text: Travel to other planets is accomplished by either purchasing a ticket aboard an interstellar passenger liner or by boarding a private spaceship (if a member of the party happens to own one).  Ownership of a spaceship also provides the party an opportunity to earn money by trading various commodities between planets or by attacking other spaceships for the purpose of stealing their cargo.  Three classes of spaceship are available for the party to use in the game, including a derelict, but repairable, vessel constructed by the Ancients.  Once the party has arrived on another planet, it may disembark and explore that world's cities and terrain.  Although all cities feature the same basic layout, the number of accessible buildings varies from one city to another.  On some planets, the party has the opportunity to explore a ruin built by the Ancients for items that may mitigate the crisis on Rhylanor.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: The AuroraMax project is an outreach and education initiative carried out by the combined effort of The Canadian Space Agency, Astronomy North, University of Calgary and The city of Yellowknife in Yellowknife Northwest Territories. The AuroraMax provides a place to explore and discover the wonder and science behind phenomena such as sunspots, Earth's magnetic field, space weather and the magnificent Northern lights of Canada. Auroras are natural exhibition of lights in the sky that can be seen by the naked eyes. Auroras happen when protons and electrons or charged particles and gases in the Earth's atmosphere crash into each other, creating tiny flares of light that decorate the sky with colorful light. Billions of these tiny flares occur in sequence causing the lights to seem like they are dancing or moving. The lights in the Northern hemisphere are called Aurora Borealis or simply The Northern Lights while the lights in the Southern hemisphere are called Aurora Australis or simply The Southern Lights.

text: The AuroraMax project is an outreach and education initiative carried out by the combined effort of The

entity_name: Canadian Space Agency

text: Canadian Space Agency

entity_name: Astronomy North

text: Astronomy North

entity_name: University of Calgary

text: University of Calgary

text: and The city of

entity_name: Yellowknife

text: Yellowknife

text: in Yellowknife Northwest Territories. The AuroraMax provides a place to explore and discover the wonder and science behind phenomena such as

entity_name: Sunspot

text: sunspots

text: , Earth's magnetic field, space weather and the magnificent Northern lights of

entity_name: Canada

text: Canada

text: . Auroras are natural exhibition of lights in the sky that can be seen by the naked eyes. Auroras happen when protons and electrons or charged particles and gases in the Earth's atmosphere crash into each other, creating tiny flares of light that decorate the sky with colorful light. Billions of these tiny flares occur in sequence causing the lights to seem like they are dancing or moving. The lights in the Northern hemisphere are called

entity_name: Aurora

text: Aurora Borealis

text: or simply The Northern Lights while the lights in the Southern hemisphere are called

text: Aurora Australis

text: or simply The Southern Lights.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Exploring the island, Maupertuis and Don Lope discover that it is inhabited by castaway Selenites, people from the Moon. They are led by Prince Jean sans Lune, exiled brother of the King of the Moon, who plots to seize power; the treasure map was a trick of his to lure Earthmen into bringing him a moonstone, necessary to return to the Moon. Séléné's necklace, which Maupertuis wears as a token, turns out to be such a moonstone, and it is used to propel the Prince's galley into space as the full moon, casting its rays, attracts all moon matter. The pirate ship, arrived meanwhile and laden with lunar fruits gathered on the island, is also sucked into space.

text: Phostle was to return in Destination Moon and Explorers on the Moon as a villain, but that early draft by Bernard Heuvelmans was abandoned by Hergé.

text: Phostle was to return in

entity_name: Destination Moon (comics)

text: Destination Moon

text: and

entity_name: Explorers on the Moon

text: Explorers on the Moon

text: as a villain, but that early draft by

entity_name: Bernard Heuvelmans

text: Bernard Heuvelmans

text: was abandoned by Hergé.

method: UNH-ecn

text: According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Alconrad measures 5.7 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.18, while he Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for members of the Koronis family of 0.24 and calculates a diameter of 4.9 kilometers. In October 2003, when the asteroid moon S/2003 (22899) 1 was discovered by the researchers at Southwest Research Institute using the Hubble Space Telescope, they calculated a diameter of 4.5 kilometers for the primary, based on an assumed albedo of 0.21. The researchers also measured a large angular separation of 0".14 between Alconrad and its moon. This is equivalent to a distance of 170 kilometers, or 182 kilometers, when using a/R ratio of 81. Based on a difference in magnitude of 2.5, the satellite measures 1 to 1.5 kilometers in diameter.

text: According to the survey carried out by the

entity_name: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

entity_section: NEOWISE (pre-hibernation)

text: NEOWISE

text: mission of NASA's

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: , Alconrad measures 5.7 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an

entity_name: Albedo

entity_section: Astronomical albedo

text: albedo

text: of 0.18, while he Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for members of the Koronis family of 0.24 and calculates a diameter of 4.9 kilometers. In October 2003, when the asteroid moon S/2003 (22899) 1 was discovered by the researchers at

entity_name: Southwest Research Institute

text: Southwest Research Institute

text: using the

entity_name: Hubble Space Telescope

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , they calculated a diameter of 4.5 kilometers for the primary, based on an assumed albedo of 0.21. The researchers also measured a large angular separation of 0".14 between Alconrad and its moon. This is equivalent to a distance of 170 kilometers, or 182 kilometers, when using a/R ratio of 81. Based on a difference in magnitude of 2.5, the satellite measures 1 to 1.5 kilometers in diameter.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: NASA has applied some of Gunderson’s research to space exploration and used the results to help with development of training programs and psychological evaluations for flight crews of long-duration space missions, in particular to study missions to Mars. The studies done by Gunderson and his colleagues at early Antarctic research stations were particularly relevant to behavior and performance on long-duration spaceflights because the harsh, extreme conditions found at the early Antarctic research stations were similar to those conditions expected to be found during space exploration. Data from these studies has been used in developing screening criteria for selection of personnel for long-duration missions in space.

entity_name: NASA

text: NASA

text: has applied some of Gunderson’s research to

entity_name: Space exploration

text: space exploration

text: and used the results to help with development of training programs and psychological evaluations for flight crews of long-duration space missions, in particular to study missions to

entity_name: Mars

text: Mars

text: . The studies done by Gunderson and his colleagues at early Antarctic research stations were particularly relevant to behavior and performance on long-duration spaceflights because the harsh, extreme conditions found at the early Antarctic research stations were similar to those conditions expected to be found during space exploration. Data from these studies has been used in developing screening criteria for selection of personnel for long-duration missions in space.

text: 2143 - Space exploration to Jupiter discovers planet is too unstable for colonization.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Study of Earth's magnetosphere began in 1600, when William Gilbert discovered that the magnetic field on the surface of Earth resembled that on a terrella, a small, magnetized sphere. In the 1940s, Walter M. Elsasser proposed the model of dynamo theory, which attributes Earth's magnetic field to the motion of  Earth's iron outer core. Through the use of magnetometers, scientists were able to study the variations in Earth's magnetic field as functions of both time and latitude and longitude. Beginning in the late 1940s, rockets were used to study cosmic rays. In 1958, Explorer 1, the first of the Explorer series of space missions, was launched to study the intensity of cosmic rays above the atmosphere and measure the fluctuations in this activity. This mission observed the existence of the Van Allen radiation belt (located in the inner region of Earth's magnetosphere), with the Explorer 3 mission later that year definitively proving its existence. Also in 1958, Eugene Parker proposed the idea of the solar wind. The term 'magnetosphere' was proposed by Thomas Gold in 1959. The Explorer 12 mission (1961) led to the observation by Cahill and Amazeen in 1963 of a sudden decrease in the strength of the magnetic field near the noon meridian, later named the magnetopause. In 1983, the International Cometary Explorer observed the magnetotail, or the distant magnetic field.

text: Study of Earth's magnetosphere began in 1600, when

entity_name: William Gilbert (astronomer)

text: William Gilbert

text: discovered that the magnetic field on the surface of Earth resembled that on a

entity_name: Terrella

text: terrella

text: , a small, magnetized sphere. In the 1940s,

entity_name: Walter M. Elsasser

text: Walter M. Elsasser

text: proposed the model of

entity_name: Dynamo theory

text: dynamo theory

text: , which attributes

entity_name: Earth's magnetic field

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: to the motion of  Earth's

entity_name: Iron

text: iron

entity_name: Outer core

text: outer core

text: . Through the use of

entity_name: Magnetometer

text: magnetometer

text: s, scientists were able to study the variations in Earth's magnetic field as functions of both time and latitude and longitude. Beginning in the late 1940s, rockets were used to study

entity_name: Cosmic ray

text: cosmic rays

text: . In 1958,

entity_name: Explorer 1

text: Explorer 1

text: , the first of the Explorer series of space missions, was launched to study the intensity of cosmic rays above the atmosphere and measure the fluctuations in this activity. This mission observed the existence of the

entity_name: Van Allen radiation belt

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: (located in the inner region of Earth's magnetosphere), with the

entity_name: Explorer 3

text: Explorer 3

text: mission later that year definitively proving its existence. Also in 1958,

entity_name: Eugene Parker

text: Eugene Parker

text: proposed the idea of the

entity_name: Solar wind

text: solar wind

text: . The term 'magnetosphere' was proposed by

entity_name: Thomas Gold

text: Thomas Gold

text: in 1959. The Explorer 12 mission (1961) led to the observation by Cahill and Amazeen in 1963 of a sudden decrease in the strength of the magnetic field near the noon meridian, later named the

entity_name: Magnetopause

text: magnetopause

text: . In 1983, the

entity_name: International Cometary Explorer

text: International Cometary Explorer

text: observed the magnetotail, or the distant magnetic field.

text: Sputnik 2 was launched into space only 32 days after its predecessor Sputnik 1. Due to the huge success of Sputnik 1, Nikita Khrushchev had Sergey Korolev on orders and back to work creating a Sputnik 2 that needed to be ready for space for the 40th anniversary of the Bolshevik revolution. Many people believed that Khrushchev pushed Korolev into creating Sputnik 2 against his will and advice that it would end in failure, but actually Korolev was more than happy to comply, and he used the excitement from Sputnik 1 to help “accelerate his own plans for exploring space, particularly putting man into orbit”

text: Sputnik 2 was launched into space only 32 days after its predecessor

entity_name: Sputnik 1

text: Sputnik 1

text: . Due to the huge success of Sputnik 1,

entity_name: Nikita Khrushchev

text: Nikita Khrushchev

text: had

entity_name: Sergei Korolev

text: Sergey Korolev

text: on orders and back to work creating a Sputnik 2 that needed to be ready for space for the 40th anniversary of the

entity_name: October Revolution

text: Bolshevik revolution

text: . Many people believed that Khrushchev pushed Korolev into creating Sputnik 2 against his will and advice that it would end in failure, but actually Korolev was more than happy to comply, and he used the excitement from Sputnik 1 to help “accelerate his own plans for exploring space, particularly putting man into orbit”

method: UNH-qee

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: In the first phases of Operation Paperclip, these recruits mostly included aerospace engineers from the German V-2 combat rocket program, experts in aerospace medicine and synthetic fuels. Perhaps the most influential of these was Wernher Von Braun, who had worked on the Aggregate rockets (the first rocket program to reach outer space), and chief designer of the V-2 rocket program. Upon reaching US soil, Von Braun first worked on the U.S. Air Force ICBM program before his team was reassigned to NASA. Often credited as “The Father of Rocket Science,” his work on the Redstone rocket and the successful deployment of the Explorer 1 satellite as a response to Sputnik 1 marked the beginning of the American Space program, and therefore, of the Space Race. Von Braun’s subsequent development of the Saturn V booster for NASA in the mid-to late sixties resulted in the first manned moon landing, the Apollo 11 mission, in 1969.

text: In the first phases of Operation Paperclip, these recruits mostly included aerospace engineers from the German

entity_name: V-2 rocket

text: combat rocket program, experts in aerospace medicine and synthetic fuels. Perhaps the most influential of these was

text: Wernher Von Braun

text: , who had worked on the

entity_name: Aggregat (rocket family)

text: Aggregate

text: rockets (the first rocket program to reach outer space), and chief designer of the V-2 rocket program. Upon reaching US soil, Von Braun first worked on the

entity_name: United States Air Force

text: U.S. Air Force

text: ICBM program before his team was reassigned to

text: NASA

text: . Often credited as “The Father of Rocket Science,” his work on the Redstone rocket and the successful deployment of the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite as a response to

text: Sputnik 1

text: marked the beginning of the American Space program, and therefore, of the

entity_name: Space Race

text: Space Race

text: . Von Braun’s subsequent development of the

entity_name: Saturn V

text: Saturn V

text: booster for NASA in the mid-to late sixties resulted in the first manned moon landing, the

entity_name: Apollo 11

text: Apollo 11

text: mission, in 1969.

text: Both the Soviets and the United States developed anti-satellite weaponry designed to shoot down satellites. While early efforts paralleled other space-to-space warfare concepts, the United States was able in the 1980s to develop ground-to-space laser anti-satellite weapons. None of these systems are known to be active today; however, a less powerful civilian version of the ground-to-space laser system is commonly used in the astronomical technique of adaptive optics.

text: Both the Soviets and the United States developed

entity_name: Anti-satellite weapon

text: anti-satellite

text: weaponry designed to shoot down satellites. While early efforts paralleled other space-to-space warfare concepts, the United States was able in the 1980s to develop ground-to-space laser anti-satellite weapons. None of these systems are known to be active today; however, a less powerful civilian version of the ground-to-space laser system is commonly used in the astronomical technique of

entity_name: Adaptive optics

text: adaptive optics

text: A contributing factor to the Sputnik Crisis was that the Soviets had not released a photograph of the satellite for five days after the launch. Until this point, its appearance remained a mystery to Americans. Another factor was Sputnik's weight of  which dwarfed the United States' plans to launch a satellite of . The Soviet claim was outrageous to many American officials who doubted its accuracy. US rockets at the time produced  of thrust and US officials presumed that the Soviet rocket that launched Sputnik into space had to have produced  of thrust. In fact, the R-7 rocket that launched Sputnik 1 into space produced almost  of thrust. All these factors contributed to the American people's perception that they were greatly behind the Soviets in the development of space technologies.

text: As a concept wide range of technologies and architectures have been examined. The use of technology from the James Webb Space Telescope was also explored.

text: , also known as ASTRO-H and New X-ray Telescope (NeXT), was an X-ray astronomy satellite commissioned by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) for studying extremely energetic processes in the Universe. The space observatory was designed to extend the research conducted by the Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics (ASCA) by investigating the hard X-ray band above 10 keV. The satellite was originally called New X-ray Telescope; at the time of launch it was called ASTRO-H. After it was placed in orbit and its solar panels deployed, it was renamed Hitomi. The new name refers to the pupil of an eye, and to a legend of a painting of four dragons, two of which were given eyes and flew into the sky, and two that were left eyeless and stayed as motionless art. The spacecraft was launched on 17 February 2016 and contact was lost on 26 March 2016, due to multiple incidents with the attitude control system leading to an uncontrolled spin rate and breakup of structurally weak elements.

text: , also known as ASTRO-H and New X-ray Telescope (NeXT), was an

entity_name: X-ray astronomy

text: X-ray astronomy

text: satellite commissioned by the

entity_name: JAXA

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA) for studying extremely energetic processes in the

entity_name: Universe

text: Universe

text: . The space observatory was designed to extend the research conducted by the

entity_name: Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics

text: Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics

text: (ASCA) by investigating the hard X-ray band above 10

entity_name: Electronvolt

text: keV

text: . The satellite was originally called New X-ray Telescope; at the time of launch it was called ASTRO-H. After it was placed in orbit and its solar panels deployed, it was renamed Hitomi. The new name refers to the pupil of an eye, and to a legend of a painting of four dragons, two of which were given eyes and flew into the sky, and two that were left eyeless and stayed as motionless art. The spacecraft was launched on 17 February 2016 and contact was lost on 26 March 2016, due to multiple incidents with the

entity_name: Attitude control

text: attitude control

text: system leading to an uncontrolled spin rate and breakup of structurally weak elements.

text: Nobita and his friends continue to run the toy city and are surprised by another storm which give life to more intelligent toys. As they are still curious about the planet, they plan to use an enlarged Suneo's toy rocket to explore the planet from space. Meanwhile, Onigoro and his copies arrive at the crater, but find that it is not gold as they presumed, but instead a giant shape-shifting monster that attacks them. They escape and sabotage Suneo's rocket, cornering the group near a chasm. When they try to cross it, Nobita falls to the chasm and lands on a bush, rendered unconscious. As the monster rampages again, the rest of the group and Onigoro escape using Suneo's rocket, but realize that it cannot fly for so long as it is only a toy, thus Onigoro and his copies stray away from the rocket while holding the others as live bomb, though they manage to escape before the explosion. Meanwhile, Nobita awakes and meets with the "Seed Sower", an ancient shape-shifter being who is the true identity of the monster. He explains that he had tried multiple times to give life on planets, including Earth and Mars, eventually settling the toy planet as his choice. While at first he tries to stop humans from entering the planet (Nobita and his friends are revealed to had entered the planet accidentally), he eventually chooses to give the responsibility of it in the humans' hands, before going away. With the help of the plants, Nobita escapes from the chasm and regroups with the others.

text: During the summer of 2011 Duke collaborated with his friend Hu Davis (SolarHigh.org and Vehicle Manager Lunar Capsule 5, "Eagle", Apollo 11 and a participant in the 1980 space policy preparations; and a group of high school students led by Evan Gray from RAM STEM Academy in San Antonio, Texas on the future of space exploration including Space-Based Solar Power, Lunar, and Mars missions. During the “Solar Summer of 2011”, Duke led the high school team through a process that yielded the following thinking about the future: The “cloud” (cyber) and space are energy. The rockets, satellites, receiving stations,electrical grid, cars, homes and businesses that consume space-based solar power are all robots. Thus, space-based solar power is one platform (the cloud) for energy, computing, communications, and robotics: Cloud 2.0. Duke’s intellectual gift was a deep and impassioned ability to think, dream, imagine,question, reason, plan, and share his vision so that others could carry these designs into the future.

text: The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3–2.9 AU once every 4 years and 2 months (1,516 days). Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.11 and is tilted by 10 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. It has a rotation period of 4.1 hours although its rotational direction remains unknown. It has a geometric albedo of 0.24 and 0.17, according to the surveys carried out by Infrared Astronomical Satellite, IRAS, and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, respectively.

text: The

entity_name: S-type asteroid

text: S-type

text: asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.3–2.9

entity_name: Astronomical unit

text: AU

text: once every 4 years and 2 months (1,516 days). Its orbit shows an

entity_name: Orbital eccentricity

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.11 and is

entity_name: Orbital inclination

text: tilted

text: by 10 degrees to the plane of the

entity_name: Ecliptic

text: ecliptic

text: . It has a

entity_name: Rotation period

text: rotation period

text: of 4.1 hours although its rotational direction remains unknown. It has a

entity_name: Geometric albedo

text: geometric albedo

text: of 0.24 and 0.17, according to the surveys carried out by Infrared Astronomical Satellite,

entity_name: IRAS

text: IRAS

text: , and the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: , respectively.

text: China has begun the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program for exploring the Moon and is investigating the prospect of lunar mining, specifically looking for the isotope helium-3 for use as an energy source on Earth. China launched the Chang'e 1 robotic lunar orbiter on October 24, 2007. Originally planned for a one-year mission, the Chang'e 1 mission was very successful and ended up being extended for another four months. On March 1, 2009, Chang'e 1 was intentionally impacted on the lunar surface completing the 16-month mission. On October 1, 2010, China launched the Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter. China landed the rover Chang'e 3 on the Moon on December 14, 2013, became the third country to have done so. Chang'e 3 is the first spacecraft to soft-land on lunar surface since Luna 24 in 1976.

text: China has begun the

entity_name: Chinese Lunar Exploration Program

text: Chinese Lunar Exploration Program

text: for exploring the Moon and is investigating the prospect of lunar mining, specifically looking for the

entity_name: Isotope

text: isotope

text: for use as an energy source on Earth. China launched the

entity_name: Chang'e 1

text: Chang'e 1

text: robotic lunar

entity_name: Orbiter

text: orbiter

text: on October 24, 2007. Originally planned for a one-year mission, the Chang'e 1 mission was very successful and ended up being extended for another four months. On March 1, 2009, Chang'e 1 was intentionally impacted on the lunar surface completing the 16-month mission. On October 1, 2010, China launched the

entity_name: Chang'e 2

text: Chang'e 2

text: lunar orbiter. China landed the

entity_name: Rover (space exploration)

text: rover

entity_name: Chang'e 3

text: Chang'e 3

text: on the Moon on December 14, 2013, became the third country to have done so. Chang'e 3 is the first spacecraft to soft-land on lunar surface since

entity_name: Luna 24

text: Luna 24

text: in 1976.

text: For specific types of orbits, words such as perihelion (for Sun-centered orbits), perigee (for Earth-centered orbits), periastron (for orbits around stars) and so on may replace the word periapsis.  See apsis for more information.

text: For specific types of orbits, words such as perihelion (for

entity_name: Sun

text: Sun

text: -centered orbits), perigee (for

text: Earth

text: -centered orbits), periastron (for orbits around stars) and so on may replace the word periapsis.  See

text: apsis

text: for more information.

text: After missions discovered the reality of the harsh nature of the planet's surface, attention shifted towards other targets such as Mars. There have been a number of proposed missions afterwards however, and many of these involve the little-known upper atmosphere. The Soviet Vega program in 1985 dropped two balloons into the atmosphere, but these were battery-powered and lasted for only about two Earth days each before running out of power. Since then, there has been no exploration of the upper atmosphere. In 2002, the NASA contractor Global Aerospace proposed a balloon that would be capable of staying in the upper atmosphere for hundreds of Earth days as opposed to two.

text: After missions discovered the reality of the harsh nature of the planet's surface, attention shifted towards other targets such as Mars. There have been a number of proposed missions afterwards however, and many of these involve the little-known upper atmosphere. The

text: Soviet

text: Vega program

text: in 1985 dropped two balloons into the atmosphere, but these were battery-powered and lasted for only about two Earth days each before running out of power. Since then, there has been no exploration of the upper atmosphere. In 2002, the

text: NASA

text: contractor Global Aerospace proposed a balloon that would be capable of staying in the upper atmosphere for hundreds of Earth days as opposed to two.

text: The International Space Station (ISS) combines NASA's Space Station Freedom project with the Soviet/Russian Mir-2 station, the European Columbus station, and the Japanese Kibō laboratory module. NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The station consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components, which have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. It is currently being assembled in Low Earth Orbit. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the US Orbital Segment occurred in 2011 and the completion of the Russian Orbital Segment is expected by 2016. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow Russia to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya), with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.

text: The

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) combines NASA's

text: Space Station Freedom

text: project with the Soviet/Russian

text: station, the European

text: Columbus

text: station, and the Japanese

text: Kibō

text: laboratory module. NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop Freedom alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the

text: Russian Federal Space Agency

text: (RKA), the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA), the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA), and the

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: (CSA). The station consists of pressurized modules, external

text: trusses

text: solar arrays

text: and other components, which have been launched by Russian

text: Proton

text: and

text: Soyuz

text: rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. It is

entity_name: Assembly of the International Space Station

text: currently being assembled

text: in

text: Low Earth Orbit

text: . The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the

text: US Orbital Segment

text: occurred in 2011 and the completion of the

text: Russian Orbital Segment

text: is expected by 2016. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements which divide the station into two areas and allow

text: Russia

text: to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of Zarya), with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners.

text: Magsat (Magnetic Field Satellite, Explorer 61, Applications Explorer Mission-3 or AEM-3) spacecraft was launched in the fall of 1979 and ended in the spring of 1980. The mission was to map the Earth's magnetic field, the satellite had two magnetometers. The scalar (Cesium vapor) and vector (fluxgate) magnetometers gave Magsat a capability beyond that of any previous spacecraft.  Extended by a telescoping boom, the magnetometers were distanced from the magnetic field created by the satellite and its electronics. The satellite carried two magnetometers, a three-axis fluxgate magnetometer for determining the strength and direction of magnetic fields, and an ion-vapor/vector magnetometer for determining the magnetic field caused by the vector magnetometer itself. MAGSAT is considered to be one of the more important Science/Earth orbiting satellites launched; the data it accumulated is still being used, particularly in linking new satellite data to past observations.

text: Magsat (Magnetic Field Satellite,

text: Explorer

text: 61, Applications Explorer Mission-3 or AEM-3)

text: spacecraft

text: was launched in the fall of 1979 and ended in the spring of 1980. The mission was to map the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: , the

text: satellite

text: had two

text: magnetometer

text: s. The scalar (Cesium vapor) and vector (fluxgate) magnetometers gave Magsat a capability beyond that of any previous spacecraft.  Extended by a telescoping boom, the magnetometers were distanced from the magnetic field created by the satellite and its electronics. The satellite carried two magnetometers, a three-axis fluxgate magnetometer for determining the strength and direction of magnetic fields, and an ion-vapor/vector magnetometer for determining the magnetic field caused by the vector magnetometer itself. MAGSAT is considered to be one of the more important Science/Earth orbiting satellites launched; the data it accumulated is still being used, particularly in linking new satellite data to past observations.

text: A failed first attempt launched on October 21, 1961; the needles failed to disperse. The project was eventually successful with the May 9, 1963 launch, with radio transmissions carried by the man-made ring. However, the technology was ultimately shelved, partially due to the development of the modern communications satellite and partially due to protests from other scientists. The needles were placed in medium Earth orbit between  high at 96 and 87 degree inclinations and contributed to Earth's orbital debris.British radio astronomers, together with optical astronomers and the Royal Astronomical Society, protested this action. The Soviet newspaper Pravda also joined the protests under the headline "U.S.A. Dirties Space".The issue was raised in the United Nations where then US Ambassador to the UN Adlai Stevenson defended the project.Stevenson studied the published journal articles on Project West Ford.  Using what he learned on the subject and citing the articles he had read, he successfully allayed the fears exhibited by the vast majority of UN ambassadors from other countries. He and the articles explained that sunlight pressure would cause the dipoles to only remain in orbit for a short period of approximately three years. The international protest ultimately resulted in a consultation provision included in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. Fifty years later in 2013, some of the dipoles that did not deploy correctly still remain in clumps which make up a small amount of the orbital debris tracked by NASA’s Orbital Debris Program Office.

text: A failed first attempt launched on October 21, 1961; the needles failed to disperse. The project was eventually successful with the May 9, 1963 launch, with radio transmissions carried by the man-made ring. However, the technology was ultimately shelved, partially due to the development of the modern

text: communications satellite

text: and partially due to protests from other scientists. The needles were placed in

text: medium Earth orbit

text: between  high at 96 and 87 degree inclinations and contributed to Earth's

text: orbital debris

text: .British radio astronomers, together with optical astronomers and the

text: Royal Astronomical Society

text: , protested this action. The Soviet newspaper

text: Pravda

text: also joined the protests under the headline "U.S.A. Dirties Space".The issue was raised in the

text: United Nations

text: where then US Ambassador to the UN

text: Adlai Stevenson

text: defended the project.Stevenson studied the published journal articles on Project West Ford.  Using what he learned on the subject and citing the articles he had read, he successfully allayed the fears exhibited by the vast majority of UN ambassadors from other countries. He and the articles explained that

text: sunlight pressure

text: would cause the dipoles to only remain in

text: orbit

text: for a short period of approximately three years. The international protest ultimately resulted in a consultation provision included in the 1967

text: Outer Space Treaty

text: . Fifty years later in 2013, some of the dipoles that did not deploy correctly still remain in clumps which make up a small amount of the orbital debris tracked by

text: NASA’s Orbital Debris Program Office

text: In the beginning of 2015, a team of undergraduates from the pioneer batch of Singapore University of Technology and Design took on an industry challenge to explore the idea of water extraction on planets such as Mars. The main motivation of the project was to reduce logistical complexity and demonstrate the possibility for deeper space exploration and the colonization of Mars.

text: In the beginning of 2015, a team of undergraduates from the pioneer batch of

entity_name: Singapore University of Technology and Design

text: Singapore University of Technology and Design

text: took on an industry challenge to explore the idea of

text: water extraction

text: on planets such as

text: Mars

text: . The main motivation of the project was to reduce logistical complexity and demonstrate the possibility for deeper

text: space exploration

text: and the

text: colonization of Mars

text: The simplest case of collision orbits are the ones with a mass ratio of 3, which will always return symmetrically to the origin after being ejected from the origin, and were termed Type B orbits in Tufillaro's initial paper. They were also referred to as teardrop, heart, or rabbit-ear orbits because of their appearance.

text: Cygnus CRS OA-11, also known as OrbitalATK CRS Flight 11, is the twelfth planned flight of the Orbital ATK' unmanned resupply spacecraft Cygnus and its eleventh flight to the International Space Station under the Commercial Resupply Services contract with NASA. Orbital and NASA jointly developed a new space transportation system to provide commercial cargo resupply services to the International Space Station (ISS). Under the Commercial Orbital Transportation System (COTS) program, then Orbital Sciences designed and built Antares, a medium-class launch vehicle; Cygnus, an advanced maneuvering spacecraft, and a Pressurized Cargo Module which is provided by Orbital's industrial partner Thales Alenia Space.

text: Cygnus CRS OA-11, also known as OrbitalATK CRS Flight 11, is the twelfth planned flight of the

text: Orbital ATK

text: unmanned resupply spacecraft

text: Cygnus

text: and its eleventh flight to the

text: International Space Station

text: under the

text: Commercial Resupply Services

text: contract with

text: NASA

text: . Orbital and NASA jointly developed a new space transportation system to provide commercial cargo resupply services to the International Space Station (ISS). Under the

entity_name: Commercial Orbital Transportation Services

text: Commercial Orbital Transportation System (COTS)

text: program, then

text: Orbital Sciences

text: designed and built

text: Antares

text: , a medium-class launch vehicle;

text: Cygnus

text: , an advanced maneuvering spacecraft, and a Pressurized Cargo Module which is provided by Orbital's industrial partner

text: Thales Alenia Space

text: While Soviet and American teams had been working on plans for orbiting research satellites for a number of years, the launch on 4 October 1957 of the world’s first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, began the Space Race in earnest and America soon launched its own Explorer 1 system in response. After Sputnik there was a desire from other countries to enter this new field of research and technological capability.

text: While Soviet and American teams had been working on plans for orbiting research satellites for a number of years, the launch on 4 October 1957 of the world’s first artificial satellite,

text: Sputnik 1

text: , began the

text: Space Race

text: in earnest and America soon launched its own

text: Explorer 1

text: system in response. After Sputnik there was a desire from other countries to enter this new field of research and technological capability.

text: A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction. Rocket engines push rockets forward simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast.

text: A rocket is a

text: missile

text: spacecraft

text: aircraft

text: or other

text: vehicle

text: that obtains

text: thrust

text: from a

text: rocket engine

text: . Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from

text: propellant

text: s carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by

text: action and reaction

text: . Rocket engines push rockets forward simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast.

text: The city of Ramsey has been exploring options for the old town hall.  One option would be to use it as community space and/or a historical center.  Another option would be to lease out the space to a nearby business as additional office or meeting space.  The third option would be to move the building from its current location to a new location in a city park and to use it as community space and/or a historical center.  Under all three options under discussion, the renovation would be completed.  However, moving the building would most likely cause it to lose its status as a historical site.

text: The Space Race has left a legacy of Earth communications and weather satellites, and continuing human space presence on the International Space Station. It has also sparked increases in spending on education and research and development, which led to beneficial spin-off technologies.

text: The Space Race has left a legacy of Earth

text: communications

text: and

text: weather satellite

text: s, and continuing human space presence on the

text: International Space Station

text: . It has also sparked increases in spending on education and

text: research and development

text: , which led to beneficial

text: spin-off technologies

text: Space exploration – use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft.

text: Space exploration

text: – use of

text: astronomy

text: and

text: space technology

text: to explore

text: outer space

text: . Physical

text: exploration

text: of space is conducted both by

text: human spaceflight

text: s and by

text: robotic spacecraft

text: The flight plan called for the Pioneer 3 probe to pass close to the Moon after 33.75 hours and then go into solar orbit. However, depletion of propellant caused the first stage engine to shut down 3.7 seconds early preventing the spacecraft from reaching escape velocity. The injection angle was also about 71 degrees instead of the planned 68 degrees. The spacecraft reached an altitude of 102,360 km (109,740 km from the center of the Earth) before falling back to Earth. It re-entered Earth's atmosphere and burned up over Africa on December 7 at approximately 19:51 UT (2:51 p.m. EST) at an estimated location of 16.4 N, 18.6 E. The probe returned telemetry for about 25 hours of its 38-hour-6-minute journey. The other 13 hours were blackout periods due to the location of the two tracking stations. The returned information showed that the internal temperature remained at about 43 °C over most of the period.While Pioneer 3 did not meet its primary mission objective of a lunar flyby, the data obtained was of particular value to James Van Allen. The Pioneer 3 probe data in addition to the data from the previous Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 satellites led to the discovery of a distinct second radiation belt around the Earth. The trapped radiation starts at an altitude of several hundred miles from Earth (where the outer belt was first observed by Sputnik 2 and Sputnik 3) and extends for several thousand miles into space. These Van Allen radiation belts surrounding the Earth are named for Dr. James Van Allen, in honor of his discovery.

text: The flight plan called for the Pioneer 3 probe to pass close to the Moon after 33.75 hours and then go into solar orbit. However, depletion of propellant caused the first stage engine to shut down 3.7 seconds early preventing the spacecraft from reaching

text: escape velocity

text: . The injection angle was also about 71 degrees instead of the planned 68 degrees. The spacecraft reached an altitude of 102,360 km (109,740 km from the center of the Earth) before falling back to Earth. It re-entered Earth's atmosphere and burned up over

text: Africa

text: on December 7 at approximately 19:51 UT (2:51 p.m. EST) at an estimated location of 16.4 N, 18.6 E. The probe returned

text: telemetry

text: for about 25 hours of its 38-hour-6-minute journey. The other 13 hours were blackout periods due to the location of the two tracking stations. The returned information showed that the internal temperature remained at about 43 °C over most of the period.While Pioneer 3 did not meet its primary mission objective of a lunar flyby, the data obtained was of particular value to

text: James Van Allen

text: . The Pioneer 3 probe data in addition to the data from the previous

text: Explorer 1

text: and

text: Explorer 3

text: satellites led to the discovery of a distinct second radiation belt around the

text: Earth

text: . The trapped radiation starts at an altitude of several hundred miles from Earth (where the outer belt was first observed by

text: Sputnik 2

text: and

text: Sputnik 3

text: ) and extends for several thousand miles into space. These

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: s surrounding the Earth are named for Dr.

text: James Van Allen

text: , in honor of his discovery.

text: Atmospheric satellites remain aloft through atmospheric lift, either aerostatic (e.g., balloons) or aerodynamic (e.g., airplanes). By contrast, conventional satellites in Earth orbit operate in the vacuum of space and remain in flight through centrifugal force derived from their orbital speed.

text: Atmospheric satellites remain aloft through atmospheric lift, either

text: aerostat

text: ic (e.g.,

text: balloons

text: ) or

text: aerodynamic

text: (e.g.,

text: airplane

text: s). By contrast, conventional satellites in

text: Earth orbit

text: operate in the vacuum of space and remain in flight through

text: centrifugal force

text: derived from their orbital speed.

text: In his article, “Human Rights in the Space Age: An International and Legal Political Analysis,” Potter focuses on space and human rights issues that have collided in the areas of satellite broadcasting and receiving, remote sensing, and technology transfer. He explores the possibilities of how "space age" technologies and the exploration of the final frontier could transform the way we think about human rights.  In the article, “Swords into Ploughshares: Missiles as Commercial Launchers”, Potter discusses the legal and policy implications of a commercial launch vehicle based on the SS-20 missile after the signing of an INF arms control treaty in 1987 resulted in a surplus of missiles.  Potter has published many articles in, “Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space” focusing on international law and space, such as: “The Outer Space Cyberspace Nexus - Satellite Crimes”;  “European Regulation of Competitive Satellite Services - Battling the Cartel and the Monopolies”; and “International Satellite Organizations- from Monopoly to Cartel.”.

text: Around the Earth, stationary satellites orbit at altitudes of approximately . Writing in 1945, the science-fiction author Arthur C. Clarke imagined communications satellites as travelling in stationary orbits, where those satellites would travel around the Earth at the same speed the globe is spinning, making them hover stationary over one spot on the Earth's surface.

text: Around the

text: Earth

text: , stationary satellites orbit at altitudes of approximately . Writing in 1945, the science-fiction author

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: imagined

text: communications satellite

text: s as travelling in stationary orbits, where those satellites would travel around the Earth at the same speed the globe is spinning, making them hover stationary over one spot on the Earth's surface.

text: Sputnik also inspired a generation of engineers and scientists. Harrison Storms, the North American designer who was responsible for the X-15 rocket plane, and went on to head the effort to design the Apollo Command/Service Module and Saturn V launch vehicle's second stage was moved by the launch of Sputnik to think of space as being the next step for America.  Astronauts Alan Shepard, who was the first American in space, and Deke Slayton later wrote of how the sight of Sputnik I passing overhead inspired them to their new careers. Homer Hickam's memoir Rocket Boys and the movie October Sky tell the story of how a coal miner's son, inspired by Sputnik, started building rockets in the mining town where he lived.

text: Sputnik also inspired a generation of engineers and scientists. Harrison Storms, the North American designer who was responsible for the

text: rocket plane, and went on to head the effort to design the

text: Apollo Command/Service Module

text: and

text: Saturn V

text: launch vehicle's second stage was moved by the launch of Sputnik to think of space as being the next step for America.  Astronauts

text: Alan Shepard

text: , who was the first American in space, and

text: Deke Slayton

text: later wrote of how the sight of Sputnik I passing overhead inspired them to their new careers.

text: Homer Hickam

text: 's memoir

text: Rocket Boys

text: and the movie

text: October Sky

text: tell the story of how a coal miner's son, inspired by Sputnik, started building rockets in the mining town where he lived.

text: While the orbit of a satellite around the Sun was empirically discovered by Kepler and theoretically proven by Newton to be an ellipse, at the time when the United States was interested in going to the Moon, there was no such solution known for the shape of a satellite orbiting regularly around two objects, such as a spacecraft going between the Earth and the Moon.  This is a special case of the infamous Three Body Problem, for which a  general analytical solution is not known because of its complexity of solving the effect of three bodies which all pull on each other while moving, a total of six interactions.  However the case of an Earth-Moon satellite can be simplified to four interactions, because although the three objects gravitationally all pull on each other, the effect of the spacecraft's gravity upon the motion of the vastly more massive Earth and Moon is practically non-existent.  Arenstorf found a stable orbit for a spacecraft orbiting between the Earth and Moon, shaped like an '8' with the Earth or Moon located inside each loop of the '8'.  This orbit is the basis of a path going to the Moon from the Earth, such as the United States Apollo program.  For a permanent presence on the Moon, it would be the path of what Arenstorf calls a 'Space Bus', a ferry which could regularly orbit supplies and people between the Earth and Moon without directly expending fuel.   By staying on the Arenstorf orbit, lunar astronauts automatically return to Earth.  Before leaving NASA at the first Moon Landing, Arenstorf mapped out an emergency rescue orbit, which was used in the Apollo 13 incident, in which a catastrophic malfunction forced aborting the Moon landing, but the astronauts ultimately returned safely to Earth without a major course adjustment.

text: While the orbit of a satellite around the Sun was empirically discovered by Kepler and theoretically proven by Newton to be an

text: ellipse

text: , at the time when the United States was interested in going to the Moon, there was no such solution known for the shape of a satellite orbiting regularly around two objects, such as a spacecraft going between the Earth and the Moon.  This is a special case of the infamous

text: Three Body Problem

text: , for which a  general analytical solution is not known because of its complexity of solving the effect of three bodies which all pull on each other while moving, a total of six interactions.  However the case of an Earth-Moon satellite can be simplified to four interactions, because although the three objects gravitationally all pull on each other, the effect of the spacecraft's gravity upon the motion of the vastly more massive Earth and Moon is practically non-existent.  Arenstorf found a stable orbit for a spacecraft orbiting between the Earth and Moon, shaped like an '8' with the Earth or Moon located inside each loop of the '8'.  This orbit is the basis of a path going to the Moon from the Earth, such as the United States

text: Apollo program

text: .  For a permanent presence on the Moon, it would be the path of what Arenstorf calls a 'Space Bus', a ferry which could regularly orbit supplies and people between the Earth and Moon without directly expending fuel.   By staying on the Arenstorf orbit, lunar astronauts automatically return to Earth.  Before leaving NASA at the first Moon Landing, Arenstorf mapped out an emergency rescue orbit, which was used in the

text: Apollo 13

text: incident, in which a catastrophic malfunction forced aborting the Moon landing, but the astronauts ultimately returned safely to Earth without a major course adjustment.

text: A permanent lunar outpost is discussed in "Outpost on the Moon". This goal would be reached through three phases, where the first would deal with robotic exploration during the 1990s to find a suitable site. In the second phase, astronauts would be launched to the Moon on a Lunar transfer vehicle from the Space Station. They would bring scientific instruments and equipment and modules for the outpost. In the third phase, the outpost would be a permanent installation, with closed-loop life-support systems, and great abilities for exploration of the Moon. According to the plan, there would be a crew of 30 living and working on the Moon by 2010.

text: A

text: permanent lunar outpost

text: is discussed in "Outpost on the Moon". This goal would be reached through three phases, where the first would deal with

text: robotic exploration

text: during the 1990s to find a suitable site. In the second phase, astronauts would be launched to the Moon on a Lunar transfer vehicle from the Space Station. They would bring scientific instruments and equipment and modules for the outpost. In the third phase, the outpost would be a permanent installation, with closed-loop life-support systems, and great abilities for

text: exploration of the Moon

text: . According to the plan, there would be a crew of 30 living and working on the Moon by 2010.

text: Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle, or simply Shuttle-Derived Vehicle (SDV), is a term describing one of a wide array of concepts that have been developed for creating space launch vehicles from the components, technology and infrastructure of the Space Shuttle program.  SDVs have also been part of NASA's plans several times in the past.  In the late 1980s and early 1990s, NASA formally studied a cargo-only vehicle, Shuttle-C, that would have supplemented the crewed Space Shuttle in orbiting payloads.

text: Shuttle-Derived Launch Vehicle, or simply Shuttle-Derived Vehicle (SDV), is a term describing one of a wide array of concepts that have been developed for creating space

text: launch vehicle

text: s from the components, technology and infrastructure of the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: .  SDVs have also been part of NASA's plans several times in the past.  In the late 1980s and early 1990s, NASA formally studied a cargo-only vehicle,

text: Shuttle-C

text: , that would have supplemented the crewed Space Shuttle in orbiting payloads.

text: After 2004, NASA had been shifting its focus towards space exploration as mandated by the Vision for Space Exploration. Because of this, it was perceived by some that regional NASA centers like Glenn, which focus on research and technology, were becoming more and more marginalized in terms of resources and relevance. However, on May 13, 2006, it was announced that NASA Glenn Research Center had secured management of the Crew Exploration Vehicle's service module, which promised to generate billions of dollars and hundreds of jobs for the center.  This work secured the center's future in the near term, and signalled a shift in priority for the center from aeronautical research to space exploration, aligning itself closer with NASA's new mission.

text: After 2004, NASA had been shifting its focus towards space exploration as mandated by the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: . Because of this, it was perceived by some that regional NASA centers like Glenn, which focus on research and technology, were becoming more and more marginalized in terms of resources and relevance. However, on May 13, 2006, it was announced that NASA Glenn Research Center had secured management of the

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: 's service module, which promised to generate billions of dollars and hundreds of jobs for the center.  This work secured the center's future in the near term, and signalled a shift in priority for the center from aeronautical research to space exploration, aligning itself closer with NASA's new mission.

text: For comparison, in potentially the same time frame as the elevator, the Skylon, a 12,000 kg cargo capacity single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane (not a conventional rocket) is estimated to have an R&D and production cost of about $15 billion. The vehicle has about the same $3,000/kg price tag. Skylon would be suitable to launch cargo and particularly people to low/medium Earth orbit. Early space elevator designs move only cargo, although to a much wider range of destinations.

text: For comparison, in potentially the same time frame as the elevator, the

text: Skylon

text: , a 12,000 kg cargo capacity single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane (not a conventional rocket) is estimated to have an R&D and production cost of about $15 billion. The vehicle has about the same $3,000/kg price tag. Skylon would be suitable to launch cargo and particularly people to low/medium Earth orbit. Early space elevator designs move only cargo, although to a much wider range of destinations.

text: The series chronicles the long, futuristic voyage of a team of Québécois space explorers looking for a planet capable of sustaining life, in the year 2034, after the destruction of the ozone layer through excessive human pollution, prompting the need for a new planet to welcome humankind. The seven crew members venture outside their own galaxy to explore other star system in search of a new planet large enough to sustain 6 billion people. The few habitable planets encountered are ultimately abandoned either because they are already occupied (emphasizing the wrongdoing of invading other civilizations and cultures), or because upon closer inspection they are found to have other problems (cow-sized mosquitoes, high radiation levels, dog overpopulation, unsuitable living environment, ...).

text: The series chronicles the long, futuristic voyage of a team of

text: Québécois

text: space explorers looking for a planet capable of sustaining life, in the year 2034, after the destruction of the

text: ozone layer

text: through excessive human pollution, prompting the need for a new planet to welcome

text: humankind

text: . The seven crew members venture outside their own galaxy to explore other star system in search of a new planet large enough to sustain 6 billion people. The few habitable planets encountered are ultimately abandoned either because they are already occupied (emphasizing the wrongdoing of invading other civilizations and cultures), or because upon closer inspection they are found to have other problems (cow-sized mosquitoes, high radiation levels, dog overpopulation, unsuitable living environment, ...).

text: Large commercial dishes of 3.7 m to 13 m diameter can be used to achieve increased rain margins and also to reduce the cost per bit by allowing for more efficient modulation codes. Alternately, larger aperture antennae can require less power from the satellite to achieve acceptable performance.  Satellites typically use photovoltaic solar power, so there is no expense for the energy itself, but a more powerful satellite will require larger, more powerful solar panels and electronics, often including a larger transmitting antenna.  The larger satellite components not only increase materials costs but also increase the weight of the satellite, and in general, the cost to launch a satellite into an orbit is directly proportional to its weight.  (In addition, since satellite launch vehicles [i.e. rockets] have specific payload size limits, making parts of the satellite larger may require either more complex folding mechanisms for parts of the satellite like solar panels and high-gain antennas, or upgrading to a more expensive launch vehicle that can handle a larger payload.)

text: Large commercial dishes of 3.7 m to 13 m diameter can be used to achieve increased rain margins and also to reduce the cost per bit by allowing for more efficient modulation codes. Alternately, larger aperture antennae can require less power from the satellite to achieve acceptable performance.  Satellites typically use

text: photovoltaic

text: solar power, so there is no expense for the energy itself, but a more powerful satellite will require larger, more powerful solar panels and electronics, often including a larger transmitting antenna.  The larger satellite components not only increase materials costs but also increase the weight of the satellite, and in general, the cost to launch a satellite into an orbit is directly proportional to its weight.  (In addition, since satellite launch vehicles [i.e. rockets] have specific payload size limits, making parts of the satellite larger may require either more complex folding mechanisms for parts of the satellite like solar panels and high-gain antennas, or upgrading to a more expensive launch vehicle that can handle a larger payload.)

text: ), and the gravitational effects of Sun and Moon. This motion has a period of about 53 years. The two parameters describing the direction of the orbit plane in space, the right ascension of the ascending node, and the inclination are affected by this precession. The maximum inclination reached during the 53-year cycle is about 15 degrees. Therefore, the definition of the geostationary ring foresees a declination range from -15 degrees to +15 degrees.

text: ), and the gravitational effects of

text: Sun

text: and

text: Moon

text: . This motion has a period of about 53 years. The two parameters describing the direction of the

text: orbit plane

text: in space, the

text: right ascension

text: of the ascending node, and the

text: inclination

text: are affected by this

text: precession

text: . The maximum

text: inclination

text: reached during the 53-year cycle is about 15 degrees. Therefore, the definition of the geostationary ring foresees a declination range from -15 degrees to +15 degrees.

text: CNSA's logo is a similar design to that of China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation. The arrow in the middle is similar to the Chinese character 人 which means 'human' or 'people', to state that humans are the center of all space exploration.  The three concentric ellipses stand for three types of Escape Velocity (minimum speed needed to reach sustainable orbits, to escape the earth system, and to escape the solar system) which are milestones of space exploration. The second ring is drawn with a bold line, to state that China has passed the first stage of exploration (earth system) and is undergoing the second stage exploration (within the solar system). The 人 character stands above the three rings to emphasize humanity's capability to escape and explore. Olive branches were added to state that China's space exploration is peaceful in nature.

text: CNSA's logo is a similar design to that of

entity_name: China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation

text: China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation

text: . The arrow in the middle is similar to the Chinese character 人 which means 'human' or 'people', to state that humans are the center of all space exploration.  The three concentric ellipses stand for three types of

text: Escape Velocity

text: (minimum speed needed to reach sustainable orbits, to escape the earth system, and to escape the solar system) which are milestones of space exploration. The second ring is drawn with a bold line, to state that China has passed the first stage of exploration (earth system) and is undergoing the second stage exploration (within the solar system). The 人 character stands above the three rings to emphasize humanity's capability to escape and explore.

text: Olive branch

text: es were added to state that China's space exploration is peaceful in nature.

text: Terra (EOS AM-1) is a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in a Sun-synchronous orbit around the Earth. It is the flagship of the Earth Observing System (EOS). The name "Terra" comes from the Latin word for Earth.

text: Terra (EOS AM-1) is a multi-national

text: NASA

text: scientific research

text: satellite

text: in a

text: Sun-synchronous

text: orbit

text: around the

text: Earth

text: . It is the flagship of the

text: Earth Observing System

text: (EOS). The name "Terra" comes from the

text: Latin

text: word for Earth.

text: The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, Armstrong said that a manned mission to Mars will be easier than the lunar challenge of the 1960s: "I suspect that even though the various questions are difficult and many, they are not as difficult and many as those we faced when we started the Apollo [space program] in 1961." In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel the Ares 1 launch vehicle and the Constellation Moon landing program.In an open public letter also signed by Apollo veterans Jim Lovell and Gene Cernan, he noted, "For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature". Armstrong had also publicly recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50 percent chance of landing on the Moon. "I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful", he later said.

text: The press often asked Armstrong for his views on the future of spaceflight. In 2005, Armstrong said that a

text: manned mission to Mars

text: will be easier than the

text: lunar challenge

text: of the 1960s: "I suspect that even though the various questions are difficult and many, they are not as difficult and many as those we faced when we started the Apollo [space program] in 1961." In 2010, he made a rare public criticism of the decision to cancel the

text: Ares 1

text: launch vehicle and the

text: Constellation Moon landing program

text: .In an open public letter also signed by Apollo veterans

text: Jim Lovell

text: and

text: Gene Cernan

text: , he noted, "For The United States, the leading space faring nation for nearly half a century, to be without carriage to low Earth orbit and with no human exploration capability to go beyond Earth orbit for an indeterminate time into the future, destines our nation to become one of second or even third rate stature". Armstrong had also publicly recalled his initial concerns about the Apollo 11 mission, when he had believed there was only a 50 percent chance of landing on the Moon. "I was elated, ecstatic and extremely surprised that we were successful", he later said.

text: It is unforeseen how the first human landing on Mars will change the current policies regarding the exploration of space and occupancy of celestial bodies. In the 1967, United Nations Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, it was determined that no country may take claim to space or its inhabitants.  Since the planet Mars offers a challenging environment and dangerous obstacles for humans to overcome, the laws and culture on the planet will most likely be very different from those on Earth.  With Elon Musk announcing his plans for travel to Mars, it is uncertain how to the dynamic of a private company possibly being the first to put a human on Mars will play out on a national and global scale. With NASA having recently taken a cut in funding, it is no longer certain that they will be a leading force in the journey to Mars. It is likely that the values and culture on Mars will be determined by the group that establishes human contact with the planet first.

text: From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58). An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Soviet space program's launch of the world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The U.S. Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency mainly based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was also created at this time to develop space technology for military application.

text: From 1946, the

entity_name: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

text: National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

text: (NACA) had been experimenting with

text: rocket plane

text: s such as the supersonic

text: Bell X-1

text: . In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: (1957–58). An effort for this was the American

text: Project Vanguard

text: . After the

text: Soviet space program

text: 's launch of the world's first artificial

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: ) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The

text: U.S. Congress

text: , alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "

text: Sputnik crisis

text: "), urged immediate and swift action; President

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency mainly based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The

text: Advanced Research Projects Agency

text: was also created at this time to develop space technology for military application.

text: In support of human space systems, Orbital is one of two companies providing commercial cargo resupply services to the International Space Station for NASA. Orbital's medium-class rocket- Antares is used to launch the Cygnus advanced maneuvering spacecraft to deliver cargo to the ISS. Under the Commercial Resupply Services contract with NASA, Orbital will perform eight cargo missions to the ISS. Operational flights began in 2013 from the new Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport at Wallops Island in Virginia. In addition, the company is exploring opportunities to adapt the Cygnus design for other possible space exploration applications.

text: In support of human space systems, Orbital is one of two companies providing commercial cargo resupply services to the

text: International Space Station

text: for

text: NASA

text: . Orbital's medium-class rocket-

text: Antares

text: is used to launch the

text: Cygnus

text: advanced maneuvering spacecraft to deliver cargo to the ISS. Under the

text: Commercial Resupply Services

text: contract with NASA, Orbital will perform eight cargo missions to the ISS. Operational flights began in 2013 from the new

text: Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

text: at Wallops Island in Virginia. In addition, the company is exploring opportunities to adapt the Cygnus design for other possible space exploration applications.

text: The space policy of the United States includes both the making of space policy through the legislative process, and the implementation of that policy in the civilian and military US space programs through regulatory agencies.  The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s, which gave way to the Space Shuttle program.  There is a current debate on the post-Space Shuttle future of the civilian space program.

text: The space policy of the United States includes both the making of

text: space policy

text: through the legislative process, and the implementation of that policy in the civilian and military US space programs through regulatory agencies.  The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet

text: Space Race

text: of the 1960s, which gave way to the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: .  There is a current debate on the post-Space Shuttle future of the civilian space program.

text: Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.

text: Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites.

text: Space station

text: s and human

text: spacecraft

text: in orbit are also satellites.

text: The player is the pilot of a spacecraft, set during a period of early space colonization. There are 64 star systems to explore, presented in a rotating top-down 2D view. Each system has a starbase – which issues missions, receives supplies from the player, and sells various ship add-ons – a sun that presents a navigation hazard due to its high temperature, and one or more orbiting planets.

text: The show explores "Scientific controversies and curiosities" and the topics of discussion are varied and include the Moon landing hoax, Big Foot, Feng Shui and the treatment of hiccups. In keeping with the satirical nature of the show, the opening theme music is often a parody of a well-known melody and performed by the co-host Pat Roach and his wife, Cristina. By November 2012, the podcast was receiving between 4000 and 5000 weekly downloads and has reached the 1 million total download milestone.

text: In October 1991, the United States Postal Service released a series of stamps commemorating NASA's exploration of the Solar System. The series featured a stamp for all planets, displaying an image of the planet and highlighting an associated spacecraft which was sent to it. The stamp for Pluto, however, depicted a featureless sphere, presented with the phrase "not yet explored" in place of the name of a spacecraft. The stamps were unveiled in a ceremony at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Two scientists who attended the event, World Space Foundation president Robert Staehle and JPL scientist Stacy Weinstein, were inspired by Pluto's status on the stamp, such that they started to inquire about the feasibility of sending a spacecraft to Pluto. Engineers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, inspired by the "Not Yet Explored" status of Pluto, also started to put forward ideas about a mission to Pluto.

text: In October 1991, the

text: United States Postal Service

text: released a series of stamps commemorating

text: NASA

text: 's exploration of the Solar System. The series featured a stamp for all planets, displaying an image of the planet and highlighting an associated spacecraft which was sent to it. The stamp for Pluto, however, depicted a featureless sphere, presented with the phrase "not yet explored" in place of the name of a spacecraft. The stamps were unveiled in a ceremony at the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: . Two scientists who attended the event, World Space Foundation president Robert Staehle and JPL scientist Stacy Weinstein, were inspired by Pluto's status on the stamp, such that they started to inquire about the feasibility of sending a spacecraft to Pluto. Engineers at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, inspired by the "Not Yet Explored" status of Pluto, also started to put forward ideas about a mission to Pluto.

text: The story is more about the space race than space exploration in general. The Soviet Union's early space efforts are mentioned only as background, focusing entirely on an early portion of the U.S. space program. Only Project Mercury, the first operational manned space-flight program, is covered. The Mercury Seven were Scott Carpenter, Gordon Cooper, John Glenn, Gus Grissom, Wally Schirra, Alan Shepard, and Deke Slayton. Emphasis is given to the personal stories of the astronauts and their wives rather than the technical aspects of space travel and the flights themselves.

text: The story is more about the

text: space race

text: than

text: space exploration

text: in general. The

text: Soviet Union

text: 's early space efforts are mentioned only as background, focusing entirely on an early portion of

text: the U.S. space program

text: . Only Project Mercury, the first operational manned space-flight program, is covered. The Mercury Seven were

text: Scott Carpenter

text: Gordon Cooper

text: John Glenn

text: Gus Grissom

text: Wally Schirra

text: Alan Shepard

text: , and

text: Deke Slayton

text: . Emphasis is given to the personal stories of the astronauts and their wives rather than the technical aspects of space travel and the flights themselves.

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) was among the pioneers of theoretical space exploration and cosmonautics. In 1903, he published Изслѣдованіе міровыхъ пространствъ реактивными приборами (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reactive Devices [Rockets]), the first serious scientific work on space travel. Tsiolkovsky believed that colonizing space would lead to the perfection of the human race, with immortality and a carefree existence. He also developed ideas of the "animated atom" (panpsychism), and "radiant mankind". In 1881 Russian revolutionary  and rocket pioneer Nikolai Kibalchich proposed an idea of pulsed rocket propulsion by combustion of explosives, which was an early precursor for Project Orion.

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: (1857–1935) was among the pioneers of theoretical

text: space exploration

text: and

text: cosmonautics

text: . In 1903, he published Изслѣдованіе міровыхъ пространствъ реактивными приборами (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reactive Devices [Rockets]), the first serious scientific work on space travel. Tsiolkovsky believed that

text: colonizing space

text: would lead to the perfection of the human race, with immortality and a carefree existence. He also developed ideas of the "animated atom" (

text: panpsychism

text: ), and "radiant mankind". In 1881 Russian revolutionary  and rocket pioneer

text: Nikolai Kibalchich

text: proposed an idea of pulsed

text: rocket propulsion

text: by combustion of explosives, which was an early precursor for

text: Project Orion

text: Although its pace slowed, space exploration continued after the end of the Space Race. The United States launched the first reusable spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, on the 20th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, April 12, 1981. On November 15, 1988, the Soviet Union duplicated this with an unmanned flight of the Buran shuttle, its first and only reusable spacecraft. It was never used again after the first flight; instead the Soviet Union continued to develop space stations using the Soyuz craft as the crew shuttle.

text: Although its pace slowed, space exploration continued after the end of the Space Race. The United States launched the first reusable spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, on the 20th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, April 12, 1981. On November 15, 1988, the Soviet Union duplicated this with an unmanned flight of the

text: Buran

text: shuttle, its first and only reusable spacecraft. It was never used again after the first flight; instead the Soviet Union continued to develop space stations using the Soyuz craft as the crew shuttle.

text: Uhuru was the first satellite launched specifically for the purpose of X-ray astronomy.  It was also known as the X-ray Explorer Satellite, SAS-A (for "Small Astronomy Satellite" A, being first of the three-spacecraft SAS series), SAS 1, or Explorer 42. The observatory was launched on December 12, 1970 into an initial orbit of about 560 km apogee, 520 km perigee, 3 degrees inclination, with a period of 96 minutes. The mission ended in March 1973. Uhuru was a scanning mission, with a spin period of ~12 minutes. It performed the first comprehensive survey of the entire sky for X-ray sources, with a sensitivity of about 0.001 times the intensity of the Crab nebula.

text: Uhuru was the first

text: satellite

text: launched specifically for the purpose of

text: X-ray astronomy

text: .  It was also known as the X-ray Explorer Satellite, SAS-A (for "Small Astronomy Satellite" A, being first of the three-spacecraft SAS series), SAS 1, or Explorer 42. The

text: observatory

text: was launched on December 12, 1970 into an initial orbit of about 560 km

text: apogee

text: , 520 km

text: perigee

text: , 3 degrees inclination, with a period of 96 minutes. The mission ended in March 1973. Uhuru was a scanning mission, with a spin period of ~12 minutes. It performed the first comprehensive survey of the entire sky for

text: X-ray

text: sources, with a sensitivity of about 0.001 times the intensity of the Crab nebula.

text: The Center for Earth and Planetary Studies is a research institute affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution. Based in Washington, DC, the Center, which was founded in 1972, conducts scientific research related to planetary science, geophysics and the biophysical environment. As a Regional Planetary Image Facility, the Center hosts for NASA data including images and maps of planets and their satellites. It also houses images taken by the Space Shuttle. Both of these date collections are accessible to researchers. The Center, which is located at the National Air and Space Museum, curates two of its galleries, Exploring the Planet and Looking at Earth, as well as contributing elsewhere in the museum.also it has planes

text: The Center for Earth and Planetary Studies is a research institute affiliated with the

text: Smithsonian Institution

text: . Based in

text: Washington, DC

text: , the Center, which was founded in 1972, conducts scientific research related to

text: planetary science

text: geophysics

text: and the

text: biophysical environment

text: . As a

text: Regional Planetary Image Facility

text: , the Center hosts for

text: NASA

text: data including

text: image

text: s and

text: map

text: s of

text: planet

text: s and their

text: satellites

text: . It also houses images taken by the

text: Space Shuttle

text: . Both of these date collections are accessible to researchers. The Center, which is located at the

text: National Air and Space Museum

text: , curates two of its galleries, Exploring the Planet and Looking at Earth, as well as contributing elsewhere in the museum.also it has planes

text: The club was founded in 1965 as Sputnik. In 1986, they were renamed Neftyanik (Oiler). In 2008, Neftyanik joined the Vysshaya Liga, and affiliated with Ak Bars Kazan of the KHL.

text: The club was founded in 1965 as Sputnik. In 1986, they were renamed Neftyanik (Oiler). In 2008, Neftyanik joined the Vysshaya Liga, and affiliated with

text: Ak Bars Kazan

text: of the KHL.

text: Explorer 11 (also known as S15) was an American Earth-orbital satellite that carried the first space-borne gamma-ray telescope.  This was the earliest beginning of space gamma-ray astronomy.  Launched on April 27, 1961 by a Juno II rocket the satellite returned data until November 17, when power supply problems ended the science mission.  During the spacecraft's seven-month lifespan it detected twenty-two events from gamma-rays and approximately 22,000 events from cosmic radiation.

text: Explorer 11 (also known as S15) was an American Earth-

text: orbital

text: satellite that carried the first space-borne

text: gamma-ray

text: telescope

text: .  This was the earliest beginning of space

text: gamma-ray astronomy

text: .  Launched on April 27, 1961 by a

text: Juno II rocket

text: the satellite returned data until November 17, when power supply problems ended the science mission.  During the spacecraft's seven-month lifespan it detected twenty-two events from gamma-rays and approximately 22,000 events from

text: cosmic radiation

text: In the post-Soviet era, disinformation evolved to become a key tactic in the military doctrine of Russia. Russia used disinformation to such a high degree during the early 21st century that both the European Union and NATO each took effort to set up special units to analyze and debunk fabricated falsehoods. NATO founded a modest facility in Latvia to respond to disinformation, and the EU created the European External Action Service which published weekly reports on disinformation tied back to the Kremlin. Methods used during this period of time by Russia included its Kremlin-controlled mouthpieces news agency Sputnik News and television outlet Russia Today (RT). When explaining the 2016 annual report of the Swedish Security Service on disinformation, representative Wilhelm Unge stated: "We mean everything from internet trolls to propaganda and misinformation spread by media companies like RT and Sputnik."

text: In the post-Soviet era, disinformation evolved to become a key tactic in the

text: military doctrine of Russia

text: . Russia used disinformation to such a high degree during the early

text: 21st century

text: that both the

text: European Union

text: and

text: NATO

text: each took effort to set up special units to analyze and debunk fabricated falsehoods. NATO founded a modest facility in Latvia to respond to disinformation, and the EU created the

text: European External Action Service

text: which published weekly reports on disinformation tied back to the Kremlin. Methods used during this period of time by Russia included its Kremlin-controlled mouthpieces news agency

text: Sputnik News

text: and television outlet

text: Russia Today

text: (RT). When explaining the 2016 annual report of the

text: Swedish Security Service

text: on disinformation, representative Wilhelm Unge stated: "We mean everything from internet trolls to propaganda and misinformation spread by media companies like RT and Sputnik."

text: The OCO spacecraft was provided by Orbital Sciences Corporation. During its two-year mission, OCO will fly in a near polar orbit which enables the instrument to observe most of Earth's surface at least once every sixteen days. It is intended to fly in loose formation with a series of other Earth-orbiting satellites known as the Earth Observing System Afternoon Constellation, or the A-train. This coordinated flight formation was intended to enable researchers to correlate OCO data with data acquired by other instruments on other spacecraft. In particular, Earth scientists would like to compare OCO data with nearly simultaneous measurements acquired by the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) instrument aboard NASA's Aqua satellite and ground-based data from the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON). Alignment with the A-train demands a particularly short launch window of 30 seconds.

text: The OCO spacecraft was provided by

text: Orbital Sciences Corporation

text: . During its two-year mission, OCO will fly in a near

text: polar orbit

text: which enables the instrument to observe most of Earth's surface at least once every sixteen days. It is intended to fly in loose formation with a series of other Earth-orbiting satellites known as the Earth Observing System Afternoon Constellation, or the

text: A-train

text: . This coordinated flight formation was intended to enable researchers to correlate OCO data with data acquired by other instruments on other spacecraft. In particular, Earth scientists would like to compare OCO data with nearly simultaneous measurements acquired by the

text: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder

text: (AIRS) instrument aboard NASA's

text: Aqua

text: satellite and ground-based data from the

text: Total Carbon Column Observing Network

text: (TCCON). Alignment with the A-train demands a particularly short

text: launch window

text: of 30 seconds.

text: Walker has been an industry member of the NASA Microgravity Material Science Assessment Task Force, the NASA Space Station Office Quick-is Beautiful/Rapid Response Research Study Group, and the NASA Space Station Operations Task Force. He has been a member of the National Research Council's Space Applications Board. Walker was Faculty Course Advisor and lecturer for the International Space university 1988 summer session. He was a participant in the 1988 Center for Strategic and International Studies civil Space policy study. He served on the AIAA steering committee formulating the strategic plan for NASA's office of Commercial Programs. Walker has served as a founding board member of the Astronauts Memorial Foundation. He was the organizing committee chairman for the 1992 World Space Congress. He has been a national panel member of the NASA/Industry Manned Flight Awareness Program and the NASA/Industry Education Initiative. Walker advised the NASA/Purdue University space life support research center, a NASA/Penn State space commercial development center and a U.S. Department of Education/Ohio State University science education center. He has been a board director of the Challenger Center for Space Science Education. Walker has served as the volunteer chairman of the board of directors of Spacecause, and is past president and board director of the National Space Society. He has also been a board director of the Association of Space Explorers. As an advisor Walker works with commercial space firms Space Adventures, Ltd and Deep Space Industries, Inc., and the Commercial Spaceflight Federation. Walker is a professional engineer registered in California. He has been an expert witness testifying before committees of the U.S. Congress. He has authored several papers and book contributions on the EOS electrophoresis program, space development, commercialization, and space history. Walker has also written columns and articles appearing in national newspapers and numerous other publications.

text: Walker has been an industry member of the NASA Microgravity Material Science Assessment Task Force, the NASA Space Station Office Quick-is Beautiful/Rapid Response Research Study Group, and the NASA Space Station Operations Task Force. He has been a member of the National Research Council's Space Applications Board. Walker was Faculty Course Advisor and lecturer for the International Space university 1988 summer session. He was a participant in the 1988 Center for Strategic and International Studies civil Space policy study. He served on the AIAA steering committee formulating the strategic plan for NASA's office of Commercial Programs. Walker has served as a founding board member of the

text: Astronauts Memorial Foundation

text: . He was the organizing committee chairman for the 1992

text: World Space Congress

text: . He has been a national panel member of the NASA/Industry Manned Flight Awareness Program and the NASA/Industry Education Initiative. Walker advised the NASA/Purdue University space life support research center, a NASA/Penn State space commercial development center and a

text: U.S. Department of Education

text: Ohio State University

text: science education center. He has been a board director of the

entity_name: Challenger Center for Space Science Education

text: Challenger Center for Space Science Education

text: . Walker has served as the volunteer chairman of the board of directors of Spacecause, and is past president and board director of the

text: National Space Society

text: . He has also been a board director of the

text: Association of Space Explorers

text: . As an advisor Walker works with commercial space firms Space Adventures, Ltd and Deep Space Industries, Inc., and the Commercial Spaceflight Federation. Walker is a professional engineer registered in California. He has been an expert witness testifying before committees of the U.S. Congress. He has authored several papers and book contributions on the EOS electrophoresis program, space development, commercialization, and space history. Walker has also written columns and articles appearing in national newspapers and numerous other publications.

text: A number of American space exploration "firsts" were launched from CCAFS, including the first U.S. Earth satellite (1958), first U.S. astronaut (1961), first U.S. astronaut in orbit (1962), first two-man U.S. spacecraft (1965), first U.S. unmanned lunar landing (1966), and first three-man U.S. spacecraft (1968). It was also the launch site for all of the first spacecraft to (separately) fly past each of the planets in the Solar System (1962–1977), the first spacecraft to orbit Mars (1971) and roam its surface (1996), the first American spacecraft to orbit and land on Venus (1978), the first spacecraft to orbit Saturn (2004), and to orbit Mercury (2011), and the first spacecraft to leave the Solar System (1977).

text: A number of American space exploration "firsts" were launched from CCAFS, including

text: the first U.S. Earth satellite

text: first U.S. astronaut

text: first U.S. astronaut in orbit

text: first two-man U.S. spacecraft

text: first U.S. unmanned lunar landing

text: (1966), and

text: first three-man U.S. spacecraft

text: (1968). It was also the launch site for all of the first spacecraft to (separately)

text: fly past each of the planets

text: in the Solar System (1962–1977), the

text: first spacecraft to orbit Mars

text: (1971) and

text: roam its surface

text: (1996), the first

text: American spacecraft to orbit and land on Venus

text: (1978), the

text: first spacecraft to orbit Saturn

text: (2004), and

text: to orbit Mercury

text: (2011), and

text: the first spacecraft to leave the Solar System

text: For Hal, however, this new world is too comfortable, too safe. Earth is no longer home, it is "another, alien planet". Humans themselves have changed, having undergone a procedure called betrization, designed to neutralize all aggressive impulses. Its side effect is an extreme  aversion to risk. Hal mistrusts this approach, seeing it as wrong. In particular, for an astronaut, he cannot agree with the opinion that space travel and space exploration are nothing but a youthful and dangerous adventurism. For Hal, this means that "... they have killed the man in man". He and the other returning astronauts are viewed with mistrust, seen as "resuscitated Neanderthals". They are alienated, outcasts, and subject to social pressure to undertake the betrization. The other choice is to leave Earth again and hope that once they come back, in several centuries, Earth's society is more familiar again.

text: For Hal, however, this new world is too comfortable, too safe. Earth is no longer home, it is "another, alien planet". Humans themselves have changed, having undergone a procedure called betrization, designed to neutralize all aggressive impulses. Its side effect is an extreme  aversion to risk. Hal mistrusts this approach, seeing it as wrong. In particular, for an astronaut, he cannot agree with the opinion that space travel and space exploration are nothing but a youthful and dangerous adventurism. For Hal, this means that "... they have killed the man in man". He and the other returning astronauts are viewed with mistrust, seen as "resuscitated

text: Neanderthal

text: s". They are alienated, outcasts, and subject to social pressure to undertake the betrization. The other choice is to leave Earth again and hope that once they come back, in several centuries, Earth's society is more familiar again.

text: IKONOS was originated under the Lockheed Corporation as the Commercial Remote Sensing System (CRSS) satellite. In April 1994 Lockheed was granted one of the first licenses from the U.S. Department of Commerce for commercial satellite high-resolution imagery. On 25 October 1995 partner company Space Imaging received a license from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to transmit telemetry from the satellite in the eight-gigahertz Earth Exploration Satellite Services band. Prior to launch, Space Imaging changed the name of the satellite system to IKONOS. The name comes from the Greek word for "image".

text: IKONOS was originated under the

text: Lockheed Corporation

text: as the Commercial Remote Sensing System (CRSS) satellite. In April 1994 Lockheed was granted one of the first licenses from the U.S. Department of Commerce for commercial satellite high-resolution imagery. On 25 October 1995 partner company Space Imaging received a license from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to transmit telemetry from the satellite in the eight-gigahertz Earth Exploration Satellite Services band. Prior to launch, Space Imaging changed the name of the satellite system to IKONOS. The name comes from the

text: Greek

text: word for "image".

text: The X-type asteroid is also classified as a P-type by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1–3.2 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,587 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. First identified as  at Crimea-Simeis in 1914, while the asteroid's Liliths first used observation was made at Konkoly Observatory in 1934, so its observation arc begins 7 years after its official discovery observation.

text: The

text: X-type

text: asteroid is also classified as a

text: P-type

text: by the

text: NEOWISE

text: mission of NASA's space-based

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: . The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1–3.2

text: AU

text: once every 4 years and 4 months (1,587 days). Its orbit has an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.20 and an

text: inclination

text: of 6

text: with respect to the

text: ecliptic

text: . First identified as  at

text: Crimea-Simeis

text: in 1914, while the asteroid's Liliths first used observation was made at

text: Konkoly Observatory

text: in 1934, so its

text: observation arc

text: begins 7 years after its official discovery observation.

text: Michael Najjar's "outer space" work series deals with the latest developments in space exploration and the way they will shape our future life on Earth, in Earth’s near orbit and on other planets.The cultural dimension represented by emergent cutting-edge space technologies is very much at the center of Najjars´s work – in terms of the deeper knowledge these new technologies will impart about the universe, their impact on space travel, and the way they will influence and shape our lives and work on Earth. This ongoing series started in 2011 with the final launch of the American Space Shuttle Atlantis and currently comprises 24 photographic artworks and 4 video works. The artist has traveled to the world´s most important spaceports like the Kennedy Space Center, Baikonour Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan and the Guiana Space Centre near Kourou in French Guiana. He has met with numerous scientists, engineers and astronauts, and visited space laboratories around the globe constructing new spacecrafts, satellites and telescopes. He traveled to the Atacama Desert in Chile to photograph the world´s most powerful telescopes located at sites across high altitude plateaus in the Andes. His collaboration with leading scientists and space agencies has given him privileged access to locations which are usually unknown to and unseen by the public. The present series blends documentary and fictive scenarios to create visionary enactments of current and future space exploration.

text: Sputnik 41 was originally intended to be built aboard Mir, based on a satellite launched in October 1997 as a backup for Sputnik 40. That spacecraft had been stored aboard the space station for a year after the successful deployment of Sputnik 40, and it was intended that it would be fitted with upgraded electronics and deployed. By the time of launch, the project had grown to involve a complete satellite, and the Sputnik 40 backup was never deployed.

text: Sputnik 41 was originally intended to be built aboard Mir, based on a satellite launched in October 1997 as a backup for

text: Sputnik 40

text: . That spacecraft had been stored aboard the space station for a year after the successful deployment of Sputnik 40, and it was intended that it would be fitted with upgraded electronics and deployed. By the time of launch, the project had grown to involve a complete satellite, and the Sputnik 40 backup was never deployed.

text: Introduction to Outer Space is a pamphlet about space exploration edited by the White House the 26 March 1958.  At first, a report of the President's Science Advisory Committee presided by Dr James R. Killian in the aftermath of the Sputnik 1 launch, Dwight D. Eisenhower found it so informative and interesting that he decided to make it available to everybody for 15 cents.   It presents in simple terms to the layman the future of space exploration.

text: Introduction to Outer Space is a pamphlet about

text: space exploration

text: edited by the

text: White House

text: the 26 March 1958.  At first, a report of the

text: President's Science Advisory Committee

text: presided by Dr

text: James R. Killian

text: in the aftermath of the

text: Sputnik 1

text: launch,

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: found it so informative and interesting that he decided to make it available to everybody for 15 cents.   It presents in simple terms to the layman the future of

text: space exploration

text: The sixth story, "Come Live With Me," is one of the last stories written by Tiptree. It is the only story in this collection regarding the far future and deep space. It's a quick, simple tale of a deep-space exploration crew's encounter with a mind-controlling lily, mainly from the plant's perspective. The plant has never encountered a being more intelligent than a space beaver, so meeting humans and their egos is a big change.

text: The sixth story, "Come Live With Me," is one of the last stories written by Tiptree. It is the only story in this collection regarding the far future and deep space. It's a quick, simple tale of a

text: deep-space exploration

text: crew's encounter with a

text: mind-controlling

text: lily

text: , mainly from the plant's perspective. The plant has never encountered a being more intelligent than a space

text: beaver

text: , so meeting humans and their

text: egos

text: is a big change.

text: Sputnik (Спутник), a Russian word meaning "satellite" or literally "fellow traveler", is a name applied to certain spacecraft launched under the Soviet space program. "Sputnik 1", "Sputnik 2" and "Sputnik 3" were the official Soviet names of those objects, while the remaining designations in the series ("Sputnik 4" and so on) were not official names, but were names applied in the West, to objects whose original Soviet names may not have been known at the time.

text: Sputnik (Спутник), a

text: Russian

text: word meaning "satellite" or literally "fellow traveler", is a name applied to certain

text: spacecraft

text: launched under the

text: Soviet space program

text: Sputnik 1

text: Sputnik 2

text: " and "

text: Sputnik 3

text: " were the official Soviet names of those objects, while the remaining designations in the series ("Sputnik 4" and so on) were not official names, but were names applied in the West, to objects whose original Soviet names may not have been known at the time.

text: The first Lego Space sets began an era of more complicated and less colorful designs with a heavy emphasis on space exploration. Much of the early Space sets consisted of blue, grey, white, and transparent yellow. Designs began using more stacked plates instead of stacked bricks in order to make sleeker spaceship profiles. In its earliest stages, Space sets consisted only of ships and basic wheeled vehicles. But as science-fiction designs grew, the basic pattern of ground-buggies, walking robots, small and large spaceships, and bases developed. With the limited parts selection at the time, sets were still fairly simplistic with designs including: minifigure pilots steering their spacecraft with steering wheels, rocket engines could be simple transparent cones affixed to fence pieces, and visor-less helmets and often no in-flight pilot protection other than a spacesuit. The first minifigures released in this theme in 1978 wore either a red or white spacesuit with yellow spacemen debuting a year later. By the mid-1980s, the color palette had shifted to predominantly white with transparent blue theme, later used extensively in the Futuron theme, and two new colors of spacemen were introduced in blue and black uniforms.

text: The first Lego Space sets began an era of more complicated and less colorful designs with a heavy emphasis on space exploration. Much of the early Space sets consisted of blue, grey, white, and transparent yellow. Designs began using more stacked plates instead of stacked bricks in order to make sleeker spaceship profiles. In its earliest stages, Space sets consisted only of ships and basic wheeled vehicles. But as science-fiction designs grew, the basic pattern of ground-buggies, walking robots, small and large spaceships, and bases developed. With the limited parts selection at the time, sets were still fairly simplistic with designs including: minifigure pilots steering their spacecraft with

text: steering wheel

text: s,

text: rocket engines

text: could be simple transparent cones affixed to fence pieces, and

text: visor

text: -less

text: helmet

text: s and often no in-flight pilot protection other than a spacesuit. The first minifigures released in this theme in 1978 wore either a red or white spacesuit with yellow spacemen debuting a year later. By the mid-1980s, the color palette had shifted to predominantly white with transparent blue theme, later used extensively in the Futuron theme, and two new colors of spacemen were introduced in blue and black uniforms.

text: The modern, balanced approach to exploring an extraterrestrial destination involves several phases of exploration, each of which needs to produce rationale for progressing to the next phase.  The phase immediately preceding human exploration can be described as anthropocentric sensing, that is, sensing designed to give humans as realistic a feeling as possible of actually exploring in person.  More, the line between a human system and a robotic system in space is not always going to be clear.  As a general rule, the more formidable the environment, the more essential robotic technology is.  Robotic systems can be broadly considered part of space architecture when their purpose is to facilitate the habitation of space or extend the range of the physiological senses into space.

text: The modern, balanced approach to exploring an extraterrestrial destination involves several phases of exploration, each of which needs to produce rationale for progressing to the next phase.  The phase immediately preceding human exploration can be described as anthropocentric sensing, that is, sensing designed to give humans as realistic a feeling as possible of actually exploring in person.  More, the line between a human system and a robotic system in space is not always going to be clear.  As a general rule, the more formidable the environment, the more essential robotic technology is.  Robotic systems can be broadly considered part of space architecture when their purpose is to facilitate the habitation of space or extend the range of the physiological

text: senses

text: into space.

text: The research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as NASA and Roscosmos, is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits (such as NASA spin-offs), generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program. It is also argued that space exploration would lead to the extraction of resources on other planets and especially asteroids, which contain billions of dollars worth of minerals and metals. Such expeditions could generate a lot of revenue. As well, it has been argued that space exploration programs help inspire youth to study in science and engineering.

text: The research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as

text: NASA

text: and

text: Roscosmos

text: , is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits (such as

text: NASA spin-off

text: s), generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program. It is also argued that space exploration would lead to the extraction of resources on other planets and especially asteroids, which contain billions of dollars worth of minerals and metals. Such expeditions could generate a lot of revenue. As well, it has been argued that space exploration programs help inspire youth to study in science and engineering.

text: The Jules Verne Festival traditionally includes an awards ceremony during which selected explorers, environmentalists, filmmakers and movie stars are presented with the Jules Verne Award. Among others, the Jules Verne Award was given to Gérard Depardieu, Catherine Deneuve, Jean-Pierre Jeunet, Charlotte Rampling, Claude Lelouch, Johnny Depp, Christopher Lee, Patrick Stewart, Mark Hamill, Buzz Aldrin, William Shatner, Tippi Hedren, Stan Lee, Ray Bradbury, Ted Turner, Richard Dean Anderson, Larry Hagman, Christopher Reeve, Roy E. Disney, Tony Curtis, Ernest Borgnine, Steve McQueen, TV series Heroes, Lost, Stargate SG1 and Battlestar Galactica cast and crew, and has celebrated movie classics such as Blade Runner, Star Trek, Superman, Forbidden Planet, Alfred Hitchcock’s The Birds, 2001: A Space Odyssey, Planet of the Apes, Some Like It Hot and The Wild Bunch.

text: The Jules Verne Festival traditionally includes an awards ceremony during which selected explorers, environmentalists, filmmakers and movie stars are presented with the

text: Jules Verne Award

text: . Among others, the

text: Jules Verne Award

text: was given to

text: Gérard Depardieu

text: Catherine Deneuve

text: Jean-Pierre Jeunet

text: Charlotte Rampling

text: Claude Lelouch

text: Johnny Depp

text: Christopher Lee

text: Patrick Stewart

text: Mark Hamill

text: Buzz Aldrin

text: William Shatner

text: Tippi Hedren

text: Stan Lee

text: Ray Bradbury

text: Ted Turner

text: Richard Dean Anderson

text: Larry Hagman

text: Christopher Reeve

text: Roy E. Disney

text: Tony Curtis

text: Ernest Borgnine

text: Steve McQueen

text: , TV series

text: Heroes

text: Lost

text: Stargate SG1

text: and

text: Battlestar Galactica

text: cast and crew, and has celebrated movie classics such as

text: Blade Runner

text: Star Trek

text: Superman

text: Forbidden Planet

text: , Alfred Hitchcock’s

text: The Birds

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey

text: Planet of the Apes

text: Some Like It Hot

text: and

text: The Wild Bunch

text: The overlapping atomic orbitals can differ. The two types of overlapping orbitals are sigma and pi.  Sigma bonds occur when the orbitals of two shared electrons overlap head-to-head. Pi bonds occur when two orbitals overlap when they are parallel.  For example, a bond between two s-orbital electrons is a sigma bond, because two spheres are always coaxial. In terms of bond order, single bonds have one sigma bond, double bonds consist of one sigma bond and one pi bond, and triple bonds contain one sigma bond and two pi bonds. However, the atomic orbitals for bonding may be hybrids. Often, the bonding atomic orbitals have a character of several possible types of orbitals. The methods to get an atomic orbital with the proper character for the bonding is called hybridization.

text: The overlapping atomic orbitals can differ. The two types of overlapping orbitals are sigma and pi.

text: Sigma bond

text: s occur when the orbitals of two shared electrons overlap head-to-head.

text: Pi bond

text: s occur when two orbitals overlap when they are parallel.  For example, a bond between two s-orbital electrons is a sigma bond, because two spheres are always coaxial. In terms of bond order, single bonds have one sigma bond, double bonds consist of one sigma bond and one pi bond, and triple bonds contain one sigma bond and two pi bonds. However, the atomic orbitals for bonding may be hybrids. Often, the bonding atomic orbitals have a character of several possible types of orbitals. The methods to get an atomic orbital with the proper character for the bonding is called

text: hybridization

text: Planet Earth explores geoscience and how discoveries of the early and mid-1980s were revolutionizing mankind's understanding of the Earth's past, present, and future. It also highlights scientific discoveries not yet fully understood and still under study in the mid-1980s. The series explores the Earth's origins, history, and structure; the forces that operate continually to alter its surface; its oceans; its climate; its natural resources; its biosphere and the effects of life on the physical world; its relationship to the Sun and other bodies in the solar system; and its possible future in the face of pressures the growing human population places on the natural world.

text: Planet Earth explores

text: geoscience

text: and how discoveries of the early and mid-1980s were revolutionizing mankind's understanding of the Earth's past, present, and future. It also highlights scientific discoveries not yet fully understood and still under study in the mid-1980s. The series explores the Earth's origins, history, and structure; the forces that operate continually to alter its surface; its oceans; its climate; its

text: natural resources

text: ; its

text: biosphere

text: and the effects of life on the physical world; its relationship to the

text: Sun

text: and other bodies in the

text: solar system

text: ; and its possible future in the face of pressures the growing human population places on the natural world.

text: From the 2013 film Gravity, space shuttle Explorer is destroyed by an out of control satellite, in the early portion of the film.

text: From the 2013 film

text: Gravity

text: , space shuttle

text: Explorer

text: is destroyed by an out of control satellite, in the early portion of the film.

text: Songs or other musical forms influenced by the concept of outer space have appeared in music throughout history, both in instrumental and vocal pieces with lyrics. As early as Ancient Greece, Pythagoras believed in something called the "harmony of the spheres". He believed that since planets and the stars all moved in the universe according to mathematical equations that these mathematical equations could be translated into musical notes and thus produce a symphony.  This idea was explored further throughout Western history under the theories of Musica universalis. Some more recent and widely different examples are The Planets by Gustav Holst, and the song "Space Oddity" by David Bowie. Outer space also appears as a theme in "space age" retro pop music, such as Stereolab's Space-Age Bachelor Pad Music.

text: Songs or other musical forms influenced by the concept of outer space have appeared in music throughout history, both in instrumental and vocal pieces with lyrics. As early as

text: Ancient Greece

text: Pythagoras

text: believed in something called the "

text: harmony of the spheres

text: ". He believed that since planets and the stars all moved in the universe according to mathematical equations that these mathematical equations could be translated into musical notes and thus produce a symphony.  This idea was explored further throughout Western history under the theories of

text: Musica universalis

text: . Some more recent and widely different examples are

text: The Planets

text: by

text: Gustav Holst

text: , and the song "

text: Space Oddity

text: " by

text: David Bowie

text: . Outer space also appears as a theme in "

text: space age

text: " retro pop music, such as

text: Stereolab

text: 's

text: Space-Age Bachelor Pad Music

text: ESA’s UK facility, ECSAT, has been developing steadily since 2008, following the UK government’s decision to increase its contribution to ESA. Named after ESA’s British first Director General, Roy Gibson, ECSAT’s new building hosts 100+ jobs including teams in telecommunications and integrated applications. Special emphasis is put on the development of new markets for satellite-based services and applications. In addition, new satellite, ground infrastructure and product developments are being initiated through original schemes of public–private partnerships with world-class operators. The building also houses the Earth Observation Climate Office, Science and Exploration teams and Technology and Quality Management teams supporting ESA research and development programmes in the UK, focusing on ‘game-changing’ technologies and capabilities.  The new ECSAT building was opened in July 2015 by Jo Johnson, Minister for Universities & Science.

text: This video game was originally made by Infogrames for various home platforms in 1987 and was converted to MS-DOS by Probe Entertainment in 1989. The game's storyline is based loosely on the plot of the Destination Moon and Explorers on the Moon comics from the series. The object of the game is to land on the moon, while avoiding asteroids and thwarting enemies within the rocket.

text: This video game was originally made by

text: Infogrames

text: for various home platforms in 1987 and was converted to MS-DOS by

text: Probe Entertainment

text: in 1989. The game's storyline is based loosely on the plot of the Destination Moon and Explorers on the Moon comics from the series. The object of the game is to land on the moon, while avoiding asteroids and thwarting enemies within the rocket.

text: The game is played on a galactic map and specific planet maps. Planet maps use a hexa-grid system for movement. Individual units and buildings take up a single grid space. Several menus handle diplomacy, chat, and documentation. In the game, the player controls a feudal lord of a noble house amongst the ruins of a galactic empire. The player must battle other noble houses and rally enough support to be crowned Emperor of the galaxy. The player can start as one of five houses; each has its own advantages and disadvantages. During game setup, the player can customize their house, taking some negative traits such as insanity in exchange for more positive traits, like having all the player's units start out better trained. Each house starts on its respective home planet, and houses starting on temperate planets have an early-game advantage over houses that start on frozen or jungle planets. There are several non-player groups in the game, including the Symbiots, Vau, the Guild, and the Church. In total, there are forty-three planets that can be explored, colonized, and fought over.

text: The game is played on a galactic map and specific planet maps. Planet maps use a hexa-grid system for movement. Individual units and buildings take up a single grid space. Several menus handle diplomacy, chat, and documentation. In the game, the player controls a feudal lord of a noble house amongst the ruins of a galactic

text: empire

text: . The player must battle other noble houses and rally enough support to be crowned Emperor of the

text: galaxy

text: . The player can start as one of five houses; each has its own advantages and disadvantages. During game setup, the player can customize their house, taking some negative traits such as

text: insanity

text: in exchange for more positive traits, like having all the player's units start out better trained. Each house starts on its respective home planet, and houses starting on temperate planets have an early-game advantage over houses that start on frozen or

text: jungle

text: planets. There are several non-player groups in the game, including the Symbiots, Vau, the Guild, and the Church. In total, there are forty-three planets that can be explored, colonized, and fought over.

text: The Earth Resources Observation Satellite (EROS) is a series of commercial observation satellites. The first satellite, the EROS A, was launched on December 5, 2000 from Svobodny Launch Complex using a Russian Start-1. A second satellite, the EROS B, was launched on April 25, 2006.

text: The Earth Resources Observation Satellite (EROS) is a series of commercial

text: observation satellites

text: . The first satellite, the

text: EROS A

text: , was launched on December 5, 2000 from

text: Svobodny Launch Complex

text: using a Russian

text: . A second satellite, the

text: EROS B

text: , was launched on April 25, 2006.

text: Fast Infrared Exoplanet Spectroscopy Survey Explorer  (FINESSE) is a proposed NASA mission and space observatory in the explorer program consisting of a space telescope focused on studying the atmospheres of over 200 planets outside the Solar System  with the goal of gaining understanding of the processes responsible for their composition, and how the Solar System fits into the larger family of planets.

text: Fast Infrared Exoplanet Spectroscopy Survey Explorer  (FINESSE) is a proposed

text: NASA

text: mission and

text: space observatory

text: in the

text: explorer program

text: consisting of a space telescope focused on studying the atmospheres of over 200

text: planets outside the Solar System

text: with the goal of gaining understanding of the processes responsible for their composition, and how the Solar System fits into the larger family of planets.

text: A graveyard orbit, also called a junk orbit or disposal orbit, is an orbit that lies away from common operational orbits, typically a supersynchronous orbit well above synchronous orbit. Satellites are moved into such orbits at the end of their operational life to reduce the probability of colliding with operational spacecraft or generating space debris.

text: A graveyard orbit, also called a junk orbit or disposal orbit, is an

text: orbit

text: that lies away from common operational orbits, typically a

text: supersynchronous orbit

text: well above

text: synchronous orbit

text: . Satellites are moved into such orbits at the end of their

text: operational life

text: to reduce the probability of colliding with operational

text: spacecraft

text: or generating

text: space debris

text: At the end of the game, the Rabbids are still not able to reach the moon, even after gathering almost everything from the city.  The humans bombard the pile with time-delay bombs which explode on the pile, causing the pile to fly up into space.  At the result of that, the XL junk falls from the sky and the humans panic.  After all of the stuff has stopped falling, the humans are over-joyed to have all of their stuff back.  In space, the Rabbids celebrate their accomplishment of finally reaching the moon, albeit  caught in the moon's gravitational orbit.

text: In the early decades of the Space Age—1950s–2000s—the government space agencies of the Soviet Union and United States pioneered space technology augmented by collaboration with affiliated design bureaus in the USSR and contracts with commercial companies in the US. All rocket designs were built explicitly for government purposes. The European Space Agency was formed in 1975, largely following the same model of space technology development, and other national space agencies followed suit.

text: In the early decades of the

text: Space Age

text: —1950s–2000s—the government

text: space agencies

text: of the

text: Soviet Union

text: and

text: United States

text: pioneered

text: space technology

text: augmented by collaboration with affiliated

text: design bureau

text: s in the USSR and contracts with commercial companies in the US. All rocket designs were built explicitly for government purposes. The

text: European Space Agency

text: was formed in 1975, largely following the same model of space technology development, and other

text: national space agencies

text: followed suit.

text: The Cosmosphere museum begins with the earliest experiments in rocketry during the World War II era, explores through the Space Race and Cold War, and continues through modern times with the Space Shuttle and International Space Station, as well as SpaceShipOne and commercial spaceflight.

text: The Cosmosphere museum begins with the earliest experiments in rocketry during the

text: World War II

text: era, explores through the

text: Space Race

text: and

text: Cold War

text: , and continues through modern times with the

text: Space Shuttle

text: and

text: International Space Station

text: , as well as

text: SpaceShipOne

text: and

text: commercial spaceflight

text: In 2006, as part of the proposed Constellation Program, NASA unveiled plans to construct two Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicles, the Ares I and Ares V, which would use some existing Space Shuttle and Saturn V hardware and infrastructure. The two rockets were intended to increase safety by specializing each vehicle for different tasks, Ares I for crew launches and Ares V for cargo launches. The original design of the heavy-lift Ares V, named in homage to the Saturn V, was  in height and featured a core stage based on the Space Shuttle External Tank, with a diameter of . It was to be powered by five Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) and two five-segment Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs). As the design evolved, the SSMEs were replaced with five RS-68 engines, the same engines used on the Delta IV. The switch from the SSME to the RS-68 was intended to reduce cost, the RS-68 being cheaper, simpler to manufacture, and more powerful than the SSME, though the lower efficiency of the RS-68 required an increase in core stage diameter to , the same diameter as the Saturn V's S-IC and S-II stages.

text: In 2006, as part of the proposed

text: Constellation Program

text: , NASA unveiled plans to construct two

text: Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle

text: s, the

text: Ares I

text: and

text: Ares V

text: , which would use some existing Space Shuttle and Saturn V hardware and infrastructure. The two rockets were intended to increase safety by

text: specializing

text: each vehicle for different tasks, Ares I for crew launches and Ares V for cargo launches. The original design of the heavy-lift Ares V, named in homage to the Saturn V, was  in height and featured a core stage based on the Space Shuttle External Tank, with a diameter of . It was to be powered by five

text: Space Shuttle Main Engine

text: s (SSMEs) and two five-segment

text: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

text: s (SRBs). As the design evolved, the SSMEs were replaced with five

text: engines, the same engines used on the

text: Delta IV

text: . The switch from the SSME to the RS-68 was intended to reduce cost, the RS-68 being cheaper, simpler to manufacture, and more powerful than the SSME, though the lower

text: efficiency

text: of the RS-68 required an increase in core stage diameter to , the same diameter as the Saturn V's S-IC and S-II stages.

text: The experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a one-man space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. Reacting to loss of national prestige and security fears caused by early leads in space exploration by the Soviet Union, in 1961 President John F. Kennedy proposed the ambitious goal "of landing a man on the Moon by the end of [the 1960s], and returning him safely to the Earth." This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, and NASA planned even more ambitious activities leading to a manned mission to Mars. However, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, and a semi-reusable Earth orbital shuttle. In the 1990s, funding was approved for NASA to develop a permanent Earth orbital space station in cooperation with the international community, which now included the former rival, post-Soviet Russia. To date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude, .

text: The experimental

text: rocket-powered aircraft

text: programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a one-man

text: space capsule

text: program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. Reacting to loss of national prestige and

text: security

text: fears caused by early leads in space exploration by the

text: Soviet Union

text: , in 1961 President

text: John F. Kennedy

text: proposed the ambitious goal "of landing a man on the Moon by the end of [the 1960s], and returning him safely to the Earth." This goal was met in 1969 by the

text: Apollo program

text: , and NASA planned even more ambitious activities leading to a

text: manned mission to Mars

text: . However, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, and a semi-reusable Earth orbital shuttle. In the 1990s, funding was approved for NASA to develop a permanent Earth orbital

text: space station

text: in cooperation with the international community, which now included the former rival, post-Soviet

text: Russia

text: . To date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen

text: rocket flights above the

text: USAF

text: definition of spaceflight altitude, .

text: After minor skirmishes along the way, including a battle with a fellow culprit-seeker, the protagonists reaches Eientei, the mansion of the perpetrator. Once inside, they find that the mansion is guarded by the moon rabbit Reisen Udongein Inaba, whose ability can cause disorientation. From here, the team may either choose the path that leads to the fake moon conjured by Eirin Yagokoro, or the real moon, where the moon princess Kaguya Houraisan is hiding. It is then realized that the moon was swapped in order to sever the link between the earth and the moon to hide Kaguya from the lunar emissaries who seek to bring her back. The team then accepts Kaguya's "Five Impossible Requests" and fight until daybreak.

text: After minor skirmishes along the way, including a battle with a fellow culprit-seeker, the protagonists reaches Eientei, the mansion of the perpetrator. Once inside, they find that the mansion is guarded by the

text: moon rabbit

text: Reisen Udongein Inaba

text: , whose ability can cause disorientation. From here, the team may either choose the path that leads to the fake moon conjured by

text: Eirin Yagokoro

text: , or the real moon, where the moon princess

text: Kaguya Houraisan

text: is hiding. It is then realized that the moon was swapped in order to sever the link between the earth and the moon to hide Kaguya from the lunar emissaries who seek to bring her back. The team then accepts Kaguya's "Five Impossible Requests" and fight until daybreak.

text: The Planetary Report is a quarterly magazine published by the Planetary Society, featuring articles and photos of Solar System exploration, planetary missions, spacefaring nations, intrepid explorers, planetary science controversies and the latest findings in space exploration and related subjects.

text: The Planetary Report is a quarterly

text: magazine

text: published by the

text: Planetary Society

text: , featuring articles and photos of

entity_name: Discovery and exploration of the Solar System

text: Solar System exploration

text: planet

text: ary

text: mission

text: s, spacefaring nations, intrepid explorers,

text: planetary science

text: controversies and the latest findings in space exploration and related subjects.

text: The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) was a joint space mission between NASA and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) designed to monitor and study tropical rainfall. The term refers to both the mission itself and the satellite that the mission used to collect data. TRMM was part of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth, a long-term, coordinated research effort to study the Earth as a global system. The satellite was launched on November 27, 1997 from the Tanegashima Space Center in Tanegashima, Japan.

text: The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) was a joint

text: space mission

text: between

text: NASA

text: and the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA) designed to monitor and study

text: tropical

text: rainfall

text: . The term refers to both the mission itself and the

text: satellite

text: that the mission used to collect data. TRMM was part of NASA's

text: Mission to Planet Earth

text: , a long-term, coordinated research effort to study the

text: Earth

text: as a global system. The satellite was launched on November 27, 1997 from the

text: Tanegashima Space Center

text: in

text: Tanegashima

text: Japan

text: Company President/CEO Alan Stern has announced in briefing papers that the company had commenced feasibility studies into commercial missions to the Moon from early 2010 and formed the company in the third quarter of that year.  Since then, the company has been building its business models and soliciting investment.   Currently, the company has budgeted between $7 and $8 billion to achieve their objective, followed by around $1.5 billion fee per each "two-human lunar surface mission". Golden Spike will follow a model like that of the Russian spaceflight industry in the 1980s and '90s. The company said it can cut costs by partnering with other aerospace companies and using existing rockets or rockets already in development, needing to only build a lunar lander and a specialized spacesuit for astronauts for the Moon. Stern says they expect to sign up as many as 15 to 20 countries or foreign space agencies as well as companies and individuals who want to explore the Moon for science or adventure.  They have identified a mission profile, including various launch options as well as trajectory and spacecraft for landing on the Moon. It involves two sets of two launches from Earth to Earth orbit: one set for the lander and the propulsion unit to send it to Moon orbit, and the other set for the crew vehicle and the propulsion unit to send it to Moon orbit. The two propusion units are disposed of. In Moon orbit the lander and the crew vehicle have a rendez-vous, and the crew move to the lander. They land and return to the crew vehicle, and return to Earth in the crew vehicle.

text: Space programs such as the Explorer satellite were proposed by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), but Eisenhower, seeking to avoid giving the US space program the militaristic image Americans had of the Soviet program, had rejected Explorer in favor of the Vanguard, but after numerous embarrassing Vanguard failures, was forced to give the go-ahead to the Army's launch

text: Space programs such as the

text: Explorer

text: satellite were proposed by the

text: Army Ballistic Missile Agency

text: (ABMA), but Eisenhower, seeking to avoid giving the US space program the militaristic image Americans had of the Soviet program, had rejected Explorer in favor of the Vanguard, but after numerous embarrassing Vanguard failures, was forced to give the go-ahead to the Army's launch

text: Space colonization is a step beyond space exploration, and implies the permanent or long-term presence of humans in an environment outside Earth. Colonization of space is claimed to be the best way to ensure the survival of humans as a species. Other reasons for colonizing space include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes, and sheer curiosity. Venus is the second largest terrestrial planet and Earth's closest neighbor, which makes it a potential target.

text: Space colonization is a step beyond

text: space exploration

text: , and implies the permanent or long-term presence of humans in an environment outside

text: Earth

text: . Colonization of space is claimed to be

text: the best way to ensure the survival

text: of

text: humans

text: as a species. Other reasons for colonizing space include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes, and sheer curiosity. Venus is the second largest

text: terrestrial planet

text: and Earth's closest neighbor, which makes it a potential target.

text: A second biography of Parsons was published in 2005 through Weidenfeld & Nicolson with the title Strange Angel: The Otherworldly Life of Rocket Scientist John Whiteside Parsons; it was written by George Pendle, who described Parsons as "the Che Guevara of occultism" and said that although Parsons "would not live to see his dream of space travel come true, he was essential to making it a reality." Pendle considered that the cultural stigma attached to Parsons' occultism was the primary cause of his low public profile, noting that "Like many scientific mavericks, Parsons was eventually discarded by the establishment once he had served his purpose." It was this unorthodox mindset,  creatively facilitated by his science fiction fandom and "willingness to believe in magic's efficacy",  Pendle argued, "that allowed him to break scientific barriers previously thought to be indestructible"—commenting that Parsons "saw both space and magic as ways of exploring these new frontiers—one breaking free from Earth literally and metaphysically."

text: A second biography of Parsons was published in 2005 through

text: Weidenfeld & Nicolson

text: with the title Strange Angel: The Otherworldly Life of Rocket Scientist John Whiteside Parsons; it was written by George Pendle, who described Parsons as "the

text: Che Guevara

text: of occultism" and said that although Parsons "would not live to see his dream of space travel come true, he was essential to making it a reality." Pendle considered that the cultural stigma attached to Parsons' occultism was the primary cause of his low public profile, noting that "Like many scientific mavericks, Parsons was eventually discarded by the establishment once he had served his purpose." It was this unorthodox mindset,  creatively facilitated by his science fiction fandom and "willingness to believe in magic's efficacy",  Pendle argued, "that allowed him to break scientific barriers previously thought to be indestructible"—commenting that Parsons "saw both space and magic as ways of exploring these new frontiers—one breaking free from Earth literally and metaphysically."

text: Samus lands on the surface of Zebes and explores the planet, traveling through the planet's caverns. She eventually comes across Kraid, an ally of the Space Pirates, and Ridley, the Space Pirates' commander, and defeats them both. Along the way, Samus finds and destroys Mother Brain. However, while Samus leaves the planet in her gunship, it is attacked by Space Pirates, causing it to crash back onto Zebes, near the Space Pirate Mothership. Exploring the Mothership, Samus eventually reaches the Mecha Ridley, a mechanized form of Ridley. After defeating it, Samus escapes the planet using one of the Space Pirate's shuttles, while the Mothership self-destructs.

text: Samus lands on the surface of Zebes and explores the planet, traveling through the planet's caverns. She eventually comes across Kraid, an ally of the Space Pirates, and Ridley, the Space Pirates' commander, and defeats them both. Along the way, Samus finds and destroys Mother Brain. However, while Samus leaves the planet in her

text: gunship

text: , it is attacked by Space Pirates, causing it to crash back onto Zebes, near the Space Pirate

text: Mothership

text: . Exploring the Mothership, Samus eventually reaches the Mecha Ridley, a mechanized form of Ridley. After defeating it, Samus escapes the planet using one of the Space Pirate's shuttles, while the Mothership

text: self-destruct

text: s.

text: This exhibition was a cooperation with DLR. It showed large satellite images of the earth and various objects to do with space exploration.

text: This exhibition was a cooperation with

text: DLR

text: . It showed large satellite images of the earth and various objects to do with space exploration.

text: The Space Shuttle Atlantis (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV‑104) is a Space Shuttle orbiter belonging to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the spaceflight and space exploration agency of the United States. Constructed by the Rockwell International company in Southern California and delivered to the Kennedy Space Center in Eastern Florida in April 1985, Atlantis is the fourth operational and the second-to-last Space Shuttle built. Its maiden flight was STS-51-J from 3 to 7 October 1985.

text: The Space Shuttle Atlantis (

text: Orbiter Vehicle Designation

text: : OV‑104) is a

text: Space Shuttle orbiter

text: belonging to the

text: National Aeronautics and Space Administration

text: (NASA), the

text: spaceflight

text: and

text: space exploration

text: agency of the United States. Constructed by the

text: Rockwell International

text: company in

text: Southern California

text: and delivered to the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: in Eastern

text: Florida

text: in April 1985, Atlantis is the fourth operational and the second-to-last Space Shuttle built. Its maiden flight was

text: from 3 to 7 October 1985.

text: Development of technologies will result in technical solutions that improve thrust levels, Isp, power, specific mass, (or specific power), volume, system mass, system complexity, operational complexity, commonality with other spacecraft systems, manufacturability, durability, and cost. These types of improvements will yield decreased transit times, increased payload mass, safer spacecraft, and decreased costs. In some instances, development of technologies within this TA will result in mission- enabling breakthroughs that will revolutionize space exploration. There is no single propulsion technology that will benefit all missions or mission types. The requirements for in-space propulsion vary widely due according to their intended application. The described technologies should support everything from small satellites and robotic deep space exploration to space stations and human missions to Mars applications.

text: Development of technologies will result in technical solutions that improve thrust levels, Isp, power,

text: specific mass

text: , (or

text: specific power

text: ), volume, system mass, system complexity, operational complexity, commonality with other spacecraft systems, manufacturability, durability, and cost. These types of improvements will yield decreased transit times, increased payload mass, safer spacecraft, and decreased costs. In some instances, development of technologies within this TA will result in mission- enabling breakthroughs that will revolutionize space exploration. There is no single propulsion technology that will benefit all missions or mission types. The requirements for in-space propulsion vary widely due according to their intended application. The described technologies should support everything from small

text: satellite

text: s and

text: robotic deep space exploration

text: to

text: space stations

text: and

text: human missions to Mars applications

text: Keats introduced four new projects in 2010. In January he created a pinhole camera intended to take a single 100-year-long exposure. Printed in Good Magazine, the simple box camera was designed to be cut out, folded, and glued together, and then left to take a picture which the magazine promised to publish in a "special folio" as part of the January 2110 issue. In February, Keats expanded his filmmaking for plants into a new genre. Observing that plants aren't mobile, he produced a travel documentary – showing footage of Italian skies – which he screened for an audience of ficus and palm trees at the AC Institute in New York City through early March, and later in the year presented to an audience of mixed species, with musical accompaniment by the composer Theresa Wong, at the Berkeley Art Museum in California. He also produced an online version of the movie for viewing by plants at home, posted by Wired News Following an AFP wire story, news of the travel documentaries was reported worldwide, though not in Italy. Keats launched an alternative space agency, the Local Air and Space Administration (LASA), in October. Headquartered at California State University, Chico, the organization claimed to be taking on the exploratory role abandoned by NASA, and announced simultaneous missions to the Moon and Mars. Rather than building rockets, LASA amassed lunar and martian terrain locally in California, by pulverizing meteorites. The first LASA astronauts were potatoes grown in water mineralized with lunar anorthosite and martian shergottite, exploring the Moon and Mars by osmosis, according to Keats, who further argued that the minerals they absorbed over their month-long missions made them "alien hybrids". LASA also entered the space tourism business, offering humans the opportunity to explore the Moon and Mars by buying and drinking bottled lunar and martian mineral waters at an "exotourism bureau" in San Francisco. At the same time that he was managing the Local Air & Space Administration, Keats started independently to produce pornography for God. The source for his pornography was the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) which had just begun to replicate Big Bang conditions at a small scale. Reasoning that the Big Bang was "divine coitus", Keats screened a live feed from the LHC on a votive altar. He opened his "porn palace for God" at the alternative art space Louis V. ESP in Brooklyn, New York. While Keats explained that he had become "God's pornographer" in order to encourage God to create additional universes since our own was doomed by cosmic expansion, worldwide opinion on the worthiness of his project was mixed.

text: Keats introduced four new projects in 2010. In January he created a

text: pinhole camera

text: intended to take a single 100-year-long exposure. Printed in

text: Good Magazine

text: , the simple

text: box camera

text: was designed to be cut out, folded, and glued together, and then left to take a picture which the magazine promised to publish in a "special folio" as part of the January 2110 issue. In February, Keats expanded his filmmaking for plants into a new genre. Observing that plants aren't mobile, he produced a travel documentary – showing footage of Italian skies – which he screened for an audience of

text: ficus

text: and

text: palm trees

text: at the AC Institute in New York City through early March, and later in the year presented to an audience of mixed species, with musical accompaniment by the composer Theresa Wong, at the

entity_name: Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive

text: Berkeley Art Museum

text: in California. He also produced an online version of the movie for viewing by plants at home, posted by

text: Wired News

text: Following an AFP wire story, news of the travel documentaries was reported worldwide, though not in Italy. Keats launched an alternative

text: space agency

text: , the Local Air and Space Administration (LASA), in October. Headquartered at

text: California State University, Chico

text: , the organization claimed to be taking on the exploratory role abandoned by

text: NASA

text: , and announced simultaneous missions to the

text: Moon

text: and

text: Mars

text: . Rather than building

text: rockets

text: , LASA amassed lunar and martian terrain locally in California, by pulverizing

text: meteorites

text: . The first LASA astronauts were potatoes grown in water mineralized with lunar

text: anorthosite

text: and martian

text: shergottite

text: , exploring the Moon and Mars by

text: osmosis

text: , according to Keats, who further argued that the minerals they absorbed over their month-long missions made them "

text: alien

text: hybrids

text: ". LASA also entered the

text: space tourism

text: business, offering humans the opportunity to explore the Moon and Mars by buying and drinking bottled lunar and martian

text: mineral waters

text: at an "exotourism bureau" in San Francisco. At the same time that he was managing the Local Air & Space Administration, Keats started independently to produce pornography for God. The source for his pornography was the

text: Large Hadron Collider

text: (LHC) which had just begun to replicate

text: Big Bang

text: conditions at a small scale. Reasoning that the Big Bang was "divine

text: coitus

text: ", Keats screened a live feed from the LHC on a

text: votive

text: altar

text: . He opened his "porn palace for God" at the alternative art space Louis V. ESP in

text: Brooklyn

text: , New York. While Keats explained that he had become "God's pornographer" in order to encourage God to create additional universes since our own was doomed by

text: cosmic expansion

text: , worldwide opinion on the worthiness of his project was mixed.

text: Motivated by Lovelock's book, biophysicist Robert Haynes worked behind the scenes to promote terraforming, and contributed the neologism Ecopoiesis, forming the word from the Greek οἶκος, oikos, "house", and ποίησις, poiesis, "production". Ecopoiesis refers to the origin of an ecosystem.  In the context of space exploration, Haynes describes ecopoiesis as the "fabrication of a sustainable ecosystem on a currently lifeless, sterile planet".  Ecopoiesis is a type of planetary engineering and is one of the first stages of terraformation. This primary stage of ecosystem creation is usually restricted to the initial seeding of microbial life. As conditions approach that of Earth, plant life could be brought in, and this will accelerate the production of oxygen, theoretically making the planet eventually able to support animal life.

text: Motivated by Lovelock's book, biophysicist

text: Robert Haynes

text: worked behind the scenes to promote terraforming, and contributed the

text: neologism

text: Ecopoiesis, forming the word from the Greek οἶκος, oikos, "house", and ποίησις, poiesis, "production". Ecopoiesis refers to the origin of an ecosystem.  In the context of space exploration, Haynes describes ecopoiesis as the "fabrication of a sustainable ecosystem on a currently lifeless, sterile planet".  Ecopoiesis is a type of

text: planetary engineering

text: and is one of the first stages of terraformation. This primary stage of ecosystem creation is usually restricted to the initial seeding of microbial life. As conditions approach that of Earth, plant life could be brought in, and this will accelerate the production of oxygen, theoretically making the planet eventually able to support animal life.

text: The TV show Sliders explores different possible alternate realities by having the protagonist "slide" into different parallel dimensions of the same planet Earth.

text: The TV show

text: Sliders

text: explores different possible alternate realities by having the protagonist "slide" into different parallel dimensions of the same planet Earth.

text: Magnetometers of this type were equipped on the "Pioneer 0"/Able 1, "Pioneer 1"/Able 2, Ye1.1, Ye1.2, and Ye1.3 missions that failed in 1958 due to launch problems. The Pioneer 1 however did collect data on the Van Allen belts. In 1959 the Soviet "Luna 1"/Ye1.4 carried a three-component magnetometer that passed the moon en route to a heliocentric orbit at a distance of , but the magnetic field could not be accurately assessed. Eventually the USSR managed a lunar impact with "Luna 2", a three component magnetometer, finding no significant magnetic field in close approach to the surface. Explorer 10 had an abbreviated 52 hr mission with two fluxgate magnetometers on board.  During 1958 and 1959 failure tended to characterize missions carrying magnetometers: 2 instruments were lost on Able IVB alone. In early 1966 the USSR finally placed Luna 10 in orbit around the moon carrying a magnetometer and was able to confirm the weak nature of the moon's magnetic field. Venera 4, 5, and 6 also carried magnetometers on their trips to Venus, although they were not placed on the landing craft.

text: Magnetometers of this type were equipped on the "

text: Pioneer 0

text: "/Able 1, "

text: Pioneer 1

text: "/Able 2, Ye1.1, Ye1.2, and Ye1.3 missions that failed in 1958 due to launch problems. The Pioneer 1 however did collect data on the Van Allen belts. In 1959 the Soviet "

text: Luna 1

text: "/Ye1.4 carried a three-component magnetometer that passed the moon en route to a heliocentric orbit at a distance of , but the magnetic field could not be accurately assessed. Eventually the USSR managed a lunar impact with "

text: Luna 2

text: ", a three component magnetometer, finding no significant magnetic field in close approach to the surface. Explorer 10 had an abbreviated 52 hr mission with two fluxgate magnetometers on board.  During 1958 and 1959 failure tended to characterize missions carrying magnetometers: 2 instruments were lost on

text: Able IVB

text: alone. In early 1966 the

text: USSR

text: finally placed

text: Luna 10

text: in orbit around the moon carrying a magnetometer and was able to confirm the weak nature of the moon's magnetic field.

text: Venera 4

text: , and

text: also carried magnetometers on their trips to

text: Venus

text: , although they were not placed on the landing craft.

text: This mission to Mercury is to include two satellites: the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) and the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO). Each orbiter has a distinct purpose: the MPO is to take images of Mercury, and the MMO is to study the magnetosphere. The European Space Agency and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency are working in conjunction on BepiColombo and will each provide one of the orbiters. The ESA will provide MPO, while JAXA will provide MMO. The BepiColombo mission will attempt to gather enough information to answer these questions:

text: This mission to Mercury is to include two satellites: the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) and the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO). Each orbiter has a distinct purpose: the MPO is to take images of Mercury, and the MMO is to study the

text: magnetosphere

text: . The European Space Agency and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency are working in conjunction on BepiColombo and will each provide one of the orbiters. The ESA will provide MPO, while JAXA will provide MMO. The BepiColombo mission will attempt to gather enough information to answer these questions:

text: The SLS launch vehicle is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. Its initial Block 1 version is to lift a payload of 70 metric tons to low Earth orbit (LEO), which will be increased with the debut of Block 1B and the Exploration Upper Stage. Block 2 will replace the initial Shuttle-derived boosters with advanced boosters and is planned to have a LEO capability of more than 130 metric tons to meet the congressional requirement.  These upgrades will allow the SLS to lift astronauts and hardware to destinations beyond LEO: on a circumlunar trajectory, as part of Exploration Mission 1, with Block 1; to a near-Earth asteroid, in Exploration Mission 2, with Block 1B; and to Mars, with Block 2. The SLS will launch the Orion Crew and Service Module and may support trips to the International Space Station if necessary. SLS will use the ground operations and launch facilities at NASA's Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

text: The SLS launch vehicle is to be upgraded over time with more powerful versions. Its initial Block 1 version is to lift a

text: payload

text: of 70

text: metric ton

text: s to

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO), which will be increased with the debut of Block 1B and the

text: Exploration Upper Stage

text: . Block 2 will replace the initial Shuttle-derived boosters with advanced boosters and is planned to have a LEO capability of more than 130 metric tons to meet the congressional requirement.  These upgrades will allow the SLS to lift astronauts and hardware to destinations beyond LEO: on a

text: circumlunar trajectory

text: , as part of

text: Exploration Mission 1

text: , with Block 1; to a near-Earth asteroid, in

text: Exploration Mission 2

text: , with Block 1B; and to

text: Mars

text: , with Block 2. The SLS will launch the

text: Orion Crew and Service Module

text: and may support trips to the

text: International Space Station

text: if necessary. SLS will use the ground operations and launch facilities at NASA's

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: , Florida.

text: The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610 BC-c. 545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomon, the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude. Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern Chinese. The Greeks, who were the first to explore geography as both art and science, achieved this through Cartography, Philosophy, and Literature, or through Mathematics. There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras. Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining eclipses. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes.

text: The ideas of

text: Anaximander

text: (c. 610 BC-c. 545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the

text: gnomon

text: , the simple, yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of

text: latitude

text: . Thales is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern

text: Chinese

text: . The

text: Greeks

text: , who were the first to explore geography as both

text: art

text: and

text: science

text: , achieved this through

text: Cartography

text: Philosophy

text: , and

text: Literature

text: , or through

text: Mathematics

text: . There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the

text: Earth is spherical

text: in shape, with the credit going either to

text: Parmenides

text: or

text: Pythagoras

text: Anaxagoras

text: was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining

text: eclipse

text: s. However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by

text: Eratosthenes

text: Space exploration is the ongoing discovery and exploration of celestial structures in outer space by means of continuously evolving and growing space technology. While the study of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, the physical exploration of space is conducted both by unmanned robotic probes and human spaceflight.

text: Space exploration is the ongoing

text: discovery

text: and

text: exploration

text: of

text: celestial

text: structures in

text: outer space

text: by means of continuously evolving and growing

text: space technology

text: . While the study of space is carried out mainly by

text: astronomer

text: s with

text: telescope

text: s, the physical exploration of space is conducted both by unmanned

text: robotic probes

text: and

text: human spaceflight

text: From an early age, Gorman wanted to be both an astrophysicist and an archaeologist. While she ended up pursuing a career in archaeology, she has reconciled the two by turning her research focus onto the archaeology of space exploration, or simply space archaeology (for the use of satellite imagery to examine archaeological sites and landscapes, see remote sensing). In 2003, she took part in the first conference session on space archaeology at the 5th World Archaeological Congress with John Campbell and Beth Laura O'Leary. Since the mid-00s, she has produced a number of publications on space archaeology and is credited for pioneering the concept of space as a cultural landscape and the application of cultural significance assessment to "space junk". She has also considered the contribution of Indigenous people to global space exploration and the archaeological signatures of this interaction. Gorman's space archaeology research includes the oldest satellite still in orbit, Vanguard 1, the Woomera and Kourou terrestrial launch sites, and the Orroral Valley NASA Tracking Station. In 2013, Gorman received recognition for her work on the archaeology of space when she was invited to present at TEDx Sydney.

text: From an early age, Gorman wanted to be both an astrophysicist and an archaeologist. While she ended up pursuing a career in archaeology, she has reconciled the two by turning her research focus onto the archaeology of space exploration, or simply

text: space archaeology

text: (for the use of satellite imagery to examine archaeological sites and landscapes, see

text: remote sensing

text: ). In 2003, she took part in the first conference session on space archaeology at the 5th World Archaeological Congress with John Campbell and Beth Laura O'Leary. Since the mid-00s, she has produced a number of publications on space archaeology and is credited for pioneering the concept of space as a cultural landscape and the application of cultural significance assessment to "space junk". She has also considered the contribution of Indigenous people to global space exploration and the archaeological signatures of this interaction. Gorman's space archaeology research includes the oldest satellite still in orbit, Vanguard 1, the Woomera and Kourou terrestrial launch sites, and the Orroral Valley NASA Tracking Station. In 2013, Gorman received recognition for her work on the archaeology of space when she was invited to present at

text: TEDx Sydney

text: President Dwight Eisenhower was skeptical about human spaceflight, but sought to advance the commercial and military applications of satellite technology.  Prior to the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1, Eisenhower had already authorized Project Vanguard, a scientific satellite program associated with the International Geophysical Year.  As a supporter of small government, he sought to avoid a space race which would require an expensive bureaucracy to conduct, and was surprised by, and sought to downplay, the public response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik. In an effort to prevent similar technological surprises by the Soviets, Eisenhower authorized the creation in 1958 of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), responsible for the development of advanced military technologies.

text: President Dwight Eisenhower

text: was skeptical about

text: human spaceflight

text: , but sought to advance the commercial and military applications of satellite technology.  Prior to the

text: Soviet Union

text: 's launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: , Eisenhower had already authorized

text: Project Vanguard

text: , a scientific satellite program associated with the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: .  As a supporter of

text: small government

text: , he sought to avoid a

text: space race

text: which would require an expensive bureaucracy to conduct, and was surprised by, and sought to downplay, the

text: public response to the Soviet launch of Sputnik

text: . In an effort to prevent similar technological surprises by the Soviets, Eisenhower authorized the creation in 1958 of the

text: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

text: (DARPA), responsible for the development of advanced military technologies.

text: On a sub-orbital spaceflight, a spacecraft enters space and then returns to the surface, without having gone into an orbit. For orbital spaceflights, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the Earth or around other celestial bodies. Spacecraft used for human spaceflight carry people on board as crew or passengers from start or on orbit (space stations) only, whereas those used for robotic space missions operate either autonomously or telerobotically. Robotic spacecraft used to support scientific research are space probes. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a planetary body are artificial satellites. Only a handful of interstellar probes, such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, and New Horizons, are on trajectories that leave the Solar System.

text: On a

text: sub-orbital spaceflight

text: , a spacecraft enters

text: space

text: and then returns to the surface, without having gone into an

text: orbit

text: . For

text: orbital spaceflight

text: s, spacecraft enter closed orbits around the

text: Earth

text: or around other

text: celestial bodies

text: . Spacecraft used for human spaceflight carry people on board as crew or passengers from start or on orbit (

text: space station

text: s) only, whereas those used for

text: robotic space mission

text: s operate either

text: autonomously

text: or

text: telerobotically

text: Robotic spacecraft

text: used to support scientific research are

text: space probe

text: s. Robotic spacecraft that remain in orbit around a planetary body are artificial

text: satellite

text: s. Only a handful of

text: interstellar probe

text: s, such as

text: Pioneer 10

text: and

text: Voyager 1

text: and

text: , and

text: New Horizons

text: , are on trajectories that leave the

text: Solar System

text: The Rocket Propulsion Test Complex is a rocket testing complex which was built in 1965 as a component of the John C. Stennis Space Center. The Rocket Propulsion Test Complex played an important role in the development of the Saturn V rocket. The A-1, A-2 and B-1/B-2 test stands were declared a National Historic Landmark in 1985.The NASA Engineering & Science Directorate (ESD) at SSC operates and maintains SSC's rocket test stands.

text: The Rocket Propulsion Test Complex is a rocket testing complex which was built in 1965 as a component of the John C. Stennis Space Center. The Rocket Propulsion Test Complex played an important role in the development of the

text: Saturn V

text: rocket. The A-1, A-2 and B-1/B-2 test stands were declared a

text: National Historic Landmark

text: in 1985.The NASA Engineering & Science Directorate (ESD) at SSC operates and maintains SSC's rocket test stands.

text: The game is non-linear and allows players to ignore the entire plot and explore space for as long as they wanted. It mixes elements of an RPG with a space-shooter, requiring both strategy and tactics as the player would have to dog fight enemy vessels. Players can also choose to venture into trading by mining and harvesting resources on other planets. Much of the game also takes the players onto the ground, where they can fight ground battles using a wire-frame 3D display of their environment and engage in conversation, combat, or trade.

text: The game is

text: non-linear

text: and allows players to ignore the entire plot and explore space for as long as they wanted. It mixes elements of an RPG with a space-shooter, requiring both strategy and tactics as the player would have to

text: dog fight

text: enemy vessels. Players can also choose to venture into trading by mining and harvesting resources on other planets. Much of the game also takes the players onto the ground, where they can fight ground battles using a

text: wire-frame

text: 3D display

text: of their environment and engage in conversation, combat, or trade.

text: In 2001, Musk conceptualized "Mars Oasis", a project to land a miniature experimental greenhouse on Mars, containing seeds with dehydrated gel, hydrating the gel and having plants grow on Martian soil, "so this would be the furthest that life’s ever traveled" in an attempt to regain public interest in space exploration and increase the Budget of NASA. But Musk realized that even with a much larger space budget, travel to Mars would be prohibitively expensive and that a fundamental breakthrough in rocket technology was needed. In October 2001, Musk travelled to Moscow with Jim Cantrell (an aerospace supplies fixer), and Adeo Ressi (his best friend from college), to buy refurbished ICBMs (Dnepr) that could send the envisioned payloads into space.The group met with companies such as Lavochkin and ISC Kosmotras.  However, according to Cantrell, Musk was seen as a novice and was consequently spat on by one of the Russian chief designers, and the group returned to the US empty-handed. In February 2002, the group returned to Russia to look for three ICBMs, bringing along Mike Griffin, who had worked for the CIA’s venture capital arm, In-Q-Tel; NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory; and was just leaving Orbital Sciences Corporation, a maker of satellites and spacecraft. The group met again with Kosmotras, and were offered one rocket for US$8 million.  However, this was seen by Musk as too expensive; Musk consequently stormed out of the meeting. On the flight back from Moscow, Musk realized that he could start a company that could build the affordable rockets he needed. According to early Tesla and SpaceX investor Steve Jurvetson, Musk calculated that the raw materials for building a rocket actually were only 3 percent of the sales price of a rocket at the time. By applying vertical integration—principally for cost reasons; around 85% of the entire Falcon/Dragon vehicle is produced in-house— and the modular approach from software engineering (Falcon 9 uses 9 of the Merlin engines, which were tested on the single engine Falcon 1, Falcon Heavy uses three Falcon 9 booster stages), SpaceX could cut launch price by a factor of ten and still enjoy a 70 percent gross margin.  For example, SpaceX had to design a machine that could friction stir weld aluminium-lithium alloy for the airframe of the Falcon 9, because such a machine did not exist anywhere in the world. According to Musk, SpaceX started with the smallest useful orbital rocket (Falcon 1 with about half a ton to orbit), instead of building a more complex and riskier launch vehicle, which could have failed and bankrupted the company.

text: In 2001, Musk conceptualized "Mars Oasis", a project to land a miniature experimental greenhouse on Mars, containing seeds with dehydrated gel, hydrating the gel and having plants grow on

text: Martian soil

text: , "so this would be the furthest that life’s ever traveled" in an attempt to regain public interest in space exploration and increase the

text: Budget of NASA

text: . But Musk realized that even with a much larger space budget, travel to Mars would be prohibitively expensive and that a fundamental breakthrough in rocket technology was needed. In October 2001, Musk travelled to Moscow with

text: Jim Cantrell

text: (an aerospace supplies fixer), and

text: Adeo Ressi

text: (his best friend from college), to buy refurbished ICBMs (

text: Dnepr

text: ) that could send the envisioned payloads into space.The group met with companies such as

text: Lavochkin

text: and

text: ISC Kosmotras

text: .  However, according to Cantrell, Musk was seen as a novice and was consequently spat on by one of the Russian chief designers, and the group returned to the US empty-handed. In February 2002, the group returned to Russia to look for three ICBMs, bringing along Mike Griffin, who had worked for the CIA’s venture capital arm,

text: In-Q-Tel

text: ; NASA's

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: ; and was just leaving

text: Orbital Sciences Corporation

text: , a maker of satellites and spacecraft. The group met again with

text: Kosmotras

text: , and were offered one rocket for US$8 million.  However, this was seen by Musk as too expensive; Musk consequently stormed out of the meeting. On the flight back from

text: Moscow

text: , Musk realized that he could start a company that could build the affordable rockets he needed. According to early Tesla and SpaceX investor

text: Steve Jurvetson

text: , Musk calculated that the raw materials for building a rocket actually were only 3 percent of the sales price of a rocket at the time. By applying

text: vertical integration

text: —principally for cost reasons; around 85% of the entire Falcon/Dragon vehicle is produced in-house— and the modular approach from software engineering (

text: Falcon 9

text: uses 9 of the Merlin engines, which were tested on the single engine

text: Falcon 1

text: Falcon Heavy

text: uses three Falcon 9 booster stages), SpaceX could cut launch price by a factor of ten and still enjoy a 70 percent

text: gross margin

text: .  For example, SpaceX had to design a machine that could

text: friction stir

text: weld

text: aluminium-lithium alloy

text: for the

text: airframe

text: of the

text: Falcon 9

text: , because such a machine did not exist anywhere in the world. According to Musk, SpaceX started with the

text: smallest useful orbital rocket

text: (Falcon 1 with about half a ton to orbit), instead of building a more complex and riskier launch vehicle, which could have failed and bankrupted the company.

text: is a facility of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), located in the city of Kakuda in Miyagi Prefecture in northern Japan, specializing in the development and testing of rocket engines and space propulsion systems. The LE-5 (including the LE-5A/LE-5B version), and the LE-7 (including the LE-7A version) rocket enginese were developed at the Kakuda Space Center.

text: is a facility of the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA), located in the city of

text: Kakuda

text: in

text: Miyagi Prefecture

text: in northern Japan, specializing in the development and testing of rocket engines and space propulsion systems. The

text: (including the LE-5A/LE-5B version), and the

text: (including the LE-7A version) rocket enginese were developed at the Kakuda Space Center.

text: Satellite: Not really a propagation mode, but an active repeater system. Satellites have been highly successful in providing VHF/UHF/SHF users 'propagation' beyond the horizon. The ISS which has amateur radio repeaters and radio location services on board is a good example. Amateurs have also sponsored the launch of dozens of communications satellites since the 1970s. These satellites are usually known as OSCARs (Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio).

text: Satellite

text: : Not really a propagation mode, but an active repeater system. Satellites have been highly successful in providing VHF/UHF/SHF users 'propagation' beyond the horizon. The ISS which has amateur radio repeaters and radio location services on board is a good example. Amateurs have also sponsored the launch of dozens of communications satellites since the 1970s. These satellites are usually known as

text: OSCAR

text: s (Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio).

text: The Civilian Space eXploration Team, known as CSXT, is a team of around 30 civilians interested in private spaceflight.  The team was created by Ky Michaelson.  Having conducted multiple rocket launches in an attempt to establish altitude records, CSXT became the first entity to officially launch an amateur rocket into space on May 17 2004, with the successful launch of its "GoFast" rocket to 116 km (72 miles) altitude, an altitude verified by FAA analysis of the team's flight data.

text: The Civilian Space eXploration Team, known as CSXT, is a team of around 30 civilians interested in private

text: spaceflight

text: .  The team was created by Ky Michaelson.  Having conducted multiple rocket launches in an attempt to establish altitude records, CSXT became the first entity to officially launch an amateur rocket into space on May 17 2004, with the successful launch of its "GoFast" rocket to 116 km (72 miles) altitude, an altitude verified by FAA analysis of the team's flight data.

text: A person calling himself Sputnik appears as a member of the Supreme Soviets. He is a human hacker, wearing a costume similar to Vostok's and possessing technology that mimics his powers.

text: A satellite galaxy is a galaxy that orbits a larger galaxy due to gravitational attraction. Although a galaxy is made of a large number of objects (such as stars, planets, and nebulae) that are not connected to each other, it has a center of mass, which represents a weighted average (by mass) of the positions of each component object.  This is similar to how an everyday object has a center of mass which is the weighted average of the positions of all its component atoms. Even within a satellite galaxy, the stars in turn orbit the galactic center.

text: A satellite galaxy is a galaxy that

text: orbit

text: s a larger galaxy due to

text: gravitational attraction

text: . Although a

text: galaxy

text: is made of a large number of objects (such as

text: star

text: s,

text: planet

text: s, and

text: nebula

text: e) that are not connected to each other, it has a

text: center of mass

text: , which represents a weighted average (by mass) of the positions of each component object.  This is similar to how an everyday object has a center of mass which is the weighted average of the positions of all its component

text: atom

text: s. Even within a satellite galaxy, the stars in turn orbit the galactic center.

text: An observer becomes a deep space explorer upon escaping Earth's orbit. While the Deep Space Network maintains communication and enables data download from an exploratory vessel, any local probing performed by sensors or active systems aboard usually require astronomical navigation, since the enclosing network of satellites to ensure accurate positioning is absent.

text: An observer becomes a deep space explorer upon escaping Earth's orbit. While the

text: Deep Space Network

text: maintains communication and enables data download from an exploratory vessel, any local probing performed by sensors or active systems aboard usually require astronomical navigation, since the enclosing network of satellites to ensure accurate positioning is absent.

text: Finally, several talks focused on the new era of spacefarers, with cosmonaut Sergei Zhukov’s presentation on the future of Russian space exploration; Swiss astronaut Claude Nicollier’s recollections of orbiting on the space shuttle; and cosmonaut Yuri Baturin’s plea for space explorers to help to change Earth and its inhabitants for the better.

text: Finally, several talks focused on the new era of spacefarers, with cosmonaut

text: Sergei Zhukov

text: ’s presentation on the future of Russian space exploration; Swiss astronaut

text: Claude Nicollier

text: ’s recollections of orbiting on the space shuttle; and cosmonaut

text: Yuri Baturin

text: ’s plea for space explorers to help to change Earth and its inhabitants for the better.

text: Told through archival photos and footage, space historians, testimony from the chimps trainers, and through the people who fought for the space chimps peaceful retirement, the film explores the compelling journey of the United States Air Force space from their primate predecessors and early rocket tests to Ham and Enos as they made their ground breaking missions into space.

text: Told through archival photos and footage, space historians, testimony from the chimps trainers, and through the people who fought for the space chimps peaceful retirement, the film explores the compelling journey of the United States Air Force space from their primate predecessors and early rocket tests to

text: Ham

text: and

text: Enos

text: as they made their ground breaking missions into space.

text: While tidal forces from the primary are common on satellites, most satellite systems remain stable.  Perturbation between satellites can occur, particularly in the early formation, as the gravity of satellites affect each other, and can result in ejection from the system or collisions between satellites or with the primary.  Simulations show that such interactions cause the orbits of the inner moons of the Uranus system to be chaotic and possibly unstable.  Some of Io's active can be explained by perturbation from Europa's gravity as their orbits resonate.Perturbation has been suggested as a reason that Neptune does not follow the 10,000:1 ratio of mass between the parent planet and collective moons as seen in all other known giant planets. One theory of the Earth-Moon system suggest that a second companion which formed at the same time as the Moon, was perturbed by the Moon early in the system's history, causing it to impact with the Moon.

text: While tidal forces from the primary are common on satellites, most satellite systems remain stable.

text: Perturbation

text: between satellites can occur, particularly in the early formation, as the gravity of satellites affect each other, and can result in ejection from the system or collisions between satellites or with the primary.  Simulations show that such interactions cause the orbits of the inner moons of the Uranus system to be chaotic and possibly unstable.  Some of Io's active can be explained by perturbation from Europa's gravity as their orbits resonate.Perturbation has been suggested as a reason that Neptune does not follow the 10,000:1 ratio of mass between the parent planet and collective moons as seen in all other known giant planets. One theory of the Earth-Moon system suggest that a second companion which formed at the same time as the Moon, was perturbed by the Moon early in the system's history, causing it to impact with the Moon.

text: The space segment of the new system would rely upon satellites in geostationary orbit.  These satellites, by virtue of their position, could transmit and receive data to lower orbiting satellites and still stay within sight of the ground station. The operational TDRSS constellation would use two satellites, designated TDE and TDW (for East and West), and one on-orbit spare.

text: Remote control vehicles have various scientific uses including hazardous environments, working in the deep ocean, and space exploration. The majority of the probes to the other planets in our solar system have been remote control vehicles, although some of the more recent ones were partially autonomous. The sophistication of these devices has fueled greater debate on the need for manned spaceflight and exploration. The Voyager I spacecraft is the first craft of any kind to leave the solar system. The martian explorers Spirit and Opportunity have provided continuous data about the surface of Mars since January 3, 2004.

text: Remote control vehicles have various scientific uses including hazardous environments, working in the deep ocean, and space exploration. The majority of the probes to the other planets in our solar system have been remote control vehicles, although some of the more recent ones were partially autonomous. The sophistication of these devices has fueled greater debate on the need for manned spaceflight and exploration. The

text: Voyager I

text: spacecraft is the first craft of any kind to leave the solar system. The martian explorers

text: Spirit

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: have provided continuous data about the surface of Mars since January 3, 2004.

text: The Redstone Test Stand or Interim Test Stand was used to develop and test fire the Redstone missile,  Jupiter-C sounding rocket,  Juno I launch vehicle and Mercury-Redstone launch vehicle.  It was declared an Alabama Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1979 and a National Historic Landmark in 1985.  It is located at NASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama on the Redstone Arsenal, designated Building 4665.  The Redstone missile was first missile to detonate a nuclear weapon.  Jupiter-C launched to test components for the Jupiter missile.  Juno I put the first American satellite Explorer 1 into orbit. Mercury Redstone carried the first American astronaut Alan Shepard into space.  The Redstone earned the name "Old Reliable" because of this facility and the improvements it made possible.

text: The Redstone Test Stand or Interim Test Stand was used to develop and test fire the

text: Redstone missile

text: Jupiter-C sounding rocket

text: Juno I launch vehicle

text: and

text: Mercury-Redstone launch vehicle

text: .  It was declared an Alabama Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1979 and a

text: National Historic Landmark

text: in 1985.  It is located at

text: NASA

text: 's

text: George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)

text: in

text: Huntsville, Alabama

text: on the

text: Redstone Arsenal

text: , designated Building 4665.  The Redstone missile was first missile to detonate a

text: nuclear weapon

text: .  Jupiter-C launched to test components for the

text: Jupiter missile

text: .  Juno I put the first American satellite

text: Explorer 1

text: into orbit. Mercury Redstone carried the first American astronaut

text: Alan Shepard

text: into space.  The Redstone earned the name "Old Reliable" because of this facility and the improvements it made possible.

text: On the other hand, 1998 after missile tests by North Korea in the past, has never been done spy satellites is done and now the launch of the basic space law in 2008 finalized, now is made military use of space for defense purposes only. And is currently doing in this area and although the Japanese reconnaissance satellite and missile defense only. Budget has been diverted out of scientific space exploration budget for these plans, which put pressure on other technologies. Space budget from other political factors tend to decrease. In addition, some factions of the organization state that the former JAXA affect the budget allocation. These are contributes to dampen the history of the Japanese space development.

text: On the other hand, 1998 after missile tests by North Korea in the past, has never been done

text: spy satellites

text: is done and now the launch of the basic space law in 2008 finalized, now is made military use of space for defense purposes only. And is currently doing in this area and although the Japanese

text: reconnaissance satellite

text: and

text: missile defense

text: only. Budget has been diverted out of scientific space exploration budget for these plans, which put pressure on other technologies. Space budget from other political factors tend to decrease. In addition, some factions of the organization state that the former JAXA affect the budget allocation. These are contributes to dampen the history of the Japanese space development.

text: ASU is also involved with NASA in the field of space exploration. In order to meet the needs of NASA programs, ASU built the LEED Gold Certified, 298,000-square-foot Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building IV (ISTB 4) at a cost of $110 million in 2012. The building includes space for the School of Earth and Space Exploration (SESE) and includes labs and other facilities for the Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering. One of the main projects at ISTB 4 includes the OSIRIS-REx Thermal Emission Spectrometer (OTES). Although ASU built the spectrometers aboard the Martian rovers Spirit and Opportunity, OTES will be the first major scientific instrument completely designed and built at ASU for a NASA space mission. Phil Christensen, the principal investigator for the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES), is a Regents' Professor at ASU. He also serves as the principal investigator for the Mars Odyssey THEMIS instruments, as well as co-investigator for the Mars Exploration Rovers. ASU scientists are responsible for the Mini-TES instruments aboard the Mars Exploration Rovers. The Center for Meteorite Studies, which is home to rare Martian meteorites and exotic fragments from space, and the Mars Space Flight Facility are both located on ASU's Tempe campus.

text: ASU is also involved with

text: NASA

text: in the field of

text: space exploration

text: . In order to meet the needs of NASA programs, ASU built the

entity_name: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

text: LEED

text: Gold Certified, 298,000-square-foot Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building IV (ISTB 4) at a cost of $110 million in 2012. The building includes space for the School of Earth and Space Exploration (SESE) and includes labs and other facilities for the

text: Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering

text: . One of the main projects at ISTB 4 includes the

text: OSIRIS-REx

text: Thermal Emission Spectrometer

text: (OTES). Although ASU built the

text: spectrometers

text: aboard the

text: Martian rovers

text: Spirit

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: , OTES will be the first major scientific instrument completely designed and built at ASU for a NASA

text: space mission

text: Phil Christensen

text: , the

text: principal investigator

text: for the

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: Thermal Emission Spectrometer

text: (TES), is a

text: Regents' Professor

text: at ASU. He also serves as the principal investigator for the

text: Mars Odyssey

text: THEMIS

text: instruments, as well as co-investigator for the

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: s. ASU scientists are responsible for the

text: Mini-TES

text: instruments aboard the Mars Exploration Rovers. The

text: Center for Meteorite Studies

text: , which is home to rare

text: Martian

text: meteorite

text: s and exotic fragments from space, and the

text: Mars Space Flight Facility

text: are both located on ASU's Tempe campus.

text: There are two types of orbits:  closed (periodic) orbits, and open (escape) orbits. Circular and elliptical orbits are closed. Parabolic and hyperbolic orbits are open.  Radial orbits can be either open or closed.

text: Progress in space exploration has recently broadened the phrase moon landing to include other moons in the Solar System as well. The Huygens probe of the Cassini–Huygens mission to Saturn performed a successful unmanned moon landing on Titan in 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probe Phobos 2 came within  of performing an unmanned moon landing on Mars' moon Phobos in 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission called Fobos-Grunt ("grunt" means "soil" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low-earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future moon landing on Jupiter's Europa moon to drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface.

text: Progress in

text: space exploration

text: has recently broadened the phrase moon landing to include other moons in the

text: Solar System

text: as well. The

text: Huygens probe

text: of the

text: Cassini–Huygens

text: mission to

text: Saturn

text: performed a successful unmanned moon landing on

text: Titan

text: in 2005. Similarly, the Soviet probe

text: Phobos 2

text: came within  of performing an unmanned moon landing on

text: Mars

text: ' moon

text: Phobos

text: in 1989 before radio contact with that lander was suddenly lost. A similar Russian sample return mission called

text: Fobos-Grunt

text: ("grunt" means "soil" in Russian) launched in November 2011, but stalled in low-earth orbit. There is widespread interest in performing a future moon landing on

text: Jupiter

text: 's

text: Europa moon

text: to drill down and explore the possible liquid water ocean beneath its icy surface.

text: UARS is a science satellite used from 1991 to 2005 to study Earth's atmosphere, including the ozone layer. Planned for a three-year mission, it proved much more durable, allowing extended observation from its instrument suite. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle Discovery and deployed into space from the payload bay with its robotic arm, under guidance from the crew. The satellite was expected to undergo atmospheric re-entry in the late evening of Friday September 23, 2011 or early morning of Saturday September 24, 2011, Eastern Daylight Time. On 24 September 2011 1:09 am EDT UARS made its re-entry.

text: UARS is a science satellite used from 1991 to 2005 to study Earth's atmosphere, including the

text: ozone layer

text: . Planned for a three-year mission, it proved much more durable, allowing extended observation from its instrument suite. It was launched aboard

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: and deployed into space from the payload bay with its robotic arm, under guidance from the crew. The satellite was expected to undergo atmospheric re-entry in the late evening of Friday September 23, 2011 or early morning of Saturday September 24, 2011,

text: Eastern Daylight Time

text: . On 24 September 2011 1:09 am EDT UARS made its re-entry.

text: There are a large number of constellations that may satisfy a particular mission. Usually constellations are designed so that the satellites have similar orbits, eccentricity and inclination so that any perturbations affect each satellite in approximately the same way. In this way, the geometry can be preserved without excessive station-keeping thereby reducing the fuel usage and hence increasing the life of the satellites. Another consideration is that the phasing of each satellite in an orbital plane maintains sufficient separation to avoid collisions or interference at orbit plane intersections. Circular orbits are popular, because then the satellite is at a constant altitude requiring a constant strength signal to communicate.

text: Dale Sutton, a recent graduate from the Space Academy, is assigned to the Albatross, a decrepit old spaceship. When the Albatross is assigned to explore the mysterious ringed planet Saturn, Dale remembers the story of Captain Dearborn who had commanded the first and last mission to Saturn. When the Albatross reaches Saturn's moon Titan, the superstitious fears of the crew are realized as equipment begins to disappear, and eventually people.

text: Dale Sutton, a recent graduate from the Space Academy, is assigned to the Albatross, a decrepit old spaceship. When the Albatross is assigned to explore the mysterious ringed planet Saturn, Dale remembers the story of Captain Dearborn who had commanded the first and last mission to Saturn. When the Albatross reaches Saturn's moon

text: Titan

text: , the superstitious fears of the crew are realized as equipment begins to disappear, and eventually people.

text: ROH2 had a commitment to providing a space where artists could take creative risks and explore new ideas.

text: The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) was a NASA scientific research satellite launched on October 5, 1984, to study the Earth radiation budget and stratospheric aerosol and gases. It was carried into low Earth orbit and deployed by the  during the STS-41-G mission. The spacecraft was expected to have a two-year operation life, but ultimately, the mission provided scientific data about the Earth's ozone layer for more than two decades.

text: The Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) was a

text: NASA

text: scientific research

text: satellite

text: launched on October 5, 1984, to study the

text: Earth

text: radiation budget

text: and stratospheric aerosol and gases. It was carried into

text: low Earth orbit

text: and deployed by the  during the

text: mission. The

text: spacecraft

text: was expected to have a two-year operation life, but ultimately, the mission provided scientific data about the Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: for more than two decades.

text: Rocket propellant is either a high oxygen containing fuel or a mixture of fuel plus oxidant, whose combustion takes place, in a definite and controlled manner with the evolution of a huge volume of gas. In the rocket engine, the propellant is burnt in the combustion chamber and the hot jet of gases (usually at a temperature of 3,000°C and a pressure of 300 kg/cm^2 ) escapes through the nozzle at very high velocity.  Rockets create thrust by expelling mass backwards in a high-speed jet (see Newton's Third Law).  Chemical rockets, the subject of this article, create thrust by reacting propellants within a combustion chamber into a very hot gas at high pressure, which is then expanded and accelerated by passage through a nozzle at the rear of the rocket.  The amount of the resulting forward force, known as thrust, that is produced is the mass flow rate of the propellants multiplied by their exhaust velocity (relative to the rocket), as specified by Newton's third law of motion.  Thrust is therefore the equal and opposite reaction that moves the rocket, and not by interaction of the exhaust stream with air around the rocket. Equivalently, one can think of a rocket being accelerated upwards by the pressure of the combusting gases against the combustion chamber and nozzle. This operational principle stands in contrast to the commonly-held assumption that a rocket "pushes" against the air behind or below it. Rockets in fact perform better in outer space (where there is nothing behind or beneath them to push against), because there is a reduction in air pressure on the outside of the engine, and because it is possible to fit a longer nozzle without suffering from flow separation, in addition to the lack of air drag.

text: Rocket propellant is either a high oxygen containing fuel or a mixture of fuel plus oxidant, whose combustion takes place, in a definite and controlled manner with the evolution of a huge volume of gas. In the rocket engine, the propellant is burnt in the combustion chamber and the hot jet of gases (usually at a temperature of 3,000°C and a pressure of 300 kg/cm^2 ) escapes through the nozzle at very high velocity.  Rockets create thrust by expelling

text: mass

text: backwards in a high-speed jet (see

text: Newton's Third Law

text: ).  Chemical rockets, the subject of this article, create thrust by reacting propellants within a combustion chamber into a very hot

text: gas

text: at high pressure, which is then expanded and accelerated by passage through a nozzle at the rear of the rocket.  The amount of the resulting forward force, known as thrust, that is produced is the

text: mass flow rate

text: of the propellants multiplied by their exhaust velocity (relative to the rocket), as specified by

text: Newton

text: 's

text: third law of motion

text: .  Thrust is therefore the equal and opposite reaction that moves the rocket, and not by interaction of the exhaust stream with air around the rocket. Equivalently, one can think of a rocket being accelerated upwards by the pressure of the combusting gases against the combustion chamber and nozzle. This operational principle stands in contrast to the commonly-held assumption that a rocket "pushes" against the air behind or below it. Rockets in fact perform better in

text: outer space

text: (where there is nothing behind or beneath them to push against), because there is a reduction in air pressure on the outside of the engine, and because it is possible to fit a longer nozzle without suffering from flow separation, in addition to the lack of air drag.

text: People often decide to put a satellite in a frozen orbit.The path of a satellite closely orbiting the Earth can be accurately modeled starting from the 2-body elliptical orbit around the center of the Earth, and adding small corrections due to the oblateness of the Earth, gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon, atmospheric drag, etc.It is possible to find a frozen orbit without calculating the actual path of the satellite.

text: People often decide to put a satellite in a

text: frozen orbit

text: .The path of a satellite closely orbiting the Earth can be accurately modeled starting from the 2-body elliptical orbit around the center of the Earth, and adding small corrections due to the

text: oblateness of the Earth

text: , gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon, atmospheric drag, etc.It is possible to find a frozen orbit without calculating the actual path of the satellite.

text: The S-type asteroid is a member of the Flora family, one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0–2.5 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,226 days). Its orbit is tilted by 5 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an orbital eccentricity of 0.09. It has a well-determined rotation period of 5.32 hours. According to the space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer and its subsequent NEOWISE mission, the body's albedo amounts to 0.21 and 0.51, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24, which is a typical value for a silicaceous asteroid.

text: The

text: S-type

text: asteroid is a member of the

text: Flora family

text: , one of the largest groups of stony asteroids in the main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.0–2.5

text: AU

text: once every 3 years and 4 months (1,226 days). Its orbit is

text: tilted

text: by 5 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: and shows an

text: orbital eccentricity

text: of 0.09. It has a well-determined

text: rotation period

text: of 5.32 hours. According to the space-based

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: and its subsequent

text: NEOWISE

text: mission, the body's

text: albedo

text: amounts to 0.21 and 0.51, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24, which is a typical value for a silicaceous asteroid.

text: David Young in Sputnik Music states that it "is a cauldron-bubble of inner-city paranoia, whirring synthesizer and a pulsing beat that grows more claustrophobic and agitated until roughly the last ninety seconds or so, in which the track more or less explodes into technicolour."

text: David Young in

text: Sputnik Music

text: states that it "is a cauldron-bubble of inner-city paranoia, whirring synthesizer and a pulsing beat that grows more claustrophobic and agitated until roughly the last ninety seconds or so, in which the track more or less explodes into technicolour."

text: Exploration of energization and Radiation in Geospace (ERG) is a scientific satellite to study the Van Allen belts.  It was developed by the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science of JAXA.

text: Exploration of energization and Radiation in Geospace (ERG) is a scientific

text: satellite

text: to study the

text: Van Allen belt

text: s.  It was developed by the

entity_name: Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

text: Institute of Space and Astronautical Science

text: of

text: JAXA

text: The game launched with 10 planets: Tatooine, Naboo, Corellia, Talus, Rori, Dantooine, Lok, Yavin IV, the forest moon of Endor, and Dathomir. In the second expansion, Rage of the Wookiees, the Wookiee home planet Kashyyyk was added. In the third expansion, Trials of Obi-Wan, the planet Mustafar was added. Each of the original 10 planets are represented by approximately 225 square kilometers (15 km x 15 km maps) of game space. In contrast, the expansion planets of Kashyyyk and Mustafar are smaller, constructed differently (e.g. instances) and in some cases imposed different rules than the original, such as terrain that is not traversable (i.e. mountains or hills that cannot be climbed over). In addition to the 12 planets, there are 12 space zones, each encompassing approximately 3400 cubic kilometers (15 km cubes) of fully navigable space. Nine of them are associated with one or more of the playable planets: Tattoo (Tatooine), Naboo (Naboo and Rori), Corellia (Corellia and Talus), Dantooine, Karthakk (Lok), Yavin, Endor, Dathomir, and Kashyyyk. (Mustafar has no associated space zone.)  Kessel and Deep Space have no planets and are used for high-level gameplay and player-versus-player combat. The Ord Mantell sector was released in January 2008 as a new space-only zone, though there is a space station there (called Nova Orion) where pilots can land and acquire quests. The planet Hoth was added in November 2008 as part of an instance, but could only be explored during the events of the Battle of Echo Base.

text: The game launched with 10 planets:

text: Tatooine

text: Naboo

text: Corellia

text: Talus

text: Rori

text: Dantooine

text: Lok

text: Yavin IV

text: , the

text: forest moon of Endor

text: , and

text: Dathomir

text: . In the second

text: expansion

text: , Rage of the Wookiees, the Wookiee home planet

text: Kashyyyk

text: was added. In the third expansion, Trials of Obi-Wan, the planet

text: Mustafar

text: was added. Each of the original 10 planets are represented by approximately 225 square kilometers (15 km x 15 km maps) of game space. In contrast, the expansion planets of Kashyyyk and Mustafar are smaller, constructed differently (e.g.

text: instances

text: ) and in some cases imposed different rules than the original, such as terrain that is not traversable (i.e. mountains or hills that cannot be climbed over). In addition to the 12 planets, there are 12 space zones, each encompassing approximately 3400 cubic kilometers (15 km cubes) of fully navigable space. Nine of them are associated with one or more of the playable planets: Tattoo (Tatooine), Naboo (Naboo and Rori), Corellia (Corellia and Talus), Dantooine, Karthakk (Lok), Yavin, Endor, Dathomir, and Kashyyyk. (Mustafar has no associated space zone.)

text: Kessel

text: and Deep Space have no planets and are used for high-level gameplay and player-versus-player combat. The

text: Ord Mantell

text: sector was released in January 2008 as a new space-only zone, though there is a space station there (called Nova Orion) where pilots can land and acquire quests. The planet

text: Hoth

text: was added in November 2008 as part of an instance, but could only be explored during the events of the Battle of Echo Base.

text: One of two traditional high schools serving the Wayne-Westland Community Schools, John Glenn High School is located in the city of Westland, Michigan. The school, which opened in 1964, was named for astronaut John Glenn, who just two years prior had become the first American to orbit the earth. The "space" theme dominates at JGHS, including the nickname (Rockets), yearbook (the Satellite), newspaper (the Explorer, formerly the Echo), and school store (the Gantry).

text: One of two traditional high schools serving the

text: Wayne-Westland Community Schools

text: , John Glenn High School is located in the city of

text: Westland, Michigan

text: . The school, which opened in 1964, was named for

text: astronaut

text: John Glenn

text: , who just two years prior had become the first American to orbit the earth. The "space" theme dominates at JGHS, including the nickname (Rockets), yearbook (the Satellite), newspaper (the

text: Explorer

text: , formerly the

text: Echo

text: ), and school store (the Gantry).

text: President George H. W. Bush continued to support space development, announcing the bold Space Exploration Initiative, and ordering a 20 percent increase in NASA's budget in a tight budget era. The Bush administration also commissioned another report on the future of NASA, the Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program, also known as the Augustine Report.

text: President George H. W. Bush

text: continued to support space development, announcing the bold

text: Space Exploration Initiative

text: , and ordering a 20 percent increase in NASA's budget in a tight budget era. The Bush administration also commissioned another report on the future of NASA, the

entity_name: Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program

text: Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program

text: , also known as the Augustine Report.

text: His book Rockets – the Future of Travel Beyond the Stratosphere (1944) describes the early rockets at VfR and more futuristic projects to reach the moon using a 3-stage rocket "as high as 1/3 of the Empire State Building" – a very good estimate of the height of the Saturn V rocket designed 20 years later.  His works from the 1950s and '60s are regarded as classics of popular science and include The Conquest of Space 1949 (with Chesley Bonestell), The Conquest of the Moon (with Wernher von Braun and Fred Whipple, 1953), and Beyond the Solar System (1964). His book, Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel, (1957) was cited in the Space Handbook: Astronautics and its Applications, a staff report of the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration of the U.S. House of Representatives, which provided non-technical information about spaceflight to U.S. policy makers. Ley participated in "Man in Space", a 1955 episode of Disneyland which explained spaceflight to a large television audience. Fellow Galaxy columnist Floyd C. Gale wrote that Ley "has become as familiar to TV audiences as Howdy Doody". In the late 1950s, he designed for Monogram models a range of space vehicles. The kits included informational booklets on space travel written by Ley. He also consulted for the Tom Corbett, Space Cadet series of children's science fiction books and TV series, as well as the 1959 feature film entitled "The Space Explorers." Robert A. Heinlein honored him by mentioning a future "Leyport" on the Moon in his 1952 juvenile novel The Rolling Stones.

text: His book Rockets – the Future of Travel Beyond the Stratosphere (1944) describes the early rockets at VfR and more futuristic projects to reach the moon using a 3-stage rocket "as high as 1/3 of the

text: Empire State Building

text: " – a very good estimate of the height of the

text: Saturn V

text: rocket designed 20 years later.  His works from the 1950s and '60s are regarded as classics of popular science and include

text: The Conquest of Space

text: 1949 (with

text: Chesley Bonestell

text: ), The Conquest of the Moon (with

text: Wernher von Braun

text: and

text: Fred Whipple

text: , 1953), and Beyond the Solar System (1964). His book, Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel, (1957) was cited in the Space Handbook: Astronautics and its Applications, a staff report of the

entity_name: United States House Committee on Science, Space and Technology

text: Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration

text: of the U.S. House of Representatives, which provided non-technical information about spaceflight to U.S. policy makers. Ley participated in "

text: Man in Space

text: ", a 1955 episode of

text: Disneyland

text: which explained spaceflight to a large television audience. Fellow Galaxy columnist Floyd C. Gale wrote that Ley "has become as familiar to TV audiences as

text: Howdy Doody

text: ". In the late 1950s, he designed for

text: Monogram models

text: a range of space vehicles. The kits included informational booklets on space travel written by Ley. He also consulted for the

text: Tom Corbett, Space Cadet

text: series of children's science fiction books and TV series, as well as the 1959 feature film entitled "

text: The Space Explorers

text: Robert A. Heinlein

text: honored him by mentioning a future "Leyport" on the

text: Moon

text: in his 1952 juvenile novel

text: The Rolling Stones

text: 1st Aero used the methods of orbital prediction developed by Dr. Eberhart W. Wahl at Project Space Track in 1957, which computed ephemerides based on standard Keplerian orbits.  This excellent technique became less and less useful as a satellite got lower into the atmosphere, encountering drag, which made it difficult to forecast the ephemeris of the satellite accurately.  Because of this, in 1959, Lt Cotter at Space Track had the questionable pleasure of being the first person to lose track of an artificial earth satellite, Explorer IV, for which he was the Department of Defense orbital analyst.  The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory lost it a day or two later and only Mr. Arthur S. Leonard, of the Sacramento Moonwatch Team, was able to continue tracking somewhat longer, using his own special observational methods.

text: The organisation has a commitment to the theme of space exploration. Since 1999, they have presented a variety of projects that explore sub-orbital space, outer space, the International Space Station (ISS), and more recently, the moon. Their work in zero gravity includes projects with Kitsou Dubois and the MIR (Microgravity Interdisciplinary Research) consortium (2000 to 2004). They were recently commissioned by the European Space Agency to develop a cultural policy for the orbiting International Space Station. In 2006, Arts Catalyst presented Space Soon: Art and Human Spaceflight, a five-day event at the Roundhouse (venue), London, that included new work by Aleksandra Mir, N55 (art collective)/Neal White, and London Fieldworks, with talks by astronaut turned artist Alan Bean, the fourth man to walk on the moon, NASA artist in residence Laurie Anderson and many others. In 2008, The Arts Catalyst presented 'Less Remote: The Futures of Space Exploration - An Arts and Humanities Symposium' at the 59th International Astronautical Congress in Glasgow, Scotland. In 2011, Arts Catalyst organised the exhibition, Republic of the Moon, with FACT Liverpool, about reimagining the future of the Moon.

text: The organisation has a commitment to the theme of space exploration. Since 1999, they have presented a variety of projects that explore sub-orbital space, outer space, the International Space Station (ISS), and more recently, the moon. Their work in zero gravity includes projects with Kitsou Dubois and the MIR (Microgravity Interdisciplinary Research) consortium (2000 to 2004). They were recently commissioned by the European Space Agency to develop a cultural policy for the orbiting International Space Station. In 2006, Arts Catalyst presented Space Soon: Art and Human Spaceflight, a five-day event at the

text: Roundhouse (venue)

text: , London, that included new work by

text: Aleksandra Mir

text: N55 (art collective)

text: /Neal White, and London Fieldworks, with talks by astronaut turned artist

text: Alan Bean

text: , the fourth man to walk on the moon, NASA artist in residence

text: Laurie Anderson

text: and many others. In 2008, The Arts Catalyst presented 'Less Remote: The Futures of Space Exploration - An Arts and Humanities Symposium' at the 59th

text: International Astronautical Congress

text: in Glasgow, Scotland. In 2011, Arts Catalyst organised the exhibition, Republic of the Moon, with FACT Liverpool, about reimagining the future of the Moon.

text: Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) is a NASA program using a public-private partnership model that seeks commercial development of deep space exploration capabilities to support more extensive human space flight missions in the Proving Ground around and beyond cislunar space—the space near Earth that extends just beyond the moon.

text: Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships (NextSTEP) is a

text: NASA

text: program using a public-private partnership model that seeks commercial development of deep space exploration capabilities to support more extensive human space flight missions in the Proving Ground around and beyond cislunar space—the space near Earth that extends just beyond the moon.

text: Independence, then known as Explorer, was displayed at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex atop cement pilings and secured with steel cabling. Visitor access was provided by a gantry-style tower with ramps and an elevator for accessibility. Inside, visitors could view a mock-up payload, a mannequin wearing an early model of the orange launch/entry pressure suit used by shuttle astronauts, and a mock cockpit with controls and instruments. Adjacent to Explorer were two solid rocket boosters mated to a full-size mock-up of an external tank (originally used by Stennis Space Center for fit tests).

text: Independence, then known as Explorer, was displayed at the

text: Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex

text: atop cement pilings and secured with steel cabling. Visitor access was provided by a gantry-style tower with ramps and an elevator for accessibility. Inside, visitors could view a

text: mock-up

text: payload

text: , a mannequin wearing an early model of the orange launch/entry pressure suit used by shuttle astronauts, and a mock cockpit with controls and instruments. Adjacent to Explorer were two

text: solid rocket boosters

text: mated to a full-size mock-up of an

text: external tank

text: (originally used by

text: Stennis Space Center

text: for fit tests).

text: Until the rise of space travel in the twentieth century, there was little distinction between orbital and celestial mechanics. At the time of Sputnik, the field was termed 'space dynamics'. The fundamental techniques, such as those used to solve the Keplerian problem (determining position as a function of time), are therefore the same in both fields. Furthermore, the history of the fields is almost entirely shared.

text: Until the rise of

text: space travel

text: in the twentieth century, there was little distinction between orbital and celestial mechanics. At the time of

text: Sputnik

text: , the field was termed 'space dynamics'. The fundamental techniques, such as those used to solve the

text: Keplerian problem

text: (determining position as a function of time), are therefore the same in both fields. Furthermore, the history of the fields is almost entirely shared.

text: On March 6, 2015, the Dawn spacecraft began to orbit Ceres, becoming the first spacecraft to orbit a dwarf planet. On 14 July 2015, the New Horizons space probe flew by Pluto and its five moons. Dawn has also explored the former dwarf planet, Vesta. Phoebe has been explored by Cassini (most recently) and Voyager 2, which also explored Triton. These three are thought to be former dwarf planets and therefore their exploration helps in the study of the evolution of dwarf planets.

text: On March 6, 2015, the

text: Dawn

text: spacecraft began to orbit

text: Ceres

text: , becoming the first spacecraft to orbit a dwarf planet. On 14 July 2015, the

text: New Horizons

text: space probe flew by

text: Pluto

text: and its five moons. Dawn has also explored the former dwarf planet, Vesta. Phoebe has been explored by Cassini (most recently) and Voyager 2, which also explored

text: Triton

text: . These three are thought to be former dwarf planets and therefore their exploration helps in the study of the evolution of dwarf planets.

text: Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the Cold War. The early era of space exploration was driven by a "Space Race" between the Soviet Union and the United States. The launch of the first human-made object to orbit Earth, the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1, on 4 October 1957, and the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 mission on 20 July 1969 are often taken as landmarks for this initial period. The Soviet space program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Aleksei Leonov) on 18 March 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first space station (Salyut 1) in 1971.

text: Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the

text: Cold War

text: . The early era of space exploration was driven by a "

text: Space Race

text: " between the

text: Soviet Union

text: and the

text: United States

text: . The launch of the first human-made object to orbit

text: Earth

text: , the Soviet Union's

text: Sputnik 1

text: , on 4 October 1957, and the first

text: Moon landing

text: by the American

text: Apollo 11

text: mission on 20 July 1969 are often taken as landmarks for this initial period. The

text: Soviet space program

text: achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first

text: human spaceflight

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: aboard

text: Vostok 1

text: ) in 1961, the first

text: spacewalk

text: (by

text: Aleksei Leonov

text: ) on 18 March 1965, the

text: first automatic landing

text: on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first

text: space station

text: Salyut 1

text: ) in 1971.

text: They Explored the Moon was a one-off comic of four pages, released in 1969 to commemorate the second landing on the moon by Apollo 12. It was initially published in black and white in the Paris Match magazine (No. 1073, 29 Novembre 1969, pp. 30–33) five days after the return of the crew to earth, and was later released as part of a hardback book. On the front cover is an image of Tintin and his friends welcoming the Apollo 11 crew (or, more specifically, Neil Armstrong) onto the moon, as a joke that Tintin reached the moon years before in the book Explorers on the Moon.

text: They Explored the Moon was a one-off comic of four pages, released in 1969 to commemorate the second landing on the moon by

text: Apollo 12

text: . It was initially published in black and white in the

text: Paris Match

text: magazine (No. 1073, 29 Novembre 1969, pp. 30–33) five days after the return of the crew to earth, and was later released as part of a hardback book. On the front cover is an image of

text: Tintin

text: and his friends welcoming the

text: Apollo 11

text: crew (or, more specifically,

text: Neil Armstrong

text: ) onto the moon, as a joke that Tintin reached the moon years before in the book

text: Explorers on the Moon

text: The non-rotating skyhook is not the same as a surface to geostationary orbit space elevator. The non-rotating skyhook is a much shorter version that would not touch the surface of the Earth and would be much lighter in mass. It would work by hanging a cable from a relatively low altitude orbit to just above the Earth's atmosphere. Since the lower end of the cable would be moving at less than orbital velocity for its altitude, a launch vehicle flying to the bottom of the skyhook would  be able to carry a larger payload while being assisted into orbit by the device. This type of skyhook would start out as short as 200 km and grow to over 4,000 km in length using a bootstrap method that would take advantage of the reduction in launch costs that come with increases in tether length.  With a long enough cable, single-stage to skyhook flight with a reusable launch vehicle would become possible.

text: The non-rotating skyhook is not the same as a surface to geostationary orbit

text: space elevator

text: . The non-rotating skyhook is a much shorter version that would not touch the surface of the Earth and would be much lighter in mass. It would work by hanging a cable from a relatively low altitude orbit to just above the Earth's atmosphere. Since the lower end of the cable would be moving at less than

text: orbital velocity

text: for its altitude, a launch vehicle flying to the bottom of the skyhook would  be able to carry a larger payload while being assisted into orbit by the device. This type of skyhook would start out as short as 200 km and grow to over 4,000 km in length using a bootstrap method that would take advantage of the reduction in launch costs that come with increases in tether length.  With a long enough cable, single-stage to skyhook flight with a reusable launch vehicle would become possible.

text: His most important work, published in 1903, was Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices (). Tsiolkovsky calculated, using the Tsiolkovsky equation, that the horizontal speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth is 8,000 m/s (5 miles per second) and that this could be achieved by means of a multistage rocket fueled by liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. In the article "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices", it was proved for the first time that a rocket could perform space flight. In this article and its subsequent sequels (1911 and 1914), he developed some ideas of missiles and considered the use of liquid rocket engines.

text: His most important work, published in 1903, was Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices (). Tsiolkovsky calculated, using the

text: Tsiolkovsky equation

text: , that the horizontal speed required for a minimal

text: orbit

text: around the Earth is 8,000 m/s (5 miles per second) and that this could be achieved by means of a

text: multistage rocket

text: fueled by

text: liquid oxygen

text: and

text: liquid hydrogen

text: . In the article "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices", it was proved for the first time that a rocket could perform space flight. In this article and its subsequent sequels (1911 and 1914), he developed some ideas of missiles and considered the use of liquid rocket engines.

text: After completing the spaceship, Barbicane, Nicholl, and Sharpe board it and, amid much fanfare, take off. Once they are in outer space, the strongly religious Nicholl reveals that he has sabotaged the vessel, believing that Barbicane has flouted God's laws. When it is discovered that Virginia has stowed away, Nicholl cooperates with Barbicane in a desperate attempt to save her. Sharpe is knocked out, and he and Virginia are placed in the safest compartment of the ship. Barbicane and Nicholl then fire rockets that send the young couple on their way back to Earth, while the two scientists land on the Moon in another section, with no way off. They are able to signal to the young couple that they have reached the Moon safely.

text: 2166 - Space exploration goes beyond Neptune into Pluto's orbit.

text: According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and the U.S. Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its NEOWISE mission, the asteroid's surface has an albedo in the range of 0.07 to 0.14. Although the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) derives a low albedo in accordance with the space-based surveys, CALL classifies the dark Themistian body as a stony S-type rather than a carbonaceous C-type asteroid.

text: According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite,

text: IRAS

text: , the Japanese

text: Akari

text: satellite, and the U.S.

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: with its

text: NEOWISE

text: mission, the asteroid's surface has an

text: albedo

text: in the range of 0.07 to 0.14. Although the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) derives a low albedo in accordance with the space-based surveys, CALL classifies the dark Themistian body as a stony

text: S-type

text: rather than a carbonaceous

text: C-type

text: asteroid.

text: Deep space exploration (also deep-space exploration) is the term used for the exploration of deep space, within or away from the Solar System. It is the branch of astronomy, astronautics and space technology that is involved with exploring the distant regions of outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights (deep-space astronautics) and by robotic spacecraft.

text: Deep space exploration (also deep-space exploration) is the term used for the exploration of

text: deep space

text: , within or away from the

text: Solar System

text: . It is the branch of

text: astronomy

text: astronautics

text: and

text: space technology

text: that is involved with exploring the distant regions of outer space. Physical

text: exploration of space

text: is conducted both by

text: human spaceflight

text: s (deep-space astronautics) and by

text: robotic spacecraft

text: According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, the asteroid's surface has an albedo between 0.095 and 0.106. While the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with the space-based IRAS and Akari surveys on a diameter of approximately 27 kilometers, the results from WISE and NEOWISE found a larger diameter of 31.5 to 32.7 kilometers, respectively.

text: According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite

text: IRAS

text: , the Japanese

text: Akari

text: satellite, and NASA's

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: (WISE) with its subsequent

text: NEOWISE

text: mission, the asteroid's surface has an

text: albedo

text: between 0.095 and 0.106. While the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link agrees with the space-based IRAS and Akari surveys on a diameter of approximately 27 kilometers, the results from WISE and NEOWISE found a larger diameter of 31.5 to 32.7 kilometers, respectively.

text: CSTS (Crew Space Transportation System) or ACTS (Advanced Crew Transportation System) is a human spaceflight system proposal.  It was originally a joint project between the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Russian Space Agency (FKA), but is now solely an ESA project.  It aims to design a spacecraft for low Earth orbit operations such as servicing the International Space Station but also capable of exploration of the Moon and beyond. This study was conceived as a basic strategic plan to keep a viable European human space program alive because NASA officials had announced that NASA's Vision for Space Exploration Orion spacecraft, subsequently cancelled, would be developed without participation of international partners.

text: CSTS (Crew Space Transportation System) or ACTS (Advanced Crew Transportation System) is a

text: human spaceflight

text: system proposal.  It was originally a joint project between the

text: European Space Agency (ESA)

text: and the

text: Russian Space Agency (FKA)

text: , but is now solely an ESA project.  It aims to design a spacecraft for

text: low Earth orbit

text: operations such as servicing the

text: International Space Station

text: but also capable of exploration of the Moon and beyond. This study was conceived as a basic strategic plan to keep a viable European human space program alive because NASA officials had announced that NASA's

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: Orion spacecraft

text: , subsequently cancelled, would be developed without participation of international partners.

text: Several of the missions involved extravehicular activity (EVA), "space walks" or "Moon walks" outside of the spacecraft. These were of three types: testing the lunar EVA suit in Earth orbit (Apollo 9), exploring the lunar surface, and retrieving film canisters from the Scientific Instrument Module stored in the Service Module.

text: Several of the missions involved

text: extravehicular activity

text: (EVA), "space walks" or "Moon walks" outside of the spacecraft. These were of three types: testing the lunar EVA suit in Earth orbit (

text: Apollo 9

text: ), exploring the lunar surface, and retrieving film canisters from the

text: Scientific Instrument Module

text: stored in the Service Module.

text: John McConnell was born on March 22, 1915 in Davis City, Iowa. He was the son of a traveling Pentecostal evangelist. His first interest in the Earth began in 1939 while partnering with Albert Nobell, a chemist, in the Nobell Research Laboratory in Los Angeles that built a factory for manufacture of plastic. Realizing how much the manufacture of plastic polluted the Earth, his concern for ecology grew, notably during this time when concern for the environment was rare. Afterward, he was a lifetime believer in care of the environment, founded on his Christian passion for peace and love. Leading into World War II, he believed that love and prayer could be more powerful than bombs. "On October 31, 1957, right after the first Sputnik, John McConnell wrote an editorial entitled, "Make Our Satellite A Symbol Of Hope", calling for peaceful cooperation in the exploration of Space with a visible "Star of Hope" Satellite." Because of this event he was recognized all around the United States. This led him to create a Star of Hope organization to foster International Cooperation in Space.

text: John McConnell was born on March 22, 1915 in

text: Davis City, Iowa

text: . He was the son of a traveling Pentecostal evangelist. His first interest in the Earth began in 1939 while partnering with Albert Nobell, a chemist, in the Nobell Research Laboratory in Los Angeles that built a factory for manufacture of

text: plastic

text: . Realizing how much the manufacture of plastic polluted the Earth, his concern for

text: ecology

text: grew, notably during this time when concern for the environment was rare. Afterward, he was a lifetime believer in care of the environment, founded on his Christian passion for peace and love. Leading into

text: World War II

text: , he believed that love and prayer could be more powerful than bombs. "On October 31, 1957, right after the first

text: Sputnik

text: , John McConnell wrote an editorial entitled, "Make Our Satellite A Symbol Of Hope", calling for peaceful cooperation in the exploration of

text: Space

text: with a visible "Star of Hope" Satellite." Because of this event he was recognized all around the United States. This led him to create a Star of Hope organization to foster International Cooperation in Space.

text: To an observer on the earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky.  This is because it revolves around the earth at the earth's own angular velocity (360 degrees every 24 hours, in an equatorial orbit).

text: To an observer on the earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky.  This is because it revolves around the earth at the earth's own

text: angular velocity

text: (360 degrees every 24 hours, in an

text: equatorial orbit

text: After his return, his parents left Earth to find new worlds to colonize on the exploratory spaceship 'The Starfarer', and were not seen again. According to one version of his story, Chris then vowed to go to Space Academy so he could journey to find them when he was older, and after graduating from Space Academy '99' was appended to his name because of his 99% rating at the Academy, and he later became the greatest space explorer of his day. Another version of Chris's story has him not returning to Earth, but traveling in space to find the last surviving aliens to continue his training with them, appending the KL to his name in honor of the alien race, the K'l, and the 99 in acknowledgement that there were only 98 of the aliens left alive when he was with them. Whatever the correct version, accompanied by Halk, a Martian scientist (once Chief Scientist of Mars), Jero, a Venusian, and a pet chameleon dog, Loopy, whose color changes according to his mood, he discovered many alien worlds (and a sub-atomic universe) in his spaceship 'The Pioneer'. In recognition of his work, he was given the authority to protect the people of the new worlds he discovered from danger as 'Commissioner for Protection of Planetary Peoples'.

text: After his return, his parents left Earth to find new worlds to colonize on the exploratory spaceship 'The Starfarer', and were not seen again. According to one version of his story, Chris then vowed to go to Space Academy so he could journey to find them when he was older, and after graduating from Space Academy '99' was appended to his name because of his 99% rating at the Academy, and he later became the greatest space explorer of his day. Another version of Chris's story has him not returning to Earth, but traveling in space to find the last surviving aliens to continue his training with them, appending the KL to his name in honor of the alien race, the K'l, and the 99 in acknowledgement that there were only 98 of the aliens left alive when he was with them. Whatever the correct version, accompanied by Halk, a

text: Martian

text: scientist (once Chief Scientist of Mars), Jero, a

text: Venus

text: ian, and a pet chameleon dog, Loopy, whose color changes according to his mood, he discovered many alien worlds (and a sub-atomic universe) in his spaceship 'The Pioneer'. In recognition of his work, he was given the authority to protect the people of the new worlds he discovered from danger as 'Commissioner for Protection of Planetary Peoples'.

text: Communication satellites are an important part of global networks. However, there are specific low Earth orbit (LEO) global satellite constellations, such as Iridium, Globalstar and Orbcomm, which are comprised by dozens of similar satellites which are put in orbit at regularly spaced positions and form a mesh network, sometimes sending and receiving information directly among themselves. Using VSAT technology, satellite internet access has become possible.

text: Communication satellite

text: s are an important part of global networks. However, there are specific

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO) global

text: satellite constellation

text: s, such as

text: Iridium

text: Globalstar

text: and

text: Orbcomm

text: , which are comprised by dozens of similar satellites which are put in orbit at regularly spaced positions and form a

text: mesh network

text: , sometimes sending and receiving information directly among themselves. Using

text: VSAT

text: technology,

text: satellite internet access

text: has become possible.

text: The forest was started in 1976 by the city of Atchison and the Ninety-Nines, an international organization of women pilots. Fay Gillis Wells is credited as founder and original co-chairman. The forest contains trees representing all 50 American states and the 35 countries where honorees reside. Each tree has its own flag, and many have unique associations, including trees from George Washington's Mount Vernon, the Bicentennial American Spruce, a tree from Amelia Earhart's grandfather's farm, a redbud from President Dwight D. Eisenhower's farm, and an American sycamore grown from a seed taken to the moon by Command Module pilot Stuart Roosa on Apollo 14. The moon tree is dedicated to seventeen American astronauts who lost their lives furthering space exploration.

text: The forest was started in 1976 by the city of Atchison and the

text: Ninety-Nines

text: , an international organization of women pilots.

text: Fay Gillis Wells

text: is credited as founder and original co-chairman. The forest contains trees representing all 50 American states and the 35 countries where honorees reside. Each tree has its own flag, and many have unique associations, including trees from

text: George Washington

text: 's

text: Mount Vernon

text: , the Bicentennial American

text: Spruce

text: , a tree from

text: Amelia Earhart

text: 's grandfather's farm, a redbud from President

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: 's farm, and an

text: American sycamore

text: grown from a seed taken to the moon by

text: Command Module

text: pilot

text: Stuart Roosa

text: on

text: Apollo 14

text: . The

text: moon tree

text: is dedicated to seventeen American

text: astronaut

text: s who lost their lives furthering space exploration.

text: The S-type asteroid is a member of the Eos family, thought to have formed from a catastrophic collision of its parent body resulting in more than 4,000 known members of the family. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8–3.3 AU once every 5 years and 3 months (1,919 days). Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.09 and is tilted by 10 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. It has an albedo of 0.13–0.18, according to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, IRAS, and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer missions.

text: The

text: S-type

text: asteroid is a member of the

text: Eos family

text: , thought to have formed from a catastrophic collision of its parent body resulting in more than 4,000 known members of the family. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8–3.3

text: AU

text: once every 5 years and 3 months (1,919 days). Its orbit shows an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.09 and is

text: tilted

text: by 10 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: . It has an

text: albedo

text: of 0.13–0.18, according to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite,

text: IRAS

text: , and the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: missions.

text: No Man's Sky is a first-person, open world survival game that allows players to engage in four principal activities: exploration, survival, combat, and trading. Players take the role of a planetary explorer, called in game as the Traveller, in an uncharted universe. They start on a random planet near a crashed spacecraft at the edge of the galaxy, and are equipped with a survival exosuit with a jetpack, and a "multitool" that can be used to scan, mine and collect resources as well as to attack or defend oneself from creatures and hostile forces. The player can collect, repair, and refuel the craft, allowing them to travel about the planet, between other planets and space stations in the local solar system, engage in space combat with alien factions, or make hyperspace jumps to other star systems. While the game is open-ended, the player may follow the guidance of the entity known as the Atlas to head towards the center of the galaxy.

text: No Man's Sky is a

text: first-person

text: open world

text: survival game

text: that allows players to engage in four principal activities: exploration, survival, combat, and trading. Players take the role of a planetary explorer, called in game as the Traveller, in an uncharted universe. They start on a random planet near a crashed spacecraft at the edge of the galaxy, and are equipped with a survival exosuit with a jetpack, and a "multitool" that can be used to scan, mine and collect resources as well as to attack or defend oneself from creatures and hostile forces. The player can collect, repair, and refuel the craft, allowing them to travel about the planet, between other planets and space stations in the local solar system, engage in space combat with alien factions, or make

text: hyperspace

text: jumps to other star systems. While the game is open-ended, the player may follow the guidance of the entity known as the Atlas to head towards the center of the galaxy.

text: Various types of spaceplanes have been suggested since the early twentieth century. Notable early designs include Friedrich Zander's spaceplane equipped with wings made of combustible alloys that it would burn during its ascent, and Eugen Sänger's Silbervogel bomber design. Also in Nazi Germany and then in the USA, winged versions of the V-2 rocket were considered during and after World War II, and when public interest in space exploration was high in the 1950s and '60s, winged rocket designs by Wernher von Braun and Willy Ley served to inspire science fiction artists and filmmakers.

text: Various types of spaceplanes have been suggested since the early twentieth century. Notable early designs include

text: Friedrich Zander

text: 's spaceplane equipped with wings made of combustible alloys that it would burn during its ascent, and

text: Eugen Sänger

text: 's

text: Silbervogel

text: bomber

text: design. Also in

text: Nazi Germany

text: and then in the USA, winged versions of the

text: rocket were considered during and after

text: World War II

text: , and when public interest in space exploration was high in the 1950s and '60s, winged rocket designs by

text: Wernher von Braun

text: and

text: Willy Ley

text: served to inspire

text: science fiction

text: artists and filmmakers.

text: In February 1977, the  OV-101 test vehicle began glide tests. OV-101 was christened space shuttle Enterprise after a concerted letter-writing campaign by Star Trek fans. Like the shuttlecraft of Star Trek: The Original Series, the Space Shuttle orbiters were used interchangeably to carry crew, cargo or exploration payloads. In orbital missions from 1981 to 2011, the Space Shuttle became symbolic of humanity's reach into Space.

text: In February 1977, the  OV-101 test vehicle began glide tests. OV-101 was christened

text: space shuttle Enterprise

text: after a concerted letter-writing campaign by Star Trek fans. Like the shuttlecraft of Star Trek: The Original Series, the Space Shuttle orbiters were used interchangeably to carry crew, cargo or exploration payloads. In orbital missions from 1981 to 2011, the

text: Space Shuttle

text: became symbolic of humanity's reach into Space.

text: While at NASA, Newell drafted the first national plan for unmanned exploration of the moon and planets, developed NASA's procedure for scientific experiment selection, and was responsible for NASA's university programs. His influence peaked in the 1963-1967 period, when his Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA) operated effectively as a nearly independent space program, not only selecting experiments and contracting for satellites and space probes but also contracting for launch vehicles and acting as the "executive agent" for space launch for other U.S. and allied agencies. The first civil weather, communications, and earth resources satellites date from this period.

text: Taking place in S.D 368 (A.D 2454), 2 years after Star Ocean: The Second Story and the defeat of the 10 Wise Men, all the characters have since moved on with their lives. Claude has taken Rena, Leon, and Precis to live on Earth with him. While constantly being sent on missions into space, Claude's relationship with Rena doesn't change much at all. Ashton, Celine, Dias, Noel, Chisato, and Bowman still live on Planet Expel. Ernest and Opera are treasure hunting when their ship crash lands on Planet Edifice. Opera manages to send out an S.O.S. to Precis, who then rounds up the entire gang (sans Claude and Rena, who are on a Federation mission) in her self-built ship and heads to the planet. They are also mysteriously pulled down through the planet's atmosphere and crash-land. They decide to explore their surroundings and search for their missing comrades, hoping that Claude and Rena will rescue them, but they too crash-land on Edifice later on in the game.

text: Taking place in S.D 368 (A.D 2454), 2 years after

text: Star Ocean: The Second Story

text: and the defeat of the 10 Wise Men, all the characters have since moved on with their lives. Claude has taken Rena, Leon, and Precis to live on Earth with him. While constantly being sent on missions into space, Claude's relationship with Rena doesn't change much at all. Ashton, Celine, Dias, Noel, Chisato, and Bowman still live on Planet Expel. Ernest and Opera are treasure hunting when their ship crash lands on Planet Edifice. Opera manages to send out an S.O.S. to Precis, who then rounds up the entire gang (sans Claude and Rena, who are on a Federation mission) in her self-built ship and heads to the planet. They are also mysteriously pulled down through the planet's atmosphere and crash-land. They decide to explore their surroundings and search for their missing comrades, hoping that Claude and Rena will rescue them, but they too crash-land on Edifice later on in the game.

text: The space rocket industry in Ukraine has been managed by the National Space Agency of Ukraine since 1992. The agency includes 30 enterprises, scientific research institutes, and design offices. Pivdenne Design Bureau is in general responsible for creating the Zenit-3SL carrier rocket. The National Space Agency of Ukraine is involved in cooperation with American Rockwell Int., as well as the Sea Launch project. The first stage core of the U.S. Orbital ATK Antares rocket was designed and is manufactured in Ukraine by Yuzhnoye SDO.

text: The space rocket industry in Ukraine has been managed by the

text: National Space Agency of Ukraine

text: since 1992. The agency includes 30 enterprises, scientific research institutes, and design offices.

text: Pivdenne Design Bureau

text: is in general responsible for creating the

text: carrier rocket. The National Space Agency of Ukraine is involved in cooperation with American

text: Rockwell Int.

text: , as well as the

text: Sea Launch

text: project. The

text: first stage core

text: of the U.S.

text: Orbital ATK

text: Antares

text: rocket was designed and is manufactured in Ukraine by

text: Yuzhnoye SDO

text: Although provision for the rocket engine was retained, by this time the day of the high-altitude bomber seemed to be over, and the SEPR rocket engine was rarely or never fitted in practice. In the first place, it required removal of the aircraft's cannon, and in the second, apparently it had a reputation for setting the aircraft on fire. The space for the rocket engine was used for additional fuel, and the rocket nozzle was replaced by a ventral fin at first, and an airfield arresting assembly later.

text: The Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC) was opened officially on 2 May 2012 as Ghana’s first space science, space exploration, astronomy and technology space agency. GSSTC and Ghana Space Agency (GhSA) aims to become an arena of excellence in space science, space exploration and space technology through teaching, learning, private spaceflight and space research commercialisation. The centre and space agency will also allow scientists and astronauts to conduct research into natural resource management, weather forecasting, agriculture and national security.

text: The Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC) was opened officially on 2 May 2012 as Ghana’s first

text: space science

text: space exploration

text: astronomy

text: and technology

text: space agency

text: . GSSTC and Ghana Space Agency (GhSA) aims to become an arena of excellence in space science, space exploration and

text: space technology

text: through teaching, learning,

text: private spaceflight

text: and space research commercialisation. The centre and

text: space agency

text: will also allow scientists and astronauts to conduct research into natural resource management, weather forecasting, agriculture and national security.

text: Sputnik Islands is a pair of ice-covered islands, one much larger than the other, located between Capes Cheetham and Williams in the entrance to Ob' Bay. The islands were photographed from the air by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump, 1946-47. Surveyed by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition, 1958, and named after the first Soviet artificial earth satellite.

text: Sputnik Islands is a pair of ice-covered islands, one much larger than the other, located between

text: Capes Cheetham

text: and

text: Williams

text: in the entrance to

text: Ob' Bay

text: . The islands were photographed from the air by

text: U.S. Navy Operation Highjump

text: , 1946-47. Surveyed by the

text: Soviet Antarctic Expedition

text: , 1958, and named after the first Soviet artificial earth satellite.

text: For a spacecraft to reach the Moon, Earth escape velocity of  is not required, but a velocity close to this places the craft into an Earth orbit with a very high apogee which, if launched at the correct time, takes it to a point where the Moon's gravity will capture it.

text: For a spacecraft to reach the Moon,

text: Earth escape velocity

text: of  is not required, but a velocity close to this places the craft into an Earth orbit with a very high

text: apogee

text: which, if launched at the correct time, takes it to a point where the Moon's gravity will capture it.

text: Interplanetary Flight: An Introduction to Astronautics is a short, modestly technical introduction to space exploration written by Arthur C. Clarke, and published in 1950. It includes material accessible to readers with a high-school level of science and technical education, covering the elements of orbital mechanics, rocket design and performance, various applications of Earth satellites, a discussion of the more interesting and accessible destinations in the Solar System (such as they were understood at the time of writing),  and in a final chapter covering the rationale and value of human expansion off the Earth.

text: Interplanetary Flight: An Introduction to Astronautics is a short, modestly technical introduction to

text: space exploration

text: written by

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: , and published in 1950. It includes material accessible to readers with a high-school level of science and technical education, covering the elements of

text: orbital mechanics

text: rocket

text: design and performance, various applications of Earth

text: satellite

text: s, a discussion of the more interesting and accessible destinations in the Solar System (such as they were understood at the time of writing),  and in a final chapter covering the rationale and value of human expansion off the Earth.

text: Historically, there has been a long history of cooperation between the Soviet Union and India in Space. Examples include Aryabhata it was India's first satellite, named after an Indian astronomer of the same name. It was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Kosmos-3M launch vehicle. During President Vladimir Putin's visit to India in December 2004, two space-related bilateral agreements were signed viz. Inter-Governmental umbrella Agreement on co-operation in the outer space for peaceful purposes and the Inter Space Agency Agreement on co-operation in the Russian satellite navigation system GLONASS. Subsequently, a number of follow-up agreements on GLONASS have been signed. In November 2007, the two countries have signed an agreement on joint lunar exploration. These space co-operation programmes are under implementation.Chandrayaan-2 is a joint lunar exploration mission proposed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA) and has a projected cost of 4.25 billion (US$90 million). The mission, proposed to be launched in 2017 by a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) launch vehicle, includes a lunar orbiter and a rover made in India as well as one lander built by Russia.

text: Historically, there has been a long history of cooperation between the Soviet Union and India in Space. Examples include

text: Aryabhata

text: it was India's first

text: satellite

text: , named after an Indian

text: astronomer

text: of the

text: same name

text: . It was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from

text: Kapustin Yar

text: using a

text: launch vehicle. During President

text: Vladimir Putin

text: 's visit to India in December 2004, two space-related bilateral agreements were signed viz. Inter-Governmental umbrella Agreement on co-operation in the outer space for peaceful purposes and the Inter Space Agency Agreement on co-operation in the Russian satellite navigation system

text: GLONASS

text: . Subsequently, a number of follow-up agreements on GLONASS have been signed. In November 2007, the two countries have signed an agreement on joint lunar exploration. These space co-operation programmes are under implementation.

text: is a joint lunar exploration mission proposed by the

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: (ISRO) and the

text: Russian Federal Space Agency

text: (RKA) and has a projected cost of 4.25 billion (US$90 million). The mission, proposed to be launched in 2017 by a

text: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: (GSLV) launch vehicle, includes a lunar orbiter and a rover made in India as well as one lander built by Russia.

text: Ansari is a member of the X PRIZE Foundation’s Vision Circle, as well as its Board of Trustees. Along with her brother-in-law, Amir Ansari, she made a multimillion-dollar contribution to the X PRIZE foundation on May 5, 2004, the 43rd anniversary of Alan Shepard's sub-orbital spaceflight. The X PRIZE was officially renamed the Ansari X PRIZE in honor of their donation. As demonstrated by her commitment to the X PRIZE and through presentations at Space Enthusiast conferences, Ansari is a spokesperson for the "privatization of space", a process enabling commercially viable companies to government-independently send equipment and/or people into space for exploration and other purposes.

text: Ansari is a member of the X PRIZE Foundation’s Vision Circle, as well as its Board of Trustees. Along with her brother-in-law,

text: Amir Ansari

text: , she made a multimillion-dollar contribution to the X PRIZE foundation on May 5, 2004, the 43rd anniversary of

text: Alan Shepard

text: 's sub-orbital spaceflight. The X PRIZE was officially renamed the Ansari X PRIZE in honor of their donation. As demonstrated by her commitment to the X PRIZE and through presentations at Space Enthusiast conferences, Ansari is a spokesperson for the "privatization of space", a process enabling commercially viable companies to government-independently send equipment and/or people into space for exploration and other purposes.

text: On 31 August 2010, an experiment by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) on space tether experiment called "Tether Technologies Rocket Experiment" (T-REX), sponsored by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (ISAS/JAXA), was launched on sounding rocket S-520-25 from Uchinoura Space Center, Japan, reaching a maximum altitude of 309 km. T-Rex was developed by an international team led by the Kanagawa Institute of Technology/Nihon University to test a new type of electrodynamic tether (EDT). The 300–m tape tether deployed as scheduled and a video of deployment was transmitted to the ground. Successful tether deployment was verified, as was the fast ignition of a hollow cathode in the space environment.

text: On 31 August 2010, an experiment by the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA) on space tether experiment called "Tether Technologies Rocket Experiment" (T-REX), sponsored by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (ISAS/JAXA), was launched on sounding rocket S-520-25 from

text: Uchinoura Space Center

text: , Japan, reaching a maximum altitude of 309 km. T-Rex was developed by an international team led by the Kanagawa Institute of Technology/Nihon University to test a new type of electrodynamic tether (EDT). The 300–m tape tether deployed as scheduled and a video of deployment was transmitted to the ground. Successful tether deployment was verified, as was the fast ignition of a hollow cathode in the space environment.

text: A geocentric orbit or Earth orbit involves any object orbiting the Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. In 1997 NASA estimated there were approximately 2,465 artificial satellite payloads orbiting the Earth and 6,216 pieces of space debris as tracked by the Goddard Space Flight Center. Over 16,291 previously launched objects have decayed into the Earth's atmosphere.

text: A geocentric orbit or Earth orbit involves any object

text: orbit

text: ing the

text: Earth

text: , such as the

text: Moon

text: or

text: artificial satellite

text: s. In 1997 NASA estimated there were approximately 2,465 artificial satellite payloads orbiting the Earth and 6,216 pieces of

text: space debris

text: as tracked by the

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: . Over 16,291 previously launched objects have

text: decayed

text: into the Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: The next 20 years were filled with speculation as to the formations' true nature, as they appeared to be symmetrically spaced and uniform in shape, looking like a series of eight or more pyramids, in at least four rows of two. In August 1996 Boston-based explorer Gregory Deyermenjian of The Explorers Club, along with Peruvian partners Paulino Mamani, Dante Núñez del Prado, Fernando Neuenschwander, Ignacio Mamani, and Machiguenga "Roberto", his wife "Grenci" and their baby daughter "Reina", were first to make an on-site exploration. Their survey identified Paratoari as natural sandstone formations, not as symmetrical in placement or as uniform in size as suggested by their image on the satellite photograph, and without any sign of the influence of ancient culture.

text: The next 20 years were filled with speculation as to the formations' true nature, as they appeared to be symmetrically spaced and uniform in shape, looking like a series of eight or more pyramids, in at least four rows of two. In August 1996

text: Boston

text: -based explorer

text: Gregory Deyermenjian

text: of

text: The Explorers Club

text: , along with Peruvian partners Paulino Mamani, Dante Núñez del Prado, Fernando Neuenschwander, Ignacio Mamani, and Machiguenga "Roberto", his wife "Grenci" and their baby daughter "Reina", were first to make an on-site exploration. Their survey identified Paratoari as natural

text: sandstone

text: formations, not as symmetrical in placement or as uniform in size as suggested by their image on the satellite photograph, and without any sign of the influence of ancient culture.

text: Ferris constructed gaseuous simulations of the atmospheres of Jupiter and Titan and analyzed their composition using a combination of photochemistry techniques, including x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and infrared spectroscopy. Information gained from these studies could then be directly compared to measurements of their respective planets. The analysis of atmospheric processes on other planets in our solar system not only benefits the ongoing space exploration efforts of NASA, it may also hold insight into the history of our own planet, revealing atmospheric processes that would have been important to the emergence of life on a prebiotic Earth.

text: Ferris constructed gaseuous simulations of the atmospheres of Jupiter and Titan and analyzed their composition using a combination of photochemistry techniques, including

text: x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy

text: and

text: infrared spectroscopy

text: . Information gained from these studies could then be directly compared to measurements of their respective planets. The analysis of atmospheric processes on other planets in our solar system not only benefits the ongoing space exploration efforts of NASA, it may also hold insight into the history of our own planet, revealing atmospheric processes that would have been important to the emergence of life on a prebiotic Earth.

text: X Band Satellite Communication operates in the part of the X band or Super High Frequency (SHF) spectrum which is designated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) for satellite communication, which is those frequencies in the range 7.25 GHz to 7.75 GHz (Space to Earth) and 7.9 GHz to 8.4 GHz (Earth to Space). The ITU Frequency allocation defines the primary use of this spectrum as Fixed satellite service (FSS) and a portion to Mobile Satellite Services (MSS), primarily used for ship based satellite communications.  UK Frequency Allocation Table (UK FAT) along with other NATO countries and some other countries’ (but not all) national frequency allocations tables, have an additional note detailing the primary allocation for government use.  It is important to note that the allocation of these frequencies and services is for government use and not, as commonly stated, military use.  The ITU and the UK Ofcom considers military use as just one part of government use.

text: X Band Satellite Communication operates in the part of the

text: X band

text: or

text: Super High Frequency

text: (SHF) spectrum which is designated by the

text: International Telecommunication Union

text: (ITU) for satellite communication, which is those frequencies in the range 7.25 GHz to 7.75 GHz (Space to Earth) and 7.9 GHz to 8.4 GHz (Earth to Space). The ITU

text: Frequency allocation

text: defines the primary use of this spectrum as

text: Fixed satellite service

text: (FSS) and a portion to Mobile Satellite Services (MSS), primarily used for ship based satellite communications.  UK Frequency Allocation Table (UK FAT) along with other

text: NATO

text: countries and some other countries’ (but not all) national frequency allocations tables, have an additional note detailing the primary allocation for government use.  It is important to note that the allocation of these frequencies and services is for government use and not, as commonly stated, military use.  The ITU and the UK

text: Ofcom

text: considers military use as just one part of government use.

text: Earth exploration-satellite service (also: meteorological-satellite radiocommunication service) is – according to Article 1.51 of the International Telecommunication Union´s (ITU) Radio Regulations (RR) – defined as «A radiocommunication service between earth stations and one or more space stations, which may include links between space stations, in which:

text: Earth exploration-satellite service (also: meteorological-satellite radiocommunication service) is – according to Article 1.51 of the

text: International Telecommunication Union´s

text: (ITU)

text: Radio Regulations

text: (RR) – defined as «A radiocommunication service between

text: earth station

text: s and one or more

text: space station

text: s, which may include links between space stations, in which:

text: In the original treatment by Chris Bryant and Allan Scott, the USS Enterprise investigates the disappearance of the USS DaVinci. Upon arriving at the last known location, they find no other ship, but Captain James T. Kirk is struck by electromagnetic waves and leaves the Enterprise in a shuttlecraft. He pilots it out into space and disappears. Three years pass and the Enterprise returns to the area under Captain Gregory Westlake, after picking up Spock, who had retired from Starfleet and returned to Vulcan. The crew discovers a previously hidden planet at the location where Kirk vanished. They believe it to be the planet of the Titans, a mythical and powerful alien race. However, the planet is being drawn into a black hole. The Klingons also want to claim the planet. Spock travels to the surface and finds Kirk, who has been living on the planet for three years. Together, they discover the planet is inhabited by the Cygnans, who destroyed the Titans. The planet and the Enterprise enter the black hole, with the Cygnans being destroyed in the process. The ship emerges in orbit of Earth during the Paleolithic era, and the crew teach early man to make fire, in effect becoming the Titans themselves, in essence a reference to 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968).  Planet of the Titans also explored the concept of the third eye, and was later compared to the appearance of the Greek Gods in the original series episode "Who Mourns for Adonais?".

text: In the original treatment by

text: Chris Bryant

text: and

text: Allan Scott

text: , the USS Enterprise investigates the disappearance of the USS DaVinci. Upon arriving at the last known location, they find no other ship, but Captain

text: James T. Kirk

text: is struck by electromagnetic waves and leaves the Enterprise in a

text: shuttlecraft

text: . He pilots it out into space and disappears. Three years pass and the Enterprise returns to the area under Captain Gregory Westlake, after picking up

text: Spock

text: , who had retired from

text: Starfleet

text: and returned to

text: Vulcan

text: . The crew discovers a previously hidden planet at the location where Kirk vanished. They believe it to be the planet of the

text: Titan

text: s, a mythical and powerful alien race. However, the planet is being drawn into a

text: black hole

text: . The

text: Klingon

text: s also want to claim the planet. Spock travels to the surface and finds Kirk, who has been living on the planet for three years. Together, they discover the planet is inhabited by the Cygnans, who destroyed the Titans. The planet and the Enterprise enter the black hole, with the Cygnans being destroyed in the process. The ship emerges in orbit of Earth during the

text: Paleolithic

text: era, and the crew teach early man to

text: make fire

text: , in effect becoming the Titans themselves, in essence a reference to

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey

text: (1968).  Planet of the Titans also explored the concept of the

text: third eye

text: , and was later compared to the appearance of the

text: Greek Gods

text: in the original series episode "

text: Who Mourns for Adonais?

text: The first artificial object sent into space was the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1, launched in 1957, which successfully orbited Earth until 4 January the following year. The American probe Explorer 6, launched in 1959, was the first satellite to image Earth from space.

text: The first artificial object sent into space was the Soviet satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: , launched in 1957, which successfully orbited Earth until 4 January the following year. The American probe

text: Explorer 6

text: , launched in 1959, was the first satellite to image Earth from space.

text: In most cases, the Laplace plane is very close to the equatorial plane of its primary planet (if the satellite is very close to its planet) or to the plane of the primary planet's orbit around the Sun (if the satellite is far away from its planet).  This is because the strength of the planet's perturbation on the satellite's orbit is much stronger for orbits close to the planet, but drops below the strength of the Sun's perturbation for orbits farther away.  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's equatorial plane include the satellites of Mars and the inner satellites of the giant planets.  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's orbital plane include Earth's Moon and the outer satellites of the giant planets.  Some satellites, such as Saturn's Iapetus, are situated in the transitional zone and have Laplace planes that are midway between their planet's equatorial plane and the plane of its solar orbit.

text: In most cases, the Laplace plane is very close to the equatorial plane of its primary planet (if the satellite is very close to its planet) or to the plane of the primary planet's orbit around the Sun (if the satellite is far away from its planet).  This is because the strength of the planet's perturbation on the satellite's orbit is much stronger for orbits close to the planet, but drops below the strength of the Sun's perturbation for orbits farther away.  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's equatorial plane include the

text: satellites of Mars

text: and the

text: inner satellites of the giant planets

text: .  Examples of satellites whose Laplace plane is close to their planet's orbital plane include Earth's

text: Moon

text: and the

text: outer satellites of the giant planets

text: .  Some satellites, such as Saturn's

text: Iapetus

text: , are situated in the transitional zone and have Laplace planes that are midway between their planet's equatorial plane and the plane of its solar orbit.

text: The genesis of TESS began as early as 2006, when a design was developed from private funding by individuals, Google, and The Kavli Foundation. In 2008, MIT proposed that TESS become a full NASA mission and submitted it for the Small Explorer program at Goddard Space Flight Center, but it was not selected. It was resubmitted in 2010 as an Explorers program mission, and was approved in 2013 as a Medium Explorer mission.

text: The genesis of TESS began as early as 2006, when a design was developed from private funding by individuals, Google, and

text: The Kavli Foundation

text: . In 2008, MIT proposed that TESS become a full NASA mission and submitted it for the

text: Small Explorer program

text: at

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: , but it was not selected. It was resubmitted in 2010 as an

text: Explorers program

text: mission, and was approved in 2013 as a Medium Explorer mission.

text: In Affordable Space Advantures, the player takes on the role of a customer who has purchased an "Affordable Space Adventure" from the company Uexplore.  The game begins with a video that describes a newly discovered planet ready to be explored by the company's customers, even promising to allow them to take ownership of and colonize their own individual piece of the planet.  It introduces the customer to the Small Craft, their own personal vehicle with which they will explore the planet's surface, and describes the process by which the customer is to be placed on and retrieved from the planet.  All along the way, Uexplore extols the virtues of its perfect safety record.

text: Svalbard Satellite Station () or SvalSat is a satellite ground station located on Platåberget near Longyearbyen in Svalbard, Norway. Opened in 1997, it is operated by Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT), a joint venture between Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace and the Norwegian Space Centre (NSC). SvalSat and KSAT's Troll Satellite Station (TrollSat) in Antarctica are the only ground stations that can see a low altitude polar orbiting satellite (e.g., in sun-synchronous orbit) on every revolution as the earth rotates. The facility consists of 31 multi-mission and customer-dedicated antennas which operate in the C, L, S and X bands. The station provides ground services to more satellites than any other facility in the world.

text: Svalbard Satellite Station () or SvalSat is a

text: satellite ground station

text: located on

text: Platåberget

text: near

text: Longyearbyen

text: in

text: Svalbard

text: , Norway. Opened in 1997, it is operated by

text: Kongsberg Satellite Services

text: (KSAT), a joint venture between

text: Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace

text: and the

text: Norwegian Space Centre

text: (NSC). SvalSat and KSAT's

text: Troll Satellite Station

text: (TrollSat) in Antarctica are the only ground stations that can see a low altitude

text: polar orbit

text: ing satellite (e.g., in

text: sun-synchronous orbit

text: ) on every revolution as the earth rotates. The facility consists of 31 multi-mission and customer-dedicated antennas which operate in the

text: C

text: L

text: S

text: and

text: X

text: bands. The station provides ground services to more satellites than any other facility in the world.

text: Reagan grew up in Hobbs, New Mexico, and has long been fascinated with the exploration of the sea and space.  As a child he saw one of the early moonwalks on television and knew that he wanted to be part of space exploration some day.

text: Reagan grew up in

text: Hobbs, New Mexico

text: , and has long been fascinated with the

text: exploration

text: of the sea and

text: space

text: .  As a child he saw one of the early

text: moonwalk

text: s on

text: television

text: and knew that he wanted to be part of

text: space exploration

text: some day.

text: Ley remained unconvinced by this skeptical attitude.  When he was old enough, he studied astronomy, physics, zoology, and paleontology at the University of Berlin. Ley explained, "I was never quite sure whether my studies would earn me the title of "zoologist" or "geologist," but I kept exploring, in a manner of speaking, looking especially into such corners as others had neglected."  He then became interested in spaceflight after reading Hermann Oberth's book Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ("The Rocket into Interplanetary Space").  Although it was a technical book that was difficult to understand, Ley worked through the calculations and concluded that outer space would soon become the next great frontier of human exploration.  Ley was so convinced by Oberth's book that he sat down (at the age of 19) to write a popularization of its contents.  He also began corresponding with every known rocket enthusiast in Europe, including Oberth himself.  After publishing Die Fahrt ins Weltall ("Travel in Outer Space") in 1926, Ley became one of the first members of Germany's amateur rocket group, the Verein für Raumschiffahrt (VfR – "Spaceflight Society") in 1927 and wrote extensively for its journal, Die Rakete ("The Rocket"). Ley would eventually become the group's Vice-President, during a time when it had no active President.  Meanwhile, he was writing hundreds of short articles about rockets for German and foreign newspapers.

text: Ley remained unconvinced by this skeptical attitude.  When he was old enough, he studied

text: astronomy

text: physics

text: zoology

text: , and

text: paleontology

text: at the

text: University of Berlin

text: . Ley explained, "I was never quite sure whether my studies would earn me the title of "zoologist" or "geologist," but I kept exploring, in a manner of speaking, looking especially into such corners as others had neglected."  He then became interested in spaceflight after reading

text: Hermann Oberth

text: 's book Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ("The Rocket into Interplanetary Space").  Although it was a technical book that was difficult to understand, Ley worked through the calculations and concluded that outer space would soon become the next great frontier of human exploration.  Ley was so convinced by Oberth's book that he sat down (at the age of 19) to write a popularization of its contents.  He also began corresponding with every known rocket enthusiast in Europe, including Oberth himself.  After publishing Die Fahrt ins Weltall ("Travel in Outer Space") in 1926, Ley became one of the first members of Germany's amateur rocket group, the

text: Verein für Raumschiffahrt

text: (VfR – "Spaceflight Society") in 1927 and wrote extensively for its journal, Die Rakete ("The Rocket"). Ley would eventually become the group's Vice-President, during a time when it had no active President.  Meanwhile, he was writing hundreds of short articles about rockets for German and foreign newspapers.

text: Four types of ICC carriers have flown into orbit aboard the Space Shuttle:

text: NASA aims to build on its partnerships with the U.S. commercial space industry that are developing new spacecraft and rockets capable of delivering cargo and soon, astronauts) to low Earth orbit. Recognizing United States industry's interest in reaching and exploring the Moon, the Agency has competitively selected three partners to spur commercial cargo transportation capabilities to the surface of the Moon.

text: The Group then agreed to produce and sell 60 JATO engines to the United States Army Air Corps. To do so they formed the Aerojet Engineering Corporation in March 1942, in which Parsons, Forman, Malina, von Kármán, and Summerfield each invested $250, opening their offices on Colorado Boulevard and bringing in Amo Smith as their engineer. Andrew G. Haley was recruited by von Kármán as their lawyer and treasurer. Although Aerojet was a for-profit operation that provided technology for military means, the founders' mentality was rooted in the ideal of using rockets for peaceful space exploration. As Haley recounted von Kármán requesting: "we will make the rockets—you must make the corporation and obtain the money. Later on you will have to see that we all behave well in outer space."

text: The Group then agreed to produce and sell 60 JATO engines to the

text: United States Army Air Corps

text: . To do so they formed the Aerojet Engineering Corporation in March 1942, in which Parsons, Forman, Malina, von Kármán, and Summerfield each invested $250, opening their offices on

text: Colorado Boulevard

text: and bringing in Amo Smith as their engineer.

text: Andrew G. Haley

text: was recruited by von Kármán as their lawyer and treasurer. Although Aerojet was a for-profit operation that provided technology for military means, the founders' mentality was rooted in the ideal of using rockets for peaceful space exploration. As Haley recounted von Kármán requesting: "we will make the rockets—you must make the corporation and obtain the money. Later on you will have to see that we all behave well in outer space."

text: Before a collision with space debris, the satellite was in a sun-synchronous circular orbit, 832 km high, with an inclination of 98.77 degrees, an orbital period of 101.3 min, and its own spin period of 5.6 seconds. In early 2013, the satellite was found to have a new orbit 120 m lower, a faster spin period of 2.1 seconds, and a different spin axis. The change was traced back to an event that occurred 22 Jan 2013 at 07:57 UTC; data from the United States’s Space Surveillance Network showed that within 10 seconds of that time BLITS was close to the predicted path of a fragment of the former Chinese Fengyun-1C satellite, with a relative velocity of 9.6 km/s between them. The Chinese government destroyed the Fengyun-1C, at an altitude of 865 km, on 11 Jan 2007 as a test of an anti-satellite missile which resulted in 2,300 to 15,000 debris pieces.

text: Before a collision with space debris, the satellite was in a sun-synchronous circular orbit, 832 km high, with an inclination of 98.77 degrees, an orbital period of 101.3 min, and its own spin period of 5.6 seconds. In early 2013, the satellite was found to have a new orbit 120 m lower, a faster spin period of 2.1 seconds, and a different spin axis. The change was traced back to an event that occurred 22 Jan 2013 at 07:57 UTC; data from the United States’s

entity_name: United States Space Surveillance Network

text: Space Surveillance Network

text: showed that within 10 seconds of that time BLITS was close to the predicted path of a fragment of the former Chinese

entity_name: 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test

text: satellite, with a relative velocity of 9.6 km/s between them. The Chinese government destroyed the Fengyun-1C, at an altitude of 865 km, on 11 Jan 2007 as a test of an anti-satellite missile which resulted in 2,300 to 15,000 debris pieces.

text: Currently he is a program officer at the Space Studies Board of the National Research Council in Washington, D.C.  In that capacity he has served as a study director for several studies for NASA.  These studies include "Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration," "Building a Better NASA Workforce: Meeting the Workforce Needs for the National Vision for Space Exploration," "Grading NASA's Solar System Exploration Program: A Midterm Report," "Opening New Frontiers in Space: Choices for the Next New Frontiers Announcement of Opportunity," and "Science Opportunities Provided by NASA's Constellation System."  He was recently the study director of a study to assess detection and mitigation strategies for near-Earth object hazards which produced the report "Defending Planet Earth: Near-Earth-Object Survey and Hazard Mitigation Strategies," and co-study director of an analysis of radioisotope power systems for robotic spacecraft.  He is currently assistant study director of the planetary science decadal survey.  He is also currently study director of a study on the future of NASA's spaceflight crew office, and a study of NASA's flight research projects, both for the Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board.

text: Currently he is a program officer at the Space Studies Board of the

entity_name: National Research Council (United States)

text: National Research Council

text: in Washington, D.C.  In that capacity he has served as a study director for several studies for NASA.  These studies include "Space Radiation Hazards and the Vision for Space Exploration," "Building a Better NASA Workforce: Meeting the Workforce Needs for the National Vision for Space Exploration," "Grading NASA's Solar System Exploration Program: A Midterm Report," "Opening New Frontiers in Space: Choices for the Next New Frontiers Announcement of Opportunity," and "Science Opportunities Provided by NASA's Constellation System."  He was recently the study director of a study to assess detection and mitigation strategies for near-Earth object hazards which produced the report "Defending Planet Earth: Near-Earth-Object Survey and Hazard Mitigation Strategies," and co-study director of an analysis of radioisotope power systems for robotic spacecraft.  He is currently assistant study director of the planetary science decadal survey.  He is also currently study director of a study on the future of NASA's spaceflight crew office, and a study of NASA's flight research projects, both for the Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board.

text: MRO is modeled after NASA's highly successful Mars Global Surveyor to conduct surveillance of Mars from orbit. Early specifications of the satellite included a large camera to take high resolution pictures of Mars. In this regard, James B. Garvin, the Mars exploration program scientist for NASA, proclaimed that MRO would be a "microscope in orbit". The satellite was also to include a visible-near-infrared spectrograph.

text: MRO is modeled after NASA's highly successful

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: to conduct surveillance of Mars from orbit. Early specifications of the satellite included a large camera to take high resolution pictures of Mars. In this regard,

text: James B. Garvin

text: , the Mars exploration program scientist for NASA, proclaimed that MRO would be a "microscope in orbit". The satellite was also to include a visible-near-infrared spectrograph.

text: At NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. since 1974, he first served as a NASA program manager in charge of long-range planning of deep space manned activities (flights beyond Earth orbit) and he was an ardent advocate of manned space exploration and SETI. While in NASA, he also worked with Gene Roddenberry as technical advisor to Paramount Pictures for Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979), contributing, among other things, the hypothetical theory behind the faster-than-light space warp drive and the promotional slogan "Space — The Human Adventure Is Just Beginning".

text: At NASA Headquarters,

text: Washington, D.C.

text: since 1974, he first served as a NASA program manager in charge of long-range planning of deep space manned activities (flights beyond Earth orbit) and he was an ardent advocate of manned space exploration and

entity_name: Search for extraterrestrial intelligence

text: SETI

text: . While in NASA, he also worked with

text: Gene Roddenberry

text: as technical advisor to

text: Paramount Pictures

text: for

text: Star Trek: The Motion Picture

text: (1979), contributing, among other things, the hypothetical theory behind the faster-than-light space warp drive and the promotional slogan "Space — The Human Adventure Is Just Beginning".

text: Although the concept had been explored since the late 1960s, the program formally commenced in 1972, and was the sole focus of NASA's manned operations after the final Apollo and Skylab flights in the mid-1970s. The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public in 1972 as a 'Space Truck' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in low Earth orbit during the 1980s and then be replaced by a new vehicle by the early 1990s. The stalled plans for a U.S. space station evolved into the International Space Station and was formally initiated in 1983 by U.S. President Ronald Reagan, but the ISS  suffered from long delays, design changes and cost over-runs  and forced the service life of the Space Shuttle to be extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired — serving twice as long than it was originally designed to do. In 2004, according to the President George W. Bush's Vision for Space Exploration, use of the Space Shuttle was to be focused almost exclusively on completing assembly of the ISS, which was far behind schedule at that point.

text: Although the concept had been explored since the late 1960s, the program formally commenced in 1972, and was the sole focus of NASA's manned operations after the final

text: Apollo

text: and

text: Skylab

text: flights in the mid-1970s. The Shuttle was originally conceived of and presented to the public in 1972 as a 'Space Truck' which would, among other things, be used to build a United States space station in

text: low Earth orbit

text: during the 1980s and then be replaced by a new vehicle by the early 1990s. The stalled plans for a U.S. space station evolved into the

text: International Space Station

text: and was formally initiated in 1983 by U.S. President

text: Ronald Reagan

text: , but the ISS  suffered from long delays, design changes and cost over-runs  and forced the service life of the Space Shuttle to be extended several times until 2011 when it was finally retired — serving twice as long than it was originally designed to do. In 2004, according to the President George W. Bush's

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , use of the Space Shuttle was to be focused almost exclusively on completing assembly of the ISS, which was far behind schedule at that point.

text: A Moon landing is the arrival of a spacecraft on the surface of the Moon. This includes both manned and unmanned (robotic) missions. The first human-made object to reach the surface of the Moon was the Soviet Union's Luna 2 mission, on 13 September 1959.

text: A Moon landing is the arrival of a

text: spacecraft

text: on the surface of the

text: Moon

text: . This includes both manned and unmanned (robotic) missions. The first human-made object to reach the surface of the Moon was the

text: Soviet Union

text: 's

text: Luna 2

text: mission, on 13 September 1959.

text: The original Space Race, which began in the mid-1950s and gave birth in earnest to spaceflight, was famously a manifestation of the then larger politico-economic competition between capitalism (represented by the United States) and communism (represented by the former Soviet Union).  For this reason, from the very beginning the American business establishment—particularly those bellwether private firms directly involved in the U.S. space program—has championed the private development of space and space activity for the ultimate good of society.  In 1961, writing as one of the deans of the American business establishment, Ralph J. Cordiner, then Chairman of General Electric (one of a handful of blue-chip, charter-prime contractors to NASA and the U.S. space program), contributed a chapter titled "Competitive Private Enterprise in Space" to the anthology Peacetime Uses of Outer Space. While recognizing at the time the realities of having to initially rely on the U.S. government's vast and convenient organization, resources, and power in order to effectively address the immediate Soviet space challenge, Cordiner nonetheless sounds a clarion call for private sector dominance—ultimately—of space activity, consistent with American capitalist ideals:

text: The original

text: Space Race

text: , which began in the mid-

text: and gave birth in earnest to spaceflight, was famously a manifestation of the then larger politico-economic competition between

text: capitalism

text: (represented by the

text: United States

text: ) and

text: communism

text: (represented by the former

text: Soviet Union

text: ).  For this reason, from the very beginning the American business establishment—particularly those bellwether private firms directly involved in the U.S. space program—has championed the private development of space and space activity for the ultimate good of society.  In 1961, writing as one of the deans of the American business establishment,

text: Ralph J. Cordiner

text: , then Chairman of

text: General Electric

text: (one of a handful of blue-chip, charter-prime contractors to NASA and the U.S. space program), contributed a chapter titled "Competitive Private Enterprise in Space" to the anthology Peacetime Uses of Outer Space. While recognizing at the time the realities of having to initially rely on the U.S. government's vast and convenient organization, resources, and power in order to effectively address the immediate Soviet space challenge, Cordiner nonetheless sounds a clarion call for private sector dominance—ultimately—of space activity, consistent with American capitalist ideals:

text: In most industrial countries, the aerospace industry is a cooperation of public and private industries. For example, several countries have a civilian space program funded by the government through tax collection, such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration in the United States, European Space Agency in Europe, the Canadian Space Agency in Canada, Indian Space Research Organisation in India, Japanese Aeronautics Exploration Agency in Japan, RKA in Russia, China National Space Administration in China, SUPARCO in Pakistan, Iranian Space Agency in Iran, and Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) in South Korea.

text: In most industrial countries, the aerospace industry is a cooperation of public and private industries. For example, several countries have a civilian

text: space program

text: funded by the

text: government

text: through tax collection, such as

text: in the United States,

text: European Space Agency

text: in Europe, the

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: in Canada,

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: in India,

text: Japanese Aeronautics Exploration Agency

text: in Japan,

text: RKA

text: in Russia,

text: China National Space Administration

text: in China,

entity_name: Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission

text: SUPARCO

text: in Pakistan,

text: Iranian Space Agency

text: in Iran, and

text: Korea Aerospace Research Institute

text: (KARI) in South Korea.

text: De Camp's work with Ronne is reflected in two of his contemporary Viagens Interplanetarias science fiction stories set on the fictional planet Krishna. One, the short story "Calories," adopts an Antarctic setting not utilized in any of the series's other stories; in the other, the novel The Hand of Zei, the protagonist adopts the alias of an inhabitant of the planet's Antarctic and is, like de Camp, employed as a ghostwriter for his explorer boss.

text: De Camp's work with Ronne is reflected in two of his contemporary

text: Viagens Interplanetarias

text: science fiction stories set on the fictional planet Krishna. One, the short story "

text: Calories

text: ," adopts an Antarctic setting not utilized in any of the series's other stories; in the other, the novel

text: The Hand of Zei

text: , the protagonist adopts the alias of an inhabitant of the planet's Antarctic and is, like de Camp, employed as a ghostwriter for his explorer boss.

text: The moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) is a payload scientific instrument built by Santa Barbara Remote Sensing that was launched into Earth orbit by NASA in 1999 on board the Terra (EOS AM) Satellite, and in 2002 on board the Aqua (EOS PM) satellite. The instruments capture data in 36 spectral bands ranging in wavelength from 0.4 µm to 14.4 µm and at varying spatial resolutions (2 bands at 250 m, 5 bands at 500 m and 29 bands at 1 km). Together the instruments image the entire Earth every 1 to 2 days. They are designed to provide measurements in large-scale global dynamics including changes in Earth's cloud cover, radiation budget and processes occurring in the oceans, on land, and in the lower atmosphere. MODIS utilizes four on-board calibrators in addition to the space view in order to provide in-flight calibration: solar diffuser (SD), solar diffuser stability monitor (SDSM), spectral radiometric calibration assembly (SRCA), and a v-groove black body. MODIS has used the marine optical buoy for vicarious calibration. MODIS is succeeded by the VIIRS instrument on board the Suomi NPP satellite launched in 2011 and future Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) satellites.

text: The moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) is a

text: payload

text: scientific instrument built by Santa Barbara Remote Sensing that was launched into

text: Earth orbit

text: by

text: NASA

text: in 1999 on board the

text: Terra

text: EOS

text: AM) Satellite, and in 2002 on board the

text: Aqua

text: (EOS PM) satellite. The instruments capture data in 36 spectral bands ranging in wavelength from 0.4

text: µm

text: to 14.4 µm and at varying spatial resolutions (2 bands at 250 m, 5 bands at 500 m and 29 bands at 1 km). Together the instruments image the entire Earth every 1 to 2 days. They are designed to provide measurements in large-scale global dynamics including changes in Earth's

text: cloud cover

text: radiation budget

text: and processes occurring in the oceans, on land, and in the lower atmosphere. MODIS utilizes four on-board calibrators in addition to the space view in order to provide in-flight calibration: solar diffuser (SD), solar diffuser stability monitor (SDSM), spectral radiometric calibration assembly (SRCA), and a v-groove

text: black body

text: . MODIS has used the

text: marine optical buoy

text: for vicarious calibration. MODIS is succeeded by the

entity_name: Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite

text: VIIRS

text: instrument on board the

text: Suomi NPP

text: satellite launched in 2011 and future

text: Joint Polar Satellite System

text: (JPSS) satellites.

text: Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) is a NASA Explorers program Solar and space exploration mission to study matter comprising energetic particles from the solar wind, the interplanetary medium, and other sources. Real-time data from ACE is used by the NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center to improve forecasts and warnings of solar storms. The ACE robotic spacecraft was launched August 25, 1997 and entered a Lissajous orbit close to the  Lagrangian point (which lies between the Sun and the Earth at a distance of some 1.5 million km from the latter) on December 12, 1997. The spacecraft is currently operating at that orbit. Because ACE is in a non-Keplerian orbit, and has regular station-keeping maneuvers, the orbital parameters in the adjacent information box are only approximate.  The spacecraft is still in generally good condition in 2015, and is projected to have enough fuel to maintain its orbit until 2024.  NASA Goddard Space Flight Center managed the development and integration of the ACE spacecraft.

text: Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) is a

text: NASA

text: Explorers program

text: Solar and

text: space exploration

text: mission to study

text: matter

text: comprising energetic particles from the

text: solar wind

text: , the

text: interplanetary medium

text: , and other sources. Real-time data from ACE is used by the

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: NOAA

text: Space Weather Prediction Center

text: to improve forecasts and warnings of solar storms. The ACE

text: robotic spacecraft

text: was launched August 25, 1997 and entered a

text: Lissajous orbit

text: close to the

text: Lagrangian point

text: (which lies between the Sun and the Earth at a distance of some 1.5 million km from the latter) on December 12, 1997. The spacecraft is currently operating at that orbit. Because ACE is in a non-Keplerian orbit, and has regular station-keeping maneuvers, the orbital parameters in the adjacent information box are only approximate.  The spacecraft is still in generally good condition in 2015, and is projected to have enough fuel to maintain its orbit until 2024.  NASA

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: managed the development and integration of the ACE spacecraft.

text: A rocket or rocket vehicle is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle which obtains thrust from a rocket engine. In all rockets, the exhaust is formed entirely from propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines work by action and reaction. Rocket engines push rockets forwards simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast.

text: A

text: rocket

text: or rocket vehicle is a

text: missile

text: , spacecraft,

text: aircraft

text: or other

text: vehicle

text: which obtains

text: thrust

text: from a

text: rocket engine

text: . In all rockets, the exhaust is formed entirely from

text: propellant

text: action and reaction

text: . Rocket engines push rockets forwards simply by throwing their exhaust backwards extremely fast.

text: The Space Explorers is an animated feature film which was later converted to a cartoon serial.  First shown on television during the Space Race era of the late 1950s by publisher Bill Cayton and animator Fred Ladd.  There was also a sequel series released in 1959 entitled the New Adventures of the Space Explorers.

text: The Space Explorers is an

text: animated

text: feature film

text: which was later converted to a cartoon

text: serial

text: .  First shown on television during the

text: Space Race

text: era of the late 1950s by publisher

text: Bill Cayton

text: and animator

text: Fred Ladd

text: .  There was also a sequel series released in 1959 entitled the New Adventures of the Space Explorers.

text: Sputnik Engineering produces string inverters and central inverters for all sizes of solar systems, from small systems for roofs to solar plants producing several megawatts. For small systems they offer string inverters from the S and P series of SolarMax with a nominal capacity from 2 to 5 kW and for medium-sized systems the MT series of SolarMax (8 to 15 kW). The central inverters Sputnik Engineering offers include the S series of SolarMax (20 to 35 kW), the TS series of SolarMax ( 50 to 300 kW), the TS-SV series of SolarMax (330 kW) and the power station (330 kW to 1.32 MW). Sputnik Engineering also develops accessories and solutions for data communication for the monitoring, planning, and control of photovoltaic systems.

text: Sputnik Engineering produces string inverters and central inverters for all sizes of solar systems, from small systems for roofs to solar plants producing several megawatts. For small systems they offer string inverters from the S and P series of SolarMax with a

text: nominal capacity

text: from 2 to 5 kW and for medium-sized systems the MT series of SolarMax (8 to 15 kW). The central inverters Sputnik Engineering offers include the S series of SolarMax (20 to 35 kW), the TS series of SolarMax ( 50 to 300 kW), the TS-SV series of SolarMax (330 kW) and the power station (330 kW to 1.32 MW). Sputnik Engineering also develops accessories and solutions for data communication for the monitoring, planning, and control of photovoltaic systems.

text: Explorer 10 (also known as Explorer X or P14) was an American Earth-orbital satellite that investigated Earth's magnetic fields and nearby plasma.  Launched on March 25, 1961, it was an early mission in the Explorer program and was the first satellite to measure the "shock wave" generated by a solar flare.

text: Explorer 10 (also known as Explorer X or P14) was an American Earth-

text: orbital

text: satellite that investigated Earth's magnetic fields and nearby plasma.  Launched on March 25, 1961, it was an early mission in the

text: Explorer program

text: and was the first satellite to measure the "shock wave" generated by a

text: solar flare

text: The initial plans for the Space Station envisaged a small, low-cost Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) that would provide emergency evacuation capability. The 1986 Challenger disaster led planners to consider a more capable spacecraft. The Orbital Space Plane (OSP) development got underway in 2001, with an early version expected to enter service by 2010. With the initiation of the Constellation program in 2004, the knowledge gained on the OSP was transferred to Johnson Space Center (JSC) for use in the development of the Crew Exploration Vehicle. No operational OSP was ever built.

text: The initial plans for the Space Station envisaged a small, low-cost

text: Crew Return Vehicle

text: (CRV) that would provide emergency evacuation capability. The 1986 Challenger disaster led planners to consider a more capable spacecraft. The

text: Orbital Space Plane

text: (OSP) development got underway in 2001, with an early version expected to enter service by 2010. With the initiation of the Constellation program in 2004, the knowledge gained on the OSP was transferred to Johnson Space Center (JSC) for use in the development of the

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: . No operational OSP was ever built.

text: •       2014: Producer and Director of Planet Explorer 4 Greece and Planet Explorer 5 Morocco

text: The game is structured on the basis of  voxels, giving it its sandbox nature and allowing gamers to craft and manipulate anything in its world, from small objects such as weapons to cities and comparably big structures. Central to the game are the removal and addition of matter to the landscape, as well as the building of space stations, which can extend as large as the expanse of an entire planet. The game also counts with space exploration, mining, and combat. The game's autonomous systems (such as engines or resource gathering) in turn play with concepts like energy consumption or the interconnection among machinery.

text: The game is structured on the basis of

text: voxel

text: s, giving it its sandbox nature and allowing gamers to craft and manipulate anything in its world, from small objects such as weapons to cities and comparably big structures. Central to the game are the removal and addition of matter to the landscape, as well as the building of space stations, which can extend as large as the expanse of an entire planet. The game also counts with space exploration, mining, and combat. The game's autonomous systems (such as engines or resource gathering) in turn play with concepts like energy consumption or the interconnection among machinery.

text: The Soviets' Mars program and NASA's Mariner program became the two first successful space programs that intended to explore Mars through orbiters. Mars 2, Mars 3 and Mariner 9 were all launched into space in May 1971, and all entered Mars’ orbit that same year. NASA's Mariner 9 reached the planet's orbit first on November 14, narrowly beating the Soviet's spacecraft amid the space race, and subsequently became the first spacecraft to orbit another planet.

text: The

text: Soviets

text: Mars program

text: and

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Mariner program

text: became the two first successful space programs that intended to

text: explore

text: Mars

text: through

text: orbiter

text: s.

text: Mars 2

text: Mars 3

text: and

text: Mariner 9

text: were all launched into space in May 1971, and all entered Mars’ orbit that same year. NASA's Mariner 9 reached the planet's orbit first on November 14, narrowly beating the Soviet's spacecraft amid the

text: space race

text: , and subsequently became the first spacecraft to orbit another planet.

text: The nodal module is intended to serve as the only permanent element of OPSEK, a Russian space station intended to support deep space manned exploration missions to Mars, possibly the Moon, and Saturn. Other OPSEK modules will be replaced as they reach the end of their useful life, whilst the Uzlovoy Module will be refurbished on orbit for an extended period.

text: The nodal module is intended to serve as the only permanent element of

entity_name: Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex

text: OPSEK

text: , a Russian space station intended to support deep space manned exploration missions to Mars, possibly the Moon, and Saturn. Other OPSEK modules will be replaced as they reach the end of their useful life, whilst the Uzlovoy Module will be refurbished on orbit for an extended period.

text: On 5 May 2015, NASA announced a program based at the Kennedy Space Center dedicated to develop a new class of rockets designed specifically to launch very small satellites: the NASA Venture Class Launch Services (VCLS), which will offer a payload mass of 30 kg to 60 kg for each launcher. Five months later, in October 2015, NASA awarded a total of $17.1 million to three separate startup launch companies for one flight each: $6.9 million to Rocket Lab (Electron rocket); $5.5 million to Firefly Space Systems (Alpha rocket); and $4.7 million to Virgin Galactic (LauncherOne rocket). The payloads for the three flights under the VCLS contract have not yet been assigned. Other small satellite launch systems are under development that would carry CubeSats alongside a small payload, including the Neptune series of rockets by Interorbital Systems, Garvey Spacecraft's Nanosat Launch Vehicle, and the SPARK rocket. In addition to conventional launch vehicles, several air launch to orbit vehicles are in the works by Swiss Space Systems, Generation Orbit Launch Services, and Boeing (in the form of their Small Launch Vehicle).

text: On 5 May 2015,

text: NASA

text: announced a program based at the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: dedicated to develop a new class of rockets designed specifically to launch very small satellites: the NASA

text: Venture Class Launch Services

text: (VCLS), which will offer a payload mass of 30 kg to 60 kg for each launcher. Five months later, in October 2015, NASA awarded a total of $17.1 million to three separate startup launch companies for one flight each: $6.9 million to

text: Rocket Lab

text: Electron rocket

text: ); $5.5 million to

text: Firefly Space Systems

text: Alpha rocket

text: ); and $4.7 million to

text: Virgin Galactic

text: LauncherOne rocket

text: ). The payloads for the three flights under the VCLS contract have not yet been assigned. Other small satellite launch systems are under development that would carry CubeSats alongside a small payload, including the Neptune series of rockets by

text: Interorbital Systems

text: Garvey Spacecraft

text: 's Nanosat Launch Vehicle, and the

text: SPARK

text: rocket. In addition to conventional launch vehicles, several

text: air launch to orbit

text: vehicles are in the works by

text: Swiss Space Systems

text: Generation Orbit Launch Services

text: , and

text: Boeing

text: (in the form of their

text: Small Launch Vehicle

text: PSLV-C28 (a.k.a. DMC3 mission) was the 29th consecutive successful mission (overall 30th) of the PSLV program. The PSLV-C28 carried and successfully deployed 5 satellites in the Sun-synchronous orbit. With a launch mass of  and payload mass of payload mass , the C28 was the heaviest commercial mission undertaken by Indian Space Research Organisation and Antrix Corporation. The PSLV-C28 carried three identical optical earth observation satellites (DMC3-1, DMC3-2 & DMC3-3), an optical earth observation technology demonstrator micro satellite (CBNT-1) and an experimental nano satellite (De-orbitSail). All the satellites were built by Surrey Satellite Technology (SSTL). Although built by SSTL, the "De-orbitSail" belonged to the Surrey Space Centre.

text: PSLV-C28 (

text: a.k.a.

text: DMC3 mission) was the 29th consecutive successful mission (overall 30th) of the

text: PSLV

text: program. The PSLV-C28 carried and successfully deployed 5

text: satellite

text: s in the

text: Sun-synchronous orbit

text: . With a launch mass of  and payload mass of payload mass , the C28 was the heaviest commercial mission undertaken by

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: and

text: Antrix Corporation

text: . The PSLV-C28 carried three identical optical

text: earth observation satellite

text: s (

text: , DMC3-2 & DMC3-3), an optical

text: earth observation

text: technology demonstrator

text: micro satellite

text: (CBNT-1) and an experimental

text: nano satellite

text: (De-orbitSail). All the satellites were built by

text: Surrey Satellite Technology

text: (SSTL). Although built by SSTL, the "De-orbitSail" belonged to the Surrey Space Centre.

text: The National Space Organization (NSPO; formerly known as the National Space Program Office) is the national civilian space agency of Taiwan under the auspices of the ROC (Taiwan) Ministry of Science and Technology. NSPO is involved in the development of space exploration, satellite construction and development as well as related technologies and infrastructure (including the FORMOSAT series of Earth observation satellites) and related research in astronautics, quantum physics, materials science, aerospace engineering, remote sensing, astrophysics, atmospheric science, information science, space weapons, a Taiwanese manned spaceflight program and the deployment of space-based weapons for the defense of national security in Taiwan.

text: The National Space Organization (NSPO; formerly known as the National Space Program Office) is the national civilian space agency of

text: Taiwan

text: under the auspices of the

entity_name: Ministry of Science and Technology (Taiwan)

text: ROC (Taiwan) Ministry of Science and Technology

text: . NSPO is involved in the development of space exploration, satellite construction and development as well as related technologies and infrastructure (including the FORMOSAT series of

text: Earth observation satellite

text: s) and related research in

text: astronautics

text: quantum physics

text: materials science

text: aerospace engineering

text: remote sensing

text: astrophysics

text: atmospheric science

text: information science

text: space weapons

text: , a

text: Taiwanese manned spaceflight program

text: and the deployment of

text: space-based weapons

text: for the defense of

text: national security

text: in

text: Taiwan

text: of 0.7, a rocket flying at Mach 0.85 (which most aircraft cruise at) with an exhaust velocity of Mach 10, would have a predicted overall energy efficiency of 5.9%, whereas a conventional, modern, air-breathing jet engine achieves closer to 35% efficiency. Thus a rocket would need about 6x more energy; and allowing for the specific energy of rocket propellant being around one third that of conventional air fuel, roughly 18x more mass of propellant would need to be carried for the same journey. This is why rockets are rarely if ever used for general aviation.

text: It began as a U.S. Army proposal to place a scientific satellite into orbit during the International Geophysical Year (1957–58); however, that proposal was rejected in favor of the U.S. Navy's Project Vanguard. The Explorer program was later reestablished to catch up with the Soviet Union after that nation's launch of Sputnik 1 on October, 1957. Explorer 1 was launched January 31, 1958; at this time the project still belonged to ABMA and JPL. Besides being the first U.S. satellite, it is known for discovering the Van Allen radiation belt.

text: It began as a U.S. Army proposal to place a scientific satellite into orbit during the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: (1957–58); however, that proposal was rejected in favor of the U.S. Navy's

text: Project Vanguard

text: . The Explorer program was later reestablished to catch up with the Soviet Union after that nation's launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: on October, 1957.

text: Explorer 1

text: was launched January 31, 1958; at this time the project still belonged to ABMA and JPL. Besides being the first U.S. satellite, it is known for discovering the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: In the literary Solaris, Lem describes science's inadequacy in allowing humans to communicate with an alien life form, because certain forms, at least, of sentient extra-terrestrial life may operate well outside of human experience and understanding. In the cinematic Solaris, Tarkovsky concentrates upon Kelvin's feelings for his wife, Hari, and the impact of outer space exploration upon the human condition. Dr. Gibarian's monologue [from the novel's sixth chapter] is the highlight of the final library scene, wherein Snaut says, "We don't need other worlds. We need mirrors". Unlike the novel, which begins with psychologist Kris Kelvin's spaceflight, and occurs entirely on Solaris, the film shows Kelvin's visit to his parents' house in the country before leaving Earth for Solaris. The contrast establishes the worlds in which he lives –  a vibrantly living Earth versus an austere, closed-in space station orbiting the planet Solaris – demonstrating and questioning space exploration's impact upon the human psyche.

text: In the literary Solaris, Lem describes science's inadequacy in allowing humans to communicate with an

text: alien

text: life form, because certain forms, at least, of sentient

text: extra-terrestrial life

text: may operate well outside of human experience and understanding. In the cinematic Solaris, Tarkovsky concentrates upon Kelvin's feelings for his wife, Hari, and the impact of

text: outer space

text: exploration upon the human condition. Dr. Gibarian's monologue [from the novel's sixth chapter] is the highlight of the final library scene, wherein Snaut says, "We don't need other worlds. We need mirrors". Unlike the novel, which begins with psychologist Kris Kelvin's

text: spaceflight

text: , and occurs entirely on Solaris, the film shows Kelvin's visit to his parents' house in the country before leaving Earth for Solaris. The contrast establishes the worlds in which he lives –  a vibrantly living Earth versus an austere, closed-in space station orbiting the planet Solaris – demonstrating and questioning space exploration's impact upon the human

text: psyche

text: China entered the space race in 1970 with the launching of its first satellite, but technological backwardness and limited funds would prevent the country from becoming a significant force in space exploration. Japan launched a satellite for the first time in 1972. The European Space Agency was founded during the decade as well.

text: China entered the space race in 1970 with the launching of its first

text: satellite

text: , but technological backwardness and limited funds would prevent the country from becoming a significant force in space exploration. Japan launched a satellite for the first time in 1972. The

text: European Space Agency

text: was founded during the decade as well.

text: Larger rockets are normally launched from a launch pad that provides stable support until a few seconds after ignition. Due to their high exhaust velocity——rockets are particularly useful when very high speeds are required, such as orbital speed at approximately . Spacecraft delivered into orbital trajectories become artificial satellites, which are used for many commercial purposes. Indeed, rockets remain the only way to launch spacecraft into orbit and beyond. They are also used to rapidly accelerate spacecraft when they change orbits or de-orbit for landing. Also, a rocket may be used to soften a hard parachute landing immediately before touchdown (see retrorocket).

text: Larger rockets are normally launched from a

text: launch pad

text: that provides stable support until a few seconds after ignition. Due to their high exhaust velocity——rockets are particularly useful when very high speeds are required, such as orbital speed at approximately . Spacecraft delivered into orbital trajectories become

text: artificial satellites

text: , which are used for many commercial purposes. Indeed, rockets remain the only way to launch

text: spacecraft

text: into orbit and beyond. They are also used to rapidly accelerate spacecraft when they change orbits or de-orbit for

text: landing

text: . Also, a rocket may be used to soften a hard parachute landing immediately before touchdown (see

text: retrorocket

text: The late 1950s saw important developments in how the federal government could play  an increasing role in supporting interdisciplinary, collaborative research at academic institutions. The successful launch of the Russian space satellite Sputnik on October 4, 1957 had a profound impact on how scientific and technological research was carried out in the United States.  Within a year of this date the federal government established two new agencies: The National  Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA), which was to define US supported space exploration for the remainder of the century and beyond, and the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) within the Department of Defense.  ARPA was tasked with expanding the frontiers of technology and science, often with potential military applications. In addition, the National Defense Education Act of 1958 had the main purpose to greatly increase the number of trained engineers, scientists, and mathematicians, and included provisions for financial assistance.

text: The late 1950s saw important developments in how the federal government could play  an increasing role in supporting interdisciplinary, collaborative research at academic institutions. The successful launch of the Russian space satellite

text: Sputnik

text: on October 4, 1957 had a profound impact on how scientific and technological research was carried out in the United States.  Within a year of this date the federal government established two new agencies: The

text: National  Aeronautic and Space Administration

text: (NASA), which was to define US supported space exploration for the remainder of the century and beyond, and the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA, later

text: DARPA

text: ) within the Department of Defense.  ARPA was tasked with expanding the frontiers of technology and science, often with potential military applications. In addition, the

text: National Defense Education Act of 1958

text: had the main purpose to greatly increase the number of trained engineers, scientists, and mathematicians, and included provisions for financial assistance.

text: 1995: Sally Ride and Tam O'ShaughnessyCrown Publishers, Inc.The Third Planet: Exploring the Earth from Space

text: Sally Ride

text: and

text: Tam O'Shaughnessy

text: Crown Publishers, Inc.The Third Planet: Exploring the Earth from Space

text: Rocket engines employ the principle of jet propulsion. The rocket engines powering rockets come in a great variety of different types; a comprehensive list can be found in rocket engine. Most current rockets are chemically powered rockets (usually internal combustion engines, but some employ a decomposing monopropellant) that emit a hot exhaust gas. A rocket engine can use gas propellants, solid propellant, liquid propellant, or a hybrid mixture of both solid and liquid. Some rockets use heat or pressure that is supplied from a source other than the chemical reaction of propellant(s), such as steam rockets, solar thermal rockets, nuclear thermal rocket engines or simple pressurized rockets such as water rocket or cold gas thrusters. With combustive propellants a chemical reaction is initiated between the fuel and the oxidizer in the combustion chamber, and the resultant hot gases accelerate out of a rocket engine nozzle (or nozzles) at the rearward-facing end of the rocket. The acceleration of these gases through the engine exerts force ("thrust") on the combustion chamber and nozzle, propelling the vehicle (according to Newton's Third Law). This actually happens because the force (pressure times area) on the combustion chamber wall is unbalanced by the nozzle opening; this is not the case in any other direction. The shape of the nozzle also generates force by directing the exhaust gas along the axis of the rocket.

text: Rocket engines employ the principle of

text: jet propulsion

text: . The rocket engines powering rockets come in a great variety of different types; a comprehensive list can be found in

text: rocket engine

text: . Most current rockets are chemically powered rockets (usually

text: internal combustion engines

text: , but some employ a decomposing

text: monopropellant

text: ) that emit a hot

text: exhaust gas

text: . A rocket engine can use gas propellants,

text: solid propellant

text: liquid propellant

text: , or a

text: hybrid mixture of both solid and liquid

text: . Some rockets use heat or pressure that is supplied from a source other than the

text: chemical reaction

text: of propellant(s), such as

text: steam rocket

text: s,

text: solar thermal rocket

text: s,

text: nuclear thermal rocket

text: engines or simple pressurized rockets such as

text: water rocket

text: or

text: cold gas thruster

text: s. With combustive propellants a chemical reaction is initiated between the

text: fuel

text: and the

text: oxidizer

text: in the

text: combustion

text: chamber, and the resultant hot gases accelerate out of a

text: rocket engine nozzle

text: (or

text: nozzle

text: s) at the rearward-facing end of the rocket. The

text: acceleration

text: of these gases through the engine exerts force ("thrust") on the combustion chamber and nozzle, propelling the vehicle (according to

text: Newton's Third Law

text: ). This actually happens because the force (pressure times area) on the combustion chamber wall is unbalanced by the nozzle opening; this is not the case in any other direction. The shape of the nozzle also generates force by directing the exhaust gas along the axis of the rocket.

text: The Brazilian space program refers to the rocketry and space exploration programs conducted by Brazil from 1961 until the creation of the Brazilian Space Agency in 1994. It had significant capabilities in launch vehicles, launch sites, and satellite manufacturing. It was based at the National Institute for Space Research (INPE), under the Ministry of Science and Technology (MCT). The program was under complete military control, which hindered its development, as other countries (such as the United States) blocked technological development due to concerns over nuclear proliferation. In 1994, the space program was transferred to civilian control under the Brazilian Space Agency.

text: The Brazilian space program refers to the

text: rocketry

text: and

text: space exploration

text: programs conducted by

text: Brazil

text: from 1961 until the creation of the

text: Brazilian Space Agency

text: in 1994. It had significant capabilities in

text: launch vehicle

text: s,

text: launch site

text: s, and

text: satellite

text: manufacturing. It was based at the

text: National Institute for Space Research

text: (INPE), under the

entity_name: Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (Brazil)

text: Ministry of Science and Technology

text: (MCT). The program was under complete military control, which hindered its development, as other countries (such as the

text: United States

text: ) blocked technological development due to concerns over nuclear proliferation. In 1994, the space program was transferred to civilian control under the

text: Brazilian Space Agency

text: The 1996 science fiction television series Space Cases is set on a spaceship known as the Christa, named in honor of Christa McAuliffe, described in the series as "an Earth teacher who died during the early days of space exploration."

text: The 1996

text: science fiction

text: television series

text: Space Cases

text: is set on a spaceship known as the Christa, named in honor of Christa McAuliffe, described in the series as "an Earth teacher who died during the early days of space exploration."

text: A satellite system is a set of gravitationally bound objects in orbit around a planetary mass object or minor planet. Generally speaking, it is a set of natural satellites (moons), although such systems may also consist of bodies such as circumplanetary disks, ring systems, moonlets, minor-planet moons and artificial satellites any of which may themselves have satellite systems of their own. Some bodies also possess quasi-satellites that have orbits gravitationally influenced by their primary, but are generally not considered to be part of a satellite system. Satellite systems can have complex interactions including magnetic, tidal, atmospheric and orbital interactions such as orbital resonances and libration.  Individually major satellite objects are designated in Roman numerals.  Satellite systems are referred to either by the possessive adjectives of their primary (e.g. "Jovian system"), or less commonly by the name of their primary (e.g. "Jupiter system").  Where only one satellite is known, or it is a binary orbiting a common centre of gravity, it may be referred to using the hyphenated names of the primary and major satellite (e.g. the "Earth-Moon system").

text: A satellite system is a set of gravitationally bound objects in orbit around a

text: planetary mass object

text: or

text: minor planet

text: . Generally speaking, it is a set of

text: natural satellites

text: (moons), although such systems may also consist of bodies such as circumplanetary disks,

text: ring systems

text: moonlet

text: s,

text: minor-planet moon

text: s and

text: artificial satellites

text: any of which may themselves have satellite systems of their own. Some bodies also possess

text: quasi-satellite

text: s that have orbits gravitationally influenced by their primary, but are generally not considered to be part of a satellite system. Satellite systems can have complex interactions including magnetic, tidal, atmospheric and orbital interactions such as

text: orbital resonance

text: s and

text: libration

text: .  Individually major satellite objects are designated in Roman numerals.  Satellite systems are referred to either by the possessive adjectives of their primary (e.g. "Jovian system"), or less commonly by the name of their primary (e.g. "Jupiter system").  Where only one satellite is known, or it is a binary orbiting a common centre of gravity, it may be referred to using the hyphenated names of the primary and major satellite (e.g. the "Earth-Moon system").

text: Satellites are used for many purposes.  Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and space telescopes.  Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.  Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways.  Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.

text: Satellites are used for many purposes.  Common types include military and civilian

text: Earth observation satellite

text: s,

text: communications satellite

text: s,

text: navigation satellite

text: s,

text: weather satellite

text: s, and

text: space telescope

text: s.

text: Space station

text: s and human

text: spacecraft

text: in orbit are also satellites.  Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways.  Well-known (overlapping) classes include

text: low Earth orbit

text: polar orbit

text: , and

text: geostationary orbit

text: A rocket is a self-propelled, unguided weapon system powered by a rocket motor. Rockets are used primarily as medium and long-range artillery systems, although historically they have also seen considerable use as air-to-ground, some use as air-to-air weapons, and even a few examples of surface-to-air devices. Examples of modern surface-to-surface rocket systems include the BM-27 Uragan and M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System.

text: A rocket is a self-propelled, unguided

text: weapon

text: system powered by a

text: rocket

text: motor. Rockets are used primarily as medium and long-range

text: artillery

text: systems, although historically they have also seen considerable use as air-to-ground, some use as air-to-air weapons, and even a few examples of surface-to-air devices. Examples of modern surface-to-surface rocket systems include the

text: BM-27 Uragan

text: and

text: M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System

text: The Exploration Museum ( is dedicated to the history of human exploration, from the early explorers to the exploration of space. The museum is located in the center of Húsavík in North Iceland,  from the Arctic Circle. The museum was founded in 2011 and formally opened in 2014 by the President of Iceland.

text: The Exploration Museum ( is dedicated to the history of

text: human exploration

text: , from the early explorers to the

text: exploration of space

text: . The museum is located in the center of

text: Húsavík

text: in North Iceland,  from the

text: Arctic Circle

text: . The museum was founded in 2011 and formally opened in 2014 by the

text: President of Iceland

text: Some of the most successful post punk bands in the 1970s, such as Siouxsie and the Banshees and The Psychedelic Furs, also continued their success during the 1980s. Members of Bauhaus and Joy Division explored new stylistic territory as Love and Rockets and New Order respectively. The second generation of British post-punk bands that broke through in the early 1980s, in, tended to move away from dark sonic landscapes. Some, such as Gang of Four, shifted to a more commercial new wave sound, while others moved into Gothic rock or became early examples of indie rock.

text: Some of the most successful post punk bands in the 1970s, such as

text: Siouxsie and the Banshees

text: and

text: The Psychedelic Furs

text: , also continued their success during the 1980s. Members of

text: Bauhaus

text: and

text: Joy Division

text: explored new stylistic territory as

text: Love and Rockets

text: and

text: New Order

text: respectively. The second generation of British post-punk bands that broke through in the early 1980s, in, tended to move away from dark sonic landscapes. Some, such as

text: Gang of Four

text: , shifted to a more commercial

text: new wave

text: sound, while others moved into Gothic rock or became early examples of indie rock.

text: In December 2012, the Golden Spike Company announced plans to privately transport space exploration participants to the surface of the Moon and return, beginning as early as 2020, for US$750 million per passenger.

text: In December 2012, the

text: Golden Spike Company

text: announced plans to privately transport space exploration participants to the surface of the

text: Moon

text: and return, beginning as early as 2020, for US$750 million per passenger.

text: With rare exceptions, rockets are expendable, so rockets in displays have not been flown. As in the case of the Saturn V, later planned missions were cancelled, leaving unneeded rockets for the museums. For displays of early American space hardware, such as Project Mercury and Project Gemini, surplus missiles have been painted to look like manned space launch vehicles. Engineering test articles (such as the Pathfinder space shuttle stack in Huntsville) or purpose-built full-scale replicas are also displayed in rocket gardens.

text: With rare exceptions,

text: rocket

text: s are expendable, so rockets in displays have not been flown. As in the case of the

text: Saturn V

text: , later planned missions were cancelled, leaving unneeded rockets for the museums. For displays of early American space hardware, such as

text: Project Mercury

text: and

text: Project Gemini

text: , surplus missiles have been painted to look like manned space launch vehicles. Engineering test articles (such as the

text: Pathfinder

text: space shuttle stack in Huntsville) or purpose-built full-scale replicas are also displayed in rocket gardens.

text: NASA's "Lunar Architecture" forms a key part of its Global Exploration Strategy, also known as the Vision for Space Exploration. The first part of the Lunar Architecture is the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, which launched in June 2009 on board an Atlas V. The preliminary design review was completed in February 2006 and the critical design review was completed in November 2006. An important function of the orbiter will be to look for further evidence that the increased concentrations of hydrogen discovered at the moon's poles is in the form of lunar ice. After this the lunar flights will make use of the new Ares I and Ares V rockets.

text: NASA's "Lunar Architecture" forms a key part of its Global Exploration Strategy, also known as the Vision for Space Exploration. The first part of the Lunar Architecture is the

text: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: , which launched in June 2009 on board an

text: Atlas V

text: . The preliminary design review was completed in February 2006 and the critical design review was completed in November 2006. An important function of the orbiter will be to look for further evidence that the increased concentrations of hydrogen discovered at the moon's poles is in the form of

text: lunar ice

text: . After this the

text: lunar flights

text: will make use of the new

text: Ares I

text: and Ares V rockets.

text: Among the major NASA missions launched from the complex were the Explorer and Pioneer space probes, all of the Orbiting Solar Observatories, the Solar Maximum Mission, Biological Satellites (BIOS), the International Cometary Explorer, the TIROS and GOES meteorology satellites, and the Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity.

text: Among the major NASA missions launched from the complex were the

text: Explorer

text: and

text: Pioneer

text: space probes, all of the

text: Orbiting Solar Observatories

text: , the

text: Solar Maximum Mission

text: , Biological Satellites (BIOS), the

text: International Cometary Explorer

text: , the

entity_name: Television Infrared Observation Satellite

text: TIROS

text: and

entity_name: Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

text: GOES

text: meteorology satellites, and the

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: s

text: Spirit

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: Flaunt It is the debut album by British band Sigue Sigue Sputnik. The album featured a remix of their #3 UK hit single "Love Missile F1-11", as well as "21st Century Boy". Flaunt It was unique in that the band sold off spots between songs for advertisements. Ultimately, ads for L'Oréal, i-D magazine, the short-lived London pirate television station NeTWork 21, and London's Kensington Market clothing shop Pure Sex were complemented by fictitious ads for the Sputnik Corporation and the (unreleased) Sigue Sigue Sputnik Computer Game; a spoken word advertisement (narrated by the Sputnik Corporation voiceover) for EMI closes the album. All original CD versions and the version released in Germany also include an ad for Tempo, a lifestyle magazine. The liner notes include small print ads for the various advertisers, as well.

text: Flaunt It is the debut album by

text: British

text: band

text: Sigue Sigue Sputnik

text: . The album featured a remix of their #3

text: UK hit single

text: Love Missile F1-11

text: ", as well as "21st Century Boy". Flaunt It was unique in that the band sold off spots between songs for

text: advertisement

text: s. Ultimately, ads for

text: L'Oréal

text: i-D magazine

text: , the short-lived

text: London

text: pirate television

text: station

text: NeTWork 21

text: , and London's

text: Kensington Market

text: clothing shop

text: Pure Sex

text: were complemented by fictitious ads for the Sputnik Corporation and the (unreleased) Sigue Sigue Sputnik Computer Game; a spoken word advertisement (narrated by the Sputnik Corporation voiceover) for

text: EMI

text: closes the album. All original CD versions and the version released in Germany also include an ad for Tempo, a lifestyle magazine. The liner notes include small print ads for the various advertisers, as well.

text: As of October 2016, one of Trump's policy advisors declared that, under Trump, NASA would recreate National Space Council, pursue a goal of “human exploration of the solar system by the end of the century,” to drive technology developments to a stronger degree than a manned mission to Mars. Other goals would include shifting budget to deep space exploration from Earth science and climate research, pursuit of small satellites and hypersonic technology. A possibility of China joining International Space Station is also considered. A stronger role of manned Lunar exploration is possible in NASA's quest for a manned mission to Mars. Prior to that statement, the Trump campaign appeared to have little to no space policy at all.

text: As of October 2016, one of Trump's policy advisors declared that, under Trump, NASA would recreate

text: National Space Council

text: , pursue a goal of “human exploration of the solar system by the end of the century,” to drive technology developments to a stronger degree than a manned mission to Mars. Other goals would include shifting budget to deep space exploration from Earth science and climate research, pursuit of small satellites and hypersonic technology. A possibility of China joining International Space Station is also considered. A stronger role of manned Lunar exploration is possible in NASA's quest for a manned mission to Mars. Prior to that statement, the Trump campaign appeared to have little to no space policy at all.

text: Due to problems a delays with Vanguard TV-2 and complete fail of VT-3, Vanguard was not the first rocket to place into orbit an unmanned satellite. The first small-lift launch vehicle was the Sputnik rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned orbital carrier rocket designed by Sergey Korolyov in the Soviet Union, derived from the R-7 Semyorka ICBM. On 4 October 1957, the Sputnik rocket was used to perform the world's first satellite launch, placing Sputnik 1 satellite into a low Earth orbit.The USA later responded by launching the Vanguard TV-4 with Vanguard 1 satellite. that was intended to be the first launch vehicle the United States would use to place a satellite into orbit. Instead, the Sputnik crisis caused by the surprise launch of Sputnik 1 led the U.S., after the failure of Vanguard TV3, to quickly orbit the Explorer 1 satellite using a Juno I rocket launched on January 31, 1958. Thus Vanguard I was the second successful U.S. orbital launch. Thus started the space race, that gave the drive to put men on the moon with the USA's Apollo program.

text: Due to problems a delays with Vanguard TV-2 and complete fail of VT-3, Vanguard was not the first rocket to place into orbit an unmanned

text: satellite

text: . The first

text: small-lift launch vehicle

text: was the

text: Sputnik

text: rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned

text: orbit

text: al

text: carrier rocket

text: designed by

text: Sergey Korolyov

text: in the Soviet Union, derived from the

text: R-7 Semyorka

text: ICBM

text: . On 4 October 1957, the Sputnik rocket was used to perform the world's first satellite launch, placing

text: Sputnik 1

text: satellite into a

text: low Earth orbit

text: .The USA later responded by launching the

text: Vanguard TV-4

text: with Vanguard 1 satellite. that was intended to be the first launch vehicle the

text: United States

text: would use to place a satellite into orbit. Instead, the

text: Sputnik crisis

text: caused by the surprise launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: led the U.S., after the failure of

text: Vanguard TV3

text: , to quickly orbit the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite using a

text: Juno I

text: rocket launched on January 31, 1958. Thus

text: Vanguard I

text: was the second successful U.S. orbital launch. Thus started the space race, that gave the drive to put men on the

text: moon

text: with the USA's

text: Apollo program

text: In October 1992 NASA launched LAGEOS-2 (following LAGEOS-1 launched in 1976) in cooperation with ASI. A passive satellite, it is a sphere of aluminium covered with retroreflectors to reflect laser ranging beams emitted from ground stations on Earth. The primary mission goals were to determine accurately Earth’s Geoid and to measure Tectonic plate movement. In 2010 ASI’s own satellite, LARES, will be launched using the Vega rocket. The mission is designed to carry out similar studies to that of LAGEOS 2 but with much greater precision.

text: In October 1992 NASA launched

text: (following LAGEOS-1 launched in 1976) in cooperation with ASI. A passive satellite, it is a sphere of aluminium covered with retroreflectors to reflect

text: laser ranging

text: beams emitted from ground stations on Earth. The primary mission goals were to determine accurately Earth’s

text: Geoid

text: and to measure

text: Tectonic plate

text: movement. In 2010 ASI’s own satellite,

text: LARES

text: , will be launched using the Vega rocket. The mission is designed to carry out similar studies to that of LAGEOS 2 but with much greater precision.

text: The Martin Company moved forward into the aerospace manufacturing business, and it produced the Vanguard rocket, which was used by the American space program as one of its first satellite booster rockets as part of Project Vanguard. The Vanguard was the first American space exploration rocket designed from scratch to be an orbital launch vehicle — rather than being a modified sounding rocket (like the Juno I) or a ballistic missile (like the U.S. Army's Redstone missile). Martin also designed and manufactured the huge and heavily armed Titan I and LGM-25C Titan II Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). Martin Company of Orlando, Florida, was the prime contractor for the U.S. Army's Pershing missile.

text: The Martin Company moved forward into the

text: aerospace manufacturing

text: business, and it produced the

text: Vanguard rocket

text: , which was used by the American space program as one of its first

text: satellite

text: booster rocket

text: s as part of

text: Project Vanguard

text: . The Vanguard was the first American

text: space exploration

text: rocket designed from scratch to be an orbital launch vehicle — rather than being a modified

text: sounding rocket

text: (like the

text: Juno I

text: ) or a

text: ballistic missile

text: (like the U.S. Army's

text: Redstone missile

text: ). Martin also designed and manufactured the huge and heavily armed

text: Titan I

text: and

text: LGM-25C Titan II

text: Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

text: s (

text: ICBM

text: s). Martin Company of Orlando, Florida, was the prime contractor for the U.S. Army's Pershing missile.

text: Space industry refers to economic activities related to manufacturing components that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions, and related services. Owing to the prominence of the satellite-related activities, some sources use the term satellite industry interchangeably with the term space industry. The term space business has also been used. A narrow definition encompasses only hardware providers (primarily related to launch vehicles and satellites). This definition does not exclude certain activities, such as space tourism. Thus more broadly, space industry can be described as the companies involved in the space economy, and providing goods and services related to space. Space economy has been defined as "all public and private actors involved in developing and providing space-enabled products and services. It comprises a long value-added chaining, starting with research and development actors and manufacturers of space hardware and ending with the providers of space-enabled products and services to final users."

text: Space industry refers to economic activities related to

text: manufacturing

text: components that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions, and related services. Owing to the prominence of the satellite-related activities, some sources use the term satellite industry interchangeably with the term space industry. The term space business has also been used. A narrow definition encompasses only hardware providers (primarily related to launch vehicles and

text: satellite

text: s). This definition does not exclude certain activities, such as

text: space tourism

text: . Thus more broadly, space industry can be described as the companies involved in the

text: space economy

text: , and providing goods and services related to space. Space economy has been defined as "all public and private actors involved in developing and providing space-enabled products and services. It comprises a long

text: value-added

text: chaining, starting with

text: research and development

text: actors and manufacturers of

text: space hardware

text: and ending with the providers of space-enabled products and services to final users."

text: In early 2009, she also dubbed a character from the Belgian 3D animated movie Nat's Space Adventure 3D/Fly Me to the Moon. She dubbed the voice of the protagonist who is a young male fly who was determined to explore outer space.

text: After tragedy struck again in 2003 with the destruction of the Columbia Shuttle, the Bush Administration tried to reinvigorate NASA with the Constellation Program. The program was designed to build a heavy lifting capability rocket similar to the Saturn 5, establish a moon base from which further missions to Mars and beyond would follow. President Bush stated, “Today I announce a new plan to explore space and extend a human presence across our solar system. We will begin the effort quickly, using existing programs and personnel. We'll make steady progress -- one mission, one voyage, one landing at a time.” The planned called for a new rocket to be in place and usable in 2015, return to the moon by 2017 and start a permanent lunar base by 2020.

text: Cassutt is also an experienced writer of non-fiction, not only contributing articles to such magazines as Space Illustrated, Space World, Air & Space and books such as Magill's Survey of Science: Space Exploration Series, but as the author of the  biographical encyclopedia, Who's Who in Space. The book contains biographies and photos of seven hundred astronauts and cosmonauts from around the world, for which Cassutt conducted dozens of interviews over a period of ten years.

text: "Rocket" is a six and a half-minute track, the longest one on Beyoncé. It runs in a slow tempo and explores elements of soul music, neo soul, funk and R&B balladry. It was noted to be one of the album's retro songs. Houston Chronicle Joey Guerra deemed the track an "old-school R&B stunner" filled with "all swooping verses and steamy choruses". Many critics found similarities to work by musician Prince. Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly described the track as a "funk excursion" similar to songs by Prince. Mike Divers from Clash magazine also felt that "Rocket" was reminiscent of Prince's "funky prime". Jon Pareles of The New York Times noted that the seductive track harks back to Prince's music with "harmonies blossom[ing] all around Beyoncé's cooing lead vocal". Julia Leconte of Now summarized the song's sound as a cross between music by D'Angelo during the late-90s and Usher during the early 2000s. Other critics noted "Rocket" to be a rehash and a homage of D'Angelo's work, particularly on his song "Untitled (How Does It Feel)". Claire Lobenfeld of Complex magazine found cues taken from "Untitled" in "Rocket" to the "point of pop-facsimile". Variety Andrew Barker deemed the seductive, "grinding" "Rocket" a 2013 makeover of that song. In a review for The Quietus, Mof Gimmers concluded that the song followed up where Ciara's "Body Party" (2013) and R. Kelly's Black Panties (2013) finished.

text: "Rocket" is a six and a half-minute track, the longest one on Beyoncé. It runs in a

text: slow tempo

text: and explores elements of

text: soul music

text: neo soul

text: funk

text: and

text: R&B

text: balladry. It was noted to be one of the album's

text: retro

text: songs.

text: Houston Chronicle

text: Joey Guerra

text: deemed the track an "old-school R&B stunner" filled with "all swooping verses and steamy choruses". Many critics found similarities to work by musician

text: Prince

text: . Nick Catucci of

text: Entertainment Weekly

text: described the track as a "funk excursion" similar to songs by Prince. Mike Divers from

text: Clash

text: magazine also felt that "Rocket" was reminiscent of Prince's "funky prime".

text: Jon Pareles

text: of

text: The New York Times

text: noted that the seductive track harks back to Prince's music with "harmonies blossom[ing] all around Beyoncé's cooing lead vocal". Julia Leconte of

text: Now

text: summarized the song's sound as a cross between music by D'Angelo during the late-90s and

text: Usher

text: during the early 2000s. Other critics noted "Rocket" to be a rehash and a homage of D'Angelo's work, particularly on his song "Untitled (How Does It Feel)". Claire Lobenfeld of

text: Complex

text: magazine found cues taken from "Untitled" in "Rocket" to the "point of pop-

text: facsimile

text: Variety

text: Andrew Barker deemed the seductive, "grinding" "Rocket" a 2013 makeover of that song. In a review for

text: The Quietus

text: , Mof Gimmers concluded that the song followed up where

text: Ciara

text: 's "

text: Body Party

text: " (2013) and

text: R. Kelly

text: 's

text: Black Panties

text: (2013) finished.

text: A back-up feature, "Zoot Sputnik", appeared for several issues, drawn by Fred Hembeck and (ostensibly) written by Denton Fixx; it was supposed to be the book Fixx wrote for BC Comics.  It was a parody of the Golden Age narrative style where stories had no between-issue continuity — Zoot and his team were space adventurers in one issue and cowboys in the next. The team's dog received a shock of energy and gained the ability to remember their disparate adventures.  This was Denton's attempt to introduce continuity to the book, but it was met with disapproval by his editor.

text: A back-up feature, "Zoot Sputnik", appeared for several issues, drawn by

text: Fred Hembeck

text: and (ostensibly) written by Denton Fixx; it was supposed to be the book Fixx wrote for BC Comics.  It was a parody of the

text: Golden Age

text: narrative style where stories had no between-issue continuity — Zoot and his team were space adventurers in one issue and cowboys in the next. The team's dog received a shock of energy and gained the ability to remember their disparate adventures.  This was Denton's attempt to introduce continuity to the book, but it was met with disapproval by his editor.

text: Brandenstein was pilot on STS-8, his first flight, which was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 30, 1983. This was the third flight for the Orbiter Challenger and the first mission with a night launch and night landing. During the mission, crew members deployed the Indian National Satellite (INSAT-1B); operated the Canadian-built Remote Manipulator System (RMS) with the Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA); operated the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System (CFES) with live cell samples; conducted medical measurements to understand biophysiological effects on space flight and activated various Earth resources and space science experiments along with four "Getaway Special" canisters. STS-8 completed 98 orbits of the Earth in 145 hours before landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1983.

text: Brandenstein was pilot on

text: , his first flight, which was launched from the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: Florida

text: , on August 30, 1983. This was the third flight for the Orbiter

text: Challenger

text: and the first mission with a night launch and night landing. During the mission, crew members deployed the Indian National Satellite (

text: INSAT

text: -1B); operated the Canadian-built

text: Remote Manipulator System

text: (RMS) with the Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA); operated the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System (CFES) with live cell samples; conducted medical measurements to understand biophysiological effects on space flight and activated various Earth resources and space science experiments along with four "

text: Getaway Special

text: " canisters. STS-8 completed 98 orbits of the Earth in 145 hours before landing at

text: Edwards Air Force Base

text: California

text: , on September 3, 1983.

text: The Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) is a space-based telescope operated by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. FUSE was launched on a Delta II rocket on 24 June 1999, as a part of NASA's Origins program.  FUSE detected light in the far ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, between 90.5-119.5 nanometres, which is mostly unobservable by other telescopes.  Its primary mission was to characterize universal deuterium in an effort to learn about the stellar processing times of deuterium left over from the Big Bang.FUSE resides in a low Earth orbit, approximately 760 km (410 nmi) in altitude, with an inclination of 25 degrees and just less than a 100-minute orbital period.  Its Explorer designation is Explorer 77.

text: The Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer (FUSE) is a space-based

text: telescope

text: operated by the

text: Johns Hopkins University

text: Applied Physics Laboratory

text: . FUSE was launched on a

text: Delta II

text: rocket on 24 June 1999, as a part of

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Origins program

text: .  FUSE detected light in the far

text: ultraviolet

text: portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, between 90.5-119.5

text: nanometre

text: s, which is mostly unobservable by other telescopes.  Its primary mission was to characterize universal

text: deuterium

text: in an effort to learn about the stellar processing times of deuterium left over from the

text: Big Bang

text: .FUSE resides in a

text: low Earth orbit

text: , approximately 760 km (410

text: nmi

text: ) in altitude, with an inclination of 25 degrees and just less than a 100-minute orbital period.  Its

text: Explorer

text: designation is Explorer 77.

text: #16130 Moon McDare Action Space Man<br>He's the all-American astronaut, nearly a foot tall and fully jointed for every natural body motion. McDare comes in jump suit and boots, and you can get everything he needs for space walking and moon exploring: complete, authentic space suit and helmet, oxygen tanks, communications set and many other accessories that really work! His faithful dog, The Space Mutt, comes with his own space suit and equipment. ©1966 The A.C. Gilbert Company

text: Three one-third scale student-built replicas of Sputnik 1 were deployed from the Mir space station between 1997 and 1999.  The first, named Sputnik 40 to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1, was deployed in November 1997. Sputnik 41 was launched a year later, and Sputnik 99 was deployed in February 1999. A fourth replica was launched but never deployed, and was destroyed when Mir was deorbited.

text: Three one-third scale student-built replicas of Sputnik 1 were deployed from the

text: Mir space station

text: between 1997 and 1999.  The first, named

text: Sputnik 40

text: to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1, was deployed in November 1997.

text: Sputnik 41

text: was launched a year later, and Sputnik 99 was deployed in February 1999. A fourth replica was launched but never deployed, and was destroyed when Mir was

text: deorbited

text: Selected by NASA as an astronaut candidate in June 1985, Cabana completed initial astronaut training in July 1986, qualifying for assignment as a pilot on future Space Shuttle flight crews. His initial assignment was as the Astronaut Office Space Shuttle flight software coordinator until November 1986. At that time he was assigned as the Deputy Chief of Aircraft Operations for the Johnson Space Center where he served for 2-1/2 years. He then served as the lead astronaut in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) where the Orbiter's flight software is tested prior to flight. Cabana has served as a spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) in Mission Control during Space Shuttle missions, and as Chief of Astronaut Appearances. Prior to his assignment to command STS-88, Cabana served three years as NASA’s Chief of the Astronaut Office. Following STS-88, Cabana served as the Deputy Director of Flight Crew Operations. After joining the ISS Program in October 1999, Cabana served as Manager for International Operations. From August 2001 to September 2002, he served as Director, Human Space Flight Programs, Russia. As NASA's lead representative to the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (Rosaviakosmos) and its contractors, he provided oversight of all human space flight operations, logistics, and technical functions, including NASA's mission operations in Korolev and crew training at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia. Upon his return to Houston, Cabana was assigned briefly as the Deputy Manager, International Space Station (ISS) Program. From November 2000 to March 2004 he served as Director, Flight Crew Operations Directorate, responsible for directing the day-to-day activities of the directorate, including the NASA Astronaut Corps and aircraft operations at Ellington Field. From October 2007 through October 2008 Cabana served as Director, John C. Stennis Space Center.  In October 2008 he was reassigned as Director of the John F. Kennedy Space Center.

text: Selected by NASA as an astronaut candidate in June 1985, Cabana completed initial astronaut training in July 1986, qualifying for assignment as a pilot on future

text: Space Shuttle

text: flight crews. His initial assignment was as the Astronaut Office Space Shuttle flight software coordinator until November 1986. At that time he was assigned as the Deputy Chief of Aircraft Operations for the

text: Johnson Space Center

text: where he served for 2-1/2 years. He then served as the lead astronaut in the

text: Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory

text: (SAIL) where the

text: Orbiter

text: 's flight software is tested prior to flight. Cabana has served as a spacecraft communicator (

text: CAPCOM

text: ) in Mission Control during Space Shuttle missions, and as Chief of Astronaut Appearances. Prior to his assignment to command

text: , Cabana served three years as NASA’s

text: Chief of the Astronaut Office

text: . Following STS-88, Cabana served as the Deputy Director of Flight Crew Operations. After joining the

text: ISS

text: Program in October 1999, Cabana served as Manager for International Operations. From August 2001 to September 2002, he served as Director, Human Space Flight Programs, Russia. As NASA's lead representative to the

text: Russian Aviation and Space Agency

text: (Rosaviakosmos) and its contractors, he provided oversight of all human space flight operations, logistics, and technical functions, including NASA's mission operations in

text: Korolev

text: and crew training at the

text: Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center

text: in

text: Star City, Russia

text: . Upon his return to

text: Houston

text: , Cabana was assigned briefly as the Deputy Manager, International Space Station (ISS) Program. From November 2000 to March 2004 he served as Director, Flight Crew Operations Directorate, responsible for directing the day-to-day activities of the directorate, including the

text: NASA Astronaut Corps

text: and aircraft operations at

text: Ellington Field

text: . From October 2007 through October 2008 Cabana served as Director,

text: John C. Stennis Space Center

text: .  In October 2008 he was reassigned as Director of the

text: John F. Kennedy Space Center

text: Space travel forms an important aspect of gameplay.  When traveling within a single solar system, the ship and its surroundings are viewed from a third-person perspective on an "In System Travel Screen."  Navigation takes place in real-time as the player maneuvers the ship between explorable worlds, visits a gas giant to refuel, or engages in combat with other spaceships.  Some solar systems contain more than one explorable planet, but most such planets in the game may be reached only after the player's spaceship has been outfitted with a "jump drive" capable of interstellar travel and accompanying computer software to control it.

text: Space travel forms an important aspect of gameplay.  When traveling within a single solar system, the ship and its surroundings are viewed from a third-person perspective on an "In System Travel Screen."  Navigation takes place in real-time as the player maneuvers the ship between explorable worlds, visits a

text: gas giant

text: to refuel, or engages in combat with other spaceships.  Some solar systems contain more than one explorable planet, but most such planets in the game may be reached only after the player's spaceship has been outfitted with a "jump drive" capable of interstellar travel and accompanying computer software to control it.

text: India, Japan, China, the United States, and the European Space Agency each sent lunar orbiters, especially ISRO's Chandrayaan-1 has contributed to confirming the discovery of lunar water ice in permanently shadowed craters at the poles and bound into the lunar regolith. The post-Apollo era has also seen two rover missions: the final Soviet Lunokhod mission in 1973, and China's ongoing Chang'e 3 mission, which deployed its Yutu rover on 14 December 2013. The Moon remains, under the Outer Space Treaty, free to all nations to explore for peaceful purposes.

text: India, Japan, China, the United States, and the

text: European Space Agency

text: each sent lunar orbiters, especially

text: ISRO

text: 's

text: has contributed to confirming the discovery of

text: lunar water ice

text: in permanently shadowed craters at the poles and bound into the lunar

text: regolith

text: . The post-Apollo era has also seen two

text: rover

text: missions: the final Soviet

text: Lunokhod

text: mission in 1973, and China's ongoing

text: Chang'e 3

text: mission, which deployed its

text: Yutu rover

text: on 14 December 2013. The Moon remains, under the

text: Outer Space Treaty

text: , free to all nations to explore for peaceful purposes.

text: The Japanese space development was started by Tokyo University professor Hideo Itokawa. Many aeronautical engineers lost their jobs after World War II as the development of aircraft was banned under the US Occupation of Japan. The signing of the San Francisco Peace Treaty in 1951 allowed the development of aviation technology again under the sovereignty of Japan. The seven-year stagnation of Japan's aerospace industry had seriously harmed the Japanese's technical ability . Itokawa established an aviation research group at the Institute of Industrial Science of the University of Tokyo, which succeeded in a horizontal launch of the Pencil Rocket on 12 April 1955 in Kokubunji, Tokyo. The dimensions of the rocket were  in length by  in diameter. This was the first rocket experiment in Japan. This rocket was initially associated with the development of rocket aircraft and not with space exploration. However, with Japan's participation in the International Geophysical Year, the focus of the rocket project shifted towards space engineering.

text: The Japanese space development was started by

text: Tokyo University

text: professor

text: Hideo Itokawa

text: . Many aeronautical engineers lost their jobs after

text: World War II

text: as the development of aircraft was banned under the US

text: Occupation of Japan

text: . The signing of the

text: San Francisco Peace Treaty

text: in 1951 allowed the development of aviation technology again under the sovereignty of Japan. The seven-year stagnation of Japan's aerospace industry had seriously harmed the Japanese's technical ability . Itokawa established an aviation research group at the Institute of Industrial Science of the University of Tokyo, which succeeded in a horizontal launch of the

text: Pencil Rocket

text: on 12 April 1955 in

text: Kokubunji, Tokyo

text: . The dimensions of the rocket were  in length by  in diameter. This was the first rocket experiment in Japan. This rocket was initially associated with the development of rocket aircraft and not with space exploration. However, with Japan's participation in the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: , the focus of the rocket project shifted towards space engineering.

text: The Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor Satellite, or ACRIMSAT is a dedicated satellite and instrument that was one of the 21 primary observational components of NASA's Earth Observing System program. ACRIMSAT was launched on 20 December 1999 from Vandenberg Air Force Base as the secondary payload on a Taurus rocket along with KOMPSAT. It was placed into a high inclination, 700 km. sun-synchronous orbit from which the ACRIM3 instrument monitored total solar irradiance (TSI). Contact with the satellite was lost on 14 December 2013.

text: The Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor Satellite, or ACRIMSAT is a dedicated satellite and instrument that was one of the 21 primary observational components of

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Earth Observing System

text: program. ACRIMSAT was launched on 20 December 1999 from

text: Vandenberg Air Force Base

text: as the secondary payload on a

text: Taurus rocket

text: along with

text: KOMPSAT

text: . It was placed into a high inclination, 700 km.

text: sun-synchronous orbit

text: from which the ACRIM3 instrument monitored total solar irradiance (TSI). Contact with the satellite was lost on 14 December 2013.

text: In the early 1950s, the American Rocket Society set up an ad hoc Committee on Space Flight, of which Milton W. Rosen, NRL project manager for the Viking rocket, became chair.  Encouraged by conversations between Richard W. Porter of General Electric and Alan T. Waterman, Director of the National Science Foundation (NSF), Rosen on November 27, 1954 completed a report describing the potential value of launching an earth satellite.  The report was submitted to the NSF early in 1955.  As part of planning for the International Geophysical Year (IGY) (1957–1958), the U.S. publicly undertook to place an artificial satellite with a scientific experiment into orbit around the Earth.

text: In the early 1950s, the

text: American Rocket Society

text: set up an ad hoc Committee on Space Flight, of which

text: Milton W. Rosen

text: , NRL project manager for the

text: Viking rocket

text: , became chair.  Encouraged by conversations between Richard W. Porter of

text: General Electric

text: and

text: Alan T. Waterman

text: , Director of the

text: National Science Foundation

text: (NSF), Rosen on November 27, 1954 completed a report describing the potential value of launching an earth satellite.  The report was submitted to the NSF early in 1955.  As part of planning for the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: (IGY) (1957–1958), the U.S. publicly undertook to place an artificial satellite with a scientific experiment into orbit around the Earth.

text: In 1995 Lockheed Martin produced an Advanced Transportation System Studies (ATSS) report for the Marshall Space Flight Center. A section of the ATSS report describes several possible vehicles much like the Ares I design, with liquid rocket second stages stacked above segmented solid rocket booster (SRB) first stages. The variants that were considered included both the J-2S engines and Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) for the second stage. The variants also assumed use of the Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) as a first stage, but the ASRM was cancelled in 1993 due to significant cost overruns.

text: In 1995 Lockheed Martin produced an Advanced Transportation System Studies (ATSS) report for the

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: . A section of the ATSS report describes several possible vehicles much like the Ares I design, with liquid rocket second stages stacked above segmented

text: solid rocket booster

text: (SRB) first stages. The variants that were considered included both the

text: engines and

text: Space Shuttle Main Engine

text: s (SSMEs) for the second stage. The variants also assumed use of the

entity_section: Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) Project

text: Advanced Solid Rocket Motor

text: (ASRM) as a first stage, but the ASRM was cancelled in 1993 due to significant cost overruns.

text: Unlike other international rivalries, the Space Race has remained unaffected in a direct way regarding the desire for territorial expansion. After the successful landings on the Moon, the U.S. explicitly disclaimed the right to ownership of any part of the Moon.

text: The energy density of a typical rocket propellant is often around one-third that of conventional hydrocarbon fuels; the bulk of the mass is (often relatively inexpensive) oxidizer. Nevertheless, at take-off the rocket has a great deal of energy in the fuel and oxidizer stored within the vehicle. It is of course desirable that as much of the energy of the propellant end up as kinetic or potential energy of the body of the rocket as possible.

text: The energy density of a typical rocket propellant is often around one-third that of conventional hydrocarbon fuels; the bulk of the mass is (often relatively inexpensive) oxidizer. Nevertheless, at take-off the rocket has a great deal of energy in the fuel and oxidizer stored within the vehicle. It is of course desirable that as much of the energy of the propellant end up as

text: kinetic

text: or

text: potential energy

text: of the body of the rocket as possible.

text: The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet Luna 1, which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959. In 1961, Venera 1 became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of the planet Venus, although contact was lost before reaching Venus. The first successful planetary mission was the Mariner 2 fly-by of Venus in 1962. The first spacecraft to perform a fly-by of Mars was Mariner 4, which reached the planet in 1964. Since that time, unmanned spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many minor planets and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as observation of the Earth. In August 2012, Voyager 1 became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter interstellar space.

text: The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet

text: Luna 1

text: , which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959. In 1961,

text: Venera 1

text: became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of the planet

text: Venus

text: , although contact was lost before reaching Venus. The first successful planetary mission was the

text: Mariner 2

text: fly-by of Venus in 1962. The first spacecraft to perform a fly-by of Mars was

text: Mariner 4

text: , which reached the planet in 1964. Since that time, unmanned spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many

text: minor planet

text: s and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as observation of the Earth. In August 2012,

text: Voyager 1

text: became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter

text: interstellar space

text: The Mars Exploration Program (MEP) is a long-term effort to explore the planet Mars, funded and led by the U.S. space agency, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Formed in 1993, MEP has made use of orbital spacecraft, landers, and Mars rovers to explore the possibilities of life on Mars, as well as the planet's climate and natural resources. The program is managed by NASA's Science Mission Directorate by Doug McCuistion of the Planetary Science Division. As a result of 40% cuts to NASA's budget for fiscal year 2013, the Mars Program Planning Group (MPPG) was formed to help reformulate the MEP, bringing together leaders of NASA's technology, science, human operations, and science missions.

text: The Mars Exploration Program (MEP) is a long-term effort

text: to explore the planet Mars

text: , funded and led by the U.S. space agency,

text: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

text: . Formed in 1993, MEP has made use of orbital

text: spacecraft

text: landers

text: , and

text: Mars rovers

text: to explore the possibilities of

text: life on Mars

text: , as well as the planet's

text: climate

text: and

text: natural resource

text: s. The program is managed by NASA's

text: Science Mission Directorate

text: by

text: Doug McCuistion

text: of the

text: Planetary Science Division

text: . As a result of 40% cuts to NASA's budget for fiscal year 2013, the

text: Mars Program Planning Group

text: (MPPG) was formed to help reformulate the MEP, bringing together leaders of NASA's technology, science, human operations, and science missions.

text: Sputnik Music

text: Sputnik Music

text: The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) is the first mission of the LPRP program. Management of LRO was assigned to Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) in 2004. LRO launched on an Atlas V 401 rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station on June 18, 2009 at 5:32 p.m. EDT (2132 GMT). The planned lift off for 5:12 p.m. EDT (2112 GMT) was slightly delayed by 20 minutes due to thunderstorms. It will orbit the Moon for one year, gathering high resolution images of the lunar surface that will allow the creation of detailed maps. LRO's goals include finding safe landing sites for human visits to the Moon, identifying lunar resources, and studying the lunar radiation environment. The LRO will provide a 3-D map of the Moon's surface to allow astronauts to return to the Moon by 2020. On board the LRO are seven instruments, the Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER), Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (DLRE), Lyman-Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP), Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND), Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA), Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC), and Miniature Radio Frequency radar (Mini-RF).

text: The

text: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: (LRO) is the first mission of the LPRP program. Management of LRO was assigned to

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: (GSFC) in 2004. LRO launched on an

text: Atlas V

text: 401 rocket from

text: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

text: on June 18, 2009 at 5:32 p.m. EDT (2132 GMT). The planned lift off for 5:12 p.m. EDT (2112 GMT) was slightly delayed by 20 minutes due to thunderstorms. It will orbit the Moon for one year, gathering high resolution images of the lunar surface that will allow the creation of detailed maps. LRO's goals include finding safe landing sites for human visits to the Moon, identifying lunar resources, and studying the lunar radiation environment. The LRO will provide a 3-D map of the Moon's surface to allow astronauts to return to the Moon by 2020. On board the LRO are seven

text: instruments

text: , the Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation (CRaTER), Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (DLRE), Lyman-Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP), Lunar Exploration Neutron Detector (LEND), Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA), Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC), and Miniature Radio Frequency radar (Mini-RF).

text: Pishgam (, "pioneer") is an Iranian 300-kilogramme space capsule and associated rocket (کاوشگر پیشگام Kavoshgar-Pishgam "Explorer-Pioneer"), which launched containing rhesus monkey and is part of a series of Iranian rocket launches containing biological cargo intended as precursors to human spaceflight.

text: Pishgam (, "pioneer") is an

text: Iran

text: ian 300-kilogramme space capsule and associated rocket (کاوشگر پیشگام Kavoshgar-Pishgam "Explorer-Pioneer"), which launched containing

text: rhesus monkey

text: and is part of a series of Iranian rocket launches containing

text: biological cargo

text: intended as precursors to

text: human spaceflight

text: Following the 1993 failure of the Mars Observer orbiter, the NASA Mars Global Surveyor achieved Mars orbit in 1997. This mission was a complete success, having finished its primary mapping mission in early 2001. Contact was lost with the probe in November 2006 during its third extended program, spending exactly 10 operational years in space. The NASA Mars Pathfinder, carrying a robotic exploration vehicle Sojourner, landed in the Ares Vallis on Mars in the summer of 1997, returning many images.

text: Following the 1993 failure of the

text: Mars Observer

text: orbiter, the NASA

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: achieved Mars orbit in 1997. This mission was a complete success, having finished its primary mapping mission in early 2001. Contact was lost with the probe in November 2006 during its third extended program, spending exactly 10 operational years in space. The NASA

text: Mars Pathfinder

text: , carrying a robotic exploration vehicle

text: Sojourner

text: , landed in the

text: Ares Vallis

text: on Mars in the summer of 1997, returning many images.

text: The satellites would be mass-produced, at much lower cost per unit of capability than existing satellites.  Musk said "We’re going to try and do for satellites what we’ve done for rockets.""In order to revolutionize space, we have to address both satellites and rockets.""Smaller satellites are crucial to lowering the cost of space-based Internet and communications."

text: The satellites would be

text: mass-produced

text: , at much lower cost per unit of capability than existing satellites.  Musk said "We’re going to try and do for satellites what we’ve done for rockets.""In order to revolutionize space, we have to address both satellites and rockets.""Smaller satellites are crucial to lowering the cost of space-based Internet and communications."

text: The Tri-D rocket engine was designed and built with the cooperation of NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, to explore the feasibility of printed rocket components. It was designed to power the third stage of a Nanosat or Cubesat launcher, i.e. an engine capable of launching satellites that weigh less than 1.33 kg (2.93 lb).

text: The institute is located in Moscow, Russia. In 1978, it is named after Mstislav Keldysh. The institute was created in 1966 when it split from Steklov Institute of Mathematics. Already as the Department of Applied Mathematics of Steklov Institute it had conducted some outstanding research in the field of space exploration: in 1953 it developed the method of ballistic spacecraft descent, that was used on April 12, 1961 for Yuri Gagarin's return to the Earth, and in 1957 Sputnik 1 orbit was calculated there using the computer processing of optical observation data.

text: The institute is located in

text: Moscow

text: Russia

text: . In 1978, it is named after

text: Mstislav Keldysh

text: . The institute was created in 1966 when it split from

text: Steklov Institute of Mathematics

text: . Already as the Department of Applied Mathematics of Steklov Institute it had conducted some outstanding research in the field of space exploration: in 1953 it developed the method of ballistic

text: spacecraft

text: descent, that was used on April 12, 1961 for

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: 's return to the Earth, and in 1957

text: Sputnik 1

text: orbit was calculated there using the

text: computer

text: processing of

text: optical observation

text: data.

text: The future of space architecture hinges on the colonization of space.  Under the historical model of government-orchestrated exploration missions initiated by single political administrations, space structures are likely to be limited to small-scale habitats and orbital modules with design life cycles of only several years or decades.  The designs, and thus architecture, will generally be fixed and without real time feedback from the spacefarers themselves.  The technology to repair and upgrade existing habitats, a practice widespread on Earth, is not likely to be developed under short term exploration goals.  If exploration takes on a multi-administration or international character, the prospects for space architecture development by the inhabitants themselves will be broader.  Private space tourism is a way the development of space and a space transportation infrastructure can be accelerated.  Virgin Galactic has indicated plans for an orbital craft, SpaceShipThree.  The demand for space tourism is one without bound.  It is not difficult to imagine lunar parks or cruises by Venus.  Another impetus to become a spacefaring species is planetary defense.

text: The future of space architecture hinges on the

text: colonization of space

text: .  Under the historical model of government-orchestrated exploration missions initiated by single

text: political administrations

text: , space structures are likely to be limited to small-scale habitats and orbital modules with design life cycles of only several years or decades.  The designs, and thus architecture, will generally be fixed and without real time feedback from the spacefarers themselves.  The technology to repair and upgrade existing habitats, a practice widespread on Earth, is not likely to be developed under short term exploration goals.  If exploration takes on a multi-administration or international character, the prospects for space architecture development by the inhabitants themselves will be broader.  Private

text: space tourism

text: is a way the development of space and a space transportation infrastructure can be accelerated.  Virgin Galactic has indicated plans for an orbital craft,

text: SpaceShipThree

text: .  The demand for space tourism is one without bound.  It is not difficult to imagine lunar parks or cruises by

text: Venus

text: .  Another impetus to become a spacefaring species is

text: planetary defense

text: Between 4 October 2007 and 10 June 2009, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's Kaguya (Selene) mission, a lunar orbiter fitted with a high-definition video camera, and two small radio-transmitter satellites, obtained lunar geophysics data and took the first high-definition movies from beyond Earth orbit.India's first lunar mission, Chandrayaan I, orbited from 8 November 2008 until loss of contact on 27 August 2009, creating a high resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil. The Indian Space Research Organisation planned to launch Chandrayaan II in 2013, which would have included a Russian robotic lunar rover. However, the failure of Russia's Fobos-Grunt mission has delayed this project.

text: Between 4 October 2007 and 10 June 2009, the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: 's

text: Kaguya

text: (Selene) mission, a lunar orbiter fitted with a

text: high-definition video

text: camera, and two small radio-transmitter satellites, obtained lunar geophysics data and took the first high-definition movies from beyond Earth orbit.India's first lunar mission,

text: Chandrayaan I

text: , orbited from 8 November 2008 until loss of contact on 27 August 2009, creating a high resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil. The

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: planned to launch

text: Chandrayaan II

text: in 2013, which would have included a Russian robotic lunar rover. However, the failure of Russia's

text: Fobos-Grunt

text: mission has delayed this project.

text: Orbital built Science and Environmental satellites conduct astrophysics, Remote sensing/Earth Observation, heliophysics, planetary exploration and technology demonstration missions. These satellites are built on Orbital's LEOStar-1,-2, or -3 satellite platforms depending on the mission requirements and budget.

text: Orbital built Science and Environmental satellites conduct

text: astrophysics

text: Remote sensing/Earth Observation

text: heliophysics

text: planetary exploration

text: and technology demonstration missions. These satellites are built on Orbital's LEOStar-1,-2, or -3 satellite platforms depending on the mission requirements and budget.

text: With  of his early fortune, Musk founded Space Exploration Technologies, or SpaceX, in June 2002. Musk is chief executive officer (CEO) and chief technology officer (CTO) of the Hawthorne, California-based company. SpaceX develops and manufactures space launch vehicles with a focus on advancing the state of rocket technology. The company's first two launch vehicles are the Falcon 1 and Falcon 9 rockets (a nod to Star Wars' Millennium Falcon), and its first spacecraft is the Dragon (a nod to Puff the Magic Dragon). In seven years, SpaceX designed the family of Falcon launch vehicles and the Dragon multipurpose spacecraft. In September 2008, SpaceX's Falcon 1 rocket became the first privately funded liquid-fueled vehicle to put a satellite into Earth orbit. On May 25, 2012, the SpaceX Dragon vehicle berthed with the ISS, making history as the first commercial company to launch and berth a vehicle to the International Space Station.

text: With  of his early fortune, Musk founded Space Exploration Technologies, or

text: SpaceX

text: , in June 2002. Musk is

text: chief executive officer

text: (CEO) and

text: chief technology officer

text: (CTO) of the

text: Hawthorne, California

text: -based company. SpaceX develops and manufactures space

text: launch vehicle

text: s with a focus on advancing the state of rocket technology. The company's first two launch vehicles are the

text: Falcon 1

text: and

text: Falcon 9

text: rockets (a nod to Star Wars'

text: Millennium Falcon

text: ), and its first spacecraft is the

text: Dragon

text: (a nod to

text: Puff the Magic Dragon

text: ). In seven years, SpaceX designed the family of Falcon launch vehicles and the Dragon multipurpose spacecraft. In September 2008, SpaceX's Falcon 1 rocket became the first privately funded liquid-fueled vehicle to put a satellite into Earth orbit. On May 25, 2012, the SpaceX Dragon vehicle berthed

text: with the ISS

text: , making history as the first commercial company to launch and

text: berth

text: a vehicle to the

text: International Space Station

text: Her first book, Breaking the Chains of Gravity (Bloomsbury 2015), tells the story of America's nascent space program. It was her debut book and Kirkus Reviews called it a "must-read for anyone interested in the early history of space exploration." Booklist called it a "fine authorial debut." The book describes the early pioneers of rockets in the late 1920s.

text: Her first book, Breaking the Chains of Gravity (Bloomsbury 2015), tells the story of America's nascent space program. It was her debut book and

text: Kirkus Reviews

text: called it a "must-read for anyone interested in the early history of space exploration."

text: Booklist

text: called it a "fine authorial debut." The book describes the early pioneers of rockets in the late 1920s.

text: The Soviet space program comprised the rocketry and space exploration programs conducted by the former Soviet Union (USSR) from the 1930s until its dissolution in 1991. Over its sixty-year history, this primarily classified military program was responsible for a number of pioneering accomplishments in space flight, including the first intercontinental ballistic missile (R-7), first satellite (Sputnik 1), first animal in Earth orbit (the dog Laika on Sputnik 2), first human in space and Earth orbit (cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1), first woman in space and Earth orbit (cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova on Vostok 6), first spacewalk (cosmonaut Alexey Leonov on Voskhod 2), first Moon impact (Luna 2), first image of the far side of the moon (Luna 3) and unmanned lunar soft landing (Luna 9), first space rover (Lunokhod 1), first sample of lunar soil automatically extracted and brought to Earth (Luna 16), and first space station (Salyut 1). Further notable records included the first interplanetary probes: Venera 1 and Mars 1 to fly by Venus and Mars, respectively, Venera 3 and Mars 2 to impact the respective planet surface, and Venera 7 and Mars 3 to make soft landings on these planets.

text: The Soviet space program comprised the

text: rocketry

text: and

text: space exploration

text: programs conducted by the former

text: Soviet Union

text: (USSR) from the 1930s until

text: its dissolution

text: in 1991. Over its sixty-year history, this primarily

text: classified

text: military program was responsible for a number of pioneering accomplishments in space flight, including the first

text: intercontinental ballistic missile

text: ), first satellite (

text: Sputnik 1

text: ), first animal in

text: Earth orbit

text: (the dog

text: Laika

text: on

text: Sputnik 2

text: ), first human in space and Earth orbit (

text: cosmonaut

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: on

text: Vostok 1

text: ), first woman in space and Earth orbit (

text: cosmonaut

text: Valentina Tereshkova

text: on

text: Vostok 6

text: ), first

text: spacewalk

text: cosmonaut

text: Alexey Leonov

text: on

text: Voskhod 2

text: ), first

text: Moon

text: impact (

text: Luna 2

text: ), first image of the far side of the moon (

text: Luna 3

text: ) and unmanned lunar soft landing (

text: Luna 9

text: ), first

text: space rover

text: Lunokhod 1

text: ), first sample of

text: lunar soil

text: automatically extracted and brought to Earth (

text: Luna 16

text: ), and first

text: space station

text: Salyut 1

text: ). Further notable records included the first

text: interplanetary probe

text: s:

text: Venera 1

text: and

text: Mars 1

text: to fly by

text: Venus

text: and

text: Mars

text: , respectively,

text: Venera 3

text: and

text: Mars 2

text: to impact the respective planet surface, and

text: Venera 7

text: and

text: Mars 3

text: to make soft landings on these planets.

text: The Moon Agreement (1979-1984) is often treated as though it is not a part of the body of international space law, and there has been extensive debate on whether or not the Moon Agreement is a valid part of international law. It entered into force in 1984, because of a five state ratification consensus procedure, agreed upon by the members of the United Nations Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). Still today very few nations have signed and/or ratified the Moon Agreement. In recent years this figure has crept up to a few more than a dozen nations who have signed and ratified the treaty. The other three outer space treaties experienced a high level of international cooperation in terms of signage and ratification, but the Moon Treaty went further than them, by defining the Common Heritage concept in more detail and by imposing specific obligations on the parties engaged in the exploration and/or exploitation of outer space. The Moon Treaty explicitly designates the Moon and its natural resources as part of the Common Heritage of Mankind.

text: An attempt was made to photograph the individual components of this binary using the Hubble Space Telescope, but the stars proved too close to resolve. Recent measurements with the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer space telescope gave a more accurate orbital period of . The inclination of this system's orbital plane is believed to be nearly edge-on (90°) as seen from the Earth. If so it may be possible to observe an eclipse.

text: An attempt was made to photograph the individual components of this binary using the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , but the stars proved too close to resolve. Recent measurements with the

text: Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer

text: space telescope

text: gave a more accurate orbital period of . The

text: inclination

text: of this system's

text: orbital plane

text: is believed to be nearly edge-on (90°) as seen from the Earth. If so it may be possible to observe an

text: eclipse

text: Aether is a space adventure game with washed-out pastel colors and a varying soundtrack consisting of a piano, synthesizer, guitar, and percussion piece. There are four monochrome planets to explore, which have subdued hues. Players control a lonely boy from Earth and an octopus-like monster he befriends. The monster's tongue is used to propel itself and the boy through space and onto other planets. Each planet has a unique soundtrack that gets louder as you approach it. Each moon or planet exerts gravity over the player character, requiring momentum to escape from the planet's orbit. To escape a planet, the tongue must first be latched onto a cloud floating above the planet's surface, which can then be used to swing the player around. By propelling themselves from the initial cloud using swinging momentum, players can latch onto the next and repeat the process to leave the planet's orbit. After reaching space the process is repeated with stars and asteroids. In space the lack of gravity causes the player to drift until the direction is changed by swinging on another object.

text: Aether is a space adventure game with washed-out pastel colors and a varying soundtrack consisting of a piano, synthesizer, guitar, and percussion piece. There are four monochrome planets to explore, which have subdued hues. Players control a lonely boy from Earth and an octopus-like monster he befriends. The monster's tongue is used to propel itself and the boy through space and onto other planets. Each planet has a unique soundtrack that gets louder as you approach it. Each moon or planet exerts

text: gravity

text: over the

text: player character

text: , requiring momentum to escape from the planet's orbit. To escape a planet, the tongue must first be latched onto a cloud floating above the planet's surface, which can then be used to swing the player around. By propelling themselves from the initial cloud using swinging momentum, players can latch onto the next and repeat the process to leave the planet's orbit. After reaching space the process is repeated with stars and asteroids. In space the lack of gravity causes the player to drift until the direction is changed by swinging on another object.

text: O'Keefe became NASA administrator on December 21, 2001 after the United States Senate confirmed his nomination. He came to NASA without formal training in science or engineering (as was the case with James E. Webb who was NASA administrator from 1961 to 1968). O'Keefe's tenure at NASA can be divided into roughly three equal periods, each marked by a single problem or event of overriding importance:; in the period December 2001 through January 2003, O'Keefe eliminated a $5 billion cost overrun in the construction of the International Space Station. In 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia accident and its aftermath. From January 2004 through February 2005, O'Keefe re-organized NASA to start working on President George W. Bush's newly announced Vision for Space Exploration to send humans to the Moon and Mars.

text: O'Keefe became NASA administrator on December 21, 2001 after the

text: United States Senate

text: confirmed his nomination. He came to NASA without formal training in science or engineering (as was the case with

text: James E. Webb

text: who was NASA administrator from 1961 to 1968). O'Keefe's tenure at NASA can be divided into roughly three equal periods, each marked by a single problem or event of overriding importance:; in the period December 2001 through January 2003, O'Keefe eliminated a $5 billion

text: cost overrun

text: in the construction of the

text: International Space Station

text: . In 2003

text: Space Shuttle Columbia accident

text: and its aftermath. From January 2004 through February 2005, O'Keefe re-organized NASA to start working on President George W. Bush's newly announced

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: to send humans to the Moon and Mars.

text: The first step towards a telecommunications program within ESRO was made in the end of 1966 when the European Conference on Satellite Communications requested that the organisation examine the potential for a European telecom satellite project. Although studies were carried out at this early stage as well as during the subsequent 5 years the ESRO council would not approve research and development activities until 1971 when the first package deal took effect. The delay was due to ESROs rigid decision making structure and the unfavorable political situation which existed among ESRO members at the time. These problems were largely done away with as part of the 1971 policy change which, among other things, outlined a fully voluntary mechanism for application project financing. Under the first package deal ESRO pursued a project to establish a European satellite system by the early 1980s in partnership with the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations and the European Broadcasting Union. ESRO merged with ELDO to form the European Space Agency in 1975 before the first satellite of the effort, the Orbital Test Satellite, would be successfully launched in 1978.

text: The first step towards a telecommunications program within ESRO was made in the end of 1966 when the European Conference on Satellite Communications requested that the organisation examine the potential for a European telecom satellite project. Although studies were carried out at this early stage as well as during the subsequent 5 years the ESRO council would not approve research and development activities until 1971 when the first package deal took effect. The delay was due to ESROs rigid decision making structure and the unfavorable political situation which existed among ESRO members at the time. These problems were largely done away with as part of the 1971 policy change which, among other things, outlined a fully voluntary mechanism for application project financing. Under the first package deal ESRO pursued a project to establish a European satellite system by the early 1980s in partnership with the

entity_name: European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations

text: European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations

text: and the

text: European Broadcasting Union

text: . ESRO merged with ELDO to form the

text: European Space Agency

text: in 1975 before the first satellite of the effort, the

text: Orbital Test Satellite

text: , would be successfully launched in 1978.

text: Gene Roddenberry sold Star Trek in 1964 to NBC as a classic adventure drama, calling it a "Wagon Train to the Stars". But Roddenberry wanted to tell more sophisticated stories, using futuristic situations as analogies for current problems on Earth and showing how they could be rectified through humanism and optimism. The show's writers frequently addressed moral and social issues such as slavery, warfare, and discrimination. The opening line "to boldly go where no man has gone before" is almost verbatim from a US White House booklet on space produced after the Sputnik flight in 1957.

text: Gene Roddenberry

text: sold

text: Star Trek

text: in 1964 to

text: NBC

text: as a classic adventure drama, calling it a "

text: Wagon Train

text: to the Stars". But Roddenberry wanted to tell more sophisticated stories, using

text: futuristic

text: situations as

text: analogies

text: for current problems on Earth and showing how they could be rectified through

text: humanism

text: and optimism. The show's writers frequently addressed moral and social issues such as slavery, warfare, and discrimination. The opening line "to boldly go

text: where no man has gone before

text: " is almost

text: verbatim

text: from a

text: US

text: White House

text: booklet on space produced after the

text: Sputnik

text: flight in 1957.

text: In the early 2000s, Nye assisted in the development of a small sundial that was included in the Mars Exploration Rover missions.  Known as MarsDial, it included small colored panels to provide a basis for color calibration in addition to helping keep track of time. From 2005 to 2010, Nye was the vice president of The Planetary Society, an organization that advocates space science research and the exploration of other planets, particularly Mars. He became the organization's second Executive Director in September 2010 when Louis Friedman stepped down.

text: In the early 2000s, Nye assisted in the development of a small

text: sundial

text: that was included in the

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: missions.  Known as

text: MarsDial

text: , it included small colored panels to provide a basis for

text: color calibration

text: in addition to helping keep track of time. From 2005 to 2010, Nye was the vice president of

text: The Planetary Society

text: , an organization that advocates

text: space science

text: research and the exploration of other planets, particularly

text: Mars

text: . He became the organization's second Executive Director in September 2010 when

text: Louis Friedman

text: stepped down.

text: The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) was an astronomical observatory satellite primarily designed to take ultraviolet spectra. The satellite was a collaborative project between NASA, the UK Science Research Council and the European Space Agency (ESA). The mission was first proposed in early 1964, by a group of scientists in the United Kingdom, and was launched on January 26, 1978 aboard a NASA Delta rocket. The mission lifetime was initially set for 3 years, but in the end it lasted almost 18 years, with the satellite being shut down in 1996. The switch-off occurred for financial reasons, while the telescope was still functioning at near original efficiency.

text: The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) was an astronomical

text: observatory

text: satellite

text: primarily designed to take

text: ultraviolet

text: spectra

text: . The satellite was a collaborative project between

text: NASA

text: , the

text: UK

entity_name: Science and Engineering Research Council

text: Science Research Council

text: and the

text: European Space Agency (ESA)

text: . The mission was first proposed in early 1964, by a group of scientists in the United Kingdom, and was launched on January 26, 1978 aboard a NASA

text: Delta rocket

text: . The mission lifetime was initially set for 3 years, but in the end it lasted almost 18 years, with the satellite being shut down in 1996. The switch-off occurred for financial reasons, while the telescope was still functioning at near original efficiency.

text: There are many types of operations which can be performed to treat a hypertelorism. 2 options are: box osteotomy and facial bipartition (also referred to as a median fasciotomy).The goal of the box osteotomy is to bring the orbits closer together by removing a part of the bone between the orbits, to detach both orbits from the surrounding bone structures and move both orbits more to the centre of the face. The goal of the facial bipartition is not only to bring the orbits closer together, but also to create more space in the maxilla. This can be done by splitting the maxilla and the frontal bone, remove a triangular shaped piece of bone from the forehead and nasal bones and pulling the two pieces of forehead together. Not only will the hypertelorism be solved by pulling the frontal bone closer together, but because of this pulling, the space between the both parts of the maxilla will become wider.

text: The NASA Ames Exploration Center is a science museum and education center for NASA. There are displays and interactive exhibits about NASA technology, missions and space exploration. A moon rock, meteorite and other geologic samples are on display. The theater shows movies with footage from NASA's explorations of Mars and the planets, and about the contributions of the scientists at Ames.

text: USRA initially concentrated on the management of LSI (later renamed the Lunar and Planetary Institute) but, armed with its broad charter, the consortium began to explore other ways to serve the university space research community as early as 1970. Today, USRA researchers are involved with university, government and industry scientists and engineers in a broad array of space and aeronautics related fields, including astronomy and astrophysics, earth sciences, microgravity, life sciences, space technology, computer science, and advanced concepts.

text: USRA initially concentrated on the management of LSI (later renamed the

text: Lunar and Planetary Institute

text: ) but, armed with its broad charter, the consortium began to explore other ways to serve the university space research community as early as 1970. Today, USRA researchers are involved with university, government and industry scientists and engineers in a broad array of

text: space

text: and

text: aeronautics

text: related fields, including

text: astronomy

text: and

text: astrophysics

text: earth sciences

text: microgravity

text: life sciences

text: space technology

text: computer science

text: , and advanced concepts.

text: Beginning in the early 1970s, the term "space music" was applied to some of the output of such artists as  Vangelis, Jean-Michel Jarre, Klaus Schulze and Tangerine Dream, due to the transcendent cosmic feelings of space evoked by the sound of the music and enhanced by the use of the emerging new instrument, the synthesizer, and also in part to the "outer space" themes that are apparent in some of their works. These space music explorations diverged from traditional pop-song formats into longer less structured compositions.  Following their early influence on the development of space music, Tangerine Dream later produced increasingly rock-influenced works that are not generally described as space music.

text: Beginning in the early 1970s, the term "space music" was applied to some of the output of such artists as

text: Vangelis

text: Jean-Michel Jarre

text: Klaus Schulze

text: and

text: Tangerine Dream

text: , due to the transcendent cosmic feelings of space evoked by the sound of the music and enhanced by the use of the emerging new instrument, the synthesizer, and also in part to the "outer space" themes that are apparent in some of their works. These space music explorations diverged from traditional pop-song formats into longer less structured compositions.  Following their early influence on the development of space music, Tangerine Dream later produced increasingly rock-influenced works that are not generally described as space music.

text: The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular orbits, but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each. The six orbit planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to the Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). The orbital period is one-half a sidereal day, i.e., 11 hours and 58 minutes so that the satellites pass over the same locations or almost the same locations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from almost everywhere on the Earth's surface. The result of this objective is that the four satellites are not evenly spaced (90 degrees) apart within each orbit. In general terms, the angular difference between satellites in each orbit is 30, 105, 120, and 105 degrees apart, which sum to 360 degrees.

text: The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular

text: orbits

text: , but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each. The six orbit planes have approximately 55°

text: inclination

text: (tilt relative to the Earth's

text: equator

text: ) and are separated by 60°

text: right ascension

text: of the

text: ascending node

text: (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). The orbital

text: period

text: is one-half a

text: sidereal day

text: , i.e., 11 hours and 58 minutes so that the satellites pass over the same locations or almost the same locations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within

text: line of sight

text: from almost everywhere on the Earth's surface. The result of this objective is that the four satellites are not evenly spaced (90 degrees) apart within each orbit. In general terms, the angular difference between satellites in each orbit is 30, 105, 120, and 105 degrees apart, which sum to 360 degrees.

text: In late August/Early Sept 2011 D-RATS made their 14th trip to the Arizona Desert to continue testing the technology NASA will need to enable multiple destinations for future human exploration including the Moon, near-Earth asteroids (NEAs), Mars moons, and ultimately the surface of Mars.  The team continued testing hardware including the Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV), the Habitat Demonstration Unit (HDU), and the Centaur Robotic assistant vehicle system.

text: S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Jemma Simmons is sucked into an alien monolith she was studying, and is teleported to night-time on a barren, desert planet. She braves a sandstorm, and finds some water and a plant-like creature to eat. After 752 hours, Simmons is trapped by a man, who eventually introduces himself as Will, an astronaut sent through the portal by NASA in 2001 who has been stranded alone, and believes the planet, or an entity controlling the planet, to be evil. Will and his team had come on a year long mission of exploration, but the others had soon succumbed to the effects of "it"; two had killed themselves, while Will killed the other when the latter attacked him. Will only survived the next 14 years by hiding from "it", and luck.

text: S.H.I.E.L.D.

text: agent Jemma Simmons is sucked into an alien monolith she was studying, and is teleported to night-time on a barren, desert planet. She braves a sandstorm, and finds some water and a plant-like creature to eat. After 752 hours, Simmons is trapped by a man, who eventually introduces himself as Will, an astronaut sent through the portal by

text: NASA

text: in 2001 who has been stranded alone, and believes the planet, or an entity controlling the planet, to be evil. Will and his team had come on a year long mission of exploration, but the others had soon succumbed to the effects of "it"; two had killed themselves, while Will killed the other when the latter attacked him. Will only survived the next 14 years by hiding from "it", and luck.

text: Planetary surfaces and surface life are of particular interest to humans as it the primary habitat of the species, which has evolved to move over land and breathe air. Human space exploration and space colonization therefore focuses heavily on them. Humans have only directly explored the surface of the Earth and Moon. The vast distances of space and the complexities of makes direct exploration of even Near-Earth objects dangerous and expensive. As such, all other exploration has been indirect via Space probes.

text: Planetary surfaces and surface life are of particular interest to

text: human

text: s as it the primary

text: habitat

text: of the species, which has

text: evolved

text: to move over land

text: and

text: breathe

text: air

text: . Human

text: space exploration

text: and

text: space colonization

text: therefore focuses heavily on them. Humans have only directly explored the surface of the Earth and Moon. The vast distances of space and the complexities of makes direct exploration of even

text: Near-Earth object

text: s dangerous and expensive. As such, all other exploration has been indirect via

text: Space probe

text: s.

text: Eventually the JPL team locates it around Venus. Nigel arranges to hijack the communications, transmitting his own signal (a binary sequence of prime numbers relating the Snark's trajectory). The Snark receives the signal as a sign of non-hostile intentions and transmits back. It also reaches out through Nigel's medical implants to his dead partner's more elaborate ones, and commandeers her body to explore and learn about Earth. Thus the initial tentative transmissions blossom into a largely one-way torrent of information for the Snark. One day, it asks to visit Earth. A compromise is worked out: the Snark will orbit the Moon until trust is built up. As Nigel is already fully informed, and everything about the Snark is being kept a state secret, he is assigned to pilot the space ship meeting the Snark - which will be armed with another nuclear weapon.

text: Eventually the

text: JPL

text: team locates it around Venus. Nigel arranges to hijack the communications, transmitting his own signal (a binary sequence of

text: prime number

text: s relating the Snark's trajectory). The Snark receives the signal as a sign of non-hostile intentions and transmits back. It also reaches out through Nigel's medical implants to his dead partner's more elaborate ones, and commandeers her body to explore and learn about Earth. Thus the initial tentative transmissions blossom into a largely one-way torrent of information for the Snark. One day, it asks to visit Earth. A compromise is worked out: the Snark will orbit the Moon until trust is built up. As Nigel is already fully informed, and everything about the Snark is being kept a state secret, he is assigned to pilot the space ship meeting the Snark - which will be armed with another nuclear weapon.

text: The Sputnik-3 had a vector fluxgate magnetometer, however because the orientation of the spacecraft could not be determined the direction vector for the magnetic field could not be determined. Three axis magnetometers were used on Luna 1, Luna 2, Pioneer Venus, Mariner 2, Venera 1, Explorer 12, Explorer 14, and Explorer 15. Explorer 33 was 'to be' the first US spacecraft to enter stable orbit around the moon was equipped with the most advanced magnetometer, a boom-mounted triaxial fluxgate (GFSC) magnetometer of the early-vector type. It had a small range but was accurate to a resolution of 0.25 nT. However, after a rocket failure it was left in a highly elliptical orbit around Earth that orbited through the  electro/magnetic tail.

text: The

text: Sputnik

text: -3 had a vector fluxgate magnetometer, however because the orientation of the spacecraft could not be determined the direction vector for the magnetic field could not be determined. Three axis magnetometers were used on

text: Luna 1

text: Luna 2

text: Pioneer Venus

text: Mariner 2

text: Venera 1

text: Explorer 12

text: Explorer 14

text: , and

text: Explorer 15

text: Explorer 33

text: was 'to be' the first US spacecraft to enter stable orbit around the moon was equipped with the most advanced magnetometer, a boom-mounted triaxial fluxgate (GFSC) magnetometer of the early-vector type. It had a small range but was accurate to a resolution of 0.25 nT. However, after a rocket failure it was left in a highly elliptical orbit around Earth that orbited through the  electro/magnetic tail.

text: Early relations with the People's Republic of China were cold due to China's veto at the United Nations Security Council to block Bangladesh's accession to the United Nations. Lately however China has made efforts to improve relations with many of its neighbors.  Trade with China reached a record level in 2006 of $3.2 billion under the auspices of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement (AFTA). The trade balance between the two countries are in China's favour. China has also officially agreed to helping Bangladesh on developing their nuclear power plant. Bangladesh has also signed the Apsco convention with six other nations to form a pact with China on space exploration.

text: Early relations with the

text: People's Republic of China

text: were cold due to China's veto at the

text: United Nations Security Council

text: to block Bangladesh's accession to the

text: United Nations

text: . Lately however China has made efforts to improve relations with many of its neighbors.  Trade with China reached a record level in 2006 of $3.2 billion under the auspices of the

text: Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement

text: (AFTA). The trade balance between the two countries are in China's favour. China has also officially agreed to helping Bangladesh on developing their nuclear power plant. Bangladesh has also signed the Apsco convention with six other nations to form a pact with China on space exploration.

text: Every 18.6 years, the angle between the moon's orbit and the earth's equator reaches a maximum of 28°36′ (the sum of the Earth's inclination 23°27′ and the Moon's inclination 5°09′). This is called major lunar standstill. Around this time, the moon's latitude will vary from −28°36′ to +28°36′. 9.3 years later, the angle between the moon's orbit and the earth's equator reaches its minimum, 18°20′. This is called a minor lunar standstill.

text: Every 18.6 years, the angle between the moon's orbit and the earth's equator reaches a maximum of 28°36′ (the sum of the Earth's inclination 23°27′ and the Moon's inclination 5°09′). This is called major

text: lunar standstill

text: . Around this time, the moon's latitude will vary from −28°36′ to +28°36′. 9.3 years later, the angle between the moon's orbit and the earth's equator reaches its minimum, 18°20′. This is called a minor lunar standstill.

text: Sputnik is a fictional character in the Marvel Universe.

text: Sputnik is a fictional character in the

text: Marvel Universe

text: In 1960 he wrote an article "V Kosmos na Electrovoze (en. Into space with the help of an electric locomotive)", where he discussed the concept of the space elevator as an economic, safe and convenient way to access orbit and facilitate space exploration.

text: In 1960 he wrote an article "V Kosmos na Electrovoze (en. Into space with the help of an electric locomotive)", where he discussed the concept of the space elevator as an economic, safe and convenient way to access

text: orbit

text: and facilitate

text: space exploration

text: Zarboff reveals his plan – to shoot rockets into space to make starstuff fall. The first attempt is successful, and he plans another, using the new starstuff to send the rocket even further. He does not know that the shadow beings intend the second rocket to rupture the fabric of the universe and cause it to collapse into nothingness. It falls to Peter to prevent the rocket from reaching its destination.

text: In the early 1960s NASA discovered a vast and advanced civilization on the Moon with their first space probes. While this civilization was able to shield itself from all Earth-based visual detection devices, U.S. President John F. Kennedy's speech from 1961 that declared the intent to "Put a man on the Moon and return him safely to the Earth" was not designed as a space race with the Soviet Union, but to secretly establish contact with this newly discovered civilization. This discovery was classified and false images from the Moon were transmitted during all the Apollo missions. When the Earth mission of this new civilization was discovered, political forces demanded that President Richard Nixon end manned missions to the Moon in 1972. First World commences in the year 2018 when the Chinese government announces it is making its first manned mission to the Moon within 24 hours. What does this civilization represent? Why was it covered up? Who knows about its existence? What is their mission? And what lengths will some go to protect Earth and our way of life?

text: In the early 1960s

text: NASA

text: discovered a vast and advanced civilization on the

text: Moon

text: with their first space probes. While this civilization was able to shield itself from all

text: Earth

text: -based visual detection devices, U.S. President

text: John F. Kennedy

text: 's speech from 1961 that declared the intent to "Put a man on the Moon and return him safely to the Earth" was not designed as a space race with the

text: Soviet Union

text: , but to secretly establish contact with this newly discovered civilization. This discovery was classified and false images from the Moon were transmitted during all the

text: Apollo

text: missions. When the Earth mission of this new civilization was discovered, political forces demanded that President

text: Richard Nixon

text: end manned missions to the Moon in 1972. First World commences in the year 2018 when the

text: Chinese

text: government announces it is making its first manned mission to the Moon within 24 hours. What does this civilization represent? Why was it covered up? Who knows about its existence? What is their mission? And what lengths will some go to protect Earth and our way of life?

text: The 81 space tiles are of 22 different tile types. There are a total of eight Glynium planets, and 31 tiles which continue an explorer ship's movement in a variety of different directions. The remaining 42 tiles represent a variety of actions, including, but not limited to: game board manipulation through tile exchange and reorientation, stranding, destroying, and salvaging explorer ships, losing a turn, returning to the mother ship, and destroying an opponents nearby explorer ship using a star base.

text: UNISPACE and Senior Executive Space ForumDr. Webb served as Chairman, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) in Consultative Status with the United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Vienna Austria, August 9–21, 1982 (UNISPACE 82). He organized a 12-day program with 120 speakers from around the world covering a broad range of topics incorporating most aspects of space exploration and development. Topics included: international satellite communications; technical issues associated with space exploration; energy from and in space from orbiting and lunar-based solar power satellites and free-flying power platforms; a global, U.N. owned and operated remote sensing satellite system that would provide both national security and environmental information to all nations. (1981–82).During the early 1990s, Dr. David Webb served as Chairman of the Senior Executive Space Forum. The Forum is held contemporaneously with the Annual Conference of the U.S. Space Foundation in Colorado Springs. It brings together senior executives from the major aerospace corporations, Members of Congress, Chiefs of Staff, and military advisers of all three armed Services, Directors and senior researchers of the major Federal Research Laboratories and senior management representatives from NASA Headquarters and Centers. The purpose of the meeting is to discuss, openly and frankly, but off-the-record, the goals, objectives, technology development issues and problem areas associated with the U.S. space program.

text: UNISPACE and Senior Executive Space ForumDr. Webb served as Chairman, Non-Governmental Organizations (

text: NGO

text: ) in Consultative Status with the United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Vienna Austria, August 9–21, 1982 (UNISPACE 82). He organized a 12-day program with 120 speakers from around the world covering a broad range of topics incorporating most aspects of space exploration and development. Topics included: international satellite communications; technical issues associated with space exploration; energy from and in space from orbiting and lunar-based solar power satellites and free-flying power platforms; a global, U.N. owned and operated remote sensing satellite system that would provide both national security and environmental information to all nations. (1981–82).During the early 1990s, Dr. David Webb served as Chairman of the Senior Executive Space Forum. The Forum is held contemporaneously with the Annual Conference of the U.S. Space Foundation in

text: Colorado Springs

text: . It brings together senior executives from the major aerospace corporations, Members of Congress, Chiefs of Staff, and military advisers of all three armed Services, Directors and senior researchers of the major Federal Research Laboratories and senior management representatives from NASA Headquarters and Centers. The purpose of the meeting is to discuss, openly and frankly, but off-the-record, the goals, objectives, technology development issues and problem areas associated with the U.S. space program.

text: Sirius is a binary star system consisting of two white stars orbiting each other with a separation of about 20 AU (roughly the distance between the Sun and Uranus) and a period of 50.1 years. The brighter component, termed Sirius A, is a main-sequence star of spectral type A1V, with an estimated surface temperature of 9,940 K. Its companion, Sirius B, is a star that has already evolved off the main sequence and become a white dwarf. Currently 10,000 times less luminous in the visual spectrum, Sirius B was once the more massive of the two. The age of the system has been estimated at around 230 million years. Early in its lifespan it was thought to have been two bluish white stars orbiting each other in an elliptical orbit every 9.1 years. The system emits a higher than expected level of infrared radiation, as measured by IRAS space-based observatory. This may be an indication of dust in the system, and is considered somewhat unusual for a binary star. The Chandra X-ray Observatory image shows Sirius B outshining its bright partner as it is a brighter X-ray source.

text: Sirius is a binary star system consisting of two white stars orbiting each other with a separation of about 20 AU (roughly the distance between the Sun and

text: Uranus

text: ) and a period of 50.1 years. The brighter component, termed Sirius A, is a

text: main-sequence

text: star of

text: spectral type

text: A1V, with an estimated surface temperature of 9,940

text: K

text: . Its companion, Sirius B, is a star that has already evolved off the main sequence and become a white dwarf. Currently 10,000 times less luminous in the visual spectrum, Sirius B was once the more massive of the two. The age of the system has been estimated at around 230 million years. Early in its lifespan it was thought to have been two bluish white stars orbiting each other in an elliptical orbit every 9.1 years. The system emits a

text: higher than expected level of infrared radiation

text: , as measured by

text: IRAS

text: space-based observatory. This may be an indication of dust in the system, and is considered somewhat unusual for a binary star. The

text: Chandra X-ray Observatory

text: image shows Sirius B outshining its bright partner as it is a brighter X-ray source.

text: Cygnus CRS OA-7, also known as Orbital Sciences CRS Flight 7, is the eighth planned flight of the Orbital ATK unmanned resupply spacecraft Cygnus and its seventh flight to the International Space Station under the Commercial Resupply Services contract with NASA. Orbital and NASA jointly developed a new space transportation system to provide commercial cargo resupply services to the International Space Station (ISS). Under the Commercial Orbital Transportation System (COTS) program, then Orbital Sciences designed and built Antares, a medium-class launch vehicle; Cygnus, an advanced maneuvering spacecraft, and a Pressurized Cargo Module which is provided by Orbital's industrial partner Thales Alenia Space.

text: Cygnus CRS OA-7, also known as Orbital Sciences CRS Flight 7, is the eighth planned flight of the

text: Orbital ATK

text: unmanned resupply spacecraft

text: Cygnus

text: and its seventh flight to the

text: International Space Station

text: under the

text: Commercial Resupply Services

text: contract with

text: NASA

text: program, then

text: Orbital Sciences

text: designed and built

text: Antares

text: , a medium-class launch vehicle;

text: Cygnus

text: Thales Alenia Space

text: Rocket cars are capable of very high speeds, and at one time held the land speed record (now held by a jet car).  Rocket cars differ from jet-powered cars in that they carry both fuel and oxidizer on board, eliminating the need for an air inlet and compressor which add weight and increase drag.  Rocket cars run their engines for relatively short periods of time, usually less than 20 seconds, but the acceleration levels that rocket cars can reach due to their high thrust-to-weight ratio are very high and high speeds are fairly easily achieved.

text: Rocket cars are capable of very high speeds, and at one time held the land speed record (now held by a

text: jet car

text: ).  Rocket cars differ from jet-powered cars in that they carry both fuel and oxidizer on board, eliminating the need for an air inlet and compressor which add weight and increase drag.  Rocket cars run their engines for relatively short periods of time, usually less than 20 seconds, but the acceleration levels that rocket cars can reach due to their high

text: thrust-to-weight ratio

text: are very high and high speeds are fairly easily achieved.

text: Upon conclusion of the training exercise, guests are invited to participate in activities at the Advanced Training Lab, a post-show area containing a group game called Mission: Space Race in which players perform tasks as Mission Control technicians aiding two X-2 spacecraft racing to return to Earth; a space-themed play area for toddlers; a single-person, arcade-style game in which an astronaut explores Mars on foot; and a kiosk where brief video postcards can be created and sent via e-mail.

text: The Mu, also known as M, was a series of Japanese solid-fuelled carrier rockets, which were launched from Uchinoura between 1966 and 2006. Originally developed by Japan's Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Mu rockets were later operated by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency following its merger with ISAS.

text: The Mu, also known as M, was a series of

text: Japan

text: ese

text: solid-fuelled

text: carrier rocket

text: s, which were launched from

text: Uchinoura

text: between 1966 and 2006. Originally developed by Japan's

text: , Mu rockets were later operated by

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: following its merger with ISAS.

text: When 2001: A Space Odyssey was written, mankind had not yet set foot on the moon. The space exploration programs in the United States and the Soviet Union were only in the early stages. Much room was left to imagine the future of the space program. Space Odyssey offers one such vision, offering a glimpse at what space exploration might one day become. Lengthy journeys, such as manned flights to Saturn, and advanced technologies, such as suspended animation, are described in the novel.

text: When 2001: A Space Odyssey was written, mankind had not yet set foot on the moon. The space exploration programs in the United States and the Soviet Union were only in the early stages. Much room was left to imagine the future of the space program. Space Odyssey offers one such vision, offering a glimpse at what space exploration might one day become. Lengthy journeys, such as manned flights to Saturn, and advanced technologies, such as

text: suspended animation

text: , are described in the novel.

text: He creates miniature scenarios using shoeboxes, cardboard, and foam core to make miniature offices, hotel rooms, pool halls, foyers and narrow corridors. These shadowy and dark scenes expose the secrecy and intimacy of small spaces. Levinthal is particularly interested in exploring the different emotions that each scene produces, such as reactions to an office corridor in contrast to those to a hospital or a private bedroom. Indeed, there is an inherently voyeuristic aspect to these early works.

text: Ammonium perchlorate composite propellant is typically used in aerospace propulsion applications, where simplicity and reliability are desired and specific impulses (depending on the composition and operating pressure) of 180–260 seconds are adequate. Because of these performance attributes, APCP is regularly implemented in booster applications such as in the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, aircraft ejection seats, and specialty space exploration applications such as NASA's Mars Exploration Rover descent stage retrorockets. In addition, the high-power rocketry community regularly uses APCP in the form of commercially available propellant "reloads", as well as single-use motors. Experienced experimental and amateur rocketeers also often work with APCP, processing the APCP themselves.

text: Ammonium perchlorate composite propellant is typically used in aerospace propulsion applications, where simplicity and reliability are desired and

text: specific impulse

text: s (depending on the composition and operating

text: pressure

text: ) of 180–260 seconds are adequate. Because of these performance attributes, APCP is regularly implemented in booster applications such as in the

text: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

text: s, aircraft

text: ejection seat

text: s, and specialty space exploration applications such as NASA's

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: descent stage

text: retrorocket

text: s. In addition, the

text: high-power rocketry

text: community regularly uses APCP in the form of commercially available propellant "reloads", as well as single-use motors. Experienced experimental and amateur rocketeers also often work with APCP, processing the APCP themselves.

text: Alfred Newman who had previously scored Fairbanks' Reaching for the Moon composed the score. Newman reused one of his musical themes for the 1937 film The Hurricane where it became a popular song called Moon of Manakoora. Newman's score for The Hurricane was nominated for an Academy Award.

text: Alfred Newman

text: who had previously scored Fairbanks'

text: Reaching for the Moon

text: composed the score. Newman reused one of his musical themes for the 1937 film

text: The Hurricane

text: where it became a popular song called

text: Moon of Manakoora

text: . Newman's score for The Hurricane was nominated for an Academy Award.

text: In the United States alone, there are roughly 1.07 billion visits to the post office a year. Stamp collecting is also a very popular hobby within the United States.In the United Kingdom, stamps are also printed with Space achievements. "Royal Mail celebrates Britain's contribution to space exploration with its latest set of commemorative stamps. Due to be issued on 16 October, the six stamps all feature images from European Space Agency missions. From skimming Saturn's rings to keeping a watchful eye on the sun, from visiting our neighbouring worlds to flying by the "failed planet" of asteroid Lutetia, Britain now performs most of its space exploration through Esa.This year marks the 50th anniversary of Britain's space exploration effort. On 26 April 1962, its first satellite, Ariel 1, was launched by Nasa. It carried scientific experiments designed by British universities and turned Britain into the world's third spacefaring nation, after Russia and America."

text: Space related activities are conducted within KDA itself in addition to its subsidiaries, Kongsberg Spacetec (wholly owned) and Kongsberg Satellite Services (50% owned by KDA, 50% by the Norwegian Space Centre), both located in Tromsø. Notable space related products from KDA are the Booster Attachment and Release Mechanisms for ESA's Ariane 5. In the early 1990s KDA was involved with NASA's JPL and Germany's DASA in software development of the test/checkout system, as well as spacecraft hardware production, for the NASA/ESA Cassini-Huygens space probe. KDA has also delivered the Solar Array Drive Mechanism for ESA's Rosetta space probe.

text: Space related activities are conducted within KDA itself in addition to its subsidiaries, Kongsberg Spacetec (wholly owned) and Kongsberg Satellite Services (50% owned by KDA, 50% by the

text: Norwegian Space Centre

text: ), both located in

text: Tromsø

text: . Notable space related products from KDA are the Booster Attachment and Release Mechanisms for

text: ESA

text: 's

text: Ariane 5

text: . In the early 1990s KDA was involved with

text: NASA's JPL

text: and Germany's

text: DASA

text: in software development of the test/checkout system, as well as spacecraft hardware production, for the NASA/ESA

text: Cassini-Huygens

text: space probe. KDA has also delivered the Solar Array Drive Mechanism for ESA's

text: Rosetta space probe

text: Commander David Scott and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin spent three days on the Moon, including 18½ hours outside the spacecraft on lunar extra-vehicular activity (EVA). The mission landed near Hadley rille, in an area of the Mare Imbrium called Palus Putredinus (Marsh of Decay). The crew explored the area using the first lunar rover, which allowed them to travel much farther from the Lunar Module (LM) than had been possible on missions without the rover. They collected  of lunar surface material. At the same time, Command Module Pilot Alfred Worden orbited the Moon, using a Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) in the Service Module (SM) to study the lunar surface and environment in great detail with a panoramic camera, a gamma-ray spectrometer, a mapping camera, a laser altimeter, a mass spectrometer, and a lunar sub-satellite deployed at the end of Apollo 15's stay in lunar orbit (an Apollo program first).

text: Commander

text: David Scott

text: and Lunar Module Pilot

text: James Irwin

text: spent three days on the Moon, including 18½ hours outside the

text: spacecraft

text: on lunar

text: extra-vehicular activity

text: (EVA). The mission landed near

text: Hadley rille

text: , in an area of the

text: Mare Imbrium

text: called Palus Putredinus (Marsh of Decay). The crew explored the area using the first lunar rover, which allowed them to travel much farther from the

text: Lunar Module

text: (LM) than had been possible on missions without the rover. They collected  of lunar surface material. At the same time, Command Module Pilot

text: Alfred Worden

text: orbited the Moon, using a Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) in the

text: Service Module

text: (SM) to study the lunar surface and environment in great detail with a panoramic camera, a

text: gamma-ray spectrometer

text: , a mapping camera, a laser

text: altimeter

text: , a

text: mass spectrometer

text: , and a lunar sub-satellite deployed at the end of Apollo 15's stay in

text: lunar orbit

text: (an Apollo program first).

text: Ehricke was an accomplished practitioner in the field of astrodynamics and its applications.  His two-volume work entitled Space Flight is probably the most complete and surely the most useful introduction to this complex subject ever written.  It focuses on methods for exploration of the solar system.  He clearly demonstrated the so-called "gravity assist" method for utilizing hyperbolic encounters with an intermediate planet to increase (or decrease) the velocity and orbital elements of a space vehicle.  This technique had opened the entire solar system to robotic exploration by using what he called "Instrumented Comets."  Examples include the Voyager missions to the outer planets and the recent successful New Horizons mission to Pluto. His contribution to this important field of exploration has been neglected for many decades and incorrect claims of "invention" of what is now called gravity assist were made by Minovitch.

text: The Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program (also known as the Augustine Commission) was a 1990 space policy group requested by Vice President Dan Quayle, chairman of the National Space Council. The objective of the committee was to evaluate the long-term future of NASA and the United States civilian space program. The committee's final report (known as the Augustine Report) recommended that the space program should comprise five activities—space science, earth science, human spaceflight, space technology and space transportation—with space science as the highest priority for funding. It also proposed an unmanned launch vehicle to replace some space shuttle launches, and a scaled-back redesign of space station Freedom.

text: The Advisory Committee on the Future of the United States Space Program (also known as the Augustine Commission) was a 1990

text: space policy

text: group requested by Vice President

text: Dan Quayle

text: , chairman of the

text: National Space Council

text: . The objective of the committee was to evaluate the long-term future of

text: NASA

text: and the United States civilian space program. The committee's final report (known as the Augustine Report) recommended that the space program should comprise five activities—

text: space science

text: earth science

text: human spaceflight

text: space technology

text: and

text: space transportation

text: —with space science as the highest priority for funding. It also proposed an unmanned launch vehicle to replace some

text: space shuttle

text: launches, and a scaled-back redesign of space station

text: Freedom

text: Asteroid mining could potentially revolutionize space exploration. The C-type asteroids's high abundance of water could be used to produce fuel by splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen. This would make space travel a more feasible option by lowering cost of fuel. While the cost of fuel is a relatively insignificant factor in the overall cost for low earth orbit manned space missions, storing it and the size of the craft become a much bigger factor for interplanetary missions. Typically 1 kg in orbit is equivalent to more than 10 kg on the ground ( for a Falcon9 1.0 it would need 250 tons of fuel  to put 5 tons in GEO orbit or 10 tons in LEO ).  This limitation is a major factor in the difficulty of interplanetary missions as fuel becomes payload.

text: To this end, the President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy was formed by President Bush on January 27, 2004. Its final report was submitted on June 4, 2004.  This led to the NASA Exploration Systems Architecture Study in mid-2005, which developed technical plans for carrying out the programs specified in the Vision for Space Exploration.  This led to the beginning of execution of Constellation program, including the Orion crew module, the Altair lunar lander, and the Ares I and Ares V rockets.  The Ares I-X mission, a test launch of a prototype Ares I rocket, was successfully completed in October 2009.

text: To this end, the

entity_name: President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy

text: President's Commission on Implementation of United States Space Exploration Policy

text: was formed by President Bush on January 27, 2004. Its final report was submitted on June 4, 2004.  This led to the NASA

text: Exploration Systems Architecture Study

text: in mid-2005, which developed technical plans for carrying out the programs specified in the Vision for Space Exploration.  This led to the beginning of execution of

text: Constellation program

text: , including the

text: Orion

text: crew module, the

text: Altair

text: lunar lander, and the

text: Ares I

text: and

text: Ares V

text: rockets.  The

text: Ares I-X

text: mission, a test launch of a prototype Ares I rocket, was successfully completed in October 2009.

text: The Cospas-Sarsat system was made possible by Doppler processing.  LUTs detecting non-geostationary satellites perform mathematical calculations based on the Doppler-induced frequency shift received by LEOSAR and MEOSAR satellites as they pass over a beacon transmitting at a fixed frequency.  From the mathematical calculations, it is possible to determine both bearing and range with respect to the satellite.  The range and bearing are measured from the rate of change of the received frequency, which varies both according to the path of the satellite in space and the rotation of the earth. This allows a computer algorithm to triangulate the position of the beacon. A faster change in the received frequency indicates that the beacon is closer to the satellite's ground track.  When the beacon is moving toward or away from the satellite track due to the earth's rotation, that Doppler shift also can be used in the calculation.

text: The Cospas-Sarsat system was made possible by

text: Doppler

text: processing.  LUTs detecting non-geostationary satellites perform mathematical calculations based on the

text: Doppler

text: -induced frequency shift received by LEOSAR and MEOSAR satellites as they pass over a beacon transmitting at a fixed frequency.  From the mathematical calculations, it is possible to determine both bearing and range with respect to the satellite.  The range and bearing are measured from the rate of change of the received frequency, which varies both according to the path of the satellite in space and the rotation of the earth. This allows a computer algorithm to

text: triangulate

text: the position of the beacon. A faster change in the received frequency indicates that the beacon is closer to the satellite's

text: ground track

text: .  When the beacon is moving toward or away from the satellite track due to the earth's rotation, that Doppler shift also can be used in the calculation.

text: Stamatios (Tom) M. Krimigis () is a Greek-American scientist in space exploration. He has contributed to many of the United States' unmanned space exploration programs of the Solar System and beyond. He has contributed to exploration missions to almost every planet of the Solar System. In 1999, the International Astronomical Union named the asteroid 8323 Krimigis (previously 1979 UH) in his honor.

text: Stamatios (Tom) M. Krimigis () is a Greek-American scientist in

text: space exploration

text: . He has contributed to many of the United States' unmanned space exploration programs of the

text: Solar System

text: and beyond. He has contributed to exploration missions to almost every planet of the Solar System. In 1999, the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: named the asteroid

text: 8323 Krimigis

text: (previously 1979 UH) in his honor.

text: Planetary Radio is a weekly 30-minute radio show devoted to space exploration and astronomy, hosted and produced by Mat Kaplan and The Planetary Society. The show's programming consists mostly of interviews and telephone-based conversations with scientists, engineers, project managers, artists, writers, astronauts and many other professionals who can provide some insight or perspective into the current state of space exploration. It made its debut on November 25, 2002 with an interview with Planetary Society executive director Louis D. Friedman, airing on Windows Media and local radio station KUCI. The show became available in MP3 format for download in early July 2004, and became available as a podcast in May 2005.

text: Planetary Radio is a weekly 30-minute

text: radio show

text: devoted to

text: space exploration

text: and

text: astronomy

text: , hosted and produced by

text: Mat Kaplan

text: and

text: The Planetary Society

text: . The show's programming consists mostly of interviews and telephone-based conversations with scientists, engineers, project managers, artists, writers,

text: astronauts

text: and many other professionals who can provide some insight or perspective into the current state of space exploration. It made its debut on November 25, 2002 with an interview with Planetary Society executive director

text: Louis D. Friedman

text: , airing on

text: Windows Media

text: and local radio station

text: KUCI

text: . The show became available in MP3 format for download in early July 2004, and became available as a

text: podcast

text: in May 2005.

text: With the advent of space exploration, the upper limits to the "ad coelum" doctrine now include issues of national sovereignty.  Strong arguments can be made for and against the altitude at which national sovereignty ceases and the rights of orbit or travel starts.  In particular, the making of national territorial claims in outer space and on celestial bodies has been specifically proscribed by the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which was, , ultimately ratified by all space faring nations.  Article II of the treaty notes that "Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation."  The Ad coelum Doctrine -that property or sovereignty extends indefinable upward- is no longer accepted without limitations. This is not surprising since any claim to space based on national boundaries is based upon points defined on the surface of a rotating planet and therefore must have an upper boundary.

text: With the advent of

text: space exploration

text: , the upper limits to the "ad coelum" doctrine now include issues of national sovereignty.  Strong arguments can be made for and against the altitude at which national sovereignty ceases and the rights of orbit or travel starts.  In particular, the making of

text: national

text: territorial claims

text: in

text: outer space

text: and on

text: celestial bodies

text: has been specifically proscribed by the

text: 1967 Outer Space Treaty

text: , which was, , ultimately ratified by all space faring nations.  Article II of the treaty notes that "Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation."  The Ad coelum Doctrine -that property or sovereignty extends indefinable upward- is no longer accepted without limitations. This is not surprising since any claim to space based on national boundaries is based upon points defined on the surface of a rotating planet and therefore must have an upper boundary.

text: By international agreement under the International Astronomical Union, the satellites and space probes were initially named with Greek letters, following the system for naming stars in constellations. The year of launch was included in the launch names, so Sputnik I was 1957 Alpha. The payload was called Alpha I, when known – in the case of Sputnik I, it wasn’t clear initially which was the payload, so the payload became Alpha II.  Other pieces were also numbered, so the carrier rocket was usually Alpha II.  The 24 Greek letters were soon used, so the next sequence started Alpha Alpha and so forth.  By 1962  Beta Psi had been launched and it was clear that the Greek alphabet system would no longer work.  Thereafter, launches were numbered, starting with 1963-1 with the payload normally being 1963-1A, etc..

text: While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the early 20th century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national prestige, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries.

text: While the observation of objects in space, known as

text: astronomy

text: , predates reliable

text: recorded history

text: , it was the development of large and relatively efficient

text: rocket

text: s during the early 20th century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national prestige, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries.

text: In May 2008 ESA signed a contract worth €263 million (£220 million/$360 million) with EADS subsidiary Astrium. As the prime contractor, Astrium is responsible for the satellite's design, development and integration. Design and construction began in early 2009 while launch is due for 2016. EarthCARE is an acronym standing for Earth Clouds, Aerosols and Radiation Explorer, and the aims of the mission are to improve understanding of the cloud, radiative and aerosol processes that affect the Earth's climate. As of January 2011, the total budget for the project is £500 million (€590 million/$810 million). A significant proportion of the project will be manufactured in the UK, the main structure of the spacecraft will be built by RUAG Space in Switzerland and subsequently completed in Astrium's Stevenage facility, while one of the instruments will be made in Sevenoaks by SSTL and another in Bristol, Somerset by SEA Group Ltd, now part of Thales Alenia Space UK. In September 2014 ESA and JAXA held a joined EarthCARE International Science Workshop. From 2014 to 2015 an ongoing integration of the instruments takes place. In 2015 launch was postponed to 2018 due to problems with Lidar development.

text: In May 2008

text: ESA

text: signed a contract worth €263 million (£220 million/$360 million) with

text: EADS

text: subsidiary

text: Astrium

text: . As the prime contractor, Astrium is responsible for the satellite's design, development and integration. Design and construction began in early 2009 while launch is due for 2016. EarthCARE is an acronym standing for Earth Clouds, Aerosols and Radiation Explorer, and the aims of the mission are to improve understanding of the

text: cloud

text: radiative

text: and

text: aerosol

text: processes that affect the Earth's climate. As of January 2011, the total budget for the project is £500 million (€590 million/$810 million). A significant proportion of the project will be manufactured in the UK, the main structure of the spacecraft will be built by RUAG Space in Switzerland and subsequently completed in Astrium's

text: Stevenage

text: facility, while one of the instruments will be made in

text: Sevenoaks

text: by

text: SSTL

text: and another in

text: Bristol, Somerset

text: by SEA Group Ltd, now part of Thales Alenia Space UK. In September 2014 ESA and JAXA held a joined EarthCARE International Science Workshop. From 2014 to 2015 an ongoing integration of the instruments takes place. In 2015 launch was postponed to 2018 due to problems with

text: Lidar

text: development.

text: The first man-made object to reach the Moon was the unmanned Soviet probe Luna 2, which made a hard landing on September 14, 1959, at 21:02:24 Z. The far side of the Moon was first photographed on October 7, 1959 by the Soviet probe Luna 3. Though vague by today's standards, the photos showed that the far side of the Moon almost completely lacked maria. In an effort to compete with these Soviet successes, U.S. President John F. Kennedy proposed the national goal of landing a human on the Moon. Speaking to a Joint Session of Congress on May 26, 1961, he said

text: The first man-made object to reach the Moon was the unmanned Soviet probe

text: Luna 2

text: , which made a hard landing on September 14, 1959, at 21:02:24 Z. The far side of the Moon was first photographed on October 7, 1959 by the Soviet probe

text: Luna 3

text: . Though vague by today's standards, the photos showed that the far side of the Moon almost completely lacked

text: maria

text: . In an effort to compete with these Soviet successes, U.S. President

text: John F. Kennedy

text: proposed the national goal of landing a human on the Moon. Speaking to a Joint Session of Congress on May 26, 1961, he said

text: The vehicle is an autonomous flying testbed that is used for testing hardware, sensors and algorithms.  These sensors and algorithms include such things as onboard cameras that, with specialized guidance, navigation and control software, could aid in the capture of orbiting space debris, in-space docking with a fuel depot, docking of a robotic lander with an orbiting command module and the rendezvous of multiple unmanned stages for deep space human exploration of the solar system.

text: Thiokol also produced a variety of liquid and solid rocket motors for the US space program, including deorbit motors for the Mercury and Gemini programs, rocket stages and separation rocket motors for the Apollo program, motors for the Pioneer, Surveyor, Viking, Voyager, and Magellan missions, updated CASTOR boosters for the Delta rocket, and the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster.  Reaction Motors powerplants propelled the X-1 and X-15 aircraft, and later Thiokol technologies were also used in the private Tier One manned spaceplane. On March 1, 2006, NASA announced that Thiokol will be the prime contractor for the new Crew Launch Vehicle (CLV), to be known as the Ares I, which will put the Orion spacecraft (formerly known as the "Crew Exploration Vehicle") into low earth orbit, along with the five-segment SRBs for the heavy-lift Cargo Launch Vehicle (CaLV), known as the Ares V.

text: Thiokol also produced a variety of liquid and

text: solid rocket

text: motors for the

text: US space program

text: , including deorbit motors for the

text: Mercury

text: and

text: Gemini

text: programs, rocket stages and separation rocket motors for the

text: Apollo program

text: , motors for the

text: Pioneer

text: Surveyor

text: Viking

text: Voyager

text: , and

text: Magellan

text: missions, updated CASTOR boosters for the

text: Delta rocket

text: , and the

text: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

text: .  Reaction Motors powerplants propelled the

text: and

text: aircraft, and later Thiokol technologies were also used in the private

text: Tier One

text: manned

text: spaceplane

text: . On March 1, 2006, NASA announced that Thiokol will be the prime contractor for the new

text: Crew Launch Vehicle

text: (CLV), to be known as the

text: Ares I

text: , which will put the

text: Orion spacecraft

text: (formerly known as the "Crew Exploration Vehicle") into

text: low earth orbit

text: , along with the five-segment SRBs for the heavy-lift Cargo Launch Vehicle (CaLV), known as the

text: Ares V

text: The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9–3.4 AU once every 4 years and 5 months (1,610 days). Its orbit shows a high eccentricity of 0.28 and is tilted by 7 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. It has a rotation period of about 5.4 hours. According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer satellites, the body's geometric albedo is about 0.13.

text: The

text: S-type

text: asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9–3.4

text: AU

text: once every 4 years and 5 months (1,610 days). Its orbit shows a high

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.28 and is

text: tilted

text: by 7 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: . It has a

text: rotation period

text: of about 5.4 hours. According to the space-based surveys carried out by the Japanese

text: Akari

text: and the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: satellites, the body's

text: geometric albedo

text: is about 0.13.

text: The list of BCC alumni includes prominent scientists, such as Dr. Hugh Dryden, associate administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) during the early U.S. space exploration program and missions to the Moon in the 1960s, theoretical physicist John Archibald Wheeler, who coined the term black hole and received the 1997 Wolf Prize in Physics, Martin Rodbell, who received the 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of G-proteins, and Abel Wolman, the nationally famous "father" of chlorinated drinking water and a National Medal of Science recipient who brought the Baltimore metropolitan areas public water supply system to be among the best in the country,  Alexander Ashley Weech (Class of 1913), a pioneer pediatrician and scientist who treated the first patient in the U.S. with an antibiotic (1935) and was awarded the John Howland Medal (1977). Notable writers such as Leon Uris, author of the novel Exodus, inspiring the motion picture,  Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Karl Shapiro, and Pulitzer Prize-winning author, New York Times columnist, and host of the Masterpiece Theatre anthology programs on  PBS,  Russell Baker are also alumni. Businessmen, who have graduated from the school, include David M. Rubenstein, co-founder of The Carlyle Group, and David T. Abercrombie, namesake and co-founder of Abercrombie & Fitch.

text: The list of BCC alumni includes prominent scientists, such as Dr.

text: Hugh Dryden

text: , associate administrator of the

text: (NASA) during the early U.S. space exploration program and missions to the Moon in the 1960s,

text: theoretical physicist

text: John Archibald Wheeler

text: , who coined the term

text: black hole

text: and received the 1997

text: Wolf Prize in Physics

text: Martin Rodbell

text: , who received the 1994

text: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

text: for his discovery of

text: G-proteins

text: , and

text: Abel Wolman

text: , the nationally famous "father" of

text: chlorinated

text: drinking water and a

text: National Medal of Science

text: recipient who brought the Baltimore metropolitan areas public water supply system to be among the best in the country,  Alexander Ashley Weech (Class of 1913), a pioneer pediatrician and scientist who treated the first patient in the U.S. with an antibiotic (1935) and was awarded the John Howland Medal (1977). Notable writers such as

text: Leon Uris

text: , author of the novel

text: Exodus

text: , inspiring the

text: motion picture

text: Pulitzer Prize

text: -winning poet

text: Karl Shapiro

text: , and Pulitzer Prize-winning author,

text: New York Times

text: columnist, and host of the

text: Masterpiece Theatre

text: anthology programs on

text: PBS

text: Russell Baker

text: are also alumni. Businessmen, who have graduated from the school, include

text: David M. Rubenstein

text: , co-founder of

text: The Carlyle Group

text: , and

text: David T. Abercrombie

text: , namesake and co-founder of

text: Abercrombie & Fitch

text: VirtuAlice (1995) was an early mobile data collection and surveillance project. Its key component was a telerobotic camera mounted on a wireless rolling chair with attached cameras. Users could control its movement either by riding around in it or remotely, through a web interface. The video images captured were made available to web viewers in real time. There was also a rear-view mirror that reflected the face of anyone riding the chair to web viewers. Sobell and Hartzell described the piece as "a passage between physical and cyber space. We converge from web-side and street-side, explore parallel spaces  separated by glass,  and peer through the membrane  at each other's  representations."

text: Since the 1980s Kahn has been steadfast in his commitment to the redemptive possibilities of art. His miniature sacred spaces (what he calls shrines) explore the correspondence between the initimate and the monumental. His first full-scale shrine, Shalev, realized outdoors in New Harmony, Indiana, was commissioned by the Jane Owen and Robert Lee Blaffer Trust. While his early work draws on the tradition of American visionary landscape painting, his more recent pieces reflect his fascination with contemporary science, inspired by the micro-images of cell formations and satellite photography.

text: The exploration of Jupiter has been conducted via close observations by automated spacecraft. It began with the arrival of Pioneer 10 into the Jovian system in 1973, and, , has continued with eight further spacecraft missions. All of these missions were undertaken by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and all but two have been flybys that take detailed observations without the probe landing or entering orbit. These probes make Jupiter the most visited of the Solar System's outer planets as all missions to the outer Solar System have used Jupiter flybys to reduce fuel requirements and travel time. On 5th July 2016, spacecraft Juno arrived and entered the planet's orbit—the second craft ever to do so. Sending a craft to Jupiter entails many technical difficulties, especially due to the probes' large fuel requirements and the effects of the planet's harsh radiation environment.

text: The exploration of Jupiter has been conducted via close observations by

text: automated spacecraft

text: . It began with the arrival of

text: Pioneer 10

text: into the

text: Jovian system

text: in 1973, and, , has continued with eight further spacecraft missions. All of these missions were undertaken by the

text: (NASA), and all but two have been flybys that take detailed observations without the

text: probe

text: landing or entering orbit. These probes make

text: Jupiter

text: the most visited of the

text: Solar System

text: 's

text: outer planets

text: as all missions to the outer Solar System have used Jupiter flybys to reduce fuel requirements and travel time. On 5th July 2016, spacecraft

text: Juno

text: arrived and entered the planet's orbit—the second craft ever to do so. Sending a craft to Jupiter entails many technical difficulties, especially due to the probes' large fuel requirements and the effects of the planet's harsh radiation environment.

text: President Dwight D. Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958 with a distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The new agency became operational on October 1, 1958. Since that time, most U.S. space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

text: President

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958 with a distinctly civilian (rather than military) orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The new agency became operational on October 1, 1958. Since that time, most U.S. space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the

text: Apollo

text: moon-landing

text: missions, the

text: Skylab

text: space station, and later the

text: Space Shuttle

text: . Currently, NASA is supporting the

text: International Space Station

text: and is overseeing the development of the

text: Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle

text: , the

text: Space Launch System

text: and

text: Commercial Crew

text: vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the

text: Launch Services Program

text: (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

text: Men Into Space was advertised as being (for its era) an extremely accurate preview of manned spaceflight, based on scientific studies  and buttressed by technical assistance from the USAF's ballistic missile and space medicine offices. The spacecraft designs, however, veered inconsistently between early 1950s Wernher Von Braun concept vehicles, and later, totally scaled-down spacecraft proposals. Visual backdrops and conceptual designs of spacecraft, space stations, and a Moon base depended somewhat on contributions from notable astronautics and science fiction artist Chesley Bonestell. The series also availed itself of extensive documentary footage of early missile launches, notably the Atlas missile. It evoked the earlier Disney space exploration documentaries, which in turn owed their look and feel to a widely read, early 1950s series on the subject in the old Collier's Weekly magazine, where Bonestell's art also held sway.  At one point in production, a scale model and poster of an Atlas derived design missile with the series spacecraft as the payload was built, with publicity photos of Lundigen holding the model in front of the large poster.  Several scenes used footage from the cancelled Navajo missile program to depict spacecraft landings on a desert runway.  The distinctive design of the X-10 Navajo (different from the close up depictions of the series spacecraft) can be seen in the desert landing sequences X-10 Navajo missile.

text: Men Into Space was advertised as being (for its era) an extremely accurate preview of manned spaceflight, based on scientific studies  and buttressed by technical assistance from the USAF's

text: ballistic missile

text: and space medicine offices. The spacecraft designs, however, veered inconsistently between early 1950s

text: Wernher Von Braun

text: concept vehicles, and later, totally scaled-down spacecraft proposals. Visual backdrops and conceptual designs of spacecraft, space stations, and a

text: Moon base

text: depended somewhat on contributions from notable

text: astronautics

text: and science fiction artist

text: Chesley Bonestell

text: . The series also availed itself of extensive

text: documentary

text: footage of early missile launches, notably the Atlas missile. It evoked the earlier

text: Disney

text: space exploration documentaries, which in turn owed their look and feel to a widely read, early 1950s series on the subject in the old

text: Collier's Weekly

text: magazine, where Bonestell's art also held sway.  At one point in production, a scale model and poster of an Atlas derived design missile with the series spacecraft as the payload was built, with publicity photos of Lundigen holding the model in front of the large poster.  Several scenes used footage from the cancelled Navajo missile program to depict spacecraft landings on a desert runway.  The distinctive design of the X-10 Navajo (different from the close up depictions of the series spacecraft) can be seen in the desert landing sequences

text: X-10 Navajo missile

text: For long term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self-sufficient. Mining and refining the Moon's materials on-site – for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System – could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth, as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that large amounts of matter will need to be launched into space for interplanetary exploration in the 21st century, and the lower cost of providing goods from the Moon might be attractive.

text: For long term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self-sufficient.

text: Mining

text: and

text: refining

text: the Moon's materials on-site – for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System – could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth, as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that large amounts of matter will need to be launched into space for interplanetary

text: exploration

text: in the 21st century, and the lower cost of providing goods from the Moon might be attractive.

text: There have been hundreds of reconnaissance satellites launched by dozens of nations since the first years of space exploration. Satellites for imaging intelligence were usually placed in low-earth, high-inclination orbits, sometimes in sun-synchronous orbits. Since the film-return missions were usually short, they could indulge in orbits with low perigees, in the range of 100–200 km, but the more recent CCD-based satellites have been launched into higher orbits, 250–300 km perigee, allowing each to remain in orbit for several years. While the exact resolution and other details of modern spy satellites are classified, some idea of the trade-offs available can be made using simple physics. The formula for the highest possible resolution of an optical system with a circular aperture is given by the Rayleigh criterion:

text: There have been hundreds of

text: reconnaissance satellite

text: s launched by dozens of nations since the first years of space exploration. Satellites for imaging intelligence were usually placed in

text: low-earth

text: , high-inclination orbits, sometimes in

text: sun-synchronous orbit

text: s. Since the film-return missions were usually short, they could indulge in orbits with low

text: perigee

text: s, in the range of 100–200 km, but the more recent CCD-based satellites have been launched into higher orbits, 250–300 km perigee, allowing each to remain in orbit for several years. While the exact

text: resolution

text: and other details of modern

text: spy satellite

text: s are classified, some idea of the trade-offs available can be made using simple physics. The formula for the highest possible resolution of an optical system with a circular aperture is given by the

text: Rayleigh criterion

text: The same month JPL held an open access event to mark the 32nd anniversary of its foundation—which featured a "nativity scene" of mannequins reconstructing the November 1936 photograph of the GALCIT Group—and erected a monument commemorating their first rocket test on Halloween 1936. Among the aerospace industry, JPL was nicknamed as standing for "Jack Parsons' Laboratory" or "Jack Parsons Lives". The International Astronomical Union decided to name a crater on the far side of the Moon Parsons after him in 1972. JPL later credited him for making "distinctive technical innovations that advanced early efforts" in rocket engineering, with aerospace journalist Craig Covault stating that the work of Parsons, Qian Xuesen and the GALCIT Group "planted the seeds for JPL to become preeminent in space and rocketry."

text: The same month JPL held an open access event to mark the 32nd anniversary of its foundation—which featured a "nativity scene" of mannequins reconstructing the November 1936 photograph of the GALCIT Group—and erected a monument commemorating their first rocket test on Halloween 1936. Among the aerospace industry, JPL was nicknamed as standing for "Jack Parsons' Laboratory" or "Jack Parsons Lives". The

text: International Astronomical Union

text: decided to name a crater on the

text: far side

text: of the Moon

text: Parsons

text: after him in 1972. JPL later credited him for making "distinctive technical innovations that advanced early efforts" in rocket engineering, with aerospace journalist Craig Covault stating that the work of Parsons, Qian Xuesen and the GALCIT Group "planted the seeds for JPL to become preeminent in space and rocketry."

text: The insignia's most prominent feature is an image of the Greek sun god Apollo backdropped by a rendering of an American eagle, the red bars on the eagle mirroring those on the flag of the United States. Three white stars above the red bars represent the three crewmen of the mission. The background includes the Moon, the planet Saturn and a galaxy or nebula. The wing of the eagle partially overlays the Moon, suggesting man's established presence there. The gaze of Apollo and the direction of the eagle's motion embody man's intention to explore further destinations in space.

text: The insignia's most prominent feature is an image of the Greek sun god

text: Apollo

text: backdropped by a rendering of an

text: American eagle

text: , the red bars on the eagle mirroring those on the

text: flag of the United States

text: . Three white stars above the red bars represent the three crewmen of the mission. The background includes the Moon, the planet

text: Saturn

text: and a galaxy or nebula. The wing of the eagle partially overlays the Moon, suggesting man's established presence there. The gaze of Apollo and the direction of the eagle's motion embody man's intention to explore further destinations in space.

text: Although Korolev trained as an aircraft designer, his greatest strengths proved to be in design integration, organization and strategic planning. Arrested for alleged mismanagement of funds (he spent the money on unsuccessful experiments with rocket devices), he was imprisoned in 1938 for almost six years, including some months in a Kolyma labour camp. Following his release he became a recognized rocket designer and a key figure in the development of the Soviet Intercontinental ballistic missile program. He was then appointed to lead the Soviet space program and made a Member of Soviet Academy of Sciences, overseeing the early successes of the Sputnik and Vostok projects including the first human Earth orbit mission by Yuri Alexeevich Gagarin on 12 April 1961. Korolev's unexpected death in 1966 interrupted implementation of his plans for a Soviet manned Moon landing before the United States 1969 mission.

text: Although Korolev trained as an aircraft designer, his greatest strengths proved to be in design integration, organization and strategic planning. Arrested for alleged mismanagement of funds (he spent the money on unsuccessful experiments with rocket devices), he was imprisoned in 1938 for almost six years, including some months in a

text: Kolyma

text: labour camp. Following his release he became a recognized rocket designer and a key figure in the development of the Soviet

text: Intercontinental ballistic missile

text: program. He was then appointed to lead the

text: Soviet space program

text: and made a Member of

text: Soviet Academy of Sciences

text: , overseeing the early successes of the

text: Sputnik

text: and

text: Vostok

text: projects including the first human Earth orbit mission by

text: Yuri Alexeevich Gagarin

text: on 12 April 1961. Korolev's unexpected death in 1966 interrupted implementation of his plans for a Soviet manned Moon landing before the United States 1969 mission.

text: In 1945 British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a world-wide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.

text: In 1945 British

text: science fiction

text: writer

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: proposed a world-wide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the

text: Wireless World

text: magazine and won him the

text: Franklin Institute

text: 's

text: Stuart Ballantine Medal

text: in 1963.

text: The EDS used on the Ares V would have been propelled by a single J-2X main engine fuelled with liquid oxygen (LOX) and liquid hydrogen (LH), and was to have been designed at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama as part of Project Constellation. Originally, the stage would have been based on the Space Shuttle's External Tank, and would have used two J-2X engines, while the Ares V core booster would have used five Space Shuttle Main Engines and two 5-segment Solid Rocket Boosters during the first eight minutes of flight. When the Ares V was then redesigned around the use of five (later six) RS-68B rocket engines currently used on the Delta IV EELV family, the EDS was then redesigned using only a single J-2X engine and a common bulkhead, thus in its final design, the EDS resembled an oversized S-IVB, but with the capability of on-site storage (using new propellant storage techniques along with a "loiter skirt" containing solar panels for electricity) for up to 4 days, something impossible with the old S-IVB.

text: The EDS used on the

text: Ares V

text: would have been propelled by a single

text: main engine fuelled with

text: liquid oxygen

text: (LOX) and

text: liquid hydrogen

text: (LH), and was to have been designed at

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: in

text: Huntsville, Alabama

text: as part of

text: Project Constellation

text: . Originally, the stage would have been based on the

text: Space Shuttle

text: 's

text: External Tank

text: , and would have used two J-2X engines, while the

text: Ares V

text: core booster would have used five

text: Space Shuttle Main Engine

text: s and two

text: 5-segment Solid Rocket Boosters

text: during the first eight minutes of flight. When the Ares V was then redesigned around the use of five (later six)

text: rocket engines currently used on the

text: Delta IV

text: EELV

text: family, the EDS was then redesigned using only a single J-2X engine and a common bulkhead, thus in its final design, the EDS resembled an oversized S-IVB, but with the capability of on-site storage (using new propellant storage techniques along with a "loiter skirt" containing solar panels for electricity) for up to 4 days, something impossible with the old S-IVB.

text: Suisei (すいせい; Japanese for Comet), originally known as Planet-A, was an unmanned space probe developed by the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (now part of the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, or JAXA).

text: Suisei (すいせい;

text: Japanese

text: for Comet), originally known as Planet-A, was an unmanned

text: space probe

text: developed by the

text: (now part of the

text: Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: , or JAXA).

text: Later on, large defense contractors began to develop and operate space launch systems, derived from government rockets. Private spaceflight in Earth orbit includes communications satellites, satellite television, satellite radio, astronaut transport and sub-orbital and orbital space tourism.

text: Later on, large

text: defense contractor

text: s began to develop and operate space

text: launch system

text: s, derived from government rockets. Private spaceflight in Earth orbit includes

text: communications satellite

text: s,

text: satellite television

text: satellite radio

text: astronaut transport

text: and

text: sub-orbital

text: and orbital

text: space tourism

text: On June 3, 2004, thirteen of the United States' premier space advocacy groups, industry associations and space policy organizations teamed up to form an umbrella organization known as the Space Exploration Alliance.  The primary purpose of the SEA is to support the White House's plan to refocus NASA's human space activities toward exploration beyond low Earth orbit.

text: On June 3, 2004, thirteen of the

text: United States

text: ' premier

text: space advocacy

text: groups,

text: industry association

text: s and

text: space policy

text: organizations teamed up to form an umbrella organization known as the Space Exploration Alliance.  The primary purpose of the SEA is to support the

text: White House

text: 's plan to refocus

text: NASA

text: 's

text: human space

text: activities toward

text: exploration

text: beyond

text: low Earth orbit

text: In Britain the Sputnik crisis was much less visible and reaction to the launch suggested an appreciation of the novelty of the Space Age. It eventually became part of the Cold War narrative when the Soviets launched a dog into space in November 1957. Sputnik 2, which launched the Soviet dog Laika into space was seen less as a threat and more so as a propaganda maneuver.

text: In Britain the Sputnik crisis was much less visible and reaction to the launch suggested an appreciation of the novelty of the

text: Space Age

text: . It eventually became part of the Cold War narrative when the Soviets

text: launched a dog

text: into space in November 1957.

text: Sputnik 2

text: , which launched the Soviet dog Laika into space was seen less as a threat and more so as a propaganda maneuver.

text: Elsewhere, Lando Calrissian and a team of Rebel commandos, including Zev Veers, are hiding aboard a shipment of War Droids space-bound for the Emperor's throneworld. The droids prove superior to even the defenses of the Citadel until the Emperor releases an army of monstrous creatures - "chrysalis monsters" - rancors mutated by the dark side and Sith alchemy into crazed and nigh-invulnerable beasts of destruction.  Since the creatures use brute force to destroy the droids, the droids' ability to absorb the blasts of laser weapons proves useless. The Rebel force is decimated, but they are rescued at the last moment by a force of smugglers led by Salla Zend and Shug Ninx. The Emperor allows them to escape, but they do not know that the Empire is tracking them and that its new superweapon, the Galaxy Gun is ready. The Emperor fires the weapon, which reaches the Da Soocha system, and destroys Pinnacle Moon, while Luke's Jedi Explorer (with the other Jedi aboard), which would have landed shortly had its crew not seen its projectile, narrowly escapes destruction.

text: Elsewhere,

text: Lando Calrissian

text: and a team of

text: Rebel

text: commandos, including

text: Zev Veers

text: , are hiding aboard a shipment of

text: War Droids

text: space-bound for the Emperor's throneworld. The droids prove superior to even the defenses of the Citadel until the Emperor releases an army of monstrous creatures - "chrysalis monsters" -

text: rancors

text: mutated by the dark side and Sith alchemy into crazed and nigh-invulnerable beasts of destruction.  Since the creatures use brute force to destroy the droids, the droids' ability to absorb the blasts of laser weapons proves useless. The Rebel force is decimated, but they are rescued at the last moment by a force of smugglers led by

text: Salla Zend

text: and Shug Ninx. The Emperor allows them to escape, but they do not know that the Empire is tracking them and that its new

text: superweapon

text: , the

text: Galaxy Gun

text: is ready. The Emperor fires the weapon, which reaches the Da Soocha system, and destroys

text: Pinnacle Moon

text: , while Luke's Jedi Explorer (with the other Jedi aboard), which would have landed shortly had its crew not seen its projectile, narrowly escapes destruction.

text: The New Frontiers program is a series of space exploration missions being conducted by NASA with the purpose of researching several of the Solar System bodies, including the dwarf planet Pluto.

text: The New Frontiers program is

text: a series of space exploration missions being conducted by NASA

text: with the purpose of researching several of the

text: Solar System

text: bodies, including the

text: dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: In the 1990s, U.S. and the Missile Technology Control Regime put restrictions on Pakistan's space programme in amid fear that the country's alleged covert development of missile programmes. The U.S. began cooperation with Pakistan in peaceful space technology in the 1960s after establishing the Sonmiani Terminal in 1961, constructing an airfield and launch pad. In 1962, the Space Research Commission launched the first solid-fuel rocket, Rehbar-I,  built with close interaction with the U.S. NASA. Launching of the rocket made Pakistan the first South Asian country and tenth country in the world to carrying out the launch of the rocket. During the 1962 and 1972, approximately 200 rockets were fired from the Sonmiani, but this cooperation waned after 1972.

text: In the 1990s, U.S. and the

text: Missile Technology Control Regime

text: put restrictions on Pakistan's space programme in amid fear that the country's alleged covert development of missile programmes. The U.S. began cooperation with Pakistan in peaceful space technology in the 1960s after establishing the

text: Sonmiani Terminal

text: in 1961, constructing an airfield and launch pad. In 1962, the

text: Space Research Commission

text: launched the first solid-fuel rocket,

text: Rehbar-I

text: ,  built with close interaction with the U.S.

text: NASA

text: . Launching of the rocket made Pakistan the first South Asian country and tenth country in the world to carrying out the launch of the rocket. During the 1962 and 1972, approximately 200

text: rockets were fired

text: from the Sonmiani, but this cooperation waned after 1972.

text: This type of engine is used for launching satellites, space exploration and manned access, and permitted landing on the moon in 1969.

text: This type of engine is used for launching satellites,

text: space exploration

text: and manned access, and permitted

text: landing on the moon

text: in 1969.

text: The "space" in cyberspace has more in common with the abstract, mathematical meanings of the term (see space) than physical space. It does not have the duality of positive and negative volume (while in physical space for example a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls, Internet users cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Internet as an extension of the space they are in), but spatial meaning can be attributed to the relationship between different pages (of books as well as webservers), considering the unturned pages to be somewhere "out there." The concept of cyberspace therefore refers not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the possibility of surfing among different sites, with feedback loops between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected.

text: The "space" in cyberspace has more in common with the abstract, mathematical meanings of the term (see

text: space

text: ) than physical space. It does not have the duality of positive and negative volume (while in physical space for example a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls, Internet users cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Internet as an extension of the space they are in), but spatial meaning can be attributed to the relationship between different

text: page

text: s (of books as well as

text: webserver

text: s), considering the unturned pages to be somewhere "out there." The concept of cyberspace therefore refers not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the possibility of surfing among different sites, with

text: feedback loops

text: between the user and the rest of the system creating the potential to always encounter something unknown or unexpected.

text: After the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 2, on November 3, 1957, then Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy directed the U.S. Army to use the Juno I and launch a satellite. On January 31, 1958, the U.S. Army launched the Explorer 1 satellite.  With the launch of Sputnik 1 and 2 the previous concern, the right of satellite overflight, had become moot: those satellites were launched by an early version of the Soviet R-7 rocket, the basis of the USSR's early ICBMs, and definitely military, as well as roughly 40 times larger than the Vanguard launcher.

text: After the Soviet Union launched

text: Sputnik 2

text: , on November 3, 1957, then

text: Secretary of Defense

text: Neil H. McElroy

text: directed the

text: U.S. Army

text: to use the

text: Juno I

text: and launch a satellite. On January 31, 1958, the U.S. Army launched the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite.  With the launch of Sputnik 1 and 2 the previous concern, the right of satellite overflight, had become moot: those satellites were launched by an early version of the Soviet

text: R-7 rocket

text: , the basis of the USSR's early ICBMs, and definitely military, as well as roughly 40 times larger than the Vanguard launcher.

text: In 2008, the theme for World Space Week was "Exploring the Universe". In 2009, the theme was "Space for Education". "Mysteries of the Cosmos" was the theme in 2010.  In 2012, the central theme was human safety and security through space, promoting awareness of the roles that space satellites play in safeguarding the environment and protecting humans through functions such as Earth observation, navigation, search and rescue operations, and telecommunication. Commemoration of WSW 2012 included media coverage about the historic launch of SpaceShipOne, Sputnik and future goals of the human colonization of worlds beyond Earth. WSW 2012 was celebrated in 65 nations.

text: In 2008, the theme for World Space Week was "Exploring the Universe". In 2009, the theme was "Space for Education". "Mysteries of the Cosmos" was the theme in 2010.  In 2012, the central theme was human safety and security through space, promoting awareness of the roles that space satellites play in safeguarding the environment and protecting humans through functions such as Earth observation, navigation, search and rescue operations, and telecommunication. Commemoration of WSW 2012 included media coverage about the historic launch of

text: SpaceShipOne

text: Sputnik

text: and future goals of the human colonization of worlds beyond Earth. WSW 2012 was celebrated in 65 nations.

text: Triana was removed from its original launch opportunity on STS-107 (the ill-fated Columbia mission in 2003). The $100 million satellite remained in storage for the duration of the Bush administration. In November 2008 the satellite was removed from storage and began recertification for a possible launch on board a Delta II or a Falcon 9. Al Gore used part of his book Our Choice (2009) as an attempt to revive debate on the DSCOVR payload. The book mentions legislative efforts by Senators Barbara Mikulski and Bill Nelson to get the satellite launched. NASA renamed the satellite Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR), in an attempt to regain support for the project. In February 2011, the Obama administration attempted to secure funding to re-purpose the DSCOVR spacecraft as a solar observatory to replace the aging Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) spacecraft.

text: Triana was removed from its original launch opportunity on

text: (the

text: ill-fated Columbia mission

text: in 2003). The $100 million satellite remained in storage for the duration of the Bush administration. In November 2008 the satellite was removed from storage and began recertification for a possible launch on board a

text: Delta II

text: or a

text: Falcon 9

text: Al Gore

text: used part of his book

text: Our Choice

text: (2009) as an attempt to revive debate on the DSCOVR payload. The book mentions legislative efforts by Senators

text: Barbara Mikulski

text: and

text: Bill Nelson

text: to get the satellite launched. NASA renamed the satellite Deep Space Climate Observatory (DSCOVR), in an attempt to regain support for the project. In February 2011, the Obama administration attempted to secure funding to re-purpose the DSCOVR spacecraft as a solar observatory to replace the aging

text: Advanced Composition Explorer

text: (ACE) spacecraft.

text: "Space Race" is imbued with various references relating to music, cinema, media, and other popular culture entities. The episode title gives homage to the synonymously named era of space exploration between the Soviet Union and the United States, which coincided during the Cold War. The episode plot gives homage to the James Bond film Moonraker (1979). In preparation for the mission, the field agents at ISIS undergo an extensive training regimen similar to the exercise in The Right Stuff (1983). In addition, the episode's narrative is evocative to that of the aforementioned film, as well as the British horror film 28 Days Later (2002). To Jesse Carp of Cinema Blend, the characters "drops weird name references" to figures such as American eugenist Charles Davenport and Grace O'Malley. After main character Sterling Archer is sent into the space brig, he crafts an ode to The Great Escape (1963).

text: "Space Race" is imbued with various references relating to music, cinema, media, and other popular culture entities. The episode title gives homage to the

text: synonymously named era of space exploration

text: between the

text: Soviet Union

text: and the United States, which coincided during the

text: Cold War

text: . The episode plot gives homage to the James Bond film

text: Moonraker

text: (1979). In preparation for the mission, the field agents at ISIS undergo an extensive training regimen similar to the exercise in

text: The Right Stuff

text: (1983). In addition, the episode's narrative is evocative to that of the aforementioned film, as well as the British horror film

text: 28 Days Later

text: (2002). To Jesse Carp of Cinema Blend, the characters "drops weird name references" to figures such as American eugenist

text: Charles Davenport

text: and

text: Grace O'Malley

text: . After main character Sterling Archer is sent into the space brig, he crafts an ode to

text: The Great Escape

text: On January 31, 1958, nearly four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, von Braun and the United States successfully launched its first satellite on a four-stage Juno I rocket derived from the US Army's Redstone missile, at Cape Canaveral. The satellite Explorer 1 was  in mass. It carried a micrometeorite gauge and a Geiger-Müller tube. It passed in and out of the Earth-encompassing radiation belt with its  orbit, therefore saturating the tube's capacity and proving what Dr. James Van Allen, a space scientist at the University of Iowa, had theorized. The belt, named the Van Allen radiation belt, is a doughnut-shaped zone of high-level radiation intensity around the Earth above the magnetic equator. Van Allen was also the man who designed and built the satellite instrumentation of Explorer 1. The satellite measured three phenomena: cosmic ray and radiation levels, the temperature in the spacecraft, and the frequency of collisions with micrometeorites. The satellite had no memory for data storage, therefore it had to transmit continuously. In March 1958 a second satellite was sent into orbit with augmented cosmic ray instruments.

text: On January 31, 1958, nearly four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, von Braun and the United States successfully launched its first satellite on a four-stage

text: Juno I

text: rocket derived from the US Army's Redstone missile, at Cape Canaveral. The satellite

text: Explorer 1

text: was  in mass. It carried a micrometeorite gauge and a

text: Geiger-Müller tube

text: . It passed in and out of the Earth-encompassing radiation belt with its  orbit, therefore saturating the tube's capacity and proving what Dr.

text: James Van Allen

text: , a space scientist at the

text: University of Iowa

text: , had theorized. The belt, named the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: , is a doughnut-shaped zone of high-level radiation intensity around the Earth above the magnetic equator. Van Allen was also the man who designed and built the satellite instrumentation of Explorer 1. The satellite measured three phenomena: cosmic ray and radiation levels, the temperature in the spacecraft, and the frequency of collisions with micrometeorites. The satellite had no

text: memory

text: for data storage, therefore it had to transmit continuously. In March 1958 a second satellite was sent into orbit with augmented cosmic ray instruments.

text: Canadian canoe is another term for a canoe, just like ping pong is often used as the nickname for table tennis. This practice is the result of misinterpretations during the development of the sport of canoeing, where the kayak was often seen as the canoe, and an open touring canoe was called 'Canadian canoe' or 'Canadian' then. This naming came from the so-called "Canadian style" canoe from Canada, the then only 'approved' open canoe model by the American Canoe Association (ACA), as opposed to the Wood & Canvas canoe from Maine in the United States, that was not recognized by the ACA until 1934. For the Canoe Associations at the time of around 1880, a canoe was a decked, double-ended boat, propelled with a double-blade paddle or sailed. The open canoes of that time were often identified as 'Peterborough' or 'Rice Lake' canoes, from the locations where early cedar-strip boats were first made, thus 'Canadian' canoes. In America, the canoe lost its qualifying prefix 'Canadian' not long afterwards and canoes were simply called 'canoes' (open or decked). In the United Kingdom and some other European countries though, people were not aware of these discrepancies and, also because they saw kayaks as canoes, they kept calling canoes 'Canadian canoes'—even the decked whitewater canoes. This has contributed much to the confusion about canoes and kayaks, also because the byname 'Canadian' is not used consistently but mainly for touring, whitewater and racing canoes. How the canoe became popular in american media was during the year 1950 when the Canadian armed forces paddled all the way from the Northwest Territories to the Russian shoreline and stopped the Russians from riding bears towards Canada and ending the world simply by saying sorry in the most Canadian way ever. and sharing the invention of maple syrup in exchange for sputnik. Sputnik was the U.S.S.R outer Atmosphere communications device that beat the Americans in the space race.

text: Canadian canoe is another term for a

text: canoe

text: , just like

text: ping pong

text: is often used as the nickname for table tennis. This practice is the result of misinterpretations during the development of the sport of canoeing, where the

text: kayak

text: was often seen as the canoe, and an open touring canoe was called 'Canadian canoe' or 'Canadian' then. This naming came from the so-called "Canadian style" canoe from Canada, the then only 'approved' open canoe model by the

text: American Canoe Association

text: (ACA), as opposed to the Wood & Canvas canoe from Maine in the United States, that was not recognized by the ACA until 1934. For the Canoe Associations at the time of around 1880, a canoe was a decked, double-ended boat, propelled with a double-blade paddle or sailed. The open canoes of that time were often identified as 'Peterborough' or 'Rice Lake' canoes, from the locations where early cedar-strip boats were first made, thus '

text: Canadian

text: ' canoes. In America, the canoe lost its qualifying prefix 'Canadian' not long afterwards and canoes were simply called 'canoes' (open or decked). In the

text: United Kingdom

text: and some other

text: Europe

text: an countries though, people were not aware of these discrepancies and, also because they saw kayaks as canoes, they kept calling canoes 'Canadian canoes'—even the decked

text: whitewater canoes

text: . This has contributed much to the confusion about canoes and kayaks, also because the byname 'Canadian' is not used consistently but mainly for

text: touring

text: , whitewater and racing canoes. How the canoe became popular in american media was during the year 1950 when the Canadian armed forces paddled all the way from the Northwest Territories to the Russian shoreline and stopped the Russians from riding bears towards Canada and ending the world simply by saying sorry in the most Canadian way ever. and sharing the invention of maple syrup in exchange for sputnik. Sputnik was the U.S.S.R outer Atmosphere communications device that beat the Americans in the space race.

text: SELENE was part of a renewed global interest in lunar exploration; it was "the largest lunar mission since the Apollo program". It followed Japan's first lunar probe, Hagoromo, launched in 1990. China launched its Chang'e 1 lunar explorer on October 24, 2007, followed by India's 22 October 2008 launch of Chandrayaan-1 and the United States Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in June 2009. The United States, European countries (ESA), Russia, Japan, India and China are planning future manned lunar exploration missions or lunar outpost construction on the Moon between 2018 and 2025.

text: SELENE was part of a renewed global interest in lunar exploration; it was "the largest lunar mission since the

text: Apollo program

text: ". It followed Japan's first lunar probe,

text: Hagoromo

text: , launched in 1990.

text: China

text: launched its

text: Chang'e 1

text: lunar explorer on October 24, 2007, followed by

text: India

text: 's 22 October 2008 launch of

text: and the

text: United States

text: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: in June 2009. The United States,

text: Europe

text: an countries (

text: ESA

text: Russia

text: Japan

text: , India and China are planning

text: future manned lunar exploration missions

text: or

text: lunar outpost

text: construction on the Moon between 2018 and 2025.

text: The S-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1–3.1 AU once every 4 years and 3 months (1,551 days). Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.18 and is tilted by 9 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. It has a rotation period of 17.37 hours and an albedo of 0.04–0.05, based on the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission.

text: The

text: S-type

text: asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1–3.1

text: AU

text: once every 4 years and 3 months (1,551 days). Its orbit shows an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.18 and is

text: tilted

text: by 9 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: . It has a

text: rotation period

text: of 17.37 hours and an

text: albedo

text: of 0.04–0.05, based on the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite,

text: IRAS

text: , the Japanese

text: Akari

text: satellite, and the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: with its subsequent

text: NEOWISE

text: mission.

text: Perhaps causing inadvertent fireworks in celebration of the activation of the 1st Aerospace Surveillance and Control Squadron, the Ablestar stage for the Navy's Transit 4A satellite, 1961 Omicron, which was launched on 29 June 1961, exploded about 77 minutes after attaining orbit, at 0608Z.  The NORAD Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) made early radar observations and Mr. Leonard of the Sacramento, California Moonwatch team alerted Space Track when he saw many fragments where only a few satellites were expected from the launch.  In the next few days, this gave Project Space Track its first major effort as a backup for the new squadron.  Lawrence W. Cuthbert, 1st Lt Algimantas Šimoliūnas, and Ed Casey achieved a landmark in satellite tracking, plotting observations by hand and identifying orbits for 296 of the fragments.  Orbital Analysts at 1st Aero were also heavily involved in the achievement.  Observations from the SPASUR fence were very helpful in tracking the fragments (SPASUR had initially refused to send Space Track individual observations, sending instead only orbital parameters, but this policy had fortunately been changed by 1961).

text: Following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, in early 2003 President George W. Bush, announced his Vision for Space Exploration which called for the completion of the American portion of the International Space Station by 2010 (due to delays this would not happen until 2011), the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet following its completion, to return to the moon by 2020 and one day to Mars. A new vehicle would need be developed, it eventually was named the Orion spacecraft, a six-person variant would have serviced the ISS and a four-person variant would have traveled to the Moon. The Ares I would have launched Orion, and the Ares V heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) would have launched all other hardware. The Altair lunar lander would have landed crew and cargo onto the moon. The Constellation program experienced many cost overruns and schedule delays, and was openly criticized by the subsequent U.S. President, Barack Obama.

text: Following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: , in early 2003 President

text: George W. Bush

text: , announced his

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: which called for the completion of the American portion of the International Space Station by 2010 (due to delays this would not happen until 2011), the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet following its completion, to return to the moon by 2020 and one day to Mars. A new vehicle would need be developed, it eventually was named the

text: Orion spacecraft

text: , a six-person variant would have serviced the ISS and a four-person variant would have traveled to the Moon. The

text: Ares I

text: would have launched Orion, and the

text: Ares V

text: heavy-lift vehicle (HLV) would have launched all other hardware. The

text: Altair lunar lander

text: would have landed crew and cargo onto the moon. The Constellation program experienced many cost overruns and schedule delays, and was openly criticized by the subsequent U.S. President,

text: Barack Obama

text: Some of the major satellite systems built are: Envisat (the world's largest civilian Earth observation satellite.), Earth Explorers such as GOCE, GRACE, Swarm, EarthCARE,  Sentinel Missions, MetOp and MetOp-SG.

text: Some of the major satellite systems built are:

text: Envisat

text: (the world's largest civilian Earth observation satellite.),

text: Earth Explorers

text: such as

entity_name: Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer

text: GOCE

text: GRACE

text: Swarm

text: EarthCARE

text: Sentinel Missions

text: MetOp

text: and

text: MetOp-SG

text: The radio version ran from 4 October 1952 to 19 March 1955, for 129 episodes. The same cast performed on both shows. The writers, scripts, and directors were reused between the radio and TV incarnations, but the radio broadcasts were not limited by studio sets and became more expansive in scope than the television programs. Although there was seldom any deliberate crossing-over of storylines, some of the television villains regularly appeared on the radio (notably Prince Bacarratti), and during the "Planet X" story, both the TV and radio versions explored the rogue planet's invasion of the Space Patrol universe.

text: The Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States, the two Cold War superpowers, began just before the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957.  Both countries wanted to develop spaceflight technology quickly, particularly by launching the first  successful human spaceflight. The Soviet Union secretly pursued the Vostok programme in competition with the United States Project Mercury. Vostok launched several precursor unmanned missions between May 1960 and March 1961, to test and develop the Vostok rocket family and space capsule. These missions had varied degrees of success, but the final two—Korabl-Sputnik 4 and Korabl-Sputnik 5—were complete successes, allowing the first manned flight.

text: The

text: Space Race

text: between the Soviet Union and the

text: United States

text: , the two

text: Cold War

text: superpower

text: s, began just before the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: , in 1957.  Both countries wanted to develop spaceflight technology quickly, particularly by launching the first  successful

text: human spaceflight

text: . The Soviet Union secretly pursued the

text: Vostok programme

text: in competition with the United States

text: Project Mercury

text: . Vostok launched several precursor unmanned missions between May 1960 and March 1961, to test and develop the

text: Vostok rocket family

text: and

text: space capsule

text: . These missions had varied degrees of success, but the final two—

text: Korabl-Sputnik 4

text: and

text: Korabl-Sputnik 5

text: —were complete successes, allowing the first manned flight.

text: The group's space operations centers track, monitor telemetry and command satellites during launch, early-orbit and on-orbit operations.  They resolve anomalies with satellites when they occur and dispose of the satellites when missions are terminated.

text: Bill's early years were spent traveling around the world with his father, Michael, a U.S. Army soldier.  His early interests included Rocketry, space exploration, and flying.  This may have been due to his stepmother, Betty Lou Miller, being a Westinghouse clean-room supervisor.  From an early age, she began putting electronics kits, books on space and satellites and other science related items in his room.  Bill built his first radio at age 9 from one of the kits Betty had provided.

text: The ride was replaced in 1991 with a similar attraction entitled "Space Race." It was later dismantled and replaced by two other SimEx rides in 1998 and 1999.

text: Orbital architecture is the architecture of structures designed to orbit around the Earth or another astronomical object.  Examples of currently-operational orbital architecture are the  International Space Station and the re-entry vehicles Space Shuttle, Soyuz spacecraft, and Shenzhou spacecraft.  Historical craft include the Mir space station, Skylab, and the Apollo spacecraft.  Orbital architecture usually addresses the condition of weightlessness, a lack of atmospheric and magnetospheric protection from solar and cosmic radiation, rapid day/night cycles, and possibly risk of orbital debris collision.  In addition, re-entry vehicles must also be adapted both to weightlessness and to the high temperatures and accelerations experienced during atmospheric reentry.

text: Orbital architecture is the architecture of structures designed to

text: orbit

text: around the Earth or another

text: astronomical object

text: .  Examples of currently-operational orbital architecture are the

text: International Space Station

text: and the re-entry vehicles

text: Space Shuttle

text: Soyuz spacecraft

text: , and

text: Shenzhou spacecraft

text: .  Historical craft include the

text: Mir space station

text: Skylab

text: , and the

text: Apollo spacecraft

text: .  Orbital architecture usually addresses the condition of weightlessness, a lack of atmospheric and magnetospheric protection from

text: solar

text: and

text: cosmic

text: radiation, rapid day/night cycles, and possibly risk of

text: orbital debris

text: collision.  In addition, re-entry vehicles must also be adapted both to weightlessness and to the high temperatures and accelerations experienced during

text: atmospheric reentry

text: Space Adventures has established the Orbital Mission Explorers Circle to build a definitive consortium of future private space explorers who share a lifetime goal of orbital spaceflight or the investment therein. Space Adventures has initially created six "Founding Explorer" positions in the Orbital Mission Explorers Circle, each of whom will have priority access to participate in future orbital space missions.

text: The primary use of the Molniya orbit was for the communications satellite series of the same name. After two launch failures in 1964, the first successful satellite to use this orbit was Molniya 1-01 launched on April 23, 1965. The early Molniya-1 satellites were used for long-range military communications starting in 1968, but the satellites had a short lifespan and had to be constantly replaced. Its replacement, the Molniya-2, provided both military and civilian broadcasting, and was used to create the Orbita television network, spanning the Soviet Union. These were in turn replaced by the Molniya-3 design. There is some confusion in the existing sources about the naming, with some sources suggesting that all of the satellites on-orbit are of the Molniya-3 type, but referred to as Molniya-1 through -3 depending on their purpose.

text: The primary use of the Molniya orbit was for the communications satellite series of the same name. After two launch failures in 1964, the first successful satellite to use this orbit was Molniya 1-01 launched on April 23, 1965. The early Molniya-1 satellites were used for long-range military communications starting in 1968, but the satellites had a short lifespan and had to be constantly replaced. Its replacement, the Molniya-2, provided both military and civilian broadcasting, and was used to create the

text: Orbita

text: television network

text: , spanning the Soviet Union. These were in turn replaced by the Molniya-3 design. There is some confusion in the existing sources about the naming, with some sources suggesting that all of the satellites on-orbit are of the Molniya-3 type, but referred to as Molniya-1 through -3 depending on their purpose.

text: A Molniya orbit (, "Lightning") is a type of highly elliptical orbit with an inclination of 63.4 degrees, an argument of perigee of −90 degrees and an orbital period of one half of a sidereal day. Molniya orbits are named after a series of Soviet/Russian Molniya communications satellites which have been using this type of orbit since the mid-1960s.

text: A Molniya orbit (, "Lightning") is a type of

text: highly elliptical orbit

text: with an

text: inclination

text: of 63.4

text: degree

text: s, an

text: argument of perigee

text: of −90 degrees and an

text: orbital period

text: of one half of a

text: sidereal day

text: . Molniya orbits are named after a series of

text: Soviet

text: Russia

text: n

text: Molniya

text: communications satellite

text: s which have been using this type of orbit since the mid-1960s.

text: Sagan argues that studying other planets provides context for understanding the Earth—and protecting humanity's only home planet from environmental catastrophe. He believes that NASA's decision to cut back exploration of the Moon after the Apollo program was a short-sighted decision, despite the expense and the failing popularity of the program among the United States public. Sagan says future exploration of space should focus on ways to protect Earth and to extend human habitation beyond it. The book was published the same year comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashed into Jupiter, an event Sagan uses to highlight the danger Earth faces from the occasional asteroid or comet large enough to cause substantial damage if it were to hit Earth. He says we need the political will to track large extraterrestrial objects, or we risk losing everything. Sagan argues that in order to save the human race, space colonization and terraforming should be utilized.

text: Sagan argues that studying other

text: planet

text: s provides context for understanding the Earth—and protecting humanity's only home planet from environmental catastrophe. He believes that

text: NASA

text: 's decision to cut back exploration of the

text: Moon

text: after the

text: Apollo program

text: was a short-sighted decision, despite the expense and the failing popularity of the program among the United States public. Sagan says future exploration of space should focus on ways to protect Earth and to extend human habitation beyond it. The book was published the same year

text: comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

text: crashed into

text: Jupiter

text: , an event Sagan uses to highlight the danger Earth faces from the occasional

text: asteroid

text: or

text: comet

text: large enough to cause substantial damage if it were to hit Earth. He says we need the political will to track large extraterrestrial objects, or we risk losing everything. Sagan argues that in order to save the human race,

text: space colonization

text: and

text: terraforming

text: should be utilized.

text: To date, no artificial satellites have been placed in this orbit, but it is of interest to some scientists foreseeing a future teleUcommunications network for the exploration of Mars. The proposed Mars One mission includes a communications system featuring amongst others things an areostationary satellite. An asteroid or station placed in areostationary orbit could also be used to construct a Martian space elevator for use in transfers between the surface of Mars and orbit.

text: To date, no

text: artificial satellite

text: s have been placed in this orbit, but it is of interest to some scientists foreseeing a future

text: teleUcommunications network

text: for the exploration of

text: Mars

text: . The proposed

text: Mars One

text: mission includes a communications system featuring amongst others things an areostationary satellite. An asteroid or station placed in areostationary orbit could also be used to construct a Martian

text: space elevator

text: for use in transfers between the surface of Mars and orbit.

text: The initial proposal for the CryoSat programme was submitted as part of a call for proposals in July 1998 for Earth Explorer missions as part of the European Space Agency's Living Planet programme. It was selected for further studies in 1999, and following completion of a feasibility study the mission was authorised. The construction phase began in 2001, and in 2002 EADS Astrium was awarded a contract to build the spacecraft. A contract was also signed with Eurockot, to conduct the launch of the satellite using a Rokot/Briz-KM carrier rocket.

text: The initial proposal for the CryoSat programme was submitted as part of a call for proposals in July 1998 for

text: Earth Explorer missions

text: as part of the European Space Agency's Living Planet programme. It was selected for further studies in 1999, and following completion of a feasibility study the mission was authorised. The construction phase began in 2001, and in 2002

text: EADS Astrium

text: was awarded a contract to build the spacecraft. A contract was also signed with

text: Eurockot

text: , to conduct the launch of the satellite using a

text: Rokot

text: Briz-KM

text: carrier rocket

text: William Leitch (May 20, 1814 – May 9, 1864) was a Presbyterian minister who was born in Scotland, studied mathematics and science at the University of Glasgow, and moved to Canada in 1860 to take a post at Queen's University. Space historian Robert Godwin published in October 2015 his discovery that Leitch gave the first modern scientific explanation of the potential for space exploration using rockets (1861). He was said to be "a distinguished astronomer, naturalist and mathematician", and his proposal for rocket spaceflight came four decades prior to more well-known proposals by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1903), Robert Esnault-Pelterie (1913), Robert H. Goddard (1914), and Hermann Oberth (1923). Leitch's rocket spaceflight description was first provided in his 1861 essay "A Journey Through Space", which was later published in his book God's Glory in the Heavens (1862). This description correctly attributed rocket thrust to the "internal reaction" (Newton's laws of motion) and correctly identified that rocket thrust is most effective in the vacuum of space.

text: William Leitch (May 20, 1814 – May 9, 1864) was a

text: Presbyterian

text: minister who was born in

text: Scotland

text: , studied mathematics and science at the

text: University of Glasgow

text: , and moved to

text: Canada

text: in 1860 to take a post at

text: Queen's University

text: . Space historian

text: Robert Godwin

text: published in October 2015 his discovery that Leitch gave the first modern scientific explanation of the potential for

text: space exploration

text: using

text: rockets

text: (1861). He was said to be "a distinguished astronomer, naturalist and mathematician", and his proposal for rocket spaceflight came four decades prior to more well-known proposals by

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Robert Esnault-Pelterie

text: Robert H. Goddard

text: (1914), and

text: Hermann Oberth

text: (1923). Leitch's rocket spaceflight description was first provided in his 1861 essay "A Journey Through Space", which was later published in his book God's Glory in the Heavens (1862). This description correctly attributed rocket thrust to the "internal reaction" (

text: Newton's laws of motion

text: ) and correctly identified that rocket thrust is most effective in the

text: vacuum

text: of space.

text: Practitioners of the visual arts have for many decades explored space in their imaginations using traditional painting media and many are now using digital media toward similar ends. Science fiction magazines and picture essay magazines were once a major outlet for Space Art, often featuring planets, space ships and dramatic alien landscapes.  Chesley Bonestell, R. A. Smith, Lucien Rudaux, David A. Hardy and Ludek Pesek were some of the major artists in the early days of the genre actively involved in visualizing space exploration proposals with input from astronomers and experts in the infant rocketry field anxious to spread their ideas to a wider audience.  A strength of Bonestell's work in particular was the portrayal of exotic worlds with their own alien beauty, often giving a sense of destination as much as of the technological means of getting there.

text: The exploration of outer space started in earnest with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. This was the first man-made satellite orbiting the Earth. Subsequent successful launches, both in the Soviet Union (e.g., the Sputnik and Cosmos programs), and in the U.S. (e.g., the Explorer program), quickly led to the design and operation of dedicated meteorological satellites. These are orbiting platforms embarking instruments specially designed to observe the Earth's atmosphere and surface with a view to improve weather forecasting. Starting in 1960, the TIROS series of satellites embarked television cameras and radiometers. This was later (1964 onwards) followed by the Nimbus satellites and the family of Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer instruments on board the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) platforms. The latter measures the reflectance of the planet in red and near-infrared bands, as well as in the thermal infrared. In parallel, NASA developed the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS), which became the precursor to the Landsat program. These early sensors had minimal spectral resolution, but tended to include bands in the red and near-infrared, which are useful to distinguish vegetation and clouds, amongst other targets.

text: The exploration of outer space started in earnest with the launch of

text: Sputnik

text: 1 by the

text: Soviet Union

text: on 4 October 1957. This was the first man-made

text: satellite

text: orbiting the

text: Earth

text: . Subsequent successful launches, both in the Soviet Union (e.g., the Sputnik and

text: Cosmos

text: programs), and in the U.S. (e.g., the

text: Explorer program

text: ), quickly led to the design and operation of dedicated

text: meteorological satellites

text: . These are orbiting platforms embarking instruments specially designed to observe the Earth's atmosphere and surface with a view to improve

text: weather forecasting

text: . Starting in 1960, the

text: TIROS

text: series of satellites embarked television cameras and radiometers. This was later (1964 onwards) followed by the

text: Nimbus

text: satellites and the family of

text: Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

text: instruments on board the

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: (NOAA) platforms. The latter measures the reflectance of the planet in red and near-infrared bands, as well as in the thermal infrared. In parallel, NASA developed the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS), which became the precursor to the

text: Landsat program

text: . These early sensors had minimal spectral resolution, but tended to include bands in the red and near-infrared, which are useful to distinguish vegetation and clouds, amongst other targets.

text: BepiColombo is a joint mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) to the planet Mercury. The mission comprises two satellites to be launched together: the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) and the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO). The mission will perform a comprehensive study on Mercury, including its magnetic field, magnetosphere, interior structure and surface. It is scheduled to launch in October 2018, with an arrival at Mercury planned for December 2025, after a flyby of Earth, two flybys of Venus, and six flybys of Mercury. The mission was approved in February 2007, after years in proposal and planning as part of the European Space Agency's Horizon 2000+ program; it will be the last mission of the program to be launched.

text: BepiColombo is a joint mission of the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA) and the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA) to the planet

text: Mercury

text: . The mission comprises two satellites to be launched together: the Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO) and the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter (MMO). The mission will perform a comprehensive study on Mercury, including its

text: magnetic field

text: magnetosphere

text: , interior structure and surface. It is scheduled to launch in October 2018, with an arrival at Mercury planned for December 2025, after a flyby of Earth, two flybys of Venus, and six flybys of Mercury. The mission was approved in February 2007, after years in proposal and planning as part of the European Space Agency's

entity_name: List of European Space Agency programs and missions

text: Horizon 2000+

text: program; it will be the last mission of the program to be launched.

text: At the end of the twenty-first century, a teleportation technology called "T-Mat" has replaced all traditional forms of transport, allowing people and objects to travel instantly anywhere on Earth. Manned space exploration has ceased due to the ease of life on Earth. The Second Doctor, Jamie McCrimmon and Zoe Herriot arrive in a museum on Earth run by Professor Daniel Eldred dedicated to the obsolete technology of rockets. However, something goes amiss at the T-Mat vital relay station on the Moon and the system breaks down. With communications out, and no way to reach the Moon without T-Mat, those responsible for the system, Commander Radnor and his assistant Gia Kelly, turn to Professor Eldred to help. He has been privately building a rocket in hopes of re-igniting interest in space travel. In the absence of a space program to provide trained astronauts, the Doctor and his companions volunteer to crew the rocket. The Doctor also comments that the TARDIS is not suitable for short range use after Zoe informs Jamie that the TARDIS would most likely overshoot by a couple of million years.

text: At the end of the twenty-first century, a

text: teleportation

text: technology called "T-Mat" has replaced all traditional forms of transport, allowing people and objects to travel instantly anywhere on

text: Earth

text: . Manned

text: space exploration

text: has ceased due to the ease of life on Earth. The

text: Second Doctor

text: Jamie McCrimmon

text: and

text: Zoe Herriot

text: arrive in a museum on Earth run by Professor Daniel Eldred dedicated to the obsolete technology of rockets. However, something goes amiss at the T-Mat vital relay station on the

text: Moon

text: and the system breaks down. With communications out, and no way to reach the Moon without T-Mat, those responsible for the system, Commander Radnor and his assistant Gia Kelly, turn to Professor Eldred to help. He has been privately building a

text: rocket

text: in hopes of re-igniting interest in space travel. In the absence of a space program to provide trained astronauts, the Doctor and his companions volunteer to crew the rocket. The Doctor also comments that the TARDIS is not suitable for short range use after Zoe informs Jamie that the TARDIS would most likely overshoot by a couple of million years.

text: In 1996, Johnson Space Center (JSC) began development of the Advanced Docking Berthing System, which would later be called the X-38 Low-Impact Docking System. After the X-38 was canceled in 2002, development of the mating system continued, but its future was unknown. In 2004, President George W. Bush announced his Vision for Space Exploration and NASA's 2005 Exploration Systems Architecture Study was created in response, recommended the use of the Low Impact Docking System (LIDS) for the Crew Exploration Vehicle (which was later named Orion) and all applicable future exploration elements. The Hubble Space Telescope received the Soft-Capture Mechanism (SCM) on STS-125. The SCM is meant for unpressurized docking, but uses the LIDS interface to reserve the possibility of an Orion docked mission. The docking ring is mounted on Hubble's aft bulkhead. It may be used for safely de-orbiting Hubble at the end of its service lifetime.

text: In 1996,

text: Johnson Space Center

text: (JSC) began development of the Advanced Docking Berthing System, which would later be called the

text: Low-Impact Docking System. After the X-38 was canceled in 2002, development of the mating system continued, but its future was unknown. In 2004, President George W. Bush announced his

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: and NASA's 2005

text: Exploration Systems Architecture Study

text: was created in response, recommended the use of the Low Impact Docking System (LIDS) for the

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: (which was later named Orion) and all applicable future exploration elements. The

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: received the Soft-Capture Mechanism (SCM) on

text: . The SCM is meant for unpressurized docking, but uses the LIDS interface to reserve the possibility of an Orion docked mission. The docking ring is mounted on Hubble's aft bulkhead. It may be used for safely de-orbiting Hubble at the end of its service lifetime.

text: This is a list of space probes that have flown by, impacted, or landed on the Moon for the purpose of lunar exploration, as well as probes launched toward the Moon that failed to reach their target.  Confirmed future probes are included, but missions that are still at the concept stage, or which never progressed beyond the concept stage, are not.

text: This is a list of

text: space probes

text: that have flown by, impacted, or landed on the

text: Moon

text: for the purpose of

text: lunar exploration

text: , as well as probes launched toward the Moon that failed to reach their target.  Confirmed future probes are included, but missions that are still at the concept stage, or which never progressed beyond the concept stage, are not.

text: In September 2010, it was announced that the country is planning to carry out explorations in deep space by sending a man to the Moon by 2025. China also hopes to bring a moon rock sample back to Earth in 2017, and subsequently build an observatory on the Moon's surface. Ye Peijian, Commander in Chief of the Chang’e programme and an academic at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, added that China has the "full capacity to accomplish Mars exploration by 2013."

text: In September 2010, it was announced that the country is planning to carry out explorations in deep space by sending a man to the Moon by 2025. China also hopes to bring a moon rock sample back to Earth in 2017, and subsequently build an observatory on the Moon's surface.

text: Ye Peijian

text: , Commander in Chief of the Chang’e programme and an academic at the

text: Chinese Academy of Sciences

text: , added that China has the "full capacity to accomplish Mars exploration by 2013."

text: Five satellites have been launched by the Nigerian government into outer space. Early plans to launch a national satellite in 1976 were not executed. The NigeriaSat-1 was the first Nigerian satellite and built by a United Kingdom-based satellite technology company, Surrey Space Technology Limited (SSTL ltd) under the Nigerian government sponsorship for $30 million. The satellite was launched by Kosmos-3M rocket from Russian Plesetsk spaceport on 27 September 2003. Nigeriasat-1 was part of the world-wide Disaster Monitoring Constellation System. The primary objectives of the Nigeriasat-1 were: to give early warning signals of environmental disaster; to help detect and control desertification in the northern part of Nigeria; to assist in demographic planning; to establish the relationship between vectors and the environment that breeds malaria and to give early warning signals on future outbreaks of meningitis using remote sensing technology; to provide the technology needed to bring education to all parts of the country through distant learning; and to aid in conflict resolution and border disputes by mapping out state and International borders.

text: Five

text: satellites

text: have been launched by the Nigerian government into

text: outer space

text: . Early plans to launch a national satellite in 1976 were not executed. The

text: was the first Nigerian satellite and built by a United Kingdom-based satellite technology company, Surrey Space Technology Limited (SSTL ltd) under the Nigerian government sponsorship for $30 million. The satellite was launched by Kosmos-3M rocket from Russian Plesetsk spaceport on 27 September 2003. Nigeriasat-1 was part of the world-wide Disaster Monitoring Constellation System. The primary objectives of the Nigeriasat-1 were: to give early warning signals of environmental disaster; to help detect and control

text: desertification

text: in the northern part of Nigeria; to assist in

text: demographic

text: planning; to establish the relationship between vectors and the environment that breeds malaria and to give early warning signals on future outbreaks of

text: meningitis

text: using remote sensing technology; to provide the technology needed to bring education to all parts of the country through distant learning; and to aid in conflict resolution and border disputes by mapping out state and International borders.

text: Sputnik (Russian: "спу́тник" - "satellite" (in space and astronomy), in Russian its initial meaning is "travelling companion" from s "co-" + put "way" or "journey" + noun suffix -nik person connected with something; it means "satellite" when referring to astronomy related topics)

text: Sputnik

text: (Russian: "спу́тник" - "satellite" (in space and astronomy), in Russian its initial meaning is "travelling companion" from s "co-" + put "way" or "journey" + noun suffix

text: -nik

text: person connected with something; it means "

text: satellite

text: " when referring to astronomy related topics)

text: From 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch an artificial satellite for the International Geophysical Year (1957–58). An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard. After the Soviet launch of the world's first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) on October 4, 1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. The US Congress, alarmed by the perceived threat to national security and technological leadership (known as the "Sputnik crisis"), urged immediate and swift action; President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his advisers counseled more deliberate measures. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency mainly based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for military application.

text: From 1946, the

text: (NACA) had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic

text: Bell X-1

text: International Geophysical Year

text: Project Vanguard

text: . After the

text: Soviet

text: launch of the world's first artificial

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: US Congress

text: Sputnik crisis

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: Advanced Research Projects Agency

text: (ARPA) was created in February 1958 to develop space technology for military application.

text: In 1982, Dr. Burton Edelson was appointed by President Reagan as Associate Administrator for Space, Science, and Applications.At NASA, he championed international cooperation, advanced scientific research, and unmanned spaceflight. He played a leading role in the Mars exploration missions and the Hubble Space Telescope, and was associated with other programs such as the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), the Cosmic Background Explorer satellite program, the Halley's Comet Intercept, as well as Mission to Planet Earth,."When he came to NASA, the space science budget was at a low," said Neil Helm, deputy director of George Washington University's Institute for Applied Space Research, which Edelson founded after retiring from NASA in 1987. "But he managed to increase the budget significantly, and established a number of programs that helped reinvigorate space science at NASA.""There had been some talk about the Hubble telescope project at NASA before he got there, but he was the one that really got it going." AT NASA, Edelson pursued the research related to the hole in the ozone layer in the 1980s which resulted in the banning of certain chemicals in aerosols.

text: In 1982, Dr. Burton Edelson was appointed by

text: President Reagan

text: as Associate Administrator for Space, Science, and Applications.At NASA, he championed international cooperation, advanced scientific research, and unmanned spaceflight. He played a leading role in the Mars exploration missions and the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , and was associated with other programs such as the

text: Advanced Communications Technology Satellite

text: (ACTS), the

text: Cosmic Background Explorer

text: satellite program, the

text: Halley's Comet Intercept

text: , as well as

text: Mission to Planet Earth

text: ,."When he came to NASA, the space science budget was at a low," said Neil Helm, deputy director of George Washington University's Institute for Applied Space Research, which Edelson founded after retiring from NASA in 1987. "But he managed to increase the budget significantly, and established a number of programs that helped reinvigorate space science at NASA.""There had been some talk about the Hubble telescope project at NASA before he got there, but he was the one that really got it going." AT NASA, Edelson pursued the research related to the hole in the ozone layer in the 1980s which resulted in the banning of certain chemicals in aerosols.

text: The highest known projectiles prior to the rockets of the 1940s were the shells of the Paris Gun, a type of German long-range siege gun, which reached at least 40 kilometers altitude during World War One. Steps towards putting a human-made object into space were taken by German scientists during World War II while testing the V-2 rocket, which became the first human-made object in space on 3 October 1942 with the launching of the A-4. After the war, the U.S. used German scientists and their captured rockets in programs for both military and civilian research. The first scientific exploration from space was the cosmic radiation experiment launched by the U.S. on a V-2 rocket on 10 May 1946. The first images of Earth taken from space followed the same year while the first animal experiment saw fruit flies lifted into space in 1947, both also on modified V-2s launched by Americans. Starting in 1947, the Soviets, also with the help of German teams, launched sub-orbital V-2 rockets and their own variant, the R-1, including radiation and animal experiments on some flights. These suborbital experiments only allowed a very short time in space which limited their usefulness.

text: The highest known projectiles prior to the rockets of the 1940s were the shells of the

text: Paris Gun

text: , a type of German long-range

text: siege gun

text: , which reached at least 40 kilometers altitude during

text: World War One

text: . Steps towards putting a human-made object into space were taken by German scientists during

text: World War II

text: while testing the

text: rocket, which became the first human-made object in space on 3 October 1942 with the launching of the

text: . After the war, the U.S.

text: used German scientists

text: and their captured rockets in programs for both military and civilian research. The first scientific exploration from space was the cosmic radiation experiment launched by the U.S. on a V-2 rocket on 10 May 1946. The first images of Earth taken from space followed the same year while the

text: first animal experiment

text: saw fruit flies lifted into space in 1947, both also on modified V-2s launched by Americans. Starting in 1947, the Soviets, also with the help of German teams, launched sub-orbital V-2 rockets and their own variant, the

text: , including radiation and animal experiments on some flights. These

text: suborbital

text: experiments only allowed a very short time in space which limited their usefulness.

text: The time setting of Leave It to Beaver is contemporary with its production—the late 1950s and the early 1960s. References to contemporary news issues or topics are infrequent. Communism is mentioned in the episode "Water, Anyone?" The launching of the Russian satellite Sputnik, which coincided with the debut of the series, is mentioned in several episodes, as is the rapidly expanding missile defense sector in the 1962 episode "Stocks and Bonds".

text: Although to the observer low Earth orbit satellites move at about the same apparent speed as aircraft, individual satellites can be faster or slower; they do not all move at the same speed. Individual satellites never deviate in their velocity (speed and direction). They can be distinguished from aircraft because satellites do not leave contrails.  They are lit solely by the reflection of sunlight from solar panels or other surfaces.  A satellite's brightness sometimes changes as it moves across the sky.  Occasionally a satellite will 'flare' as its orientation changes relative to the viewer, suddenly increasing in reflectivity. Satellites often grow dimmer and are more difficult to see toward the horizons. Because reflected sunlight is necessary to see satellites, the best viewing times are for a few hours immediately after nightfall and a few hours before dawn. Given the number of satellites now in orbit, a fifteen-minute session of sky watching will generally yield at least one satellite passing overhead.

text: Although to the observer

text: low Earth orbit

text: satellites move at about the same apparent speed as aircraft, individual satellites can be faster or slower; they do not all move at the same speed. Individual satellites never deviate in their velocity (speed and direction). They can be distinguished from aircraft because satellites do not leave contrails.  They are lit solely by the reflection of sunlight from solar panels or other surfaces.  A satellite's brightness sometimes changes as it moves across the sky.  Occasionally a satellite will '

text: flare

text: ' as its orientation changes relative to the viewer, suddenly increasing in reflectivity. Satellites often grow dimmer and are more difficult to see toward the horizons. Because reflected sunlight is necessary to see satellites, the best viewing times are for a few hours immediately after nightfall and a few hours before dawn. Given the number of satellites now in orbit, a fifteen-minute session of sky watching will generally yield at least one satellite passing overhead.

text: The PSC’s were signed for all 20 exploration blocks. The exploration activity is going on in all the 20 awarded blocks.  As of 2012, ENI is still awaiting Drilling permission from the department of space due to the block’s proximity to a rocket launch zone (in Andaman and Nicobar Islands) of Isro.

text: Shep Blaine is an explorer working for Fishhook, an organization exploiting paranormal powers to explore planets around other stars.  Because of anti-paranormal prejudice in the USA, Fishhook operates in northern Mexico.  Explorers spend time in "star machines", which are boxes shaped and decorated to stimulate the mind to leave the body and explore the universe.  They are accompanied by a small machine that can record experiences and gather physical samples.  Some explorers have returned with minds affected by what they encountered.  Those explorers have disappeared and never been heard from again.

text: Unlike geostationary satellites, low and medium Earth orbit satellites do not stay in a fixed position in the sky. Consequently, ground based antennas cannot be easily locked into communication with any one specific satellite. As with GPS, the small orbits may cause a low Earth orbit satellite to only be in the sky for an hour or less before it goes over the horizon and out of range, so a complex relaying and passing-off needs to be done to hand over the fixed-position terrestrial signal to other satellites passing overhead.

text: Unlike geostationary satellites, low and medium Earth orbit satellites do not stay in a fixed position in the sky. Consequently, ground based antennas cannot be easily locked into communication with any one specific satellite. As with

text: GPS

text: , the small orbits may cause a low Earth orbit satellite to only be in the sky for an hour or less before it goes over the horizon and out of range, so a complex relaying and passing-off needs to be done to hand over the fixed-position terrestrial signal to other satellites passing overhead.

text: One of the challenges for NASA's Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) satellite was to find a stable orbit in cislunar space, a region from outside the Earth's atmosphere to just beyond the Moon's orbit. The orbit in which the satellite was originally set could only be reliably predicted for about 3 years. Within cislunar space small changes in initial conditions could lead to very different trajectories years later. Because IBEX's original orbit was often closer to the Moon than the Earth, it was regularly performing gravity assists. The uncertainties in the initial orbit conditions would cause nearly identical trajectory predictions to eventually experience different gravity assist geometries, and the slightest change in that geometry during the encounter would cause huge differences in the subsequent satellite trajectory. Some predictions would hit the Earth and others would escape the Earth–Moon system. The new orbit keeps the apogee away from the Moon, reducing its sensitivity to gravity assists. IBEX can now predict this trajectory well beyond 11 years, allowing the satellite to easily observe the Sun's full solar cycle.

text: One of the challenges for

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Interstellar Boundary Explorer

text: (IBEX) satellite was to find a stable orbit in

text: cislunar space

text: , a region from outside the Earth's atmosphere to just beyond the Moon's orbit. The orbit in which the satellite was originally set could only be reliably predicted for about 3 years. Within cislunar space small changes in initial conditions could lead to very different trajectories years later. Because IBEX's original orbit was often closer to the Moon than the Earth, it was regularly performing gravity assists. The uncertainties in the initial orbit conditions would cause nearly identical trajectory predictions to eventually experience different gravity assist geometries, and the slightest change in that geometry during the encounter would cause huge differences in the subsequent satellite trajectory. Some predictions would hit the Earth and others would escape the Earth–Moon system. The new orbit keeps the apogee away from the Moon, reducing its sensitivity to gravity assists. IBEX can now predict this trajectory well beyond 11 years, allowing the satellite to easily observe the Sun's full

text: solar cycle

text: Recently The Department of Space (DoS) indicated it is exploring the possibility of setting up a multi-media satellite platform that would include satellite radio, video and data channels.

text: In a 2012 interview with 3 Eyes Observer, Dr. Atkov was questioned about the future of space exploration. He answered the question by saying that we need to focus on returning to the moon, but with a different goal than the space race that occurred half a century prior. He told the interviewer that space exploration used to be two superpower nations, the USA and the Soviet Union, racing against each other. However space travel should now be more focused on establishing an international base on the surface of the moon in order to create an "outpost for Universe observation and solar system observation." Additionally, he added that there should be a focus on reaching Mars as well, but that those two goals should be prepared in safe conditions because of the known hazards that will be found.

text: Unfortunately for the timely success of the satellite project, many of the most experienced people at Martin were shifted to the high-priority Titan ICBM program, and the mature Viking team was largely lost to Project Vanguard.  The resulting shock to US pride and perceptions of national security, when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial earth satellite, on October 4, 1957 (on the much larger R-7 rocket, developed as an ICBM), combined with the spectacular launch failure of the first complete Vanguard test launch December 6, 1957, is well known and recounted elsewhere.  Thus the first US satellite, Explorer 1, was launched January 31, 1958 by a substantially larger Army Jupiter-C rocket, based on the Redstone missile, which had been developed by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) at Huntsville, Alabama under the leadership of Wernher von Braun.  The first successful Vanguard satellite launching came on March 17, 1958.  Its payload, Vanguard 1, is the oldest satellite currently in orbit.

text: Unfortunately for the timely success of the satellite project, many of the most experienced people at Martin were shifted to the high-priority

text: Titan

text: ICBM

text: program, and the mature Viking team was largely lost to Project Vanguard.  The resulting shock to US pride and perceptions of national security, when the

text: Soviet Union

text: launched

text: Sputnik 1

text: , the first artificial earth satellite, on October 4, 1957 (on the much larger

text: R-7 rocket

text: , developed as an ICBM), combined with the

text: spectacular launch failure

text: of the first complete Vanguard test launch December 6, 1957, is well known and recounted elsewhere.  Thus the first US satellite,

text: Explorer 1

text: , was launched January 31, 1958 by a substantially larger Army

text: Jupiter-C

text: rocket, based on the

text: Redstone missile

text: , which had been developed by the

text: Army Ballistic Missile Agency

text: (ABMA) at Huntsville, Alabama under the leadership of

text: Wernher von Braun

text: .  The first successful Vanguard satellite launching came on March 17, 1958.  Its payload,

text: Vanguard 1

text: , is the oldest satellite currently in orbit.

text: Planetary defenses are not limited to one pre-defined type, some are space or orbital based platforms or ships as in the previously stated example. Another example of planetary defense platforms is Cairo station, which is from the Halo 2 game and the Halo novels. As well as serving as docking stations for UNSC ships, MAC stations such as Cairo Station also possess a massive coilgun, which serve to ward off assaulting enemy fleets via long-range bombardments. UNSC worlds often possess multiple MAC stations in orbit, to provide overlapping fields of fire against either human or alien invaders.

text: Planetary defenses are not limited to one pre-defined type, some are space or orbital based platforms or ships as in the previously stated example. Another example of planetary defense platforms is Cairo station, which is from the

text: Halo 2

text: game and the

text: Halo

text: novels. As well as serving as docking stations for

text: UNSC

text: ships, MAC stations such as Cairo Station also possess a massive

text: coilgun

text: , which serve to ward off assaulting enemy fleets via long-range bombardments. UNSC worlds often possess multiple MAC stations in orbit, to provide overlapping fields of fire against either human or alien invaders.

text: The city also inherited a multimillion-dollar Science Museum and Space Park exhibiting the rockets and vehicles used in America's early space exploration projects. The Space Park deteriorated due to neglect, but in 2004 the surviving rockets were restored and placed back on display. The outdoors exhibit is now part of the expanded New York Hall of Science, a portion of whose building is also a remnant of the fair.

text: The city also inherited a multimillion-dollar Science Museum and Space Park exhibiting the rockets and vehicles used in America's early space exploration projects. The Space Park deteriorated due to neglect, but in 2004 the surviving rockets were restored and placed back on display. The outdoors exhibit is now part of the expanded

text: New York Hall of Science

text: , a portion of whose building is also a remnant of the fair.

text: During this period, NPA became the leading commercial supplier of imagery from different satellite sources and the go-to supplier for photo-mosaicked images, and later, digitally processed images and mosaics - a forerunner service to today’s Google Earth.With the advent of the European Space Agency's radar satellites in the early 1990s, Press, in conjunction with Dr Geoff Lawrence, led NPA to develop Offshore Basin Screening using sea surface roughness patterns observed on radar imagery to detect slicks caused by traces of hydrocarbons seeping from the sea floor. This technique has become a universally recognised complimentary data source to seismic surveying and other offshore exploration tools, and is used by most of the world’s major oil companies who draw on a global database compiled and maintained by CGG-NPA.

text: During this period, NPA became the leading commercial supplier of imagery from different satellite sources and the go-to supplier for photo-mosaicked images, and later, digitally processed images and mosaics - a forerunner service to today’s

text: Google Earth

text: .With the advent of the

text: European Space Agency

text: 's radar satellites in the early 1990s, Press, in conjunction with Dr Geoff Lawrence, led NPA to develop Offshore Basin Screening using sea surface roughness patterns observed on radar imagery to detect slicks caused by traces of hydrocarbons seeping from the sea floor. This technique has become a universally recognised complimentary data source to seismic surveying and other offshore exploration tools, and is used by most of the world’s major oil companies who draw on a global database compiled and maintained by CGG-NPA.

text: GoLions story is set in 1999, when the planet Altea is subdued and enslaved by the Galra Empire. Five space pilots return to Earth to find the planet annihilated by thermonuclear war. Eventually, the explorers are captured and enslaved, and forced to fight for their lives in Emperor Daibazaal's arena. The young pilots escape and eventually land on the planet Altea, where they discover the secret of the mighty sentient robot GoLion, the only weapon powerful enough to defeat Emperor Daibazaal's forces. Thousands of years ago, GoLion was an arrogant robot who, after defeating several Beastmen, tried to challenge the goddess of the universe into battle, but failed. For GoLion's hubris, the goddess taught him humility by separating him into five pieces in the form of five lion robots that sailed through space and crash-landed on Altea, to lay in wait for those who would one day reawaken him to fight evil once again.

text: GoLions story is set in 1999, when the planet Altea is subdued and enslaved by the Galra Empire. Five space pilots return to

text: Earth

text: to find the planet annihilated by thermonuclear war. Eventually, the explorers are captured and enslaved, and forced to fight for their lives in Emperor Daibazaal's arena. The young pilots escape and eventually land on the planet Altea, where they discover the secret of the mighty sentient robot GoLion, the only weapon powerful enough to defeat Emperor Daibazaal's forces. Thousands of years ago, GoLion was an arrogant robot who, after defeating several Beastmen, tried to challenge the goddess of the universe into battle, but failed. For GoLion's hubris, the goddess taught him humility by separating him into five pieces in the form of five lion robots that sailed through space and crash-landed on Altea, to lay in wait for those who would one day reawaken him to fight evil once again.

text: "Mass Effect 2: Overlord" unfolds in a less linear manner than other assignments found in the game due to its focus on exploration. The pack introduces five new missions and some of them can be completed in a different order. The missions are located on a planet that the player must explore using a hovering vehicle called Hammerhead. Aboard the Hammerhead, the player may transition from one mission to another and gather items such as mineral resources used to research numerous in-game upgrades. The Hammerhead has the ability to jump over obstacles to reach certain areas and is also armed with a gun that the player can use to destroy hostile targets over the planet. At certain points in the game, the player may also encounter mini-bosses that must be defeated. "Overlord" also adds one armor upgrade and two achievements that are awarded for completing specific tasks. The first achievement is obtained by collecting numerous data packets that are scattered across the planet, while the second achievement is unlocked by completing "Overlord".

text: "Mass Effect 2: Overlord" unfolds in a

text: less linear

text: manner than other assignments found in the game due to its focus on exploration. The pack introduces five new missions and some of them can be completed in a different order. The missions are located on a planet that the player must explore using a hovering vehicle called Hammerhead. Aboard the Hammerhead, the player may transition from one mission to another and gather items such as mineral resources used to research numerous in-game upgrades. The Hammerhead has the ability to jump over obstacles to reach certain areas and is also armed with a gun that the player can use to destroy hostile targets over the planet. At certain points in the game, the player may also encounter mini-

text: bosses

text: that must be defeated. "Overlord" also adds one armor upgrade and two achievements that are awarded for completing specific tasks. The first achievement is obtained by collecting numerous data packets that are scattered across the planet, while the second achievement is unlocked by completing "Overlord".

text: Space physics did not begin in earnest, however, until the first in situ measurements in the early 1950s, when a team led by Van Allen launched the first rockets to a height around 110 km. In 1958, a Geiger counter on board the first US satellite, Explorer 1 detected the Earth's radiation belts, later named the Van Allen belts. The boundary between the Earth's magnetic field and interplanetary space was studied by Explorer 10. Future space craft would travel outside Earth orbit and study the composition and structure of the solar wind in much greater detail. These include WIND (spacecraft), (1994), Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), Ulysses, the Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) in 2008, and Solar Probe+. Other spacecraft would study the sun, such as STEREO and Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO).

text: Space physics did not begin in earnest, however, until the first in situ measurements in the early 1950s, when a team led by

text: Van Allen

text: launched the first rockets to a height around 110 km. In 1958, a Geiger counter on board the first US satellite,

text: Explorer 1

text: detected the Earth's radiation belts, later named the

text: Van Allen belts

text: . The boundary between the Earth's magnetic field and interplanetary space was studied by

text: Explorer 10

text: . Future space craft would travel outside Earth orbit and study the composition and structure of the solar wind in much greater detail. These include

text: WIND (spacecraft)

text: , (1994),

text: Advanced Composition Explorer

text: (ACE),

text: Ulysses

text: , the

text: Interstellar Boundary Explorer

text: (IBEX) in 2008, and

text: Solar Probe+

text: . Other spacecraft would study the sun, such as

text: STEREO

text: and

text: Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

text: (SOHO).

text: The social teachings of Pope Pius XII repeat these teachings, and apply them in greater detail not only to workers and owners of capital, but also to other professions such as politicians, educators, house-wives, farmers bookkeepers, international organizations, and all aspects of life including the military. Going beyond Pius XI, he also defined social teachings in the areas of medicine, psychology, sport, TV, science, law and education. Pius XII was called "the Pope of Technology for his willingness and ability to examine the social implications of technological advances. The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual. With the beginning of the space age at the end of his pontificate, Pius XII explored the social implications of space exploration and satellites on the social fabric of humanity asking for a new sense of community and solidarity in light of existing papal teachings on subsidiarity.

text: The social teachings of

text: Pope Pius XII

text: repeat these teachings, and apply them in greater detail not only to workers and owners of capital, but also to other professions such as politicians, educators, house-wives, farmers

text: bookkeeper

text: s,

text: international organization

text: s, and all aspects of life including the military. Going beyond Pius XI, he also defined social teachings in the areas of medicine,

text: psychology

text: , sport, TV, science, law and education. Pius XII was called "the Pope of Technology for his willingness and ability to examine the social implications of technological advances. The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual. With the beginning of the

text: space age

text: at the end of his pontificate, Pius XII explored the social implications of space exploration and satellites on the social fabric of humanity asking for a new sense of community and solidarity in light of existing

text: papal teachings

text: on subsidiarity.

text: Exploring new planets, however, is dangerous work; in a society with no war, with little crime or violence, and with excellent advanced health care, the deaths of fit and intelligent young men and women—occasionally in the most extreme and elaborate ways—are a source of significant psychological trauma and social stress. The Technocracy has dealt with this problem by organizing a special Explorer Corps. These are individuals fit enough and smart enough to do the job, but afflicted with physical disadvantages (handicaps, diseases, of sometimes simple ugliness) that place them outside the norm of society. Candidates are identified in childhood, and conscripted into the Explorers; even if their deficiencies are easily correctible, they are left untreated. When these Explorers die in the course of their work—as they often do—the citizens of the Technocracy manage to cope with the shock.

text: Using the simplified model where the orbit of the Moon around the Earth is circular, Schwaniger found that there exists a free-return trajectory in the plane of the orbit of the Moon which is periodic: after returning to low altitude above the Earth (the perigee radius is a parameter, typically 6555 km) the spacecraft would return to the Moon, etc. This periodic trajectory is counter-rotational (it goes from east to west when near the earth). It has a period of about 650 hours (compare with a sidereal month, which is 655.7 hours, or 27.3 days). Considering the trajectory in an inertial (non-rotating) frame of reference, the perigee occurs directly under the moon when the moon is on one side of the earth. Speed at perigee is about 10.91 km/s. After three days it reaches the moon's orbit, but now more or less on the opposite side of the earth from the moon. After a few more days the craft reaches ifs (first) apogee and begins to fall back toward the earth. But then the moon comes along and attracts the craft. The craft passes on the near side of the moon at a radius of 2150 km (410 km above the surface) and is thrown back outwards where it reaches a second apogee. It then falls back toward the earth, goes around to the first side, and goes through another perigee close to where the first perigee had taken place.

text: A number of women have traveled into space. Although the first woman flew into space in 1963, very early in crewed space exploration, it would not be until almost 20 years later that another flew.

text: A number of women have traveled into space. Although the first woman flew into space in 1963, very early in

text: crewed space exploration

text: , it would not be until almost 20 years later that another flew.

text: A countdown is a sequence of backward counting to indicate the time remaining before an event is scheduled to occur. NASA commonly employs the term "T-minus" during the preparation for and anticipation of a rocket launch, and even "E-minus" for events that involve spacecraft that are already in space, where the "T" could stand for "Test" or "Time", and the "E" stands for "Encounter", as with a comet or some other space object. Other events for which countdowns are commonly used include the detonation of an explosive, the start of a race, the start of the New Year, or any anxiously anticipated event. An early use of a countdown once signaled the start of a Cambridge University rowing race.  One of the first known associations with rockets was in the 1929 German science fiction movie Frau im Mond (English: Woman in the Moon) written by Thea von Harbou and directed by Fritz Lang in an attempt to increase the drama of the launch sequence of the story's lunar-bound rocket.

text: A countdown is a sequence of backward counting to indicate the time remaining before an event is scheduled to occur.

text: NASA

text: commonly employs the term "T-minus" during the preparation for and anticipation of a rocket launch, and even "E-minus" for events that involve spacecraft that are already in space, where the "T" could stand for "Test" or "Time", and the "E" stands for "Encounter", as with a comet or some other space object. Other events for which countdowns are commonly used include the detonation of an explosive, the start of a race, the start of the

text: New Year

text: , or any anxiously anticipated event. An early use of a countdown once signaled the start of a

text: Cambridge University

text: rowing race.  One of the first known associations with rockets was in the 1929 German science fiction movie

text: Frau im Mond

text: (English: Woman in the Moon) written by

text: Thea von Harbou

text: and directed by

text: Fritz Lang

text: in an attempt to increase the drama of the launch sequence of the story's lunar-bound rocket.

text: After the failure of TV-3, the backup vehicle, Vanguard TV-3 BU (BU=Backup), was prepared for another attempt. Pad crews hastened to repair the damage done to LC-18A by TV-3's explosion and in the third week of January 1958, the job was completed. TV-3BU was erected on the pad, but continuous delays frustrated the launch attempt. Heavy rains shorted some electrical cables on the ground and necessitated their replacement. The second stage engine was found to have damage and had to be taken down and replaced by a different stage. Finally, the launch got under way on February 5. The Vanguard lifted smoothly into the night sky and performed well until around 50 seconds into launch, when the booster suddenly pitched down. The skinny second stage broke in half from aerodynamic stress, causing the Vanguard to tumble end-over-end before Range Safety sent the destruct command. Cause of the failure was attributed to a spurious guidance signal that caused the first stage to perform unintended pitch maneuvers. On March 17, TV-4 finally succeeded in orbiting the Vanguard 1 satellite. By that time, however, the Army's Juno (Jupiter-C) had already launched the United States' first satellite. The TV-4 rocket had put the satellite Vanguard 1, to a relatively high orbit of (3966 km (2465 miles) x ) and is currently the oldest human artifact in space. The following four flights, TV-5 and SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle)-1, -2 and -3 all failed, but on February 17, 1959, SLV-4 launched Vanguard 2 (weighing 10.8 kg (23.7 lb)) into orbit. The SLVs were the "production" Vanguard rockets. SLV-5 and -6 also failed, but the final flight on September 18, 1959 successfully orbited the 23.6 kg (52 lb) Vanguard 3 satellite. That last mission was designated TV-4BU, because it used a remaining test vehicle, which had been upgraded with a new third stage, the Allegheny Ballistics Lab X-248A2 Altair. This more powerful motor enabled the launch of the heavier payload. The combination of the AJ10 liquid engine and X-248 solid motor was also used, under the name Able, as an upper stage combination for Thor and Atlas space launch vehicles.

text: After the failure of TV-3, the backup vehicle,

text: Vanguard TV-3 BU

text: (BU=Backup), was prepared for another attempt. Pad crews hastened to repair the damage done to LC-18A by TV-3's explosion and in the third week of January 1958, the job was completed. TV-3BU was erected on the pad, but continuous delays frustrated the launch attempt. Heavy rains shorted some electrical cables on the ground and necessitated their replacement. The second stage engine was found to have damage and had to be taken down and replaced by a different stage. Finally, the launch got under way on February 5. The Vanguard lifted smoothly into the night sky and performed well until around 50 seconds into launch, when the booster suddenly pitched down. The skinny second stage broke in half from aerodynamic stress, causing the Vanguard to tumble end-over-end before Range Safety sent the destruct command. Cause of the failure was attributed to a spurious guidance signal that caused the first stage to perform unintended pitch maneuvers. On March 17, TV-4 finally succeeded in orbiting the

text: Vanguard 1

text: satellite. By that time, however, the Army's

text: Juno

text: Jupiter-C

text: ) had already launched the

text: United States' first satellite

text: . The TV-4 rocket had put the satellite Vanguard 1, to a relatively high orbit of (3966 km (2465 miles) x ) and is currently the oldest human artifact in space. The following four flights,

text: and SLV (Satellite Launch Vehicle)

text: and

text: all failed, but on February 17, 1959,

text: launched

text: Vanguard 2

text: (weighing 10.8 kg (23.7 lb)) into orbit. The SLVs were the "production" Vanguard rockets.

text: and

text: also failed, but the final flight on September 18, 1959 successfully orbited the 23.6 kg (52 lb)

text: Vanguard 3

text: satellite. That last mission was designated TV-4BU, because it used a remaining test vehicle, which had been upgraded with a new third stage, the Allegheny Ballistics Lab X-248A2 Altair. This more powerful motor enabled the launch of the heavier payload. The combination of the AJ10 liquid engine and X-248 solid motor was also used, under the name

text: Able

text: , as an upper stage combination for Thor and Atlas space launch vehicles.

text: The general plot of the game is that a starship, the Var' Equinalin, is exploring the Hive sector, when it approaches the titular planet Notrium, and is attacked by ground-launched missiles. The player's character (either the human captain, the android engineer, the psionic medic, or the alien stowaway) manages to reach the only working escape pod (the others having been sabotaged by the alien) and crash-lands on the planet's surface. From there, they must find a way to survive, as well as a method of escape.

text: The general plot of the game is that a

text: starship

text: , the Var' Equinalin, is exploring the Hive sector, when it approaches the titular

text: planet

text: Notrium, and is attacked by ground-launched missiles. The player's character (either the human captain, the

text: android

text: engineer, the

text: psionic

text: medic, or the alien stowaway) manages to reach the only working

text: escape pod

text: (the others having been sabotaged by the alien) and crash-lands on the planet's surface. From there, they must find a way to survive, as well as a method of escape.

text: This experiment was extensively planned prior to launch. Initial Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) proposals for the project included conical satellite bodies; this eliminated the need for a separate fairing and ejection mechanisms, and their associated weight and failure modes. Radio tracking would gather data and establish a position. Early in the program, optical tracking (with a Baker-Nunn camera network and human spotters) was added. A panel of scientists proposed changing the design to spheres, at least twenty inches in diameter and hopefully thirty. A sphere would have a constant optical reflection, and constant coefficient of drag, based on size alone, while a cone would have properties that varied with its orientation. James Van Allen of the University of Iowa proposed a cylindrical satellite based on his work with rockoons, which became Explorer 1, the first American satellite. The Naval Research Laboratory finally accepted a sphere with a 6.4-inch diameter as a "test vehicle", with a diameter of twenty inches set for the follow-on satellites. The weight savings, from reduced size as well as decreased instrumentation in the early satellites, was considered to be acceptable.

text: This experiment was extensively planned prior to launch. Initial

text: Naval Research Laboratory

text: (NRL) proposals for the project included conical satellite bodies; this eliminated the need for a separate fairing and ejection mechanisms, and their associated weight and

text: failure modes

text: . Radio tracking would gather data and establish a position. Early in the program, optical tracking (with a

text: Baker-Nunn camera

text: network and

text: human spotters

text: ) was added. A panel of scientists proposed changing the design to spheres, at least twenty inches in diameter and hopefully thirty. A sphere would have a constant optical reflection, and constant

text: coefficient of drag

text: , based on size alone, while a cone would have properties that varied with its orientation.

text: James Van Allen

text: of the

text: University of Iowa

text: proposed a cylindrical satellite based on his work with

text: rockoon

text: s, which became

text: Explorer 1

text: , the first American satellite. The Naval Research Laboratory finally accepted a sphere with a 6.4-inch diameter as a "test vehicle", with a diameter of twenty inches set for the follow-on satellites. The weight savings, from reduced size as well as decreased instrumentation in the early satellites, was considered to be acceptable.

text: Also the UMOS carries out optical observations of active satellites and space debris on a single joint list to produce independent TLE catalog and to estimate the probabilities of satellite orbital conjunction for priority satellites, which meets the requirements of national Control Systems and Space Environment Analysis (i.e. similar to Space Situational Awareness). During just 2012 over 130,000 of position estimates for 194 LEO space objects (including series RapidEye, Orbcomm, CubeSat), 37 MEO objects, 29 GEO and GSO objects and also HEO space observatory Radioastron were obtained. As a result, the observation-based database was created, which had comprised 1509 sets of TLE for 183 space objects until the end of 2012.

text: Also the UMOS carries out optical observations of active

text: satellite

text: s and

text: space debris

text: on a single joint list to produce independent

text: TLE

text: catalog and to estimate the probabilities of

text: satellite orbital conjunction

text: for priority satellites, which meets the requirements of national Control Systems and Space Environment Analysis (i.e. similar to Space Situational Awareness). During just 2012 over 130,000 of

text: position estimates

text: for 194 LEO space objects (including series

text: RapidEye

text: Orbcomm

text: CubeSat

text: ), 37

text: MEO

text: objects, 29

text: GEO

text: and

text: GSO

text: objects and also

text: HEO

text: space observatory

text: Radioastron

text: were obtained. As a result, the observation-based database was created, which had comprised 1509 sets of

text: TLE

text: for 183 space objects until the end of 2012.

text: With the advent of unmanned and manned space flight a new era of American history had presented itself. Keeping with the tradition of honoring the country's history on U.S. postage stamps, the U.S. Post Office began honoring the various events with its commemorative postage stamp issues.  The first U.S. Postage issue to depict a space vehicle was issued in 1948, the Fort Bliss issue. The first issue to commemorate a space project by name was the ECHO I communications satellite commemorative issue of 1960.  The next was the Project Mercury issue of 1962. As U.S. space exploration progressed a variety of other commemorative issues followed, many of which bear accurate depictions of satellites, space capsules, lunar modules, space suits, and other items of interest.

text: With the advent of

text: unmanned

text: and

text: manned space flight

text: a new era of

text: American history

text: had presented itself. Keeping with the tradition of honoring the country's history on U.S. postage stamps, the

text: U.S. Post Office

text: began honoring the various events with its commemorative postage stamp issues.  The first U.S. Postage issue to depict a

text: space vehicle

text: was issued in 1948, the

text: Fort Bliss

text: issue. The first issue to commemorate a space project by name was the

text: ECHO I

text: communications satellite

text: commemorative issue of 1960.  The next was the

text: Project Mercury

text: issue of 1962. As U.S.

text: space exploration

text: progressed a variety of other commemorative issues followed, many of which bear accurate depictions of satellites,

text: space capsule

text: s,

text: lunar module

text: s,

text: space suit

text: s, and other items of interest.

text: One of the stated goals for the Constellation program is to gain significant experience in operating away from Earth's environment, as the White House contended, to embody a "sustainable course of long-term exploration." The Ares boosters are a cost-effective approach — entailing the Ares V's enormous, unprecedented cargo-carrying capacity — transporting future space exploration resources to the Moon's weaker gravity field. While simultaneously serving as a proving ground for a wide range of space operations and processes, the Moon may serve as a cost-effective construction, launching and fueling site for future space exploration missions. For example, future Ares V missions could cost-effectively deliver raw materials for future spacecraft and missions to a Moon-based space dock positioned as a counterweight to a Moon-based space elevator.

text: One of the stated goals for the

text: Constellation program

text: is to gain significant experience in operating away from

text: Earth

text: 's environment, as the

text: White House

text: contended, to embody a "sustainable course of long-term exploration." The

text: Ares boosters

text: are a cost-effective approach — entailing the

text: Ares V

text: 's enormous, unprecedented cargo-carrying capacity — transporting future space exploration resources to the Moon's weaker

text: gravity field

text: . While simultaneously serving as a proving ground for a wide range of space operations and processes, the Moon may serve as a cost-effective construction, launching and fueling site for future

text: space exploration

text: missions. For example, future Ares V missions could cost-effectively deliver

text: raw material

text: s for future

text: spacecraft

text: and missions to a Moon-based

text: space dock

text: positioned as a

text: counterweight

text: to a Moon-based

text: space elevator

text: The online Ashburn Patch noted how the name change reflected the changes to Loudoun County in the past two decades. While the western portion of the county has stayed largely rural and agricultural, as evoked by the street's original name of Steeplechase Drive, eastern Loudoun has grown tremendously during that same time as many businesses, in particular high-tech defense contractors like Orbital, have located in the area. "So Orbital's request to change the name of the road along its perimeter from Steeplechase Drive to Warp Drive brings to mind the county’s dichotomy," it observed. "Out with the horse-racing theme and in with space."

text: The online

text: Ashburn Patch

text: noted how the name change reflected the changes to Loudoun County in the past two decades. While the western portion of the county has stayed largely rural and agricultural, as evoked by the street's original name of Steeplechase Drive, eastern Loudoun has grown tremendously during that same time as many businesses, in particular high-tech defense contractors like Orbital, have located in the area. "So Orbital's request to change the name of the road along its perimeter from Steeplechase Drive to Warp Drive brings to mind the county’s dichotomy," it observed. "Out with the horse-racing theme and in with space."

text: The Mars Exploration Joint Initiative (MEJI) is an agreement signed between United States' space agency, NASA, and Europe's space agency, ESA to join resources and expertise in order to continue the exploration of the planet Mars. The agreement was signed  in Washington D.C. in October 2009, between NASA administrator Charles Bolden and ESA director-general Jean-Jacques Dordain.

text: The Mars Exploration Joint Initiative (MEJI) is an agreement signed between United States' space agency,

text: NASA

text: , and Europe's space agency,

text: ESA

text: to join resources and expertise in order to continue the exploration of the planet

text: Mars

text: . The agreement was signed  in

text: Washington D.C.

text: in October 2009, between NASA administrator Charles Bolden and ESA director-general Jean-Jacques Dordain.

text: Sakigake was developed by the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science for the National Space Development Agency (both of which are now part of the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, or JAXA).  It became a part of the Halley Armada together with Suisei, the Soviet/French Vega probes, the ESA Giotto and the NASA International Cometary Explorer, to explore Halley's Comet during its 1986 sojourn through the inner solar system.

text: Sakigake was developed by the

text: for the

entity_name: National Space Development Agency of Japan

text: National Space Development Agency

text: (both of which are now part of the

text: Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: , or JAXA).  It became a part of the

text: Halley Armada

text: together with Suisei, the

text: Soviet

text: French

text: Vega

text: probes, the

text: ESA

text: Giotto

text: and the

text: NASA

text: International Cometary Explorer

text: , to explore

text: Halley's Comet

text: during its 1986 sojourn through the inner solar system.

text: Sputnik was launched on 10 November 2014 by Rossiya Segodnya, an agency wholly owned and operated by the Russian government, which was created by an Executive Order of the President of Russia on December 9, 2013. Sputnik replaces the RIA Novosti news agency  and Voice of Russia (which was the Russian government's international radio broadcasting service from 1993 until 9 November 2014) on an international stage (which remains active in Russia).  Within Russia itself, however, Rossiya Segodnya continues to operate its Russian language news service under the name RIA Novosti. According to its chief Dmitry Kiselyov, Sputnik was intended to counter the "aggressive propaganda that is now being fed to the world".

text: Sputnik was launched on 10 November 2014 by Rossiya Segodnya, an agency wholly owned and operated by the

text: Russian government

text: , which was created by an

text: Executive Order of the President of Russia

text: on December 9, 2013. Sputnik replaces the

text: RIA Novosti

text: news agency  and

text: Voice of Russia

text: (which was the

text: Russia

text: n government's international radio broadcasting service from 1993 until 9 November 2014) on an international stage (which remains active in Russia).  Within Russia itself, however, Rossiya Segodnya continues to operate its Russian language news service under the name RIA Novosti. According to its chief Dmitry Kiselyov, Sputnik was intended to counter the "aggressive propaganda that is now being fed to the world".

text: David Joiner, one of the game's key developers, revealed in an interview that humanity was eradicated by an airborne biological weapon, a scenario that was inspired by the Alistair MacLean novel The Satan Bug. This is alluded to in the game's opening sequence, which shows a tapestry depicting humans fleeing what looks like a giant microbe. The developers also explored the idea of humans living in a lunar base, alluded to in-game, when an astronomer/cartographer named Tycho Northpaw claims that the humans literally carved the features of the "Man on the Moon" to remind the morphs that they are being watched. Inside a hangar in the airport, there is a vehicle that appears to be an incomplete space-craft.Criticisms

text: David Joiner, one of the game's key developers, revealed in an interview that humanity was eradicated by an airborne biological weapon, a scenario that was inspired by the

text: Alistair MacLean

text: novel

text: The Satan Bug

text: . This is alluded to in the game's opening sequence, which shows a tapestry depicting humans fleeing what looks like a giant

text: microbe

text: . The developers also explored the idea of humans living in a lunar base, alluded to in-game, when an astronomer/cartographer named Tycho Northpaw claims that the humans literally carved the features of the "Man on the Moon" to remind the morphs that they are being watched. Inside a hangar in the airport, there is a vehicle that appears to be an incomplete space-craft.Criticisms

text: With a visual magnitude of 17.3, Haumea is the third-brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope. However, because the planets and most small Solar System bodies share a common orbital alignment from their formation in the primordial disk of the Solar System, most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane, called the ecliptic. As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored, later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations, as well as more distant objects, with slower mean motions across the sky. These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea, with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic.

text: With a

text: visual magnitude

text: of 17.3, Haumea is the

entity_name: List of the brightest Kuiper belt objects

text: third-brightest object

text: in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope. However, because the planets and most

text: small Solar System bodies

text: share a

text: common orbital alignment

text: from their

entity_name: Formation and evolution of the Solar System

text: formation

text: in the

text: primordial disk

text: of the Solar System, most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane, called the

text: ecliptic

text: . As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored, later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations, as well as more distant objects, with slower

text: mean motion

text: s across the sky. These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea, with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic.

text: Early Space Track observations of satellites were collected at more than 150 individual sites, including radar stations, Baker–Nunn cameras, telescopes, radio receivers, and the Operation Moonwatch participants. Individuals at these Moonwatch sites took manual observations on satellites by visual means, but there were numerous observation types and sources, some automated, some only semi-automated. The observations were transferred to the NSSCC by teletype, telephone, mail, and personal messenger. There, a duty analyst reduced the data and determined corrections that should be made to the orbital elements before they were used for further predictions. After this analysis, the corrections were fed into an IBM 709 computer that computed the updated orbital data. The updated orbital data were then used in another phase of the same computer program to yield the geocentric ephemeris. From the geocentric ephemeris, three different products were computed and sent back to the observing stations for their planning of future observing opportunities.

text: Early Space Track observations of satellites were collected at more than 150 individual sites, including radar stations,

text: Baker–Nunn camera

text: s, telescopes, radio receivers, and the

text: Operation Moonwatch

text: participants. Individuals at these Moonwatch sites took manual observations on satellites by visual means, but there were numerous observation types and sources, some automated, some only semi-automated. The observations were transferred to the NSSCC by teletype, telephone, mail, and personal messenger. There, a duty analyst reduced the data and determined corrections that should be made to the orbital elements before they were used for further predictions. After this analysis, the corrections were fed into an

text: IBM 709

text: computer that computed the updated orbital data. The updated orbital data were then used in another phase of the same computer program to yield the

text: geocentric

text: ephemeris

text: . From the geocentric ephemeris, three different products were computed and sent back to the observing stations for their planning of future observing opportunities.

text: Visitors can experience the hands-on space gallery, "Space Quest: Exploring the Moon, Mars & Beyond," presented by Langley Federal Credit Union. This gallery includes four different exhibits; Our Solar System, Living and Working in Space, Mars and the Moon, and Visions of Space Exploration.

text: Visitors can experience the hands-on space gallery, "Space Quest: Exploring the Moon, Mars & Beyond," presented by Langley Federal Credit Union. This gallery includes four different exhibits; Our

text: Solar System

text: , Living and Working in Space,

text: Mars

text: and the

text: Moon

text: , and Visions of Space Exploration.

text: Among advocates of space exploration, he was noted for his opposition to a space program centered on the use of human astronauts. Charlene Anderson recalls, "In personal discussions, he could be particularly vociferous on the topic of human versus robotic exploration. Norm argued that human exploration could only interfere with scientific exploration and confuse the public as to why we should explore space. In his view, science should drive the endeavor, not a lust for adventure."

text: In 1974, NASA issued an Announcement of Opportunity for astronomical missions that would use a small- or medium-sized Explorer spacecraft.  Out of the 121 proposals received, three dealt with studying the cosmological background radiation. Though these proposals lost out to the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), their strength made NASA further explore the idea. In 1976, NASA formed a committee of members from each of 1974's three proposal teams to put together their ideas for such a satellite. A year later, this committee suggested a polar-orbiting satellite called COBE to be launched by either a Delta rocket or the Space Shuttle. It would contain the following instruments:

text: In 1974,

text: NASA

text: issued an Announcement of Opportunity for astronomical missions that would use a small- or medium-sized

text: Explorer

text: spacecraft.  Out of the 121 proposals received, three dealt with studying the cosmological background radiation. Though these proposals lost out to the

text: Infrared Astronomical Satellite

text: (IRAS), their strength made NASA further explore the idea. In 1976, NASA formed a committee of members from each of 1974's three proposal teams to put together their ideas for such a satellite. A year later, this committee suggested a

text: polar-orbiting

text: satellite called COBE to be launched by either a

text: Delta rocket

text: or the

text: Space Shuttle

text: . It would contain the following instruments:

text: DIRECT advocated developing a single, high-commonality family of rockets named Jupiter, adapted closely from existing Space Shuttle systems. Each Jupiter launch vehicle would use a "common core stage" consisting of a tank structure based closely on the existing Space Shuttle External Tank with a pair of standard four-segment Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) mounted at the sides as on the Space Shuttle.  Up to four Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs) from the Space Shuttle Orbiter would be attached to the bottom of the External Tank. The engines would be deorbited along with the expended tank to burn up in the Earth's atmosphere.

text: DIRECT advocated developing a single, high-commonality family of rockets named Jupiter, adapted closely from existing Space Shuttle systems. Each Jupiter launch vehicle would use a "common core stage" consisting of a tank structure based closely on the existing

text: Space Shuttle External Tank

text: with a pair of standard four-segment

text: Solid Rocket Boosters

text: (SRBs) mounted at the sides as on the

text: Space Shuttle

text: .  Up to four

text: Space Shuttle Main Engine

text: s (SSMEs) from the

text: Space Shuttle Orbiter

text: would be attached to the bottom of the External Tank. The engines would be deorbited along with the expended tank to burn up in the Earth's atmosphere.

text: A space habitat (also called a space colony, space settlement, orbital habitat, orbital settlement or orbital colony) is a type of space station, intended as a permanent settlement rather than as a simple way-station or other specialized facility.  No space habitats have yet been constructed but many design proposals have been made, with varying degrees of realism, by both engineers and science fiction authors.

text: A space habitat (also called a space colony, space settlement, orbital habitat, orbital settlement or orbital colony) is a type of

text: space station

text: , intended as a

text: permanent settlement

text: rather than as a simple way-station or other specialized facility.  No space habitats have yet been constructed but many design proposals have been made, with varying degrees of realism, by both engineers and science fiction authors.

text: The first robotic space probe mission to Venus, and the first to any planet, began with the Soviet Venera program in 1961. The United States' exploration of Venus had its first success with the Mariner 2 mission on 14 December 1962, becoming the world's first successful interplanetary mission, passing  above the surface of Venus, and gathering data on the planet's atmosphere.

text: The first

text: robotic

text: space probe

text: mission to Venus, and the first to any planet, began with the Soviet

text: Venera

text: program in 1961. The United States' exploration of Venus had its first success with the

text: Mariner 2

text: mission on 14 December 1962, becoming the world's first successful

text: interplanetary mission

text: , passing  above the surface of Venus, and gathering data on the planet's atmosphere.

text: The Rover/NERVA program accumulated 17 hours of operating time with 6 hours above 2000 K. Although the engine, turbine and liquid hydrogen tank were never physically assembled together, the NERVA was deemed ready to design into a working vehicle by NASA, creating a small political crisis in Congress because of the danger a Mars exploration program presented to the national budget. Clinton P. Anderson, the New Mexico senator who had protected the program, had become severely ill. Lyndon B. Johnson, another powerful advocate of human space exploration, had decided not to run for a second term and was considerably weakened. NASA program funding was somewhat reduced by Congress for the 1969 budget, shutting down the Saturn rocket production line and cancelling Apollo missions after Apollo 17. Without the Saturn S-N rocket to carry the NERVA to orbit, Los Alamos continued the Rover Program for a few more years with Pewee and the Nuclear Furnace, but it was disbanded by 1972.

text: The Rover/NERVA program accumulated 17 hours of operating time with 6 hours above 2000 K. Although the engine, turbine and liquid hydrogen tank were never physically assembled together, the NERVA was deemed ready to design into a working vehicle by NASA, creating a small political crisis in Congress because of the danger a Mars exploration program presented to the national budget.

text: Clinton P. Anderson

text: , the New Mexico senator who had protected the program, had become severely ill. Lyndon B. Johnson, another powerful advocate of human space exploration, had decided not to run for a second term and was considerably weakened. NASA program funding was somewhat reduced by Congress for the 1969 budget, shutting down the Saturn rocket production line and cancelling Apollo missions after Apollo 17. Without the Saturn S-N rocket to carry the NERVA to orbit, Los Alamos continued the Rover Program for a few more years with Pewee and the Nuclear Furnace, but it was disbanded by 1972.

text: A laser communication system was one of four science instruments launched with the NASA Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) mission on 7 Sept 2013.  After a month-long transit to the Moon, and a 40-day spacecraft checkout, the laser comm experiments were performed over three months during late 2013 to early 2014. Initial data returned from the Lunar Laser Communication Demonstration (LLCD) equipment on LADEE set a space communication bandwidth record in October 2013 when early tests using a pulsed laser beam to transmit data over the  between the Moon and Earth passed data at a "record-breaking download rate of 622 megabits per second (Mbps)", and also demonstrated an error-free data upload rate of 20 Mbps from an Earth ground station to LADEE in Lunar orbit.  The LLCD is NASA's first attempt at two-way space communication using an optical laser instead of radio waves, and is expected to lead to operational laser systems on NASA satellites in future years.

text: A laser communication system was one of four science instruments launched with the

text: NASA

entity_name: Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer

text: Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer

text: (LADEE) mission on 7 Sept 2013.  After a month-long transit to the Moon, and a 40-day spacecraft checkout, the laser comm experiments were performed over three months during late 2013 to early 2014. Initial data returned from the

text: Lunar Laser Communication Demonstration

text: (LLCD) equipment on LADEE set a space

text: communication bandwidth

text: record in October 2013 when early tests using a

text: pulsed laser beam

text: to transmit data over the  between the Moon and Earth passed data at a "record-breaking

text: download

text: rate of 622

text: megabit

text: s per second (Mbps)", and also demonstrated an error-free data

text: upload

text: rate of 20

text: Mbps

text: from an Earth ground station to LADEE in

text: Lunar orbit

text: .  The LLCD is NASA's first attempt at two-way

text: space communication

text: using an

text: optical laser

text: instead of

text: radio wave

text: s, and is expected to lead to operational laser systems on NASA satellites in future years.

text: Amid this negative climate and seeing no future for themselves after the permanent shutdown of the space program or for the decadent future of humanity, a small team of scientists and astronauts must persuade NASA to fund a manned mission to Titan to confirm findings of life from the Cassini and to rejuvenate interest in space exploration to the world. They do so by recycling older spacecraft for several purposes: space shuttle Atlantis is refitted to carry cargo into orbit as well as a restored Saturn V for construction of the main ship (a heavily modified version of Discovery using ion drive propulsion and powered by a TOPAZ nuclear reactor), using habitat modules from the mothballed International Space Station, and Apollo re-entry capsules are adapted to become Titan landers. On the day of the last launch to begin the mission, with the shuttle Endeavour ready to carry the crew to space, an insane USAF general driven by shallow militarism and hatred for space exploration tries to shoot down the shuttle during lift off. Despite damage sustained from an anti-satellite missile fired from a restored X-15, Endeavour successfully makes it into orbit, and the five crew members begin their six-year journey to Saturn by following the gravity-assisted Interplanetary Transport Network.

text: Amid this negative climate and seeing no future for themselves after the permanent shutdown of the space program or for the decadent future of humanity, a small team of scientists and astronauts must persuade NASA to fund a manned mission to

text: Titan

text: to confirm findings of life from the

text: Cassini

text: and to rejuvenate interest in space exploration to the world. They do so by recycling older spacecraft for several purposes: space shuttle

text: Atlantis

text: is

text: refitted to carry cargo

text: into orbit as well as a restored

text: Saturn V

text: for construction of the main ship (a heavily modified version of

text: Discovery

text: using

text: ion drive

text: propulsion and powered by a

text: TOPAZ nuclear reactor

text: ), using habitat modules from the mothballed

text: International Space Station

text: , and

text: Apollo

text: re-entry capsules are adapted to become Titan landers. On the day of the last launch to begin the mission, with the shuttle

text: Endeavour

text: ready to carry the crew to space, an insane

text: USAF

text: general driven by shallow militarism and hatred for space exploration tries to shoot down the shuttle during lift off. Despite damage sustained from an

text: anti-satellite missile

text: fired from a restored

text: , Endeavour successfully makes it into orbit, and the five crew members begin their six-year journey to Saturn by following the gravity-assisted

text: Interplanetary Transport Network

text: Several satellites indirectly measure the energy absorbed and radiated by Earth and by inference the energy imbalance. The NASA Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) project involves three such satellites: the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), launched October 1984; NOAA-9, launched December 1984; and NOAA-10, launched September 1986.

text: Several

text: satellite

text: s indirectly measure the energy absorbed and radiated by Earth and by inference the energy imbalance. The

text: NASA

text: Earth Radiation Budget Experiment

text: (ERBE) project involves three such satellites: the

text: Earth Radiation Budget Satellite

text: (ERBS), launched October 1984; NOAA-9, launched December 1984; and NOAA-10, launched September 1986.

text: For example, the existence of the Van Allen radiation belts was unknown until their discovery by the United States' first artificial satellite, Explorer 1. These belts contain radiation trapped by Earth's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical.Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth-based phenomena. For instance, the hole in the ozone layer was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify.

text: For example, the existence of the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: s was unknown until their discovery by the United States' first artificial satellite,

text: Explorer 1

text: . These belts contain radiation trapped by Earth's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical.Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth-based phenomena. For instance, the

text: hole in the ozone layer

text: was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify.

text: A robotic spacecraft is an uncrewed spacecraft, usually under telerobotic control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often called a space probe. Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed operation, due to lower cost and lower risk factors.  In addition, some planetary destinations such as Venus or the vicinity of Jupiter are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them.

text: A robotic spacecraft is an

text: uncrewed spacecraft

text: , usually under

text: telerobotic

text: control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often called a

text: space probe

text: . Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than

text: crewed

text: operation, due to lower cost and lower risk factors.  In addition, some planetary destinations such as

text: Venus

text: or the vicinity of

text: Jupiter

text: are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as

text: Saturn

text: Uranus

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them.

text: The Space Race was a 20th-century competition between two Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US), for supremacy in spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations that occurred following World War II, aided by captured German missile technology and personnel from the Aggregat program. The technological superiority required for such supremacy was seen as necessary for national security, and symbolic of ideological superiority. The Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, unmanned space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon.

text: The Space Race was a 20th-century competition between two

text: Cold War

text: rivals, the

text: Soviet Union

text: (USSR) and the

text: United States

text: (US), for supremacy in

text: spaceflight

text: capability. It had its origins in the

text: missile

text: -based

text: nuclear arms race

text: between the two nations that occurred following

text: World War II

text: , aided by captured German missile technology and personnel from the

text: Aggregat program

text: . The technological superiority required for such supremacy was seen as necessary for national security, and symbolic of ideological superiority. The Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch

text: artificial satellites

text: , unmanned

text: space probe

text: s of the

text: Moon

text: Venus

text: , and

text: Mars

text: , and

text: human spaceflight

text: in

text: low Earth orbit

text: and to the Moon.

text: Developed in the second-century BCE, by the ancient Chinese, fireworks are the oldest form of rockets and the most simplistic.  Originally fireworks had religious purposes but were later adapted for military purposes during the Middle Ages in the form of "flaming arrows."  During the tenth and thirteenth centuries the Mongols and the Arabs brought the major component of these early rockets to the West: gunpowder.  Although the cannon and gun became the major developments from the eastern introduction of gunpowder, a tickling of rockets also resulted.  These rockets were essentially enlarged fireworks which propelled, further than the long bow or cannon, packages of explosive gunpowder.  During the late eighteenth century imperialistic wars, Colonel Congreve, developed his famed rockets, which travel range distances of four miles.  The "rockets' red glare" in the American national anthem records the usage of rocket warfare, in its early form of military strategy, during the inspirational battle of Fort McHenry, where many soldiers were killed because of the rockets.

text: Developed in the second-century BCE, by the ancient Chinese, fireworks are the oldest form of rockets and the most simplistic.  Originally fireworks had religious purposes but were later adapted for military purposes during the Middle Ages in the form of "flaming arrows."  During the tenth and thirteenth centuries the Mongols and the Arabs brought the major component of these early rockets to the West:

text: gunpowder

text: .  Although the

text: cannon

text: and gun became the major developments from the eastern introduction of gunpowder, a tickling of rockets also resulted.  These rockets were essentially enlarged fireworks which propelled, further than the long bow or cannon, packages of explosive gunpowder.  During the late eighteenth century imperialistic wars, Colonel Congreve, developed his famed

text: rockets

text: , which travel range distances of four miles.  The "rockets' red glare" in the

text: American national anthem

text: records the usage of rocket warfare, in its early form of military strategy, during the inspirational battle of

text: Fort McHenry

text: , where many soldiers were killed because of the rockets.

text: Upon defeating The Beat, the Stranger is freed from the prison and is able to wander along the planet he was imprisoned from. He realizes that his mere presence destroys all physical structures on the planet, including living things. Upon further exploration of the planet, he meets The Voice, who claims to have designed the prison to protect the planet, but wished to escape it so that he could see his daughter again, who was outside the prison. Later exploring the planet more, the Stranger ventures into a structure which holds an attachable device he uses to fly off the planet and into space to meet The Star, the mothership who created him, and many other clones like him. She calls him Rider.

text: FC Sputnik Kimry () was a Russian football team from Kimry. It played professionally in 1991 and 1992, taking 15th place in Zone 4 of the Russian Second Division in 1992.

text: FC Sputnik Kimry () was a

text: Russia

text: n

text: football

text: team from

text: Kimry

text: . It played professionally in 1991 and 1992, taking 15th place in Zone 4 of the

text: Russian Second Division

text: in 1992.

text: The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), as part of the Space Shuttle program.  Its official program name was Space Transportation System (STS), taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982.  Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, launched from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. Operational missions launched numerous satellites, interplanetary probes, and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST); conducted science experiments in orbit; and participated in construction and servicing of the International Space Station.  The Shuttle fleet's total mission time was 1322 days, 19 hours, 21 minutes and 23 seconds.

text: The Space Shuttle was a partially

text: reusable

text: low Earth orbit

text: al

text: spacecraft

text: system operated by the U.S.

text: (NASA), as part of the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: .  Its official program name was Space Transportation System (STS), taken from a 1969 plan for

text: a system of reusable spacecraft

text: of which it was the only item funded for development. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982.  Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, launched from the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: (KSC) in Florida. Operational missions launched numerous satellites, interplanetary probes, and the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: (HST); conducted science experiments in orbit; and participated in construction and servicing of the

text: International Space Station

text: .  The Shuttle fleet's total mission time was 1322 days, 19 hours, 21 minutes and 23 seconds.

text: In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa learning science facts. Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists,  including  Melton and Landauer & Bjork, explored manipulation of repetition timing as a means to improve recall. Around the same time, Pimsleur language courses pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973 Sebastian Leitner devised his "Leitner system", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on flashcards.

text: In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa learning science facts. Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists,  including  Melton and Landauer & Bjork, explored manipulation of repetition timing as a means to improve recall. Around the same time,

text: Pimsleur language courses

text: pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973

text: Sebastian Leitner

text: devised his "

text: Leitner system

text: ", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on

text: flashcard

text: s.

text: Saula is a fictional planet described in "An Attempt to Escape" ("Попытка к бегству") by Boris and Arkady Strugatsky. This planet is a part of the so-called Noon Universe and presents a world in an early feudalistic stage (opposite to e.g. late feudalism of Arkanar). The planet was named after Saul (Savel) Repnin, one of the space explorers who discovered it in 2141 AD.

text: Saula is a fictional planet described in "

text: An Attempt to Escape

text: " ("Попытка к бегству") by

text: Boris and Arkady Strugatsky

text: . This planet is a part of the so-called

text: Noon Universe

text: and presents a world in an early

text: feudalistic

text: stage (opposite to e.g. late feudalism of

text: Arkanar

text: ). The planet was named after

text: Saul (Savel) Repnin

text: , one of the space explorers who discovered it in 2141 AD.

text: Proba-V is a small satellite, assuring the succession of the Vegetation instruments  on board the French SPOT-4 and SPOT-5 Earth observation missions. Proba-V was initiated by the Space- and Aeronautics department of the BELgian Science Policy Office. It is built by QinetiQ Space N.V. and operated by ESA and uses a PROBA platform. Proba-V will support applications such as land use, worldwide vegetation classification, crop monitoring, famine prediction, food security, disaster monitoring and biosphere studies. The mission was originally conceived as a "gap filler" between the SPOT-5 end-of-life (foreseen mid-2014) and the launch of the constellation of the Sentinel-3A and -3B satellites. Due to delays of the Sentinel programme and because some instrument specifications of the Sentinel3 satellites have meanwhile changed, Proba-V no longer is a gap filler mission but will assure the continuation of the Vegetation programme as such. The Vegetation, International User Committee (IUC, an independent body consisting of Vegetation users, that provides user feedback and recommendations to the Vegetation Steering Committee) has recommended to foresee a successor mission for Proba-V, because the current specifications of the Sentinel3 satellites no longer allow the continuation of the Vegetation products in the long run. This mission is the first full application mission with a PROBA platform and had a very tight development schedule.

text: Proba-V is a small

text: satellite

text: , assuring the succession of the Vegetation instruments  on board the French

text: SPOT-4 and SPOT-5

text: Earth observation missions. Proba-V was initiated by the Space- and Aeronautics department of the

text: BELgian Science Policy Office

text: . It is built by QinetiQ Space N.V. and operated by

text: ESA

text: and uses a

text: PROBA

text: platform. Proba-V will support applications such as land use, worldwide vegetation classification, crop monitoring, famine prediction, food security, disaster monitoring and biosphere studies. The mission was originally conceived as a "gap filler" between the

text: end-of-life (foreseen mid-2014) and the launch of the constellation of the

text: and -3B satellites. Due to delays of the

text: Sentinel

text: programme and because some instrument specifications of the Sentinel3 satellites have meanwhile changed, Proba-V no longer is a gap filler mission but will assure the continuation of the Vegetation programme as such. The Vegetation, International User Committee (IUC, an independent body consisting of Vegetation users, that provides user feedback and recommendations to the Vegetation Steering Committee) has recommended to foresee a successor mission for Proba-V, because the current specifications of the Sentinel3 satellites no longer allow the continuation of the Vegetation products in the long run. This mission is the first full application mission with a PROBA platform and had a very tight development schedule.

text: Due to later problems with Vanguard it was not the first rocket to into orbit an unmanned  satellite. The first small-lift launch vehicle was the Sputnik rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned orbital carrier rocket designed by Sergey Korolyov in the Soviet Union, derived from the R-7 Semyorka ICBM. On 4 October 1957, the Sputnik rocket was used to perform the world's first satellite launch, placing Sputnik 1 satellite into a low Earth orbit.The USA responded by launching the Vanguard rocket, that was intended to be the first launch vehicle the United States would use to place a satellite into orbit. Instead, the Sputnik crisis caused by the surprise launch of Sputnik 1 led the U.S., after the failure of Vanguard TV3, to quickly orbit the Explorer 1 satellite using a Juno I rocket launched on January 31, 1958. Thus Vanguard I was the second successful U.S. orbital launch. Thus started the space race, that gave the drive to put men on the moon with the USA's Apollo program.

text: Due to later problems with Vanguard it was not the first rocket to into orbit an unmanned

text: satellite

text: . The first

text: small-lift launch vehicle

text: was the

text: Sputnik

text: rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned

text: orbit

text: al

text: carrier rocket

text: designed by

text: Sergey Korolyov

text: in the Soviet Union, derived from the

text: R-7 Semyorka

text: ICBM

text: Sputnik 1

text: satellite into a

text: low Earth orbit

text: .The USA responded by launching the

text: Vanguard rocket

text: , that was intended to be the first launch vehicle the

text: United States

text: Sputnik crisis

text: caused by the surprise launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: led the U.S., after the failure of

text: Vanguard TV3

text: , to quickly orbit the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite using a

text: Juno I

text: Vanguard I

text: moon

text: with the USA's

text: Apollo program

text: Space exploration has been an interest since his fascination with the United States/Soviet Union Space Race during his teenage years. Gingrich wants the U.S. to pursue new achievements in space, such as sustaining civilizations beyond Earth, but advocates relying more on the private sector and less on the publicly funded NASA to drive progress.

text: Space exploration

text: has been an interest since his fascination with the United States/Soviet Union

text: Space Race

text: during his teenage years. Gingrich wants the U.S. to pursue new achievements in space, such as sustaining civilizations beyond Earth, but advocates relying more on the private sector and less on the publicly funded

text: NASA

text: to drive progress.

text: The Exploration Systems Architecture Study that followed the Vision for Space Exploration of 2004 recommended the development of a new class of vehicles that have similar capabilities to their Apollo predecessors with several key differences.  In part to retain some of the Space Shuttle program workforce and ground infrastructure, the launch vehicles were to use Shuttle-derived technologies.  Secondly, rather than launching the crew and cargo on the same rocket, the smaller Ares I was to launch the crew with the larger Ares V to handle the heavier cargo.  The two payloads were to rendezvous in low Earth orbit and then head to the Moon from there.   The Apollo Lunar Module could not carry enough fuel to reach the polar regions of the Moon but the Altair lunar lander was intended to access any part of the Moon.  While the Altair and surface systems would have been equally necessary for Project Constellation to reach fruition, the focus was on developing the Orion spacecraft to shorten the gap in US access to orbit following the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2010.

text: The

text: Exploration Systems Architecture Study

text: that followed the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: of 2004 recommended the development of a new class of vehicles that have similar capabilities to their Apollo predecessors with several key differences.  In part to retain some of the Space Shuttle program workforce and ground infrastructure, the launch vehicles were to use

text: Shuttle-derived

text: technologies.  Secondly, rather than launching the crew and cargo on the same rocket, the smaller

text: Ares I

text: was to launch the crew with the larger

text: Ares V

text: to handle the heavier cargo.  The two payloads were to

text: rendezvous in low Earth orbit

text: and then head to the Moon from there.   The Apollo Lunar Module could not carry enough fuel to reach the polar regions of the Moon but the

text: Altair lunar lander

text: was intended to access any part of the Moon.  While the Altair and surface systems would have been equally necessary for

text: Project Constellation

text: to reach fruition, the focus was on developing the

text: Orion spacecraft

text: to shorten the gap in US access to orbit following the retirement of the Space Shuttle in 2010.

text: The forward rockets of the Reaction Control System, located near the nose of the Space Shuttle orbiter, included 14 primary and two vernier RCS rockets. The aft RCS engines were located in the two Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) pods at the rear of the orbiter, and these included 12 primary (PRCS) and two vernier (VRCS) engines in each pod. The PRCS system provided the pointing control of the Orbiter, and the VRCS was used for fine maneuvering during the rendezvous, docking, and undocking maneuvers with the International Space Station, or formerly with the Russian Mir space station. The RCS also controlled the attitude of the orbiter during most of its re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere – until the air became dense enough that the rudder, elevons and body flap became effective.

text: The forward rockets of the Reaction Control System, located near the nose of the Space Shuttle orbiter, included 14 primary and two

text: vernier

text: RCS rockets. The aft RCS engines were located in the two

entity_name: Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System

text: Orbital Maneuvering System

text: (OMS) pods at the rear of the orbiter, and these included 12 primary (PRCS) and two vernier (VRCS) engines in each pod. The PRCS system provided the pointing control of the Orbiter, and the VRCS was used for fine maneuvering during the rendezvous, docking, and undocking maneuvers with the

text: International Space Station

text: , or formerly with the Russian

text: Mir space station

text: . The RCS also controlled the attitude of the orbiter during most of its re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere – until the air became dense enough that the rudder, elevons and body flap became effective.

text: Hobbyists build and fly a wide variety of model rockets. Many companies produce model rocket kits and parts but due to their inherent simplicity some hobbyists have been known to make rockets out of almost anything. Rockets are also used in some types of consumer and professional fireworks. A Water Powered Rocket is a type of model rocket using water as its reaction mass. The pressure vessel (the engine of the rocket) is usually a used plastic soft drink bottle. The water is forced out by a pressurized gas, typically compressed air. It is an example of Newton's third law of motion.

text: Hobbyists build and fly a wide variety of

text: model rocket

text: s. Many companies produce model rocket kits and parts but due to their inherent simplicity some hobbyists have been known to make rockets out of almost anything. Rockets are also used in some types of consumer and professional

text: fireworks

text: A Water Powered Rocket

text: is a type of model rocket using water as its reaction mass. The pressure vessel (the engine of the rocket) is usually a used plastic soft drink bottle. The water is forced out by a pressurized gas, typically compressed air. It is an example of Newton's third law of motion.

text: the number of orbital revolutions possible for each type, latitudes included, is unlimited.  For the first and third types the number rises to infinity as

text: ABC can be used to infer problems in high-dimensional parameter spaces, although one should account for the possibility of overfitting (e.g., see the model selection methods in  and ). However, the probability of accepting the simulated values for the parameters under a given tolerance with the ABC rejection algorithm typically decreases exponentially with increasing dimensionality of the parameter space (due to the global acceptance criterion). Although no computational method (based on ABC or not) seems to be able to break the curse-of-dimensionality, methods have recently been developed to handle high-dimensional parameter spaces under certain assumptions (e.g., based on polynomial approximation on sparse grids, which could potentially heavily reduce the simulation times for ABC). However, the applicability of such methods is problem dependent, and the difficulty of exploring parameter spaces should in general not be underestimated. For example, the introduction of deterministic global parameter estimation led to reports that the global optima obtained in several previous studies of low-dimensional problems were incorrect. For certain problems, it might therefore be difficult to know whether the model is incorrect or, as discussed above, whether the explored region of the parameter space is inappropriate. A more pragmatic approach is to cut the scope of the problem through model reduction.

text: ABC can be used to infer problems in high-dimensional parameter spaces, although one should account for the possibility of overfitting (e.g., see the model selection methods in  and ). However, the probability of accepting the simulated values for the parameters under a given tolerance with the ABC rejection algorithm typically decreases exponentially with increasing dimensionality of the parameter space (due to the global acceptance criterion). Although no computational method (based on ABC or not) seems to be able to break the curse-of-dimensionality, methods have recently been developed to handle high-dimensional parameter spaces under certain assumptions (e.g., based on polynomial approximation on sparse grids, which could potentially heavily reduce the simulation times for ABC). However, the applicability of such methods is problem dependent, and the difficulty of exploring parameter spaces should in general not be underestimated. For example, the introduction of deterministic global parameter estimation led to reports that the global optima obtained in several previous studies of low-dimensional problems were incorrect. For certain problems, it might therefore be difficult to know whether the model is incorrect or,

text: as discussed above

text: , whether the explored region of the parameter space is inappropriate. A more pragmatic approach is to cut the scope of the problem through model reduction.

text: WISE J004945.61+215120.0 was discovered in 2012 by Mace et al. from data, collected by Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) Earth-orbiting satellite — NASA infrared-wavelength 40 cm (16 in) space telescope, which mission lasted from December 2009 to February 2011. The discovery paper in not yet published.

text: WISE J004945.61+215120.0 was discovered in 2012 by Mace et al. from data, collected by

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE)

text: Earth-orbit

text: ing

text: satellite

text: NASA

text: infrared-wavelength

text: cm

text: in

text: space telescope

text: , which mission lasted from December 2009 to February 2011. The discovery paper in not yet published.

text: Beyond: Our Future in Space is a non-fiction book by astronomy professor Chris Impey on the history and future of human exploration of space. The book starts with a discussion of the human urge to explore, which led us to fan out over the Earth soon after leaving Africa. This urge may have a gene associated with it. This is followed by a recounting of the Space Race of the middle of the 20th century, driven by fierce superpower rivalry between the United States and the former Soviet Union. Early milestones in the history of space travel are summarized, along with the feats and tribulations of human (and animal) space explorers. The "club" of those who have been in Earth orbit is still very select, less than 550, compared to ten times more people who have stood on the summit of Mount Everest.

text: Beyond: Our Future in Space is a

text: non-fiction

text: book by astronomy professor Chris Impey on the history and future of human exploration of space. The book starts with a discussion of the human urge to explore, which led us to fan out over the

text: Earth

text: soon after leaving

text: Africa

text: . This urge may have a gene associated with it. This is followed by a recounting of the

text: Space Race

text: of the middle of the 20th century, driven by fierce superpower rivalry between the

text: United States

text: and the former

text: Soviet Union

text: . Early milestones in the history of space travel are summarized, along with the feats and tribulations of human (and animal) space explorers. The "club" of those who have been in Earth orbit is still very select, less than 550, compared to ten times more people who have stood on the summit of

text: Mount Everest

text: On January 14, 2004, U.S. President George W. Bush announced the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) as part of the Vision for Space Exploration. The CEV was partly a reaction to the Space Shuttle Columbia accident, the subsequent findings and report by the Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB), and the White House's review of the American space program. The CEV effectively replaced the conceptual Orbital Space Plane (OSP), which was proposed after the cancellation of the Lockheed Martin X-33 program to produce a replacement for the space shuttle. As the Vision for Space Exploration was developed into the Constellation program under NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe, the Crew Exploration Vehicle was renamed the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, after the constellation of the same name.

text: On January 14, 2004, U.S. President

text: George W. Bush

text: announced the

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: (CEV) as part of the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: . The CEV was partly a reaction to the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia accident

text: , the subsequent findings and report by the

text: Columbia Accident Investigation Board

text: (CAIB), and the

text: White House

text: 's review of the American space program. The CEV effectively replaced the conceptual

text: Orbital Space Plane

text: (OSP), which was proposed after the cancellation of the

text: Lockheed Martin X-33

text: program to produce a replacement for the space shuttle. As the Vision for Space Exploration was developed into the

text: Constellation program

text: under NASA administrator

text: Sean O'Keefe

text: , the Crew Exploration Vehicle was renamed the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, after the

text: constellation of the same name

text: The first images from space were taken on sub-orbital flights. The U.S-launched V-2 flight on October 24, 1946 took one image every 1.5 seconds. With an apogee of 65 miles (105 km), these photos were from five times higher than the previous record, the 13.7 miles (22 km) by the Explorer II balloon mission in 1935. The first satellite (orbital) photographs of Earth were made on August 14, 1959 by the U.S. Explorer 6. The first satellite photographs of the Moon might have been made on October 6, 1959 by the Soviet satellite Luna 3, on a mission to photograph the far side of the Moon. The Blue Marble photograph was taken from space in 1972, and has become very popular in the media and among the public. Also in 1972 the United States started the Landsat program, the largest program for acquisition of imagery of Earth from space. Landsat Data Continuity Mission, the most recent Landsat satellite, was launched on 11 February 2013. In 1977, the first real time satellite imagery was acquired by the United States's KH-11 satellite system.

text: The first images from space were taken on

text: sub-orbital flights

text: . The U.S-launched

text: flight on October 24, 1946 took one image every 1.5 seconds. With an apogee of 65 miles (105 km), these photos were from five times higher than the previous record, the 13.7 miles (22 km) by the Explorer II balloon mission in 1935. The first satellite (orbital) photographs of Earth were made on August 14, 1959 by the U.S.

text: Explorer 6

text: . The first satellite photographs of the

text: Moon

text: might have been made on October 6, 1959 by the Soviet satellite

text: Luna 3

text: , on a mission to photograph the far side of the Moon.

text: The Blue Marble

text: photograph was taken from space in 1972, and has become very popular in the media and among the public. Also in 1972 the United States started the

text: Landsat program

text: , the largest program for acquisition of imagery of Earth from space.

text: Landsat Data Continuity Mission

text: , the most recent Landsat satellite, was launched on 11 February 2013. In 1977, the first real time satellite imagery was acquired by the United States's

text: satellite system.

text: CCAFS houses the Air Force Space & Missile Museum as Launch Complex 26,where many unmanned rockets were launched early in the U.S. space program, including Explorer 1, the first US spacecraft placed in earth orbit.

text: CCAFS houses the

text: Air Force Space & Missile Museum

text: as

entity_name: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 26

text: Launch Complex 26

text: ,where many unmanned rockets were launched early in the U.S. space program, including

text: Explorer 1

text: , the first US spacecraft placed in earth orbit.

text: , there were 1,419 operational, human-made satellites orbiting Earth. There are also inoperative satellites, including Vanguard 1, the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked space debris. Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

text: , there were 1,419 operational, human-made

text: satellite

text: s orbiting Earth. There are also inoperative satellites, including

text: Vanguard 1

text: , the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked

text: space debris

text: . Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station.

text: Winston Science Fiction was a series of 37 juvenile science fiction books published by the John C. Winston Company of Philadelphia from 1952 to 1960 and by its successor Holt, Rinehart & Winston in 1960 and 1961. It included 35 novels by various writers, including many who became famous in the SF field, such as Poul Anderson, Arthur C. Clarke, Ben Bova, and Lester del Rey. There was also one anthology, The Year After Tomorrow, edited by del Rey and others. There was one non-fiction book Rockets through Space: The Story of Man's Preparations to Explore the Universe by del Rey which details the factual science and technology of rocket flight. Many of the dust jackets became science fiction classics; the artists included Hugo Award winners Ed Emshwiller and Virgil Finlay along with Hugo nominees such as Mel Hunter and Alex Schomburg.

text: Winston Science Fiction was a series of 37 juvenile

text: science fiction

text: books published by the

text: John C. Winston Company

text: of Philadelphia from 1952 to 1960 and by its successor

text: Holt, Rinehart & Winston

text: in 1960 and 1961. It included 35 novels by various writers, including many who became famous in the SF field, such as

text: Poul Anderson

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: Ben Bova

text: , and

text: Lester del Rey

text: . There was also one anthology, The Year After Tomorrow, edited by del Rey and others. There was one non-fiction book Rockets through Space: The Story of Man's Preparations to Explore the Universe by del Rey which details the factual science and technology of rocket flight. Many of the dust jackets became science fiction classics; the artists included

text: Hugo Award

text: winners

text: Ed Emshwiller

text: and

text: Virgil Finlay

text: along with Hugo nominees such as

text: Mel Hunter

text: and

text: Alex Schomburg

text: The dark X-type asteroid is also classified as a rare and reddish P-type asteroid by NASA's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. The body orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8–3.2 AU once every 5 years and 2 months (1,886 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.06 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic. The first used precovery was taken at Palomar Observatory in 1951, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 19 years prior to its discovery. The first (unused) observation at Bergedorf Observatory dates back to 1926.

text: The dark

text: X-type

text: asteroid is also classified as a rare and reddish

text: P-type asteroid

text: by NASA's space-based

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: . The body orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8–3.2

text: AU

text: once every 5 years and 2 months (1,886 days). Its orbit has an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.06 and an

text: inclination

text: of 7

text: with respect to the

text: ecliptic

text: . The first used

text: precovery

text: was taken at

text: Palomar Observatory

text: in 1951, extending the asteroid's

text: observation arc

text: by 19 years prior to its discovery. The first (unused) observation at

text: Bergedorf Observatory

text: dates back to 1926.

text: Sputnik also operates an internet radio station, Sputnik.de, which has channels for Electronic Music, melancholic music, R&B, dance, rock music, and a stream broadcasting the alternative evening programme Popkult the whole day.

text: Sputnik also operates an

text: internet radio

text: station, Sputnik.de, which has channels for

text: Electronic Music

text: , melancholic music,

text: R&B

text: dance

text: , rock music, and a stream broadcasting the alternative evening programme Popkult the whole day.

text: STS-40 (Columbia) Spacelab Life Sciences (SLS-1), June 5–14, 1991, a dedicated space and life sciences mission was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and returned to land at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the nine-day mission the crew performed experiments which explored how humans, animals and cells respond to microgravity and re-adapt to Earth's gravity on return. Other payloads included experiments designed to investigate materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation, and tests of hardware proposed for the Space Station Freedom Health Maintenance Facility. Mission completed in 146 orbits of the Earth, and logged her an additional 218 hours in space.

text: (Columbia) Spacelab Life Sciences (SLS-1), June 5–14, 1991, a dedicated space and life sciences mission was launched from the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: Florida

text: , and returned to land at

text: Edwards Air Force Base

text: , California. During the nine-day mission the crew performed experiments which explored how humans, animals and cells respond to microgravity and re-adapt to Earth's

text: gravity

text: on return. Other payloads included experiments designed to investigate materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation, and tests of hardware proposed for the Space Station Freedom Health Maintenance Facility. Mission completed in 146 orbits of the Earth, and logged her an additional 218 hours in space.

text: Walker funded the development of two public policy documentary films about the space race and the role of science in American life. The first film focused on the impact of Sputnik on America’s education system. The second film, "Sputnik Mania", explored broader U.S. cultural reactions to Sputnik.

text: Walker funded the development of two public policy documentary films about the

text: space race

text: and the role of science in American life. The first film focused on the impact of

text: Sputnik

text: on

text: America’s education system

text: . The second film, "Sputnik Mania", explored broader U.S. cultural reactions to Sputnik.

text: A Rosetta orbit is a complex type of orbit. Theoretically, an object approaching a black hole with an intermediate velocity (not slow enough to spiral into the hole and not fast enough to escape) will enter a complex orbit pattern, bounded by a near and far distance to the hole and tracing an oscillating pattern known as a hypotrochoid.

text: A Rosetta orbit is a complex type of

text: orbit

text: . Theoretically, an object approaching a

text: black hole

text: with an intermediate velocity (not slow enough to spiral into the hole and not fast enough to escape) will enter a complex orbit pattern, bounded by a near and far distance to the hole and tracing an oscillating pattern known as a

text: hypotrochoid

text: The album met with largely positive reviews by music critics. Sputnik Music gave WhatFunLifeWas 4/5 stars and it received 4.5/5 stars from Allmusic.

text: The album met with largely positive reviews by music critics.

text: Sputnik Music

text: gave WhatFunLifeWas 4/5 stars and it received 4.5/5 stars from Allmusic.

text: The Mars Society is an American worldwide volunteer-driven space-advocacy non-profit organization dedicated to promoting the human exploration and settlement of the planet Mars. Inspired by "The Case for Mars" conferences which were hosted by The Mars Underground at the University of Colorado Boulder, the Mars Society was established by Dr. Robert Zubrin and others in 1998 with the goal of educating the public, the media and government on the benefits of exploring Mars, the importance of planning for a humans-to-Mars mission in the coming decades and the need to create a permanent human presence on the Red Planet.

text: The Mars Society is an American worldwide volunteer-driven

text: space-advocacy

text: non-profit organization

text: dedicated to promoting the human exploration and settlement of the planet

text: Mars

text: . Inspired by "The Case for Mars" conferences which were hosted by The Mars Underground at the University of Colorado Boulder, the Mars Society was established by

text: Dr. Robert Zubrin

text: and others in 1998 with the goal of educating the public, the media and government on the benefits of exploring Mars, the importance of planning for a humans-to-Mars mission in the coming decades and the need to create a permanent human presence on the Red Planet.

text: The space race is repeatedly covered, including such articles as "Bleeping Two-Foot Tin Ball Threatens Free World" about the Sputnik launch "Soviets Ahead in Dog-Killing Race" about the flight of experimental animals, and finally "Holy Shit, Man Walks on Fucking Moon", a recreation of the Apollo 11 landing, complete with a radio transcript filled with profanity.

text: The space race is repeatedly covered, including such articles as "Bleeping Two-Foot Tin Ball Threatens Free World" about the

text: Sputnik

text: launch "Soviets Ahead in Dog-Killing Race" about the flight of experimental animals, and finally "Holy Shit, Man Walks on Fucking Moon", a recreation of the

text: Apollo 11

text: landing, complete with a radio transcript filled with profanity.

text: ISRO sent one lunar orbiter, Chandrayaan-1, on 22 October 2008 and one Mars orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, which successfully entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014, making India the first nation to succeed on its first attempt, and ISRO the fourth space agency in the world as well as the first space agency in Asia to successfully reach Mars orbit. Future plans include development of GSLV Mk III,(for launch of heavier satellites), ULV, development of a reusable launch vehicle, human spaceflight, further lunar exploration, interplanetary probes, a solar spacecraft mission, etc.  On 18 June 2016 ISRO successfully set a record with launch of 20 satellites in a single payload, one being a satellite from Google.

text: ISRO sent one lunar orbiter,

text: , on 22 October 2008 and one

text: Mars

text: orbiter,

text: Mars Orbiter Mission

text: , which successfully entered

text: Mars

text: orbit on 24 September 2014, making India the first nation to succeed on its first attempt, and ISRO the fourth space agency in the world as well as the

entity_name: Comparison of Asian national space programs

text: first space agency in Asia

text: to successfully reach Mars orbit. Future plans include development of

entity_name: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III

text: GSLV Mk III

text: ,(for launch of heavier satellites),

text: ULV

text: , development of a

text: reusable launch vehicle

text: human spaceflight

text: further lunar exploration

text: , interplanetary probes,

text: a solar spacecraft mission

text: , etc.  On 18 June 2016 ISRO successfully set a record with launch of 20 satellites in a single payload, one being a satellite from

text: Google

text: The above discussion defines the beta angle of satellites orbiting the Earth, but a beta angle can be calculated for any orbiting three body system: the same definition can be applied to give the beta angle of other objects.  For example, the beta angle of a satellite in orbit around Mars, with respect to the Earth, defines how much of the time the satellite has a line of sight to the Earth - that is, it determines how long the Earth is shining on the satellite and how long the Earth is blocked from view.  That same satellite also will have a beta angle with respect to the Sun, and in fact it has a beta angle for any celestial object one might wish to calculate one for: any satellite orbiting a body (i.e. the Earth) will be in that body's shadow with respect to a given celestial object (like a star) some of the time, and in its line-of-sight the rest of the time.  Beta angles describing non-geocentric orbits are important when space agencies launch satellites into orbits around other bodies in the Solar System.

text: The above discussion defines the beta angle of satellites orbiting the Earth, but a beta angle can be calculated for any orbiting three body system: the same definition can be applied to give the beta angle of other objects.  For example, the beta angle of a satellite in orbit around Mars, with respect to the Earth, defines how much of the time the satellite has a line of sight to the Earth - that is, it determines how long the Earth is shining on the satellite and how long the Earth is blocked from view.  That same satellite also will have a beta angle with respect to the Sun, and in fact it has a beta angle for any celestial object one might wish to calculate one for: any satellite orbiting a body (i.e. the Earth) will be in that body's shadow with respect to a given celestial object (like a star) some of the time, and in its line-of-sight the rest of the time.  Beta angles describing non-

text: geocentric

text: orbits are important when space agencies launch satellites into orbits around other bodies in the Solar System.

text: Space Adventures’ first orbital spaceflight client and the world’s first private space explorer launched to the ISS in April 2001 on Soyuz TM-32. American businessman Dennis Tito received training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City in Russia. Tito participated in Space Adventures’ other programs, including a zero-gravity flight, centrifuge training and a supersonic jet flight to the Karman Line prior to his orbital flight.

text: Space Adventures’ first orbital spaceflight client and the world’s first private space explorer launched to the ISS in April 2001 on Soyuz TM-32. American businessman

text: Dennis Tito

text: received training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City in Russia. Tito participated in Space Adventures’ other programs, including a zero-gravity flight, centrifuge training and a supersonic jet flight to the

text: Karman Line

text: prior to his orbital flight.

text: MESUR, the Mars Environmental SURvey was a NASA program designed to explore the planet Mars in preparation for human follow-up missions of the Space Exploration Initiative. The only mission of the program that was completed was MESUR Pathfinder.

text: MESUR, the Mars Environmental SURvey was a

text: NASA

text: program designed to explore the

text: planet Mars

text: in preparation for human follow-up missions of the

text: Space Exploration Initiative

text: . The only mission of the program that was completed was

text: MESUR Pathfinder

text: In the early 1980s there were only upper limits available for the CIB. The real observations of the CIB began after the era of astronomical satellites working in the infrared, started by the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS), and followed by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) and by the Spitzer Space Telescope. Exploration of the CIB was continued by the Herschel Space Observatory, launched in 2009.

text: In the early 1980s there were only upper limits available for the CIB. The real observations of the CIB began after the era of astronomical satellites working in the infrared, started by the

text: Infrared Astronomy Satellite

text: (IRAS), and followed by the

text: Cosmic Background Explorer

text: (COBE), the

text: Infrared Space Observatory

text: (ISO) and by the

text: Spitzer Space Telescope

text: . Exploration of the CIB was continued by the

text: Herschel Space Observatory

text: , launched in 2009.

text: Excelling in football as a high school student, Ben received a full scholarship to Empire State University, where he first met his eventual lifelong friend in a teenaged genius named Reed Richards, as well as future enemy Victor von Doom. Despite their being from radically different backgrounds, science student Richards described to Grimm his dream of building a space rocket to explore the regions of space around Mars; Grimm jokingly agreed to fly that rocket when the day came.

text: Excelling in football as a high school student, Ben received a full scholarship to

text: Empire State University

text: , where he first met his eventual lifelong friend in a teenaged genius named

text: Reed Richards

text: , as well as future enemy

text: Victor von Doom

text: . Despite their being from radically different backgrounds, science student Richards described to Grimm his dream of building a space rocket to explore the regions of space around Mars; Grimm jokingly agreed to fly that rocket when the day came.

text: The Space Shuttle is likely the most complex spacecraft ever built. Although MSFC was not responsible for developing the centerpiece – the Orbiter Vehicle (OV) – it was responsible for all of the rocket propulsion elements: the OV's three main engines, the External Tank (ET), and the Solid-Rocket Boosters (SRBs). MSFC was also responsible for Spacelab, the research facility carried in the Shuttle's cargo bay on certain flights. From the start of the program in 1972, the management and development of Space Shuttle propulsion was a major activity at MSFC. Alex A. McCool, Jr. was manager of MSFC's Space Shuttle Projects Office.

text: The

text: Space Shuttle

text: is likely the most complex spacecraft ever built. Although MSFC was not responsible for developing the centerpiece – the

text: Orbiter Vehicle

text: (OV) – it was responsible for all of the rocket propulsion elements: the OV's three main engines, the

text: External Tank

text: (ET), and the

text: Solid-Rocket Boosters

text: (SRBs). MSFC was also responsible for

text: Spacelab

text: , the research facility carried in the Shuttle's cargo bay on certain flights. From the start of the program in 1972, the management and development of Space Shuttle propulsion was a major activity at MSFC.

text: Alex A. McCool, Jr.

text: was manager of MSFC's Space Shuttle Projects Office.

text: Throttling of a rocket engine means varying the thrust level in-flight. This is not always a requirement; in fact, the thrust of a solid-fuel rocket is not controllable after ignition. However, liquid-propellant rockets can be throttled by means of valves which regulate the flow of fuel and oxidizer to the combustion chamber. Hybrid rocket engines, such as the one used in Space Ship One, use solid fuel with a liquid oxidizer, and therefore can be throttled. Throttling tends to be required more for powered landings, and launch into space using a single main stage (such as the Space Shuttle), than for launch with multistage rockets. They are also useful in situations where the airspeed of the vehicle must be limited due to aerodynamic stress in the denser atmosphere at lower levels (i.e. the Space Shuttle)

text: Throttling of a

text: rocket engine

text: means varying the

text: thrust

text: level in-flight. This is not always a requirement; in fact, the thrust of a

text: solid-fuel rocket

text: is not controllable after ignition. However,

text: liquid-propellant rocket

text: s can be throttled by means of valves which regulate the flow of fuel and oxidizer to the combustion chamber.

text: Hybrid rocket

text: engines, such as the one used in

text: Space Ship One

text: , use solid fuel with a liquid oxidizer, and therefore can be throttled. Throttling tends to be required more for powered landings, and launch into space using a single main stage (such as the

text: Space Shuttle

text: ), than for launch with

text: multistage rocket

text: s. They are also useful in situations where the airspeed of the vehicle must be limited due to aerodynamic stress in the denser atmosphere at lower levels (i.e. the Space Shuttle)

text: The , or JAXA, is Japan's national aero-space agency. Through the merger of three previously independent organizations, JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003. JAXA is responsible for research, technology development and the launch of satellites into orbit, and is involved in many more advanced missions, such as asteroid exploration and possible manned  exploration of the Moon. Its motto is One JAXA and its corporate slogan is Explore to Realize (formerly Reaching for the skies, exploring space).

text: The , or JAXA, is Japan's national aero-

text: space agency

text: . Through the merger of three previously independent organizations, JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003. JAXA is responsible for research, technology development and the launch of

text: satellite

text: s into

text: orbit

text: , and is involved in many more advanced missions, such as

text: asteroid

text: exploration and possible manned

text: exploration of the Moon

text: . Its motto is One JAXA and its corporate slogan is Explore to Realize (formerly Reaching for the skies, exploring space).

text: Space telescopes. Since the beginning of space exploration, telescopes have been sent to space, where they work at wavelengths shorter than UV, which are completely absorbed by the atmosphere, and where flares may be very bright. Since the 1970s, the GOES series of satellites observe the Sun in soft X-rays, and their observations became the standard measure of flares, diminishing the importance of the Hα classification. Hard X-rays were observed by many different instruments, the most important today being the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI). Nonetheless, UV observations are today the stars of solar imaging with their incredible fine details that reveal the complexity of the solar corona. Spacecraft may also bring radio detectors at extremely long wavelengths (as long as a few kilometers) that cannot propagate through the ionosphere.

text: Space telescopes. Since the beginning of

text: space exploration

text: , telescopes have been sent to space, where they work at wavelengths shorter than UV, which are completely absorbed by the atmosphere, and where flares may be very bright. Since the 1970s, the

text: GOES

text: series of satellites observe the Sun in soft X-rays, and their observations became the standard measure of flares, diminishing the importance of the

text: Hα

text: classification. Hard X-rays were observed by many different instruments, the most important today being the Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (

entity_name: Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager

text: RHESSI

text: ). Nonetheless, UV observations are today the stars of solar imaging with their incredible fine details that reveal the complexity of the

text: solar corona

text: . Spacecraft may also bring radio detectors at extremely long wavelengths (as long as a few kilometers) that cannot propagate through the

text: ionosphere

text: Sputnik was first isolated from a sample obtained from humans; it was harvested from the contact lens fluid of an individual with keratitis. Naturally however, the Sputnik virophage has been found to multiply inside species of the opportunistically pathogenic protozoan Acanthamoeba , but only if that amoeba is infected with the large mamavirus. Sputnik harnesses the mamavirus proteins to rapidly produce new copies of itself.

text: Sputnik was first isolated from a sample obtained from humans; it was harvested from the contact lens fluid of an individual with

text: keratitis

text: . Naturally however, the Sputnik virophage has been found to multiply inside species of the opportunistically pathogenic protozoan

text: Acanthamoeba

text: , but only if that amoeba is infected with the large

text: mamavirus

text: . Sputnik harnesses the mamavirus proteins to rapidly produce new copies of itself.

text: Tromsø Satellite Station (, TSS), until 1988 known as Tromsø Telemetry Station (), is a satellite earth station located in Tromsø, Norway. The facility is owned by Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT), a joint venture between the Kongsberg Group and the Norwegian Space Centre (NSC). In addition to hosting its own antennas serving thirty satellites, TSS acts as the center-point of KSAT's operations and provides backbone services for the high Arctic Svalbard Satellite Station (SvalSat) and the Antarctic Troll Satellite Station (TrollSat).

text: Tromsø Satellite Station (, TSS), until 1988 known as Tromsø Telemetry Station (), is a

text: satellite earth station

text: located in

text: Tromsø

text: Norway

text: . The facility is owned by

text: Kongsberg Satellite Services

text: (KSAT), a joint venture between the

text: Kongsberg Group

text: and the

text: Norwegian Space Centre

text: (NSC). In addition to hosting its own antennas serving thirty satellites, TSS acts as the center-point of KSAT's operations and provides backbone services for the high Arctic

text: Svalbard Satellite Station

text: (SvalSat) and the Antarctic

text: Troll Satellite Station

text: (TrollSat).

text: The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1–2.6 AU once every 3 years and 8 months (1,335 days). Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.10 and is tilted by 3 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. It has a rotation period of 13.7 hours and an albedo between 0.04 and 0.08, according to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, IRAS, and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer.

text: The

text: C-type

text: asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.1–2.6

text: AU

text: once every 3 years and 8 months (1,335 days). Its orbit shows an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.10 and is

text: tilted

text: by 3 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: . It has a

text: rotation period

text: of 13.7 hours and an

text: albedo

text: between 0.04 and 0.08, according to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite,

text: IRAS

text: , and the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: The Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science (ARES) office performs the physical science research at the center. ARES directs and manages all functions and activities of the ARES scientists that perform basic research in earth, planetary, and space sciences. ARES scientists and engineers provide support to the human and robotic spaceflight programs. The responsibilities of ARES also include interaction with the Office of Safety and Mission Assurance and the Human Space Flight Programs.

text: The

entity_name: Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science Directorate

text: Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science (ARES) office

text: performs the

text: physical science

text: research at the center. ARES directs and manages all functions and activities of the ARES scientists that perform

text: basic research

text: in

text: earth

text: planetary

text: , and

text: space sciences

text: . ARES scientists and engineers provide support to the

text: human

text: and

text: robotic spaceflight

text: programs. The responsibilities of ARES also include interaction with the

text: Office of Safety and Mission Assurance

text: and the

entity_section: Current and former NASA human space flight programs

text: Human Space Flight Programs

text: When starting the game, you find yourself on a strange planet where you can equip yourself with a weapon, refuel your energy, and blast off into space in a spaceship. From here you must pilot through space while avoiding comets and conserving energy until you come across a planet to explore. After skillfully landing on a planet you've discovered, you must fend off hostile aliens, solve puzzles, and recover various artifacts. Energy is consumed by your spaceship, your weapon, and upon dying. Your ultimate goal is to return to your home planet by exploring the universe and solving the various puzzles you're presented with.

text: Clashes between communism and capitalism dominated the decade, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. The conflicts included the Korean War in the beginnings of the decade and the beginning of the Space Race with the launch of Sputnik 1. Along with increased testing of nuclear weapons (such as RDS-37 and Upshot–Knothole), this created a politically conservative climate. In the United States, the Second Red Scare caused Congressional hearings by both houses in Congress and anti-communism was the prevailing sentiment in the United States throughout the decade. The beginning of decolonization in Africa and Asia took place in this decade and accelerated in the following decade.

text: Clashes between

text: communism

text: and

text: capitalism

text: dominated the decade, especially in the Northern Hemisphere. The conflicts included the

text: Korean War

text: in the beginnings of the decade and the beginning of the

text: Space Race

text: with the launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: . Along with increased testing of nuclear weapons (such as

text: and

text: Upshot–Knothole

text: ), this created a politically conservative climate. In the United States, the

text: Second Red Scare

text: caused Congressional hearings by both houses in

text: Congress

text: and

text: anti-communism

text: was the prevailing sentiment in the United States throughout the decade. The beginning of

text: decolonization

text: in Africa and Asia took place in this decade and accelerated in the following decade.

text: An anomaly occurred during the second burn of the Briz-M upper stage. As a result, the satellite failed to reach the planned orbit. The Russian commission investigating the anomaly determined the cause to be a rupture of the gas duct between the gas generator and the propellant pump turbine in the Briz M main engine, which caused the upper stage engine to shut down two minutes early.  AMC-14 was the 36th A2100 spacecraft and was expected to provide more than 15 years of service life. SES and Lockheed Martin explored ways to attempt to bring the functioning satellite into its correct orbital position, and subsequently began attempting to move the satellite into geosynchronous orbit by means of a lunar flyby (as done a decade earlier with HGS-1). In April 2008, it was announced that this had been abandoned after it was discovered that Boeing held a patent on the trajectory that would be required.  At the time, a lawsuit was ongoing between SES and Boeing, and Boeing refused to allow the trajectory to be used unless SES dropped its case. Another company had expressed interest in purchasing the satellite, however SES began procedures to expedite the satellite's immediate de-orbit. While it is expected that the patent would not stand up to legal challenge, SES intend to de-orbit the spacecraft in order to collect the insurance payout. If this attempt had been successful, the extra use of fuel needed to correct the orbital error would have significantly reduced AMC-14's originally expected service life of 15 years to just four.

text: An anomaly occurred during the second burn of the Briz-M

text: upper stage

text: . As a result, the satellite failed to reach the planned orbit. The Russian commission investigating the anomaly determined the cause to be a rupture of the gas duct between the gas generator and the propellant pump turbine in the Briz M main engine, which caused the upper stage engine to shut down two minutes early.  AMC-14 was the 36th A2100 spacecraft and was expected to provide more than 15 years of service life. SES and

text: Lockheed Martin

text: explored ways to attempt to bring the functioning satellite into its correct orbital position, and subsequently began attempting to move the satellite into geosynchronous orbit by means of a lunar flyby (as done a decade earlier with

text: ). In April 2008, it was announced that this had been abandoned after it was discovered that

text: Boeing

text: held a patent on the trajectory that would be required.  At the time, a lawsuit was ongoing between SES and Boeing, and Boeing refused to allow the trajectory to be used unless SES dropped its case. Another company had expressed interest in purchasing the satellite, however SES began procedures to expedite the satellite's immediate de-orbit. While it is expected that the patent would not stand up to legal challenge, SES intend to de-orbit the spacecraft in order to collect the insurance payout. If this attempt had been successful, the extra use of fuel needed to correct the orbital error would have significantly reduced AMC-14's originally expected service life of 15 years to just four.

text: One important libration point is Earth-Sun , and three heliophysics missions have been orbiting L1 since approximately 2000.  Station-keeping propellant use can be quite low, facilitating missions that can potentially last decades should other spacecraft systems remain operational.  The three spacecraft—Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE), Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), and the Global Geoscience WIND satellite—each have annual station-keeping propellant requirements of approximately 1 m/s or less.Earth-Sun —approximately 1.5 million kilometers from Earth in the anti-sun direction—is another important Lagrangian point, and the ESA Herschel space observatory operated there in a Lissajous orbit during 2009–2013, at which time it ran out of coolant for the space telescope.  Small station-keeping orbital maneuvers were executed approximately monthly to maintain the spacecraft in the station-keeping orbit.

text: One important libration point is Earth-Sun , and three

text: heliophysics

text: missions have been orbiting L1 since approximately 2000.  Station-keeping propellant use can be quite low, facilitating missions that can potentially last decades should other spacecraft systems remain operational.  The three spacecraft—

text: Advanced Composition Explorer

text: (ACE),

text: Solar Heliospheric Observatory

text: (SOHO), and the

text: Global Geoscience WIND

text: satellite—each have annual

text: station-keeping propellant requirements

text: of approximately 1 m/s or less.Earth-Sun —approximately 1.5 million kilometers from Earth in the anti-sun direction—is another important Lagrangian point, and the

text: ESA

text: Herschel

text: space observatory

text: operated there in a Lissajous orbit during 2009–2013, at which time it ran out of coolant for the

text: space telescope

text: .  Small station-keeping orbital maneuvers were executed approximately monthly to maintain the spacecraft in the station-keeping orbit.

text: Research in deep space is ongoing and rapidly developing. In 2011, after the retirement of the space shuttle, NASA announced its intentions to invest money into developing three technologies vital to deep space exploration. The "must-have technologies" include a deep space atomic clock, a large solar sail and a more advanced laser communications system to improve communication, navigation, and propulsion in future missions. In June 2013, NASA announced the selection of eight American astronauts that will begin to train for future deep space missions beyond low Earth orbit. NASA intends that these eight astronauts to train for future Mars or asteroid travel.

text: Research in deep space is ongoing and rapidly developing. In 2011, after the retirement of the

text: space shuttle

text: , NASA announced its intentions to invest money into developing three technologies vital to deep space exploration. The "must-have technologies" include a deep space atomic clock, a large solar sail and a more advanced laser communications system to improve communication, navigation, and propulsion in future missions. In June 2013, NASA announced the selection of eight American astronauts that will begin to train for future deep space missions beyond low Earth orbit. NASA intends that these eight astronauts to train for future Mars or asteroid travel.

text: In the 27th century, centuries of peace have allowed great scientific progress in the development of the first interstellar warp drive. Two research ships, designated Explorer-1 and Explorer-2, are outfitted with the experimental drives and sent to find new planets of colonization. Only Explorer-2 returns to Earth out of the two Explorers. Refitted as a colony vessel, the Explorer-2 is once again ready to embark when, suddenly, peace is disrupted and the humans were ripped apart from each other. At this same time, a planet-wide rebellion stages a great coup and overthrows the Earthen government, throwing the world into chaos and severing the union. The Explorer-2, crewed by a loyalist space crew, barely escapes the rebellion and leaves the Solar System. Years later after the rebellion, the Explorer-2 arrives damaged at its destination and a colony is set up, naming it "New Earth". After many generations of being separated from Earth, the colony is self-sufficient enough to develop a mission only the best can tread: Explore nearby space, research new technologies, harvest resources, develop a space fleet and eventually... reconquer and reunify Earth, leading to the greatest reunion the universe has ever set its eyes on.

text: In the 27th century, centuries of peace have allowed great scientific progress in the development of the first interstellar warp drive. Two research ships, designated Explorer-1 and Explorer-2, are outfitted with the experimental drives and sent to find new planets of colonization. Only Explorer-2 returns to

text: Earth

text: out of the two Explorers. Refitted as a colony vessel, the Explorer-2 is once again ready to embark when, suddenly, peace is disrupted and the humans were ripped apart from each other. At this same time, a planet-wide rebellion stages a great coup and overthrows the Earthen government, throwing the world into chaos and severing the union. The Explorer-2, crewed by a loyalist space crew, barely escapes the rebellion and leaves the Solar System. Years later after the rebellion, the Explorer-2 arrives damaged at its destination and a colony is set up, naming it "New Earth". After many generations of being separated from Earth, the colony is self-sufficient enough to develop a mission only the best can tread: Explore nearby space, research new technologies, harvest resources, develop a space fleet and eventually... reconquer and reunify Earth, leading to the greatest reunion the universe has ever set its eyes on.

text: The Cospas-Sarsat system was made possible by Doppler processing.  Local unit terminals (LUTs) detecting non-geostationary satellites interpret the Doppler frequency shift heard by LEOSAR and MEOSAR satellites as they pass over a beacon transmitting at a fixed frequency.  The interpretation determines both bearing and range.  The range and bearing are measured from the rate of change of the heard frequency, which varies both according to the path of the satellite in space and the rotation of the earth. This triangulates the position of the beacon. A faster change in the doppler indicates that the beacon is closer to the satellite's orbit.  If the beacon is moving toward or away from the satellite track due to the Earth's rotation, it is on one side or other of the satellite's path. Doppler shift is zero at the closest point of approach between the beacon and the orbit.

text: Doppler

text: processing.  Local unit terminals (LUTs) detecting non-geostationary satellites interpret the

text: Doppler

text: frequency shift heard by LEOSAR and MEOSAR satellites as they pass over a beacon transmitting at a fixed frequency.  The interpretation determines both bearing and range.  The range and bearing are measured from the rate of change of the heard frequency, which varies both according to the path of the satellite in space and the rotation of the earth. This

text: triangulate

text: s the position of the beacon. A faster change in the doppler indicates that the beacon is closer to the satellite's

text: orbit

text: .  If the beacon is moving toward or away from the satellite track due to the Earth's rotation, it is on one side or other of the satellite's path. Doppler shift is zero at the

text: closest point of approach

text: between the beacon and the orbit.

text: Near space was first explored in the 1930s. The early flights flew to the edge of space without computers, spacesuits, and with only crude life support systems. Notable people who flew in near space were Jean Piccard and his wife Jeannette, on the nearcraft The Century of Progress. Later exploration was mainly carried out by unmanned nearcraft, although there have been skydiving attempts made from high-altitude balloons.

text: Near space was first explored in the 1930s. The early flights flew to the edge of space without computers, spacesuits, and with only crude life support systems. Notable people who flew in near space were

text: Jean Piccard

text: and his wife Jeannette, on the nearcraft

text: The Century of Progress

text: . Later exploration was mainly carried out by unmanned nearcraft, although there have been skydiving attempts made from high-altitude balloons.

text: In May 2009, DTN was deployed to a payload on board the ISS.  NASA and BioServe Space Technologies, a research group at the University of Colorado, have been continuously testing DTN on two Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA) payloads. CGBA-4 and CGBA-5 serve as computational and communications platforms which are remotely controlled from BioServe's Payload Operations Control Center (POCC) in Boulder, CO. In October 2012 ISS Station commander Sunita Williams remotely operated Mocup (Meteron Operations and Communications Prototype), a "cat-sized" Lego Mindstorms robot fitted with a BeagleBoard computer and webcam, located in the European Space Operations Centre in Germany in an experiment using DTN. These initial experiments provide insight into future missions where DTN will enable the extension of networks into deep space to explore other planets and solar system points of interest. Seen as necessary for space exploration, DTN enables timeliness of data return from operating assets which results in reduced risk and cost, increased crew safety, and improved operational awareness and science return for NASA and additional space agencies.

text: In May 2009, DTN was deployed to a payload on board the

text: ISS

text: .  NASA and BioServe Space Technologies, a research group at the University of Colorado, have been continuously testing DTN on two Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (CGBA) payloads. CGBA-4 and CGBA-5 serve as computational and communications platforms which are remotely controlled from BioServe's Payload Operations Control Center (POCC) in Boulder, CO. In October 2012 ISS Station commander

text: Sunita Williams

text: remotely operated Mocup (Meteron Operations and Communications Prototype), a "cat-sized"

text: Lego Mindstorms

text: robot fitted with a

text: BeagleBoard

text: computer and webcam, located in the

text: European Space Operations Centre

text: in Germany in an experiment using DTN. These initial experiments provide insight into future missions where DTN will enable the extension of networks into deep space to explore other planets and solar system points of interest. Seen as necessary for space exploration, DTN enables timeliness of data return from operating assets which results in reduced risk and cost, increased crew safety, and improved operational awareness and science return for NASA and additional space agencies.

text: After the first Sputnik proved to be a successful propaganda coup, Korolev—now known publicly only as the anonymous "Chief Designer of Rocket-Space Systems"—was charged to accelerate the manned program, the design of which was combined with the Zenit program to produce the Vostok spacecraft. Still influenced by Tsiolkovsky—who had chosen Mars as the most important goal for space travel—in the early 1960s the Russian program under Korolev created substantial plans for manned trips to Mars as early as 1968 to 1970. With closed-loop life support systems and electrical rocket engines, and launched from large orbiting space stations, these plans were much more ambitious than America's goal of landing on the moon.

text: After the first Sputnik proved to be a

text: successful propaganda coup

text: , Korolev—now known publicly only as the anonymous "Chief Designer of Rocket-Space Systems"—was charged to accelerate the manned program, the design of which was combined with the Zenit program to produce the

text: Vostok spacecraft

text: . Still influenced by Tsiolkovsky—who had chosen Mars as the most important goal for space travel—in the early 1960s the Russian program under Korolev created substantial plans for manned trips to Mars as early as 1968 to 1970. With

entity_name: Controlled ecological life support system

text: closed-loop life support systems

text: and electrical rocket engines, and launched from large orbiting space stations, these plans were much more ambitious than America's goal of

text: landing on the moon

text: In 1959 Shklovsky examined the orbital motion of Mars's inner satellite Phobos. He concluded that its orbit was decaying, and noted that if this decay was attributed to friction with the Martian atmosphere, then the satellite must have an exceptionally low density. In this context he voiced a suggestion that Phobos might be hollow, and possibly of artificial origin. This interpretation has since been refuted by more detailed study, but the apparent suggestion of extraterrestrial involvement caught the public imagination, though there is some disagreement as to how seriously Shklovsky intended the idea to be taken. However, Shklovsky and Carl Sagan argued for serious consideration of "paleocontact" with extraterrestrials in the early historical era, and for examination of myths and religious lore for evidence of such contact.

text: In 1959 Shklovsky examined the orbital motion of

text: Mars

text: 's inner satellite

text: Phobos

text: . He concluded that its

text: orbit was decaying

text: , and noted that if this decay was attributed to friction with the Martian atmosphere, then the satellite must have an exceptionally low density. In this context he voiced a suggestion that Phobos might be hollow, and possibly of artificial origin. This interpretation has since been refuted by more detailed study, but the apparent suggestion of

text: extraterrestrial

text: involvement caught the public imagination, though there is some disagreement as to how seriously Shklovsky intended the idea to be taken. However, Shklovsky and

text: Carl Sagan

text: argued for serious consideration of "

text: paleocontact

text: " with extraterrestrials in the early historical era, and for examination of myths and religious lore for evidence of such contact.

text: The story opens with the delivery to a crowd gathered in Rotterdam of a manuscript detailing the journey of a man named Hans Pfaall. The manuscript, which comprises the majority of the story, sets out in detail how Pfaall contrived to reach the moon by benefit of a revolutionary new balloon and a device which compresses the vacuum of space into breathable air. The journey takes him nineteen days, and the narrative includes descriptions of the Earth from space as well as the descent to its fiery, volcanic satellite. Pfaall withholds most of the information regarding the surface of the moon and its inhabitants in order to negotiate a pardon from the Burgomaster for several murders he committed as he left earth (creditors of his who were becoming irksome). After reading the manuscript, the city authorities agree that Pfaall should be pardoned, but the messenger who brought them the text (apparently a resident of the moon) has vanished and they are unable to restore communication with him.

text: The story opens with the delivery to a crowd gathered in

text: Rotterdam

text: of a manuscript detailing the journey of a man named Hans Pfaall. The manuscript, which comprises the majority of the story, sets out in detail how Pfaall contrived to reach the moon by benefit of a revolutionary new balloon and a device which compresses the vacuum of space into breathable air. The journey takes him nineteen days, and the narrative includes descriptions of the Earth from space as well as the descent to its fiery, volcanic satellite. Pfaall withholds most of the information regarding the surface of the moon and its inhabitants in order to negotiate a pardon from the Burgomaster for several murders he committed as he left earth (creditors of his who were becoming irksome). After reading the manuscript, the city authorities agree that Pfaall should be pardoned, but the messenger who brought them the text (apparently a resident of the moon) has vanished and they are unable to restore communication with him.

text: On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. The Eisenhower administration determined to adopt a non-aggressive policy that would allow "space-crafts of any state to overfly all states, a region free of military posturing and launch Earth satellites to explore space. His Open Skies Policy attempted to legitimize illegal Lockheed U-2 flyovers and Project Genetrix while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory, however Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev declined Eisenhower's proposal at the Geneva conference in July 1955. In response to Sputnik being launched in October 1957, Eisenhower created NASA as a civilian space agency in October 1958, signed a landmark science education law, and improved relations with American scientists.

text: On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of

text: Sputnik

text: in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. The Eisenhower administration determined to adopt a non-aggressive policy that would allow "space-crafts of any state to overfly all states, a region free of military posturing and launch Earth satellites to explore space. His

text: Open Skies

text: Policy attempted to legitimize illegal

text: Lockheed U-2

text: flyovers and

text: Project Genetrix

text: while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory, however

text: Nikolai Bulganin

text: and

text: Nikita Khrushchev

text: declined Eisenhower's proposal at the Geneva conference in July 1955. In response to Sputnik being launched in October 1957, Eisenhower created

text: NASA

text: as a civilian space agency in October 1958, signed a landmark science education law, and improved relations with American scientists.

text: The new replacement shots consist of the RX-M flying through space; it landing tail first on the Red Planet; a different shot of the crew heading away from the RX-M to explore the stark Martian surface; the surviving explorers quickly returning to their nearby spaceship; and the RX-M later blasting off from Mars into space. These six replacement shots were filmed near Los Angeles in color, then converted to black-and-white and re-tinted where necessary to match the original film footage. (Unlike the DVD release, the earlier laser disc of Rocketship X-M contains extra bonus material documenting the making of the film and the creation of this new footage.) The film's production and the making of these new scenes were also presented in RX-M feature articles in both Starlog magazine and later expanded in the first issue (1979) of Starlogs spin-off magazine CineMagic. Prints of the original theatrical release version of RX-M are still stored in Williams' Kansas City film vaults. They have not been converted to a home video format.

text: The new replacement shots consist of the RX-M flying through space; it landing tail first on the Red Planet; a different shot of the crew heading away from the RX-M to explore the stark Martian surface; the surviving explorers quickly returning to their nearby spaceship; and the RX-M later blasting off from Mars into space. These six replacement shots were filmed near

text: Los Angeles

text: in color, then converted to black-and-white and re-tinted where necessary to match the original film footage. (Unlike the DVD release, the earlier laser disc of Rocketship X-M contains extra bonus material documenting the making of the film and the creation of this new footage.) The film's production and the making of these new scenes were also presented in RX-M feature articles in both

text: Starlog

text: magazine and later expanded in the first issue (1979) of Starlogs spin-off magazine CineMagic. Prints of the original theatrical release version of RX-M are still stored in Williams' Kansas City film vaults. They have not been converted to a home video format.

text: In February 2004, the PRC formally started the implementation phase of its uncrewed Moon exploration project. According to Sun Laiyan, administrator of the China National Space Administration, the project will involve three phases: orbiting the Moon; landing; and returning samples. The first phase planned to spend 1.4 billion renminbi (approx. US$170 million) to orbit a satellite around the Moon before 2007, which is ongoing. Phase two involves sending a lander before 2010. Phase three involves collecting lunar soil samples before 2020.

text: In February 2004, the PRC formally started the implementation phase of its uncrewed

text: Moon

text: exploration project. According to

text: Sun Laiyan

text: , administrator of the

text: China National Space Administration

text: , the project will involve three phases: orbiting the Moon; landing; and returning samples. The first phase planned to spend 1.4 billion

text: renminbi

text: (approx. US$170 million) to orbit a satellite around the Moon before 2007, which is ongoing. Phase two involves sending a lander before 2010. Phase three involves collecting lunar soil samples before 2020.

text: For the next two and a half centuries, because of the satellite's small size and distance, Io remained a featureless, 5th-magnitude point of light in astronomers' telescopes. So, the determination of its orbital period, along with those of the other Galilean satellites, was an early focus for astronomers. By June 1611, Galileo himself had determined that Io's orbital period was 42.5 hours long, only 2.5 minutes longer than the modern estimate. Simon Marius' estimate was only one minute longer in the data published in Mundus Iovalis. The orbital periods generated for Io and the other Jovian satellites provided an additional validation for Kepler's Third Law of planetary motion.

text: For the next two and a half centuries, because of the satellite's small size and distance, Io remained a featureless,

text: point of light in astronomers' telescopes. So, the determination of its

text: orbital period

text: , along with those of the other Galilean satellites, was an early focus for astronomers. By June 1611, Galileo himself had determined that Io's orbital period was 42.5 hours long, only 2.5 minutes longer than the modern estimate. Simon Marius' estimate was only one minute longer in the data published in Mundus Iovalis. The orbital periods generated for Io and the other Jovian satellites provided an additional validation for Kepler's

text: Third Law of planetary motion

text: In 1914, in a specialized magazine, Costanzi published an article on navigation in space suggesting nuclear propulsion to propel spaceships. It is the first scientific contribution by an Italian to space flight, anticipating many problems related to exploration of outer space. “After the conquest of the air through aircraft, it is high time to abandon Earth and found new colonies in space” he writes, and then expounds the problem of powering spaceships in the void, without any support from the atmosphere, as in the case of airplanes. He advocates space travel on the basis of action-reaction dynamics, plans a flight Earth-Moon and to overcome the force of gravity  he postulates the need for a new source of power. He identifies this source with radio and its yet unknown characteristics.  In his article, Costanzi describes what would be the dangers and sensations experienced by an astronaut, such as suffering extreme heat,  poisonous radiations, G-acceleration and weightlessness, the latter resulting in a feeling of falling. He concludes affirming hopefully that ‘the obstacles to this last dream are not beyond human reasoning, for the time being we are bound only by the lack of appropriate technology”.

text: Between 1987 and 2010, von Tiesenhausen frequently volunteered at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama, lecturing to students in Space Camp programs about the future of space exploration and other topics.

text: Between 1987 and 2010, von Tiesenhausen frequently volunteered at the

text: U.S. Space & Rocket Center

text: in

text: Huntsville, Alabama

text: , lecturing to students in

text: Space Camp

text: programs about the future of space exploration and other topics.

text: Due to International Space Station involvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the manned space program . Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit.

text: Due to

text: International Space Station

text: involvements, up to 50% of Russia's space budget is spent on the manned space program . Some observers have pointed out that this has a detrimental effect on other aspects of space exploration, and that the other space powers spend much lesser proportions of their overall budgets on maintaining human presence in orbit.

text: The talks were many: Neil Armstrong talked about Starmus and our future on Earth; Buzz Aldrin spoke about possible future missions to Mars; Alexei Leonov described the early days of the Soviet space program and his historic first spacewalk; Brian May asked about future human exploration in space and whether humans should first clean up their act here on Earth.Further exploring themes of space exploration, Cosmonaut Viktor Gorbatko recalled early Soviet missions; Apollo 8 astronaut Bill Anders related details of the early American space program; Apollo 13 astronaut Jim Lovell described the harrowing mission he endured returning that crippled spacecraft to Earth; and Apollo 16 astronaut Charlie Duke described his adventures in the Apollo program.

text: The talks were many: Neil Armstrong talked about Starmus and our future on Earth; Buzz Aldrin spoke about possible future missions to Mars; Alexei Leonov described the early days of the Soviet space program and his historic first spacewalk; Brian May asked about future human exploration in space and whether humans should first clean up their act here on Earth.Further exploring themes of space exploration, Cosmonaut

text: Viktor Gorbatko

text: recalled early Soviet missions;

text: Apollo 8

text: astronaut

text: Bill Anders

text: related details of the early American space program;

text: Apollo 13

text: astronaut Jim Lovell described the harrowing mission he endured returning that crippled spacecraft to Earth; and

text: Apollo 16

text: astronaut

text: Charlie Duke

text: described his adventures in the Apollo program.

text: The history of Soviet space exploration has been well documented on the country's stamps. These include not only the notable accomplishments in space flight, including mankind's first  satellite, Sputnik 1, first animal in space (the dog Laika on Sputnik 2), first human in space and Earth orbit (cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1), the first woman in space (Valentina Tereshkova on Vostok 6), first Moon impact (1959) and unmanned landing, first space station, and first interplanetary probe but also more general astronomical observation.

text: The

text: history of Soviet space exploration

text: has been well documented on

entity_name: Postage stamps and postal history of Russia

text: the country's stamps

text: . These include not only the notable accomplishments in

text: space flight

text: , including mankind's first

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: , first animal in space (the dog

text: Laika

text: on

text: Sputnik 2

text: cosmonaut

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: on

text: Vostok 1

text: ), the first woman in space (

text: Valentina Tereshkova

text: on

text: Vostok 6

text: ), first Moon impact (1959) and unmanned landing, first

text: space station

text: , and first

text: interplanetary probe

text: but also more general

text: astronomical observation

text: Each turn a player must move one explorer ship if possible. Any face-down tiles that the explorer ship lands on are explored and turned face-up. Many tiles cause the explorer ships to continue to mave, and some tiles cause explorers to jump more than one space away, in which case intervening tiles are not revealed. An explorer ship may never move off the edge of the board.  Explorer ships are used to seek out Glynium deposits, on aptly named, Glynium planets. The number of Glynium deposits on a given planet varies from two to four and is represented by colored discs.  Glynium discs score points based on their color, yellow scores one, blue scores two, and red scores three. An explorer ship may only tow a single Glynium disc at a time. If a planet contains multiple Glynium discs, multiple Explorer ships are required to fully mine the planet. The game background states that due to the unstable nature of Glynium, explorer ships with Glynium in tow may only move onto previously explored tiles. A Glynium deposit is not secured until the explorer ship returns to the mother ship. If an Explorer ship is destroyed or returned to the mother ship from combat, the Glynium deposit remains adrift in that space, and may be picked up by any explorer ship. Folding space is a common tactic to isolate opponents explorer ships towing Glynium deposits.

text: More than 1,000 unmanned missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the solar system. Besides exploration, communication satellites have also been launched by NASA. The missions have been launched directly from Earth or from orbiting space shuttles, which could either deploy the satellite itself, or with a rocket stage to take it farther.

text: Both kinetic energy and directed energy weapons are often portrayed, along with various military space vessels. The Lensman series by E. E. Smith is an early example, which also inspired the term Space Opera due to the grandiose scales of the stories. The Ender's Game series by Orson Scott Card is a notable example in that it makes conjecture as to what sort of tactics and training would be required for war in outer space.  Other science fiction authors have also delved into the tactics of space combat, such as David Weber in his Honorverse series as well as Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle in their Mote in God's Eye series. A more recent example would be Alastair Reynolds' Revelation Space universe, which explores combat at relativistic speeds. Robert A. Heinlein's Starship Troopers is perhaps one of the best-known and earliest explorations of the "space marine" idea.

text: Both

text: kinetic energy

text: and

text: directed energy weapons

text: are often portrayed, along with various military space vessels. The

text: Lensman

text: series by

text: E. E. Smith

text: is an early example, which also inspired the term

text: Space Opera

text: due to the grandiose scales of the stories. The

text: Ender's Game

text: series by

text: Orson Scott Card

text: is a notable example in that it makes conjecture as to what sort of tactics and training would be required for war in outer space.  Other science fiction authors have also delved into the tactics of space combat, such as

text: David Weber

text: in his

text: Honorverse

text: series as well as

text: Larry Niven

text: and

text: Jerry Pournelle

text: in their

text: Mote in God's Eye

text: series. A more recent example would be

text: Alastair Reynolds

text: Revelation Space universe

text: , which explores combat at

text: relativistic speeds

text: Robert A. Heinlein

text: 's

text: Starship Troopers

text: is perhaps one of the best-known and earliest explorations of the "

text: space marine

text: " idea.

text: The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet Space Race of the 1960s.  The National Aeronautics and Space Act creating NASA was passed in 1958, after the launch of the Soviet Sputnik 1 satellite. Thereafter, in response to the flight of Yuri Gagarin as the first man in space, Kennedy in 1961 committed the United States to landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade.  Although the costs of the Vietnam War and the programs of the Great Society forced cuts to NASA's budget as early as 1965, the first Moon landing occurred in 1969, early in Richard Nixon's presidency.  Under the Nixon administration NASA's budget continued to decline and three of the planned Apollo Moon landings were cancelled.  The Nixon administration approved the beginning of the Space Shuttle program in 1972, but did not support funding of other projects such as a Mars landing, colonization of the Moon, or a permanent space station.

text: The early history of United States space policy is linked to the US–Soviet

text: Space Race

text: of the 1960s.  The

text: National Aeronautics and Space Act

text: creating NASA was passed in 1958, after the launch of the Soviet

text: Sputnik 1

text: satellite. Thereafter, in response to the flight of

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: as the first man in space, Kennedy in 1961 committed the United States to

text: landing a man on the Moon

text: by the end of the decade.  Although the costs of the

text: Vietnam War

text: and the programs of the

text: Great Society

text: forced cuts to NASA's budget as early as 1965,

text: the first Moon landing

text: occurred in 1969, early in

text: Richard Nixon's presidency

text: .  Under the Nixon administration NASA's budget continued to decline and three of the planned Apollo Moon landings

text: were cancelled

text: .  The Nixon administration approved the beginning of the

text: Space Shuttle program

text: in 1972, but did not support funding of other projects such as a

text: Mars landing

text: colonization of the Moon

text: , or a permanent

text: space station

text: The asteroid is a member of the Flora family, a large group of S-type asteroids in the inner main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.7–2.7 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,214 days). Its orbit shows a notable eccentricity of 0.22 and is tilted by 4 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. It has a refined rotation period of 6.0 hours and an albedo of about 0.26, based on observations by the space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer mission.

text: The asteroid is a member of the

text: Flora family

text: , a large group of

text: S-type

text: asteroids in the inner main-belt. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.7–2.7

text: AU

text: once every 3 years and 4 months (1,214 days). Its orbit shows a notable

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.22 and is

text: tilted

text: by 4 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: . It has a refined

text: rotation period

text: of 6.0 hours and an

text: albedo

text: of about 0.26, based on observations by the space-based

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: mission.

text: A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite in geosynchronous orbit, with an orbital period the same as the Earth's rotation period. Such a satellite returns to the same position in the sky after each sidereal day, and over the course of a day traces out a path in the sky that is typically some form of analemma. A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the geostationary satellite, which has a geostationary orbit – a circular geosynchronous orbit directly above the Earth's equator. Another type of geosynchronous orbit used by satellites is the Tundra elliptical orbit.

text: A geosynchronous satellite is a

text: satellite

text: in

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: , with an orbital period the same as the Earth's rotation period. Such a satellite returns to the same position in the sky after each

text: sidereal day

text: , and over the course of a day traces out a path in the sky that is typically some form of

text: analemma

text: . A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the geostationary satellite, which has a

text: geostationary orbit

text: – a circular geosynchronous orbit directly above the Earth's equator. Another type of geosynchronous orbit used by satellites is the

text: Tundra elliptical orbit

text: Traditional launch methods of satellites are too costly to put small payloads into orbit without a larger payload accompanying it to make the launch worth the expense.  Current launches of sub-100-pound satellites are performed as "piggyback payloads" on launches of much larger spacecraft, usually headed for geostationary orbit, and are released at the altitude of the primary payload.  In addition, range costs of operating from ground-based infrastructure have escalated as they have aged, accounting for up to 35 percent of the launch cost.  This restricts the number of light satellite launches to 10-12 per year, which could be increased if small payloads could be launched into space affordably and without ground range constraints.  Air-launching satellites was first seriously considered during the 1950s and 1960s, but small payloads in the 100-pound class at the time did not have effective capabilities, so the method was overlooked.  The first air-launched rocket to put a satellite into orbit was the Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus, which did it on 13 June 1990; however, it is currently deployed from a heavily modified and expensive Lockheed L-1011 airliner.  The ALASA program's objective is to use an unmodified aircraft platform (except for software) that does not have to be dedicated to the mission to place a 100 lb satellite into orbit that requires only 24 hours notice to integrate and launch the payload, with the ability to re-plan the launch in flight and relocate the aircraft to any civilian airport or military airfield in a crisis situation, while using onboard GPS/inertial position reporting rather than ground-based radar tracking.

text: Traditional launch methods of satellites are too costly to put small payloads into orbit without a larger payload accompanying it to make the launch worth the expense.  Current launches of sub-100-pound satellites are performed as "piggyback payloads" on launches of much larger spacecraft, usually headed for

text: geostationary orbit

text: , and are released at the altitude of the primary payload.  In addition, range costs of operating from ground-based infrastructure have escalated as they have aged, accounting for up to 35 percent of the launch cost.  This restricts the number of light satellite launches to 10-12 per year, which could be increased if small payloads could be launched into space affordably and without ground range constraints.  Air-launching satellites was first seriously considered during the 1950s and 1960s, but small payloads in the 100-pound class at the time did not have effective capabilities, so the method was overlooked.  The first air-launched rocket to put a satellite into orbit was the

text: Orbital Sciences Corporation

text: Pegasus

text: , which did it on 13 June 1990; however, it is currently deployed from a heavily modified and expensive

text: Lockheed L-1011

text: airliner.  The ALASA program's objective is to use an unmodified aircraft platform (except for software) that does not have to be dedicated to the mission to place a 100 lb satellite into orbit that requires only 24 hours notice to integrate and launch the payload, with the ability to re-plan the launch in flight and relocate the aircraft to any civilian airport or military airfield in a crisis situation, while using onboard

text: GPS

text: /inertial position reporting rather than ground-based radar tracking.

text: The USSR used ICBM technology to launch Sputnik into space. This essentially gave the Soviets two propaganda victories at once (sending the satellite into space and proving the distance capabilities of their missiles). This proved that the Soviets had rockets capable of sending nuclear weapons from Russia to Europe and even North America. This was the most immediate threat that the launch of Sputnik 1 posed. Not only did the Soviet Union have this ability, the United States did not. America, a land with a history of geographical security, suddenly seemed vulnerable. Overall, what caused the fear for the American people was not the satellite itself but more so the rocket that put Sputnik into orbit.

text: The USSR used

text: ICBM

text: technology to launch Sputnik into space. This essentially gave the Soviets two propaganda victories at once (sending the satellite into space and proving the distance capabilities of their missiles). This proved that the Soviets had rockets capable of sending nuclear weapons from Russia to Europe and even North America. This was the most immediate threat that the launch of Sputnik 1 posed. Not only did the Soviet Union have this ability, the United States did not. America, a land with a history of geographical security, suddenly seemed vulnerable. Overall, what caused the fear for the American people was not the satellite itself but more so the rocket that put Sputnik into orbit.

text: In addition to deep space and solar system exploration ESAC hosts the data processing of SMOS, a satellite observing the earth, as well as the Space Situation Awareness (SSA) programme.

text: In addition to deep space and solar system exploration ESAC hosts the data processing of

text: SMOS

text: , a satellite observing the earth, as well as the Space Situation Awareness (SSA) programme.

text: As of 2015, 70 different government space agencies are in existence; 13 of those have launch capability. Six government space agencies - the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the European Space Agency (ESA), the China National Space Administration (CNSA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Russian Federal Space Agency (RFSA or Roscosmos) have full launch capabilities; these include the ability to launch and recover multiple satellites, deploy cryogenic rocket engines and operate extraterrestrial probes. Only two currently operating government space agencies in the world - RFSA and the CNSA - are capable of human spaceflight as of 2016.

text: Yinghuo-1 was a Chinese Mars-exploration space probe, intended to be the first Chinese spacecraft to explore Mars. It was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan, on 8 November 2011, along with the Russian Fobos-Grunt sample return spacecraft, which was intended to visit Mars' moon Phobos. The 115-kg (250-lb) Yinghuo-1 probe was intended by the CNSA to orbit Mars for about two years, studying the planet's surface, atmosphere, ionosphere and magnetic field. Shortly after launch, Fobos-Grunt was expected to perform two burns to depart Earth orbit bound for Mars. However, these burns did not take place, leaving both probes stranded in orbit. On 17 November 2011, Chinese state media reported that Yinghuo-1 had been declared lost by the CNSA. After a period of orbital decay, Yinghuo-1 and Fobos-Grunt underwent destructive re-entry on 15 January 2012, finally disintegrating over the Pacific Ocean.

text: Yinghuo-1 was a Chinese

text: Mars-exploration

text: space probe

text: , intended to be the first Chinese spacecraft to explore Mars. It was launched from

text: Baikonur Cosmodrome

text: , Kazakhstan, on 8 November 2011, along with the

text: Russia

text: n

text: Fobos-Grunt

text: sample return

text: spacecraft, which was intended to visit Mars' moon

text: Phobos

text: . The 115-kg (250-lb) Yinghuo-1 probe was intended by the

text: CNSA

text: to orbit Mars for about two years, studying the planet's surface, atmosphere,

text: ionosphere

text: and

text: magnetic field

text: . Shortly after launch, Fobos-Grunt was expected to perform two burns to depart Earth orbit bound for Mars. However, these burns did not take place, leaving both probes stranded in orbit. On 17 November 2011, Chinese state media reported that Yinghuo-1 had been declared lost by the CNSA. After a period of

text: orbital decay

text: , Yinghuo-1 and Fobos-Grunt underwent destructive re-entry on 15 January 2012, finally disintegrating over the Pacific Ocean.

text: Hergé's use of research would include months of preparation for Tintin's voyage to the moon in the two-part storyline spread across Destination Moon and Explorers on the Moon. His research for the storyline was noted in New Scientist: "The considerable research undertaken by Hergé enabled him to come very close to the type of space suit that would be used in future Moon exploration, although his portrayal of the type of rocket that was actually used was a long way off the mark". The moon rocket is based on the German V-2 rockets.

text: Hergé's use of research would include months of preparation for Tintin's voyage to the moon in the two-part storyline spread across

text: Destination Moon

text: and

text: Explorers on the Moon

text: . His research for the storyline was noted in

text: New Scientist

text: : "The considerable research undertaken by Hergé enabled him to come very close to the type of space suit that would be used in future

text: Moon exploration

text: , although his portrayal of the type of rocket that was actually used was a long way off the mark". The moon rocket is based on the German

text: rockets.

text: A lunar rover or Moon rover is a space exploration vehicle (rover) designed to move across the surface of the Moon. Some rovers have been designed to transport members of a human spaceflight crew, such as the U.S. Apollo program's Lunar Roving Vehicle; others have been partially or fully autonomous robots, such as Soviet Lunokhods and Chinese Yutu. As of 2013, three countries have had rovers on the Moon: the Soviet Union, the United States and China.

text: A lunar rover or Moon rover is a

text: space exploration

text: vehicle (rover)

text: designed to move across the

text: surface of the Moon

text: . Some rovers have been designed to transport members of a

text: human spaceflight

text: crew, such as the U.S.

text: Apollo program

text: 's

text: Lunar Roving Vehicle

text: ; others have been partially or fully

text: autonomous robot

text: s, such as Soviet

text: Lunokhod

text: s and Chinese

text: Yutu

text: . As of 2013, three countries have had rovers on the Moon: the

text: Soviet Union

text: , the

text: United States

text: and

text: China

text: In 2012, NASA researchers Metzger, Muscatello, Mueller, and Mantovani argued for a bootstrapping approach to start self-replicating factories in space. They developed this concept on the basis of In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) technologies that NASA has been developing to "live off the land" on the Moon or Mars. Their modeling showed that in just 20 to 40 years this industry could become self-sufficient then grow to large size, enabling greater exploration in space as well as providing benefits back to Earth. In 2014, Thomas Kalil of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy published on the White House blog an interview with Metzger on bootstrapping solar system civilization through self-replicating space industry. Kalil requested the public submit ideas for how "the Administration, the private sector, philanthropists, the research community, and storytellers can further these goals." Kalil connected this concept to what NASA Chief Scientist Mason Peck has dubbed "Massless Exploration", the ability to make everything in space so that you do not need to launch it from Earth. Peck has said, "...all the mass we need to explore the solar system is already in space. It's just in the wrong shape." In 2016, Metzger argued that fully self-replicating industry can be started over several decades by astronauts at a lunar outpost for a total cost (outpost plus starting the industry) of about a third of the space budgets of the International Space Station partner nations, and that this industry would solve Earth's energy and environmental problems in addition to providing massless exploration.

text: In 2012, NASA researchers Metzger, Muscatello, Mueller, and Mantovani argued for a bootstrapping approach to start self-replicating factories in space. They developed this concept on the basis of

text: In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU)

text: technologies that NASA has been developing to "live off the land" on the Moon or Mars. Their modeling showed that in just 20 to 40 years this industry could become self-sufficient then grow to large size, enabling greater exploration in space as well as providing benefits back to Earth. In 2014,

text: Thomas Kalil

text: of the White House

text: Office of Science and Technology Policy

text: published on the White House blog an interview with Metzger on bootstrapping solar system civilization through self-replicating space industry. Kalil requested the public submit ideas for how "the Administration, the private sector, philanthropists, the research community, and storytellers can further these goals." Kalil connected this concept to what NASA Chief Scientist

text: Mason Peck

text: has dubbed "Massless Exploration", the ability to make everything in space so that you do not need to launch it from Earth. Peck has said, "...all the mass we need to explore the solar system is already in space. It's just in the wrong shape." In 2016, Metzger argued that fully self-replicating industry can be started over several decades by astronauts at a lunar outpost for a total cost (outpost plus starting the industry) of about a third of the space budgets of the

text: International Space Station

text: partner nations, and that this industry would solve Earth's energy and environmental problems in addition to providing massless exploration.

text: In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. Jerome Schnee estimated that the indirect economic return from spin-offs of human space exploration has been many times the initial public investment. A review of the claims by the Federation of American Scientists argued that NASA's rate of return from spin-offs is actually "astoundingly bad", except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.

text: In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. Jerome Schnee estimated that the indirect economic return from spin-offs of

text: human space exploration

text: has been many times the initial public investment. A review of the claims by the Federation of American Scientists argued that NASA's rate of return from spin-offs is actually "astoundingly bad", except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.

text: In the Republic of China (Taiwan), an indigenous Taiwanese manned spaceflight program was begun in 1991 to compete with the manned space program of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and is steadily making progress in the innovation and development of the spacecraft, satellite and rocket technology which is currently being designed for both orbital spaceflights around Earth as well as future voyages to the moon and planet Mars by Taiwanese astronauts. As part of this human spaceflight effort, Taiwan's National Space Organization has built numerous rockets and space vehicle prototypes to launch both satellites and Taiwanese astronauts into space. Taiwan has also developed state of the art cutting edge technologies, which only a small number of countries like the United States, France and Germany possess, for spaceflight in indigenous Taiwanese built satellites. Additionally, the Taiwan Lunar Lander Program was initiated in 2016 and is a technological innovation program currently ongoing and in development by Taiwan's National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology, which also designed and built the advanced ramjet powered nuclear weapons capable Hsiung Feng III hypersonic missile, to build a cutting edge advanced Artificial Intelligence (A.I.) autonomous lunar lander that is scheduled to be sent to the surface of the moon in the year 2020. The advanced innovative Taiwanese technology developed in this project is designed to be used in preparation for Taiwan's Manned Spaceflight Program's future missions to the moon, planet Mars and asteroids by Taiwanese astronauts.

text: In the

text: Republic of China (Taiwan)

text: , an indigenous

text: Taiwanese manned spaceflight program

text: was begun in 1991 to compete with the manned space program of the

text: People's Republic of China (PRC)

text: and is steadily making progress in the innovation and development of the spacecraft, satellite and rocket technology which is currently being designed for both orbital spaceflights around

text: Earth

text: as well as future voyages to the moon and planet

text: Mars

text: by

text: Taiwanese astronauts

text: . As part of this human spaceflight effort,

text: Taiwan

text: 's

text: National Space Organization

text: has built numerous

text: rockets

text: and space vehicle prototypes to launch both satellites and

text: Taiwanese astronauts

text: into space.

text: Taiwan

text: has also developed state of the art cutting edge technologies, which only a small number of countries like the

text: United States

text: France

text: and

text: Germany

text: possess, for spaceflight in indigenous

text: Taiwan

text: ese built satellites. Additionally, the

text: Taiwan Lunar Lander Program

text: was initiated in 2016 and is a technological innovation program currently ongoing and in development by

text: Taiwan's

entity_name: National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology

text: National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology

text: , which also designed and built the advanced

text: ramjet

text: powered

text: nuclear weapons

text: capable

text: Hsiung Feng III hypersonic missile

text: , to build a cutting edge advanced

text: Artificial Intelligence (A.I.)

text: autonomous lunar lander that is scheduled to be sent to the surface of the moon in the year 2020. The advanced innovative

text: Taiwan

text: ese technology developed in this project is designed to be used in preparation for

text: Taiwan's Manned Spaceflight Program's

text: future missions to the moon, planet

text: Mars

text: and asteroids by

text: Taiwanese astronauts

text: Spaceflight is the monthly magazine of the British Interplanetary Society (BIS). It was first published in 1956, a year before the launch of Sputnik 1, and has been reporting on space exploration topics ever since.

text: Spaceflight is the monthly magazine of the

text: British Interplanetary Society

text: (BIS). It was first published in 1956, a year before the launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: , and has been reporting on

text: space exploration

text: topics ever since.

text: The story is about the conversion of an ordinary house into an interplanetary portal or stargate by mysterious alien beings who apparently have taken up the task of exploring space for habitable planets and connecting them to each other, thus allowing civilizations to swap ideas easily.

text: The story is about the conversion of an ordinary house into an

text: interplanetary portal

text: or

text: stargate

text: by mysterious alien beings who apparently have taken up the task of exploring space for habitable planets and connecting them to each other, thus allowing civilizations to swap ideas easily.

text: The X-type asteroid is classified as a Xc-type in the SMASS taxonomy, a transitional type to the dark C-type asteroids. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2–3.2 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,590 days). Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.19 and is significantly inclined by 29 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. It has a rotation period of 7.2 hours and an albedo of 0.040–0.08, based on the space-spaced observations carried out by IRAS, Akari, and WISE/NEOWISE.

text: The

text: X-type

text: asteroid is classified as a Xc-type in the

text: SMASS

text: taxonomy, a transitional type to the dark

text: C-type

text: asteroids. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2–3.2

text: AU

text: once every 4 years and 4 months (1,590 days). Its orbit shows an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.19 and is significantly

text: inclined

text: by 29 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: . It has a

text: rotation period

text: of 7.2 hours and an

text: albedo

text: of 0.040–0.08, based on the space-spaced observations carried out by

text: IRAS

text: Akari

text: , and

text: WISE

text: NEOWISE

text: Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of orbital hybridization. While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as methane, or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain unsaturated carbon compounds such as ethylene. Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules.

text: Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of

text: orbital hybridization

text: . While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by

text: orbital

text: s of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as

text: methane

text: , or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain

text: unsaturated

text: carbon compounds such as

text: ethylene

text: . Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules.

text: Sun–Earth  is suited for making observations of the Sun–Earth system. Objects here are never shadowed by Earth or the Moon. The first mission of this type was the International Sun Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3) mission used as an interplanetary early warning storm monitor for solar disturbances.  Since June 2015, DSCOVR has orbited the L point.

text: Sun–Earth  is suited for making observations of the Sun–Earth system. Objects here are never shadowed by Earth or the Moon. The first mission of this type was the

text: International Sun Earth Explorer 3

text: (ISEE-3) mission used as an interplanetary early warning storm monitor for solar disturbances.  Since June 2015,

text: DSCOVR

text: has orbited the L point.

text: Varying degrees of criticism exist regarding international space law. Some critics accept the Outer Space Treaty, but reject the Moon Agreement. Therefore, it is important to note that even the Moon Agreement with its common heritage of mankind clause, allows space mining, extraction, private property rights and exclusive ownership rights over natural outer space resources, if removed from their natural place. The Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Agreement allow private property rights for outer space natural resources once removed from the surface, subsurface or subsoil of the moon and other celestial bodies in outer space. Thus, international space law is capable of managing newly emerging space mining activities, private space transportation, commercial spaceports and commercial space stations/habitats/settlements. Space mining involving the extraction and removal of natural resources from their natural location is without question allowable under the Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Agreement. Once removed, those natural resources can be reduced to possession, sold, traded and explored or used for scientific purposes. International space law allows space mining, specifically the extraction of natural resources. It is generally understood within the space law authorities that extracting space resources is allowable, even by private companies for profit. However, international space law prohibits property rights over territories and outer space land.

text: The Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) was a plan for space exploration announced on January 14, 2004 by President George W. Bush. It was conceived as a response to the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, the state of human spaceflight at NASA, and as a way to regain public enthusiasm for space exploration. It was replaced by the space policy of the Barack Obama administration in June 2010.

text: The Vision for Space Exploration (VSE) was a plan for space exploration announced on January 14, 2004 by President

text: George W. Bush

text: . It was conceived as a response to the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: , the state of

text: human spaceflight

text: at

text: NASA

text: , and as a way to regain public enthusiasm for

text: space exploration

text: . It was replaced by the

entity_name: Space policy of the Barack Obama administration

text: space policy of the Barack Obama administration

text: in June 2010.

text: The orbit was determined by European Space Operations Centre within 3 hours after the separation from launcher, and the satellites were operating normally and under control. Both satellites were switched to safe mode, pointing at the sun while both ESA/CNES and OHB teams investigated the failure and options for the satellites. On 25 August Arianespace announced the creation of an independent inquiry commission to investigate the anomaly. On 28 August details emerged on the events that most likely lead to the Fregat failure. At the end of the re-orientation phase the flight control system detected an incorrect angular speed and unsuccessfully attempted to use thrusters to correct the situation. The flight control system did not detect the thruster issue and continued the flight plan with the upper stage oriented in a wrong direction, leaving the satellites in an incorrect orbit.

text: The orbit was determined by

text: European Space Operations Centre

text: within 3 hours after the separation from launcher, and the satellites were operating normally and under control. Both satellites were switched to safe mode, pointing at the sun while both ESA/CNES and

text: OHB

text: teams investigated the failure and options for the satellites. On 25 August Arianespace announced the creation of an independent inquiry commission to investigate the anomaly. On 28 August details emerged on the events that most likely lead to the Fregat failure. At the end of the re-orientation phase the flight control system detected an incorrect

text: angular speed

text: and unsuccessfully attempted to use

text: thrusters

text: to correct the situation. The flight control system did not detect the thruster issue and continued the flight plan with the upper stage oriented in a wrong direction, leaving the satellites in an incorrect orbit.

text: The Science & Environmental Satellites developed by Orbital perform scientific research, carry out deep space exploration (e.g. Dawn spacecraft, conduct remote sensing missions (e.g. Landsat 4, 5 and 8), and demonstrate new space technologies. In the last 10 years, Orbital has built more scientific and environmental monitoring satellites for NASA than any other company.

text: The Science & Environmental Satellites developed by Orbital perform scientific research, carry out deep space exploration (e.g.

text: Dawn spacecraft

text: , conduct remote sensing missions (e.g.

text: Landsat

text: 4, 5 and 8), and demonstrate new space technologies. In the last 10 years, Orbital has built more scientific and environmental monitoring satellites for NASA than any other company.

text: The Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) provides support for the operation, control, and maintenance of a variety of United States Department of Defense and some non-DoD satellites. This involves continual execution of Telemetry, Tracking, and Commanding (TT&C) operations. In addition, the AFSCN provides prelaunch checkout and simulation, launch support, and early orbit support while satellites are in initial or transfer orbits and require maneuvering to their final orbit. The AFSCN provides tracking data to help maintain the catalog of space objects and distributes various data such as satellite ephemeris, almanacs, and other information.

text: The Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) provides support for the operation, control, and maintenance of a variety of

text: United States Department of Defense

text: and some non-DoD

text: satellite

text: s. This involves continual execution of Telemetry, Tracking, and Commanding (TT&C) operations. In addition, the AFSCN provides prelaunch checkout and simulation, launch support, and early orbit support while satellites are in initial or transfer orbits and require maneuvering to their final orbit. The AFSCN provides tracking data to help maintain the catalog of space objects and distributes various data such as satellite ephemeris, almanacs, and other information.

text: Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1s success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the Cold War.

text: Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high

text: atmospheric layers

text: through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radio-signal distribution in the

text: ionosphere

text: . The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1s success precipitated the

text: Sputnik crisis

text: in the United States and ignited the so-called Space Race within the

text: Cold War

text: While exploring the new planets, one of the Earth Silkies is killed by an unknown force.  Cemp tries to investigate, but meets hostility from the other space Silkies.  It is possible the victim recognized the nature of the attacker before dying, out of some ancient racial memory.

text: Sputnik was one of the founder members of The Weazels (or Jimmy The Weazel as they were also known) in the 1980s. The Weazels toured extensively and in one year, the original band members (Polly, Al, & Sputnik) did over 250 gigs, once doing 5 gigs in 3 countries in 2 days, plus busking in every town they visited. The Weazels played to any audience willing to have them, and at every kind of venue you could imagine; from arts centres to bikers bars, and front rooms to stadiums.

text: This supplement lets you explore the mysteries of space and play games in the style of 2001: A Space Odyssey, Solaris, Contact, Ringworld, or Forbidden Planet.

text: This supplement lets you explore the mysteries of space and play games in the style of

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey

text: Solaris

text: Contact

text: Ringworld

text: , or

text: Forbidden Planet

text: The late 1990s and early 2000s (decade) was to stumble on a newly developed rocket. H-II rocket flight 5 and flight 8 failed to launch in a row, M-V failed to launch even flight 4. Nozomi failed to enter Mars orbit. Overlapping administrative reform movement from these failures and the occasion was to be proposed in the integration of government space agencies. Strengthening cooperation between organizations, prioritization of features, such as being a plan to streamline the organizational structure, Space Science Institute, October 1, 2003 (ISAS), National Space Development Agency (NASDA), aerospace Technology Laboratories (NAL) are integrated, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency was established. Integration was the first time since the launch of a space agency H-IIA flight 6, but failed to launch, the rocket launches have been successful since.

text: The late 1990s and early 2000s (decade) was to stumble on a newly developed rocket. H-II rocket flight 5 and flight 8 failed to launch in a row, M-V failed to launch even flight 4. Nozomi failed to enter Mars orbit. Overlapping administrative reform movement from these failures and the occasion was to be proposed in the integration of government space agencies. Strengthening cooperation between organizations, prioritization of features, such as being a plan to streamline the organizational structure, Space Science Institute, October 1, 2003 (ISAS), National Space Development Agency (NASDA), aerospace Technology Laboratories (NAL) are integrated,

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: was established. Integration was the first time since the launch of a space agency

text: H-IIA

text: flight 6, but failed to launch, the rocket launches have been successful since.

text: On January 14, 2004 President George W. Bush requested that NASA develop a proposal for continued manned space exploration after the completion of the International Space Station and the planned retirement of the Space Shuttle program in 2010. This proposal was to be a way to "establish an extended human presence on the Moon" to "vastly reduce the costs of further space exploration." Included in this would be the "harvesting and processing of lunar soil into rocket fuel or breathable air." According to Bush, experience gained could help "develop and test new approaches and technologies and systems" to begin a "sustainable course of long-term exploration."

text: On January 14, 2004 President

text: George W. Bush

text: requested that NASA develop a proposal for continued manned space exploration after the completion of the

text: International Space Station

text: and the planned retirement of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: program in 2010. This proposal was to be a way to "establish an extended human presence on the Moon" to "vastly reduce the costs of further space exploration." Included in this would be the "harvesting and processing of

text: lunar soil

text: into rocket fuel or breathable air." According to Bush, experience gained could help "develop and test new approaches and technologies and systems" to begin a "sustainable course of long-term exploration."

text: As the TARDIS arrives on Earth in its future, Adric argues with the Doctor about the lack of attention and respect he receives compared to Nyssa or Tegan, and wishes to return to his home planet Alzarius, a feat the Doctor claims is impossible. As the group explores a series of caves, they are caught by Lieutenant Scott and his men who detected their arrival. Scott accuses the group of killing the rest of Professor Kyle's exploration team as they were searching the caves for fossils. The Doctor convinces Scott to let them help and points them to a debris of rock, where they find the bodies of Kyle's team, along with an odd metal hatch. As the Doctor examines the hatch, other men in Scott's force are killed by androids, undetectable by the humans' equipment. The Doctor is able to stop them, but the androids are able to send images back to their masters, the Cybermen, who recognize their foe. The Doctor is able to open the panel, revealing a powerful bomb that could destroy the planet, and orders Nyssa and Tegan to return everyone to the TARDIS while he and Adric deactivate it.

text: As the

text: TARDIS

text: arrives on Earth in its future, Adric argues with the

text: Doctor

text: about the lack of attention and respect he receives compared to

text: Nyssa

text: or

text: Tegan

text: , and wishes to return to his home planet Alzarius, a feat the Doctor claims is impossible. As the group explores a series of caves, they are caught by Lieutenant Scott and his men who detected their arrival. Scott accuses the group of killing the rest of Professor Kyle's exploration team as they were searching the caves for

text: fossil

text: s. The Doctor convinces Scott to let them help and points them to a debris of rock, where they find the bodies of Kyle's team, along with an odd metal hatch. As the Doctor examines the hatch, other men in Scott's force are killed by androids, undetectable by the humans' equipment. The Doctor is able to stop them, but the androids are able to send images back to their masters, the

text: Cybermen

text: , who recognize their foe. The Doctor is able to open the panel, revealing a powerful bomb that could destroy the planet, and orders Nyssa and Tegan to return everyone to the TARDIS while he and Adric deactivate it.

text: Reaching for the Moon is a 1930 American Pre-Code black and white musical film. Originally released at 91 minutes; surviving versions are usually cut to 62 minutes. A 74-minute version aired in 1998 on USA cable channel AMC. The DVD version runs just under 72 minutes. The film's working title was Lucky Break and is known as Para alcanzar la Luna in Spain. It is not to be confused with the Fairbanks silent film, Reaching for the Moon (1917).

text: Reaching for the Moon is a 1930 American

text: Pre-Code

text: black and white

text: musical film. Originally released at 91 minutes; surviving versions are usually cut to 62 minutes. A 74-minute version aired in 1998 on USA cable channel AMC. The DVD version runs just under 72 minutes. The film's working title was Lucky Break and is known as Para alcanzar la Luna in Spain. It is not to be confused with the Fairbanks silent film,

text: Reaching for the Moon

text: In 1961, Pelz joined NASA, working at the Goddard Space Flight Center doing research on the upper atmospheres of the earth and other planets in the solar system. Pelz became a senior scientist with responsibilities for several satellite programs, including Explorer.

text: In 1961, Pelz joined

text: NASA

text: , working at the Goddard Space Flight Center doing research on the upper atmospheres of the earth and other planets in the solar system. Pelz became a senior scientist with responsibilities for several satellite programs, including

text: Explorer

text: In the game, players take on the roles of spacecraft pilots. These characters fly single-seater ships, exploring the planets and space stations of 48 known star systems. They also engage in dogfights with other pilots (player- and computer-controlled) to protect traders or engage in piracy themselves. Other player activities include bounty-hunting and commodity trading. The single-player mode puts the player in the role of Edison Trent, who goes through a series of missions to save the Sirius sector from a mysterious alien force. In multiplayer mode, players are free to take on any role and to explore anywhere from the start.

text: In the game, players take on the roles of

text: spacecraft

text: pilots. These characters fly single-seater ships, exploring the planets and

text: space stations

text: of 48 known

text: star system

text: s. They also engage in

text: dogfight

text: s with other pilots (player- and computer-controlled) to protect traders or engage in piracy themselves. Other player activities include

text: bounty-hunting

text: and commodity trading. The

text: single-player

text: mode puts the player in the role of Edison Trent, who goes through a series of missions to save the Sirius sector from a mysterious

text: alien

text: force. In

text: multiplayer

text: mode, players are free to take on any role and to explore anywhere from the start.

text: During a speech to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing, Bush announced a vision to complete Space Station Freedom, resume exploration of the Moon and begin exploration of Mars. Although a space station was eventually constructed–work on the International Space Station began in 1998–other work has been confounded by NASA budgetary issues. In 1998, Bush received the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement's National Space Trophy for his pioneering leadership of the U.S. space program.

text: During a speech to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the

text: Apollo 11

text: moon landing, Bush announced a vision to complete

text: Space Station Freedom

text: , resume exploration of the

text: Moon

text: and begin exploration of

text: Mars

text: . Although a space station was eventually constructed–work on the

text: International Space Station

text: began in 1998–other work has been confounded by NASA budgetary issues. In 1998, Bush received the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement's National Space Trophy for his pioneering leadership of the U.S. space program.

text: Post Cold War space militarisation seems to revolve around three types of applications. (The word "seems" is used because much of this subject matter is inconclusively verifiable, due to the high level of secrecy that exists among the great powers with regard to the details of space sensing systems.)  The first application is the continuing development of "spy" or reconnaissance satellites which began in the Cold War era, but has progressed significantly since that time.  Spy satellites perform a variety of missions such as high resolution photography (IMINT), communications eavesdropping (SIGINT), and covert communications (HUMINT).  These tasks are performed on a regular basis both during peacetime and war operations. Satellites are also used by the nuclear states to provide early warning of missile launches, locate nuclear detonations, and detect preparations for otherwise clandestine or surprise nuclear tests (at least those tests or preparations carried out above-ground); this was the case when, in 1998, India and Pakistan both conducted a series of nuclear tests; in addition, a nuclear-detection satellite of the Vela type was also reported to have detected a nuclear detonation in the Indian Ocean in 1978 that was believed to be a South African nuclear test in what was famously called the Vela Incident. Early-warning satellites can also be used to detect tactical missile launches; this capability was used during Desert Storm when America was able to provide advance warning to Israel of Iraqi SS-1 SCUD missile launches.

text: Post Cold War space militarisation seems to revolve around three types of applications. (The word "seems" is used because much of this subject matter is inconclusively verifiable, due to the high level of secrecy that exists among the

text: great powers

text: with regard to the details of space sensing systems.)  The first application is the continuing development of "spy" or reconnaissance satellites which began in the Cold War era, but has progressed significantly since that time.  Spy satellites perform a variety of missions such as high resolution photography (

text: IMINT

text: ), communications eavesdropping (

text: SIGINT

text: ), and covert communications (

entity_name: Human intelligence (intelligence gathering)

text: HUMINT

text: ).  These tasks are performed on a regular basis both during peacetime and war operations. Satellites are also used by the nuclear states to provide early warning of missile launches, locate nuclear detonations, and detect preparations for otherwise clandestine or surprise nuclear tests (at least those tests or preparations carried out above-ground); this was the case when, in 1998,

text: India

text: and

text: Pakistan

text: both conducted a series of nuclear tests; in addition, a nuclear-detection satellite of the

text: Vela

text: type was also reported to have detected a nuclear detonation in the

text: Indian Ocean

text: in 1978 that was believed to be a

text: South Africa

text: n nuclear test in what was famously called the

text: Vela Incident

text: . Early-warning satellites can also be used to detect tactical missile launches; this capability was used during

text: Desert Storm

text: when America was able to provide advance warning to

text: Israel

text: of Iraqi

text: SS-1 SCUD

text: missile launches.

text: Rocket engineer Wernher von Braun, science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke, and other early advocates of manned space travel, expected until the 1960s that a space station would be an important early step in space exploration. Von Braun participated in the publishing of a series of influential articles in Collier's magazine from 1952 to 1954, titled "Man Will Conquer Space Soon!". He envisioned a large, circular station 250 feet (75m) in diameter that would rotate to generate artificial gravity and require a fleet of 7,000-ton (6,500-metric ton) space shuttles for construction in orbit. The 80 men aboard the station would include astronomers operating a telescope, meteorologists to forecast the weather, and soldiers to conduct surveillance. Von Braun expected that future expeditions to the Moon and Mars would leave from the station.

text: Rocket

text: engineer

text: Wernher von Braun

text: science fiction

text: writer

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: , and other early advocates of manned space travel, expected until the 1960s that a space station would be an important early step in space exploration. Von Braun participated in the publishing of a series of influential articles in

text: Collier's

text: magazine from 1952 to 1954, titled "

text: Man Will Conquer Space Soon!

text: ". He envisioned a large, circular station 250 feet (75m) in diameter that would rotate to generate

text: artificial gravity

text: and require a fleet of 7,000-ton (6,500-metric ton)

text: space shuttle

text: s for construction in orbit. The 80 men aboard the station would include astronomers operating a telescope, meteorologists to forecast the weather, and soldiers to conduct surveillance. Von Braun expected that future expeditions to the Moon and Mars would leave from the station.

text: The International Space Station programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies: NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (RSA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), European Space Agency (ESA), and Canadian Space Agency (CSA). National budget constraints led to the merger of three space station projects into the International Space Station. In 1993 the partially built components for a Soviet/Russian space station Mir-2, the proposed American Freedom, and the proposed European Columbus merged into this multinational programme. The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The ISS is arguably the most expensive single item ever constructed, and may be one of the most significant instances of international cooperation in modern history.

text: The

text: International Space Station program

text: me is a joint project among five participating space agencies:

text: NASA

text: , the

text: Russian Federal Space Agency

text: (RSA),

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA),

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA), and

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: (CSA). National budget constraints led to the merger of three space station projects into the

text: International Space Station

text: . In 1993 the partially built components for a Soviet/Russian space station

text: , the proposed American

text: Freedom

text: , and the proposed European

text: Columbus

text: merged into this multinational programme. The ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The ISS is arguably the most expensive single item ever constructed, and may be one of the most significant instances of international cooperation in modern history.

text: The same year witnessed the birth of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), created in the wake of the Soviet Union's launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik. NASA assumed NACA's role of aeronautical research while achieving world leadership in space technology and exploration.

text: The same year witnessed the birth of the

text: (NASA), created in the wake of the

text: Soviet Union

text: 's launch of the first

text: artificial satellite

text: Sputnik

text: . NASA assumed NACA's role of aeronautical research while achieving world leadership in space technology and exploration.

text: Typically, satellites have a roughly sinusoidal ground track.  A satellite with an orbital inclination between zero and ninety degrees is said to be in what is called a direct or prograde orbit, meaning that it orbits in the same direction as the Earth's rotation.  A satellite with an orbital inclination between 90° and 180° (or, equivalently, between -90° and 0°) is said to be in a retrograde orbit. (Direct orbits are by far the most common for artificial satellites, as the initial velocity imparted by the Earth's rotation at launch reduces the delta-v needed to achieve orbit.)

text: Typically, satellites have a roughly

text: sinusoidal

text: ground track.  A satellite with an orbital

text: inclination

text: between zero and ninety degrees is said to be in what is called a direct or

text: prograde orbit

text: , meaning that it orbits in the same direction as the Earth's rotation.  A satellite with an orbital inclination between 90° and 180° (or, equivalently, between -90° and 0°) is said to be in a

text: retrograde orbit

text: . (Direct orbits are by far the most common for artificial satellites, as the initial velocity imparted by the Earth's rotation at launch reduces the

text: delta-v

text: needed to achieve orbit.)

text: In a close race with the Soviets, the United States launched its first artificial satellite, Explorer 1, into a  orbit on 31 January 1958. Explorer I was a  long by  diameter cyllynder weighing , compared to  Sputnik 1, a  sphere which weighed . Explorer 1 carried sensors which confirmed the existence of the Van Allen belts, a major scientific discovery at the time, while Sputnik 1 carried no scientific sensors. On 17 March 1958, the US orbited its second satellite, Vanguard 1, which was about the size of a grapefruit, and remains in a  orbit .

text: In a

text: close race with the Soviets

text: , the United States launched its first artificial satellite,

text: Explorer 1

text: , into a  orbit on 31 January 1958. Explorer I was a  long by  diameter cyllynder weighing , compared to  Sputnik 1, a  sphere which weighed . Explorer 1 carried sensors which confirmed the existence of the Van Allen belts, a major scientific discovery at the time, while Sputnik 1 carried no scientific sensors. On 17 March 1958, the US orbited its second satellite,

text: Vanguard 1

text: , which was about the size of a grapefruit, and remains in a  orbit .

text: Space age happened during the space race era. It is the age of space exploration. The background of it was from the competition between the USA and Soviet Union during the Cold War period (from 1945 to 1991) –––– the missile arms race, the product of the World War II, Nuclear weapon, one of the most significant examples, and known for its dynamic destruction the serious consequence if being used. Designers, however, seemed to not promote the negative side, but the energetic and technical improvements of the era. It may due to the hope of a better future. Despite the Nuclear weapons and other social issues, there was a futuristic style of design which was inspired by the space exploration and started to pop up from the late 1950s, and escalated in the 1960s.

text: Space age happened during the space race era. It is the age of space exploration. The background of it was from the competition between the USA and Soviet Union during the

text: Cold War

text: period (from 1945 to 1991) –––– the missile arms race, the product of the World War II, Nuclear weapon, one of the most significant examples, and known for its dynamic destruction the serious consequence if being used. Designers, however, seemed to not promote the negative side, but the energetic and technical improvements of the era. It may due to the hope of a better future. Despite the Nuclear weapons and other social issues, there was a futuristic style of design which was inspired by the space exploration and started to pop up from the late 1950s, and escalated in the 1960s.

text: In early July 2014 the FAA officially issued its Record of Decision concerning the Boca Chica Beach facility, and found that "the proposal by Elon Musk’s Space Exploration Technologies would have no significant impact on the environment,"approving the proposal and outlining SpaceX’s proposal. This latest clearance allows SpaceX to apply for licenses from the FAA to launch the Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy orbital vertical launch rockets, which also could carry the Dragon capsule, and a variety of smaller, reusable sub-orbital launch vehicles from the Boca Chica site."The company formally announced selection of the Texas location in early August.

text: The Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" is a 32mm diameter circular silver medal with a raised rim on both the obverse and reverse. The obverse of the medal bears an R-7 rocket launching from its pad, two supporting towers leaning at an angle away from the rocket, to the left of the rocket, a large four pointed star, to the right of the rocket, two smaller four pointed stars. The reverse of the medal bears the inscription "FOR MERIT IN SPACE EXPLORATION" (). Below the inscription, a relief letter "N" with an horizontal line reserved for the award serial number.

text: The Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" is a 32mm diameter circular silver medal with a raised rim on both the

text: obverse

text: and reverse. The obverse of the medal bears an R-7 rocket launching from its pad, two supporting towers leaning at an angle away from the rocket, to the left of the rocket, a large four pointed star, to the right of the rocket, two smaller four pointed stars. The reverse of the medal bears the inscription "FOR MERIT IN SPACE EXPLORATION" (). Below the inscription, a relief letter "N" with an horizontal line reserved for the award serial number.

text: His science fiction depicted grand and unlikely voyages through our solar system in the spirit of Wells or Jules Verne, though his explorers donned space suits remarkably prescient in their design.  Honeymoon in Space saw his newly married adventurers, exemplars of the "Race that Rules", exploring planets in different stages of geological and Darwinian evolution on an educational odyssey drawing heavily on earlier cosmic voyages by Camille Flammarion, W. S. Lach-Szyrma, and Edgar Fawcett. Its illustrations by Stanley L. Wood have proved more significant, providing the first depictions of slender, super intelligent aliens with large, bald heads – the archetype of the famous Greys of modern science fiction.  His short story The Great Crellin Comet, published in 1897, was the first story to not only include a ten-second countdown for a space launch  (though a countdown of sorts is included in Jules Verne's 1887 novel, The Purchase of the North Pole), but also the first story to suggest that a cometary collision with the earth could be stopped by human intervention.

text: His science fiction depicted grand and unlikely voyages through our

text: solar system

text: in the spirit of Wells or

text: Jules Verne

text: , though his explorers donned space suits remarkably prescient in their design.  Honeymoon in Space saw his newly married adventurers, exemplars of the "Race that Rules", exploring planets in different stages of geological and Darwinian evolution on an educational odyssey drawing heavily on earlier cosmic voyages by

text: Camille Flammarion

text: W. S. Lach-Szyrma

text: , and

text: Edgar Fawcett

text: . Its illustrations by

text: Stanley L. Wood

text: have proved more significant, providing the first depictions of slender, super intelligent aliens with large, bald heads – the archetype of the famous

text: Greys

text: of modern science fiction.  His short story The Great Crellin Comet, published in 1897, was the first story to not only include a ten-second countdown for a space launch  (though a countdown of sorts is included in Jules Verne's 1887 novel,

text: The Purchase of the North Pole

text: ), but also the first story to suggest that a cometary collision with the earth could be stopped by human intervention.

text: The second video game released by Robinson is another text-based game, Planets: The Exploration of Space. Commonly referred to as Planets: TEOS, it was a space trading game, which had players flying to various kinds of planets, buying, selling, and trading items in order to make money. The game even allowed fights that were very similar in style to LORD, allowing players to attack others when they were offline. Players could also attack planets in order to take control of them.

text: The second video game released by Robinson is another text-based game, Planets: The Exploration of Space. Commonly referred to as Planets: TEOS, it was a

text: space trading

text: game, which had players flying to various kinds of planets, buying, selling, and trading items in order to make money. The game even allowed fights that were very similar in style to LORD, allowing players to attack others when they were offline. Players could also attack planets in order to take control of them.

text: NASA EDGE is a public outreach vodcast sponsored by NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate and based out of the Exploration and Space Operations Directorate at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. NASA EDGE takes an insiders look at current projects and technologies from NASA facilities around the United States, and is depicted through personal interviews, on-scene broadcasts, computer animations, and personal interviews with top scientists and engineers at NASA. The show explores the contributions NASA has made to society as well as the progress of current projects in materials and space exploration. NASA EDGE vodcasts can be downloaded from the NASA website and from iTunes.

text: NASA EDGE is a

text: public outreach

text: vodcast sponsored by NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate and based out of the Exploration and Space Operations Directorate at

text: Langley Research Center

text: in

text: Hampton

text: Virginia

text: . NASA EDGE takes an

text: insider

text: s look at current projects and technologies from NASA facilities around the

text: United States

text: , and is depicted through personal interviews, on-scene broadcasts,

text: computer animation

text: s, and personal interviews with top scientists and engineers at NASA. The show explores the contributions NASA has made to society as well as the progress of current projects in materials and space exploration. NASA EDGE vodcasts can be downloaded from the NASA website and from

text: iTunes

text: Elliott represented Alabama's 7th congressional district. He served on the House Veterans Committee, the Education and Labor Committee, and the Rules Committee. He chaired the Select Committee for Government Research. In 1956, Elliott authored the Library Services Act, which brought mobile libraries (bookmobiles) and continuing library service to millions of rural Americans. The same year, he was one of 101 politicians to sign the Southern Manifesto in opposition to racial integration of public places. In 1957, he voted against the Civil Rights Act. In 1958, he co-authored the National Defense Education Act, which, in the wake of the U.S.S.R.'s early post-Sputnik lead in the Space Race, improved science, foreign language, and technology education nationwide and provided low-interest loans for college and graduate school for needy students. Both laws have been extended; more than 30 million college students nationwide have obtained loans under Elliott's NDEA legislation. In 1960 and 1964, he voted against the Civil Rights Acts of those years.

text: Elliott represented

text: Alabama's 7th congressional district

text: . He served on the House Veterans Committee, the Education and Labor Committee, and the Rules Committee. He chaired the Select Committee for Government Research. In 1956, Elliott authored the Library Services Act, which brought mobile libraries (

text: bookmobile

text: s) and continuing library service to millions of rural Americans. The same year, he was one of 101 politicians to sign the

text: Southern Manifesto

text: in opposition to racial integration of public places. In 1957, he voted against the Civil Rights Act. In 1958, he co-authored the

text: National Defense Education Act

text: , which, in the wake of the U.S.S.R.'s early post-

text: Sputnik

text: lead in the Space Race, improved science, foreign language, and technology education nationwide and provided low-interest loans for college and graduate school for needy students. Both laws have been extended; more than 30 million college students nationwide have obtained loans under Elliott's NDEA legislation. In 1960 and 1964, he voted against the Civil Rights Acts of those years.

text: The JPSS satellites will carry a suite of sensors designed to collect meteorological, oceanographic, climatological, and solar-geophysical observations of the earth land, oceans, atmosphere, and near-earth space.

text: The (Japanese) Lunar Exploration Program (月探査計画), is a program of robotic and human missions to the Moon undertaken by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and its division, the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS). It is also one of the three major enterprises of the JAXA Space Exploration Center (JSPEC). The main goal of the program is "to elucidate the origin and evolution of the Moon and utilize the Moon in the future".

text: The (Japanese) Lunar Exploration Program (月探査計画), is a program of robotic and human missions to the Moon undertaken by the

text: Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA), and its division, the

text: (ISAS). It is also one of the three major enterprises of the JAXA Space Exploration Center (JSPEC). The main goal of the program is "to elucidate the origin and evolution of the Moon and utilize the Moon in the future".

text: The Space Age is a period encompassing the activities related to the Space Race, space exploration, space technology, and the cultural developments influenced by these events. The Space Age began with the development of several technologies that culminated with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union. This was the world's first artificial satellite, orbiting the Earth in 98.1 minutes and weighing in at 83 kg. The launch of Sputnik 1 ushered a new era of political, scientific and technological achievements that became known as the Space Age. The Space Age was characterized by rapid development of new technology in a close race mostly between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Space Age brought the first human spaceflight during the Vostok programme and reached its peak with the Apollo program which captured the imagination of much of the world's population. The landing of Apollo 11 was an event watched by over 500 million people around the world and is widely recognized as one of the defining moments of the 20th century. Since then and with the end of the space race due to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, public attention has largely moved to other areas.

text: The

text: Space Age

text: is a period encompassing the activities related to the

text: Space Race

text: space exploration

text: , space technology, and the cultural developments influenced by these events. The Space Age began with the development of several technologies that culminated with the launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: by the Soviet Union. This was the world's first artificial satellite, orbiting the Earth in 98.1 minutes and weighing in at 83 kg. The launch of Sputnik 1 ushered a new era of political, scientific and technological achievements that became known as the Space Age. The Space Age was characterized by rapid development of new technology in a close race mostly between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Space Age brought the first human spaceflight during the

text: Vostok programme

text: and reached its peak with the

text: Apollo program

text: which captured the imagination of much of the world's population. The landing of

text: Apollo 11

text: was an event watched by over 500 million people around the world and is widely recognized as one of the defining moments of the 20th century. Since then and with the end of the space race due to the

text: dissolution of the Soviet Union

text: , public attention has largely moved to other areas.

text: |-id=903| 8903 Paulcruikshank ||  || Paul Shammim Cruikshank (1964–2015), an American-Afghan humorist and musician |-id=904| 8904 Yoshihara || 1995 VY || Masahiro Yoshihara, Japanese amateur astronomer, independent discoverer of the outburst of the recurrent nova T Coronae Borealis. |-id=905| 8905 Bankakuko || 1995 WJ || Kakuko Ban, Japanese staff member of the planetarium section of the Hiroshima Children's Museum. |-id=906| 8906 Yano ||  || Hajime Yano (b. 1967), an expert in cosmic dust research and solar system exploration and a pioneer of in-situ studies of meteoroid and orbital debris in space. He also led the Japanese team for airborne observations of the 1998-2002 Leonid meteor storms and developed the sampling device for ISAS' MUSES-C mission. |-id=907| 8907 Takaji ||  || Takaji Kato (b. 1947), an associate professor at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=909| 8909 Ohnishitaka ||  || Takafumi Ohnishi (b. 1971), a systems engineer at Fujitsu Limited. |-id=911| 8911 Kawaguchijun || 1995 YA || Kawaguchi Jun'ichiro (b. 1955), project manager of the MUSES-C mission, designed to deliver the world's first sample-and-return spacecraft. |-id=912| 8912 Ohshimatake ||  || Takeshi Oshima (b. 1966) helped develop the MIC (Mars imaging camera) and SICPU (CPU board for science instruments) loaded on the first Japanese Mars exploration spacecraft "Nozomi". As a systems manager of NTSpace Ltd., he also helped develop the first Japanese sample-return Spacecraft, MUSES-C. |-id=914| 8914 Nickjames ||  || Nick James (b. 1962), a leading CCD imager and photometrist who has produced large numbers of precision light curves of cataclysmic variables and images of unusual variables stars and comets. |-id=915| 8915 Sawaishujiro ||  || Shujiro Sawai (b. 1966), an engineer in charge of the chemical propulsion system of MUSES-C, the Japanese sample-return mission. |-id=919| 8919 Ouyangziyuan ||  || Ouyang Ziyuan (b. 1935) is a Chinese cosmochemist, geochemist and space advocate. As Chief Scientist for China's Lunar Exploration Program (LEP), he has been responsible for the development of the long-term strategic plans for China's LEP.|-id=922| 8922 Kumanodake ||  || Zao Kumanodake, located between Miyagi and Yamagata prefectures in the northern part of mainland Japan. |-id=923| 8923 Yamakawa ||  || Hiroshi Yamakawa (b. 1965), an interplanetary trajectory and mission designer at ISAS. |-id=924| 8924 Iruma ||  || The Iruma area, Saitama prefecture, Japan. |-id=925| 8925 Boattini ||  || Andrea Boattini, Italian astronomer. |-id=926| 8926 Abemasanao || 1996 YK || Masanao Abe (b. 1967), a planetary scientist at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=927| 8927 Ryojiro || 1996 YT || Ryojiro Akiba (b. 1930), a professor of astronautics and former director-general of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=929| 8929 Haginoshinji ||  || Shinji Hagino (b. 1959), an engineer who worked on the system design of Japanese scientific satellites such as HALCA (space VLBI satellite) and Akebono (aurora observation satellite). |-id=930| 8930 Kubota ||  || Takashi Kubota (b. 1960) works on intelligent robotics exploration at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. He was engaged in developing guidance, navigation and control for touchdown and asteroidal surface exploration by a rover in the Hayabusa sample return mission from (25143) Itokawa. |-id=931| 8931 Hirokimatsuo ||  || Hiroki Matsuo, former director general at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=932| 8932 Nagatomo ||  || Makoto Nagatomo (b. 1937), a pioneer in the field of electric propulsion. |-id=933| 8933 Kurobe ||  || The Kurobe ravine, in Toyama prefecture, is the largest and deepest in Japan. |-id=934| 8934 Nishimurajun ||  || Jun Nishimura (b. 1927) works in the fields of cosmic-ray physics and space systems engineering, including scientific ballooning. He served as the director general of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science between 1988 and 1992, when the Japanese government approved the development of the M-V rocket. |-id=935| 8935 Beccaria ||  || Cesare Beccaria, Italian Enlightenment thinker †|-id=936| 8936 Gianni ||  || Named in honor of Gianni Ierman (b. 1955), Italian amateur astronomer, who was the first member to join the Farra d´Isonzo observatory club in 1969. He was the owner of the first club telescope and was the club president in the 1980s.|-id=937| 8937 Gassan ||  || Gassan, a volcanic mountain in central Yamagata prefecture. |-id=939| 8939 Onodajunjiro ||  || Junjiro Onoda (b. 1946), director of the Mu-series satellite launcher program of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=940| 8940 Yakushimaru ||  || Hiroko Yakushimaru (b. 1964), a Japanese actress and singer. |-id=941| 8941 Junsaito ||  || Jun Saito (b. 1962), a Japan mineralogist and planetologist. |-id=942| 8942 Takagi ||  || Yasuhiko Takagi, Japanese planetary scientist. |-id=943| 8943 Stefanozavka ||  || Stefano Zavka, 20th-century Italian Alpine guide, who disappeared during his second descent from the summit of K2 |-id=944| 8944 Ortigara ||  || Mount Ortigara, located near the Asiago Astrophysical Observatory, is one of the highest peaks in the Asiago Tableland and was the location of one of the most famous and bloodiest alpine battles of World War I. |-id=945| 8945 Cavaradossi || 1997 CM || Named for a character in Puccini's opera Tosca. Cavaradossi, a revolutionary and fighter against despotism, is imprisoned and condemned to die. |-id=946| 8946 Yoshimitsu || 1997 CO || Tetsuo Yoshimitsu (b. 1970) works on research and development of planetary rovers and is the chief engineer of the asteroid surface explorer MINERVA for the Hayabusa mission. The novel technology resulting from his studies of mobile systems on minor-planet surfaces in a microgravity environment was installed in MINERVA. |-id=947| 8947 Mizutani ||  || Hitoshi Mizutani (b. 1944) works mainly on the origin and evolution of the solar system and internal structures of planets. He has been a professor at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science and played a leading role in Japanese lunar and planetary exploration. |-id=952| 8952 ODAS ||  || OCA-DLR Asteroid Survey. |-id=954| 8954 Baral ||  || Jessika Baral (born 1999) is a finalist in the 2012 Broadcom MASTERS, a math and science competition for middle-school students, for her biochemistry, medicine, health science, and microbiology project. |-id=957| 8957 Koujounotsuki ||  || Koujounotsuki, musical piece composed by Rentaro Taki. |-id=958| 8958 Stargazer ||  || This name honors in general those who since time immemorial have gazed up at the night sky in wonderment. It honors in particular the noble pursuit of amateur astronomy. |-id=959| 8959 Oenanthe || 2550 P-L || The wheatear, or Oenanthe oenanthe. |-id=960| 8960 Luscinioides || 2575 P-L || The Savi's warbler, or Locustella luscinioides. |-id=961| 8961 Schoenobaenus || 2702 P-L || The sedge warbler, or Acrocephalus schoenobaenus. |-id=962| 8962 Noctua || 2771 P-L || The little owl, or Athene noctua. |-id=963| 8963 Collurio || 4651 P-L || The red-backed shrike, or Lanius collurio. |-id=964| 8964 Corax || 7643 P-L || The raven, or Corvus corax. |-id=965| 8965 Citrinella || 9511 P-L || The yellowhammer, or Emberiza citrinella. |-id=966| 8966 Hortulana || 3287 T-1 || The ortolan bunting, or Emberiza hortulana. |-id=967| 8967 Calandra || 4878 T-1 || The corn bunting, or Miliaria calandra. |-id=968| 8968 Europaeus || 1212 T-2 || The nightjar, or Caprimulgus europaeus. |-id=969| 8969 Alexandrinus || 1218 T-2 || The Kentish plover, or Charadrius alexandrinus. |-id=970| 8970 Islandica || 1355 T-2 || The Barrow's goldeneye, or Bucephala islandica. |-id=971| 8971 Leucocephala || 2256 T-2 || The white-headed duck, or Oxyura leucocephala. |-id=972| 8972 Sylvatica || 2319 T-2 || The Andalusian hemipode, or Turnix sylvatica. |-id=973| 8973 Pratincola || 3297 T-2 || The wading bird Glareola pratincola, or collared pratincole. |-id=974| 8974 Gregaria || 3357 T-2 || The sociable plover, or Chettusia gregaria. |-id=975| 8975 Atthis || 4076 T-2 || The kingfisher, or Alcedo atthis. |-id=976| 8976 Leucura || 4221 T-2 || The black wheatear, or Oenanthe leucura. |-id=977| 8977 Paludicola || 4272 T-2 || The aquatic warbler, or Acrocephalus paludicola. |-id=978| 8978 Barbatus || 3109 T-3 || The lammergeier, or Gypaetus barbatus. |-id=979| 8979 Clanga || 3476 T-3 || The greater spotted eagle, or Aquila clanga. |-id=980| 8980 Heliaca || 4190 T-3 || The imperial eagle, or Aquila heliaca. |-id=982| 8982 Oreshek ||  || Oreshek, an ancient Russian fortress built in 1323. |-id=983| 8983 Rayakazakova ||  || Raisa Konstantinovna Kazakova, a celestial mechanician at the Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics. |-id=984| 8984 Derevyanko ||  || Tatiana Timofeevna Derevyanko, a cinema-artist and director of the Dovzhenko Museum at the Dovzhenko Film Studio in Kiev. |-id=985| 8985 Tula ||  || Tula, a city in Russian Federation, the administrative focus of the region and prominent industrial and cultural center. |-id=986| 8986 Kineyayasuyo ||  || Yasuyo Kineya, elder sister of the discoverer|-id=990| 8990 Compassion || 1980 DN || Compassion (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=991| 8991 Solidarity ||  || Solidarity (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=992| 8992 Magnanimity ||  || Magnanimity (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=993| 8993 Ingstad || 1980 UL || Helge Ingstad, Norwegian explorer and scientist. |-id=994| 8994 Kashkashian || 1980 VG || Kim Kashkashian, a classical violinist. |-id=995| 8995 Rachelstevenson ||  || Rachel Stevenson (b. 1984), a postdoctoral fellow at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=996| 8996 Waynedwards ||  || Wayne N. Edwards (b. 1977), a research scientist with the Canadian Hazards Information Service. |-id=997| 8997 Davidblewett ||  || David T. Blewett (b. 1959), a senior staff member at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. |-id=998| 8998 Matthewizawa ||  || Matthew Richard Mitsuomi Izawa (b. 1979), a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Winnipeg. |-id=999| 8999 Tashadunn ||  || Tasha L. Dunn (b. 1978), a professor in the Department of Geology at Colby College. |-id=000| 9000 Hal || 1981 JO || HAL 9000, fictional computer in Space Odyssey series|}

text: 8903 Paulcruikshank

text: ||  || Paul Shammim Cruikshank (1964–2015), an American-Afghan humorist and musician |-id=904|

text: 8904 Yoshihara

text: || 1995 VY || Masahiro Yoshihara, Japanese amateur astronomer, independent discoverer of the outburst of the recurrent nova

text: T Coronae Borealis

text: . |-id=905|

text: 8905 Bankakuko

text: || 1995 WJ || Kakuko Ban, Japanese staff member of the planetarium section of the

text: Hiroshima Children's Museum

text: . |-id=906|

text: 8906 Yano

text: ||  || Hajime Yano (b. 1967), an expert in cosmic dust research and solar system exploration and a pioneer of in-situ studies of meteoroid and orbital debris in space. He also led the Japanese team for airborne observations of the 1998-2002 Leonid meteor storms and developed the sampling device for ISAS' MUSES-C mission. |-id=907|

text: 8907 Takaji

text: ||  || Takaji Kato (b. 1947), an associate professor at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=909|

text: 8909 Ohnishitaka

text: ||  || Takafumi Ohnishi (b. 1971), a systems engineer at Fujitsu Limited. |-id=911|

text: 8911 Kawaguchijun

text: || 1995 YA || Kawaguchi Jun'ichiro (b. 1955), project manager of the MUSES-C mission, designed to deliver the world's first sample-and-return spacecraft. |-id=912|

text: 8912 Ohshimatake

text: ||  || Takeshi Oshima (b. 1966) helped develop the MIC (Mars imaging camera) and SICPU (CPU board for science instruments) loaded on the first Japanese Mars exploration spacecraft "Nozomi". As a systems manager of NTSpace Ltd., he also helped develop the first Japanese sample-return Spacecraft, MUSES-C. |-id=914|

text: 8914 Nickjames

text: ||  || Nick James (b. 1962), a leading CCD imager and photometrist who has produced large numbers of precision light curves of cataclysmic variables and images of unusual variables stars and comets. |-id=915|

text: 8915 Sawaishujiro

text: ||  || Shujiro Sawai (b. 1966), an engineer in charge of the chemical propulsion system of MUSES-C, the Japanese sample-return mission. |-id=919|

text: 8919 Ouyangziyuan

text: ||  || Ouyang Ziyuan (b. 1935) is a Chinese cosmochemist, geochemist and space advocate. As Chief Scientist for China's Lunar Exploration Program (LEP), he has been responsible for the development of the long-term strategic plans for China's LEP.|-id=922|

text: 8922 Kumanodake

text: Zao Kumanodake

text: , located between Miyagi and Yamagata prefectures in the northern part of mainland Japan. |-id=923|

text: 8923 Yamakawa

text: ||  || Hiroshi Yamakawa (b. 1965), an interplanetary trajectory and mission designer at ISAS. |-id=924|

text: 8924 Iruma

text: ||  || The Iruma area,

text: Saitama prefecture

text: , Japan. |-id=925|

text: 8925 Boattini

text: Andrea Boattini

text: , Italian astronomer. |-id=926|

text: 8926 Abemasanao

text: || 1996 YK || Masanao Abe (b. 1967), a planetary scientist at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=927|

text: 8927 Ryojiro

text: || 1996 YT || Ryojiro Akiba (b. 1930), a professor of astronautics and former director-general of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=929|

text: 8929 Haginoshinji

text: ||  || Shinji Hagino (b. 1959), an engineer who worked on the system design of Japanese scientific satellites such as HALCA (space VLBI satellite) and Akebono (aurora observation satellite). |-id=930|

text: 8930 Kubota

text: ||  || Takashi Kubota (b. 1960) works on intelligent robotics exploration at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. He was engaged in developing guidance, navigation and control for touchdown and asteroidal surface exploration by a rover in the Hayabusa sample return mission from (25143) Itokawa. |-id=931|

text: 8931 Hirokimatsuo

text: ||  || Hiroki Matsuo, former director general at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=932|

text: 8932 Nagatomo

text: ||  || Makoto Nagatomo (b. 1937), a pioneer in the field of electric propulsion. |-id=933|

text: 8933 Kurobe

text: ||  || The Kurobe ravine, in Toyama prefecture, is the largest and deepest in Japan. |-id=934|

text: 8934 Nishimurajun

text: ||  || Jun Nishimura (b. 1927) works in the fields of cosmic-ray physics and space systems engineering, including scientific ballooning. He served as the director general of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science between 1988 and 1992, when the Japanese government approved the development of the M-V rocket. |-id=935|

text: 8935 Beccaria

text: Cesare Beccaria

text: , Italian Enlightenment thinker †|-id=936|

text: 8936 Gianni

text: ||  || Named in honor of Gianni Ierman (b. 1955), Italian amateur astronomer, who was the first member to join the Farra d´Isonzo observatory club in 1969. He was the owner of the first club telescope and was the club president in the 1980s.|-id=937|

text: 8937 Gassan

text: Gassan

text: , a volcanic mountain in central Yamagata prefecture. |-id=939|

text: 8939 Onodajunjiro

text: ||  || Junjiro Onoda (b. 1946), director of the Mu-series satellite launcher program of the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. |-id=940|

text: 8940 Yakushimaru

text: Hiroko Yakushimaru

text: (b. 1964), a Japanese actress and singer. |-id=941|

text: 8941 Junsaito

text: ||  || Jun Saito (b. 1962), a Japan mineralogist and planetologist. |-id=942|

text: 8942 Takagi

text: ||  || Yasuhiko Takagi, Japanese planetary scientist. |-id=943|

text: 8943 Stefanozavka

text: ||  || Stefano Zavka, 20th-century Italian Alpine guide, who disappeared during his second descent from the summit of

text: 8944 Ortigara

text: Mount Ortigara

text: , located near the Asiago Astrophysical Observatory, is one of the highest peaks in the Asiago Tableland and was the location of one of the most famous and bloodiest alpine battles of World War I. |-id=945|

text: 8945 Cavaradossi

text: || 1997 CM || Named for a character in Puccini's opera

text: Tosca

text: . Cavaradossi, a revolutionary and fighter against despotism, is imprisoned and condemned to die. |-id=946|

text: 8946 Yoshimitsu

text: || 1997 CO || Tetsuo Yoshimitsu (b. 1970) works on research and development of planetary rovers and is the chief engineer of the asteroid surface explorer MINERVA for the Hayabusa mission. The novel technology resulting from his studies of mobile systems on minor-planet surfaces in a microgravity environment was installed in MINERVA. |-id=947|

text: 8947 Mizutani

text: ||  || Hitoshi Mizutani (b. 1944) works mainly on the origin and evolution of the solar system and internal structures of planets. He has been a professor at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science and played a leading role in Japanese lunar and planetary exploration. |-id=952|

text: 8952 ODAS

text: OCA-DLR Asteroid Survey

text: . |-id=954|

text: 8954 Baral

text: ||  || Jessika Baral (born 1999) is a finalist in the 2012 Broadcom MASTERS, a math and science competition for middle-school students, for her biochemistry, medicine, health science, and microbiology project. |-id=957|

text: 8957 Koujounotsuki

text: Koujounotsuki

text: , musical piece composed by

text: Rentaro Taki

text: . |-id=958|

text: 8958 Stargazer

text: ||  || This name honors in general those who since time immemorial have gazed up at the night sky in wonderment. It honors in particular the noble pursuit of amateur astronomy. |-id=959|

text: 8959 Oenanthe

text: || 2550 P-L || The

text: wheatear

text: , or Oenanthe oenanthe. |-id=960|

text: 8960 Luscinioides

text: || 2575 P-L || The

text: Savi's warbler

text: , or Locustella luscinioides. |-id=961|

text: 8961 Schoenobaenus

text: || 2702 P-L || The

text: sedge warbler

text: , or Acrocephalus schoenobaenus. |-id=962|

text: 8962 Noctua

text: || 2771 P-L || The

text: little owl

text: , or Athene noctua. |-id=963|

text: 8963 Collurio

text: || 4651 P-L || The

text: red-backed shrike

text: , or Lanius collurio. |-id=964|

text: 8964 Corax

text: || 7643 P-L || The

text: raven

text: , or Corvus corax. |-id=965|

text: 8965 Citrinella

text: || 9511 P-L || The

text: yellowhammer

text: , or Emberiza citrinella. |-id=966|

text: 8966 Hortulana

text: || 3287 T-1 || The

text: ortolan bunting

text: , or Emberiza hortulana. |-id=967|

text: 8967 Calandra

text: || 4878 T-1 || The

text: corn bunting

text: , or Miliaria calandra. |-id=968|

text: 8968 Europaeus

text: || 1212 T-2 || The

text: nightjar

text: , or Caprimulgus europaeus. |-id=969|

text: 8969 Alexandrinus

text: || 1218 T-2 || The

text: Kentish plover

text: , or Charadrius alexandrinus. |-id=970|

text: 8970 Islandica

text: || 1355 T-2 || The

text: Barrow's goldeneye

text: , or Bucephala islandica. |-id=971|

text: 8971 Leucocephala

text: || 2256 T-2 || The

text: white-headed duck

text: , or Oxyura leucocephala. |-id=972|

text: 8972 Sylvatica

text: || 2319 T-2 || The

text: Andalusian hemipode

text: , or Turnix sylvatica. |-id=973|

text: 8973 Pratincola

text: || 3297 T-2 || The wading bird

text: Glareola pratincola

text: , or

text: collared pratincole

text: . |-id=974|

text: 8974 Gregaria

text: || 3357 T-2 || The

text: sociable plover

text: , or Chettusia gregaria. |-id=975|

text: 8975 Atthis

text: || 4076 T-2 || The

text: kingfisher

text: , or Alcedo atthis. |-id=976|

text: 8976 Leucura

text: || 4221 T-2 || The

text: black wheatear

text: , or Oenanthe leucura. |-id=977|

text: 8977 Paludicola

text: || 4272 T-2 || The

text: aquatic warbler

text: , or Acrocephalus paludicola. |-id=978|

text: 8978 Barbatus

text: || 3109 T-3 || The

text: lammergeier

text: , or Gypaetus barbatus. |-id=979|

text: 8979 Clanga

text: || 3476 T-3 || The

text: greater spotted eagle

text: , or Aquila clanga. |-id=980|

text: 8980 Heliaca

text: || 4190 T-3 || The

text: imperial eagle

text: , or Aquila heliaca. |-id=982|

text: 8982 Oreshek

text: Oreshek

text: , an ancient Russian fortress built in 1323. |-id=983|

text: 8983 Rayakazakova

text: ||  || Raisa Konstantinovna Kazakova, a celestial mechanician at the Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics. |-id=984|

text: 8984 Derevyanko

text: ||  || Tatiana Timofeevna Derevyanko, a cinema-artist and director of the Dovzhenko Museum at the Dovzhenko Film Studio in Kiev. |-id=985|

text: 8985 Tula

text: Tula

text: , a city in Russian Federation, the administrative focus of the region and prominent industrial and cultural center. |-id=986|

text: 8986 Kineyayasuyo

text: Yasuyo Kineya

text: , elder sister of the discoverer|-id=990|

text: 8990 Compassion

text: || 1980 DN ||

text: Compassion

text: (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=991|

text: 8991 Solidarity

text: Solidarity

text: (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=992|

text: 8992 Magnanimity

text: Magnanimity

text: (named after September 11, 2001, to honour the victims of disasters everywhere) †|-id=993|

text: 8993 Ingstad

text: || 1980 UL ||

text: Helge Ingstad

text: Norwegian

text: explorer and scientist. |-id=994|

text: 8994 Kashkashian

text: || 1980 VG ||

text: Kim Kashkashian

text: , a classical violinist. |-id=995|

text: 8995 Rachelstevenson

text: ||  || Rachel Stevenson (b. 1984), a postdoctoral fellow at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. |-id=996|

text: 8996 Waynedwards

text: ||  || Wayne N. Edwards (b. 1977), a research scientist with the Canadian Hazards Information Service. |-id=997|

text: 8997 Davidblewett

text: ||  || David T. Blewett (b. 1959), a senior staff member at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. |-id=998|

text: 8998 Matthewizawa

text: ||  || Matthew Richard Mitsuomi Izawa (b. 1979), a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Winnipeg. |-id=999|

text: 8999 Tashadunn

text: ||  || Tasha L. Dunn (b. 1978), a professor in the Department of Geology at Colby College. |-id=000|

text: 9000 Hal

text: || 1981 JO ||

text: HAL 9000

text: , fictional computer in

text: Space Odyssey

text: series|}

text: Tombaugh Regio , nicknamed The Heart after its shape, is the largest bright surface feature of the dwarf planet Pluto. It is just north of the equator, to the northeast of Cthulhu Regio and to the northwest of Krun Macula, both dark features. Its western lobe, a 1000 km-wide plain of nitrogen and other ices, is named Sputnik Planitia. The eastern lobe is thought to consist of high-albedo uplands coated by nitrogen transported through the atmosphere from Sputnik Planitia, and then deposited as ice. Some of this nitrogen ice then returns to Sputnik Planitia via glacial flow. It is named after Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto.

text: Tombaugh Regio , nicknamed The Heart after its shape, is the largest bright surface feature of the

text: dwarf planet

text: Pluto

text: . It is just north of the equator, to the northeast of

text: Cthulhu Regio

text: and to the northwest of

text: Krun Macula

text: , both dark features. Its western lobe, a 1000 km-wide plain of

text: nitrogen

text: and other ices, is named

text: Sputnik Planitia

text: . The eastern lobe is thought to consist of high-albedo uplands coated by nitrogen transported through the atmosphere from Sputnik Planitia, and then deposited as ice. Some of this nitrogen ice then returns to Sputnik Planitia via glacial flow. It is named after

text: Clyde Tombaugh

text: , the discoverer of Pluto.

text: It is still early in mankind's expansion into space, and exploration has reached little beyond 40 light years from Earth. As of the time period of the game, each of the three Arms is saddled with a particular difficulty. The French Arm is the route along which the alien Kafer are pushing an aggressive invasion into Human space. The Chinese Arm is beset by an insurgent terrorist faction. The American Arm has reached a dead end, further expansion along it impossible under available technology.

text: Sputnik () is the rural locality (a Posyolok) in Pechengsky District of Murmansk Oblast, Russia. The village is located beyond the Arctic circle. Located at a height of 83 m above sea level.

text: Sputnik () is the

text: rural locality

text: (a

text: Posyolok

text: ) in

text: Pechengsky District

text: of

text: Murmansk Oblast

text: Russia

text: . The village is located beyond the

text: Arctic circle

text: . Located at a height of 83 m above sea level.

text: Rocket launches used for space exploration continue to gain popularity as the human population grows and technology advances toward the future. Large increases in rocket launch demand could come about for a variety of reasons, including national decisions regarding security, space exploration, significant reductions in launch costs, or the emergence of new markets such as space tourism, manufacturing, or solar power. Rocket launches can affect the natural environment, most specifically the composition of the atmosphere as they travel through it. A major environmental problem faced today is the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere by rockets and other molecular species such as chlorofluorocarbons. Up to forty percent of the total ozone present in the wake of a rocket is destroyed from rocket plumes. Ozone concentrations are calculated using ultraviolet and visible light radiometers attached to rockets. Calculations analyzed from these radiometers are where scientists first noticed the depletion of ozone caused by rockets.

text: Rocket launches used for space exploration continue to gain popularity as the human population grows and technology advances toward the future. Large increases in

text: rocket launch

text: demand could come about for a variety of reasons, including

text: national decisions regarding security

text: space exploration

text: , significant reductions in launch costs, or the emergence of new markets such as space tourism, manufacturing, or solar power. Rocket launches can affect the natural environment, most specifically the composition of the atmosphere as they travel through it. A major environmental problem faced today is the depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere by rockets and other molecular species such as

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: . Up to forty percent of the total ozone present in the wake of a rocket is destroyed from rocket plumes. Ozone concentrations are calculated using

text: ultraviolet

text: and visible light

text: radiometers

text: attached to rockets. Calculations analyzed from these radiometers are where scientists first noticed the depletion of ozone caused by rockets.

text: The Space Bar is an adventure game co-developed by Boffo Games and published by Rocket Science Games and SegaSoft in 1997. The game featured a 3-D environment which allowed the player to rotate (as opposed to Rocket Science's earlier production Obsidian in which the camera was usually fixed), and a humorous cast of aliens in the framework of a mystery. The player fills the role of a detective, interacting with characters and objects via a first-person interface. The name itself is a pun, as the game takes place in a bar in outer space—literally a "space bar" rather than the space bar found on a computer's keyboard.

text: The Space Bar is an

text: adventure game

text: co-developed by

text: Boffo Games

text: and published by

text: Rocket Science Games

text: and

text: SegaSoft

text: in 1997. The game featured a 3-D environment which allowed the player to rotate (as opposed to Rocket Science's earlier production

text: Obsidian

text: in which the camera was usually fixed), and a humorous cast of aliens in the framework of a mystery. The player fills the role of a detective, interacting with characters and objects via a first-person interface. The name itself is a pun, as the game takes place in a

text: bar

text: in

text: outer space

text: —literally a "space bar" rather than the

text: space bar

text: found on a computer's keyboard.

text: The ceiling and flooring for the entrance building was done in reds, yellows, and oranges. A large white pylon structure had the RCA logo placed above it in three areas, and four passengers, dressed as astronauts, were placed in an original four seater vehicle, which was attached to the pylon. Below the pylon, in a planter was Space Mountain's dedication plaque which read: "ONE GIANT STEP... Dedicated to the men and women whose skills, sacrifice, courage and teamwork opened the door to the exploration of man's exciting new frontier...outer space. Because they dared to reach for the stars and the planets, man's knowledge of his universe, earth and himself has been greatly enriched. Presented by missile, space and range pioneers. January 15, 1975."

text: Protostar: War on the Frontier is a 1993 science fiction video game produced by Tsunami Media that blends elements of role-playing, space exploration, space combat, and strategy.  The player commands a spaceship from a first-person perspective in real-time capable of traveling to the various planets in the game world and launching an explorer vessel to traverse their surfaces.  Several sentient alien races inhabit the region with whom the player interacts through friendly conversation, intense spaceship combat, or barter at their planetary trading posts.  One of these races, the Skeetch, is aggressively threatening to conquer the Earth; the player has been recruited to convince the other sentient races in the region to join humanity in an alliance against the Skeetch.  A secondary goal of the game is to earn money by performing actions such as selling alien lifeforms and minerals collected on planetary surfaces to obtain the funds needed to upgrade the player's spaceship and improve the odds of survival in confrontations with the Skeetch and other hostile entities.  Computer Gaming World criticized the game for failing to break new ground and for its "muddled" blend of science fiction themes, but did recommend it to players new to this genre.

text: Protostar: War on the Frontier is a 1993

text: science fiction

text: video game

text: produced by

text: Tsunami Media

text: that blends elements of

text: role-playing

text: space exploration

text: space combat

text: , and

text: strategy

text: .  The player commands a spaceship from a

text: first-person perspective

text: in

entity_name: Turns, rounds and time-keeping systems in games

text: real-time

text: capable of traveling to the various planets in the

text: game world

text: and launching an explorer vessel to traverse their surfaces.  Several

text: sentient

text: alien races inhabit the region with whom the player interacts through friendly conversation, intense spaceship combat, or

text: barter

text: at their planetary trading posts.  One of these races, the Skeetch, is aggressively threatening to conquer the Earth; the player has been recruited to convince the other sentient races in the region to join humanity in an alliance against the Skeetch.  A secondary goal of the game is to earn money by performing actions such as selling

text: alien lifeforms

text: and minerals collected on planetary surfaces to obtain the funds needed to upgrade the player's spaceship and improve the odds of survival in confrontations with the Skeetch and other hostile entities.

text: Computer Gaming World

text: criticized the game for failing to break new ground and for its "muddled" blend of

text: science fiction themes

text: , but did recommend it to players new to this

text: genre

text: The Small Astronomy Satellite 3 (SAS 3, also known as SAS-C before launch) was a NASA X-ray astronomy space telescope. It functioned from May 7, 1975 to April 1979. It covered the X-ray range with four  experiments on board.  The satellite, built by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL), was proposed and operated by MIT's Center for Space Research (CSR).  It was launched on a Scout vehicle from the Italian San Marco launch platform near Mombasa, Kenya, into a low-Earth, nearly equatorial orbit. It was also known as Explorer 53, as part of NASA's Explorer program.

text: The Small Astronomy Satellite 3 (SAS 3, also known as SAS-C before launch) was a NASA

text: X-ray astronomy

text: space telescope

text: . It functioned from May 7, 1975 to April 1979. It covered the

text: X-ray

text: range with four  experiments on board.  The satellite, built by the

text: Johns Hopkins University

text: Applied Physics Laboratory

text: (APL), was proposed and operated by

text: MIT

text: 's Center for Space Research (CSR).  It was launched on a

text: Scout

text: vehicle from the Italian

text: San Marco launch platform

text: near Mombasa, Kenya, into a low-Earth, nearly equatorial orbit. It was also known as Explorer 53, as part of NASA's

text: Explorer program

text: At the close of World War II, both the American and Russian forces recruited or smuggled top German scientists like Wernher von Braun back to their respective countries to continue defense-related work.Expendable rockets provided the means for launching artificial satellites, as well as manned spacecraft. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik I, and the United States followed with Explorer I in 1958. The first manned space flights were made in early 1961, first by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin and then by American astronaut Alan Shepard.

text: At the close of World War II, both the American and Russian forces

text: recruited or smuggled top German scientists

text: like

text: Wernher von Braun

text: back to their respective countries to continue defense-related work.Expendable rockets provided the means for launching artificial

text: satellite

text: s, as well as

text: manned spacecraft

text: . In 1957 the

text: Soviet Union

text: launched the first satellite,

text: Sputnik I

text: , and the United States followed with

text: Explorer I

text: in 1958. The first manned space flights were made in early 1961, first by Soviet cosmonaut

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: and then by American astronaut

text: Alan Shepard

text: Vanguard 1 (ID: 1958-Beta 2) was the fourth artificial Earth orbital satellite launched (after Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2, and Explorer 1). It was the first satellite to be solar powered. Although communication with it was lost in 1964, it remains the oldest manmade satellite still in orbit. It was designed to test the launch capabilities of a three-stage launch vehicle as a part of Project Vanguard, and the effects of the environment on a satellite and its systems in Earth orbit. It also was used to obtain geodetic measurements through orbit analysis. Vanguard 1 was described by then-Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev as, "The grapefruit satellite."

text: Vanguard 1 (

text: ID

text: : 1958-Beta 2) was the fourth artificial

text: Earth

text: orbital

text: satellite

text: launched (after

text: Sputnik 1

text: Sputnik 2

text: , and

text: Explorer 1

text: ). It was the first satellite to be

text: solar power

text: ed. Although communication with it was lost in 1964, it remains the oldest manmade satellite still in orbit. It was designed to test the launch capabilities of a three-stage

text: launch vehicle

text: as a part of

text: Project Vanguard

text: , and the effects of the environment on a satellite and its systems in Earth orbit. It also was used to obtain

text: geodetic

text: measurements through orbit analysis. Vanguard 1 was described by then-

text: Soviet Premier

text: Nikita Khrushchev

text: as, "The grapefruit satellite."

text: The NASA Academy states its mission as follows: "to identify and recruit the future leaders of the space exploration community, to introduce them to the key aspects of the industry, to provide them with critical training, and to build an ever-expanding network of these future leaders, so that these young scientists and engineers are prepared to assume the highest responsibilities of a career dedicated to leadership in space exploration."

text: Rockets consist of a propellant, a place to put propellant (such as a propellant tank), and a nozzle. They may also have one or more rocket engines, directional stabilization device(s) (such as fins, vernier engines or engine gimbals for thrust vectoring, gyroscopes) and a structure (typically monocoque) to hold these components together. Rockets intended for high speed atmospheric use also have an aerodynamic fairing such as a nose cone, which usually holds the payload.

text: Rockets consist of a

text: propellant

text: , a place to put propellant (such as a

text: propellant tank

text: ), and a

text: nozzle

text: . They may also have one or more

text: rocket engine

text: s,

text: directional stabilization device(s)

text: (such as

text: fins

text: vernier engine

text: s or engine

text: gimbal

text: s for

text: thrust vectoring

text: gyroscope

text: s) and a structure (typically

text: monocoque

text: ) to hold these components together. Rockets intended for high speed atmospheric use also have an

text: aerodynamic

text: fairing such as a

text: nose cone

text: , which usually holds the payload.

text: GEODSS tracks objects in deep space, or from about 3,000 mi (4,800 km) out to beyond geosynchronous altitudes. GEODSS requires nighttime and clear weather tracking because of the inherent limitations of an optical system. Each site has three telescopes. The telescopes have a 40-inch (1.02 m) aperture and a two-degree field of view. The telescopes are able to "see" objects 10,000 times dimmer than the human eye can detect. This sensitivity, and sky background during daytime that masks satellites reflected light, dictates that the system operate at night. As with any ground-based optical system, cloud cover and local weather conditions directly influence its effectiveness. GEODSS system can track objects as small as a basketball more than 20,000 miles (30,000 km) in space or a chair at 35,000 miles (56,000 km), and is a vital part of USSTRATCOM’s Space Surveillance Network. Distant Molniya orbiting satellites are often detected in elliptical orbits that surpass the Moon and back (245,000 miles out). Each GEODSS site tracks approximately 3,000 objects per night out of 9,900 object that are regularly tracked and accounted for. Objects crossing the International Space Station (ISS) orbit within 20 miles (32 km) will cause the ISS to adjust their orbit to avoid collision. The oldest object tracked is Object #4 (Vanguard 1) launched in 1958

text: GEODSS tracks objects in

text: deep space

text: , or from about 3,000 mi (4,800 km) out to beyond

text: geosynchronous

text: altitudes. GEODSS requires nighttime and clear weather tracking because of the inherent limitations of an optical system. Each site has three telescopes. The telescopes have a 40-inch (1.02 m) aperture and a two-degree field of view. The telescopes are able to "see" objects 10,000 times dimmer than the human eye can detect. This sensitivity, and sky background during daytime that masks satellites reflected light, dictates that the system operate at night. As with any ground-based optical system, cloud cover and local weather conditions directly influence its effectiveness. GEODSS system can track objects as small as a basketball more than 20,000 miles (30,000 km) in space or a chair at 35,000 miles (56,000 km), and is a vital part of USSTRATCOM’s Space Surveillance Network. Distant

text: Molniya

text: orbiting satellites are often detected in

text: elliptical orbits

text: that surpass the

text: Moon

text: and back (245,000 miles out). Each GEODSS site tracks approximately 3,000 objects per night out of 9,900 object that are regularly tracked and accounted for. Objects crossing the International Space Station (ISS) orbit within 20 miles (32 km) will cause the ISS to adjust their orbit to avoid collision. The oldest object tracked is Object #4 (

text: Vanguard 1

text: ) launched in 1958

text: This is for a timeline of space exploration including notable achievements and first accomplishments in humanity's exploration of outer space.

text: This is for a timeline of

text: space exploration

text: including notable achievements and first accomplishments in humanity's exploration of

text: outer space

text: Liquid oxygen is a common cryogenic liquid oxidizer propellant for spacecraft rocket applications, usually in combination with liquid hydrogen, kerosene or methane.  Liquid oxygen is useful in this role because it creates a high specific impulse. It was used in the very first rocket applications like the V2 missile (under the name A-Stoff and Sauerstoff) and Redstone, R-7 Semyorka, Atlas boosters, and the ascent stages of the Apollo Saturn rockets. Liquid oxygen was also used in some early ICBMs, although more modern ICBMs do not use liquid oxygen because its cryogenic properties and need for regular replenishment to replace boiloff make it harder to maintain and launch quickly. Many modern rockets use liquid oxygen, including the main engines on the now-retired Space Shuttle.

text: Liquid oxygen is a common

text: cryogenic

text: liquid

text: oxidizer

text: propellant for

text: spacecraft rocket

text: applications, usually in combination with

text: liquid hydrogen

text: kerosene

text: or

text: methane

text: .  Liquid oxygen is useful in this role because it creates a high

text: specific impulse

text: . It was used in the very first rocket applications like the

text: missile (under the name A-Stoff and Sauerstoff) and

text: Redstone

text: R-7 Semyorka

text: Atlas

text: boosters, and the ascent stages of the

text: Apollo Saturn rockets

text: . Liquid oxygen was also used in some early

text: ICBM

text: s, although more modern ICBMs do not use liquid oxygen because its cryogenic properties and need for regular replenishment to replace boiloff make it harder to maintain and launch quickly. Many modern rockets use liquid oxygen, including the main engines on the now-retired

text: Space Shuttle

text: "Space Race", which was written and directed by series creator Adam Reed, is a parody of the 1979 spy film Moonraker, the eleventh film of the James Bond cinema franchise. Additionally, the episode is instilled with multiple references to science fiction cinema, including the popular films Aliens, The Right Stuff, and Star Wars Episode IV, as well as political events such as the  Cold War's space exploration competition between the Soviet Union and the United States. Cranston guest starred in the program, alongside actor Dave Willis, who reprised his role as recurring antagonist Barry Dylan.

text: "Space Race", which was written and directed by series creator

text: Adam Reed

text: , is a parody of the 1979 spy film

text: Moonraker

text: , the eleventh film of the

text: James Bond cinema franchise

text: . Additionally, the episode is instilled with multiple references to science fiction cinema, including the popular films

text: Aliens

text: The Right Stuff

text: , and

text: Star Wars Episode IV

text: , as well as political events such as the

text: Cold War

text: 's

text: space exploration

text: competition between the Soviet Union and the United States. Cranston guest starred in the program, alongside actor

text: Dave Willis

text: , who reprised his role as recurring antagonist Barry Dylan.

text: JPL and MPC give different parameters for the orbit of , affecting whether the orbit type should be considered an Apollo asteroid or an Amor asteroid. JPL includes non-gravitational acceleration parameters in the orbital solution.

text: JPL

text: and

text: MPC

text: give different parameters for the orbit of , affecting whether the orbit type should be considered an

text: Apollo asteroid

text: or an

text: Amor asteroid

text: . JPL includes non-gravitational acceleration parameters in the orbital solution.

text: Because of its various inconveniences, Building 20 was never considered to be prime space, in spite of its location in the central campus.  As a result, Building 20 served as an "incubator" for all sorts of start-up or experimental research, teaching, or student groups on  a crowded campus where space was (and remains) at a premium. The experimental Concourse teaching group, the Independent Studies Program (ISP), and the High School Studies Program (HSSP) all found initial homes here.  Some of the early work of the Educational Research Center (ERC) and the Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC), which reformed teaching of high school physics in the post-Sputnik years, was started here. The closing of the ERC was followed by the establishment of the Division for Study and Research in Education (DSRE). Coordinated by Benson R. Snyder, Donald A. Schon and Seymour Papert, the DSRE was an innovative interdisciplinary center for “learning about learning” at the individual, institutional and societal levels, and made significant contributions to the development of the field of cognitive science.

text: Because of its various inconveniences, Building 20 was never considered to be prime space, in spite of its location in the central campus.  As a result, Building 20 served as an "incubator" for all sorts of start-up or experimental research, teaching, or student groups on  a crowded campus where space was (and remains) at a premium. The experimental Concourse teaching group, the Independent Studies Program (ISP), and the High School Studies Program (HSSP) all found initial homes here.  Some of the early work of the Educational Research Center (ERC) and the

text: Physical Science Study Committee

text: (PSSC), which reformed teaching of high school physics in the post-

text: Sputnik

text: years, was started here. The closing of the ERC was followed by the establishment of the Division for Study and Research in Education (DSRE). Coordinated by Benson R. Snyder, Donald A. Schon and

text: Seymour Papert

text: , the DSRE was an innovative interdisciplinary center for “learning about learning” at the individual, institutional and societal levels, and made significant contributions to the development of the field of cognitive science.

text: Lucian's Icaromenippus and True History, written in the 2nd century AD, deal with imaginary voyages to the moon such as on a fountain after going past the Pillars of Hercules. The theme did not become popular until the 17th century, however, when the invention of the telescope hastened the popular acceptance of the concept of "a world in the Moon", that is, that the Moon was an inhabitable planet, which might be reached via some sort of aërial carriage. The concept of another world, close to our own and capable of looking down at it from a distance, provided ample scope for satirical comments on the manners of the Earthly world. Among the early stories dealing with this concept are:

text: Lucian

text: 's

text: Icaromenippus

text: and

text: True History

text: , written in the 2nd century AD, deal with

text: imaginary voyage

text: s to the moon such as on a fountain after going past the

text: Pillars of Hercules

text: . The theme did not become popular until the 17th century, however, when the invention of the

text: telescope

text: hastened the popular acceptance of the concept of "a world in the Moon", that is, that the Moon was an inhabitable planet, which might be reached via some sort of aërial carriage. The concept of another world, close to our own and capable of looking down at it from a distance, provided ample scope for satirical comments on the manners of the Earthly world. Among the early stories dealing with this concept are:

text: The Vanguard "Satellite Launch Vehicle", a term invented for the operational SLV rockets as opposed to the Test Vehicle TV versions, was a much smaller and lighter launcher than the Redstone-based Jupiter-C/Juno 1 rocket which launched the Explorer satellites, or the immense R-7 that the Soviets used to launch the early Sputniks.

text: The Vanguard "Satellite Launch Vehicle", a term invented for the operational SLV rockets as opposed to the Test Vehicle TV versions, was a much smaller and lighter launcher than the

text: Redstone

text: -based

text: Jupiter-C

text: Juno 1

text: rocket which launched the Explorer satellites, or the immense

text: that the Soviets used to launch the early Sputniks.

text: The Little Man explores the deep seas and then flies to space in a rocket (anticipating Yuri Gagarin's spaceflight by five years).

text: The Little Man explores the deep seas and then flies to space in a rocket (anticipating

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: 's spaceflight by five years).

text: Explorer 1 was designed and built by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), while a Jupiter-C rocket was modified by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) to accommodate a satellite payload; the resulting rocket known as the Juno I. The Jupiter-C design used for the launch had already been flight-tested in nose cone reentry tests for the Jupiter IRBM, and was modified into Juno I. Working closely together, ABMA and JPL completed the job of modifying the Jupiter-C and building Explorer 1 in 84 days. However, before work was completed, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, Sputnik 2, on November 3, 1957. The U.S. Navy's attempt to put the first U.S. satellite into orbit failed with the launch of the Vanguard TV3 on December 6, 1957.

text: Explorer 1 was designed and built by the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: (JPL), while a

text: Jupiter-C

text: rocket was modified by the

text: Army Ballistic Missile Agency

text: (ABMA) to accommodate a satellite

text: payload

text: ; the resulting rocket known as the

text: Juno I

text: . The Jupiter-C design used for the launch had already been flight-tested in

text: nose cone

text: reentry

text: tests for the

text: Jupiter

text: IRBM

text: , and was modified into Juno I. Working closely together, ABMA and JPL completed the job of modifying the Jupiter-C and building Explorer 1 in 84 days. However, before work was completed, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite,

text: Sputnik 2

text: , on November 3, 1957. The U.S. Navy's attempt to put the first U.S. satellite into orbit failed with the launch of the

text: Vanguard TV3

text: on December 6, 1957.

text: The original Space Mouse first appeared in Space Mouse #1, cover dated April 1953. He appeared regularly in a number of Avon titles throughout 1953, then only sporadically from 1954 to around 1956.The introductory story of Space Mouse is entitled "The Great Electro!" A large, brutish cat named Electro calls Earth from Mercury. He informs Space Mouse that a group of Earth's explorers had landed on Mercury, and have been captured and are being held prisoner. They will be held as slaves as a warning to the rest of Earth. Space Mouse and his girlfriend Millie head off to Mercury in the hero's rocket ship. As they approach the planet, Electro shoots bolts of lightning at them, to no effect. Next they are hit with sound waves, and need to pull out of range. They soon learn that the entire city is covered with electrical wiring. The duo try to sneak in, but Electro is watching. They are captured and imprisoned, but Space Mouse spots some loose wires and successfully blows a fuse. The hero short-circuits Electro with his ray gun, causing the cat to become frail. Space Mouse discovers that the explorers have been turned into horses, but he is easily able to turn them back to normal with his ray gun. The hero then escorts the freed explorers back to Earth.

text: The original Space Mouse first appeared in Space Mouse #1, cover dated April 1953. He appeared regularly in a number of Avon titles throughout 1953, then only sporadically from 1954 to around 1956.The introductory story of Space Mouse is entitled "The Great Electro!" A large, brutish cat named Electro calls Earth from

text: Mercury

text: . He informs Space Mouse that a group of Earth's explorers had landed on Mercury, and have been captured and are being held prisoner. They will be held as slaves as a warning to the rest of Earth. Space Mouse and his girlfriend Millie head off to Mercury in the hero's rocket ship. As they approach the planet, Electro shoots bolts of lightning at them, to no effect. Next they are hit with sound waves, and need to pull out of range. They soon learn that the entire city is covered with electrical wiring. The duo try to sneak in, but Electro is watching. They are captured and imprisoned, but Space Mouse spots some loose wires and successfully blows a fuse. The hero short-circuits Electro with his

text: ray gun

text: , causing the cat to become frail. Space Mouse discovers that the explorers have been turned into horses, but he is easily able to turn them back to normal with his ray gun. The hero then escorts the freed explorers back to Earth.

text: Beginning in 1999, she worked at the Leiden Observatory and was a professor at both the University of Amsterdam and Leiden University in the Netherlands. She was also a professor at Radboud University Nijmegen, in the Netherlands. In 2001, she became the head of the Astrobiology Laboratory at Leiden and participated as the teamleader, co-investigator and principal investigator in numerous experiments and space missions sponsored by both the ESA and NASA. In 2005, Ehrenfreund came to the United States to work at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California and was the project scientist of NASA’s O/OREOS satellite. In 2008, she accepted a position as a research professor and policy expert at the Space Policy Institute of George Washington University (GWU) in Washington, D.C. and as a senior scientist at the NASA Astrobiology Institute. She  chaires the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) panel on exploration. Ehrenfreund has written over 300 scientific research papers, holds an H-index of 59 and published 12 books.

text: Beginning in 1999, she worked at the Leiden Observatory and was a professor at both the

text: University of Amsterdam

text: and

text: Leiden University

text: in the Netherlands. She was also a professor at

text: Radboud University Nijmegen

text: , in the Netherlands. In 2001, she became the head of the Astrobiology Laboratory at Leiden and participated as the teamleader, co-investigator and principal investigator in numerous experiments and space missions sponsored by both the ESA and NASA. In 2005, Ehrenfreund came to the United States to work at the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: in

text: Pasadena, California

text: and was the project scientist of NASA’s

text: O/OREOS

text: satellite. In 2008, she accepted a position as a research professor and policy expert at the Space Policy Institute of

text: George Washington University

text: (GWU) in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: and as a senior scientist at the

text: NASA Astrobiology Institute

text: . She  chaires the

text: Committee on Space Research

text: (COSPAR) panel on exploration. Ehrenfreund has written over 300 scientific research papers, holds an H-index of 59 and published 12 books.

text: Closing the book are two missions that explore the edges of space and time. The Hubble Space Telescope has embedded itself deeply into the consciousness of the general public and has contributed to every area of astrophysics. In particular it has quantified the limits of our vision, a region 46 billion light years in any direction, which contains roughly 100 billion galaxies. The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe was a specialist mission to map the microwave sky and pin down physical conditions in the infant universe. By confirming the big bang model in great detail, this microwave satellite has shown that there are likely innumerable distant worlds out there whose light has not yet reached us in the time since the big bang.

text: Closing the book are two missions that explore the edges of space and time. The

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: has embedded itself deeply into the consciousness of the general public and has contributed to every area of

text: astrophysics

text: . In particular it has quantified the limits of our vision, a region 46 billion

text: light years

text: in any direction, which contains roughly 100 billion galaxies. The

text: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe

text: was a specialist mission to map the microwave sky and pin down physical conditions in the infant universe. By confirming the

text: big bang

text: model in great detail, this microwave satellite has shown that there are likely innumerable distant worlds out there whose light has not yet reached us in the time since the big bang.

text: As a newsman, Cronkite devoted his attention to the early days of the space program, and the "space race" between the United States and the Soviet Union. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration honored Cronkite on February 28, 2006. Michael Coats, director of NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, presented Cronkite with the Ambassador of Exploration Award. Cronkite was the first non-astronaut thus honored.

text: As a newsman, Cronkite devoted his attention to the early days of the space program, and the "

text: space race

text: " between the United States and the Soviet Union. The

text: honored Cronkite on February 28, 2006.

text: Michael Coats

text: , director of NASA's

text: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

text: in Houston, presented Cronkite with the Ambassador of Exploration Award. Cronkite was the first non-astronaut thus honored.

text: The Soviet space program pioneered many aspects of space exploration:

text: A geostationary orbit is a particular type of geosynchronous orbit, the distinction being that while an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to the same point in the sky at the same time each day, an object in geostationary orbit never leaves that position.

text: A

text: geostationary

text: orbit is a particular type of

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: , the distinction being that while an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to the same point in the sky at the same time each day, an object in geostationary orbit never leaves that position.

text: Along with developing an off road racing program under Off-Road International, they also worked to create Scientific Exploration Vehicles as well as a line of off road accessories. In 2007, Racefab Inc., working with NASA was contracted to work on the design and construction of two Lunar Electric Rovers under the Advanced Explorations Systems Program. These were constructed for the planned 2020 Orion Missions for the planned return to the moon. In 2009, the Racefab Inc. built rovers participated in the First inauguration of Barack Obama concluding the ceremonies. The rovers were later featured in an episode of Top Gear as well as many other print publications. After the Orion program was cancelled, the rovers were reclassified as Space Exploration Vehicles and given new missions for the future including Mars Exploration as well as asteroid landings. The rovers can be seen in action on Mars before they launch however in the movie The Martian (film) starring Matt Damon.

text: Along with developing an off road racing program under Off-Road International, they also worked to create Scientific Exploration Vehicles as well as a line of off road accessories. In 2007, Racefab Inc., working with

text: NASA

text: was contracted to work on the design and construction of two

text: Lunar Electric Rover

text: s under the Advanced Explorations Systems Program. These were constructed for the planned 2020 Orion Missions for the planned return to the moon. In 2009, the Racefab Inc. built rovers participated in the

text: First inauguration of Barack Obama

text: concluding the ceremonies. The rovers were later featured in an episode of

text: Top Gear

text: as well as many other print publications. After the Orion program was cancelled, the rovers were reclassified as Space Exploration Vehicles and given new missions for the future including Mars Exploration as well as asteroid landings. The rovers can be seen in action on Mars before they launch however in the movie

text: The Martian (film)

text: starring

text: Matt Damon

text: The Decepticons return in Transformers: Dark of the Moon with the plan to use a Space Bridge to bring an army to Earth and transport Cybertron into orbit to rebuild the planet with Earth's natural resources and human population as slaves. Megatron and Sentinel Prime planned this a long time ago, planning to meet on Earth before Megatron went after the Allspark and ended up frozen and the Ark was shot down by Decepticon fighters (few Decepticons knew of the plan) and crashed on Earth's Moon in 1961. This was detected by the Americans and the Russians and the space programs were created to reach the ship and study it. However, by 1963 the Decepticons had raided the Ark and removed all but five of the pillars and hid them on the Moon along with an army of hundreds of Decepticons, awaiting the time that the pillars would be used. After humans successfully reached the Moon and explored the ship, Soundwave and Laserbeak approached various humans including Dylan Gould's father to get them to shut down the American and Russian space programs.

text: The Decepticons return in

text: Transformers: Dark of the Moon

text: with the plan to use a

text: Space Bridge

text: to bring an army to Earth and transport Cybertron into orbit to rebuild the planet with Earth's natural resources and human population as slaves. Megatron and

text: Sentinel Prime

text: planned this a long time ago, planning to meet on Earth before Megatron went after the Allspark and ended up frozen and the Ark was shot down by Decepticon fighters (few Decepticons knew of the plan) and crashed on Earth's Moon in 1961. This was detected by the Americans and the Russians and the space programs were created to reach the ship and study it. However, by 1963 the Decepticons had raided the Ark and removed all but five of the pillars and hid them on the Moon along with an army of hundreds of Decepticons, awaiting the time that the pillars would be used. After humans successfully reached the Moon and explored the ship,

text: Soundwave

text: and

text: Laserbeak

text: approached various humans including

entity_name: List of Transformers film series characters

text: Dylan Gould

text: 's father to get them to shut down the American and Russian space programs.

text: The leader of the Predacon team is Megatron. He and his forces are a splinter group on the hunt for powerful crystals known as Energon, (Though in The Agenda (Part 1) it's revealed Megatron got the location of energon as a bonus) to be used in a ploy for power and dominance. They do this with the aid of an artifact known as the Golden Disk and Megatron's stolen ship, the Darksyde, which is equipped with a transwarp drive. A Maximal exploration ship, the Axalon, led by Optimus Primal, is sent to stop them. Together the ships plunge through a time/space phenomenon created by the transwarp device during their battle in space, and crash-land on a mysterious planet.

text: The leader of the Predacon team is

text: Megatron

text: . He and his forces are a splinter group on the hunt for powerful crystals known as Energon, (Though in The Agenda (Part 1) it's revealed Megatron got the location of energon as a bonus) to be used in a ploy for power and dominance. They do this with the aid of an artifact known as the

text: Golden Disk

text: and Megatron's stolen ship, the

text: Darksyde

text: , which is equipped with a transwarp drive. A Maximal exploration ship, the

text: Axalon

text: , led by

text: Optimus Primal

text: , is sent to stop them. Together the ships plunge through a time/space phenomenon created by the transwarp device during their battle in space, and

text: crash-land on a mysterious planet

text: The satellite is part of an international research and educational youth program of near-Earth space exploration. The mission's objectives are:

text: The Space Race began with the 1957 launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik 1. This came as a shock to the American public, and led to the creation of NASA to expedite existing U.S. space exploration efforts, and place most of them under civilian control. After the successful launch of the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958, manned spaceflight became the next goal. The Soviet Union put the first human, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, into a single orbit aboard Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961. Shortly after this,  on May 5, the U.S. launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight. Soviet Gherman Titov followed with a day-long orbital flight in August, 1961. The U.S. reached its orbital goal on February 20, 1962, when John Glenn made three orbits around the Earth. When Mercury ended in May 1963, both nations had sent six people into space, but the Soviets led the U.S. in total time spent in space.

text: The Space Race began with the 1957 launch of the Soviet

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: . This came as a shock to the American public, and led to the creation of NASA to expedite existing U.S. space exploration efforts, and place most of them under civilian control. After the successful launch of the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite in 1958, manned spaceflight became the next goal. The Soviet Union put the first human,

text: cosmonaut

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: , into a single orbit aboard

text: Vostok 1

text: on April 12, 1961. Shortly after this,  on May 5, the U.S. launched its first astronaut,

text: Alan Shepard

text: , on a

text: suborbital

text: flight. Soviet

text: Gherman Titov

text: followed with a day-long orbital flight in August, 1961. The U.S. reached its orbital goal on February 20, 1962, when

text: John Glenn

text: made three orbits around the Earth. When Mercury ended in May 1963, both nations had sent six people into space, but the Soviets led the U.S. in total time spent in space.

text: Moonwatch complemented the professional system of satellite tracking stations that Fred Whipple organized around the globe. These two networks – one composed of amateurs and the other of seasoned professionals – helped further Whipple’s personal goals of expanding his own astronomical empire. Operation Moonwatch was the most successful amateur activity of the IGY and it became the public face of a satellite tracking network that expanded the Smithsonian’s global reach. Whipple used satellite tracking as a gateway for his observatory to participate in new research opportunities that appeared in the early years of space exploration.

text: The constellation consists of 66 active satellites in orbit required for global coverage, and additional spare satellites to serve in case of failure. Satellites are in low Earth orbit at a height of approximately  and inclination of 86.4°. Orbital velocity of the satellites is approximately .  Satellites communicate with neighboring satellites via  inter-satellite links. Each satellite can have four inter-satellite links: two to neighbors fore and aft in the same orbital plane, and two to satellites in neighboring planes to either side. The satellites orbit from pole to same pole with an orbital period of roughly 100 minutes. This design means that there is excellent satellite visibility and service coverage even at the North and South poles. The over-the-pole orbital design produces "seams" where satellites in counter-rotating planes next to one another are traveling in opposite directions.  Cross-seam inter-satellite link hand-offs would have to happen very rapidly and cope with large Doppler shifts; therefore, Iridium supports inter-satellite links only between satellites orbiting in the same direction. The constellation of 66 active satellites has 6 orbital planes spaced 30 degrees apart, with 11 satellites in each plane (not counting spares). The original concept was to have 77 satellites, which is where the name Iridium came from, being the element with the atomic number 77 and the satellites evoking the Bohr model image of electrons orbiting around the Earth as its nucleus. This reduced set of 6 planes is sufficient to cover the entire Earth's surface at every moment.

text: The constellation consists of 66 active satellites in orbit required for global coverage, and additional spare satellites to serve in case of failure. Satellites are in

text: low Earth orbit

text: at a height of approximately  and

text: inclination

text: of 86.4°. Orbital velocity of the satellites is approximately .  Satellites communicate with neighboring satellites via  inter-satellite links. Each satellite can have four inter-satellite links: two to neighbors fore and aft in the same orbital plane, and two to satellites in neighboring planes to either side. The satellites orbit from pole to same pole with an orbital period of roughly 100 minutes. This design means that there is excellent satellite visibility and service coverage even at the North and South poles. The over-the-pole orbital design produces "seams" where satellites in counter-rotating planes next to one another are traveling in opposite directions.  Cross-seam inter-satellite link hand-offs would have to happen very rapidly and cope with large

text: Doppler shifts

text: ; therefore, Iridium supports inter-satellite links only between satellites orbiting in the same direction. The constellation of 66 active satellites has 6

text: orbital plane

text: s spaced 30 degrees apart, with 11 satellites in each plane (not counting spares). The original concept was to have 77 satellites, which is where the name Iridium came from, being

text: the element

text: with the atomic number 77 and the satellites evoking the

text: Bohr model

text: image of electrons orbiting around the Earth as its nucleus. This reduced set of 6 planes is sufficient to cover the entire Earth's surface at every moment.

text: Despite this trauma, Quatermass continues with his space programme, now called the British Rocket Group, and by Quatermass II (1955) is actively planning the establishment of Moon bases. In this serial we see his daughter, Paula Quatermass, who works as an assistant at the Rocket Group, but there is no sign of a wife or other children. In the fourth episode of the serial he mentions that he never reached his twenty-fifth wedding anniversary, tying in with The Quatermass Memoirs later assertion of his wife's early death.

text: Despite this trauma, Quatermass continues with his space programme, now called the British Rocket Group, and by

text: Quatermass II

text: (1955) is actively planning the establishment of

text: Moon bases

text: . In this serial we see his daughter, Paula Quatermass, who works as an assistant at the Rocket Group, but there is no sign of a wife or other children. In the fourth episode of the serial he mentions that he never reached his twenty-fifth wedding anniversary, tying in with The Quatermass Memoirs later assertion of his wife's early death.

text: Both the Soviet Union and the U.S. launched artificial satellites for this event; the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1, launched on October 4, 1957, was the first successful artificial satellite. Other significant achievements of the IGY included the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts by Explorer 1 and the defining of mid-ocean submarine ridges, an important confirmation of plate tectonics. Also detected was the rare occurrence of hard solar corpuscular radiation that could be highly dangerous for manned space flight.

text: Both the

text: Soviet Union

text: and the

text: U.S.

text: launched artificial

text: satellite

text: s for this event; the Soviet Union's

text: Sputnik 1

text: , launched on October 4, 1957, was the first successful artificial satellite. Other significant achievements of the IGY included the discovery of the

text: Van Allen radiation belts

text: by

text: Explorer 1

text: and the defining of mid-ocean submarine ridges, an important confirmation of

text: plate tectonics

text: . Also detected was the rare occurrence of hard solar corpuscular radiation that could be highly dangerous for manned

text: space flight

text: At one point, Reardon constituted Microsoft's entire Internet Explorer development team. He developed and oversaw the release of Internet Explorer 3 in 1996, and came up with the idea of bundling Internet Explorer with the Microsoft Windows operating system. IE3 was the first incarnation of Explorer to seriously compete with Netscape Navigator, which until that point had been the most popular browser. Under Reardon's leadership, Internet Explorer surpassed Netscape Navigator as the most-used web browser in the late 1990s and early 2000s, in what came to be known as the First Browser War. Reardon is one of the founders of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and worked with W3C and other standards agencies as Microsoft's representative to establish many of the standards and precedents that still govern the World Wide Web. Reardon was one of the earliest advocates and architects of the XML, CSS, and HTML languages.

text: At one point, Reardon constituted Microsoft's entire Internet Explorer development team. He developed and oversaw the release of

text: Internet Explorer 3

text: in 1996, and came up with the idea of bundling Internet Explorer with the Microsoft Windows operating system. IE3 was the first incarnation of Explorer to seriously compete with

text: Netscape Navigator

text: , which until that point had been the most popular browser. Under Reardon's leadership, Internet Explorer surpassed Netscape Navigator as the most-used web browser in the late 1990s and early 2000s, in what came to be known as the

text: First Browser War

text: . Reardon is one of the founders of the

text: World Wide Web Consortium

text: (W3C) and worked with W3C and other standards agencies as Microsoft's representative to establish many of the standards and precedents that still govern the World Wide Web. Reardon was one of the earliest advocates and architects of the

text: XML

text: CSS

text: , and

text: HTML

text: languages.

text: In response to the surprise launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957, the U.S. restarted the Explorer program, which had been proposed earlier by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA). Privately, however, the CIA and President Dwight D. Eisenhower were aware of progress being made by the Soviets on Sputnik from secret spy plane imagery. Together with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), ABMA built Explorer 1 and launched it on January 31, 1958. Before work was completed, however, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, Sputnik 2, on November 3, 1957. Meanwhile, the spectacular televised failure of Vanguard TV3 on December 6, 1957 deepened American dismay over the country's position in the Space Race.

text: In response to the

text: surprise launch

text: of

text: Sputnik 1

text: on October 4, 1957, the U.S. restarted the

text: Explorer program

text: , which had been proposed earlier by the

text: Army Ballistic Missile Agency

text: (ABMA). Privately, however, the CIA and President

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: were aware of progress being made by the Soviets on Sputnik from secret spy plane imagery. Together with the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: (JPL), ABMA built

text: Explorer 1

text: and launched it on January 31, 1958. Before work was completed, however, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite,

text: Sputnik 2

text: , on November 3, 1957. Meanwhile, the spectacular televised failure of

text: Vanguard TV3

text: on December 6, 1957 deepened American dismay over the country's position in the

text: Space Race

text: The Space Shuttle was the first operational orbital spacecraft designed for reuse. It carried different payloads to low Earth orbit, provided crew rotation and supplies for the International Space Station (ISS), and performed satellite servicing and repair. The orbiter could also recover satellites and other payloads from orbit and return them to Earth. Each Shuttle was designed for a projected lifespan of 100 launches or ten years of operational life, although this was later extended. The person in charge of designing the STS was Maxime Faget, who had also overseen the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft designs. The crucial factor in the size and shape of the Shuttle orbiter was the requirement that it be able to accommodate the largest planned commercial and military satellites, and have over 1,000 mile cross-range recovery range to meet the requirement for classified USAF missions for a once-around abort from a launch to a polar orbit. The militarily specified  cross range requirement was one of the primary reasons for the Shuttle's large wings, compared to modern commercial designs with very minimal control surfaces and glide capability. Factors involved in opting for solid rockets and an expendable fuel tank included the desire of the Pentagon to obtain a high-capacity payload vehicle for satellite deployment, and the desire of the Nixon administration to reduce the costs of space exploration by developing a spacecraft with reusable components.

text: The Space Shuttle was the first operational orbital spacecraft designed for

text: reuse

text: . It carried different payloads to low Earth orbit, provided crew rotation and supplies for the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), and performed satellite servicing and repair. The orbiter could also recover satellites and other payloads from orbit and return them to Earth. Each Shuttle was designed for a projected lifespan of 100 launches or ten years of operational life, although this was later extended. The person in charge of designing the STS was

text: Maxime Faget

text: , who had also overseen the

text: Mercury

text: Gemini

text: , and

text: Apollo

text: spacecraft designs. The crucial factor in the size and shape of the Shuttle orbiter was the requirement that it be able to accommodate the largest planned commercial and military satellites, and have over 1,000 mile cross-range recovery range to meet the requirement for classified USAF missions for a once-around abort from a launch to a

text: polar orbit

text: . The militarily specified  cross range requirement was one of the primary reasons for the Shuttle's large wings, compared to modern commercial designs with very minimal control surfaces and glide capability. Factors involved in opting for solid rockets and an expendable fuel tank included the desire of the Pentagon to obtain a high-capacity payload vehicle for satellite deployment, and the desire of the Nixon administration to reduce the costs of

text: space exploration

text: by developing a spacecraft with reusable components.

text: The Russian orbital segment's modules are able to launch, fly and dock themselves without human intervention using Proton rockets. Connections are automatically made for power, data and propulsion fluids and gases. The Russian approach allows assembly of space stations orbiting other worlds in preparation for manned missions. The Nauka module of the ISS will be used in the 12th Russian/Soviet space station, OPSEK, whose main goal is supporting manned deep space exploration.

text: The Russian orbital segment's modules are able to launch, fly and dock themselves without human intervention using

text: Proton rockets

text: . Connections are automatically made for power, data and propulsion fluids and gases. The Russian approach allows assembly of space stations orbiting other worlds in preparation for manned missions. The

text: Nauka module

text: of the ISS will be used in the 12th Russian/Soviet space station,

text: OPSEK

text: , whose main goal is supporting manned deep space exploration.

text: High-speed debris from the Russian satellite strikes the Explorer and Hubble, detaching Stone from the shuttle and leaving her tumbling through space. Kowalski, using a Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), recovers Stone and they return to the Explorer. They discover that it has suffered catastrophic damage and the rest of the crew is dead. They decide to use the MMU to reach the International Space Station (ISS), which is in orbit about  away. Kowalski estimates they have 90 minutes before the debris field completes an orbit and threatens them again.

text: High-speed debris from the Russian satellite strikes the Explorer and Hubble, detaching Stone from the shuttle and leaving her tumbling through space. Kowalski, using a

text: Manned Maneuvering Unit

text: (MMU), recovers Stone and they return to the Explorer. They discover that it has suffered catastrophic damage and the rest of the crew is dead. They decide to use the MMU to reach the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), which is in orbit about  away. Kowalski estimates they have 90 minutes before the debris field completes an orbit and threatens them again.

text: Jerome Beatty Jr began his series in the early 1960s, at the dawn of the Space Age, when 20th-century children were especially fascinated by the likelihood of space missions and adventures to the Moon in their own lifetimes. The NASA Apollo Program figures into the stories as well. For example, in one episode, Matthew witnesses the Earthlings' first feeble attempts to "explore" the Moon.

text: Jerome Beatty Jr

text: began his series in the early 1960s, at the dawn of the

text: Space Age

text: , when 20th-century children were especially fascinated by the likelihood of

text: space missions

text: and adventures to the

text: Moon

text: in their own lifetimes. The

text: NASA

text: Apollo Program

text: figures into the stories as well. For example, in one episode, Matthew witnesses the

text: Earthlings'

text: first feeble attempts to "explore" the Moon.

text: Exploration of the Lunar surface by spacecraft began in 1959 with the Soviet Union's Luna program. Luna 1 missed the Moon, but Luna 2 made a hard landing (impact) into its surface, and became the first artificial object on an extraterrestrial body. The same year, the Luna 3 mission radioed photographs to Earth of the Moon's hitherto unseen far side, marking the beginning of a decade-long series of unmanned Lunar explorations.

text: Exploration of the Lunar surface by spacecraft began in 1959 with the

text: Soviet Union

text: 's

text: Luna program

text: Luna 1

text: missed the Moon, but

text: Luna 2

text: made a hard landing (impact) into its surface, and became the first artificial object on an extraterrestrial body. The same year, the

text: Luna 3

text: mission radioed photographs to Earth of the Moon's hitherto unseen

text: far side

text: , marking the beginning of a decade-long series of unmanned Lunar explorations.

text: By focusing on super-Earth- to Neptune-sized targets orbiting cool, small, but bright stars of K and early-M spectral type, over an area considerably larger than that covered by space missions, NGTS is intended to provide prime targets for further scrutiny by telescopes such as the Very Large Telescope (VLT), European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT), and the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). Such targets are more readily characterized in terms of their atmospheric composition, planetary structure, and evolution than smaller targets orbiting larger stars.

text: By focusing on super-Earth- to Neptune-sized targets orbiting cool, small, but bright stars of K and early-M spectral type, over an area considerably larger than that covered by space missions, NGTS is intended to provide prime targets for further scrutiny by telescopes such as the

text: Very Large Telescope

text: (VLT),

text: European Extremely Large Telescope

text: (E-ELT), and the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: (JWST). Such targets are more readily characterized in terms of their atmospheric composition, planetary structure, and evolution than smaller targets orbiting larger stars.

text: The early results have included the creation of glasses and ceramic with new properties. These different structures are more or less composite mobilized a wide range of applications ranging from health to the needs of the conquest of space. Beyond its mode of synthesis, a compound with the label soft chemistry combines the advantages of the mineral (resistance, transparency, repetition patterns, etc.) and now exploring the potential of the biochemistry and organic chemistry (interface with the organic world, reactivity, synthesis capability, etc.). According to its practitionners, the "soft chemistry "is only in its early success and opens up vast prospects.

text: The early results have included the creation of glasses and

text: ceramic

text: with new properties. These different structures are more or less composite mobilized a wide range of applications ranging from health to the needs of the conquest of space. Beyond its mode of synthesis, a compound with the label soft chemistry combines the advantages of the mineral (resistance, transparency, repetition patterns, etc.) and now exploring the potential of the

text: biochemistry

text: and

text: organic chemistry

text: (interface with the organic world, reactivity, synthesis capability, etc.). According to its practitionners, the "soft chemistry "is only in its early success and opens up vast prospects.

text: As science fiction became established in the early 20th century, destinations such as the Moon, Mars, Venus, and other bodies within the Solar System began to seem stale. Authors invoked a variety of mechanisms for superluminal travel (or generation starships) and placed their stories on worlds in planetary systems around other stars, an innovation that gave them the freedom to construct exotic fictional planets and themes. This tendency became predominant once the exploration of the Solar System was complete enough to conclusively demonstrate the unlikelihood of any highly developed form of extraterrestrial life here, aside from Humans on Earth.

text: As

text: science fiction

text: became established in the early 20th century, destinations such as

text: the Moon

text: Mars

text: Venus

text: , and other bodies within the

text: Solar System

text: began to seem stale. Authors invoked a variety of mechanisms for

text: superluminal

text: travel (or

text: generation starship

text: s) and placed their stories on worlds in

text: planetary system

text: s around other stars, an innovation that gave them the freedom to construct exotic

text: fictional planets

text: and themes. This tendency became predominant once the exploration of the Solar System was complete enough to conclusively demonstrate the unlikelihood of any highly developed form of

text: extraterrestrial life

text: here, aside from

text: Humans

text: on

text: Earth

text: "A very good start for an up and coming metal band, and a promising release that shows what they are capable of becoming."- Sputnik Music

text: "A very good start for an up and coming metal band, and a promising release that shows what they are capable of becoming."-

text: Sputnik Music

text: Tombaugh Regio is a large, light-colored region about  across. The two lobes of the feature are geologically distinct. The western lobe, Sputnik Planitia, is smoother than the eastern, and they are of slightly different colors. Early speculation was that the western lobe may be a large impact crater filled with nitrogen snow. Bright spots within the region were initially speculated to be mountain peaks. Photos, released on 15 July 2015, revealed  mountains made of water ice in the feature; they also showed no craters in this same region. Subsequent data indicated that the center of Sputnik Planitia is rich in nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane ices, and that features near the edges of the region show evidence of ice flow such as glaciers, and light material overlying the darker material at the eastern edge of Cthulhu Regio. The surface of Sputnik Planitia is divided into polygonal convection cells and is less than 10 million years old, indicating that Pluto is geologically active.

text: Tombaugh Regio is a large, light-colored region about  across. The two lobes of the feature are geologically distinct. The western lobe,

text: Sputnik Planitia

text: , is smoother than the eastern, and they are of slightly different colors. Early speculation was that the western lobe may be a large impact crater filled with

text: nitrogen snow

text: . Bright spots within the region were initially speculated to be mountain peaks. Photos, released on 15 July 2015, revealed  mountains made of water ice in the feature; they also showed no craters in this same region. Subsequent data indicated that the center of Sputnik Planitia is rich in

text: nitrogen

text: carbon monoxide

text: , and

text: methane

text: ices, and that features near the edges of the region show evidence of ice flow such as glaciers, and light material overlying the darker material at the eastern edge of

text: Cthulhu Regio

text: . The surface of Sputnik Planitia is divided into polygonal convection cells and is less than 10 million years old, indicating that Pluto is geologically active.

text: For the majority of human history, space was explored by remote observation; initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Prior to the advent of reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through the use of balloon flights. In 1935, the U.S. Explorer II manned balloon flight had reached an altitude of . This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German A-4 rocket climbed to an altitude of about . In 1957, the unmanned satellite Sputnik 1 was launched by a Russian R-7 rocket, achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of . This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when Yuri Gagarin was sent into orbit on Vostok 1. The first humans to escape Earth orbit were Frank Borman, Jim Lovell and William Anders in 1968 on board the U.S. Apollo 8, which achieved lunar orbit and reached a maximum distance of  from the Earth.

text: For the majority of human history, space was explored by remote observation; initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Prior to the advent of reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through the use of balloon flights. In 1935, the U.S.

text: Explorer II

text: manned balloon flight had reached an altitude of . This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German

text: A-4 rocket

text: climbed to an altitude of about . In 1957, the unmanned satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: was launched by a Russian

text: R-7 rocket

text: , achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of . This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: was sent into orbit on

text: Vostok 1

text: . The first humans to escape Earth orbit were

text: Frank Borman

text: Jim Lovell

text: and

text: William Anders

text: in 1968 on board the U.S.

text: Apollo 8

text: , which achieved lunar orbit and reached a maximum distance of  from the Earth.

text: The bill would authorize programs, activities, and reports respecting NASA, including those with regard to human exploration of space, the Space Launch System, the Orion multipurpose crew vehicle, the commercial crew program, the International Space Station (ISS), radioisotope thermoelectric generators, extrasolar planet exploration, the James Webb Space Telescope, the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope, Near-Earth objects, space weather, the Deep Space Climate Observatory, land imaging remote sensing data, aeronautics research, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education, project and program reserves, and orbital debris mitigation.

text: The bill would authorize programs, activities, and reports respecting NASA, including those with regard to human exploration of space, the

text: Space Launch System

text: , the

text: Orion multipurpose crew vehicle

text: , the commercial crew program, the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS),

text: radioisotope thermoelectric generators

text: extrasolar planet

text: exploration, the

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: , the

text: Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope

text: Near-Earth objects

text: space weather

text: , the

text: Deep Space Climate Observatory

text: , land imaging remote sensing data,

text: aeronautics

text: research,

text: science

text: technology

text: engineering

text: , and

text: mathematics

entity_name: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

text: STEM

text: ) education, project and program reserves, and

text: orbital debris

text: mitigation.

text: Apostolidès believed that Flight 714 exhibited many of the same themes as were present in Prisoners of the Sun and the Destination Moon/Explorers on the Moon story arc. He compares the character of Carreidas with that of Baxter from the moon adventure, yet notes that the former is "craftier, more childish and inhumane, less interested in research itself than in technological applications", working for profit rather than the good of humanity. Turning his attention to comparisons with Prisoners of the Sun, he highlights that both stories feature ancient temples, "weird animals", and dramatic natural phenomena, as well as the prominent inclusion of amnesia.

text: Apostolidès believed that Flight 714 exhibited many of the same themes as were present in

text: Prisoners of the Sun

text: and the

text: Destination Moon

text: Explorers on the Moon

text: story arc. He compares the character of Carreidas with that of Baxter from the moon adventure, yet notes that the former is "craftier, more childish and inhumane, less interested in research itself than in technological applications", working for profit rather than the good of humanity. Turning his attention to comparisons with Prisoners of the Sun, he highlights that both stories feature ancient temples, "weird animals", and dramatic natural phenomena, as well as the prominent inclusion of amnesia.

text: Rockets are usually launched into a space above the launch range called the launch corridor. If rocket engines fail while the rocket flies inside the corridor, the rocket falls in an uninhabited area. Engine failure outside the launch corridor may cause the rocket to fall on people or property. Therefore, if the rocket is about to exit the launch corridor, the RSO will terminate powered flight to ensure that no debris falls outside the launch corridor. This involves sending coded messages (typically sequences of audio tones, kept secret before launch) to special redundant UHF receivers in the various stages or components of the launch vehicle. On receipt of an 'arm' command, liquid-fueled rocket engines are shut down. A separate 'fire' command detonates explosives, typically linear shaped charges, to cut the propellant tanks open and disperse their contents.

text: Rockets are usually launched into a space above the launch range called the launch corridor. If rocket engines fail while the rocket flies inside the corridor, the rocket falls in an uninhabited area. Engine failure outside the launch corridor may cause the rocket to fall on people or property. Therefore, if the rocket is about to exit the launch corridor, the RSO will terminate powered flight to ensure that no debris falls outside the launch corridor. This involves sending coded messages (typically sequences of audio tones, kept secret before launch) to special redundant

text: UHF

text: receivers in the various stages or components of the launch vehicle. On receipt of an 'arm' command,

text: liquid-fueled rocket

text: engines are shut down. A separate 'fire' command detonates explosives, typically

text: linear shaped charges

text: , to cut the propellant tanks open and disperse their contents.

text: Satellite observations allow the very coldest parts of the polar mesosphere to be observed, all the wayto the geographic pole. In the early 1970s, visible airglow photometers first scanned the atmospherichorizon throughout the summer polar mesospause region (Donahue et al., 1972). This experiment,which flew on the OGO-6 satellite, was the first to trace noctilucent-like cloud layers across the polarcap. The very bright scattering layer was seen in full daylight conditions, and was identified as thepoleward extension of noctilucent clouds. In the early 1980s, the layer was observed again from asatellite, the Solar Mesospheric Explorer (SME) . On board this satellite was an ultravioletspectrometer, which mapped the distributions of clouds over the time period 1981 to 1986. Theexperiment measured the altitude profile of scattering from clouds at two spectral channels (primarily)265 nm and 296 nm (Thomas and MacKay, 1985). This phenomenon is now known as PolarMesospheric Clouds.

text: On a global scale today, rockets have a negligible impact on destruction of the ozone layer. With the increase in rocket launches predicted to occur in the future, rockets may have a larger impact on the ozone layer. It is important to consider changes in fuel sources to minimize the effects. Advancements have been made to make liquid rocket fuel non nitrogen-based to reduce the effects of nitric oxide caused ozone loss. Using chlorine-free rocket fuel is another future approach to help eliminate the effect of chlorine radicals destroying ozone. Chlorine is shown to cause the most damage to the ozone layer from rocket fuel as well as overall due to it being used in a catalytic cycle of destruction. Eliminating chlorine from rocket fuel could have a large impact on protecting the ozone layer from future rocket launches. Solid fueled rockets contribute negligibly to ozone depletion on a global scale due to the understanding of its harmful affects on the ozone layer. With the increasing abundance of space exploration, the use of these solid fueled rockets should be taken into consideration, as they will increase the impact on the global ozone layer. Solid rocket motors cause over sixty times more damage to the ozone layer compared to liquid rocket engines. It is shown to be more efficient to use liquid rocket fueled compared to the traditionally used solid rocket fuel. Rocket emissions have remained unregulated. Rocket launches will continue to increase in abundance into the future and will cause future problems when it comes to the earth’s precious ozone layer.  The chlorine-free rocket fuels will help decrease the destruction of ozone molecules in the atmosphere due to rocket launches.

text: On a global scale today, rockets have a negligible impact on destruction of the ozone layer. With the increase in rocket launches predicted to occur in the future, rockets may have a larger impact on the ozone layer. It is important to consider changes in fuel sources to minimize the effects. Advancements have been made to make liquid rocket fuel non nitrogen-based to reduce the effects of

text: nitric oxide

text: caused ozone loss. Using chlorine-free rocket fuel is another future approach to help eliminate the effect of chlorine radicals destroying ozone.

text: Chlorine

text: is shown to cause the most damage to the ozone layer from rocket fuel as well as overall due to it being used in a catalytic cycle of destruction. Eliminating chlorine from rocket fuel could have a large impact on protecting the ozone layer from future rocket launches. Solid fueled rockets contribute negligibly to ozone depletion on a global scale due to the understanding of its harmful affects on the ozone layer. With the increasing abundance of space exploration, the use of these solid fueled rockets should be taken into consideration, as they will increase the impact on the global ozone layer. Solid rocket motors cause over sixty times more damage to the ozone layer compared to liquid rocket engines. It is shown to be more efficient to use liquid rocket fueled compared to the traditionally used solid rocket fuel. Rocket emissions have remained unregulated. Rocket launches will continue to increase in abundance into the future and will cause future problems when it comes to the earth’s precious ozone layer.  The chlorine-free rocket fuels will help decrease the destruction of ozone molecules in the atmosphere due to rocket launches.

text: China has pursued an ambitious program of lunar exploration, beginning with Chang'e 1, which successfully orbited the Moon from 5 November 2007 until its controlled lunar impact on 1 March 2009. In its sixteen-month mission, it obtained a full image map of the Moon. China followed up this success with Chang'e 2 beginning in October 2010, which reached the Moon over twice as fast as Chang'e 1, mapped the Moon at a higher resolution over an eight-month period, then left lunar orbit in favor of an extended stay at the Earth–Sun L2 Lagrangian point, before finally performing a flyby of asteroid 4179 Toutatis on 13 December 2012, and then heading off into deep space. On 14 December 2013, Chang'e 3 improved upon its orbital mission predecessors by landing a lunar lander onto the Moon's surface, which in turn deployed a lunar rover, named Yutu (Chinese: 玉兔; literally "Jade Rabbit"). In so doing, Chang'e 3 made the first lunar soft landing since Luna 24 in 1976, and the first lunar rover mission since Lunokhod 2 in 1973. China intends to launch another rover mission (Chang'e 4) before 2020, followed by a sample return mission (Chang'e 5) soon after.

text: China has pursued an ambitious

text: program of lunar exploration

text: , beginning with

text: Chang'e 1

text: , which successfully orbited the Moon from 5 November 2007 until its controlled lunar impact on 1 March 2009. In its sixteen-month mission, it obtained a full image map of the Moon. China followed up this success with

text: Chang'e 2

text: beginning in October 2010, which reached the Moon over twice as fast as Chang'e 1, mapped the Moon at a higher resolution over an eight-month period, then left lunar orbit in favor of an extended stay at the Earth–Sun L2

text: Lagrangian point

text: , before finally performing a flyby of asteroid

text: 4179 Toutatis

text: on 13 December 2012, and then heading off into deep space. On 14 December 2013,

text: Chang'e 3

text: improved upon its orbital mission predecessors by landing a lunar

text: lander

text: onto the Moon's surface, which in turn deployed a

text: lunar rover

text: , named Yutu (Chinese: 玉兔; literally "Jade Rabbit"). In so doing, Chang'e 3 made the first lunar

text: soft landing

text: since

text: Luna 24

text: in 1976, and the first lunar rover mission since

text: Lunokhod 2

text: in 1973. China intends to launch another rover mission (

text: Chang'e 4

text: ) before 2020, followed by a

text: sample return mission

text: Chang'e 5

text: ) soon after.

text: Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China. Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight, and space exploration.

text: Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century

text: China

text: . Significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the

text: Space Age

text: , including

text: setting foot on the Moon

text: . Rockets are now used for

text: fireworks

text: weapon

text: ry,

text: ejection seat

text: s,

text: launch vehicle

text: s for artificial

text: satellite

text: s,

text: human spaceflight

text: , and

text: space exploration

text: These types of satellites are almost always in Sun synchronous and "frozen" orbits.  The Sun synchronous orbit is in general sufficiently close to polar to get the desired global coverage while the relatively constant geometry to the Sun mostly is an advantage for the instruments.  The "frozen" orbit is selected as this is the closest to a circular orbit that is possible in the gravitational field of the Earth.

text: These types of satellites are almost always in

text: Sun synchronous

text: and

text: "frozen"

text: orbits.  The Sun synchronous orbit is in general sufficiently close to polar to get the desired global coverage while the relatively constant geometry to the Sun mostly is an advantage for the instruments.  The

text: "frozen"

text: orbit is selected as this is the closest to a circular orbit that is possible in the

text: gravitational field

text: of the Earth.

text: Sputnik 3 (, Satellite 3) was a Soviet satellite launched on May 15, 1958 from Baikonur Cosmodrome by a modified R-7/SS-6 ICBM. It was a research satellite to explore the upper atmosphere and the near space and carried a large array of instruments for geophysical research.

text: Sputnik 3 (, Satellite 3) was a

text: Soviet

text: satellite launched on May 15, 1958 from

text: Baikonur Cosmodrome

text: by a

text: modified R-7/SS-6 ICBM

text: . It was a research satellite to explore the upper atmosphere and the

text: near space

text: and carried a large array of instruments for

text: geophysical

text: research.

text: October 4, 1957 the Soviet Union put the first satellite into orbit around the Earth. Sputnik one caused many in the U.S. scientific community to outburst on the lack of work put into a satellite program. One of the key contributors to these outbursts was a former German scientist, turned American through project paperclip, Wernher von Braun. Von Braun stated that if given the correct materials and the go ahead he would have an American satellite in orbit in a matter of months, and he did not disappoint. January 31, 1958, two months after the Soviets launch their second satellite, Sputnik II, into orbit Explorer I, the first American satellite, was launched into orbit. The Soviets launch of Sputnik I and Sputnik II showed that America was falling behind in fall facets of scientific research only adding to the need of a national laboratory set aside for scientific research according to the issues present.

text: October 4, 1957 the Soviet Union put the first satellite into orbit around the Earth.

text: Sputnik

text: one caused many in the U.S. scientific community to outburst on the lack of work put into a satellite program. One of the key contributors to these outbursts was a former German scientist, turned American through project paperclip,

text: Wernher von Braun

text: . Von Braun stated that if given the correct materials and the go ahead he would have an American satellite in orbit in a matter of months, and he did not disappoint. January 31, 1958, two months after the Soviets launch their second satellite, Sputnik II, into orbit Explorer I, the first American satellite, was launched into orbit. The Soviets launch of Sputnik I and Sputnik II showed that America was falling behind in fall facets of scientific research only adding to the need of a national laboratory set aside for scientific research according to the issues present.

text: The Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, and operated until early 2012.

text: The Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) is an

text: orbit

text: ing

text: ultraviolet

text: space telescope

text: launched on April 28, 2003, and operated until early 2012.

text: By the late 1890s, American scientist Samuel Pierpoint Langley had attempted to determine the surface temperature of the Moon by measuring infrared radiation leaving the Moon and reaching the Earth. The angle of the Moon in the sky when a scientist took a measurement determined how much  and water vapor the Moon's radiation had to pass through to reach the Earth's surface, resulting in weaker measurements when the Moon was low in the sky.  This result was unsurprising given that scientists had known about infrared radiation absorption for decades.

text: By the late 1890s, American scientist

text: Samuel Pierpoint Langley

text: had attempted to determine the surface temperature of the Moon by measuring infrared radiation leaving the Moon and reaching the Earth. The angle of the Moon in the sky when a scientist took a measurement determined how much  and water vapor the Moon's radiation had to pass through to reach the Earth's surface, resulting in weaker measurements when the Moon was low in the sky.  This result was unsurprising given that scientists had known about

text: infrared radiation absorption

text: for decades.

text: It is not listed as a Builder artifact until after the exploration by Lang, Rebka, and the other explorers in their search for Genizee, the home planet of the Zardalu.  It is thought that the planet must be in the center of this complex area of space as the home planet of the Zardalu was never found since that race was completely annihilated (or nearly so) millennia earlier.

text: In October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik.  Scientists at Johns Hopkins University’s Applied Physics Laboratory took a series of measurements of Sputniks doppler shift yielding the satellite's position and velocity.  This team continued to monitor Sputnik and the next satellites into space, Sputnik II and Explorer I.  In March 1958 the idea of working backwards, using known satellite orbits to determine an unknown position on the Earth's surface began to be explored.  This led to the TRANSIT satellite navigation system.  The first TRANSIT satellite was placed in polar orbit in 1960.  The system, consisting of 7 satellites, was made operational in 1962.  A navigator using readings from three satellites could expect accuracy of about 80 feet.

text: In October 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik.  Scientists at

text: Johns Hopkins University’s Applied Physics Laboratory

text: took a series of measurements of Sputniks

text: doppler shift

text: yielding the satellite's position and velocity.  This team continued to monitor Sputnik and the next satellites into space, Sputnik II and Explorer I.  In March 1958 the idea of working backwards, using known satellite orbits to determine an unknown position on the Earth's surface began to be explored.  This led to the TRANSIT satellite navigation system.  The first TRANSIT satellite was placed in polar orbit in 1960.  The system, consisting of 7 satellites, was made operational in 1962.  A navigator using readings from three satellites could expect accuracy of about 80 feet.

text: To retain the Sun-synchronous orbit as the Earth revolves around the Sun during the year, the orbit of the satellite must precess at the same rate, which is not possible if the satellite were to pass directly over the pole. Because of the Earth's equatorial bulge, an orbit inclined at a slight angle is subject to a torque which causes precession; an angle of about 8 degrees from the pole produces the desired precession in a 100-minute orbit.

text: To retain the Sun-synchronous orbit as the Earth revolves around the Sun during the year, the orbit of the satellite must

text: precess

text: at the same rate, which is not possible if the satellite were to pass directly over the pole. Because of the Earth's equatorial bulge, an orbit inclined at a slight angle is subject to a torque which causes precession; an angle of about 8 degrees from the pole produces the desired precession in a 100-minute orbit.

text: The basis for the space cooperation between China and Brazil was established in May 1984, when both countries signed a complementary agreement to the cooperation framework agreement in science and technology. In July 1988, China and Brazil signed the protocol establishing the joint research and production of the China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellites (CBERS). Brazil, emerging from a long military regime, sought to abandon the Cold War logic and establish new international partnerships. China was dedicated to its great internal reform, but was also seeking international partnerships to develop advanced technologies. The agreement was advantageous for both countries. Brazil had the chance to develop medium-size satellites at a time when it was only capable of building small ones (100 kg size). China had an international partner that posed no military threats and that was receptive of foreigners.

text: In 2006, the agency transferred to Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan. In 2009, Azerbaijani space industry boosted as new agency set up under the state program for development of space industry after Ilham Aliyev's approval. As part of the program, by 2013 it is planned to make proposals for the in-country assembly and production of VSAT (Very Small Aperture satellite Terminal). A small earth station for satellite transmission that handles up to 56 kbit/s of digital transmission. VSATs that handle the T1 data rate (up to 1.544 Mbit/s) are called "TSATs.  and parts of other terminal stations, satellite receivers of different types and functions (internet, direct TV, GPS, etc.) in order to create the space industry.

text: In 2006, the agency transferred to

entity_name: Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan

text: Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan

text: . In 2009, Azerbaijani space industry boosted as new agency set up under the state program for development of space industry after

text: Ilham Aliyev

text: 's approval. As part of the program, by 2013 it is planned to make proposals for the in-country assembly and production of VSAT (Very Small Aperture satellite Terminal). A small earth station for satellite transmission that handles up to 56 kbit/s of digital transmission. VSATs that handle the T1 data rate (up to 1.544 Mbit/s) are called "TSATs.  and parts of other terminal stations, satellite receivers of different types and functions (internet, direct TV, GPS, etc.) in order to create the space industry.

text: The Coalition for Deep Space Exploration is a United States space advocacy organization for space industry businesses and non-profit groups supporting continued government investment in space exploration.

text: The Coalition for Deep Space Exploration is a United States

text: space advocacy

text: organization for

text: space industry

text: businesses and non-profit groups supporting continued

text: government investment

text: in

text: space exploration

text: The album was generally well received by critics. The staff reviewer of Sputnik Music favorably compared it to the type of hard rock that was popular in the early 2000s, such as Alterbridge, Seether, and Breaking Benjamin, stating that the album was "catchy, upbeat rock music executed by a group of musicians with a little bit of talent and vision. They have plenty of flaws, and they aren’t the next coming of the Foo Fighters, but they are definitely creating new waves of energy in a genre pool that has been stagnant for years – a feat worth lauding in itself. If you don’t mind the intrinsic faults of popular rock music, then First World Problems is likely a debut that will capture your interest from start to finish."

text: The album was generally well received by critics. The staff reviewer of

text: Sputnik Music

text: favorably compared it to the type of hard rock that was popular in the early 2000s, such as

text: Alterbridge

text: Seether

text: , and

text: Breaking Benjamin

text: , stating that the album was "catchy, upbeat rock music executed by a group of musicians with a little bit of talent and vision. They have plenty of flaws, and they aren’t the next coming of the

text: Foo Fighters

text: , but they are definitely creating new waves of energy in a genre pool that has been stagnant for years – a feat worth lauding in itself. If you don’t mind the intrinsic faults of popular rock music, then First World Problems is likely a debut that will capture your interest from start to finish."

text: The Explorers program was the United States's first successful attempt to launch an artificial satellite. It began as a U.S. Army proposal (Project Orbiter) to place a scientific satellite into orbit during the International Geophysical Year; however, that proposal was rejected in favor of the U.S. Navy's Project Vanguard. The Explorers program was later reestablished to catch up with the Soviet Union after that nation's launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957. (See: Sputnik crisis) Explorer 1 was launched on January 31, 1958. Besides being the first U.S. satellite, it is known for discovering the Van Allen radiation belt.

text: The Explorers program was the

text: United States

text: 's first successful attempt to launch an

text: artificial satellite

text: . It began as a

text: U.S. Army

text: proposal (

text: Project Orbiter

text: ) to place a scientific satellite into

text: orbit

text: during the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: ; however, that proposal was rejected in favor of the U.S. Navy's

text: Project Vanguard

text: . The Explorers program was later reestablished to catch up with the

text: Soviet Union

text: after that nation's launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: on October 4, 1957. (See:

text: Sputnik crisis

text: Explorer 1

text: was launched on January 31, 1958. Besides being the first U.S. satellite, it is known for discovering the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: With F. Guan, A. Todorov, Liu proved the existence of holomorphic affine structure on the Teichmüller space of Calabi-Yau type manifolds, which naturally extends to give an affine flat structure on the Hodge metric completion. By using these holomorphic affine structures we can prove that the period map is affine map into the unipotent orbit of the period domain, and proves a global Torelli theorem for Calabi-Yau type manifolds which asserts that the period maps from the Teichmüller spaces to the period domains are injective.

text: With F. Guan, A. Todorov, Liu proved the existence of holomorphic affine structure on the

text: Teichmüller space

text: of Calabi-Yau type manifolds, which naturally extends to give an affine flat structure on the Hodge metric completion. By using these holomorphic affine structures we can prove that the

text: period map

text: is affine map into the unipotent orbit of the

text: period domain

text: , and proves a global Torelli theorem for Calabi-Yau type manifolds which asserts that the

text: period map

text: s from the

text: Teichmüller space

text: s to the

text: period domain

text: s are injective.

text: The DSP satellites are in geosynchronous orbits, and are equipped with infrared sensors operating through a wide-angle Schmidt camera. The entire satellite spins so that the linear sensor array in the focal plane scans over the earth in a radial pattern. The last DSP satellite was launched in 2007 aboard the first operational flight of the Delta IV Heavy rocket.

text: The DSP satellites are in geosynchronous orbits, and are equipped with infrared sensors operating through a wide-angle

text: Schmidt camera

text: . The entire satellite spins so that the linear sensor array in the focal plane scans over the earth in a radial pattern. The last DSP satellite was launched in 2007 aboard the first operational flight of the

text: Delta IV Heavy

text: rocket.

text: The titular ship was named after Discovery One from 2001: A Space Odyssey, NASA's Space Shuttle Discovery, and "the sense of discovery ... what [that] means to Star Trek audiences who have been promised a future by Gene Roddenberry where we come together as a planet and seek new worlds and new alien races to explore and understand and collaborate with". Fuller saw the series as a bridge between Enterprise and the original series—which are set around 150 years apart—but set much closer to the latter to allow the series to "play with all the iconography of those ships and those uniforms". The story arc for the first season revolves around "an event in Star Trek history that's been talked about but never been explored", 10 years before the events of the original series. Fuller elaborated that the original series episode "Balance of Terror", one of his favorites, would be "a touchstone" for the season's story arc.

text: The titular ship was named after

text: Discovery One

text: from

text: 2001: A Space Odyssey

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: , and "the sense of discovery ... what [that] means to Star Trek audiences who have been promised a future by Gene Roddenberry where we come together as a planet and seek new worlds and new alien races to explore and understand and collaborate with". Fuller saw the series as a bridge between Enterprise and the original series—which are set around 150 years apart—but set much closer to the latter to allow the series to "play with all the iconography of those ships and those uniforms". The story arc for the first season revolves around "an event in Star Trek history that's been talked about but never been explored", 10 years before the events of the original series. Fuller elaborated that the original series episode "

text: Balance of Terror

text: ", one of his favorites, would be "a touchstone" for the season's story arc.

text: Mars Outpost is a concept for a human base on the planet Mars that was developed by the United States in the 1980s. The components and design were based on an earlier lunar test bed outpost. Development would go through several phases over four years, from an 'Emplacement Phase' to a 'Consolidation Phase', after which full use by its crew could commence. Components of the base would include a habitat module, pressurized rover dock/equipment lock, airlocks, and a  constructed habitat. The 16 m habitat would be constructed in situ. Other technology for the base design includes a meteorological balloon, unpressurized rover, storage/work area, an area for geophysical experiments, and an area antenna. The Mars Outpost would be designed for a crew of 7 astronauts. Their main tasks would be to do research on mining of Mars and Phobos, life sciences, technology, and solar system exploration. The Office of Space Exploration did case studies that include establishing a human presence on another planet in 1988 and 1989. An objective of the Mars Evolution 1989 study was, "Emplace a permanent, largely self-sufficient outpost on the surface of Mars."

text: Mars Outpost is a concept for a human

text: base

text: on the

text: planet

text: Mars

text: that was developed by the

text: United States

text: in the 1980s. The components and design were based on an earlier

text: lunar

text: test bed outpost. Development would go through several phases over four years, from an 'Emplacement Phase' to a 'Consolidation Phase', after which full use by its crew could commence. Components of the base would include a

text: habitat

text: module, pressurized rover dock/equipment lock,

text: airlock

text: s, and a  constructed habitat. The 16 m habitat would be constructed

text: in situ

text: . Other

text: technology

text: for the base design includes a

text: meteorological balloon

text: , unpressurized rover, storage/work area, an area for

text: geophysical

text: experiments, and an area

text: antenna

text: . The Mars Outpost would be designed for a crew of 7

text: astronaut

text: s. Their main tasks would be to do research on

text: mining

text: of Mars and

text: Phobos

text: life science

text: s, technology, and

text: solar system

text: exploration. The Office of Space Exploration did case studies that include establishing a human presence on another planet in 1988 and 1989. An objective of the Mars Evolution 1989 study was, "Emplace a permanent, largely self-sufficient outpost on the surface of Mars."

text: Vasiliy Utkin was an active participant in international cooperation in space research and exploration, including the Interkosmos program: the Arcade project with the Aureole satellite was implemented jointly with French specialists; Aryabhata and Bhaskara satellites were built and launched into orbit in cooperation with India.

text: The Cold War-inspired Space Race between the Soviet Union and the U.S. led to an acceleration of interest in exploration of the Moon. Once launchers had the necessary capabilities, these nations sent uncrewed probes on both flyby and impact/lander missions. Spacecraft from the Soviet Union's Luna program were the first to accomplish a number of goals: following three unnamed, failed missions in 1958, the first human-made object to escape Earth's gravity and pass near the Moon was Luna 1; the first human-made object to impact the lunar surface was Luna 2, and the first photographs of the normally occluded far side of the Moon were made by Luna 3, all in 1959.

text: The

text: Cold War

text: -inspired

text: Space Race

text: between the Soviet Union and the U.S. led to an acceleration of interest in

text: exploration of the Moon

text: . Once launchers had the necessary capabilities, these nations sent uncrewed probes on both flyby and impact/lander missions. Spacecraft from the Soviet Union's

text: Luna program

text: were the first to accomplish a number of goals: following three unnamed, failed missions in 1958, the first human-made object to escape Earth's gravity and pass near the Moon was

text: Luna 1

text: ; the first human-made object to impact the lunar surface was

text: Luna 2

text: , and the first photographs of the normally occluded far side of the Moon were made by

text: Luna 3

text: , all in 1959.

text: While the achievements of space programs run by the main Asian space players (China, India, and Japan) pale in comparison to the milestones set by the former Soviet Union and the United States, some experts believe Asia may soon lead the world in space exploration. China has been the leader of Asia's space race since the beginning of the 21st century. The first Chinese manned spaceflight, in 2003, marked the beginning of a space race in the region. At the same time, the existence of a space race in Asia is still debated due to the non-concurrence of space milestone events like there was for the United States and the Soviet Union. Japan for example was the first power on Earth to get a sample return mission from an asteroid. There was however some concurrence between China and India to see which of those two could be the first to launch a probe to the Earth's moon back in the late 2000s decade. China, for example, denies that there is an Asian space race.In January 2007 China became the first Asian military-space power to send an anti-satellite missile into orbit, to destroy an aging Chinese Feng Yun 1C weather satellite in polar orbit. The resulting explosion sent a wave of debris hurtling through space at more than 6 miles per second. A month later, Japan's space agency launched an experimental communications satellite designed to enable super high-speed data transmission in remote areas.

text: While the achievements of space programs run by the main Asian space players (China, India, and Japan) pale in comparison to the milestones set by the former

text: Soviet Union

text: and the United States, some experts believe Asia may soon lead the world in space exploration. China has been the leader of Asia's space race since the beginning of the 21st century. The first Chinese manned spaceflight, in 2003, marked the beginning of a space race in the region. At the same time, the existence of a space race in Asia is still debated due to the non-concurrence of space milestone events like there was for the United States and the Soviet Union. Japan for example was the first power on Earth to get a sample return mission from an asteroid. There was however some concurrence between China and India to see which of those two could be the first to launch a probe to the Earth's moon back in the late 2000s decade. China, for example, denies that there is an Asian space race.In January 2007 China became the first Asian military-space power to send an

text: anti-satellite

text: missile into orbit, to destroy an aging Chinese Feng Yun 1C

text: weather satellite

text: in polar orbit. The resulting explosion sent a wave of debris hurtling through space at more than 6 miles per second. A month later,

text: Japan's space agency

text: launched an experimental communications satellite designed to enable super high-speed data transmission in remote areas.

text: Whipple's work pre-dated the space race and it proved useful when space exploration started only a few years later. His studies had demonstrated that the chance of being hit by a meteoroid large enough to destroy a spacecraft was extremely remote. However, a spacecraft would be almost constantly struck by micrometeorites, about the size of dust grains.

text: Whipple's work pre-dated the

text: space race

text: and it proved useful when space exploration started only a few years later. His studies had demonstrated that the chance of being hit by a meteoroid large enough to destroy a spacecraft was extremely remote. However, a spacecraft would be almost constantly struck by micrometeorites, about the size of dust grains.

text: With the entire galaxy now within easy reach, the major space-traveling civilizations began a race to explore, colonize and, in some cases, conquer the galaxy. Armies were mobilized, fleets of warships were built and the galaxy was once again on the verge of total war. As the younger civilizations prepared themselves for the coming conflict, the Dread Lords began to return.

text: Initially the race for space was often led by Sergei Korolyov, whose legacy includes both the R7 and Soyuz—which remain in service to this day. Korolev was the mastermind behind the first satellite, first man (and first woman) in orbit and first spacewalk. Until his death his identity was a closely guarded state secret; not even his mother knew that he was responsible for creating the Soviet space program.

text: Initially the race for space was often led by

text: Sergei Korolyov

text: , whose legacy includes both the

text: and

text: Soyuz

text: —which remain in service to this day. Korolev was the mastermind behind the first satellite, first man (and first woman) in orbit and first spacewalk. Until his death his identity was a closely guarded state secret; not even his mother knew that he was responsible for creating the Soviet space program.

text: The Exploration Gateway Platform, a discussion by NASA and Boeing at the end of 2011, suggested using leftover USOS hardware and 'Zvezda 2'  as a refuelling depot and servicing station located at one of the Earth Moon Lagrange points, L1 or L2. The entire USOS cannot be reused and will be discarded, but some other Russian modules are planned to be reused. Nauka, the Node module, two science power platforms and Rassvet, launched between 2010 and 2015 and joined to the ROS may be separated to form OPSEK. The Nauka module of the ISS will be used in the station, whose main goal is supporting manned deep space exploration. OPSEK will orbit at a higher inclination of 71 degrees, allowing observation to and from all of the Russian Federation.

text: The

text: Exploration Gateway Platform

text: , a discussion by NASA and Boeing at the end of 2011, suggested using leftover USOS hardware and '

text: Zvezda

text: 2'  as a refuelling depot and servicing station located at one of the Earth Moon

text: Lagrange points

text: , L1 or L2. The entire USOS cannot be reused and will be discarded, but some other Russian modules are planned to be reused.

text: Nauka

text: , the

text: Node module

text: , two science power platforms and Rassvet, launched between 2010 and 2015 and joined to the ROS may be separated to form

text: OPSEK

text: . The

text: Nauka module

text: of the ISS will be used in the station, whose main goal is supporting manned deep space exploration. OPSEK will orbit at a higher inclination of 71 degrees, allowing observation to and from all of the Russian Federation.

text: The book deals with issues of race in America, and in particular, Biss often explores what it means to be a white woman in predominantly black spaces, the issue of white privilege, and the inherited, deeply ingrained racism of American culture.  The first essay in the collection, "Time and Distance Overcome," is a lyric essay that juxtaposes the history of telephone poles and the history of lynching into a stunning exploration of American history.  Another essay, "Goodbye to All That", is a retelling of/response to Joan Didion's essay of the same name, reflecting on Biss's experiences living in New York City.

text: The book deals with issues of race in America, and in particular, Biss often explores what it means to be a white woman in predominantly black spaces, the issue of white privilege, and the inherited, deeply ingrained racism of American culture.  The first essay in the collection, "Time and Distance Overcome," is a lyric essay that juxtaposes the history of telephone poles and the history of lynching into a stunning exploration of American history.  Another essay, "

text: Goodbye to All That

text: ", is a retelling of/response to

text: Joan Didion

text: 's essay of the same name, reflecting on Biss's experiences living in

text: New York City

text: A typical satellite has up to 32 Ku-band or 24 C-band transponders, or more for Ku/C hybrid satellites. Typical transponders each have a bandwidth between 27 and 50 MHz. Each geostationary C-band satellite needs to be spaced 2° longitude from the next satellite to avoid interference; for K the spacing can be 1°. This means that there is an upper limit of 360/2 = 180 geostationary C-band satellites or 360/1 = 360 geostationary K-band satellites. C-band transmission is susceptible to terrestrial interference while K-band transmission is affected by rain (as water is an excellent absorber of microwaves at this particular frequency). The latter is even more adversely affected by ice crystals in thunder clouds.

text: A typical satellite has up to 32 Ku-band or 24 C-band transponders, or more for Ku/C hybrid satellites. Typical transponders each have a bandwidth between 27 and 50 MHz. Each geostationary C-band satellite needs to be spaced 2° longitude from the next satellite to avoid interference; for K the spacing can be 1°. This means that there is an upper limit of 360/2 = 180 geostationary C-band satellites or 360/1 = 360 geostationary K-band satellites. C-band transmission is susceptible to terrestrial interference while K-band transmission is affected by

text: rain

text: (as water is an excellent absorber of microwaves at this particular frequency). The latter is even more adversely affected by ice crystals in thunder clouds.

text: A virtual space race against teams from other countries will be a blast for the Net Force Explorers. But someone will go to any extreme to sabotage the race—even murder ...

text: Politicians and journalist in order to stimulate controversy, interest, or competition will use the phrase space race to achieve such goals. The term was used during the cold war to describe the competition between the USSR and the US. Today the phrase is used by journalist frequently to draw attention to competing countries developing technology and access to space. As Time Magazine states, “Space exploration is a powerful rallying point for national pride… The contest may not be accompanied by the blaring cold-war overtones of the last great space race between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. China's space program is conducted largely in secret, and Japan's modest achievements don't make headlines. But plenty is at stake. Over the past few years, a centuries-old rivalry between China and Japan has flared anew. While the two countries are increasingly interdependent economically, relations remain uncomfortably strained as fast-growing China begins to challenge Japan as the preeminent East Asian power. This spring, for example, anti-Japan riots erupted in a number of Chinese cities, and diplomatic disputes over natural-gas-field rights in the East China Sea continue to rage.Furthermore journalist can also describe how the race can lead to other fearful races. As Kyle Niemeyer discusses in her article Asia’s Space Race Could Turn into an Arms Race, “The major Asian nations, including China, Japan, India, and South Korea, are all expanding their space programs with little-to-no cooperation. These efforts are driven by national prestige and geopolitical rivalries, similar to the US-Soviet space race of the 1960s. Like that period, this space race is stimulating technological advances, but competing agendas are leading to duplication of work and mistrust—in other words, a waste of resources. Even worse, this competition is undermining recent cooperation between the US, Russia, and Europe."

text: Important application domains of Array DBMSs include Earth, Space, Life, and Social sciences, as well as the related commercial applications (such as hydrocarbon exploration in industry and OLAP in business). The variety occurring can be observed, e.g., in geo data where 1-D environmental sensor time series, 2-D satellite images, 3-D x/y/t image time series and x/y/z geophysics data, as well as 4-D x/y/z/t climate and ocean data can be found.

text: Important application domains of Array DBMSs include Earth, Space, Life, and Social sciences, as well as the related commercial applications (such as

text: hydrocarbon exploration

text: in industry and

text: OLAP

text: in business). The variety occurring can be observed, e.g., in geo data where 1-D environmental sensor time series, 2-D satellite images, 3-D x/y/t image time series and x/y/z geophysics data, as well as 4-D x/y/z/t climate and ocean data can be found.

text: Elite was not the first game to take flight game mechanics into outer space. Other notable earlier examples include Star Raiders (1979), Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space (1982), Rendezvous: A Space Shuttle Simulation (1982), and Star Trek: Strategic Operations Simulator (1982), which featured five different controls to learn, six different enemies, and 40 different simulation levels of play, making it one of the most elaborate vector games ever released. Other early examples include Nasir Gebelli's 1982 Apple II computer games Horizon V which featured an early radar mechanic and Zenith which allowed the player ship to rotate, and Ginga Hyoryu Vifam, which allowed first-person open space exploration with a radar displaying the destination and player/enemy positions as well as an early physics engine where approaching a planet's gravitational field pulls the player towards it. Following Elite were games such as The Halley Project (1985), Echelon (1987) and Microsoft Space Simulator (1994). Star Luster, released for the NES console and arcades in 1985, featured a cockpit view, a radar displaying enemy and base locations, the ability to warp anywhere, and a date system keeping track of the current date.

text: Elite was not the first game to take flight game mechanics into outer space. Other notable earlier examples include

text: Star Raiders

text: (1979), Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space (1982), Rendezvous: A Space Shuttle Simulation (1982), and

text: Star Trek: Strategic Operations Simulator

text: (1982), which featured five different controls to learn, six different enemies, and 40 different simulation levels of play, making it one of the most elaborate

text: vector game

text: s ever released. Other early examples include

text: Nasir Gebelli

text: 's 1982

text: Apple II

text: computer games

text: Horizon V which featured an early

text: radar

text: mechanic and Zenith which allowed the player ship to rotate, and

text: Ginga Hyoryu Vifam

text: , which allowed first-person

text: open space

text: exploration with a radar displaying the destination and player/enemy positions as well as an early

text: physics

text: engine

text: where approaching a

text: planet

text: 's

text: gravitational field

text: pulls the player towards it. Following Elite were games such as

text: The Halley Project

text: (1985), Echelon (1987) and

text: Microsoft Space Simulator

text: Star Luster

text: , released for the

text: NES

text: console

text: and

text: arcades

text: in 1985, featured a cockpit view, a radar displaying enemy and base locations, the ability to warp anywhere, and a

text: date system

text: keeping track of the current date.

text: The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was a NASA-operated orbital observatory whose mission was to study the Earth’s atmosphere, particularly the protective ozone layer. The  satellite was deployed from Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-48 mission on 15 September 1991. It entered Earth orbit at an operational altitude of , with an orbital inclination of 57 degrees.

text: The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was a

text: NASA

text: -operated orbital observatory whose mission was to study the

text: Earth’s atmosphere

text: , particularly the protective

text: ozone layer

text: . The  satellite was deployed from

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: during the

text: mission on 15 September 1991. It entered Earth orbit at an operational altitude of , with an orbital inclination of 57 degrees.

text: To achieve an orbit, a spacecraft must travel faster than a sub-orbital spaceflight. The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of  is about 36 MJ/kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude. Spacecraft with a perigee below about  are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere, which will cause the orbital altitude to decrease. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about , decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to , it will start to burn up in the atmosphere. The escape velocity required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about .

text: To achieve an orbit, a

text: spacecraft

text: must travel faster than a

text: sub-orbital spaceflight

text: . The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of  is about 36

text: MJ

text: /kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude. Spacecraft with a

text: perigee

text: below about  are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere, which will cause the orbital altitude to decrease. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. Below about , decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to , it will start to burn up in the atmosphere. The

text: escape velocity

text: required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about .

text: A line of inexpensive reflector telescopes followed the Sputnik-inspired science craze in the late 1950s. In 1958, the company promoted its science toys by commissioning a comic book, Adventures in Science, from Custom Comics. In the comic, a mysterious "Mr. Science" leaps through time and space with a bored teenage boy to interest him in science.  In 1965, A. C. Gilbert produced James Bond movie tie-in figures and a slot car road race set featuring Bond's Aston Martin DB5.

text: A line of inexpensive reflector telescopes followed the

text: Sputnik

text: -inspired science craze in the late 1950s. In 1958, the company promoted its science toys by commissioning a comic book, Adventures in Science, from

text: Custom Comics

text: . In the comic, a mysterious "Mr. Science" leaps through time and space with a bored teenage boy to interest him in science.  In 1965, A. C. Gilbert produced

text: James Bond

text: movie

text: tie-in

text: figures and a

text: slot car

text: road race set featuring Bond's

text: Aston Martin

text: All versions of Internet Explorer for Windows from 4.0 onwards use Trident, and it is also used by various other web browsers and software components (see Internet Explorer shells). In Windows 98, Windows Me, and Windows 2000, it is also used for the Windows file manager/shell, Windows Explorer. The Add/Remove Programs tool in Windows 2000 uses Trident to render the list of installed programs, and in Windows XP it is also used for the User Accounts Control Panel, which is an HTML Application. Trident however was not used by Internet Explorer for Mac (which used Tasman starting with version 5.0), nor by the early versions of Internet Explorer Mobile.

text: All versions of

text: Internet Explorer

text: for Windows from 4.0 onwards use Trident, and it is also used by various other

text: web browser

text: s and software components (see

text: Internet Explorer shell

text: s). In

text: Windows 98

text: Windows Me

text: , and

text: Windows 2000

text: , it is also used for the Windows file manager/shell,

text: Windows Explorer

text: . The Add/Remove Programs tool in Windows 2000 uses Trident to render the list of installed programs, and in Windows XP it is also used for the User Accounts Control Panel, which is an

text: HTML Application

text: . Trident however was not used by

text: Internet Explorer for Mac

text: (which used

text: Tasman

text: starting with version 5.0), nor by the early versions of

text: Internet Explorer Mobile

text: Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital classifications are used to further specify orbital details.

text: Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of

text: orbit

text: , while other

text: orbital classifications

text: are used to further specify orbital details.

text: Guests entered the dome and were ushered into the inside queueline known as the Stellar Way, an open walkway where guests could have a look at the coaster itself and see trains during their journey in space. Then they reached the Victorian chambers of the Baltimore Gun Club (the Club which built the Cannon), and discovered the plans and drawings of the Columbiad and the journey to the Moon. They then boarded golden Moon trains in the Victorian station.

text: . A maximal orbit type is often called a principal orbit type.

text: . A maximal orbit type is often called a

text: principal orbit type

text: The players initially play explorers from Known Space, sent as scouts to the Ringworld. They can be anthropologists, artists, doctors, police, or even zealots, who will explore the mysteries of this huge artificial world and its inhabitants. Basic characters can be humans from a dozen planets of Human Space, Puppeteers, or Kzin. Later play can see characters from Ringworld species, such as the (so-called) Ghouls, Vampires, Giants, Sea People, and others.

text: The players initially play explorers from Known Space, sent as scouts to the Ringworld. They can be anthropologists, artists, doctors, police, or even zealots, who will explore the mysteries of this huge artificial world and its inhabitants. Basic characters can be humans from a dozen planets of Human Space, Puppeteers, or Kzin. Later play can see characters from

text: Ringworld species

text: , such as the (so-called) Ghouls, Vampires, Giants, Sea People, and others.

text: In the words of former NASA Administrator, Michael D. Griffin, "The goal isn't just scientific exploration.... It's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the Solar System as we go forward in time.... In the long run a single-planet species will not survive.... If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets ... colonize the Solar System and one day go beyond."

text: In the words of former NASA Administrator,

text: Michael D. Griffin

text: , "The goal isn't just scientific exploration.... It's also about extending the range of human habitat out from Earth into the

text: Solar System

text: as we go forward in time.... In the long run a single-planet species will not survive.... If we humans want to survive for hundreds of thousands or millions of years, we must ultimately populate other planets ... colonize the Solar System and one day go beyond."

text: Von Braun was asked to chair a committee to study the existing efforts and write up recommendations. They presented their report on 18 July, starting with a criticism of how the US program had been mishandled to date and pointing out that the Soviet program was definitely ahead. It went on to describe five "generations" of rockets, starting with the early Vanguard, through the Junos, ICBMs like Atlas and Titan, clustered designs like the Saturn, and finally the ultimate development, a cluster using the F-1 with 6 million pounds of thrust. The report went on to outline a manned exploration program using these rockets as they became available; using existing ICBMs a small four-man space station could be operational 1961, the clusters would support a manned lunar landing in 1965-1966 and a larger 50-man space station by 1967, while the largest of the rockets would support large moon expeditions in 1972, set up a permanent moon base in 1973-1974, and launch manned interplanetary trips in 1977.

text: Von Braun was asked to chair a committee to study the existing efforts and write up recommendations. They presented their report on 18 July, starting with a criticism of how the US program had been mishandled to date and pointing out that the Soviet program was definitely ahead. It went on to describe five "generations" of rockets, starting with the early Vanguard, through the Junos,

text: ICBM

text: s like Atlas and Titan, clustered designs like the Saturn, and finally the ultimate development, a cluster using the F-1 with 6 million pounds of thrust. The report went on to outline a manned exploration program using these rockets as they became available; using existing ICBMs a small four-man space station could be operational 1961, the clusters would support a manned lunar landing in 1965-1966 and a larger 50-man space station by 1967, while the largest of the rockets would support large moon expeditions in 1972, set up a permanent moon base in 1973-1974, and launch manned interplanetary trips in 1977.

text: The competition began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch artificial satellites for the International Geophysical Year, by declaring they would also launch a satellite "in the near future". The Soviet Union beat the US to this, with the October 4, 1957 orbiting of Sputnik 1, and later beat the US to the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, on April 12, 1961. The race peaked with the July 20, 1969 US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. The USSR tried but failed manned lunar missions, and eventually cancelled them and concentrated on Earth orbital space stations.

text: The competition began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch artificial satellites for the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: , by declaring they would also launch a satellite "in the near future". The Soviet Union beat the US to this, with the October 4, 1957 orbiting of

text: Sputnik 1

text: , and later beat the US to the first human in space,

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: , on April 12, 1961. The race peaked with the July 20, 1969 US landing of the first humans on the Moon with

text: Apollo 11

text: . The USSR tried but failed manned lunar missions, and eventually cancelled them and concentrated on Earth orbital space stations.

text: After claiming in March 1958 that "the Army's ZEUS did not have the growth potential to handle possible enemy evasion decoy and countermeasure tactics", the USAF similarly identified by early 1959 that its planned Wizard missile was "not cost effective" against ICBM warheads.—the Army Zeus deployed successors against ICBMs (SAFEGUARD System, 1975-6) and space vehicles (Johnston Atoll, 1962-75).  After tests of the 1959 High Virgo (at Explorer 5), 1959 Bold Orion (Explorer 6), and 1963 Project 505 (Nike Zeus) anti-satellite tests (the latter's nuclear burst destroyed a satellite), the Air Force Systems Command ASM-135 ASAT collided with a satellite in 1984.

text: After claiming in March 1958 that "the Army's ZEUS did not have the growth potential to handle possible enemy evasion decoy and countermeasure tactics", the USAF similarly identified by early 1959 that its planned

text: Wizard missile

text: was "not cost effective" against ICBM warheads.—the Army Zeus deployed successors against ICBMs (SAFEGUARD System, 1975-6) and space vehicles (

text: Johnston Atoll, 1962-75

text: ).  After tests of the 1959

text: High Virgo

text: (at

text: Explorer 5

text: ), 1959

text: Bold Orion

text: Explorer 6

text: ), and 1963

text: Project 505

text: Nike Zeus

text: ) anti-satellite tests (the latter's nuclear burst destroyed a satellite), the

text: Air Force Systems Command

text: ASM-135 ASAT

text: collided with a satellite in 1984.

text: SvalSat is part of NASA's Near Earth Network. This includes support for the Earth Observing System, which includes satellites such as Aqua, Aura, Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite, and QuikSCAT, as well as the Small Explorer program which includes Galaxy Evolution Explorer, the Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite, Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission, Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics, Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, and Transition Region and Coronal Explorer. SvalSat and Poker Flat are collectively responsible for half of the network's 140 daily passes. Satellites operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration using SvalSat includes the Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership and the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program. Other American satellites include the United States Geological Survey's Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 and the private Iridium Communications' satellites.

text: SvalSat is part of NASA's

text: Near Earth Network

text: . This includes support for the Earth Observing System, which includes satellites such as

text: Aqua

text: Aura

text: Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite

text: , and

text: QuikSCAT

text: , as well as the

text: Small Explorer program

text: which includes

text: Galaxy Evolution Explorer

text: , the

text: Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite

text: Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission

text: Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics

text: Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

text: , and

text: Transition Region and Coronal Explorer

text: . SvalSat and Poker Flat are collectively responsible for half of the network's 140 daily passes. Satellites operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration using SvalSat includes the

text: Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership

text: and the

entity_name: Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

text: Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

text: . Other American satellites include the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: 's

text: Landsat 5

text: and

text: Landsat 7

text: and the private

text: Iridium Communications

text: ' satellites.

text: Siddiqi's first book Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974 is widely considered to be the best English-language history of the Soviet space program in print and was identified by the Wall Street Journal as "one of the five best books" on space exploration. This book was later published in paperback in two separate volumes, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge and The Soviet Space Race with Apollo.

text: Siddiqi's first book Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974 is widely considered to be the best English-language history of the

text: Soviet space program

text: in print and was identified by the

text: Wall Street Journal

text: as "one of the five best books" on space exploration. This book was later published in paperback in two separate volumes, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge and The Soviet Space Race with Apollo.

text: Once in orbit, the Shuttle usually flew at an altitude of 320 kilometers (200 miles), and occasionally as high as 650 kilometers. In the 1980s and 1990s, many flights involved space science missions on the NASA/ESA Spacelab, or launching various types of satellites and science probes. By the 1990s and 2000s the focus shifted more to servicing the space station, with fewer satellite launches. Most missions involved staying in orbit several days to two weeks, although longer missions were possible with the Extended Duration Orbiter add-on or when attached to a space station.

text: Once in orbit, the Shuttle usually flew at an altitude of 320 kilometers (200 miles), and occasionally as high as 650 kilometers. In the 1980s and 1990s, many flights involved space science missions on the NASA/ESA Spacelab, or launching various types of satellites and science probes. By the 1990s and 2000s the focus shifted more to servicing the space station, with fewer satellite launches. Most missions involved staying in orbit several days to two weeks, although longer missions were possible with the

text: Extended Duration Orbiter

text: add-on or when attached to a space station.

text: The Titan, proposed as a fall-back in case the Atlas failed, was by December 1956 accepted as a "principal ingredient of the national ballistic missile force." Almost from the beginning Titan was threatened with cancelation. In response to claims that the Titan was redundant arguments were made that the Titan offered greater performance and growth potential than the Atlas. Suggestions were made that it could make a superior space launch vehicle. The Titan program was under constant budgetary pressure. In the summer of 1957 budget  cuts led Secretary of Defense Wilson to make major changes in the Titan production rate from the proposed seven per month to two a month, which effectively reduced the Titan to a research and development program. On October 5, 1957 Americans woke to learn that the Soviet Union had put Sputnik, the first satellite, in orbit. The public and press were shocked. Americans suffered a crisis of confidence. The launch of Sputnik was often compared to Pearl Harbor. The effect ended any talk of canceling Titan. Priority was restored. 1958 saw increases in funding and plans for additional Titan squadrons.

text: An orbital propellant depot is a cache of propellant that is placed in orbit around Earth or another body to allow spacecraft or the transfer stage of the spacecraft to be fueled in space.  It is one of the types of space resource depot that have been proposed for enabling infrastructure-based exploration.Many different depot concepts exist depending on the type of fuel to be supplied, location, or type of depot which may also include a propellant tanker that  delivers a single load to a spacecraft at a specified orbital location and then departs.  In-space fuel depots are not necessarily located near or at a space station.

text: An orbital propellant depot is a cache of

text: propellant

text: that is placed in orbit around Earth or another body to allow

text: spacecraft

text: or the transfer stage of the spacecraft to be fueled in space.  It is one of the types of space resource depot that have been proposed for enabling

text: infrastructure-based exploration

text: .Many different depot concepts exist depending on the type of fuel to be supplied, location, or type of depot which may also include a propellant tanker that  delivers a single load to a spacecraft at a specified orbital location and then departs.  In-space fuel depots are not necessarily located near or at a

text: space station

text: Since 1947 the Santa Susana Field Laboratory location has been used by a number of companies and agencies. The first was Rocketdyne, originally a division of North American Aviation-NAA, which developed a variety of pioneering, successful and reliable liquid rocket engines. Some were those used in the Navaho cruise missile, the Redstone rocket, the Thor and Jupiter ballistic missiles, early versions of the Delta and Atlas rockets, the Saturn rocket family and the Space Shuttle Main Engine. The Atomics International division of North American Aviation utilized a separate and dedicated portion of the Santa Susana Field Laboratory to build and operate the first commercial nuclear power plant in the United States and for the testing and development of compact nuclear reactors including the first and only known nuclear reactor launched into Low Earth Orbit by the United States, the SNAP-10A. Atomics International also operated the Energy Technology Engineering Center for the U.S. Department of Energy at the site. The Santa Susana Field Laboratory includes sites identified as historic by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and by the American Nuclear Society. In 1996, The Boeing Company became the primary owner and operator of the Santa Susana Field Laboratory and later closed the site.

text: Since 1947 the Santa Susana Field Laboratory location has been used by a number of companies and agencies. The first was

text: Rocketdyne

text: , originally a division of

text: North American Aviation

text: -NAA, which developed a variety of pioneering, successful and reliable

text: liquid rocket engine

text: s. Some were those used in the

text: Navaho

text: cruise missile, the

text: Redstone

text: rocket, the

text: Thor

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: ballistic missiles, early versions of the

text: Delta

text: and

text: Atlas

text: rockets, the

text: Saturn rocket family

text: and the

text: Space Shuttle Main Engine

text: . The

text: Atomics International

text: division of North American Aviation utilized a separate and dedicated portion of the Santa Susana Field Laboratory to build and operate the first commercial nuclear power plant in the United States and for the testing and development of compact nuclear reactors including the first and only known nuclear reactor launched into Low Earth Orbit by the United States, the

text: . Atomics International also operated the

text: Energy Technology Engineering Center

text: for the U.S. Department of Energy at the site. The Santa Susana Field Laboratory includes sites identified as historic by the

entity_name: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

text: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

text: and by the

text: American Nuclear Society

text: . In 1996,

text: The Boeing Company

text: became the primary owner and operator of the Santa Susana Field Laboratory and later closed the site.

text: The series is set approximately 50 to 100 years in the future. Mankind has settled the moon, where the moon base "Delta-4" is a central setting, while the rest of the solar system is being explored.  The  scientist character of Professor Dr. Arthur Common has created (with the assistance of his daughter Cindy) the "Dimension Transmitter."  With this device, users can overcome arbitrary distances without time delay. Via an enormous energy expenditure from the Transmitter, the Time/Space dimensions break open to allow small groups of humans to visit alien planets without transport.

text: The series is set approximately 50 to 100 years in the future. Mankind has settled the

text: moon

text: , where the moon base "Delta-4" is a central setting, while the rest of the solar system is being explored.  The  scientist character of Professor Dr. Arthur Common has created (with the assistance of his daughter Cindy) the "Dimension Transmitter."  With this device, users can overcome arbitrary distances without time delay. Via an enormous energy expenditure from the Transmitter, the Time/Space

text: dimensions

text: break open to allow small groups of humans to visit alien

text: planet

text: s without transport.

text: The Atlas rocket became a very reliable booster for launching of satellites and continued to evolve, remaining in use into the 21st century, when combined with the Centaur upper stage to form the Atlas-Centaur rocket for launching geosynchronous communication satellites and space probes. The Centaur rocket was also designed, developed, and produced by Convair, and it was the first widely used outer space rocket to use the all-cryogenic fuel-oxidizer combination of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The use of this liquid hydrogen – liquid oxygen combination in the Centaur was an important direct precursor to the use of the same fuel-oxidizer combination in the Saturn S-II second stage and the Saturn S-IVB third stage of the gigantic Saturn V moon rocket of the Apollo project. The S-IVB had earlier also been used as the second stage of the smaller Saturn IB rocket, such as the one which was used to launch Apollo 7. The Centaur upper stage was first designed and developed for launching the Surveyor lunar landers, beginning in 1966, to augment the delta-V of the Atlas rockets and give them enough payload capability to deliver the required mass of the Surveyors to the Moon.

text: The

text: Atlas rocket

text: became a very reliable booster for launching of satellites and continued to evolve, remaining in use into the 21st century, when combined with the

text: Centaur

text: upper stage to form the

text: Atlas-Centaur

text: rocket for launching geosynchronous

text: communication satellite

text: s and space probes. The Centaur rocket was also designed, developed, and produced by Convair, and it was the first widely used outer space rocket to use the all-

text: cryogenic

text: fuel-oxidizer combination of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The use of this liquid hydrogen – liquid oxygen combination in the Centaur was an important direct precursor to the use of the same fuel-oxidizer combination in the Saturn

text: S-II

text: second stage and the Saturn

text: S-IVB

text: third stage of the gigantic

text: Saturn V

text: moon rocket of the

text: Apollo project

text: . The S-IVB had earlier also been used as the second stage of the smaller

text: Saturn IB

text: rocket, such as the one which was used to launch

text: Apollo 7

text: . The Centaur upper stage was first designed and developed for launching the

text: Surveyor

text: lunar landers, beginning in 1966, to augment the delta-V of the Atlas rockets and give them enough payload capability to deliver the required mass of the Surveyors to the Moon.

text: Cygnus CRS OA-10E, also known as Orbital Sciences CRS Flight 10E, is the eleventh planned flight of the Orbital ATK' unmanned resupply spacecraft Cygnus and its tenth flight to the International Space Station under the Commercial Resupply Services contract with NASA. Orbital and NASA jointly developed a new space transportation system to provide commercial cargo resupply services to the International Space Station (ISS). Under the Commercial Orbital Transportation System (COTS) program, then Orbital Sciences designed and built Antares, a medium-class launch vehicle; Cygnus, an advanced maneuvering spacecraft, and a Pressurized Cargo Module which is provided by Orbital's industrial partner Thales Alenia Space.

text: Cygnus CRS OA-10E, also known as Orbital Sciences CRS Flight 10E, is the eleventh planned flight of the

text: Orbital ATK

text: unmanned resupply spacecraft

text: Cygnus

text: and its tenth flight to the

text: International Space Station

text: under the

text: Commercial Resupply Services

text: contract with

text: NASA

text: program, then

text: Orbital Sciences

text: designed and built

text: Antares

text: , a medium-class launch vehicle;

text: Cygnus

text: Thales Alenia Space

text: This success led to an escalation of the American space program, which unsuccessfully attempted to launch a Vanguard satellite into orbit two months later. On 31 January 1958, the U.S. successfully orbited Explorer 1 on a Juno rocket. In the meantime, the Soviet dog Laika became the first animal in orbit on 3 November 1957.

text: This success led to an escalation of the American

text: space program

text: , which unsuccessfully attempted to launch

text: a Vanguard satellite

text: into orbit two months later. On 31 January 1958, the U.S. successfully orbited

text: Explorer 1

text: on a Juno rocket. In the meantime, the Soviet dog

text: Laika

text: became the first animal in orbit on 3 November 1957.

text: After the Nott Memorial was restored and renovated in the early 1990s, the building became the home of the Mandeville Gallery.  Located on the second floor, the Mandeville Gallery is an exhibition space presenting art, science, and history exhibitions throughout the year.  The gallery is dedicated to exhibiting contemporary artists, to presenting college, regional, national, and international history, and to exploring the links between the arts and sciences.  The Wikoff Student Gallery, also in the Nott Memorial, is dedicated to showing onging work by students.

text: The central plot device is the "macroscope", a large crystal that can be used to focus a newly discovered type of particle, the "macron". Macrons are not subject to many of the effects that interfere with light, and as a result the macroscope can focus on any location in space-time with exceptional clarity, producing what is essentially a telescope of infinite resolution in the space-time continuum. The macroscope has been built into a solar-orbiting space station where scientists visit to book time on the device. Using it, they are able to explore space like never before. Among their many discoveries are numerous planets and two intelligent alien races. Using the macroscope, observers were able to look into one race's historical records, finding numerous parallels with human life on Earth. The race is now in societal decline, and the implications are worrying.

text: The central plot device is the "macroscope", a large

text: crystal

text: that can be used to focus a newly discovered type of particle, the "macron". Macrons are not subject to many of the effects that interfere with light, and as a result the macroscope can focus on any location in space-time with exceptional clarity, producing what is essentially a

text: telescope

text: of infinite resolution in the space-time continuum. The macroscope has been built into a solar-orbiting

text: space station

text: where scientists visit to book time on the device. Using it, they are able to explore space like never before. Among their many discoveries are numerous planets and two intelligent alien races. Using the macroscope, observers were able to look into one race's historical records, finding numerous parallels with human life on Earth. The race is now in societal decline, and the implications are worrying.

text: Space Adventures remains the only company to have sent paying passengers to space. In conjunction with the Federal Space Agency of the Russian Federation and Rocket and Space Corporation Energia, Space Adventures facilitated the flights for all of the world's first private space explorers. The first three participants paid in excess of $20 million (USD) each for their 10-day visit to the ISS.

text: Space Adventures remains the only company to have sent paying passengers to space. In conjunction with the

text: Federal Space Agency of the Russian Federation

text: and

entity_name: S. P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia

text: Rocket and Space Corporation Energia

text: , Space Adventures facilitated the flights for all of the world's first private space explorers. The first three participants paid in excess of $20 million (USD) each for their 10-day visit to the ISS.

text: The International Space Station orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere, between  (decaying by 2 km/month and raised by periodic reboosts), whereas the Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer satellite at  utilized winglets and an innovative ion engine to maintain a stable orientation and orbit.

text: The

text: International Space Station

text: orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere, between  (decaying by 2 km/month and raised by periodic reboosts), whereas the

text: Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer

text: satellite at  utilized

text: winglets

text: and an innovative

text: ion engine

text: to maintain a stable orientation and orbit.

text: "Clouds are Pillows for the Moon" is a commentary on what is recognized as "American" in terms of identity. Ty is exploring how to challenge the current infrastructure of identities and create a "new nation of theatre" that will include all variations of identity a person connects with in a space we can use to express, to heal, to celebrate, and to tell our stories. "Clouds are Pillows for the Moon" specifically focuses on redefining the identity of Native Americans as well as American. The play calls for an alliance from its audience members to expand understanding of the two-spirit identity that Ty and others relate with.

text: Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) is a NASA satellite that is making a map of the boundary between the Solar System and interstellar space. The mission is part of NASA's Small Explorer program and launched with a Pegasus-XL rocket on October 19, 2008.

text: Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) is a

text: NASA

text: satellite that is making a map of the boundary between the

text: Solar System

text: and

text: interstellar space

text: . The mission is part of NASA's

text: Small Explorer program

text: and launched with a

text: Pegasus-XL

text: rocket on October 19, 2008.

text: The exploration of Mercury has taken only a minor role in the space interests of the world. It is the least explored inner planet. As of 2015, the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER missions have been the only missions that have made close observations of Mercury. MESSENGER made three flybys before entering orbit around Mercury. A third mission to Mercury, BepiColombo, a joint mission between the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and the European Space Agency, is to include two probes.  MESSENGER and BepiColombo are intended to gather complementary data to help scientists understand many of the mysteries discovered by Mariner 10’s flybys.

text: The exploration of

text: Mercury

text: has taken only a minor role in the space interests of the world. It is the least explored

text: inner planet

text: . As of 2015, the

text: Mariner 10

text: and

text: MESSENGER

text: missions have been the only missions that have made close observations of Mercury. MESSENGER made three

text: flyby

text: s before entering orbit around Mercury. A third mission to Mercury,

text: BepiColombo

text: , a joint mission between the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA) and the

text: European Space Agency

text: , is to include two

text: probes

text: .  MESSENGER and BepiColombo are intended to gather complementary data to help scientists understand many of the mysteries discovered by Mariner 10’s flybys.

text: Expendable rockets provided the means for launching artificial satellites, as well as manned spacecraft. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik I, and the United States followed with Explorer I in 1958. The first manned space flights were made in early 1961, first by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin and then by American astronaut Alan Shepard.

text: Expendable rockets provided the means for launching artificial

text: satellite

text: s, as well as

text: manned spacecraft

text: . In 1957 the

text: Soviet Union

text: launched the first satellite,

text: Sputnik I

text: , and the United States followed with

text: Explorer I

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: and then by American astronaut

text: Alan Shepard

text: In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere. Multi-stage rockets are capable of attaining escape velocity from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude.  Compared with airbreathing engines, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils, auxiliary reaction engines, gimballed thrust, momentum wheels, deflection of the exhaust stream, propellant flow, spin, and/or gravity.

text: In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere.

text: Multi-stage rocket

text: s are capable of attaining

text: escape velocity

text: from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude.  Compared with

text: airbreathing engines

text: , rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils,

text: auxiliary reaction engines

text: gimballed thrust

text: momentum wheels

text: deflection of the exhaust stream

text: , propellant flow,

text: spin

text: , and/or gravity.

text: Due to reduced interest in his pre-war work, Coggins applied for a position teaching watercolor at Hunter College. He taught watercolor painting there from 1948 to 1952. In New York, as a result of his friendship with Fletcher Pratt, Coggins was introduced to the members of the Hydra Club, where he met Judith Merril and L. Ron Hubbard. Coggins was also invited to join Pratt's Trap Door Spiders club, where he became closely associated with L. Sprague de Camp and Isaac Asimov. The contact with such visionary thinkers complimented his exposure to the German V-2 rockets in Europe and served to strengthen his growing interest in space travel, rockets, and science fiction. In 1951 and 1952, Coggins collaborated again with Fletcher Pratt on two classic books: Rockets, Jets, Guided Missiles & Space Ships, and By Space Ship to the Moon. The books were released amidst the great wave of interest in space travel sweeping the United States and the rest of the world in the 1950s, and they were published in several countries and translated into other languages. These books made the prospect of space exploration seem a practical possibility. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) scientists used the books to demonstrate their ideas to Congressmen when seeking funding for the space program, and there are many NASA scientists today who retain fond memories of the influence the books had on their careers.

text: Due to reduced interest in his pre-war work, Coggins applied for a position teaching watercolor at

text: Hunter College

text: . He taught watercolor painting there from 1948 to 1952. In New York, as a result of his friendship with Fletcher Pratt, Coggins was introduced to the members of the

text: Hydra Club

text: , where he met

text: Judith Merril

text: and

text: L. Ron Hubbard

text: . Coggins was also invited to join Pratt's

text: Trap Door Spiders

text: club, where he became closely associated with

text: L. Sprague de Camp

text: and

text: Isaac Asimov

text: . The contact with such visionary thinkers complimented his exposure to the German

text: rockets in Europe and served to strengthen his growing interest in space travel, rockets, and science fiction. In 1951 and 1952, Coggins collaborated again with Fletcher Pratt on two classic books: Rockets, Jets, Guided Missiles & Space Ships, and By Space Ship to the Moon. The books were released amidst the great wave of interest in space travel sweeping the United States and the rest of the world in the 1950s, and they were published in several countries and translated into other languages. These books made the prospect of

text: space exploration

text: seem a practical possibility.

text: (NASA) scientists used the books to demonstrate their ideas to Congressmen when seeking funding for the space program, and there are many NASA scientists today who retain fond memories of the influence the books had on their careers.

text: Secure communications have been proposed using a laser N-slit interferometer where the laser signal takes the form of an interferometric pattern.  Any attempt to intercept the signal causes the collapse of the interferometric pattern.  This technique has been demonstrated to work over propagation distances of practical interest and, in principle, it could be applied over large distances in space.  Assuming available laser technology, and considering the divergence of the interferometric signals,  the range for satellite-to-satellite communications has been estimated to be approximately 2000 km.  These estimates are applicable to an array of satellites orbiting the Earth. For space vehicles or space stations, the range of communications is estimated to increase up to 10000 km.  This approach to secure space-to-space communications was selected by Laser Focus World as one of the top photonics developments of 2015.

text: Secure communications have been proposed using a laser

text: N-slit interferometer

text: where the laser signal takes the form of an interferometric pattern.  Any attempt to intercept the signal causes the collapse of the interferometric pattern.  This technique has been demonstrated to work over propagation distances of practical interest and, in principle, it could be applied over large distances in space.  Assuming available laser technology, and considering the divergence of the interferometric signals,  the range for satellite-to-satellite communications has been estimated to be approximately 2000 km.  These estimates are applicable to an array of satellites orbiting the Earth. For space vehicles or space stations, the range of communications is estimated to increase up to 10000 km.  This approach to secure space-to-space communications was selected by

text: Laser Focus World

text: as one of the top photonics developments of 2015.

text: Another criterion to search for analogue sites are locations where the exploration conditions of future astronauts can be simulated. Future explorers of the Moon or Mars will have to handle various conditions, such as reduced gravity, radiation, work in pressurized space suits and extreme temperatures. Preparing astronauts for these conditions calls for training on sites that exhibit some of those conditions. The operations that can be simulated reach from living in isolation, to extra-vehicular activity (EVA) in reduced gravity to the construction of habitats. Examples for analogue sites that offer such exploration conditions are research stations at the poles or underwater EVA training as it is done at NEEMO by NASA, or at the Marseilles subsea analogue by COMEX. Underwater analogue sites allow for the training of astronauts in neutral buoyancy conditions (such as is done in test pools at NASA, ESA or Star City in Russia) while operating on a natural terrain. Potential targets for such training are missions to the Moon and Mars, to test sampling, drilling and field explorations in 1/6th or 1/3rd of Earth's gravity, or asteroids, and to test anchoring systems in microgravity.

text: Another criterion to search for analogue sites are locations where the exploration conditions of future astronauts can be simulated. Future explorers of the

text: Moon

text: or

text: Mars

text: will have to handle various conditions, such as reduced

text: gravity

text: radiation

text: , work in pressurized

text: space suit

text: s and extreme temperatures. Preparing astronauts for these conditions calls for training on sites that exhibit some of those conditions. The operations that can be simulated reach from living in isolation, to

text: extra-vehicular activity

text: (EVA) in reduced gravity to the construction of habitats. Examples for analogue sites that offer such exploration conditions are research stations at the poles or underwater EVA training as it is done at

text: NEEMO

text: by

text: NASA

text: , or at the Marseilles subsea analogue by

text: COMEX

text: . Underwater analogue sites allow for the training of astronauts in neutral buoyancy conditions (such as is done in test pools at NASA, ESA or Star City in Russia) while operating on a natural terrain. Potential targets for such training are missions to the Moon and Mars, to test sampling, drilling and field explorations in 1/6th or 1/3rd of Earth's gravity, or asteroids, and to test anchoring systems in microgravity.

text: The launch of the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, an Explorer-class satellite designed to conduct the first infrared survey of the sky led to anticipation of an instrument using new infrared detector technology.  By September 1983 NASA was considering the "possibility of a long duration [free-flyer] SIRTF mission."  The 1985 Spacelab-2 flight aboard STS-51-F confirmed the Shuttle environment was not well suited to an onboard infrared telescope, and a free-flying design was better.  The first word of the name was changed from Shuttle so it would be called the Space Infrared Telescope Facility.

text: The launch of the

text: Infrared Astronomical Satellite

text: , an Explorer-class satellite designed to conduct the first infrared survey of the sky led to anticipation of an instrument using new infrared detector technology.  By September 1983 NASA was considering the "possibility of a long duration [free-flyer] SIRTF mission."  The 1985 Spacelab-2 flight aboard

text: confirmed the Shuttle environment was not well suited to an onboard infrared telescope, and a free-flying design was better.  The first word of the name was changed from Shuttle so it would be called the Space Infrared Telescope Facility.

text: Most Earth observation satellites carry instruments that should be operated at a relatively low altitude. Altitudes below 500-600 kilometers are in general avoided, though, because of the significant air-drag at such low altitudes making frequent orbit reboost maneuvres necessary.  The Earth observation satellites ERS-1, ERS-2 and Envisat of European Space Agency as well as the MetOp spacecraft of EUMETSAT are all operated at altitudes of about 800 km. The Proba-1, Proba-2 and SMOS spacecraft of European Space Agency are observing the Earth from an altitude of about 700 km. The Earth observation satellites of UAE, DubaiSat-1 & DubaiSat-2 are also placed in Low Earth Orbits (LEO) orbits and providing satellite imagery of various parts of the Earth.

text: Most Earth observation satellites carry instruments that should be operated at a relatively low altitude. Altitudes below 500-600 kilometers are in general avoided, though, because of the significant

text: air-drag

text: at such low altitudes making frequent orbit

text: reboost

text: maneuvres necessary.  The Earth observation satellites

text: ERS-1, ERS-2

text: and

text: Envisat

text: of

text: European Space Agency

text: as well as the

text: MetOp

text: spacecraft of

text: EUMETSAT

text: are all operated at altitudes of about 800 km. The

text: and

text: SMOS

text: spacecraft of European Space Agency are observing the Earth from an altitude of about 700 km. The Earth observation satellites of UAE,

text: are also placed in

text: Low Earth Orbits (LEO)

text: orbits and providing

text: satellite imagery

text: of various parts of the Earth.

text: The Adler's permanent exhibition Planet Explorers allows families with young children to take the helm in this modern-day space adventure. Children will enter a world where they can play and learn what it takes to be part of a mission to outer space. They will become scientists, astronauts and space explorers.

text: Kosmos 159 was one of many satellites designed the Soviet Space Program given the Kosmos (satellite) designation. This satellite specifically was designed to be a high orbit satellite used in order to gain information on trajectory anomalies caused by the moons gravitational pull. This data would have been vital to the USSR space program and could have been the difference in successful manned missions to the moon. This mission was also used to test radio communications into space. Kosmos 159 launched May 16, 1967 and although the satellite had been designed for high orbit the main thruster cut out too early causing the satellite to only reach lower orbit.<ref>Siddiqi, Asif A. "Deep Space Chronicle a Chronology of Deep Space and Planetary Probes, 1958-2000." Monographs in Aerospace History 24 (2002): 63-64. Web. 10 Apr. 2016.

text: Kosmos 159 was one of many satellites designed the Soviet Space Program given the

text: Kosmos (satellite)

text: designation. This satellite specifically was designed to be a high orbit satellite used in order to gain information on trajectory anomalies caused by the moons gravitational pull. This data would have been vital to the USSR space program and could have been the difference in successful manned missions to the moon. This mission was also used to test radio communications into space. Kosmos 159 launched May 16, 1967 and although the satellite had been designed for high orbit the main thruster cut out too early causing the satellite to only reach lower orbit.<ref>Siddiqi, Asif A. "Deep Space Chronicle a Chronology of Deep Space and Planetary Probes, 1958-2000." Monographs in Aerospace History 24 (2002): 63-64. Web. 10 Apr. 2016.

text: In addition to ARPA, various groups within the US government had been considering the formation of a civilian agency to handle space exploration. After the Sputnik launch, these efforts gained urgency and were quickly moved forward. NASA was formed on 29 July 1958, and immediately set about studying the problem of manned space flight, and the launchers needed to work in this field. One goal, even in this early stage, was a manned lunar mission. At the time, the NASA panels felt that the direct ascent mission profile was the best approach; this placed a single very large spacecraft in orbit, which was capable of flying to the Moon, landing and returning to Earth. To launch such a large spacecraft, a new booster with much greater power would be needed; even the Saturn was not nearly large enough. NASA started examining a number of potential rocket designs under their Nova program.

text: In addition to ARPA, various groups within the US government had been considering the formation of a civilian agency to handle space exploration. After the Sputnik launch, these efforts gained urgency and were quickly moved forward.

text: NASA

text: was formed on 29 July 1958, and immediately set about studying the problem of manned space flight, and the launchers needed to work in this field. One goal, even in this early stage, was a manned lunar mission. At the time, the NASA panels felt that the

text: direct ascent

text: mission profile was the best approach; this placed a single very large spacecraft in orbit, which was capable of flying to the

text: Moon

text: , landing and returning to Earth. To launch such a large spacecraft, a new booster with much greater power would be needed; even the Saturn was not nearly large enough. NASA started examining a number of potential rocket designs under their

text: Nova

text: program.

text: The asteroid is classified as a rare T-type and L-type in the Tholen and SMASS taxonomy scheme, respectively, both indicating a featureless spectra of a dark and reddish body. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2–3.1 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,572 days). Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.17 and is tilted by 11 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. It has a rotation period of 9.6 hours. According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, it has a geometric albedo that lies between 0.06 and 0.10.

text: The asteroid is classified as a rare

text: T-type

text: and

text: L-type

text: in the

text: Tholen

text: and

text: SMASS

text: taxonomy scheme, respectively, both indicating a featureless spectra of a dark and reddish body. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2–3.1

text: AU

text: once every 4 years and 4 months (1,572 days). Its orbit shows an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.17 and is

text: tilted

text: by 11 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: . It has a

text: rotation period

text: of 9.6 hours. According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite,

text: IRAS

text: , the Japanese

text: Akari

text: satellite, and the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: with its subsequent

text: NEOWISE

text: mission, it has a

text: geometric albedo

text: that lies between 0.06 and 0.10.

text: Nowlan’s novella and script introduced the public to science fiction and prepared them for a future that involved space exploration and space/arms race, that later, indeed, was going on between the USA and the Soviet Union. While it sometimes claimed that they introduced the idea of "personal flight" with the use of devices attached to the body, this idea is based on the fact that a flying man is depicted on the cover of the August 1928 issue of Amazing Stories, which included the first part of Armageddon 2419 A.D. In fact the cover illustrates E.E. Doc Smith's serial The Skylark of Space, which began in the same issue.

text: Nowlan’s novella and script introduced the public to science fiction and prepared them for a future that involved

text: space exploration

text: and

text: space

text: arms race

text: , that later, indeed, was going on between the USA and the Soviet Union. While it sometimes claimed that they introduced the idea of "personal flight" with the use of devices attached to the body, this idea is based on the fact that a flying man is depicted on the cover of the August 1928 issue of Amazing Stories, which included the first part of Armageddon 2419 A.D. In fact the cover illustrates

text: E.E. Doc Smith

text: 's serial

text: The Skylark of Space

text: , which began in the same issue.

text: Moreover, many problems can occur when travelling in the outer space. One of the biggest issues that may affect the human body is the interstellar radiation. While the Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere protects all living forms in the planet, this cannot be said for the outer space. According to researchers from the University of Rochester Medical Center, a radiation equivalent to a mission to Mars can cause serious brain damages such as cognition problems and Alzheimer’s disease. Another objection to space exploration is the funding that it gets. In an ongoing poll on website isidewith, 52% of voters have given their approval on the US government increasing their space budget meanwhile 45% have opposed the idea. The most popular reason against supporting space funding is that some feel it should not be increased during a recession (8% of voters). Given the current economic climate these voters feel there are more pressing issues the US government should be looking to resolve before giving more of its already limited fund to further space exploration. Another popular reason to oppose the idea is that voters feel it should be the private sector to help fund space exploration. Many voters feel that government funding should be used to assist the country on the ground - military, grants, loans etc.

text: Two early works point to the agenda Firrell has explored extensively in mature works. Lucid Between Bouts of Sanity, published in a tri-lingual edition in 1996, is a manifesto in four sections exploring the reductive nature of action, the flaws in language, the difficulty of meaning anything accurately to anyone, and the possibility of using a constrained and reduced language to find a new expressive power. "I felt it must be possible to describe the limits within which all language must operate and so designate a clearly defined space for my own experimentation."

text: Gliese 54 is a red dwarf of spectral type M2 with an effective temperature of 4250 K.In the SIMBAD database it appears listed as variable star, getting the provisional variable designation NSV 427.It has a companion with which it forms a binary system whose orbital period is 427 ± 9 days. The companion, a red dwarf whose brightness is ~1 magnitude lower than Gliese 54, has been resolved with the instrument NICMOS installed in the Hubble Space Telescope. The semimajor axis projected from the orbit is 19.0 milliarcseconds; plausible for a total mass of 0.5 solar masses, the relationship between the masses of the components q = M / M is equal to 0.83.

text: Gliese 54 is a

text: red dwarf

text: of

text: spectral type

text: M2 with an

text: effective temperature

text: of 4250

text: K

text: .In the

text: SIMBAD

text: database it appears listed as

text: variable star

text: , getting the provisional

text: variable designation

text: NSV 427.It has a companion with which it forms a

text: binary system

text: whose

text: orbital period

text: is 427 ± 9 days. The companion, a red dwarf whose brightness is ~1 magnitude lower than Gliese 54, has been

text: resolved

text: with the instrument

entity_name: Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer

text: NICMOS

text: installed in the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: . The

text: semimajor axis

text: projected from the

text: orbit

text: is 19.0

text: milliarcseconds

text: ; plausible for a total mass of 0.5

text: solar mass

text: es, the relationship between the masses of the components q = M / M is equal to 0.83.

text: Small solar sails have been proposed to accelerate the deorbiting of small artificial satellites from Earth orbits.  Satellites in low Earth orbit can use a combination of solar pressure on the sail and increased atmospheric drag to accelerate satellite reentry.  A de-orbit sail developed at Cranfield University is part of the UK satellite TechDemoSat-1, launched in 2014, and is expected to be deployed at the end of the satellite's five-year useful life. The sail's purpose is to bring the satellite out of orbit over a period of about 25 years. In July 2015 British 3U CubeSat called DeorbitSail was launched into space with the purpose of testing 16 m deorbit structure, but eventually it failed to deploy it. There is also a student 2U CubeSat mission called PW-Sat2 planned to launch in 2017 that will test 4 m deorbit sail.

text: Small solar sails have been proposed to accelerate the deorbiting of small artificial satellites from Earth orbits.  Satellites in

text: low Earth orbit

text: can use a combination of solar pressure on the sail and increased atmospheric drag to accelerate satellite

text: reentry

text: .  A de-orbit sail developed at

text: Cranfield University

text: is part of the UK satellite TechDemoSat-1, launched in 2014, and is expected to be deployed at the end of the satellite's five-year useful life. The sail's purpose is to bring the satellite out of orbit over a period of about 25 years. In July 2015 British 3U

text: CubeSat

text: called

text: DeorbitSail

text: was launched into space with the purpose of testing 16 m deorbit structure, but eventually it failed to deploy it. There is also a student 2U CubeSat mission called

text: planned to launch in 2017 that will test 4 m deorbit sail.

text: The Planets is an educational miniseries produced by the BBC and A&E and released in 1999. The series was remastered in 2004. It documents the Solar System and its nature, formation, and discovery by humans during the space age. The series of eight episodes includes a substantial amount of archival footage from both the United States and Soviet space programs. It also depicts the Solar System through computer graphics. There were a total of eight episodes produced for the series. The series featured appearances from famous pioneering space scientists and explorers, and was narrated by Samuel West.

text: The Planets is an educational miniseries produced by the

text: BBC

text: and

text: A&E

text: and released in 1999. The series was remastered in 2004. It documents the

text: Solar System

text: and its nature, formation, and discovery by humans during the

text: space age

text: . The series of eight episodes includes a substantial amount of archival footage from both the United States and

text: Soviet

text: space programs. It also depicts the Solar System through computer graphics. There were a total of eight episodes produced for the series. The series featured appearances from famous pioneering space scientists and explorers, and was narrated by Samuel West.

text: From February 15, 2007 until September 15, 2007 the five THEMIS satellites coasted in a string-of-pearls orbital configuration.  From September 15, 2007 until December 4, 2007 the satellites were moved to more distant orbits in preparation for data collection in the magnetotail. This phase of the mission was called the "Dawn Phase" because the satellites' orbits were in apogee on the dawn side of the magnetosphere.  On December 4, 2007 the first tail science phase of the mission began.  In this segment of the mission scientists will collect data from the magnetotail of the Earth's magnetosphere.  During this phase the satellites' orbits are in apogee inside the magnetotail. The scientists hope to observe substorms and magnetic reconnection events.  During these events charged particles stored in the Earth's magnetosphere are discharged to form the aurora borealis.  Tail science is performed in the winter of the northern hemisphere because the ground magnetometers that Themis scientists correlate the satellite data with have relatively longer periods of night.  During the night, observations are not interrupted by charged particles from the Sun.

text: From February 15, 2007 until September 15, 2007 the five THEMIS satellites coasted in a string-of-pearls orbital configuration.  From September 15, 2007 until December 4, 2007 the satellites were moved to more distant orbits in preparation for data collection in the magnetotail. This phase of the mission was called the "Dawn Phase" because the satellites' orbits were in

text: apogee

text: on the dawn side of the

text: magnetosphere

text: .  On December 4, 2007 the first tail science phase of the mission began.  In this segment of the mission scientists will collect data from the magnetotail of the Earth's magnetosphere.  During this phase the satellites' orbits are in apogee inside the magnetotail. The scientists hope to observe substorms and magnetic reconnection events.  During these events charged particles stored in the Earth's magnetosphere are discharged to form the

text: aurora borealis

text: .  Tail science is performed in the winter of the

text: northern hemisphere

text: because the ground magnetometers that Themis scientists correlate the satellite data with have relatively longer periods of night.  During the night, observations are not interrupted by charged particles from the Sun.

text: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2014 () is a bill that would authorize the appropriation of $17.6 billion in fiscal year 2014 to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NASA would use the funding for human exploration of space, the Space Launch System, the Orion multipurpose crew vehicle, the commercial crew program, the International Space Station (ISS), and various technological and educational projects.

text: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2014 () is a bill that would

text: authorize

text: the

text: appropriation

text: of $17.6 billion in fiscal year 2014 to the

text: (NASA). NASA would use the funding for human exploration of space, the

text: Space Launch System

text: , the

text: Orion multipurpose crew vehicle

text: , the commercial crew program, the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), and various technological and educational projects.

text: The Earth Observing System (EOS) is a program of NASA comprising a series of artificial satellite missions and scientific instruments in Earth orbit designed for long-term global observations of the land surface, biosphere, atmosphere, and oceans of the Earth. The satellite component of the program was launched in 1997. The program is centerpiece of NASA's Earth Science Enterprise (ESE).

text: The Earth Observing System (EOS) is a program of

text: NASA

text: comprising a series of

text: artificial satellite

text: missions and scientific instruments in

text: Earth

text: orbit

text: designed for long-term global observations of the land surface,

text: biosphere

text: atmosphere

text: , and oceans of the Earth. The satellite component of the program was launched in 1997. The program is centerpiece of NASA's

text: Earth Science Enterprise (ESE)

text: Typically, in modern Hartree–Fock calculations, the one-electron wave functions are approximated by a linear combination of atomic orbitals.  These atomic orbitals are called Slater-type orbitals.  Furthermore, it is very common for the "atomic orbitals" in use to actually be composed of a linear combination of one or more Gaussian-type orbitals, rather than Slater-type orbitals, in the interests of saving large amounts of computation time.

text: Typically, in modern Hartree–Fock calculations, the one-electron wave functions are approximated by a

text: linear combination of atomic orbitals

text: .  These atomic orbitals are called

text: Slater-type orbital

text: s.  Furthermore, it is very common for the "atomic orbitals" in use to actually be composed of a linear combination of one or more

text: Gaussian-type orbitals

text: , rather than Slater-type orbitals, in the interests of saving large amounts of computation time.

text: Some of the automated "star shows" that appeared in this time interval include: "Planets, Stars, and Galaxies", a general show about our knowledge of astronomy at the time; "Mars, the Journey Begins", the story of the exploration of Mars (from prehistory to the then-present), and possible future plans for terraforming Mars; "Beyond the 4th Dimension", which explored, in layman's terms, the 4 dimensions of General Relativity, the Big Bang and inflation, and the new (at the time) theories of physics that postulated that space has up to 11 dimensions; some of these shows featured creative and novel sound tracks composed by composer-in-residence Mychael Danna.

text: Some of the automated "star shows" that appeared in this time interval include: "Planets, Stars, and Galaxies", a general show about our knowledge of astronomy at the time; "Mars, the Journey Begins", the story of the exploration of Mars (from prehistory to the then-present), and possible future plans for terraforming Mars; "Beyond the 4th Dimension", which explored, in layman's terms, the 4 dimensions of General Relativity, the Big Bang and inflation, and the new (at the time) theories of physics that postulated that space has up to 11 dimensions; some of these shows featured creative and novel sound tracks composed by composer-in-residence

text: Mychael Danna

text: Pioneer 10 (originally designated Pioneer F) is an American space probe, weighing , that completed the first mission to the planet Jupiter. Thereafter, Pioneer 10 became the first spacecraft to achieve escape velocity from the Solar System. This space exploration project was conducted by the NASA Ames Research Center in California, and the space probe was manufactured by TRW Inc.

text: Pioneer 10 (originally designated Pioneer F) is an American

text: space probe

text: , weighing , that completed the first mission to the planet

text: Jupiter

text: . Thereafter, Pioneer 10 became the first spacecraft to achieve

text: escape velocity

text: from the

text: Solar System

text: . This

text: space exploration

text: project was conducted by the

text: NASA Ames Research Center

text: in

text: California

text: , and the space probe was manufactured by

text: TRW Inc.

text: Kludze was selected to join the NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC), an organization made up of some of NASA's best and brightest, created after the Columbia incident, as a systems engineering expert. Before joining the NESC, Kludze was the manager of NASA Langley's state-of-the-art Integrated Design Center (IDC) which he helped to develop. He was also the Traceability and Verification Manager for the CALIPSO spacecraft. His pioneering work in systems engineering has been published worldwide; he has a number of publications, several NASA and external awards and recognitions to his credit. Kludze will be involved in several space initiatives including the implementation of the U.S. President's Space Exploration Vision to the Moon, Mars and beyond.

text: Kludze was selected to join the NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC), an organization made up of some of NASA's best and brightest, created after the Columbia incident, as a systems engineering expert. Before joining the NESC, Kludze was the manager of NASA Langley's state-of-the-art Integrated Design Center (IDC) which he helped to develop. He was also the Traceability and Verification Manager for the

text: CALIPSO

text: spacecraft. His pioneering work in systems engineering has been published worldwide; he has a number of publications, several NASA and external awards and recognitions to his credit. Kludze will be involved in several space initiatives including the implementation of the U.S. President's Space Exploration Vision to the Moon, Mars and beyond.

text: The Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration" may be awarded to foreign citizens for outstanding achievements in the development of space technology in the Russian Federation.

text: CASSIOPE, or CAScade, Smallsat and IOnospheric Polar Explorer, is a Canadian Space Agency (CSA) multi-mission satellite operated by MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates (MDA). The mission is funded through CSA and the Technology Partnerships Canada program. It was launched September 29, 2013, on the first flight of the SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.1 launch vehicle.  CASSIOPE is the first Canadian hybrid satellite to carry a dual mission in the fields of telecommunications and scientific research. The main objectives are to gather information to better understand the science of space weather, while verifying high-speed communications concepts through the use of advanced space technologies.

text: CASSIOPE, or CAScade, Smallsat and IOnospheric Polar Explorer, is a

text: Canadian Space Agency

text: (CSA) multi-mission

text: satellite

text: operated by

text: MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates

text: (MDA). The mission is funded through CSA and the Technology Partnerships Canada program. It was launched September 29, 2013, on the first flight of the

text: SpaceX

text: Falcon 9 v1.1

text: launch vehicle.  CASSIOPE is the first Canadian hybrid satellite to carry a dual mission in the fields of telecommunications and scientific research. The main objectives are to gather information to better understand the science of space weather, while verifying high-speed communications concepts through the use of advanced space technologies.

text: S-45 was an American satellite, which was lost in a launch failure in 1961. The satellite was intended to operate in a highly elliptical orbit, from which it was to have provided data on the shape of the ionosphere, and on the Earth's magnetic field. It was part of the Explorer programme, and would have been designated Explorer 10 had it reached orbit. A second identical satellite, S-45A, also failed to achieve orbit when it was launched.

text: S-45 was an

text: American

text: satellite

text: , which was lost in a launch failure in 1961. The satellite was intended to operate in a

text: highly elliptical orbit

text: , from which it was to have provided data on the shape of the ionosphere, and on the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: . It was part of the

text: Explorer program

text: me, and would have been designated Explorer 10 had it reached orbit. A second identical satellite,

text: , also failed to achieve orbit when it was launched.

text: Space Opera also included a much larger list of races for Non-player Characters and for encounters that consist of some meaningful contact:

text: There are many different hidden artifacts that can be found by exploring colonized planets. There are a total of nine (twelve in Entrenchment) artifacts, each giving the owner a unique and powerful bonus. For example, an alien artificial intelligence can increase economic efficiency across the player's empire, while an ion field technology can fortify planets against attack. When an artifact is discovered, all other players are notified of its location but not its type.

text: There are many different hidden artifacts that can be found by exploring colonized planets. There are a total of nine (twelve in Entrenchment) artifacts, each giving the owner a unique and powerful bonus. For example, an alien

text: artificial intelligence

text: can increase economic efficiency across the player's empire, while an

text: ion

text: field technology can fortify planets against attack. When an artifact is discovered, all other players are notified of its location but not its type.

text:
||5 January, 01:45 GMT||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Aeronomy/Ultraviolet astronomy||5 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||8 January, 01:40 GMT||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA/NRL||Sub-orbital||Aeronomy/Ultraviolet astronomy||8 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||12 January 19:12 GMT||Skylark||El Arenosillo||DFVLR||H-GR-58||DLR||Sub-orbital||Astronomy||12 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||12 January||R-36||LC-162/36, Baikonur||RVSN||DKh||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||12 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||15 January 20:00 GMT||Black Brant VC||LC-36, White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Solar research||15 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||16 January, 02:00 GMT||Kappa 9M||Kagoshima||ISAS||||ISAS||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere and Solar research||16 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||16 January 17:40 GMT||Nike Apache||Wallops Island||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Aeronomy||16 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||16 January 18:13 GMT||Super Arcas||Wallops Island||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||16 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||16 January||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Solar research||16 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||17 January, 02:37 GMT||Nike Tomahawk||Poker Flat||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Plasma research||17 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||17 January, 02:37 GMT||Kosmos-3M||LC-132/2, Plesetsk||VKS||Kosmos 628 (Tsiklon)||MO SSSR||LEO||Navigation||Still in orbit||Successful|||-||19 January, 01:38 GMT||Delta 2313||LC-17B, CCAFS||||Skynet 2A||UK Ministry of Defence||Intended: GSO
Achieved: LEO||Comms||25 January 1974||Failure||Placed in incorrect orbit due to carrier rocket malfunction|-||19 January 11:34 GMT||Skua||El Arenosillo||RAE||||RAE||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||19 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||19 January||Eridan||ALFS, Kourou||||||||Sub-orbital||Missile test||19 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||20 January||R-36M||LC-103, Baikonur||RVSN||POR||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||20 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||21 January, 02:39 GMT||Nike Tomahawk||Poker Flat||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Plasma research||21 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||21 January 11:30 GMT||Skua 4||El Arenosillo||RAE||||RAE||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||21 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||22 January, 02:41 GMT||Nike Tomahawk||Poker Flat||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Plasma research||22 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||22 January 11:00 GMT||Lambda-3H||Area L, Kagoshima||ISAS||||ISAS||Sub-orbital||X-ray astronomy||22 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||8 January 16:45 GMT||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Solar research||22 January 1974||Successful||Reached |-||22 January||Minuteman I||LF-06, Vandenberg AFB||USAF||||USAF||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||22 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||23 January 11:30 GMT||Skua||El Arenosillo||RAE||||RAE||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||23 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||23 January 12:50 GMT||Black Brant VB||Fort Churchill||NRCC||||NRCC||Sub-orbital||Aeronomy/Ionosphere/Aurora research||23 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||24 January 15:00 GMT||Voskhod||Plesetsk||||Kosmos 629 (Zenit-2M)||MOM||LEO||Recon||5 February 1974||Successful|||-||25 January 11:30 GMT||Skua||El Arenosillo||RAE||||RAE||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere research||25 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||25 January||UR-100N||Baikonur Cosmodrome||RVSN||||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||25 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||26 January||Minuteman III||LF-25, Vandenberg AFB||USAF||GT-24GB-1||USAF||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||26 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||26 January||UR-100N||Baikonur Cosmodrome||RVSN||||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||26 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||27 January 19:08 GMT||Nike Tomahawk||Andøya||NASA||Ferdinand 35
(Polar 3)||NDRE||Sub-orbital||Aurora research||27 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||30 January 11:00 GMT||Voskhod||Plesetsk||||Kosmos 630 (Zenit-4MK)||MOM||LEO||Recon||13 February 1974||Successful|||-||30 January||SSBS||BLB, Biscarosse||DMA||||DMA||Sub-orbital||Missile test||30 January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||January||Vertikal' K65UP||LC-107, Kapustin Yar||RVSN||||RVSN||Sub-orbital||Ionosphere/Solar research||January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||January||Athena||Wallops Island||Sandia||||USAF||Sub-orbital||Re-entry vehicle test||January 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||1 February, 06:30 GMT||JCR||Area T, Tanegashima||NASDA||||NASDA||Sub-orbital||Test flight||1 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||4 February 14:40 GMT||Skylark 6AC||LA-2SL, Woomera||BAC||||BAC||Sub-orbital||Astronomy||4 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||4 February||MR-UR-100||LC-177, Baikonur||RVSN||||RVSN||Sub-orbital||ICBM test||4 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February, 00:34 GMT||Kosmos-3M||LC-132/2, Plesetsk||VKS||Kosmos 631 (Tselina-O)||MO SSSR||LEO||ELINT||3 October 1980||Successful|||-||6 February 22:48 GMT||Black Brant IVB||Andoya||DLR||||DFVLR||Sub-orbital||Aurora research||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||6 February||Polaris A3||Submarine, WTR||US Navy||||US Navy||Sub-orbital||SLBM test||6 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||9 February, 02:10 GMT||Aerobee 200A||White Sands||NASA||||NASA||Sub-orbital||Astronomy||9 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-||9 February, 06:30 GMT||LS-C||Area T, Tanegashima||NASDA||LE-3||NASDA||Sub-orbital||Test flight||9 February 1974||Successful||Apogee: |-|rowspan=2|11 February 13:48 GMT|rowspan=2|Titan IIIE|rowspan=2|LC-41, CCAFS|rowspan=2|||Boilerplate Viking||NASA||Intended: GSO||Test carrier rocket|rowspan=2|12 February 1974|rowspan=2|Failure|rowspan=2|Upper stage turbopump malfunction|-||SPHINX||NASA||Intended: GSO||Plasma research|-||3 July||Soyuz (11A511)||LC-1/5, Baikonur||||Soyuz 14||||LEO, docked to Salyut 3||Manned orbital flight||19 July 1974||Successful|||-||16 July||Scout||Western Space and Missile Center at Vandenberg AFB||NASA||Aeros 2||NASA||||||||Successful|||-||26 August||Soyuz (11A511)||LC-1/5, Baikonur||||Soyuz 15||||LEO

text: ||5 January, 01:45

text: GMT

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aeronomy

text: Ultraviolet astronomy

text: ||5 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||8 January, 01:40

text: GMT

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: NRL

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aeronomy

text: Ultraviolet astronomy

text: ||8 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||12 January 19:12

text: GMT

text: Skylark

text: El Arenosillo

text: DFVLR

text: DLR

text: Sub-orbital

text: Astronomy

text: ||12 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||12 January||

text: Baikonur

text: RVSN

text: ||DKh||

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||12 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||15 January 20:00

text: GMT

text: Black Brant VC

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Solar research||15 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||16 January, 02:00

text: GMT

text: Kappa 9M

text: Kagoshima

text: ISAS

text: ISAS

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: and Solar research||16 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||16 January 17:40

text: GMT

text: Nike Apache

text: Wallops Island

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aeronomy

text: ||16 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||16 January 18:13

text: GMT

text: Super Arcas

text: Wallops Island

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||16 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||16 January||

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Solar research||16 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||17 January, 02:37

text: GMT

text: Nike Tomahawk

text: Poker Flat

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Plasma

text: research||17 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||17 January, 02:37

text: GMT

text: Plesetsk

text: VKS

text: Kosmos 628

text: Tsiklon

text: MO SSSR

text: LEO

text: Navigation

text: ||Still in orbit||Successful|||-||19 January, 01:38

text: GMT

text: Delta 2313

entity_name: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17

text: CCAFS

text: Skynet 2A

text: UK Ministry of Defence

text: ||Intended:

text: GSO

text: <br>Achieved:

text: LEO

text: Comms

text: ||25 January 1974||Failure||Placed in incorrect orbit due to carrier rocket malfunction|-||19 January 11:34

text: GMT

text: Skua

text: El Arenosillo

text: RAE

text: RAE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||19 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||19 January||

text: Eridan

text: ||ALFS,

text: Kourou

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Missile test||19 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||20 January||

text: Baikonur

text: RVSN

text: ||POR||

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||20 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||21 January, 02:39

text: GMT

text: Nike Tomahawk

text: Poker Flat

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Plasma

text: research||21 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||21 January 11:30

text: GMT

text: Skua 4

text: El Arenosillo

text: RAE

text: RAE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||21 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||22 January, 02:41

text: GMT

text: Nike Tomahawk

text: Poker Flat

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Plasma

text: research||22 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||22 January 11:00

text: GMT

text: ||Area L,

text: Kagoshima

text: ISAS

text: ISAS

text: Sub-orbital

text: X-ray astronomy

text: ||22 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||8 January 16:45

text: GMT

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Solar research||22 January 1974||Successful||Reached |-||22 January||

text: Minuteman I

text: Vandenberg AFB

text: USAF

text: USAF

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||22 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||23 January 11:30

text: GMT

text: Skua

text: El Arenosillo

text: RAE

text: RAE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||23 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||23 January 12:50

text: GMT

text: Black Brant VB

text: Fort Churchill

entity_name: National Republican Congressional Committee

text: NRCC

text: NRCC

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aeronomy

text: Ionosphere

text: Aurora

text: research||23 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||24 January 15:00

text: GMT

text: Voskhod

text: Plesetsk

text: Kosmos 629

text: MOM

text: LEO

text: Recon

text: ||5 February 1974||Successful|||-||25 January 11:30

text: GMT

text: Skua

text: El Arenosillo

text: RAE

text: RAE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: research||25 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||25 January||

text: Baikonur Cosmodrome

text: RVSN

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||25 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||26 January||

text: Minuteman III

text: Vandenberg AFB

text: USAF

text: USAF

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||26 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||26 January||

text: Baikonur Cosmodrome

text: RVSN

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||26 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||27 January 19:08

text: GMT

text: Nike Tomahawk

text: Andøya

text: NASA

text: ||Ferdinand 35<br>(Polar 3)||

entity_name: Norwegian Defence Research Establishment

text: NDRE

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aurora

text: research||27 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||30 January 11:00

text: GMT

text: Voskhod

text: Plesetsk

text: Kosmos 630

text: MOM

text: LEO

text: Recon

text: ||13 February 1974||Successful|||-||30 January||

text: SSBS

text: ||BLB,

text: Biscarosse

text: DMA

text: DMA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Missile test||30 January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||January||

text: Vertikal' K65UP

text: Kapustin Yar

text: RVSN

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: Ionosphere

text: /Solar research||January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||January||

text: Athena

text: Wallops Island

text: Sandia

text: USAF

text: Sub-orbital

text: Re-entry vehicle

text: test||January 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||1 February, 06:30

text: GMT

text: JCR

text: ||Area T,

text: Tanegashima

text: NASDA

text: NASDA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Test flight||1 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||4 February 14:40

text: GMT

text: Skylark 6AC

text: Woomera

text: BAC

text: BAC

text: Sub-orbital

text: Astronomy

text: ||4 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||4 February||

text: Baikonur

text: RVSN

text: RVSN

text: Sub-orbital

text: ICBM

text: test||4 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February, 00:34

text: GMT

text: Plesetsk

text: VKS

text: Kosmos 631

text: Tselina-O

text: MO SSSR

text: LEO

text: ELINT

text: ||3 October 1980||Successful|||-||6 February 22:48

text: GMT

text: Black Brant IVB

text: Andoya

text: DLR

text: DFVLR

text: Sub-orbital

text: Aurora

text: research||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||6 February||

text: Polaris A3

text: Submarine

text: WTR

text: US Navy

text: US Navy

text: Sub-orbital

text: SLBM

text: test||6 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||9 February, 02:10

text: GMT

text: Aerobee 200A

text: White Sands

text: NASA

text: NASA

text: Sub-orbital

text: Astronomy

text: ||9 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-||9 February, 06:30

text: GMT

text: LS-C

text: ||Area T,

text: Tanegashima

text: NASDA

text: NASDA

text: Sub-orbital

text: ||Test flight||9 February 1974||Successful||

text: Apogee

text: : |-|rowspan=2|11 February 13:48

text: GMT

text: Titan III

entity_name: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 41

text: CCAFS

text: Boilerplate

text: Viking

text: NASA

text: ||Intended:

text: GSO

text: ||Test carrier rocket|rowspan=2|12 February 1974|rowspan=2|Failure|rowspan=2|Upper stage turbopump malfunction|-||

text: SPHINX

text: NASA

text: ||Intended:

text: GSO

text: ||Plasma research|-||3 July||

text: Soyuz

text: Baikonur

text: Soyuz 14

text: LEO

text: , docked to

text: Salyut 3

text: ||Manned orbital flight||19 July 1974||Successful|||-||16 July||

text: Scout

text: Western Space and Missile Center

text: at

text: Vandenberg AFB

text: NASA

text: Aeros 2

text: NASA

text: ||||||||Successful|||-||26 August||

text: Soyuz

text: Baikonur

text: Soyuz 15

text: LEO

text: The second season continues the Human exploration of interstellar space by the crew of Enterprise, and further mention is made of the Temporal Cold War. The early encounters and historic culture of familiar Star Trek franchise races, such as the Vulcans, Andorians, Klingons, Romulans, Tholians, Borg, and Tellarites, are also explored further. The season ends with a cliffhanger that sets up the Xindi story arc, set in the Delphic Expanse, of the third season.

text: The second season continues the Human exploration of interstellar space by the crew of

text: Enterprise

text: , and further mention is made of the

text: Temporal Cold War

text: . The early encounters and historic culture of familiar

text: Star Trek franchise

text: races, such as the

text: Vulcans

text: Andorians

text: Klingons

text: Romulans

text: Tholians

text: Borg

text: , and

text: Tellarites

text: , are also explored further. The season ends with a cliffhanger that sets up the

text: Xindi

text: story arc, set in the

text: Delphic Expanse

text: , of the third season.

text: Department of Space (DOS),Government of India has launched a series of satellites for Earth’s resource management and monitoring. These satellites have been very successful in providing data in various scales ranging from 1:1 Million to 1:12,500 scale. Each of the Indian Remote Sensing satellite missions ensured data continuity while introducing improvements in the spatial, spectral and radiometric resolutions. Considering increase demand for large scale and topographic mapping data DOS launched the Cartosat-1 in 2005. Cartosat-1 is dedicated to stereo viewing for large scale mapping and terrain modelling.

text: Department of Space

text: (DOS),Government of India has launched a series of satellites for Earth’s resource management and monitoring. These satellites have been very successful in providing data in various scales ranging from 1:1 Million to 1:12,500 scale. Each of the

text: Indian Remote Sensing satellite

text: missions ensured data continuity while introducing improvements in the spatial, spectral and radiometric resolutions. Considering increase demand for large scale and topographic mapping data DOS launched the Cartosat-1 in 2005. Cartosat-1 is dedicated to stereo viewing for large scale mapping and terrain modelling.

text: |-| 10201 Korado ||  || Korado Korlević, Croatian astronomer|-id=203| 10203 Flinders || 1997 PQ || Matthew Flinders, British navigator and explorer, or his grandson the archaeologist and Egyptologist Flinders Petrie*|-id=204| 10204 Turing ||  || Alan Turing, British mathematician, logician, cryptographer, and computer scientist*|-id=205| 10205 Pokorný ||  || Zdeněk Pokorný, Czech astronomer †|-id=207| 10207 Comeniana || 1997 QA ||  Bratislava's Comenius University (Universitas Comeniana in Latin), the leading institution of higher learning in the Slovak Republic, was founded in 1919, and the Institute of Astronomy, one of the university's first institutes, was established in 1943. The observatory in Modra also belongs to the university.|-id=208| 10208 Germanicus ||  || Germanicus (15 B.C.-19 A.D.), a Roman general and nephew of Tiberius, also wrote several poems, including Aratea, the Latin version of Aratus' Phaenomena, an important astronomical work in which he described the constellations. In 1963, in Amelia, near Terni, a 2-meter bronze statue of Germanicus was found.|-id=209| 10209 Izanaki ||  || According to the Japanese myth, Izanaki-no-mikoto is the god who descended to the island Onogoro with the goddess Izanami and created the land there, including the island of Awaji.|-id=210| 10210 Nathues ||  || German geophysicist Andreas Nathues (b. 1967) studied the physical properties of the Eunomia family of minor planets using innovative observing and data-analysis techniques at the German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin.|-id=211| 10211 La Spezia ||  || La Spezia is a town near the Monte Viseggi Observatory. It is famous for its "Poets' Gulf", in honor of the nineteenth-century English poets Byron and Shelley, who lived, loved and died in Italy, the country of their adoption.|-id=213| 10213 Koukolík ||  || František Koukolík, Czech neuropathologist and popularizer of science †|-id=215| 10215 Lavilledemirmont || 1997 SQ || Henri de la Ville de Mirmont or Jean de la Ville de Mirmont, both French writers*|-id=216| 10216 Popastro ||  || The U.K. Society for Popular Astronomy (SPA) celebrates its fiftieth anniversary in 2003. It was established as the Junior Astronomical Society to promote astronomy as a hobby, particularly among beginners. The SPA is one of three national societies for astronomy in the U.K.|-id=217| 10217 Richardcook ||  || Richard Cook (b. 1965) was the Mars Pathfinder Flight Operations Manager and was responsible for running the day-to-day operations of the Mars Pathfinder spacecraft during launch, the landing phase and surface operations on Mars.|-id=218| 10218 Bierstadt ||  || Albert Bierstadt (1830–1902), a landscape artist from the Hudson River School, was best known for his panoramic scenes of the American West, including the Rocky Mountains, Yosemite and the Grand Canyon. His work inspired those who followed him westward while forever preserving the power and beauty of the vanishing frontier.|-id=219| 10219 Penco ||  || Umberto Penco, Italian physicist at the University of Pisa†|-id=220| 10220 Pigott ||  || |-id=221| 10221 Kubrick ||  || Stanley Kubrick, American film director*|-id=222| 10222 Klotz ||  || Alain Klotz, French astronomer*|-id=223| 10223 Zashikiwarashi ||  ||  Taking the form of a child with bobbed hair, Zashikiwarashi is a traditional spirit of the people of the Tohoku district. It haunts the Japanese-style rooms of old families. It is said that a family would be wealthy while the spirit lives and become poor when it leaves.|-id=224| 10224 Hisashi ||  || Hisashi Hirabayashi, Japanese senior chief officer of JAXA Space Education and director of the Space Education Center, who led the Very Long Baseline Interferometer and Space Observatory Program with the radio satellite HALCA |-id=226| 10226 Seishika ||  || Seishika is a thin purple flower specified as an endangered plant. Known as its elusive flower, it lives only in the Yaeyama Islands area, Okinawa prefecture. The pretty flower blooms exquisitely around April on Mt. Banna-take near the VERA Ishigakijima Station.|-id=227| 10227 Izanami ||  ||  Izanami-no-mikoto is the mythical goddess who descended to the island Onogoro with the god Izanaki and various other gods. After her death she was also called Yomotsu-ookami in the land of the dead.|-id=233| 10233 Le Creusot ||  || |-id=234| 10234 Sixtygarden ||  || 60 Garden Street, address of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics †|-id=237| 10237 Adzic ||  || Vladislav Adzic (b. 1984) is a finalist in the 2002 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer science project. He attends the Ward Melville High School, East Setauket, New York, U.S.A.|-id=239| 10239 Hermann ||  || Shawn M. Hermann (b. 1975), now at Raytheon Corporation, Tucson, was one of the first observers for LONEOS. During 1998–1999 he discovered two Apollos, an Amor and a comet.|-id=241| 10241 Miličević ||  || Nikola Miličević, Croatian astronomer and last administrator of Blaca hermitage (or Pustinja Blaca – Blaca monastery) on Brač, Croatia |-id=242| 10242 Wasserkuppe || 2808 P-L || Wasserkuppe, high plateau, the highest peak in the Rhön Mountains, in the German state of Hesse*|-id=243| 10243 Hohe Meissner || 3553 P-L || Hohe Meissner*|-id=244| 10244 Thüringer Wald || 4668 P-L || Thüringer Wald, Thuringia, Germany*|-id=245| 10245 Inselsberg || 6071 P-L || Inselsberg Mountain, Germany*|-id=246| 10246 Frankenwald || 6381 P-L || Frankenwald, German mountain range*|-id=247| 10247 Amphiaraos || 6629 P-L || The Greek seer Amphiaraos took part in the campaign of the Argonauts and the "Seven against Thebes".|-id=248| 10248 Fichtelgebirge || 7639 P-L || Fichtelgebirge, German mountain range*|-id=249| 10249 Harz || 9515 P-L || Harz, German mountain range*|-id=250| 10250 Hellahaasse || 1252 T-1 || Hella S. Haasse, Dutch novelist |-id=251| 10251 Mulisch || 3089 T-1 || Harry Mulisch, Dutch writer |-id=252| 10252 Heidigraf || 4164 T-1 || Heidi Graf, former Head of ESTEC Communications Office (1977–2006) at European Space Agency (ESA); "founding mother" of permanent exhibition Space Expo in Noordwijk, Netherlands (since 1990)|-id=253| 10253 Westerwald || 2116 T-2 || Westerwald, German mountain range*|-id=254| 10254 Hunsrück || 2314 T-2 || Hunsrück, German mountain range*|-id=255| 10255 Taunus || 3398 T-3 || Taunus, German mountain range*|-id=256| 10256 Vredevoogd || 4157 T-3 || Loek Vredevoogd, former president of the School of Management of the University of Leiden †|-id=257| 10257 Garecynthia || 4333 T-3 || This minor planet honors the marriage of Gareth Williams, associate director of the Minor Planet Center, and Cynthia Marsden, daughter of the director, in Lexington, Massachusetts, on 2002 Oct. 1.|-id=259| 10259 Osipovyurij || 1972 HL || Yurij Sergeevich Osipov (b. 1936) is an outstanding Russian mathematician and mechanician, known worldwide as an expert in the theory of control, as well as in the theory of differential equations and its applications. Since 1991 he has been president of the Russian Academy of Sciences.|-id=261| 10261 Nikdollezhal' ||  || Academician Nikolaj Antonovich Dollezhal' (1899–2000), Russian expert in power engineering, was the chief designer of the reactor for the world's first atomic power station, located in Obninsk, some 120 km southwest of Moscow.|-id=262| 10262 Samoilov ||  || Evgenij Valerianovich Samoilov (b. 1912) is a well-known Russian dramatic actor and People's Artist of the former U.S.S.R. He performs at the State Academic Maly Theatre in Moscow.|-id=263| 10263 Vadimsimona ||  || Russian physicist Vadim Aleksandrovich Simonenko is deputy director of the Russian Scientific Research Institute of Technical Physics at Snezhinsk. He is known for his work on the hazards of near-earth objects and the protection of the earth.|-id=264| 10264 Marov ||  || Mikhail Yakovlevich Marov (b. 1933), professor and head of the planetary department at Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics, is one of the initiators and scientific leaders of research of Venus and Mars from space. He is also currently the president of IAU Division III.|-id=265| 10265 Gunnarsson ||  || Marcus Gunnarsson, Swedish astronomer †|-id=266| 10266 Vladishukhov ||  || Vladimir Grigor'evich Shukhov, Russian engineer*|-id=269| 10269 Tusi ||  || Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī †|-id=270| 10270 Skoglöv ||  || Erik Skoglöv, Swedish astronomer †|-id=283| 10283 Cromer ||  || Dedicated teachers Michael (b. 1941) and Sarah (b. 1945) Cromer, of Flagstaff, Arizona, set a standard in education for hundreds of young students. Their active concern for the learning process and involvement in the welfare of successive generations, in and out of the classroom, is an example for all.|-id=285| 10285 Renémichelsen ||  || René Michelsem, Danish astronomer †|-id=286| 10286 Shnollia ||  || Simon Shnoll, Russian biophysicist|-id=287| 10287 Smale ||  || American mathematician Stephen Smale (b. 1930) is a member of National Academy of Sciences. He concentrates on the junction of algebraic topology and theory of differential equations and on problems of complexity of algorithms. The name was suggested by V. J. Judovich.|-id=288| 10288 Saville || 1983 WN ||  Curt Saville (1946–2001) was an avid ocean and arctic explorer. He rowed across both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Saville also worked to encourage scientific exploration of the Earth and space. The name was suggested by P. C. Thomas.|-id=289| 10289 Geoffperry || 1984 QS || Geoffrey Perry, physics teacher at Kettering Grammar School*|-id=290| 10290 Kettering || 1985 SR || Kettering Group, the satellite tracking group established by Geoffrey Perry at the school at which he taught*|-id=293| 10293 Pribina ||  || Pribina (800?–861) was seated in Nitra, where he built the first church in Slovakia and founded the Nitra principality, first state of ancient Slovaks. In 833 he was forced to flee from Nitra but later acquired a large territory near Lake Balaton, where he ruled as a duke, became Christian and built a dozen new churches.|-id=295| 10295 Hippolyta || 1988 GB || Hippolyta, mythological queen of the Amazons*|-id=300| 10300 Tanakadate ||  || Aikitsu Tanakadate (also written Aikitu Tanakadate), Japanese geophysicist, founder of the International Latitude Observatory at Mizusawa |}

text: 10201 Korado

text: Korado Korlević

text: , Croatian astronomer|-id=203|

text: 10203 Flinders

text: || 1997 PQ ||

text: Matthew Flinders

text: , British navigator and explorer, or his grandson the archaeologist and Egyptologist

text: Flinders Petrie

text: 10204 Turing

text: Alan Turing

text: , British mathematician, logician, cryptographer, and computer scientist*|-id=205|

text: 10205 Pokorný

text: Zdeněk Pokorný

text: , Czech astronomer †|-id=207|

text: 10207 Comeniana

text: || 1997 QA ||  Bratislava's Comenius University (Universitas Comeniana in Latin), the leading institution of higher learning in the Slovak Republic, was founded in 1919, and the Institute of Astronomy, one of the university's first institutes, was established in 1943. The observatory in Modra also belongs to the university.|-id=208|

text: 10208 Germanicus

text: ||  || Germanicus (15 B.C.-19 A.D.), a Roman general and nephew of Tiberius, also wrote several poems, including Aratea, the Latin version of Aratus' Phaenomena, an important astronomical work in which he described the constellations. In 1963, in Amelia, near Terni, a 2-meter bronze statue of Germanicus was found.|-id=209|

text: 10209 Izanaki

text: ||  || According to the Japanese myth, Izanaki-no-mikoto is the god who descended to the island Onogoro with the goddess Izanami and created the land there, including the island of Awaji.|-id=210|

text: 10210 Nathues

text: ||  || German geophysicist Andreas Nathues (b. 1967) studied the physical properties of the Eunomia family of minor planets using innovative observing and data-analysis techniques at the German Aerospace Center (DLR), Berlin.|-id=211|

text: 10211 La Spezia

text: ||  || La Spezia is a town near the Monte Viseggi Observatory. It is famous for its "Poets' Gulf", in honor of the nineteenth-century English poets Byron and Shelley, who lived, loved and died in Italy, the country of their adoption.|-id=213|

text: 10213 Koukolík

text: František Koukolík

text: , Czech neuropathologist and popularizer of science †|-id=215|

text: 10215 Lavilledemirmont

text: || 1997 SQ ||

text: Henri de la Ville de Mirmont

text: or

text: Jean de la Ville de Mirmont

text: , both French writers*|-id=216|

text: 10216 Popastro

text: ||  || The U.K. Society for Popular Astronomy (SPA) celebrates its fiftieth anniversary in 2003. It was established as the Junior Astronomical Society to promote astronomy as a hobby, particularly among beginners. The SPA is one of three national societies for astronomy in the U.K.|-id=217|

text: 10217 Richardcook

text: ||  || Richard Cook (b. 1965) was the Mars Pathfinder Flight Operations Manager and was responsible for running the day-to-day operations of the Mars Pathfinder spacecraft during launch, the landing phase and surface operations on Mars.|-id=218|

text: 10218 Bierstadt

text: ||  || Albert Bierstadt (1830–1902), a landscape artist from the Hudson River School, was best known for his panoramic scenes of the American West, including the Rocky Mountains, Yosemite and the Grand Canyon. His work inspired those who followed him westward while forever preserving the power and beauty of the vanishing frontier.|-id=219|

text: 10219 Penco

text: Umberto Penco

text: , Italian physicist at the

text: University of Pisa

text: 10220 Pigott

text: ||  || |-id=221|

text: 10221 Kubrick

text: Stanley Kubrick

text: , American film director*|-id=222|

text: 10222 Klotz

text: Alain Klotz

text: , French astronomer*|-id=223|

text: 10223 Zashikiwarashi

text: ||  ||  Taking the form of a child with bobbed hair, Zashikiwarashi is a traditional spirit of the people of the Tohoku district. It haunts the Japanese-style rooms of old families. It is said that a family would be wealthy while the spirit lives and become poor when it leaves.|-id=224|

text: 10224 Hisashi

text: ||  || Hisashi Hirabayashi, Japanese senior chief officer of

text: JAXA

text: Space Education and director of the

text: Space Education Center

text: , who led the

text: Very Long Baseline Interferometer and Space Observatory Program

text: with the radio satellite

text: HALCA

text: 10226 Seishika

text: ||  || Seishika is a thin purple flower specified as an endangered plant. Known as its elusive flower, it lives only in the Yaeyama Islands area, Okinawa prefecture. The pretty flower blooms exquisitely around April on Mt. Banna-take near the VERA Ishigakijima Station.|-id=227|

text: 10227 Izanami

text: ||  ||  Izanami-no-mikoto is the mythical goddess who descended to the island Onogoro with the god Izanaki and various other gods. After her death she was also called Yomotsu-ookami in the land of the dead.|-id=233|

text: 10233 Le Creusot

text: ||  || |-id=234|

text: 10234 Sixtygarden

text: ||  || 60 Garden Street, address of the

entity_name: Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics

text: 10237 Adzic

text: ||  || Vladislav Adzic (b. 1984) is a finalist in the 2002 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair for his computer science project. He attends the Ward Melville High School, East Setauket, New York, U.S.A.|-id=239|

text: 10239 Hermann

text: ||  || Shawn M. Hermann (b. 1975), now at Raytheon Corporation, Tucson, was one of the first observers for LONEOS. During 1998–1999 he discovered two Apollos, an Amor and a comet.|-id=241|

text: 10241 Miličević

text: Nikola Miličević

text: , Croatian astronomer and last administrator of

text: Blaca hermitage

text: (or Pustinja Blaca – Blaca monastery) on

text: Brač

text: , Croatia |-id=242|

text: 10242 Wasserkuppe

text: || 2808 P-L ||

text: Wasserkuppe

text: , high plateau, the highest peak in the

text: Rhön

text: Mountains, in the German state of

text: Hesse

text: 10243 Hohe Meissner

text: || 3553 P-L ||

text: Hohe Meissner

text: 10244 Thüringer Wald

text: || 4668 P-L ||

text: Thüringer Wald

text: , Thuringia, Germany*|-id=245|

text: 10245 Inselsberg

text: || 6071 P-L ||

text: Inselsberg

text: Mountain, Germany*|-id=246|

text: 10246 Frankenwald

text: || 6381 P-L ||

text: Frankenwald

text: , German mountain range*|-id=247|

text: 10247 Amphiaraos

text: || 6629 P-L || The Greek seer Amphiaraos took part in the campaign of the Argonauts and the "Seven against Thebes".|-id=248|

text: 10248 Fichtelgebirge

text: || 7639 P-L ||

text: Fichtelgebirge

text: , German mountain range*|-id=249|

text: 10249 Harz

text: || 9515 P-L ||

text: Harz

text: , German mountain range*|-id=250|

text: 10250 Hellahaasse

text: || 1252 T-1 ||

text: Hella S. Haasse

text: , Dutch novelist |-id=251|

text: 10251 Mulisch

text: || 3089 T-1 ||

text: Harry Mulisch

text: , Dutch writer |-id=252|

text: 10252 Heidigraf

text: || 4164 T-1 ||

text: Heidi Graf

text: , former Head of ESTEC Communications Office (1977–2006) at European Space Agency (ESA); "founding mother" of permanent exhibition Space Expo in Noordwijk, Netherlands (since 1990)|-id=253|

text: 10253 Westerwald

text: || 2116 T-2 ||

text: Westerwald

text: , German mountain range*|-id=254|

text: 10254 Hunsrück

text: || 2314 T-2 ||

text: Hunsrück

text: , German mountain range*|-id=255|

text: 10255 Taunus

text: || 3398 T-3 ||

text: Taunus

text: , German mountain range*|-id=256|

text: 10256 Vredevoogd

text: || 4157 T-3 ||

text: Loek Vredevoogd

text: , former president of the School of Management of the University of Leiden †|-id=257|

text: 10257 Garecynthia

text: || 4333 T-3 || This minor planet honors the marriage of Gareth Williams, associate director of the Minor Planet Center, and Cynthia Marsden, daughter of the director, in Lexington, Massachusetts, on 2002 Oct. 1.|-id=259|

text: 10259 Osipovyurij

text: || 1972 HL || Yurij Sergeevich Osipov (b. 1936) is an outstanding Russian mathematician and mechanician, known worldwide as an expert in the theory of control, as well as in the theory of differential equations and its applications. Since 1991 he has been president of the Russian Academy of Sciences.|-id=261|

text: 10261 Nikdollezhal'

text: ||  || Academician Nikolaj Antonovich Dollezhal' (1899–2000), Russian expert in power engineering, was the chief designer of the reactor for the world's first atomic power station, located in Obninsk, some 120 km southwest of Moscow.|-id=262|

text: 10262 Samoilov

text: ||  || Evgenij Valerianovich Samoilov (b. 1912) is a well-known Russian dramatic actor and People's Artist of the former U.S.S.R. He performs at the State Academic Maly Theatre in Moscow.|-id=263|

text: 10263 Vadimsimona

text: ||  || Russian physicist Vadim Aleksandrovich Simonenko is deputy director of the Russian Scientific Research Institute of Technical Physics at Snezhinsk. He is known for his work on the hazards of near-earth objects and the protection of the earth.|-id=264|

text: 10264 Marov

text: ||  || Mikhail Yakovlevich Marov (b. 1933), professor and head of the planetary department at Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics, is one of the initiators and scientific leaders of research of Venus and Mars from space. He is also currently the president of IAU Division III.|-id=265|

text: 10265 Gunnarsson

text: Marcus Gunnarsson

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=266|

text: 10266 Vladishukhov

text: Vladimir Grigor'evich Shukhov

text: , Russian engineer*|-id=269|

text: 10269 Tusi

text: Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī

text: 10270 Skoglöv

text: Erik Skoglöv

text: , Swedish astronomer †|-id=283|

text: 10283 Cromer

text: ||  || Dedicated teachers Michael (b. 1941) and Sarah (b. 1945) Cromer, of Flagstaff, Arizona, set a standard in education for hundreds of young students. Their active concern for the learning process and involvement in the welfare of successive generations, in and out of the classroom, is an example for all.|-id=285|

text: 10285 Renémichelsen

text: René Michelsem

text: , Danish astronomer †|-id=286|

text: 10286 Shnollia

text: Simon Shnoll

text: , Russian biophysicist|-id=287|

text: 10287 Smale

text: ||  || American mathematician Stephen Smale (b. 1930) is a member of National Academy of Sciences. He concentrates on the junction of algebraic topology and theory of differential equations and on problems of complexity of algorithms. The name was suggested by V. J. Judovich.|-id=288|

text: 10288 Saville

text: || 1983 WN ||  Curt Saville (1946–2001) was an avid ocean and arctic explorer. He rowed across both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Saville also worked to encourage scientific exploration of the Earth and space. The name was suggested by P. C. Thomas.|-id=289|

text: 10289 Geoffperry

text: || 1984 QS ||

text: Geoffrey Perry

text: , physics teacher at Kettering Grammar School*|-id=290|

text: 10290 Kettering

text: || 1985 SR ||

text: Kettering Group

text: , the satellite tracking group established by

text: Geoffrey Perry

text: at the school at which he taught*|-id=293|

text: 10293 Pribina

text: ||  || Pribina (800?–861) was seated in Nitra, where he built the first church in Slovakia and founded the Nitra principality, first state of ancient Slovaks. In 833 he was forced to flee from Nitra but later acquired a large territory near Lake Balaton, where he ruled as a duke, became Christian and built a dozen new churches.|-id=295|

text: 10295 Hippolyta

text: || 1988 GB ||

text: Hippolyta

text: , mythological queen of the Amazons*|-id=300|

text: 10300 Tanakadate

text: Aikitsu Tanakadate

text: (also written Aikitu Tanakadate), Japanese geophysicist, founder of the

text: International Latitude Observatory

text: at

text: Mizusawa

text: Project Constellation included an Orion Mars Mission.(Then United States President) George W. Bush announced an initiative of manned space exploration on January 14, 2004, known as the Vision for Space Exploration. It included developing preliminary plans for a lunar outpost by 2012 and establishing an outpost by 2020. Precursor missions that would help develop the needed technology during the 2010-2020 decade were tentatively outlined by Adringa and others. On September 24, 2007, Michael Griffin, then NASA Administrator, hinted that NASA may be able to launch a human mission to Mars by 2037. The needed funds were to be generated by diverting $11 billion from space science missions to the vision for human exploration.

text: Project Constellation

text: included an

text: Orion Mars Mission

text: .(Then United States President)

text: George W. Bush

text: announced an initiative of manned space exploration on January 14, 2004, known as the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: . It included developing preliminary plans for a lunar outpost by 2012 and establishing an outpost by 2020. Precursor missions that would help develop the needed technology during the 2010-2020 decade were tentatively outlined by Adringa and others. On September 24, 2007, Michael Griffin, then NASA Administrator, hinted that NASA may be able to launch a human mission to Mars by 2037. The needed funds were to be generated by

text: diverting $11 billion

text: from space science missions to the vision for human exploration.

text: In the Universal Century (U.C.) timeline, space colonies are placed at the five Earth-Moon Lagrangian points. In most cases, a Lagrangian point is home to more than one group of space colonies. Individual colony pairs are known as Bunches, and a group of colonies that occupy a Lagrangian point are known collectively as a Side. Because Sides sometimes share a single Lagrangian point, it is possible to have two Sides in close orbit to one another. Most colonies in the Universal Century are O'Neill "Island 3" type colony cylinders, yet a few early built Bernal sphere (Island 1) and Stanford torus colonies are still in function, but most are changed to space stations or discarded.  Side 3's colonies are identical in size and shape to the Island 3 design, but doubled the habitable area by removing the large window strips of the Island 3.

text: In the

text: Universal Century

text: (U.C.) timeline, space colonies are placed at the five Earth-Moon

text: Lagrangian point

text: s. In most cases, a Lagrangian point is home to more than one group of space colonies. Individual colony pairs are known as Bunches, and a group of colonies that occupy a Lagrangian point are known collectively as a Side. Because Sides sometimes share a single Lagrangian point, it is possible to have two Sides in close orbit to one another. Most colonies in the Universal Century are

text: O'Neill "Island 3" type colony cylinders

text: , yet a few early built

text: Bernal sphere

text: (Island 1) and

text: Stanford torus

text: colonies are still in function, but most are changed to space stations or discarded.  Side 3's colonies are identical in size and shape to the Island 3 design, but doubled the habitable area by removing the large window strips of the Island 3.

text: Ariane 5 is a European heavy lift launch vehicle that is part of the Ariane rocket family, an expendable launch system used to deliver payloads into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) or low Earth orbit (LEO). Ariane 5 rockets are manufactured under the authority of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales. Airbus Defence and Space is the prime contractor for the vehicles, leading a consortium of sub-contractors. Ariane 5 is operated and marketed by Arianespace as part of the Ariane programme. Airbus Defence and Space builds the rockets in Europe and Arianespace launches them from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana.

text: Ariane 5 is a European

text: heavy lift launch vehicle

text: that is part of the

text: Ariane rocket family

text: , an

text: expendable launch system

text: used to deliver payloads into

text: geostationary transfer orbit

text: (GTO) or

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO). Ariane 5

text: rocket

text: s are manufactured under the authority of the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA) and the

text: Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales

text: Airbus Defence and Space

text: is the prime contractor for the vehicles, leading a consortium of sub-contractors. Ariane 5 is operated and marketed by

text: Arianespace

text: as part of the

text: Ariane

text: programme.

text: Airbus Defence and Space

text: builds the rockets in

text: Europe

text: and Arianespace launches them from the

text: Guiana Space Centre

text: in

text: French Guiana

text: Cygnus CRS OA-8E, also known as Orbital Sciences CRS Flight 8E, is the ninth planned flight of the Orbital ATK unmanned resupply spacecraft Cygnus and its eighth flight to the International Space Station under the Commercial Resupply Services contract with NASA. Orbital and NASA jointly developed a new space transportation system to provide commercial cargo resupply services to the International Space Station (ISS). Under the Commercial Orbital Transportation System (COTS) program, then Orbital Sciences designed and built Antares, a medium-class launch vehicle; Cygnus, an advanced maneuvering spacecraft, and a Pressurized Cargo Module which is provided by Orbital's industrial partner Thales Alenia Space.

text: Cygnus CRS OA-8E, also known as Orbital Sciences CRS Flight 8E, is the ninth planned flight of the

text: Orbital ATK

text: unmanned resupply spacecraft

text: Cygnus

text: and its eighth flight to the

text: International Space Station

text: under the

text: Commercial Resupply Services

text: contract with

text: NASA

text: program, then

text: Orbital Sciences

text: designed and built

text: Antares

text: , a medium-class launch vehicle;

text: Cygnus

text: Thales Alenia Space

text: NASA is currently focused on the Vision for Space Exploration and has reduced current funding for scientific unmanned space exploration in favor of human exploration. These budget cuts have slowed the multiple satellite imaging development but it continues. While Project Prometheus and other scientific missions have ended other projects such as Terrestrial Planet Finder continue.

text: NASA

text: is currently focused on the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: and has reduced current funding for scientific unmanned space exploration in favor of human exploration. These budget cuts have slowed the multiple satellite imaging development but it continues. While

text: Project Prometheus

text: and other scientific missions have ended other projects such as

text: Terrestrial Planet Finder

text: continue.

text: The series used traditional animation techniques and adhered closely to the original books, going so far as transposing some frames from the original albums directly to screen. In the episodes "Destination Moon" and "Explorers on the Moon", 3D animation was used for the Moon rocket—an unusual step in 1989. Each frame of the animation was then printed and recopied onto celluloid, hand painted in gouache, and then laid onto a painted background. The rocket seen in the title sequence is animated using the same 3D techniques.

text: The series used traditional animation techniques and adhered closely to the original books, going so far as transposing some frames from the original albums directly to screen. In the episodes

text: "Destination Moon"

text: and "

text: Explorers on the Moon

text: animation was used for the

text: Moon

text: rocket—an unusual step in 1989. Each frame of the animation was then printed and recopied onto

text: celluloid

text: , hand painted in

text: gouache

text: , and then laid onto a painted background. The rocket seen in the title sequence is animated using the same 3D techniques.

text: The observatory was originally named Deep Space Station 51 and was built in 1961 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In this role the station assisted in tracking many unmanned United States space missions, including the Ranger, Surveyor and Lunar Orbiter spacecraft (which landed on the Moon or mapped it from orbit), the Mariner missions (which explored the planets Venus and Mars) and the Pioneer missions (which measured the Sun's winds).

text: The observatory was originally named Deep Space Station 51 and was built in 1961 by the

text: (NASA). In this role the station assisted in tracking many unmanned

text: United States

text: space missions, including the Ranger, Surveyor and Lunar Orbiter spacecraft (which landed on the

text: Moon

text: or mapped it from orbit), the Mariner missions (which explored the planets

text: Venus

text: and

text: Mars

text: ) and the Pioneer missions (which measured the

text: Sun

text: 's winds).

text: In mathematics, the principal orbit type theorem  states that compact Lie group acting smoothly on a connected differentiable manifold has a principal orbit type.

text: In mathematics, the principal orbit type theorem  states that compact

text: Lie group

text: acting smoothly on a connected differentiable

text: manifold

text: has a principal orbit type.

text: The first satellite, Sputnik 1, was put into orbit around Earth and was therefore in geocentric orbit. By far this is the most common type of orbit with approximately 2,465 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. Geocentric orbits may be further classified by their altitude, inclination and eccentricity.

text: The first satellite,

text: Sputnik 1

text: , was put into orbit around Earth and was therefore in

text: geocentric orbit

text: . By far this is the most common type of orbit with approximately 2,465 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. Geocentric orbits may be further classified by their altitude,

text: inclination

text: and

text: eccentricity

text: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE), a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center, has been making detailed measurements of Earth's gravity field since its launch in March 2002. The satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia on a Rockot (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle. By measuring gravity, GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and climate.

text: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE), a joint mission of NASA and the

text: German Aerospace Center

text: , has been making detailed measurements of

text: Earth's gravity

text: field since its launch in March 2002. The satellites were launched from

text: Plesetsk Cosmodrome

text: , Russia on a

text: Rockot

text: (SS-19 + Breeze upper stage) launch vehicle. By measuring gravity, GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time. Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth's ocean, geology, and

text: climate

text: The novels do not share any characters and do not form a strict chronological series; the later novels are not sequels to the earlier ones.  Yet together they form an expanded story arc of space exploration.   The first novel, Rocket Ship Galileo, is about an effort to reach the Moon. The next few (through The Rolling Stones) revolve around interplanetary travel within the solar system.  The next few (Starman Jones through Time for the Stars) revolve around various versions of the early phase of interstellar travel. In the next novel (Citizen of the Galaxy), interstellar travel is well-established and easy for humans, and the central problem is one of the maintenance of law and order in the galaxy. The protagonist of the next and last Scribner's juvenile, Have Space Suit—Will Travel, travels to the Lesser Magellanic Cloud and interacts with an intergalactic civilization. The last book submitted to Scribner's, Starship Troopers, portrays an interstellar war between mankind and several other species.

text: The novels do not share any characters and do not form a strict chronological series; the later novels are not sequels to the earlier ones.  Yet together they form an expanded story arc of space exploration.   The first novel,

text: Rocket Ship Galileo

text: , is about an effort to reach

text: the Moon

text: . The next few (through

text: The Rolling Stones

text: ) revolve around

text: interplanetary travel

text: within the

text: solar system

text: .  The next few (

text: Starman Jones

text: through

text: Time for the Stars

text: ) revolve around various versions of the early phase of

text: interstellar travel

text: . In the next novel (

text: Citizen of the Galaxy

text: ), interstellar travel is well-established and easy for humans, and the central problem is one of the maintenance of law and order in the galaxy. The protagonist of the next and last Scribner's juvenile,

text: Have Space Suit—Will Travel

text: , travels to the

text: Lesser Magellanic Cloud

text: and interacts with an

text: intergalactic

text: civilization. The last book submitted to Scribner's,

text: Starship Troopers

text: , portrays an interstellar war between mankind and several other species.

text: Peaceful space travel and space exploration were clearly important objectives that energized many of the higher level instigators even of the German V-2 rocket program, which was funded by the German Army entirely for military purposes. Viking was probably the most ambitious program up to its time which had significant objectives that were essentially scientific, accompanied by a desire to explore and advance rocket technology for more ambitious peaceful space exploration goals, such as artificial earth satellites.

text: All rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are still used today in model rockets and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability.

text: All rockets used some form of solid or powdered

text: propellant

text: up until the 20th century, when

text: liquid-propellant rocket

text: s offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are still used today in

text: model rocket

text: s and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability.

text: Gilmour Space Technologies, also known as GS Tech or GST, was created in 2012 to develop solutions for space exploration.  Its current research and development is on Hybrid Rocket engines.

text: The greatest benefit of co-locating satellites at one orbital slot is that the capacity for traffic at that orbital position can be built-up in commercially manageable stages as demand dictates. In this way, when SES first brought DTH satellite TV to Europe it was not known what the demand for the services would be and therefore how many transponders would be required. The first satellite, Astra 1A, had just 16 transponders (for 16 analogue TV channels) and this capacity was doubled with the arrival of Astra 1B without any requirement for changes to viewers' equipment.

text: The greatest benefit of co-locating satellites at one orbital slot is that the capacity for traffic at that orbital position can be built-up in commercially manageable stages as demand dictates. In this way, when SES first brought

text: DTH

text: satellite TV to Europe it was not known what the demand for the services would be and therefore how many

text: transponder

text: s would be required. The first satellite, Astra 1A, had just 16 transponders (for 16 analogue TV channels) and this capacity was doubled with the arrival of Astra 1B without any requirement for changes to viewers' equipment.

text: A rocket is propelled forward by a thrust force equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the time-rate of momentum change of the exhaust gas accelerated from the combustion chamber through the rocket engine nozzle. This is the exhaust velocity with respect to the rocket, times the time-rate at which the mass is expelled, or in mathematical terms:

text: A

text: rocket

text: is propelled forward by a thrust force equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the time-rate of momentum change of the exhaust gas accelerated from the combustion chamber through the rocket engine nozzle. This is the

text: exhaust velocity

text: with respect to the rocket, times the time-rate at which the mass is expelled, or in mathematical terms:

text: Not long after inception, Microgramma was widely appropriated for use in science fiction film, depicting advanced technology and space exploration.

text: Not long after inception, Microgramma was widely appropriated for use in

text: science fiction

text: film, depicting advanced

text: technology

text: and

text: space exploration

text: The newest addition to the U.S. Space & Rocket Center is the Davidson Center for Space Exploration, named after Dr. Julian Davidson, founder of Davidson Technologies. The  building opened January 31, 2008.  The Davidson Center was designed to house the Saturn V Dynamic Test Vehicle (listed on the National Register of Historic Places) and many other space exploration exhibits. The vehicle is elevated above the floor surface with separated stages and engines exposed, so visitors have the opportunity to walk underneath the rocket.  The Davidson Center also features a 3D movie theater in addition to the IMAX theater in the original museum.

text: The newest addition to the U.S. Space & Rocket Center is the Davidson Center for Space Exploration, named after Dr. Julian Davidson, founder of Davidson Technologies. The  building opened January 31, 2008.  The Davidson Center was designed to house the

text: Saturn V Dynamic Test Vehicle

text: (listed on the

text: National Register of Historic Places

text: ) and many other space exploration exhibits. The vehicle is elevated above the floor surface with separated stages and engines exposed, so visitors have the opportunity to walk underneath the rocket.  The Davidson Center also features a 3D movie theater in addition to the

text: IMAX

text: theater in the original museum.

text: Laika (Лайка, "Barker"), became the first living Earth-born creature (other than microbes) in orbit, aboard Sputnik 2 on November 3rd, 1957. Some call her the first living passenger to go into space, but many sub-orbital flights with animal passengers passed the edge of space first. She was also known as Zhuchka (Жучка, "Little Bug") and Limonchik (Лимончик, "Lemon"). The American media dubbed her "Muttnik", making a play-on-words for the canine follow-on to the first orbital mission, Sputnik. She died between five and seven hours into the flight from stress and overheating. Her true cause of death was not made public until October 2002; officials previously gave reports that she died when the oxygen supply ran out. At a Moscow press conference in 1998 Oleg Gazenko, a senior Soviet scientist involved in the project, stated "The more time passes, the more I'm sorry about it. We did not learn enough from the mission to justify the death of the dog...".

text: Laika (Лайка, "Barker"), became the first living Earth-born creature (other than microbes) in orbit, aboard

text: Sputnik 2

text: on November 3rd, 1957. Some call her the first living passenger to go into space, but many sub-orbital flights with animal passengers passed the edge of space first. She was also known as Zhuchka (Жучка, "Little Bug") and Limonchik (Лимончик, "Lemon"). The

text: American media

text: dubbed her "Muttnik", making a

text: play-on-words

text: for the canine follow-on to the first orbital mission,

text: Sputnik

text: . She died between five and seven hours into the flight from stress and overheating. Her true cause of death was not made public until October 2002; officials previously gave reports that she died when the oxygen supply ran out. At a Moscow press conference in 1998

text: Oleg Gazenko

text: , a senior Soviet scientist involved in the project, stated "The more time passes, the more I'm sorry about it. We did not learn enough from the mission to justify the death of the dog...".

text: In June 2008, David King, director of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center stated that NASA has considered DIRECT as well as many other rocket proposals, and that the Ares family was the right set of rockets for the mission. "DIRECT v2.0 falls significantly short of the lunar lander performance requirement for exploration missions as specifically outlined in Constellation Program ground rules. The concept also overshoots the requirements for early missions to the International Space Station in the coming decade. These shortcomings would necessitate rushed development of a more expensive launch system with too little capability in the long run, and would actually increase the gap between space shuttle retirement and development of a new vehicle. Even more importantly, the Ares approach offers a much greater margin of crew safety - paramount to every mission NASA puts into space."

text: In June 2008,

text: David King

text: , director of NASA's

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: stated that NASA has considered DIRECT as well as many other rocket proposals, and that the

text: Ares family

text: was the right set of rockets for the mission. "DIRECT v2.0 falls significantly short of the lunar lander performance requirement for exploration missions as specifically outlined in Constellation Program ground rules. The concept also overshoots the requirements for early missions to the International Space Station in the coming decade. These shortcomings would necessitate rushed development of a more expensive launch system with too little capability in the long run, and would actually increase the gap between space shuttle retirement and development of a new vehicle. Even more importantly, the Ares approach offers a much greater margin of crew safety - paramount to every mission NASA puts into space."

text: According to molecular orbital theory, molecular orbitals are formed from the linear combination of atomic orbitals.  In a simple diatomic molecule such as hydrogen fluoride (chemical formula: HF), one atom may have many more electrons than the other.  A sigma bonding orbital is created between the atomic orbitals with like symmetry.  Some orbitals (e.g. p and p orbitals from the fluorine in HF) may not have any other orbitals to combine with and become non-bonding molecular orbitals.  In the HF example, the p and p orbitals remain p and p orbitals in shape but when viewed as molecular orbitals are thought of as non-bonding.  The energy of the orbital does not depend on the length of any bond within the molecule.  Its occupation neither increases nor decreases the stability of the molecule, relative to the atoms, since its energy is the same in the molecule as in one of the atoms.  For example, there are two rigorously non-bonding orbitals that are occupied in the ground state of the hydrogen fluoride diatomic molecule; these molecular orbitals are localized on the fluorine atom and are composed of p-type atomic orbitals whose orientation is perpendicular to the internuclear axis. They are therefore unable to overlap and interact with the s-type valence orbital on the hydrogen atom.

text: According to molecular orbital theory, molecular orbitals are formed from the

text: linear combination of atomic orbitals

text: .  In a simple diatomic molecule such as

text: hydrogen fluoride

text: chemical formula

text: : HF), one atom may have many more electrons than the other.  A sigma bonding orbital is created between the atomic orbitals with like symmetry.  Some orbitals (e.g. p and p orbitals from the fluorine in HF) may not have any other orbitals to combine with and become non-bonding molecular orbitals.  In the HF example, the p and p orbitals remain p and p orbitals in shape but when viewed as molecular orbitals are thought of as non-bonding.  The energy of the orbital does not depend on the length of any bond within the molecule.  Its occupation neither increases nor decreases the stability of the molecule, relative to the atoms, since its energy is the same in the molecule as in one of the atoms.  For example, there are two rigorously non-bonding orbitals that are occupied in the ground state of the hydrogen fluoride diatomic molecule; these molecular orbitals are localized on the fluorine atom and are composed of p-type

text: atomic orbital

text: s whose orientation is perpendicular to the internuclear axis. They are therefore unable to overlap and interact with the s-type valence orbital on the hydrogen atom.

text: Planetary exploration <br>Orbital's heritage Planetary Exploration Heliophysics satellites are as listed below:

text: Robotic exploration, telerobotics and telepresence give a method of exploration of a planet that do not have the same issues of forward and backward contamination. This could be of special interest during early stages when the celestial body is not yet well understood.

text: In order to reach the Moon or a planet at a desired time, the spacecraft must be launched within a limited range of times known as the launch window. Using a preliminary parking orbit before final injection can widen this window from seconds or minutes, to several hours. For the Apollo program's manned lunar missions, a parking orbit allowed time for spacecraft checkout while still close to home, before committing to the lunar trip.

text: In order to reach the Moon or a planet at a desired time, the spacecraft must be launched within a limited range of times known as the

text: launch window

text: . Using a preliminary parking orbit before final injection can widen this window from seconds or minutes, to several hours. For the

text: Apollo program

text: 's manned lunar missions, a parking orbit allowed time for spacecraft checkout while still close to home, before committing to the lunar trip.

text: Normally, Clank rides on Ratchet's back, acting as a jet-pack or similar device. Occasionally, however, Clank becomes a playable character when Ratchet is unable to explore certain areas. Clank can control "Gadgebots", smaller robots similar to Clank, who perform certain actions for him. Racing, in the form of hoverboard races, appears in the game. Some racing missions are necessary to progress in the game, while others are optional. One level of space combat and a level of flying through the air shooting tankers is also present. Mini-games to unlock doors, extend bridges, or elevate platforms appear in most levels.

text: In early October 1957 the Soviet Military launched Sputnik I, and caused a widespread panic across the United States.  Just hours later the UIUC Astronomy Department rigged an ad-hoc interferometer to measure signals from the satellite.  The astronomers approached Dr. Gillies and Dr Jim Snyder to program the ILLIAC I computer to calculate the satellite orbit from this data.  The programming and calculation was completed in under two days.  The very rapid publication of the ephemeris (orbit) in the journal Nature—just a month after satellite launch—helped to dispel some of the fear created by the Sputnik launch by the Soviet Union.  It also lent credence to the (likely false) idea that the Sputnik launch was part of an organized effort to dominate space.

text: In early October 1957 the

text: Soviet

text: Military launched

text: Sputnik I

text: , and caused a

text: widespread panic

text: across the United States.  Just hours later the UIUC Astronomy Department rigged an ad-hoc interferometer to measure signals from the satellite.  The astronomers approached Dr. Gillies and Dr Jim Snyder to program the

text: ILLIAC I

text: computer to calculate the satellite orbit from this data.  The programming and calculation was completed in under two days.  The very rapid publication of the ephemeris (orbit) in the journal

text: Nature

text: —just a month after satellite launch—helped to dispel some of the fear created by the Sputnik launch by the Soviet Union.  It also lent credence to the (likely false) idea that the Sputnik launch was part of an organized effort to dominate space.

text: The UAE proposed in 2008 to establish a Pan-Arab Space Agency, as a civilian project like the European Space Agency (ESA). The Arab Science and Technology Foundation said an agency for the Middle East and North Africa already had unofficial support from some governments and hoped that a regional organisation for disseminating satellite images could form an early foundation. The agency could monitor security and environmental changes with equatorial satellites. It would not develop its own launch capability, as that was commercially available.The proposed regional agency would reduce the cost of putting satellites into orbit and pool talent and research. Plans were submitted to the region's governments and pushed for at the Global Space Technology Forum in December 2009. The UAE had already launched satellites and established an Earth Observation Space Center in Abu Dhabi.However, little progress to establish the regional agency was made after the proposal.

text: The UAE proposed in 2008 to establish a Pan-Arab Space Agency, as a civilian project like the

text: European Space Agency (ESA)

text: . The Arab Science and Technology Foundation said an agency for the Middle East and North Africa already had unofficial support from some governments and hoped that a regional organisation for disseminating satellite images could form an early foundation. The agency could monitor security and environmental changes with equatorial satellites. It would not develop its own launch capability, as that was commercially available.The proposed regional agency would reduce the cost of putting satellites into orbit and pool talent and research. Plans were submitted to the region's governments and pushed for at the Global Space Technology Forum in December 2009. The UAE had already launched satellites and established an Earth Observation Space Center in Abu Dhabi.However, little progress to establish the regional agency was made after the proposal.

text: The qualitative approach of MO analysis uses a molecular orbital diagram to visualize bonding interactions in a molecule. In this type of diagram, the molecular orbitals are represented by horizontal lines; the higher a line the higher the energy of the orbital, and degenerate orbitals are placed on the same level with a space between them. Then, the electrons to be placed in the molecular orbitals are slotted in one by one, keeping in mind the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity (only 2 electrons, having opposite spins, per orbital; place as many unpaired electrons on one energy level as possible before starting to pair them). For more complicated molecules, the wave mechanics approach loses utility in a qualitative understanding of bonding (although is still necessary for a quantitative approach). Some properties:

text: Marketed towards American women, the book gained success as a scientific work of popular culture advertised to "explore the causes of woman's deep frustration, detail its consequences, and suggest a cure." Although Modern Woman was a fusion of scientific knowledge applied to culture, its impact on popular culture was far reaching. Historians Miller and Nowak argue: "One can compare Modern Woman: The Lost Sex to other rallying points of popular culture: to McCarthy...to Sputnik...to the film Rebel Without a Cause and the singer Elvis Presley."

text: Marketed towards American women, the book gained success as a scientific work of popular culture advertised to "explore the causes of woman's deep frustration, detail its consequences, and suggest a cure." Although Modern Woman was a fusion of scientific knowledge applied to culture, its impact on popular culture was far reaching. Historians Miller and Nowak argue: "One can compare Modern Woman: The Lost Sex to other rallying points of popular culture: to

text: McCarthy

text: ...to

text: Sputnik

text: ...to the film

text: Rebel Without a Cause

text: and the singer

text: Elvis Presley

text: Exploration Mission 1 or EM-1 (previously known as Space Launch System 1 or SLS-1) is the first planned flight of the Space Launch System and the second uncrewed test flight of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle.The launch is planned for September 30, 2018 from Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center. The Orion spacecraft is planned to  spend approximately 3 weeks in space, with 6 days of this in a retrograde orbit around the Moon. It is planned to be followed by Exploration Mission 2 in 2023.

text: Exploration Mission 1 or EM-1 (previously known as Space Launch System 1 or SLS-1) is the first planned flight of the

text: Space Launch System

text: and the second uncrewed test flight of the

text: Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle

text: .The launch is planned for September 30, 2018 from

text: Launch Complex 39B

text: at the

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: . The Orion spacecraft is planned to  spend approximately 3 weeks in space, with 6 days of this in a

text: retrograde orbit

text: around the

text: Moon

text: . It is planned to be followed by

text: Exploration Mission 2

text: in 2023.

text: In 1957 Pleasley saw the launch of a short enclosed tunnel carrying the trunk conveyor from the main intake airway through into a return airway close to the pit-bottom. With typical mining humour, it was named Sputnik by the men. Its official name has been long forgotten.

text: In 1957 Pleasley saw the launch of a short enclosed tunnel carrying the trunk conveyor from the main intake airway through into a return airway close to the pit-bottom. With typical mining humour, it was named

text: Sputnik

text: by the men. Its official name has been long forgotten.

text: Although Juno I's launch of the Explorer 1 satellite was a huge success for the U.S. space program, only two of its remaining five flights were successful; launching Explorer 3 and 4. The American public was happy and relieved that America had finally managed to launch a satellite after the launch failures in the Vanguard and Viking series. With the relative success of the Juno I program, von Braun developed the Juno II, using a PGM-19 Jupiter first stage, rather than a Redstone.

text: Although Juno I's launch of the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite was a huge success for the U.S. space program, only two of its remaining five flights were successful; launching

text: Explorer 3

text: and

text: . The American public was happy and relieved that America had finally managed to launch a satellite after the launch failures in the Vanguard and

text: Viking

text: series. With the relative success of the Juno I program, von Braun developed the

text: Juno II

text: , using a

text: PGM-19 Jupiter

text: first stage, rather than a Redstone.

text: A single human narrator from England is transported out of his body via unexplained means. He realizes he is able to explore space and other planets. After exploring a civilization on another planet in our galaxy at a level of development similar to our own that existed millions of years ago thousands of light years from Earth (the "Other Earth") in some detail, his mind merges with that of one of its inhabitants, and as they travel together, they are joined by still more minds or group-minds. This snowballing process is paralleled by the expansion of the book's scale, describing more and more planets in less and less detail.

text: A single human narrator from England is

text: transported out of his body

text: via unexplained means. He realizes he is able to explore space and other planets. After exploring a civilization on another planet

text: in our galaxy

text: at a level of development similar to our own that existed millions of years ago thousands of light years from Earth (the "Other Earth") in some detail, his mind merges with that of one of its inhabitants, and as they travel together, they are joined by still more minds or group-minds. This

text: snowballing

text: process is paralleled by the expansion of the book's scale, describing more and more planets in less and less detail.

text: On April 7, 2014, Palazzo introduced the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2014 (H.R. 4412; 113th Congress), a bill that would authorize the appropriation of $17.6 billion in fiscal year 2014 to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). NASA would use the funding for human exploration of space, the Space Launch System, the Orion multipurpose crew vehicle, the commercial crew program, the International Space Station (ISS), and various technological and educational projects. Palazzo said that "American leadership in space depends on our ability to put people and sound policy ahead of politics."

text: On April 7, 2014, Palazzo introduced the

entity_name: National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2014

text: National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2014 (H.R. 4412; 113th Congress)

text: , a bill that would

text: authorize

text: the

text: appropriation

text: Space Launch System

text: , the

text: Orion multipurpose crew vehicle

text: , the commercial crew program, the

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS), and various technological and educational projects. Palazzo said that "American leadership in space depends on our ability to put people and sound policy ahead of politics."

text: Some rocket designs have their propellants obtain their energy from non chemical or even external sources. For example, water rockets use the compressed gas, typically air, to force the water out of the rocket.

text: Some rocket designs have their propellants obtain their energy from non chemical or even external sources. For example,

text: water rocket

text: s use the compressed gas, typically air, to force the water out of the rocket.

text: The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a treaty that forms the basis of international space law. The treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. As of September 2015, 104 countries are parties to the treaty, while another 24 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification.  In addition, the Republic of China (Taiwan), which is currently only recognized by , ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971.

text: The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a

text: treaty

text: that forms the basis of international

text: space law

text: . The treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the

text: Soviet Union

text: on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. As of September 2015, 104 countries are parties to the treaty, while another 24 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification.  In addition, the

text: Republic of China

text: (Taiwan), which is currently only recognized by , ratified the treaty prior to the

text: United Nations General Assembly

text: 's

entity_name: United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758

text: vote to transfer China's seat

text: to the

text: People's Republic of China

text: (PRC) in 1971.

text: Captain Video eventually had the use of three different space ships. In the first ship, the X-9 (later replaced briefly by the X-10), the crew at takeoff lay upon tilted bunk beds on their elbows, a posture based upon space-travel theories of the time. Later, the V-2 rocket-like Galaxy had an aircraft-style cockpit with reclining seats. The Captain's final spacecraft, after early 1953, was the Galaxy II.

text: Captain Video eventually had the use of three different space ships. In the first ship, the X-9 (later replaced briefly by the X-10), the crew at takeoff lay upon tilted

text: bunk bed

text: s on their elbows, a posture based upon space-travel theories of the time. Later, the

text: V-2 rocket

text: -like Galaxy had an aircraft-style cockpit with reclining seats. The Captain's final spacecraft, after early 1953, was the Galaxy II.

text: Landing gear has traditionally not been used on the vast majority of space launch vehicles, which take off vertically and are destroyed on falling back to earth.  With some exceptions for suborbital vertical-landing vehicles (e.g., Masten Xoie or the Armadillo Aerospace' Lunar Lander Challenge vehicle), or for spaceplanes that use the vertical takeoff, horizontal landing (VTHL) approach (e.g., the Space Shuttle, or the USAF X-37), landing gear have been largely absent from orbital vehicles during the early decades since the advent of spaceflight technology, when orbital space transport has been the exclusive preserve of national-monopoly governmental space programs.  Each spaceflight system to date has relied on expendable boosters to begin each ascent to orbital velocity.

text: Landing gear has traditionally not been used on the vast majority of

text: space

text: launch vehicle

text: s, which take off vertically and are destroyed on falling back to earth.  With some exceptions for

text: suborbital

text: vertical-landing vehicles

text: (e.g.,

text: Masten

text: Xoie

text: or the

text: Armadillo Aerospace

text: Lunar Lander Challenge

text: vehicle), or for

text: spaceplane

text: s that use the

text: vertical takeoff, horizontal landing

text: (VTHL) approach (e.g., the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , or the

text: USAF

text: ), landing gear have been largely absent from

text: orbital

text: vehicles during the early decades since the advent of

text: spaceflight

text: technology, when orbital space transport has been the exclusive preserve of national-monopoly

text: governmental

text: space program

text: s.  Each spaceflight system to date has relied on

text: expendable

text: boosters to begin each ascent to

text: orbital velocity

text: PSLV-C3 was the third operational launch and overall sixth mission of the PSLV program. This launch was also the forty-sixth launch by Indian Space Research Organisation since its first mission on 1 January 1962. The vehicle carried three satellites which were deployed in the Sun-synchronous Low Earth orbit. The vehicle carried Technology Experiment Satellite (Indian experimental earth observation satellite), BIRD (German earth observation satellite) and PROBA (experimental satellite from Belgium). This was India's and ISRO's second commercial spaceflight. PSLV-C3 was launched at 10:23 a.m. IST on 22 October 2001 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre  (then called "Sriharikota Launching Range").

text: PSLV-C3 was the third operational launch and overall sixth mission of the

text: PSLV

text: program. This launch was also the forty-sixth launch by

text: Indian Space Research Organisation

text: since its first mission on 1 January 1962. The vehicle carried three satellites which were deployed in the

text: Sun-synchronous

text: Low Earth orbit

text: . The vehicle carried

text: Technology Experiment Satellite

text: India

text: n experimental

text: earth observation satellite

text: BIRD

text: German

text: earth observation satellite

text: ) and

text: PROBA

text: (experimental satellite from

text: Belgium

text: ). This was India's and ISRO's second commercial

text: spaceflight

text: . PSLV-C3 was launched at 10:23 a.m.

text: IST

text: on 22 October 2001 from

text: Satish Dhawan Space Centre

text: (then called "Sriharikota Launching Range").

text: The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international space law. Among its principles, it bars states party to the treaty from placing weapons of mass destruction in orbit of Earth, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise stationing them in outer space. It exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Art.IV). However, the Treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit and thus some highly destructive attack strategies such as Kinetic bombardment are still potentially allowable. The treaty also states that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and shall be free for exploration and use by all the States.

text: The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international

text: space law

text: . Among its principles, it bars states party to the treaty from placing

text: weapons of mass destruction

text: in orbit of

text: Earth

text: , installing them on the

text: Moon

text: or any other

text: celestial body

text: , or otherwise stationing them in

text: outer space

text: . It exclusively limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (

text: Art.IV

text: ). However, the Treaty does not prohibit the placement of

text: conventional weapons

text: in orbit and thus some highly destructive attack strategies such as

text: Kinetic bombardment

text: are still potentially allowable. The treaty also states that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and shall be free for exploration and use by all the States.

text: Following the intentional deorbiting of Mir on 23 March 2001, the ISS became the only space station in orbit around Earth. It retained that distinction until the launch of Chinese Tiangong-1 space laboratory on 29 September 2011.  Mirs legacy lives on in the station, bringing together five space agencies in the cause of exploration and allowing those space agencies to prepare for their next leap into space, to the Moon, Mars and beyond.

text: Following the intentional deorbiting of Mir on 23 March 2001, the ISS became the only space station in orbit around Earth. It retained that distinction until the launch of Chinese

text: space laboratory on 29 September 2011.  Mirs legacy lives on in the station, bringing together five space agencies in the cause of exploration and allowing those space agencies to prepare for their next leap into space, to the Moon, Mars and beyond.

text: Constellation began in response to the goals laid out in the Vision for Space Exploration under NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe. O'Keefe's successor, Michael D. Griffin, ordered a complete review, termed the Exploration Systems Architecture Study, which reshaped how NASA would pursue the goals laid out in the Vision for Space Exploration, and its findings were formalized by the NASA Authorization Act of 2005. The Act directed NASA to "develop a sustained human presence on the Moon, including a robust precursor program to promote exploration, science, commerce and US preeminence in space, and as a stepping stone to future exploration of Mars and other destinations." Work began on this revised Constellation Program, to send astronauts first to the International Space Station, then to the Moon, and then to Mars and beyond.

text: Constellation began in response to the goals laid out in the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: under NASA Administrator

text: Sean O'Keefe

text: . O'Keefe's successor,

text: Michael D. Griffin

text: , ordered a complete review, termed the

text: Exploration Systems Architecture Study

text: , which reshaped how NASA would pursue the goals laid out in the Vision for Space Exploration, and its findings were formalized by the

text: NASA Authorization Act of 2005

text: . The Act directed NASA to "develop a sustained human presence on the Moon, including a robust precursor program to promote exploration, science, commerce and US preeminence in space, and as a stepping stone to future exploration of Mars and other destinations." Work began on this revised Constellation Program, to send astronauts first to the

text: International Space Station

text: , then to the

text: Moon

text: , and then to

text: Mars

text: and beyond.

text: Gabriel is teaching a group of moon-born teenagers about agriculture. Rachel is one of these; she passes her exams and is selected by Gabriel to become a leader of the moon-born. Andrew is another; he fails his exams because he plays a practical joke on Rachel. Gabriel takes Rachel to the John Glenn. As the first moon-born to visit the ship, she arouses hostility from some of the leaders there. She learns that there are three classes amongst the space travelers: five are High Council, who rule until Ymir is reached; some dozens are Council, including Gabriel, and have extended privileges; and the remaining "Earth-born" are colonists, many of them not having been unfrozen since leaving Earth and with few rights. She also learns to use the vast repository of knowledge in the ship's library, and makes contact with the AI "Astronaut" who is kept severely restricted because the High Council doesn't trust high technology. Rachel comes to realise that when the moon-born have helped restock the ship with antimatter the John Glenn will continue on to Ymir without them, leaving them on a moon that can only sustain life for a century or two.

text: The Judges themselves are not exempt from the law; they are expected to obey it more strictly than any other. A violation that would earn a citizen a few months in an Iso-Cube would get a Judge a twenty-year sentence, served as hard labor on Saturn's moon, Titan, after surgical modification to enable the convict to survive outside there without needing an expensive space suit. (Titan is a moon of Saturn in reality, but was located over Jupiter in an early Dredd strip.)

text: The Judges themselves are not exempt from the law; they are expected to obey it more strictly than any other. A violation that would earn a citizen a few months in an Iso-Cube would get a Judge a twenty-year sentence, served as hard labor on

text: Saturn

text: 's moon,

text: Titan

text: , after surgical modification to enable the convict to survive outside there without needing an expensive

text: space suit

text: . (Titan is a moon of

text: Saturn

text: in reality, but was located over

text: Jupiter

text: in an early Dredd strip.)

text: Soon after satellites were first used for observing the atmosphere, MW radiometers became part of their instrumentation. In 1962 the Mariner-2 mission was launched by NASA in order to investigate the surface of Venus including a radiometer for water vapor and temperature observations. In following years a wide variety of microwave radiometers were tested on satellites. The launch of the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer in 1978 became an important milestone in the history of radiometry. It was the first time a conically scanning radiometer was used in space; it was brought in space on board of the NASA Nimbus satellite. The launch of this mission gave the opportunity to image the Earth at a constant angle of incidence that is important as surface emissivity is angular dependent. In the beginning of 1980, new multi-frequency, dual-polarization radiometric instruments were developed. Two spacecraft were launched which carried instruments of this type: Nimbus-7 and Seasat. The Nimbus-7 mission results allowed to globally monitor the state of ocean surface as well as surface covered by snow and glaciers. Today, microwave instruments like the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit AMSU, Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder SSMIS are widely used not only onboard different satellites.

text: Soon after

text: satellites

text: were first used for observing the atmosphere, MW radiometers became part of their instrumentation. In 1962 the

text: mission was launched by

text: NASA

text: in order to investigate the surface of

text: Venus

text: including a radiometer for

text: water vapor

text: and

text: temperature

text: observations. In following years a wide variety of microwave radiometers were tested on

text: satellites

text: . The launch of the Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer in 1978 became an important milestone in the history of radiometry. It was the first time a conically scanning radiometer was used in space; it was brought in space on board of the

text: NASA

text: Nimbus satellite

text: . The launch of this mission gave the opportunity to image the Earth at a constant angle of incidence that is important as surface emissivity is angular dependent. In the beginning of 1980, new multi-frequency, dual-polarization radiometric instruments were developed. Two spacecraft were launched which carried instruments of this type:

text: and

text: Seasat

text: . The

text: mission results allowed to globally monitor the state of

text: ocean

text: surface as well as surface covered by snow and

text: glaciers

text: . Today, microwave instruments like the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit AMSU, Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder SSMIS are widely used not only onboard different satellites.

text: In 2003, Bass began serving as World Space Week's Youth Spokesman. Bass has stated that he believes young people becoming more interested in space exploration "will help the future of our planet". From 2003 to 2005, Bass spent World Space Week traveling to American high schools speaking with students about space exploration and encouraging them to explore careers in the fields of science and mathematics. Bass is a member of the National Space Society, a non-profit educational space advocacy organization founded by Dr. Wernher Von Braun. Bass has served on the National Space Society's Board of Governors since October 2004, alongside other space advocates such as actor Tom Hanks and author and futurist Sir Arthur C. Clarke. In a 2007 interview with GQ magazine, Bass stated that he "absolutely" still intends on going to space, and that he hopes to work on a space documentary. Bass has also retained fluency in Russian, which he was required to learn during his training.

text: In 2003, Bass began serving as

text: World Space Week

text: 's Youth Spokesman. Bass has stated that he believes young people becoming more interested in

text: space exploration

text: "will help the future of our planet". From 2003 to 2005, Bass spent World Space Week traveling to American high schools speaking with students about space exploration and encouraging them to explore careers in the fields of science and mathematics. Bass is a member of the

text: National Space Society

text: , a non-profit educational

text: space advocacy

text: organization founded by Dr. Wernher Von Braun. Bass has served on the National Space Society's

text: Board of Governors

text: since October 2004, alongside other space advocates such as actor

text: Tom Hanks

text: and author and

text: futurist

text: Sir

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: . In a 2007 interview with

text: GQ

text: magazine, Bass stated that he "absolutely" still intends on going to space, and that he hopes to work on a space documentary. Bass has also retained fluency in Russian, which he was required to learn during his training.

text: For example, he claims that, during the Apollo program, the USSR had five times more manned hours in space than the United States, and notes that the USSR was the first to achieve many of the early milestones in space: the first man-made satellite in orbit (October 1957, Sputnik 1); the first living creature in orbit (a dog named Laika, November 1957, Sputnik 2); the first man in space and in orbit (Yuri Gagarin, April 1961, Vostok 1); the first woman in space (Valentina Tereshkova, June 1963, Vostok 6); and the first spacewalk (EVA) (Alexei Leonov in March 1965, Voskhod 2).

text: For example, he claims that, during the Apollo program, the USSR had five times more manned hours in space than the United States, and notes that the USSR was the first to achieve many of the early milestones in space: the first man-made

text: satellite

text: in

text: orbit

text: (October 1957,

text: Sputnik 1

text: ); the first living creature in orbit (a

text: dog

text: named

text: Laika

text: , November 1957,

text: Sputnik 2

text: ); the first man in space and in orbit (

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: , April 1961,

text: Vostok 1

text: ); the first woman in space (

text: Valentina Tereshkova

text: , June 1963,

text: Vostok 6

text: ); and the first spacewalk (EVA) (

text: Alexei Leonov

text: in March 1965,

text: Voskhod 2

text: After intense lobbying of Homer Newell, NASA's deputy director of space flight programs, Rossi secured a flight opportunity on Explorer 10, "Goddard's first home-grown satellite".  The unannounced goal was to hit the moon, but after launch on 25 March 1961, the satellite went into a highly elongated orbit around Earth, whose apogee,  at 70% of the distance to the moon, was well short of this goal.

text: After intense lobbying of

text: Homer Newell

text: , NASA's deputy director of space flight programs, Rossi secured a flight opportunity on

text: Explorer 10

text: Goddard's

text: first home-grown satellite".  The unannounced goal was to hit the moon, but after launch on 25 March 1961, the satellite went into a highly elongated orbit around Earth, whose

text: apogee

text: ,  at 70% of the distance to the moon, was well short of this goal.

text: The Suparco's spaceflight missions and tests were the sounding rocket launches of the Space Research Commission (SUPARCO) that was aimed for developing high-altitude rockets and space booster for the development of the country's space programme. The exploration programme provides opportunities for physics, atmospheric physics and astrophysics, investigations from Upper atmosphere. Since its inception, over ~200 sounding rockets were launched by Suparco from 1962 till its partial termination in 1972.

text: The Suparco's spaceflight missions and tests were the sounding rocket launches of the

text: Space Research Commission

text: (SUPARCO) that was aimed for developing high-altitude rockets and space booster for the development of the country's space programme. The exploration programme provides opportunities for physics,

text: atmospheric physics

text: and

text: astrophysics

text: , investigations from

text: Upper atmosphere

text: . Since its inception, over ~200 sounding rockets were launched by Suparco from 1962 till its partial termination in 1972.

text: Sputnik Chinovnika (Russian Cyrillic: Спутник чиновника) was a magazine issued in Kiev between 1911 and 1914. According to its program, the whole journal was devoted to showing the financial and social status of office workers in the Russian Empire.

text: Sputnik Chinovnika (

text: Russian

text: Cyrillic

text: : Спутник чиновника) was a magazine issued in

text: Kiev

text: between 1911 and 1914. According to its program, the whole journal was devoted to showing the financial and social status of office workers in the

text: Russian Empire

text: The Kessler syndrome is especially insidious because of the domino effect and feedback runaway wherein impacts between objects of sizable mass spalls off debris from the force of collision. The shrapnel can then hit other objects, producing even more space debris: if a large enough collision or explosion were to occur, such as between a space station and a defunct satellite, or as the result of hostile actions in space, then the resulting debris cascade could make prospects for longterm viability of satellites in low earth orbit extremely low. However, even a catastrophic Kessler scenario at LEO would pose minimal risk for launches continuing past LEO, or satellites traveling at medium Earth orbit (MEO) or GEO. The catastrophic scenarios predict an increase in the number of collisions per year, as opposed to a physically impassable barrier to space exploration which occurs in higher orbits.

text: The Kessler syndrome is especially insidious because of the

text: domino effect

text: and

text: feedback runaway

text: wherein impacts between objects of sizable mass

text: spall

text: s off debris from the force of collision. The shrapnel can then hit other objects, producing even more space debris: if a large enough collision or explosion were to occur, such as between a space station and a defunct satellite, or as the result of hostile actions in space, then the resulting debris cascade could make prospects for longterm viability of satellites in low earth orbit extremely low. However, even a catastrophic Kessler scenario at LEO would pose minimal risk for launches continuing past LEO, or satellites traveling at

text: medium Earth orbit

text: (MEO) or GEO. The catastrophic scenarios predict an increase in the number of collisions per year, as opposed to a physically impassable barrier to space exploration which occurs in higher orbits.

text: During the Cold War, the Soviet Union took the lead in the Space Race with the launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957. Sputnik was the first artificial satellite in orbit around the Earth, and the surprise of its successful launch, compounded by the resounding failure of Project Vanguard to launch an American satellite after two attempts, has been dubbed the "Sputnik crisis" and was the impetus for the beginning of the Space Race. Trying to reclaim lost ground, the United States embarked on a series of new projects and studies, which eventually included the launch of Explorer 1 and the creation of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and NASA.

text: During the

text: Cold War

text: , the

text: Soviet Union

text: took the lead in the

text: Space Race

text: with the launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: on October 4, 1957. Sputnik was the first artificial satellite in orbit around the Earth, and the surprise of its successful launch, compounded by the resounding failure of

text: Project Vanguard

text: to launch an American satellite after two attempts, has been dubbed the "

text: Sputnik crisis

text: " and was the impetus for the beginning of the Space Race. Trying to reclaim lost ground, the

text: United States

text: embarked on a series of new projects and studies, which eventually included the launch of

text: Explorer 1

text: and the creation of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (

text: DARPA

text: ) and

text: NASA

text: He is seen conversing about space exploration to a friend. He is briefly seen in the round-robin 'Challenge' limited series.

text: The launch of USA-233 took place at 00:38 UTC on 20 January 2012, using a Delta IV-M+(5,4) carrier rocket flying from Space Launch Complex 37B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The launch was conducted by United Launch Alliance, and marked the eighteenth flight of the Delta IV. The carrier rocket successfully placed the satellite into a  supersynchronous transfer orbit, with 24 degrees of inclination. Upon achieving orbit, WGS-4 was assigned its USA designation, and the International Designator 2012-003A. The satellite will use its onboard propulsion systems to inject itself into geosynchronous orbit.

text: The launch of USA-233 took place at 00:38 UTC on 20 January 2012, using a

text: Delta IV-M+(5,4)

text: carrier rocket

text: flying from

entity_name: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 37

text: Space Launch Complex 37B

text: at the

text: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

text: . The launch was conducted by

text: United Launch Alliance

text: , and marked the eighteenth flight of the Delta IV. The carrier rocket successfully placed the satellite into a

text: supersynchronous transfer orbit

text: , with 24 degrees of inclination. Upon achieving orbit, WGS-4 was assigned its

text: USA designation

text: , and the

text: International Designator

text: 2012-003A. The satellite will use its onboard propulsion systems to inject itself into

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: Sputnik or MDR Sputnik is a youth-oriented German radio station, and is part of Leipzig-based public broadcaster MDR with its seat in Halle. The station, which plays primarily the typical variety of pop and rock music, is the successor to the East German youth station DT64, founded in 1964. It was given its present name on May 1, 1993, following German reunification in 1990; the new name, inspired by the Soviet Sputnik satellite, was the suggestion of Saxon prime minister Kurt Biedenkopf.

text: Sputnik or MDR Sputnik is a youth-oriented

text: German

text: radio station

text: , and is part of

text: Leipzig

text: -based

text: public broadcaster

text: MDR

text: with its seat in

text: Halle

text: . The station, which plays primarily the typical variety of

text: pop

text: and

text: rock

text: music, is the successor to the

text: East German

text: youth station DT64, founded in 1964. It was given its present name on May 1, 1993, following

text: German reunification

text: in 1990; the new name, inspired by the

text: Soviet

text: Sputnik

text: satellite

text: , was the suggestion of

text: Saxon

text: prime minister

text: Kurt Biedenkopf

text: The Israeli Space Agency originated as university-based research project from Tel-Aviv University in the early 1960s. In 1960, the National Committee for Space Research (NCSR) was formed by the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The committee was formed to increase research activities across the academic communities in Israel. While at the time, establishing a space program was not particularly one of its goals, during the '60s through the late '70s, the committee developed the infrastructure needed for research and development in space exploration and sciences. One of the NCSR's earliest achievements took place in 1961 with the launch of its first two-stage rocket.

text: The Israeli Space Agency originated as university-based research project from

text: Tel-Aviv University

text: in the early 1960s. In 1960, the National Committee for Space Research (NCSR) was formed by the

entity_name: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities

text: Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities

text: . The committee was formed to increase research activities across the academic communities in Israel. While at the time, establishing a space program was not particularly one of its goals, during the '60s through the late '70s, the committee developed the

text: infrastructure

text: needed for research and development in

text: space

text: exploration and sciences. One of the NCSR's earliest achievements took place in 1961 with the launch of its first two-stage rocket.

text: Kuntunse is a town near Accra noted for Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre's site for the earth satellite in Ghana.

text: Kuntunse is a town near

text: Accra

text: noted for

entity_name: Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre

text: Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre

text: 's site for the earth satellite in

text: Ghana

text: Men Into Space, later syndicated again as Space Challenge, used for its plots many technical and human problems anticipated by engineers and planners. For example, the show depicted attempts to refuel spacecraft by tanker in orbit, construction of a space telescope, an experiment to dispose of high level atomic waste by launching it into the Sun, the search for life-sustaining frozen water on the Moon, and exploration and destruction of an asteroid whose orbit threatened Earth.

text: Men Into Space, later syndicated again as Space Challenge, used for its plots many technical and human problems anticipated by engineers and planners. For example, the show depicted attempts to refuel spacecraft by tanker in orbit, construction of a

text: space telescope

text: , an experiment to dispose of high level

text: atomic waste

text: by launching it into the

text: Sun

text: , the search for life-sustaining frozen water on the Moon, and exploration and destruction of an

text: asteroid

text: whose orbit threatened Earth.

text: The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 () is the United States federal statute that created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The Act, which followed close on the heels of the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, was drafted by the United States House Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration and on July 29, 1958 was signed by President Eisenhower. Prior to enactment, the responsibility for space exploration was deemed primarily a military venture, in line with the Soviet model that had launched the first orbital satellite. In large measure, the Act was prompted by the lack of response by a US military infrastructure that seemed incapable of keeping up the space race.

text: The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 () is the

text: United States federal statute

text: that created the

text: (NASA). The Act, which followed close on the heels of the

text: Soviet Union

text: 's launch of

text: Sputnik

text: , was drafted by the

text: United States House Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration

text: and on July 29, 1958 was signed by President Eisenhower. Prior to enactment, the responsibility for space exploration was deemed primarily a military venture, in line with the Soviet model that had launched the first orbital satellite. In large measure, the Act was prompted by the lack of response by a US military infrastructure that seemed incapable of keeping up the space race.

text: The secondary plot consists of a team of scientists who travel to a distant portion of the galaxy and manage to discover two completely unique forms of life. The first, "Metalloids" or "Suit Men" whose infant forms are placed in space suits, in which they inhabit their entire lives. In fact, their entire identity and self image is that of a completely robotic form. This race inhabits a small asteroid belt and the open space around it – which, in their suits – they are completely free to roam. This race is at war with the more human-like "Cyborgs" who retain a human form, but are heavily modified to the extent that they can, too, explore space at will.

text: The theory of space exploration had a solid basis in the Russian Empire before the First World War with the writings of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), who published pioneering papers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and in 1929 introduced the concept of the multistaged rocket. Practical aspects built on early experiments carried out by members of the reactive propulsion study group, GIRD (founded in 1931) in the 1920s and 1930s, where such pioneers as Sergey Korolev—who dreamed of traveling to Mars—and the German-Russian engineer Friedrich Zander worked. On August 18, 1933, GIRD launched the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket Gird-09, and on November 25, 1933, the first hybrid-fueled rocket GIRD-X. In 1940-41 another advance in the reactive propulsion field took place: the development and serial production of the Katyusha multiple rocket launcher.

text: The theory of

text: space exploration

text: had a solid basis in the

text: Russian Empire

text: before the

text: First World War

text: with the writings of

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: (1857-1935), who published pioneering papers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and in 1929 introduced the concept of the

text: multistaged rocket

text: . Practical aspects built on early experiments carried out by members of the reactive propulsion study group,

text: GIRD

text: (founded in 1931) in the 1920s and 1930s, where such pioneers as

text: Sergey Korolev

text: —who dreamed of traveling to

text: Mars

text: —and the German-Russian engineer

text: Friedrich Zander

text: worked. On August 18, 1933, GIRD launched the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket

text: , and on November 25, 1933, the first hybrid-fueled rocket

text: GIRD-X

text: . In 1940-41 another advance in the reactive propulsion field took place: the development and serial production of the

text: Katyusha

text: multiple rocket launcher

text: A space probe is a scientific space exploration mission in which a spacecraft leaves Earth and explores space. It may approach the Moon, enter interplanetary, flyby or orbit other bodies, or approach interstellar space.

text: A space probe is a scientific

text: space exploration

text: mission in which a spacecraft leaves Earth and explores space. It may approach the Moon, enter interplanetary, flyby or orbit other bodies, or approach interstellar space.

text: The ULTRASAT satellite (previously known as LIMSAT-UV) is a wide field (~1000 deg) transient explorer satellite mission. ULTRASAT is planned to have eight telescopes equipped with CCD cameras and reflective filters. It is set to have a sensitivity 10 times lower than GALEX but a field of view more than 1000 times larger. It is also planned to have a detection rate for transient in the UV of more than 30 times greater than that of GALEX. The ULTRASAT  is planned to be developed in just 3–4 years and at a cost of a few tens of millions of dollars instead of a few hundreds of millions. ULTRASAT will observe a large patch of sky, more than 200 square degrees, alternating every six months between the southern and northern hemisphere. The satellite will orbit the Earth from an altitude of about 300 km above the geosynchronous orbit, getting a ‘ride’ as a secondary payload in the fairing of the rocket carrying a communications satellite.  A joint American-Israeli proposal for this project was submitted to NASA by a team from Caltech/JPL (Jet Propulsion Laboratory), the Weizmann Institute of Science and Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI). The Israeli contribution will be funded by the Israel Space Agency and launch is expected before 2021.

text: The

text: ULTRASAT

text: satellite (previously known as LIMSAT-UV) is a wide field (~1000 deg) transient explorer satellite mission. ULTRASAT is planned to have eight telescopes equipped with CCD cameras and reflective filters. It is set to have a sensitivity 10 times lower than

text: GALEX

text: but a field of view more than 1000 times larger. It is also planned to have a detection rate for transient in the UV of more than 30 times greater than that of GALEX. The ULTRASAT  is planned to be developed in just 3–4 years and at a cost of a few tens of millions of dollars instead of a few hundreds of millions. ULTRASAT will observe a large patch of sky, more than 200 square degrees, alternating every six months between the southern and northern hemisphere. The satellite will orbit the Earth from an altitude of about 300 km above the geosynchronous orbit, getting a ‘ride’ as a secondary payload in the fairing of the rocket carrying a communications satellite.  A joint American-Israeli proposal for this project was submitted to NASA by a team from Caltech/JPL (

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: ), the

text: Weizmann Institute of Science

text: and

text: Israel Aerospace Industries

text: (IAI). The Israeli contribution will be funded by the Israel Space Agency and launch is expected before 2021.

text: McCuistion was NASA's third and longest-running "Mars Czar", leading the NASA Mars Exploration Program from NASA Headquarters for 8.5 years.  Under his leadership the Mars Reconnaissance Orbtier (MRO), Phoenix Lander, and Mars Science Laboratory/Curiosity rover were completed and launched, and the MAVEN mission nearly ready for its 2013 launch. He led expansive international program efforts during his tenure, including a multi-national Mars Sample Return study called iMARS, and a merging of the NASA and European Space Agency's (ESA) Mars programs (which was later dissolved due to US financial constraints). Prior to his taking the helm of the NASA Mars Exploration Program, he was the Director of Flight Programs for NASA's Earth Science Enterprise. Prior to coming to NASA Headquarters McCuistion held management and engineering positions in Earth and space science at the Goddard Space Flight Center, working on the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS), Geosynchronous Operations Environmental Satellite (GOES), Landsat, NEXUS (a James Webb Space Telescope precursor), and as a Deputy Director in the Information Systems engineering division. Prior to his career at NASA, McCuistion was a commissioned officer in the U. S. Navy flying F-14 Tomcats and worked on the Navy's Geodetic Satellite (GEOSAT) Follow-On mission. He retired from the U. S. Navy at the rank of Commander in 1998. Recently he has written about international collaboration in Mars exploration and education and public outreach efforts in planetary science.

text: McCuistion was NASA's third and longest-running "Mars Czar", leading the NASA Mars Exploration Program from NASA Headquarters for 8.5 years.  Under his leadership the Mars Reconnaissance Orbtier (MRO), Phoenix Lander, and Mars Science Laboratory/Curiosity rover were completed and launched, and the MAVEN mission nearly ready for its 2013 launch. He led expansive international program efforts during his tenure, including a multi-national Mars Sample Return study called iMARS, and a merging of the NASA and European Space Agency's (ESA) Mars programs (which was later dissolved due to US financial constraints). Prior to his taking the helm of the NASA Mars Exploration Program, he was the Director of Flight Programs for NASA's

text: Earth Science Enterprise

text: . Prior to coming to NASA Headquarters McCuistion held management and engineering positions in Earth and space science at the

text: Goddard Space Flight Center

text: , working on the

text: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

text: (TDRS), Geosynchronous Operations Environmental Satellite (GOES),

text: Landsat

text: , NEXUS (a

text: James Webb Space Telescope

text: precursor), and as a Deputy Director in the Information Systems engineering division. Prior to his career at NASA, McCuistion was a commissioned officer in the U. S. Navy flying

text: F-14 Tomcats

text: and worked on the Navy's Geodetic Satellite (GEOSAT) Follow-On mission. He retired from the U. S. Navy at the rank of Commander in 1998. Recently he has written about international collaboration in Mars exploration and education and public outreach efforts in planetary science.

text: An easy way to visualize a satellite orbiting the Earth is that it makes circles directly above the equator. In this case, the plane of the satellite's orbit is the same as the Earth's equatorial plane, and the satellite's orbital inclination is 0°. The general case is that the satellite's orbit is tilted; it spends half an orbit over the northern hemisphere and half over the southern. If the orbit swung between 20° north latitude and 20° south latitude, then its orbital inclination would be 20°.

text: An easy way to visualize a satellite orbiting the Earth is that it makes circles directly above the equator. In this case, the plane of the satellite's orbit is the same as the Earth's equatorial plane, and the satellite's orbital inclination is 0°. The general case is that the satellite's orbit is tilted; it spends half an orbit over the northern hemisphere and half over the southern. If the orbit swung between 20° north

text: latitude

text: and 20° south latitude, then its orbital inclination would be 20°.

text: In situ exploration by spacecraft includes Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Ulysses, Galileo, Cassini–Huygens, and New Horizons. Planned missions include Juno Jupiter Orbiter and possibly the Outer Planet Flagship Missions; there are various proposals too, such as Uranus orbiter and probe. Ongoing missions for the outer planets as of 2011 include Cassini probe,  orbiting Saturn, New Horizons, headed for Pluto, and Juno, headed for Jupiter. Cassini and New Horizons also visited Jupiter with a flyby.

text: In situ

text: exploration by spacecraft includes

text: Pioneer 10

text: Pioneer 11

text: Voyager 1

text: Voyager 2

text: Ulysses

text: Galileo

text: Cassini–Huygens

text: , and

text: New Horizons

text: . Planned missions include

text: Juno Jupiter Orbiter

text: and possibly the

text: Outer Planet Flagship Mission

text: s; there are various proposals too, such as

text: Uranus orbiter and probe

text: . Ongoing missions for the outer planets as of 2011 include Cassini probe,  orbiting Saturn, New Horizons, headed for Pluto, and Juno, headed for Jupiter. Cassini and New Horizons also visited Jupiter with a flyby.

text: Space warfare is warfare that occurs outside the Earth's atmosphere. No wars have been fought here yet. The weapons would include orbital weaponry and space weapons. High value outer space targets would include satellites and weapon platforms. Notably no real weapons exist in space yet, though ground-to-space missiles have been successfully tested against target satellites. As of now, this is purely science fiction.

text: Space warfare is warfare that occurs outside the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . No wars have been fought here yet. The weapons would include

text: orbital weaponry

text: and

text: space weapon

text: s. High value

text: outer space

text: targets would include

text: satellite

text: s and

text: weapon platform

text: s. Notably no real weapons exist in space yet, though ground-to-space missiles have been successfully tested against target satellites. As of now, this is purely

text: science fiction

text: The greatest Russian successes are in the field of space technology and space exploration. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky was the father of theoretical astronautics. His works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko and many others that contributed to the success of the Soviet space program at early stages of the Space Race and beyond.

text: The greatest Russian successes are in the field of

text: space technology

text: and

text: space exploration

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: was the father of theoretical astronautics. His works had inspired leading

text: Soviet

text: rocket engineers such as

text: Sergey Korolyov

text: Valentin Glushko

text: and many others that contributed to the success of the

text: Soviet space program

text: at early stages of the

text: Space Race

text: and beyond.

text: The telescope has participated in Soviet space program since 1978 for the exploration of deep space:

text: The telescope has participated in

text: Soviet space program

text: since 1978 for the

text: exploration of deep space

text: Started to develop more precise and rocket into the 1970s. Osumi launched a technology based on L-4S [Myuroketto] Early in the M-4S rocket was developed. No. 1, but failed, then succeeded in orbit three satellites aircraft continued and became the foundation of Myuroketto. After this, Myuroketto to simplify the system and make changes to the four-stage three-stage, rocket guidance and control were enhanced M3-C type was improved. M3-C 4-type machines and one machine has successfully been launched into orbit in three planes, but failed. M3-C thrust further cited a longer first stage of M3-H () 3 type aircraft, all stages were capable of inducing the M3- S-type had a successful launch in succession of four satellites. The exact orbit and gradually made it possible to introduce up to a high place.

text: Started to develop more precise and rocket into the 1970s. Osumi launched a technology based on L-4S [Myuroketto] Early in the M-4S rocket was developed. No. 1, but failed, then succeeded in orbit three satellites aircraft continued and became the foundation of Myuroketto. After this, Myuroketto to simplify the system and make changes to the four-stage three-stage, rocket guidance and control were enhanced

text: M3-C type

text: was improved. M3-C 4-type machines and one machine has successfully been launched into orbit in three planes, but failed. M3-C thrust further cited a longer first stage of

text: () 3 type aircraft, all stages were capable of inducing the

text: M3- S-type

text: had a successful launch in succession of four satellites. The exact orbit and gradually made it possible to introduce up to a high place.

text: Less than a year after the accident, President Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, calling for the space shuttle fleet to complete the ISS, with retirement by the year 2010 following the completion of the ISS, to be replaced by a newly developed Crew Exploration Vehicle for travel to the Moon and Mars. NASA planned to return the space shuttle to service around September 2004; that date was pushed back to July 2005.

text: Less than a year after the accident, President Bush announced the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , calling for the space shuttle fleet to complete the ISS, with retirement by the year 2010 following the completion of the ISS, to be replaced by a newly developed

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: for travel to the Moon and Mars. NASA planned to return the space shuttle to service around September 2004; that date was pushed back to July 2005.

text: Many authors define "satellite" or "natural satellite" as orbiting some planet or minor planet, synonymous with "moon"—by such a definition all natural satellites are moons, but Earth and other planets are not satellites.A few recent authors define "moon" as "a satellite of a planet or minor planet", and "planet" as "a satellite of a star"—such authors consider Earth as a "natural satellite of the sun".

text: The Noctis galaxy, Feltyrion, is approximately 90 thousand light-years in radius, approximately double the radius of the Milky Way Galaxy. With the exception of landing on some world types (being gas giants, Substellar Objects, and unstable worlds), this galaxy is entirely open to be explored. Billions of worlds can be explored despite the program's relatively small size, due to its content being generated on the fly. The Noctis universe contains several types of planets and 12 types of stars, noted in-game with an S in front of the number of the star.

text: The Noctis galaxy, Feltyrion, is approximately 90 thousand

text: light-year

text: s in radius, approximately double the radius of the

text: Milky Way Galaxy

text: . With the exception of landing on some world types (being

text: gas giant

text: s, Substellar Objects, and unstable worlds), this galaxy is entirely open to be explored. Billions of worlds can be explored despite the

text: program

text: 's relatively small size, due to its content being generated

text: on the fly

text: . The Noctis universe contains several types of planets and 12 types of stars, noted in-game with an S in front of the number of the star.

text: The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6–2.8 AU once every 4 years and 6 months (1,636 days). Its orbit shows an eccentricity of 0.04 and is tilted by 5 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. It has a rotation period of 6.9 hours and an albedo between 0.04 and 0.05, according to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer and subsequent NEOWISE mission.

text: The asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.6–2.8

text: AU

text: once every 4 years and 6 months (1,636 days). Its orbit shows an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.04 and is

text: tilted

text: by 5 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: . It has a

text: rotation period

text: of 6.9 hours and an

text: albedo

text: between 0.04 and 0.05, according to the space-based surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite,

text: IRAS

text: , the Japanese

text: Akari

text: satellite, and the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: and subsequent

text: NEOWISE

text: mission.

text: The earth is constantly being monitored by a great number satellites operating in the earth exploration-satellite service (EESS) or space research service (SRS). These artificial satellites have onboard space radio stations from which they gather data. The data is transmitted back to earth via feeder links. This article lists a number of current active Earth observation satellites and their downlink transmission frequencies.

text: The

text: earth

text: is constantly being monitored by a great number satellites operating in the earth exploration-satellite service (EESS) or

text: space research service

text: (SRS). These artificial

text: satellite

text: s have onboard

text: space radio station

text: s from which they gather

text: data

text: . The data is transmitted back to earth via

text: feeder link

text: s. This article lists a number of current active

text: Earth observation satellite

text: s and their

text: downlink

text: transmission frequencies.

text: A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the solar wind, radiation pressure, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as station-keeping.

text: A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the

text: solar wind

text: radiation pressure

text: , variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the

text: gravitational

text: effect of the

text: Moon

text: and

text: Sun

text: , and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as

text: station-keeping

text: NASA Design Reference Mission 3.0 was a NASA study for a human space mission to the planet Mars in the 1990s. It was a plan for a human exploration architecture for Mars.

text: NASA Design Reference Mission 3.0 was a

text: NASA

text: study for a human space mission to the planet

text: Mars

text: in the 1990s. It was a plan for a human exploration architecture for Mars.

text: •       2015: Producer and Director of Planet Explorer 6 Norway and Planet Explorer 7 Vietnam.

text: In the morning, the youngest daughter finds that the palace has vanished.  She sets out in search of him.  Coming to a great mountain, she finds an old woman playing with a golden apple.  The youngest daughter asks if she knows the way to the castle east of the sun and west of the moon.  The old woman cannot tell her, but lends the youngest daughter a horse to reach a neighbor who might know, and gives her the apple.  The neighbor is sitting outside another mountain, with a golden carding comb.  She, also, does not know the way to the castle east of the sun and west of the moon, but lends the youngest daughter a horse to reach a neighbor who might know, and gives her the carding-comb.  The third neighbor has a golden spinning wheel.  She, also, does not know the way to the castle east of the sun and west of the moon, but lends the youngest daughter a horse to reach the East Wind and gives her the spinning wheel.

text: In the morning, the youngest daughter finds that the palace has vanished.  She sets out in search of him.  Coming to a great mountain, she finds an old woman playing with a golden apple.  The youngest daughter asks if she knows the way to the castle east of the sun and west of the moon.  The old woman cannot tell her, but lends the youngest daughter a horse to reach a neighbor who might know, and gives her the apple.  The neighbor is sitting outside another mountain, with a golden

text: carding

text: comb.  She, also, does not know the way to the castle east of the sun and west of the moon, but lends the youngest daughter a horse to reach a neighbor who might know, and gives her the carding-comb.  The

text: third

text: neighbor has a golden

text: spinning wheel

text: .  She, also, does not know the way to the castle east of the sun and west of the moon, but lends the youngest daughter a horse to reach the East Wind and gives her the spinning wheel.

text: The space exploration has petered out in both the United States and Russia without the competitive pressure of the space race. Military decorations have become more common, as they were created, and bestowed, by the major powers during the near 50 years of undeclared hostilities.

text: The space exploration has petered out in both the United States and Russia without the competitive pressure of the

text: space race

text: Military decorations

text: have become more common, as they were created, and bestowed, by the major powers during the near 50 years of undeclared hostilities.

text: With the exception of the Apollo program most space exploration has been conducted with telerobotic space probes. Most space-based astronomy, for example, has been conducted with telerobotic telescopes. The Russian Lunokhod-1 mission, for example, put a remotely driven rover on the moon, which was driven in real time (with a 2.5-second lightspeed time delay) by human operators on the ground. Robotic planetary exploration programs use spacecraft that are programmed by humans at ground stations, essentially achieving a long-time-delay form of telerobotic operation. Recent noteworthy examples include the Mars exploration rovers (MER) and the Curiosity rover. In the case of the MER mission, the spacecraft and the rover operated on stored programs, with the rover drivers on the ground programming each day's operation. The International Space Station (ISS) uses a two-armed telemanipulator called Dextre. More recently, a humanoid robot Robonaut has been added to the space station for telerobotic experiments.

text: With the exception of the

text: Apollo program

text: most

text: space exploration

text: has been conducted with telerobotic

text: space probes

text: . Most space-based

text: astronomy

text: , for example, has been conducted with telerobotic

text: telescopes

text: . The Russian

text: Lunokhod-1 mission

text: , for example, put a remotely driven rover on the moon, which was driven in real time (with a 2.5-second lightspeed time delay) by human operators on the ground. Robotic planetary exploration programs use spacecraft that are programmed by humans at ground stations, essentially achieving a long-time-delay form of telerobotic operation. Recent noteworthy examples include the

text: Mars exploration rovers

text: (MER) and the

text: Curiosity rover

text: . In the case of the MER mission, the spacecraft and the rover operated on stored programs, with the rover drivers on the ground programming each day's operation. The

text: International Space Station

text: (ISS) uses a two-armed telemanipulator called

text: Dextre

text: . More recently, a humanoid robot

text: Robonaut

text: has been added to the space station for telerobotic experiments.

text: Diamandis was born in the Bronx, New York. His parents, both Greek immigrants, were in the medical business; his father was a physician (OB-GYN). From a very early age, Diamandis expressed a keen interest in space exploration. At age 8, he began giving lectures on space to his family and friends. At age 12, Diamandis won first place in the Estes Rocket Design Competition for building a launch system able to simultaneously launch three rockets.

text: Diamandis was born in

text: the Bronx

text: , New York. His parents, both Greek immigrants, were in the medical business; his father was a physician (OB-GYN). From a very early age, Diamandis expressed a keen interest in space exploration. At age 8, he began giving lectures on space to his family and friends. At age 12, Diamandis won first place in the Estes Rocket Design Competition for building a launch system able to simultaneously launch three rockets.

text: In the 2000s, several plans for space exploration were announced; both government entities and the private sector have space exploration objectives. China has announced plans to have a 60-ton multi-module space station in orbit by 2020.

text: Eugene F. Lally (August 14, 1934 – July 28, 2014) was American aerospace engineer. He worked in the early 1960s on U.S. interplanetary space programs. Beside his space programs he was also an inventor and developed non-space products with his own company Dynamic Development Co. which he founded in the early 1960s. He later became an active amateur photographer and  lubrication product entrepreneur. Lally contributed articles for popular space, astrobiology, photography, travel, and archaeology magazines. He was also a speaker at local space exploration and extraterrestrial intelligence (UFO) society meetings where he gave first-hand accounts of the early U.S. space program, commentaries on current U.S. space exploration activities and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

text: Eugene F. Lally (August 14, 1934 – July 28, 2014) was American

text: aerospace

text: engineer

text: . He worked in the early 1960s on U.S.

text: interplanetary

text: space programs. Beside his space programs he was also an inventor and developed non-space products with his own company Dynamic Development Co. which he founded in the early 1960s. He later became an active

text: amateur photographer

text: and

text: lubrication

text: product

text: entrepreneur

text: . Lally contributed articles for popular

text: space

text: astrobiology

text: photography

text: , travel, and

text: archaeology

text: magazine

text: s. He was also a speaker at local

text: space exploration

text: and

text: extraterrestrial intelligence

text: UFO

text: ) society meetings where he gave first-hand accounts of the early U.S. space program, commentaries on current U.S. space exploration activities and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

text: The direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. Digital signals may include high-definition television (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are free-to-air or free-to-view, while many other channels are pay television requiring a subscription.In 1945, British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed a worldwide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the Wireless World magazine and won him the Franklin Institute's Stuart Ballantine Medal in 1963.

text: The direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver.

text: Digital signals

text: may include

text: high-definition television

text: (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are

text: free-to-air

text: or

text: free-to-view

text: , while many other channels are

text: pay television

text: requiring a subscription.In 1945, British

text: science fiction

text: writer

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: proposed a worldwide communications system which would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit. This was published in the October 1945 issue of the

text: Wireless World

text: magazine and won him the

text: Franklin Institute

text: 's

text: Stuart Ballantine Medal

text: in 1963.

text: Wesley Huntress was interested in space exploration from a young age, describing himself as a "Sputnik kid", who entered the sciences in college out of an interest in joining the space race between the US and USSR. Huntress was awarded a B.S. in Chemistry from Brown University in 1964 and a Ph.D. in Chemical Physics from Stanford University in 1968. Following his degrees, he began a career as an astrochemist and space scientist Brown University would later bestow an honorary doctoral of sciences degree upon Huntress as well, during its 2005 convocation ceremonies.

text: Wesley Huntress was interested in space exploration from a young age, describing himself as a "Sputnik kid", who entered the sciences in college out of an interest in joining the space race between the US and USSR. Huntress was awarded a B.S. in Chemistry from

text: Brown University

text: in 1964 and a Ph.D. in Chemical Physics from

text: Stanford University

text: in 1968. Following his degrees, he began a career as an astrochemist and space scientist Brown University would later bestow an honorary doctoral of sciences degree upon Huntress as well, during its 2005 convocation ceremonies.

text: Cygnus CRS OA-9E, also known as Orbital Sciences CRS Flight 9E, is the tenth planned flight of the Orbital ATK unmanned resupply spacecraft Cygnus and its ninth flight to the International Space Station under the Commercial Resupply Services contract with NASA. Orbital and NASA jointly developed a new space transportation system to provide commercial cargo resupply services to the International Space Station (ISS). Under the Commercial Orbital Transportation System (COTS) program, then Orbital Sciences designed and built Antares, a medium-class launch vehicle; Cygnus, an advanced maneuvering spacecraft, and a Pressurized Cargo Module which is provided by Orbital's industrial partner Thales Alenia Space.

text: Cygnus CRS OA-9E, also known as Orbital Sciences CRS Flight 9E, is the tenth planned flight of the

text: Orbital ATK

text: unmanned resupply spacecraft

text: Cygnus

text: and its ninth flight to the

text: International Space Station

text: under the

text: Commercial Resupply Services

text: contract with

text: NASA

text: program, then

text: Orbital Sciences

text: designed and built

text: Antares

text: , a medium-class launch vehicle;

text: Cygnus

text: Thales Alenia Space

text: At UND, Webb and Blount created one of the first fully interdisciplinary Earth System Science programs in the United States. This incorporates, into a single field of study, the usually separate areas of atmospheric, earth and ocean sciences. This was in response to the then-speculative Earth Observing System of remote sensing satellites and integrated data systems. Blount went on to serve on the International Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems which defined many of the data formatting and calibration protocols for global environmental monitoring. The pair wrote an eight million dollar grant proposal to the U.S. Department of Agriculture which funded the construction and establishment of the Earth System Science Institute at UND (1988–89), now known as the Department of Earth System Science and Policy. Webb, Blount and Vedda hosted the first (and only) International Conference on Hypersonic Flight in the 21st Century (1988). Gabrynowitcz went on to found the National Land Remote Sensing Data Archive Advisory Committee and served as a pioneer in the creation of space law and policy, particularly in the area of satellite remote sensing.

text: At UND, Webb and Blount created one of the first fully interdisciplinary Earth System Science programs in the

text: United States

text: . This incorporates, into a single field of study, the usually separate areas of atmospheric, earth and ocean sciences. This was in response to the then-speculative

text: Earth Observing System

text: of remote sensing satellites and integrated data systems. Blount went on to serve on the International

entity_name: Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems

text: Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems

text: which defined many of the data formatting and calibration protocols for global environmental monitoring. The pair wrote an eight million dollar grant proposal to the U.S. Department of Agriculture which funded the construction and establishment of the Earth System Science Institute at UND (1988–89), now known as the Department of Earth System Science and Policy. Webb, Blount and Vedda hosted the first (and only) International Conference on Hypersonic Flight in the 21st Century (1988). Gabrynowitcz went on to found the National Land Remote Sensing Data Archive Advisory Committee and served as a pioneer in the creation of space law and policy, particularly in the area of satellite remote sensing.

text: Artificial satellites must be launched into orbit and once there they must be placed in their nominal orbit. Once in the desired orbit, they often need some form of attitude control so that they are correctly pointed with respect to Earth, the Sun, and possibly some astronomical object of interest. They are also subject to drag from the thin atmosphere,  so that to stay in orbit for a long period of time some form of propulsion is occasionally necessary to make small corrections (orbital stationkeeping). Many satellites need to be moved from one orbit to another from time to time, and this also requires propulsion. A satellite's useful life is usually over once it has exhausted its ability to adjust its orbit.

text: Artificial satellites must be

text: launched

text: into

text: orbit

text: and once there they must be placed in their nominal orbit. Once in the desired orbit, they often need some form of

text: attitude control

text: so that they are correctly pointed with respect to

text: Earth

text: , the

text: Sun

text: , and possibly some

text: astronomical

text: object of interest. They are also subject to

text: drag

text: from the thin

text: atmosphere

text: ,  so that to stay in orbit for a long period of time some form of propulsion is occasionally necessary to make small corrections (

text: orbital stationkeeping

text: ). Many satellites need to be moved from one orbit to another from time to time, and this also requires propulsion. A satellite's useful life is usually over once it has exhausted its ability to adjust its orbit.

text: On the other hand, if a planet were found to be already inhabited, much less benign consequences ensue: indeed, some science fiction authors have used the colonization of alien planets by humans, or the colonization of Earth by aliens, to explore the real-world issues surrounding the phenomenon. Such works include those of Mary Doria Russell, The Sparrow and Children of God.

text: On the other hand, if a planet were found to be already inhabited, much less benign consequences ensue: indeed, some science fiction authors have used the colonization of alien planets by humans, or the colonization of

text: Earth

text: by aliens, to explore the real-world issues surrounding the phenomenon. Such works include those of

text: Mary Doria Russell

text: , The Sparrow and Children of God.

text: LituanicaSAT-2 is a part of a network of 50 nano-satellites called “QB50” (EU 7FP project) led by Von Karman Institute, Belgium. The science objective of the mission is to carry out long term measurements of key parameters and constituents in yet largely unexplored lower thermosphere and ionosphere. The "QB50" mission is intended to demonstrate the possibility of launching a network of 50 CubeSats built by Universities Teams all over the world as a primary payload on a low-cost launch vehicle to perform first-class science. Another purposes of the QB50 project is to achieve a sustained and affordable access to space for small scale research space missions and planetary exploration.

text: Landsat 4 had a maximum transmission bandwidth of 85 Mbit/s, and carried an updated Multi-Spectral Scanner used on previous Landsats, and a Thematic Mapper. It had a maximum 30 m resolution. Shortly after launch, the satellite lost half of its solar power and the ability to send science data directly to Earth, prompting fears the satellite would fail sooner than expected. This prompted the early launch of Landsat 5, a satellite identical in specification to Landsat 4.  Landsat 4 was able to resume science operations when the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System came on line, then was placed in standby in January 1986.  Landsat 4 was brought back on line to provide international coverage in 1987, when Landsat 5 lost its TDRS link, and thus the ability to image areas beyond line of sight to a ground station, and continued to do so until it, too, lost its TDRS link in 1993, ending science data return.

text: Landsat 4 had a maximum transmission bandwidth of 85 Mbit/s, and carried an updated

text: Multi-Spectral Scanner

text: used on previous Landsats, and a

text: Thematic Mapper

text: . It had a maximum 30 m

text: resolution

text: . Shortly after launch, the satellite lost half of its

text: solar power

text: and the ability to send science data directly to Earth, prompting fears the satellite would fail sooner than expected. This prompted the early launch of

text: Landsat 5

text: , a satellite identical in specification to Landsat 4.  Landsat 4 was able to resume science operations when the

entity_name: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System

text: Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System

text: came on line, then was placed in standby in January 1986.  Landsat 4 was brought back on line to provide international coverage in 1987, when Landsat 5 lost its TDRS link, and thus the ability to image areas beyond line of sight to a ground station, and continued to do so until it, too, lost its TDRS link in 1993, ending science data return.

text: The Tsiolkovsky rocket equation shows that the delta-v of a rocket (stage), is proportional to the logarithm of the fuelled-to-empty mass ratio of the vehicle, and to the specific impulse of the rocket engine. A key goal in designing space-mission trajectories is to minimize the required delta-v to reduce the size and expense of the rocket that would be needed to successfully deliver any particular payload to its destination.

text: The

text: Tsiolkovsky rocket equation

text: shows that the delta-v of a rocket (stage), is proportional to the logarithm of the fuelled-to-empty

text: mass ratio

text: of the vehicle, and to the

text: specific impulse

text: of the rocket engine. A key goal in designing space-mission trajectories is to minimize the required delta-v to reduce the size and expense of the rocket that would be needed to successfully deliver any particular payload to its destination.

text: The prologue of the novel relates how Humanity gives up the dream of space travel, which is too difficult and dangerous and offers too little benefit, only to discover that there is another way to explore the universe.  Some people possess the ability to travel with their minds to other worlds.  Helped by new technology, they can explore another planet far across the galaxy while their bodies remain on Earth.

text: As ozone in the atmosphere prevents most energetic ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the earth, astronomical data in these wavelengths has to be gathered from satellites orbiting above the atmosphere and ozone layer. Most of the light from young hot stars is in the ultraviolet and so study of these wavelengths is important for studying the origins of galaxies. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer, GALEX, is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, which operated until early 2012.

text: As ozone in the atmosphere prevents most energetic ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the earth, astronomical data in these wavelengths has to be gathered from satellites orbiting above the atmosphere and ozone layer. Most of the light from young hot stars is in the ultraviolet and so study of these wavelengths is important for studying the origins of galaxies. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer,

text: GALEX

text: , is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, which operated until early 2012.

text: During the late 1980s and 1990s as the director of Space and Earth Science programs at JPL, Elachi was responsible for the definition and development of numerous flight instruments and missions for solar system exploration, space-based astronomy and Earth science.

text: A report published in June 2014 by the US National Academy of Sciences called for clear long-term space goals at NASA. The report said that the agency's current course invited “failure, disillusionment, and [loss of] the longstanding international perception that human space-flight is something that the United States does best.” The report recommended that Mars be the next major goal of human space flight. Several possible paths for reaching the planet by 2037 were explored in the report, which noted that returning to the Moon would offer “significant advantages” as an intermediate step in the process.

text: A report published in June 2014 by the

text: US National Academy of Sciences

text: called for clear long-term space goals at NASA. The report said that the agency's current course invited “failure, disillusionment, and [loss of] the longstanding international perception that human space-flight is something that the United States does best.” The report recommended that Mars be the next major goal of human space flight. Several possible paths for reaching the planet by 2037 were explored in the report, which noted that returning to the Moon would offer “significant advantages” as an intermediate step in the process.

text: The L.M.S. Explorer has an energy shield that completely surrounds the ship, protecting it from space debris. The ship is also outfitted with a large GeoScanner, the Rock Raiders use this device whenever they find a new planet. Rather than deploying shuttles, the L.M.S. Explorer has a teleportation system to transport Rock Raiders between planets and to and from the ship.

text: This permanent exhibition highlights the exciting stories of human space exploration. The exhibition shares the story of Captain James A. Lovell, Jr. and features the fully restored Gemini 12 spacecraft and the Lovell Collection of personal space artifacts. The interactive Moon Wall allows visitors to fly over the lunar surface, exploring images from the Moon’s surface.

text: This permanent exhibition highlights the exciting stories of human space exploration. The exhibition shares the story of Captain James A. Lovell, Jr. and features the fully restored

text: Gemini 12

text: spacecraft and the Lovell Collection of personal space artifacts. The interactive Moon Wall allows visitors to fly over the lunar surface, exploring images from the Moon’s surface.

text: , approaching that radius as (asymptotically) a decreasing exponential in φ, τ, or t. Or one can have a circular orbit at that radius. Or one can have an orbit that spirals down from that radius to the central point. The radius in question is called the inner radius and is between 3/2 and 3 times r. A circular orbit also results when u is equal to u, and this is called the outer radius. These different types of orbits are discussed below.

text: Humanity is continuing to follow the impulse to explore, moving beyond Earth.  Space exploration started in the 20th century with the invention of exo-atmospheric rockets.  This has given humans the opportunity to travel to the Moon, and to send robotic explorers to other planets and far beyond.

text: Humanity is continuing to follow the impulse to explore, moving beyond

text: Earth

text: Space exploration

text: started in the 20th century with the invention of exo-atmospheric

text: rocket

text: s.  This has given humans the opportunity to travel to the

text: Moon

text: , and to send robotic explorers to other

text: planet

text: s and far beyond.

text: Dawn launched on September 27, 2007, to explore the asteroid Vesta and the dwarf planet Ceres. It used three Deep Space 1 heritage xenon ion thrusters (firing one at a time). An extended mission to explore other asteroids is possible. Dawn's ion drive is capable of accelerating from 0 to  in 4 days of continuous firing.

text: Dawn

text: launched on September 27, 2007, to explore the asteroid

text: Vesta

text: and the dwarf planet

text: Ceres

text: . It used three

text: Deep Space 1

text: heritage xenon ion thrusters (firing one at a time). An extended mission to explore other asteroids is possible. Dawn's ion drive is capable of accelerating from 0 to  in 4 days of continuous firing.

text: The European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) of the European Space Agency is located in Darmstadt. From here, various deep-space exploration spacecraft and Earth-orbiting satellites are operated for the purposes of scientific research, and technology development and demonstration.

text: The

text: European Space Operations Centre

text: (ESOC) of the

text: European Space Agency

text: is located in Darmstadt. From here, various deep-space exploration spacecraft and Earth-orbiting satellites are operated for the purposes of scientific research, and technology development and demonstration.

text: In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to Mir, while the Soviets were planning to construct Mir-2 in the 1990s as a replacement for the station. Because of budget and design constraints, Freedom never progressed past mock-ups and minor component tests and, with the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Space Race, the project was nearly cancelled entirely by the United States House of Representatives. The post-Soviet economic chaos in Russia also led to the cancellation of Mir-2, though only after its base block, DOS-8, had been constructed. Similar budgetary difficulties were faced by other nations with space station projects, which prompted the U.S. government to negotiate with European states, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative project. In June 1992, American president George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to cooperate on space exploration. The resulting Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes called for a short joint space programme with one American astronaut deployed to the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts deployed to a Space Shuttle.

text: In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called

text: Freedom

text: as a counterpart to Mir, while the Soviets were planning to construct

text: in the 1990s as a replacement for the station. Because of budget and design constraints, Freedom never progressed past mock-ups and minor component tests and, with the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the

text: Space Race

text: , the project was nearly cancelled entirely by the

text: United States House of Representatives

text: . The

text: post-Soviet economic chaos

text: in Russia also led to the cancellation of Mir-2, though only after its base block,

text: , had been constructed. Similar budgetary difficulties were faced by other nations with space station projects, which prompted the U.S. government to negotiate with European states, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative project. In June 1992, American president

text: George H. W. Bush

text: and Russian president

text: Boris Yeltsin

text: agreed to cooperate on

text: space exploration

text: . The resulting Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes called for a short joint space programme with one American

text: astronaut

text: deployed to the Russian space station Mir and two Russian

text: cosmonauts

text: deployed to a Space Shuttle.

text: In the early 2000s, Orbital continued expanding its missile defense systems business with a $900 million award to develop, build, test and support interceptor booster vehicles. In 2006 Orbital conducted its 500th mission since the company’s founding with a diverse portfolio of products that included satellites, launch vehicles, and missile defense systems. In 2007, the first interplanetary spacecraft built by Orbital, Dawn was launched on an eight-year, three-billion-mile journey to the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. A major milestone in the company's history was in 2008 when it received a long-term NASA contract to provide cargo transportation services to and from the International Space Station (ISS) with a value of approximately $1.9 billion for missions from 2011 to 2015. Orbital is currently on-track to deliver on this contract with its Cygnus spacecraft and Antares rocket following the success of Cygnus Orb-D1 and Cygnus CRS Orb-1.

text: In the early 2000s, Orbital continued expanding its missile defense systems business with a $900 million award to develop, build, test and support interceptor booster vehicles. In 2006 Orbital conducted its 500th mission since the company’s founding with a diverse portfolio of products that included satellites, launch vehicles, and missile defense systems. In 2007, the first interplanetary spacecraft built by Orbital,

text: Dawn

text: was launched on an eight-year, three-billion-mile journey to the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. A major milestone in the company's history was in 2008 when it received a long-term NASA contract to provide cargo transportation services to and from the

text: International Space Station (ISS)

text: with a value of approximately $1.9 billion for missions from 2011 to 2015. Orbital is currently on-track to deliver on this contract with its

text: Cygnus spacecraft

text: and

text: Antares

text: rocket following the success of

text: Cygnus Orb-D1

text: and

text: Cygnus CRS Orb-1

text: On May 17, 2004, Civilian Space eXploration Team (CSXT) successfully achieved the first officially verified flight of an amateur high-power rocket into space, achieving an altitude of 72 miles (115 km).

text: On May 17, 2004,

text: Civilian Space eXploration Team

text: (CSXT) successfully achieved the first officially verified flight of an amateur high-power rocket into space, achieving an altitude of 72 miles (115 km).

text: Beatty uses Matthew Looney’s curiosity about the Earth and his desire to embark on voyages of discovery as a literary device. His readers identify with Matthew Looney because of their own yearning for adventure and fascination with space exploration. Kids in the 1960s, growing up in a time when human beings were first exploring space, would see themselves in the young Moon-boy who was growing up in his own era of early space exploration.

text: Beatty uses Matthew Looney’s curiosity about the Earth and his desire to embark on voyages of discovery as a

text: literary device

text: . His readers identify with Matthew Looney because of their own yearning for adventure and fascination with

text: space exploration

text: . Kids in the 1960s, growing up in a time when human beings were first exploring space, would see themselves in the young Moon-boy who was growing up in his own era of early space exploration.

text: The idea of a geosynchronous satellite—one that could orbit the Earth above the equator and remain fixed by following the Earth's rotation—was first proposed by Herman Potočnik in 1928 and popularised by the science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke in a paper in Wireless World in 1945. The first satellite to successfully reach geostationary orbit was Syncom3, built by Hughes Aircraft for NASA and launched August 19, 1963. Succeeding generations of communications satellites featuring larger capacities and improved performance characteristics were adopted for use in television delivery, military applications and telecommunications purposes. Following the invention of the Internet and the World Wide Web, geostationary satellites attracted interest as a potential means of providing Internet access.

text: The idea of a

text: geosynchronous satellite

text: —one that could orbit the Earth above the equator and remain fixed by following the Earth's rotation—was first proposed by

text: Herman Potočnik

text: in 1928 and popularised by the

text: science fiction author

text: Arthur C. Clarke

text: in a paper in

text: Wireless World

text: in 1945. The first satellite to successfully reach geostationary orbit was

text: , built by

text: Hughes Aircraft

text: for NASA and launched August 19, 1963. Succeeding generations of communications satellites featuring larger capacities and improved performance characteristics were adopted for use in television delivery, military applications and telecommunications purposes. Following the invention of the

text: Internet

text: and the World Wide Web, geostationary satellites attracted interest as a potential means of providing Internet access.

text: The designations Sputnik 29, and later Sputnik 22, were used by the United States Naval Space Command to identify the spacecraft in its Satellite Situation Summary documents, since the Soviet Union did not release the internal designations of its spacecraft at that time, and had not assigned it an official name due to its failure to depart geocentric orbit. A United States Ballistic Missile Early Warning System station in Alaska detected the debris from the launch, and initially identified it as incoming nuclear warheads, since the launch had occurred during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

text: The designations Sputnik 29, and later Sputnik 22, were used by the

text: United States Naval Space Command

text: to identify the spacecraft in its

text: Satellite Situation Summary

text: documents, since the Soviet Union did not release the internal designations of its spacecraft at that time, and had not assigned it an official name due to its failure to depart geocentric orbit. A

text: United States

text: Ballistic Missile Early Warning System

text: station in

text: Alaska

text: detected the debris from the launch, and initially identified it as incoming

text: nuclear warheads

text: , since the launch had occurred during the

text: Cuban Missile Crisis

text: The Echo satellite was a balloon satellite launched into Earth orbit in 1960 and used for passive relay of radio communication. PAGEOS was launched in 1966 for worldwide satellite triangulation, allowing for greater precision in the calculation of different locations on the planet's surface.

text: The

text: Echo satellite

text: was a

text: balloon satellite

text: launched into Earth orbit in 1960 and used for passive relay of radio communication.

text: PAGEOS

text: was launched in 1966 for worldwide satellite triangulation, allowing for greater precision in the calculation of different locations on the planet's surface.

text: The space derby is a racing event for Cub Scouts in the Boy Scouts of America that is similar to the pinewood derby car race. Cub Scouts (the young-age division of the Boy Scouts of America) race miniature balsa wood rockets that are propelled by a rubber band and propeller.

text: The space derby is a racing event for

text: Cub Scouts

text: in the

text: Boy Scouts of America

text: that is similar to the

text: pinewood derby

text: car race. Cub Scouts (the young-age division of the

text: Boy Scouts of America

text: ) race miniature

text: balsa wood

text: rockets that are propelled by a

text: rubber band

text: and

text: propeller

text: The C-type asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8–3.0 AU once every 4 years and 11 months (1,796 days). Its orbit is tilted by 18 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic and shows an eccentricity of 0.05. It has a rotation period of 3.66 hours with an alternative, provisional rotation of 33 hours and an albedo between 0.03 and 0.06, according to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and the NEOWISE mission of the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer.

text: The

text: C-type

text: asteroid orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.8–3.0

text: AU

text: once every 4 years and 11 months (1,796 days). Its orbit is

text: tilted

text: by 18 degrees to the plane of the

text: ecliptic

text: and shows an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.05. It has a

text: rotation period

text: of 3.66 hours with an alternative, provisional rotation of 33 hours and an

text: albedo

text: between 0.03 and 0.06, according to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite

text: IRAS

text: , the Japanese

text: Akari

text: satellite, and the

text: NEOWISE

text: mission of the

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: The practice of involving architects in the space program grew out of the Space Race, although its origins can be seen much earlier.  The need for their involvement stemmed from the push to extend space mission durations and address the needs of astronauts including but beyond minimum survival needs.  Space architecture is currently represented in several institutions.  The Sasakawa International Center for Space Architecture (SICSA) is an academic organization with the University of Houston that offers a Master of Science in Space Architecture.  SICSA also works design contracts with corporations and space agencies.  In Europe, International Space University is deeply involved in space architecture research.  The International Conference on Environmental Systems meets annually to present sessions on human spaceflight and space human factors.  Within the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, the Space Architecture Technical Committee has been formed.  Despite the historical pattern of large government-led space projects and university-level conceptual design, the advent of space tourism threatens to shift the outlook for space architecture work.

text: The practice of involving architects in the space program grew out of the

text: Space Race

text: , although its origins can be seen much earlier.  The need for their involvement stemmed from the push to extend space mission durations and address the needs of astronauts including but beyond minimum survival needs.  Space architecture is currently represented in several institutions.  The

text: Sasakawa International Center for Space Architecture

text: (SICSA) is an academic organization with the

text: University of Houston

text: that offers a Master of Science in Space Architecture.  SICSA also works design contracts with corporations and space agencies.  In Europe,

text: International Space University

text: is deeply involved in space architecture research.  The

entity_name: International Conference on Environmental Systems

text: International Conference on Environmental Systems

text: meets annually to present sessions on

text: human spaceflight

text: and space

text: human factors

text: .  Within the

text: , the Space Architecture Technical Committee has been formed.  Despite the historical pattern of large government-led space projects and university-level conceptual design, the advent of

text: space tourism

text: threatens to shift the outlook for space architecture work.

text: The launch of Shin'en was successfully conducted from Pad 1 of the Yoshinobu Launch Complex at the Tanegashima Space Centre, at 21:58:22 UTC on 20 May 2010. It was being launched as a secondary payload aboard an H-IIA 202 rocket, with the primary payload being the Akatsuki spacecraft bound for Venus. The IKAROS solar sail experiment was also deployed from the same rocket on a trajectory towards Venus. Three other student spacecraft; Waseda-SAT2, K-Sat and Negai ☆ were also launched, however they separated from the rocket whilst it was still orbiting the Earth. Shin'en was the last spacecraft to separate from the rocket. The launch was conducted by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries on behalf of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.

text: The launch of Shin'en was successfully conducted from Pad 1 of the

text: Yoshinobu Launch Complex

text: at the

text: Tanegashima Space Centre

text: , at 21:58:22 UTC on 20 May 2010. It was being launched as a secondary payload aboard an

text: H-IIA

text: 202 rocket, with the primary payload being the

text: Akatsuki

text: spacecraft bound for Venus. The

text: IKAROS

text: solar sail

text: experiment was also deployed from the same rocket on a trajectory towards Venus. Three other student spacecraft;

text: K-Sat

text: and

text: Negai ☆

text: were also launched, however they separated from the rocket whilst it was still orbiting the Earth. Shin'en was the last spacecraft to separate from the rocket. The launch was conducted by

text: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries

text: on behalf of the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: Looking for an outlet for his ideas, O'Neill wrote a paper titled "The Colonization of Space", and for four years attempted to have it published. He submitted it to several journals and magazines, including Scientific American and Science, only to have it rejected by the reviewers. During this time O'Neill gave lectures on space colonization at Hampshire College, Princeton, and other schools. Many students and staff attending the lectures became enthusiastic about the possibility of living in space. Another outlet for O'Neill to explore his ideas was with his children; on walks in the forest they speculated about life in a space colony. His paper finally appeared in the September 1974 issue of Physics Today. In it, he argued that building space colonies would solve several important problems:

text: Looking for an outlet for his ideas, O'Neill wrote a paper titled "The Colonization of Space", and for four years attempted to have it published. He submitted it to several journals and magazines, including Scientific American and Science, only to have it rejected by the reviewers. During this time O'Neill gave lectures on space colonization at

text: Hampshire College

text: , Princeton, and other schools. Many students and staff attending the lectures became enthusiastic about the possibility of living in space. Another outlet for O'Neill to explore his ideas was with his children; on walks in the forest they speculated about life in a space colony. His paper finally appeared in the September 1974 issue of

text: Physics Today

text: . In it, he argued that building space colonies would solve several important problems:

text: To the surprise of many, the USSR launched Sputnik 1 as the first artificial Earth satellite on October 4, 1957. After several failed Vanguard launches, Wernher von Braun and his team convinced President Dwight D. Eisenhower to use one of their US Army missiles for the Explorer program (there then being no inhibition about using military rockets to get into space). On November 8, 1957, the US Secretary of Defense instructed the US Army to use a modified Jupiter-C rocket to launch a satellite. The US achieved this goal only four months later with Explorer 1, on February 1, 1958, but after Sputnik 2 in November 3, 1957, making Explorer 1 the third artificial Earth satellite. Vanguard 1 became the fourth, launched on	March 17, 1958. The Soviet victory in the "Space Race" would be followed by considerable political consequences,one of which was the creation of the US space agency NASA on July 29, 1958.

text: To the surprise of many, the

text: USSR

text: launched

text: Sputnik 1

text: as the first artificial Earth satellite on October 4, 1957. After several failed Vanguard launches,

text: Wernher von Braun

text: and his team convinced President

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: to use one of their US Army missiles for the Explorer program (there then being no inhibition about using military rockets to get into space). On November 8, 1957, the US Secretary of Defense instructed the US Army to use a modified

text: Jupiter-C

text: rocket to launch a satellite. The US achieved this goal only four months later with Explorer 1, on February 1, 1958, but after

text: Sputnik 2

text: in November 3, 1957, making Explorer 1 the third artificial Earth satellite.

text: Vanguard 1

text: became the fourth, launched on	March 17, 1958. The

text: Soviet

text: victory in the "

text: Space Race

text: " would be followed by considerable political consequences,one of which was the creation of the US space agency

text: NASA

text: on July 29, 1958.

text: Following the end of World War II, a nuclear arms race evolved between the U.S. and the Soviet Union (USSR). Since the USSR did not have a large fleet of bomber planes to deliver such weapons to the U.S., or bases in the western hemisphere from which to deploy them, Joseph Stalin decided to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles, which drove a missile race. The rocket technology in turn enabled both sides to develop Earth-orbiting satellites for communications, and gathering weather data and intelligence. Americans were shocked when the Soviet Union placed the first satellite into orbit in October 1957, leading to a growing fear that the U.S. was falling into a "missile gap". A month later, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2, carrying a dog into orbit. Though the animal was not recovered alive, it was obvious their goal was manned spaceflight. Unable to disclose details of military space projects, President Eisenhower ordered the creation of a civilian space agency in charge of civilian and scientific space exploration. Based on the  federal research agency National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), it was named the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. It achieved its first goal, an American satellite in space, in 1958. The next goal was to put a man there.

text: Following the end of

text: World War II

text: , a

text: nuclear arms race

text: evolved between the U.S. and the

text: Soviet Union

text: (USSR). Since the USSR did not have a large fleet of

text: bomber plane

text: s to deliver such weapons to the U.S., or bases in the western hemisphere from which to deploy them,

text: Joseph Stalin

text: decided to develop

text: intercontinental ballistic missile

text: s, which drove a missile race. The rocket technology in turn enabled both sides to develop Earth-orbiting satellites for communications, and gathering weather data and

text: intelligence

text: . Americans were shocked when the Soviet Union placed the first satellite into orbit in October 1957, leading to a growing fear that the U.S. was falling into a "

text: missile gap

text: ". A month later, the Soviets launched

text: Sputnik 2

text: , carrying a dog into orbit. Though the animal was not recovered alive, it was obvious their goal was manned spaceflight. Unable to disclose details of military space projects, President Eisenhower ordered the creation of a civilian space agency in charge of civilian and scientific space exploration. Based on the  federal research agency

text: (NACA), it was named the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. It achieved its first goal, an American satellite in space, in 1958. The next goal was to put a man there.

text: Other types of orbit in a 1:1 resonance with the planet include horseshoe orbits and tadpole orbits around the Lagrangian points, but objects in these orbits do not stay near the planet's longitude over many revolutions about the star. Objects in horseshoe orbits are known to sometimes periodically transfer to a relatively short-lived quasi-satellite orbit, and are sometimes confused with them. An example of such an object is .

text: Other types of orbit in a 1:1 resonance with the planet include

text: horseshoe orbit

text: s and

text: tadpole orbit

text: s around the

text: Lagrangian point

text: s, but objects in these orbits do not stay near the planet's longitude over many revolutions about the star. Objects in horseshoe orbits are known to sometimes periodically transfer to a relatively short-lived quasi-satellite orbit, and are sometimes confused with them. An example of such an object is .

text: In 2004, Tumlinson was one of 20 guests invited by the White House to hear President George W. Bush announce his plans to return to the Moon and explore Mars.  He has been a consultant to the Robert A. Heinlein and Virginia Heinlein Prize Trust. He is editor of a book entitled Return to the Moon, a collection of papers by leading professionals in the space industry regarding the future of space exploration and the privatization of the return to the moon. In 2006, Tumlinson started his own space firm, XTreme Space and Orbital Outfitters.

text: In 2004, Tumlinson was one of 20 guests invited by the White House to hear President

text: George W. Bush

text: announce his plans to return to the

text: Moon

text: and explore

text: Mars

text: .  He has been a consultant to the

text: Robert A. Heinlein

text: and Virginia Heinlein Prize Trust. He is editor of a book entitled Return to the Moon, a collection of papers by leading professionals in the space industry regarding the future of space exploration and the privatization of the return to the moon. In 2006, Tumlinson started his own space firm, XTreme Space and Orbital Outfitters.

text: Chandler's Australian background is evident in his depiction of a future wherein Australia becomes a major world power on Earth, and Australians take the lead in space exploration and in colonising other planets. Drongo Kane, a pirate captain who is the villain in several books, comes from the planet Austral, and other books mention the planet Australis in another part of the galaxy. His story "The Mountain Movers" (part of John Grimes' early career) includes the song of future Australian space adventurers, sung to the tune of "Waltzing Matilda", with the first stanza running:

text: Chandler's Australian background is evident in his depiction of a future wherein Australia becomes a major world power on Earth, and Australians take the lead in space exploration and in colonising other planets. Drongo Kane, a pirate captain who is the villain in several books, comes from the planet Austral, and other books mention the planet Australis in another part of the galaxy. His story "

text: The Mountain Movers

text: " (part of John Grimes' early career) includes the song of future Australian space adventurers, sung to the tune of "

text: Waltzing Matilda

text: ", with the first stanza running:

text: Because ectomycorrhizas are small and possess a limited contact area with the surrounding soil, the presence of extramatrical hyphae significantly increases the surface area in contact with the surrounding environment. Increased surface area means greater access to necessary nutrient sources. Additionally, the presence of rhizomorphs or mycelial cords, can act comparably to xylem tissue in plants, where hollow tubes of vessel hyphae shuttle water and solubilized nutrients over long distances. The abundance and spatial distribution of host root tips in the rhizosphere is an important factor mediating ectomycorrhizal community assembly. Root density may select for the exploration types best suited for a given root spacing. In Pine systems, Fungi that display short-distance exploration types are less able to colonize new roots spaced far from the mycorrhiza, and long-distance types dominate areas of low root density. Conversely, short-distance exploration types tend to dominate areas of high root density where decreased carbon expenditure makes them more competitive than long-distance species. The growth of extramatrical mycelium has a direct effect on the mutualistic nutrient trading between ectomycorrhizal fungi and their hosts. Increased hyphal occupation of the soil allows the fungus to take greater advantage of water and nutrients otherwise inaccessible to plant roots and to more efficiently transport these resources back to the plant. Conversely, the increased costs in carbon allocation associated with supporting a fungal partner with an extensive mycelial system presents a number of questions related to the costs and benefits of ectomycorrhizal mutualism.

text: Because ectomycorrhizas are small and possess a limited contact area with the surrounding soil, the presence of extramatrical hyphae significantly increases the

text: surface area

text: in contact with the surrounding environment. Increased surface area means greater access to necessary nutrient sources. Additionally, the presence of rhizomorphs or

text: mycelial cords

text: , can act comparably to

text: xylem

text: tissue in plants, where hollow tubes of vessel hyphae shuttle water and

text: solubilized

text: nutrients over long distances. The abundance and spatial distribution of host root tips in the

text: rhizosphere

text: is an important factor mediating ectomycorrhizal

text: community assembly

text: . Root density may select for the exploration types best suited for a given root spacing. In

text: Pine

text: systems, Fungi that display short-distance exploration types are less able to colonize new roots spaced far from the mycorrhiza, and long-distance types dominate areas of low root density. Conversely, short-distance exploration types tend to dominate areas of high root density where decreased carbon expenditure makes them more competitive than long-distance species. The growth of extramatrical mycelium has a direct effect on the mutualistic nutrient trading between ectomycorrhizal fungi and their hosts. Increased hyphal occupation of the soil allows the fungus to take greater advantage of water and nutrients otherwise inaccessible to plant roots and to more efficiently transport these resources back to the plant. Conversely, the increased costs in carbon allocation associated with supporting a fungal partner with an extensive mycelial system presents a number of questions related to the

text: costs and benefits

text: of ectomycorrhizal mutualism.

text: Sputnik 41 (, ), also known as Sputnik Jr 2 and Radio Sputnik 18 (RS-18), was a Franco-Russian amateur radio satellite which was launched in 1998 to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the Aéro-Club de France, and the forty-first anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite. A  one-third scale model of Sputnik 1, Sputnik 41 was deployed from the Mir space station on 10 November 1998.

text: Sputnik 41 (, ), also known as Sputnik Jr 2 and Radio Sputnik 18 (RS-18), was a

text: Franco-

text: Russia

text: n

text: amateur radio satellite

text: which was launched in 1998 to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the

text: Aéro-Club de France

text: , and the forty-first anniversary of the launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: , the world's first artificial satellite. A  one-third scale model of Sputnik 1, Sputnik 41 was deployed from the

text: Mir

text: space station

text: on 10 November 1998.

text: The first commercial use of satellites may have been the Telstar 1 satellite, launched in 1962, which was the first privately sponsored space launch, funded by AT&T and Bell Telephone Laboratories. Telstar 1 was capable of relaying television signals across the Atlantic Ocean, and was the first satellite to transmit live television, telephone, fax, and other data signals. Two years later, the Hughes Aircraft Company developed the Syncom 3 satellite, a geosynchronous communications satellite, leased to the Department of Defense. Commercial possibilities of satellites were further realized when the Syncom 3, orbiting near the International Date Line, was used to telecast the 1964 Olympic Games from Tokyo to the United States.

text: The first commercial use of satellites may have been the

text: Telstar 1

text: satellite, launched in 1962, which was the first privately sponsored space launch, funded by

text: AT&T

text: and

text: Bell Telephone Laboratories

text: . Telstar 1 was capable of relaying television signals across the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , and was the first satellite to transmit live television,

text: telephone

text: fax

text: , and other data signals. Two years later, the

text: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: developed the

text: Syncom 3

text: satellite, a

text: geosynchronous

text: communications satellite

text: , leased to the

text: Department of Defense

text: . Commercial possibilities of satellites were further realized when the Syncom 3, orbiting near the

text: International Date Line

text: , was used to telecast the

text: 1964 Olympic Games

text: from

text: Tokyo

text: to the

text: United States

text: In early 2016, NASA used this aircraft to transport the main structure of Orion Mars exploration crew capsule, from its assembly facility in Michoud, Louisiana, to Kennedy Space Center in Florida, where the capsule will undergo its first unmanned test flight aboard the Space Launch System rocket.

text: Explorer ships spend a great deal of their time exploring The Rim, the uncharted and unexplored areas of space that have not been claimed by any known race. As this is the case, Explorer ships are often the first class of Earth Alliance vessel an alien race might come into contact with. This privilege and burden of first contact is not taken lightly and, as the slightest misinterpreted action can result in tragedy, the crews and commanding officers of Explorer ships are extremely well versed in first-contact procedures.

text: Explorer ships spend a great deal of their time exploring The Rim, the uncharted and unexplored areas of space that have not been claimed by any known race. As this is the case, Explorer ships are often the first class of

text: Earth Alliance

text: vessel an alien race might come into contact with. This privilege and burden of first contact is not taken lightly and, as the slightest misinterpreted action can result in tragedy, the crews and commanding officers of Explorer ships are extremely well versed in first-contact procedures.

text: Usually when someone is referring to an orbit, they are most likely talking about flare orbits. For example, A 1 click forward flare and a 1 click backward flare in quick succession (altogether creating 4 very quick distinct sounds) would be a 1 click orbit. A 2 click forward flare and a 2 click backward flare in quick succession (altogether creating 6 very distinct sounds) would be a 2 click orbit, etc. Orbits can be performed once as a single orbit move, or sequenced to produce a cyclical never ending type of orbit sound.

text: Usually when someone is referring to an orbit, they are most likely talking about flare orbits. For example, A 1 click forward flare and a 1 click backward flare in quick succession (altogether creating 4 very quick distinct sounds) would be a 1 click orbit. A 2 click forward flare and a 2 click backward flare in quick succession (altogether creating 6 very distinct sounds) would be a 2 click orbit, etc. Orbits can be performed once as a single orbit move, or sequenced to produce a

text: cyclical

text: never ending type of orbit sound.

text: The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster occurred early in George W. Bush's term, leading to the report of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board being released in August 2003.  The Vision for Space Exploration, announced on January 14, 2004 by President George W. Bush, was seen as a response to the Columbia disaster, the state of human spaceflight at NASA, and a way to regain public enthusiasm for space exploration.  The Vision for Space Exploration sought to implement a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the solar system and beyond; extend human presence across the solar system, starting with a human return to the Moon by the year 2020, in preparation for human exploration of Mars and other destinations; develop the innovative technologies, knowledge, and infrastructures both to explore and to support decisions about the destinations for human exploration; and to promote international and commercial participation in exploration to further U.S. scientific, security, and economic interests

text: The

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: occurred early in George W. Bush's term, leading to the report of the

text: Columbia Accident Investigation Board

text: being released in August 2003.  The Vision for Space Exploration, announced on January 14, 2004 by President

text: George W. Bush

text: , was seen as a response to the Columbia disaster, the state of

text: human spaceflight

text: at

text: NASA

text: , and a way to regain public enthusiasm for

text: space exploration

text: .  The Vision for Space Exploration sought to implement a sustained and affordable human and robotic program to explore the solar system and beyond; extend human presence across the solar system, starting with a human return to the Moon by the year 2020, in preparation for human exploration of Mars and other destinations; develop the innovative technologies, knowledge, and infrastructures both to explore and to support decisions about the destinations for human exploration; and to promote international and commercial participation in exploration to further U.S. scientific, security, and economic interests

text: The following individuals are recipients of the Medal "For Merit in Space Exploration":

text: For space exploration and satellite launches by the U.S. Air Force and NASA, Hercules, Inc., developed and manufactured the two large, strap-on solid-fueled booster rockets for the otherwise liquid-fueled, and huge, Titan III and Titan IV rockets. These strap-on rockets were used on the Titan IIIC, Titan IIID, and Titan IIIE rockets, and on all of the Titan IV rockets that were ever produced.

text: For

text: space exploration

text: and

text: satellite

text: launches by the U.S. Air Force and

text: NASA

text: , Hercules, Inc., developed and manufactured the two large, strap-on solid-fueled

text: booster rocket

text: s for the otherwise liquid-fueled, and huge,

text: Titan III

text: and

text: Titan IV

text: rockets. These strap-on rockets were used on the

text: Titan IIIC

text: Titan IIID

text: , and

text: Titan IIIE

text: rockets, and on all of the Titan IV rockets that were ever produced.

text: Vehicles sent on lunar or planetary missions are generally not launched on a direct trajectory, but first put into a low Earth parking orbit; this allows the flexibility of a bigger launch window and more time for checking that the vehicle is in good condition for the flight. A popular misconception is that escape velocity is required for flight to the Moon; it is not. Rather, the vehicle's apogee is raised high enough to take it to a point (before it reaches apogee) where it enters the Moon's gravitational sphere of influence (though the required velocity is close to that of escape.) This is defined as the distance from a satellite at which its gravitational pull on a spacecraft equals that of its central body, which is:

text: Vehicles sent on lunar or planetary missions are generally not launched on a direct trajectory, but first put into a low Earth

text: parking orbit

text: ; this allows the flexibility of a bigger

text: launch window

text: and more time for checking that the vehicle is in good condition for the flight. A popular misconception is that escape velocity is required for flight to the Moon; it is not. Rather, the vehicle's apogee is raised high enough to take it to a point (before it reaches apogee) where it enters the Moon's gravitational

text: sphere of influence

text: (though the required velocity is close to that of escape.) This is defined as the distance from a satellite at which its gravitational pull on a spacecraft equals that of its central body, which is:

text: The Van Allen radiation belts were named after him, following their discovery by his Geiger–Müller tube instruments on the 1958 satellites: (Explorer 1, Explorer 3, and Pioneer 3) during the International Geophysical Year. Van Allen led the scientific community for the inclusion of scientific research instruments on space satellites.

text: The

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: s were named after him, following their discovery by his

text: Geiger–Müller tube

text: instruments on the 1958

text: satellites

text: Explorer 1

text: Explorer 3

text: , and

text: Pioneer 3

text: ) during the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: . Van Allen led the scientific community for the inclusion of scientific research instruments on space satellites.

text: In the early 1980s, all United States expendable launch vehicles were planned to be phased out in favor of the Space Shuttle, which would be responsible for all government and commercial launches. Production of Delta, Atlas-Centaur, and Titan 34D had ended. The Challenger disaster of 1986 and the subsequent halt of Shuttle operations changed this policy, and President Ronald Reagan announced in December of that year that the Space Shuttle would no longer launch commercial payloads, and NASA would seek to purchase launches on expendable vehicles for missions that did not require crew or Shuttle support. McDonnell Douglas, at that time the manufacturer of the Delta family, signed a contract with the U.S. Air Force in 1987 to provide seven Delta IIs. These were intended to launch a series of GPS Block II satellites, which had previously been manifested for the Space Shuttle. The Air Force exercised additional contract options in 1988, expanding this order to 20 vehicles, and NASA purchased its first Delta IIs in 1990 for the launch of three Earth-observing satellites. The first Delta II launch occurred in 1989, with a Delta 6925 boosting the first GPS Block II satellite into a 20,000 km high orbit.

text: In the early 1980s, all United States

text: expendable launch vehicles

text: were planned to be phased out in favor of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , which would be responsible for all government and commercial launches. Production of Delta,

text: Atlas-Centaur

text: , and

text: Titan 34D

text: had ended. The

text: Challenger disaster

text: of 1986 and the subsequent halt of Shuttle operations changed this policy, and President

text: Ronald Reagan

text: announced in December of that year that the Space Shuttle would no longer launch commercial payloads, and NASA would seek to purchase launches on expendable vehicles for missions that did not require crew or Shuttle support.

text: McDonnell Douglas

text: , at that time the manufacturer of the Delta family, signed a contract with the

text: U.S. Air Force

text: in 1987 to provide seven Delta IIs. These were intended to launch a series of

text: GPS Block II

text: satellites, which had previously been manifested for the Space Shuttle. The Air Force exercised additional contract options in 1988, expanding this order to 20 vehicles, and NASA purchased its first Delta IIs in 1990 for the launch of three Earth-observing satellites. The first Delta II launch occurred in 1989, with a Delta 6925 boosting the first GPS Block II satellite into a 20,000 km high orbit.

text: The Timeline of Earth science satellites shows, in chronological order, those successful satellites with a program of Earth science. Sputnik 1, while the first satellite ever launched, did not conduct Earth science. Explorer 1 was the first satellite to make an Earth science discovery when it found the Van Allen belts.

text: The Timeline of Earth science satellites shows, in chronological order, those successful

text: satellite

text: s with a program of

text: Earth science

text: Sputnik 1

text: , while the first satellite ever launched, did not conduct Earth science.

text: Explorer 1

text: was the first satellite to make an Earth science discovery when it found the

text: Van Allen belts

text: In the early 1980s, General Dynamics conceived of using a Space Shuttle to lift a Lunar Module into orbit and then launch a Titan IV rocket with an Apollo-type Service Module to rendezvous and dock—making a moonship for a lunar landing. The plan required the Space Shuttle and Titan IV to use aluminium-lithium alloy fuel tanks instead of aluminum to make a greater payload weight for takeoff. The original plan never came to fruition, but in the 1990s the Shuttle was converted to aluminum-lithium tanks to rendezvous with the highly inclined orbit of the Russian Mir Space Station.

text: In the early 1980s,

text: General Dynamics

text: conceived of using a Space Shuttle to lift a

text: Lunar Module

text: into orbit and then launch a Titan IV rocket with an

text: Apollo

text: -type

text: Service Module

text: to rendezvous and dock—making a moonship for a lunar landing. The plan required the Space Shuttle and Titan IV to use

text: aluminium-lithium alloy

text: fuel tanks instead of aluminum to make a greater payload weight for takeoff. The original plan never came to fruition, but in the 1990s the Shuttle was converted to aluminum-lithium tanks to rendezvous with the highly inclined orbit of the Russian

text: Mir

text: Space Station

text: Sputnik Music said about the song in a review of The Downward Spiral, declaring that "'Mr. Self Destruct'

text: Sputnik Music

text: said about the song in a review of The Downward Spiral, declaring that "'Mr. Self Destruct'

text: In 1957 the Soviet Union opened the Space Age by launching the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued: the first human spaceflight performed by Yury Gagarin on Vostok 1 in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova, in 1963; the first spacewalk by Alexey Leonov in 1965; the first space exploration rover, Lunokhod-1, on the Moon in 1970, and the first space station, Salyut 1, launched in 1971.

text: In 1957 the Soviet Union opened the

text: Space Age

text: by launching the first Earth-orbiting artificial

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: . Many other Soviet and Russian

text: space exploration records

text: ensued: the first

text: human spaceflight

text: performed by

text: Yury Gagarin

text: on

text: Vostok 1

text: in 1961; the first woman in space,

text: Valentina Tereshkova

text: , in 1963; the first

text: spacewalk

text: by

text: Alexey Leonov

text: in 1965; the first

text: space exploration rover

text: , on the

text: Moon

text: in 1970, and the first

text: space station

text: Salyut 1

text: , launched in 1971.

text: John N. Bahcall (BS 1956) worked on the Standard Solar Model and the Hubble Space Telescope, resulting in a National Medal of Science. Peter Smith (BS 1969) was the principal investigator and project leader for the $420 million NASA robotic explorer Phoenix, which physically confirmed the presence of water on the planet Mars for the first time. Astronauts James van Hoften (BS 1966), Margaret Rhea Seddon (BA 1970), Leroy Chiao (BS 1983), and Rex Walheim (BS 1984) have physically reached out to the stars, orbiting the earth in NASA's fleet of space shuttles.

text: John N. Bahcall

text: (BS 1956) worked on the

text: Standard Solar Model

text: and the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , resulting in a

text: National Medal of Science

text: Peter Smith

text: (BS 1969) was the

text: principal investigator

text: and project leader for the $420 million

text: NASA

text: robotic explorer

text: Phoenix

text: , which physically confirmed the presence of water on the planet

text: Mars

text: for the first time. Astronauts

text: James van Hoften

text: (BS 1966),

text: Margaret Rhea Seddon

text: (BA 1970),

text: Leroy Chiao

text: (BS 1983), and

text: Rex Walheim

text: (BS 1984) have physically reached out to the stars, orbiting the earth in NASA's fleet of

text: space shuttle

text: s.

text: Space Shuttles have been features of fiction and nonfiction, from children's movies to documentaries. Early examples include the 1979 James Bond film, Moonraker, the 1982 Activision videogame Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space (1982) and G. Harry Stine's 1981 novel Shuttle Down. In the 1986 film SpaceCamp, Atlantis accidentally launched into space with a group of U.S. Space Camp participants as its crew. The 1998 film Armageddon portrayed a combined crew of offshore oil rig workers and US military staff who pilot two modified Shuttles to avert the destruction of Earth by an asteroid. Retired American test pilots visited a Russian satellite in the 2000 Clint Eastwood adventure film Space Cowboys. In the 2003 film The Core, the Endeavours landing is disrupted by the earth's magnetic core, and its crew is selected to pilot the vehicle designed to restart the core. The 2004 Bollywood movie Swades, where a Space Shuttle was used to launch a special rainfall monitoring satellite, was filmed at Kennedy Space Center in the year following the Columbia disaster that had taken the life of Indian-American astronaut KC Chawla. On television, the 1996 drama The Cape portrayed the lives of a group of NASA astronauts as they prepared for and flew Shuttle missions. Odyssey 5 was a short lived sci-fi series that featured the crew of a Space Shuttle as the last survivors of a disaster that destroyed Earth.  The 1997- 2007 Sci-fi series Stargate SG-1 had a shuttle rescue written into an episode.  The 2013 film Gravity features the fictional space shuttle Explorer, whose crew are killed or left stranded after it is destroyed by a shower of high speed orbital debris.

text: Space Shuttles have been features of fiction and nonfiction, from children's movies to documentaries. Early examples include the 1979

text: James Bond

text: film,

text: Moonraker

text: , the 1982

text: Activision

text: videogame Space Shuttle: A Journey into Space (1982) and

text: G. Harry Stine

text: 's 1981 novel

text: Shuttle Down

text: . In the 1986 film

text: SpaceCamp

text: , Atlantis accidentally launched into space with a group of

text: U.S. Space Camp

text: participants as its crew. The 1998 film

text: Armageddon

text: portrayed a combined crew of offshore oil rig workers and US military staff who pilot two modified Shuttles to avert the destruction of Earth by an asteroid. Retired American test pilots visited a Russian satellite in the 2000

text: Clint Eastwood

text: adventure film

text: Space Cowboys

text: . In the 2003 film The Core, the Endeavours landing is disrupted by the earth's magnetic core, and its crew is selected to pilot the vehicle designed to restart the core. The 2004 Bollywood movie

text: Swades

text: , where a Space Shuttle was used to launch a special rainfall monitoring satellite, was filmed at Kennedy Space Center in the year following the

text: Columbia disaster

text: that had taken the life of Indian-American astronaut

text: KC Chawla

text: . On television, the 1996 drama

text: The Cape

text: portrayed the lives of a group of NASA astronauts as they prepared for and flew Shuttle missions.

text: Odyssey 5

text: was a short lived sci-fi series that featured the crew of a Space Shuttle as the last survivors of a disaster that destroyed Earth.  The 1997- 2007 Sci-fi series Stargate SG-1 had a shuttle rescue written into an episode.  The 2013 film

text: Gravity

text: features the fictional space shuttle Explorer, whose crew are killed or left stranded after it is destroyed by a shower of high speed orbital debris.

text: Chronographs were very popular with aviators as they allowed them to make rapid calculations and conduct precise timing. The demand for chronographs grew along with the aviation industry in the early part of the 20th century.  As the US exploration of outer space initially involved only test pilots, by order of President Eisenhower, chronographs were on the wrists of many early astronauts.   Chronograph usage followed a similar trajectory for many fields that involve very precise and/or repeated timing around increasingly more complicated high performance machinery, automobile racing and naval submarine navigation being two examples. As different uses for the chronograph were discovered, the industry responded with different models introducing such features as the 'flyback' (where the second hand could be rapidly reset to zero), minute and hour timers, Rattrapante (or multiple second hands one of which can be stopped and started independently) and waterproof models for divers and swimmers.

text: Chronographs were very popular with aviators as they allowed them to make rapid calculations and conduct precise timing. The demand for chronographs grew along with the aviation industry in the early part of the 20th century.  As the US exploration of outer space initially involved only test pilots, by order of President Eisenhower, chronographs were on the wrists of many early astronauts.   Chronograph usage followed a similar trajectory for many fields that involve very precise and/or repeated timing around increasingly more complicated high performance machinery, automobile racing and naval submarine navigation being two examples. As different uses for the chronograph were discovered, the industry responded with different models introducing such features as the

text: 'flyback'

text: (where the second hand could be rapidly reset to zero), minute and hour timers,

text: Rattrapante

text: (or multiple second hands one of which can be stopped and started independently) and waterproof models for divers and swimmers.

text: Russian achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration are traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics. His works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program on early stages of the Space Race and beyond.

text: Russian achievements in the field of

text: space technology

text: and

text: space exploration

text: are traced back to

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: , the father of theoretical

text: astronautics

text: . His works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as

text: Sergey Korolyov

text: Valentin Glushko

text: , and many others who contributed to the success of the

text: Soviet space program

text: on early stages of the

text: Space Race

text: and beyond.

text: Buzz Aldrin first suggested the use of cycler orbits in 1985 for the life support equipment and logistical supplies necessary for extensive manned exploration of the Moon and Mars. He also presented his thoughts on the benefits of using cycler spacecraft at the Space 88 Symposium in Albuquerque during a panel discussion on "Approaching the Construction Problems in Space." These trajectories must have the characteristic that they can be easily targeted for either launch or destination planet and that the times between encounters yield a reasonable stay time on the destination and provide for both routine and emergency return on a fairly regular basis.

text: Buzz Aldrin

text: first suggested the use of cycler orbits in 1985 for the life support equipment and logistical supplies necessary for extensive manned exploration of the Moon and Mars. He also presented his thoughts on the benefits of using cycler spacecraft at the Space 88 Symposium in Albuquerque during a panel discussion on "Approaching the Construction Problems in Space." These trajectories must have the characteristic that they can be easily targeted for either launch or destination planet and that the times between encounters yield a reasonable stay time on the destination and provide for both routine and emergency return on a fairly regular basis.

text: The Deep Life Community documents the extreme limits and global extent of subsurface life in our planet, exploring the evolutionary and functional diversity of Earth’s deep biosphere and its interaction with the carbon cycle. The Deep Life Community maps the abundance and diversity of subsurface marine and continental microorganisms in time and space as a function of their genomic and biogeochemical properties, and their interactions with deep carbon. By integrating in situ and in vitro assessments of biomolecules and cells, the Deep Life Community explores the environmental limits to the survival, metabolism and reproduction of deep life. The resulting data informs experiments and models that study the impact of deep life on the carbon cycle, and the deep biosphere’s relation to the surface world. Members of the Deep Life Community are conducting research as a part of the Census of Deep Life, which seeks to seeks to identify the diversity and distribution of microbial life in continental and marine deep subsurface environments and to explore mechanisms that govern microbial evolution and dispersal in the deep biosphere.

text: The article series was the basis for three episodes in the Disneyland anthology series: Man in Space, Man and the Moon, and Mars and Beyond. The series was expanded into three books: Across the Space Frontier (1952), Conquest of the Moon (1953) and The Exploration of Mars (1956). Examples of some of the ships they modeled are in the World of Collier's add-ons to the Orbiter space flight simulator.

text: The article series was the basis for three episodes in the

text: Disneyland

text: anthology series:

text: Man in Space

text: Man and the Moon

text: , and

text: Mars and Beyond

text: . The series was expanded into three books: Across the Space Frontier (1952), Conquest of the Moon (1953) and The Exploration of Mars (1956). Examples of some of the ships they modeled are in the World of Collier's add-ons to the

text: Orbiter

text: space flight simulator.

text: The existing constellation of satellites is expected to remain operational until Iridium NEXT is fully operational, with many satellites expected to remain in service until the 2020s. Iridium is planning for the next-generation of satellites to have improved bandwidth. This system will be backward compatible with the current system. In August 2008, Iridium selected two companies—Lockheed Martin and Thales Alenia Space—to participate in the final phase of the procurement of the next generation satellite constellation. On June 2, 2010 the winner of the contract was announced as Thales Alenia Space, in a $2.1 billion deal underwritten by Compagnie Française d'Assurance pour le Commerce Extérieur. Iridium additionally stated that it expected to spend about $800 million to launch the satellites and upgrade some ground facilities.

text: The existing constellation of satellites is expected to remain operational until Iridium NEXT is fully operational, with many satellites expected to remain in service until the 2020s. Iridium is planning for the next-generation of satellites to have improved bandwidth. This system will be backward compatible with the current system. In August 2008, Iridium selected two companies—

text: Lockheed Martin

text: and

text: Thales Alenia Space

text: —to participate in the final phase of the procurement of the next generation satellite constellation. On June 2, 2010 the winner of the contract was announced as Thales Alenia Space, in a $2.1 billion deal underwritten by

entity_name: Compagnie Française d'Assurance pour le Commerce Extérieur

text: Compagnie Française d'Assurance pour le Commerce Extérieur

text: . Iridium additionally stated that it expected to spend about $800 million to launch the satellites and upgrade some ground facilities.

text: He was a founding member of the American Rocket Society, serving as both president and editor of the Society's publication, Astronautics.  For his involvement in the Society, Manning is recognized by the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum as an early rocketry pioneer.  Manning retired from the American Rocket Society in the mid-1940s, stating that rocketry had 'grown up', and was no longer a place for amateurs.  It was during his tenure as president of the society that the organization's name was changed from the American Interplanetary Society.  In 1961, Manning was awarded a lifetime membership in the Society, that award being presented by then Vice President of the US Lyndon B. Johnson.

text: He was a founding member of the

text: American Rocket Society

text: , serving as both president and editor of the Society's publication, Astronautics.  For his involvement in the Society, Manning is recognized by the Smithsonian's

text: National Air and Space Museum

text: as an early rocketry pioneer.  Manning retired from the American Rocket Society in the mid-1940s, stating that rocketry had 'grown up', and was no longer a place for amateurs.  It was during his tenure as president of the society that the organization's name was changed from the American Interplanetary Society.  In 1961, Manning was awarded a lifetime membership in the Society, that award being presented by then Vice President of the US

text: Lyndon B. Johnson

text: The Manned Orbital Development System was a project by the Air Force Space System Division (SSD). It was to begin working on plans to use Gemini hardware as the first step in a new US Air Force man-in-space program called MODS (Manned Orbital Development System), a type of military space station that used Gemini spacecraft as ferry vehicles. MODS was effectively superseded when the Manned Orbital Laboratory was announced in December 1963.

text: The

text: Manned Orbital Development System

text: was a project by the Air Force

text: Space System Division

text: (SSD). It was to begin working on plans to use

text: Gemini

text: hardware as the first step in a new

text: US Air Force

text: man-in-space program called MODS (Manned Orbital Development System), a type of military space station that used

text: Gemini spacecraft

text: as ferry vehicles. MODS was effectively superseded when the

text: Manned Orbital Laboratory

text: was announced in December 1963.

text: Cadets participate in United States Space Camp, conducted at the United States Space & Rocket Center, this course focuses on space exploration, and features flight simulation, physiology, crew equipment and more.

text: Cadets participate in

text: United States Space Camp

text: , conducted at the

text: United States Space & Rocket Center

text: , this course focuses on space exploration, and features flight simulation, physiology, crew equipment and more.

text: While Valérian sleeps off the drink, Laureline makes the space-time jump to the planet. Exploring the surface they find it to be a lifeless, airless, barren rock but their curiosity is piqued by some phosphorescent lakes. Taking a launch from the astroship, they dive into one of the lakes and are astonished when the emerge on the other side – it is a hollow planet! Light is provided by the planet's nucleus and there is a small rocky moon in orbit.

text: While Valérian sleeps off the drink, Laureline makes the

text: space-time

text: jump to the planet. Exploring the surface they find it to be a lifeless, airless, barren rock but their curiosity is piqued by some phosphorescent lakes. Taking a launch from the astroship, they dive into one of the lakes and are astonished when the emerge on the other side – it is a hollow planet! Light is provided by the planet's

text: nucleus

text: and there is a small rocky

text: moon

text: in

text: orbit

text: In Alien Planet, a more basic scenario is presented where a ship called the Von Braun is sent to explore an alien world outside the solar system. The Von Braun is sent to a binary star system about 6.5 light-years from Earth.  At 20% of the speed of light (0.2c), it takes about 32.5 years to travel to this system. Upon arrival it goes into orbit around Darwin IV, the Von Braun deployed the Darwin Reconnaissance Orbiter to scan the planet from orbit. The Von Braun also dispatches three identically shaped lighter-than-air probes to the planet surface. These three probes are:

text: In Alien Planet, a more basic scenario is presented where a ship called the

text: Von Braun

text: is sent to explore an alien world outside the

text: solar system

text: . The Von Braun is sent to a binary star system about 6.5 light-years from Earth.  At 20% of the speed of light (0.2c), it takes about 32.5 years to travel to this system. Upon arrival it goes into orbit around Darwin IV, the Von Braun deployed the Darwin Reconnaissance Orbiter to scan the planet from orbit. The Von Braun also dispatches three identically shaped

text: lighter-than-air

text: probes to the planet surface. These three probes are:

text: The Sprodj Atomic Research Centre, seen in Destination Moon and Explorers on the Moon is located in Syldavia. The sprawling complex is located in the Zymylpathian Mountains of Syldavia (a play on the Carpathian Mountains), located close to rich deposits of uranium. The Centre is secretive and has very tightly-guarded security, including a large number of security checkpoints, helicopter surveillance, anti-aircraft artillery, and a squadron of fighter aircraft based at the facility. Work at the centre, carried out by a large team of international physicists recruited by the Syldavian government, involves research into protection from the effects of nuclear weapons, and is the base for the Syldavian space program. The facility, which seems to be entirely self-sufficient, is administered by the Director, Mr. Baxter. The Sprodj Centre has its own atomic pile for processing uranium into plutonium, and has vast facilities for the research and construction of the rocket-ship which carries Tintin and his colleagues to the moon. The gargantuan complex is last seen at the end of Explorers on the Moon, and is never again seen in the Tintin series.

text: The Sprodj Atomic Research Centre, seen in

text: Destination Moon

text: and

text: Explorers on the Moon

text: is located in Syldavia. The sprawling complex is located in the Zymylpathian Mountains of Syldavia (a play on the

text: Carpathian Mountains

text: ), located close to rich deposits of

text: uranium

text: . The Centre is secretive and has very tightly-guarded security, including a large number of security checkpoints,

text: helicopter

text: surveillance,

text: anti-aircraft

text: artillery, and a squadron of

text: fighter aircraft

text: based at the facility. Work at the centre, carried out by a large team of international

text: physicist

text: s recruited by the Syldavian government, involves research into protection from the effects of

text: nuclear weapon

text: s, and is the base for the Syldavian

text: space program

text: . The facility, which seems to be entirely self-sufficient, is administered by the Director,

entity_name: List of The Adventures of Tintin characters

text: Mr. Baxter

text: . The Sprodj Centre has its own

text: atomic pile

text: for processing

text: uranium

text: into

text: plutonium

text: , and has vast facilities for the research and construction of the rocket-ship which carries Tintin and his colleagues to

text: the moon

text: . The gargantuan complex is last seen at the end of Explorers on the Moon, and is never again seen in the Tintin series.

text: The plot centers around a group of space explorers who investigate a planet which appears deserted. However, they are shot down and crash land on the planet. While repairing their ship, a team of explorers sets to survey the surrounding area, where they discover the ruins of an ancient city. Upon further investigation, it is revealed that the gun which shot them down is in the city, and is programmed to shoot anything down which enters the airspace above the city. They examine the gun and discover that it is protecting a tomb directly underneath it—a tomb which contains artifacts, film and photographs of a lost civilization. In order to prevent themselves from being shot down by the same gun while attempting to leave the planet, they destroy the gun and take the artifacts with them. As they leave the ship, hoping to return one day, it is revealed that several automatized machines begin to repair and erect the gun again: this time it is loaded with nuclear warheads.

text: Regular features, often written by those directly involved in a particular technology or project, cover aspects of space technology and exploration, astronomy, satellites, commercial space, political activities and educational programmes. The magazine also includes detailed space mission reports.

text: In December 1958 JPL was integrated into the newly established National Aeronautics and Space Administration, after having built the Explorer 1 satellite that commenced America's Space Race with the Soviet Union. Aerojet was contracted by NASA to build the main engine of the Apollo Command/Service Module, and the Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System. In a letter to Malina, von Kármán ranked Parsons first in a list of figures he viewed as most important to modern rocketry and the foundation of the American space program. According to Richard Metzger, Wernher von Braun—who was nicknamed "The Father of Rocket Science"—once argued that Parsons was more worthy of this moniker. In October 1968 Malina, a pioneer in sounding rocketry, gave a speech at JPL in which he highlighted Parsons' contribution to the U.S. rocket project, and lamented how it had come to be neglected, crediting him for making "key contributions to the development of storable propellants and of long duration solid propellant agents that play such an important role in American and European space technology."

text: In December 1958 JPL was integrated into the newly established National Aeronautics and Space Administration, after having built the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite that commenced America's

text: Space Race

text: with the Soviet Union. Aerojet was contracted by NASA to build the main engine of the

text: Apollo Command/Service Module

text: , and the

text: Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System

text: . In a letter to Malina, von Kármán ranked Parsons first in a list of figures he viewed as most important to modern rocketry and the foundation of the American space program. According to Richard Metzger, Wernher von Braun—who was nicknamed "The Father of Rocket Science"—once argued that Parsons was more worthy of this moniker. In October 1968 Malina, a pioneer in

text: sounding rocket

text: ry, gave a speech at JPL in which he highlighted Parsons' contribution to the U.S. rocket project, and lamented how it had come to be neglected, crediting him for making "key contributions to the development of

text: storable propellants

text: and of long duration solid propellant agents that play such an important role in American and European space technology."

text: Today, Dyson's Astrochicken resonates with several theories of how space exploration might proceed in the future. Computer scientist Rodney Brooks has proposed sending a multitude of cheap, bug-like robots to explore Mars instead of solitary, expensive rovers. Cheaper and smaller means of studying space have also been the primary design philosophy of NASA for many years, perhaps best exemplified by the Mars Pathfinder mission. Physicist and noted author Michio Kaku wrote in his work Hyperspace, "Small, lightweight, and intelligent, Astrochicken is a versatile space probe that has a clear advantage over the bulky, exorbitantly expensive space missions of the past, which have been a bottleneck to space exploration. ... It will not need huge quantities of rocket fuel; it will be bred and programmed to 'eat' ice and hydrocarbons found in the rings surrounding the outer planets".

text: Today, Dyson's Astrochicken resonates with several theories of how space exploration might proceed in the future. Computer scientist

text: Rodney Brooks

text: has proposed sending a multitude of cheap, bug-like robots to explore Mars instead of solitary, expensive rovers. Cheaper and smaller means of studying space have also been the primary design philosophy of

text: NASA

text: for many years, perhaps best exemplified by the

text: Mars Pathfinder

text: mission. Physicist and noted author

text: Michio Kaku

text: wrote in his work Hyperspace, "Small, lightweight, and intelligent, Astrochicken is a versatile space probe that has a clear advantage over the bulky, exorbitantly expensive space missions of the past, which have been a bottleneck to space exploration. ... It will not need huge quantities of rocket fuel; it will be bred and programmed to 'eat' ice and hydrocarbons found in the rings surrounding the outer planets".

text: Hernan M. Campbell of Sputnik Music said "I highly recommend this album to anyone looking for a quality and straightforward hard rock album" and  "the music is proficient and orchestrated in an impactive fashion that fully entertains until the final second".

text: Hernan M. Campbell

text: of

text: Sputnik Music

text: said "I highly recommend this album to anyone looking for a quality and straightforward hard rock album" and  "the music is proficient and orchestrated in an impactive fashion that fully entertains until the final second".

text: The launch was conducted by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries under contract to the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.  In preparation for a planned launch on 17 May, the H-IIA rocket was rolled out to Pad 1 of the Yoshinobu Launch Complex at the Tanegashima Space Centre on 16 May 2010. It departed the assembly building at 21:01 UTC and arriving at the launch pad 24 minutes later at 21:25 UTC. The terminal countdown began at 11:30 UTC on 17 May and by 15:28, the loading of cryogenic propellant into the rocket's first and second stages had been completed. The launch attempt was scrubbed a few minutes before liftoff due to bad weather, but took place successfully at 21:58:22 UTC on 20 May 2010.

text: The launch was conducted by

text: Mitsubishi Heavy Industries

text: under contract to the

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: .  In preparation for a planned launch on 17 May, the H-IIA rocket was rolled out to Pad 1 of the

text: Yoshinobu Launch Complex

text: at the

text: Tanegashima Space Centre

text: on 16 May 2010. It departed the assembly building at 21:01 UTC and arriving at the launch pad 24 minutes later at 21:25 UTC. The terminal countdown began at 11:30 UTC on 17 May and by 15:28, the loading of

text: cryogenic propellant

text: into the rocket's first and second stages had been completed. The launch attempt was scrubbed a few minutes before liftoff due to bad weather, but took place successfully at 21:58:22 UTC on 20 May 2010.

text: The Moon Society is a space advocacy organization, founded in 2000, and dedicated to promoting large-scale human exploration, research, and settlement of the Moon.

text: The Moon Society is a

text: space advocacy

text: organization, founded in 2000, and dedicated to promoting large-scale human exploration, research, and

text: settlement

text: of the

text: Moon

text: Starting in the late 1950s, the United States began development of anti-satellite weapons. The first United States anti-satellite weapon was Bold Orion Weapon System 199B. Like the ASM-135, the Bold Orion missile was air-launched; but in this case from a B-47 Stratojet. The Bold Orion was tested on 19 October 1959 against the Explorer 6 satellite. The two-stage Bold Orion missile passed within 4 miles (6.4 km) of Explorer 6. From this distance, only a relatively large yield nuclear warhead would likely have destroyed the target.

text: Starting in the late 1950s, the

text: United States

text: began development of anti-satellite weapons. The first United States anti-satellite weapon was

text: Bold Orion

text: Weapon System 199B. Like the ASM-135, the Bold Orion missile was air-launched; but in this case from a

text: B-47 Stratojet

text: . The Bold Orion was tested on 19 October 1959 against the

text: Explorer 6

text: satellite. The two-stage Bold Orion missile passed within 4 miles (6.4 km) of Explorer 6. From this distance, only a relatively large yield nuclear warhead would likely have destroyed the target.

text: The narrator explains that the inhabitants of the planet Koppai are suffering from famine. After scouting multiple planets with vessels called SPEROS, PNF-404 returns positive with abundance of cultivable food. Three Koppaite explorers, Alph, Brittany and Charlie, are sent to explore and retrieve food sources from PNF-404. As they approach the planet, their ship, the "S.S. Drake", malfunctions and crash-lands, separating into three. As Charlie wakes up and meets the Yellow Pikmin at Distant Tundra, the cave's monster captures Charlie. Alph wakes up and meets the Red Pikmin, who help recover the Drake at Tropical Wilds. Alph discovers that the "cosmic drive key" is required to warp back to Koppai. He finds more species of Pikmin to reunite with Brittany and Charlie. The explorers use them to help retrieve fruits for the food supply and harvest the seeds on their journey. The Drake and the Pikmin Onions ascend into low orbit each evening to avoid nocturnal creatures.

text: The narrator explains that the inhabitants of the planet Koppai are suffering from

text: famine

text: . After scouting multiple planets with vessels called SPEROS, PNF-404 returns positive with abundance of cultivable food. Three Koppaite explorers, Alph, Brittany and Charlie, are sent to explore and retrieve food sources from PNF-404. As they approach the planet, their ship, the "S.S. Drake", malfunctions and crash-lands, separating into three. As Charlie wakes up and meets the Yellow Pikmin at Distant Tundra, the cave's monster captures Charlie. Alph wakes up and meets the Red Pikmin, who help recover the Drake at Tropical Wilds. Alph discovers that the "

text: cosmic drive

text: key" is required to warp back to Koppai. He finds more species of Pikmin to reunite with Brittany and Charlie. The explorers use them to help retrieve

text: fruit

text: s for the food supply and harvest the seeds on their journey. The Drake and the Pikmin Onions ascend into low orbit each evening to avoid nocturnal creatures.

text: Several planets have  satellites near their L and L points (trojans) with respect to the Sun, with Jupiter in particular having more than a million of these. Artificial satellites have been placed at L and L with respect to the Sun and Earth, and Earth and the Moon for various purposes, and the Lagrangian points have been proposed for a variety of future uses in space exploration.

text: Several planets have

text: satellites near their L and L points

text: (trojans) with respect to the Sun, with

text: Jupiter

text: in particular having more than a million of these. Artificial

text: satellite

text: s have been placed at L and L with respect to the

text: Sun

text: and

text: Earth

text: , and Earth and the

text: Moon

text: for various purposes, and the Lagrangian points have been proposed for a variety of future uses in space exploration.

text: Sputnik is a web search engine owned by the Russian state-owned telecommunications company Rostelecom. It markets itself as an engine geared towards "local services". At the end of the week of the launch, it was responsible for 0.01% of the search engine traffic in Russia, compared with 62% for Yandex and 28% for Google.

text: Sputnik is a

text: web search engine

text: owned by the Russian state-owned telecommunications company

text: Rostelecom

text: . It markets itself as an engine geared towards "local services". At the end of the week of the launch, it was responsible for 0.01% of the search engine traffic in Russia, compared with 62% for

text: Yandex

text: and 28% for Google.

text: European geographers continued to connect the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and Pacific oceans they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries.

text: European geographers continued to connect the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south

text: Indian

text: and

text: Pacific

text: oceans they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great south land was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries.

text: Orbiting spacecraft typically experience many sunrises and sunsets in a 24-hour period, or in the case of Apollo program astronauts travelling to the moon, none. Thus it is not possible to calibrate time zones with respect to the sun, and still respect a 24-hour sleep/wake cycle. A common practice for space exploration is to use the Earth-based time zone of the launch site or mission control. This keeps the sleeping cycles of the crew and controllers in synch. The International Space Station normally uses Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

text: Orbiting spacecraft typically experience many sunrises and sunsets in a 24-hour period, or in the case of

text: Apollo program

text: astronauts travelling to the moon, none. Thus it is not possible to calibrate time zones with respect to the sun, and still respect a 24-hour sleep/wake cycle. A common practice for

text: space exploration

text: is to use the Earth-based time zone of the launch site or mission control. This keeps the sleeping cycles of the crew and controllers in synch. The

text: International Space Station

text: normally uses Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).

text: In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched; in 1961 the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yury Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued, including the first spacewalk performed by Alexey Leonov, Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to land on the Moon, Venera 7 was the first to land on another planet (Venus), Mars 3 then the first to land on Mars, the first space exploration rover Lunokhod 1 and the first space station Salyut 1 and Mir.

text: In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: , was launched; in 1961 the first human trip into space was successfully made by

text: Yury Gagarin

text: . Many other Soviet and Russian

text: space exploration records

text: ensued, including the first

text: spacewalk

text: performed by

text: Alexey Leonov

text: Luna 9

text: was the first spacecraft to land on the

text: Moon

text: Venera 7

text: was the first to land on another planet (

text: Venus

text: Mars 3

text: then the first to land on

text: Mars

text: , the first

text: space exploration rover

text: Lunokhod 1

text: and the first

text: space station

text: Salyut 1

text: and

text: Mir

text: Space Rangers 2: Dominators (Russian: Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы), released in North America with the subtitle Rise of the Dominators, is a multi-genre science fiction computer game developed by Elemental Games for Windows and first published in 2004 by 1C Company. The player takes the role of a spaceship pilot, and may explore, trade, engage in space and ground based combat, and undertake various types of missions. Space Rangers 2 is the sequel to the 2002 computer game Space Rangers.

text: Space Rangers 2: Dominators (Russian: Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы), released in North America with the subtitle Rise of the Dominators, is a multi-genre

text: science fiction

text: computer game

text: developed by

text: Elemental Games

text: for

text: Windows

text: and first published in 2004 by

text: 1C Company

text: . The player takes the role of a spaceship pilot, and may explore, trade, engage in space and ground based combat, and undertake various types of missions. Space Rangers 2 is the sequel to the 2002 computer game

text: Space Rangers

text: The John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration recognizes extraordinary accomplishment by a company, space agency or corsortium of organizations in the realm of space exploration and disccovery. The award honors the memory of astronaut John L. 'Jack' Swigert, Jr., one of the inspirations for creating the Space Foundation. Winners of the John L. Jack Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration include:

text: The John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration recognizes extraordinary accomplishment by a company, space agency or corsortium of organizations in the realm of space exploration and disccovery. The award honors the memory of astronaut John L. 'Jack' Swigert, Jr., one of the inspirations for creating the Space Foundation. Winners of the John L.

text: Jack Swigert

text: , Jr., Award for Space Exploration include:

text: The Naval Research Laboratory has been a crucial piece of the United States space program. Project Vanguard, the first American satellite program, tasked NRL with the design, construction and launch of an artificial satellite, which was accomplished in 1958. Vanguard I, designed and built at NRL, was the first solar-powered satellite. As of 2013, Vanguard I is still in orbit, making it the longest-lived man-made satellite. Vanguard II was the first satellite to observe the Earth's cloud cover and therefore the first meteorological satellite. NRL pioneered the study of the sun Ultraviolet and X-Ray spectrum. Along with Project Vanguard, NRL also designed the first satellite tracking system, Minitrack, which became the prototype for future satellite tracking networks. NRL's recently declassified Galactic Radiation and Background I (GRAB I) was the first U.S. intelligence satellite, intercepting Soviet radio communications from space. The Global Positioning System (GPS) was invented at NRL and tested by NRL prototype satellites Timation I and Timation II in 1967 and 1969, and the first operational GPS satellite, Timation IV (NTS-II) was designed and constructed at NRL.

text: The Naval Research Laboratory has been a crucial piece of the United States space program.

text: Project Vanguard

text: , the first American satellite program, tasked NRL with the design, construction and launch of an artificial satellite, which was accomplished in 1958. Vanguard I, designed and built at NRL, was the first solar-powered satellite. As of 2013,

text: Vanguard I

text: is still in orbit, making it the longest-lived man-made satellite.

text: Vanguard II

text: was the first satellite to observe the Earth's cloud cover and therefore the first meteorological satellite. NRL pioneered the study of the sun Ultraviolet and X-Ray spectrum. Along with Project Vanguard, NRL also designed the first satellite tracking system,

text: Minitrack

text: , which became the prototype for future satellite tracking networks. NRL's recently declassified

text: Galactic Radiation and Background

text: I (GRAB I) was the first U.S.

text: intelligence satellite

text: , intercepting Soviet radio communications from space. The

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) was invented at NRL and tested by NRL prototype satellites

text: Timation

text: I and Timation II in 1967 and 1969, and the first operational GPS satellite, Timation IV (NTS-II) was designed and constructed at NRL.

text: The most common use for satellites in this region is for navigation, communication, and geodetic/space environment science. The most common altitude is approximately ), which yields an orbital period of 12 hours, as used, for example, by the Global Positioning System (GPS). Other satellites in medium Earth orbit include Glonass (with an altitude of ) and Galileo (with an altitude of ) constellations. Communications satellites that cover the North and South Pole are also put in MEO.

text: The most common use for

text: satellite

text: s in this region is for

text: navigation

text: communication

text: , and

text: geodetic

text: space environment

text: science. The most common altitude is approximately ), which yields an

text: orbital period

text: of 12 hours, as used, for example, by the

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS). Other satellites in medium Earth orbit include

text: Glonass

text: (with an altitude of ) and

text: Galileo

text: (with an altitude of ) constellations. Communications satellites that cover the North and South Pole are also put in MEO.

text: Sputnik Planitia , (English translation: Sputnik Basin), originally Sputnik Planum, is a high-albedo ice-covered basin on Pluto, about  in size (similar to Hudson Bay). It lies mostly in the northern hemisphere, but extends across the equator. Much of it has a surface of irregular polygons separated by troughs. The polygons are on average about  across. In some cases troughs are populated by blocky mountains or hills, or contain darker material. Sputnik Planitia constitutes the western lobe of the heart-shaped Tombaugh Regio. There appear to be wind streaks on the surface with evidence of sublimation. The dark streaks are a few kilometers long and all aligned in the same direction. The basin also contains pits that have possibly formed by sublimation. Sputnik Planitia is named after Earth's first artificial satellite. The planitia has no craters that were detectable by New Horizons, leading to the conclusion that its surface must be less than 10 million years old.

text: Sputnik Planitia , (English translation: Sputnik Basin), originally Sputnik Planum, is a high-albedo ice-covered basin on

text: Pluto

text: , about  in size (similar to

text: Hudson Bay

text: ). It lies mostly in the northern hemisphere, but extends across the equator. Much of it has a surface of irregular polygons separated by troughs. The polygons are on average about  across. In some cases troughs are populated by blocky mountains or hills, or contain darker material. Sputnik Planitia constitutes the western lobe of the heart-shaped

text: Tombaugh Regio

text: . There appear to be wind streaks on the surface with evidence of

text: sublimation

text: . The dark streaks are a few kilometers long and all aligned in the same direction. The basin also contains pits that have possibly formed by sublimation. Sputnik Planitia is named after Earth's

text: first artificial satellite

text: . The planitia has no craters that were detectable by

text: New Horizons

text: , leading to the conclusion that its surface must be less than 10 million years old.

text: Captain Satellite was an afternoon TV program on KTVU-2 in Oakland, California.  Like many kids' shows of this period, it took advantage of the interest engendered by science fiction and the early space program. The Captain was played by Bob March, a local TV personality. His signature outfit was a helmet and a dark uniform under a light-colored, triangular vest that had a thunderbolt passing through a globe. The set was a cutaway rocket ship called the Starfinder II that blasted off each day. Guest children would co-pilot under Captain Satellite's supervision. As the ship orbited on auto-pilot, the children would participate in games to win prizes (found in the "Space Lock"), and in live promotions. Old Thirties cartoons like Scrappy and serials would be introduced between breaks, and occasionally there were special appearances, as when The Three Stooges came to visit the Starfinder II.

text: Captain Satellite was an afternoon TV program on

text: in

text: Oakland, California

text: .  Like many kids' shows of this period, it took advantage of the interest engendered by

text: science fiction

text: and the early

text: space program

text: . The Captain was played by

text: Bob March

text: , a local TV personality. His signature outfit was a helmet and a dark uniform under a light-colored, triangular vest that had a thunderbolt passing through a globe. The set was a cutaway rocket ship called the Starfinder II that blasted off each day. Guest children would co-pilot under Captain Satellite's supervision. As the ship orbited on auto-pilot, the children would participate in games to win prizes (found in the "Space Lock"), and in live promotions. Old Thirties cartoons like

text: Scrappy

text: and serials would be introduced between breaks, and occasionally there were special appearances, as when

text: The Three Stooges

text: came to visit the Starfinder II.

text: Additionally, as is the case with the s orbitals, individual p, d, f and g orbitals with  values higher than the lowest possible value, exhibit an additional radial node structure which is reminiscent of harmonic waves of the same type, as compared with the lowest (or fundamental) mode of the wave. As with s orbitals, this phenomenon provides p, d, f, and g orbitals at the next higher possible value of  (for example, 3p orbitals vs. the fundamental 2p), an additional node in each lobe. Still higher values of  further increase the number of radial nodes, for each type of orbital.

text: The player controls in first-person view the lone survivor of a crashed ship on an aquatic planet. The main objective of the player is to explore the open world environment and survive the dangers of the planet. Subnautica allows the player to collect resources, construct tools, bases, and submersibles, and interact with the planet's wildlife. Players must keep themselves adequately hydrated and fed, and must also maintain their oxygen supply while traversing underwater (Survival Mode). The game includes a day and night cycle. The game also includes three other modes: Freedom mode, in which only hunger and thirst are disabled; Hardcore mode, which is the same as Survival, except that if the player dies, the player will no longer be able to respawn; and Creative mode, in which the hunger, thirst, health, and oxygen features are all disabled, all the crafting blueprints are acquired, but items need resources to be crafted and the submersibles do need  energy and can be damaged. The game is mainly set underwater, but there are two fully explorable islands.

text: The player controls in

text: first-person view

text: the lone survivor of a crashed ship on an aquatic planet. The main objective of the player is to explore the

text: open world

text: environment and survive the dangers of the planet. Subnautica allows the player to collect resources, construct tools, bases, and

text: submersibles

text: , and interact with the planet's wildlife. Players must keep themselves adequately hydrated and fed, and must also maintain their oxygen supply while traversing underwater (Survival Mode). The game includes a day and night cycle. The game also includes three other modes: Freedom mode, in which only hunger and thirst are disabled; Hardcore mode, which is the same as Survival, except that if the player dies, the player will no longer be able to respawn; and Creative mode, in which the hunger, thirst, health, and oxygen features are all disabled, all the crafting blueprints are acquired, but items need resources to be crafted and the submersibles do need  energy and can be damaged. The game is mainly set underwater, but there are two fully explorable islands.

text: As with the other post-war space-faring nations, the British government's initial interest in space was primarily military. Early programmes reflected this interest. As with other nations, much of the rocketry knowledge was obtained from captured German scientists who were persuaded to work for the British.  The British performed the earliest post-war tests of captured V-2 rockets in Operation Backfire, less than six months after the end of the war in Europe. In 1946 a proposal was made by Ralph A. Smith to fund a British manned suborbital launch in a modified V-2; this was, however, rejected by the government.

text: As with the other post-war space-faring nations, the British government's initial interest in space was primarily military. Early programmes reflected this interest. As with other nations, much of the rocketry knowledge was obtained from captured German scientists who were persuaded to work for the British.  The British performed the earliest post-war tests of captured

text: V-2 rocket

text: s in

text: Operation Backfire

text: , less than six months after the end of the war in Europe. In 1946 a proposal was made by Ralph A. Smith to fund a British manned suborbital launch in a modified V-2; this was, however, rejected by the government.

text: The song has been used on four occasions as the music selected for wake-up calls on space missions. The first was on 16 June 2002 for the Space Shuttle Endeavour during mission STS-111 to the International Space Station. It was again used on 2 August 2005 for mission STS-114, the first mission of the Space Shuttle programme following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. It was broadcast to the seven crew of the Space Shuttle Discovery, and had been chosen as a surprise for the crew by Deputy Shuttle Programme Manager Wayne Hale. NASA astronaut Richard Mastracchio selected "Where My Heart Will Take Me" for broadcast on 9 August 2007 onboard Endeavour for STS-118. The final broadcast on board a Space Shuttle was on 23 May 2009 during STS-125, the final Space Shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Space Telescope. On this occasion it was broadcast to the crew of the Space Shuttle Atlantis. It was the third science fiction themed wake-up call in a row, the previous day having been the Cantina Band composition by John Williams for Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, and two days prior was Alexander Courage's Theme from Star Trek.

text: The song has been used on four occasions as the music selected for wake-up calls on space missions. The first was on 16 June 2002 for the

text: Space Shuttle Endeavour

text: during mission

text: to the

text: International Space Station

text: . It was again used on 2 August 2005 for mission

text: , the first mission of the Space Shuttle programme following the

text: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster

text: . It was broadcast to the seven crew of the

text: Space Shuttle Discovery

text: , and had been chosen as a surprise for the crew by Deputy Shuttle Programme Manager

text: Wayne Hale

text: NASA

text: astronaut

text: Richard Mastracchio

text: selected "Where My Heart Will Take Me" for broadcast on 9 August 2007 onboard Endeavour for

text: . The final broadcast on board a Space Shuttle was on 23 May 2009 during

text: , the final Space Shuttle servicing mission to the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: . On this occasion it was broadcast to the crew of the

text: Space Shuttle Atlantis

text: . It was the third science fiction themed wake-up call in a row, the previous day having been the

text: Cantina Band

text: composition by

text: John Williams

text: for

text: Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope

text: , and two days prior was

text: Alexander Courage

text: 's

text: Theme from Star Trek

text: For planets with atmospheres of any substance, however, there is an alternative: an autonomous flying robot, or "aerobot".  Most aerobot concepts are based on aerostats, primarily  balloons, but occasionally airships. Flying above obstructions in the winds, a balloon could explore large regions of a planet in great detail for relatively low cost.  Airplanes for planetary exploration have also been proposed.

text: For planets with atmospheres of any substance, however, there is an alternative: an autonomous flying robot, or "aerobot".  Most aerobot concepts are based on

text: aerostat

text: s, primarily

text: balloon

text: s, but occasionally

text: airships

text: . Flying above obstructions in the winds, a balloon could explore large regions of a planet in great detail for relatively low cost.  Airplanes for planetary exploration have also been proposed.

text: In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earth's Moon.

text: In the context of

text: spaceflight

text: , a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into

text: orbit

text: . Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from

text: natural satellite

text: s such as Earth's

text: Moon

text: While not a decadal survey, the 1975 Report of Space Science included the exploration of the Outer planets.

text: In Etzioni's view, the communitarian movement works to strengthen the ability of all aspects of the community including the families and schools in order to introduce more positive values. In addition, it aims to get people involved in positive ways in all levels of the community and ensure that society progresses in an orderly fashion. These works which have occurred between 1990 and the present have given Etzioni his greatest successes and satisfactions in the public realm. He also articulated an early reason-based critique of the space race (in the book The Moon-Doggle) in which he points out that unmanned space exploration yields a vastly higher scientific result-per-expenditure than a manned space program. Amitai Etzioni also coined the word McJob in the 1986 article for the Washington Post where Etzioni criticizes the low skilled fast food jobs as being detrimental to youth.

text: In Etzioni's view, the communitarian movement works to strengthen the ability of all aspects of the community including the families and schools in order to introduce more positive values. In addition, it aims to get people involved in positive ways in all levels of the community and ensure that society progresses in an orderly fashion. These works which have occurred between 1990 and the present have given Etzioni his greatest successes and satisfactions in the public realm. He also articulated an early reason-based critique of the space race (in the book The Moon-Doggle) in which he points out that unmanned space exploration yields a vastly higher scientific result-per-expenditure than a manned space program. Amitai Etzioni also coined the word

text: McJob

text: in the 1986 article for the

text: Washington Post

text: where Etzioni criticizes the low skilled fast food jobs as being detrimental to youth.

text: The KCST was responsible for all operations concerning space exploration and construction of satellites. On 12 March 2009 North Korea signed the Outer Space Treaty and the Registration Convention, after a previous declaration of preparations for a new satellite launch.

text: The KCST was responsible for all operations concerning

text: space exploration

text: and construction of satellites. On 12 March 2009 North Korea signed the

text: Outer Space Treaty

text: and the

text: Registration Convention

text: , after a previous declaration of preparations for

text: a new satellite launch

text: The militarization of space is the placement and development of weaponry and military technology in outer space. The early exploration of space in the mid-20th century had, in part, a military motivation, as the United States and the Soviet Union used it as an opportunity to demonstrate ballistic missile technology and other technologies having the potential for military application. Outer space has since been used as an operating location for military spacecraft such as imaging and communications satellites, and some ballistic missiles pass through outer space during their flight. As yet, however, weapons have not been stationed in space, with the exception of the Almaz space station and small handguns carried by Russian cosmonauts (for post-landing, pre-recovery use).

text: The militarization of space is the placement and development of weaponry and military technology in

text: outer space

text: . The early exploration of space in the mid-20th century had, in part, a military motivation, as the United States and the

text: Soviet Union

text: used it as an opportunity to demonstrate

text: ballistic missile

text: technology and other technologies having the potential for military application. Outer space has since been used as an operating location for

text: military spacecraft

text: such as imaging and communications satellites, and some ballistic missiles pass through outer space during their flight. As yet, however, weapons have not been stationed in space, with the exception of the

text: Almaz

text: space station and small

text: handguns carried by Russian cosmonauts

text: (for post-landing, pre-recovery use).

text: Hergé wanted the Carreidas 160 in Flight 714 (1968) to have at least the same detailed attention that he had put into all of his fictional vehicles, from the Unicorn ship in The Secret of the Unicorn (1943) to the moon rocket in Explorers on the Moon (1954). The supersonic jet aircraft called for by the new Tintin adventure, while fanciful, could not be viewed as implausible and needed to meet the same exacting standards. Hergé, who had reached his sixtieth birthday and whose drawing hand had begun suffering from eczema, was happy to leave the drawing of the jet to Roger Leloup, his younger colleague at Studios Hergé. Leloup, a technical artist and aviation expert, had drawn the moon rocket, the de Havilland Mosquito in The Red Sea Sharks (1958), and all aircraft in the recently redrawn The Black Island (1966). Leloup was described by British Tintin expert Michael Farr as "the aeronautical expert in the Studios" and his design of the Carreidas 160 as "painstakingly executed and, of course, viable."

text: Hergé

text: wanted the Carreidas 160 in Flight 714 (1968) to have at least the same detailed attention that he had put into all of his fictional vehicles, from the

text: Unicorn

text: ship in

text: The Secret of the Unicorn

text: (1943) to the moon rocket in

text: Explorers on the Moon

text: (1954). The

text: supersonic

text: jet aircraft

text: called for by the new

text: Tintin

text: adventure, while fanciful, could not be viewed as implausible and needed to meet the same exacting standards. Hergé, who had reached his sixtieth birthday and whose drawing hand had begun suffering from

text: eczema

text: , was happy to leave the drawing of the jet to

text: Roger Leloup

text: , his younger colleague at

text: Studios Hergé

text: . Leloup, a technical artist and

text: aviation

text: expert, had drawn the moon rocket, the

text: de Havilland Mosquito

text: in

text: The Red Sea Sharks

text: (1958), and all aircraft in the recently redrawn

text: The Black Island

text: (1966). Leloup was described by British Tintin expert

text: Michael Farr

text: as "the aeronautical expert in the Studios" and his design of the Carreidas 160 as "painstakingly executed and, of course, viable."

text: The cartoon opens with a narrative about man's desire to break away from Earth and explore outer space (the moon being the first goal in this quest). After many unsuccessful attempts to launch rockets to the moon (including three scientists trying to launch a typical firework rocket that blows up in their faces), Professor Dingledong becomes the first man to reach the moon, but, two years later, hasn't returned to Earth. In the present day, at the Interplanetary Rocket Society, Professor P. Cosmo Clonk asks the other scientists if one of them will volunteer for the next manned mission to the moon. The scientists just look at each other until it boils down to Fido, the society's mascot, but Fido gulps and immediately pretends to have the measles.

text: Modern rockets originated when Goddard attached a supersonic (de Laval) nozzle to the combustion chamber of a liquid-fueled rocket engine. These nozzles turn the hot gas from the combustion chamber into a cooler, hypersonic, highly directed jet of gas, more than doubling the thrust and raising the engine efficiency from 2% to 64%.Use of liquid propellants instead of gunpowder greatly improved the effectiveness of rocket artillery in World War II, and opened up the possibility of  manned spaceflight after 1945.

text: Modern rockets originated when Goddard attached a

text: supersonic

text: de Laval

text: ) nozzle to the

text: combustion chamber

text: of a

text: liquid-fueled rocket engine

text: . These nozzles turn the hot gas from the combustion chamber into a cooler,

text: hypersonic

text: , highly directed jet of gas, more than doubling the thrust and raising the engine efficiency from 2% to 64%.Use of

text: liquid propellant

text: s instead of

text: gunpowder

text: greatly improved the effectiveness of rocket artillery in World War II, and opened up the possibility of

text: manned spaceflight

text: after 1945.

text: The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's space agency; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station: the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added to the station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008. Japan's plans in space exploration include: launching a space probe to Venus, Akatsuki; developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in 2016; and building a moon base by 2030.

text: The

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA) is Japan's

text: space agency

text: ; it conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, and leads development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the

text: International Space Station

text: : the

text: Japanese Experiment Module

text: (Kibo) was added to the station during

text: Space Shuttle

text: assembly flights in 2008. Japan's plans in

text: space exploration

text: include: launching a

text: space probe

text: to

text: Venus

text: Akatsuki

text: ; developing the

text: Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter

text: to be launched in 2016; and building a

text: moon base

text: by 2030.

text: Many past and current concepts for the continued exploration and colonization of space focus on a return to the Moon as a "stepping stone" to the other planets, especially Mars. At the end of 2006 NASA announced they were planning to build a permanent Moon base with continual presence by 2024.

text: ISDC 2007 included programs, presentations and exhibits focused on space exploration and settlement, astronomy and scientific research, commercial space ventures, space tourism, and other exciting topics.

text: The Alliance for Space Development is a space advocacy organization dedicated to influencing space policy towards the goal of permanent human settlements in space.  The founding executive members of the Alliance are the National Space Society and the Space Frontier Foundation. Member organizations of the Alliance are the Lifeboat Foundation, Mars Foundation, Mars Society, Space Development Steering Committee, Space Tourism Society, Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, Students on Capitol Hill, Tea Party in Space, and the Texas Space Alliance. The primary goals of the Alliance are to elevate the growth of the space industry, reduce the cost of accessing space, and to clearly define space settlement as the reason for sending humans to space.

text: The Alliance for Space Development is a

text: space advocacy

text: organization dedicated to influencing

text: space policy

text: towards the goal of permanent human

text: settlements in space

text: .  The founding executive members of the Alliance are the

text: National Space Society

text: and the

text: Space Frontier Foundation

text: . Member organizations of the Alliance are the

text: Lifeboat Foundation

text: , Mars Foundation,

text: Mars Society

text: Space Development Steering Committee

text: Space Tourism Society

entity_name: Students for the Exploration and Development of Space

text: Students for the Exploration and Development of Space

text: , Students on Capitol Hill, Tea Party in Space, and the Texas Space Alliance. The primary goals of the Alliance are to elevate the growth of the space industry, reduce the cost of accessing space, and to clearly define space settlement as the reason for sending humans to space.

text: "Space Race" was written and directed by Archer creator Adam Reed. American actor Bryan Cranston guest starred in "Space Race" as Commander Drake, an industrious and fastidious astronaut whose main objective is to fight in order to "quell a mutiny on the space platform". Cranston's appearance was formally announced by series creator Adam Reed in January 2012, while being interviewed by The Huffington Post. While Reed didn't reveal much on the background of the installment, he teased: "I love it when everybody gets to go [on a mission], so a lot more people than you would think get to go to outer space."

text: "Space Race" was written and directed by Archer creator

text: Adam Reed

text: . American actor

text: Bryan Cranston

text: guest starred in "Space Race" as Commander Drake, an industrious and fastidious astronaut whose main objective is to fight in order to "quell a mutiny on the space platform". Cranston's appearance was formally announced by series creator

text: Adam Reed

text: in January 2012, while being interviewed by

text: The Huffington Post

text: . While Reed didn't reveal much on the background of the installment, he teased: "I love it when everybody gets to go [on a mission], so a lot more people than you would think get to go to outer space."

text: McDonald published Luna: New Moon, the first volume of a proposed science fiction duology, in 2015. It explores the dangerous intrigue that surrounds the five powerful families who control industry on the Moon. McDonald said of the novel in August 2014, "I’m still writing about developing economies, it’s just that this one happens to be on the Moon." Before critics called the novel "Game of Thrones in space", McDonald himself dubbed it "Game of Domes" and "Dallas in space". Luna was optioned for development as a television series before its release. The sequel, Luna: Wolf Moon, is set to be released in September 2016. McDonald previously published the novelette "The Fifth Dragon", a prequel to Luna in the same setting, in the 2014 anthology Reach for Infinity.

text: McDonald published

text: Luna: New Moon

text: , the first volume of a proposed science fiction duology, in 2015. It explores the dangerous intrigue that surrounds the five powerful families who control industry on the

text: Moon

text: . McDonald said of the novel in August 2014, "I’m still writing about developing economies, it’s just that this one happens to be on the Moon." Before critics called the novel "

text: Game of Thrones

text: in space", McDonald himself dubbed it "Game of Domes" and "

text: Dallas

text: in space". Luna was optioned for development as a television series before its release. The sequel,

text: Luna: Wolf Moon

text: , is set to be released in September 2016. McDonald previously published the novelette "The Fifth Dragon", a prequel to Luna in the same setting, in the 2014 anthology

text: Reach for Infinity

text: Williams (2013) suggests the need for a variety of methods for observing Io in the future: "Future Io exploration is recommended to include: 1) a Jupiter-orbiting Io Observer spacecraft of either Discovery-class or New Frontiers-class; 2) a space-based UV telescope with diffraction-limited capability; 3) space-based missions that enable long-term monitoring of Io over a variety of time scales (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years); and 4) expanded time for Io observation on ground-based 8- to 10-m class telescopes, particularly those with nighttime Adaptive Optics capability."

text: In quantum chemistry, a complete active space is a type of classification of molecular orbitals. Spatial orbitals are classified as belonging to three classes:

text: In

text: quantum chemistry

text: , a complete active space is a type of classification of

text: molecular orbitals

text: . Spatial orbitals are classified as belonging to three classes:

text: (Van Vogt and Kramer thus debuted in the issue of Astounding that is sometimes singled out for ushering in the "Golden Age" of science fiction.) The former story served as the inspiration for a number of science fiction movies.In 1950, the two were combined with two other stories as a fix-up novel, The Voyage of the Space Beagle (Simon & Schuster), which was published in at least five European languages by 1955. Positing the need for exobiologists who will appreciate the differences between the inhabitants of other planets and ourselves, it stresses the importance of the civilian rather than military in exploration of other cultures.

text: (Van Vogt and Kramer thus debuted in the issue of Astounding that is sometimes singled out for ushering in the "Golden Age" of science fiction.) The former story served as the inspiration for a number of science fiction movies.In 1950, the two were combined with two other stories as a

text: fix-up

text: novel,

text: The Voyage of the Space Beagle

text: (Simon & Schuster), which was published in at least five European languages by 1955. Positing the need for exobiologists who will appreciate the differences between the inhabitants of other planets and ourselves, it stresses the importance of the civilian rather than military in exploration of other cultures.

text: The simplest case of periodic orbits is the "smile" orbit, which Tufillaro termed Type A orbits in his 1984 paper.

text: Buzz Aldrin's Race Into Space has two sides, the United States and the Soviet Union, unlike LIFTOFF! which supported up to four (the other two sides in Liftoff! were Europe and Asia). Each player controls a space center, which doubles as a navigational menu, and directs funding toward purchasing hardware, research and development, recruiting and training astronauts, and conducting launches.

text: Buzz Aldrin's Race Into Space has two sides, the United States and the Soviet Union, unlike

text: LIFTOFF!

text: which supported up to four (the other two sides in Liftoff! were Europe and Asia). Each player controls a

text: space center

text: , which doubles as a navigational menu, and directs funding toward purchasing hardware,

text: research and development

text: , recruiting and training

text: astronaut

text: s, and conducting launches.

text: In addition to these two gameplay types, Sonic Unleashed also features hubworlds, in which the player may reveal, as well as advance, the story of the game. Hubworlds operate differently depending on the version of the game being played; the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions feature fully interactive, explorable 3D hubworlds, similar to those in Sonic 2006 and Sonic Adventure, in which townspeople may be interacted with and side quests may be undertaken, in order to gain experience or unlock items, such as artwork, videos and music tracks. In contrast, the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions feature menu-based map systems, in which players simply click on areas to talk to townspeople and find information. Within both day and nighttime levels are medals that Sonic may collect, two types of which exist: Sun and Moon. In the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions, collecting these medals allows the player to level up Sonic's Sun and Moon stats, and these must be increased to reach new stages in the game, with a certain number of Sun medals for Hedgehog levels, and a certain number of Moon medals for Werehog levels. Because only the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions feature playable hubworlds, these are also the only versions in which Sun and Moon medals may be found by exploring the towns, talking to the citizens, and completing side quests. In the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions, Sun and Moon medals are earned after completing stages and clearing their objectives. The medals are used to open up doors in Gaia gates, which can earn bonus content.

text: In addition to these two gameplay types, Sonic Unleashed also features hubworlds, in which the player may reveal, as well as advance, the story of the game. Hubworlds operate differently depending on the version of the game being played; the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions feature fully interactive, explorable 3D hubworlds, similar to those in

text: Sonic 2006

text: and Sonic Adventure, in which townspeople may be interacted with and side quests may be undertaken, in order to gain experience or unlock items, such as artwork, videos and music tracks. In contrast, the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions feature menu-based map systems, in which players simply click on areas to talk to townspeople and find information. Within both day and nighttime levels are medals that Sonic may collect, two types of which exist: Sun and Moon. In the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions, collecting these medals allows the player to level up Sonic's Sun and Moon stats, and these must be increased to reach new stages in the game, with a certain number of Sun medals for Hedgehog levels, and a certain number of Moon medals for Werehog levels. Because only the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions feature playable hubworlds, these are also the only versions in which Sun and Moon medals may be found by exploring the towns, talking to the citizens, and completing side quests. In the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions, Sun and Moon medals are earned after completing stages and clearing their objectives. The medals are used to open up doors in Gaia gates, which can earn bonus content.

text: A few published works by scientists on the subject of space exploration or space weapons tangentially discuss 2001: A Space Odyssey and assume at least some of the orbiting satellites are space weapons. Indeed, details worked out with input from space industry experts, such as the structure on the first satellite that Pietrobon refers to as a "conning tower", match the original concept sketch drawn for the nuclear bomb platform.Modelers label them in diverse ways. On the one hand, the 2001 exhibit (given in that year) at the Tech Museum in San Jose and now online (for a subscription) referred merely to "satellites", while a special modelling exhibition at the exhibition hall at Porte de Versailles in Paris also held in 2001 (called 2001 l'odyssée des maquettes (2001: A Modeler's Odyssey)) overtly described their reconstructions of the first satellite as the "US Orbiting Weapons Platform".Some, but not all, space model manufacturers or amateur model builders refer to these entities as bombs.

text: The Minitrack Network, was the first U.S. satellite tracking network to become operational, in 1957. It was used to track the flights of Sputnik, Vanguard, Explorer, and other early space efforts. Minitrack was the progenitor of Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (STADAN) and the Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN).

text: The Minitrack Network, was the first U.S. satellite tracking network to become operational, in 1957. It was used to track the flights of

text: Sputnik

text: , Vanguard, Explorer, and other early space efforts. Minitrack was the progenitor of

entity_name: Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network

text: Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network

text: (STADAN) and the

text: Manned Space Flight Network

text: (MSFN).

text: With the advent of space exploration satellite technology, precise and comprehensive observation become possible. The first mission of Seasat in 1978 measured multiple data points and gathered quality ocean data and imagery in just 106 days in orbit. Topex/Poseidon, NASA and France’s joint mission of 1992, lasted for 13 years allowing satellite observation and gathering data for sea surface modeling and forecasting.

text: With the advent of space exploration satellite technology, precise and comprehensive observation become possible. The first mission of

text: Seasat

text: in 1978 measured multiple data points and gathered quality

text: ocean

text: data and imagery in just 106 days in orbit.

text: Topex/Poseidon

text: , NASA and France’s joint mission of 1992, lasted for 13 years allowing satellite observation and gathering data for sea surface modeling and forecasting.

text: They were soon approached by CEO Matthew St-Germaine with the idea of assisting with a record label, called Freedom From. Much of their early years as a band were influenced heavily by the diverse and radical roster of artists that was quickly cultivated. The Argentine avant-space trio Reynols was to have an exceptional influence on philosophy when the boys accompanied the band on their first American tour, where they explored Minecxio and the role of the No-Mind.

text: They were soon approached by CEO Matthew St-Germaine with the idea of assisting with a record label, called

text: Freedom From

text: . Much of their early years as a band were influenced heavily by the diverse and radical roster of artists that was quickly cultivated. The Argentine avant-space trio

text: Reynols

text: was to have an exceptional influence on philosophy when the boys accompanied the band on their first American tour, where they explored Minecxio and the role of the No-Mind.

text: The globe represents the earth as viewed from space; the earth being both the origin and control point for all man-made space activities.  The lines of latitude and longitude emphasize the global nature of Air Force space operations.  The two uneven ellipses represent both low and high orbital paths traced by satellites in earth orbit shown as four-point stars.  The two yellow rays depict space surveillance and communications capability from ground base sensors.  The larger of the two stars represents the Space Command, and the smaller and closest star to earth represents the 1st Space Wing of the Space Command.  The two stars also along with the distinctive blue shading and small globe symbolize the space environment.

text: After valuable resources were detected on the Moon, private companies began to formulate methods to extract the resources. Article II of the Outer Space Treaty dictates that "outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means". However, countries have the right to freely explore the Moon and any resources collected are property of that country when they return.

text: After valuable resources were detected on the Moon, private companies began to formulate methods to extract the resources. Article II of the

text: Outer Space Treaty

text: dictates that "outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means". However, countries have the right to freely explore the Moon and any resources collected are property of that country when they return.

text: The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of space and satellites.  It has developed a series of rockets, the latest and the most powerful of which is H-IIB.  H-IIA/B rockets which have the capability of carrying 8-ton payload to the GTO at maximum are now managed by the private-own company Mitsubishi Heavy Industry.  It also built the Japanese Experiment Module, which was launched and added to the International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2007 and 2008 and the HTV to transfer payloads to the station in 2009.

text: The

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: (JAXA) conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of space and satellites.  It has developed a series of rockets, the latest and the most powerful of which is

text: H-IIB

text: H-IIA

text: /B rockets which have the capability of carrying 8-ton payload to the

text: GTO

text: at maximum are now managed by the private-own company

text: Mitsubishi Heavy Industry

text: .  It also built the

text: Japanese Experiment Module

text: , which was launched and added to the

text: International Space Station

text: during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2007 and 2008 and the

text: HTV

text: to transfer payloads to the station in 2009.

text: For Universal Newsreels in the 1940s, Herlihy narrated editions describing the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Allies' early setbacks against the Axis powers, the turning of the tide of WWII, the death of President Roosevelt, and the detonation of the first atomic bombs.  In the next decade, during the Cold War, he narrated the very first American newsreel on the launch of Sputnik.

text: For

text: Universal Newsreel

text: s in the 1940s, Herlihy narrated editions describing the Japanese attack on

text: Pearl Harbor

text: , the Allies' early setbacks against the Axis powers, the turning of the tide of WWII, the death of

text: President Roosevelt

text: , and the detonation of the first atomic bombs.  In the next decade, during the Cold War, he narrated the very first American newsreel on the launch of

text: Sputnik

text: Crewed exploration of the Solar System is currently confined to Earth's immediate environs. The first human being to reach space (defined as an altitude of over 100 km) and to orbit Earth was Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet cosmonaut who was launched in Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961. The first human to walk on the surface of another Solar System body was Neil Armstrong, who stepped onto the Moon on July 21, 1969 during the Apollo 11 mission; five more Moon landings occurred through 1972. The United States' Space Shuttle, which debuted in 1981, is the only reusable spacecraft to successfully make multiple orbital flights. The five shuttles that have been built have flown a total of 121 missions, with two of the craft destroyed in accidents. The first orbital space station to host more than one crew was NASA's Skylab, which successfully held three crews from 1973 to 1974. The first true human settlement in space was the Soviet space station Mir, which was continuously occupied for close to ten years, from 1989 to 1999. It was decommissioned in 2001, and its successor, the International Space Station, has maintained a continuous human presence in space since then. In 2004, SpaceShipOne became the first privately funded vehicle to reach space on a suborbital flight. That year, U.S. President George W. Bush announced the Vision for Space Exploration, which called for a replacement for the aging Shuttle, a return to the Moon and, ultimately, a crewed mission to Mars.

text: Crewed exploration of the Solar System is currently confined to Earth's immediate environs. The first human being to reach space (defined as an

text: altitude of over 100 km

text: ) and to orbit Earth was

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: , a

text: Soviet

text: cosmonaut

text: who was launched in

text: Vostok 1

text: on April 12, 1961. The first human to walk on the surface of another Solar System body was

text: Neil Armstrong

text: , who stepped onto the

text: Moon

text: on July 21, 1969 during the

text: Apollo 11

text: mission; five more Moon landings occurred through 1972. The United States'

text: Space Shuttle

text: , which debuted in 1981, is the only reusable spacecraft to successfully make multiple orbital flights. The five shuttles that have been built have flown a total of 121 missions, with two of the craft destroyed in accidents. The first orbital

text: space station

text: to host more than one crew was

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Skylab

text: , which successfully held three crews from 1973 to 1974. The first true human settlement in space was the Soviet space station

text: Mir

text: , which was continuously occupied for close to ten years, from 1989 to 1999. It was decommissioned in 2001, and its successor, the

text: International Space Station

text: , has maintained a continuous human presence in space since then. In 2004,

text: SpaceShipOne

text: became the first privately funded vehicle to reach space on a suborbital flight. That year, U.S. President

text: George W. Bush

text: announced the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: , which called for a replacement for the aging Shuttle, a return to the Moon and, ultimately, a crewed mission to Mars.

text: WT1190F (9U01FF6, UDA34A3, or UW8551D) was a small temporary satellite of Earth that impacted Earth on 13 November 2015 at 06:18:34.3 (±1.3 seconds) UTC. It is thought to have been space debris from the trans-lunar injection stage of the 1998 Lunar Prospector mission, It was first discovered on 18 February 2013 by the Catalina Sky Survey. It was then lost, and reacquired on 29 November 2013. It was again discovered on 3 October 2015, and the object was soon identified to be the same as the two objects previously sighted by the team, who have been sharing their data through the International Astronomical Union's Minor Planet Center (MPC). An early orbit calculation showed that it was orbiting Earth in an extremely elliptical orbit, taking it from within the geosynchronous satellite ring to nearly twice the distance of the Moon. It was also probably the same object as 9U01FF6, another object on a similar orbit discovered on 26 October 2009.

text: WT1190F (9U01FF6, UDA34A3, or UW8551D) was a small temporary satellite of Earth that impacted Earth on 13 November 2015 at 06:18:34.3 (±1.3 seconds)

text: UTC

text: . It is thought to have been

text: space debris

text: from the

text: trans-lunar injection

text: stage of the 1998

text: Lunar Prospector

text: mission, It was first discovered on 18 February 2013 by the

text: Catalina Sky Survey

text: . It was then lost, and reacquired on 29 November 2013. It was again discovered on 3 October 2015, and the object was soon identified to be the same as the two objects previously sighted by the team, who have been sharing their data through the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: 's

text: Minor Planet Center

text: (MPC). An early orbit calculation showed that it was orbiting Earth in an extremely elliptical orbit, taking it from within the

text: geosynchronous satellite ring

text: to nearly twice the distance of the Moon. It was also probably the same object as 9U01FF6, another object on a similar orbit discovered on 26 October 2009.

text: Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the equator, approximately 35,800 km into space. The requirement to space these satellites apart means that there is a limited number of orbital "slots" available, thus only a limited number of satellites can be placed in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries at the same longitude but differing latitudes). These disputes are addressed through the ITU allocation mechanism. Countries located at the Earth's equator have also asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory, notably in 1976, when many countries located at the Earth's equator created the Bogota Declaration, in which they asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory.

text: Satellites in

text: geostationary orbit

text: must all occupy a single ring above the equator, approximately 35,800 km into space. The requirement to space these satellites apart means that there is a limited number of orbital "slots" available, thus only a limited number of satellites can be placed in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries at the same

text: longitude

text: but differing

text: latitudes

text: ). These disputes are addressed through the

text: ITU

text: allocation mechanism. Countries located at the Earth's equator have also asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory, notably in 1976, when many countries located at the Earth's equator created the

text: Bogota Declaration

text: , in which they asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory.

text: Future Ares V missions for example could serve to cost-effectively transport construction materials for future spacecraft and space exploration missions, delivering raw materials to a Moon-based space dock positioned as a counterweight to a Moon-based space elevator.

text: Future

text: Ares V

text: missions for example could serve to cost-effectively transport construction materials for future

text: spacecraft

text: and

text: space exploration missions

text: , delivering

text: raw material

text: s to a

text: Moon

text: -based space dock positioned as a

text: counterweight

text: to a Moon-based

text: space elevator

text: Assembly of the PSLV-XL launch vehicle, designated C25, started on 5 August 2013. The mounting of the five scientific instruments was completed at Indian Space Research Organisation Satellite Centre, Bangalore, and the finished spacecraft was shipped to Sriharikota on 2 October 2013 for integration to the PSLV-XL launch vehicle. The satellite's development was fast-tracked and completed in a record 15 months. Despite the US federal government shutdown, NASA reaffirmed on 5 October 2013 it would provide communications and navigation support to the mission. During a meeting on 30 September 2014, NASA and ISRO officials signed an agreement to establish a pathway for future joint missions to explore Mars. One of the working group's objectives will be to explore potential coordinated observations and science analysis between the MAVEN orbiter and MOM, as well as other current and future Mars missions.

text: Assembly of the PSLV-XL launch vehicle, designated C25, started on 5 August 2013. The mounting of the five scientific instruments was completed at

entity_name: Indian Space Research Organisation Satellite Centre

text: Indian Space Research Organisation Satellite Centre

text: Bangalore

text: , and the finished spacecraft was shipped to Sriharikota on 2 October 2013 for integration to the PSLV-XL launch vehicle. The satellite's development was fast-tracked and completed in a record 15 months. Despite the

entity_name: United States federal government shutdown of 2013

text: US federal government shutdown

text: , NASA reaffirmed on 5 October 2013 it would provide communications and navigation support to the mission. During a meeting on 30 September 2014, NASA and ISRO officials signed an agreement to establish a pathway for future joint missions to explore Mars. One of the working group's objectives will be to explore potential coordinated observations and science analysis between the

text: MAVEN

text: orbiter and MOM, as well as other current and future Mars missions.

text: Both the United States and Germany appear to possess sophisticated space technology. Germany's space program is based at the old rocket-testing facility at Peenemünde on the Baltic coast. Although the extent of space exploration is not specified, a conversation between March and Maguire suggests that German boasts about being ahead of the Americans in the Space Race are justified. This is most likely because the German rocket scientists and engineers (who in reality moved to the United States after the war) would still be working for the Nazis in this timeline.

text: Both the United States and Germany appear to possess sophisticated space technology. Germany's space program is based at the old rocket-testing facility at

text: Peenemünde

text: on the Baltic coast. Although the extent of space exploration is not specified, a conversation between March and Maguire suggests that German boasts about being ahead of the Americans in the Space Race are justified. This is most likely because the German rocket scientists and engineers (who in reality moved to the United States after the war) would still be working for the Nazis in this timeline.

text: When they run out of thruster fuel, the satellites are at the end of their service life, as they are no longer able to stay in their allocated orbital position. The transponders and other onboard systems generally outlive the thruster fuel and, by stopping N–S station keeping, some satellites can continue to be used in inclined orbits (where the orbital track appears to follow a figure-eight loop centred on the equator), or else be elevated to a "graveyard" disposal orbit.

text: When they run out of thruster fuel, the satellites are at the end of their service life, as they are no longer able to stay in their allocated orbital position. The transponders and other onboard systems generally outlive the thruster fuel and, by stopping N–S station keeping, some satellites can continue to be used in

text: inclined orbit

text: s (where the orbital track appears to follow a

text: figure-eight loop centred on the equator

text: ), or else be elevated to a "graveyard"

text: disposal orbit

text: The Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first man-made earth satellite, on October 4, 1957. This was followed on November 3 with the second satellite, Sputnik 2. The United States attempted a satellite launch on December 6, using the NRL's Vanguard rocket, but it barely struggled off the ground, then fell back and exploded. On January 31, 1958, after finally receiving permission to proceed, von Braun and the ABMA space development team used a Jupiter C in a Juno I configuration (addition of a fourth stage) to successfully place Explorer 1, the first American satellite, into orbit around the earth.

text: The Soviet Union launched

text: Sputnik 1

text: , the first man-made earth satellite, on October 4, 1957. This was followed on November 3 with the second satellite,

text: Sputnik 2

text: . The United States attempted a satellite launch on December 6, using the NRL's Vanguard rocket, but it barely struggled off the ground, then fell back and exploded. On January 31, 1958, after finally receiving permission to proceed, von Braun and the ABMA space development team used a Jupiter C in a

text: Juno I

text: configuration (addition of a fourth stage) to successfully place

text: Explorer 1

text: , the first American satellite, into orbit around the earth.

text: In part one, an attempt to reach the Moon to prove there is a civilization that views Earth as its moon leads the narrator to soar from Paris into the sky by strapping bottles of dew to his person, but he fails and lands back on Earth. Believing to have traveled straight up and down, he is confused by local soldiers who tell him he is in France; they escort him to the provincial governor who informs him that it is in fact New France. The narrator explains to the governor that all matter is formed inside and expelled from stars, and that once the Sun has run out of fuel it will consume the planets and restart the cycle. He uses New France as evidence for this theory, claiming that its only being discovered not long ago by European explorers was because the Sun had only recently sent it to Earth.

text: In part one, an attempt to reach the Moon to prove there is a civilization that views Earth as its moon leads the narrator to soar from Paris into the sky by strapping bottles of dew to his person, but he fails and lands back on Earth. Believing to have traveled straight up and down, he is confused by local soldiers who tell him he is in France; they escort him to the provincial governor who informs him that it is in fact

text: New France

text: . The narrator explains to the governor that all matter is formed inside and expelled from stars, and that once the Sun has run out of fuel it will consume the planets and restart the cycle. He uses New France as evidence for this theory, claiming that its only being discovered not long ago by European explorers was because the Sun had only recently sent it to Earth.

text: The Ionospheric Connection Explorer] (ICON) is a satellite designed to investigate changes in the Earth's ionosphere and is scheduled for launch in the summer of 2017. The mission is being led by the University of California, Berkeley and will be a new addition to NASA's Explorer program. ICON will provide NASA’s Heliophysics Division with a new capability to understand the tug-of-war between Earth’s atmosphere and the space environment. In the "no mans land" of the ionosphere, a continuous struggle between solar forcing and Earth’s weather systems drive extreme and unpredicted variability. ICON will investigate the forces at play in the near-space environment, leading the way in understanding disturbances that can lead to severe interference with communications and GPS signals.

text: The Ionospheric Connection Explorer] (ICON) is a satellite designed to investigate changes in the Earth's

text: ionosphere

text: and is scheduled for launch in the summer of 2017. The mission is being led by the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: and will be a new addition to

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Explorer program

text: . ICON will provide NASA’s

text: Heliophysics Division

text: with a new capability to understand the tug-of-war between Earth’s atmosphere and the space environment. In the "no mans land" of the ionosphere, a continuous struggle between solar forcing and Earth’s weather systems drive extreme and unpredicted variability. ICON will investigate the forces at play in the near-space environment, leading the way in understanding disturbances that can lead to severe interference with communications and GPS signals.

text: NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Mission (MER), is an ongoing robotic space mission involving two rovers exploring the planet Mars. The mission is managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which designed, built and is operating the rovers.

text: NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Mission (MER), is an ongoing

text: robotic space mission

text: involving two rovers exploring the planet Mars. The mission is managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which designed, built and is operating the rovers.

text: The chemical structure of DNA is insufficient to understand the complexity of the 3D structures of DNA. In contrast, animated molecular models allow one to visually explore the three-dimensional (3D) structure of DNA. The DNA model shown (far right) is a space-filling, or CPK, model of the DNA double helix. Animated molecular models, such as the wire, or skeletal, type shown at the top of this article, allow one to visually explore the three-dimensional (3D) structure of DNA. Another type of DNA model is the space-filling, or CPK, model.

text: The chemical structure of DNA is insufficient to understand the complexity of the 3D structures of DNA. In contrast, animated molecular models allow one to visually explore the three-dimensional (3D) structure of DNA. The DNA model shown (far right) is a space-filling, or

text: CPK

text: , model of the DNA double helix. Animated molecular models, such as the wire, or skeletal, type shown at the top of this article, allow one to visually explore the three-dimensional (3D) structure of DNA. Another type of DNA model is the space-filling, or CPK, model.

text: Formed in 1954, the American Astronautical Society (AAS) is an independent scientific and technical group in the United States dedicated to the advancement of space science and exploration. AAS supports NASA's Vision for Space Exploration and is a member of the Coalition for Space Exploration and the Space Exploration Alliance. The AAS also focuses on strengthening the global space program through cooperation with international space organizations.

text: Formed in 1954, the American Astronautical Society (AAS) is an independent scientific and technical group in the

text: United States

text: dedicated to the advancement of

text: space science

text: and

text: exploration

text: . AAS supports

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: and is a member of the

text: Coalition for Space Exploration

text: and the

text: Space Exploration Alliance

text: . The AAS also focuses on strengthening the global space program through cooperation with international space organizations.

text: For information delivery to end users, satellite systems, by nature, have relatively long path lengths, even for low earth-orbiting satellites. They are also very expensive to deploy and therefore each satellite must serve many users. Additionally, the very long paths of geostationary satellites cause information latency that makes many real-time applications unfeasible.

text: Bart Sibrel believes that there were numerous insurmountable scientific and technical problems which made it improbable that men could land on the Moon and return to Earth safely. Further, he believes that certain supposed anomalies and inconsistencies in NASA's records of the landings point to a hoax, and that the Space Race was actually a race to develop armaments. He claims that NASA perpetrated a fraud because of the perception that if the United States could land men on the Moon before the Soviet Union, it would be a major victory in the Cold War, since the Soviets had been the first to achieve a successful space launch (Sputnik 1 in 1957), the first manned space flight (Vostok 1 in 1961), and the first spacewalk (Voskhod 2 in 1965).

text: Bart Sibrel believes that there were numerous insurmountable scientific and technical problems which made it improbable that men could land on the Moon and return to Earth safely. Further, he believes that certain supposed anomalies and inconsistencies in NASA's records of the landings point to a hoax, and that the

text: Space Race

text: was actually a race to develop armaments. He claims that NASA perpetrated a

text: fraud

text: because of the perception that if the United States could land men on the Moon before the

text: Soviet Union

text: , it would be a major victory in the

text: Cold War

text: , since the Soviets had been the first to achieve a successful space launch (

text: Sputnik 1

text: in 1957), the first manned space flight (

text: Vostok 1

text: in 1961), and the first

text: spacewalk

text: Voskhod 2

text: in 1965).

text: Intelsat I (nicknamed Early Bird for the proverb "The early bird catches the worm") was the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit, on April 6, 1965. It was built by the Space and Communications Group of Hughes Aircraft Company (later Hughes Space and Communications Company, and now Boeing Satellite Systems) for COMSAT, which activated it on June 28. It was based on the satellite that Hughes had built for NASA to demonstrate that communications via synchronous-orbit satellite were feasible. Its booster was a Thrust Augmented Delta (Delta D). After a series of maneuvers, it reached its  geosynchronous orbital position over the Atlantic Ocean at 28° west longitude, where it was put into service.

text: Intelsat I (nicknamed Early Bird for the

text: proverb

text: "The early bird catches the worm") was the first commercial

text: communications satellite

text: to be placed in

text: geosynchronous orbit

text: , on April 6, 1965. It was built by the Space and Communications Group of

text: Hughes Aircraft Company

text: (later Hughes Space and Communications Company, and now

text: Boeing

text: Satellite Systems) for

text: COMSAT

text: , which activated it on June 28. It was based on the satellite that Hughes had built for

text: NASA

text: to demonstrate that communications via synchronous-orbit satellite were feasible. Its booster was a

text: Thrust Augmented Delta (Delta D)

text: . After a series of maneuvers, it reached its  geosynchronous orbital position over the Atlantic Ocean at 28° west longitude, where it was put into service.

text: At this point in the game, for the first time, the solar system view is used, allowing the player to travel to any of the inner planets or asteroids. While exploring space, the player's ship occasionally encounters other vessels, which by and large are hostile. The player may encounter vessels from the RAM navy, but also occasionally meets space pirates and Mercurians. Enemy vessels may be destroyed in space, or boarded for ground combat.

text: Harmonic and subharmonic orbits are special types of such closed orbits. A closed trajectory is called a harmonic orbit if k is an integer, i.e., if  1}} in the formula  m/n}}. For example, if  3}} (green planet in Figures 1 and 4, green orbit in Figure 9), the resulting orbit is the third harmonic of the original orbit. Conversely, the closed trajectory is called a subharmonic orbit if k is the inverse of an integer, i.e., if  1}} in the formula  m/n}}. For example, if  1/3}} (green planet in Figure 5, green orbit in Figure 10), the resulting orbit is called the third subharmonic of the original orbit. Although such orbits are unlikely to occur in nature, they are helpful for illustrating Newton's theorem.

text: Harmonic and subharmonic orbits are special types of such closed orbits. A closed trajectory is called a harmonic orbit if k is an integer, i.e., if  1}} in the formula  m/n}}. For example, if  3}} (green planet in Figures 1 and 4, green orbit in Figure 9), the resulting orbit is the third harmonic of the original orbit. Conversely, the closed trajectory is called a subharmonic orbit if k is the

text: inverse

text: of an integer, i.e., if  1}} in the formula  m/n}}. For example, if  1/3}} (green planet in Figure 5, green orbit in Figure 10), the resulting orbit is called the third subharmonic of the original orbit. Although such orbits are unlikely to occur in nature, they are helpful for illustrating Newton's theorem.

text: The National Space Society (NSS), a private nonprofit, regards a return to the Moon as a high priority for the US space program, in order to develop the body of scientific knowledge of the Moon, particularly in regards to its potential for the creation of new industries, in order to provide further funding for further space exploration.

text: The

text: National Space Society

text: (NSS), a private nonprofit, regards a return to the Moon as a high priority for the US space program, in order to develop the body of scientific knowledge of the Moon, particularly in regards to its potential for the creation of new industries, in order to provide further funding for further space exploration.

text: Space technology is technology developed by space science or the aerospace industry for use in spaceflight, satellites, or space exploration. Space technology includes spacecraft, satellites, space stations, and support infrastructure, equipment, and procedures. Space is such a novel environment that attempting to work in it requires new tools and techniques. Many common everyday services such as weather forecasting, remote sensing, GPS systems, satellite television, and some long distance communications systems critically rely on space infrastructure. Of the sciences, astronomy and Earth science (via remote sensing) benefit from space technology. New technologies originating with or accelerated by space-related endeavors are often subsequently exploited in other economic activities.

text: Space technology is

text: technology

text: developed by

text: space science

text: or the

text: aerospace industry

text: for use in

text: spaceflight

text: satellite

text: s, or

text: space exploration

text: . Space technology includes spacecraft, satellites, space stations, and support infrastructure, equipment, and procedures. Space is such a novel environment that attempting to work in it requires new tools and techniques. Many common everyday services such as

text: weather forecasting

text: remote sensing

text: GPS

text: systems,

text: satellite television

text: , and some long distance communications systems critically rely on space infrastructure. Of the sciences,

text: astronomy

text: and

text: Earth science

text: (via

text: remote sensing

text: ) benefit from space technology. New technologies originating with or accelerated by space-related endeavors are often subsequently exploited in other economic activities.

text: Explorer 1 was the first satellite of the United States, launched as part of its participation in the International Geophysical Year. The mission followed the first two satellites the previous year; the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1 and 2, beginning the Cold War Space Race between the two nations.

text: Explorer 1 was the first

text: satellite

text: of the

text: United States

text: , launched as part of its participation in the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: . The mission followed the first two satellites the previous year; the

text: Soviet Union

text: 's

text: Sputnik 1

text: and

text: , beginning the

text: Cold War

text: Space Race

text: between the two nations.

text: Because of its orbital inclination of 10.739° to the ecliptic,  is not always forced by the Earth on its horseshoe orbit however but can sometimes slip out of this pattern. It is then caught for a while in the neighbourhood of the Earth. This will next happen in about 600 years i.e. in the 26th century. It will then stay within the small gap in the Earth’s orbit which it does not reach in its previous horseshoe orbit, and will be no further than 0.2 astronomical units (30 million km) away from the Earth. There it will slowly circle the Earth almost like a second moon, although it takes one year for a circuit. After 45 years it finally switches back into the horseshoe orbit, until it again stays near the Earth for 45 years around the year 3750 and again in 6400. In these phases in which it stays outside its horseshoe orbit it oscillates in the narrow region along the Earth’s orbit where it is caught, moving back and forth in 15 years. Because it is not bound to the Earth like the Moon but is mainly under the gravitational influence of the Sun, it belongs to the bodies called quasi-satellites. This is somewhat analogous to two cars travelling side by side at the same speed and repeatedly overtaking one another but which are however not attached to each other. Orbital calculations show that  was in this quasi-satellite orbit for 45 years from about 520 AD but because of its tiny size was too dim to have been seen. It switches approximately cyclically between the two orbital forms, but always stays for 45 years in the quasi-satellite orbit. Outside the time frame from about 520-6500 AD, the calculated orbits become chaotic i.e. not predictable, and thus for periods outside this time frame no exact statements can be made.  was the first known heavenly body that switches between horseshoe and quasi-satellite orbits.

text: Because of its orbital inclination of 10.739° to the ecliptic,  is not always forced by the Earth on its horseshoe orbit however but can sometimes slip out of this pattern. It is then caught for a while in the neighbourhood of the Earth. This will next happen in about 600 years i.e. in the 26th century. It will then stay within the small gap in the Earth’s orbit which it does not reach in its previous horseshoe orbit, and will be no further than 0.2

text: astronomical unit

text: s (30 million km) away from the Earth. There it will slowly circle the Earth almost like a second moon, although it takes one year for a circuit. After 45 years it finally switches back into the horseshoe orbit, until it again stays near the Earth for 45 years around the year 3750 and again in 6400. In these phases in which it stays outside its horseshoe orbit it oscillates in the narrow region along the Earth’s orbit where it is caught, moving back and forth in 15 years. Because it is not bound to the Earth like the Moon but is mainly under the gravitational influence of the Sun, it belongs to the bodies called

text: quasi-satellite

text: s. This is somewhat analogous to two

text: cars

text: travelling side by side at the same speed and repeatedly overtaking one another but which are however not attached to each other. Orbital calculations show that  was in this quasi-satellite orbit for 45 years from about 520 AD but because of its tiny size was too dim to have been seen. It switches approximately cyclically between the two orbital forms, but always stays for 45 years in the quasi-satellite orbit. Outside the time frame from about 520-6500 AD, the calculated orbits become

text: chaotic

text: i.e. not predictable, and thus for periods outside this time frame no exact statements can be made.  was the first known

text: heavenly body

text: that switches between horseshoe and quasi-satellite orbits.

text: Sputnik Weazel (born in Manchester in the 1960s) is a British singer/songwriter, composer, artist and session musician. In a career that was inspired by the beat poets & politicized by punk, Sputnik has busked with Eddie Izzard, jammed with Jools Holland, and performed at numerous venues & festivals throughout Europe.  Sputnik has written and released over 200 original songs to date, and has released 20 independent studio albums. From 2011 to the present day, Sputnik has occupied the drum stool for folk/punk icons The Men They Couldn't Hang, playing drums and piano on their latest fan-funded album The Defiant (2014). Sputnik's latest studio recording "Eulogy" is a thought provoking collection of eclectic tracks,covering a wide range of subject matters.

text: Sputnik Weazel (born in

text: Manchester

text: in the 1960s) is a British

text: singer/songwriter

text: , composer, artist and

text: session musician

text: . In a career that was inspired by the beat poets & politicized by punk, Sputnik has busked with

text: Eddie Izzard

text: , jammed with

text: Jools Holland

text: , and performed at numerous venues & festivals throughout Europe.  Sputnik has written and released over 200 original songs to date, and has released 20 independent studio albums. From 2011 to the present day, Sputnik has occupied the drum stool for folk/punk icons

text: The Men They Couldn't Hang

text: , playing drums and piano on their latest fan-funded album The Defiant (2014). Sputnik's latest studio recording "Eulogy" is a thought provoking collection of eclectic tracks,covering a wide range of subject matters.

text: Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta-v. Due to the relatively high delta-v to reach Mercury and its proximity to the Sun, it is difficult to explore and orbits around it are rather unstable.

text: Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or

text: delta-v

text: . Due to the relatively high delta-v to reach Mercury and its proximity to the Sun, it is difficult to explore and orbits around it are rather unstable.

text: NASA planners projected that human spaceflight would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race as well as accomplishing their long time goal, however, in 1960, an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that "man-in-space can not be justified" and was too costly. Eisenhower later resented the space program and its gargantuan price tag—he was quoted as saying, "Anyone who would spend $40 billion in a race to the moon for national prestige is nuts."

text: With the advent of the space age, Bracewell became interested in celestial mechanics, made observations of the radio emission from Sputnik 1, and supplied the press with accurate charts predicting the path of Soviet satellites, which were perfectly visible, if you knew when and where to look. Following the puzzling performance of Explorer I in orbit, he published the first explanation (1958-9) of the observed spin instability of satellites, in terms of the Poinsot motion of a non-rigid body with internal friction. He recorded the signals from Sputniks I, II and III and discussed them in terms of the satellite spin, antenna polarisation, and propagation effects of the ionised medium, especially Faraday effect.

text: With the advent of the space age, Bracewell became interested in

text: celestial mechanics

text: , made observations of the radio emission from

text: Sputnik 1

text: , and supplied the press with accurate charts predicting the path of Soviet satellites, which were perfectly visible, if you knew when and where to look. Following the puzzling performance of

text: Explorer I

text: in orbit, he published the first explanation (1958-9) of the observed spin instability of satellites, in terms of the Poinsot motion of a non-rigid body with internal friction. He recorded the signals from Sputniks I, II and III and discussed them in terms of the satellite spin, antenna polarisation, and propagation effects of the ionised medium, especially Faraday effect.

text: Sputnik 40 (, ), also known as Sputnik Jr, PS-2 and Radio Sputnik 17 (RS-17), was a Franco-Russian amateur radio satellite which was launched in 1997 to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite. A  one-third scale model of Sputnik 1, Sputnik 40 was deployed from the Mir space station on 3 November 1997. Built by students, the spacecraft was constructed at the Polytechnic Laboratory of Nalchik in Kabardino-Balkaria, whilst its transmitter was assembled by Jules Reydellet College in Réunion with technical support from AMSAT-France.

text: Sputnik 40 (, ), also known as Sputnik Jr, PS-2 and Radio Sputnik 17 (RS-17), was a

text: Franco-

text: Russia

text: n

text: amateur radio satellite

text: which was launched in 1997 to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: , the world's first artificial satellite. A  one-third scale model of Sputnik 1, Sputnik 40 was deployed from the

text: Mir

text: space station

text: on 3 November 1997. Built by students, the spacecraft was constructed at the

text: Polytechnic Laboratory of Nalchik

text: in

text: Kabardino-Balkaria

text: , whilst its transmitter was assembled by

text: Jules Reydellet College

text: in

text: Réunion

text: with technical support from

text: AMSAT-France

text: Tom Mueller is an American rocket engineer and rocket engine designer. He is a founding employee of SpaceX (Space Exploration Technologies Corp.), a space transport services company headquartered in Hawthorne, California. He is best known for his engineering work on the TR-106, the Dragon spacecraft propulsion, and Merlin Rocket Engines. He is considered one of the world's leading spacecraft propulsion experts and holds several United States patents for propulsion technology.

text: Tom Mueller is an American

text: rocket engineer

text: and

text: rocket engine designer

text: . He is a founding employee of

text: SpaceX

text: (Space Exploration Technologies Corp.), a space transport services company headquartered in

text: Hawthorne, California

text: . He is best known for his engineering work on the

text: , the

text: Dragon spacecraft

text: propulsion, and

text: Merlin Rocket Engines

text: . He is considered one of the world's leading

text: spacecraft propulsion

text: experts and holds several United States

text: patents

text: for propulsion technology.

text: Three large orbit rings of stainless steel encircle the Unisphere at various angles.  These orbit rings are believed to represent the tracks of Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space, John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth, and Telstar, the first active communications satellite. In fact, the early design was to have a ring for each of a dozen satellites in place at the time of the Fair. This proved impractical, not only in the number of satellites, but also in the height of their orbits and the fact that geostationary satellites had no orbit path. As a result, a symbolic number of three was chosen for aesthetic reasons.

text: Three large orbit rings of stainless steel encircle the Unisphere at various angles.  These orbit rings are believed to represent the tracks of

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: , the first man in space,

text: John Glenn

text: , the first American to orbit the Earth, and

text: Telstar

text: , the first active

text: communications satellite

text: . In fact, the early design was to have a ring for each of a dozen satellites in place at the time of the Fair. This proved impractical, not only in the number of satellites, but also in the height of their orbits and the fact that

text: geostationary

text: satellites had no orbit path. As a result, a symbolic number of three was chosen for aesthetic reasons.

text: The system was also tested for space debris tracking and the radars were proven to be capable of statistical observations of Low-Earth orbit (LEO) debris (altitudes of 500 to 1500 km) down to 2 cm in size. Since these measurements are insufficient to determine complete orbits, the radar has only limited space surveillance value. Because the space debris tracking change is only a dedicated back-end computer system, the primary EISCAT observations are not compromised. As a result of that, the EISCAT radars allow continuous monitoring of the LEO debris in a beam park mode, functioning as a space surveillance system part of the European Space Agency's Space Situational Awareness Programme (SSA).

text: The system was also tested for

text: space debris

text: tracking

text: and the radars were proven to be capable of statistical observations of

text: Low-Earth orbit

text: (LEO) debris (altitudes of 500 to 1500 km) down to 2 cm in size. Since these measurements are insufficient to determine complete

text: orbit

text: s, the radar has only limited space surveillance value. Because the space debris tracking change is only a dedicated back-end computer system, the primary EISCAT observations are not compromised. As a result of that, the EISCAT radars allow continuous monitoring of the LEO debris in a

text: beam park

text: mode, functioning as a space surveillance system part of the

text: European Space Agency

text: 's

text: Space Situational Awareness Programme

text: (SSA).

text: Dr. von Braun had proposed to Project Orbiter  using a Redstone as the main booster for launching artificial satellites on June 25, 1954.  The day Sputnik 1 launched, October 4, 1957, von Braun had been showing incoming Defense Secretary Neil McElroy around the Redstone Arsenal.  They received the news about Sputnik  as they relaxed that afternoon.  Von Braun turned to McElroy.  "We could have been in orbit a year ago," he said. "We knew they [the Soviets] were going to do it!  Vanguard will never make it.  We have the hardware on the shelf… We can put up a satellite in 60 days."  McElroy was not confirmed until the next week and did not have the power to back their proposal.  On November 8, McElroy directed the Army to modify two Jupiter-C missiles and to place a satellite in orbit by March 1958.The first stage was soon test fired.Eighty-four days later, on January 31, 1958, the ABMA launched the first US satellite, Explorer I, into orbit.  Following this successful launch, five more of these modified Jupiter-C missiles (subsequently re-designated Juno I) were launched in attempts to place additional Explorer satellites in orbit.  During this satellite program, the Department of the Army gathered a great deal of knowledge about space. Explorer I gathered and transmitted data on atmospheric densities and the earth's oblateness. It is primarily remembered, though, as the discover of the Van Allen cosmic radiation belt.

text: Dr. von Braun had proposed to

text: Project Orbiter

text: using a Redstone as the main booster for launching artificial satellites on June 25, 1954.  The day

text: Sputnik 1

text: launched, October 4, 1957, von Braun had been showing incoming Defense Secretary

text: Neil McElroy

text: around the Redstone Arsenal.  They received the news about Sputnik  as they relaxed that afternoon.  Von Braun turned to McElroy.  "We could have been in orbit a year ago," he said. "We knew they [the Soviets] were going to do it!  Vanguard will never make it.  We have the hardware on the shelf… We can put up a satellite in 60 days."  McElroy was not confirmed until the next week and did not have the power to back their proposal.  On November 8, McElroy directed the Army to modify two Jupiter-C missiles and to place a satellite in orbit by March 1958.The first stage was soon test fired.Eighty-four days later, on January 31, 1958, the ABMA launched the first US satellite, Explorer I, into orbit.  Following this successful launch, five more of these modified Jupiter-C missiles (subsequently re-designated Juno I) were launched in attempts to place additional Explorer satellites in orbit.  During this satellite program, the Department of the Army gathered a great deal of knowledge about space. Explorer I gathered and transmitted data on atmospheric densities and the earth's oblateness. It is primarily remembered, though, as the discover of the

text: Van Allen cosmic radiation belt

text: In addition to her scientific research, Noble is a painter, and much of her artistic work is inspired by space exploration and alien worlds.

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) also maintains a facility on Chichijima.  The Ogasawara Downrange Station at Kuwanokiyama,  was established  in 1975 as a National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) facility. The Station is equipped with radar (rocket telemeter antenna and precision radar antenna) to check the flight trajectories, status, and safety of rockets launched from the Tanegashima Space Center (TNSC).

text: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency

text: JAXA

text: ) also maintains a facility on Chichijima.  The Ogasawara Downrange Station at Kuwanokiyama,  was established  in 1975 as a

text: National Space Development Agency of Japan

text: NASDA

text: ) facility. The Station is equipped with

text: radar

text: (rocket telemeter antenna and precision radar antenna) to check the flight trajectories, status, and safety of rockets launched from the

text: Tanegashima Space Center

text: TNSC

text: Another remarkable feature of Countdown was the inclusion of non-fiction articles about current space exploration,mostly written by Arnold Kingston. These included a level of technical detail more typical of the technical trade journals aimed at adult professionals: for example, in a 1971 issue of Countdown, the fourth installment of a series on Unmanned satellites, entitled Space Lighthouses explained the Doppler effect and gave details of US and Soviet navigation satellite programmes.

text: Another remarkable feature of Countdown was the inclusion of non-fiction articles about current space exploration,mostly written by Arnold Kingston. These included a level of technical detail more typical of the technical trade journals aimed at adult professionals: for example, in a 1971 issue of Countdown, the fourth installment of a series on Unmanned satellites, entitled Space Lighthouses explained the

text: Doppler effect

text: and gave details of US and Soviet navigation satellite programmes.

text: A second space lab, Tiangong 2, launched on 15 September 2016, 22:04:09 (UTC+8). The launch mass was 8,600 kg, with a length of 10.4m and a width of 3.35m, much like the Tiangong 1.  The Tiangong 2 is projected to rendezvous with Shenzhou 11 sometime in Oct 2016, with an unconfirmed further mission Shenzhou 12 further in the future. The Tiangong 2 brings with it the POLAR gamma ray burst detector, a space-Earth quantum key distribution and laser communications experiment to be used in conjunction with the Mozi ‘Quantum Science Satellite’, a liquid bridge thermocapillary convection experiment and a space material experiment. Also included is a stereoscopic microwave altimeter, a space plant growth experiment, and a multi-angle wide-spectral imager and multi-spectral limb imaging spectrometer. Onboard TG-2 there will also be the world’s first-ever in-space cold atomic fountain clock.

text: A second space lab,

text: Tiangong 2

text: , launched on 15 September 2016, 22:04:09 (UTC+8). The launch mass was 8,600 kg, with a length of 10.4m and a width of 3.35m, much like the Tiangong 1.  The Tiangong 2 is projected to rendezvous with Shenzhou 11 sometime in Oct 2016, with an unconfirmed further mission Shenzhou 12 further in the future. The Tiangong 2 brings with it the POLAR gamma ray burst detector, a space-Earth quantum key distribution and laser communications experiment to be used in conjunction with the Mozi ‘Quantum Science Satellite’, a liquid bridge thermocapillary convection experiment and a space material experiment. Also included is a stereoscopic microwave altimeter, a space plant growth experiment, and a multi-angle wide-spectral imager and multi-spectral limb imaging spectrometer. Onboard TG-2 there will also be the world’s first-ever in-space cold atomic fountain clock.

text: Nobody knows what the long-term human future in space will be.  Perhaps after gaining experience with routine spaceflight by exploring different worlds in the Solar System and deflecting a few asteroids, the possibility of constructing non-modular space habitats and infrastructure will be within capability.  Such possibilities include mass drivers on the Moon, which launch payloads into space using only electricity, and spinning space colonies with closed ecological systems.  A Mars in the early stages of terraformation, where inhabitants only need simple oxygen masks to walk out on the surface, may be seen.  In any case, such futures require space architecture.

text: Nobody knows what the long-term human future in space will be.  Perhaps after gaining experience with routine spaceflight by exploring different worlds in the Solar System and deflecting a few asteroids, the possibility of constructing non-modular space habitats and infrastructure will be within capability.  Such possibilities include

text: mass drivers

text: on the Moon, which launch payloads into space using only electricity, and spinning space colonies with

text: closed ecological system

text: s.  A Mars in the early stages of

text: terraformation

text: , where inhabitants only need simple oxygen masks to walk out on the surface, may be seen.  In any case, such futures require space architecture.

text: The first US unmanned satellite was Explorer 1, which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early part of the Space Race. It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer project was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the solar wind, among other aspects. A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the Hubble Space Telescope, which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990.

text: The first US unmanned satellite was

text: Explorer 1

text: , which started as an ABMA/JPL project during the early part of the

text: Space Race

text: . It was launched in January 1958, two months after Sputnik. At the creation of NASA the Explorer project was transferred to this agency and still continues to this day. Its missions have been focusing on the Earth and the Sun, measuring magnetic fields and the

text: solar wind

text: , among other aspects. A more recent Earth mission, not related to the Explorer program, was the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , which as mentioned above was brought into orbit in 1990.

text: In 1973, Atari's Space Race was a space-themed arcade game where players controlled spaceships that race against opposing ships, while avoiding comets and meteors. It was a competitive two-player game controlled using a two-way joystick, and was presented in black and white graphics. The same year, Taito released a similar space-themed racing game Astro Race, which used an early four-way joystick.

text: In 1973,

text: Atari

text: 's

text: Space Race

text: was a space-themed

text: arcade game

text: where players controlled spaceships that race against opposing ships, while avoiding comets and meteors. It was a competitive

text: two-player

text: game controlled using a two-way joystick, and was presented in

text: black and white

text: graphics. The same year,

text: Taito

text: released a similar space-themed racing game Astro Race, which used an early four-way

text: joystick

text: The launch of Sputnik surprised the American public and shattered the perception, furthered by American propaganda, of the United States as the technological superpower and the Soviet Union as a backward country. Privately, however, the CIA and President Eisenhower were aware of progress being made by the Soviets on Sputnik from secret spy plane imagery. Together with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Army Ballistic Missile Agency built Explorer 1, and launched it on 31 January 1958. Before work was completed, however, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, Sputnik 2, on 3 November 1957. Meanwhile, the televised failure of Vanguard TV3 on 6 December 1957 deepened American dismay over the country's position in the Space Race. The Americans took a more aggressive stance in the emerging space race, resulting in an emphasis on science and technological research and reforms in many areas from the military to education systems. The federal government began investing in science, engineering and mathematics at all levels of education.  An advanced research group was assembled for military purposes. These research groups developed weapons such as ICBMs and missile defense systems, as well as spy satellites for the U.S.

text: The launch of Sputnik surprised the American public and shattered the perception, furthered by American propaganda, of the United States as the technological superpower and the Soviet Union as a backward country. Privately, however, the CIA and President Eisenhower were aware of progress being made by the Soviets on Sputnik from secret spy plane imagery. Together with the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: (JPL), the

text: Army Ballistic Missile Agency

text: built

text: Explorer 1

text: , and launched it on 31 January 1958. Before work was completed, however, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite,

text: Sputnik 2

text: , on 3 November 1957. Meanwhile, the televised failure of

text: Vanguard TV3

text: on 6 December 1957 deepened American dismay over the country's position in the

text: Space Race

text: . The Americans took a more aggressive stance in the emerging space race, resulting in an emphasis on science and technological research and reforms in many areas from the military to education systems. The federal government began investing in science, engineering and mathematics at all levels of education.  An advanced research group was assembled for military purposes. These research groups developed weapons such as ICBMs and missile defense systems, as well as spy satellites for the U.S.

text: According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, the asteroid measures 11.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.19. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) assumes an albedo of 0.14 – which derives from 221 Eos, the largest member and namesake of this orbital family – and calculates a diameter of 12.3 kilometers. While CALL classifies it as a stony S-type asteroid, the large-scale survey by Pan-STARRS rates it a CX class body, a transitional type between the carbonaceous C-type and the metallic X-type asteroids.

text: NEOWISE

text: mission of NASA's space-based

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: , the asteroid measures 11.0 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an

text: albedo

text: of 0.19. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) assumes an albedo of 0.14 – which derives from

text: 221 Eos

text: , the largest member and namesake of this orbital family – and calculates a diameter of 12.3 kilometers. While CALL classifies it as a stony

text: S-type

text: asteroid, the large-scale survey by

text: Pan-STARRS

text: rates it a CX class body, a transitional type between the carbonaceous

text: C-type

text: and the metallic

text: X-type

text: asteroids.

text: NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Unmanned programs launched the first American artificial satellites into Earth orbit for scientific and communications purposes, and sent scientific probes to explore the planets of the solar system, starting with Venus and Mars, and including "grand tours" of the outer planets. Manned programs sent the first Americans into low Earth orbit (LEO), won the Space Race with the Soviet Union by landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 in the Apollo program, developed a semi-reusable LEO Space Shuttle, and developed LEO space station capability by itself and with the cooperation of several other nations including post-Soviet Russia. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter.

text: NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Unmanned programs launched the first American artificial

text: satellite

text: s into Earth orbit for scientific and

text: communications

text: purposes, and sent scientific probes to explore the planets of the solar system, starting with

text: Venus

text: and

text: Mars

text: , and including "

text: grand tours

text: " of the outer planets. Manned programs sent the first Americans into

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO), won the

text: Space Race

text: with the

text: Soviet Union

text: by landing twelve men on the Moon from 1969 to 1972 in the

text: Apollo program

text: , developed a semi-reusable LEO

text: Space Shuttle

text: , and developed LEO

text: space station

text: capability by itself and with the cooperation of several other nations including post-Soviet

text: Russia

text: . Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter.

text: There were two other NASA space communication networks at the time, the Spacecraft Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (STADAN) for tracking unmanned satellites in low Earth orbit, and the Deep Space Network (DSN) for tracking more distant unmanned missions. After the end of Skylab, the MSFN and STADAN were merged to form the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN). STDN was in turn replaced by the satellite-based Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) during the Space Shuttle program, being used .

text: There were two other NASA space communication networks at the time, the

text: (STADAN) for tracking unmanned satellites in low Earth orbit, and the

text: Deep Space Network

text: (DSN) for tracking more distant unmanned missions. After the end of Skylab, the MSFN and STADAN were merged to form the

text: Spaceflight

text: Tracking and Data Network (STDN). STDN was in turn replaced by the satellite-based

text: (TDRSS) during the Space Shuttle program, being used .

text: By the early 1970s, astronomers began to consider the possibility of placing an infrared telescope above the obscuring effects of Earth's atmosphere.In 1979, a report from the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences, A Strategy for Space Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980s, identified a Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) as "one of two major astrophysics facilities [to be developed] for Spacelab", a Shuttle-borne platform. Anticipating the major results from an upcoming Explorer satellite and from the Shuttle mission, the report also favored the "study and development of ... long-duration spaceflights of infrared telescopes cooled to cryogenic temperatures."

text: By the early 1970s, astronomers began to consider the possibility of placing an

text: infrared telescope

text: above the obscuring effects of Earth's atmosphere.In 1979, a report from the National Research Council of the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: , A Strategy for Space Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980s, identified a Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) as "one of two major astrophysics facilities [to be developed] for

text: Spacelab

text: ", a Shuttle-borne platform. Anticipating the major results from an upcoming Explorer satellite and from the Shuttle mission, the report also favored the "study and development of ... long-duration spaceflights of infrared telescopes cooled to cryogenic temperatures."

text: The idea for the runabout came from the need to provide a way for characters to move away from Deep Space Nine, and also allowed the show to explore Star Treks themes of exploration and discovery despite DS9 being set on an immobile space station. In order to help the new show establish its own identity separate from The Next Generation, the decision was made to have something larger and more capable than the shuttlecraft seen in previous series of Star Trek. The series bible describes the Danube class vessels as "the symbol of the Federation presence in [Deep Space Nines] sector". The Starfleet design elements were intended as a touch of familiarity for the characters (and in turn, the viewers) in environments dominated by alien designs and structures, specifically the Cardassians and Bajorans.

text: The idea for the runabout came from the need to provide a way for characters to move away from Deep Space Nine, and also allowed the show to explore Star Treks themes of exploration and discovery despite DS9 being set on an immobile space station. In order to help the new show establish its own identity separate from The Next Generation, the decision was made to have something larger and more capable than the

text: shuttlecraft

text: seen in previous series of Star Trek. The

text: series bible

text: describes the Danube class vessels as "the symbol of the

text: Federation

text: presence in [Deep Space Nines] sector". The

text: Starfleet

text: design elements were intended as a touch of familiarity for the characters (and in turn, the viewers) in environments dominated by alien designs and structures, specifically the

text: Cardassian

text: s and

text: Bajoran

text: s.

text: Stuhlinger played a small but important role in the race to launch a US satellite after the success of Sputnik 1. As there was little time to develop and test automated systems like guidance or staging systems, Stuhlinger developed a simple spring-powered staging timer that had to be triggered from the ground. On the night of January 31, 1958, Stuhlinger was at the controls of the timer when the Explorer 1 was launched, triggering the device right on time. He became known as "the man with the golden finger."  This satellite discovered the  Van Allen radiation belt through a radiation sensor to detect cosmic rays, a felicitous intersection with his early physics expertise, included in a science package supervised by Stuhlinger.

text: Stuhlinger played a small but important role in the race to launch a US satellite after the success of

text: Sputnik 1

text: . As there was little time to develop and test automated systems like guidance or staging systems, Stuhlinger developed a simple spring-powered staging timer that had to be triggered from the ground. On the night of January 31, 1958, Stuhlinger was at the controls of the timer when the

text: Explorer 1

text: was launched, triggering the device right on time. He became known as "the man with the golden finger."  This satellite discovered the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: through a radiation sensor to detect cosmic rays, a felicitous intersection with his early physics expertise, included in a science package supervised by Stuhlinger.

text: In the story it is revealed that the Abhs were originally engineered to be slaves (bioroids), meant to be used for deep space exploration. Their creators were a group of ultranationalistic East Asians (strongly implied to be Japanese) trying to recreate a "purified" version of their culture in space. One group of these bonded explorers left their space metropolis and chose not to return to their creators and instead form their own independent state. Unfortunately, their fear that their creators would send a punitive force to destroy them was too great and eventually these pioneering Abhs decided to launch a preemptive strike to destroy their creators' space metropolis. In the process they discovered that their former masters were not strong enough to put up sufficient resistance resulting in their destruction. This created a sense of collective guilt among the founding fathers of the Abhs which they try to ease through adopting, protecting, developing, and passing on to their descendants the culture of their metropolis of origin.

text: In the story it is revealed that the Abhs were originally engineered to be slaves (

text: bioroid

text: s), meant to be used for deep space exploration. Their creators were a group of

text: ultranationalist

text: ic

text: East Asia

text: ns (strongly implied to be

text: Japanese

text: ) trying to recreate a "purified" version of their culture in space. One group of these bonded explorers left their space

text: metropolis

text: and chose not to return to their creators and instead form their own independent state. Unfortunately, their fear that their creators would send a punitive force to destroy them was too great and eventually these pioneering Abhs decided to launch a preemptive strike to destroy their creators' space metropolis. In the process they discovered that their former masters were not strong enough to put up sufficient resistance resulting in their destruction. This created a sense of collective guilt among the

text: founding fathers

text: of the Abhs which they try to ease through adopting, protecting, developing, and passing on to their descendants the culture of their metropolis of origin.

text: On 3 September 2009 a deal was announced between ORBCOMM and Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) to launch 18 second-generation satellites with SpaceX launch vehicles between 2010 and 2014. SpaceX originally planned to use Falcon 1e rocket, but on March 14, 2011 it was announced that SpaceX will use Falcon 9 to carry the first two ORBCOMM next-generation OG2 satellites to orbit in 2011. On Oct. 7, 2012, the first SpaceX Falcon 9 launch of a prototype OG2 ORBCOMM communications satellite from Cape Canaveral failed to achieve proper orbit and the company filed a $10 million claim with its insurers. The ORBCOMM satellite was declared a total loss and burned up in the atmosphere upon rentry on October 10, 2012.

text: On 3 September 2009 a deal was announced between ORBCOMM and

text: Space Exploration Technologies

text: (SpaceX) to launch 18 second-generation satellites with SpaceX launch vehicles between 2010 and 2014. SpaceX originally planned to use

text: Falcon 1e

text: rocket, but on March 14, 2011 it was announced that SpaceX will use

text: Falcon 9

text: to carry the first two ORBCOMM next-generation OG2 satellites to orbit in 2011. On Oct. 7, 2012, the first SpaceX Falcon 9 launch of a prototype OG2 ORBCOMM communications satellite from Cape Canaveral failed to achieve proper orbit and the company filed a $10 million claim with its insurers. The ORBCOMM satellite was declared a total loss and burned up in the atmosphere upon rentry on October 10, 2012.

text: Vanguard 1 is the oldest artificial satellite still in space, as Vanguard's predecessors, Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2, and Explorer 1, have decayed from orbit.

text: The most important development in terms of delivery in the 1950s was the introduction of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Missiles had long been regarded the ideal platform for nuclear weapons, and were potentially a more effective delivery system than strategic bombers, which was the primary delivery method at the beginning of the Cold War. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union showed the world that they had missiles able to reach any part of the world when they launched the Sputnik satellite into Earth orbit. The United States launched its first satellite Explorer 1 on January 31, 1958. The Space Race showcased technology critical to the delivery of nuclear weapons, the ICBM boosters, while maintaining the appearance of being for science and exploration.

text: The most important development in terms of delivery in the 1950s was the introduction of

text: intercontinental ballistic missile

text: s (ICBMs). Missiles had long been regarded the ideal platform for nuclear weapons, and were potentially a more effective delivery system than

text: strategic bombers

text: , which was the primary delivery method at the beginning of the Cold War. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union showed the world that they had missiles able to reach any part of the world when they launched the

text: Sputnik

text: satellite into Earth orbit. The United States launched its first satellite

text: Explorer 1

text: on January 31, 1958. The

text: Space Race

text: showcased technology critical to the delivery of nuclear weapons, the ICBM boosters, while maintaining the appearance of being for science and exploration.

text: The first stage was to have been a more powerful and reusable solid fuel rocket derived from the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster (SRB). Compared with the Solid Rocket Booster, which had four segments, the most notable difference was the addition of a fifth segment.  This fifth segment would have enabled the Ares I to produce more thrust.  Other changes made to the Solid Rocket Booster were to have been  the removal of the Space Shuttle External Tank (ET) attachment points and the replacement of the Solid Rocket Booster nosecone with a new forward adapter that would have interfaced with the liquid-fueled second stage.  The adapter was to have been equipped with solid-fueled separation motors to facilitate the disconnection of the stages during ascent.  The grain design was also changed, and so were the insulation and liner.  By the Ares I first stage ground test, the case, grain design, number of segments, insulation, liner, throat diameter, thermal protection systems and nozzle had all changed.

text: The first stage was to have been a more powerful and reusable

text: solid fuel rocket

text: derived from the

text: Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster

text: (SRB). Compared with the Solid Rocket Booster, which had four segments, the most notable difference was the addition of a fifth segment.  This fifth segment would have enabled the Ares I to produce more thrust.  Other changes made to the Solid Rocket Booster were to have been  the removal of the

text: Space Shuttle External Tank

text: (ET) attachment points and the replacement of the Solid Rocket Booster nosecone with a new forward adapter that would have interfaced with the liquid-fueled second stage.  The adapter was to have been equipped with solid-fueled separation motors to facilitate the disconnection of the stages during ascent.  The grain design was also changed, and so were the insulation and liner.  By the Ares I first stage ground test, the case, grain design, number of segments, insulation, liner, throat diameter, thermal protection systems and nozzle had all changed.

text: A satellite is said to occupy an inclined orbit around the Earth if the orbit exhibits an angle other than zero degrees with the equatorial plane. This angle is called the orbit's inclination. A planet is said to have an inclined orbit around the Sun if it has an angle other than zero to the plane of the ecliptic.

text: A satellite is said to occupy an inclined orbit around the

text: Earth

text: if the orbit exhibits an angle other than zero degrees with the

text: equatorial plane

text: . This angle is called the

text: orbit

text: 's

text: inclination

text: . A planet is said to have an inclined orbit around the

text: Sun

text: if it has an angle other than zero to the

text: plane of the ecliptic

text: Although he was not the originator of the concept of geostationary satellites, one of his most important contributions in this field may be his idea that they would be ideal telecommunications relays. He advanced this idea in a paper privately circulated among the core technical members of the British Interplanetary Society in 1945. The concept was published in Wireless World in October of that year. Clarke also wrote a number of non-fiction books describing the technical details and societal implications of rocketry and space flight. The most notable of these may be Interplanetary Flight (1950), The Exploration of Space (1951) and The Promise of Space (1968). In recognition of these contributions, the geostationary orbit  above the equator is officially recognised by the International Astronomical Union as a Clarke Orbit.

text: Although he was not the originator of the concept of

text: geostationary satellite

text: s, one of his most important contributions in this field may be his idea that they would be ideal telecommunications relays. He advanced this idea in a paper privately circulated among the core technical members of the British Interplanetary Society in 1945. The concept was published in

text: Wireless World

text: in October of that year. Clarke also wrote a number of non-fiction books describing the technical details and societal implications of rocketry and space flight. The most notable of these may be Interplanetary Flight (1950), The Exploration of Space (1951) and The Promise of Space (1968). In recognition of these contributions, the

text: geostationary orbit

text: above the equator is officially recognised by the

text: International Astronomical Union

text: as a

text: Clarke Orbit

text: In mathematics, a prehomogeneous vector space (PVS) is a finite-dimensional vector space V together with a subgroup G of the general linear group GL(V) such that G has an open dense orbit in V. Prehomogeneous vector spaces were introduced by Mikio Sato in 1970 and have many applications in geometry, number theory and analysis, as well as representation theory. The irreducible PVS were classified by Sato and Tatsuo Kimura in 1977, up to a transformation known as "castling". They are subdivided into two types, according to whether the semisimple part of G acts prehomogeneously or not. If it doesn't then there is a homogeneous polynomial on V which is invariant under the semisimple part of G.

text: In mathematics, a prehomogeneous vector space (PVS) is a finite-dimensional

text: vector space

text: V together with a subgroup G of the

text: general linear group

text: GL(V) such that G has an open dense

text: orbit

text: in V. Prehomogeneous vector spaces were introduced by

text: Mikio Sato

text: in 1970 and have many applications in

text: geometry

text: number theory

text: and

text: analysis

text: , as well as

text: representation theory

text: . The irreducible PVS were classified by Sato and Tatsuo Kimura in 1977, up to a transformation known as "castling". They are subdivided into two types, according to whether the semisimple part of G acts prehomogeneously or not. If it doesn't then there is a homogeneous polynomial on V which is invariant under the semisimple part of G.

text: The social teachings of Pope Pius XII repeated these teachings and applied them in greater detail not only to workers and owners of capital, but also to other professions such as politicians, educators, housewives, farmers bookkeepers, international organizations, and all aspects of life including the military. Going beyond Pius XI, he also defined social teachings in the areas of medicine, psychology, sport, TV, science, law and education. There is virtually no social issue, which Pius XII did not address and relate to the Christian faith. He was called "the Pope of Technology", for his willingness and ability to examine the social implications of technological advances. The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual. With the beginning of the space age at the end of his pontificate, Pius XII explored the social implications of space exploration and satellites on the social fabric of humanity asking for a new sense of community and solidarity in light of existing papal teachings on subsidiarity.

text: The social teachings of

text: Pope Pius XII

text: repeated these teachings and applied them in greater detail not only to workers and owners of capital, but also to other professions such as politicians, educators, housewives, farmers bookkeepers, international organizations, and all aspects of life including the military. Going beyond Pius XI, he also defined social teachings in the areas of medicine, psychology, sport, TV, science, law and education. There is virtually no social issue, which Pius XII did not address and relate to the Christian faith. He was called "the Pope of Technology", for his willingness and ability to examine the social implications of technological advances. The dominant concern was the continued rights and dignity of the individual. With the beginning of the

text: space age

text: at the end of his pontificate, Pius XII explored the social implications of space exploration and satellites on the social fabric of humanity asking for a new sense of community and solidarity in light of existing papal teachings on

text: subsidiarity

text: Mizuguchi worked for Japanese game publisher, Sega, from 1990 to 2003 and began his career – not on a game – but by first designing an interactive 'ride' titled Megalopolis, combining then-embryonic 3D polygonal graphics and CGI (Computer-generated imagery) with the physical experience of Sega's hydraulic 'AS-1' motion simulator. With his team having gained enough experience with 3D graphics technology, he then went on to develop the acclaimed racing simulator, Sega Rally, which was influential in the racing space, inspiring future racing game franchises like Colin McRae Rally (another rally simulator) and the rally segments of the Gran Turismo (series). He continued in the racing genre with Sega Rally Championship 2 and Sega Touring Car Championship, before moving onto early rhythm-based music games like Space Channel 5 (and Space Channel 5: Part 2), and Rez. Space Channel 5 and Rez (especially Rez) are referenced in modern gaming media as essential and influential to the development of the modern wave of music-rhythm games, with Harmonix Music Systems co-founder, Alex Rigopulos citing Mizuguchi as an influence in Harmonix's history. Mizuguchi's final position at Sega was Chief Creative Officer of Sega's United Game Artists game division.

text: Mizuguchi worked for Japanese game publisher,

text: Sega

text: , from 1990 to 2003 and began his career – not on a game – but by first designing an interactive 'ride' titled Megalopolis, combining then-embryonic 3D polygonal graphics and CGI (

text: Computer-generated imagery

text: ) with the physical experience of Sega's hydraulic 'AS-1' motion simulator. With his team having gained enough experience with 3D graphics technology, he then went on to develop the acclaimed racing simulator,

text: Sega Rally

text: , which was influential in the racing space, inspiring future racing game franchises like

text: Colin McRae Rally

text: (another rally simulator) and the rally segments of the

text: Gran Turismo (series)

text: . He continued in the racing genre with

text: Sega Rally Championship 2

text: and

text: Sega Touring Car Championship

text: , before moving onto early rhythm-based music games like

text: Space Channel 5

text: (and

text: Space Channel 5: Part 2

text: ), and

text: Rez

text: . Space Channel 5 and Rez (especially Rez) are referenced in modern gaming media as essential and influential to the development of the modern wave of music-rhythm games, with

text: Harmonix Music Systems

text: co-founder,

text: Alex Rigopulos

text: citing Mizuguchi as an influence in Harmonix's history. Mizuguchi's final position at Sega was Chief Creative Officer of Sega's

text: United Game Artists

text: game division.

text: In the 1990s, American expatriate Rick Meints was a member of the Reaching Moon Megacorp, the British fan publisher that was the center of Glorantha culture at the time. Meints was one of the staff on the leading Glorantha fanzine Tales of the Reaching Moon (1989-2002), published by Reaching Moon Megacorp. The Megacorp also published Meints's book on collecting Gloranthan publications, The Meints Index to Glorantha (1996, 1999). In 1998 Meints and Colin Phillips founded Moon Design Publications, the publisher of HeroQuest.

text: In the 1990s, American expatriate Rick Meints was a member of the

text: Reaching Moon Megacorp

text: , the British fan publisher that was the center of Glorantha culture at the time. Meints was one of the staff on the leading

text: Glorantha

text: fanzine

text: Tales of the Reaching Moon

text: (1989-2002), published by Reaching Moon Megacorp. The Megacorp also published Meints's book on collecting Gloranthan publications, The Meints Index to Glorantha (1996, 1999). In 1998 Meints and

text: Colin Phillips

text: founded

text: Moon Design Publications

text: , the publisher of

text: HeroQuest

text: There have been women in Antarctica and exploring the regions around Antarctica for many centuries. Oral tradition of Māori explorers reaching Antarctic waters as early as 650 CE, put women on the Antarctic map. The most celebrated "first" for women was in 1935 when Caroline Mikkelsen became the first woman to set foot on one of Antarctica's islands. Early male explorers, such as Richard Byrd, named areas of Antarctica after wives and female heads of state. As Antarctica moved from a place of exploration and conquest to a scientific frontier, women worked to be included in the sciences. The first countries to have female scientists working in Antarctica were the former Soviet Union, South Africa and Argentina.

text: There have been women in

text: Antarctica

text: and exploring the regions around Antarctica for many centuries.

text: Oral tradition

text: of

text: Māori

text: explorers reaching Antarctic waters as early as 650 CE, put women on the Antarctic map. The most celebrated "first" for women was in 1935 when

text: Caroline Mikkelsen

text: became the first woman to set foot on one of Antarctica's islands. Early male explorers, such as

text: Richard Byrd

text: , named areas of Antarctica after wives and female heads of state. As Antarctica moved from a place of exploration and conquest to a scientific frontier, women worked to be included in the sciences. The first countries to have female scientists working in Antarctica were the former

text: Soviet Union

text: South Africa

text: and

text: Argentina

text: Exploring Space is a historical gallery, filled with rockets and exhibits that tell the story of human space exploration and the benefits that space exploration has brought us (particularly in the world of telecommunications).

text: Exploring Space is a historical gallery, filled with rockets and exhibits that tell the story of human

text: space exploration

text: and the benefits that space exploration has brought us (particularly in the world of

text: telecommunications

text: In 1955, with both the United States and the Soviet Union building ballistic missiles that could be utilized to launch objects into space, the "starting line" was drawn for the Space Race. In separate announcements four days apart, both nations publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites by 1957 or 1958. On July 29, 1955, James C. Hagerty, president Dwight D. Eisenhower's press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch "small Earth circling satellites" between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of their contribution to the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Four days later, at the Sixth Congress of International Astronautical Federation in Copenhagen, scientist Leonid I. Sedov spoke to international reporters at the Soviet embassy, and announced his country's intention to launch a satellite as well, in the "near future". On August 30, 1955, Korolev managed to get the Soviet Academy of Sciences to create a commission whose purpose was to beat the Americans into Earth orbit: this was the de facto start date for the Space Race. The Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union began a policy of treating development of its space program as a classified state secret.

text: In 1955, with both the United States and the Soviet Union building ballistic missiles that could be utilized to launch objects into space, the "starting line" was drawn for the Space Race. In separate announcements four days apart, both nations publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites by 1957 or 1958. On July 29, 1955,

text: James C. Hagerty

text: , president

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: 's press secretary, announced that the United States intended to launch "small Earth circling satellites" between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of their contribution to the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: (IGY). Four days later, at the

text: Sixth Congress of International Astronautical Federation

text: in Copenhagen, scientist

text: Leonid I. Sedov

text: spoke to international reporters at the Soviet embassy, and announced his country's intention to launch a satellite as well, in the "near future". On August 30, 1955, Korolev managed to get the

text: Soviet Academy of Sciences

text: to create a commission whose purpose was to beat the Americans into Earth orbit: this was the de facto start date for the Space Race. The

entity_name: Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union

text: Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union

text: began a policy of treating development of its space program as a

text: classified state secret

text: Russia launches the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into orbit, beginning the space age. The US launches its first satellite, Explorer 1, four months later.

text: Sputnik () is the name of several rural localities in Russia:

text: Sputnik () is the name of several

text: rural localities

text: in

text: Russia

text: Nonetheless, on March 1, 1970, von Braun and his family relocated to Washington, DC, when he was assigned the post of NASA's Deputy Associate Administrator for Planning at NASA Headquarters. After a series of conflicts associated with the truncation of the Apollo program, and facing severe budget constraints, von Braun retired from NASA on May 26, 1972. Not only had it become evident by this time that NASA and his visions for future U.S. space flight projects were incompatible, but also it was perhaps even more frustrating for him to see popular support for a continued presence of man in space wane dramatically once the goal to reach the Moon had been accomplished.

text: 3753 Cruithne ( or ) is a Q-type, Aten asteroid in orbit around the Sun in 1:1 orbital resonance with Earth, making it a co-orbital object. It is an asteroid that, relative to Earth, orbits in a bean-shaped orbit that effectively describes a horseshoe, and that can transition into a quasi-satellite orbit. It has been incorrectly called "Earth's second moon". Cruithne does not orbit Earth and at times it is on the other side of the Sun. Its orbit takes it inside the orbit of Mercury and outside the orbit of Mars. Cruithne orbits the Sun in about 1 year but it takes 770 years for the series to complete a horseshoe-shaped movement around the Earth.

text: 3753 Cruithne ( or ) is a

text: Q-type

text: Aten asteroid

text: in

text: orbit

text: around the

text: Sun

text: in 1:1

text: orbital resonance

text: with Earth, making it a

text: co-orbital object

text: . It is an

text: asteroid

text: that, relative to Earth, orbits in a bean-shaped orbit that effectively describes a

text: horseshoe

text: , and that can transition into a

text: quasi-satellite

text: orbit. It has been incorrectly called "

text: Earth's second moon

text: ". Cruithne does not orbit Earth and at times it is on the other side of the Sun. Its orbit takes it inside the orbit of

text: Mercury

text: and outside the orbit of

text: Mars

text: . Cruithne orbits the Sun in about 1 year but it takes 770 years for the series to complete a horseshoe-shaped movement around the Earth.

text: The Space Age began with the development of several technologies that culminated on October 4, 1957, with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union. This was the world's first artificial satellite, orbiting the Earth in 98.1 minutes and weighing . The launch of Sputnik 1 ushered a new era of political, scientific and technological achievements that became known as the Space Age.

text: The Space Age began with the development of several technologies that culminated on October 4, 1957, with the launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: by the

text: Soviet Union

text: . This was the world's first artificial satellite, orbiting the Earth in 98.1 minutes and weighing . The launch of Sputnik 1 ushered a new era of political, scientific and technological achievements that became known as the Space Age.

text: Both in early and in late inscriptions Shamash is designated as the "offspring of Nannar"; i.e. of the Moon-god, and since, in an enumeration of the pantheon, Sin generally takes precedence of Shamash, it is in relationship, presumably, to the Moon-god that the Sun-god appears as the dependent power. Such a supposition would accord with the prominence acquired by the Moon in the calendar and in astrological calculations, as well as with the fact that the Moon-cult belongs to the nomadic and therefore earlier stage of civilization, whereas the Sun-god rises to full importance only after the agricultural stage has been reached.

text: Both in early and in late inscriptions Shamash is designated as the "offspring of

text: Nannar

text: "; i.e. of the Moon-god, and since, in an enumeration of the pantheon,

text: Sin

text: generally takes precedence of Shamash, it is in relationship, presumably, to the Moon-god that the Sun-god appears as the dependent power. Such a supposition would accord with the prominence acquired by the Moon in the calendar and in astrological calculations, as well as with the fact that the Moon-cult belongs to the nomadic and therefore earlier stage of civilization, whereas the Sun-god rises to full importance only after the agricultural stage has been reached.

text: In the wake of the Soviet Sputnik program in the late 1950s, Congress created the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration in 1958, chaired by majority leader John William McCormack. This select committee drafted the National Aeronautics and Space Act that created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). A staff report of the committee, the Space Handbook: Astronautics and its Applications, provided non-technical information about spaceflight to U.S. policy makers.

text: In the wake of the

text: Soviet

text: Sputnik program

text: in the late 1950s, Congress created the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration in 1958, chaired by majority leader

text: John William McCormack

text: . This select committee drafted the

text: National Aeronautics and Space Act

text: that created the

text: (NASA). A staff report of the committee, the Space Handbook: Astronautics and its Applications, provided non-technical information about spaceflight to U.S. policy makers.

text: SPOT (, lit. "Satellite for observation of Earth") is a commercial high-resolution optical imaging Earth observation satellite system operating from space. It is run by Spot Image, based in Toulouse, France. It was initiated by the CNES (Centre national d'études spatiales – the French space agency) in the 1970s and was developed in association with the SSTC (Belgian scientific, technical and cultural services) and the Swedish National Space Board (SNSB). It has been designed to improve the knowledge and management of the Earth by exploring the Earth's resources, detecting and  forecasting phenomena involving climatology and oceanography, and monitoring human activities and natural phenomena. The SPOT system includes a series of satellites and ground control resources for satellite control and programming, image production, and distribution. Earlier satellites were launched using the European Space Agency's Ariane 2, 3, and 4 rockets, while SPOT 6 and SPOT 7 were launched by the Indian PSLV.

text: SPOT (,

text: lit.

text: "Satellite for observation of Earth") is a commercial high-resolution optical imaging

text: Earth observation satellite

text: system operating from space. It is run by

text: Spot Image

text: , based in

text: Toulouse

text: France

text: . It was initiated by the

text: CNES

text: (Centre national d'études spatiales – the French space agency) in the 1970s and was developed in association with the SSTC (Belgian scientific, technical and cultural services) and the

text: Swedish National Space Board

text: (SNSB). It has been designed to improve the knowledge and management of

text: the Earth

text: by exploring the Earth's resources, detecting and  forecasting phenomena involving climatology and oceanography, and monitoring human activities and natural phenomena. The SPOT system includes a series of satellites and ground control resources for satellite control and programming, image production, and distribution. Earlier satellites were launched using the

text: European Space Agency

text: 's Ariane 2, 3, and 4 rockets, while SPOT 6 and SPOT 7 were launched by the

text: Indian

text: PSLV

text: The Falcon rocket family is an American family of multi-use rocket launch vehicles developed and operated by Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX).

text: The Falcon rocket family is an American family of multi-use rocket

text: launch vehicle

text: s developed and operated by Space Exploration Technologies (

text: SpaceX

text: The IBM RAD6000 radiation hardened single board computer, now produced by BAE Systems, was initially developed in a collaboration with the Space Electronics and Protection Branch and IBM Federal Systems and is now used on nearly 200 satellites and robotic spacecraft, including on the twin Mars Exploration Rovers—Spirit and Opportunity. In November 2005, the AFRL XSS-11 satellite demonstrator received Popular Science's "Best of What's New" award in the Aviation and Space category. The Space Vehicles Directorate is also a leading collaborator in the Department of Defense Operationally Responsive Space Office's Tactical Satellite Program and served as program manager for the development of TacSat-2, TacSat-3, and is current program manager for the development of TacSat-5. They also have contributed experimental sensors to TacSat-4 which is managed by the NRL's Center for Space Technology.

text: The

text: IBM RAD6000

text: radiation hardened

text: single board computer

text: , now produced by

text: BAE Systems

text: , was initially developed in a collaboration with the Space Electronics and Protection Branch and

text: IBM

text: Federal Systems and is now used on nearly 200 satellites and robotic spacecraft, including on the twin

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: s—

text: Spirit

text: and

text: Opportunity

text: . In November 2005, the AFRL

text: satellite demonstrator received

text: Popular Science

text: 's "Best of What's New" award in the Aviation and Space category. The Space Vehicles Directorate is also a leading collaborator in the Department of Defense

text: Operationally Responsive Space Office

text: 's

text: Tactical Satellite Program

text: and served as program manager for the development of

text: , and is current program manager for the development of

text: . They also have contributed experimental sensors to

text: which is managed by the NRL's Center for Space Technology.

text: Looking at the diagram, note that when the Moon's line of nodes (N1 & N2) rotates a little more than shown, and aligns with the Earth's equator, (from front to back, N1, Earth, and N2, seem to be the same dot), the Moon's orbit will reach its steepest angle with the Earth's equator, and in 9.3 years (from front to back, N2, Earth, N1 seem to be the same dot) it will be the shallowest: the 5.14° declination (tilt) of the Moon's orbit either adds to (major standstill) or subtracts from (minor standstill) the inclination of earth's rotation axis (23.439 degrees).

text: As part of human exploration of the Moon, numerous space missions have been undertaken to study Earth's natural satellite. Of the Moon landings; Luna 2 was the first spacecraft to reach its surface successfully, intentionally impacting the Moon on 13 September 1959. In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a controlled soft landing, while Luna 10 became the first mission to enter orbit.

text: As part of human

text: exploration of the Moon

text: , numerous space missions have been undertaken to study Earth's natural satellite. Of the

text: Moon landing

text: s;

text: Luna 2

text: was the first spacecraft to reach its surface successfully, intentionally impacting the Moon on 13 September 1959. In 1966,

text: Luna 9

text: became the first spacecraft to achieve a controlled

text: soft landing

text: , while

text: Luna 10

text: became the first mission to enter orbit.

text: Although Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and U.S. flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface. Russia and the U.S. are party to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which defines the Moon and all outer space as the "province of all mankind". This treaty also restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction.The 1979 Moon Agreement was created to restrict the exploitation of the Moon's resources by any single nation, but as of 2014, it has been signed and ratified by only 16 nations, none of which engages in self-launched human space exploration or has plans to do so. Although several individuals have made claims to the Moon in whole or in part, none of these are considered credible.

text: Although

text: Luna

text: landers scattered pennants of the

text: Soviet Union

text: on the Moon, and

text: U.S. flag

text: s were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the

text: Apollo astronauts

text: , no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface. Russia and the U.S. are party to the 1967

text: Outer Space Treaty

text: , which defines the Moon and all outer space as the "

text: province of all mankind

text: ". This treaty also restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and

text: weapons of mass destruction

text: .The 1979

text: Moon Agreement

text: was created to restrict the exploitation of the Moon's resources by any single nation, but as of 2014, it has been signed and ratified by only 16 nations, none of which engages in self-launched

text: human space exploration

text: or has plans to do so. Although several individuals have made

text: claims to the Moon

text: in whole or in part, none of these are considered credible.

text: As of October 2013, NBC News and Virgin Galactic have come together to create a new reality television show titled Space Race. The show "will follow contestants as they compete to win a flight into space aboard Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo rocket plane. It is not to be confused with the Children's Space TV show called "Space Racers""

text: As of October 2013,

text: NBC News

text: and

text: Virgin Galactic

text: have come together to create a new reality television show titled Space Race. The show "will follow contestants as they compete to win a flight into space aboard Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo rocket plane. It is not to be confused with the Children's Space TV show called "Space Racers""

text: The first artificial Earth satellite was Sputnik 1. Put into orbit by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, it was equipped with an on-board radio-transmitter that worked on two frequencies: 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Sputnik 1 was launched as a step in the exploration of space and rocket development. While incredibly important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose of sending data from one point on earth to another. And it was the first artificial satellite in the steps leading to today's satellite communications.

text: The first

text: artificial Earth satellite

text: was

text: Sputnik 1

text: . Put into orbit by the

text: Soviet Union

text: on October 4, 1957, it was equipped with an on-board

text: radio

text: transmitter

text: that worked on two frequencies: 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Sputnik 1 was launched as a step in the exploration of space and rocket development. While incredibly important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose of sending data from one point on earth to another. And it was the first artificial satellite in the steps leading to today's satellite communications.

text: The Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC) and Ghana Space Agency (GhsA) oversees the space exploration and space programmes of Ghana and GSSTC and GhsA officials are to have a national security observational satellite launched into orbit in 2015. The first practical step in its endeavor was a CanSat launched on 15 May 2013, a space programme spearheaded by the All Nations University College (ANUC) in Koforidua. The CanSat was deployed 200 m high from a helium-filled balloon and took some aerial images as well as temperature readings. As its next step in advancing space science and satellite technology in the sub-region, an amateur ground station has been designed and built by the university. It has successfully tracked and communicated with several amateur radio satellites in orbit including the International Space Station, receiving slow-scan TV images on 18 and 20 December 2014. The miniaturized earth observational satellite is to be launched into orbit in 2017.

text: The

text: (GSSTC) and Ghana Space Agency (GhsA) oversees the

text: space exploration

text: and

text: space program

text: mes of Ghana and GSSTC and GhsA officials are to have a

text: national security

text: observational satellite

text: launched into orbit in 2015. The first practical step in its endeavor was a

text: CanSat

text: launched on 15 May 2013, a space programme spearheaded by the All Nations University College (ANUC) in Koforidua. The CanSat was deployed 200 m high from a helium-filled balloon and took some aerial images as well as temperature readings. As its next step in advancing space science and satellite technology in the sub-region, an amateur ground station has been designed and built by the university. It has successfully tracked and communicated with several amateur radio satellites in orbit including the

text: International Space Station

text: , receiving

text: slow-scan TV

text: images on 18 and 20 December 2014. The miniaturized earth observational satellite is to be launched into orbit in 2017.

text: American and Russian satellites began measuring the Earth's field in the 1960s. In the fall of 1979, Magsat was launched and jointly operated by NASA and USGS until the spring of 1980. It had a cesium vapor scalar magnetometer and a fluxgate vector magnetometer. CHAMP, a German satellite, made precise gravity and magnetic measurements from 2001 to 2010.  A Danish satellite, Ørsted, was launched in 1999 and is still in operation, while the Swarm mission of the European Space Agency involves a "constellation" of three satellites that were launched in November, 2013.

text: American and Russian satellites began measuring the Earth's field in the 1960s. In the fall of 1979,

text: Magsat

text: was launched and jointly operated by

text: NASA

text: and

text: USGS

text: until the spring of 1980. It had a

text: cesium

text: vapor scalar magnetometer and a fluxgate vector magnetometer.

text: CHAMP

text: , a German satellite, made precise gravity and magnetic measurements from 2001 to 2010.  A Danish satellite,

text: Ørsted

text: , was launched in 1999 and is still in operation, while the

text: Swarm

text: mission of the

text: European Space Agency

text: involves a "constellation" of three satellites that were launched in November, 2013.

text: Space is explored not by short-sighted governments, but by the Earth Company, a private corporation which becomes enormously wealthy and powerful as a result. Nine star systems are found to lack planets suitable for colonization, so space stations are built in orbit instead, stepping-stones for further exploration. Then, Pell's World is found to be not only habitable, but already populated by the gentle, sentient (if technologically backward) Hisa. Pell Station is built. The planet is nicknamed "Downbelow" by the stationers, who also start to call their home "Downbelow Station".

text: Space is explored not by short-sighted governments, but by the Earth Company, a private corporation which becomes enormously wealthy and powerful as a result. Nine star systems are found to lack

text: planet

text: s suitable for colonization, so space stations are built in orbit instead, stepping-stones for further exploration. Then, Pell's World is found to be not only habitable, but already populated by the gentle, sentient (if technologically backward)

text: Hisa

text: . Pell Station is built. The planet is nicknamed "

text: Downbelow

text: " by the stationers, who also start to call their home "Downbelow Station".

text: Fueled partly by the Cold War, the 1960s became the decade of rapid development of rocket technology particularly in the Soviet Union (Vostok, Soyuz, Proton) and in the United States (e.g. the X-15 and X-20 Dyna-Soar aircraft). There was also significant research in other countries, such as Britain, Japan, Australia, etc., and a growing use of rockets for Space exploration, with pictures returned from the far side of the Moon and unmanned flights for Mars exploration.

text: Fueled partly by the

text: Cold War

text: , the 1960s became the decade of rapid development of rocket technology particularly in the Soviet Union (

text: Vostok

text: Soyuz

text: Proton

text: ) and in the United States (e.g. the

text: and

text: X-20 Dyna-Soar

text: aircraft). There was also significant research in other countries, such as Britain, Japan, Australia, etc., and a growing use of rockets for

text: Space exploration

text: , with pictures returned from the far side of the

text: Moon

text: and unmanned flights for

text: Mars exploration

text: Rockets as a class are not inherently grossly polluting. However, some rockets use toxic propellants, and most vehicles use propellants that are not carbon neutral. Many solid rockets have chlorine in the form of perchlorate or other chemicals, and this can cause temporary local holes in the ozone layer. Re-entering spacecraft generate nitrates which also can temporarily impact the ozone layer. Most rockets are made of metals that can have an environmental impact during their construction.

text: Rockets as a class are not inherently grossly polluting. However, some rockets use toxic propellants, and most vehicles use propellants that are not

text: carbon neutral

text: . Many solid rockets have chlorine in the form of

text: perchlorate

text: or other chemicals, and this can cause temporary local holes in the ozone layer. Re-entering spacecraft generate nitrates which also can temporarily impact the ozone layer. Most rockets are made of metals that can have an environmental impact during their construction.

text: In space exploration, in situ resource utilization (ISRU) is defined as "the collection, processing, storing and use of materials encountered in the course of human or robotic space exploration that replace materials that would otherwise be brought from Earth."ISRU is the practice of leveraging resources found or manufactured on other astronomical objects (the Moon, Mars, asteroids, etc.) to fulfill or enhance the requirements and capabilities of a space mission.

text: In

text: space exploration

text: , in situ resource utilization (ISRU) is defined as "the collection, processing, storing and use of materials encountered in the course of human or robotic space exploration that replace materials that would otherwise be brought from Earth."ISRU is the practice of leveraging resources found or manufactured on other

text: astronomical object

text: s (the Moon, Mars, asteroids, etc.) to fulfill or enhance the requirements and capabilities of a

text: space mission

text: On July 20, 1989, the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon landing, George H. W. Bush — then President of the United States — announced plans for what came to be known as the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI). In a speech on the steps of the National Air and Space Museum he described plans calling for constructing Space Station Freedom, sending humans back to the Moon "to stay" and ultimately sending astronauts to explore Mars. He proposed not a 10-year Apollo-style plan, but a long-range continuing commitment based on the three above elements, ending with “a journey into tomorrow – a journey to another planet – a manned mission to Mars.” The President noted it was humanity’s destiny to explore, and America’s destiny to lead. He asked Vice President Dan Quayle to lead the National Space Council in determining what was needed to carry out these missions in terms of money, manpower and technology.

text: On July 20, 1989, the 20th anniversary of the

text: Apollo 11

text: Moon landing,

text: George H. W. Bush

text: — then

text: President of the United States

text: — announced plans for what came to be known as the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI). In a speech on the steps of the

text: National Air and Space Museum

text: he described plans calling for constructing

text: Space Station Freedom

text: , sending humans back to the

text: Moon

text: "to stay" and ultimately sending

text: astronauts to explore Mars

text: . He proposed not a 10-year

text: Apollo

text: -style plan, but a long-range continuing commitment based on the three above elements, ending with “a journey into tomorrow – a journey to another planet – a manned mission to Mars.” The President noted it was humanity’s destiny to explore, and America’s destiny to lead. He asked

text: Vice President

text: Dan Quayle

text: to lead the

text: National Space Council

text: in determining what was needed to carry out these missions in terms of money, manpower and technology.

text: With Cold War tensions running high, the Soviet Union and United States took their rivalry to the stars in 1957 with the Soviet launch of Sputnik. A "space race" between the two powers followed. Although the USSR reached several important milestones, such as the first craft on the Moon (Luna 2) and the first human in space (Yuri Gagarin), the U.S. allegedly pulled ahead eventually with its Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo programs, which culminated in Apollo 11's manned landing on the moon. Five more manned landings followed (Apollo 13 was forced to abort its mission). Nevertheless, despite its successes the U.S. space program could not match many major achievements of the Soviet space program, such as unmanned rover-based space exploration and image and video transfer from the surface of another planet, until the early 21st century.

text: With

text: Cold War

text: tensions running high, the

text: Soviet Union

text: and United States took their rivalry to the stars in 1957 with the Soviet launch of

text: Sputnik

text: . A "space race" between the two powers followed. Although the USSR reached several important milestones, such as the first craft on the

text: Moon

text: Luna 2

text: ) and the first human in space (

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: ), the U.S. allegedly pulled ahead eventually with its

text: Mercury

text: Gemini

text: , and

text: Apollo

text: programs, which culminated in

text: Apollo 11

text: 's manned landing on the moon. Five more manned landings followed (

text: Apollo 13

text: was forced to abort its mission). Nevertheless, despite its successes the U.S. space program could not match many major achievements of the Soviet space program, such as

text: unmanned rover-based space exploration

text: and

text: image and video transfer

text: from the surface of another planet, until the early 21st century.

text: Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites.

text: Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like

text: space tourism

text: and

text: satellite telecommunications

text: . Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include

text: space observatories

text: reconnaissance satellite

text: s and other

text: Earth observation satellite

text: s.

text: The greatest Russian successes are in the field of space technology and space exploration. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky was the father of theoretical austronautics. His works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko and many others that contributed to the success of the Soviet space program at early stages of the Space Race and beyond.

text: space technology

text: and

text: space exploration

text: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: was the father of theoretical austronautics. His works had inspired leading

text: Soviet

text: rocket engineers such as

text: Sergey Korolyov

text: Valentin Glushko

text: Soviet space program

text: at early stages of the

text: Space Race

text: and beyond.

text: LOCAD-PTS Exploration is an ISS experiment funded by the Moon and Mars Analogue Mission Activities (MMAMA) Program of NASA's Science Mission Directorate. It is a collaboration between BAE Systems, Charles River Laboratories (CRL), NASA Johnson Space Center (Astronaut Office, Crew and Thermal Systems Division, and Extravehicular Activity (EVA) and Crew Survival Systems Branch), NASA Kennedy Space Center and NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. The goal of the experiment is to design and test procedures to monitor and document the spread of biological material associated with human spaceflight, both before and after launch, in preparation for the human exploration of the Moon and Mars. The LOCAD-PTS Exploration experiment has been funded by NASA's Science Mission Directorate (SMD), under the Moon and Mars Analogue Mission Activities (MMAMA) Program, and is the first SMD-funded experiment aboard the ISS.

text: LOCAD-PTS Exploration is an ISS experiment funded by the Moon and Mars Analogue Mission Activities (MMAMA) Program of NASA's Science Mission Directorate. It is a collaboration between BAE Systems, Charles River Laboratories (CRL), NASA

text: Johnson Space Center

text: (Astronaut Office, Crew and Thermal Systems Division, and Extravehicular Activity (EVA) and Crew Survival Systems Branch), NASA

text: Kennedy Space Center

text: and NASA

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: . The goal of the experiment is to design and test procedures to monitor and document the spread of biological material associated with human spaceflight, both before and after launch, in preparation for the human exploration of the Moon and Mars. The LOCAD-PTS Exploration experiment has been funded by NASA's Science Mission Directorate (SMD), under the Moon and Mars Analogue Mission Activities (MMAMA) Program, and is the first SMD-funded experiment aboard the ISS.

text: Many millions of years earlier, the extremely rare conditions on a moon orbiting a gas giant in a remote galaxy allow for the creation of a lifeform able to 'transcend' to a purely energy-based (later known as energistic) state, the Ly-Cilph. The Ly-cilph become explorers of the universe, determined to know all that can be known about space and time. Over the course of aeons, they explore the universe and, presently, one arrives in the Milky Way galaxy.

text: Many millions of years earlier, the extremely rare conditions on a moon orbiting a gas giant in a remote galaxy allow for the creation of a lifeform able to 'transcend' to a purely energy-based (later known as energistic) state, the

text: Ly-Cilph

text: . The Ly-cilph become explorers of the universe, determined to know all that can be known about space and time. Over the course of aeons, they explore the universe and, presently, one arrives in the

text: Milky Way

text: galaxy.

text: The Explorers' Science and Engineering Cluster (headed by Brian Archimbaud) was so impressed by this event that they decided to make sure it would continue in some form. Eventually, Dr. Peter Mason and the Space Exploration Post at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, agreed to try it out on a local level. The first SpaceSet (post member Nathan Hawkins came up with the name) was held in 1986. Eighteen SpaceSet competitions were conducted at JPL, with continuing participation by Anita Gale, Dick Edwards, Rob Kolstad, and Dr. Mason. As many as 160 young people participated each year, with a different design challenge each time. The competition's organizers requested space settlement designs in Earth orbit, on Earth's moon, on and in orbit around Mars, and on and in orbit around Venus (including some global atmospheric alterations to make it habitable). One Earth-orbiting settlement was required to be capable of moving to another solar system.

text: Spanish explorer Melchor Díaz was one of the first Europeans to visit the area around Imperial Valley in 1540. The explorer Juan Bautista de Anza also explored the area in 1776. Years later, after the Mexican-American War, the northern half of the valley was annexed by the U.S., while the southern half remained under Mexican rule. Small scale settlement in natural aquifer areas occurred in the early 19th century (the present-day site of Mexicali), but most permanent settlement (Anglo Americans in the U.S. side, Mexicans in the other side) was after 1900.

text: Spanish

text: explorer

text: Melchor Díaz

text: was one of the first

text: Europe

text: ans to visit the area around Imperial Valley in 1540. The explorer

text: Juan Bautista de Anza

text: also explored the area in 1776. Years later, after the

text: Mexican-American War

text: , the northern half of the valley was annexed by the U.S., while the southern half remained under Mexican rule. Small scale settlement in natural aquifer areas occurred in the early 19th century (the present-day site of

text: Mexicali

text: ), but most permanent settlement (

text: Anglo Americans

text: in the U.S. side, Mexicans in the other side) was after 1900.

text: Starting at point A, on the inner ring between  and Earth, the satellite is orbiting faster than the Earth and is on its way toward passing between the Earth and the Sun. But Earth's gravity exerts an outward accelerating force, pulling the satellite into a higher orbit which (per Kepler's third law) decreases its angular speed.

text: Starting at point A, on the inner ring between  and Earth, the satellite is orbiting faster than the Earth and is on its way toward passing between the Earth and the Sun. But Earth's gravity exerts an outward accelerating force, pulling the satellite into a higher orbit which (per

text: Kepler's third law

text: ) decreases its angular speed.

text: NASA brought the Orion MPCV back to life from the defunct Constellation Program and successfully test launched the first capsule on December 5, 2014 aboard EFT-1.  After a near perfect flight traveling 3600 miles above Earth, the spacecraft was recovered for study.  NASA plans to use the Orion crew vehicle to send humans to deep space locations such as the Moon, Near Earth Asteroids, and Mars starting in the 2020s.  Orion will be powered by NASA's new heavy lift vehicle, the Space Launch System (SLS), which is currently under development.  Orion's next flight, along with the first SLS flight, is slated to launch no later than November 2018, with the designation of Exploration Mission 1.  This mission will send an uncrewed Orion capsule around the Moon.  It will be succeeded by Exploration Mission 2, sending a crewed Orion spacecraft to an undetermined location in the early 2020s.

text: NASA brought the

text: Orion MPCV

text: back to life from the defunct Constellation Program and successfully test launched the first capsule on December 5, 2014 aboard

text: .  After a near perfect flight traveling 3600 miles above Earth, the spacecraft was recovered for study.  NASA plans to use the Orion crew vehicle to send humans to deep space locations such as the Moon, Near Earth Asteroids, and Mars starting in the 2020s.  Orion will be powered by NASA's new heavy lift vehicle, the

text: Space Launch System

text: (SLS), which is currently under development.  Orion's next flight, along with the first SLS flight, is slated to launch no later than November 2018, with the designation of

text: Exploration Mission 1

text: .  This mission will send an uncrewed Orion capsule around the Moon.  It will be succeeded by

text: Exploration Mission 2

text: , sending a crewed Orion spacecraft to an undetermined location in the early 2020s.

text: • proposes completing the International Space Station, retiring the shuttle by 2010, and focusing on a new space exploration vehicle capable of new space exploration missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.

text: With respect to the stars, the Moon takes 27 Earth days, 7 hours and 43 minutes 12 seconds to complete its orbit; but since the Earth-Moon system advances around the Sun in the meantime, the Moon must travel further to get back to the same phase. On average(mean), this synodic period lasts 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds. This is an average figure, since the speed of the Earth-Moon system around the Sun varies slightly during a year, due to an imperfect circularity of its orbit, variances in orbital velocity, and a number of other periodic and evolving variations about its observed, relative, mean values, due to the gravitational perturbations of the Sun and other bodies in the Solar System.

text: With respect to the stars, the Moon takes 27

text: Earth day

text: s, 7 hours and 43 minutes 12 seconds to complete its orbit; but since the Earth-Moon system advances around the Sun in the meantime, the Moon must travel further to get back to the same phase. On average(mean), this

text: synodic period

text: lasts 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds. This is an average figure, since the speed of the Earth-Moon system around the Sun varies slightly during a year, due to an imperfect circularity of its orbit, variances in orbital velocity, and a number of other periodic and evolving variations about its observed, relative, mean values, due to the gravitational perturbations of the Sun and other bodies in the Solar System.

text: This is a list of space missions to the planet Venus. Missions to Venus constitute part of the exploration of Venus.

text: This is a list of

text: space mission

text: s to the planet

text: Venus

text: . Missions to Venus constitute part of the

text: exploration of Venus

text: The U.S. soon had a number of successful satellites, including Explorer 1,  Project SCORE, and Courier 1B. However, public reaction to the Sputnik crisis led to the creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency (renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency or DARPA in 1972), NASA, and an increase in U.S. government spending on scientific research and education. Not only did the launch of Sputnik spur America to action in the space race, it also led directly to the creation of NASA through the space act bill.

text: The U.S. soon had a number of successful satellites, including

text: Explorer 1

text: Project SCORE

text: , and

text: Courier 1B

text: . However, public reaction to the

text: Sputnik crisis

text: led to the creation of the

text: Advanced Research Projects Agency

text: (renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency or

text: DARPA

text: in 1972),

text: NASA

text: , and an increase in U.S. government spending on scientific research and education. Not only did the launch of Sputnik spur America to action in the space race, it also led directly to the creation of NASA through the space act bill.

text: Permanent European claims began when Englishman Henry Hudson, exploring for the Dutch East India Company on the Half Moon (), reached the area in 1609, claiming it for the United Netherlands. In 1614, Hendrick Christiaensen built Fort Nassau, a fur-trading post and the first documented European structure in present-day Albany. Commencement of the fur trade provoked hostility from the French colony in Canada and among the natives, all of whom vied to control the trade. In 1618, a flood ruined the fort on Castle Island, but it was rebuilt in 1624 as Fort Orange. Both forts were named in honor of the Dutch royal House of Orange-Nassau. Fort Orange and the surrounding area were incorporated as the village of Beverwijck () in 1652. In these early decades of trade, the Dutch, Mohican and Mohawk developed relations that reflected differences among their three cultures.

text: Permanent European claims began when Englishman

text: Henry Hudson

text: , exploring for the

text: Dutch East India Company

text: on the

text: Half Moon

text: (), reached the area in 1609, claiming it for the

text: United Netherlands

text: . In 1614,

text: Hendrick Christiaensen

text: built

text: Fort Nassau

text: , a

text: fur-trading

text: post and the first documented European structure in present-day Albany. Commencement of the fur trade provoked hostility from the

text: French colony in Canada

text: and among the natives, all of whom vied to control the trade. In 1618, a flood ruined the fort on Castle Island, but it was rebuilt in 1624 as

text: Fort Orange

text: . Both forts were named in honor of the Dutch royal

text: House of Orange-Nassau

text: . Fort Orange and the surrounding area were incorporated as the village of

text: Beverwijck

text: () in 1652. In these early decades of trade, the Dutch, Mohican and Mohawk developed relations that reflected differences among their three cultures.

text: The disagreement cost the Soviets the opportunity to claim one of the most significant findings of the space race at that time, and it wasn’t until the U.S. launched Explorer 1 that the radiation belts were proved by James Van Allen. In 1958, with Sputnik 3, they began to cooperate, and they confirmed the findings of the U.S. satellites Explorer 1, 3, and 4.

text: The disagreement cost the Soviets the opportunity to claim one of the most significant findings of the space race at that time, and it wasn’t until the U.S. launched

text: Explorer 1

text: that the radiation belts were proved by

text: James Van Allen

text: . In 1958, with

text: Sputnik 3

text: , they began to cooperate, and they confirmed the findings of the

text: U.S.

text: satellites Explorer 1,

text: , and

text: Usually observational astronomy is considered to occur on Earth's surface (or beneath it in neutrino astronomy). The idea of limiting observation to Earth includes orbiting the Earth. As soon as the observer leaves the cozy confines of Earth, the observer becomes a deep space explorer. Except for Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 and the earlier satellites in the series, usually if a probe is going to be a deep space explorer it leaves the Earth or an orbit around the Earth.

text: Usually observational astronomy is considered to occur on Earth's surface (or beneath it in

text: neutrino astronomy

text: ). The idea of limiting observation to Earth includes orbiting the Earth. As soon as the observer leaves the cozy confines of Earth, the observer becomes a deep space explorer. Except for

text: Explorer 1

text: and

text: Explorer 3

text: and the earlier satellites in the series, usually if a probe is going to be a deep space explorer it leaves the Earth or an orbit around the Earth.

text: Jacob Kirkegaard is a sound artist born in 1975 in Denmark, living in Berlin, Germany. In early 2006 he graduated at the Academy of Arts and the Media in Cologne, Germany. Jacob is exploring sound in art with a scientific approach. Parallel to his studies, he has been giving lectures on sound and space at the Royal Architect Academy and at the Art Academy in Copenhagen.

text: Jacob Kirkegaard is a sound artist born in 1975 in

text: Denmark

text: , living in

text: Berlin

text: Germany

text: . In early 2006 he graduated at the Academy of Arts and the Media in Cologne, Germany. Jacob is exploring sound in art with a scientific approach. Parallel to his studies, he has been giving lectures on sound and space at the Royal Architect Academy and at the Art Academy in

text: Copenhagen

text: Although the series uses many classic, early 20th-century science fiction themes reminiscent of the space opera of E. E. "Doc" Smith, it was a children's show and not intended to be realistic. Fireball XL5 is portrayed travelling around the galaxy at sub-light speeds (until the episode Faster than Light), and the series observed few of the limitations of known science and rocketry. Viewers were informed that the ship's rocket motors were powered by a 'nutomic reactor' and that XL5 could travel safely at speeds up to 'Space Velocity 7', enabling it to reach the outlying star systems of charted space within a few months. Furthermore, the crew never wore space suits; instead they took "oxygen pills" to survive in the vacuum of space, where they manoeuvred in zero gravity with the aid of thruster packs. 'Neutroni radio' enabled virtually instantaneous communication within the sectors of charted space, and XL5 and her sister ships were fitted with 'gravity activators' that generated artificial gravity fields within them.

text: Although the series uses many classic, early 20th-century science fiction themes reminiscent of the

text: space opera

text: of

text: E. E. "Doc" Smith

text: , it was a children's show and not intended to be realistic. Fireball XL5 is portrayed travelling around the galaxy at sub-light speeds (until the episode Faster than Light), and the series observed few of the limitations of known science and rocketry. Viewers were informed that the ship's rocket motors were powered by a 'nutomic reactor' and that XL5 could travel safely at speeds up to 'Space Velocity 7', enabling it to reach the outlying star systems of charted space within a few months. Furthermore, the crew never wore space suits; instead they took "oxygen pills" to survive in the vacuum of space, where they manoeuvred in zero gravity with the aid of thruster packs. 'Neutroni radio' enabled virtually instantaneous communication within the sectors of charted space, and XL5 and her sister ships were fitted with 'gravity activators' that generated artificial gravity fields within them.

text: GOES spacecraft also provide a platform for the Solar X-Ray Imager (SXI), and space environment monitoring (SEM) instruments. The SEM measures in situ the effect of the sun on the near-earth solar-terrestrial electromagnetic environment, providing real-time data to the Space Environment Services Center (SESC). The SESC, as the nation’s “space weather” service, receives, monitors, and interprets a wide variety of solar-terrestrial data, and issues reports, alerts and forecasts for special events such as solar flares or geomagnetic storms. This information is important to the operation of military and civilian radio wave and satellite communication and navigation systems, as well as electric power networks, and to the mission of geophysical explorers, Shuttle and Space Station astronauts, high-altitude aviators, and scientific researchers. The SXI provides high-cadence monitoring of large scale solar structures to supports SESC's monitoring mission.  However, the SXI unit on GOES-12 has been rendered inoperable from malfunctions, and the unit on GOES-13 was damaged by a solar flare in 2006.

text: Blue Moon L22 is the moon where the series takes place. For the show, the moon is divided into sectors (e.g. sector "L" or sector "12"). Each sector also contains certain locations like "The Crystal Caves" or "The Chime Flower Meadow". Lunar Jim usually explores these sectors in each episode and is always finding new ones.

text: Computer models by astrophysicists Mikael Granvik, Jeremie Vaubaillon, and Robert Jedicke suggest that these "temporary satellites" should be quite common; and that "At any given time, there should be at least one natural Earth satellite of 1-meter diameter orbiting the Earth." Such objects would remain in orbit for ten months on average, before returning to solar orbit once more, and so would make relatively easy targets for manned space exploration. "Mini-moons" were further examined in a study published in the March issue of Icarus.

text: Goddard has been involved in designing, building, and operating spacecraft since the days of Explorer 1, the nation's first artificial satellite. The list of these missions reflects a diverse set of scientific objectives and goals. The Landsat series of spacecraft has been studying the Earth's resources since the launch of the first mission in 1972. TIROS-1 launched in 1960 as the first success in a long series of weather satellites. The Spartan platform deployed from the space shuttle, allowing simple, low-cost 2-3 day missions. The second of NASA's Great Observatories, the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, operated for nine years before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere in 2000. Another of Goddard's space science observatories, the Cosmic Background Explorer, provided unique scientific data about the early universe.

text: Goddard has been involved in designing, building, and operating spacecraft since the days of

text: Explorer 1

text: , the nation's first artificial satellite. The list of these missions reflects a diverse set of scientific objectives and goals. The

text: Landsat

text: series of spacecraft has been studying the Earth's resources since the launch of the first mission in 1972.

text: launched in 1960 as the first success in a long series of

text: weather satellite

text: s. The Spartan platform deployed from the space shuttle, allowing simple, low-cost 2-3 day missions. The second of NASA's

text: Great Observatories

text: , the

text: Compton Gamma Ray Observatory

text: , operated for nine years before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere in 2000. Another of Goddard's space science observatories, the

text: Cosmic Background Explorer

text: , provided unique scientific data about the early universe.

text: The distance between the Earth's and the Moon's surfaces is, on average, approximately . This distance is sometimes used in the same manner as the circumference of the Earth; that is, one might say that a large number of objects laid end-to-end "would reach all the way to the Moon and back two-and-a-half times".

text: Over 20 successful space missions have visited Venus since 1962. The last active probe was ESA's Venus Express, which was in polar orbit around the planet from 2006 to 2014. A Japanese probe, Akatsuki, failed in its first attempt to orbit Venus, but successfully reinserted itself into orbit on 7 December 2015. Other low-cost missions have been proposed to further explore the planet's atmosphere, as the area  above the surface where gas pressure is at the same level as Earth has not yet been thoroughly explored.

text: Over 20 successful space missions have visited Venus since 1962. The last active probe was

text: ESA

text: 's

text: Venus Express

text: , which was in polar orbit around the planet from 2006 to 2014. A Japanese probe,

text: Akatsuki

text: , failed in its first attempt to orbit Venus, but successfully reinserted itself into orbit on 7 December 2015. Other low-cost missions have been proposed to further explore the planet's atmosphere, as the area  above the surface where gas pressure is at the same level as Earth has not yet been thoroughly explored.

text: Two aims of recent excavations at Azoria have been to understand the early history of the site and to explore stratigraphically the changes in the form of the settlement in the transition from the Early Iron Age (or Greek Dark Age) (Late Minoan IIIC-Late Geometric; c. 1200-700 BC) and Orientalizing  (c. 700-600 BC) to Archaic periods (c. 600-500 BC). Excavation has identified stratification (archaeology) showing a distinct phase of architectural renovation involving significant changes in the way that the settlement was used and how public and private space was organized. This transition appears to have occurred sometime in the early 6th century BC. In foundation deposits of buildings it is difficult to identify material later than 600 BC, suggesting that changes to the settlement had occurred by the end of Late Orientalizing (c. 640-600 BC). In this phase transition, there is evidence for broad-sweeping alterations to the landscape of the site, the construction of monumental buildings, and the reorganization of both civic and domestic space, suggesting aspects of town planning.

text: Two aims of recent excavations at Azoria have been to understand the early history of the site and to explore stratigraphically the changes in the form of the settlement in the transition from the Early Iron Age (or

text: Greek Dark Age

text: ) (Late Minoan IIIC-Late Geometric; c. 1200-700 BC) and

text: Orientalizing

text: (c. 700-600 BC) to

text: Archaic

text: periods (c. 600-500 BC). Excavation has identified

text: stratification (archaeology)

text: showing a distinct phase of architectural renovation involving significant changes in the way that the settlement was used and how public and private space was organized. This transition appears to have occurred sometime in the early 6th century BC. In foundation deposits of buildings it is difficult to identify material later than 600 BC, suggesting that changes to the settlement had occurred by the end of Late Orientalizing (c. 640-600 BC). In this phase transition, there is evidence for broad-sweeping alterations to the landscape of the site, the construction of monumental buildings, and the reorganization of both civic and domestic space, suggesting aspects of town planning.

text: The Vanguard rocket was intended to be the first launch vehicle the United States would use to place a satellite into orbit. Instead, the Sputnik crisis caused by the surprise launch of Sputnik 1 led the U.S., after the failure of Vanguard TV3, to quickly orbit the Explorer 1 satellite using a Juno I rocket, making Vanguard I the second successful U.S. orbital launch.

text: The Vanguard rocket was intended to be the first

text: launch vehicle

text: the

text: United States

text: would use to place a

text: satellite

text: into orbit. Instead, the

text: Sputnik crisis

text: caused by the surprise launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: led the U.S., after the failure of

text: Vanguard TV3

text: , to quickly orbit the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite using a

text: Juno I

text: rocket, making

text: Vanguard I

text: the second successful U.S. orbital launch.

text: Finally, the overarching theme of the book explores mankind's potential for self-destruction, seen both through the example of the "prob" race as well as an exploration of humanity. Early in the book Brad complains that the population of 5 billion is unsustainable unless mankind reaches the stars, but he doubts their ability and maturity to do so. This theme is covered throughout the work, including the closing sentence.

text: NASA launched the Earth Observing System’s flagship satellite “Terra,” named for Earth, in 1999. Terra has been collecting data about Earth’s changing climate. Terra carries five state-of-the-art sensors that have been studying the interactions among the Earth’s atmosphere, lands, oceans, and radiant energy. Each sensor has unique design features that will enable scientists to meet a wide range of science objectives.

text: NASA launched the Earth Observing System’s flagship satellite “

text: Terra

text: ,” named for Earth, in 1999. Terra has been collecting data about Earth’s changing climate. Terra carries five state-of-the-art sensors that have been studying the interactions among the Earth’s atmosphere, lands, oceans, and radiant energy. Each sensor has unique design features that will enable scientists to meet a wide range of science objectives.

text: In stellar dynamics a box orbit refers to a particular type of orbit that can be seen in triaxial systems, i.e. systems that do not possess a symmetry around any of its axes. They contrast with the loop orbits that are observed in spherically symmetric or axisymmetric systems.

text: In

text: stellar dynamics

text: a box orbit refers to a particular type of

text: orbit

text: that can be seen in triaxial systems, i.e. systems that do not possess a

text: symmetry

text: around any of its

text: axes

text: . They contrast with the

text: loop orbit

text: s that are observed in spherically symmetric or axisymmetric systems.

text: This theory is not relativistic because the equation of motion refers to coordinate time rather than proper time, and because, should the matter in some isolated object suddenly be redistributed by an explosion, the field equation requires that the potential everywhere in "space" must be "updated" instantaneously, which violates the principle that any "news" which has a physical effect (in this case, an effect on test particle motion far from the source of the field) cannot be transmitted faster than the speed of light.  Einstein's former calculus professor, Hermann Minkowski had sketched a vector theory of gravitation as early as 1908, but in 1912, Abraham pointed out that no such theory would admit stable planetary orbits.  This was one reason why Nordström turned to scalar theories of gravitation (while Einstein explored tensor theories).

text: This theory is not relativistic because the equation of motion refers to coordinate time rather than

text: proper time

text: , and because, should the matter in some isolated object suddenly be redistributed by an explosion, the field equation requires that the potential everywhere in "space" must be "updated" instantaneously, which violates the principle that any "news" which has a physical effect (in this case, an effect on

text: test particle

text: motion far from the source of the field) cannot be transmitted faster than the

text: speed of light

text: .  Einstein's former calculus professor,

text: Hermann Minkowski

text: had sketched a vector theory of gravitation as early as 1908, but in 1912, Abraham pointed out that no such theory would admit stable planetary orbits.  This was one reason why Nordström turned to scalar theories of gravitation (while Einstein explored tensor theories).

text: Similar to other Space Age show cars, the Golden Rocket was heavily influenced by the themes of aviation and space exploration. Its distinctive sleek aerodynamic body was made entirely from lightweight fiberglass and finished in metallic bronze paint. Bullet-shaped chrome pieces resembling Dagmar bumpers were integrated into the front fenders in place of headlights as well as the sweeping rear fenders, giving the car an overall rocket-like appearance. Other notable features include a swept-back wrap-around windshield, which had already become a common design element by the mid-1950s, less prominent tailfins by contemporary standards and a split-window fastback roof design presaging the 1963 Chevrolet Corvette Stingray. It rode on unique "dotted-line" whitewall tires. A later photo taken inside the GM Design Center in Warren, Michigan shows the car sporting a blue paint scheme.

text: Similar to other

text: Space Age

text: show cars, the Golden Rocket was heavily influenced by the themes of

text: aviation

text: and

text: space exploration

text: . Its distinctive sleek aerodynamic body was made entirely from lightweight fiberglass and finished in metallic bronze paint. Bullet-shaped chrome pieces resembling

text: Dagmar bumpers

text: were integrated into the front fenders in place of headlights as well as the sweeping rear fenders, giving the car an overall rocket-like appearance. Other notable features include a swept-back wrap-around windshield, which had already become a common design element by the mid-1950s, less prominent

text: tailfins

text: by contemporary standards and a split-window fastback roof design presaging the

text: 1963 Chevrolet Corvette Stingray

text: . It rode on unique "dotted-line"

text: whitewall tire

text: s. A later photo taken inside the

text: GM Design Center

text: in

text: Warren, Michigan

text: shows the car sporting a blue paint scheme.

text: Early work at Bigelow Aerospace on expandable space habitats, with plans to eventually assemble them into on-orbit space stations, began in the early years after the company was formed in 1999.  By 2004, plans made public included assembly of multiple modules "into a manned space facility in low Earth orbit for both  and funded research and for space tourism."

text: Early work at Bigelow Aerospace on expandable space habitats, with plans to eventually assemble them into on-orbit space stations, began in the early years after the company was formed in 1999.  By 2004, plans made public included assembly of multiple modules "into a manned space facility in

text: low Earth orbit

text: for both  and funded research and for

text: space tourism

text: Carnivores is set in the year 2190. During a routine space exploration mission, a science vessel known as the FMM UV discovered a planet with a climate suitable to sustain human life. The new planet was code-named FMM UV-32. During the initial scouting expedition, the planet was declared inhospitable for colonization because of its unstable terrain and large population of dinosaurs and other prehistoric reptiles. News articles about the planet led to an Earth corporation purchasing the rights to the planet and creating DinoHunt Corporation. The company allowed for paying customers to hunt dinosaurs on their planet.

text: In pursuit of these goals, the Vision called for the space program to complete the International Space Station by 2010; retire the Space Shuttle by 2010; develop a new Crew Exploration Vehicle (later renamed Orion) by 2008, and conduct its first human spaceflight mission by 2014; explore the Moon with robotic spacecraft missions by 2008 and crewed missions by 2020, and use lunar exploration to develop and test new approaches and technologies useful for supporting sustained exploration of Mars and beyond; explore Mars and other destinations with robotic and crewed missions; pursue commercial transportation to support the International Space Station and missions beyond low Earth orbit.

text: In pursuit of these goals, the Vision called for the space program to complete the

text: International Space Station

text: by 2010; retire the

text: Space Shuttle

text: by 2010; develop a new

text: Crew Exploration Vehicle

text: (later renamed

text: Orion

text: ) by 2008, and conduct its first human spaceflight mission by 2014; explore the

text: Moon

text: with

text: robotic spacecraft

text: missions by 2008 and crewed missions by 2020, and use lunar exploration to develop and test new approaches and technologies useful for supporting sustained exploration of Mars and beyond; explore

text: Mars

text: and other destinations with robotic and crewed missions; pursue commercial transportation to support the International Space Station and missions beyond low Earth orbit.

text: When satellites reach the end of their mission, satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a graveyard orbit. Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite Vanguard 1. Launched in 1958, Vanguard 1, the 4th manmade satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit as of August 2009.

text: When satellites reach the end of their mission, satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a

text: graveyard orbit

text: . Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite

text: Vanguard 1

text: . Launched in 1958,

text: Vanguard 1

text: , the 4th manmade satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit as of August 2009.

text: Engineering interplanetary journeys is complicated and the exploration of Mars has experienced a high failure rate, especially the early attempts. Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failed before completing their missions and some failed before their observations could begin. Some missions have met with unexpected success, such as the twin Mars Exploration Rovers, which operated for years beyond their specification. On 24 October 2016, two scientific rovers were on the surface of Mars beaming signals back to Earth (Opportunity of the Mars Exploration Rover mission and Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory mission), with six orbiters surveying the planet: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, MAVEN, and the Trace Gas Orbiter, which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. No sample return missions have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars' moon Phobos (Fobos-Grunt) failed.

text: Engineering interplanetary journeys is complicated and the exploration of

text: Mars

text: has experienced a high failure rate, especially the early attempts. Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failed before completing their missions and some failed before their observations could begin. Some missions have met with unexpected success, such as the twin

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: s, which operated for years beyond their specification. On 24 October 2016, two scientific rovers were on the surface of Mars beaming signals back to Earth (

text: Opportunity

text: of the

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: mission and

text: Curiosity

text: of the

text: Mars Science Laboratory

text: mission), with six orbiters surveying the planet:

text: Mars Odyssey

text: Mars Express

text: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: Mars Orbiter Mission

text: MAVEN

text: , and the

text: Trace Gas Orbiter

text: , which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. No

text: sample return mission

text: s have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars'

text: moon

text: Phobos

text: Fobos-Grunt

text: ) failed.

text: If a submerged chamber with a moon pool is holed in the floor, there is no trade to the moon pool water level or the air pressure inside the chamber—it has no effect. If such a chamber is holed in its side or roof, many might predict that water would squirt or gush in through the hole and flood the chamber, as it would in a submarine. In fact this scenario is completely incorrect: instead air will leak out of the hole into the water and prevent water coming in, even if the hole is very large, and the surface level of the moon pool will rise up into the chamber until it reaches the top of the hole, at which point it will stop rising, air will stop escaping, and an air space will be left above the hole.

text: If a submerged chamber with a moon pool is holed in the floor, there is no trade to the moon pool water level or the air pressure inside the chamber—it has no effect. If such a chamber is holed in its side or roof, many might predict that water would squirt or gush in through the hole and flood the chamber, as it would in a submarine. In fact this

text: scenario

text: is completely incorrect: instead air will leak out of the hole into the water and prevent water coming in, even if the hole is very large, and the surface level of the moon pool will rise up into the chamber until it reaches the top of the hole, at which point it will stop rising, air will stop escaping, and an air space will be left above the hole.

text: Colonel Jorgen returns in Destination Moon and confronts Tintin again in Explorers on the Moon, having stowed away on the moon rocket that Tintin and his friends are piloting. Frank Wolff was told he would be a journalist; he only reveals his true objective when on the moon. When most of the group leaves on the moon-tank, Jorgen knocks Tintin out from behind, ties him up, and leaves him below. He and Wolff attempt to maroon the rocket's crew on the moon, but are prevented from doing so by Tintin, who severs the wires and holds Jorgen at gunpoint. Jorgen escapes custody during the return flight and attempts to kill the rocket crew. Wolff turns on Jorgen for this, and in the ensuing struggle Jorgen inadvertently shoots himself through the heart, dying instantly. His body is subsequently ejected into space.

text: Colonel Jorgen returns in

text: Destination Moon

text: and confronts Tintin again in

text: Explorers on the Moon

text: , having stowed away on the moon rocket that Tintin and his friends are piloting.

text: Frank Wolff

text: was told he would be a journalist; he only reveals his true objective when on the moon. When most of the group leaves on the moon-tank, Jorgen knocks Tintin out from behind, ties him up, and leaves him below. He and Wolff attempt to maroon the rocket's crew on the moon, but are prevented from doing so by Tintin, who severs the wires and holds Jorgen at gunpoint. Jorgen escapes custody during the return flight and attempts to kill the rocket crew. Wolff turns on Jorgen for this, and in the ensuing struggle Jorgen inadvertently shoots himself through the heart, dying instantly. His body is subsequently ejected into space.

text: Spaceflight (also written space flight) is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communications satellites. These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous.

text: Spaceflight (also written space flight) is

text: ballistic

text: flight

text: into or through

text: outer space

text: . Spaceflight can occur with

text: spacecraft

text: with or without humans on board. Examples of

text: human spaceflight

text: include the

text: U.S.

text: Apollo Moon landing

text: and

text: Space Shuttle program

text: s and the

text: Russia

text: n

text: Soyuz program

text: , as well as the ongoing

text: International Space Station

text: . Examples of unmanned spaceflight include

text: space probe

text: s that leave

text: Earth orbit

text: , as well as

text: satellite

text: s in

text: orbit

text: around

text: Earth

text: , such as

text: communications satellite

text: s. These operate either by

text: telerobotic

text: control or are fully

text: autonomous

text: The International Mars Exploration Working Group (IMEWG) is an organization of all major space agencies and institutions participating in the exploration of the planet Mars.  Conceived in 1993, the working group meets twice per year to discuss an international strategy for the exploration of Mars.

text: The International Mars Exploration Working Group (IMEWG) is an organization of all major

text: space agencies

text: and institutions participating in the

text: exploration

text: of the planet

text: Mars

text: .  Conceived in 1993, the working group meets twice per year to discuss an international strategy for the exploration of Mars.

text: Apart from researching on uranium and developing the uranium enrichment facilities, the KRL includes a ballistic missile-space research laboratories that competes with the PAEC to produce advanced ballistic missiles ranging for targeting enemy combatant targets and the space exploration. Its space-missile exploration projects based on producing the liquid fuel rockets in comparison to solid fuel rockets projects of the  National Development Complex (NDC). The KRL's missile projects are widely believed to be based on North Korean technology; exchanges took place in the late 1990s. The following missiles have been produced by KRL:

text: Apart from researching on uranium and developing the uranium enrichment facilities, the KRL includes a

text: ballistic missile

text: -space research laboratories that competes with the

text: PAEC

text: to produce advanced ballistic missiles ranging for targeting enemy combatant targets and the space exploration. Its space-missile exploration projects based on producing the

text: liquid fuel

text: rockets

text: in comparison to

text: solid fuel

text: rockets

text: projects of the

text: National Development Complex

text: (NDC). The KRL's missile projects are widely believed to be based on North Korean technology; exchanges took place in the late 1990s. The following missiles have been produced by KRL:

text: Orbital speed (how fast a satellite is moving through space) is calculated by multiplying the angular speed of the satellite by the orbital radius:

text: From 1958 until the early 1970s, KTVU aired the space-themed afternoon children's program Captain Satellite, which was hosted by Bob March and was set in a fictional spaceship known as the Starfinder II. The series – which was originally produced at Moose Hall in Oakland, before moving to the KTVU studios in 1959 – showcased cartoons between segments (including among others The Space Explorers), as well as film clips provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and live in-studio visits from astronauts.

text: From 1958 until the early 1970s, KTVU aired the space-themed afternoon children's program Captain Satellite, which was hosted by Bob March and was set in a fictional spaceship known as the Starfinder II. The series – which was originally produced at Moose Hall in Oakland, before moving to the KTVU studios in 1959 – showcased cartoons between segments (including among others

text: The Space Explorers

text: ), as well as film clips provided by the

text: (NASA) and live in-studio visits from astronauts.

text: The momentum of the laser-beam photons could directly impart a thrust on the debris sufficient to move small debris into new orbits out of the way of working satellites. NASA research in 2011 indicates that firing a laser beam at a piece of space junk could impart an impulse of  per second, and keeping the laser on the debris for a few hours per day could alter its course by  per day. One drawback is the potential for material degradation; the energy may break up the debris, adding to the problem. A similar proposal places the laser on a satellite in Sun-synchronous orbit, using a pulsed beam to push satellites into lower orbits to accelerate their reentry. A proposal to replace the laser with an Ion Beam Shepherd has been made, and other proposals use a foamy ball of aerogel or a spray of water,inflatable balloons,electrodynamic tethers,boom electroadhesion,and dedicated anti-satellite weapons.

text: The momentum of the laser-beam

text: photon

text: s could directly impart a thrust on the debris sufficient to move small debris into new orbits out of the way of working satellites. NASA research in 2011 indicates that firing a laser beam at a piece of space junk could impart an impulse of  per second, and keeping the laser on the debris for a few hours per day could alter its course by  per day. One drawback is the potential for material degradation; the energy may break up the debris, adding to the problem. A similar proposal places the laser on a satellite in

text: Sun-synchronous orbit

text: , using a pulsed beam to push satellites into lower orbits to accelerate their reentry. A proposal to replace the laser with an

text: Ion Beam Shepherd

text: has been made, and other proposals use a foamy ball of

text: aerogel

text: or a spray of water,inflatable balloons,

text: electrodynamic tether

text: s,

text: boom

text: electroadhesion

text: ,and dedicated anti-satellite weapons.

text: A notable difference between the orbital context of space architecture and Earth-based architecture is that structures in orbit do not need to support their own weight. This is possible because of the microgravity condition of objects in free fall. In fact much space hardware, such as the space shuttle's robotic arm, is designed only to function in orbit and wouldn't be able to lift its own weight on the Earth's surface.  Microgravity also allows an astronaut to move an object of practically any mass, albeit slowly, provided he or she is adequately constrained to another object.  Therefore, structural considerations for the orbital environment are dramatically different from those of terrestrial buildings, and the biggest challenge to holding a space station together is usually launching and assembling the components intact. Construction on extraterrestrial surfaces still needs to be designed to support its own weight, but its weight will depend on the strength of the local gravitational field.

text: A notable difference between the orbital context of space architecture and Earth-based architecture is that structures in orbit do not need to support their own weight. This is possible because of the microgravity condition of objects in free fall. In fact much space hardware, such as the space shuttle's

text: robotic arm

text: , is designed only to function in orbit and wouldn't be able to lift its own weight on the Earth's surface.  Microgravity also allows an astronaut to move an object of practically any mass, albeit slowly, provided he or she is adequately constrained to another object.  Therefore, structural considerations for the orbital environment are dramatically different from those of terrestrial buildings, and the biggest challenge to holding a space station together is usually launching and assembling the components intact. Construction on extraterrestrial surfaces still needs to be designed to support its own weight, but its weight will depend on the strength of the local

text: gravitational field

text: Many Solar System objects are known to possess satellite systems, though their origin is still unclear.  Notable examples include the largest satellite system, the Jovian system, with 67 known moons (including the large Galilean moons)  and the Saturnian System with 62 known moons (and the most visible ring system in the Solar System).  Both satellite systems are large and diverse.  In fact all of the giant planets of the Solar System possess large satellite systems as well as planetary rings, and it is inferred that this is a general pattern.  Several objects farther from the Sun also have satellite systems consisting of multiple moons, including the complex Plutonian system where multiple objects orbit a common center of mass, as well as many asteroids and plutinos.  Apart from the Earth-Moon system and Mars' system of two tiny natural satellites, the other terrestrial planets are generally not considered satellite systems, although some have been orbited by artificial satellites originating from Earth.

text: Many Solar System objects are known to possess satellite systems, though their origin is still unclear.  Notable examples include the largest satellite system, the Jovian system, with

text: 67 known moons

text: (including the large

text: Galilean moons

text: )  and the Saturnian System with

text: 62 known moons

text: (and the most visible ring system in the Solar System).  Both satellite systems are large and diverse.  In fact all of the giant planets of the Solar System possess large satellite systems as well as planetary rings, and it is inferred that this is a general pattern.  Several objects farther from the Sun also have satellite systems consisting of multiple moons, including the complex Plutonian system where multiple objects orbit a common

text: center of mass

text: , as well as many asteroids and plutinos.  Apart from the Earth-Moon system and Mars' system of two tiny natural satellites, the other terrestrial planets are generally not considered satellite systems, although some have been orbited by artificial satellites originating from Earth.

text: Before reuniting with Annette, April's group causes a blackout that frees the prisoners.  Pizoni goes for an escape while Pops and Paul try to find the others.  At the rocket's launch, April remakes her serum and Julius hands it to Rodrigue.  But Rodrigue takes the serum himself, and reveals his plan to use the rocket to wipe out humanity in an explosion.  Rodrigue kills Chimene when she tries to stop him, but then Julius reveals that he handed Rodrigue water instead, and then fatally shoots him.  Only Darwin is able to reach the rocket's controls to redirect the rocket to space.  But right before the rocket launches, April douses the vegetation on the rocket with her serum, fulfilling Chimene's project.  The Franklins, Julius and the scientists join Pizoni in escaping to the surface, and witness the rocket exploding in space.

text: is used as an intermediate in the manufacturing of nitric acid, as a nitrating agent in manufacturing of chemical explosives, as a polymerization inhibitor for acrylates, and as a flour bleaching agent. It is also used as an oxidizer in rocket fuel, for example in red fuming nitric acid; it was used in the Titan rockets, to launch Project Gemini, in the maneuvering thrusters of the Space Shuttle, and in unmanned space probes sent to various planets.

text: is used as an intermediate in the manufacturing of

text: nitric acid

text: , as a nitrating agent in manufacturing of

text: chemical explosive

text: s, as a polymerization inhibitor for

text: acrylates

text: , and as a

text: flour bleaching agent

text: . It is also used as an

text: oxidizer

text: in

text: rocket fuel

text: , for example in

text: red fuming nitric acid

text: ; it was used in the

text: Titan rockets

text: , to launch

text: Project Gemini

text: , in the maneuvering thrusters of the

text: Space Shuttle

text: , and in unmanned

text: space probes

text: sent to various planets.

text: As Tumlinson additionally notes, the goal is to "open space ... to human settlement ... to create ways to harvest the resources ... not only saving this precious planet, but also ... assuring our survival." Regarding "the Moon, NASA should support early exploration now...."

text: Another major facility is Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket and Skylab were developed. The JPL worked together with ABMA, one of the agencies behind Explorer 1, the first American space mission.

text: Another major facility is

text: Marshall Space Flight Center

text: in Huntsville, Alabama at which the Saturn 5 rocket and Skylab were developed. The

text: JPL

text: worked together with

text: ABMA

text: , one of the agencies behind

text: Explorer 1

text: , the first American space mission.

text: In every serious study of what it would take to land humans on Mars, keep them alive, and then return them to Earth, the total mass required for the mission is simply stunning.  The problem lies in that to launch the amount of consumables (oxygen, food and water) even a small crew would go through during a multi-year Mars mission, it would take a very large rocket with the vast majority of its own mass being propellant.  This is where multiple launches and assembly in Earth orbit come from.  However even if such a ship stocked full of goods could be put together in orbit, it would need an additional (large) supply of propellant to send it to Mars.  The delta-v, or change in velocity, required to insert a spacecraft from Earth orbit to a Mars transfer orbit is many kilometers per second.  When we think of getting astronauts to the surface of Mars and back home we quickly realize that an enormous amount of propellant is needed if everything is taken from the Earth.  This was the conclusion reached in the 1989 '90-Day Study' initiated by NASA in response to the Space Exploration Initiative.

text: In every serious study of what it would take to land humans on Mars, keep them alive, and then return them to Earth, the total mass required for the mission is simply stunning.  The problem lies in that to launch the amount of consumables (oxygen, food and water) even a small crew would go through during a multi-year Mars mission, it would take a very large rocket with the vast majority of its own mass being propellant.  This is where multiple launches and assembly in Earth orbit come from.  However even if such a ship stocked full of goods could be put together in orbit, it would need an additional (large) supply of propellant to send it to Mars.  The

text: delta-v

text: , or change in velocity, required to insert a spacecraft from Earth orbit to a Mars

text: transfer orbit

text: is many kilometers per second.  When we think of getting astronauts to the surface of Mars and back home we quickly realize that an enormous amount of propellant is needed if everything is taken from the Earth.  This was the conclusion reached in the 1989 '90-Day Study' initiated by NASA in response to the

text: Space Exploration Initiative

text: The five satellites operate in three 500-kilometre orbits in planes roughly sixty degrees apart.  They use an X-band radar with a three-metre dish, providing a resolution of about 50 centimetres over a frame size of 5.5 km on a side ('spotlight mode', in which the satellite rotates to keep the dish pointed at a single target) or about one metre over a frame size of 8 km x 60 km ('stripmap mode', in which the satellite maintains a fixed orientation over the earth and the radar image is formed simply by the satellite's motion along its orbit). Response time for imaging of a given area is ten hours or less. Thales Alenia Space provided the core of the Synthetic Aperture Radar sensors.

text: The five satellites operate in three 500-kilometre orbits in planes roughly sixty degrees apart.  They use an

text: X-band

text: radar with a three-metre dish, providing a resolution of about 50 centimetres over a frame size of 5.5 km on a side ('spotlight mode', in which the satellite rotates to keep the dish pointed at a single target) or about one metre over a frame size of 8 km x 60 km ('stripmap mode', in which the satellite maintains a fixed orientation over the earth and the radar image is formed simply by the satellite's motion along its orbit). Response time for imaging of a given area is ten hours or less.

text: Thales Alenia Space

text: provided the core of the Synthetic Aperture Radar sensors.

text: The first small-lift launch vehicle was the Sputnik rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned orbital carrier rocket designed by Sergei Korolev in the Soviet Union, derived from the R-7 Semyorka ICBM. On 4 October 1957, the rocket was used to perform the world's first satellite launch, placing Sputnik 1 satellite into a low Earth orbit.The USA responded by launching the Vanguard rocket, that was intended to be the first launch vehicle the United States would use to place a satellite into orbit. Instead, the Sputnik crisis caused by the surprise launch of Sputnik 1 led the U.S., after the failure of Vanguard TV3, to quickly orbit the Explorer 1 satellite using a Juno I rocket launched on January 31, 1958. Vanguard I was the second successful U.S. orbital launch. Thus started the space race, that gave the drive to put men on the moon with the USA's Apollo program.

text: The first small-lift launch vehicle was the

text: Sputnik

text: rocket, it put into orbit an unmanned

text: orbit

text: al

text: carrier rocket

text: designed by

text: Sergei Korolev

text: in the

text: Soviet Union

text: , derived from the

text: R-7 Semyorka

text: ICBM

text: . On 4 October 1957, the rocket was used to perform the world's first

text: satellite

text: launch, placing

text: Sputnik 1

text: satellite into a

text: low Earth orbit

text: .The USA responded by launching the

text: Vanguard rocket

text: United States

text: Sputnik crisis

text: caused by the surprise launch of

text: Sputnik 1

text: led the U.S., after the failure of

text: Vanguard TV3

text: , to quickly orbit the

text: Explorer 1

text: satellite using a

text: Juno I

text: rocket launched on January 31, 1958.

text: Vanguard I

text: was the second successful U.S. orbital launch. Thus started the

text: space race

text: , that gave the drive to put men on the

text: moon

text: with the USA's

text: Apollo program

text: Mercury spacecraft #2, used in both the Mercury-Redstone 1 and Mercury-Redstone 1A flights, is currently displayed at the NASA Ames Exploration Center, Moffett Federal Airfield, near Mountain View, California. A Mercury-Redstone rocket is currently on display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville among other locations.

text: Mercury spacecraft #2, used in both the Mercury-Redstone 1 and Mercury-Redstone 1A flights, is currently displayed at the

text: NASA Ames Exploration Center

text: Moffett Federal Airfield

text: , near

text: Mountain View

text: California

text: . A Mercury-Redstone rocket is currently on display at the

text: U.S. Space & Rocket Center

text: in Huntsville among other locations.

text: When launched by the U.S. Space Shuttle a solid propellant perigee stage (motor and carrier) would be attached to the bottom of the spacecraft. This carrier was used to mount the satellite into a cradle in the Space Shuttle cargo bay. The satellite was ejected from the space shuttle "Frisbee-style" which imparted a stabilizing spin to the satellite. The satellite was allowed to drift a safe distance from the space shuttle before the perigee motor was fired. The perigee motor provided energy (velocity) to the satellite to raise the apogee of the satellite's orbit; it is named for the location in the orbit at which it is used. The perigee motor was jettisoned after it was used. The liquid fuel apogee engines of the Intelsat VI satellites were then used to boost the perigee of the satellite and provide orbit circularization through apogee burns.

text: When launched by the U.S. Space Shuttle a solid propellant

text: perigee

text: stage (motor and carrier) would be attached to the bottom of the spacecraft. This carrier was used to mount the satellite into a cradle in the Space Shuttle cargo bay. The satellite was ejected from the space shuttle "

text: Frisbee

text: -style" which imparted a stabilizing spin to the satellite. The satellite was allowed to drift a safe distance from the space shuttle before the perigee motor was fired. The perigee motor provided energy (velocity) to the satellite to raise the apogee of the satellite's orbit; it is named for the location in the orbit at which it is used. The perigee motor was jettisoned after it was used. The liquid fuel apogee engines of the Intelsat VI satellites were then used to boost the perigee of the satellite and provide orbit circularization through apogee burns.

text: Early prototypes of vertical farms, or "Tower Hydroponicums" existed in Armenia prior to 1951 during an era of hydroponic and horticultural building system research fueled by space exploration and a transatlantic technology race.

text: Early prototypes of vertical farms, or "Tower Hydroponicums" existed in Armenia prior to 1951 during an era of hydroponic and

text: horticultural building system

text: research fueled by space exploration and a transatlantic technology race.

text: As the player explores other planets they may occasionally find ruins from an ancient civilization. These ruins can be harvested to gain undiscovered technologies, which can significantly alter the game.

text: Materials for the space capsule are designed in different ways, like the Apollo Command Module’s aluminum honeycomb structure. Aluminum is very light, and the structure gives the space capsule extra strength. The early space craft had a coating of glass embedded with synthetic resin and put in very high temperatures. Carbon fiber, reinforced plastics and ceramic are new materials that are constantly being made better for use in space exploration.

text: Materials for the space capsule are designed in different ways, like the

text: Apollo Command Module

text: ’s

text: aluminum

text: honeycomb structure

text: . Aluminum is very light, and the structure gives the space capsule extra strength. The early space craft had a coating of glass embedded with synthetic resin and put in very high temperatures.

text: Carbon fiber

text: , reinforced plastics and ceramic are new materials that are constantly being made better for use in space exploration.

text: Wright takes an interest in infrared astronomy and cosmology. He has studied fractal dust grains which are able to absorb and emit efficiently at millimeter wavelengths, and other aspects that may be important factors in drawing secrets from the cosmic microwave background. As an interdisciplinary scientist on the Space InfraRed Telescope Facility (SIRTF) Science Working Group, Wright has worked on the SIRTF project (renamed the Spitzer Space Telescope) since 1976. He was an active member of the teams working on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) since 1978. He is the principal investigator of the Wide field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) project. Wright is also a member of the  current science team on the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), which was launched in June 2001. WMAP is a mission to follow up the COBE discovery of early fluctuations in the developing Universe.

text: Wright takes an interest in

text: infrared astronomy

text: and cosmology. He has studied fractal dust grains which are able to absorb and emit efficiently at millimeter wavelengths, and other aspects that may be important factors in drawing secrets from the

text: cosmic microwave background

text: . As an interdisciplinary scientist on the Space InfraRed Telescope Facility (

text: SIRTF

text: ) Science Working Group, Wright has worked on the SIRTF project (renamed the Spitzer Space Telescope) since 1976. He was an active member of the teams working on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) since 1978. He is the principal investigator of the Wide field Infrared Survey Explorer (

text: WISE

text: ) project. Wright is also a member of the  current science team on the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (

text: WMAP

text: ), which was launched in June 2001. WMAP is a mission to follow up the COBE discovery of early fluctuations in the developing

text: Universe

text: The space movement seeks the betterment of humanity and a greater future for everyone.  According to Mark Hopkins from the National Space Society, each space organization has a different priority and short-term objective, but all organizations share the ultimate goal of building space settlements. Most of the leading non-profit space organizations joined together to form the Space Exploration Alliance. The Alliance was formed to "advocate for the exploration and development of outer space" to members of Congress.  The Alliance organizes the annual Legislative Blitz to lobby members of Congress for space exploration, and every space enthusiast is encouraged to participate in the Legislative Blitz by calling, emailing, or personally visiting their Congressperson's office.

text: The space movement seeks the betterment of humanity and a greater future for everyone.  According to Mark Hopkins from the

text: National Space Society

text: , each space organization has a different priority and short-term objective, but all organizations share the ultimate goal of building

text: space settlements

text: . Most of the leading non-profit space organizations joined together to form the

text: Space Exploration Alliance

text: . The Alliance was formed to "advocate for the exploration and development of outer space" to members of Congress.  The Alliance organizes the annual Legislative Blitz to lobby members of Congress for space exploration, and every space enthusiast is encouraged to participate in the Legislative Blitz by calling, emailing, or personally visiting their Congressperson's office.

text: ARCA Space Corporation is an aerospace company based in Las Cruces, New Mexico that builds space rockets and other manned and unmanned aircraft intended for space exploration. It was founded in 1999 as a non-governmental organization in Romania by Dumitru Popescu and other rocket and aeronautics enthusiasts. Since then ARCA launched two stratospheric rockets, four large scale stratospheric balloons including a cluster balloon and was awarded two governmental contracts with the Romanian Government and one contract with the European Space Agency. ARCA is currently developing a suborbital rocket plane, an orbital and suborbital rocket family and a stratospheric unmanned aerial vehicle.

text: ARCA Space Corporation is an aerospace company based in

text: Las Cruces, New Mexico

text: that builds space rockets and other manned and unmanned aircraft intended for space exploration. It was founded in 1999 as a

text: non-governmental organization

text: in

text: Romania

text: by Dumitru Popescu and other rocket and aeronautics enthusiasts. Since then ARCA launched two stratospheric rockets, four large scale stratospheric balloons including a cluster balloon and was awarded two governmental contracts with the

text: Romanian Government

text: and one contract with the

text: European Space Agency

text: . ARCA is currently developing a suborbital rocket plane, an orbital and suborbital rocket family and a stratospheric

text: unmanned aerial vehicle

text: The forerunner of the DSN was established in January 1958, when JPL, then under contract to the U.S. Army, deployed portable radio tracking stations in Nigeria, Singapore, and California to receive telemetry and plot the orbit of the Army-launched Explorer 1, the first successful U.S. satellite. NASA was officially established on October 1, 1958, to consolidate the separately developing space-exploration programs of the US Army, US Navy, and US Air Force into one civilian organization.

text: The forerunner of the DSN was established in January 1958, when

text: JPL

text: , then under contract to the

text: U.S. Army

text: , deployed portable radio tracking stations in Nigeria, Singapore, and California to receive

text: telemetry

text: and plot the orbit of the Army-launched

text: Explorer 1

text: , the first successful U.S.

text: satellite

text: NASA

text: was officially established on October 1, 1958, to consolidate the separately developing space-exploration programs of the US Army,

text: US Navy

text: , and

text: US Air Force

text: into one civilian organization.

text: Soviet technology was most highly developed in the fields of nuclear physics, where the arms race with the West convinced policy makers to set aside sufficient resources for research. Due to a crash program directed by Igor Kurchatov (based on spies of Cambridge Five), the Soviet Union was the second nation to develop an atomic bomb, in 1949, four years after the United States. The Soviet Union detonated a hydrogen bomb in 1953, a mere ten months after the United States. Space exploration was also highly developed: in October 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into orbit; in April 1961 a Russian cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, became the first man in space. The Soviets maintained a strong space program until economic problems led to cutbacks in the 1980s.

text: Soviet technology was most highly developed in the fields of

text: nuclear physics

text: , where the arms race with the

text: West

text: convinced policy makers to set aside sufficient resources for research. Due to a crash program directed by

text: Igor Kurchatov

text: (based on spies of

text: Cambridge Five

text: ), the Soviet Union was the second nation to develop an

text: atomic bomb

text: , in 1949, four years after the

text: United States

text: . The Soviet Union detonated a

text: hydrogen bomb

text: in 1953, a mere ten months after the

text: United States

text: Space exploration

text: was also highly developed: in October 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first artificial

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: , into

text: orbit

text: ; in April 1961 a Russian

text: cosmonaut

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: , became the first man in space. The Soviets maintained a strong space program until economic problems led to cutbacks in the 1980s.

text: The Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics (also known as the Memorial Museum of Astronautics (in English) or Memorial Museum of Space Exploration) is a museum in Moscow, Russia,  dedicated to space exploration. It is located within the base of the Monument to the Conquerors of Space in the north-east of the city.The museum contains a wide variety of Soviet and Russian space-related exhibits and models which explore the history of flight; astronomy; space exploration; space technology; and space in the arts. According to the Russian tourist board, the museum's collection holds approximately 85,000 different items, primarily from the Soviet period, and receives approximately 300,000 visitors yearly.

text: The Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics (also known as the Memorial Museum of Astronautics (in English) or Memorial Museum of Space Exploration) is a

text: museum

text: in

text: Moscow

text: Russia

text: ,  dedicated to

text: space exploration

text: . It is located within the base of the

text: Monument to the Conquerors of Space

text: in the north-east of the city.The museum contains a wide variety of Soviet and Russian space-related exhibits and models which explore the

text: history of flight

text: astronomy

text: space exploration

text: space technology

text: ; and space in the arts. According to the Russian tourist board, the museum's collection holds approximately 85,000 different items, primarily from the Soviet period, and receives approximately 300,000 visitors yearly.

text: In 1946, he was one of the more than two thousand German specialists forcibly (at gunpoint) brought to Russia under Operation Osoaviakhim. He was then one of the more than 170 German specialists – headed by Helmut Gröttrup -  brought to Branch 1 of NII-88 on Gorodomlya Island in Lake Seliger. From 1946–1952, he was an engineer and manager of a radar electronics lab, working on the hardware for a new radar guidance system for the early Soviet rocket program.  He also worked on a design for a 6-dish (array) deep-space tracking station for the early Soviet space program. In 1960, Russia implemented the full 8-dish (with 60-foot diameter dishes) deep-space tracking station called Pluton in the Crimea.

text: In 1946, he was one of the more than two thousand German specialists forcibly (at gunpoint) brought to Russia under

text: Operation Osoaviakhim

text: . He was then one of the more than 170 German specialists – headed by

text: Helmut Gröttrup

text: -  brought to Branch 1 of NII-88 on

text: Gorodomlya Island

text: in

text: Lake Seliger

text: . From 1946–1952, he was an engineer and manager of a radar electronics lab, working on the hardware for a new radar guidance system for the early Soviet rocket program.  He also worked on a design for a 6-dish (array) deep-space tracking station for the early

text: Soviet space program

text: . In 1960, Russia implemented the full 8-dish (with 60-foot diameter dishes) deep-space tracking station called

text: Pluton

text: in the

text: Crimea

text: Following the launch of the Soviet Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957, Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) was directed to proceed with the launching of a satellite using the Jupiter-C, which had already been flight-tested in nose-cone re-entry tests for the Jupiter IRBM (intermediate-range ballistic missile). Working closely together, ABMA and JPL completed the job of modifying the Jupiter-C to the Juno I and building the Explorer I in 84 days.

text: Following the launch of the Soviet

text: Sputnik 1

text: on October 4, 1957,

text: Army Ballistic Missile Agency

text: (ABMA) was directed to proceed with the launching of a satellite using the Jupiter-C, which had already been flight-tested in nose-cone re-entry tests for the

text: Jupiter IRBM

text: intermediate-range ballistic missile

text: ). Working closely together, ABMA and JPL completed the job of modifying the Jupiter-C to the Juno I and building the Explorer I in 84 days.

text: SNOE is the 72th mission of the Explorer program from NASA dedicated to the scientific investigation of the space environment of the Earth. SNOE is the first of three projects developed within the university satellite program (STEDI) whose objective is to reach students in the development of satellites with limited means in the context of the strategy of "faster, better, and cheaper "(faster, better and cheaper") promoted by the NASA administrator Daniel Goldin. The program is funded by NASA and managed by the Universities Space Research Association. the project by the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1994 was selected among 66 proposals to be part of the 6 pre selected satellites. In February 1995 the satellite is selected with TERRIERS of Boston University and CATSAT of the University of Leicester in the UK. SNOE is built entirely by the laboratory space and atmospheric physics of the university.

text: SNOE is the 72th mission of the Explorer program from NASA dedicated to the scientific investigation of the space environment of the Earth. SNOE is the first of three projects developed within the university satellite program (STEDI) whose objective is to reach students in the development of satellites with limited means in the context of the strategy of "faster, better, and cheaper "(faster, better and cheaper") promoted by the NASA administrator

text: Daniel Goldin

text: . The program is funded by NASA and managed by the

text: Universities Space Research Association

text: . the project by the

text: University of Colorado

text: at

text: Boulder

text: in 1994 was selected among 66 proposals to be part of the 6 pre selected satellites. In February 1995 the satellite is selected with

text: TERRIERS

text: of

text: Boston University

text: and

text: CATSAT

text: of the

text: University of Leicester

text: in the UK. SNOE is built entirely by the laboratory space and atmospheric physics of the university.

text: The X-type asteroid is classified as a Xc-subtype on the SMASS taxonomic scheme, while the NEOWISE mission of NASA's space-based Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer groups it into the P-type spectral class. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9–3.7 AU once every 4 years and 8 months (1,699 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.31 and an inclination of 7° with respect to the ecliptic. No precoveries were taken prior to its discovery.

text: The

text: X-type

text: asteroid is classified as a Xc-subtype on the

text: SMASS

text: taxonomic scheme, while the

text: NEOWISE

text: mission of NASA's space-based

text: Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer

text: groups it into the

text: P-type

text: spectral class. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9–3.7

text: AU

text: once every 4 years and 8 months (1,699 days). Its orbit has an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.31 and an

text: inclination

text: of 7

text: with respect to the

text: ecliptic

text: . No

text: precoveries

text: were taken prior to its discovery.

text: The largest company of Russia's space industry is RKK Energiya. It is the country's main human spaceflight contractor, the lead developer of the Soyuz-TMA and Progress spacecraft and the Russian end of the International Space Station. It employs around 22,000-30,000 people. Progress State Research and Production Rocket Space Center (TsSKB Progress) is the developer and producer of the famous Soyuz launch vehicle. The Soyuz-FG version is used to launch manned spacecraft, while the international joint-venture Starsem markets commercial satellite launches on the other versions. TsSKB Progress is currently leading the development of a new launcher called Rus-M, which is to replace the Soyuz. Moscow-based Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center is one of the commercially most successful companies of the space industry. It is the developer of the Proton-M rocket and the Fregat upper stage. The company's new Angara rocket family is expected to be put into service 2013. The largest satellite manufacturer in Russia is ISS Reshetnev (formerly called NPO PM). It is main contractor for the GLONASS satellite navigation program and produces the Ekspress series of communications satellites. The company is located in Zheleznogorsk, Krasnoyarsk Krai, and employs around 6,500 people. The leading rocket engine company is NPO Energomash, designer and producer of the famous RD-180 engine. In electric spacecraft propulsion, OKB Fakel, located in Kaliningrad Oblast, is one of the top companies. NPO Lavochkin is Russia's main planetary probe designer. It is responsible for the high-profile Fobos-Grunt mission, Russia's first attempt at an interplanetary probe since Mars 96.

text: The largest company of Russia's space industry is

text: RKK Energiya

text: . It is the country's main human spaceflight contractor, the lead developer of the

text: Soyuz-TMA

text: and

text: Progress

text: spacecraft and the Russian end of the

text: International Space Station

text: . It employs around 22,000-30,000 people.

text: Progress State Research and Production Rocket Space Center

text: (TsSKB Progress) is the developer and producer of the famous

text: Soyuz

text: launch vehicle. The

text: Soyuz-FG

text: version is used to launch manned spacecraft, while the international joint-venture

text: Starsem

text: markets commercial satellite launches on the other versions. TsSKB Progress is currently leading the development of a new launcher called

text: Rus-M

text: , which is to replace the Soyuz. Moscow-based

entity_name: Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center

text: Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center

text: is one of the commercially most successful companies of the space industry. It is the developer of the

text: Proton-M

text: rocket and the

text: Fregat

text: upper stage. The company's new

text: Angara rocket family

text: is expected to be put into service 2013. The largest satellite manufacturer in Russia is

text: ISS Reshetnev

text: (formerly called NPO PM). It is main contractor for the

text: GLONASS

text: satellite navigation program

text: and produces the

text: Ekspress

text: series of communications satellites. The company is located in

text: Zheleznogorsk

text: Krasnoyarsk Krai

text: , and employs around 6,500 people. The leading rocket engine company is

text: NPO Energomash

text: , designer and producer of the famous

text: engine. In electric spacecraft propulsion,

text: OKB Fakel

text: , located in

text: Kaliningrad Oblast

text: , is one of the top companies.

text: NPO Lavochkin

text: is Russia's main planetary probe designer. It is responsible for the high-profile

text: Fobos-Grunt

text: mission, Russia's first attempt at an interplanetary probe since

text: Mars 96

text: Today NASA's satellite instruments, provided by CERES, part of the NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS), are designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation.<ref>{{cite journal |last= B.A. Wielicki |display-authors=etal |title=Mission to Planet Earth: Role of Clouds and Radiation in Climate |journal=Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. |volume=77 |issue= 5 |year=1996 |pages=853–868 |doi= 10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077

text: Today NASA's satellite instruments, provided by CERES, part of the NASA's

text: Earth Observing System

text: (EOS), are designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation.<ref>{{cite journal |last= B.A. Wielicki |display-authors=etal |title=Mission to Planet Earth: Role of Clouds and Radiation in Climate |journal=Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. |volume=77 |issue= 5 |year=1996 |pages=853–868 |doi= 10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077

text: Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the Space Launch System and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.

text: Since that time, most US

text: space exploration

text: efforts have been led by NASA, including the

text: Apollo

text: moon-landing

text: missions, the

text: Skylab

text: space station, and later the

text: Space Shuttle

text: . Currently, NASA is supporting the

text: International Space Station

text: Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle

text: , the

text: Space Launch System

text: and

text: Commercial Crew

text: Launch Services Program

text: Deep space exploration is the term used for the exploration of deep space, and which is usually described as being at far distances from Earth and either within or away from the Solar System. It is the branch of astronomy, astronautics and space technology that is involved with the exploration of distant regions of outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights (deep-space astronautics) and by robotic spacecraft.

text: Deep space exploration is the term used for the exploration of

text: deep space

text: , and which is usually described as being at far distances from Earth and either within or away from the Solar System. It is the branch of

text: astronomy

text: astronautics

text: and

text: space technology

text: that is involved with the exploration of distant regions of outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by

text: human spaceflight

text: s (deep-space astronautics) and by

text: robotic spacecraft

text: The type of orbit that WT1190F had was not stable long-term. An object in this type of orbit was likely to impact into Earth or the Moon, or acquire enough orbital speed to be ejected into orbit around the Sun. It was not likely that it had been orbiting Earth for decades. In 2011 the orbit had an eccentricity of 0.33 and perigee (closest approach to Earth) of . It passed about  from the Moon on 2012 May 24. By 2013 the eccentricity had increased to 0.70 and the perigee decreased to .

text: The type of orbit that WT1190F had was not stable long-term. An object in this type of orbit was likely to impact into Earth or the Moon, or acquire enough

text: orbital speed

text: to be ejected into orbit around the Sun. It was not likely that it had been orbiting Earth for decades. In 2011 the orbit had an

text: eccentricity

text: of 0.33 and

text: perigee

text: (closest approach to Earth) of . It passed about  from the Moon on 2012 May 24. By 2013 the eccentricity had increased to 0.70 and the perigee decreased to .

text: The age of exploration is generally said to have ended in the early 17th century. By this time European vessels were well enough built and their navigators competent enough to travel to virtually anywhere on the planet. Exploration, of course, continued. The Arctic and Antarctic seas were not explored until the 19th century.

text: Particular targets are Europa, due to its potential for life, and Callisto, due to its relatively low radiation dose. In 2003, NASA proposed a program called Human Outer Planets Exploration (HOPE) that involved sending astronauts to explore the Galilean moons. NASA has projected a possible attempt some time in the 2040s. In the Vision for Space Exploration policy announced in January 2004, NASA discussed missions beyond Mars, mentioning that a "human research presence" may be desirable on Jupiter's moons. Before the JIMO mission was cancelled, NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe stated that "human explorers will follow."

text: Particular targets are Europa, due to its potential for life, and Callisto, due to its relatively low radiation dose. In 2003, NASA proposed a program called Human Outer Planets Exploration (HOPE) that involved sending astronauts to explore the Galilean moons. NASA has projected a possible attempt some time in the 2040s. In the

text: Vision for Space Exploration

text: policy announced in January 2004, NASA discussed missions beyond Mars, mentioning that a "human research presence" may be desirable on Jupiter's moons. Before the JIMO mission was cancelled, NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe stated that "human explorers will follow."

text: About 6,600 satellites have been launched.  According to a 2013 estimate, 3,600 remained in orbit.  Of those, about 1,000 were operational; the rest have lived out their useful lives and become space debris.  Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit, 50 are in medium-Earth orbit (at 20,000 km), and the rest are in geostationary orbit (at 36,000 km).

text: About 6,600 satellites have been launched.  According to a 2013 estimate, 3,600 remained in orbit.  Of those, about 1,000 were operational; the rest have lived out their useful lives and become

text: space debris

text: .  Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit, 50 are in

text: medium-Earth orbit

text: (at 20,000 km), and the rest are in

text: geostationary orbit

text: (at 36,000 km).

text: In the Solar System there are 178 known natural satellites which orbit within 6 planetary satellite systems. In addition, several other objects are known to have satellites, including four IAU-listed dwarf planets: Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris. , over 200 minor-planet moons have been discovered. There are 76 known objects in the asteroid belt with satellites (five with two each), four Jupiter trojans, 39 near-Earth objects (two with two satellites each), and 14 Mars-crossers. There are also 84 known natural satellites of trans-Neptunian objects. Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within the rings of Saturn, but only a few were tracked long enough to establish orbits. Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well, and although numerous candidates have been detected to date, none have yet been confirmed.

text: In the

text: Solar System

text: there are 178 known natural satellites which orbit within 6 planetary

text: satellite system

text: s. In addition, several other objects are known to have satellites, including four

text: IAU

text: -listed dwarf planets:

text: Pluto

text: Haumea

text: Makemake

text: , and

text: Eris

text: . , over 200

text: minor-planet moon

text: s have been discovered. There are 76 known objects in the

text: asteroid belt

text: with satellites (five with two each), four

text: Jupiter trojan

text: s, 39

text: near-Earth object

text: s (two with two satellites each), and 14

text: Mars-crossers

text: . There are also 84 known natural satellites of

text: trans-Neptunian objects

text: . Some 150 additional small bodies have been observed within the

text: rings of Saturn

text: , but only a few were tracked long enough to establish orbits. Planets around other stars are likely to have satellites as well, and although numerous candidates have been detected to date, none have yet been confirmed.

text: The earliest rockets documented in imperial China consisted of arrows modified by the attachment of a rocket motor to the shaft a few inches behind the arrowhead. The rocket is propelled by the burning of the black powder in the motor. (These rockets should not be confused with "rocket arrows" which are conventional arrows carrying small tubes of black powder as an incendiary that ignites only after the arrow reaches its target. A fuse is lit before release of the arrow.) The rocket launchers were constructed of wood, basketry, and bamboo tubes. The launchers divided the rockets with frames meant to keep them separated, and the launchers were capable of firing multiple rockets at once. Textual evidence and illustrations of various early rocket launchers are found in the 1510 edition of the Wujing Zongyao translated by Needham and others at Princeton University. (The original Wujing Zongyao was compiled between 1040 and 1044 and described the discovery of black powder but preceded the invention of the rocket. Partial copies of the original survived and Wujing Zongyao was republished in 1231 during the Southern Song Dynasty, including military developments since the original 1044 publication. Historian Joseph Needham asserts that the 1510 edition is the most reliable in its faithfulness to the original and 1231 versions, since it was printed from blocks that were re-carved directly from tracings of the edition made in 1231 AD.)[6] The 1510 Wujing Zongyao describes the "long serpent" rocket launcher, a rocket launcher constructed of wood and carried with a wheelbarrow, and the "hundred tiger" rocket launcher, a rocket launcher made of wood and capable of firing 320 rocket arrows. The text also describes a portable rocket carrier consisting of a sling and a bamboo tube.

text: The earliest rockets documented in

text: imperial China

text: consisted of arrows modified by the attachment of a rocket motor to the shaft a few inches behind the arrowhead. The rocket is propelled by the burning of the black powder in the motor. (These rockets should not be confused with "rocket arrows" which are conventional arrows carrying small tubes of black powder as an incendiary that ignites only after the arrow reaches its target. A fuse is lit before release of the arrow.) The rocket launchers were constructed of wood, basketry, and bamboo tubes. The launchers divided the rockets with frames meant to keep them separated, and the launchers were capable of firing multiple rockets at once. Textual evidence and illustrations of various early rocket launchers are found in the 1510 edition of the Wujing Zongyao translated by Needham and others at Princeton University. (The original Wujing Zongyao was compiled between 1040 and 1044 and described the discovery of black powder but preceded the invention of the rocket. Partial copies of the original survived and

text: Wujing Zongyao

text: was republished in 1231 during the

text: Southern Song Dynasty

text: , including military developments since the original 1044 publication. Historian Joseph Needham asserts that the 1510 edition is the most reliable in its faithfulness to the original and 1231 versions, since it was printed from blocks that were re-carved directly from tracings of the edition made in 1231 AD.)[6] The 1510 Wujing Zongyao describes the "long serpent" rocket launcher, a rocket launcher constructed of wood and carried with a wheelbarrow, and the "hundred tiger" rocket launcher, a rocket launcher made of wood and capable of firing 320 rocket arrows. The text also describes a portable rocket carrier consisting of a sling and a bamboo tube.

text: Another unique feature of this computer was its serial port.  The serial data was connected to the Intel 8085's SID and SOD (Serial In Data and Serial Out Data) pins.  This allowed the use of the Intel 8085's RIM and SIM instructions to read the level on the SID and set the level on SOD line.  What was so unique about this implementation was that after resetting the Explorer 85, the user had to press the space bar on the attached computer terminal.  The Explorer 85's firmware would measure the time between the start bit and the first data bit in the ASCII code for the space character.  This allowed the Explorer 85 to automatically calculate and match the baud rate of the terminal.  The down side of this technique was that the firmware needed to be in a loop monitoring the level on the SID pin to receive data from the terminal.  If the processor was doing some other task when the user pressed a key on the terminal, that data would be lost.

text: Another unique feature of this computer was its serial port.  The serial data was connected to the Intel 8085's SID and SOD (Serial In Data and Serial Out Data) pins.  This allowed the use of the Intel 8085's RIM and SIM instructions to read the level on the SID and set the level on SOD line.  What was so unique about this implementation was that after resetting the Explorer 85, the user had to press the space bar on the attached

text: computer terminal

text: .  The Explorer 85's firmware would measure the time between the

text: start bit

text: and the first data bit in the

text: ASCII

text: code for the space character.  This allowed the Explorer 85 to automatically calculate and match the baud rate of the terminal.  The down side of this technique was that the firmware needed to be in a loop monitoring the level on the SID pin to receive data from the terminal.  If the processor was doing some other task when the user pressed a key on the terminal, that data would be lost.

text: In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched; in 1961 on 12 April the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yury Gagarin; and many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued, including the first spacewalk performed by Alexey Leonov, the first space exploration rover Lunokhod-1 and the first space station Salyut 1. Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher and the only provider of transport for space tourism services.

text: satellite

text: Sputnik 1

text: , was launched; in 1961 on

text: 12 April

text: the first human trip into space was successfully made by

text: Yury Gagarin

text: ; and many other Soviet and Russian

text: space exploration records

text: ensued, including the first

text: spacewalk

text: performed by

text: Alexey Leonov

text: , the first space exploration

text: rover

text: and the first

text: space station

text: Salyut 1

text: . Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher and the only provider of transport for

text: space tourism

text: services.

text: Proba-V and its onboard instruments have been developed and built by QinetiQ Space N.V and subcontractors for the Directorate of TEChnology (DTEC) of ESA. These developments have been paid with Belgian and Luxemburg contributions to ESA. The In Orbit Commissioning Review (IOCR) was successfully achieved on 27/11/2013. After the launch and the commissioning, Proba-V was handed over from DTEC to the Earth Observation Directorate of ESA on 12/12/2013. After this handover the Earth Observation Directorate of ESA will manage the satellite operations, instrument data collection and distribution of the traditional Vegetation products to the users. VITO will actually generate and distribute these products. The management of the new, higher resolution products will be assured by the Space- and Aeronautics department of the BELgian Science Policy Office. For these products too, VITO will actually generate and distribute these higher resolution products.

text: Proba-V and its onboard instruments have been developed and built by QinetiQ Space N.V and subcontractors for the Directorate of TEChnology (DTEC) of

text: ESA

text: . These developments have been paid with Belgian and Luxemburg contributions to ESA. The In Orbit Commissioning Review (IOCR) was successfully achieved on 27/11/2013. After the launch and the commissioning, Proba-V was handed over from DTEC to the Earth Observation Directorate of

text: ESA

text: on 12/12/2013. After this handover the Earth Observation Directorate of

text: ESA

text: will manage the satellite operations, instrument data collection and distribution of the traditional Vegetation products to the users. VITO will actually generate and distribute these products. The management of the new, higher resolution products will be assured by the Space- and Aeronautics department of the

text: BELgian Science Policy Office

text: . For these products too, VITO will actually generate and distribute these higher resolution products.

text: In the short story collections Venture to the Moon (1956) and The Other Side of the Sky (1957), Clarke shows a different aspect of space exploration (regarding the special cases of the Moon and of the construction of a space station), in each story, without aiming at a plot that would be interesting for any other reason than the respective outward issue.

text: In the short story collections

text: Venture to the Moon

text: (1956) and

text: The Other Side of the Sky

text: (1957), Clarke shows a different aspect of space exploration (regarding the special cases of the Moon and of the construction of a space station), in each story, without aiming at a plot that would be interesting for any other reason than the respective outward issue.

text: Rocket propellant is either a high oxygen containing fuel or a mixture of fuel plus oxidant, whose combustion takes place, in a definite and controlled manner with the evolution of a huge volume of gas. In the rocket engine, the propellant is burnt in the combustion chamber and the hot jet of gases (usually at a temperature of 3000°C and a pressure of 300 kg/cm) escapes through the nozzle at very high velocity.

text: Rocket propellant is either a high oxygen containing fuel or a mixture of fuel plus oxidant, whose combustion takes place, in a definite and controlled manner with the evolution of a huge volume of gas. In the

text: rocket engine

text: , the propellant is burnt in the combustion chamber and the hot jet of gases (usually at a temperature of 3000°C and a pressure of 300 kg/cm) escapes through the nozzle at very high velocity.

text: The final line of the verse is a variant on the phrase "East of the Sun and West of the Moon", which is used in fairy-stories and similar tales to refer to another world that is fantastically difficult to reach — in this case Aman, which can only be reached by the Straight Road. An example of the use of this phrase is East of the Sun and West of the Moon, a fairy-story found in The Blue Fairy Book, a collection compiled by Andrew Lang.

text: The final line of the verse is a variant on the phrase "East of the Sun and West of the Moon", which is used in fairy-stories and similar tales to refer to another world that is fantastically difficult to reach — in this case

text: Aman

text: , which can only be reached by the

text: Straight Road

text: . An example of the use of this phrase is

text: East of the Sun and West of the Moon

text: , a fairy-story found in

text: The Blue Fairy Book

text: , a collection compiled by

text: Andrew Lang

text: After a six-week flight, the Zero-X Martian Exploration Vehicle lands on Mars on 22 July. While investigating the barren surface, the crew are puzzled to encounter strange rock formations arranged into coils. Space Captain Greg Martin blasts one of the structures with the MEV gun and Dr Pierce prepares to leave the vehicle to collect samples. However, the other formations stir into motion and reveal themselves to be one-eyed "Rock Snakes". Under attack from the extraterrestrials, which are able to shoot fireballs from their "mouths", the Zero-X explorers are forced to effect a premature departure from the Martian surface. Docking with the orbiting command module piloted by Space Navigator Brad Newman, the astronauts start the flight back to Earth.

text: After a six-week flight, the Zero-X Martian Exploration Vehicle

text: lands

text: on Mars on 22 July. While investigating the barren

text: surface

text: , the crew are puzzled to encounter strange rock formations arranged into coils. Space Captain Greg Martin blasts one of the structures with the MEV gun and Dr Pierce prepares to

text: leave the vehicle

text: to collect samples. However, the other formations stir into motion and reveal themselves to be

entity_name: List of one-eyed creatures in mythology and fiction

text: one-eyed

text: "Rock Snakes". Under attack from the extraterrestrials, which are able to shoot fireballs from their "mouths", the Zero-X explorers are forced to effect a premature departure from the Martian surface. Docking with the orbiting command module piloted by Space Navigator Brad Newman, the astronauts start the flight back to Earth.

text: For a satellite or space probe to qualify as a deep space X-ray astronomer/explorer or "astronobot"/explorer, all it needs to carry aboard is an XRT or X-ray detector and leave Earth orbit.

text: Comet C/2013 A1 passed close by Mars in October 2014, closer than the Moon is to Earth. As of early 2014 it was calculated to pass as close as . This was so close that the event was deemed dangerous to spacecraft in orbit around Mars. Spacecraft that were active at that time included 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, MAVEN, Mars Orbiter Mission, and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter in Mars orbit – and two on the surface – Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity and the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity.

text: Comet

text: C/2013 A1

text: passed close by Mars in October 2014, closer than the Moon is to Earth. As of early 2014 it was calculated to pass as close as . This was so close that the event was deemed dangerous to spacecraft in orbit around Mars. Spacecraft that were active at that time included

text: 2001 Mars Odyssey

text: Mars Express

text: MAVEN

text: Mars Orbiter Mission

text: , and

text: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: in Mars orbit – and two on the surface –

text: Mars Exploration Rover

text: Opportunity

text: and the

text: Mars Science Laboratory

text: Curiosity

text: Several terrestrial bodies have been subject of lander and/or impactor exploration: among them Earth's Moon, the planets Venus and Mars, the Saturn moon Titan, the asteroids and comets. Of the inner Solar System planets, Mercury is the only one that is yet to be visited by a lander.

text: Several

text: terrestrial bodies

text: have been subject of lander and/or impactor exploration: among them Earth's

text: Moon

text: , the planets

text: Venus

text: and

text: Mars

text: , the Saturn moon

text: Titan

text: , the

text: asteroid

text: s and

text: comet

text: s. Of the inner Solar System planets,

text: Mercury

text: is the only one that is yet to be visited by a lander.

text: In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin, the literary critic Jean-Marie Apostolidès praised the Destination Moon-Explorers on the Moon story arc for its "meticulous attention to scientific facts", but added that this had also resulted in the story's "rather pedagogical tone". He added that in these stories, the main division was "no longer Good and Evil" as it had been in previous Adventures, but "Truth and Error". Apostolidès opined that despite being a "fussy and somewhat ridiculous character", through his scientific achievements Calculus grows to the "stature of a giant" in this arc, eclipsing Sir Francis Haddock (from The Secret of the Unicorn) as the series' "founding ancestor". He goes on to claim that in becoming the "sacred ancestor", the voyage to the moon becomes "a mystical quest" with science as its guiding religion. Drawing comparisons between this arc and the Prisoners of the Sun story, he drew symbolic links between the scientific centre and the Inca Temple of the Sun, but noted that here Calculus was the "high priest" rather than the sacrificial victim as he had been in the previous story.Moving on to discuss the moon rocket in these stories, Apostolidès described it as a phallic object which penetrated the "virgin territory" of the moon. At the same time, he described the rocket as a "maternal belly" in which the space explorers slept. Commenting specifically on Explorers on the Moon he commented that the protagonists of the story reverted to childhood when exploring the moon, believing that they had treated it like a theme park.

text: In his

text: psychoanalytical

text: study of the Adventures of Tintin, the

text: literary critic

text: theme park

text: Radio Sputnik is a Finnish radio station with programming in the Russian language.

text: Radio Sputnik is a

text: Finnish

text: radio station with programming in the

text: Russian language

text: ‘Imiloa includes a 120-seat planetarium, which features a fulldome video projection system.  Planetarium presentations include ‘Imiloa's exclusive signature show, "Maunakea: Between Earth and Sky."  The bilingual exhibits (in Hawaiian and English) offer two views of Origins and Voyages, presenting the tools, visions and discoveries of the astronomers and the Polynesian voyagers (see Polynesian navigation), the first group of whom are thought tohave voyaged to Hawaii from the Marquesas Islands.  Visitors to ‘Imiloa will leave with a new understanding of the early Polynesians, who used the stars to find these isolated islands in the middle of the vast Pacific Ocean.  Hawaiians refer to these long-distance canoe explorers as "our first astronomers." Another planetarium show, "Dawn of the Space Age 3D," recounts the early days of space exploration, the so-called space race  between the USSR and the United States. This is the only 3D planetarium show in the world.

text: ‘Imiloa includes a 120-seat

text: planetarium

text: , which features a

text: fulldome video

text: projection system.  Planetarium presentations include ‘Imiloa's exclusive signature show, "Maunakea: Between Earth and Sky."  The bilingual exhibits (in Hawaiian and English) offer two views of Origins and Voyages, presenting the tools, visions and discoveries of the

text: astronomer

text: s and the

text: Polynesia

text: n voyagers (see

text: Polynesian navigation

text: ), the first group of whom are thought tohave voyaged to Hawaii from the

text: Marquesas Islands

text: .  Visitors to ‘Imiloa will leave with a new understanding of the early Polynesians, who used the stars to find these isolated islands in the middle of the vast

text: Pacific Ocean

text: .  Hawaiians refer to these long-distance

text: canoe

text: explorers as "our first astronomers." Another planetarium show, "Dawn of the Space Age 3D," recounts the early days of space exploration, the so-called

text: space race

text: between the

text: USSR

text: and the United States. This is the only 3D planetarium show in the world.

text: Rothblatt is an advocate for space,  public speaker on the advantageous of investing in space settlements, and President of the Florida Space Development Council, the National Space Society's local chapter. In a talk hosted by students from SEDS, at the University of Michigan, Rothblatt advocated that space exploration should not resemble the space race but should be an endeavor of international collaboration. In a congressional debate, Rothblatt stated that he believes missions to the moon, mars, and asteroids should be a priority, and under the right plan a 1,000 people could be in space within a decade. Space was such a significant part of Rothblatt's campaign BBC News ran a story covering both candidates position on space and titled it Florida's space race: The politicians battling over the cosmos. Lisa Miller, from New York magazine, wrote that the first item on Rothblatt's platform is "space." Rothblatt has written on various space topics including spacesteading and panspermia.

text: Rothblatt is an

text: advocate for space

text: ,  public speaker on the advantageous of investing in

text: space settlements

text: , and President of the Florida Space Development Council, the

text: National Space Society's

text: local chapter. In a talk hosted by students from

text: SEDS

text: , at the

text: University of Michigan

text: , Rothblatt advocated that space exploration should not resemble the

text: space race

text: but should be an endeavor of international collaboration. In a congressional debate, Rothblatt stated that he believes missions to the moon, mars, and asteroids should be a priority, and under the right plan a 1,000 people could be in space within a decade. Space was such a significant part of Rothblatt's campaign

text: BBC News

text: ran a story covering both candidates position on space and titled it Florida's space race: The politicians battling over the cosmos. Lisa Miller, from

text: New York

text: magazine, wrote that the first item on Rothblatt's platform is "space." Rothblatt has written on various space topics including spacesteading and

text: panspermia

text: Ziegler participated in the development of the first planned satellites. The first satellite,Explorer 1, still went into space without solar cells, since it was a quick, less-than-ideal solution after the start of the Sputnik to show the American public that America's scientists could also start a satellite. The actual scheduled satellite project, Project Vanguard, successfully put a satellite named Vanguard I in orbit around Earth on March 17, 1958.

text: Ziegler participated in the development of the first planned satellites. The first satellite,

text: Explorer 1

text: , still went into space without solar cells, since it was a quick, less-than-ideal solution after the start of the

text: Sputnik

text: to show the American public that America's scientists could also start a satellite. The actual scheduled satellite project,

text: Project Vanguard

text: , successfully put a satellite named

text: Vanguard I

text: in orbit around Earth on March 17, 1958.

text: Tycho 'Ty' Johns (Connor Trinneer) and Lei Chen (James Kyson Lee) transport a crate for the government, under the orders of Colonel Bishop (Michael Culkin), which contains a mysterious girl (Toni Trucks) in cryogenic stasis. They wake her up and discover that she has no identifying chip in her arm, unlike the rest of society. She also does not speak. During the outer space flight, the ship is attacked by terrorists. After escaping, they crash land onto a planet in uncharted space. The survivors take shelter in an old military facility on the planet.  Once inside the facility, the girl picks up a gun and has a psychic vision.  In it she sees the death of the last person who held the gun, which causes her to start firing the gun in a wild manner.  She comes out of the vision, as someone grabs hers.  The group agrees that to cover more ground, they'll split up.  While Ty and Lei find a control room, the other groups explore the base and find giant bug-like creatures.

text: Tycho 'Ty' Johns (

text: Connor Trinneer

text: ) and Lei Chen (

text: James Kyson Lee

text: ) transport a crate for the government, under the orders of Colonel Bishop (

text: Michael Culkin

text: ), which contains a mysterious girl (

text: Toni Trucks

text: ) in cryogenic stasis. They wake her up and discover that she has no identifying chip in her arm, unlike the rest of society. She also does not speak. During the outer space flight, the ship is attacked by terrorists. After escaping, they crash land onto a planet in uncharted space. The survivors take shelter in an old military facility on the planet.  Once inside the facility, the girl picks up a gun and has a psychic vision.  In it she sees the death of the last person who held the gun, which causes her to start firing the gun in a wild manner.  She comes out of the vision, as someone grabs hers.  The group agrees that to cover more ground, they'll split up.  While Ty and Lei find a control room, the other groups explore the base and find giant bug-like creatures.

text: In 1987 Robert Richards founded the International Space University (ISU) together with Todd B. Hawley and Peter Diamandis and he served as the university's first Associate Administrator for Strategic Planning and chaired the board's administrative and strategic planning committees during ISU's first phase of development. In 2005 Robert Richards received a Doctorate of Space Achievement (honoris causa) from the International Space University for “distinguished accomplishments in support of humanity’s exploration and use of space.”

text: In 1987 Robert Richards founded the

text: International Space University

text: (ISU) together with

text: Todd B. Hawley

text: and

text: Peter Diamandis

text: and he served as the university's first Associate Administrator for Strategic Planning and chaired the board's administrative and strategic planning committees during ISU's first phase of development. In 2005 Robert Richards received a Doctorate of Space Achievement (honoris causa) from the International Space University for “distinguished accomplishments in support of humanity’s exploration and use of space.”

text: During the 1950s, the Disney studio shifted its focus from theatrical animation to television. Kimball wrote and directed three hour-long television shows about space exploration. They were Man in Space (1955), Man and the Moon (1955), and Mars and Beyond (1957). The consultants for these shows included pioneers of the Space Age, such as aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun. According to animation historian Jeff Lenburg, the three shows helped in sparking popular interest in spaceflight. Kimball was also responsible for the science-fiction two-reel cartoon Cosmic Capers (1957).

text: During the 1950s, the Disney studio shifted its focus from theatrical animation to television. Kimball wrote and directed three hour-long television shows about

text: space exploration

text: . They were

text: Man in Space

text: Man and the Moon

text: (1955), and

text: Mars and Beyond

text: (1957). The consultants for these shows included pioneers of the

text: Space Age

text: , such as

text: aerospace engineer

text: Wernher von Braun

text: . According to animation historian Jeff Lenburg, the three shows helped in sparking popular interest in

text: spaceflight

text: . Kimball was also responsible for the science-fiction two-reel cartoon

text: Cosmic Capers

text: Note that for satellites, orbits are decoupled from the rotation of the Earth so the orbital period is not necessarily one day, but also that errors can accumulate over multiple orbits so that accuracy is important.  For such problems, the rotation of the Earth would be immaterial unless variations with longitude are modeled.  Also, the variation in gravity with altitude becomes important, especially for highly elliptical orbits.

text: After another boring day at Los Angeles High School, Bruce Robinson is delighted to hear that his long-unemployed father, Paul Robinson, has found a job – on the moon.  A short time later the Robinson family boards the rocketship that will take them to meet the deep-space ship Sirius, which will take them to the moon.  But as they approach the disc-shaped deep-space ship they see that, instead of Sirius, they will be riding the Aurora to the moon.

text: A space probe is a robotic spacecraft that leaves Earth orbit and explores space. It may approach the Moon; enter interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land on other planetary bodies; or approach interstellar space.

text: A space probe is a

text: robotic spacecraft

text: that leaves

text: Earth orbit

text: and

text: explores space

text: . It may approach the

text: Moon

text: ; enter

text: interplanetary space

text: flyby

text: orbit

text: , or land on other

text: planetary

text: bodies

text: ; or approach

text: interstellar space

text: The AFJROTC Model Rocket Program develops  skills necessary for building and launching model rockets, and furthers knowledge of aerospace and space exploration.

text: With contemporary space industry's economic activity and the related private spaceflight, with the manufacturing industries, that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development. Commercialization of space includes satellite navigation systems, satellite television and satellite radio; investments estimated to be $50.8 billion. Researchers have contemplated space-based solar power for collecting solar power in space for use on Earth. Space-based solar power only differ from solar and other similar radiant energy collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an orbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing and refracting atmosphere and nighttime in space.

text: With contemporary

text: space industry

text: 's economic activity and the related

text: private spaceflight

text: , with the

text: manufacturing industries

text: , that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development.

text: Commercialization of space

text: includes

text: satellite navigation system

text: s,

text: satellite television

text: and

text: satellite radio

text: ; investments estimated to be

text: 50.8 billion. Researchers have contemplated

text: space-based solar power

text: for collecting

text: solar power

text: in

text: space

text: for use on Earth. Space-based solar power only differ from solar and other similar radiant energy collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an

text: orbit

text: ing

text: satellite

text: instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a

text: diffusing

text: and

text: refracting

text: atmosphere

text: and nighttime in space.

text: Troll was established as a research station by the Norwegian Polar Institute in 1990. The station took its name from the surrounding jagged mountains, which resemble trolls of Norse mythology. Already at this time, there were proposals by the Norwegian Space Centre to establish an earth station at Troll, but the lack of all-year activity stranded the plans. Instead, SvalSat was established to serve as an earth station for NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS). Longyearbyen was selected because of its high latitude, which allows all satellites with an orbit above  to use only a single ground station—yet download from every orbit. The Svalbard facility opened on 15 April 1999 and was originally owned by the Norwegian Space Centre. Kongsberg Satellite Services was established in 2002 to jointly operate SvalSat and Tromsø Satellite Station (TSS).

text: Troll was established as a research station by the Norwegian Polar Institute in 1990. The station took its name from the surrounding jagged mountains, which resemble

text: troll

text: s of

text: Norse mythology

text: . Already at this time, there were proposals by the Norwegian Space Centre to establish an earth station at Troll, but the lack of all-year activity stranded the plans. Instead, SvalSat was established to serve as an earth station for NASA's

text: Earth Observing System

text: (EOS). Longyearbyen was selected because of its high

text: latitude

text: , which allows all satellites with an orbit above  to use only a single ground station—yet download from every orbit. The Svalbard facility opened on 15 April 1999 and was originally owned by the Norwegian Space Centre. Kongsberg Satellite Services was established in 2002 to jointly operate SvalSat and

text: Tromsø Satellite Station

text: (TSS).

text: When John F. Kennedy become President of the United States there was a question about how to catch up with the Soviet Union. Kennedy did not want to "... place safety about the desire to gain some additional prestige". However, there pressure was there from Congress when Overton Brooks, who was the Chairman of the House Space Committee said, "any step-up in the space program must be designed to accelerate a civilian program of peaceful space exploration and use....This very important from the standpoint of international relations." James E. Webb had a meeting with President Kennedy to help convince him the need to spend resources in the area of space. In this meeting he stated, "...it will be possible through new technology to bring about a whole new areas of international cooperation in meteorology and communications...The extent to which we are leaders in space science and technology will in large measure determine the extent to which we, as a nation, pioneering on a new frontier, will be in a position to develop the emerging world forces and make it the basis for new concepts and application in education, communications, and transportation, looking towards more viable political, social, and economic systems for nations willing to work with us in the years ahead." President Kennedy saw the benefits of the space program as both domestic and international. Kennedy had had a string a failures from Laos to the Congo, the Bay of Pigs Invasion and Gagarin. Vice President Lyndon Johnson was put in charge of America's objectives in space. In a report to President Kennedy he stated, "The Soviets led the United States in prestige; the United States had failed to marshal its superior technological resources; the United States should recognize that countries tend to line up with the country they believe to be the leader; if the United States did not act, the Soviet "margin of control" would get beyond our ability to catch up; even in areas where the Soviets led, the United States had to make aggressive efforts; manned exploration of the moon was a great propaganda value but was essential whether or not the United States was first." Further on in the meeting Johnson stated, "One can predict with confidence that failure to master space means being second best in the crucial arena of our Cold War world. In the eyes of the world, first in space means first period; second in space is second in everything."

text: When

text: John F. Kennedy

text: become President of the United States there was a question about how to catch up with the Soviet Union. Kennedy did not want to "... place safety about the desire to gain some additional prestige". However, there pressure was there from Congress when

text: Overton Brooks

text: , who was the Chairman of the House Space Committee said, "any step-up in the space program must be designed to accelerate a civilian program of peaceful space exploration and use....This very important from the standpoint of international relations."

text: James E. Webb

text: had a meeting with President Kennedy to help convince him the need to spend resources in the area of space. In this meeting he stated, "...it will be possible through new technology to bring about a whole new areas of international cooperation in meteorology and communications...The extent to which we are leaders in space science and technology will in large measure determine the extent to which we, as a nation, pioneering on a new frontier, will be in a position to develop the emerging world forces and make it the basis for new concepts and application in education, communications, and transportation, looking towards more viable political, social, and economic systems for nations willing to work with us in the years ahead." President Kennedy saw the benefits of the space program as both domestic and international. Kennedy had had a string a failures from Laos to the Congo, the

text: Bay of Pigs Invasion

text: and Gagarin. Vice President

text: Lyndon Johnson

text: was put in charge of America's objectives in space. In a report to President Kennedy he stated, "The Soviets led the United States in prestige; the United States had failed to marshal its superior technological resources; the United States should recognize that countries tend to line up with the country they believe to be the leader; if the United States did not act, the Soviet "margin of control" would get beyond our ability to catch up; even in areas where the Soviets led, the United States had to make aggressive efforts; manned exploration of the moon was a great propaganda value but was essential whether or not the United States was first." Further on in the meeting Johnson stated, "One can predict with confidence that failure to master space means being second best in the crucial arena of our Cold War world. In the eyes of the world, first in space means first period; second in space is second in everything."

text: Peter H. Diamandis (; born May 20, 1961) is a Greek–American engineer, physician, and entrepreneur best known for being the founder and chairman of the X Prize Foundation, the co-founder and executive chairman of Singularity University and the co-author of the New York Times bestsellers Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think and BOLD: How to Go Big, Create Wealth, and Impact the World. He is also the former CEO and co-founder of the Zero Gravity Corporation, the co-founder and vice chairman of Space Adventures Ltd., the founder and chairman of the Rocket Racing League, the co-founder of the International Space University, the co-founder of Planetary Resources, founder of Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, and vice-chairman & co-founder of Human Longevity, Inc.

text: Peter H. Diamandis (; born May 20, 1961) is a

text: Greek–American

text: engineer, physician, and entrepreneur best known for being the founder and chairman of the

text: X Prize Foundation

text: , the co-founder and executive chairman of

text: Singularity University

text: and the co-author of the

text: New York Times

text: bestsellers

entity_name: Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think

text: Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think

text: and

entity_name: Bold: How to Go Big, Create Wealth, and Impact the World

text: BOLD: How to Go Big, Create Wealth, and Impact the World

text: . He is also the former CEO and co-founder of the

text: Zero Gravity Corporation

text: , the co-founder and vice chairman of

text: Space Adventures

text: Ltd., the founder and chairman of the

text: Rocket Racing League

text: , the co-founder of the

text: International Space University

text: , the co-founder of

text: Planetary Resources

text: , founder of

text: , and vice-chairman & co-founder of

text: Human Longevity, Inc

text: |-id=514| 249514 Donaldroyer ||  || Donald Royer (b. 1942), an expert in the systems needed to operate and communicate with NASA space missions. He served as the mission operations systems manager for the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer mission. |-id=515| 249515 Heinrichsen ||  || Ingolf Heinrichsen (b. 1964), an expert in the systems engineering, operations, and management of space telescopes, including the Kepler mission, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer and the Spitzer Space Telescope. |-id=516| 249516 Aretha ||  || Aretha Franklin (b. 1942), an American singer known as the Queen of Soul who has won 17 Grammy Awards and has influenced countless singers. |-id=519| 249519 Whitneyclavin ||  || Whitney Clavin (b. 1971), a science writer who works to inform the public about results from NASA astronomy missions such as the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Kepler mission and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. |-id=521| 249521 Truth ||  || Sojourner Truth (c. 1797–1883), an American abolitionist and advocate for women’s rights. |-id=522| 249522 Johndailey ||  || John Dailey (b. 1978), a software engineer who was the lead developer for the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer’s moving object processing system for identifying minor planets in the project’s infrared images. |-id=523| 249523 Friedan ||  || Betty Friedan (1921-2006), an author and social activist who wrote The Feminine Mystique, a book that made an enormous impact on women's lives.  |-id=530| 249530 Ericrice ||  || Eric Rice (b. 1979), a systems engineer specializing in fault protection. He has served as the fault protection engineer for several NASA spacecraft, including the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. |-id=539| 249539 Pedrosevilla ||  || Pedro Sevilla (b. 1967), an engineer who worked on the payload electronics and focal planes of the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer mission. |-id=540| 249540 Eugeniescott ||  || Eugenie Scott (b. 1946), an American physical anthropologist. |-id=541| 249541 Steinem ||  || Gloria Steinem (b. 1934), a writer and journalist who co-founded Ms. Magazine and the Ms. Foundation for Women. |-id=544| 249544 Ianmclean ||  || Ian McLean (b. 1949), a professor of astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles. |}

text: 249514 Donaldroyer

text: ||  || Donald Royer (b. 1942), an expert in the systems needed to operate and communicate with NASA space missions. He served as the mission operations systems manager for the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer mission. |-id=515|

text: 249515 Heinrichsen

text: ||  || Ingolf Heinrichsen (b. 1964), an expert in the systems engineering, operations, and management of space telescopes, including the Kepler mission, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer and the Spitzer Space Telescope. |-id=516|

text: 249516 Aretha

text: Aretha Franklin

text: (b. 1942), an American singer known as the Queen of Soul who has won 17 Grammy Awards and has influenced countless singers. |-id=519|

text: 249519 Whitneyclavin

text: ||  || Whitney Clavin (b. 1971), a science writer who works to inform the public about results from NASA astronomy missions such as the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Kepler mission and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. |-id=521|

text: 249521 Truth

text: Sojourner Truth

text: (c. 1797–1883), an American abolitionist and advocate for women’s rights. |-id=522|

text: 249522 Johndailey

text: ||  || John Dailey (b. 1978), a software engineer who was the lead developer for the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer’s moving object processing system for identifying minor planets in the project’s infrared images. |-id=523|

text: 249523 Friedan

text: Betty Friedan

text: (1921-2006), an author and social activist who wrote

text: The Feminine Mystique

text: , a book that made an enormous impact on women's lives.  |-id=530|

text: 249530 Ericrice

text: ||  || Eric Rice (b. 1979), a systems engineer specializing in fault protection. He has served as the fault protection engineer for several NASA spacecraft, including the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer. |-id=539|

text: 249539 Pedrosevilla

text: ||  || Pedro Sevilla (b. 1967), an engineer who worked on the payload electronics and focal planes of the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer mission. |-id=540|

text: 249540 Eugeniescott

text: Eugenie Scott

text: (b. 1946), an American physical anthropologist. |-id=541|

text: 249541 Steinem

text: ||  || Gloria Steinem (b. 1934), a writer and journalist who co-founded Ms. Magazine and the Ms. Foundation for Women. |-id=544|

text: 249544 Ianmclean

text: ||  || Ian McLean (b. 1949), a professor of astronomy at the

text: University of California

text: , Los Angeles. |}

text: Following Galileo and a distant encounter by the Pluto-bound New Horizons spacecraft in 2007, NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) made plans to return to the Jupiter system and Io. In 2009, NASA approved a plan to send an orbiter to Europa called the Jupiter Europa Orbiter as part of a joint program with ESA called the Europa/Jupiter System Mission. The ESA component of the project was the Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter. However, the EJSM mission collaboration was cancelled. ESA is continuing with its initiative under the name Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE) to explore Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto, without plans to investigate Io at all. The proposed NASA Discovery mission Io Volcano Observer, currently going through a competitive process to be selected, would explore Io as its primary mission. In the meantime, Io continues to be observed by the Hubble Space Telescope as well as by Earth-based astronomers using improved telescopes such as Keck and the European Southern Observatory, that use new technologies such as adaptive optics.

text: Following Galileo and a distant encounter by the

text: Pluto

text: -bound

text: New Horizons

text: spacecraft in 2007, NASA and the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA) made plans to return to the Jupiter system and Io. In 2009, NASA approved a plan to send an orbiter to Europa called the

text: Jupiter Europa Orbiter

text: as part of a joint program with ESA called the

text: Europa/Jupiter System Mission

text: . The ESA component of the project was the

text: Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter

text: . However, the EJSM mission collaboration was cancelled. ESA is continuing with its initiative under the name

text: Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer

text: (JUICE) to explore

text: Ganymede

text: Europa

text: , and

text: Callisto

text: , without plans to investigate Io at all. The proposed NASA

text: Discovery

text: mission

text: Io Volcano Observer

text: , currently going through a competitive process to be selected, would explore Io as its primary mission. In the meantime, Io continues to be observed by the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: as well as by Earth-based astronomers using improved telescopes such as

text: Keck

text: and the

text: European Southern Observatory

text: , that use new technologies such as

text: adaptive optics

text: Satellites in geosynchronous orbit may be continuously visible from a single ground station, whereas satellites in low Earth orbit only offer short-duration ground passes (although longer contacts may be made via relay satellite networks such as TDRSS). Satellite constellations, such as those of satellite navigation systems, may be designed so that a minimum subset of the constellation is always visible from any point on the Earth, thereby providing continuous coverage.

text: Satellites in

text: geosynchronous

text: orbit may be continuously visible from a single ground station, whereas satellites in

text: low Earth orbit

text: only offer short-duration ground passes (although longer contacts may be made via relay satellite networks such as

text: TDRSS

text: Satellite constellation

text: s, such as those of

text: satellite navigation

text: systems, may be designed so that a minimum subset of the constellation is always visible from any point on the Earth, thereby providing continuous

text: coverage

text: In the 1990s, American expatriate Rick Meints was a member of the Reaching Moon Megacorp, the British fan publisher that was the center of Glorantha culture at the time. The Reaching Moon Megacorp published Meints' book on collecting Gloranthan publications, The Meints Index to Glorantha (1996, 1999), but by the time of the book's second edition, the Megacorp was on its way out as a decade of constant publication and convention organizing had burned out its main members. Meints and Colin Phillips thus created Moon Design Publications to reprint long out-of-print RuneQuest supplements.

text: In the 1990s, American expatriate

text: Rick Meints

text: was a member of the

text: Reaching Moon Megacorp

text: , the British fan publisher that was the center of

text: Glorantha

text: culture at the time. The Reaching Moon Megacorp published Meints' book on collecting Gloranthan publications, The Meints Index to Glorantha (1996, 1999), but by the time of the book's second edition, the Megacorp was on its way out as a decade of constant publication and convention organizing had burned out its main members. Meints and

text: Colin Phillips

text: thus created Moon Design Publications to reprint long out-of-print

text: RuneQuest

text: supplements.

text: Specialized satellite earth stations are used to telecommunicate with satellites—chiefly communications satellites. Other ground stations communicate with manned space stations or unmanned space probes. A ground station that primarily receives telemetry data, or that follows a satellite not in geostationary orbit, is called a tracking station.

text: Specialized satellite earth stations are used to telecommunicate with

text: satellite

text: s—chiefly

text: communications satellite

text: s. Other ground stations communicate with manned

text: space station

text: s or unmanned

text: space probe

text: s. A ground station that primarily receives

text: telemetry

text: data, or that follows a satellite not in

text: geostationary orbit

text: , is called a tracking station.

text: Chuck is the only astronaut in the mission launched for the exploration of Planet 51, a planet on the other side of the universe.

text: Space policy regarding a country's civilian space program, as well as its policy on both military use and commercial use of outer space, intersects with science policy, since national space programs often perform or fund research in space science, and also with defense policy, for applications such as spy satellites and anti-satellite weapons.  It also encompasses government regulation of third-party activities such as commercial communications satellites and private spaceflight as well as the creation and application of space law and space advocacy organizations that exist to support the cause of space exploration.

text: Space policy

text: regarding a country's

text: civilian space program

text: , as well as its policy on both

text: military use

text: and

text: commercial use

text: of outer space, intersects with

text: science policy

text: , since national space programs often perform or

text: fund research

text: in

text: space science

text: , and also with

text: defense policy

text: , for applications such as

text: spy satellite

text: s and

text: anti-satellite weapon

text: s.  It also encompasses government regulation of third-party activities such as commercial

text: communications satellite

text: s and

text: private spaceflight

text: as well as the creation and application of

text: space law

text: and

text: space advocacy

text: organizations that exist to support the cause of space exploration.

text: Although the Constellation program was canceled, it has been replaced with a very similar beyond low Earth orbit program. The Orion spacecraft has been left virtually unchanged from its previous design. The planned Ares V rocket has been replaced with the smaller Space Launch System (SLS), which is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware. Exploration Flight Test-1 (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of the Orion spacecraft, launched on December 5, 2014 on a Delta IV Heavy rocket. Exploration Mission-1 (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of the SLS, which is planned for 2017. Exploration Mission-2 (EM-2) is the first manned flight of Orion and SLS and is scheduled for 2019. EM-2 is a 10-14-day mission planned to place a crew of four into Lunar orbit. , the destination for EM-3 and immediate destination focus for this new program is still in-flux.

text: Although the Constellation program was canceled, it has been replaced with a very similar beyond low Earth orbit program. The

text: Orion spacecraft

text: has been left virtually unchanged from its previous design. The planned

text: Ares V

text: rocket has been replaced with the smaller

text: Space Launch System

text: (SLS), which is planned to launch both Orion and other necessary hardware.

text: Exploration Flight Test-1

text: (EFT-1), an unmanned test flight of the Orion spacecraft, launched on December 5, 2014 on a

text: Delta IV Heavy

text: rocket.

text: Exploration Mission-1

text: (EM-1) is the unmanned initial launch of the SLS, which is planned for 2017. Exploration Mission-2 (EM-2) is the first manned flight of Orion and SLS and is scheduled for 2019. EM-2 is a 10-14-day mission planned to place a crew of four into Lunar orbit. , the destination for EM-3 and immediate destination focus for this new program is still in-flux.

text: The concept was first tested in outer space aboard the Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer (LADEE) orbiter in 2013. LADEE's Lunar Laser Communication Demonstration (LLCD) pulsed laser system conducted a successful test on October 18, 2013, transmitting data between the spacecraft and its ground station on Earth at a distance of . This test set a downlink record of 622 megabits per second (Mbps) from spacecraft to ground, and an "error-free data upload rate of 20 Mbps" from ground station to spacecraft. It has also been proposed as payload for the Phobos And Deimos & Mars Environment (PADME) orbiter.

text: The concept was first tested in outer space aboard the

text: (LADEE) orbiter in 2013. LADEE's Lunar Laser Communication Demonstration (LLCD)

text: pulsed laser

text: system conducted a successful test on October 18, 2013, transmitting data between the spacecraft and its ground station on Earth at a distance of . This test set a

text: downlink

text: record of 622

text: megabit

text: s per second (Mbps) from spacecraft to ground, and an "error-free data upload rate of 20 Mbps" from ground station to spacecraft. It has also been proposed as payload for the

text: Phobos And Deimos & Mars Environment

text: (PADME) orbiter.

text: In 1965, he joined the faculty at UCLA. There, with Dr. T.A. Farley, he established a laboratory for research in space physics. In the course of his research on charged particles and electric and magnetic fields in space, he has worked with the Explorer, OGO and ATS series of earth satellites, the Pioneer series of deep-space probes, the Mariner series of planetary spacecraft, Apollo's 15 and 17, and Galileo. He has written or collaborated in writing more than 150 articles on research in the space sciences and developments in space technology.

text: In 1965, he joined the faculty at

text: UCLA

text: . There, with Dr. T.A. Farley, he established a laboratory for research in space physics. In the course of his research on

text: charged particles

text: and electric and magnetic fields in space, he has worked with the Explorer,

text: OGO

text: and ATS series of

text: earth satellites

text: , the Pioneer series of

text: deep-space

text: probes, the Mariner series of planetary spacecraft,

text: Apollo's 15

text: and

text: , and

text: Galileo

text: . He has written or collaborated in writing more than 150 articles on research in the space sciences and developments in space technology.

text: As space activity becomes increasingly integrated into every aspect of life here on earth, the SEA intends to show how this new focus on exploration will provide myriad advances in science and technology, untold economic opportunity and serve as an inspiration to our nation's youth. Given those benefits and the many more that lie in store, this new program of human space exploration beyond low earth orbit is a vital link to the future of the United States and the world.

text: As space activity becomes increasingly integrated into every aspect of life here on earth, the SEA intends to show how this new focus on exploration will provide myriad advances in

text: science

text: and

text: technology

text: , untold economic opportunity and serve as an inspiration to our nation's youth. Given those benefits and the many more that lie in store, this new program of human space exploration beyond low earth orbit is a vital link to the future of the United States and the world.

text: The RCSP is based in and named after Huntsville, Alabama (widely known as "The Rocket City"). Huntsville has been a leader in rocket development and space exploration since the arrival of Wernher von Braun and his team in 1950.

text: The RCSP is based in and named after

text: Huntsville, Alabama

text: (widely known as "The Rocket City"). Huntsville has been a leader in rocket development and space exploration since the arrival of

text: Wernher von Braun

text: and his team in 1950.

text: NARSS includes two major sectors: Remote Sensing and Space Sciences. The sector of remote sensing works on the use of data provided by earth observation satellites and various airborne sensors to produce maps and spatial data for the evaluation and monitoring of natural resources, natural hazards and management environmental. The sector of space sciences is concerned with the development of sensors for earth observation to be mounted on satellites and with all the problems involved with monitoring communication with satellites and retrieving the information for processing, and ultimately on launching an Egyptian remote sensing satellite.

text: NARSS includes two major sectors: Remote Sensing and

text: Space Sciences

text: . The sector of remote sensing works on the use of data provided by

text: earth observation satellite

text: s and various airborne sensors to produce maps and spatial data for the evaluation and monitoring of

text: natural resource

text: s, natural hazards and management environmental. The sector of space sciences is concerned with the development of sensors for earth observation to be mounted on satellites and with all the problems involved with monitoring communication with satellites and retrieving the information for processing, and ultimately on launching an Egyptian remote sensing satellite.

text: In-space propulsion represents technologies that can significantly improve a number of critical aspects of the mission. Space exploration is about getting somewhere safely (mission enabling), getting there quickly (reduced transit times), getting a lot of mass there (increased payload mass), and getting there cheaply (lower cost). The simple act of “getting” there requires the employment of an in-space propulsion system, and the other metrics are modifiers to this fundamental action.

text: In-space propulsion represents technologies that can significantly improve a number of critical aspects of the mission.

text: Space exploration

text: is about getting somewhere safely (mission enabling), getting there quickly (reduced transit times), getting a lot of mass there (increased

text: payload

text: mass), and getting there cheaply (lower cost). The simple act of “getting” there requires the employment of an in-space propulsion system, and the other metrics are modifiers to this fundamental action.

text: Deepnet Explorer is a web browser created by Deepnet Security for the Microsoft Windows platform, first released in 2005. The most recent version is 1.5.3 (BETA 3) which was Released October 19, 2006. Developed in Britain, Deepnet Explorer gained early recognition both for its use of anti-phishing tools and the inclusion of a peer-to-peer facility for file sharing, based on the Gnutella network. The anti-phishing feature, in combination with other additions, led the developers to claim that it had a higher level of security than either Firefox or Internet Explorer—however, as the underlying rendering engine was still the same as that employed in Internet Explorer, it was suggested that the improved security would fail to address the vulnerabilities found in the rendering engine.   The browser has been discontinued

text: Deepnet Explorer is a web browser created by Deepnet Security for the

text: Microsoft Windows

text: platform, first released in 2005. The most recent version is 1.5.3 (BETA 3) which was Released October 19, 2006. Developed in Britain, Deepnet Explorer gained early recognition both for its use of anti-

text: phishing

text: tools and the inclusion of a

text: peer-to-peer

text: facility for

text: file sharing

text: , based on the

text: Gnutella

text: network. The anti-phishing feature, in combination with other additions, led the developers to claim that it had a higher level of security than either

text: Firefox

text: or Internet Explorer—however, as the underlying rendering engine was still the same as that employed in Internet Explorer, it was suggested that the improved security would fail to address the vulnerabilities found in the rendering engine.   The browser has been discontinued

text: Beginning with the Soviet launch of the first satellite, Sputnik 1, in 1957, the United States competed with the Soviet Union for supremacy in outer space exploration.  After the Soviets placed the first man in space, Yuri Gagarin, in 1961, President John F. Kennedy pushed for ways in which NASA could catch up, famously urging action for a manned mission to the Moon: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth."  The first manned flights produced by this effort came from Project Gemini (1965–1966) and then by the Apollo program, which despite the tragic loss of the Apollo 1 crew, achieved Kennedy's goal by landing the first astronauts on the Moon with the Apollo 11 mission in 1969.

text: Beginning with the Soviet launch of the first satellite,

text: Sputnik 1

text: , in 1957, the United States competed with the Soviet Union for supremacy in outer space exploration.  After the Soviets placed the first man in space,

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: , in 1961, President

text: John F. Kennedy

text: pushed for ways in which

text: NASA

text: could catch up, famously urging action for a manned mission to the

text: Moon

text: : "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth."  The first manned flights produced by this effort came from

text: Project Gemini

text: (1965–1966) and then by the

text: Apollo program

text: , which despite the tragic loss of the

text: Apollo 1

text: crew, achieved Kennedy's goal by landing the first astronauts on the Moon with the

text: Apollo 11

text: mission in 1969.

text: Blanca Guerrero (Lisette Morelos) is a cheerful and resourceful girl with a big heart, who works as a waitress dreaming of an acting career. At an early age, she began helping her father Memo as much as she could, due to her mother's early death. When Memo is unjustly fired by Raquel Altamira from his job at her family's company, where he worked for years, Blanca decides to go to the Altamira's end of the year costume party and notify Don Leonidas, the company's owner of the situation with her father, and hopefully convince him of rehiring him, and thanks to her amazing acting skills she is able to sneak her way in.

text: Blanca Guerrero (

text: Lisette Morelos

text: ) is a cheerful and resourceful girl with a big heart, who works as a waitress dreaming of an acting career. At an early age, she began helping her father Memo as much as she could, due to her mother's early death. When Memo is unjustly fired by Raquel Altamira from his job at her family's company, where he worked for years, Blanca decides to go to the Altamira's end of the year costume party and notify Don Leonidas, the company's owner of the situation with her father, and hopefully convince him of rehiring him, and thanks to her amazing acting skills she is able to sneak her way in.

text: Pierluigi is an Italian masculine given name meaning "Peter Louis". It is often an abbreviation of "Piero Luigi". Famous people with this given name include:

text: Pierluigi is an

text: Italian

text: masculine given name meaning "Peter Louis". It is often an abbreviation of "Piero Luigi". Famous people with this given name include:

text: The themes of the center's interactive exhibits include NASA, space, planets, stars, weather, earth science, space travel and exploration. Displays include a full-sized International Space Station module, a cutaway model of the Orion spacecraft, and components from a space-flown RS-25 Space Shuttle Main Engine.  Outdoor displays include an F-1 rocket engine, a tsunami buoy, U.S. Navy riverine training boat and the Apollo 19 Saturn V first stage rocket booster.

text: The themes of the center's interactive exhibits include NASA, space, planets, stars, weather, earth science, space travel and exploration. Displays include a full-sized

text: International Space Station

text: module, a cutaway model of the

text: Orion

text: spacecraft, and components from a space-flown

text: RS-25 Space Shuttle Main Engine

text: .  Outdoor displays include an

text: F-1 rocket engine

text: , a

text: tsunami

text: buoy

text: U.S. Navy

text: riverine training boat and the Apollo 19 Saturn V first stage rocket booster.

text: Space Race is a BBC docudrama series first shown in Britain on BBC2 between 14 September and 5 October 2005, chronicling the major events and characters in the American/Soviet space race up to the first landing of a man on the moon. It focuses on Sergei Korolev, the Soviet chief rocket designer, and Wernher von Braun, his American counterpart. The series was a joint effort between British, German, American and Russian production teams.

text: Space Race is a

text: BBC

text: docudrama

text: series first shown in Britain on

text: between 14 September and 5 October 2005, chronicling the major events and characters in the American/Soviet

text: space race

text: up to the first landing of a man on the moon. It focuses on

text: Sergei Korolev

text: , the Soviet chief rocket designer, and

text: Wernher von Braun

text: , his American counterpart. The series was a joint effort between British, German, American and Russian production teams.

text: The song was the last Pink Floyd composition which was credited as being co-written by someone outside the band prior to 1979 (not counting Clare Torry's contribution to "The Great Gig in the Sky", for which she has been retroactively given credit due to a settlement with Pink Floyd).

text: The song was the last Pink Floyd composition which was credited as being co-written by someone outside the band prior to 1979 (not counting

text: Clare Torry

text: 's contribution to "

text: The Great Gig in the Sky

text: ", for which she has been retroactively given credit due to a settlement with Pink Floyd).

text: Mars Express is a space exploration mission being conducted by the European Space Agency (ESA). The Mars Express mission is exploring the planet Mars, and is the first planetary mission attempted by the agency.

text: Mars Express is a

text: space exploration

text: mission being conducted by the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA). The Mars Express mission is exploring the planet

text: Mars

text: , and is the first planetary mission attempted by the agency.

text: Throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, Ayr produced players of international standard. One who played and went on to be capped out of London Scottish was Alistair Boyle. Although supplying players to the Glasgow side (and Glasgow clubs) Ayr had to wait until 1977 for the first home-grown player to gain international honours. Winger David Ashton won his B cap against France and in the following year John Brown was in the B side at full back in the same fixture.

text: Throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, Ayr produced players of international standard. One who played and went on to be capped out of London Scottish was

text: Alistair Boyle

text: . Although supplying players to the Glasgow side (and Glasgow clubs) Ayr had to wait until 1977 for the first home-grown player to gain international honours. Winger David Ashton won his B cap against France and in the following year John Brown was in the B side at full back in the same fixture.

text: The most famous resident of Goondiwindi was Gunsynd, a Thoroughbred race horse known as "The Goondiwindi Grey" Guided by Tim Lowe, in the late 1960s and early 1970s Gunsynd had 29 wins including the 1971 Epsom Handicap and the 1972 Cox Plate and came third in the 1972 Melbourne Cup. The name "Gunsynd" came from Goondiwindi Syndicate (Gun=Goondiwindi, Synd=Syndicate). There is a statue of Gunsynd in the town centre.

text: The most famous resident of Goondiwindi was

text: Gunsynd

text: , a

text: Thoroughbred

text: race horse

text: known as "The Goondiwindi Grey" Guided by Tim Lowe, in the late 1960s and early 1970s Gunsynd had 29 wins including the 1971

text: Epsom Handicap

text: and the 1972

text: Cox Plate

text: and came third in the 1972

text: Melbourne Cup

text: . The name "Gunsynd" came from Goondiwindi Syndicate (Gun=Goondiwindi, Synd=Syndicate). There is a statue of Gunsynd in the town centre.

text: The common name and Latin binomial commemorate the Australian polar explorer and ornithologist Captain Sir George Hubert Wilkins.

text: The common name and Latin binomial commemorate the Australian polar explorer and ornithologist Captain Sir

text: George Hubert Wilkins

text: Credit for naming the first probe has been attributed to Stephen A. Saliga, who had been assigned to the Air Force Orientation Group, Wright-Patterson AFB, as chief designer of Air Force exhibits. While he was at a briefing, the spacecraft was described to him as a "lunar-orbiting vehicle with an infrared scanning device." Saliga thought the title too long and lacked theme for an exhibit design. He suggested "Pioneer" as the name of the probe since "the Army had already launched and orbited the Explorer satellite and their Public Information Office was identifying the Army as 'Pioneers in Space,'" and by adopting the name the Air Force would "make a 'quantum jump' as to who really [were] the 'Pioneers in space.'"

text: We'll fight forever, Cactus High

text: We'll fight forever, Cactus High

text: NLEX wins series, 2-0.

text: NLEX wins series, 2-0.

text: After he left Pink Floyd, he recorded two solo albums, The Madcap Laughs and Barrett. Both albums, released in 1970, were re-released as a double album, after the unexpected success of Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon. On 24 February 1970, he recorded five songs (one from The Madcap Laughs, three from Barrett, and a one-off, "Two of a Kind") for the BBC Radio show Top Gear. These songs were released as a mini-album, in 1987, as Syd Barrett: The Peel Session. In 2004, the five songs from Top Gear, and three songs from a then-newly discovered tape of Bob Harris show, were released as The Radio One Sessions.

text: After he left Pink Floyd, he recorded two solo albums,

text: The Madcap Laughs

text: and

text: Barrett

text: . Both albums, released in 1970, were

text: re-released as a double album

text: , after the unexpected success of Pink Floyd's

text: The Dark Side of the Moon

text: . On 24 February 1970, he recorded five songs (one from The Madcap Laughs, three from Barrett, and a one-off, "Two of a Kind") for the

text: BBC Radio

text: show

text: Top Gear

text: . These songs were released as a mini-album, in 1987, as

text: Syd Barrett: The Peel Session

text: . In 2004, the five songs from Top Gear, and three songs from a then-newly discovered tape of

text: Bob Harris

text: show, were released as

entity_name: The Radio One Sessions (Syd Barrett album)

text: The Radio One Sessions

text: On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the embryonic space program was modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. After the success of Sputnik, Eisenhower initially downplayed the gravity of the Soviet accomplishment, but he had to quickly face the reality that the United States had fallen behind the Soviet Union in a technological field. This created problems for the United States’ image both abroad and domestically. Sputnik’s success allowed the Soviets to use it as a claim for the superiority of communism over capitalism, and for the superiority for the Soviet system as a world power. This pushed Eisenhower to take a stronger stance for U.S. involvement in space. He became interested and more willing for the advancement of the Vanguard program, and he ordered that military test pilots be the source of the first astronaut recruits. The selection of military test pilots as the basis of the United States’ astronaut corps gave NASA an advanced starting point for recruits who were already experienced pilots and had special government clearances. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education.  He rushed construction of more advanced satellites, created NASA as a civilian space agency, signed a landmark science education law, and fostered improved relations with American scientists. On the clandestine side, he expanded the use of spy satellites and weapons research.  Critics looked for reasons for the American failure to keep pace with the Soviets, and pointed to Eisenhower's policies, the dumbing effects of television and brainless advertising, and the spoiled and complacent American consumer.

text: On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the embryonic space program was modest until the Soviet launch of

text: Sputnik

text: in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. After the success of Sputnik, Eisenhower initially downplayed the gravity of the Soviet accomplishment, but he had to quickly face the reality that the United States had fallen behind the Soviet Union in a technological field. This created problems for the United States’ image both abroad and domestically. Sputnik’s success allowed the Soviets to use it as a claim for the superiority of communism over capitalism, and for the superiority for the Soviet system as a world power. This pushed Eisenhower to take a stronger stance for U.S. involvement in space. He became interested and more willing for the advancement of the Vanguard program, and he ordered that military test pilots be the source of the first astronaut recruits. The selection of military test pilots as the basis of the United States’ astronaut corps gave NASA an advanced starting point for recruits who were already experienced pilots and had special government clearances. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education.  He rushed construction of more advanced satellites, created

text: NASA

text: as a civilian space agency, signed a landmark science education law, and fostered improved relations with American scientists. On the clandestine side, he expanded the use of spy satellites and weapons research.  Critics looked for reasons for the American failure to keep pace with the Soviets, and pointed to Eisenhower's policies, the dumbing effects of television and brainless advertising, and the spoiled and complacent American consumer.

text: When the launch of Sputnik in 1957 began the Space Race, the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) began compiling a database (the Space Object Catalog) of all known rocket launches and objects reaching orbit: satellites, protective shields and upper- and lower-stage booster rockets. NASA published modified versions of the database in two-line element set, and during the early 1980s the CelesTrak bulletin board system re-published them.

text: When the launch of

text: Sputnik

text: in 1957 began the

text: Space Race

text: , the

entity_name: North American Aerospace Defense Command

text: North American Aerospace Defense Command

text: (NORAD) began compiling a database (the

text: Space Object Catalog

text: ) of all known rocket launches and objects reaching orbit: satellites, protective shields and upper- and lower-stage booster rockets.

text: NASA

text: published modified versions of the database in

text: two-line element set

text: , and during the early 1980s the CelesTrak

text: bulletin board system

text: re-published them.

text: The world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, had been put into orbit by the Soviets in 1957. The next milestone in the history of space exploration would be to put a human in space, and both the Soviets and the Americans wanted to be the first.

text: The world's first artificial satellite,

text: Sputnik 1

text: , had been put into orbit by the Soviets in 1957. The next milestone in the history of space exploration would be to put a human in space, and both the Soviets and the Americans wanted to be the first.

text: Because of its global range and large payload of approximately five tons, the reliable R-7 was not only effective as a strategic delivery system for nuclear warheads, but also as an excellent basis for a space vehicle. The United States' announcement in July 1955 of its plan to launch a satellite during the International Geophysical Year greatly benefited Korolev in persuading Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to support his plans in January 1956, in order to surpass the Americans. Plans were approved for Earth-orbiting satellites (Sputnik) to gain knowledge of space, and four unmanned military reconnaissance satellites, Zenit. Further planned developments called for a manned Earth orbit flight by 1964 and an unmanned lunar mission at an earlier date.

text: Because of its global range and large payload of approximately five tons, the reliable R-7 was not only effective as a strategic delivery system for nuclear warheads, but also as an excellent basis for a space vehicle. The United States' announcement in July 1955 of its plan to launch a satellite during the

text: International Geophysical Year

text: greatly benefited Korolev in persuading Soviet leader

text: Nikita Khrushchev

text: to support his plans in January 1956, in order to surpass the Americans. Plans were approved for Earth-orbiting satellites (

text: Sputnik

text: ) to gain knowledge of space, and four unmanned military reconnaissance satellites,

text: Zenit

text: . Further planned developments called for a manned

text: Earth orbit

text: flight by 1964 and an unmanned lunar mission at an earlier date.

text: A halo orbit is a periodic, three-dimensional orbit near the L, L or L Lagrange points in the three-body problem of orbital mechanics. Although the Lagrange point is just a point in empty space, its peculiar characteristic is that it can be orbited. Halo orbits are the result of a complicated interaction between the gravitational pull of the two planetary bodies and the Coriolis and centrifugal accelerations on a spacecraft. Halo orbits exist in any three-body system, e.g. the Sun–Earth system and the Earth–Moon system. Continuous "families" of both Northern and Southern halo orbits exist at each Lagrange point. Because halo orbits tend to be unstable, stationkeeping is required to keep a satellite on the orbit.

text: A halo orbit is a periodic, three-dimensional

text: orbit

text: near the

text: L, L or L Lagrange points

text: in the

text: three-body problem

text: of

text: orbital mechanics

text: . Although the Lagrange point is just a point in empty space, its peculiar characteristic is that it can be orbited. Halo orbits are the result of a complicated interaction between the gravitational pull of the two planetary bodies and the

text: Coriolis

text: and

text: centrifugal accelerations

text: on a spacecraft. Halo orbits exist in any three-body system, e.g. the

text: Sun

text: Earth

text: system and the Earth–

text: Moon

text: system. Continuous "families" of both Northern and Southern halo orbits exist at each Lagrange point. Because halo orbits tend to be unstable,

text: stationkeeping

text: is required to keep a satellite on the orbit.

text: A horseshoe orbit is a type of co-orbital motion of a small orbiting body relative to a larger orbiting body (such as Earth). The orbital period of the smaller body is very nearly the same as for the larger body, and its path appears to have a horseshoe shape as viewed from the larger object in a rotating reference frame.

text: A horseshoe

text: orbit

text: is a type of

text: co-orbital motion

text: of a small orbiting body relative to a larger orbiting body (such as Earth). The orbital period of the smaller body is very nearly the same as for the larger body, and its path appears to have a horseshoe shape as viewed from the larger object in a

text: rotating reference frame

text: The Council was held at the end of Pope Urban II's tour of Italy and France, which he made to reassert his authority after the investiture controversy with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Two hundred bishops attended, as well as 4000 other church officials, and 30,000 laymen; there were so many people that the council had to be held outside of the city.

text: The Council was held at the end of

text: Pope Urban II

text: 's tour of

text: Italy

text: and

text: France

text: , which he made to reassert his authority after the

text: investiture controversy

text: with

text: Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor

text: . Two hundred

text: bishop

text: s attended, as well as 4000 other church officials, and 30,000 laymen; there were so many people that the council had to be held outside of the city.

text: The Theatre and Its Double (Le Théâtre et son Double) is a collection of essays by French poet and playwright Antonin Artaud and published in 1938.

text: The Theatre and Its Double (Le Théâtre et son Double) is a collection of

text: essays

text: by French poet and playwright

text: Antonin Artaud

text: and published in 1938.

text: The headland of Cape St. Mary's is located at the southern tip of the south-western arm of the Avalon Peninsula of the island of Newfoundland in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador.

text: The headland of Cape St. Mary's is located at the southern tip of the south-western arm of the

text: Avalon Peninsula

text: of the island of

text: Newfoundland

text: in the

text: Canadian

text: province of

text: Newfoundland and Labrador

text: The first Juno trophies were developed by Stan Klees for the first presentations in 1970. These were constructed from walnut wood, stood  tall and resembled a metronome. As ceremonies became televised in 1975, the award was built from acrylic instead of wood while retaining a metronome shape. The trophy was given minor modifications in succeeding years such as a size reduction for ease of handling, and changes to the inlay design such as a special 1996 emblem to signify the 25th anniversary.

text: The first Juno trophies were developed by Stan Klees for the first presentations in 1970. These were constructed from

text: walnut

text: wood, stood  tall and resembled a

text: metronome

text: . As ceremonies became televised in 1975, the award was built from

text: acrylic

text: instead of wood while retaining a metronome shape. The trophy was given minor modifications in succeeding years such as a size reduction for ease of handling, and changes to the inlay design such as a special 1996 emblem to signify the 25th anniversary.

text: For the business market, a different system of Nespresso pods exists. These pad-shaped capsules are not interchangeable with the consumer capsules.

text: What we have in the past fifty years usually meant, though, by spaceflight has included remaining in space for a period of time, rather than going up and immediately falling back to earth. This entails orbit, which is, at altitudes prevalently entered by such means, not a matter of altitude, but rather of velocity, which is not to say that we need not discuss air friction and relevant altitudes in relation to that and orbit. At much, much, higher altitudes than many orbital ones maintained by satellites, altitude begins to become a larger and larger factor and speed a lesser one. At lower altitudes, due to the high speed required to remain in orbit, air friction is a very important consideration affecting satellites, much more than in the popular image of space. At even lower altitudes, balloons, with no forward velocity, can serve many of the roles satellites play.

text: According to some sources Bourchier died in Spain.

text: QR occasionally run special steam trains on the entire Pinkenba line as part of their semi-regular "Steam Train Sunday" excursion service.  This is the only way to travel on the full length of the line.

text: QR occasionally run special

text: steam trains

text: on the entire Pinkenba line as part of their semi-regular "Steam Train Sunday" excursion service.  This is the only way to travel on the full length of the line.

text: Lawrence Elgin Glendenin (November 8, 1918November 22, 2008) was an American chemist who co-discovered the element promethium.

text: Lawrence Elgin Glendenin (November 8, 1918November 22, 2008) was an

text: American

text: chemist

text: who co-discovered the

text: element

text: promethium

text: Vlado Pilja is a singer. Vlado was evicted on Day 99.

text: Recent space exploration has proceeded, to some extent in worldwide cooperation, the high point of which was the construction and operation of the International Space Station (ISS). At the same time, the international space race between smaller space powers since the end of the 20th century can be considered the foundation and expansion of markets of commercial rocket launches and space tourism.

text: Recent space exploration has proceeded, to some extent in worldwide cooperation, the high point of which was the construction and operation of the International Space Station (ISS). At the same time, the international space race between smaller space powers since the end of the 20th century can be considered the foundation and expansion of markets of commercial rocket launches and

text: space tourism

text: The Anglian collection is a collection of Anglo-Saxon  royal genealogies and regnal lists. These survive in four manuscripts; two of which now reside in the British Library. The remaining two belong to the libraries of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge and Rochester Cathedral, the latter now deposited with the Medway Archives.

text: The Anglian collection is a collection of

text: Anglo-Saxon  royal genealogies

text: and regnal lists. These survive in four manuscripts; two of which now reside in the

text: British Library

text: . The remaining two belong to the libraries of

text: Corpus Christi College, Cambridge

text: and

text: Rochester Cathedral

text: , the latter now deposited with the

text: Medway Archives

text: EDELWEISS-III, under construction, will have 40 detectors. EURECA design work will continue as EDELWEISS-III runs into 2015, operating after 2017.

text: The Museum gives details of all the collectors of carrot material together with a huge trivia listing.

text: Rockets are momentum machines; they use mass ejected from the rocket to provide momentum to the rocket. Momentum is the product of mass and velocity, so rockets generally attempt to put as much velocity into their working mass as possible, thereby minimizing the amount of working mass that is needed. In order to accelerate the working mass, energy is required. In a conventional rocket, the fuel is chemically combined to provide the energy, and the resulting fuel products, the ash or exhaust, are used as the working mass.

text: Rockets are

text: momentum

text: machines; they use mass ejected from the rocket to provide momentum to the rocket. Momentum is the product of mass and velocity, so rockets generally attempt to put as much velocity into their

text: working mass

text: as possible, thereby minimizing the amount of working mass that is needed. In order to accelerate the working mass,

text: energy

text: is required. In a conventional rocket, the fuel is chemically combined to provide the energy, and the resulting fuel products, the ash or exhaust, are used as the working mass.

text: In 1339 Bernhard married for a second time to Matilda (died ca. 1342), daughter of Albert I, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. Bernhard was more closely related to his bride: Matilda's grandfather was Siegfried I, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, younger brother of Bernhard I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg, Bernhard's grandfather. The marriage was childless.

text: In 1339 Bernhard married for a second time to Matilda (died ca. 1342), daughter of

text: Albert I, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst

text: . Bernhard was more closely related to his bride: Matilda's grandfather was

text: Siegfried I, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst

text: , younger brother of

text: Bernhard I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg

text: , Bernhard's grandfather. The marriage was childless.

text: Despite the fact that Jiro hates children and is more interested in getting back into racing than helping out at the orphanage, he nonetheless agrees to be the orphanage's driver in exchange for being allowed to live there.

text: According to the official report (pictured), the satellite contained scientific equipment for the "further exploration of outer space" as well as tools for making exact measurements of its orbital parameters. Also, the satellite was capable of self-observation of its own systems and devices. However, no public data or experiments have ever been returned and it is presumed that it was a test of the military surveillance system, Tselina-D.

text: According to the official report (pictured), the satellite contained scientific equipment for the "further exploration of

text: outer space

text: " as well as tools for making exact measurements of its orbital parameters. Also, the satellite was capable of self-observation of its own systems and devices. However, no public data or experiments have ever been returned and it is presumed that it was a test of the military surveillance system,

text: Tselina-D

text: This spacecraft is also referenced as Sputnik 23 and Mars 2MV-4. It was originally designated Sputnik 30 in the U.S. Naval Space Command Satellite Situation Summary.

text: A Marcus Gunn pupil is distinguished from a total CN II lesion, in which the affected eye perceives no light.  In that case, shining the light in the affected eye produces no effect.

text: A Marcus Gunn pupil is distinguished from a total

text: CN II

text: lesion, in which the affected eye perceives no light.  In that case, shining the light in the affected eye produces no effect.

text: Sputnik (pronounced spʊtnɪk) is a news agency, news websites and radio broadcast service established by the Russian government-controlled news agency Rossiya Segodnya. Headquartered in Moscow, Sputnik has regional editorial offices in Washington, Cairo, Beijing, London and Edinburgh. It focuses on global politics and economics and is geared entirely towards a non-Russian audience. Sputnik has been accused of bias, disinformation and being a Russian propaganda outlet.

text: Sputnik (pronounced spʊtnɪk) is a

text: news agency

text: news websites

text: and

text: radio broadcast

text: service established by the

text: Russian government

text: -controlled news agency

text: Rossiya Segodnya

text: . Headquartered in

text: Moscow

text: , Sputnik has regional editorial offices in

text: Washington

text: Cairo

text: Beijing

text: London

text: and

text: Edinburgh

text: . It focuses on

text: global politics

text: and

text: economics

text: and is geared entirely towards a non-Russian audience. Sputnik has been accused of bias, disinformation and being a

text: Russian propaganda

text: outlet.

text: The southernmost Pindaya cave can be entered and extends for about 490 feet along a well-worn path. It is known for its interior which contains over 8,000 images of Buddha. Some of the older statues and images in the cave have inscriptions dating to the late 18th century, or early Konbaung period, and the earliest one dates from 1773. There may be some images without inscriptions that are older, but based on the style elements, Than Tun believes that none of them is older than the early 18th century and even suggests 1750 as the earliest possible date. Although most statues are of late 18th and early 19th century, many other statues and images have been placed there on an ongoing basis by different donors throughout the cave's history up until the present time, from lay people to the ruling authorities. The collection as a whole forms an impressive display of Buddhist iconography and art from early Konbaung era to the modern period. No other place in Burma displays such a range of style, not only in the images, but also in the ornamental thrones and reredos which surround the images.

text: The southernmost Pindaya cave can be entered and extends for about 490 feet along a well-worn path. It is known for its interior which contains over 8,000 images of Buddha. Some of the older statues and images in the cave have inscriptions dating to the late 18th century, or early

text: Konbaung period

text: , and the earliest one dates from 1773. There may be some images without inscriptions that are older, but based on the style elements,

text: Than Tun

text: believes that none of them is older than the early 18th century and even suggests 1750 as the earliest possible date. Although most statues are of late 18th and early 19th century, many other statues and images have been placed there on an ongoing basis by different donors throughout the cave's history up until the present time, from lay people to the ruling authorities. The collection as a whole forms an impressive display of Buddhist

text: iconography

text: and art from early Konbaung era to the modern period. No other place in Burma displays such a range of style, not only in the images, but also in the ornamental thrones and

text: reredos

text: which surround the images.

text: These organisations originated in the IST but have significantly changed their political orientation.

text: The game begins in a city on the planet Efate.  Here, as on all explorable planets in this game, the player observes the party and its surroundings from a directly overhead point of view and issues commands via hotkeys or clickable icons displayed onscreen.  The explorable terrain of planets is limited to certain cities and immediately adjacent regions.  Cities feature several types of buildings that are a recurrent feature on most planets, including a store for purchasing or selling armor, weapons and other items, a library, a hospital, a police station, and a starport for launching and outfitting a spaceship.  Some cities host additional visitable buildings which may include a tavern or a hotel in which important non-player characters are located.  Building types are color-coded for easier player identification.   The player directs the party's movements and issues commands to perform various actions such as communicating with non-player characters, using objects or firing a weapon.  Combat takes place in real-time and requires the player to direct individual party members to target opponents and fire their weapons, reload, or move to a better position.

text: The game begins in a city on the planet Efate.  Here, as on all explorable planets in this game, the player observes the party and its surroundings from a directly overhead point of view and issues commands via

text: hotkeys

text: or clickable icons displayed onscreen.  The explorable terrain of planets is limited to certain cities and immediately adjacent regions.  Cities feature several types of buildings that are a recurrent feature on most planets, including a store for purchasing or selling armor, weapons and other items, a library, a hospital, a police station, and a starport for launching and outfitting a spaceship.  Some cities host additional visitable buildings which may include a tavern or a hotel in which important non-player characters are located.  Building types are color-coded for easier player identification.   The player directs the party's movements and issues commands to perform various actions such as communicating with

text: non-player characters

text: , using objects or firing a weapon.  Combat takes place in

text: real-time

text: and requires the player to direct individual party members to target opponents and fire their weapons, reload, or move to a better position.

text: Olivier Jegou de Kervilio.      Bishop of Tréguier from 1694 to 1731.

text: English place names in Barbados is a list of Barbadian place names that were originally place names in England later applied in Barbados by English emigrants and explorers. Barbados has been known for centuries as being the island in the West Indies that appears the most British.

text: English place names in Barbados is a list of

text: Barbadian

text: place names that were originally place names in

text: England

text: later applied in Barbados by English emigrants and explorers. Barbados has been known for centuries as being the island in the

text: West Indies

text: that appears the most British.

text: Space  usually refers to the remains of spacecraft that have either fallen to Earth or are still orbiting Earth. Space  may also consist of natural components such as chunks of rock and ice. The problem of space  has grown as various space programs have left legacies of launches, explosions, repairs, and discards in both low Earth orbit and more remote orbits. These orbiting fragments have reached a great enough proportion to constitute a hazard to future space launches of both satellite and manned vehicles. Various government agencies and international organizations are beginning to track space  and also research possible solutions to the problem. While many of these  items, ranging in size from nuts and bolts to entire satellites and spacecraft, may fall to Earth, other items located in more remote orbits may stay aloft for centuries. The velocity of some of these pieces of space junk have been clocked in excess of 17,000 miles per hour. A piece of space  falling to Earth leaves a fiery trail, just like a meteor.

text: Space  usually refers to the remains of

text: spacecraft

text: that have either fallen to

text: Earth

text: or are still orbiting Earth. Space  may also consist of natural components such as chunks of

text: rock

text: and

text: ice

text: . The problem of space  has grown as various space programs have left legacies of launches, explosions, repairs, and discards in both low Earth

text: orbit

text: and more remote orbits. These orbiting fragments have reached a great enough proportion to constitute a hazard to future space launches of both

text: satellite

text: and manned vehicles. Various government agencies and international organizations are beginning to track space  and also research possible solutions to the problem. While many of these  items, ranging in size from

text: nut

text: s and

text: bolts

text: to entire satellites and spacecraft, may fall to Earth, other items located in more remote orbits may stay aloft for centuries. The velocity of some of these pieces of space junk have been clocked in excess of 17,000 miles per hour. A piece of space  falling to Earth leaves a fiery trail, just like a

text: meteor

text: He was also known for the unusual bat he wielded throughout much of his career. Known as "Excalibur", the shoulders of the bat were planed down to form a conical rather than rectangular shape.

text: The Space Age is a time period encompassing the activities related to the Space Race, space exploration, space technology, and the cultural developments influenced by these events.  The Space Age is generally considered to have begun with Sputnik (1957).

text: The Space Age is a time period encompassing the activities related to the

text: Space Race

text: space exploration

text: space technology

text: , and the cultural developments influenced by these events.  The Space Age is generally considered to have begun with

text: Sputnik

text: Finally, it is October 1957 ("Merrily We Roll Along – Seventh Transition"). Early in the morning, Frank and Charley are on the roof of an old apartment house on New York City's 110th Street, waiting for the first-ever earth-orbiting satellite. Frank, who is about to be released from the Army, tells Charley how much he likes Charley's plays, and proposes that they turn one, a political satire, into a musical. Mary, their neighbour, arrives to view the satellite, and meets the boys for the first time. She has heard Frank's piano from her apartment, and she tells him how much she admires his music. He speaks eloquently on how much composing means to him. Suddenly, Sputnik is there in the sky, and now, for the young friends, anything is possible ("Our Time").

text: Finally, it is October 1957 ("Merrily We Roll Along – Seventh Transition"). Early in the morning, Frank and Charley are on the roof of an old apartment house on New York City's 110th Street, waiting for the first-ever earth-orbiting satellite. Frank, who is about to be released from the Army, tells Charley how much he likes Charley's plays, and proposes that they turn one, a political satire, into a musical. Mary, their neighbour, arrives to view the satellite, and meets the boys for the first time. She has heard Frank's piano from her apartment, and she tells him how much she admires his music. He speaks eloquently on how much composing means to him. Suddenly,

text: Sputnik

text: is there in the sky, and now, for the young friends, anything is possible ("Our Time").

text: The album met positive reviews, with Paste Magazine rating it 7.6/10, adding: "In lesser hands, songs of this nature could take on the tone of self-help books, maxims of dubious value. But Pug’s honesty and wordplay combine to levitate the songs over those empty, clichéd realms. And the straightforward, balanced arrangements of acoustic and electric guitars and upright bass, with occasional piano, harmonica and drums, drive the focus to Pug’s vocals."

text: She has recently been selected reserve crew for Hawai‘i Space Exploration Analog and Simulation (HI-SEAS), which is part of a study for NASA to determine the best way to keep astronauts well nourished during multiple-year missions to Mars or the moon. Furthermore, Dr. Cagle is also listed as an honorary member of the Danish Astronautical Society.

text: She has recently been selected reserve crew for Hawai‘i Space Exploration Analog and Simulation (HI-SEAS), which is part of a study for NASA to determine the best way to keep astronauts well nourished during multiple-year missions to Mars or the moon. Furthermore, Dr. Cagle is also listed as an honorary member of the

text: Danish Astronautical Society

text: Presently Dr.Annadurai is heading ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore  as Director. The centre is responsible for building state of the art satellites for communication, remote sensing, navigation, space science and interplanetary missions.

text: Planet Explorers is a third-person, sandbox adventure game. Players can build custom vehicles, weapons, VTOL and pretty much anything else and use it in game. There are two major gameplay areas in Planet Explorers, one being the Story mode, the other being Adventure mode. Story mode features a set map and multiple quests that progress throughout the game. Adventure mode is a random procedural map that contains random quests and events, which lets players select the type of planet and climate he wants to visit, so that he can quickly buy goods in such established colony. Further, the game play is a mixture of 3rd person action and adventure, with the player able to use multiple weapons and objects. There are around 70 kinds of creatures and more than 15 kinds of minerals that can be utilized by humans on planet Maria. Although some creatures are as tall as buildings and are fierce enough to kill humans, herbivores tend to be docile.

text: Planet Explorers is a

text: third-person

text: sandbox

text: adventure game

text: . Players can build custom vehicles, weapons, VTOL and pretty much anything else and use it in game. There are two major gameplay areas in Planet Explorers, one being the Story mode, the other being Adventure mode. Story mode features a set map and multiple quests that progress throughout the game. Adventure mode is a random procedural map that contains random quests and events, which lets players select the type of planet and climate he wants to visit, so that he can quickly buy goods in such established colony. Further, the game play is a mixture of 3rd person action and adventure, with the player able to use multiple weapons and objects. There are around 70 kinds of creatures and more than 15 kinds of minerals that can be utilized by humans on planet Maria. Although some creatures are as tall as buildings and are fierce enough to kill humans,

text: herbivores

text: tend to be docile.

text: JumpJet Rex is a 2D platform game, in which players control the eponymous character, a space-exploring tyrannosaurus equipped with jet-propelled boots. Rex's jet boots give him the ability to hover, dash and boost.

text: JumpJet Rex is a

text: platform game

text: , in which players control the eponymous character, a space-exploring

text: tyrannosaurus

text: equipped with

text: jet-propelled

text: boots. Rex's jet boots give him the ability to hover, dash and boost.