text: The climate variations lead to the very dynamic nature of a sabkha. Halite is deposited on the surface of the sabkha and gypsum and aragonite precipitate in the subsurface via capillary action from brines brought up from the water table. In drier parts of the sabkha the gypsum can be altered to anhydrite and the aragonite can be dolomitized diagenetically.  Thermal contraction at night and expansion during the day leads to concave polygonal pans as the edges have been upturned, in part due to growth of evaporites wedging the crack apart. Below this is a gypsum mush where nodules of anhydrite and other sulfates may develop. These might also form a “chicken wire” crystalline structure. Below this are the intertidal deposits typified by laminated, organic-rich muds formed by the microbial mats that grade downward into more bioturbated muds. The subtidal facies show carbonate grainstones and lagoonal muds.

text: The climate variations lead to the very dynamic nature of a sabkha.

entity_name: Halite

text: Halite

text: is deposited on the surface of the sabkha and

entity_name: Gypsum

text: gypsum

text: and

entity_name: Aragonite

text: aragonite

text: precipitate in the subsurface via

entity_name: Capillary action

text: capillary action

text: from brines brought up from the water table. In drier parts of the sabkha the gypsum can be altered to

entity_name: Anhydrite

text: anhydrite

text: and the aragonite can be

entity_name: Dolomitization

text: dolomitized

entity_name: Diagenesis

text: diagenetically

text: .  Thermal contraction at night and expansion during the day leads to concave polygonal pans as the edges have been upturned, in part due to growth of evaporites wedging the crack apart. Below this is a gypsum mush where nodules of anhydrite and other sulfates may develop. These might also form a “chicken wire” crystalline structure. Below this are the intertidal deposits typified by laminated, organic-rich muds formed by the

entity_name: Microbial mat

text: microbial mat

text: s that grade downward into more

entity_name: Bioturbation

text: bioturbated

text: muds. The subtidal facies show carbonate

entity_name: Grainstone

text: grainstone

text: s and lagoonal muds.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: Diamonds occur in a variety of colors—steel gray, white, blue, yellow, orange, red, green, pink to purple, brown, and black. Colored diamonds contain interstitial impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration, whilst pure diamonds are perfectly transparent and colorless. Diamonds are scientifically classed into two main types and several subtypes, according to the nature of impurities present and how these impurities affect light absorption:

method: dangnt-nlp

text: Typically, diamond is formed by heating at very high temperatures (>5,000 K) and pressures (>120,000 atmospheres). However, according to this invention, Narayan and his group have utilized kinetics and time control of pulsed nanosecond laser melting to overcome thermodynamic limitations and create a super-undercooled state that enables conversion of carbon into Q-carbon and diamond at ambient temperatures and pressures. The process uses a high-powered laser pulse, similar to that used in eye surgery, lasting approximately 200 nanoseconds. This raises the temperature of the carbon to approximately 4,000 K (3,700 °C; 6,700 °F) at atmospheric pressure. The resulting liquid is then quenched (rapidly cooled); it is this stage that is the source of the "Q" in the material's name. The degree of undercooling below the melting temperature determines the new phase of carbon, whether Q-carbon or diamond. Higher degrees of undercooling result in Q-carbon whereas diamond tends to form when the free energy of diamond equals that of the carbon liquid. Using this technique, diamond can be doped with both n- and p-type dopants, which is critical for high-power solid state devices. During rapid crystal growth from the melt, dopant concentrations can far exceed the thermodynamic solubility limit through a solute trapping phenomenon, which is relevant for achieving sufficiently high free carrier concentrations since these dopants tend to be deep donors with high ionization energies. Narayan and his group are also able to create NV (nitrogen-vacancy) nanodiamonds in a controlled way and self-organize them for a variety of applications ranging from nanosensing and quantum computing to biomarkers.

text: Typically, diamond is formed by heating at very high temperatures (>5,000 K) and pressures (>120,000 atmospheres). However, according to this invention, Narayan and his group have utilized kinetics and time control of pulsed nanosecond laser melting to overcome thermodynamic limitations and create a super-undercooled state that enables conversion of carbon into Q-carbon and diamond at ambient temperatures and pressures. The process uses a high-powered laser pulse, similar to that used in eye surgery, lasting approximately 200 nanoseconds. This raises the temperature of the carbon to approximately 4,000 K (3,700 °C; 6,700 °F) at

entity_name: Atmospheric pressure

text: atmospheric pressure

text: . The resulting liquid is then quenched (rapidly cooled); it is this stage that is the source of the "Q" in the material's name. The degree of undercooling below the melting temperature determines the new phase of carbon, whether Q-carbon or diamond. Higher degrees of undercooling result in Q-carbon whereas diamond tends to form when the free energy of diamond equals that of the carbon liquid. Using this technique, diamond can be doped with both n- and p-type dopants, which is critical for high-power solid state devices. During rapid crystal growth from the melt, dopant concentrations can far exceed the thermodynamic solubility limit through a solute trapping phenomenon, which is relevant for achieving sufficiently high free carrier concentrations since these dopants tend to be deep donors with high ionization energies. Narayan and his group are also able to create NV (nitrogen-vacancy) nanodiamonds in a controlled way and self-organize them for a variety of applications ranging from nanosensing and quantum computing to biomarkers.

text: The most stable crystalline form is the hexagonal one, also called h-BN, α-BN, g-BN, and graphitic boron nitride. Hexagonal boron nitride (point group = D; space group = P6/mmc) has a layered structure similar to graphite. Within each layer, boron and nitrogen atoms are bound by strong covalent bonds, whereas the layers are held together by weak van der Waals forces. The interlayer "registry" of these sheets differs, however, from the pattern seen for graphite, because the atoms are eclipsed, with boron atoms lying over and above nitrogen atoms. This registry reflects the polarity of the B–N bonds. Still, h-BN and graphite are very close neighbors and even the BCN hybrids have been synthesized where carbon substitutes for some B and N atoms.

text: The most stable crystalline form is the hexagonal one, also called h-BN, α-BN, g-BN, and graphitic boron nitride. Hexagonal boron nitride (point group = D; space group = P6/mmc) has a layered structure similar to graphite. Within each layer, boron and nitrogen atoms are bound by strong

entity_name: Covalent bond

text: covalent bond

text: s, whereas the layers are held together by weak

entity_name: Van der Waals force

text: van der Waals force

text: s. The interlayer "registry" of these sheets differs, however, from the pattern seen for graphite, because the atoms are eclipsed, with boron atoms lying over and above nitrogen atoms. This registry reflects the polarity of the B–N bonds. Still, h-BN and graphite are very close neighbors and even the BCN hybrids have been synthesized where carbon substitutes for some B and N atoms.

method: UNH-qee

text: The auditorium is entered via a passage between two shops; the entrance is marked with stepped surrounds surmounted by vertical banding in relief, which bear the words "Town Hall". The auditorium has a simple rectangular plan running north-south, with the stage and proscenium at the southern end, and is richly decorated in a blue and rose Art Deco scheme. The walls are rendered masonry with plaster decoration, and the floor is hardwood. The structural bays of the walls are enriched with stepped pilasters and plaster relief panels with geometrical patterns incorporating the letter G. The bays alternately contain timber double doors with decorated steel grilles above, and windows with steel grilles decorated with fountain motifs; these grilles have been partially closed in with rollershutters and timber sheeting, but still provide cross ventilation. Large crystalline stained glass light fittings are located between the openings, and either side of the stage, and a single larger crystalline fitting is centrally placed on the ceiling. The ceiling is sheeted with a gridded pattern in relief and has arrow-head shaped vents. The sheeting at the edge slopes at forty-five degrees, and is finished with a cornice with diamond motifs. The proscenium frames the stage with a gently stepped recess decorated with plaster reliefs moulded into stripes and scrolls. The stage area is flanked by small storage and dressing areas, and the timber roof structure above is exposed. The Art Deco scheme of this interior is both impressive and intact.

text: The auditorium is entered via a passage between two shops; the entrance is marked with stepped surrounds surmounted by vertical banding in relief, which bear the words "Town Hall". The auditorium has a simple rectangular plan running north-south, with the stage and proscenium at the southern end, and is richly decorated in a blue and rose Art Deco scheme. The walls are rendered masonry with plaster decoration, and the floor is hardwood. The structural bays of the walls are enriched with stepped

entity_name: Pilaster

text: pilasters

text: and plaster relief panels with geometrical patterns incorporating the letter G. The bays alternately contain timber double doors with decorated steel

entity_name: Grille

text: grille

text: s above, and windows with steel grilles decorated with

entity_name: Fountain

text: fountain

text: motifs; these grilles have been partially closed in with

entity_name: Roller shutter

text: rollershutters

text: and timber sheeting, but still provide cross ventilation. Large crystalline stained glass light fittings are located between the openings, and either side of the stage, and a single larger crystalline fitting is centrally placed on the ceiling. The ceiling is sheeted with a gridded pattern in relief and has arrow-head shaped vents. The sheeting at the edge slopes at forty-five degrees, and is finished with a

entity_name: Cornice

text: cornice

text: with diamond motifs. The

entity_name: Proscenium

text: proscenium

text: frames the stage with a gently stepped recess decorated with plaster

entity_name: Relief

text: reliefs

text: moulded into stripes and scrolls. The stage area is flanked by small storage and dressing areas, and the timber roof structure above is exposed. The Art Deco scheme of this interior is both impressive and intact.

text: Caesium carbonate or cesium carbonate is a white crystalline solid compound. Caesium carbonate has a high solubility in polar solvents such as water, alcohol and DMF. Its solubility is higher in organic solvents compared to other carbonates like potassium and sodium carbonates, although it remains quite insoluble in other organic solvents such as toluene, p-xylene, and chlorobenzene. This compound is used in organic synthesis as a base. It also appears to have applications in energy conversion. In addition it can be used to raise a cancer cell's Ph to a highly alkaline state, thus destroying it.

text: Caesium carbonate

text: or

text: cesium carbonate is a white crystalline

entity_name: Solid

text: solid

text: compound.

entity_name: Caesium

text: Caesium

text: carbonate has a high

entity_name: Solubility

text: solubility

text: in polar solvents such as

entity_name: Water

text: water

entity_name: Alcohol

text: alcohol

text: and

entity_name: Dimethylformamide

text: DMF

text: . Its

text: solubility

text: is higher in organic

entity_name: Solvent

text: solvents

text: compared to other carbonates like

entity_name: Potassium carbonate

text: potassium

text: and

entity_name: Sodium carbonate

text: sodium carbonate

text: s, although it remains quite insoluble in other organic solvents such as

entity_name: Toluene

text: toluene

entity_name: P-Xylene

text: p-xylene

text: , and

entity_name: Chlorobenzene

text: chlorobenzene

text: . This compound is used in organic synthesis as a base. It also appears to have applications in energy conversion. In addition it can be used to raise a cancer cell's Ph to a highly alkaline state, thus destroying it.

text: Graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks as a result of the reduction of sedimentary carbon compounds during metamorphism. It also occurs in igneous rocks and in meteorites. Minerals associated with graphite include quartz, calcite, micas and tourmaline. In meteorites it occurs with troilite and silicate minerals.  Small graphitic crystals in meteoritic iron are called cliftonite.

text: Graphite occurs in

entity_name: Metamorphic rock

text: metamorphic rock

text: s as a result of the

entity_name: Redox

text: reduction

text: of

entity_name: Sedimentary rock

text: sedimentary

text: carbon compounds during

entity_name: Metamorphism

text: metamorphism

text: . It also occurs in

entity_name: Igneous rock

text: igneous rock

text: s and in

entity_name: Meteorite

text: meteorite

text: s. Minerals associated with graphite include

entity_name: Quartz

text: quartz

entity_name: Calcite

text: calcite

entity_name: Mica

text: mica

text: s and

entity_name: Tourmaline

text: tourmaline

text: . In meteorites it occurs with

entity_name: Troilite

text: troilite

text: and silicate minerals.  Small graphitic crystals in meteoritic iron are called

entity_name: Cliftonite

text: cliftonite

text: Graphene is a crystalline allotrope of carbon in the form of a nearly transparent (to visible light) one atom thick sheet. It is hundreds of times stronger than most steels by weight. It has the highest known thermal and electrical conductivity, displaying current densities 1,000,000 times that of copper. It was first produced in 2004.

entity_name: Graphene

text: Graphene

text: is a

entity_name: Crystal

text: crystal

text: line

entity_name: Allotropy

text: allotrope

text: of

entity_name: Carbon

text: carbon

text: in the form of a nearly transparent (to visible light) one atom thick sheet. It is hundreds of times stronger than most

entity_name: Steel

text: steel

text: s by weight. It has the highest known thermal and electrical conductivity, displaying current densities 1,000,000 times that of

entity_name: Copper

text: copper

text: . It was first produced in 2004.

text: By convention, structures of these compounds show the 3 glycerol carbon atoms vertically with the phosphate attached to carbon atom number three (at the bottom). Plasmalogens and phosphatidates are examples.

text: Carbon introduction through the opening of a bicyclic system is way to introduce either a single carbon or several at a time to the ring. The single carbon introduction often goes through a cyclopropane containg bicyclic intermediate, which is then opened to give the expanded ring. The expansion can occur either through an electrocylic ring opening or an induced cleavage of the shared bond. These reactions are differentiated in terms of how the carbon is added to form the cyclopropane ring. A Simmons-Smith like reaction with an alkene containing ring can be used to introduce a single carbon. Other methods exist to cyclopropantate other functionalities, such as the Buchner ring expansion for arenes.

text: Carbon introduction through the opening of a

entity_name: Bicyclic molecule

text: bicyclic system

text: is way to introduce either a single carbon or several at a time to the ring. The single carbon introduction often goes through a

entity_name: Cyclopropane

text: cyclopropane

text: containg bicyclic intermediate, which is then opened to give the expanded ring. The expansion can occur either through an electrocylic ring opening or an induced cleavage of the shared bond. These reactions are differentiated in terms of how the carbon is added to form the cyclopropane ring. A

entity_name: Simmons–Smith reaction

text: Simmons-Smith

text: like reaction with an alkene containing ring can be used to introduce a single carbon. Other methods exist to cyclopropantate other functionalities, such as the

entity_name: Buchner ring expansion

text: Buchner ring expansion

text: for

entity_name: Aromatic hydrocarbon

text: arenes

text: Activated carbon can be manufactured from carbonaceous material, including coal (bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite), peat, wood, or nutshells (e.g., coconut). The manufacturing process consists of two phases, carbonization and activation. The carbonization process includes drying and then heating to separate by-products, including tars and other hydrocarbons from the raw material, as well as to drive off any gases generated. The process is completed by heating the material over  in an oxygen-free atmosphere that cannot support combustion. The carbonized particles are then "activated" by exposing them to an oxidizing agent, usually steam or carbon dioxide at high temperature. This agent burns off the pore blocking structures created during the carbonization phase and so, they develop a porous, three-dimensional graphite lattice structure. The size of the pores developed during activation is a function of the time that they spend in this stage. Longer exposure times result in larger pore sizes. The most popular aqueous phase carbons are bituminous based because of their hardness, abrasion resistance, pore size distribution, and low cost, but their effectiveness needs to be tested in each application to determine the optimal product.

text: Rhonditic steels contain about 0.35 to 2.25 percent carbon by weight.  They are formed by mixing a high carbon and low carbon steel, such that the mixture as a whole has the desired carbon content.  The mixture is then heated to a temperature at which the high carbon steel will melt, but kept below the melting point of the low carbon steel (~2750 F).  The mixture is slightly cooled then maintained for time sufficient for the carbon present to form fullerenes and fullerene chains (approximately 15 minutes), and finally allowed to cool to room temperature.

text: Migalastat is used in form of the hydrochloride, which is a white crystalline solid and is soluble in water (≥1 mg/mL). The molecule has four asymmetric carbon atoms with the same stereochemistry as the sugar

text: Migalastat is used in form of the

entity_name: Hydrochloride

text: hydrochloride

text: , which is a white crystalline solid and is soluble in water (≥1 mg/mL). The molecule has four

entity_name: Asymmetric carbon

text: asymmetric carbon

text: atoms with the same

entity_name: Stereochemistry

text: stereochemistry

text: as the sugar

text: Due to the role of the π-electron system in determining the electronic properties of graphene, doping in carbon nanotubes differs from that of bulk crystalline semiconductors from the same group of the periodic table (e.g. silicon).  Graphitic substitution of carbon atoms in the nanotube wall by boron or nitrogen dopants leads to p-type and n-type behavior, respectively, as would be expected in silicon.  However, some non-substitutional (intercalated or adsorbed) dopants introduced into a carbon nanotube, such as alkali metals as well as electron-rich metallocenes, result in n-type conduction because they donate electrons to the π-electron system of the nanotube.  By contrast, π-electron acceptors such as FeCl or electron-deficient metallocenes function as p-type dopants since they draw π-electrons away from the top of the valence band.

text: Due to the role of the π-electron system in determining the

entity_section: Electronic

text: electronic properties of graphene

text: , doping in carbon nanotubes differs from that of bulk crystalline semiconductors from the same group of the periodic table (e.g. silicon).  Graphitic substitution of carbon atoms in the nanotube wall by boron or nitrogen dopants leads to p-type and n-type behavior, respectively, as would be expected in silicon.  However, some non-substitutional (intercalated or adsorbed) dopants introduced into a carbon nanotube, such as alkali metals as well as electron-rich metallocenes, result in n-type conduction because they donate electrons to the π-electron system of the nanotube.  By contrast, π-electron acceptors such as FeCl or electron-deficient metallocenes function as p-type dopants since they draw π-electrons away from the top of the valence band.

text: Like a metal, the conductivity of graphite in the direction of its planes decreases as the temperature is raised; it has the electronic band structure of a semimetal. The allotropes of carbon, including graphite, can accept foreign atoms or compounds into their structures via substitution, intercalation or doping. The resulting materials are referred to as "carbon alloys". Carbon can form ionic salts, including a hydrogen sulfate, perchlorate, and nitrate (CX.2HX, where X = HSO, ClO; and CNO.3HNO). In organic chemistry, carbon can form complex cations—termed carbocations—in which the positive charge is on the carbon atom; examples are  and , and their derivatives.

text: Like a metal, the conductivity of graphite in the direction of its planes decreases as the temperature is raised; it has the electronic band structure of a semimetal. The allotropes of carbon, including graphite, can accept foreign atoms or compounds into their structures via substitution,

entity_name: Intercalation (chemistry)

text: intercalation

text: or

entity_name: Dopant

text: doping

text: . The resulting materials are referred to as "carbon alloys". Carbon can form ionic salts, including a hydrogen sulfate, perchlorate, and nitrate (CX.2HX, where X = HSO, ClO; and CNO.3HNO). In

entity_name: Organic chemistry

text: organic chemistry

text: , carbon can form complex cations—termed

entity_name: Carbocation

text: carbocations

text: —in which the positive charge is on the carbon atom; examples are

entity_name: Carbenium ion

text: and

entity_name: Carbonium ion

text: , and their derivatives.

text: Known to the ancient Greeks as ἀδάμας – adámas ("proper", "unalterable", "unbreakable") and sometimes called adamant, diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring material, scoring 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Diamond is extremely strong owing to the structure of its carbon atoms, where each carbon atom has four neighbors joined to it with covalent bonds. The material boron nitride, when in a form structurally identical to diamond (zincblende structure), is nearly as hard as diamond; a currently hypothetical material, beta carbon nitride, may also be as hard or harder in one form. It has been shown that some diamond aggregates having nanometer grain size are harder and tougher than conventional large diamond crystals, thus they perform better as abrasive material. Owing to the use of those new ultra-hard materials for diamond testing, more accurate values are now known for diamond hardness. A surface perpendicular to the [111] crystallographic direction (that is the longest diagonal of a cube) of a pure (i.e., type IIa) diamond has a hardness value of 167 GPa when scratched with an nanodiamond tip, while the nanodiamond sample itself has a value of 310 GPa when tested with another nanodiamond tip. Because the test only works properly with a tip made of harder material than the sample being tested, the true value for nanodiamond is likely somewhat lower than 310 GPa.

text: Known to the ancient Greeks as ἀδάμας – adámas ("proper", "unalterable", "unbreakable") and sometimes called

entity_name: Adamant

text: adamant

text: , diamond is the hardest known naturally occurring material, scoring 10 on the

entity_name: Mohs scale of mineral hardness

text: Mohs scale of mineral hardness

text: . Diamond is extremely strong owing to the structure of its carbon atoms, where each carbon atom has four neighbors joined to it with covalent bonds. The material

entity_name: Boron nitride

text: boron nitride

text: , when in a form structurally identical to diamond (

entity_name: Cubic crystal system

entity_section: Zincblende structure

text: zincblende structure

text: ), is nearly as hard as diamond; a currently hypothetical material,

entity_name: Beta carbon nitride

text: beta carbon nitride

text: , may also be as hard or harder in one form. It has been shown that some diamond

entity_name: Aggregated diamond nanorod

text: aggregates

text: having nanometer grain size are harder and tougher than conventional large diamond crystals, thus they perform better as abrasive material. Owing to the use of those new ultra-hard materials for diamond testing, more accurate values are now known for diamond hardness. A surface perpendicular to the [111]

entity_name: Crystallography

entity_section: Notation

text: crystallographic direction

text: (that is the longest diagonal of a cube) of a pure (i.e., type IIa) diamond has a hardness value of 167 GPa when scratched with an

text: nanodiamond

text: tip, while the nanodiamond sample itself has a value of 310 GPa when tested with another nanodiamond tip. Because the test only works properly with a tip made of harder material than the sample being tested, the true value for nanodiamond is likely somewhat lower than 310 GPa.

text: Graphite is portrayed by .

text: Graphite is portrayed by .

text: Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) is well suited for this purpose. In the presence of a fibre preform, CVD takes place in between the fibres and their individual filaments and therefore is called chemical vapour infiltration (CVI). One example is the manufacture of C/C composites: a C-fibre preform is exposed to a mixture of argon and a hydrocarbon gas (methane, propane, etc.) at a pressure of around or below 100 kPa and a temperature above 1000 °C. The gas decomposes depositing carbon on and between the fibers. Another example is the deposition of silicon carbide, which is usually  conducted from a mixture of hydrogen and methyl-trichlorosilane (MTS, CHSiCl; it is also common in silicone production). Under defined condition this gas mixture deposits fine and crystalline silicon carbide on the hot surface within the preform.This CVI procedure leaves a body with a porosity of about 10–15%, as access of reactants to the interior of the preform is increasingly blocked by deposition on the exterior.

entity_name: Chemical vapor deposition

text: Chemical vapour deposition

text: (CVD) is well suited for this purpose. In the presence of a fibre preform, CVD takes place in between the fibres and their individual filaments and therefore is called

entity_name: Chemical vapor infiltration

text: chemical vapour infiltration

text: (CVI). One example is the manufacture of C/C composites: a C-fibre preform is exposed to a mixture of

entity_name: Argon

text: argon

text: and a hydrocarbon gas (

entity_name: Methane

text: methane

entity_name: Propane

text: propane

text: , etc.) at a pressure of around or below 100 kPa and a temperature above 1000 °C. The gas decomposes depositing carbon on and between the fibers. Another example is the deposition of silicon carbide, which is usually  conducted from a mixture of

entity_name: Hydrogen

text: hydrogen

text: and methyl-

entity_name: Trichlorosilane

text: trichlorosilane

text: (MTS, CHSiCl; it is also common in

entity_name: Silicone

text: silicone

text: production). Under defined condition this gas mixture deposits fine and crystalline silicon carbide on the hot surface within the preform.This CVI procedure leaves a body with a porosity of about 10–15%, as access of reactants to the interior of the preform is increasingly blocked by deposition on the exterior.

text: The intercalation compounds graphite bisulfate and graphite perchlorate can be prepared by treating graphite with strong oxidizing agents in the presence of strong acids. In contrast to the potassium and calcium graphites, the carbon layers are oxidized in this process:48 C  +  0.25 O +  3  HSO    →    [C][HSO]·2HSO  +  0.5 HO

text: Hard water also forms deposits that clog plumbing. These deposits, called "scale", are composed mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO), magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)), and calcium sulfate (CaSO). Calcium and magnesium carbonates tend to be deposited as off-white solids on the inside surfaces of pipes and heat exchangers. This precipitation (formation of an insoluble solid) is principally caused by thermal decomposition of bicarbonate ions but also happens in cases where the carbonate ion is at saturation concentration. The resulting build-up of scale restricts the flow of water in pipes. In boilers, the deposits impair the flow of heat into water, reducing the heating efficiency and allowing the metal boiler components to overheat. In a pressurized system, this overheating can lead to failure of the boiler. The damage caused by calcium carbonate deposits varies on the crystalline form, for example, calcite or aragonite.

text: Hard water also forms deposits that clog plumbing. These deposits, called "

entity_name: Fouling

text: scale

text: ", are composed mainly of

entity_name: Calcium carbonate

text: calcium carbonate

text: (CaCO),

entity_name: Magnesium hydroxide

text: magnesium hydroxide

text: (Mg(OH)), and

text: calcium sulfate

text: (CaSO). Calcium and magnesium carbonates tend to be deposited as off-white solids on the inside surfaces of pipes and

text: heat exchanger

text: s. This precipitation (formation of an insoluble solid) is principally caused by thermal decomposition of bicarbonate ions but also happens in cases where the carbonate ion is at saturation concentration. The resulting build-up of scale restricts the flow of water in pipes. In boilers, the deposits impair the flow of heat into water, reducing the heating efficiency and allowing the metal boiler components to overheat. In a pressurized system, this overheating can lead to failure of the boiler. The damage caused by calcium carbonate deposits varies on the crystalline form, for example,

text: calcite

text: or

text: aragonite

text: Ammonium polyphosphates as used as flame retardants in polymers have long chains and a specific crystallinity (Form II). They start to decompose at 240 °C to form ammonia and phosphoric acid.  The phosphoric acid acts as an acid catalyst in the dehydration of carbon-based poly-alcohols, such as cellulose in wood.  The phosphoric acid reacts with alcohol groups to form heat-unstable phosphate esters.  The esters decompose to release carbon dioxide and regenerate the phosphoric acid catalyst.  In the gas phase, the release of non-flammable carbon dioxide helps to dilute the oxygen of the air and flammable decomposition products of the material that is burning.  In the condensed phase, the resultant carbonaceous char helps to shield the underlying polymer from attack by oxygen and radiant heat. Use as an intumescent is achieved when combined with starch-based materials such as pentaerythritol and melamine as expanding agents. The mechanisms of intumescence and the mode of action of APP are described in a series of publications.

text: Ammonium polyphosphates as used as flame retardants in polymers have long chains and a specific crystallinity (Form II). They start to decompose at 240 °C to form ammonia and phosphoric acid.  The phosphoric acid acts as an acid catalyst in the dehydration of carbon-based poly-alcohols, such as cellulose in wood.  The phosphoric acid reacts with alcohol groups to form heat-unstable phosphate

text: ester

text: s.  The esters decompose to release carbon dioxide and regenerate the phosphoric acid catalyst.  In the gas phase, the release of non-flammable carbon dioxide helps to dilute the oxygen of the air and flammable decomposition products of the material that is burning.  In the condensed phase, the resultant carbonaceous char helps to shield the underlying polymer from attack by oxygen and radiant heat. Use as an

text: intumescent

text: is achieved when combined with starch-based materials such as pentaerythritol and melamine as expanding agents. The mechanisms of intumescence and the mode of action of APP are described in a series of publications.

text: Carbon fibers are usually combined with other materials to form a composite. When combined with a plastic resin and wound or molded it forms carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (often referred to as carbon fiber) which has a very high strength-to-weight ratio, and is extremely rigid although somewhat brittle. However, carbon fibers are also composited with other materials, such as with graphite to form carbon-carbon composites, which have a very high heat tolerance.

text: Carbon fibers are usually combined with other materials to form a

text: composite

text: . When combined with a

text: plastic resin

text: and wound or molded it forms

text: carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer

text: (often referred to as carbon fiber) which has a very high

text: strength-to-weight ratio

text: , and is extremely rigid although somewhat brittle. However, carbon fibers are also composited with other materials, such as with graphite to form carbon-carbon composites, which have a very high heat tolerance.

text: Fullerenes react with carbenes to methanofullerenes. The reaction of fullerene with dichlorocarbene (created by sodium trichloroacetate pyrolysis) was first reported in 1993. A single addition takes place along a [6,6] bond.

text: Fullerenes react with

text: carbene

text: s to methanofullerenes. The reaction of fullerene with

text: dichlorocarbene

text: (created by

text: sodium trichloroacetate

text: pyrolysis) was first reported in 1993. A single addition takes place along a [6,6] bond.

text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a synthetic fuel – such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel – produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue-gas emissions, recovered from automotive exhaust gas, or derived from carbonic acid in seawater.Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.Such fuels are produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in turn in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.

text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a

text: synthetic fuel

text: – such as

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: jet fuel

text: – produced from renewable or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

entity_name: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

text: power plant flue-gas emissions

text: , recovered from automotive

text: exhaust gas

text: , or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: .Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: s, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to

text: carbon capture

text: at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: .Such fuels are produced by the

text: electrolysis of water

text: to make

text: hydrogen

text: used in turn in the

text: Sabatier reaction

text: to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in

text: power plants

text: as synthetic

text: natural gas

text: , transported by

text: pipeline

text: truck

text: , or

text: tanker ship

text: , or be used in

text: gas to liquids

text: processes such as the

text: Fischer–Tropsch process

text: to make traditional transportation or heating

text: fuel

text: s.

text: Most dust in the Solar System is highly processed dust, recycled from the material out of which the Solar System formed and subsequently collected in the planetesimals, and leftover solid material such as comets and asteroids, and reformed in each of those bodies' collisional lifetimes. During the Solar System's formation history, the most abundant element was (and still is) H. The metallic elements: magnesium, silicon, and iron, which are the principal ingredients of rocky planets, condensed into solids at the highest temperatures of the planetary disk.  Some molecules such as CO, N, NH, and free oxygen, existed in a gas phase. Some molecules, for example, graphite (C) and SiC would condense into solid grains in the planetary disk; but carbon and SiC grains found in meteorites are presolar based on their isotopic compositions, rather than from the planetary disk formation. Some molecules also formed complex organic compounds and some molecules formed frozen ice mantles, of which either could coat the "refractory" (Mg, Si, Fe) grain cores. Stardust once more provides an exception to the general trend, as it appears to be totally unprocessed since its thermal condensation within stars as refractory crystalline minerals. The condensation of graphite occurs within supernova interiors as they expand and cool, and do so even in gas containing more oxygen than carbon, a surprising carbon chemistry made possible by the intense radioactive environment of supernovae. This special example of dust formation has merited specific review.

text: Most dust in the

text: Solar System

text: is highly processed dust, recycled from the material out of which the Solar System formed and subsequently collected in the planetesimals, and leftover solid material such as

text: comet

text: s and

text: asteroid

text: In the final step a large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of 13 hexagons and three pentagons was submitted to flash vacuum pyrolysis at 1100 °C and 0.01 Torr. The three carbon chlorine bonds served as free radical incubators and the ball was stitched up in a no-doubt complex series of radical reactions.  The chemical yield was low: 0.1 to 1%.  A small percentage of fullerenes is formed in any process which involves burning of hydrocarbons, e.g. in candle burning. The yield through a combustion method is often above 1%. The method proposed above does not provide any advantage for synthesis of fullerenes compared to the usual combustion method, and therefore, the organic synthesis of fullerenes remains a challenge for chemistry.

text: In the final step a large

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: consisting of 13 hexagons and three pentagons was submitted to

text: flash vacuum pyrolysis

text: at 1100 °C and 0.01

text: Torr

text: . The three

text: carbon chlorine bonds

text: served as

text: free radical

text: incubators and the ball was stitched up in a no-doubt complex series of

text: radical reaction

text: s.  The

text: chemical yield

text: was low: 0.1 to 1%.  A small percentage of fullerenes is formed in any process which involves burning of hydrocarbons, e.g. in candle burning. The yield through a combustion method is often above 1%. The method proposed above does not provide any advantage for synthesis of fullerenes compared to the usual combustion method, and therefore, the organic synthesis of fullerenes remains a challenge for chemistry.

text: Silicon carbide (SiC) is widely used as a ceramic or example in car brakes and bulletproof vests. It is also used in semiconductor electronics. It is manufactured from silicon dioxide and carbon in an Acheson furnace between 1600 and 2500 °C. There are 250 known crystalline forms with alpha silicon carbide the most common. Silicon itself is an important semiconductor material used in microchips. It is produced commercially from silica and carbon at 1900 °C and crystallizes in a diamond cubic crystal structure. Germanium silicide forms a solid solution and is again a commercially used semiconductor material. The tin - silicon phase diagram is a eutectic and the lead - silicon phase diagram shows a monotectic transition and a small eutectic transition but no solid solubility.

text: Silicon carbide

text: (SiC) is widely used as a ceramic or example in car brakes and bulletproof vests. It is also used in semiconductor electronics. It is manufactured from

text: silicon dioxide

text: and carbon in an

text: Acheson furnace

text: between 1600 and 2500 °C. There are 250 known crystalline forms with alpha silicon carbide the most common. Silicon itself is an important semiconductor material used in microchips. It is produced commercially from

text: silica

text: and

text: carbon

text: at 1900 °C and crystallizes in a diamond cubic crystal structure.

text: Germanium silicide

text: forms a

text: solid solution

text: and is again a commercially used semiconductor material. The

text: tin

text: - silicon phase diagram is a eutectic and the

text: lead

text: - silicon phase diagram shows a

text: monotectic

text: transition and a small eutectic transition but no solid solubility.

text: The versatility of fullerene molecules has led to a large amount of research exploring their properties. One interesting property is the relatively large volume of the internal space of the molecule. Atoms of different elements may be placed inside the molecular cage formed by the carbon atoms.

text: Micromy is a hard surface coating company based in Täby, Sweden. The company specializes in applying hard coating to a wide range of substrate materials using a PVD process (Physical vapor deposition). Depending on the application, different coating film materials can be produced, such as TiN (Titanium nitride), TiC, TiNC (grey, antracite, black), AlTiN (violet, black) or DLC (Diamond-Like Carbon). The coating is mainly used for industrial applications based on the different properties of the materials. However, the PVD process results in a finish such that many coatings are equally suitable for decorative purposes.

text: Micromy is a hard surface coating company based in

text: Täby

text: Sweden

text: . The company specializes in applying hard

text: coating

text: to a wide range of substrate materials using a PVD process (

text: Physical vapor deposition

text: ). Depending on the application, different coating film materials can be produced, such as TiN (

text: Titanium nitride

text: ), TiC, TiNC (grey, antracite, black),

text: AlTiN

text: (violet, black) or DLC (Diamond-Like Carbon). The coating is mainly used for industrial applications based on the different properties of the materials. However, the PVD process results in a finish such that many coatings are equally suitable for decorative purposes.

text: Homocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and congener of capsaicin in  chili peppers (Capsicum). Like capsaicin it is an irritant. Homocapsaicin accounts for about 1% of the total capsaicinoids mixture and has about half the pungency of capsaicin. Pure homocapsaicin is a lipophilic colorless odorless crystalline to waxy compound. On the Scoville scale it has 8 600 000 SHU (Scoville heat units). Homocapsaicin isolated from chili pepper has been found in two isomeric forms, both with a carbon-carbon double bond at the 6 position (numbered from the amide carbon) on the 10-carbon acyl chain. One isomer has an additional carbon, a methyl group, at the 8 position and the other has a methyl group at the 9 position. Homocapsaicin (6-ene-8-methyl) is the more abundant isomer. Homocapsaicin with the double bond at the 7 position has never been found in nature, though its structure is widely reported on the Internet and, unfortunately, even in the scientific literature. Details of the misidentification have been published.(Note:  the structure to the right is incorrect and has not yet been edited.)

text: Homocapsaicin is a capsaicinoid and analog and

text: congener

text: of

text: capsaicin

text: in

text: chili pepper

text: s (

text: Capsicum

text: ). Like capsaicin it is an

text: irritant

text: . Homocapsaicin accounts for about 1% of the total capsaicinoids mixture and has about half the pungency of capsaicin. Pure homocapsaicin is a

text: lipophilic

text: colorless odorless crystalline to waxy compound. On the

text: Scoville scale

text: it has 8 600 000 SHU (Scoville heat units). Homocapsaicin isolated from chili pepper has been found in two isomeric forms, both with a carbon-carbon double bond at the 6 position (numbered from the amide carbon) on the 10-carbon acyl chain. One isomer has an additional carbon, a methyl group, at the 8 position and the other has a methyl group at the 9 position. Homocapsaicin (6-ene-8-methyl) is the more abundant isomer. Homocapsaicin with the double bond at the 7 position has never been found in nature, though its structure is widely reported on the Internet and, unfortunately, even in the scientific literature. Details of the misidentification have been published.(Note:  the structure to the right is incorrect and has not yet been edited.)

text: An isotopically pure diamond is a type of diamond that is composed entirely of one isotope of carbon.  Isotopically pure diamonds have been manufactured from either the more common carbon isotope with mass number 12 (abbreviated as C) or the less common C isotope.  Compared to natural diamonds that are composed of a mixture of C and C isotopes, isotopically pure diamonds possess improved characteristics such as increased thermal conductivity.  Thermal conductivity of isotopically enriched diamonds is at a minimum when C and C are in a ratio of 1:1 and reaches a maximum when the composition is 100% C or 100% C.

text: An isotopically pure diamond is a type of

text: diamond

text: that is composed entirely of one

text: isotope

text: of

text: carbon

text: .  Isotopically pure diamonds have been

text: manufactured

text: from either the more common carbon isotope with

text: mass number

text: 12 (abbreviated as

text: C

text: ) or the less common

text: C

text: isotope.  Compared to natural diamonds that are composed of a mixture of C and C isotopes, isotopically pure diamonds possess improved characteristics such as increased

text: thermal conductivity

text: .  Thermal conductivity of isotopically enriched diamonds is at a minimum when C and C are in a ratio of 1:1 and reaches a maximum when the composition is 100% C or 100% C.

text: Fullerenes can be considered radical scavengers. With a simple hydrocarbon radical such as the t-butyl radical obtained by thermolysis or photolysis from a suitable precursor the tBuC60 radical is formed that can be studied. The unpaired electron does not delocalize over the entire sphere but takes up positions in the vicinity of the tBu substituent.

text: Fullerenes can be considered

text: radical scavenger

text: s. With a simple hydrocarbon radical such as the

text: t-butyl

text: radical obtained by

text: thermolysis

text: or

text: photolysis

text: from a suitable precursor the tBuC60 radical is formed that can be studied. The unpaired electron does not delocalize over the entire sphere but takes up positions in the vicinity of the tBu substituent.

text: Soot is composed of a complex mixture of organic compounds which are weakly absorbing in the visible spectral region and a highly absorbing black component which is variously called “elemental”, “graphitic” or “black carbon”. The term elemental carbon has been used in conjunction with thermal and wet chemical determinations and the term  graphitic carbon suggests the presence  of graphite-like micro-crystalline structures in soot as evidenced by Raman Spectroscopy.  The term black carbon is used to imply that this soot component is primarily responsible for the absorption of visible light.  The term black carbon is used as a synonym for both the elemental and graphitic component of soot. It can be measured using different types of devices based on absorption or dispersion of a light beam or derived from noise measurements.

text: Soot is composed of a complex mixture of organic compounds which are weakly absorbing in the visible spectral region and a highly absorbing black component which is variously called “elemental”, “graphitic” or “black carbon”. The term elemental carbon has been used in conjunction with thermal and wet chemical determinations and the term  graphitic carbon suggests the presence  of

text: graphite

text: -like micro-crystalline structures in soot as evidenced by

text: Raman Spectroscopy

text: .  The term black carbon is used to imply that this soot component is primarily responsible for the absorption of visible light.  The term black carbon is used as a synonym for both the elemental and graphitic component of soot. It can be measured using different types of devices based on absorption or dispersion of a light beam or derived from noise measurements.

text: Graphite (), archaically referred to as plumbago, is a crystalline form of carbon, a semimetal, a native element mineral, and one of the allotropes of carbon. Graphite is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds.

text: Graphite (), archaically referred to as plumbago, is a

text: crystalline

text: form of

text: carbon

text: , a

text: semimetal

text: , a

text: native element mineral

text: , and one of the

text: allotropes of carbon

text: . Graphite is the most stable form of carbon under

entity_name: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: standard conditions

text: . Therefore, it is used in

text: thermochemistry

text: as the

text: standard state

text: for defining the

text: heat of formation

text: of carbon compounds.

text: Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in China, India, Brazil and North Korea. Graphite deposits are of metamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in schists, gneisses and metamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water.

text: Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in

text: China

text: India

text: Brazil

text: and

text: North Korea

text: . Graphite deposits are of

text: metamorphic

text: origin, found in association with

text: quartz

text: mica

text: and

text: feldspar

text: s in schists,

text: gneiss

text: es and metamorphosed

text: sandstone

text: s and

text: limestone

text: as

text: lenses

text: or

text: veins

text: , sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in

text: Borrowdale

text: Cumberland

text: England

text: were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century,

text: pencil

text: s were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water.

text: Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon is abundant in the Sun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres of most planets. Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk. Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts.

text: Carbon is the

text: fourth most abundant chemical element

text: in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon is abundant in the

text: Sun

text: star

text: s,

text: comet

text: s, and in the

text: atmospheres

text: of most

text: planet

text: s. Some

text: meteorite

text: s contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the

text: solar system

text: was still a

text: protoplanetary disk

text: . Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts.

text: Carbon is the building block of a myriad of organic and inorganic matter around us. It is a versatile atom capable of joining to other atoms in sp, sp, and sp hybridized structures giving rise to millions of stable molecules. In its single element form, it has a number of allotropes (polymorphs) like diamond, graphite, and fullerenes with different properties ranging from extremely hard to very soft scope. Carbon can be made to form tubular microstructure called filament or fiber. The unique properties of carbon fibers have expanded the science and technology of composite materials in recent decades.

text: Carbon

text: is the building block of a myriad of organic and inorganic matter around us. It is a versatile atom capable of joining to other atoms in sp, sp, and sp hybridized structures giving rise to millions of stable molecules. In its single element form, it has a number of

text: allotrope

text: s (polymorphs) like

text: diamond

text: graphite

text: , and

text: fullerene

text: s with different properties ranging from extremely hard to very soft scope. Carbon can be made to form tubular microstructure called filament or

text: fiber

text: . The unique properties of carbon fibers have expanded the science and technology of

text: composite material

text: s in recent decades.

text: Combining the names of functional groups with the names of the parent alkanes generates what is termed a systematic nomenclature for naming organic compounds. In traditional nomenclature, the first carbon atom after the carbon that attaches to the functional group is called the alpha carbon; the second, beta carbon, the third, gamma carbon, etc. If there is another functional group at a carbon, it may be named with the Greek letter, e.g., the gamma-amine in gamma-aminobutyric acid is on the third carbon of the carbon chain attached to the carboxylic acid group. IUPAC conventions call for numeric labeling of the position, e.g. 4-aminobutanoic acid. In traditional names various qualifiers are used to label isomers, for example isopropanol (IUPAC name: propan-2-ol) is an isomer is n-propanol (propan-1-ol).

text: Combining the names of functional groups with the names of the parent

text: alkane

text: s generates what is termed a

text: systematic nomenclature

text: for naming

text: organic compound

text: s. In traditional nomenclature, the first

text: carbon

text: atom after the carbon that attaches to the functional group is called the

text: alpha carbon

text: ; the second, beta carbon, the third, gamma carbon, etc. If there is another functional group at a carbon, it may be named with the Greek letter, e.g., the gamma-amine in

text: gamma-aminobutyric acid

text: is on the third carbon of the carbon chain attached to the carboxylic acid group. IUPAC conventions call for numeric labeling of the position, e.g. 4-aminobutanoic acid. In traditional names various qualifiers are used to label isomers, for example isopropanol (IUPAC name: propan-2-ol) is an isomer is n-propanol (propan-1-ol).

text: Due to its high specific surface area and its unbalanced negative charges, clay is the most active mineral component of soil. It is a colloidal and most often a crystalline material. In soils, clay is a soil textural class and is defined in a physical sense as any mineral particle less than  in effective diameter. Many soil minerals, such as gypsum, carbonates, or quartz, are small enough to be classified as clay based on their physical size, but chemically they do not afford the same utility as do clay minerals. Chemically, clay is a range of minerals with certain reactive properties.

text: Irradiation of diamond by high-energy particles (electrons, ions, neutrons or gamma rays) produces vacancies in the diamond lattice by ejecting carbon atoms. Those vacancies produce green color centers in pure transparent diamond and yellow-green color in yellow diamonds. The color of yellow diamonds results from small numbers of nitrogen atoms replacing carbon in the lattice. Heating the irradiated diamonds to temperatures above 600 °C results in brown color associated with aggregation of the vacancies, with or without nitrogen involved.

text: Irradiation of diamond by high-energy particles (

text: electron

text: s,

text: ion

text: s,

text: neutron

text: s or

text: gamma ray

text: s) produces

text: vacancies

text: in the diamond lattice by ejecting carbon atoms. Those vacancies produce green

text: color centers

text: in pure transparent diamond and yellow-green color in yellow diamonds. The color of yellow diamonds results from small numbers of nitrogen atoms replacing carbon in the lattice. Heating the irradiated diamonds to temperatures above 600 °C results in brown color associated with aggregation of the vacancies, with or without nitrogen involved.

text: Crystallins are separated into two classes: taxon-specific, or enzyme, and ubiquitous. The latter class constitutes the major proteins of vertebrate eye lens and maintains the transparency and refractive index of the lens. Since lens central fiber cells lose their nuclei during development, these crystallins are made and then retained throughout life, making them extremely stable proteins. Mammalian lens crystallins are divided into alpha, beta, and gamma families; beta and gamma crystallins are also considered as a superfamily. Alpha and beta families are further divided into acidic and basic groups.

text: Crystallin

text: s are separated into two classes: taxon-specific, or enzyme, and ubiquitous. The latter class constitutes the major proteins of vertebrate eye lens and maintains the transparency and refractive index of the lens. Since lens central fiber cells lose their nuclei during development, these crystallins are made and then retained throughout life, making them extremely stable proteins. Mammalian lens crystallins are divided into alpha, beta, and gamma families; beta and gamma crystallins are also considered as a superfamily. Alpha and beta families are further divided into acidic and basic groups.

text: Prebaked anodes are divided into graphitized and coke types. For manufacturing of the graphitized anodes, anthracite and petroleum coke are calcined and classified. They are then mixed with coal-tar pitch and pressed. The pressed green anode is then baked at 1200 °C and graphitized. Coke anodes are made of calcined petroleum coke, recycled anode butts, and coal-tar pitch (binder). The anodes are manufactured by mixing aggregates with coal tar pitch to form a paste with a doughy consistency. This material is most often vibro-compacted but in some plants pressed. The green anode is then sintered at 1100–1200 °C for 300–400 hours, without graphitization, to increase its strength through decomposition and carbonization of the binder. Higher baking temperatures increase the mechanical properties and thermal conductivity, and decrease the air and CO reactivity. The specific electrical resistance of the coke-type anodes is higher than that of the graphitized ones, but they have higher compressive strength and lower porosity.

text: Prebaked anodes

text: are divided into graphitized and coke types. For manufacturing of the graphitized anodes, anthracite and petroleum coke are calcined and classified. They are then mixed with coal-tar pitch and pressed. The pressed green anode is then baked at 1200 °C and graphitized. Coke anodes are made of calcined petroleum coke, recycled anode butts, and coal-tar pitch (binder). The anodes are manufactured by mixing aggregates with coal tar pitch to form a paste with a doughy consistency. This material is most often vibro-compacted but in some plants pressed. The green anode is then sintered at 1100–1200 °C for 300–400 hours, without graphitization, to increase its strength through decomposition and carbonization of the binder. Higher baking temperatures increase the mechanical properties and thermal conductivity, and decrease the air and CO reactivity. The specific electrical resistance of the coke-type anodes is higher than that of the graphitized ones, but they have higher compressive strength and lower porosity.

text: Most important is the interaction of vacancies and interstitials with nitrogen. Carbon interstitials react with substitutional nitrogen producing a bond-centered nitrogen interstitial showing strong IR absorption at 1450 cm. Vacancies are efficiently trapped by the A, B and C nitrogen centers. The trapping rate is the highest for the C centers, 8 times lower for the A centers and 30 times lower for the B centers. The C center (single nitrogen) by trapping a vacancy forms the famous nitrogen-vacancy center, which can be neutral or negatively charged; the negatively charged state has potential applications in quantum computing. A and B centers upon trapping a vacancy create corresponding 2N-V (H3 and H2 centers, where H2 is simply a negatively charged H3 center) and the neutral 4N-2V (H4 center). The H2, H3 and H4 centers are important because they are present in many natural diamonds and their optical absorption can be strong enough to alter the diamond color (H3 or H4 – yellow, H2 – green).

text: Most important is the interaction of vacancies and interstitials with nitrogen. Carbon interstitials react with substitutional nitrogen producing a bond-centered nitrogen interstitial showing strong IR absorption at 1450 cm. Vacancies are efficiently trapped by the A, B and C nitrogen centers. The trapping rate is the highest for the C centers, 8 times lower for the A centers and 30 times lower for the B centers. The C center (single nitrogen) by trapping a vacancy forms the famous

text: nitrogen-vacancy center

text: , which can be neutral or negatively charged; the negatively charged state has potential applications in

text: quantum computing

text: . A and B centers upon trapping a vacancy create corresponding 2N-V (H3 and H2 centers, where H2 is simply a negatively charged H3 center) and the neutral 4N-2V (H4 center). The H2, H3 and H4 centers are important because they are present in many natural diamonds and their optical absorption can be strong enough to alter the diamond color (H3 or H4 – yellow, H2 – green).

text: Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar), also called simple sugars, are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are fundamental units of carbohydrates and cannot be further hydrolised to simpler compounds. The general formula is . They are the simplest form of sugar and are usually colorless, water-soluble, and crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose) and galactose. Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch). Further, each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group (so, all of the carbons except for the primary and terminal carbon) is chiral, giving rise to a number of isomeric forms, all with the same chemical formula. For instance, galactose and glucose are both aldohexoses, but have different physical structures and chemical properties.

text: Monosaccharides (from

text: Greek

text: monos

text: : single, sacchar: sugar), also called simple sugars, are the most basic units of

text: carbohydrate

text: s. They are fundamental units of carbohydrates and cannot be further hydrolised to simpler compounds. The general formula is . They are the simplest form of

text: sugar

text: and are usually

text: colorless

text: water

text: soluble

text: , and

text: crystal

text: line solids. Some monosaccharides have a

text: sweet taste

text: . Examples of monosaccharides include

text: glucose

text: (dextrose),

text: fructose

text: (levulose) and

text: galactose

text: . Monosaccharides are the building blocks of

text: disaccharide

text: s (such as

text: sucrose

text: and

text: lactose

text: ) and

text: polysaccharide

text: s (such as

text: cellulose

text: and

text: starch

text: ). Further, each

text: carbon

text: atom that supports a

text: hydroxyl

text: group (so, all of the carbons except for the primary and terminal carbon) is

text: chiral

text: , giving rise to a number of

text: isomer

text: ic forms, all with the same chemical formula. For instance, galactose and glucose are both

text: aldohexose

text: s, but have different physical structures and chemical properties.

text: Carbon is the chemical element with atomic number 6, occurring as C, C and C. At standard temperature and pressure, carbon is a solid, occurring in many different allotropes, the most common of which are graphite, diamond, the fullerenes and amorphous carbon. Graphite is a soft, hexagonal crystalline, opaque black semimetal with very good conductive and thermodynamically stable properties. Diamond however is a highly transparent colourless cubic crystal with poor conductive properties, is the hardest known naturally occurring mineral and has the highest refractive index of all gemstones. In contrast to the crystal lattice structure of diamond and graphite, the fullerenes are molecules, named after Richard Buckminster Fuller whose architecture the molecules resemble. There are several different fullerenes, the most widely known being the "buckeyball" C. Little is known about the fullerenes and they are a current subject of research. There is also amorphous carbon, which is carbon without any crystalline structure. In mineralogy, the term is used to refer to soot and coal, although these are not truly amorphous as they contain small amounts of graphite or diamond. Carbon's most common isotope at 98.9% is C, with six protons and six neutrons. C is also stable, with six protons and seven neutrons, at 1.1%. Trace amounts of C also occur naturally but this isotope is radioactive and decays with a half life of 5730 years; it is used for radiocarbon dating. Other isotopes of carbon have also been synthesised. Carbon forms covalent bonds with other non-metals with an oxidation state of −4, −2, +2 or +4.

text: Carbon is the chemical element with atomic number 6, occurring as C, C and C. At standard temperature and pressure, carbon is a solid, occurring in

text: many different allotropes

text: , the most common of which are

text: graphite

text: diamond

text: , the

text: fullerenes

text: and

text: amorphous carbon

text: . Graphite is a soft,

text: hexagonal crystalline

text: , opaque black

text: semimetal

text: with very good

text: conductive

text: and

text: thermodynamically stable

text: properties. Diamond however is a highly

text: transparent

text: colourless

text: cubic crystal

text: with poor conductive properties, is the

text: hardest known naturally occurring mineral

text: and has the highest

text: refractive index

text: of all

text: gemstones

text: . In contrast to the

text: crystal lattice

text: structure of diamond and graphite, the

text: fullerenes

text: are

text: molecules

text: , named after

text: Richard Buckminster Fuller

text: whose architecture the molecules resemble. There are several different fullerenes, the most widely known being the "buckeyball" C. Little is known about the fullerenes and they are a current subject of research. There is also amorphous carbon, which is carbon without any crystalline structure. In

text: mineralogy

text: , the term is used to refer to

text: soot

text: and

text: coal

text: , although these are not truly amorphous as they contain small amounts of graphite or diamond. Carbon's most common isotope at 98.9% is C, with six protons and six neutrons. C is also stable, with six protons and seven neutrons, at 1.1%. Trace amounts of C also occur naturally but this

text: isotope is radioactive

text: and decays with a half life of 5730 years; it is used for

text: radiocarbon dating

text: . Other

text: isotopes of carbon

text: have also been synthesised. Carbon forms covalent bonds with other non-metals with an oxidation state of −4, −2, +2 or +4.

text: Diamond Matter is the fusion combination of Diamondhead and Grey Matter's DNA. Diamond Matter is slightly bigger than Grey Matter. Diamond Matter had Diamondhead's crystalline skin. He also had Diamondhead's spikes on his back and the back of his head. Diamond Matter had Grey Matter's eyes and mouth. Diamond Matter wore a uniform that was white with black cuffs on the left and black with white cuffs on the right. Diamond Matter wore the Omnitrix symbol on his chest.

text: Graphite is structurally composed of planes of polycyclic carbon atoms that are hexagonal in orientation. The distance of carbon atoms between planes is longer and therefore the bonding is weaker.

text: A more recent advance pioneered by Intel and ST Microelectronics allows the material state to be more carefully controlled, allowing it to be transformed into one of four distinct states; the previous amorphic or crystalline states, along with two new partially crystalline ones. Each of these states has different electrical properties that can be measured during reads, allowing a single cell to represent two bits, doubling memory density.

text: A more recent advance pioneered by

text: Intel

text: and

text: ST Microelectronics

text: allows the material state to be more carefully controlled, allowing it to be transformed into one of four distinct states; the previous amorphic or crystalline states, along with two new partially crystalline ones. Each of these states has different electrical properties that can be measured during reads, allowing a single cell to represent two bits, doubling memory density.

text: When an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.8–2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm, respectively.

text: When an element has

text: allotrope

text: s with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of

text: carbon

text: amorphous carbon

text: graphite

text: , and

text: diamond

text: ) have densities of 1.8–2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm, respectively.

text: Carbon neutrality, or having a net zero carbon footprint, refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset, or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference. It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation, energy production, and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel.

text: Carbon neutrality, or having a net zero carbon footprint, refers to achieving net zero

text: carbon emissions

text: by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset, or buying enough

text: carbon credits

text: to make up the difference. It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation, energy production, and industrial processes such as production of

text: carbon neutral fuel

text: Through studies of carbon isotope ratios (similar to the methodology used in carbon dating, except with the stable isotopes C-12 and C-13), it has been shown that the carbon found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known as harzburgitic, are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth's mantle. In contrast, eclogitic diamonds contain organic carbon from organic detritus that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's crust through subduction (see plate tectonics) before transforming into diamond. These two different source of carbon have measurably different C:C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the Earth's surface are generally quite old, ranging from under 1 billion to 3.3 billion years old. This is 22% to 73% of the age of the Earth.

text: Through studies of carbon

text: isotope

text: ratios (similar to the methodology used in

text: carbon dating

text: , except with the

text: stable isotope

text: s

text: and

text: ), it has been shown that the carbon found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known as

text: harzburgitic

text: , are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth's mantle. In contrast,

text: eclogitic

text: diamonds contain organic carbon from organic

text: detritus

text: that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's

text: crust

text: through

text: subduction

text: (see

text: plate tectonics

text: ) before transforming into diamond. These two different source of carbon have measurably different C:C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the Earth's surface are generally quite old, ranging from under 1

text: billion

text: to 3.3 billion years old. This is 22% to 73% of the age of the

text: Earth

text: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either mitigate or defer global warming and avoid dangerous climate change. It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which are released by burning fossil fuels.

text: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in

text: carbon capture

text: and the long-term storage of

text: atmospheric carbon dioxide

text: . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of

text: carbon dioxide

text: or other forms of

text: carbon

text: to either

text: mitigate or defer global warming

text: and

text: avoid dangerous climate change

text: . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es, which are released by burning

text: fossil fuel

text: s.

text: Q-carbon is amorphous (non-crystalline), and while it has mixed sp and sp bonding, it is mostly sp which lead to its unique hardness, electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Q-carbon is harder than diamond by 10-20% because carbon is metallic in the molten state and it gets closely packed with C-C bond length smaller than that in diamond. Unlike all other known forms of carbon, Q-carbon is ferromagnetic with a saturation magnetization of 20 emu/g and an estimated Curie temperature of approximately 500 K. Depending on the quenching rate from the super undercooled state, Q-carbon can be semiconductor or metallic. Q-carbon glows more than diamond when exposed to even low levels of energetic radiation, because of higher negative electron affinity than diamond. Similar results have been obtained for boron nitride, including discovery of Q-BN and direct conversion of h-BN into c-BN (cousin to diamond) at room-temperature and atmospheric pressure in air. This is even more significant for BN, as CVD and PVD processes do not yield phase-pure or doped BN.

text: Q-carbon is amorphous (non-crystalline), and while it has mixed sp and sp bonding, it is mostly sp which lead to its unique hardness, electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Q-carbon is harder than diamond by 10-20% because carbon is metallic in the molten state and it gets closely packed with C-C bond length smaller than that in diamond. Unlike all other known forms of carbon, Q-carbon is

text: ferromagnetic

text: with a saturation magnetization of 20 emu/g and an estimated

text: Curie temperature

text: of approximately 500 K. Depending on the quenching rate from the super undercooled state, Q-carbon can be semiconductor or metallic. Q-carbon glows more than diamond when exposed to even low levels of energetic radiation, because of higher negative electron affinity than diamond. Similar results have been obtained for boron nitride, including discovery of Q-BN and direct conversion of h-BN into c-BN (cousin to diamond) at room-temperature and atmospheric pressure in air. This is even more significant for BN, as CVD and PVD processes do not yield phase-pure or doped BN.

text: Beta and gamma- crystallin form a separate family. Structurally, beta and gamma crystallins are composed of two similar domains which, in turn, are each composed of two similar motifs with the two domains connected by a short connecting peptide. Each motif, which is about forty amino acid residues long, is folded in a distinctive Greek key pattern. However, beta crystallin is an oligomer, composed of a complex group of molecules, whereas gamma crystallin is a simpler monomer.

text: Beta and gamma- crystallin form a separate family. Structurally, beta and gamma crystallins are composed of two similar domains which, in turn, are each composed of two similar

text: motifs

text: with the two domains connected by a short connecting

text: peptide

text: . Each motif, which is about forty amino acid residues long, is folded in a distinctive

text: Greek key pattern

text: . However, beta crystallin is an

text: oligomer

text: , composed of a complex group of molecules, whereas gamma crystallin is a simpler

text: monomer

text: Historically, the most common material for the tubes of a bicycle frame has been steel. Steel frames can be made of varying grades of steel, from very inexpensive carbon steel to more costly and higher quality chromium molybdenum steel alloys. Frames can also be made from aluminum alloys, titanium, carbon fiber, and even bamboo and cardboard. Occasionally, diamond (shaped) frames have been formed from sections other than tubes. These include I-beams and monocoque. Materials that have been used in these frames include wood (solid or laminate), magnesium (cast I-beams), and thermoplastic. Several properties of a material help decide whether it is appropriate in the construction of a bicycle frame:

text: Historically, the most common material for the tubes of a bicycle frame has been

text: steel

text: . Steel frames can be made of varying grades of steel, from very inexpensive carbon steel to more costly and higher quality chromium molybdenum steel

text: alloy

text: s. Frames can also be made from

text: aluminum alloys

text: titanium

text: carbon fiber

text: , and even

text: bamboo

text: and

text: cardboard

text: . Occasionally, diamond (shaped) frames have been formed from sections other than tubes. These include

text: I-beam

text: s and

text: monocoque

text: . Materials that have been used in these frames include

text: wood

text: (solid or

text: laminate

text: magnesium

text: cast

text: I-beams), and

text: thermoplastic

text: . Several properties of a material help decide whether it is appropriate in the construction of a bicycle frame:

text: Graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon. Contrary to popular belief, high-purity graphite does not readily burn, even at elevated temperatures. For this reason, it is used in nuclear reactors and for high-temperature crucibles for melting metals. At very high temperatures and pressures (roughly 2000 °C and 5 GPa), it can be transformed into diamond.

text: Graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon. Contrary to popular belief, high-purity graphite does not readily burn, even at elevated temperatures. For this reason, it is used in

text: nuclear reactor

text: s and for high-temperature crucibles for melting metals. At very high temperatures and pressures (roughly 2000 °C and 5 GPa), it can be transformed into diamond.

text: The body for the Q1 has been redesigned with total carbon-kevlar body, a new front end, large integrated air intakes and ram air side window ducts. A rear carbon-kevlar diffuser, in conjunction with the flat under tray, creates downforce on the chassis for high speed grip and stability. Other improvements over the M400 include power windows, remote power side mirrors, LCD touch-screen management system, back up camera, WiFi with bluetooth compatibility, smart phone link and center mounted wide screen entertainment system. Based on the Rossion website the Rossion Q1 will be available with unlimited body colors, but popular pantones are named and coordinated for national racing colors and famous race circuits around the world. The interior has also been redesigned to be intuitive and comfortable but without extraneous features consisting of high grade leather, alcantara and diamond stitching options.

text: The body for the Q1 has been redesigned with total carbon-kevlar body, a new front end, large integrated air

text: intake

text: s and

text: ram air

text: side window ducts. A rear carbon-kevlar

text: diffuser

text: , in conjunction with the flat under tray, creates

text: downforce

text: on the

text: chassis

text: for high speed grip and stability. Other improvements over the M400 include power windows, remote power side mirrors, LCD touch-screen management system, back up camera, WiFi with bluetooth compatibility, smart phone link and center mounted wide screen entertainment system. Based on the Rossion website the Rossion Q1 will be available with unlimited body colors, but popular pantones are named and coordinated for national racing colors and famous race circuits around the world. The interior has also been redesigned to be intuitive and comfortable but without extraneous features consisting of high grade leather, alcantara and diamond stitching options.

text: NORM characteristics vary depending on the nature of the waste. NORM may be created in a crystalline form, which is brittle and thin, and can cause flaking to occur in tubulars. NORM formed in carbonate matrix can have a density of 3.5 grams/cubic centimeters and must be noted when packing for transportation. NORM scales may be white or a brown solid, or thick sludge to solid, dry flaky substances.

text: Antimony tribromide has two crystalline forms, both having orthorhombic symmetries. When a warm carbon disulfide solution of SbBr is rapidly cooled, it crystallizes into the needle-like α-SbBr, which then slowly converts to the more stable β form.

text: Antimony tribromide has two crystalline forms, both having

text: orthorhombic

text: symmetries. When a warm

text: carbon disulfide

text: solution of SbBr is rapidly cooled, it crystallizes into the needle-like α-SbBr, which then slowly converts to the more stable β form.

text: A review of works on fullerene toxicity by Lalwani et al. found little evidence that C is toxic. The toxicity of these carbon nanoparticles varies with dose, duration, type (e.g., C, C, M@C, M@C, functional groups used to water-solubilize these nanoparticles (e.g., OH, COOH), and method of administration (e.g., intravenous, intraperitoneal).  The authors recommended that the pharmacology of each fullerene- or metallofullerene-based complex be assessed as a different compound.

text: Halogen treatment at temperatures between 200 and 1000 °C has been shown to yield mostly disordered porous carbons with a porosity between 50 and ~80 vol% depending on the precursor. Temperatures above 1000 °C result in predominantly graphitic carbon and an observed shrinkage of the material due to graphitization.

text: The most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back into antiquity, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are carat (its weight), cut (quality of the cut is graded according to proportions, symmetry and polish), color (how close to white or colorless; for fancy diamonds how intense is its hue), and clarity (how free is it from inclusions). A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.

text: The most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for

text: adornment

text: , a use which dates back into antiquity, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. The

text: dispersion

text: of white light into

text: spectral color

text: s is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are

text: carat

text: (its weight),

text: cut

text: (quality of the cut is graded according to

text: proportions

text: symmetry

text: and

text: polish

text: color

text: (how close to white or colorless; for fancy diamonds how intense is its hue), and

text: clarity

text: (how free is it from

text: inclusions

text: ). A large, flawless diamond is known as a

text: paragon

text: Many materials, such as glass-ceramics and some polymers, can be prepared in such a way as to produce a mixture of crystalline and amorphous regions. In such cases, crystallinity is usually specified as a percentage of the volume of the material that is crystalline. Even within materials that are completely crystalline, however, the degree of structural perfection can vary. For instance, most metallic alloys are crystalline, but they usually comprise many independent crystalline regions (grains or crystallites) in various orientations separated by grain boundaries; furthermore, they contain other crystallographic defects (notably dislocations) that reduce the degree of structural perfection. The most highly perfect crystals are silicon boules produced for semiconductor electronics; these are large single crystals (so they have no grain boundaries), are nearly free of dislocations, and have precisely controlled concentrations of defect atoms.

text: Many materials, such as

text: glass-ceramic

text: s and some

text: polymer

text: s, can be prepared in such a way as to produce a mixture of crystalline and

text: amorphous

text: regions. In such cases, crystallinity is usually specified as a percentage of the volume of the material that is crystalline. Even within materials that are completely crystalline, however, the degree of structural perfection can vary. For instance, most metallic

text: alloy

text: s are crystalline, but they usually comprise many independent crystalline regions (grains or

text: crystallite

text: s) in various orientations separated by

text: grain boundaries

text: ; furthermore, they contain other

text: crystallographic defect

text: s (notably

text: dislocation

text: s) that reduce the degree of structural perfection. The most highly perfect crystals are silicon

text: boules

text: produced for semiconductor electronics; these are large

text: single crystal

text: s (so they have no grain boundaries), are nearly free of dislocations, and have precisely controlled concentrations of defect atoms.

text: Today, fly rods are mainly made from carbon fiber/graphite with cork or, less frequently, hypalon being favored for the grip.  Such rods generally offer greater stiffness than bamboo, are much more consistent and less expensive to manufacture, and require less maintenance.  Fiberglass was popular for rods constructed in the years following World War II and was the "material of choice" for many years.  However, by the late 1980s, carbon/graphite composite rods (including premium graphite/boron and graphite/titanium blends) had emerged as the materials used by most fly rod manufacturers. These premium rods offer a stiffness, sensitivity, and feel unmatched by any other synthetic material. Graphite composites are especially well-suited to the construction of multi-piece rods since the joints, known as ferrules, in better-quality graphite rods do not significantly affect overall flex or rod action.  Today's modern carbon graphite composite fly rods are available in a wide range of sizes and types, from ultralight trout rods to bass fishing rods and two-handed "spey" rods.

text: Today, fly rods are mainly made from

text: carbon fiber

text: graphite

text: with

text: cork

text: or, less frequently,

text: hypalon

text: being favored for the grip.  Such rods generally offer greater stiffness than bamboo, are much more consistent and less expensive to manufacture, and require less maintenance.

text: Fiberglass

text: was popular for rods constructed in the years following

text: World War II

text: and was the "material of choice" for many years.  However, by the late 1980s, carbon/graphite composite rods (including premium graphite/

text: boron

text: and graphite/

text: titanium

text: blends) had emerged as the materials used by most fly rod manufacturers. These premium rods offer a stiffness, sensitivity, and feel unmatched by any other synthetic material. Graphite composites are especially well-suited to the construction of multi-piece rods since the joints, known as

text: ferrule

text: s, in better-quality graphite rods do not significantly affect overall flex or rod action.  Today's modern carbon graphite composite fly rods are available in a wide range of sizes and types, from ultralight trout rods to bass fishing rods and two-handed "spey" rods.

text: The discoverers of the Buckminsterfullerene (C) allotrope of carbon named it after Richard Buckminster Fuller, a noted architectural modeler who popularized the geodesic dome. Since buckminsterfullerenes have a similar shape to those of such domes, they thought the name appropriate.<br>As the discovery of the fullerene family came after buckminsterfullerene, the shortened name 'fullerene' is used to refer to the family of fullerenes. The suffix "-ene" indicates that each C atom is covalently bonded to three others (instead of the maximum of four), a situation that classically would correspond to the existence of bonds involving two pairs of electrons ("double bonds").

text: The discoverers of the

text: Buckminsterfullerene

text: (C)

text: allotrope

text: of

text: carbon

text: named it after

text: Richard Buckminster Fuller

text: , a noted architectural modeler who popularized the

text: geodesic dome

text: . Since buckminsterfullerenes have a similar shape to those of such domes, they thought the name appropriate.<br>As the discovery of the fullerene family came after buckminsterfullerene, the shortened name 'fullerene' is used to refer to the family of fullerenes. The suffix "-ene" indicates that each C atom is covalently bonded to three others (instead of the maximum of four), a situation that classically would correspond to the existence of bonds involving two pairs of electrons ("

text: double bond

text: s").

text: Unlike spectroscopic methods, X-ray crystallography always allows for unambiguous structure determination and provides precise bond angles and lengths totally unavailable through spectroscopy. It is often used in physical organic chemistry to provide an absolute molecular configuration and is an important tool in improving the synthesis of a pure enantiomeric substance. It is also the only way to identify the position and bonding of elements that lack an NMR active nucleus such as oxygen. Indeed, before x-ray structural determination methods were made available in the early 20th century all organic structures were entirely conjectural: tetrahedral carbon, for example, was only confirmed by the crystal structure of diamond, and the delocalized structure of benzene was confirmed by the crystal structure of hexamethylbenzene. While crystallography provides organic chemists with highly satisfying data, it is not an everyday technique in organic chemistry because a perfect single crystal of a target compound must be grown. Only complex molecules, for which NMR data cannot be unambiguously interpreted, require this technique. In the example below, the structure of the host-guest complex would have been quite difficult to solve without a single crystal structure: there are no protons on the fullerene, and with no covalent bonds between the two halves of the organic complex spectroscopy alone was unable to prove the hypothesized structure.

text: Unlike spectroscopic methods,

text: X-ray crystallography

text: always allows for unambiguous structure determination and provides precise bond angles and lengths totally unavailable through spectroscopy. It is often used in physical organic chemistry to provide an absolute

text: molecular configuration

text: and is an important tool in improving the synthesis of a pure

text: enantiomeric

text: substance. It is also the only way to identify the position and bonding of elements that lack an

text: NMR

text: active

text: nucleus

text: such as

text: oxygen

text: . Indeed, before x-ray structural determination methods were made available in the early 20th century all organic structures were entirely conjectural:

text: tetrahedral

text: carbon

text: , for example, was only confirmed by the

text: crystal structure

text: of

text: diamond

text: , and the delocalized structure of benzene was confirmed by the

text: crystal structure

text: of

text: hexamethylbenzene

text: . While

text: crystallography

text: provides organic chemists with highly satisfying data, it is not an everyday technique in organic chemistry because a perfect

text: single crystal

text: of a target compound must be grown. Only complex molecules, for which NMR data cannot be unambiguously interpreted, require this technique. In the example below, the structure of the host-guest complex would have been quite difficult to solve without a single crystal structure: there are no protons on the

text: fullerene

text: , and with no covalent bonds between the two halves of the organic complex spectroscopy alone was unable to prove the hypothesized structure.

text: A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of a clam, a pearl is composed of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other shapes  (baroque pearls) occur. The finest quality natural pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects of beauty for many centuries. Because of this, pearl has become a metaphor for something rare, fine, admirable and valuable.

text: A pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the

text: mantle

text: ) of a living

text: shell

text: ed

text: mollusk

text: . Just like the shell of a clam, a pearl is composed of

text: calcium carbonate

text: in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other shapes  (

text: baroque pearl

text: s) occur. The finest quality natural pearls have been highly valued as

text: gemstone

text: s and objects of

text: beauty

text: for many centuries. Because of this, pearl has become a

text: metaphor

text: for something rare, fine, admirable and valuable.

text: The rocks in question are part of a metamorphosed supracrustal sequence located at the south-western tip of the island. The sequence has been dated as no younger than 3.85 billion years old - that is,  in the Hadean eon - based on the age of an igneous band that cuts the rock.  The supracrustal sequence contains layers rich in iron and silica, which are variously interpreted as banded iron formation, chemical sediments from submarine hot springs, or hydrothermal vein deposits. Carbon in the rock, present as graphite, shows low levels of carbon-13, which may suggest an origin as isotopically light organic matter derived from living organisms.  However, this interpretation is complicated because of high-grade metamorphism that  affected the Akilia rocks after their formation. The sedimentary origin, age and the carbon content of the rocks have been questioned.

text: The rocks in question are part of a

text: metamorphosed

text: supracrustal

text: sequence located at the south-western tip of the island. The sequence has been dated as no younger than 3.85 billion years old - that is,  in the

text: Hadean

text: eon - based on the age of an

text: igneous

text: band that cuts the rock.  The supracrustal sequence contains layers rich in

text: iron

text: and

text: silica

text: , which are variously interpreted as

text: banded iron formation

text: , chemical sediments from

text: submarine hot springs

text: , or

text: hydrothermal

text: vein deposits.

text: Carbon

text: in the rock, present as

text: graphite

text: , shows low levels of

text: , which may suggest an origin as

text: isotopically

text: light organic matter derived from living organisms.  However, this interpretation is complicated because of high-grade

text: metamorphism

text: that  affected the Akilia rocks after their formation. The sedimentary origin, age and the carbon content of the rocks have been questioned.

text: Noble gases can also form endohedral fullerene compounds where the noble gas atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule.  In 1993, it was discovered that when C is exposed to a pressure of around 3 bar of He or Ne, the complexes He@C and Ne@C are formed.  Under these conditions, only about one out of every 650,000 C cages was doped with a helium atom; with higher pressures (3000 bar), it is possible to achieve a yield of up to 0.1%. Endohedral complexes with argon, krypton and xenon have also been obtained, as well as numerous adducts of He@C.

text: Noble gases can also form

text: endohedral fullerene

text: compounds where the noble gas atom is trapped inside a

text: fullerene

text: molecule.  In 1993, it was discovered that when C is exposed to a pressure of around 3

text: bar

text: of He or Ne, the complexes He@C and Ne@C are formed.  Under these conditions, only about one out of every 650,000 C cages was doped with a

text: helium

text: atom; with higher pressures (3000 bar), it is possible to achieve a yield of up to 0.1%. Endohedral complexes with

text: argon

text: krypton

text: and

text: xenon

text: have also been obtained, as well as numerous

text: adduct

text: s of He@C.

text: With Pierre-Simon Laplace, Lavoisier used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced. They found the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion. Lavoisier believed in the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical reaction, would combine with oxygen in reactions. He believed all acids contained oxygen. He also discovered that diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.

text: With

text: Pierre-Simon Laplace

text: , Lavoisier used a

text: calorimeter

text: to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced. They found the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion. Lavoisier believed in the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical reaction, would combine with oxygen in reactions. He believed all acids contained oxygen. He also discovered that

text: diamond

text: is a crystalline form of carbon.

text: This process was developed by Dr. Richard Smalley and co-workers at Rice University, who at the time of the discovery of carbon nanotubes, were blasting metals with a laser to produce various metal molecules. When they heard of the existence of nanotubes they replaced the metals with graphite to create multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Later that year the team used a composite of graphite and metal catalyst particles (the best yield was from a cobalt and nickel mixture) to synthesize single-walled carbon nanotubes.

text: This process was developed by Dr.

text: Richard Smalley

text: and co-workers at

text: Rice University

text: , who at the time of the discovery of carbon nanotubes, were blasting metals with a laser to produce various metal molecules. When they heard of the existence of nanotubes they replaced the metals with graphite to create multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Later that year the team used a composite of graphite and metal catalyst particles (the best yield was from a

text: cobalt

text: and

text: nickel

text: mixture) to synthesize single-walled carbon nanotubes.

text: Bone tissue is a mineralized connective tissue. It is formed by cells, called osteoblasts, that deposit a matrix of Type-I collagen and also release calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions that ultimately combine chemically within the collagenous matrix into a crystalline mineral, known as bone mineral, in the form of carbonated hydroxyapatite. The combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen makes bone harder and stronger than cartilage without being brittle. Cortical bone consists of a repeating structure called an osteon or haversian system, which is the primary anatomical and functional unit. Each osteon has concentric lamellae (layers) of mineralized matrix, which are deposited around a central canal, known as the haversian canal, each containing blood and nerve supply.

text: Bone tissue is a

text: mineralized connective tissue

text: . It is formed by cells, called

text: osteoblast

text: s, that deposit a matrix of

text: Type-I collagen

text: and also release calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions that ultimately combine chemically within the collagenous matrix into a crystalline mineral, known as

text: bone mineral

text: , in the form of carbonated

text: hydroxyapatite

text: . The combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen makes bone harder and stronger than

text: cartilage

text: without being brittle. Cortical bone consists of a repeating structure called an

text: osteon

text: or haversian system, which is the primary anatomical and functional unit. Each osteon has concentric

text: lamellae

text: (layers) of mineralized matrix, which are deposited around a central canal, known as the

text: haversian canal

text: , each containing blood and nerve supply.

text: Each carbon atom in a diamond is covalently bonded to four other carbons in a tetrahedron. These tetrahedrons together form a 3-dimensional network of six-membered carbon rings (similar to cyclohexane), in the chair conformation, allowing for zero bond angle strain. This stable network of covalent bonds and hexagonal rings, is the reason that diamond is so strong.  Although graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon under standard laboratory conditions (273 or 298 K, 1 atm), a recent computational study indicated that under idealized conditions (T = 0, p = 0), diamond is the most stable allotrope by 1.1 kJ/mol compared to graphite.

text: Each carbon atom in a diamond is covalently bonded to four other carbons in a

text: tetrahedron

text: . These tetrahedrons together form a 3-dimensional network of six-membered carbon rings (similar to

text: cyclohexane

text: ), in the

text: chair conformation

text: , allowing for zero

text: bond angle

text: strain. This stable network of

text: covalent bonds

text: and hexagonal rings, is the reason that diamond is so strong.  Although graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon under standard laboratory conditions (273 or 298 K, 1 atm), a recent computational study indicated that under idealized conditions (T = 0, p = 0), diamond is the most stable allotrope by 1.1 kJ/mol compared to graphite.

text: Badminton racquets are lightweight, with top quality racquets weighing between  not including grip or strings. They are composed of many different materials ranging from carbon fibre composite (graphite reinforced plastic) to solid steel, which may be augmented by a variety of materials. Carbon fibre has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. Before the adoption of carbon fibre composite, racquets were made of light metals such as aluminum. Earlier still, racquets were made of wood. Cheap racquets are still often made of metals such as steel, but wooden racquets are no longer manufactured for the ordinary market, because of their excessive mass and cost. Nowadays, nanomaterials such as fullerene and carbon nanotubes are added to racquets giving them greater durability.

text: Badminton

text: racquets

text: are lightweight, with top quality racquets weighing between  not including grip or strings. They are composed of many different materials ranging from

text: carbon fibre composite

text: graphite reinforced plastic

text: ) to solid steel, which may be augmented by a variety of materials.

text: Carbon fibre

text: has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is stiff, and gives excellent

text: kinetic energy

text: transfer. Before the adoption of carbon fibre composite, racquets were made of light metals such as aluminum. Earlier still, racquets were made of wood. Cheap racquets are still often made of metals such as steel, but wooden racquets are no longer manufactured for the ordinary market, because of their excessive mass and cost. Nowadays, nanomaterials such as

text: fullerene

text: and

text: carbon nanotubes

text: are added to racquets giving them greater durability.

text: A zero carbon home has a yearly net carbon footprint of zero. The carbon footprint is the total measure of all greenhouse gas emissions generated or produced directly or indirectly by activities in the home such as heating the home or running an appliance, personal activities such as driving a car, broader services such as the use of public transportation or air travel, and individual consumption of food and other products. A home’s carbon footprint consists of the sum of two parts, the primary footprint and the secondary footprint, expressed in units of metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent(CO2e). The primary carbon footprint is a measure of the CO2 emissions from the direct consumption of fossil fuels for energy consumption and transportation. The secondary carbon footprint is the measure of indirect CO2 emissions related to the manufacturing process of products used in the home and eventual decomposition of products. Examples of the parts that make up the secondary carbon footprint are the manufacturing of clothes, cars, and furnishings, as well as recreational activities by the inhabitants.

text: A zero carbon home has a yearly net

text: carbon footprint

text: of zero. The carbon footprint is the total measure of all

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions generated or produced directly or indirectly by activities in the home such as heating the home or running an appliance, personal activities such as driving a car, broader services such as the use of

text: public transport

text: ation or

text: air travel

text: , and individual consumption of food and other products. A home’s carbon footprint consists of the sum of two parts, the primary footprint and the secondary footprint, expressed in units of metric tonnes of

text: carbon dioxide

text: equivalent(CO2e). The primary carbon footprint is a measure of the CO2 emissions from the direct consumption of

text: fossil fuel

text: s for

text: energy consumption

text: and transportation. The secondary carbon footprint is the measure of indirect CO2 emissions related to the manufacturing process of products used in the home and eventual decomposition of products. Examples of the parts that make up the secondary carbon footprint are the manufacturing of clothes, cars, and furnishings, as well as recreational activities by the inhabitants.

text: In addition, the SGL Group has an extensive service and distribution network with which it supplies its customers in approximately 100 countries worldwide. By opening further locations, e.g., the construction of the most state-of-the-art carbon and graphite hub in Banting/Selangor (Malaysia), where the foundations were laid at the end of March 2007, the company will further optimize service on a local basis.

text: In addition, the SGL Group has an extensive service and distribution network with which it supplies its customers in approximately 100 countries worldwide. By opening further locations, e.g., the construction of the most state-of-the-art carbon and graphite hub in

text: Banting

text: Selangor

text: (Malaysia), where the foundations were laid at the end of March 2007, the company will further optimize service on a local basis.

text: Natural graphite is derived from mining. The quality of natural graphite varies as a result of the ore quality and post-mining processing of the ore. The end product is graphite with a content of carbon (high grade graphite 96−98% carbon), sulfur, SiO and ash. The higher the carbon content and the degree of graphitization (high crystalline) the better the lubricity and resistance to oxidation.

text: Graphite particles can be corroded in molten salts to form a variety of carbon nanostructures including graphene. Hydrogen cations, dissolved in molten Lithium chloride, can be discharged on cathodically polarized graphite rods, which then intercalate into the graphite structure, peeling graphite to produce graphene. The graphene nanosheets produced displayed a single-crystalline structure with a lateral size of several hundred nanometers and a high degree of crystallinity and thermal stability.

text: The discovery of nanostructured carbon allotropes such as carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, or graphene promoted further developments. Oxidized carbon nanotubes were used to dehydrogenate n-butane to 1-butene, and to selectively oxidize acrolein to acrylic acid. Fullerenes were used in the catalytic reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline in the presence of H. Graphene oxide was used as a carbocatalyst to facilitate the oxidation of alcohols to the corresponding aldehydes/ketones (shown in the picture), the hydration of alkynes, and the oxidation of alkenes.

text: The discovery of nanostructured carbon

text: allotropes

text: such as

text: carbon nanotubes

text: fullerenes

text: , or

text: graphene

text: promoted further developments. Oxidized carbon nanotubes were used to dehydrogenate

text: n-butane

text: to

text: , and to selectively oxidize

text: acrolein

text: to

text: acrylic acid

text: . Fullerenes were used in the catalytic reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline in the presence of

text: H

text: . Graphene oxide was used as a carbocatalyst to facilitate the

text: oxidation

text: of

text: alcohols

text: to the corresponding

text: aldehydes

text: ketones

text: (shown in the picture), the

text: hydration

text: of

text: alkynes

text: , and the oxidation of

text: alkenes

text: The Green Party support lowering carbon emissions, exposing the economy to the externalities of carbon emissions and using income from a carbon tax to achieve a low carbon economy and to protect those on low incomes from the economic consequences of climate change.

text: The

text: Green Party

text: support lowering carbon emissions, exposing the economy to the

text: externalities

text: of carbon emissions and using income from a

text: carbon tax

text: to achieve a low carbon economy and to protect those on low incomes from the economic consequences of climate change.

text: A post office called Diamond has been in operation since 1880. Diamond was originally a coal mining community, and the Black Diamond Coal Company operated there.

text: A post office called Diamond has been in operation since 1880. Diamond was originally a coal

text: mining community

text: , and the Black Diamond Coal Company operated there.

text: While it is evident that gene sharing resulted in many of lens crystallins being multifunctional proteins, it is still uncertain to what extent the crystallins use their non-refractive properties in the lens, or on what basis they were selected. The α-crystallins provide a convincing case for a lens crystallin using its non-refractive ability within the lens to prevent protein aggregation under a variety of environmental stresses and to protect against enzyme inactivation by post-translational modifications such as glycation. The α-crystallins may also play a functional role in the stability and remodeling of the cytoskeleton during fiber cell differentiation in the lens. In cornea, ALDH3 is also suggested to be responsible for absorbing UV-B light.

text: While it is evident that gene sharing resulted in many of lens crystallins being multifunctional proteins, it is still uncertain to what extent the crystallins use their non-refractive properties in the lens, or on what basis they were selected. The α-crystallins provide a convincing case for a lens crystallin using its non-refractive ability within the lens to prevent protein aggregation under a variety of environmental stresses and to protect against enzyme inactivation by post-translational modifications such as

text: glycation

text: . The α-crystallins may also play a functional role in the stability and remodeling of the cytoskeleton during fiber

text: cell differentiation

text: in the lens. In cornea, ALDH3 is also suggested to be responsible for absorbing UV-B light.

text: Auer rods are clumps of azurophilic granular material that form elongated needles seen in the cytoplasm of myeloid leukemic blasts. They can be seen in the leukemic blasts of acute myeloid leukemia with maturation and acute promyelocytic leukemia (respectively known as acute myeloid leukemia M2 and M3 in the FAB classification) and in high grade myelodysplastic syndromes and myeloproliferative syndromes. They are composed of fused lysosomes/primary neutrophilic granules and contain peroxidase, lysosomal enzymes, and large crystalline inclusions. Morphologically, the Auer "rods" come in all sizes and shapes. They have been described as needle-shapes with pointed ends (most common), comma-shapes, and diamond-shapes; others were long and rectangular. Occasional corkscrew forms and rare granular Auer bodies were also noted. More appropriately, they can be referred to as Auer bodies.

text: Auer rods are clumps of

text: azurophil

text: ic granular material that form elongated needles seen in the

text: cytoplasm

text: of myeloid leukemic

text: blast

text: s. They can be seen in the leukemic blasts of acute myeloid leukemia with maturation and acute promyelocytic leukemia (respectively known as

entity_name: Acute myeloblastic leukemia with maturation

text: acute myeloid leukemia M2

text: and

text: in the

text: FAB classification

text: ) and in high grade

text: myelodysplastic syndromes

text: and myeloproliferative syndromes. They are composed of fused

text: lysosomes

text: primary neutrophilic granule

text: s and contain

text: peroxidase

text: lysosomal

text: enzymes, and large crystalline inclusions. Morphologically, the Auer "rods" come in all sizes and shapes. They have been described as needle-shapes with pointed ends (most common), comma-shapes, and diamond-shapes; others were long and rectangular. Occasional corkscrew forms and rare granular Auer bodies were also noted. More appropriately, they can be referred to as Auer bodies.

text: The high strength of carbon fiber can be attributed to these four main processes. Having high levels of crystalline regions allows the fibers to withstand high levels of stress. These crystalline regions are formed via the melt spinning process; the crystals are stiff areas that do not deform when an external stress is applied. Orienting and aligning these crystalline regions gives further strength to the fibers, specifically if the orientation is along the fiber axis. Carbonization and graphitization are the two processes responsible for this alignment of the crystalline regions. Pitch based carbon fiber is lower in strength than fiberglass; however, it has a very high elastic modulus.

text: The high strength of carbon fiber can be attributed to these four main processes. Having high levels of crystalline regions allows the fibers to withstand high levels of stress. These crystalline regions are formed via the melt spinning process; the crystals are stiff areas that do not deform when an external stress is applied. Orienting and aligning these crystalline regions gives further strength to the fibers, specifically if the orientation is along the fiber axis. Carbonization and graphitization are the two processes responsible for this alignment of the crystalline regions. Pitch based carbon fiber is lower in strength than

text: fiberglass

text: ; however, it has a very high

text: elastic modulus

text: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on  renewable energy; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet. Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal, oil and gas, unintentionally emitting carbon. Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels. To become a zero carbon city, an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease. Also, renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy, so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city. This transition which includes decarbonising electricity (increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity) and zero-emission transport, is undertaken as a response to climate change. Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact. Instead of using established cities, many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city. This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free.

text: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on

text: renewable energy

text: ; it has no

text: carbon footprint

text: and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet. Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal, oil and gas, unintentionally emitting carbon. Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these

text: fossil fuel

text: s. To become a zero carbon city, an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of

text: greenhouse gases

text: to zero and all practices that

text: emit

text: greenhouse gases must cease. Also, renewable energy must supersede other

text: non-renewable energy

text: sources and become the sole source of energy, so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city. This transition which includes decarbonising electricity (increasing the importance of the sources of

text: renewable electricity

text: ) and

text: zero-emission transport

text: , is undertaken as a response to

text: climate change

text: . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating

text: environmental impact

text: . Instead of using established cities, many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city. This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free.

text: The material was first proposed in 1985 by Marvin Cohen and Amy Liu. Examining the nature of crystalline bonds they theorised that carbon and nitrogen atoms could form a particularly short and strong bond in a stable crystal lattice in a ratio of 1:1.3. That this material would be harder than diamond on the Mohs scale was first proposed in 1989.

text: The material was first proposed in 1985 by

text: Marvin Cohen

text: and Amy Liu. Examining the nature of

text: crystalline

text: bonds

text: they theorised that

text: carbon

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: atoms could form a particularly short and strong bond in a stable

text: crystal lattice

text: in a ratio of 1:1.3. That this material would be harder than

text: diamond

text: on the

text: Mohs scale

text: was first proposed in 1989.

text: 4. After the final substituent, name the carbon chain by the name of the number of carbons (1 carbon = meth-, 2 carbons = eth-, 3 carbons = prop-, 4 carbons = but-, 5 carbons = pent-, 6 carbons = hex-, 7 carbons = hept-, 8 carbons = oct-, 9 carbons = non-). Then add "an" for a saturated carbon chain and "en" for a carbon chain with a double bond. Finally, end with "-oic acid".

text: Stainless steels may be classified by their crystalline structure into three main types: Austenitic, Ferritic and Martensitic. Martensitic stainless steels can be high or low carbon steels built around the Type 410 composition of iron, 12% chromium, and up to 1.2% carbon. They are usually  tempered and hardened. Tempered martensite gives steel good hardness and high toughness; used largely for medical tools (scalpels, razors and internal clamps).  Untempered martensite is low in toughness and therefore brittle.

text: Stainless steels may be classified by their

text: crystalline structure

text: into three main types:

text: Austenitic

text: Ferritic

text: and

text: Martensitic

text: . Martensitic stainless steels can be high or low carbon steels built around the Type 410 composition of iron, 12% chromium, and up to 1.2% carbon. They are usually  tempered and hardened. Tempered martensite gives steel good hardness and high toughness; used largely for medical tools (scalpels, razors and internal clamps).  Untempered martensite is low in toughness and therefore brittle.

text: This research is significant for the discovery of a new allotrope of carbon known as a fullerene.  Other allotropes of carbon include graphite, diamond and graphene. Harry Kroto's 1985 paper entitled "C60:  Buckminsterfullerine", published with colleagues J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented to Rice University in 2015. The discovery of fullerenes was recognized in 2010 by the designation of a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society at the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University in Houston, Texas.

text: This research is significant for the discovery of a new

text: allotrope

text: of carbon known as a

text: fullerene

text: .  Other

text: allotropes of carbon

text: include

text: graphite

text: diamond

text: and

text: graphene

text: . Harry Kroto's 1985 paper entitled "C60:  Buckminsterfullerine", published with colleagues J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented to Rice University in 2015. The discovery of fullerenes was recognized in 2010 by the designation of a

text: National Historic Chemical Landmark

text: by the

text: American Chemical Society

text: at the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University in Houston, Texas.

text: Carbon nanobuds are a newly discovered allotrope of carbon in which fullerene like "buds" are covalently attached to the outer sidewalls of the carbon nanotubes. This hybrid material has useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. For instance, they have been found to be exceptionally good field emitters.

text: Carbon nanobuds are a newly discovered allotrope of

text: carbon

text: in which

text: fullerene

text: like "buds" are covalently attached to the outer sidewalls of the

text: carbon nanotubes

text: . This hybrid material has useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. For instance, they have been found to be exceptionally good

text: field emitters

text: Carbon is a ubiquitous element that forms millions of compounds, ranging from simple carbon monoxide to highly complex enzymes. Regarding to its elemental form, although there is no catalytic properties ascribed to diamond, graphite is known to be an active catalyst in some oxidation reactions. Graphitic carbon is also used as a support material where other catalytic components may be dispersed, resulting in an increase of the surface area they expose to the chemical reactants.

text: Carbon

text: is a ubiquitous element that forms millions of compounds, ranging from simple

text: carbon monoxide

text: to highly complex enzymes. Regarding to its elemental form, although there is no catalytic properties ascribed to

text: diamond

text: graphite

text: is known to be an active catalyst in some oxidation reactions. Graphitic carbon is also used as a support material where other catalytic components may be dispersed, resulting in an increase of the surface area they expose to the chemical reactants.

text: In particular, the paper published in Nature in 2000, which reported the synthesis of homochiral nanoporous crystalline materials using self-assembly and an application for a chiral catalyst, was selected as one of the 35 most notable papers among chemical related papers published in Nature from 1950 to 2000 including Watson and Crick’s DNA structure, Kroto and Smalley’s discovery of the fullerene, Nicolaou’s Taxol total synthesis, etc.

text: In particular, the paper published in Nature in 2000, which reported the synthesis of homochiral nanoporous crystalline materials using

text: self-assembly

text: and an application for a

text: chiral catalyst

text: , was selected as one of the 35 most notable papers among chemical related papers published in Nature from 1950 to 2000 including Watson and Crick’s DNA structure, Kroto and Smalley’s discovery of the

text: fullerene

text: , Nicolaou’s Taxol total synthesis, etc.

text: In their scenario, lightning zaps molecules of methane in the upper atmospheres of Saturn and Jupiter, liberating carbon atoms. These atoms then stick onto each other, forming very large particles of carbon, which the Cassini spacecraft may have spotted in dark storm clouds on Saturn.  A spectographic analysis seems to support this theory. As the particles slowly float down through ever-denser layers of gaseous and liquid hydrogen towards the planets' rocky cores, they experience ever greater pressures and temperatures. The carbon is compressed into graphite, & then into solid diamonds before reaching a temperature of about 8,000 °C, when the diamond melts, forming liquid diamond raindrops. That diamond rain that forms on both planets is based on the methane levels and the high temperatures needed to form diamonds on both planets, which form at 3650 degrees Fahrenheit.

text: In their scenario,

text: lightning zaps molecules of methane

text: in the upper atmospheres of

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: , liberating

text: carbon atoms

text: . These atoms then stick onto each other, forming very large particles of carbon, which the

text: Cassini spacecraft

text: may have spotted in dark storm clouds on

text: Saturn

text: .  A spectographic analysis seems to support this theory. As the particles slowly float down through ever-denser layers of gaseous and

text: liquid hydrogen

text: towards the planets'

text: rocky cores

text: , they experience ever greater

text: pressures and temperatures

text: . The carbon is compressed into

text: graphite

text: , & then into solid diamonds before reaching a temperature of about 8,000 °C, when the diamond melts, forming liquid diamond raindrops. That diamond rain that forms on both planets is based on the

text: methane levels

text: and the high temperatures needed to form diamonds on both planets, which form at 3650 degrees

text: Fahrenheit

text: He then appeared together with Iron Man in their own mini-series titled Ultimate Human, focusing on Bruce Banner approaching Tony Stark about the possibility of using the Iron Man nanites to control the Hulk transformations. The Leader is introduced as Pete Wisdom, a scientist after the blood of both men, for use in the creation of a superhuman. This series depicts the Hulk's physiology as almost infinitely adaptive to adverse conditions, including simulations of hostile extraterrestrial environments such as the surface of the planet Venus. It also described him as generating carbon Fullerenes in his skin structure, adding to his durability.

text: He then appeared together with

text: Iron Man

text: in their own mini-series titled

text: Ultimate Human

text: , focusing on Bruce Banner approaching Tony Stark about the possibility of using the Iron Man

text: nanites

text: to control the Hulk transformations.

text: The Leader

text: is introduced as

text: Pete Wisdom

text: , a scientist after the blood of both men, for use in the creation of a superhuman. This series depicts the Hulk's physiology as almost infinitely adaptive to adverse conditions, including simulations of hostile extraterrestrial environments such as the surface of the planet

text: Venus

text: . It also described him as generating

text: carbon

text: Fullerene

text: s in his skin structure, adding to his durability.

text: Kamen was born August 27, 1913, in Toronto, the son of Czech immigrants. He grew up in Chicago. He received a bachelor's degree in chemistry from the University of Chicago in 1933 and obtained a PhD in physical chemistry from the same university in 1936. Thereafter he sought a research position in chemistry and nuclear physics under Ernest Lawrence at the radiation laboratory in Berkeley, where he worked without pay for six months until being hired to oversee the preparation and distribution of the cyclotron's products. Although carbon-14 was known before, the discovery of the synthesis of carbon-14 occurred at Berkeley when Kamen and Ruben bombarded graphite in the cyclotron in hopes of producing a radioactive isotope of carbon that could be used as a tracer in investigating chemical reactions in photosynthesis. Their experiment resulted in production of carbon-14.

text: Kamen was born August 27, 1913, in

text: Toronto

text: , the son of

text: Czech

text: immigrants. He grew up in Chicago. He received a

text: bachelor's degree

text: in

text: chemistry

text: from the

text: University of Chicago

text: in 1933 and obtained a PhD in

text: physical chemistry

text: from the same university in 1936. Thereafter he sought a research position in chemistry and

text: nuclear physics

text: under

text: Ernest Lawrence

text: at the radiation laboratory in Berkeley, where he worked without pay for six months until being hired to oversee the preparation and distribution of the

text: cyclotron

text: 's products. Although carbon-14 was known before, the discovery of the synthesis of carbon-14 occurred at Berkeley when Kamen and Ruben bombarded

text: graphite

text: in the cyclotron in hopes of producing a radioactive isotope of

text: carbon

text: that could be used as a

text: tracer

text: in investigating chemical reactions in

text: photosynthesis

text: . Their experiment resulted in production of carbon-14.

text: The legal team of Novartis was led by ex-Solicitor General of India Gopal Subramaniam and senior advocate T. R. Andhyarujina. Novartis had attempted to patent imatinib mesylate in beta crystalline form (rather than imatinib or imatinib mesylate), thus they sought to prevent extant literature on imatinib or imatininb mesylate from being considered as prior art. The thrust of the arguments by Novartis' legal team was two-fold: firstly, that the Zimmerman patents and the journal articles published by Zimmerman et al. do not constitute prior art for the beta crystalline form as it is only one polymorph of imatinib mesylate, thereby providing the required novelty and inventive step; and secondly, that imatinib mesylate in beta crystalline form has enhanced efficacy over imatinib or imatinib mesylate to pass the test of section 3(d).

text: The legal team of Novartis was led by ex-

text: Solicitor General of India

text: Gopal Subramaniam

text: and senior advocate

text: T. R. Andhyarujina

text: . Novartis had attempted to patent imatinib mesylate in beta crystalline form (rather than imatinib or imatinib mesylate), thus they sought to prevent extant literature on imatinib or imatininb mesylate from being considered as

text: prior art

text: . The thrust of the arguments by Novartis' legal team was two-fold: firstly, that the Zimmerman patents and the journal articles published by Zimmerman et al. do not constitute prior art for the beta crystalline form as it is only one

text: polymorph

text: of imatinib mesylate, thereby providing the required novelty and

text: inventive step

text: ; and secondly, that imatinib mesylate in beta crystalline form has enhanced efficacy over imatinib or imatinib mesylate to pass the test of section 3(d).

text: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide, methane, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere. The TCCON (pronounced ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls, Wisconsin, USA, and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide, with 7 former sites.  The TCCON is designed to investigate several things, including the flow (or flux) of carbon between the atmosphere, land, and ocean (the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle). This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon (the airborne fraction). The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community's understanding of the carbon cycle, and urban greenhouse gas emissions. The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare (or validate) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations. The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-2) mission.

text: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of

text: carbon dioxide

text: methane

text: carbon monoxide

text: nitrous oxide

text: and other

text: trace gas

text: es in the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . The TCCON (pronounced ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in

text: Park Falls, Wisconsin

text: , USA, and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide, with 7 former sites.  The TCCON is designed to investigate several things, including the flow (or

text: flux

text: ) of carbon between the atmosphere, land, and ocean (the so-called

text: carbon budget

text: or

text: carbon cycle

text: ). This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon (the

text: airborne fraction

text: ). The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community's understanding of the

text: carbon cycle

text: , and urban

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions. The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare (or validate) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations. The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the

text: Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-2)

text: mission.

text: Many elements and compounds form crystals. Some such as carbon can form several different forms including diamond, graphite, graphene and fullerenes including buckminsterfullerene.

text: Many elements and compounds form crystals. Some such as

text: carbon

text: can form several different forms including

text: diamond

text: graphite

text: graphene

text: and

text: fullerene

text: s including

text: buckminsterfullerene

text: In 1978, he became Director of a National Science Foundation Center for Mass Spectrometry at Nebraska. Under the aegis of the NSF, he commissioned the first commercial triple sector tandem mass spectrometer. With this instrumentation, his coworkers and he sequenced the first unknown peptide using soft ionization and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). They also discovered a new class of fragmentation of gas-phase ions later termed "charge-remote fragmentation." and applied it to a wide variety of compounds including fatty acids, lipids, surfactants, steroids, and peptides. An expanded four-sector version was employed to insert noble gas atoms in C-60 and other fullerenes and a second noble gas atom in synthetic fullerenes already containing a noble gas atom.

text: Fullerene is a ligand in organometallic chemistry. The [6,6] double bond is electron-deficient and usually forms metallic bonds with η = 2 hapticity. Bonding modes such as η = 5 or η = 6 can be induced by modification of the coordination sphere.

text: Fullerene is a

text: ligand

text: in

text: organometallic chemistry

text: . The [6,6] double bond is electron-deficient and usually forms metallic bonds with η = 2

text: hapticity

text: . Bonding modes such as η = 5 or η = 6 can be induced by modification of the

text: coordination sphere

text: [60]fullerene in 82% yield based on C conversion.

text: It is the Voronoi tessellation of the carbon atoms in diamond, which lie in the diamond cubic crystal structure.

text: It is the

text: Voronoi tessellation

text: of the

text: carbon

text: atoms in

text: diamond

text: , which lie in the

text: diamond cubic

text: crystal structure.

text: Whether a solid is crystalline or amorphous depends on the material involved, and the conditions in which it was formed. Solids which are formed by slow cooling will tend to be crystalline, while solids which are frozen rapidly are more likely to be amorphous. Likewise, the specific crystal structure adopted by a crystalline solid depends on the material involved and on how it was formed.

text: Whether a solid is crystalline or amorphous depends on the material involved, and the conditions in which it was formed. Solids which are formed by slow cooling will tend to be crystalline, while solids which are frozen rapidly are more likely to be amorphous. Likewise, the specific

text: crystal structure

text: adopted by a crystalline solid depends on the material involved and on how it was formed.

text: Fullerenes are sparingly soluble in many solvents. Common solvents for the fullerenes include aromatics, such as toluene, and others like carbon disulfide. Solutions of pure buckminsterfullerene have a deep purple color. Solutions of C are a reddish brown. The higher fullerenes C to C have a variety of colors. C has two optical forms, while other higher fullerenes have several structural isomers. Fullerenes are the only known allotrope of carbon that can be dissolved in common solvents at room temperature.

text: Fullerenes are sparingly soluble in many

text: solvent

text: s. Common solvents for the fullerenes include aromatics, such as

text: toluene

text: , and others like

text: carbon disulfide

text: . Solutions of pure buckminsterfullerene have a deep purple color. Solutions of C are a reddish brown. The

text: higher fullerenes

text: C to C have a variety of colors. C has two optical forms, while other

text: higher fullerenes

text: have several structural isomers. Fullerenes are the only known

text: allotrope

text: of carbon that can be dissolved in common solvents at room temperature.

text: In graph theory, the term fullerene refers to any 3-regular, planar graph with all faces of size 5 or 6 (including the external face). It follows from Euler's polyhedron formula, V – E + F = 2 (where V, E, F indicate the number of vertices, edges, and faces), that there are exactly 12 pentagons in a fullerene and V/2–10 hexagons. Fullerene graphs are the Schlegel representations of the corresponding fullerene compounds.

text: In graph theory, the term

text: fullerene

text: refers to any 3-

text: regular

text: planar graph

text: with all faces of size 5 or 6 (including the external face). It follows from

text: Euler's polyhedron formula

text: , V – E + F = 2 (where V, E, F indicate the number of vertices, edges, and faces), that there are exactly 12 pentagons in a fullerene and V/2–10 hexagons. Fullerene graphs are the

text: Schlegel representations

text: of the corresponding fullerene compounds.

text: Because objects radiate light in rectilinear motion in all directions, the eye must also be hit with this light at all points. The problem this presented to al-Haytham and his predecessors was that if this was the case, the result of all the lines of light hitting all the points on the eye from every point on the object would cause a very blurry and unorganized perception of the object. Al-Haytham presented a solution to this problem using his theory of refraction. He states that although the object sends an infinite amount of rays of light to the eye, only one of these lines falls on the eye perpendicularly. All the other rays come in contact with the eye at angles that aren't perpendicular causing them to be refracted and weakened. He claims that only the ray of light that hits the eye perpendicularly is strong enough to be seen, and all the other weaker rays play only a very minor part in vision, too small to be perceived.  In his structure of the eye, the crystalline humor is the part of the eye that picks up the rays from the object and forms a visual cone with the object being perceived as the base of the cone and the center of the crystalline humor in the eye as the vertex. Other parts of the eye are the aqueous humor in front of the crystalline humor and the vitreous humor at the back. These, however, do not play as critical of a role in vision as the crystalline humor. The crystalline humor transmits the image it perceives to the brain through an optic nerve.

text: Lonsdaleite (named in honour of Kathleen Lonsdale), also called hexagonal diamond in reference to the crystal structure, is an allotrope of carbon with a hexagonal lattice. In nature, it forms when meteorites containing graphite strike the Earth. The great heat and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains graphite's hexagonal crystal lattice. Lonsdaleite was first identified in 1967 from the Canyon Diablo meteorite, where it occurs as microscopic crystals associated with diamond.

text: Lonsdaleite (named in honour of

text: Kathleen Lonsdale

text: ), also called hexagonal

text: diamond

text: in reference to the

text: crystal structure

text: , is an

text: allotrope of carbon

text: with a hexagonal lattice. In nature, it forms when

text: meteor

text: ites containing

text: graphite

text: strike the Earth. The great heat and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains graphite's hexagonal

text: crystal lattice

text: . Lonsdaleite was first identified in 1967 from the

text: Canyon Diablo meteorite

text: , where it occurs as microscopic crystals associated with diamond.

text: Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the <111> direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice). Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and nanocrystalline diamond aggregates.

text: Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the

text: direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice). Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as

text: boron nitride

text: , the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and

text: nanocrystalline diamond aggregates

text: Vertebrate lenses are composed of adapted epithelial cells which have high concentrations of the protein crystallin. These crystallins belong to two major families, the α-crystallins and the βγ-crystallins. Both were categories of proteins originally used for other functions in organisms, but eventually were adapted for the sole purpose of vision in animal eyes. In the embryo, the lens is living tissue, but the cellular machinery is not transparent so must be removed before the organism can see.  Removing the machinery means the lens is composed of dead cells, packed with crystallins. These crystallins are special because they have the unique characteristics required for transparency and function in the lens such as tight packing, resistance to crystallization, and extreme longevity, as they must survive for the entirety of the organism’s life. The refractive index gradient which makes the lens useful is caused by the radial shift in crystallin concentration in different parts of the lens, rather than by the specific type of protein: it is not the presence of crystallin, but the relative distribution of it, that renders the lens useful.

text: Vertebrate

text: lenses

text: are composed of adapted

text: epithelial

text: cells which have high concentrations of the protein

text: crystallin

text: . These crystallins belong to two major families, the α-crystallins and the βγ-crystallins. Both were categories of proteins originally used for other functions in organisms, but eventually were adapted for the sole purpose of vision in animal eyes. In the embryo, the lens is living tissue, but the cellular machinery is not transparent so must be removed before the organism can see.  Removing the machinery means the lens is composed of dead cells, packed with crystallins. These crystallins are special because they have the unique characteristics required for transparency and function in the lens such as tight packing, resistance to crystallization, and extreme longevity, as they must survive for the entirety of the organism’s life. The

text: refractive index

text: gradient

text: which makes the lens useful is caused by the radial shift in crystallin concentration in different parts of the lens, rather than by the specific type of protein: it is not the presence of crystallin, but the relative distribution of it, that renders the lens useful.

text: Graphite oxide, formerly called graphitic oxide or graphitic acid, is a compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen in variable ratios, obtained by treating graphite with strong oxidizers. The maximally oxidized bulk product is a yellow solid with C:O ratio between 2.1 and 2.9, that retains the layer structure of graphite but with a much larger and irregular spacing.

text: Graphite oxide, formerly called graphitic oxide or graphitic acid, is a compound of

text: carbon

text: oxygen

text: , and

text: hydrogen

text: in variable ratios, obtained by treating

text: graphite

text: with strong

text: oxidizer

text: s. The maximally

text: oxidized

text: bulk product is a yellow solid with C:O ratio between 2.1 and 2.9, that retains the layer structure of graphite but with a much larger and irregular spacing.

text: In 1990, K. Fostiropoulos, W. Krätchmer and D. R. Huffman developed a simple and efficient method of producing fullerenes in gram and even kilogram amounts which boosted fullerene research. In this technique, carbon soot is produced from two high-purity graphite electrodes by igniting an arc discharge between them in an inert atmosphere (helium gas). Alternatively, soot is produced by laser ablation of graphite or pyrolysis of aromatic hydrocarbons. Fullerenes are extracted from the soot using a multistep procedure. First, the soot is dissolved in appropriate organic solvents. This step yields a solution containing up to 70% of C and 15% of C, as well as other fullerenes. These fractions are separated using chromatography.

text: In 1990, K. Fostiropoulos, W. Krätchmer and D. R. Huffman developed a simple and efficient method of producing fullerenes in gram and even kilogram amounts which boosted fullerene research. In this technique, carbon soot is produced from two high-purity graphite electrodes by igniting an arc discharge between them in an inert atmosphere (helium gas). Alternatively, soot is produced by

text: laser ablation

text: of graphite or

text: pyrolysis

text: of

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s. Fullerenes are extracted from the soot using a multistep procedure. First, the soot is dissolved in appropriate organic solvents. This step yields a solution containing up to 70% of C and 15% of C, as well as other fullerenes. These fractions are separated using

text: chromatography

text: It is a limited (300 units) version of Continental GT V8 S coupe inspired by the Continental GT3 race car, with 100 kg weight reduction, increased engine power to @6000rpm and @1700rpm, torque vectoring for each of the rear wheels, shorter gearing, recalibrated control software, all-new titanium exhaust with 7 kg weight saving and retuned acoustics, forged 21-inch alloy wheels in gloss black, Pirelli tyres, sport-focused Electronic Stability Control programme, Carbon Silicon Carbide (CSiC) braking system (420 mm front and 356 mm rear brake discs, 8-piston front calipers in green), two-seat cabin with carbon fibre, Alcantara and leather interior upholstery; bespoke sporting seats with additional side support through deeper bolsters upholstered in Beluga black leather and diamond-quilted Alcantara, upholstered steering wheel and gear shifter, centre console and fascia panels in carbon fibre, carbon fibre door casings with diamond-quilted Alcantara inner panels, rear cabin with a carbon fibre surround and upholstered in leather and Alcantara, green hide colour on the seats, instrument panel, door panels, contrast stitching throughout the seats and diamond-quilted areas; GT3-R badging at centre console, passenger-side fascia panel, sill treadplates; GT3-R stitching at seat headrests in with contrast-green stitching, carbon fibre fixed rear wing and boot lid, bonnet with two vents, Glacier White body colour with gloss carbon fibre contrasts, two-tone green graphics tracing two power lines to the side profile of the car (one leading backwards from the front wheel, the other tracing the shape of the Continental GT's rear haunch), headlamp bezels, matrix grille, window surrounds and bumper strips in gloss black.

text: A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The resulting carbon plasma arc between the electrodes cools into sooty residue from which many fullerenes can be isolated.

text: A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two nearby

text: graphite

text: electrodes in an

text: inert

text: atmosphere. The resulting

text: carbon

text: plasma

text: arc between the electrodes cools into sooty residue from which many fullerenes can be isolated.

text: Petrocalcic horizons are typically found in older soils and are considered a mark of advanced soil evolution. Most petrocalcic formed before the Holocene age. They form in soil parent material that contains calcium carbonate or receive regular inputs of carbonates through dust. Carbonates are transported into the subsoil by water that precipitates the carbonates in the subsoil upon evaporation, eventually forming a massive, continuous layer of cemented carbonates. There is also some evidence that petrocalcic horizons can form "in situ" by alteration of limestone parent materials and alternating dissolution/precipitation of calium carbonates.

text: Petrocalcic horizons are typically found in older soils and are considered a mark of advanced soil evolution. Most petrocalcic formed before the

text: Holocene

text: age. They form in soil

text: parent material

text: that contains

text: calcium carbonate

text: or receive regular inputs of carbonates through dust. Carbonates are transported into the subsoil by water that precipitates the carbonates in the subsoil upon evaporation, eventually forming a massive, continuous layer of cemented carbonates. There is also some evidence that petrocalcic horizons can form "in situ" by alteration of

text: limestone

text: parent materials and alternating dissolution/precipitation of calium carbonates.

text: This term is often used in the field of metallurgy to refer to the extent that an alloying element will dissolve into the base metal without forming a separate phase. The solvus or solubility line (or curve) is the line (or lines) on a phase diagram that give the limits of solute addition. That is, the lines show the maximum amount of a component that can be added to another component and still be in solid solution.  In the solid's crystalline structure, the 'solute' element can either take the place of the matrix within the lattice (a substitutional position; for example, chromium in iron) or take a place in a space between the lattice points (an interstitial position; for example, carbon in iron).

text: This term is often used in the field of

text: metallurgy

text: to refer to the extent that an

text: alloy

text: ing element will dissolve into the

text: base metal

text: without forming a separate phase. The

text: solvus

text: or solubility line (or curve) is the line (or lines) on a

text: phase diagram

text: that give the limits of solute addition. That is, the lines show the maximum amount of a component that can be added to another component and still be in

text: solid solution

text: .  In the solid's crystalline structure, the 'solute' element can either take the place of the matrix within the lattice (a substitutional position; for example, chromium in iron) or take a place in a space between the lattice points (an interstitial position; for example, carbon in iron).

text: In the furnace, an electric current was passed through a graphite core, surrounded by sand, salt, and carbon. The electric current heated the graphite and other materials, allowing them to react, producing a layer of silicon carbide around the graphite core. The process gives off carbon monoxide. There are four chemical reactions in the process that produces silicon carbide (SiC):

text: In the furnace, an electric current was passed through a graphite core, surrounded by sand, salt, and carbon. The electric current heated the graphite and other materials, allowing them to react, producing a layer of silicon carbide around the graphite core. The process gives off

text: carbon monoxide

text: . There are four chemical reactions in the process that produces silicon carbide (SiC):

text: In its crystalline form, pure silicon has a gray color and a metallic luster. Like germanium, silicon is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping. Silicon, like carbon and germanium, crystallizes in a diamond cubic crystal structure with a lattice spacing of 0.5430710 nm (5.430710 Å).

text: In its

text: crystal

text: line form, pure silicon has a gray color and a

text: metallic

text: luster. Like

text: germanium

text: , silicon is rather strong, very brittle, and prone to chipping. Silicon, like carbon and germanium, crystallizes in a

text: diamond cubic

text: crystal structure

text: with a lattice spacing of 0.5430710 nm (5.430710

text: Å

text: Cubane (CH) is a synthetic hydrocarbon molecule that consists of eight carbon atoms arranged at the corners of a cube, with one hydrogen atom attached to each carbon atom. A solid crystalline substance, cubane is one of the Platonic hydrocarbons and a member of the prismanes. It was first synthesized in 1964 by Philip Eaton and Thomas Cole. Prior to this work, researchers believed that cubic carbon-based molecules would be too unstable to exist. The cubic shape requires the carbon atoms to adopt an unusually sharp 90° bonding angle, which would be highly strained as compared to the 109.45° angle of a tetrahedral carbon. Once formed, cubane is quite kinetically stable, due to a lack of readily available decomposition paths. It is the simplest hydrocarbon with octahedral symmetry.

text: Cubane (CH) is a synthetic

text: hydrocarbon

text: molecule

text: that consists of eight

text: carbon

text: atom

text: s arranged at the corners of a

text: cube

text: , with one

text: hydrogen

text: atom attached to each carbon atom. A solid

text: crystal

text: line substance, cubane is one of the

text: Platonic hydrocarbon

text: s and a member of the

text: prismanes

text: . It was first synthesized in 1964 by

text: Philip Eaton

text: and Thomas Cole. Prior to this work, researchers believed that cubic carbon-based molecules would be too unstable to exist. The cubic shape requires the carbon atoms to adopt an unusually sharp 90° bonding angle, which would be highly

text: strained

text: as compared to the 109.45° angle of a

text: tetrahedral

text: carbon. Once formed, cubane is quite

text: kinetically stable

text: , due to a lack of readily available decomposition paths. It is the simplest hydrocarbon with

text: octahedral symmetry

text: These white crystalline salts are very sensitive to water vapour and carbon dioxide in the air:

text: The allotropes of carbon include graphite, one of the softest known substances, and diamond, the hardest naturally occurring substance. It bonds readily with other small atoms including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent bonds with suitable, multivalent atoms. Carbon is known to form almost ten million different compounds, a large majority of all chemical compounds. Carbon also has the highest sublimation point of all elements. At atmospheric pressure it has no melting point as its triple point is at 10.8 ± 0.2 MPa and 4,600 ± 300 K (~4,330 °C or 7,820 °F), so it sublimes at about 3,900 K. Graphite is much more reactive than diamond at standard conditions, despite being more thermodynamically stable, as its delocalised pi system is much more vulnerable to attack. For example, graphite can be oxidised by hot concentrated nitric acid at standard conditions to mellitic acid, C(COH), which preserves the hexagonal units of graphite while breaking up the larger structure.

text: The

text: allotropes of carbon

text: include

text: graphite

text: , one of the softest known substances, and

text: diamond

text: , the hardest naturally occurring substance. It

text: bonds

text: readily with other small

text: atom

text: s including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable

text: covalent

text: bonds with suitable, multivalent atoms. Carbon is known to form almost ten million different compounds, a large majority of all

text: chemical compounds

text: . Carbon also has the highest

text: sublimation

text: point of all elements. At

text: atmospheric pressure

text: it has no melting point as its

text: triple point

text: is at 10.8 ± 0.2 MPa and 4,600 ± 300 K (~4,330 °C or 7,820 °F), so it sublimes at about 3,900 K. Graphite is much more reactive than diamond at standard conditions, despite being more thermodynamically stable, as its delocalised

text: pi system

text: is much more vulnerable to attack. For example, graphite can be oxidised by hot concentrated

text: nitric acid

text: at standard conditions to

text: mellitic acid

text: , C(COH), which preserves the hexagonal units of graphite while breaking up the larger structure.

text: The atoms of carbon can be bonded together in different ways, termed allotropes of carbon. The best known are graphite, diamond, and amorphous carbon. The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, graphite is opaque and black while diamond is highly transparent. Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek verb "γράφειν" which means "to write"), while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Graphite is a good electrical conductor while diamond has a low electrical conductivity. Under normal conditions, diamond, carbon nanotubes, and graphene have the highest thermal conductivities of all known materials. All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions, with graphite being the most thermodynamically stable form. They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen.

text: The atoms of carbon can be bonded together in different ways, termed

text: allotropes of carbon

text: . The best known are

text: graphite

text: diamond

text: , and

text: amorphous carbon

text: . The

text: physical properties

text: of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, graphite is

text: opaque

text: and black while diamond is highly

text: transparent

text: . Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek verb "γράφειν" which means "to write"), while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Graphite is a good

text: electrical conductor

text: while diamond has a low

text: electrical conductivity

text: . Under normal conditions, diamond,

text: carbon nanotube

text: s, and

text: graphene

text: have the highest

text: thermal conductivities

text: of

text: all known materials

text: . All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions, with graphite being the most

text: thermodynamically stable

text: form. They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen.

text: One important property of carbon is that it readily forms chains, or networks, that are linked by carbon-carbon (carbon-to-carbon) bonds. The linking process is called polymerization, while the chains, or networks, are called polymers. The source compound is called a monomer.

text: One important property of carbon is that it readily forms chains, or networks, that are linked by carbon-carbon (carbon-to-carbon) bonds. The linking process is called

text: polymerization

text: , while the chains, or networks, are called

text: polymer

text: s. The source compound is called a

text: monomer

text: In a pure form, cryptoxanthin is a red crystalline solid with a metallic luster.  It is freely soluble in chloroform, benzene, pyridine, and carbon disulfide.

text: In a pure form, cryptoxanthin is a red crystalline solid with a metallic luster.  It is freely soluble in

text: chloroform

text: benzene

text: pyridine

text: , and

text: carbon disulfide

text: Within the mantle, carbon may exist as hydrocarbons—chiefly methane—and as elemental carbon, carbon dioxide, and carbonates. The abiotic hypothesis is that the full suite of hydrocarbons found in petroleum can either be generated in the mantle by abiogenic processes, or by biological processing of those abiogenic hydrocarbons, and that the source-hydrocarbons of abiogenic origin can migrate out of the mantle into the crust until they escape to the surface or are trapped by impermeable strata, forming petroleum reservoirs.

text: Within the mantle, carbon may exist as

text: hydrocarbon

text: s—chiefly

text: methane

text: —and as elemental carbon, carbon dioxide, and carbonates. The abiotic hypothesis is that the full suite of hydrocarbons found in petroleum can either be generated in the mantle by abiogenic processes, or by biological processing of those abiogenic hydrocarbons, and that the source-hydrocarbons of abiogenic origin can migrate out of the mantle into the

text: crust

text: until they escape to the surface or are trapped by impermeable strata, forming petroleum reservoirs.

text: Compounds of carbon are defined as chemical substances containing carbon. More compounds of carbon exist than any other chemical element except for hydrogen. Organic carbon compounds are far more numerous than inorganic carbon compounds. In general bonds of carbon with other elements are covalent bonds. Carbon is tetravalent but carbon free radicals and carbenes occur as short-lived intermediates. Ions of carbon are carbocations and carbanions are also short-lived. An important carbon property is catenation as the ability to form long carbon chains and rings.

text: Compounds of carbon are defined as

text: chemical substances

text: containing

text: carbon

text: . More compounds of carbon exist than any other

text: chemical element

text: except for hydrogen. Organic carbon compounds are far more numerous than inorganic carbon compounds. In general bonds of carbon with other elements are

text: covalent bond

text: s. Carbon is

text: tetravalent

text: but carbon

text: free radicals

text: and

text: carbenes

text: occur as short-lived intermediates. Ions of carbon are

text: carbocations

text: and

text: carbanions

text: are also short-lived. An important carbon property is

text: catenation

text: as the ability to form long carbon chains and rings.

text: In Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG) and later series, Starfleet officers and enlisted personnel wear small communicator badges on their left breast. These devices are in the shape of the Starfleet insignia and are activated with a light tap. They also incorporate the universal translator. There have been two versions of the communicator badge. The first was used throughout the TNG series and during the first two seasons of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (DS9). The second was used in the last five seasons of DS9, Star Trek: Voyager, and the TNG films. Use of the badges dates back at least as far as the time of the Enterprise-C. (Lt. Richard Castillo is shown wearing a communicator badge in the TNG episode "Yesterday's Enterprise.")<br>According to Data in the episode "Time's Arrow, Part One" at a poker game in 1893, the badge is made out of a crystalline composite of silicon, beryllium, carbon 70 and gold.

text: In

text: Star Trek: The Next Generation

text: (TNG) and later series, Starfleet officers and enlisted personnel wear small communicator badges on their left breast. These devices are in the shape of the

text: Starfleet

text: insignia

text: and are activated with a light tap. They also incorporate the

text: universal translator

text: . There have been two versions of the communicator badge. The first was used throughout the TNG series and during the first two seasons of

text: Star Trek: Deep Space Nine

text: (DS9). The second was used in the last five seasons of DS9,

text: Star Trek: Voyager

text: , and the TNG films. Use of the badges dates back at least as far as the time of the

text: Enterprise-C

text: . (Lt. Richard Castillo is shown wearing a communicator badge in the TNG episode "

text: Yesterday's Enterprise

text: .")<br>According to Data in the episode

entity_name: Time's Arrow (Star Trek: The Next Generation)

text: "Time's Arrow, Part One"

text: at a poker game in 1893, the badge is made out of a

text: crystalline composite

text: of

text: silicon

text: beryllium

text: , carbon 70 and gold.

text: A highly exothermic reaction combusts magnesium in an oxidation–reduction reaction with carbon dioxide, producing a variety of carbon nanoparticles including graphene and fullerenes. The carbon dioxide reactant may be either solid (dry-ice) or gaseous. The products of this reaction are carbon and magnesium oxide.  was issued for this process.

text: A highly exothermic reaction combusts

text: magnesium

text: in an oxidation–reduction reaction with carbon dioxide, producing a variety of carbon nanoparticles including graphene and

text: fullerene

text: s. The carbon dioxide reactant may be either solid (dry-ice) or gaseous. The products of this reaction are carbon and

text: magnesium oxide

text: .  was issued for this process.

text: Diamond ( or ) is a metastable allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at standard conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material. Those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools and the scientific applications in diamond knives and diamond anvil cells.

text: Diamond ( or ) is a

text: metastable

text: allotrope of carbon

text: , where the carbon

text: atoms

text: are arranged in a variation of the

text: face-centered cubic

text: crystal structure called a

text: diamond lattice

text: . Diamond is less

text: stable

text: than

text: graphite

text: , but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at

text: standard conditions

text: . Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the strong

text: covalent bond

text: ing between its atoms. In particular, diamond has the highest

text: hardness

text: and

text: thermal conductivity

text: of any bulk material. Those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools and the scientific applications in

text: diamond knives

text: and

text: diamond anvil cell

text: s.

text: Of the other discovered allotropes, carbon nanofoam is a ferromagnetic allotrope discovered in 1997. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings. It is among the lightest known solids, with a density of about 2 kg/m. Similarly, glassy carbon contains a high proportion of closed porosity, but contrary to normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement. Linear acetylenic carbon has the chemical structure -(C:::C)-. Carbon in this modification is linear with sp orbital hybridization, and is a polymer with alternating single and triple bonds. This carbyne is of considerable interest to nanotechnology as its Young's modulus is forty times that of the hardest known material – diamond.

text: Of the other discovered allotropes,

text: carbon nanofoam

text: is a

text: ferromagnetic

text: allotrope discovered in 1997. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings. It is among the lightest known solids, with a density of about 2 kg/m. Similarly,

text: glassy carbon

text: contains a high proportion of closed

text: porosity

text: , but contrary to normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement.

text: Linear acetylenic carbon

text: has the chemical structure -(C:::C)-. Carbon in this modification is linear with sp

text: orbital hybridization

text: , and is a

text: polymer

text: with alternating single and triple bonds. This carbyne is of considerable interest to

text: nanotechnology

text: as its

text: Young's modulus

text: is forty times that of the hardest known material – diamond.

text: carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis, along with  and CAM. This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP, a 5-carbon sugar) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction:

text: carbon fixation is one of three

text: metabolic pathway

text: s for

text: carbon fixation

text: in

text: photosynthesis

text: , along with

text: and

text: CAM

text: . This process converts

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: ribulose bisphosphate

text: (RuBP, a 5-carbon sugar) into

text: through the following reaction:

text: As of 2008 the range of materials deposited by EBID included Al, Au, amorphous carbon, diamond, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, GaAs, GaN, Ge, Mo, Nb, Ni, Os, Pd, Pt, Rh, Ru, Re, Si, SiN, SiO, TiO, W, and was being expanded. The limiting factor is the availability of appropriate precursors, gaseous or having a low sublimation temperature.

text: A typical chemical composition to obtain a graphitic microstructure is 2.5 to 4.0% carbon and 1 to 3% silicon by weight.  Graphite may occupy 6 to 10% of the volume of grey iron. Silicon is important to making grey iron as opposed to white cast iron, because silicon is a graphite stabilizing element in cast iron, which means it helps the alloy produce graphite instead of iron carbides; at 3% silicon almost no carbon is held in chemical form as iron carbide. Another factor affecting graphitization is the solidification rate; the slower the rate, the greater the time for the carbon to diffuse and accumulate into graphite. A moderate cooling rate forms a more pearlitic matrix, while a fast cooling rate forms a more ferritic matrix. To achieve a fully ferritic matrix the alloy must be annealed. Rapid cooling partly or completely suppresses graphitization and leads to the formation of cementite, which is called white iron.

text: A typical chemical composition to obtain a graphitic microstructure is 2.5 to 4.0%

text: carbon

text: and 1 to 3%

text: silicon

text: by weight.  Graphite may occupy 6 to 10% of the volume of grey iron. Silicon is important to making grey iron as opposed to

text: white cast iron

text: , because silicon is a graphite stabilizing element in cast iron, which means it helps the alloy produce graphite instead of

text: iron carbide

text: s; at 3% silicon almost no carbon is held in chemical form as iron carbide. Another factor affecting graphitization is the solidification rate; the slower the rate, the greater the time for the carbon to diffuse and accumulate into graphite. A moderate cooling rate forms a more

text: pearlitic

text: matrix, while a fast cooling rate forms a more

text: ferritic

text: matrix. To achieve a fully ferritic matrix the alloy must be

text: annealed

text: . Rapid cooling partly or completely suppresses graphitization and leads to the formation of

text: cementite

text: , which is called

text: white iron

text: The formation is usually divided into five members. The Black Creek Member at the base consists of halite. The overlying Lower Anhydrite Member consists of microcrystalline anhydrite with minor beds of fine- to medium-crystalline dolostone. The Zama Member at the center consists of fragmental carbonate, and is overlain by the Upper Anhydrite which consists of interbedded microcrystalline anhydrite and fine- to medium-crystalline dolostone. The Bistcho Member at the top is a fragmental carbonate unit.

text: The formation is usually divided into five members. The Black Creek Member at the base consists of halite. The overlying Lower Anhydrite Member consists of

text: microcrystalline

text: anhydrite with minor beds of fine- to medium-crystalline dolostone. The Zama Member at the center consists of fragmental carbonate, and is overlain by the Upper Anhydrite which consists of interbedded microcrystalline anhydrite and fine- to medium-crystalline dolostone. The Bistcho Member at the top is a fragmental carbonate unit.

text: The Carbon Trust provides voluntary carbon certification services and carbon labelling schemes – it verifies organisation and product carbon footprint data and provides marks of quality to organisations to demonstrate standards have been met.

text: Eluvathingal Devassy Jemmis or E. D. Jemmis (born October 31, 1951) is a Professor of theoretical chemistry at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. He was also the Director of Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Thiruvananthapuram (IISER-TVM). His primary area of research is applied theoretical chemistry with emphasis on structure, bonding and reactivity, across the periodic table of the elements. Apart from many of his contributions to applied theoretical chemistry, an equivalent of the structural chemistry of carbon, as exemplified by the Huckel 4n+2 Rule, benzenoid aromatics and graphite, and tetrahedral carbon and diamond, is brought in the structural chemistry of boron by the Jemmis mno rules which relates polyhedral and macropolyhedral boranes to allotropes of boron and boron-rich solids. He has been awarded Padma Shri in Science and Engineering category (year 2014) by the Government of India.

text: Eluvathingal Devassy Jemmis or E. D. Jemmis (born October 31, 1951) is a Professor of theoretical chemistry at the

text: Indian Institute of Science

text: , Bangalore, India. He was also the Director of

entity_name: Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research

text: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research

text: , Thiruvananthapuram

entity_name: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Thiruvananthapuram

text: (IISER-TVM)

text: . His primary area of research is

text: applied theoretical chemistry

text: with emphasis on structure, bonding and reactivity, across the periodic table of the elements. Apart from many of his contributions to applied theoretical chemistry, an equivalent of the structural chemistry of carbon, as exemplified by the Huckel 4n+2 Rule, benzenoid aromatics and graphite, and tetrahedral carbon and diamond, is brought in the structural chemistry of boron by the

text: Jemmis mno rules

text: which relates polyhedral and macropolyhedral

text: boranes

text: to

text: allotropes of boron

text: and boron-rich solids. He has been awarded

text: Padma Shri

text: in Science and Engineering category (year 2014) by the Government of India.

text: A single material may have several distinct solid states capable of forming separate phases. Water is a well-known example of such a material. For example, water ice is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form ice Ih, but can also exist as the cubic ice Ic, the rhombohedral ice II, and many other forms. Polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy. For example, diamond, graphite, and fullerenes are different allotropes of carbon.

text: A single material may have several distinct solid states capable of forming separate phases. Water is a well-known example of such a material. For example, water

text: ice

text: is ordinarily found in the hexagonal form

text: ice Ih

text: , but can also exist as the cubic

text: ice Ic

text: , the

text: rhombohedral

text: ice II

text: , and many other forms.

text: Polymorphism

text: is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystal form. For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as

text: allotropy

text: . For example,

text: diamond

text: graphite

text: , and

text: fullerene

text: s are different allotropes of

text: carbon

text: In the external standard method, the FID signal is correlated to the concentration of carbon separately from the analysis. In practice, this entails the injection of any carbon species at varying amounts to create a plot of signal (i.e., peak area) versus injected carbon amount (e.g., moles of carbon). The user should take care to account for any sample splitting, adsorption, inlet discrimination, and leaks, or the calibration will be off. The data should form a line with a slope, m, and an intercept, b. The inverse of this line can be used to determine the amount of carbon in any subsequent injection from any compound because the detector response is uniform for all organic compounds.

text: Native American Venture Fund Carbon - NAVF partners with both tribes and investors to combat one of the most significant threats facing the world today, Climate Change. The main cause, is the Greenhouse gases that are released from Fossil Fuel Use (Industry, energy production, automotive), deforestation, and intensive livestock farming.  As concentrations of these gases increase, more warming occurs than would happen naturally, because greenhouse effetely traps radiation from the sun and warms the planet's surface. Simply put, forest conservation creates a “Carbon Offset”, which equates to the removal of a metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalent. For every ton of Carbon captured through a Carbon Offset Program, a qualified “Carbon Credit / Carbon Offset” is created. Companies such as British Petroleum (BP), Google, Chevron, FedEx and several hundred US companies purchase carbon credits at established market prices, in some cases to avoid environmental penalties that cost well in excess of the carbon credit. Thus, NAVF provides financing and project management for North American indigenous tribes, given that the total land holdings of this minority is in excess of 3% of the entire landmass of the continent. The NET outcome, according to the Fund is profitable environmental protection for the Tribe and the investment community.

text: Native American Venture Fund Carbon - NAVF partners with both tribes and investors to combat one of the most significant threats facing the world today,

text: Climate Change

text: . The main cause, is the

text: Greenhouse gas

text: es that are released from

text: Fossil Fuel

text: Use (Industry, energy production, automotive),

text: deforestation

text: , and intensive livestock farming.  As concentrations of these gases increase, more warming occurs than would happen naturally, because greenhouse effetely traps radiation from the sun and warms the planet's surface. Simply put,

text: forest conservation

text: creates a “

text: Carbon Offset

text: ”, which equates to the removal of a metric ton of

text: carbon dioxide

text: equivalent. For every ton of Carbon captured through a Carbon Offset Program, a qualified “Carbon Credit / Carbon Offset” is created. Companies such as

text: British Petroleum

text: (BP),

text: Google

text: Chevron

text: FedEx

text: and several hundred US companies purchase carbon credits at established market prices, in some cases to avoid environmental penalties that cost well in excess of the carbon credit. Thus, NAVF provides financing and project management for North American indigenous tribes, given that the total land holdings of this minority is in excess of 3% of the entire landmass of the continent. The NET outcome, according to the Fund is profitable environmental protection for the Tribe and the investment community.

text: Synchronizers:	Carbon fiber composite

text: Synchronizers:	Carbon fiber composite

text: Endohedral hydrogen fullerene (H@C) is an endohedral fullerene containing molecular hydrogen. This chemical compound has a potential application in molecular electronics and was synthesized in 2005 at Kyoto University by the group of Koichi Komatsu. Ordinarily the payload of endohedral fullerenes are inserted at the time of the synthesis of the fullerene itself or is introduced to the fullerene at very low yields at high temperatures and high pressure. This particular fullerene was synthesised in an unusual way in three steps starting from pristine C fullerene: cracking open the carbon framework, insert hydrogen gas and zipping up by organic synthesis methods.

text: Endohedral hydrogen fullerene (

text: H

text: C

text: ) is an

text: endohedral fullerene

text: containing molecular

text: hydrogen

text: . This

text: chemical compound

text: has a potential application in

text: molecular electronics

text: and was synthesized in 2005 at

text: Kyoto University

text: by the group of Koichi Komatsu. Ordinarily the payload of endohedral fullerenes are inserted at the time of the synthesis of the fullerene itself or is introduced to the fullerene at very low yields at high temperatures and high pressure. This particular fullerene was synthesised in an unusual way in three steps starting from pristine C fullerene: cracking open the carbon framework, insert hydrogen gas and zipping up by

text: organic synthesis

text: methods.

text: Another aspect that distinguishes the tiger stripes from the rest of the surface of Enceladus is its unusual composition.  Nearly the entire surface of Enceladus is covered in a blanket of fine-grained water ice.  The ridges that surround the tiger stripes are often covered in coarse-grained, crystalline water ice. This material appears dark in the Cassini camera's IR3 filter (central wavelength 930 nanometers), giving the tiger stripes a dark appearance in clear-filter images and a blue-green appearance in false-color, near-ultraviolet, green, near-infrared images.  The Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) instrument also detected trapped carbon dioxide ice and simple organics within the tiger stripes.  Simple organic material has not been detected anywhere else on the surface of Enceladus.

text: Another aspect that distinguishes the tiger stripes from the rest of the surface of Enceladus is its unusual composition.  Nearly the entire surface of Enceladus is covered in a blanket of fine-grained water ice.  The ridges that surround the tiger stripes are often covered in coarse-grained, crystalline water ice. This material appears dark in the Cassini camera's IR3 filter (central wavelength 930

text: nanometer

text: s), giving the tiger stripes a dark appearance in clear-filter images and a blue-green appearance in false-color, near-ultraviolet, green, near-infrared images.  The Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) instrument also detected trapped

text: carbon dioxide

text: ice and simple organics within the tiger stripes.  Simple organic material has not been detected anywhere else on the surface of Enceladus.

text: Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make a steel, a number of different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of pure iron is the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure called alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at  and 0.021 wt% at  . The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called ferrite. At 910 °C pure iron transforms into a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called austenite. The FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%<ref>Sources differ on this value so it has been rounded to 2.1%, however the exact value is rather academic because plain-carbon steel is very rarely made with this level of carbon. See:

text: Even in a narrow range of concentrations of mixtures of carbon and iron that make a steel, a number of different metallurgical structures, with very different properties can form. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At

text: room temperature

text: , the most stable form of pure iron is the

text: body-centered cubic

text: (BCC) structure called alpha iron or α-iron. It is a fairly soft metal that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.005% at  and 0.021 wt% at  . The inclusion of carbon in alpha iron is called

text: ferrite

text: . At 910 °C pure iron transforms into a

text: face-centered cubic

text: (FCC) structure, called gamma iron or γ-iron. The inclusion of carbon in gamma iron is called

text: austenite

text: . The FCC structure of austenite can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1%<ref>Sources differ on this value so it has been rounded to 2.1%, however the exact value is rather academic because plain-carbon steel is very rarely made with this level of carbon. See:

text: Such copolymers are advantageous for certain molding applications, such as thermoforming, which is used for example to make tray or blister packaging from co-PET film, or amorphous PET sheet (A-PET) or PETG sheet. On the other hand, crystallization is important in other applications where mechanical and dimensional stability are important, such as seat belts. For PET bottles, the use of small amounts of isophthalic acid, CHDM, diethylene glycol (DEG) or other comonomers can be useful: if only small amounts of comonomers are used, crystallization is slowed but not prevented entirely. As a result, bottles are obtainable via stretch blow molding ("SBM"), which are both clear and crystalline enough to be an adequate barrier to aromas and even gases, such as carbon dioxide in carbonated beverages.

text: Such copolymers are advantageous for certain molding applications, such as

text: thermoforming

text: , which is used for example to make tray or blister packaging from co-PET film, or amorphous PET sheet (A-PET) or PETG sheet. On the other hand, crystallization is important in other applications where mechanical and dimensional stability are important, such as seat belts. For PET bottles, the use of small amounts of isophthalic acid, CHDM,

text: diethylene glycol

text: (DEG) or other comonomers can be useful: if only small amounts of comonomers are used, crystallization is slowed but not prevented entirely. As a result, bottles are obtainable via

text: stretch blow molding

text: ("SBM"), which are both clear and crystalline enough to be an adequate barrier to aromas and even gases, such as carbon dioxide in carbonated beverages.

text: Having started with only diamond and oxygen, and produced a gas which contains only carbon and oxygen, Tennant had discovered that diamonds are made of carbon.

text: Carbon is capable of forming many allotropes due to its valency. Well-known forms of carbon include diamond and graphite.  In recent decades many more allotropes and forms of carbon have been discovered and researched including ball shapes such as buckminsterfullerene and sheets such as graphene. Larger scale structures of carbon include nanotubes, nanobuds and nanoribbons.  Other unusual forms of carbon exist at very high temperature or extreme pressures.

text: Carbon

text: is capable of forming many

text: allotropes

text: due to its

text: valency

text: . Well-known forms of carbon include

text: diamond

text: and

text: graphite

text: .  In recent decades many more allotropes and forms of carbon have been discovered and researched including ball shapes such as

text: buckminsterfullerene

text: and sheets such as

text: graphene

text: . Larger scale structures of carbon include

text: nanotubes

text: nanobuds

text: and

text: nanoribbons

text: .  Other unusual forms of carbon exist at very high temperature or extreme pressures.

text: Graphite offers 2D and 3D wireframe drafting.

text: Graphite offers 2D and 3D

text: wireframe

text: drafting.

text: A similar material is Dymalloy, with copper-silver alloy instead of aluminium and diamond instead of silicon carbide. Other materials are copper reinforced with carbon fiber, diamond-reinforced aluminium, reinforced carbon-carbon, and pyrolytic graphite.

text: A similar material is

text: Dymalloy

text: , with copper-silver alloy instead of aluminium and

text: diamond

text: instead of silicon carbide. Other materials are copper reinforced with

text: carbon fiber

text: , diamond-reinforced aluminium,

text: reinforced carbon-carbon

text: , and

text: pyrolytic graphite

text: The term graphene first appeared in 1987 to describe single sheets of graphite as a constituent of graphite intercalation compounds (GICs); conceptually a GIC is a crystalline salt of the intercalant and graphene. The term was also used in early descriptions of carbon nanotubes, as well as for epitaxial graphene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Graphene can be considered an "infinite alternant" (only six-member carbon ring) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Simpson |first=C. D. |last2=Brand |first2=J. Diedrich |last3=Berresheim |first3=Alexander J. |last4=Przybilla |first4=Laurence |last5=Räder |first5=Hans Joachim |last6=Müllen |first6=Klaus |title=Synthesis of a Giant 222 Carbon Graphite Sheet |doi=10.1002/1521-3765(20020315)8:6

text: The term graphene first appeared in 1987 to describe single sheets of graphite as a constituent of

text: graphite intercalation compound

text: s (GICs); conceptually a GIC is a crystalline salt of the intercalant and graphene. The term was also used in early descriptions of

text: carbon nanotube

text: s, as well as for

text: epitaxial

text: graphene and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Graphene can be considered an "infinite alternant" (only six-member

text: carbon ring

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: (PAH).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Simpson |first=C. D. |last2=Brand |first2=J. Diedrich |last3=Berresheim |first3=Alexander J. |last4=Przybilla |first4=Laurence |last5=Räder |first5=Hans Joachim |last6=Müllen |first6=Klaus |title=Synthesis of a Giant 222 Carbon Graphite Sheet |doi=10.1002/1521-3765(20020315)8:6

text: In March 1995 Guo et al. were the first to report the use of a laser to ablate a block of pure graphite, and later graphite mixed with catalytic metal. The catalytic metal can consist of elements such as cobalt, niobium, platinum, nickel, copper, or a binary combination thereof. The composite block is formed by making a paste of graphite powder, carbon cement, and the metal. The paste is next placed in a cylindrical mold and baked for several hours. After solidification, the graphite block is placed inside an oven with a laser pointed at it, and argon gas is pumped along the direction of the laser point. The oven temperature is approximately 1200 °C. As the laser ablates the target, carbon nanotubes form and are carried by the gas flow onto a cool copper collector. Like carbon nanotubes formed using the electric-arc discharge technique, carbon nanotube fibers are deposited in a haphazard and tangled fashion. Single-walled nanotubes are formed from the block of graphite and metal catalyst particles, whereas multi-walled nanotubes form from the pure graphite starting material.

text: In March 1995 Guo et al. were the first to report the use of a

text: laser

text: to

text: ablate

text: a block of pure

text: graphite

text: , and later graphite mixed with

text: catalytic

text: metal

text: . The catalytic metal can consist of elements such as

text: cobalt

text: niobium

text: platinum

text: nickel

text: copper

text: , or a binary combination thereof. The composite block is formed by making a paste of graphite powder, carbon cement, and the metal. The paste is next placed in a cylindrical mold and baked for several hours. After solidification, the graphite block is placed inside an oven with a laser pointed at it, and

text: argon

text: gas is pumped along the direction of the laser point. The oven temperature is approximately 1200 °C. As the laser ablates the target,

text: carbon nanotubes

text: form and are carried by the gas flow onto a cool copper collector. Like carbon nanotubes formed using the

text: electric-arc discharge

text: technique, carbon nanotube fibers are deposited in a haphazard and tangled fashion. Single-walled nanotubes are formed from the block of graphite and metal catalyst particles, whereas multi-walled nanotubes form from the pure graphite starting material.

text: Carbon forms tetrahalides with all the halogens. Carbon also forms three oxides: carbon monoxide, carbon suboxide (CO), and carbon dioxide. Carbon forms disulfides and diselenides.

text: Carbon forms tetrahalides with all the

text: halogen

text: s. Carbon also forms three oxides:

text: carbon monoxide

text: carbon suboxide

text: (CO), and

text: carbon dioxide

text: . Carbon forms disulfides and diselenides.

text: Leading up to the album release, Björk issued a series of remixes of "Crystalline" and "Cosmogony", titled The Crystalline Series. The remixes were released on digital download, LP and in a limited CD edition. The first part, which contained the two single versions of the songs by Serban Ghenea, was released on July 19, 2011, coinciding with the digital release of "Cosmogony". The second part included two remixes of "Crystalline" and "Thunderbolt" by Syrian musician Omar Souleyman, alongside an original song by the musician, called "Mawal", was released on July 26. This release was anticipated by a video teaser, which showed Souleyman during the recording sessions for the remix of "Crystalline". The third and fourth parts, containing remixes of the two tracks by British electronic musician and producer Matthew Herbert, were released on August 2, 2011.

text: Leading up to the album release, Björk issued a series of remixes of "Crystalline" and "Cosmogony", titled The Crystalline Series. The remixes were released on digital download, LP and in a limited CD edition. The first part, which contained the two single versions of the songs by Serban Ghenea, was released on July 19, 2011, coinciding with the digital release of "Cosmogony". The second part included two remixes of "Crystalline" and "Thunderbolt" by

text: Syria

text: n musician

text: Omar Souleyman

text: , alongside an original song by the musician, called "Mawal", was released on July 26. This release was anticipated by a video teaser, which showed Souleyman during the recording sessions for the remix of "Crystalline". The third and fourth parts, containing remixes of the two tracks by

text: British

text: electronic musician and producer

text: Matthew Herbert

text: , were released on August 2, 2011.

text: Graphite's current portfolio also includes:

text: Fructose is a 6-carbon polyhydroxyketone. Crystalline fructose adopts a cyclic six-membered structure owing to the stability of its hemiketal and internal hydrogen-bonding. This form is formally called

text: Fructose is a 6-carbon polyhydroxyketone. Crystalline fructose adopts a cyclic six-membered structure owing to the stability of its

text: hemiketal

text: and internal hydrogen-bonding. This form is formally called

text: Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate (COC) is an organic chemical, an carbonate ester of cholesterol and oleyl alcohol with carbonic acid. It is a liquid crystal material forming cholesteric liquid crystals with helical structure. It is a transparent liquid, or a soft crystalline material with melting point around 20 °C. It can be used with cholesteryl nonanoate and cholesteryl benzoate in some thermochromic liquid crystals.

text: Cholesteryl oleyl carbonate (COC) is an

text: organic chemical

text: , an

text: carbonate ester

text: of

text: cholesterol

text: and

text: oleyl alcohol

text: with

text: carbonic acid

text: . It is a

text: liquid crystal

text: material forming

text: cholesteric liquid crystal

text: s with helical structure. It is a transparent liquid, or a soft crystalline material with melting point around 20 °C. It can be used with

text: cholesteryl nonanoate

text: and

text: cholesteryl benzoate

text: in some

text: thermochromic

text: liquid crystals.

text: Fullerene or C is soccer-ball-shaped or I with 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons. According to Euler's theorem these 12 pentagons are required for closure of the carbon network consisting of n hexagons and C is the first stable fullerene because it is the smallest possible to obey this rule. In this structure none of the pentagons make contact with each other. Both C and its relative C obey this so-called isolated pentagon rule (IPR). The next homologue C has  24 IPR isomers of which several are isolated and another 51,568 non-IPR isomers. Non-IPR fullerenes have thus far only been isolated as endohedral fullerenes such as TbN@C with two fused pentagons at the apex of an egg-shaped cage. or as fullerenes with exohedral stabilization such as CCl  and reportedly CH. Lower fullerenes do not obey isolated pentagon rule(IPR).

text: Fullerene or C is

text: soccer-ball-shaped

text: or I with 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons. According to

text: Euler's theorem

text: these 12 pentagons are required for closure of the carbon network consisting of n hexagons and C is the first stable fullerene because it is the smallest possible to obey this rule. In this structure none of the pentagons make contact with each other. Both C and its relative C obey this so-called

text: isolated pentagon rule

text: (IPR). The next homologue C has  24 IPR isomers of which several are isolated and another 51,568 non-IPR isomers. Non-IPR fullerenes have thus far only been isolated as endohedral fullerenes such as TbN@C with two fused pentagons at the apex of an egg-shaped cage. or as fullerenes with exohedral stabilization such as CCl  and reportedly CH.

text: Lower fullerenes

text: do not obey isolated pentagon rule(IPR).

text: In a similar fashion the recently found carbon allotrope fullerene, C reacts with fluorine gas to give fullerene fluorides with stoichiometries up to CF.

text: In a similar fashion the recently found carbon

text: allotrope

text: fullerene

text: , C reacts with fluorine gas to give fullerene fluorides with stoichiometries up to CF.

text: Xylitol pentanitrate is a rarely used liquid explosive compound with extremely high viscosity formed by completely nitrating xylitol, a sugar alcohol compound with five carbon atoms. In pure form it is a white crystalline explosive, much like other fully nitrated polyols. However, during synthesis lower nitrated forms are produced, which produce a viscous liquid mixture that is hard to purify.

text: Xylitol pentanitrate is a rarely used liquid explosive compound with extremely high viscosity formed by completely

text: nitrating

text: xylitol

text: , a

text: sugar alcohol

text: compound with five carbon atoms. In pure form it is a white crystalline explosive, much like other fully nitrated polyols. However, during synthesis lower nitrated forms are produced, which produce a viscous liquid mixture that is hard to purify.

text: Such fuels are considered carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. To the extent that synthetic fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.

text: Such fuels are considered

text: carbon-neutral

text: because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. To the extent that synthetic fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: carbon capture

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities, such as boron and nitrogen. Small amounts of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (lattice defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion (ability to disperse light of different colors).

text: Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities, such as

text: boron

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: . Small amounts of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (

text: lattice defect

text: s), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high

text: optical dispersion

text: (ability to disperse light of different colors).

text: Examples of fullerenes in popular culture are numerous. Fullerenes appeared in fiction well before scientists took serious interest in them. In a humorously speculative 1966 column for New Scientist, David Jones suggested that it may be possible to create giant hollow carbon molecules by distorting a plane hexagonal net by the addition of impurity atoms.

text: Examples of fullerenes in

text: popular culture

text: are numerous. Fullerenes appeared in fiction well before scientists took serious interest in them. In a humorously speculative 1966 column for

text: New Scientist

text: David Jones

text: suggested that it may be possible to create giant hollow carbon molecules by distorting a plane hexagonal net by the addition of impurity atoms.

text: With increasing numbers of carbon atoms in the frame, the geometry more closely approximates a sphere, and the space enclosed in the carbon "cage" increases. This trend continues with buckyballs or spherical fullerene (C). Although not a Platonic hydrocarbon, fullerene has the shape of a truncated icosahedron, an Archimedean solid.

text: With increasing numbers of carbon atoms in the

text: frame

text: , the geometry more closely approximates a sphere, and the space enclosed in the carbon "cage" increases. This trend continues with buckyballs or spherical

text: fullerene

text: (C). Although not a Platonic hydrocarbon, fullerene has the shape of a

text: truncated icosahedron

text: , an

text: Archimedean solid

text: The prominent dark lane that runs through the centre of the nebula has been shown to have an extraordinary dust chemistry, showing evidence for multiple crystalline silicates, crystalline water ice and quartz, with other features which have been interpreted as the first extra-solar detection of carbonates. This detection has been disputed, due to the difficulties in forming carbonates in a non-aqueous environment. The dispute remains unresolved.

text: The prominent dark lane that runs through the centre of the nebula has been shown to have an extraordinary dust chemistry, showing evidence for multiple crystalline silicates, crystalline water ice and

text: quartz

text: , with other features which have been interpreted as the first extra-solar detection of carbonates. This detection has been disputed, due to the difficulties in forming carbonates in a non-aqueous environment. The dispute remains unresolved.

text: Fullerenes have been extensively used for several biomedical applications including the design of high-performance MRI contrast agents, X-Ray imaging contrast agents, photodynamic therapy and drug and gene delivery, summarized in several comprehensive reviews.

text: Most modern industrial diamonds are produced synthetically, so the deposits at Popigai may not be profitable because of the remote location and difficulty of extraction.  Many of the diamonds at Popigai contain crystalline lonsdaleite,  an allotrope of carbon that has a hexagonal lattice. Pure, laboratory-created lonsdaleite is 58% harder than ordinary diamonds, though it is unknown whether the natural, impure examples at Popigai show similar characteristics. The diamonds also "contain unusual abrasive features and large grain size" which could make them extremely useful for industrial and scientific applications.  These types of diamonds are known as "impact diamonds" because they are thought to be produced when a meteorite strikes a graphite deposit at high velocity.  They may have industrial uses but are considered unsuitable as gems.

text: Most modern industrial diamonds are produced

text: synthetically

text: , so the deposits at Popigai may not be profitable because of the remote location and difficulty of extraction.  Many of the diamonds at Popigai contain

text: crystalline

text: lonsdaleite

text: ,  an

text: allotrope of carbon

text: that has a hexagonal lattice. Pure, laboratory-created lonsdaleite is 58% harder than ordinary diamonds, though it is unknown whether the natural, impure examples at Popigai show similar characteristics. The diamonds also "contain unusual abrasive features and large grain size" which could make them extremely useful for industrial and scientific applications.  These types of diamonds are known as "impact diamonds" because they are thought to be produced when a meteorite strikes a graphite deposit at high velocity.  They may have industrial uses but are considered unsuitable as

text: gem

text: s.

text: Despite producing the majority of its electricity from hydroelectric plants, Norway is ranked 30th in the 2008 list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita and 37th in the 2004 list of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions. Norway is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, under which it agreed to reduce its carbon emissions to no more than 1% above 1990 levels by 2012.On April 19, 2007, Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg announced to the Labour Party annual congress that Norway's greenhouse gas emissions would be cut by 10 percent more than its Kyoto commitment by 2012, and that the government had agreed to achieve emission cuts of 30% by 2020. He also proposed that Norway should become carbon neutral by 2050, and called upon other rich countries to do likewise.  This carbon neutrality would be achieved partly by carbon offsetting, a proposal criticised by Greenpeace, who also called on Norway to take responsibility for the 500m tonnes of emissions caused by its exports of oil and gas. World Wildlife Fund Norway also believes that the purchase of carbon offsets is unacceptable, saying "it is a political stillbirth to believe that China will quietly accept that Norway will buy climate quotas abroad". The Norwegian environmental activist Bellona Foundation believes that the prime minister was forced to act due to pressure from anti-European Union members of the coalition government, and called the announcement "visions without content".

text: Despite producing the majority of its electricity from hydroelectric plants, Norway is ranked 30th in the 2008

entity_name: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita

text: list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita

text: and 37th in the 2004

entity_name: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions

text: list of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions

text: . Norway is a signatory to the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: , under which it agreed to reduce its

text: carbon emissions

text: to no more than 1% above 1990 levels by 2012.On April 19, 2007, Prime Minister

text: Jens Stoltenberg

text: announced to the

text: Labour Party

text: annual congress that Norway's

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions would be cut by 10 percent more than its Kyoto commitment by 2012, and that the government had agreed to achieve emission cuts of 30% by 2020. He also proposed that Norway should become

text: carbon neutral

text: by 2050, and called upon other rich countries to do likewise.  This carbon neutrality would be achieved partly by

text: carbon offset

text: ting, a proposal criticised by

text: Greenpeace

text: , who also called on Norway to take responsibility for the 500m tonnes of emissions caused by its exports of

text: oil

text: and

text: gas

text: World Wildlife Fund

text: Norway also believes that the purchase of carbon offsets is unacceptable, saying "it is a political stillbirth to believe that

text: China

text: will quietly accept that Norway will buy climate quotas abroad". The Norwegian environmental activist

text: Bellona Foundation

text: believes that the prime minister was forced to act due to pressure from anti-

text: European Union

text: members of the

text: coalition

text: government, and called the announcement "visions without content".

text: Biofuels and other forms of renewable energy aim to be carbon neutral or even carbon negative. Carbon neutral means that the carbon released during the use of the fuel, e.g. through burning to power transport or generate electricity, is reabsorbed and balanced by the carbon absorbed by new plant growth. These plants are then harvested to make the next batch of fuel. Carbon neutral fuels lead to no net increases in human contributions to atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, reducing the human contributions to global warming. A carbon negative aim is achieved when a portion of the biomass is used for carbon sequestration. Calculating exactly how much greenhouse gas (GHG) is produced in burning biofuels is a complex and inexact process, which depends very much on the method by which the fuel is produced and other assumptions made in the calculation.

text: Biofuels and other forms of

text: renewable energy

text: aim to be

text: carbon neutral

text: or even carbon negative. Carbon neutral means that the carbon released during the use of the fuel, e.g. through burning to power transport or generate electricity, is reabsorbed and balanced by the carbon absorbed by new plant growth. These plants are then harvested to make the next batch of fuel. Carbon neutral fuels lead to no net increases in human contributions to atmospheric

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels, reducing the human contributions to

text: global warming

text: . A carbon negative aim is achieved when a portion of the biomass is used for

text: carbon sequestration

text: . Calculating exactly how much

text: greenhouse gas

text: (GHG) is produced in burning biofuels is a complex and inexact process, which depends very much on the method by which the fuel is produced and other assumptions made in the calculation.

text: Qingsongite  is a rare boron nitride mineral with cubic crystalline form. It was first described in 2009 for an occurrence as minute inclusions within chromite deposits in the Luobusa ophiolite in the Shannan Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region, China. It was recognized as a mineral in August 2013 by the International Mineralogical Association. It is named after Chinese geologist Qingsong Fang (1939–2010). Qingsongite is the only known boron mineral that is formed deep in the Earth's mantle. Associated minerals or phases include osbornite (titanium nitride), coesite, kyanite and amorphous carbon.

text: Qingsongite  is a rare

text: boron nitride

text: mineral with

text: cubic crystalline form

text: . It was first described in 2009 for an occurrence as minute inclusions within

text: chromite

text: deposits in the Luobusa

text: ophiolite

text: in the

text: Shannan Prefecture

text: Tibet Autonomous Region

text: China

text: . It was recognized as a mineral in August 2013 by the

text: International Mineralogical Association

text: . It is named after Chinese geologist

text: Qingsong Fang

text: (1939–2010). Qingsongite is the only known boron mineral that is formed deep in the

text: Earth's mantle

text: . Associated minerals or phases include

text: osbornite

text: titanium nitride

text: coesite

text: kyanite

text: and

text: amorphous carbon

text: Shungite is a black, lustrous, non-crystalline mineraloid consisting of more than 98 weight percent of carbon. It was first described from a deposit near Shunga village, in Karelia, Russia, from where it gets its name. Shungite has been reported to contain fullerenes.

text: Shungite is a black, lustrous, non-crystalline

text: mineraloid

text: consisting of more than 98

text: weight percent

text: of carbon. It was first described from a deposit near

text: Shunga village

text: , in

text: Karelia

text: , Russia, from where it gets its name. Shungite has been reported to contain

text: fullerene

text: s.

text: Both isoprenoid chains, geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGpp) and farnesyl pyrophosphate are products of the HMG-CoA reductase pathway. The product of HMG CoA reductase is mevalonate. By combining precursors with 5 carbons, the pathway subsequently produces geranyl pyrophosphate (10 carbons), farnesyl pyrophosphate (15 carbons) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (20 carbons). Two farnesyl pyrophosphate groups can also be combined to form squalene, the precursor for cholesterol. This means that statins, which inhibit HMG CoA reductase, inhibit the production of both cholesterol and isoprenoids.

text: Both isoprenoid chains,

text: geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate

text: (GGpp) and

text: farnesyl pyrophosphate

text: are products of the

text: HMG-CoA reductase pathway

text: . The product of HMG CoA reductase is mevalonate. By combining precursors with 5 carbons, the pathway subsequently produces geranyl pyrophosphate (10 carbons), farnesyl pyrophosphate (15 carbons) and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (20 carbons). Two farnesyl pyrophosphate groups can also be combined to form squalene, the precursor for

text: cholesterol

text: . This means that

text: statins

text: , which inhibit HMG CoA reductase, inhibit the production of both cholesterol and isoprenoids.

text: In mineral form, calcium carbonate can exhibit a wide range of hardness depending on how it is formed. At its softest, calcium carbonate can form in concrete as chalk (of hardness 1.0 on Mohs scale). Like Portlandite, calcium carbonate in mineral form can also be porous, permeable and with a poor resistance to acid attack, which causes it to release carbon dioxide.

text: In mineral form, calcium carbonate can exhibit a wide range of hardness depending on how it is formed. At its softest, calcium carbonate can form in concrete as

text: chalk

text: (of hardness 1.0 on

text: Mohs scale

text: ). Like Portlandite, calcium carbonate in mineral form can also be porous, permeable and with a poor resistance to acid attack, which causes it to release carbon dioxide.

text: Allotropy or allotropism () is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical state, known as allotropes of these elements. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element; the atoms of the element are bonded together in a different manner. For example, the allotropes of carbon include diamond (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in a tetrahedral lattice arrangement), graphite (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice), graphene (single sheets of graphite), and fullerenes (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal formations). The term allotropy is used for elements only, not for compounds. The more general term, used for any crystalline material, is polymorphism. Allotropy refers only to different forms of an element within the same phase (i.e. different solid, liquid or gas forms); these different states are not, themselves, considered to be examples of allotropy.

text: Allotropy or allotropism () is the property of some

text: chemical element

text: s to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical

text: state

text: , known as allotropes of these elements. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element; the

text: atoms

text: of the element are

text: bonded

text: together in a different manner. For example, the

text: allotropes of carbon

text: include

text: diamond

text: (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in a

text: tetrahedral

text: lattice arrangement),

text: graphite

text: (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a

text: hexagonal lattice

text: graphene

text: (single sheets of graphite), and

text: fullerene

text: s (where the carbon atoms are bonded together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal formations). The term allotropy is used for elements only, not for

text: compounds

text: . The more general term, used for any crystalline material, is

text: polymorphism

text: . Allotropy refers only to different forms of an element within the same

text: phase

text: (i.e. different

text: solid

text: liquid

text: or

text: gas

text: forms); these different states are not, themselves, considered to be examples of allotropy.

text: The near-instantaneous quenching of the metal causes the metal to have a near-amorphous crystalline structure, which is very uncharacteristic of a typical crystal. This structure is very similar to liquids, and the only difference between liquids and amorphous solids is the high viscosity of the solid.Solids in general have a crystalline structure instead of an amorphous structure because the crystalline structure has a stronger binding energy. The way a solid can have the irregular spacing between its atoms is when a liquid is cooled below its melting temperature. The reason for this is the molecules do not have enough time to rearrange themselves in a crystalline structure, and therefore, they stay in the liquid-like structure.

text: The near-instantaneous

text: quenching

text: of the metal causes the metal to have a near-

text: amorphous

text: crystalline structure, which is very uncharacteristic of a typical crystal. This structure is very similar to liquids, and the only difference between liquids and amorphous solids is the high

text: viscosity

text: of the solid.Solids in general have a crystalline structure instead of an amorphous structure because the crystalline structure has a stronger binding energy. The way a solid can have the irregular spacing between its atoms is when a liquid is cooled below its melting temperature. The reason for this is the molecules do not have enough time to rearrange themselves in a crystalline structure, and therefore, they stay in the liquid-like structure.

text: One famous intercalation host is graphite, which intercalates of potassium as a guest. Intercalation expands the van der Waals gap between sheets, which requires energy. Usually this energy is supplied by charge transfer between the guest and the host solid, i.e., redox. Two potassium graphite compounds are KC and KC. Carbon fluorides (e.g., (CF) and (CF)) are prepared by reaction of fluorine with graphitic carbon. The color is greyish, white, or yellow. The bond between the carbon and fluorine atoms is covalent, thus fluorine is not intercalated. Such materials have been considered as a cathode in various lithium batteries.

text: One famous intercalation host is

text: graphite

text: , which intercalates of potassium as a guest. Intercalation expands the

text: van der Waals gap

text: between sheets, which requires energy. Usually this energy is supplied by charge transfer between the guest and the host solid, i.e.,

text: redox

text: . Two potassium graphite compounds are KC and KC. Carbon fluorides (e.g., (CF) and (CF)) are prepared by reaction of

text: fluorine

text: with graphitic carbon. The color is greyish, white, or yellow. The bond between the carbon and fluorine atoms is covalent, thus fluorine is not intercalated. Such materials have been considered as a

text: cathode

text: in various

text: lithium batteries

text: Unlike in an inorganic crystalline PV cell material, with its band structure and delocalized electrons, excitons in organic photovoltaics are strongly bound with an energy between 0.1 and 1.4 eV. This strong binding occurs because electronic wave functions in organic molecules are more localized, and electrostatic attraction can thus keep the electron and hole together as an exciton. The electron and hole can be dissociated by providing an interface across which the chemical potential of electrons decreases. The material that absorbs the photon is the donor, and the material acquiring the electron is called the acceptor. In Fig. 2, the polymer chain is the donor and the fullerene is the acceptor. Even after dissociation, the electron and hole may still be joined as a "geminate pair", and an electric field is then required to separate them. The electron and hole must be collected at contacts. If charge carrier mobility is insufficient, the carriers will not reach the contacts, and instead recombine at trap sites or remain in the device as undesirable space charges that oppose the flow of new carriers. The latter problem can occur if electron and hole mobilities are not matched. In that case, space-charge limited photocurrent (SCLP) hampers device performance.

text: Unlike in an inorganic

text: crystalline PV cell

text: material, with its band structure and delocalized electrons, excitons in organic photovoltaics are strongly bound with an energy between 0.1 and 1.4

text: eV

text: . This strong binding occurs because electronic wave functions in organic molecules are more localized, and electrostatic attraction can thus keep the electron and hole together as an exciton. The electron and hole can be dissociated by providing an interface across which the chemical potential of electrons decreases. The material that absorbs the photon is the donor, and the material acquiring the electron is called the acceptor. In Fig. 2, the polymer chain is the donor and the

text: fullerene

text: is the acceptor. Even after dissociation, the electron and hole may still be joined as a "geminate pair", and an

text: electric field

text: is then required to separate them. The electron and hole must be collected at contacts. If

text: charge carrier

text: mobility is insufficient, the carriers will not reach the contacts, and instead recombine at trap sites or remain in the device as undesirable space charges that oppose the flow of new carriers. The latter problem can occur if electron and hole mobilities are not matched. In that case, space-charge limited photocurrent (SCLP) hampers device performance.

text: SR 162 begins at a diamond interchange with the SR 410 freeway in Sumner and travels south as a continuation of Valley Avenue, crossing the Puyallup River. The highway continues south through rural Pierce County, following a Ballard Terminal Railroad line and the Puyallup River. It serves the community of Alderton and joins the Pierce County Foothills Trail, traveling southeast from Puyallup. SR 162 crosses the Puyallup River on the McMillin Bridge, listed on the National Register of Historical Places, west of its confluence with the Carbon River. It becomes Washington Avenue as it travels southeast through Orting, serving Orting High School. The highway turns southwest onto Bridge Street and crosses the Foothills Trail before turning back southeast onto Herman Way, later Pioneer Way outside of Orting, towards South Prairie. SR 162 continues northeast, crossing the Foothills Trail and the Carbon River before passing through South Prairie. The highway travels east, crossing South Prairie Creek and passing White River High School, before ending at an intersection with SR 165 southwest of Buckley.

text: SR 162 begins at a

text: diamond interchange

text: with the

text: SR 410

text: freeway in

text: Sumner

text: and travels south as a continuation of Valley Avenue, crossing the

text: Puyallup River

text: . The highway continues south through rural

text: Pierce County

text: , following a

text: Ballard Terminal Railroad

text: line and the Puyallup River. It serves the community of

text: Alderton

text: and joins the

text: Pierce County Foothills Trail

text: , traveling southeast from

text: Puyallup

text: . SR 162 crosses the Puyallup River on the

text: McMillin Bridge

text: , listed on the

text: National Register of Historical Places

text: , west of its

text: confluence

text: with the

text: Carbon River

text: . It becomes Washington Avenue as it travels southeast through

text: Orting

text: , serving

text: Orting High School

text: . The highway turns southwest onto Bridge Street and crosses the Foothills Trail before turning back southeast onto Herman Way, later Pioneer Way outside of Orting, towards

text: South Prairie

text: . SR 162 continues northeast, crossing the Foothills Trail and the Carbon River before passing through South Prairie. The highway travels east, crossing

text: South Prairie Creek

text: and passing

text: White River High School

text: , before ending at an intersection with

text: SR 165

text: southwest of

text: Buckley

text: Diamond is a well known allotrope of carbon. The hardness and high dispersion of light of diamond make it useful for both industrial applications and jewelry. Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral. This makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster extremely well. No known naturally occurring substance can cut (or even scratch) a diamond, except another diamond.

text: Diamond is a well known allotrope of carbon. The

text: hardness

text: and high

text: dispersion of light

text: of diamond make it useful for both industrial applications and jewelry. Diamond is the hardest known natural

text: mineral

text: . This makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster extremely well. No known naturally occurring substance can cut (or even scratch) a diamond, except another diamond.

text: Another application of material science is the structures of ceramics and glass, typically associated with the most brittle materials. Bonding in ceramics and glasses uses covalent and ionic-covalent types with SiO (silica or sand) as a fundamental building block. Ceramics are as soft as clay or as hard as stone and concrete. Usually, they are crystalline in form. Most glasses contain a metal oxide fused with silica. At high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a viscous liquid. The structure of glass forms into an amorphous state upon cooling. Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples. Fibers of glass are also available. Scratch resistant Corning Gorilla Glass is a well-known example of the application of materials science to drastically improve the properties of common components. Diamond and carbon in its graphite form are considered to be ceramics.

text: Another application of material science is the structures of

text: ceramic

text: s and

text: glass

text: , typically associated with the most brittle materials. Bonding in ceramics and glasses uses covalent and ionic-covalent types with SiO (silica or sand) as a fundamental building block. Ceramics are as soft as clay or as hard as stone and concrete. Usually, they are crystalline in form. Most glasses contain a metal oxide fused with silica. At high temperatures used to prepare glass, the material is a viscous liquid. The structure of glass forms into an amorphous state upon cooling. Windowpanes and eyeglasses are important examples. Fibers of glass are also available. Scratch resistant Corning

text: Gorilla Glass

text: is a well-known example of the application of materials science to drastically improve the properties of common components. Diamond and carbon in its graphite form are considered to be ceramics.

text: Crystallins are water-soluble proteins that compose over 90% of the protein within the lens. The three main crystallin types found in the human eye are α-, β-, and γ-crystallins. Crystallins tend to form soluble, high-molecular weight aggregates that pack tightly in lens fibers, thus increasing the index of refraction of the lens while maintaining its transparency. β and γ crystallins are found primarily in the lens, while subunits of α -crystallin have been isolated from other parts of the eye and the body. α-crystallin proteins belong to a larger superfamily of molecular chaperone proteins, and so it is believed that the crystallin proteins were evolutionarily recruited from chaperone proteins for optical purposes. The chaperone functions of α-crystallin may also help maintain the lens proteins, which must last a human for his/her entire lifetime.

text: Crystallin

text: s are water-soluble

text: protein

text: s that compose over 90% of the protein within the lens. The three main crystallin types found in the human eye are α-, β-, and γ-crystallins. Crystallins tend to form soluble, high-molecular weight aggregates that pack tightly in lens fibers, thus increasing the index of refraction of the lens while maintaining its transparency. β and γ crystallins are found primarily in the lens, while subunits of α -crystallin have been isolated from other parts of the eye and the body. α-crystallin proteins belong to a larger superfamily of molecular

text: chaperone proteins

text: , and so it is believed that the crystallin proteins were evolutionarily recruited from chaperone proteins for optical purposes. The chaperone functions of α-crystallin may also help maintain the lens proteins, which must last a human for his/her entire lifetime.

text: However, which properties are added to a surface and to what degree depends upon which of the 7 forms are applied, and further upon the amounts and types of diluents added to reduce the cost of production. In 2006 the Association of German Engineers, VDI, the largest engineering association in Western Europe issued an authoritative report VDI2840  in order to clarify the existing multiplicity of confusing terms and trade names. It provides a unique classification and nomenclature for diamond-like-carbon (DLC) and diamond films. It succeeded in reporting all information necessary to identify and to compare different DLC films which are offered on the market. Quoting from that document:

text: However, which properties are added to a surface and to what degree depends upon which of the 7 forms are applied, and further upon the amounts and types of diluents added to reduce the cost of production. In 2006 the Association of German Engineers,

text: VDI

text: , the largest engineering association in Western Europe issued an authoritative report VDI2840  in order to clarify the existing multiplicity of confusing terms and trade names. It provides a unique classification and nomenclature for diamond-like-carbon (DLC) and diamond films. It succeeded in reporting all information necessary to identify and to compare different DLC films which are offered on the market. Quoting from that document:

text: Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl, who together won the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.  Smalley's research in physical chemistry investigated formation of inorganic and semiconductor clusters using pulsed molecular beams and time of flight mass spectrometry.  As a consequence of this expertise, Curl introduced him to Kroto in order to investigate a question about the constituents of astronomical dust.  These are carbon rich grains expelled by old stars such as R Corona Borealis. The result of this collaboration was the discovery of C and the fullerenes as the third allotropic form of carbon.  Subsequent discoveries included the endohedral fullerenes, and the larger family of fullerenes the following year.

text: Fullerene

text: s were discovered in 1985 by

text: Harry Kroto

text: Richard Smalley

text: , and

text: Robert Curl

text: , who together won the 1996

text: Nobel Prize in Chemistry

text: .  Smalley's research in physical chemistry investigated formation of inorganic and semiconductor clusters using pulsed molecular beams and time of flight

text: mass spectrometry

text: .  As a consequence of this expertise, Curl introduced him to Kroto in order to investigate a question about the constituents of astronomical dust.  These are carbon rich grains expelled by old stars such as R Corona Borealis. The result of this collaboration was the discovery of C and the fullerenes as the third

text: allotropic

text: form of carbon.  Subsequent discoveries included the

text: endohedral fullerenes

text: , and the larger family of fullerenes the following year.

text: Graphite is one of the common resources in Sivagangai. Very valuable graphite is available in Sivagangai and its surrounding areas.The Sivaganga graphite is of flaky variety with 14% average Fixed Carbon used in the manufacture of refractory bricks, expanded graphite, crucibles and carbon brushes. TAMIN has over 600 acres of graphite bearing land in Pudupatti, Kumaripatti and Senthiudayanathapuram of Sivaganga taluk, Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu. Estimated reserve of graphite ore in leasehold area is three million tonnes.(recoverable graphite from 14% F.C is approximately 3 lakh tonnes).

text: Graphite

text: is one of the common resources in Sivagangai. Very valuable graphite is available in Sivagangai and its surrounding areas.The Sivaganga graphite is of flaky variety with 14% average Fixed Carbon used in the manufacture of refractory bricks, expanded graphite, crucibles and carbon brushes. TAMIN has over 600 acres of graphite bearing land in Pudupatti, Kumaripatti and Senthiudayanathapuram of Sivaganga taluk, Sivagangai District, Tamil Nadu. Estimated reserve of graphite ore in leasehold area is three million tonnes.(recoverable graphite from 14% F.C is approximately 3 lakh tonnes).

text: Carbon neutral fuel is synthetic fuel—such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel—produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater. Such fuels are potentially carbon neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation. Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.

text: Carbon neutral fuel

text: is

text: synthetic fuel

text: —such as

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: jet fuel

text: —produced from

text: renewable

text: or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

text: power plant flue

text: exhaust gas

text: or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: . Such fuels are potentially

text: carbon neutral

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: carbon capture

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: . Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by the

text: electrolysis of water

text: to make

text: hydrogen

text: used in the

text: Sabatier reaction

text: to produce methane which may then be

text: stored

text: to be burned later in

text: power plants

text: as synthetic

text: natural gas

text: , transported by

text: pipeline

text: truck

text: , or

text: tanker ship

text: , or be used in

text: gas to liquids

text: processes such as the

text: Fischer–Tropsch process

text: fuel

text: s.

text: A diamond is a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms in a covalent network lattice (sp) that crystallizes into the diamond lattice which is a variation of the face centered cubic structure. Diamonds have been adapted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable are its extreme hardness and thermal conductivity (900–), as well as wide bandgap and high optical dispersion. Above  ( / ) in vacuum or oxygen-free atmosphere, diamond converts to graphite; in air, transformation starts at ~. Diamond's ignition point is 720 –  in oxygen and 850 –  in air. Naturally occurring diamonds have a density ranging from 3.15–, with pure diamond close to . The chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are weaker than those in graphite. In diamonds, the bonds form an inflexible three-dimensional lattice, whereas in graphite, the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets, which can slide easily over one another, making the overall structure weaker. In a diamond, each carbon atom is surrounded by neighboring four carbon atoms forming a tetrahedral shaped unit.

text: A diamond is a

text: transparent

text: crystal

text: of

text: tetrahedrally

text: bonded carbon atoms in a covalent network lattice (

text: sp

text: ) that crystallizes into the

text: diamond lattice

text: which is a variation of the

text: face centered cubic

text: structure. Diamonds have been adapted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable are its extreme hardness and thermal conductivity (900–), as well as wide

text: bandgap

text: and high optical dispersion. Above  ( / ) in

text: vacuum

text: or oxygen-free atmosphere, diamond converts to graphite; in air, transformation starts at ~. Diamond's ignition point is 720 –  in oxygen and 850 –  in air. Naturally occurring diamonds have a density ranging from 3.15–, with pure diamond close to . The chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are weaker than those in graphite. In diamonds, the bonds form an inflexible three-dimensional lattice, whereas in graphite, the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets, which can slide easily over one another, making the overall structure weaker. In a diamond, each carbon atom is surrounded by neighboring four carbon atoms forming a tetrahedral shaped unit.

text: Filamentous carbon's applications include cleaning up spills of crude oil and the creation of strong and lightweight composites. Filamentous carbon also has significantly different thermodynamic properties from graphite, another form of carbon. However, filamentous carbon partially consists of graphite sheets.

text: Filamentous carbon's applications include cleaning up spills of

text: crude oil

text: and the creation of strong and lightweight composites. Filamentous carbon also has significantly different thermodynamic properties from

text: graphite

text: , another form of carbon. However, filamentous carbon partially consists of graphite sheets.

text: Graphite (carbon) fiber and carbon nanotubes are also used in carbon fiber reinforced plastics, and in heat-resistant composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC). Commercial structures made from carbon fiber graphite composites include fishing rods, golf club shafts, bicycle frames, sports car body panels, the fuselage of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and pool cue sticks and have been successfully employed in reinforced concrete,  The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey cast iron are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials. In this context, the term "(100%) graphite" is often loosely used to refer to a pure mixture of carbon reinforcement and resin, while the term "composite" is used for composite materials with additional ingredients.

text: Graphite (carbon) fiber

text: and

text: carbon nanotube

text: s are also used in

text: carbon fiber reinforced plastic

text: s, and in heat-resistant composites such as

text: reinforced carbon-carbon

text: (RCC). Commercial structures made from carbon fiber graphite composites include

text: fishing rod

text: s, golf club shafts, bicycle frames, sports car body panels, the fuselage of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner and

text: pool

text: cue sticks

text: and have been successfully employed in

text: reinforced concrete

text: ,  The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey

text: cast iron

text: are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials. In this context, the term "(100%) graphite" is often loosely used to refer to a pure mixture of carbon reinforcement and

text: resin

text: , while the term "composite" is used for

text: composite materials

text: with additional ingredients.

text: Boron is similar to carbon in its capability to form stable covalently bonded molecular networks. Even nominally disordered (amorphous) boron contains regular boron icosahedra which are, however, bonded randomly to each other without long-range order. Crystalline boron is a very hard, black material with a melting point of above 2000 °C. It forms four major polymorphs: α-rhombohedral and β-rhombohedral (α-R and β-R), γ and β-tetragonal (β-T); α-tetragonal phase also exists (α-T), but is very difficult to produce without significant contamination. Most of the phases are based on B icosahedra, but the γ-phase can be described as a rocksalt-type arrangement of the icosahedra and B atomic pairs. It can be produced by compressing other boron phases to 12–20 GPa and heating to 1500–1800 °C; it remains stable after releasing the temperature and pressure. The T phase is produced at similar pressures, but higher temperatures of 1800–2200 °C. As to the α and β phases, they might both coexist at ambient conditions with the β phase being more stable. Compressing boron above 160 GPa produces a boron phase with an as yet unknown structure, and this phase is a superconductor at temperatures 6–12 K. Borospherene (fullerene-like B) molecules) and borophene (proposed graphene-like structure) have been described in 2014.

text: Boron is similar to

text: carbon

text: in its capability to form stable

text: covalently bonded

text: molecular networks. Even nominally disordered (

text: amorphous

text: ) boron contains regular boron

text: icosahedra

text: which are, however, bonded randomly to each other without

text: long-range order

text: Crystalline

text: boron is a very hard, black material with a melting point of above 2000 °C. It forms four major

text: polymorphs

text: : α-rhombohedral and β-rhombohedral (α-R and β-R), γ and β-tetragonal (β-T); α-tetragonal phase also exists (α-T), but is very difficult to produce without significant contamination. Most of the phases are based on B icosahedra, but the γ-phase can be described as a

text: rocksalt

text: -type arrangement of the icosahedra and B atomic pairs. It can be produced by compressing other boron phases to 12–20 GPa and heating to 1500–1800 °C; it remains stable after releasing the temperature and pressure. The T phase is produced at similar pressures, but higher temperatures of 1800–2200 °C. As to the α and β phases, they might both coexist at

text: ambient conditions

text: with the β phase being more stable. Compressing boron above 160 GPa produces a boron phase with an as yet unknown structure, and this phase is a

text: superconductor

text: at temperatures 6–12 K.

text: Borospherene

text: fullerene

text: -like B) molecules) and

text: borophene

text: (proposed

text: graphene

text: -like structure) have been described in 2014.

text: Carbon is ordinarily classified as a nonmetal but has some metallic properties and is occasionally classified as a metalloid. Hexagonal graphitic carbon (graphite) is the most thermodynamically stable allotrope of carbon under ambient conditions. It has a lustrous appearance and is a fairly good electrical conductor. Graphite has a layered structure. Each layer comprises carbon atoms bonded to three other carbon atoms in a honeycomb lattice arrangement. The layers are stacked together and held loosely by van der Waals forces and delocalized valence electrons.

text: Carbon is ordinarily classified as a nonmetal but has some metallic properties and is occasionally classified as a metalloid.

text: Hexagonal graphitic carbon

text: (graphite) is the most thermodynamically stable

text: allotrope

text: of carbon under ambient conditions. It has a lustrous appearance and is a fairly good electrical conductor. Graphite has a layered structure. Each layer comprises carbon atoms bonded to three other carbon atoms in a

text: honeycomb lattice

text: arrangement. The layers are stacked together and held loosely by

text: van der Waal

text: s forces and

text: delocalized valence electrons

text: Thermal conductivity is measured according to EN 12667. Typical values range from 0.032 to 0.038 W/(m·K) depending on the density of the EPS board. The value of 0.038 W/(m·K) was obtained at 15 kg/m while the value of 0.032 W/(m·K) was obtained at 40 kg/m according to the data sheet of K-710 from StyroChem Finland. Adding fillers (graphites, aluminium, or carbons) has recently allowed the thermal conductivity of EPS to reach around 0.030–0.034 (as low as 0.029) and as such has a grey/black color which distinguishes it from standard EPS. Several EPS producers have produced a variety of these increased thermal resistance EPS usage for this product in the UK & EU.

text: Subsequent work revealed a wide range of carbon nitride structures.   Examples include (CN) (biazafullerenyl),CN (diaza[60]fullerene), CN (triaza[60]fullerene) and CN.  The nitrogen atoms substitute for carbon atoms on the cage-like molecules. Much of the work has been theoretical in nature.  The CN molecule was calculated to be an insulator, with the eight all-carbon rings forming regions of extended electron delocalization.

text: Subsequent work revealed a wide range of

text: carbon nitride

text: structures.   Examples include (CN) (biazafullerenyl),CN (diaza[60]fullerene), CN (triaza[60]fullerene) and CN.  The nitrogen atoms substitute for carbon atoms on the cage-like molecules. Much of the work has been theoretical in nature.  The CN molecule was calculated to be an insulator, with the eight all-carbon rings forming regions of extended electron delocalization.

text: For example, Dalton knew that the element carbon forms two oxides by combining with oxygen in different proportions. A fixed mass of carbon, say 100 grams, may react with 133 grams of oxygen to produce one oxide, or with 266 grams of oxygen to produce the other. The ratio of the masses of oxygen that can react with 100 grams of carbon is 266:133 = 2:1, a ratio of small whole numbers. Dalton interpreted this result in his atomic theory by proposing (correctly in this case) that the two oxides have one and two oxygen atoms respectively for each carbon atom. In modern notation the first is CO (carbon monoxide) and the second is CO (carbon dioxide).

text: For example, Dalton knew that the element

text: carbon

text: forms two

text: oxide

text: s by combining with

text: oxygen

text: in different proportions. A fixed mass of carbon, say 100 grams, may react with 133 grams of oxygen to produce one oxide, or with 266 grams of oxygen to produce the other. The ratio of the masses of oxygen that can react with 100 grams of carbon is 266:133 = 2:1, a ratio of small whole numbers. Dalton interpreted this result in his atomic theory by proposing (correctly in this case) that the two oxides have one and two oxygen atoms respectively for each carbon atom. In modern notation the first is CO (

text: carbon monoxide

text: ) and the second is CO (

text: carbon dioxide

text: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint.  One class is  synthetic fuel (including methane, gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel or ammonia) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater.  Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines, solar panels, and hydroelectric power plants.Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock, carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling.

text: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint.  One class is

text: synthetic fuel

text: (including

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: jet fuel

text: or

text: ammonia

text: ) produced from

text: sustainable

text: or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

text: power plant flue

text: exhaust gas

text: or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: .  Other types can be produced from

text: renewable energy

text: sources such as wind turbines, solar panels, and hydroelectric power plants.Such fuels are potentially

text: carbon-neutral

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. Until

text: captured carbon

text: is used for

text: plastic

text: s

text: feedstock

text: , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling.

text: Some hypotheses relating to diamond formation posit a possible role for cavitation—namely cavitiation in the kimberlite pipes providing the extreme pressure needed to change pure carbon into the rare allotrope that is diamond.

text: Some hypotheses relating to

text: diamond

text: formation posit a possible role for cavitation—namely cavitiation in the

text: kimberlite

text: pipes providing the extreme pressure needed to change pure

text: carbon

text: into the rare

text: allotrope

text: that is diamond.

text: It too can be obtained by electrolysis of a saturated potassium carbonate solution at −20 °C. It is a light blue crystalline solid that decomposes at 141 °C, releasing oxygen and carbon dioxide, and decomposes slowly at lower temperatures.

text: It too can be obtained by electrolysis of a saturated potassium carbonate solution at −20 °C. It is a light blue crystalline solid that decomposes at 141 °C, releasing

text: oxygen

text: and carbon dioxide, and decomposes slowly at lower temperatures.

text: The RC was a mid-engined, rear-wheel drive sports car with the same essential design, but came in two versions.   The Spade was painted black and featured a 2.0L naturally aspirated straight-4 petrol engine.  Power was quoted at 181 bhp (133.2 kW).  The red Diamond was powered by a 2.2L diesel engine that was capable of the same performance but with different driving and ride characteristics.    Both variants were equipped with a six-speed sequential gearbox, featured a 900-kg carbon-fiber body, ceramic disc brakes, and a 0-60 mph (0–96 km/h) time of 6.0 seconds.

text: The RC was a mid-engined, rear-wheel drive sports car with the same essential design, but came in two versions.   The

text: Spade

text: was painted black and featured a 2.0

text: L

text: naturally aspirated straight-4 petrol engine.  Power was quoted at 181

text: bhp

text: kW

text: ).  The red

text: Diamond

text: was powered by a 2.2L diesel engine that was capable of the same performance but with different driving and ride characteristics.    Both variants were equipped with a six-speed sequential gearbox, featured a 900-

text: kg

text: carbon-fiber

text: body, ceramic disc brakes, and a 0-60 mph (0–96 km/h) time of 6.0 seconds.

text: There are three main aspects in the structure of diamond nanoparticles to be considered: the overall shape, the core, and the surface. Through multiple diffraction experiments, it has been determined that the overall shape of diamond nanoparticles is either spherical or elliptical. At the core of diamond nanoparticles lies a diamond cage, which is composed mainly of carbons. While the core closely resemble the structure of a diamond, the surface of diamond nanoparticles actually resemble the structure of graphite. A recent study shows that the surface consists mainly of carbons, with high amounts of phenols, pyrones, and sulfonic acid, as well as carboxylic acid groups, hydroxyl groups, and epoxide groups, though in lesser amounts. Occasionally, defects such as nitrogen-vacancy centers can be found in the structure of diamond nanoparticles. 15N NMR research confirms presence of such defects. A recent study shows that the frequency of nitrogen-vacancy centers decreases with the size of diamond nanoparticles.

text: Next follows heat treatment of the “green brushes” under artificial atmosphere (usually hydrogen and nitrogen). Temperatures range up to 1200 °C. This process is called sintering or baking. During sintering, the binders either burn off or carbonize and form a crystalline structure between the carbon, copper and other additives. Baking is followed by graphitization (heat treatment). The heat treatment is transformed by a temperature curve exactly defined for each material mixture. Besides the mixture composition, the used temperature curve is the second big “secret” of each brush manufacturer. After the heat treatment, the brush structure is modified in a way which makes copying of the brush nearly impossible for competing companies.

text: Next follows heat treatment of the “green brushes” under artificial atmosphere (usually

text: hydrogen

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: ). Temperatures range up to 1200 °C. This process is called

text: sintering

text: or baking. During sintering, the binders either burn off or carbonize and form a crystalline structure between the carbon, copper and other additives. Baking is followed by graphitization (heat treatment). The heat treatment is transformed by a temperature curve exactly defined for each material mixture. Besides the mixture composition, the used temperature curve is the second big “secret” of each brush manufacturer. After the heat treatment, the brush structure is modified in a way which makes copying of the brush nearly impossible for competing companies.

text: Carbon is most commonly used in its amorphous form. In this form, carbon is used for steelmaking, as carbon black, as a filling in tires, in respirators, and as activated charcoal. Carbon is also used in the form of graphite is commonly used as the lead in pencils. Diamond, another form of carbon, is commonly used in jewelery. Carbon fibers are used in numerous applications, such as satellite struts, because the fibers are highly strong yet elastic.

text: Carbon is most commonly used in its

text: amorphous

text: form. In this form, carbon is used for

text: steelmaking

text: , as

text: carbon black

text: , as a filling in

text: tires

text: , in

text: respirators

text: , and as

text: activated charcoal

text: . Carbon is also used in the form of

text: graphite

text: is commonly used as the lead in

text: pencils

text: Diamond

text: , another form of carbon, is commonly used in jewelery.

text: Carbon fibers

text: are used in numerous applications, such as

text: satellite

text: struts, because the fibers are highly strong yet elastic.

text: A highly exothermic reaction combusts magnesium in an oxidation–reduction reaction with carbon dioxide, producing carbon nanoparticles including graphene and fullerenes.

text: A highly exothermic reaction combusts

text: magnesium

text: in an oxidation–reduction reaction with carbon dioxide, producing carbon nanoparticles including graphene and

text: fullerene

text: s.

text: Fullerenes are a synthetic crystalline formation with a graphite-like structure, but in place of hexagons, fullerenes are formed of pentagons (or even heptagons) of carbon atoms. The missing (or additional) atoms warp the sheets into spheres, ellipses, or cylinders. The properties of fullerenes (split into buckyballs, buckytubes, and nanobuds) have not yet been fully analyzed and represent an intense area of research in nanomaterials. The names "fullerene" and "buckyball" are given after Richard Buckminster Fuller, popularizer of geodesic domes, which resemble the structure of fullerenes. The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally, forming spheroids (the best-known and simplest is the soccerball-shaped C buckminsterfullerene). Carbon nanotubes are structurally similar to buckyballs, except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow cylinder. Nanobuds were first reported in 2007 and are hybrid bucky tube/buckyball materials (buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall of a nanotube) that combine the properties of both in a single structure.

text: Fullerene

text: s are a synthetic crystalline formation with a graphite-like structure, but in place of

text: hexagons

text: , fullerenes are formed of pentagons (or even heptagons) of carbon atoms. The missing (or additional) atoms warp the sheets into spheres, ellipses, or cylinders. The properties of fullerenes (split into

text: buckyball

text: s,

text: buckytubes

text: , and

text: nanobud

text: s) have not yet been fully analyzed and represent an intense area of research in

text: nanomaterials

text: . The names "fullerene" and "buckyball" are given after

text: Richard Buckminster Fuller

text: , popularizer of

text: geodesic dome

text: s, which resemble the structure of fullerenes. The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally, forming

text: spheroid

text: s (the best-known and simplest is the soccerball-shaped C

text: buckminsterfullerene

text: ). Carbon nanotubes are structurally similar to buckyballs, except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow

text: cylinder

text: . Nanobuds were first reported in 2007 and are hybrid bucky tube/buckyball materials (buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall of a nanotube) that combine the properties of both in a single structure.

text: The fullerenes are a class of allotropes of carbon which conceptually are graphene sheets rolled into tubes or spheres. These include the carbon nanotubes (or silicon nanotubes) which are of interest both because of their mechanical strength and also because of their electrical properties.

text: The fullerenes are a class of

text: allotropes of carbon

text: which conceptually are

text: graphene

text: sheets rolled into tubes or spheres. These include the

text: carbon nanotube

text: s (or

text: silicon nanotubes

text: ) which are of interest both because of their mechanical strength and also because of their electrical properties.

text: Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else. The paths of carbon in the environment form the carbon cycle. For example, photosynthetic plants draw carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or seawater) and build it into biomass, as in the Calvin cycle, a process of carbon fixation. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, while some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; if bacteria do not consume it, dead plant or animal matter may become petroleum or coal, which releases carbon when burned.

text: Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else. The paths of carbon in the environment form the

text: carbon cycle

text: . For example,

text: photosynthetic

text: plants draw

text: carbon dioxide

text: from the atmosphere (or seawater) and build it into biomass, as in the

text: Calvin cycle

text: , a process of

text: carbon fixation

text: . Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, while some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; if bacteria do not consume it, dead plant or animal matter may become

text: petroleum

text: or

text: coal

text: , which releases carbon when burned.

text: Fulleren is a commune in the Haut-Rhin department in Alsace in north-eastern France.

text: Fulleren is a

text: commune

text: in the

text: Haut-Rhin

text: department

text: in

text: Alsace

text: in north-eastern

text: France

text: Uplift eventually exposed the crystalline complex to erosion. Arkose conglomerate and mudstone of the lower Crystal Spring Formation were created from muddy debris derived from stream erosion of these uplands. A warm shallow sea spread over the area as the Amargosa aulacogen slowly subsided; thick sequences of lime-rich ooze with abundant colonies of algae called stromatolites were then laid down. Dolomite and limestone resulted, forming the middle part of the Crystal Spring Formation. The upper part was formed after silt and sand destroyed the algal mat, forming siltstone and sandstone. Laterally extensive diabase sills of molten rock later intruded above and below the carbonate rock layers; commercial grade talc was formed from thermal decay of carbonate rock at its contact with the lowest sill, which covers hundreds of square miles (many hundreds of km²). Today the formation is  thick.

text: Uplift eventually exposed the crystalline complex to erosion. Arkose conglomerate and mudstone of the lower Crystal Spring Formation were created from muddy debris derived from stream erosion of these uplands. A warm shallow sea spread over the area as the Amargosa aulacogen slowly subsided; thick sequences of

text: lime

text: -rich ooze with abundant colonies of algae called

text: stromatolite

text: s were then laid down.

text: Dolomite

text: and

text: limestone

text: resulted, forming the middle part of the Crystal Spring Formation. The upper part was formed after silt and sand destroyed the

text: algal mat

text: , forming

text: siltstone

text: and

text: sandstone

text: . Laterally extensive

text: diabase

text: sill

text: s of molten rock later intruded above and below the carbonate rock layers; commercial grade

text: talc

text: was formed from thermal decay of carbonate rock at its contact with the lowest sill, which covers hundreds of square miles (many hundreds of km²). Today the formation is  thick.

text: Under certain conditions, carbon can be found in its atomic form. It is formed by passing large electric currents through carbon under very low pressures. It is extremely unstable, but it is an intermittent product used in the creation of carbenes.

text: Under certain conditions, carbon can be found in its atomic form. It is formed by passing large electric currents through carbon under very low pressures. It is extremely unstable, but it is an intermittent product used in the creation of

text: carbene

text: s.

text: On October 11, 2011, research conducted at the Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory led by Stanford’s Wendy L. Mao and her graduate student Yu Lin described a new form of glassy carbon formed under high pressure with hardness equal to diamond, a kind of diamond-like carbon. Unlike diamond, however its structure is that of amorphous carbon so its hardness may be isotropic. Research is ongoing.

text: On October 11, 2011, research conducted at the Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory led by Stanford’s Wendy L. Mao and her graduate student Yu Lin described a new form of glassy carbon formed under high pressure with hardness equal to diamond, a kind of

text: diamond-like carbon

text: . Unlike diamond, however its structure is that of

text: amorphous carbon

text: so its hardness may be isotropic. Research is ongoing.

text: As of the early twenty-first century, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes are still under heavy study, in both pure and applied research labs. In April 2003, fullerenes were under study for potential medicinal use — binding specific antibiotics to the structure to target resistant bacteria and even target certain cancer cells such as melanoma.

text: The existence of graphyne was conjectured before 1960, and attracted attention after the discovery of fullerenes.

text: The existence of graphyne was conjectured before 1960, and attracted attention after the discovery of

text: fullerenes

text: Diamond is also the parent company of Alliance Game Distributors, Diamond Book Distributors, Diamond UK, Diamond Select Toys,  Gemstone Publishing, E. Gerber Products, Diamond International Galleries, Hake's Americana & Collectibles, Morphy's Auctions, the Geppi's Entertainment Museum, and Baltimore magazine,

text: Diamond is also the parent company of

text: Alliance Game Distributors

text: , Diamond Book Distributors, Diamond UK,

text: Diamond Select Toys

text: Gemstone Publishing

text: , E. Gerber Products, Diamond International Galleries, Hake's Americana & Collectibles, Morphy's Auctions, the

text: Geppi's Entertainment Museum

text: , and

text: Baltimore magazine

text: In nanotechnology, a carbon nanobud is a material that combines carbon nanotubes and spheroidal fullerenes, both allotropes of carbon, in the same structure, forming "buds" attached to the tubes. Carbon nanobuds were discovered and synthesized in 2006.

text: In

text: nanotechnology

text: , a

text: carbon

text: nanobud is a material that combines

text: carbon nanotube

text: s and spheroidal

text: fullerene

text: s, both

text: allotropes of carbon

text: , in the same structure, forming "

text: bud

text: s" attached to the tubes. Carbon nanobuds were discovered and synthesized in 2006.

text: Carbon accumulates as the result of stellar fusion in most stars, even small ones. Carbon is present in the earth's crust in concentrations of 480 parts per million, and is present in seawater at concentrations of 28 parts per million. Carbon is present in the atmosphere in the form of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane. Carbon is a key constituent of carbonate minerals, and is in hydrogen carbonate, which is common in seawater. Carbon forms 22.8% of a typical human.

text: Carbon accumulates as the result of

text: stellar fusion

text: in most stars, even small ones. Carbon is present in the earth's crust in concentrations of 480 parts per million, and is present in

text: seawater

text: at concentrations of 28 parts per million. Carbon is present in the atmosphere in the form of

text: carbon monoxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and

text: methane

text: . Carbon is a key constituent of

text: carbonate minerals

text: , and is in

text: hydrogen carbonate

text: , which is common in seawater. Carbon forms 22.8% of a typical human.

text: Typically, the temperature in those vast regions of the accessible crystalline basement rock increases with depth. This geothermal gradient, which is the principal HDR resource variable, ranges from less than 20 °C/km to over 60 °C/km, depending upon location. The concomitant HDR economic variable is the cost of drilling to depths at which rock temperatures are sufficiently high to permit the development of a suitable reservoir. with the advent of PDC (polycrystalline diamond compact) insert bits for hard rock drilling (e.g., Novatek of Provo, Utah), the cost of deep basement drilling is set to come down drastically—awaiting only a significant demand, such as the commercial development of HDR.

text: Historically, "plumbism" (lead poisoning) was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This was recognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to limit pottery workers' exposure was introduced in 1899. While the risk to those working in ceramics is now much reduced, it can still not be ignored. With respect to indoor air quality, workers can be exposed to fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide and certain heavy metals. The greatest health risk is the potential to develop silicosis from the long-term exposure to crystalline silica. Proper ventilation can reduce the risks, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to govern ventilation was introduced in 1899. Another, more recent, study at Laney College, Oakland, California suggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well-designed workshop environment.

text: Historically, "plumbism" (

text: lead poisoning

text: ) was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This was recognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to limit pottery workers' exposure was introduced in 1899. While the risk to those working in ceramics is now much reduced, it can still not be ignored. With respect to

text: indoor air quality

text: , workers can be exposed to fine

text: particulate

text: matter,

text: carbon monoxide

text: and certain

text: heavy metals

text: . The greatest health risk is the potential to develop

text: silicosis

text: from the long-term exposure to crystalline

text: silica

text: . Proper ventilation can reduce the risks, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to govern ventilation was introduced in 1899. Another, more recent, study at

text: Laney College

text: Oakland, California

text: suggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well-designed workshop environment.

text: However, it lacked a feature present in later echinoderms: the stereom, a unique crystalline form of calcium carbonate from which their skeletons are built.

text: However, it lacked a feature present in later echinoderms: the

text: stereom

text: , a unique crystalline form of

text: calcium carbonate

text: from which their skeletons are built.

text: (his real name "Rei" is the kanji representing number 0) lost his father when he was very young and was raised by his mother on a remote colony. Cheerful and optimistic to the extreme, Zero hides his fears and refuses to ever be depressed. His straightforward and optimistic personality sometimes grates on others. A bit thickheaded, he's not the smartest candidate, but he can move with the best of them. His piloting abilities are like carbon that hasn't yet been formed into a diamond. Zero hasn't yet mastered his EX.

text: The crystalline structure is held together with strong covalent bonding similar to diamonds, that allows moissanite to withstand high pressures up to 52.1 gigapascals. Colors vary widely and are graded from D to K range on the diamond color grading scale.

text: The crystalline structure is held together with strong

text: covalent bonding

text: similar to diamonds, that allows moissanite to withstand high pressures up to 52.1

text: gigapascal

text: s. Colors vary widely and are graded from D to K range on the

text: diamond color grading scale

text: Once a leak has formed due to corrosion of the outer steel shell, potassium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air to form a feathery crystalline structure of potassium carbonate that grows and spreads out from the battery over time, following along metal electrodes to circuit boards where it commences oxidation of copper tracks and other components, leading to permanent circuitry damage.

text: Once a leak has formed due to corrosion of the outer steel shell, potassium hydroxide absorbs

text: carbon dioxide

text: from the air to form a feathery crystalline structure of

text: potassium carbonate

text: that grows and spreads out from the battery over time, following along metal electrodes to circuit boards where it commences oxidation of copper tracks and other components, leading to permanent circuitry damage.

text: Graphite has a layered, planar structure. The individual layers are called graphene. In each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged in a honeycomb lattice with separation of 0.142 nm, and the distance between planes is 0.335 nm. Atoms in the plane are bonded covalently, with only three of the four potential bonding sites satisfied. The fourth electron is free to migrate in the plane, making graphite electrically conductive. However, it does not conduct in a direction at right angles to the plane. Bonding between layers is via weak van der Waals bonds, which allows layers of graphite to be easily separated, or to slide past each other.

text: Graphite has a layered, planar structure. The individual layers are called

text: graphene

text: . In each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged in a

text: honeycomb lattice

text: with separation of 0.142 nm, and the distance between planes is 0.335 nm. Atoms in the plane are bonded

text: covalently

text: , with only three of the four potential bonding sites satisfied. The fourth electron is free to migrate in the plane, making graphite electrically conductive. However, it does not conduct in a direction at right angles to the plane. Bonding between layers is via weak

text: van der Waals bonds

text: , which allows layers of graphite to be easily separated, or to slide past each other.

text: Two theories have been proposed to describe the molecular mechanisms that make fullerenes. The older, “bottom-up” theory proposes that they are built atom-by-atom. The alternative “top-down” approach claims that fullerenes form when much larger structures break into constituent parts.

text: It took researchers only 15 minutes to make one carat of Q-carbon. The initial research created Q-carbon from a thin plate of sapphire coated with amorphous (non-crystalline) carbon. Further research has demonstrated that other substrates, such as glass or polymer, also work. This work was subsequently extended to convert h-BN into phase pure c-BN. (APL Materials 4, 202701 (2016))

text: It took researchers only 15 minutes to make one

text: carat

text: of Q-carbon. The initial research created Q-carbon from a thin plate of

text: sapphire

text: coated with

text: amorphous

text: (non-

text: crystalline

text: ) carbon. Further research has demonstrated that other substrates, such as glass or

text: polymer

text: , also work. This work was subsequently extended to convert h-BN into phase pure c-BN. (APL Materials 4, 202701 (2016))

text: Fluorinated polythiophene yield 7% efficiency in polymer-fullerene solar cells.

text: The first fullerene to be discovered was buckminsterfullerene C, an allotrope of carbon with 60 atoms in each molecule, arranged in a truncated icosahedron. This ball is known as a buckyball, and looks like a soccer ball.

text: The first

text: fullerene

text: to be discovered was

text: buckminsterfullerene

text: C, an

text: allotrope of carbon

text: with 60

text: atom

text: s in each

text: molecule

text: , arranged in a

text: truncated icosahedron

text: . This ball is known as a buckyball, and looks like a

text: soccer

text: ball.

text: The way this species is made is closely related to the formation of fullerenes C, the chief difference being that a much lower vacuum is used in atomic carbon formation.

text: The way this species is made is closely related to the formation of fullerenes

text: C

text: , the chief difference being that a much lower vacuum is used in atomic carbon formation.

text: For crystalline bodies of finite size, the effect of surface stress is also significant. However, the standard Cauchy–Born rule cannot deduce the surface properties. To overcome this limitation, Park et al. (2006) proposed a surface Cauchy–Born rule. Several modified form of the Cauchy–Born rule have also been proposed to cater to crystalline bodies having special shapes. Arroyo & Belytschko (2002) proposed an exponential Cauchy Born rule for modeling of mono-layered crystalline sheets as two-dimensional continuum shells. Kumar et al. (2015) proposed a helical Cauchy–Born rule for modeling slender bodies (such as nano and continuum rods) as special Cosserat continuum rods.

text: At a certain temperature, (usually between  and , depending on carbon content), the base metal of steel undergoes a change in the arrangement of the atoms in its crystal matrix, called allotropy. This allows the small carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal, diffusing into the iron matrix. When this happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in solution, or mixed with the iron, forming a single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called austenite. If the steel is cooled slowly, the iron will gradually change into its low temperature allotrope. When this happens the carbon atoms will no longer be soluble with the iron, and will be forced to precipitate out of solution, nucleating into the spaces between the crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, being formed of two phases; the carbon (carbide) phase cementite, and ferrite. This type of heat treatment produces steel that is rather soft and bendable. However, if the steel is cooled quickly the carbon atoms will not have time to precipitate. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform intrinsically when the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, making it very hard and brittle.

text: At a certain temperature, (usually between  and , depending on carbon content), the base metal of steel undergoes a change in the arrangement of the atoms in its crystal matrix, called

text: allotropy

text: . This allows the small carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal,

text: diffusing

text: into the iron matrix. When this happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in

text: solution

text: , or mixed with the iron, forming a single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called

text: austenite

text: . If the steel is cooled slowly, the iron will gradually change into its low temperature allotrope. When this happens the carbon atoms will no longer be

text: soluble

text: with the iron, and will be forced to

text: precipitate

text: out of solution,

text: nucleating

text: into the spaces between the crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, being formed of two phases; the carbon (

text: carbide

text: ) phase

text: cementite

text: , and

text: ferrite

text: . This type of heat treatment produces steel that is rather soft and bendable. However, if the steel is cooled quickly the carbon atoms will not have time to precipitate. When rapidly cooled, a

text: diffusionless (martensite) transformation

text: occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform intrinsically when the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, making it very hard and brittle.

text: Ferrite, also known as α-ferrite (α-Fe) or alpha iron, is a solid solution  of limited amounts of carbon in  iron with a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure. It is this crystalline structure which gives steel and cast iron their magnetic properties, and is the classic example of a ferromagnetic material.

text: Ferrite, also known as α-ferrite (α-Fe) or alpha iron, is a

text: solid solution

text: of limited amounts of

text: carbon

text: in

text: iron

text: with a

text: body-centered cubic

text: (BCC)

text: crystal structure

text: . It is this crystalline structure which gives

text: steel

text: and

text: cast iron

text: their

text: magnetic

text: properties, and is the classic example of a

text: ferromagnetic

text: material.

text: Diamond and Related Materials is a peer-reviewed scientific journal in materials science covering research on all forms of diamond and other related materials, including diamond-like carbons, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and boron and carbon nitrides. The journal is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is Ken Haenen (University of Hasselt).

text: Diamond and Related Materials is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: scientific journal

text: in

text: materials science

text: covering research on all forms of

text: diamond

text: and other related materials, including

text: diamond-like carbon

text: s,

text: carbon nanotube

text: s,

text: graphene

text: , and

text: boron

text: and

text: carbon nitride

text: s. The journal is published by

text: Elsevier

text: and the

text: editor-in-chief

text: is Ken Haenen (

text: University of Hasselt

text: The carbides of silicon and boron are described as "covalent carbides", although virtually all compounds of carbon exhibit some covalent character. Silicon carbide has two similar crystalline forms, which are both related to the diamond structure. Boron carbide, BC, on the other hand, has an unusual structure which includes icosahedral boron units linked by carbon atoms. In this respect boron carbide is similar to the boron rich borides. Both silicon carbide (also known as carborundum) and boron carbide are very hard materials and refractory. Both materials are important industrially. Boron also forms other covalent carbides, e.g. BC.

text: The carbides of silicon and boron are described as "covalent carbides", although virtually all compounds of carbon exhibit some covalent character.

text: Silicon carbide

text: has two similar crystalline forms, which are both related to the diamond structure.

text: Boron carbide

text: , BC, on the other hand, has an unusual structure which includes icosahedral boron units linked by carbon atoms. In this respect

text: boron carbide

text: is similar to the boron rich

text: boride

text: s. Both silicon carbide (also known as carborundum) and boron carbide are very hard materials and

text: refractory

text: . Both materials are important industrially. Boron also forms other covalent carbides, e.g. BC.

text: Graphite, named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789, from the Greek γράφειν (graphein, "to draw/write", for its use in pencils) is one of the most common allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is an electrical conductor. Thus, it can be used in, for instance, electrical arc lamp electrodes. Likewise, under standard conditions, graphite is the most stable form of carbon. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds.

text: Graphite, named by

text: Abraham Gottlob Werner

text: in 1789, from the Greek γράφειν (graphein, "to draw/write", for its use in pencils) is one of the most common allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is an electrical conductor. Thus, it can be used in, for instance, electrical arc lamp electrodes. Likewise, under

text: standard conditions

text: , graphite is the most stable form of carbon. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the

text: standard state

text: for defining the

text: heat of formation

text: of carbon compounds.

text: Konarka opened a commercial-scale factory, with the capacity to produce enough polymer-fullerene solar cells every year to generate one gigawatt of electricity, the equivalent of a large nuclear reactor. The company planned to gradually ramp up production at its new factory, reaching full capacity in two to three years.

text: The double bonds in fullerene are not all the same. Two groups can be identified: 30 so-called [6,6] double bonds connect two hexagons and 60 [5,6] bonds connect a hexagon and a pentagon. Of the two the [6,6] bonds are shorter with more double-bond character and therefore a hexagon is often represented as a cyclohexatriene and a pentagon as a pentalene or [5]radialene. In other words, although the carbon atoms in fullerene are all conjugated the superstructure is not a super aromatic compound.  The X-ray diffraction bond length values are 139.1 pm for the [6,6] bond and 145.5 pm for the [5,6] bond.

text: The double bonds in fullerene are not all the same. Two groups can be identified: 30 so-called [6,6] double bonds connect two hexagons and 60 [5,6] bonds connect a hexagon and a pentagon. Of the two the [6,6] bonds are shorter with more double-bond character and therefore a hexagon is often represented as a

text: cyclohexatriene

text: and a pentagon as a pentalene or [5]

text: radialene

text: . In other words, although the carbon atoms in fullerene are all conjugated the superstructure is not a

text: super

text: aromatic compound

text: .  The

text: X-ray diffraction

text: bond length

text: values are 139.1

text: pm

text: for the [6,6] bond and 145.5 pm for the [5,6] bond.

text: There have also been reports that some of the solid states of polydioctylfluorene are composted in sheet-like layers which are about 50-100 nm thick. As a result of these sheets, the glassy and semicrystalline states can be formed (excluding amorphous, liquid crystalline, and beta chain states).  When cooled quickly, the chains tightly align, giving PFO a close packing factor, though because of the high complexity of the chains, this sometimes gets messy and creates the amorphous state. The parts of the molecule that add this complexity are the carbon rings (that are located in the backbone) making the molecule overall large in size.

text: There have also been reports that some of the solid states of polydioctylfluorene are composted in sheet-like layers which are about 50-100 nm thick. As a result of these sheets, the glassy and semicrystalline states can be formed (excluding amorphous, liquid crystalline, and beta chain states).  When cooled quickly, the chains tightly align, giving PFO a close

text: packing factor

text: , though because of the high complexity of the chains, this sometimes gets messy and creates the amorphous state. The parts of the molecule that add this complexity are the carbon rings (that are located in the backbone) making the molecule overall large in size.

text: Minute quantities of the fullerenes, in the form of C, C, C, C and C molecules, are produced in nature, hidden in soot and formed by lightning discharges in the atmosphere. In 1992, fullerenes were found in a family of minerals known as Shungites in Karelia, Russia.

text: Minute quantities of the fullerenes, in the form of

text: C

text: C

text: C

text: C

text: and

text: C

text: molecules, are produced in nature, hidden in

text: soot

text: and formed by lightning discharges in the atmosphere. In 1992, fullerenes were found in a family of minerals known as

text: Shungite

text: s in

text: Karelia

text: , Russia.

text: PBRs are intentionally operated above the 250 °C annealing temperature of graphite, so that Wigner energy is not accumulated.  This solves a problem discovered in an infamous accident, the Windscale fire.  One of the reactors at the Windscale site in England (not a PBR) caught fire because of the release of energy stored as crystalline dislocations (Wigner energy) in the graphite.  The dislocations are caused by neutron passage through the graphite. At Windscale, a program of regular annealing was put in place to release accumulated Wigner energy, but since the effect was not anticipated during the construction of the reactor, and since the reactor was cooled by ordinary air in an open cycle, the process could not be reliably controlled, and led to a fire. The 2nd generation of UK gas-cooled reactors, the AGRs, also operate above the annealing temperature of graphite.

text: PBRs are intentionally operated above the 250 °C

text: annealing

text: temperature of graphite, so that

text: Wigner energy

text: is not accumulated.  This solves a problem discovered in an infamous accident, the

text: Windscale fire

text: .  One of the reactors at the

text: Windscale site

text: in England (not a PBR) caught fire because of the release of energy stored as crystalline dislocations (Wigner energy) in the graphite.  The dislocations are caused by neutron passage through the graphite. At Windscale, a program of regular annealing was put in place to release accumulated Wigner energy, but since the effect was not anticipated during the construction of the reactor, and since the reactor was cooled by ordinary air in an open cycle, the process could not be reliably controlled, and led to a fire. The 2nd generation of UK gas-cooled reactors, the AGRs, also operate above the annealing temperature of graphite.

text: Amorphous carbon is the name used for carbon that does not have any crystalline structure. As with all glassy materials, some short-range order can be observed, but there is no long-range pattern of atomic positions. While entirely amorphous carbon can be produced, most amorphous carbon actually contains microscopic crystals of graphite-like, or even diamond-like carbon.

text: Amorphous carbon is the name used for

text: carbon

text: that does not have any

text: crystal

text: line structure. As with all

text: glassy

text: materials, some short-range order can be observed, but there is no long-range pattern of atomic positions. While entirely amorphous carbon can be produced, most amorphous carbon actually contains microscopic crystals of

text: graphite

text: -like, or even

text: diamond

text: -like carbon.

text: As the iron cools further to 1,394 °C its crystal structure changes to a face centered cubic (FCC) crystalline structure. In this form it is called gamma iron (γ-Fe) or Austenite. γ-iron can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.04% by mass at 1,146 °C). This γ form of carbon saturation is exhibited in stainless steel.

text: As the iron cools further to 1,394 °C its

text: crystal structure

text: changes to a

text: face centered cubic

text: (FCC) crystalline structure. In this form it is called gamma iron (γ-Fe) or

text: Austenite

text: . γ-iron can dissolve considerably more carbon (as much as 2.04% by mass at 1,146 °C). This γ form of carbon saturation is exhibited in

text: stainless steel

text: Depending on the temperature and composition of the steel, it can be hardened or softened. In order to make steel harder, it must be heated to very high temperatures. The final result of exactly how hard the steel will become depends on the amount of carbon present in the metal. Only steel that is high in carbon can be hardened and tempered. If a metal does not contain the necessary quantity of carbon, then its crystalline structure cannot be broken, and therefore the physical makeup of the steel cannot be altered.

text: The atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of graphite, consisting of sheets of carbon atoms arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern (graphene sheets), the difference being in the way these sheets interlock. Graphite is a crystalline material in which the sheets are stacked parallel to one another in regular fashion. The intermolecular forces between the sheets are relatively weak Van der Waals forces, giving graphite its soft and brittle characteristics.

text: The atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of

text: graphite

text: , consisting of sheets of carbon

text: atoms

text: arranged in a regular

text: hexagon

text: al pattern (

text: graphene

text: sheets), the difference being in the way these sheets interlock. Graphite is a

text: crystalline

text: material in which the sheets are stacked parallel to one another in regular fashion. The intermolecular forces between the sheets are relatively weak

text: Van der Waals force

text: s, giving graphite its soft and brittle characteristics.

text: Portland cement is caustic, so it can cause chemical burns. The powder can cause irritation or, with severe exposure, lung cancer and can contain some hazardous components such as crystalline silica and hexavalent chromium. Environmental concerns are the high energy consumption required to mine, manufacture, and transport the cement and the related air pollution, including the release of greenhouse gases (e.g., carbon dioxide), dioxin, NO, SO, and particulates.

text: Portland cement is caustic, so it can cause chemical burns. The powder can cause irritation or, with severe exposure, lung cancer and can contain some hazardous components such as crystalline

text: silica

text: and hexavalent

text: chromium

text: . Environmental concerns are the high energy consumption required to mine, manufacture, and transport the cement and the related air pollution, including the release of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es (e.g.,

text: carbon dioxide

text: dioxin

text: NO

text: SO

text: , and particulates.

text: The standard state for liquids and solids is simply the state of the pure substance subjected to a total pressure of 10 Pa. For most elements, the reference point of ΔH = 0 is defined for the most stable allotrope of the element, such as graphite in the case of carbon, and the β-phase (white tin) in the case of tin. An exception is white phosphorus, the most common allotrope of phosphorus, which is defined as the standard state despite the fact that it is only metastable.

text: The standard state for liquids and solids is simply the state of the pure substance subjected to a total pressure of 10 Pa. For most elements, the reference point of ΔH = 0 is defined for the most stable

text: allotrope

text: of the element, such as

text: graphite

text: in the case of carbon, and the β-phase (white tin) in the case of

text: tin

text: . An exception is white

text: phosphorus

text: , the most common allotrope of phosphorus, which is defined as the standard state despite the fact that it is only

text: metastable

text: The discovery of fullerenes greatly expanded the number of known carbon allotropes, which until recently were limited to graphite, graphene, diamond, and amorphous carbon such as soot and charcoal. Buckyballs and buckytubes have been the subject of intense research, both for their unique chemistry and for their technological applications, especially in materials science, electronics, and nanotechnology.

text: The discovery of fullerenes greatly expanded the number of known

text: carbon allotropes

text: , which until recently were limited to graphite,

text: graphene

text: , diamond, and

text: amorphous

text: carbon such as

text: soot

text: and

text: charcoal

text: . Buckyballs and buckytubes have been the subject of intense research, both for their unique chemistry and for their technological applications, especially in

text: materials science

text: electronics

text: , and

text: nanotechnology

text: Carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting C-C bonds, a property that is called catenation. Carbon-carbon bonds are strong and stable. Through catenation, carbon forms a countless number of compounds.  A tally of unique compounds shows that more contain carbon that those that do not.  A similar claim can be made for hydrogen because most organic compounds also contain hydrogen.

text: Carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting C-C bonds, a property that is called

text: catenation

text: . Carbon-carbon bonds are strong and stable. Through catenation, carbon forms a countless number of compounds.  A tally of unique compounds shows that more contain carbon that those that do not.  A similar claim can be made for hydrogen because most organic compounds also contain hydrogen.

text: C fullerene is the fullerene molecule consisting of 70 carbon atoms. It is a cage-like fused-ring structure which resembles a rugby ball, made of 25 hexagons and 12 pentagons, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge. A related fullerene molecule, named buckminsterfullerene (C fullerene), consists of 60 carbon atoms.

text: C fullerene is the

text: fullerene

text: molecule consisting of 70

text: carbon

text: atoms. It is a cage-like fused-ring structure which resembles a rugby ball, made of 25

text: hexagon

text: s and 12

text: pentagon

text: s, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge. A related fullerene molecule, named

text: buckminsterfullerene (C fullerene)

text: , consists of 60 carbon atoms.

text: Graphite is the modern successor to Ashlar’s earlier Vellum program, originally released in 1989. Introduced in 2001, Graphite competes with AutoCAD LT and VectorWorks.

text: By the end of eye development an interconnected keratocyte network is established in the cornea, with dendrites of neighbouring cells contacting each over. Quiescent keratocytes synthesize the so-called crystallins, known primarily for their role in the lens. Corneal crystallins, like the lens ones, are thought to help maintain the transparency and optimal refraction. They are also part of corneal antioxidant defense. Crystallins expressed by human keratocytes are ALDH1A1, ALDH3A1, ALDH2 and TKT. Different sets of crystallins are typical to distinct species. Keratan sulfate produced by keratocytes is thought to help maintain optimal corneal hydration; genetic disruption of its synthesis leads to the macular corneal dystrophy.

text: By the end of eye development an interconnected keratocyte network is established in the cornea, with dendrites of neighbouring cells contacting each over. Quiescent keratocytes synthesize the so-called

text: crystallin

text: s, known primarily for their role in the

text: lens

text: . Corneal crystallins, like the lens ones, are thought to help maintain the transparency and optimal refraction. They are also part of corneal antioxidant defense. Crystallins expressed by human keratocytes are

entity_name: Aldehyde dehydrogenase 3 family, member A1

text: and TKT. Different sets of crystallins are typical to distinct species. Keratan sulfate produced by keratocytes is thought to help maintain optimal corneal hydration; genetic disruption of its synthesis leads to the

text: macular corneal dystrophy

text: A carbon or diamond nanothread (DNT) is a tetrahedrally-bonded carbon crystalline nanomaterial (a close-packed sp bonded carbon structure). Its structure is similar to that of diamond. DNTs are only a few atoms across, more than 20,000 times thinner than a human hair.

text: A carbon or diamond nanothread (DNT) is a tetrahedrally-bonded carbon crystalline

text: nanomaterial

text: (a close-packed

text: sp bonded

text: carbon structure). Its structure is similar to that of

text: diamond

text: . DNTs are only a few atoms across, more than 20,000 times thinner than a

text: human hair

text: The otoliths begin to form shortly after the fish hatches. Otoliths are composed of a crystalline calcium carbonate structure, in the form of aragonite, on a protein matrix. Calcium carbonate is diffused through the endolymph cell membrane and the aragonite layers are permanently deposited in discrete increments. These increments are permanently stored in layers and their composition is not altered over time. Along with calcium carbonate, other chemicals are deposited in trace amounts. The most common trace elements found in otoliths are the alkaline earth metals Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba), and Magnesium (Mg) because they are in the alkaline earth metal group like Calcium and therefore have the same bonding affinity. This allows these alkaline earth metals to substitute in for calcium in the aragonite without affecting the crystalline structure. Other elements and stable isotopes can be deposited in lower concentrations within the aragonite structure and in the protein matrix. The uptake of chemicals into the otolith is multi-stage and complex, but the chemical composition of the discrete layers are proportional to that of the ambient water in which the fish is inhabiting at the time of deposition. These discrete layers create a temporal record of the water in which the fish has inhabited. There are 3 pairs of otoliths in bony fish, but only the largest, known as the saggita, is commonly used for microchemical analysis. The core of the otolith corresponds to the earliest larval period of the fish’s life. Thus the microchemistry of the core of the otolith can be used as a means of inferring natal origin of fish.

text: The otoliths begin to form shortly after the fish hatches. Otoliths are composed of a crystalline

text: calcium carbonate

text: structure, in the form of

text: aragonite

text: , on a protein matrix. Calcium carbonate is diffused through the

text: endolymph

text: cell membrane

text: and the aragonite layers are permanently deposited in discrete increments. These increments are permanently stored in layers and their composition is not altered over time. Along with calcium carbonate, other chemicals are deposited in trace amounts. The most common trace elements found in otoliths are the alkaline

text: earth metals

text: Strontium

text: (Sr),

text: Barium

text: (Ba), and

text: Magnesium

text: (Mg) because they are in the alkaline earth metal group like Calcium and therefore have the same bonding affinity. This allows these

text: alkaline

text: earth metals to substitute in for calcium in the aragonite without affecting the crystalline structure. Other elements and stable isotopes can be deposited in lower concentrations within the aragonite structure and in the protein matrix. The uptake of chemicals into the otolith is multi-stage and complex, but the

text: chemical composition

text: of the discrete layers are proportional to that of the ambient water in which the fish is inhabiting at the time of deposition. These discrete layers create a temporal record of the water in which the fish has inhabited. There are 3 pairs of otoliths in bony fish, but only the largest, known as the saggita, is commonly used for microchemical analysis. The core of the otolith corresponds to the earliest larval period of the fish’s life. Thus the microchemistry of the core of the otolith can be used as a means of inferring natal origin of fish.

text: The properties of amorphous carbon films vary depending on the parameters used during deposition. The primary method for characterizing amorphous carbon is through the ratio of sp to sp hybridized bonds present in the material. Graphite consists purely of sp hybridized bonds, whereas diamond consists purely of sp hybridized bonds. Materials that are high in sp hybridized bonds are referred to as tetrahedral amorphous carbon, owing to the tetrahedral shape formed by sp hybridized bonds, or as diamond-like carbon (owing to the similarity of many physical properties to those of diamond).

text: The properties of amorphous carbon films vary depending on the parameters used during deposition. The primary method for characterizing amorphous carbon is through the ratio of sp to sp

text: hybridized bonds

text: present in the material. Graphite consists purely of sp hybridized bonds, whereas diamond consists purely of sp hybridized bonds. Materials that are high in sp hybridized bonds are referred to as tetrahedral amorphous carbon, owing to the tetrahedral shape formed by sp hybridized bonds, or as diamond-like carbon (owing to the similarity of many physical properties to those of diamond).

text: Reactivity of fullerene molecules with respect to addition chemistries is strongly dependent on the curvature of the carbon framework. Their outer surface (exohedral) reactivity increases with increase in curvature.  In comparison with fullerene molecules single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) are moderately curved. Consequently, nanotubes are expected to be less reactive than most fullerene molecules due to their smaller curvature, but more reactive than a graphene sheet due to pyramidalization and misalignment of pi-orbitals. The strain of a carbon framework is also reflected in the pyramidalization angle (Ө) of the carbon constituents. Trigonal carbon atoms (sp hybridized) prefer a planar orientation with Ө=0° (i.e. graphene) and fullerene molecules have Ө= 11.6°. The (5,5) SWNT has Ө~6° for the sidewall. Values for other (n,n) nanotubes show a trend of increasing Ө (sidewall) with decrease in n. Therefore, generally the chemical reactivity of SWNT increases with decrease in diameter (or n, diameter increases with n). Apart from the curvature SWNT reactivity is also highly sensitive to chiral wrapping (n,m) which determine its electronic structure. Nanotubes with n - m = 3i (i is an integer) are all metals and rest are all semiconducting (SC).

text: Reactivity of

text: fullerene

text: molecules with respect to addition chemistries is strongly dependent on the curvature of the carbon framework. Their outer surface (exohedral) reactivity increases with increase in curvature.  In comparison with fullerene molecules single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) are moderately curved. Consequently, nanotubes are expected to be less reactive than most fullerene molecules due to their smaller curvature, but more reactive than a

text: graphene

text: sheet due to

text: pyramidalization

text: and misalignment of

text: pi

text: orbitals

text: . The strain of a carbon framework is also reflected in the pyramidalization angle (Ө) of the carbon constituents.

text: Trigonal

text: carbon atoms (sp hybridized) prefer a planar orientation with Ө=0° (i.e. graphene) and fullerene molecules have Ө= 11.6°. The (5,5) SWNT has Ө~6° for the sidewall. Values for other (n,n) nanotubes show a trend of increasing Ө (sidewall) with decrease in n. Therefore, generally the chemical reactivity of SWNT increases with decrease in diameter (or n, diameter increases with n). Apart from the curvature SWNT reactivity is also highly sensitive to chiral wrapping (n,m) which determine its electronic structure. Nanotubes with n - m = 3i (i is an integer) are all metals and rest are all semiconducting (SC).

text: Graphene is a crystalline allotrope of carbon with 2-dimensional properties. Its carbon atoms are densely packed in a regular atomic-scale chicken wire (hexagonal) pattern.

text: Graphene is a

text: crystal

text: line

text: allotrope

text: of carbon with 2-dimensional properties. Its carbon atoms are densely packed in a regular

text: atomic-scale chicken wire

text: hexagonal

text: ) pattern.

text: Heterodiamond is a superhard material containing boron, carbon, and nitrogen  (BCN). It is formed at high temperatures and high pressures, e.g., by application of an explosive shock wave to a mixture of diamond and cubic boron nitride. The heterodiamond is a polycrystalline material coagulated with nano-crystallites and the fine powder is tinged with deep bluish black. The heterodiamond has both the high hardness of diamond and the excellent heat resistance of cubic BN. These characteristic properties are due to the diamond structure combined with the sp σ-bonds among carbon and the hetero atoms.

text: Heterodiamond is a

text: superhard material

text: containing

text: boron

text: carbon

text: , and

text: nitrogen

text: (BCN). It is formed at high temperatures and high pressures, e.g., by application of an explosive

text: shock wave

text: to a mixture of

text: diamond

text: and

text: cubic boron nitride

text: . The heterodiamond is a polycrystalline material coagulated with nano-crystallites and the fine powder is tinged with deep bluish black. The heterodiamond has both the high hardness of diamond and the excellent heat resistance of cubic

text: BN

text: . These characteristic properties are due to the diamond structure combined with the

text: sp

text: σ-bonds among carbon and the hetero atoms.

text: The easiest way to produce intrinsic defects in diamond is by displacing carbon atoms through irradiation with high-energy particles, such as alpha (helium), beta (electrons) or gamma particles, protons, neutrons, ions, etc. The irradiation can occur in the laboratory or in the nature (see Diamond enhancement – Irradiation); it produces primary defects named frenkel defects (carbon atoms knocked off their normal lattice sites to interstitial sites) and remaining lattice vacancies. An important difference between the vacancies and interstitials in diamond is that whereas interstitials are mobile during the irradiation, even at liquid nitrogen temperatures, however vacancies start migrating only at temperatures ~700 °C.

text: The easiest way to produce intrinsic defects in diamond is by displacing carbon atoms through irradiation with high-energy particles, such as alpha (helium), beta (electrons) or gamma particles, protons, neutrons, ions, etc. The irradiation can occur in the laboratory or in the nature (see

text: Diamond enhancement – Irradiation

text: ); it produces primary defects named

text: frenkel defect

text: s (carbon atoms knocked off their normal lattice sites to interstitial sites) and remaining lattice vacancies. An important difference between the vacancies and interstitials in diamond is that whereas interstitials are mobile during the irradiation, even at liquid nitrogen temperatures, however vacancies start migrating only at temperatures ~700 °C.

text: The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 is found in carbon monoxide and transition metal carbonyl complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are limestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of coal, peat, oil, and methane clathrates. Carbon forms a vast number of compounds, more than any other element, with almost ten million compounds described to date,  and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions. For this reason, carbon has often been referred to as the "king of the elements".

text: The most common

text: oxidation state

text: of carbon in

text: inorganic compound

text: s is +4, while +2 is found in

text: carbon monoxide

text: and

text: transition metal

text: carbonyl

text: complexes. The largest sources of inorganic carbon are

text: limestone

text: s,

text: dolomite

text: s and

text: carbon dioxide

text: , but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of

text: coal

text: peat

text: oil

text: , and

text: methane clathrate

text: s. Carbon forms a vast number of

text: compounds

text: , more than any other element, with almost ten million compounds described to date,  and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions. For this reason, carbon has often been referred to as the "king of the elements".

text: In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound comprising ions held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding. The compound is neutral overall, but consists of positively charged ions called cations and negatively charged ions called anions. These can be simple ions such as the sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) in sodium chloride, or polyatomic species such as the ammonium () and carbonate () ions in ammonium carbonate. Individual ions within an ionic compound usually have multiple nearest neighbours, so are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part of a continuous three-dimensional network, usually in a crystalline structure.

text: In

text: chemistry

text: , an ionic compound is a

text: chemical compound

text: comprising

text: ion

text: s held together by

text: electrostatic forces

text: termed

text: ionic bonding

text: . The compound is neutral overall, but consists of positively charged ions called

text: cation

text: s and negatively charged ions called

text: anion

text: s. These can be

text: simple ion

text: s such as the

text: sodium

text: (Na) and

text: chloride

text: (Cl) in

text: sodium chloride

text: , or

text: polyatomic

text: species such as the

text: ammonium

text: () and

text: carbonate

text: () ions in

text: ammonium carbonate

text: . Individual ions within an ionic compound usually have multiple nearest neighbours, so are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part of a continuous three-dimensional network, usually in a

text: crystalline structure

text: Phenethylamine is a primary amine, the amino-group being attached to a benzene ring through a two-carbon, or ethyl group. It is a colourless liquid at room temperature that has a fishy odour, and is soluble in water, ethanol and ether. Its density is 0.964 g/ml and its boiling point is 195 °C. Upon exposure to air, it combines with carbon dioxide to form a solid carbonate salt. Phenethylamine is strongly basic, pK = 4.17 (or pK = 9.83), as measured using the HCl salt and forms a stable crystalline hydrochloride salt with a melting point of 217 °C.

text: Phenethylamine is a primary amine, the amino-group being attached to a

text: benzene ring

text: through a two-carbon, or

text: ethyl group

text: . It is a colourless liquid at room temperature that has a fishy odour, and is soluble in water,

text: ethanol

text: and

text: ether

text: . Its density is 0.964 g/ml and its boiling point is 195 °C. Upon exposure to air, it combines with

text: carbon dioxide

text: to form a solid

text: carbonate

text: salt

text: . Phenethylamine is strongly

text: basic

text: , pK = 4.17 (or pK = 9.83), as measured using the HCl salt and forms a stable crystalline

text: hydrochloride

text: salt with a melting point of 217 °C.

text: Where treefall gaps are usually formed by falling trees or branches due to old age or disease, large-scale blow-downs are caused by squall lines, which generate heavy rain and strong winds. Some studies have measured the downburst speed of these winds to be between 26 and 41 m/s, which is enough force to cause large-scale blow-downs. Studies have shown that small-scale disturbances, such as treefall gaps forming after tree deaths, have a higher reoccurrence rate than do large-scale disturbances, such as blow-downs. Due to the fact that small-scale disturbances are more frequent, they account for about 88% of carbon emissions from the Amazon and for more biomass loss then do large-scale disturbances. These small disturbances add carbon into the environment and back into the carbon cycle; however, it is not a significant amount when compared to how much carbon is being sequestered in the above ground biomass. Because of this, the Amazon is considered to be a carbon sink.

text: Where treefall gaps are usually formed by falling trees or branches due to old age or disease, large-scale blow-downs are caused by squall lines, which generate heavy rain and strong winds. Some studies have measured the downburst speed of these winds to be between 26 and 41 m/s, which is enough force to cause large-scale blow-downs. Studies have shown that small-scale disturbances, such as treefall gaps forming after tree deaths, have a higher reoccurrence rate than do large-scale disturbances, such as blow-downs. Due to the fact that small-scale disturbances are more frequent, they account for about 88% of carbon emissions from the Amazon and for more biomass loss then do large-scale disturbances. These small disturbances add carbon into the environment and back into the carbon cycle; however, it is not a significant amount when compared to how much carbon is being sequestered in the above ground biomass. Because of this, the Amazon is considered to be a

text: carbon sink

text: Diamond has a wide bandgap of  corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225 nanometers. This means pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong and only atoms of nitrogen, boron and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals nickel and cobalt, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01% for nickel and even less for cobalt. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation.

text: Diamond has a wide

text: bandgap

text: of  corresponding to the deep

text: ultraviolet

text: wavelength of 225 nanometers. This means pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong and only atoms of nitrogen, boron and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals nickel and cobalt, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high-pressure high-temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01% for nickel and even less for cobalt. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation.

text: A polymeric PTC device comprises a non-conductive crystalline organic polymer matrix that is loaded with carbon black particles to make it conductive. While cool, the polymer is in a crystalline state, with the carbon forced into the regions between crystals, forming many conductive chains.  Since it is conductive (the "initial resistance"), it will pass a current. If too much current is passed through the device the device will begin to heat. As the device heats, the polymer will expand, changing from a crystalline into an amorphous state. The expansion separates the carbon particles and breaks the conductive pathways, causing the resistance of the device to increase. This will cause the device to heat faster and expand more, further raising the resistance. This increase in resistance substantially reduces the current in the circuit. A small current still flows through the device and is sufficient to maintain the temperature at a level which will keep it in the high resistance state. The device can be said to have latching functionality.  The hold current is the maximum current at which the device is guaranteed not to trip. The trip current is the current at which the device is guaranteed to trip.

text: A

text: polymeric

text: PTC device comprises a non-conductive

text: crystalline

text: organic polymer matrix that is loaded with

text: carbon black

text: particles to make it conductive. While cool, the polymer is in a crystalline state, with the carbon forced into the regions between crystals, forming many conductive chains.  Since it is conductive (the "initial resistance"), it will pass a current. If too much current is passed through the device the device will begin to heat. As the device heats, the polymer will expand, changing from a crystalline into an

text: amorphous

text: state. The expansion separates the carbon particles and breaks the conductive pathways, causing the resistance of the device to increase. This will cause the device to heat faster and expand more, further raising the resistance. This increase in resistance substantially reduces the current in the circuit. A small current still flows through the device and is sufficient to maintain the temperature at a level which will keep it in the high resistance state. The device can be said to have latching functionality.  The hold current is the maximum current at which the device is guaranteed not to trip. The trip current is the current at which the device is guaranteed to trip.

text: The molecule consists of an H-shaped 'chassis' with fullerene groups attached at the four corners to act as wheels.

text: The molecule consists of an H-shaped 'chassis' with

text: fullerene

text: groups attached at the four corners to act as wheels.

text: The video was the first to be created entirely in Macromedia Flash animation, by web design firm Fullerene Productions (who also created the band's Flash-based official website).

text: The video was the first to be created entirely in

text: Macromedia Flash

text: animation, by web design firm

text: Fullerene Productions

text: (who also created the band's Flash-based official

text: website

text: Diamonds are made from carbon, usually graphite. Nevertheless, while a diamond is being formed, it may not totally crystallize, leading to the presence of small dots of black carbon. These black spots have been classified to be those of graphite, pyrrhotite and pentlandite. These surface flaws resemble a small black dot and may affect the clarity of the stone depending on the size of the imperfection. The occurrence of this kind of flaw is less common in diamonds compared to pinpoint inclusions. Carbons are usually seen in white or blue-white stones. Carbons are not commonly found in diamonds of poorer colors. Within the trade, these are called "carbon spots" and may be cleavage cracks which have developed through uneven heating or a blow. Cleavage cracks often appear to be dark or black in normal lighting conditions because of light reflection.

text: Diamonds are made from

text: carbon

text: , usually

text: graphite

text: . Nevertheless, while a diamond is being formed, it may not totally

text: crystallize

text: , leading to the presence of small dots of black carbon. These black spots have been classified to be those of graphite,

text: pyrrhotite

text: and

text: pentlandite

text: . These surface flaws resemble a small black dot and may affect the clarity of the stone depending on the size of the imperfection. The occurrence of this kind of flaw is less common in diamonds compared to pinpoint inclusions. Carbons are usually seen in white or blue-white stones. Carbons are not commonly found in diamonds of poorer colors. Within the trade, these are called "carbon spots" and may be cleavage cracks which have developed through uneven heating or a blow. Cleavage cracks often appear to be dark or black in normal lighting conditions because of light reflection.

text: When considering toxicological data, care must be taken to distinguish as necessary between what are normally referred to as fullerenes: (C, C, ...); fullerene derivatives: C or other fullerenes with covalently bonded chemical groups; fullerene complexes (e.g., water-solubilized with surfactants, such as C-PVP; host-guest complexes, such as with cyclodextrin), where the fullerene is supermolecular bound to another molecule; C nanoparticles, which are extended solid-phase aggregates of C crystallites; and nanotubes, which are generally much larger (in terms of molecular weight and size) molecules, and are different in shape to the spheroidal fullerenes C and C, as well as having different chemical and physical properties.

text: When considering toxicological data, care must be taken to distinguish as necessary between what are normally referred to as fullerenes: (C, C, ...); fullerene derivatives: C or other fullerenes with covalently bonded chemical groups; fullerene complexes (e.g., water-solubilized with surfactants, such as C-

text: PVP

text: ; host-guest complexes, such as with

text: cyclodextrin

text: ), where the fullerene is supermolecular bound to another molecule; C nanoparticles, which are extended solid-phase aggregates of C crystallites; and nanotubes, which are generally much larger (in terms of molecular weight and size) molecules, and are different in shape to the spheroidal fullerenes C and C, as well as having different chemical and physical properties.

text: Gordon began experimenting with a Modulus Quantum 5 bass guitar on stage with Phish as early as October 31, 1994. He made the switch to this instrument as his main bass at Phish's March 1, 1997, show at Markthalle in Hamburg, Germany to a Quantum 5 with two EMG DC pickups. He later acquired a TBX model which is the through-neck version of the same guitar. This instrument is known for deep tones and a "futuristic" sound, largely attributable to a unique construction including a neck that is made entirely of a lightweight, extremely robust carbon-graphite compound, not dissimilar to a material selected by NASA for use on the Space Shuttle. Gordon plays with a pick (Jerry Dunlop 1.5mm triangular graphite picks) and Ken Smith Slickround™ (half flat) strings

text: Gordon began experimenting with a

text: Modulus

text: Quantum 5 bass guitar on stage with Phish as early as October 31, 1994. He made the switch to this instrument as his main bass at Phish's March 1, 1997, show at

text: Markthalle

text: in Hamburg, Germany to a Quantum 5 with two EMG DC pickups. He later acquired a TBX model which is the through-neck version of the same guitar. This instrument is known for deep tones and a "futuristic" sound, largely attributable to a unique construction including a neck that is made entirely of a lightweight, extremely robust carbon-graphite compound, not dissimilar to a material selected by

text: NASA

text: for use on the Space Shuttle. Gordon plays with a pick (Jerry Dunlop 1.5mm triangular graphite picks) and Ken Smith Slickround™ (half flat) strings

text: Graphite is characterized by two main groups: natural and synthetic. Synthetic graphite is a high temperature sintered product and is characterized by its high purity of carbon (99.5−99.9%). Primary grade synthetic graphite can approach the good lubricity of quality natural graphite.

text: Graphite is characterized by two main groups: natural and synthetic. Synthetic graphite is a high temperature

text: sintered

text: product and is characterized by its high purity of carbon (99.5−99.9%). Primary grade synthetic graphite can approach the good lubricity of quality natural graphite.

text: Energy is a resource literally too cheap to meter. Anything that cannot be powered by miniaturized fusion reactors (which, in the 31st century, are so advanced they can operate solely on atmospheric gasses), is easily fueled by massively powerful neutronium-annihilation "annie" plants - spherical devices that generate massive amounts of power by gravitationally converting mass to energy, a means of power generation made possible by ubiquitous gravity manipulation. One-shot devices (and bombs) are often powered by fullerened antimatter, a carbon-based powder which contains antiprotons at the parts-per-thousand level, and should never be incinerated.

text: Energy is a resource literally

text: too cheap to meter

text: . Anything that cannot be powered by miniaturized

text: fusion

text: reactors (which, in the 31st century, are so advanced they can operate solely on atmospheric gasses), is easily fueled by massively powerful

text: neutronium

text: -annihilation "annie" plants - spherical devices that generate massive amounts of power by

text: gravitation

text: ally converting mass to energy, a means of power generation made possible by ubiquitous gravity manipulation. One-shot devices (and

text: bomb

text: s) are often powered by

text: fullerene

text: d

text: antimatter

text: , a carbon-based powder which contains antiprotons at the parts-per-thousand level, and should never be incinerated.

text: In 1980s Osipyan and his Institute conducted microgravity experiments on board of Mir station. In 2000s Osipyan engaged in the studies of fullerens.

text: In 1980s Osipyan and his Institute conducted

text: microgravity

text: experiments on board of

text: Mir

text: station. In 2000s Osipyan engaged in the studies of

text: fulleren

text: s.

text: Lower fullerenes are fullerene molecules consisting of fewer than 60 carbon atoms. They are cage-like fused-ring structures made of hexagons and pentagons, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge.

text: Lower fullerenes are

text: fullerene

text: molecules consisting of fewer than 60

text: carbon

text: atoms. They are cage-like fused-ring structures made of

text: hexagon

text: s and

text: pentagon

text: s, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each

text: polygon

text: edge.

text: Graphite particles can be corroded in molten salts to form a variety of carbon nanostructures including graphene. Hydrogen cations, dissolved in molten lithium chloride, can be discharged on cathodically polarized graphite rods, which then intercalate, peeling graphene sheets. The graphene nanosheets produced displayed a single-crystalline structure with a lateral size of several hundred nanometers and a high degree of crystallinity and thermal stability.

text: Marble is a metamorphic rock derived from limestone, composed mostly of calcite (a crystalline form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3). The original source of the parent limestone is the seabed deposition of calcium carbonate in the form of microscopic animal skeletons or similar materials. Marble is formed when the limestone is transformed by heat and pressure after being overlain by other materials. The finest marbles for sculpture have no or few stains (some natural stain can be seen in the sculpture shown at left, which the sculptor has skillfully incorporated into the sculpture).

text: Marble is a metamorphic rock derived from limestone, composed mostly of calcite (a crystalline form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3). The original source of the parent limestone is the seabed deposition of

text: calcium carbonate

text: in the form of microscopic animal skeletons or similar materials. Marble is formed when the limestone is transformed by heat and pressure after being overlain by other materials. The finest marbles for sculpture have no or few stains (some natural stain can be seen in the sculpture shown at left, which the sculptor has skillfully incorporated into the sculpture).

text: Available in Coupé and Roadster bodies, SLS AMG GT has the same torque (479 lb-ft @ 4,750 rpm) and the same top speed (an electronically limited 197 mph) but includes a 20-horsepower increase in engine power to @6800rpm and @4750rpm, resulting in an ever so slight 1/10 of a second decrease in 0-60 speed (3.7 seconds to 3.6 seconds) over the prior year model, shorten transmission reaction time in the manual "M" transmission mode, AMG RIDE CONTROL Performance suspension, selection of suspension modes via AMG DRIVE UNIT, 3 additional AMG light-alloy wheels options, Alcantara black interior upholstery, red seat belts, contrasting stitching on the AMG sports seats and the centre console and the door panel lining in red, floor mats in red edging, high-gloss black AMG trim on the centre console and door panel, high-gloss black edging on the adjustable cross-shaped air vents and the high-gloss real metal insert on the AMG Performance steering wheel with Alcantara grip, AMG instrument cluster with black faceplate, AMG designo Exclusive STYLE leather option (a diamond design with contrasting stitching, designo leather finish for the entire dashboard, the beltlines and door armrests, the handrest on the centre console, AMG floor mats in black with porcelain leather edging, roof lining in Alcantara porcelain, and the parcel shelf (Coupé) or roll-over bar (Roadster)) in 3 colour combinations (mocha brown/porcelain, titanium grey pearl/porcelain, mystic red/porcelain). Other options include AMG carbon-fibre exterior mirrors, AMG carbon-fibre engine compartment cover, AMG Interior Carbon-Fibre package (carbon-fibre trim, trim on seat backrest and side, door sill panels), AMG ceramic high-performance composite braking system, AMG Performance Media, AMG 10-spoke forged wheels in other colour variants, AMG carbon-fibre trim, AIRSCARF (Roadster), Bang & Olufsen BeoSound AMG surround sound system.

text: Natural crystalline materials contain imperfections: impurity ions, stress dislocations, and other phenomena that disturb the regularity of the electric field that holds the atoms in the crystalline lattice together.  These imperfections lead to local humps and dips in the crystalline material's electric potential. Where there is a dip (a so-called "electron trap"), a free electron may be attracted and trapped.

text: Natural crystalline materials contain imperfections: impurity

text: ion

text: s, stress dislocations, and other phenomena that disturb the regularity of the

text: electric field

text: that holds the

text: atom

text: s in the crystalline lattice together.  These imperfections lead to local humps and dips in the crystalline material's

text: electric potential

text: . Where there is a dip (a so-called "

text: electron

text: trap"), a free

text: electron

text: may be attracted and trapped.

text: Self-lubricating composites: Solid lubricants such as PTFE, graphite, MoS and some other anti-friction and anti-wear additives are often compounded in polymers and all kind of sintered materials. MoS, for example, is compounded in materials for sleeve bearings, elastomer O-rings, carbon brushes, etc. Solid lubricants are compounded in plastics to form a "self-lubricating" or "internally lubricated" thermoplastic composite. For example, PTFE particles compounded in the plastic form a PTFE film over the mating surface, resulting in a reduction of friction and wear. MoS compounded in nylon reduces wear, friction and stick-slip. Furthermore, it acts as a nucleating agent effecting in a very fine crystalline structure. The primary use of graphite lubricated thermoplastics is in applications operating in aqueous environments.

text: Self-lubricating composites: Solid lubricants such as PTFE, graphite, MoS and some other anti-friction and anti-wear additives are often compounded in polymers and all kind of sintered materials. MoS, for example, is compounded in materials for sleeve bearings, elastomer

text: O-ring

text: s, carbon brushes, etc. Solid lubricants are compounded in plastics to form a "self-lubricating" or "internally lubricated" thermoplastic composite. For example, PTFE particles compounded in the plastic form a PTFE film over the mating surface, resulting in a reduction of friction and wear. MoS compounded in

text: nylon

text: reduces wear, friction and stick-slip. Furthermore, it acts as a nucleating agent effecting in a very fine crystalline structure. The primary use of graphite lubricated thermoplastics is in applications operating in aqueous environments.

text: The general structure of the standard amino acids includes a primary amino group, a carboxyl group and the functional group attached to the α-carbon.  The different amino acids are identified by the functional group.  As a result of the three different groups attached to the α-carbon, amino acids are asymmetrical molecules.  For all standard amino acids, except glycine, the α-carbon is a chiral center.  In the case of glycine, the α-carbon has two hydrogen atoms, thus adding symmetry to this molecule.  With the exception of proline, all of the amino acids found in life have the L-isoform conformation.  Proline has a functional group on the α-carbon that forms a ring with the amino group.

text: The general structure of the standard amino acids includes a

text: primary amino group

text: , a

text: carboxyl group

text: and the

text: functional group

text: attached to the

text: α-carbon

text: .  The different amino acids are identified by the functional group.  As a result of the three different groups attached to the α-carbon, amino acids are

text: asymmetrical molecules

text: .  For all standard amino acids, except

text: glycine

text: , the α-carbon is a

text: chiral center

text: .  In the case of glycine, the α-carbon has two hydrogen atoms, thus adding symmetry to this molecule.  With the exception of

text: proline

text: , all of the amino acids found in life have the

text: L-isoform

text: conformation.  Proline has a functional group on the α-carbon that forms a ring with the amino group.

text: In August 2011, Matthew Bailes and his team of experts from Swinburne University of Technology in Australia reported that the millisecond pulsar PSR J1719-1438 may have a binary companion star that has been crushed into a much smaller planet made largely of solid diamond. They deduced that a small companion planet must be orbiting the pulsar and causing a detectable gravitational pull. Further examination revealed that although the planet is relatively small (60,000 km diameter, or five times bigger than the Earth) its mass is slightly more than that of Jupiter. The high density of the planet gave the team a clue to its likely makeup of carbon and oxygen—and suggested the crystalline form of the elements. However, this "planet", is theorized to be the remains of an evaporated white dwarf companion, being only the remnant inner core. According to some definitions of planet, this would not qualify because it formed as a star.

text: In August 2011,

text: Matthew Bailes

text: and his team of experts from

text: Swinburne University of Technology

text: in Australia reported that the

text: millisecond pulsar

text: PSR J1719-1438

text: may have a binary companion star that has been crushed into a much smaller planet made largely of solid diamond. They deduced that a small companion planet must be orbiting the pulsar and causing a detectable gravitational pull. Further examination revealed that although the planet is relatively small (60,000 km diameter, or five times bigger than the Earth) its mass is slightly more than that of Jupiter. The high density of the planet gave the team a clue to its likely makeup of carbon and oxygen—and suggested the crystalline form of the elements. However, this "planet", is theorized to be the remains of an evaporated

text: white dwarf

text: companion, being only the remnant inner core. According to some definitions of planet, this would not qualify because it formed as a star.

text: Roger Bacon (1926–2007) was a physicist at the Parma Technical Center of National Carbon Company in suburban Cleveland, Ohio, where he invented graphite fibers in 1958.

text: Roger Bacon (1926–2007) was a

text: physicist

text: at the Parma Technical Center of

text: National Carbon Company

text: in suburban

text: Cleveland, Ohio

text: , where he invented

text: graphite fiber

text: s in 1958.

text: Sodium cyanide and potassium cyanide, colorless crystalline compounds similar in appearance to sugar, also act as blood agents. Carbon monoxide could technically be called a blood agent because it binds with oxygen-carrying hemoglobin in the blood (see carbon monoxide poisoning), but its high volatility makes it impractical as a chemical warfare agent.

text: Sodium cyanide

text: and

text: potassium cyanide

text: , colorless crystalline compounds similar in appearance to sugar, also act as blood agents.

text: Carbon monoxide

text: could technically be called a blood agent because it binds with oxygen-carrying hemoglobin in the blood (see

text: carbon monoxide poisoning

text: ), but its high volatility makes it impractical as a chemical warfare agent.

text: In this new material, fullerenes are covalently bonded to the outer sidewalls of the underlying nanotube. Consequently, nanobuds exhibit properties of both carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. For instance, the mechanical properties and the electrical conductivity of the nanobuds are similar to those of corresponding carbon nanotubes. However, because of the higher reactivity of the attached fullerene molecules, the hybrid material can be further functionalized through known fullerene chemistry. Additionally, the attached fullerene molecules can be used as molecular anchors to prevent slipping of the nanotubes in various composite materials, thus modifying the composite’s mechanical properties.

text: In this new material, fullerenes are

text: covalently bonded

text: to the outer sidewalls of the underlying nanotube. Consequently, nanobuds exhibit properties of both carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. For instance, the mechanical properties and the

text: electrical conductivity

text: of the nanobuds are similar to those of corresponding carbon nanotubes. However, because of the higher reactivity of the attached fullerene molecules, the hybrid material can be further functionalized through known fullerene chemistry. Additionally, the attached fullerene molecules can be used as molecular anchors to prevent slipping of the nanotubes in various composite materials, thus modifying the composite’s mechanical properties.

text: Graphite is based on the TrueType font format, and adds three of its own tables. It allows for a variety of rendering rules, including ligatures, glyph substitution, glyph insertion, glyph rearrangement, anchoring diacritics, kerning, and justification. Graphite rules may be sensitive to the context. For instance, there might be a glyph substitution rule that replaces every non-final s by an ſ.

text: Graphite is based on the

text: TrueType

text: font format, and adds three of its own tables. It allows for a variety of rendering rules, including

text: ligatures

text: glyph

text: substitution, glyph insertion, glyph rearrangement, anchoring

text: diacritic

text: s,

text: kerning

text: , and

text: justification

text: . Graphite rules may be sensitive to the context. For instance, there might be a glyph substitution rule that replaces every non-final

text: s

text: by an

text: ſ

text: "The Red Peri" was written only five years after the discovery of Pluto by Clyde Tombaugh, when the only things known about it were its orbit and the fact that its apparent magnitude was 14.90, too dim to be a gas giant.  Given its known distance from the sun, this meant that the higher Pluto's albedo was assumed to be, the smaller it would have to be.  Weinbaum assumed that Pluto's surface was as dark as coal, and that its diameter was greater than Earth's, with a correspondingly greater gravity.  Weinbaum also assumed that Pluto was airless and had a twenty-hour period of rotation and a surface temperature of 10 kelvins.  Despite its harsh conditions, Weinbaum's Pluto includes a number of life-forms, all of them crystalline creatures called crystal crawlers that consume various elements, including aluminum, iron, and carbon.

text: "The Red Peri" was written only five years after the discovery of Pluto by

text: Clyde Tombaugh

text: , when the only things known about it were its orbit and the fact that its

text: apparent magnitude

text: was 14.90, too dim to be a

text: gas giant

text: .  Given its known distance from the sun, this meant that the higher Pluto's

text: albedo

text: was assumed to be, the smaller it would have to be.  Weinbaum assumed that Pluto's surface was as dark as coal, and that its diameter was greater than Earth's, with a correspondingly greater gravity.  Weinbaum also assumed that Pluto was airless and had a twenty-hour period of rotation and a surface temperature of 10

text: kelvin

text: s.  Despite its harsh conditions, Weinbaum's Pluto includes a number of life-forms, all of them crystalline creatures called crystal crawlers that consume various elements, including aluminum, iron, and carbon.

text: Natural graphite in this end use mostly goes into carbon raising in molten steel, although it can be used to lubricate the dies used to extrude hot steel. Supplying carbon raisers is very competitive, therefore subject to cut-throat pricing from alternatives such as synthetic graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon. A carbon raiser is added to increase the carbon content of the steel to the specified level. An estimate based on USGS US graphite consumption statistics indicates that 10,500 tonnes were used in this fashion in 2005.

text: Natural graphite in this end use mostly goes into carbon raising in molten steel, although it can be used to lubricate the dies used to extrude hot steel. Supplying carbon raisers is very competitive, therefore subject to cut-throat pricing from alternatives such as synthetic graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon. A carbon raiser is added to increase the carbon content of the steel to the specified level. An estimate based on

text: USGS

text: US graphite consumption statistics indicates that 10,500 tonnes were used in this fashion in 2005.

text: In 1990, W. Krätchmer and D. R. Huffman's developed a simple and efficient method which boosted the fullerene research. In this technique, carbon soot is produced from two high-purity graphite electrodes by igniting an arc discharge between them in an inert atmosphere (helium gas). Alternatively, soot is produced by laser ablation of graphite or pyrolysis of aromatic hydrocarbons. Fullerenes are extracted from the soot by dissolving it in appropriate organic solvents followed by chromatography. Milligram amounts of higher fullerenes can be obtained with this method in the laboratory and are available commercially for C, C and C.

text: In 1990, W. Krätchmer and D. R. Huffman's developed a simple and efficient method which boosted the fullerene research. In this technique, carbon soot is produced from two high-purity graphite electrodes by igniting an arc discharge between them in an inert atmosphere (helium gas). Alternatively, soot is produced by

text: laser ablation

text: of graphite or

text: pyrolysis

text: of

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s. Fullerenes are extracted from the soot by dissolving it in appropriate organic solvents followed by

text: chromatography

text: . Milligram amounts of higher fullerenes can be obtained with this method in the laboratory and are available commercially for C, C and C.

text: Two helium atoms can fit inside larger fullerenes, including C and C. These can be detected by the nuclear magnetic resonance of He having a small shift, and by mass spectrometry. C with enclosed helium can contain 20% He@C, whereas C has 10% and C has 8%. The larger cavities are more likely to hold more atoms. Even when the two helium atoms are placed closely to each other in a small cage, there is no chemical bond between them. The presence of two He atoms in a C fullerene cage is only predicted to have a small effect on the reactivity of the fullerene. The effect is to have electrons withdrawn from the endohedral helium atoms, giving them a slight positive charge to produce He, (δ a small value), which have a stronger bond than uncharged helium atoms.

text: Two helium atoms can fit inside larger

text: fullerene

text: s, including

text: C

text: and

text: C

text: . These can be detected by the nuclear magnetic resonance of He having a small shift, and by mass spectrometry. C with enclosed helium can contain 20% He@C, whereas C has 10% and C has 8%. The larger cavities are more likely to hold more atoms. Even when the two helium atoms are placed closely to each other in a small cage, there is no chemical bond between them. The presence of two He atoms in a C fullerene cage is only predicted to have a small effect on the reactivity of the fullerene. The effect is to have electrons withdrawn from the endohedral helium atoms, giving them a slight positive charge to produce He, (δ a small value), which have a stronger bond than uncharged helium atoms.

text: Many ionic compounds can be dissolved in water or other similar solvents. The exact combination of ions involved makes each compound have a unique solubility in any solvent. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, so there are certain patterns. For example, all salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are soluble in water, as are all nitrates and many sulfates – barium sulfate, calcium sulfate (sparingly soluble) and lead(II) sulfate are examples of exceptions. However, ions that bind tightly to each other and form highly stable lattices are less soluble, because it is harder for these structures to break apart for the compounds to dissolve. For example, most carbonate salts are not soluble in water, such as lead carbonate and barium carbonate. Some soluble carbonate salts are: sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate.

text: Many ionic compounds can be

text: dissolved

text: in water or other similar solvents. The exact combination of ions involved makes each compound have a unique solubility in any solvent. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, so there are certain patterns. For example, all salts of

text: sodium

text: potassium

text: and ammonium are soluble in water, as are all

text: nitrates

text: and many

text: sulfate

text: s –

text: barium sulfate

text: calcium sulfate

text: (sparingly soluble) and

text: lead(II) sulfate

text: are examples of exceptions. However, ions that bind tightly to each other and form highly stable lattices are less soluble, because it is harder for these structures to break apart for the compounds to dissolve. For example, most

text: carbonate

text: salts are not soluble in water, such as

text: lead carbonate

text: and

text: barium carbonate

text: . Some soluble carbonate salts are:

text: sodium carbonate

text: potassium carbonate

text: and

text: ammonium carbonate

text: An important area of research concerned the Wigner effect. Under bombardment by neutrons, the carbon atoms in the graphite moderator can be knocked out of the graphite's crystalline structure. Over time, this causes the graphite to heat and swell. Investigation of the problem would take most of 1946 before a fix was found.

text: An important area of research concerned the

text: Wigner effect

text: . Under bombardment by neutrons, the carbon atoms in the graphite moderator can be knocked out of the graphite's crystalline structure. Over time, this causes the graphite to heat and swell. Investigation of the problem would take most of 1946 before a fix was found.

text: Lutetium's compounds always contain the element in the oxidation state +3.  Aqueous solutions of most lutetium salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying, with the common exception of the iodide. The soluble salts, such as nitrate, sulfate and acetate form hydrates upon crystallization. The oxide, hydroxide, fluoride, carbonate, phosphate and oxalate are insoluble in water.

text: Lutetium's compounds always contain the element in the oxidation state +3.  Aqueous solutions of most lutetium salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying, with the common exception of the iodide. The soluble salts, such as nitrate, sulfate and acetate form hydrates upon crystallization. The

text: oxide

text: , hydroxide, fluoride, carbonate, phosphate and

text: oxalate

text: are insoluble in water.

text: Diamonds do not show all of their beauty as rough stones; instead, they must be cut and polished to exhibit the characteristic fire and brilliance that diamond gemstones are known for. Diamonds are cut into a variety of shapes that are generally designed to accentuate these features.

text: PSR J1719-1438 b is an extrasolar planet that was discovered on August 25, 2011 in orbit around PSR J1719-1438, a millisecond pulsar. The pulsar planet is most likely composed largely of crystalline carbon, but with a density far greater than diamond. PSR J1719-1438 b orbits so closely to its host star, the planet's orbit would fit inside the Sun. The existence of such carbon planets had been theoretically postulated.

text: PSR J1719-1438 b is an

text: extrasolar planet

text: that was discovered on August 25, 2011 in orbit around

text: PSR J1719-1438

text: , a

text: millisecond pulsar

text: . The

text: pulsar planet

text: is most likely composed largely of crystalline carbon, but with a

text: density

text: far greater than

text: diamond

text: . PSR J1719-1438 b orbits so closely to its host star, the planet's orbit would fit inside the

text: Sun

text: . The existence of such

text: carbon planet

text: s had been theoretically postulated.

text: Fullerene – any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. Fullerene spheres and tubes have applications in nanotechnology.

text: Fullerene

text: – any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. Fullerene spheres and tubes have applications in nanotechnology.

text: The following is a list of references to fullerenes in popular culture. A fullerene is a molecule of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, and many other shapes. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and they resemble the balls used in football (soccer). Cylindrical ones are called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

text: The following is a list of references to

text: fullerene

text: s in

text: popular culture

text: . A

text: fullerene

text: is a

text: molecule

text: of

text: carbon

text: in the form of a hollow

text: sphere

text: ellipsoid

text: tube

text: , and many other shapes. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and they resemble the balls used in

text: football

text: (soccer). Cylindrical ones are called

text: carbon nanotubes

text: or buckytubes. Fullerenes are similar in

text: structure

text: to

text: graphite

text: , which is composed of stacked

text: graphene

text: sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

text: When a pure element, comprising only one type of atom, nevertheless exists in multiple forms (allotropes) with different structure and properties, they are generally given different names; for example graphite and diamond are both forms of the element carbon.  Even for elements such as nitrogen having only one stable allotrope, a name such as dinitrogen may be used to indicate its molecular structure N as well as its elemental composition.  The naming of chemical compounds comprising more than one element is a complex subject, discussed at length in the article on chemical nomenclature.

text: When a pure element, comprising only one type of atom, nevertheless exists in multiple forms (

text: allotrope

text: s) with different structure and properties, they are generally given different names; for example

text: graphite

text: and

text: diamond

text: are both forms of the element

text: carbon

text: .  Even for elements such as

text: nitrogen

text: having only one stable allotrope, a name such as dinitrogen may be used to indicate its molecular structure N as well as its elemental composition.  The naming of chemical compounds comprising more than one element is a complex subject, discussed at length in the article on

text: chemical nomenclature

text: The carbon source for the CVD of VANTAs is most commonly a carbon gas such as methane, ethylene, acetylene, benzene, xylene, or carbon monoxide.  Other examples of carbon precursors include cyclohexane, fullerene, methanol, and ethanol.  The pyrolysis of these gases into carbon atoms varies based on the decomposition rate at growth temperatures, the carbon content of the gas molecules, and the growth catalyst.   Linear hydrocarbons such as methane, ethylene, acetylene, thermally decompose into atomic carbons or linear dimers/trimers of carbon, and generally produce straight and hollow CNTs. On the other hand, cyclic hydrocarbons such as benzene, xylene, cyclohexane, fullerene, produce relatively curved/hunched CNTs with the tube walls often bridged inside. Aligned arrays of MWNTs have been synthesized through the catalytic decomposition of ferrocene-xylene precursor mixture onto quartz substrates at atmospheric pressure and relatively low temperature (~675 °C).Eres et al. found that the addition of ferrocene into the gas stream by thermal evaporation concurrently with acetylene enhanced carbon nanotube growth rates and extend the VANTA thickness to 3.25 mm. Ferrocene was introduced into the gas stream by thermal evaporation concurrently with the flow of acetylene. Qu et al. reported a low-pressure CVD process on a SiO/Si wafer that produces a VANTA  consisting of CNTs with curly entangled ends.  During the pyrolytic growth of the VANTAs, the initially formed nanotube segments from the base growth process grew in random directions and formed a randomly entangled nanotube top layer to which the underlying straight nanotube arrays then emerged.Zhong et al. studied purely thermal CVD process for SWNT forests without an etchant gas, and demonstrated that acteylene is the main growth precursor, and the conversion of any feedstock to CH is of key importance to SWNT VANTA growth. A reactive etchant, such as water, atomic hydrogen, or hydroxyl radicals, can widen the SWNT forest deposition window but is not required in cold-wall reactors at low pressures.Dasgupta et al. synthesized a free-standing macro-tubular VANTA with a spray pyrolysis of ferrocene-benzene solution in a nitrogen atmosphere, with the optimum condition for the formation of macro-tubular geometry was found to be 950 °C, 50 mg/ml ferrocene in benzene, 1.5 ml/min pumping rate of liquid precursor and 5 lpm of nitrogen gas flow rate.

text: The carbon source for the CVD of VANTAs is most commonly a carbon gas such as

text: methane

text: ethylene

text: acetylene

text: benzene

text: xylene

text: , or

text: carbon monoxide

text: etchant

text: , such as water, atomic hydrogen, or hydroxyl radicals, can widen the SWNT forest deposition window but is not required in cold-wall reactors at low pressures.Dasgupta et al. synthesized a free-standing macro-tubular VANTA with a spray pyrolysis of ferrocene-benzene solution in a nitrogen atmosphere, with the optimum condition for the formation of macro-tubular geometry was found to be 950 °C, 50 mg/ml ferrocene in benzene, 1.5 ml/min pumping rate of liquid precursor and 5 lpm of nitrogen gas flow rate.

text: Hydrozincite, also known as zinc bloom, is a white carbonate mineral consisting of Zn(CO)(OH). It is usually found in massive rather than crystalline form.

text: Hydrozincite, also known as zinc bloom, is a white

text: carbonate mineral

text: consisting of

text: Zn

text: CO

text: OH

text: ). It is usually found in massive rather than

text: crystalline

text: form.

text: Most inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including all common metals, many ceramics, rocks and ice. The extent to which a solid is crystalline (crystallinity) has important effects on its physical properties. Sulfur, while usually polycrystalline, may also occur in other allotropic forms with completely different properties. Although crystallites are referred to as grains, powder grains are different, as they can be composed of smaller polycrystalline grains themselves.

text: Most inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including all common

text: metal

text: s, many

text: ceramic

text: s, rocks and ice. The extent to which a solid is crystalline (

text: crystallinity

text: ) has important effects on its physical properties.

text: Sulfur

text: , while usually polycrystalline, may also occur in other

text: allotropic

text: forms with completely different properties. Although crystallites are referred to as grains, powder grains are different, as they can be composed of smaller polycrystalline grains themselves.

text: Estrone has the chemical name 3-hydroxyestra-1,3,5(10)-triene-17-one or estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3-ol-17-one and the chemical formula CHO. It is an odorless, solid crystalline powder, white in color with a melting point of 254.5 °C (490 °F) and a specific gravity of 1.23. At high temperatures estrone is combustible and the products of combusting estrone are carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO).

text: Estrone has the chemical name 3-hydroxyestra-1,3,5(10)-triene-17-one or estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3-ol-17-one and the chemical formula CHO. It is an odorless, solid crystalline powder, white in color with a melting point of 254.5 °C (490 °F) and a specific gravity of 1.23. At high temperatures estrone is combustible and the products of combusting estrone are

text: carbon monoxide

text: (CO) and

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO).

text: The buckminsterfullerenes, or usually just fullerenes or buckyballs for short, were discovered in 1985 by a team of scientists from Rice University and the University of Sussex, three of whom were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They are named for the resemblance of their allotropic structure to the geodesic structures devised by the scientist and architect Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller. Fullerenes are molecules of varying sizes composed entirely of carbon, which take the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube.

text: The buckminsterfullerenes, or usually just fullerenes or buckyballs for short, were discovered in 1985 by a team of scientists from Rice University and the University of Sussex, three of whom were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. They are named for the resemblance of their allotropic structure to the geodesic structures devised by the scientist and architect

text: Richard Buckminster "Bucky" Fuller

text: . Fullerenes are molecules of varying sizes composed entirely of carbon, which take the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube.

text: Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steel's base metal is iron, which is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic forms), body centered cubic (BCC) and face centered cubic (FCC), depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the centre of each cube, and in the face-centred cubic, there is one at the center of each of the six faces of the cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the crystal lattices of iron atoms.

text: Steel is an

text: alloy

text: of

text: iron

text: and other elements, primarily

text: carbon

text: , that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high

text: tensile strength

text: and low cost. Steel's base metal is iron, which is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic forms), body centered cubic (BCC) and face centered cubic (FCC), depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those

text: allotropes

text: with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives steel and

text: cast iron

text: their range of unique properties. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the centre of each cube, and in the face-centred cubic, there is one at the center of each of the six faces of the cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of

text: dislocation

text: s that otherwise occur in the

text: crystal lattice

text: s of iron atoms.

text: Because of the molecule's spherical shape the carbon atoms are highly pyramidalized, which has far-reaching consequences for reactivity. It is estimated that strain energy constitutes 80% of the heat of formation. The conjugated carbon atoms respond to deviation from planarity by orbital rehybridization of the sp² orbitals and pi orbitals to a sp orbital with a gain in p-character. The p lobes extend further outside the surface than they do into the interior of the sphere and this is one of the reasons a fullerene is electronegative. The other reason is that the empty low-lying pi orbitals also have a high s character.

text: Because of the molecule's spherical shape the carbon atoms are highly

text: pyramidalized

text: , which has far-reaching consequences for reactivity. It is estimated that

text: strain energy

text: constitutes 80% of the

text: heat of formation

text: . The conjugated carbon atoms respond to deviation from planarity by

text: orbital rehybridization

text: of the sp²

text: orbital

text: s and

text: pi orbital

text: s to a sp orbital with a gain in p-character. The p lobes extend further outside the surface than they do into the interior of the sphere and this is one of the reasons a fullerene is

text: electronegative

text: . The other reason is that the empty low-lying pi orbitals also have a high s character.

text: Exotic dopants like fullerenes and quantum dots can be employed.

text: Exotic dopants like

text: fullerene

text: s and

text: quantum dot

text: s can be employed.

text: Composite opportunities also exist using TiN as seeding layers for carbon nitride, which produces actual crystalline composites with hardness at levels of 45-55 (GPa) which is on the lower end of diamond.

text: Nakhla is the first Martian meteorite to show signs of aqueous processes on Mars. The rock contains carbonates and hydrous minerals, formed by chemical reactions in water. In addition, the rock was exposed to water after it formed, which caused secondary accumulations of minerals. The carbonates contain more C than rocks formed on Earth, indicating Martian origin.

text: Using NaC as the anode, the average voltage on the low potential plateau was higher for Na cells than Li cells. Unlike traditional Li cells, which make use of an intercalated graphite anode with a fully lithiated stoichiometry of LiC, Na capacity in graphite is very low. This is because of a weak binding between Na and carbon. In fact, quantum-mechanical calculations show that among the alkali and alkaline earth metals, Na and Mg generally have the weakest chemical binding to a given substrate, compared with the other elements in the same group of the periodic table. The phenomenon arises from the competition between trends in the ionization energy and the ion–substrate coupling, down the columns of the periodic table. For these reasons, carbon-based anodes rely on amorphous carbon that consists of spatially disoriented graphene sheets, defects and interstitial pores. These amorphous carbon allotropes can be categorized as hard or soft. Soft carbons can be transformed into graphite through annealing at high temperatures. Hard carbon materials can be derived from feedstocks such as: sugar, starch, fiber and certain polymers.

text: Using NaC as the anode, the average voltage on the low potential plateau was higher for Na cells than Li cells. Unlike traditional Li cells, which make use of an intercalated graphite anode with a fully lithiated

text: stoichiometry

text: of LiC, Na capacity in graphite is very low. This is because of a weak binding between Na and carbon. In fact, quantum-mechanical calculations show that among the alkali and alkaline earth metals, Na and Mg generally have the weakest chemical binding to a given substrate, compared with the other elements in the same group of the periodic table. The phenomenon arises from the competition between trends in the ionization energy and the ion–substrate coupling, down the columns of the periodic table. For these reasons, carbon-based anodes rely on amorphous carbon that consists of spatially disoriented

text: graphene

text: sheets, defects and interstitial pores. These amorphous carbon

text: allotropes

text: can be categorized as hard or soft. Soft carbons can be transformed into graphite through annealing at high temperatures. Hard carbon materials can be derived from feedstocks such as: sugar, starch, fiber and certain polymers.

text: Both carbon and alloy steels are suitable for case-hardening; typically mild steels are used, with low carbon content, usually less than 0.3% (see plain-carbon steel for more information). These mild steels are not normally hardenable due to the low quantity of carbon, so the surface of the steel is chemically altered to increase the hardenability. Case-hardened steel is formed by diffusing carbon (carburization), nitrogen (nitriding) and/or boron (boriding) into the outer layer of the steel at high temperature, and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness.

text: Both carbon and

text: alloy steel

text: s are suitable for case-hardening; typically mild steels are used, with low

text: carbon

text: content, usually less than 0.3% (see

text: plain-carbon steel

text: for more information). These mild steels are not normally hardenable due to the low quantity of carbon, so the surface of the steel is chemically altered to increase the hardenability. Case-hardened steel is formed by diffusing carbon (

text: carburization

text: nitrogen

text: nitriding

text: ) and/or

text: boron

text: boriding

text: ) into the outer layer of the steel at high temperature, and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness.

text: Graphene (/ˈɡræf.iːn/) is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a two-dimensional, atomic-scale, hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each vertex. It is the basic structural element of other allotropes, including graphite, charcoal, carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. It can also be considered as an indefinitely large aromatic molecule, the ultimate case of the family of flat polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

text: Graphene (/ˈɡræf.iːn/) is an

text: allotrope

text: of

text: carbon

text: in the form of a

text: two-dimensional

text: , atomic-scale,

text: hexagonal lattice

text: in which one atom forms each

text: vertex

text: . It is the basic structural element of other

text: allotropes

text: , including

text: graphite

text: charcoal

text: carbon nanotube

text: s and

text: fullerene

text: s. It can also be considered as an indefinitely large

text: aromatic

text: molecule, the ultimate case of the family of flat

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s.

text: Forests currently play a major role in carbon uptake in the global carbon cycle.   The Amazon rain forest plays an important role by sequestering carbon under stable climatic conditions.  Forest fires are often not assigned a net emission of carbon as they are viewed as a bi-product of forest conversion for agriculture use, however accidental spread of fires beyond agriculture areas may contribute to increased carbon emissions.   If the carbon emissions from forest fires are due to a natural cycle of burning and regrowth, the net carbon balance is nearly zero.  However current forest-fire models suggest that forest fragmentation and climate change could shift the Amazon forest from a carbon sink to a source of atmospheric .  Recurrent fires increase pyrophytic vegetation, such as bamboos and grasses which also increase forest flammability thus increasing potential emissions.  In 1997 and 1998 forest fires during the El Niño drought affected at least 20,000 km in the Amazon leading to large smoke episodes which halted air traffic in the area and caused ships to collide at sea. The short-term effects on human health effects were irritations of the respiratory tract, skin and eyes, bronchitis, conjuctivitis as well as increased asthma attacks.

text: Forests currently play a major role in carbon uptake in the global

text: carbon cycle

text: .   The

text: Amazon rain forest

text: plays an important role by

text: sequestering carbon

text: under stable climatic conditions.

text: Forest fires

text: are often not assigned a net emission of carbon as they are viewed as a bi-product of forest conversion for agriculture use, however accidental spread of fires beyond agriculture areas may contribute to increased

text: carbon emissions

text: .   If the carbon emissions from forest fires are due to a natural cycle of burning and regrowth, the net carbon balance is nearly zero.  However current

text: forest-fire models

text: suggest that

text: forest fragmentation

text: and

text: climate change

text: could shift the Amazon forest from a carbon sink to a source of

text: atmospheric

text: .  Recurrent fires increase pyrophytic vegetation, such as bamboos and grasses which also increase forest flammability thus increasing potential emissions.  In 1997 and 1998 forest fires during the

text: El Niño

text: drought affected at least 20,000 km in the Amazon leading to large smoke episodes which halted air traffic in the area and caused ships to collide at sea. The short-term effects on human health effects were irritations of the respiratory tract, skin and eyes,

text: bronchitis

text: conjuctivitis

text: as well as increased

text: asthma

text: attacks.

text: Carbon peapods can be naturally produced during carbon nanotube synthesis by pulsed laser vaporization. C fullerene impurities are formed during the annealing treatment and acid purification, and enter the nanotubes through defects or vapor-phase diffusion.                      Fullerenes within a nanotube are only stabilized at a diameter difference of 0.34 nm or less, and when the diameters are nearly identical, the interacting energy heightens to such a degree (comparable to 0.1 GPa) that the fullerenes become unable to be extracted from the SWNT even under high vacuum. The encapsulated fullerenes have diameters close to that of C and form a chain inside the tube.Controlled production of carbon peapods allow for greater variety in both the nanotube structure and the fullerene composition. Varying elements can be incorporated into a carbon peapod through doping and will dramatically affect the resulting thermal and electrical conductivity properties.

text: Carbon peapods can be naturally produced during carbon nanotube synthesis by pulsed laser vaporization.

text: C

text: fullerene impurities are formed during the annealing treatment and acid purification, and enter the nanotubes through defects or vapor-phase diffusion.                      Fullerenes within a nanotube are only stabilized at a diameter difference of 0.34 nm or less, and when the diameters are nearly identical, the interacting energy heightens to such a degree (comparable to 0.1 GPa) that the fullerenes become unable to be extracted from the SWNT even under high vacuum. The encapsulated fullerenes have diameters close to that of C and form a chain inside the tube.Controlled production of carbon peapods allow for greater variety in both the nanotube structure and the fullerene composition. Varying elements can be incorporated into a carbon peapod through doping and will dramatically affect the resulting thermal and electrical conductivity properties.

text: Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants. Next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide and the production of white cast iron. A high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, and the formation of those carbides. Nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in a softer iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength, and decreases density. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, which prevents the formation of graphite and increases hardness. The problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide. The manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag. The amount of manganese required to neutralize sulfur is 1.7 × sulfur content + 0.3%. If more than this amount of manganese is added, then manganese carbide forms, which increases hardness and chilling, except in grey iron, where up to 1% of manganese increases strength and density.

text: Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or

text: alloyant

text: s. Next to

text: carbon

text: silicon

text: is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide and the production of white cast iron. A high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, and the formation of those carbides. Nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of

text: graphite

text: results in a softer iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength, and decreases density.

text: Sulfur

text: , largely a contaminant when present, forms

text: iron sulfide

text: , which prevents the formation of graphite and increases

text: hardness

text: . The problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur,

text: manganese

text: is added because the two form into

text: manganese sulfide

text: instead of iron sulfide. The manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the

text: slag

text: . The amount of manganese required to neutralize sulfur is 1.7 × sulfur content + 0.3%. If more than this amount of manganese is added, then

text: manganese carbide

text: forms, which increases hardness and

text: chilling

text: , except in grey iron, where up to 1% of manganese increases strength and density.

text: The root patents of LFP compounds are held by four organizations. University of Texas-Austin for the discovery of the material. Hydro-Québec, Université de Montréal and the French National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS) for the carbon coating that enhance its conductivity and actually makes LFP suitable for industrial developments. These patents underlie mature mass production technologies. The largest production capacity is up to 250 tons per month. The key feature of  from A123 is the nano-LFP, which modifies its physical properties and adds noble metals in the anode, as well as the use of special graphite as the cathode.

text: The root patents of LFP compounds are held by four organizations.

text: University of Texas-Austin

text: for the discovery of the material.

text: Hydro-Québec

text: Université de Montréal

text: and the

entity_name: Centre national de la recherche scientifique

text: French National Center for Scientific Research

text: (CNRS) for the carbon coating that enhance its conductivity and actually makes LFP suitable for industrial developments. These patents underlie mature mass production technologies. The largest production capacity is up to 250 tons per month. The key feature of  from A123 is the nano-LFP, which modifies its physical properties and adds noble metals in the anode, as well as the use of special graphite as the cathode.

text: A crystalline silicon anode has a theoretical specific capacity of 4200 mAh/g, more than ten times that of anodes such as graphite (372 mAh/g). Each silicon atom can bind up to 4.4 lithium atoms in its fully lithiated state , compared to the one lithium atom per 6 carbon atoms for the fully lithiated state of graphite, .

text: A crystalline silicon anode has a theoretical specific capacity of 4200 mAh/g, more than ten times that of anodes such as

text: graphite

text: (372 mAh/g). Each silicon atom can bind up to 4.4 lithium atoms in its fully lithiated state , compared to the one lithium atom per 6 carbon atoms for the fully lithiated state of graphite, .

text: The CVD growth involves substrate preparation, feeding varying amounts of gases into a chamber and energizing them. The substrate preparation includes choosing an appropriate material and its crystallographic orientation; cleaning it, often with a diamond powder to abrade a non-diamond substrate; and optimizing the substrate temperature (about ) during the growth through a series of test runs. The gases always include a carbon source, typically methane, and hydrogen with a typical ratio of 1:99. Hydrogen is essential because it selectively etches off non-diamond carbon. The gases are ionized into chemically active radicals in the growth chamber using microwave power, a hot filament, an arc discharge, a welding torch, a laser, an electron beam, or other means.

text: The CVD growth involves substrate preparation, feeding varying amounts of gases into a chamber and energizing them. The substrate preparation includes choosing an appropriate material and its crystallographic orientation; cleaning it, often with a diamond powder to abrade a non-diamond substrate; and optimizing the substrate temperature (about ) during the growth through a series of test runs. The gases always include a carbon source, typically

text: methane

text: , and hydrogen with a typical ratio of 1:99. Hydrogen is essential because it selectively etches off non-diamond carbon. The gases are ionized into chemically active

text: radicals

text: in the growth chamber using

text: microwave

text: power, a

text: hot filament

text: , an

text: arc discharge

text: , a

text: welding torch

text: , a

text: laser

text: , an

text: electron beam

text: , or other means.

text: A negative carbon dioxide emission or negative emission or a process that is carbon negative gives a permanent removal of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide from Earth's atmosphere.  It is considered the direct opposite of carbon dioxide emission, hence its name. It is the result of carbon dioxide removal technologies, such as bio-energy with carbon capture and storage, biochar, direct air capture or enhanced weathering.

text: A negative carbon dioxide emission or negative emission or a process that is carbon negative gives a permanent removal of the

text: greenhouse gas

text: carbon dioxide

text: from

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: .  It is considered the direct opposite of carbon dioxide emission, hence its name. It is the result of

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: technologies, such as

entity_name: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage

text: bio-energy with carbon capture and storage

text: biochar

text: direct air capture

text: or

text: enhanced weathering

text: Calcium tartrate is a byproduct of the wine industry, prepared from wine fermentation dregs. It is the calcium salt of  tartaric acid, an acid most commonly found in grapes. Its solubility decreases with lower temperature, which results in the forming of whitish (in red wine often reddish) crystalline  clusters as it precipitates. It finds use as a food preservative and acidity regulator. Like tartaric acid, calcium tartrate has two asymmetric carbons, hence it has two chiral isomers and a non-chiral isomer (meso-form). Most calcium tartrate of biological origin is the chiral levorotatory (–) isomer.

text: Calcium tartrate is a byproduct of the

text: wine

text: industry, prepared from wine

text: fermentation

text: dregs. It is the

text: calcium

text: salt

text: of

text: tartaric acid

text: , an acid most commonly found in

text: grape

text: s. Its

text: solubility

text: decreases with lower temperature, which results in the forming of whitish (in red wine often reddish) crystalline  clusters as it precipitates. It finds use as a

text: food preservative

text: and

text: acidity regulator

text: . Like

text: tartaric acid

text: , calcium tartrate has two asymmetric carbons, hence it has two

text: chiral

text: isomer

text: s and a non-chiral isomer (meso-form). Most calcium tartrate of biological origin is the chiral levorotatory (–) isomer.

text: Graphite is an electric conductor, consequently, useful in such applications as arc lamp electrodes. It can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within the carbon layers (a phenomenon called aromaticity). These valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is primarily conducted within the plane of the layers. The conductive properties of powdered graphite allows its use as pressure sensor in carbon microphones.

text: Graphite is an electric conductor, consequently, useful in such applications as

text: arc lamp

text: electrodes

text: . It can conduct electricity due to the vast

text: electron

text: delocalization

text: within the carbon layers (a phenomenon called

text: aromaticity

text: ). These valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is primarily conducted within the plane of the layers. The conductive properties of powdered graphite allows its use as pressure sensor in

text: carbon microphone

text: s.

text: The building's outer walls and windows are constructed of advanced carbon-fiber composites, said to be nearly comparable in strength to diamond. Numerous small tubes run throughout the sections of the building occupied by the Fantastic Four, enabling Mister Fantastic to easily stretch to any floor or area. One elevator shaft has been deliberately left empty, to facilitate the Human Torch's rapid flight to and from the upper floors. There are a set of "breakaway points" above the 50th and 70th stories with built-in explosive charges, designed to separate the upper floors from the civilian-occupied lower floors, should anyone try to lift the building into orbit.

text: Diamond is the allotrope of carbon in which the carbon atoms are arranged in the specific type of cubic lattice called diamond cubic. Diamond is an optically isotropic crystal that is transparent to opaque. Owing to its strong covalent bonding, diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Yet, due to important structural weaknesses, diamond's toughness is only fair to good. The precise tensile strength of diamond is unknown, however strength up to 60 GPa has been observed, and it could be as high as 90–225 GPa depending on the crystal orientation. The anisotropy of diamond hardness is carefully considered during diamond cutting. Diamond has a high refractive index (2.417) and moderate dispersion (0.044) properties which give cut diamonds their brilliance. Scientists classify diamonds into four main types according to the nature of crystallographic defects present. Trace impurities substitutionally replacing carbon atoms in a diamond's crystal structure, and in some cases structural defects, are responsible for the wide range of colors seen in diamond. Most diamonds are electrical insulators but extremely efficient thermal conductors. Unlike many other minerals, the specific gravity of diamond crystals (3.52) has rather small variation from diamond to diamond.

text: Diamond is the

text: allotrope of carbon

text: in which the

text: carbon

text: atoms are arranged in the specific type of

text: cubic lattice

text: called

text: diamond cubic

text: Diamond

text: is an

text: optically isotropic

text: crystal

text: that is transparent to opaque. Owing to its strong

text: covalent bond

text: ing, diamond is the

text: hardest

text: naturally occurring material known. Yet, due to important structural weaknesses, diamond's

text: toughness

text: is only fair to good. The precise

text: tensile strength

text: of diamond is unknown, however strength up to 60

text: GPa

text: has been observed, and it could be as high as 90–225 GPa depending on the crystal orientation. The

text: anisotropy

text: of diamond hardness is carefully considered during

text: diamond cutting

text: . Diamond has a high

text: refractive index

text: (2.417) and moderate

text: dispersion

text: (0.044) properties which give cut diamonds their brilliance. Scientists classify diamonds into four main types according to the nature of

text: crystallographic defect

text: s present. Trace impurities substitutionally replacing carbon atoms in a diamond's

text: crystal structure

text: , and in some cases structural defects, are responsible for the wide range of colors seen in diamond. Most diamonds are

text: electrical insulator

text: s but extremely efficient

text: thermal conductor

text: s. Unlike many other minerals, the

text: specific gravity

text: of diamond crystals (3.52) has rather small variation from diamond to diamond.

text: Set in the Humanx Commonwealth, Prism is a unique planet because its ecosystem contains both silicon-based and carbon-based life. Evan Orgell, a management troubleshooter sent to Prism to investigate the disappearance of a research group, finds himself fighting for his survival in this strange crystalline environment after his specialized environment suit succumbs to the local elements.  Leaving behind his mechanized suit, Evan is for the first time in his life exposed to a hostile environment without the protection of his suit and must rely on the unexpected help of the native sentient life to survive.

text: Set in the

text: Humanx Commonwealth

text: Prism

text: is a unique planet because its

text: ecosystem

text: contains both

text: silicon

text: -based and

text: carbon

text: -based life. Evan Orgell, a management

text: troubleshooter

text: sent to Prism to investigate the disappearance of a research group, finds himself fighting for his survival in this strange crystalline environment after his specialized environment suit succumbs to the local elements.  Leaving behind his mechanized suit, Evan is for the first time in his life exposed to a hostile environment without the protection of his suit and must rely on the unexpected help of the native sentient life to survive.

text: Carbon has multiple allotropes. The most common is graphite, which is carbon in the form of stacked sheets. Another form of carbon is diamond, but this is relatively rare. Amorphous carbon is a third allotrope of carbon; it is a component of soot. Another allotrope of carbon is a fullerene, which has the form of sheets of carbon atoms folded into a sphere. A fifth allotrope of carbon, discovered in 2003, is called graphene, and is in the form of a layer of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb-shaped formation.

text: Carbon has multiple

text: allotrope

text: s. The most common is

text: graphite

text: , which is carbon in the form of stacked sheets. Another form of carbon is

text: diamond

text: , but this is relatively rare.

text: Amorphous

text: carbon

text: is a third allotrope of carbon; it is a component of

text: soot

text: . Another allotrope of carbon is a

text: fullerene

text: , which has the form of sheets of carbon atoms folded into a sphere. A fifth allotrope of carbon, discovered in 2003, is called

text: graphene

text: , and is in the form of a layer of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb-shaped formation.

text: Carbon cones have also been observed, since 1968 or even earlier, on the surface of naturally occurring graphite. Their bases are attached to the graphite and their height varies between less than 1 and 40 micrometers. Their walls are often curved and are less regular than those of the laboratory made nanocones. The distribution of their apex angle also shows a strong feature at 60°, but other expected peaks, at 20° and 40°, are much weaker and the distribution is somewhat broader for large angles. This difference is attributed to the different wall structure of the natural cones. Those walls are relatively irregular and contain numerous line defects (positive-wedge disclinations). This breaks down the angular requirement for a seamless cone and therefore broadens the angular distribution.

text: Carbon cones have also been observed, since 1968 or even earlier, on the surface of naturally occurring graphite. Their bases are attached to the graphite and their height varies between less than 1 and 40 micrometers. Their walls are often curved and are less regular than those of the laboratory made nanocones. The distribution of their apex angle also shows a strong feature at 60°, but other expected peaks, at 20° and 40°, are much weaker and the distribution is somewhat broader for large angles. This difference is attributed to the different wall structure of the natural cones. Those walls are relatively irregular and contain numerous

text: line defect

text: s (positive-wedge

text: disclination

text: s). This breaks down the angular requirement for a seamless cone and therefore broadens the angular distribution.

text: Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive. The sp-hybridized carbon atoms, which are at their energy minimum in planar graphite, must be bent to form the closed sphere or tube, which produces angle strain. The characteristic reaction of fullerenes is electrophilic addition at 6,6-double bonds, which reduces angle strain by changing sp-hybridized carbons into sp-hybridized ones. The change in hybridized orbitals causes the bond angles to decrease from about 120° in the sp orbitals to about 109.5° in the sp orbitals. This decrease in bond angles allows for the bonds to bend less when closing the sphere or tube, and thus, the molecule becomes more stable.

text: Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive. The sp-hybridized carbon atoms, which are at their energy minimum in planar

text: graphite

text: , must be bent to form the closed sphere or tube, which produces

text: angle strain

text: . The characteristic reaction of fullerenes is

text: electrophilic addition

text: at 6,6-double bonds, which reduces angle strain by changing sp-hybridized carbons into sp-hybridized ones. The change in hybridized

text: orbital

text: s causes the bond angles to decrease from about 120° in the sp orbitals to about 109.5° in the sp orbitals. This decrease in bond angles allows for the bonds to bend less when closing the sphere or tube, and thus, the molecule becomes more stable.

text: Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms: carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the greenhouse effect. Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two.

text: Carbon in the Earth's atmosphere exists in two main forms:

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: methane

text: . Both of these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere and are partially responsible for the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . Methane produces a larger greenhouse effect per volume as compared to carbon dioxide, but it exists in much lower concentrations and is more short-lived than carbon dioxide, making carbon dioxide the more important greenhouse gas of the two.

text: Callendar effect -Cap and Share -Carbon bubble -Carbon capture and storage -Carbon cycle -Carbon negative -Carbon neutral -Carbon price -Carbon project -Carbon sequestration -Carbon offset -Carbon sink -Carbon tax -Catastrophic climate change -Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change -Clathrate gun hypothesis -Clean coal technology -Clean Energy Trends -Climate -Climate change -Climate change acronyms -Climate Change Act 2008 -Climate change and agriculture -Climate change denial -Climate change feedback -Climate change in Japan -Climate change in popular culture -Climate change mitigation -Climate change mitigation -Climate change mitigation scenarios -Climate commitment -Climate crunch -Climate cycle -Climate engineering -Climate ethics -Climate governance-Climate Investment Funds -Climate model -Climate refugee -Climate risk management -Climate scientists (list) -Climate sensitivity -Climate stabilization wedge -Climate surprise -Climate variability -Climate Vulnerable Forum-Climatic Research Unit email controversy -Cloud feedback -Cloud reflectivity enhancement -Coal phase out -Contraction and Convergence -Contrail -Cool roof -Cool tropics paradox -Coral bleaching

text: Callendar effect

text: Cap and Share

text: Carbon bubble

text: Carbon capture and storage

text: Carbon cycle

text: Carbon negative

text: Carbon neutral

text: Carbon price

text: Carbon project

text: Carbon sequestration

text: Carbon offset

text: Carbon sink

text: Carbon tax

text: Catastrophic climate change

entity_name: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change

text: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change

text: Clathrate gun hypothesis

text: Clean coal technology

text: Clean Energy Trends

text: Climate

text: Climate change

text: Climate change acronyms

text: Climate Change Act 2008

text: Climate change and agriculture

text: Climate change denial

text: Climate change feedback

text: Climate change in Japan

text: Climate change in popular culture

text: Climate change mitigation

text: Climate change mitigation

text: Climate change mitigation scenarios

text: Climate commitment

text: Climate crunch

text: Climate cycle

text: Climate engineering

text: Climate ethics

text: Climate governance

text: Climate Investment Funds

text: Climate model

text: Climate refugee

text: Climate risk management

text: Climate scientists (list)

text: Climate sensitivity

text: Climate stabilization wedge

text: Climate surprise

text: Climate variability

text: Climate Vulnerable Forum

entity_name: Climatic Research Unit email controversy

text: Climatic Research Unit email controversy

text: Cloud feedback

text: Cloud reflectivity enhancement

text: Coal phase out

text: Contraction and Convergence

text: Contrail

text: Cool roof

text: Cool tropics paradox

text: Coral bleaching

text: Carbon is also biologically fixed in the form of calcium carbonate (CaCO) used as a protective coating for many planktonic species (coccolithophores, foraminifera) as well as larger marine organisms (mollusk shells). While this form of carbon is not directly taken from the atmospheric budget, it is formed from dissolved forms of carbonate which are in equilibrium with CO and then responsible for removing this carbon via sequestration.

text: Carbon is also biologically fixed in the form of

text: calcium carbonate

text: (CaCO) used as a protective coating for many planktonic species (coccolithophores, foraminifera) as well as larger marine organisms (mollusk shells). While this form of carbon is not directly taken from the atmospheric budget, it is formed from dissolved forms of carbonate which are in equilibrium with CO and then responsible for removing this carbon via sequestration.

text: A carbon flaw in a diamond has a severe impact on strength.  Any inclusion in a diamond is a weak point in the crystalline structure and will make the stone more prone to breakage.  Specifically, if a cloud forms too close to the surface of the diamond, or the diamond is cut to close to a flaw, it will appear as a crack in the surface.  Flaws near or on the surface of a diamond also appear a rough patches and are usually removed when the diamond is being cut for sale.  When there is a small crack in the surface of the diamond caused by an extensive flaw in the crystalline structure it makes the diamond prone to further cracking.  Diamonds flawed in this way are liable to crack under a modest sudden change in temperature, or a sharp blow.

text: Diamonds occur in various colors: black, brown, yellow, gray, white, blue, orange, purple to pink and red. Colored diamonds contain crystallographic defects, including substitutional impurities and structural defects, that cause the coloration. Theoretically, pure diamonds would be transparent and colorless. Diamonds are scientifically classed into two main types and several subtypes, according to the nature of defects present and how they affect light absorption:

text: Diamonds occur in various colors: black, brown, yellow, gray, white, blue, orange, purple to pink and red. Colored diamonds contain

text: crystallographic defect

text: s, including substitutional impurities and structural defects, that cause the coloration. Theoretically, pure diamonds would be transparent and colorless. Diamonds are scientifically classed into two main types and several subtypes, according to the nature of defects present and how they affect light absorption:

text: In 2013 researchers discovered that asymmetrical fullerenes formed from larger structures settle into stable fullerenes. The synthesized substance was a particular metallofullerene consisting of 84 carbon atoms with two additional carbon atoms and two yttrium atoms inside the cage. The process produced approximately 100 micrograms.

text: In 2013 researchers discovered that asymmetrical fullerenes formed from larger structures settle into stable fullerenes. The synthesized substance was a particular

text: metallofullerene

text: consisting of 84 carbon atoms with two additional carbon atoms and two

text: yttrium

text: atoms inside the cage. The process produced approximately 100 micrograms.

text: 4) Graphitization is the process of treating the fibers at high temperatures in order to improve the alignment and orientation of the crystalline regions along the fiber direction [1,8]. Having the crystalline regions aligned, stacked, and oriented along the fiber direction increases the overall strength of the carbon fiber.

text: The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960 cm, while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm and 1375 cm, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm and 1450 cm. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm.

text: The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960

text: cm

text: , while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm and 1375 cm, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm and 1450 cm. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm.

text: In mathematical terms, the structure of a fullerene is a trivalent convex polyhedron with pentagonal and hexagonal faces. In graph theory, the term fullerene refers to any 3-regular, planar graph with all faces of size 5 or 6 (including the external face). It follows from Euler's polyhedron formula, V − E + F = 2 (where V, E, F are the numbers of vertices, edges, and faces), that there are exactly 12 pentagons in a fullerene and V/2 − 10 hexagons.

text: In

text: mathematical

text: terms, the structure of a fullerene is a

text: trivalent

text: convex

text: polyhedron

text: with pentagonal and hexagonal faces. In

text: graph theory

text: , the term fullerene refers to any 3-

text: regular

text: planar graph

text: Euler's polyhedron formula

text: , V − E + F = 2 (where V, E, F are the numbers of vertices, edges, and faces), that there are exactly 12 pentagons in a fullerene and V/2 − 10 hexagons.

text: It is possible that diamonds exist on Saturn and Jupiter on the basis of a different prior theory by Reginald B. Little. In 2000-03, Little previously proposed (2000) and demonstrated (2003). that a strong magnetic field can organize diamonds at lower temperatures and pressures relative to the higher pressure and temperatures formations from amorphous carbon and/or graphite.  In 2005, Little realized that lightning could also provide such a magnetic field to directly transform graphite and elemental carbon to diamond and Reginald Little experimentally observed Nanodiamonds form from terrestrial lightning bolts upon solid carbon in 2009.  Therefore, on the basis of his prior work, Reginald Little reasoned in 2013 that diamond particles can form and exist in the lightning storms and clouds on Saturn and Jupiter but by the direct cloud transformation of carbon to small diamond particles by lightning strikes in such clouds.  As Baines and Delitsky report here in 2013, the lightning striking methane generates elemental carbon in clouds on Saturn and Jupiter, but Little asserts that the diamonds form not from the carbon sinking into the core of these planets but by subsequent lightning strikes on the generated carbon in the clouds.  Therefore, Little suggests that the lightning directly transforms the elemental carbon to small diamond particles in the clouds with such diamonds in the clouds sticking together and falling as diamond hail.  As the diamond hail falls it is chemically etched by the hydrogen in these planets under higher pressure and temperatures to reform methane gas.  The resulting methane gas rises back to reform clouds to create a cycle of hydrogen-methane cloud forming diamond hail at higher elevations (by lightning) and the resulting diamond hail reforming hydrogen methane as it (the diamond) falls to lower elevations by temperatures for a diamond-hydrogen to methane cycle on these planets of similarity and analog to water-steam-ice cycle in thunderstorms on Earth.  Such a cycle is important on these planets of Saturn and Jupiter to explain the prevailing presence of methane in their atmospheres.  If the methane as by Baines and Delitsky is irreversibly converted to elemental carbon and to graphite at lower elevation and irreversibly to diamond at even lower elevations in Saturn and Jupiter then the atmospheres would be completely stripped of methane which is inconsistent with the persisting hydrogen, methane ammonia clouds of these planets.  But unlike Baines and Delitsky prior theory of diamond forming toward the interior of these planets as the carbon falls (2013), Reginald Little asserts that the diamond forms in the clouds directly from frequent lightning striking the elemental carbon in the clouds.  Reginald Little in 2005 also proposed that lightning striking Kimberlites on earth may explain diamond in certain Kimberlitic rocks relative to non producing Kimberlitic rock on Earth.  Reginald Little correlated the most producing Kimberlitic rock with regions on the Earth with the highest yearly frequency cloud to ground lightning central to southern Africa.  Prior to the birth of science, over thousands of years ago some ancient people in India believed that diamonds form by lightning striking rock but this belief was non scientific as there was no elemental basis for diamond and they believed granite would form diamond as well as slates, phyllites, mylonite, jade, marble, soapstone, and serpentine.  The true theory and prediction came with Reginald Little in 2000. As only Carbonaceous rock perhaps with some iron only form diamond when struck by lightning. Extending this theory to other planets of Saturn and Jupiter as inspired by Baines and Delitsky, rather naturally and beautifully reasons direct transformation of elemental carbon to diamond by lightning at high elevation in the clouds of Saturn and Jupiter is not subject to thermodynamics of chemically etching of diamond and mixing in the interior of the planets. As at higher elevations in the clouds of these planets the temperature is very low so such thermodynamic mixing is infeasible but the thermal quenching of the lightning transformed diamond is feasible.  This model and mechanism of Reginald Little is also not subject to the low methane concentration argument. as the carbon is concentrated in from initial low methane concentrations by prior lightning strikes.  So very frequent lightning strikes and severe lightning storms in these planets tend to support. Reginald Little diamond cloud theory in Saturn and Jupiter.!

text: It is possible that diamonds exist on

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: on the basis of a different prior theory by Reginald B. Little. In 2000-03, Little previously proposed (2000) and demonstrated (2003). that a strong magnetic field can organize diamonds at lower temperatures and pressures relative to the higher

text: pressure and temperatures

text: formations from

text: amorphous carbon

text: and/or

text: graphite

text: .  In 2005, Little realized that

text: lightning

text: could also provide such a

text: magnetic

text: field to directly transform

text: graphite

text: and elemental carbon to diamond and Reginald Little experimentally observed

text: Nanodiamonds

text: form from

text: terrestrial lightning bolts

text: upon solid

text: carbon

text: in 2009.  Therefore, on the basis of his prior work, Reginald Little reasoned in 2013 that diamond particles can form and exist in the

text: lightning storms and clouds

text: on

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: but by the direct cloud transformation of

text: carbon

text: to small diamond particles by lightning strikes in such clouds.  As Baines and Delitsky report here in 2013, the

text: lightning striking

text: methane

text: generates elemental carbon in clouds on

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: , but Little asserts that the diamonds form not from the carbon sinking into the core of these planets but by subsequent lightning strikes on the generated carbon in the clouds.  Therefore, Little suggests that the lightning directly transforms the elemental carbon to small diamond particles in the clouds with such diamonds in the clouds sticking together and falling as diamond hail.  As the diamond hail falls it is chemically etched by the

text: hydrogen

text: in these planets under higher

text: pressure and temperatures

text: to reform methane gas.  The resulting

text: methane gas

text: rises back to reform clouds to create a cycle of

text: hydrogen-methane

text: cloud forming diamond hail at higher elevations (by lightning) and the resulting diamond hail reforming

text: hydrogen

text: methane

text: as it (the diamond) falls to lower elevations by

text: temperatures

text: for a diamond-hydrogen to

text: methane

text: cycle on these planets of similarity and analog to water-steam-ice cycle in thunderstorms on Earth.  Such a cycle is important on these planets of

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: to explain the prevailing presence of

text: methane

text: in their atmospheres.  If the methane as by Baines and Delitsky is irreversibly converted to elemental carbon and to

text: graphite

text: at lower elevation and irreversibly to diamond at even lower elevations in

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: then the

text: atmospheres

text: would be completely stripped of

text: methane

text: which is inconsistent with the persisting

text: hydrogen

text: , methane

text: ammonia clouds

text: of these planets.  But unlike Baines and Delitsky prior theory of diamond forming toward the interior of these planets as the carbon falls (2013), Reginald Little asserts that the diamond forms in the clouds directly from frequent lightning striking the elemental carbon in the clouds.  Reginald Little in 2005 also proposed that lightning striking

text: Kimberlite

text: s on

text: earth

text: may explain diamond in certain

text: Kimberlitic

text: rocks relative to non producing

text: Kimberlitic

text: rock on Earth.  Reginald Little correlated the most producing

text: Kimberlitic

text: rock with regions on the Earth with the highest yearly frequency cloud to ground lightning central to

text: southern Africa

text: .  Prior to the birth of science, over thousands of years ago some ancient people in India believed that diamonds form by lightning striking rock but this belief was non scientific as there was no elemental basis for diamond and they believed granite would form diamond as well as

text: slate

text: s,

text: phyllite

text: s,

text: mylonite

text: jade

text: marble

text: soapstone

text: , and

text: serpentine

text: .  The true theory and prediction came with Reginald Little in 2000. As only Carbonaceous rock perhaps with some iron only form diamond when struck by lightning. Extending this theory to other planets of

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: as inspired by Baines and Delitsky, rather naturally and beautifully reasons direct transformation of elemental carbon to diamond by lightning at high elevation in the clouds of

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: is not subject to

text: thermodynamics

text: of chemically etching of diamond and mixing in the interior of the planets. As at higher elevations in the clouds of these planets the temperature is very low so such

text: thermodynamic

text: mixing is infeasible but the thermal quenching of the lightning transformed diamond is feasible.  This model and mechanism of Reginald Little is also not subject to the low methane concentration argument. as the

text: carbon

text: is concentrated in from initial low

text: methane

text: concentrations by prior lightning strikes.  So very frequent lightning strikes and severe lightning storms in these planets tend to support. Reginald Little diamond cloud theory in

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: Regarding the organization of covalent bonds, recall that classic molecular solids, as stated above, consist of small, non-polar covalent molecules. The example given, paraffin wax, is a member of a family of hydrocarbon molecules of differing chain lengths, with high-density polyethylene at the long-chain end of the series. High-density polyethylene can be a strong material: when the hydrocarbon chains are well aligned, the resulting fibers rival the strength of steel. The covalent bonds in this material form extended structures, but do not form a continuous network. With cross-linking, however, polymer networks can become continuous, and a series of materials spans the range from Cross-linked polyethylene, to rigid thermosetting resins, to hydrogen-rich amorphous solids, to vitreous carbon, diamond-like carbons, and ultimately to diamond itself. As this example shows, there can be no sharp boundary between molecular and network covalent solids.

text: Regarding the organization of covalent bonds, recall that classic molecular solids, as stated above, consist of small, non-polar covalent molecules. The example given,

text: paraffin wax

text: , is a member of a family of hydrocarbon molecules of differing chain lengths, with

text: high-density polyethylene

text: at the long-chain end of the series. High-density polyethylene can be a strong material: when the hydrocarbon chains are well aligned,

text: the resulting fibers

text: rival the strength of steel. The covalent bonds in this material form extended structures, but do not form a continuous network. With cross-linking, however, polymer networks can become continuous, and a series of materials spans the range from

text: Cross-linked polyethylene

text: , to rigid thermosetting resins, to hydrogen-rich amorphous solids, to vitreous carbon, diamond-like carbons, and ultimately to diamond itself. As this example shows, there can be no sharp boundary between molecular and network covalent solids.

text: A particularly striking example of the importance of crowding effects involves the crystallins that fill the interior of the lens. These proteins have to remain stable and in solution for the lens to be transparent; precipitation or aggregation of crystallins causes cataracts. Crystallins are present in the lens at extremely high concentrations, over 500 mg/ml, and at these levels crowding effects are very strong. The large crowding effect adds to the thermal stability of the crystallins, increasing their resistance to denaturation. This effect may partly explain the extraordinary resistance shown by the lens to damage caused by high temperatures.

text: A particularly striking example of the importance of crowding effects involves the

text: crystallin

text: s that fill the interior of the

text: lens

text: . These proteins have to remain stable and in solution for the lens to be transparent;

text: precipitation

text: or

text: aggregation

text: of crystallins causes

text: cataract

text: s. Crystallins are present in the lens at extremely high concentrations, over 500 mg/ml, and at these levels crowding effects are very strong. The large crowding effect adds to the thermal stability of the crystallins, increasing their resistance to

text: denaturation

text: . This effect may partly explain the extraordinary resistance shown by the lens to damage caused by high temperatures.

text: The Hugoton Field is a stratigraphic trap overlying a monocline, with the primary pay found in the Krider dolomite of Permian age.  This dolomite and the overlying Herington dolomite make up the Wolfcampian carbonates.  Above these carbonates is the Wichita, an anhydrite and dense dolomite forming the reservoir seal, which thins to the west.  Marine carbonates were being deposited from the Late Pennsylvanian until Early Permian when the western portion of the area was uplifted which resulted in erosion and the deposition of red clays and sands, the future red beds consisting of shales and sandstones. Marine carbonate deposition followed, resulting in the interfingering of the red beds and carbonates, the basis of the stratigraphic trap and a tilted gas-water contact.

text: The Hugoton Field is a

text: stratigraphic trap

text: overlying a

text: monocline

text: , with the primary pay found in the Krider

text: dolomite

text: of

text: Permian

text: age.  This dolomite and the overlying Herington dolomite make up the Wolfcampian carbonates.  Above these carbonates is the Wichita, an

text: anhydrite

text: and dense dolomite forming the reservoir seal, which thins to the west.  Marine carbonates were being deposited from the

text: Late Pennsylvanian

text: until

text: Early Permian

text: when the western portion of the area was uplifted which resulted in erosion and the deposition of red clays and sands, the future red beds consisting of shales and sandstones. Marine carbonate deposition followed, resulting in the interfingering of the red beds and carbonates, the basis of the stratigraphic trap and a tilted gas-water contact.

text: The applications of graphite, carbon black and activated charcoal manufactured annually as catalyst support are relatively few. The major catalytical use of charcoals and carbon blacks is to support metals. In addition, charcoals are sometimes used to support compounds such as sulfides and halides. Some graphite is used to support metals, but the most important feature of graphite is its ability to form intercalates, which are the catalysts for some hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, isomerization, alkylation, hydrodealkylation, polymerization and ammonia formation reactions. For charcoal and carbon black-supported metals with various industrial uses, the methods of manufacture can be divided into three broad groups based on the catalytic metal loaded: wet impregnation, hydrolysis impregnation and chemical vapor deposition (CVD).

text: The applications of graphite,

text: carbon black

text: and activated

text: charcoal

text: manufactured annually as catalyst support are relatively few. The major catalytical use of charcoals and carbon blacks is to support metals. In addition, charcoals are sometimes used to support compounds such as

text: sulfide

text: s and

text: halide

text: s. Some graphite is used to support metals, but the most important feature of graphite is its ability to form intercalates, which are the catalysts for some

text: hydrogenation

text: dehydrogenation

text: isomerization

text: alkylation

text: hydrodealkylation

text: polymerization

text: and

text: ammonia

text: formation reactions. For charcoal and carbon black-supported metals with various industrial uses, the methods of manufacture can be divided into three broad groups based on the catalytic metal loaded: wet impregnation, hydrolysis impregnation and

text: chemical vapor deposition

text: (CVD).

text: The diverse material behavior of different types of polyethylene can be explained by their molecular structure. Molecular weight and crystallinity are having the biggest impact, the crystallinity in turn depends on molecular weight and degree of branching. The less the polymer chains are branched, and the smaller the molecular weight, the higher the crystallinity of polyethylene. The crystallinity is between 35% (PE-LD/PE-LLD) and 80% (PE-HD). Within crystallites polyethylene has a density of 1.0 g·cm, in the amorphous regions of 0.86 g·cm. Thus, an almost linear relationship exists between density and crystallinity.

text: The diamond industry falls into two categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and the other, with industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.

text: The

text: diamond

text: industry falls into two categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and the other, with industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.

text: The first fullerene molecule to be discovered, and the family's namesake, buckminsterfullerene (C60), was prepared in 1985 by Richard Smalley, Robert Curl, James Heath, Sean O'Brien, and Harold Kroto at Rice University. A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, and many other shapes. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and they resemble the balls used in football (soccer). Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

text: The first

text: fullerene

text: molecule to be discovered, and the family's namesake,

text: buckminsterfullerene

text: (C60), was prepared in 1985 by

text: Richard Smalley

text: Robert Curl

text: James Heath

text: Sean O'Brien

text: , and

text: Harold Kroto

text: at

text: Rice University

text: . A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, and many other shapes. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and they resemble the balls used in football (soccer). Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

text: In 1995, the preparation of carbyne chains with over 300 carbons was reported.  They were claimed to be reasonably stable, even against moisture and oxygen, as long as the terminal alkynes on the chain are capped with inert groups (such as tert-butyl or trifluoromethyl) rather than hydrogen atoms. The study claimed that the data specifically indicated a carbyne-like structures rather than fullerene-like ones.  However, according to H. Kroto, the properties and synthetic methods used in those studies are consistent with generation of fullerenes.

text: In 1995, the preparation of carbyne chains with over 300 carbons was reported.  They were claimed to be reasonably stable, even against moisture and

text: oxygen

text: , as long as the terminal alkynes on the chain are capped with inert groups (such as

text: tert-butyl

text: or

text: trifluoromethyl

text: ) rather than hydrogen atoms. The study claimed that the data specifically indicated a carbyne-like structures rather than fullerene-like ones.  However, according to

text: H. Kroto

text: , the properties and synthetic methods used in those studies are consistent with generation of

text: fullerene

text: s.

text: The amorphous form is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non-crystalline, irregular, glassy state, not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is present as a powder, and is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal, lampblack (soot) and activated carbon. At normal pressures, carbon takes the form of graphite, in which each atom is bonded trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused hexagonal rings, just like those in aromatic hydrocarbons. The resulting network is 2-dimensional, and the resulting flat sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak van der Waals forces. This gives graphite its softness and its cleaving properties (the sheets slip easily past one another). Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a π-cloud, graphite conducts electricity, but only in the plane of each covalently bonded sheet. This results in a lower bulk electrical conductivity for carbon than for most metals. The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature.

text: The

text: amorphous

text: form is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non-crystalline, irregular, glassy state, not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is present as a powder, and is the main constituent of substances such as

text: charcoal

text: lampblack

text: soot

text: ) and

text: activated carbon

text: . At normal pressures, carbon takes the form of

text: graphite

text: , in which each atom is bonded trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused

text: hexagon

text: al rings, just like those in

text: aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s. The resulting network is 2-dimensional, and the resulting flat sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak

text: van der Waals force

text: s. This gives graphite its softness and its

text: cleaving

text: properties (the sheets slip easily past one another). Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a

text: π-cloud

text: , graphite conducts

text: electricity

text: , but only in the plane of each

text: covalently bonded

text: sheet. This results in a lower bulk

text: electrical conductivity

text: for carbon than for most

text: metals

text: . The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature.

text: The known inorganic chemistry of the allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite, and the fullerenes) blossomed with the discovery of buckminsterfullerene in 1985, as additional fullerenes and their various derivatives were discovered. One such class of derivatives is inclusion compounds, in which an ion is enclosed by the all-carbon shell of the fullerene. This inclusion is denoted by the "@" symbol in endohedral fullerenes. For example, an ion consisting of a lithium ion trapped within buckminsterfullerene would be denoted Li@C. As with any other ionic compound, this complex ion could in principle pair with a counterion to form a salt. Other elements are also incorporated in so-called graphite intercalation compounds.

text: The known inorganic chemistry of the

text: allotrope

text: s of carbon (

text: diamond

text: graphite

text: , and the

text: fullerene

text: s) blossomed with the discovery of

text: buckminsterfullerene

text: in 1985, as additional fullerenes and their various derivatives were discovered. One such class of derivatives is inclusion compounds, in which an ion is enclosed by the all-carbon shell of the fullerene. This inclusion is denoted by the "@" symbol in

text: endohedral fullerene

text: s. For example, an ion consisting of a lithium ion trapped within buckminsterfullerene would be denoted Li@C. As with any other ionic compound, this complex ion could in principle pair with a

text: counterion

text: to form a salt. Other elements are also incorporated in so-called

text: graphite intercalation compound

text: s.

text: The reason for the formation of carbon flaws is largely unknown. It is theorized that, though the material was exposed to the same conditions of heat and pressure as the rest of the crystal, there may be some other factor not evenly distributed throughout the carbon that formed the diamond. Many chemical actions happening simultaneously could possibly cause carbon in the solution to surround particles that escaped the solvent.  Another theory is that diamonds are formed by the slow accretion of crystals.  This means that the crystal structure forms and grows around a single nucleus of the element and that nucleus can be excluded from the crystallization process.  This nucleus is then surrounded by crystallized diamond and becomes a carbon flaw.  These nuclei are theorized to be other common forms of carbon such as graphite or carbonado, though they could be an amorphous carbon structure.

text: The reason for the formation of carbon flaws is largely unknown. It is theorized that, though the material was exposed to the same conditions of heat and pressure as the rest of the crystal, there may be some other factor not evenly distributed throughout the carbon that formed the diamond. Many chemical actions happening simultaneously could possibly cause carbon in the solution to surround particles that escaped the solvent.  Another theory is that diamonds are formed by the slow accretion of crystals.  This means that the crystal structure forms and grows around a single nucleus of the element and that nucleus can be excluded from the crystallization process.  This nucleus is then surrounded by crystallized diamond and becomes a carbon flaw.  These nuclei are theorized to be other common forms of carbon such as graphite or

text: carbonado

text: , though they could be an amorphous carbon structure.

text: The phonon density of states is to calculated through band structure of isolated nanotubes, which is studied in Saito et al.and Sanchez-Portal et al.When a graphene sheet is ‘‘rolled’’ into a nanotube, the 2-D band structure folds into a large number of 1-D subbands. In a (10,10) tube, for instance, the six phonon bands (three acoustic and three optical) of the graphene sheet become 66 separate 1-D subbands. A direct result of this folding is that the nanotube density of states has a number of sharp peaks due to 1-D van Hove singularities, which are absent in graphene and graphite. Despite the presence of these singularities, the overall density of states is similar at high energies, so that the high temperature specific heat should be roughly equal as well. This is to be expected: the high-energy phonons are more reflective of carbon–carbon bonding than the geometry of the graphene sheet.

text: The phonon density of states is to calculated through band structure of isolated nanotubes, which is studied in Saito et al.and Sanchez-Portal et al.When a graphene sheet is ‘‘rolled’’ into a nanotube, the 2-D band structure folds into a large number of 1-D subbands. In a (10,10) tube, for instance, the six phonon bands (three acoustic and three optical) of the graphene sheet become 66 separate 1-D subbands. A direct result of this folding is that the nanotube density of states has a number of sharp peaks due to 1-D

text: van Hove singularities

text: , which are absent in graphene and graphite. Despite the presence of these singularities, the overall density of states is similar at high energies, so that the high temperature specific heat should be roughly equal as well. This is to be expected: the high-energy phonons are more reflective of carbon–carbon bonding than the geometry of the graphene sheet.

text: Amorphous carbon is free, reactive carbon that does not have any crystalline structure (also called diamond-like carbon). Amorphous carbon materials may be stabilized by terminating dangling-π bonds with hydrogen. As with other amorphous solids, some short-range order can be observed. Amorphous carbon is often abbreviated to aC for general amorphous carbon, aC:H or HAC for hydrogenated amorphous carbon, or to ta-C for tetrahedral amorphous carbon.

text: Amorphous carbon is free, reactive carbon that does not have any

text: crystalline

text: structure

text: (also called

text: diamond-like carbon

text: ). Amorphous carbon materials may be stabilized by terminating

text: dangling-π bonds

text: with

text: hydrogen

text: . As with other

text: amorphous solid

text: s, some short-range order can be observed. Amorphous carbon is often abbreviated to aC for general amorphous carbon, aC:H or HAC for hydrogenated amorphous carbon, or to ta-C for

text: tetrahedral amorphous carbon

text: Graphite is also used in the hot forming of glass. Graphite moulds are prepared by carving into them, machining them into curved forms or by stacking them into shapes. Molten glass is poured into the moulds then  cooled until hard enough to be removed and placed into an annealing kiln to cool slowly.

text: Graphite

text: is also used in the hot forming of glass. Graphite moulds are prepared by carving into them, machining them into curved forms or by stacking them into shapes. Molten glass is poured into the moulds then  cooled until hard enough to be removed and placed into an annealing kiln to cool slowly.

text: When Heath was a graduate student at Rice University, he ran the experimental apparatus that generated the first C molecules and, ultimately, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the three senior members of the collaboration: Robert F. Curl and Richard E. Smalley of Rice University and Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex. This research is significant for the discovery of a new allotrope of carbon known as a fullerene.  Other allotropes of carbon include graphite, diamond and graphene. James R. Heath's 1985 paper entitled "C60:  Buckminsterfullerine", published with colleagues  Harry Kroto, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented to Rice University in 2015. The discovery of fullerenes was recognized in 2010 by the designation of a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society at the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University in Houston, Texas.

text: When Heath was a graduate student at

text: Rice University

text: , he ran the experimental apparatus that generated the first

text: C molecules

text: and, ultimately, won the

text: Nobel Prize in Chemistry

text: for the three senior members of the collaboration:

text: Robert F. Curl

text: and

text: Richard E. Smalley

text: of

text: Rice University

text: and

text: Harold Kroto

text: of the

text: University of Sussex

text: . This research is significant for the discovery of a new

text: allotrope

text: of carbon known as a

text: fullerene

text: .  Other

text: allotropes of carbon

text: include

text: graphite

text: diamond

text: and

text: graphene

text: . James R. Heath's 1985 paper entitled "C60:  Buckminsterfullerine", published with colleagues  Harry Kroto, S. C. O’Brien, R. F. Curl, and R. E. Smalley, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented to Rice University in 2015. The discovery of fullerenes was recognized in 2010 by the designation of a

text: National Historic Chemical Landmark

text: by the

text: American Chemical Society

text: There are several variations in calcium carbonate (CaCO) skeletons, including the two different crystalline forms, calcite and aragonite, as well as other elements which can become incorporated into the mineral matrix, altering its properties. Calcite is a hexagonal form of CaCO that is softer and less dense than aragonite, which has a rhombic form. Calcite is the more stable form of CaCO and is less soluble in water under standard temperature and pressure than aragonite, with a solubility product constant (K) of 10 compared to 10 for aragonite. This means that a greater proportion of aragonite will dissolve in water, producing calcium (Ca) and carbonate (CO) ions. The amount of magnesium (Mg) incorporated into the mineral matrix during calcium carbonate deposition can also alter the properties of the shell, because magnesium inhibits calcium deposition by inhibiting nucleation of calcite and aragonite. Skeletons with significant amounts of magnesium incorporated into the matrix (greater than 12%) are more soluble, so the presence of this mineral can negatively impact shell durability, which is why some organisms remove magnesium from the water during the calcification process.

text: There are several variations in calcium carbonate (CaCO) skeletons, including the two different crystalline forms, calcite and aragonite, as well as other elements which can become incorporated into the mineral matrix, altering its properties.

text: Calcite

text: is a

text: hexagonal form

text: of CaCO that is softer and less dense than

text: aragonite

text: , which has a

text: rhombic form

text: . Calcite is the more stable form of CaCO and is less soluble in water under standard temperature and pressure than aragonite, with a

text: solubility product

text: constant (K) of 10 compared to 10 for aragonite. This means that a greater proportion of aragonite will dissolve in water, producing calcium (Ca) and carbonate (CO) ions. The amount of magnesium (Mg) incorporated into the mineral matrix during calcium carbonate deposition can also alter the properties of the shell, because magnesium inhibits calcium deposition by inhibiting

text: nucleation

text: of calcite and aragonite. Skeletons with significant amounts of magnesium incorporated into the matrix (greater than 12%) are more soluble, so the presence of this mineral can negatively impact shell durability, which is why some organisms remove magnesium from the water during the calcification process.

text: is a Japanese scientist known for his work on synthesis and characterization of single-wall and double-wall carbon nanotubes and on encapsulation of water, fullerenes and other organic molecules into carbon nanotubes.

text: is a Japanese scientist known for his work on synthesis and characterization of single-wall and double-wall

text: carbon nanotube

text: s and on encapsulation of water,

text: fullerene

text: s and other organic molecules into carbon nanotubes.

text: Carbon planets; previously stars, are formed alongside the formation of a millisecond pulsar. The first such planet discovered was 18 times the density of water, and five times the size of Earth. Thus the planet cannot be gaseous, and must be composed of heavier elements that are also cosmically abundant like carbon and oxygen; making it likely crystalline like a diamond.

text: Carbon planet

text: s; previously stars, are formed alongside the formation of a

text: millisecond pulsar

text: . The first such planet discovered was 18 times the density of water, and five times the size of Earth. Thus the planet cannot be gaseous, and must be composed of heavier elements that are also cosmically abundant like carbon and oxygen; making it likely crystalline like a diamond.

text: Magnestic - This is of an average quality is crystalline in nature, and is found associated with crystalline dolomites and sometimes with soapstone. The Magnesium carbonate found here is also of average quality and its mineralisation has also been reported to occur in the district.

text: Graphite support can be added to applications on Linux with the package  pango-graphite and on Windows with the experimental add-on MultiScribe.

text: Graphite support can be added to applications on

text: Linux

text: with the package  pango-graphite and on Windows with the experimental add-on MultiScribe.

text: Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain hydrogen or fluorine, are treated separately from classical organic compounds; the definition is not rigid (see reference articles above). Among these are the simple oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is carbon dioxide (). This was once the principal constituent of the paleoatmosphere, but is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere today. Dissolved in water, it forms carbonic acid (), but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Loerting, T.|date=2001|title=On the Surprising Kinetic Stability of Carbonic Acid|journal=Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.|volume=39|pages=891–895|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000303)39:5

text: Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain hydrogen or fluorine, are treated separately from classical

text: organic compounds

text: ; the definition is not rigid (see reference articles above). Among these are the simple oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is

text: carbon dioxide

text: (). This was once the principal constituent of the

text: paleoatmosphere

text: , but is a minor component of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: today. Dissolved in

text: water

text: , it forms

text: carbonic acid

text: (), but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Loerting, T.|date=2001|title=On the Surprising Kinetic Stability of Carbonic Acid|journal=Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.|volume=39|pages=891–895|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(20000303)39:5

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or graphenes—including fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphite—have a hexagonal structure that is often described as chicken wire-like.

text: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s or

text: graphene

text: s—including

text: fullerene

text: s,

text: carbon nanotube

text: s, and

text: graphite

text: —have a hexagonal structure that is often described as chicken wire-like.

text: The amorphous form of boron nitride (a-BN) is non-crystalline, lacking any long-distance regularity in the arrangement of its atoms.  It is analogous to amorphous carbon.

text: The amorphous form of boron nitride (a-BN) is non-crystalline, lacking any long-distance regularity in the arrangement of its atoms.  It is analogous to

text: amorphous carbon

text: Germanium is a hard (MH 6), very brittle semi-metallic element. It was originally thought to be a poorly conducting metal but has the electronic band structure of a semiconductor. Germanium is usually considered to be a metalloid rather than a metal. Like carbon (as diamond) and silicon, it has a covalent tetrahedral crystalline structure (BCN 4). Compounds in its preferred oxidation state of +4 are covalent. Germanium forms an amphoteric oxide, GeO and anionic germanates, such as MgGeO. It forms Zintl phases such as LiGe, KGe and LaGe.

text: Germanium is a hard (MH 6), very brittle semi-metallic element. It was originally thought to be a poorly conducting metal but has the electronic band structure of a

text: semiconductor

text: . Germanium is usually considered to be a

text: metalloid

text: rather than a metal. Like carbon (as diamond) and silicon, it has a covalent tetrahedral crystalline structure (BCN 4). Compounds in its preferred oxidation state of +4 are covalent. Germanium forms an amphoteric oxide, GeO and anionic germanates, such as MgGeO. It forms Zintl phases such as LiGe, KGe and LaGe.

text: Lonsdaleite is a hexagonal allotrope of the carbon allotrope diamond, believed to form from graphite present in meteorites upon their impact to Earth. The great heat and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains graphite's hexagonal crystal lattice. Hexagonal diamond has also been synthesized in the laboratory, by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives. It can also be produced by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly(hydridocarbyne), at atmospheric pressure, under inert gas atmosphere (e.g. argon, nitrogen), starting at temperature .

text: Lonsdaleite is a

text: hexagonal

text: allotrope of the carbon allotrope

text: diamond

text: , believed to form from

text: graphite

text: present in

text: meteor

text: ites upon their impact to

text: Earth

text: . The great heat and stress of the impact transforms the graphite into diamond, but retains graphite's hexagonal

text: crystal lattice

text: . Hexagonal diamond has also been synthesized in the laboratory, by compressing and heating graphite either in a static press or using explosives. It can also be produced by the thermal decomposition of a polymer,

text: poly(hydridocarbyne)

text: , at atmospheric pressure, under inert gas atmosphere (e.g. argon, nitrogen), starting at temperature .

text: In the cases of carbon dioxide cooled graphite moderated reactors such as magnox and AGR power reactors an important corrosion reaction is the reaction of a molecule of carbon dioxide with graphite (carbon) to form two molecules of carbon monoxide. This is one of the processes which limits the working life of this type of reactor.

text: In the cases of

text: carbon dioxide

text: cooled

text: graphite

text: moderated

text: reactors such as

text: magnox

text: and

text: AGR

text: power reactors an important

text: corrosion

text: reaction is the reaction of a

text: molecule

text: of

text: carbon dioxide

text: with graphite (

text: carbon

text: ) to form two molecules of

text: carbon monoxide

text: . This is one of the processes which limits the working life of this type of reactor.

text: The defect is named after Anthony Stone and David J. Wales at the University of Cambridge, who described it in a 1986 paper on the isomerization of fullerenes. However, a similar defect was described much earlier by Peter Thrower in a paper on defects in graphite. For this reason, the term Stone–Thrower–Wales defect is sometimes used.

text: The defect is named after

text: Anthony Stone

text: and

text: David J. Wales

text: at the

text: University of Cambridge

text: , who described it in a 1986 paper on the

text: isomerization

text: of

text: fullerenes

text: . However, a similar defect was described much earlier by

text: Peter Thrower

text: in a paper on defects in

text: graphite

text: . For this reason, the term Stone–Thrower–Wales defect is sometimes used.

text: However, carbon planets will probably be devoid of water, which cannot form because any oxygen delivered by comets or asteroids will react with the carbon on the surface. The atmosphere on a relatively cool carbon planet would consist primarily of carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide with lots of carbon smog.

text: However, carbon planets will probably be devoid of

text: water

text: , which cannot form because any

text: oxygen

text: delivered by

text: comet

text: s or

text: asteroid

text: s will react with the carbon on the surface. The atmosphere on a relatively cool carbon planet would consist primarily of

text: carbon dioxide

text: or carbon monoxide with lots of carbon

text: smog

text: Unlike white tempering, black tempering is done in an inert gas environment, so that the decomposing carbon does not burn off. Instead, the decomposing carbon turns into a type of graphite called "temper graphite" or "flaky graphite," increasing the malleability of the metal. Tempering is usually performed at temperatures as high as  for up to 20 hours. The tempering is followed by slow-cooling through the lower critical temperature, over a period that may last from 50 to over 100 hours.

text: Unlike white tempering, black tempering is done in an

text: inert gas

text: environment, so that the decomposing carbon does not burn off. Instead, the decomposing carbon turns into a type of graphite called "temper graphite" or "flaky graphite," increasing the malleability of the metal. Tempering is usually performed at temperatures as high as  for up to 20 hours. The tempering is followed by slow-cooling through the lower critical temperature, over a period that may last from 50 to over 100 hours.

text: Crystallins are separated into two classes: taxon-specific, or enzyme, and ubiquitous. The latter class constitutes the major proteins of vertebrate eye lens and maintains the transparency and refractive index of the lens. Since lens central fiber cells lose their nuclei during development, these crystallins are made and then retained throughout life, making them extremely stable proteins. Mammalian lens crystallins are divided into alpha, beta, and gamma families; beta and gamma crystallins are also considered as a superfamily. Alpha and beta families are further divided into acidic and basic groups. Seven protein regions exist in crystallins: four homologous motifs, a connecting peptide, and N-terminal and C-terminal extensions. Beta-crystallins, the most heterogeneous, differ by the presence of the C-terminal extension (present in the basic group, none in the acidic group). Beta-crystallins form aggregates of different sizes and are able to self-associate to form dimers or to form heterodimers with other beta-crystallins. This gene, a beta basic group member, is part of a gene cluster with beta-A4, beta-B1, and beta-B3. A chain-terminating mutation was found to cause type 2 cerulean cataracts.

text: Crystallin

text: s are separated into two classes: taxon-specific, or enzyme, and ubiquitous. The latter class constitutes the major proteins of vertebrate

text: eye lens

text: and maintains the transparency and refractive index of the lens. Since lens central fiber cells lose their nuclei during development, these crystallins are made and then retained throughout life, making them extremely stable proteins. Mammalian lens crystallins are divided into alpha, beta, and gamma families; beta and gamma crystallins are also considered as a superfamily. Alpha and beta families are further divided into acidic and basic groups. Seven protein regions exist in crystallins: four homologous motifs, a connecting peptide, and

text: N-terminal

text: and

text: C-terminal

text: extensions. Beta-crystallins, the most heterogeneous, differ by the presence of the C-terminal extension (present in the basic group, none in the acidic group). Beta-crystallins form aggregates of different sizes and are able to self-associate to form dimers or to form

text: heterodimer

text: s with other beta-crystallins. This gene, a beta basic group member, is part of a gene cluster with beta-A4, beta-B1, and beta-B3. A chain-terminating mutation was found to cause type 2 cerulean cataracts.

text: In 2005, Tenne received the Materials Research Society (MRS) Medal for his work on inorganic fullerenes.

text: Fly rods are, in modern manufacture, almost always built out of carbon graphite. The graphite fibres are laid down in increasingly sophisticated patterns to keep the rod from flattening when stressed (usually referred to as hoop strength). The rod tapers from one end to the other and the degree of taper determines how much of the rod flexes when stressed. The larger amount of the rod that flexes the 'slower' the rod. Slower rods are easier to cast, create lighter presentations but create a wider loop on the forward cast that reduces casting distance and is subject to the effects of wind. Fly Rods : Guide to Fly Rod Flex & Action. Furthermore, the process of wrapping graphite fibre sheets to build a rod creates imperfections that result in rod twist during casting. Rod twist is minimized by orienting the rod guides along the side of the rod with the most 'give'. This is done by flexing the rod and feeling for the point of most give or by using computerized rod testing (see Fly Rod Balancing ).

text: Carbon steel consists of two components: pure iron, in the form of ferrite, and cementite or iron carbide, a compound of iron and carbon. Cementite is very hard and brittle; its hardness is about 640 by the Brinell hardness test, whereas ferrite is only 200. The amount of the carbon and the cooling regimen determine the crystalline and chemical composition of the final steel. In bulat, the slow cooling process allowed the cementite to precipitate as micro particles in between ferrite crystals and arrange in random patterns. The color of the carbide is dark while steel is grey. This mixture is what leads to the famous patterning of Damascus steel.

text: Carbon steel

text: consists of two components: pure

text: iron

text: , in the form of

text: ferrite

text: , and

text: cementite

text: or iron carbide, a compound of iron and

text: carbon

text: . Cementite is very hard and brittle; its

text: hardness

text: is about 640 by the

text: Brinell hardness test

text: , whereas ferrite is only 200. The amount of the carbon and the cooling regimen determine the crystalline and chemical composition of the final steel. In bulat, the slow cooling process allowed the cementite to precipitate as micro particles in between ferrite crystals and arrange in random patterns. The color of the carbide is dark while steel is grey. This mixture is what leads to the famous patterning of

text: Damascus steel

text: The structure of glassy carbon has long been a subject of debate. Early structural models assumed that both sp- and sp-bonded atoms were present, but it is now known that glassy carbon is 100% sp. However, more recent research has suggested that glassy carbon has a fullerene-related structure.

text: The structure of glassy carbon has long been a subject of debate. Early structural models assumed that both

text: sp- and sp-bonded

text: atoms were present, but it is now known that glassy carbon is 100% sp. However, more recent research has suggested that glassy carbon has a

text: fullerene

text: -related structure.

text: Putting aside some of the well known facts about deposit phosphorus vs various properties, i.e. hardness or corrosion resistance that we will cover a bit later, deposits with a high degree of amorphous composition are free of grain boundaries, which typically act as sites for intergranular corrosion commonly encountered in crystalline deposits.  There are also applications that benefit from crystalline structure as well. Duncan pointed out that in the as deposited condition an electroless nickel coating can contain both crystalline and amorphous phases or, if dictated by formula, may only contain one phase. Each phase offers distinct benefits and understanding what exists in the deposit you plan to apply is relevant.

text: Fullerene-grafted rod-coil block copolymer

text: Fullerene-grafted rod-coil

text: block copolymer

text: Conductivity of molecular solids can be illustrated on example of fullerene. Its solid is an insulator because all valence electrons of carbon atoms are involved into the covalent bonds within the individual carbon molecules. However, inserting (intercalating) alkali metal atoms between the fullerene molecules provides extra electrons, which can be easily ionized from the metal atoms and make material conductive and even superconductive.

text: Conductivity of molecular solids can be illustrated on example of fullerene. Its solid is an insulator because all valence electrons of carbon atoms are involved into the covalent bonds within the individual carbon molecules. However, inserting (intercalating)

text: alkali metal

text: atoms between the fullerene molecules provides extra electrons, which can be easily ionized from the metal atoms and make material conductive and even

text: superconductive

text: Interstellar ice consists of grains of volatiles in the ice phase that form in the interstellar medium. Ice and dust grains form the primary material out of which the Solar System was formed. Grains of ice are found in the dense regions of molecular clouds, where new stars are formed. Temperatures in these regions can be as low as 10 K (-442 F, -263 C), allowing molecules that collide with grains to form an icy mantle. Thereafter, atoms undergo thermal motion across the surface, eventually forming bonds with other atoms. This results in the formation of water and methanol. Indeed, the ices are dominated by water and methanol, as well as ammonia, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Frozen formaldehyde and molecular hydrogen may also be present. Found in lower abundances are nitriles, ketones, esters and carbonyl sulfide. The mantles of interstellar ice grains are generally amorphous, only becoming crystalline in the presence of a star.

text: Interstellar ice consists of grains of

text: volatiles

text: in the ice phase that form in the

text: interstellar medium

text: . Ice and dust grains form the primary material out of which the

text: Solar System

text: was formed. Grains of ice are found in the dense regions of

text: molecular cloud

text: s, where new stars are formed. Temperatures in these regions can be as low as 10 K (-442 F, -263 C), allowing molecules that collide with grains to form an icy mantle. Thereafter, atoms undergo thermal motion across the surface, eventually forming bonds with other atoms. This results in the formation of water and

text: methanol

text: . Indeed, the ices are dominated by water and methanol, as well as

text: ammonia

text: carbon monoxide

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: . Frozen

text: formaldehyde

text: and

text: molecular hydrogen

text: may also be present. Found in lower abundances are

text: nitrile

text: s,

text: ketone

text: s,

text: ester

text: s and

text: carbonyl sulfide

text: . The mantles of interstellar ice grains are generally amorphous, only becoming crystalline in the presence of a star.

text: Because of the money she gave up, her family stayed poor because her salary was only 207 RMB, which was equal to 20 dollars a month. And her research and work place was very poor. However, she never gave up. After coming back to China, she began working as soon as possible. In 1957, her workplace-Institute of Semiconductor CAS—finished making the first mono-crystalline germanium in China. By virtue of the working experience in Sylvania Company, she knew all the processes in making the mono-crystalline silicon. However she could not get any equipment because of embargoes from other countries. So she changed the process and made the first mono-crystalline silicon in China in 1958. China became the third country to make mono-crystalline silicon by itself. In 1962, she designed the mono-crystal furnace. This furnace had been merchandized to many countries. In the same year, she made the first mono-crystalline gallium arsenide in China. Lanying Lin’s gallium arsenide reached the highest mobility at that time in the whole world.

text: Because of the money she gave up, her family stayed poor because her salary was only 207 RMB, which was equal to 20 dollars a month. And her research and work place was very poor. However, she never gave up. After coming back to China, she began working as soon as possible. In 1957, her workplace-Institute of Semiconductor CAS—finished making the first mono-crystalline

text: germanium

text: in China. By virtue of the working experience in Sylvania Company, she knew all the processes in making the mono-crystalline silicon. However she could not get any equipment because of embargoes from other countries. So she changed the process and made the first mono-crystalline silicon in China in 1958. China became the third country to make mono-crystalline silicon by itself. In 1962, she designed the mono-crystal furnace. This furnace had been merchandized to many countries. In the same year, she made the first mono-crystalline

text: gallium arsenide

text: in China. Lanying Lin’s gallium arsenide reached the highest mobility at that time in the whole world.

text: Diamond was founded as Diamond Technology Partners in Chicago in 1994 by Mel Bergstein and Chris Moffitt with investment from founding partners and Safeguard Scientifics.  The firm went public in early 1998.  On 2000-11-28 the company was renamed to DiamondCluster International, Inc. as part of a merger with European management consulting firm Cluster Consulting.  In 2006 the company was again renamed, this time to Diamond Management & Technology Consultants, Inc. as it divested portions of its international operations.As of 3 November 2010, Diamond Management & Technology Consultants was acquired by PwC and renamed into Diamond Advisory Services. Before the acquisition, Diamond had also acquired few boutique consulting firms in US.

text: Mucic acid forms a crystalline powder, which melts at 230 °C. It is insoluble in alcohol, and nearly insoluble in cold water. Due to the symmetry in the molecule, it is optically inactive even though it has chiral carbon atoms (i.e., it is a meso compound).

text: Mucic acid forms a crystalline powder, which melts at 230 °C. It is insoluble in

text: alcohol

text: , and nearly insoluble in cold water. Due to the symmetry in the molecule, it is

text: optically inactive

text: even though it has

text: chiral

text: carbon atoms (i.e., it is a

text: meso compound

text: Isosaccharinic acid (ISA) is a six-carbon sugar acid which is formed by the action of calcium hydroxide on lactose and other carbohydrates. It is of interest because it may form in intermediate-level nuclear waste stores when cellulose is degraded by the calcium hydroxide in cements such as Portland cement. The calcium salt of the alpha form of ISA is very crystalline and quite insoluble in cold water, but in hot water it is soluble.

text: Isosaccharinic acid (ISA) is a six-carbon

text: sugar acid

text: which is formed by the action of

text: calcium hydroxide

text: on

text: lactose

text: and other

text: carbohydrate

text: s. It is of interest because it may form in intermediate-level

text: nuclear waste

text: stores when

text: cellulose

text: is degraded by the calcium hydroxide in

text: cement

text: s such as

text: Portland cement

text: . The

text: calcium

text: salt

text: of the alpha form of ISA is very crystalline and quite insoluble in cold water, but in hot water it is soluble.

text: In 2001, GrafTech, at the time UCAR Carbon, was fined €50.4 million by the European Commission and $110 million by the United States Department of Justice for participating in an international price-fixing cartel with seven other firms in the market for graphite electrodes.

text: While exceptions exist, most flame-made particles are nano-sized (< 100 nm) and highly crystalline. Also, neither phase separation within each particle nor composition variance among particles is observed, as the entire process is so rapid that atomically mixed particles are formed. Their properties stem from the flame temperature (up to 2000 °C) and high cooling rates (>500 °C/s). Low residence times in the flame (the amount of time metal ions spend in the flame zone) and rapid cooling lead to metastable phase formation and more importantly unaggregated particles, as they do not have the energy to coalesce and neck. The purity of the initial reactants largely drives the final powder's purity. Some carbonate species may be present on as-produced powders; however, processing techniques can minimize these impurities in final products. First, the powder is dispersed in a solvent via ultrasonication and left to sit for 8 to 12 hours, which leads to some small fraction of larger particles, mostly carbonates, settling at the bottom. The suspension is separated from the sediment and is dried in an oven before being ground into a powder. Thus, LF-FSP provides a robust, versatile route to single and mixed-metal oxide powders in the 15–100 nm size range with varying phase and morphology from relatively low-cost organic precursors.

text: While exceptions exist, most flame-made particles are nano-sized (< 100 nm) and highly crystalline. Also, neither

text: phase separation

text: within each particle nor composition variance among particles is observed, as the entire process is so rapid that atomically mixed particles are formed. Their properties stem from the flame temperature (up to 2000 °C) and high cooling rates (>500 °C/s). Low residence times in the flame (the amount of time metal ions spend in the flame zone) and rapid cooling lead to metastable phase formation and more importantly unaggregated particles, as they do not have the energy to coalesce and

text: neck

text: . The purity of the initial reactants largely drives the final powder's purity. Some

text: carbonate

text: species may be present on as-produced powders; however, processing techniques can minimize these impurities in final products. First, the powder is dispersed in a solvent via ultrasonication and left to sit for 8 to 12 hours, which leads to some small fraction of larger particles, mostly carbonates, settling at the bottom. The suspension is separated from the sediment and is dried in an oven before being ground into a powder. Thus, LF-FSP provides a robust, versatile route to single and mixed-metal oxide powders in the 15–100 nm size range with varying phase and morphology from relatively low-cost organic precursors.

text: The rough stone measured 971 carats in weight and was categorized as Color G. The stone was shaped like a half a loaf of bread; it was unique and inspired the name Excelsior, which means "higher". It measured  by 2 inches by 1 inch thick. The Excelsior was colored a stunning white with a tint of blue. It did contain a number of black carbon inclusions, which are typical of the diamonds from the Jagersfontein mine. The crystalline structure resembled a fractured icicle. From the time of its discovery on June 30, 1893, it was the largest diamond known to exist, until the discovery of the Cullinan Diamond in 1905.

text: In order to enhance the mould insert's lifetime, protective coatings can be applied. “The materials that have been selected for the antistick coatings can be divided into 5 groups including: (1) single layer carbides, nitrides, oxides and borides such as TiN, BN,TiAlN, NiAlN, TiBC, TiBCN, NiCrSiB and AlO, (2) nitrides or carbides based gradient and multilayers, (3) nitrides based superlattice films, (4) amorphous carbon or diamond-like carbon and (5) precious metal based alloys”

text: Calcium carbonate is being used as a calcium supplement worldwide, however, it is known that its bioavailability is very low, only around 20–30%. ACC is roughly 40% more bioavailable than crystalline calcium carbonate.

text: Calcium carbonate

text: is being used as a

text: calcium

text: supplement worldwide, however, it is known that its

text: bioavailability

text: is very low, only around 20–30%. ACC is roughly 40% more bioavailable than crystalline calcium carbonate.

text: In mineralogy, amorphous carbon is the name used for coal, soot, carbide-derived carbon, and other impure forms of carbon that are neither graphite nor diamond.  In a crystallographic sense, however, the materials are not truly amorphous but rather polycrystalline materials of graphite or diamond within an amorphous carbon matrix.  Commercial carbon also usually contains significant quantities of other elements, which may also form crystalline impurities.

text: In

text: mineralogy

text: , amorphous carbon is the name used for

text: coal

text: soot

text: carbide-derived carbon

text: , and other impure forms of carbon that are neither graphite nor diamond.  In a

text: crystallographic

text: sense, however, the materials are not truly amorphous but rather

text: polycrystalline

text: materials of

text: graphite

text: or

text: diamond

text: within an amorphous carbon

text: matrix

text: .  Commercial carbon also usually contains significant quantities of other elements, which may also form crystalline impurities.

text: They indeed found the long carbon chains they were looking for, but also found an unexpected product that had 60 carbon atoms.  Over the course of 11 days, the team studied and determined its structure and named it buckminsterfullerene after noting its similarity to the geodesic domes for which the architect Buckminster Fuller was known. This discovery was based solely on the single prominent peak on the mass spectrograph, implying a chemically inert substance that was geometrically closed with no dangling bonds. Curl was responsible for determining the optimal conditions of the carbon vapor in the apparatus, and examining the spectrograph.  Curl noted that James R. Heath and Sean C. O'Brien deserve equal recognition in the work to Smalley and Kroto.  The existence of this type of molecule had earlier been theorized by others, but Curl and his colleagues were at the time unaware of this.  Later experiments confirmed their proposed structure, and the team moved on to synthesize endohedral fullerenes that had a metal atom inside the hollow carbon shell.  The fullerenes, a class of molecules of which buckminsterfullerene was the first member discovered, are now considered to have potential applications in nanomaterials and molecular scale electronics. Robert Curl's 1985 paper entitled "C60:  Buckminsterfullerine", published with colleagues H. Kroto, J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien,  and R. E. Smalley, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented to Rice University in 2015. The discovery of fullerenes was recognized in 2010 by the designation of a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society at the Richard E. Smalley Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology at Rice University in Houston, Texas.

text: They indeed found the long carbon chains they were looking for, but also found an unexpected product that had 60 carbon atoms.  Over the course of 11 days, the team studied and determined its structure and named it

text: buckminsterfullerene

text: after noting its similarity to the

text: geodesic dome

text: s for which the architect

text: Buckminster Fuller

text: was known. This discovery was based solely on the single prominent peak on the

text: mass spectrograph

text: , implying a chemically inert substance that was geometrically closed with no

text: dangling bond

text: s. Curl was responsible for determining the optimal conditions of the carbon vapor in the apparatus, and examining the spectrograph.  Curl noted that

text: James R. Heath

text: and

text: Sean C. O'Brien

text: deserve equal recognition in the work to Smalley and Kroto.  The existence of this type of molecule had earlier been theorized by others, but Curl and his colleagues were at the time unaware of this.  Later experiments confirmed their proposed structure, and the team moved on to synthesize

text: endohedral fullerene

text: s that had a metal atom inside the hollow carbon shell.  The

text: fullerene

text: s, a class of molecules of which buckminsterfullerene was the first member discovered, are now considered to have potential applications in

text: nanomaterials

text: and

text: molecular scale electronics

text: . Robert Curl's 1985 paper entitled "C60:  Buckminsterfullerine", published with colleagues H. Kroto, J. R. Heath, S. C. O’Brien,  and R. E. Smalley, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented to Rice University in 2015. The discovery of fullerenes was recognized in 2010 by the designation of a

text: National Historic Chemical Landmark

text: by the

text: American Chemical Society

text: Polydioctylfluorene is a polymer light-emitting device known as PLED, which covalently bonds to the carbon hydrogen chains. PFO is a copolymer of basic polyfluorene, which enables it to release phosphorescent light. This basic fluorene backbone strengthens the molecule on account of the carbon rings.The cross-linking in polydioctylfluorene structure provides an efficient technique for hole-transport layers to emit light.  Also, when a solvent-polymer compound is added the β-phase crystalline structure to be maintained.  Efficiency in current can reach a maximum of about 17 cd/A and maximum luminance obtained can be approximately 14,000 cd/m(2).  The hole-transport layers (HTLs) improve the polymer’s anode hole injection and greatly increase electron blocking.   By having the capability to control the microstructure of phase domains gives an opportunity to optimize the optoelectronic properties of PFO based products.  When needs for optoelectronic emittance are reached in polydioctylfluorene, the electroluminescence given off in dependent on the active layer in the conjugate polymer.  Another way to affect the optoelectronic properties is by altering how dense the phase chain segments are ordered.  Low densities can be achieved from tremendously slow crystallization while on the other hand directional crystalline solution can be achieved by use of thermal gradients.

text: Polydioctylfluorene is a polymer light-emitting device known as PLED, which covalently bonds to the carbon hydrogen chains. PFO is a

text: copolymer

text: of basic polyfluorene, which enables it to release

text: phosphorescent

text: light. This basic fluorene backbone strengthens the molecule on account of the carbon rings.The cross-linking in polydioctylfluorene structure provides an efficient technique for hole-transport layers to emit light.  Also, when a solvent-polymer compound is added the β-phase crystalline structure to be maintained.  Efficiency in current can reach a maximum of about 17 cd/A and maximum luminance obtained can be approximately 14,000 cd/m(2).  The hole-transport layers (HTLs) improve the polymer’s anode hole injection and greatly increase electron blocking.   By having the capability to control the microstructure of phase domains gives an opportunity to optimize the

text: optoelectronic

text: properties of PFO based products.  When needs for optoelectronic emittance are reached in polydioctylfluorene, the

text: electroluminescence

text: given off in dependent on the active layer in the conjugate polymer.  Another way to affect the optoelectronic properties is by altering how dense the phase chain segments are ordered.  Low densities can be achieved from tremendously slow crystallization while on the other hand directional crystalline solution can be achieved by use of thermal gradients.

text: However, silicon has several drawbacks as an alternative to carbon. Silicon, unlike carbon, lacks the ability to form chemical bonds with diverse types of atoms as is necessary for the chemical versatility required for metabolism. Elements creating organic functional groups with carbon include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and metals such as iron, magnesium, and zinc. Silicon, on the other hand, interacts with very few other types of atoms. Moreover, where it does interact with other atoms, silicon creates molecules that have been described as "monotonous compared with the combinatorial universe of organic macromolecules". This is because silicon atoms are much bigger, having a larger mass and atomic radius, and so have difficulty forming double bonds (the double bonded carbon is part of the carbonyl group, a fundamental motif of bio-organic chemistry).

text: However, silicon has several drawbacks as an alternative to carbon. Silicon, unlike carbon, lacks the ability to form chemical bonds with diverse types of atoms as is necessary for the chemical versatility required for metabolism. Elements creating organic functional groups with carbon include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and metals such as iron, magnesium, and zinc. Silicon, on the other hand, interacts with very few other types of atoms. Moreover, where it does interact with other atoms, silicon creates molecules that have been described as "monotonous compared with the combinatorial universe of organic macromolecules". This is because silicon atoms are much bigger, having a larger

text: mass

text: and

text: atomic radius

text: , and so have difficulty forming double bonds (the double bonded carbon is part of the

text: carbonyl

text: group, a fundamental motif of bio-organic chemistry).

text: Cadmium poisoning- Callendar effect- Calnev Pipeline- Cancer- Cancer Alley- Car Free Days- Carbofuran- Carbon audit regime- Carbon credit- Carbon cycle- Carbon dioxide sink- Carbon emissions trading- Carbon fixation- Carbon flux- Carbon footprint- Carbon intensity- Carbon offset- Carbon sequestering- Carbon tax- Carbon tetrachloride- Carfree Cities- Car-free movement- Car-free zone- Carl Garner Federal Lands Cleanup Day- Carpool- Carrying capacity- Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety- Cause of Environmental Degradation- Catch and release- Certified wood- Cetacean bycatch- Cetacean Conservation Center- Charles Darwin Foundation- Chartered Institute of Environmental Health- Chemical oxygen demand- Chemical toilet- Chemical warfare- Chemical waste- Chemical weapon designation- Chemical weapon proliferation- Chemical Weapons Convention- Cherenkov radiation- Chernobyl accident- Chernobyl2020- Chicago Climate Exchange- Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study- China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement- Chionophile- Chipko movement- Chlorofluorocarbon- Citizen Information Project- Citizens for Alternatives to Chemical Contamination- Citizens for Global Solutions- City Beautiful movement- Clark County Wetlands Park- Clean Air Act- Clean Air Act (1970)- Clean Air Act (1990)- Clean Air Act 1956- Clean coal- Clean Development Mechanism- Clean Energy Future Group- Clean Up Australia- Clean Water Act- Clear Skies Act- Clearfelling- Climate Audit- Climate change- Climate changes of 535-536- Climate commitment studies- Climate Diagnostics Center- Climate engineering- Climate Group- Climate house- Climate model- Climate modeller- Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory- Climate Outreach and Information Network- Climate sensitivity- Climate surprise- Climatic determinism- Clinton Global Initiative- Cloaca Maxima- Cloud forcing- Coastal Zone Management Act- Cogeneration- Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration- Common alcohol fuel mixtures- Community bicycle program- Community Climate System Model- Community Fisheries Control Agency- Community Forests in England- Community garden- Community gardening- Compact fluorescent lamp- Compactor- Compost- Compost windrow turner- Composting toilet- Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty- Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization- Compressed air energy storage- Computer Conservation Society- Computer recycling- Concrete recycling- Conservation agriculture- Conservation and Neocolonialism- Conservation and Research Center- Conservation area- Conservation areas in Singapore- Conservation areas of Portugal- Conservation Authorities Act- Conservation authority- Conservation biology- Conservation Centre Liverpool- Conservation designation- Conservation district- Conservation easement- Conservation ethic- Conservation genetics- Conservation Halton- Conservation headland- Conservation Law Foundation- Conservation medicine- Conservation movement- Conservation park- Conservation status- Conservation status (TNC)- Conservationist- Constructed wetland- Consumerism- Container composting- Cooler Heads Coalition- Coral bleaching- COSMIC- Country park- Countryside Agency- Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000- Countryside Commission- Critical Mass (cycling)- Critical Mass Energy Project- Current Population Survey- Cycling advocacy

text: Cadmium poisoning

text: Callendar effect

text: Calnev Pipeline

text: Cancer

text: Cancer Alley

text: Car Free Days

text: Carbofuran

text: Carbon audit regime

text: Carbon credit

text: Carbon cycle

text: Carbon dioxide sink

text: Carbon emissions trading

text: Carbon fixation

text: Carbon flux

text: Carbon footprint

text: Carbon intensity

text: Carbon offset

text: Carbon sequestering

text: Carbon tax

text: Carbon tetrachloride

text: Carfree Cities

text: Car-free movement

text: Car-free zone

text: Carl Garner Federal Lands Cleanup Day

text: Carpool

text: Carrying capacity

text: Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

text: Cause of Environmental Degradation

text: Catch and release

text: Certified wood

text: Cetacean bycatch

text: Cetacean Conservation Center

text: Charles Darwin Foundation

entity_name: Chartered Institute of Environmental Health

text: Chartered Institute of Environmental Health

text: Chemical oxygen demand

text: Chemical toilet

text: Chemical warfare

text: Chemical waste

text: Chemical weapon designation

text: Chemical weapon proliferation

text: Chemical Weapons Convention

text: Cherenkov radiation

text: Chernobyl accident

text: Chicago Climate Exchange

entity_name: Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study

text: Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study

entity_name: China–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement

text: China Australia Migratory Bird Agreement

text: Chionophile

text: Chipko movement

text: Chlorofluorocarbon

text: Citizen Information Project

entity_name: Citizens for Alternatives to Chemical Contamination

text: Citizens for Alternatives to Chemical Contamination

text: Citizens for Global Solutions

text: City Beautiful movement

text: Clark County Wetlands Park

text: Clean Air Act

text: Clean Air Act (1970)

text: Clean Air Act (1990)

text: Clean Air Act 1956

text: Clean coal

text: Clean Development Mechanism

text: Clean Energy Future Group

text: Clean Up Australia

text: Clean Water Act

text: Clear Skies Act

text: Clearfelling

text: Climate Audit

text: Climate change

text: Climate changes of 535-536

text: Climate commitment studies

text: Climate Diagnostics Center

text: Climate engineering

text: Climate Group

text: Climate house

text: Climate model

text: Climate modeller

entity_name: Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory

text: Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory

text: Climate Outreach and Information Network

text: Climate sensitivity

text: Climate surprise

text: Climatic determinism

entity_section: Clinton Global Initiative (CGI) and CGI U

text: Clinton Global Initiative

text: Cloaca Maxima

text: Cloud forcing

text: Coastal Zone Management Act

text: Cogeneration

entity_name: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration

text: Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration

text: Common alcohol fuel mixtures

text: Community bicycle program

text: Community Climate System Model

text: Community Fisheries Control Agency

text: Community Forests in England

text: Community garden

text: Community gardening

text: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Compactor

text: Compost

text: Compost windrow turner

text: Composting toilet

text: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

entity_name: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization

text: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization

text: Compressed air energy storage

text: Computer Conservation Society

text: Computer recycling

text: Concrete recycling

text: Conservation agriculture

text: Conservation and Neocolonialism

entity_name: Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute

text: Conservation and Research Center

text: Conservation area

text: Conservation areas in Singapore

text: Conservation areas of Portugal

text: Conservation Authorities Act

entity_name: Conservation authority (Ontario, Canada)

text: Conservation authority

text: Conservation biology

text: Conservation Centre Liverpool

text: Conservation designation

text: Conservation district

text: Conservation easement

text: Conservation ethic

text: Conservation genetics

text: Conservation Halton

text: Conservation headland

text: Conservation Law Foundation

text: Conservation medicine

text: Conservation movement

text: Conservation park

text: Conservation status

text: Conservation status (TNC)

text: Conservationist

text: Constructed wetland

text: Consumerism

text: Container composting

text: Cooler Heads Coalition

text: Coral bleaching

entity_name: Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate

text: COSMIC

text: Country park

text: Countryside Agency

text: Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000

text: Countryside Commission

text: Critical Mass (cycling)

text: Critical Mass Energy Project

text: Current Population Survey

text: Cycling advocacy

text: The health impact of fullerenes involves the nanotoxicology of fullerenes such as buckyballs and carbon nanotubes.

text: The health impact of fullerenes involves the

text: nanotoxicology

text: of

text: fullerene

text: s such as

text: buckyball

text: s and

text: carbon nanotubes

text: A new allotrope of carbon, fullerene, that was discovered in 1985 includes nanostructured forms such as buckyballs and nanotubes. Their discoverers – Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley – received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996. The resulting renewed interest in new forms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes, including glassy carbon, and the realization that "amorphous carbon" is not strictly amorphous.

text: A new

text: allotrope

text: of carbon,

text: fullerene

text: , that was discovered in 1985 includes

text: nanostructure

text: d forms such as

text: buckyballs

text: and

text: nanotubes

text: . Their discoverers –

text: Robert Curl

text: Harold Kroto

text: and

text: Richard Smalley

text: – received the

text: Nobel Prize

text: in Chemistry in 1996. The resulting renewed interest in new forms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes, including

text: glassy carbon

text: , and the realization that "

text: amorphous carbon

text: " is not strictly

text: amorphous

text: When a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic graphite. It is also highly anisotropic, and diamagnetic, thus it will float in mid-air above a strong magnet. If it is made in a fluidized bed at 1000–1300 °C then it is isotropic turbostratic, and is used in blood contacting devices like mechanical heart valves and is called pyrolytic carbon, and is not diamagnetic. Pyrolytic graphite, and pyrolytic carbon are often confused but are very different materials.

text: When a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as

text: pyrolytic graphite

text: . It is also highly anisotropic, and

text: diamagnetic

text: , thus it will float in mid-air above a strong magnet. If it is made in a fluidized bed at 1000–1300 °C then it is isotropic turbostratic, and is used in blood contacting devices like mechanical heart valves and is called

text: pyrolytic carbon

text: , and is not diamagnetic. Pyrolytic graphite, and pyrolytic carbon are often confused but are very different materials.

text: Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of allotropy in chemical elements when he discovered that diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.

text: Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical theory, believing that

text: radicals

text: , which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of

text: allotropy in chemical elements

text: when he discovered that diamond is a

text: crystalline form of carbon

text: Osazones are a class of carbohydrate derivatives found in organic chemistry formed when sugars are reacted with excess of phenylhydrazine. The famous German chemist Emil Fischer developed and used the reaction to identify sugars whose stereochemistry differed by only one chiral carbon.  The reaction involves formation of a pair of phenylhydrazone functionalities, concomitant with the oxidation of the hydroxymethylene group adjacent to the formyl center.  The reaction can be used to identify monosaccharides.It involves two reactions. Firstly glucose with phenylhydrazine gives glucosephenylhydrazone by elimination of a water molecule from the functional group. The next step involves reaction of one equivalent of glucosephenylhydrazone with two equivalents of phenylhydrazine (excess). First phenylhydrazine is involved in oxidizing the alpha carbon to a carbonyl group, and the second phenylhydrazine involves in removal of one water molecule with the formyl group of that oxidized carbon and forming the similar carbon nitrogen bond. The alpha carbon is attacked here because its more reactive than the others. Osazones are highly coloured and crystalline compounds and can be easily detected.Glucose gives broomstick or needle shaped crystals with this whereas maltose gives sunflower shaped crystals.

text: Osazones are a class of

text: carbohydrate

text: derivatives found in

text: organic chemistry

text: formed when

text: sugar

text: s are reacted with excess of

text: phenylhydrazine

text: . The famous

text: German

text: chemist

text: Emil Fischer

text: developed and used the reaction to identify sugars whose

text: stereochemistry

text: differed by only one

text: chiral carbon

text: .  The reaction involves formation of a pair of phenyl

text: hydrazone

text: functionalities, concomitant with the oxidation of the

text: hydroxymethylene

text: group adjacent to the formyl center.  The reaction can be used to identify

text: monosaccharides

text: .It involves two reactions. Firstly glucose with phenylhydrazine gives glucosephenylhydrazone by elimination of a water molecule from the functional group. The next step involves reaction of one equivalent of glucosephenylhydrazone with two equivalents of

text: phenylhydrazine

text: (excess). First

text: phenylhydrazine

text: is involved in oxidizing the alpha carbon to a carbonyl group, and the second

text: phenylhydrazine

text: involves in removal of one water molecule with the formyl group of that oxidized carbon and forming the similar carbon nitrogen bond. The alpha carbon is attacked here because its more reactive than the others. Osazones are highly coloured and crystalline compounds and can be easily detected.Glucose gives broomstick or needle shaped crystals with this whereas maltose gives sunflower shaped crystals.

text: In mass spectrometry discrete peaks appeared corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or seventy or more carbon atoms. In 1985 Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex, James R. Heath, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley from Rice University, discovered C, and shortly thereafter came to discover the fullerenes. Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their roles in the discovery of this class of molecules. C and other fullerenes were later noticed occurring outside the laboratory (for example, in normal candle-soot). By 1990 it was relatively easy to produce gram-sized samples of fullerene powder using the techniques of Donald Huffman, Wolfgang Krätschmer, Lowell D. Lamb, and Konstantinos Fostiropoulos. Fullerene purification remains a challenge to chemists and to a large extent determines fullerene prices. So-called endohedral fullerenes have ions or small molecules incorporated inside the cage atoms. Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many organic reactions such as the Bingel reaction discovered in 1993. Carbon nanotubes were first discovered and synthesized in 1991.

text: In

text: mass spectrometry

text: discrete peaks appeared corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or seventy or more carbon atoms. In 1985

text: Harold Kroto

text: of the

text: University of Sussex

text: James R. Heath

text: Sean O'Brien

text: Robert Curl

text: and

text: Richard Smalley

text: from

text: Rice University

text: , discovered C, and shortly thereafter came to discover the fullerenes. Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996

text: Nobel Prize in Chemistry

text: for their roles in the discovery of this class of molecules. C and other fullerenes were later noticed occurring outside the laboratory (for example, in normal

text: candle

text: soot

text: ). By 1990 it was relatively easy to produce gram-sized samples of fullerene powder using the techniques of

text: Donald Huffman

text: Wolfgang Krätschmer

text: Lowell D. Lamb

text: , and

text: Konstantinos Fostiropoulos

text: Fullerene purification

text: remains a challenge to chemists and to a large extent determines fullerene prices. So-called

text: endohedral fullerenes

text: have ions or small molecules incorporated inside the cage atoms. Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many

text: organic reaction

text: s such as the

text: Bingel reaction

text: discovered in 1993. Carbon nanotubes

text: were first discovered and synthesized

text: in 1991.

text: A mineraloid is a mineral-like substance that does not demonstrate crystallinity. Mineraloids possess chemical compositions that vary beyond the generally accepted ranges for specific minerals.  For example, obsidian is an amorphous glass and not a crystal. Jet is derived from decaying wood under extreme pressure. Opal is another mineraloid because of its non-crystalline nature.  Pearl, considered by some to be a mineral because of the presence of calcium carbonate crystals within its structure, would be better considered a mineraloid because the crystals are bonded by an organic material, and there is no definite proportion of the components.

text: A mineraloid is a

text: mineral

text: -like substance that does not demonstrate

text: crystallinity

text: . Mineraloids possess

text: chemical composition

text: s that vary beyond the generally accepted ranges for specific minerals.  For example,

text: obsidian

text: is an

text: amorphous

text: glass

text: and not a

text: crystal

text: Jet

text: is derived from decaying wood under extreme pressure.

text: Opal

text: is another mineraloid because of its non-crystalline nature.

text: Pearl

text: , considered by some to be a mineral because of the presence of

text: calcium carbonate

text: crystals within its structure, would be better considered a mineraloid because the crystals are bonded by an organic material, and there is no definite proportion of the components.

text: The Freeway Fire began at 9:01 a.m. PDT November 15, 2008, along the Riverside Freeway (State Route 91, SR 91) in the riverbed of the Santa Ana River located in Corona.  The fire spread west and north into the hillsides of Yorba Linda and south into Anaheim Hills, where multiple businesses and residences were destroyed. It also burned homes in Olinda Ranch along Carbon Canyon Road in Brea, burned through much of Chino Hills, then spread north into Diamond Bar.

text: The Freeway Fire began at 9:01 a.m.

text: PDT

text: November 15, 2008, along the Riverside Freeway (

text: State Route 91

text: , SR 91) in the riverbed of the

text: Santa Ana River

text: located in

text: Corona

text: .  The fire spread west and north into the hillsides of

text: Yorba Linda

text: and south into

text: Anaheim Hills

text: , where multiple businesses and residences were destroyed. It also burned homes in Olinda Ranch along

text: Carbon Canyon Road

text: in

text: Brea

text: , burned through much of

text: Chino Hills

text: , then spread north into

text: Diamond Bar

text: There are several broad classes of materials available for use in creating a chemical reactor.  Some examples include metals, glasses, ceramics, polymers, carbon, and composites. Metals are the most common class of materials for chemical engineering equipment as they are comparatively easy to manufacture, have high strength, and are resistant to fracture.  Glass is common in chemical laboratory equipment, but highly prone to fracture and so is not useful in large-scale industrial use.  Ceramics are not that common of a material for chemical reactors as they are brittle and difficult to manufacture.  Polymers have begun to gain more popularity in piping and valves as they aid in temperature stability.  There are several forms of carbon, but the most useful form for reactors is carbon or graphite fibers in composites.

text: There are several broad classes of materials available for use in creating a chemical reactor.  Some examples include metals, glasses, ceramics, polymers, carbon, and composites.

text: Metal

text: s are the most common class of materials for chemical engineering equipment as they are comparatively easy to manufacture, have high

text: strength

text: , and are resistant to

text: fracture

text: Glass

text: is common in chemical laboratory equipment, but highly prone to fracture and so is not useful in large-scale industrial use.

text: Ceramics

text: are not that common of a material for chemical reactors as they are

text: brittle

text: and difficult to manufacture.

text: Polymer

text: s have begun to gain more popularity in piping and valves as they aid in temperature stability.  There are several forms of carbon, but the most useful form for reactors is carbon or graphite fibers in

text: composites

text: R. L. DeKock and W. Waltner were the first to identify CO by reacting atomic carbon with carbon monoxide in an argon matrix. They observed an infrared absorption line at 2241 cm. They produced carbon atoms by heating graphite inside a thin tantalum tube.

text: R. L. DeKock and W. Waltner were the first to identify CO by reacting atomic carbon with carbon monoxide in an

text: argon matrix

text: . They observed an infrared absorption line at 2241 cm. They produced carbon atoms by heating graphite inside a thin tantalum tube.

text: BPM 37093 is a white dwarf star whose carbon atoms are thought to have formed a crystalline structure. Since diamond also consists of carbon arranged in a crystalline lattice (though of a different configuration), scientists have nicknamed this star "Lucy" after the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds."

text: BPM 37093

text: is a

text: white dwarf

text: star whose

text: carbon

text: atoms are thought to have formed a crystalline structure. Since

text: diamond

text: also consists of carbon arranged in a crystalline lattice (though of a different configuration), scientists have nicknamed this star "Lucy" after the Beatles song "

text: Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds

text: In 1984, a group at Exxon reported the detection of clusters with even numbers of carbons, between 30 and 180, in carbon evaporation experiments, and attributed them to polyyne carbon. However, these clusters later were identified as fullerenes.

text: In 1984, a group at

text: Exxon

text: reported the detection of clusters with even numbers of carbons, between 30 and 180, in carbon evaporation experiments, and attributed them to polyyne carbon. However, these clusters later were identified as

text: fullerene

text: s.

text: This development led to the discovery of fullerenes in 1986 and carbon nanotubes a few years later.

text: This development led to the discovery of

text: fullerenes

text: in 1986 and

text: carbon nanotubes

text: a few years later.

text: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels. It is a form of carbon pricing. Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel (coal, petroleum, and natural gas) and is released as carbon dioxide () when they are burned. In contrast, non-combustion energy sources—wind, sunlight, hydropower, and nuclear—do not convert hydrocarbons to .  is a heat-trapping "greenhouse" gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system (see scientific opinion on global warming). Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels, a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel.

text: A carbon tax is a

text: tax

text: levied on the

text: carbon

text: content of

text: fuel

text: s. It is a form of

text: carbon pricing

text: . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel (

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: ) and is released as

text: carbon dioxide

text: () when they are burned. In contrast, non-

text: combustion

text: energy sources—

text: wind

text: sunlight

text: hydropower

text: , and

text: nuclear

text: —do not convert

text: hydrocarbon

text: s to .  is a heat-trapping

text: "greenhouse" gas

text: which represents a

text: negative externality

text: on the climate system (see

text: scientific opinion on global warming

text: ). Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of

text: fossil fuel

text: s are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels, a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel.

text: Diamond, the high-pressure allotrope of carbon, has been found associated with many impact structures, and both fullerenes  and carbynes have been reported.

text: Diamond, the high-pressure

text: allotrope

text: of

text: carbon

text: , has been found associated with many impact structures, and both

text: fullerene

text: s  and

text: carbyne

text: s have been reported.

text: Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth, and the carbon-nitrogen cycle provides some of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars. Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react with sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any alkalis. At elevated temperatures, carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon oxides, and will rob oxygen from metal oxides to leave the elemental metal. This exothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to smelt iron and to control the carbon content of steel:

text: Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on

text: Earth

text: , and the

text: carbon-nitrogen cycle

text: provides some of the energy produced by the

text: Sun

text: and other

text: stars

text: . Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react with

text: sulfuric acid

text: hydrochloric acid

text: chlorine

text: or any

text: alkalis

text: . At elevated temperatures, carbon reacts with

text: oxygen

text: to form carbon

text: oxide

text: s, and will rob oxygen from metal

text: oxides

text: to leave the elemental metal. This

text: exothermic

text: reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to smelt iron and to control the carbon content of

text: steel

text: The most famous use of the diamond in jewelry is in engagement rings. The practice is documented among European aristocracy as early as the 15th century, though ruby and sapphire were more desirable gemstones. The modern popularity of diamonds was largely created by De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd., which established the first large-scale diamonds mines in South Africa. Through an advertising campaign beginning in the 1930s and continuing into the mid-20th century, De Beers made diamonds into a key part of the betrothal process and a coveted symbol of status. The diamond's high value has been the driving force behind dictators and revolutionary entities, especially in Africa, using slave and child labor to mine blood diamonds to fund conflicts. Though popularly believed to derive its value from its rarity, gem-quality diamonds are quite common compared to rare gemstones such as Alexandrite, and annual global rough diamond production is estimated to be about 130 million carats (26 tonnes). The value of diamonds is attributed largely to the industry's tight control over this supply.

text: The most famous use of the diamond in jewelry is in

text: engagement ring

text: s. The practice is documented among European aristocracy as early as the 15th century, though ruby and sapphire were more desirable gemstones. The modern popularity of diamonds was largely created by De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd., which established the first large-scale diamonds mines in South Africa. Through an advertising campaign beginning in the 1930s and continuing into the mid-20th century, De Beers made diamonds into a key part of the betrothal process and a coveted symbol of

text: status

text: . The diamond's high value has been the driving force behind dictators and revolutionary entities, especially in Africa, using slave and child labor to

text: mine

text: blood diamond

text: s to fund conflicts. Though popularly believed to derive its value from its rarity, gem-quality diamonds are quite common compared to rare gemstones such as

text: Alexandrite

text: , and annual global rough diamond production is estimated to be about 130 million carats (26 tonnes). The value of diamonds is attributed largely to the industry's tight control over this supply.

text: "Cosmogony" is a song by Icelandic artist Björk, released as the second single from her eighth album Biophilia. The song was released on iTunes on July 19, 2011. It was also released as an app, which served as the "mother app" for the Biophilia app. It was released as part of The Crystalline Series alongside the first single from the album "Crystalline" on CD and vinyl.

text: "Cosmogony" is a song by Icelandic artist

text: Björk

text: , released as the second single from her eighth album

text: Biophilia

text: . The song was released on

text: iTunes

text: on July 19, 2011. It was also released as an app, which served as the "mother app" for the Biophilia app. It was released as part of The Crystalline Series alongside the first single from the album "

text: Crystalline

text: " on

text: CD

text: and

text: vinyl

text: Any fullerene with hexagons, pentagons and no other polygons must exactly have 12 pentagons. These fullerenes obey the rule a = 2(n + 10), where n is the number of hexagons and a is the number of carbon atoms.

text: Upon heating the surface to 200 °C the molecules move forward and back as they roll on their fullerene "wheels". The nanocar is able to roll about because the fullerene wheel is fitted to the alkyne "axle" through a carbon-carbon single bond. The hydrogen on the neighboring carbon is no great obstacle to free rotation. When the temperature is high enough, the four carbon-carbon bonds rotate and the car rolls about.  Occasionally the direction of movement changes as the molecule pivots. The rolling action was confirmed by Professor Kevin Kelly, also at Rice, by pulling the molecule with the tip of the STM.

text: Upon heating the surface to 200 °C the molecules move forward and back as they roll on their fullerene "wheels". The nanocar is able to roll about because the fullerene wheel is fitted to the

text: alkyne

text: "axle" through a carbon-carbon

text: single bond

text: . The hydrogen on the neighboring carbon is no great obstacle to free rotation. When the temperature is high enough, the four carbon-carbon bonds rotate and the car rolls about.  Occasionally the direction of movement changes as the molecule pivots. The rolling action was confirmed by Professor Kevin Kelly, also at Rice, by pulling the molecule with the tip of the

text: STM

text: Carbon monofluoride (CF, CF, or (CF)), also called polycarbon monofluoride (PMF),  polycarbon fluoride, poly(carbon monofluoride), and graphite fluoride, is a material formed by high-temperature reaction of fluorine gas with graphite, charcoal, or pyrolytic carbon powder. It is a highly hydrophobic microcrystalline powder. Its CAS number is . In contrast to graphite intercalation compounds it is a covalent graphite compound.

text: Carbon monofluoride (CF, CF, or (CF)), also called polycarbon monofluoride (PMF),  polycarbon fluoride, poly(carbon monofluoride), and graphite fluoride, is a material formed by high-temperature reaction of

text: fluorine

text: gas with

text: graphite

text: charcoal

text: , or

text: pyrolytic carbon

text: powder. It is a highly hydrophobic

text: microcrystalline

text: powder. Its

text: CAS number

text: is . In contrast to

text: graphite intercalation compounds

text: it is a

text: covalent

text: graphite compound.

text: The action of crystal growth yields a crystalline solid whose atoms or molecules are typically close packed, with fixed positions in space relative to each other.The crystalline state of matter is characterized by a distinct structural rigidity and virtual resistance to deformation (i.e. changes of shape and/or volume). Most crystalline solids have high values both of Young's modulus and of the shear modulus of elasticity. This contrasts with most liquids or fluids, which have a low shear modulus, and typically exhibit the capacity for macroscopic viscous flow.

text: The action of crystal growth yields a crystalline solid whose

text: atom

text: s or

text: molecule

text: s are typically close packed, with fixed positions in

text: space

text: relative to each other.The crystalline

text: state of matter

text: is characterized by a distinct

text: structural rigidity

text: and virtual resistance to

text: deformation

text: (i.e. changes of shape and/or volume). Most

text: crystalline solids

text: have high values both of

text: Young's modulus

text: and of the

text: shear modulus

text: of

text: elasticity

text: . This contrasts with most

text: liquid

text: s or

text: fluid

text: s, which have a low shear modulus, and typically exhibit the capacity for macroscopic

text: viscous flow

text: The truncated icosahedron can also be described as a model of the Buckminsterfullerene (fullerene) (C), or "buckyball," molecule, an allotrope of elemental carbon, discovered in 1985. The diameter of the football and the fullerene molecule are 22 cm and about 1 nm, respectively, hence the size ratio is 220,000,000:1.

text: The truncated icosahedron can also be described as a model of the

text: Buckminsterfullerene

text: (fullerene) (C), or "buckyball," molecule, an

text: allotrope

text: of elemental carbon, discovered in 1985. The diameter of the football and the fullerene molecule are 22 cm and about 1

text: nm

text: , respectively, hence the size ratio is 220,000,000:1.

text: Carbon forms the backbone of most plant biomolecules, including proteins, starches and cellulose. Carbon is fixed through photosynthesis; this converts carbon dioxide from the air into carbohydrates which are used to store and transport energy within the plant.

text: Carbon

text: forms the backbone of most plant

text: biomolecule

text: s, including proteins,

text: starch

text: es and

text: cellulose

text: Carbon is fixed

text: through

text: photosynthesis

text: ; this converts

text: carbon dioxide

text: from the air into

text: carbohydrate

text: s which are used to store and transport energy within the plant.

text: Borophene is analogous to graphene in that it is expected to form extended sheets. The latter is a semi-metal, implying that borophene may be a better conductor.  The boron-boron bond is also nearly as strong as graphene’s carbon-carbon bond. At the atomic-cluster scale, pure boron forms simple planar molecules and cage-like fullerenes.

text: Borophene is analogous to

text: graphene

text: in that it is expected to form extended sheets. The latter is a semi-metal, implying that borophene may be a better

text: conductor

text: .  The boron-boron bond is also nearly as strong as graphene’s

text: carbon-carbon bond

text: . At the atomic-cluster scale, pure boron forms simple planar molecules and cage-like fullerenes.

text: As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on the orbiting bodies such as planets, comets and asteroids will weaken due to its mass loss. All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at , , and . They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of any form of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6000–8000K range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after billions more years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf.

text: As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on the orbiting bodies such as planets, comets and asteroids will weaken due to its mass loss. All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at , , and . They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of any form of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6000–8000K range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after billions more years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a

text: black dwarf

text: A carbon flaw is a blemish present within a diamond crystalline form of carbon, usually seen as a black spot. The blemish may be microscopic or visible to the naked eye. These spots are undesirable imperfections since they can be seen easier than other flaws. It is worth noting that, while diamonds are composed of purely carbon, the black spot flaws could be other inclusions (foreign matter) such as olivine, garnet, pyrite, silica, calcite, and iron oxides.

text: A carbon flaw is a blemish present within a

text: diamond

text: crystalline form of

text: carbon

text: , usually seen as a black spot. The blemish may be microscopic or visible to the naked eye. These spots are undesirable imperfections since they can be seen easier than other flaws. It is worth noting that, while diamonds are composed of purely carbon, the black spot flaws could be other inclusions (foreign matter) such as olivine, garnet, pyrite, silica, calcite, and iron oxides.

text: Carbon nanobuds are a newly created material combining two previously discovered allotropes of carbon: carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. In this new material, fullerene-like "buds" are covalently bonded to the outer sidewalls of the underlying carbon nanotube. This hybrid material has useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. In particular, they have been found to be exceptionally good field emitters. In composite materials, the attached fullerene molecules may function as molecular anchors preventing slipping of the nanotubes, thus improving the composite’s mechanical properties.

text: Carbon nanobud

text: s are a newly created material combining two previously discovered allotropes of carbon: carbon nanotubes and

text: fullerene

text: s. In this new material, fullerene-like "buds" are covalently bonded to the outer sidewalls of the underlying carbon nanotube. This hybrid material has useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon nanotubes. In particular, they have been found to be exceptionally good

text: field emitters

text: . In composite materials, the attached fullerene molecules may function as molecular anchors preventing slipping of the nanotubes, thus improving the composite’s mechanical properties.

text: The sizes of the individual crystals in a crystalline solid material vary depending on the material involved and the conditions when it was formed.  Most crystalline materials encountered in everyday life are polycrystalline, with the individual crystals being microscopic in scale, but macroscopic single crystals can be produced either naturally (e.g. diamonds) or artificially.

text: The sizes of the individual crystals in a crystalline solid material vary depending on the material involved and the conditions when it was formed.  Most crystalline materials encountered in everyday life are

text: polycrystal

text: line, with the individual crystals being microscopic in scale, but macroscopic

text: single crystal

text: s can be produced either naturally (e.g.

text: diamond

text: s) or artificially.

text: The aforementioned crystalline structure of BiTe allows for mechanical exfoliation of thin samples by cleaving along the trigonal axis with the use of relatively little force. This process, while significantly lower in yield than epitaxial growth, produces purer samples, as there is no opportunity to introduce defects or impurities. The procedure for this has largely been the same as that used to obtain graphene from bulk graphite samples; applying and removing adhesive tape to remove successively thinner samples. This procedure has been used to obtain BiTe flakes with a thickness of 1 nm. However, this process can leave significant amounts of adhesive residue on a standard Si/SiO substrate, which in turn obscure atomic force microscopy measurements and inhibit the placement of contacts on the substrate for purposes of testing. The use of oxygen plasma as a cleaning agent, an established procedure for use with other graphene-inspired methods, is inviable for use with bismuth telluride; it oxidizes the sample, resulting in fractures as well as a rough, uneven surface. Less damaging cleaning techniques, namely the use of boiling acetone and isopropyl alcohol, have been shown to be ineffective in removing residue.

text: The aforementioned crystalline structure of BiTe allows for mechanical exfoliation of thin samples by cleaving along the trigonal axis with the use of relatively little force. This process, while significantly lower in yield than epitaxial growth, produces purer samples, as there is no opportunity to introduce defects or impurities. The procedure for this has largely been the same as that used to obtain

text: graphene

text: from bulk graphite samples; applying and removing

text: adhesive tape

text: to remove successively thinner samples. This procedure has been used to obtain BiTe flakes with a thickness of 1 nm. However, this process can leave significant amounts of adhesive residue on a standard Si/SiO

text: substrate

text: , which in turn obscure

text: atomic force microscopy

text: measurements and inhibit the placement of contacts on the substrate for purposes of testing. The use of oxygen plasma as a cleaning agent, an established procedure for use with other graphene-inspired methods, is inviable for use with bismuth telluride; it oxidizes the sample, resulting in fractures as well as a rough, uneven surface. Less damaging cleaning techniques, namely the use of boiling

text: acetone

text: and

text: isopropyl alcohol

text: , have been shown to be ineffective in removing residue.

text: The lattice of spheres of opal that cause the interference with light are several hundred times larger than the fundamental structure of crystalline silica. As a mineraloid, no unit cell describes the structure of opal. Nevertheless, opals can be roughly divided into those that show no signs of crystalline order (amorphous opal) and those that show signs of the beginning of crystalline order, commonly termed cryptocrystalline or microcrystalline opal. Dehydration experiments and infrared spectroscopy have shown that most of the HO in the formula of SiO·nHO of opals is present in the familiar form of clusters of molecular water. Isolated water molecules, and silanols, structures such as SiOH, generally form a lesser proportion of the total and can reside near the surface or in defects inside the opal.

text: The lattice of spheres of opal that cause the interference with light are several hundred times larger than the fundamental structure of crystalline silica. As a

text: mineraloid

text: , no

text: unit cell

text: describes the structure of opal. Nevertheless, opals can be roughly divided into those that show no signs of crystalline order (

text: amorphous

text: opal) and those that show signs of the beginning of crystalline order, commonly termed

text: cryptocrystalline

text: or microcrystalline opal. Dehydration experiments and

text: infrared spectroscopy

text: have shown that most of the HO in the formula of SiO·nHO of opals is present in the familiar form of clusters of molecular water. Isolated water molecules, and

text: silanol

text: s, structures such as SiOH, generally form a lesser proportion of the total and can reside near the surface or in defects inside the opal.

text: The standard state, also known as reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at a pressure of 1 bar and a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes.

text: The

text: standard state

text: , also known as reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at a pressure of 1

text: bar

text: and a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In

text: thermochemistry

text: , an element is defined to have an

text: enthalpy of formation

text: of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes.

text: Traditionally, the absence of crystal flaws is considered to be the most important quality of a diamond. Purity and high crystalline perfection make diamonds transparent and clear, whereas its hardness, optical dispersion (luster) and chemical stability (combined with marketing), make it a popular gemstone. High thermal conductivity is also important for technical applications. Whereas high optical dispersion is an intrinsic property of all diamonds, their other properties vary depending on how the diamond was created.

text: Traditionally, the absence of crystal flaws is considered to be the most important quality of a diamond. Purity and high crystalline perfection make diamonds transparent and clear, whereas its hardness,

text: optical dispersion

text: (luster) and chemical stability (combined with marketing), make it a popular gemstone. High thermal conductivity is also important for technical applications. Whereas high optical dispersion is an intrinsic property of all diamonds, their other properties vary depending on how the diamond was created.

text: Fishing rods can be constructed out of a vast number of materials. Generally they are made with either fiberglass, graphite, or a new generation composite, also known as carbon fibre. Many times carbon fibre and graphite are used together in the rod making process.

text: The most familiar usage of diamonds today is as gemstones used for adornment—a usage which dates back into antiquity. The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the twentieth century, gemologists have developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics known informally as the four Cs are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: carat, cut, color, and clarity. This system was developed by Gemological Institute of America in 1953 as internationally recognized standard to evaluate diamonds characteristics.

text: The most familiar usage of diamonds today is as gemstones used for

text: adornment

text: —a usage which dates back into

text: antiquity

text: . The

text: dispersion

text: of white light into

text: spectral color

text: s is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the twentieth century,

text: gemologists

text: have developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics known informally as the four Cs are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: carat, cut, color, and clarity. This system was developed by

text: Gemological Institute of America

text: in 1953 as internationally recognized standard to evaluate diamonds characteristics.

text: Atomic carbon is a very short-lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-atomic structures with different molecular configurations called allotropes. The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond. Once considered exotic, fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they include buckyballs, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanobuds and nanofibers. Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such as lonsdaleite (questionable), glassy carbon, carbon nanofoam and linear acetylenic carbon (carbyne).

text: Atomic carbon

text: is a very short-lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-atomic structures with different molecular configurations called

text: allotropes

text: . The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are

text: amorphous carbon

text: graphite

text: , and

text: diamond

text: . Once considered exotic,

text: fullerene

text: s are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they include

text: buckyball

text: s,

text: carbon nanotube

text: s,

text: carbon nanobud

text: s and

text: nanofibers

text: . Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such as

text: lonsdaleite

text: (questionable),

text: glassy carbon

text: carbon nanofoam

text: and

text: linear acetylenic carbon

text: (carbyne).

text: As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel. At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face center austenite and forms martensite. Martensite is highly strained and stressed supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure. There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Moreover, there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors.

text: As the rate of cooling is increased the carbon will have less time to migrate to form carbide at the grain boundaries but will have increasingly large amounts of pearlite of a finer and finer structure within the grains; hence the carbide is more widely dispersed and acts to prevent slip of defects within those grains, resulting in hardening of the steel. At the very high cooling rates produced by quenching, the carbon has no time to migrate but is locked within the face center austenite and forms

text: martensite

text: . Martensite is highly strained and stressed supersaturated form of carbon and iron and is exceedingly hard but brittle. Depending on the carbon content, the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below 0.2% carbon, it takes on a ferrite BCC crystal form, but at higher carbon content it takes a

text: body-centered tetragonal

text: (BCT) structure. There is no thermal

text: activation energy

text: for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Moreover, there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors.

text: In the case of crystallins, the genes must maintain sequences for catalytic function and transparency maintenance function. The abundant lens crystallins have been generally viewed as static proteins serving a strictly structural role in transparency and cataract. However, recent studies have shown that the lens crystallins are much more diverse than previously recognized and that many are related or identical to metabolic enzymes and stress proteins found in numerous tissues. Unlike other proteins performing highly specialized tasks, such as globin or rhodopsin, the crystallins are very diverse and show numerous species differences. Essentially all vertebrate lenses contain representatives of the α and β/γ crystallins, the "Ubiquitous crystallins", which are themselves heterogeneous, and only few species or selected taxonomic groups use entirely different proteins as lens crystallins.This paradox of crystallins being highly conserved in sequence while extremely diverse in number and distribution shows that many crystallins have vital functions outside the lens and cornea, and this multi-functionality of the crystallins is achieved by gene sharing.

text: In the case of

text: crystallins

text: , the genes must maintain sequences for catalytic function and transparency maintenance function. The abundant lens crystallins have been generally viewed as static proteins serving a strictly structural role in transparency and

text: cataract

text: . However, recent studies have shown that the lens crystallins are much more diverse than previously recognized and that many are related or identical to metabolic enzymes and stress proteins found in numerous tissues. Unlike other proteins performing highly specialized tasks, such as

text: globin

text: or

text: rhodopsin

text: , the crystallins are very diverse and show numerous species differences. Essentially all vertebrate lenses contain representatives of the α and β/γ crystallins, the "Ubiquitous crystallins", which are themselves heterogeneous, and only few species or selected taxonomic groups use entirely different proteins as lens crystallins.This paradox of crystallins being highly conserved in sequence while extremely diverse in number and distribution shows that many crystallins have vital functions outside the lens and cornea, and this multi-functionality of the crystallins is achieved by gene sharing.

text: Iijima's discovery of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in the insoluble material of arc-burned graphite rods in 1991 and Mintmire, Dunlap, and White's independent prediction that if single-walled carbon nanotubes could be made, then they would exhibit remarkable conducting properties helped create the initial buzz that is now associated with carbon nanotubes. Nanotube research accelerated greatly following the independent discoveries by Bethune at IBM and Iijima at NEC of single-walled carbon nanotubes and methods to specifically produce them by adding transition-metal catalysts to the carbon in an arc discharge. The arc discharge technique was well-known to produce the famed Buckminster fullerene on a preparative scale, and these results appeared to extend the run of accidental discoveries relating to fullerenes. The discovery of nanotubes remains a contentious issue. Many believe that Iijima's report in 1991 is of particular importance because it brought carbon nanotubes into the awareness of the scientific community as a whole.

text: A related technique, with a limited range of applications, using high-velocity carbon Fullerenes to treat surfaces, has been studied.

text: A related technique, with a limited range of applications, using high-velocity carbon

text: Fullerene

text: s to treat surfaces, has been studied.

text: Higher fullerenes are fullerene molecules consisting of more than 70 carbon atoms. They are cage-like fused-ring structures made of hexagons and pentagons, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge.

text: Higher fullerenes are

text: fullerene

text: molecules consisting of more than 70

text: carbon

text: hexagon

text: s and

text: pentagon

text: polygon

text: edge.

text: There is a wide variety of racket designs, although the racket size and shape are limited by the Laws. Different rackets have playing characteristics that appeal to different players. The traditional oval head shape is still available, but an isometric head shape is increasingly common in new rackets.Various companies have emerged but Yonex of Japan and Li-Ning of China are the dominant players in the market. Majority of top tournaments are sponsored by these companies. Every year a new technology is introduced by these companies but predominantly, all rackets are made of carbon graphite composite. Lin Dan was the winner of the most World Championships men's singles titles. He became the first man to win back-to-back badminton singles titles at the Olympic Games in 2012.

text: Carbon fibers or carbon fibres (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fibre) are fibers about 5–10 micrometres in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms.

text: Carbon fibers

entity_name: American and British English spelling differences

text: or

text: carbon fibres (alternatively CF, graphite fiber or graphite fibre) are

text: fiber

text: s about 5–10

text: micrometre

text: s in diameter and composed mostly of

text: carbon

text: atoms.

text: Helium atoms have been inserted into the hollow carbon cage molecules (the fullerenes) by heating under high pressure. The endohedral fullerene molecules formed are stable at high temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside. If helium-3 is used, it can be readily observed by helium nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Many fullerenes containing helium-3 have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds.

text: Helium atoms have been inserted into the hollow carbon cage molecules (the

text: fullerene

text: s) by heating under high pressure. The

text: endohedral fullerene molecules

text: formed are stable at high temperatures. When chemical derivatives of these fullerenes are formed, the helium stays inside. If

text: is used, it can be readily observed by helium

text: nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

text: . Many fullerenes containing helium-3 have been reported. Although the helium atoms are not attached by covalent or ionic bonds, these substances have distinct properties and a definite composition, like all stoichiometric chemical compounds.

text: In certain forms of crystalline carbon, such as diamond and graphite, a saddle point or “hump” occurs at the bond site in the charge density. The triplet state of C does follow this trend. However, the singlet state of C acts more like silicon or germanium; that is, the charge density has a maximum at the bond site.

text: In diamond all four outer electrons of each carbon atom are 'localized' between the atoms in covalent bonding. The movement of electrons is restricted and diamond does not conduct an electric current. In graphite, each carbon atom uses only 3 of its 4 outer energy level electrons in covalently bonding to three other carbon atoms in a plane. Each carbon atom contributes one electron to a delocalized system of electrons that is also a part of the chemical bonding. The delocalized electrons are free to move throughout the plane. For this reason, graphite conducts electricity along the planes of carbon atoms, but does not conduct in a direction at right angles to the plane.

text: In

text: diamond

text: all four outer electrons of each

text: carbon

text: atom are 'localized' between the atoms in covalent bonding. The movement of electrons is restricted and diamond does not conduct an electric current. In

text: graphite

text: , each carbon atom uses only 3 of its 4 outer energy level electrons in covalently bonding to three other carbon atoms in a plane. Each carbon atom contributes one electron to a delocalized system of electrons that is also a part of the chemical bonding. The delocalized electrons are free to move throughout the plane. For this reason, graphite conducts electricity along the planes of carbon atoms, but does not conduct in a direction at

text: right angle

text: s to the plane.

text: A fullerene is a molecule of carbon in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, and many other shapes. Spherical fullerenes, also referred to as Buckminsterfullerenes (buckyballs), resemble the balls used in football (soccer). Cylindrical fullerenes are also called carbon nanotubes (buckytubes). Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

text: A fullerene is a

text: molecule

text: of

text: carbon

text: in the form of a hollow

text: sphere

text: ellipsoid

text: tube

text: , and many other shapes. Spherical fullerenes, also referred to as

text: Buckminsterfullerene

text: s (buckyballs), resemble the balls used in

text: football

text: (soccer). Cylindrical fullerenes are also called

text: carbon nanotubes

text: (buckytubes). Fullerenes are similar in

text: structure

text: to

text: graphite

text: , which is composed of stacked

text: graphene

text: sheets of linked hexagonal rings; they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings.

text: A whimbling iron is a bell clapper made from ductile iron. Traditionally bell clappers were standard cast grey iron with a razor-like crystalline structure that led to sudden catastrophic failure over time. The standard clapper is distinguished by the experienced ear as a whefting iron.  Whilst some believe that the advent of "health and safety" led to the search for an alternative, it is more likely that the ability to forge the bottom end ready for use practically died out early in World War II.  Some attempts at composite clappers were made, but advances in casting technology, driven as much by the motor industry as by the war, resulted in the adoption of spheroidal graphite iron castings.

text: A whimbling iron is a

text: bell clapper

text: made from

text: ductile iron

text: . Traditionally bell clappers were standard cast

text: grey iron

text: with a razor-like crystalline structure that led to sudden catastrophic failure over time. The standard clapper is distinguished by the experienced ear as a whefting iron.  Whilst some believe that the advent of "health and safety" led to the search for an alternative, it is more likely that the ability to forge the bottom end ready for use practically died out early in

text: World War II

text: .  Some attempts at composite clappers were made, but advances in casting technology, driven as much by the motor industry as by the war, resulted in the adoption of spheroidal graphite iron castings.

text: Moonmilk is a white, creamy material found in caves. It is a non-hardening, fine crystalline precipitate from limestone and is composed mainly of calcium and/or magnesium carbonates. Microbes may be involved in its formation. It is difficult to infer microbial activities in moonmilk from standard static chemical and microscopic assays of moonmilk composition and structure. Closed ampoule IMC has been used to solve this problem (Braissant, Bindscheidler et al. 2011). It was possible to determine the growth rates of chemoheterotrophic microbial communities on moonmilk after the addition of various carbon sources simulating mixes that would be brought into contact with moonmilk due to snow melt or rainfall. Metabolic activity was high and comparable to that found in some soils.

text: Moonmilk

text: is a white, creamy material found in caves. It is a non-hardening, fine crystalline precipitate from limestone and is composed mainly of calcium and/or magnesium carbonates. Microbes may be involved in its formation. It is difficult to infer microbial activities in moonmilk from standard static chemical and microscopic assays of moonmilk composition and structure. Closed ampoule IMC has been used to solve this problem (Braissant, Bindscheidler et al. 2011). It was possible to determine the growth rates of chemoheterotrophic microbial communities on moonmilk after the addition of various carbon sources simulating mixes that would be brought into contact with moonmilk due to snow melt or rainfall. Metabolic activity was high and comparable to that found in some soils.

text: The structure associated with fullerenes was described by Leonardo da Vinci. Albrecht Dürer also reproduced a similar icosahedron containing 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces but there are no clear documentations of this.

text: The structure associated with fullerenes was described by Leonardo da Vinci.

text: Albrecht Dürer

text: also reproduced a similar icosahedron containing 12 pentagonal and 20 hexagonal faces but there are no clear documentations of this.

text: Elemental boron is a metalloid that is found in small amounts in meteoroids but chemically uncombined boron is not otherwise found naturally on Earth. Industrially, very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon or other elements. Several allotropes of boron exist: amorphous boron is a brown powder; crystalline boron is silvery to black, extremely hard (about 9.5 on the Mohs scale), and a poor electrical conductor at room temperature. The primary use of elemental boron is as boron filaments with applications similar to carbon fibers in some high-strength materials.

text: Elemental boron is a

text: metalloid

text: that is found in small amounts in

text: meteoroid

text: s but chemically uncombined boron is not otherwise found naturally on Earth. Industrially, very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon or other elements. Several

text: allotropes of boron

text: exist:

text: amorphous

text: boron is a brown powder; crystalline boron is silvery to black, extremely hard (about 9.5 on the

text: Mohs scale

text: ), and a poor electrical

text: conductor

text: at room temperature. The primary use of elemental boron is as

text: boron filament

text: s with applications similar to

text: carbon fibers

text: in some high-strength materials.

text: The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied. It can form alloys with iron, of which the most common is carbon steel. Graphite is combined with clays to form the 'lead' used in pencils used for writing and drawing. It is also used as a lubricant and a pigment, as a molding material in glass manufacture, in electrodes for dry batteries and in electroplating and electroforming, in brushes for electric motors and as a neutron moderator in nuclear reactors.

text: The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied. It can form

text: alloys

text: with

text: iron

text: , of which the most common is

text: carbon steel

text: Graphite

text: is combined with

text: clay

text: s to form the 'lead' used in

text: pencil

text: s used for

text: writing

text: and

text: drawing

text: . It is also used as a

text: lubricant

text: and a

text: pigment

text: , as a molding material in

text: glass

text: manufacture, in

text: electrodes

text: for dry

text: batteries

text: and in

text: electroplating

text: and

text: electroforming

text: , in

text: brushes

text: for

text: electric motors

text: and as a

text: neutron moderator

text: in

text: nuclear reactors

text: 3) Carbonization is the process removing all nonorganic elements. In the case of carbon fibers, all elements except for carbon are removed. This is achieved by heating the fibers to high temperatures in an environment without oxygen. This step removes all impurities from the fibers and leaves crystalline carbon structures. These structures are mostly hexagonal in shape and are composed of entirely carbon.

text: Carbonization

text: is the process removing all nonorganic elements. In the case of carbon fibers, all elements except for carbon are removed. This is achieved by heating the fibers to high temperatures in an environment without oxygen. This step removes all impurities from the fibers and leaves crystalline carbon structures. These structures are mostly hexagonal in shape and are composed of entirely carbon.

text: Totem poles are made from Western Red Cedar and are made from one large cedar log. Poles are carved by hand, using tools such as an axe, chisels, gouges and adzes. Poles can take anywhere between 6 months up to a year to complete. The time to complete a pole can depend on the size of the pole, the amount of time spent and the experience of the carver. Totem poles can either be painted or unpainted. If painted, paints can either be manufactured or made from mineral pigments. The traditional colors used include red, black, yellow, green and blue. "The red was obtained from hematite, the black from graphite and carbon and green/blue from various copper ores".

text: Totem poles are made from

text: Western Red Cedar

text: and are made from one large cedar log. Poles are carved by hand, using tools such as an axe,

text: chisel

text: s, gouges and

text: adze

text: s. Poles can take anywhere between 6 months up to a year to complete. The time to complete a pole can depend on the size of the pole, the amount of time spent and the experience of the carver. Totem poles can either be painted or unpainted. If painted, paints can either be manufactured or made from mineral pigments. The traditional colors used include red, black, yellow, green and blue. "The red was obtained from

text: hematite

text: , the black from graphite and carbon and green/blue from various copper ores".

text: Sodium bicarbonate (IUPAC name: sodium hydrogen carbonate) is a chemical compound with the formula NaHCO. It is a salt composed of sodium ions and bicarbonate ions. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It has a slightly salty, alkaline taste resembling that of washing soda (sodium carbonate). The natural mineral form is nahcolite. It is a component of the mineral natron and is found dissolved in many mineral springs.It is among the food additives encoded by the European Union, identified as E 500.Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda, and bicarbonate of soda. In colloquial usage, the names sodium bicarbonate and bicarbonate of soda are often truncated. Forms such as sodium bicarb, bicarb soda, bicarbonate, bicarb, or even bica are common. The word saleratus, from Latin sal æratus meaning "aerated salt", was widely used in the 19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate.

text: Sodium bicarbonate (

text: IUPAC name

text: : sodium hydrogen carbonate) is a

text: chemical compound

text: with the formula

text: HCO

text: . It is a

text: salt

text: composed of

text: sodium

text: ions and

text: bicarbonate

text: ions. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is

text: crystal

text: line but often appears as a fine powder. It has a slightly salty,

text: alkaline

text: taste resembling that of washing soda (

text: sodium carbonate

text: ). The natural mineral form is

text: nahcolite

text: . It is a component of the mineral

text: natron

text: and is found dissolved in many

text: mineral spring

text: s.It is among the

text: food additives

text: encoded by the

text: European Union

text: , identified as

entity_section: E500.E2.80.93E599 .28acidity regulators.2C anti-caking agents.29

text: E 500

text: .Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda, and bicarbonate of soda. In colloquial usage, the names sodium bicarbonate and bicarbonate of soda are often truncated. Forms such as sodium bicarb, bicarb soda, bicarbonate, bicarb, or even bica are common. The word saleratus, from

text: Latin

text: sal æratus meaning "aerated salt", was widely used in the 19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and

text: potassium bicarbonate

text: A more recent discovery is of a series of new types of carbon molecule, known as the fullerenes (see Curl, 1991). Although C, the most easily produced fullerene, looks more or less spherical, some of the larger varieties (such as C, C and C) are hypothesised to take on the form of slightly rounded icosahedra, a few nanometres across.

text: A more recent discovery is of a series of new types of

text: carbon

text: molecule, known as the

text: fullerene

text: s (see Curl, 1991). Although C, the most easily produced fullerene, looks more or less spherical, some of the larger varieties (such as C, C and C) are hypothesised to take on the form of slightly rounded icosahedra, a few nanometres across.

text: The northernmost boundary of the Siwaliks Group is marked by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), over which the low-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Lesser Himalaya overlie. The Lesser Himalaya, also called the Lower Himalaya, or the Midlands, is a thick (about 7 km) section of para-autochthonous crystalline rocks made up of low- to medium grade rocks. These lower Proterozoic clastic rocks  are subdivided into two groups. Argillo-arenaceous rocks dominate the lower half of the succession, whereas the upper half consists of both carbonate and siliciclastic rocks (; ; ).

text: The northernmost boundary of the Siwaliks Group is marked by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), over which the low-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Lesser Himalaya overlie. The Lesser Himalaya, also called the Lower Himalaya, or the Midlands, is a thick (about 7 km) section of para-autochthonous crystalline rocks made up of low- to medium grade rocks. These lower

text: Proterozoic

text: clastic rocks  are subdivided into two groups. Argillo-arenaceous rocks dominate the lower half of the succession, whereas the upper half consists of both

text: carbonate

text: and

text: siliciclastic rock

text: s (; ; ).

text: Atoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple chemical structures (spatial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite that is very strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'.

text: Atoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple

text: chemical structure

text: s (

text: spatial arrangements of atoms

text: ), known as

text: allotropes

text: , which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as

text: diamond

text: , which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom;

text: graphite

text: , which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other;

text: graphene

text: , which is a single layer of graphite that is very strong;

text: fullerene

text: s, which have nearly spherical shapes; and

text: carbon nanotube

text: s, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'.

text: The diamond industry can be separated into two distinct categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. Both markets value diamonds differently.

text: Cathode: Carbon cathodes are essentially made of anthracite, graphite and petroleum coke, which are calcined at around 1200 °C and crushed and sieved prior to being used in cathode manufacturing. Aggregates are mixed with coal-tar pitch, formed, and baked. Carbon purity is not as stringent as for anode, because metal contamination from cathode is not significant. Carbon cathode must have adequate strength, good electrical conductivity and high resistance to wear and sodium penetration. Anthracite cathodes have higher wear resistance and slower creep with lower amplitude [15] than graphitic and graphitized petroleum coke cathodes. Instead, dense cathodes with more graphitic order have higher electrical conductivity, lower energy consumption [14], and lower swelling due to sodium penetration. Swelling results in early and non-uniform deterioration of cathode blocks.

text: Ethyl sulfate can exist in salt forms, such as sodium ethyl sulfate, potassium ethyl sulfate, and calcium ethyl sulfate. The salt can be formed by adding the according carbonate, or bicarbonate salt. As an example, ethyl sulfate and potassium carbonate forms potassium ethyl sulfate and potassium bicarbonate.

text: Ethyl sulfate can exist in salt forms, such as sodium ethyl sulfate, potassium ethyl sulfate, and calcium ethyl sulfate. The salt can be formed by adding the according carbonate, or bicarbonate salt. As an example, ethyl sulfate and

text: potassium carbonate

text: forms potassium ethyl sulfate and

text: potassium bicarbonate

text: Some bowl-shaped molecules reported in the literature are in fact partially hydrogenated. A CH hydrocarbon has been synthesized containing 54 of the 60 carbon atoms found in fullerene

text: The sodium carbonate test (not to be confused with sodium carbonate extract test) is used to distinguish between some common metal ions, which are precipitated as their respective carbonates. The test can distinguish between copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn) or lead (Pb). Sodium carbonate solution is added to the salt of the metal. A blue precipitate indicates Cu ion. A dirty green precipitate indicates Fe ion. A yellow-brown precipitate indicates Fe ion. A white precipitate indicates Ca, Zn, or Pb ion.  The compounds formed are, respectively, copper(II) carbonate, iron(II) carbonate, iron(III) oxide, calcium carbonate, zinc carbonate, and lead(II) carbonate. This test is used to precipitate the ion present as almost all carbonates are insoluble. While this test is useful for telling these cations apart, it fails if other ions are present, because most metal carbonates are insoluble and will precipitate. In addition, calcium, zinc, and lead ions all produce white precipitates with carbonate, making it difficult to distinguish between them. Instead of sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide may be added, this gives nearly the same colours, except that lead and zinc hydroxides are soluble in excess alkali, and can hence be distinguished from calcium. For the complete sequence of tests used for qualitative cation analysis, see qualitative inorganic analysis.

text: The sodium carbonate test (not to be confused with sodium carbonate extract test) is used to distinguish between some common metal ions, which are precipitated as their respective carbonates. The test can distinguish between copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn) or lead (Pb). Sodium carbonate solution is added to the salt of the metal. A blue precipitate indicates Cu ion. A dirty green precipitate indicates Fe ion. A yellow-brown precipitate indicates Fe ion. A white precipitate indicates Ca, Zn, or Pb ion.  The compounds formed are, respectively,

text: copper(II) carbonate

text: iron(II) carbonate

text: iron(III) oxide

text: calcium carbonate

text: zinc carbonate

text: , and

text: lead(II) carbonate

text: . This test is used to precipitate the ion present as almost all carbonates are insoluble. While this test is useful for telling these cations apart, it fails if other ions are present, because most metal carbonates are insoluble and will precipitate. In addition, calcium, zinc, and lead ions all produce white precipitates with carbonate, making it difficult to distinguish between them. Instead of sodium carbonate,

text: sodium hydroxide

text: may be added, this gives nearly the same colours, except that lead and zinc hydroxides are soluble in excess alkali, and can hence be distinguished from calcium. For the complete sequence of tests used for qualitative cation analysis, see

text: qualitative inorganic analysis

text: For his come-back to fullerene research Fostiropoulos' references have been Nobel Laureate Harry Kroto and Robert Schlögl.

text: For his come-back to fullerene research Fostiropoulos' references have been Nobel Laureate

text: Harry Kroto

text: and

text: Robert Schlögl

text: Diamond is the hardest known material to date, with a Vickers hardness in the range of 70–150 GPa. Diamond demonstrates both high thermal conductivity and electrically insulating properties and much attention has been put into finding practical applications of this material. However, diamond has several limitations for mass industrial application, including its high cost and oxidation at temperatures above 800 °C. In addition, diamond dissolves in iron and forms iron carbides at high temperatures and therefore is inefficient in cutting ferrous materials including steel. Therefore, recent research of superhard materials has been focusing on compounds which would be thermally and chemically more stable than pure diamond.

text: Diamond

text: is the hardest known material to date, with a Vickers hardness in the range of 70–150 GPa. Diamond demonstrates both high

text: thermal conductivity

text: and

text: electrically insulating

text: properties and much attention has been put into finding practical applications of this material. However, diamond has several limitations for mass industrial application, including its high cost and oxidation at temperatures above 800 °C. In addition, diamond dissolves in

text: iron

text: and forms

text: iron carbides

text: at high temperatures and therefore is inefficient in cutting ferrous materials including

text: steel

text: . Therefore, recent research of superhard materials has been focusing on compounds which would be thermally and chemically more stable than pure diamond.

text: At high temperatures, three-phonon Umklapp scattering begins to limit the phonon relaxation time. Therefore, the phonon thermal conductivity displays a peak and decreases with increasing temperature. Umklapp scattering requires production of a phonon beyond the Brillouin zone boundary; because of the high Debye temperature of diamond and graphite, the peak in the thermal conductivity of these materials is near 100 K, significantly higher than for most other materials. In less crystalline forms of graphite, such as carbon fibers, the peak in k(T) occurs at higher temperatures, because defect scattering remains dominant over Umklapp scattering to higher temperature. In low-dimensional systems, it is difficult to conserve both energy and momentum for Umklapp processes, and so it may be possible that Umklapp scattering is suppressed in nanotubes relative to 2-D or 3-D forms of carbon.

text: Dual-carbon (also called dual-graphite) batteries were first introduced in a 1989 patent. They were later studied by various other research groups.

text: A cord factor molecule is composed of a trehalose sugar, a disaccharide, that is esterified to two mycolic acid residues. One of the two mycolic acid residues is attached to the sixth carbon of one monosaccharide, while the other mycolic acid residue is attached to the sixth carbon of the other monosaccharide. Therefore, cord factor is also named trehalose-6,6'-dimycolate. The carbon chain of the mycolic acid residues vary in length depending on the species of bacteria it is found in, but the general range is 20 to 80 carbon atoms. Cord factor's amphiphilic nature leads to varying structures when many cord factor molecules are in close proximity. On a hydrophobic surface, they spontaneously form a crystalline monolayer. This crystalline monolayer is extremely durable and firm; it is stronger than any other amphiphile found in biology.  This monolayer also forms in oil-water, plastic-water, and air-water surfaces. In an aqueous environment free of hydrophobic surfaces, cord factor forms a micelle.  Furthermore, cord factor interlocks with lipoarabinomannan (LAM), which is found on the surface of M. tuberculosis cells as well, to form an asymmetrical bilayer.

text: A cord factor molecule is composed of a trehalose sugar, a

text: disaccharide

text: The process begins with a downdraft sintering operation. The sinter, which is a mixture of roaster calcine and EAF calcine, is loaded onto a gate type conveyor and then combustions gases are pumped through the sinter. The carbon in the combustion gases react with some the impurities, such as lead, cadmium, and halides. These impurities are driven off into filtration bags. The sinter after this process, called product sinter, usually has a composition of 48% zinc, 8% iron, 5% aluminium, 4% silicon, 2.5% calcium, and smaller quantities of magnesium, lead, and other metals. The sinter product is then charged with coke into an electric retort furnace. A pair of graphite electrodes from the top and bottom furnace produce current flow through the mixture. The coke provides electrical resistance to the mixture in order to heat the mixture to  and produce carbon monoxide. These conditions allow for the following chemical reaction to occur:

text: For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as allotropy. For example, diamond and graphite are two crystalline forms of carbon, while amorphous carbon is a noncrystalline form. Polymorphs, despite having the same atoms, may have wildly different properties. For example, diamond is among the hardest substances known, while graphite is so soft that it is used as a lubricant.

text: For pure chemical elements, polymorphism is known as

text: allotropy

text: . For example,

text: diamond

text: and

text: graphite

text: are two crystalline forms of

text: carbon

text: , while

text: amorphous carbon

text: is a noncrystalline form. Polymorphs, despite having the same atoms, may have wildly different properties. For example, diamond is among the hardest substances known, while graphite is so soft that it is used as a lubricant.

text: Maars occur in western North America, Patagonia in South America, the Eifel region of Germany (where they were originally described), and in other geologically young volcanic regions of Earth. Elsewhere in Europe, La Vestide du Pal in the Ardèche department of France provides a spectacular example of a maar easily visible from the ground or air. Kilbourne Hole and Hunt's Hole, in southern New Mexico near El Paso, Texas, are maars. The Crocodile Lake in Los Baños in the Philippines was originally thought of as a volcanic crater is also a maar. The notorious, carbon dioxide-saturated Lake Nyos in Africa is another example. An excellent example of a maar is Zuni Salt Lake in New Mexico, a shallow saline lake that occupies a flat-floored crater about  across and  deep. Its low rim is composed of loose pieces of basaltic lava and wall rocks (sandstone, shale, limestone) of the underlying diatreme, as well as random chunks of ancient crystalline rocks blasted upward from great depths. Maars in Canada are found in the Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field of east-central British Columbia and in kimberlite fields throughout Canada. A notable field of maars is found in the Pali-Aike Volcanic Field in Patagonia, South America. The Auckland volcanic field in the urban area of Auckland, New Zealand has several maars, including the readily accessible Lake Pupuke in the North Shore suburb of Takapuna.

text: Maars occur in western North America,

text: Patagonia

text: in South America, the

text: Eifel

text: region of

text: Germany

text: (where they were originally described), and in other geologically young volcanic regions of Earth. Elsewhere in Europe,

text: La Vestide du Pal

text: in the

text: Ardèche

text: department of France provides a spectacular example of a maar easily visible from the ground or air.

text: Kilbourne Hole

text: and

text: Hunt's Hole

text: , in southern

text: New Mexico

text: near

text: El Paso, Texas

text: , are maars. The

text: Crocodile Lake

text: in

text: Los Baños

text: in the Philippines was originally thought of as a volcanic crater is also a maar. The notorious,

text: carbon dioxide

text: -saturated

text: Lake Nyos

text: in Africa is another example. An excellent example of a maar is

text: Zuni Salt Lake

text: in

text: New Mexico

text: , a shallow

text: saline lake

text: that occupies a flat-floored crater about  across and  deep. Its low rim is composed of loose pieces of

text: basalt

text: ic lava and

text: wall rock

text: s (

text: sandstone

text: shale

text: limestone

text: ) of the underlying

text: diatreme

text: , as well as random chunks of ancient

text: crystalline

text: rocks blasted upward from great depths. Maars in

text: Canada

text: are found in the

text: Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field

text: of east-central

text: British Columbia

text: and in

text: kimberlite

text: fields throughout Canada. A notable field of maars is found in the

text: Pali-Aike Volcanic Field

text: in

text: Patagonia

text: , South America. The

text: Auckland volcanic field

text: in the urban area of

text: Auckland

text: , New Zealand has several maars, including the readily accessible

text: Lake Pupuke

text: in the North Shore suburb of

text: Takapuna

text: A fullerene ligand is a type of ligand encountered in organometallic chemistry with a fullerene coordinated to a metal. Fullerenes are mostly all carbon, spherical molecules, with the most basic being C. One of the many uses for fullerenes is their ability to be used as ligands in organometallic systems. Fullerenes were first synthesized in 1985 by Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, et al. The first use of fullerenes as ligands however did not start until 1991, where C is used as a ligand on platinum in the system [(Ph)P]Pt(η-C). Since this point, there have been many different systems using fullerenes, involving different transition metals and binding modes. Most of the fullerene ligands are based on C, though there are systems which use different sized fullerenes, such as C as seen with CRh(H)(CO)(PPh).

text: A fullerene ligand is a type of

text: ligand

text: encountered in

text: organometallic chemistry

text: with a

text: fullerene

text: coordinated to a metal.

text: Fullerenes

text: are mostly all

text: carbon

text: , spherical

text: molecules

text: , with the most basic being C. One of the many uses for fullerenes is their ability to be used as

text: ligand

text: s in

text: organometallic

text: systems. Fullerenes were first synthesized in 1985 by

text: Harry Kroto

text: Richard Smalley

text: , et al. The first use of fullerenes as ligands however did not start until 1991, where C is used as a ligand on

text: platinum

text: in the system [(Ph)P]Pt(η-C). Since this point, there have been many different systems using fullerenes, involving different

text: transition metals

text: and binding modes. Most of the fullerene ligands are based on C, though there are systems which use different sized fullerenes, such as

text: C

text: as seen with CRh(H)(CO)(PPh).

text: The existence of carbon peapods demonstrates further properties of carbon nanotubes, such as potential to be a stringently controlled environment for reactions. C molecules normally form amorphous carbon when heated to 1000–1200 °C under ambient conditions; when heated to such a high temperature within a carbon nanotube, they instead merge in an ordered manner to form another SWNT, thus creating a double-wall carbon nanotube.  Owing to the ease with which fullerenes can encapsulate or be doped with other molecules and the transparency of nanotubes to electron beams, carbon peapods can also serve as nano-scale test tubes.  After fullerenes containing reactants diffuse into an SWNT, a high-energy electron beam can be used to displace carbon atoms and induce high reactivity, thus triggering formation of C dimers and merging of their contents.Additionally, due to the enclosed fullerenes being limited to only a one-dimensional degree of mobility, phenomena such as diffusion or phase transformations can easily be studied.

text: The existence of carbon peapods demonstrates further properties of carbon nanotubes, such as potential to be a stringently controlled environment for reactions. C molecules normally form

text: amorphous carbon

text: when heated to 1000–1200 °C under ambient conditions; when heated to such a high temperature within a carbon nanotube, they instead merge in an ordered manner to form another SWNT, thus creating a double-wall carbon nanotube.  Owing to the ease with which fullerenes can encapsulate or be doped with other molecules and the transparency of nanotubes to electron beams, carbon peapods can also serve as nano-scale test tubes.  After fullerenes containing reactants diffuse into an SWNT, a high-energy electron beam can be used to displace carbon atoms and induce high reactivity, thus triggering formation of C dimers and merging of their contents.Additionally, due to the enclosed fullerenes being limited to only a one-dimensional degree of mobility, phenomena such as

text: diffusion

text: or

text: phase transformation

text: s can easily be studied.

text: Graphite is used in production by companies such as Booking.com, GitHub, Etsy and Electronic Arts.

text: Graphite is used in production by companies such as

text: Booking.com

text: GitHub

text: Etsy

text: and

text: Electronic Arts

text: The least expensive source of carbon for recycling into fuel is flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion, where it can be extracted for about US $7.50 per ton. Automobile exhaust gas capture has also been proposed to be economical but would require extensive design changes or retrofitting. Since carbonic acid in seawater is in chemical equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide, extraction of carbon from seawater has been studied. Researchers have estimated that carbon extraction from seawater would cost about $50 per ton. Carbon capture from ambient air is more costly, at between $600 and $1000 per ton and is considered impractical for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration.

text: The least expensive source of carbon for recycling into fuel is

text: flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

text: , where it can be extracted for about US $7.50 per ton. Automobile exhaust gas capture has also been proposed to be economical but would require extensive design changes or retrofitting. Since carbonic acid in seawater is in

text: chemical equilibrium

text: with atmospheric carbon dioxide, extraction of carbon from seawater has been studied. Researchers have estimated that carbon extraction from seawater would cost about $50 per ton.

text: Carbon capture from ambient air

text: is more costly, at between $600 and $1000 per ton and is considered impractical for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration.

text: Graphite Oxide is a compound of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen where the there is a ratio between 2.1 and 2.9 of carbon to oxygen. Graphite Oxide is typically a yellowish solid. It is also known as graphene oxide when used to form monomolecular sheets.

text: Graphite Oxide is a compound of

text: carbon

text: oxygen

text: , and

text: hydrogen

text: where the there is a ratio between 2.1 and 2.9 of carbon to oxygen. Graphite Oxide is typically a yellowish solid. It is also known as graphene oxide when used to form monomolecular sheets.

text: The novel is a science horror story that involves silicon crystalline lifeforms threatening to overwhelm carbon life on Earth.

text: Enhancements of more than two orders of magnitude have been observed in the photocurrent from adding SWCNTs to the P3OT matrix. Improvements were speculated to be due to charge separation at polymer–SWCNT connections and more efficient electron transport through the SWCNTs. However, a rather low power conversion efficiency of 0.04% under 100 mW/cm white illumination was observed for the device suggesting incomplete exciton dissociation at low CNT concentrations of 1.0% wt. Because the lengths of the SWCNTs were similar to the thickness of photovoltaic films, doping a higher percentage of SWCNTs into the polymer matrix was believed to cause short circuits. To supply additional dissociation sites, other researchers have physically blended functionalized MWCNTs into P3HT polymer to create a P3HT-MWCNT with fullerene C double-layered device. However, the power efficiency was still relatively low at 0.01% under 100 mW/cm white illumination. Weak exciton diffusion toward the donor–acceptor interface in the bilayer structure may have been the cause in addition to the fullerene C layer possibly experiencing poor electron transport.

text: While at UMich, Omar M. Yaghi (currently at UCBerkeley) and Adrien P Cote published the first paper of COF. They reported the design and successful synthesis of COFs by condensation reactions of phenyl diboronic acid {CH[B(OH)]} and hexahydroxytriphenylene [CH(OH)]. Powder X-ray diffraction studies of the highly crystalline products (CHBO)&(CH) (COF-1) and CHBO (COF-5) revealed 2-dimensional expanded porous graphitic layers that are either staggered (COF-1, P63/mmc) or eclipsed (COF-5, P6/mmm). Their crystal structures are entirely held by strong bonds between B, C, and O atoms to form rigid porous architectures with pore sizes ranging from 7 to 27 angstroms. COF-1 and COF-5 exhibit high thermal stability (to temperatures up to 500 to 600 C), permanent porosity, and high surface areas (711 and 1590 square meters per gram, respectively).

text: While at UMich, Omar M. Yaghi (currently at

text: UCBerkeley

text: ) and

text: Adrien P Cote

text: published the first paper of COF. They reported the design and successful synthesis of COFs by condensation reactions of phenyl

text: diboronic

text: acid {CH[B(OH)]} and hexahydroxytriphenylene [CH(OH)]. Powder X-ray diffraction studies of the highly crystalline products (CHBO)&(CH) (COF-1) and CHBO (COF-5) revealed 2-dimensional expanded porous graphitic layers that are either

text: staggered

text: (COF-1, P63/mmc) or

text: eclipsed

text: (COF-5, P6/mmm). Their crystal structures are entirely held by strong bonds between B, C, and O atoms to form rigid porous architectures with pore sizes ranging from 7 to 27 angstroms. COF-1 and COF-5 exhibit high thermal stability (to temperatures up to 500 to 600 C), permanent porosity, and high surface areas (711 and 1590 square meters per gram, respectively).

text: The nomenclature can also be applied to the hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms. A hydrogen atom attached to an alpha carbon atom is called an alpha-hydrogen atom, a hydrogen atom on the beta-carbon atom is a beta hydrogen atom, and so on.

text: The nomenclature can also be applied to the

text: hydrogen

text: atoms attached to the carbon atoms. A hydrogen atom attached to an alpha carbon atom is called an alpha-hydrogen atom, a hydrogen atom on the beta-carbon atom is a beta hydrogen atom, and so on.

text: The Hope Diamond was formed deep within the Earth approximately 1.1 billion years ago. Like all diamonds, it is formed when carbon atoms form strong bonds. The Hope Diamond was originally embedded in kimberlite, and was later extracted and refined to form the brilliant gem it is today.  The Hope Diamond contains trace amounts of boron atoms intermixed with the carbon structure, which results in the rare blue color of the diamond.

text: The Hope Diamond was formed deep within the

text: Earth

text: approximately 1.1 billion years ago. Like all

text: diamond

text: s, it is formed when

text: carbon

text: atoms form strong bonds. The Hope Diamond was originally embedded in

text: kimberlite

text: , and was later extracted and refined to form the brilliant gem it is today.  The Hope Diamond contains trace amounts of boron atoms intermixed with the carbon structure, which results in the rare blue color of the diamond.

text: A common method of manufacture involves heating the spun PAN filaments to approximately 300 °C in air, which breaks many of the hydrogen bonds and oxidizes the material. The oxidized PAN is then placed into a furnace having an inert atmosphere of a gas such as argon, and heated to approximately 2000 °C, which induces graphitization of the material, changing the molecular bond structure. When heated in the correct conditions, these chains bond side-to-side (ladder polymers), forming narrow graphene sheets which eventually merge to form a single, columnar filament. The result is usually 93–95% carbon. Lower-quality fiber can be manufactured using pitch or rayon as the precursor instead of PAN. The carbon can become further enhanced, as high modulus, or high strength carbon, by heat treatment processes. Carbon heated in the range of 1500–2000 °C (carbonization) exhibits the highest tensile strength (820,000 psi, 5,650 MPa or N/mm²), while carbon fiber heated from 2500 to 3000 °C (graphitizing) exhibits a higher modulus of elasticity (77,000,000 psi or 531 GPa or 531 kN/mm²).

text: A common method of manufacture involves heating the spun PAN filaments to approximately 300 °C in air, which breaks many of the hydrogen bonds and oxidizes the material. The

text: oxidized

text: PAN is then placed into a furnace having an inert atmosphere of a gas such as

text: argon

text: , and heated to approximately 2000 °C, which induces graphitization of the material, changing the molecular bond structure. When heated in the correct conditions, these chains bond side-to-side (ladder polymers), forming narrow

text: graphene

text: sheets which eventually merge to form a single, columnar filament. The result is usually 93–95% carbon. Lower-quality fiber can be manufactured using

text: pitch

text: or

text: rayon

text: as the precursor instead of PAN. The carbon can become further enhanced, as high modulus, or high strength carbon, by heat treatment processes. Carbon heated in the range of 1500–2000 °C (carbonization) exhibits the highest

text: tensile strength

text: psi

text: , 5,650 MPa or N/mm²), while carbon fiber heated from 2500 to 3000 °C (graphitizing) exhibits a higher

text: modulus of elasticity

text: (77,000,000 psi or 531 GPa or 531 kN/mm²).

text: Unstable clusters can also be observed in the gas-phase by means of mass spectrometry, even though they may be thermodynamically unstable and aggregate easily upon condensation. Such naked clusters, i.e. those that are not stabilized by ligands, are often produced by laser induced evaporation - or ablation - of a bulk metal or metal-containing compound. Typically, this approach produces a broad distribution of size distributions. Their electronic structures can be interrogated by techniques such as photoelectron spectroscopy, while infrared multiphoton dissociation spectroscopy is more probing the clusters geometry.  Their properties (Reactivity, Ionization potential, HOMO–LUMO-gap) often show a pronounced size dependence. Examples of such clusters are certain aluminium clusters as superatoms and certain gold clusters. Certain metal clusters are considered to exhibit metal aromaticity.  In some cases, the results of laser ablation experiments are translated to isolated compounds, and the premier cases are the clusters of carbon called the fullerenes, notably clusters with the formula C, C, and C. The fullerene sphere can be filled with small molecules, forming Endohedral fullerenes.

text: Unstable clusters can also be observed in the gas-phase by means of

text: mass spectrometry

text: , even though they may be thermodynamically unstable and aggregate easily upon condensation. Such naked clusters, i.e. those that are not stabilized by ligands, are often produced by laser induced evaporation - or ablation - of a bulk metal or metal-containing compound. Typically, this approach produces a broad distribution of size distributions. Their electronic structures can be interrogated by techniques such as

text: photoelectron spectroscopy

text: , while

text: infrared multiphoton dissociation

text: spectroscopy is more probing the clusters geometry.  Their properties (

text: Reactivity

text: Ionization potential

text: HOMO

text: LUMO

text: -gap) often show a pronounced size dependence. Examples of such clusters are certain aluminium clusters as

text: superatoms

text: and certain

text: gold cluster

text: s. Certain metal clusters are considered to exhibit

text: metal aromaticity

text: .  In some cases, the results of laser ablation experiments are translated to isolated compounds, and the premier cases are the clusters of carbon called the

text: fullerene

text: s, notably clusters with the formula C, C, and C. The fullerene sphere can be filled with small molecules, forming

text: Endohedral fullerenes

text: An allotrope of carbon, fullerene—and a particular molecule of that allotrope C (buckminsterfullerene or buckyball) has been named after him. The Buckminsterfullerene molecule, which consists of 60 carbon atoms, very closely resembles a spherical version of Fuller's geodesic dome. The 1996 Nobel prize in chemistry was given to Kroto, Curl, and Smalley for their discovery of the fullerene.

text: An

text: allotrope

text: of

text: carbon

text: fullerene

text: —and a particular molecule of that allotrope C (

text: buckminsterfullerene

text: or buckyball) has been named after him. The Buckminsterfullerene molecule, which consists of 60 carbon atoms, very closely resembles a spherical version of Fuller's geodesic dome. The 1996

text: Nobel prize

text: in chemistry was given to

text: Kroto

text: Curl

text: , and

text: Smalley

text: for their discovery of the fullerene.

text: The , often just called  for short, is one of the leaders of the Bugsters. He was born from the data of Drago Knight Hunter Z. As a Bugster who completed his manifestation from his host, Graphite can transform into a human form. He and Taiga are longtime enemies, having known each other since Zero Day. He was responsible for the death of Hiiro's girlfriend, Saki Momose, whom Graphite was born from on that day. Taiga's failure to defeat Graphite and prevent Saki's death is the reason why he was banned from being a Rider again and why his medical license was revoked. He uses another Gashacon Bugvisor to transform into his Bugster form, which can also spread Bugster Viruses and monitor the infected humans. He has a  on his waist, but never been used. He uses a fang-like double-bladed pole weapon called the  in his Bugster form. After having his Gashacon Bugvisor confiscated by Kuroto for hastily battling Kamen Riders on his own, he later stole the  in order to increase his own powers, becoming the . Like the aforementioned device, the Gashat also allowed him to spread Bugster viruses on a wider scale but unbeknownst to him, his actions were part of a plot by Kuroto and Pallad to test the Gashat's power. He is finally killed by the four Riders in their Hunter Gamer Level 5 forms.

text: Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) can be used to produce a synthetic diamond by creating the circumstances necessary for carbon atoms in a gas to settle on a substrate in crystalline form.

text: Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) can be used to produce a

text: synthetic diamond

text: by creating the circumstances necessary for carbon atoms in a gas to settle on a substrate in crystalline form.

text: The three proteins that play a direct role in the M-cluster synthesis are NifH, NifEN, and NifB. The NifB protein is responsible for the assembly of the Fe-S core of the cofactor; a process that involves stitching together two [4Fe-4S] clusters. NifB belongs to the SAM (S-adenosyl-L-methionine) enzyme superfamily. During the biosynthesis of the FeMo cofactor, NifB and its SAM cofactor are directly involved in the insertion of a carbon atom at the center of the Fe-S complex. An equivalent of SAM donates a methyl group, which becomes the interstitial carbide of the M-cluster. The methyl group of SAM is mobilized by radical removal of an H by a 5’-deoxyadenosine radical (5’-dA·). Presumably, a transient –CH2· radical is formed that is subsequently incorporated into the metal cluster forming a Fe-carbide species. The interstitial carbon remains associated with the FeMo cofactor after insertion into the nitrogenase, The central carbon atom has been confirmed by C labeling with detection by pulsed EPR spectroscopy. In addition to EPR spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry was used to verify that there was a central atom in the middle of the FeMo cofactor and x-ray emission spectroscopic studies showed that central atom was carbon due to the 2p→1s carbon-iron transition. The use of X-ray crystallography showed that while the FeMo cofactor is not in its catalytic form, the carbon keeps the structure rigid which helps describe the reactivity of nitrogenase.

text: The SRT Viper GTS includes leather upholstery, accented colors in seats, doors, center console and stitching; gun metal trim on the cluster bezel, HVAC outlets, window switch bezels, shifter base, park brake bezel and the integrated passenger grab handle on the center console; Sabelt racing seats with Kevlar and fiberglass shell, carbon-fiber hood, roof, decklid and aluminum door panels, split six-spoke forged aluminum "Venom" wheels with polished face and graphite-painted pockets (standard), fully painted Hyper Black or fully painted low-gloss black finishes.

text: The first work on hybrid rockets was performed in the late 1930s at I.G. Farben in Germany and concurrently at the California Rocket Society in the United States. Leonid Andrussow, working in Germany, first thought of the idea for a hybrid propellant rocket. O. Lutz, W. Noeggerath, and Andrussow tested a 10 kN hybrid rocket motor using a coal and gaseous N2O as the propellants. Oberth also worked on a hybrid rocket motor using LOX as the oxidizer and graphite as the fuel. The high heat of sublimation of carbon prevented these rocket motors from operating efficiently, as it resulted in a negligible burning rate.

text: Based on the similarities between lens and cornea, such as abundant water-soluble enzymes, and being derived from ectoderm, the lens and cornea are thought to be co-evolved as a "refraction unit." Gene sharing would maximize light transmission and refraction to the retina by this refraction unit. Studies have shown that many water-soluble enzymes/proteins expressed by cornea are identical to taxon-specific lens crystallins, such as ALDH1A1/ η-crystallin, α-enolase/τ-crystallin, and lactic dehydrogenase/ -crystallin. Also, the anuran corneal epithelium, which can transdifferentiate to regenerate the lens, abundantly expresses ubiquitous lens crystallins, α, β and γ, in addition to the taxon-specific crystallin α-enolase/τ-crystallin. Overall, the similarity in expression of these proteins in the cornea and lens, both in abundance and taxon-specificity, supports the idea of co-evolution of lens and cornea through gene sharing.

text: Based on the similarities between lens and cornea, such as abundant water-soluble enzymes, and being derived from ectoderm, the lens and cornea are thought to be co-evolved as a "refraction unit." Gene sharing would maximize light transmission and refraction to the retina by this refraction unit. Studies have shown that many water-soluble enzymes/proteins expressed by cornea are identical to taxon-specific lens crystallins, such as ALDH1A1/ η-crystallin, α-enolase/τ-crystallin, and lactic dehydrogenase/ -crystallin. Also, the

text: anuran

text: corneal epithelium, which can transdifferentiate to regenerate the lens, abundantly expresses ubiquitous lens crystallins, α, β and γ, in addition to the taxon-specific crystallin α-enolase/τ-crystallin. Overall, the similarity in expression of these proteins in the cornea and lens, both in abundance and taxon-specificity, supports the idea of co-evolution of lens and cornea through gene sharing.

text: According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), world production of natural graphite in 2012 was 1,100,000 tonnes, of which the following major exporters are: China (750 kt), India (150 kt), Brazil (75 kt), North Korea (30 kt) and Canada (26 kt). Graphite is not mined in the United States, but U.S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134 kt valued at $1.07 billion.

text: According to the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS),

text: world production

text: of natural graphite in 2012 was 1,100,000

text: tonne

text: s, of which the following major exporters are:

text: China

text: (750 kt),

text: India

text: (150 kt),

text: Brazil

text: (75 kt),

text: North Korea

text: (30 kt) and

text: Canada

text: (26 kt). Graphite is not mined in the

text: United States

text: , but U.S. production of synthetic graphite in 2010 was 134 kt valued at $1.07 billion.

text: Steels with pearlitic (eutectoid composition) or near-pearlitic microstructure (near-eutectoid composition) can be drawn into thin wires. Such wires, often bundled into ropes, are commercially used as piano wires, ropes for suspension bridges, and as steel cord for tire reinforcement. High degrees of wire drawing (logarithmic strain above 3) leads to pearlitic wires with yield strengths of several gigapascals. It makes pearlite one of the strongest structural bulk materials on earth.Some hypereutectoid pearlitic steel wires, when cold wire drawn to true (logarithmic) strains above 5, can even show a maximal tensile strength above 6 GPa. Although pearlite is used in many engineering applications, the origin of its extreme strength is not well understood. It has been recently shown that cold wire drawing not only strengthens pearlite by refining the lamellae structure, but also simultaneously causes partial chemical decomposition of cementite, associated with an increased carbon content of the ferrite phase, and even a structural transition from crystalline to amorphous cementite. The deformation-induced decomposition and microstructural change of cementite is closely related to several other phenomena such as a strong redistribution of carbon and other alloy elements like Si and Mn in both the cementite and the ferrite phase; a variation of the deformation accommodation at the phase interfaces due to a change in the carbon concentration gradient at the interfaces; and mechanical alloying.

text: At very high pressures, carbon forms the more compact allotrope, diamond, having nearly twice the density of graphite. Here, each atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others, forming a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Diamond has the same cubic structure as silicon and germanium, and because of the strength of the carbon-carbon bonds, it is the hardest naturally occurring substance measured by resistance to scratching. Contrary to the popular belief that "diamonds are forever", they are thermodynamically unstable under normal conditions and transform into graphite. Due to a high activation energy barrier, the transition into graphite is so slow at normal temperature that it is unnoticeable. Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as lonsdaleite, a hexagonal crystal lattice with all atoms covalently bonded and properties similar to those of diamond.

text: At very high pressures, carbon forms the more compact allotrope,

text: diamond

text: , having nearly twice the density of graphite. Here, each atom is bonded

text: tetrahedrally

text: to four others, forming a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Diamond has the same

text: cubic structure

text: as

text: silicon

text: and

text: germanium

text: , and because of the strength of the carbon-carbon

text: bonds

text: , it is the hardest naturally occurring substance measured by

text: resistance to scratching

text: . Contrary to the popular belief that "

text: diamonds are forever

text: ", they are thermodynamically unstable under normal conditions and transform into

text: graphite

text: . Due to a high activation energy barrier, the transition into graphite is so slow at normal temperature that it is unnoticeable. Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as

text: lonsdaleite

text: , a

text: hexagonal

text: crystal

text: lattice with all atoms covalently bonded and properties similar to those of diamond.

text: First released in 1988, Ashlar’s Vellum software offered precision drafting with ease of use. In 2001 the Vellum product was rebranded as Graphite.

text: Most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature and pressure at depths of  in the Earth's mantle. Carbon-containing minerals provide the carbon source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3.3 billion years (25% to 75% of the age of the Earth). Diamonds are brought close to the Earth's surface through deep volcanic eruptions by magma, which cools into igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites. Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a HPHT method which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earth's mantle. An alternative, and completely different growth technique is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Several non-diamond materials, which include cubic zirconia and silicon carbide and are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond in appearance and many properties. Special gemological techniques have been developed to distinguish natural diamonds, synthetic diamonds, and diamond simulants. The word is from the ancient Greek ἀδάμας – adámas "unbreakable".

text: Most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature and pressure at depths of  in the Earth's

text: mantle

text: . Carbon-containing minerals provide the carbon source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3.3 billion years (25% to 75% of the

text: age of the Earth

text: ). Diamonds are brought close to the Earth's surface through deep

text: volcanic eruptions

text: by

text: magma

text: , which cools into

text: igneous rock

text: s known as

text: kimberlite

text: s and

text: lamproite

text: s. Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a

text: HPHT method

text: which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earth's mantle. An alternative, and completely different growth technique is

text: chemical vapor deposition

text: (CVD). Several non-diamond materials, which include

text: cubic zirconia

text: and

text: silicon carbide

text: and are often called

text: diamond simulants

text: , resemble diamond in appearance and many properties. Special

text: gemological techniques

text: have been developed to distinguish natural diamonds, synthetic diamonds, and diamond simulants. The word is from the ancient

text: Greek

text: ἀδάμας – adámas "unbreakable".

text: The compound Fe(COT), when refluxed in toluene with dimethyl sulfoxide and dimethoxyethane for 5 days, is found to form magnetite and crystalline carbon also containing carbon nanotubes.

text: The compound

text: Fe(COT)

text: , when refluxed in

text: toluene

text: with

text: dimethyl sulfoxide

text: and

text: dimethoxyethane

text: for 5 days, is found to form

text: magnetite

text: and crystalline carbon also containing

text: carbon nanotube

text: s.

text: Graphite was originally part of F&C Asset Management and was known as Foreign & Colonial Ventures Ltd. The firm remained a subsidiary of F&C Asset Management until 2001, when the Graphite team completed a management buyout.

text: Graphite was originally part of

text: F&C Asset Management

text: and was known as Foreign & Colonial Ventures Ltd. The firm remained a subsidiary of

text: F&C Asset Management

text: until 2001, when the Graphite team completed a

text: management buyout

text: Graphite is considered to be one of the most important albums in the history of Polish rock.

text: Graphite is considered to be one of the most important albums in the history of

text: Polish rock

text: Although the damaging effect of carbon monoxide on catalysts is undesirable, this reaction has been used in producing graphite flakes, filamentous graphite and lamellar graphite crystallites, as well as producing carbon nanotubes. In graphite production, catalysts used are molybdenum, magnesium, nickel, iron and cobalt, while in carbon nanotube production, molybdenum, nickel, cobalt, iron and Ni-MgO catalysts are used.

text: Although the damaging effect of

text: carbon monoxide

text: on catalysts is undesirable, this reaction has been used in producing

text: graphite

text: flakes, filamentous graphite and lamellar graphite crystallites, as well as producing

text: carbon nanotubes

text: . In graphite production, catalysts used are

text: molybdenum

text: magnesium

text: nickel

text: iron

text: and

text: cobalt

text: , while in carbon nanotube production,

text: molybdenum

text: nickel

text: cobalt

text: iron

text: and Ni-MgO catalysts are used.

text: The TEAM has been tested on various crystalline solids, resolving individual atoms in GaN ([211] orientation), germanium ([114]), gold ([111]) and others, and reaching the spatial resolution below 0.05 nm (about 0.045 nm). In the images of graphene—a single sheet of graphite—not only the atoms, but also the chemical bonds could be observed. A movie has been recorded inside the microscope showing hopping of individual carbon atoms around a hole punched in a graphene sheet. Similar pictures, resolving carbon atoms and bonds between them, have been independently produced for pentacene—a planar organic molecule consisting of five carbon rings—using a very different microscopy technique, atomic force microscopy (AFM). In AFM, the atoms are probed not by electrons, but by a sharp vibrating tip.

text: The TEAM has been tested on various crystalline solids, resolving individual atoms in GaN (

text: [211] orientation

text: germanium

text: gold

text: ([111]) and others, and reaching the spatial resolution below 0.05 nm (about 0.045 nm). In the images of

text: graphene

text: —a single sheet of

text: graphite

text: —not only the atoms, but also the chemical bonds could be observed. A movie has been recorded inside the microscope showing hopping of individual carbon atoms around a hole punched in a graphene sheet. Similar pictures, resolving carbon atoms and bonds between them, have been independently produced for

text: pentacene

text: —a planar organic molecule consisting of five carbon rings—using a very different microscopy technique,

text: atomic force microscopy

text: (AFM). In AFM, the atoms are probed not by electrons, but by a sharp vibrating tip.

text: Carbon respiration (also called carbon emissions and carbon releases) is used in combination with carbon fixation to gauge carbon flux (as CO) between  atmospheric carbon and the global carbon cycle.

text: Carbon respiration (also called

text: carbon emissions

text: and carbon releases) is used in combination with

text: carbon fixation

text: to gauge

text: carbon

text: flux

text: (as

text: CO

text: ) between

text: atmospheric carbon

text: and the global

text: carbon cycle

text: The process of carburization works via the diffusion of carbon atoms into the surface layers of a metal. As metals are made up of atoms bound tightly into a metallic crystalline lattice, the carbon atoms diffuse into the crystal structure of the metal and either remain in solution (dissolved within the metal crystalline matrix — this normally occurs at lower temperatures) or react with elements in the host metal to form carbides (normally at higher temperatures, due to the higher mobility of the host metal's atoms). If the carbon remains in solid solution, the steel is then heat treated to harden it. Both of these mechanisms strengthen the surface of the metal, the former by forming pearlite or martensite, and the latter via the formation of carbides. Both of these materials are hard and resist abrasion.

text: The process of carburization works via the diffusion of carbon atoms into the surface layers of a metal. As metals are made up of atoms bound tightly into a metallic

text: crystalline lattice

text: , the carbon atoms diffuse into the crystal structure of the metal and either remain in solution (dissolved within the metal crystalline matrix — this normally occurs at lower temperatures) or react with elements in the host metal to form carbides (normally at higher temperatures, due to the higher mobility of the host metal's atoms). If the carbon remains in solid solution, the steel is then heat treated to harden it. Both of these mechanisms strengthen the surface of the metal, the former by forming pearlite or martensite, and the latter via the formation of carbides. Both of these materials are hard and resist abrasion.

text: The acoustic and thermal properties of graphite are highly anisotropic, since phonons propagate quickly along the tightly-bound planes, but are slower to travel from one plane to another. Graphite's high thermal stability and electrical conductivity facilitate its widespread use as electrodes and refractories in high temperature material processing applications. However, in oxygen containing atmospheres graphite readily oxidizes to form CO at temperatures of 700 °C and above.

text: The

text: acoustic

text: and

text: thermal

text: properties of graphite are highly

text: anisotropic

text: , since

text: phonons

text: propagate quickly along the tightly-bound planes, but are slower to travel from one plane to another. Graphite's high thermal stability and electrical conductivity facilitate its widespread use as electrodes and refractories in high temperature material processing applications. However, in oxygen containing atmospheres graphite readily oxidizes to form CO at temperatures of 700 °C and above.

text: Ethylene carbonate is the organic compound with the formula (CHO)CO.  It is classified as the carbonate ester of ethylene glycol and carbonic acid. At room temperature (25 °C) ethylene carbonate is a transparent crystalline solid, practically odorless and colorless, and somewhat soluble in water. In the liquid state (m.p. 34-37 °C) it is a colorless odorless liquid.

text: Ethylene carbonate is the

text: organic compound

text: with the formula (CHO)CO.  It is classified as the

text: carbonate ester

text: of

text: ethylene glycol

text: and

text: carbonic acid

text: . At room temperature (25 °C) ethylene carbonate is a transparent crystalline solid, practically odorless and colorless, and somewhat soluble in water. In the liquid state (m.p. 34-37 °C) it is a colorless odorless liquid.

text: Due to decreasing availability and rising prices of premium-quality traditional tonewoods, many manufacturers have begun experimenting with alternative species of woods or more commonly available variations on the standard species. For example, some makers have begun producing models with redcedar or mahogany tops, or with spruce variants other than Sitka. Cedar is also common in the back and sides, as is basswood. Entry-level models, especially those made in East Asia, often use nato wood, which is again tonally similar to mahogany but is cheap to acquire. Some have also begun using non-wood materials, such as plastic or graphite. Carbon-fiber and phenolic composite materials have become desirable for building necks, and some high-end luthiers produce all-carbon-fiber guitars.

text: Due to decreasing availability and rising prices of premium-quality traditional

text: tonewood

text: s, many manufacturers have begun experimenting with alternative species of woods or more commonly available variations on the standard species. For example, some makers have begun producing models with

text: redcedar

text: or mahogany tops, or with

text: spruce

text: variants other than Sitka. Cedar is also common in the back and sides, as is

text: basswood

text: . Entry-level models, especially those made in East Asia, often use

text: nato wood

text: , which is again tonally similar to mahogany but is cheap to acquire. Some have also begun using non-wood materials, such as

text: plastic

text: or

text: graphite

text: . Carbon-fiber and phenolic composite materials have become desirable for building necks, and some high-end luthiers produce all-carbon-fiber guitars.

text: Efflorescence is a hardened crystalline deposit of salts, which migrate from the center of concrete or masonry pavers to the surface to form insoluble calcium carbonates that harden on the surface. Given time, these deposits form much like how a stalactite takes shape in a cave, except in this case on a flat surface. Efflorescence usually appears white, gray or black depending on the region.

text: Efflorescence is a hardened

text: crystalline

text: deposit of

text: salts

text: , which migrate from the center of concrete or masonry pavers to the surface to form insoluble

text: calcium carbonate

text: s that harden on the surface. Given time, these deposits form much like how a

text: stalactite

text: takes shape in a cave, except in this case on a flat surface. Efflorescence usually appears white, gray or black depending on the region.

text: Carbide-derived carbon (CDC), also known as tunable nanoporous carbon, is the common term for carbon materials derived from carbide precursors, such as binary (e.g. SiC, TiC), or ternary carbides, also known as MAX phases (e.g., TiAlC, TiSiC). CDCs have also been derived from polymer-derived ceramics such as Si-O-C or Ti-C, and carbonitrides, such as Si-N-C. CDCs can occur in various structures, ranging from amorphous to crystalline carbon, from sp- to sp-bonded, and from highly porous to fully dense. Among others, the following carbon structures have been derived from carbide precursors: micro- and mesoporous carbon, amorphous carbon, carbon nanotubes, onion-like carbon, nanocrystalline diamond, graphene, and graphite. Among carbon materials, microporous CDCs exhibit some of the highest reported specific surface areas (up to more than 3000 m/g). By varying the type of the precursor and the CDC synthesis conditions, microporous and mesoporous structures with controllable average pore size and pore size distributions can be produced. Depending on the precursor and the synthesis conditions, the average pore size control can be applied at sub-Angstrom accuracy. This ability to precisely tune the size and shapes of pores makes CDCs attractive for selective sorption and storage of liquids and gases (e.g., hydrogen, methane, CO) and the high electric conductivity and electrochemical stability allows these structures to be effectively implemented in electrical energy storage and capacitive water desalinization.

text: Carbide-derived carbon (CDC), also known as tunable nanoporous carbon, is the common term for carbon materials derived from

text: carbide

text: precursors, such as binary (e.g. SiC, TiC), or ternary carbides, also known as

text: MAX phases

text: (e.g., TiAlC, TiSiC). CDCs have also been derived from polymer-derived ceramics such as Si-O-C or Ti-C, and carbonitrides, such as Si-N-C. CDCs can occur in various structures, ranging from amorphous to crystalline carbon, from sp- to sp-bonded, and from highly porous to fully dense. Among others, the following carbon structures have been derived from carbide precursors:

text: micro-

text: and

text: mesoporous

text: carbon, amorphous carbon,

text: carbon nanotube

text: s, onion-like carbon,

text: nanocrystalline diamond

text: graphene

text: , and

text: graphite

text: . Among carbon materials, microporous CDCs exhibit some of the highest reported specific surface areas (up to more than 3000 m/g). By varying the type of the precursor and the CDC synthesis conditions, microporous and mesoporous structures with controllable average pore size and pore size distributions can be produced. Depending on the precursor and the synthesis conditions, the average pore size control can be applied at sub-Angstrom accuracy. This ability to precisely tune the size and shapes of pores makes CDCs attractive for selective sorption and storage of liquids and gases (e.g., hydrogen, methane, CO) and the high electric conductivity and electrochemical stability allows these structures to be effectively implemented in electrical energy storage and capacitive water desalinization.

text: Forests are an important part of the global carbon cycle because trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis. By removing this greenhouse gas from the air, forests function as terrestrial carbon sinks, meaning they store large amounts of carbon. At any time, forests account for as much as double the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. Even as more anthropogenic carbon is produced, forests remove around three billion tons of anthropogenic carbon every year. This amounts to about 30% of all carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels. Therefore, an increase in the overall forest cover around the world would tend to mitigate global warming.

text: Forests are an important part of the

text: global carbon cycle

text: because trees and plants absorb

text: carbon dioxide

text: through

text: photosynthesis

text: . By removing this

text: greenhouse gas

text: from the air, forests function as terrestrial

text: carbon sink

text: s, meaning they store large amounts of carbon. At any time, forests account for as much as double the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. Even as more anthropogenic carbon is produced, forests remove around three billion tons of anthropogenic carbon every year. This amounts to about 30% of all carbon dioxide emissions from

text: fossil fuels

text: . Therefore, an increase in the overall forest cover around the world would tend to mitigate

text: global warming

text: "Crystalline" was released as the lead single from the album. The single release was preceded by two video teasers; the first, entitled "Road to Crystalline", featured Björk driving on her van through a road in Iceland while playing an excerpt of an en early version of the song, and was released on May 27, 2011. The second one, released on June 13, 2011, showed the gameleste, the celesta-gamelan hybrid created for the Biophilia project. The single version of the song, namely the Serban Ghenea mix, leaked onto the Internet on June 25, 2011. The single was officially released on June 28, 2011. The music video, directed by French director Michel Gondry, was released on YouTube on July 26, 2011. After "Crystalline", three songs on were released in iTunes as singles beside the expansion app. The second single-app released was "Cosmogony" on July 19. On the same day, the "mother app" and the application for "Crystalline" were released. The next singles were "Virus", released on August 9, and finally "Moon", on 6 September, after being leaked on August 22. Both accompanying apps were released on the same day. A music video for "Moon", directed by Björk alongside M/M Paris, Inez & Vinoodh and James Merry, recorded during the photo sessions for Biophilia, was released on September 23.

text: Crystalline

text: " was released as the lead single from the album. The single release was preceded by two video teasers; the first, entitled "Road to Crystalline", featured Björk driving on her van through a road in Iceland while playing an excerpt of an en early version of the song, and was released on May 27, 2011. The second one, released on June 13, 2011, showed the gameleste, the

text: celesta

text: gamelan

text: hybrid created for the Biophilia project. The single version of the song, namely the Serban Ghenea mix, leaked onto the Internet on June 25, 2011. The single was officially released on June 28, 2011. The music video, directed by French director

text: Michel Gondry

text: , was released on YouTube on July 26, 2011. After "Crystalline", three songs on were released in

text: iTunes

text: as singles beside the expansion app. The second single-app released was "

text: Cosmogony

text: " on July 19. On the same day, the "mother app" and the application for "Crystalline" were released. The next singles were "

text: Virus

text: ", released on August 9, and finally "

text: Moon

text: ", on 6 September, after being leaked on August 22. Both accompanying apps were released on the same day. A music video for "Moon", directed by Björk alongside

text: M/M Paris

text: Inez & Vinoodh

text: and James Merry, recorded during the photo sessions for Biophilia, was released on September 23.

text: The @ symbol (at sign) indicates an atom or molecule trapped inside a cage but not chemically bound to it. For example, a buckminsterfullerene (C) with an atom (M) would simply be represented as MC regardless of whether M was inside the fullerene without chemical bonding or outside, bound to one of the carbon atoms. Using the @ symbol, this would be denoted M@C if M was inside the carbon network. A non-fullerene example is [As@NiAs], an ion in which one As atom is trapped in a cage formed by the other 32 atoms.

text: The @ symbol (

text: at sign

text: ) indicates an atom or molecule trapped inside a cage but not chemically bound to it. For example, a

text: buckminsterfullerene

text: (C) with an atom (M) would simply be represented as MC regardless of whether M was inside the fullerene without chemical bonding or outside, bound to one of the carbon atoms. Using the @ symbol, this would be denoted M@C if M was inside the carbon network. A non-fullerene example is [As@NiAs], an ion in which one As atom is trapped in a cage formed by the other 32 atoms.

text: Naturally occurring diamond is almost always found in the crystalline form with a purely cubic orientation of sp bonded carbon atoms. Sometimes there are lattice defects or inclusions of atoms of other elements that give color to the stone, but the lattice arrangement of the carbons remains cubic and bonding is purely sp. The internal energy of the cubic polytype is slightly lower than that of the hexagonal form and growth rates from molten material in both natural and bulk synthetic diamond production methods are slow enough that the lattice structure has time to grow in the lowest energy (cubic) form that is possible for sp bonding of carbon atoms. In contrast, DLC is typically produced by processes in which high energy precursive carbons (e.g. in plasmas, in filtered cathodic arc deposition, in sputter deposition and in ion beam deposition) are rapidly cooled or quenched on relatively cold surfaces. In those cases cubic and hexagonal lattices can be randomly intermixed, layer by atomic layer, because there is no time available for one of the crystalline geometries to grow at the expense of the other before the atoms are "frozen" in place in the material. Amorphous DLC coatings can result in materials that have no long-range crystalline order. Without long range order there are no brittle fracture planes, so such coatings are flexible and conformal to the underlying shape being coated, while still being as hard as diamond. In fact this property has been exploited to study atom-by-atom wear at the nanoscale in DLC.

text: Naturally occurring diamond is almost always found in the crystalline form with a purely

text: cubic orientation

text: of sp bonded carbon atoms. Sometimes there are lattice defects or inclusions of atoms of other elements that give color to the stone, but the lattice arrangement of the carbons remains cubic and bonding is purely sp. The internal energy of the cubic polytype is slightly lower than that of the

text: hexagonal form

text: and growth rates from molten material in both natural and bulk

text: synthetic diamond

text: production methods are slow enough that the lattice structure has time to grow in the lowest energy (cubic) form that is possible for sp bonding of carbon atoms. In contrast, DLC is typically produced by processes in which high energy precursive carbons (e.g. in

text: plasmas

text: , in filtered

text: cathodic arc deposition

text: , in

text: sputter deposition

text: and in

text: ion beam deposition

text: ) are rapidly cooled or quenched on relatively cold surfaces. In those cases cubic and hexagonal lattices can be randomly intermixed, layer by atomic layer, because there is no time available for one of the crystalline geometries to grow at the expense of the other before the atoms are "frozen" in place in the material.

text: Amorphous

text: DLC coatings can result in materials that have no long-range crystalline order. Without long range order there are no brittle fracture planes, so such coatings are flexible and conformal to the underlying shape being coated, while still being as hard as diamond. In fact this property has been exploited to study atom-by-atom wear at the nanoscale in DLC.

text: The field of nanomaterials is loosely organized, like the traditional field of chemistry, into organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials such as fullerenes, and inorganic nanomaterials based on other elements, such as silicon. Examples of nanomaterials include fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, nanocrystals, etc.

text: The field of nanomaterials is loosely organized, like the traditional field of chemistry, into organic (carbon-based) nanomaterials such as fullerenes, and inorganic nanomaterials based on other elements, such as silicon. Examples of nanomaterials include

text: fullerene

text: s,

text: carbon nanotubes

text: nanocrystal

text: s, etc.

text: A perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational symmetry along three (not usually orthogonal) axes. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For substances that exist in two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and graphite for carbon, there is a kind of chemical degeneracy. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at T = 0 even though each is perfectly ordered.

text: A perfect crystal is one in which the internal

text: lattice

text: structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational

text: symmetry

text: along three (not usually

text: orthogonal

text: axes

text: . Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For

text: substances

text: that exist in two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and

text: graphite

text: for

text: carbon

text: , there is a kind of chemical degeneracy. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at T = 0 even though each is perfectly ordered.

text: The various forms of DLC can be applied to almost any material that is compatible with a vacuum environment. In 2006, the market for outsourced DLC coatings was estimated as about 30,000,000 € in the European Union. In October 2011, Science Daily reported that researchers at Stanford University have created a super-hard amorphous diamond under conditions of ultrahigh pressure, which lacks the crystalline structure of diamond but has the light weight characteristic of carbon.

text: The various forms of DLC can be applied to almost any material that is compatible with a vacuum environment. In 2006, the market for outsourced DLC coatings was estimated as about 30,000,000 € in the

text: European Union

text: . In October 2011, Science Daily reported that researchers at

text: Stanford University

text: have created a super-hard amorphous diamond under conditions of ultrahigh pressure, which lacks the

text: crystal

text: line structure of

text: diamond

text: but has the light weight characteristic of

text: carbon

text: Mild steel (steel containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are  acceptable for many applications. Low-carbon steel contains approximately 0.05–0.25% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.

text: Mild steel (steel containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are  acceptable for many applications. Low-carbon steel contains approximately 0.05–0.25% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface hardness can be increased through

text: carburizing

text: Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium and oxygen and is the second most abundant element in the human body by mass after oxygen, the third most abundant by number of atoms. There are an almost infinite number of compounds that contain carbon due to carbon's ability to form long stable chains of C — C bonds. The simplest carbon-containing molecules are the hydrocarbons, which contain carbon and hydrogen, although they sometimes contain other elements in functional groups. Hydrocarbons are used as fossil fuels and to manufacture plastics and petrochemicals. All organic compounds, those essential for life, contain at least one atom of carbon. When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including sugars, lignans, chitins, alcohols, fats, and aromatic esters, carotenoids and terpenes. With nitrogen it forms alkaloids, and with the addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics, amino acids, and rubber products. With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements, it forms DNA and RNA, the chemical-code carriers of life, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecule in all living cells.

text: Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after

text: hydrogen

text: helium

text: and oxygen and is the second

text: most abundant element in the human body

text: by mass after oxygen, the third most abundant by number of atoms. There are an almost infinite number of compounds that contain carbon due to carbon's ability to form long stable chains of C — C bonds. The simplest carbon-containing molecules are the

text: hydrocarbon

text: s, which contain carbon and hydrogen, although they sometimes contain other elements in

text: functional group

text: s. Hydrocarbons are used as

text: fossil fuels

text: and to manufacture

text: plastics

text: and

text: petrochemicals

text: . All

text: organic compound

text: s, those essential for life, contain at least one atom of carbon. When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including

text: sugar

text: s,

text: lignan

text: s,

text: chitin

text: s,

text: alcohol

text: s,

text: fat

text: s, and aromatic

text: ester

text: s,

text: carotenoids

text: and

text: terpenes

text: . With

text: nitrogen

text: it forms

text: alkaloid

text: s, and with the addition of sulfur also it forms

text: antibiotic

text: s,

text: amino acid

text: s, and

text: rubber

text: products. With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements, it forms

text: DNA

text: and

text: RNA

text: , the chemical-code carriers of life, and

text: adenosine triphosphate

text: (ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecule in all living cells.

text: Diamond can be one single, continuous crystal or it can be made up of many smaller crystals (polycrystal). Large, clear and transparent single-crystal diamonds are typically used in gemstones. Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) consists of numerous small grains, which are easily seen by the naked eye through strong light absorption and scattering; it is unsuitable for gems and is used for industrial applications such as mining and cutting tools. Polycrystalline diamond is often described by the average size (or grain size) of the crystals that make it up. Grain sizes range from nanometers to hundreds of micrometers, usually referred to as "nanocrystalline" and "microcrystalline" diamond, respectively.

text: Diamond can be one single, continuous crystal or it can be made up of many smaller crystals (

text: polycrystal

text: ). Large, clear and transparent single-crystal diamonds are typically used in gemstones. Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) consists of numerous small grains, which are easily seen by the naked eye through strong light absorption and scattering; it is unsuitable for gems and is used for industrial applications such as mining and cutting tools. Polycrystalline diamond is often described by the average size (or

text: grain size

text: ) of the crystals that make it up. Grain sizes range from

text: nanometer

text: s to hundreds of

text: micrometer

text: s, usually referred to as "nanocrystalline" and "microcrystalline" diamond, respectively.

text: A nitronate (IUPAC: azinate) in organic chemistry is a functional group with the general structure NO|2|−}}.  It is the anion of a nitronic acid, a tautomeric form of a nitro compound. Just as ketones and aldehydes exist in equilibrium with their enol tautomer in basic and acidic conditions, nitro compounds exist in equilibrium under basic conditions with their nitronate tautomer. The base deprotonates the α carbon, or the carbon directly attached to the nitrogen. The nitronate has two different resonance structures, one with a negative charge on the α carbon and a double bond between the nitrogen and one of the oxygens, and another resonance structure with a double bond between the nitrogen and the α carbon, and no double bond between the nitrogen and the oxygens. A nitronic acid is also called an aci form. In the Nef reaction nitronic acids are degraded to ketones. They can be alkylated on oxygen and used as a dipole in 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions.

text: A nitronate (

text: IUPAC

text: : azinate) in

text: organic chemistry

text: is a

text: functional group

text: with the general structure NO|2|−}}.  It is the anion of a nitronic acid, a

text: tautomer

text: ic form of a

text: nitro

text: compound. Just as ketones and aldehydes exist in equilibrium with their enol tautomer in basic and acidic conditions, nitro compounds exist in equilibrium under basic conditions with their nitronate tautomer. The base deprotonates the α carbon, or the carbon directly attached to the nitrogen. The nitronate has two different resonance structures, one with a negative charge on the α carbon and a double bond between the nitrogen and one of the oxygens, and another resonance structure with a double bond between the nitrogen and the α carbon, and no double bond between the nitrogen and the oxygens. A nitronic acid is also called an aci form. In the

text: Nef reaction

text: nitronic acids are degraded to

text: ketones

text: . They can be alkylated on oxygen and used as a dipole in

text: 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition

text: s.

text: Glycals can be formed as pyranose (six-membered) or furanose (five-membered) rings, depending on the monosaccharide used as a starting material to synthesize the glycal. Glycals can also be classified as endo-glycals or exo-glycals. A glycal is an endo-glycal when the double bond is within the ring. If the hydroxyl group on carbon 1 has been replaced with another carbon atom, a double bond can also form outside the ring between carbon 1 and this new carbon. In this case, the product is called an exo-glycal.  The glycal conformation that has been studied in most depth is that of the pyranose endo-glycal. The favoured conformation of this glycal is the half-chair, a result which has been confirmed by quantum mechanical calculations.

text: Glycals can be formed as

text: pyranose

text: (six-membered) or

text: furanose

text: (five-membered) rings, depending on the monosaccharide used as a starting material to synthesize the glycal. Glycals can also be classified as endo-glycals or exo-glycals. A glycal is an endo-glycal when the double bond is within the ring. If the hydroxyl group on carbon 1 has been replaced with another carbon atom, a double bond can also form outside the ring between carbon 1 and this new carbon. In this case, the product is called an exo-glycal.  The glycal conformation that has been studied in most depth is that of the pyranose endo-glycal. The favoured conformation of this glycal is the half-chair, a result which has been confirmed by quantum mechanical calculations.

text: Édouard Guillaud was born to the family of Jean-Louis Guillaud, former president of Agence France-Presse and TF1.

text: Édouard Guillaud was born to the family of

text: Jean-Louis Guillaud

text: , former president of

text: Agence France-Presse

text: and

text: Passenger services are operated by Abellio ScotRail on behalf of Strathclyde Partnership for Transport.

text: Passenger services are operated by

text: Abellio ScotRail

text: on behalf of

text: Strathclyde Partnership for Transport

text: Adeniji was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in July 2003.

text: The First 48: Missing Persons is an American documentary television series on A&E that debuted on June 2, 2011 and ended on February 7, 2013.

text: The First 48: Missing Persons is an American documentary television series on

text: A&E

text: that debuted on June 2, 2011 and ended on February 7, 2013.

text: On August 3, 2011, Golston re-signed with the Redskins.Golston was made the backup defensive end behind Adam Carriker for the season. In Week 10 against the Miami Dolphins, Golston was injured and was taken out of the game. On November 15, 2011, Golston was officially placed on injured reserve suffering a third-degree MCL tear and a partially torn ACL.

text: On August 3, 2011, Golston re-signed with the Redskins.Golston was made the backup defensive end behind

text: Adam Carriker

text: for the season. In Week 10 against the

text: Miami Dolphins

text: , Golston was injured and was taken out of the game. On November 15, 2011, Golston was officially placed on

text: injured reserve

text: suffering a third-degree

text: MCL

text: tear and a partially torn

text: ACL

text: Another fairly common fullerene is C, but fullerenes with 72, 76, 84 and even up to 100 carbon atoms are commonly obtained.

text: On 7 June, Denver sailed from Subic Bay for the amphibious assaults on Brunei Bay, Borneo, and later at Balikpapan. She covered the pre-invasion work of minesweeping units and underwater demolition teams, and provided fire support for the invading troops until returning to San Pedro Bay, Leyte on 4 July for brief overhaul.

text: On 7 June, Denver sailed from

text: Subic Bay

text: for the amphibious assaults on

text: Brunei Bay

text: Borneo

text: , and later at

text: Balikpapan

text: . She covered the pre-invasion work of minesweeping units and underwater demolition teams, and provided fire support for the invading troops until returning to San Pedro Bay, Leyte on 4 July for brief overhaul.

text: DLC exists in seven different forms. All seven contain significant amounts of sp hybridized carbon atoms. The reason that there are different types is that even diamond can be found in two crystalline polytypes. The more common one has its carbon atoms arranged in a cubic lattice, while the less common one, lonsdaleite, has a hexagonal lattice. By mixing these polytypes in various ways at the nanoscale level of structure, DLC coatings can be made that at the same time are amorphous, flexible, and yet purely sp bonded "diamond". The hardest, strongest, and slickest is such a mixture, known as tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C). For example, a coating of only 2 μm thickness of ta-C increases the resistance of common (i.e., type 304) stainless steel against abrasive wear; changing its lifetime in such service from one week to 85 years. Such ta-C can be considered to be the "pure" form of DLC, since it consists only of sp bonded carbon atoms. Fillers such as hydrogen, graphitic sp carbon, and metals are used in the other 6 forms to reduce production expenses or to impart other desirable properties.

text: DLC exists in seven different forms. All seven contain significant amounts of sp

text: hybridized

text: carbon

text: atoms. The reason that there are different types is that even diamond can be found in two crystalline polytypes. The more common one has its carbon atoms arranged in a

text: cubic lattice

text: , while the less common one,

text: lonsdaleite

text: , has a

text: hexagonal lattice

text: . By mixing these polytypes in various ways at the nanoscale level of structure, DLC coatings can be made that at the same time are amorphous, flexible, and yet purely sp bonded "diamond". The hardest, strongest, and slickest is such a mixture, known as tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C). For example, a coating of only 2 μm thickness of ta-C increases the resistance of common (i.e., type 304)

text: stainless steel

text: against abrasive wear; changing its lifetime in such service from one week to 85 years. Such ta-C can be considered to be the "pure" form of DLC, since it consists only of sp bonded carbon atoms. Fillers such as

text: hydrogen

text: , graphitic sp carbon, and metals are used in the other 6 forms to reduce production expenses or to impart other desirable properties.

text: In 1951, he was appointed Prior of Ampleforth, and four years later, was selected to be the founding prior of the new foundation at Saint Louis, where he served until June 1967.

text: A chemical compound can be either atoms bonded together in molecules or crystals in which atoms, molecules or ions form a crystalline lattice. Compounds based primarily on carbon and hydrogen atoms are called organic compounds, and all others are called inorganic compounds. Compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal are called organometallic compounds.

text: A chemical compound can be either atoms

text: bonded

text: together in

text: molecule

text: s or

text: crystal

text: s in which atoms, molecules or ions form a

text: crystalline lattice

text: . Compounds based primarily on carbon and hydrogen atoms are called

text: organic compound

text: s, and all others are called

text: inorganic compound

text: s. Compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal are called

text: organometallic compound

text: s.

text: The Ardells was a band started by Steve Miller in 1961 when he attended the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In the fall of 1962, Steve lived in a rooming house on Frances St. in Madison and also pledged the Chi Psi fraternity on fraternity row near Langdon St. Steve taught another fellow student, Jos Davidson, to play rhythm guitar and then bass, and formed a campus band: Steve Miller and the Ardells.  Steve was featured on guitar, vocals and harp, and played a version of Texas shuffle blues that hadn't been heard in the upper Midwest.  Also featured in the band were a local 16-year-old high school piano player named Brian Friedman, and Ron Boyer a drummer who worked a day job as a manager in a local Kelly's Hamburger drive in.  The band played mostly the University party circuit, plus a few gigs in Madison and local clubs and a couple of concerts and the Dane County Fairgrounds. Later, Davidson joined Corky Siegel and Jim Schwall and was the bassist for the Siegel-Schwall Band from 1964 to 1967.

text: The Ardells was a band started by

text: Steve Miller

text: in 1961 when he attended the

text: University of Wisconsin–Madison

text: . In the fall of 1962, Steve lived in a rooming house on Frances St. in Madison and also pledged the

text: Chi Psi

text: fraternity on fraternity row near Langdon St. Steve taught another fellow student, Jos Davidson, to play rhythm guitar and then bass, and formed a campus band: Steve Miller and the Ardells.  Steve was featured on guitar, vocals and harp, and played a version of Texas shuffle blues that hadn't been heard in the upper Midwest.  Also featured in the band were a local 16-year-old high school piano player named Brian Friedman, and Ron Boyer a drummer who worked a day job as a manager in a local Kelly's Hamburger drive in.  The band played mostly the University party circuit, plus a few gigs in Madison and local clubs and a couple of concerts and the Dane County Fairgrounds. Later, Davidson joined

text: Corky Siegel

text: and

text: Jim Schwall

text: and was the bassist for the

text: Siegel-Schwall Band

text: from 1964 to 1967.

text: The greater rhea derives its scientific name from Rhea, a Greek goddess, and the Latinized form of America. It was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century work, Systema Naturae under the name Struthio camelus americanus. He identified specimens from Sergipe, and Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil, in 1758. They are from the family Rheidae, and the order Struthioniformes, commonly known as ratites.  They are joined in this order by emus, ostriches, cassowaries, and kiwis, along with the extinct forms moas, and elephant birds.

text: The greater rhea derives its scientific name from

text: Rhea

text: , a Greek goddess, and the Latinized form of America. It was originally described by

text: Carl Linnaeus

text: in his 18th-century work,

text: Systema Naturae

text: under the name Struthio camelus americanus. He identified specimens from

text: Sergipe

text: , and

text: Rio Grande do Norte

text: Brazil

text: , in 1758. They are from the family Rheidae, and the order

text: Struthioniformes

text: , commonly known as

text: ratite

text: s.  They are joined in this order by

text: emu

text: s,

text: ostrich

text: es,

text: cassowaries

text: , and

text: kiwi

text: s, along with the extinct forms

text: moa

text: s, and

text: elephant bird

text: s.

text: induces a final error of

text: induces a final error of

text: Biodiesel production from A. mexicana seed oil using crystalline manganese carbonate has been demonstrated.

text: Biodiesel

text: production from A. mexicana seed oil using crystalline

text: manganese carbonate

text: has been demonstrated.

text: The eleventh series started in February 2013 and featured Eddie Brennan from Kilkenny.

text: The eleventh series started in February 2013 and featured

text: Eddie Brennan

text: from

text: Kilkenny

text: The Pyramid () is a low hill (elevation 386 m) in the city of Maribor, Slovenia. It is a popular excursion spot, affording a good view of the city. An ascent takes 15 to 30 minutes.

text: The Pyramid () is a low hill (

text: elevation

text: 386 m) in the city of

text: Maribor

text: Slovenia

text: . It is a popular excursion spot, affording a good view of the city. An ascent takes 15 to 30 minutes.

text: Acrylamide (or acrylic amide) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CHNO. Its IUPAC name is prop-2-enamide. It is a white odorless crystalline solid, soluble in water, ethanol, ether, and chloroform. Acrylamide decomposes in the presence of acids, bases, oxidizing agents, iron, and iron salts.  It decomposes non-thermally to form ammonia, and thermal decomposition produces carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen.

text: Acrylamide (or

text: acryl

text: ic

text: amide

text: ) is a

text: chemical compound

text: with the

text: chemical formula

text: C

text: H

text: N

text: O

text: . Its

text: IUPAC

text: name is prop-2-enamide. It is a white odorless

text: crystalline

text: solid, soluble in

text: water

text: ethanol

text: ether

text: , and

text: chloroform

text: . Acrylamide decomposes in the presence of acids, bases, oxidizing agents, iron, and iron salts.  It decomposes non-thermally to form

text: ammonia

text: , and thermal decomposition produces

text: carbon monoxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and oxides of

text: nitrogen

text: The name means "clearing of Ceolmund", this being an Old English forename made up of the elements ceol, "ship", and mund, "protection".

text: The oldest shafts for all golf clubs were made of Hickory wood. The shaft was whippy and light, but inconsistent in flex from club to club and quite fragile. Beginning in the 1920s, steel shafts started making an appearance, though the USGA and R&A did not allow their use in sanctioned tournaments until 1929. These shafts traded the lightness and flex of the wood shaft for vastly increased durability and consistency, and were the only type of shaft in general use on any club until the early 1990s. The modern "graphite" shaft (technically a carbon-fiber composite material) currently in use today combines advantages of the two older types of shafts; it is lighter and more flexible than either steel or Hickory, while having similar durability as steel, at the cost of slightly reduced shot consistency due to increased torque (though this has vastly improved on recent generations of shafts). Graphite shafts gained widespread popularity in the mid-1990s; although the carbon-fiber composite technology had been available since the early 1970s, it was very expensive to produce and nearly impossible to mass-market. Advances in producing, forming and curing composite materials have made carbon fiber much cheaper, and now virtually all new woods, regardless of price, have graphite shafts.

text: The oldest shafts for all

text: golf clubs

text: were made of

text: Hickory

text: wood. The shaft was whippy and light, but inconsistent in flex from club to club and quite fragile. Beginning in the 1920s, steel shafts started making an appearance, though the

text: USGA

text: and R&A did not allow their use in sanctioned tournaments until 1929. These shafts traded the lightness and flex of the wood shaft for vastly increased durability and consistency, and were the only type of shaft in general use on any club until the early 1990s. The modern "graphite" shaft (technically a carbon-fiber

text: composite material

text: ) currently in use today combines advantages of the two older types of shafts; it is lighter and more flexible than either steel or Hickory, while having similar durability as

text: steel

text: , at the cost of slightly reduced shot consistency due to increased

text: torque

text: (though this has vastly improved on recent generations of shafts). Graphite shafts gained widespread popularity in the mid-1990s; although the carbon-fiber composite technology had been available since the early 1970s, it was very expensive to produce and nearly impossible to mass-market. Advances in producing, forming and curing composite materials have made

text: carbon fiber

text: much cheaper, and now virtually all new woods, regardless of price, have graphite shafts.

text: More recent theoretical work analyzes a complete set of nine molecular tools made from hydrogen, carbon and germanium able to (a) synthesize all tools in the set (b) recharge all tools in the set from appropriate feedstock molecules and (c) synthesize a wide range of stiff hydrocarbons (diamond, graphite, fullerenes, and the like). All required reactions are analyzed using standard ab initio quantum chemistry methods.