of Wiwaxia), and Towe, followed by others, suggested that these may represent the mechanism of exceptional preservation. Orr et al. emphasize the importance of clay minerals, whose composition seems to reflect the chemistry of the underlying, decaying, tissue.

text: The Bissett comprises several types of sedimentary deposition, a conglomerate with Permian limestone cobbles, a sandstone sequence, red beds, and lacustrine limestone. It was in the limestone beds that fossil remains of the iquanadon were found  (Wilcox, 1989)

text: Beekite is a distinctive form of chalcedony usually associated with silica replacing carbonate minerals in fossils (e.g. the top part of the coral illustrated).

text: Beekite is a distinctive form of

text: chalcedony

text: usually associated with silica replacing carbonate minerals in

text: fossil

text: s (e.g. the top part of the

text: coral

text: illustrated).

text: It is possible to compress many types of digital data in a way that reduces the size of a computer file needed to store it, or the bandwidth needed to transmit it, with no loss of the full information contained in the original file. A picture, for example, is converted to a digital file by considering it to be an array of dots and specifying the color and brightness of each dot. If the picture contains an area of the same color, it can be compressed without loss by saying "200 red dots" instead of "red dot, red dot, ...(197 more times)..., red dot."

text: It is possible to compress many types of digital data in a way that reduces the size of a

text: computer file

text: needed to store it, or the

text: bandwidth

text: needed to transmit it, with no loss of the full information contained in the original file. A picture, for example, is converted to a digital file by considering it to be an array of dots and specifying the color and brightness of each dot. If the picture contains an area of the same color, it can be compressed without loss by saying "200 red dots" instead of "red dot, red dot, ...(197 more times)..., red dot."

text: Permineralized fossils preserve original cell structure, which can help scientists study an organism at the cellular level. These are three-dimensional fossils, which create permanent molds of internal structures.  The mineralization process itself helps prevent tissue compaction, which distorts the actual size of organs. A permineralized fossil will also reveal much about the environment an organism lived in and the substances found in it since it preserves soft body parts.This helps researchers investigate the plants, animals, and microbes of different time periods.

text: The Fossil Hill Formation is a geologic formation in Ontario. It preserves fossils dating back to the Silurian period.

text: The Fossil Hill Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Ontario

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Silurian

text: period

text: Most organisms are not preserved as fossils. Unless covered quickly after death, their bodies are consumed by other animals and plants or destroyed by weather. Even the bones and shells of animals which were quickly buried after death may be later dissolved by groundwater. The clay in the sediment at Coon Creek sealed off the fragile fossils from the corrosive action of water and the hard parts of the clams, snails, crabs, and shrimps were well preserved.  Occasionally the bones of vertebrates are found, as well as the cartilaginous vertebrae of sharks. Fish scales and plant leaves are sometimes found as well (Wade 1926). The Coon Creek Formation has one of the highest densities of fossil in Eastern North America. Crustacean fossils have also been unearthed in the Coon Creek Formation as well.

text: Most organisms are not preserved as fossils. Unless covered quickly after death, their bodies are consumed by other animals and plants or destroyed by weather. Even the bones and shells of animals which were quickly buried after death may be later dissolved by groundwater. The clay in the sediment at Coon Creek sealed off the fragile fossils from the corrosive action of water and the hard parts of the clams, snails, crabs, and shrimps were well preserved.  Occasionally the bones of vertebrates are found, as well as the cartilaginous vertebrae of sharks. Fish scales and plant leaves are sometimes found as well (Wade 1926). The Coon Creek Formation has one of the highest densities of fossil in Eastern North America.

text: Crustacean

text: fossils have also been unearthed in the Coon Creek Formation as well.

text: Most compressed executables decompress the original code in memory and most require slightly more memory to run (because they need to store the decompressor code, the compressed data and the decompressed code). Moreover, some compressed executables have additional requirements, such as those that write the decompressed executable to the file system before executing it.

text: Associated with the amber deposits at the Old Crossmans locality are fossil plants and insects preserved as fusianized charcoal remains. Ferns, gymnosperms, mosses and over one hundred angisperm taxa have been identified from the Raritan formation lignite fossils. The plants, such as Microvictoria svitkoana and insects such as Paracupes svitkoi were entombed in the anoxic forest floor and then transformed to carbon remains by possible forest fires.  Specimens of amber show evidence of heating in fire as well, having large amounts of bubbles on outer surfaces, and a milky to chalky coloration.  The fires are one of possible causes for the large amount of resin production that resulted in the amber.  A study published in 2011 suggested that the majority of the resin production was initiated by the boring activity of insects such as beetles. Trees that are being attacked by beetles and other insects will often produce defensive resin flows and the majority of New Jersey amber, about 70%, is grouped by the 2011 study as such.  The authors indicated that fire-damaged resin specimens, ones with bubble froth and burned wood debris inclusions, were rare.  Description of a fossil Ptinidae beetle in 2015 has added more evidence for the possible insect origin of the resin production.

text: Associated with the amber deposits at the Old Crossmans locality are fossil plants and insects preserved as

text: fusianized

text: charcoal remains. Ferns, gymnosperms, mosses and over one hundred angisperm taxa have been identified from the Raritan formation lignite fossils. The plants, such as

text: Microvictoria svitkoana

text: and insects such as

text: Paracupes svitkoi

text: were entombed in the anoxic forest floor and then transformed to carbon remains by possible forest fires.  Specimens of amber show evidence of heating in fire as well, having large amounts of bubbles on outer surfaces, and a milky to chalky coloration.  The fires are one of possible causes for the large amount of resin production that resulted in the amber.  A study published in 2011 suggested that the majority of the resin production was initiated by the boring activity of insects such as beetles. Trees that are being attacked by beetles and other insects will often produce defensive resin flows and the majority of New Jersey amber, about 70%, is grouped by the 2011 study as such.  The authors indicated that fire-damaged resin specimens, ones with bubble froth and burned wood debris inclusions, were rare.  Description of a fossil

text: Ptinidae

text: beetle in 2015 has added more evidence for the possible insect origin of the resin production.

text: The economics of plastics processing is determined by the type of process. Plastics can be processed with the following methods: machining, compression molding, transfer molding, injection molding, extrusion, rotational molding, blow molding, thermoforming, casting, forging, and foam molding. Processing methods are selected based on equipment cost, production rate, tooling cost, and build volume. High equipment and tooling cost methods are typically used for large production volumes whereas low - medium equipment cost and tooling cost methods are used for low production volumes. Compression molding, transfer molding, injection molding, forging, and foam molding has high equipment and tooling cost. Lower cost processes are machining, extruding, rotational molding, blow molding, thermoforming, and casting. A summary of each process and its cost is displayed figure 1.

text: The economics of plastics processing is determined by the type of process.

text: Plastics

text: can be processed with the following methods: machining,

text: compression molding

text: transfer molding

text: injection molding

text: extrusion

text: rotational molding

text: blow molding

text: thermoforming

text: , casting, forging, and

text: foam molding

text: . Processing methods are selected based on equipment cost, production rate, tooling cost, and build volume. High equipment and tooling cost methods are typically used for large production volumes whereas low - medium equipment cost and tooling cost methods are used for low production volumes. Compression molding, transfer molding, injection molding, forging, and foam

text: molding

text: has high equipment and tooling cost. Lower cost processes are machining, extruding, rotational molding, blow molding, thermoforming, and casting. A summary of each process and its cost is displayed figure 1.

text: Moldmakers are generally employed in foundries, where molds are used to cast products from metals such as aluminium and cast iron. Moldmakers may also be employed in the plastics, rubber or ceramics industries. The process of manufacturing molds is now often highly automated.

text: Moldmakers are generally employed in

text: foundries

text: , where molds are used to

text: cast

text: products from metals such as

text: aluminium

text: and

text: cast iron

text: . Moldmakers may also be employed in the

text: plastics

text: , rubber or

text: ceramics

text: industries. The process of manufacturing molds is now often highly automated.

text: Various types of other fossils, i.e. jellyfish, sponges, worm trails, and bivalves have been reported from the Bass Formation. Critical examinations of these reported fossils have concluded that the fossil sponges are inorganic silica concretions; the jellyfish are either gas escape structures or algal colonies; and the worm trails are inorganic sedimentary structures. In addition, fossils of a bivalve of unknown affinity, which were reported from the Bass Formation, are now judged to be rounded mud-flakes or pellets that are likely oncolites of algal origin.

text: Various types of other fossils, i.e.

text: jellyfish

text: sponge

text: s,

text: worm

text: trails, and

text: bivalve

text: s have been reported from the Bass Formation. Critical examinations of these reported fossils have concluded that the fossil sponges are inorganic silica

text: concretion

text: s; the jellyfish are either gas escape structures or

text: algal

text: colonies; and the worm trails are inorganic sedimentary structures. In addition, fossils of a

text: bivalve

text: of unknown affinity, which were reported from the Bass Formation, are now judged to be rounded mud-flakes or pellets that are likely

text: oncolite

text: s of algal origin.

text: Data compression attempts to compress the data from a source in order to transmit it more efficiently. For example, Zip data compression makes data files smaller to reduce Internet traffic. Data compression and error correction may be studied in combination.

text: Data compression attempts to compress the data from a source in order to transmit it more efficiently. For example,

text: Zip data compression

text: makes data files smaller to reduce Internet traffic. Data compression and error correction may be

text: studied in combination

text: Natural features seen on this stretch of coast include arches, pinnacles and stack rocks. In some places the sea has broken through resistant rocks to produce coves with restricted entrances, and in one place, the Isle of Portland is connected to the land by a narrow spit. In some parts of the coast, landslides are common. These have exposed a wide range of fossils, the different rock types each having its own typical fauna and flora, thus providing evidence of how animals and plants evolved in this region. The area around Lulworth Cove contains a fossil forest, and 71 different rock strata have been identified at Lyme Regis, each with its own species of ammonite. The fossil collector Mary Anning lived here and her major discoveries of marine reptiles and other fossils were made at a time when the study of palaeontology was just starting to develop. The Charmouth Heritage Coast Centre provides information on the heritage coast, and the whole length of the site can be visited via the South West Coast Path.

text: Natural features seen on this stretch of coast include

text: arches

text: , pinnacles and stack rocks. In some places the sea has broken through resistant rocks to produce

text: cove

text: s with restricted entrances, and in one place, the

text: Isle of Portland

text: is connected to the land by a narrow spit. In some parts of the coast,

text: landslide

text: s are common. These have exposed a wide range of fossils, the different rock types each having its own typical fauna and flora, thus providing evidence of how animals and plants evolved in this region. The area around

text: Lulworth Cove

text: contains a fossil forest, and 71 different rock strata have been identified at

text: Lyme Regis

text: , each with its own species of

text: ammonite

text: . The fossil collector

text: Mary Anning

text: lived here and her major discoveries of marine reptiles and other fossils were made at a time when the study of

text: palaeontology

text: was just starting to develop. The

text: Charmouth Heritage Coast Centre

text: provides information on the heritage coast, and the whole length of the site can be visited via the

text: South West Coast Path

text: Dying planktonic Foraminifera continuously rain down on the sea floor in vast numbers, their mineralized tests preserved as fossils in the accumulating sediment. Beginning in the 1960s, and largely under the auspices of the Deep Sea Drilling, Ocean Drilling, and International Ocean Drilling Programmes, as well as for the purposes of oil exploration, advanced deep-sea drilling techniques have been bringing up sediment cores bearing Foraminifera fossils. The effectively unlimited supply of these fossil tests and the relatively high-precision age-control models available for cores has produced an exceptionally high-quality planktonic Foraminifera fossil record dating back to the mid-Jurassic, and presents an unparalleled record for scientists testing and documenting the evolutionary process. The exceptional quality of the fossil record has allowed an impressively detailed picture of species inter-relationships to be developed on the basis of fossils, in many cases subsequently validated independently through molecular genetic studies on extant specimensLarger benthic Foraminifera with complex shell structure react in a highly specific manner to the different benthic environments and, therefore, the composition of the assemblages and the distribution patterns of particular species reflect simultaneously bottom types and the light gradient. In the course of Earth history, larger Foraminifera are replaced frequently. In particular, associations of Foraminifera characterizing particular shallow water facies types are dying out and are replaced after a certain time interval by new associations with the same structure of shell morphology, emerging from a new evolutionary process of adaptation. These evolutionary processes make the larger Foraminifera useful as index fossils for the Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Cenozoic.

text: Dying planktonic Foraminifera continuously rain down on the sea floor in vast numbers, their mineralized tests preserved as fossils in the accumulating

text: sediment

text: . Beginning in the 1960s, and largely under the auspices of the

text: Deep Sea Drilling

text: Ocean Drilling

text: , and International Ocean Drilling Programmes, as well as for the purposes of oil exploration, advanced deep-sea drilling techniques have been bringing up sediment cores bearing Foraminifera fossils. The effectively unlimited supply of these fossil tests and the relatively high-precision age-control models available for cores has produced an exceptionally high-quality planktonic Foraminifera fossil record dating back to the mid-

text: Jurassic

text: , and presents an unparalleled record for scientists testing and documenting the evolutionary process. The exceptional quality of the fossil record has allowed an impressively detailed picture of species inter-relationships to be developed on the basis of fossils, in many cases subsequently validated independently through molecular genetic studies on extant specimensLarger benthic Foraminifera with complex shell structure react in a highly specific manner to the different benthic environments and, therefore, the composition of the assemblages and the distribution patterns of particular species reflect simultaneously bottom types and the light gradient. In the course of Earth history, larger Foraminifera are replaced frequently. In particular, associations of Foraminifera characterizing particular shallow water facies types are dying out and are replaced after a certain time interval by new associations with the same structure of shell morphology, emerging from a new evolutionary process of adaptation. These evolutionary processes make the larger Foraminifera useful as

text: index fossil

text: s for the

text: Permian

text: Jurassic

text: Cretaceous

text: and

text: Cenozoic

text: A compressed executable requires less storage space in the file system, thus less time to transfer data from the file system into memory. On the other hand, it requires some time to decompress the data before execution begins. However, the speed of various storage media has not kept up with average processor speeds, so the storage is very often the bottleneck. Thus the compressed executable will load faster on most common systems. On modern desktop computers, this is rarely noticeable unless the executable is unusually big, so loading speed is not a primary reason for or against compressing an executable.

text: Early Chinese bronze vessels were cast using the piece-mold process. This process involved the artist forming the mold in pieces from clay, then connecting them to make one overall vessel form. With this method, the decoration on a vessel's surface had to be incised into the clay in reverse and negative. This means that images that would be raised on the surface of the metal would have to become depressions in the clay mold. The void inside the mold is then filled with molten metal, creating the positive. In contrast, the process of lost-wax casting allows an artisan to create a wax model of the desired object. The molten metal takes the place of the wax when cast. Frequently it was necessary in the casting of large vessels to cast the main portion, include it in the construction of another mold, and then cast protrusions—such as the guang's handle—onto that piece.

text: Early Chinese

text: bronze

text: vessels were cast using the piece-mold process. This process involved the artist forming the mold in pieces from clay, then connecting them to make one overall vessel form. With this method, the decoration on a vessel's surface had to be incised into the clay in reverse and negative. This means that images that would be raised on the surface of the metal would have to become depressions in the clay mold. The void inside the mold is then filled with molten metal, creating the positive. In contrast, the process of

text: lost-wax casting

text: allows an artisan to create a wax model of the desired object. The molten metal takes the place of the wax when cast. Frequently it was necessary in the casting of large vessels to cast the main portion, include it in the construction of another mold, and then cast protrusions—such as the guang's handle—onto that piece.

text: The method was pioneered by Harry Toombs and A.E. Rixon of the British Museum in 1950  with the introduction of the technique as a means of extracting fish fossils from acid-soluble carbonates. The technique permitted the preparation of delicate, fragmented, or otherwise unstable fossils by the removal of virtually all of the surrounding rock matrix. The resulting preparation retains the position of all of the parts of the fossil in the position in which they were preserved in the fossil. While the method developed by Toombs and Rixon calls for plastic resins, other substances, such as a mix of ground chalk and beeswax have been used.

text: The method was pioneered by Harry Toombs and A.E. Rixon of the British Museum in 1950  with the introduction of the technique as a means of extracting fish fossils from acid-soluble carbonates. The technique permitted the preparation of delicate, fragmented, or otherwise unstable fossils by the removal of virtually all of the surrounding rock matrix. The resulting preparation retains the position of all of the parts of the fossil in the position in which they were preserved in the fossil. While the method developed by Toombs and Rixon calls for plastic resins, other substances, such as a mix of ground

text: chalk

text: and

text: beeswax

text: have been used.

text: Magnesium alloys, especially precipitation hardened alloys, are used in casting. Sand, permanent mold and die casting methods are used, but plaster-of-Paris casting has not yet been perfected. Sand casting in green-sand molds requires a special technique, because the magnesium reacts with moisture in the sand, forming magnesium oxide and liberating hydrogen. The oxide forms blackened areas called burns on the surface of the casting, and the liberated hydrogen may cause porosity. Inhibitors such as sulfur, boric acid, ethylene glycol, or ammonium fluoride are mixed with the damp sand to prevent the reaction. All gravity-fed molds require an extra high column of molten metal to make the pressure great enough to force gas bubbles out of the casting and make the metal take the detail of the mold. The thickness of the casting wall should be at least 5/32 in. under most conditions. Extra-large fillets must be provided at all re-entrant corners, since stress concentration in magnesium castings are particularly dangerous.Permanent mold castings are made from the same alloys and have about the same physical properties as sand castings. Since the solidification shrinkage of magnesium is about the same as that of aluminium, aluminium molds can often be adapted to make magnesium-alloy castings (although it may be necessary to change the gating).Pressure cold-chamber castings are used for quantity production of small parts. The rapid solidification caused by contact of the fluid metal with the cold die produces a casting of dense structure with excellent physical properties. The finish and dimensional accuracy are very good, and machining is necessary only where extreme accuracy is required. Usually these castings are not heat treated.

text: Magnesium alloys, especially precipitation hardened alloys, are used in

text: casting

text: The electroslag remelting (ESR) process is used to remelt and refine steels and various super-alloys, resulting in high-quality ingots. This process can be started up through vacuum induction melting. The ESR process uses the as-cast alloy as a consumable electrode.  Electric current (generally AC) is passed between the electrode and the new ingot, which is formed in the bottom of a water-cooled copper mold.  The new ingot is covered in an engineered slag that is superheated by the electric current.  The electrode tip is slowly melted from contact with the slag.  These metal droplets travel through the slag to the bottom of the water-cooled mold and slowly freeze as the ingot is directionally solidified upwards from the bottom of the mold.  The slag pool floats above the refined alloy, continuously floating upwards as the alloy solidifies.  The molten metal is cleaned of impurities that chemically react with the slag or otherwise float to the top of the molten pool as the molten droplets pass through the slag.

text: The electroslag remelting (ESR) process is used to remelt and refine steels and various super-alloys, resulting in high-quality ingots. This process can be started up through

text: vacuum induction melting

text: . The ESR process uses the as-cast alloy as a consumable electrode.  Electric current (generally AC) is passed between the electrode and the new ingot, which is formed in the bottom of a water-cooled copper mold.  The new ingot is covered in an engineered slag that is superheated by the electric current.  The electrode tip is slowly melted from contact with the slag.  These metal droplets travel through the slag to the bottom of the water-cooled mold and slowly freeze as the ingot is directionally solidified upwards from the bottom of the mold.  The slag pool floats above the refined alloy, continuously floating upwards as the alloy solidifies.  The molten metal is cleaned of impurities that chemically react with the slag or otherwise float to the top of the molten pool as the molten droplets pass through the slag.

text: Undichna is a fish-fin, or fish-swimming fossil trail left as a fossil impression on a substrate, or the opposite impression on an overlying substrate; this type of fossil is an ichnofossil, in this case a specific ichnogenus, Undichna; the term "undichna" is composed of the words: 'und'–'ichna', for "wave-trace".

text: Undichna is a

text: fish

text: -fin, or fish-swimming

text: fossil trail

text: left as a

text: fossil

text: impression on a substrate, or the opposite impression on an overlying substrate; this type of fossil is an

text: ichnofossil

text: , in this case a specific

text: ichnogenus

text: , Undichna; the term "undichna" is composed of the words: 'und'–'ichna', for "wave-trace".

text: For the riser to cool after the casting the riser must cool more slowly than the casting. Chvorinov's rule briefly states that the slowest cooling time is achieved with the greatest volume and the least surface area; geometrically speaking, this is a sphere. So, ideally, a riser should be a sphere, but this isn't a very practical shape to insert into a mold, so a cylinder is used instead. The height to diameter ratio of the cylinder varies depending on the material, location of the riser, size of the flask, etc.

text: For the riser to cool after the casting the riser must cool more slowly than the casting.

text: Chvorinov's rule

text: briefly states that the slowest cooling time is achieved with the greatest volume and the least surface area; geometrically speaking, this is a sphere. So, ideally, a riser should be a sphere, but this isn't a very practical shape to insert into a mold, so a cylinder is used instead. The height to diameter ratio of the cylinder varies depending on the material, location of the riser, size of the flask, etc.

text: Many ammonoids probably lived in the open water of ancient seas, rather than at the sea bottom, because their fossils are often found in rocks laid down under conditions where no bottom-dwelling life is found. Many of them  (such as Oxynoticeras) are thought to have been good swimmers, with flattened, discus-shaped, streamlined shells, although some ammonoids were less effective swimmers and were likely to have been slow-swimming bottom-dwellers. Synchrotron analysis of an aptychophoran ammonite revealed remains of isopod and mollusc larvae in its buccal cavity, indicating at least this kind of ammonite fed on plankton.   They may have avoided predation by squirting ink, much like modern cephalopods; ink is occasionally preserved in fossil specimens.

text: Many ammonoids probably lived in the open water of ancient seas, rather than at the sea bottom, because their fossils are often found in rocks laid down under conditions where no

text: bottom-dwelling

text: life is found. Many of them  (such as

text: Oxynoticeras

text: ) are thought to have been good swimmers, with flattened, discus-shaped, streamlined shells, although some ammonoids were less effective swimmers and were likely to have been slow-swimming bottom-dwellers.

text: Synchrotron

text: analysis of an aptychophoran ammonite revealed remains of

text: isopod

text: and

text: mollusc

text: larvae in its buccal cavity, indicating at least this kind of ammonite fed on

text: plankton

text: .   They may have avoided predation by squirting

text: ink

text: , much like modern cephalopods; ink is occasionally preserved in fossil specimens.

text: Halictus? savenyei is known only from one fossil, the part and counterpart holotype, specimen numbers "Q-0424a" for the part and "Q-0424b" for the counterpart respectively. The specimen is composed of a complete female specimen preserved as a compression fossil on small chips of shale, recovered from outcrops of the Coldwater Beds shales in the Quilchena area by Rene Savenye. The type specimen is currently preserved in the Department of Paleobiology collections housed at Simon Fraser University, located in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. H.? savenyei was first studied by Michael S. Engel of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA and S. Bruce Archibald of the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Their 2003 type description of the new species was published in the journal The Canadian Entomologist. Engel and Archibald coined the specific epithet savenyei in honor of the late Rene Savenye who found and donated the fossil. At the time of the species description, Halictus? savenyei was the second-oldest bee body fossil described and the only bee described from Canadian fossil deposits.

text: Halictus? savenyei is known only from one fossil, the

text: part and counterpart

text: holotype

text: , specimen numbers "Q-0424a" for the part and "Q-0424b" for the counterpart respectively. The specimen is composed of a complete female specimen preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: on small chips of shale, recovered from outcrops of the Coldwater Beds shales in the Quilchena area by Rene Savenye. The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: Department of Paleobiology

text: collections housed at

text: Simon Fraser University

text: , located in

text: Burnaby, British Columbia

text: , Canada. H.? savenyei was first studied by

text: Michael S. Engel

text: of the

text: University of Kansas

text: Lawrence, Kansas

text: , USA and S. Bruce Archibald of the

text: Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: in

text: Cambridge, Massachusetts

text: , USA. Their 2003

text: type description

text: The Canadian Entomologist

text: . Engel and Archibald coined the

text: specific epithet

text: savenyei in honor of the late Rene Savenye who found and donated the fossil. At the time of the species description, Halictus? savenyei was the second-oldest bee body fossil described and the only bee described from Canadian fossil deposits.

text: "And What Remains" directed by Dycee WildmanThe third part of "Fossils" is entitled "And What Remains." It is the most traditional narrative of the three parts, and tells the story about a couple who slowly drift apart as they become absorbed into each of their life's passions, one being a botanist and one being a painter. This part consists of the last three songs on the "Fossils" album: "Let it be Gone," the title song "Fossils," and "Didn't Know Love."

text: The two subsets of Type II hybrid masonry are Type IIa and Type IIb. The difference between the two systems are whether the vertical reinforcement is anchored into the base or to the steel beam. In Type IIa, the vertical reinforcement is anchored and can develop tension forces along its length. The vertical reinforcement is not anchored in Type IIb hybrid masonry and consequently the rebar cannot take the force on the tension side of the wall. Instead, the top of the wall undergoes compression.

text: In a true horizontal casting machine, the mold axis is horizontal and the flow of steel is horizontal from liquid to thin shell to solid (no bending).  In this type of machine, either strand or mold oscillation is used to prevent sticking in the mold.

text: Finally, the casting must be designed to produce directional solidification, which sweeps from the extremities of the mold cavity toward the riser(s). In this way, the riser can feed molten metal continuously to part of the casting that is solidifying. One part of achieving this end is by placing the riser near the thickest and largest part of the casting, as that part of the casting will cool and solidify last. If this type of solidification is not possible, multiple risers that feed various sections of the casting or chills may be necessary.

text: Finally, the casting must be designed to produce directional solidification, which sweeps from the extremities of the mold cavity toward the riser(s). In this way, the riser can feed molten metal continuously to part of the casting that is solidifying. One part of achieving this end is by placing the riser near the thickest and largest part of the casting, as that part of the casting will cool and solidify last. If this type of solidification is not possible, multiple risers that feed various sections of the casting or

text: chills

text: may be necessary.

text: The Phylloxeridae is a small family of plant-parasitic hemipterans with only 75 described species. This group comprises two subfamilies (Phylloxerininae and Phylloxerinae) and 11 genera with one that is fossil. The genus type is Phylloxera. The Phylloxeridae species are usually called Phylloxerans or Phylloxerids.

text: The samples examined were probably once mud that for millions to tens of millions of years could have hosted living organisms.  This wet environment had neutral pH, low salinity, and variable redox states of both iron and sulfur species. These types of iron and sulfur could have been used by living organisms. C, H, O, S, N, and P were measured directly as key biogenic elements, and by inference,  P is assumed to have been there as well. The two samples, John Klein and Cumberland, contain basaltic minerals, Ca-sulfates, Fe oxide/hydroxides, Fe-sulfides, amorphous material, and trioctahedral smectites (a type of clay). Basaltic minerals in the mudstone are similar to those in nearby aeolian deposits. However, the mudstone has far less Fe-forsterite plus magnetite, so Fe-forsterite (type of olivine) was probably altered to form smectite (a type of clay) and magnetite.  A Late Noachian/Early Hesperian or younger age indicates that clay mineral formation on Mars extended beyond Noachian time; therefore, in this location neutral pH lasted longer than previously thought.

text: pH

text: , low

text: salinity

text: , and variable

text: redox

text: states of both

text: iron

text: and

text: sulfur

text: C

text: H

text: O

text: S

text: N

text: , and

text: P

text: were measured directly as key biogenic elements, and by inference,  P is assumed to have been there as well. The two samples,

text: John Klein

text: and

text: Cumberland

text: smectite

text: mudstone

text: are similar to those in nearby

text: aeolian

text: forsterite

text: plus

text: magnetite

text: , so Fe-forsterite (type of

text: olivine

text: magnetite

text: .  A Late

text: Noachian

text: /Early

text: Hesperian

text: Tuffeau dates to the Mesozoic era (Upper Cretaceous Turonian stage). The Loire Valley formed the floor of a vast sea 90 million years ago. Over the millennia, sediment from the sea floor, comprising fossilized living organisms and sand particles, became compressed to form what is now known as Tuffeau stone. It differs from genuine chalk by the presence of foraminifera and many remains of shells originally deposited in shallow water (between 2 and 20 meters) and subsequently agitated, near a coastline. In contrast, true chalk is rich in another type of shelly micro-fossil, the coccolith, which was deposited in deeper (~ 200 meters), and quieter, water.

text: Tuffeau dates to the

text: Mesozoic era

text: Upper Cretaceous

text: Turonian

text: stage). The Loire Valley formed the floor of a vast sea 90 million years ago. Over the millennia, sediment from the sea floor, comprising fossilized living organisms and sand particles, became compressed to form what is now known as Tuffeau stone. It differs from genuine

text: chalk

text: by the presence of

text: foraminifera

text: and many remains of shells originally deposited in shallow water (between 2 and 20 meters) and subsequently agitated, near a coastline. In contrast, true chalk is rich in another type of shelly

text: micro-fossil

text: , the

text: coccolith

text: , which was deposited in deeper (~ 200 meters), and quieter, water.

text: Shell moulding, also known as shell-mould casting, is an expendable mold casting process that uses a resin covered sand to form the mold. As compared to sand casting, this process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that require high precision.Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured into an expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.

text: Shell moulding, also known as shell-mould casting, is an expendable mold

text: casting

text: process that uses a

text: resin

text: covered

text: sand

text: to form the

text: mold

text: . As compared to

text: sand casting

text: , this process has better dimensional accuracy, a higher productivity rate, and lower labor requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that require high precision.Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured into an expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal.

text: Vacuum molding (V-process) is a variation of the sand casting process for most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, in which unbonded sand is held in the flask with a vacuum. The pattern is specially vented so that a vacuum can be pulled through it. A heat-softened thin sheet () of plastic film is draped over the pattern and a vacuum is drawn (). A special vacuum forming flask is placed over the plastic pattern and is filled with a free-flowing sand. The sand is vibrated to compact the sand and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in the cope. Another sheet of plastic is placed over the top of the sand in the flask and a vacuum is drawn through the special flask; this hardens and strengthens the unbonded sand. The vacuum is then released on the pattern and the cope is removed. The drag is made in the same way (without the sprue and pouring cup). Any cores are set in place and the mold is closed. The molten metal is poured while the cope and drag are still under a vacuum, because the plastic vaporizes but the vacuum keeps the shape of the sand while the metal solidifies. When the metal has solidified, the vacuum is turned off and the sand runs out freely, releasing the casting.

text: Vacuum molding (V-process) is a variation of the sand casting process for most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, in which unbonded sand is held in the flask with a

text: vacuum

text: . The pattern is specially vented so that a vacuum can be pulled through it. A heat-softened thin sheet () of

text: plastic

text: film

text: is draped over the pattern and a vacuum is drawn (). A special vacuum forming flask is placed over the plastic pattern and is filled with a free-flowing sand. The sand is vibrated to compact the sand and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in the cope. Another sheet of plastic is placed over the top of the sand in the flask and a vacuum is drawn through the special flask; this hardens and strengthens the unbonded sand. The vacuum is then released on the pattern and the cope is removed. The drag is made in the same way (without the sprue and pouring cup). Any cores are set in place and the mold is closed. The molten metal is poured while the cope and drag are still under a vacuum, because the plastic vaporizes but the vacuum keeps the shape of the sand while the metal solidifies. When the metal has solidified, the vacuum is turned off and the sand runs out freely, releasing the casting.

text: Due to the outbreak of war, the election never took place. Bowden found himself estranged from the North East Derbyshire Unionist Association, going so far as to issue libel proceedings against the association's vice-chairman. He continued as the MP, but when he faced re-election in 1918 he was denied endorsement from his party leader Andrew Bonar Law and the Coalition Government which contributed to his defeat. The local Liberals replaced Houfton as their candidate and Labour replaced Martin.The Derbyshire Miners Association continued to find itself at odds with the Miners Federation of Great Britain over matters other than candidate selection and party allegiance. During the General Strike of 1926, the Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire miners brokered a deal with the local colliery owners, led by Houfton. However, the deal was opposed by the MFGB which resulted in a formal split in the local miners unions that lasted into the 1930s.

text: Due to the outbreak of war, the election never took place. Bowden found himself estranged from the North East Derbyshire Unionist Association, going so far as to issue

text: libel

text: proceedings against the association's vice-chairman. He continued as the MP, but when he faced re-election in 1918 he was denied endorsement from his party leader Andrew Bonar Law and the Coalition Government which contributed to his defeat. The local Liberals replaced Houfton as their candidate and Labour replaced Martin.The Derbyshire Miners Association continued to find itself at odds with the Miners Federation of Great Britain over matters other than candidate selection and party allegiance. During the General Strike of 1926, the Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire miners brokered a deal with the local colliery owners, led by Houfton. However, the deal was opposed by the MFGB which resulted in a formal split in the local miners unions that lasted into the 1930s.

text: There are a wide variety of wax types used in the lost wax casting process.  Generally they fall into three main types, soft, hard and injection waxes. Injection waxes are made and intended to be used for injecting wax under pressure into rubber or other types of molds.  They can be carved and worked otherwise, but they are not specifically designed for that use.  Their properties more often target good injection properties: flow, low shrinkage, pot life etc.

text: There are a wide variety of wax types used in the

text: lost wax casting

text: process.  Generally they fall into three main types, soft, hard and injection waxes. Injection waxes are made and intended to be used for injecting wax under pressure into rubber or other types of molds.  They can be carved and worked otherwise, but they are not specifically designed for that use.  Their properties more often target good injection properties: flow, low shrinkage, pot life etc.

text: An incrustation pseudomorph, also called perimorph, results from a process by which a mineral is coated by another and  the encased mineral dissolves. The encasing mineral remains intact, and retains the shape of the original mineral or material. Alternatively, another mineral may fill the space (the mold) previously occupied by some other mineral or material.

text: A compression fossil is a fossil preserved in sedimentary rock that has undergone physical compression.  While it is uncommon to find animals preserved as good compression fossils, it is very common to find plants preserved this way.  The reason for this is that physical compression of the rock often leads to distortion of the fossil.

text: A compression fossil is a

text: fossil

text: preserved in

text: sedimentary rock

text: that has undergone

text: physical compression

text: .  While it is uncommon to find

text: animal

text: s preserved as good compression fossils, it is very common to find

text: plant

text: s preserved this way.  The reason for this is that physical compression of the rock often leads to

text: distortion

text: of the fossil.

text: A casting defect is an undesired irregularity in a metal casting process. Some defects can be tolerated while others can be repaired, otherwise they must be eliminated. They are broken down into five main categories: gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mold material defects, pouring metal defects, and metallurgical defects.

text: A casting defect is an undesired irregularity in a

text: metal casting

text: process. Some defects can be tolerated while others can be repaired, otherwise they must be eliminated. They are broken down into five main categories: gas porosity, shrinkage defects, mold material defects, pouring metal defects, and metallurgical defects.

text: In paleontology, dendritic mineral crystal forms are often mistaken for fossils. These pseudofossils form as naturally occurring fissures in the rock are filled by percolating mineral solutions. They form when water rich in manganese and iron flows along fractures and bedding planes between layers of limestone and other rock types, depositing dendritic crystals as the solution flows through. A variety of manganese oxides and hydroxides are involved, including:

text: In

text: paleontology

text: , dendritic mineral crystal forms are often mistaken for

text: fossil

text: s. These

text: pseudofossil

text: s form as naturally occurring fissures in the rock are filled by percolating mineral solutions. They form when water rich in

text: manganese

text: and

text: iron

text: flows along fractures and bedding planes between layers of

text: limestone

text: and other rock types, depositing dendritic crystals as the solution flows through. A variety of manganese oxides and hydroxides are involved, including:

text: Mineral spirits are an inexpensive petroleum-based replacement for the vegetable-based turpentine. It is commonly used as a paint thinner for oil-based paint and cleaning brushes, and as an organic solvent in other applications. Mineral turpentine is chemically very different from turpentine, which mainly consists of pinene, and it has inferior solvent properties. Artists use mineral spirits as an alternative to turpentine since it is less flammable and less toxic. Because of interactions with pigments, artists require a higher grade of mineral spirits than many industrial users, including the complete absence of residual sulfur.

text: Mineral spirits are an inexpensive

text: petroleum

text: -based replacement for the

text: vegetable

text: -based

text: turpentine

text: . It is commonly used as a paint thinner for oil-based

text: paint

text: and cleaning brushes, and as an

text: organic solvent

text: in other applications. Mineral turpentine is chemically very different from turpentine, which mainly consists of

text: pinene

text: , and it has inferior solvent properties. Artists use mineral spirits as an alternative to

text: turpentine

text: since it is less flammable and less toxic. Because of interactions with pigments, artists require a higher grade of mineral spirits than many industrial users, including the complete absence of residual sulfur.

text: Frequently, too, the process of coppering is used for the purpose of making a mold, from which an entire block can be made and duplicated as often as desired, by casting. In this case the metal strips are driven to a predetermined depth into the face of a piece of lime-wood cut across the grain, and, when the whole design is completed in this way, the block is placed, metal face downwards in a tray of molten type-metal or solder, which transmits sufficient heat to the inserted portions of the strips of copper to enable them to carbonize the wood immediately in contact with them and, at the same time, firmly attaches itself to the outstanding portions. When cold a slight tap with a hammer on the back of the limewood block easily detaches the cake of the type-metal or alloy and along with it, of course, the strips of copper to which it is firmly soldered, leaving a matrix, or mold, in wood of the original design. The casting is made in an alloy of low melting-point, anti, after cooling, is filed or ground until all its projections are of the same height and perfectly smooth, after which it is screwed onto a wooden support and is ready for printing. Similar molds are also made by burning out the lines of the pattern with a red-hot steel punch, capable of being raised or lowered at will, and under which the block is moved about by hand along the lines of the pattern.

text: The common denominator among most deposits of fossil insects and terrestrial plants is the lake environment. Those insects that became preserved were either living in the fossil lake (autochthonous) or carried into it from surrounding habitats by winds, stream currents, or their own flight (allochthonous). Drowning and dying insects not eaten by fish and other predators settle to the bottom, where they may be preserved in the lake’s sediments, called lacustrine, under appropriate conditions. Even amber, or fossil resin from trees, requires a watery environment that is lacustrine or brackish in order to be preserved. Without protection in anoxic sediments, amber would gradually disintegrate; it is never found buried in fossil soils. Various factors contribute greatly to what kinds of insects become preserved and how well, if indeed at all, including lake depth, temperature, and alkalinity; type of sediments; whether the lake was surrounded by forest or vast and featureless salt pans; and if it was choked in anoxia or highly oxygenated. There are some major exceptions to the lacustrine theme of fossil insects, the most famous being the Late Jurassic limestones from Solnhofen and Eichstätt, Germany, which are marine. These deposits are famous for pterosaurs and the earliest bird, Archaeopteryx. The limestones were formed by a very fine mud of calcite that settled within stagnant, hypersaline bays isolated from inland seas. Most organisms in these limestones, including rare insects, were preserved intact, sometimes with feathers and outlines of soft wing membranes, indicating that there was very little decay. The insects, however, are like casts or molds, having relief but little detail. In some cases iron oxides precipitated around wing veins, revealing better detail.

text: The common denominator among most deposits of fossil insects and terrestrial plants is the lake environment. Those insects that became preserved were either living in the fossil lake (

text: autochthonous

text: ) or carried into it from surrounding habitats by winds, stream currents, or their own flight (

text: allochthonous

text: ). Drowning and dying insects not eaten by fish and other predators settle to the bottom, where they may be preserved in the lake’s sediments, called lacustrine, under appropriate conditions. Even amber, or fossil resin from trees, requires a watery environment that is lacustrine or

text: brackish

text: in order to be preserved. Without protection in anoxic sediments, amber would gradually disintegrate; it is never found buried in fossil soils. Various factors contribute greatly to what kinds of insects become preserved and how well, if indeed at all, including lake depth, temperature, and alkalinity; type of sediments; whether the lake was surrounded by forest or vast and featureless salt pans; and if it was choked in anoxia or highly oxygenated. There are some major exceptions to the lacustrine theme of fossil insects, the most famous being the Late Jurassic

text: limestone

text: s from

text: Solnhofen

text: and

text: Eichstätt

text: , Germany, which are marine. These deposits are famous for pterosaurs and the earliest bird,

text: Archaeopteryx

text: . The limestones were formed by a very fine mud of calcite that settled within stagnant, hypersaline bays isolated from inland seas. Most organisms in these

text: limestone

text: s, including rare insects, were preserved intact, sometimes with feathers and outlines of soft wing membranes, indicating that there was very little decay. The insects, however, are like casts or molds, having relief but little detail. In some cases iron oxides precipitated around wing veins, revealing better detail.

text: When described, Eoprephasma was known from two isolated wings which are compression-impression fossils preserved in a layer of soft sedimentary rock.  Along with other well preserved insect fossils, the Eoprephasma specimens were collected from layers of Ypresian age Lagerstätte lake sediments Washington, USA, and an additional three partial Susumanioidea fossils were recovered from British Columbia, Canada.  The partial Susumanioidea specimens were found in an unnamed formation belonging to the Kamloops group that outcrops at the McAbee Fossil Beds near Cache Creek, BC. The two E. hichensi wing were recovered from the Tom Thumb Tuff member of the Klondike Mountain Formation in Republic, Washington which is designated the type locality for the species, with the holotype recovered from the "Boot hill" site #B4131, and the paratype from the "Corner lot" site #A0307.

text: When described, Eoprephasma was known from two isolated wings which are

text: compression-impression fossils

text: preserved in a layer of soft

text: sedimentary

text: rock.  Along with other well preserved insect fossils, the Eoprephasma specimens were collected from layers of

text: Ypresian

text: age

text: Lagerstätte

text: lake sediments

text: Washington

text: , USA, and an additional three partial Susumanioidea fossils were recovered from

text: British Columbia, Canada

text: .  The partial Susumanioidea specimens were found in an unnamed formation belonging to the Kamloops group that outcrops at the

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: near

text: Cache Creek, BC

text: . The two E. hichensi wing were recovered from the Tom Thumb Tuff member of the Klondike Mountain Formation in

text: Republic, Washington

text: which is designated the

text: type locality

text: for the species, with the holotype recovered from the "Boot hill" site #B4131, and the paratype from the "Corner lot" site #A0307.

text: The Ardita's type 118 inline-four sidevalve engine had a bore and stroke of  and displaced . With a 6.2:1 compression ratio and a single Zenith 36 VIF carburettor it produced . Top speed was  respectively for the 518 C and 518 L saloons.The Ardita 2000's type 118 A was obtained from the smaller engine by enlarging its bore to  (bore and stroke 82×92 mm), displacing . With unchanged compression ratio and carburettor it produced  at 3,600 rpm. Top speed was about .

text: The Ardita's type 118

text: inline-four

text: sidevalve engine

text: had a bore and stroke of  and displaced . With a 6.2:1

text: compression ratio

text: and a single

text: Zenith

text: 36 VIF

text: carburettor

text: it produced . Top speed was  respectively for the 518 C and 518 L saloons.The Ardita 2000's type 118 A was obtained from the smaller engine by enlarging its bore to  (bore and stroke 82×92 mm), displacing . With unchanged compression ratio and carburettor it produced  at 3,600 rpm. Top speed was about .

text: Tracks can be fossilized over millions of years.  It is for this reason we are able to see fossilized dinosaur tracks in some types of rock formations.  These types of fossils are called trace fossils since they are a trace of an animal left behind rather than the animal itself. In paleontology, tracks often preserve as sandstone infill, forming a natural mold of the track.

text: Tracks can be

text: fossil

text: ized over millions of years.  It is for this reason we are able to see fossilized dinosaur tracks in some types of rock formations.  These types of fossils are called

text: trace fossils

text: since they are a trace of an animal left behind rather than the animal itself. In paleontology, tracks often preserve as sandstone infill, forming a natural mold of the track.

text: There are two primary ways of constructing statistical models: in a static model, the data is analyzed and a model is constructed, then this model is stored with the compressed data. This approach is simple and modular, but has the disadvantage that the model itself can be expensive to store, and also that it forces using a single model for all data being compressed, and so performs poorly on files that contain heterogeneous data. Adaptive models dynamically update the model as the data is compressed. Both the encoder and decoder begin with a trivial model, yielding poor compression of initial data, but as they learn more about the data, performance improves. Most popular types of compression used in practice now use adaptive coders.

text: Die castings and permanent mold castings commonly contain internal porosity. This porosity is generally localized to the deepest cross-sections of the part and does not extend to the outer skin. However, if the part is also machined, the internal porosity will be exposed and the part will leak if pressurized. Machined die castings that need to hold fluids (intake manifolds, coolant connectors, transmission cases, pump housings and fluid power components) are routinely sealed for life using acrylic resins. Because the sealant is internal to the part, the exterior dimensions and appearance of the part are unchanged.

text: Die casting

text: s and

text: permanent mold casting

text: s commonly contain internal porosity. This porosity is generally localized to the deepest cross-sections of the part and does not extend to the outer skin. However, if the part is also machined, the internal porosity will be exposed and the part will leak if pressurized. Machined die castings that need to hold fluids (intake manifolds, coolant connectors, transmission cases, pump housings and fluid power components) are routinely sealed for life using acrylic resins. Because the sealant is internal to the part, the exterior dimensions and appearance of the part are unchanged.

text: In practical terms, the plate is inserted between the perpendicular polarisers at an angle of 45 degrees. This allows two different procedures to be carried out to investigate the mineral under the crosshairs of the microscope. More simply, in ordinary cross polarised light, the plate can be used to distinguish the orientation of the optical indicatrix relative to crystal elongation - that is, whether the mineral is "length slow" or "length fast" - based on whether the visible interference colours increase or decrease by one order when the plate is added. A slightly more complex procedure allows for a tint plate to be used in conjunction with interference figure techniques to allow measurement of the optic angle of the mineral. The optic angle (often notated as "2V") can both be diagnostic of mineral type, as well as in some cases revealing information about the variation of chemical composition within a single mineral type.

text: In practical terms, the plate is inserted between the perpendicular polarisers at an angle of 45 degrees. This allows two different procedures to be carried out to investigate the mineral under the crosshairs of the microscope. More simply, in ordinary cross polarised light, the plate can be used to distinguish the orientation of the optical indicatrix relative to crystal elongation - that is, whether the mineral is "length slow" or "length fast" - based on whether the visible interference colours increase or decrease by one order when the plate is added. A slightly more complex procedure allows for a tint plate to be used in conjunction with

text: interference figure

text: techniques to allow measurement of the optic angle of the mineral. The optic angle (often notated as "2V") can both be diagnostic of mineral type, as well as in some cases revealing information about the variation of chemical composition within a single mineral type.

text: It has often been suggested that this type of preservation was possible only when sediments were not disturbed by burrowing animals or the anchors of plants. However a similar type of preservation has been found in fossils from the Late Riphean period, about , but in no known fossils between the end of that epoch and the start of the Cambrian. This suggests that such bioturbation has little to do with the appearance and disappearance of Burgess Shale type preservation. Such preservation may depend on the presence of clay-like minerals that inhibit decomposition, and ocean chemistry may only have favoured the production of such minerals for limited periods of time. If so, it is impossible to be sure when the animals known as "Burgess Shale fauna" first appeared or when they became extinct. A few fossils of animals similar to those found in the Burgess Shale have been found in rocks from the Silurian, Ordovician and Early Devonian periods, in other words up to 100 million years after the Burgess Shale.

text: It has often been suggested that this type of preservation was possible only when sediments were not

text: disturbed

text: by burrowing animals or the

text: anchors

text: of plants. However a similar type of preservation has been found in fossils from the Late

text: Riphean

text: period, about , but in no known fossils between the end of that epoch and the start of the Cambrian. This suggests that such bioturbation has little to do with the appearance and disappearance of

text: Burgess Shale type preservation

text: . Such preservation may depend on the presence of

text: clay

text: -like minerals that inhibit decomposition, and ocean chemistry may only have favoured the production of such minerals for limited periods of time. If so, it is impossible to be sure when the animals known as "Burgess Shale fauna" first appeared or when they became extinct. A few fossils of animals similar to those found in the Burgess Shale have been found in rocks from the

text: Silurian

text: Ordovician

text: and Early

text: Devonian

text: periods, in other words up to 100 million years after the Burgess Shale.

text: Different kinds of labialization are possible. In mid to high rounded back vowels the lips are generally protruded ("pursed") outward, a phenomenon known as exolabial rounding because the insides of the lips are visible, whereas in mid to high rounded front vowels the lips are generally "compressed" with the margins of the lips pulled in and drawn towards each other, a phenomenon known as endolabial rounding. However, not all languages follow that pattern. Japanese , for example, is an endolabial (compressed) back vowel, and sounds quite different from an English exolabial . Swedish and Norwegian are the only two known languages in which the feature is contrastive; they have both endo- and exo-labial close front vowels and close central vowels, respectively. In many phonetic treatments, both are considered types of rounding, but some phoneticians do not believe that these are subsets of a single phenomenon and posit instead three independent features of rounded (exolabial), compressed (endolabial) and spread (unrounded). Others distinguish compressed rounded vowels, in which the corners of the mouth are drawn together, from compressed unrounded vowels, in which the lips are compressed but the corners remain apart as in spread vowels.

text: Different kinds of

text: labialization

text: are possible. In mid to high rounded back vowels the lips are generally protruded ("pursed") outward, a phenomenon known as exolabial rounding because the insides of the lips are visible, whereas in mid to high rounded front vowels the lips are generally "compressed" with the margins of the lips pulled in and drawn towards each other, a phenomenon known as endolabial rounding. However, not all languages follow that pattern.

text: Japanese

text: , for example, is an endolabial (compressed) back vowel, and sounds quite different from an English exolabial .

text: Swedish

text: and

text: Norwegian

text: are the only two known languages in which the feature is contrastive; they have both endo- and exo-labial

text: close front vowels

text: and

text: close central vowels

text: , respectively. In many phonetic treatments, both are considered types of rounding, but some phoneticians do not believe that these are subsets of a single phenomenon and posit instead three independent features of rounded (exolabial), compressed (endolabial) and spread (unrounded). Others distinguish compressed rounded vowels, in which the corners of the mouth are drawn together, from compressed unrounded vowels, in which the lips are compressed but the corners remain apart as in spread vowels.

text: The genus and species was described from a series of type specimens, the holotype specimen OMSI pb810, and a pair of paratypes which are currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections of the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry in Portland, Oregon. The fossils were part of a group of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, A. W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: The genus and species was described from a series of

text: type specimens

text: , the

text: holotype

text: specimen OMSI pb810, and a pair of

text: paratype

text: s which are currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of the

text: Oregon Museum of Science and Industry

text: in

text: Portland, Oregon

text: . The fossils were part of a group of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, A. W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: A plastic forming machine, or plastic molding machine, is developed on the basis of rubber machinery and metal die-casting machine. Since the polymer injection molding process and molding equipment in the 1870s, as an industry, plastic forming machines were rapidly developed until the 1930s, with the gradual commercialization of plastic molding equipment, injection molding and extrusion molding became the most common industrialized processing methods. Blow molding is the third-largest plastic molding method after the injection molding and extrusion blow molding method, it is also the fastest development of plastic molding method.

text: A plastic forming machine, or plastic molding machine, is developed on the basis of rubber machinery and metal

text: die-casting

text: machine. Since the polymer

text: injection molding

text: process and molding equipment in the 1870s, as an industry, plastic forming machines were rapidly developed until the 1930s, with the gradual commercialization of plastic molding equipment, injection molding and

text: extrusion molding

text: became the most common industrialized processing methods.

text: Blow molding

text: is the third-largest plastic molding method after the injection molding and extrusion blow molding method, it is also the fastest development of plastic molding method.

text: Plant macrofossils are preserved through four main modes of preservation at archaeological sites. First, plant remains, usually cereal grains, chaff, seeds and charcoal are largely reduced to elemental carbon (charred) when they are heated in a reducing atmosphere. These are referred to as 'charred' or 'carbonised' plant remains. This mode of preservation is biased towards plant remains that come into contact with fire, through cooking or fuel use, and those which are less fragile, such as cereal grains and nutshell. Second, plant remains deposited in permanently waterlogged anoxic conditions are preserved as the absence of oxygen prohibits microbial activity. This mode of preservation occurs in deep archaeological features such as wells, in urban settlements where organic refuse is rapidly deposited, and at settlements adjacent to lakes or rivers. A wide range of plant remains are usually preserved, including seeds, fruit stones, nutshells, leaves, straw and other vegetative material. Third, calcium-phosphate mineralisation of plant remains occurs usually in latrine pits and in middens, as plant remains are completely replaced by calcium-phosphate. In latrine pits, plant remains which have been consumed by humans are the most common items, such as seeds of flavourings, fruit pips and fruit stones. Finally, plant remains are preserved by desiccation in arid environments, where the absence of water limits decomposition. Delicate vegetative plant remains are preserved, such as onion skin and artichoke bracts, alongside fruit stones, cereal chaff and seeds of wild plants.

text: Neurosymploca? oligocenica is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen "MNHN-LP-R 55185". It is a single, mostly complete adult which may be male, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained shale. The shale specimen is from the fossil bearing calcarious and oilshale outcrops of paleolake Céreste. The type specimen is currently preserved in the paleoentomological collections housed in the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, the National Museum of Natural History, located in Paris, France. N.? oligocenica was first studied by Fidel Fernández-Rubio of Madrid, Spain and André Nel of the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, with their 2000 type description being published in the journal Boletín de La S.E.A. Fernández-Rubio and Nel coined the specific epithet oligocenica as a reference to Oligocene, the age of the species. At the time of description, a second fossil possibly from the same species had recently been discovered, however as it was being held in a private collection in Strasbourg, France, it was unavailable for study.

text: Neurosymploca? oligocenica is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen "MNHN-LP-R 55185". It is a single, mostly complete

text: adult

text: which may be male, preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in fine grained

text: shale

text: . The

text: shale

text: specimen is from the fossil bearing calcarious and oilshale outcrops of paleolake Céreste. The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: paleoentomological

text: collections housed in the

text: Muséum national d'histoire naturelle

text: , the National Museum of Natural History, located in

text: Paris

text: , France. N.? oligocenica was first studied by Fidel Fernández-Rubio of

text: Madrid

text: , Spain and André Nel of the

text: Muséum national d'histoire naturelle

text: , with their 2000

text: type description

text: being published in the journal Boletín de La S.E.A. Fernández-Rubio and Nel coined the

text: specific epithet

text: oligocenica as a reference to Oligocene, the age of the species. At the time of description, a second fossil possibly from the same species had recently been discovered, however as it was being held in a private collection in

text: Strasbourg

text: , France, it was unavailable for study.

text: In 1942 the 4 in gun was removed and the torpedoes returned to all surviving vessels. The 20 mm Oerlikons were replaced with twin mountings (except those on the quarterdeck) and a Type 291 Radar replaced the Type 286. Jervis, Kelvin, Nerissa and Norman had the searchlight replaced with the "lantern" for centimetric target indication Radar Type 271; Javelin and Kimberley having the lighter Type 272 fitted at the truck of the foremast. Napier, Nizam and Norseman (and later, Norman) had American SG1 Radar fitted at the head of a new lattice foremast, Norman replacing her Type 271 set with a single 40 mm Bofors gun. By the end of the war, the surviving J and K ships carried a lattice mast with a Type 293 Radar target indication at the truck and a Type 291 air warning at the head.

text: In 1942 the 4 in gun was removed and the torpedoes returned to all surviving vessels. The 20 mm Oerlikons were replaced with twin mountings (except those on the quarterdeck) and a

entity_name: List of World War II British naval radar

text: Type 291 Radar

text: replaced the Type 286. Jervis, Kelvin, Nerissa and Norman had the searchlight replaced with the "lantern" for centimetric target indication

text: Radar Type 271

text: ; Javelin and Kimberley having the lighter

text: Type 272

text: fitted at the truck of the foremast. Napier, Nizam and Norseman (and later, Norman) had American SG1 Radar fitted at the head of a new lattice foremast, Norman replacing her Type 271 set with a single

text: 40 mm Bofors

text: gun. By the end of the war, the surviving J and K ships carried a lattice mast with a

text: Type 293 Radar

text: target indication at the truck and a Type 291 air warning at the head.

text: (Fox R.C. 1971). Fossils are known from the Santonian (Upper Cretaceous) of Utah. The type fossil is in Alberta, Canada. It weighed about 30 g.

text: (Fox R.C. 1971). Fossils are known from the Santonian (Upper Cretaceous) of Utah. The type fossil is in

text: Alberta

text: , Canada. It weighed about 30 g.

text: The Koreans at that time were most likely already aware of moveable type as it had already been invented in China. In China, moveable type was made from baked clay, but the Koreans improved upon this by making cast-type.  Metal casting existed in Korea, but with the introduction of a new method of coin casting from China in 1102, Korea finally had the technology to create an effective method of printing using moveable type.  This method of casting came in the form of carving two molds that were joined together with the liquid metal presumably being poured into the hollow thus created. (98-100)  So with the zealous desire for Buddhist texts, the scarcity of resources for woodblock production, the introduction of new technology, and the cessation of trade with China, Korea was able to continue to print Buddhist texts.

text: Because of the poor preservation of the original type material of Podokesaurus it is hard to find much difference when compared to the material of the much better known Coelophysis. From this Colbert concluded in 1964 that Podokesaurus was not a distinct genus but in fact a species of Coelophysis: Coelophysis holyokensis. If so, it would by implication be a member of the Coelophysidae. However, the name Podokesaurus is still commonly used to refer to the material, while being assigned to a more general Coelophysoidea, as the identity is hard to prove and Coelophysis dates from a different period. The matter is complicated because all the original fossil material of Podokesaurus holyokensis was destroyed in a fire in 1917, and only casts remain, including those in the Division of Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York, the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University, and the Amherst College Museum of Natural History (now the Beneski Museum). Tykoski and Rowe noted that Podokesaurus likely possesses coelophysoid characters, but does not preserve any derived traits that would unite it with Coelophysis, thus Podokesaurus is a valid genus separate from Coelophysis. With respect to its taxonomic group, Podokesaurus has been assigned to Coelophysoidea incertae sedis by Tykoski and Rowe.

text: Because of the poor preservation of the original type material of Podokesaurus it is hard to find much difference when compared to the material of the much better known

text: Coelophysis

text: . From this Colbert concluded in 1964 that Podokesaurus was not a distinct

text: genus

text: but in fact a

text: species

text: of

text: Coelophysis

text: : Coelophysis holyokensis. If so, it would by implication be a member of the

text: Coelophysidae

text: . However, the name Podokesaurus is still commonly used to refer to the material, while being assigned to a more general

text: Coelophysoidea

text: , as the identity is hard to prove and Coelophysis dates from a different period. The matter is complicated because all the original fossil material of Podokesaurus holyokensis was destroyed in a

text: fire

text: in 1917, and only casts remain, including those in the Division of Paleontology at the

text: American Museum of Natural History

text: in New York, the

text: Peabody Museum of Natural History

text: at Yale University, and the

text: Amherst College Museum of Natural History

text: (now the Beneski Museum). Tykoski and Rowe noted that Podokesaurus likely possesses coelophysoid characters, but does not preserve any

text: derived trait

text: s that would unite it with Coelophysis, thus Podokesaurus is a valid genus separate from

text: Coelophysis

text: . With respect to its taxonomic group, Podokesaurus has been assigned to

text: Coelophysoidea

text: incertae sedis

text: by Tykoski and Rowe.

text: Well-preserved plants are common in the Fremouw Formation. Logs have been found in channel deposits and roots and stems have been found in permineralized soil. Smaller fossils on Fremouw Peak include cycads, horsetails, seed ferns, Osmundaceae ferns, and even fungi. One cycad called Antarcticycas is similar in appearance to the living Bowenia of Australia. In 2003, 99 fossilized tree trunks were described from Gordon Valley. These trunks comprise an intact fossilized forest, allowing for an estimation of the distribution of plants and tree cover. Dicroidium fossils are present around the conifer-like stumps, suggesting that they were the leaves of these large trees. Based on the geology of the area, the trees grew alongside riverbanks and on floodplains. The structure of the plants show no adaptation toward cold tolerance, suggesting that the climate was much warmer in the Triassic.

text: Well-preserved plants are common in the Fremouw Formation. Logs have been found in channel deposits and roots and stems have been found in

text: permineralized

text: soil. Smaller fossils on Fremouw Peak include

text: cycad

text: s,

text: horsetail

text: s,

text: seed fern

text: s,

text: Osmundaceae

text: ferns, and even

text: fungi

text: . One cycad called

text: Antarcticycas

text: is similar in appearance to the living

text: Bowenia

text: of

text: Australia

text: . In 2003, 99 fossilized tree trunks were described from Gordon Valley. These trunks comprise an intact fossilized forest, allowing for an estimation of the distribution of plants and tree cover.

text: Dicroidium

text: fossils are present around the conifer-like stumps, suggesting that they were the leaves of these large trees. Based on the geology of the area, the trees grew alongside riverbanks and on floodplains. The structure of the plants show no adaptation toward cold tolerance, suggesting that the climate was much warmer in the Triassic.

text: Many researchers have attempted to explain this. Workers have attempted to discover: 1) why fossilization occurs, 2) the precipitating conditions, 3) what kind of linguistic material is likely to be fossilized, and 4) what type of learners are more prone to fossilize. However, there has been almost no investigation by SLA theorists on the possibilities of preventing or overcoming fossilization, and little explanation related to those adult second language learners who overcome one or more "areas of stability" in interlanguage—those learners whose interlanguage does not fossilize, and who reach a high level of proficiency in the second language.

text: The part to be made and its pattern must be designed to accommodate each stage of the process, as it must be possible to remove the pattern without disturbing the molding sand and to have proper locations to receive and position the cores. A slight taper, known as draft, must be used on surfaces perpendicular to the parting line, in order to be able to remove the pattern from the mold. This requirement also applies to cores, as they must be removed from the core box in which they are formed. The sprue and risers must be arranged to allow a proper flow of metal and gasses within the mold in order to avoid an incomplete casting. Should a piece of core or mold become dislodged it may be embedded in the final casting, forming a sand pit, which may render the casting unusable. Gas pockets can cause internal voids. These may be immediately visible or may only be revealed after extensive machining has been performed. For critical applications, or where the cost of wasted effort is a factor, non-destructive testing methods may be applied before further work is performed.

text: The part to be made and its pattern must be designed to accommodate each stage of the process, as it must be possible to remove the pattern without disturbing the molding sand and to have proper locations to receive and position the cores. A slight taper, known as

text: draft

text: , must be used on surfaces perpendicular to the parting line, in order to be able to remove the pattern from the mold. This requirement also applies to cores, as they must be removed from the core box in which they are formed. The sprue and risers must be arranged to allow a proper flow of metal and gasses within the mold in order to avoid an incomplete casting. Should a piece of core or mold become dislodged it may be embedded in the final casting, forming a sand pit, which may render the casting unusable. Gas pockets can cause internal voids. These may be immediately visible or may only be revealed after extensive machining has been performed. For critical applications, or where the cost of wasted effort is a factor, non-destructive testing methods may be applied before further work is performed.

text: The Chinese at Rock Springs were aware of the animosity and rising racial tension with white miners, but had not taken any precautions, as no prior events indicated there would be any race riots. Underlying the outbreak of violence were racism and resentment of the policies of the Union Pacific Coal Department. Until 1875, the mines in Rock Springs were worked by whites; in that year, a strike occurred, and the strikers were replaced with Chinese strikebreakers less than two weeks after the strike began. The company resumed mining with 50 white miners and 150 Chinese miners in its employ. As more Chinese arrived in Rock Springs, bitterness from the white miners increased. At the time of the massacre, there were about 150 white miners and 331 Chinese miners in Rock Springs.

text: The Chinese at Rock Springs were aware of the animosity and rising racial tension with white miners, but had not taken any precautions, as no prior events indicated there would be any race riots. Underlying the outbreak of violence were racism and resentment of the policies of the Union Pacific Coal Department. Until 1875, the mines in Rock Springs were worked by whites; in that year, a strike occurred, and the strikers were replaced with Chinese

text: strikebreaker

text: s less than two weeks after the strike began. The company resumed mining with 50 white miners and 150 Chinese miners in its employ. As more Chinese arrived in Rock Springs, bitterness from the white miners increased. At the time of the massacre, there were about 150 white miners and 331 Chinese miners in Rock Springs.

text: Gold bars are classified into two different types, cast and minted, based on their method of manufacturing. Cast bars are made by pouring molten gold into an ingot mold to shape the gold product. Minted bars are made from gold blanks that have been hand cut to the required dimensions from a flat piece of gold. Markings are almost always applied by presses.

text: Gold bars are classified into two different types,

text: cast

text: and

text: minted

text: , based on their method of

text: manufacturing

text: . Cast bars are made by pouring

text: molten

text: gold into an ingot mold to shape the gold product. Minted bars are made from gold blanks that have been hand cut to the required dimensions from a flat piece of gold. Markings are almost always applied by presses.

text: Living fossils are not equivalent to a "Lazarus taxon", which is a taxon (either one species or a group of species) that suddenly reappears, either in the fossil record or in nature (i.e., as if the fossil had "come to life again").  In contrast, a living fossil is a species or lineage that has undergone exceptionally little change over a long time (i.e., as if the fossil species has always lived). The average species turnover time (the time a species lasts before it is replaced) varies widely among the phyla, but averages about 2–3 million years. So, a living species that was thought to be extinct (e.g., the coelacanth, Latimeria chalumnae) could be called a Lazarus taxon.  It would also be considered a living fossil if it closely resembles the earliest members of its lineage. Coelacanths disappeared from the fossil record some 80 million years ago (upper Cretaceous) and if it does exhibit exceptionally low evolutionary rates, then it would qualify as both a Lazarus taxon and as a living fossil.

text: Living fossils are not equivalent to a "

text: Lazarus taxon

text: ", which is a

text: taxon

text: (either one species or a

text: group of species

text: ) that suddenly reappears, either in the fossil record or in nature (i.e., as if the fossil had "come to life again").  In contrast, a living fossil is a species or lineage that has undergone exceptionally little change over a long time (i.e., as if the fossil species has always lived). The average species turnover time (the time a species lasts before it is replaced) varies widely among the

text: phyla

text: , but averages about 2–3 million years. So, a living species that was thought to be extinct (e.g., the

text: coelacanth

text: Latimeria chalumnae

text: ) could be called a Lazarus taxon.  It would also be considered a living fossil if it closely resembles the earliest members of its lineage. Coelacanths disappeared from the fossil record some 80 million years ago (upper

text: Cretaceous

text: ) and if it does exhibit exceptionally low evolutionary rates, then it would qualify as both a Lazarus taxon and as a living fossil.

text: There are 25 types of trace fossils of horseshoe crab, brachiopods, trilobites and pawless armor-plated fish that lived 450 millions years ago in a lagoon. The fossils are set in rock of Harding Formation. It is considered North America's best site of trace fossils because its shows the movement of the ancient animals. Tracks left by the animals walking, swimming and burrowing in what had been a tidal lagoon's mudflat.

text: There are 25 types of

text: trace fossil

text: s of

text: horseshoe crab

text: brachiopods

text: trilobites

text: and pawless armor-plated fish that lived 450 millions years ago in a lagoon. The fossils are set in rock of Harding Formation. It is considered North America's best site of trace fossils because its shows the movement of the ancient animals. Tracks left by the animals walking, swimming and burrowing in what had been a tidal lagoon's mudflat.

text: Of the many thousands of fossils recovered from Motsetsi, no hominid fossils have yet been found. Many very fine fossils of other animals, however, have been discovered including the remains of very well preserved Dinofelis fossils – a type of false saber-toothed cat.

text: Of the many thousands of fossils recovered from Motsetsi, no hominid fossils have yet been found. Many very fine fossils of other animals, however, have been discovered including the remains of very well preserved

text: Dinofelis

text: fossils – a type of false saber-toothed cat.

text: Another reason that liverworts are now classified separately is that they appear to have diverged from all other embryophyte plants near the beginning of their evolution. The strongest line of supporting evidence is that liverworts are the only living group of land plants that do not have stomata on the sporophyte generation.  Among the earliest fossils believed to be liverworts are compression fossils of Pallaviciniites from the Upper Devonian of New York.  These fossils resemble modern species in the Metzgeriales.  Another Devonian fossil called Protosalvinia also looks like a liverwort, but its relationship to other plants is still uncertain, so it may not belong to the Marchantiophyta. In 2007, the oldest fossils assignable to the liverworts were announced, Metzgeriothallus sharonae from the Givetian (Middle Devonian) of New York, United States. However, in 2010, five different types of fossilized liverwort spores were found in Argentina, dating to the much earlier Middle Ordovician, around 470 million years ago.

text: Another reason that liverworts are now classified separately is that they appear to have diverged from all other

text: embryophyte

text: plants near the beginning of their

text: evolution

text: . The strongest line of supporting evidence is that liverworts are the only living group of land plants that do not have

text: stoma

text: ta on the

text: sporophyte

text: generation.  Among the earliest

text: fossil

text: s believed to be liverworts are

text: compression fossil

text: s of

text: Pallaviciniites

text: from the Upper

text: Devonian

text: of

text: New York

text: .  These fossils resemble modern species in the

text: Metzgeriales

text: .  Another Devonian fossil called

text: Protosalvinia

text: also looks like a liverwort, but its relationship to other plants is still uncertain, so it may not belong to the Marchantiophyta. In 2007, the oldest fossils assignable to the liverworts were announced, Metzgeriothallus sharonae from the

text: Givetian

text: (Middle

text: Devonian

text: ) of

text: New York

text: , United States. However, in 2010, five different types of fossilized liverwort spores were found in Argentina, dating to the much earlier Middle

text: Ordovician

text: , around 470 million years ago.

text: The holotype fossil, YHZ-001, consists of a skull with lower jaws from which a middle portion is missing. The fossil was highly compressed.

text: The

text: holotype

text: fossil, YHZ-001, consists of a

text: skull

text: with lower jaws from which a middle portion is missing. The fossil was highly compressed.

text: Many  include fossil collectors. Lapidary clubs also include fossil collectors. In addition, paleontological societies and fossil clubs exist. There is some overlap between fossil collecting, mineral collecting, and amateur geology.

text: Many  include fossil collectors.

text: Lapidary club

text: s also include fossil collectors. In addition, paleontological societies and fossil clubs exist. There is some overlap between fossil collecting,

text: mineral collecting

text: , and

text: amateur geology

text: Numerous species used to be recognised for what appeared to be anatomically different Medullosa stems, but many of these differences have been shown to represent changes that took place with the growth of the stem.  Moreover, it has been shown that very similar types of stem could bear a variety of different types of frond.  There is a distinctive type of stem found in Late Pennsylvanian preserved floras, however, that is referred to as Medullosa endocentrica and has consistently slender stems and (uniquely for medullosaleans) axillary branching, and has been interpreted as a climbing plant.  Another distinctive type of stem in which the vascular segments are of two different sizes in transverse section (fossil genus Sutcliffia) has been linked with the parispermacean fronds.

text: A carbonaceous film or carbon film is an organism outline of a fossil. It is a type of fossil found in any rock when organic material is compressed, leaving only a carbon residue or film.

text: A carbonaceous film or carbon film is an organism outline of a

text: fossil

text: . It is a type of fossil found in any

text: rock

text: when

text: organic material

text: is compressed, leaving only a

text: carbon

text: residue or film.

text: These fossils have been preserved in a distinctive style known as Burgess shale type preservation, which preserves fairly tough tissues such as cuticle as thin films, and soft tissues as solid shapes, quickly enough that decay has not destroyed them. Moderately soft tissues, such as muscles, are lost. Scientists are still unsure about the processes that created these fossils. While there is little doubt that the animals were buried under catastrophic flows of sediment, it is uncertain whether they were transported by the flows from other locations, or lived in the area where they were buried, or were a mixture of local and transported specimens. This issue is closely related to whether conditions around the burial sites were anoxic or had a moderate supply of oxygen. Anoxic conditions are generally thought the most favourable for fossilization, but imply that the animals could not have lived where they were buried.

text: These fossils have been preserved in a distinctive style known as

text: Burgess shale type preservation

text: , which preserves fairly tough tissues such as cuticle as thin films, and soft tissues as solid shapes, quickly enough that decay has not destroyed them. Moderately soft tissues, such as muscles, are lost. Scientists are still unsure about the processes that created these fossils. While there is little doubt that the animals were buried under catastrophic flows of

text: sediment

text: , it is uncertain whether they were transported by the flows from other locations, or lived in the area where they were buried, or were a mixture of local and transported specimens. This issue is closely related to whether conditions around the burial sites were

text: anoxic

text: or had a moderate supply of

text: oxygen

text: . Anoxic conditions are generally thought the most favourable for

text: fossilization

text: , but imply that the animals could not have lived where they were buried.

text: Lichen-like fossils have been found in the Doushantuo Formation in southern China dating back to 635–551 Ma. Lichens were a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 400 Ma; this date corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius legletti) appeared during the mid-Cretaceous, 90 Ma.

text: Lichen

text: -like fossils have been found in the

text: Doushantuo Formation

text: in southern China dating back to 635–551 Ma. Lichens were a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 400 Ma; this date corresponds to the age of the oldest known

text: sporocarp

text: fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a

text: fern

text: from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the homobasidiomycetes (a

text: taxon

text: roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the

text: agaricomycetes

text: ). Two

text: amber

text: -preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius legletti) appeared during the mid-

text: Cretaceous

text: , 90 Ma.

text: Political and social unrest in this region is nothing new. To this day miners commemorate the Lupeni Strike of 1929 (when the army killed 23 workers and wounded at least 53), the big strikes of February 1933, and the miners’ protest in 1977 during the Ceaușescu years. On the latter occasion, on 1 August 1977, 35,000 Jiu miners gathered in the main yard of the Lupeni mine to protest against a new decree that raised the age of retirement from 50 to 55 and reduced the miners’ pensions. Spokesmen for the miners claimed that the protest was the culmination of many years of deteriorating conditions and the intolerable political situation in the country. Ceaușescu dealt with the miners by agreeing to their demands and then, as soon as the movement subsided, ordered reprisals against the leaders. He also transferred four thousand of them out of the area and replaced them, many of the replacements working as informants for the Securitate, the dreaded secret police. The subsequent climate of fear kept the miners silent until the 1989 revolution.

text: Political and social unrest in this region is nothing new. To this day miners commemorate the

text: Lupeni Strike of 1929

text: (when the army killed 23 workers and wounded at least 53), the big strikes of February 1933, and the

text: miners’ protest in 1977

text: during the Ceaușescu years. On the latter occasion, on 1 August 1977, 35,000 Jiu miners gathered in the main yard of the Lupeni mine to protest against a new decree that raised the age of retirement from 50 to 55 and reduced the miners’ pensions. Spokesmen for the miners claimed that the protest was the culmination of many years of deteriorating conditions and the intolerable political situation in the country. Ceaușescu dealt with the miners by agreeing to their demands and then, as soon as the movement subsided, ordered reprisals against the leaders. He also transferred four thousand of them out of the area and replaced them, many of the replacements working as informants for the

text: Securitate

text: , the dreaded secret police. The subsequent climate of fear kept the miners silent until the 1989 revolution.

text: The first solution to this problem was effected by Sir Major Sir W. Palliser. His Palliser shot, approved in 1867, was made of cast iron, the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite molds with a metal, water cooled portion for the head. At times there were defects that led to cracking in the projectiles but these were overcome with time. Bronze studs were installed into the outside of the projectile so as to engage the rifling grooves in the gun barrel. The base had a hollow pocket but was not filled with powder or explosive: the cavity was necessitated by difficulties in casting large solid projectiles without their cracking when they cooled, because the nose and base of the projectiles cooled at different rates, and in fact a larger cavity facilitated a better quality casting.

text: The first solution to this problem was effected by Sir

text: Major Sir W. Palliser

text: . His

text: Palliser shot

text: , approved in 1867, was made of

text: cast iron

text: , the head being chilled in casting to harden it, using composite molds with a metal, water cooled portion for the head. At times there were defects that led to cracking in the projectiles but these were overcome with time.

text: Bronze

text: casting

text: large solid projectiles without their cracking when they cooled, because the nose and base of the projectiles cooled at different rates, and in fact a larger cavity facilitated a better quality casting.

text: Fish fossils in the area were noted in 1823. When they were first methodically published, in 1993, the Crato Formation limestones provided a new site for  pterosaurs, one that also preserved insects that fell into a brackish lagoon and semionotid fish preserved in phosphatized nodules. The fossils are usually compacted and preserved in layers of limestone. Fossil Odonata (dragonflies) and damselflies are especially rich in the Crato lagerstätte: currently 384 specimens have been recovered, 264 adults and 120 larvae. Hemiptera (true bugs) and Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are also abundant in number of species and in number of specimens. There are also plant remains.

text: Fish fossils in the area were noted in 1823. When they were first methodically published, in 1993, the Crato Formation limestones provided a new site for

text: pterosaur

text: s, one that also preserved insects that fell into a brackish lagoon and semionotid fish preserved in

text: phosphatized nodules

text: . The fossils are usually compacted and preserved in layers of limestone. Fossil

text: Odonata

text: dragonflies

text: ) and damselflies are especially rich in the Crato lagerstätte: currently 384 specimens have been recovered, 264 adults and 120 larvae. Hemiptera (true bugs) and Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are also abundant in number of species and in number of specimens. There are also plant remains.

text: Fossil mudcracks attest to occasional seasonal climate, and thin limestones and fossilized trails of aquatic snails or worms mark the existence of ponds and lakes. The most interesting fossils, however, are the dinosaur tracks that are relatively common in Kayenta mudstone.

text: Fossil

text: mudcrack

text: s attest to occasional seasonal

text: climate

text: , and thin

text: limestones

text: and

text: fossilized trail

text: s of

text: aquatic

text: snails

text: or

text: worm

text: s mark the existence of

text: ponds

text: and

text: lake

text: s. The most interesting fossils, however, are the

text: dinosaur

text: tracks that are relatively common in Kayenta mudstone.

text: Mollusc shells (especially those formed by marine species) are very durable and outlast the otherwise soft-bodied animals that produce them by a very long time (sometimes thousands of years even without being fossilized). Most shells of marine molluscs fossilize rather easily, and fossil mollusc shells date all the way back to the Cambrian period. Large amounts of shells sometimes form sediment, and over a geological time span can become compressed into limestone deposits.

text: Mollusc shells (especially those formed by marine species) are very durable and outlast the otherwise soft-bodied animals that produce them by a very long time (sometimes thousands of years even without being fossilized). Most shells of marine molluscs fossilize rather easily, and fossil mollusc shells date all the way back to the

text: Cambrian

text: period. Large amounts of shells sometimes form sediment, and over a geological time span can become compressed into

text: limestone

text: deposits.

text: X-ray equipment, like CAT scans, are used to study the interior of fossil eggs. Unlike CAT scans, x-ray imaging condenses the entire interior of the egg into a single two-dimensional image rather than a series of images documenting the interior in three dimensions. X-ray imaging in the context of dinosaur research has generally been used to look for evidence of embryonic fossils contained inside the egg. However, as of Kenneth Carpenter's 1999 book Eggs, Nests, and Baby Dinosaurs, all putative embryos discovered using x-rays have been misidentifications. This is because the use of x-rays to find embryos is conceptually flawed. Embryo bones are incompletely developed and will generally lack their own mineral content, as such the only source of minerals for these bones is the sediment that fills the egg after burial. The fossilized bones will therefore have the same density as the sediment filling the interior of the egg which served as the source for their mineral content and will be poorly visible in an x-ray image. So far the only reliable method for examining embryonic fossils preserved in dinosaur eggs is to physically extract them through means such as acid dissolution.

text: Mongolarachne jurassica is known only from two fossils, the holotype, specimen number "CNU-ARA-NN2010008" which is a mostly complete adult female and the later described allotopotype male, number CNU-ARA-NN2011001-1 (part) and CNU-ARA-NN20110001-2 (counterpart).  The individuals are preserved as compression fossils in a pale grey finely laminated sedimentary tuff.  The fossil specimens are from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed in the Wuhua Township.   The type specimens is currently preserved in the Key Lab of Insect Evolution & Environmental Changes collections housed in the Capital Normal University, located in Beijing, China.  Mongolarachne jurassica was first studied by Paul Selden of the University of Kansas and the Natural History Museum along with Dong Ren and ChungKun Shih both of the Capital Normal University.  Their 2011 type description of the genus and species was published online in the journal Biology Letters.  The etymology of the specific epithet jurassica refers to the age of the species.  The genus name Mongolarachne is derived from (Inner) Mongolia, where the fossils were found, and the Latin arachne meaning "spider".  The family name is a derivative of the genus name.

text: Mongolarachne jurassica is known only from two fossils, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number "CNU-ARA-NN2010008" which is a mostly complete adult female and the later described

text: allotopotype

text: male, number CNU-ARA-NN2011001-1 (part) and CNU-ARA-NN20110001-2 (counterpart).  The individuals are preserved as

text: compression fossil

text: s in a pale grey finely laminated sedimentary

text: tuff

text: .  The fossil specimens are from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed in the Wuhua Township.   The type specimens is currently preserved in the

text: collections housed in the

text: Capital Normal University

text: , located in

text: Beijing

text: China

text: .  Mongolarachne jurassica was first studied by Paul Selden of the

text: University of Kansas

text: and the

text: Natural History Museum

text: along with Dong Ren and ChungKun Shih both of the Capital Normal University.  Their 2011

text: type description

text: of the genus and species was published online in the journal

text: Biology Letters

text: .  The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: jurassica refers to the age of the species.  The genus name Mongolarachne is derived from (

text: Inner

text: ) Mongolia, where the fossils were found, and the Latin arachne meaning "spider".  The family name is a derivative of the genus name.

text: Proterozoic stromatolite microfossils (preserved by permineralization in silica) include cyanobacteria and possibly some forms of the eukaryote chlorophytes (that is, green algae). One genus of stromatolite very common in the geologic record is Collenia.

text: Proterozoic

text: stromatolite microfossils (preserved by

text: permineralization

text: in silica) include

text: cyanobacteria

text: and possibly some forms of the

text: eukaryote

text: chlorophytes

text: (that is,

text: green algae

text: ). One

text: genus

text: of stromatolite very common in the

text: geologic record

text: is

text: Collenia

text: By far, invertebrate paleozoology is the easiest type of fossil collecting.  Unlike the difficult-to-analyze and hard-to-interpret fossils of paleobotany (plants) and micropaleontology (microbes), and unlike the rarely found and poorly preserved skeletons of vertebrate paleontology, invertebrate fossils are usually both common and simple to identify.  This is because many prehistoric invertebrates were hard-shelled mollusks, brachiopods, trilobites, bryozoans, crinoids or corals who were buried amid marine, sediment-preserving conditions; and therefore frequently fossilized.

text: By far, invertebrate paleozoology is the easiest type of

text: fossil collecting

text: .  Unlike the difficult-to-analyze and hard-to-interpret

text: fossil

text: s of

text: paleobotany

text: (plants) and

text: micropaleontology

text: (microbes), and unlike the rarely found and poorly preserved

text: skeleton

text: s of

text: vertebrate paleontology

text: , invertebrate fossils are usually both common and simple to identify.  This is because many

text: prehistoric

text: invertebrates were

text: hard-shelled

text: mollusk

text: s,

text: brachiopod

text: s,

text: trilobite

text: s,

text: bryozoan

text: s,

text: crinoid

text: s or

text: coral

text: s who were buried amid marine,

text: sediment

text: -preserving conditions; and therefore frequently

text: fossilized

text: Large quantities of phosphate are required, either from seawater or from the tissues of the decaying organism. In some cases microbes control the phosphatization, and the remains of the microbes that fed on the preserved tissue form the fossil. In other, the tissue itself is the source of phosphate and its phosphatized remains form the fossil. In the intermediate case the phosphatized tissue retains the impressions of the phosphatizing microbes.

text: Eucommia jeffersonensis is known only from a single fossil, the holotype, specimen UF 11053, which is housed in the paleobotanical collections of the Florida Museum of Natural History.  The specimen, a partially complete mature fruit, is preserved as a compression fossil in lacustrian shale recovered from the Gray Butte flora exposed near the base of Gray Butte in Oregon.  The Gray Butte fora was formerly considered part of the youngest Clarno Formation and plants found almost exclusively in the Clarno formation are present at Gray Butte.  The flora also hosts plants almost exclusively in the John Day Formation that overlies the Clarno Formation, and has more recently been considered part of the John Day Formation.  Fossils from the similarly aged White Cap Knoll location in Wheeler County, Oregon have been assigned to E. montana, which indicates at least two species of Eucommia were present in Oregon during the latest Eocene.  Eucommia jeffersonensis was first studied by paleobotanists Victor B. Call and David L. Dilcher, both of the University of Florida in Gainesville.  Call and Dilcher's 1997 type description of the new species was published in the botanical journal American Journal of Botany.  The specific epithet jeffersonensis was chosen as a reference to Jefferson County, Oregon where the Gray Butte Flora outcrops and the species type locality is.

text: Eucommia jeffersonensis is known only from a single fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen UF 11053, which is housed in the paleobotanical collections of the

text: Florida Museum of Natural History

text: .  The specimen, a partially complete mature fruit, is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in

text: lacustrian

text: shale

text: recovered from the Gray Butte flora exposed near the base of Gray Butte in Oregon.  The Gray Butte fora was formerly considered part of the youngest

text: Clarno Formation

text: and plants found almost exclusively in the Clarno formation are present at Gray Butte.  The flora also hosts plants almost exclusively in the

text: John Day Formation

text: that overlies the Clarno Formation, and has more recently been considered part of the John Day Formation.  Fossils from the similarly aged White Cap Knoll location in

text: Wheeler County, Oregon

text: have been assigned to E. montana, which indicates at least two species of Eucommia were present in Oregon during the latest Eocene.  Eucommia jeffersonensis was first studied by paleobotanists Victor B. Call and David L. Dilcher, both of the

text: University of Florida

text: in

text: Gainesville

text: .  Call and Dilcher's 1997

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the botanical journal

text: American Journal of Botany

text: .  The

text: specific epithet

text: jeffersonensis was chosen as a reference to

text: Jefferson County, Oregon

text: where the Gray Butte Flora outcrops and the species

text: type locality

text: is.

text: The McAbee Fossil Beds is a Heritage Site that protects an Eocene Epoch fossil locality east of Cache Creek, British Columbia, Canada, just north of and visible from Provincial Highway 97 / the Trans-Canada Highway (Highway 1) at .  The McAbee Fossil Beds, comprising , were officially designated a Provincial Heritage Site under British Columbia's Heritage Conservation Act on July 19, 2012. The site is part of an old lake bed which was deposited about 52 million years ago and is internationally recognised for the diversity of plant, insect, and fish fossils found there. Similar fossil beds in Eocene lake sediments, also known for their well preserved plant, insect and fish fossils, are found at Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park near Smithers in northern British Columbia, on the Horsefly River near Quesnel in central British Columbia, and at Republic in Washington, United States. The Princeton Chert fossil beds in southern British Columbia are also Eocene, but primarily preserve an aquatic plant community. A recent review of the early Eocene fossil sites from the interior of British Columbia discusses the history of paleobotanical research at McAbee, the Princeton Chert, Driftwood Canyon, and related Eocene fossil sites such as at Republic.

text: The McAbee Fossil Beds is a Heritage Site that protects an

text: Eocene Epoch

text: fossil locality east of

text: Cache Creek

text: British Columbia

text: , Canada, just north of and visible from Provincial

text: Highway 97

text: / the

text: Trans-Canada Highway

text: Highway 1

text: ) at .  The McAbee Fossil Beds, comprising , were officially designated a Provincial Heritage Site under British Columbia's Heritage Conservation Act on July 19, 2012. The site is part of an old lake bed which was deposited about 52 million years ago and is internationally recognised for the diversity of plant, insect, and fish fossils found there. Similar

text: fossil bed

text: s in Eocene lake

text: sediments

text: , also known for their well preserved plant, insect and fish fossils, are found at

text: Driftwood Canyon Provincial Park

text: near

text: Smithers

text: in northern

text: British Columbia

text: , on the

text: Horsefly River

text: near

text: Quesnel

text: in central British Columbia, and at

text: Republic

text: in

text: Washington

text: , United States. The

text: Princeton Chert

text: fossil beds in southern

text: British Columbia

text: are also Eocene, but primarily preserve an aquatic plant community. A recent review of the early Eocene fossil sites from the interior of British Columbia discusses the history of paleobotanical research at McAbee, the

text: Princeton Chert

text: Driftwood Canyon

text: , and related Eocene fossil sites such as at

text: Republic

text: Although the paleoclimate of the Morrison formation was semiarid with only seasonal rainfall, there were enough bodies of water to support a diverse ichthyofauna. Although abundant, fish remains are constrained to only certain locations within the formation. Microvertebrate sites in Wyoming are dominated by fish remains. Indeterminate ray-finned fish remains have been recovered from Ninemile Hill and a microvertebrate site in the Black Hills. Found in stratigraphic zones 2, 4, and 5. Morrison actinopterygians generally have no close modern relatives. The Wyoming microvertebrate remains are extracted from the sediment by screenwashing. Paleoniscoid remains are geographically present in the western part of Colorado, where remains have been recovered from "a level above the Mygatt-Moore Quarry." Largely complete remains of small individuals have been consistently recovered for over 15 years. So far, Morrison pycnodontoids are represented by a single specimen from Dinosaur National Monument in Utah. Found in stratigraphic zone 4. Only a single specimen from Dinosaur National Monument in Utah has been recovered. Pycnodontoids were "deep-bodied and laterally compressed fish" whose tooth morphology suggest that they preyed on small contemporary invertebrates. They may have resembled modern butterfly fish. A single tooth is the only known remains. Dipnoan remains found at a fossil site not far from Cañon City, Colorado. Remains usually in a state of rather complete preservation. Halecostome remains are geographically present in the western part of Colorado, where remains have been recovered from "a level above the Mygatt-Moore Quarry." Largely complete remains of small individuals have been consistently recovered for over 15 years. Amiid remains found in stratigraphic zones 2, 3, and 4. Found at a fossil site not far from Cañon City, Colorado. Remains usually in a state of rather complete preservation.

text: Although the paleoclimate of the Morrison formation was semiarid with only seasonal rainfall, there were enough bodies of water to support a diverse ichthyofauna. Although abundant, fish remains are constrained to only certain locations within the formation. Microvertebrate sites in Wyoming are dominated by fish remains. Indeterminate ray-finned fish remains have been recovered from Ninemile Hill and a microvertebrate site in the Black Hills. Found in stratigraphic zones 2, 4, and 5. Morrison actinopterygians generally have no close modern relatives. The Wyoming microvertebrate remains are extracted from the sediment by screenwashing. Paleoniscoid remains are geographically present in the western part of Colorado, where remains have been recovered from "a level above the Mygatt-Moore Quarry." Largely complete remains of small individuals have been consistently recovered for over 15 years. So far, Morrison pycnodontoids are represented by a single specimen from

text: Dinosaur National Monument

text: in Utah. Found in stratigraphic zone 4. Only a single specimen from

text: Dinosaur National Monument

text: in Utah has been recovered. Pycnodontoids were "deep-bodied and laterally compressed fish" whose tooth morphology suggest that they preyed on small contemporary invertebrates. They may have resembled modern

text: butterfly fish

text: . A single tooth is the only known remains. Dipnoan remains found at a fossil site not far from

text: Cañon City, Colorado

text: . Remains usually in a state of rather complete preservation. Halecostome remains are geographically present in the western part of Colorado, where remains have been recovered from "a level above the Mygatt-Moore Quarry." Largely complete remains of small individuals have been consistently recovered for over 15 years. Amiid remains found in stratigraphic zones 2, 3, and 4. Found at a fossil site not far from

text: Cañon City, Colorado

text: . Remains usually in a state of rather complete preservation.

text: The small (3–5 mm in long), disk-shaped fossil has seven hook-like isomers in a star-like arrangement in the clearly expressed peripheral undivided zone. T. hamulifera is probably a member of Proarticulata, as it is strongly similar to Praecambridium sigillum in the general shape, and the presence of hooklike isomers; Tamga is also similar to Onega stepanovi in the flattened body with a compact group of ledges-isomers in the central part encircled by an undivided zone.The fossils of Tamga could possibly be sclerites, for example, as sclerites of palaeoscolecids show a similar shape, a disk with a ring or rows of tubercles in the center. But the size of Tagmas fossils is two orders of magnitude less than those of palaeoscolecid sclerites, and no mineralized sclerites of any sort have ever been found or diagnosed in the Vendian–Ediacaran communities.

text: The small (3–5 mm in long), disk-shaped fossil has seven hook-like

text: isomers

text: in a star-like arrangement in the clearly expressed peripheral undivided zone. T. hamulifera is probably a member of

text: Proarticulata

text: , as it is strongly similar to

text: Praecambridium sigillum

text: in the general shape, and the presence of hooklike isomers; Tamga is also similar to

text: Onega stepanovi

text: in the flattened body with a compact group of ledges-isomers in the central part encircled by an undivided zone.The fossils of Tamga could possibly be sclerites, for example, as sclerites of

text: palaeoscolecid

text: s show a similar shape, a disk with a ring or rows of tubercles in the center. But the size of Tagmas fossils is two orders of magnitude less than those of palaeoscolecid sclerites, and no mineralized sclerites of any sort have ever been found or diagnosed in the

text: Vendian

text: Ediacaran

text: communities.

text: These castings are made using sand molds formed from "wet" sand which contains water and organic bonding compounds, typically referred to as clay. The name "Green Sand" comes from the fact that the sand mold is not "set", it is still in the "green" or uncured state even when the metal is poured in the mould. Green sand is not green in color, but "green" in the sense that it is used in a wet state (akin to green wood). Unlike the name suggests, "green sand" is not a type of sand on its own (that is, not greensand in the geologic sense), but is rather a mixture of:

text: These castings are made using sand molds formed from "wet" sand which contains water and organic bonding compounds, typically referred to as clay. The name "Green Sand" comes from the fact that the sand mold is not "set", it is still in the "green" or uncured state even when the metal is poured in the mould. Green sand is not green in color, but "green" in the sense that it is used in a wet state (akin to green wood).

text: Unlike the name suggests

text: , "green sand" is not a type of sand on its own (that is, not

text: greensand

text: in the geologic sense), but is rather a mixture of:

text: Steel trip edge snow pushers have a spring-loaded steel cutting edge mounted to the bottom of the moldboard that allow them to scrape the pavement. They employ a tripping system to allow them to pass over obstructions such as uneven pavement or raised manhole covers. There are three types of trip edges in use today: compression spring, torsion spring, and composite material springs. Both compression and torsion spring systems work similarly; the steel edge is mounted on a hinge and is held in place by the pressure of the springs; when the edge meets an obstruction the springs compress and allow the edge to flip back and under the pusher and to pass over the obstruction. Composite material trip edges can act like a rubber band when the edge meets an obstruction allowing the steel edge to flip under the pusher and then snap back into place.

text: Steel trip edge snow pushers have a spring-loaded steel cutting edge mounted to the bottom of the moldboard that allow them to scrape the pavement. They employ a tripping system to allow them to pass over obstructions such as uneven pavement or raised

text: manhole cover

text: s. There are three types of trip edges in use today: compression spring, torsion spring, and composite material springs. Both compression and torsion spring systems work similarly; the steel edge is mounted on a hinge and is held in place by the pressure of the springs; when the edge meets an obstruction the springs compress and allow the edge to flip back and under the pusher and to pass over the obstruction. Composite material trip edges can act like a rubber band when the edge meets an obstruction allowing the steel edge to flip under the pusher and then snap back into place.

text: There are three main disadvantages: high tooling cost, limited to low-melting-point metals, and short mold life. The high tooling costs make this process uneconomical for small production runs. When the process is used to cast steel or iron the mold life is extremely short. For lower melting point metals the mold life is longer but thermal fatigue and erosion usually limit the life to 10,000 to 120,000 cycles. The mold life is dependent on four factors: the mold material, the pouring temperature, the mold temperature, and the mold configuration. Molds made from gray cast iron can be more economical to produce but have short mold lives. On the other hand, molds made from H13 tool steel may have a mold life several times greater. The pouring temperature is dependent on the casting metal, but the higher the pouring temperature the shorter the mold life. A high pouring temperature can also induce shrinkage problems and create longer cycle times. If the mold temperature is too low misruns are produced, but if the mold temperature is too high then the cycle time is prolonged and mold erosion is increased. Large differences in section thickness in the mold or casting can decrease mold life as well.

text: There are three main disadvantages: high tooling cost, limited to low-melting-point metals, and short mold life. The high tooling costs make this process uneconomical for small production runs. When the process is used to cast steel or iron the mold life is extremely short. For lower melting point metals the mold life is longer but thermal fatigue and erosion usually limit the life to 10,000 to 120,000 cycles. The mold life is dependent on four factors: the mold material, the pouring temperature, the mold temperature, and the mold configuration. Molds made from gray cast iron can be more economical to produce but have short mold lives. On the other hand, molds made from H13 tool steel may have a mold life several times greater. The pouring temperature is dependent on the casting metal, but the higher the pouring temperature the shorter the mold life. A high pouring temperature can also induce shrinkage problems and create longer cycle times. If the mold temperature is too low

text: misrun

text: s are produced, but if the mold temperature is too high then the cycle time is prolonged and mold erosion is increased. Large differences in section thickness in the mold or casting can decrease mold life as well.

text: The samaras of A. traini have an overall nutlet shape which is triangular with an average length between  and ranging between  wide and are "moderately inflated" with three distinct ridges. One of the ridges is very distinct, located in the middle of the nutlet and crossing it from the attachment scar to the nutlet tip, the other two are less pronounced. The wing has a length ranging from  and a width of . The paired samaras have a 30°–40° attachment angle with the wing hosting six distinct veins that start at the nutlet tip and curve from the wing margin, forking three to four times each. Wolfe and Tanai note in the species description that the fossils are the first Tertiary record of an Acer glabrum (Douglas maple)-type fruit in western North America, and further note that no characters separate A. traini fruits from A. glabrum fruits. They suggest that, if fossil leaves are found associated with the fruits which match the living A. glabrum foliage, then A. traini could be considered a synonym of A. glabrum. However, until leaf fossils are found, they suggest the fossils be kept a separate species.

text: The samaras of A. traini have an overall nutlet shape which is triangular with an average length between  and ranging between  wide and are "moderately inflated" with three distinct ridges. One of the ridges is very distinct, located in the middle of the nutlet and crossing it from the attachment scar to the nutlet tip, the other two are less pronounced. The wing has a length ranging from  and a width of . The paired samaras have a 30°–40° attachment angle with the wing hosting six distinct veins that start at the nutlet tip and curve from the wing margin, forking three to four times each. Wolfe and Tanai note in the species description that the fossils are the first

text: Tertiary

text: record of an

text: Acer glabrum

text: (Douglas maple)-type fruit in western North America, and further note that no characters separate A. traini fruits from A. glabrum fruits. They suggest that, if fossil leaves are found associated with the fruits which match the living A. glabrum foliage, then A. traini could be considered a

text: synonym

text: of A. glabrum. However, until leaf fossils are found, they suggest the fossils be kept a separate species.

text: There are three fossil species of Metrioxenini known to date: Paltorhynchus bisulcatus of the Early Eocene Green River Formation and "Paltorhynchus" narwhal from the latest Eocene or earliest Oligocene of the Florissant Fossil Beds are both from North America. If the latter species actually belongs in the modern genus Metrioxena,  since it is the type species of Paltorhynchus, that name would become a junior synonym of Metrioxena and a new genus would have to be established for the more primitive "P." bisulcatus. That species might represent another genus of the Metrioxenina or a still more basal member of the tribe. Metrioxena electrica known from Baltic amber and of comparable age to the North American fossils, is sometimes separated in Archimetrioxena.

text: There are three fossil

text: species

text: of Metrioxenini known to date: Paltorhynchus bisulcatus of the

text: Early Eocene

text: Green River Formation

text: and "Paltorhynchus" narwhal from the latest

text: Eocene

text: or earliest

text: Oligocene

text: of the

text: Florissant Fossil Beds

text: are both from

text: North America

text: . If the latter species actually belongs in the modern genus

text: Metrioxena

text: ,  since it is the

text: type species

text: of

text: Paltorhynchus

text: , that name would become a

text: junior synonym

text: of Metrioxena and a new genus would have to be established for the more primitive "P." bisulcatus. That species might represent another genus of the Metrioxenina or a still more basal member of the tribe. Metrioxena electrica known from

text: Baltic

text: amber

text: and of comparable age to the

text: North America

text: n fossils, is sometimes separated in Archimetrioxena.

text: Mold Tapering: The twin-belt casting machine differs from other moving mold casting machines in that all four mold surfaces are independent. This allows the mold surfaces to be tapered to remain in contact with the cast product as it shrinks. The high velocity cooling water, which is continuously applied to the backside of the belt, impinges on the belt and creates a force on the belt.This force acts to press the belt against the surface of the strip or slab as it shrinks, keeping the belt in close contact with the cast product throughout the mold. Each side of the mold is formed by an endless chain of dam blocks,which are held against the cast strip by adjustable spring-loaded guides.

text: Temnospondyls, like all amphibians, reproduced in aquatic environments. Most temnospondyls probably reproduced through external fertilization. Like most living frogs, female temnospondyls would have laid masses of eggs in water while males released sperm to fertilize them. Several fossils were described from the Early Permian of Texas in 1998 that may be egg masses of dissorophoid temnospondyls. They were the first known fossils of amphibian eggs. The fossils consist of small disks with thin membranes that are probably vitelline membranes and halo-like areas surrounding them that are most likely mucous coatings. They are attached to plant fossils, suggesting that these temnospondyls laid eggs on aquatic plants much like modern frogs. The mucous membranes show that the eggs were laid by amphibians, not fish (their eggs lack mucous), but the type of amphibian that laid them cannot be known because no body fossils are preserved with the eggs. The eggs are thought to be from dissorophoids because they are likely to be close relatives of modern amphibians, and probably had similar reproductive strategies. They are also the most common amphibians from the deposit in which the eggs were found.

text: Temnospondyls, like all amphibians, reproduced in aquatic environments. Most temnospondyls probably reproduced through

text: external fertilization

text: . Like most living frogs, female temnospondyls would have laid masses of eggs in water while males released sperm to fertilize them. Several fossils were described from the Early Permian of Texas in 1998 that may be egg masses of dissorophoid temnospondyls. They were the first known fossils of amphibian eggs. The fossils consist of small disks with thin membranes that are probably

text: vitelline membrane

text: s and halo-like areas surrounding them that are most likely mucous coatings. They are attached to plant fossils, suggesting that these temnospondyls laid eggs on aquatic plants much like modern frogs. The mucous membranes show that the eggs were laid by amphibians, not fish (their eggs lack mucous), but the type of amphibian that laid them cannot be known because no body fossils are preserved with the eggs. The eggs are thought to be from dissorophoids because they are likely to be close relatives of modern amphibians, and probably had similar reproductive strategies. They are also the most common amphibians from the deposit in which the eggs were found.

text: The Erdbach Limestone is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.

text: The Erdbach Limestone is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

text: These are very handy in dealing with certain stubborn specimens, but expensive enough to prohibit overuse until quite a while into the game. The additions don't fundamentally change the fossil-cleaning mechanics of the first game, but they do spice it up a bit for veterans. Most revived species, dubbed vivosaurs by the game, come in four separate fossils with different parts of the skeleton. Getting the head is mandatory to revive a creature, while the other parts serve to make it considerably stronger. Many vivosaurs return from the original game, but quite a few of the new species make it clear that dinosaurs are not the only prehistoric fauna group represented. Plenty of ancient mollusks will be unearthed, along with a few types of mammoth. Getting bored of the options available for combat will not be a problem.

text: Armoricaphyton is an extinct monospecific genus of vascular land plants described from Early Devonian (late Pragian-earliest Emsian) outcrops of the Chalonnes Formation in western France. The plant consists of small, leafless, longitudinally-ribbed axes that branch pseudomonopodially. Pairs of fusiform-shaped, twisted sporangia preserved as adpressions were found in association with the axes and may belong to this species. Permineralized specimens reveal the oldest documented wood or secondary xylem of any known fossil plant. The water-conducting tissues or tracheids consisted of extinct P-type cell walls. This type of cell wall consisted of scalariform bordered pits and perforated sheets that covered the openings (apertures) of the pits. A. chateaupannense is anatomically similar in some respects to other members of the Euphyllophytina such as Psilophyton and Franhueberia. Franhueberia gerriennei is also one of the earliest land plants described from the Early Devonian (late Emsian) that was known to have wood. Given the differences between Armoricaphyton and these other genera and a lack of a complete understanding of the whole plant, Armoricaphyton is currently classified as Euphyllophytina incertae sedis.

text: Armoricaphyton is an extinct monospecific genus of vascular land plants described from

text: Early Devonian

text: (late Pragian-earliest Emsian) outcrops of the

text: Chalonnes Formation

text: in western France. The plant consists of small, leafless, longitudinally-ribbed axes that branch pseudomonopodially. Pairs of fusiform-shaped, twisted

text: sporangia

text: preserved as adpressions were found in association with the axes and may belong to this species.

text: Permineralized

text: specimens reveal the oldest documented

text: wood

text: or

text: secondary xylem

text: of any known fossil plant. The water-conducting tissues or

text: tracheids

text: consisted of extinct P-type cell walls. This type of cell wall consisted of scalariform bordered pits and perforated sheets that covered the openings (apertures) of the pits. A. chateaupannense is anatomically similar in some respects to other members of the

text: Euphyllophytina

text: such as

text: Psilophyton

text: and

text: Franhueberia

text: . Franhueberia gerriennei is also one of the earliest land plants described from the

text: Early Devonian

text: (late Emsian) that was known to have wood. Given the differences between Armoricaphyton and these other genera and a lack of a complete understanding of the whole plant, Armoricaphyton is currently classified as Euphyllophytina incertae sedis.

text: AIFF supports only uncompressed PCM data. AIFF-C also supports compression audio formats, that can be specified in the "COMM" chunk. The compression type is "NONE" for PCM audio data. The compression type is accompanied by a printable name. Common compression types and names include, but are not limited to:

text: It preserves trace fossils such as Skolithos, and remains of Late Cambrian trilobites and brachiopods, as well as Ordovician fossils.

text: It preserves

text: trace fossil

text: s such as

text: Skolithos

text: , and remains of Late Cambrian

text: trilobite

text: s and

text: brachiopod

text: s, as well as Ordovician

text: fossils

text: Foundry patternmakers have historically been woodworkers with skills of a woodcarver, woodturner, and cabinet maker. When an object is made from cast iron, cast aluminum or any liquified metal  the patternmaker is employed to make a wood model of the object  The original pattern has to be made slightly larger as metal shrinks when it cools and often the pattern made in puzzle like parts as the sand mold must be "rammed up" in a certain manner and the parts of the pattern must be removed from the sand mold without altering the negative space which is left behind in the sand. Pattern makers also have evolved into cutting negative spaces into blocks of steel where sheet metal will be pressed between two matching shapes. A dinner fork is a good example. A block of steel is made to mirror the back of the fork and a block of steel is made to mirror the top of the fork.

text: Foundry patternmakers have historically been woodworkers with skills of a woodcarver,

text: woodturner

text: , and cabinet maker. When an object is made from cast iron, cast aluminum or any liquified metal  the patternmaker is employed to make a wood model of the object  The original pattern has to be made slightly larger as metal shrinks when it cools and often the pattern made in puzzle like parts as the sand mold must be "rammed up" in a certain manner and the parts of the pattern must be removed from the sand mold without altering the negative space which is left behind in the sand. Pattern makers also have evolved into cutting negative spaces into blocks of steel where sheet metal will be pressed between two matching shapes. A dinner fork is a good example. A block of steel is made to mirror the back of the fork and a block of steel is made to mirror the top of the fork.

text: The species was described from a series of type specimens, the holotype specimen USNM 422378, which is currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections of the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., and four paratype specimens. Two of the paratypes are also in the National Museum collections, while the remaining two are in the University of Florida collections in Gainesville, Florida. The fossils were part of a group of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, Alonzo W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: type specimens

text: , the

text: holotype

text: specimen USNM 422378, which is currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of the

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: , and four

text: paratype

text: specimens. Two of the paratypes are also in the National Museum collections, while the remaining two are in the

text: University of Florida

text: collections in

text: Gainesville, Florida

text: . The fossils were part of a group of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, Alonzo W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: The Kardiasperma specimens were studied by paleobotanist Steven R. Manchester of the University of Florida. He published his 1994 type description for K. parvum in the journal Palaeontographica Americana. In his type description Manchester noted the generic name is derived from the Greek words Kardia meaning "heart" and sperma meaning "seed". The specific epithet parvum, Latin for "small, was chosen in reference to the small size of the locule casts. The fossils are noted to be nearly identical to fossils of the related and also extinct Betulaceae genus Palaeocarpinus from North Dakota. The two genera are separated on the basis of the notable size difference between the Palaeocarpinus and Kardiasperma fossils and the lack of a surrounding bract on the Kardiasperma.

text: The Kardiasperma specimens were studied by

text: paleobotanist

text: Steven R. Manchester of the University of Florida. He published his 1994

text: type description

text: for K. parvum in the journal

text: Palaeontographica Americana

text: . In his type description Manchester noted the

text: generic name

text: is derived from the

text: Greek

text: words Kardia meaning "heart" and sperma meaning "seed". The

text: specific epithet

text: parvum,

text: Latin

text: for "small, was chosen in reference to the small size of the locule casts. The fossils are noted to be nearly identical to fossils of the related and also extinct Betulaceae genus

text: Palaeocarpinus

text: from North Dakota. The two genera are separated on the basis of the notable size difference between the Palaeocarpinus and Kardiasperma fossils and the lack of a surrounding

text: bract

text: on the Kardiasperma.

text: With Rodman’s method of casting, a cooling core was placed in the mold before casting. This core consisted of a watertight cast iron tube, closed at the lower end. A second, smaller tube, open at the bottom was inserted into the first. As the molten iron was poured into the mold, water was pumped through the smaller tube to the bottom of the larger tube. The water rose through the space between the two tubes and flowed out at the top. The water continued flowing as the metal cooled. To further ensure that the gun cooled from the inside out, a fire was built around the iron flask containing the gun mold, keeping the gun mold nearly red-hot. For an 8-inch Rodman columbiad, the core was removed 25 hours after casting and the flow of water continued through the space left by the core for another 40 hours. Over 50,000 gallons of water was used in the process. For larger guns, the cooling periods were longer and more water was used.

text: With Rodman’s method of casting, a cooling

text: core

text: was placed in the mold before casting. This core consisted of a watertight cast iron tube, closed at the lower end. A second, smaller tube, open at the bottom was inserted into the first. As the molten iron was poured into the mold, water was pumped through the smaller tube to the bottom of the larger tube. The water rose through the space between the two tubes and flowed out at the top. The water continued flowing as the metal cooled. To further ensure that the gun cooled from the inside out, a fire was built around the iron flask containing the gun mold, keeping the gun mold nearly red-hot. For an 8-inch Rodman

text: columbiad

text: , the core was removed 25 hours after casting and the flow of water continued through the space left by the core for another 40 hours. Over 50,000 gallons of water was used in the process. For larger guns, the cooling periods were longer and more water was used.

text: Indeed, the Lonie Report could be seen as evidence for the relatively recent claims by academic Guy Pearse that car, mineral and fossil fuel lobby groups have long written government policy on energy and transport in Australia (see Greenhouse Mafia).

text: Indeed, the Lonie Report could be seen as evidence for the relatively recent claims by academic

text: Guy Pearse

text: that car, mineral and fossil fuel lobby groups have long written government policy on energy and transport in Australia (see

text: Greenhouse Mafia

text: The Decorah Shale is another formation of the Sinnipee Group. It is primarily made of  fossiliferous shale. It lies on top of the platteville limestone formed by the shallow sea that covered central North America. Because of its chemistry it tends to erode rapidly. Since the Decorah Shale is fossiliferous the Decorah Shale layer is often used as a place for amateur fossil hunters to begin their collections. It also serves as release of PO4 into the ground water system if acid rain is introduced to it. This allows, in some cases, for new minerals. The Decorah Shale formation is made of three members. These members are the Spects Ferry, a geological an argillaceous limestone, argillaceous dolomite, Calcareous shale and argillaceous limestones.

text: The

text: Decorah Shale

text: is another formation of the Sinnipee Group. It is primarily made of

text: fossiliferous

text: shale

text: . It lies on top of the

text: platteville limestone

text: formed by the shallow sea that covered central North America. Because of its chemistry it tends to erode rapidly. Since the

text: Decorah Shale

text: is

text: fossiliferous

text: the

text: Decorah Shale

text: layer is often used as a place for amateur fossil hunters to begin their collections. It also serves as release of PO4 into the ground water system if

text: acid rain

text: is introduced to it. This allows, in some cases, for new

text: minerals

text: . The

text: Decorah Shale

text: formation is made of three members. These members are the Spects Ferry, a geological an argillaceous limestone, argillaceous dolomite, Calcareous shale and argillaceous limestones.

text: In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Compression fossils are studied by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details.

text: In contrast to

text: plants

text: and

text: animals

text: , the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal

text: fruiting bodies

text: , which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble

text: extant

text: fungi. Often recovered from a

text: permineralized

text: plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with

text: light microscopy

text: or

text: transmission electron microscopy

text: Compression fossil

text: s are studied by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or

text: scanning electron microscopy

text: to examine surface details.

text: Plant fossils can be preserved in a variety of ways, each of which can give different types of information about the original parent plant.  These modes of preservation are discussed in the general pages on fossils but may be summarised in a palaeobotanical context as follows.

text: Plant fossils can be preserved in a variety of ways, each of which can give different types of information about the original parent plant.  These modes of preservation are discussed in the general pages on

text: fossil

text: s but may be summarised in a palaeobotanical context as follows.

text: Named in 1887, the type species of Coelophysis was originally named as a species of Coelurus. Edward Drinker Cope first named Coelophysis in 1889 to name a new genus, outside of Coelurus and Tanystropheus to which C. bauri was previously classified in for C. bauri, C. willistoni and C. longicollis.An amateur fossil collector working for Cope, David Baldwin, had found the first remains of the dinosaur in 1881 in the Chinle Formation in northwestern New Mexico. Early in 1887 Cope referred the specimens collected to two new species, C. bauri and C. longicollis and erected the genus Coelurus.  Later in 1887 Cope reassigned the material to a yet another genus, Tanystropheus. Two years later, Cope corrected his classification after realizing differences in the vertebrae, and named Coelophysis, with C. bauri as the type species, which was named for Baur, another fossil collector who supplied Cope. However, these first finds were too poorly preserved to give a complete picture of this new dinosaur. In 1947, a substantial 'graveyard' of Coelophysis fossils was found by George Whitaker, the assistant of Edwin H. Colbert, in New Mexico, at the Ghost Ranch, close to the original find.  American Museum of Natural History paleontologist Edwin H. Colbert conducted a comprehensive study of all the fossils found up to that date and assigned them to Coelophysis. The Ghost Ranch specimens were so numerous, including many well-preserved and fully articulated specimens, that one of them has since become the diagnostic, or type specimen, for the entire genus, replacing the original, poorly preserved specimen. Coelophysis bauri was also found in the Siltstone Member of the Chinle Formation.

text: Named in 1887, the type species of Coelophysis was originally named as a species of

text: Coelurus

text: Edward Drinker Cope

text: first named Coelophysis in 1889 to name a new genus, outside of Coelurus and

text: Tanystropheus

text: to which C. bauri was previously classified in for C. bauri, C. willistoni and C. longicollis.An amateur

text: fossil

text: collector working for Cope, David Baldwin, had found the first remains of the dinosaur in 1881 in the Chinle Formation in northwestern New Mexico. Early in 1887 Cope referred the specimens collected to two new species, C. bauri and C. longicollis and erected the genus Coelurus.  Later in 1887 Cope reassigned the material to a yet another genus, Tanystropheus. Two years later, Cope corrected his classification after realizing differences in the vertebrae, and named Coelophysis, with C. bauri as the

text: type species

text: , which was named for Baur, another fossil collector who supplied Cope. However, these first finds were too poorly preserved to give a complete picture of this new dinosaur. In 1947, a substantial 'graveyard' of Coelophysis fossils was found by George Whitaker, the assistant of Edwin H. Colbert, in

text: New Mexico

text: , at the

text: Ghost Ranch

text: , close to the original find.  American Museum of Natural History paleontologist

text: Edwin H. Colbert

text: conducted a comprehensive study of all the fossils found up to that date and assigned them to Coelophysis. The Ghost Ranch specimens were so numerous, including many well-preserved and fully articulated specimens, that one of them has since become the diagnostic, or

text: type specimen

text: , for the entire genus, replacing the original, poorly preserved specimen. Coelophysis bauri was also found in the

text: Siltstone Member

text: of the

text: Chinle Formation

text: Most fossils represent mineralized material such as bone or shells.  However, biopolymers such as chitin and collagen can sometimes leave fossils – most famously in Burgess Shale type preservation and palynomorphs.  The preservation of soft tissue is not as rare as sometimes thought.

text: Most fossils represent mineralized material such as bone or shells.  However, biopolymers such as

text: chitin

text: and

text: collagen

text: can sometimes leave fossils – most famously in

text: Burgess Shale type preservation

text: and

text: palynomorph

text: s.  The preservation of soft tissue is not as rare as sometimes thought.

text: Misruns and cold shuts are closely related and both involve the material freezing before it completely fills the mold cavity. These types of defects are serious because the area surrounding the defect is significantly weaker than intended. The castability and viscosity of the material can be important factors with these problems. Fluidity affects the minimum section thickness that can be cast, the maximum length of thin sections, fineness of feasibly cast details, and the accuracy of filling mold extremities. There are various ways of measuring the fluidity of a material, although it usually involves using a standard mould shape and measuring the distance the material flows. Fluidity is affected by the composition of the material, freezing temperature or range, surface tension of oxide films, and, most importantly, the pouring temperature. The higher the pouring temperature, the greater the fluidity; however, excessive temperatures can be detrimental, leading to a reaction between the material and the mold; in casting processes that use a porous mould material the material may even penetrate the mould material.

text: Misruns and cold shuts are closely related and both involve the material freezing before it completely fills the mold cavity. These types of defects are serious because the area surrounding the defect is significantly weaker than intended. The

text: castability

text: and

text: viscosity

text: of the material can be important factors with these problems. Fluidity affects the minimum section thickness that can be cast, the maximum length of thin sections, fineness of feasibly cast details, and the accuracy of filling mold extremities. There are various ways of measuring the fluidity of a material, although it usually involves using a standard mould shape and measuring the distance the material flows. Fluidity is affected by the composition of the material, freezing temperature or range, surface tension of oxide films, and, most importantly, the pouring temperature. The higher the pouring temperature, the greater the fluidity; however, excessive temperatures can be detrimental, leading to a reaction between the material and the mold; in casting processes that use a porous mould material the material may even penetrate the mould material.

text: The Minturn Formation is a geologic formation in Colorado. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period. Among the fossils preserved are of crinoids, spiriferid brachiopods, gastropods, and the spines and teeth of numerous sharks such as Petalodus

text: The Minturn Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Colorado

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

text: . Among the fossils preserved are of crinoids, spiriferid brachiopods, gastropods, and the spines and teeth of numerous sharks such as

text: Petalodus

text: The earliest known evidence of artificial preservation in Europe was found in Osorno (Spain) and are about 5000 years old human bones covered in cinnabar for preservation, but embalming remained unusual in Europe up to the time of the Roman Empire.

text: The earliest known evidence of artificial preservation in Europe was found in

text: Osorno

text: (Spain) and are about 5000 years old human bones covered in

text: cinnabar

text: for preservation, but embalming remained unusual in Europe up to the time of the Roman Empire.

text: There are two defects in this category: hot tears and hot spots. Hot tears, also known as , are failures in the casting that occur as the casting cools. This happens because the metal is weak when it is hot and the residual stresses in the material can cause the casting to fail as it cools. Proper mold design prevents this type of defect.

text: The Ohlsbach Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.

text: The Ohlsbach Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

text: Egg fossils are the fossilized remains of eggs laid by ancient animals. As evidence of the physiological processes of an animal, egg fossils are considered a type of trace fossil. Under rare circumstances a fossil egg may preserve the remains of the once-developing embryo inside, in which case it also contains body fossils. A wide variety of different animal groups laid eggs that are now preserved in the fossil record beginning in the Paleozoic era. Examples include invertebrates like ammonoids as well as vertebrates like fishes, possible amphibians, and reptiles. The latter group includes the many dinosaur eggs that have been recovered from Mesozoic strata. Since the organism responsible for laying any given egg fossil is frequently unknown, scientists classify eggs using a parallel system of taxonomy separate from but modeled after the Linnaean system. This "parataxonomy" is called veterovata.

text: Egg fossils are the

text: fossil

text: ized remains of

text: egg

text: s laid by

text: ancient

text: animal

text: s. As evidence of the

text: physiological

text: processes of an animal, egg fossils are considered a type of

text: trace fossil

text: . Under rare circumstances a fossil egg may preserve the remains of the once-

text: developing

text: embryo

text: inside, in which case it also contains

text: body fossils

text: . A wide variety of different animal groups laid eggs that are now preserved in the fossil record beginning in the

text: Paleozoic era

text: . Examples include

text: invertebrates

text: like

text: ammonoids

text: as well as

text: vertebrates

text: like

text: fishes

text: , possible

text: amphibians

text: , and

text: reptiles

text: . The latter group includes the many

text: dinosaur eggs

text: that have been recovered from

text: Mesozoic

text: strata

text: . Since the organism responsible for laying any given egg fossil is frequently unknown, scientists classify eggs using a parallel system of taxonomy separate from but modeled after the

text: Linnaean system

text: . This "

text: parataxonomy

text: " is called

text: veterovata

text: Nearly 100 fossil species have been identified in the Llewellyn; almost all of them plants. The major divisions of flora that have been recognized include: Lycopodiophyta, Arthrophyta, Pteridophyta, and Pteridospermatophyta. Fossils have been recovered from every rock type in the Llewellyn but are predominantly found in the siltstone, shale, and coal layers. The compression fossils from the Llewellyn formation are well known for the striking white color on the dark stone. An important location for these fossils is near St. Claire, Pennsylvania.

text: Nearly 100 fossil species have been identified in the Llewellyn; almost all of them plants. The major

text: divisions

text: of flora that have been recognized include:

text: Lycopodiophyta

text: Arthrophyta

text: Pteridophyta

text: , and

text: Pteridospermatophyta

text: . Fossils have been recovered from every rock type in the Llewellyn but are predominantly found in the siltstone, shale, and coal layers. The compression fossils from the Llewellyn formation are well known for the striking white color on the dark stone. An important location for these fossils is near

text: St. Claire, Pennsylvania

text: The museum has three giant tree trunks of petrified wood, permineralized by the passage of vast geologic time.   Visitors may actually rest on these relics of the distant, deep past.

text: The museum has three giant

text: tree

text: trunks of

text: petrified wood

text: permineralized

text: by the passage of vast

text: geologic time

text: .   Visitors may actually rest on these relics of the distant, deep past.

text: At present, the Geological Museum of China has more than 100,000 geological specimens. Many of them are precious items reputed as "National Treasures", such as "the Giant Shandong Dinosaur" fossil, the highest and most complete dinosaur fossils extant in the world; the fossils of primitive birds that were found in the west of Liaoning Province, which has the essential values to the research on birds of the area; the teeth fossils of Yunnan Yuanmou Man, which shifts the appearance of human beings in China to a much more earlier time; the stoneware, stone pearls, bone needles and bone decoration unearthed from the site of the Upper Cave man at Zhoukoudian in Beijing; a cinnabar crystal of 237 grams that is called as "King of Cinnabar"; and more than 60 new mineral products that were found in China, and so on.

text: At present, the Geological Museum of China has more than 100,000 geological specimens. Many of them are precious items reputed as "National Treasures", such as "the Giant Shandong Dinosaur"

text: fossil

text: , the highest and most complete dinosaur fossils extant in the world; the fossils of primitive birds that were found in the west of

text: Liaoning Province

text: , which has the essential values to the research on birds of the area; the teeth fossils of Yunnan Yuanmou Man, which shifts the appearance of human beings in China to a much more earlier time; the stoneware, stone pearls, bone needles and bone decoration unearthed from the site of the Upper Cave man at

text: Zhoukoudian

text: in Beijing; a cinnabar crystal of 237 grams that is called as "King of Cinnabar"; and more than 60 new

text: mineral

text: products that were found in China, and so on.

text: The Habberley Shale is a geologic formation in England. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.

text: The Habberley Shale is a

text: geologic formation

text: in England. It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Ordovician

text: period

text: A mold is a hollow shape which exactly encloses the shape of a desired object. The object is usually created by pouring a liquid into the mold and allowing it to solidify: typical liquids include molten metal or plastic, plaster of Paris, epoxy resin.

text: A mold is a hollow shape which exactly encloses the shape of a desired object. The object is usually created by pouring a liquid into the mold and allowing it to solidify: typical liquids include molten metal or plastic,

text: plaster of Paris

text: , epoxy resin.

text: The museum is divided into five different permanent sections: Mineralogy (with a large collection of minerals from all over the world); Paleontology (with several fossils of dinosaurs and other prehistoric organisms); Natural History of Man (dedicated to the origins and evolution of humans with a particular attention to the relationship of the latter with the environment); Invertebrate Zoology (dedicated to mollusks, arthropods and entomology); and Vertebrate Zoology (dedicated to vertebrates, both exotic and European).

text: The museum is divided into five different permanent sections: Mineralogy (with a large collection of

text: minerals

text: from all over the world); Paleontology (with several

text: fossil

text: s of

text: dinosaur

text: s and other prehistoric organisms); Natural History of Man (dedicated to the origins and evolution of humans with a particular attention to the relationship of the latter with the environment); Invertebrate Zoology (dedicated to

text: mollusks

text: arthropods

text: and

text: entomology

text: ); and Vertebrate Zoology (dedicated to vertebrates, both exotic and European).

text: C. cachecreekensis is known only from one fossil, a part and counterpart holotype, specimen number F-1545 & F-1546, which is housed in the collections of the Thompson Rivers University in Kamloops, British Columbia.  Cuspilongus was described from a specimen which was recovered from outcrops of the early Eocene, Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds near Cache Creek, British Columbia.  The unnamed formation outcropping at the McAbee Fossil Beds preserve an upland temperate flora that was first interpreted as being Microthermal, although further study has shown them to be more mesothermal in nature.  The plant community preserved in the McAbee Fossil Beds site is mostly broadleaf pollen with alder and elm dominating, and may represent a successional forest involving multiple volcanic ash eruptions.

text: C. cachecreekensis is known only from one fossil, a

text: part and counterpart

text: holotype

text: , specimen number F-1545 & F-1546, which is housed in the collections of the

text: Thompson Rivers University

text: in

text: Kamloops, British Columbia

text: .  Cuspilongus was described from a specimen which was recovered from outcrops of the early Eocene,

text: Ypresian

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: near

text: Cache Creek, British Columbia

text: Microthermal

text: mesothermal

text: alder

text: and

text: elm

text: As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions. Vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates, from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals. Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of invertebrates such as molluscs, arthropods, annelid worms and echinoderms. Paleobotany focuses on the study of fossil plants, but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae and fungi. Palynology, the study of pollen and spores produced by land plants and protists, straddles the border between paleontology and botany, as it deals with both living and fossil organisms. Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms, regardless of the group to which they belong.

text: As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions.

text: Vertebrate paleontology

text: concentrates on

text: fossil

text: s of

text: vertebrates

text: , from the earliest

text: fish

text: to the immediate ancestors of modern

text: mammal

text: s.

text: Invertebrate paleontology

text: deals with fossils of

text: invertebrate

text: s such as

text: mollusc

text: s,

text: arthropod

text: s,

text: annelid

text: worms and

text: echinoderm

text: s.

text: Paleobotany

text: focuses on the study of fossil

text: plants

text: , but traditionally includes the study of fossil

text: algae

text: and

text: fungi

text: Palynology

text: , the study of

text: pollen

text: and

text: spores

text: produced by land plants and

text: protist

text: s, straddles the border between paleontology and

text: botany

text: , as it deals with both living and fossil organisms.

text: Micropaleontology

text: deals with all microscopic fossil organisms, regardless of the group to which they belong.

text: The book argues that the origin of new organisms is "in an immaterial cause: in a blueprint, a plan, a pattern, devised by an intelligent agent". The text remains non-committal on the age of the Earth, commenting that some "take the view that the earth's history can be compressed into a framework of thousands of years, while others adhere to the standard old earth chronology". The book raises a number of objections to the theory of evolution, such as the alleged lack of transitional fossils, gaps in the fossil record and the apparent sudden appearance ex nihilo of "already intact fish with fins and scales, birds with feathers, beaks, and wings, etc". The book makes no explicit reference to the identity of the intelligent designer implied in the "blueprint" metaphor.

text: The book argues that the origin of new organisms is "in an immaterial cause: in a blueprint, a plan, a pattern, devised by an intelligent agent". The text remains non-committal on the age of the Earth, commenting that some "take the view that the earth's history can be compressed into a framework of thousands of years, while others adhere to the standard old earth chronology". The book raises a number of objections to the theory of evolution, such as the alleged lack of

text: transitional fossil

text: s, gaps in the

text: fossil record

text: and the apparent sudden appearance

text: ex nihilo

text: of "already intact fish with fins and scales, birds with feathers, beaks, and wings, etc". The book makes no explicit reference to the identity of the

text: intelligent designer

text: implied in the "blueprint" metaphor.

text: The single known specimen of P. persephone is a compression fossil, discovered by the "homesteader turned naturalist" Charlotte Hill, in shale deposits of Late Eocene age of the Florissant Formation near Florissant, Colorado.

text: The single known specimen of P. persephone is a

text: compression fossil

text: , discovered by the "

text: homesteader

text: turned

text: naturalist

text: " Charlotte Hill, in

text: shale

text: deposits of

text: Late Eocene

text: age of the

text: Florissant Formation

text: near

text: Florissant, Colorado

text: Baryte, BaS0, is an extremely stable mineral.  Under surface and near surface conditions it is far less soluble in aqueous solutions than are the barium carbonate minerals witherite BaC0, barytocalcite BaCa(C0) and alstonite BaCa(C0), so baryte replaces the more soluble minerals.  This is demonstrated by the numerous pseudomorphs and partial pseudomorphs of baryte after these carbonates.  The sharp pointed crystals of baryte that occur, particularly where witherite is also present, are secondary in nature, forming from witherite.  The change from witherite to baryte, however, can also go the other way, with barium carbonates, particularly witherite, replacing baryte.  Replacement of baryte by both barytocalcite and witherite has occurred on a significant scale at Rampgill mine.

text: Baryte

text: , BaS0, is an extremely stable mineral.  Under surface and near surface conditions it is far less

text: soluble

text: in

text: aqueous

text: solutions than are the

text: barium

text: carbonate

text: minerals

text: witherite

text: barytocalcite

text: BaCa(C0) and

text: alstonite

text: BaCa(C0), so baryte replaces the more soluble minerals.  This is demonstrated by the numerous

text: pseudomorphs

text: and partial pseudomorphs of baryte after these carbonates.  The sharp pointed crystals of baryte that occur, particularly where witherite is also present, are

text: secondary

text: in nature, forming from witherite.  The change from witherite to baryte, however, can also go the other way, with barium carbonates, particularly witherite, replacing baryte.  Replacement of baryte by both barytocalcite and witherite has occurred on a significant scale at Rampgill mine.

text: and a more comprehensive record in Eocene deposits from . But, in fact, some of these amber-borne specimens lack slime papillae and separate feet, thus may belong in the stem group. The vagaries of the preservation process can make fossils difficult to interpret. Experiments on the decay and compaction of onychophora demonstrate difficulties in interpreting fossils; certain parts of living onychophora are only visible in certain conditions. The mouth may or may not be preserved; claws may be re-oriented or lost; leg width may increase or decrease; and mud may be mistaken for organs. More significantly, features seen in fossils may be artefacts of the preservation process: for instance, "shoulder pads" may simply be the second row of legs compressed coaxially onto the body; branching "antennae" may in fact be produced through decay.

text: and a more comprehensive record in

text: Eocene

text: deposits from . But, in fact, some of these amber-borne specimens lack slime papillae and separate feet, thus may belong in the stem group. The vagaries of the preservation process can make fossils difficult to interpret. Experiments on the decay and compaction of onychophora demonstrate difficulties in interpreting fossils; certain parts of living onychophora are only visible in certain conditions. The mouth may or may not be preserved; claws may be re-oriented or lost; leg width may increase or decrease; and mud may be mistaken for organs. More significantly, features seen in fossils may be artefacts of the preservation process: for instance, "shoulder pads" may simply be the second row of legs compressed coaxially onto the body; branching "antennae" may in fact be produced through decay.

text: The oldest fossils assigned with confidence to the order are Hironoia fusiformis, described from Coniacian age Japanese coalified fruits, and Suciacarpa starrii described from American permineralized fruits of Campanian age.

text: The oldest fossils assigned with confidence to the order are

text: Hironoia fusiformis

text: , described from

text: Coniacian

text: age Japanese coalified fruits, and

text: Suciacarpa starrii

text: described from American

text: permineralized

text: fruits of

text: Campanian

text: age.

text: This species is the type taxon of the fossil genus † Tequestaconus

text: Eriocampa tulameenensis is known only from one fossil, the holotype, number "GSC No. 22688". It is a single, mostly complete adult of undetermined sex, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained shale.  The shale specimen is from deposits along the Canadian Pacific rail line in the Similkameen Country of British Columbia, Canada.  The type specimen is currently preserved in the Geological Survey of Canada paleoentomological collections in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.  E.  tulameenensis was first studied by Dr Harington M. A. Rice of the Geological Survey of Canada, with his 1968 type description being published in the Geological Survey of Canada professional paper number 67-59.  The specific epithet tulameenensis was coined in reference to the Tulameen River near where the fossil was collected in 1957.

text: Eriocampa tulameenensis is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , number "GSC No. 22688". It is a single, mostly complete adult of undetermined sex, preserved as a compression fossil in fine grained

text: shale

text: .  The

text: shale

text: specimen is from deposits along the

text: Canadian Pacific rail line

text: in the Similkameen Country of

text: British Columbia

text: Canada

text: .  The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: Geological Survey of Canada paleoentomological collections

text: in

text: Ottawa, Ontario

text: , Canada.  E.  tulameenensis was first studied by

text: Dr Harington M. A. Rice

text: of the Geological Survey of Canada, with his 1968

text: type description

text: being published in the Geological Survey of Canada professional paper number 67-59.  The

text: specific epithet

text: tulameenensis was coined in reference to the

text: Tulameen River

text: near where the fossil was collected in 1957.

text: Plumalexius rasnitsyni is known from only two fossils, the holotype, specimen "AMNH no. NJ-695" and the paratype, specimen "AMNH no. NJ-175".  The specimens are both fairly complete male specimens which are preserved as inclusions in blocks of heavily fractured yellowish amber.  The fossils were recovered in 1995 from outcrops of Turonian age strata in the White Oaks Pit,  Middlesex County, New Jersey by Paul Nascimbene and subsequently embedded in blocks of epoxy.  The type specimens are currently preserved in the paleoentomology collections housed in the American Museum of Natural History, located in Manhattan, New York City, USA.  The two specimens were examined by Alexandr P. Rasnitsyn, who identified them as belonging to the chrysidoid family Plumariidae.  Plumalexius was first fully studied by Denis J. Brothers of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.  Brothers 2011 type description of the family, genus, and species was published online and in print in the journal Zookeys.  The generic name was coined by Brothers from a combination of the family name "Plumariidae", in recognition of the original identification of the fossils, and the name "Alexandr" in honor of Alexandr Rasnitsyn.  The family name Plumalexiidae is a derivation of genus name, while the etymology of the specific epithet rasnitsyni is a derivation of Alexandr Rasnitsyn's last name.

text: Plumalexius rasnitsyni is known from only two fossils, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen "AMNH no. NJ-695" and the

text: paratype

text: , specimen "AMNH no. NJ-175".  The specimens are both fairly complete male specimens which are preserved as inclusions in blocks of heavily fractured yellowish

text: amber

text: .  The fossils were recovered in 1995 from outcrops of

text: Turonian

text: age strata in the White Oaks Pit,

text: Middlesex County, New Jersey

text: by Paul Nascimbene and subsequently embedded in blocks of epoxy.  The type specimens are currently preserved in the

text: paleoentomology

text: collections housed in the

text: American Museum of Natural History

text: , located in

text: Manhattan

text: New York City

text: , USA.  The two specimens were examined by

text: Alexandr P. Rasnitsyn

text: , who identified them as belonging to the

text: chrysidoid

text: family

text: Plumariidae

text: .  Plumalexius was first fully studied by Denis J. Brothers of the

text: University of KwaZulu-Natal

text: Pietermaritzburg

text: , South Africa.  Brothers 2011

text: type description

text: of the family, genus, and species was published online and in print in the journal

text: Zookeys

text: .  The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Brothers from a combination of the family name "Plumariidae", in recognition of the original identification of the fossils, and the name "Alexandr" in honor of Alexandr Rasnitsyn.  The family name Plumalexiidae is a derivation of genus name, while the

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: rasnitsyni is a derivation of Alexandr Rasnitsyn's last name.

text: Plaster mold casting is a metalworking casting process similar to sand casting except the molding material is plaster of Paris instead of sand. Like sand casting, plaster mold casting is an expendable mold process, however it can only be used with non-ferrous materials. It is used for castings as small as  to as large as . Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare. Production rates of 1–10 units/hr can be achieved with plaster molds.

text: Plaster mold casting is a

text: metalworking

text: casting

text: process similar to

text: sand casting

text: except the molding material is

text: plaster of Paris

text: instead of

text: sand

text: . Like sand casting, plaster mold casting is an expendable mold process, however it can only be used with non-ferrous materials. It is used for castings as small as  to as large as . Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare. Production rates of 1–10 units/hr can be achieved with plaster molds.

text: Debate occurs about whether some Ediacaran and Early Cambrian fossils really are molluscs. Kimberella, from about , has been described by some paleontologists as "mollusc-like", but others are unwilling to go further than "probable bilaterian". There is an even sharper debate about whether Wiwaxia, from about , was a mollusc, and much of this centers on whether its feeding apparatus was a type of radula or more similar to that of some polychaete worms. Nicholas Butterfield, who opposes the idea that Wiwaxia was a mollusc, has written that earlier microfossils from  are fragments of a genuinely mollusc-like radula. This appears to contradict the concept that the ancestral molluscan radula was mineralized.

text: Debate occurs about whether some

text: Ediacaran

text: and Early

text: Cambrian

text: fossils really are molluscs.

text: Kimberella

text: , from about , has been described by some paleontologists as "mollusc-like", but others are unwilling to go further than "probable

text: bilateria

text: n". There is an even sharper debate about whether

text: Wiwaxia

text: , from about , was a mollusc, and much of this centers on whether its feeding apparatus was a type of

text: radula

text: or more similar to that of some

text: polychaete

text: worms. Nicholas Butterfield, who opposes the idea that Wiwaxia was a mollusc, has written that earlier

text: microfossil

text: s from  are fragments of a genuinely mollusc-like radula. This appears to contradict the concept that the ancestral molluscan radula was mineralized.

text: Fossil fuel phase out is the proposed energy transition beyond fossil fuels through multiple means, including transport electrification, fossil fuel divestment, decommissioning of operating fossil fuel-fired power plants and prevention of the construction of new fossil fuel-fired power stations. Its purpose is to reduce air pollution, mining tragedies, and greenhouse gas emissions which cause climate change. A move to the many forms of renewable energy or nuclear energy is involved in shifting away from fossil fuels.

text: Fossil fuel phase out is the proposed

text: energy transition

text: beyond

text: fossil fuels

text: through multiple means, including

text: transport electrification

text: fossil fuel divestment

text: , decommissioning of operating

text: fossil fuel-fired power plants

text: and prevention of the construction of new fossil fuel-fired power stations. Its purpose is to reduce

text: air pollution

text: mining tragedies

text: , and

text: greenhouse gas emissions

text: which cause

text: climate change

text: . A move to the many forms of

text: renewable energy

text: or nuclear energy is involved in shifting away from fossil fuels.

text: Raw castings often contain irregularities  caused by seams and imperfections in the molds, as well as access ports for pouring material into the molds.  The process of cutting, grinding, shaving or sanding away these unwanted bits is called "fettling". In modern times robotic processes have been developed to perform some of the more repetitive parts of the fettling process, but historically fettlers carried out this arduous work manually,  and often in conditions dangerous to their health.

text: Molds for the casting process consist of two halves. Casting molds are usually formed from gray cast iron because it has about the best thermal fatigue resistance, but other materials include steel, bronze, and graphite. These metals are chosen because of their resistance to erosion and thermal fatigue. They are usually not very complex because the mold offers no collapsibility to compensate for shrinkage. Instead the mold is opened as soon as the casting is solidified, which prevents hot tears. Cores can be used and are usually made from sand or metal.

text: Molds for the casting process consist of two halves. Casting molds are usually formed from gray cast iron because it has about the best

text: thermal fatigue

text: resistance, but other materials include steel, bronze, and graphite. These metals are chosen because of their resistance to erosion and thermal fatigue. They are usually not very complex because the mold offers no collapsibility to compensate for shrinkage. Instead the mold is opened as soon as the casting is solidified, which prevents hot tears. Cores can be used and are usually made from

text: sand

text: or metal.

text: Fossils are well preserved in mudrock formations, because the fine-grained rock protects the fossils from erosion, dissolution, and other processes of erosion. Fossils are particularly important for recording past environments. Paleontologists can look at a specific area and determine salinity, water depth, water temperature, water turbidity, and sedimentation rates with the aid of type and abundance of fossils in mudrock

text: Compression members are structural elements that are pushed together or carry a load, more technically they are subjected only to axial compressive forces. That is, the loads are applied on the longitudinal axis through the centroid of the member cross section, and the load over the cross sectional area gives the stress on the compressed member. In buildings posts and columns are almost always compression members as are the top chord of trusses.

text: Compression members are structural elements that are pushed together or carry a load, more technically they are subjected only to axial

text: compressive

text: forces. That is, the loads are applied on the longitudinal axis through the centroid of the member cross section, and the load over the cross sectional area gives the stress on the compressed member. In buildings

text: posts

text: and

text: column

text: s are almost always compression members as are the top chord of

text: truss

text: es.

text: Marmarth is the location of numerous dinosaur fossil findings, including the Dakota fossil. The Marmarth Historical Society and the Marmarth Research Foundation offer summer courses on archeological areas where triceratops and hadrosaurs have been excavated, including courses on fossil preparation, field techniques, dinosaur fossil preservation, and more. Dakota, a fossilized Edmontosaurus, a type of duckbill dinosaur, was discovered near Marmarth in 1999 by Tyler Lyson. The fossil is unique in that soft tissue, skin, and muscle were fossilized as well as bone.

text: Marmarth is the location of numerous dinosaur fossil findings, including the

text: Dakota fossil

text: . The Marmarth Historical Society and the Marmarth Research Foundation offer summer courses on archeological areas where triceratops and hadrosaurs have been excavated, including courses on fossil preparation, field techniques, dinosaur fossil preservation, and more.

text: Dakota

text: , a

text: fossilized

text: Edmontosaurus

text: , a type of

text: duckbill dinosaur

text: , was discovered near Marmarth in 1999 by

text: Tyler Lyson

text: . The fossil is unique in that soft tissue, skin, and muscle were fossilized as well as bone.

text: G. macrops is known from a single ant found in Russia.  The specimen was described from a compression fossil preserved in diatomite deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site. Located in the Pozharsky District, on the Pacific Coast of Russia, the fossil-bearing rocks preserve possibly Priabonian plants and animals which lived in a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the Maksimovka or Salibez Formations and compared to the Bembridge Marls and Florissant Formation, both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: G. macrops is known from a single ant found in Russia.  The specimen was described from a

text: compression fossil

text: preserved in

text: diatomite

text: Pozharsky District

text: Priabonian

text: Maksimovka

text: or

text: Salibez Formation

text: s and compared to the

text: Bembridge Marl

text: s and

text: Florissant Formation

text: , both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: Some flasks are used to form a mold and they are removed before pouring the casting so another mold can be made.  Other flasks are designed to contain the mold through the pouring operation, and then the casting is shaken out of the mold.  The flasks are then used again and again.

text: Y. orientalis was described from a part and counterpart holotype and a solitary forewing paratype compression fossil found at the late Eocene  Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya fossil site, in the  Sikhote-Alin area of far-eastern Russia. The type specimens numbered PIN 3429/1109 for the part and counterpart and PIN 3429/1198 are currently preserved in the A.A. Borissiak PaleontologicalInstitute fossil collections of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Dlussky, Rasnitsyn, and Perfilieva coined the specific epithet from the Latin "orientalis",  meaning "eastern", in reference to the type locality. The species is discernible from Y. rebekkae by its smaller petiole node size.  While there are no distinct differences between Y. orientalis and the two Okanagan Highlands species Y. bartletti and Y. orbiculata, the fossils were placed into a new species by Dlussky, Rasnitsyn, and Perfilieva.  This is due to the notable time difference between the highlands and Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya. Though the possible gyne is incomplete the estimated body length is  and the mesosoma is robust.  The forewing has closed 1+2r, 3r, rm and mcu cells, with the 3r elongated while the 1+2r is shorted to just over twice as long as wide.

text: Y. orientalis was described from a part and counterpart holotype and a solitary forewing paratype

text: compression fossil

text: found at the

text: late Eocene

text: Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya fossil site, in the  Sikhote-Alin area of far-eastern Russia. The

text: type specimens

text: numbered PIN 3429/1109 for the part and counterpart and PIN 3429/1198 are currently preserved in the A.A. Borissiak PaleontologicalInstitute fossil collections of the

text: Russian Academy of Sciences

text: . Dlussky, Rasnitsyn, and Perfilieva coined the

text: specific epithet

text: from the

text: Latin

text: "orientalis",  meaning "eastern", in reference to the type locality. The species is discernible from Y. rebekkae by its smaller petiole node size.  While there are no distinct differences between Y. orientalis and the two Okanagan Highlands species Y. bartletti and Y. orbiculata, the fossils were placed into a new species by Dlussky, Rasnitsyn, and Perfilieva.  This is due to the notable time difference between the highlands and Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya. Though the possible gyne is incomplete the estimated body length is  and the mesosoma is robust.  The forewing has closed 1+2r, 3r, rm and mcu cells, with the 3r elongated while the 1+2r is shorted to just over twice as long as wide.

text: M. herculeanus was described from a single side of a compression fossil found at the Middle Ypresian McAbee Fossil Beds, Kamloops Group, near Cache Creek, British Columbia. The incomplete specimen numbered UCCIPR L-18 F-974, is currently preserved in the paleontology collections housed at the Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, British Columbia. Archibald, Cover, and Moreau coined the specific epithet "herculeanus" from the Latin name "Hercules" in reference to the notably sturdy and large morphology of the type specimen, and after the divine hero Heracles in Greek mythology, who was the son of Zeus and Alcmene. The species is discernible from the other species of Myrmeciinae by its notably larger size, the worker caste ant is estimated at over  in life. Its size is comparable to ants in the genus Ypresiomyrma. The shape of the petiole, a narrow waist that is located between the mesosoma and gaster is distinct from other species and is similar in structure to the genus Prionomyrmex though the shape and size of the mandibles are distinct. Overall, M. herculeanus was assigned to Myrmeciinae due to its mandible length, despite them being poorly preserved, and due to the appearance of its petiole and propodeum. The legs are long in comparison to its body length, and the gaster is robust. It is unknown if the species had a sting, due to the preservation of the specimen. The size of the single known worker is larger than any of the studied queens; as Myrmeciinae queens are slightly larger than the other castes in a species, this indicates M. herculeanus is most likely a distinct species. Due to the incomplete nature of the type specimen, the species was placed in Myrmeciites.

text: M. herculeanus was described from a

text: single

text: side of a

text: compression fossil

text: found at the

text: Middle Ypresian

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: , Kamloops Group, near

text: Cache Creek, British Columbia

text: . The incomplete specimen numbered UCCIPR L-18 F-974, is currently preserved in the

text: paleontology

text: collections housed at the

text: Thompson Rivers University

text: Kamloops, British Columbia

text: specific epithet

text: "herculeanus" from the

text: Latin

text: name "

text: Hercules

text: " in reference to the notably sturdy and large morphology of the type specimen, and after the

text: divine hero

text: Heracles

text: in

text: Greek mythology

text: , who was the son of

text: Zeus

text: and

text: Alcmene

text: . The species is discernible from the other species of Myrmeciinae by its notably larger size, the worker caste ant is estimated at over  in life. Its size is comparable to ants in the genus

text: Ypresiomyrma

text: . The shape of the

text: petiole

text: , a narrow waist that is located between the

text: mesosoma

text: and

text: gaster

text: is distinct from other species and is similar in structure to the genus

text: Prionomyrmex

text: though the shape and size of the mandibles are distinct. Overall, M. herculeanus was assigned to Myrmeciinae due to its mandible length, despite them being poorly preserved, and due to the appearance of its petiole and

text: propodeum

text: . The legs are long in comparison to its body length, and the gaster is robust. It is unknown if the species had a sting, due to the preservation of the specimen. The size of the single known worker is larger than any of the studied queens; as Myrmeciinae queens are slightly larger than the other castes in a species, this indicates M. herculeanus is most likely a distinct species. Due to the incomplete nature of the type specimen, the species was placed in Myrmeciites.

text: Risers are classified by three criteria. The first is if the riser is open to the atmosphere, if it is then it is called an open riser, otherwise it is known as a blind type. The second criterion is where the riser is located; if it is located on the casting then it is known as a top riser and if it is located next to the casting it is known as a side riser. Finally, if riser is located on the gating system so that it fills after the molding cavity, it is known as a live riser or hot riser, but if the riser fills with materials that's already flowed through the molding cavity it is known as a dead riser or cold riser.

text: Petrified wood (from the Greek root petro meaning "rock" or "stone"; literally "wood turned into stone") is the name given to a special type of fossilized remains of terrestrial vegetation. It is the result of a tree or tree-like plants having completely transitioned to stone by the process of permineralization. All the organic materials have been replaced with minerals (mostly a silicate, such as quartz), while retaining the original structure of the stem tissue. Unlike other types of fossils which are typically impressions or compressions, petrified wood is a three-dimensional representation of the original organic material. The petrifaction process occurs underground, when wood becomes buried under sediment or volcanic ash and is initially preserved due to a lack of oxygen which inhibits aerobic decomposition. Mineral-laden water flowing through the covering material deposits minerals in the plant's cells; as the plant's lignin and cellulose decay, a stone mold forms in its place. The organic matter needs to become petrified before it decomposes completely. A forest where such material has petrified becomes known as a petrified forest.

text: Petrified wood (from the Greek root petro meaning "rock" or "stone"; literally "wood turned into stone") is the name given to a special type of

text: fossil

text: ized remains of

text: terrestrial vegetation

text: . It is the result of a

text: tree

text: or tree-like plants having completely transitioned to stone by the process of

text: permineralization

text: . All the

text: organic materials

text: have been replaced with

text: mineral

text: s (mostly a

text: silicate

text: , such as

text: quartz

text: ), while retaining the original structure of the stem tissue. Unlike other types of fossils which are typically impressions or compressions, petrified wood is a three-dimensional representation of the original organic material. The

text: petrifaction

text: process occurs underground, when wood becomes buried under

text: sediment

text: or

text: volcanic ash

text: and is initially preserved due to a lack of

text: oxygen

text: which inhibits aerobic decomposition. Mineral-laden water flowing through the covering material deposits minerals in the plant's

text: cells

text: ; as the plant's

text: lignin

text: and

text: cellulose

text: decay, a

text: stone

text: mold forms in its place. The organic matter needs to become petrified before it

text: decomposes

text: completely. A

text: forest

text: where such material has petrified becomes known as a petrified forest.

text: Samburupithecus is an extinct primate that lived in Kenya during the middle to late Miocene.  The one species in this genus, Samburupithecus kiptalami, is known only from a maxilla fragment dated to  discovered in 1982 and formally described by .  The type specimen KNM-SH 8531 was discovered by the Joint Japan-Kenya Expedition at the SH22 fossil site in the Samburu District, a locality where several other researchers found no ape fossils.

text: Samburupithecus is an extinct

text: primate

text: that lived in

text: Kenya

text: during the middle to late

text: Miocene

text: .  The one species in this genus, Samburupithecus kiptalami, is known only from a

text: maxilla

text: fragment dated to  discovered in 1982 and formally described by .  The type specimen KNM-SH 8531 was discovered by the Joint Japan-Kenya Expedition at the SH22 fossil site in the

text: Samburu District

text: , a locality where several other researchers found no ape fossils.

text: Fossils of the type species, M. collini, were first studied by American entomologist Frank M. Carpenter and F. M. Hull who placed the new species in the fossil genus Protonephrocerus.  Carpenter and Hull's 1939 type description of the new species was published in the monograph series Bernstein-Forschungens. The species was moved to the new genus Metanephrocerus in a 1948 paper by Martin L Aczél, and since that time both the type specimens have been lost and are considered possibly destroyed.  After the M. collini description, 75 years passed before an additional three related species were described.  Two of those, M. groehni and M. hoffeinsorum. were described from solitary fossil inclusions in Baltic amber.  The 2014 descriptions were made by Christian Kehlmaier, Manuel Dierick and Jeffrey H. Skevington, based on detailed CT scans of the specimens.  They chose the species name "groehni" is a patronym honoring Carsten Gröhn, who supported the research of the authors, and who was the owner of the specimen before description. The fossil was to be deposited into the collections of the Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut und Museum der Universität Hamburg  Similarly, the epithet of the second species "hoffeinsorum" is a patronym for Christel and Hans-Werner Hoffeins for the donation of the type fossil to the Senckenberg Deutsches Entomologisches Institut and for their support of the authors research.  The third related species, M. belgardeae, bringing the total to four, was described from a compression fossil found in the early Eocene, Ypresian Klondike Mountain Formation lagerstätten, its discovery expanding both the temporal range and geographic range. M. belgardeae was described by S. Bruce Archibald, Christian Kehlmaier, and Rolf Mathewes from a single partial female. The specific epithet is a matronym of Azure Rain Belgarde, who collected the type specimen, SR 08-06-02, and donated it to the Stonerose Interpretive Center.

text: Fossils of the type species, M. collini, were first studied by American entomologist

text: Frank M. Carpenter

text: and F. M. Hull who placed the new species in the fossil genus

text: Protonephrocerus

text: .  Carpenter and Hull's 1939

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the monograph series

text: Bernstein-Forschungens

text: . The species was moved to the new genus Metanephrocerus in a 1948 paper by Martin L Aczél, and since that time both the type specimens have been lost and are considered possibly destroyed.  After the M. collini description, 75 years passed before an additional three related species were described.  Two of those, M. groehni and M. hoffeinsorum. were described from solitary fossil inclusions in Baltic amber.  The 2014 descriptions were made by Christian Kehlmaier, Manuel Dierick and Jeffrey H. Skevington, based on detailed CT scans of the specimens.  They chose the

text: species name

text: "groehni" is a patronym honoring Carsten Gröhn, who supported the research of the authors, and who was the owner of the specimen before description. The fossil was to be deposited into the collections of the

text: Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut und Museum der Universität Hamburg

text: Similarly, the epithet of the second species "hoffeinsorum" is a patronym for Christel and Hans-Werner Hoffeins for the donation of the type fossil to the

text: Senckenberg Deutsches Entomologisches Institut

text: and for their support of the authors research.  The third related species, M. belgardeae, bringing the total to four, was described from a compression fossil found in the early Eocene,

text: Ypresian

text: Klondike Mountain Formation

text: lagerstätten

text: , its discovery expanding both the temporal range and geographic range. M. belgardeae was described by S. Bruce Archibald, Christian Kehlmaier, and Rolf Mathewes from a single partial female. The

text: specific epithet

text: is a matronym of Azure Rain Belgarde, who collected the type specimen, SR 08-06-02, and donated it to the

text: Stonerose Interpretive Center

text: Fossil dinosaur eggshells, like modern bird and reptile eggshells, are made up of calcium carbonate crystal units. The basic arrangement and structure of these eggshell units (called the ultrastructure) is used to divide fossil eggs into several basic types, including the spherulitic, prismatic, and ornithoid basic types, which contain dinosaurs. Dinosaur eggs further classified by the microstructural aspects of the crystalline structure of the eggshell units and by the type of their pores and their shell ornamentation.

text: Fossil dinosaur eggshells, like modern bird and reptile eggshells, are made up of

text: calcium carbonate

text: crystal units. The basic arrangement and structure of these eggshell units (called the ultrastructure) is used to divide fossil eggs into several basic types, including the spherulitic, prismatic, and ornithoid basic types, which contain dinosaurs. Dinosaur eggs further

text: classified

text: by the microstructural aspects of the crystalline structure of the eggshell units and by the type of their pores and their shell ornamentation.

text: Setup and production of shell mold patterns takes weeks, after which an output of 5–50 pieces/hr-mold is attainable. Common materials include cast iron, aluminum and copper alloys. Aluminum and magnesium products average about  as a normal limit, but it is possible to cast items in the  range. The small end of the limit is . Depending on the material, the thinnest cross-section castable is . The minimum draft is 0.25 to 0.5 degrees.

text: Setup and production of shell mold patterns takes weeks, after which an output of 5–50 pieces/hr-mold is attainable. Common materials include

text: cast iron

text: aluminum

text: and

text: copper

text: alloys. Aluminum and

text: magnesium

text: products average about  as a normal limit, but it is possible to cast items in the  range. The small end of the limit is . Depending on the material, the thinnest cross-section castable is . The minimum

text: draft

text: is 0.25 to 0.5 degrees.

text: It contains Burgess Shale-type soft-bodied fossils.

text: It contains

text: Burgess Shale-type

text: soft-bodied fossils.

text: A major problem at that time was the lack of fossil intermediaries. Neanderthal remains were discovered in a limestone quarry in 1856, three years before the publication of On the Origin of Species, and Neanderthal fossils had been discovered in Gibraltar even earlier, but it was originally claimed that these were human remains of a creature suffering some kind of illness. Despite the 1891 discovery by Eugène Dubois of what is now called Homo erectus at Trinil, Java, it was only in the 1920s when such fossils were discovered in Africa, that intermediate species began to accumulate. In 1925, Raymond Dart described Australopithecus africanus. The type specimen was the Taung Child, an australopithecine infant which was discovered in a cave. The child's remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an endocast of the brain.

text: A major problem at that time was the lack of

text: fossil intermediaries

text: . Neanderthal remains were discovered in a limestone quarry in 1856, three years before the publication of On the Origin of Species, and Neanderthal fossils had been discovered in Gibraltar even earlier, but it was originally claimed that these were human remains of a creature suffering some kind of illness. Despite the 1891 discovery by

text: Eugène Dubois

text: of what is now called Homo erectus at

text: Trinil

text: Java

text: , it was only in the 1920s when such fossils were discovered in Africa, that intermediate species began to accumulate. In 1925,

text: Raymond Dart

text: described

text: Australopithecus africanus

text: . The

text: type specimen

text: was the

text: Taung Child

text: , an australopithecine infant which was discovered in a cave. The child's remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an

text: endocast

text: of the brain.

text: Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting, and has been used for centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches than permanent mold casting and at a very reasonable cost. Not only does this method allow manufacturers to create products at a low cost, but there are other benefits to sand casting, such as very small-size operations. From castings that fit in the palm of your hand to train beds (one casting can create the entire bed for one rail car), it can all be done with sand casting. Sand casting also allows most metals to be cast depending on the type of sand used for the molds.

text: Since the brain doesn't necessarily perceive distinctions in each channel to the same degree as in other channels, it is possible that differing the number of bits allocated to each channel will result in more optimal storage; in particular, for RGB images, compressing the blue channel the most and the red channel the least may be better than giving equal space to each. This type of "preferential" compression is the result of studies which show that the human retina actually uses the red channel to distinguish detail, along with the green channel in a lesser measure, and uses the blue channel for background or environmental information.

text: Since the brain doesn't necessarily perceive distinctions in each channel to the same degree as in other channels, it is possible that differing the number of bits allocated to each channel will result in more optimal storage; in particular, for RGB images, compressing the blue channel the most and the red channel the least may be better than giving equal space to each. This type of "preferential" compression is the result of studies which show that the human

text: retina

text: actually uses the red channel to distinguish detail, along with the green channel in a lesser measure, and uses the blue channel for background or environmental information.

text: Soil fossils, whether buried or exposed, suffer from alteration. This occurs largely because almost all past soils have lost their former vegetative covering and the organic matter they once supported has been used up by plants since the soil was buried. However, if remains of plants can be found, the nature of the soil fossil can be made a great deal clearer than if no flora can be found because roots can nowadays be identified with respect to the plant group from which they come. Patterns of root traces including their shape and size, is good evidence for the vegetation type the former soil supported. Bluish colours in the soil tend to indicate the plants have mobilized nutrients within the soil.

text: Soil fossils, whether buried or exposed, suffer from alteration. This occurs largely because almost all past soils have lost their former vegetative covering and the organic matter they once supported has been used up by plants since the soil was buried. However, if remains of plants can be found, the nature of the soil fossil can be made a great deal clearer than if no flora can be found because roots can nowadays be identified with respect to the

text: plant

text: group from which they come. Patterns of root traces including their shape and size, is good evidence for the vegetation type the former soil supported. Bluish colours in the soil tend to indicate the plants have mobilized nutrients within the soil.

text: Diochus electrus is known only from one fossil, the holotype, number "KU-NHM-ENT, B-244".  It is a single complete adult female preserved as an inclusion in a specimen of clear orange amber.  The fossil was recovered from an outcrop of the Blaue Erde deposits which contain the fossil resins in the Baltic region. The type specimen is currently preserved in the Division of Entomology at the University of Kansas Natural History Museum located in Lawrence, Kansas, USA.  Diochus electrus was first studied by Stylianos Chatzimanolis of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga and Michael S. Engel of the University of Kansas. Their 2011 type description for the new species was published online and in print in the journal ZooKeys.  The etymology of the specific name electrus is a derivation of the Latin word "electrum" meaning amber.

text: Diochus electrus is known only from one fossil, the holotype, number "KU-NHM-ENT, B-244".  It is a single complete adult female preserved as an inclusion in a specimen of clear orange amber.  The fossil was recovered from an outcrop of the Blaue Erde deposits which contain the fossil resins in the Baltic region. The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: Division of Entomology

text: at the

text: University of Kansas Natural History Museum

text: located in

text: Lawrence, Kansas

text: , USA.  Diochus electrus was first studied by Stylianos Chatzimanolis of the

text: University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

text: and

text: Michael S. Engel

text: of the University of Kansas. Their 2011

text: type description

text: for the new species was published online and in print in the journal

text: ZooKeys

text: .  The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific name

text: electrus is a derivation of the

text: Latin

text: word "electrum" meaning amber.

text: Compression damping refers to systems that slow the rate of compression in a front fork shock or rear shock. Compression damping is usually accomplished by forcing a hydraulic fluid (such as oil) through a valve when the shock becomes loaded. The amount of damping is determined by the resistance through the valve, a higher amount of damping resulting from greater resistance in the valve. Many shocks have compression damping adjustments which vary the resistance in the valve. Often, lockouts function by allowing no or very little compression.

text: Pyrite is usually  found associated with other sulfides or oxides in quartz veins, sedimentary rock, and metamorphic rock, as well as in coal beds and as a replacement mineral in fossils. Despite being nicknamed fool's gold, pyrite is sometimes found in association with small quantities of gold. Gold and arsenic occur as a coupled substitution in the pyrite structure. In the Carlin–type gold deposits, arsenian pyrite contains up to 0.37 wt% gold.

text: Pyrite is usually  found associated with other sulfides or

text: oxides

text: in

text: quartz

text: veins

text: sedimentary rock

text: , and

text: metamorphic rock

text: , as well as in coal beds and as a replacement mineral in

text: fossil

text: s. Despite being nicknamed fool's gold, pyrite is sometimes found in association with small quantities of gold. Gold and

text: arsenic

text: occur as a coupled substitution in the pyrite structure. In the

text: Carlin–type gold deposit

text: s, arsenian pyrite contains up to 0.37 wt% gold.

text: Adaptive compression is a type of data compression which changes compression algorithms based on the type of data being compressed.

text: Adaptive compression is a type of

text: data compression

text: which changes

text: compression algorithm

text: s based on the type of data being compressed.

text: Fossil embryos are the preserved remains of organisms that have yet to hatch or be born. Many fossils of the  Doushantuo formation have been interpreted as embryos; embryos are also common throughout the Cambrian fossil record.

text: Fossil embryos are the preserved remains of organisms that have yet to hatch or be born. Many

text: fossil

text: s of the

text: Doushantuo formation

text: have been interpreted as embryos;

text: embryos

text: are also common throughout the

text: Cambrian

text: fossil record.

text: Ice sculptures, ice walls for fire fighting, property protection and cooling stations may be cast by a process in which ice water (one part), crushed ice or ice cubes  (three parts) and tiny, floating, dry ice pellets (one part) are placed in a cement mixer. The tiny dry ice pellets super cool the ice water so that the ice water acts like glue to cement or freeze the crushed ice or ice cubes together within several seconds once the mixture stops moving  within the mold. The ice water component of the mixture will expand 9% on freezing, so rubber, foam or foam lined casting materials work best to combat the water to ice expansion problem not encountered with wax, cement, casting plaster or metal casting materials.

text: Scramjets are mechanically very similar to ramjets. Like a ramjet, they consist of an inlet, a combustor, and a nozzle. The primary difference between ramjets and scramjets is that scramjets do not slow the oncoming airflow to subsonic speeds for combustion, they use supersonic combustion instead. The name "scramjet" comes from "Supersonic Combusting Ramjet." Since scramjets use supersonic combustion they can operate at speeds above Mach 6 where traditional ramjets are too inefficient. Another difference between ramjets and scramjets comes from how each type of engine compresses the oncoming airflow: while the inlet provides most of the compression for ramjets, the high speeds at which scramjets operate allow them to take advantage of the compression generated by shock waves, primarily oblique shocks.

text: Scramjets are mechanically very similar to ramjets. Like a ramjet, they consist of an inlet, a combustor, and a nozzle. The primary difference between ramjets and scramjets is that scramjets do not slow the oncoming airflow to subsonic speeds for combustion, they use supersonic combustion instead. The name "scramjet" comes from "Supersonic Combusting Ramjet." Since scramjets use supersonic combustion they can operate at speeds above Mach 6 where traditional ramjets are too inefficient. Another difference between ramjets and scramjets comes from how each type of engine compresses the oncoming airflow: while the inlet provides most of the compression for ramjets, the high speeds at which scramjets operate allow them to take advantage of the compression generated by

text: shock waves

text: , primarily

text: oblique shocks

text: Modern casting production methods can manufacture thin and accurate molds—of a material superficially resembling papier-mâché, such as is used in egg cartons, but that is refractory in nature—that are then supported by some means, such as dry sand surrounded by a box, during the casting process. Due to the higher accuracy it is possible to make thinner and hence lighter castings, because extra metal need not be present to allow for variations in the molds. These thin-mold casting methods have been used since the 1960s in the manufacture of cast-iron engine blocks and cylinder heads for automotive applications.

text: Paleontologist Thomas Kaye of the University of Washington in Seattle has also hypothesized that the soft-tissue is permineralized biofilm created by bacteria while digesting and breaking down the original specimen. He has discovered this to be true in many specimens from the same area.

text: Paleontologist Thomas Kaye of the University of Washington in Seattle has also hypothesized that the soft-tissue is

text: permineralized

text: biofilm created by bacteria while digesting and breaking down the original specimen. He has discovered this to be true in many specimens from the same area.

text: The HohenhöferFormation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Devonian period.

text: The HohenhöferFormation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Devonian

text: period

text: A study by the Smith School of Enterprise and Environment at University of Oxford found that the stigmatisation of fossil fuel companies caused by divestment can "materially increase the uncertainty surrounding the future cash flows of fossil-fuel companies." That, in turn, "can lead to a permanent compression in the trading multiples – e.g., the share price to earnings (P/E) ratio of a target company."

text: Some types of rubber expansion joints are made with a molding process. Typical joints that are molded are medium-sized expansion joints with bead rings, which are produced in large quantities. These rubber expansion joints are manufactured on a cylindrical mandrel, which is wrapped with bias cut fabric ply. At the end the bead rings are positioned and the end sections are folded inwards over the bead rings. This part is finally placed in a mold and molded into shape and vulcanized. This is a highly automated solution for large quantities of  the same type of joint.

text: Black Ven has the largest mudslides in Europe, this constantly brings new material (such as fossils) to the base of the cliff and beach. The reason for this is the types of stone found through the cliff. There is porous limestone, which lets the water on rough days flow through it, below which you will find clay, which lets water in, but not out. When the clay becomes saturated, it becomes very slippery and the limestone above can slide off in large chunks. Black Ven for this reason is a famous fossil hunting location, although the mudslides can be surprisingly damaging to the fossils, especially to soft parts such as scales. The Black Ven has a layer called Blue Lias where famous fossilised fish are known to be found. The geological dating of the rocks of the whole of the area (Lyme Bay) is Jurassic. The Black Ven and the Spittles contain rocks from the lower (early) Jurassic. Ammonites, Belemnites, and the occasional Devil's toenail are common finds in this area.

text: Black Ven has the largest mudslides in Europe, this constantly brings new material (such as fossils) to the base of the cliff and beach. The reason for this is the types of stone found through the cliff. There is porous limestone, which lets the water on rough days flow through it, below which you will find clay, which lets water in, but not out. When the clay becomes saturated, it becomes very slippery and the limestone above can slide off in large chunks. Black Ven for this reason is a famous fossil hunting location, although the mudslides can be surprisingly damaging to the fossils, especially to soft parts such as scales. The Black Ven has a layer called

text: Blue Lias

text: where famous fossilised fish are known to be found. The geological dating of the rocks of the whole of the area (Lyme Bay) is

text: Jurassic

text: . The Black Ven and the Spittles contain rocks from the lower (early) Jurassic. Ammonites,

text: Belemnites

text: , and the occasional

text: Devil's toenail

text: are common finds in this area.

text: A fossil trackway is a type of trace fossil, a trackway made by an organism. Many fossil trackways were made by dinosaurs, early tetrapods, and other quadrupeds and bipeds on land. Marine organisms also made many ancient trackways (such as the trails of trilobites and eurypterids like Hibbertopterus).

text: A fossil trackway is a type of

text: trace fossil

text: , a

text: trackway

text: made by an organism. Many fossil trackways were made by

text: dinosaurs

text: , early

text: tetrapod

text: s, and other

text: quadruped

text: s and

text: biped

text: s on land. Marine organisms also made many ancient trackways (such as the trails of

text: trilobite

text: s and

text: eurypterid

text: s like

text: Hibbertopterus

text: The type species of Tiarajudens, T. eccentricus, was described in the journal Science in 2011. It was named by Juan Carlos Cisneros, Fernando Abdala, Bruce S. Rubidge, Paula Camboim Dentzien-Dias, and Ana de Oliveira Bueno. The skull was found in Middle Permian-age deposits in Rio Grande do Sul. Paleontologists found the location using satellite photographs from Google Earth. The locality was identified as a clearing within a thickly vegetated area. The degree of erosion and the color of the rocks were an indication of the locality's age and likelihood of preserving fossils.

text: The

text: type species

text: of Tiarajudens, T. eccentricus, was described in the journal

text: Science

text: in 2011. It was named by Juan Carlos Cisneros, Fernando Abdala, Bruce S. Rubidge, Paula Camboim Dentzien-Dias, and Ana de Oliveira Bueno. The skull was found in Middle Permian-age deposits in Rio Grande do Sul. Paleontologists found the location using satellite photographs from

text: Google Earth

text: . The locality was identified as a clearing within a thickly vegetated area. The degree of erosion and the color of the rocks were an indication of the locality's age and likelihood of preserving fossils.

text: Coprolites, distinct from paleofaeces, are fossilized animal dung. Like other fossils, coprolites have had much of their original composition replaced by mineral deposits such as silicates and calcium carbonates. Paleofaeces, on the other hand, retain much of their original organic composition and can be reconstituted to determine their original chemical properties, though in practice the term coprolite is also used for ancient human faecal material in archaeological contexts.  In the same context, there are the urolites, erosions caused by evacuation of liquid wastes and nonliquid urinary secretions.

text: Coprolites, distinct from

text: paleofaeces

text: , are fossilized animal dung. Like other fossils, coprolites have had much of their original composition replaced by mineral deposits such as

text: silicate

text: s and

text: calcium carbonate

text: s. Paleofaeces, on the other hand, retain much of their original organic composition and can be reconstituted to determine their original chemical properties, though in practice the term coprolite is also used for ancient human faecal material in archaeological contexts.  In the same context, there are the

text: urolite

text: s, erosions caused by evacuation of liquid wastes and nonliquid urinary secretions.

text: After being out of production for more than a decade, the "Creepy Crawlers" brand was brought back in 1992 by a New York-based company called ToyMax. With much stricter safety regulations in place, the new version of the Creepy Crawlers set re-introduced the metal molds and earlier Plastigoop-type formulation, but now utilized a lightbulb-powered "Magic Maker" heater, with a heat-triggered door designed to remain closed until the mold had cooled sufficiently to be handled safely.

text: Archibald, Cover, and Moreau erected the form genus as an encompassing category for all fossil ants which, while belonging to the subfamily Myrmeciinae, lack details needed for placement in other described genera. This may be due to preservation quality or positioning of the individual ant resulting in obscured details.  As Myrmeciites is a form genus it does not have a designated type species per the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature.

text: Archibald, Cover, and Moreau erected the form genus as an encompassing category for all fossil ants which, while belonging to the subfamily Myrmeciinae, lack details needed for placement in other described genera. This may be due to preservation quality or positioning of the individual ant resulting in obscured details.  As Myrmeciites is a form genus it does not have a designated

text: type species

text: per the

text: The Ashfall Fossil Beds of Antelope County in northeastern Nebraska are rare fossil site types called lagerstätten that, due to extraordinary local conditions, capture a moment in time ecological "snapshot" in a range of well-preserved fossilized organisms. Ash from a Yellowstone hotspot eruption 10-12 million years ago created these fossilized bone beds.

text: The Ashfall Fossil Beds of

text: Antelope County

text: in northeastern

text: Nebraska

text: are rare

text: fossil

text: site types called

text: lagerstätte

text: n that, due to extraordinary local conditions, capture a moment in time ecological "snapshot" in a range of well-preserved fossilized organisms. Ash from a

text: Yellowstone hotspot

text: eruption 10-12 million years ago created these fossilized

text: bone bed

text: s.

text: Campfires have been used for cooking since time immemorial. Possibly the simplest method of cooking over a campfire and one of the most common is to roast food on long skewers that can be held above the flames. This is a popular technique for cooking hot dogs or toasting marshmallows for making s'mores. This type of cooking over the fire typically consists of comfort foods that are easy to prepare. There is also no clean up involved unlike an actual kitchen. Another technique is to use pie irons—small iron molds with long handles. Campers put slices of bread with some kind of filling into the molds and put them over hot coals to cook. Campers sometimes use elaborate grills, cast iron pots, and fire irons to cook. Often, however, they use portable stoves for cooking instead of campfires. :For more information, see Campfire cooking.

text: Campfires have been used for

text: cooking

text: since

text: time immemorial

text: . Possibly the simplest method of cooking over a campfire and one of the most common is to roast food on long skewers that can be held above the flames. This is a popular technique for cooking hot dogs or toasting marshmallows for making s'mores. This type of cooking over the fire typically consists of comfort foods that are easy to prepare. There is also no clean up involved unlike an actual kitchen. Another technique is to use pie irons—small iron molds with long handles. Campers put slices of bread with some kind of filling into the molds and put them over hot coals to cook. Campers sometimes use elaborate grills, cast iron pots, and fire irons to cook. Often, however, they use

text: portable stove

text: s for cooking instead of campfires. :For more information, see

text: Campfire cooking

text: The species was described from a group of seventy five type specimens, the holotype specimen UF8542, which is currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections of the University of Florida and a large series of paratypes, totaling seventy-four specimens.  The paratypes are in the collections of the National Museum of Natural History, the University of Florida, and the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry.  The fossils were part of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, A. W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: The species was described from a group of seventy five

text: type specimens

text: , the

text: holotype

text: specimen UF8542, which is currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of the

text: University of Florida

text: and a large series of

text: paratype

text: s, totaling seventy-four specimens.  The paratypes are in the collections of the

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: , the University of Florida, and the

text: Oregon Museum of Science and Industry

text: .  The fossils were part of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, A. W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: Macabeemyrma ovata is known only from a single fossil specimen: a mostly complete adult queen, preserved as a compression fossil in fine-grained shale. The shale is from fossiliferous outcrops at the McAbee Fossil Beds, part of an unnamed formation in the Kamloops group which outcrops east of Cache Creek in British Columbia, Canada. The holotype specimen was collected by an unknown person and donated to Thompson Rivers University in 2002. The specimen was described by Bruce Archibald, Stefan Cover and Corrie Moreau of Harvard University's Museum of Comparative Zoology, with their 2006 type description of the genus and species. The generic name Macabeemyrma is a toponym of the type locality at McAbee combined with the Greek myrmex, meaning "ant". The specific epithet ovata, from the Latin "ovatus" meaning "egg shaped", refers to the shape of the head capsule.

text: Macabeemyrma ovata is known only from a single fossil specimen: a mostly complete adult

text: queen

text: , preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in fine-grained

text: shale

text: . The shale is from fossiliferous outcrops at the

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: , part of an unnamed formation in the Kamloops group which outcrops east of

text: Cache Creek

text: in British Columbia, Canada. The holotype specimen was collected by an unknown person and donated to

text: Thompson Rivers University

text: in 2002. The specimen was described by Bruce Archibald, Stefan Cover and Corrie Moreau of Harvard University's

text: Museum of Comparative Zoology

text: , with their 2006

text: type description

text: of the genus and species. The

text: generic name

text: Macabeemyrma is a

text: toponym

text: of the type locality at McAbee combined with the Greek myrmex, meaning "ant". The specific epithet ovata, from the Latin "ovatus" meaning "egg shaped", refers to the shape of the head capsule.

text: The nomenclatural history for A. chaneyi is fairly complex: a number of different names have been applied to the fossils of different locations.  The species was reviewed by paleobotanists Jack A. Wolfe of the United States Geological Survey, Denver office and Toshimasa Tanai of Hokkaido University., in a 1987 paper in the Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University.  The oldest name suggested for the fossils was Acer bendirei which was coined by Leo Lesquereux in 1883.  The fossils used for his description of the species however were a mix of several different plants, and the type specimens were later transferred to the genus Platanus as P. bendirei.  The next oldest name, Acer gigas, is from 1902 and was coined by Frank Knowlton for a fossil samara from the John Day formation.  The fossil is missing the base of the fruit and the attachment scar, which is diagnostic for Acer: thus it was rejected by Wolfe and Tanai.  Similarly they rejected A. grahamensis, for which the type specimen is also missing the attachment scar.  They settled on A. chaneyi as the oldest valid species description, coined by Knowlton in 1926.

text: The

text: nomenclatural

text: history for A. chaneyi is fairly complex: a number of different names have been applied to the fossils of different locations.  The species was reviewed by

text: paleobotanist

text: s

text: Jack A. Wolfe

text: of the

text: United States Geological Survey, Denver office

text: and Toshimasa Tanai of

text: Hokkaido University

text: ., in a 1987 paper in the Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University.  The oldest name suggested for the fossils was Acer bendirei which was coined by

text: Leo Lesquereux

text: in 1883.  The fossils used for his description of the species however were a mix of several different plants, and the type specimens were later transferred to the genus Platanus as P. bendirei.  The next oldest name, Acer gigas, is from 1902 and was coined by

text: Frank Knowlton

text: for a fossil samara from the John Day formation.  The fossil is missing the base of the fruit and the attachment scar, which is diagnostic for Acer: thus it was rejected by Wolfe and Tanai.  Similarly they rejected A. grahamensis, for which the type specimen is also missing the attachment scar.  They settled on A. chaneyi as the oldest valid species description, coined by Knowlton in 1926.

text: Within a few million years, two important amniote lineages became distinct: mammals' synapsid ancestors and the sauropsids, from which lizards, snakes, crocodilians, dinosaurs, and birds are descended. The earliest known fossils of synapsids and sauropsids (such as Archaeothyris and Hylonomus, respectively) date from about 320 to 315 million years ago. The times of origin are difficult to know, because vertebrate fossils from the late Carboniferous are very rare, and therefore the actual first occurrences of each of these types of animal might have been considerably earlier than the first fossil.

text: Within a few million years, two important amniote lineages became distinct: mammals'

text: synapsid

text: ancestors and the

text: sauropsid

text: s, from which

text: lizard

text: s, snakes, crocodilians, dinosaurs, and birds are descended. The earliest known fossils of synapsids and sauropsids (such as

text: Archaeothyris

text: and

text: Hylonomus

text: , respectively) date from about 320 to 315 million years ago. The times of origin are difficult to know, because vertebrate fossils from the late Carboniferous are very rare, and therefore the actual first occurrences of each of these types of animal might have been

text: considerably earlier

text: than the first fossil.

text: The type species Dakosaurus maximus, meaning "greatest biter lizard", is known from fossil discoveries in Western Europe (England, France, Switzerland and Germany) of the Late Jurassic (Late Kimmeridgian-Early Tithonian).

text: The

text: type species

text: Dakosaurus maximus, meaning "greatest biter lizard", is known from

text: fossil

text: discoveries in Western Europe (England, France, Switzerland and Germany) of the Late Jurassic (Late

text: Kimmeridgian

text: -Early

text: Tithonian

text: This refers to the process whereby one mineral is dissolved and a new mineral fills the space via precipitation. Replacement can be partial or complete. Complete replacement destroys the identity of the original minerals or rock fragments giving a biased view of the original mineralogy of the rock/  Porosity can also be affected by this process. For example, clay minerals tend to fill up pore space and thereby reducing porosity.

text: In early 2010, a group of scientists led by Zhang Fucheng examined fossils with preserved melanosomes (organelles which contain colors). By studying such fossils with an electron microscope, they found melanosomes preserved in a fossil Confuciusornis specimen, IVPP V13171. They reported the presence of melanosomes were of two types: eumelanosomes and pheomelanosomes. This indicated that Confuciusornis had hues of grey, red/brown and black, possibly something like the modern zebra finch. It was also the first time an early bird fossil has been shown to contain preserved pheomelanosomes. However, a second research team failed to find these reported traces of pheomelanosomes. Their 2011 study also found a link between the presence of certain metals, like copper, and preserved melanin. Using a combination of fossil impressions of melanosomes and the presence of metals in the feathers, the second team of scientists reconstructed Confuciusornis with darkly colored body feathers and upper wing feathers, but found no trace of either melanosomes or metals in the majority of the wing feathers. They suggested that the wings of Confuciusornis would have been white or, possibly, colored with carotenoid pigments. The long tail feathers of male specimens would have also been dark in color along their entire length.

text: In early 2010, a group of scientists led by Zhang Fucheng examined

text: fossil

text: s with preserved

text: melanosomes

text: organelle

text: s which contain colors). By studying such fossils with an

text: electron microscope

text: , they found melanosomes preserved in a fossil Confuciusornis specimen,

entity_name: Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology

text: IVPP

text: V13171. They reported the presence of melanosomes were of two types:

text: eumelanosomes

text: and

text: pheomelanosomes

text: . This indicated that Confuciusornis had hues of

text: grey

text: red

text: brown

text: and

text: black

text: , possibly something like the modern

text: zebra finch

text: . It was also the first time an early bird fossil has been shown to contain preserved pheomelanosomes. However, a second research team failed to find these reported traces of pheomelanosomes. Their 2011 study also found a link between the presence of certain metals, like copper, and preserved melanin. Using a combination of fossil impressions of melanosomes and the presence of metals in the feathers, the second team of scientists reconstructed Confuciusornis with darkly colored body feathers and upper wing feathers, but found no trace of either melanosomes or metals in the majority of the wing feathers. They suggested that the wings of Confuciusornis would have been white or, possibly, colored with carotenoid pigments. The long tail feathers of male specimens would have also been dark in color along their entire length.

text: However, compression molding often provides poor product consistency and difficulty in controlling flashing, and it is not suitable for some types of parts. Fewer knit lines are produced and a smaller amount of fiber-length degradation is noticeable when compared to injection molding.  Compression-molding is also suitable for ultra-large basic shape production in sizes beyond the capacity of extrusion techniques.  Materials that are typically manufactured through compression molding include: Polyester fiberglass resin systems (SMC/BMC), Torlon, Vespel, Poly(p-phenylene sulfide) (PPS), and many grades of PEEK.

text: However, compression molding often provides poor product consistency and difficulty in controlling

text: flashing

text: , and it is not suitable for some types of parts. Fewer

text: knit line

text: s are produced and a smaller amount of fiber-length degradation is noticeable when compared to injection molding.  Compression-molding is also suitable for ultra-large basic shape production in sizes beyond the capacity of extrusion techniques.  Materials that are typically manufactured through compression molding include: Polyester fiberglass resin systems (SMC/BMC),

text: Torlon

text: Vespel

text: Poly(p-phenylene sulfide)

text: (PPS), and many grades of

text: PEEK

text: Compression artifacts occur in many common media such as DVDs, common computer file formats such as JPEG, MP3, or MPEG files, and some alternatives to the compact disc, such as Sony's MiniDisc format. Uncompressed media (such as on Laserdiscs, Audio CDs, and WAV files) or losslessly compressed media (such as FLAC or PNG) do not suffer from compression artifacts.

text: Compression artifacts occur in many common media such as

text: DVD

text: s, common computer file formats such as

text: JPEG

text: , or

text: MPEG

text: files, and some alternatives to the compact disc, such as

text: Sony's

text: MiniDisc

text: format. Uncompressed media (such as on

text: Laserdisc

text: s,

text: Audio CDs

text: , and

text: WAV

text: files) or

text: losslessly compressed

text: media (such as

text: FLAC

text: or

text: PNG

text: ) do not suffer from compression artifacts.

text: Compression fossils, such as those of fossil ferns, are the result of chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules composing the organism's tissues. In this case the fossil consists of original material, albeit in a geochemically altered state. This chemical change is an expression of diagenesis. Often what remains is a carbonaceous film known as a phytoleim, in which case the fossil is known as a compression. Often, however, the phytoleim is lost and all that remains is an impression of the organism in the rock—an impression fossil. In many cases, however, compressions and impressions occur together. For instance, when the rock is broken open, the phytoleim will often be attached to one part (compression), whereas the counterpart will just be an impression. For this reason, one term covers the two modes of preservation: adpression.

text: Compression fossil

text: s, such as those of fossil ferns, are the result of chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules composing the organism's tissues. In this case the fossil consists of original material, albeit in a geochemically altered state. This chemical change is an expression of

text: diagenesis

text: . Often what remains is a

text: carbonaceous film

text: known as a phytoleim, in which case the fossil is known as a compression. Often, however, the phytoleim is lost and all that remains is an impression of the organism in the rock—an impression fossil. In many cases, however, compressions and impressions occur together. For instance, when the rock is broken open, the phytoleim will often be attached to one part (compression), whereas the counterpart will just be an impression. For this reason, one term covers the two modes of preservation: adpression.

text: Index fossils (also known as guide fossils, indicator fossils or zone fossils) are fossils used to define and identify geologic periods (or faunal stages).  They work on the premise that, although different sediments may look different depending on the conditions under which they were laid down, they may include the remains of the same species of fossil.  If the species concerned were short-lived (in geological terms, lasting a few hundred thousand years), then it is certain that the sediments in question were deposited within that narrow time period.  The shorter the lifespan of a species, the more precisely different sediments can be correlated, and so rapidly evolving types of fossils are particularly valuable.  The best index fossils are common, easy-to-identify at species level, and have a broad distribution—otherwise the likelihood of finding and recognizing one in the two sediments is minor.

text: Index fossils (also known as guide fossils, indicator fossils or zone fossils) are

text: fossil

text: s used to define and identify

text: geologic periods

text: (or faunal stages).  They work on the premise that, although different

text: sediment

text: s may look different depending on the conditions under which they were laid down, they may include the remains of the same

text: species

text: of fossil.  If the species concerned were short-lived (in geological terms, lasting a few hundred thousand years), then it is certain that the sediments in question were deposited within that narrow time period.  The shorter the lifespan of a species, the more precisely different sediments can be correlated, and so rapidly evolving types of fossils are particularly valuable.  The best index fossils are common, easy-to-identify at species level, and have a broad distribution—otherwise the likelihood of finding and recognizing one in the two sediments is minor.

text: Exoskeletons, as hard parts of organisms, are greatly useful in assisting preservation of organisms, whose soft parts usually rot before they can be fossilized. Mineralized exoskeletons can be preserved "as is", as shell fragments, for example. The possession of an exoskeleton also permits a couple of other routes to fossilization. For instance, the tough layer can resist compaction, allowing a mold of the organism to be formed underneath the skeleton, which may later decay. Alternatively, exceptional preservation may result in chitin being mineralized, as in the Burgess Shale, or transformed to the resistant polymer keratin, which can resist decay and be recovered.

text: Exoskeletons, as hard parts of organisms, are greatly useful in assisting preservation of organisms, whose soft parts usually rot before they can be fossilized. Mineralized exoskeletons can be preserved "as is", as shell fragments, for example. The possession of an exoskeleton also permits a couple of other routes to

text: fossilization

text: . For instance, the tough layer can resist compaction, allowing a mold of the organism to be formed underneath the skeleton, which may later decay. Alternatively,

text: exceptional preservation

text: may result in chitin being mineralized, as in the

text: Burgess Shale

text: , or transformed to the resistant polymer

text: keratin

text: , which can resist decay and be recovered.

text: Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70%   of all metal castings are produced via  sand casting process.

text: Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a

text: metal casting

text: process characterized by using

text: sand

text: as the

text: mold

text: material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized

text: factories

text: called

text: foundries

text: . Over 70%   of all metal castings are produced via  sand casting process.

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. Fossilization is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed. Hence, the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so as earlier times are considered. Despite this, they are often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. Also, biases exist in the fossil record: different environments are more favourable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although 30-plus phyla of living animals are known, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

text: Fossils of organisms' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence. Fossilization is a rare event, and most fossils are destroyed by

text: erosion

text: or

text: metamorphism

text: before they can be observed. Hence, the fossil record is very incomplete, increasingly so as earlier times are considered. Despite this, they are often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life's history. Also, biases exist in the fossil record: different environments are more favourable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms. Further, only the parts of organisms that were already

text: mineralised

text: are usually preserved, such as the shells of

text: molluscs

text: . Since most animal species are soft-bodied, they decay before they can become fossilised. As a result, although 30-plus phyla of living animals are known, two-thirds have never been found as fossils.

text: There are many different ways insects can be fossilized and preserved, one which includes compressions and impressions, concretions, mineral replication, charcoalified (fusainized) remains, and their trace remains. Compressions and Impressions are the most extensive types of insect fossils, occurring in rocks from the Carboniferous to Recent. Impressions are like a cast or mold of a fossil insect, showing its form and even some relief, like pleating in the wings, but usually little or no color from the cuticle. Compressions preserve remains of the cuticle, so color distinguishes structure. In exceptional situations, microscopic features such as microtrichia on sclerites and wing membranes are even visible, but preservation of this scale also requires a matrix of exceptionally fine grain, such as in micritic muds and volcanic tuffs. Because arthropod sclerites are held together by membranes, which readily decompose, many fossil arthropods are known only by isolated sclerites. Far more desirable are complete fossils. Concretions are stones with a fossil at the core whose chemical composition differs from that of the surrounding matrix, usually formed as a result of mineral precipitation from decaying organisms. The most significant deposit consists of various localities of the Late Carboniferous Francis Creek Shale of the Carbondale Formation at Mazon Creek, Illinois, which are composed of shales and coal seams yielding oblong concretions. Within most concretions is a mold of an animal and sometimes a plant that is usually marine in origin.

text: A slab and counter slab, more often called a part and counterpart in paleoentomology and paleobotany, are the matching halves of a compression fossil, a fossil-bearing matrix formed in sedimentary deposits. When excavated the matrix may be split along the natural grain or cleavage of the rock. A fossil embedded in the sediment may then also split down the middle, with fossil remains sticking to both surfaces, or the counter slab may simply show a negative impression or mould of the fossil. Comparing slab and counter slab has led to the exposure of a number of fossil forgeries.

text: A slab and counter slab, more often called a part and counterpart in paleoentomology and paleobotany, are the matching halves of a compression fossil, a fossil-bearing

text: matrix

text: formed in

text: sedimentary

text: deposits. When excavated the matrix may be split along the natural grain or cleavage of the rock. A fossil embedded in the sediment may then also split down the middle, with fossil remains sticking to both surfaces, or the counter slab may simply show a negative impression or mould of the fossil. Comparing slab and counter slab has led to the exposure of a number of fossil forgeries.

text: The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of  in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of  in different types of organisms (fractionation), and the varying levels of  throughout the biosphere (reservoir effects).  Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s. Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its  to decay below detectable levels, they contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of  in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century. Conversely, nuclear testing increased the amount of  in the atmosphere, which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began.

text: The idea behind radiocarbon dating is straightforward, but years of work were required to develop the technique to the point where accurate dates could be obtained. Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of  in the atmosphere has been over the past fifty thousand years. The resulting data, in the form of a calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of  in different types of organisms (fractionation), and the varying levels of  throughout the

text: biosphere

text: (reservoir effects).  Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests done in the 1950s and 1960s. Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to

text: fossil fuels

text: is substantially longer than the time it takes for its  to decay below detectable levels, they contain almost no , and as a result there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of  in the atmosphere beginning in the late 19th century. Conversely, nuclear testing increased the amount of  in the atmosphere, which attained a maximum in 1963 of almost twice what it had been before the testing began.

text: The Autobots are Cybertron's security forces and are first seen escorting a Cybertronian senator to an Energon-mining colony in the Cybertron system. The senator informs the miners that they are no longer needed on the colony, but that they will be relocated. Tensions rise as the miners complain about being replaced by automated equipment. An Autobot guard commander attempts to silence the lead protester, who ends up being beaten to death by the commander and his subordinates. This sparks a riot amongst the miners, who attack the Autobots and the senator. One of the miners, Megatron, gets into a fight with the commander and is shocked when he kills him with his bare hands. The Autobots retaliate using deadly force, subduing the miners with a high casualty rate.

text: The

text: Autobot

text: s are Cybertron's security forces and are first seen escorting a Cybertronian

text: senator

text: to an Energon-mining colony in the

text: Cybertron

text: system. The senator informs the miners that they are no longer needed on the colony, but that they will be relocated. Tensions rise as the miners complain about being replaced by automated equipment. An Autobot guard commander attempts to silence the lead protester, who ends up being beaten to death by the commander and his subordinates. This sparks a riot amongst the miners, who attack the Autobots and the senator. One of the miners,

text: Megatron

text: , gets into a fight with the commander and is shocked when he kills him with his bare hands. The Autobots retaliate using deadly force, subduing the miners with a high casualty rate.

text: Named in 1887, the type species of Coelophysis was originally named as a species of Coelurus. Edward Drinker Cope first named Coelophysis in 1889 to name a new genus, outside of Coelurus and Tanystrophaeus to which C. bauri was previously classified in for C. bauri, C. willistoni and C. longicollis. An amateur fossil collector working for Cope, David Baldwin, had found the first remains of the dinosaur in 1881 in the Chinle Formation in northwestern New Mexico. Early in 1887 Cope referred the specimens collected to two new species, C. bauri and C. longicollis of the genus Coelurus Marsh 1879.  Later in 1887 Cope reassigned the material to a yet another genus, Tanystrophaeus. Two years later, Cope corrected his classification after realizing differences in the vertebrae, and named Coelophysis, with C. bauri as the type species, which was named for Georg Baur, a comparative anatomist whose ideas were similar to Cope's. The name Coelophysis comes from the Greek words κοιλος/koilos (meaning 'hollow') and φυσις/physis (meaning 'form'), thus "hollow form" which is a reference to its hollow vertebrae. However, these first finds were too poorly preserved to give a complete picture of this new dinosaur. In 1947, a substantial 'graveyard' of Coelophysis fossils was found by George Whitaker, the assistant of Edwin H. Colbert, in New Mexico, at the Ghost Ranch, close to the original find. American Museum of Natural History paleontologist Edwin H. Colbert conducted a comprehensive study of all the fossils found up to that date and assigned them to Coelophysis. The Ghost Ranch specimens were so numerous, including many well-preserved and fully articulated specimens, that one of them has since become the diagnostic, or type specimen, for the entire genus, replacing the original, poorly preserved specimen.

text: Coelurus

text: Edward Drinker Cope

text: first named Coelophysis in 1889 to name a new genus, outside of Coelurus and Tanystrophaeus to which C. bauri was previously classified in for C. bauri, C. willistoni and C. longicollis. An amateur

text: fossil

text: collector working for Cope, David Baldwin, had found the first remains of the dinosaur in 1881 in the Chinle Formation in northwestern New Mexico. Early in 1887 Cope referred the specimens collected to two new species, C. bauri and C. longicollis of the genus Coelurus Marsh 1879.  Later in 1887 Cope reassigned the material to a yet another genus, Tanystrophaeus. Two years later, Cope corrected his classification after realizing differences in the vertebrae, and named Coelophysis, with C. bauri as the

text: type species

text: , which was named for

text: Georg Baur

text: , a comparative anatomist whose ideas were similar to Cope's. The name Coelophysis comes from the

text: Greek

text: words κοιλος/koilos (meaning 'hollow') and φυσις/physis (meaning 'form'), thus "hollow form" which is a reference to its hollow vertebrae. However, these first finds were too poorly preserved to give a complete picture of this new dinosaur. In 1947, a substantial 'graveyard' of Coelophysis fossils was found by George Whitaker, the assistant of Edwin H. Colbert, in

text: New Mexico

text: , at the

text: Ghost Ranch

text: , close to the original find. American Museum of Natural History paleontologist

text: Edwin H. Colbert

text: type specimen

text: , for the entire genus, replacing the original, poorly preserved specimen.

text: Full-mold casting is an evaporative-pattern casting process which is a combination of sand casting and lost-foam casting. It uses an expanded polystyrene foam pattern which is then surrounded by sand, much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the mold, which vaporizes the foam upon contact.

text: Full-mold casting is an

text: evaporative-pattern casting

text: process which is a combination of

text: sand casting

text: and

text: lost-foam casting

text: . It uses an

text: expanded polystyrene

text: foam

text: pattern

text: which is then surrounded by sand, much like sand casting. The metal is then poured directly into the mold, which vaporizes the foam upon contact.

text: Molds (or tooling) are either fabricated from welded sheet steel or cast.  The fabrication method is often driven by part size and complexity; most intricate parts are likely made out of cast tooling. Molds  are typically manufactured from stainless steel or aluminum. Aluminum molds are usually much thicker than an equivalent steel mold, as it is a softer metal. This thickness does not affect cycle times significantly since aluminum's thermal conductivity is many times greater than steel. Due to the need to develop a model prior to casting, cast  molds tend to have additional costs associated with the manufacturing of the tooling, whereas fabricated steel or aluminum molds, particularly when used for less complex parts, are less expensive.    However, some molds contain both aluminum and steel.  This allows for variable thicknesses in the walls of the product.  While this process is not as precise as injection molding, it does provide the designer with more options.  The aluminum addition to the steel provides more heat capacity, causing the melt-flow to stay in a fluid state for a longer period.

text: Molds (or tooling) are either fabricated from welded sheet steel or cast.  The fabrication method is often driven by part size and complexity; most intricate parts are likely made out of

text: cast

text: tooling. Molds  are typically manufactured from

text: stainless steel

text: or

text: aluminum

text: . Aluminum molds are usually much thicker than an equivalent steel mold, as it is a softer metal. This thickness does not affect cycle times significantly since aluminum's thermal conductivity is many times greater than steel. Due to the need to develop a model prior to casting, cast  molds tend to have additional costs associated with the manufacturing of the tooling, whereas fabricated steel or aluminum molds, particularly when used for less complex parts, are less expensive.    However, some molds contain both aluminum and steel.  This allows for variable thicknesses in the walls of the product.  While this process is not as precise as

text: injection molding

text: , it does provide the designer with more options.  The aluminum addition to the steel provides more

text: heat capacity

text: , causing the melt-flow to stay in a fluid state for a longer period.

text: The remarkably preserved plumage is one of many features that sets the Berlin specimen head-and-coracoids above all other Archaeopteryx fossils to date. Clear feather impressions are visible on both wings, the tail, the lower legs, and the base of the neck. The feathers are likely to be preserved as molds and casts, rather than as imprints alone. Their preservation is unique: dubbed "relief-pseudomorphosis", the wings show the ventral surface of the feathers, with their negative mold on the main slab and their positive cast on the counter slab. This means the animal likely died on its back, showing the underside of its wings in preservation. As in birds, the primary remiges attach to the second digit of the manus at metacarpal II and phalanges. The secondary remiges are less distinctly preserved, attaching to the lower arm (ulna). Both sets of flight feathers are overlapping by extensive coverts. Some disagreement exists over the interpretation of the flight feathers, with some researchers claiming eleven primaries and others twelve. The distal primaries are asymmetrical, though the degree cannot be accurately measured due to overlapping, and range in length from 140 mm to 55 mm.

text: The Swiss palaeontologist Louis Agassiz visited Lyme Regis in 1834 and worked with Anning to obtain and study fish fossils found in the region. He was so impressed by her and her friend Elizabeth Philpot that he wrote in his journal: "Miss Philpot and Mary Anning have been able to show me with utter certainty which are the icthyodorulites dorsal fins of sharks that correspond to different types." He thanked both of them for their help in his book, Studies of Fossil Fish.

text: The Swiss palaeontologist

text: Louis Agassiz

text: visited Lyme Regis in 1834 and worked with Anning to obtain and study fish fossils found in the region. He was so impressed by her and her friend

text: Elizabeth Philpot

text: that he wrote in his journal: "Miss Philpot and Mary Anning have been able to show me with utter certainty which are the icthyodorulites dorsal fins of sharks that correspond to different types." He thanked both of them for their help in his book, Studies of Fossil Fish.

text: One disadvantage with the design of the clone() method is that the return type of clone() is Object, and needs to be explicitly cast back into the appropriate type. However, overriding clone() to return the appropriate type is preferable and eliminates the need for casting in the client (using covariant return types, since J2SE 5.0).

text: One disadvantage with the design of the clone() method is that the return type of clone() is Object, and needs to be explicitly cast back into the appropriate type. However, overriding clone() to return the appropriate type is preferable and eliminates the need for casting in the client (using

text: covariant return type

text: s, since J2SE 5.0).

text: The air engine is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as fuel. Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is about one-tenth as expensive as fossil fuel, making it an economically attractive alternative fuel.

text: The

text: air engine

text: is an emission-free piston engine using

text: compressed air

text: as fuel. Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is about one-tenth as expensive as fossil fuel, making it an economically attractive alternative fuel.

text: Historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the Middle East. One theory suggests that metallurgy was introduced through Central Asia. The earliest cast iron artifacts, dating to 5th century BC, were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture. Around 500 BC, metalworkers in the southern state of Wu achieved a temperature of 1130 °C.  At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. The liquid iron can be cast into molds, a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom.

text: Historians debate whether bloomery-based ironworking ever spread to China from the Middle East. One theory suggests that metallurgy was introduced through Central Asia. The earliest

text: cast iron

text: artifacts, dating to 5th century BC, were discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern

text: Luhe County

text: Jiangsu

text: in China. Cast iron was used in

text: ancient China

text: for warfare, agriculture, and architecture. Around 500 BC, metalworkers in the southern

text: state of Wu

text: achieved a temperature of 1130 °C.  At this temperature, iron combines with 4.3% carbon and melts. The liquid iron can be

text: cast

text: into

text: molds

text: , a method far less laborious than individually forging each piece of iron from a bloom.

text: Afromyrma is known from a solitary fossil from Orapa, the holotype, specimen number BP/2/26501 tentatively identified as a female, though there is a possibility this is incorrect.  The holotype specimen is mostly complete but is rather poor in details, and is preserved as a compression fossil in shale.  The shales and mudstones of the Orapa site were rapidly deposited in a crater lake formed as the result of a large volcanic eruption in the Cretaceous.  The sediment originated as an epiclastic kimberlite and derives from rapid weathering and decomposition of the sides of the kimberlite crater.  Of the four major sedimentation types that have been observe at Orapa, fossils are found in only two, the granular mass flows and the fine-grained sediments:  woody debris fossils are found in the granular mass flows, but well-preserved fossils are only recovered in the fine-grained sediments.  The fossil-bearing stratum was uncovered during mining of the underlying diamond-bearing rocks at the site.  radiometric dating of the kimberlite pipe reported on in 1977 gave a general age between .  Further dating utilizing zircon crystals reported on in 2004 gave more defined age of approximately  placing the date in the Turonian age of the late Cretaceous.

text: Afromyrma is known from a solitary fossil from Orapa, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number BP/2/26501 tentatively identified as a female, though there is a possibility this is incorrect.  The holotype specimen is mostly complete but is rather poor in details, and is preserved as a compression fossil in shale.  The shales and mudstones of the Orapa site were rapidly deposited in a

text: crater lake

text: formed as the result of a large volcanic eruption in the Cretaceous.  The sediment originated as an epiclastic

text: kimberlite

text: and derives from rapid weathering and decomposition of the sides of the kimberlite crater.  Of the four major sedimentation types that have been observe at Orapa, fossils are found in only two, the granular mass flows and the fine-grained sediments:  woody debris fossils are found in the granular mass flows, but well-preserved fossils are only recovered in the fine-grained sediments.  The fossil-bearing stratum was uncovered during mining of the underlying

text: diamond-bearing rocks at the site

text: radiometric dating

text: of the kimberlite pipe reported on in 1977 gave a general age between .  Further dating utilizing zircon crystals reported on in 2004 gave more defined age of approximately  placing the date in the

text: Turonian age

text: of the late Cretaceous.

text: When first examined, Aphaenogaster oligocenica was described from a single type specimen worker, with a second specimen being noted as probably belonging to the species, but too obscured by white mold growth in the fossil to be confirmed. Both of the specimen ants are fossilized as inclusions in transparent chunks of Baltic amber.  Baltic amber is approximately 46 million years old, having been deposited during the Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene.  There is debate over the plant family which produced the amber, with evidence supporting relatives of either an Agathis or a Pseudolarix. When first described, the type worker was part of the University of Königsberg amber collection as specimen number B5461, and the possible second fossil was specimen number B18570.  The fossils were first studied by Wheeler, then a paleoentomologist with Harvard University, who placed the species in the genus Aphaenogaster. Wheeler's 1915 type description of the new species was published in the journal Schriften der Physikalisch-Okonomischen Gesellschaft zu Konigsberg.

text: When first examined, Aphaenogaster oligocenica was described from a single

text: type specimen

text: worker, with a second specimen being noted as probably belonging to the species, but too obscured by white mold growth in the fossil to be confirmed. Both of the specimen ants are fossilized as

text: inclusions

text: in transparent chunks of

text: Baltic amber

text: .  Baltic amber is approximately 46 million years old, having been deposited during the

text: Lutetian

text: stage of the

text: Middle Eocene

text: .  There is debate over the plant family which produced the amber, with evidence supporting relatives of either an

text: Agathis

text: or a

text: Pseudolarix

text: . When first described, the type worker was part of the

text: University of Königsberg

text: amber collection as specimen number B5461, and the possible second fossil was specimen number B18570.  The fossils were first studied by Wheeler, then a paleoentomologist with

text: Harvard University

text: , who placed the species in the genus Aphaenogaster. Wheeler's 1915

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the journal Schriften der Physikalisch-Okonomischen Gesellschaft zu Konigsberg.

text: The Pioche Shale is an Early to Middle Cambrian Burgess shale-type Lagerstätte in Nevada.It spans the Early–Middle Cambrian boundary; fossils from the Early Cambrian are preserved in botryoidal haematite, whereas those from the Middle Cambrian are preserved in the more familiar carbon films, and very reminiscent of the Chengjiang County preservation.

text: The Pioche Shale is an Early to Middle Cambrian

text: Burgess shale-type

text: Lagerstätte

text: in

text: Nevada

text: .It spans the Early–Middle Cambrian boundary; fossils from the Early Cambrian are preserved in botryoidal haematite, whereas those from the Middle Cambrian are preserved in the more familiar carbon films, and very reminiscent of the

text: Chengjiang County

text: preservation.

text: The museum's collection comprises over 170,000 specimens and objects covering all geological sciences, with special regard to Polish minerals, precious stones, meteorites and rocks, Baltic amber, fossil flora and fauna and archival documents on the history of the Earth sciences. Particular noteworthy is its extensive collection of amber and other fossil resins, ranking among the largest natural-science collections of its type worldwide.

text: The museum's collection comprises over 170,000 specimens and objects covering all geological sciences, with special regard to Polish minerals, precious stones, meteorites and rocks,

text: Baltic amber

text: , fossil flora and fauna and archival documents on the history of the Earth sciences. Particular noteworthy is its extensive collection of amber and other fossil resins, ranking among the largest natural-science collections of its type worldwide.

text: It preserves fossils dating back to the Neogene period. It yields fossil remains of many species of mammals, including of Equus simplicidens, the Hagerman Horse.

text: It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Neogene

text: period

text: . It yields fossil remains of many species of mammals, including of

text: Equus simplicidens

text: , the Hagerman Horse.

text: To carve wax, the proper size and shape of block or tube is chosen, in the preferred hardness, and cut to a rough size, as needed.  Then the design is generally drawn or laid out on that, and saws, files or machine tools are used to work the wax into a finished product.  The wax is easily taken to a fine finish in the end using a bit of nylon stocking or steel wool.  After the wax product is finished, it may be molded or used in the lost wax casting process to create a final cast product.

text: To carve wax, the proper size and shape of block or tube is chosen, in the preferred hardness, and cut to a rough size, as needed.  Then the design is generally drawn or laid out on that, and saws, files or machine tools are used to work the wax into a finished product.  The wax is easily taken to a fine finish in the end using a bit of

text: nylon stocking

text: or

text: steel wool

text: .  After the wax product is finished, it may be

text: molded

text: or used in the

text: lost wax casting

text: process to create a final cast product.

text: The oldest of the Hawaiian islands is Kauai, of the archipelago's northwest. Kauai preserves lava flows that formed slightly more than five million years ago. No non-avian dinosaur fossils have ever been found in Hawaii because the volcanic activity responsible for their creation did not begin until after their extinction. Hawaii therefore has rocks of both the wrong age and type to preserve dinosaur fossils. Most of Hawaii's animal fossil record consists of marine life. At times during the Quaternary, sea levels were higher than they are today. Organisms that once lived on these higher seafloors are now fossilized and exposed on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui. The islands' sparse local fossil record is dominated by corals and mollusks. The Waianae coast of Oahu preserves Pleistocene reef communities including organisms like algae, coral, foraminiferans, and molluscs. Hawaii's terrestrial fossil record includes Quaternary bird remains preserved in sand dunes and sinkholes. Additionally, fragmentary plant remains have been preserved in some of the volcanic deposits of Oahu.

text: The oldest of the Hawaiian islands is

text: Kauai

text: , of the archipelago's northwest. Kauai preserves lava flows that formed slightly more than five million years ago. No non-

text: avian

text: dinosaur

text: fossils have ever been found in Hawaii because the volcanic activity responsible for their creation did not begin until after their

text: extinction

text: . Hawaii therefore has rocks of both the wrong age and type to preserve dinosaur fossils. Most of Hawaii's animal fossil record consists of marine life. At times during the

text: Quaternary

text: , sea levels were higher than they are today. Organisms that once lived on these higher seafloors are now fossilized and exposed on the islands of

text: Kauai

text: Oahu

text: Molokai

text: Lanai

text: , and

text: Maui

text: . The islands' sparse local fossil record is dominated by

text: coral

text: s and

text: mollusk

text: s. The

text: Waianae

text: coast of Oahu preserves

text: Pleistocene

text: reef

text: communities including organisms like

text: algae

text: coral

text: foraminiferans

text: , and

text: molluscs

text: . Hawaii's terrestrial fossil record includes Quaternary bird remains preserved in

text: sand dunes

text: and

text: sinkholes

text: . Additionally, fragmentary plant remains have been preserved in some of the volcanic deposits of Oahu.

text: The range is known for a fossil Lagerstätte (Wheeler Shale) of Cambrian age, which has an array of Burgess Shale type fauna, including Elrathia kingii, a trilobite that is one of Utah's most famous fossils.

text: The range is known for a fossil

text: Lagerstätte

text: Wheeler Shale

text: ) of

text: Cambrian

text: age, which has an array of

text: Burgess Shale type fauna

text: , including

text: Elrathia kingii

text: , a

text: trilobite

text: that is one of Utah's most famous

text: fossil

text: s.

text: A variety of infiltration or substitution pseudomorphism is called alteration, in which only partial replacement occurs.  This happens typically when a mineral of one composition changes by chemical reaction to another of similar composition, retaining the original crystalline shape.  An example is a change from galena (lead sulfide) to anglesite (lead sulfate).  The resulting pseudomorph may contain an unaltered core of galena surrounded by anglesite that has the cubic crystal shape of galena.

text: A variety of infiltration or substitution pseudomorphism is called alteration, in which only partial replacement occurs.  This happens typically when a mineral of one composition changes by chemical reaction to another of similar composition, retaining the original crystalline shape.  An example is a change from

text: galena

text: (lead sulfide) to

text: anglesite

text: (lead sulfate).  The resulting pseudomorph may contain an unaltered core of galena surrounded by anglesite that has the cubic crystal shape of galena.

text: Ironically, the volcanic material that caused so much destruction led to the preservation of the fossils within the Florissant Formation's shales and mudstones. As the ash was deposited on the landscape, it was carried by water through streams and lahars to the lake. The lahars then covered the base of the redwoods that were living at the time, and the trunks of the trees became harder and fossilized. Through permineralization, the precipitates that were in the ground water flowed through the tree trunks, replacing the original matter with siliceous minerals, replacing the organic matter with silica. This process of mineralization led to the preservation of the stumps of the trees.

text: Ironically, the volcanic material that caused so much destruction led to the preservation of the fossils within the Florissant Formation's shales and mudstones. As the ash was deposited on the landscape, it was carried by water through streams and

text: lahar

text: s to the lake. The lahars then covered the base of the redwoods that were living at the time, and the trunks of the trees became harder and fossilized. Through permineralization, the precipitates that were in the ground water flowed through the tree trunks, replacing the original matter with siliceous minerals, replacing the organic matter with silica. This process of mineralization led to the preservation of the stumps of the trees.

text: Chamaeleoaspis is a genus of tiny trilobites found in Early to Middle Eifelian marine strata of Africa and Europe. The two species look very similar to the trilobites of the related genera Cyphaspis and Otarionella, in which the species were originally, successively classified in.  Fossils of the older species, C. lkomalii, are found in a locality at the southern end of the Maider Basin, in the Anti-Atlas Mountains.  Fossils of the type species, C. chamaeleo, are found in the Middle Eifelian-aged Ohle Formation in Endorf, Germany..

text: Chamaeleoaspis is a

text: genus

text: of tiny

text: trilobite

text: s found in Early to Middle

text: Eifelian

text: marine strata of

text: Africa

text: and

text: Europe

text: . The two species look very similar to the trilobites of the related genera

text: Cyphaspis

text: and

text: Otarionella

text: , in which the species were originally, successively classified in.  Fossils of the older species, C. lkomalii, are found in a locality at the southern end of the Maider Basin, in the Anti-Atlas Mountains.  Fossils of the

text: type species

text: , C. chamaeleo, are found in the Middle Eifelian-aged Ohle Formation in Endorf, Germany..

text: No-bake molds are expendable sand molds, similar to typical sand molds, except they also contain a quick-setting liquid resin and catalyst. Rather than being rammed, the molding sand is poured into the flask and held until the resin solidifies, which occurs at room temperature. This type of molding also produces a better surface finish than other types of sand molds. Because no heat is involved it is called a cold-setting process. Common flask materials that are used are wood, metal, and plastic. Common metals cast into no-bake molds are brass, iron (ferrous), and aluminum alloys.

text: No-bake molds are expendable sand molds, similar to typical sand molds, except they also contain a quick-setting liquid

text: resin

text: and catalyst. Rather than being rammed, the molding sand is poured into the flask and held until the resin solidifies, which occurs at room temperature. This type of molding also produces a better surface finish than other types of sand molds. Because no heat is involved it is called a

text: cold-setting process

text: . Common flask materials that are used are wood, metal, and plastic. Common metals cast into no-bake molds are brass, iron (

text: ferrous

text: ), and aluminum alloys.

text: cD galaxies are similar to lenticular galaxies (S0) or elliptical galaxies (E#), but many times larger, some having envelopes that exceed one million light years in radius. They appear elliptical-like, with large low surface brightness envelopes. It is currently thought that cD's are the result of galaxy mergers. Some cD's have multiple galactic nuclei. cD galaxies are one of the types frequently found to be the brightest cluster galaxy (BCG) of a cluster. Many fossil group galaxies are similar to cD BCG galaxies, leading some to theorize that the cD results from the creation of a fossil group, and then the new cluster accumulating around the fossil group. However, cD's themselves are not found as field galaxies, unlike fossil groups. cD's form around 20% of BCGs.

text: cD galaxies are similar to

text: lenticular galaxies

text: (S0) or

text: elliptical galaxies

text: (E#), but many times larger, some having envelopes that exceed one million

text: light year

text: s in radius. They appear elliptical-like, with large low surface brightness envelopes. It is currently thought that cD's are the result of

text: galaxy merger

text: s. Some cD's have multiple

text: galactic nuclei

text: . cD galaxies are one of the types frequently found to be the

text: brightest cluster galaxy

text: (BCG) of a cluster. Many

text: fossil group galaxies

text: are similar to cD BCG galaxies, leading some to theorize that the cD results from the creation of a fossil group, and then the new cluster accumulating around the fossil group. However, cD's themselves are not found as

text: field galaxies

text: , unlike fossil groups. cD's form around 20% of BCGs.

text: "Although the Lucy fossils were initially dated at three million years, Johanson had announced them as 3.5 million because he said the species was 'the same' as a skull found by Mary Leakey at Laetoli, Tanzania. By proposing Mary Leakey's find as the 'type specimen' for Australopithecus afarensis, he was identifying Lucy with another fossil 1,000 miles from the Afar [in northern Ethiopia] and half a million years older! Mary thought the two not at all the same and refused to have any part of linking her specimen with [Johanson's] afarensis . . She announced that she strongly resented Johanson's 'appropriating' her find, her reputation and the older date to lend authority to Lucy. Thus began the bitter, persistent feud between Johanson and the Leakeys."

text: "Although the Lucy fossils were initially dated at three million years, Johanson had announced them as 3.5 million because he said the species was 'the same' as a skull found by

text: Mary Leakey

text: at

text: Laetoli, Tanzania

text: . By proposing Mary Leakey's find as the 'type specimen' for Australopithecus afarensis, he was identifying Lucy with another fossil 1,000 miles from the Afar [in northern Ethiopia] and half a million years older! Mary thought the two not at all the same and refused to have any part of linking her specimen with [Johanson's] afarensis . . She announced that she strongly resented Johanson's 'appropriating' her find, her reputation and the older date to lend authority to Lucy. Thus began the bitter, persistent feud between Johanson and the Leakeys."

text: The type specimen of the animal now known as Pterodactylus antiquus was one of the first pterosaur fossils ever to be identified. The first Pterodactylus specimen was described by the Italian scientist Cosimo Alessandro Collini in 1784, based on a fossil skeleton that had been unearthed from the Solnhofen limestone of Bavaria. Collini was the curator of the "Naturalienkabinett", or nature cabinet (a precursor to the modern concept of the natural history museum), in the palace of Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria at Mannheim. The specimen had been given to the collection by Count Friedrich Ferdinand zu Pappenheim, probably around 1780, having been recovered from a lithographic limestone quarry in Eichstätt. The actual date of the specimen's discovery and entry into the collection is unknown. It was not mentioned in a catalogue of the collection taken in 1767 and so must have been acquired at some point between that date and its 1784 description by Collini. This makes it potentially the earliest documented pterosaur find; the "Pester Exemplar" of Pterodactylus micronyx was described in 1779 and possibly discovered earlier than the Mannheim specimen, but it was at first considered to be a fossil crustacean.

text: The

text: type specimen

text: of the animal now known as Pterodactylus antiquus was one of the first

text: pterosaur

text: fossils ever to be identified. The first Pterodactylus specimen was described by the Italian scientist

text: Cosimo Alessandro Collini

text: in 1784, based on a

text: fossil

text: skeleton that had been unearthed from the

text: Solnhofen limestone

text: of

text: Bavaria

text: . Collini was the curator of the "Naturalienkabinett", or nature

text: cabinet

text: (a precursor to the modern concept of the

text: natural history

text: museum), in the palace of

text: Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria

text: at

text: Mannheim

text: . The specimen had been given to the collection by Count

text: Friedrich Ferdinand zu Pappenheim

text: , probably around 1780, having been recovered from a

text: lithographic limestone

text: quarry in

text: Eichstätt

text: . The actual date of the specimen's discovery and entry into the collection is unknown. It was not mentioned in a catalogue of the collection taken in 1767 and so must have been acquired at some point between that date and its 1784 description by Collini. This makes it potentially the earliest documented pterosaur find; the "Pester Exemplar" of

text: Pterodactylus micronyx

text: was described in 1779 and possibly discovered earlier than the Mannheim specimen, but it was at first considered to be a fossil crustacean.

text: Riedaster reicheli is an extinct species of starfish in the family Astropectinidae. Riedaster reicheli was first described by Kutscher and Röper in 1999 from a three-dimensional body fossil. Its type locality is Papierschifer, which is in a shallow subtidal mudstone in the Papierschiefer Formation in the Ried district of Germany. It is the type species of the genus Riedaster and dates back to the Late Jurassic.

text: Riedaster reicheli is an extinct species of

text: starfish

text: in the

text: family

text: Astropectinidae

text: . Riedaster reicheli was first described by Kutscher and Röper in 1999 from a three-dimensional body fossil. Its

text: type locality

text: is Papierschifer, which is in a shallow subtidal

text: mudstone

text: in the Papierschiefer Formation in the

text: Ried

text: district of Germany. It is the type species of the

text: genus

text: Riedaster and dates back to the

text: Late Jurassic

text: Each of the basic forces of nature is associated with a different type of potential energy, and all types of potential energy (like all other types of energy) appears as system mass, whenever present. For example, a compressed spring will be slightly more massive than before it was compressed. Likewise, whenever energy is transferred between systems by any mechanism, an associated mass is transferred with it.

text: Each of the basic forces of nature is associated with a different type of potential energy, and all types of potential energy (like all other types of energy) appears as system

text: mass

text: , whenever present. For example, a compressed spring will be slightly more massive than before it was compressed. Likewise, whenever energy is transferred between systems by any mechanism, an associated mass is transferred with it.

text: Lossless compression methods may be categorized according to the type of data they are designed to compress. While, in principle, any general-purpose lossless compression algorithm (general-purpose meaning that they can accept any bitstring) can be used on any type of data, many are unable to achieve significant compression on data that are not of the form for which they were designed to compress. Many of the lossless compression techniques used for text also work reasonably well for indexed images.

text: Lossless compression methods may be categorized according to the type of data they are designed to compress. While, in principle, any general-purpose lossless compression algorithm (general-purpose meaning that they can accept any bitstring) can be used on any type of data, many are unable to achieve significant compression on data that are not of the form for which they were designed to compress. Many of the lossless compression techniques used for text also work reasonably well for

text: indexed image

text: s.

text: The theoretical background of compression is provided by information theory (which is closely related to algorithmic information theory) for lossless compression and rate–distortion theory for lossy compression. These areas of study were essentially forged by Claude Shannon, who published fundamental papers on the topic in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Coding theory is also related to this. The idea of data compression is also deeply connected with statistical inference.

text: The theoretical background of compression is provided by

text: information theory

text: (which is closely related to

text: algorithmic information theory

text: ) for lossless compression and

text: rate–distortion theory

text: for lossy compression. These areas of study were essentially forged by

text: Claude Shannon

text: , who published fundamental papers on the topic in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

text: Coding theory

text: is also related to this. The idea of data compression is also deeply connected with

text: statistical inference

text: The Ediacara-type assemblage is named after Australia's Ediacara Hills, and consists of fossils preserved in facies of coastal lagoons and rivers. They are typically found in red gypsiferous and calcareous paleosols formed on loess and flood deposits in an arid cool temperate paleoclimate. Most fossils are preserved as imprints in microbial earths, but a few are preserved within sandy units.

text: The Ediacara-type assemblage is named after Australia's

text: Ediacara Hills

text: , and consists of fossils preserved in

text: facies

text: of coastal lagoons and rivers. They are typically found in red gypsiferous and calcareous paleosols formed on loess and flood deposits in an arid cool temperate paleoclimate. Most fossils are preserved as imprints in microbial earths, but a few are preserved within sandy units.

text: – Undertaking of minerals research including energy minerals (radioactive minerals, fossil fuels, etc.)

text: Dillhoffia is an extinct monotypic genus of flowering plant with a single species, Dillhoffia cachensis known from Ypresian age Eocene fossils found in British Columbia, Canada, and Washington, USA.   The genus and species were described from fifteen specimens found in an unnamed formation belonging to the Kamloops group shales; and two specimens from the Klondike Mountain Formation.  The unnamed formation outcrops at the McAbee Fossil Beds near Cache Creek, BC, which is designated the type locality while the two U.S. specimens were recovered from the Tom Thumb Tuff member of the Klondike Mountain Formation in Republic, Washington.  It is of interest to note that of the Okanagan highlands fossil sites Dillhoffia is only known from two locations, and is absent or has not been identified from the others.

text: Dillhoffia is an

text: extinct

text: monotypic

text: genus of

text: flowering plant

text: with a single species, Dillhoffia cachensis known from

text: Ypresian

text: age

text: Eocene

text: fossil

text: s found in

text: British Columbia, Canada

text: , and

text: Washington

text: , USA.   The genus and species were described from fifteen specimens found in an unnamed formation belonging to the Kamloops group shales; and two specimens from the Klondike Mountain Formation.  The unnamed formation outcrops at the

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: near

text: Cache Creek, BC

text: , which is designated the

text: type locality

text: while the two U.S. specimens were recovered from the Tom Thumb Tuff member of the Klondike Mountain Formation in

text: Republic, Washington

text: .  It is of interest to note that of the Okanagan highlands fossil sites Dillhoffia is only known from two locations, and is absent or has not been identified from the others.

text: A succession of animals and plants can also be seen from fossil discoveries. By studying the number and complexity of different fossils at different stratigraphic levels, it has been shown that older fossil-bearing rocks contain fewer types of fossilized organisms, and they all have a simpler structure, whereas younger rocks contain a greater variety of fossils, often with increasingly complex structures.

text: A succession of animals and plants can also be seen from fossil discoveries. By studying the number and complexity of different fossils at different

text: stratigraphic

text: levels, it has been shown that older fossil-bearing rocks contain fewer types of fossilized organisms, and they all have a simpler structure, whereas younger rocks contain a greater variety of fossils, often with increasingly complex structures.

text: A structure of the same type exists in several fossil groups of mollusks, including all the fossil families of slit shells, as well as three superfamilies of what may have been gastropods, but may possibly have been monoplacophorans or paragastropods instead.

text: A structure of the same type exists in several fossil groups of mollusks, including all the fossil families of slit shells, as well as three superfamilies of what may have been gastropods, but may possibly have been

text: monoplacophora

text: ns or

text: paragastropods

text: instead.

text: Description of the new species by Dr. Kathleen Pigg, Richard Dillhoff, Melanie DeVore and Wesley Wehr was based on the study of a single complete fruiting structure specimen. The holotype fossil, number "UWBM 97819", being housed in the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, Seattle, Washington. They published their 2007 type description of the species in the International Journal of Plant Sciences volume number 168 and named the species drachuckii in honor of Robert Drachuck in recognition for his finding and donation of the type specimen for study. The holotype was recovered from an Ypresian age unnamed formation outcropping at the McAbee Fossil Beds near Cache Creek, BC, which is designated the type locality.

text: Description of the new species by Dr. Kathleen Pigg, Richard Dillhoff, Melanie DeVore and

text: Wesley Wehr

text: was based on the study of a single complete

text: fruiting structure

text: specimen. The

text: holotype

text: fossil

text: , number "

text: UWBM 97819

text: ", being housed in the

text: Seattle, Washington

text: . They published their 2007

text: type description

text: of the species in the

text: International Journal of Plant Sciences

text: volume number 168 and named the species drachuckii in honor of Robert Drachuck in recognition for his finding and donation of the type specimen for study. The holotype was recovered from an Ypresian age unnamed formation outcropping at the

text: McAbee Fossil Beds

text: near

text: Cache Creek, BC

text: , which is designated the

text: type locality

text: In China, artificially preserved remains have been recovered from the period of the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), the main examples being that of Xin Zhui and the Mawangdui Han tombs site. While these remains have been extraordinarily well preserved, the embalming fluids and methods used are unknown.

text: In China, artificially preserved remains have been recovered from the period of the

text: Han dynasty

text: (206 BC – 220 AD), the main examples being that of

text: Xin Zhui

text: and the

text: Mawangdui Han tombs site

text: . While these remains have been extraordinarily well preserved, the embalming fluids and methods used are unknown.

text: There is an important distinction to draw between concretions and nodules. Concretions are formed from mineral precipitation around some kind of nucleus while a nodule is a replacement body.

text: There is an important distinction to draw between concretions and

text: nodule

text: s. Concretions are formed from mineral precipitation around some kind of nucleus while a nodule is a replacement body.

text: This record of changing environments and habitats includes over 550 types of fossil plants and animals, ranging from preserved microscopic plant pollen and algal spores to baleen whale bones and mammoth skeletons. Many of the species are extinct and some are known only from fossil remains recovered from this park. Combined with a long and complete sedimentary depositional sequence, these diverse fossil assemblages are an unparalleled paleontologic resource of international importance. Both the Pliocene-Pleistocene epoch boundary and the Blancan-Irvingtonian North American land mammal ages boundary fall within the long geological record from the Anza-Borrego region. Environmental changes associated with these geological time divisions are probably better tracked by fossils from the Anza-Borrego region than in any other North American continental platform stratum. These changes herald the beginning of the Ice Ages, and the strata contain fossil clues to the origin and development of modern southwestern desert landscapes.

text: This record of changing environments and habitats includes over 550 types of fossil plants and animals, ranging from preserved microscopic plant

text: pollen

text: and

text: algal

text: spore

text: s to

text: baleen whale

text: bones and

text: mammoth

text: skeleton

text: s. Many of the species are extinct and some are known only from fossil remains recovered from this park. Combined with a long and complete sedimentary depositional sequence, these diverse fossil assemblages are an unparalleled paleontologic resource of international importance. Both the

text: Pliocene

text: Pleistocene

text: epoch boundary and the

text: Blancan

text: Irvingtonian

text: North American land mammal age

text: s boundary fall within the long geological record from the Anza-Borrego region. Environmental changes associated with these geological time divisions are probably better tracked by fossils from the Anza-Borrego region than in any other North American continental

text: platform stratum

text: . These changes herald the beginning of the

text: Ice Ages

text: , and the strata contain fossil clues to the origin and development of modern southwestern desert landscapes.

text: Ash erodes very quickly and does not hold water long. These two qualities make for poor growing conditions and explains the general lack of plant life.  The lignite beds, left by swamps 70 million years ago, now lie exposed on the broad wash that forms the floor of the Bisti/De-Na-Zin Wilderness badlands.  Those lignite mounds coincide with most of the petrified wood and fossils found in the Wilderness.  Generally, the organic remains are harder than lignite, so they weather out as the lignite erodes.The fossils in the Wilderness preserve a record of freshwater life in and on the edge of the great delta at that time.

text: With over 5,500 fossils and 3,000 minerals, the strengths of the Scarborough collection are numerous type specimens, which were the first of their kind ever to be described, and one of the finest collections of Middle Jurassic fossil plants in the country. The collection also includes a large selection of Cretaceous fossils from the Speeton Clay and the Chalk, a wide variety of Upper and Lower Jurassic specimens, specimens from the Ice Age such as mammoth teeth and fossils from the Kirkdale Cave and a pristine Carboniferous plant collection. The whole collection was catalogued and conserved in 2007 and the more spectacular specimens are now on display in the refurbished Rotunda Museum. These give a taste of the quality and range of the fossils and minerals that have been found along Yorkshire's Dinosaur Coast which stretches from Redcar in the north to Flamborough in the south.

text: With over 5,500 fossils and 3,000 minerals, the strengths of the Scarborough collection are numerous type specimens, which were the first of their kind ever to be described, and one of the finest collections of Middle

text: Jurassic

text: fossil plants in the country. The collection also includes a large selection of

text: Cretaceous

text: fossils from the

text: Speeton

text: Clay and the Chalk, a wide variety of Upper and Lower Jurassic specimens, specimens from the Ice Age such as mammoth teeth and fossils from the

text: Kirkdale Cave

text: and a pristine

text: Carboniferous

text: plant collection. The whole collection was catalogued and conserved in 2007 and the more spectacular specimens are now on display in the refurbished Rotunda Museum. These give a taste of the quality and range of the fossils and minerals that have been found along Yorkshire's Dinosaur Coast which stretches from

text: Redcar

text: in the north to

text: Flamborough

text: in the south.

text: There are three main types of TOS, named according to the cause of the symptoms; however, these three classifications have been coming into disfavor because TOS can involve all three types of compression to various degrees. The compression can occur in three anatomical structures (arteries, veins and nerves), it can be isolated, or, more commonly, two or three of the structures are compressed to greater or lesser degrees. In addition, the compressive forces can be of different magnitude in each affected structure.  Therefore, symptoms can be variable.

text: The museum continues to feature the dioramas of British birds in their habitat settings, as well as collections of butterflies, and British fossils and animal bones. Other items have been added to the museum's collection through the years, and it is now home to a collection of 525,000 insects, 50,000 minerals and rocks, 30,000 plants and 5,000 microscopic slides.

text: The museum continues to feature the

text: diorama

text: s of British birds in their habitat settings, as well as collections of

text: butterflies

text: , and British

text: fossils

text: and animal bones. Other items have been added to the museum's collection through the years, and it is now home to a collection of 525,000 insects, 50,000 minerals and rocks, 30,000 plants and 5,000 microscopic slides.

text: H. rugosum is the type species.  It was originally described as a species of the antiarch genus, Pterichthys.  Fossils are found in Frasnian strata of New York and Pennsylvania, and Givetian strata of Wisconsin and Michigan.  It is a fairly large species, though the type specimen is of an 18 centimeter long median dorsal plate belonging to a small individual.  Fossils of H. horridum and Glyptaspis eastmani may be this species.  Fossils from Frasnian Iran (H. cf. rugosum) may also belong to this species.

text: H. rugosum is the type species.  It was originally described as a species of the

text: antiarch

text: genus,

text: Pterichthys

text: .  Fossils are found in

text: Frasnian

text: strata of

text: New York

text: and

text: Pennsylvania

text: , and

text: Givetian

text: strata of

text: Wisconsin

text: and

text: Michigan

text: .  It is a fairly large species, though the type specimen is of an 18 centimeter long median dorsal plate belonging to a small individual.  Fossils of H. horridum and Glyptaspis eastmani may be this species.  Fossils from Frasnian Iran (H. cf. rugosum) may also belong to this species.

text: Fossils may be found either associated with a geological formation or at a single geographic site. Geological formations consist of rock that was deposited during a specific period of time. They usually extend for large areas, and sometimes there are different important sites in which the same formation is exposed. Such sites may have separate entries if they are considered to be more notable than the formation as a whole. In contrast, extensive formations associated with large areas may be equivalently represented at many locations. Such formations may be listed either without a site, with a site or sites that represents the type locality, or with multiple sites of note. When a type locality is listed as the site for a formation with many good outcrops, the site is flagged with a note (). When a particular site of note is listed for an extensive fossil-bearing formation, but that site is somehow atypical, it is also flagged with a note ().

text: Fossil

text: s may be found either associated with a

text: geological formation

text: or at a single geographic site. Geological formations consist of

text: rock

text: that was deposited during a specific period of time. They usually extend for large areas, and sometimes there are different important sites in which the same formation is exposed. Such sites may have separate entries if they are considered to be more notable than the formation as a whole. In contrast, extensive formations associated with large areas may be equivalently represented at many locations. Such formations may be listed either without a site, with a site or sites that represents the type locality, or with multiple sites of note. When a type locality is listed as the site for a formation with many good outcrops, the site is flagged with a note (). When a particular site of note is listed for an extensive fossil-bearing formation, but that site is somehow atypical, it is also flagged with a note ().

text: Fossils are generally found in sedimentary rock with differentiated strata representing a succession of deposited material. The occurrence of fossil bearing material depends on environmental factors before and after the time of preservation. After death, the first preserving factor is a rapid burial in water bodies or terrestrial sediment which would help in preserving the specimen. These rocks types are usually termed clastic rock, and are further subdivided into fine, medium and coarse grained material. While fossils can be found in all grain types, more detailed specimens are found in the fine grained material. A second type of burial is the non-clastic rock, form where the rock is made up of the precipitation of compacted fossil material, types of rock include limestone and coal. The third fossil bearing material is the evaporates, which precipitate out of concentrated dissolved salts to form nodular deposits, examples include rock salt and phosphate concentrations. The evaporates are usually associated with gastropod, algae, vertebrate, and trace fossils. Fossils are not to be found in areas of igneous rock (except in some beds between lava flows). In rocks which have undergone metamorphism, fossils are generally so distorted that they are difficult to recognize or have been destroyed completely.

text: Fossils are generally found in

text: sedimentary rock

text: with differentiated strata representing a succession of deposited material. The occurrence of fossil bearing material depends on environmental factors before and after the time of preservation. After death, the first preserving factor is a rapid burial in water bodies or

text: terrestrial

text: sediment which would help in preserving the specimen. These rocks types are usually termed

text: clastic rock

text: , and are further subdivided into fine, medium and coarse grained material. While fossils can be found in all grain types, more detailed specimens are found in the fine grained material. A second type of burial is the non-clastic rock, form where the rock is made up of the precipitation of compacted fossil material, types of rock include

text: limestone

text: and

text: coal

text: . The third fossil bearing material is the

text: evaporates

text: , which precipitate out of concentrated dissolved salts to form

text: nodular deposit

text: s, examples include

text: rock salt

text: and

text: phosphate

text: concentrations. The evaporates are usually associated with

text: gastropod

text: algae

text: vertebrate

text: , and

text: trace fossil

text: s. Fossils are not to be found in areas of

text: igneous rock

text: (except in some beds between lava flows). In rocks which have undergone

text: metamorphism

text: , fossils are generally so distorted that they are difficult to recognize or have been destroyed completely.

text: Since the beginning of the Cenozoic, the shoreline of the Gulf of Mexico has shifted back and forth across Louisiana in response to sea level fluctuations, sediment accumulation, and tectonic subsidence. A great diversity of life flourished in the Paleogene seawater that periodically transgressed on the state. Invertebrates from these environments included bryozoans, corals, foraminifera, gastropods, ostracods, pelecypods, and more. During the Late Eocene, the Montgomery Landing area was home to more than 50 different kinds of mollusc. Their remains would be preserved in a glauconitic marl deposit known formally as the Moodys Branch Marl. About 150 different species of marine invertebrate and vertebrate fossils were preserved in the Cane River Formation. The primitive whale Basilosaurus also made its home in the state and left behind fossils that would be preserved in the Yazoo clay. Many of the marine fossils from this period of the state's history were preserved in the Midway, Wilcox, Claiborne and Jackson groups. This stratigraphic interval documents the local terrestrial environments as well. Even in the Paleogene, Louisiana was home to rivers and deltas. Paleogene terrestrial deposits in Louisiana tend to lack fossils, so little information is available about what might have lived in these habitats. Nevertheless poorly preserved petrified wood and leaf fossils document the flora of this period in some places. Later, during the Oligocene, the marine life of Louisiana included corals, foraminifera, gastropods, ostracods, and pelecypods. These were preserved in what is now the Vicksburg Group. The presence of bodies of flowing water like rivers or streams is recorded in the terrestrial sediments of the Catahoula Formation. Fossils from this ancient environment are rare, but include petrified wood.

text: Since the beginning of the Cenozoic, the

text: shoreline

text: of the Gulf of Mexico has shifted back and forth across Louisiana in response to sea level fluctuations, sediment accumulation, and tectonic subsidence. A great diversity of life flourished in the Paleogene seawater that periodically transgressed on the state. Invertebrates from these environments included bryozoans, corals, foraminifera, gastropods, ostracods, pelecypods, and more. During the

text: Late Eocene

text: , the Montgomery Landing area was home to more than 50 different kinds of

text: mollusc

text: . Their remains would be preserved in a

text: glauconitic

text: marl

text: deposit known formally as the Moodys Branch Marl. About 150 different species of marine invertebrate and vertebrate fossils were preserved in the Cane River Formation. The primitive whale

text: Basilosaurus

text: also made its home in the state and left behind fossils that would be preserved in the Yazoo clay. Many of the marine fossils from this period of the state's history were preserved in the Midway, Wilcox, Claiborne and Jackson groups. This stratigraphic interval documents the local terrestrial environments as well. Even in the Paleogene, Louisiana was home to rivers and deltas. Paleogene terrestrial deposits in Louisiana tend to lack fossils, so little information is available about what might have lived in these habitats. Nevertheless poorly preserved

text: petrified wood

text: and leaf fossils document the flora of this period in some places. Later, during the Oligocene, the marine life of Louisiana included corals, foraminifera, gastropods, ostracods, and pelecypods. These were preserved in what is now the Vicksburg Group. The presence of bodies of flowing water like rivers or streams is recorded in the terrestrial sediments of the Catahoula Formation. Fossils from this ancient environment are rare, but include petrified wood.

text: A variant of the Archimedes screw can also be found in some injection molding machines, die casting machines and extrusion of plastics, which employ a screw of decreasing pitch to compress and melt the material. Finally, it is also used in a specific type of positive displacement air compressor: the rotary-screw air compressor. On a much larger scale, Archimedes's screws of decreasing pitch are used for the compaction of waste material.

text: A variant of the Archimedes screw can also be found in some

text: injection molding machines

text: die casting

text: machines and extrusion of plastics, which employ a screw of decreasing

text: pitch

text: to compress and melt the material. Finally, it is also used in a specific type of positive displacement

text: air compressor

text: : the rotary-screw air compressor. On a much larger scale, Archimedes's screws of decreasing pitch are used for the

text: compaction

text: of waste material.

text: Latex is a synthetic rubber often used in special effects. Foamed latex is sometimes considered the "ultimate in prosthetic appliance."  It can be used in an inflatable bladder effect to make it seem like the actor’s skin is moving or rippling like Rick Baker’s werewolf change effect An American Werewolf in London. This is accomplished by covering an inflatable balloon of some type underneath a covering made of latex, urethane, or plastic molding. Latex can also be used to make scar effects or other more blatant mutilation. For example, with latex prosthetics, movie makers can make an actor appear to have more or less limbs than he should. They can also make the actor appear to be horribly wounded with flesh hanging and large gashes. To accomplish these tricks, the actor must first have a mold made of the part of him that will be replicated using latex. Take, as an example, one of the zombies in Dawn of the Dead. To make this actor seem to be rotting, they need to make a cast. The technicians prep the area of the body, say the face, to be cast. They must cover the hair and coat the eyebrows, eyelashes, and any other hair that can’t be covered with petroleum jelly. Then they must apply the alginate or other comparable substance, completely covering the molding area, keeping the mouth, nose, or both open for breathing. When that is finished, they layer the area with plaster bandages to create the cast. When all of it has dried and settled, they remove the cast from the actor and put it together again to create the mold. After this, they pour plaster of Paris into the mold to create a cast that is exactly like the actors face. From the cast they can get another mold which they then can use to sculpt any prosthetic attachments they need. This can include fake limbs, fake skin, or growths. It is important to use the a good adhesive to apply the prosthetic. In his book Vincent Kehoe recommends one that is "easy to apply, set[s] rapidly, be dilutable for use, and be removable with a solvent that is not harmful to the skin.

text: Latex

text: One of the rare examples of sedimentary rocks in Iceland is the sequence of marine and non-marine sediments present on the Tjörnes Peninsula in northern Iceland. These Pliocene and late Pleistocene deposits are composed of silt and sandstones, with fossils preserved in the lower layers. The primary fossil types found in the Tjörnes beds are marine mollusc shells and plant remains (lignite).

text: One of the rare examples of sedimentary rocks in Iceland is the sequence of marine and non-marine sediments present on the

text: Tjörnes

text: Peninsula in northern Iceland. These Pliocene and late Pleistocene deposits are composed of silt and sandstones, with fossils preserved in the lower layers. The primary fossil types found in the Tjörnes beds are marine mollusc shells and plant remains (lignite).

text: C. orientalis was described in 2015 from a single holotype gyne missing its head.  The fossil was recovered from the late Eocene Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya fossil site, in the  Sikhote-Alin area of far-eastern Russia. The type specimen numbered PIN 3429/1174 is currently preserved in the A.A. Borissiak Paleontological Institute fossil collections of the Russian Academy of Sciences.  The  Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site preserves diatomaceous sediments from a small lake which existed near an active volcanic center. The diatomites have been grouped as either the  Maksimovka formation or Salibez Formation, and the age range for the fossils is varied, ranging from upper Eocene to Upper Oligocene.  Dlussky, Rasnitsyn, and Perfilieva opted to treat the fossil age as that of probably Priabonian. They coined the specific epithet from the Latin "orientalis",  meaning "eastern", in reference to the type locality.

text: C. orientalis was described in 2015 from a single holotype gyne missing its head.  The fossil was recovered from the

text: late Eocene

text: type specimen

text: numbered PIN 3429/1174 is currently preserved in the A.A. Borissiak Paleontological Institute fossil collections of the

text: Russian Academy of Sciences

text: .  The  Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site preserves diatomaceous sediments from a small lake which existed near an active volcanic center. The diatomites have been grouped as either the  Maksimovka formation or Salibez Formation, and the age range for the fossils is varied, ranging from upper Eocene to Upper Oligocene.  Dlussky, Rasnitsyn, and Perfilieva opted to treat the fossil age as that of probably Priabonian. They coined the

text: specific epithet

text: from the

text: Latin

text: "orientalis",  meaning "eastern", in reference to the type locality.

text: W. mathewesi is known from the solitary holotype specimen, number Q-0092, a single mostly complete forewing which was preserved as a compression-impression fossil preserved in shale.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Coldwater Formation in the Quilchena, British Columbia area by Rolf Mathewes in 1976. The type specimen is currently preserved in the Department of Paleobiology collections housed at Simon Fraser University, located in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. W. mathewesi was first studied by Vladimir Makarkin of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, S. Bruce Archibald from Simon Fraser University  and John D Oswald of Texas A&M University. Their 2003 type description of the new species was published in the journal The Canadian Entomologist.  Makarkin et al coined the specific epithet mathewesi in honor of Rolf Mathewes for his work on the paleontology of the Quilchena site. At the time of the species description, Wesmaelius mathewesi was the most ancient member of Hemerobiinae and the first fossil species in the living genus Wesmaelius.  Placement of the new species into Wesmaelius is considered tentative, and based on the crossvein structuring and positioning.

text: W. mathewesi is known from the solitary

text: holotype

text: specimen, number Q-0092, a single mostly complete forewing which was preserved as a

text: compression-impression fossil

text: preserved in

text: shale

text: .  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the

text: Coldwater Formation

text: in the

text: Quilchena, British Columbia

text: area by Rolf Mathewes in 1976. The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: Department of Paleobiology

text: collections housed at

text: Simon Fraser University

text: , located in

text: Burnaby, British Columbia

text: , Canada. W. mathewesi was first studied by

text: Vladimir Makarkin

text: of the

text: , S. Bruce Archibald from Simon Fraser University  and John D Oswald of

text: Texas A&M University

text: . Their 2003

text: type description

text: The Canadian Entomologist

text: .  Makarkin et al coined the

text: specific epithet

text: mathewesi in honor of Rolf Mathewes for his work on the paleontology of the Quilchena site. At the time of the species description, Wesmaelius mathewesi was the most ancient member of Hemerobiinae and the first fossil species in the living genus

text: Wesmaelius

text: .  Placement of the new species into Wesmaelius is considered tentative, and based on the crossvein structuring and positioning.

text: Chemical fossils are chemicals found in rocks and fossil fuels (petroleum, coal, and natural gas) that provide an organic signature for ancient life. Molecular fossils and isotope ratios represent two types of chemical fossils. The oldest traces of life on Earth are fossils of this type, including carbon isotope anomalies found in zircons that imply the existence of life as early as 4.1 billion years ago.

text: Sphingidites is an extinct genus of moths in the Sphingidae family, containing one species, Sphingidites weidneri. It is a compression fossil of a prepupal larva. The fossil was found in Germany and was dated to the Pliocene.

text: Sphingidites is an extinct genus of

text: moth

text: s in the

text: Sphingidae

text: family, containing one species, Sphingidites weidneri. It is a compression fossil of a prepupal larva. The fossil was found in Germany and was dated to the

text: Pliocene

text: The type specimens for G. cranei include two ovulate organ fossils, a holotype and a paratype.  The holotype is numbered number UWSP42706 which, along with four other specimens, is currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections of University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point in Stevens Point, Wisconsin.  The paratype, number PP34187, along with one additional specimen, are part of the geology collections maintained at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, Illinois.  A total of only seven G. cranei ovulate organ fossils were known at the time of the species description.   The specimens were studied by paleobotanist Zhiyan Zhou of Nanjing University, Cheng Quan of Jilin University and Yu-Sheng (Christopher) Liu of East Tennessee State University.  Zhou and associates published their 2012 type description for G. cranei in the International Journal of Plant Sciences.  The chosen specific name cranei was in honor of Sir Peter Crane who, with Steven Manchester and David Dilcher, first discovered the Almont Ginkgo fossils.

text: The

text: type specimen

text: s for G. cranei include two ovulate organ fossils, a

text: holotype

text: and a

text: paratype

text: .  The holotype is numbered number UWSP42706 which, along with four other specimens, is currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of

text: University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point

text: in

text: Stevens Point, Wisconsin

text: .  The paratype, number PP34187, along with one additional specimen, are part of the

text: geology

text: collections maintained at the

text: Field Museum of Natural History

text: in

text: Chicago, Illinois

text: .  A total of only seven G. cranei ovulate organ fossils were known at the time of the species description.   The specimens were studied by

text: paleobotanist

text: Zhiyan Zhou of

text: Nanjing University

text: , Cheng Quan of

text: Jilin University

text: and Yu-Sheng (Christopher) Liu of

text: East Tennessee State University

text: .  Zhou and associates published their 2012

text: type description

text: for G. cranei in the

text: International Journal of Plant Sciences

text: .  The chosen

text: specific name

text: cranei was in honor of

text: Sir Peter Crane

text: who, with Steven Manchester and David Dilcher, first discovered the Almont Ginkgo fossils.

text: The St. Marks Formation consists of a white to yellowish gray, poorly to moderately hard, sandy, fossil bearing rock in molds and casts within packstone to wackestone.

text: The St. Marks Formation consists of a white to yellowish gray, poorly to moderately hard, sandy, fossil bearing rock in molds and casts within

text: packstone

text: to

text: wackestone

text: In October 1928, the News-Miner cut costs by moving to a new office. This allowed the purchase of a new Linotype machine, and further upgrades were promised when on November 8, 1929, the News-Miner was purchased by Austin E. Lathrop, an Alaska industrialist.  Though Lathrop promised to inject money into the News-Miner, his strong Republican leanings opposed those of Nordale, a confirmed Democrat. Nordale resigned in April 1930 and was replaced by Bernard Stone. Stone and Lathrop turned the News-Miner profitable before Stone was replaced by Charles R. Settlemier in 1936. In 1935, the News-Miner purchased two cylinder presses to replace the old flatbed press still in use. Owing to shipping difficulties, however, the presses and the new crew needed to operate them did not arrive until 1936. By that time, the News-Miner was preparing to move into the new Lathrop Building, built by and named after the newspaper's owner.

text: In October 1928, the News-Miner cut costs by moving to a new office. This allowed the purchase of a new Linotype machine, and further upgrades were promised when on November 8, 1929, the News-Miner was purchased by

text: Austin E. Lathrop

text: , an Alaska industrialist.  Though Lathrop promised to inject money into the News-Miner, his strong Republican leanings opposed those of Nordale, a confirmed Democrat. Nordale resigned in April 1930 and was replaced by Bernard Stone. Stone and Lathrop turned the News-Miner profitable before Stone was replaced by Charles R. Settlemier in 1936. In 1935, the News-Miner purchased two cylinder presses to replace the old flatbed press still in use. Owing to shipping difficulties, however, the presses and the new crew needed to operate them did not arrive until 1936. By that time, the News-Miner was preparing to move into the new Lathrop Building, built by and named after the newspaper's owner.

text: It was first studied by a group of researchers consisting of Selena Smith, Randolph Currah and Ruth Stockey, all from the University of Alberta.  Smith and colleagues published their 2004 type description in the journal Mycologia volume 96.  The generic epithet Appianoporites was coined from a combination of Appian in reference to the type locality and "porites" to reflect that it is a polypore fungus.  The specific epithet "vancouverensis" was proposed in recognition of Vancouver Island, where the fossil deposits are.

text: Selena Smith

text: Randolph Currah

text: and

text: Ruth Stockey

text: , all from the

text: University of Alberta

text: type description

text: in the journal

text: Mycologia

text: volume 96.  The generic epithet Appianoporites was coined from a combination of Appian in reference to the type locality and "porites" to reflect that it is a

text: polypore

text: fungus.  The specific epithet "vancouverensis" was proposed in recognition of

text: Vancouver Island

text: , where the fossil deposits are.

text: At power stations that use compressed air energy storage (CAES), electrical energy is used to compress air and store it in underground facilities such as caverns or abandoned mines. During later periods of high electrical demand, the air is released to power turbines, generally using supplemental natural gas. Power stations that make significant use of CAES are operational in McIntosh, Alabama, Germany, and Japan. System disadvantages include some energy losses in the CAES process; also, the need for supplemental use of fossil fuels such as natural gas means that these systems do not completely make use of renewable energy.

text: At power stations that use

text: compressed air energy storage

text: (CAES), electrical energy is used to compress air and store it in underground facilities such as caverns or abandoned mines. During later periods of high electrical demand, the air is released to power turbines, generally using supplemental

text: natural gas

text: . Power stations that make significant use of CAES are operational in

text: McIntosh, Alabama

text: , Germany, and Japan. System disadvantages include some energy losses in the CAES process; also, the need for supplemental use of fossil fuels such as natural gas means that these systems do not completely make use of renewable energy.

text: The phylogenetic relationships of the Tingoidea are not well established, with various authors treating the families, and subfamilies, and tribes differently. The phylogeny here follows that of Drake and Ruhoff 1965.While not common in the fossil record, a number of genera and species have been described from both amber and compression fossils, such as Gyaclavator kohlsi from the Eocene Green River formation.

text: The phylogenetic relationships of the

text: Tingoidea

text: are not well established, with various authors treating the families, and subfamilies, and tribes differently. The phylogeny here follows that of Drake and Ruhoff 1965.While not common in the fossil record, a number of genera and species have been described from both amber and compression fossils, such as

text: Gyaclavator kohlsi

text: from the Eocene Green River formation.

text: When carbon is preserved it usually forms films of the highly cross-linked and essentially inert compound kerogen, with kerogen formation from organic precursors likely to happen as the host rock is exposed to high pressures.In addition, films of phyllicate (clay) minerals can grow in situ, overprinting the biological tissue. Chemical gradients - created by the decay process - are essential for mineral growth to continue long enough for the tissue to be preserved. Oxygen in the sediment allows decomposition to occur at a much greater rate; this decreases the quality of the preservation, but does not prevent it entirely; the conventional, exceptionally preserved fossils of the Burgess Shale are supplemented by the shells of organisms which lived on and burrowed into the sediment before the exceptional preservation pathway was complete. The organisms' presence shows that oxygen was present, but at worst this "paused" the mineralisation process. It seems that whilst anoxia facilitates BS-type preservation, it is not essential to the process.

text: When carbon is preserved it usually forms films of the highly cross-linked and essentially inert compound

text: kerogen

text: , with kerogen formation from organic precursors likely to happen as the host rock is exposed to high pressures.In addition, films of phyllicate (clay) minerals can grow in situ, overprinting the biological tissue. Chemical gradients - created by the decay process - are essential for mineral growth to continue long enough for the tissue to be preserved. Oxygen in the sediment allows decomposition to occur at a much greater rate; this decreases the quality of the preservation, but does not prevent it entirely; the conventional, exceptionally preserved fossils of the Burgess Shale are supplemented by the shells of organisms which lived on and burrowed into the sediment before the exceptional preservation pathway was complete. The organisms' presence shows that oxygen was present, but at worst this "paused" the mineralisation process. It seems that whilst anoxia facilitates BS-type preservation, it is not essential to the process.

text: The species was described from a series of type specimens, the holotype specimen UF6510, which is currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections of the University of Florida and two paratype specimens, both of which are part of the National Museum of Natural History collections in Washington, D.C..  The fossils were part of approximately 20,000 specimens collected from 1942 to 1989 by Thomas Bones, A. W. Hancock, R. A. Scott, Steven R. Manchester, and a number of high school students.

text: type specimens

text: , the

text: holotype

text: specimen UF6510, which is currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of the

text: University of Florida

text: and two

text: paratype

text: specimens, both of which are part of the

text: National Museum of Natural History

text: collections in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: An infiltration pseudomorph, or substitution pseudomorph is a pseudomorph in which one mineral or other material is replaced by another. The original shape of the mineral remains unchanged, but color, hardness, and other properties change to those of the replacing mineral.  An example of this process is the replacement of wood by silica (quartz or opal) to form petrified wood in which the substitution may be so perfect as to retain the original cellular structure of the wood.  An example of mineral-to-mineral substitution is replacement of aragonite twin crystals by native copper, as occurs at the Corocoro United Copper Mines of Coro Coro, Bolivia.

text: An infiltration pseudomorph, or substitution pseudomorph is a pseudomorph in which one mineral or other material is replaced by another. The original shape of the mineral remains unchanged, but color, hardness, and other properties change to those of the replacing mineral.  An example of this process is the replacement of wood by

text: silica

text: quartz

text: or

text: opal

text: ) to form

text: petrified wood

text: in which the substitution may be so perfect as to retain the original cellular structure of the wood.  An example of mineral-to-mineral substitution is replacement of

text: aragonite

text: twin

text: crystals by

text: native copper

text: , as occurs at the

text: Corocoro United Copper Mines

text: of

text: Coro Coro

text: Bolivia

text: The main advantages of ceramic molds are: a reusable pattern (the item used to create the shape of the mold), excellent surface finish, close dimensional tolerances, thin cross-sections, and intricate shapes can be cast. For undercuts and other difficult to cast features, part of the pattern can be made from wax in conjunction with a standard pattern; essentially using investment and ceramic mold casting techniques together. The main disadvantages are: it is only cost effective for small- to medium-sized production runs and the ceramic is not reusable. Ferrous and high-temperature non-ferrous are most commonly cast with these processes; other materials cast include: aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium, and zinc alloys.

text: The main advantages of ceramic molds are: a reusable

text: pattern

text: (the item used to create the shape of the mold), excellent

text: surface finish

text: , close dimensional

text: tolerance

text: s, thin

text: cross-section

text: s, and intricate shapes can be cast. For

text: undercuts

text: and other difficult to cast features, part of the pattern can be made from wax in conjunction with a standard pattern; essentially using investment and ceramic mold casting techniques together. The main disadvantages are: it is only cost effective for small- to medium-sized production runs and the ceramic is not reusable. Ferrous and high-temperature non-ferrous are most commonly cast with these processes; other materials cast include: aluminum, copper, magnesium, titanium, and zinc alloys.

text: The genus and type species were first described, without illustration, by Samuel Scudder in 1878, who placed the genus in the family Panorpidae. A second fossil was recovered by a collector in 1907 and first illustrated in 1927 by Theodore Cockerell. The second fossil was finally described in 1931 by Frank M. Carpenter. The second species H. dillhoffi was described over 130 years after the type species was described. The second species was first described by paleoentomologist S. Bruce Archibald of Simon Fraser University. His type description was published in the entomology journal Annales de la Société Entomologique de France.  The specific epithet dillhoffi is a patronym honoring Richard Dillhoff, who found and donated a number of fossils for research, including the type specimen, and for his support of paleoentomology.

text: The genus and type species were first described, without illustration, by

text: Samuel Scudder

text: in 1878, who placed the genus in the family

text: Panorpidae

text: . A second fossil was recovered by a collector in 1907 and first illustrated in 1927 by

text: Theodore Cockerell

text: . The second fossil was finally described in 1931 by

text: Frank M. Carpenter

text: . The second species H. dillhoffi was described over 130 years after the type species was described. The second species was first described by

text: paleoentomologist

text: S. Bruce Archibald of

text: Simon Fraser University

text: . His

text: type description

text: was published in the

text: entomology

text: journal

entity_name: Annales de la Société Entomologique de France

text: Annales de la Société Entomologique de France

text: .  The specific epithet dillhoffi is a patronym honoring Richard Dillhoff, who found and donated a number of fossils for research, including the type specimen, and for his support of paleoentomology.

text: Examining fossils of dinosaurs in search of sexually dimorphic characteristics requires the supply of complete and articulated skeletal and tissue remains. As terrestrial organisms, dinosaur carcasses are subject to ecological and geographical influence that inevitably constitutes the degree of preservation. The availability of well-preserved remains is not a probable outcome as a consequence of decomposition and fossilization. Some paleontologists have looked for sexual dimorphism among dinosaurs using statistics and comparison to ecologically or phylogenetically related modern animals.

text: Examining fossils of dinosaurs in search of sexually dimorphic characteristics requires the supply of complete and articulated skeletal and tissue remains. As terrestrial organisms, dinosaur carcasses are subject to ecological and geographical influence that inevitably constitutes the degree of preservation. The availability of well-preserved remains is not a probable outcome as a consequence of

text: decomposition

text: and

text: fossil

text: ization. Some

text: paleontologists

text: have looked for sexual dimorphism among dinosaurs using statistics and comparison to ecologically or

text: phylogenetically

text: related modern animals.

text: The plant is preserved as a cellular permineralization within a single cobble and consists of a small axis with a centrarch protostele. The secondary tissues of the vascular cambium contain extinct P-type cell walls. This type of cell wall consisted of scalariform bordered pits and multiaperturate pit membranes. The secondary vascular tissues in Franhueberia gerriennei represent one of the oldest examples of secondary growth. Wood or secondary xylem with P-type cell walls have also been observed in the slightly older (late Pragian-earliest Emsian) Armoricaphyton chateaupannense from western France and in an unnamed basal euphyllophyte from late Emsian outcrops of the Campbellton Formation in New Brunswick, Canada.

text: The plant is preserved as a cellular

text: permineralization

text: within a single cobble and consists of a small axis with a centrarch

text: protostele

text: . The secondary tissues of the

text: vascular cambium

text: contain extinct P-type cell walls. This type of cell wall consisted of scalariform bordered pits and multiaperturate pit membranes. The secondary

text: vascular tissues

text: in Franhueberia gerriennei represent one of the oldest examples of

text: secondary growth

text: . Wood or secondary xylem with P-type cell walls have also been observed in the slightly older (late

text: Pragian

text: -earliest

text: Emsian

text: Armoricaphyton

text: chateaupannense from western France and in an unnamed basal euphyllophyte from late

text: Emsian

text: outcrops of the

text: Campbellton Formation

text: in

text: New Brunswick

text: , Canada.

text: In casting and molding the threads are directly formed by the geometry of the mold cavity in the mold or die. When the material freezes in the mold, it retains the shape after the mold is removed. The material is heated to a liquid, or mixed with a liquid that will either dry or cure (such as plaster or cement). Alternately, the material may be forced into a mold as a powder and compressed into a solid, as with graphite.

text: In

text: casting

text: and

text: molding

text: the threads are directly formed by the geometry of the mold cavity in the

text: mold

text: or

text: die

text: . When the material freezes in the mold, it retains the shape after the mold is removed. The material is heated to a liquid, or mixed with a liquid that will either dry or cure (such as plaster or cement). Alternately, the material may be forced into a mold as a powder and compressed into a solid, as with

text: graphite

text: By 1983 Prent moved to a larger studio space in Vermont (U.S.A.). In 1992 he and his wife began a life-molding and casting business in Vermont called "Pink House Studios Inc.", producing a series of technical/educational videos on life-molding and casting topics, and developing a line of unique products which are sold to mold-makers around the world.

text: By 1983 Prent moved to a larger studio space in

text: Vermont

text: (U.S.A.). In 1992 he and his wife began a life-molding and casting business in Vermont called "Pink House Studios Inc.", producing a series of technical/educational videos on life-molding and casting topics, and developing a line of unique products which are sold to mold-makers around the world.

text: }}}}Odontogriphus was apparently a very rare species, accounting for less than 0.5% of the individual organisms found in the same fossil beds. Most of the fossils consist of two parts of a split block of rock, the upper part giving a "casting" of the animal's upper surface and the lower giving one of its underside.

text: }}}}Odontogriphus was apparently a very rare species, accounting for less than 0.5% of the individual organisms found in the same fossil beds. Most of the fossils consist of two parts of a split block of rock, the upper part giving a "

text: casting

text: " of the animal's upper surface and the lower giving one of its underside.

text: Ainigmapsychops inexspectatus is known only from one fossil, the part side of the holotype, specimen number SRUI 99-96-76, which is housed in the collections of the Stonerose Interpretive Center in Republic, Washington.  The specimen is preserved as a compression fossil in silty yellow to grayish shale, which was recovered from outcrops of the Tom Thumb Tuff member of the Klondike Mountain Formation.  The formation is approximately Early Eocene, Ypresian in age, being radiometrically dated as .  Ainigmapsychops was first studied by the paleoentomologists Vladimir N. Makarkin of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and S. Bruce Archibald from Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia.  Their 2014 type description of the new genus and species was published in the online journal Zootaxa.  The genus name Ainigmapsychops was coined by the researchers as a combination of the silky lacewing type genus Psychopsis and the Greek word Ainigma meaning "riddle" or "enigma", which is in reference to the unusual nature of the wing vein structure.  The specific epithet inexspectatus is the Latin word meaning "unexpected, unlooked for", alluding to the serendipitous find of the wing.

text: Ainigmapsychops inexspectatus is known only from one fossil, the

text: part side

text: of the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number SRUI 99-96-76, which is housed in the collections of the

text: Stonerose Interpretive Center

text: in

text: Republic, Washington

text: .  The specimen is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in silty yellow to grayish

text: shale

text: , which was recovered from outcrops of the Tom Thumb Tuff member of the

text: Klondike Mountain Formation

text: .  The formation is approximately

text: Early Eocene

text: Ypresian

text: in age, being radiometrically dated as .  Ainigmapsychops was first studied by the paleoentomologists Vladimir N. Makarkin of the

text: and S. Bruce Archibald from

text: Simon Fraser University

text: in

text: Burnaby, British Columbia

text: .  Their 2014

text: type description

text: Zootaxa

text: .  The genus name Ainigmapsychops was coined by the researchers as a combination of the silky lacewing type genus

text: Psychopsis

text: and the

text: Greek

text: word Ainigma meaning "riddle" or "enigma", which is in reference to the unusual nature of the wing vein structure.  The

text: specific epithet

text: inexspectatus is the

text: Latin

text: word meaning "unexpected, unlooked for", alluding to the

text: serendipitous

text: find of the wing.

text: The generic name Albisaurus is derived from the Latin albus (albi-); after the River Albis, as it was known in Roman times, now the Bílé Labe (or "White Elbe"), a part of the Elbe River system, which flows through the western Czech Republic, near a site where the type fossils were found; plus the Greek sauros meaning "lizard". Fritsch originally published the name as Iguanodon albinus in 1893.  After re-evaluating the fossils, however, he decided they were distinct from Iguanodon. In 1905, he published a new name for this material, calling it Albisaurus scutifer. However, I. albinus has priority and is therefore the correct name for the material as it was based on the same type specimen as A. scutifer.

text: The generic name Albisaurus is derived from the

text: Latin

text: albus (albi-); after the River Albis, as it was known in

text: Roman

text: times, now the

text: Bílé Labe

text: (or "White Elbe"), a part of the

text: Elbe

text: River system, which flows through the western Czech Republic, near a site where the type fossils were found; plus the

text: Greek

text: sauros meaning "

text: lizard

text: ". Fritsch originally published the name as Iguanodon albinus in 1893.  After re-evaluating the fossils, however, he decided they were distinct from Iguanodon. In 1905, he published a new name for this material, calling it Albisaurus scutifer. However, I. albinus has priority and is therefore the correct name for the material as it was based on the same type specimen as A. scutifer.

text: However, our dependence on fossilized skeletons also significantly limits our understanding of evolution. Only the parts of organisms that were already mineralized are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. It helps that exoskeletons often contain "muscle scars", marks where muscles have been attached to the exoskeleton, which may allow the reconstruction of much of an organism's internal parts from its exoskeleton alone. The most significant limitation is that, although there are 30-plus phyla of living animals, two-thirds of these phyla have never been found as fossils, because most animal species are soft-bodied and decay before they can become fossilized.

text: However, our dependence on fossilized skeletons also significantly limits our understanding of evolution. Only the parts of organisms that were already

text: mineralized

text: are usually preserved, such as the shells of molluscs. It helps that exoskeletons often contain "muscle scars", marks where muscles have been attached to the exoskeleton, which may allow the reconstruction of much of an organism's internal parts from its exoskeleton alone. The most significant limitation is that, although there are 30-plus

text: phyla

text: of living animals, two-thirds of these phyla have never been found as fossils, because most animal species are soft-bodied and decay before they can become fossilized.

text: Permineralization  is a type of fossilization involving deposits of minerals within the cells of organisms. Water from the ground, lakes, or oceans seeps into the pores of organic tissue and forms a crystal cast with deposited minerals. Crystals begin to form in the porous cell walls. This process continues on the inner surface of the walls until the central cavity of the cell, the lumen, is completely filled. The cell walls themselves remain intact surrounding the crystals.

text: Permineralization  is a type of fossilization involving deposits of minerals within the cells of organisms. Water from the ground, lakes, or oceans seeps into the pores of organic tissue and forms a crystal cast with deposited minerals. Crystals begin to form in the porous cell walls. This process continues on the inner surface of the walls until the central cavity of the cell, the

text: lumen

text: , is completely filled. The cell walls themselves remain intact surrounding the crystals.

text: In 2015, researchers reported finding structures similar to blood cells and collagen fibers, preserved in the bone fossils of six Cretaceous dinosaur specimens, which are approximately 75 million years old.

text: The genus was named in 1825 by English geologist Gideon Mantell, based on fossil specimens that are now assigned to Therosaurus and Mantellodon. Iguanodon was the second type of dinosaur formally named based on fossil specimens, after Megalosaurus. Together with Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus, it was one of the three genera originally used to define Dinosauria. The genus Iguanodon belongs to the larger group Iguanodontia, along with the duck-billed hadrosaurs. The taxonomy of this genus continues to be a topic of study as new species are named or long-standing ones reassigned to other genera.

text: The genus was named in 1825 by

text: English

text: geologist

text: Gideon Mantell

text: , based on fossil specimens that are now assigned to

text: Therosaurus

text: and

text: Mantellodon

text: . Iguanodon was the second type of dinosaur formally named based on fossil specimens, after

text: Megalosaurus

text: . Together with Megalosaurus and

text: Hylaeosaurus

text: , it was one of the three genera originally used to define

text: Dinosaur

text: ia. The genus Iguanodon belongs to the larger group

text: Iguanodont

text: ia, along with the duck-billed hadrosaurs. The

text: taxonomy

text: of this genus continues to be a topic of study as new species are named or long-standing ones reassigned to other genera.

text: 48 million years ago, the pit was a small but very deep lake, originally at least  deep. It was located around 10° south of its current location in a tropical and subtropical Eocene Europe. Messel Pit was volcanic in origin, probably a caldera created by a massive volcanic eruption. It remained geologically and tectonically active during the Eocene, intermittently releasing puffs of poisonous volcanic gases. A virtually stagnant lake, its low oxygen levels enabled the types of preservation found in its fossils.

text: 48 million years ago, the pit was a small but very deep

text: lake

text: , originally at least  deep. It was located around 10° south of its current location in a

text: tropical

text: and

text: subtropical

text: Eocene

text: Europe

text: . Messel Pit was volcanic in origin, probably a

text: caldera

text: created by a massive

text: volcanic eruption

text: . It remained

text: geologically

text: and

text: tectonically active

text: during the Eocene, intermittently releasing puffs of poisonous

text: volcanic gas

text: es. A virtually

text: stagnant

text: lake, its low

text: oxygen

text: levels enabled the types of preservation found in its fossils.

text: The diet and physiology of Edmontosaurus have been probed by using stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen as recorded in tooth enamel. When feeding, drinking, and breathing, animals take in carbon and oxygen, which become incorporated into bone. The isotopes of these two elements are determined by various internal and external factors, such as the type of plants being eaten, the physiology of the animal, salinity, and climate. If isotope ratios in fossils are not altered by fossilization and later changes, they can be studied for information about the original factors; warmblooded animals will have certain isotopic compositions compared to their surroundings, animals that eat certain types of plants or use certain digestive processes will have distinct isotopic compositions, and so on. Enamel is typically used because the structure of the mineral that forms enamel makes it the most resistant material to chemical change in the skeleton.

text: The diet and

text: physiology

text: of Edmontosaurus have been probed by using

text: stable isotope

text: s of

text: carbon

text: and

text: oxygen

text: as recorded in

text: tooth enamel

text: . When feeding, drinking, and breathing, animals take in carbon and oxygen, which become incorporated into bone. The isotopes of these two elements are determined by various internal and external factors, such as the type of plants being eaten, the physiology of the animal,

text: salinity

text: , and climate. If isotope ratios in fossils are not altered by fossilization and later

text: changes

text: , they can be studied for information about the original factors;

text: warmblooded

text: animals will have certain isotopic compositions compared to their surroundings, animals that eat certain types of plants or use certain digestive processes will have distinct isotopic compositions, and so on. Enamel is typically used because the structure of the mineral that forms enamel makes it the most resistant material to chemical change in the skeleton.

text: Skeletal fragments: this type of limestone texture can be found as whole micro-fossils, whole large fossils or broken up fragments of larger fossils. This is the most common texture. The kinds of skeletal particles present depend upon the age of the rock and the paleoenvironmental conditions from the time they were deposited. With these different types of fossils, certain ones will be more dominant in a certain rock compared to others. Trilobite skeletal fragments, for example, are a characteristic of early Paleozoic rock units but are not found in Cenozoic rocks, which is dominated by foraminifers.

text: Skeletal fragments: this type of limestone texture can be found as whole micro-fossils, whole large fossils or broken up fragments of larger fossils. This is the most common texture. The kinds of skeletal particles present depend upon the age of the rock and the paleoenvironmental conditions from the time they were deposited. With these different types of fossils, certain ones will be more dominant in a certain rock compared to others.

text: Trilobite

text: skeletal fragments, for example, are a characteristic of early Paleozoic rock units but are not found in Cenozoic rocks, which is dominated by foraminifers.

text: A trace fossil, also called an ichnofossil (;  ikhnos "trace, track"), is a geological record of biological activity.  Trace fossils may consist of impressions made on the substrate by an organism: for example, burrows, borings (bioerosion), urolites (erosion caused by evacuation of liquid wastes), footprints and feeding marks, and root cavities. The term in its broadest sense also includes the remains of other organic material produced by an organism — for example coprolites (fossilized droppings) or chemical markers — or sedimentological structures produced by biological means - for example, stromatolites. Trace fossils contrast with body fossils, which are the fossilized remains of parts of organisms' bodies, usually altered by later chemical activity or mineralization.

text: A trace fossil, also called an ichnofossil (;  ikhnos "trace, track"), is a

text: geological

text: record of biological activity.  Trace

text: fossil

text: s may consist of impressions made on the substrate by an organism: for example,

text: burrow

text: s, borings (

text: bioerosion

text: urolite

text: s (erosion caused by evacuation of liquid wastes), footprints and feeding marks, and root cavities. The term in its broadest sense also includes the remains of other organic material produced by an organism — for example

text: coprolite

text: s (fossilized droppings) or chemical markers — or sedimentological structures produced by biological means - for example,

text: stromatolites

text: . Trace fossils contrast with body

text: fossil

text: s, which are the fossilized remains of parts of organisms' bodies, usually altered by later chemical activity or mineralization.

text: During the early part of the Cenozoic, central and eastern South Dakota was still covered by the sea. The uplift responsible for the Black Hills continued to elevate their topography. As the Cenozoic continued the sea shrank away from the state. In its place, grasslands formed and were roamed by herds of grazing mammals. Later, during the Oligocene, at least part of South Dakota was covered in seawater. The White River Formation was being deposited in the White River badlands as the sea gradually receded. The Oligocene flora left behind few fossils, but among them were hackberry seeds and petrified wood. Although plant fossils are scarce, these deposits preserve one of the best Tertiary mammal faunas in the world. More than 175 different kinds of animals were preserved from this time. The local mammals included the three-toed horses, pig-like animals, the camel Poebrotherium, Protoceras, rhinoceroses, rodents, saber teeth, tapirs, and titanotheres. Contemporary birds also left behind bones and even an egg. These are significant because bird fossils are very rare. Many streams carried even more sediment into the region from the young Rocky Mountains and Black Hills. At the time South Dakota consisted of plains dotted with marshes and shallow lakes and split by wide streams. Some of the local Oligocene wildlife left behind footprints that would later fossilize. The Brule Formation preserves one of only seven Oligocene fossil tracksites in the western United States.  Volcanic activity sporadically showered the state with ash. During the Ice Age, glaciers scoured the state. As they melted, they deposited sediments that would preserve the fossil remains of creatures like bison, horses, mammoths, and mastodons.

text: During the early part of the

text: Cenozoic

text: , central and eastern South Dakota was still covered by the sea. The uplift responsible for the Black Hills continued to elevate their topography. As the Cenozoic continued the sea shrank away from the state. In its place, grasslands formed and were roamed by herds of grazing mammals. Later, during the

text: Oligocene

text: , at least part of South Dakota was covered in seawater. The

text: White River Formation

text: was being deposited in the

text: White River

text: badlands

text: as the

text: sea

text: gradually receded. The Oligocene flora left behind few fossils, but among them were

text: hackberry

text: seeds and

text: petrified wood

text: . Although plant fossils are scarce, these deposits preserve one of the best

text: Tertiary

text: mammal

text: faunas in the world. More than 175 different kinds of animals were preserved from this time. The local mammals included the three-toed

text: horses

text: , pig-like animals, the camel

text: Poebrotherium

text: Protoceras

text: rhinoceros

text: es,

text: rodent

text: s,

text: saber teeth

text: tapir

text: s, and

text: titanothere

text: s. Contemporary birds also left behind bones and even an egg. These are significant because bird fossils are very rare. Many

text: streams

text: carried even more sediment into the region from the young

text: Rocky Mountains

text: and

text: Black Hills

text: . At the time South Dakota consisted of plains dotted with

text: marsh

text: es and shallow lakes and split by wide streams. Some of the local Oligocene wildlife left behind

text: footprints

text: that would later fossilize. The

text: Brule Formation

text: preserves one of only seven Oligocene fossil tracksites in the western United States.

text: Volcanic activity

text: sporadically showered the state with ash. During the

text: Ice Age

text: glacier

text: s scoured the state. As they melted, they deposited sediments that would preserve the fossil remains of creatures like

text: bison

text: horse

text: s,

text: mammoth

text: s, and

text: mastodon

text: s.

text: The Yazoo Clay is a geologic formation in Alabama and Mississippi. It is a type of clay known as montmorillonite. It preserves fossils. It is not a good foundation material due to the fact of moisture causing extreme changes in volume, known as swelling.

text: The Yazoo Clay is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Alabama

text: and

text: Mississippi

text: . It is a type of clay known as

text: montmorillonite

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: . It is not a good foundation material due to the fact of moisture causing extreme changes in volume, known as swelling.

text: The next innovation came from E.C. Wente and A.L Thuras in "A High-Efficiency Receiver for a Horn-Type Loudspeaker of Large Power capacity" in the Bell System Technical Journal, 1928.They devised a plug placed in front of a radiating diaphragm to control the transition from compression cavity to horn throat. They found that the bandwidth of the transducer could be extended to higher frequencies using their phase plug. They also outlined criterion for the design of the channels in the plug and suggested a path-length based design approach to maximize the bandwidth. Significantly, their plug moves the coupling point between the cavity and horn away from the axis of rotation. This change significantly improves the transducer response as the effect of the acoustical resonances in compression cavity is reduced.  The paper described the first generation compression driver with a field coil magnet and phase plug, It used aluminum diaphragm with an edge wound aluminum ribbon voice coil.

text: The next innovation came from E.C. Wente and A.L Thuras in "A High-Efficiency Receiver for a Horn-Type Loudspeaker of Large Power capacity" in the Bell System Technical Journal, 1928.They devised a plug placed in front of a radiating diaphragm to control the transition from compression cavity to horn throat. They found that the bandwidth of the transducer could be extended to higher frequencies using their

text: phase plug

text: . They also outlined criterion for the design of the channels in the plug and suggested a path-length based design approach to maximize the bandwidth. Significantly, their plug moves the coupling point between the cavity and horn away from the axis of rotation. This change significantly improves the transducer response as the effect of the acoustical resonances in compression cavity is reduced.  The paper described the first generation compression driver with a field coil magnet and phase plug, It used aluminum diaphragm with an edge wound aluminum ribbon voice coil.

text: Carbon, in the form of  can be removed from the atmosphere by chemical processes, and stored in stable carbonate mineral forms. This process is known as 'carbon sequestration by mineral carbonation' or mineral sequestration. The process involves reacting carbon dioxide with abundantly available metal oxides–either magnesium oxide (MgO) or calcium oxide (CaO)–to form stable carbonates. These reactions are exothermic and occur naturally (e.g., the weathering of rock over geologic time periods).

text: Carbon, in the form of  can be removed from the atmosphere by chemical processes, and stored in stable

text: carbonate mineral

text: forms. This process is known as 'carbon sequestration by mineral

text: carbonation

text: ' or mineral sequestration. The process involves reacting carbon dioxide with abundantly available metal oxides–either

text: magnesium oxide

text: (MgO) or

text: calcium oxide

text: (CaO)–to form stable carbonates. These reactions are

text: exothermic

text: and occur naturally (e.g., the

text: weathering

text: of rock over

text: geologic time

text: periods).

text: The fossil ant was first studied by paleoentomologist Maria De Andrade of the University of Basel. De Andrade's 1995 type description of the new species was published in the German journal Stuttgarter Beitrage zur Naturkunde (B).  The specific epithet praerelicta is a combination of the Latin "prae"  meaning before and "relicta", the species name for the modern Aphaenogaster relicta of Haiti, to which A. praerelicta is most similar.  A. praerelicta is one of two species described by De Andrade in the 1995 paper: the other species Aphaenogaster amphioceanica was found in Dominican amber.  Three l species of Aphaenogaster are currently known from Mexico, the fossil A. praerelicta, A. ensifera and A. mexicana.

text: The fossil ant was first studied by paleoentomologist Maria De Andrade of the

text: University of Basel

text: . De Andrade's 1995

text: type description

text: of the new species was published in the German journal Stuttgarter Beitrage zur Naturkunde (B).  The

text: specific epithet

text: praerelicta is a combination of the

text: Latin

text: "prae"  meaning before and "relicta", the species name for the modern

text: Aphaenogaster relicta

text: of

text: Haiti

text: , to which A. praerelicta is most similar.  A. praerelicta is one of two species described by De Andrade in the 1995 paper: the other species

text: Aphaenogaster amphioceanica

text: was found in

text: Dominican amber

text: .  Three l species of Aphaenogaster are currently known from Mexico, the fossil A. praerelicta,

text: A. ensifera

text: and

text: A. mexicana

text: Putative fossil stem group representatives of Amphiesmenoptera (the clade comprising Trichoptera and Lepidoptera) are known from the Triassic. The earliest known fossil lepidopteran are three wings of Archaeolepis mane from the Jurassic, about , found in Dorset, UK. The fossil belongs to a small primitive moth-like species, and its wings are showing scales with parallel grooves under a scanning electron microscope and a characteristic wing venation pattern shared with Trichoptera (Caddisflies). Only two more sets of Jurassic lepidopteran fossils have been found, as well as 13 sets from the Cretaceous, which all belong to primitive moth-like families. Many more fossils are found from the Cenozoic, and particularly the Eocene Baltic amber. The oldest genuine butterflies of the superfamily Papilionoidea have been found in the Paleocene MoClay or Fur Formation of Denmark. The best preserved fossil lepidopteran is considered to be the Eocene Prodryas persephone from the Florissant Fossil Beds.

text: Putative fossil stem group representatives of

text: Amphiesmenoptera

text: (the clade comprising Trichoptera and Lepidoptera) are known from the

text: Triassic

text: . The earliest known fossil lepidopteran are three wings of

text: Archaeolepis mane

text: from the

text: Jurassic

text: , about , found in

text: Dorset

text: , UK. The fossil belongs to a small primitive moth-like species, and its wings are showing scales with parallel grooves under a scanning electron microscope and a characteristic wing venation pattern shared with

text: Trichoptera

text: (Caddisflies). Only two more sets of Jurassic lepidopteran fossils have been found, as well as 13 sets from the

text: Cretaceous

text: , which all belong to primitive moth-like families. Many more fossils are found from the Cenozoic, and particularly the Eocene

text: Baltic amber

text: . The oldest genuine butterflies of the superfamily Papilionoidea have been found in the

text: Paleocene

text: MoClay

text: or

text: Fur Formation

text: of Denmark. The best preserved fossil lepidopteran is considered to be the

text: Eocene

text: Prodryas persephone

text: from the

text: Florissant Fossil Beds

text: Many beautiful replicas are made of animalier sculpture, which may be cast or molded in any size and of any material. The most desirable of these are exact in detail and made from the same material, such as cast iron, spelter, or cast bronze, as used in the artist's original sculpture. Most of the original animalier sculptors used the traditional lost wax process of casting prevalent at the time. Alexandre Guionnet was exceptional in that he worked in wood. Modern reproductions of the original sculptures frequently use patinated verdigris cast bronze or iron, or bonded marble resin (pulverized reconstituted marble combined with resin glue), as well as various other materials and techniques, such as a composite of Capiz placuna placenta oyster shells, also known as window oyster shells, which come primarily from the Philippines (where they are known as kapiz).

text: Many beautiful

text: replicas

text: are made of animalier sculpture, which may be cast or molded in any size and of any material. The most desirable of these are exact in detail and made from the same material, such as

text: cast iron

text: spelter

text: , or

text: cast bronze

text: , as used in the artist's original sculpture. Most of the original animalier sculptors used the traditional

text: lost wax

text: process of casting prevalent at the time. Alexandre Guionnet was exceptional in that he worked in wood. Modern reproductions of the original sculptures frequently use

text: patinated

text: verdigris

text: cast bronze or iron, or

text: bonded marble resin

text: (pulverized reconstituted marble combined with resin glue), as well as various other materials and techniques, such as a composite of

text: Capiz

text: placuna placenta

text: oyster shells, also known as window oyster shells, which come primarily from the

text: Philippines

text: (where they are known as kapiz).

text: Embalming is the process of preserving human remains by delaying decomposition. This is acquired through the use of embalming fluid, which is a mixture of formaldehyde, methanol, and various other solvents. The most common reasons to briefly preserve the body are for viewing purposes at a funeral and for medical or religious practices.

text: Embalming

text: is the process of preserving human remains by delaying decomposition. This is acquired through the use of embalming fluid, which is a mixture of formaldehyde, methanol, and various other solvents. The most common reasons to briefly preserve the body are for viewing purposes at a funeral and for medical or religious practices.

text: Gurimite is a rare mineral with formula Ba(VO). It is a simple barium vanadate, one of the most simple barium minerals known. It is named after its type locality - Gurim anticline in Israel. It has formed in the rocks of the Hatrurim Formation. Gurimite's stoichiometry is similar to that of copper vanadates mcbirneyite and pseudolyonsite. An example of other barium vanadate mineral is tokyoite.

text: Gurimite is a rare mineral with formula Ba(VO). It is a simple

text: barium

text: vanadate

text: , one of the most simple barium minerals known. It is named after its type locality - Gurim

text: anticline

text: in Israel. It has formed in the rocks of the

text: Hatrurim Formation

text: . Gurimite's stoichiometry is similar to that of

text: copper

text: vanadate

text: s

text: mcbirneyite

text: and

text: pseudolyonsite

text: . An example of other

text: barium

text: vanadate

text: mineral is

text: tokyoite

text: With both methods, the sand mixture is packed around a pattern, forming a mold cavity. If necessary, a temporary plug is placed in the sand and touching the pattern in order to later form a channel into which the casting fluid can be poured. Air-set molds are often formed with the help of a casting flask having a top and bottom part, termed the cope and drag. The sand mixture is tamped down as it is added around the pattern, and the final mold assembly is sometimes vibrated to compact the sand and fill any unwanted voids in the mold. Then the pattern is removed along with the channel plug, leaving the mold cavity. The casting liquid (typically molten metal) is then poured into the mold cavity. After the metal has solidified and cooled, the casting is separated from the sand mold. There is typically no mold release agent, and the mold is generally destroyed in the removal process.

text: With both methods, the sand mixture is packed around a pattern, forming a mold cavity. If necessary, a temporary plug is placed in the sand and touching the pattern in order to later form a channel into which the casting fluid can be poured. Air-set molds are often formed with the help of a

text: casting flask

text: having a top and bottom part, termed the

text: cope and drag

text: . The sand mixture is tamped down as it is added around the pattern, and the final mold assembly is sometimes vibrated to compact the sand and fill any unwanted voids in the mold. Then the pattern is removed along with the channel plug, leaving the mold cavity. The casting liquid (typically molten metal) is then poured into the mold cavity. After the metal has solidified and cooled, the casting is separated from the sand mold. There is typically no mold release agent, and the mold is generally destroyed in the removal process.

text: The accuracy of the casting is limited by the type of sand and the molding process. Sand castings made from coarse green sand impart a rough texture to the surface, and this makes them easy to identify. Castings made from fine green sand can shine as cast but are limited by the depth to width ratio of pockets in the pattern.  Air-set molds can produce castings with smoother surfaces than coarse green sand but this method is primarily chosen when deep narrow pockets in the pattern are necessary, due to the expense of the plastic used in the process. Air-set castings can typically be easily identified by the burnt color on the surface.  The castings are typically shot blasted to remove that burnt color.  Surfaces can also be later ground and polished, for example when making a large bell. After molding, the casting is covered with a residue of oxides, silicates and other compounds. This residue can be removed by various means, such as grinding, or shot blasting.

text: The accuracy of the casting is limited by the type of sand and the molding process. Sand castings made from coarse green sand impart a rough texture to the surface, and this makes them easy to identify. Castings made from fine green sand can shine as cast but are limited by the depth to width ratio of pockets in the pattern.  Air-set molds can produce castings with smoother surfaces than coarse green sand but this method is primarily chosen when deep narrow pockets in the pattern are necessary, due to the expense of the plastic used in the process. Air-set castings can typically be easily identified by the burnt color on the surface.  The castings are typically shot blasted to remove that burnt color.  Surfaces can also be later ground and polished, for example when making a large

text: bell

text: . After molding, the casting is covered with a residue of oxides, silicates and other compounds. This residue can be removed by various means, such as grinding, or shot blasting.

text: South of the entrance hall is a large room with 11-foot-9-inch () ceiling occupying the rest of the main block. It is elaborately decorated as well, starting with a one-foot (30 cm) three-member molded baseboard running around the room's entire perimeter. The door and window surrounds are more detailed than the ones in the entrance hall. Their architraves have a regularly spaced row of rosettes, and their cap moldings have a scroll relief surrounded by freestanding anthemia. The architraves' rosette motif is repeated on the black marble mantel, with a cast iron surround inside it done in reed-and-tie molding. Three more acorn-globe light fixtures hang from the ceiling by chains. The second floor has three large rooms with sloped plaster ceilings, following that of the roof above.

text: South of the entrance hall is a large room with 11-foot-9-inch () ceiling occupying the rest of the main block. It is elaborately decorated as well, starting with a one-foot (30 cm) three-member molded

text: baseboard

text: running around the room's entire perimeter. The door and window surrounds are more detailed than the ones in the entrance hall. Their architraves have a regularly spaced row of rosettes, and their cap moldings have a scroll relief surrounded by freestanding anthemia. The architraves' rosette motif is repeated on the black marble mantel, with a cast iron surround inside it done in reed-and-tie molding. Three more acorn-globe light fixtures hang from the ceiling by chains. The second floor has three large rooms with sloped plaster ceilings, following that of the roof above.

text: The Kaibab Limestone was named by Darton in 1910 for the Kaibab Plateau, which is on the north side of Grand Canyon in Coconino County, Arizona. In his definition of the Kaibab Limestone formation, no type locality was designated. He also designated the Kaibab Limestone as the upper formation of the Aubrey Group, a now-abandoned stratigraphic unit. In 1921, Bassler and Reeside revised Darton's work and defined the Harrisburg Member of the Kaibab Limestone. In his 1938 monograph on the Toroweap Formation and Kaibab Limestone of northern Arizona, McKee split Darton's original Kaibab Limestone into the currently recognized Kaibab Limestone and Toroweap Formation. He also revised Kaibab Limestone's lower contact and divided it into informal (descending) alpha, beta and gamma members. Later in the 1970s, its upper contact was revised and its aerial extent were defined. Also, unsuccessful attempts were made to raise the formation to group rank and divide it into several formations. In 1982, Warren Hamilton renamed it as the Kaibab Marble and determined its areal extent for California. In 1991, Sorauf and Billingsley subdivided the Kaibab Limestone into (ascending) Fossil Mountain Member (new) and Harrisburg Member. They designated the strata comprising McKee's alpha (or upper) member as the Harrisburg Member and the strata comprising McKee's beta (or middle) member as the Fossil Mountain Member. The Fossil Mountain Member was named for Fossil Mountain along the south rim near the Bass Trail. McKee's gamma member is considered to be part of the Fossil Mountain Member. Later research has further redefined the regional extent of the Kaibab Limestone.

text: The Kaibab Limestone was named by Darton in 1910 for the

text: Kaibab Plateau

text: , which is on the north side of

text: Grand Canyon

text: in

text: Coconino County, Arizona

text: . In his definition of the Kaibab Limestone formation, no

text: type locality

text: was designated. He also designated the Kaibab Limestone as the upper formation of the Aubrey Group, a now-abandoned stratigraphic unit. In 1921, Bassler and Reeside revised Darton's work and defined the Harrisburg Member of the Kaibab Limestone. In his 1938 monograph on the

text: Toroweap Formation

text: and Kaibab Limestone of northern Arizona, McKee split Darton's original Kaibab Limestone into the currently recognized Kaibab Limestone and Toroweap Formation. He also revised Kaibab Limestone's lower contact and divided it into informal (descending) alpha, beta and gamma members. Later in the 1970s, its upper contact was revised and its aerial extent were defined. Also, unsuccessful attempts were made to raise the formation to group rank and divide it into several formations. In 1982,

text: Warren Hamilton

text: renamed it as the Kaibab Marble and determined its areal extent for California. In 1991, Sorauf and Billingsley subdivided the Kaibab Limestone into (ascending) Fossil Mountain Member (new) and Harrisburg Member. They designated the strata comprising McKee's alpha (or upper) member as the Harrisburg Member and the strata comprising McKee's beta (or middle) member as the Fossil Mountain Member. The Fossil Mountain Member was named for Fossil Mountain along the south rim near the

text: Bass Trail

text: . McKee's gamma member is considered to be part of the Fossil Mountain Member. Later research has further redefined the regional extent of the Kaibab Limestone.

text: Agulla mineralensis is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen number 539.  The specimen is composed of a complete specimen of an isolated hind-wing which is preserved as a compression fossil in sedimentary paper shale.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Stewart  Valley group shales at the Pacific Union site, BLM locality #26-30-09-335, in Mineral County, Nevada, USA.  A. mineralensis was first studied by Michael S. Engel of the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA.  His 2009 type description of the new species was published in the journal Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science.  Engel coined the specific epithet mineralensis in honor of Mineral County, where the species was found.  At the time of the species description, Agulla mineralensis was the only member of the order Raphidioptera to be found in Neogene aged fossil deposits in North America.

text: Agulla mineralensis is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number 539.  The specimen is composed of a complete specimen of an isolated

text: hind-wing

text: which is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in sedimentary paper shale.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the

text: Stewart  Valley group

text: shales at the Pacific Union site, BLM locality #26-30-09-335, in

text: Mineral County, Nevada

text: , USA.  A. mineralensis was first studied by

text: Michael S. Engel

text: of the

text: University of Kansas

text: Lawrence, Kansas

text: , USA.  His 2009

text: type description

entity_name: Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science

text: Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science

text: .  Engel coined the

text: specific epithet

text: mineralensis in honor of

text: Mineral County

text: , where the species was found.  At the time of the species description, Agulla mineralensis was the only member of the order Raphidioptera to be found in

text: Neogene

text: aged fossil deposits in North America.

text: Replacement occurs when the shell, bone or other tissue is replaced with another mineral. In some cases mineral replacement of the original shell occurs so gradually and at such fine scales that microstructural features are preserved despite the total loss of original material. A shell is said to be recrystallized when the original skeletal compounds are still present but in a different crystal form, as from aragonite to calcite.

text: Replacement occurs when the shell, bone or other tissue is replaced with another mineral. In some cases mineral replacement of the original shell occurs so gradually and at such fine scales that microstructural features are preserved despite the total loss of original material. A shell is said to be recrystallized when the original skeletal compounds are still present but in a different crystal form, as from

text: aragonite

text: to

text: calcite

text: Very few fossils exist in the Juniata Formation, but different types of trace fossils such as tracks and burrows can commonly be found.

text: "Casted" Models: this type of models are the most expensive type used in the industry and are longer-lasting than the other types. these models start as clay sculptures that on top of them a 2 (or more) part mold is made in order to reproduct all the details of it. then the mold parts are assembled with an armature inside of them, and are filled with a liquid material (foam latex, silicone rubber, urethan foam, etc.) that then forms a soft rubbery "flesh" over the skeleton.

text: Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

text: Casting is a

text: manufacturing

text: process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a

text: mold

text: , which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that

text: cure

text: after mixing two or more components together; examples are

text: epoxy

text: concrete

text: plaster

text: and

text: clay

text: . Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

text: The Horster Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.

text: The Horster Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

text: The term subfossil can be used to refer to remains, such as bones, nests, or defecations, whose fossilization process is not complete, either because the length of time since the animal involved was living is too short (less than 10,000 years) or because the conditions in which the remains were buried were not optimal for fossilization. Subfossils are often found in caves or other shelters where they can be preserved for thousands of years. The main importance of subfossil vs. fossil remains is that the former contain organic material, which can be used for radiocarbon dating or extraction and sequencing of DNA, protein, or other biomolecules. Additionally, isotope ratios can provide much information about the ecological conditions under which extinct animals lived. Subfossils are useful for studying the evolutionary history of an environment and can be important to studies in paleoclimatology.

text: The term subfossil can be used to refer to remains, such as bones, nests, or defecations, whose

text: fossilization

text: process is not complete, either because the length of time since the animal involved was living is too short (less than 10,000 years) or because the conditions in which the remains were buried were not optimal for fossilization. Subfossils are often found in caves or other shelters where they can be preserved for thousands of years. The main importance of subfossil vs. fossil remains is that the former contain organic material, which can be used for

text: radiocarbon dating

text: or extraction and sequencing of

text: DNA

text: protein

text: , or other biomolecules. Additionally,

text: isotope

text: ratios can provide much information about the ecological conditions under which extinct animals lived. Subfossils are useful for studying the evolutionary history of an environment and can be important to studies in

text: paleoclimatology

text: The Comanche people gathered fossils in Comanche County, near Indiahoma to be used as medicine for sprains and bone fractures. The Comanche ground up the bone into a powder known as tsoapitsitsuhni, which translates to "ghost creature bone", and mixed it with water. This mixture could be made into a sort of plaster cast if the fossils used to make the powder contained sufficient gypsum or calcium sulphate content. The local geology consist largely of Permian-aged red beds, and Comanche County's eastern side contains Richards Spur, the best source of Permian fossils in the entire state. Reptile and amphibian fossils like Captorhinus are found nearby in other counties. Such Permian remains are viable candidates for the fossils used medicinally by the Comanche, but local Jurassic and Cretaceous dinosaur remains like those of Apatosaurus, Saurophaganax, Sauroposeidon and Tenontosaurus are also candidates. More recent mammal fossils were also used by the Comanche for medicine like those of bears, giant bison, camels, glyptodonts, Columbian mammoths, and mastodons. Comanches used bits of mammoth leg bone to draw out boils, infections, poisons and pain from wounds. This usage is fairly plausible as the porous nature of fossil bone causes a capillary effect that could be used to dry infected wounds and sores. Mammoth bone used for this purpose was known as medicinebone or madstone.

text: The

text: Comanche

text: people gathered fossils in

text: Comanche County

text: , near

text: Indiahoma

text: to be used as

text: medicine

text: for

text: sprain

text: s and

text: bone fracture

text: s. The

text: Comanche

text: ground up the bone into a powder known as tsoapitsitsuhni, which translates to "ghost creature bone", and mixed it with water. This mixture could be made into a sort of plaster cast if the fossils used to make the powder contained sufficient

text: gypsum

text: or

text: calcium sulphate

text: content. The local geology consist largely of

text: Permian

text: -aged

text: red beds

text: , and Comanche County's eastern side contains

text: Richards Spur

text: , the best source of Permian fossils in the entire state. Reptile and amphibian fossils like

text: Captorhinus

text: are found nearby in other counties. Such Permian remains are viable candidates for the fossils used medicinally by the Comanche, but local

text: Jurassic

text: and

text: Cretaceous

text: dinosaur

text: remains like those of

text: Apatosaurus

text: Saurophaganax

text: Sauroposeidon

text: and

text: Tenontosaurus

text: are also candidates. More recent

text: mammal

text: fossils were also used by the Comanche for medicine like those of

text: bear

text: s, giant

text: bison

text: camel

text: s,

text: glyptodont

text: s,

text: Columbian mammoth

text: s, and

text: mastodon

text: s. Comanches used bits of mammoth leg bone to draw out

text: boil

text: s, infections, poisons and pain from wounds. This usage is fairly plausible as the porous nature of fossil bone causes a

text: capillary effect

text: that could be used to dry infected wounds and sores. Mammoth bone used for this purpose was known as medicinebone or madstone.

text: The situation in the Vienna Code of 2005 was that any plant taxon whose type is a fossil, except Diatoms, can be described as a morphotaxon, a particular part of a plant preserved in a particular way. Although the name is always fixed to the type specimen, the circumscription (i.e. range of specimens that may be included within the taxon) is defined by the taxonomist who uses the name.  Such a change in circumscription could result in an expansion of the range of plant parts and/or preservation states that can be incorporated within the taxon.  For instance, a fossil-genus originally based on compressions of ovules could be used to include the multi-ovulate cupules within which the ovules were originally borne.  A complication can arise if, in this case, there was an already named fossil-genus for these cupules.  If palaeobotanists were confident that the type of the ovule fossil-genus and of the cupule fossil-genus could be included in the same genus, then the two names would compete as to being the correct one for the newly emended genus.

text: The situation in the Vienna Code of 2005 was that any plant taxon whose type is a fossil, except

text: Diatom

text: s, can be described as a morphotaxon, a particular part of a plant preserved in a particular way. Although the name is always fixed to the type specimen, the circumscription (i.e. range of specimens that may be included within the taxon) is defined by the taxonomist who uses the name.  Such a change in circumscription could result in an expansion of the range of plant parts and/or preservation states that can be incorporated within the taxon.  For instance, a fossil-genus originally based on compressions of ovules could be used to include the multi-ovulate cupules within which the ovules were originally borne.  A complication can arise if, in this case, there was an already named fossil-genus for these cupules.  If palaeobotanists were confident that the type of the ovule fossil-genus and of the cupule fossil-genus could be included in the same genus, then the two names would compete as to being the correct one for the newly emended genus.

text: Cwm Craig-ddu Quarry is renowned for its fossils, particularly of bivalve molluscs and plants. Fossils can be found in both the disused quarry and in the rock face of the roadside cutting and other rocky outcrops in the vicinity. The fossils are mostly the preserved remains of small bivalve molluscs and are mainly well-preserved. They can be found when slabs of rock are split, but this site is preserved as a Site of Special Scientific Interest and the use of hammers is not allowed. There are also remains of primitive vascular land plants at the site, in fact these are believed to be the oldest such fossil plants in Britain. They are all in the genus Cooksonia and are mostly in the quarry itself.

text: Cwm Craig-ddu Quarry is renowned for its

text: fossil

text: s, particularly of

text: bivalve molluscs

text: and plants. Fossils can be found in both the disused quarry and in the rock face of the roadside cutting and other rocky outcrops in the vicinity. The fossils are mostly the preserved remains of small bivalve molluscs and are mainly well-preserved. They can be found when slabs of rock are split, but this site is preserved as a

text: Site of Special Scientific Interest

text: and the use of hammers is not allowed. There are also remains of primitive vascular land plants at the site, in fact these are believed to be the oldest such fossil plants in Britain. They are all in the

text: genus

text: Cooksonia

text: and are mostly in the quarry itself.

text: Beside the important type specimens there are also several exceptionally well preserved fossils that contribute to our knowledge of the morphology of Stenophlebiidae. These include specimens of Stenophlebia amphitrite and Stenophlebia latreillei in several private fossil collections.

text: Cast aluminium molds are cast at a foundry and typically have temperature control lines running through them. This helps to set the heat of the plastic being formed as well as speed up the fabrication process. Aluminium molds can be male or female(?) in nature, and can also be used in pressure forming applications.  The main drawback with this type of mold is cost.

text: Cast

text: aluminium

text: molds are cast at a foundry and typically have

text: temperature control

text: lines running through them. This helps to set the heat of the plastic being formed as well as speed up the fabrication process. Aluminium molds can be

text: male or female(?)

text: in nature, and can also be used in pressure forming applications.  The main drawback with this type of mold is cost.

text: Osmunda vancouverensis is an extinct species of Osmunda ferns.  The name is used to refer to permineralized fertile frond segments found in the Lower Cretaceous of British Columbia (specifically, Vancouver Island).

text: Osmunda vancouverensis is an extinct species of

text: Osmunda

text: ferns.  The name is used to refer to permineralized fertile frond segments found in the

text: Lower Cretaceous

text: of

text: British Columbia

text: (specifically, Vancouver Island).

text: A fossil of Erliansaurus was found near Sanhangobi in Inner-Mongolia. The type species, Erliansaurus bellamanus, was described by Xu Xing, Zhang Xiaohong, Paul Sereno, Zhao Xijin, Kuang Xuewen, Han Jun and Tan Lin in 2002. The generic name refers to the town of Erlian. The specific name is derived from Latin bellus, "beautiful", and manus, "hand", in reference to the  exquisite preservation of the forelimb.

text: A fossil of Erliansaurus was found near

text: Sanhangobi

text: in

text: Inner-Mongolia

text: . The

text: type species

text: , Erliansaurus bellamanus, was described by

text: Xu Xing

text: Zhang Xiaohong

text: Paul Sereno

text: Zhao Xijin

text: Kuang Xuewen

text: Han Jun

text: and

text: Tan Lin

text: in 2002. The generic name refers to the town of

text: Erlian

text: . The

text: specific name

text: is derived from

text: Latin

text: bellus, "beautiful", and manus, "hand", in reference to the  exquisite preservation of the forelimb.

text: Although molecular clocks and biomarkers suggest sponges existed well before the Cambrian explosion of life, silica spicules like those of demosponges are absent from the fossil record until the Cambrian, although one unsubstantiated report exists of spicules in rocks dated around , although this appears unlikely based on the above reference. Well-preserved fossil sponges from about  in the Ediacaran period have been found in the Doushantuo Formation. These fossils, which include spicules, pinacocytes, porocytes, archeocytes, sclerocytes and the internal cavity, have been classified as demosponges. Fossils of glass sponges have been found from around  in rocks in Australia, China and Mongolia. Early Cambrian sponges from Mexico belonging to the genus Kiwetinokia show evidence of fusion of several smaller spicules to form a single large spicule. Calcium carbonate spicules of calcareous sponges have been found in Early Cambrian rocks from about  in Australia. Other probable demosponges have been found in the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna, from . Freshwater sponges appear to be much younger, as the earliest known fossils date from the Mid-Eocene period about . Although about 90% of modern sponges are demosponges, fossilized remains of this type are less common than those of other types because their skeletons are composed of relatively soft spongin that does not fossilize well.Earliest sponge symbionts are known from the early Silurian.

text: Although

text: molecular clock

text: s and

text: biomarker

text: s suggest sponges existed well before the

text: Cambrian explosion

text: of life,

text: silica

text: spicules like those of demosponges are absent from the fossil record until the Cambrian, although one unsubstantiated report exists of spicules in rocks dated around , although this appears unlikely based on the above reference. Well-preserved

text: fossil

text: sponges from about  in the

text: Ediacaran

text: period have been found in the

text: Doushantuo Formation

text: . These fossils, which include spicules,

text: pinacocyte

text: s,

text: porocyte

text: s,

text: archeocyte

text: s,

text: sclerocyte

text: s and the internal cavity, have been classified as demosponges. Fossils of

text: glass sponge

text: s have been found from around  in rocks in Australia, China and Mongolia. Early Cambrian sponges from Mexico belonging to the genus Kiwetinokia show evidence of fusion of several smaller spicules to form a single large spicule.

text: Calcium carbonate

text: spicules of

text: calcareous sponges

text: have been found in Early Cambrian rocks from about  in Australia. Other probable demosponges have been found in the Early

text: Cambrian

text: Chengjiang fauna

text: , from . Freshwater sponges appear to be much younger, as the earliest known fossils date from the Mid-

text: Eocene

text: period about . Although about 90% of modern sponges are

text: demosponges

text: , fossilized remains of this type are less common than those of other types because their skeletons are composed of relatively soft spongin that does not fossilize well.Earliest sponge symbionts are known from the early Silurian.

text: Its owner, director, and curator is Joe Taylor (b circa 1945) who was an artist-turned-expert in making castings of ancient bones. Taylor was born to a farm family in Crosbyton, and was raised in the Primitive Baptist church. He worked as a commercial artist in Hollywood, California, on billboards on the Sunset Strip, magazine illustrations, the lettering on the original Mr. Pibb soda cans, and many album covers, which still fill a room in the museum. He became interested in fossils after cleaning and preparing bones at the La Brea tar pits, and made a 10-foot-by-40-foot casting of the Waco, Texas mammoth site, now on exhibit at Baylor University. He returned to Texas in 1984, to make a living as a fossil collector and mold-maker. In 1986, he painted a 40 feet long and 10 feet high mural of the history of Crosbyton for the nearby Crosby County Pioneer Memorial Museum.

text: Its owner, director, and curator is Joe Taylor (b circa 1945) who was an artist-turned-expert in making castings of ancient bones. Taylor was born to a farm family in Crosbyton, and was raised in the

text: Primitive Baptist

text: church. He worked as a

text: commercial artist

text: in

text: Hollywood, California

text: , on

text: billboards

text: on the

text: Sunset Strip

text: , magazine illustrations, the lettering on the original

text: Mr. Pibb

text: soda cans, and many album covers, which still fill a room in the museum. He became interested in fossils after cleaning and preparing bones at the

text: La Brea tar pits

text: , and made a 10-foot-by-40-foot casting of the

text: Waco, Texas

text: mammoth site, now on exhibit at

text: Baylor University

text: . He returned to Texas in 1984, to make a living as a fossil collector and mold-maker. In 1986, he painted a 40 feet long and 10 feet high mural of the history of Crosbyton for the nearby Crosby County Pioneer Memorial Museum.

text: Turquoise is nearly always cryptocrystalline and massive and assumes no definite external shape. Crystals, even at the microscopic scale, are exceedingly rare. Typically the form is vein or fracture filling, nodular, or botryoidal in habit. Stalactite forms have been reported. Turquoise may also pseudomorphously replace feldspar, apatite, other minerals, or even fossils. Odontolite is fossil bone or ivory that has been traditionally thought to have been altered by turquoise or similar phosphate minerals such as the iron phosphate vivianite. Intergrowth with other secondary copper minerals such as chrysocolla is also common.

text: Turquoise is nearly always cryptocrystalline and massive and assumes no definite external shape. Crystals, even at the microscopic scale, are exceedingly rare. Typically the form is vein or fracture filling, nodular, or botryoidal in

text: habit

text: Stalactite

text: forms have been reported. Turquoise may also

text: pseudomorph

text: ously replace feldspar, apatite, other minerals, or even

text: fossil

text: s.

text: Odontolite

text: is fossil bone or

text: ivory

text: that has been traditionally thought to have been altered by turquoise or similar phosphate minerals such as the iron phosphate

text: vivianite

text: . Intergrowth with other secondary copper minerals such as

text: chrysocolla

text: is also common.

text: So far the fossil record of the genus Todea consists only of the permineralized rhizome Todea tidwellii from the Lower Cretaceous of Vancouver Island, Canada and the species Todea amissa, known from the Eocene of Patagonia, Argentina.

text: So far the fossil record of the genus Todea consists only of the permineralized rhizome

text: Todea tidwellii

text: from the Lower

text: Cretaceous

text: of

text: Vancouver Island

text: , Canada and the species Todea amissa, known from the Eocene of

text: Patagonia

text: Argentina

text: Mammal endocasts are particularly useful, as they resemble the fresh brain with the dura mater in place. Such "fossil brains" are known from several hundred different mammal species. More than a hundred natural cast of the cranial vault of Bathygenys (a small merycodont) alone are known, some having identifiable features down to the major gyri. Several hundred casts of various dinosaurs are known, among them a Tyrannosaurus brain vault, showing the animal had limited intelligence and a well-developed sense of smell. The oldest known natural cranial endocast is a fossil fish brain from a Holocephalan, some 300 million years old.

text: Mammal endocasts are particularly useful, as they resemble the fresh brain with the

text: dura mater

text: in place. Such "fossil brains" are known from several hundred different mammal species. More than a hundred natural cast of the cranial vault of

text: Bathygenys

text: (a small

text: merycodont

text: ) alone are known, some having identifiable features down to the major

text: gyri

text: . Several hundred casts of various

text: dinosaurs

text: are known, among them a

text: Tyrannosaurus

text: brain vault, showing the animal had limited intelligence and a well-developed sense of smell. The oldest known natural cranial endocast is a fossil fish brain from a

text: Holocephalan

text: , some 300 million years old.

text: Expominer is a mineral, fossil and jewelry exhibition, that is held every year in November in the pavilions of the Fira de Barcelona (Barcelona Fairs and Congresses).

text: Expominer is a

text: mineral

text: fossil

text: and

text: jewelry

text: exhibition, that is held every year in November in the pavilions of the Fira de Barcelona (Barcelona Fairs and Congresses).

text: Although stingray teeth are rare on sea bottoms compared to the similar shark teeth, scuba divers searching for the latter do encounter the teeth of stingrays. Permineralized stingray teeth have been found in sedimentary deposits around the world, including fossiliferous outcrops in Morocco.

text: Although stingray

text: teeth

text: are rare on

text: sea bottoms

text: compared to the similar

text: shark teeth

text: scuba diver

text: s searching for the latter do encounter the teeth of stingrays.

text: Permineralized

text: stingray teeth have been found in

text: sedimentary

text: deposits around the world, including

text: fossiliferous

text: outcrops in

text: Morocco

text: MPS IV, Morquio syndrome, is estimated to occur in 1 in 700,000 births. Its two subtypes result from the missing or deficient enzymes N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfatase (GALNS) (Type A) or beta-galactosidase (Type B) needed to break down the keratan sulfate sugar chain. Clinical features are similar in both types but appear milder in Morquio Type B. Onset is between ages 1 and 3. Neurological complications include spinal nerve and nerve root compression resulting from extreme, progressive skeletal changes, particularly in the ribs and chest; conductive and/or neurosensitive loss of hearing and clouded corneas. Intelligence is normal unless hydrocephalus develops and is not treated.

text: MPS IV,

text: Morquio syndrome

text: , is estimated to occur in 1 in 700,000 births. Its two subtypes result from the missing or deficient enzymes N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfatase (GALNS) (Type A) or beta-galactosidase (Type B) needed to break down the keratan sulfate sugar chain. Clinical features are similar in both types but appear milder in Morquio Type B. Onset is between ages 1 and 3. Neurological complications include spinal nerve and nerve root compression resulting from extreme, progressive skeletal changes, particularly in the ribs and chest; conductive and/or neurosensitive loss of hearing and clouded corneas. Intelligence is normal unless

text: hydrocephalus

text: develops and is not treated.

text: The archaeological record is replete with excavations of built structures across time, but due to the natural decay of materials and the vagaries of preservation, the further backward in time, the less likely it is for artifacts to have survived. For example, Paleolithic shelter constructions from the Lower Paleolithic (c. 2,600,000 - 300,000 BP) and Middle Paleolithic (c. 300,000 - 45,000 BP) are generally less complete and thus subject to interpretation, while those dating to the Upper Paleolithic (c. 45,000- 10,000 BP) are both more numerous and better preserved. Paleolithic structures generally have no remaining superstructure, and must be inferred from a footprint of artifacts.

text: The archaeological record is replete with excavations of built structures across time, but due to the natural decay of materials and the vagaries of preservation, the further backward in time, the less likely it is for artifacts to have survived. For example,

text: Paleolithic

text: shelter constructions from the Lower Paleolithic (c. 2,600,000 - 300,000 BP) and Middle Paleolithic (c. 300,000 - 45,000 BP) are generally less complete and thus subject to interpretation, while those dating to the Upper Paleolithic (c. 45,000- 10,000 BP) are both more numerous and better preserved. Paleolithic structures generally have no remaining superstructure, and must be inferred from a footprint of artifacts.

text: Palaeoperenethis thaleri is known only from one fossil, the holotype, number "ROM31304" consisting of part and counterpart impressions that is currently residing in the paleontological collections in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Canada. It is a single adult male individual preserved as a compression fossil in the fine-grained lacustrian rock and thus has been flattened from its dimensions in life. The compression specimen was mentioned in publication by Dr. Mark Wilson in his 1977 paper discussing the paleoecology of the Horsefly Lagerstätte fossil sites. P. thaleri was first studied by Paul A. Selden and David Penney, with their 2009 type description being published in the journal Contributions to Natural History. The generic name was coined by P. Selden and D. Penney as a combination of the Greek word palaios meaning "ancient" and Perenethis, a modern Nursery web spider genus. This is in reference to the age of the type specimen and the African-Asian genus which Palaeoperenethis is similar in appearance to. The specific epithet "thaleri" was designated by P. Selden and D. Penney in honor of the late Dr. Konrad Thaler, past president of the International Society of Arachnology.

text: Palaeoperenethis thaleri is known only from one fossil, the holotype, number "ROM31304" consisting of

text: part and counterpart

text: impressions that is currently residing in the paleontological collections in the

text: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Toronto, Canada

text: . It is a single adult male individual preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in the fine-grained lacustrian rock and thus has been flattened from its dimensions in life. The compression specimen was mentioned in publication by

text: Dr. Mark Wilson

text: in his 1977 paper discussing the

text: paleoecology

text: of the Horsefly

text: Lagerstätte

text: fossil sites. P. thaleri was first studied by Paul A. Selden and David Penney, with their 2009

text: type description

text: being published in the journal

text: Contributions to Natural History

text: . The

text: generic

text: name was coined by P. Selden and D. Penney as a combination of the

text: Greek

text: word palaios meaning "ancient" and

text: Perenethis

text: , a modern Nursery web spider genus. This is in reference to the age of the type specimen and the African-Asian genus which Palaeoperenethis is similar in appearance to. The specific epithet "thaleri" was designated by P. Selden and D. Penney in honor of the late Dr.

text: Konrad Thaler

text: , past president of the

text: International Society of Arachnology

text: The fossil remains of rabbits are scanty and those specimens that have been found are often too fragmentary to determine satisfactory the relationship with living forms. The bones of rabbits and hares are lightweight and fragile in structure, and so they are not easily preserved as fossils. Most of the species are inhabitants of uplands where conditions are not ideal for preservation. In a few deposits, rabbit remains seem numerous but many fossil species are known only from a few teeth and bones.

text: The type specimens for G. dissecta include two leaf fossils, a holotype and a paratype, both from the McAbee Fossil Beds. The holotype leaf is numbered number WWU-GK-020 and the paratype is number WWU-GK-008, both of which are currently preserved in the paleobotanical collections of Western Washington University in Bellingham, Washington. In addition to the two type specimens, the Western Washington University collections have 39 other fossils from the McAbee site and one from the Princeton fossil sites. For the species description one fossil, SR 96-09-01, was borrowed from the Stonerose Interpretive Center in Republic, Washington. The specimens were studied by paleobotanist George Mustoe of the Western Washington University Geology Department. Mustoe published his 2002 type description for G. dissecta in the Canadian Journal of Botany. The etymology of the chosen specific name dissecta was not identified by Mustoe in the type description, but he noted it is a formalization of the name which had been first used in 1974 in an unpublished thesis by Verschoor.

text: The

text: type specimen

text: s for G. dissecta include two leaf fossils, a

text: holotype

text: and a

text: paratype

text: , both from the McAbee Fossil Beds. The holotype leaf is numbered number WWU-GK-020 and the paratype is number WWU-GK-008, both of which are currently preserved in the

text: paleobotanical

text: collections of

text: Western Washington University

text: in

text: Bellingham, Washington

text: . In addition to the two type specimens, the Western Washington University collections have 39 other fossils from the McAbee site and one from the Princeton fossil sites. For the species description one fossil, SR 96-09-01, was borrowed from the

text: Stonerose Interpretive Center

text: in Republic, Washington. The specimens were studied by

text: paleobotanist

text: George Mustoe of the Western Washington University Geology Department. Mustoe published his 2002

text: type description

text: for G. dissecta in the

text: Canadian Journal of Botany

text: . The

text: etymology

text: of the chosen

text: specific name

text: dissecta was not identified by Mustoe in the type description, but he noted it is a formalization of the name which had been first used in 1974 in an unpublished thesis by Verschoor.

text: For surfaces of the casting that are perpendicular to the parting line of the mold a draft must be included. This is so that the casting can be released in non-expendable processes or the pattern can be released from the mold without destroying the mold in expendable processes. The required draft angle depends on the size and shape of the feature, the depth of the mold cavity, how the part or pattern is being removed from the mold, the pattern or part material, the mold material, and the process type. Usually the draft is not less than 1%.

text: Many different fossils have been discovered that indicate the type of life forms that existed in blue holes. Other life forms such as marine life and marine fossils have also been noticed; Crocodile and tortoise fossils, for instance, have been found in blue holes.

text: Many different fossils have been discovered that indicate the type of life forms that existed in blue holes. Other life forms such as marine life and marine fossils have also been noticed;

text: Crocodile

text: and

text: tortoise

text: fossils, for instance, have been found in blue holes.

text: The area is particularly rich in fossil material and has become known as one of the best documented Late Ordovician successions in Australia. The book "Australia's fossil heritage" states that "The site is unusual because of the well exposed, diverse faunas showing the progression from near-shore to deep water marine environments. It contains abundant examples of some of the earliest shell beds in the geological record and the earliest rugose corals known. More than 180 species have been recorded from the Cliefden Caves Limestone Group and the Malongulli Formation. The Cliefden Caves - Belubula River Valley sites contain the best exposures of Late Ordovician island marine invertebrate fossil assemblages in Australia. The sites include the type localities for over 100 species."

text: The technique of compressing wood pulp into pellets or artificial logs can reduce emissions. The combustion is cleaner, and the increased wood density and reduced water content can eliminate some of the transport bulk. The fossil energy consumed in transport is reduced and represents a small fraction of the fossil fuel consumed in producing and distributing heating oil or gas.

text: Although the ancient Jewish historian Josephus, as well as other sources, refers to the crucifixion of thousands of people by the Romans, there is only a single archaeological discovery of a crucified body dating back to the Roman Empire around the time of Jesus.  This was discovered at Givat HaMivtar, Jerusalem in 1968. It is not necessarily surprising that there is only one such discovery, because a crucified body was usually left to decay on the cross and therefore would not be preserved. The only reason these archaeological remains were preserved was because family members gave this particular individual a customary burial.

text: Although the ancient Jewish historian Josephus, as well as other sources, refers to the crucifixion of thousands of people by the Romans, there is only a single archaeological discovery of a

text: crucified body

text: dating back to the Roman Empire around the time of Jesus.  This was discovered at

text: Givat HaMivtar

text: , Jerusalem in 1968. It is not necessarily surprising that there is only one such discovery, because a crucified body was usually left to decay on the cross and therefore would not be preserved. The only reason these archaeological remains were preserved was because family members gave this particular individual a customary burial.

text: When described, the genus Attopsis was based on a group of eighteen separate fossil ants, which were preserved as compression fossils in sedimentary rock from the Radoboj area of what is now Croatia.  The deposits are the result of sedimentation in an inland sea basin, possibly a shallow lagoon environment, during the Burdigalian of the Early Miocene.  Along with Attopsis a diverse assemblage of several hundred species of insects have been preserved in the sediments, along with fish and algae.  The fossil impressions are preserved in micrite limestones, resulting in low quality preservation of fine details.  The insect fossils were first studied by Oswald Heer, then a professor with the University of Zürich, who placed the fossils in a new genus Attopsis. The genus was based on the perceived structuring of the petiole as having two segments and the wing venation having an open mcu cell. Along with A. longipennis, Heer described three other species, A. anthracina, A. longipes, and A. nigra. The genus and many of the type specimens were reexamined and redescribed in 2014 by paleoentomologists Gennady Dlussky and Tatyana Putyatina.  Dlussky and Putyatina determined that only the type specimen for A. longipennis matched a revised description of the genus, while all other fossils from the four species were redescibed as members of different genera. This revision resulted in only a single species in Attopsis.  The type specimens for A. anthracina, A. longipes, and A. nigra match the description for males of the species Oecophylla obesa, and Dlussky and Putyatina designated the three species as junior synonyms of O. obesa.

text: When described, the genus Attopsis was based on a group of eighteen separate fossil ants, which were preserved as

text: compression fossil

text: s in sedimentary rock from the

text: Radoboj

text: Burdigalian

text: of the Early Miocene.  Along with Attopsis a diverse assemblage of several hundred species of insects have been preserved in the sediments, along with fish and algae.  The fossil impressions are preserved in

text: micrite

text: limestones, resulting in low quality preservation of fine details.  The insect fossils were first studied by

text: Oswald Heer

text: , then a professor with the

text: University of Zürich

text: , who placed the fossils in a new genus Attopsis. The genus was based on the perceived structuring of the

text: petiole

text: as having two segments and the wing venation having an open mcu cell. Along with A. longipennis, Heer described three other species, A. anthracina, A. longipes, and A. nigra. The genus and many of the type specimens were reexamined and redescribed in 2014 by paleoentomologists Gennady Dlussky and Tatyana Putyatina.  Dlussky and Putyatina determined that only the type specimen for A. longipennis matched a revised description of the genus, while all other fossils from the four species were redescibed as members of different genera. This revision resulted in only a single species in Attopsis.  The type specimens for A. anthracina, A. longipes, and A. nigra match the description for males of the species

text: Oecophylla obesa

text: , and Dlussky and Putyatina designated the three species as junior synonyms of O. obesa.

text: There are four main types of permanent mold casting: gravity, slush, low-pressure, and vacuum.

text: There are currently two main types of power plants operating in Nigeria: (1) hydro-electric and (2) thermal or fossil fuel power plants. There have been two main types of fossil fuel/thermal power plants in the country: (i) coal-fired and (ii) natural gas-fired.

text: There are currently two main types of power plants operating in

text: Nigeria

text: : (1)

text: hydro-electric

text: and (2)

text: thermal

text: or

text: fossil fuel

text: power plants. There have been two main types of fossil fuel/thermal power plants in the country: (i) coal-fired and (ii) natural gas-fired.

text: Pinus driftwoodensis is an extinct species of conifer in the pine family solely known from early Eocene sediments exposed in south central British Columbia.  The species was described from an isolated fossil ovulate cone associated with a series of wood, needles and pollen cones in chert.  P. driftwoodensis was the eighth pine species to be described from a permineralized ovulate cone and the second from the Okanagan highlands (after Pinus arnoldii).

text: Pinus driftwoodensis is an

text: extinct

text: species

text: of

text: conifer

text: in the

text: pine

text: family solely known from

text: early Eocene

text: sediments exposed in south central

text: British Columbia

text: .  The species was described from an isolated

text: fossil

text: ovulate cone

text: associated with a series of wood,

text: needles

text: and

text: pollen cones

text: in

text: chert

text: .  P. driftwoodensis was the eighth pine species to be described from a

text: permineralized

text: ovulate cone and the second from the Okanagan highlands (after

text: Pinus arnoldii

text: Nonetheless, in early writing about the nature and origins of fossils, Bonanni admitted doubts about whether theories of transport could account for the numbers and distribution of fossils. He later speculated that fossils could be divided into two groups—the remains of organisms, and the "products of natural powers."  Such interpretations were consistent with the new and challenging idea that the earth must have undergone "extraordinary alterations" to explain the diversity of types and locations of fossils.

text: A. laticeps is known from a single queen ant found in Russia.  The specimen was described from a compression fossil preserved in diatomite deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site.  The site is exposed on the bank of Barachek Creek  upstream from the creeks confluence with the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya River in the Pozharsky District, on the Pacific Coast of Russia. The fossil-bearing rocks preserve possibly Priabonian plants and animals which lived in and around a small lake near a volcano.  The site has been attributed to either the Maksimovka or Salibez Formations and compared to the Bembridge Marls and Florissant Formation, both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: A. laticeps is known from a single queen ant found in Russia.  The specimen was described from a

text: compression fossil

text: preserved in

text: diatomite

text: deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site.  The site is exposed on the bank of Barachek Creek  upstream from the creeks confluence with the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya River in the

text: Pozharsky District

text: Priabonian

text: Maksimovka

text: or

text: Salibez Formation

text: s and compared to the

text: Bembridge Marl

text: s and

text: Florissant Formation

text: , both of which are Priabonian in age.

text: The category of fossils includes robust or thick-walled entities such as plant spores, acritarchs and chitinozoa, but the most interesting components are fragile remnants of animals that can only be extracted through a delicate maceration technique.  SCFs are relatively widespread and abundant, and can potentially preserve both mineralized and non-mineralized parts of organisms.  This undertapped record of the evolutionary processes occurring in the Palaeozoic cirtcumvents the biases inherent in the shelly fossil record.

text: The category of fossils includes robust or thick-walled entities such as plant spores,

text: acritarch

text: s and

text: chitinozoa

text: , but the most interesting components are fragile remnants of animals that can only be extracted through a delicate maceration technique.  SCFs are relatively widespread and abundant, and can potentially preserve both mineralized and non-mineralized parts of organisms.  This undertapped record of the evolutionary processes occurring in the Palaeozoic cirtcumvents the biases inherent in the shelly fossil record.

text: Despite the many mosasaur remains collected worldwide, knowledge of the nature of their skin coverings remains in its early stages. Few mosasaurid specimens collected from around the world retain fossilized scale imprints. This lack may be due to the delicate nature of the scales, which nearly eliminates the possibility of preservation, in addition to the preservation sediment types and the marine conditions under which the preservation occurred. Until the discovery of several mosasaur specimens with remarkably well-preserved scale imprints from late Maastrichtian deposits of the Muwaqqar Chalk Marl Formation of Harrana in Jordan, knowledge of the nature of mosasaur integument was mainly based on very few accounts describing early mosasaur fossils dating back to the upper Santonian–lower Campanian, such as the famous Tylosaurus specimen (KUVP-1075) from Gove County, Kansas. Material from Jordan has shown that the bodies of mosasaurs, as well as the membranes between their fingers and toes, were covered with small, overlapping, diamond-shaped scales resembling those of snakes. Much like those of modern reptiles, mosasaur scales varied across the body in type and size. In Harrana specimens, two types of scales were observed on a single specimen: keeled scales covering the upper regions of the body and smooth scales covering the lower. As ambush predators, lurking and quickly capturing prey using stealth tactics, they may have benefited from the nonreflective, keeled scales.

text: Despite the many mosasaur remains collected worldwide, knowledge of the nature of their skin coverings remains in its early stages. Few mosasaurid specimens collected from around the world retain fossilized scale imprints. This lack may be due to the delicate nature of the scales, which nearly eliminates the possibility of preservation, in addition to the preservation sediment types and the marine conditions under which the preservation occurred. Until the discovery of several mosasaur specimens with remarkably well-preserved scale imprints from late

text: Maastricht

text: ian deposits of the Muwaqqar Chalk Marl Formation of

text: Harrana

text: in

text: Jordan

text: , knowledge of the nature of mosasaur integument was mainly based on very few accounts describing early mosasaur fossils dating back to the upper

text: Santonian

text: –lower

text: Campanian

text: , such as the famous

text: Tylosaurus

text: specimen (KUVP-1075) from Gove County, Kansas. Material from Jordan has shown that the bodies of mosasaurs, as well as the membranes between their fingers and toes, were covered with small, overlapping, diamond-shaped scales resembling those of snakes. Much like those of modern reptiles, mosasaur scales varied across the body in type and size. In Harrana specimens, two types of scales were observed on a single specimen: keeled scales covering the upper regions of the body and smooth scales covering the lower. As ambush predators, lurking and quickly capturing prey using stealth tactics, they may have benefited from the nonreflective, keeled scales.

text: An important related notion is that of a succinct data structure, which uses space roughly equal to the information-theoretic minimum, which is a worst-case notion of the space needed to represent the data.  In contrast, the size of a compressed data structure depends upon the particular data being represented.  When the data are compressible, as is often the case in practice for natural language text, the compressed data structure can occupy space very close to the information-theoretic minimum, and significantly less space than most compression schemes.

text: An important related notion is that of a

text: succinct data structure

text: , which uses space roughly equal to the information-theoretic minimum, which is a worst-case notion of the space needed to represent the data.  In contrast, the size of a compressed data structure depends upon the particular data being represented.  When the data are compressible, as is often the case in practice for natural language text, the compressed data structure can occupy space very close to the information-theoretic minimum, and significantly less space than most compression schemes.

text: When running, breasts may move three dimensionally: vertically, horizontally and laterally, in an overall figure-8 motion. Unrestrained movement of large breasts may contribute to sagging over time. Motion studies have revealed that when a woman runs, more than 50% of the breast's total movement is vertical, 22% is side-to-side, and 27% is in-and-out. A 2007 study found that encapsulation-type sports bras, in which each cup is separately molded, are more effective than compression-type bras, which press the breasts close to the body, at reducing total breast motion during exercise. Encapsulation bras reduce motion in two of the three planes, while compression bras reduce motion in only one plane. Previously, it was commonly believed that a woman with small to medium-size breasts benefited most from a compression-type sports bra, and women with larger breasts need an encapsulation-type sports bra.

text: When running, breasts may move three dimensionally: vertically, horizontally and laterally, in an overall figure-8 motion. Unrestrained movement of large breasts may contribute to sagging over time. Motion studies have revealed that when a woman runs, more than 50% of the breast's total movement is vertical, 22% is side-to-side, and 27% is in-and-out. A 2007 study found that encapsulation-type

text: sports bra

text: s, in which each cup is separately molded, are more effective than compression-type bras, which press the breasts close to the body, at reducing total breast motion during exercise. Encapsulation bras reduce motion in two of the three planes, while compression bras reduce motion in only one plane. Previously, it was commonly believed that a woman with small to medium-size breasts benefited most from a compression-type sports bra, and women with larger breasts need an encapsulation-type sports bra.

text: The first remains of Dorygnathus, isolated bones and jaw fragments from the Schwarzjura, the Posidonia Shale dating from the Toarcian, were discovered near Banz, Bavaria and in 1830 described by Carl Theodori as Ornithocephalus banthensis, the specific name referring to Banz. The holotype, a lower jaw, is PSB 757. The fossils were studied by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in 1831 and again by Theodori in 1852 when he referred them to the genus Rhamphorhynchus. In this period a close affinity was assumed with a pterosaur known from Britain, later named Dimorphodon. Some fossils were sent to a professor of paleontology in Munich named Johann Andreas Wagner. It was he who, having studied new finds by Alfred Oppel in 1856 and 1858, after Richard Owen had named Dimorphodon concluded that the German type was clearly different and that therefore a new genus of pterosaur should be erected, which he formally named Dorygnathus in 1860, from Greek dory, "spear" and gnathos, "jaw". Much more complete remains have been found since in other German locales and especially in Württemberg, including Holzmaden, Ohmden, and Zell. One specimen, SMNS 81840, has in 1978 been dug up in Nancy, France. Dorygnathus fossils were often found in the spoil heaps where unusable rock was dumped from slate quarries worked by local farmers. Most fossils were found in two major waves, one during the twenties, the other during the eighties of the twentieth century. Since then the rate of discovery has slowed considerably because the demand for slate has strongly diminished and many small quarries have closed. At present over fifty specimens have been collected, many of them are preserved in the collection of the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart, as by law paleontological finds in Baden-Württemberg are property of this Bundesland. Due to the excellent preserval of the later found fossils, Dorygnathus has generated much interest by pterosaur researchers, important studies having been dedicated to the species by Felix Plieninger, Gustav von Arthaber, and more recently Kevin Padian.

text: The first remains of Dorygnathus, isolated bones and jaw fragments from the

text: Schwarzjura

text: , the

text: Posidonia Shale

text: dating from the

text: Toarcian

text: , were discovered near

text: Banz

text: Bavaria

text: and in 1830 described by

text: Carl Theodori

text: as Ornithocephalus banthensis, the

text: specific name

text: referring to Banz. The

text: holotype

text: , a lower jaw, is PSB 757. The fossils were studied by

text: Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer

text: in 1831 and again by Theodori in 1852 when he referred them to the genus Rhamphorhynchus. In this period a close affinity was assumed with a pterosaur known from Britain, later named

text: Dimorphodon

text: . Some fossils were sent to a professor of paleontology in

text: Munich

text: named

text: Johann Andreas Wagner

text: . It was he who, having studied new finds by

text: Alfred Oppel

text: in 1856 and 1858, after

text: Richard Owen

text: had named Dimorphodon concluded that the German type was clearly different and that therefore a new genus of pterosaur should be erected, which he formally named Dorygnathus in 1860, from Greek

text: dory

text: , "spear" and gnathos, "jaw". Much more complete remains have been found since in other German locales and especially in

text: Württemberg

text: , including

text: Holzmaden

text: Ohmden

text: , and

text: Zell

text: . One specimen, SMNS 81840, has in 1978 been dug up in

text: Nancy

text: France

text: . Dorygnathus fossils were often found in the spoil heaps where unusable rock was dumped from

text: slate

text: quarries worked by local farmers. Most fossils were found in two major waves, one during the twenties, the other during the eighties of the twentieth century. Since then the rate of discovery has slowed considerably because the demand for slate has strongly diminished and many small quarries have closed. At present over fifty specimens have been collected, many of them are preserved in the collection of the

text: , as by law paleontological finds in

text: Baden-Württemberg

text: are property of this

text: Bundesland

text: . Due to the excellent preserval of the later found fossils, Dorygnathus has generated much interest by pterosaur researchers, important studies having been dedicated to the species by

text: Felix Plieninger

text: Gustav von Arthaber

text: , and more recently

text: Kevin Padian

text: Burgess shale type preservation is defined as the fossilization of non-biomineralized organisms as flattened carbonaceous films in marine shales. When the animals started to decompose, their tissues collapsed under the weight of the sediment that buried them. The typical flattened fossils are outlines of tougher parts such as cuticles and jaws, which resisted decomposition for long enough to be fossilized. Soft elements, such as muscles and gut contents, were sometimes squeezed out of the decomposing organism to produce dark stains on the fossils. Organisms that lack tougher structures, such as flatworms, nemerteans and shell-less molluscs, were not preserved by this process. Very soft but chemically active tissues may be preserved by different processes. For instance during decomposition, bacteria modify the chemically unusual mid-gut glands of some organisms into the durable mineral phosphate. This change happens extremely quickly, before the corpse is compressed, and leaves a three-dimensional mold of the tissues. Gills can also be preserved in something close to their original three-dimensional shape by this process. Both preservation mechanisms can appear in the same fossil. In Burgess-like shales, organisms and parts that are only quite soft, such as muscles, are generally lost, while those that are extremely soft and those that are fairly tough are preserved. The preservation of different body parts in different ways may sometimes help palaeontologists, by suggesting whether a body part was fairly tough like an arthropod limb (preserved as flat film) or very soft and chemically active, like a part of the gut (preserved as a solid piece of mineral). These differences may also help to identify fossils, by excluding from consideration organisms whose body parts do not match the combination of types of preservation found in a particular fossil bed.

text: Burgess shale type preservation

text: is defined as the fossilization of non-

text: biomineralized

text: organisms as flattened

text: carbon

text: aceous films in marine shales. When the animals started to decompose, their tissues collapsed under the weight of the sediment that buried them. The typical flattened fossils are outlines of tougher parts such as

text: cuticle

text: s and jaws, which resisted decomposition for long enough to be fossilized. Soft elements, such as muscles and gut contents, were sometimes squeezed out of the decomposing organism to produce dark stains on the fossils. Organisms that lack tougher structures, such as

text: flatworm

text: s,

text: nemertean

text: s and shell-less

text: mollusc

text: s, were not preserved by this process. Very soft but chemically active tissues may be preserved by different processes. For instance during decomposition,

text: bacteria

text: modify the chemically unusual mid-gut glands of some organisms into the durable mineral

text: phosphate

text: . This change happens extremely quickly, before the corpse is compressed, and leaves a three-dimensional

text: mold

text: of the tissues. Gills can also be preserved in something close to their original three-dimensional shape by this process. Both preservation mechanisms can appear in the same fossil. In Burgess-like shales, organisms and parts that are only quite soft, such as muscles, are generally lost, while those that are extremely soft and those that are fairly tough are preserved. The preservation of different body parts in different ways may sometimes help palaeontologists, by suggesting whether a body part was fairly tough like an arthropod limb (preserved as flat film) or very soft and chemically active, like a part of the gut (preserved as a solid piece of mineral). These differences may also help to identify fossils, by excluding from consideration organisms whose body parts do not match the combination of types of preservation found in a particular fossil bed.

text: Walcott divided the bed into twelve units based on the rock type and fossil content. Certain fossil beds provide reference levels and can be recognized by the superabundance of a particular type of fossil: for instance, the Great Marrella layer and Great Eldonia layer.

text: Walcott divided the bed into twelve units based on the rock type and fossil content. Certain fossil beds provide reference levels and can be recognized by the superabundance of a particular type of fossil: for instance, the Great

text: Marrella

text: layer and Great

text: Eldonia

text: layer.

text: Traditionally, natural (organic) turpentine was used as the thinner or solvent, but has been replaced by several mineral-based turpentine substitutes such as white spirit or "paint thinner", also known as "mineral spirit".

text: Traditionally, natural (organic)

text: turpentine

text: was used as the thinner or solvent, but has been replaced by several mineral-based

text: turpentine substitute

text: s such as

text: white spirit

text: or "

text: paint thinner

text: ", also known as "

text: mineral spirit

text: In addition to encoding a signal, a codec may also compress the data to reduce transmission bandwidth or storage space. Compression codecs are classified primarily into lossy codecs and lossless codecs.

text: For a span of about 20 million years, Eohippus thrived with few significant evolutionary changes. The most significant change was in the teeth, which began to adapt to its changing diet, as these early Equidae shifted from a mixed diet of fruits and foliage to one focused increasingly on browsing foods. During the Eocene, an Eohippus species (most likely Eohippus angustidens) branched out into various new types of Equidae. Thousands of complete, fossilized skeletons of these animals have been found in the Eocene layers of North American strata, mainly in the Wind River basin in Wyoming. Similar fossils have also been discovered in Europe, such as Propalaeotherium (which is not considered ancestral to the modern horse).

text: For a span of about 20 million years, Eohippus thrived with few significant evolutionary changes. The most significant change was in the teeth, which began to adapt to its changing diet, as these early

text: Equidae

text: shifted from a mixed diet of fruits and foliage to one focused increasingly on browsing foods. During the Eocene, an Eohippus species (most likely Eohippus angustidens) branched out into various new types of Equidae. Thousands of complete, fossilized skeletons of these animals have been found in the Eocene layers of North American strata, mainly in the

text: Wind River

text: basin in

text: Wyoming

text: . Similar fossils have also been discovered in Europe, such as

text: Propalaeotherium

text: (which is not considered ancestral to the modern horse).

text: An important property of handle types related to type casting is that since all variables of handles are just references, they can all be treated (and are treated) as integers. Each instance of a handle is assigned a unique integer value that essentially acts as an identifier for the handle. Therefore, type casting from handles to integers, although technically not supported by JASS, is possible in practice because implicit casting from handle types to integer can and will occur if the code is written in a certain way, for example:

text: An important property of handle types related to type casting is that since all variables of handles are just

text: references

text: , they can all be treated (and are treated) as integers. Each instance of a handle is assigned a unique integer value that essentially acts as an identifier for the handle. Therefore, type casting from handles to integers, although technically not supported by JASS, is possible in practice because implicit casting from handle types to integer can and will occur if the code is written in a certain way, for example:

text: Formosibittacus macularis is known only from one fossil, the holotype, specimen numbers "CNU-M-NN2007001-1" and "CNU-M-NN2007001-2" for the part and counterpart respectively.  The specimen is composed of an almost complete specimen of unidentified sex and is preserved as a compression fossil in sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed in the Wuhua Township by Fang Liang. The type specimen is currently preserved in the Key Lab of Insect Evolution & Environmental Changes collections housed in the Capital Normal University, located in Beijing, China.  Formosibittacus was first studied by Yan-Li Li, Dong Ren and ChungKun Shih of the Capital Normal University.  Their 2008 type description of the genus and species was published online and then in print in the journal Zootaxa. The generic name was coined by Li, Ren and Shih from a combination of the Latin "formos" meaning beautiful and the modern Bittacidae genus Bittacus to which Formosibittacus is related.  The etymology of the specific epithet macularis is in reference to the numerous maculae which are present on the holotype wings.

text: Formosibittacus macularis is known only from one fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen numbers "CNU-M-NN2007001-1" and "CNU-M-NN2007001-2" for the

text: part and counterpart

text: compression fossil

text: in sedimentary rock. The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Jiulongshan Formation exposed in the Wuhua Township by Fang Liang. The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: collections housed in the

text: Capital Normal University

text: , located in

text: Beijing

text: China

text: .  Formosibittacus was first studied by Yan-Li Li, Dong Ren and ChungKun Shih of the Capital Normal University.  Their 2008

text: type description

text: Zootaxa

text: . The

text: generic

text: name was coined by Li, Ren and Shih from a combination of the

text: Latin

text: "formos" meaning beautiful and the modern Bittacidae genus

text: Bittacus

text: to which Formosibittacus is related.  The

text: etymology

text: of the

text: specific epithet

text: macularis is in reference to the numerous

text: maculae

text: which are present on the holotype wings.

text: Structures composed of soft tissue are typically not preserved in fossils because they break down easily and decompose much faster than hard tissues, meaning that the fossil record often lacks information regarding the internal anatomy of fossil species. Preservation of soft tissue structures can sometimes occur, however, if sediments fill the internal structures of an organism upon or after its death. Robert Denison’s paper entitled “The Soft Anatomy of Bothriolepis” explores the forms and organs of Bothriolepis. These internal structures were preserved when different types of sediments surrounding the exterior of the animal filled the internal carapaces (only organs that communicate with the exterior could be preserved in this manner). Three different sediment types were identified within the different sections of Bothriolepis: the first a pale greenish-gray medium-textured sandstone largely consisting of calcite; the second a similar but finer sediment which preserves many of the organ forms; and the third a distinct, fine-grained siltstone consisting of quartz, mica and other minerals but no calcite. These sediments helped preserve the following internal elements:

text: A "FOSSIL driver" is simply a communications device driver. They exist because in the early days of Fidonet, computer hardware was very diverse and there were no standards on how software was to communicate with the serial interface hardware. Initial development of FidoBBS only worked on a specific type of machine. Before FidoBBS could start spreading, it was seen that a uniform method of communicating with serial interface hardware was needed if the software was going to be used on other machines. This need was also apparent for other communications based software. The FOSSIL specification was born in 1986 so as to provide this uniform method. Software using the FOSSIL standard could communicate using the same interrupt functions no matter what hardware it was running on. This enabled the developers to concentrate on the application and not the interface to the hardware.

text: A "FOSSIL driver" is simply a communications

text: device driver

text: . They exist because in the early days of Fidonet, computer hardware was very diverse and there were no standards on how

text: software

text: was to communicate with the serial interface hardware. Initial development of

text: FidoBBS

text: only worked on a specific type of machine. Before FidoBBS could start spreading, it was seen that a uniform method of communicating with serial interface hardware was needed if the software was going to be used on other machines. This need was also apparent for other communications based software. The FOSSIL specification was born in 1986 so as to provide this uniform method. Software using the FOSSIL standard could communicate using the same interrupt functions no matter what hardware it was running on. This enabled the developers to concentrate on the application and not the interface to the hardware.

text: In finds from the early Cambrian, tubes and spicules become more abundant and diverse, and new types of SSF appear. Many have been attributed to well-known groups such as molluscs, slug-like halkieriids, brachiopods, echinoderms, and onychophoran-like organisms that may have been close to the ancestors of arthropods. A multitude of problematic tubular fossils, such as anabaritids, Hyolithellus or Torellella characterize the earliest Cambrian Small Shelly Fossil skeletal assemblages.

text: In finds from the early Cambrian, tubes and spicules become more abundant and diverse, and new types of SSF appear. Many have been attributed to well-known groups such as

text: mollusc

text: s, slug-like

text: halkieriid

text: s,

text: brachiopods

text: echinoderm

text: s, and

text: onychophora

text: n-like organisms that may have been close to the ancestors of arthropods. A multitude of problematic tubular fossils, such as

text: anabaritid

text: s,

text: Hyolithellus

text: or

text: Torellella

text: characterize the earliest Cambrian Small Shelly Fossil skeletal assemblages.

text: Water-based lubricants, called emulsions, are the most commonly used type of lubricant, because of health, environmental, and safety reasons. Unlike solvent-based lubricants, if water is properly treated to remove all minerals from it, it will not leave any by-product in the dies. If the water is not properly treated, then the minerals can cause surface defects and discontinuities. There are four types of water-based lubricants: oil in water, water in oil, semi-synthetic, and synthetic. Oil in water is the best, because when the lubricant is applied, the water cools the die surface by evaporating while depositing the oil, which helps release the shot. A common mixture for this type of lubricants is thirty parts water to one part oil, however in extreme cases a ratio of 100:1 is used.

text: The Pokémon series has a few species resembling turtles or tortoises. Squirtle, Wartortle, and Blastoise are the water-type 'starter' Pokémon in the Kanto Region. Turtwig, Grotle, and Torterra are likewise the grass-type starter Pokémon of the Sinnoh Region. Shuckle, in the Johto Region, can often be mistaken for a stylised turtle, but is in fact a Mould Pokémon. Tirtouga and Carracosta are can be revived from Fossils in the Unova Region. Blastoise, the final evolved form of Squirtle, is the mascot of the Pokémon Blue video game.

text: The

text: Pokémon

text: series has a few species resembling turtles or tortoises.

text: Squirtle

text: Wartortle

text: , and

text: Blastoise

text: are the water-type 'starter' Pokémon in the

text: Kanto Region

text: Turtwig

text: Grotle

text: , and

text: Torterra

text: are likewise the grass-type starter Pokémon of the

text: Sinnoh Region

text: Shuckle

text: , in the

text: Johto Region

text: , can often be mistaken for a stylised turtle, but is in fact a

text: Mould

text: Pokémon.

text: Tirtouga

text: and

text: Carracosta

text: are can be revived from

text: Fossils

text: in the

text: Unova Region

text: . Blastoise, the final evolved form of Squirtle, is the mascot of the

text: Pokémon Blue

text: video game.

text: The formation of fossil eggs begins with the original egg itself. Not all eggs that end up fossilizing experience the death of their embryo beforehand. Even eggs that successfully hatch can fossilize. In fact, not only is this possible it's actually common. Many fossil dinosaur eggs are preserved with their tops broken open by the escaping hatchling. Of course not all open fossil eggs made it to a happy ending. Some contain fossil feces (known formally as coprolites) left by the larvae of scavenging insects like flies. Dinosaur eggs may have been the victim of the same causes of mortality suffered by modern bird and reptile eggs, like asphyxiation due to overly deep burial, congenital health problems, dehydration, disease, drowning, and inimical temperatures. After hatching or death the processes of decomposition and/or preservation begin. As noted, insects can be among the first scavengers of a dead egg, but deeply buried specimens may not be accessible to them and will be decomposed solely by bacteria and fungi. Whether or not hatching was successful, water and wind would fill the egg with sediment through any large openings. Not all fossil egg specimens are of complete specimens, though. According to egg paleontologist Kenneth Carpenter, individual pieces of eggshell are much more robust than the entire egg. This strength comes from the organic matter that cements the eggshell's calcite crystals together. Simple experiments have demonstrated that under certain conditions eggshell can be transported for 68 kilometers or 42 miles with little loss of size. The durability of eggshell under transport means that pieces of fossil eggshell aren't necessarily discovered in deposits geographically close to the nest they originated from.

text: The formation of fossil eggs begins with the original egg itself. Not all eggs that end up fossilizing experience the death of their

text: embryo

text: beforehand. Even eggs that successfully hatch can fossilize. In fact, not only is this possible it's actually common. Many fossil dinosaur eggs are preserved with their tops broken open by the escaping hatchling. Of course not all open fossil eggs made it to a happy ending. Some contain fossil feces (known formally as

text: coprolites

text: ) left by the

text: larvae

text: of

text: scavenging

text: insects like

text: flies

text: . Dinosaur eggs may have been the victim of the same causes of mortality suffered by modern

text: bird

text: and

text: reptile

text: eggs, like

text: asphyxiation

text: due to overly deep burial,

text: congenital

text: health problems,

text: dehydration

text: disease

text: drowning

text: , and inimical

text: temperatures

text: . After hatching or death the processes of

text: decomposition

text: and/or

text: preservation

text: begin. As noted, insects can be among the first scavengers of a dead egg, but deeply buried specimens may not be accessible to them and will be decomposed solely by

text: bacteria

text: and

text: fungi

text: . Whether or not hatching was successful, water and wind would fill the egg with sediment through any large openings. Not all fossil egg specimens are of complete specimens, though. According to egg paleontologist

text: Kenneth Carpenter

text: , individual pieces of eggshell are much more robust than the entire egg. This strength comes from the

text: organic matter

text: that cements the eggshell's calcite

text: crystals

text: together. Simple experiments have demonstrated that under certain conditions eggshell can be transported for 68 kilometers or 42 miles with little loss of size. The durability of eggshell under transport means that pieces of fossil eggshell aren't necessarily discovered in deposits geographically close to the

text: nest

text: they originated from.

text: In 1808, Cuvier identified a fossil found in Maastricht as a giant marine reptile that would later be named Mosasaurus. He also identified, from a drawing, another fossil found in Bavaria as a flying reptile and named it Pterodactylus. He speculated, based on the strata in which these fossils were found, that large reptiles had lived prior to what he was calling "the age of mammals". Cuvier's speculation would be supported by a series of finds that would be made in Great Britain over the course of the next two decades. Mary Anning, a professional fossil collector since age eleven, collected the fossils of a number of marine reptiles from the Jurassic marine strata at Lyme Regis. These included the first ichthyosaur skeleton to be recognized as such, which was collected in 1811, and the first two plesiosaur skeletons ever found in 1821 and 1823. Many of her discoveries would be described scientifically by the geologists William Conybeare, Henry De la Beche, and William Buckland. It was Anning who observed that stony objects known as "bezoar stones" were often found in the abdominal region of ichthyosaur skeletons, and she noted that if such stones were broken open they often contained fossilized fish bones and scales as well as sometimes bones from small ichthyosaurs. This led her to suggest to Buckland that they were fossilized feces, which he named coprolites, and which he used to better understand ancient food chains.

text: In 1808, Cuvier identified a fossil found in

text: Maastricht

text: as a giant marine reptile that would later be named

text: Mosasaurus

text: . He also identified, from a drawing, another fossil found in

text: Bavaria

text: as a flying reptile and named it

text: Pterodactylus

text: . He speculated, based on the strata in which these fossils were found, that large reptiles had lived prior to what he was calling "the age of mammals". Cuvier's speculation would be supported by a series of finds that would be made in Great Britain over the course of the next two decades.

text: Mary Anning

text: , a professional fossil collector since age eleven, collected the fossils of a number of marine reptiles from the

text: Jurassic

text: marine strata at

text: Lyme Regis

text: . These included the first

text: ichthyosaur

text: skeleton to be recognized as such, which was collected in 1811, and the first two

text: plesiosaur

text: skeletons ever found in 1821 and 1823. Many of her discoveries would be described scientifically by the geologists

text: William Conybeare

text: Henry De la Beche

text: , and

text: William Buckland

text: . It was Anning who observed that stony objects known as "

text: bezoar

text: stones" were often found in the abdominal region of ichthyosaur skeletons, and she noted that if such stones were broken open they often contained fossilized fish bones and scales as well as sometimes bones from small ichthyosaurs. This led her to suggest to Buckland that they were fossilized feces, which he named

text: coprolite

text: s, and which he used to better understand ancient

text: food chain

text: s.

text: The Quaternary glacial geology precludes the region to have been covered by the large prehistoric glacial lake called Lake Agassiz. The ancient shoreline can be seen along the "Esker Trail" in Narrow Hills Provincial Park which is just North-East of the City. Many different types of fossils have been found in the Prince Albert region. Along the riverbanks of the Shell River it can be observed a strata containing Quaternary bivalve mollusk shells and in 2014 the vertebrate and bone fragments of a bison were found by local college students attending Saskatchewan Polytechnic in the Shell River area. Various areas (especially eroded river banks) have been known to reveal bison skulls and other various types of fossils. Claims have also been made of various types of marine fossils including oysters, clams, corals and other invertebrates are to be found mixed in fossil matrixes just east of the city near the small town of Love, SK.. The bedrock geology is a part of the phanerozoic basin and belongs to the Lea Park and Milk River Formation.

text: The Quaternary glacial geology precludes the region to have been covered by the large

text: prehistoric glacial lake

text: called

text: Lake Agassiz

text: . The ancient shoreline can be seen along the "Esker Trail" in Narrow Hills Provincial Park which is just North-East of the City. Many different types of fossils have been found in the Prince Albert region. Along the riverbanks of the Shell River it can be observed a strata containing Quaternary bivalve mollusk shells and in 2014 the vertebrate and bone fragments of a

text: bison

text: were found by local college students attending Saskatchewan Polytechnic in the Shell River area. Various areas (especially eroded river banks) have been known to reveal bison skulls and other various types of fossils. Claims have also been made of various types of marine fossils including oysters, clams, corals and other invertebrates are to be found mixed in fossil matrixes just east of the city near the small town of

text: Love, SK.

text: . The bedrock geology is a part of the phanerozoic basin and belongs to the Lea Park and

text: Milk River Formation

text: The holotype amber specimen, number DR-14-984, is currently preserved in the amber collections of the US National Museum, and is labeled as part of the Smithsonian Institution ant database as number 00443127. The fossil was first studied by entomologist Ted R. Schultz of the National Museum of Natural History with his 2007 type description of the new species being published in the journal Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute. The specific epithet electropilosum is a combination of the Latin electrum meaning "amber" and pilosum, the Apterostigma species group which A. electropilosum it part of.

text: The

text: holotype

text: amber specimen, number DR-14-984, is currently preserved in the amber collections of the

text: US National Museum

text: , and is labeled as part of the

text: Smithsonian Institution

text: ant database as number 00443127. The fossil was first studied by entomologist Ted R. Schultz of the National Museum of Natural History with his 2007

text: type description

text: of the new species being published in the journal Memoirs of the American Entomological Institute. The

text: specific epithet

text: electropilosum is a combination of the

text: Latin

text: electrum meaning "amber" and pilosum, the Apterostigma

text: species group

text: which A. electropilosum it part of.

text: As of 2015, six species of Proceratium had been described from fossils. P. denticulatum, P. dominicanum, P. gibberum and P. poinari are younger than P. eocenicum, being described from the Middle Miocene Dominican amber.  P. petrosum, the first species to be described from a compression fossil, is from diatomite deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site on the Pacific coast of Russia.  P. eocenicum is of similar age to P. petrosum, the only other species with a described fossil male.

text: As of 2015, six species of

text: Proceratium

text: had been described from fossils.

text: P. denticulatum

text: P. dominicanum

text: P. gibberum

text: and

text: P. poinari

text: are younger than P. eocenicum, being described from the

text: Middle Miocene

text: Dominican amber

text: P. petrosum

text: , the first species to be described from a compression fossil, is from

text: diatomite

text: deposits of the Bol’shaya Svetlovodnaya site on the Pacific coast of Russia.  P. eocenicum is of similar age to P. petrosum, the only other species with a described fossil male.

text: The term can also refer to the process by which waterborne minerals, such as calcium carbonate (calcite), iron oxide (hematite or limonite) or silica (quartz), replace organic material within the body of an organism that has died and was buried by sediments.

text: The term can also refer to the process by which waterborne minerals, such as

text: calcium carbonate

text: calcite

text: iron oxide

text: hematite

text: or

text: limonite

text: ) or

text: silica

text: quartz

text: ), replace

text: organic material

text: within the body of an organism that has died and was buried by sediments.

text: Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There's a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.

text: Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like

text: natural gas

text: or

text: petroleum

text: products such as

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: fuel oil

text: . There's a growing usage of

text: renewable fuels

text: like

text: biodiesel

text: for compression ignition engines and

text: bioethanol

text: or

text: methanol

text: for spark ignition engines.

text: Hydrogen

text: is sometimes used, and can be made from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.

text: Nature Monument (, abbreviated as PP) is a nature formation of a smaller area, usually geological or geomorphological formation, mineral or fossil collection locality or a habitat of endangered plants or animals in parts of ecosystems with an international or national environmental, scientific or esthetic importance. They are established by the appropriate Regional Government () or Management of a National Park or Landscape Protected Area.

text: In geology, petrifaction or petrification is the process by which organic material becomes a fossil through the replacement of the original material and the filling of the original pore spaces with minerals. Petrified wood typifies this process, but all organisms, from bacteria to vertebrates, can become petrified (although harder, more durable matter such as bone, beaks, and shells survive the process better than softer remains such as muscle tissue, feathers, or skin).  Petrification takes place through a combination of two similar processes: permineralization and replacement.  These processes create replicas of the original specimen that are similar down to the microscopic level.

text: In

text: geology

text: , petrifaction or petrification is the process by which

text: organic material

text: becomes a

text: fossil

text: through the replacement of the original material and the filling of the original pore spaces with

text: mineral

text: s.

text: Petrified wood

text: typifies this process, but all organisms, from bacteria to vertebrates, can become petrified (although harder, more durable matter such as bone, beaks, and shells survive the process better than softer remains such as muscle tissue, feathers, or skin).  Petrification takes place through a combination of two similar processes:

text: permineralization

text: and replacement.  These processes create replicas of the original specimen that are similar down to the microscopic level.

text: After deposition, sediments are compacted as they are buried beneath successive layers of sediment and cemented by minerals that precipitate from solution. Grains of sediment, rock fragments and fossils can be replaced by other minerals during diagenesis. Porosity usually decreases during diagenesis, except in rare cases such as dissolution of minerals and dolomitization.

text: After deposition, sediments are compacted as they are buried beneath successive layers of sediment and cemented by minerals that precipitate from

text: solution

text: . Grains of sediment,

text: rock

text: fragments and

text: fossil

text: s can be replaced by other minerals during diagenesis.

text: Porosity

text: usually decreases during diagenesis, except in rare cases such as

text: dissolution

text: of minerals and

text: dolomitization

text: Occasionally, unusual environments may preserve soft tissues. These lagerstätten allow paleontologists to examine the internal anatomy of animals that in other sediments are represented only by shells, spines, claws, etc. – if they are preserved at all. However, even lagerstätten present an incomplete picture of life at the time. The majority of organisms living at the time are probably not represented because lagerstätten are restricted to a narrow range of environments, e.g. where soft-bodied organisms can be preserved very quickly by events such as mudslides; and the exceptional events that cause quick burial make it difficult to study the normal environments of the animals. The sparseness of the fossil record means that organisms are expected to exist long before and after they are found in the fossil record – this is known as the Signor-Lipps effect.

text: Occasionally, unusual environments may preserve soft tissues. These

text: lagerstätte

text: n allow paleontologists to examine the internal anatomy of animals that in other sediments are represented only by shells, spines, claws, etc. – if they are preserved at all. However, even lagerstätten present an incomplete picture of life at the time. The majority of organisms living at the time are probably not represented because lagerstätten are restricted to a narrow range of environments, e.g. where soft-bodied organisms can be preserved very quickly by events such as mudslides; and the exceptional events that cause quick burial make it difficult to study the normal environments of the animals. The sparseness of the fossil record means that organisms are expected to exist long before and after they are found in the fossil record – this is known as the

text: Signor-Lipps effect

text: The Denver Coliseum Mineral, Fossil, Gem and Jewelry Show is an annual public trade show hosted at the Denver Coliseum in Denver, Colorado. It runs in conjunction with nine other independent shows in mid-September.  This group of gem, mineral, jewelry and fossil shows is second in size (in the U.S.) only to the Tucson Gem & Mineral Show. The Denver Coliseum Mineral, Fossil, Gem, and Jewelry Show, also known as "the Coliseum Show" takes place over five days in mid-September and features sellers of minerals, fossils, meteorites, crystals, beads, jewelry, and gold, as well as related services and displays. The show occupies 69,000 square feet (6,400 m2) of the Denver Coliseum as well as twice that area in tents located in the west parking lot. Attendees number in the thousands and come from across the globe and includes the general public, experts, beginning collectors, museum employees, dealers, retailers, and researchers.

text: The Denver Coliseum Mineral, Fossil, Gem and Jewelry Show is an annual public trade show hosted at the

text: Denver Coliseum

text: in

text: Denver

text: Colorado

text: . It runs in conjunction with nine other independent shows in mid-September.  This group of gem, mineral, jewelry and fossil shows is second in size (in the U.S.) only to the

text: Tucson Gem & Mineral Show

text: . The Denver Coliseum Mineral, Fossil, Gem, and Jewelry Show, also known as "the Coliseum Show" takes place over five days in mid-September and features sellers of

text: minerals

text: fossils

text: meteorites

text: , crystals, beads, jewelry, and

text: gold

text: , as well as related services and displays. The show occupies 69,000 square feet (6,400

text: ) of the Denver Coliseum as well as twice that area in tents located in the west parking lot. Attendees number in the thousands and come from across the globe and includes the general public, experts, beginning collectors, museum employees, dealers, retailers, and researchers.

text: The Fossil Creek Volcanics is a geologic formation in Alaska. It preserves fossils dating back to the Ordovician period.

text: The Fossil Creek Volcanics is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Alaska

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Ordovician

text: period

text: The second species originally assigned to the genus, C. wehri, was described from a single mostly complete forewing which was preserved as a compression-impression fossil preserved in shale.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of the Ypresian Klondike Mountain Formation in the Republic, Washington area by Wesley Wehr in 1993. The type specimen is currently preserved in the Department of Paleobiology collections housed at Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, located in Seattle, Washington, USA. W. wehri was first studied by Vladimir Makarkin of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, S. Bruce Archibald from Simon Fraser University  and John D Oswald of Texas A&M University.  Their 2003 type description of the new species was published in the journal The Canadian Entomologist.  Makarkin et al coined the specific epithet wehri in honor of Wesley Wehr for his work on the paleontology of the Republic site. Subsequently, Makarkin, Wedmann & Weiterschan (2016) transferred C. wehri to the genus Proneuronema.

text: The second species originally assigned to the genus, C. wehri, was described from a single mostly complete forewing which was preserved as a

text: compression-impression fossil

text: preserved in

text: shale

text: Ypresian

text: Klondike Mountain Formation

text: in the

text: Republic, Washington

text: area by

text: Wesley Wehr

text: in 1993. The type specimen is currently preserved in the

text: Department of Paleobiology

text: collections housed at

text: , located in

text: Seattle, Washington

text: , USA. W. wehri was first studied by

text: Vladimir Makarkin

text: of the

text: Texas A&M University

text: .  Their 2003

text: type description

text: The Canadian Entomologist

text: .  Makarkin et al coined the

text: specific epithet

text: wehri in honor of Wesley Wehr for his work on the paleontology of the Republic site. Subsequently, Makarkin, Wedmann & Weiterschan (2016) transferred C. wehri to the genus

text: Proneuronema

text: Lichen-like fossils have been found in the Doushantuo Formation in southern China dating back to 635–551 Ma. Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 400 Ma; this date corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a Paleopyrenomycites species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is Palaeoancistrus, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species Archaeomarasmius leggetti) appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma.

text: Lichen

text: -like fossils have been found in the

text: Doushantuo Formation

text: in southern China dating back to 635–551 Ma. Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 400 Ma; this date corresponds to the age of the oldest known

text: sporocarp

text: fern

text: from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a

text: taxon

text: Agaricomycetes

text: ). Two

text: amber

text: -preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species

text: Archaeomarasmius leggetti

text: ) appeared during the late

text: Cretaceous

text: , 90 Ma.

text: Types of molding include:

text: Types of molding include:

text: Due to the considerable anthropological, archaeological, and public interest directed toward human remains, it is only natural that they have received a similar amount of attention from the DNA community. Due to their obvious signs of morphological preservation, many studies utilised mummified tissue as a source of ancient human DNA. Examples include both naturally preserved specimens, for example, those preserved in ice, such as the Ötzi the Iceman (Handt et al. 1994), or through rapid desiccation, such as high-altitude mummies from Andes (c.f. Pääbo 1986; Montiel et al. 2001) as well as various sources of artificially preserved tissue (such as the chemically treated mummies of ancient Egypt). However, mummified remains are a limited resource, and the majority of human aDNA studies have focused on extracting DNA from two sources that are much more common in the archaeological record – bone and teeth. Recently, several other sources have also yielded DNA, including paleofaeces (Poinar et al. 2001) and hair (Baker et al. 2001, Gilbert et al. 2004). Contamination remains a major problem when working on ancient human material. In November 2015, scientists reported finding a 110,000-year-old fossil tooth containing DNA from the Denisovan hominin, an extinct species of human in the genus Homo.

text: Due to the considerable

text: anthropological

text: archaeological

text: , and

text: public interest

text: directed toward human remains, it is only natural that they have received a similar amount of attention from the DNA community. Due to their obvious signs of

text: morphological

text: preservation, many studies utilised mummified tissue as a source of ancient human DNA. Examples include both naturally preserved specimens, for example, those preserved in ice, such as the

text: Ötzi the Iceman

text: (Handt et al. 1994), or through rapid

text: desiccation

text: , such as high-altitude mummies from Andes (c.f.

text: Pääbo

text: 1986; Montiel et al. 2001) as well as various sources of artificially preserved tissue (such as the chemically treated mummies of ancient Egypt). However, mummified remains are a limited resource, and the majority of human aDNA studies have focused on extracting DNA from two sources that are much more common in the

text: archaeological record

text: bone

text: and

text: teeth

text: . Recently, several other sources have also yielded DNA, including

text: paleofaeces

text: Poinar

text: et al. 2001) and

text: hair

text: (Baker et al. 2001, Gilbert et al. 2004). Contamination remains a major problem when working on ancient human material. In November 2015, scientists reported finding a 110,000-year-old fossil tooth containing DNA from the

text: Denisovan hominin

text: , an

text: extinct

text: species

text: of

text: human

text: in the genus

text: Homo

text: Petrifaction is separated from Rhizocretion by the way they are created. Petrifaction is defined as 'a process of fossilization whereby organic matter is converted into a stony substance by the infiltration of water containing dissolved inorganic matter, such as calcium carbonate and silica, which replaces the original organic material, sometimes retaining the original structure'. Thus root petrifaction is a process which involves replacement, impregnation, encrustation and void-filling of organic matter by mineral matter without total loss of root anatomical features. Whereas rhizocretions which include rhizoliths, are created by the pedodiagenetic accumulation of mineral matter around roots. Accumulation, usually accompanied by cementation, may occur during life or death of plant roots.

text: Petrifaction

text: is separated from Rhizocretion by the way they are created. Petrifaction is defined as 'a process of

text: fossilization

text: whereby organic matter is converted into a stony substance by the infiltration of water containing dissolved inorganic matter, such as calcium carbonate and silica, which replaces the original organic material, sometimes retaining the original structure'. Thus root petrifaction is a process which involves replacement, impregnation, encrustation and void-filling of organic matter by mineral matter without total loss of root anatomical features. Whereas rhizocretions which include rhizoliths, are created by the pedodiagenetic accumulation of mineral matter around roots. Accumulation, usually accompanied by

text: cementation

text: , may occur during life or death of plant roots.

text: The genus is known only from the holotype fossil, which is a single fruiting body currently residing in the private collection owned by Yale Goldman of Connecticut United States.  The specimen was collected in August 2000 from the Yanigua Mine, El Valle in the eastern Dominican Republic.  It was first studied by a group of researchers led by Dr. David Hibbett of the Clark University.  Hibbett et al published their 2003 type description in the journal Mycologia.  The generic epithet Aureofungus is Latin in derivation and means "golden fungus" while the specific epithet "yaniguaensis" was coined by the authors from "Yanigua" in recognition of the type locality.

text: The genus is known only from the

text: holotype

text: fossil, which is a single fruiting body currently residing in the private collection owned by Yale Goldman of

text: Connecticut

text: United States.  The specimen was collected in August 2000 from the Yanigua Mine, El Valle in the eastern

text: Dominican Republic

text: .  It was first studied by a group of researchers led by

text: Dr. David Hibbett

text: of the

text: Clark University

text: .  Hibbett

text: et al

text: published their 2003

text: type description

text: in the journal

text: Mycologia

text: .  The generic epithet Aureofungus is

text: Latin

text: in derivation and means "golden fungus" while the specific epithet "yaniguaensis" was coined by the authors from "Yanigua" in recognition of the type locality.

text: The Berthelsdorf Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.

text: The Berthelsdorf Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

text: Permineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried. The empty spaces within an organism (spaces filled with liquid or gas during life) become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces. This process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell. Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils. For permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decay process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil. Some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth; other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues. This is a form of diagenesis.

text: Permineralization

text: is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried. The empty spaces within an organism (spaces filled with liquid or gas during life) become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces. This process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the

text: cell wall

text: of a

text: plant cell

text: . Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils. For permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decay process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil. Some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth; other fossils contain traces of

text: skin

text: feather

text: s or even soft tissues. This is a form of

text: diagenesis

text: The median income for a household in the city was $24,140, and the median income for a family was $25,511. Males had a median income of $26,006 versus $18,629 for females. The per capita income for the city was $10,752.  About 31.6% of families and 36.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 49.8% of those under age 18 and 26.0% of those age 65 or over.

text: The median income for a household in the city was $24,140, and the median income for a family was $25,511. Males had a median income of $26,006 versus $18,629 for females. The

text: per capita income

text: for the city was $10,752.  About 31.6% of families and 36.3% of the population were below the

text: poverty line

text: , including 49.8% of those under age 18 and 26.0% of those age 65 or over.

text: A compression lock, muscle lock, muscle slicer or muscle crusher, is a grappling hold which causes severe pain by pressing a muscle into a bone. A compression lock can cause a joint lock in a nearby joint when it is applied by squeezing a limb over a fulcrum. A forceful compression lock may damage muscles and tendons, and if accompanied by a joint lock, may also result in torn ligaments, dislocation or bone fractures. Compression locks can be used as pain compliance holds, and are sometimes featured in combat sports as submission holds.

text: A compression lock, muscle lock, muscle slicer or muscle crusher, is a

text: grappling hold

text: which causes severe pain by pressing a

text: muscle

text: into a

text: bone

text: . A compression lock can cause a

text: joint lock

text: in a nearby

text: joint

text: when it is applied by squeezing a

text: limb

text: over a

text: fulcrum

text: . A forceful compression lock may damage muscles and

text: tendons

text: , and if accompanied by a

text: joint lock

text: , may also result in torn

text: ligaments

text: dislocation

text: or

text: bone fracture

text: s. Compression locks can be used as

text: pain compliance holds

text: , and are sometimes featured in

text: combat sport

text: s as

text: submission holds

text: It is located near Muel town.

text: It is located near

text: Muel

text: town.

text: Deinodryinus? aptianus is known only from a single fossil, the holotype, specimen number PIN No. 3559/4586, which is housed in the A.A. Borissiak Palaeontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences in Russia.  The specimen is composed of a partially complete adult female wasp.  The specimen is preserved as a compression fossil in marl.  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of possibly Aptian age rocks found in bed 8 of Outcrop 87 of the Khurilt rock unit near Bon Tsagan Nuur Lake in Central Mongolia.  Deinodryinus? aptianus was first studied by the paleoentomologists Adalgisa Guglielmino and Massimo Olmi both of the University of Tuscia in collaboration with Alexandr Rasnitsyn of the Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences.  Their 2010 type description of the new genus and species was published in the online journal Zootaxa.  Deinodryinus? aptianus is one of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the fossil record and the only one to be described from a compression fossil.  Both Deinodryinus areolatus and Deinodryinus velteni are known from fossils preserved in Baltic amber.  Due to the incomplete nature of the fossil and Ventral positioning of the specimen in the marl, placement into the genus Deinodryinus is considered tentative until more specimens are found.

text: Deinodryinus? aptianus is known only from a single fossil, the

text: holotype

text: , specimen number PIN No. 3559/4586, which is housed in the A.A. Borissiak Palaeontological Institute,

text: Russian Academy of Sciences

text: in

text: Russia

text: .  The specimen is composed of a partially complete adult female wasp.  The specimen is preserved as a

text: compression fossil

text: in

text: marl

text: .  The fossil was recovered from outcrops of possibly

text: Aptian

text: age rocks found in bed 8 of Outcrop 87 of the Khurilt rock unit near

text: Bon Tsagan Nuur Lake

text: in Central Mongolia.  Deinodryinus? aptianus was first studied by the paleoentomologists Adalgisa Guglielmino and Massimo Olmi both of the

text: University of Tuscia

text: in collaboration with

text: Alexandr Rasnitsyn

text: of the

text: .  Their 2010

text: type description

text: Zootaxa

text: .  Deinodryinus? aptianus is one of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the fossil record and the only one to be described from a compression fossil.  Both

text: Deinodryinus areolatus

text: and

text: Deinodryinus velteni

text: are known from fossils preserved in

text: Baltic amber

text: .  Due to the incomplete nature of the fossil and Ventral positioning of the specimen in the marl, placement into the genus Deinodryinus is considered tentative until more specimens are found.

text: Commercial spin casting machines are available in two different types, front-loading and top-loading.  Due to the weight and bulkiness of spin casting molds, front loading machines tend to offer several advantages regarding ease of use and time savings.  Rubber molds can become quite heavy, especially at larger diameters and when casting metal.  Because loading and unloading the caster is performed by hand, it is easiest and less fatiguing to manipulate the mold at waist level in one fluid motion as allowed by a front-loading spin caster.  This is especially important when spin casting for production purposes where one is trying to maximize the number of complete casting cycles per hour.

text: Its general character is that of an undulating plain, dotted over with occasional elevations of clay, which present the appearance of walls, table-topped mounds and broken towers (jardangs), the surface of the plain being strewn with gravel and destitute of vegetation. The swelling or undulating plain between these two ranges of the Bey-san measures about  across and is traversed by several stretches of high ground having generally an east-west direction.

text: On 15 July the journalist William Connor, under his pen name Cassandra, broadcast a postscript to the news programme railing against Wodehouse. According to The Times, the broadcast "provoked a storm of complaint ... from listeners all over the country". Wodehouse's biographer, Joseph Connolly, thinks the broadcast "inaccurate, spiteful and slanderous"; Phelps calls it "probably the most vituperative attack on an individual ever heard on British radio". The broadcast was made at the direct instruction of Duff Cooper, the Minister of Information, who overruled strong protests made by the BBC against the decision to air the programme. Numerous letters appeared in the British press, both supporting and criticising Wodehouse. The letters page of The Daily Telegraph became a focus for censuring Wodehouse, including one from Wodehouse's friend, A.A. Milne; a reply from their fellow author Compton Mackenzie in defence of Wodehouse was not published because the editor claimed a lack of space. Most of those defending Wodehouse against accusations of disloyalty, including Sax Rohmer, Dorothy L. Sayers and Gilbert Frankau, conceded that he had acted stupidly. Some members of the public wrote to the newspapers to say that the full facts were not yet known and a fair judgment could not be made until they were. The management of the BBC, who considered Wodehouse's actions no worse than "ill advised", pointed out to Cooper that there was no evidence at that point whether Wodehouse had acted voluntarily or under compulsion.

text: On 15 July the journalist

text: William Connor

text: , under his pen name Cassandra, broadcast a postscript to the news programme railing against Wodehouse. According to

text: The Times

text: , the broadcast "provoked a storm of complaint ... from listeners all over the country". Wodehouse's biographer,

text: Joseph Connolly

text: , thinks the broadcast "inaccurate, spiteful and slanderous"; Phelps calls it "probably the most vituperative attack on an individual ever heard on British radio". The broadcast was made at the direct instruction of

text: Duff Cooper

text: , the

entity_name: Ministry of Information (United Kingdom)

text: Minister of Information

text: , who overruled strong protests made by the BBC against the decision to air the programme. Numerous letters appeared in the British press, both supporting and criticising Wodehouse. The letters page of

text: The Daily Telegraph

text: became a focus for censuring Wodehouse, including one from Wodehouse's friend, A.A. Milne; a reply from their fellow author

text: Compton Mackenzie

text: in defence of Wodehouse was not published because the editor claimed a lack of space. Most of those defending Wodehouse against accusations of disloyalty, including

text: Sax Rohmer

text: Dorothy L. Sayers

text: and

text: Gilbert Frankau

text: , conceded that he had acted stupidly. Some members of the public wrote to the newspapers to say that the full facts were not yet known and a fair judgment could not be made until they were. The management of the BBC, who considered Wodehouse's actions no worse than "ill advised", pointed out to Cooper that there was no evidence at that point whether Wodehouse had acted voluntarily or under compulsion.

text: There are two thoughts to what are lucky stones described below. The other types common in many sedimentary formations are fossilized crinoid stem pieces. If you bite it or crush it and it crumbles, maybe it's a fossil. If it cracks clean or deforms it might be the ear bone. I have found the crinoids fossils in the cliffs of the Grand Canyon and all over the Lake Michigan shore.

text: White Doric columns line the building on three sides. The columns are interrupted on the east side by a driveway leading to an underground garage. The exterior of the building is constructed of hand-molded brick that has been painted white. The roof is made of cleft- face Vermont non-fading, gray-green slate. Front and side porches are of the same type of slate. Lamp posts located in the parking lot east of the building were once gas lights used in Plymouth, England. The cast iron railing atop the driveway retaining walls and at the second story windows was designed from the railing used on the old Beauregard House on Chartres Street in New Orleans and was modified with the diamond pattern by the architect.

text: An Amazon Pop Up kiosk, the 14th in the country, opened in the mall in July 2016, near Starbucks.

text: The fossils of Sauroscaptor show various forms of compression, and were originally interpreted as pertaining to several different genera of dicynodont. However, the shared presence of several unique traits not affected by compression proved that the fossils all belonged to a single endemic species.

text: Operation of compressed air vehicles will usually be pollution free during operation. However the energy required for compression must be sourced, and will usually be derived from electricity, or an internal combustion engine. Depending on the method used to generate the electricity, the energy may still contribute some quantities of greenhouse gases and other pollutants, especially if fossil fuels are used.

text: DDR, DDR2, DDR3 and DDR4 all have different pin counts, and different notch positions.  As of August, 2014, DDR4 SDRAM is a modern emerging type of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) with a high-bandwidth ("double data rate") interface, and has been in use since 2013. It is the higher-speed successor to DDR2 and DDR3. DDR4 SDRAM is neither forward nor backward compatible with any earlier type of random access memory (RAM) because of different signalling voltages, timings, as well as other differing factors between the technologies and their implementation.

text: DDR

text: and

text: all have different pin counts, and different notch positions.  As of August, 2014, DDR4 SDRAM is a modern emerging type of dynamic random access memory (DRAM) with a high-bandwidth ("double data rate") interface, and has been in use since 2013. It is the higher-speed successor to DDR2 and DDR3. DDR4 SDRAM is neither forward nor backward compatible with any earlier type of random access memory (RAM) because of different signalling voltages, timings, as well as other differing factors between the technologies and their implementation.

text: Insect fossils are not merely impressions, but also appear in many other forms; While wings are indeed a common insect fossil, they do not readily decay or digest, which is why birds and spiders typically leave the wings after devouring the rest of an insect. Terrestrial vertebrates are almost always preserved just as bony remains (or inorganic casts thereof), the original bone usually having been replaced by the mineral apatite. Occasionally, mummified or frozen vertebrates are found, but their age is usually no more than several thousand years. Fossils of insects, in contrast, are preserved as three-dimensional, permineralized, and charcoalified replicas; and as inclusions in amber and even within some minerals. There is also abundant fossil evidence for the behavior of extinct insects, including feeding damage on fossil vegetation and in wood, fecal pellets, and nests in fossil soils. Dinosaur behavior, by contrast, is recorded mostly as footprints and coprolites.

text: Insect fossils are not merely impressions, but also appear in many other forms; While wings are indeed a common insect fossil, they do not readily decay or digest, which is why birds and spiders typically leave the wings after devouring the rest of an insect. Terrestrial vertebrates are almost always preserved just as bony remains (or inorganic casts thereof), the original bone usually having been replaced by the mineral

text: apatite

text: . Occasionally, mummified or frozen vertebrates are found, but their age is usually no more than several thousand years. Fossils of insects, in contrast, are preserved as three-dimensional, permineralized, and charcoalified replicas; and as inclusions in amber and even within some minerals. There is also abundant fossil evidence for the behavior of extinct insects, including feeding damage on fossil vegetation and in wood, fecal pellets, and nests in fossil soils. Dinosaur behavior, by contrast, is recorded mostly as

text: footprint

text: s and

text: coprolite

text: s.

text: Emergy is a type of energy (exergy) that is consumed in direct and indirect transformations needed to make a product or service. Emergy is a measure of quality differences between different forms of energy. Emergy is an expression of all the energy used in the work processes that generate a product or service in units of one type of energy. Emergy is measured in units of emjoules, a unit referring to the available energy consumed in transformations. Emergy accounts for different forms of energy and resources (e.g. sunlight, water, fossil fuels, minerals, etc.) Each form is generated by transformation processes in nature and each has a different ability to support work in natural and in human systems. The recognition of these quality differences is a key concept.

text: Emergy is a type of energy (

text: exergy

text: ) that is consumed in direct and indirect transformations needed to make a product or service. Emergy is a measure of quality differences between different forms of energy. Emergy is an expression of all the energy used in the work processes that generate a product or service in units of one type of energy. Emergy is measured in units of emjoules, a unit referring to the available energy consumed in transformations. Emergy accounts for different forms of energy and resources (e.g. sunlight, water, fossil fuels, minerals, etc.) Each form is generated by transformation processes in nature and each has a different ability to support work in natural and in human systems. The recognition of these quality differences is a key concept.

text: Australia and Gilchrist returned to form after the Ashes in the series against the ICC World XI. Gilchrist scored 45, 103 and 32 as Australia swept the ODIs 3–0, and top-scored with 94 in the first innings of the one-off Test, which Australia won. However, this did not transfer into the regular international matches. In six home Tests against the West Indies and South Africa in 2005–06, Gilchrist managed only 190 runs at 23.75, but Australia was unhindered, winning 3–0 and 2–0 respectively.

text: A panoramic view of Kirkwood and the surrounding citrus groves is possible from The Lookout in the Rietberg Mountains, where Kirkwood had his vision.  The Lookout is also well known as a dinosaur fossil site. The first complete dinosaur fossil to be found in South Africa, nicknamed "Kirky", was discovered near here.  Kirky was smaller than 2 meters.

text: A panoramic view of Kirkwood and the surrounding citrus groves is possible from The Lookout in the Rietberg Mountains, where Kirkwood had his vision.  The Lookout is also well known as a

text: dinosaur

text: fossil

text: site. The first complete dinosaur fossil to be found in South Africa, nicknamed "Kirky", was discovered near here.  Kirky was smaller than 2 meters.

text: Heavy plough (5th to 8th centuries)

text: Heavy plough

text: (5th to 8th centuries)

text: The Ottweiler Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.

text: The Ottweiler Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

text: It was intended to name the reptile after the place where its fossil was first found — a construction site next to the Mǎmíngxī (马鸣溪) Ferry Crossing by the Jinsha River (金沙江, the westernmost major headwater stream of the Yangtze River), near Yibin (宜宾) in Sichuan Province of China. However, due to an accentual mix-up by Young, the location name Mǎmíngxī (马鸣溪 'horse-neighing brook') was mistaken as Mǎménxī (马门溪 'horse-gate brook'). The fact that the first Mamenchisaurus fossil was found as the result of construction work led to Young's naming the type species as Mamenchisaurus constructus.

text: It was intended to name the reptile after the place where its fossil was first found — a construction site next to the Mǎmíngxī (马鸣溪) Ferry Crossing by the

text: Jinsha River

text: (金沙江, the westernmost major headwater stream of the

text: Yangtze River

text: ), near

text: Yibin

text: (宜宾) in

text: Sichuan Province

text: of

text: China

text: . However, due to an accentual mix-up by

text: Young

text: , the location name Mǎmíngxī (马鸣溪 'horse-neighing brook') was mistaken as Mǎménxī (马门溪 'horse-gate brook'). The fact that the first Mamenchisaurus fossil was found as the result of construction work led to Young's naming the

text: type species

text: as Mamenchisaurus constructus.

text: Texas's 14th congressional district, 1998:

text: Texas's 14th congressional district

text: , 1998:

text: The packaging sector provides opportunities for new technologies as well as new types of materials that improve a product's lifespan and microbiological safety. Active and intelligent packaging can, for instance, absorb oxygen and CO2, or even heat itself. Others provide the consumer with indicators on temperature, freshness or the degree of ripeness. Advancements have also been made on the nano level. Packaging that avails itself of nanotechnology can create barriers to gases, humidity or UV radiation. New technology also helps at making the product weigh less. Increasingly, biopolymers are used as the material basis for packaging, replacing fossil-based polymers. Yet, new packaging types tend to face issues like a higher price and hence, difficulties in competition with the cheaper fossil-based materials.

text: The packaging sector provides opportunities for new technologies as well as new types of materials that improve a product's lifespan and

text: microbiological safety

text: . Active and intelligent packaging can, for instance, absorb

text: oxygen

text: and

text: , or even heat itself. Others provide the consumer with indicators on temperature, freshness or the degree of ripeness. Advancements have also been made on the nano level. Packaging that avails itself of nanotechnology can create barriers to gases, humidity or UV radiation. New technology also helps at making the product weigh less. Increasingly,

text: biopolymer

text: s are used as the material basis for packaging, replacing fossil-based polymers. Yet, new packaging types tend to face issues like a higher price and hence, difficulties in competition with the cheaper fossil-based materials.

text: The Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours. On 19 July, Hitler again publicly offered to end the war, saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire. The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum. The main German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command, and a proposed invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September. The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort.

text: The

text: Battle of Britain

text: began in early July with

text: Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours

text: . On 19 July, Hitler again publicly offered to end the war, saying he had no desire to destroy the

text: British Empire

text: . The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum. The main

text: German air superiority campaign

text: started in August but failed to defeat

text: RAF Fighter Command

text: , and a

text: proposed invasion

text: was postponed indefinitely on 17 September. The German

text: strategic bombing

text: offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in

text: the Blitz

text: , but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort.

text: Thermal pads or ground pads are thin, lightweight pads that are common among hikers, backpackers and budget travelers.  In its simplest form a thermal pad consists of a foam-like material that is about half a centimetre thick (about a quarter of an inch).  The dimensions of the pad are usually about the same length as a sleeping bag and a little wider.  Slight variations in design can be found, such as rippling in the foam, but these do not significantly affect the pad's thermal properties.

text: Thermal pads or ground pads are thin, lightweight pads that are common among

text: hikers

text: backpacker

text: s and budget travelers.  In its simplest form a thermal pad consists of a foam-like material that is about half a centimetre thick (about a quarter of an inch).  The dimensions of the pad are usually about the same length as a

text: sleeping bag

text: and a little wider.  Slight variations in design can be found, such as rippling in the foam, but these do not significantly affect the pad's thermal properties.

text: The front facade features a monumental hexastyle portico with Doric columns.  These support a plain entablature with a simple molding dividing the architrave and frieze.  Above a simple cornice, the unadorned pediment is framed by horizontal and raking geisons.  Behind the portico, the building is divided into a five bay facade. The central bay is occupied by doorways on both floors, with simply molded windows occupying the remaining bays to either side.  Both door surrounds are Greek Revival, these are inset with double doors, surrounded by sidelights and topped by a transom.  The upper doorway opens onto a cantilevered balcony.  The lower windows are floor-to-ceiling and open onto the portico, while the upper windows are six-over-six.  The rear of the building also has a two-story portico, but here it is supported by six slender cast-iron columns.

text: The front facade features a monumental hexastyle

text: portico

text: with

text: Doric

text: columns.  These support a plain

text: entablature

text: with a simple

text: molding

text: dividing the

text: architrave

text: and

text: frieze

text: .  Above a simple

text: cornice

text: , the unadorned

text: pediment

text: is framed by horizontal and raking

text: geison

text: s.  Behind the portico, the building is divided into a five

text: bay

text: facade. The central bay is occupied by doorways on both floors, with simply molded windows occupying the remaining bays to either side.  Both door surrounds are Greek Revival, these are inset with double doors, surrounded by sidelights and topped by a

text: transom

text: .  The upper doorway opens onto a

text: cantilever

text: ed balcony.  The lower windows are floor-to-ceiling and open onto the portico, while the upper windows are six-over-six.  The rear of the building also has a two-story portico, but here it is supported by six slender cast-iron columns.

text: The Geisheck Formation is a geologic formation in Germany. It preserves fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period.

text: The Geisheck Formation is a

text: geologic formation

text: in

text: Germany

text: . It preserves

text: fossils

text: dating back to the

text: Carboniferous

text: period

text: Clearly, there are possibilities of using melt casting for many of these approaches. Potentially even more desirable is using melt-derived particles. In this method, quenching is done in a solid solution or in a fine eutectic structure, in which the particles are then processed by more typical ceramic powder processing methods into a useful body. There have also been preliminary attempts to use melt spraying as a means of forming composites by introducing the dispersed particulate, whisker, or fibre phase in conjunction with the melt spraying process.

text: The Watch Station International chain was sold to Fossil Inc. in December 2007.

text: No Precambrian fossils are known from Kansas, so the state's fossil record does not begin until the Paleozoic era. Kansas From the Cambrian to the Devonian, Kansas was covered by a shallow sea. The Cambrian life of Kansas left behind few fossils. The state's sea levels began to fluctuate during the Carboniferous period. While the state was still covered by the sea, it was home to a rich variety of marine invertebrates. During the later half of the Carboniferous, the Pennsylvanian, nautiloids could be found in Franklin County. Other kinds of marine invertebrates could be found in Anderson County. Paleoniscid fishes swam in the waterways of Douglas County. Some of their fossils have preserved the fishes' soft parts. Fish fossils of this age were also preserved in Anderson County. During the drier intervals Kansas was home to great coastal swamps with a rich flora included ferns and scale trees. These swamps were responsible for leaving behind great coal deposits. The local flora also left behind remains that would later fossilize in what are now southern Labette County and Montgomery County. The plant Walchia grew in Anderson County, although its fossils are rare. The contemporary terrestrial environments of Kansas were home to invertebrates like scorpions. They were also home to amphibians and early reptiles. Such contemporary tetrapods left behind footprints in Kansas that would later fossilize. Among these were tracks of the ichnogenus Limnopus. Other fossils from this time period include Wakarusopus tracks left behind in Douglas County by a colossal amphibian that would have weighed several hundred pounds in life. Pennsylvanian amphibian remains were also preserved in Anderson County. Primitive reptiles left behind remains that were preserved in Anderson County, near the town of Garnett.

text: No

text: Precambrian

text: fossils are known from Kansas, so the state's fossil record does not begin until the

text: Paleozoic

text: era. Kansas From the

text: Cambrian

text: to the

text: Devonian

text: , Kansas was covered by a shallow sea. The

text: Cambrian

text: life of Kansas left behind few fossils. The state's sea levels began to fluctuate during the

text: Carboniferous

text: period. While the state was still covered by the sea, it was home to a rich variety of marine invertebrates. During the later half of the Carboniferous, the

text: Pennsylvanian

text: nautiloids

text: could be found in

text: Franklin County

text: . Other kinds of marine invertebrates could be found in

text: Anderson County

text: Paleoniscid

text: fishes

text: swam in the waterways of

text: Douglas County

text: . Some of their fossils have preserved the fishes' soft parts. Fish fossils of this age were also preserved in Anderson County. During the drier intervals Kansas was home to great coastal

text: swamps

text: with a rich flora included

text: fern

text: s and

text: scale trees

text: . These swamps were responsible for leaving behind great

text: coal

text: deposits. The local

text: flora

text: also left behind remains that would later fossilize in what are now southern

text: Labette County

text: and

text: Montgomery County

text: . The plant

text: Walchia

text: grew in Anderson County, although its fossils are rare. The contemporary terrestrial environments of Kansas were home to invertebrates like

text: scorpion

text: s. They were also home to

text: amphibians

text: and early

text: reptiles

text: . Such contemporary

text: tetrapods

text: left behind

text: footprints

text: in Kansas that would later fossilize. Among these were tracks of the

text: ichnogenus

text: Limnopus

text: . Other fossils from this time period include

text: Wakarusopus

text: tracks left behind in Douglas County by a colossal

text: amphibian

text: that would have weighed several hundred pounds in life. Pennsylvanian amphibian remains were also preserved in Anderson County. Primitive reptiles left behind remains that were preserved in Anderson County, near the town of

text: Garnett