text: The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large-scale avulsion, in the period 1776-1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "old Brahmaputra". The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river’s erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: On February 17, Ohka, as the 2009 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into a tournament to determine the inaugural Wave Single Champion and defeated rival Misaki Ohata in her semifinal match. On March 17, Ohka defeated Kana in the finals to win the tournament and become the inaugural Wave Single Champion. Ohka made her first successful title defense on April 21 against Yuu Yamagata. On July 15, Ohka became a double champion in Wave, when she and Hikaru Shida defeated Triple Tails.S (Kana and Mio Shirai) for the Wave Tag Team Championship. However, after a reign of only a month, Shidarezakura lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Yoko Hatanaka (Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa) in their first defense on August 15. On August 25, Ohka made her second successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against rival and winner of the 2013 Catch the Wave, Misaki Ohata. From September 1 to October 6, Ohka took part in the 2013 Dual Shock Wave tournament, where she teamed with Kana under the team name Giann's. The team made it all the way to the finals of the tournament, before losing to Las Aventureras (Ayako Hamada and Yuu Yamagata) in a three-way match, which also included Muscle Venus (Hikaru Shida and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On October 30, Ohka made her third successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Tomoka Nakagawa, avenging a loss suffered during the 2013 Dual Shock Wave. On November 20, Ohka combined her two tag teams with Hikaru Shida and Kana to form a trio named Shidare Giann's for a 6-Person Tag Tournament. In their first round Two Out of Three Falls match, the three defeated Urayama Arrows (Natsuki Urabe, Rina Yamashita and Yako Fujigasaki). On November 27, Shidare Giann's was eliminated from the tournament in a semifinal submission match by Revolucion Yoko Hatanaka (Gami, Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa). On December 15, Ohka made her fourth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Shuu Shibutani. Following Gami's retirement from professional wrestling at the end of 2013, Ohka became the new official representative of Wave. Ohka made her fifth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship on January 26, 2014, when she wrestled Misaki Ohata to a thirty-minute time limit draw. On March 2, Ohka made her sixth successful defense against JWP representative Kayoko Haruyama as part of a storyline rivalry between the two promotions. Ohka's seventh successful title defense took place on April 20, when she defeated Hikaru Shida. From May 5 to June 22, Ohka took part in the round-robin portion of the 2014 Catch the Wave tournament, winning her block with a record of three wins, two draws and one loss, suffered against Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 27, Ohka was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Misaki Ohata. On August 24, Ohka's seventeen-month reign as the Wave Single Champion came to an end, when she lost the title to the 2014 Catch the Wave winner Hikaru Shida in her eighth defense.

text: On February 17, Ohka, as the 2009 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into a

entity_name: Wave Single Championship

entity_section: Regina di Wave tournament

text: tournament

text: to determine the inaugural

text: Wave Single Champion

text: and defeated rival Misaki Ohata in her semifinal match. On March 17, Ohka defeated Kana in the finals to win the tournament and become the inaugural Wave Single Champion. Ohka made her first successful title defense on April 21 against Yuu Yamagata. On July 15, Ohka became a double champion in Wave, when she and Hikaru Shida defeated Triple Tails.S (Kana and Mio Shirai) for the Wave Tag Team Championship. However, after a reign of only a month, Shidarezakura lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Yoko Hatanaka (Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa) in their first defense on August 15. On August 25, Ohka made her second successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against rival and winner of the

entity_name: Catch the Wave

text: 2013 Catch the Wave

text: , Misaki Ohata. From September 1 to October 6, Ohka took part in the

entity_name: Dual Shock Wave

text: 2013 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament, where she teamed with Kana under the team name Giann's. The team made it all the way to the finals of the tournament, before losing to Las Aventureras (Ayako Hamada and Yuu Yamagata) in a three-way match, which also included Muscle Venus (Hikaru Shida and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On October 30, Ohka made her third successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Tomoka Nakagawa, avenging a loss suffered during the 2013 Dual Shock Wave. On November 20, Ohka combined her two tag teams with Hikaru Shida and Kana to form a trio named Shidare Giann's for a 6-Person Tag Tournament. In their first round Two Out of Three Falls match, the three defeated Urayama Arrows (Natsuki Urabe, Rina Yamashita and Yako Fujigasaki). On November 27, Shidare Giann's was eliminated from the tournament in a semifinal

entity_name: Professional wrestling match types

entity_section: Variations of singles matches

text: submission match

text: by Revolucion Yoko Hatanaka (Gami, Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa). On December 15, Ohka made her fourth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Shuu Shibutani. Following Gami's retirement from professional wrestling at the end of 2013, Ohka became the new official representative of Wave. Ohka made her fifth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship on January 26, 2014, when she wrestled Misaki Ohata to a thirty-minute time limit draw. On March 2, Ohka made her sixth successful defense against JWP representative Kayoko Haruyama as part of a storyline rivalry between the two promotions. Ohka's seventh successful title defense took place on April 20, when she defeated Hikaru Shida. From May 5 to June 22, Ohka took part in the round-robin portion of the

text: 2014 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, winning her block with a record of three wins, two draws and one loss, suffered against Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 27, Ohka was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Misaki Ohata. On August 24, Ohka's seventeen-month reign as the Wave Single Champion came to an end, when she lost the title to the 2014 Catch the Wave winner Hikaru Shida in her eighth defense.

method: UNH-ecn

text: The effects of Hurricane Isabel were generally light in the southeastern portion of the state. Sustained winds reached 72 mph (116 km/h) offshore in the Frying Pan Shoals, where a gust of 82 mph (132 km/h) was also reported. Sustained winds were lighter along the coast, peaking at 45 mph (72 km/h) at the Wilmington International Airport, while gusts reached 66 mph (106 km/h) at a North Carolina State Ports Authority facility in Wilmington. Tropical storm force wind gusts were reported as far inland as Lumberton, where gusts reached 52 mph (54 km/h). The large circulation of Isabel dropped moderate rainfall across the area, peaking at 4.51 inches (115 mm) in Whiteville. Additionally, weather radars estimated over 5 inches (125 mm) of precipitation fell in portions of New Hanover County. The rainfall resulted in ponding on roadways, though no severe flooding was reported. Storm tides were generally around 1 foot (0.3 m) above normal, though Wilmington reported a storm tide of 3.22 feet (1 m). Rough waves resulted in moderate beach erosion near Cape Fear and minor erosion along eastward-facing beaches north of Cape Fear.

text: The effects of Hurricane Isabel were generally light in the southeastern portion of the state. Sustained winds reached 72 mph (116 km/h) offshore in the

entity_name: Frying Pan Shoals

text: Frying Pan Shoals

text: , where a gust of 82 mph (132 km/h) was also reported. Sustained winds were lighter along the coast, peaking at 45 mph (72 km/h) at the

entity_name: Wilmington International Airport

text: Wilmington International Airport

text: , while gusts reached 66 mph (106 km/h) at a

entity_name: North Carolina State Ports Authority

text: North Carolina State Ports Authority

text: facility in

entity_name: Wilmington, North Carolina

text: Wilmington

text: . Tropical storm force wind gusts were reported as far inland as

entity_name: Lumberton, North Carolina

text: Lumberton

text: , where gusts reached 52 mph (54 km/h). The large circulation of Isabel dropped moderate rainfall across the area, peaking at 4.51 inches (115 mm) in

entity_name: Whiteville, North Carolina

text: Whiteville

text: . Additionally, weather radars estimated over 5 inches (125 mm) of precipitation fell in portions of

entity_name: New Hanover County, North Carolina

text: New Hanover County

text: . The rainfall resulted in ponding on roadways, though no severe flooding was reported. Storm tides were generally around 1 foot (0.3 m) above normal, though Wilmington reported a storm tide of 3.22 feet (1 m). Rough waves resulted in moderate beach erosion near Cape Fear and minor erosion along eastward-facing beaches north of Cape Fear.

text: P-waves are a type of elastic wave, and are one of the two main types of elastic body waves, called seismic waves in seismology, that travel through a continuum and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a seismograph. The continuum is made up of gases (as sound waves), liquids, or solids, including the Earth. P-waves can be produced by earthquakes and recorded by seismographs. The name P-wave can stand for either pressure wave  as it is formed from alternating compressions and rarefactions or primary wave, as it has the highest velocity and is therefore the first wave to be recorded.

text: P-waves are a type of

entity_name: Linear elasticity

entity_section: Elastic wave

text: elastic wave

text: , and are one of the two main types of elastic

entity_name: Seismic wave

text: body waves

text: , called

text: seismic waves

text: in seismology, that travel through a

entity_name: Continuum mechanics

text: continuum

text: and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a seismograph. The

entity_name: Continuum (measurement)

text: continuum

text: is made up of

entity_name: Gas

text: gas

text: es (as

entity_name: Sound

text: sound

text: waves), liquids, or solids, including the

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: . P-waves can be produced by

entity_name: Earthquake

text: earthquakes

text: and recorded by

entity_name: Seismometer

text: seismographs

text: . The name P-wave can stand for either pressure wave  as it is formed from alternating

entity_name: Compression (physics)

text: compression

text: s and

entity_name: Rarefaction

text: rarefaction

text: s or primary wave, as it has the highest velocity and is therefore the first wave to be recorded.

text: Spurn Point at the tip of the Spurn peninsula is made of hard glacial moraine so is less liable to erosion than areas further north on the Holderness coast. The Spurn peninsula is a beach with dunes which moves in response to the action of the waves. The wave action removes sand from the east of the beach and deposits it on the western side. The coast is influenced mainly by wave action but in the estuary the processes are driven by the power of the tides. The incoming tidal currents carry more sediment into the estuary than the ebb tides carry out.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

method: UNH-qee

text: Directs a study for shoreline protection in New York.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Causeways affect currents and may therefore be involved in beach erosion or changed deposition patterns; this effect has been a problem at the Hindenburgdamm in northern Germany. During hurricane seasons, the winds and rains of approaching tropical storms—as well as waves generated by the storm in the surrounding bodies of water—make traversing causeways problematic at best and impossibly dangerous during the fiercest parts of the storms. For this reason (and related reasons, such as the need to minimize traffic jams on both the roads approaching the causeway and the causeway itself), emergency evacuation of island residents is a high priority for local, regional, and even national authorities.

text: Causeways affect currents and may therefore be involved in beach

text: erosion

text: or changed deposition patterns; this effect has been a problem at the

entity_name: Hindenburgdamm

text: Hindenburgdamm

text: in northern Germany. During

entity_name: Tropical cyclone

text: hurricane

text: seasons, the winds and rains of approaching

entity_section: Tropical storm

text: tropical storm

text: s—as well as waves generated by the storm in the surrounding bodies of water—make traversing causeways problematic at best and impossibly dangerous during the fiercest parts of the storms. For this reason (and related reasons, such as the need to minimize

entity_name: Traffic congestion

text: traffic jam

text: s on both the roads approaching the causeway and the causeway itself),

entity_name: Emergency evacuation

text: emergency evacuation

text: of

entity_name: Island

text: island

text: residents is a high priority for local, regional, and even national authorities.

text: Living shorelines are a relatively new approach for addressing shoreline erosion and protecting marsh areas. Unlike traditional structures such as bulkheads or seawalls that worsen erosion, living shorelines incorporate as many natural elements as possible which create more effective buffers in absorbing wave energy and protecting against shoreline erosion. The process of creating a living shoreline is referred to as soft engineering, which utilizes techniques that incorporate ecological principles in shoreline stabilization. The natural materials used in the construction of living shorelines create and maintain valuable habitats. Structural and organic materials commonly used in the construction of living shorelines include sand, wetland plants, sand fill, oyster reefs, submerged aquatic vegetation, stones and coir fiber logs.

text: Living shorelines are a relatively new approach for addressing

entity_name: Coastal erosion

text: shoreline erosion

text: and protecting

entity_name: Marsh

text: marsh

text: areas. Unlike traditional structures such as

entity_name: Bulkhead (barrier)

text: bulkhead

text: s or

entity_name: Seawall

text: seawall

text: s that worsen erosion, living shorelines incorporate as many natural elements as possible which create more effective buffers in absorbing

entity_name: Wave power

text: wave energy

text: and protecting against shoreline erosion. The process of creating a living shoreline is referred to as

entity_name: Soft engineering

text: soft engineering

text: , which utilizes techniques that incorporate ecological principles in shoreline stabilization. The natural materials used in the construction of living shorelines create and maintain valuable habitats. Structural and organic materials commonly used in the construction of living shorelines include sand,

entity_name: Wetland

text: wetland

text: plants, sand fill,

entity_name: Oyster reef restoration

text: oyster reefs

text: , submerged

entity_name: Aquatic plant

text: aquatic vegetation

text: , stones and

entity_name: Coir

text: coir

text: fiber logs.

text: Unlike most islands in Lake Erie, Turtle Island consists primarily of clay and gravel deposits and was subjected to constant erosion, which is why some believed it to not be a real island.  By 1839, lake storms and waves reduced the island by approximately 77% down to an area of only .  Congress spent tens of thousands of dollars to no avail to prevent the erosion of the island.  In 1866, an updated lighthouse costing $12,000 was constructed.  It was described as one of the finest lighthouses on the Great Lakes, and its light could be seen up to  away.  However, the erosion of the island continued to threaten the lighthouse to the point where a  tall concrete wall was constructed in 1883 around the lighthouse to prevent crashing waves and erosion from damaging the structure.  Constant lake storms bombarded the tiny island.  When the nearby Toledo Harbor Light was completed in 1904, the Turtle Island Lighthouse was no longer needed and was decommissioned after having cost the United States an untold amount of money to continuously maintain over the past 72 years.  During those 72 years, there were no shipwrecks within the vicinity of Turtle Island.

text: Unlike most islands in Lake Erie, Turtle Island consists primarily of clay and gravel deposits and was subjected to constant erosion, which is why some believed it to not be a real island.  By 1839, lake storms and waves reduced the island by approximately 77% down to an area of only .  Congress spent tens of thousands of dollars to no avail to prevent the erosion of the island.  In 1866, an updated lighthouse costing $12,000 was constructed.  It was described as one of the finest lighthouses on the Great Lakes, and its light could be seen up to  away.  However, the erosion of the island continued to threaten the lighthouse to the point where a  tall concrete wall was constructed in 1883 around the lighthouse to prevent crashing waves and erosion from damaging the structure.  Constant lake storms bombarded the tiny island.  When the nearby

entity_name: Toledo Harbor Light

text: Toledo Harbor Light

text: was completed in 1904, the Turtle Island Lighthouse was no longer needed and was decommissioned after having cost the United States an untold amount of money to continuously maintain over the past 72 years.  During those 72 years, there were no shipwrecks within the vicinity of Turtle Island.

text: Some depositional formation is quite recent, such as in the case of Florida Bay, where much of the bay mud has accumulated since 2000 BC, and consists of primarily decayed organic material.  In the case of Florida Bay these bay muds can accrete as much as 0.5 to 2.0 centimeters per annum, although the dynamic equilibrium of erosion, wave action redistribution and deposition complicate the net rate of layer growth. In the case of the Bristol Channel in the United Kingdom bay, mud formation has been occurring at least since the Eemian Stage (known as the Sangamonian Stage in North America), or about 130,000 years ago.  In other cases such as with San Francisco Bay, deposition has been interrupted by sea-level changes, and strata of vastly different vintages are found. In the San Francisco Bay Area, these are  called Young bay mud and Older bay mud by geologists. Human activities can also affect deposition; close to half of the Young Bay Mud in San Francisco Bay was placed in the period 1855–1865, as a result of placer mining in the Sierra Nevada foothills.

text: Some depositional formation is quite recent, such as in the case of Florida Bay, where much of the bay mud has accumulated since 2000 BC, and consists of primarily decayed organic material.  In the case of Florida Bay these bay muds can accrete as much as 0.5 to 2.0 centimeters per annum, although the dynamic equilibrium of

text: erosion

entity_name: Wind wave

text: wave action

text: redistribution and deposition complicate the net rate of layer growth. In the case of the

entity_name: Bristol Channel

text: Bristol Channel

text: in the United Kingdom bay, mud formation has been occurring at least since the Eemian Stage (known as the

entity_name: Sangamonian

text: Sangamonian Stage

text: in

entity_name: North America

text: North America

text: ), or about 130,000 years ago.  In other cases such as with

entity_name: San Francisco Bay

text: San Francisco Bay

text: , deposition has been interrupted by sea-level changes, and strata of vastly different vintages are found. In the San Francisco Bay Area, these are  called

text: Young bay mud

text: and

text: Older bay mud

text: by

entity_name: Geologist

text: geologist

text: s. Human activities can also affect deposition; close to half of the Young Bay Mud in San Francisco Bay was placed in the period 1855–1865, as a result of

entity_name: Placer mining

text: placer mining

text: in the

entity_name: Sierra Nevada (U.S.)

text: Sierra Nevada

text: foothills.

text: The early Mauch Chunk beds were deposited on a large basin receiving most of its sediments from distant highlands. Sea levels fluctuated and allowed some limestone deposition to occur early as well. Since the dominant color of the Mauch Chunk is red, much of the sediment was deposited above sea level in oxidizing conditions. The green-colored members indicate a reducing environment characterized by frequent inundation by water in a swamp, delta, or shallow sea. Later beds have frequent conglomerate beds signaling the first wave of the Alleghenian orogeny.

text: The early Mauch Chunk beds were deposited on a large basin receiving most of its sediments from distant highlands. Sea levels fluctuated and allowed some limestone deposition to occur early as well. Since the dominant color of the Mauch Chunk is red, much of the sediment was deposited above sea level in

entity_name: Redox

text: oxidizing

text: conditions. The green-colored members indicate a reducing environment characterized by frequent inundation by water in a swamp, delta, or shallow sea. Later beds have frequent conglomerate beds signaling the first wave of the

entity_name: Alleghanian orogeny

text: Alleghenian orogeny

text: The adjacent bathymetry, or configuration of the seafloor, controls the wave energy arriving at the coast, and can have an important influence on the rate of cliff erosion.  Shoals and bars offer protection from wave erosion by causing storm waves to break and dissipate their energy before reaching the shore. Given the dynamic nature of the seafloor, changes in the location of shoals and bars may cause the locus of beach or cliff erosion to change position along the shore.

text: The adjacent

entity_name: Bathymetry

text: bathymetry

text: , or configuration of the seafloor, controls the wave energy arriving at the coast, and can have an important influence on the rate of cliff erosion.  Shoals and bars offer protection from wave erosion by causing storm waves to break and dissipate their energy before reaching the shore. Given the dynamic nature of the seafloor, changes in the location of shoals and bars may cause the locus of beach or cliff erosion to change position along the shore.

text: The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is the ratio of the voltage and current of a wave travelling along the line.  When the wave reaches the end of the line, in general, there will be a reflected wave which travels back along the line in the opposite direction.  When this wave reaches the source, it adds to the transmitted wave and the ratio of the voltage and current at the input to the line will no longer be the characteristic impedance.  This new ratio is called the input impedance.  The input impedance of an infinite line is equal to the characteristic impedance since the transmitted wave is never reflected back from the end.  It can be shown that an equivalent definition is: the characteristic impedance of a line is that impedance which when terminating an arbitrary length of line at its output will produce an input impedance equal to the characteristic impedance.  This is so because there is no reflection on a line terminated in its own characteristic impedance.

text: The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is the ratio of the voltage and current of a wave travelling along the line.  When the wave reaches the end of the line, in general, there will be a reflected wave which travels back along the line in the opposite direction.  When this wave reaches the source, it adds to the transmitted wave and the ratio of the voltage and current at the input to the line will no longer be the characteristic impedance.  This new ratio is called the

entity_name: Input impedance

text: input impedance

text: .  The input impedance of an infinite line is equal to the characteristic impedance since the transmitted wave is never reflected back from the end.  It can be shown that an equivalent definition is: the characteristic impedance of a line is that impedance which when terminating an arbitrary length of line at its output will produce an input impedance equal to the characteristic impedance.  This is so because there is no reflection on a line terminated in its own characteristic impedance.

text: Leading up to it culmination in 2008, CESP joined with the local groups in Richmond to create a vision to protect the Richmond shoreline for open space, public access, habitat protection and recreation. CESP advocated for the direct acquisition of Breuner Marsh as part of the East Bay Regional Park system. As part of the North Richmond Shoreline Open Space Alliance, CESP urged the East bay Regional Park District to acquire the property. The East Bay Regional Park District (EBRPD) attempted to purchase the land from the landowner who instead announced intentions to build a development partly in the marsh, with the matter ending up in court finally and in 2008 the Court rule that the acquisition could go forward and put the price at $6.85 million. CESP and other environmental allies encouraged this acquisition to preserve and restore more than  of the North Richmond Shoreline.

text: Sediment accumulation can also be a result of wave action. Wave currents occur in a swash and backwash  motion. This continual wave action allows for the movement of sediment. The angles at which the swash and backwash occur, are associated with the off shore transport current as well as the change in winter and summer ocean currents.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: The second main point about the regular spacing of cusps is that negative feedback will decrease the amount of net erosion and deposition within a well-formed cusp. As the wave strikes the beach, it will first come into contact with the cusp horns, which will slow the water down. This causes it to lose energy and some of the heavier sediment that it is carrying will be deposited.  The loss of this sediment, however, gives the water extra energy, and it uses this to remove sediment from the embayment on the backwash.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: The ability of waves to cause erosion of the cliff face depends on many factors.

text: The ability of

text: waves

text: to cause

text: erosion

text: of the

text: cliff

text: face depends on many factors.

text: Longshore drift is influenced by numerous aspects of the coastal system, with processes that occur within the surf zone largely influencing the deposition and erosion of sediments. Longshore currents can generate oblique breaking waves which result in longshore transport.

text: Longshore drift is influenced by numerous aspects of the coastal system, with processes that occur within the surf zone largely influencing the

text: deposition

text: and

text: erosion

text: of sediments. Longshore currents can generate oblique breaking waves which result in longshore transport.

text: With the further settlement of the Ore Mountains in the 15th century, new, rich, ore deposits were eventually discovered around Schneeberg Annaberg and St. Joachimsthal. The Second Berggeschrey started and triggered a massive wave of colonization. In quick succession, new, planned, mining towns were built across the Ore Mountains in the vicinity of newly discovered ore deposits. Typical examples are the towns of Marienberg, Oberwiesenthal, Gottesgab (Boží Dar), Sebastiansberg (Hora Sv. Šebestiána) and Platten (Horní Blatná). Economically, however, only silver and tin ores were used. From that time, the wealth of Saxony was built on the silver mines of the Ore Mountains. As  a metal used for coinage, silver was minted on site in the mountain towns into money. The Joachimsthaler coins, minted in the valley of Joachimsthal, became famous and gave their name to the medieval coin known as the Thaler from which the word "dollar" is derived. After the end of the Hussite Wars, the economy in Bohemia, which had been disrupted by the conflict, recovered.

text: With the further settlement of the Ore Mountains in the 15th century, new, rich, ore deposits were eventually discovered around

text: Schneeberg

text: Annaberg

text: and

text: St. Joachimsthal

text: . The

text: Second Berggeschrey

text: started and triggered a massive wave of colonization. In quick succession, new, planned, mining towns were built across the Ore Mountains in the vicinity of newly discovered ore deposits. Typical examples are the towns of

text: Marienberg

text: Oberwiesenthal

text: Gottesgab

text: (Boží Dar),

text: Sebastiansberg

text: (Hora Sv. Šebestiána) and

text: Platten

text: (Horní Blatná). Economically, however, only

text: silver

text: and

text: tin

text: ores were used. From that time, the wealth of Saxony was built on the silver mines of the Ore Mountains. As  a metal used for coinage, silver was minted on site in the mountain towns into money. The

text: Joachimsthaler

text: coins, minted in the valley of Joachimsthal, became famous and gave their name to the medieval coin known as the

text: Thaler

text: from which the word "

text: dollar

text: " is derived. After the end of the

text: Hussite Wars

text: , the economy in Bohemia, which had been disrupted by the conflict, recovered.

text: Sediment transport is important in the fields of sedimentary geology, geomorphology, civil engineering and environmental engineering (see applications, below). Knowledge of sediment transport is most often used to determine whether erosion or deposition will occur, the magnitude of this erosion or deposition, and the time and distance over which it will occur.

text: Sediment transport is important in the fields of

text: sedimentary geology

text: geomorphology

text: civil engineering

text: and

text: environmental engineering

text: (see

text: applications

text: , below). Knowledge of sediment transport is most often used to determine whether

text: erosion

text: or

text: deposition

text: will occur, the magnitude of this erosion or deposition, and the time and distance over which it will occur.

text: Nintoku Seamount apparently remained at or above sea level long enough to be almost completely devastated by subaerial erosion and wave action. Reefs were not indicated in the seismic studies, but fragmented pieces of coral were recovered and documented, showing a shallow-water sediment-rich condition. The rock records indicate deposition in waters cooler than the present tropical condition. Shallow-water sedimentary deposition ceased in Paleogene times.

text: Nintoku Seamount apparently remained at or above

text: sea level

text: long enough to be almost completely devastated by subaerial erosion and wave action. Reefs were not indicated in the seismic studies, but fragmented pieces of coral were recovered and documented, showing a shallow-water sediment-rich condition. The rock records indicate deposition in waters cooler than the present tropical condition. Shallow-water sedimentary deposition ceased in

text: Paleogene times

text: Historically part of Christchurch, Mudeford Spit was sold to Bournemouth Borough Council in 1935. It is the larger of the two features, the other being the Haven, that almost encloses Christchurch Harbour, leaving the water within to exit through a narrow channel known as The Run. Formed by sand and shingle brought around Hengistbury Head by longshore drift and pushed towards the shore by waves from the east, the spit is the most mobile of Dorset's geographical features. Prior to the construction of the long groyne at Hengistbury Head in 1938, it tended to grow steadily in a north-easterly direction and on occasion stretched as far as Steamer Point and Highcliffe Castle; most notably in 1880. It has been breached a number of times naturally; 1883, 1911, 1924, 1935 and once deliberately in the 17th century when an attempt was made to construct another entrance to the harbour. After the last breaching in 1935, the end of the spit broke off and drifted towards the beach at Friars Cliff where it formed a lagoon. The groyne built in 1938 to protect Hengistbury Head from erosion had an adverse effect on the spit as it prevented movement of material around it. The spit began to erode due to wave action from the east and many attempts have been made since to stabilise the situation. Small seawalls were constructed on the spit in the 1960s and a large number of rubble groynes were put down during the 1980s.

text: Historically part of Christchurch, Mudeford Spit was sold to Bournemouth Borough Council in 1935. It is the larger of the two features, the other being the Haven, that almost encloses Christchurch Harbour, leaving the water within to exit through a narrow channel known as The Run. Formed by sand and shingle brought around Hengistbury Head by

text: longshore drift

text: and pushed towards the shore by waves from the east, the spit is the most mobile of Dorset's geographical features. Prior to the construction of the long groyne at Hengistbury Head in 1938, it tended to grow steadily in a north-easterly direction and on occasion stretched as far as Steamer Point and

text: Highcliffe Castle

text: ; most notably in 1880. It has been breached a number of times naturally; 1883, 1911, 1924, 1935 and once deliberately in the 17th century when an attempt was made to construct another entrance to the harbour. After the last breaching in 1935, the end of the spit broke off and drifted towards the beach at Friars Cliff where it formed a lagoon. The groyne built in 1938 to protect Hengistbury Head from erosion had an adverse effect on the spit as it prevented movement of material around it. The spit began to erode due to wave action from the east and many attempts have been made since to stabilise the situation. Small seawalls were constructed on the spit in the 1960s and a large number of rubble groynes were put down during the 1980s.

text: The interaction between marine biota and geologic processes is very important to shoreline stability, especially in soft sedimentary environments where sediments are more likely to erode away. Benthic, and planktonic organisms, as well as Shellfish filter, package, and even bind fine sediments together in tidal regions.  This action reduces turbidity in the area by solidifying and protecting loose, soft sediments, and thus allowing for more colonization by other organisms. If disturbance of these soft sediments occurs, particularly through human interaction like shellfish harvesting, dredging, or the introduction of toxins the environment may drastically change.  If this occurs, and marine biota are removed from the environment, erosion can occur, or increase, especially in regions prone to wave action and tidal resuspension (Bernal P., and P.M. Holligan 1992).

text: The interaction between marine biota and geologic processes is very important to shoreline stability, especially in soft

text: sedimentary environments

text: where sediments are more likely to erode away. Benthic, and planktonic organisms, as well as Shellfish filter, package, and even bind fine sediments together in tidal regions.  This action reduces turbidity in the area by solidifying and protecting loose, soft sediments, and thus allowing for more colonization by other organisms. If disturbance of these soft sediments occurs, particularly through human interaction like shellfish harvesting, dredging, or the introduction of toxins the environment may drastically change.  If this occurs, and marine biota are removed from the environment, erosion can occur, or increase, especially in regions prone to wave action and tidal resuspension (Bernal P., and P.M. Holligan 1992).

text: In the 2016 merger between Tahoe Resources and Lake Shore Gold, Tahoe Resources acquired the Timmins West mine, located 18 km. west of Timmins, Ontario, Canada, which in 2013 was ranked the 8th largest gold-producing region in the world. The mine contains three deposits: the Timmins deposit, which has been in commercial production since January 2011; the Thunder Creek deposit, which achieved commercial production in January 2012; and the 144 Gap deposit, approximately 600 meters from the Thunder Creek deposit, which is under development as of this writing, with commercial production expected in 2017. All three deposits are connected by underground drifts.

text: Recurring Deposit is a special kind of Term Deposit offered by banks in India which help people with regular incomes to deposit a fixed amount every month into their Recurring Deposit account and earn interest at the rate applicable to Fixed Deposits. It is similar to making FDs of a certain amount in monthly installments, for example ₹  1000 every month. This deposit matures on a specific date in the future along with all the deposits made every month. Thus, Recurring Deposit schemes  allow customers with an opportunity to build up their savings through regular monthly deposits of fixed sum over a fixed period of time. Minimum Period of RD is 6 months and maximum is 10 years.

text: Recurring Deposit is a special kind of Term Deposit offered by banks in India which help people with regular incomes to deposit a fixed amount every month into their Recurring Deposit account and earn interest at the rate applicable to

text: Fixed Deposits

text: . It is similar to making FDs of a certain amount in monthly installments, for example ₹  1000 every month. This deposit matures on a specific date in the future along with all the deposits made every month. Thus, Recurring Deposit schemes  allow customers with an opportunity to build up their savings through regular monthly deposits of fixed sum over a fixed period of time. Minimum Period of RD is 6 months and maximum is 10 years.

text: Senator Charles Schumer (D-NY) would later point out that brokered deposits made up more than 37 percent of Indymac's total deposits and ask the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) whether it had considered ordering IndyMac to reduce its reliance on these deposits. With $18.9 billion in total deposits reported on March 31, Senator Schumer would have been referring to a little over $7 billion in brokered deposits. While the breakout of maturities of these deposits is not known exactly, a simple averaging would have put the threat of brokered deposits loss to IndyMac at $500 million a month, had the regulator disallowed IndyMac from acquiring new brokered deposits on June 30.

text: Senator

text: Charles Schumer

text: (D-NY) would later point out that brokered deposits made up more than 37 percent of Indymac's total deposits and ask the

text: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

text: (FDIC) whether it had considered ordering IndyMac to reduce its reliance on these deposits. With $18.9 billion in total deposits reported on March 31, Senator Schumer would have been referring to a little over $7 billion in brokered deposits. While the breakout of maturities of these deposits is not known exactly, a simple averaging would have put the threat of brokered deposits loss to IndyMac at $500 million a month, had the regulator disallowed IndyMac from acquiring new brokered deposits on June 30.

text: Beach rebuilding is the process of repairing beaches using materials such as sand or mud from inland. This can be used to build up beaches suffering from beach starvation or erosion from longshore drift. It stops the movement of the original beach material through longshore drift and retains a natural look to the beach. Although it is not a long-lasting solution, it is cheap compared to other types of coastal defences.

text: Beach rebuilding is the process of repairing

text: beach

text: es using materials such as

text: sand

text: or

text: mud

text: from inland. This can be used to build up beaches suffering from

text: beach starvation

text: or erosion from

text: longshore drift

text: . It stops the movement of the original beach material through longshore drift and retains a natural look to the beach. Although it is not a long-lasting solution, it is cheap compared to other types of

text: coastal defences

text: Neither of these definitions make any mention of any field equation; in fact, they are entirely independent of physics.  In this sense, the notion of a pp-wave spacetime is entirely mathematical and belongs to the study of pseudo-Riemannian geometry.In the next section, we will turn to the physical interpretation of pp-waves.

text: Neither of these definitions make any mention of any field equation; in fact, they are entirely independent of physics.  In this sense, the notion of a pp-wave spacetime is entirely mathematical and belongs to the study of

text: pseudo-Riemannian geometry

text: .In the next section, we will turn to the physical interpretation of pp-waves.

text: A curved phasefront may be synthesized from an infinite number of these "natural modes" i.e., from plane wave phasefronts oriented in different directions in space.  Far from its sources, an expanding spherical wave is locally tangent to a planar phase front (a single plane wave out of the infinite spectrum), which is transverse to the radial direction of propagation.  In this case, a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern is created, which emanates from a single spherical wave phase center.  In the near field, no single well-defined spherical wave phase center exists, so the wavefront isn't locally tangent to a spherical ball.  In this case, a Fresnel diffraction pattern would be created, which emanates from an extended source, consisting of a distribution of (physically identifiable) spherical wave sources in space.  In the near field, a full spectrum of plane waves is necessary to represent the Fresnel near-field wave, even locally.  A "wide" wave moving forward (like an expanding ocean wave coming toward the shore) can be regarded as an infinite number of "plane wave modes", all of which could (when they collide with something in the way) scatter independently of one other. These mathematical simplifications and calculations are the realm of Fourier analysis and synthesis – together, they can describe what happens when light passes through various slits, lenses or mirrors curved one way or the other, or is fully or partially reflected. Fourier optics forms much of the theory behind image processing techniques, as well as finding applications where information needs to be extracted from optical sources such as in quantum optics. To put it in a slightly more complex way, similar to the concept of frequency and time used in traditional  Fourier transform theory, Fourier optics makes use of the spatial frequency domain (k, k) as the conjugate of the spatial (x, y) domain. Terms and concepts such as transform theory, spectrum, bandwidth, window functions and sampling from one-dimensional signal processing are commonly used.

text: A curved phasefront may be synthesized from an infinite number of these "natural modes" i.e., from plane wave phasefronts oriented in different directions in space.  Far from its sources, an expanding spherical wave is locally tangent to a planar phase front (a single plane wave out of the infinite spectrum), which is transverse to the radial direction of propagation.  In this case, a

text: Fraunhofer diffraction

text: pattern is created, which emanates from a single spherical wave phase center.  In the near field, no single well-defined spherical wave phase center exists, so the wavefront isn't locally tangent to a spherical ball.  In this case, a

text: Fresnel diffraction

text: pattern would be created, which emanates from an extended source, consisting of a distribution of (physically identifiable) spherical wave sources in space.  In the near field, a full spectrum of plane waves is necessary to represent the Fresnel near-field wave, even locally.  A "wide"

text: wave

text: moving forward (like an expanding ocean wave coming toward the shore) can be regarded as an infinite number of "

text: plane wave modes

text: ", all of which could (when they collide with something in the way) scatter independently of one other. These mathematical simplifications and calculations are the realm of

text: Fourier analysis and synthesis

text: – together, they can describe what happens when light passes through various slits, lenses or mirrors curved one way or the other, or is fully or partially reflected. Fourier optics forms much of the theory behind

text: image processing techniques

text: , as well as finding applications where information needs to be extracted from optical sources such as in

text: quantum optics

text: . To put it in a slightly more complex way, similar to the concept of

text: frequency

text: and

text: time

text: used in traditional

text: Fourier transform theory

text: , Fourier optics makes use of the

text: spatial frequency

text: domain (k, k) as the conjugate of the spatial (x, y) domain. Terms and concepts such as transform theory, spectrum, bandwidth, window functions and sampling from one-dimensional

text: signal processing

text: are commonly used.

text: The Holderness coastline suffers the highest rate of coastal erosion in Europe: 2 metres a year on average or 2 million tonnes of material a year. Some of this is transported by longshore drift with about 3% of material being deposited at Spurn Head spit, to the south. The coastline has retreated noticeably in the last 2,000 years, with many former settlements now flooded, particularly Ravenser Odd and Ravenspurn, which was a major port until its destruction in the 14th century. Erosion is an ongoing concern in the area. The East Riding of Yorkshire Council has been carrying out cliff erosion defences between Sewerby and Kilnsea since 1951. The Holderness area drains mostly into the Humber and the eponymous River Hull drains the area north of Hull.

text: The Holderness coastline suffers the highest rate of

text: coastal erosion

text: in Europe: 2 metres a year on average or 2 million tonnes of material a year. Some of this is transported by

text: longshore drift

text: with about 3% of material being deposited at

text: Spurn

text: Head spit, to the south. The coastline has

text: retreated

text: noticeably in the last 2,000 years, with many former settlements now flooded, particularly

text: Ravenser Odd

text: and

text: Ravenspurn

text: , which was a major port until its destruction in the 14th century. Erosion is an ongoing concern in the area. The East Riding of Yorkshire Council has been carrying out cliff erosion defences between

text: Sewerby

text: and

text: Kilnsea

text: since 1951. The

text: Holderness

text: area drains mostly into the Humber and the eponymous

text: River Hull

text: drains the area north of Hull.

text: Provides for the Secretary to carry out various beach erosion control, navigation, storm protection, streambank and shoreline erosion control, and harbor maintenance projects.

text: The Langlee wave energy converter (WEC) is a floating device utilizing the horizontal wave movements by vertical water wings.The water-wing system had already been used by other companies like AW Energy OY, Finland and Aquamarine Power, Scotland. Langlee Wave Power AS developed a floating device with a pair of water wings with half wavelength distance. Further, a floating construction allows installation farther away from the shoreline. The design is based on standard steel pipes.The technology is patented in 10 countries.

text: The Langlee wave energy converter (WEC) is a floating device utilizing the horizontal wave movements by vertical water wings.The water-wing system had already been used by other companies like AW Energy OY, Finland and

text: Aquamarine Power, Scotland

text: . Langlee Wave Power AS developed a floating device with a pair of water wings with half

text: wavelength

text: distance. Further, a floating construction allows installation farther away from the

text: shore

text: line. The design is based on standard steel pipes.The technology is patented in 10 countries.

text: The Carlin–type deposits represent some of the largest hydrothermal gold deposits in the world. The invisible nature of the gold in the deposit makes it difficult to find deposits of that kind. The class of deposit was defined after the Carlin mine became a mass producer of gold in the 1960s and it was recognized that other deposits of that type should exist. Most of the mines in the Great Basin in the United States belong to the Carlin type. Carlin type deposits have also been found in China, Iran, and Macedonia.

text: Mangroves protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge, and tsunamis. The massive root systems of mangroves are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Mangroves retard the tidal movement of water, allowing sediment to be deposited as the tide comes in, and leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. Mangroves therefore build their own environment.

text: Surface waves are seismic waves that travel at the surface of the earth, along the air/earth boundary.  Surface waves are slower than P-waves(compressional waves) and S-waves(transverse waves).  Surface waves are classified into two basic types, Rayleigh waves and Love waves.  Rayleigh waves travel in a longitudinal manner (the wave motion is parallel to the direction of wave propagation) with particle motion in a retrograde elliptical motion (Figure 1).  The Rayleigh waves result from the interaction between P-waves and vertically polarized S-waves.  Conversely, Love waves travel in a traverse manner (Figure 1) (the wave motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation), consisting of horizontally polarized S-waves.In seismology, surface waves are collected along with other seismic data, but are traditionally considered noise and an impedance in interpreting deeper reflection and refraction information.   Seismologists usually modify seismic equipment and experimental procedures to remove surface wave information from the data.   Earthquake seismologists however require the information seismic surface waves provide and thus design their equipment to amplify and gather as much information on these waves as possible.  The work by early earthquake seismologists to extract substantial information from surface wave data was the basis for surface wave inversion theory.

text: Surface waves are seismic waves that travel at the surface of the earth, along the air/earth boundary.  Surface waves are slower than

text: P-waves

text: (compressional waves) and

text: S-waves

text: (transverse waves).  Surface waves are classified into two basic types,

text: Rayleigh waves

text: and

text: Love waves

text: .  Rayleigh waves travel in a longitudinal manner (the wave motion is parallel to the direction of wave propagation) with particle motion in a retrograde elliptical motion (Figure 1).  The Rayleigh waves result from the interaction between P-waves and vertically polarized S-waves.  Conversely, Love waves travel in a traverse manner (Figure 1) (the wave motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation), consisting of horizontally polarized S-waves.In seismology, surface waves are collected along with other seismic data, but are traditionally considered noise and an impedance in interpreting deeper

text: reflection

text: and

text: refraction

text: information.   Seismologists usually modify seismic equipment and experimental procedures to remove surface wave information from the data.   Earthquake seismologists however require the information seismic surface waves provide and thus design their equipment to amplify and gather as much information on these waves as possible.  The work by early earthquake seismologists to extract substantial information from surface wave data was the basis for surface wave inversion theory.

text: St Cuthbert's Swallet is a classic example of a deep phreatic cave system at a depth of not less than  beneath the contemporary water table. It contains inclined bedding plane mazes at many levels, fault-guided rifts and some significant chambers. Nine successive phases of sediment deposition, stalagmite deposition and stream erosion have been recognised at the site, providing an exceptional record of environmental change through the warm and cold phases of the Ice Age.

text: St Cuthbert's Swallet is a classic example of a deep

text: phreatic

text: cave system at a depth of not less than  beneath the contemporary water table. It contains inclined bedding plane mazes at many levels, fault-guided rifts and some significant chambers. Nine successive phases of

text: sediment

text: deposition,

text: stalagmite

text: deposition and stream erosion have been recognised at the site, providing an exceptional record of environmental change through the warm and cold phases of the

text: Ice Age

text: In parallel with the construction of MOSE, the Venice Water Authority and Venice Local Authority are raising quaysides and paving in the city in order to protect built-up areas in the lagoon from medium high tides (below , the height at which the mobile barriers will come into operation). These measures are extremely complex, particularly in urban settings such as Venice and Chioggia where the raising must take account of the delicate architectural and monumental context.Measures to improve the shallow lagoon environment are aimed at slowing degradation of the morphological structures caused by subsidence, eustatism, and erosion due to waves and wash. Work is underway throughout the lagoon basin to protect, reconstruct, and renaturalise salt marshes, mud flats and shallows; restore the environment of the smaller islands; and dredge lagoon canals and channels.

text: In parallel with the construction of MOSE, the Venice Water Authority and Venice Local Authority are raising quaysides and paving in the city in order to protect built-up areas in the lagoon from medium high tides (below , the height at which the mobile barriers will come into operation). These measures are extremely complex, particularly in urban settings such as Venice and Chioggia where the raising must take account of the delicate architectural and monumental context.Measures to improve the shallow lagoon environment are aimed at slowing degradation of the morphological structures caused by subsidence,

text: eustatism

text: , and

text: erosion

text: due to waves and wash. Work is underway throughout the lagoon basin to protect, reconstruct, and renaturalise salt marshes, mud flats and shallows; restore the environment of the smaller islands; and dredge lagoon canals and channels.

text: The deposits from well recorded historical tsunamis can be compared with those from well recorded storm events. In both cases these overwash deposits are found in low-lying areas behind the coastline, such as lagoons. These depositional environments are generally characterised by slow lacustrine to swamp sedimentation, producing a sequence of fine-grained sediments. Both tsunami deposits and storm deposits may have strongly erosive bases and mainly consist of sand, often with shell fragments. The most reliable indicator of a tsunami origin appears to be the extent of the inundation, with tsunamis generally inundating further than storms on a particular coast. In some cases, tsunami deposits show clear separation into distinct sub-units deposited by successive tsunami waves, whereas storm waves normally show a higher number of sub-divisions. The presence of  material eroded from the shelf is considered more likely to suggest a tsunami rather than a storm event due to the much greater energy and erosive power associated with individual waves in the tsunami. The movement of large boulders has also been used to argue for a tsunami origin, but probably only the largest boulders represent good evidence of this as major storms, such as cyclones are known to be able to move large boulders. The amount of movement is also likely to be greater with tsunami waves  due to their much longer period.

text: The deposits from well recorded historical tsunamis can be compared with those from well recorded storm events. In both cases these

text: overwash

text: Beaches typically occur in areas along the coast where wave or current action deposits and reworks sediments.

text: Beaches typically occur in areas along the coast where

text: wave

text: or

text: current

text: action

text: deposits

text: and reworks sediments.

text: Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during hurricanes), and tsunamis. The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves build their own environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national biodiversity action plans.

text: Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during

text: hurricanes

text: ), and tsunamis. The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so its sediment is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves build their own environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national

text: biodiversity action plan

text: s.

text: Thus, a wave is a foliated set of moving two-dimensional surfaces. In classical physics, it is not part of the definition of a wave that it be distinctly vibratory.

text: A lung flute is a medical device used to clear mucus from congested lungs with low-frequency sound waves. The device consists of a mouthpiece and a plastic reed which vibrates within a chamber to create sound waves in the chest cavity. These sound waves vibrate and break up mucus deposits in the lungs, allowing cilia to more easily move these deposits from the lungs to the throat.

text: A lung flute is a medical device used to clear

text: mucus

text: from congested lungs with low-frequency sound waves. The device consists of a mouthpiece and a plastic reed which vibrates within a chamber to create sound waves in the chest cavity. These sound waves vibrate and break up mucus deposits in the lungs, allowing

text: cilia

text: to more easily move these deposits from the lungs to the throat.

text: Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper: Mount Rundle is a classic dip slope mountain. Just to the north of the Banff townsite, Castle Mountain is composed of numerous Cambrian age rock formations. The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation. Below that lies the less dense shales of the Stephen Formation and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of the Cathedral Formation. Dogtooth mountains, such as Mount Louis, exhibit sharp, jagged slopes. The Sawback Range, which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers, has been eroded by cross gullies. The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in the Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade. Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted in scree deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains.

text: Classic examples are found at the Banff townsite proper:

text: Mount Rundle

text: is a classic dip slope mountain. Just to the north of the Banff townsite,

text: Castle Mountain

text: is composed of numerous

text: Cambrian

text: age rock formations. The uppermost section of the peak consists of relatively harder dolomite from the Eldon Formation. Below that lies the less dense shales of the

text: Stephen Formation

text: and the lowest exposed cliffs are limestones of the

text: Cathedral Formation

text: . Dogtooth mountains, such as

text: Mount Louis

text: , exhibit sharp, jagged slopes. The Sawback Range, which consists of nearly vertical dipping sedimentary layers, has been eroded by cross

text: gullies

text: . The erosion of these almost vertical layers of rock strata in the Sawback Range has resulted in formations that appear like the teeth on a saw blade. Erosion and deposition of higher elevation rock layers has resulted in

text: scree

text: deposits at the lowest elevations of many of the mountains.

text: Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is the formation of sand dunes, on a beach or in a desert. Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment. It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.

text: Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is the formation of sand

text: dunes

text: , on a beach or in a desert. Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous,

text: friable

text: , slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained,

text: silt

text: y, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian)

text: sediment

text: . It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.

text: The Milbanke Sound Group in the Kitimat Ranges consists of young lava flows and monogenetic cinder cones that were probably formed in the last 10,000 years. Like Silverthrone and Franklin, little is known about the Milbanke Sound Group. As a result, its affinity also remains unclear. It may reflect a northern extension of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, but there is not enough data to support this hypothesis. Its formation might have also resulted from other tectonic processes that are currently not understood. Swindle Island contains a  high symmetrical cinder cone on its southern shoreline. This volcano, known as Kitasu Hill, comprises tephra and volcanic bombs. Its summit contains a volcanic crater that is breached to the east. Helmet Peak, a steep-sided cinder cone on Lake Island with an elevation of , consists of welded volcanic blocks and basaltic feeder dikes. During eruption, basaltic tuff breccia was deposited throughout Lake Island and nearby Lady Douglas Island. Lava flows on the shores of Price Island and Dufferin Island were erupted from forest-covered basalt cones, which have been reduced in size to small volcanic mounds. Basaltic lava flows on Finngal Island comprise well-developed columnar jointing. Like other volcanic deposits in the Milbanke Sound Group, very little is known about these lava flows. Although the Milbanke Sound Group was probably formed in the last 10,000 years, the exact age of the lava flows and cinder cones is unknown. It probably formed in the last 10,000 years because the volcanic formations have minimal erosion, indicative of post-glacial volcanism.

text: The

text: Milbanke Sound Group

text: in the Kitimat Ranges consists of young lava flows and monogenetic cinder cones that were probably formed in the last 10,000 years. Like Silverthrone and Franklin, little is known about the Milbanke Sound Group. As a result, its affinity also remains unclear. It may reflect a northern extension of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, but there is not enough data to support this hypothesis. Its formation might have also resulted from other tectonic processes that are currently not understood.

text: Swindle Island

text: contains a  high symmetrical cinder cone on its southern shoreline. This volcano, known as

text: Kitasu Hill

text: , comprises tephra and

text: volcanic bomb

text: s. Its summit contains a

text: volcanic crater

text: that is breached to the east.

text: Helmet Peak

text: , a steep-sided cinder cone on Lake Island with an elevation of , consists of welded

text: volcanic block

text: s and basaltic feeder dikes. During eruption, basaltic tuff breccia was deposited throughout

text: Lake Island

text: and nearby

text: Lady Douglas Island

text: . Lava flows on the shores of

text: Price Island

text: and

text: Dufferin Island

text: were erupted from forest-covered basalt cones, which have been reduced in size to small volcanic mounds. Basaltic lava flows on Finngal Island comprise well-developed columnar jointing. Like other volcanic deposits in the Milbanke Sound Group, very little is known about these lava flows. Although the Milbanke Sound Group was probably formed in the last 10,000 years, the exact age of the lava flows and cinder cones is unknown. It probably formed in the last 10,000 years because the volcanic formations have minimal erosion, indicative of

text: post-glacial

text: volcanism.

text: It is now believed that all three of these types of craters result from impacts into an icy layer.  Excess ejecta craters and perched craters, the larger ones, penetrated completely through the ice layer and also went into a rocky lower layer.  A portion of the rocky layer was deposited around the rim of the crater forming a rough ejecta deposit.  That ejecta protected the area beneath it from erosion.  Subsequent erosion left the craters sitting above the surrounding surface.  The smaller, "pedestal craters," developed a protective covering by a different process.  Simulations show that a large impact into ice would generate a great burst of heat that would be sufficient to melt some of the ice.  The resulting water could dissolve salts and minerals and produce a coating resistant to erosion.

text: Cusps and horns form where incoming waves divide, depositing sand as horns and scouring out sand to form cusps. This forms the uneven face on some sand shorelines.

text: Cusps

text: and horns form where incoming waves divide, depositing sand as horns and scouring out sand to form cusps. This forms the uneven face on some sand

text: shoreline

text: s.

text: Sanaroa island is experiencing erosion due to wave action, and some smaller islands appear to be  sinking slowly.

text: Kirby R. (2002) takes this concept further explaining that the fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form chenier ridges throughout the tidal zone which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore. Cheniers can be found at any level on the foreshore and predominantly characterise an erosion-dominated regime.

text: Kirby R. (2002) takes this concept further explaining that the fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form

text: chenier

text: ridges throughout the tidal zone which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore. Cheniers can be found at any level on the foreshore and predominantly characterise an erosion-dominated regime.

text: The Facho-Pico Alto Volcanic Complex was constructed in three phases: the first related to stratovolcanic unit of Facho, and then, two lateral centres associated with Pico Alto. The volcanism that originated Facho was submarine in nature, with two visible centres positioned in the southern part of the island: Pico do Facho and a second pyroclastic cone situated  west of Rocha Alta (the remains of its chamber still visible along the coast). Both these emission centre were responsible for pyroclastic and submarine lava flows. In the northern coast, there was likely another eruptive centre associated within this volcanic unit, but erosion makes its localization difficult. Following a long period of volcanic activity, conditions changed, allowing the deposition of sediments and formation of beaches. These deposits were constructed of conglomerates of stone and marine fossils, such as in Pedraque-Pica.

text: The present landscape is not fixed. The land continues to change slowly due to the erosion by wind and water, shoreline wave action, and other acts of mother nature.

text: Longshore drift, along with wave energy, has shaped the shore.  As waves curve along the beach they also pick up the finest bits of marble; this creates sediment plumes that follow the curve of the beach with the direction of the waves giving the water a shade of turquoise.

text: Longshore drift

text: , along with wave energy, has shaped the shore.  As waves curve along the beach they also pick up the finest bits of marble; this creates sediment plumes that follow the curve of the beach with the direction of the waves giving the water a shade of

text: turquoise

text: Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit calcium carbonate, the basis of coral, as a skeletal structure beneath and around themselves, pushing the coral head's top upwards and outwards. Waves, grazing fish (such as parrotfish), sea urchins, sponges, and other forces and organisms act as bioeroders, breaking down coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons. Many other organisms living in the reef community contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner. Coralline algae are important contributors to reef structure in those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the open ocean). These algae strengthen the reef structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the reef surface.

text: Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit calcium carbonate, the basis of coral, as a skeletal structure beneath and around themselves, pushing the coral head's top upwards and outwards. Waves, grazing fish (such as

text: parrotfish

text: sea urchin

text: s,

text: sponges

text: , and other forces and organisms act as

text: bioeroders

text: , breaking down coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons. Many other organisms living in the reef community contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner.

text: Coralline algae

text: are important contributors to reef structure in those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves (such as the reef front facing the open ocean). These algae strengthen the reef structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the reef surface.

text: Acoustic radiation force is a phenomenon associated with the propagation of acoustic waves in attenuating media. Attenuation includes both scattering and absorption of the acoustic wave. Attenuation is a frequency dependent phenomenon, and in soft tissues it is dominated by absorption. With increasing acoustic frequencies, the tissue does not respond fast enough to the transitions between positive and negative pressures, thus its motion becomes out of phase with the acoustic wave, and energy is deposited into the tissue. This energy results in a momentum transfer in the direction of wave propagation and tissue heating.  The momentum transfer generates a force that causes displacement of the tissue, and the time scale of this response is much slower than that of the ultrasonic wave propagation. This displacement (typically a few micrometers), which is typically detected by computing the correlation of ultrasonic RF signal, can be used to derive additional information about the tissue beyond what is normally provided in an ultrasonic image. The magnitude, location, spatial extent, and duration of acoustic radiation force can be controlled to interrogate the mechanical properties of the tissue.

text: Acoustic radiation force is a phenomenon associated with the propagation of acoustic waves in attenuating media.

text: Attenuation

text: includes both scattering and absorption of the acoustic wave. Attenuation is a frequency dependent phenomenon, and in soft tissues it is dominated by absorption. With increasing acoustic frequencies, the tissue does not respond fast enough to the transitions between positive and negative pressures, thus its motion becomes out of phase with the acoustic wave, and energy is deposited into the tissue. This energy results in a

text: momentum

text: transfer in the direction of wave propagation and tissue heating.  The momentum transfer generates a force that causes displacement of the tissue, and the time scale of this response is much slower than that of the

text: ultrasonic wave

text: propagation. This displacement (typically a few micrometers), which is typically detected by computing the correlation of ultrasonic RF signal, can be used to derive additional information about the tissue beyond what is normally provided in an ultrasonic image. The magnitude, location, spatial extent, and duration of acoustic radiation force can be controlled to interrogate the mechanical properties of the tissue.

text: Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks by erosion in a source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers (agents of denudation). Mud rocks comprise 65% (mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 to 15% (limestone and dolostone). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consist of limestone (6%), sandstone and arkoses (12%). Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and may be referred to as stratified rocks. A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another layer eroded the first as it was laid atop the first.

text: Before being deposited, sediments are formed by

text: weathering

text: of earlier rocks by

text: erosion

text: in a source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by

text: water

text: wind

text: ice

text: mass movement

text: or

text: glacier

text: s (agents of

text: denudation

text: ). Mud rocks comprise 65% (

text: mudstone

text: shale

text: and

text: siltstone

text: sandstone

text: s 20 to 25% and

text: carbonate rock

text: s 10 to 15% (

text: limestone

text: and

text: dolostone

text: ). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consist of limestone (6%), sandstone and

text: arkose

text: s (12%). Sedimentary rocks often contain

text: fossil

text: s. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or

text: strata

text: and may be referred to as stratified rocks. A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another layer eroded the first as it was laid atop the first.

text: Sea defences at West Runton consist of revetments, angled sea wall and a rather prominent wooden groyne stretching out to sea. This does slow down the process of longshore drift but is used mainly as a wave break so the boats can enter the sea more easily.

text: Sea defences at West Runton consist of

text: revetments

text: , angled

text: sea wall

text: and a rather prominent wooden

text: groyne

text: stretching out to sea. This does slow down the process of

text: longshore drift

text: but is used mainly as a wave break so the boats can enter the sea more easily.

text: During late Cenozoic Era, because of sustained transpression of the Pacific Plate onto the American Plate along the nearby San Andreas Fault Zone, there was continued uplift of the entire coastline of California, so that erosive action of marine waves cut these terraces in the Monterey Bay area. Those Pleistocene marine terraces are composed of clay, silt, sand and gravel with a basal unconformity of gravel on top of rock. The creation of uplifted marine terraces that started to appear during the Pleistocene Epoch continues throughout the (present) Holocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period due to transpression of the Pacific Plate onto the American Plate.  During the October 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, the marine terraces of the Monterey Bay were further uplifted.  Both Monterey and Santa Cruz have classical uplifted wave-cut shorelines with multiple sets of uplifted and exposed marine terraces.

text: During late

text: Cenozoic Era

text: , because of sustained transpression of the Pacific Plate onto the American Plate along the nearby

text: San Andreas Fault

text: Zone, there was continued uplift of the entire coastline of California, so that

text: erosive

text: action of marine waves cut these

text: terraces

text: in the Monterey Bay area. Those Pleistocene marine terraces are composed of

text: clay

text: silt

text: , sand and gravel with a basal unconformity of gravel on top of rock. The creation of uplifted marine terraces that started to appear during the

text: Pleistocene

text: Epoch continues throughout the (present)

text: Holocene

text: Epoch of the Quaternary Period due to transpression of the Pacific Plate onto the American Plate.  During the October

text: 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake

text: , the marine terraces of the Monterey Bay were further uplifted.  Both Monterey and Santa Cruz have classical uplifted wave-cut shorelines with multiple sets of uplifted and exposed marine terraces.

text: When the source of the waves is moving towards the observer, each successive wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".  Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".

text: When the source of the waves is moving towards the observer, each successive wave

text: crest

text: is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".  Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".

text: The islands were originally a -long peninsula or sand spit extending from the mainland. The islands are composed of alluvial deposits from the erosion of the Scarborough Bluffs. The flow from the Niagara River to the south across Lake Ontario causes a counter-clockwise east-to-west current which has, over time, deposited sediments at the south end of the harbour to form a sand spit.

text: The islands were originally a -long

text: peninsula

text: or

text: sand spit

text: extending from the mainland. The islands are composed of

text: alluvial deposit

text: s from the erosion of the

text: Scarborough Bluffs

text: . The flow from the Niagara River to the south across Lake Ontario causes a counter-clockwise east-to-west current which has, over time, deposited sediments at the south end of the harbour to form a sand spit.

text: A Geomembrane drainage system was incorporated into the design to discharge water through 3 holes in the dam. Joints and cracks in the concrete were treated with an acrylic resin where the perimeter seal crosses the joint to prevent reservoir water bypassing the perimeter seal. A reinforced concrete wave wall was constructed to the same dimensions and levels as the existing but it extended into the high ground at the left and right ends of the dam. Finally, riprap erosion protection was laid at the left hand end of the dam to arrest erosion of the embankment. The material for the erosion protection was sourced from the reservoir basin.

text: A Geomembrane drainage system was incorporated into the design to discharge water through 3 holes in the dam. Joints and cracks in the concrete were treated with an

text: acrylic resin

text: where the perimeter seal crosses the joint to prevent reservoir water bypassing the perimeter seal. A reinforced concrete wave wall was constructed to the same dimensions and levels as the existing but it extended into the high ground at the left and right ends of the dam. Finally,

text: riprap

text: erosion

text: protection was laid at the left hand end of the dam to arrest erosion of the embankment. The material for the erosion protection was sourced from the reservoir basin.

text: A little more than 13,000 years ago, a sequence of nine tephra eruptions occurred within a period of less than a few hundred years. Associated with these eruptions were pyroclastic flows. Mixed with snow, ice and water, these formed lahars that raced into three nearby rivers, filling their valleys with deep deposits. Subsequently the mudflows drained into both the North Fork of the Stillaguamish River (at that time an outlet of the Sauk River) and Skagit Rivers. In Arlington,  downstream, lahars deposited seven feet of sediment. Subsequent erosion of lahar deposits near Darrington led to the current river system with the Stillaguamish River separated from the Sauk/Skagit Rivers. Lahar debris was deposited along both the Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers all the way to Puget Sound. A small portion of the erupted tephra was deposited locally. However, most of the tephra reached higher levels of the atmosphere, and was transported by the wind hundreds of miles. Deposits from this congregation were as thick as  near Chelan and  near Missoula, Montana.

text: A little more than 13,000 years ago, a sequence of nine tephra eruptions occurred within a period of less than a few hundred years. Associated with these eruptions were pyroclastic flows. Mixed with snow, ice and water, these formed lahars that raced into three nearby rivers, filling their valleys with deep deposits. Subsequently the mudflows drained into both the North Fork of the

text: Stillaguamish River

text: (at that time an outlet of the

text: Sauk River

text: ) and

text: Skagit River

text: s. In

text: Arlington

text: ,  downstream, lahars deposited seven feet of sediment. Subsequent erosion of lahar deposits near

text: Darrington

text: led to the current river system with the Stillaguamish River separated from the Sauk/Skagit Rivers. Lahar debris was deposited along both the Skagit and Stillaguamish Rivers all the way to

text: Puget Sound

text: . A small portion of the erupted tephra was deposited locally. However, most of the tephra reached higher levels of the atmosphere, and was transported by the wind hundreds of miles. Deposits from this congregation were as thick as  near

text: Chelan

text: and  near

text: Missoula, Montana

text: The Vanderbilt Archeological Site is an archaeological site located on the shore of Lake Oahe in Campbell County, South Dakota, near Pollock, South Dakota.  The site contains the remains of a Native American Plains village which has been tentatively dated to about 1300 AD.  Despite the fact that site is subject to erosive destruction from wave action on the lake, has been determined likely to yield significant information about the movements and living patterns of prehistoric Native Americans in the region.  The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1997.

text: The Vanderbilt Archeological Site is an

text: archaeological site

text: located on the shore of

text: Lake Oahe

text: in

text: Campbell County, South Dakota

text: , near

text: Pollock, South Dakota

text: .  The site contains the remains of a Native American Plains village which has been tentatively dated to about 1300 AD.  Despite the fact that site is subject to erosive destruction from wave action on the lake, has been determined likely to yield significant information about the movements and living patterns of prehistoric Native Americans in the region.  The site was declared a

text: National Historic Landmark

text: in 1997.

text: The onshore flow from the hurricane disrupted a heat wave in Delaware and Maryland, while the rough surf caused beach erosion and beach closures. Several people were injured in New Jersey by the rough surf, and over 150 people required rescue in Cape May. Waves of  in Atlantic City forced beaches to close for the first time since Hurricane Gloria in 1985, and beaches were closed across the region for about five days. There was minor tidal flooding in the state due to astronomically low tides, although extensive beach erosion occurred after a week of strong waves; in Ocean City, the storm eroded about  of beaches, leaving behind  cliffs. Five people drowned in the state due to rough surf. While still offshore, Felix produced wind gusts of 36 mph (57 km/h) in Atlantic City. On Fire Island in New York, the waves washed away two houses. In Rhode Island,  waves overturned a boat along the Sakonnet River, killing one passenger. Along Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts, waves reached , and several beaches were closed across the state. In Maine on Bailey Island, a woman required rescue after being swept away by a wave, who became hypothermic and injured due to cuts. Two lobster boats sank in the state, with one occupant requiring rescue and the other swimming ashore. Damage to the boats totaled $75,000 (1995 USD).

text: The onshore flow from the hurricane disrupted a heat wave in Delaware and Maryland, while the rough surf caused beach erosion and beach closures. Several people were injured in New Jersey by the rough surf, and over 150 people required rescue in

text: Cape May

text: . Waves of  in

text: Atlantic City

text: forced beaches to close for the first time since

text: Hurricane Gloria

text: in 1985, and beaches were closed across the region for about five days. There was minor tidal flooding in the state due to

text: astronomically low tides

text: , although extensive beach erosion occurred after a week of strong waves; in

text: Ocean City

text: , the storm eroded about  of beaches, leaving behind  cliffs. Five people drowned in the state due to rough surf. While still offshore, Felix produced wind gusts of 36 mph (57 km/h) in Atlantic City. On

text: Fire Island

text: in New York, the waves washed away two houses. In Rhode Island,  waves overturned a boat along the

text: Sakonnet River

text: , killing one passenger. Along

text: Martha's Vineyard

text: in Massachusetts, waves reached , and several beaches were closed across the state. In Maine on

text: Bailey Island

text: , a woman required rescue after being swept away by a wave, who became hypothermic and injured due to cuts. Two lobster boats sank in the state, with one occupant requiring rescue and the other swimming ashore. Damage to the boats totaled $75,000 (1995 USD).

text: August 24, 2015, an article in The Huffington Post titled "10 Years After Katrina, Louisiana Is Becoming A Model For Climate Resilience" summarized the current state of Louisiana's shoreline and coastal community protection.

text: August 24, 2015, an article in

text: The Huffington Post

text: titled "10 Years After Katrina, Louisiana Is Becoming A Model For Climate Resilience" summarized the current state of Louisiana's shoreline and coastal community protection.

text: Beginning with the Big Bang he believes creation has continued through a series of waves, each one a factor of 20 times shorter in duration than the one preceding it. Each wave has driven the structure of the universe to a higher level.The first wave drove the creation of physical matter, the second living cells, the third multicellular life, the fourth organisms living in family groups, the fifth, saw humans in tribal groups, and the sixth in national groups. The seventh wave encompasses human awareness of the whole planet, and the eighth awareness of our place in the galactic structure. The final wave, the ninth and shortest of all, began on 8 March 2011 and will complete along with all the others on 28 October 2011 sees awareness of the whole of the cosmos achieved. Rather than the series ending with an Apocalypse he describes it as the completion of the creation process of the Universe. The way will then be open to the full realisation of consciousness at its highest level which he terms "Unity consciousness".

text: Beginning with the

text: Big Bang

text: he believes creation has continued through a series of waves, each one a factor of 20 times shorter in duration than the one preceding it. Each wave has driven the structure of the universe to a higher level.The first wave drove the creation of physical matter, the second living cells, the third multicellular life, the fourth organisms living in family groups, the fifth, saw humans in tribal groups, and the sixth in national groups. The seventh wave encompasses human awareness of the whole planet, and the eighth awareness of our place in the galactic structure. The final wave, the ninth and shortest of all, began on 8 March 2011 and will complete along with all the others on 28 October 2011 sees awareness of the whole of the cosmos achieved. Rather than the series ending with an Apocalypse he describes it as the completion of the creation process of the Universe. The way will then be open to the full realisation of consciousness at its highest level which he terms "Unity consciousness".

text: Adults aggregate in large numbers (>20 individuals) under rocks and logs along the immediate edge of the breeding sites and breed explosively over a few days. Suitable breeding sites include small fish-free ponds, marshes, shallow lakes and other still-water wetlands. Like other ambystomatid salamanders, they have evolved a characteristic courtship dance where they rub bodies and release pheromones from their chin gland prior to assuming a copulatory mating position. Once in position, the male deposits a spermatophore, which is a gooey stalk tipped with a packet of sperm, and walks the female forward to be inseminated. Males may mate more than once and may deposit as many as 15 spermatophores over the course of a five-hour period. The courtship dance for the long-toed salamander is similar to other species of Ambystoma and very similar to A. jeffersonianum. In the long-toed salamander, there is no rubbing or head-butting; the males directly approach females and grab on, while the females try to rapidly swim away. The males clasp the female from behind the forelimbs and shake, a behavior called amplexus. Males sometimes clasp other amphibian species during breeding and shake them as well. The male only grabs with the front limbs and never uses his hind limbs during the courtship dance as he rubs his chin side to side pressing down on the female's head. The female struggles but later becomes subdued. Males increase the tempo and motions, rubbing over the female's nostrils, sides, and sometimes the vent. When the female becomes quite docile the male moves forward with his tail positioned over her head, raised, and waving at the tip. If the female accepts the males courtship, the male directs her snout toward his vent region while both move forward stiffly with pelvic undulations. As the female follows, the male stops and deposits a spermatophore, and the female will move forward with the male to raise her tail and receive the sperm packet. The full courtship dance is rarely accomplished in the first attempt. Females deposit their eggs a few days after mating.

text: Adults aggregate in large numbers (>20 individuals) under rocks and logs along the immediate edge of the breeding sites and breed explosively over a few days. Suitable breeding sites include small fish-free ponds, marshes, shallow lakes and other still-water wetlands. Like other

text: ambystomatid

text: salamanders, they have evolved a characteristic

text: courtship dance

text: where they rub bodies and release

text: pheromones

text: from their chin gland prior to assuming a copulatory

text: mating

text: position. Once in position, the male deposits a

text: spermatophore

text: , which is a gooey stalk tipped with a packet of sperm, and walks the female forward to be

text: inseminate

text: d. Males may mate more than once and may deposit as many as 15 spermatophores over the course of a five-hour period. The courtship dance for the long-toed salamander is similar to other species of Ambystoma and very similar to

text: A. jeffersonianum

text: . In the long-toed salamander, there is no rubbing or head-butting; the males directly approach females and grab on, while the females try to rapidly swim away. The males clasp the female from behind the forelimbs and shake, a behavior called

text: amplexus

text: . Males sometimes clasp other amphibian species during breeding and shake them as well. The male only grabs with the front limbs and never uses his hind limbs during the courtship dance as he rubs his chin side to side pressing down on the female's head. The female struggles but later becomes subdued. Males increase the tempo and motions, rubbing over the female's nostrils, sides, and sometimes the vent. When the female becomes quite docile the male moves forward with his tail positioned over her head, raised, and waving at the tip. If the female accepts the males courtship, the male directs her snout toward his vent region while both move forward stiffly with pelvic undulations. As the female follows, the male stops and deposits a spermatophore, and the female will move forward with the male to raise her tail and receive the sperm packet. The full courtship dance is rarely accomplished in the first attempt. Females deposit their eggs a few days after mating.

text: The main agents responsible for deposition and erosion along coastlines are waves, tides and currents. The formation of coasts also depends on the nature of the rocks they are made of – the harder the rocks the less likely they are to erode, so variations in rock hardness result in coastlines with different shapes.

text: The main agents responsible for deposition and

text: erosion

text: along coastlines are

text: waves

text: tide

text: s and

text: currents

text: . The formation of coasts also depends on the

text: nature of the rocks

text: they are made of – the harder the rocks the less likely they are to erode, so variations in rock hardness result in coastlines with different shapes.

text: The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the Exner equation. This expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This equation is important in that changes in the power of the flow changes the ability of the flow to carry sediment, and this is reflected in patterns of erosion and deposition observed throughout a stream. This can be localized, and simply due to small obstacles: examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates, and deposition on the inside of meander bends. Erosion and deposition can also be regional: erosion can occur due to dam removal and base level fall. Deposition can occur due to dam emplacement that causes the river to pool, and deposit its entire load or due to base level rise.

text: The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the

text: Exner equation

text: . This expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This equation is important in that changes in the power of the flow changes the ability of the flow to carry sediment, and this is reflected in patterns of erosion and deposition observed throughout a stream. This can be localized, and simply due to small obstacles: examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates, and deposition on the inside of

text: meander

text: bends. Erosion and deposition can also be regional: erosion can occur due to

text: dam removal

text: and

text: base level

text: fall. Deposition can occur due to dam emplacement that causes the river to pool, and deposit its entire load or due to base level rise.

text: The land is tilled after harvesting and has become sensitive to sheet erosion. The area suffers periodically from floods and droughts. Increased erosion since forest clearance has led to the increase of sediment load in rivers draining into the reservoir. As a result, sediment deposition in the dam gradually decreased the water storage capacity from 150 million m3 in 1970 to 121 and 108 million m3 in 1983 and 1991 respectivelyThe suspended sediments in the water bodies also affect water quality and cause pollution because of various agrochemicals adsorbed by the sediments into the catchments.

text: The Loe was originally the estuary of the River Cober, a ria or drowned river valley now blocked by a sand and shingle bar with a fresh water lake behind. The valley can be traced several kilometres out to sea.  The age of the bar is disputed, with estimates ranging from several thousand years to c. 700 years. With the melting of ice-sheets and glaciers after the last ice age, sea levels rose and reached their present levels about 6,000 years ago during what is known as the Flandrian Marine Trangression. The most likely origin is a barrier beach, (formed by wave action rather than by tides) that gradually moved onshore, as the sea level rose during the Holocene. The shingle coming from drowned terraces of the former river that flowed down the English Channel (the nearest onshore source is 120 miles away in East Devon). It is thought that Longshore Drift plays an important part in the maintenance of the Bar, with a strong current flowing to the south-east from Porthleven to Gunwalloe, depositing shingle along the Bar. The ebb flow is not a simple reverse flow and is not strong enough to remove all the deposits. The bar itself is a sediment sink as far as the overall beach budget is concerned. The deposits have been tentatively dated as Eocene and compared with Gunwalloe beach material, very little of the Loe Bar shingle is locally derived. The composition of the Bar deposits are: Chalk flint 86%, Quartz 9%, Grit 2.6%, Greensand chert 2% and Serpentine 0.5%.

text: The Loe was originally the estuary of the

text: River Cober

text: , a

text: ria

text: or drowned river valley now blocked by a sand and shingle bar with a fresh water lake behind. The valley can be traced several kilometres out to sea.  The age of the bar is disputed, with estimates ranging from several thousand years to c. 700 years. With the melting of ice-sheets and glaciers after the last ice age, sea levels rose and reached their present levels about 6,000 years ago during what is known as the

text: Flandrian Marine Trangression

text: . The most likely origin is a

text: barrier beach

text: , (formed by wave action rather than by tides) that gradually moved onshore, as the sea level rose during the

text: Holocene

text: . The shingle coming from drowned terraces of the former river that flowed down the

text: English Channel

text: (the nearest onshore source is 120 miles away in East Devon). It is thought that

text: Longshore Drift

text: plays an important part in the maintenance of the Bar, with a strong current flowing to the south-east from Porthleven to Gunwalloe, depositing shingle along the Bar. The ebb flow is not a simple reverse flow and is not strong enough to remove all the deposits. The bar itself is a sediment sink as far as the overall beach budget is concerned. The deposits have been tentatively dated as

text: Eocene

text: and compared with Gunwalloe beach material, very little of the Loe Bar shingle is locally derived. The composition of the Bar deposits are:

text: Chalk

text: flint

text: Quartz

text: Grit

text: Greensand

text: chert

text: 2% and

text: Serpentine

text: Buota was joined by a bridge to South Tarawa in 1995 and has since increased in population and is becoming more like part of urban South Tarawa.  Abatao is not accessible by road, but the channel can be easily walked at low tide and there is a boat service at high tide.  For people in Abatao and Buota, it is much easier to access schools, clinics and other services on South Tarawa than to travel to the Government Station in Abaokoro.Apart from the bridge from Buota to Tanaea, small causeways connect the villages of Tebwangoroi and Taratai, Tebwangoroi and Nuatabu. The erosion and accretion that are occurring along the shoreline is identified as being linked to aggregate mining, land reclamation and the construction of causeways that has been thought to change the currents along the shoreline.

text: Buota was joined by a bridge to South Tarawa in 1995 and has since increased in population and is becoming more like part of urban

text: South Tarawa

text: .  Abatao is not accessible by road, but the channel can be easily walked at low tide and there is a boat service at high tide.  For people in Abatao and Buota, it is much easier to access schools, clinics and other services on South Tarawa than to travel to the Government Station in Abaokoro.Apart from the bridge from Buota to Tanaea, small causeways connect the villages of Tebwangoroi and Taratai, Tebwangoroi and Nuatabu. The erosion and accretion that are occurring along the shoreline is identified as being linked to aggregate mining, land reclamation and the construction of causeways that has been thought to change the currents along the shoreline.

text: Longshore drift affects numerous sediment sizes as it works in slightly different ways depending on the sediment (e.g. the difference in long shore drift of sediments from a sandy beach to that of sediments from a shingle beach). Sand is largely affected by the oscillatory force of breaking waves, the motion of sediment due to the impact of breaking waves and bed shear from long shore current. Because shingle beaches are much steeper than sandy ones, plunging breakers are more likely to form, causing the majority of long shore transport to occur in the swash zone, due to a lack of an extended surf zone.

text: Longshore drift affects numerous sediment sizes as it works in slightly different ways depending on the sediment (e.g. the difference in long shore drift of sediments from a sandy beach to that of sediments from a

text: shingle beach

text: ). Sand is largely affected by the oscillatory force of breaking

text: waves

text: , the motion of sediment due to the impact of breaking waves and bed shear from long shore current. Because shingle beaches are much steeper than sandy ones, plunging breakers are more likely to form, causing the majority of long shore transport to occur in the swash zone, due to a lack of an extended surf zone.

text: The Cambrian Tonto Group is the three-member sequence of geologic formations that represent the basal section of Paleozoic rocks in the Grand Canyon. The group is about  thick.  The base unit, the Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone was deposited upon the erosion surface of the Vishnu Basement Rocks, which is found in Granite Gorge (the Inner Gorge). The erosion resistant Tapeats Sandstone forms the platform, called Tonto Platform, that the two less erosion resistant upper layers, the Bright Angel Shale and Muav Limestone, rest on.

text: The

text: Cambrian

text: Tonto Group is the three-member sequence of

text: geologic formations

text: that represent the basal section of

text: Paleozoic

text: rocks in the

text: Grand Canyon

text: . The group is about  thick.  The base unit, the

text: Cambrian

text: Tapeats Sandstone

text: was deposited upon the

text: erosion surface

text: of the

text: Vishnu Basement Rocks

text: , which is found in Granite Gorge (the Inner Gorge). The erosion resistant Tapeats Sandstone forms the platform, called

text: Tonto Platform

text: , that the two less erosion resistant upper layers, the

text: Bright Angel Shale

text: and

text: Muav Limestone

text: , rest on.

text: A harbor or river bar is a sedimentary deposit formed at a harbor entrance or river mouth by: the deposition of freshwater sediment, or the action of waves on the sea floor or up—current beaches.

text: A harbor or river bar is a sedimentary deposit formed at a

text: harbor

text: entrance or

text: river mouth

text: by: the deposition of freshwater

text: sediment

text: , or the action of waves on the sea floor or up—current beaches.

text: The high pressure gas exiting the cylinder initially flows in the form of a "wavefront" as all disturbances in fluids do. The exhaust gas pushes its way into the pipe which is already occupied by gas from previous cycles, pushing that gas ahead and causing a wave front. Once the gas flow stops, the wave continues, passing the energy to the next gas down stream and so on to the end of the pipe. If this wave encounters any change in cross section or temperature it will reflect a portion of its strength in the opposite direction to its travel. For example, a strong acoustic wave encountering an increase in area will reflect a weaker acoustic wave in the opposite direction. A strong acoustic wave encountering a decrease in area will reflect a strong acoustic wave in the opposite direction. The basic principle is described in wave dynamics.An expansion chamber makes use of this phenomenon by varying its diameter (cross section) and length to cause these reflections to arrive back at the cylinder at the desired time in the cycle.

text: The high

text: pressure

text: gas exiting the cylinder initially flows in the form of a "

text: wave

text: front" as all disturbances in fluids do. The exhaust gas pushes its way into the pipe which is already occupied by gas from previous cycles, pushing that gas ahead and causing a wave front. Once the gas flow stops, the wave continues, passing the energy to the next gas down stream and so on to the end of the pipe. If this wave encounters any change in

text: cross section

text: or

text: temperature

text: it will reflect a portion of its strength in the opposite direction to its travel. For example, a strong acoustic wave encountering an increase in area will reflect a weaker acoustic wave in the opposite direction. A strong acoustic wave encountering a decrease in area will reflect a strong acoustic wave in the opposite direction. The basic principle is described in

text: wave dynamics

text: .An expansion chamber makes use of this phenomenon by varying its diameter (cross section) and length to cause these reflections to arrive back at the cylinder at the desired time in the cycle.

text: Unconformable: period of erosion/non-deposition. The surface stratum resulting is called an unconformity.

text: Unconformable: period of erosion/non-deposition. The surface stratum resulting is called an

text: unconformity

text: Lake Mataro has been identified in the northern Altiplano, where deposits from this stage are found at an altitude of . For comparison, Lake Cabana deposits are found at altitudes of  and Lake Ballivian at an altitude of . Both Mataro and Cabana were named by Lavenu and others in 1984. The height of Lake Mataro was  above that of Lake Titicaca. It formed a single large lake over the central and northern Altiplano. Progressive erosion of the outlet of Lake Titicaca may be responsible for the observed reduction of the levels of the northern paleolakes during time, as it allowed water from the northern lakes to spill into the southern ones.

text: Some artificial reefs are used to prevent coastal erosion. Artificial reefs that are used to prevent coastal erosion can be designed to act in several ways. Some are designed to force waves to break off shore and deposit their energy in a different area than directly on the coastline and ripping apart beaches and establishments. Other reefs are designed to hold in sediment on beaches. These reefs trap the sediment and prevent the sediment from being dispersed. The reefs are specifically designed for each unique zone to preserve the existing coast from erosion. (Morang et, al 2014)

text: Some artificial reefs are used to prevent

text: coastal erosion

text: . Artificial reefs that are used to prevent coastal erosion can be designed to act in several ways. Some are designed to force

text: waves

text: to break off shore and deposit their energy in a different area than directly on the coastline and ripping apart beaches and establishments. Other reefs are designed to hold in

text: sediment

text: on beaches. These reefs trap the sediment and prevent the sediment from being dispersed. The reefs are specifically designed for each unique zone to preserve the existing coast from erosion. (Morang et, al 2014)

text: Beatrice Islets are pair of islets located in Nepean Bay about  east of Kingscote on Kangaroo Island in South Australia.  The Beatrice Islets along with Busby Islet are three high points on the southern edge of a spit that is exposed at low water.  The spit which is named ‘The Spit’ extends from Cape Rouge about  north of Kingscote in a south easterly direction across the opening of the Bay of Shoals for a distance of about .  The islets which are separated by a distance of about , have a north-south alignment.  The islets historically consisted of sand dunes that were permanently above high water.  However, an exercise to remove South African boxthorn, an introduced species considered to an infestation risk, which occurred either during the 1960s or the 1970s and which resulted in the islets becoming ‘susceptible to erosion, and tides and rough weather’ thereby reducing the ‘once stable vegetated islets to bare, wave-washed sand spits’.  Subsequent attempts to stabilise the islets and encourage the deposition of sand were unsuccessful.  As of 1987, the islets were reported as existing ‘only as a mudflat/cocklebed which emerges above the sea at low tide.’

text: Beatrice Islets are pair of islets located in Nepean Bay about  east of

text: Kingscote

text: on Kangaroo Island in South Australia.  The Beatrice Islets along with Busby Islet are three high points on the southern edge of a

text: spit

text: that is exposed at low water.  The spit which is named ‘The Spit’ extends from Cape Rouge about  north of Kingscote in a south easterly direction across the opening of the

text: Bay of Shoals

text: for a distance of about .  The islets which are separated by a distance of about , have a north-south alignment.  The islets historically consisted of sand dunes that were permanently above high water.  However, an exercise to remove South African boxthorn, an introduced species considered to an infestation risk, which occurred either during the 1960s or the 1970s and which resulted in the islets becoming ‘susceptible to erosion, and tides and rough weather’ thereby reducing the ‘once stable vegetated islets to bare, wave-washed sand spits’.  Subsequent attempts to stabilise the islets and encourage the deposition of sand were unsuccessful.  As of 1987, the islets were reported as existing ‘only as a mudflat/cocklebed which emerges above the sea at low tide.’

text: Wave refraction disperses wave energy through the bay, and along with the sheltering effect of the headlands this protects bays from storms. This effect means that the waves reaching the shore in a bay are weaker than the waves reaching the headland, and the bay is thus a safer place for water activities like surfing or swimming. Through the deposition of sediment within the bay and the erosion of the headlands, coastlines eventually straighten out. But then the same process starts all over again.

text: Generally speaking, there are six potential sediment sources for beach environments. These are longshore transport, onshore transport, wind transport, river transport (and alluvial cliffs for the Canterbury Bight), biogenous (mainly in shell form) deposition and hydrogenous deposition (Kirk, 1967). In the Canterbury Bight system, wind transport and biogenous and hydrogenous deposition can be excluded as agents of sediment inputs. Wind can be excluded as it acts to remove sediment from the beach although this is not a significant amount. Biogenous deposition can be excluded as the high-energy environment and coarse sediment deter shelled animals from occupying the area. Lastly, hydrogenous deposition is not considered important to the Canterbury Bight system (Kirk, 1967). This means that rivers, longshore transport and onshore transport are the main sediment sources for the Canterbury Bight.

text: Generally speaking, there are six potential sediment sources for beach environments. These are

text: longshore transport

text: , onshore transport, wind transport, river transport (and alluvial cliffs for the Canterbury Bight), biogenous (mainly in shell form)

text: deposition

text: and hydrogenous deposition (Kirk, 1967). In the Canterbury Bight system, wind transport and biogenous and hydrogenous

text: deposition

text: can be excluded as agents of sediment inputs. Wind can be excluded as it acts to remove sediment from the beach although this is not a significant amount. Biogenous deposition can be excluded as the high-energy environment and coarse sediment deter shelled animals from occupying the area. Lastly, hydrogenous deposition is not considered important to the Canterbury Bight system (Kirk, 1967). This means that rivers,

text: longshore transport

text: and onshore transport are the main sediment sources for the Canterbury Bight.

text: Creating the rear layer with the emitters is a multi-step process. First, a matrix of silver wires is printed on the screen to form the rows or columns, an insulator is added, and then the columns or rows are deposited on top of that. Electrodes are added into this array, typically using platinum, leaving a gap of about 60 micrometres between the columns. Next, square pads of palladium oxide (PdO) only 20 nm thick are deposited into the gaps between the electrodes, connecting to them to supply power. A small slit is cut into the pad in the middle by repeatedly pulsing high currents though them. The resulting erosion causes a gap to form. The gap in the pad forms the emitter. The width of the gap has to be tightly controlled in order to work properly, and this proved difficult to control in practice.

text: Creating the rear layer with the emitters is a multi-step process. First, a matrix of silver wires is printed on the screen to form the rows or columns, an

text: insulator

text: is added, and then the columns or rows are deposited on top of that. Electrodes are added into this array, typically using

text: platinum

text: , leaving a gap of about 60 micrometres between the columns. Next, square pads of palladium oxide (PdO) only 20 nm thick are deposited into the gaps between the electrodes, connecting to them to supply power. A small slit is cut into the pad in the middle by repeatedly pulsing high currents though them. The resulting erosion causes a gap to form. The gap in the pad forms the emitter. The width of the gap has to be tightly controlled in order to work properly, and this proved difficult to control in practice.

text: Almost periodic function – Amplitude modulation – Amplitude – Beat – Chaos theory – Cyclic group – Diffraction – Doppler effect – Eigenstate – Eigenvalue – Fibonacci sequence – Fourier series – Frequency domain – Frequency spectrum – Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) – Harmonic oscillator – Huygens–Fresnel principle – Longitudinal wave – Mechanical wave – Navier–Stokes equations – Partial differential equation – Periodic function – Permutation – Phase (waves) – Physics of music – Power spectrum – Signal – Sine wave – Spectrum of an operator – Translational symmetry – Transverse wave – Wave equation – Wave–particle duality – Wave – Waveform

text: Almost periodic function

text: Amplitude modulation

text: Amplitude

text: Beat

text: Chaos theory

text: Cyclic group

text: Diffraction

text: Doppler effect

text: Eigenstate

text: Eigenvalue

text: Fibonacci sequence

text: Fourier series

text: Frequency domain

text: Frequency spectrum

text: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Harmonic oscillator

text: Huygens–Fresnel principle

text: Longitudinal wave

text: Mechanical wave

text: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Partial differential equation

text: Periodic function

text: Permutation

text: Phase (waves)

text: Physics of music

text: Power spectrum

text: Signal

text: Sine wave

text: Spectrum of an operator

text: Translational symmetry

text: Transverse wave

text: Wave equation

text: Wave–particle duality

text: Wave

text: Waveform

text: There are several conspicuous parts to a beach that relate to the processes that form and shape it. The part mostly above water (depending upon tide), and more or less actively influenced by the waves at some point in the tide, is termed the beach berm. The berm is the deposit of material comprising the active shoreline. The berm has a crest (top) and a face — the latter being the slope leading down towards the water from the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there may be a trough, and further seaward one or more long shore bars: slightly raised, underwater embankments formed where the waves first start to break.

text: There are several conspicuous parts to a beach that relate to the processes that form and shape it. The part mostly above water (depending upon tide), and more or less actively influenced by the waves at some point in the tide, is termed the beach berm. The

text: berm

text: is the deposit of material comprising the active shoreline. The berm has a crest (top) and a face — the latter being the slope leading down towards the water from the crest. At the very bottom of the face, there may be a trough, and further seaward one or more long shore bars: slightly raised, underwater embankments formed where the waves first start to break.

text: The elastic constants often change with depth, due to the changing properties of the material. This means that the velocity of a Rayleigh wave becomes dependent on the wavelength (and therefore frequency), a phenomenon referred to as dispersion. Waves affected by dispersion have a different wave train shape. Rayleigh waves on ideal, homogeneous and flat elastic solids show no dispersion. However, if a solid or structure has a density or sound velocity that varies with depth, Rayleigh waves become dispersive. One example is Rayleigh waves on the Earth's surface: those waves with a higher frequency travel more slowly than those with a lower frequency. This occurs because a Rayleigh wave of lower frequency has a relatively long wavelength. The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth than short wavelength waves. Since the speed of waves in the Earth increases with increasing depth, the longer wavelength (low frequency) waves can travel faster than the shorter wavelength (high frequency) waves. Rayleigh waves thus often appear spread out on seismograms recorded at distant earthquake recording stations. It is also possible to observe Rayleigh wave dispersion in thin films or multi-layered structures.

text: The elastic constants often change with depth, due to the changing properties of the material. This means that the velocity of a Rayleigh wave becomes dependent on the

text: wavelength

text: (and therefore

text: frequency

text: ), a phenomenon referred to as

text: dispersion

text: . Waves affected by dispersion have a different

text: wave train

text: shape. Rayleigh waves on ideal, homogeneous and flat elastic solids show no dispersion. However, if a solid or structure has a

text: density

text: or

text: sound velocity

text: that varies with depth, Rayleigh waves become dispersive. One example is Rayleigh waves on the Earth's surface: those waves with a higher

text: frequency

text: travel more slowly than those with a lower frequency. This occurs because a Rayleigh wave of lower frequency has a relatively long

text: wavelength

text: . The displacement of long wavelength waves penetrates more deeply into the Earth than short wavelength waves. Since the speed of waves in the Earth increases with increasing depth, the longer wavelength (

text: low frequency

text: ) waves can travel faster than the shorter wavelength (

text: high frequency

text: ) waves. Rayleigh waves thus often appear spread out on

text: seismogram

text: s recorded at distant earthquake recording stations. It is also possible to observe Rayleigh wave dispersion in thin films or multi-layered structures.

text: In contrast to Delaware and Maryland, the strong northeast portion of the nor'easter affected New Jersey for several days, producing strong winds and record high tides. Wind gusts reached  in Cape May, which were the strongest winds in association with the storm. Sustained winds were around  in the region. High winds in Atlantic City destroyed the windows of storefronts. Along the Jersey coast, the nor'easter produced waves of up to  in height. About  offshore Long Branch, waves reached heights of . In South Jersey, the storm surge struck the coast near low tide, which restricted flooding. The highest tide in South Jersey was  in Ocean City, which broke the previous record of  set in 1984. Further north, the surge coincided with several days of high tides and a lunar tide, causing significant flooding and beach erosion. The highest tide was  in Perth Amboy along the Raritan River, which broke the record set in 1960. In many locations, the storm produced the highest tides since the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962. The storm also dropped rainfall across the state, peaking at  in Morristown, along with gusts peaking at 58 mph (93 kph) at Morristown Municipal Airport. The rainfall caused higher discharge rates along rivers. The storm also produced high snowfall totals, including  in Sussex County. Throughout the coastline, the cost to replace the lost beach from erosion was estimated at $300 million (1992 USD).

text: In contrast to Delaware and Maryland, the strong northeast portion of the nor'easter affected New Jersey for several days, producing strong winds and record high tides. Wind gusts reached  in

text: Cape May

text: , which were the strongest winds in association with the storm.

text: Sustained

text: winds were around  in the region. High winds in Atlantic City destroyed the windows of storefronts. Along the Jersey coast, the nor'easter produced waves of up to  in height. About  offshore

text: Long Branch

text: , waves reached heights of . In

text: South Jersey

text: , the

text: storm surge

text: struck the coast near low tide, which restricted flooding. The highest tide in South Jersey was  in

text: Ocean City

text: , which broke the previous record of  set in 1984. Further north, the surge coincided with several days of high tides and a

text: lunar tide

text: , causing significant flooding and beach erosion. The highest tide was  in

text: Perth Amboy

text: along the

text: Raritan River

text: , which broke the record set in 1960. In many locations, the storm produced the highest tides since the

text: Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962

text: . The storm also dropped rainfall across the state, peaking at  in

text: Morristown

text: , along with gusts peaking at 58 mph (93 kph) at Morristown Municipal Airport. The rainfall caused higher discharge rates along rivers. The storm also produced high snowfall totals, including  in

text: Sussex County

text: . Throughout the coastline, the cost to replace the lost beach from erosion was estimated at $300 million (1992 USD).

text: Procopius claims that the White Huns lived in a prosperous territory, and that they were the only Huns with fair complexions. According to him, they did not live as nomads, did acknowledge a single king, observed a well-regulated constitution, and behaved justly towards neighboring states. He also describes the burial of their nobles in tumuli, accompanied by their closest associates. This practice contrasts with evidence of cremation among the Chionites in Ammianus and with remains found by excavators of the European Huns and remains in some deposits ascribed to the Chionites in Central Asia. Scholars believe that the Hephthalites constituted a second "Hunnish" wave who entered Bactria early in the 5th century, and who seem to have driven the Kidarites into Gandhara.

text: Procopius claims that the White Huns lived in a prosperous territory, and that they were the only Huns with fair complexions. According to him, they did not live as nomads, did acknowledge a single king, observed a well-regulated constitution, and behaved justly towards neighboring states. He also describes the

text: burial

text: of their nobles in

text: tumuli

text: , accompanied by their closest associates. This practice contrasts with evidence of

text: cremation

text: among the Chionites in

text: Ammianus

text: and with remains found by excavators of the European Huns and remains in some deposits ascribed to the Chionites in Central Asia. Scholars believe that the Hephthalites constituted a second "Hunnish" wave who entered

text: Bactria

text: early in the 5th century, and who seem to have driven the

text: Kidarites

text: into

text: Gandhara

text: The first permanent crossing over the river was Princes Bridge, which first opened as a wooden trestle bridge in 1844, the current bridge was constructed in 1888. In the early days, the river would frequently flood. While this was not considered a problem in the floodplains near Yarra Glen and Coldstream, however it caused much trouble further downstream in settlements such as Warrandyte, Templestowe, Bulleen, Heidelberg and Ivanhoe. The Upper Yarra Dam was later constructed to alleviate the flooding, protecting settlements along the river, yet depriving the river banks of soil and silt deposits and causing other problems such as erosion and salinity.

text: The first permanent crossing over the river was

text: Princes Bridge

text: , which first opened as a wooden

text: trestle bridge

text: in 1844, the current bridge was constructed in 1888. In the early days, the river would frequently flood. While this was not considered a problem in the floodplains near

text: Yarra Glen

text: and

text: Coldstream

text: , however it caused much trouble further downstream in settlements such as

text: Warrandyte

text: Templestowe

text: Bulleen

text: Heidelberg

text: and

text: Ivanhoe

text: . The

text: Upper Yarra Dam

text: was later constructed to alleviate the flooding, protecting settlements along the river, yet depriving the river banks of soil and silt deposits and causing other problems such as

text: erosion

text: and

text: salinity

text: Among various failure mechanisms that cause levee breaches, soil erosion is found to be one of the most important factors . Predicting soil erosion and scour generation when overtopping happens is important in order to design stable levee and floodwalls. There have been numerous studies to investigate the erodibility of soils. Briaud et al. (2008)  used Erosion Function Apparatus (EFA) test to measure the erodibility of the soils and afterwards by using Chen 3D software, numerical simulations were performed on the levee to find out the velocity vectors in the overtopping water and the generated scour when the overtopping water impinges the levee. By analyzing the results from EFA test, an erosion chart to categorize erodibility of the soils was developed.  Hughes and Nadal in 2009  studied the effect of combination of wave overtopping and storm surge overflow on the erosion and scour generation in levees. The study included hydraulic parameters and flow characteristics such as flow thickness, wave intervals, surge level above levee crown in analyzing scour development. According to the laboratory tests, empirical correlations related to average overtopping discharge were derived to analyze the resistance of levee against erosion. These equations could only fit to the situation similar to the experimental tests while they can give a reasonable estimation if applied to other conditions.Osouli et al. (2014) and Karimpour et al. (2015) conducted lab scale physical modeling of levees to evaluate score characterization of different levees due to floodwall overtopping.

text: Among various failure mechanisms that cause

text: levee breach

text: es,

text: soil erosion

text: is found to be one of the most important factors . Predicting soil erosion and scour generation when overtopping happens is important in order to design stable levee and

text: floodwalls

text: . There have been numerous studies to investigate the

text: erodibility

text: of soils. Briaud et al. (2008)  used

text: Erosion Function Apparatus

text: (EFA) test to measure the erodibility of the soils and afterwards by using Chen 3D software,

text: numerical simulations

text: were performed on the levee to find out the velocity vectors in the overtopping water and the generated scour when the overtopping water impinges the levee. By analyzing the results from EFA test, an

text: erosion

text: chart to categorize erodibility of the soils was developed.  Hughes and Nadal in 2009  studied the effect of combination of wave overtopping and storm surge overflow on the erosion and scour generation in levees. The study included hydraulic parameters and flow characteristics such as flow thickness, wave intervals, surge level above levee crown in analyzing scour development. According to the laboratory tests, empirical correlations related to average overtopping discharge were derived to analyze the resistance of levee against erosion. These equations could only fit to the situation similar to the experimental tests while they can give a reasonable estimation if applied to other conditions.Osouli et al. (2014) and Karimpour et al. (2015) conducted lab scale physical modeling of levees to evaluate

text: score characterization

text: of different levees due to

text: floodwall

text: overtopping.

text: There are various types of natural sources and sinks within a coastal system. Sediment sources can include river transport, sea cliff erosion and longshore drift into an area. Sediment sinks can include longshore drift of sediment away from an area and sediment deposition into an estuary.

text: There are various types of natural sources and sinks within a coastal system. Sediment sources can include river transport, sea cliff erosion and

text: longshore drift

text: into an area. Sediment sinks can include longshore drift of sediment away from an area and sediment deposition into an

text: estuary

text: Manten (1966) deduces that the Burgsvik beds were formed fairly close to the shoreline on a beach "faintly sloping towards the open sea", and that they were extensively reworked by the action of tides and storms.  Evidence from cross-bedding and ripple marks is taken to imply a subaquaeous origin; rounded oolite pebbles and slightly rounded, size-sorted fossils are evidence of a high-energy environment.  The presence of certain species of lamellibranch molluscs suggest a marine setting, and the thick shells present are also indicative of that type of environment.  Rare burrows, sometimes found in clay lenses, may have formed in quieter waters that were protected by low sand or reef barriers from wave action. Features that only form on sub-aerial ground, including erosion channels, pothole-like excavations, mud cracks and dendritic rill marks are all present, and provide firm evidence that parts of the environment consisted of beaches or unvegetated ground that occasionally ran dry. Detailed petrographic and paleæoecological analysis of the upper and top few metres of the middle Burgsvik beds by Stel and de Coo (1977) confirm that this section of the sequence was deposited between the beach and the lower foreshore; oolites and oncolites in the upper strata form in an "agitated shallow marine setting", implying a minor tidal influence. The paleoshoreline was located to the north-east, and facies become progressively more marine in character progressing to the south-west (Jeppsson 2005).

text: Manten (1966) deduces that the Burgsvik beds were formed fairly close to the shoreline on a beach "faintly sloping towards the open sea", and that they were extensively reworked by the action of

text: tide

text: s and storms.  Evidence from cross-bedding and ripple marks is taken to imply a subaquaeous origin; rounded oolite pebbles and slightly rounded, size-sorted

text: fossil

text: s are evidence of a high-energy environment.  The presence of certain species of

text: lamellibranch

text: molluscs suggest a

text: marine

text: setting, and the thick shells present are also indicative of that type of environment.  Rare burrows, sometimes found in clay lenses, may have formed in quieter waters that were protected by low sand or

text: reef

text: barriers from wave action. Features that only form on

text: sub-aerial

text: ground, including erosion channels, pothole-like excavations, mud cracks and

text: dendritic

text: rill

text: marks are all present, and provide firm evidence that parts of the environment consisted of beaches or unvegetated ground that occasionally ran dry. Detailed

text: petrographic

text: and paleæoecological analysis of the upper and top few metres of the middle Burgsvik beds by Stel and de Coo (1977) confirm that this section of the sequence was deposited between the beach and the lower foreshore; oolites and oncolites in the upper strata form in an "agitated shallow marine setting", implying a minor tidal influence. The paleoshoreline was located to the north-east, and facies become progressively more marine in character progressing to the south-west (Jeppsson 2005).

text: There is little significant protection for shorelines from development in the form of designated parks or conservation areas. In addition, Nova Scotia does not provide much protection of rural areas from subdivision of property.  Despite this, most of the shoreline is undeveloped.

text: The Purmer's being directly connected to open sea resulted in large-scale shoreline erosion due to wave dynamics and water currents. The high rate of erosion and the need for arable land gave rise to plans for reclamation.Once reclaimed, Purmer was given to farming, but the polder is now highly urbanised. Most of this urban sprawl is due to the town of Purmerend, which has derived its name from Purmer (the "end of Purmer"). During the 1980s and '90s Purmerend had two residential areas built in Purmer, Purmer-Noord and Purmer-Zuid. In contrast to Beemster and Schermer, Purmer is not a municipality in its own right, being divided among the municipalities of Purmerend, Edam-Volendam, and Waterland. The sparse habitation between Purmerend and Edam-Volendam is often referred to as the hamlet of Purmer.

text: The Purmer's being directly connected to open sea resulted in large-scale

text: shoreline erosion

text: due to wave dynamics and water currents. The high rate of erosion and the need for

text: arable land

text: gave rise to plans for reclamation.Once reclaimed, Purmer was given to farming, but the polder is now highly urbanised. Most of this urban sprawl is due to the town of

text: Purmerend

text: , which has derived its name from Purmer (the "end of Purmer"). During the 1980s and '90s Purmerend had two residential areas built in Purmer, Purmer-Noord and Purmer-Zuid. In contrast to Beemster and Schermer, Purmer is not a municipality in its own right, being divided among the municipalities of Purmerend, Edam-Volendam, and

text: Waterland

text: . The sparse habitation between Purmerend and Edam-Volendam is often referred to as the hamlet of Purmer.

text: Spits are formed when longshore drift travels past a point (e.g. river mouth or re-entrant) where the dominant drift direction and shoreline do not veer in the same direction. As well as dominant drift direction, spits are affected by the strength of wave driven current, wave angle and the height of incoming waves.

text: Spit

text: s are formed when longshore drift travels past a point (e.g. river mouth or re-entrant) where the dominant drift direction and shoreline do not veer in the same direction. As well as dominant drift direction, spits are affected by the strength of wave driven

text: current

text: , wave

text: angle

text: and the height of incoming waves.

text: The course of the upper Mississippi River is largely consequent upon glacial deposits. Its sources are in the morainic lakes in northern Minnesota. The drift deposits thereabouts are so heavy that the present divides between the drainage basins of Hudson Bay, Lake Superior and the Gulf of Mexico evidently stand in no very definite relation to the preglacial divides. The course of the Mississippi through Minnesota is largely guided by the form of the drift cover. Several rapids and the Saint Anthony Falls (determining the site of Minneapolis) are signs of immaturity, resulting from superposition through the drift on the under rock. Farther south, as far as the entrance of the Ohio River, the Mississippi follows a rock-walled valley 300 to 400 ft (90 to 120 m) deep, with a flood-plain 2 to 4 mi (3 to 7 km) wide. This valley seems to represent the path of an enlarged early-glacial Mississippi, when much precipitation that is today discharged to Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St Lawrence was delivered to the Gulf of Mexico, for the curves of the present river are of distinctly smaller radii than the curves of the valley. Lake Pepin (30 mi [50 km] below St. Paul), a picturesque expansion of the river across its flood-plain, is due to the aggradation of the valley floor where the Chippewa River, coming from the northeast, brought an overload of fluvio-glacial drift. Hence even the father of waters, like so many other rivers in the Northern states, owes many of its features more or less directly to glacial action.

text: The course of the upper

text: Mississippi River

text: is largely consequent upon glacial deposits. Its sources are in the morainic lakes in northern

text: Minnesota

text: . The drift deposits thereabouts are so heavy that the present divides between the drainage basins of

text: Hudson Bay

text: Lake Superior

text: and the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: evidently stand in no very definite relation to the preglacial divides. The course of the Mississippi through Minnesota is largely guided by the form of the drift cover. Several rapids and the

text: Saint Anthony Falls

text: (determining the site of

text: Minneapolis

text: ) are signs of immaturity, resulting from superposition through the drift on the under rock. Farther south, as far as the entrance of the

text: Ohio River

text: , the Mississippi follows a rock-walled valley 300 to 400 ft (90 to 120 m) deep, with a flood-plain 2 to 4 mi (3 to 7 km) wide. This valley seems to represent the path of an enlarged early-glacial Mississippi, when much precipitation that is today discharged to Hudson Bay and the Gulf of St Lawrence was delivered to the Gulf of Mexico, for the curves of the present river are of distinctly smaller

text: radii

text: than the curves of the valley.

text: Lake Pepin

text: (30 mi [50 km] below

text: St. Paul

text: ), a picturesque expansion of the river across its flood-plain, is due to the aggradation of the valley floor where the

text: Chippewa River

text: , coming from the northeast, brought an overload of fluvio-glacial drift. Hence even the father of waters, like so many other rivers in the Northern states, owes many of its features more or less directly to glacial action.

text: A wave-cut platform, coastal benches, or wave-cut benches  is the narrow flat area often found at the base of a sea cliff or along the shoreline of a lake, bay, or sea that was created by the erosion of waves. Wave-cut platforms are often most obvious at low tide when they become visible as huge areas of flat rock. Sometimes the landward side of the platform is covered by sand, forming the beach, and then the platform can only be identified at low tides or when storms move the sand.

text: A wave-cut platform, coastal benches, or wave-cut benches  is the narrow flat area often found at the base of a

text: sea cliff

text: or along the shoreline of a

text: lake

text: bay

text: , or

text: sea

text: that was created by the erosion of

text: wave

text: s. Wave-cut platforms are often most obvious at low tide when they become visible as huge areas of flat rock. Sometimes the landward side of the platform is covered by sand, forming the beach, and then the platform can only be identified at low tides or when storms move the sand.

text: Oyster reefs can also impact the carbon sequestration and excess nutrient uptake. Oyster reefs also stabilize shorelines by promoting sediment deposition and buffering wave energy, thereby allowing other habitats such as sea grass beds and marsh areas to form while simultaneously decreasing erosion of the shoreline.

text: Sediments that are found within Yaquina Bay are derived from tertiary rocks from the Central Oregon Coast Range, Pleistocene marine sediments and estuarine deposits. These sediments have three realms of deposition; marine deposition, fluviatile, and an intermediate transition state called marine-fluviatile. Marine deposition is found within the initial 2.4 km (1.5 mi) of the estuary and is associated with average ocean salinity and turbulent mixing. The sediment is similar in texture to sand and other fine grains. Fluviatile deposition extends from the point of freshwater input up to 9.7 km (6 mi) into the Bay, with its sediments more coarse. The transition stage between these two realms contains sediment mixes from the marine and fluviatile areas.

text: As an example, the New Brighton spit in Canterbury, New Zealand, was created by longshore drift of sediment from the Waimakariri River to the north. This spit system is currently in equilibrium but undergoes phases of deposition and erosion.

text: As an example, the

text: New Brighton

text: spit in Canterbury, New Zealand, was created by longshore drift of sediment from the

text: Waimakariri River

text: to the north. This spit system is currently in equilibrium but undergoes phases of deposition and erosion.

text: Ocean processes grade loose sediments to particle sizes other than sand, such as gravel or cobbles. Waves breaking on a beach can leave a berm, which is a raised ridge of coarser pebbles or sand, at the high tide mark. Shingle beaches are made of particles larger than sand, such as cobbles, or small stones. These beaches make poor habitats. Little life survives because the stones are churned and pounded together by waves and currents.

text: Ocean processes grade loose sediments to

text: particle sizes

text: other than sand, such as

text: gravel

text: or

text: cobble

text: s. Waves breaking on a beach can leave a

text: berm

text: , which is a raised ridge of coarser pebbles or sand, at the high tide mark.

text: Shingle beach

text: es are made of particles larger than sand, such as cobbles, or small stones. These beaches make poor habitats. Little life survives because the stones are churned and pounded together by waves and currents.

text: ST - Sediment Transport: simulates in-pipe sediment transport, erosion and deposition for uniform or graded sediments.

text: Coastal bulkheads are most often referred to as seawalls, bulkheading, or riprap revetments. These manmade structures are constructed along shorelines with the purpose of controlling beach erosion. Construction materials commonly used include wood pilings, commercially developed vinyl products, large boulders stacked to form a wall, or a seawall built of concrete or another hard substance.

text: Coastal bulkheads are most often referred to as

text: seawall

text: s, bulkheading, or

text: riprap

text: revetments. These manmade structures are constructed along

text: shoreline

text: s with the purpose of controlling

text: beach

text: erosion

text: . Construction materials commonly used include wood pilings, commercially developed vinyl products, large

text: boulder

text: s stacked to form a wall, or a

text: seawall

text: built of

text: concrete

text: or another hard substance.

text: This grading is commonly attributed to longshore drift, but is in fact a result of the diligent labours of the Pippos. Living in "pods" of three or more, along its length, they work nocturnally to grade the pebbles, and thus maintain the integrity of the beach. Without their efforts there would most certainly be extensive flooding through the beach, leading to the Isle of Portland being cut off from the mainland.

text: This grading is commonly attributed to

text: longshore drift

text: , but is in fact a result of the diligent labours of the Pippos. Living in "pods" of three or more, along its length, they work nocturnally to grade the pebbles, and thus maintain the integrity of the beach. Without their efforts there would most certainly be extensive flooding through the beach, leading to the Isle of Portland being cut off from the mainland.

text: On a rocky cliffed coast made up of material which is relatively resistant to erosion such as sandstone, limestone or granite, a flat rocky wave-cut platform or abrasion platform is formed in front of the cliff. It represents the foot of the cliff preserved at and below the level of water table. If there is a tectonic uplift of the coast, these abrasion platforms can be raised to form coastal terraces, from which the amount of uplift can be calculated from their elevation relative to the sea level, taking into account any eustatic sea level changes. On a cliffed coast made up of material which is only fairly or even hardly resistant to erosion no wave-cut platform but a beach is formed in front of the sea cliff.

text: On a rocky cliffed coast made up of material which is relatively resistant to erosion such as sandstone, limestone or granite, a flat rocky

text: wave-cut platform

text: or abrasion platform is formed in front of the cliff. It represents the foot of the cliff preserved at and below the level of water table. If there is a

text: tectonic

text: uplift of the coast, these abrasion platforms can be raised to form coastal terraces, from which the amount of uplift can be calculated from their elevation relative to the sea level, taking into account any

text: eustatic sea level changes

text: . On a cliffed coast made up of material which is only fairly or even hardly resistant to erosion no wave-cut platform but a beach is formed in front of the sea cliff.

text: These ideas may be expressed in ordinary language as follows. In the account of ordinary physical waves, a 'point' refers to a position in ordinary physical space at an instant of time, at which there is specified a 'displacement' of some physical quantity. But in the account of quantum mechanics, a 'point' refers to a configuration of the system at an instant of time, every particle of the system being in a sense present in every 'point' of configuration space, each particle at such a 'point' being located possibly at a different position in ordinary physical space. There is no explicit definite indication that, at an instant, this particle is 'here' and that particle is 'there' in some separate 'location' in configuration space. This conceptual difference entails that, in contrast to de Broglie's pre-quantum mechanical wave description, the quantum mechanical probability packet description does not directly and explicitly express the Aristotelian idea, referred to by Newton, that causal efficacy propagates through ordinary space by contact, nor the Einsteinian idea that such propagation is no faster than light. In contrast, these ideas are so expressed in the classical wave account, through the Green's function, though it is inadequate for the observed quantal phenomena. The physical reasoning for this was first recognized by Einstein.

text: Green's function

text: , though it is inadequate for the observed quantal phenomena. The physical reasoning for this was first recognized by Einstein.

text: In the mid-1980s, rising water levels in Lake Huron endangered M-185 and bicyclists. The roadway was overwashed by waves from the lake during a storm on May 31, 1985; the waves littered the road with gravel and dirt and raised fears of erosion. MDOT spent around $50,000 (equivalent to $

text: H.A.R.D. has partnered with the Hayward Area Historical Society to restore the Meek Mansion, and to manage the open space portions of the site. The Hayward Area Shoreline Planning Agency, created in 1970, is a joint project of H.A.R.D., the East Bay Regional Parks District and the city of Hayward to protect shoreline resources from San Lorenzo Creek to New Alameda Creek on the border of Hayward and Fremont.

text: H.A.R.D. has partnered with the

text: Hayward Area Historical Society

text: to restore the

text: Meek Mansion

text: , and to manage the open space portions of the site. The Hayward Area Shoreline Planning Agency, created in 1970, is a joint project of H.A.R.D., the

text: East Bay Regional Parks District

text: and the city of Hayward to protect shoreline resources from

text: San Lorenzo Creek

text: to

text: New Alameda Creek

text: on the border of Hayward and

text: Fremont

text: Over the years, people have built many structures too close to the shoreline. As a result, they became threatened by the ocean’s force, and owners built revetments as a defense. However, the armoring has severely narrowed some beaches. Public access to the beaches has also been reduced in areas where development exists in an unbroken line contiguous to the beach. Properties act as barriers to the public by preventing entrance to the shore. Vertical access is also restricted, stopping public roads leading to the shoreline.

text: Over the years, people have built many structures too close to the shoreline. As a result, they became

text: threatened

text: by the ocean’s force, and owners built

text: revetment

text: s as a defense. However, the armoring has severely narrowed some beaches. Public access to the beaches has also been reduced in areas where development exists in an unbroken line contiguous to the beach. Properties act as barriers to the public by preventing entrance to the shore. Vertical access is also restricted, stopping public roads leading to the shoreline.

text: Lake Manly left behind many deposits, indicating the range of its waters. Geologists have discovered 30 distinct deposits. The deposits range from strandlines to shoreline gravel to spit and bar complexes, among others. The numerous features span Death Valley from north to south, but are primarily located on the eastern side. Despite how far ranging the features are, the record of deposition is far more incomplete than other Pleistocene pluvial lakes such as Lake Bonneville or Lake Lahontan. Deposits from Lake Manly are often only partially intact because they have been affected by erosion or faulting. The depositional features provide insight into Lake Manly's history and expand the geologic understanding of the region.

text: Lake Manly left behind many deposits, indicating the range of its waters. Geologists have discovered 30 distinct deposits. The deposits range from strandlines to shoreline gravel to spit and bar complexes, among others. The numerous features span Death Valley from north to south, but are primarily located on the eastern side. Despite how far ranging the features are, the record of deposition is far more incomplete than other

text: Pleistocene

text: pluvial lakes such as

text: Lake Bonneville

text: or

text: Lake Lahontan

text: . Deposits from Lake Manly are often only partially intact because they have been affected by erosion or faulting. The depositional features provide insight into Lake Manly's history and expand the geologic understanding of the region.

text: Until the discovery of the Happisburgh footprints in England in 2013, they were the oldest known hominid footprints outside Africa. The tracks were originally dated to between 385,000 and 325,000 years ago, but subsequent studies using argon-argon dating placed the date more precisely as around 349–350,000 years ago. The pyroclastic deposits in which the footprints were imprinted were laid down around 349,000 years ago (±3,000 years), while the layer of volcanic ash which subsequently covered and preserved them was deposited around 350,000 years ago (±3,000 years). The footprints are thought to have been exposed by erosion caused by heavy precipitation and landslides in the early 19th century, when the name Ciampate del Diavolo was first recorded.

text: Until the discovery of the

text: Happisburgh footprints

text: in England in 2013, they were the oldest known hominid footprints outside Africa. The tracks were originally dated to between 385,000 and 325,000 years ago, but subsequent studies using

text: argon-argon dating

text: placed the date more precisely as around 349–350,000 years ago. The pyroclastic deposits in which the footprints were imprinted were laid down around 349,000 years ago (±3,000 years), while the layer of volcanic ash which subsequently covered and preserved them was deposited around 350,000 years ago (±3,000 years). The footprints are thought to have been exposed by erosion caused by heavy precipitation and landslides in the early 19th century, when the name Ciampate del Diavolo was first recorded.

text: Hydraulic action is erosion that occurs when the motion of water against a rock surface produces mechanical weathering. Most generally, it is the ability of moving water (flowing or waves) to dislodge and transport rock particles.  Within this rubric are a number of specific erosional processes, including abrasion, attrition, corrasion, saltation, and scouring (downcutting).  Hydraulic action is distinguished from other types of water facilitated erosion, such as static erosion where water leaches salts and floats off organic material from unconsolidated sediments, and from chemical erosion more often called chemical weathering.It is a mechanical process, in which the moving water current flows against the banks and bed of a river, thereby removing rock particles.

text: Hydraulic action is erosion that occurs when the motion of water against a rock surface produces mechanical weathering. Most generally, it is the ability of moving water (flowing or waves) to dislodge and transport rock particles.  Within this

text: rubric

text: are a number of specific erosional processes, including

text: abrasion

text: , attrition,

text: corrasion

text: , saltation, and scouring (

text: downcutting

text: ).  Hydraulic action is distinguished from other types of water facilitated erosion, such as static erosion where water leaches salts and floats off organic material from unconsolidated sediments, and from chemical erosion more often called

text: chemical weathering

text: .It is a mechanical process, in which the moving water current flows against the banks and bed of a river, thereby removing rock particles.

text: The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller), winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a dune.

text: The sand deposit may extend well inland from the berm crest, where there may be evidence of one or more older crests (the storm beach) resulting from very large storm waves and beyond the influence of the normal waves. At some point the influence of the waves (even storm waves) on the material comprising the beach stops, and if the particles are small enough (sand size or smaller), winds shape the feature. Where wind is the force distributing the grains inland, the deposit behind the beach becomes a

text: dune

text: Sediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (longshore drift). When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of deposition. These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a spit). Armoured beaches and submerged offshore sandbanks may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore.

text: Sediment

text: is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (

text: longshore drift

text: ). When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of

text: deposition

text: . These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a

text: spit

text: Armoured

text: beaches and submerged offshore

text: sandbanks

text: may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore.

text: Cape Fear experienced minor beach erosion. The erosion, combined with high waves, washed out a portion of a roadway. The heavy rainfall in the Outer Banks disabled over 200 cars and flooded nearly 500. Strong wind gusts left around 10,000 buildings without power. Many places were not restored for two to three days after the storm. Wind and storm surge damaged over 100 houses and buildings. Damage amounted to about $7.5 million (2004 USD). Two days after the storm passed, a man drowned off of Nags Head from strong rip currents and waves. This was the only direct casualty from the storm.

text: Cape Fear

text: experienced minor beach erosion. The erosion, combined with high waves, washed out a portion of a roadway. The heavy rainfall in the Outer Banks disabled over 200 cars and flooded nearly 500. Strong wind gusts left around 10,000 buildings without power. Many places were not restored for two to three days after the storm. Wind and storm surge damaged over 100 houses and buildings. Damage amounted to about $7.5 million (2004 USD). Two days after the storm passed, a man drowned off of

text: Nags Head

text: from strong rip currents and waves. This was the only direct casualty from the storm.

text: According to the superposition principle of quantum mechanics, wave functions can be added together and multiplied by complex numbers to form new wave functions and form a Hilbert space. The inner product between two wave functions is a measure of the overlap between the corresponding physical states and is used in the foundational probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, the Born rule, relating transition probabilities to inner products.   The Schrödinger equation determines how wave functions evolve over time. A wave function behaves qualitatively like other waves, such as water waves or waves on a string, because the Schrödinger equation is mathematically a type of wave equation. This explains the name "wave function", and gives rise to wave–particle duality. However, the wave function in quantum mechanics describes a kind of physical phenomenon, still open to different interpretations, which fundamentally differs from that of classic mechanical waves.

text: According to the

text: superposition principle

text: of quantum mechanics, wave functions can be added together and multiplied by complex numbers to form new wave functions and form a

text: Hilbert space

text: . The inner product between two wave functions is a measure of the overlap between the corresponding physical states and is used in the foundational probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, the

text: Born rule

text: , relating transition probabilities to inner products.   The Schrödinger equation determines how wave functions evolve over time. A wave function behaves qualitatively like other

text: wave

text: s, such as

text: water wave

text: s or waves on a string, because the Schrödinger equation is mathematically a type of

text: wave equation

text: . This explains the name "wave function", and gives rise to

text: wave–particle duality

text: . However, the wave function in quantum mechanics describes a kind of physical phenomenon, still open to different

text: interpretations

text: , which fundamentally differs from that of classic mechanical waves.

text: Bedrock in the range includes faulted and folded fossil bearing limestones. The slopes of the range have been terraced by shoreline erosion and deposition from Lake Bonneville.

text: Bedrock in the range includes

text: faulted

text: and

text: folded

text: fossil

text: bearing

text: limestone

text: s. The slopes of the range have been terraced by shoreline

text: erosion

text: and deposition from

text: Lake Bonneville

text: Battjes was born on 22 February 1939 in Winschoten. He studied civil engineering at Delft University of Technology, earning his M.Sc in 1962. Battjes subsequently spent four years as an assistant professor at the Laboratory of Coastal Engineering at the University of Florida, in the United States. He started working as a professor at Delft University of Technology in the late 1960s, where he held the chair of fluid dynamics. In 1974 Battjes obtained his Doctor title in technical sciences at Delft University under Johan Schönfeld, with a thesis titled Computation of Set-up, Longshore Currents, Run-up and Overtopping due to Wind-generated Waves. Battjes retired in 2004.

text: Battjes was born on 22 February 1939 in

text: Winschoten

text: . He studied civil engineering at

text: Delft University of Technology

text: , earning his M.Sc in 1962. Battjes subsequently spent four years as an assistant professor at the Laboratory of Coastal Engineering at the

text: University of Florida

text: , in the United States. He started working as a professor at

text: Delft University of Technology

text: in the late 1960s, where he held the chair of fluid dynamics. In 1974 Battjes obtained his

text: Doctor

text: title in technical sciences at Delft University under Johan Schönfeld, with a thesis titled Computation of Set-up, Longshore Currents, Run-up and Overtopping due to Wind-generated Waves. Battjes retired in 2004.

text: In the last half-decade, coastal erosion in the form of inertial cavitation has been generally accepted. Vapor pockets in an incoming wave are forced into cracks in the cliff being eroded, then the force of the wave compresses the vapor pockets until the bubble implodes, becoming liquid, giving off various forms of energy that blast apart the rock.

text: Some third-wave feminists prefer not to call themselves feminists, as the word feminist can be misinterpreted as insensitive to the fluid notion of gender and the potential oppressions inherent in all gender roles, or perhaps misconstrued as exclusive or elitist by critics. Others have kept and redefined the term to include these ideas. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge any universal definition of femininity. In the introduction of To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism, the Third Wave Foundation founder and leader Rebecca Walker writes:

text: Some third-wave feminists prefer not to call themselves feminists, as the word feminist can be misinterpreted as insensitive to the

text: fluid notion of gender

text: and the potential

text: oppression

text: s inherent in all

text: gender roles

text: , or perhaps misconstrued as exclusive or elitist by critics. Others have kept and redefined the term to include these ideas. Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge any universal definition of femininity. In the introduction of To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism, the Third Wave Foundation founder and leader

text: Rebecca Walker

text: writes:

text: Concrete seawalls, bulkheads and revetments are examples of hardened structures traditionally used to stabilize shorelines that ironically increase erosion rates, reduce the shoreline’s capacity to undergo natural processes and minimize estuarine habitats. NCCF feels that the best approach to battle erosion issues is to plan for erosion to occur and build as distant from the water’s edge as possible. However, when this isn’t possible NCCF supports utilizing stabilization techniques that induce the least amount of damage to natural ecosystems and uphold the natural structure of the marsh areas. One such approach NCCF takes is advocating for the construction of “living shorelines” when necessary. Living shorelines are new alternatives to stabilize shorelines that utilize organic materials such as oyster reefs, coir fiber logs, wetland plants, stones, sand fill, and submerged aquatic vegetation. Living shorelines protect surrounding intertidal and riparian environments, improve water quality by filtration of runoff, decrease erosion rates and create terrestrial and aquatic habitats.

text: Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps are used to identify sensitive shoreline resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan cleanup strategies. By planning spill response ahead of time, the impact on the environment can be minimized or prevented.  Environmental sensitivity index maps are basically made up of information within the following three categories:  shoreline type, and biological and human-use resources.

text: A soil erosion study of the beach at Rossnowlagh, known officially as Belalt Strand, has been made. The area consists mainly of sandy beach, but also rocky shore platform, sand dunes, grassland, boulder clay cliffs and rock cliffs. Over the last 60 years it has been determined that the central section of the dune front has been eroding at rates up to 0.6 metres (2 ft) per year, with the highest erosion rate between 1951 and 1977. Starting in 1972, short lengths of rock armour were constructed at first in front of the Sandhouse Hotel and with further additions along the shore-line; this stopped the erosion in protected parts but the dune front has a ragged appearance with up to  of erosion where half of the sandy shoreline has no protection.

text: A soil erosion study of the beach at Rossnowlagh, known officially as Belalt Strand, has been made. The area consists mainly of sandy beach, but also rocky shore platform, sand dunes, grassland, boulder clay cliffs and rock cliffs. Over the last 60 years it has been determined that the central section of the dune front has been eroding at rates up to 0.6 metres (2 ft) per year, with the highest erosion rate between 1951 and 1977. Starting in 1972, short lengths of

text: rock armour

text: were constructed at first in front of the Sandhouse Hotel and with further additions along the shore-line; this stopped the erosion in protected parts but the dune front has a ragged appearance with up to  of erosion where half of the sandy shoreline has no protection.

text: Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline.

text: In 1845 the Frenchman Elie de Beaumont published an account of barrier formation. He believed that waves moving into shallow water churned up sand, which was deposited in the form of a submarine bar when the waves broke and lost much of their energy. As the bars developed vertically, they gradually rose above sea level, forming barrier islands.

text: In 1845 the Frenchman

text: Elie de Beaumont

text: published an account of barrier formation. He believed that waves moving into shallow water churned up sand, which was deposited in the form of a submarine

text: bar

text: when the waves broke and lost much of their energy. As the bars developed vertically, they gradually rose above sea level, forming barrier islands.

text: The coastal land masses are formed or modified both by action of the sea currents and tides, and by the rainwater flow through the estuaries, from the rivers and backwater systems, supplying sediments. Deposition or erosion of coastal areas are common and dynamic. Sea erosion claims land in some areas with the eroded soil being deposited in other areas. Severe floods and tidal changes have caused more abrupt and drastic transformations at times. The Cochin estuary itself is said to have resulted from the floods of 1341, which caused the silting up of the ancient harbor of Muziris and the opening of the channel at Cochin Azhi.

text: The coastal land masses are formed or modified both by action of the sea currents and tides, and by the rainwater flow through the estuaries, from the rivers and backwater systems, supplying sediments. Deposition or erosion of coastal areas are common and dynamic. Sea erosion claims land in some areas with the eroded soil being deposited in other areas. Severe floods and tidal changes have caused more abrupt and drastic transformations at times. The Cochin estuary itself is said to have resulted from the floods of 1341, which caused the silting up of the ancient harbor of

text: Muziris

text: and the opening of the channel at Cochin Azhi.

text: The Hemispherical Resonator Gyroscope (HRG), also called wine-glass gyroscope or mushroom gyro, is made using a thin solid-state hemispherical shell, anchored by a thick stem. This shell is driven to a flexural resonance by electrostatic forces generated by electrodes which are deposited directly onto separate fused-quartz structures that surround the shell. Gyroscopic effect is obtained from the inertial property of the flexural standing waves. HRG has no moving parts, is extremely reliable and very accurate.

text: Much of the coast and the inner estuaries are built of mangroves; there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay. Thus the marine ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered to be a part of the Everglades watershed and one of the ecosystems connected to and affected by the Everglades as a whole. More than  of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park, representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries. There are approximately 100 keys in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests. The fresh water coming into Florida Bay from the Everglades creates perfect conditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that are the foundation for animal life in the bay. Sea turtles and manatees eat the grass, while invertebrate animals, such as worms, clams and other mollusks eat the algae formations and microscopic plankton. Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. Sea grasses also serve to stabilize the sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves.

text: Much of the coast and the inner estuaries are built of mangroves; there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay. Thus the marine ecosystems in

text: Florida Bay

text: are considered to be a part of the Everglades watershed and one of the ecosystems connected to and affected by the Everglades as a whole. More than  of Florida Bay is protected by

text: Everglades National Park

text: , representing the largest body of water in the park boundaries. There are approximately 100

text: keys

text: in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests. The fresh water coming into Florida Bay from the Everglades creates perfect conditions for vast beds of

text: turtle grass

text: and algae formations that are the foundation for animal life in the bay.

text: Sea turtle

text: s and

text: manatee

text: s eat the grass, while invertebrate animals, such as worms, clams and other mollusks eat the algae formations and microscopic plankton. Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. Sea grasses also serve to stabilize the sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves.

text: Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of soil and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely. However, in places where the overlying cover is removed through erosion or tectonic uplift, the rock may be exposed, or crop out. Such exposure will happen most frequently in areas where erosion is rapid and exceeds the weathering rate such as on steep hillsides, mountain ridges and tops, river banks, and tectonically active areas. In Finland, glacial erosion during the last glacial maximum (ca. 11000 BC), followed by scouring by sea waves, followed by isostatic uplift has produced a large number of smooth coastal and littoral outcrops.

text: Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of

text: soil

text: and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely. However, in places where the overlying cover is removed through

text: erosion

text: or

text: tectonic uplift

text: , the rock may be exposed, or crop out. Such exposure will happen most frequently in areas where

text: erosion

text: is rapid and exceeds the

text: weathering

text: rate such as on steep hillsides, mountain ridges and tops, river banks, and

text: tectonically active

text: areas. In

text: Finland

text: glacial

text: erosion during the last glacial maximum (ca. 11000 BC), followed by scouring by sea waves, followed by

text: isostatic uplift

text: has produced a large number of smooth coastal and littoral outcrops.

text: Sediment deposition throughout a shoreline profile conforms to the null point hypothesis; where gravitational and hydraulic forces determine the settling velocity of grains in a seaward fining sediment distribution. Long shore occurs in a 90 to 80 degree backwash so it would be presented as a right angle with the wave line.

text: Sediment deposition

text: throughout a shoreline profile conforms to the

text: null point hypothesis

text: ; where gravitational and hydraulic forces determine the settling velocity of grains in a seaward fining sediment distribution. Long shore occurs in a 90 to 80 degree backwash so it would be presented as a right angle with the wave line.

text: In seismology, several types of surface waves are encountered. Surface waves, in this mechanical sense, are commonly known as either Love waves (L waves) or Rayleigh waves. A seismic wave is a wave that travels through the Earth, often as the result of an earthquake or explosion. Love waves have transverse motion (movement is perpendicular to the direction of travel, like light waves), whereas Rayleigh waves have both longitudinal (movement parallel to the direction of travel, like sound waves) and transverse motion. Seismic waves are studied by seismologists and measured by a seismograph or seismometer. Surface waves span a wide frequency range, and the period of waves that are most damaging is usually 10 seconds or longer. Surface waves can travel around the globe many times from the largest earthquakes. Surface waves are caused when P waves and S waves come to the surface.

text: In

text: seismology

text: , several types of surface waves are encountered. Surface waves, in this mechanical sense, are commonly known as either

text: Love wave

text: s (L waves) or

text: Rayleigh wave

text: s. A

text: seismic wave

text: is a wave that travels through the Earth, often as the result of an earthquake or explosion. Love waves have transverse motion (movement is perpendicular to the direction of travel, like light waves), whereas Rayleigh waves have both longitudinal (movement parallel to the direction of travel, like sound waves) and transverse motion. Seismic waves are studied by seismologists and measured by a seismograph or seismometer. Surface waves span a wide frequency range, and the period of waves that are most damaging is usually 10 seconds or longer. Surface waves can travel around the globe many times from the largest earthquakes. Surface waves are caused when P waves and S waves come to the surface.

text: The coastal cliffs at Covehithe are formed of glacial sands and other deposits. Loose and unconsolidated, they erode rapidly, currently at around 4.5 metres a year, although Environment Agency studies found that 75 metres had been lost between 1992 and 2006 at a rate of 5.3 metres a year. The main part of the settlement at Covehithe, around 250 metres from the current shoreline, is expected to be lost to erosion by 2110, possibly even by 2040. Any future attempts to protect Covehithe are thought to be unsustainable, and would likely increase erosion rates at the larger settlement of Southwold to the south.

text: The coastal cliffs at Covehithe are formed of glacial sands and other deposits. Loose and unconsolidated, they erode rapidly, currently at around 4.5 metres a year, although

text: Environment Agency

text: studies found that 75 metres had been lost between 1992 and 2006 at a rate of 5.3 metres a year. The main part of the settlement at Covehithe, around 250 metres from the current shoreline, is expected to be lost to erosion by 2110, possibly even by 2040. Any future attempts to protect Covehithe are thought to be unsustainable, and would likely increase erosion rates at the larger settlement of

text: Southwold

text: to the south.

text: The location of the shoreline and its changing position over time is of fundamental importance to coastal scientists, engineers and managers (Boak & Turner 2005; Pajack & Leatherman 2002). Present day shoreline monitoring campaigns provide information about historic shoreline location and movement, and about predictions of future change (Appeaning Addo et al. 2008). More specifically the position of the shoreline in the past, at present and where it is predicted to be in the future is useful for in the design of coastal protection, to calibrate and verify numerical models to assess sea level rise, map hazard zones and formulate policies to regulate coastal development. Accurate and consistent delineation of the shoreline is integral to all of these tasks.  The location of the shoreline also provides information regarding shoreline reorientation adjacent to structures, beach width, volume and rates of historical change (Boak & Turner 2005; Pajack & Leatherman 2002).

text: The location of the shoreline and its changing position over time is of fundamental importance to coastal scientists, engineers and managers (Boak & Turner 2005; Pajack & Leatherman 2002). Present day shoreline monitoring campaigns provide information about historic shoreline location and movement, and about predictions of future change (Appeaning Addo et al. 2008). More specifically the position of the shoreline in the past, at present and where it is predicted to be in the future is useful for in the design of

text: coastal protection

text: , to calibrate and verify

text: numerical models

text: to assess

text: sea level rise

text: , map hazard zones and formulate policies to regulate coastal development. Accurate and consistent delineation of the shoreline is integral to all of these tasks.  The location of the shoreline also provides information regarding shoreline reorientation adjacent to structures,

text: beach

text: width, volume and rates of historical change (Boak & Turner 2005; Pajack & Leatherman 2002).

text: The effect of waves, while directly powered by the wind, is distinct from a storm's wind-powered currents. Powerful wind whips up large, strong waves in the direction of its movement. Although these surface waves are responsible for very little water transport in open water, they may be responsible for significant transport near the shore. When waves are breaking on a line more or less parallel to the beach, they carry considerable water shoreward. As they break, the water particles moving toward the shore have considerable momentum and may run up a sloping beach to an elevation above the mean water line which may exceed twice the wave height before breaking.

text: While a terrace sequence can date back hundreds of thousands of years, its degradation is a rather fast process. On the one hand a deeper transgression of cliffs into the shoreline may completely destroy previous terraces; on the other hand older terraces might be decayed or covered by deposits, colluvia or alluvial fans.  Erosion and backwearing of slopes caused by incisive streams play another important role in this degradation process.

text: While a terrace sequence can date back hundreds of thousands of years, its degradation is a rather fast process. On the one hand a deeper transgression of cliffs into the shoreline may completely destroy previous terraces; on the other hand older terraces might be decayed or covered by deposits,

text: colluvia

text: or

text: alluvial fan

text: s.  Erosion and backwearing of slopes caused by incisive streams play another important role in this degradation process.

text: Soundwise, combo organs are very similar to each other, although there are definite discernible tonal characteristics that differ between models that might be considered "default" for each model. For instance, the Vox Continental tends toward having somewhat of a Hammond-like, or "sine wave"-like sound (only thinner); while the Farfisa Combo Compact has an aggressive, raspy quality to some of its boosted tones, and the Gibson G-101 has a cleaner, contoured, more "sawtooth wave"-like tone, with harpsichord-like, percussive sound capabilities and a slight "after-jingle", with Sustain selected, on some voice settings.

text: Soundwise, combo organs are very similar to each other, although there are definite discernible tonal characteristics that differ between models that might be considered "default" for each model. For instance, the

text: Vox Continental

text: tends toward having somewhat of a

text: Hammond

text: -like, or "

text: sine wave

text: "-like sound (only thinner); while the

text: Farfisa

text: Combo Compact has an aggressive, raspy quality to some of its boosted tones, and the

text: Gibson G-101

text: has a cleaner, contoured, more "

text: sawtooth wave

text: "-like tone, with

text: harpsichord

text: -like, percussive sound capabilities and a slight "after-jingle", with

text: Sustain

text: selected, on some voice settings.

text: Specific trap sites for heavy mineral sand placer deposits are in beaches on the leeward side of headlands, as this forms a low-energy zone which traps sediments carried along by the longshore drift. Also, sand bars developed at the mouths of rivers which feed the placer deposits are rich trap sites where the winnowing action of the waves are most efficient, because heavy minerals, if they are going to be too heavy to be moved, will deposit at an isthmus in preference to drifting too far down the beach.

text: Specific trap sites for heavy mineral sand placer deposits are in beaches on the

text: leeward

text: side of

text: headland

text: s, as this forms a low-energy zone which traps sediments carried along by the

text: longshore drift

text: . Also,

text: sand bar

text: s developed at the

text: mouths of river

text: s which feed the placer deposits are rich trap sites where the winnowing action of the waves are most efficient, because heavy minerals, if they are going to be too heavy to be moved, will deposit at an

text: isthmus

text: in preference to drifting too far down the beach.

text: The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts (headings). This form of mining utilizes horizontal or nearly horizontal (slightly declined) shafts for ore extraction from sandstone or crag. Drifts and galleries are the most widespread type of mining form in Kargaly. The form and size of the galleries is not fixed, but flexible depending on the composition of the ore layers and the different characteristics of the deposit. These criteria are assessed by the miners during underground and surface gophering for copper minerals. This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries, which often have no regular geometric profile and no strict direction. The predominance of the so-called nest, or lens accumulations of copper minerals in Kargaly led to the appearance of huge underground halls derived from galleries. Their ceilings are twenty meters high and are connected to other galleries and drifts. In some cases they were blind underground headings (strecks). Prospecting or trial pits are laid into the loam surface layer for the clearing of subsoil and are created in order to search for traces of copper minerals. The copper deposits are usually surrounded by residue of argillaceous soil and sandy loam.

text: The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts (headings). This form of mining utilizes horizontal or nearly horizontal (slightly declined) shafts for

text: ore extraction

text: from sandstone or crag. Drifts and galleries are the most widespread type of mining form in Kargaly. The form and size of the galleries is not fixed, but flexible depending on the composition of the ore layers and the different characteristics of the deposit. These criteria are assessed by the miners during underground and surface

text: gophering

text: for copper minerals. This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries, which often have no regular geometric profile and no strict direction. The predominance of the so-called nest, or lens accumulations of copper minerals in Kargaly led to the appearance of huge underground halls derived from galleries. Their ceilings are twenty meters high and are connected to other galleries and drifts. In some cases they were blind underground headings (

text: streck

text: s).

text: Prospecting or trial pits

text: are laid into the loam surface layer for the clearing of subsoil and are created in order to search for traces of copper minerals. The copper deposits are usually surrounded by residue of argillaceous soil and

text: sandy loam

text: Authorizes the Secretary to conduct a study of shoreline protection and beach erosion policy and related projects in view of the expected increases in the levels of the Great Lakes.

text: LSD helps create many landforms including barrier islands, bay beaches and spits. In general LSD action serves to straighten the coast because the creation of barriers cuts off bays from the sea while sediment usually builds up in bays because the waves there are weaker (due to wave refraction), while sediment is carried away from the exposed headlands. The lack of sediment on headlands removes the protection of waves from them and makes them more vulnerable to weathering while the gathering of sediment in bays (where longshore drift is unable to remove it) protects the bays from further erosion and makes them pleasant recreational beaches.

text: LSD helps create many landforms including

text: barrier island

text: s, bay beaches and

text: spits

text: . In general LSD action serves to straighten the coast because the creation of barriers cuts off

text: bays

text: from the sea while sediment usually builds up in bays because the waves there are weaker (due to wave refraction), while sediment is carried away from the exposed

text: headlands

text: . The lack of sediment on headlands removes the protection of waves from them and makes them more vulnerable to weathering while the gathering of sediment in bays (where longshore drift is unable to remove it) protects the bays from further erosion and makes them pleasant

text: recreational beaches

text: In Barbados, Gabrielle brought 10 feet (3 m) waves and flooding to the island nation, causing minor damage. There were no fatalities or injuries. In Dominica and Guadeloupe, waves from Gabrielle caused severe beach erosion along the north and east coasts of the island but moderate damage was reported. However, the erosion brought by Gabrielle and later Hurricane Hugo resulted loss of 14 feet (4.4 m) of beach. The Caribbean islands of Nevis and British Virgin Islands also sustained minor to moderate beach erosion. In Bermuda, waves of 10–20 feet (4.6–6 m) were reported.

text: In

text: Barbados

text: , Gabrielle brought 10 feet (3 m) waves and flooding to the island nation, causing minor damage. There were no fatalities or injuries. In

text: Dominica

text: and

text: Guadeloupe

text: , waves from Gabrielle caused severe beach erosion along the north and east coasts of the island but moderate damage was reported. However, the erosion brought by Gabrielle and later

text: Hurricane Hugo

text: resulted loss of 14 feet (4.4 m) of beach. The Caribbean islands of

text: Nevis

text: and British Virgin Islands also sustained minor to moderate beach erosion. In Bermuda, waves of 10–20 feet (4.6–6 m) were reported.

text: They can be found all over the world and are most noticeable on shorelines with coarser sediment such as pebble beaches. However, they can occur with sediment of any size. They  nearly always occur in a regular pattern with cusps of equal size and spacing appearing along stretches of the shoreline. These cusps are most often a few metres long. However, they may reach  across. Although the origin of beach cusps has yet to be proven, once cusps have been created they are a self-sustaining formation. This is because when an oncoming wave hits the horn of a beach cusp, it is split and forced into two directions. The crashing of the wave into the cusps slows its velocity,  causing coarser sediment to fall out of suspension and be deposited on the horns. The waves then flow along the embayments (picking up finer sediment) and run into one another in the middle. After this collision these waves attempt to flow back out to sea where they are met by incoming waves. Therefore, once the cusp is established, coarser sediment is constantly being deposited on the horn and finer sediment is being eroded away from the embayments. This process causes the horns and embayments to at least maintain their size, if not grow larger.

text: They can be found all over the world and are most noticeable on shorelines with coarser sediment such as

text: pebble

text: beaches. However, they can occur with sediment of any size. They  nearly always occur in a regular pattern with cusps of equal size and spacing appearing along stretches of the shoreline. These cusps are most often a few metres long. However, they may reach  across. Although the origin of beach cusps has yet to be proven, once cusps have been created they are a self-sustaining formation. This is because when an oncoming wave hits the horn of a beach cusp, it is split and forced into two directions. The crashing of the wave into the cusps slows its velocity,  causing coarser sediment to fall out of suspension and be deposited on the horns. The waves then flow along the embayments (picking up finer sediment) and run into one another in the middle. After this collision these waves attempt to flow back out to sea where they are met by incoming waves. Therefore, once the cusp is established, coarser sediment is constantly being deposited on the horn and finer sediment is being eroded away from the embayments. This process causes the horns and embayments to at least maintain their size, if not grow larger.

text: The rocks were deposited in shallow seas, in the photic zone yet below storm wave base, yet were deposited in predominantly anoxic conditions.  The fossils are located on the bedding planes, and are randomly oriented.

text: The rocks were deposited in shallow seas, in the

text: photic zone

text: yet below

text: storm wave base

text: , yet were deposited in predominantly

text: anoxic conditions

text: .  The fossils are located on the bedding planes, and are randomly oriented.

text: Metro City was under siege from the crime wave that was begun by "the Outfit", a crime group led in the pilot by a man known only as Mr. Townsend (played by William Russ), and later led by Lane Cassidy (played by Richard Burgi). The Metro City Police Department, or MetroPol, was unable to get a handle on the situation. This led to the creation of the Viper Project, a special top-secret task force created by the federal government to fight the wave of violence sweeping Metro City.

text: Metro City was under siege from the crime wave that was begun by "the Outfit", a crime group led in the pilot by a man known only as Mr. Townsend (played by

text: William Russ

text: ), and later led by Lane Cassidy (played by

text: Richard Burgi

text: ). The Metro City Police Department, or MetroPol, was unable to get a handle on the situation. This led to the creation of the Viper Project, a special top-secret task force created by the federal government to fight the wave of violence sweeping Metro City.

text: When waves travel into areas of shallow water, they begin to be affected by the ocean bottom.  The free orbital motion of the water is disrupted, and water particles in orbital motion no longer return to their original position.  As the water becomes shallower, the swell becomes higher and steeper, ultimately assuming the familiar sharp-crested wave shape.  After the wave breaks, it becomes a wave of translation and erosion of the ocean bottom intensifies.

text: When

text: waves

text: travel into areas of shallow water, they begin to be affected by the

text: ocean

text: bottom.  The free

text: orbital motion

text: of the water is disrupted, and water particles in orbital motion no longer return to their original position.  As the water becomes shallower, the swell becomes higher and steeper, ultimately assuming the familiar sharp-crested wave shape.  After the

text: wave breaks

text: , it becomes a wave of translation and erosion of the ocean bottom intensifies.

text: Storm induced large erosion events are a part of the natural evolutionary process of fine sediment, gently sloping beaches. Increased wave energy in storms leads to the removal of foreshore, berm and dune sediments. These displaced sediments are then deposited as near shore sand bars and act to dampen the wave energy lessoning the amount of sediment that is being eroded from the coast. When wave energies decrease post storm events, the sediments from these newly deposited near shore bars are returned to the upper beach, rebuilding the berm. This self-correcting cycle is an active balance between wave energies and fine sediment deposition. This store of sediment being available for erosion in storms and re-depositing when the event has subsided is an important natural buffer mechanism against protecting the mainland from erosion and minimising coastal retreat.

text: Storm induced large erosion events are a part of the natural

text: evolutionary

text: process of fine

text: sediment

text: , gently sloping

text: beaches

text: . Increased

text: wave energy

text: in storms leads to the removal of

text: foreshore

text: berm

text: and

text: dune

text: sediments. These displaced sediments are then deposited as near

text: shore

text: sand bars and act to dampen the wave energy lessoning the amount of sediment that is being eroded from the coast. When wave energies decrease post storm events, the sediments from these newly deposited near shore bars are returned to the upper beach, rebuilding the berm. This self-correcting cycle is an active balance between wave energies and fine sediment

text: deposition

text: . This store of sediment being available for erosion in storms and re-depositing when the event has subsided is an important natural buffer mechanism against protecting the

text: mainland

text: from erosion and minimising coastal retreat.

text: In some areas the Wave exposes deformed laminae within the Navajo Sandstone. These laminae were deformed prior to the lithification of the sand to form sandstone. Judging from their physical characteristics, this deformation likely represents the trampling and churning of these sands by dinosaurs after their deposition. Dinosaur tracks and the fossil burrows of desert-dwelling arthropods, such as beetles and other insects, have been found in the Navajo Sandstone within the North Coyote Buttes Wilderness Area.

text: In some areas the Wave exposes deformed laminae within the Navajo Sandstone. These laminae were deformed prior to the lithification of the sand to form sandstone. Judging from their physical characteristics, this deformation likely represents the trampling and churning of these sands by

text: dinosaur

text: s after their deposition. Dinosaur

text: tracks and the fossil burrows

text: of desert-dwelling arthropods, such as beetles and other insects, have been found in the Navajo Sandstone within the North Coyote Buttes Wilderness Area.

text: The Baltic Oil Shale Basin covers about .  Main kukersite deposits are Estonian and Tapa deposits in Estonia, and Leningrad deposit in Russia (also known as Gdov or Oudova deposit). Other occurrences in Russia  are Veimarn and Chudovo–Babinskoe deposits.  The Estonian deposit, which covers about , is exploited industrially; the Tapa deposit is not accounted as reserves due its lower value which makes its extraction economically inexpedient.  The Leningrad deposit was exploited industrially but operations have ceased.

text: The well-sorted nature of the unit suggests that it was probably deposited close to the shoreline, in a high energy environment.  This is backed up by the absence of clay-sized particles, and the rounded, spherical shape of quartz grains.

text: Europe's natural history is the product of a complex history stretching back half a billion years. Its most ancient mountains, the Caledonites and Urals, were formed during the collision of continental plates from which modern Europe is assembled, described as "the first act of European union". During the Carboniferous period, Europe's equatorial jungles harboured giant predatory invertebrates, and the landmarks of Paris, Frankfurt and Berlin would have stood amid unbroken primeval forests. By 270 million years ago, Europe had drifted north and become part of the supercontinent Pangaea. The forests of the interior, cut off from life-giving rains, turned to desert, their remains forming the rich coal seams deposited in Europe's rocks. The Swiss Jura and other limestone regions are formed from the remains of marine creatures deposited as shallow seas evaporated. This was a time when reptiles ruled, and Oxford would have been roamed by dinosaurs. Rising sea levels triggered by a warming climate would have submerged much of Europe around 100 million years ago: only London's tallest buildings would have risen above the waves. The demise of the dinosaurs created opportunities for birds and mammals, evidence of whose ancestors has been unearthed at Messel pit. The subsequent break up of Pangaea, the birth of the Atlantic and Mediterranean and the creation of the Alps and Pyrenees were driven by tectonic forces which continue to this day in Iceland. The cyclic draining and flooding of the Mediterranean was the last geological act in the genesis of the continent.

text: Europe's natural history is the product of a complex history stretching back half a billion years. Its most ancient mountains, the

text: Caledonites

text: and

text: Urals

text: , were formed during the collision of

text: continental plate

text: s from which modern Europe is assembled, described as "the first act of European union". During the

text: Carboniferous

text: period, Europe's equatorial

text: jungle

text: s harboured giant predatory

text: invertebrate

text: s, and the landmarks of

text: Paris

text: Frankfurt

text: and

text: Berlin

text: would have stood amid unbroken

text: primeval forest

text: s. By 270 million years ago, Europe had drifted north and become part of the

text: supercontinent

text: Pangaea

text: . The forests of the interior, cut off from life-giving rains, turned to

text: desert

text: , their remains forming the rich

text: coal

text: seams deposited in Europe's rocks. The

text: Swiss Jura

text: and other

text: limestone

text: regions are formed from the remains of marine creatures deposited as shallow seas evaporated. This was a time when

text: reptile

text: s ruled, and

text: Oxford

text: would have been roamed by

text: dinosaur

text: s. Rising sea levels triggered by a warming climate would have submerged much of Europe around 100 million years ago: only

text: London

text: 's tallest buildings would have risen above the waves. The demise of the dinosaurs created opportunities for

text: bird

text: s and

text: mammal

text: s, evidence of whose ancestors has been unearthed at

text: Messel pit

text: . The subsequent break up of Pangaea, the birth of the

text: Atlantic

text: and

text: Mediterranean

text: and the creation of the

text: Alps

text: and

text: Pyrenees

text: were driven by tectonic forces which continue to this day in

text: Iceland

text: . The cyclic draining and flooding of the Mediterranean was the last geological act in the genesis of the continent.

text: Its principal fluvial course is the river Piedras, which constitutes the oriental limit of its term and delimits it with the municipality of Lepe. It is born in the municipal area of El Almendro, though most of the creeks that give origin and come from the highlands of El Almendro, are born in Villanueva de los Castillejos's municipal area. Originally it flowed into the village of El Rompido, toponym that originated because it was in that zone where the waves were breaking against the river sediment. These sediments deposited in an easterly direction, it made possible great mobility in the ria Piedras, quickly developing many places like the Lagoon of El Portil when it is closed.

text: Its principal fluvial course is the river Piedras, which constitutes the oriental limit of its term and delimits it with the municipality of Lepe. It is born in the municipal area of

text: El Almendro

text: , though most of the creeks that give origin and come from the highlands of El Almendro, are born in

text: Villanueva de los Castillejos

text: 's municipal area. Originally it flowed into the village of El Rompido, toponym that originated because it was in that zone where the waves were breaking against the river sediment. These sediments deposited in an easterly direction, it made possible great mobility in the

text: ria

text: Piedras, quickly developing many places like the Lagoon of El Portil when it is closed.

text: The coast does provide natural protective structures to guard against coastal flooding. These include physical features like gravel bars and sand dune systems but also ecosystems such as salt marshes and mangrove forests (Fig. 2) have a buffering function. Mangroves and wetlands are often considered to provide significant protection against storm waves, tsunamis and shoreline erosion through their ability to attenuate wave energy. Therefore, to protect the coastal zone from flooding, these natural defences should be protected and maintained.

text: The coast does provide natural protective structures to guard against coastal flooding. These include physical features like

text: gravel bars

text: and

text: sand dune

text: systems but also

text: ecosystems

text: such as

text: salt marshes

text: and

text: mangrove

text: forests (Fig. 2) have a buffering function. Mangroves and

text: wetlands

text: are often considered to provide significant protection against storm waves, tsunamis and shoreline

text: erosion

text: through their ability to attenuate wave energy. Therefore, to protect the coastal zone from flooding, these natural defences should be protected and maintained.

text: Although all electromagnetic fields are classically governed according to Maxwell's equations, different technologies or problems have certain types of expected solutions, and when the primary solutions involve wave propagation the term "evanescent" is frequently applied to field components or solutions which do not share that property. For instance, the propagation constant of a hollow metal waveguide is a strong function of frequency (a so-called dispersion relation). Below a certain frequency (the cut-off frequency) the propagation constant becomes an imaginary number. A solution to the wave equation having an imaginary wavenumber does not propagate as a wave but falls off exponentially, so the field excited at that lower frequency is considered evanescent. It can also be simply said that propagation is "disallowed" for that frequency. The formal solution to the wave equation can describe modes having an identical form, but the change of the propagation constant from real to imaginary as the frequency drops below the cut-off frequency totally changes the physical nature of the result. One can describe the solution then as a "cut-off mode" or an "evanescent mode";  while a different author will just state that no such mode exists. Since the evanescent field corresponding to the mode was computed as a solution to the wave equation, it is often discussed as being an "evanescent wave" even though its properties (such as not carrying energy) are inconsistent with the definition of wave.

text: Although all electromagnetic fields are classically governed according to

text: Maxwell's equations

text: , different technologies or problems have certain types of expected solutions, and when the primary solutions involve wave propagation the term "evanescent" is frequently applied to field components or solutions which do not share that property. For instance, the

text: propagation constant

text: of a hollow metal

text: waveguide

text: is a strong function of frequency (a so-called

text: dispersion relation

text: ). Below a certain frequency (the

text: cut-off frequency

text: ) the propagation constant becomes an imaginary number. A solution to the

text: wave equation

text: having an imaginary wavenumber does not propagate as a wave but falls off exponentially, so the field excited at that lower frequency is considered evanescent. It can also be simply said that propagation is "disallowed" for that frequency. The formal solution to the wave equation can describe modes having an identical form, but the change of the propagation constant from real to imaginary as the frequency drops below the cut-off frequency totally changes the physical nature of the result. One can describe the solution then as a "cut-off mode" or an "evanescent mode";  while a different author will just state that no such mode exists. Since the evanescent field corresponding to the mode was computed as a solution to the wave equation, it is often discussed as being an "evanescent wave" even though its properties (such as not carrying energy) are inconsistent with the definition of

text: wave

text: Yet today, the Yacht Club boasts Seaside views and as recently as 5 to 10 years ago had its roof blown off and severely damaged in a large storm after decades of erosion drew a new coastline almost to the doorstep of the Yacht Club. Seawalls constructed of natural rocks have been strategically placed around the coastline of Somers Beach complemented by wooden seawalls and many small wave-breaks that have all slowly succumbed to the waves of the sea. Experts such as marine geomorphologists have assessed the erosion situation, however no definitive explanation can be found as to why the erosion occurs. The most popular theory is that of Longshore Drift, where successive "waves" of sand pass Somers, with sand build up when such a wave passes, and erosion at other times. A commonly held view is that the man-made channelisation of Merricks Creek has upset the delicate equilibrium of the coastline. In recent years the erosion has slowed and almost stopped, and experts predict it could be due to a major decrease in easterly winds, tending to slow the effects of longshore drift, thus the erosion. An alternative view is that the decrease in rainfall has limited the period when Merricks Creek is flowing into the sea, thus allowing sand build up at the mouth of the creek, which then allows the sand build up to propagate along the beach. Between 2011 and 2015, the beaches of Somers have lost a considerable amount of dunage and sand, seen most evidently west of the Wits End Creek and west of Merricks Creek. These areas have lost up to as much as six to eight metres of dunes in a five-year period. As recently as May 2015, the beach west of Merricks Creek lost three metres of dunes in as little as three days, caused by gale-force winds, large swell and king tides.

text: From west of Henfield, the two branches of the river meet, before flowing between Upper Beeding and Bramber, past Coombes, through a gap in the South Downs near Lancing College where the Adur is fed by the Ladywell Stream. The river continues on to the English Channel at Shoreham-by-Sea. The mouth of the Adur is now two miles (3 km) from the town centre of Shoreham due to longshore drift.

text: From west of Henfield, the two branches of the river meet, before flowing between

text: Upper Beeding

text: and

text: Bramber

text: , past

text: Coombes

text: , through a gap in the

text: South Downs

text: near

text: Lancing College

text: where the Adur is fed by the Ladywell Stream. The river continues on to the

text: English Channel

text: at

text: Shoreham-by-Sea

text: . The mouth of the Adur is now two miles (3 km) from the town centre of Shoreham due to

text: longshore drift

text: The original definition resulted from work by the oceanographer Walter Munk during World War II. The significant wave height was intended to mathematically express the height estimated by a "trained observer".  It is commonly used as a measure of the height of ocean waves.

text: The original definition resulted from work by the oceanographer

text: Walter Munk

text: during World War II. The significant wave height was intended to mathematically express the height estimated by a "trained observer".  It is commonly used as a measure of the height of ocean waves.

text: A light brownish discoloration of the tip of the block indicates proper operation; other conditions may indicate malfunction. For example, a sandblasted look to the tip of the spark plug means persistent, light detonation is occurring, often unheard. The damage that is occurring to the tip of the spark plug is also occurring on the inside of the cylinder. Heavy detonation can cause outright breakage of the spark plug insulator and internal engine parts before appearing as sandblasted erosion but is easily heard. As another example, if the plug is too cold, there will be deposits on the nose of the plug. Conversely if the plug is too hot, the porcelain will be porous looking, almost like sugar. The material which seals the central electrode to the insulator will boil out. Sometimes the end of the plug will appear glazed, as the deposits have melted.

text: A light brownish discoloration of the tip of the block indicates proper operation; other conditions may indicate malfunction. For example, a sandblasted look to the tip of the spark plug means persistent, light

text: detonation

text: is occurring, often unheard. The damage that is occurring to the tip of the spark plug is also occurring on the inside of the cylinder. Heavy detonation can cause outright breakage of the spark plug insulator and internal engine parts before appearing as sandblasted erosion but is easily heard. As another example, if the plug is too cold, there will be deposits on the nose of the plug. Conversely if the plug is too hot, the porcelain will be porous looking, almost like sugar. The material which seals the central electrode to the insulator will boil out. Sometimes the end of the plug will appear glazed, as the deposits have melted.

text: Fluting is a process of differential weathering and erosion by which an exposed well-jointed coarse-grained rock such as granite or gneiss, develops a corrugated surface of flutes; especially the formation of small-scale ridges and depressions by wave action.

text: Fluting is a process of differential

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: by which an exposed well-jointed coarse-grained rock such as

text: granite

text: or

text: gneiss

text: , develops a corrugated surface of flutes; especially the formation of small-scale ridges and depressions by wave action.

text: The formation of the cinder cone is currently a point of contention, with some arguing that lava flowing into the sea was suddenly cooled, forming an edifice on the coastline (a literal cone) and others noting that the cone was most likely too far away from the ocean at the time of formation to make such an event possible. Regardless of how it was formed according to the United States Geological Survey, the last lava flow in the area ended over 10,000 years ago, making the area one of the more stable features in the geologically turbulent Kaū region. As such, the geologic history of the site can be seen in the rock surrounding the beach and bay, which are not subject to erosion and thus display geologic layers formed by previous eruptions, lava flows, and other volcanic events. In addition, the current patterns of erosion can be seen first-hand, as only the portions at the bottom of the cinder cone collapse have been subject to the waves and turned into green sand; the remaining portions appear gray.

text: The formation of the cinder cone is currently a point of contention, with some arguing that lava flowing into the sea was suddenly cooled, forming an edifice on the coastline (a literal cone) and others noting that the cone was most likely too far away from the ocean at the time of formation to make such an event possible. Regardless of how it was formed according to the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: , the last lava flow in the area ended over 10,000 years ago, making the area one of the more stable features in the geologically turbulent Kaū region. As such, the geologic history of the site can be seen in the rock surrounding the beach and bay, which are not subject to erosion and thus display geologic layers formed by previous eruptions, lava flows, and other volcanic events. In addition, the current patterns of erosion can be seen first-hand, as only the portions at the bottom of the cinder cone collapse have been subject to the waves and turned into green sand; the remaining portions appear gray.

text: Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle in place. The particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called sediment. Before being deposited, the sediment was formed by weathering and erosion from the source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers, which are called agents of denudation. Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension.

text: Sedimentary rocks are types of

text: rock

text: that are formed by the

text: deposition

text: and subsequent cementation of that material at the

text: Earth's surface

text: and within bodies of water.

text: Sedimentation

text: is the collective name for processes that cause

text: mineral

text: and/or

text: organic

text: particles (

text: detritus

text: ) to settle in place. The particles that form a sedimentary rock by accumulating are called

text: sediment

text: . Before being deposited, the sediment was formed by

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: from the source area, and then transported to the place of deposition by

text: water

text: wind

text: ice

text: mass movement

text: or

text: glacier

text: s, which are called agents of

text: denudation

text: . Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from water solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension.

text: One source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on behalf of investors through trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "hot money" as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the global financial crisis had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits. There are different types of accounts: saving, recurring and current accounts.

text: One source of deposits for banks is brokers who deposit large sums of money on behalf of investors through trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "

text: hot money

text: " as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the

text: global financial crisis

text: had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the

text: savings and loan crisis

text: of the 1980s. Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits. There are different types of accounts: saving, recurring and current accounts.

text: The Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup is a conservation initiative of the Vancouver Aquarium and WWF-Canada. The Shoreline Cleanupencourages people across Canada to remove shoreline litter to help create healthy waters for everyone, including the wildlife and communities that depend on them.

text: The Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup is a conservation initiative of the

text: Vancouver Aquarium

text: and

text: WWF-Canada

text: . The Shoreline Cleanupencourages people across Canada to remove shoreline litter to help create healthy waters for everyone, including the wildlife and communities that depend on them.

text: Siliclasitc and carbonate deposition continued through the Cambrian and into the Ordovician period. During the Taconic orogeny, more igneous intrusions and metamorphism occurred as the ancestral Taconic Mountains were pushed up. The sediments that were deposited in a sea between an island-arc and the Iapetus eventually were squeezed and deformed along a subduction zone. The sediments deposited in that sea are now located in the Great Valley section. (See below) The sediments placed from the rifting of Rodinia became the roots of the ancestral Taconics and went through their first wave of metamorphism during the Taconic orogeny. Additional waves of metamorphism continued up until the Alleghanian orogeny.

text: Siliclasitc and carbonate deposition continued through the Cambrian and into the Ordovician period. During the Taconic orogeny, more igneous intrusions and metamorphism occurred as the ancestral Taconic Mountains were pushed up. The sediments that were deposited in a sea between an island-arc and the Iapetus eventually were squeezed and deformed along a

text: subduction

text: zone. The sediments deposited in that sea are now located in the Great Valley section. (See below) The sediments placed from the rifting of Rodinia became the roots of the ancestral Taconics and went through their first wave of metamorphism during the Taconic orogeny. Additional waves of metamorphism continued up until the Alleghanian orogeny.

text: The term "molasse" refers to sandstones, shales and conglomerates that form as terrestrial or shallow marine deposits in front of rising mountain chains. The molasse deposits accumulate in a foreland basin, especially on top of flysch—like, for example, those that left from the rising Alps, or erosion in the Himalaya. These deposits are typically the non-marine alluvial and fluvial sediments of lowlands, as compared to deep-water flysch sediments.  Sedimentation stops when the orogeny stops, or when the mountains have eroded flat.

text: The term "molasse" refers to

text: sandstones

text: shales

text: and

text: conglomerate

text: s that form as terrestrial or shallow

text: marine

text: deposits in front of rising mountain chains. The molasse deposits accumulate in a

text: foreland basin

text: , especially on top of

text: flysch

text: —like, for example, those that left from the rising

text: Alps

text: , or erosion in the

text: Himalaya

text: . These deposits are typically the non-marine

text: alluvial

text: and

text: fluvial

text: sediments

text: of lowlands, as compared to deep-water flysch sediments.  Sedimentation stops when the

text: orogeny

text: stops, or when the mountains have eroded flat.

text: In the formation of sea cliffs, wave erosion undercuts the slopes at the shoreline, which retreat landward. This increases the shear stress in the cliff-forming material and accelerates mass movement. The debris from these landslides collects at the base of the cliff and is also removed by the waves, usually during storms, when wave energy is greatest. This debris provides sediment, which is transported through longshore current for the nearby bay. Joints in the headlands are eroded back to form caves, which erode further to form arches. These gaps eventually collapse and leave tall stacks at the ends of the headlands. Eventually these too are eroded by the waves.

text: First, the differential erosion of rocks or sediments of varying hardness and resistance to erosion can create benches. Earth scientists called such benches "structural benches." Second, other benches are narrow fluvial terraces created by the abandonment of a floodplain by a river or stream and entrenchment of the river valley into it. Finally, a bench is also the name of a narrow flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff that was created by waves or other physical or chemical erosion near the shoreline. These benches are typically referred to as either "coastal benches," "wave-cut benches," or "wave-cut platforms."

text: First, the differential

text: erosion

text: of rocks or

text: sediment

text: s of varying hardness and resistance to erosion can create benches. Earth scientists called such benches "structural benches." Second, other benches are narrow

text: fluvial terrace

text: s created by the abandonment of a

text: floodplain

text: by a river or stream and entrenchment of the river valley into it. Finally, a bench is also the name of a narrow flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff that was created by waves or other physical or chemical erosion near the shoreline. These benches are typically referred to as either "coastal benches," "wave-cut benches," or "

text: wave-cut platform

text: s."

text: This completes the sequence of events leading up to the formation of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora; with rapid sea-level rise drowning the seaward edge of plains, rapid erosion of coast to south changing its position and providing, in addition to direct river-borne sediments, a massive supply of sea borne sediments and strong net northwards longshore drift by waves, moving the sediments towards Banks Peninsula and providing the materials to construct Kaitorete Barrier, that now encloses the lake.

text: This completes the sequence of events leading up to the formation of Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora; with rapid sea-level rise drowning the seaward edge of plains, rapid erosion of coast to south changing its position and providing, in addition to direct river-borne sediments, a massive supply of sea borne sediments and strong net northwards

text: longshore drift

text: by waves, moving the sediments towards

text: Banks Peninsula

text: and providing the materials to construct

text: Kaitorete Barrier

text: , that now encloses the lake.

text: As a result of their intricately entangled above-ground root systems, mangrove communities protect shorelines during storm events by absorbing wave energy and reducing the velocity of water passing through the root barrier. In addition, mangroves protect intertidal sediment along coastlines from eroding away in harsh weather year round. As new cities are developed, mangrove forests around the world have felt a great impact not only on their ecosystems health, but also their wave-attenuating capacity. Wave energy may be reduced by 75 per cent in the wave's passage through 200 meters of mangrove forests, a very substantial amount once the mangrove has been removed. Mangrove covered shorelines are less likely to erode, or will erode significantly more slowly, than unvegetated shorelines during periods of high wave energy. Other factors mangroves have an influence on, include coastal profile, water depth and bottom configuration. The mangrove population has felt both direct and indirect effects due to coastal engineering and human development, resulting in a devastating decline in population. This decline has led to a negative chain of effects in other ecosystems that are dependent on mangrove forest for survival. In just the last decade, at least 35 percent of the world's mangroves have been destroyed, exceeding the rate of the disappearance of tropical rainforests. Mangroves provide a number of essentials for many different ecosystems, including food and shelter for a diverse animal community, living both below and above sea level. Maintaining a healthy mangrove forest sustains natural protection and is less expensive than seawalls and similar erosion control structures, which can increase erosion in front of the structure and at adjacent properties due to coastal currents. Unless ecosystems have the space to adjust their location or elevation in the intertidal zone to the sea-level rise, they will be stressed by changed inundation periods. The Global Mean Sea Level (GMSL) has risen 4 to 8 inches over the past century, almost twice the average rate of 80 years prior. It appears that as the sea-level is slowly rising, mangroves are a better alternative to protecting coastlines from eroding than other man made structures, such as seawalls.

text: As a result of their intricately entangled above-ground root systems, mangrove communities protect shorelines during storm events by absorbing

text: wave energy

text: and reducing the velocity of water passing through the root barrier. In addition, mangroves protect intertidal sediment along coastlines from eroding away in harsh weather year round. As new cities are developed, mangrove forests around the world have felt a great impact not only on their ecosystems health, but also their wave-attenuating capacity. Wave energy may be reduced by 75 per cent in the wave's passage through 200 meters of mangrove forests, a very substantial amount once the mangrove has been removed. Mangrove covered shorelines are less likely to erode, or will erode significantly more slowly, than unvegetated shorelines during periods of high wave energy. Other factors mangroves have an influence on, include coastal profile, water depth and bottom configuration. The mangrove population has felt both direct and indirect effects due to

text: coastal engineering

text: and human development, resulting in a devastating decline in population. This decline has led to a negative chain of effects in other ecosystems that are dependent on mangrove forest for survival. In just the last decade, at least 35 percent of the world's mangroves have been destroyed, exceeding the rate of the disappearance of tropical rainforests. Mangroves provide a number of essentials for many different ecosystems, including food and shelter for a diverse animal community, living both below and above sea level. Maintaining a healthy mangrove forest sustains natural protection and is less expensive than

text: seawalls

text: and similar

text: erosion

text: control structures, which can increase erosion in front of the structure and at adjacent properties due to coastal currents. Unless ecosystems have the space to adjust their location or elevation in the

text: intertidal zone

text: to the sea-level rise, they will be stressed by changed inundation periods. The Global Mean Sea Level (GMSL) has risen 4 to 8 inches over the past century, almost twice the average rate of 80 years prior. It appears that as the sea-level is slowly rising, mangroves are a better alternative to protecting coastlines from eroding than other man made structures, such as seawalls.

text: Because of the constant erosion by waves, the coastal landforms demonstrate various bizarre stones. All over Dongao are sea arches, sea gulfs, cliffs, and wave-cut platforms, and so on. Over the cliff, right under your nose is the marvelous scenery, with bright blue sea in the backdrop.

text: The most common type of tessellated pavement consists of relatively flat rock surfaces, typically the tops of beds of sandstones and other sedimentary rocks, that are subdivided into either more or less regular rectangles or blocks approaching rectangles by well-developed systematic orthogonal joint systems. The surface of individual beds, as exposed by erosion, are typically divided into either squares, rectangles, and less commonly triangles or other shapes, depending on the number and orientation of the joint sets that comprise the joint system. This relatively flat surface of individual beds of sedimentary rocks are frequently altered by weathering along joints as to cause the bedrock along the joints to be either raised or recessed as the result of differential erosion. This type of tessellated pavement is commonly observed along shorelines where wave action has created relatively flat and extensive wave-cut platforms that expose jointed bedrock and keeps the surfaces of these platforms relatively clear of debris.

text: The most common type of tessellated pavement consists of relatively flat rock surfaces, typically the tops of

text: beds

text: of sandstones and other

text: sedimentary rock

text: s, that are subdivided into either more or less regular rectangles or blocks approaching rectangles by well-developed systematic orthogonal joint systems. The surface of individual beds, as exposed by

text: erosion

text: , are typically divided into either squares, rectangles, and less commonly triangles or other shapes, depending on the number and orientation of the joint sets that comprise the joint system. This relatively flat surface of individual beds of sedimentary rocks are frequently altered by

text: weathering

text: along joints as to cause the bedrock along the joints to be either raised or recessed as the result of differential erosion. This type of tessellated pavement is commonly observed along shorelines where wave action has created relatively flat and extensive

text: wave-cut platform

text: s that expose jointed

text: bedrock

text: and keeps the surfaces of these platforms relatively clear of debris.

text: While not as impressive at 1,772 feet (540 m) as some other peaks, Taum Sauk and the St. Francois range are true mountains, being the result of a volcanic orogeny.  Whereas vertical relief in the rest of the Ozarks region is the result of erosion of sedimentary strata, the St. Francois are an ancient Precambrian igneous uplift several times older than the Appalachians.  Geologists believe that Taum Sauk and its neighbors may be among the few areas in the US never to have been submerged in ancient seas. The peaks of the St. Francois range existed as islands in the shallow seaway throughout most of the Paleozoic Era as the sandstones, limestones, and shales typical of the Ozarks were deposited. Weathering and erosion of these ancient peaks provided the clastic sediments of the surrounding rock layers.

text: While not as impressive at 1,772 feet (540 m) as some

text: other peaks

text: , Taum Sauk and the St. Francois range are true

text: mountain

text: s, being the result of a

text: volcanic

text: orogeny

text: .  Whereas vertical relief in the rest of the

text: Ozark

text: s region is the result of

text: erosion

text: of

text: sedimentary

text: strata

text: , the St. Francois are an ancient

text: Precambrian

text: igneous

text: uplift several times older than the

text: Appalachians

text: .  Geologists believe that Taum Sauk and its neighbors may be among the few areas in the US never to have been submerged in ancient seas. The peaks of the St. Francois range existed as islands in the shallow seaway throughout most of the

text: Paleozoic

text: Era as the

text: sandstone

text: s,

text: limestone

text: s, and

text: shale

text: s typical of the Ozarks were deposited.

text: Weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: of these ancient peaks provided the

text: clastic

text: sediment

text: s of the surrounding

text: rock layers

text: A deposit slip is a form supplied by a bank for a depositor to fill out, designed to document in categories the items included in the deposit transaction. The categories include type of item, and if it is a cheque, where it is from such as a local bank or a state if the bank is not local. The teller keeps the deposit slip along with the deposit (cash and checks), and provides the depositor with a receipt. They are filled in a store and not a Bank, so it is  very convenient in paying. They also are a means  of transport of money. Pay-in slips encourage the sorting of cash and coins, are filled in and signed by the person who deposited the money, and some tear off from a record that is also filled in by the depositor. Deposit slips are also called deposit tickets and come in a variety of designs. They are signed by the depositor if the depositor is cashing some of the accompanying check and depositing the rest.

text: A deposit slip is a form supplied by a

text: bank

text: for a

text: depositor

text: to fill out, designed to document in categories the items included in the deposit transaction. The categories include type of item, and if it is a

text: cheque

text: , where it is from such as a local bank or a

text: state

text: if the bank is not local. The teller keeps the deposit slip along with the deposit (cash and checks), and provides the depositor with a receipt. They are filled in a store and not a Bank, so it is  very convenient in paying. They also are a means  of transport of money. Pay-in slips encourage the sorting of cash and coins, are filled in and signed by the person who deposited the money, and some tear off from a record that is also filled in by the depositor. Deposit slips are also called deposit tickets and come in a variety of designs. They are signed by the depositor if the depositor is cashing some of the accompanying check and depositing the rest.

text: The spelling of the compound varies (both with regard to this idiom and the everyday human communication gesture of waving). While hand-waving is the most common spelling of the unitary present participle and gerund in this usage, and hand-wave of the simple present verb, hand wave dominates as the noun-phrase form. Handwaving and handwave may be preferred in some circles, and are well attested. "Hand waving" is mostly used otherwise, e.g. "she had one hand waving, the other on the rail", but is found in some dictionaries in this form. A more arch, mock-antiquarian construction is waving of [the] hands. Superlative constructions such as "vigorous hand-waving", "waved their hand[s] furiously", "lots of waving of hands", etc., are used to imply that the hand-waver lacks confidence in the information being conveyed, cannot convincingly express or defend the core of the argument being advanced. The descriptive epithet hand-waver has been applied to those engaging in hand-waving, but is not common.  The opposite of hand-waving is sometimes called nose-following in mathematics .

text: The spelling of the

text: compound

text: varies (both with regard to this idiom and the everyday human communication gesture of

text: waving

text: ). While hand-waving is the most common spelling of the unitary

text: present participle

text: and

text: gerund

text: in this usage, and hand-wave of the

text: simple present

text: verb, hand wave dominates as the

text: noun-phrase

text: form. Handwaving and handwave may be preferred in some circles, and are well attested. "Hand waving" is mostly used otherwise, e.g. "she had one hand waving, the other on the rail", but is found in some dictionaries in this form. A more arch, mock-antiquarian construction is waving of [the] hands.

text: Superlative

text: constructions such as "vigorous hand-waving", "waved their hand[s] furiously", "lots of waving of hands", etc., are used to imply that the hand-waver lacks confidence in the information being conveyed, cannot convincingly express or defend the core of the argument being advanced. The descriptive epithet hand-waver has been applied to those engaging in hand-waving, but is not common.  The opposite of hand-waving is sometimes called nose-following in mathematics .

text: The valley occupies an erosion-tectonic basin in north-western Kazakhstan, between the Urals and Mugodzhar Hills in the west and the Kazakh Steppes in the east.  In the north are dry steppes with semi-steppes in the south. Deposits of iron ore and other minerals occur in the basin.

text: The valley occupies an erosion-tectonic basin in north-western Kazakhstan, between the

text: Urals

text: and

text: Mugodzhar Hills

text: in the west and the

text: Kazakh Steppes

text: in the east.  In the north are dry steppes with semi-steppes in the south. Deposits of iron ore and other minerals occur in the basin.

text: Mushroom stones, or wave stones, are limestone boulders undercut by water. These take the form of solitary sentinels of limestone which still bear the unmistakable marks of long-continued erosion by lapping waves at the edge of lakes which have since vanished or retreated. These stones are sometimes shaped like mushrooms, others have an overhang facing in just one direction, but all are notched and undercut in such a fashion as to suggest prolonged exposure to standing water at some time in the past. The mushroom-shaped stones are produced where the notching forms a fairly even circle around the stone.

text: Mushroom stones, or wave stones, are

text: limestone

text: boulders undercut by water. These take the form of solitary sentinels of limestone which still bear the unmistakable marks of long-continued

text: erosion

text: by lapping waves at the edge of lakes which have since vanished or retreated. These stones are sometimes shaped like

text: mushroom

text: s, others have an overhang facing in just one direction, but all are notched and undercut in such a fashion as to suggest prolonged exposure to standing water at some time in the past. The mushroom-shaped stones are produced where the notching forms a fairly even circle around the stone.

text: The Hellas quadrangle contains part of the Hellas Basin, the largest known impact crater on the surface of Mars and the second largest in the Solar System. The depth of the crater is 7152 m (23,000 ft) below the standard topographic datum of Mars. The basin is located in the southern highlands of Mars and is thought to have been formed about 3.9 billion years ago, during the Late Heavy Bombardment.It is believed that a giant lake existed in the Hellas Basin early in the planet's history with a possible depth of 5.5 km.   Possible shorelines have been discovered.  These shorelines are evident in alternating benches and scarps visible in Mars orbiting camera narrow-angle images. A good example of layers that were deposited in Hellas, and later exposed by erosion, is visible in Terby Crater on the north rim of Hellas. It used to be thought that Terby Crater contained a large delta. However, newer observations have led researchers to think of the layered sequence as part of a group of layers that may have extended all the across Hellas. There is no valley at the northern rim of Terby large enough to have carried the large amount of sediments necessary to produce the layers.  Other observations argue against Terby containing a delta. In addition, Mars orbiting laser altimeter (MOLA) data show that the contacts of these sedimentary units mark contours of constant elevation for thousands of km, and in one case all around the basin.Channels, believed to be formed by water, enter the basin on all sides.

text: The

text: Hellas quadrangle

text: contains part of the

text: Hellas Basin

text: , the largest known impact crater on the surface of Mars and the second largest in the Solar System. The depth of the crater is 7152 m (23,000 ft) below the standard topographic

text: datum

text: of Mars. The basin is located in the southern highlands of Mars and is thought to have been formed about 3.9 billion years ago, during the Late Heavy Bombardment.It is believed that a giant lake existed in the Hellas Basin early in the planet's history with a possible depth of 5.5 km.   Possible shorelines have been discovered.  These shorelines are evident in alternating benches and scarps visible in Mars orbiting camera narrow-angle images. A good example of layers that were deposited in Hellas, and later exposed by erosion, is visible in

text: Terby Crater

text: on the north rim of Hellas. It used to be thought that Terby Crater contained a large delta. However, newer observations have led researchers to think of the layered sequence as part of a group of layers that may have extended all the across Hellas. There is no valley at the northern rim of Terby large enough to have carried the large amount of sediments necessary to produce the layers.  Other observations argue against Terby containing a delta. In addition, Mars orbiting laser altimeter (MOLA) data show that the contacts of these sedimentary units mark contours of constant elevation for thousands of km, and in one case all around the basin.Channels, believed to be formed by water, enter the basin on all sides.

text: Most meanders occur in the region of a river channel with shallow gradients, a well-developed floodplain, and cohesive floodplain material. Deposition of sediment occurs on the inner edge, because the secondary flow of the river sweeps and rolls sand, rocks and other submerged objects across the bed of the river towards the inside radius of the river bend, creating a point bar below the slip-off slope. Meandering morphology is dependent upon similar bank erosion and bar growth rates. Erosion is greater on the outside of the bend where the soil is not protected by deposits of sand and rocks. The current on the outside bend is more effective in eroding the unprotected soil, and the inside bend receives steadily increasing deposits of sand and rocks, and the meander tends to grow in the direction of the outside bend, forming a small cliff called a cut bank. This can be seen in areas where willows grow on the banks of rivers; on the inside of meanders, willows are often far from the bank, whilst on the outside of the bend, the roots of the willows are often exposed and undercut, eventually leading the trees to fall into the river. This demonstrates the river's movement. Slumping usually occurs on the concave sides of the banks resulting in mass movements such as slides.

text: Most meanders occur in the region of a river channel with shallow

text: gradient

text: s, a well-developed

text: floodplain

text: , and cohesive floodplain material.

text: Deposition

text: of

text: sediment

text: occurs on the inner edge, because the

text: secondary flow

text: of the river sweeps and rolls sand, rocks and other submerged objects across the bed of the river towards the inside radius of the river bend, creating a

text: point bar

text: below the slip-off slope. Meandering morphology is dependent upon similar bank erosion and bar growth rates. Erosion is greater on the outside of the bend where the soil is not protected by deposits of sand and rocks. The current on the outside bend is more effective in eroding the unprotected soil, and the inside bend receives steadily increasing deposits of sand and rocks, and the meander tends to grow in the direction of the outside bend, forming a small cliff called a

text: cut bank

text: . This can be seen in areas where

text: willows

text: grow on the banks of rivers; on the inside of meanders, willows are often far from the bank, whilst on the outside of the bend, the roots of the willows are often exposed and undercut, eventually leading the trees to fall into the river. This demonstrates the river's movement. Slumping usually occurs on the concave sides of the banks resulting in mass movements such as slides.

text: The occurrence at Dalarna (Dala sandstone), with its 50 km x 150 km area, constitutes the largest region known to be covered at present with Jotnian sediments. The sandstone extends beyond Sweden's border into Hedmark in Norway where it is known as the "Trysil sandstone". At Idre drilling has revealed that the Dala sandstone extends beneath the Caledonian nappes. The Dala sanstone unconformably overlies the Transscandinavian Igneous Belt basement. The unconformity, believed to have been formed by subaereal erosion, was the surface of a peneplain at the time of deposition of the Dala sandstone. The peneplain landscape formed after protracted periods of erosion. Sedimentation of the Dala sandstone happened between 1650 and 1200 million years ago.

text: The occurrence at Dalarna (Dala sandstone), with its 50 km x 150 km area, constitutes the largest region known to be covered at present with Jotnian sediments. The sandstone extends beyond Sweden's border into

text: Hedmark

text: in

text: Norway

text: where it is known as the "Trysil sandstone". At

text: Idre

text: drilling has revealed that the Dala sandstone extends beneath the

text: Caledonian

text: nappe

text: s. The Dala sanstone

text: unconformably

text: overlies the

text: Transscandinavian Igneous Belt

text: basement. The unconformity, believed to have been formed by subaereal erosion, was the surface of a

text: peneplain

text: at the time of deposition of the Dala sandstone. The peneplain landscape formed after protracted periods of erosion. Sedimentation of the Dala sandstone happened between 1650 and 1200 million years ago.

text: Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment. It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.  Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.

text: Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous,

text: friable

text: silt

text: y, pale yellow or buff, windblown (

text: Aeolian

text: sediment

text: . It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.  Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in the

text: Great Plains

text: , it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.

text: A cuspate foreland can form in a strait or along a coastline that has no islands or shoals in the area. In this case, longshore drift as well as prevailing wind and waves bring sediment together from opposite directions. If there is a large angle between the waves and the shoreline, the sediment converges, accumulates, and forms beach ridges. Over time, a cuspate foreland forms as a result of continued accretion and progradation. An example of this type of cuspate foreland is the one found at Dungeness along the southern coast of Britain. This cuspate foreland has formed as a result of the merging of SW waves from the English Channel, and waves from the east from the Strait of Dover. Another example is the cuspate foreland found between Awatere River and White Bluffs in Marlborough, New Zealand. This foreland has ridges on the eastern and northern sides which face the prominent waves.

text: A cuspate foreland can form in a strait or along a coastline that has no islands or

text: shoal

text: s in the area. In this case, longshore drift as well as prevailing wind and waves bring sediment together from opposite directions. If there is a large angle between the waves and the shoreline, the sediment converges, accumulates, and forms

text: beach ridge

text: s. Over time, a cuspate foreland forms as a result of continued accretion and progradation. An example of this type of cuspate foreland is the one found at

text: Dungeness

text: along the southern coast of Britain. This cuspate foreland has formed as a result of the merging of SW waves from the English Channel, and waves from the east from the Strait of Dover. Another example is the cuspate foreland found between Awatere River and White Bluffs in Marlborough, New Zealand. This foreland has ridges on the eastern and northern sides which face the prominent waves.

text: A scientific study of the characteristics of the sediments deposited at the beach was conducted from May 2009 to May 2010. The study found that the location of Pigeon Hill has a major impact on how deposits are added to the beach and removed through erosion.

text: However, shingle continued to accumulate and so the mouth of the Ouse began to migrate eastwards again. Under the Ouse Navigation Act (1790), a western breakwater was constructed to arrest longshore drift and so cut off the supply of shingle to the spit. A new outlet (The Cut) was built on the river's present course, below Castle Hill. At that time the settlement began to be known as the "new haven". The present breakwater was built in 1890.

text: However, shingle continued to accumulate and so the mouth of the Ouse began to migrate eastwards again. Under the Ouse Navigation Act (1790), a western

text: breakwater

text: was constructed to arrest

text: longshore drift

text: and so cut off the supply of shingle to the spit. A new outlet (The Cut) was built on the river's present course, below Castle Hill. At that time the settlement began to be known as the "new haven". The present breakwater was built in 1890.

text: Some parts of Mars show inverted relief. This occurs when sediments are deposited on the floor of a stream and then become resistant to erosion, perhaps by cementation. Later the area may be buried. Eventually, erosion removes the covering layer and the former streams become visible since they are resistant to erosion. Mars Global Surveyor found several examples of this process. Many inverted streams have been discovered in various regions of Mars, especially in the Medusae Fossae Formation, Miyamoto Crater, Saheki Crater, and the Juventae Plateau.

text: Some parts of Mars show

text: inverted relief

text: . This occurs when sediments are deposited on the floor of a stream and then become resistant to erosion, perhaps by cementation. Later the area may be buried. Eventually, erosion removes the covering layer and the former streams become visible since they are resistant to erosion. Mars Global Surveyor found several examples of this process. Many inverted streams have been discovered in various regions of Mars, especially in the

text: Medusae Fossae Formation

text: Miyamoto Crater

text: Saheki Crater

text: , and the Juventae Plateau.

text: However, for waves perpendicular to a coast line or in closed laboratory wave channel, the second definition (S2) is more appropriate. These wave systems have zero mass flux and momentum when using the second definition. In contrast, according to Stokes' first definition (S1), there is a wave-induced mass flux in the wave propagation direction, which has to be balanced by a mean flow U in the opposite direction – called the undertow.

text: However, for waves perpendicular to a coast line or in closed laboratory

text: wave channel

text: , the second definition (S2) is more appropriate. These wave systems have zero mass flux and momentum when using the second definition. In contrast, according to Stokes' first definition (S1), there is a wave-induced mass flux in the wave propagation direction, which has to be balanced by a mean flow U in the opposite direction – called the

text: undertow

text: A corduroy or beach ladder (or board and chain) is an array of planks (usually hardwood or treated timber) laid close together and perpendicular to the direction of traffic flow, and secured at each end by a chain or cable to form a pathway or ramp over the sand dune.  Corduroys are cheap and easy to construct and quick to deploy or relocate.  They are commonly used for pedestrian access paths and light duty vehicular access ways.  They naturally conform to the shape of the underlying beach or dune profile, and adjust well to moderate erosion, especially longshore drift.  However, they can cease to be an effective access surface if they become buried or undermined by erosion by surface runoff coming from the beach head.  If the corduroy is not wide enough for vehicles using it, the sediment on either side may be displaced creating a spoon drain that accelerates surface run off and can quickly lead to serious  erosion.  Significant erosion of the sediment beside and under the corduroy can render it completely ineffective and make it dangerous to pedestrian users who may fall between the planks.

text: The main break extends from La Punta to the township, a distance of about 800m, although single rides do not normally connect the sections through the whole distance. There are three main sections: the top of the point is a hollow and fast wave called "La Punta". The middle section is in front of the cemetery. The inside cove, fronting the town's restaurants, is called "La Paz"; this section is good for longboarding. On a good day, when the swell is 6 to 8 feet high (Hawaiian scale), the upper part of the point produces the best waves, allowing a ride of about 300m or more. It is relatively easy to "drop in" on the long, fast, and powerful walls, which turn into hollow barrels on the best days. The main takeoff is close to a dangerous rock which often sticks out of the water, and has caused injuries. Surfing is good on all tides, although low tide probably produces more barreled waves. The wave form of this break is unusual in that it often breaks at a slight angle to the shoreline, hitting it slightly squarely, creating powerful and fast walls. It can be difficult to get outside in large swells, and the rocky shoreline is notorious for its difficult entry.

text: Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast.

text: Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an

text: abrasion

text: or

text: cliffed coast

text: Some commentators have identified three waves of historical comparative research. The first wave of historical comparative research concerned how societies came to be modern, i.e. based on individual and rational action, with exact definitions varying widely. Some of the major researchers in this mode were Alexis de Tocqueville, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber,  and W.E.B. Du Bois. The second wave reacted to a perceived ahistorical body of theory and sought to show how social systems were not static, but developed over time. Notable authors of this wave include Barrington Moore, Jr., Theda Skocpol, Charles Tilly, Michael Mann, and Mark Gould. Some have placed the Annales school and Pierre Bourdieu in this general group, despite their stylistic differences. The current wave of historical comparative research sociology is often but not exclusively post-structural in its theoretical orientation. Influential current authors include Julia Adams, Anne Laura Stoler, Philip Gorski, and James Mahoney.

text: Some commentators have identified three waves of historical comparative research. The first wave of historical comparative research concerned how societies came to be

text: modern

text: , i.e. based on individual and rational action, with exact definitions varying widely. Some of the major researchers in this mode were

text: Alexis de Tocqueville

text: Karl Marx

text: Emile Durkheim

text: Max Weber

text: ,  and

text: W.E.B. Du Bois

text: . The second wave reacted to a perceived ahistorical body of theory and sought to show how social systems were not static, but developed over time. Notable authors of this wave include

text: Barrington Moore, Jr.

text: Theda Skocpol

text: Charles Tilly

text: Michael Mann

text: , and Mark Gould. Some have placed the Annales school and Pierre Bourdieu in this general group, despite their stylistic differences. The current wave of historical comparative research sociology is often but not exclusively post-structural in its theoretical orientation. Influential current authors include Julia Adams, Anne Laura Stoler,

text: Philip Gorski

text: , and James Mahoney.

text: The inherent functionality of a surface acoustic wave sensor can be extended by the deposition of a thin film of material across the delay line which is sensitive to the physical phenomena of interest.  If a physical phenomenon causes a change in length or mass in the deposited thin film, the surface acoustic wave will be affected by the mechanisms mentioned above.  Some extended functionality examples are listed below:

text: Internationally, sediment starvation is causing the erosion of many important coastal features. Breakwaters and other man-made structures in Thailand are responsible for accelerated beach erosion which may start to affect tourism in the coming years.In Hallsands, Devon, England, a combination of an existing seawall and new gravel dredging to form a harbour from 1986 to 1902, caused the erosion of the whole village by 1917. This was due to sediment starvation causing the erosion of the mixed sand and gravel barrier beaches which protected the village. They are not alone, the effects of man-made structures on restricting or diverting natural sediment transport are now well known and to some extent there is now a move away from these.

text: A place where erosion of a cliffed coast has occurred is at Wamberal in the Central Coast region of New South Wales where houses built on top of the cliffs began to collapse into the sea. This is due to waves causing erosion of the primarily sedimentary material on which the buildings foundations sit.

text: A place where erosion of a

text: cliffed coast

text: has occurred is at

text: Wamberal

text: in the Central Coast region of New South Wales where houses built on top of the cliffs began to collapse into the sea. This is due to waves causing erosion of the primarily sedimentary material on which the buildings foundations sit.

text: Sandy shores, also called beaches, are coastal shorelines where sand accumulates. Waves and currents shift the sand, continually building and eroding the shoreline. Longshore currents flow parallel to the beaches, making waves break obliquely on the sand. These currents transport large amounts of sand along coasts, forming spits, barrier islands and tombolos. Longshore currents also commonly create offshore bars, which give beaches some stability by reducing erosion.

text: Sandy shores, also called

text: beach

text: es, are coastal shorelines where

text: sand

text: accumulates. Waves and currents shift the sand, continually building and eroding the shoreline.

text: Longshore current

text: s flow parallel to the beaches, making waves break obliquely on the sand. These currents transport large amounts of sand along coasts, forming

text: spits

text: barrier island

text: s and

text: tombolo

text: s. Longshore currents also commonly create

text: offshore bar

text: s, which give beaches some stability by reducing erosion.

text: The 1985 Mexico City earthquake of September 19, 1985 is a good example of earthquake damage to a modern city built on soft sediment. Though the earthquake epicenter was located around 350 km from the city, the sites with soft clay deposits exhibited a huge amplification of ground motion resulting in severe damage. Mexico City is built on a thick layer of soft soil over a hard stratum. The western part of the city is located on the edge of an old lakebed, whereas, soft clay deposits filling the former lakebed underline the eastern part. In the lake bed area, the soft clay deposits have shear wave velocities ranging from 40 to 90 m/s and the underlying hard strata has a shear wave velocity in the range 500 m/s or greater. During the earthquake of 1985, the seismic waves were trapped in the soft strata. The soft soil layer allowed the upward propagating shear waves to propagate easily; however, the hard strata at the bottom acted like a reflector and bounced back the downward propagating waves. This kind of trapping of waves created a resonance and consequently resulted in an enormous amplification of the ground motion. As a result, the lake bed area suffered catastrophic damage; however, in the southwest part of the city, ground motions were moderate and building damage was minor. The acceleration recorded in the hill-zones were relatively low-amplitude, short period ground motions compared to high amplitude and long period ground motions recorded at stations located in the lake zone.

text: The

text: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: of September 19, 1985 is a good example of earthquake damage to a modern city built on soft sediment. Though the earthquake

text: epicenter

text: was located around 350 km from the city, the sites with soft clay deposits exhibited a huge amplification of ground motion resulting in severe damage. Mexico City is built on a thick layer of soft soil over a hard stratum. The western part of the city is located on the edge of an old lakebed, whereas, soft clay deposits filling the former lakebed underline the eastern part. In the lake bed area, the soft clay deposits have shear wave velocities ranging from 40 to 90 m/s and the underlying hard strata has a shear wave velocity in the range 500 m/s or greater. During the earthquake of 1985, the seismic waves were trapped in the soft strata. The soft soil layer allowed the upward propagating shear waves to propagate easily; however, the hard strata at the bottom acted like a reflector and bounced back the downward propagating waves. This kind of trapping of waves created a resonance and consequently resulted in an enormous amplification of the ground motion. As a result, the lake bed area suffered catastrophic damage; however, in the southwest part of the city, ground motions were moderate and building damage was minor. The

text: acceleration

text: recorded in the hill-zones were relatively low-amplitude, short period ground motions compared to high amplitude and

text: long period ground motion

text: s recorded at stations located in the lake zone.

text: While some beaches are predominantly made of black sand, even other colour beaches (e.g. gold and white) can often have deposits of black sand, particularly after storms. Larger waves can sort out sand grains leaving deposits of heavy minerals visible on the surface of erosion scarps.

text: While some beaches are predominantly made of black sand, even other colour beaches (e.g. gold and white) can often have deposits of black sand, particularly after storms. Larger waves can sort out sand grains leaving deposits of heavy minerals visible on the

text: surface of erosion

text: scarps.

text: The shoreline moves toward the island (or detached breakwater) due to accretion of sand in the lee of the island where wave energy and longshore drift are reduced and therefore deposition of sand occurs.

text: The shoreline moves toward the island (or detached breakwater) due to accretion of sand in the lee of the island where wave energy and

text: longshore drift

text: are reduced and therefore deposition of sand occurs.

text: Varve (or varved clay) is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by seasonal deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion and organic content. This type of deposit is common in former glacial lakes. When fine sediments are delivered into the calm waters of these glacial lake basins away from the shoreline, they settle to the lake bed. The resulting seasonal layering is preserved in an even distribution of clay sediment banding.

text: Varve

text: (or varved clay) is clay with visible annual layers, which are formed by seasonal deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in

text: erosion

text: and organic content. This type of

text: deposit

text: is common in former

text: glacial lake

text: s. When fine sediments are delivered into the calm waters of these glacial lake basins away from the shoreline, they settle to the lake bed. The resulting seasonal layering is preserved in an even distribution of clay sediment banding.

text: Wetter climates brought upon by ice ages starting 2 million years ago greatly increased excavation of the Grand Canyon, which was nearly as deep as it is now, 1.2 million years ago.  Volcanic activity deposited lava over the area 1.8 million to 500,000 years ago. At least 13 lava dams blocked the Colorado River, forming lakes that were up to  deep. The end of the last ice age and subsequent human activity has greatly reduced the ability of the Colorado River to excavate the canyon. Dams in particular have upset patterns of sediment transport and deposition. Controlled floods from Glen Canyon Dam upstream have been conducted to see if they have a restorative effect. Earthquakes and mass wasting erosive events still affect the region.

text: Wetter

text: climate

text: s brought upon by

text: ice age

text: s starting 2 million years ago greatly increased excavation of the Grand Canyon, which was nearly as deep as it is now, 1.2 million years ago.

text: Volcanic

text: activity deposited

text: lava

text: over the area 1.8 million to 500,000 years ago. At least 13

text: lava dam

text: s blocked the Colorado River, forming

text: lake

text: s that were up to  deep. The end of the last ice age and subsequent

text: human

text: activity has greatly reduced the ability of the Colorado River to excavate the canyon.

text: Dam

text: s in particular have upset patterns of sediment transport and

text: deposition

text: . Controlled floods from

text: Glen Canyon Dam

text: upstream have been conducted to see if they have a restorative effect.

text: Earthquake

text: s and

text: mass wasting

text: erosive events still affect the region.

text: Surface erosion of the surface of a levee is usually caused by the action of wind and water (waves but also normal flow). Erosion can be worsened by pre-existing or new damage to a levee. Areas with no surface protection are more prone to erosion. A levee grazed by certain types of animals, like sheep, can show trails used by the animals where grass does not grow.

text: Surface erosion of the surface of a levee is usually caused by the action of wind and water (waves but also normal flow). Erosion can be worsened by pre-existing or new damage to a levee. Areas with no surface protection are more prone to erosion. A levee grazed by certain types of animals, like

text: sheep

text: , can show trails used by the animals where grass does not grow.

text: Bako National Park is a national park in Kuching Division, Sarawak, Malaysia. Established in 1957, it is the oldest national park in Sarawak. It covers an area of  at the tip of the Muara Tebas peninsula at the mouth of the Bako and Kuching Rivers. It is approximately   by road from Kuching. Millions of years of erosion of the sandstone have created a coastline of steep cliffs, rocky headlands and stretches of white, sandy bays. Wave erosion at the base of the cliffs has carved many of the rocky headlands into fantastically shaped sea arches  and seastacks with colored patterns formed by iron deposition.The most famous of them is shaped like a cobra's head which can be spotted on a boat ride from the headquarters or one of the beaches. Some of these rock formations can be seen on entry to the Teluk Assam Beach, which fronts the park. The park can only be reached by a 20-minute boat ride from the village of Kampung Bako. It is often visited as a day-trip from Kuching, though accommodations (campground and forestry service bungalows) are available.

text: Bako National Park is a national park in

text: Kuching Division

text: Sarawak

text: Malaysia

text: . Established in 1957, it is the oldest national park in Sarawak. It covers an area of  at the tip of the Muara Tebas peninsula at the mouth of the Bako and Kuching Rivers. It is approximately   by road from

text: Kuching

text: . Millions of years of erosion of the sandstone have created a coastline of steep cliffs, rocky headlands and stretches of white, sandy bays. Wave erosion at the base of the cliffs has carved many of the rocky headlands into fantastically shaped sea arches  and seastacks with colored patterns formed by iron deposition.The most famous of them is shaped like a cobra's head which can be spotted on a boat ride from the headquarters or one of the beaches. Some of these rock formations can be seen on entry to the

text: Teluk Assam Beach

text: , which fronts the park. The park can only be reached by a 20-minute boat ride from the village of Kampung Bako. It is often visited as a day-trip from Kuching, though accommodations (campground and forestry service bungalows) are available.

text: A groyne creates and maintains a wide area of beach or sediment on its updrift side, and reduces erosion on the other. It is a physical barrier to stop sediment transport in the direction of longshore drift (also called longshore transport). This causes a build-up, which is often accompanied by accelerated erosion of the downdrift beach, which receives little or no sand from longshore drift (this is known as terminal groyne syndrome, as it occurs after the terminal groyne in a group of groynes). Groynes add sediment to the beach by capturing downward drift. However, this can cause severe erosion on shorelines downstream from the groyne.  If a groyne is correctly designed, then the amount of material it can hold will be limited, and excess sediment will be free to move on through the system. However, if a groyne is too large it may trap too much sediment, which can cause severe beach erosion on the down-drift side.

text: A groyne creates and maintains a wide area of beach or sediment on its updrift side, and reduces erosion on the other. It is a physical barrier to stop

text: sediment transport

text: in the direction of

text: longshore drift

text: (also called longshore transport). This causes a build-up, which is often accompanied by accelerated erosion of the downdrift beach, which receives little or no sand from longshore drift (this is known as terminal groyne syndrome, as it occurs after the terminal groyne in a group of groynes). Groynes add sediment to the beach by capturing downward drift. However, this can cause severe erosion on shorelines downstream from the groyne.  If a groyne is correctly designed, then the amount of material it can hold will be limited, and excess sediment will be free to move on through the system. However, if a groyne is too large it may trap too much sediment, which can cause severe beach erosion on the down-drift side.

text: Nourishment is one of three commonly accepted methods for protecting shorelines. The structural alternative involves constructing a seawall, revetment, groyne or breakwater. Alternatively, with "managed retreat" the shoreline is left to erode, while relocating buildings and infrastructure further inland. Nourishment gained popularity because it preserved beach resources and avoided the negative effects of hard structures.  Instead, nourishment creates a “soft” (i.e., non-permanent) structure by creating a larger sand reservoir, pushing the shoreline seaward.

text: Nourishment is one of three commonly accepted methods for protecting shorelines. The structural alternative involves constructing a

text: seawall

text: revetment

text: groyne

text: or

text: breakwater

text: . Alternatively, with "managed retreat" the shoreline is left to erode, while relocating buildings and infrastructure further inland. Nourishment gained popularity because it preserved beach resources and avoided the negative effects of hard structures.  Instead, nourishment creates a “soft” (i.e., non-permanent) structure by creating a larger sand reservoir, pushing the shoreline seaward.

text: Erosion control manuals comment on the effectiveness of sloped, stepped shapes in mitigating shoreline erosion damage from storms. Geotextile sand-filled units provide a "soft" armoring solution for upland property protection. Geotextiles are used as matting to stabilize flow in stream channels and swales.

text: Erosion control

text: manuals comment on the effectiveness of sloped, stepped shapes in mitigating shoreline erosion damage from storms. Geotextile sand-filled units provide a "soft" armoring solution for upland property protection. Geotextiles are used as matting to stabilize flow in stream channels and

text: swales

text: Another way bays form is via glacial and river erosion. A bay formed by a glacier is a fjord. Rias are created by rivers and are characterised by more gradual slopes. Most gulf and bays form by the folding of the earth's crust, and by coastal erosion due to waves and currents. Currents can make waves more constant, and soft rocks speed erosion. Hard rock eroded less quickly, leaving headlands. The Gulf of California is an example of a bay created by the geological process of folding.

text: Another way bays form is via glacial and river erosion. A bay formed by a glacier is a

text: fjord

text: Ria

text: s are created by rivers and are characterised by more gradual slopes. Most gulf and bays form by the

text: folding

text: of the earth's

text: crust

text: , and by coastal erosion due to

text: waves

text: and

text: currents

text: . Currents can make waves more constant, and soft rocks speed erosion. Hard rock eroded less quickly, leaving

text: headland

text: s. The

text: Gulf of California

text: is an example of a bay created by the geological process of folding.

text: A single, all-encompassing definition for the term wave is not straightforward. A vibration can be defined as a back-and-forth motion around a reference value. However, a vibration is not necessarily a wave.  An attempt to define the necessary and sufficient characteristics that qualify a phenomenon to be called a wave results in a fuzzy border line.

text: A single, all-encompassing definition for the term wave is not straightforward. A

text: vibration

text: can be defined as a back-and-forth motion around a reference value. However, a vibration is not necessarily a wave.  An attempt to define the necessary and sufficient characteristics that qualify a

text: phenomenon

text: to be called a wave results in a fuzzy border line.

text: As the tide changes, Emerita changes its position on the beach; most individuals stay in the zone of breaking waves. This may be detected by the physical characteristics of the sand. As the tide falls, the sand is allowed to settle; when Emerita detects this, it uses the temporary liquefaction from a breaking wave to emerge from its burrow, and is carried down the beach by the wave action. Longshore drift may also drag Emerita laterally along a beach.

text: As the

text: tide

text: changes, Emerita changes its position on the beach; most individuals stay in the zone of breaking waves. This may be detected by the physical characteristics of the sand. As the tide falls, the sand is allowed to settle; when Emerita detects this, it uses the temporary liquefaction from a breaking wave to emerge from its burrow, and is carried down the beach by the wave action.

text: Longshore drift

text: may also drag Emerita laterally along a beach.

text: Coe determined that the destructive force of the waves lay not in their impact against the bank, but in their retreat or undertow, which dragged away and undermined it. Experiment proved that a smooth surface, over which the heavy seas might glide and in their retreat find no hold, offered the best solution to the problem. Material for such a coating was discovered in the marine marl deposits along the line. This form of clay spread over the surface of the embankments, hardened on exposure to the air, and was capable of withstanding the heaviest seas.

text: Until 1900 Poetto beach was not very popular with Cagliaritans who instead preferred the west side of the gulf, with the beaches of  Sa Perdixedda (in Sardinian "small stone") and Giorgino. It was during the first decades of the 20th century that people began to appreciate the white dunes of Poetto and that the first seaside resorts ( "Lido" and "D'Aquila"), bars and even a Hospital (Ospedale Marino) was built.  A number of casotti (coloured wooden constructions halfway between a dressing room and a tiny house on the seashore) were built, imitating the first Lido's "cabine" (Dressing rooms).  The casotti, however, were entirely removed in 1986 for sanitation reasons. Due to their removal, the overcrowding, and a lack of erosion prevention work, there was gradual dispersal of sand and a fast erosion of the shoreline in the nineties.

text: Until 1900 Poetto beach was not very popular with Cagliaritans who instead preferred the west side of the

text: gulf

text: , with the beaches of  Sa Perdixedda (in

text: Sardinian

text: "small stone") and Giorgino. It was during the first decades of the 20th century that people began to appreciate the white

text: dune

text: s of Poetto and that the first seaside resorts ( "Lido" and "D'Aquila"), bars and even a Hospital (Ospedale Marino) was built.  A number of casotti (coloured wooden constructions halfway between a dressing room and a tiny house on the seashore) were built, imitating the first Lido's "cabine" (Dressing rooms).  The casotti, however, were entirely removed in 1986 for sanitation reasons. Due to their removal, the overcrowding, and a lack of erosion prevention work, there was gradual dispersal of sand and a fast erosion of the shoreline in the nineties.

text: The most effective known method for erosion prevention is to increase vegetative cover on the land, which helps prevent both wind and water erosion. Terracing is an extremely effective means of erosion control, which has been practiced for thousands of years by people all over the world. Windbreaks (also called shelterbelts) are rows of trees and shrubs that are planted along the edges of agricultural fields, to shield the fields against winds. In addition to significantly reducing wind erosion, windbreaks provide many other benefits such as improved microclimates for crops (which are sheltered from the dehydrating and otherwise damaging effects of wind), habitat for beneficial bird species, carbon sequestration, and aesthetic improvements to the agricultural landscape. Traditional planting methods, such as mixed-cropping (instead of monocropping) and crop rotation have also been shown to significantly reduce erosion rates. Crop residues play a role in the mitigation of erosion, because they reduce the impact of raindrops breaking up the soil particles. There is a higher potential for erosion when producing potatoes than when growing cereals, or oilseed crops.  Forages have a fibrous root system, which helps combat erosion by anchoring the plants to the top layer of the soil, and covering the entirety of the field, as it is a non-row crop. In tropical coastal systems, properties of mangroves have been examined as a potential means to reduce soil erosion. Their complex root structures are known to help reduce wave damage from storms and flood impacts while binding and building soils. These roots can slow down water flow, leading to the deposition of sediments and reduced erosion rates. However, in order to maintain sediment balance, adequate mangrove forest width needs to be present.

text: The most effective known method for erosion prevention is to increase vegetative cover on the land, which helps prevent both wind and water erosion.

text: Terracing

text: is an extremely effective means of erosion control, which has been practiced for thousands of years by people all over the world.

text: Windbreaks

text: (also called shelterbelts) are rows of trees and shrubs that are planted along the edges of agricultural fields, to shield the fields against winds. In addition to significantly reducing wind erosion, windbreaks provide many other benefits such as improved

text: microclimate

text: s for crops (which are sheltered from the dehydrating and otherwise damaging effects of wind), habitat for beneficial bird species,

text: carbon sequestration

text: , and aesthetic improvements to the agricultural landscape. Traditional planting methods, such as mixed-cropping (instead of

text: monocropping

text: ) and

text: crop rotation

text: have also been shown to significantly reduce erosion rates. Crop residues play a role in the mitigation of erosion, because they reduce the impact of raindrops breaking up the soil particles. There is a higher potential for erosion when producing potatoes than when growing cereals, or oilseed crops.  Forages have a fibrous root system, which helps combat erosion by anchoring the plants to the top layer of the soil, and covering the entirety of the field, as it is a non-row crop. In tropical coastal systems, properties of mangroves have been examined as a potential means to reduce soil erosion. Their complex root structures are known to help reduce wave damage from storms and flood impacts while binding and building soils. These roots can slow down water flow, leading to the deposition of sediments and reduced erosion rates. However, in order to maintain sediment balance, adequate mangrove forest width needs to be present.

text: All beaches lose and gain sand depending on the tides, precipitation, wind, waves etc. Wet beaches tend to lose sand. Waves infiltrate dry beaches easily and deposit sandy sediment. Generally a beach is wet during falling tide, because the sea sinks faster than the beach drains. As a result, most erosion happens during falling tide. Beach drainage (beach dewatering) using Pressure Equalizing Modules (PEMs) allow the beach to drain more effectively during falling tide. Fewer hours of wet beach translate to less erosion. Permeable PEM tubes inserted vertically into the foreshore connect the different layers of groundwater. The groundwater enters the PEM tube allowing gravity to conduct it to a coarser sand layer, where it can drain more quickly. The PEM modules are placed in a row from the dune to the mean low waterline. Distance between rows is typically  but this is project-specific. PEM systems come in different sizes. Modules connect layers with varying hydraulic conductivity. Air/water can enter and equalize pressure.

text: All beaches lose and gain sand depending on the tides, precipitation, wind, waves etc. Wet beaches tend to lose sand. Waves infiltrate dry beaches easily and deposit sandy sediment. Generally a beach is wet during falling tide, because the sea sinks faster than the beach drains. As a result, most erosion happens during falling tide. Beach drainage (beach dewatering) using Pressure Equalizing Modules (PEMs) allow the beach to drain more effectively during falling tide. Fewer hours of wet beach translate to less erosion.

text: Permeable

text: PEM tubes inserted vertically into the foreshore connect the different layers of

text: groundwater

text: . The groundwater enters the PEM tube allowing gravity to conduct it to a coarser sand layer, where it can drain more quickly. The PEM modules are placed in a row from the dune to the mean low waterline. Distance between rows is typically  but this is project-specific. PEM systems come in different sizes. Modules connect layers with varying

text: hydraulic conductivity

text: . Air/water can enter and equalize pressure.

text: Byōbugaura is noted in Japan for its historical and ongoing marine erosion due to the geological character of the inlet and the near-constant violent waves of the Pacific Ocean in the area. About  of land has been lost to erosion in the past 700 years. In modern times, in the 63 years between 1888 and 1951  of land have been lost. Tetrapods have been extensively installed at Byōbugaura to establish breakwaters, and have softened the retreat of land. The area of Byōbugaura on the border of Chōshi features marine caves, but most have also been lost due to marine erosion.

text: Byōbugaura is noted in Japan for its historical and ongoing marine erosion due to the geological character of the inlet and the near-constant violent waves of the Pacific Ocean in the area. About  of land has been lost to erosion in the past 700 years. In modern times, in the 63 years between 1888 and 1951  of land have been lost.

text: Tetrapods

text: have been extensively installed at Byōbugaura to establish

text: breakwaters

text: , and have softened the retreat of land. The area of Byōbugaura on the border of Chōshi features marine

text: cave

text: s, but most have also been lost due to marine erosion.

text: NATIONAL SHORELINE EROSION CONTROL DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM Pub. L. 93-251, title I, Sec. 54, Mar. 7, 1974, 88 Stat. 26, known as the Shoreline Erosion Control Demonstration Act of 1974, directed the Secretary of the Army, acting through the Chief of Engineers, to establish and conduct for a period of five fiscal years a national shoreline erosion control development and demonstration program, to consist of planning, constructing, operating, evaluating, and demonstrating prototype shoreline erosion control devices, both engineered and vegetative, and to be carried out in cooperation with the Secretary of Agriculture, particularly with respect to vegetative means of preventing and controlling shoreline erosion, and in cooperation with Federal, State, and local agencies, private organizations, and the Shoreline Erosion Advisory Panel established pursuant to section 54(d) of Pub. L. 93-251. The Panel was to expire ninety days after termination of the five-year program. The Secretary of the Army was to submit to Congress a final report, sixty days after the fifth fiscal year of funding, such report to include a comprehensive evaluation of the national shoreline erosion control development and demonstration program. TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING ASSISTANCE FOR NON-DEVELOPMENT OF EROSION PREVENTION METHODS Pub. L. 93-251, title I, Sec. 55, Mar. 7, 1974, 88 Stat. 28, provided that: The Secretary of the Army, acting through the Chief of Engineers, is authorized to provide technical and engineering assistance to non-Federal public interests in developing structural and non-structural methods of preventing damages attributable to shore and streambank erosion. VISITOR PROTECTION SERVICES, STUDY; REPORT TO CONGRESS Pub. L. 93-251, title I, Sec. 75, Mar. 7, 1974, 88 Stat. 32, directed Secretary of the Army to conduct a study on need for and means of providing visitor protection services at water resource development projects under jurisdiction of Department of the Army and report on such study to Congress not later than Dec. 31, 1974.

text: A beach ridge is a wave-swept or wave-deposited ridge running parallel to a shoreline. It is commonly composed of sand as well as sediment worked from underlying beach material. The movement of sediment by wave action is called littoral transport. Movement of material parallel to the shoreline is called longshore transport. Movement perpendicular to the shore is called on-offshore transport. A beach ridge may be capped by, or associated with, sand dunes. The height of a beach ridge is affected by wave size and energy.

text: A beach ridge is a

text: wave

text: -swept or wave-deposited

text: ridge

text: running

text: parallel

text: to a shoreline. It is commonly composed of sand as well as

text: sediment

text: worked from underlying beach material. The movement of sediment by wave action is called

text: littoral

text: transport. Movement of material parallel to the shoreline is called

text: longshore transport

text: . Movement

text: perpendicular

text: to the shore is called on-offshore transport. A beach ridge may be capped by, or associated with,

text: sand dunes

text: . The height of a beach ridge is affected by wave size and energy.

text: The most common cause of erosion is by acidic foods and drinks. In general, foods and drinks with a pH below 5.0–5.7 have been known to trigger dental erosion effects. Numerous clinical and laboratory reports link erosion to excessive consumption of drinks.  Those thought to pose a risk are soft drinks, some alcohol and fruit drinks, fruit juices such as orange juice (which contain citric acid) and carbonated drinks such as colas (in which the carbonic acid is not the cause of erosion, but citric and phosphoric acid).  Additionally, wine has been shown to erode teeth, with the pH of wine as low as 3.0–3.8. Other possible sources of erosive acids are from exposure to chlorinated swimming pool water, and regurgitation of gastric acids.

text: The most common cause of erosion is by acidic foods and drinks. In general, foods and drinks with a

text: pH

text: below 5.0–5.7 have been known to trigger dental erosion effects. Numerous clinical and laboratory reports link erosion to excessive consumption of drinks.  Those thought to pose a risk are soft drinks, some alcohol and fruit drinks, fruit juices such as

text: orange juice

text: (which contain

text: citric acid

text: ) and

text: carbonated drinks

text: such as

text: cola

text: s (in which the

text: carbonic acid

text: is not the cause of erosion, but citric and

text: phosphoric acid

text: ).  Additionally,

text: wine

text: has been shown to erode teeth, with the pH of wine as low as 3.0–3.8. Other possible sources of erosive acids are from exposure to

text: chlorinated

text: swimming pool

text: water, and regurgitation of

text: gastric acid

text: s.

text: Much of the money deposits into banks and other financial institutions have also been subsequently seized in the immediate aftermath of the deportations. Once a deposit was made, a certificate was given to the depositor as a proof of deposit. However, once the deportations began, withdrawals were prohibited. Much of the deportees who had held deposits were left with only certificates in their possession. Many of the depositors still carry the certificates of deposit today. Historian Kevork Baghdjian states that the worth of these deposits "should rise to astronomical sums today," with the "deposited capital and interests combined."

text: A contourite is a sedimentary deposit commonly formed on continental rise to lower slope settings, although they may occur anywhere that is below storm wave base. Countourites are produced by thermohaline-induced deepwater bottom currents and may be influenced by wind or tidal forces. The geomorphology of contourite deposits is mainly influenced by the deepwater bottom-current velocity, sediment supply, and seafloor topography.

text: A contourite is a

text: sediment

text: ary deposit commonly formed on

text: continental rise

text: to lower slope settings, although they may occur anywhere that is below storm

text: wave base

text: . Countourites are produced by

text: thermohaline

text: -induced

text: deepwater bottom currents

text: and may be influenced by wind or

text: tidal

text: forces. The geomorphology of contourite deposits is mainly influenced by the deepwater bottom-current velocity, sediment supply, and seafloor topography.

text: The small island was made from the same longshore drift that created Napatree Point. The two pieces of land were one until the 1938 Hurricane tore several channels in the peninsula. The result was the separation of Napatree at the elbow, making Sandy Point an island. The land is low-lying and nearly all sand, aside from a few trees.

text: The small island was made from the same

text: longshore drift

text: that created Napatree Point. The two pieces of land were one until the 1938 Hurricane tore several channels in the peninsula. The result was the separation of Napatree at the elbow, making Sandy Point an island. The land is low-lying and nearly all sand, aside from a few trees.

text: In northern Germany, individual blocks have been forced up by salt domes, and have been eroded down to the older layers of the Mesozoic platform. Erosion-resistant bedrock on these blocks forms small isolated ridges, especially in the northern Harz foreland region. These include the Elm hills (Muschelkalk), the Asse hills (Buntsandstein and Muschelkalk) and the Grosser Fallstein (Muschelkalk) as well as the island of Heligoland (Buntsandstein). Cretaceous chalk can be found, partly covered by thin Quaternary deposits, only in northern Germany, including in Münsterland Cretaceous Basin, where the Cretaceous deposits directly rest on the Ruhr Carboniferous and continue westward into the Aachen Formation, as well as in the Hanover and Salzgitter area. Probably the most well-known Cretaceous limestones of Germany are the those on the island of Rügen, on Germany's north coast.

text: In northern Germany, individual blocks have been forced up by

text: salt dome

text: s, and have been eroded down to the older layers of the Mesozoic platform. Erosion-resistant bedrock on these blocks forms small isolated ridges, especially in the northern Harz

text: foreland

text: region. These include the

text: Elm hills

text: (Muschelkalk), the

text: Asse hills

text: (Buntsandstein and Muschelkalk) and the

text: Grosser Fallstein

text: (Muschelkalk) as well as the island of

text: Heligoland

text: (Buntsandstein). Cretaceous

text: chalk

text: can be found, partly covered by thin Quaternary deposits, only in northern Germany, including in Münsterland Cretaceous Basin, where the Cretaceous deposits directly rest on the

text: Ruhr

text: Carboniferous and continue westward into the

text: Aachen Formation

text: , as well as in the Hanover and Salzgitter area. Probably the most well-known Cretaceous limestones of Germany are the those on the island of

text: Rügen

text: , on Germany's north coast.

text: Rocks exposed to the atmosphere are variably unstable and subject to the processes of weathering and erosion. Weathering and erosion break the original rock down into smaller fragments and carry away dissolved material. This fragmented material accumulates and is buried by additional material. While an individual grain of sand is still a member of the class of rock it was formed from, a rock made up of such grains fused together is sedimentary. Sedimentary rocks can be formed from the lithification of these buried smaller fragments (clastic sedimentary rock), the accumulation and lithification of material generated by living organisms (biogenic sedimentary rock - fossils), or lithification of chemically precipitated material from a mineral bearing solution due to evaporation (precipitate sedimentary rock). Clastic rocks can be formed from fragments broken apart from larger rocks of any type, due to processes such as erosion or from organic material, like plant remains. Biogenic and precipitate rocks form from the deposition of minerals from chemicals dissolved from all other rock types.

text: Rocks exposed to the

text: atmosphere

text: are variably unstable and subject to the processes of

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: . Weathering and erosion break the original rock down into smaller fragments and carry away dissolved material. This fragmented material accumulates and is buried by additional material. While an individual grain of sand is still a member of the class of rock it was formed from, a rock made up of such grains fused together is sedimentary. Sedimentary rocks can be formed from the

text: lithification

text: of these buried smaller fragments (

text: clastic

text: sedimentary rock), the accumulation and lithification of material generated by living

text: organism

text: s (

text: biogenic

text: sedimentary rock -

text: fossil

text: s), or lithification of chemically precipitated material from a mineral bearing solution due to

text: evaporation

text: precipitate

text: sedimentary rock). Clastic rocks can be formed from fragments broken apart from larger rocks of any type, due to processes such as

text: erosion

text: or from organic material, like plant remains. Biogenic and precipitate rocks form from the deposition of

text: mineral

text: s from chemicals dissolved from all other rock types.

text: There has been considerable debate over the years as to the depth of the Yogo dike and how many ounces of rough sapphires per ton it contains. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Delmer L. Brown, a geological engineer and gemologist, conducted the most thorough scientific exploration up to that time, concluding that the dike was at least  deep and that the concentration of rough sapphires was not constant throughout the deposit. Brown found that the dike had intruded into a pre-existing fault that had been a conduit for groundwater circulation. The overlying shale, the Kibbey Formation, was deposited on an unconformity, an ancient Mississippian-age karst erosion surface, and was not intruded by the dike. This groundwater action produced collapsed zones which were intruded by the dike to form breccia zones. Recent erosion in the area removed the overlying shales and again exposed the limestone to groundwater action which produced collapse breccias which include fragments of the dike rock. He determined that the erosion of the dike in the current erosion cycle was minimal.

text: There has been considerable debate over the years as to the depth of the Yogo dike and how many ounces of rough sapphires per ton it contains. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Delmer L. Brown, a

text: geological engineer

text: and gemologist, conducted the most thorough scientific exploration up to that time, concluding that the dike was at least  deep and that the concentration of rough sapphires was not constant throughout the deposit. Brown found that the dike had intruded into a pre-existing

text: fault

text: that had been a conduit for groundwater circulation. The overlying shale, the

text: Kibbey Formation

text: , was deposited on an

text: unconformity

text: , an ancient Mississippian-age

text: karst

text: erosion surface

text: , and was not intruded by the dike. This groundwater action produced collapsed zones which were intruded by the dike to form breccia zones. Recent erosion in the area removed the overlying shales and again exposed the limestone to groundwater action which produced collapse breccias which include fragments of the dike rock. He determined that the erosion of the dike in the current erosion cycle was minimal.

text: Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly). It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow, resulting in a small north-south circulation.

text: Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly). It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to

text: gravity wave

text: dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow, resulting in a small north-south circulation.

text: A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion. In addition to their ugliness, sea walls have two specific weaknesses. First, wave reflection from the wall may result in scour and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach. Second, sea walls may accelerate erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas because they affect the littoral drift process. The design and type of sea wall that is appropriate depends on aspects specific to the location, including the surrounding erosion processes. There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved or stepped, and mounds, as set out in the table:

text: A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion. In addition to their ugliness, sea walls have two specific weaknesses. First, wave reflection from the wall may result in scour and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach. Second, sea walls may accelerate erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas because they affect the

text: littoral drift

text: process. The design and type of sea wall that is appropriate depends on aspects specific to the location, including the surrounding erosion processes. There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved or stepped, and mounds, as set out in the table:

text: The stacks are susceptible to further erosion from the waves.  On 3 July 2005, a  stack collapsed, leaving eight remaining (compare the two pictures from 2003 and 2010). On 25 September 2009, it was thought that another of the stacks had fallen, but this was actually one of the smaller stacks of the Three Sisters formation.  The rate of erosion at the base of the limestone pillars is approximately 2 cm per year. Due to wave action eroding the cliff face existing headlands are expected to become new limestone stacks in the future.

text: The stacks are susceptible to further erosion from the

text: waves

text: .  On 3 July 2005, a  stack collapsed, leaving eight remaining (compare the two pictures from 2003 and 2010). On 25 September 2009, it was thought that another of the stacks had fallen, but this was actually one of the smaller stacks of the Three Sisters formation.  The rate of erosion at the base of the limestone pillars is approximately 2 cm per year. Due to wave action eroding the cliff face existing headlands are expected to become new limestone stacks in the future.

text: Similar to the flint fields in the northern part of the Schmale Heide, but much smaller in size, are ridges of flint at many places in the northern part of Schaabe behind the main line of sand dunes, which were thrown up here by the waves in earlier times, when the sea level was higher. This proves that the erosion and transportation of flints from the chalk cliffs of Wittow and Jasmund has reduced over the centuries and been replaced by the deposition of fine beach sand.

text: Similar to the

text: flint field

text: s in the northern part of the Schmale Heide, but much smaller in size, are ridges of flint at many places in the northern part of Schaabe behind the main line of sand dunes, which were thrown up here by the waves in earlier times, when the sea level was higher. This proves that the erosion and transportation of flints from the

text: chalk cliffs

text: of Wittow and Jasmund has reduced over the centuries and been replaced by the deposition of fine beach sand.

text: An atmospheric wave is a periodic disturbance in the fields of atmospheric variables (like surface pressure or geopotential height, temperature, or wind velocity) which may either propagate (traveling wave) or not (standing wave). Atmospheric waves range in spatial and temporal scale from large-scale planetary waves (Rossby waves) to minute sound waves. Atmospheric waves with periods which are harmonics of 1 solar day (e.g. 24 hours, 12 hours, 8 hours... etc.) are known as atmospheric tides.

text: An atmospheric wave is a periodic disturbance in the fields of

text: atmospheric

text: variables (like

text: surface pressure

text: or

text: geopotential height

text: temperature

text: , or

text: wind velocity

text: ) which may either propagate (

text: traveling wave

text: ) or not (

text: standing wave

text: ). Atmospheric waves range in

text: spatial

text: and

text: temporal

text: scale from large-scale planetary waves (

text: Rossby wave

text: s) to minute

text: sound wave

text: s. Atmospheric waves with periods which are

text: harmonics

text: of 1

text: solar day

text: (e.g. 24 hours, 12 hours, 8 hours... etc.) are known as

text: atmospheric tide

text: s.

text: The coastal management at Black Rock, on the north-east coast of Phillip Bay, Australia, provides a good example of a structural response to beach erosion which resulted in morphological changes in the swash zone. In the 1930s, a sea wall was built to protect the cliff from recession at Black Rock. This resulted in depletion of the beach in front of the sea wall, which was damaged by repeated storms in winter time. In 1969, the beach was nourished with approximately 5000m of sand from inland in order to increase the volume of sand on the beach to protect the sea wall. This increased the sand volume by about 10%, however, the sand was carried away by northward drifting in autumn to leave the sea wall exposed to the impacts of winter storms again. The project had failed to take the seasonal patterns of longshore drift into account and had underestimated the amount of sand to nourish with, especially on the southern part of the beach.

text: The coastal management at Black Rock, on the north-east coast of Phillip Bay, Australia, provides a good example of a structural response to beach erosion which resulted in morphological changes in the swash zone. In the 1930s, a

text: sea wall

text: was built to protect the cliff from recession at Black Rock. This resulted in depletion of the beach in front of the

text: sea wall

text: , which was damaged by repeated storms in winter time. In 1969, the beach was nourished with approximately 5000m of sand from inland in order to increase the volume of sand on the beach to protect the sea wall. This increased the sand volume by about 10%, however, the sand was carried away by northward drifting in autumn to leave the sea wall exposed to the impacts of winter storms again. The project had failed to take the seasonal patterns of

text: longshore drift

text: into account and had underestimated the amount of sand to nourish with, especially on the southern part of the beach.

text: Belarus has large amounts of potash with commercial reserves of 10 billion metric tones. All deposits were formed during the Famennian stage of the Late Devonian epoch. Three main potash deposits have been explored — Starobin (, ), Petrikov (, ) and Oktyabrsky (, ). Sylvinite (potash ore) from the Starobin deposit contains up to 28% KCl, sylvinite from the Petrikov deposit — up to 40% KCl, and from the Oktyabrsky deposit — up to 39% KCl. Amounts of MgCl vary from 0.15—0.3% in Starobin to 1.5—4% in Petrikov and more than 5% in Oktyabrsky. Starobin deposit has 2.6 billion tones of proven reserves (A, B, C categories) and 600 million tones of prognosed reserves (C category) of potash, reserves at Petrikov deposit are estimated at 2.12 billion tones (C and C categories) of potash, Oktyabrsky deposit has 637 million tones of potash (C and C) and 1.1 billion tones of carnallite. Only Starobin deposit is used, but in 2014 construction of the first factory in the Petrikov deposit began. Several less explored and lesser deposits are known, mainly in Homiel Voblasts and Minsk Voblasts.

text: Belarus has large amounts of

text: potash

text: with commercial reserves of 10 billion metric tones. All deposits were formed during the

text: Famennian

text: stage of the Late

text: Devonian

text: epoch. Three main potash deposits have been explored — Starobin (, ), Petrikov (, ) and Oktyabrsky (, ).

text: Sylvinite

text: (potash ore) from the Starobin deposit contains up to 28% KCl, sylvinite from the Petrikov deposit — up to 40% KCl, and from the Oktyabrsky deposit — up to 39% KCl. Amounts of MgCl vary from 0.15—0.3% in Starobin to 1.5—4% in Petrikov and more than 5% in Oktyabrsky. Starobin deposit has 2.6 billion tones of proven reserves (A, B, C categories) and 600 million tones of prognosed reserves (C category) of potash, reserves at Petrikov deposit are estimated at 2.12 billion tones (C and C categories) of potash, Oktyabrsky deposit has 637 million tones of potash (C and C) and 1.1 billion tones of

text: carnallite

text: . Only Starobin deposit is used, but in 2014 construction of the first factory in the Petrikov deposit began. Several less explored and lesser deposits are known, mainly in

text: Homiel Voblasts

text: and

text: Minsk Voblasts

text: Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. This sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then transported from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the hinterland (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as evaporites, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the sedimentary depositional environment in which it formed.

text: Sedimentary

text: rock

text: s are formed when

text: sediment

text: is

text: deposited

text: out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in

text: suspension

text: . This sediment is often formed when

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then

text: transported

text: from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the

text: hinterland

text: (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as

text: evaporite

text: s, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the

text: sedimentary depositional environment

text: in which it formed.

text: Drew Carey also requested that Sounders FC have their own marching band.  They are the first club in the MLS to have one. This led to the creation of the Sound Wave, a 53-member marching band consisting of brass and marching percussion. The band plays music from multiple genres such as Latin, rock and pop, and sits with the supporters in the north end of CenturyLink Field. The March to the Match, in which fans march from Occidental Park to CenturyLink before each home game, is led by the Sound Wave.

text: Drew Carey also requested that Sounders FC have their own marching band.  They are the first club in the MLS to have one. This led to the creation of the Sound Wave, a 53-member marching band consisting of brass and marching percussion. The band plays music from multiple genres such as Latin, rock and pop, and sits with the supporters in the north end of CenturyLink Field. The March to the Match, in which fans march from

text: Occidental Park

text: to CenturyLink before each home game, is led by the Sound Wave.

text: After returning to Japan from the United States in 2011, Hamada began working for Pro Wrestling Wave, where she aligned herself with the villainous Black Dahlia stable. On July 2, 2012, Hamada signed a contract to officially make Wave her new home promotion. On October 6, 2013, Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata won the 2013 Dual Shock Wave tournament. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata defeated the Classic Gals (Cherry and Shuu Shibutani) to win the Wave Tag Team Championship, Hamada's first title in Wave. After a reign of 270 days, the longest in the title's history, Hamada and Yamagata lost the title to Yankii Nichokenju (Isami Kodaka and Yuko Miyamoto) on July 27, 2014. They regained the title from Revolucion Amandla (Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa) on October 29. On February 11, 2015, Hamada became a double champion, when she defeated Hikaru Shida for the Wave Single Championship. On March 15, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Mio Shirai and Misaki Ohata. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata won the Wave Tag Team Championship for the third time, when they defeated Kayoko Haruyama and Tsubasa Kuragaki in the finals of the 2015 Dual Shock Wave tournament. On December 27, Hamada lost the Wave Single Championship to her tag team partner Yuu Yamagata. On August 7, 2016, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Misaki Ohata and Ryo Mizunami.

text: After returning to Japan from the

text: United States

text: in 2011, Hamada began working for

text: Pro Wrestling Wave

text: , where she aligned herself with the

text: villainous

text: Black Dahlia

entity_name: Glossary of professional wrestling terms

text: stable

text: . On July 2, 2012, Hamada signed a contract to officially make Wave her new home promotion. On October 6, 2013, Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata won the

text: 2013 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata defeated the Classic Gals (Cherry and

text: Shuu Shibutani

text: ) to win the

text: Wave Tag Team Championship

text: , Hamada's first title in Wave. After a reign of 270 days, the longest in the title's history, Hamada and Yamagata lost the title to

text: Yankii Nichokenju

text: Isami Kodaka

text: and

text: Yuko Miyamoto

text: ) on July 27, 2014. They regained the title from Revolucion Amandla (

text: Kyoko Kimura

text: and Tomoka Nakagawa) on October 29. On February 11, 2015, Hamada became a double champion, when she defeated

text: Hikaru Shida

text: for the

text: Wave Single Championship

text: . On March 15, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Mio Shirai and Misaki Ohata. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata won the Wave Tag Team Championship for the third time, when they defeated

text: Kayoko Haruyama

text: and

text: Tsubasa Kuragaki

text: in the finals of the

text: 2015 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament. On December 27, Hamada lost the Wave Single Championship to her tag team partner Yuu Yamagata. On August 7, 2016, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Misaki Ohata and Ryo Mizunami.

text: Although porphyry deposits are associated with arc volcanism, they are not the typical products in that environment. It is believed that tectonic change acts as a trigger for porphyry formation. There are five key factors that can give rise to porphyry development: 1) compression impeding magma ascent through crust, 2) a resultant larger shallow magma chamber, 3) enhanced fractionation of the magma along with volatile saturation and generation of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids, 4) compression restricts offshoots from developing into the surrounding rock, thus concentrating the fluid into a single stock, and 5) rapid uplift and erosion promotes decompression and efficient, eventual deposition of ore.

text: Although porphyry deposits are associated with

text: arc volcanism

text: , they are not the typical products in that environment. It is believed that tectonic change acts as a trigger for porphyry formation. There are five key factors that can give rise to porphyry development: 1) compression impeding magma ascent through crust, 2) a resultant larger shallow

text: magma chamber

text: , 3) enhanced

text: fractionation

text: of the magma along with volatile saturation and generation of magmatic-hydrothermal fluids, 4) compression restricts offshoots from developing into the surrounding rock, thus concentrating the fluid into a single stock, and 5) rapid uplift and erosion promotes decompression and efficient, eventual deposition of ore.

text: This structure is formed under a combination of unidirectional and oscillatory flow that is generated by relatively large storm waves in the ocean. Deposition involves fallout from suspension and lateral tractive flow due to wave oscillation. As the large waves drape sand over an irregular scoured surface, this strong storm-wave action erodes the seabed into low hummocks and swales that lack any significant orientation. It is usually formed by redeposition below normal fair weather wave base delivered offshore by flooding rivers and shoals by large waves.

text: The northern frontage of Sheringham is protected by a concrete seawall which also serves as the promenade. It is a vital part of the protection of the town against the natural erosion that occurs along the North Norfolk coast. The storm surge of 1953 considerably damaged Sheringham's wooden sea defences. In front of the sea wall are groynes, armoured at their bases with large blocks of natural rock, which prevent long shore drift. There are numerous drains along the frontage. To the east towards West Runton the seawall ends just below Beeston Bump. From there a timber revetment and groyne system, designed and constructed in 1976, runs eastwards for 2 km (just over a mile) to West Runton Gap. The shoreline management plans of the Department for Environment include a policy of "managed retreat" along this stretch of coast. The revetment between Sheringham and West Runton is no longer being maintained and is thus in a poor state of repair. Sections that become hazardous will be removed. The coastline will then be left to evolve naturally.

text: The northern frontage of Sheringham is protected by a concrete

text: seawall

text: which also serves as the promenade. It is a vital part of the protection of the town against the

text: natural erosion

text: that occurs along the

text: North Norfolk

text: coast. The

text: storm surge

text: of

text: considerably damaged Sheringham's wooden sea defences. In front of the sea wall are

text: groyne

text: s, armoured at their bases with large blocks of natural rock, which prevent

text: long shore drift

text: . There are numerous drains along the frontage. To the east towards

text: West Runton

text: the seawall ends just below

text: Beeston Bump

text: . From there a timber

text: revetment

text: and groyne system, designed and constructed in 1976, runs eastwards for 2 km (just over a mile) to West Runton Gap. The shoreline management plans of the

entity_name: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

text: Department for Environment

text: include a policy of "

text: managed retreat

text: " along this stretch of coast. The revetment between Sheringham and West Runton is no longer being maintained and is thus in a poor state of repair. Sections that become hazardous will be removed. The coastline will then be left to evolve naturally.

text: The dynamic nature of the coast has meant that accurate mapping of an instantaneous shoreline position has been associated with significant uncertainty. This uncertainty arises because at any given time the position of the shoreline is influenced by the short-term effect of the tide and a wide variety of long-term effects such as relative sea-level rise and along shore littoral sediment movement. Not only does this affect the accuracy of computed historic shoreline position but also any predicted future positions (Appeaning Addo et al. 2008).As mentioned earlier the HWL is most commonly used as a shoreline indicator. This can usually be seen as a significant tonal change on aerial photographs. There are however many errors associated with using the wet/dry line as a proxy for the HWL and shoreline. The errors of largest concern are the short-term migration of the wet/dry line, interpretation of the wet/dry line on a photograph and measurement of the interpreted line position (Leatherman 2003; Moore 2000). Systematic errors such as the migration of the wet/dry line may arise from tidal and seasonal changes. Storm-induced erosion is another factor which may cause the wet/dry line to migrate landward. Field investigations have shown that these changes can be minimised by using only summertime data (Moore 2000; Leatherman 2003). Furthermore, the error bar can be significantly reduced by using the longest record of reliable data to calculate erosion rates (Leatherman 2003).  Finally it is important to note that errors may arise due to the difficulty of measuring a single line on a photograph. For example, where the pen line is 0.13 mm thick this translates to an error of ±2.6 m on a 1:20000 scale photograph.

text: The dynamic nature of the coast has meant that accurate mapping of an instantaneous shoreline position has been associated with significant uncertainty. This uncertainty arises because at any given time the position of the shoreline is influenced by the short-term effect of the

text: tide

text: and a wide variety of long-term effects such as relative sea-level rise and along

text: shore

text: littoral

text: sediment

text: movement. Not only does this affect the accuracy of computed historic shoreline position but also any predicted future positions (Appeaning Addo et al. 2008).As mentioned earlier the HWL is most commonly used as a shoreline indicator. This can usually be seen as a significant tonal change on aerial photographs. There are however many errors associated with using the wet/dry line as a proxy for the HWL and shoreline. The errors of largest concern are the short-term migration of the wet/dry line, interpretation of the wet/dry line on a photograph and measurement of the interpreted line position (Leatherman 2003; Moore 2000). Systematic errors such as the migration of the wet/dry line may arise from tidal and

text: seasonal

text: changes. Storm-induced

text: erosion

text: is another factor which may cause the wet/dry line to migrate landward. Field investigations have shown that these changes can be minimised by using only summertime data (Moore 2000; Leatherman 2003). Furthermore, the error bar can be significantly reduced by using the longest record of reliable data to calculate erosion rates (Leatherman 2003).  Finally it is important to note that errors may arise due to the difficulty of measuring a single line on a photograph. For example, where the pen line is 0.13 mm thick this translates to an error of ±2.6 m on a 1:20000 scale photograph.

text: Downcutting, also called erosional downcutting, downward erosion or vertical erosion is a geological process by hydraulic action that deepens the channel of a stream or valley by removing material from the stream's bed or the valley's floor. The speed of downcutting depends on the stream's base level, the lowest point to which the stream can erode. Sea level is the ultimate base level, but many streams have a higher "temporary" base level because they empty into another body of water that is above sea level or encounter bedrock that resists erosion. A concurrent process called lateral erosion refers to the widening of a stream channel or valley. When a stream is high above its base level, downcutting will take place faster than lateral erosion; but as the level of the stream approaches its base level, the rate of lateral erosion increases. This is why streams in  mountainous areas tend to be narrow and swift, forming V-shaped valleys, while streams in lowland areas tend to be wide and slow-moving, with valleys that are correspondingly wide and flat-bottomed. The term gradient refers to the elevation of a stream relative to its base level. The steeper the gradient, the faster the stream flows. Sometimes geological uplift will increase the gradient of a stream even while the stream downcuts toward its base level, a process called "rejuvenation." This happened in the case of the Colorado River in the western United States, resulting in the process that created the Grand Canyon.

text: Downcutting, also called erosional downcutting, downward erosion or vertical erosion is a

text: geological

text: process by

text: hydraulic action

text: that deepens the

text: channel

text: of a

text: stream

text: or

text: valley

text: by removing material from the stream's bed or the valley's floor. The speed of downcutting depends on the stream's

text: base level

text: , the lowest point to which the stream can

text: erode

text: Sea level

text: is the ultimate base level, but many streams have a higher "temporary" base level because they empty into another body of water that is above sea level or encounter

text: bedrock

text: that resists erosion. A concurrent process called

text: lateral erosion

text: refers to the widening of a stream channel or valley. When a stream is high above its base level, downcutting will take place faster than lateral erosion; but as the level of the stream approaches its base level, the rate of lateral erosion increases. This is why streams in

text: mountain

text: ous areas tend to be narrow and swift, forming

text: V-shaped valley

text: s, while streams in

text: lowland

text: areas tend to be wide and slow-moving, with valleys that are correspondingly wide and flat-bottomed. The term

text: gradient

text: refers to the elevation of a stream relative to its base level. The steeper the gradient, the faster the stream flows. Sometimes geological

text: uplift

text: will increase the gradient of a stream even while the stream downcuts toward its base level, a process called "

text: rejuvenation

text: ." This happened in the case of the

text: Colorado River

text: in the western

text: United States

text: , resulting in the process that created the

text: Grand Canyon

text: The protective value of mangrove swamps is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on erosion can only be measured over long periods. Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events such as storm surges and tsunamis. Erosion often occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, while new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is accruing.

text: The protective value of mangrove swamps is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on erosion can only be measured over long periods. Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events such as storm surges and tsunamis. Erosion often occurs on the outer sides of bends in river channels that wind through mangroves, while new stands of mangroves are appearing on the inner sides where sediment is

text: accruing

text: The larger part of Norfolk's bedrock geology is concealed beneath superficial deposits, the oldest of which is a spread of glacial till dating from the Anglian glaciation. Interspersed with the till are sheets of glacial sands and gravels. The fact that the Chalk scarp in East Anglia is much reduced in height compared to its outcrop in Lincolnshire and the Chiltern Hills has been put down to erosion by the Anglian icesheet which reached as far south as Essex. The late Devensian glaciation resulted in the North Sea icesheet impinging upon the north coast of Norfolk. Of more recent origin are alluvial deposits which extend across the floors of the main river valleys and widely across the flats of the Broads. Coastal alluvium is also present along the north coast from Holme-next-the-Sea to Brancaster. River terrace deposits occur in places, for example around the valley of the River Waveney. Blown sand characterises the lower sections of coast. Peat is widespread in the fenland areas south and west of Downham Market.

text: The larger part of Norfolk's bedrock geology is concealed beneath superficial deposits, the oldest of which is a spread of

text: glacial till

text: dating from the

text: Anglian glaciation

text: . Interspersed with the till are sheets of glacial sands and gravels. The fact that the Chalk scarp in East Anglia is much reduced in height compared to its outcrop in

text: Lincolnshire

text: and the

text: Chiltern Hills

text: has been put down to erosion by the Anglian icesheet which reached as far south as

text: Essex

text: . The late

text: Devensian

text: glaciation resulted in the North Sea icesheet impinging upon the north coast of Norfolk. Of more recent origin are

text: alluvial deposits

text: which extend across the floors of the main river valleys and widely across the flats of the

text: Broads

text: . Coastal alluvium is also present along the north coast from Holme-next-the-Sea to

text: Brancaster

text: River terrace

text: deposits occur in places, for example around the valley of the

text: River Waveney

text: . Blown sand characterises the lower sections of coast.

text: Peat

text: is widespread in the

text: fenland

text: areas south and west of Downham Market.

text: The last recorded rate of sediment deposition was in 1936, with a recorded estimate of 23 cm (9.1 in) annually. However, deposition is subject to seasonal variations. Maximum deposition takes place in the winter and early spring when river runoff is highest due to increased rain, when the longshore drift is coming from the south, and when winds are from the southwest. In the summer, deposition is low because of lower runoff, southward longshore drift and northwest winds.

text: The last recorded rate of sediment deposition was in 1936, with a recorded estimate of 23 cm (9.1 in) annually. However, deposition is subject to seasonal variations. Maximum deposition takes place in the winter and early spring when river runoff is highest due to increased rain, when the

text: longshore drift

text: is coming from the south, and when winds are from the southwest. In the summer, deposition is low because of lower runoff, southward longshore drift and northwest winds.

text: The platform is overlain by raised beach deposits of sand and shingle which contain shell fragments which amongst other methods have given the beach and cliff a general date from the second half of the last (Ipswichian) interglacial. The angle between the beach and the old cliff is filled by great quantities of coarse chalk rubble apparently derived from theweathering and erosion of the cliff in Devensian times. Chalk muds and fine chalk gravel and grit, are banked against the rubble on the west and may represent fan deposits. The muds contain appreciable quantities of loess and are overlain by further, coarser solifluction deposits. The chalk rubble and solifluction deposits are particularly notable for their fossil remains of many Devensian mammals, including Elephas primigenius, Tichorhinus antiquitatus and Equus caballus.

text: The platform is overlain by raised beach deposits of sand and shingle which contain shell fragments which amongst other methods have given the beach and cliff a general date from the second half of the last (

text: Ipswichian

text: interglacial

text: . The angle between the beach and the old cliff is filled by great quantities of coarse

text: chalk

text: rubble apparently derived from the

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: of the cliff in

text: Devensian

text: times. Chalk muds and fine chalk gravel and grit, are banked against the rubble on the west and may represent fan deposits. The muds contain appreciable quantities of

text: loess

text: and are overlain by further, coarser

text: solifluction

text: deposits. The chalk rubble and solifluction deposits are particularly notable for their fossil remains of many Devensian mammals, including

text: Elephas primigenius

text: Tichorhinus antiquitatus

text: and

text: Equus caballus

text: The Baum Site (31Ck9) is one of the most prominent Middle and Late Woodland Period sites of the Colington Phase in the state of North Carolina. It is located north of Poplar Branch in Currituck County, North Carolina. This phase, marked by cultures of the Algonkian peoples, aligns with the Late Woodland period in North Carolina, occurring during English explorations between 1584 and 1587, and permanent settlement at 1650. This village is what the first English explorers encountered when entering the coastal region. The site contained ossuaries and evidence for a coastal village adaptation. The site was registered with the National Register of Historic Places on December 8, 1982, after testing and excavations in 1972 and 1973 by David Sutton Phelps, who was an archaeologist at East Carolina University. The site is suffering from erosion due to wave action. After the initial discovery, which was the result of erosion uncovering of remains, Phelps claimed, “this will provide the first glimpse of a coastal village of this type in the state”.  A residential subdivision, Currituck Crossing, is now located on the Baum site.  http://co.currituck.nc.us/pdf/board-of-commissioners-minutes-2013/boc-minutes-13nov04.pdf.

text: The Baum Site (31Ck9) is one of the most prominent Middle and Late

text: Woodland Period

text: sites of the Colington Phase in the state of North Carolina. It is located north of Poplar Branch in

text: Currituck County, North Carolina

text: . This phase, marked by cultures of the Algonkian peoples, aligns with the Late Woodland period in North Carolina, occurring during English explorations between 1584 and 1587, and permanent settlement at 1650. This village is what the first English explorers encountered when entering the coastal region. The site contained ossuaries and evidence for a coastal village adaptation. The site was registered with the

text: National Register of Historic Places

text: on December 8, 1982, after testing and excavations in 1972 and 1973 by

text: David Sutton Phelps

text: , who was an archaeologist at

text: East Carolina University

text: . The site is suffering from erosion due to wave action. After the initial discovery, which was the result of erosion uncovering of remains, Phelps claimed, “this will provide the first glimpse of a coastal village of this type in the state”.  A residential subdivision, Currituck Crossing, is now located on the Baum site.  http://co.currituck.nc.us/pdf/board-of-commissioners-minutes-2013/boc-minutes-13nov04.pdf.

text: In the rainshadow of Vancouver Island, Savary receives between 950 and 1,300 mm of precipitation annually, with maximum amounts in late fall through mid-winter. No permanent streams exist on the island, but at least one spring may be found mid-island called Indian Springs. The dry warm summers and erodible soils condition distinctive ecologic settings and surface processes (including wind erosion and deposition). In addition, storm waves, which are predominantly from the southeast, have important erosion and sediment transport effects along the south shore of Savary. It is this unique combination of "ecologic settings", "surface processes" and "transport effects" which gives rise to the wonderful beaches of Savary.

text: This section of the Pumicestone Passage is very narrow and very shallow (less than ) with shifting sand and mud banks, which makes the northern sandspit highly dynamic in shape through natural processes of sand/mud buildup and erosion. During storms, waves may cross over the sandspit from the Coral Sea into the Pumicestone Passage, with the potential to break though the sandspit to create new entrances to Pumicestone Passage. The creation of new entrances would impact on the Caloundra suburbs of Golden Beach and Pelican Waters which would then be exposed more directly to the stronger wave action of the Coral Sea as opposed to the calmer waters of the Pumicestone Passage.

text: This section of the Pumicestone Passage is very narrow and very shallow (less than ) with shifting sand and mud banks, which makes the northern sandspit highly dynamic in shape through natural processes of sand/mud buildup and erosion. During storms, waves may cross over the sandspit from the Coral Sea into the Pumicestone Passage, with the potential to break though the sandspit to create new entrances to Pumicestone Passage. The creation of new entrances would impact on the Caloundra suburbs of

text: Golden Beach

text: and

text: Pelican Waters

text: which would then be exposed more directly to the stronger wave action of the Coral Sea as opposed to the calmer waters of the Pumicestone Passage.

text: Longshore drift can generally be defined in terms of the systems within the surf zone. Sediment transport along the shore and surf zone is influenced by the swash (occurs in the direction of prevailing wind), which moves the pebble up the beach at the angle of the waves, and moves the pebble back down the beach due to the influence of gravity.

text: Longshore drift can generally be defined in terms of the systems within the surf zone. Sediment transport along the

text: shore

text: and surf zone is influenced by the swash (occurs in the direction of prevailing wind), which moves the pebble up the beach at the angle of the waves, and moves the pebble back down the beach due to the influence of

text: gravity

text: Pleistocene deposits blanket most of the surface of Faddeyevsky Island. A layer of Late Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial and lacustrine deposits largely cover the central and southern parts of Faddeyevsky Island. Middle and Late Pleistocene deposits largely cover the northern part of this island. The permafrost is about 400 to 500 m thick. The central plain of Faddeyevsky Island has been highly altered by thermokarst processes. It contains numerous deep erosive cuts created by the seasonal melting of the permafrost. Numerous baydzharakhs, thermokarst mounds, dot the landscape; they are the result of the melting of polygonal ice wedges within the permafrost.

text: Pleistocene deposits blanket most of the surface of Faddeyevsky Island. A layer of Late Pleistocene and

text: Holocene

text: alluvial and lacustrine deposits largely cover the central and southern parts of Faddeyevsky Island. Middle and Late Pleistocene deposits largely cover the northern part of this island. The permafrost is about 400 to 500 m thick. The central plain of Faddeyevsky Island has been highly altered by thermokarst processes. It contains numerous deep erosive cuts created by the seasonal melting of the permafrost. Numerous baydzharakhs, thermokarst mounds, dot the landscape; they are the result of the melting of polygonal ice wedges within the permafrost.

text: Lower Shoreface refers to the portion of the seafloor, and the sedimentary depositional environment, that lies below the everyday wave base.

text: Lower Shoreface refers to the portion of the seafloor, and the

text: sedimentary depositional environment

text: , that lies below the everyday

text: wave base

text: Slowly over time sediment simply builds on this area, extending the spit outwards, forming a barrier of sand. Once in a while, the wind direction will change and come from the other direction. During this period the sediment will be pushed along in the other direction. The spit will start to grow backwards, forming a 'hook'. After this time the spit will grow again in the original direction. Eventually the spit will not be able to grow any further because it is no longer sufficiently sheltered from erosion by waves, or because the estuary current prevents sediment resting.  Usually in the salty but calm waters behind the spit there will form a salt marshland. Spits often form around the breakwater of artificial harbours requiring dredging.

text: The salt and fresh water marshes used to be very well protected. However the cost of replenishing the shingle spit grew too much for the village to sustain. Once the repairing stopped, it became easier for waves to get through; in 1953 a large storm, measured at  above ordnance datum (see North Sea flood of 1953) hit the North Norfolk coast and the shingle ridge was mostly destroyed. A further storm surge in 1978 measured  above ordnance datum and the protection measures confined flooding to the marshes and A149 coast road. The North Norfolk Shoreline Management Plan introduced by the Environment Agency has proposed a number of strategies in the light of continual erosion and predicted rising sea levels caused by global warming: these include Advance the line, Hold the line, Managed retreat and Do nothing. Even after extensive public consultation there is widespread local concern that the marshes will be lost to the North Sea.

text: The

text: salt

text: and

text: fresh water marshes

text: used to be very well protected. However the cost of replenishing the shingle spit grew too much for the village to sustain. Once the repairing stopped, it became easier for waves to get through; in 1953 a large storm, measured at  above ordnance datum (see

text: North Sea flood of 1953

text: ) hit the

text: North Norfolk

text: coast and the shingle ridge was mostly destroyed. A further storm surge in 1978 measured  above ordnance datum and the protection measures confined flooding to the marshes and A149 coast road. The North Norfolk Shoreline Management Plan introduced by the

text: Environment Agency

text: has proposed a number of strategies in the light of continual erosion and predicted rising sea levels caused by

text: global warming

text: : these include Advance the line, Hold the line, Managed retreat and Do nothing. Even after extensive public consultation there is widespread local concern that the marshes will be lost to the North Sea.

text: Glacial drift is the coarsely graded and extremely heterogeneous sediment of a glacier; till is the part of glacial drift deposited directly by the glacier. Its content may vary from clays to mixtures of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. This material is mostly derived from the subglacial erosion and entrainment by the moving ice of the glaciers of previously available unconsolidated sediments. Bedrock can also be eroded through the action of glacial plucking and abrasion and the resulting clasts of various sizes will be incorporated to the glacier's bed.

text: Glacial drift is the coarsely graded and extremely heterogeneous

text: sediment

text: of a glacier; till is the part of glacial drift deposited directly by the glacier. Its content may vary from

text: clay

text: s to mixtures of clay,

text: sand

text: gravel

text: , and

text: boulder

text: s. This material is mostly derived from the subglacial

text: erosion

text: and

text: entrainment

text: by the moving ice of the

text: glacier

text: s of previously available unconsolidated sediments. Bedrock can also be eroded through the action of glacial

text: plucking

text: and

text: abrasion

text: and the resulting

text: clasts

text: of various sizes will be incorporated to the glacier's bed.

text: Thermal subsidence can have an effect on island formation. Isostatic uplift can be balanced with thermal subsidence in response to erosion on islands without barrier reefs, which sink only when subjected to wave erosion. However, volcanic islands and seamounts with barrier reefs are shielded from wave and stream erosion, and thus the countervailing isostatic uplift is eliminated, causing them to subside and create an atoll.

text: Thermal subsidence can have an effect on island formation.

text: Isostatic uplift

text: can be balanced with thermal subsidence in response to erosion on islands without

text: barrier reefs

text: , which sink only when subjected to wave

text: erosion

text: . However,

text: volcanic islands

text: and

text: seamounts

text: with barrier reefs are shielded from wave and stream erosion, and thus the countervailing isostatic uplift is eliminated, causing them to subside and create an

text: atoll

text: One may consider this clock pulse redundant information, or at least a wasteful use of channel capacity, and duplex the channel by varying the phase, as in polar modulation, or adding another signal that is 90° out of phase (a sine wave), as in quadrature modulation. The result is to send twice as many signals over the channel, at the cost of losing the clock, and thus suffering signal degradation in case of clock drift (the analog equivalent of bit drift).

text: One may consider this clock pulse redundant information, or at least a wasteful use of channel capacity, and duplex the channel by varying the phase, as in

text: polar modulation

text: , or adding another signal that is 90° out of phase (a sine wave), as in

text: quadrature modulation

text: . The result is to send twice as many signals over the channel, at the cost of losing the clock, and thus suffering signal degradation in case of

text: clock drift

text: (the analog equivalent of bit drift).

text: Porphyry copper deposits represent an important resource and the dominant source of copper that is mined today to satisfy global demand. Via compilation of geological data, it has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are Phanerozoic in age and were emplaced at depths of approximately 1 to 6 kilometres with vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres. Throughout the Phanerozoic an estimated 125,895 porphyry copper deposits were formed; however, 62% of them (78,106) have been removed by uplift and erosion. Thus, 38% (47,789) remain in the crust, of which there are 574 known deposits that are at the surface. It is estimated that the Earth’s porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7×10 tonnes of copper.

text: Porphyry copper deposits represent an important resource and the dominant source of copper that is mined today to satisfy global demand. Via compilation of geological data, it has been found that the majority of porphyry deposits are

text: Phanerozoic

text: in age and were emplaced at depths of approximately 1 to 6 kilometres with vertical thicknesses on average of 2 kilometres. Throughout the Phanerozoic an estimated 125,895 porphyry copper deposits were formed; however, 62% of them (78,106) have been removed by uplift and erosion. Thus, 38% (47,789) remain in the crust, of which there are 574 known deposits that are at the surface. It is estimated that the Earth’s porphyry copper deposits contain approximately 1.7×10 tonnes of copper.

text: Walls of concrete or rock, built at the base of a cliff or at the back of a beach, are used to protect a settlement against erosion or flooding. They are usually about  high. Older-style vertical seawalls reflected all the energy of the waves back out to sea, and for this purpose were often given recurved crest walls which also increase the local turbulence, and thus increasing entrainment of sand and sediment. During storms, sea walls help longshore drift.

text: Beaches are dynamic geologic features that can fluctuate between advancement and retreat of sediment.  The natural agents of fluctuation include waves, tides, currents, and winds. Man-made elements such as the interruption of sediment supply, such as a dam, and withdrawal of fluid can also affect beach stabilization.  A headland bay beach can be classified as being in three different states of sedimentation.  Static equilibrium refers to a beach that is stable and does not experience littoral drift or sediment deposition or erosion.  Waves generally diffract around the headland(s) and near the beach when the beach is in a state of static equilibrium.  Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the beach sediments are deposited and eroded at approximately equal rates.  Beaches that have dynamic equilibrium are usually near a river that supplies sediment and would otherwise erode away without the river supply.  Unstable beaches are usually a result of human interaction, such as a breakwater or dammed river.  Unstable beaches are reshaped by continual erosion or deposition and will continue to erode or deposit until a state of equilibrium is reached in the bay.

text: Beaches

text: are dynamic geologic features that can fluctuate between advancement and retreat of sediment.  The natural agents of fluctuation include waves, tides, currents, and winds. Man-made elements such as the interruption of sediment supply, such as a dam, and withdrawal of fluid can also affect beach stabilization.  A headland bay beach can be classified as being in three different states of sedimentation.  Static equilibrium refers to a beach that is stable and does not experience

text: littoral drift

text: or

text: sediment deposition

text: or

text: erosion

text: .  Waves generally diffract around the headland(s) and near the beach when the beach is in a state of static equilibrium.  Dynamic equilibrium occurs when the beach sediments are deposited and eroded at approximately equal rates.  Beaches that have dynamic equilibrium are usually near a

text: river

text: that supplies sediment and would otherwise erode away without the river supply.  Unstable beaches are usually a result of human interaction, such as a breakwater or dammed river.  Unstable beaches are reshaped by continual erosion or deposition and will continue to erode or deposit until a state of equilibrium is reached in the bay.

text: Longshore drift carries particles of sediment southwards along the Lincolnshire coast; at Skegness, the sand settles out in banks which run at a slight angle to the coast. The slightly elevated dune land sheltered the small natural harbour which the Danes found behind the banks. The finer sediment drifts on to reach the mud of the Wash, beyond Gibraltar Point.

text: Longshore drift

text: carries particles of sediment southwards along the

text: Lincolnshire coast

text: ; at Skegness, the sand settles out in banks which run at a slight angle to the coast. The slightly elevated

text: dune

text: land sheltered the small natural harbour which the

text: Danes

text: found behind the banks. The finer sediment drifts on to reach the mud of

text: the Wash

text: , beyond

text: Gibraltar Point

text: Fluvial processes include the motion of sediment and erosion or deposition on the river bed.

text: Fluvial processes include the

text: motion of sediment

text: and

text: erosion

text: or

text: deposition

text: on the

text: river bed

text: During the Carboniferous period (363-290 Ma), Scotland lay close to the equator. Several changes in sea level occurred during this time. The coal deposits of Lanarkshire, and further sedimentary deposits, date from this time. More volcanic activity formed Arthur's Seat in Edinburgh, among other hills. By the Triassic, Scotland was a desert, the origin of large sandstone outcrops of the southwest. Although large deposits of Cretaceous rocks would have been laid down over Scotland, these have not survived erosion, as have the chalks of England.

text: During the

text: Carboniferous

text: period (363-290 Ma), Scotland lay close to the equator. Several changes in sea level occurred during this time. The

text: coal

text: deposits of

text: Lanarkshire

text: , and further sedimentary deposits, date from this time. More volcanic activity formed

text: Arthur's Seat

text: in

text: Edinburgh

text: , among other hills. By the

text: Triassic

text: , Scotland was a desert, the origin of large

text: sandstone

text: outcrops of the southwest. Although large deposits of

text: Cretaceous

text: rocks would have been laid down over Scotland, these have not survived erosion, as have the

text: chalk

text: s of England.

text: The behaviour of the Ouse and the conditions in its valley have been determined by its exit to the English Channel between Seaford and Newhaven. Eastwards longshore drift has built up and continuously replenished a shingle spit (shoal) at the mouth of the Ouse. In periods when the Ouse has been relatively unimpeded the river has drained the Lewes Levels. In periods when the spit has obstructed the mouth of the river, the river valley has been inundated.

text: The behaviour of the Ouse and the conditions in its valley have been determined by its exit to the

text: English Channel

text: between

text: Seaford

text: and

text: Newhaven

text: . Eastwards

text: longshore drift

text: has built up and continuously replenished a shingle spit (

text: shoal

text: ) at the mouth of the Ouse. In periods when the Ouse has been relatively unimpeded the river has drained the Lewes Levels. In periods when the spit has obstructed the mouth of the river, the river valley has been inundated.

text: The Rakaia River begins in the Southern Alps, providing approximately 4.2 Mt per year of sediment to the east coast.  It is a braided river with a catchment area of 3105 kilometres squared and a mean flow of 221 cubic metres per second.  The mouth of the Rakaia River reaches the coast south of Banks Peninsula.  As the river reaches the coast it diverges into two channels; with the main channel flowing to the south of the island.  As the hapua is located in the Canterbury Bight it is in a state of constant morphological change due to the prevailing southerly sea swells and resultant northwards longshore drift.

text: Spits occur when longshore drift reaches a section of headland where the turn is greater than 30 degrees. The spit will continue out into the sea until water pressure (e.g. from a river) becomes too great to allow the sand to deposit. Vegetation may then start to grow on the spit, and the spit may become stable and often fertile. A spit may be considered a special form of a shoal. As spits grow, the water behind them is sheltered from wind and waves, and a salt marsh is likely to develop.

text: Spits occur when

text: longshore drift

text: reaches a section of headland where the turn is greater than 30 degrees. The spit will continue out into the sea until water pressure (e.g. from a river) becomes too great to allow the sand to deposit. Vegetation may then start to grow on the spit, and the spit may become stable and often fertile. A spit may be considered a special form of a

text: shoal

text: . As spits grow, the water behind them is sheltered from wind and waves, and a

text: salt marsh

text: is likely to develop.

text: This wave has also been referred to as sustainable local economic development (SLED) because of the emphasis on local community. Although there are various definitions of sustainability or SLED, most definitions share the following principles:

text: The gradual evolution of beaches often comes from the interaction of longshore drift, a wave-driven process by which sediments move along a beach shore, and other sources of erosion or accretion, such as nearby rivers.

text: The gradual evolution of beaches often comes from the interaction of

text: longshore drift

text: , a wave-driven process by which sediments move along a beach shore, and other sources of erosion or accretion, such as nearby rivers.

text: The Mesozoic rocks terminate below another unconformity. Above that is the Love Ranch Formation of conglomerate, mudstone and sandstone, which was deposited in the Paleocene to early Eocene.  During the Eocene, a wave of arc volcanism was felt across southern New Mexico.  In the Caballo Mountains, this can be seen in the Palm Park Formation, a thick layer of andesitic or tuffaceous mudstones, sandstones, and breccia.  Next is the Bell Top Formation, which consists of rhyolite, basalt flows, and tuffaceous sandstones.  In the southern part of the Caballo Mountains, there are remnants of a region wide sheet of flood basalts and andesite, which was laid during the Oligocene.  Of similar age is the Thurman Formation of white sandstone.  The Santa Fe Group was deposited during the Miocene and Pliocene.This thick layer consists of the Hayner Ranch Formation (conglomerate, sandstone and shale), the Rincon Valley Formation (conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone), the Selden basalts, and the Camp Rice/Palomas Formations (ash fall deposits, basalts, and pumice-clast conglomerates).  Quaternary and Holocene deposits consist of alluvium. On the west side of the range along the Rio Grande, the alluvial fill consists of unconsolidated fluvial deposits of boulders, cobble, and gravel.  In the closed basin on the east side of the range, there are relatively few fluvial deposits.  Instead, the sediment includes a flat, thin veneer of sand and gravel.

text: The Mesozoic rocks terminate below another unconformity. Above that is the Love Ranch Formation of conglomerate, mudstone and sandstone, which was deposited in the

text: Paleocene

text: to early

text: Eocene

text: .  During the

text: Eocene

text: , a wave of

text: arc volcanism

text: was felt across southern New Mexico.  In the Caballo Mountains, this can be seen in the Palm Park Formation, a thick layer of

text: andesitic

text: or

text: tuffaceous

text: mudstones, sandstones, and

text: breccia

text: .  Next is the Bell Top Formation, which consists of

text: rhyolite

text: , basalt flows, and tuffaceous sandstones.  In the southern part of the Caballo Mountains, there are remnants of a region wide sheet of

text: flood basalts

text: and andesite, which was laid during the

text: Oligocene

text: .  Of similar age is the Thurman Formation of white sandstone.  The Santa Fe Group was deposited during the

text: Miocene

text: and

text: Pliocene

text: .This thick layer consists of the Hayner Ranch Formation (conglomerate, sandstone and shale), the Rincon Valley Formation (conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone), the Selden basalts, and the Camp Rice/Palomas Formations (ash fall deposits, basalts, and

text: pumice

text: -clast conglomerates).

text: Quaternary

text: and

text: Holocene

text: deposits consist of

text: alluvium

text: . On the west side of the range along the Rio Grande, the alluvial fill consists of unconsolidated

text: fluvial

text: deposits of boulders,

text: cobble

text: , and gravel.  In the closed basin on the east side of the range, there are relatively few fluvial deposits.  Instead, the sediment includes a flat, thin veneer of sand and gravel.

text: There is molecular phylogenetic evidence to suggest two waves of immigration by the Petroica genus from Australia. P. longipes and P. australis can be traced to the first and P. macrocephala to the second wave. The evidence suggests that the two species on the North and South (including Stewart) Islands of New Zealand began to diverge prior to and the two South Island subspecies after the Pleistocene era, with a separation time of about three million years for the former and of only 10,000 years (postglacial) for the latter. Fossils of New Zealand robins can sometimes be found near pit fall deposits, as they do most of their feeding/foraging on the ground. The fossil record also indicates the robins’ presence throughout lowland New Zealand until drastic habitat reduction through deforestation by the Polynesian ancestors of the Māori and later European colonizers.

text: There is molecular phylogenetic evidence to suggest two waves of immigration by the Petroica genus from Australia. P. longipes and P. australis can be traced to the first and P. macrocephala to the second wave. The evidence suggests that the two species on the North and South (including Stewart) Islands of New Zealand began to diverge prior to and the two South Island subspecies after the

text: Pleistocene

text: era, with a separation time of about three million years for the former and of only 10,000 years (postglacial) for the latter. Fossils of New Zealand robins can sometimes be found near pit fall deposits, as they do most of their feeding/foraging on the ground. The fossil record also indicates the robins’ presence throughout lowland New Zealand until drastic habitat reduction through deforestation by the

text: Polynesian

text: ancestors of the

text: Māori

text: and later European colonizers.

text: Longdendale is a steep-sided V-shaped valley that is glacial in origin. Longdendale is in the Dark Peak, where a thick blanket of peat overlies the Millstone Grit sandstone, formed on a bed of shale through which flows the Etherow. Directly beneath the upper valley lie areas of Carboniferous Millstone Grit, shales and sandstone. It is on the edge of the Peak District Dome, at the southern edge of the Pennine anticline. The Variscan uplift has caused much faulting and Glossopdale was the product of glacial action in the last glaciation period that exploited the weakened rocks. The steep-sided valleys of the cloughs cause significant erosion and deposition. The layers of sandstone, mudstones and shale in the bedrock act as an aquifer to feed the springs. The valley bottoms have a thin deposit of boulder clay. The brooks are fed by the peaty soils of the moors and are, therefore, acidic (pH5.5–7.0).

text: Longdendale is a steep-sided V-shaped valley that is

text: glacial

text: in origin. Longdendale is in the

text: Dark Peak

text: , where a thick blanket of peat overlies the

text: Millstone Grit

text: sandstone, formed on a bed of

text: shale

text: through which flows the Etherow. Directly beneath the upper valley lie areas of

text: Carboniferous

text: Millstone Grit, shales and

text: sandstone

text: . It is on the edge of the

text: Peak District

text: Dome, at the southern edge of the Pennine

text: anticline

text: . The

text: Variscan uplift

text: has caused much

text: faulting

text: and Glossopdale was the product of

text: glacial

text: action in the last glaciation period that exploited the weakened rocks. The steep-sided valleys of the

text: clough

text: s cause significant

text: erosion

text: and

text: deposition

text: . The layers of sandstone, mudstones and shale in the bedrock act as an

text: aquifer

text: to feed the springs. The valley bottoms have a thin deposit of

text: boulder clay

text: . The brooks are fed by the peaty soils of the moors and are, therefore,

text: acid

text: ic (pH5.5–7.0).

text: Kirby explains how sediment deposition through the null point hypothesis leads to the creation of chenier. Sediment fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form chenier ridges throughout the tidal zone which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore.

text: Kirby explains how sediment

text: deposition

text: through the null point hypothesis leads to the creation of chenier. Sediment fines are suspended and reworked aerially offshore leaving behind lag deposits of mainly bivalve and gastropod shells separated out from the finer substrate beneath, waves and currents then heap these deposits to form chenier ridges throughout the tidal zone which tend to be forced up the foreshore profile but also along the foreshore.

text: Tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean.

text: Tide

text: s often determine the range over which

text: sediment

text: is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deprossosition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however,

text: tidal bore

text: s can erode as the waves surge up river

text: estuaries

text: from the ocean.

text: Coastal sediment supply is the transport of sediment to the beach environment by both fluvial and aeolian transport. While aeolian transport plays a role in the overall sedimentary budget for the coastal environment, it is paled in comparison to the fluvial supply which makes up 95% of sediment entering the ocean.  When sediment reaches the coast it is then entrained by longshore drift and littoral cells until it is accreted upon the beach or dunes.

text: Coastal sediment supply is the transport of

text: sediment

text: to the

text: beach

text: environment by both

text: fluvial

text: and

text: aeolian

text: transport. While aeolian transport plays a role in the overall

text: sedimentary budget

text: for the coastal environment, it is paled in comparison to the fluvial supply which makes up 95% of sediment entering the ocean.  When sediment reaches the coast it is then entrained by

text: longshore drift

text: and littoral cells until it is accreted upon the beach or dunes.

text: Portslade has been suggested as being the Roman port Novus Portus mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography of the 2nd century AD. Drove Road, in the original Portslade Village, has been linked with the Roman road (sometimes known as the "London to Portslade Way") that passes through Patcham valley to Haywards Heath and on to Streatham in London. The Old Shoreham Road is thought to form part of the Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) to Portslade Roman road.  Roman remains and a Roman burial site were found in Roman Road. The name of the town had been thought to stem from the Roman placename Portus Adurni (modern Portchester), but this is based on a misidentification of Shoreham-by-Sea as Portus Adurni by Michael Drayton in the 17th century. Indeed, the River Adur, whose mouth has moved many times due to longshore drift and erosion, was also named from this misidentification. The actual etymology of Portslade may be portus- + -ladda, way to the port, where ladda is from the Old English for way, but this is conjectural at best.

text: Portslade has been suggested as being the

text: Roman

text: port Novus Portus mentioned in

text: Ptolemy

text: 's Geography of the 2nd century AD. Drove Road, in the original Portslade Village, has been linked with the

text: Roman road

text: (sometimes known as the "

text: London to Portslade Way

text: ") that passes through

text: Patcham

text: valley to

text: Haywards Heath

text: and on to

text: Streatham

text: in London. The Old Shoreham Road is thought to form part of the

text: Chichester

text: Noviomagus Reginorum

text: ) to Portslade Roman road.  Roman remains and a Roman burial site were found in Roman Road. The name of the town had been thought to stem from the Roman placename Portus Adurni (modern

text: Portchester

text: ), but this is based on a misidentification of Shoreham-by-Sea as Portus Adurni by

text: Michael Drayton

text: in the 17th century. Indeed, the River Adur, whose mouth has moved many times due to

text: longshore drift

text: and erosion, was also named from this misidentification. The actual etymology of Portslade may be portus- + -ladda, way to the port, where ladda is from the

text: Old English

text: for way, but this is conjectural at best.

text: Human strategies on the coast have been heavily based on a static engineered response, whereas the coast is in, or strives towards, a dynamic equilibrium (Schembri, 2009). Solid coastal structures are built and persist because they protect expensive properties or infrastructures, but they often relocate the problem downdrift or to another part of the coast. Soft options like beach nourishment, while also being temporary and needing regular replenishment, appear more acceptable, and go some way to restore the natural dynamism of the shoreline. However, in many cases there is a legacy of decisions that were made in the past which have given rise to the present threats to coastal infrastructure and which necessitate immediate shore protection. For instance, the seawall and promenade of many coastal cities in Europe represents a highly engineered use of prime seafront space, which might be preferably designated as public open space, parkland and amenities if it were available today. Such open space might also allow greater flexibility in terms of future land-use change, for instance through managed retreat, in the face of threats of erosion or inundation as a result of sea-level rise. Foredunes areas represent a natural reserve which can be called upon in the face of extreme events; building on these areas leaves little option but to undertake costly protective measures when extreme events (whether amplified by gradual global change or not) threaten. Managed retreat can comprise 'setbacks', rolling easements and other planning tools including building within a particular design life. Maintenance of those structures or soft techniques can arrive at a critical point (economically or environmental) to change adopted strategy.

text: In 1991, sea defences were built in order to protect the village and B1242 main road from intense sea erosion that had threatened it - Holderness is the most rapidly eroding coastline in Europe.  The cliffs had been eroded at a rate of between  per year on average.  The £2 million project created two large rock groynes to trap materials that are carried in the waves during longshore drift as well as revetments to break the waves. In order to protect the cliffs from undercutting, their gradient was also reduced artificially.

text: In 1991, sea defences were built in order to protect the village and

entity_name: B roads in Zone 1 of the Great Britain numbering scheme

text: B1242 main road

text: from intense sea

text: erosion

text: that had threatened it - Holderness is the most rapidly eroding coastline in Europe.  The

text: cliffs

text: had been eroded at a rate of between  per year on average.  The £2 million project created two large

text: rock groynes

text: to trap materials that are carried in the waves during

text: longshore drift

text: as well as

text: revetment

text: s to break the waves. In order to protect the cliffs from undercutting, their gradient was also reduced artificially.

text: However, a wave like this with definite wavelength is not localized in space, and so cannot represent a particle localized in space. To localize a particle, de Broglie proposed a superposition of different wavelengths ranging around a central value in a wave packet, a waveform often used in quantum mechanics to describe the wave function of a particle. In a wave packet, the wavelength of the particle is not precise, and the local wavelength deviates on either side of the main wavelength value.

text: However, a wave like this with definite wavelength is not localized in space, and so cannot represent a particle localized in space. To localize a particle, de Broglie proposed a superposition of different wavelengths ranging around a central value in a

text: wave packet

text: , a waveform often used in

text: quantum mechanics

text: to describe the

text: wave function

text: of a particle. In a wave packet, the wavelength of the particle is not precise, and the local wavelength deviates on either side of the main wavelength value.

text: Authorizes the Secretary to study shoreline protection and beach erosion control policy and related projects in view of the prospect for long-term increases in the levels of the ocean.

text: As all dams result in reduced sediment load downstream, a dammed river is said to be "hungry" for sediment. Because the rate of deposition of sediment is greatly reduced since there is less to deposit but the rate of erosion remains nearly constant, the water flow erodes the river shores and riverbed, threatening shoreline ecosystems, deepening the riverbed, and narrowing the river over time. This leads to a compromised water table, reduced water levels, homogenization of the river flow and thus reduced ecosystem variability, reduced support for wildlife, and reduced amount of sediment reaching coastal plains and deltas. This prompts coastal erosion, as beaches are unable to replenish what waves erode without the sediment deposition of supporting river systems. Downsteam channel erosion of dammed rivers is related to the morphology of the riverbed, which is different from directly studying the amounts of sedimentation because it is subject to specific long term conditions for each river system. For example, the eroded channel could create a lower water table level in the affected area, impacting bottomland crops such as alfalfa or corn, and resulting in a smaller supply.In the case of the Three Gorges Dam in China the changes described above now appears to have arrived at a new balance of erosion and sedimentation over a 10-year period in the lower reaches of the river. The impacts on the tidal region have also been linked to the upstream effects of the dam.

text: As all dams result in reduced sediment load downstream, a dammed river is said to be "hungry" for sediment. Because the rate of deposition of sediment is greatly reduced since there is less to deposit but the rate of erosion remains nearly constant, the water flow erodes the river shores and riverbed, threatening shoreline ecosystems, deepening the riverbed, and narrowing the river over time. This leads to a compromised water table, reduced water levels, homogenization of the river flow and thus reduced ecosystem variability, reduced support for wildlife, and reduced amount of sediment reaching coastal plains and deltas. This prompts coastal erosion, as beaches are unable to replenish what waves erode without the sediment deposition of supporting river systems. Downsteam channel erosion of dammed rivers is related to the morphology of the riverbed, which is different from directly studying the amounts of sedimentation because it is subject to specific long term conditions for each river system. For example, the eroded channel could create a lower water table level in the affected area, impacting bottomland crops such as

text: alfalfa

text: or

text: corn

text: , and resulting in a smaller supply.In the case of the Three Gorges Dam in China the changes described above now appears to have arrived at a new balance of erosion and sedimentation over a 10-year period in the lower reaches of the river. The impacts on the tidal region have also been linked to the upstream effects of the dam.

text: Wave-cut platforms form when destructive waves hit against the cliff face, causing undercutting between the high and low water marks, mainly as a result of corrosion and hydraulic power, creating a wave-cut notch. This notch then enlarges into a cave. The waves undermine this portion until the roof of the cave cannot hold due to the pressure and freeze-thaw weathering acting on it, and collapses, resulting in the cliff retreating landward. The base of the cave forms the wave-cut platform as attrition causes the collapsed material to be broken down into smaller pieces, while some cliff material may be washed into the sea. This may be deposited at the end of the platform, forming an off-shore terrace.

text: Wave-cut platforms form when destructive waves hit against the cliff face, causing undercutting between the high and low water marks, mainly as a result of

text: corrosion

text: and

text: hydraulic power

text: , creating a wave-cut notch. This notch then enlarges into a cave. The waves undermine this portion until the roof of the cave cannot hold due to the pressure and freeze-thaw weathering acting on it, and collapses, resulting in the cliff retreating landward. The base of the cave forms the wave-cut platform as

text: attrition

text: causes the collapsed material to be broken down into smaller pieces, while some cliff material may be washed into the sea. This may be deposited at the end of the platform, forming an off-shore terrace.

text: It is hypothesised that the impact of the Tauredunum landslide destabilised sedimentary deposits at the mouth of the Rhône, causing their collapse and triggering a large tsunami. According to computer simulations, a wave up to  high would have been created by the collapse and would have travelled the full length of the lake within 70 minutes of the event. It would have struck Lausanne within only 15 minutes, where it would have been about  high, though the damage there would have been limited as the city stands on a steeply sloping shoreline. Much greater damage would have been caused at Geneva, where the wave would have been about . A wave this high would certainly have been capable of causing the destruction described by the chroniclers. Other towns along the lakeside would also have been hit by the wave, which would have been about  high at Evian-les-Bains,  high at Thonon-les-Bains and  high at Nyon. It would have travelled at about , giving those on the shoreline little time to flee.

text: It is hypothesised that the impact of the Tauredunum landslide destabilised sedimentary deposits at the mouth of the Rhône, causing their collapse and triggering a large tsunami. According to computer simulations, a wave up to  high would have been created by the collapse and would have travelled the full length of the lake within 70 minutes of the event. It would have struck

text: Lausanne

text: within only 15 minutes, where it would have been about  high, though the damage there would have been limited as the city stands on a steeply sloping shoreline. Much greater damage would have been caused at Geneva, where the wave would have been about . A wave this high would certainly have been capable of causing the destruction described by the chroniclers. Other towns along the lakeside would also have been hit by the wave, which would have been about  high at

text: Evian-les-Bains

text: ,  high at

text: Thonon-les-Bains

text: and  high at

text: Nyon

text: . It would have travelled at about , giving those on the shoreline little time to flee.

text: The units of the amplitude depend on the type of wave. Transverse mechanical waves (e.g., a wave on a string) have an amplitude expressed as a distance (e.g., meters), longitudinal mechanical waves (e.g., sound waves) use units of pressure (e.g., pascals), and electromagnetic waves (a form of transverse vacuum wave) express the amplitude in terms of its electric field (e.g., volts/meter).

text: The units of the amplitude depend on the type of wave. Transverse mechanical waves (e.g., a wave on a string) have an amplitude expressed as a

text: distance

text: (e.g., meters), longitudinal mechanical waves (e.g., sound waves) use units of pressure (e.g., pascals), and electromagnetic waves (a form of transverse vacuum wave) express the amplitude in terms of its

text: electric field

text: (e.g., volts/meter).

text: In areas where the wave height has been increased, the wave now has more power and so can erode more and in areas where the wave height has been decreased, the wave now has less power and so will not erode as much.  This is what forms the cusps as the areas with high erosion become the embayments of the cusp and the areas with low erosion become the horns.

text: Also known as riprap, rock armour are large rocks piled or placed at the foot of dunes or cliffs with native stones of the beach. This is generally used in areas prone to erosion to absorb the wave energy and hold beach material. Although effective, this solution is unpopular due to the fact that it is unsightly. Also, longshore drift is not hindered. Rock armour has a limited lifespan, it is not effective in storm conditions, and it reduces the recreational value of a beach. The cost is around £3000 per metre, depending on the type of rocks used.

text: A primary example of hydraulic action is a wave striking a cliff face which compresses the air in cracks of the rocks.  This exerts pressure on the surrounding rock which can progressively crack, break, splinter and detach rock particles.  This is followed by the decompression of the air as the wave retreats which can occur suddenly with explosive force which additionally weakens the rock.  Cracks are gradually widened so each wave compresses more air, increasing the explosive force of its release.  Thus, the effect intensifies in a 'positive feedback' system.  Over time, as the cracks may grow they sometimes form a sea cave.  The broken pieces that fall off produce two additional types of erosion, abrasion (sandpapering) and attrition.  In corrasion, the newly formed chunks are thrown against the rock face.  Attrition is a similar effect caused by eroded particles after they fall to the sea bed where they are subjected to further wave action.  In coastal areas wave hydraulic action is often the most important form of erosion.

text: A primary example of hydraulic action is a

text: wave

text: striking a cliff face which compresses the air in cracks of the rocks.  This exerts pressure on the surrounding rock which can progressively crack, break, splinter and detach rock particles.  This is followed by the decompression of the air as the wave retreats which can occur suddenly with explosive force which additionally weakens the rock.  Cracks are gradually widened so each wave compresses more air, increasing the explosive force of its release.  Thus, the effect intensifies in a '

text: positive feedback

text: ' system.  Over time, as the cracks may grow they sometimes form a

text: sea cave

text: .  The broken pieces that fall off produce two additional types of erosion, abrasion (sandpapering) and attrition.  In

text: corrasion

text: , the newly formed chunks are thrown against the rock face.  Attrition is a similar effect caused by eroded particles after they fall to the sea bed where they are subjected to further wave action.  In coastal areas wave hydraulic action is often the most important form of erosion.

text: Modifies or reauthorizes projects for flood control, navigation, habitat restoration, water supply, shoreline protection, shore protection and harbor mitigation, beach erosion control, storm damage reduction and shoreline erosion protection, recreation, pedestrian access features, hurricane protection, levees, environmental infrastructure, mitigation of fish and wildlife losses, watersheds, canal system restoration, environmental restoration, and rediversion in Alabama and Mississippi, Alaska, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas, California, Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, the District of Columbia, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, and West Virginia and Pennsylvania.

text: Rhu is a base for yachting.  It includes a point, just opposite another point near Rosneath, which forms what is known as either the "Rhu Narrows" or the "Rosneath Narrows" at the mouth of the Gare Loch. Locals call it the "spit" (they say that before dredging it was possible to do this across the water). The loch would have been cut off and a lagoon formed if the "longshore drift" was allowed to occur naturally. Groynes prevent this from happening.

text: Rhu is a base for

text: yachting

text: .  It includes a point, just opposite another point near

text: Rosneath

text: , which forms what is known as either the "Rhu Narrows" or the "Rosneath Narrows" at the mouth of the

text: Gare Loch

text: . Locals call it the "spit" (they say that before dredging it was possible to do this across the water). The loch would have been cut off and a lagoon formed if the "

text: longshore drift

text: " was allowed to occur naturally.

text: Groyne

text: s prevent this from happening.

text: It is not possible in practice to have a true plane wave because it would have to fill all space; only a plane wave of infinite extent will propagate as a plane wave.  However, many waves are approximately plane waves in a localized region of space. For example, a localized source such as an antenna produces a field that is approximately a plane wave far from the antenna in its far-field region.   Similarly, if the length scales are much longer than the wave’s wavelength, as is often the case for light in the field of optics, one can treat the waves as light rays which correspond locally to plane waves.__TOC__

text: It is not possible in practice to have a true plane wave because it would have to fill all space; only a plane wave of infinite extent will propagate as a plane wave.  However, many

text: wave

text: s are approximately plane waves in a localized region of space. For example, a localized source such as an

text: antenna

text: produces a field that is approximately a plane wave far from the antenna in its

text: far-field region

text: .   Similarly, if the

text: length scale

text: s are much longer than the wave’s wavelength, as is often the case for light in the field of

text: optics

text: , one can treat the waves as

text: light rays

text: which correspond locally to plane waves.__TOC__

text: The fossil-bearing deposits of the Burgess Shale correlate to the Stephen formation, a collection of slightly calcareous dark mudstones, about  old. The beds were deposited at the base of a cliff about 160 m tall, below the depth agitated by waves during storms. This vertical cliff was composed of the calcareous reefs of the Cathedral Formation, which probably formed shortly before the deposition of the Burgess Shale. The precise formation mechanism is not known for certain, but the most widely accepted hypothesis suggests that the edge of the Cathedral Formation reef became detached from the rest of the reef, slumping and being transported some distance — perhaps kilometers — away from the reef edge. Later reactivation of faults at the base of the formation led to its disintegration from about . This would have left a steep cliff, the bottom of which would be protected from tectonic decompression because the limestone of the Cathedral Formation is difficult to compress. This protection explains why fossils preserved further from the Cathedral Formation are impossible to work with — tectonic squeezing of the beds has produced a vertical cleavage that fractures the rocks, so they split perpendicular to the fossils. The Walcott quarry produced such spectacular fossils because it was so close to the Stephen Formation — indeed the quarry has now been excavated to the very edge of the Cambrian cliff.

text: The fossil-bearing deposits of the Burgess Shale correlate to the

text: Stephen formation

text: , a collection of slightly calcareous dark mudstones, about  old. The beds were deposited at the base of a cliff about 160 m tall, below the depth agitated by waves during storms. This vertical cliff was composed of the calcareous reefs of the

text: Cathedral Formation

text: , which probably formed shortly before the deposition of the Burgess Shale. The precise formation mechanism is not known for certain, but the most widely accepted hypothesis suggests that the edge of the Cathedral Formation reef became detached from the rest of the reef, slumping and being transported some distance — perhaps kilometers — away from the reef edge. Later reactivation of faults at the base of the formation led to its disintegration from about . This would have left a steep cliff, the bottom of which would be protected from tectonic decompression because the limestone of the Cathedral Formation is difficult to compress. This protection explains why fossils preserved further from the Cathedral Formation are impossible to work with — tectonic squeezing of the beds has produced a vertical cleavage that fractures the rocks, so they split perpendicular to the fossils. The Walcott quarry produced such spectacular fossils because it was so close to the Stephen Formation — indeed the quarry has now been excavated to the very edge of the Cambrian cliff.

text: The effect that waves have depends on their strength. Strong waves, also called destructive waves, occur on high-energy beaches and are typical of winter. They reduce the quantity of sediment present on the beach by carrying it out to bars under the sea. Constructive, weak waves are typical of low-energy beaches and occur most during summer. They do the opposite to destructive waves and increase the size of the beach by piling sediment up onto the berm.

text: Allchar deposit (alternative spellings Alsar deposit, Alšar deposit or Alshar deposit) is a low-temperature hydrothermal gold–arsenic–antimony–thallium deposit in Kavadarci Municipality, southern Macedonia. For some time, the thallium-rich part of the deposit was mined. The Crven Dol mine yielded thallium and the ore body still holds estimated amount of 500 t of thallium. The mineral lorandite from this ore deposit is being used to determine the solar neutrino flux.

text: Allchar deposit (alternative spellings Alsar deposit, Alšar deposit or Alshar deposit) is a low-temperature

text: hydrothermal

text: gold

text: arsenic

text: antimony

text: thallium

text: deposit

text: in

text: Kavadarci Municipality

text: , southern

text: Macedonia

text: . For some time, the thallium-rich part of the deposit was mined. The Crven Dol mine yielded

text: thallium

text: and the ore body still holds estimated amount of 500 t of thallium. The mineral

text: lorandite

text: from this ore deposit is being used to determine the

text: solar neutrino

text: flux.

text: The debate involving how cuspate forelands form is ongoing.  However, the most widely accepted process of formation involves long shore drift. Where longshore drift occurs in opposite directions, two spits merge into a triangular protrusion along a coastline or lakeshore. Their formation is also dependent on dominant and prevailing winds working in opposite directions. Formation can also occur when waves are diffracted around a barrier.

text: The debate involving how cuspate forelands form is ongoing.  However, the most widely accepted process of formation involves

text: long shore drift

text: . Where longshore drift occurs in opposite directions, two

text: spit

text: s merge into a triangular protrusion along a coastline or lakeshore. Their formation is also dependent on dominant and prevailing winds working in opposite directions. Formation can also occur when waves are

text: diffract

text: ed around a barrier.

text: The remaining ecological zones, with their progression from shoreline to climax forest, are a classic illustration of the concept of ecological succession. Much of this progression is due to the changing nature of Presque Isle and its shifting shoreline and dunes. The shoreline, the second zone, is formed by wave action and is in equilibrium between erosion and deposition, with the initial plants stabilizing the sand of the new shoreline. The newly formed sandy plain and the ponds formed in it are the third zone. The ponds start as trapped pockets of lake water and can erode away or be filled by wind-blown sand or drifting dunes. The new ponds provide habitat for plants and animals: for example, the state park is home to 89 species of Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) and Lepidoptera, including 35 different butterflies, as well as 84 different sorts of spiders.

text: The remaining ecological zones, with their progression from shoreline to climax forest, are a classic illustration of the concept of

text: ecological succession

text: . Much of this progression is due to the changing nature of Presque Isle and its shifting shoreline and dunes. The shoreline, the second zone, is formed by wave action and is in equilibrium between erosion and deposition, with the initial plants stabilizing the sand of the new shoreline. The newly formed sandy plain and the ponds formed in it are the third zone. The ponds start as trapped pockets of lake water and can erode away or be filled by wind-blown sand or drifting dunes. The new ponds provide habitat for plants and animals: for example, the state park is home to 89 species of

text: Odonata

text: (dragonflies and damselflies) and

text: Lepidoptera

text: , including 35 different butterflies, as well as 84 different sorts of spiders.

text: Currently, Regions is the largest deposit holder in Alabama, with $22.8 billion in local deposits, or 25.7% of all local deposits. In Tennessee, Regions is also the largest deposit holder with $17.3 billion in total deposits, or 14.1% of all local deposits. Regions has $4 billion in deposits (7.5% of local deposits) in Arkansas, $7.2 billion in deposits (7.6% of local deposits) in Louisiana, $6.6 billion in deposits (13.8% of local deposits) in Mississippi, and $19.1 billion in deposits (4.2% of local deposits) in Florida.

text: Currently, Regions is the largest deposit holder in Alabama, with $22.8 billion in local deposits, or 25.7% of all local deposits. In

text: Tennessee

text: , Regions is also the largest deposit holder with $17.3 billion in total deposits, or 14.1% of all local deposits. Regions has $4 billion in deposits (7.5% of local deposits) in

text: Arkansas

text: , $7.2 billion in deposits (7.6% of local deposits) in

text: Louisiana

text: , $6.6 billion in deposits (13.8% of local deposits) in

text: Mississippi

text: , and $19.1 billion in deposits (4.2% of local deposits) in

text: Florida

text: The structuring of tidal inlets is also important for longshore drift as if an inlet is unstructured sediment may by pass the inlet and form bars at the down-drift part of the coast. Although this may also depend on the inlet size, delta morphology, sediment rate and by passing mechanism. Channel location variance and amount may also influence the impact of long shore drift on a tidal inlet as well.

text: The structuring of tidal inlets is also important for longshore drift as if an inlet is unstructured sediment may by pass the inlet and form bars at the down-drift part of the coast. Although this may also depend on the inlet size, delta

text: morphology

text: , sediment rate and by passing mechanism.

text: Channel

text: location variance and amount may also influence the impact of long shore drift on a tidal inlet as well.

text: The Omer Rains Bike Trail lies outside the fairgrounds fence running along the beach and river levee. Connecting the San Buenaventura State Beach downcoast and Emma Wood State Beach upcoasy, the path is on the Pacific Coast Bicycle Route and also serves as an access point for California Coastal Trail. In 2011, the path was moved inland as part of a managed retreat project, a first of its kind in California. Initially fair officials wanted a buried sea wall to protect the bike path that had been damaged since it was built in 1989. Surfers fiercely objected, fearing that this would destroy the point break near the Ventura River that generates the distinctive waves at Surfers' Point at Seaside Park, the city park area. Environmentalists projected reduced habitat and increased erosion rates on nearby beaches by the altered wave patterns.

text: The

text: Omer Rains

text: Bike Trail lies outside the fairgrounds fence running along the beach and river

text: levee

text: . Connecting the

text: San Buenaventura State Beach

text: downcoast and

text: Emma Wood State Beach

text: upcoasy, the path is on the Pacific Coast Bicycle Route and also serves as an access point for

text: California Coastal Trail

text: . In 2011, the path was moved inland as part of a

text: managed retreat

text: project, a first of its kind in California. Initially fair officials wanted a buried sea wall to protect the bike path that had been damaged since it was built in 1989. Surfers fiercely objected, fearing that this would destroy the point break near the Ventura River that generates the distinctive waves at Surfers' Point at Seaside Park, the city park area. Environmentalists projected reduced habitat and increased erosion rates on nearby beaches by the altered wave patterns.

text: Heavy rain from the developing storm contributed to significant flooding in South Carolina. Much of the rest of the East Coast was affected by high winds, coastal flooding, and beach erosion. New York State and New England bore the brunt of the storm; damage was extensive on Long Island, and in Connecticut, 130,000 households lost electric power during the storm. Widespread damage and power outages also occurred throughout Rhode Island and Massachusetts, where the storm generated  waves along the coast. Because of the warm weather pattern that contributed to the storm's development, precipitation was limited to rain. Two people were killed, and damage amounted to at least $21 million.

text: Heavy rain from the developing storm contributed to significant flooding in

text: South Carolina

text: . Much of the rest of the East Coast was affected by high winds, coastal flooding, and

text: beach erosion

text: New York

text: State and

text: New England

text: bore the brunt of the storm; damage was extensive on

text: Long Island

text: , and in

text: Connecticut

text: , 130,000 households lost electric power during the storm. Widespread damage and power outages also occurred throughout

text: Rhode Island

text: and

text: Massachusetts

text: , where the storm generated  waves along the coast. Because of the warm weather pattern that contributed to the storm's development, precipitation was limited to rain. Two people were killed, and damage amounted to at least $21 million.

text: Long (1993) recognises three lithofacies in the Burgsvik beds; a poorly exposed silty/sandy mudstone facies dominant in the lower beds, appearing as interbeds in the middle beds; a fine to very fine sandstone; and a "biofacies" consisting of ooids, oncolites and bioclasts.  He challenges three interpretations of the sub-aerial sandstone facies. Contrary to Gray et al.s (1974) tidal mud flat interpretation, Long surmises that it may represent locally emergent offshore bars, near-shore sands or beach deposits.  Tides cannot be a dominant factor, as cross-stratification is abundant; storm beds, recognised by hummocky cross-stratification, are also common, suggesting that storms were important in shaping the landscape. Irregularly aligned prod and scour marks on the sea floor shows that waves also played a role.  The most favourable conclusion appears to be that the facies represents a shoaling sequence — the migration of sand wave complexes, detached offshore bars (Swift & Field 1981, Brenner et al.. 1985) or isolated mid-shelf bars (La Fon 1981).

text: Long (1993) recognises three lithofacies in the Burgsvik beds; a poorly exposed silty/sandy mudstone

text: facies

text: dominant in the lower beds, appearing as interbeds in the middle beds; a fine to very fine sandstone; and a "biofacies" consisting of

text: ooid

text: s,

text: oncolite

text: s and

text: bioclast

text: s.  He challenges three interpretations of the sub-aerial sandstone facies. Contrary to Gray et al.s (1974) tidal mud flat interpretation, Long surmises that it may represent locally emergent offshore bars, near-shore sands or beach deposits.  Tides cannot be a dominant factor, as cross-stratification is abundant; storm beds, recognised by

text: hummocky cross-stratification

text: , are also common, suggesting that storms were important in shaping the landscape. Irregularly aligned prod and scour marks on the sea floor shows that waves also played a role.  The most favourable conclusion appears to be that the facies represents a shoaling sequence — the migration of sand wave complexes, detached offshore bars (Swift & Field 1981, Brenner et al.. 1985) or isolated mid-shelf bars (La Fon 1981).

text: Prediction of erosion by turbidity currents, and of the distribution of turbidite deposits, such as their extent, thickness and grain size distribution, requires an understanding of the mechanisms of sediment transport and deposition, which in turn depends on the fluid dynamics of the currents.

text: Prediction

text: of

text: erosion

text: by turbidity currents, and of the distribution of

text: turbidite

text: deposits, such as their extent, thickness and grain size distribution, requires an understanding of the mechanisms of

text: sediment transport

text: and

text: deposition

text: , which in turn depends on the

text: fluid dynamics

text: of the currents.

text: Eocene:  coastline switched from concave to convexly curvilinear, resulting in longshore drift causing wave-dominated sedimentation.

text: Eocene:  coastline switched from concave to convexly curvilinear, resulting in

text: longshore drift

text: causing wave-dominated sedimentation.

text: The term "New Wave" did not meet with universal approval among those who were regarded as part of it.  Brian Aldiss, for example, wrote to Judith Merril in 1966 that he suspected the term was "a journalistic invention of yours and Mike Moorcock's", and added "I feel I am no part of the New Wave; I was here before 'em, and by God I mean to be here after they've gone (still writing bloody science fiction)!"  Merril was a key advocate for the New Wave, and popularized it in her anthology England Swings SF, which appeared in 1968; she spent almost a year in London, living near Moorcock, when researching the anthology in 1966–1967.  Merril and writer Christopher Priest were among those who used the term "New Wave" to describe the work being done in New Worlds, but Aldiss was not the only writer to object to the term, and it never received a generally accepted definition.  Critic Brian Attebery characterizes it as a "disruptive, existentially fraught and formally daring" style; Peter Nicholls hesitates to define it but comments that "perhaps the fundamental element was the belief that sf could and should be taken seriously as literature".  In a 1967 interview, Ballard, one of the writers most closely associated with the New Wave, described modern U.S. sf as extrovert and optimistic, and contrasted it with "the new science fiction, that other people apart from myself are now beginning to write", which he saw as "introverted, possibly pessimistic rather than optimistic, much less certain of its own territory."

text: Actions on Beach Protection: With hurricanes being prevalent along the coast of NC, The dune lines prevent overwash and cause erosion. Furthermore, this prevents the marsh and estuaries from getting the nutrients and sand deposits it needs to survive. NCCF continuously supports safeguards along NC's coastal beaches and islands. One example of such an action is NCCF's partnership with NOAA and other environmental organizations to design and implement the Jokey's Ridge Living Shoreline and Oyster Reef Restoration Project in the Outer Banks of NC.

text: Actions on Beach Protection: With hurricanes being prevalent along the coast of NC, The dune lines prevent overwash and cause erosion. Furthermore, this prevents the marsh and estuaries from getting the nutrients and sand deposits it needs to survive. NCCF continuously supports safeguards along NC's coastal beaches and islands. One example of such an action is NCCF's partnership with NOAA and other environmental organizations to design and implement the Jokey's Ridge Living Shoreline and

text: Oyster Reef Restoration

text: Project in the

text: Outer Banks

text: of NC.

text: The fort is in danger of collapse, mainly due to coastal erosion and wave action which were only made worse with the building of the Delimara Power Station and the breakwater of the Malta Freeport nearby. Parts of the nearby cliff face have already collapsed. No plans have been made for the restoration of the fort, mainly due to a lack of funds. Din l-Art Ħelwa said that restoration would cost millions of euros and take about 10 years.

text: The fort is in danger of collapse, mainly due to coastal erosion and wave action which were only made worse with the building of the Delimara Power Station and the breakwater of the

text: Malta Freeport

text: nearby. Parts of the nearby cliff face have already collapsed. No plans have been made for the restoration of the fort, mainly due to a lack of funds.

text: Din l-Art Ħelwa

text: said that restoration would cost millions of euros and take about 10 years.

text: Above the Pre-Neogene sequence lies a major unconformity, overlain by early Miocene rocks. This unconformity is the result of the area being subjected to subaerial erosion, but then was followed by a marine transgression, which deposited the overlaying Miocene rocks. This transgression originally deposited near-shore sands, followed by shallow water siltstones. Towards the middle Miocene, the region developed into a carbonate shelf, and these carbonates make up the rest of this sequence. During the late Miocene, these carbonates were buried by large quantities of clastic sediments originating from the uplift of Sumatra during this time. These sediments deposited faster than the rate of subsidence in the region, creating a continental shelf and slope in the west of the basin. The newly formed continental slope deposited turbidites over the early-middle Miocene sediment that the shelf did not cover. This Sequence is about 1000 meters thick. After the middle Miocene, there lies an unconformity which represents a ~10 million year depositional hiatus.

text: Above the Pre-

text: Neogene

text: sequence lies a major

text: unconformity

text: , overlain by early

text: Miocene

text: rocks. This unconformity is the result of the area being subjected to subaerial erosion, but then was followed by a marine

text: transgression

text: , which deposited the overlaying

text: Miocene

text: rocks. This transgression originally deposited near-shore sands, followed by shallow water

text: siltstones

text: . Towards the middle

text: Miocene

text: , the region developed into a carbonate shelf, and these carbonates make up the rest of this sequence. During the late

text: Miocene

text: , these carbonates were buried by large quantities of clastic sediments originating from the uplift of

text: Sumatra

text: during this time. These sediments deposited faster than the rate of

text: subsidence

text: in the region, creating a

text: continental shelf

text: and slope in the west of the basin. The newly formed continental slope deposited

text: turbidites

text: over the early-middle

text: Miocene

text: sediment that the shelf did not cover. This Sequence is about 1000 meters thick. After the middle Miocene, there lies an unconformity which represents a ~10 million year depositional hiatus.

text: For non-linear surface waves there is, in general, ambiguity in splitting the total motion into a wave part and a mean part. As a consequence, there is some freedom in choosing the phase speed (celerity) of the wave.  identified two logical definitions of phase speed, known as Stokes' first and second definition of wave celerity:

text: For non-linear surface waves there is, in general, ambiguity in splitting the total motion into a wave part and a

text: mean

text: part. As a consequence, there is some freedom in choosing the phase speed (celerity) of the wave.  identified two logical definitions of phase speed, known as Stokes' first and second definition of wave celerity:

text: The area where the holotype was discovered was part of the Casselman Formation of the Conemaugh Group. In North American Carboniferous stratigraphy, these strata are early Virgilian in age. According to ICS standards, they are Gzhelian in age. The skull itself was found lying near the base of a road cut that exposes the lower part of the Casselman Formation. The Casselman Formation overlies the Ames Limestone, which represents the last marine submergence of the Appalachian Basin. The earliest portions of the Casselman Formation, consisting of sandstones and siltstones, are overbank levee deposits that were formed at the shoreline of the retreating Ames Sea. Overlying these deposits is the Grafton Sandstone, a cross-bedded channel-phase sandstone deposited by a meandering river. Above the sandstone lies the Birmingham Shale, which includes fine-grained siltstone and shale overbank deposits. A thick paleosol is present at the top of the Birmingham Shale, and it is capped by limestone that is of freshwater lacustrine (lake) origin.

text: The area where the holotype was discovered was part of the

text: Casselman Formation

text: of the

text: Conemaugh Group

text: . In North American Carboniferous stratigraphy, these strata are early Virgilian in age. According to

entity_name: International Commission on Stratigraphy

text: ICS

text: standards, they are

text: Gzhelian

text: in age. The skull itself was found lying near the base of a road cut that exposes the lower part of the Casselman Formation. The Casselman Formation overlies the Ames Limestone, which represents the last marine submergence of the

text: Appalachian Basin

text: . The earliest portions of the Casselman Formation, consisting of

text: sandstone

text: s and

text: siltstone

text: s, are overbank

text: levee

text: deposits that were formed at the shoreline of the retreating Ames Sea. Overlying these deposits is the Grafton Sandstone, a

text: cross-bedded

text: channel-phase sandstone deposited by a meandering river. Above the sandstone lies the Birmingham Shale, which includes fine-grained siltstone and

text: shale

text: overbank deposits. A thick

text: paleosol

text: is present at the top of the Birmingham Shale, and it is capped by

text: limestone

text: that is of freshwater

text: lacustrine

text: (lake) origin.

text: There are two types of body waves, Pressure waves or Primary waves (P-waves) and Shear or Secondary waves (S-waves). P-waves are longitudinal waves that involve compression and expansion in the direction that the wave is moving and are always the first waves to appear on a seismogram as they are the fastest moving waves through solids. S-waves are transverse waves that move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. S-waves are slower than P-waves. Therefore, they appear later than P-waves on a seismogram. Fluids cannot support perpendicular motion, so S-waves only travel in solids.

text: There are two types of body waves, Pressure waves or Primary waves (

text: P-wave

text: s) and

text: Shear

text: or Secondary waves (

text: S-wave

text: s).

text: P-wave

text: s are

text: longitudinal wave

text: s that involve

text: compression

text: and

text: expansion

text: in the direction that the wave is moving and are always the first waves to appear on a

text: seismogram

text: as they are the fastest moving waves through solids.

text: S-waves

text: are

text: transverse wave

text: s that move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. S-waves are slower than P-waves. Therefore, they appear later than P-waves on a seismogram. Fluids cannot support perpendicular motion, so S-waves only travel in solids.

text: Weather buoys, like other types of weather stations, measure parameters such as air temperature above the ocean surface, wind speed (steady and gusting), barometric pressure, and wind direction.  Since they lie in oceans and lakes, they also measure water temperature, wave height, and dominant wave period.  Raw data is processed and can be logged on board the buoy and then transmitted via radio, cellular, or satellite communications to meteorological centers for use in weather forecasting and climate study.  Both moored buoys and drifting buoys (drifting in the open ocean currents) are used.  Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of .  Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies.  These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution.  Other than their use as a source of meteorological data, their data is used within research programs, emergency response to chemical spills, legal proceedings, and engineering design. Moored weather buoys can also act as a navigational aid, like other types of buoys.

text: Weather buoys, like other types of weather stations, measure parameters such as

text: air temperature

text: above the ocean surface,

text: wind

text: speed (steady and gusting),

text: barometric pressure

text: , and wind direction.  Since they lie in oceans and lakes, they also measure

text: water

text: temperature,

text: wave height

text: , and dominant

text: wave period

text: .  Raw data is processed and can be logged on board the buoy and then transmitted via radio, cellular, or

text: satellite communications

text: to

text: meteorological

text: centers for use in weather forecasting and climate study.  Both moored buoys and drifting buoys (drifting in the open ocean currents) are used.  Fixed buoys measure the water temperature at a depth of .  Many different drifting buoys exist around the world that vary in design and the location of reliable temperature sensors varies.  These measurements are beamed to satellites for automated and immediate data distribution.  Other than their use as a source of meteorological data, their data is used within research programs, emergency response to chemical spills, legal proceedings, and engineering design. Moored weather buoys can also act as a navigational aid, like other types of buoys.

text: Yet Catholicism considered dead for a long time experienced remarkable revival. The underground missionaries from Goa like Saint Joseph Vaz worked in Jaffna, Kandy, St. Anne Talawila- Puttalam and laid the foundation towards a national Catholic church in Ceylon. Saint Joseph Vaz was imprisoned by false accusation of Huguenots (Calvinist) of being a Portuguese spy and he used that time in prison to learn Sinhala language.  In 1693, Saint Joseph Vaz as a prisoner in Kandy performed a miracle of rain during a severe drought and the King of Kandy in exchange released him and offered him protection and the freedom to preach the Gospel in the Kingdom of Kandy. In a similar incident, fishermen protecting and refusing to hand over Fr. Antonio to Dutch pursuers were expecting Fr. Antonio to prevent sea erosion. Fr Antonio planted a cross at the location most threatened by sea waves and on the third day waves receded and protective sand bank surfaced. The Dutch witnessing the miracle, allowed Fr Antonia to live there and built a church that is now St Anthony’s Shrine, Kochchikade.

text: Yet Catholicism considered dead for a long time experienced remarkable revival. The underground missionaries from Goa like Saint

text: Joseph Vaz

text: worked in Jaffna, Kandy, St. Anne Talawila- Puttalam and laid the foundation towards a national Catholic church in Ceylon. Saint Joseph Vaz was imprisoned by false accusation of Huguenots (Calvinist) of being a Portuguese spy and he used that time in prison to learn

text: Sinhala language

text: .  In 1693, Saint Joseph Vaz as a prisoner in Kandy performed a miracle of rain during a severe drought and the King of Kandy in exchange released him and offered him protection and the freedom to preach the Gospel in the

text: Kingdom of Kandy

text: . In a similar incident, fishermen protecting and refusing to hand over Fr. Antonio to Dutch pursuers were expecting Fr. Antonio to prevent sea erosion. Fr Antonio planted a cross at the location most threatened by sea waves and on the third day waves receded and protective sand bank surfaced. The Dutch witnessing the miracle, allowed Fr Antonia to live there and built a church that is now St Anthony’s Shrine, Kochchikade.

text: Tombolos demonstrate the sensitivity of shorelines. A small piece of land, such as an island, can change the way that waves move, leading to different deposition of sediments.

text: The outer rainbands of Erika passed over Puerto Rico, producing maximum sustained winds of 23 mph (37 km/h) and a peak wind gust of 42 mph (68 km/h) at the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport. The wind gusts snapped tree branches into power lines, leaving up to 12,000 people without power in San Juan, Guaynabo and Bayamón. Rainfall was light on the island, with Caguas reporting a peak total of 0.77 inches (20 mm). The hurricane produced swells of 10 to 12 ft (3 to 3.7 m) on the northern coast of Puerto Rico, causing beach erosion or coastal flooding. One road was closed when sections of it were flooded or washed out. The strong waves forced the evacuation of eight families in the northern portion of the island. The strong waves killed two surfers in the northeastern waters of the island. Damage in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands totaled to $10 million (1997 USD, $12.6 million 2006 USD) in a preliminary estimate.

text: The outer

text: rainband

text: s of Erika passed over

text: Puerto Rico

text: , producing maximum sustained winds of 23 mph (37 km/h) and a peak wind gust of 42 mph (68 km/h) at the

text: Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport

text: . The wind gusts snapped tree branches into power lines, leaving up to 12,000 people without power in

text: San Juan

text: Guaynabo

text: and

text: Bayamón

text: . Rainfall was light on the island, with

text: Caguas

text: reporting a peak total of 0.77 inches (20 mm). The hurricane produced swells of 10 to 12 ft (3 to 3.7 m) on the northern coast of Puerto Rico, causing beach erosion or coastal flooding. One road was closed when sections of it were flooded or washed out. The strong waves forced the evacuation of eight families in the northern portion of the island. The strong waves killed two surfers in the northeastern waters of the island. Damage in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands totaled to $10 million (1997 USD, $12.6 million 2006 USD) in a preliminary estimate.

text: The desert was formed during the Quaternary period as a result of the forces of south-west blowing monsoon and the northern shamal trade wind, coming in from the east. Based on the types of dunes found in the area, it is divided into the high, or upper, Wahiba and low Wahiba. The upper area contains mega-ridge sand systems on a north-south line that are believed to have been formed by monsoon. The dunes of the north, formed at some point after the last regional glaciation, measure up to  high, with peaks accumulating in the areas just beyond the strongest wind speeds, where declining velocity wind deposited sand. The north and west boundaries of the desert are delineated by the fluvial systems Wadi Batha and Wadi Andam. Beneath the surface sands are an older layer of cemented carbonate sand. Alluvium deposits believed to have originated from the Wadi Batha during the Paleolithic era have been disclosed in the central desert  beneath the interdune surface. Wind erosion is believed to have contributed to the existence of a nearly level plain in the southwest.

text: The desert was formed during the

text: Quaternary

text: period as a result of the forces of south-west blowing

text: monsoon

text: and the northern

text: shamal

text: trade wind

text: , coming in from the east. Based on the types of

text: dunes

text: found in the area, it is divided into the high, or upper, Wahiba and low Wahiba. The upper area contains mega-ridge sand systems on a north-south line that are believed to have been formed by monsoon. The dunes of the north, formed at some point after the last regional

text: glaciation

text: , measure up to  high, with peaks accumulating in the areas just beyond the strongest wind speeds, where declining velocity wind deposited sand. The north and west boundaries of the desert are delineated by the

text: fluvial

text: systems Wadi Batha and Wadi Andam. Beneath the surface sands are an older layer of

text: cemented carbonate sand

text: Alluvium

text: deposits believed to have originated from the Wadi Batha during the

text: Paleolithic

text: era have been disclosed in the central desert  beneath the interdune surface.

text: Wind erosion

text: is believed to have contributed to the existence of a nearly level plain in the southwest.

text: Polarization (also polarisation) is a parameter applying to waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillation. Electromagnetic waves such as light exhibit multiple polarizations, as do many other types of waves such as gravitational waves and sound waves in solids. On the other hand, sound waves in a gas or liquid only oscillate in the wave's direction of propagation, and the oscillation of ocean waves is always in the vertical direction. In these cases one doesn't normally speak of "polarization" since the oscillation's direction is not in question.

text: Polarization (

entity_name: American and British English spelling differences

text: also

text: polarisation) is a parameter applying to

text: wave

text: s that specifies the geometrical orientation of the

text: oscillation

text: Electromagnetic wave

text: s such as

text: light

text: exhibit multiple polarizations, as do many other types of waves such as

text: gravitational wave

text: s and sound waves in solids. On the other hand,

text: sound wave

text: s in a gas or liquid only

text: oscillate in the wave's direction of propagation

text: , and the oscillation of

text: ocean waves

text: is always in the vertical direction. In these cases one doesn't normally speak of "polarization" since the oscillation's direction is not in question.

text: As recently as the 18th century, what is today Año Nuevo Island was a peninsula.  It has since become separated from the mainland by a channel that continues to widen.  The island is mainly made up of Miocene shale and deposits from ancient dunes, along with a broad intertidal shelf and low, rocky islets, all of which are frequently altered by the erosive pounding of waves, particularly during winter storms.

text: As recently as the 18th century, what is today Año Nuevo Island was a

text: peninsula

text: .  It has since become separated from the mainland by a

text: channel

text: that continues to widen.  The island is mainly made up of

text: Miocene

text: shale

text: and deposits from ancient dunes, along with a broad

text: intertidal

text: shelf and low, rocky islets, all of which are frequently altered by the

text: erosive pounding

text: of waves, particularly during winter storms.

text: Detailed studies by E. Davaud and A. Strasser of Holocene limestones currently exposed on North Bimini and Joulter Cays (Bahamas) reveal the sequence of events likely responsible for creating beachrock pavements like the Bimini Road. First, a complete beach sequence of shallow subtidal, intertidal, and supratidal carbonate sediments accumulated as the shoreline of North Bimini built seaward during part of the Holocene. Once the deposition of these sediments built the North Bimini's shoreline seaward, freshwater cementation of the carbonate occurred at some depth, possibly even a metre or so below sea level, beneath the island's surface. This cementation created a band consisting of a thick primary layer of semilithified sediments and thinner discontinuous lenses and layers of similar semilithified sediments beneath it. Later, when erosion of the island's shoreline occurred, the band of semilithifed sediment was exposed within the intertidal zone and the semilithified sediments were cemented into beachrock. As the sediments underlying the eroding shoreline was eroded down to Pleistocene limestone, the beachrock broke into flat-lying, tabular, and rectangular, subrectangular, polygonal, and irregular blocks as observed for modern beaches within the Bahamas by E. Davaud and A. Strasser. Thinner layers of beachrock underlying the primary bed of beachrock were also broken up as the loose sediments enclosing them and the thicker primary bed were eroded. As the loose sediment was scoured out from under the blocks and other pieces of beachrock by so-called "scour and settling processes", they dropped downward for several meters until they rested directly on the erosion-resistant Pleistocene limestone as an erosional lag. Eugene Shinn discusses a similar, but not identical, process by which the Bimini Road could have been created.

text: Once formed, cuspate forelands can remain where they are and continue to develop as sediment accumulates, or alternatively they may migrate down the coast as one side of the foreland erodes and the other side accretes.  Cuspate Forelands that move are typical of those that are formed on open coastlines. The direction of migration is often indicated by a series of successive beach ridges on the advancing side of the foreland where there is less wave energy. The movement of cuspate forelands is commonly explained by longshore drift acting as the main process. However, there have been observed cases where two cuspate forelands on the same shoreline have migrated in opposite directions, showing that longshore drift does not always provide a sufficient explanation for their migration.

text: The creation of ports and harbours throughout the world can seriously impact on the natural course of longshore drift. Not only do ports and harbours pose a threat to longshore drift in the short term, they also pose a threat to shoreline evolution. The major influence the creation of a port or harbour can have on longshore drift is the alteration of sedimentation patterns, which in turn may lead to accretion and/or erosion of a beach or coastal system.

text: Erosion is a problem not only for the Yaquina Bay, but for the entire Oregon Coast. Yaquina Bay’s sediments are made up of sandstone, siltstone and clay-containing mudstone and these soft sediments contribute to the annual erosion rates. Waves, however, are the main proponent of erosion. Waves are parallel to the beach and as wind increases, energy is enhanced and height grows, causing a devastating effect on beaches. Also, as currents run along the coast, they move sand causing either addition or depletion of sand in some areas. This has been particularly evident around the Yaquina Jetty. With longshore drift increased during the winter, sand is deposited and dramatically built up in this area.

text: Erosion

text: is a problem not only for the Yaquina Bay, but for the entire Oregon Coast. Yaquina Bay’s sediments are made up of

text: sandstone

text: siltstone

text: and clay-containing

text: mudstone

text: and these soft sediments contribute to the annual erosion rates. Waves, however, are the main proponent of erosion. Waves are parallel to the beach and as wind increases, energy is enhanced and height grows, causing a devastating effect on beaches. Also, as currents run along the coast, they move sand causing either addition or depletion of sand in some areas. This has been particularly evident around the Yaquina Jetty. With longshore drift increased during the winter, sand is deposited and dramatically built up in this area.

text: Sand carried by the offshore moving bottom current is deposited where the current reaches the wave break. Other longshore bars may lie further offshore, representing the break point of even larger waves, or the break point at low tide.

text: The Mattituck Inlet and James Creek (which has also been dredged for boats) on the Peconic Bay come within  of each other and would provide a shortcut between the Peconic and Sound through the North Fork if connected via a canal. However, authorities have resisted the connection, fearing an ecological disaster. Still, the inlet is blamed for coastal erosion because it interrupts the longshore drift on the sound.

text: The Mattituck Inlet and James Creek (which has also been dredged for boats) on the

text: Peconic Bay

text: come within  of each other and would provide a shortcut between the Peconic and Sound through the North Fork if connected via a canal. However, authorities have resisted the connection, fearing an ecological disaster. Still, the inlet is blamed for coastal erosion because it interrupts the

text: longshore drift

text: on the sound.

text: A cut bank, also known as a river cliff or river-cut cliff, is the outside bank of a water channel (stream), which is continually undergoing erosion. Cut banks are found in abundance along mature or meandering streams, they are located on the outside of a stream bend, known as a meander, opposite the slip-off slope on the inside of the bend. They are shaped much like a small cliff, and are formed by the erosion of soil as the stream collides with the river bank. As opposed to a point bar which is an area of deposition, a cut bank is an area of erosion.

text: A cut bank, also known as a river cliff or river-cut cliff, is the outside bank of a water channel (

text: stream

text: ), which is continually undergoing erosion. Cut banks are found in abundance along mature or meandering streams, they are located on the outside of a stream bend, known as a

text: meander

text: , opposite the

text: slip-off slope

text: on the inside of the bend. They are shaped much like a small

text: cliff

text: , and are formed by the erosion of soil as the stream collides with the river bank. As opposed to a

text: point bar

text: which is an area of

text: deposition

text: , a cut bank is an area of

text: erosion

text: For example, the Arcachon lagoon is a tidal inlet system in South west France, which provides large sources and sinks for longshore drift sediments. The impact of longshore drift sediments on this inlet system is highly influenced by the variation in the number of lagoon entrances and the location of these entrances.  Any change in these factors can cause severe down-drift erosion or down-drift accretion of large swash bars.

text: For example, the

text: Arcachon lagoon

text: is a tidal inlet system in South west France, which provides large sources and sinks for longshore drift sediments. The impact of longshore drift sediments on this inlet system is highly influenced by the variation in the number of lagoon entrances and the location of these entrances.  Any change in these factors can cause severe down-drift erosion or down-drift accretion of large swash bars.

text: Wetlands can be part of the lentic system, as they form naturally along most lake shores, the width of the wetland and littoral zone being dependent upon the slope of the shoreline and the amount of natural change in water levels, within and among years. Often dead trees accumulate in this zone, either from windfalls on the shore or logs transported to the site during floods.  This woody debris provides important habitat for fish and nesting birds, as well as protecting shorelines from erosion.

text: Wetland

text: s can be part of the lentic system, as they form naturally along most lake shores, the width of the wetland and littoral zone being dependent upon the slope of the shoreline and the amount of natural change in water levels, within and among years. Often dead trees accumulate in this zone, either from windfalls on the shore or logs transported to the site during floods.  This woody debris provides important habitat for fish and nesting birds, as well as protecting shorelines from erosion.

text: Erosion along the eastern border and deposition along the north coast altered the shape of the East Anglian coastline during Roman and Anglo-Saxon times (and continues to do so today). During Saxon times the sea inundated the naturally low-lying Fens. As sea levels fell alluvium was deposited near major river estuaries and the 'Great Estuary' near Burgh Castle became slowed closed off by a large spit.

text: Erosion

text: along the eastern border and

text: deposition

text: along the north coast altered the shape of the East Anglian coastline during

text: Roman

text: and Anglo-Saxon times (and continues to do so today). During Saxon times the sea inundated the naturally low-lying Fens. As sea levels fell

text: alluvium

text: was deposited near major river estuaries and the 'Great Estuary' near

text: Burgh Castle

text: became slowed closed off by a large

text: spit

text: Erosion of beaches can expose less resilient soils and rocks to wind and wave action leading to undermining of coastal headlands eventually resulting in catastrophic collapse of large quantities of overburden into the shallows.  This material may be distributed along the beach front leading to a change in the habitat as sea grasses and corals in the shallows may be buried or deprived of light and nutrients.

text: South of the Chicago Lake Plain in the central parts of Lake and Porter County and northern LaPorte county is the hilly Wheaton Morainal Plain. The Wheaton Morainal Plain consist of the Valparaiso Moraine and Tinley Moraine, paralleling the Lake Michigan Shoreline.  The plain consist of rolling Wisconsinan-age moraines. The Morainal Plain is clayey till, and sandy and loamy till, with areas of sand and gravel. Other deposits include lake clay, silt, and alluvium. Deposits are between 50 and 200 ft thick, with many southern areas have over 200 ft of till (Mades, 1987).

text: South of the Chicago Lake Plain in the central parts of Lake and Porter County and northern LaPorte county is the hilly Wheaton Morainal Plain. The Wheaton Morainal Plain consist of the Valparaiso Moraine and Tinley Moraine, paralleling the Lake Michigan Shoreline.  The plain consist of rolling Wisconsinan-age moraines. The Morainal Plain is clayey

text: till

text: , and sandy and loamy till, with areas of sand and gravel. Other deposits include lake clay, silt, and alluvium. Deposits are between 50 and 200 ft thick, with many southern areas have over 200 ft of till (Mades, 1987).

text: Monitoring and modeling of erosion processes can help people better understand the causes of soil erosion, make predictions of erosion under a range of possible conditions, and plan the implementation of preventative and restorative strategies for erosion. However, the complexity of erosion processes and the number of scientific disciplines that must be considered to understand and model them (e.g. climatology, hydrology, geology, soil science, agriculture, chemistry, physics, etc.) makes accurate modelling challenging. Erosion models are also non-linear, which makes them difficult to work with numerically, and makes it difficult or impossible to scale up to making predictions about large areas from data collected by sampling smaller plots.

text: Monitoring and modeling of erosion processes can help people better understand the

text: causes of soil erosion

text: , make predictions of erosion

text: under a range of possible conditions

text: , and plan the implementation of

text: preventative and restorative strategies for erosion

text: . However, the complexity of erosion processes and the number of scientific disciplines that must be considered to understand and model them (e.g. climatology, hydrology, geology, soil science, agriculture, chemistry, physics, etc.) makes accurate modelling challenging. Erosion models are also non-linear, which makes them difficult to work with numerically, and makes it difficult or impossible to scale up to making predictions about large areas from data collected by sampling smaller plots.

text: Constructional margins are the "classic" mode of passive margin sedimentation. Normal sedimentation results from the transport and deposition of sand, silt, and clay by rivers via deltas and redistribution of these sediments by longshore currents. The nature of sediments can change remarkably along a passive margin, due to interactions between carbonate sediment production, clastic input from rivers, and alongshore transport. Where clastic sediment inputs are small, biogenic sedimentation can dominate especially nearshore sedimentation. The Gulf of Mexico passive margin along the southern United States is an excellent example of this, with muddy and sandy coastal environments down current (west) from the Mississippi River Delta and beaches of carbonate sand to the east. The thick layers of sediment gradually thin with increasing distance offshore, depending on subsidence of the passive margin and the efficacy of offshore transport mechanisms such as turbidity currents and submarine channels.

text: Constructional margins are the "classic" mode of passive margin sedimentation. Normal sedimentation results from the

text: transport

text: and

text: deposition

text: of sand, silt, and clay by

text: river

text: s via

text: deltas

text: and redistribution of these sediments by

text: longshore current

text: s. The nature of sediments can change remarkably along a passive margin, due to interactions between carbonate sediment production, clastic input from rivers, and alongshore transport. Where

text: clastic sediment

text: inputs are small,

text: biogenic sediment

text: ation can dominate especially nearshore sedimentation. The

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: passive margin along the southern United States is an excellent example of this, with muddy and sandy coastal environments down current (west) from the

text: Mississippi River Delta

text: and beaches of

text: carbonate

text: sand to the east. The thick layers of sediment gradually thin with increasing distance offshore, depending on subsidence of the passive margin and the efficacy of offshore transport mechanisms such as

text: turbidity current

text: s and

text: submarine channel

text: s.

text: In quantum mechanics a particle, such as an electron, is also described as a wave. For example, if the double-slit experiment is performed with electrons, then a wave-like interference pattern is observed. The electron has the highest probability of being detected at locations where the parts of the wave passing through the two slits are in phase with one another, resulting in constructive interference. The frequency of the electron wave is related to the kinetic energy of an individual electron particle via the quantum-mechanical relation E = hf. If there are no electric or magnetic fields present in this experiment, then the electron's energy is constant, and, for example, there will be a high probability of detecting the electron along the central axis of the experiment, where by symmetry the two parts of the wave are in phase.

text: In quantum mechanics a particle, such as an electron, is also described as a wave. For example, if the

text: double-slit experiment

text: is performed with electrons, then a wave-like interference pattern is observed. The electron has the highest probability of being detected at locations where the parts of the wave passing through the two slits are in phase with one another, resulting in

text: constructive interference

text: . The frequency of the electron wave is related to the kinetic energy of an individual electron particle via the quantum-mechanical relation E = hf. If there are no electric or magnetic fields present in this experiment, then the electron's energy is constant, and, for example, there will be a high probability of detecting the electron along the central axis of the experiment, where by symmetry the two parts of the wave are in phase.

text: Cape Wiles is a headland located on the west side of the southern tip of Eyre Peninsula in South Australia about  south west of the city of Port Lincoln.  The cape is described by one source as being the south east extremity of “a broad promontory” of which Cape Carnot is the south west extremity at a distance of  to the west.  The cape also is the western extremity of Sleaford Bay.  It was named by Matthew Flinders on 19 February 1802 after  James Wiles, a botanist whom he described as “a worthy friend at Liguanea, in Jamaica”.  The cape is the site of a high frequency radar station which is used to collect data about wind direction and wave height.  Since 2012, the waters adjoining its shoreline are within a habitat protection zone in the Thorny Passage Marine Park.

text: Cape Wiles is a

text: headland

text: located on the west side of the southern tip of

text: Eyre Peninsula

text: in

text: South Australia

text: about  south west of the city of

text: Port Lincoln

text: .  The cape is described by one source as being the south east extremity of “a broad promontory” of which

text: Cape Carnot

text: is the south west extremity at a distance of  to the west.  The cape also is the western extremity of

text: Sleaford Bay

text: .  It was named by

text: Matthew Flinders

text: on 19 February 1802 after  James Wiles, a botanist whom he described as “a worthy friend at

text: Liguanea

text: , in

text: Jamaica

text: ”.  The cape is the site of a

text: high frequency

text: radar

text: station which is used to collect data about wind direction and wave height.  Since 2012, the waters adjoining its shoreline are within a habitat protection zone in the Thorny Passage Marine Park.

text: The vertical hard basin drop structure, also called a dissipation wall, is the basic type of drop structure. The vertical hard basin drop consists of a vertical "cutoff wall", usually built of concrete, that is usually laid perpendicular to the stream flow; and an impact basin, not unlike a stream pool, to catch the discharged water. The purpose of the vertical hard basin drop is to force the water into a hydraulic jump (a small standing wave). Though the simplest type of drop structure, it is highest in maintenance needs and less safe, with most problems related to the impact basin. Sediment is often deposited in the basin, requiring frequent removal, and erosion downstream of the base of the structure.

text: The vertical hard basin drop structure, also called a dissipation wall, is the basic type of drop structure. The vertical hard basin drop consists of a vertical "cutoff wall", usually built of concrete, that is usually laid perpendicular to the stream flow; and an impact basin, not unlike a

text: stream pool

text: , to catch the discharged water. The purpose of the vertical hard basin drop is to force the water into a

text: hydraulic jump

text: (a small standing wave). Though the simplest type of drop structure, it is highest in maintenance needs and less safe, with most problems related to the impact basin.

text: Sediment

text: is often deposited in the basin, requiring frequent removal, and erosion downstream of the base of the structure.

text: The power behind a large release of water is very great, especially if it forms a single water wave, and is well known as a strong force in coastal erosion and river erosion. Such a wave could be created by a sluice gate covering one end of the reservoir, possibly a permanent fixture such as a swinging flap or a rising gate. The size of the tank controlled the height of the wave and its volume. Hushing was most effective when used on steep ground such as the brow of a hill or mountain, the force of falling water lessening as the slope becomes smaller. The rate of attack would be controlled by the water supply, and perhaps more difficult the higher the deposit to be cleared.

text: The power behind a large release of water is very great, especially if it forms a single

text: water wave

text: , and is well known as a strong force in

text: coastal erosion

text: and

text: river erosion

text: . Such a wave could be created by a

text: sluice gate

text: covering one end of the reservoir, possibly a permanent fixture such as a swinging flap or a rising gate. The size of the tank controlled the height of the wave and its volume. Hushing was most effective when used on steep ground such as the brow of a hill or mountain, the force of falling water lessening as the slope becomes smaller. The rate of attack would be controlled by the water supply, and perhaps more difficult the higher the deposit to be cleared.

text: On March 4, 1933, when Roosevelt first took the oath of office, banks were closing their doors all over the United States as waves of panic led depositors to demand immediate payment of their money. Woodin was the point man in the administration's declaration of a "Bank Holiday" which closed every bank in the U.S. until bank examiners could determine which were sound enough to re-open. With "seals of approval" from the examiners, depositors regained confidence, and the vast majority left their money in bank deposits. This preceded the creation of deposit insurance and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation with the passage of the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 to foster trust in banks which is essential to the entire financial system.

text: On March 4, 1933, when Roosevelt first took the oath of office, banks were closing their doors all over the United States as waves of panic led depositors to demand immediate payment of their money. Woodin was the point man in the administration's declaration of a "Bank Holiday" which closed every bank in the U.S. until bank examiners could determine which were sound enough to re-open. With "seals of approval" from the examiners, depositors regained confidence, and the vast majority left their money in bank deposits. This preceded the creation of deposit insurance and the

text: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

text: with the passage of the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 to foster trust in banks which is essential to the entire financial system.

text: Natural oyster reefs are composed of living and dead oyster shells and provides important habitats for various species. For example, the complex three-dimensional interstitial spaces within oyster reefs provide refugia for prey or juvenile species, which increases prey biomass and thereby enhances trophic transfer. Oyster reefs also stabilize shorelines by promoting sediment deposition and buffering wave energy, thereby allowing other habitats such as sea grass beds and marsh areas to form while simultaneously decreasing erosion of the shoreline.

text: The upper contact, which is part of the Great Unconformity, of the Sixtymile Formation is a disconformity that laterally becomes an angular unconformity. Within the center of Chuar syncline, this upper contact is a disconformity. Away from the center, the strata of the Sixtymile Formation an angular discordance between the formations of 6° to 10° can be seen. The Great Unconformity has an irregular hilly surface. In case of the Sixtymile Formation, a small amount of relief,  to , in the Sixtymile Canyon area was the result of resistance to erosion of the Middle Member of the Sixtymile Formation (fig. 4). Prior to the deposition of the Tapeats Sandstone, erosion removed all of the Upper Member of the Sixtymile from all but the central part of the Chuar syncline.

text: , as it is nowhere differentiable in the classic definition of delta-epsilon differentiability on the real number line (that is, w.r.t. the natural topology on the reals).  However, by instead representing a real number as a 2-adic expansion of binary bits, one may temporarily adopt the product topology of the Cantor set, and immediately give meaning of the differential as a formal sum.  That is, by noting that the derivative of a triangle wave is a square wave (equivalently, the repeated Haar mother wavelet):

text: , as it is nowhere

text: differentiable

text: in the classic definition of delta-epsilon differentiability on the real number line (that is, w.r.t. the natural topology on the reals).  However, by instead representing a real number as a

text: 2-adic expansion of binary bits

text: , one may temporarily adopt the

text: product topology

text: of the

text: Cantor set

text: , and immediately give meaning of the differential as a formal sum.  That is, by noting that the derivative of a triangle wave is a

text: square wave

text: (equivalently, the repeated

text: Haar mother wavelet

text: Longshore drift by swash occurs either due to beach cusp morphology or due to oblique incoming waves causing strong alongshore swash motion. Under the influence of longshore drift, when there is no slack-water phase during backwash flows, sediments can remain suspended to result in offshore sediment transport. Beachface erosion by swash processes is not very common but erosion can occur where swash has a significant alongshore component.

text: Longshore drift

text: by swash occurs either due to beach cusp morphology or due to oblique incoming

text: waves

text: causing strong alongshore swash motion. Under the influence of longshore drift, when there is no slack-water phase during backwash flows, sediments can remain suspended to result in offshore

text: sediment transport

text: . Beachface

text: erosion

text: by swash processes is not very common but erosion can occur where swash has a significant alongshore component.

text: The first principle underlying the null point theory is due to the gravitational force; finer sediments remain in the water column for longer durations allowing transportation outside the surf zone to deposit under calmer conditions. The gravitational effect, or settling velocity determines the location of deposition for finer sediments, whereas a grain's internal angle of friction determines the deposition of larger grains on a shore profile. The secondary principle to the creation of seaward sediment fining is known as the hypothesis of asymmetrical thresholds under waves; this describes the interaction between the oscillatory flow of waves and tides flowing over the wave ripple bedforms in an asymmetric pattern. "The relatively strong onshore stroke of the wave forms an eddy or vortex on the lee side of the ripple, provided the onshore flow persists, this eddy remains trapped in the lee of the ripple. When the flow reverses, the eddy is thrown upwards off the bottom and a small cloud of suspended sediment generated by the eddy is ejected into the water column above the ripple, the sediment cloud is then moved seaward by the offshore stroke of the wave."  Where there is symmetry in ripple shape the vortex is neutralised, the eddy and its associated sediment cloud develops on both sides of the ripple. This creates a cloudy water column which travels under tidal influence as the wave orbital motion is in equilibrium.

text: Waves are constructive if the period between their wave crests is long enough for the breaking water to recede and the sediment to settle before the succeeding wave arrives and breaks.  Fine sediment transported from lower down the beach profile will compact if the receding water percolates or soaks into the beach.  Compacted sediment is more resistant to movement by turbulent water from succeeding waves.

text: In hydrodynamics, the clapotis (from ) is a non-breaking standing wave pattern, caused for example, by the reflection of a traveling surface wave train from a near vertical shoreline like a breakwater, seawall or steep cliff.The resulting clapotic wave does not travel horizontally, but has a fixed pattern of nodes and antinodes.These waves promote erosion at the toe of the wall,and can cause severe damage to shore structures.The term was coined in 1877 by French mathematician and physicist Joseph Valentin Boussinesq who called these waves ‘le clapotis’ meaning ‘’the lapping".

text: In

text: hydrodynamics

text: , the clapotis (from ) is a non-breaking

text: standing wave

text: pattern, caused for example, by the reflection of a traveling surface

text: wave

text: train from a near vertical shoreline like a

text: breakwater

text: seawall

text: or steep

text: cliff

text: .The resulting clapotic wave does not travel horizontally, but has a fixed pattern of

text: nodes and antinodes

text: .These waves promote erosion at the toe of the wall,and can cause severe damage to shore structures.The term was coined in 1877 by

text: French

text: mathematician

text: and

text: physicist

text: Joseph Valentin Boussinesq

text: who called these waves ‘le clapotis’ meaning ‘’the lapping".

text: Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is both downward, deepening the valley, and headward, extending the valley into the hillside, creating head cuts and steep banks. In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical V cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some base level is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream meanders across the valley floor. In all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood, when more and faster-moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load. In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles, pebbles and boulders can also act erosively as they traverse a surface, in a process known as traction.

text: Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is both

text: downward

text: , deepening the valley, and

text: headward

text: , extending the valley into the hillside, creating

text: head cuts

text: and steep banks. In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical V cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some

text: base level

text: is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream

text: meander

text: s across the valley floor. In all stages of stream erosion, by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood, when more and faster-moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load. In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles,

text: pebble

text: s and

text: boulder

text: s can also act erosively as they traverse a surface, in a process known as traction.

text: If the free surface of a liquid is disturbed, waves are produced on the surface. These waves are not elastic waves due to any elastic force; they are gravity waves caused by the force of gravity tending to bring the surface of the disturbed liquid back to its horizontal level. Momentum causes the wave to overshoot, thus oscillating and spreading the disturbance to the neighboring portions of the surface. The velocity of the surface waves varies as the square root of the wavelength if the liquid is deep; therefore long waves on the sea go faster than short ones. Very minute waves or ripples are not due to gravity but to capillary action, and have properties different from those of the longer ocean surface waves,because the surface is increased in area by the ripples and the capillary forces are in this case large compared with the gravitational forces.Capillary ripples are damped both by sub-surface viscosity and by surface rheology.

text: If the free surface of a liquid is disturbed,

text: wave

text: s are produced on the surface. These waves are not

text: elastic waves

text: due to any

text: elastic force

text: ; they are

text: gravity wave

text: s caused by the force of gravity tending to bring the surface of the disturbed liquid back to its horizontal level.

text: Momentum

text: causes the wave to

text: overshoot

text: , thus oscillating and spreading the disturbance to the neighboring portions of the surface. The velocity of the surface waves varies as the square root of the

text: wavelength

text: if the liquid is deep; therefore

text: long waves

text: on the sea go faster than short ones. Very minute waves or ripples are not due to gravity but to

text: capillary action

text: , and have properties different from those of the longer

text: ocean surface waves

text: ,because the surface is increased in area by the ripples and the capillary forces are in this case large compared with the gravitational forces.Capillary ripples are damped both by sub-surface

text: viscosity

text: and by

text: surface rheology

text: A spit or sandspit is a deposition bar or beach landform found off coasts or lake shores. It develops in places where re-entrance occurs, such as at a cove's headlands, by the process of longshore drift by longshore currents. The drift occurs due to waves meeting the beach at an oblique angle, moving sediment down the beach in a zigzag pattern. This is complemented by longshore currents, which further transport sediment through the water alongside the beach. These currents are caused by the same waves that cause the drift.

text: A spit or sandspit is a

text: deposition

text: bar

text: or

text: beach

text: landform found off

text: coasts

text: or lake shores. It develops in places where re-entrance occurs, such as at a cove's

text: headlands

text: , by the process of

text: longshore drift

text: by longshore currents. The drift occurs due to waves meeting the beach at an oblique angle, moving sediment down the beach in a zigzag pattern. This is complemented by longshore currents, which further

text: transport sediment

text: through the water alongside the beach. These currents are caused by the same waves that cause the drift.

text: Erosion began to attack the basin as rifting failed and deposition of new sediments ceased.  Over millions of years, erosion ate downward through the tilted rock of the basin, eventually encountering the basalt layers, which are significantly more erosion resistant than the surrounding sedimentary rock.  The result of this has been that the exposed edges of the eroding basalt layers have managed to persist longer than the exposed edges of the sedimentary layers, causing them to project prominently above the surrounding surface terrain as high ridges.

text: On June 1, 1909, the light was finally extinguished, because the south channel was infrequently used, compared to the deeper and wider North Channel of the Savannah River. The United States Coast Guard relinquished control of this lighthouse to the National Park Service on August 14, 1958.  Along with the entire National Monument, the lighthouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.  Starting in 1995 and lasting until 2000, the upper portions of the lighthouse were restored, although the foundations still require protection from wave action and tidal erosion.

text: On June 1, 1909, the light was finally extinguished, because the south channel was infrequently used, compared to the deeper and wider North Channel of the Savannah River. The

text: United States Coast Guard

text: relinquished control of this lighthouse to the

text: National Park Service

text: on August 14, 1958.  Along with the entire National Monument, the lighthouse is listed on the

text: National Register of Historic Places

text: .  Starting in 1995 and lasting until 2000, the upper portions of the lighthouse were restored, although the foundations still require protection from wave action and tidal erosion.

text: A marine terrace represents the former shoreline of a sea or ocean. It can be formed by marine abrasion or erosion of materials comprising the shoreline (marine-cut terraces or wave-cut platforms); the accumulations of sediments in the shallow-water to slightly emerged coastal environments (marine-built terraces or raised beach); or the bioconstruction by coral reefs and accumulation of reef materials (reef flats) in intertropical regions.

text: A marine terrace represents the former shoreline of a sea or ocean. It can be formed by marine abrasion or erosion of materials comprising the shoreline (marine-cut terraces or

text: wave-cut platform

text: s); the accumulations of sediments in the shallow-water to slightly emerged coastal environments (marine-built terraces or

text: raised beach

text: ); or the bioconstruction by

text: coral reef

text: s and accumulation of reef materials (reef flats) in intertropical regions.

text: As an example, the creation of a port in Timaru, New Zealand in the late 19th century led to a significant change in the longshore drift along the South Canterbury coastline. Instead of longshore drift transporting sediment north up the coast towards the Waimataitai lagoon, the creation of the port blocked the drift of these (coarse) sediments and instead caused them to accrete to the south of the port at South beach in Timaru. The accretion of this sediment to the south, therefore meant a lack of sediment being deposited on the coast near the Waimataitai lagoon (to the north of the port), which led to the loss of the barrier enclosing the lagoon in the 1930s and then shortly after, the loss of the lagoon itself. As with the Waimataitai lagoon the Washdyke Lagoon, which currently lies to the north of the Timaru port is undergoing erosion and may eventually breach causing loss of another lagoon environment.

text: As an example, the creation of a port in

text: Timaru, New Zealand

text: in the late 19th century led to a significant change in the longshore drift along the

text: South Canterbury

text: coastline. Instead of longshore drift transporting sediment north up the coast towards the Waimataitai lagoon, the creation of the port blocked the drift of these (coarse) sediments and instead caused them to accrete to the south of the port at South beach in Timaru. The accretion of this sediment to the south, therefore meant a lack of sediment being deposited on the coast near the Waimataitai lagoon (to the north of the port), which led to the loss of the barrier enclosing the lagoon in the 1930s and then shortly after, the loss of the lagoon itself. As with the Waimataitai lagoon the

text: Washdyke Lagoon

text: , which currently lies to the north of the Timaru port is undergoing erosion and may eventually breach causing loss of another lagoon environment.

text: The Holderness coastline suffers the highest rate of coastal erosion in Europe:  a year on average or 2 million tonnes of material a year. Some of this is transported by longshore drift with about three percent of material being deposited at Spurn Point spit, to the south. The growth of Spurn Point is demonstrated by a series of lighthouses that have been built on the point. It is thought that approximately  of land has been lost since the Roman era, including at least 23 towns/villages, including Ravenspurn.

text: coastal erosion

text: in Europe:  a year on average or 2 million tonnes of material a year. Some of this is transported by

text: longshore drift

text: with about three percent of material being deposited at

text: Spurn

text: Point spit, to the south. The growth of Spurn Point is demonstrated by a series of

text: lighthouses

text: that have been built on the point. It is thought that approximately  of land has been lost since the

text: Roman era

text: , including at least 23 towns/villages, including

text: Ravenspurn

text: Hydraulic action takes place when air in a joint is suddenly compressed by a wave closing the entrance of the joint. This then cracks it. Wave pounding is when the sheer energy of the wave hitting the cliff or rock breaks pieces off. Abrasion or corrasion is caused by waves launching seaload at the cliff. It is the most effective and rapid form of shoreline erosion (not to be confused with corrosion). Corrosion is the dissolving of rock by carbonic acid in sea water. Limestone cliffs are particularly vulnerable to this kind of erosion. Attrition is where particles/seaload carried by the waves are worn down as they hit each other and the cliffs. This then makes the material easier to wash away. The material ends up as shingle and sand. Another significant source of erosion, particularly on carbonate coastlines, is the boring, scraping and grinding of organisms, a process termed bioerosion.

text: Hydraulic action

text: takes place when air in a joint is suddenly compressed by a wave closing the entrance of the joint. This then cracks it.

text: Wave pounding

text: is when the sheer energy of the wave hitting the cliff or rock breaks pieces off.

text: Abrasion

text: or corrasion is caused by waves launching seaload at the cliff. It is the most effective and rapid form of shoreline erosion (not to be confused with corrosion).

text: Corrosion

text: is the dissolving of rock by

text: carbonic acid

text: in sea water.

text: Limestone

text: cliffs are particularly vulnerable to this kind of erosion. Attrition is where particles/seaload carried by the waves are worn down as they hit each other and the cliffs. This then makes the material easier to wash away. The material ends up as

text: shingle

text: and sand. Another significant source of erosion, particularly on carbonate coastlines, is the boring, scraping and grinding of organisms, a process termed

text: bioerosion

text: Models have been developed for measuring longshore drift which can assist in determining a sedimentary budget, if they are integrated over the correct timescale.

text: False bedding in stratified drift deposits: American Geologist, v. 13, p. 43–47.

text: All waves and wavelets (child waves) are identified by a globally unique wave id, which is a domain name and an id string. The domain name identifies the wave provider where the wave originated. Waves and wavelets are hosted by the wave provider of the creator. Wavelets in the same wave can be hosted by different wave providers. However, user data is not federated; i.e., not shared with other wave providers. Private reply wavelets are also possible, of which other participants have no knowledge or access. If a private wavelet is sent between users on the same wave provider, it's not federated regardless of where the parent wave is hosted.

text: A further soft-engineering method for protecting the shoreline is beach nourishment, due to cost this is a solution that has been used primarily for the benefit of the tourism industry. As a result of erosion Miami Beach had almost no stored sediment left by the mid 1970s, consequently, visitor numbers declined and development of the area decreased. A beach nourishment program was set up resulting in an influx of development and infrastructure in the late 1970s. Miami Beach was rejuvenated to such an extent that annual revenue from foreign tourists alone is $2.4 billion, compared to the $52 million cost of the 20-year nourishment project. Tax revenue from tourists who visit Miami Beach alone more than covers the cost of beach nourishment projects across the nation. Using the capitalised annual cost of the project, for every $1 that has been invested annually on the nourishment, Miami Beach has received almost $500 annually in foreign exchange.

text: A further soft-engineering method for protecting the

text: shoreline

text: is

text: beach nourishment

text: , due to cost this is a solution that has been used primarily for the benefit of the tourism

text: industry

text: . As a result of erosion

text: Miami Beach

text: had almost no stored sediment left by the mid 1970s, consequently, visitor numbers declined and development of the area decreased. A beach nourishment program was set up resulting in an

text: influx

text: of development and infrastructure in the late 1970s. Miami Beach was rejuvenated to such an extent that annual

text: revenue

text: from foreign tourists alone is $2.4 billion, compared to the $52 million cost of the 20-year nourishment project.

text: Tax

text: revenue from tourists who visit Miami Beach alone more than covers the cost of beach nourishment projects across the

text: nation

text: . Using the capitalised annual cost of the project, for every $1 that has been invested annually on the nourishment, Miami Beach has received almost $500 annually in foreign exchange.

text: are photon annihilation and creation operators for the mode with wave vector

text: It may appear that the description of waves is closely related to their physical origin for each specific instance of a wave process.  For example, acoustics is distinguished from optics in that sound waves are related to a mechanical rather than an electromagnetic wave transfer caused by vibration.  Concepts such as mass, momentum, inertia, or elasticity, become therefore crucial in describing acoustic (as distinct from optic) wave processes. This difference in origin introduces certain wave characteristics particular to the properties of the medium involved. For example, in the case of air: vortices, radiation pressure, shock waves etc.; in the case of solids: Rayleigh waves, dispersion; and so on....

text: It may appear that the description of waves is closely related to their physical origin for each specific instance of a wave process.  For example,

text: acoustics

text: is distinguished from

text: optics

text: in that sound waves are related to a mechanical rather than an electromagnetic wave transfer caused by

text: vibration

text: .  Concepts such as

text: mass

text: momentum

text: inertia

text: , or

text: elasticity

text: , become therefore crucial in describing acoustic (as distinct from optic) wave processes. This difference in origin introduces certain wave characteristics particular to the properties of the medium involved. For example, in the case of air:

text: vortices

text: radiation pressure

text: shock waves

text: etc.; in the case of solids:

text: Rayleigh waves

text: dispersion

text: ; and so on....

text: No cleanup operation was executed due to the remoteness of the area; on many shorelines, the oil formed hard asphalt pavements. One marsh received thick deposits of mousse, which were still visible two decades after the disaster. By 1998, most of the oil deposits had broken up, though asphalt pavement remained in a relatively sheltered area, making it among the longest-term contamination recorded for an oil spill.

text: No cleanup operation was executed due to the remoteness of the area; on many shorelines, the oil formed hard

text: asphalt

text: pavements. One marsh received thick deposits of

text: mousse

text: , which were still visible two decades after the disaster. By 1998, most of the oil deposits had broken up, though asphalt pavement remained in a relatively sheltered area, making it among the longest-term contamination recorded for an oil spill.

text: The standing edge wave theory, which was introduced by Guza and Inman (1975), suggests that swash is superimposed upon the motion of standing edge waves that travel alongshore. This produces a variation in swash height along the shore and consequently results in regular patterns of erosion. The cusp embayments form at the eroding points and cusp horns occur at the edge wave nodes. The beach cusp spacing can be predicted using the sub-harmonic edge wave model

text: The standing edge wave theory, which was introduced by Guza and Inman (1975), suggests that swash is superimposed upon the motion of standing edge waves that travel alongshore. This produces a variation in swash height along the shore and consequently results in regular patterns of

text: erosion

text: . The cusp embayments form at the eroding points and cusp horns occur at the edge wave nodes. The beach cusp spacing can be predicted using the sub-harmonic edge wave model

text: Important basic characteristics of waves are wavelength, amplitude, period, and frequency. Wavelength is the length of the repeating wave shape. Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium, which is determined by the energy of the wave. A period (measured in seconds) is the time for one wave to pass a given point. Frequency of the wave is the number of waves passing a given point in a unit of time. Frequency is measured in hertz (hz); (Hz cycles per second) and is the perceived as pitch. Each complete vibration of a sound wave is called a cycle. Two other physical properties of sound are intensity and duration. Intensity is measured in decibels (dB) and is perceived as loudness.

text: Important basic characteristics of waves are wavelength, amplitude, period, and frequency.

text: Wavelength

text: is the length of the repeating wave shape.

text: Amplitude

text: is the maximum displacement of the particles of the medium, which is determined by the energy of the wave. A period (measured in seconds) is the time for one wave to pass a given point.

text: Frequency

text: of the wave is the number of waves passing a given point in a unit of time. Frequency is measured in

text: hertz (hz)

text: ; (Hz cycles per second) and is the

text: perceived

text: as

text: pitch

text: . Each complete vibration of a sound wave is called a cycle. Two other physical properties of sound are intensity and duration. Intensity is measured in

text: decibels (dB)

text: and is perceived as loudness.

text: The rich mixture is a result of the combined erosive power of the ocean and relatively recent glacial activity.  According to the Washington State Department of Natural Resources, the area's sediments are classified as Unconsolidated Deposition, translating to the geological equivalent of a grab bag.  More finely, the deposits are listed as “Quaternary Sediments, Dominantly Glacial Drift, includes alluvium”.   The Quaternary time period dates to the end of the most recent ice age, roughly 10,000 to 14,000 BCE.  A geologic map of Washington shows the unique nature of such sediments being exposed to the full grinding force of the Pacific Ocean.  There are many such areas scattered about the Puget Sound, yet very few areas on the unprotected Washington coast.

text: The rich mixture is a result of the combined

text: erosive

text: power of the ocean and relatively recent glacial activity.  According to the Washington State Department of Natural Resources, the area's

text: sediment

text: s are classified as Unconsolidated Deposition, translating to the geological equivalent of a grab bag.  More finely, the deposits are listed as “Quaternary Sediments, Dominantly

text: Glacial Drift

text: , includes

text: alluvium

text: ”.   The

text: Quaternary

text: time period dates to the end of the

text: most recent ice age

text: , roughly 10,000 to 14,000 BCE.  A geologic map of Washington shows the unique nature of such sediments being exposed to the full grinding force of the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: .  There are many such areas scattered about the

text: Puget Sound

text: , yet very few areas on the unprotected Washington coast.

text: Conversely, waves are destructive if the period between the wave crests is short.  Sediment that remains in suspension when the following wave crest arrives will not be able to settle and compact and will be more susceptible to erosion by longshore currents and receding tides.

text: Criuleni District is located in the central part of Moldova. Does the neighborhood: in the north Orhei District, Dubăsari District in the east, south Anenii Noi District, in western Municipality of Chişinău, and Străşeni District. District is located within the eastern extremity of Central Moldavian Plateau, and northern part of Lower Nistru Plains. The landscape is characterized by intercalation of deep valleys and wide. On steep slopes erosion occurs, and landslides. Horizontal dismantling of relief averaged 1.0-1.5 km / km. Vertical dismemberment of the territory makes up an average of 120–130 m. The northern part of Lower Nistru Plain is characterized by absolute altitudes of 100–200 m by the presence of a flat and low relief fragmented. In some places, meet some narrow valleys, not too deep, valleys, whose depth does not exceed 20–30 m. Erosion occurs weak. Ravines have a limited spread, but the flat slope erosion processes are developed. District has deposits minerals: limestone, sand, gravel and clay. In the district are 10 mines acquisition of limestone blocks, and 7 operating sand quarries gravel and crushed stone. In places where limestone rocks appear on the surface karst processes develop. Absolute altitude between 265 m swing territory, and 40 m in the meadow Raut

text: Criuleni District is located in the central part of Moldova. Does the neighborhood: in the north

text: Orhei District

text: Dubăsari District

text: in the east, south

text: Anenii Noi District

text: , in western

text: Municipality of Chişinău

text: , and

text: Străşeni District

text: . District is located within the eastern extremity of

text: Central Moldavian Plateau

text: , and northern part of Lower

text: Nistru

text: Plains. The landscape is characterized by intercalation of deep

text: valleys

text: and wide. On steep slopes erosion occurs, and landslides. Horizontal dismantling of relief averaged 1.0-1.5 km / km. Vertical dismemberment of the territory makes up an average of 120–130 m. The northern part of Lower Nistru Plain is characterized by absolute altitudes of 100–200 m by the presence of a flat and low relief fragmented. In some places, meet some narrow valleys, not too deep, valleys, whose depth does not exceed 20–30 m. Erosion occurs weak.

text: Ravine

text: s have a limited spread, but the flat slope erosion processes are developed. District has deposits minerals:

text: limestone

text: sand

text: gravel

text: and

text: clay

text: . In the district are 10 mines acquisition of

text: limestone

text: blocks, and 7 operating sand quarries gravel and crushed

text: stone

text: . In places where limestone rocks appear on the surface

text: karst

text: processes develop. Absolute altitude between 265 m swing territory, and 40 m in the meadow

text: Raut

text: The Oligocene-Miocene boundary has an important effect on the structure of the basin. Carbon Isotope data and Pollen analysis indicates of a climatic change around SE Asia which significantly increases humidity of the region. From this, reconstruction of monsoonal records was established and it is inferred that around 24-20 Ma is the time when the monsoon intensified. The intensification of the monsoon also resulted in intensification of erosion around the Himalayas. This erosion then caused a reduction in mass of the Himalaya which made the foreland basin partly invert, rebound, and essentially uplift. This is supported by the discovery of the older marine deposition of the Subathu formation in parts of the thrust slices in sub-Himalayas, at a high elevation than it would normally be found.

text: The Oligocene-Miocene boundary has an important effect on the structure of the basin.

text: Carbon

text: Isotope

text: data and

text: Pollen

text: analysis indicates of a climatic change around SE Asia which significantly increases humidity of the region. From this, reconstruction of monsoonal records was established and it is inferred that around 24-20 Ma is the time when the monsoon intensified. The intensification of the monsoon also resulted in intensification of erosion around the Himalayas. This erosion then caused a reduction in mass of the Himalaya which made the foreland basin partly invert, rebound, and essentially uplift. This is supported by the discovery of the older marine deposition of the Subathu formation in parts of the thrust slices in sub-Himalayas, at a high elevation than it would normally be found.

text: Massive concrete blocks and natural boulders are sunk offshore to alter wave direction and to filter the energy of waves and tides. The waves break further offshore and therefore reduce their erosive power. This leads to wider beaches, which absorb the reduced wave energy, protecting cliff and settlements behind. The Dolos which was invented by a South African engineer in East London has replaced the use of enormous concrete blocks because the dolos is much more resistant to wave action and requires less concrete to produce a superior result. Similar concrete objects like the Dolos are the A-jack, Akmon, Xbloc and the Tetrapod, Accropode. Cost – est. £2,000 per m. Water depth may increase the cost.

text: Massive concrete blocks and natural boulders are sunk offshore to alter wave direction and to filter the energy of waves and tides. The waves break further offshore and therefore reduce their erosive power. This leads to wider beaches, which absorb the reduced wave energy, protecting cliff and settlements behind. The

text: Dolos

text: which was invented by a South African engineer in

text: East London

text: has replaced the use of enormous concrete blocks because the dolos is much more resistant to wave action and requires less concrete to produce a superior result. Similar concrete objects like the Dolos are the

text: A-jack

text: Akmon

text: Xbloc

text: and the

text: Tetrapod

text: Accropode

text: . Cost – est. £2,000 per m. Water depth may increase the cost.

text: Longshore drift plays a large role in the evolution of a shoreline, as if there is a slight change of sediment supply, wind direction, or any other coastal influence longshore drift can change dramatically, impacting on the formation and evolution of a beach system or profile. These changes do not occur due to one factor within the coastal system, in fact there are numerous alterations that can occur within the coastal system that may affect the distribution and impact of longshore drift. Some of these are:

text: Longshore drift plays a large role in the evolution of a

text: shoreline

text: , as if there is a slight change of sediment supply,

text: wind direction

text: , or any other coastal influence longshore drift can change dramatically, impacting on the formation and evolution of a beach system or profile. These changes do not occur due to one factor within the coastal system, in fact there are numerous alterations that can occur within the coastal system that may affect the distribution and impact of longshore drift. Some of these are:

text: Coastal sediment transport (a subset of sediment transport) is the interaction of coastal land forms to various complex interactions of physical processes. The primary agent in coastal sediment transport is wave activity (see Wind wave), followed by tides and storm surge (see Tide and Storm surge), and near shore currents (see Sea) . Wind-generated waves play a key role in the transfer of energy from the open ocean to the coastlines. In addition to the physical processes acting upon the shore, the size distribution of the sediment is a critical determination for how the beach will change (see Grain size determination). These various interactions generate a wide variety of beaches. (see Beach). Other than the interactions between coastal land forms and physical processes there is also the addition of modification of these landforms through anthropogenic sources (see human modifications). Some of the anthropogenic sources of modification have been put in place to halt erosion or prevent harbors from filling up with sediment. In order to assist community planners, local governments, and national governments a variety of models have been developed to predict the changes of beach sediment transport at coastal locations. Typically, during large wave events, the sediment gets transported off the beach face a deposited offshore generating a sandbar. Once the significant wave event has diminished, the sediment then gets slowly transported back onshore.

text: Coastal sediment transport (a subset of

text: sediment transport

text: ) is the interaction of coastal land forms to various complex interactions of physical processes. The primary agent in coastal sediment transport is wave activity (see

text: Wind wave

text: ), followed by tides and storm surge (see

text: Tide

text: and

text: Storm surge

text: ), and near shore currents (see

text: Sea

text: ) . Wind-generated waves play a key role in the transfer of energy from the open ocean to the coastlines. In addition to the physical processes acting upon the shore, the size distribution of the sediment is a critical determination for how the beach will change (see Grain size determination). These various interactions generate a wide variety of beaches. (see

text: Beach

text: ). Other than the interactions between coastal land forms and physical processes there is also the addition of modification of these landforms through anthropogenic sources (see human modifications). Some of the anthropogenic sources of modification have been put in place to halt erosion or prevent harbors from filling up with sediment. In order to assist community planners, local governments, and national governments a variety of models have been developed to predict the changes of beach sediment transport at coastal locations. Typically, during large wave events, the sediment gets transported off the beach face a deposited offshore generating a sandbar. Once the significant wave event has diminished, the sediment then gets slowly transported back onshore.

text: In some landscapes, ponds are artificially constructed, perhaps to provide wildlife viewing opportunities, or to treat wastewater, or as part of a golf course.  The design of a pond determines how productive it will be for wildlife.  In general, gently sloping shorelines with broad expanses of wetland plants not only provide the best conditions for wildlife, but they help protect water quality from sources in the surrounding landscapes. It is also beneficial to allow water levels to fall each year during drier periods. Roads and houses should be kept as far away as possible.

text: The size and position of a heavy mineral deposit is a function of the wave energy reaching the beach, the mean grainsize of the beach sediments, and the current height of the ocean.

text: The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) Model is a physically based erosion simulation model built on the fundamentals of hydrology, plant science, hydraulics, and erosion mechanics. The model was developed by an interagency team of scientists to replace the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and has been widely used in the United States and the world. WEPP requires four inputs, i.e., climate, topography, soil, and management (vegetation); and provides various types of outputs, including water balance (surface runoff, subsurface flow, and evapotranspiration), soil detachment and deposition at points along the slope, sediment delivery, and vegetation growth. The WEPP model has been improved continuously since its public delivery in 1995, and is applicable for a variety of areas (e.g., cropland, rangeland, forestry, fisheries, and surface coal mining).

text: The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) Model is a

text: physically based

text: erosion

text: simulation model built on the fundamentals of

text: hydrology

text: plant science

text: hydraulics

text: , and

text: erosion

text: mechanics. The model was developed by an interagency team of scientists to replace the

text: Universal Soil Loss Equation

text: (USLE) and has been widely used in the United States and the world. WEPP requires four inputs, i.e.,

text: climate

text: topography

text: soil

text: , and management (

text: vegetation

text: ); and provides various types of outputs, including

text: water balance

text: surface runoff

text: subsurface flow

text: , and

text: evapotranspiration

text: soil detachment

text: and

text: deposition

text: at points along the slope,

text: sediment delivery

text: , and vegetation growth. The WEPP model has been improved continuously since its public delivery in 1995, and is applicable for a variety of areas (e.g.,

text: cropland

text: rangeland

text: forestry

text: fisheries

text: , and surface

text: coal mining

text: This is mathematically equivalent to the definition of the phase of a wave (or more specifically a plane wave):

text: This is mathematically equivalent to the definition of the

text: phase

text: of a

text: wave

text: (or more specifically a

text: plane wave

text: After the basal trachytes were erupted, the explosive phase produced alkali-feldspar porphyritic trachytes, which erupted as pyroclastic deposits with minor, small lava flows and domes. The explosive eruptions produced pumice flows, bedded tuffs, debris flows, reworked polymict debris flows and lava flows less than  thick. The porphyritic trachytes erupted at the summit of the shield and flowed towards the northeast and east. Because the porphyritic pyroclastic deposits are buried by younger volcanic rocks and glacial drift deposits, the maximum thickness of them is unknown.

text: After the basal trachytes were erupted, the explosive phase produced alkali-

text: feldspar

text: porphyritic

text: trachytes, which erupted as pyroclastic deposits with minor, small lava flows and domes. The explosive eruptions produced

text: pumice

text: flows, bedded tuffs,

text: debris flow

text: s, reworked polymict debris flows and lava flows less than  thick. The porphyritic trachytes erupted at the summit of the shield and flowed towards the northeast and east. Because the porphyritic pyroclastic deposits are buried by younger volcanic rocks and glacial drift deposits, the maximum thickness of them is unknown.

text: Examples of proxies include overwash deposits preserved in the sediments of coastal lakes and marshes, microfossils such as foraminifera, pollen, diatoms, dinoflagellates, phytoliths contained in coastal sediments, wave-generated or flood-generated sedimentary structures or deposits (called tempestites) in marine or lagoonal sediments, storm wave deposited coral shingle, shell, sand and shell and pure sand shore parallel ridges.

text: Examples of proxies include

text: overwash

text: deposits preserved in the

text: sediment

text: s of coastal lakes and

text: marsh

text: es,

text: microfossil

text: s such as

text: foraminifera

text: pollen

text: diatom

text: s,

text: dinoflagellate

text: s,

text: phytolith

text: s contained in coastal sediments, wave-generated or flood-generated sedimentary structures or deposits (called

text: tempestite

text: s) in marine or

text: lagoon

text: al sediments, storm wave deposited

text: coral

text: shingle, shell, sand and shell and pure sand shore parallel ridges.

text: The majority of tidal inlets on longshore drift shores accumulate sediment in flood and ebb shoals. Ebb-deltas may become stunted on highly exposed shores and in smaller spaces, whereas flood deltas are likely to increase in size when space is available in a bay or lagoon system. Tidal inlets can act as sinks and sources for large amounts of material, which therefore impacts on adjacent parts of the coastline.

text: The majority of tidal inlets on longshore drift shores accumulate sediment in

text: flood

text: and ebb shoals. Ebb-deltas may become stunted on highly exposed shores and in smaller spaces, whereas flood

text: delta

text: s are likely to increase in size when space is available in a bay or lagoon system. Tidal inlets can act as sinks and sources for large amounts of material, which therefore impacts on adjacent parts of the coastline.

text: Furthermore, shore platforms are formed by denudation and marine-built terraces arise from accumulations of materials removed by shore erosion.  Thus a marine terrace can be formed by both erosion and accumulation. However, there is an ongoing debate about the roles of wave erosion and weathering in the formation of shore platforms.

text: Furthermore,

text: shore platforms

text: are formed by

text: denudation

text: and marine-built terraces arise from accumulations of materials removed by

text: shore erosion

text: .  Thus a marine terrace can be formed by both

text: erosion

text: and accumulation. However, there is an ongoing debate about the roles of

text: wave erosion

text: and

text: weathering

text: in the formation of

text: shore platforms

text: The Menuha Formation records the earliest occurrence of tectonic activity within the Ramon anticline, forming the present erosive valley known as "Makhtesh Ramon" as an outcome of a sequence of erosive events evolving since the Late Cretaceous (Avni, 1993). It consists of white and yellow/brown chalk that is often glauconitic and sometimes conglomeratic or marly. The Menuha Formation likely represents a temperate to subtropical, open shelf environment deposited during the formation of the Ramon anticline. Reworked conglomeratic chalks in the western section represent marginal facies derived from this structural uplift.

text: The Menuha Formation records the earliest occurrence of tectonic activity within the Ramon anticline, forming the present erosive valley known as "

text: Makhtesh Ramon

text: " as an outcome of a sequence of erosive events evolving since the

text: Late Cretaceous

text: (Avni, 1993). It consists of white and yellow/brown chalk that is often glauconitic and sometimes conglomeratic or marly. The Menuha Formation likely represents a temperate to subtropical, open shelf environment deposited during the formation of the Ramon anticline. Reworked conglomeratic chalks in the western section represent marginal facies derived from this structural uplift.

text: Tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean.

text: Tide

text: s often determine the range over which

text: sediment

text: is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however,

text: tidal bore

text: s can erode as the waves surge up river

text: estuaries

text: from the ocean.

text: If storms coincide with unusually high tides, or with a freak wave event such as a tidal surge or tsunami which causes significant coastal flooding, substantial quantities of material may be eroded from the coastal plain or dunes behind the berm by receding water.  This flow may alter the shape of the coastline, enlarge the mouths of rivers and create new deltas at the mouths of streams that had not been powerful enough to overcome longshore movement of sediment.

text: These commutation relations can be considered as the algebraic definition of the boson creation and annihilation operators. The fact that the boson many-body wave function is symmetric under particle exchange is also manifested by the commutation of the boson operators.

text: Ocean surface waves are oscillations caused by the friction from air moving across the surface of the water. This friction transfers energy and forms surface waves in the water perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The top of a wave is known as its crest and its foot as its trough; the distance between two crests is the wavelength. These waves are mechanical: as they approach, the water molecules at a given point rise up and, as they pass, the water molecules go down, tracing a roughly circular path. The energy is passed across the surface and does not represent a horizontal motion of the water itself. The sea state of the ocean is determined by the size of these waves, which—on the open ocean—depends upon the wind speed and the fetch, the distance over which the wind blows upon the water. The smallest waves are called ripples. As strong and prolonged winds push against ripples' raised crests, larger and more irregular waves form, which known as seas. These waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are traveling nearly matches the speed of the wind and, over time, they naturally separate into long, powerful waves with a common direction and wavelength. These swells are particularly common in the Roaring Forties of the Southern Hemisphere where the wind blows continuously. When the wind dies down, ripples easily disappear owing to water's surface tension, but seas and swells are only slowly reduced by gravity and destructive interference from other waves. Constructive interference, however, can also cause individual rogue waves much higher than normal. Most waves are less than  high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height; offshore construction such as wind farms and oil platforms use these measurements in computing the hundred-year wave they are designed against. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above .

text: Ocean surface waves

text: are oscillations caused by the

text: friction

text: from

text: air

text: moving across the surface of the water. This friction transfers

text: energy

text: and forms

text: surface wave

text: s in the water perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The top of a wave is known as its

text: crest

text: and its foot as its

text: trough

text: ; the distance between two crests is the

text: wavelength

text: . These waves are

text: mechanical

text: : as they approach, the water molecules at a given point rise up and, as they pass, the water molecules go down, tracing a roughly circular path. The energy is passed across the surface and does not represent a horizontal motion of the water itself. The

text: sea state

text: of the ocean is determined by the size of these waves, which—on the

text: open ocean

text: —depends upon the

text: wind speed

text: and the

text: fetch

text: , the distance over which the wind blows upon the water. The smallest waves are called

text: ripples

text: . As strong and prolonged winds push against ripples' raised crests, larger and more irregular waves form, which known as

text: seas

text: . These waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are traveling nearly matches the speed of the wind and, over time, they naturally separate into long, powerful waves with a common direction and wavelength. These

text: swells

text: are particularly common in the

text: Roaring Forties

text: of the Southern Hemisphere where the wind blows continuously. When the wind dies down, ripples easily disappear owing to water's

text: surface tension

text: , but seas and swells are only slowly

text: reduced by gravity

text: and

text: destructive interference

text: from other waves.

text: Constructive interference

text: , however, can also cause individual

text: rogue wave

text: s much higher than normal. Most waves are less than  high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height;

text: offshore construction

text: such as

text: wind farms

text: and

text: oil platform

text: s use these measurements in computing the

text: hundred-year wave

text: they are designed against. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above .

text: Periodically, velocities may increase dramatically or even reverse due to atmospheric storms raising the local surface eddy kinetic energy, which gets partially transmitted down to abyssal depths in episodes called benthic storms. These velocities may reach magnitudes well above 40 cm/s and vary significantly depending on the specific location. At the lower continental rise, south of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and at the lower slope around the Faeroe Islands these velocities may reach up to 73 cm/s and 75 cm/s, respectively. Bottom-current flow velocities have been measured as high as 300 cm/s in the Strait of Gibraltar. These benthic storms occur only 5 to 10 times per year and usually last between 3 and 5 days, but that is enough to heavily erode benthic sediment and keep the finer grains in suspension even after flow velocities return to normal and the bedload has been deposited. During benthic storms, the eroded sediment may be transported over thousands of kilometers and deposited rather quickly (i.e. ~1.5 cm/month) once the storm wanes. However, the net sedimentation rate over thousands of years may be much smaller (i.e. ~5.5 cm/year) due to the intense periods of erosion during benthic storms.

text: Periodically, velocities may increase dramatically or even reverse due to

text: atmospheric storms

text: raising the local

text: surface eddy kinetic energy

text: , which gets partially transmitted down to

text: abyssal

text: depths in episodes called

text: benthic storms

text: . These velocities may reach magnitudes well above 40 cm/s and vary significantly depending on the specific location. At the lower continental rise, south of

text: Halifax, Nova Scotia

text: , and at the lower slope around the

text: Faeroe Islands

text: these velocities may reach up to 73 cm/s and 75 cm/s, respectively. Bottom-current flow velocities have been measured as high as 300 cm/s in the

text: Strait of Gibraltar

text: . These benthic storms occur only 5 to 10 times per year and usually last between 3 and 5 days, but that is enough to heavily erode benthic sediment and keep the finer grains in suspension even after flow velocities return to normal and the bedload has been deposited. During benthic storms, the eroded sediment may be transported over thousands of kilometers and deposited rather quickly (i.e. ~1.5 cm/month) once the storm wanes. However, the net sedimentation rate over thousands of years may be much smaller (i.e. ~5.5 cm/year) due to the intense periods of erosion during benthic storms.

text: The view that radiolarites are mainly deposited under pelagic, deep water conditions cannot be asserted any longer. Layers enriched in radiolarians do even occur in shallow water limestones like the Solnhofen limestone and the Werkkalk Formation of Bavaria. What seems to be important for the preservation of radiolarian oozes is that they are deposited well below the storm wave base and below the jets of erosive surface currents. Radiolarites without any carbonates have most likely been sedimented below the calcite compensation depth (CCD). One has to bear in mind that the CCD has not been stationary in the geological past and that it is also a function of latitude. At present, the CCD reaches a maximum depth of about 5000 meters near the equator.

text: The view that radiolarites are mainly deposited under

text: pelagic

text: , deep water conditions cannot be asserted any longer. Layers enriched in radiolarians do even occur in shallow water

text: limestone

text: s like the

text: Solnhofen limestone

text: and the

text: Werkkalk Formation

text: of

text: Bavaria

text: . What seems to be important for the preservation of radiolarian oozes is that they are deposited well below the storm wave base and below the jets of erosive surface currents. Radiolarites without any carbonates have most likely been sedimented below the

text: calcite compensation depth

text: (CCD). One has to bear in mind that the CCD has not been stationary in the geological past and that it is also a function of

text: latitude

text: . At present, the CCD reaches a maximum depth of about 5000 meters near the

text: equator

text: Nantucket was formed by the outermost reach of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the recent Wisconsin Glaciation, shaped by the subsequent rise in sea level. The low ridge across the northern section of the island was deposited as glacial moraine during a period of glacial standstill, a period during which till continued to arrive and was deposited as the glacier melted at a stationary front. The southern part of the island is an outwash plain, sloping away from the arc of the moraine and shaped at its margins by the sorting actions and transport of longshore drift. Nantucket became an island when rising sea levels re-flooded Buzzards Bay about 5,000–6,000 years ago.

text: Nantucket was formed by the outermost reach of the

text: Laurentide Ice Sheet

text: during the recent

text: Wisconsin Glaciation

text: , shaped by the subsequent rise in sea level. The low ridge across the northern section of the island was deposited as

text: glacial moraine

text: during a period of glacial standstill, a period during which

text: till

text: continued to arrive and was deposited as the glacier melted at a stationary front. The southern part of the island is an

text: outwash plain

text: , sloping away from the arc of the moraine and shaped at its margins by the sorting actions and transport of

text: longshore drift

text: . Nantucket became an island when rising sea levels re-flooded

text: Buzzards Bay

text: about 5,000–6,000 years ago.

text: The Cenozoic is characterised by a further shallowing and erosion of earlier sediments. In places a reasonable thickness of Paleocene and Eocene sediments is reached, but most of the subsurface of the Netherlands lack deposits of this age.

text: The

text: Cenozoic

text: is characterised by a further shallowing and erosion of earlier sediments. In places a reasonable thickness of

text: Paleocene

text: and

text: Eocene

text: sediments is reached, but most of the subsurface of the Netherlands lack deposits of this age.

text: In 2008 the port repaired the  on the south side of the entrance that protects the shoreline and marine terminals from coastal erosion. The project included construction of the Waterfront Promenade, also known as the Lighthouse Promenade. Three historic sites are highlighted at viewing points: the 1872 Wharf, the Oxnard Packing House, and extant Point Hueneme Light. The path is wide enough to accommodate emergency or service vehicles and is lighted. The path provides paved public access along the shore by replacing a dirt path and connecting with the pathways at Hueneme Beach. The old seawall material was recycled by crushing the rock and using it as base material for the pathway.  The Ventura County Cultural Heritage Board designated the "Original Hueneme Wharf Site" as County Landmark #24 in 1972.

text: In 2008 the port repaired the  on the south side of the entrance that protects the shoreline and marine terminals from

text: coastal erosion

text: . The project included construction of the Waterfront Promenade, also known as the Lighthouse Promenade. Three historic sites are highlighted at viewing points: the 1872 Wharf, the Oxnard Packing House, and extant

text: Point Hueneme Light

text: . The path is wide enough to accommodate emergency or service vehicles and is lighted. The path provides paved public access along the shore by replacing a dirt path and connecting with the pathways at Hueneme Beach. The old seawall material was recycled by crushing the rock and using it as base material for the pathway.  The Ventura County Cultural Heritage Board designated the "Original Hueneme Wharf Site" as County Landmark #24 in 1972.

text: Swash consists of two phases: uprush (onshore flow) and backwash (offshore flow). Generally uprush velocities are greater but of shorter duration compared to the backwash. Onshore velocities are at greatest at the start of the uprush and then decrease, whereas offshore velocities increase towards the end of the backwash. The direction of the uprush varies with the prevailing wind, whereas the backwash is always perpendicular to the coastline. This asymmetrical motion of swash can cause longshore drift as well as cross-shore sediment transport.

text: Swash consists of two phases: uprush (onshore flow) and backwash (offshore flow). Generally uprush velocities are greater but of shorter duration compared to the backwash. Onshore velocities are at greatest at the start of the uprush and then decrease, whereas offshore velocities increase towards the end of the backwash. The direction of the uprush varies with the prevailing wind, whereas the backwash is always perpendicular to the coastline. This asymmetrical motion of swash can cause

text: longshore drift

text: as well as cross-shore

text: sediment transport

text: Thermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving water. It can occur both along rivers and at the coast. Rapid river channel migration observed in the Lena River of Siberia is due to thermal erosion, as these portions of the banks are composed of permafrost-cemented non-cohesive materials. Much of this erosion occurs as the weakened banks fail in large slumps. Thermal erosion also affects the Arctic coast, where wave action and near-shore temperatures combine to undercut permafrost bluffs along the shoreline and cause them to fail. Annual erosion rates along a  segment of the Beaufort Sea shoreline averaged  per year from 1955 to 2002.

text: Thermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening

text: permafrost

text: due to moving water. It can occur both along rivers and at the coast. Rapid

text: river channel migration

text: observed in the

text: Lena River

text: of

text: Siberia

text: is due to thermal erosion, as these portions of the banks are composed of permafrost-cemented non-cohesive materials. Much of this erosion occurs as the weakened banks fail in large slumps. Thermal erosion also affects the

text: Arctic

text: coast, where wave action and near-shore temperatures combine to undercut permafrost bluffs along the shoreline and cause them to fail. Annual erosion rates along a  segment of the Beaufort Sea shoreline averaged  per year from 1955 to 2002.

text: White Island is designated as a SSSI because of the waved maritime heath, maritime grassland, breeding seabirds and for the sequence of Late Pleistocene deposits in the cleft of Chad Girt which almost cuts the island in two. The sequence of Quaternary deposits is as follows:

text: White Island is designated as a SSSI because of the waved maritime heath, maritime grassland, breeding seabirds and for the sequence of

text: Late Pleistocene

text: deposits in the cleft of Chad Girt which almost cuts the island in two. The sequence of

text: Quaternary

text: deposits is as follows:

text: The Braye was open to the sea and the shoreline moves with the waves and the tides. Gravel and sand are deposited onshore, only to be swept back offshore. Storms batter the coast, and tides flood areas on a daily basis. The premiere forces that shapes the coastal landscape, however, are waves. Beaches are not fixed features, they are dynamic environments.

text: Wave swash and currents can impact significantly on the sediment budget, although it is difficult to measure. Swash can be either an erosive or accretion process depending on many factors such as the sand texture and the individual wave itself. Although during fair weather the impact of swash is negligible, during storms the sea level can rise high enough to erode dunes and cliffs, dumping large quantities of sediment into the littoral cell, which can only be given back to the dune by aeolian transport. Where storm surge causes sediments to be deposited on the land from the littoral cell, they can form washover fans or open a new tidal inlet which transports sediment away from the littoral cell.

text: Wave

text: swash

text: and currents can impact significantly on the sediment budget, although it is difficult to measure. Swash can be either an erosive or accretion process depending on many factors such as the sand texture and the individual wave itself. Although during fair weather the impact of swash is negligible, during storms the sea level can rise high enough to erode dunes and cliffs, dumping large quantities of sediment into the littoral cell, which can only be given back to the dune by

text: aeolian

text: transport. Where storm surge causes sediments to be deposited on the land from the littoral cell, they can form

text: washover fan

text: s or open a new tidal inlet which transports sediment away from the littoral cell.

text: Dunwich, the capital of the English medieval wool trade, disappeared over the period of a few centuries due to redistribution of sediment by waves. Human interference can also increase coastal erosion: Hallsands in Devon, England, was a coastal village that washed away over the course of a year, an event directly caused by dredging of shingle in the bay in front of it.

text: Dunwich

text: , the capital of the

text: English

text: medieval

text: wool

text: trade, disappeared over the period of a few centuries due to redistribution of sediment by waves. Human interference can also increase coastal erosion:

text: Hallsands

text: in

text: Devon

text: , England, was a coastal village that washed away over the course of a year, an event directly caused by

text: dredging

text: of

text: shingle

text: in the

text: bay

text: in front of it.

text: A landscape evolution model is a physically based numerical model that simulates changing terrain over the course of time. This can be due to glacial erosion and deposition; erosion, sediment transport, and deposition in fluvial systems such as rivers; regolith production; the movement of material on hillslopes; more intermittent events such as rockfalls, debris flows, landslides, and other surface processes. This can also be due to surface uplift and/or subsidence. A typical landscape evolution model takes many of these factors into account.

text: A landscape evolution model is a physically based

text: numerical model

text: that simulates changing terrain over the course of time. This can be due to

text: glacial

text: erosion and deposition;

text: erosion

text: sediment transport

text: , and

text: deposition

text: in

text: fluvial

text: systems such as

text: river

text: s;

text: regolith production

text: ; the movement of material on

text: hill

text: slopes; more intermittent events such as

text: rockfall

text: s,

text: debris flow

text: s,

text: landslide

text: s, and other surface processes. This can also be due to surface

text: uplift

text: and/or

text: subsidence

text: . A typical landscape evolution model takes many of these factors into account.

text: The bay holds a small indigenous fishing population known as the Kolis. A large infrastructural project, the Bandra-Worli Sea Link, now links the two ends of the bay by a flyover bridge which reduced the commuting time between the suburbs and the city. During the monsoon season the sea waves hit against the walls and sometimes also enters the small byelanes. The bay is highly polluted due to the drainage of the polluted Mithi river into it. Mahim bay shifts according to the tide; during high tide, water rushes to the Bandra side and during low tide, the Worli side has much water. Recently tar deposits have been found in the bay. The bay is highly unsafe for swimming or Ganpathi immersion. The flooding situation is growing worse. Approximately the sea floods the area once a week. It reaches up to the walls of Bombay Scottish School. The school authorities are advised to shut their sea facing gates to ensure safety of the children.The most frightening situation occurred after the start of the Bandra-Worli Sea Link project. the waves entered the small byelanes with great velocity . The Cafe Coffee Day and the Barista outlets were nearly touched by the rising waves.The citizens living on the sea facing side of the Veer Savarkar Marg have been warned repeatedly of building checkwalls to prevent loss of lives and destruction of any movable or immovable property. The students of Bombay Scottish School are also repeatedly told not to go on the beach for safety reasons. The environmentalists in that area have said that the bay has come ahead nearly by 100 metres . This bay is a cause of concern for the local bodies. It is predicted that the waves will nearly submerge Shivaji Park if their arrival to the shore is so fast. The land at the bay has sunk by 5 mm due to the rampant erosion due to the ferocious sea.

text: The bay holds a small indigenous fishing population known as the

text: Kolis

text: . A large infrastructural project, the

text: Bandra-Worli Sea Link

text: , now links the two ends of the bay by a flyover bridge which reduced the commuting time between the suburbs and the city. During the monsoon season the sea waves hit against the walls and sometimes also enters the small byelanes. The bay is highly polluted due to the drainage of the polluted Mithi river into it. Mahim bay shifts according to the tide; during high tide, water rushes to the Bandra side and during low tide, the Worli side has much water. Recently tar deposits have been found in the bay. The bay is highly unsafe for swimming or Ganpathi immersion. The flooding situation is growing worse. Approximately the sea floods the area once a week. It reaches up to the walls of

text: Bombay Scottish School

text: . The school authorities are advised to shut their sea facing gates to ensure safety of the children.The most frightening situation occurred after the start of the

text: Bandra-Worli Sea Link

text: project. the waves entered the small byelanes with great velocity . The

text: Cafe Coffee Day

text: and the

text: Barista

text: outlets were nearly touched by the rising waves.The citizens living on the sea facing side of the Veer Savarkar Marg have been warned repeatedly of building checkwalls to prevent loss of lives and destruction of any movable or immovable property. The students of

text: Bombay Scottish School

text: are also repeatedly told not to go on the beach for safety reasons. The environmentalists in that area have said that the bay has come ahead nearly by 100 metres . This bay is a cause of concern for the local bodies. It is predicted that the waves will nearly submerge

text: Shivaji Park

text: if their arrival to the shore is so fast. The land at the bay has sunk by 5 mm due to the rampant erosion due to the ferocious sea.

text: Natural rates of erosion are controlled by the action of geomorphic drivers, such as rainfall; bedrock wear in rivers; coastal erosion by the sea and waves; glacial plucking, abrasion, and scour; areal flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes; and mass movement processes in steep landscapes like landslides and debris flows. The rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded. Typically, physical erosion proceeds fastest on steeply sloping surfaces, and rates may also be sensitive to some climatically-controlled properties including amounts of water supplied (e.g., by rain), storminess, wind speed, wave fetch, or atmospheric temperature (especially for some ice-related processes). Feedbacks are also possible between rates of erosion and the amount of eroded material that is already carried by, for example, a river or glacier. Processes of erosion that produce sediment or solutes from a place contrast with those of deposition, which control the arrival and emplacement of material at a new location.

text: Natural rates of erosion are controlled by the action of

text: geomorphic

text: drivers, such as

text: rain

text: fall; bedrock wear in

text: river

text: s; coastal erosion by the sea and

text: waves

text: glacial

text: plucking,

text: abrasion

text: , and scour; areal flooding;

text: wind

text: abrasion;

text: groundwater

text: processes; and

text: mass movement

text: processes in steep landscapes like

text: landslide

text: s and

text: debris flow

text: s. The rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded. Typically, physical erosion proceeds fastest on steeply sloping surfaces, and rates may also be sensitive to some climatically-controlled properties including amounts of water supplied (e.g., by rain), storminess, wind speed, wave

text: fetch

text: , or atmospheric temperature (especially for some ice-related processes).

text: Feedback

text: s are also possible between rates of erosion and the amount of eroded material that is already carried by, for example, a river or glacier. Processes of erosion that produce sediment or solutes from a place contrast with those of

text: deposition

text: , which control the arrival and emplacement of material at a new location.

text: These bars usually consist of accumulated gravel and sand carried by the current of longshore drift and deposited at a less turbulent part of the current. Thus, they most commonly occur across artificial bay and river entrances due to the loss of kinetic energy in the current after wave refraction.

text: In North Carolina, high waves damaged many homes along the Outer Banks and caused heavy beach erosion. High waves also damaged piers, boats, and docks throughout the Mid-Atlantic states. Flooding forced several highways to close, and in Pennsylvania, thousands were forced to evacuate their homes. The storm surge destroyed 48 homes on Long Island, while the winds damaged the roofs of many more. Widespread crop damage occurred, amounting to about $20 million (1985 USD). Overall damage in the United States was estimated at $900 million, which was less than expected. In neighboring Canada, the remnants of Gloria caused minor power outages in New Brunswick, although confusion related to the storm's arrival led to the creation of the Canadian Hurricane Centre.

text: In North Carolina, high waves damaged many homes along the Outer Banks and caused heavy beach erosion. High waves also damaged piers, boats, and docks throughout the Mid-Atlantic states. Flooding forced several highways to close, and in Pennsylvania, thousands were forced to evacuate their homes. The storm surge destroyed 48 homes on Long Island, while the winds damaged the roofs of many more. Widespread crop damage occurred, amounting to about $20 million (1985

text: USD

text: ). Overall damage in the United States was estimated at $900 million, which was less than expected. In neighboring Canada, the remnants of Gloria caused minor power outages in New Brunswick, although confusion related to the storm's arrival led to the creation of the

text: Canadian Hurricane Centre

text: The Housing Act left open a loophole for landlords and letting agents. Although there was a penalty for not protecting the deposit or issuing prescribed information, there was no penalty for not doing so within the original 14 day limit. To close this loophole, the Localism Act 2011 extended the time limit for protecting tenancy deposits from 14 to 30 days, and this limit became absolute. Therefore, on the 31st day after the payment of the deposit money to the landlord the tenant can make an application to the court if the money has not been protected and the prescribed information given. Even if the deposit is registered or the prescribed information is given at any time after the 30-day window the tenant still has a right to make a claim. The claim will be for the return of the full sum of the deposit along with a penalty of between one and three times the sum of the deposit, to be awarded at the discretion of the Court. Tenants can also now make an application to a county court for a penalty award after the tenancy has ended.

text: The peninsula is made up from sand and shingle as well as Boulder Clay eroded from the Holderness coastline washed down the coastline from Flamborough Head. Material is washed down the coast by longshore drift and accumulates to form the long, narrow embankment in the sheltered waters inside the mouth of the Humber estuary. It is maintained by plants, especially Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria). Waves carry material along the peninsula to the tip, continually extending it; as this action stretches the peninsula it also narrows it to the extent that the sea can cut across it in severe weather. When the sea cuts across it permanently, everything beyond the breach is swept away, only to eventually reform as a new spit pointing further south. This cycle of destruction and reconstruction occurs approximately every 250 years. More recently, Dr. John Pethick of Hull University put forward a different theory to explain the formation of Spurn Head. He suggests that the spit head has been a permanent feature since the end of the last ice age, having developed on an underwater glacial moraine. As the ice sheets melted, sea level gradually rose and longshore drift caused a spit to form between this and other islands along the moraine. Under normal circumstances, the sea washes over the neck of the spit taking sand from the seaward side and redepositing it on the landward side. Over time, the whole spit, length intact, slips back – with the spit-head remaining on its glacial foundation. This process has now been affected by the protection of the spit put in place during the Victorian era. This protection halted the wash-over process and resulted in the spit being even more exposed due to the rest of the coast moving back  since the 'protection' was constructed. The now crumbling defences will not be replaced and the spit will continue to move westwards at a rate of  per year, keeping pace with the coastal erosion further north.

text: The peninsula is made up from sand and shingle as well as Boulder Clay eroded from the Holderness coastline washed down the coastline from

text: Flamborough Head

text: . Material is washed down the coast by

text: longshore drift

text: and accumulates to form the long, narrow embankment in the sheltered waters inside the mouth of the Humber estuary. It is maintained by plants, especially

text: Marram grass

text: (Ammophila arenaria). Waves carry material along the peninsula to the tip, continually extending it; as this action stretches the peninsula it also narrows it to the extent that the sea can cut across it in severe weather. When the sea cuts across it permanently, everything beyond the breach is swept away, only to eventually reform as a new spit pointing further south. This cycle of destruction and reconstruction occurs approximately every 250 years. More recently, Dr. John Pethick of Hull University put forward a different theory to explain the formation of Spurn Head. He suggests that the spit head has been a permanent feature since the end of the

text: last ice age

text: , having developed on an underwater glacial

text: moraine

text: . As the ice sheets melted, sea level gradually rose and longshore drift caused a spit to form between this and other islands along the moraine. Under normal circumstances, the sea washes over the neck of the spit taking sand from the seaward side and redepositing it on the landward side. Over time, the whole spit, length intact, slips back – with the spit-head remaining on its glacial foundation. This process has now been affected by the protection of the spit put in place during the

text: Victorian era

text: . This protection halted the wash-over process and resulted in the spit being even more exposed due to the rest of the coast moving back  since the 'protection' was constructed. The now crumbling defences will not be replaced and the spit will continue to move westwards at a rate of  per year, keeping pace with the coastal erosion further north.

text: In the process of burial, it is possible that siliciclastic deposits may subsequently be uplifted as a result of a mountain building event or erosion.  When uplift occurs, it exposes buried deposits to a radically new environment. Because the process brings material to or closer to the surface, sediments that undergo uplift are subjected to lower temperatures and pressures as well as slightly acidic rain water. Under these conditions, framework grains and cement are again subjected to dissolution and in turn increasing porosity. On the other hand, telogenesis can also change framework grains to clays, thus reducing porosity. These changes are dependent on the specific conditions that the rock is exposed as well as the composition of the rock and pore waters. Specific pore waters, can cause the further precipitation of carbonate or silica cements. This process can also encourage the process of oxidation on a variety of iron bearing minerals.

text: Wave action contributes towards the erosion of cliffs around Beachy Head, which experience frequent small rock falls. Since chalk forms in layers separated by contiguous bands of flints, the physical structure affects how the cliffs erode. Wave action undermines the lower cliffs, causing frequent slab failures - slabs from layers of chalk break off, undermining the upper parts of the cliffs, which eventually collapse. In contrast to small rock falls, mass movements are less common. A mass movement happened in 2001 when, after a winter of heavy rain, the water had begun to seep into the cracks which had frozen and caused the cracks to widen. This then made the cliff edge erode and collapse into the sea, destroying a well-known chalk stack called the Devil's Chimney.

text: Antidunes migrate upstream because the stream flow is shallow and fast in the trough and slows and deepens over the crest. As a result, the shear stress on the bed decreases from trough to crest, allowing sedimentation, and increases from crest to tough, causing erosion. The inertia of the flow moves the shear stress maximum and minimum slightly downstream of the trough and crest. This allows the bedform to amplify with time as erosion occurs in the trough and deposition occurs at the crest.

text: Antidunes migrate upstream because the stream flow is shallow and fast in the trough and slows and deepens over the crest. As a result, the

text: shear stress

text: on the bed decreases from trough to crest, allowing sedimentation, and increases from crest to tough, causing erosion. The inertia of the flow moves the shear stress maximum and minimum slightly downstream of the trough and crest. This allows the bedform to amplify with time as erosion occurs in the trough and deposition occurs at the crest.

text: Study of rock exposures and drillholes demonstrates that no displacement of the rock layers occurs at the escarpment: this is not a fault line but the result of unequal erosion. The escarpment's caprock is dolomitic limestone ("dolostone"), which is more resistant and overlies weaker, more easily eroded shale as a weathering-resistant "cap". The escarpment thus formed over millions of years through a process of differential erosion of rocks of different hardnesses. Through time the soft rocks weather away or erode by the action of streams. The gradual removal of the soft rocks undercuts the resistant caprock, leaving a cliff or escarpment. The erosional process is most readily seen at Niagara Falls, where the river has quickened the process. It can also be seen at the three waterfalls of the Genesee River at Rochester (additional resistant rock layers make more than one escarpment in some places). Also, in some places thick glacial deposits conceal the Niagara Escarpment, such as north of Georgetown, Ontario, where it actually continues under glacial till and reappears farther north.

text: Study of rock exposures and drillholes demonstrates that no displacement of the rock layers occurs at the escarpment: this is not a

text: fault line

text: but the result of unequal

text: erosion

text: . The escarpment's

text: caprock

text: is dolomitic

text: limestone

text: dolostone

text: "), which is more resistant and overlies weaker, more easily eroded shale as a

text: weathering

text: -resistant "cap". The escarpment thus formed over millions of years through a process of differential erosion of rocks of different hardnesses. Through time the soft rocks weather away or erode by the action of streams. The gradual removal of the soft rocks undercuts the resistant caprock, leaving a cliff or escarpment. The erosional process is most readily seen at

text: Niagara Falls

text: , where the river has quickened the process. It can also be seen at the three

text: waterfalls of the Genesee River

text: at

text: Rochester

text: (additional resistant rock layers make more than one escarpment in some places). Also, in some places thick glacial deposits conceal the Niagara Escarpment, such as north of

text: Georgetown, Ontario

text: , where it actually continues under

text: glacial till

text: and reappears farther north.

text: The Streckelsberg was formed during the last ice age as a push moraine. At that time over 16,000 years ago large parts of central and northern Europe were covered by a massive ice sheet. During the gradual retreat of the ice, there were repeated smaller advances of the glacier that led to the formation of moraines. The Streckelsberg was formed during such an advance, when the glacier pushed loose sedimentary rock in front of it, piling it up. When the ice retreated further, the first Baltic proglacial lake was formed from the meltwaters and rising sea levels, later the Yoldia Sea and Ancylus Lake were created and, ultimately, the Baltic Sea in its present shape. Originally, the Streckelsberg was much larger than it is today, both in terms of size and height. Through erosion processes the Streckelsberg soon shrank, particularly as a result of breakers from the Baltic Sea. Wave and wind erosion has reduced the Streckelsberg by  in the last 300 years. This process still continues, despite coastal protection measures taken in 1995, including groynes, two breakwaters, a triple protective wall and the dumping of artificial sand. In strong storms, parts of the cliff frequently break off and slump down onto the beach.

text: The Streckelsberg was formed during the last

entity_section: Weichselian glaciation, Scandinavia and northern Europe

text: ice age

text: as a

text: push moraine

text: . At that time over 16,000 years ago large parts of central and northern Europe were covered by a massive

text: ice sheet

text: . During the gradual retreat of the ice, there were repeated smaller advances of the

text: glacier

text: that led to the formation of

text: moraines

text: . The Streckelsberg was formed during such an advance, when the glacier pushed loose

text: sedimentary rock

text: in front of it, piling it up. When the ice retreated further, the first Baltic

text: proglacial lake

text: was formed from the

text: meltwater

text: s and rising sea levels, later the

text: Yoldia Sea

text: and

text: Ancylus Lake

text: were created and, ultimately, the Baltic Sea in its present shape. Originally, the Streckelsberg was much larger than it is today, both in terms of size and height. Through

text: erosion processes

text: the Streckelsberg soon shrank, particularly as a result of

text: breakers

text: from the Baltic Sea. Wave and wind erosion has reduced the Streckelsberg by  in the last 300 years. This process still continues, despite

text: coastal protection

text: measures taken in 1995, including

text: groynes

text: , two

text: breakwaters

text: , a triple protective wall and the dumping of artificial sand. In strong storms, parts of the

text: cliff

text: frequently break off and slump down onto the beach.

text: Coastal erosion is a physical process by which shorelines in coastal areas around the world shift and change, primarily in response to waves and currents that can be influenced by tides and storm surge. Coastal erosion can result from long-term processes (see also beach evolution) as well as from episodic events such as tropical cyclones or other severe storm events.

text: Coastal erosion

text: is a physical process by which shorelines in coastal areas around the world shift and change, primarily in response to waves and currents that can be influenced by tides and storm surge. Coastal erosion can result from long-term processes (see also

text: beach evolution

text: ) as well as from episodic events such as

text: tropical cyclone

text: s or other severe storm events.

text: There are numerous calculations that take into consideration the factors that produce longshore drift.These formulations are:

text: When protecting the coastline it is important to understand the how the sedimentary budget can be affected when implementing appropriate coastal protecting techniques. Often management plans for coastal erosion have seen the use of ‘hard’ engineering structures as a means of protecting the coastline from recession. In particular groynes which are used to trap the longshore drift of sediment that often deprives a beach. Groynes have the ability to change the coast's sediment budget, accreting up drift beaches but at the same time starving down drift beaches. This management approach is not used so much these days, with modern knowledge of coastal dynamics promoting the use of ‘soft’, natural approaches such as nourishment and preservation of natural systems such as dunes.

text: When protecting the coastline it is important to understand the how the sedimentary budget can be affected when implementing appropriate coastal protecting techniques. Often management plans for coastal erosion have seen the use of ‘hard’ engineering structures as a means of protecting the coastline from recession. In particular

text: groyne

text: s which are used to trap the longshore drift of sediment that often deprives a beach. Groynes have the ability to change the coast's sediment budget, accreting up drift beaches but at the same time starving down drift beaches. This management approach is not used so much these days, with modern knowledge of coastal dynamics promoting the use of ‘soft’, natural approaches such as nourishment and preservation of natural systems such as dunes.

text: Pleistocene mammal fossils, including an extinct antelope known nowhere else, are also common in former shoreline deposits around the edges of the island, left behind as Lake Victoria has slowly subsided over the centuries due to erosion in its outlet.

text: Pleistocene

text: mammal fossils, including an extinct

text: antelope

text: known nowhere else, are also common in former shoreline deposits around the edges of the island, left behind as Lake Victoria has slowly subsided over the centuries due to erosion in its outlet.

text: A ferry, the Princess of the Stars, capsized near Sibuyan Island in San Fernando, Romblon, and the Philippine Coast Guard was unable to make a rescue attempt because of high waves. A rescue ship reached the MV Princess of the Stars, more than 24 hours after it lost radio contact at 12:30 p.m. EDT (04:30 GMT) on Saturday. About 700 people were on this ship at the time; it is unlikely there are any survivors, and, as of now, only a few have drifted ashore.  Philippine Coast Guard spokesman Lt. Senior Grade Arman Balilo, however, lamented: "They haven't seen anyone. They're scouring the area. They're studying the direction of the waves to determine where survivors may have drifted."

text: A ferry, the

text: Princess of the Stars

text: , capsized near

text: Sibuyan Island

text: in

text: San Fernando, Romblon

text: , and the

text: Philippine Coast Guard

text: was unable to make a rescue attempt because of high waves. A rescue ship reached the MV Princess of the Stars, more than 24 hours after it lost radio contact at 12:30 p.m. EDT (04:30 GMT) on Saturday. About 700 people were on this ship at the time; it is unlikely there are any survivors, and, as of now, only a few have drifted ashore.

text: Philippine Coast Guard

text: spokesman Lt. Senior Grade Arman Balilo, however, lamented: "They haven't seen anyone. They're scouring the area. They're studying the direction of the waves to determine where survivors may have drifted."

text: The 'classic' one-car crash results when a vehicle slowly drift to the right, hits dirt or rumble strips on the right shoulder of the road, and the driver becomes alert and overreacts, jerking the wheel left to bring the vehicle back onto the road. This motion causes the left front tire to strike the raised edge of the pavement at a sharp angle, often causing a rollover or a swerve into oncoming traffic. This form of one-car crash is "classic" because it occurs very often. Raised edges of pavement (or "edge-drops") were once common, but are now recognized as a hazard; it is now standard practice to level the gravel shoulder with the pavement, although edge-drops may reform due to soil erosion.  This "slowly drift to the right" scenario applies to jurisdictions with right-hand traffic, so in jurisdictions with left-hand traffic it would be a "slowly drift to the left" scenario.

text: The 'classic' one-car crash results when a vehicle slowly drift to the right, hits dirt or rumble strips on the

text: right shoulder

text: of the road, and the driver becomes alert and overreacts, jerking the wheel left to bring the vehicle back onto the road. This motion causes the left front tire to strike the raised edge of the pavement at a sharp angle, often causing a rollover or a swerve into oncoming traffic. This form of one-car crash is "classic" because it occurs very often. Raised edges of pavement (or "edge-drops") were once common, but are now recognized as a hazard; it is now standard practice to level the gravel shoulder with the pavement, although edge-drops may reform due to

text: soil erosion

text: .  This "slowly drift to the right" scenario applies to jurisdictions with

text: right-hand traffic

text: , so in jurisdictions with

text: left-hand traffic

text: it would be a "slowly drift to the left" scenario.

text: The spit formed almost entirely of flint deposited by waves through the process of long-shore drift. The main influence on its formation has been storm waves throwing shingle over the top of the beach crest, where it is protected from ordinary wave action. Over time, this process leads to the formation of stable ridges of fine particles, and swails of coarser shingle.

text: Shoreline erosion, which occurs on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the action of currents and waves but sea level (tidal) change can also play a role.

text: Shoreline erosion, which occurs on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the action of currents and

text: waves

text: but sea level (tidal) change can also play a role.

text: Nelson has beaches and a sheltered harbour. The harbour entrance is protected by a Boulder Bank, a natural,  bank of rocks transported south from Mackay Bluff via longshore drift. The bank creates a perfect natural harbour which enticed the first settlers although the entrance was narrow. The wreck of the Fifeshire on Arrow Rock (now called Fifeshire Rock in memory of this disaster) in 1842 proved the difficulty of the passage. A cut was later made in the bank in 1906 which allowed larger vessels access to the port.

text: Nelson has beaches and a sheltered harbour. The harbour entrance is protected by a

text: Boulder Bank

text: , a natural,  bank of rocks transported south from Mackay Bluff via

text: longshore drift

text: . The bank creates a perfect natural harbour which enticed the first settlers although the entrance was narrow. The wreck of the Fifeshire on

text: Arrow Rock

text: (now called Fifeshire Rock in memory of this disaster) in 1842 proved the difficulty of the passage. A cut was later made in the bank in 1906 which allowed larger vessels access to the port.

text: Waves, described by Google as "equal parts conversation and document", are hosted XML documents that allow seamless and low latency concurrent modifications. Any participant of a wave can reply anywhere within the message, edit any part of the wave, and add participants at any point in the process. Each edit/reply is a blip and users can reply to individual blips within waves. Recipients are notified of changes/replies in all waves in which they are active and, upon opening a wave, may review those changes in chronological order. In addition, waves are live. All replies/edits are visible in real-time, letter-by-letter, as they are typed by the other collaborators. Multiple participants may edit a single wave simultaneously in Google Wave. Thus, waves can function not only as e-mails and threaded conversations but also as an instant messaging service when many participants are online at the same time. A wave may repeatedly shift roles between e-mail and instant messaging depending on the number of users editing it concurrently. The ability to show messages as they are typed can be disabled, similar to conventional instant messaging.

text: Waves, described by Google as "equal parts conversation and document", are hosted

text: XML

text: documents that allow seamless and low latency concurrent modifications. Any participant of a wave can reply anywhere within the message, edit any part of the wave, and add participants at any point in the process. Each edit/reply is a blip and users can reply to individual blips within waves. Recipients are notified of changes/replies in all waves in which they are active and, upon opening a wave, may review those changes in chronological order. In addition, waves are live. All replies/edits are visible in real-time, letter-by-letter, as they are typed by the other collaborators. Multiple participants may edit a single wave simultaneously in Google Wave. Thus, waves can function not only as e-mails and

text: threaded conversations

text: but also as an

text: instant messaging

text: service when many participants are online at the same time. A wave may repeatedly shift roles between e-mail and instant messaging depending on the number of users editing it concurrently. The ability to show messages as they are typed can be disabled, similar to conventional instant messaging.

text: The sediment that is submerged during rough weather forms landforms including storm bars. In calmer weather waves return sediment to the visible part of the beach. Due to longshore drift some sediment can end up further along the beach from where it started. Often coastal areas have developed sustainable coastal positions where the sediment moving off beaches is sustainable submersion. Unfortunately, for many inhabited coastlines, anthropogenic interference in coastal processes has meant that erosion is often more permanent than submersion.

text: The sediment that is submerged during rough weather forms landforms including storm

text: bar

text: s. In calmer weather waves return sediment to the visible part of the beach. Due to

text: longshore drift

text: some

text: sediment

text: can end up further along the beach from where it started. Often coastal areas have developed sustainable coastal positions where the sediment moving off beaches is sustainable submersion. Unfortunately, for many

text: inhabited

text: coastline

text: s,

text: anthropogenic

text: interference in coastal processes has meant that

text: erosion

text: is often more permanent than submersion.

text: Many American bands in the late seventies began experimenting with synthesizers, forming the new wave style. The original American bands included Talking Heads, The Cars, and Devo. In the 1980s, Britain would respond with the synthpop style, which broadened the definition of "new wave".

text: Many American bands in the late seventies began experimenting with

text: synthesizer

text: s, forming the

text: new wave

text: style. The original American bands included

text: Talking Heads

text: The Cars

text: , and

text: Devo

text: . In the 1980s, Britain would respond with the

text: synthpop

text: style, which broadened the definition of "new wave".

text: Cascades frogs lay their eggs May 20 through July 10, depending on when the snow melts and creates ponds in which the eggs are laid. First, egg masses are deposited in comparatively warm water along gradually sloping shorelines, often over soft substrates protected from severe wave action. Females can only breed once a year, but whether they skip years remains unknown. A single female will lay up to 425 eggs at a time, but very few tadpoles will live past their first year. The placement of clusters of egg masses in shallow water soon after the first thaw can make them susceptible to freezing and pathogen transmission between clusters. The eggs hatch within eight to 20 days. Their larval period lasts 80 to 95 days. Most frogs  reach their full size after three years, after which they become fertile and can begin mating. Adults appear to use the same breeding sites for several years.

text: There is a considerable overlap between geomorphology and other fields. Deposition of material is extremely important in sedimentology.  Weathering is the chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surface agents, and is typically studied by soil scientists and environmental chemists, but is an essential component of geomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place. Civil and environmental engineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related to canals, slope stability (and natural hazards), water quality, coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, and stream restoration. Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short period of time, making them extremely important entities in the high latitudes and meaning that they set the conditions in the headwaters of mountain-born streams; glaciology therefore is important in geomorphology.

text: There is a considerable overlap between geomorphology and other fields. Deposition of material is extremely important in

text: sedimentology

text: Weathering

text: is the chemical and physical disruption of earth materials in place on exposure to atmospheric or near surface agents, and is typically studied by

text: soil scientists

text: and environmental

text: chemists

text: , but is an essential component of geomorphology because it is what provides the material that can be moved in the first place.

text: Civil

text: and

text: environmental

text: engineers are concerned with erosion and sediment transport, especially related to

text: canal

text: s,

text: slope stability

text: (and

text: natural hazard

text: s),

text: water quality

text: , coastal environmental management, transport of contaminants, and

text: stream restoration

text: . Glaciers can cause extensive erosion and deposition in a short period of time, making them extremely important entities in the high latitudes and meaning that they set the conditions in the headwaters of mountain-born streams;

text: glaciology

text: therefore is important in geomorphology.

text: Where the direction of the shore inland re-enters, or changes direction, for example at a headland, the longshore current spreads out or dissipates. No longer able to carry the full load, much of the sediment is dropped. This is called deposition. This submerged bar of sediment allows longshore drift or littoral drift to continue to transport sediment in the direction the waves are breaking, forming an above-water spit. Without the complementary process of littoral drift, the bar would not build above the surface of the waves becoming a spit and would instead be leveled off underwater.

text: Where the direction of the shore inland re-enters, or changes direction, for example at a

text: headland

text: , the longshore current spreads out or dissipates. No longer able to carry the full load, much of the sediment is dropped. This is called deposition. This submerged bar of sediment allows longshore drift or littoral drift to continue to transport sediment in the direction the waves are breaking, forming an above-water spit. Without the complementary process of littoral drift, the bar would not build above the surface of the waves becoming a spit and would instead be leveled off underwater.

text: Stokes' wave theory, when using a low order of the perturbation expansion (e.g. up to second, third or fifth order), is valid for non-linear waves on intermediate and deep water, that is for wavelengths (λ) not large as compared with the mean depth (h). In shallow water, the low-order Stokes expansion breaks down (gives unrealistic results) for appreciable wave amplitude (as compared to the depth). Then, Boussinesq approximations are more appropriate. Further approximations on Boussinesq-type (multi-directional) wave equations lead – for one-way wave propagation – to the Korteweg–de Vries equation or the Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation. Like (near) exact Stokes-wave solutions, these two equations have solitary wave (soliton) solutions, besides periodic-wave solutions known as cnoidal waves.

text: Stokes' wave theory, when using a low order of the perturbation expansion (e.g. up to second, third or fifth order), is valid for non-linear waves on intermediate and deep water, that is for

text: wavelength

text: s (λ) not large as compared with the mean depth (h). In

text: shallow water

text: , the low-order Stokes expansion breaks down (gives unrealistic results) for appreciable wave amplitude (as compared to the depth). Then,

text: Boussinesq approximation

text: s are more appropriate. Further approximations on Boussinesq-type (multi-directional) wave equations lead – for one-way wave propagation – to the

text: Korteweg–de Vries equation

text: or the

text: Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation

text: . Like (near) exact Stokes-wave solutions, these two equations have

text: solitary wave

text: soliton

text: ) solutions, besides periodic-wave solutions known as

text: cnoidal wave

text: s.

text: New wave first circulated as a rock music genre in the early 1970s, used by critics like Nick Kent and Dave Marsh to classify such New York-based groups as the Velvet Underground and New York Dolls. It gained a much wider currency beginning in 1976 when it appeared in UK punk fanzines such as Sniffin' Glue and also in newsagent music weeklies such as Melody Maker and New Musical Express. In a November 1976 article in Melody Maker, Caroline Coon used Malcolm McLaren's term "new wave" to designate music by bands not exactly punk, but related to, and part of the same musical scene. The term was also used in that sense by music journalist Charles Shaar Murray in his comments about the Boomtown Rats. For a period of time in 1976 and 1977, the terms new wave and punk were somewhat interchangeable. By the end of 1977, "new wave" had replaced "punk" as the definition for new underground music in the UK.

text: New wave first circulated as a rock music genre in the early 1970s, used by critics like Nick Kent and Dave Marsh to classify such New York-based groups as

text: the Velvet Underground

text: and

text: New York Dolls

text: . It gained a much wider currency beginning in 1976 when it appeared in UK punk

text: fanzine

text: s such as

text: Sniffin' Glue

text: and also in newsagent music weeklies such as

text: Melody Maker

text: and

text: New Musical Express

text: . In a November 1976 article in Melody Maker,

text: Caroline Coon

text: used

text: Malcolm McLaren

text: 's term "new wave" to designate music by bands not exactly

text: punk

text: , but related to, and part of the same musical scene. The term was also used in that sense by music journalist

text: Charles Shaar Murray

text: in his comments about

text: the Boomtown Rats

text: . For a period of time in 1976 and 1977, the terms new wave and punk were somewhat interchangeable. By the end of 1977, "new wave" had replaced "punk" as the definition for new

text: underground music

text: in the UK.

text: The sediments that comprise Blue Mountain were deposited as a result of the highlands that formed after the Taconic orogeny. The first wave of sediments were coarse, gray, and poorly sorted. (The Shawngunk Formation) This combination of depositional features means that the source area was relatively close and deposited in a moist climate. These sediments grade into finer reddish sands and silts, (Bloomsburg Formation) as the source area became more distant and/or less productive. The climate during this time was drier.

text: Kana had made some appearances for Pro Wrestling Wave in 2008, but did not start working regularly for the promotion until the end of 2010, when NEO Japan Ladies Pro Wrestling folded. On July 24, 2011, Kana defeated Ayumi Kurihara in the finals to win the 2011 Catch the Wave tournament. On October 30, Kana and Kurihara defeated Ran Yu-Yu and Toshie Uematsu to win the Dual Shock Wave 2011 tournament and become the first ever Wave Tag Team Champions. While a tag team champion with Kurihara, Kana also regularly teamed with Mio Shirai as Triple Tails.S and on February 1, 2012, Kurihara, Mika Iida and Shuu Shibutani were made official members of Triple Tails. Four days later, Kana and Kurihara lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Ran Yu-Yu and Toshie Uematsu. On March 6, the new incarnation of Triple Tails was named White Tails, in reference to Wave's top villainous alliance, Black Dahlia. On November 27, Kana defeated Yumi Ohka in a singles match, after which she declared herself the new "ace" of Wave. On February 17, Kana, as the 2011 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into the Wave Single Championship tournament, defeating Mio Shirai in her semifinal match. On March 17, Kana was defeated in the finals of the tournament by Yumi Ohka.

text: Kana had made some appearances for Pro Wrestling Wave in 2008, but did not start working regularly for the promotion until the end of 2010, when NEO Japan Ladies Pro Wrestling folded. On July 24, 2011, Kana defeated Ayumi Kurihara in the finals to win the

text: 2011 Catch the Wave

text: tournament. On October 30, Kana and Kurihara defeated

text: Ran Yu-Yu

text: and

text: Toshie Uematsu

text: to win the

text: Dual Shock Wave 2011

text: tournament and become the first ever

text: Wave Tag Team Champions

text: . While a tag team champion with Kurihara, Kana also regularly teamed with

text: Mio Shirai

text: as Triple Tails.S and on February 1, 2012, Kurihara, Mika Iida and

text: Shuu Shibutani

text: were made official members of Triple Tails. Four days later, Kana and Kurihara lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Ran Yu-Yu and Toshie Uematsu. On March 6, the new incarnation of Triple Tails was named White Tails, in reference to Wave's top

text: villainous

text: alliance, Black Dahlia. On November 27, Kana defeated

text: Yumi Ohka

text: in a singles match, after which she declared herself the new "

text: ace

text: " of Wave. On February 17, Kana, as the 2011 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into the

text: Wave Single Championship

text: tournament

text: , defeating Mio Shirai in her semifinal match. On March 17, Kana was defeated in the finals of the tournament by Yumi Ohka.

text: The coastal zone is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs. They occupy less than 15% of the Earth's land surface; yet accommodate more than 40% of the world population. Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population. With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025, human activities originating from this small land area will impose an inordinate amount of pressures on the global system. Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities.In the European Union, almost half of the population now lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal zone resources produce much of the Union's economic wealth. The fishing, shipping and tourism industries all compete for vital space along Europe's estimated 89 000 kilometres of coastline, and coastal zones contain some of Europe's most fragile and valuable natural habitats. Shore protection consists up to the 50's of interposing a static structure between the sea and the land to prevent erosion and or flooding, and it has a long history. From that period new technical or friendly policies have been developed to preserve the environment when possible.It is already important where there are extensive low-lying areas that require protection. For instance: Venice, New Orleans, Nagara river in Japan, the Netherlands, Caspian Sea.Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important, as sea level rise is currently accelerating.  This will be a challenge to coastal management, since seawalls and breakwaters are generally expensive to construct, and the costs to build protection in the face of sea-level rise would be enormous.

text: The coastal zone is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs. They occupy less than 15% of the Earth's land surface; yet accommodate more than 40% of the world population. Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population. With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025, human activities originating from this small land area will impose an inordinate amount of pressures on the global system. Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities.In the European Union, almost half of the population now lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal zone resources produce much of the Union's economic wealth. The fishing, shipping and tourism industries all compete for vital space along Europe's estimated 89 000 kilometres of coastline, and coastal zones contain some of Europe's most fragile and valuable natural

text: habitat

text: s. Shore protection consists up to the 50's of interposing a static structure between the sea and the land to prevent

text: erosion

text: and or flooding, and it has a long history. From that period new technical or friendly policies have been developed to preserve the

text: environment

text: when possible.It is already important where there are extensive low-lying areas that require protection. For instance:

text: Venice

text: New Orleans

text: Nagara

text: river in Japan, the

text: Netherlands

text: Caspian Sea

text: .Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important, as

text: sea level rise

text: is currently accelerating.  This will be a challenge to coastal management, since seawalls and breakwaters are generally expensive to construct, and the costs to build protection in the face of sea-level rise would be enormous.

text: A trained entrance often consists of rock walls that force the water into a deeper more stable channel. Trained entrances can provide better navigation, water quality and flood mitigation services, but can also cause beach erosion due to their interruption of longshore drift. One solution is the installation of a sand bypass system across the trained entrance.

text: A trained entrance often consists of rock walls that force the water into a deeper more stable

text: channel

text: . Trained entrances can provide better navigation, water quality and

text: flood

text: mitigation services, but can also cause beach erosion due to their interruption of

text: longshore drift

text: . One solution is the installation of a sand bypass system across the trained entrance.

text: In many cases, sedimentation occurs slowly. In a desert, for example, the wind deposits siliciclastic material (sand or silt) in some spots, or catastrophic flooding of a wadi may cause sudden deposits of large quantities of detrital material, but in most places eolian erosion dominates. The amount of sedimentary rock that forms is not only dependent on the amount of supplied material, but also on how well the material consolidates. Erosion removes most deposited sediment shortly after deposition.

text: In many cases, sedimentation occurs slowly. In a

text: desert

text: , for example, the wind deposits siliciclastic material (sand or silt) in some spots, or catastrophic flooding of a

text: wadi

text: may cause sudden deposits of large quantities of detrital material, but in most places eolian erosion dominates. The amount of sedimentary rock that forms is not only dependent on the amount of supplied material, but also on how well the material consolidates. Erosion removes most deposited sediment shortly after deposition.

text: In the case of longshore drift from one single or a dominant direction, like at Chesil Beach or Spurn Head, the flow of material is along the coast in a movement which is not determined by the now tied island, such as Portland, which it has reached. In this and similar cases, while the strip of beach material connected to the island may be technically called a tombolo because it links the island to the land, it is better thought of in terms of its formation – as a spit or otherwise.

text: In the case of

text: longshore drift

text: from one single or a dominant direction, like at

text: Chesil Beach

text: or

text: Spurn Head

text: , the flow of material is along the coast in a movement which is not determined by the now

text: tied island

text: , such as

text: Portland

text: , which it has reached. In this and similar cases, while the strip of beach material connected to the island may be technically called a tombolo because it links the island to the land, it is better thought of in terms of its formation – as a

text: spit

text: or otherwise.

text: Off shore there are two shoal fields; Hen and Chickens shoal and Fenwick Island shoal. These two areas pose a hazard to boaters. The longshore drift along the coast is generally north with a node just below South Bethany moving the sand south toward Ocean City, Maryland. Further offshore, the Delaware River paleovalley, which existed during the most recent ice age, is filled with recent sediments scoured and re-deposited as sea level rose.

text: Off shore there are two

text: shoal

text: fields; Hen and Chickens shoal and Fenwick Island shoal. These two areas pose a hazard to boaters. The

text: longshore drift

text: along the coast is generally north with a node just below South Bethany moving the sand south toward

text: Ocean City, Maryland

text: . Further offshore, the

text: Delaware River

text: paleovalley, which existed during the most recent

text: ice age

text: , is filled with recent sediments scoured and re-deposited as sea level rose.

text: Wave Rock is a spectacular example of what geomorphologists call a "flared slope". A flared slope is a concave-upward or -inward bedrock surface that is typically found around the base of inselbergs, bornhardts, and granitic boulders and also on their higher slopes. Flared slopes like Wave Rock are particularly well developed in granitic landforms of south-western and southern Australia. The flared slopes are argued to have formed by the concentrated chemical weathering around the base of an inselberg by groundwater. The chemical weathering of the bedrock by groundwater produces a concave-upward or –inward pocket of deeply weathered, relatively loose, and disaggregated bedrock within the formerly solid bedrock base of an inselberg. When the land surface, which is underlain by deeply weathered bedrock, around an inselberg is lowered by erosion, the pocket of deeply weathered disaggregated bedrock is also removed to produce a flared slope such as Wave Rock. It has also been argued that flared slopes can form during erosion of slopes of inselbergs.

text: Wave Rock is a spectacular example of what geomorphologists call a "

text: flared slope

text: ". A flared slope is a concave-upward or -inward bedrock surface that is typically found around the base of inselbergs,

text: bornhardt

text: s, and granitic boulders and also on their higher slopes. Flared slopes like Wave Rock are particularly well developed in granitic landforms of south-western and southern Australia. The flared slopes are argued to have formed by the concentrated chemical weathering around the base of an inselberg by groundwater. The chemical weathering of the bedrock by groundwater produces a concave-upward or –inward pocket of deeply weathered, relatively loose, and disaggregated bedrock within the formerly solid bedrock base of an inselberg. When the land surface, which is underlain by deeply weathered bedrock, around an inselberg is lowered by erosion, the pocket of deeply weathered disaggregated bedrock is also removed to produce a flared slope such as Wave Rock. It has also been argued that flared slopes can form during erosion of slopes of inselbergs.

text: The summit area has outcropping tuff, lapilli-tuff and breccia of the Lingmell Formation amid the drift deposits. The crags atop the screes reveal the plagioclase-phyric andesite lavas of the Birker Fell Formation.

text: The summit area has outcropping

text: tuff

text: lapilli

text: -tuff and

text: breccia

text: of the Lingmell Formation amid the drift deposits. The crags atop the screes reveal the

text: plagioclase

text: -phyric

text: andesite

text: lava

text: s of the Birker Fell Formation.

text: While it was moving little over the south-central Caribbean, Omar brought prolonged tropical storm conditions to the ABC Islands. Sustained winds to near gale force battered the islands, although peak gusts to 58 mph (92 km/h) were confined to Bonaire. In 24 hours, a maximum precipitation total of 4.0 in (102 mm) was recorded on Aruba, while 1.7 in (43 mm) and 1.5 in (41 mm) of rain fell in Curaçao and Bonaire, respectively. The high winds damaged roofs on all three islands, and rough seas caused beach erosion and significant damage to coastal facilities. Some rain damage also occurred, with significant flooding reported in some parts of Aruba. In the SSS Islands (Saba, St. Eustatius, and Sint Maarten) strong winds from Omar, gusting up to 76 mph (122 km/h), and high waves caused significant damage and coastal flooding. On Sint Maarten, rainfall from the storm totaled to 5.4 in (139.4 mm). Damage in Sint Maarten was mainly limited to beach erosion and scattered power outages.

text: While it was moving little over the south-central Caribbean, Omar brought prolonged tropical storm conditions to the

text: ABC Islands

text: . Sustained winds to near gale force battered the islands, although peak gusts to 58 mph (92 km/h) were confined to

text: Bonaire

text: . In 24 hours, a maximum precipitation total of 4.0 in (102 mm) was recorded on

text: Aruba

text: , while 1.7 in (43 mm) and 1.5 in (41 mm) of rain fell in Curaçao and Bonaire, respectively. The high winds damaged roofs on all three islands, and rough seas caused beach erosion and significant damage to coastal facilities. Some rain damage also occurred, with significant flooding reported in some parts of Aruba. In the

text: SSS Islands

text: Saba

text: St. Eustatius

text: , and

text: Sint Maarten

text: ) strong winds from Omar, gusting up to 76 mph (122 km/h), and high waves caused significant damage and coastal flooding. On Sint Maarten, rainfall from the storm totaled to 5.4 in (139.4 mm). Damage in Sint Maarten was mainly limited to beach erosion and scattered power outages.

text: In 1955, Grand Terre was designated as a state Wildlife and Fisheries reservation.  In 1979, the Louisiana state legislature created the Fort Livingston State Commemorative Area.  The remains of the fort are somewhat of a tourist attraction, although it is only accessible by boat and is closely monitored by the U.S. Coast Guard.  The fort is located directly east across Barataria Bay from the Coast Guard Station on Grand Isle, Louisiana.  Grand Terre Island is also currently home to the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries' Marine Laboratory.  The fort itself is also part of a wave-protection project being conducted by the Louisiana Department of Natural Resources.  The project consists of a rock dike built to conserve the Gulf shoreline of West Grand Terre Island and protect Fort Livingston. As a result of tropical storm systems in 2002, the erosion rates along West Grand Terre Island greatly accelerated, requiring some type of protective barrier to be built.

text: In 1955, Grand Terre was designated as a state Wildlife and Fisheries reservation.  In 1979, the Louisiana state legislature created the Fort Livingston State Commemorative Area.  The remains of the fort are somewhat of a

text: tourist attraction

text: , although it is only accessible by boat and is closely monitored by the

text: U.S. Coast Guard

text: .  The fort is located directly east across

text: Barataria Bay

text: from the Coast Guard Station on

text: Grand Isle, Louisiana

text: .  Grand Terre Island is also currently home to the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries' Marine Laboratory.  The fort itself is also part of a wave-protection project being conducted by the Louisiana Department of Natural Resources.  The project consists of a rock dike built to conserve the

text: Gulf

text: shoreline of West Grand Terre Island and protect Fort Livingston. As a result of

text: tropical storm

text: systems in 2002, the erosion rates along West Grand Terre Island greatly accelerated, requiring some type of protective barrier to be built.

text: At Loe Pool a barrier dammed the ria of the River Cober causing the formation of Cornwall's largest lake. Very little of the Loe Bar shingle is locally derived (compared with nearby Gunwalloe beach material to the south) and the deposits have been tentatively dated as Eocene. The composition of the bar deposits are: chalk flint 86%, quartz 9%, grit 2.6%, greensand chert 2% and serpentine 0.5%. The shingle coming from drowned terraces of the former river that flowed down the English Channel; the nearest onshore source is  away in East Devon. Longshore drift is unlikely to have caused the formation because the bar is situated between two headlands but it plays an important part in the maintenance of the bar, with a strong current flowing to the south-east from Porthleven to Gunwalloe, depositing shingle along the bar. The ebb flow is not a simple reverse flow and is not strong enough to remove all the deposits.*

text: At

text: Loe Pool

text: a barrier dammed the

text: ria

text: of the

text: River Cober

text: causing the formation of Cornwall's largest lake. Very little of the Loe Bar shingle is locally derived (compared with nearby

text: Gunwalloe beach material

text: to the south) and the deposits have been tentatively dated as

text: Eocene

text: . The composition of the bar deposits are:

text: chalk

text: flint

text: quartz

text: grit

text: greensand

text: chert

text: 2% and

text: serpentine

text: 0.5%. The shingle coming from drowned terraces of the former river that flowed down the

text: English Channel

text: ; the nearest onshore source is  away in East Devon.

text: Longshore drift

text: is unlikely to have caused the formation because the bar is situated between two headlands but it plays an important part in the maintenance of the bar, with a strong current flowing to the south-east from Porthleven to Gunwalloe, depositing shingle along the bar. The ebb flow is not a simple reverse flow and is not strong enough to remove all the deposits.*

text: Construction of sea walls has been a common tool to protect developed property, such as roads and buildings, from coastal erosion and recession. However, more often than not, protecting the property by building a seawall does not achieve the retention of the beach. Building an impermeable structure such as a seawall within the swash zone can interfere with the morphodynamics system in the swash zone. Building a seawall can raise the water table, increase wave reflection and intensify turbulence against the wall. This ultimately results in erosion of the adjacent beach or failure of the structure.<ref>Rae, E. 2010, "Coastal Erosion and Deposition" in Encyclopedia of Geography. Sage publications, 21 March 2011,

text: Construction of

text: sea wall

text: s has been a common tool to protect developed property, such as roads and buildings, from

text: coastal erosion

text: and recession. However, more often than not, protecting the property by building a

text: seawall

text: does not achieve the retention of the beach. Building an impermeable structure such as a

text: seawall

text: within the swash zone can interfere with the morphodynamics system in the swash zone. Building a

text: seawall

text: can raise the

text: water table

text: , increase wave reflection and intensify turbulence against the wall. This ultimately results in erosion of the adjacent beach or failure of the structure.<ref>Rae, E. 2010, "Coastal Erosion and Deposition" in Encyclopedia of Geography. Sage publications, 21 March 2011,

text: In October 2011, Tmall.com experienced two successive waves of online rioting since it significantly increased fees on online vendors. The service fees raised from 6,000 yuan ($940) to 60,000 yuan ($9,400) a year, and a compulsory fixed sum deposit gone from 10,000 yuan ($1,570) to up to 150,000 yuan ($23,500). According to Tmall.com, the price increase was intended to help weed out merchants that are too often a source of fakes, shoddy products and poor customer service. Stores that earn top ratings for service and quality from customers and high sales volumes are entitled to partial or full refunds.

text: It was stated in a statutory report, under the Reservoir Safety Act 1975, dated 12 June, that all five reservoirs could be overtopped during a Probable Maximum Flood. Woodhead as the fountainhead would have the most extensive improvements, and with these completed there was no danger at Rhodeswood of overtopping; however, there was weakness in the north spillway. To reduce the pressure, the roadway was consolidated to protect the north spillway from erosion, the embankment was raised by  above the road, the wave wall was heightened by  and the south spillway tunnel was remodelled. The work took place between 1994 and 1995.

text: Large gravel deposits are a common geological feature, being formed as a result of the weathering and erosion of rocks. The action of rivers and waves tends to pile up gravel in large accumulations. This can sometimes result in gravel becoming compacted and concreted into the sedimentary rock called conglomerate. Where natural gravel deposits are insufficient for human purposes, gravel is often produced by quarrying and crushing hard-wearing rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, or basalt. Quarries where gravel is extracted are known as gravel pits. Southern England possesses particularly large concentrations of them due to the widespread deposition of gravel in the region during the Ice Ages.

text: Large gravel deposits are a common geological feature, being formed as a result of the

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: of rocks. The action of rivers and waves tends to pile up gravel in large accumulations. This can sometimes result in gravel becoming compacted and concreted into the

text: sedimentary rock

text: called

text: conglomerate

text: . Where natural gravel deposits are insufficient for human purposes, gravel is often produced by quarrying and crushing hard-wearing rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, or basalt. Quarries where gravel is extracted are known as gravel pits. Southern England possesses particularly large concentrations of them due to the widespread deposition of gravel in the region during the

text: Ice Age

text: s.

text: During the summer, Lake Michigan continues to have an effect on Chicago weather, but it is not as common or as strong as it is during the spring months. On very hot days, temperatures can still be cooler along the immediate shoreline and slightly inland of the lake if winds blow from the east. Temperatures can be held in the 70s or 80s in these areas while outlying and suburban areas temperatures are rising well into the 90s. Temperatures can also reach extreme levels of heat on the immediate shoreline, such as when the air temperature reached  at Northerly Island during the aforementioned July 2012 heat wave.

text: During the summer, Lake Michigan continues to have an effect on Chicago weather, but it is not as common or as strong as it is during the spring months. On very hot days, temperatures can still be cooler along the immediate shoreline and slightly inland of the lake if winds blow from the east. Temperatures can be held in the 70s or 80s in these areas while outlying and suburban areas temperatures are rising well into the 90s. Temperatures can also reach extreme levels of heat on the immediate shoreline, such as when the air temperature reached  at

text: Northerly Island

text: during the aforementioned July 2012 heat wave.

text: Tomography is a method of producing a three-dimensional image of the internal structures of a solid object (such as the human body or the earth) by the observation and recording of differences in the effects on the passage of energy waves impinging on those structures. The waves of energy are P-waves generated by earthquakes and are recording the wave velocities. The high quality data that is being collected by the permanent seismic stations of USArray and the Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS) will allow the creation of high resolution seismic imaging of the Earth’s interior below the United States. Seismic tomography helps constrain mantle velocity structure and aids in the understanding of chemical and geodynamic processes that are at work. With the use of the data collected by USArray and global travel-time data, a global tomography model of P-wave velocity heterogeneity in the mantle can be created. The range and resolution of this technique will allow investigation into the suite of problems that are of concern in the North American mantle lithosphere, including the nature of the major tectonic features. This method gives evidence for differences in thickness and the velocity anomaly of the mantle lithosphere between the stable center of the continent and the more active western North America. This data is vital for the understanding of local lithosphere evolution, and when combined with additional global data, will allow the mantle to be imaged beyond the current extent of USArray.

text: Tomography

text: is a method of producing a three-dimensional image of the internal structures of a solid object (such as the human body or the earth) by the observation and recording of differences in the effects on the passage of energy waves impinging on those structures. The waves of energy are P-waves generated by earthquakes and are recording the wave velocities. The high quality data that is being collected by the permanent seismic stations of USArray and the Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS) will allow the creation of high resolution seismic imaging of the Earth’s interior below the United States. Seismic tomography helps constrain mantle velocity structure and aids in the understanding of chemical and geodynamic processes that are at work. With the use of the data collected by USArray and global travel-time data, a global tomography model of P-wave velocity heterogeneity in the mantle can be created. The range and resolution of this technique will allow investigation into the suite of problems that are of concern in the North American mantle lithosphere, including the nature of the major tectonic features. This method gives evidence for differences in thickness and the velocity anomaly of the

text: mantle lithosphere

text: between the stable center of the continent and the more active western North America. This data is vital for the understanding of local lithosphere evolution, and when combined with additional global data, will allow the mantle to be imaged beyond the current extent of USArray.

text: The formation of the uplands goes back to the last glaciation phase in northern Germany, the Weichselian. The Dornbusch was created about 12,500 years ago by a small finger of the ice front that left its mark in the present day straits of the Little Belt and Great Belt. During the retreat of the glacier, the uplands were left behind as a push moraine and for about 4,000 years they were part of a large area of the mainland, south of the present Baltic Sea. During the first flooding phase of the Baltic Sea, the water did not reach the area of Hiddensee; it was only about 3,900 years ago that the Littorina Sea lapped the three island cores of Dornbusch, Fährinsel and Gellen. And it was just 2,900 years ago that coastal erosion (land erosion, dispersal and deposition) and the formation of the elongated shape of the Hiddensee through sand-accretion began.

text: The formation of the uplands goes back to the last glaciation phase in northern Germany, the

text: Weichselian

text: . The Dornbusch was created about 12,500 years ago by a small finger of the

text: ice front

text: that left its mark in the present day straits of the

text: Little Belt

text: and

text: Great Belt

text: . During the retreat of the glacier, the uplands were left behind as a

text: push moraine

text: and for about 4,000 years they were part of a large area of the mainland, south of the present Baltic Sea. During the first flooding phase of the Baltic Sea, the water did not reach the area of Hiddensee; it was only about 3,900 years ago that the

text: Littorina Sea

text: lapped the three island cores of Dornbusch,

text: Fährinsel

text: and

text: Gellen

text: . And it was just 2,900 years ago that

text: coastal erosion

text: (land erosion, dispersal and deposition) and the formation of the elongated shape of the Hiddensee through sand-accretion began.

text: Many reefs result from abiotic processes—deposition of sand, wave erosion planing down rock outcrops, and other natural processes—but the best-known reefs are the coral reefs of tropical waters developed through biotic processes dominated by corals and calcareous algae.  Artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms, especially fish.

text: Many reefs result from

text: abiotic

text: processes—

text: deposition

text: of

text: sand

text: wave

text: erosion

text: planing down rock outcrops, and other natural processes—but the best-known reefs are the

text: coral reefs

text: of

text: tropical

text: waters developed through

text: biotic

text: processes dominated by

text: coral

text: s and

text: calcareous

text: algae

text: Artificial reefs

text: such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms, especially

text: fish

text: People wave by raising their hand and moving it from side to side. Another common wave is to raise one's hand and repeatedly move the fingers downward toward the palm. A variant known as the wiggly wave consists of holding the hand near shoulder level and wiggling the fingers randomly.  This can be used to appear cute or flirtatious to the target of the wave. The gesture can be used to attract attention at a distance. Most commonly, though, the gesture means quite simply "hello" or "goodbye.The royal wave, also known as a regal wave, pageant wave, parade wave, or Miss America wave, is a similar but distinct kind of hand waving gesture in which a person executes something alternatively described as either a 'plastic grin' with 'fingers cupped' and 'forearm swaying side-to-side' or a "vertical hand with a slight twist from the wrist". The gesture is often performed, to various degrees, by different members of the British royal family, signaling anything from regality, class and control to elegance, restraint and character.

text: People wave by raising their hand and moving it from side to side. Another common wave is to raise one's hand and repeatedly move the fingers downward toward the palm. A variant known as the wiggly wave consists of holding the hand near shoulder level and wiggling the fingers randomly.  This can be used to appear cute or flirtatious to the target of the wave. The gesture can be used to attract attention at a distance. Most commonly, though, the gesture means quite simply "hello" or "goodbye.The royal wave, also known as a regal wave, pageant wave, parade wave, or

text: Miss America

text: wave, is a similar but distinct kind of hand waving gesture in which a person executes something alternatively described as either a 'plastic grin' with 'fingers cupped' and 'forearm swaying side-to-side' or a "vertical hand with a slight twist from the wrist". The gesture is often performed, to various degrees, by different members of the British royal family, signaling anything from regality, class and control to elegance, restraint and character.

text: There is an interesting geological phenomena at Dora Creek's connection to the lake. The banks of the creek have formed into two peninsula jutting out into the lake like a point. Thus the aboriginal name is explained, the creek is literally in a lake - the points are merely the banks of the creek !.  The sediment deposited by the creek has not formed a large flood plain or river delta, but has left behind  two banks. This is  where the agitation of the lake by winds  causes enough erosion to wash away  the flood plain that would otherwise appear at the delta or near were a creek floods.   However the erosion caused by the lake's waves  is not enough to   erode away the  clay  sediments  that deposit on the banks of the creek. For that reason, the banks of the creek have grown  due to flooding, and  appear now as two points, with a creek inside. Similar structures can be seen at creeks nearby too, with good examples at Stoney Creek, Lake Street, Blackalls Park, which is more clearly a  type of river delta,where the flat land is created by floods deposition, and at Wyong Creek in a lake a little south, where a similar "two points with creek inside" or "creek in lake" ,  is in existence, but they are smaller and demonstrating how the points grow ..

text: Non-protection of a deposit taken before the commencement of the regulations on 6 April 2007 does not result in a penalty, but no valid Section 21 notice may be served until the deposit has been protected.

text: 1. Analysis of the site: The bank erosion rate, elevation level, vegetation, wave energy, wind patterns, wave activity and soil type of the proposed site need to be examined to determine if it is an appropriate area for living shoreline stabilization. Restoration plans of stabilization activities are designed upon completion of the initial site analysis.

text: 1. Analysis of the site: The bank

text: erosion

text: rate, elevation level, vegetation, wave energy, wind patterns, wave activity and soil type of the proposed site need to be examined to determine if it is an appropriate area for living shoreline stabilization. Restoration plans of stabilization activities are designed upon completion of the initial site analysis.

text: The underlying geology in the Pack River watershed is largely granitic, which decomposes into fine particles.  Glaciation in the Pack River valley formed ice dams upstream of the confluence of many tributaries, resulting in large deposits of glacial till.  Fine sandy sediments deposited in the dammed water are known as glacial fluvial deposits. These sandy areas today appear on mountain side slopes, forming very erosive soils.

text: According to the Natural Resource Conservation Service, Sussex County soils are derived from parent materials that are largely till and glaciofluvial deposits, alluvium, and organic matter deposits.  Till is the rock of soil material transported or deposited by glacial ice.  In this case, the most recent glaciation (i.e. the last ice age), the Wisconsinian continental glacier, deposited a till plain composed of ground and recessional moraines.  This glaciation reached its maximum extent roughly 22,000 years ago (20,000 B.C.E.).  Glaciofluvial deposits (or "outwash") are rock and soil materials that melting glaciers deposit as the glacier recedes.  Alluvium is materials that are deposited by floodwaters from engorged bodies of water—chiefly streams and rivers.  Organic deposits are largely the result of decomposing plant material.

text: According to the

text: Natural Resource Conservation Service

text: , Sussex County soils are derived from parent materials that are largely

text: till

text: and

text: glaciofluvial deposits

text: alluvium

text: , and

text: organic matter

text: deposits

text: .  Till is the rock of soil material transported or deposited by glacial ice.  In this case, the most recent glaciation (i.e. the last

text: ice age

text: ), the

text: Wisconsinian continental glacier

text: , deposited a

text: till plain

text: composed of

text: ground

text: and

text: recessional moraine

text: s.  This glaciation reached its maximum extent roughly 22,000 years ago (20,000 B.C.E.).  Glaciofluvial deposits (or "outwash") are rock and soil materials that melting glaciers deposit as the glacier recedes.  Alluvium is materials that are deposited by floodwaters from engorged bodies of water—chiefly streams and rivers.  Organic deposits are largely the result of decomposing plant material.

text: There are 78 features on Kase Run that are classified as "disturbances". 34 of these are erosion sites (17 of which are on the stream's left bank and 17 of which are on its right bank), 24 are deposition bars, and eight are tributaries. Three are bridges, three are pipes, two are riprap, one is a dam, and one is a ford.

text: There are 78 features on Kase Run that are classified as "disturbances". 34 of these are

text: erosion

text: sites (17 of which are on the stream's

text: left bank

text: and 17 of which are on its

text: right bank

text: ), 24 are

text: deposition

text: bars, and eight are tributaries. Three are

text: bridge

text: s, three are pipes, two are

text: riprap

text: , one is a

text: dam

text: , and one is a

text: ford

text: Internal waves, also called internal gravity waves, go by many other names depending upon the fluid stratification, generation mechanism, amplitude, and influence of external forces. If propagating horizontally along an interface where the density rapidly decreases with height, they are specifically called interfacial (internal) waves. If the interfacial waves are large amplitude they are called internal solitary waves or internal solitons. If moving vertically through the atmosphere where substantial changes in air density influences their dynamics, they are called anelastic (internal) waves. If generated by flow over topography, they are called Lee waves or mountain waves. If the mountain waves break aloft, they can result in strong warm winds at the ground known as Chinook winds (in North America) or Foehn winds (in Europe). If generated in the ocean by tidal flow over submarine ridges or the continental shelf, they are called internal tides. If they evolve slowly compared to the Earth's rotational frequency so that their dynamics are influenced by the Coriolis effect, they are called inertia gravity waves or, simply, inertial waves. Internal waves are usually distinguished from Rossby waves, which are influenced by the change of Coriolis frequency with latitude.

text: Internal waves, also called internal gravity waves, go by many other names depending upon the fluid stratification, generation mechanism, amplitude, and influence of external forces. If propagating horizontally along an interface where the density rapidly decreases with height, they are specifically called interfacial (internal) waves. If the interfacial waves are large amplitude they are called internal solitary waves or internal

text: soliton

text: s. If moving vertically through the atmosphere where substantial changes in air density influences their dynamics, they are called anelastic (internal) waves. If generated by flow over topography, they are called

text: Lee waves

text: or

text: mountain waves

text: . If the mountain waves break aloft, they can result in strong warm winds at the ground known as

text: Chinook winds

text: (in North America) or

text: Foehn

text: winds (in Europe). If generated in the ocean by tidal flow over submarine ridges or the continental shelf, they are called internal tides. If they evolve slowly compared to the Earth's rotational frequency so that their dynamics are influenced by the

text: Coriolis effect

text: , they are called

text: inertia gravity waves

text: or, simply,

text: inertial waves

text: . Internal waves are usually distinguished from

text: Rossby wave

text: s, which are influenced by the change of

text: Coriolis frequency

text: with latitude.

text: Windmill Hill or Windmill Hill Flats is one of a pair of plateaux, known collectively as the Southern Plateaux, at the southern end of the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. It is located just to the south of the Rock of Gibraltar, which descends steeply to the plateau. Windmill Hill slopes down gently to the south with a height varying from  at the north end to  at the south end. It covers an area of about , though about  at the north end is built over. The plateau is ringed to the south and east with a line of cliffs which descend to the second of the Southern Plateaux, Europa Flats, which is itself ringed by sea cliffs. Both plateaux are the product of marine erosion during the Quaternary period and subsequent tectonic uplift. Windmill Hill was originally on the shoreline and its cliffs were cut by the action of waves, before the ground was uplifted and the shoreline moved further out to the edge of what is now Europa Flats.

text: Windmill Hill or Windmill Hill Flats is one of a pair of

text: plateau

text: x, known collectively as the Southern Plateaux, at the southern end of the

text: British Overseas Territory

text: of

text: Gibraltar

text: . It is located just to the south of the

text: Rock of Gibraltar

text: , which descends steeply to the plateau. Windmill Hill slopes down gently to the south with a height varying from  at the north end to  at the south end. It covers an area of about , though about  at the north end is built over. The plateau is ringed to the south and east with a line of cliffs which descend to the second of the Southern Plateaux,

text: Europa Flats

text: , which is itself ringed by sea cliffs. Both plateaux are the product of marine erosion during the

text: Quaternary

text: period and subsequent tectonic uplift. Windmill Hill was originally on the shoreline and its cliffs were cut by the action of waves, before the ground was uplifted and the shoreline moved further out to the edge of what is now Europa Flats.

text: If the coast suddenly changes direction, especially around an estuary, spits are likely to form. Long shore drift pushes the sediment along the beach but when it reaches a turn as in the diagram, the long shore drift does not always easily turn with it, especially near an estuary where the outward flow from a river may push sediment away from the coast. The area may be also be shielded from wave action, preventing much long shore drift. On the side of the headland receiving weaker waves, shingle and other large sediments will build up under the water where waves are not strong enough to move them along. This provides a good place for smaller sediments to build up to sea level. The sediment, after passing the headland will accumulate on the other side and not continue down the beach, sheltered both by the headland and the shingle.

text: If the coast suddenly changes direction, especially around an estuary, spits are likely to form.

text: Long shore drift

text: pushes the sediment along the beach but when it reaches a turn as in the diagram, the long shore drift does not always easily turn with it, especially near an estuary where the outward flow from a river may push sediment away from the coast. The area may be also be shielded from wave action, preventing much long shore drift. On the side of the headland receiving weaker waves, shingle and other large sediments will build up under the water where waves are not strong enough to move them along. This provides a good place for smaller sediments to build up to sea level. The sediment, after passing the headland will accumulate on the other side and not continue down the beach, sheltered both by the headland and the shingle.

text: In February, 2009, Ducks Unlimited Canada (DUC) and Port Metro Vancouver (PMV) announced completion of an intertidal enhancement project increasing fish habitat at Rose-Kirkland Island. PMV contributed $1.5 million as part of a multi-year plan to offset loss of wildlife habitat from the development of the Deltaport Third Berth Project (DP3). The Rose-Kirkland Island project included breaching Fraser River dikes to create an intertidal environment;  raising the elevation of a kilometre of dike to mitigate flooding of the fields on the island; excavating the pool area to facilitate tidal flushing; and upgrading 250 metres of rock riprap along the foreshore to protect against erosion due to waves caused by Fraser River boat traffic.

text: In February, 2009,

text: Ducks Unlimited Canada

text: (DUC) and

text: Port Metro Vancouver

text: (PMV) announced completion of an intertidal enhancement project increasing fish habitat at Rose-Kirkland Island. PMV contributed $1.5 million as part of a multi-year plan to offset loss of wildlife habitat from the development of the

text: Deltaport Third Berth Project

text: (DP3). The Rose-Kirkland Island project included breaching Fraser River dikes to create an intertidal environment;  raising the elevation of a kilometre of dike to mitigate flooding of the fields on the island; excavating the pool area to facilitate tidal flushing; and upgrading 250 metres of rock riprap along the foreshore to protect against erosion due to waves caused by Fraser River boat traffic.

text: Due to its location near the beach in an area prone to coastal erosion, parts of the beach at Haumoana is being eroded. The long term shoreline retreat at Haumoana is on average between 0.30 m and 0.70 m per year. This rate of erosion is the same as it is at Te Awanga further down the Bay coastline. The coastal erosion rate at Clifton south of Te Awanga is slightly higher.

text: Due to its location near the beach in an area prone to coastal erosion, parts of the beach at Haumoana is being eroded. The long term shoreline retreat at Haumoana is on average between 0.30 m and 0.70 m per year. This rate of erosion is the same as it is at

text: Te Awanga

text: further down the

text: Bay

text: coastline. The coastal erosion rate at

text: Clifton

text: south of Te Awanga is slightly higher.

text: The line between beach and dune is difficult to define in the field. Over any significant period of time, sediment is always being exchanged between them. The drift line (the high point of material deposited by waves) is one potential demarcation. This would be the point at which significant wind movement of sand could occur, since the normal waves do not wet the sand beyond this area. However, the drift line is likely to move inland under assault by storm waves.

text: The United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACOE) initially thought that the beach sand was coming from an underwater glacial deposit.  Thus when in 1866 they were called in to protect the navigable channel of the Saco river they built rock jettys on the both sides of the mouth of the Saco river to protect the channel from sand.  The north jetty was extended in 1897, 1930 and 1938, and raised at various dates through 1969.  The primary source of sediment for the beaches is the Saco river.  Longshore drift is dominantly to the north along the shore.  About 1960 another jetty was built on the south (Pine Point) side of the mouth of the Scarborough River to protect it from sand.  It was not until 1992 that the USACOE acknowledged that there is no source of sand nourishment in the area.  Thus, erosion is worst at Camp Ellis in Saco at the south end of the system where the Saco jetty prevents sand from coming ashore naturally while Pine Point is growing both from the sand coming out of the Saco river and from sand eroding from Camp Ellis and other parts of the bay to its south.

text: The

text: United States Army Corps of Engineers

text: (USACOE) initially thought that the beach sand was coming from an underwater glacial deposit.  Thus when in 1866 they were called in to protect the navigable channel of the Saco river they built rock

text: jetty

text: s on the both sides of the mouth of the Saco river to protect the channel from sand.  The north jetty was extended in 1897, 1930 and 1938, and raised at various dates through 1969.  The primary source of sediment for the beaches is the Saco river.

text: Longshore drift

text: is dominantly to the north along the shore.  About 1960 another jetty was built on the south (Pine Point) side of the mouth of the Scarborough River to protect it from sand.  It was not until 1992 that the USACOE acknowledged that there is no source of sand nourishment in the area.  Thus, erosion is worst at Camp Ellis in

text: Saco

text: at the south end of the system where the Saco jetty prevents sand from coming ashore naturally while Pine Point is growing both from the sand coming out of the Saco river and from sand eroding from Camp Ellis and other parts of the bay to its south.

text: Like all barrier islands, Assateague has changed in form over the years.  The structure of barrier islands is determined by movement of sand in the littoral zone, the land-facing side of the island.  At one time, the island was connected to the lowest point of Fenwick Island.   However, the 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane created an inlet south of Ocean City, Maryland.  This inlet separated the two landforms.  Normally, it would have silted back due to the littoral drift that ran from north to south. However, after the storm, between 1933 and 1935 a permanent system of artificial jetties was built to preserve the inlet as a navigation channel. As a result, the island has drifted considerably westward, and the two landmasses are now over  apart. While this process has benefitted Ocean City, creating wider beaches and better fishing access,  it caused erosion problems on Assateague.

text: Like all

text: barrier islands

text: , Assateague has changed in form over the years.  The structure of barrier islands is determined by movement of sand in the

text: littoral zone

text: , the land-facing side of the island.  At one time, the island was connected to the lowest point of

text: Fenwick Island

text: .   However, the

text: 1933 Chesapeake–Potomac hurricane

text: created an

text: inlet

text: south of

text: Ocean City, Maryland

text: .  This inlet separated the two landforms.  Normally, it would have silted back due to the

text: littoral drift

text: that ran from north to south. However, after the storm, between 1933 and 1935 a permanent system of artificial jetties was built to preserve the inlet as a navigation channel. As a result, the island has drifted considerably westward, and the two landmasses are now over  apart. While this process has benefitted Ocean City, creating wider beaches and better fishing access,  it caused erosion problems on Assateague.

text: The Agulu-Nanka gully erosion has the potential for an ecological disaster, because the erosion causes frequent landslides. In the Nanka Community, Eke-Ntai in Amako Village, was reported to be a flourishing Slave Market during the period of the trafficking in human cargo and popularized by Ezenwenwe. The menacing erosion in Nanka today is said to have its origin in the notorious market. A Soil Erosion Management Expert- Benneth Obele- in 2009 wrote that " erosion disaster in Nanka Ududo dates back to early 1920s when the gully sites were first observed near Eketai Market in Amako village as well as near Ududonka Shrine. The lucrative and hidden business in human trafficking or slave trade conducted within those two sites led to development of hidden bush foot pathways that were heavily flooded from neighbouring communities precipitating gully erosion"{Nanka Patriotic Union at 80[1],by Patrick Okeke Emezue} On the heels of 19/6/2008 landslide which cut off Amako village from the rest of Nanka the Nanka Patriotic Union, NPU, social-political-cultural organization of Nanka People, set up measures for capacity building of inhabitants on application of control measures. The effort is yielding fruit as patriots of the community had donated nearly 10,000 cashew seedlings for planting in the 20 erosion sites scattered in the town. The issue was discussed at the Oririji (New Yam) Festival on August 21 of 2010, where Igwe G.N Ofomata, Obu Nanka,{1991 to 2015} addressed the people. Igwe Joseph Nwankwo Ezenekwe was traditional ruler of Nanka from 1977-1982. Nanka has one main market, the Afor Market (formerly Afor-Udo) which trades on the Afor market day).

text: The climates and wave conditions play a role on the formation of skeletal fragments by that organisms like branching forms of bryozoan are fragile and are not found in high wave energy environments. Found in limestone units that have been deposited under quite less active water conditions.

text: In order to construct a boat dock on the shoreline, an approved plan and permit is required to ensure that the dock will not harm marine life. In addition, all property owners are encouraged to maintain their shoreline in a natural state, with attractive native foliage, and avoid fertilizing lawns.

text: The complexity of the glacial period and its subdivision into several glacial epochs, separated by interglacial epochs of considerable length (certainly longer than the postglacial epoch) has a structural consequence in the superposition of successive till sheets, alternating with non-glacial deposits. It also has a physiographic consequence in the very different amount of normal postglacial erosion suffered by the different parts of the glacial deposits. The southernmost drift sheets, as in southern Iowa and northern Missouri, have lost their initially plain surface and are now maturely dissected into gracefully rolling forms. Here, the valleys of even the small streams are well opened and graded, and marshes and lakes are rare. These sheets are of early Pleistocene origin. Nearer the Great Lakes, the till sheets are trenched only by the narrow valleys of the large streams. Marshy sloughs still occupy the faint depressions in the till plains and the associated moraines have abundant small lakes in their undrained hollows. These drift sheets are of late Pleistocene origin.

text: The complexity of the glacial period and its subdivision into several glacial epochs, separated by interglacial epochs of considerable length (certainly longer than the postglacial epoch) has a structural consequence in the superposition of successive till sheets, alternating with non-glacial deposits. It also has a physiographic consequence in the very different amount of normal postglacial erosion suffered by the different parts of the glacial deposits. The southernmost drift sheets, as in southern

text: Iowa

text: and northern

text: Missouri

text: , have lost their initially plain surface and are now maturely dissected into gracefully rolling forms. Here, the valleys of even the small streams are well opened and graded, and marshes and lakes are rare. These sheets are of early

text: Pleistocene

text: origin. Nearer the Great Lakes, the till sheets are trenched only by the narrow valleys of the large streams. Marshy sloughs still occupy the faint depressions in the till plains and the associated moraines have abundant small lakes in their undrained hollows. These drift sheets are of late Pleistocene origin.

text: The Great Sugar Loaf is composed of Cambrian quartzite, in contrast to the rounded mountains to the west, which are made of Devonian granite. Popularly mistaken for a volcano, it is in fact an erosion-resistant metamorphosed sedimentary deposit from the deep sea.

text: The Great Sugar Loaf is composed of

text: Cambrian

text: quartzite

text: , in contrast to the rounded mountains to the west, which are made of

text: Devonian

text: granite

text: . Popularly mistaken for a volcano, it is in fact an erosion-resistant metamorphosed sedimentary deposit from the deep sea.

text: A Lewis Lead (also called the S5 lead) is a modified EKG lead used to detect atrial flutter waves when atrial flutter is suspected clinically, based on signs and symptoms, but is not definitely demonstrated on the standard 12 lead EKG. In order to create the Lewis Lead, the right arm electrode is moved to the manubrium adjacent to the sternum. Then the left arm electrode is moved to the right, fifth intercostal space adjacent to the sternum. The left leg electrode is placed on the right lower costal margin. The Lewis Lead is then read as Lead I on the EKG and, since in most patients it will be roughly perpendicular to the wave of ventricular depolarization, atrial flutter waves may be more apparent.

text: A Lewis Lead (also called the S5 lead) is a modified

text: EKG

text: lead used to detect

text: atrial flutter

text: waves when atrial flutter is suspected clinically, based on signs and symptoms, but is not definitely demonstrated on the standard 12 lead EKG. In order to create the Lewis Lead, the right arm electrode is moved to the

text: manubrium

text: adjacent to the

text: sternum

text: . Then the left arm electrode is moved to the right, fifth intercostal space adjacent to the sternum. The left leg electrode is placed on the right lower costal margin. The Lewis Lead is then read as Lead I on the EKG and, since in most patients it will be roughly perpendicular to the wave of ventricular

text: depolarization

text: , atrial flutter waves may be more apparent.

text: These anti-commutation relations can be considered as the algebraic definition of the fermion creation and annihilation operators. The fact that the fermion many-body wave function is anti-symmetric under particle exchange is also manifested by the anti-commutation of the fermion operators.

text: Kohala is a shield volcano cut by multiple deep gorges, which are the product of thousands of years of erosion. Unlike the typical symmetry of other Hawaiian volcanoes, Kohala is shaped like a foot.  Toward the end of its shield-building stage 250,000 to 300,000 years ago, a landslide destroyed the northeast flank of the volcano, reducing its height by over  and traveling  across the sea floor. This huge landslide may be partially responsible for the volcano's foot-like shape. Marine fossils have been found on the flank of the volcano, far too high to have been deposited by standard ocean waves. Analysis indicated that the fossils had been deposited by a massive tsunami approximately 120,000 years ago.

text: Kohala is a

text: shield volcano

text: cut by multiple deep

text: gorges

text: , which are the product of thousands of years of

text: erosion

text: . Unlike the typical symmetry of other Hawaiian volcanoes, Kohala is shaped like a foot.  Toward the end of its

text: shield-building stage

text: 250,000 to 300,000 years ago, a

text: landslide

text: destroyed the northeast flank of the volcano, reducing its height by over  and traveling  across the

text: sea floor

text: . This huge landslide may be partially responsible for the volcano's foot-like shape. Marine

text: fossil

text: s have been found on the flank of the volcano, far too high to have been deposited by standard

text: ocean wave

text: s. Analysis indicated that the fossils had been deposited by a massive

text: tsunami

text: approximately 120,000 years ago.

text: Lake bed downcutting is the erosion of cohesive material such as clay or glacial till from a shoreline by wave action. When the sand cover is stripped away and the cohesive layer is exposed, cohesive material is lost to the water column. Unlike sand, cohesive material cannot be replenished by natural events such as bluff erosion. This can result in a process called "bluff recession," in which waves erode and carry away the material at the toe of the bluff and cause it to become steeper. When the slope reaches a certain angle, the bluff becomes unstable and fails, causing it to recede inland.

text: Lake

text: bed downcutting is the erosion of cohesive material such as

text: clay

text: or

text: glacial

text: till

text: from a shoreline by

text: wave

text: action. When the

text: sand

text: cover is stripped away and the cohesive layer is exposed, cohesive material is lost to the

text: water column

text: . Unlike sand, cohesive material cannot be replenished by natural events such as

text: bluff

text: erosion. This can result in a process called "bluff recession," in which waves erode and carry away the material at the toe of the bluff and cause it to become steeper. When the slope reaches a certain angle, the bluff becomes unstable and fails, causing it to recede inland.

text: Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and the removal of  beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, drainage or high winds (see also beach evolution). Waves, generated by storms, wind, or fast moving motor craft, cause coastal erosion, which may take the form of long-term losses of sediment and rocks, or merely the temporary redistribution of coastal sediments; erosion in one location may result in accretion nearby. The study of erosion and sediment redistribution is called 'coastal morphodynamics'. It may be caused by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion.

text: Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and the removal of

text: beach

text: or

text: dune

text: sediment

text: s by

text: wave

text: action,

text: tidal currents

text: , wave currents, drainage or high winds (see also

text: beach evolution

text: ). Waves, generated by storms, wind, or fast moving motor craft, cause coastal

text: erosion

text: , which may take the form of long-term losses of sediment and

text: rocks

text: , or merely the temporary redistribution of coastal sediments; erosion in one location may result in accretion nearby. The study of erosion and sediment redistribution is called 'coastal morphodynamics'. It may be caused by

text: hydraulic

text: action,

text: abrasion

text: , impact and

text: corrosion

text: In geology, denudation is the long-term sum of processes that cause the wearing away of the Earth’s surface by moving water, ice, wind and waves, leading to a reduction in elevation and relief of landforms and landscapes. Endogenous processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and plate tectonics uplift and expose continental crust to the exogenous processes of weathering, erosion, and mass wasting.

text: In

text: geology

text: , denudation is the long-term sum of processes that cause the wearing away of the Earth’s surface by moving water, ice,

text: wind

text: and

text: waves

text: , leading to a reduction in elevation and relief of landforms and landscapes.

text: Endogenous

text: processes such as

text: volcanoes

text: earthquakes

text: , and

text: plate tectonics

text: uplift and expose continental crust to the

text: exogenous

text: processes of

text: weathering

text: erosion

text: , and

text: mass wasting

text: Today's shoreline is a concrete seawall, constructed in the early 1990s at a cost of £1.6 million, to protect the cliff from erosion.

text: Today's shoreline is a concrete

text: seawall

text: , constructed in the early 1990s at a cost of £1.6 million, to protect the cliff from erosion.

text: Longshore drift of sediment is important for distributing sediment along the coast, and is considered one of the most important mechanisms. The longshore drift of sediment can be considered both a source and a sink due to the fact that in some case it can add sediment to a coastline but in others transport sediment away from a coastline. An example of both extremes of longshore drift can be found on the Canterbury coastline in New Zealand, either side of Banks Peninsular. Both the Waimakariri River in the north and the Canterbury Bight in the south of the Banks Peninsula provide large amounts of sediment respectively. The difference is the sediment supplied by the Waimakariri River is a source for the coast's New Brighton spit due to the reversal of southern currents transporting sediment to the south. In contrast the Canterbury Bight has a combination of high energy environments and strong southern longshore currents that transport large amounts of sediment north, which can be classified as a sink, putting a deficit to the coasts sedimentary budget. As a result, there is erosion of the Canterbury Bight and a predominantly balanced New Brighton Spit.

text: Longshore drift of sediment is important for distributing sediment along the coast, and is considered one of the most important mechanisms. The longshore drift of sediment can be considered both a source and a sink due to the fact that in some case it can add sediment to a coastline but in others transport sediment away from a coastline. An example of both extremes of longshore drift can be found on the Canterbury coastline in New Zealand, either side of Banks Peninsular. Both the Waimakariri River in the north and the Canterbury Bight in the south of the Banks Peninsula provide large amounts of sediment respectively. The difference is the sediment supplied by the Waimakariri River is a source for the coast's

text: New Brighton

text: spit

text: due to the reversal of southern currents transporting sediment to the south. In contrast the Canterbury Bight has a combination of high energy environments and strong southern longshore currents that transport large amounts of sediment north, which can be classified as a sink, putting a deficit to the coasts sedimentary budget. As a result, there is erosion of the Canterbury Bight and a predominantly balanced New Brighton Spit.

text: Marine terraces often result from marine erosion along rocky coast lines in temperate regions due to wave attack and sediment carried in the waves. Erosion also takes place in connection with weathering and cavitation. The speed of erosion is highly dependent on the shoreline material (hardness of rock), the bathymetry, and the bedrock properties and can be between only a few millimeters per year for granitic rocks and more than  per year for volcanic ejecta. The retreat of the sea cliff generates a shore (wave-cut/abrasion-) platform through the process of abrasion. A relative change of the sea level leads to regressions or transgressions and eventually forms another terrace (marine-cut terrace) at a different altitude while notches in the cliff face indicate short stillstands.

text: Marine terraces often result from

text: marine erosion

text: along rocky coast lines in

text: temperate region

text: s due to wave attack and

text: sediment

text: carried in the waves.

text: Erosion

text: also takes place in connection with

text: weathering

text: and

text: cavitation

text: . The speed of erosion is highly dependent on the shoreline material (hardness of rock), the

text: bathymetry

text: , and the

text: bedrock

text: properties and can be between only a few millimeters per year for

text: granitic

text: rocks and more than  per year for

text: volcanic ejecta

text: . The retreat of the sea

text: cliff

text: generates a

text: shore (wave-cut/abrasion-) platform

text: through the process of

text: abrasion

text: . A relative change of the

text: sea level

text: leads to

text: regressions

text: or

text: transgressions

text: and eventually forms another terrace (marine-cut terrace) at a different altitude while notches in the cliff face indicate short stillstands.

text: It is oriented toward the northeast, which means the direction of longshore drift, a constructive geomorphologic process, is northeasterly.  Longshore drift through the Strait of Georgia, therefore, tends to be northeasterly.  Because waves are mainly powered by wind, the waves approaching Semiahmoo hit the shore obliquely, at an angle of approximately 30 to 45 degrees to the northeast, and thus the prevailing wind through the Strait of Georgia must also be northeasterly.  Because of longshore drift, sediments are picked up from the headland and deposited according to size and based on wave energy.  High energy wave action can carry large sediment, such as cobbles and gravel, but only as long as the energy exists.  Since the waves repeatedly hit the shore, energy is lost, and so larger, denser sediments are quickly deposited near the headland.  Smaller, less dense sediment, such as gravel, sand, mud, and clay, can be carried and deposited farther away from the headland because they do not require as much energy for transport.  One mile to the north of the tip of the spit is the border between the United States and Canada.  Approximately four miles to the northeast of the tip of the spit is the city of White Rock, British Columbia.  The spit is approximately  long and contains approximately  of land.

text: It is oriented toward the northeast, which means the direction of

text: longshore drift

text: , a constructive geomorphologic process, is northeasterly.  Longshore drift through the

text: Strait of Georgia

text: , therefore, tends to be northeasterly.  Because waves are mainly powered by wind, the waves approaching Semiahmoo hit the shore obliquely, at an angle of approximately 30 to 45 degrees to the northeast, and thus the prevailing wind through the Strait of Georgia must also be northeasterly.  Because of longshore drift, sediments are picked up from the

text: headland

text: and deposited according to size and based on wave energy.  High energy wave action can carry large sediment, such as cobbles and gravel, but only as long as the energy exists.  Since the waves repeatedly hit the shore, energy is lost, and so larger, denser sediments are quickly deposited near the headland.  Smaller, less dense sediment, such as gravel, sand, mud, and clay, can be carried and deposited farther away from the headland because they do not require as much energy for transport.  One mile to the north of the tip of the spit is the border between the United States and Canada.  Approximately four miles to the northeast of the tip of the spit is the city of

text: White Rock, British Columbia

text: .  The spit is approximately  long and contains approximately  of land.

text: Heselden grew up in the Halton Moor district of Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. At the age of 15, Heselden left Osmondthorpe Secondary Modern School to work as a labourer and then at collieries in Temple Newsam and Lofthouse. He lost his job in the wave of redundancies that followed the 1984–85 miners' strike and spent his redundancy money on renting a workshop and, at first, setting up a sandblasting business. He then worked on developing and patenting a collapsible wire mesh and fabric container, now called Hesco bastion, to be used for building flood management and to limit erosion.

text: Heselden grew up in the

text: Halton Moor

text: district of

text: Leeds

text: , West Yorkshire, England. At the age of 15, Heselden left

text: Osmondthorpe

text: Secondary Modern School

text: to work as a labourer and then at collieries in

text: Temple Newsam

text: and

text: Lofthouse

text: . He lost his job in the wave of redundancies that followed the

text: 1984–85 miners' strike

text: and spent his

text: redundancy money

text: on renting a workshop and, at first, setting up a

text: sandblasting

text: business. He then worked on developing and patenting a collapsible wire mesh and fabric container, now called

text: Hesco bastion

text: , to be used for building flood management and to limit erosion.

text: Geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into(1) the production of regolith by weathering and erosion, (2) the transport of that material, and (3) its eventual deposition. Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, chemical dissolution, mass wasting, groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial action, tectonism, and volcanism. Other more exotic geomorphic processes might include periglacial (freeze-thaw) processes, salt-mediated action, marine currents activity, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact.

text: Geomorphically relevant processes generally fall into(1) the production of

text: regolith

text: by

text: weathering

text: and

text: erosion

text: , (2) the

text: transport

text: of that material, and (3) its eventual

text: deposition

text: . Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include

text: wind

text: wave

text: s,

text: chemical dissolution

text: mass wasting

text: groundwater

text: movement,

text: surface water

text: flow,

text: glacial action

text: tectonism

text: , and

text: volcanism

text: . Other more exotic geomorphic processes might include

text: periglacial

text: (freeze-thaw) processes, salt-mediated action, marine currents activity, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact.

text: After being sidelined for over a year, Shibutani returned to Pro Wrestling Wave on August 28, 2011, losing to Akino in her return match. On September 4, Shibutani and Cherry entered the 2011 Dual Shock Wave tournament as the "Classic Gals", but were eliminated in their first round match by Ayumi Kurihara and Kana, who went on to win the entire tournament. On October 27, Shibutani represented Wave in Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling's Joshi Puroresu Dantai Taikou Flash tournament, a single-elimination tournament, where different joshi promotions battled each other. In their first round match, Team Wave, which also Gami, Moeka Haruhi, Toshie Uematsu and Yumi Ohka, was defeated by Team JWP of Command Bolshoi, Hanako Nakamori, Kaori Yoneyama, Kayoko Haruyama and Leon. Shibutani finished off 2011 with a big singles win over Yumi Ohka on December 11 with her new finishing maneuver, later named Time Machine ni Notte ("Ride the Time Machine"). On January 4 at Wave's first event of 2012, Shibutani picked up another big singles win over Wave Tag Team Champion Ayumi Kurihara. On February 1, Shibutani, Kurihara and Mika Iida came together with Kana and Mio Shirai to form the White Tails stable, named in reference to Wave's top villainous alliance, Black Dahlia. On April 30, Shibutani took part in Toshie Uematsu's retirement match, a tag team match, where she and Moeka Haruhi were defeated by Uematsu and Ran Yu-Yu. On May 16, Shibutani entered the 2012 Catch the Wave tournament, taking part in a round-robin block made up members of White Tails. In her opening match of the tournament, Shibutani was defeated by Ayumi Kurihara. In her second match on May 29, Shibutani wrestled Kana to a fifteen-minute time limit draw. On June 17, Shibutani wrestled her second time limit draw of the tournament with guest White Tails member, Wrestling New Classic (WNC) representative Syuri. Shibutani finished her tournament on July 1 with a win over Mio Shirai, failing to advance from the block. On July 16, Shibutani and Shirai unsuccessfully challenged Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa for the Wave Tag Team Championship in a three-way elimination match, which also included the team of Moeka Haruhi and Yuu Yamagata. On September 1, Shibutani made her first appearance for Ice Ribbon in four and a half years, defeating Miyako Matsumoto in a singles match. On September 23 at Ribbon no Kishitachi 2012, Shibutani took part in a three-way match, where Hailey Hatred defeated Neko Nitta to capture the Triangle Ribbon Championship. Two days later, Shibutani entered the 2012 Dual Shock Wave tournament alongside Syuri. After wins over Shidarezakura (Hikaru Shida and Yumi Ohka) and 1st Impact (Makoto and Moeka Haruhi), and a loss against Kurigohan (Ayumi Kurihara and Mika Iida), Shibutani and Syuri finished tied at the top of their block with Shida and Ohka. On November 16, Shibutani and Syuri defeated Shida and Ohka in a playoff match to advance to the finals of the tournament, where, later that same day, they were defeated by Makkurokorosuke (Misaki Ohata and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On June 10, Shibutani made her debut for Wrestling New Classic, teaming with Yuu Yamagata in a "Wave offer match", where they were defeated by Gami and Moeka Haruhi. From May to July 2013, Shibutani took part in the 2013 Catch the Wave tournament, where she finished her round-robin block with a record of three wins and three losses, advancing to the knockout stage after defeating Cherry, Hikaru Shida and Mio Shirai in a playoff match on June 28. On July 15, Shibutani was defeated in the first round of the knockout stage by JWP Joshi Puroresu representative Arisa Nakajima. She, however, claimed third spot in the tournament by defeating Syuri, Tomoka Nakagawa and Yuu Yamagata in a four-way elimination match later that same event.

text: After being sidelined for over a year, Shibutani returned to Pro Wrestling Wave on August 28, 2011, losing to Akino in her return match. On September 4, Shibutani and Cherry entered the

text: 2011 Dual Shock Wave tournament

text: as the "Classic Gals", but were eliminated in their first round match by Ayumi Kurihara and Kana, who went on to win the entire tournament. On October 27, Shibutani represented Wave in

text: Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling

text: 's Joshi Puroresu Dantai Taikou Flash tournament, a single-elimination tournament, where different

text: joshi

text: promotions battled each other. In their first round match, Team Wave, which also Gami, Moeka Haruhi,

text: Toshie Uematsu

text: and Yumi Ohka, was defeated by Team JWP of Command Bolshoi, Hanako Nakamori,

text: Kaori Yoneyama

text: Kayoko Haruyama

text: and

text: Leon

text: . Shibutani finished off 2011 with a big singles win over Yumi Ohka on December 11 with her new finishing maneuver, later named Time Machine ni Notte ("Ride the Time Machine"). On January 4 at Wave's first event of 2012, Shibutani picked up another big singles win over

text: Wave Tag Team Champion

text: Ayumi Kurihara. On February 1, Shibutani, Kurihara and Mika Iida came together with Kana and Mio Shirai to form the White Tails

text: stable

text: , named in reference to Wave's top

text: villainous

text: alliance, Black Dahlia. On April 30, Shibutani took part in Toshie Uematsu's retirement match, a tag team match, where she and Moeka Haruhi were defeated by Uematsu and

text: Ran Yu-Yu

text: . On May 16, Shibutani entered the

text: 2012 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, taking part in a round-robin block made up members of White Tails. In her opening match of the tournament, Shibutani was defeated by Ayumi Kurihara. In her second match on May 29, Shibutani wrestled Kana to a fifteen-minute time limit draw. On June 17, Shibutani wrestled her second time limit draw of the tournament with guest White Tails member,

text: Wrestling New Classic

text: (WNC) representative

text: Syuri

text: . Shibutani finished her tournament on July 1 with a win over Mio Shirai, failing to advance from the block. On July 16, Shibutani and Shirai unsuccessfully challenged Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa for the Wave Tag Team Championship in a three-way elimination match, which also included the team of Moeka Haruhi and Yuu Yamagata. On September 1, Shibutani made her first appearance for Ice Ribbon in four and a half years, defeating

text: Miyako Matsumoto

text: in a singles match. On September 23 at Ribbon no Kishitachi 2012, Shibutani took part in a three-way match, where

text: Hailey Hatred

text: defeated Neko Nitta to capture the

text: Triangle Ribbon Championship

text: . Two days later, Shibutani entered the

text: 2012 Dual Shock Wave tournament

text: alongside Syuri. After wins over Shidarezakura (

text: Hikaru Shida

text: and Yumi Ohka) and 1st Impact (Makoto and Moeka Haruhi), and a loss against Kurigohan (Ayumi Kurihara and Mika Iida), Shibutani and Syuri finished tied at the top of their block with Shida and Ohka. On November 16, Shibutani and Syuri defeated Shida and Ohka in a playoff match to advance to the finals of the tournament, where, later that same day, they were defeated by Makkurokorosuke (Misaki Ohata and

text: Tsukasa Fujimoto

text: ). On June 10, Shibutani made her debut for Wrestling New Classic, teaming with Yuu Yamagata in a "Wave offer match", where they were defeated by Gami and Moeka Haruhi. From May to July 2013, Shibutani took part in the

text: 2013 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, where she finished her round-robin block with a record of three wins and three losses, advancing to the knockout stage after defeating Cherry, Hikaru Shida and Mio Shirai in a playoff match on June 28. On July 15, Shibutani was defeated in the first round of the knockout stage by JWP Joshi Puroresu representative Arisa Nakajima. She, however, claimed third spot in the tournament by defeating Syuri, Tomoka Nakagawa and Yuu Yamagata in a four-way elimination match later that same event.

text: Atmospheric waves transport momentum, which is fed back into the background flow as the wave dissipates. This wave forcing of the flow is particularly important in the stratosphere, where this momentum deposition by planetary scale Rossby waves gives rise to sudden stratospheric warmings and the deposition by gravity waves gives rise to the quasi-biennial oscillation.

text: Atmospheric waves transport

text: momentum

text: , which is fed back into the background flow as the wave

text: dissipates

text: . This wave forcing of the flow is particularly important in the

text: stratosphere

text: , where this momentum deposition by planetary scale

text: Rossby waves

text: gives rise to

text: sudden stratospheric warming

text: s and the deposition by

text: gravity waves

text: gives rise to the

text: quasi-biennial oscillation

text: Similar to other dwarf antelopes, Kirk's dik-diks exist in monogamous pairs on territories. Territories are marked with dung and urine that are deposited in a ritual that is performed to help helps maintain pair bonds. During the ritual the female will excrete, followed by the male, which samples the female's urine stream to check her reproductive capacity. He paws over and then marks his dung and urine over her deposit. Finally, the pair garnishes nearby twigs with secretions from their pre-orbital glands. Kingon 1982 states that, "The male courts the female by running up behind her with his head and neck stretched and his muzzle pointing out in front. Copulation begins with the male standing on his hind legs behind the female and waving his forelegs at an acute angle to his own body in the air over her back". Copulation typically occurs anywhere between three and five times within a 9-hour period.

text: Similar to other dwarf antelopes, Kirk's dik-diks exist in

text: monogamous

text: pairs on territories. Territories are marked with dung and urine that are deposited in a ritual that is performed to help helps maintain pair bonds. During the ritual the female will excrete, followed by the male, which samples the female's urine stream to check her reproductive capacity. He paws over and then marks his dung and urine over her deposit. Finally, the pair garnishes nearby twigs with secretions from their pre-orbital glands. Kingon 1982 states that, "The male courts the female by running up behind her with his head and neck stretched and his muzzle pointing out in front. Copulation begins with the male standing on his hind legs behind the female and waving his forelegs at an acute angle to his own body in the air over her back". Copulation typically occurs anywhere between three and five times within a 9-hour period.

text: In surface erosion, the erosion rate is directly proportional to the surface area of the material. For very thin materials, the surface area remains relatively constant when the material degrades, which allows surface erosion to be characterized as zero order release since the rate of degradation is constant. In bulk erosion, the erosion rate depends on the volume of the material.  Due to degradation, the volume of the material decreases during bulk erosion causing the erosion rate to decrease over time. Therefore, bulk erosion rates are difficult to control since it is not zero order. To determine whether a polymer will undergo surface or bulk erosion, the degradation rate of the polymer in water (how fast the polymer reacts to water) and the rate of diffusion of water penetrating through the material must be considered. If the degradation process is faster than the diffusion process, surface erosion will occur since the material’s surface will quickly degrade before water has time to diffuse and penetrate through the material. If the diffusion process is faster than the degradation process bulk erosion will occur because water penetrates through the material before significant erosion occurs on the surface.  A kinetics of the erosion of a polymer can be modified by changing the diffusion process or the degradation process.  For example, blending a polymer with another polymer that is very reactive to water will speed up the degradation process and cause surface erosion.  On the other hand, decreasing the dimensions of a material will allow water to travel to the center of the material more quickly, which speeds up the diffusion process and causes bulk erosion.

text: In surface erosion, the erosion rate is directly proportional to the surface area of the material. For very thin materials, the surface area remains relatively constant when the material degrades, which allows surface erosion to be characterized as zero order release since the rate of degradation is constant. In bulk erosion, the erosion rate depends on the volume of the material.  Due to degradation, the volume of the material decreases during bulk erosion causing the erosion rate to decrease over time. Therefore, bulk erosion rates are difficult to control since it is not zero order. To determine whether a polymer will undergo surface or bulk erosion, the degradation rate of the polymer in water (how fast the polymer reacts to water) and the rate of

text: diffusion

text: of

text: water

text: penetrating through the material must be considered. If the degradation process is faster than the diffusion process, surface erosion will occur since the material’s surface will quickly degrade before water has time to diffuse and penetrate through the material. If the diffusion process is faster than the degradation process bulk erosion will occur because water penetrates through the material before significant erosion occurs on the surface.  A kinetics of the erosion of a polymer can be modified by changing the diffusion process or the degradation process.  For example, blending a polymer with another polymer that is very reactive to water will speed up the degradation process and cause surface erosion.  On the other hand, decreasing the dimensions of a material will allow water to travel to the center of the material more quickly, which speeds up the diffusion process and causes bulk erosion.

text: The fossiliferous strata were deposited in quiet, deep waters, below the influence of wave action in all but the fiercest of storms.  Such storms, or similar high-energy events, would have mobilized sediment that could be quickly deposited, trapping animals and leading to their preservation.  Consequently, the assemblage is dominated by benthic organisms.

text: The ensemble approach points out that this seems perhaps reasonable for a wave function that describes a single particle, but hardly makes sense for a wave function that describes a system of several particles. The ensemble approach demystifies this situation along the lines advocated by Alfred Landé, accepting Duane's hypothesis. In this view, the particle really and definitely goes into one or other of the beams, according to a probability given by the wave function appropriately interpreted. There is definite quantal transfer of translative momentum between particle and diffractive object. This is recognized also in Heisenberg's 1930 textbook, though usually not recognized as part of the doctrine of the so-called "Copenhagen interpretation". This gives a clear and utterly non-mysterious physical or direct explanation instead of the debated concept of wave function "collapse". It is presented in terms of quantum mechanics by other present day writers also, for example, Van Vliet. For those who prefer physical clarity rather than mysterianism, this is an advantage of the ensemble approach, though it is not the sole property of the ensemble approach. With a few exceptions, this demystification is not recognized or emphasized in many textbooks and journal articles.

text: The ensemble approach points out that this seems perhaps reasonable for a wave function that describes a single particle, but hardly makes sense for a wave function that describes a system of several particles. The ensemble approach demystifies this situation along the lines advocated by

text: Alfred Landé

text: , accepting

text: Duane's hypothesis

text: . In this view, the particle really and definitely goes into one or other of the beams, according to a probability given by the wave function appropriately interpreted. There is definite quantal transfer of translative momentum between particle and diffractive object. This is recognized also in Heisenberg's 1930 textbook, though usually not recognized as part of the doctrine of the so-called "Copenhagen interpretation". This gives a clear and utterly non-mysterious physical or direct explanation instead of the debated concept of wave function "collapse". It is presented in terms of quantum mechanics by other present day writers also, for example, Van Vliet. For those who prefer physical clarity rather than mysterianism, this is an advantage of the ensemble approach, though it is not the sole property of the ensemble approach. With a few exceptions, this demystification is not recognized or emphasized in many textbooks and journal articles.

text: Authorizes review of documents of the Chief of Engineers pertaining to Orchard Beach, Bronx, New York, and to make appropriate recommendations concerning storm damage prevention, recreation, environmental restoration, and other purposes; and a study on the need for erosion protection along the East River, New York, in the vicinity of Brooklyn, Queens, and Manhattan, with a view toward mitigating the deleterious effects of drift removal on protecting the adjacent shoreline from erosion. Authorizes appropriations.

text: Authorizes review of documents of the

entity_name: List of United States Army Corps of Engineers Chiefs of Engineers

text: Chief of Engineers

text: pertaining to Orchard Beach, Bronx, New York, and to make appropriate recommendations concerning storm damage prevention, recreation, environmental restoration, and other purposes; and a study on the need for erosion protection along the East River, New York, in the vicinity of Brooklyn, Queens, and Manhattan, with a view toward mitigating the deleterious effects of drift removal on protecting the adjacent shoreline from erosion. Authorizes appropriations.

text: In the 1960s, movement began to preserve Towra Point led initially by the President of Sutherland Shire, Arthur Gietzelt, and Tom Uren, the then Federal Minister for Urban Affairs. In March 1969, the then Prime Minister, John Gorton ruled out Towra Point as a potential site for a second airport, citing community noise problems. The opening to Botany Bay was dredged in the 1970s to assist shipping, but this refracted the wave patterns in the bay, focusing them on Towra Point, causing erosion.  The building of the revetment wall in Port Botany was also thought to contribute to the changed wave patterns.  In 1974 and 1975, the waves off Towra were so strong that teens surfed there.

text: In the 1960s, movement began to preserve Towra Point led initially by the President of Sutherland Shire,

text: Arthur Gietzelt

text: , and

text: Tom Uren

text: , the then Federal Minister for Urban Affairs. In March 1969, the then Prime Minister,

text: John Gorton

text: ruled out Towra Point as a potential site for a second airport, citing community noise problems. The opening to Botany Bay was dredged in the 1970s to assist shipping, but this refracted the wave patterns in the bay, focusing them on Towra Point, causing erosion.  The building of the revetment wall in

text: Port Botany

text: was also thought to contribute to the changed wave patterns.  In 1974 and 1975, the waves off Towra were so strong that teens surfed there.

text: “This meaning is subtle and profound. It is best illustrated in terms of the relationship between the ocean and all the waves. 1. The ocean is analogous to original reality; 2. All the water in the ocean is manifested as waves. This is analogous to original reality’s manifestation as function of ten thousand things, that is, one function and another. 3. All the waves are analogous to the innumerable functions; 4. All the waves are mutually assimilable to a whole; this is analogous to the mutual assimilation of all the functions into a whole. From the above, we can see that the metaphor of the ocean and the waves best illuminates the relation between original reality and function.”

text: The geology of the town comprises bedrock formed in the Coniacian, Santonian and Campanian ages of the Late Cretaceous epoch, overlain in places by more recent Quaternary drift deposits. The bedrock is chalk of various formations. The drift deposits comprise a cap of clay-with-flints on the western edge of the town around Poundbury, alluvium in the river's floodplain, and several narrow ribbons of poorly stratified head deposits, found particularly around the town's northeastern and southwestern boundaries but also elsewhere.

text: The geology of the town comprises

text: bedrock

text: formed in the

text: Coniacian

text: Santonian

text: and

text: Campanian

text: ages of the

text: Late Cretaceous

text: epoch, overlain in places by more recent

text: Quaternary

text: drift

text: deposits. The bedrock is

text: chalk

text: of various formations. The drift deposits comprise a cap of

text: clay-with-flints

text: on the western edge of the town around

text: Poundbury

text: alluvium

text: in the river's floodplain, and several narrow ribbons of poorly stratified

text: head deposits

text: , found particularly around the town's northeastern and southwestern boundaries but also elsewhere.

text: The Wave exposes large-scale sets of cross-bedded eolian sandstone composed of rhythmic and cyclic alternating grainflow and windripple laminae. The rhythmic and cyclic alternating laminae represent periodic changes in the prevailing winds during the Jurassic period as large sand dunes migrated across a sandy desert. The thin ridges and ribbing seen within the Wave are the result of the differential erosion of rhythmic and cyclic alternating grainflow and windripple laminae within the Navajo Sandstone. These laminae have differing resistance to erosion as they have been differentially cemented according to variations in the grain size of the sand composing them. The soft sandstone is fragile, especially the ridges and ribbing of the Wave. As a result, visitors must walk carefully to avoid breaking the small ridges.

text: The Wave exposes large-scale sets of

text: cross-bedded

text: eolian

text: sandstone composed of rhythmic and cyclic alternating grainflow and windripple

text: laminae

text: . The rhythmic and cyclic alternating laminae represent periodic changes in the prevailing winds during the Jurassic period as large sand dunes migrated across a sandy desert. The thin ridges and ribbing seen within the Wave are the result of the differential erosion of rhythmic and cyclic alternating grainflow and windripple laminae within the Navajo Sandstone. These laminae have differing resistance to erosion as they have been differentially cemented according to variations in the grain size of the sand composing them. The soft sandstone is fragile, especially the ridges and ribbing of the Wave. As a result, visitors must walk carefully to avoid breaking the small ridges.

text: Adds to the purposes of Federal shore protection provisions the protection, restoration, and enhancement of sandy beaches on a comprehensive and coordinated basis by the Federal Government, States, localities, and private enterprises. Authorizes the Secretary to establish and conduct a national shoreline erosion control development and demonstration program for six years after the availability of funds for such program.

text: Studies on soil erosion suggest that increased rainfall amounts and intensities will lead to greater rates of soil erosion. Thus, if rainfall amounts and intensities increase in many parts of the world as expected, erosion will also increase, unless amelioration measures are taken. Soil erosion rates are expected to change in response to changes in climate for a variety of reasons. The most direct is the change in the erosive power of rainfall. Other reasons include: a) changes in plant canopy caused by shifts in plant biomass production associated with moisture regime; b) changes in litter cover on the ground caused by changes in both plant residue decomposition rates driven by temperature and moisture dependent soil microbial activity as well as plant biomass production rates; c) changes in soil moisture due to shifting precipitation regimes and evapo-transpiration rates, which changes infiltration and runoff ratios; d) soil erodibility changes due to decrease in soil organic matter concentrations in soils that lead to a soil structure that is more susceptible to erosion and increased runoff due to increased soil surface sealing and crusting; e) a shift of winter precipitation from non-erosive snow to erosive rainfall due to increasing winter temperatures; f) melting of permafrost, which induces an erodible soil state from a previously non-erodible one; and g) shifts in land use made necessary to accommodate new climatic regimes.

text: Studies on soil erosion suggest that increased rainfall amounts and intensities will lead to greater rates of soil erosion. Thus, if rainfall amounts and intensities increase in many parts of the world as expected, erosion will also increase, unless amelioration measures are taken. Soil erosion rates are expected to change in response to changes in climate for a variety of reasons. The most direct is the change in the erosive power of rainfall. Other reasons include: a) changes in plant canopy caused by shifts in plant biomass production associated with moisture regime; b) changes in litter cover on the ground caused by changes in both plant residue decomposition rates driven by temperature and moisture dependent soil microbial activity as well as plant biomass production rates; c) changes in soil moisture due to shifting precipitation regimes and evapo-transpiration rates, which changes infiltration and runoff ratios; d) soil

text: erodibility

text: changes due to decrease in soil organic matter concentrations in soils that lead to a soil structure that is more susceptible to erosion and increased runoff due to increased soil surface sealing and crusting; e) a shift of winter precipitation from non-erosive snow to erosive rainfall due to increasing winter temperatures; f) melting of permafrost, which induces an erodible soil state from a previously non-erodible one; and g) shifts in land use made necessary to accommodate new climatic regimes.

text: Weathering  is  the breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, waters, and biological organisms. Weathering  occurs in situ (on site), that is, in the same place, with little or no movement, and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations.

text: Weathering  is  the breaking down of

text: rocks

text: soil

text: , and

text: mineral

text: s as well as wood and artificial materials through contact with the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , waters, and biological organisms. Weathering  occurs

text: in situ

text: (on site), that is, in the same place, with little or no movement, and thus should not be confused with

text: erosion

text: , which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations.

text: The SSSI citation  carries a description of the interesting geological features. On the headland itself is evidence of erosional features, wave cut notch and a wave-cut platform. On St Bees Beach to the south to lessen the effects of longshore drift, a row of nine groynes have been put in place.

text: The SSSI citation  carries a description of the interesting geological features. On the headland itself is evidence of erosional features, wave cut notch and a

text: wave-cut platform

text: . On St Bees Beach to the south to lessen the effects of

text: longshore drift

text: , a row of nine

text: groyne

text: s have been put in place.

text: Most coastal areas under 10 feet (3 m) above sea level experienced severe wave damage. The Maryland Geological Survey estimates the waves removed  of sand along the coastline, based on an estimate of losses in Baltimore County. The  of lost in single day represent about 15% of the total beach loss in an average year. The average location lost about 5 feet (1.5 m) of beach, and throughout the Chesapeake Bay the erosion deposited about 81,000 tons (73,500 t) of sediment into the bay. The erosion was irregular, however; some locations were unaffected, while others experienced greater losses, despite that the two locations were similar. The erosion and storm surge damaged many bulkheads, and after the storm surge retreated into the bay it washed away freestanding structures. The passage of Isabel resulted in an unusual increase in phytoplankton in the middle portion of the Chesapeake Bay, followed by an abrupt return to normal conditions by early October.

text: Most coastal areas under 10 feet (3 m) above sea level experienced severe wave damage. The Maryland Geological Survey estimates the waves removed  of sand along the coastline, based on an estimate of losses in Baltimore County. The  of lost in single day represent about 15% of the total beach loss in an average year. The average location lost about 5 feet (1.5 m) of beach, and throughout the Chesapeake Bay the erosion deposited about 81,000 tons (73,500 t) of sediment into the bay. The erosion was irregular, however; some locations were unaffected, while others experienced greater losses, despite that the two locations were similar. The erosion and storm surge damaged many bulkheads, and after the storm surge retreated into the bay it washed away freestanding structures. The passage of Isabel resulted in an unusual increase in

text: phytoplankton

text: in the middle portion of the Chesapeake Bay, followed by an abrupt return to normal conditions by early October.

text: The National Biodiversity Centre and National Parks Board (NParks) will be conducting coastal protection and restoration works at the north-eastern coastline of Pulau Tekong which suffers from coastal erosion. The National Biodiversity Centre stated that the erosion resulted from the movements of ships and strong waves in the area. A study NParks commissioned in 2006 found that 1.65 km of the north-eastern shore is most severely affected. The coastal erosion poses a threat to the 92 hectares of mangroves in Pulau Tekong which is one of the largest remaining mangrove areas in Singapore with a mature and undisturbed habitat.

text: The

entity_name: National Biodiversity Centre (Singapore)

text: National Biodiversity Centre

text: and

text: National Parks Board

text: (NParks) will be conducting coastal protection and restoration works at the north-eastern coastline of Pulau Tekong which suffers from coastal erosion. The National Biodiversity Centre stated that the erosion resulted from the movements of ships and strong waves in the area. A study NParks commissioned in 2006 found that 1.65 km of the north-eastern shore is most severely affected. The coastal erosion poses a threat to the 92 hectares of mangroves in Pulau Tekong which is one of the largest remaining mangrove areas in Singapore with a mature and undisturbed habitat.

text: The traffic on the river is a significant factor concerning shoreline erosion due to waves produced, especially by large vessels using the St. Lawrence Seaway. Channel Seaway changed the course of the natural flow of the river. In places, the flow distribution in the lake due to some stagnation of water near the banks, creating a silting.

text: The traffic on the river is a significant factor concerning shoreline erosion due to waves produced, especially by large vessels using the

text: St. Lawrence Seaway

text: . Channel Seaway changed the course of the natural flow of the river. In places, the flow distribution in the lake due to some stagnation of water near the banks, creating a silting.

text: The costs of installation and operation per meter of shoreline protection will vary due to

text: Commonly in the southeastern U.S., mangroves and other shoreline vegetation are often planted in conjunction with oyster restoration efforts to provide substrate – surface area to attach to – and reduce shoreline erosion resulting in less sediment deposits within estuaries.

text: Although the degree to which the lithosphere relaxes over time is still controversial, most workers (Allen & Allen 2005, Flemings & Jordan 1989) accept an elastic or visco-elastic rheology to describe the lithospheric deformation of the foreland basin.  Allen & Allen (2005) describe a moving load system, one in which the deflection moves as a wave through the foreland plate before the load system.  The deflection shape is commonly described as an asymmetrical low close to the load along the foreland and a broader uplifted deflection along the forebulge.  The transport rate or flux of erosion, as well as sedimentation, is a function of topographic relief.

text: Although the degree to which the lithosphere relaxes over time is still controversial, most workers (Allen & Allen 2005, Flemings & Jordan 1989) accept an elastic or visco-elastic

text: rheology

text: to describe the lithospheric deformation of the foreland basin.  Allen & Allen (2005) describe a moving load system, one in which the deflection moves as a wave through the foreland plate before the load system.  The deflection shape is commonly described as an asymmetrical low close to the load along the foreland and a broader uplifted deflection along the forebulge.  The transport rate or flux of erosion, as well as sedimentation, is a function of topographic relief.

text: As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about  per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly  per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about  per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod. The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape's shoreline through a process known as longshore drift. Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod. The entire town of Provincetown, at the extreme tip of the Cape, is a spit consisting largely of deposited marine sediment that was eroded and transported from farther south along the shore. Those sediments that instead moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy. So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves, these parts of the Cape have grown through the deposition of sediment in just the last 6,000 years.

text: As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about  per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly  per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about  per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod. The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape's shoreline through a process known as

text: longshore drift

text: . Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod. The entire town of Provincetown, at the extreme tip of the Cape, is a

text: spit

text: consisting largely of deposited marine sediment that was eroded and transported from farther south along the shore. Those sediments that instead moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy. So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves, these parts of the Cape have grown through the

text: deposition

text: of sediment in just the last 6,000 years.

text: The zone where land meets sea is known as the coast and the part between the lowest spring tides and the upper limit reached by splashing waves is the shore. A beach is the accumulation of sand or shingle on the shore. A headland is a point of land jutting out into the sea and a larger promontory is known as a cape. The indentation of a coastline—especially between two headlands—is a bay; a small bay with a narrow inlet is a cove and a large bay or bay-shaped sea may be referred to as a gulf. Coastlines are influenced by a number of factors including the strength of the waves arriving on the shore, the gradient of the land margin, the composition and hardness of the coastal rock, the inclination of the off-shore slope, and the changes of the level of the land due to local uplift or submergence. Normally, waves roll towards the shore at the rate of six to eight per minute. These are known as constructive waves as they tend to move material up the beach and have little erosive effect. Storm waves arrive on shore in rapid succession and are known as destructive waves, as their swash moves beach material seawards. Under their influence, the sand and shingle on the beach is ground together and abraded. Around high tide, the power of a storm wave impacting on the foot of a cliff has a shattering effect as air in cracks and crevices is compressed and then expands rapidly with release of pressure. At the same time, sand and pebbles have an erosive effect as they are thrown against the rocks. Along with other weathering processes such as frost, this tends to undercut the cliff. Gradually, a wave-cut platform develops at the foot of the cliff and this has a protective effect, reducing further wave-erosion.

text: The zone where land meets sea is known as the

text: coast

text: and the part between the lowest spring tides and the upper limit reached by splashing waves is the

text: shore

text: . A

text: beach

text: is the accumulation of

text: sand

text: or

text: shingle

text: on the shore. A

text: headland

text: is a point of land jutting out into the sea and a larger

text: promontory

text: is known as a

text: cape

text: . The indentation of a coastline—especially between two headlands—is a

text: bay

text: ; a small bay with a narrow inlet is a

text: cove

text: and a large bay or bay-shaped sea may be referred to as a

text: gulf

text: . Coastlines are influenced by a number of factors including the strength of the waves arriving on the shore, the gradient of the land margin, the composition and hardness of the coastal rock, the inclination of the off-shore slope, and the changes of the level of the land due to local uplift or submergence. Normally, waves roll towards the shore at the rate of six to eight per minute. These are known as

text: constructive wave

text: s as they tend to move material up the beach and have little erosive effect. Storm waves arrive on shore in rapid succession and are known as

text: destructive wave

text: s, as their

text: swash

text: moves beach material seawards. Under their influence, the sand and shingle on the beach is ground together and abraded. Around high tide, the power of a storm wave impacting on the foot of a cliff has a shattering effect as air in cracks and crevices is compressed and then expands rapidly with release of pressure. At the same time, sand and pebbles have an erosive effect as they are thrown against the rocks. Along with other

text: weathering

text: processes such as frost, this tends to undercut the cliff. Gradually, a wave-cut platform develops at the foot of the cliff and this has a protective effect, reducing further wave-erosion.

text: Sea grasses stabilize sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves. Shrimp, spiny lobsters, and sea urchins live in and among the grasses and feed on phytoplankton; they in turn feed larger predators such as sharks, rays, barracuda, and king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla).  Due to shallow water and abundant sunlight, Florida Bay hosts communities of coral reefs and sponges, although the majority of the state's reefs are closer to the Florida Keys. Everglades keys that foster mangroves also support nurseries for wading birds such as the Great white heron (Ardea herodias), which was almost wiped out in the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 (only 146 were counted afterward). After recovering to number more than 2,000, they were further endangered by Hurricane Donna in 1960, which decreased their numbers by 35 to 40 percent.

text: Sea grasses stabilize sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves. Shrimp,

text: spiny lobster

text: s, and

text: sea urchin

text: s live in and among the grasses and feed on

text: phytoplankton

text: ; they in turn feed larger predators such as

text: shark

text: s,

text: rays

text: barracuda

text: , and king mackerel (

text: Scomberomorus cavalla

text: ).  Due to shallow water and abundant sunlight, Florida Bay hosts communities of

text: coral reef

text: s and

text: sponge

text: s, although the majority of the state's reefs are closer to the

text: Florida Keys

text: . Everglades keys that foster mangroves also support nurseries for wading birds such as the Great white heron (

text: Ardea herodias

text: ), which was almost wiped out in the

text: Labor Day Hurricane of 1935

text: (only 146 were counted afterward). After recovering to number more than 2,000, they were further endangered by

text: Hurricane Donna

text: in 1960, which decreased their numbers by 35 to 40 percent.

text: It has been interpreted as an inter-distributary bay, or alternatively as a sandy coastline featuring wave-generated bars, perhaps with tidal influence; braided fluvial streams often reworked the sediments. In either case, it is clearly fluvial-dominated deposition in a coastal setting, and may simply be a distal equivalent of FA3, where there was a siltier, slightly more marine, background setting with periodic influx of fluvially dominanted, coastally situated distributary channel complexes, rather than specifically interdistributary bay deposition.

text: It has been interpreted as an inter-

text: distributary

text: bay, or alternatively as a sandy coastline featuring wave-generated bars, perhaps with tidal influence; braided fluvial streams often reworked the sediments. In either case, it is clearly fluvial-dominated deposition in a coastal setting, and may simply be a distal equivalent of FA3, where there was a siltier, slightly more marine, background setting with periodic influx of fluvially dominanted, coastally situated distributary channel complexes, rather than specifically interdistributary bay deposition.

text: The term wave is often intuitively understood as referring to a transport of spatial disturbances that are generally not accompanied by a motion of the medium occupying this space as a whole.  In a wave, the energy of a vibration is moving away from the source in the form of a disturbance within the surrounding medium . However, this motion is problematic for a standing wave (for example, a wave on a string), where energy is moving in both directions equally, or for electromagnetic (e.g., light) waves in a vacuum, where the concept of medium does not apply and interaction with a target is the key to wave detection and practical applications. There are water waves on the ocean surface; gamma waves and light waves emitted by the Sun; microwaves used in microwave ovens and in radar equipment; radio waves broadcast by radio stations; and sound waves generated by radio receivers, telephone handsets and living creatures (as voices), to mention only a few wave phenomena.

text: The term wave is often intuitively understood as referring to a transport of spatial disturbances that are generally not accompanied by a motion of the medium occupying this space as a whole.  In a wave, the

text: energy

text: of a

text: vibration

text: is moving away from the source in the form of a disturbance within the surrounding medium . However, this motion is problematic for a

text: standing wave

text: (for example, a wave on a string), where

text: energy

text: is moving in both directions equally, or for electromagnetic (e.g., light) waves in a

text: vacuum

text: , where the concept of medium does not apply and interaction with a target is the key to wave detection and practical applications. There are

text: water waves

text: on the ocean surface;

text: gamma waves

text: and

text: light waves

text: emitted by the Sun;

text: microwaves

text: used in microwave ovens and in

text: radar

text: equipment;

text: radio waves

text: broadcast by radio stations; and

text: sound waves

text: generated by radio receivers, telephone handsets and living creatures (as voices), to mention only a few wave phenomena.

text: The island became a peninsula in the early 20th century when the Gallaudet Aircraft Company constructed America's first seaplane-only factory at Chepiwanoxet cc. 1916. For truck access to the factory, fill was dumped into the marsh, making a causeway from Alger Avenue that still remains. As a result of blocking water circulation around the island, Arnold Cove lost its boat channel from silt deposits in the tidal marsh located on the North side of the island. With the island made of sand deposits it was subject to shore erosion. The Gallaudet Company built wood bulkheads around the North, East and South shores with rock rip-rap on the waterside and fill behind. With many factory workers living north of the old cove, a narrow wood plank bridge was built across the marsh to allow quicker access to/from work.

text: The island became a peninsula in the early 20th century when the

text: Gallaudet Aircraft Company

text: constructed America's first seaplane-only factory at Chepiwanoxet cc. 1916. For truck access to the factory, fill was dumped into the marsh, making a causeway from Alger Avenue that still remains. As a result of blocking water circulation around the island, Arnold Cove lost its boat channel from silt deposits in the tidal marsh located on the North side of the island. With the island made of sand deposits it was subject to shore erosion. The Gallaudet Company built wood bulkheads around the North, East and South shores with rock rip-rap on the waterside and fill behind. With many factory workers living north of the old cove, a narrow wood plank bridge was built across the marsh to allow quicker access to/from work.

text: One serious threat to the future of the Head is erosion of the exposed southern cliff face from wind and rain, as well as erosion caused by the sea primarily through the process of Longshore drift. A comparison of Ordnance Survey maps reveals that 25 metres of cliff was washed away from 1915 to 1962, a process accelerated by the Bournemouth cliff's concreted promenade and groynes, construction of which started in the early 20th century. It is thought that in the last 200 years around 150 metres of land has been lost from the head. The first attempt to counteract erosion came in the 1930s when Bournemouth Council constructed a breakwater now known as "the Long Groyne". Since then, a gabion revetment has been constructed to secure the weakest point at the eastern end of the Head. In a long-term project to secure the head's future, from 2005 to 2008 Poole Bay was replenished with 1.8 million cubic metres of beach material, drawing ire from some surfers and beach lovers owing to the increase in sharp stones on Southbourne beach in particular. The project's organizers, the Poole Bay Partnership, state that: "The resulting wide beaches have been a success in terms of their function as a coast protection structure and for the enjoyment they provide to the area's residents and visitors."

text: One serious threat to the future of the Head is

text: erosion

text: of the exposed southern cliff face from wind and rain, as well as erosion caused by the sea primarily through the process of

text: Longshore drift

text: . A comparison of

text: Ordnance Survey

text: maps reveals that 25 metres of cliff was washed away from 1915 to 1962, a process accelerated by the Bournemouth cliff's concreted promenade and

text: groyne

text: s, construction of which started in the early 20th century. It is thought that in the last 200 years around 150 metres of land has been lost from the head. The first attempt to counteract erosion came in the 1930s when Bournemouth Council constructed a

text: breakwater

text: now known as "the Long Groyne". Since then, a

text: gabion

text: revetment

text: has been constructed to secure the weakest point at the eastern end of the Head. In a long-term project to secure the head's future, from 2005 to 2008 Poole Bay was replenished with 1.8 million cubic metres of beach material, drawing ire from some surfers and beach lovers owing to the increase in sharp stones on Southbourne beach in particular. The project's organizers, the Poole Bay Partnership, state that: "The resulting wide beaches have been a success in terms of their function as a coast protection structure and for the enjoyment they provide to the area's residents and visitors."

text: This process continues today. Due to their exposure to the open ocean, the Cape and islands are subject to considerable coastal erosion. Geologists say that due to erosion, the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea within several thousand years. This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands; for example, the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during Hurricane Bob in 1991, allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction. Consequently, the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere. While this destroys land in some places, it creates land elsewhere, most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by flowing water.

text: This process continues today. Due to their exposure to the open ocean, the Cape and islands are subject to considerable

text: coastal erosion

text: . Geologists say that due to erosion, the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea within several thousand years. This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands; for example, the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during

text: Hurricane Bob

text: in 1991, allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction. Consequently, the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere. While this destroys land in some places, it creates land elsewhere, most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by flowing water.

text: There is a subclass of VMS deposits, the volcanic- and sediment-hosted massive sulfide (VSHMS) deposits, that do share characteristics that are hybrid between the VMS and SEDEX deposits.  Notable examples of this class include the deposits of the Bathurst Camp, New Brunswick, Canada (e.g., Brunswick #12); the deposits of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, Portugal and Spain, and the Wolverine deposit, Yukon, Canada.

text: There is a subclass of VMS deposits, the volcanic- and sediment-hosted massive sulfide (VSHMS) deposits, that do share characteristics that are hybrid between the VMS and SEDEX deposits.  Notable examples of this class include the deposits of the Bathurst Camp,

text: New Brunswick

text: Canada

text: (e.g., Brunswick #12); the deposits of the Iberian Pyrite Belt,

text: Portugal

text: and

text: Spain

text: , and the Wolverine deposit,

text: Yukon

text: Canada

text: All three stable elements occur in heavy mineral sands ore deposits, which are placer deposits formed, most usually in beach environments, by concentration due to the specific gravity of the mineral grains of erosion material from mafic and ultramafic rock. The titanium minerals are mostly anatase and rutile, and zirconium occurs in the mineral zircon. Because of the chemical similarity, up to 5% of the zirconium in zircon is replaced by hafnium. The largest producers of the group 4 elements are Australia, South Africa and Canada.

text: All three stable elements occur in

text: heavy mineral sands ore deposits

text: , which are

text: placer deposit

text: s formed, most usually in

text: beach

text: environments, by concentration due to the

text: specific gravity

text: of the mineral grains of erosion material from

text: mafic

text: and

text: ultramafic rock

text: . The titanium minerals are mostly

text: anatase

text: and

text: rutile

text: , and zirconium occurs in the mineral

text: zircon

text: . Because of the chemical similarity, up to 5% of the zirconium in zircon is replaced by hafnium. The largest producers of the group 4 elements are

text: Australia

text: South Africa

text: and

text: Canada

text: with the wave function  being a relativistic scalar: a complex number which has the same numerical value in all frames of reference. Space and time derivatives both enter to second order. This has a telling consequence for the interpretation of the equation. Because the equation is second order in the time derivative, one must specify initial values both of the wave function itself and of its first-time derivative in order to solve definite problems. Since both may be specified more or less arbitrarily, the wave function cannot maintain its former role of determining the probability density of finding the electron in a given state of motion. In the Schrödinger theory, the probability density is given by the positive definite expression

text: with the wave function  being a relativistic scalar: a complex number which has the same numerical value in all frames of reference. Space and time derivatives both enter to second order. This has a telling consequence for the interpretation of the equation. Because the equation is second order in the time derivative, one must specify initial values both of the wave function itself and of its first-time derivative in order to solve definite problems. Since both may be specified more or less arbitrarily, the wave function cannot maintain its former role of determining the

text: probability density

text: of finding the electron in a given state of motion. In the Schrödinger theory, the probability density is given by the positive definite expression

text: The Gunz-Haslach interglacial is defined as that erosion phase which follows the Günz and precedes the Haslach Glacial Stage. It thus corresponds to the stratigraphic gap between the Zeil gravels (Zeiler Schotter) in Swabia and Haslach gravels (Haslacher Schotter) northeast of the Rhine Glacier. Depositions from the time of the Gunz-Haslach interglacial have hitherto only been detected as weathering formations (soils) on the Zeil gravels. The erosion during the interglacial is very marked and there are different views on the assignment of the gravels (Schotter) before and afterwards.

text: The Gunz-Haslach interglacial is defined as that

text: erosion

text: phase which follows the

text: Günz

text: and precedes the

text: Haslach Glacial Stage

text: . It thus corresponds to the stratigraphic gap between the Zeil gravels (Zeiler Schotter) in

text: Swabia

text: and Haslach gravels (Haslacher Schotter) northeast of the

text: Rhine Glacier

text: . Depositions from the time of the Gunz-Haslach interglacial have hitherto only been detected as

text: weathering

text: formations (

text: soil

text: s) on the Zeil gravels. The erosion during the interglacial is very marked and there are different views on the assignment of the gravels (Schotter) before and afterwards.

text: California's beaches and other shoreline features change according to the availability of beach sand, the wave and current energy impinging on the coast, and other physical processes that affect the movement of sand. A constant supply of sand is necessary for beaches to form and be maintained along this shoreline. Many human activities, including dam construction and river channelization, have reduced the supply of sand that reaches the ocean.  This, in turn, has prevented beaches from being replenished and has thus created greater vulnerability for shorelines that have always been subject to varying levels of erosion.  There are few practical solutions to improving sand supply from inland sources, so management of shoreline erosion will likely continue to focus at the land/sea interface along the California coastline.

text: California

text: 's beaches and other shoreline features change according to the availability of beach sand, the wave and current energy impinging on the coast, and other physical processes that affect the movement of sand. A constant supply of sand is necessary for beaches to form and be maintained along this shoreline. Many human activities, including dam construction and river channelization, have reduced the supply of sand that reaches the ocean.  This, in turn, has prevented beaches from being replenished and has thus created greater vulnerability for shorelines that have always been subject to varying levels of erosion.  There are few practical solutions to improving sand supply from inland sources, so management of shoreline erosion will likely continue to focus at the land/sea interface along the California coastline.

text: Surface runoff can cause erosion of the Earth's surface; eroded material may be deposited a considerable distance away. There are four main types of soil erosion by water: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion and gully erosion. Splash erosion is the result of mechanical collision of raindrops with the soil surface: soil particles which are dislodged by the impact then move with the surface runoff. Sheet erosion is the overland transport of sediment by runoff without a well defined channel. Soil surface roughness causes may cause runoff to become concentrated into narrower flow paths: as these incise, the small but well-defined channels which are formed are known as rills. These channels can be as small as one centimeter wide or as large as several meters. If runoff continue to incise and enlarge rills, they may eventually grow to become gullies. Gully erosion can transport large amounts of eroded material in a small time period.

text: Surface runoff can cause

text: erosion

text: of the Earth's surface;

text: eroded material

text: may be

text: deposited

text: a considerable distance away. There are four main types of

text: soil erosion by water

text: : splash erosion, sheet erosion,

text: rill

text: erosion and

text: gully

text: erosion. Splash erosion is the result of mechanical collision of raindrops with the soil surface: soil particles which are dislodged by the impact then move with the surface runoff. Sheet erosion is the overland transport of

text: sediment

text: by runoff without a well defined channel. Soil surface roughness causes may cause runoff to become concentrated into narrower flow paths: as these incise, the small but well-defined channels which are formed are known as

text: rill

text: s. These channels can be as small as one centimeter wide or as large as several meters. If runoff continue to incise and enlarge rills, they may eventually grow to become

text: gullies

text: . Gully erosion can transport large amounts of eroded material in a small time period.

text: The current lighthouse is the fourth tower at this station, though neither of its first two predecessors were lit. The first tower was built at the direction of James Oglethorpe and was constructed of wood; erected in 1736, it was felled by a storm in 1741. The following year a replacement was erected, this time of stone and wood, but still with no illumination; instead, it was topped with a flag pole. This tower succumbed to shoreline erosion.

text: The current lighthouse is the fourth tower at this station, though neither of its first two predecessors were lit. The first tower was built at the direction of

text: James Oglethorpe

text: and was constructed of wood; erected in 1736, it was felled by a storm in 1741. The following year a replacement was erected, this time of stone and wood, but still with no illumination; instead, it was topped with a flag pole. This tower succumbed to shoreline erosion.

text: While the storm had no direct impact on land, large swells affected most of the Queensland coastline. In the Shire of Noosa, six surfers sustained serious injuries after wading into turbulent waters. Waves up to  tossed the six surfers, leaving them with injuries ranging from broken noses and fractured ankles to head wounds from surfboards. The waves also caused additional beach erosion to parts of Papua New Guinea previously impacted by Cyclone Ingrid in March 2005.

text: While the storm had no direct impact on land, large

text: swells

text: affected most of the Queensland coastline. In the

text: Shire of Noosa

text: , six surfers sustained serious injuries after wading into turbulent waters. Waves up to  tossed the six surfers, leaving them with injuries ranging from broken noses and fractured ankles to head wounds from surfboards. The waves also caused additional

text: beach erosion

text: to parts of Papua New Guinea previously impacted by

text: Cyclone Ingrid

text: in March 2005.

text: In 1994, a small group of employees and volunteers at the Vancouver Aquarium decided to protect the shorelines of Vancouver by cleaning up a local beach, and submitted data collected from their cleanup to the International Coastal Cleanup. By 1997, the project became known as the Great BC Beach Cleanup and with 400 volunteers cleaning and collecting data from 20 sites across the Lower Mainland annually. As the program continue to expand, cleanup locations started to pop-up in the interior of BC highlight the connection between inland bodies of water, such as rivers and lakes, to the ocean. In 2001, the initiative expanded into Alberta and became known as the Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup. By 2003, cleanups were happening in every province and territory of Canada as part of the Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup.

text: In 1994, a small group of employees and volunteers at the

text: Vancouver Aquarium

text: decided to protect the shorelines of Vancouver by cleaning up a local beach, and submitted data collected from their cleanup to the International Coastal Cleanup. By 1997, the project became known as the Great BC Beach Cleanup and with 400 volunteers cleaning and collecting data from 20 sites across the Lower Mainland annually. As the program continue to expand, cleanup locations started to pop-up in the interior of BC highlight the connection between inland bodies of water, such as rivers and lakes, to the ocean. In 2001, the initiative expanded into Alberta and became known as the Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup. By 2003, cleanups were happening in every province and territory of Canada as part of the Great Canadian Shoreline Cleanup.

text: Countries undergoing or having undergone a transition to democracy during a wave are subject to backsliding. Political scientists and theorists believe that the third wave has crested and will soon begin to ebb, just as its predecessors did in the first and second waves. Indeed, in the period immediately following the onset of the "war on terror" after the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States, some backsliding was evident.  How significant or lasting that erosion is remains a subject of debate.

text: Countries undergoing or having undergone a transition to democracy during a wave are subject to backsliding. Political scientists and theorists believe that the third wave has crested and will soon begin to ebb, just as its predecessors did in the first and second waves. Indeed, in the period immediately following the onset of the "war on terror" after the

text: September 11, 2001

text: attacks on the United States, some backsliding was evident.  How significant or lasting that erosion is remains a subject of debate.

text: Longshore drift is a geographical process that consists of the transportation of sediments (clay, silt, sand and shingle) along a coast at an angle to the shoreline, which is dependent on prevailing wind direction, swash and backwash. This process occurs in the littoral zone, and in or close to the surf zone.  The process is also known as littoral drift, longshore current or longshore transport.

text: Longshore drift is a geographical process that consists of the transportation of

text: sediment

text: s (clay, silt, sand and shingle) along a coast at an angle to the shoreline, which is dependent on prevailing wind direction,

text: swash

text: and

text: backwash

text: . This process occurs in the

text: littoral zone

text: , and in or close to the

text: surf zone

text: .  The process is also known as littoral drift, longshore current or longshore transport.

text: Drywasher - A mechanical apparatus used for separating free particles of placer gold from dry sediments. Dry placers represent a major portion of all alluvial gold deposits around the globe. Extreme aridity in southern hemispheric regions of the planet causes a slower rate of erosion on placer deposits than if rainfall were plentiful and regional watersheds were hydrologically active. This absence of water directly correlates to the low moisture content of alluvial sediments and the short distance gold moves from its hardrock source. A drywasher works on the principle of gravity separation. Since gold, at 19.1 specific gravity, is much heavier than most other minerals found in local sediments, a facsimile of certain natural conditions (which would involve the use of water, if it were available) can be mechanically reproduced with a simple machine using dry air instead of water as the medium of separation. The process of excavating dry, compacted sediments will often loosen or unconsolidate them. Then, as long as the material is sufficiently dry, these gravels can be processed with a drywasher in a relatively efficient manner.

text: Drywasher - A mechanical apparatus used for separating free particles of

text: placer

text: gold from dry

text: sediment

text: s. Dry placers represent a major portion of all

text: alluvial

text: gold deposits around the globe. Extreme

text: arid

text: ity in southern hemispheric regions of the planet causes a slower rate of

text: erosion

text: on placer deposits than if rainfall were plentiful and

text: regional watersheds

text: were

text: hydrologically

text: active. This absence of water directly correlates to the low moisture content of alluvial sediments and the short distance gold moves from its hardrock source. A drywasher works on the principle of

text: gravity separation

text: . Since gold, at 19.1

text: specific gravity

text: , is much heavier than most other minerals found in local sediments, a

text: facsimile

text: of certain natural conditions (which would involve the use of water, if it were available) can be mechanically reproduced with a simple machine using dry air instead of water as the medium of separation. The process of excavating dry, compacted sediments will often loosen or unconsolidate them. Then, as long as the material is sufficiently dry, these

text: gravel

text: s can be processed with a drywasher in a relatively efficient manner.

text: Estimates of global deposits range from  of recoverable oil.  There are around 600 known oil shale deposits around the world, including major deposits in the United States of America.  Although oil shale deposits occur in many countries, only 33 countries possess known deposits of possible economic value.  The largest deposits in the world occur in the United States in the Green River Formation, which covers portions of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming; about 70% of this resource lies on land owned or managed by the United States federal government.  Deposits in the United States constitute 62% of world resources; together, the United States, Russia and Brazil account for 86% of the world's resources in terms of shale-oil content. These figures remain tentative, with exploration or analysis of several deposits still outstanding.  Well-explored deposits, potentially possessing economic value, include the Green River deposits in the western United States, the Tertiary deposits in Queensland, Australia, deposits in Sweden and Estonia, the El-Lajjun deposit in Jordan, and deposits in France, Germany, Brazil, Morocco, China, southern Mongolia and Russia. These deposits have given rise to expectations of yielding at least   of shale oil per tonne of shale, using the Fischer Assay method.

text: Estimates of global deposits range from  of recoverable oil.  There are around 600 known

text: oil shale deposits

text: around the world, including major deposits in the

text: United States of America

text: .  Although oil shale deposits occur in many countries, only 33 countries possess known deposits of possible economic value.  The largest deposits in the world occur in the United States in the

text: Green River Formation

text: , which covers portions of

text: Colorado

text: Utah

text: , and

text: Wyoming

text: ; about 70% of this resource lies on land owned or managed by the United States federal government.  Deposits in the United States constitute 62% of world resources; together, the United States, Russia and Brazil account for 86% of the world's resources in terms of shale-oil content. These figures remain tentative, with exploration or analysis of several deposits still outstanding.  Well-explored deposits, potentially possessing economic value, include the

text: Green River

text: deposits in the western United States, the Tertiary deposits in

text: Queensland

text: , Australia, deposits in

text: Sweden

text: and

text: Estonia

text: , the El-Lajjun deposit in

text: Jordan

text: , and deposits in France, Germany,

text: Brazil

text: Morocco

text: , China, southern

text: Mongolia

text: and Russia. These deposits have given rise to expectations of yielding at least   of shale oil per tonne of shale, using the

text: Fischer Assay

text: method.

text: As flow enters the bank of an alluvial river, the centrifugal force created by the bend instigates helicoidal flow, a corkscrew like pattern of flow, which drives the hydraulic action acting on the opposing bank. This is where the primary process in river channel migration of bank erosion occurs. Often the bank is undercut, another result of the helicoidal flow, which leads to the creation of cut banks. Factors that limit the rate of bank erosion include the rate of deposition of the point bar, stream power, and the critical shear stress of the stream bed.

text: As flow enters the bank of an

text: alluvial river

text: , the centrifugal force created by the bend instigates

text: helicoidal flow

text: , a corkscrew like pattern of flow, which drives the

text: hydraulic action

text: acting on the opposing bank. This is where the primary process in river channel migration of

text: bank erosion

text: occurs. Often the bank is undercut, another result of the helicoidal flow, which leads to the creation of cut banks. Factors that limit the rate of bank erosion include the rate of deposition of the point bar,

text: stream power

text: , and the critical

text: shear stress

text: of the stream bed.

text: Probably the most important effect is longshore drift (LSD)(Also known as Littoral Drift), the process by which sediment is continuously moved along beaches by wave action. LSD occurs because waves hit the shore at an angle, pick up sediment (sand) on the shore and carry it down the beach at an angle (this is called swash). Due to gravity, the water then falls back perpendicular to the beach, dropping its sediment as it loses energy (this is called backwash). The sediment is then picked up by the next wave and pushed slightly further down the beach, resulting in a continual movement of sediment in one direction. This is the reason why long strips of coast are covered in sediment, not just the areas around river mouths, which are the main sources of beach sediment. LSD is reliant on a constant supply of sediment from rivers and if sediment supply is stopped or sediment falls into a submarine canals at any point along a beach, this can lead to bare beaches further along the shore.

text: Probably the most important effect is

text: longshore drift

text: (LSD)(Also known as Littoral Drift), the process by which sediment is continuously moved along beaches by wave action. LSD occurs because waves hit the shore at an angle, pick up sediment (sand) on the shore and carry it down the beach at an angle (this is called swash). Due to gravity, the water then falls back perpendicular to the beach, dropping its sediment as it loses energy (this is called backwash). The sediment is then picked up by the next wave and pushed slightly further down the beach, resulting in a continual movement of sediment in one direction. This is the reason why long strips of coast are covered in sediment, not just the areas around river mouths, which are the main sources of beach sediment. LSD is reliant on a constant supply of sediment from rivers and if sediment supply is stopped or sediment falls into a

text: submarine canals

text: at any point along a beach, this can lead to bare beaches further along the shore.

text: Overall, the Vancouver Seawall is a prime example of how seawalls can simultaneously provide shoreline protection and a source of recreation which enhances human enjoyment of the coastal environment. It also illustrates that although shoreline erosion is a natural process, human activities, interactions with the coast and poorly planned shoreline development projects can accelerate natural erosion rates.

text: The geological record is very discontinuous, and deposition is episodic at all scales. At the largest scale, a sedimentological high-stand period may mean that no deposition may occur for tens of thousands of years and, in fact, erosion of the deposit may occur. Such a hiatus is called an unconformity. Conversely, a catastrophic event such as a mudslide may overrepresent a time period. At a shorter scale, scouring processes such as the formation of ripples and dunes and the passing of turbidity currents may cause layers to be removed. Thus the fossil record is biased towards periods of greatest sedimentation; periods of time that have less sedimentation are consequently less well represented in the fossil record.

text: The geological record is very discontinuous, and deposition is episodic at all scales. At the largest scale, a sedimentological high-stand period may mean that no deposition may occur for tens of thousands of years and, in fact, erosion of the deposit may occur. Such a hiatus is called an unconformity. Conversely, a catastrophic event such as a mudslide may overrepresent a time period. At a shorter scale, scouring processes such as the formation of ripples and dunes and the passing of

text: turbidity current

text: s may cause layers to be removed. Thus the fossil record is biased towards periods of greatest sedimentation; periods of time that have less sedimentation are consequently less well represented in the fossil record.

text: The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute has a small data monitoring building adjacent to the hangar. It monitors wave action, beach erosion, and offshore wave action. It is not open to the public.

text: Erosion of soil is caused by water, wind, ice, and movement in response to gravity. More than one kind of erosion can occur simultaneously. Erosion is distinguished from weathering, since erosion also transports eroded soil away from its place of origin (soil in transit may be described as sediment). Erosion is an intrinsic natural process, but in many places it is greatly increased by human activity, especially poor land use practices. These include agricultural activities which leave the soil bare during times of heavy rain or strong winds, overgrazing, deforestation, and improper construction activity. Improved management can limit erosion. Soil conservation techniques which are employed include changes of land use (such as replacing erosion-prone crops with grass or other soil-binding plants), changes to the timing or type of agricultural operations, terrace building, use of erosion-suppressing cover materials (including cover crops and other plants), limiting disturbance during construction, and avoiding construction during erosion-prone periods.

text: Erosion

text: of soil is caused by

text: water

text: wind

text: ice

text: , and

text: movement in response to gravity

text: . More than one kind of erosion can occur simultaneously. Erosion is distinguished from

text: weathering

text: , since erosion also transports eroded soil away from its place of origin (soil in transit may be described as

text: sediment

text: ). Erosion is an intrinsic natural process, but in many places it is greatly increased by human activity, especially poor

text: land use

text: practices. These include

text: agricultural

text: activities which leave the soil bare during times of heavy rain or strong winds,

text: overgrazing

text: deforestation

text: , and improper

text: construction

text: activity. Improved management can limit erosion.

text: Soil conservation techniques

text: which are employed include changes of land use (such as replacing erosion-prone

text: crop

text: s with

text: grass

text: or other soil-binding plants), changes to the timing or type of agricultural operations,

text: terrace

text: building, use of erosion-suppressing cover materials (including

text: cover crops

text: and

text: other plants

text: ), limiting disturbance during construction, and avoiding construction during erosion-prone periods.

text: Many American bands in the late seventies began experimenting with synthesizers, forming the new wave style. The original American bands included Talking Heads, The Cars, and Devo. In the eighties, Britain would respond with the synthpop style, which broadened the definition of "new wave".

text: synthesizer

text: s, forming the

text: new wave

text: Talking Heads

text: The Cars

text: , and

text: Devo

text: . In the eighties, Britain would respond with the

text: synthpop

text: However, for reasons unknown, this older definition was discarded on the advent of modern radar systems in favor of one which remains in use today: a point of light on a radar screen to locate a searched for object. The definition received a further update when, in 2009, two companies independently began using the word in association with the Internet. Kedoodle co-founder Sarah J. Crews coined the term as “any 140 character status update on a social networking platform such as Facebook or Twitter.” In a similar vein, Google Wave uses the term to refer to a single message posted in a thread.

text: However, for reasons unknown, this older definition was discarded on the advent of modern radar systems in favor of one which remains in use today: a point of light on a radar screen to locate a searched for object. The definition received a further update when, in 2009, two companies independently began using the word in association with the Internet. Kedoodle co-founder Sarah J. Crews coined the term as “any 140 character status update on a social networking platform such as Facebook or Twitter.” In a similar vein,

text: Google Wave

text: uses the term to refer to a single message posted in a thread.

text: Sea glass and beach glass are similar but come from two different types of water. "Sea glass" is physically and chemically weathered glass found on beaches along bodies of salt water. These weathering processes produce natural frosted glass. "Genuine sea glass" can be collected as a hobby and can be used to make jewelry. "Beach glass" comes from fresh water and in most cases has a different pH balance, and has a less frosted appearance than sea glass. Sea glass takes 20 to 30 years, and sometimes as much as 50 years, to acquire its characteristic texture and shape. Sometimes also colloquially referred to as "Drift glass" from the longshore drift process that forms the smooth edges.

text: Sea glass and beach glass are similar but come from two different types of water. "Sea glass" is

text: physically

text: and

text: chemically weathered

text: glass

text: found on

text: beach

text: es along bodies of

text: salt

text: water. These weathering processes produce natural

text: frosted glass

text: . "Genuine sea glass" can be collected as a

text: hobby

text: and can be used to make

text: jewelry

text: . "Beach glass" comes from fresh water and in most cases has a different pH balance, and has a less frosted appearance than sea glass. Sea glass takes 20 to 30 years, and sometimes as much as 50 years, to acquire its characteristic texture and shape. Sometimes also colloquially referred to as "Drift glass" from the longshore drift process that forms the smooth edges.

text: Like other arms of Prince William Sound, Orca Inlet is a fjord. There are large areas on its coast with large rounded rocks as well as many cirques and hanging valleys. Glacial erosion created steep walls on the sides of the fjord. In one area the elevation rises to  within  of the coastline. The southern and central areas are filled with sediment making the area very shallow. These deposits resulted from the receded glacier that once filled the fjord as well as current inflow through the seaward end of the inlet from the Copper River and other smaller glacial streams. These deposits drift westward along the coast until they reach the entrance of Orca Inlet. Orca Inlet can serve as an entrance to Prince William Sound from the Gulf of Alaska but the shallow water limits the size of vessels that can use the route. In 1914, the southern rds of the inlet was generally  deep or less with a few, discontinuous channels, while the north part was  deep.

text: Like other arms of Prince William Sound, Orca Inlet is a

text: fjord

text: . There are large areas on its coast with large rounded rocks as well as many

text: cirques

text: and

text: hanging valleys

text: . Glacial erosion created steep walls on the sides of the fjord. In one area the elevation rises to  within  of the coastline. The southern and central areas are filled with sediment making the area very shallow. These deposits resulted from the receded glacier that once filled the fjord as well as current inflow through the seaward end of the inlet from the

text: Copper River

text: and other smaller glacial streams. These deposits drift westward along the coast until they reach the entrance of Orca Inlet. Orca Inlet can serve as an entrance to Prince William Sound from the Gulf of Alaska but the shallow water limits the size of vessels that can use the route. In 1914, the southern rds of the inlet was generally  deep or less with a few, discontinuous channels, while the north part was  deep.

text: Historically, the port was responsible for the shoreline changes in the region, where the area south of the port has accreted significantly, resulting in the formation of the Marina Beach, whereas the coast in the northern region has undergone severe erosion. Ever since the harbour was constructed, the coast north of the harbour has been experiencing erosion at the rate of about 8 m annually. The shoreline has recessed by about 1,000 m with respect to the original shoreline in 1876. It is estimated that 500 m of beach has been lost between 1876 and 1975 and another 200 m between 1978 and 1995. About 350 ha land in the coast north of the port is lost into sea. On the other hand, the area south of the port is increasing 40 sq m every year due to the progradation.

text: Historically, the port was responsible for the shoreline changes in the region, where the area south of the port has accreted significantly, resulting in the formation of the

text: Marina Beach

text: , whereas the coast in the northern region has undergone severe erosion. Ever since the harbour was constructed, the coast north of the harbour has been experiencing erosion at the rate of about 8 m annually. The shoreline has recessed by about 1,000 m with respect to the original shoreline in 1876. It is estimated that 500 m of beach has been lost between 1876 and 1975 and another 200 m between 1978 and 1995. About 350 ha land in the coast north of the port is lost into sea. On the other hand, the area south of the port is increasing 40 sq m every year due to the

text: progradation

text: Historical and geological estimates of tephra volumes are usually obtained by mapping the distribution and thickness of tephra deposits on the ground after the eruption is over.  For historical volcanic explosions, further estimates must be made of tephra deposits that might have changed significantly over time by other geological processes including erosion.  Tephra volumes measured in this way must then be corrected for void spaces (vesicles - bubbles within the pumice, empty spaces between individual pieces of pumice or ash) to get an estimate of the original volume of magma erupted. This correction can be made by comparing the bulk density of the tephra deposit with the known density of the original gas-free rock-type that makes up the tephra. The result is referred to as the dense-rock equivalent of the erupted volume.

text: Historical and geological estimates of tephra volumes are usually obtained by mapping the distribution and thickness of tephra deposits on the ground after the eruption is over.  For historical volcanic explosions, further estimates must be made of tephra deposits that might have changed significantly over time by other geological processes including erosion.  Tephra volumes measured in this way must then be corrected for void spaces (

text: vesicles

text: - bubbles within the pumice, empty spaces between individual pieces of pumice or ash) to get an estimate of the original volume of

text: magma

text: erupted. This correction can be made by comparing the bulk density of the tephra deposit with the known

text: density

text: of the original gas-free rock-type that makes up the tephra. The result is referred to as the dense-rock equivalent of the erupted volume.

text: An SKS wave is a type of seismic wave, with the three letters denoting the type of wave-motion through the mantle and outer core. The first S indicates that the wave travels as a shear or s-wave through the mantle, the K shows that the wave travels as a compressional or p-wave though the outer core, and the final S indicates an s-wave, returning through the mantle. As shear waves cannot be transmitted through the liquid Outer core, some of the s-wave energy is converted to p-wave energy as the wave hits the Core–mantle boundary. When the wave hits the core-mantle boundary as it leaves the core, some energy is converted back to shear energy before the wave travels through the mantle. SKS waves can be observed by seismometers roughly 60-141° from an earthquake according to the Preliminary reference Earth model.

text: An SKS wave is a type of

text: seismic wave

text: , with the three letters denoting the type of wave-motion through the mantle and outer core. The first S indicates that the wave travels as a

text: shear

text: or

text: s-wave

text: through the mantle, the K shows that the wave travels as a

text: compressional

text: or

text: p-wave

text: though the

text: outer core

text: , and the final S indicates an s-wave, returning through the mantle. As shear waves cannot be transmitted through the liquid

text: Outer core

text: , some of the s-wave energy is converted to p-wave energy as the wave hits the

text: Core–mantle boundary

text: . When the wave hits the core-mantle boundary as it leaves the core, some energy is converted back to shear energy before the wave travels through the mantle. SKS waves can be observed by

text: seismometer

text: s roughly 60-141° from an

text: earthquake

text: according to the

text: Preliminary reference Earth model

text: Certified Professional in Erosion and Sediment Control (CPESC) is a qualification indicating the holder has educational training, expertise and experience in controlling erosion and sedimentation, and met certification standards.

text: Certified Professional in Erosion and Sediment Control (CPESC) is a qualification indicating the holder has educational training, expertise and experience in controlling

text: erosion

text: and

text: sedimentation

text: , and met certification standards.

text: Waves are usually described by variations in some parameter through space and time—for example, height in a water wave, pressure in a sound wave, or the electromagnetic field in a light wave. The value of this parameter is called the amplitude of the wave, and the wave itself is a function specifying the amplitude at each point.

text: Waves are usually described by variations in some parameter through space and time—for example, height in a water wave,

text: pressure

text: in a sound wave, or the

text: electromagnetic field

text: in a light wave. The value of this parameter is called the

text: amplitude

text: of the wave, and the wave itself is a

text: function

text: specifying the amplitude at each point.

text: Mangroves provide an important nursery for fish, shellfish and other organisms. It is estimated that each hectare of mangrove can provide food for 1,000 kg of marine organisms ().  With this abundance of food for fish present in the mangroves, each hectare of mangal yields 283.5 metric tons of fish per year (). Mangroves also provide other important functions such as preventing soil erosion and protecting shoreline from typhoons and strong waves. Mangroves provide many other products and services such as medicines, alcohol, housing materials and are an area for research and tourism.

text: The site contains the entrance to St Cuthbert's Swallet cave, and overlies a large part of the cave complex reached through St Cuthbert's Swallet. This cave is an integral part of the Priddy Caves system which contains over 10 miles of surveyed cave passages divided between two major systems and four minor systems, all interconnected. All the caves are sink hole systems, fed by sink holes at the ground surface, and 3 of them exceed 100 metres in depth; in all the caves the detailed disposition and form of the passages can be seen clearly to have followed marked lines of natural weakness in the rocks. St Cuthbert's Swallet was formed by the erosive action of water flowing beneath the water-table at considerable depth (so called "phreatic development"). St Cuthbert's Swallet is a classic example of a deep phreatic cave system, containing inclined bedding plane mazes at many levels, fault-guided rifts and some significant chambers. Nine successive phases of sediment deposition, stalagmite deposition and stream erosion have been recognised in St Cuthbert's Swallet, providing an exceptional record of environmental change through thewarm and cold phases of the Ice Age.

text: The site contains the entrance to

text: St Cuthbert's Swallet

text: cave, and overlies a large part of the cave complex reached through St Cuthbert's Swallet. This cave is an integral part of the

text: Priddy Caves

text: system which contains over 10 miles of surveyed cave passages divided between two major systems and four minor systems, all interconnected. All the caves are sink hole systems, fed by sink holes at the ground surface, and 3 of them exceed 100 metres in depth; in all the caves the detailed disposition and form of the passages can be seen clearly to have followed marked lines of natural weakness in the rocks. St Cuthbert's Swallet was formed by the erosive action of water flowing beneath the water-table at considerable depth (so called "phreatic development"). St Cuthbert's Swallet is a classic example of a deep

text: phreatic

text: cave system, containing inclined bedding plane mazes at many levels, fault-guided rifts and some significant chambers. Nine successive phases of

text: sediment

text: deposition,

text: stalagmite

text: deposition and stream erosion have been recognised in St Cuthbert's Swallet, providing an exceptional record of environmental change through thewarm and cold phases of the

text: Ice Age

text: The Northern Lowlands are and have long been a depositional milleau are mostly covered by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits. The bulk of these deposties correspond to laterites. River erosion and sediment transport have created a large number of oxbow lakes and added copious meanders to the rivers.

text: The Northern Lowlands are and have long been a

text: depositional

text: milleau are mostly covered by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits. The bulk of these deposties correspond to

text: laterite

text: s. River

text: erosion

text: and

text: sediment transport

text: have created a large number of

text: oxbow lake

text: s and added copious

text: meander

text: s to the rivers.

text: Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones. Coral reefs provide a protective barrier to coastal shoreline. Mangroves stabilize the coastal zone from the interior and will migrate with the shoreline to remain adjacent to the boundary of the water. The main conservation benefit these systems have against storms and tidal waves is the ability to reduce the speed and height of waves and floodwaters.

text: Tidal and inter-tidal wetland systems protect and stabilize coastal zones.

text: Coral reefs

text: provide a protective barrier to coastal shoreline.

text: Mangroves

text: stabilize the coastal zone from the interior and will migrate with the shoreline to remain adjacent to the boundary of the water. The main conservation benefit these systems have against storms and tidal waves is the ability to reduce the speed and height of waves and floodwaters.

text: Provides for the establishment of a Shoreline Erosion Advisory Panel. Sets forth the duties of such Panel. Authorized an appropriation of $8,000,000 for construction of such projects.

text: Along the ABC Islands off the north coast of Venezuela, the hurricane produced  waves along the southwest coastlines. The waves caused heavy beach erosion and coastal damage to properties and boats.

text: Along the

text: ABC Islands

text: off the north coast of Venezuela, the hurricane produced  waves along the southwest coastlines. The waves caused heavy beach erosion and coastal damage to properties and boats.

text: Eurypterus are very common fossils in their regions of occurrence, millions of specimens are possible in a given area, though access to the rock formations may be difficult. Most fossil eurypterids are the disjointed shed exoskeleton (known as exuviae) of individuals after molting (ecdysis). Some are complete but are most probably exuviae as well. Fossils of the actual remains of eurypterids (i.e. their carcasses) are relatively rare. Fossil eurypterids are often deposited in characteristic windrows, probably a result of wave and wind action.

text: Eurypterus are very common fossils in their regions of occurrence, millions of specimens are possible in a given area, though access to the

text: rock formations

text: may be difficult. Most fossil eurypterids are the disjointed shed exoskeleton (known as

text: exuvia

text: e) of individuals after molting (

text: ecdysis

text: ). Some are complete but are most probably exuviae as well. Fossils of the actual remains of eurypterids (i.e. their

text: carcasses

text: ) are relatively rare. Fossil eurypterids are often deposited in characteristic windrows, probably a result of wave and wind action.

text: The bluffs are formed from eroded drumlins, teardrop-shaped hills of glacial till that were deposited and shaped by glaciers during the most recent ice age. The erosive power of wind, rain, snow, and waves has formed the landscape into sharp pinnacles. Although the pinnacles and cliffs, some of which rise up to  above the lake shore, have existed for thousands of years, they are constantly changing and further eroding. The average erosion of bluffs is  per year.

text: The bluffs are formed from eroded

text: drumlins

text: , teardrop-shaped hills of

text: glacial till

text: that were deposited and shaped by

text: glaciers

text: during the most recent

text: ice age

text: . The erosive power of wind, rain, snow, and waves has formed the landscape into sharp pinnacles. Although the pinnacles and cliffs, some of which rise up to  above the lake shore, have existed for thousands of years, they are constantly changing and further eroding. The average erosion of bluffs is  per year.

text: Wave cut platforms at 18 to 20m and at 30m are well developed below Clarence Drive from Steenbras River Mouth to Koeëlbaai. On them rest rounded sandstone boulders, gravel and sand, up to a metre thick, often cemented by manganese and iron. In places scree partially overlies these deposits. In the same vicinity raised boulder beaches, similar to those on the peninsula, occur at 3 to 5m above sea level.

text: Historically, dose-transfer to the biological target (i.e. the pest) has been shown to be inefficient.  However, relating "ideal" deposits with biological effect is fraught with difficulty), but in spite of Hislop’s misgivings about detail, there have been several demonstrations that massive amounts of pesticides are wasted by run-off from the crop and into the soil, in a process called endo-drift.  This is a less familiar form of pesticide drift, with exo-drift causing much greater public concern.  Pesticides are conventionally applied using hydraulic atomisers, either on hand-held sprayers or tractor booms, where formulations are mixed into high volumes of water.

text: Historically, dose-transfer to the biological target (i.e. the

text: pest

text: ) has been shown to be inefficient.  However, relating "ideal" deposits with biological effect is fraught with difficulty), but in spite of Hislop’s misgivings about detail, there have been several demonstrations that massive amounts of pesticides are wasted by run-off from the crop and into the soil, in a process called endo-drift.  This is a less familiar form of

text: pesticide drift

text: , with exo-drift causing much greater public concern.  Pesticides are conventionally applied using hydraulic atomisers, either on hand-held sprayers or tractor booms, where formulations are mixed into high volumes of water.

text: Even well managed loess farmland can experience dramatic erosion of well over 2.5 kg /m per year. In China the loess deposits which give the Yellow River its color have been farmed and have produced phenomenal yields for over one thousand years. Winds pick up loess particles, contributing to the Asian Dust pollution problem. The largest deposit of loess in the United States, the Loess Hills along the border of Iowa and Nebraska, has survived intensive farming and poor farming practices. For almost 150 years this loess deposit was farmed with mouldboard ploughs and fall tilled, both intensely erosive. At times it suffered erosion rates of over 10 kilograms per square meter per year. Today this loess deposit is worked as low till or no till in all areas and is aggressively terraced.

text: Even well managed loess

text: farmland

text: can experience dramatic

text: erosion

text: of well over 2.5 kg /m per year. In China the

text: loess deposits

text: which give the

text: Yellow River

text: its color have been farmed and have produced phenomenal yields for over one thousand years. Winds pick up loess particles, contributing to the

text: Asian Dust

text: pollution problem. The largest deposit of loess in the United States, the

text: Loess Hills

text: along the border of

text: Iowa

text: and Nebraska, has survived intensive farming and

text: poor farming practices

text: . For almost 150 years this loess deposit was farmed with

text: mouldboard plough

text: s and fall tilled, both intensely erosive. At times it suffered erosion rates of over 10 kilograms per square meter per year. Today this loess deposit is worked as low till or

text: no till

text: in all areas and is aggressively

text: terraced

text: The east coast of the South Island has been identified as being in a period of chronic erosion of approximately 0.5 metres per year.  This erosion trend is a result of a number of factors.  According to the classification scheme of Zenkovich, the rivers on the east coast can be described as ‘small’; this classification is not related to their flow rate but to the insufficient amount of sediment that they transport to the coast to nourish it.  The sediment provided is not adequate to nourish the coast against its typical high energy waves and strong longshore drift.  These two processes constantly remove sediment depositing it either offshore or further up drift.  As the coastline becomes eroded the hapua have been 'rolling back' by eroding the backshore to move landwards.

text: Due to the properties of sine and cosine, it is possible to recover the amplitude of each wave in a Fourier series using an integral.  In many cases it is desirable to use Euler's formula, which states that , to write Fourier series in terms of the basic waves e. This has the advantage of simplifying many of the formulas involved, and provides a formulation for Fourier series that more closely resembles the definition followed in this article.  Re-writing sines and cosines as complex exponentials makes it necessary for the Fourier coefficients to be complex valued.  The usual interpretation of this complex number is that it gives both the amplitude (or size) of the wave present in the function and the phase (or the initial angle) of the wave.  These complex exponentials sometimes contain negative "frequencies".  If θ is measured in seconds, then the waves  and  both complete one cycle per second, but they represent different frequencies in the Fourier transform.  Hence, frequency no longer measures the number of cycles per unit time, but is still closely related.

text: Due to the properties of sine and cosine, it is possible to recover the amplitude of each wave in a Fourier series using an integral.  In many cases it is desirable to use

text: Euler's formula

text: , which states that , to write Fourier series in terms of the basic waves e. This has the advantage of simplifying many of the formulas involved, and provides a formulation for Fourier series that more closely resembles the definition followed in this article.  Re-writing sines and cosines as

text: complex exponentials

text: makes it necessary for the Fourier coefficients to be complex valued.  The usual interpretation of this complex number is that it gives both the

text: amplitude

text: (or size) of the wave present in the function and the

text: phase

text: (or the initial angle) of the wave.  These complex exponentials sometimes contain negative "frequencies".  If θ is measured in seconds, then the waves  and  both complete one cycle per second, but they represent different frequencies in the Fourier transform.  Hence, frequency no longer measures the number of cycles per unit time, but is still closely related.

text: The waves are most often generated with a mechanical wavemaker, although there are also wind–wave flumes with (additional) wave generation by an air flow over the water – with the flume closed above by a roof above the free surface. The wavemaker frequently consists of a translating or rotating rigid wave board. Modern wavemakers are computer controlled, and can generate besides periodic waves also random waves, solitary waves, wave groups or even tsunami-like wave motion. The wavemaker is at one end of the wave flume, and at the other end is the construction being tested, or a wave absorber (a beach or special wave absorbing constructions).

text: The waves are most often generated with a mechanical wavemaker, although there are also wind–wave flumes with (additional) wave generation by an air flow over the water – with the flume closed above by a roof above the free surface. The wavemaker frequently consists of a translating or rotating rigid wave board. Modern wavemakers are computer controlled, and can generate besides

text: periodic

text: waves also

text: random wave

text: s,

text: solitary wave

text: s,

text: wave group

text: s or even

text: tsunami

text: -like wave motion. The wavemaker is at one end of the wave flume, and at the other end is the construction being tested, or a wave absorber (a beach or special wave absorbing constructions).

text: Cemlyn Bay is located in the north east of the community, and is owned by the National Trust.  It is the site of a nature reserve managed by the North Wales Wildlife Trust, which includes a lagoon separated from the sea by Esgair Gemlyn, a shingle ridge formed by longshore drift.  Islands in the lagoon provide nesting sites for common and Arctic terns, and for one of the United Kingdom's largest breeding populations of Sandwich terns.

text: Cemlyn Bay

text: is located in the north east of the community, and is owned by the

entity_name: National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty

text: National Trust

text: .  It is the site of a

text: nature reserve

text: managed by the

text: North Wales Wildlife Trust

text: , which includes a lagoon separated from the sea by Esgair Gemlyn, a

text: shingle

text: ridge formed by

text: longshore drift

text: .  Islands in the lagoon provide nesting sites for

text: common

text: and

text: Arctic tern

text: s, and for one of the United Kingdom's largest breeding populations of

text: Sandwich tern

text: s.

text: Construction of breakwaters, jetties, or groyne fields to protect harbor entrances, maintain beaches, or protect coastal structures have both helped and harmed the movement of sand along the shoreline. Protective armoring formations trap sand and allow beaches to expand up-coast from the device, but can interrupt the flow of sand to beaches located down-coast.

text: Construction of

text: breakwaters

text: jetties

text: , or

text: groyne

text: fields to protect harbor entrances, maintain beaches, or protect coastal structures have both helped and harmed the movement of sand along the shoreline. Protective

text: armoring formations

text: trap sand and allow beaches to expand up-coast from the device, but can interrupt the flow of sand to beaches located down-coast.

text: Endowed with large deposits of coal and iron as well as "old growth" hardwood forests needed to produce charcoal, the Youngstown area eventually developed a thriving steel industry, starting with the area's blast furnace in 1803 by James and Daniel Heaton. By the mid-19th century, Youngstown was the site of several iron industrial plants, and because of easy rail connections to adjacent states, the iron industry continued to expand in the 1890s despite the depletion of local natural resources. At the turn of the 20th century, local industrialists began to convert to steel manufacturing, amid a wave of industrial consolidations that placed much of the Mahoning Valley's industry in the hands of national corporations.

text: The mountain's bedrock of gneiss is around one billion years old. The Feldberg region was uplifted three times and then eroded again. What exists today can be called the "third Feldberg". The "first Feldberg" was formed in the Precambrian as part of an orogen and was then completely eroded away. The "second Feldberg" arose during the Devonian and Carboniferous, as part of the Variscan orogeny. It, too, was eroded away, and, during the Mesozoic and Early Triassic, beds of Bunter sandstone, Muschelkalk, Keuper, Lias, Dogger and Malm were deposited in the resulting sedimentation space. Some of these sediments are maritime deposits from intercontinental oceans; the others are of continental origin. The "third" and current Feldberg was formed during the Alpine orogeny in the Tertiary. Since then these sediments have been steadily removed through water processes and aeolian erosion, and today little but the bedrock remains.

text: The mountain's

text: bedrock

text: of

text: gneiss

text: is around one billion years old. The Feldberg region was uplifted three times and then eroded again. What exists today can be called the "third Feldberg". The "first Feldberg" was formed in the

text: Precambrian

text: as part of an

text: orogen

text: and was then completely eroded away. The "second Feldberg" arose during the

text: Devonian

text: and

text: Carboniferous

text: , as part of the

text: Variscan orogeny

text: . It, too, was eroded away, and, during the

text: Mesozoic

text: and

text: Early Triassic

text: , beds of

text: Bunter sandstone

text: Muschelkalk

text: Keuper

text: Lias

text: Dogger

text: and

text: Malm

text: were deposited in the resulting sedimentation space. Some of these sediments are maritime deposits from intercontinental oceans; the others are of continental origin. The "third" and current Feldberg was formed during the

text: Alpine orogeny

text: in the

text: Tertiary

text: . Since then these sediments have been steadily removed through water processes and

text: aeolian erosion

text: , and today little but the bedrock remains.

text: A baymouth bar is a depositional feature as a result of longshore drift. It is a spit that completely closes access to a bay, thus sealing it off from the main body of water. It is different from a barrier island separating a lagoon because it closes the bay off completely, not partially.

text: A baymouth bar is a

text: depositional

text: feature as a result of

text: longshore drift

text: . It is a

text: spit

text: that completely closes access to a

text: bay

text: , thus sealing it off from the main body of water. It is different from a

text: barrier island

text: separating a

text: lagoon

text: because it closes the bay off completely, not partially.

text: Optical rogue waves are rare pulses of light analogous to rogue or freak ocean waves. The term optical rogue waves was coined to describe rare pulses of broadband light arising during the process of supercontinuum generation—a noise-sensitive nonlinear process in which extremely broadband radiation is generated from a narrowband input waveform—in nonlinear optical fiber. In this context, optical rogue waves are characterized by an anomalous surplus in energy at particular wavelengths (e.g., those shifted to the red of the input waveform) and/or an unexpected peak power. These anomalous events have been shown to follow heavy-tailed statistics, also known as L-shaped statistics, fat-tailed statistics, or extreme-value statistics. These probability distributions are characterized by long tails: large outliers occur rarely, yet much more frequently than expected from Gaussian statistics and intuition. Such distributions also describe the probabilities of freak ocean waves and various phenomena in both the man-made and natural worlds. Despite their infrequency, rare events wield significant influence in many systems. Aside from the statistical similarities, light waves traveling in optical fibers are known to obey the similar mathematics as water waves traveling in the open ocean (the nonlinear Schrödinger equation), supporting the analogy between oceanic rogue waves and their optical counterparts. More generally, research has exposed a number of different analogies between extreme events in optics and hydrodynamic systems. A key practical difference is that most optical experiments can be done with a table-top apparatus, offer a high degree of experimental control, and allow data to be acquired extremely rapidly. Consequently, optical rogue waves are attractive for experimental and theoretical research and have become a highly studied phenomenon. The particulars of the analogy between extreme waves in optics and hydrodynamics may vary depending on the context, but the existence of rare events and extreme statistics in wave-related phenomena are common ground.

text: Optical rogue waves are rare pulses of light analogous to

text: rogue or freak ocean waves

text: . The term optical rogue waves was coined to describe rare

text: pulses

text: of broadband light arising during the process of

text: supercontinuum

text: generation—a noise-sensitive

text: nonlinear

text: process in which extremely broadband

text: radiation

text: is generated from a narrowband input waveform—in nonlinear optical fiber. In this context, optical rogue waves are characterized by an anomalous surplus in energy at particular

text: wavelength

text: s (e.g., those shifted to the red of the input waveform) and/or an unexpected peak power. These anomalous events have been shown to follow

text: heavy-tailed statistics

text: , also known as L-shaped statistics, fat-tailed statistics, or extreme-value statistics. These probability distributions are characterized by

text: long tail

text: s: large outliers occur rarely, yet much more frequently than expected from Gaussian statistics and intuition. Such distributions also describe the probabilities of freak ocean waves and various phenomena in both the man-made and natural worlds. Despite their infrequency, rare events wield significant influence in many systems. Aside from the statistical similarities, light waves traveling in optical fibers are known to obey the similar mathematics as

text: water waves

text: traveling in the open ocean (the

text: nonlinear Schrödinger equation

text: ), supporting the analogy between oceanic rogue waves and their optical counterparts. More generally, research has exposed a number of different analogies between extreme events in optics and hydrodynamic systems. A key practical difference is that most optical experiments can be done with a table-top apparatus, offer a high degree of experimental control, and allow data to be acquired extremely rapidly. Consequently, optical rogue waves are attractive for experimental and theoretical research and have become a highly studied phenomenon. The particulars of the analogy between extreme waves in

text: optics

text: and

text: hydrodynamics

text: may vary depending on the context, but the existence of

text: rare events

text: and extreme statistics in

text: wave

text: -related phenomena are common ground.

text: In elastodynamics, Love waves, named after Augustus Edward Hough Love, are horizontally polarized surface waves. The Love wave is a result of the interference of many shear waves (S–waves) guided by an elastic layer, which is welded to an elastic half space on one side while bordering a vacuum on the other side. In seismology, Love waves (also known as Q waves (Quer: German for lateral)) are surface seismic waves that cause horizontal shifting of the Earth during an earthquake. Augustus Edward Hough Love predicted the existence of Love waves mathematically in 1911.  They form a distinct class, different from other types of seismic waves, such as P-waves and S-waves (both body waves), or Rayleigh waves (another type of surface wave).  Love waves travel with a lower velocity than P- or S- waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves. These waves are observed only when there is a low velocity layer overlying a high velocity layer/ sub–layers.

text: In

text: elastodynamics

text: , Love waves, named after

text: Augustus Edward Hough Love

text: , are horizontally

text: polarized

text: surface wave

text: s. The Love wave is a result of the

text: interference

text: of many

text: shear wave

text: s (S–waves) guided by an elastic layer, which is welded to an elastic half space on one side while bordering a vacuum on the other side. In

text: seismology

text: , Love waves (also known as Q waves (Quer: German for lateral)) are

text: surface

text: seismic wave

text: s that cause horizontal shifting of the Earth during an

text: earthquake

text: . Augustus Edward Hough Love predicted the existence of Love waves mathematically in 1911.  They form a distinct class, different from other types of

text: seismic wave

text: s, such as

text: P-wave

text: s and

text: S-wave

text: s (both

text: body wave

text: s), or

text: Rayleigh waves

text: (another type of surface wave).  Love waves travel with a lower velocity than P- or S- waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves. These waves are observed only when there is a low velocity layer overlying a high velocity layer/ sub–layers.

text: River-mouth lagoons on mixed sand and gravel (MSG) beaches form at the river-coast interface where a typically braided, although sometimes meandering, river interacts with a coastal environment that is significantly affected by longshore drift.  The lagoons which form on the MSG coastlines are common on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand and have long been referred to as hapua by the Māori.  This classification differentiates hapua from similar lagoons located on the New Zealand coast termed waituna.  Hapua are often located on paraglacial coastal areas where there is a low level of coastal development and minimal population density.  Hapua form as the river carves out an elongated coast-parallel area, blocked from the sea by a MSG barrier which constantly alters its shape and volume due to longshore drift.  Longshore drift continually extends the barrier behind which the hapua forms by transporting sediment along the coast.  Hapua are defined as a narrow shore-parallel extensions of the coastal riverbed.  They discharge the majority of stored water to the ocean via an ephemeral and highly mobile drainage channel or outlet.  The remainder percolates through the MSG barrier due to its high levels of permeability.  Hapua systems are driven by a wide range of dynamic processes that are generally classified as fluvial or marine; changes in the balance between these processes as well as the antecedent barrier conditions can cause shifts in the morphology of the hapua, in particular the barrier.  New Zealand examples include the Rakaia, Ashburton and Hurunui river-mouths.

text: River-mouth lagoons on mixed sand and gravel (MSG) beaches form at the river-coast interface where a typically braided, although sometimes meandering, river interacts with a coastal environment that is significantly affected by longshore drift.  The lagoons which form on the MSG

text: coastline

text: s are common on the east coast of the

text: South Island

text: of

text: New Zealand

text: and have long been referred to as hapua by the

text: Māori

text: .  This classification differentiates hapua from similar lagoons located on the New Zealand coast termed waituna.  Hapua are often located on

text: paraglacial

text: coastal areas where there is a low level of coastal development and minimal population density.  Hapua form as the river carves out an elongated coast-parallel area, blocked from the sea by a MSG barrier which constantly alters its shape and volume due to

text: longshore drift

text: .  Longshore drift continually extends the barrier behind which the hapua forms by

text: transporting sediment

text: along the coast.  Hapua are defined as a narrow shore-parallel extensions of the coastal riverbed.  They discharge the majority of stored water to the ocean via an ephemeral and highly mobile drainage channel or outlet.  The remainder percolates through the MSG barrier due to its high levels of permeability.  Hapua systems are driven by a wide range of dynamic processes that are generally classified as

text: fluvial

text: or

text: marine

text: ; changes in the balance between these processes as well as the antecedent barrier conditions can cause shifts in the morphology of the hapua, in particular the barrier.  New Zealand examples include the

text: Rakaia

text: Ashburton

text: and

text: Hurunui

text: river-mouths.

text: There are only two exposed contacts of Siletzia with the older (pre-Cenozoic) North American basement. One is near Roseburg, Oregon, where it is thrust against formations of the Klamath Mountains (discussed below), the other is along the Leech River Fault on the southern end of Vancouver Island, where it has pushed the pre-Cenozoic Pacific Rim formation beneath the Wrangellia Terrane). Everywhere else the contact between Siletzia and the rest of the continent is concealed under younger deposits, especially the Cascade Range volcanics. The contact around the Olympic Mountains is actually the bottom contact with the underlying oceanic sediments, tilted up by the uplift of the Olympics and exposed by erosion of about 10 to 12 km of overlying deposits.

text: There are only two exposed contacts of Siletzia with the older (pre-

text: Cenozoic

text: ) North American

text: basement

text: . One is near

text: Roseburg, Oregon

text: , where it is thrust against formations of the Klamath Mountains (discussed below), the other is along the

text: Leech River Fault

text: on the southern end of

text: Vancouver Island

text: , where it has pushed the pre-

text: Cenozoic

text: Pacific Rim formation beneath the

text: Wrangellia Terrane

text: ). Everywhere else the contact between Siletzia and the rest of the continent is concealed under younger deposits, especially the Cascade Range volcanics. The contact around the Olympic Mountains is actually the bottom contact with the underlying oceanic sediments, tilted up by the uplift of the Olympics and exposed by erosion of about 10 to 12 km of overlying deposits.

text: Methods to protect shorelines are to build a seawall or to pump sand onto beaches to prevent erosion. Attempts at managing river flow for the direction of increased water levels is also a possible way to control SLR. When considering the cost to protect shorelines, it is difficult to calculate due to some shorelines being developed and others undeveloped. Agricultural factors and the potential lost of profit from SLR in that vector, is also difficult to predict and often unaccounted for. Potential development for housing is often excluded also. An estimate of potential national cost to protect land from SLR and considering such variability of land quality but excluding future value, is $270–475 billion for a one-meter rise in Sea Level.

text: Methods to protect shorelines are to build a

text: seawall

text: or to pump sand onto beaches to prevent erosion. Attempts at managing river flow for the direction of increased water levels is also a possible way to control SLR. When considering the cost to protect shorelines, it is difficult to calculate due to some shorelines being developed and others undeveloped. Agricultural factors and the potential lost of profit from SLR in that vector, is also difficult to predict and often unaccounted for. Potential development for housing is often excluded also. An estimate of potential national cost to protect land from SLR and considering such variability of land quality but excluding future value, is $270–475 billion for a one-meter rise in Sea Level.

text: To Henry's old Foundation

text: To Henry's old Foundation

text: Michael F. Armstrong (born in 1932) is an American lawyer.

text: When, however, wave amplitudes are not very small (for surface waves: when the fluid surface is inclined by more than few degrees) waves with different frequencies start to interact. That leads to an excitation of waves with frequencies and wavelengths in wide intervals, not necessarily in resonance with an external source. It can be observed in the experiments with a high amplitude of shaking that initially the waves appear which are in resonance. Thereafter both longer and shorter waves appear as a result of wave interaction. The appearance of shorter waves is referred to as a direct cascade while longer waves are part of an inverse cascade of wave turbulence.

text: When, however, wave amplitudes are not very small (for surface waves: when the fluid surface is inclined by more than few degrees) waves with different frequencies start to

text: interact

text: . That leads to an excitation of waves with frequencies and wavelengths in wide intervals, not necessarily in resonance with an external source. It can be observed in the experiments with a high amplitude of shaking that initially the waves appear which are in

text: resonance

text: . Thereafter both longer and shorter waves appear as a result of wave interaction. The appearance of shorter waves is referred to as a direct cascade while longer waves are part of an

text: inverse cascade

text: of wave turbulence.

text: Corbet's involvement in regional and local affairs only increased with time. From 1573 to 1578 he was Shropshire's commissioner in matters as diverse as oyer and terminer, a key function in managing the judicial system, for sewers, and for the survey of tanneries. When Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, a key territorial magnate in the region, died in 1576, his will appointed Corbet one of a group of officials to act as feoffees of his estates.

text: Corbet's involvement in regional and local affairs only increased with time. From 1573 to 1578 he was Shropshire's commissioner in matters as diverse as

text: oyer and terminer

text: , a key function in managing the judicial system, for

text: sewers

text: , and for the survey of

text: tanneries

text: . When

text: Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex

text: , a key territorial magnate in the region, died in 1576, his will appointed Corbet one of a group of officials to act as

text: feoffee

text: s of his estates.

text: il n'y a pas de solution.

text: il n'y a pas de solution.

text: Natalie Cole recorded the song for her 1993 album Take a Look.

text: Natalie Cole

text: recorded the song for her 1993 album

text: Take a Look

text: Waves and storm surges accompanying tropical cyclones erode undersea sands, erode shell deposits, break off corals from near shore reefs in their paths, and carry all this detritus landwards in a rolling wave of material that is deposited onshore, above highest astronomical tide as a ridge of sand, shell and coral.  For example, each severe tropical cyclone (i.e. Category 4-5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale) crossing northeast Australia's tropical coastline since the last significant change in sea levels (about 5000 years ago) has 'emplaced' such ridges within the coastal landscape forming, in some places, series of ridges and a geomorphological record of highest magnitude cyclones hitting the coast over 3000 – 5000 years.

text: Waves and storm surges accompanying tropical cyclones erode undersea sands, erode shell deposits, break off corals from near shore

text: reefs

text: in their paths, and carry all this detritus landwards in a rolling wave of material that is deposited onshore, above highest astronomical

text: tide

text: as a ridge of sand, shell and coral.  For example, each severe tropical cyclone (i.e. Category 4-5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale) crossing northeast

text: Australia

text: 's tropical coastline since the last significant change in sea levels (about 5000 years ago) has 'emplaced' such ridges within the coastal landscape forming, in some places, series of ridges and a geomorphological record of highest magnitude cyclones hitting the coast over 3000 – 5000 years.

text: The ejection material, transported by the wind, is responsible for the process of renovation of the surface at speeds, according to the measurements of the Venera soundings, of approximately one metre per second.  Given the density of the lower Venusian atmosphere, the winds are more than sufficient to provoke the erosion of the surface and the transportation of fine-grained material.  In the regions covered by ejection deposits one may find wind lines, dunes, and yardangs.  The wind lines are formed when the wind blows ejection material and volcanic ash, depositing it on top of topographic obstacles such as domes.  As a consequence, the leeward sides of domes are exposed to the impact of small grains that remove the surface cap.  Such processes expose the material beneath, which has a different roughness, and thus different characteristics under radar, compared to formed sediment.

text: The ejection material, transported by the wind, is responsible for the process of renovation of the surface at speeds, according to the measurements of the Venera soundings, of approximately one metre per second.  Given the density of the lower Venusian atmosphere, the winds are more than sufficient to provoke the erosion of the surface and the transportation of fine-grained material.  In the regions covered by ejection deposits one may find wind lines, dunes, and

text: yardang

text: s.  The wind lines are formed when the wind blows ejection material and volcanic ash, depositing it on top of topographic obstacles such as domes.  As a consequence, the

text: leeward

text: sides of domes are exposed to the impact of small grains that remove the surface cap.  Such processes expose the material beneath, which has a different roughness, and thus different characteristics under radar, compared to formed sediment.

text: If the engine is naturally aspirated, an air temperature sensor is located in the air flow meter to work out the air mass. However, if the engine is turbocharged, an additional charge air temperature sensor is used to monitor the temperature of the inducted air after it has passed through the turbocharger and intercooler, in order to accurately and dynamically calculate the overall air mass.

text: If the engine is

text: naturally aspirated

text: , an air temperature sensor is located in the air flow meter to work out the air mass. However, if the engine is

text: turbocharged

text: , an additional charge air temperature sensor is used to monitor the temperature of the inducted air after it has passed through the turbocharger and

text: intercooler

text: , in order to accurately and dynamically calculate the overall air mass.

text: The water was stored in the tanks and then released suddenly, the wave of water sweeping away the soil to reveal the bedrock and any gold-bearing veins beneath. Pliny the Elder gives a dramatic account in his Naturalis Historia of the method, possibly derived from his experiences in Spain. The method is known as hushing and survived in use until the 19th century in Britain, and into the 20th century in the goldfields of Africa. A not dissimilar method is used today in exploiting alluvial tin deposits, and is known as hydraulic mining. A smaller scale version of the same method is placer mining, and both may have been used to work alluvial placer deposits next to the river Cothi itself, judging by a large aqueduct which tapped the river a mile or so upstream, and enters the site at a low level compared with the other known aqueducts on the site. The water supply of the aqueducts was also used for washing crushed gold ore, and also possibly driving stamping mills for comminution of the ore (Lewis and Jones, 1969).

text: The water was stored in the tanks and then released suddenly, the wave of water sweeping away the soil to reveal the bedrock and any gold-bearing veins beneath.

text: Pliny the Elder

text: gives a dramatic account in his

text: Naturalis Historia

text: of the method, possibly derived from his experiences in Spain. The method is known as

text: hushing

text: and survived in use until the 19th century in Britain, and into the 20th century in the

text: goldfield

text: s of

text: Africa

text: . A not dissimilar method is used today in exploiting alluvial

text: tin

text: deposits, and is known as

text: hydraulic mining

text: . A smaller scale version of the same method is

text: placer mining

text: , and both may have been used to work alluvial

text: placer deposit

text: s next to the river Cothi itself, judging by a large aqueduct which tapped the river a mile or so upstream, and enters the site at a low level compared with the other known aqueducts on the site. The water supply of the aqueducts was also used for washing crushed gold ore, and also possibly driving stamping mills for

text: comminution

text: of the ore (Lewis and Jones, 1969).

text: "All We Needed" is the Children in Need 2016 single.

text: All We Needed

text: " is the

text: Children in Need 2016

text: single.

text: Salbia plicata is a moth in the Crambidae family. It was described by Hampson in 1912. It is found in Brazil.

text: Salbia plicata is a

text: moth

text: in the

text: Crambidae

text: family. It was described by

text: Hampson

text: in 1912. It is found in

text: Brazil

text: Much of the stone, plaster and metal work in the interior of the building was designed and executed by architectural sculptor Corrado Parducci. The three figures over the main entrance were by Leo Friedlander, while the rest of the considerable architectural sculpture on the exterior was by Bill Gehrke.

text: Much of the stone, plaster and metal work in the interior of the building was designed and executed by

text: architectural sculptor

text: Corrado Parducci

text: . The three figures over the main entrance were by

text: Leo Friedlander

text: , while the rest of the considerable architectural sculpture on the exterior was by Bill Gehrke.

text: Theobaldia annulata

text: Theobaldia annulata

text: The Australian commander, Kelly, ordered 'B' Company to move up and take the ridge and over the course of a week between 21–28 January they made several attempts against various parts of the ridge, approaching from the south, southeast and the north. These proved fruitless, although one platoon managed to encircle the position from the north before being engaged with heavy machine gun fire. On 23 January, the Australians established fire support in the form of guns from the 2nd Mountain Battery. Another three unsuccessful attempts were made on 24 January, and on 25 January 'C' Company carried out a movement to the flank in an attempt to get around behind the ridge and attack from the north. Crossing the crocodile-infested waters of the Genga about  from the ridge, the Australians established a bridgehead across the river with a line of communications back to the Pimple, which they kept open by constantly patrolling along it.

text: The Australian commander, Kelly, ordered 'B' Company to move up and take the ridge and over the course of a week between 21–28 January they made several attempts against various parts of the ridge, approaching from the south, southeast and the north. These proved fruitless, although one platoon managed to encircle the position from the north before being engaged with heavy

text: machine gun

text: fire. On 23 January, the Australians established fire support in the form of guns from the

entity_name: A Field Battery, Royal Australian Artillery

text: 2nd Mountain Battery

text: . Another three unsuccessful attempts were made on 24 January, and on 25 January 'C' Company carried out a movement to the flank in an attempt to get around behind the ridge and attack from the north. Crossing the

text: crocodile

text: -infested waters of the Genga about  from the ridge, the Australians established a

text: bridgehead

text: across the river with a

text: line of communication

text: s back to the Pimple, which they kept open by constantly patrolling along it.

text: Some parts of Mars show inverted relief. This occurs when materials are deposited on the floor of a stream then become resistant to erosion, perhaps by cementation. Later the area may be buried. Eventually erosion removes the covering layer. The former streams become visible since they are resistant to erosion. Mars Global Surveyor found several examples of this process.  Many inverted streams have been discovered in various regions of mars, especially in the Medusae Fossae Formation, Miyamoto Crater, and the Juventae Plateau.

text: Some parts of Mars show

text: inverted relief

text: . This occurs when materials are deposited on the floor of a stream then become resistant to erosion, perhaps by cementation. Later the area may be buried. Eventually erosion removes the covering layer. The former streams become visible since they are resistant to erosion. Mars Global Surveyor found several examples of this process.  Many inverted streams have been discovered in various regions of mars, especially in the

text: Medusae Fossae Formation

text: Miyamoto Crater

text: , and the Juventae Plateau.

text: fr:Rémi

text: fr:Rémi

text: The estimated magnitude of the earthquake as 8.6 on the surface wave magnitude scale, has been taken from modelling of the tsunami. A source area of  long by  wide with a displacement of  is consistent with the observed distribution and degree of flooding. Analysis of the tsunami deposits associated with the 2011 earthquake suggests that the extent of sand deposition in the earlier events underestimated the degree of inundation. A muddy deposit was found to extend half as far again as the sand sheet. As the topography and cultivation of the Sendai plain has not changed significantly since 869, it has been proposed that the sources of the 2011 and 869 tsunamis were of comparable size, suggesting that the magnitude of the 869 earthquake has been severely underestimated. Thus the magnitude of this quake may have been as high as 9.0.

text: The estimated magnitude of the earthquake as 8.6 on the surface wave magnitude scale, has been taken from modelling of the tsunami. A source area of  long by  wide with a displacement of  is consistent with the observed distribution and degree of flooding. Analysis of the tsunami deposits associated with the

text: 2011 earthquake

text: suggests that the extent of sand deposition in the earlier events underestimated the degree of inundation. A muddy deposit was found to extend half as far again as the sand sheet. As the topography and cultivation of the Sendai plain has not changed significantly since 869, it has been proposed that the sources of the 2011 and 869 tsunamis were of comparable size, suggesting that the magnitude of the 869 earthquake has been severely underestimated. Thus the magnitude of this quake may have been as high as 9.0.

text: Johnstone died in 1946.

text: Johnstone died in 1946.

text: In other circumstances, spits are formed when long shore drift moves beach material down the beach until the coastline makes an abrupt change in direction, leading to the beach material 'spilling over' the corner to create a protrusion. This normally occurs across a river mouth. In the case of a cuspate foreland, the prevailing wind and a powerful secondary wind in the opposite direction move shingle down the coastline from both directions to a place where the coastline changes, causing a foreland to develop. The majority of cuspate forelands are formed over a coastline that juts out into the sea at enough of an angle to allow the drifting beach material to 'spill over' as a result of long shore drift in both directions.

text: In other circumstances, spits are formed when long shore drift moves beach material down the

text: beach

text: until the

text: coastline

text: makes an abrupt change in direction, leading to the beach material 'spilling over' the corner to create a protrusion. This normally occurs across a

text: river mouth

text: . In the case of a cuspate foreland, the

text: prevailing wind

text: and a powerful secondary wind in the opposite direction move shingle down the coastline from both directions to a place where the coastline changes, causing a foreland to develop. The majority of cuspate forelands are formed over a coastline that juts out into the sea at enough of an angle to allow the drifting beach material to 'spill over' as a result of long shore drift in both directions.

text: A spot in Western St. Inigoes was the site of St. Inigoes Fort, overlooking the St. Marys River. This was during the era of colonial St. Marys City. It was a strategic protection spot for defending water access to the city, which was under threat from anti-Catholic militias from later Maryland settlements and also Virginia colony militias, as the Virginia colony proprietors were opposed to the Maryland colony. The erosion-prone quality of the shoreline caused the fort to be undermined by waves and the area collapsed into the St. Marys River before the 1800s.

text: The station is located on the northern part of the Trukhaniv Ostriv (for which it is named), an island on the Dnipro River. It is being built concurrently with the Podilskyi Metro Bridge, under which it is located. It will be located in between the Sudnobudivna and Zatoka Desenka stations, all three of which will be built according to the same architectural principles.

text: The station is located on the northern part of the

text: Trukhaniv Ostriv

text: (for which it is named), an island on the

text: Dnipro River

text: . It is being built concurrently with the

text: Podilskyi Metro Bridge

text: , under which it is located. It will be located in between the

text: Sudnobudivna

text: and

text: Zatoka Desenka

text: stations, all three of which will be built according to the same architectural principles.

text: The eastern shoreline of the lake lie against a granite spur of the Howe Range but all other shorelines are backed by dune sand or swamp deposits. Beaches at the eastern and western shores and spits along the southern shore are formed from sand blown into the lake from coastal dunes and which is being moved by wave and wave currents. Sand is spilling into the lake from active parabolic dunes at two points along the southern shore. Other lake shorelines are fringed by Baumea rubiginosa, Eleocharis sphacelata and Trigloching procera, with Phragmites australis at points of fresh water inflow. Behind the reeds and sedges are extensive thickets.

text: The eastern shoreline of the lake lie against a granite spur of the Howe Range but all other shorelines are backed by dune sand or swamp deposits. Beaches at the eastern and western shores and spits along the southern shore are formed from sand blown into the lake from coastal dunes and which is being moved by wave and wave currents. Sand is spilling into the lake from active parabolic dunes at two points along the southern shore. Other lake shorelines are fringed by Baumea rubiginosa, Eleocharis sphacelata and Trigloching procera, with

text: Phragmites australis

text: at points of fresh water inflow. Behind the reeds and sedges are extensive thickets.

text: Without sediment supply erosion of the barrier is rapid as normal processes such as washover continue. This happens when waves hit the barrier and push sediment from the ocean side to the lagoon side, there is no incoming sediment on the ocean side to rebuild the barrier. This means that the barrier migrate landward as the barrier ridges are reworked. The ratio of fine to coarse sediments making up the barrier is also increased. The coarse sediments armour the barrier structure against ocean swell and wind waves, without this sediment the fines are much more vulnerable to being removed leaving the barrier structure more vulnerable. Maximum wave height for this section of coast during one October was found to be 6.3 metres, and other studies have recorded frequent breakers around 5 metres high. This means that the barrier would frequently have to deal with overtopping events.

text: Without sediment supply

text: erosion

text: of the barrier is rapid as normal processes such as washover continue. This happens when waves hit the barrier and push sediment from the ocean side to the lagoon side, there is no incoming sediment on the ocean side to rebuild the barrier. This means that the barrier migrate landward as the barrier ridges are reworked. The ratio of fine to coarse sediments making up the barrier is also increased. The coarse sediments armour the barrier structure against ocean

text: swell

text: and

text: wind waves

text: , without this sediment the fines are much more vulnerable to being removed leaving the barrier structure more vulnerable. Maximum wave height for this section of coast during one October was found to be 6.3 metres, and other studies have recorded frequent breakers around 5 metres high. This means that the barrier would frequently have to deal with overtopping events.

text: 1990 - 1992 - 1993 - 19941995 - 1996 - 1997

text: th band and the positron wave function

text: th band and the positron wave function

text: Wave Monkey

text: Wave Monkey

text: denote the dilation and erosion, respectively.

text: There are a variety of ways in which humans are trying to prevent the flooding of coastal environments. Typically this is through so called hard engineering structures such as seawalls and levees.  This armouring of the coast is typically to protect towns and cities which have developed right up to the beachfront. Enhancing depositional processes along the coast can also help prevent coastal flooding. Structures such as groynes (Fig. 1), breakwaters and artificial headlands promote the deposition of sediment on the beach thus helping to buffer against storm waves and surges as the wave energy is spent on moving the sediments in the beach than on moving water inland.

text: There are a variety of ways in which humans are trying to prevent the flooding of coastal environments. Typically this is through so called hard engineering structures such as

text: seawalls

text: and

text: levees

text: coast

text: groynes

text: (Fig. 1),

text: breakwaters

text: A plane wave has the form

text: A plane wave has the form

text: Normalizing the wave function to unity:

text: Normalizing

text: the wave function to unity:

text: Given the vector

text: Given the vector