text: Although the ozone found at the Earth's surface is the same chemical species as that found in the ozone layer, they have very different sources, atmospheric chemistry, and affect human health differently as well. The ozone layer protects people from the sun's most damaging ultraviolet rays. Because the ozone layer is located high in the atmosphere, people are not directly exposed to it.

text: Although the

entity_name: Ozone

text: ozone

text: found at the Earth's surface is the same chemical species as that found in the

entity_name: Ozone layer

text: ozone layer

text: , they have very different sources, atmospheric chemistry, and affect human health differently as well. The ozone layer protects people from the sun's most damaging ultraviolet rays. Because the ozone layer is located high in the atmosphere, people are not directly exposed to it.

text: In atmospheric sciences, the free convective layer (FCL) is the layer of conditional or potential instability in the troposphere. It is a layer of positive buoyancy (PBE) and is the layer where deep, moist convection (DMC) can occur. On an atmospheric sounding, it is the layer between the level of free convection (LFC) and the equilibrium level (EL). The FCL is important to a variety of convective processes and to severe thunderstorm forecasting.

text: In

entity_name: Atmospheric sciences

text: atmospheric sciences

text: , the free convective layer (FCL) is the layer of conditional or

entity_name: Convective instability

text: potential instability

text: in the

entity_name: Troposphere

text: troposphere

text: . It is a layer of positive

entity_name: Buoyancy

text: buoyancy

text: (PBE) and is the layer where deep, moist convection (DMC) can occur. On an

entity_name: Atmospheric sounding

text: atmospheric sounding

text: , it is the layer between the

entity_name: Level of free convection

text: level of free convection

text: (LFC) and the

entity_name: Equilibrium level

text: equilibrium level

text: (EL). The FCL is important to a variety of convective processes and to severe thunderstorm forecasting.

method: UNH-ecn

text: The AuroraMax project is an outreach and education initiative carried out by the combined effort of The Canadian Space Agency, Astronomy North, University of Calgary and The city of Yellowknife in Yellowknife Northwest Territories. The AuroraMax provides a place to explore and discover the wonder and science behind phenomena such as sunspots, Earth's magnetic field, space weather and the magnificent Northern lights of Canada. Auroras are natural exhibition of lights in the sky that can be seen by the naked eyes. Auroras happen when protons and electrons or charged particles and gases in the Earth's atmosphere crash into each other, creating tiny flares of light that decorate the sky with colorful light. Billions of these tiny flares occur in sequence causing the lights to seem like they are dancing or moving. The lights in the Northern hemisphere are called Aurora Borealis or simply The Northern Lights while the lights in the Southern hemisphere are called Aurora Australis or simply The Southern Lights.

text: The AuroraMax project is an outreach and education initiative carried out by the combined effort of The

entity_name: Canadian Space Agency

text: Canadian Space Agency

entity_name: Astronomy North

text: Astronomy North

entity_name: University of Calgary

text: University of Calgary

text: and The city of

entity_name: Yellowknife

text: Yellowknife

text: in Yellowknife Northwest Territories. The AuroraMax provides a place to explore and discover the wonder and science behind phenomena such as

entity_name: Sunspot

text: sunspots

text: , Earth's magnetic field, space weather and the magnificent Northern lights of

entity_name: Canada

text: Canada

text: . Auroras are natural exhibition of lights in the sky that can be seen by the naked eyes. Auroras happen when protons and electrons or charged particles and gases in the Earth's atmosphere crash into each other, creating tiny flares of light that decorate the sky with colorful light. Billions of these tiny flares occur in sequence causing the lights to seem like they are dancing or moving. The lights in the Northern hemisphere are called

entity_name: Aurora

text: Aurora Borealis

text: or simply The Northern Lights while the lights in the Southern hemisphere are called

text: Aurora Australis

text: or simply The Southern Lights.

text: Although there is no well-defined solid surface within Uranus's interior, the outermost part of Uranus's gaseous envelope that is accessible to remote sensing is called its atmosphere. Remote-sensing capability extends down to roughly 300 km below the 1 bar (100 kPa) level, with a corresponding pressure around 100 bar (10 MPa) and temperature of 320 K. The tenuous thermosphere extends over two planetary radii from the nominal surface, which is defined to lie at a pressure of 1 bar. The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three layers: the troposphere, between altitudes of −300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar (10 MPa to 10 kPa); the stratosphere, spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures of between  (10 kPa to 10 µPa); and the thermosphere extending from 4,000 km to as high as 50,000 km from the surface. There is no mesosphere.

text: Although there is no well-defined solid surface within Uranus's interior, the outermost part of Uranus's gaseous envelope that is accessible to remote sensing is called its

entity_name: Atmosphere

text: atmosphere

text: . Remote-sensing capability extends down to roughly 300 km below the 1 bar (100 kPa) level, with a corresponding pressure around 100 bar (10 MPa) and temperature of 320

entity_name: Kelvin

text: K

text: . The tenuous

entity_name: Thermosphere

text: thermosphere

text: extends over two planetary radii from the nominal surface, which is defined to lie at a pressure of 1 bar. The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three layers: the

text: troposphere

text: , between altitudes of −300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar (10 MPa to 10 kPa); the

entity_name: Stratosphere

text: stratosphere

text: , spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures of between  (10 kPa to 10

entity_name: Pascal (unit)

text: µPa

text: ); and the thermosphere extending from 4,000 km to as high as 50,000 km from the surface. There is no

entity_name: Mesosphere

text: mesosphere

text: An alternative is the use of a laser beam to generate a reference light source (a laser guide star, LGS) in the atmosphere. LGSs come in two flavors: Rayleigh guide stars and sodium guide stars. Rayleigh guide stars work by propagating a laser, usually at near ultraviolet wavelengths, and detecting the backscatter from air at altitudes between 15–25 km. Sodium guide stars use laser light at 589 nm to excite sodium atoms higher in the mesosphere and thermosphere, which then appear to "glow". The LGS can then be used as a wavefront reference in the same way as a natural guide star – except that (much fainter) natural reference stars are still required for image position (tip/tilt) information. The lasers are often pulsed, with measurement of the atmosphere being limited to a window occurring a few microseconds after the pulse has been launched. This allows the system to ignore most scattered light at ground level; only light which has travelled for several microseconds high up into the atmosphere and back is actually detected.

text: An alternative is the use of a

entity_name: Laser

text: laser beam

text: to generate a reference light source (a

entity_name: Laser guide star

text: laser guide star

text: , LGS) in the atmosphere. LGSs come in two flavors:

text: Rayleigh guide star

text: s and

entity_name: Sodium

text: sodium

text: guide stars. Rayleigh guide stars work by propagating a

text: laser

text: , usually at near

entity_name: Ultraviolet

text: ultraviolet

text: wavelengths, and detecting the backscatter from air at altitudes between 15–25 km. Sodium guide stars use laser light at 589

entity_name: Nanometre

text: nm

text: to excite sodium atoms higher in the

text: mesosphere

text: and

text: thermosphere

text: , which then appear to "glow". The LGS can then be used as a wavefront

entity_name: Reference

text: reference

text: in the same way as a natural guide star – except that (much fainter) natural reference stars are still required for image position (tip/tilt) information. The

text: lasers

text: are often pulsed, with measurement of the

text: atmosphere

text: being limited to a window occurring a few

entity_name: Microsecond

text: microsecond

text: s after the pulse has been launched. This allows the system to ignore most scattered light at ground level; only light which has travelled for several microseconds high up into the atmosphere and back is actually detected.

text: Rock can form layers in a variety of ways.  Volcanoes, wind, or water can produce layers.  Layers can be hardened by the action of groundwater.  Martian ground water probably moved hundreds of kilometers, and in the process it dissolved many minerals from the rock it passed through.  When ground water surfaces in low areas containing sediments, water evaporates in the thin atmosphere and leaves behind minerals as deposits and/or cementing agents. Consequently, layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together. On Earth, mineral-rich waters often evaporate forming large deposits of various types of salts and other minerals. Sometimes water flows through Earth's aquifers, and then evaporates at the surface just as is hypothesed for Mars.  One location this occurs on Earth is the Great Artesian Basin of Australia.  On Earth the hardness of many sedimentary rocks, like sandstone, is largely due to the cement that was put in place as water passed through.

text: Rock can form layers in a variety of ways.  Volcanoes, wind, or water can produce layers.  Layers can be hardened by the action of groundwater.  Martian ground water probably moved hundreds of kilometers, and in the process it dissolved many minerals from the rock it passed through.  When ground water surfaces in low areas containing sediments, water evaporates in the thin atmosphere and leaves behind minerals as deposits and/or cementing agents. Consequently, layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together. On Earth, mineral-rich waters often evaporate forming large deposits of various types of

entity_name: Salt (chemistry)

text: salts

text: and other

entity_name: Mineral

text: mineral

text: s. Sometimes water flows through Earth's aquifers, and then evaporates at the surface just as is hypothesed for Mars.  One location this occurs on Earth is the

entity_name: Great Artesian Basin

text: Great Artesian Basin

text: of

entity_name: Australia

text: Australia

text: .  On Earth the hardness of many

entity_name: Sedimentary rock

text: sedimentary rock

text: s, like

entity_name: Sandstone

text: sandstone

text: , is largely due to the cement that was put in place as water passed through.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: The atmospheric mixed layer results from convective air motions, typically seen towards the middle of the day when air at the surface is warmed and rises. It is thus mixed by Rayleigh–Taylor instability. The standard procedure for determining the mixed layer depth is to examine the profile of potential temperature, the temperature which the air would have if it were brought to the pressure found at the surface without gaining or losing heat. As such an increase of pressure involves compressing the air, the potential temperature is higher than the in-situ temperature, with the difference increasing as one goes higher in the atmosphere. The atmospheric mixed layer is defined as a layer of (approximately) constant potential temperature, or a layer in which the temperature falls at a rate of approximately 10 °C/km, provided it is free of clouds. Such a layer may have gradients in the humidity, though. As is the case with the ocean mixed layer, velocities will not be constant throughout the atmospheric mixed layer.

text: The atmospheric mixed layer results from

entity_name: Atmospheric convection

text: convective

text: air motions, typically seen towards the middle of the day when air at the surface is warmed and rises. It is thus mixed by

entity_name: Rayleigh–Taylor instability

text: Rayleigh–Taylor instability

text: . The standard procedure for determining the mixed layer depth is to examine the profile of

entity_name: Potential temperature

text: potential temperature

text: , the temperature which the air would have if it were brought to the pressure found at the surface without gaining or losing heat. As such an increase of pressure involves compressing the air, the potential temperature is higher than the in-situ temperature, with the difference increasing as one goes higher in the atmosphere. The atmospheric mixed layer is defined as a layer of (approximately) constant potential temperature, or a layer in which the temperature falls at a rate of approximately 10 °C/km, provided it is free of clouds. Such a layer may have gradients in the humidity, though. As is the case with the ocean mixed layer, velocities will not be constant throughout the atmospheric mixed layer.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: On April 7, 2010, instruments on board the unmanned Cassini probe, which flew by Dione, detected a thin layer of molecular oxygen ions () around Dione, so thin that scientists prefer to call it an exosphere rather than a tenuous atmosphere. The density of molecular oxygen ions determined from the Cassini plasma spectrometer data ranges from 0.01 to 0.09 per cm.

text: On April 7, 2010, instruments on board the unmanned

text: Cassini probe

text: , which flew by Dione, detected a thin layer of molecular oxygen ions () around Dione, so thin that scientists prefer to call it an

text: exosphere

text: rather than a tenuous atmosphere. The density of molecular oxygen ions determined from the Cassini plasma spectrometer data ranges from 0.01 to 0.09 per cm.

text: Original Version – In the mid-1990s, the ozone layer had begun to rapidly disappear, and an ozone hole covered most of planet Earth. After the death of his wife Brenda Wyatt in 1995, the now-mortal Connor became the supervisor of a team attempting to create an artificial shield, which would cover the planet and protect it from the sun's radiation. In 1999, the team succeeded in its goal, and Earth gained its artificial shield, filtering sunlight in place of the ozone layer. MacLeod was proud in having apparently saved humanity. However, the shield had the side-effect of condemning the planet to a state of constant night, and humanity could no longer see the sun, the moon, or the stars. Humanity began to lose hope, and fell into a sharp decline. The Shield fell under the control of the Shield Corporation, taxing for its services for the purposes of profit. Meanwhile, Connor, as years passed, had physically aged into a frail old man, and expected to eventually die of natural causes. He had also been able to learn the source of his immortality. Connor was a reincarnation of an alien humanoid from the planet Zeist. In fact, all Immortals had been reincarnations from exiled criminals from Zeist (though the "reincarnation" aspect never made it into the film).

text: Original Version – In the mid-1990s, the

text: ozone layer

text: had begun to rapidly disappear, and an

text: ozone hole

text: covered most of planet Earth. After the death of his wife Brenda Wyatt in 1995, the now-mortal Connor became the supervisor of a team attempting to create an artificial shield, which would cover the planet and protect it from the sun's radiation. In 1999, the team succeeded in its goal, and Earth gained its artificial shield, filtering sunlight in place of the ozone layer. MacLeod was proud in having apparently saved humanity. However, the shield had the side-effect of condemning the planet to a state of constant night, and humanity could no longer see the sun, the moon, or the stars. Humanity began to lose hope, and fell into a sharp decline. The Shield fell under the control of the Shield Corporation, taxing for its services for the purposes of profit. Meanwhile, Connor, as years passed, had physically aged into a frail old man, and expected to eventually die of natural causes. He had also been able to learn the source of his immortality. Connor was a reincarnation of an alien humanoid from the planet Zeist. In fact, all Immortals had been reincarnations from exiled criminals from Zeist (though the "reincarnation" aspect never made it into the film).

text: Phase 1 (layers 10–7):Layer 10a, on the floor of the chamber, included a pyramid of bones (six skulls mixed with short and long bones, including the near-complete skeleton of a child), as well as a pair of legs lying parallel to the chamber.Layer 10 had two articulated skeletons, lying on their back with their arms crossed on the chest, at right angles to the chamber.Layer 9 consisted of several caches of longbones, mostly parallel to the chamber, and the bottom halves of three articulated skeletons at right angles to the chamber.Layer 8 contained three badly preserved, but articulate, skeletons, this time parallel to the chamber, again with the arms crossed over the body.Layer 7 had inarticulate bone remains mixed with many stones; it was separated from layer 6 above it by a deposit of earth. It included a skull accompanied by a flint knife.

text: Throughout the daytime, particularly when the skies are free of clouds, urban surfaces are warmed by the absorption of solar radiation. Surfaces in the urban areas tend to warm faster than those of the surrounding rural areas. By virtue of their high heat capacities, urban surfaces act as a giant reservoir of heat energy. For example, concrete can hold roughly 2,000 times as much heat as an equivalent volume of air. As a result, the large daytime surface temperature within the UHI is easily seen via thermal remote sensing.  As is often the case with daytime heating, this warming also has the effect of generating convective winds within the urban boundary layer. It is theorized that, due to the atmospheric mixing that results, the air temperature perturbation within the UHI is generally minimal or nonexistent during the day, though the surface temperatures can reach extremely high levels.

text: Throughout the daytime, particularly when the skies are free of clouds, urban surfaces are warmed by the absorption of

text: solar radiation

text: . Surfaces in the urban areas tend to warm faster than those of the surrounding rural areas. By virtue of their high

text: heat capacities

text: , urban surfaces act as a giant reservoir of heat energy. For example, concrete can hold roughly 2,000 times as much heat as an equivalent volume of air. As a result, the large daytime surface temperature within the UHI is easily seen via thermal remote sensing.  As is often the case with daytime heating, this warming also has the effect of generating

text: convective

text: winds within the urban

text: boundary layer

text: . It is theorized that, due to the atmospheric mixing that results, the air temperature perturbation within the UHI is generally minimal or nonexistent during the day, though the surface temperatures can reach extremely high levels.

text: Given the right conditions, the normal vertical temperature gradient is inverted such that the air is colder near the surface of the Earth. This can occur when, for example, a warmer, less-dense air mass moves over a cooler, denser air mass. This type of inversion occurs in the vicinity of warm fronts, and also in areas of oceanic upwelling such as along the California coast in the United States. With sufficient humidity in the cooler layer, fog is typically present below the inversion cap.  An inversion is also produced whenever radiation from the surface of the earth exceeds the amount of radiation received from the sun, which commonly occurs at night, or during the winter when the angle of the sun is very low in the sky. This effect is virtually confined to land regions as the ocean retains heat far longer. In the polar regions during winter, inversions are nearly always present over land.

text: Given the right conditions, the normal vertical temperature gradient is inverted such that the air is colder near the surface of the Earth. This can occur when, for example, a warmer, less-dense air mass moves over a cooler, denser air mass. This type of inversion occurs in the vicinity of

text: warm front

text: s, and also in areas of oceanic

text: upwelling

text: such as along the

text: California coast

text: in the United States. With sufficient humidity in the cooler layer,

text: fog

text: is typically present below the inversion cap.  An inversion is also produced whenever radiation from the surface of the earth exceeds the amount of radiation received from the sun, which commonly occurs at night, or during the winter when the angle of the sun is very low in the sky. This effect is virtually confined to land regions as the ocean retains heat far longer. In the polar regions during winter, inversions are nearly always present over land.

text: Because of variations in the intensity of UV radiation passing through the atmosphere, the risk of sunburn increases with proximity to the tropic latitudes, located between 23.5° north and south latitude. All else being equal (e.g., cloud cover, ozone layer, terrain, etc.), over the course of a full year, each location within the tropic or polar regions receives approximately the same amount of UV radiation. In the temperate zones between 23.5° and 66.5°, UV radiation varies substantially by latitude and season. The higher the latitude, the lower the intensity of the UV rays.  Intensity in the northern hemisphere is greatest during the months of May, June and July — and in the southern hemisphere, November, December and January. On a minute-by-minute basis, the amount of UV radiation is dependent on the angle of the sun. This is easily determined by the height ratio of any object to the size of its shadow. The greatest risk is at solar noon, when shadows are at their minimum and the sun's radiation passes most directly through the atmosphere. Regardless of one's latitude (assuming no other variables), equal shadow lengths mean equal amounts of UV radiation.

text: Because of variations in the intensity of UV radiation passing through the atmosphere, the risk of sunburn increases with proximity to the

text: tropic latitudes

text: , located between 23.5° north and south latitude. All else being equal (e.g.,

text: cloud

text: cover,

text: ozone layer

text: terrain

text: , etc.), over the course of a full year, each location within the tropic or

text: polar region

text: s receives approximately the same amount of UV radiation. In the

text: temperate zones

text: between 23.5° and 66.5°, UV radiation varies substantially by latitude and season. The higher the latitude, the lower the intensity of the UV rays.  Intensity in the northern hemisphere is greatest during the months of May, June and July — and in the southern hemisphere, November, December and January. On a minute-by-minute basis, the amount of UV radiation is dependent on the angle of the sun. This is easily determined by the height

text: ratio

text: of any object to the size of its

text: shadow

text: . The greatest risk is at

text: solar noon

text: , when shadows are at their minimum and the sun's radiation passes most directly through the atmosphere. Regardless of one's latitude (assuming no other variables), equal shadow lengths mean equal amounts of UV radiation.

text: Phyllis is an atmospheric portrait of a 'psychic' vampire, a woman obsessed with synthetic Nollywood dramas, that lives alone in Lagos, Nigeria. The central Nollywood-inspired device in this short experimental film is the practice and significance of wig-wearing in Nollywood film; a practice Saro-Wiwa invested with deeper psychological as well as science-fiction layers. Underpinning this central idea however is a critique of the unforgiving treatment of single women in Nollywood and Nigeria.

text: Distribution in the mesosphere is similar to the stratosphere except at much higher altitudes. Because of the need for maximum cooling of the water vapor to produce noctilucent clouds, their distribution tends to be restricted to polar regions of Earth. A major seasonal difference is that convective lift from below the mesosphere pushes very scarce water vapor to higher colder altitudes required for cloud formation during the respective summer seasons in the northern and southern hemispheres. Sightings are rare more than 45 degrees south of the north pole or north of the south pole.

text: (3) The Entrainment zone (or Capping inversion) can be quite thick, averaging about 40% of the depth of the CBL. It is the region of statically stable air at the top of the mixed layer, where there is entrainment of free atmosphere air downward and overshooting thermals upward. Potential temperature, wind speed has a sharp increase across the capping inversion, while moisture has a sharp decrease.

text: (3) The Entrainment zone (or Capping inversion) can be quite thick, averaging about 40% of the depth of the CBL. It is the region of statically stable air at the top of the mixed layer, where there is entrainment of free atmosphere air downward and overshooting thermals upward.

text: Potential temperature

text: , wind speed has a sharp increase across the capping inversion, while moisture has a sharp decrease.

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology|date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726 |doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The

text: spectral wave transport equation

text: is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid),

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through

text: whitecaps

text: and

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Leslie C.|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=

entity_name: Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology

text: Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology

text: |date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|pages=726 |doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas, and one of the least water-soluble of any gas (CF, SF, and CF have lower mole fraction solubilities: 0.3802, 0.4394, and 0.2372 x/10, respectively, versus helium's 0.70797 x/10), and helium's index of refraction is closer to unity than that of any other gas. Helium has a negative Joule-Thomson coefficient at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its Joule-Thomson inversion temperature (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion. Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.

text: Helium is the least water-

text: soluble

text: monatomic gas, and one of the least water-soluble of any gas (CF, SF, and CF have lower mole fraction solubilities: 0.3802, 0.4394, and 0.2372 x/10, respectively, versus helium's 0.70797 x/10), and helium's

text: index of refraction

text: is closer to unity than that of any other gas. Helium has a negative

text: Joule-Thomson coefficient

text: at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its

text: Joule-Thomson inversion temperature

text: (of about 32 to 50 K at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion. Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.

text: Dreamwebs musical score, composed by Matthew Seldon, is highly regarded, contributing to the atmosphere which made the game admired by many at the time; the DOS-only CD version had an extra audio track. The dark story also received praise. The original game included a booklet entitled Diary of a (Mad?) man, written by Stephen Marley, which has a far more layered and atmospheric 'prequel' story than the one in the game itself. The diary also supplies more background info on main character Ryan (and served as a copy-protection method).

text: Dreamwebs musical score, composed by Matthew Seldon, is highly regarded, contributing to the atmosphere which made the game admired by many at the time; the DOS-only CD version had an extra audio track. The dark story also received praise. The original game included a booklet entitled Diary of a (Mad?) man, written by

text: Stephen Marley

text: , which has a far more layered and atmospheric 'prequel' story than the one in the game itself. The diary also supplies more background info on main character Ryan (and served as a copy-protection method).

text: Plateau, a colony in the Tau Ceti system, was settled by humans some 300 years before the plot begins. The colony world itself is a Venusian type planet with a dense, hot, poisonous atmosphere. It would be otherwise uninhabitable, except for a tall monolithic mesa that rises 40 miles up into a breathable layer in the upper atmosphere. This gives the planet a habitable area about half the size of California. The Captain of the first colony vessel named the feature Mount Lookitthat (from his interjection at first sight of it), and the colony became known as Plateau.

text: Plateau

text: , a colony in the

text: Tau Ceti

text: system, was settled by humans some 300 years before the plot begins. The colony world itself is a

text: Venus

text: ian type planet with a dense, hot, poisonous atmosphere. It would be otherwise uninhabitable, except for a tall

text: monolith

text: ic

text: mesa

text: that rises 40 miles up into a breathable layer in the upper atmosphere. This gives the planet a habitable area about half the size of California. The Captain of the first colony vessel named the feature Mount Lookitthat (from his

text: interjection

text: at first sight of it), and the colony became known as Plateau.

text: As the temperature of air increases, the index of refraction of air decreases, a side effect of hotter air being less dense. Normally this results in distant objects being shortened vertically, an effect that is easy to see at sunset where the sun is visible as an oval. In an inversion, the normal pattern is reversed, and distant objects are instead stretched out or appear to be above the horizon, leading to the phenomenon known as a Fata Morgana or mirage.

text: As the temperature of air increases, the

text: index of refraction

text: of air decreases, a side effect of hotter air being less dense. Normally this results in distant objects being shortened vertically, an effect that is easy to see at sunset where the sun is visible as an oval. In an inversion, the normal pattern is reversed, and distant objects are instead stretched out or appear to be above the horizon, leading to the

text: phenomenon

text: known as a

text: Fata Morgana

text: or

text: mirage

text: is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude. It almost always refers to a "temperature inversion", i.e. an increase in temperature with height, or to the layer ("inversion layer") within which such an increase occurs.

text: is a deviation from the normal change of an

text: atmospheric

text: property with altitude. It almost always refers to a "temperature inversion", i.e. an increase in temperature with height, or to the layer ("inversion layer") within which such an increase occurs.

text: In summary, the layers of the Earth's atmosphere from the surface of the ground upwards are: the ABL made up of the mixing layer capped by the inversion layer; the free troposphere; the stratosphere; the mesosphere and others. Many atmospheric dispersion models are referred to as boundary layer models because they mainly model air pollutant dispersion within the ABL. To avoid confusion, models referred to as mesoscale models have dispersion modeling capabilities that extend horizontally up to a few hundred kilometres. It does not mean that they model dispersion in the mesosphere.

text: PermPave or Permeable PavementsContinuous Permeable Pavement systems are excavated areas filled with gravel and paved over with a porous concrete or asphalt mix.  Continuous Permeable Pavement systems are excavated areas filled with gravel and paved over with a porous concrete or asphalt mix. Modular Block systems are similar except that permeable block pavers are used instead. Normally all rainfall will immediately pass through the pavement into the gravel storage layer below it where it can infiltrate at natural rates into the site's native soil. Pavement layers are usually 4 to 6 inches in height while the gravel storage layer is typically 6 to 18 inches high. The Capture Ratio is the percent of the treated area (street or parking lot) that is replaced with permeable pavement.

text: PermPave

text: or Permeable PavementsContinuous Permeable Pavement systems are excavated areas filled with gravel and paved over with a

text: porous concrete

text: or asphalt mix.  Continuous Permeable Pavement systems are excavated areas filled with gravel and paved over with a porous concrete or asphalt mix. Modular Block systems are similar except that permeable block pavers are used instead. Normally all rainfall will immediately pass through the pavement into the gravel storage layer below it where it can infiltrate at natural rates into the site's native soil. Pavement layers are usually 4 to 6 inches in height while the gravel storage layer is typically 6 to 18 inches high. The Capture Ratio is the percent of the treated area (street or parking lot) that is replaced with permeable pavement.

text: The Kelvin–Helmholtz instability can be seen in the bands in planetary atmospheres such as Saturn and Jupiter, for example in the giant red spot vortex. In the atmosphere surrounding the giant red spot there is the biggest example of KHI that is known of and is caused by the shear force at the interface of the different layers of Jupiter's atmosphere. There have been many images captured where the ocean-wave like characteristics discussed earlier can be seen clearly, with as many as 4 shear layers visible.

text: The Kelvin–Helmholtz instability can be seen in the bands in planetary atmospheres such as

text: Saturn

text: and

text: Jupiter

text: , for example in the giant red spot vortex. In the atmosphere surrounding the giant red spot there is the biggest example of KHI that is known of and is caused by the shear force at the interface of the different layers of Jupiter's atmosphere. There have been many images captured where the ocean-wave like characteristics discussed earlier can be seen clearly, with as many as 4 shear layers visible.

text: On board the satellite are eight instruments developed by NASDA, NASA, and CNES. The Ocean Color and Temperature Scanner (OCTS) is a whisk broom radiometer developed by NASDA. The Advanced Visible and Near Infrared Radiometer (AVNIR), an optoelectronic scanning radiometer with CCD detectors, was also produced by NASDA.  The NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT), developed with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, used fan-beam Doppler signals to measure wind speeds over bodies of water. The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) was built by CNES to study changes to Earth's ozone layer.  The Polarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectance (POLDER) device was also developed by CNES, and was also launched on ADEOS II. The Improved Limb Atmospheric Spectrometer (ILAS) was developed by NASDA and the Environment Agency of Japan, and used grating spectrometers to measure the properties of trace gases using solar occultation. The Retroreflector in Space (RIS) and Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases (IMG) were both developed by Japan, and studied atmospheric trace gases and greenhouse gases respectively.

text: On board the satellite are eight instruments developed by

entity_name: National Space Development Agency of Japan

text: NASDA

text: NASA

text: , and

text: CNES

text: . The Ocean Color and Temperature Scanner (OCTS) is a

text: whisk broom

text: radiometer

text: developed by NASDA. The Advanced Visible and Near Infrared Radiometer (AVNIR), an

text: optoelectronic

text: scanning radiometer with

text: CCD

text: detectors, was also produced by NASDA.  The NASA

text: Scatterometer

text: (NSCAT), developed with the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: , used fan-beam

text: Doppler signals

text: to measure wind speeds over bodies of water. The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) was built by

text: CNES

text: to study changes to Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: .  The

text: Polarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectance

text: (POLDER) device was also developed by CNES, and was also launched on

text: ADEOS II

text: . The Improved Limb Atmospheric Spectrometer (ILAS) was developed by NASDA and the Environment Agency of Japan, and used

text: grating

text: spectrometer

text: s to measure the properties of

text: trace gas

text: es using solar

text: occultation

text: . The Retroreflector in Space (RIS) and Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases (IMG) were both developed by Japan, and studied atmospheric trace gases and

text: greenhouse gas

text: es respectively.

text: The most favorable conditions for the formation of the rolls occur when the lowermost layer of air is unstable, but is capped by an inversion-by a stable layer of air. There must be a moderate wind.  This often occurs when upper air is subsiding, such as under anticyclonic conditions, and is also frequently found when radiation fog has formed overnight. Convection occurs below the inversion, with air rising in thermals below the clouds and sinking in the air between the streets.

text: Two  kinds of large-scale atmospheric waves within the lower atmosphere exist: internal waves with finite vertical wavelengths which can transport wave energy upward; and external waves with infinitely large wavelengths which cannot transport wave energy. Atmospheric gravity waves and most of the atmospheric tides generated within the troposphere belong to the internal waves. Their density amplitudes increase exponentially with height, so that at the mesopause these waves become turbulent and their energy is dissipated (similar to breaking of ocean waves at the coast), thus contributing to the heating of the thermosphere by about 250 K in eq.(2). On the other hand, the fundamental diurnal tide labelled (1, −2) which is most efficiently excited by solar irradiance is an external wave and plays only a marginal role within lower and middle atmosphere. However, at thermospheric altitudes, it becomes the predominant wave. It drives the electric Sq-current within the ionospheric dynamo region between about 100 and 200 km height.

text: Two  kinds of large-scale atmospheric waves within the lower atmosphere exist: internal waves with finite vertical wavelengths which can transport wave energy upward; and external waves with infinitely large wavelengths which cannot transport wave energy.

text: Atmospheric gravity wave

text: s and most of the

text: atmospheric tides

text: generated within the troposphere belong to the internal waves. Their density amplitudes increase exponentially with height, so that at the mesopause these waves become turbulent and their energy is dissipated (similar to breaking of ocean waves at the coast), thus contributing to the heating of the thermosphere by about 250 K in eq.(2). On the other hand, the fundamental diurnal tide labelled (1, −2) which is most efficiently excited by solar irradiance is an external wave and plays only a marginal role within lower and middle atmosphere. However, at thermospheric altitudes, it becomes the predominant wave. It drives the electric Sq-current within the

text: ionospheric dynamo region

text: between about 100 and 200 km height.

text: Another shortcoming of Sverdrup's model was that he did not consider the role of active turbulence in the mixed layer. Upper ocean turbulence can result from many sources, including thermal convection, wind, waves, and Langmuir circulation. It mixes the upper layer by overturning fluid and particles, reducing the stratification in which spring blooms thrive. Huisman et al. (1999) proposed a critical turbulence mechanism in addition to critical depth that explains how spring blooms can be initiated even in the absence of surface-warming stratification. This mechanism relies on a critical turbulence level over which vertical mixing rate due to turbulence is higher than phytoplankton growth rate. When the atmospheric cooling becomes weak in the spring, turbulence subsides rapidly, but the mixed layer takes a longer time to react; restratification of the mixed layer occurs on timescales of weeks to months, while reduction of turbulence takes effect almost immediately after forcing stops ((i.e. after atmospheric cooling shifts to warming). This could explain why the onset of the bloom can occur prior to the time when the mixed layer restratifies above the critical depth; reduced turbulence ceases overturning, allowing phytoplankton to have a longer residence time in the photic zone to bloom.

text: Another shortcoming of Sverdrup's model was that he did not consider the role of active

text: turbulence

text: in the mixed layer. Upper ocean turbulence can result from many sources, including thermal convection, wind, waves, and

text: Langmuir circulation

text: . It mixes the upper layer by overturning fluid and particles, reducing the stratification in which spring blooms thrive. Huisman et al. (1999) proposed a critical turbulence mechanism in addition to critical depth that explains how spring blooms can be initiated even in the absence of surface-warming

text: stratification

text: . This mechanism relies on a critical turbulence level over which vertical mixing rate due to turbulence is higher than phytoplankton growth rate. When the atmospheric cooling becomes weak in the spring, turbulence subsides rapidly, but the mixed layer takes a longer time to react; restratification of the mixed layer occurs on timescales of weeks to months, while reduction of turbulence takes effect almost immediately after forcing stops ((i.e. after atmospheric cooling shifts to warming). This could explain why the onset of the bloom can occur prior to the time when the mixed layer restratifies above the critical depth; reduced turbulence ceases overturning, allowing phytoplankton to have a longer residence time in the photic zone to bloom.

text: Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.

text: Although variations do occur, the temperature usually declines with increasing altitude in the troposphere because the troposphere is mostly heated through energy transfer from the surface. Thus, the lowest part of the troposphere (i.e. Earth's surface) is typically the warmest section of the troposphere. This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in the Greek word τρόπος, tropos, meaning "turn"). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the

text: mass

text: of Earth's atmosphere. The troposphere is denser than all its overlying atmospheric layers because a larger atmospheric weight sits on top of the troposphere and causes it to be most severely compressed. Fifty percent of the total mass of the atmosphere is located in the lower 5.6 km (18,000 ft) of the troposphere.

text: Ashfall was reported  away, throughout southern Peru and in what is now northern Chile and western Bolivia. The ash layer now forms a useful stratigraphic marker layer throughout Peru.

text: Ashfall was reported  away, throughout southern Peru and in what is now northern

text: Chile

text: and western

text: Bolivia

text: . The ash layer now forms a useful

text: stratigraphic marker layer

text: throughout Peru.

text: High-pressure systems form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs.  Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.

text: High-pressure systems form due to downward motion through the

text: troposphere

text: , the

text: atmospheric

text: layer where

text: weather

text: occurs.  Preferred areas within a

text: synoptic

text: flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.

text: The stratospheric ozone layer protectively filters ultraviolet radiation (UV) from the Sun, which would otherwise damage biological systems. The actions taken after the Montreal Protocol appeared to be keeping the planet within a safe boundary. However, in 2011, according to a paper published in Nature, the boundary was unexpectedly pushed in the Arctic; "... the fraction of the Arctic vortex in March with total ozone less than 275 Dobson units (DU) is typically near zero, but reached nearly 45%".

text: The stratospheric

text: ozone layer

text: protectively filters

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: (UV) from the

text: Sun

text: , which would otherwise damage biological systems. The actions taken after the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: appeared to be keeping the planet within a safe boundary. However, in 2011, according to a paper published in Nature, the boundary was unexpectedly

text: pushed in the Arctic

text: ; "... the fraction of the Arctic vortex in March with total ozone less than 275 Dobson units (DU) is typically near zero, but reached nearly 45%".

text: Improvements in Lubuntu 11.04 included replacing Aqualung with Audacious as the default music player, elimination of the hardware abstraction layer, introducing movable desktop icons, Ubuntu font by default, improved menu translations and reorganized menus. The release also introduced a new default theme and artwork designed by Raphael Laguna, known as Ozone, which is partly based on Xubuntu’s default Bluebird theme.

text: Improvements in Lubuntu 11.04 included replacing Aqualung with

text: Audacious

text: as the default music player, elimination of the

text: hardware abstraction layer

text: , introducing movable desktop icons,

text: Ubuntu font

text: by default, improved menu translations and reorganized menus. The release also introduced a new default theme and artwork designed by Raphael Laguna, known as Ozone, which is partly based on Xubuntu’s default Bluebird theme.

text: At night, the situation reverses. The absence of solar heating causes the atmospheric convection to decrease, and the urban boundary layer begins to stabilize. If enough stabilization occurs, an inversion layer is formed. This traps urban air near the surface, and keeping surface air warm from the still-warm urban surfaces, forming the nighttime warmer air temperatures within the UHI. Other than the heat retention properties of urban areas, the nighttime maximum in urban canyons could also be due to the blocking of "sky view" during cooling: surfaces lose heat at night principally by radiation to the comparatively cool sky, and this is blocked by the buildings in an urban area. Radiative cooling is more dominant when wind speed is low and the sky is cloudless, and indeed the UHI is found to be largest at night in these conditions.

text: At night, the situation reverses. The absence of solar heating causes the atmospheric convection to decrease, and the urban boundary layer begins to stabilize. If enough stabilization occurs, an

text: inversion layer

text: is formed. This traps urban air near the surface, and keeping surface air warm from the still-warm urban surfaces, forming the nighttime warmer air temperatures within the UHI. Other than the heat retention properties of urban areas, the nighttime maximum in urban canyons could also be due to the blocking of "sky view" during cooling: surfaces lose heat at night principally by radiation to the comparatively cool sky, and this is blocked by the buildings in an urban area. Radiative cooling is more dominant when wind speed is low and the sky is cloudless, and indeed the UHI is found to be largest at night in these conditions.

text: Vicuñas live at altitudes of 3,200 to 4,800 m. They feed in daytime on the grassy plains of the Andes Mountains, but spend the nights on the slopes. In these areas, only nutrient-poor, tough, bunch grasses and Festuca grow. The sun's rays are able to penetrate the thin atmosphere, producing relatively warm temperatures during the day; however, the temperatures drop to freezing at night. The vicuña's thick but soft coat is a special adaptation which traps layers of warm air close to its body, so it can tolerate freezing temperatures.

text: Vicuñas live at altitudes of 3,200 to 4,800 m. They feed in daytime on the grassy plains of the Andes Mountains, but spend the nights on the slopes. In these areas, only nutrient-poor, tough, bunch grasses and

text: Festuca

text: grow. The sun's rays are able to penetrate the thin

text: atmosphere

text: , producing relatively warm temperatures during the day; however, the temperatures drop to freezing at night. The vicuña's thick but soft coat is a special adaptation which traps layers of warm air close to its body, so it can tolerate freezing temperatures.

text: In many cases astronomical phenomena viewed from the planet Mars are the same or similar to those seen from Earth but sometimes (as with the view of Earth as an evening/morning star) they can be quite different. For example, because the atmosphere of Mars does not contain an ozone layer, it is also possible to make UV observations from the surface of Mars.

text: In many cases astronomical phenomena viewed from the planet

text: Mars

text: are the same or similar to those seen from

text: Earth

text: but sometimes (as with the view of Earth as an evening/morning star) they can be quite different. For example, because the

text: atmosphere of Mars

text: does not contain an

text: ozone layer

text: , it is also possible to make

text: UV observation

text: s from the surface of Mars.

text: Largest does not always equate to being the best telescopes, and overall light gathering power of the optical system can be a poor measure of a telescope's performance. Space-based telescopes, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, take advantage of being above the Earth's atmosphere to reach higher resolution and greater light gathering through longer exposure time. Location in the northern or southern hemisphere of the Earth can also limit what part of the sky can be observed.

text: Largest does not always equate to being the best telescopes, and overall light gathering power of the optical system can be a poor measure of a telescope's performance.

text: Space-based telescopes

text: , such as the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , take advantage of being above the Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: to reach higher resolution and greater light gathering through longer exposure time. Location in the northern or southern hemisphere of the Earth can also limit what part of the sky can be observed.

text: On the height  temperature reaches its maximum (; stratopause) and then slowly decreases (about ; mesosphere). Causes of this decrease are unclear; it can be related to cooling action of carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide or other reasons. Above 200 km temperature reaches approximately  and then remains constant.

text: On the height  temperature reaches its maximum (;

text: stratopause

text: ) and then slowly decreases (about ;

text: mesosphere

text: ). Causes of this decrease are unclear; it can be related to cooling action of

text: carbon monoxide

text: hydrogen cyanide

text: or other reasons. Above 200 km temperature reaches approximately  and then remains constant.

text: Usually, within the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) the air near the surface of the Earth is warmer than the air above it, largely because the atmosphere is heated from below as solar radiation warms the Earth's surface, which in turn then warms the layer of the atmosphere directly above it, e.g., by thermals (convective heat transfer).

text: Usually, within the lower atmosphere (the

text: troposphere

text: ) the air near the surface of the

text: Earth

text: is warmer than the air above it, largely because the atmosphere is heated from below as solar radiation warms the Earth's surface, which in turn then warms the layer of the atmosphere directly above it, e.g., by

text: thermal

text: s (

text: convective heat transfer

text: The chemical composition of the troposphere is essentially uniform, with the notable exception of water vapor. The source of water vapor is at the surface through the processes of evaporation. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height, and saturation vapor pressure decreases strongly as temperature drops, so the amount of water vapor that can exist in the atmosphere decreases strongly with height. Thus the proportion of water vapor is normally greatest near the surface and decreases with height.

text: The chemical composition of the troposphere is essentially uniform, with the notable exception of

text: water vapor

text: . The source of water vapor is at the surface through the processes of

text: evaporation

text: . The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height, and

text: saturation vapor pressure

text: decreases strongly as temperature drops, so the amount of water vapor that can exist in the atmosphere decreases strongly with height. Thus the proportion of water vapor is normally greatest near the surface and decreases with height.

text: BIRA-IASB studies the Earth’s stratosphere by looking at ozone depletion and related key parameters like volcanic aerosols, polar stratospheric clouds and halogenated compounds. Long-term changes are evaluated and forecasting capabilities have been developed. The research supports the Montreal Protocol on the protection of the ozone layer.

text: BIRA-IASB studies the Earth’s

text: stratosphere

text: by looking at

text: ozone depletion

text: and related key parameters like volcanic

text: aerosols

text: polar stratospheric clouds

text: and

text: halogenated

text: compounds. Long-term changes are evaluated and forecasting capabilities have been developed. The research supports the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: on the protection of the

text: ozone layer

text: In recent decades, the incidence and severity of sunburn has increased worldwide, partly because of chemical damage to the atmosphere's ozone layer. Between the 1970s and the 2000s, average stratospheric ozone decreased by approximately 4%, contributing an approximate 4% increase to the average UV intensity at the earth's surface. Ozone depletion and the seasonal "ozone hole" have led to much larger changes in some locations, especially in the southern hemisphere.

text: In recent decades, the incidence and severity of sunburn has increased worldwide, partly because of chemical damage to the atmosphere's ozone layer. Between the 1970s and the 2000s, average stratospheric ozone decreased by approximately 4%, contributing an approximate 4% increase to the average UV intensity at the earth's surface.

text: Ozone depletion

text: and the seasonal "ozone hole" have led to much larger changes in some locations, especially in the southern hemisphere.

text: Without an atmosphere, a small star would have an apparent size, an "Airy disk", in a telescope image determined by diffraction and would be inversely proportional to the diameter of the telescope.  However, when light enters the Earth's atmosphere, the different temperature layers and different wind speeds distort the light waves, leading to distortions in the image of a star. The effects of the atmosphere can be modeled as rotating cells of air moving turbulently. At most observatories, the turbulence is only significant on scales larger than r (see below—the seeing parameter r is 10–20 cm at visible wavelengths under the best conditions) and this limits the resolution of telescopes to be about the same as given by a space-based 10–20 cm telescope.

text: Without an atmosphere, a small star would have an apparent size, an "

text: Airy disk

text: ", in a telescope image determined by

text: diffraction

text: and would be inversely proportional to the diameter of the telescope.  However, when light enters the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , the different temperature layers and different wind speeds distort the light waves, leading to distortions in the image of a star. The effects of the atmosphere can be modeled as rotating cells of air moving turbulently. At most observatories, the turbulence is only significant on scales larger than r (see below—the seeing parameter r is 10–20 cm at visible wavelengths under the best conditions) and this limits the resolution of telescopes to be about the same as given by a space-based 10–20 cm telescope.

text: Cloud types in the troposphere, the atmospheric layer closest to Earth's surface, have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard's nomenclature. It was formally proposed in December 1802 and published for the first time the following year.  It became the basis of a modern international system that classifies these tropospheric aerosols into five physical forms and three altitude levels or étages.  These physical types, in approximate ascending order of convective activity, include stratiform sheets, cirriform wisps and patches, stratocumuliform layers (mainly structured as rolls, ripples, and patches), cumuliform heaps and tufts, and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure.  The physical forms are cross-classified by altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types or genera.  Some of these basic types are common to more than one form or more than one étage, as illustrated in the stratocumuliform  and cumuliform columns of the classification table below.  Most genera can be divided into species, some of which are common to more than one genus.  These can be subdivided into varieties, some of which are common to more than one genus or species.

text: Cloud types in the

text: troposphere

text: , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth's surface, have

text: Latin

text: names due to the universal adaptation of

text: Luke Howard

text: 's

text: nomenclature

text: . It was formally proposed in December 1802 and published for the first time the following year.  It became the basis of a modern international system that classifies these tropospheric aerosols into five physical forms and three altitude levels or

text: étages

text: .  These physical types, in approximate ascending order of convective activity, include stratiform sheets, cirriform wisps and patches, stratocumuliform layers (mainly structured as rolls, ripples, and patches), cumuliform heaps and tufts, and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure.  The physical forms are cross-classified by altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types or genera.  Some of these basic types are common to more than one form or more than one étage, as illustrated in the stratocumuliform  and cumuliform columns of the classification table below.  Most genera can be divided into species, some of which are common to more than one genus.  These can be subdivided into varieties, some of which are common to more than one genus or species.

text: Within two months of the war, Britain is gripped by a nuclear winter. When the nuclear winter finally ends, the authorities send helicopters on reconnaissance missions, which reveal that against all odds, there are people still alive outside. They also learn that the ozone layer has been damaged, so anyone who goes outside must wear protective clothing.

text: Within two months of the war, Britain is gripped by a

text: nuclear winter

text: . When the nuclear winter finally ends, the authorities send helicopters on

text: reconnaissance

text: missions, which reveal that against all odds, there are people still alive outside. They also learn that the

text: ozone layer

text: has been damaged, so anyone who goes outside must wear protective clothing.

text: From 1979 to 2005 the microwave sounding units (MSUs) and since 1998 the Advanced Microwave Sounding Units on NOAA polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen. The intensity is proportional to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere, as demonstrated by theory and direct comparisons with atmospheric temperatures from radiosonde (balloon) profiles. Upwelling radiance is measured at different frequencies; these different frequency bands sample a different weighted range of the atmosphere. The brightness temperature (T) measured by satellite is given by:

text: From 1979 to 2005 the

text: microwave sounding unit

text: s (MSUs) and since 1998 the

text: Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit

text: s on NOAA polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling

text: microwave radiation

text: from atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: . The intensity is proportional to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the

text: atmosphere

text: , as demonstrated by theory and direct comparisons with atmospheric temperatures from radiosonde (balloon) profiles. Upwelling radiance is measured at different frequencies; these different frequency bands sample a different weighted range of the atmosphere. The

text: brightness temperature

text: (T) measured by satellite is given by:

text: Cloud decks in parallel latitudinal bands at and below the tropopause alternatingly composed of ammonia crystals and ammonium hydrosulfate.

text: Cloud decks in parallel latitudinal bands at and below the

text: tropopause

text: alternatingly composed of

text: ammonia

text: crystals and

text: ammonium

text: hydrosulfate.

text: The base of the mesosphere includes the D' zone which lies just above the mantle-core boundary at approximately . The base of the lower mantle is at about 2700 km.

text: The base of the mesosphere includes the

text: D'

text: zone which lies just above the

text: mantle-core boundary

text: at approximately . The base of the lower mantle is at about 2700 km.

text: The F region of the ionosphere is home to the F layer of ionization, also called the Appleton–Barnett layer, after the English physicist Edward Appleton and New Zealander Miles Barnett. As with other ionospheric sectors, 'layer' implies a concentration of plasma, while 'region' is the volume that contains the said layer. The F region contains ionized gases at a height of around 150–800 km above sea level, placing it in the Earth’s thermosphere, a hot region in the upper atmosphere, and also in the heterosphere, where chemical composition varies with height. Generally speaking, the F region has the highest concentration of free electrons and ions anywhere in the atmosphere. It may be thought of as comprising two layers, the F1-and F2-layers.

text: The F region of the

text: ionosphere

text: is home to the F layer of ionization, also called the Appleton–Barnett layer, after the English physicist

text: Edward Appleton

text: and New Zealander

text: Miles Barnett

text: . As with other ionospheric sectors, 'layer' implies a concentration of plasma, while 'region' is the volume that contains the said layer. The F region contains ionized gases at a height of around 150–800 km above sea level, placing it in the Earth’s

text: thermosphere

text: , a hot region in the upper

text: atmosphere

text: , and also in the

text: heterosphere

text: , where chemical composition varies with height. Generally speaking, the F region has the highest concentration of free

text: electrons

text: and

text: ions

text: anywhere in the atmosphere. It may be thought of as comprising two layers, the F1-and F2-layers.

text: Another method considered for producing the warm polar temperatures were polar stratospheric clouds. Polar stratospheric clouds are clouds that occur in the lower stratosphere at very low temperatures. Polar stratospheric clouds have a great impact on radiative forcing. Due to their minimal albedo properties and their optical thickness, polar stratospheric clouds act similar to a greenhouse gas and traps outgoing longwave radiation. Different types of polar stratospheric clouds occur in the atmosphere: polar stratospheric clouds that are created due to interactions with nitric or sulfuric acid and water (Type I) or polar stratospheric clouds that are created with only water ice (Type II).

text: Another method considered for producing the warm polar temperatures were

text: polar stratospheric clouds

text: . Polar stratospheric clouds are clouds that occur in the lower stratosphere at very low temperatures. Polar stratospheric clouds have a great impact on radiative forcing. Due to their minimal albedo properties and their optical thickness, polar stratospheric clouds act similar to a greenhouse gas and traps outgoing longwave radiation. Different types of polar stratospheric clouds occur in the atmosphere: polar stratospheric clouds that are created due to interactions with nitric or sulfuric acid and water (Type I) or polar stratospheric clouds that are created with only water ice (Type II).

text: In addition to atmospheric pressure, the density of the liquid, and gravity, the maximum height of the crest in practical siphons is limited by the vapour pressure of the liquid. When the pressure within the liquid drops to below the liquid's vapor pressure, tiny vapor bubbles can begin to form at the high point and the siphon effect will end. This effect depends on how efficiently the liquid can nucleate bubbles; in the absence of impurities or rough surfaces to act as easy nucleation sites for bubbles, siphons can temporarily exceed their standard maximum height during the extended time it takes bubbles to nucleate. One siphon of degassed water was demonstrated to 24 meters for an extended period of time and other controlled experiments to 10 meters.  For water at standard atmospheric pressure, the maximum siphon height is approximately 10 m (32 feet); for mercury it is 76 cm (30 inches), which is the definition of standard pressure. This equals the maximum height of a suction pump, which operates by the same principle. The ratio of heights (about 13.6) equals the ratio of densities of water and mercury (at a given temperature), since the column of water (resp. mercury) is balancing with the column of air yielding atmospheric pressure, and indeed maximum height is (neglecting vapor pressure and velocity of liquid) inversely proportional to density of liquid.

text: In addition to

text: atmospheric pressure

text: , the

text: density

text: of the liquid, and

text: gravity

text: , the

text: maximum height

text: of the

text: crest

text: in practical siphons is limited by the

text: vapour pressure

text: of the liquid. When the pressure within the liquid drops to below the liquid's vapor pressure, tiny vapor bubbles can begin to form at the high point and the siphon effect will end. This effect depends on how efficiently the liquid can

text: nucleate

text: bubbles; in the absence of impurities or rough surfaces to act as easy nucleation sites for bubbles, siphons can temporarily exceed their standard maximum height during the extended time it takes bubbles to nucleate. One siphon of degassed water was demonstrated to 24 meters for an extended period of time and other controlled experiments to 10 meters.  For

text: water

text: at

text: standard atmospheric pressure

text: , the maximum siphon height is approximately 10

text: m

text: feet

text: ); for

text: mercury

text: it is 76 cm (30

text: inch

text: es), which is the definition of standard pressure. This equals the maximum height of a

text: suction pump

text: , which operates by the same principle. The ratio of heights (about 13.6) equals the ratio of densities of water and mercury (at a given temperature), since the column of water (resp. mercury) is balancing with the column of air yielding atmospheric pressure, and indeed maximum height is (neglecting vapor pressure and velocity of liquid) inversely proportional to density of liquid.

text: The concept of Pelagial is multi-dimensional.  The first, most literal, level involves a journey from the surface to the lowest depth zone of the ocean, with the album's movements getting progressively darker and more claustrophobic to mimic the diminishing light and increasing atmospheric pressure.  However, at a second, allegorical level, the ocean layers serve as an extended metaphor for a journey into the inner depths of the psyche.  Guitarist and songwriter Robin Staps described this aspect of Pelagial as a movement "towards the essence and origins of our desires, wishes, dreams, and all the fucked up attributes inside of our own inner selves that generate and shape them" and said that there are "a lot of Freud-like references" in the lyrics and song titles.

text: The concept of Pelagial is multi-dimensional.  The first, most literal, level involves a journey from the surface to the lowest depth zone of the ocean, with the album's movements getting progressively darker and more claustrophobic to mimic the diminishing light and increasing atmospheric pressure.  However, at a second, allegorical level, the ocean layers serve as an

text: extended metaphor

text: for a journey into the inner depths of the

text: psyche

text: .  Guitarist and songwriter Robin Staps described this aspect of Pelagial as a movement "towards the essence and origins of our desires, wishes, dreams, and all the fucked up attributes inside of our own inner selves that generate and shape them" and said that there are "a lot of

text: Freud

text: -like references" in the lyrics and song titles.

text: (3) Deep mixed layer of nearly constant thickness : When the thermals reach the capping inversion at the top of the residual layer, they meet resistance to vertical motion and the mixed layer growth rate rapidly decreases. During this third phase, which spans over most of the afternoon, the mixed layer depth is relatively constant. The lapse rate of temperature in the CBL is 1°/100m.

text: (3) Deep mixed layer of nearly constant thickness : When the

text: thermals

text: reach the capping inversion at the top of the residual layer, they meet resistance to vertical motion and the mixed layer growth rate rapidly decreases. During this third phase, which spans over most of the afternoon, the mixed layer depth is relatively constant. The lapse rate of temperature in the CBL is 1°/100m.

text: If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result.  If the holes are closed, the gas will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion, that is, only after it has exited the tube at the top.  This reduced mixing produces an incomplete reaction, producing a cooler but brighter yellow  which is often called the "safety flame" or "luminous flame".  The yellow flame is luminous due to small soot particles in the flame which are heated to incandescence. The yellow flame is considered "dirty" because it leaves a layer of carbon on whatever it is heating.  When the burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame it can be nearly invisible against some backgrounds. The hottest part of the flame is the tip of the inner flame, while the coolest is the whole inner flame. Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the tube by opening the needle valve will increase the size of the flame.  However, unless the airflow is adjusted as well, the flame temperature will decrease because an increased amount of gas is now mixed with the same amount of air, starving the flame of oxygen.

text: If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result.  If the holes are closed, the gas will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion, that is, only after it has exited the tube at the top.  This reduced mixing produces an incomplete reaction, producing a cooler but brighter yellow  which is often called the "safety flame" or "

text: luminous flame

text: ".  The yellow flame is

text: luminous

text: due to small

text: soot

text: particles in the flame which are heated to

text: incandescence

text: . The yellow flame is considered "dirty" because it leaves a layer of carbon on whatever it is heating.  When the burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame it can be nearly invisible against some backgrounds. The hottest part of the flame is the tip of the inner flame, while the coolest is the whole inner flame. Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the tube by opening the

text: needle valve

text: will increase the size of the flame.  However, unless the airflow is adjusted as well, the flame temperature will decrease because an increased amount of gas is now mixed with the same amount of air, starving the flame of oxygen.

text: Convective clouds follow one of three general parameterization schemes.  The first scheme is moist adiabatic adjustment.  The main advantage of this method is that it is simple, in that if the moist adiabatic lapse rate is exceeded, moisture and heat within the vertical layer are adjusted so that air within the layer is saturated. In turn the lapse rate is then adjusted to the moist adiabatic lapse rate, conserving energy, raining out excess moisture while not transporting momentum.  The disadvantage of this scheme is that it over-estimates convection, as constrains an entire grid box to act in a convective manner, unrealistic in the real atmosphere.

text: The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid (also known as the normal boiling point) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapor bubbles inside the bulk of the substance. Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher pressure, and therefore higher temperature, because the fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth increases.

text: The

text: atmospheric pressure

text: boiling point

text: of a liquid (also known as the

text: normal boiling point

text: ) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapor bubbles inside the bulk of the substance.

text: Bubble

text: formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher pressure, and therefore higher temperature, because the fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth increases.

text: The solution advocated is transporting sulfates into the next higher layer of the atmosphere - stratosphere. Aerosols in the stratosphere last years instead of weeks - so only a relatively smaller (though still large) amount of sulfate emissions would be necessary, and side effects would be less. This would require developing an efficient way to transport large amounts of gases into stratosphere, many of which have been proposed though none are known to be effective or economically viable.

text: The solution advocated is transporting sulfates into the next higher layer of the atmosphere -

text: stratosphere

text: . Aerosols in the stratosphere last years instead of weeks - so only a relatively smaller (though still large) amount of sulfate emissions would be necessary, and side effects would be less. This would require developing an efficient way to transport large amounts of gases into stratosphere, many of which have been proposed though none are known to be effective or economically viable.

text: The solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation (XUV) at wavelengths < 170 nm is almost completely absorbed within the thermosphere. This radiation causes the various ionospheric layers as well as a temperature increase at these heights (Figure 1).While the solar visible light (380 to 780 nm) is nearly constant with a variability of not more than about 0.1% of the solar constant, the solar XUV radiation is highly variable in time and space. For instance, X-ray bursts associated with solar flares can dramatically increase their intensity over preflare levels by many orders of magnitude over a time span of tens of minutes. In the extreme ultraviolet, the Lyman α line at 121.6 nm represents an important source of ionization and dissociation at ionospheric D layer heights. During quiet periods of solar activity, it alone contains more energy than the rest of the XUV spectrum. Quasi-periodic changes of the order of 100% or greater, with periods with period of 27 days and 11 years, belong to the prominent variations of solar XUV radiation. However, irregular fluctuations over all time scales are present all the time. During low solar activity, about half of the total energy input into the thermosphere is thought to be solar XUV radiation. Evidently, that solar XUV energy input occurs only during daytime conditions, maximizing at the equator during equinox.

text: The solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation (XUV) at wavelengths < 170 nm is almost completely absorbed within the thermosphere. This radiation causes the various

text: ionospheric layer

text: s as well as a temperature increase at these heights (Figure 1).While the solar visible light (380 to 780 nm) is nearly constant with a variability of not more than about 0.1% of the

text: solar constant

text: , the solar XUV radiation is highly variable in time and space. For instance, X-ray bursts associated with

text: solar flares

text: can dramatically increase their intensity over preflare levels by many orders of magnitude over a time span of tens of minutes. In the extreme ultraviolet, the Lyman α line at 121.6 nm represents an important source of

text: ionization

text: and

text: dissociation

text: at ionospheric D layer heights. During quiet periods of

text: solar activity

text: , it alone contains more energy than the rest of the XUV spectrum. Quasi-periodic changes of the order of 100% or greater, with periods with period of 27 days and 11 years, belong to the prominent variations of solar XUV radiation. However, irregular fluctuations over all time scales are present all the time. During low solar activity, about half of the total energy input into the thermosphere is thought to be solar XUV radiation. Evidently, that solar XUV energy input occurs only during daytime conditions, maximizing at the equator during

text: equinox

text: Among his accomplishments were his investigations into the ionosphere. Dr. Mitra proposed that ultraviolet light from the sun created the middle, or E layer, of the ionosphere. He also determined that ions in the ionosphere's F layer were what caused luminescence of the night sky, giving it a dusty hue rather than pitch black. In 1947 he published a reference treatise titled "The Upper Atmosphere" on atmospheric research.

text: Among his accomplishments were his investigations into the

text: ionosphere

text: . Dr. Mitra proposed that

text: ultraviolet light

text: from the

text: sun

text: created the middle, or

text: E layer

text: , of the ionosphere. He also determined that ions in the ionosphere's

text: F layer

text: were what caused luminescence of the night sky, giving it a dusty hue rather than pitch black. In 1947 he published a reference treatise titled "The Upper Atmosphere" on atmospheric research.

text: Considering light which is scattered only once in the atmosphere, the light received by the instrument at surface is contributed by light scattered downward from all the levels in the atmosphere. The amount of light contributed by scattering at any particular level depends on (a) the number of air molecules at that level and (b) the absorption by ozone and scattering by air moleculaes both before and after scattering. As the height increases contribution of effect (a) decreases and contribution of effect (b) increases. For a given zenith angle, the scattered light contribution comes from well defined layer of atmosphere, which can be termed as an effective scattering height. The effective scattering height depends on the ozone absorption coefficient and on the solar zenith angle, increasing as with each of these. The effective scattering height will always be higher for shorter wavelength which is more strongly absorbed. As the sun approaches the horizon, the two intensities decreases, but intensity I decreasing more rapidly than I' . However, when the effective scattering height for the short wavelength is above the ozone maximum, I decreases more slowly than I' , because the ozone absorption occurs mostly in the shorter vertical path after the scattering event, and the ratio I/I increases until the effective scattering height for I'  is also above the ozone maximum. This reversal (Umkehr) or inversion implies the existence of maximum of ozone concentration at some level in the atmosphere.

text: The troposphere begins at the surface and extends up to an altitude of 65 kilometres (an altitude at which the mesosphere has already been reached on Earth). At the top of the troposphere, temperature and pressure reach Earth-like levels. Winds at the surface are a few metres per second, reaching 70 m/s or more in the upper troposphere. The stratosphere and mesosphere extend from 65 km to 95 km in height. The thermosphere and exosphere begin at around 95 kilometres, eventually reaching the limit of the atmosphere at about 220 to 250 km.

text: The

text: troposphere

text: begins at the surface and extends up to an altitude of 65 kilometres (an altitude at which the

text: mesosphere

text: has already been reached on Earth). At the top of the troposphere, temperature and pressure reach Earth-like levels. Winds at the surface are a few metres per second, reaching 70 m/s or more in the upper troposphere. The

text: stratosphere

text: and mesosphere extend from 65 km to 95 km in height. The thermosphere and exosphere begin at around 95 kilometres, eventually reaching the limit of the atmosphere at about 220 to 250 km.

text: The advent of photosynthesis in very basic forms of plant life worldwide allowed the sun's energy to be harvested to create conditions allowing for more complex life. The resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of yet more complex cells called eukaryotes.<ref>{{cite journal |first=L. V. |last=Berkner |author2=L. C. Marshall |date=May 1965 |title=On the Origin and Rise of Oxygen Concentration in the Earth's Atmosphere |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=225–261|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1965)022

text: The advent of

text: photosynthesis

text: in very basic forms of plant life worldwide allowed the sun's energy to be harvested to create conditions allowing for more complex life. The resultant

text: oxygen

text: accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the

text: ozone layer

text: . The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the

text: development of yet more complex cells

text: called

text: eukaryotes

text: .<ref>{{cite journal |first=L. V. |last=Berkner |author2=L. C. Marshall |date=May 1965 |title=On the Origin and Rise of Oxygen Concentration in the Earth's Atmosphere |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=225–261|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1965)022

text: The reason for this dramatic growth in amplitude from tiny fluctuations near the ground to oscillations that dominate the motion of the mesosphere lies in the fact that the density of the atmosphere decreases with increasing height. As tides or waves propagate upwards, they move into regions of lower and lower density. If the tide or wave is not dissipating, then its kinetic energy density must be conserved. Since the density is decreasing, the amplitude of the tide or wave increases correspondingly so that energy is conserved.

text: The reason for this dramatic growth in amplitude from tiny fluctuations near the ground to oscillations that dominate the motion of the mesosphere lies in the fact that the density of the atmosphere decreases with increasing height. As tides or waves propagate upwards, they move into regions of lower and lower density. If the tide or wave is not dissipating, then its

text: kinetic energy

text: density must be conserved. Since the density is decreasing, the amplitude of the tide or wave increases correspondingly so that

text: energy is conserved

text: Space weather is a branch of space physics and aeronomy concerned with the time varying conditions within the Solar System, including the solar wind, emphasizing the space surrounding the Earth, including conditions in the magnetosphere, ionosphere and thermosphere. Space weather is distinct from the terrestrial weather of the Earth's atmosphere (troposphere and stratosphere). The science of space weather is focused on fundamental research and practical applications. The term space weather was first used in the 1950s and came into common usage in the 1990s.

text: Space weather is a branch of

text: space physics

text: and

text: aeronomy

text: concerned with the time varying conditions within the Solar System, including the

text: solar wind

text: , emphasizing the space surrounding the Earth, including conditions in the

text: magnetosphere

text: ionosphere

text: and

text: thermosphere

text: . Space weather is distinct from the terrestrial

text: weather

text: of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: troposphere

text: and

text: stratosphere

text: ). The science of space weather is focused on fundamental research and practical applications. The term space weather was first used in the 1950s and came into common usage in the 1990s.

text: There have been changes made specific to "Marooned". During the early shuttle bay scenes a blue-screen image has been added to Starbugs cockpit window. Shots of Blue Midget and Starbug departing Red Dwarf have been replaced with CGI versions. References to Cliff Richard and the ozone layer have been removed.

text: There have been changes made specific to "Marooned". During the early shuttle bay scenes a blue-screen image has been added to Starbugs cockpit window. Shots of Blue Midget and Starbug departing Red Dwarf have been replaced with CGI versions. References to

text: Cliff Richard

text: and the ozone layer have been removed.

text: The copper patinas are very thin: just 0.05080–0.07620 millimeters in thickness. Yet, they are highly adherent to the underlying copper metal. The initial and intermediate oxide and sulfide patina films are not particularly corrosion resistant. The final sulfate patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to all forms of atmospheric corrosion and protects the underlying metal against further weathering. As patination progresses and the durable sulfate layer forms, the rate of corrosion decreases, averaging between 0.0001–0.0003 millimeters per year. For a 0.6 millimeter-thick sheet, this equates to less than 5% corrosion over a period of 100 years. Further information is available on copper patination.

text: The optical phenomenon occurs because rays of light are bent when they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep thermal inversion where an atmospheric duct has formed. (A thermal inversion is an atmospheric condition where warmer air exists in a well-defined layer above a layer of significantly cooler air. This temperature inversion is the opposite of what is normally the case; air is usually warmer close to the surface, and cooler higher up.)

text: The

text: optical phenomenon

text: occurs because rays of light are bent when they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep

text: thermal inversion

text: where an

text: atmospheric duct

text: has formed. (A thermal inversion is an atmospheric condition where warmer air exists in a well-defined layer above a layer of significantly cooler air. This temperature inversion is the opposite of what is normally the case; air is usually warmer close to the surface, and cooler higher up.)

text: Studies of strata, the layering of rocks and earth, gave naturalists an appreciation that Earth may have been through many changes during its existence. These layers often contained fossilized remains of unknown creatures, leading some to interpret a progression of organisms from layer to layer.

text: Studies of

text: strata

text: , the layering of rocks and earth, gave

text: naturalists

text: an appreciation that Earth may have been through many changes during its existence. These layers often contained

text: fossilized remains

text: of unknown creatures, leading some to interpret a progression of organisms from layer to layer.

text: In 1974, Drs. Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario J. Molina proposed that chlorofluorocarbons, used as propellants in aerosol sprays, contributed to the depletion of Earth's ozone layer. In response to this theory, the U.S. Congress passed amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1977 authorizing the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The United Nations Environment Programme called for ozone layer research that same year, and, in 1981, authorized a global framework convention on ozone layer protection. In 1985, Joe Farman, Brian G. Gardiner, and Jon Shanklin published the first scientific paper detailing the hole in the ozone layer. That same year, the Vienna Convention was signed in response to the UN's authorization. Two years later, the Montreal Protocol, which regulated the production of CFCs was formally signed. It came into effect in 1989. The U.S. formally phased out CFCs in 1995.

text: In 1974, Drs.

text: Frank Sherwood Rowland

text: and

text: Mario J. Molina

text: proposed that

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: , used as propellants in aerosol sprays, contributed to the depletion of Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: . In response to this theory, the

text: U.S. Congress

text: passed amendments to the

text: Clean Air Act

text: in 1977 authorizing the

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: to regulate the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The

text: United Nations Environment Programme

text: called for ozone layer research that same year, and, in 1981, authorized a global framework convention on ozone layer protection. In 1985,

text: Joe Farman

text: Brian G. Gardiner

text: , and

text: Jon Shanklin

text: published the first scientific paper detailing the hole in the ozone layer. That same year, the

entity_name: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

text: Vienna Convention

text: was signed in response to the UN's authorization. Two years later, the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , which regulated the production of CFCs was formally signed. It came into effect in 1989. The U.S. formally phased out CFCs in 1995.

text: In reality, radio propagation changes along with the weather and tropospheric ducting, and occasionally along with other upper-atmospheric phenomena like sunspots and even meteor showers.  Thus, while a broadcasting authority might fix the range to an area with exact boundaries (defined as a series of vectors), this is rarely if ever true.  When a broadcast reaches well outside of its intended range due to unusual conditions, DXing is possible.

text: In reality,

text: radio propagation

text: changes along with the

text: weather

text: and

text: tropospheric ducting

text: , and occasionally along with other upper-

text: atmospheric

text: phenomena like

text: sunspot

text: s and even

text: meteor shower

text: s.  Thus, while a

text: broadcasting authority

text: might fix the range to an area with exact

text: boundaries

text: (defined as a series of

text: vector

text: s), this is rarely if ever true.  When a broadcast reaches well outside of its intended range due to

text: unusual conditions

text: DXing

text: is possible.

text: Two weeks later, Exosphere was "dominant" in the Golden Rose, winning his first Group 1 event by 2 lengths. Trainer John O'Shea said, "He's some colt. Wait until he grows into his frame. He is by this great sire Lonhro and he is in for a great season. A horse like Exosphere has great international appeal and you never know where he is going to end up."

text: Two weeks later, Exosphere was "dominant" in the

text: Golden Rose

text: , winning his first Group 1 event by 2 lengths. Trainer John O'Shea said, "He's some colt. Wait until he grows into his frame. He is by this great sire

text: Lonhro

text: and he is in for a great season. A horse like Exosphere has great international appeal and you never know where he is going to end up."

text: Earth's atmosphere consists of a number of layers, summarised in the diagram above which explains what the layers are, that differ in properties such as composition, temperature and pressure. The lowest layer is the troposphere, which extends from the surface to the bottom of the stratosphere. Three quarters of the atmosphere's mass resides within the troposphere, and is the layer within which the Earth's weather develops. The depth of this layer varies between 17 km at the equator to 7 km at the poles. The stratosphere, extending from the top of the troposphere to the bottom of the mesosphere, contains the ozone layer. The ozone layer ranges in altitude between 15 and 35 km, and is where most of the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is absorbed. The top of the mesosphere, ranges from 50 to 85 km, and is the layer wherein most meteors burn up. The  thermosphere extends from 85 km to the base of the exosphere at 690 km and contains the ionosphere, a region where the atmosphere is ionised by incoming solar radiation. The ionosphere increases in thickness and moves closer to the Earth during daylight and rises at night allowing certain frequencies of radio communication a greater range. The Kármán line, located within the thermosphere at an altitude of 100 km, is commonly used to define the boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer space. The exosphere begins variously from about 690 to 1,000 km above the surface, where it interacts with the planet's magnetosphere, to space. Each of the layers has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height.

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: consists of a number of layers, summarised in the diagram above which explains what the layers are, that differ in properties such as composition, temperature and pressure. The lowest layer is the

text: troposphere

text: , which extends from the surface to the bottom of the

text: stratosphere

text: . Three quarters of the atmosphere's mass resides within the troposphere, and is the layer within which the Earth's weather develops. The depth of this layer varies between 17 km at the equator to 7 km at the poles. The stratosphere, extending from the top of the troposphere to the bottom of the

text: mesosphere

text: , contains the

text: ozone layer

text: . The ozone layer ranges in altitude between 15 and 35 km, and is where most of the

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation from the Sun is absorbed. The top of the mesosphere, ranges from 50 to 85 km, and is the layer wherein most

text: meteors

text: burn up. The

text: thermosphere

text: extends from 85 km to the base of the

text: exosphere

text: at 690 km and contains the

text: ionosphere

text: , a region where the atmosphere is ionised by incoming solar radiation. The ionosphere increases in thickness and moves closer to the Earth during daylight and rises at night allowing certain frequencies of radio communication a greater range. The

text: Kármán line

text: , located within the thermosphere at an altitude of 100 km, is commonly used to define the boundary between Earth's atmosphere and

text: outer space

text: . The

text: exosphere

text: begins variously from about 690 to 1,000 km above the surface, where it interacts with the planet's

text: magnetosphere

text: , to space. Each of the layers has a different

text: lapse rate

text: , defining the rate of change in temperature with height.

text: Under the High Altitude Balloon Development Project, a 61,000m³ indigenously developed balloon penetrated into the Mesosphere on 7 January 2014, for the first time in India. Until that time, only balloons from USA and Japan had accomplished this feat.

text: Due to their extremely long wavelength, ELF waves can diffract around large obstacles, and so are not blocked by mountain ranges or the horizon and can travel around the curve of the Earth.   ELF and VLF waves propagate long distances by an Earth-ionosphere waveguide mechanism.,  The Earth is surrounded by a layer of charged particles (ions) in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 60 km  at the bottom of the ionosphere, called the D layer which reflects ELF waves.   The space between the conductive Earth's surface and the conductive D layer acts as a parallel-plate waveguide which confines ELF waves, allowing them to propagate long distances without escaping into space.   Since the height of the layer is much less than one wavelength at ELF frequencies, the only mode that can propagate is the TEM mode in vertical polarization, with the electric field vertical and the magnetic field horizontal.  ELF waves have extremely low attenuation of 1 - 2 dB per 1000 km, giving a single transmitter the potential to communicate worldwide.

text: Due to their extremely long wavelength, ELF waves can

text: diffract

text: around large obstacles, and so are not blocked by mountain ranges or the horizon and can travel around the curve of the Earth.   ELF and

text: VLF

text: waves propagate long distances by an Earth-ionosphere waveguide mechanism.,  The Earth is surrounded by a layer of

text: charged particle

text: s (

text: ion

text: s) in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 60 km  at the bottom of the

text: ionosphere

text: , called the

text: D layer

text: which reflects ELF waves.   The space between the conductive Earth's surface and the conductive D layer acts as a parallel-plate

text: waveguide

text: which confines ELF waves, allowing them to propagate long distances without escaping into space.   Since the height of the layer is much less than one wavelength at ELF frequencies, the only mode that can propagate is the

text: TEM mode

text: in

text: vertical polarization

text: , with the

text: electric field

text: vertical and the

text: magnetic field

text: horizontal.  ELF waves have extremely low attenuation of 1 - 2 dB per 1000 km, giving a single transmitter the potential to communicate worldwide.

text: The tropopause is a layer which separates two very different types of air. Beneath it, the air gets colder and the wind gets faster with height. Above it, the air warms and wind velocity decreases with height. These changes in temperature and velocity can produce fluctuation in the altitude of the tropopause, called gravity waves.

text: The tropopause is a layer which separates two very different types of air. Beneath it, the air gets colder and the wind gets faster with height. Above it, the air warms and wind velocity decreases with height. These changes in temperature and velocity can produce fluctuation in the altitude of the tropopause, called

text: gravity wave

text: s.

text: The troposphere is one of the lowest layers of the Earth's atmosphere; it is located right above the planetary boundary layer, and is the layer in which most weather phenomena take place. The troposphere extends upwards from right above the boundary layer, and ranges in height from an average of  at the poles, to  at the Equator.<ref>{{cite paper | last1 = Hoinka | first1 = K. P. | date = 1999 | title = Temperature, Humidity, and Wind at the Global Tropopause | journal = Monthly Weather Review | volume = 127 | pages = 2248 – 2265 | publisher = American Meteorological Society|bibcode = 1999MWRv..127.2248H |doi = 10.1175/1520-0493(1999)127

text: The troposphere is one of the lowest layers of the Earth's atmosphere; it is located right above the

text: planetary boundary layer

text: , and is the layer in which most

text: weather

text: phenomena take place. The troposphere extends upwards from right above the

text: boundary layer

text: , and ranges in height from an average of  at the poles, to  at the

text: Equator

text: .<ref>{{cite paper | last1 = Hoinka | first1 = K. P. | date = 1999 | title = Temperature, Humidity, and Wind at the Global Tropopause | journal =

text: Monthly Weather Review

text: | volume = 127 | pages = 2248 – 2265 | publisher =

text: American Meteorological Society

text: |bibcode = 1999MWRv..127.2248H |doi = 10.1175/1520-0493(1999)127

text: The highest, most rugged peaks of Marojejy owe their form to the gneiss from which they are made.  The gneiss consists of alternating bands of light and dark colored minerals.  The light minerals, consisting mostly of quartz and feldspar, are the hardest and most resistant, whereas the dark minerals, which are mostly biotite mica and hornblende, are softer and weather out faster.  This layered composition, in combination with the north-facing 45-degree angle at which the rocks are tilted, accounts for the asymmetric character of the peaks.  The northern slopes dip moderately, while the southern faces are typically near-vertical cliffs where the rocks fractured counter to the layered grain.  The cliff named Ambatotsondrona, with its sheer, south-facing rock wall, is an example.

text: The highest, most rugged peaks of Marojejy owe their form to the gneiss from which they are made.  The gneiss consists of alternating bands of light and dark colored minerals.  The light minerals, consisting mostly of quartz and

text: feldspar

text: , are the hardest and most resistant, whereas the dark minerals, which are mostly

text: biotite mica

text: and

text: hornblende

text: , are softer and weather out faster.  This layered composition, in combination with the north-facing 45-degree angle at which the rocks are tilted, accounts for the asymmetric character of the peaks.  The northern slopes dip moderately, while the southern faces are typically near-vertical cliffs where the rocks fractured counter to the layered grain.  The cliff named Ambatotsondrona, with its sheer, south-facing rock wall, is an example.

text: It is often more difficult to forecast the erosion of a CAD event than its development.  Numerical models tend to underestimate the event's duration. The bulk Richardson number, Ri, calculates vertical wind shear to help forecast erosion. The numerator corresponds to the strength of the inversion layer separating the CAD cold dome and the immediate atmosphere above. The denominator expresses the square of the vertical wind shear across the inversion layer. Small values of the Richardson number result in turbulent mixing that can weaken the inversion layer and aid the deterioration of the cold dome, leading to the end of the CAD event.

text: It is often more difficult to forecast the erosion of a CAD event than its development.

text: Numerical models

text: tend to underestimate the event's duration. The

text: bulk Richardson number

text: , Ri, calculates vertical

text: wind shear

text: to help forecast erosion. The numerator corresponds to the strength of the inversion layer separating the CAD cold dome and the immediate atmosphere above. The denominator expresses the square of the vertical wind shear across the inversion layer. Small values of the Richardson number result in turbulent mixing that can weaken the inversion layer and aid the deterioration of the cold dome, leading to the end of the CAD event.

text: His PhD thesis of 1964 concerned the interactions of ozone photochemistry, radiative transfer and the dynamics of the middle atmosphere. This formed the basis of his seminal Radiative and Photochemical Processes in Mesospheric Dynamics that was published in four parts in the Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences between 1965 and 1966.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://eaps.mit.edu/faculty/lindzen/raphprmdy1.pdf | last1 = Lindzen | first1 = Richard S | first2 = RM | last2 = Goody |year = 1965 | title= Radiative and photochemical processes in mesospheric dynamics: Part I. Models for radiative and photochemical processes |journal= J. Atmos. Sci. | volume = 22 |pages= 341–48 |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1965)022

text: His PhD thesis of 1964 concerned the interactions of ozone photochemistry,

text: radiative transfer

text: and the dynamics of the middle atmosphere. This formed the basis of his seminal Radiative and Photochemical Processes in Mesospheric Dynamics that was published in four parts in the

text: Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences

text: between 1965 and 1966.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://eaps.mit.edu/faculty/lindzen/raphprmdy1.pdf | last1 = Lindzen | first1 = Richard S | first2 = RM | last2 = Goody |year = 1965 | title= Radiative and photochemical processes in mesospheric dynamics: Part I. Models for radiative and photochemical processes |journal=

text: J. Atmos. Sci.

text: | volume = 22 |pages= 341–48 |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1965)022

text: Mixed–layering, interlaying, and interstratification are all terms that refer to clay minerals that form with two or more types of clays that with intergrown layering.  Mixed-layering does not refer to clays that have been physically mixed. Mixed-layering in clays make add difficulty to interpretation so multiple analysis are usually necessary. Two component clays are most common with multicomponent clays containing more than two components are very rare.  The entire diffraction pattern contributes to the identification and peaks should be considered as a whole rather than individually.

text: Once launched, ICON will perform a two-year mission to observe conditions in both the thermosphere and ionosphere. ICON will be equipped with four instruments: a Michelson interferometer, built by the United States Naval Research Laboratory, will measure the winds in the thermosphere; an ion drift meter, to be built by UT Dallas, will measure the motion of charged particles in the ionosphere; and two Ultraviolet imagers will observe the airglow layers in the upper atmosphere in order to determine both ionospheric and thermospheric density and composition.

text: Once launched, ICON will perform a two-year mission to observe conditions in both the thermosphere and ionosphere. ICON will be equipped with four instruments: a

text: Michelson interferometer

text: , built by the

text: United States Naval Research Laboratory

text: , will measure the winds in the thermosphere; an

text: ion drift meter

text: , to be built by

text: UT Dallas

text: , will measure the motion of charged particles in the ionosphere; and two

text: Ultraviolet

text: imagers will observe the

text: airglow

text: layers in the upper atmosphere in order to determine both ionospheric and thermospheric density and composition.

text: The most common molecules within Earth's exosphere are those of the lightest atmospheric gasses. Hydrogen is present throughout the exosphere, with some helium, carbon dioxide, and atomic oxygen near its base. Because it can be difficult to define the boundary between the exosphere and outer space (see "Upper boundary" at the end of this section), the exosphere may be considered a part of interplanetary or outer space.

text: The most common molecules within Earth's exosphere are those of the lightest atmospheric gasses.

text: Hydrogen

text: is present throughout the exosphere, with some

text: helium

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and

text: atomic oxygen

text: near its base. Because it can be difficult to define the boundary between the exosphere and outer space (see "Upper boundary" at the end of this section), the exosphere may be considered a part of

text: interplanetary

text: or

text: outer space

text: An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an electric current.  This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two electrodes. Generally, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens. It is also used for computer monitors, portable systems such as mobile phones, handheld games consoles and PDAs.

text: An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a

text: light-emitting diode

text: (LED) in which the

text: emissive

text: electroluminescent

text: layer is a film of

text: organic compound

text: which emits light in response to an electric current.  This layer of

text: organic semiconductor

text: is situated between two electrodes. Generally, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create

text: digital display

text: s in devices such as

text: television

text: screens. It is also used for computer monitors, portable systems such as

text: mobile phones

text: handheld games console

text: s and

text: PDAs

text: The ozone layer is higher in altitude in the tropics, and lower in altitude outside the tropics, especially in the polar regions. This altitude variation of ozone results from the slow circulation that lifts the ozone-poor air out of the troposphere into the stratosphere. As this air slowly rises in the tropics, ozone is produced as the sun overhead photolyzes oxygen molecules. As this slow circulation levels off and flows towards the mid-latitudes, it carries the ozone-rich air from the tropical middle stratosphere to the lower stratosphere middle and high latitudes . The high ozone concentrations at high latitudes are due to the accumulation of ozone at lower altitudes.

text: By volume, dry air contains 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres.

text: By volume, dry air contains 78.09%

text: nitrogen

text: , 20.95%

text: oxygen

text: , 0.93%

text: argon

text: , 0.04%

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and small amounts of other gases. Air also contains a variable amount of

text: water vapor

text: , on average around 1% at sea level, and 0.4% over the entire atmosphere. Air content and

text: atmospheric pressure

text: vary at different layers, and air suitable for use in

text: photosynthesis

text: by

text: terrestrial plant

text: s and

text: breathing

text: of

text: terrestrial animal

text: s is found only in Earth's

text: troposphere

text: and in

text: artificial atmospheres

text: In meteorology the planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), is the lowest part of the atmosphere. Its behavior is directly influenced by its contact with a planetary surface. On Earth it usually responds to changes in surface radiative forcing in an hour or less. In this layer physical quantities such as flow velocity, temperature, moisture, etc., display rapid fluctuations (turbulence) and vertical mixing is strong. Above the PBL is the "free atmosphere" where the wind is approximately geostrophic (parallel to the isobars) while within the PBL the wind is affected by surface drag and turns across the isobars. The free atmosphere is usually nonturbulent, or only intermittently turbulent.

text: In meteorology the planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), is the lowest part of the

text: atmosphere

text: . Its behavior is directly influenced by its contact with a

text: planetary surface

text: . On Earth it usually responds to changes in surface

text: radiative forcing

text: in an hour or less. In this layer physical quantities such as

text: flow velocity

text: , temperature, moisture, etc., display rapid fluctuations (

text: turbulence

text: ) and

text: vertical mixing

text: is strong. Above the PBL is the "free atmosphere" where the wind is approximately

text: geostrophic

text: (parallel to the isobars) while within the PBL the wind is affected by surface

text: drag

text: and turns across the

text: isobar

text: s. The free atmosphere is usually nonturbulent, or only intermittently turbulent.

text: Vertical wind shear above the jet stream (i.e., in the stratosphere) is sharper when it is moving upwards, because wind speed decreases with height in the stratosphere. This is the reason CAT can be generated above the tropopause, despite the stratosphere otherwise being a region which is vertically stable. On the other hand, vertical wind shear moving downwards within the stratosphere is more moderate (i.e., because downwards wind shear within the stratosphere is effectively moving against the manner in which wind speed changes within the stratosphere) and CAT is never produced in the stratosphere. Similar considerations apply to the troposphere but in reverse.

text: Venus has an extended ionosphere located at altitudes 120–300 km. The ionosphere almost coincides with the thermosphere. The high levels of the ionization are maintained only over the dayside of the planet. Over the nightside the concentration of the electrons is almost zero. The ionosphere of Venus consists of three layers: v1 between 120 and 130 km, v2 between 140 and 160 km and v3 between 200 and 250 km. There may be an additional layer near 180 km. The maximum electron volume density (number of electrons in a unit of volume) 3 m is reached in the v2 layer near the subsolar point. The upper boundary of the ionosphere—ionopause is located at altitudes 220–375 km and separates the plasma of the planetary origin from that of the induced magnetosphere. The main ionic species in the v1 and v2 layers is O ion, whereas the v3 layer consists of O ions. The ionospheric plasma is observed to be in motion; solar photoionization on the dayside, and ion recombination on the nightside, are the processes mainly responsible for accelerating the plasma to the observed velocities. The plasma flow appears to be sufficient to maintain the nightside ionosphere at or near the observed median level of ion densities.

text: Venus has an extended

text: ionosphere

text: located at altitudes 120–300 km. The ionosphere almost coincides with the thermosphere. The high levels of the

text: ionization

text: are maintained only over the dayside of the planet. Over the nightside the concentration of the

text: electron

text: s is almost zero. The ionosphere of Venus consists of three layers: v1 between 120 and 130 km, v2 between 140 and 160 km and v3 between 200 and 250 km. There may be an additional layer near 180 km. The maximum electron volume density (number of electrons in a unit of volume) 3 m is reached in the v2 layer near the

text: subsolar point

text: . The upper boundary of the ionosphere—ionopause is located at altitudes 220–375 km and separates the

text: plasma

text: of the planetary origin from that of the induced

text: magnetosphere

text: . The main ionic species in the v1 and v2 layers is O ion, whereas the v3 layer consists of O ions. The ionospheric plasma is observed to be in motion; solar photoionization on the dayside, and ion recombination on the nightside, are the processes mainly responsible for accelerating the plasma to the observed velocities. The plasma flow appears to be sufficient to maintain the nightside ionosphere at or near the observed median level of ion densities.

text: Germanium dioxide, also called germanium oxide and germania, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula GeO.  It is the main commercial source of germanium. It also forms as a passivation layer on pure germanium in contact with atmospheric oxygen.

text: Germanium dioxide, also called germanium oxide and germania, is an

text: inorganic compound

text: with the chemical formula

text: Ge

text: O

text: .  It is the main commercial source of germanium. It also forms as a

text: passivation layer

text: on pure germanium in contact with atmospheric oxygen.

text: The lowest part of the troposphere is called the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) or the planetary boundary layer (PBL) and extends from the Earth's surface to about 1.5 to 2.0 km in height. The air temperature of the atmospheric boundary layer decreases with increasing altitude until it reaches what is called the inversion layer (where the temperature increases with increasing altitude) that caps the atmospheric boundary layer. The upper part of the troposphere (i.e., above the inversion layer) is called the free troposphere and it extends up to the 18 km height of the troposphere.

text: The lowest part of the troposphere is called the

text: atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)

text: or the

text: planetary boundary layer (PBL)

text: and extends from the Earth's surface to about 1.5 to 2.0 km in height. The air temperature of the atmospheric boundary layer decreases with increasing altitude until it reaches what is called the

text: inversion layer

text: (where the temperature increases with increasing altitude) that caps the atmospheric boundary layer. The upper part of the troposphere (i.e., above the inversion layer) is called the free troposphere and it extends up to the 18 km height of the troposphere.

text: Aluminium bronzes are most valued for their higher strength and corrosion resistance as compared to other bronze alloys.  These alloys are tarnish-resistant and show low rates of corrosion in atmospheric conditions, low oxidation rates at high temperatures, and low reactivity with sulfurous compounds and other exhaust products of combustion.  They are also resistant to corrosion in sea water. Aluminium bronzes' resistance to corrosion results from the aluminium in the alloys, which reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form a thin, tough surface layer of alumina (aluminium oxide) which acts as a barrier to corrosion of the copper-rich alloy. The addition of tin can improve corrosion resistance.

text: Aluminium bronzes are most valued for their higher strength and

text: corrosion

text: resistance as compared to other bronze alloys.  These alloys are

text: tarnish

text: -resistant and show low rates of corrosion in

text: atmospheric

text: conditions, low

text: oxidation

text: rates at high temperatures, and low reactivity with

text: sulfur

text: ous compounds and other

text: exhaust

text: products of

text: combustion

text: .  They are also resistant to corrosion in

text: sea water

text: . Aluminium bronzes' resistance to corrosion results from the aluminium in the alloys, which reacts with atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: to form a thin, tough surface layer of

text: alumina

text: (aluminium oxide) which acts as a barrier to corrosion of the copper-rich alloy. The addition of

text: tin

text: can improve corrosion resistance.

text: Eruption columns over  high break through the tropopause and inject ash and aerosols into the stratosphere. Ash and aerosols in the troposphere are quickly removed by rain and other precipitation, but material injected into the stratosphere is much more slowly dispersed, in the absence of weather systems. Substantial amounts of stratospheric injection can have global effects: after Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991, global temperatures dropped by about 0.5 °C. The largest eruptions are thought to cause drops of up to several degrees, and are potentially the cause of some of the known mass extinctions.

text: Eruption columns over  high break through the

text: tropopause

text: and inject ash and

text: aerosols

text: into the

text: stratosphere

text: . Ash and aerosols in the troposphere are quickly removed by

text: rain

text: and other

text: precipitation

text: , but material injected into the stratosphere is much more slowly dispersed, in the absence of

text: weather

text: systems. Substantial amounts of stratospheric injection can have global effects: after

text: Mount Pinatubo

text: erupted in 1991, global temperatures dropped by about 0.5 °C. The largest eruptions are thought to cause drops of up to several degrees, and are potentially the cause of some of the known

text: mass extinction

text: s.

text: The effect of mulch upon soil moisture content is complex. Mulch forms a layer between the soil and the atmosphere which prevents sunlight from reaching the soil surface, thus reducing evaporation. However, mulch can also prevent water from reaching the soil by absorbing or blocking water from light rains.

text: The effect of mulch upon soil moisture content is complex. Mulch forms a layer between the soil and the atmosphere which prevents sunlight from reaching the soil surface, thus reducing

text: evaporation

text: . However, mulch can also prevent water from reaching the soil by absorbing or blocking water from light rains.

text: The depth of the mixed layer is often determined by hydrography—making measurements of water properties. Two criteria often used to determine the mixed layer depth are temperature and sigma-t (density) change from a reference value (usually the surface measurement).  The temperature criterion used in Levitus (1982) defines the mixed layer as the depth at which the temperature change from the surface temperature is 0.5 °C.  The sigma-t (density) criterion used in Levitus (1982) uses the depth at which a change from the surface sigma-t of 0.125 has occurred. Neither criterion implies that active mixing is occurring to the mixed layer depth at all times. Rather, the mixed layer depth estimated from hydrography is a measure of the depth to which mixing occurs over the course of a few weeks.

text: The depth of the mixed layer is often determined by

text: hydrography

text: —making measurements of water properties. Two criteria often used to determine the mixed layer depth are temperature and sigma-t (density) change from a reference value (usually the surface measurement).  The temperature criterion used in Levitus (1982) defines the mixed layer as the depth at which the temperature change from the surface temperature is 0.5 °C.  The

text: sigma-t

text: (density) criterion used in Levitus (1982) uses the depth at which a change from the surface sigma-t of 0.125 has occurred. Neither criterion implies that active mixing is occurring to the mixed layer depth at all times. Rather, the mixed layer depth estimated from hydrography is a measure of the depth to which mixing occurs over the course of a few weeks.

text: Vertical mixing is an upward movement of air that occurs based on the movement of air masses in the Planetary Boundary Layer and the resultant wind speed at the surface layer.  As air flow moves around terrain of mixed heights, lateral and vertical directional flow happens, creating turbulent structures.  Vertical mix can be detected by vertical profiles of temperature, wind speed, and wind direction, such as done in a rawinsonde.

text: Vertical mixing is an upward movement of air that occurs based on the movement of air masses in the

text: Planetary Boundary Layer

text: and the resultant wind speed at the

text: surface layer

text: .  As air flow moves around terrain of mixed heights, lateral and vertical directional flow happens, creating turbulent structures.  Vertical mix can be detected by vertical profiles of

text: temperature

text: wind speed

text: , and

text: wind direction

text: , such as done in a rawinsonde.

text: The amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the combustion reaction.  Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well mixed with air provides oxygen in an equimolar amount and thus a complete and hotter reaction.  The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the slot openings at the base of the barrel, similar in function to the choke in a carburettor.

text: The amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the

text: combustion

text: reaction.  Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well mixed with air provides oxygen in an

text: equimolar

text: amount and thus a complete and hotter reaction.  The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the slot openings at the base of the barrel, similar in function to the

text: choke

text: in a

text: carburettor

text: The tropopause is not a "hard" boundary. Vigorous thunderstorms, for example, particularly those of tropical origin, will overshoot into the lower stratosphere and undergo a brief (hour-order or less) low-frequency vertical oscillation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Shenk|first1= W. E.|date= 1974|title= Cloud top height variability of strong convective cells|journal= Journal of Applied Meteorology|volume = 13|pages= 918922|publisher= American Meteorological Society| doi=10.1175/1520-0450(1974)013

text: The tropopause is not a "hard" boundary. Vigorous

text: thunderstorm

text: s, for example, particularly those of tropical origin, will

text: overshoot

text: into

text: the lower stratosphere and undergo a brief (hour-order or less) low-frequency vertical

text: oscillation

text: .<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Shenk|first1= W. E.|date= 1974|title= Cloud top height variability of strong convective cells|journal=

entity_name: Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology

text: Journal of Applied Meteorology

text: |volume = 13|pages= 918922|publisher=

text: American Meteorological Society

text: | doi=10.1175/1520-0450(1974)013

text: Because there is not a significant pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the breathable-air balloon, any rips or tears would cause gases to diffuse at normal atmospheric mixing rates rather than an explosive decompression, giving time to repair any such damages. In addition, humans would not require pressurized suits when outside, merely air to breathe, protection from the acidic rain and on some occasions low level protection against heat. Alternatively, two-part domes could contain a lifting gas like hydrogen or helium (extractable from the atmosphere) to allow a higher mass density. Therefore putting on or taking off suits for working outside would be easier. Also working outside the vehicle in non pressurized suits would be easier.

text: Because there is not a significant pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the breathable-air balloon, any rips or tears would cause gases to diffuse at normal atmospheric mixing rates rather than an

text: explosive decompression

text: , giving time to repair any such damages. In addition, humans would not require

text: pressurized suit

text: s when outside, merely air to breathe, protection from the acidic rain and on some occasions low level protection against heat. Alternatively, two-part domes could contain a lifting gas like hydrogen or helium (extractable from the atmosphere) to allow a higher mass density. Therefore putting on or taking off suits for working outside would be easier. Also working outside the vehicle in non pressurized suits would be easier.

text: Exposure of the plate is done using conventional vacuum frames and light sources. Exposure times for the plate material is comparable to most conventional plates. Under exposure, IR light, controlled by the film carrier, passes through the silicone layer of the plate and strikes the photopolymer layer beneath. IR exposure activates the photopolymer, causing a break in the bond between the photopolymer and the silicone layers. The photo reaction is very precise, and the plate easily achieves resolutions as fine as six microlines, supporting a dot range from .5% to 99.5% at 175 lines per inch.

text: Beginning in 2010, the Stratosphere renovated several areas of the property. As part of a $20 million renovation plan, improvements were made to many hotel rooms, the casino and the main entrance area. Improvements and upgrades have also been made in the Top of the World Restaurant and Level 107 lounge.

text: Weather and Climate Dynamics Division (WCD)This division focuses on understanding how global processes are intertwined to create the weather and climate observed from the troposphere to the mesosphere. This includes observational and theoretical research on the interactive boundary layers; the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and its effects on climate prediction; global waves and turbulence in the stratosphere; and fine-scale turbulence in the boundary layer.

text: Weather and Climate Dynamics Division (WCD)This division focuses on understanding how global processes are intertwined to create the

text: weather

text: and

text: climate

text: observed from the

text: troposphere

text: to the

text: mesosphere

text: . This includes observational and theoretical research on the interactive boundary layers; the

text: El Niño Southern Oscillation

text: (ENSO) and its effects on climate prediction; global waves and

text: turbulence

text: in the

text: stratosphere

text: ; and fine-scale turbulence in the

text: boundary layer

text: “Mesosphere” (not to be confused with mesosphere, a layer of the atmosphere) is derived from “mesospheric shell”, coined by Reginald Aldworth Daly, a Harvard University geology professor. In the pre-plate tectonics era, Daly (1940) inferred three spherical layers comprise the outer Earth: lithosphere (including the crust), asthenosphere, and mesospheric shell. Daly’s hypothetical depths to the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary ranged from 80 to 100 km and the top of the mesospheric shell (base of the asthenosphere) from 200 to 480 km. Thus, Daly’s asthenosphere was inferred to be 120 to 400 km thick. According to Daly, the base of the solid earth mesosphere could extend to the base of the mantle (and, thus, to the top of the core).

text: Mesosphere

text: ” (not to be confused with

text: mesosphere

text: , a layer of the

text: atmosphere

text: ) is derived from “mesospheric shell”, coined by

text: Reginald Aldworth Daly

text: , a

text: Harvard University

text: geology

text: professor. In the pre-

text: plate tectonics

text: era, Daly (1940) inferred three

text: spherical

text: layers comprise the outer

text: Earth

text: lithosphere

text: (including the

text: crust

text: asthenosphere

text: , and mesospheric shell. Daly’s hypothetical depths to the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary ranged from 80 to 100 km and the top of the mesospheric shell (base of the asthenosphere) from 200 to 480 km. Thus, Daly’s asthenosphere was inferred to be 120 to 400 km thick. According to Daly, the base of the solid earth mesosphere could extend to the base of the

text: mantle

text: (and, thus, to the top of the

text: core

text: At the 500 hPa level, the air temperature averages −7 °C (18 °F) within the tropics, but air in the tropics is normally dry at this level, giving the air room to wet-bulb, or cool as it moistens, to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection. A wetbulb temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of −13.2 °C is required to initiate convection if the water temperature is 26.5 °C, and this temperature requirement increases or decreases proportionally by 1 °C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 °C change at 500 hpa.Under a cold cyclone, 500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as −30 °C, which can initiate convection even in the driest atmospheres. This also explains why moisture in the mid-levels of the troposphere, roughly at the 500 hPa level, is normally a requirement for development. However, when dry air is found at the same height, temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist atmospheres. At heights near the tropopause, the 30-year average temperature (as measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990) was −77 °C (−132 °F).  A recent example of a tropical cyclone that maintained itself over cooler waters was Epsilon  of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season.

text: At the 500 hPa level, the air temperature averages −7 °C (18 °F) within the tropics, but air in the tropics is normally dry at this level, giving the air room to

text: wet-bulb

text: , or cool as it moistens, to a more favorable temperature that can then support convection. A wetbulb temperature at 500 hPa in a tropical atmosphere of −13.2 °C is required to initiate convection if the water temperature is 26.5 °C, and this temperature requirement increases or decreases proportionally by 1 °C in the sea surface temperature for each 1 °C change at 500 hpa.Under a cold cyclone, 500 hPa temperatures can fall as low as −30 °C, which can initiate convection even in the driest atmospheres. This also explains why moisture in the mid-levels of the

text: troposphere

text: , roughly at the 500 hPa level, is normally a requirement for development. However, when dry air is found at the same height, temperatures at 500 hPa need to be even colder as dry atmospheres require a greater lapse rate for instability than moist atmospheres. At heights near the

text: tropopause

text: , the 30-year average temperature (as measured in the period encompassing 1961 through 1990) was −77 °C (−132 °F).  A recent example of a

text: tropical cyclone

text: that maintained itself over cooler waters was

text: Epsilon

text: of the

text: 2005 Atlantic hurricane season

text: The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapour. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The water vapour molecule  has less density compared to the major components of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen,  and . Due to the significant difference in molecular mass, water vapor in gas form gains height in open air as a result of buoyancy. However, as altitude increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops (see Gas laws). The lowered temperature causes water vapour to condense into a tiny liquid water droplet which is heavier than the air, such that it falls unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of these droplets over a large space up in the atmosphere become visible as cloud. Fog is formed if the water vapour condenses near ground level, as a result of moist air and cool air collision or an abrupt reduction in air pressure. Air currents move water vapour around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.

text: The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the

text: air

text: . Ice and snow can

text: sublimate

text: directly into water vapour.

text: Evapotranspiration

text: is water

text: transpired

text: from plants and evaporated from the soil. The water vapour molecule  has less density compared to the major components of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen,  and . Due to the significant difference in

text: molecular mass

text: , water vapor in gas form gains height in open air as a result of

text: buoyancy

text: . However, as altitude increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops (see

text: Gas laws

text: ). The lowered temperature causes water vapour to condense into a tiny liquid water droplet which is heavier than the air, such that it falls unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of these droplets over a large space up in the atmosphere become visible as cloud. Fog is formed if the water vapour condenses near ground level, as a result of moist air and cool air collision or an abrupt reduction in air pressure. Air currents move water vapour around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as

text: precipitation

text: . Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as

text: surface runoff

text: . A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (

text: groundwater

text: ) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as

text: infiltration

text: . Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes

text: aquifer

text: s, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground water in the

text: hyporheic zone

text: . Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.

text: The temperature of the Mercury's exosphere depends on species as well as geographical location. For exospheric atomic hydrogen, the temperature appears to be about 420 K, a value obtained by both Mariner 10 and MESSENGER. The temperature for sodium is much higher, reaching 750–1500 K on the equator and 1,500–3,500 K at the poles. Some observations show that Mercury is surrounded by a hot corona of calcium atoms with temperature between 12,000 and 20,000 K.

text: The Earth's atmosphere is a key factor in sustaining the ecosystem. The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity. Air is mostly nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, with much smaller amounts of carbon dioxide, argon, etc. The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with altitude. The ozone layer plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

text: The Earth's atmosphere is a key factor in sustaining the

text: ecosystem

text: . The thin layer of gases that envelops the Earth is held in place by gravity. Air is mostly

text: nitrogen

text: oxygen

text: water vapor

text: , with much smaller amounts of carbon dioxide, argon, etc. The atmospheric pressure declines steadily with altitude. The

text: ozone layer

text: plays an important role in depleting the amount of

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As

text: DNA

text: is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

text: Atmospheric boundaries (tropopause, edge of space, plasmapause, etc.) are also natural surfaces.

text: Atmospheric boundaries

text: tropopause

text: edge of space

text: plasmapause

text: , etc.) are also natural surfaces.

text: This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar wind.

text: This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen, helium and several heavier molecules including nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the exobase. The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. These free-moving particles follow

text: ballistic trajectories

text: and may migrate in and out of the

text: magnetosphere

text: or the

text: solar wind

text: The ABL is of the most important with respect to the emission, transport and dispersion of airborne pollutants. The part of the ABL between the Earth's surface and the bottom of the inversion layer is known as the mixing layer. Almost all of the airborne pollutants emitted into the ambient atmosphere are transported and dispersed within the mixing layer. Some of the emissions penetrate the inversion layer and enter the free troposphere above the ABL.

text: The stratosphere is a region of intense interactions among radiative, dynamical, and chemical processes, in which the horizontal mixing of gaseous components proceeds much more rapidly than does vertical mixing.

text: The stratosphere is a region of intense interactions among radiative,

text: dynamical

text: , and chemical processes, in which the horizontal mixing of gaseous components proceeds much more rapidly than does vertical mixing.

text: are isobaric surfaces. In altimetry with the International Standard Atmosphere the hypsometric equation is used to compute pressure at a given height in isothermal layers in the upper and lower stratosphere.

text: are

text: isobaric

text: surfaces. In

text: altimetry

text: with the

text: International Standard Atmosphere

text: the hypsometric equation is used to compute pressure at a given height in

text: isothermal

text: layers in the upper and lower

text: stratosphere

text: Within the thermosphere above about 150 km height, all atmospheric waves successively become external waves, and no significant vertical wave structure is visible. The atmospheric wave modes degenerate to the spherical functions P with m a meridional wave number and n the zonal wave number (m = 0: zonal mean flow; m = 1: diurnal tides; m = 2: semidiurnal tides; etc.). The thermosphere becomes a damped oscillator system with low-pass filter characteristics. This means that smaller-scale waves (greater numbers of (n,m)) and higher frequencies are suppressed in favor of large-scale waves and lower frequencies. If one considers very quiet magnetospheric disturbances and a constant mean exospheric temperature (averaged over the sphere), the  observed temporal and spatial distribution of the exospheric temperature distribution can be described by a sum of spheric functions:

text: Within the thermosphere above about 150 km height, all atmospheric waves successively become external waves, and no significant vertical wave structure is visible. The atmospheric wave modes degenerate to the

text: spherical functions

text: P with m a meridional

text: wave number

text: and n the zonal

text: wave number

text: (m = 0: zonal mean flow; m = 1: diurnal tides; m = 2: semidiurnal tides; etc.). The thermosphere becomes a damped oscillator system with low-pass filter characteristics. This means that smaller-scale waves (greater numbers of (n,m)) and higher frequencies are suppressed in favor of large-scale waves and lower frequencies. If one considers very quiet magnetospheric disturbances and a constant mean exospheric temperature (averaged over the sphere), the  observed temporal and spatial distribution of the exospheric temperature distribution can be described by a sum of spheric functions:

text: On 14 February 2015, Exosphere won his first race, leading by 4 lengths in the 1000m race at Kembla Grange. A fortnight later, Exosphere won the Group 2 Skyline Stakes at Warwick Farm. The Sydney Morning Herald said he "panelled his rivals. He got back in the field and worked his way to the centre of the track before unleashing a sprint that had the race settled in a matter of strides.

text: On 14 February 2015, Exosphere won his first race, leading by 4 lengths in the 1000m race at

text: Kembla Grange

text: . A fortnight later, Exosphere won the

text: Group 2

text: Skyline Stakes

text: at

text: Warwick Farm

text: . The

text: Sydney Morning Herald

text: said he "panelled his rivals. He got back in the field and worked his way to the centre of the track before unleashing a sprint that had the race settled in a matter of strides.

text: Discussion of the layers in the Earth's atmosphere is needed to understand where airborne pollutants disperse in the atmosphere. The layer closest to the Earth's surface is known as the troposphere. It extends from sea-level to a height of about 18 km and contains about 80 percent of the mass of the overall atmosphere. The stratosphere is the next layer and extends from 18 km to about 50 km. The third layer is the mesosphere which extends from 50 km to about 80 km. There are other layers above 80 km, but they are insignificant with respect to atmospheric dispersion modeling.

text: Discussion of the layers in the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: is needed to understand where airborne pollutants disperse in the atmosphere. The layer closest to the Earth's surface is known as the

text: troposphere

text: . It extends from sea-level to a height of about 18 km and contains about 80 percent of the mass of the overall atmosphere. The

text: stratosphere

text: is the next layer and extends from 18 km to about 50 km. The third layer is the

text: mesosphere

text: which extends from 50 km to about 80 km. There are other layers above 80 km, but they are insignificant with respect to atmospheric dispersion modeling.

text: In both coherent and incoherent lidar, there are two types of pulse models: micropulse lidar systems and high energy systems. Micropulse systems have developed as a result of the ever-increasing amount of computer power available combined with advances in laser technology. They use considerably less energy in the laser, typically on the order of one microjoule, and are often "eye-safe," meaning they can be used without safety precautions. High-power systems are common in atmospheric research, where they are widely used for measuring many atmospheric parameters: the height, layering and densities of clouds, cloud particle properties (extinction coefficient, backscatter coefficient, depolarization), temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, trace gas concentration (ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, etc.).

text: In both coherent and incoherent lidar, there are two types of pulse models: micropulse lidar systems and high energy systems. Micropulse systems have developed as a result of the ever-increasing amount of

text: computer

text: power available combined with advances in laser technology. They use considerably less energy in the laser, typically on the order of one

text: microjoule

text: , and are often "eye-safe," meaning they can be used without safety precautions. High-power systems are common in atmospheric research, where they are widely used for measuring many atmospheric parameters: the height, layering and densities of clouds, cloud particle properties (

text: extinction coefficient

text: , backscatter coefficient,

text: depolarization

text: ), temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, trace gas concentration (ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, etc.).

text: Damping of the tides occurs primarily in the lower thermosphere region, and may be caused by turbulence from breaking gravity waves. A similar phenomena to ocean waves breaking on a beach, the energy dissipates into the background atmosphere. Molecular diffusion also becomes increasingly important at higher levels in the lower thermosphere as the mean free path increases in the rarefied atmosphere.

text: Damping

text: of the tides occurs primarily in the lower thermosphere region, and may be caused by

text: turbulence

text: from breaking

text: gravity wave

text: s. A similar phenomena to ocean waves breaking on a

text: beach

text: , the

text: energy

text: dissipates into the background atmosphere. Molecular

text: diffusion

text: also becomes increasingly important at higher levels in the lower thermosphere as the

text: mean free path

text: increases in the rarefied atmosphere.

text: Bromotrifluoromethane, commonly known as Halon 1301, R13B1, Halon 13B1 or BTM, is an organic halide with the chemical formula CBrF. It is used for fire suppression and refrigeration. Human exposure to Halon 1301 can be toxic, affecting the central nervous system and other bodily functions. Additionally, it is known to contribute to the depletion of Earth's atmospheric ozone layer when released. As such Halon's use as a refrigerant has been virtually eliminated and alternatives are being used increasingly for fire suppression.

text: Bromotrifluoromethane, commonly known as Halon 1301, R13B1, Halon 13B1 or BTM, is an

text: organic halide

text: with the chemical formula

text: C

text: Br

text: F

text: . It is used for

text: fire suppression

text: and refrigeration. Human exposure to Halon 1301 can be toxic, affecting the central nervous system and other bodily functions. Additionally, it is known to contribute to the depletion of Earth's atmospheric

text: ozone layer

text: when released. As such Halon's use as a refrigerant has been virtually eliminated and alternatives are being used increasingly for fire suppression.

text: Stars with an initial mass above about  quickly move away from the main sequence and increase somewhat in luminosity to become blue supergiants.  They cool and enlarge at approximately constant luminosity to become a red supergiant, then contract and increase in temperature as the outer layers are blown away.  They may "bounce" backwards and forwards executing one or more "blue loops", still at a fairly steady luminosity, until they explode as a supernova or completely shed their outer layers to become a Wolf–Rayet star.  Stars with an initial mass above about  are simply too luminous to develop a stable extended atmosphere and so they never cool sufficiently to become red supergiants.  The most massive stars, especially rapidly rotating stars with enhanced convection and mixing, may skip these steps and move directly to the Wolf–Rayet stage.

text: Stars with an initial mass above about  quickly move away from the main sequence and increase somewhat in luminosity to become blue supergiants.  They cool and enlarge at approximately constant luminosity to become a red supergiant, then contract and increase in temperature as the outer layers are blown away.  They may "bounce" backwards and forwards executing one or more "blue loops", still at a fairly steady luminosity, until they explode as a

text: supernova

text: or completely shed their outer layers to become a

text: Wolf–Rayet star

text: .  Stars with an initial mass above about  are simply too luminous to develop a stable extended atmosphere and so they never cool sufficiently to become red supergiants.  The most massive stars, especially rapidly rotating stars with enhanced convection and mixing, may skip these steps and move directly to the Wolf–Rayet stage.

text: In building services engineering and HVAC, an air-mixing plenum (or mixing box) is used for mixing air from different ductwork systems.

text: In

text: building services engineering

text: and

text: HVAC

text: , an air-mixing plenum (or mixing box) is used for mixing air from different

text: ductwork

text: systems.

text: Two volcanoes erupted during the summer of 2008 on the Eastern Aleutian Islands. On July 12, 2008, Mount Okmok erupted, and it continued to erupt for a month. A giant, rapidly moving ash and gas cloud shot up to a height of 15,240 m as a result of this eruption. Mount Kasatochi was home to the other eruption, which occurred on August 7 and 8. This eruption also sent up a gas cloud about 15,000 high. Together, these two power volcanic eruptions deposited emissions of trace gases an aerosols into the atmosphere. These emissions formed a sulfate aerosol layer that totaled a transfer of 1.6 Tg of SO into the stratosphere and disturbed flights over this area  for a short period following the eruptions.

text: Science requirements and conceptual mission implementation have been defined for the Ionosphere-Thermosphere Storm Probes (ITSP) and the Solar Sentinels.

text: Science requirements and conceptual mission implementation have been defined for the

text: Ionosphere-Thermosphere Storm Probes

text: (ITSP) and the

text: Solar Sentinels

text: Iodine oxides are chemical compounds of oxygen and iodine. The chemistry of these compound is complicated with only a few having been well characterized. Many have been detected in the atmosphere and are believed to be particularly important at in the marine boundary layer.

text: Iodine oxides are

text: chemical compounds

text: of

text: oxygen

text: and

text: iodine

text: . The chemistry of these compound is complicated with only a few having been well characterized. Many have been detected in the atmosphere and are believed to be particularly important at in the marine boundary layer.

text: Although most white dwarfs are thought to be composed of carbon and oxygen, spectroscopy typically shows that their emitted light comes from an atmosphere which is observed to be either hydrogen or helium dominated. The dominant element is usually at least 1,000 times more abundant than all other elements. As explained by Schatzman in the 1940s, the high surface gravity is thought to cause this purity by gravitationally separating the atmosphere so that heavy elements are below and the lighter above. This atmosphere, the only part of the white dwarf visible to us, is thought to be the top of an envelope which is a residue of the star's envelope in the AGB phase and may also contain material accreted from the interstellar medium. The envelope is believed to consist of a helium-rich layer with mass no more than 1/100 of the star's total mass, which, if the atmosphere is hydrogen-dominated, is overlain by a hydrogen-rich layer with mass approximately 1/10,000 of the stars total mass.

text: Although most white dwarfs are thought to be composed of carbon and oxygen,

text: spectroscopy

text: typically shows that their emitted light comes from an atmosphere which is observed to be either

text: hydrogen

text: or

text: helium

text: dominated. The dominant element is usually at least 1,000 times more abundant than all other elements. As explained by

text: Schatzman

text: in the 1940s, the high

text: surface gravity

text: is thought to cause this purity by gravitationally separating the atmosphere so that heavy elements are below and the lighter above. This atmosphere, the only part of the white dwarf visible to us, is thought to be the top of an envelope which is a residue of the star's envelope in the

text: AGB

text: phase and may also contain material accreted from the

text: interstellar medium

text: . The envelope is believed to consist of a helium-rich layer with mass no more than 1/100 of the star's total mass, which, if the atmosphere is hydrogen-dominated, is overlain by a hydrogen-rich layer with mass approximately 1/10,000 of the stars total mass.

text: The Solar Mesosphere Explorer (also known as Explorer 64) was a United States unmanned spacecraft to investigate the processes that create and destroy ozone in Earth's upper atmosphere. The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere extending from the top of the stratosphere to an altitude of about . The spacecraft carried five instruments to measure ozone, water vapor and incoming solar radiation.

text: The Solar Mesosphere Explorer (also known as Explorer 64) was a

text: United States

text: unmanned spacecraft

text: to investigate the processes that create and destroy

text: ozone

text: in Earth's upper atmosphere. The

text: mesosphere

text: is a layer of the atmosphere extending from the top of the stratosphere to an altitude of about . The spacecraft carried five instruments to measure ozone, water vapor and incoming solar radiation.

text: Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its flash point. The flash point of a liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion.

text: Combustion of a

text: liquid fuel

text: in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its

text: flash point

text: . The flash point of a liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion.

text: In order to maintain indoor air quality, air handlers commonly have provisions to allow the introduction of outside air into, and the exhausting of air from the building. In temperate climates, mixing the right amount of cooler outside air with warmer return air can be used to approach the desired supply air temperature. A mixing chamber is therefore used which has dampers controlling the ratio between the return, outside, and exhaust air.

text: In order to maintain indoor air quality, air handlers commonly have provisions to allow the introduction of outside air into, and the exhausting of air from the building. In temperate climates, mixing the right amount of cooler outside air with warmer return air can be used to approach the desired supply air temperature. A mixing chamber is therefore used which has

text: dampers

text: controlling the ratio between the return, outside, and exhaust air.

text: In the Northern hemisphere, summer smog builds up mainly between April and October. It causes reduced visibility in cities and a visible layer, similar to fog. It also causes a health hazard to people and pollutes the troposphere's air.

text: In the Northern hemisphere, summer smog builds up mainly between April and October. It causes reduced visibility in cities and a visible layer, similar to

text: fog

text: . It also causes a

text: health

text: hazard to people and pollutes the

text: troposphere

text: 's air.

text: As reported by the European Space Agency (ESA) on September 29, 2013, a new comparison of spacecraft data with computer models explains how global atmospheric circulation creates a layer of ozone () above Mars's southern pole in winter. Ozone was most likely difficult to detect on Mars because its concentration is typically 300 times lower than on Earth, although it varies greatly with location and time. The SPICAM —an UV/IR spectrometer— on board Mars Express has shown the presence of two distinct ozone layers at low-to-mid latitudes. These comprise a persistent, near-surface layer below an altitude of 30 km, a separate layer that is only present in northern spring and summer with an altitude varying from 30 to 60 km, and another separate layer that exists 40–60 km above the southern pole in winter, with no counterpart above the Mars's north pole. This third ozone layer shows an abrupt decrease in elevation between 75 and 50 degrees south. SPICAM detected a gradual increase in ozone concentration at 50 km until midwinter, after which it slowly decreased to very low concentrations, with no layer detectable above 35 km. The reporting scientists think that the observed polar ozone layers are the result of the same atmospheric circulation pattern that creates a distinct oxygen emission identified in the polar night and also present in Earth's atmosphere. This circulation takes the form of a huge Hadley cell in which warmer air rises and travels toward the south pole before cooling and sinking at higher latitudes. Mars is on a quite elliptical orbit and has a large axial tilt, which causes extreme seasonal variations in temperature amongst the northern and southern hemispheres. Mars's temperature difference greatly influences the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, because warmer air can contain more moisture. This, in turn, affects the production of ozone-destroying hydrogen radicals.

text: As reported by the

text: European Space Agency

text: (ESA) on September 29, 2013, a new comparison of spacecraft data with computer models explains how global atmospheric circulation creates a layer of

text: ozone

text: () above Mars's southern pole in winter. Ozone was most likely difficult to detect on Mars because its concentration is typically 300 times lower than on

text: Earth

text: , although it varies greatly with location and time. The SPICAM —an UV/IR

text: spectrometer

text: — on board

text: Mars Express

text: has shown the presence of two distinct ozone layers at low-to-mid latitudes. These comprise a persistent, near-surface layer below an altitude of 30 km, a separate layer that is only present in northern spring and summer with an altitude varying from 30 to 60 km, and another separate layer that exists 40–60 km above the southern pole in winter, with no counterpart above the Mars's north pole. This third ozone layer shows an abrupt decrease in elevation between 75 and 50 degrees south. SPICAM detected a gradual increase in ozone concentration at 50 km until midwinter, after which it slowly decreased to very low concentrations, with no layer detectable above 35 km. The reporting scientists think that the observed polar ozone layers are the result of the same atmospheric circulation pattern that creates a distinct oxygen emission identified in the polar night and also present in

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . This circulation takes the form of a huge

text: Hadley cell

text: in which warmer air rises and travels toward the south pole before cooling and sinking at higher latitudes. Mars is on a quite elliptical orbit and has a large axial tilt, which causes extreme seasonal variations in temperature amongst the northern and southern hemispheres. Mars's temperature difference greatly influences the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, because warmer air can contain more moisture. This, in turn, affects the production of ozone-destroying hydrogen radicals.

text: Perhaps the most important processes, which are critically dependent on the correct representation of the PBL in the atmospheric models (Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project), are turbulent transport of moisture (evapotranspiration) and pollutants (air pollutants). Clouds in the boundary layer influence trade winds, the hydrological cycle, and energy exchange.

text: Perhaps the most important processes, which are critically dependent on the correct representation of the PBL in the atmospheric models (

entity_name: Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project

text: Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project

text: ), are turbulent transport of moisture (

text: evapotranspiration

text: ) and pollutants (

text: air pollutants

text: Cloud

text: s in the boundary layer influence

text: trade wind

text: s, the

text: hydrological cycle

text: , and energy exchange.

text: however, the atmospheric environment leading to their formation is not well understood. The moisture profile of the atmosphere, particularly the depth of the elevated dry layer, also appears to be important and the low-to-mid level shear may also be important.<ref name="midtropo">{{cite journal |last= Brooks |first= Harold E. |authorlink= Harold E. Brooks |author2= C. A. Doswell |author3= R. B. Wilhelmson |title= The Role of Midtropospheric Winds in the Evolution and Maintenance of Low-Level Mesocyclones |journal= Mon. Wea. Rev. |volume= 122 |issue= 1 |pages= 126–36 |date= 1994 |doi= 10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122

text: Most planets known to humans are either gaseous Jovian planets or solid terrestrial planets. Terrestrial planets include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. These inner planets have a rocky surface with metal interiors. The Jovian planets consist of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. While these planets are larger, their only land surface is a small rocky core surrounded by a large, thick atmosphere. The gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn, are thought to have surface layers composed of liquid hydrogen rather than solid land; however, their planetary geology is not well understood. The possibility of Uranus and Neptune (the ice giants) possessing hot, highly compressed, supercritical water under their thick atmospheres has been hypothesised.  While their composition is still not fully understood, a 2006 study by Wiktorowicz et al. ruled out the possibility of such a water "ocean" existing on Neptune, though some studies have suggested that exotic oceans of liquid diamond are possible. The entire surface of a rocky planet or moon is considered land, even with a lack of seas or oceans for contrast. Planetary bodies that have a thin atmosphere often have land that is marked by impact craters since atmospheric conditions would normally break-down incoming objects and erode rough impact sites. Land on planetary bodies other than Earth can also be bought and sold although ownership of extraterrestrial real estate is not recognized by any authority.

text: Most planets known to humans are either gaseous

text: Jovian planets

text: or solid

text: terrestrial planets

text: . Terrestrial planets include

text: Mercury

text: Venus

text: Earth

text: , and

text: Mars

text: . These inner planets have a rocky surface with metal interiors. The Jovian planets consist of

text: Jupiter

text: Saturn

text: Uranus

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: . While these planets are larger, their only land surface is a small rocky core surrounded by a large, thick atmosphere. The

text: gas giant

text: s, Jupiter and Saturn, are thought to have surface layers composed of

text: liquid hydrogen

text: rather than solid land; however, their

text: planetary geology

text: is not well understood. The possibility of Uranus and Neptune (the

text: ice giant

text: s) possessing hot, highly compressed, supercritical water under their thick atmospheres has been hypothesised.  While their composition is still not fully understood, a 2006 study by Wiktorowicz et al. ruled out the possibility of such a water "ocean" existing on Neptune, though some studies have suggested that exotic oceans of liquid diamond are possible. The entire surface of a rocky planet or moon is considered land, even with a lack of seas or oceans for contrast. Planetary bodies that have a thin atmosphere often have land that is marked by impact craters since atmospheric conditions would normally break-down incoming objects and erode rough impact sites. Land on planetary bodies other than Earth can also be bought and sold although ownership of

text: extraterrestrial real estate

text: is not recognized by any authority.

text: Indium acetylacetonate and tin(II) acetylacetonate can be used to prepare indium‐tin oxide thin films with an atmospheric‐pressure chemical vapor deposition method. The resulting thin films are transparent and conductive, with a thickness of about 200 nanometers. Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) can also be produced with indium acetylacetonate. Thin-film CIGS solar cells are synthesized with atomic layer chemical vapour deposition (ALCVD) using In(acac) and hydrogen sulfide.

text: Indium acetylacetonate and tin(II) acetylacetonate can be used to prepare indium‐tin oxide thin films with an atmospheric‐pressure

text: chemical vapor deposition

text: method. The resulting thin films are transparent and conductive, with a thickness of about 200 nanometers. Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) can also be produced with indium acetylacetonate. Thin-film CIGS solar cells are synthesized with atomic layer chemical vapour deposition (ALCVD) using In(acac) and hydrogen sulfide.

text: The ozone layer is extremely important to modern life as it absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation:

text: The ozone layer is extremely important to modern life as it absorbs harmful

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation:

text: In 1930 Thomas Midgley, Jr. discovered dichlorodifluoromethane, a chlorinated fluorocarbon (CFC) known as freon. CFCs rapidly replaced traditional refrigerant substances, including CO (which proved hard to compress for domestic use), for use in heat pumps and refrigerators. But from the 1980s CFCs began to lose favor as refrigerant when their damaging effects on the ozone layer were discovered. Two alternative types of refrigerant, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), also lost favour when they were identified as greenhouse gases (additionally, HCFCs were found to be more damaging to the ozone layer than originally thought).  The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the Montreal Protocol and the Kyoto Protocol call for the complete abandonment of such refrigerants by 2030.

text: In 1930

text: Thomas Midgley, Jr.

text: discovered dichlorodifluoromethane, a chlorinated fluorocarbon (

text: CFC

text: ) known as

text: freon

text: . CFCs rapidly replaced traditional refrigerant substances, including CO (which proved hard to compress for domestic use), for use in

text: heat pumps

text: and

text: refrigerators

text: . But from the 1980s CFCs began to lose favor as refrigerant when their damaging effects on the

text: ozone layer

text: were discovered. Two alternative types of refrigerant, hydrofluorocarbons (

text: HFCs

text: ) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (

text: HCFCs

text: ), also lost favour when they were identified as

text: greenhouse gases

text: (additionally, HCFCs were found to be more damaging to the ozone layer than originally thought).  The

text: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

text: , the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: and the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: call for the complete abandonment of such refrigerants by 2030.

text: The zinc sulfate layer was clear in contrast to the deep blue copper sulfate layer, which allowed a technician to measure the battery life with a glance. On the other hand, this setup meant the battery could be used only in a stationary appliance, else the solutions would mix or spill. Another disadvantage was that a current had to be continually drawn to keep the two solutions from mixing by diffusion, so it was unsuitable for intermittent use.

text: The atmosphere of Jupiter lacks a clear lower boundary and gradually transitions into the liquid interior of the planet. From lowest to highest, the atmospheric layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Each layer has characteristic temperature gradients. The lowest layer, the troposphere, has a complicated system of clouds and hazes, comprising layers of ammonia, ammonium hydrosulfide and water. The upper ammonia clouds visible at Jupiter's surface are organized in a dozen zonal bands parallel to the equator and are bounded by powerful zonal atmospheric flows (winds) known as jets. The bands alternate in color: the dark bands are called belts, while light ones are called zones. Zones, which are colder than belts, correspond to upwellings, while belts mark descending air. The zones' lighter color is believed to result from ammonia ice; what gives the belts their darker colors is not known with certainty. The origins of the banded structure and jets are not well understood, though two models exist. The shallow model holds that they are surface phenomena overlaying a stable interior. In the deep model, the bands and jets are just surface manifestations of deep circulation in Jupiter's mantle of molecular hydrogen, which is organized into cylinders.

text: The atmosphere of Jupiter lacks a clear lower boundary and gradually transitions into the liquid interior of the planet. From lowest to highest, the atmospheric layers are the

text: troposphere

text: stratosphere

text: thermosphere

text: and

text: exosphere

text: . Each layer has characteristic

text: temperature gradient

text: s. The lowest layer, the troposphere, has a complicated system of clouds and hazes, comprising layers of ammonia,

text: ammonium hydrosulfide

text: and water. The upper ammonia clouds visible at Jupiter's surface are organized in a dozen

text: zonal

text: bands parallel to the

text: equator

text: and are bounded by powerful zonal atmospheric flows (winds) known as jets. The bands alternate in color: the dark bands are called belts, while light ones are called zones. Zones, which are colder than belts, correspond to upwellings, while belts mark descending air. The zones' lighter color is believed to result from ammonia ice; what gives the belts their darker colors is not known with certainty. The origins of the banded structure and jets are not well understood, though two models exist. The shallow model holds that they are surface phenomena overlaying a stable interior. In the deep model, the bands and jets are just surface manifestations of deep circulation in Jupiter's

text: mantle

text: of molecular hydrogen, which is organized into cylinders.

text: The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at sea level. It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of ultraviolet radiation (UV) radiation from the Sun by the ozone layer, which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be  at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.

text: The atmospheric pressure at the top of the stratosphere is roughly 1/1000 the pressure at

text: sea level

text: . It contains the ozone layer, which is the part of Earth's atmosphere that contains relatively high concentrations of that gas. The stratosphere defines a layer in which temperatures rise with increasing altitude. This rise in temperature is caused by the absorption of

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: (UV) radiation from the Sun by the

text: ozone layer

text: , which restricts turbulence and mixing. Although the temperature may be  at the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much warmer, and may be near 0 °C.

text: The thickness of a fog layer is largely determined by the altitude of the inversion boundary, which in coastal or oceanic locales is also the top of the marine layer, above which the air mass is warmer and drier. The inversion boundary varies its altitude primarily in response to the weight of the air above it, which is measured in terms of atmospheric pressure. The marine layer, and any fogbank it may contain, will be "squashed" when the pressure is high, and conversely, may expand upwards when the pressure above it is lowering.

text: The thickness of a fog layer is largely determined by the altitude of the inversion boundary, which in coastal or oceanic locales is also the top of the

text: marine layer

text: , above which the air mass is warmer and drier. The inversion boundary varies its altitude primarily in response to the weight of the air above it, which is measured in terms of atmospheric pressure. The marine layer, and any fogbank it may contain, will be "squashed" when the pressure is high, and conversely, may expand upwards when the pressure above it is lowering.

text: A supernova is a cataclysmic explosion of a star. Within the Milky Way galaxy, supernova explosions occur on average once every 40 years. During the history of the Earth, multiple such events have likely occurred within a distance of 100 light years. Explosions inside this distance can contaminate the planet with radioisotopes and possibly impact the biosphere. Gamma rays emitted by a supernova react with nitrogen in the atmosphere, producing nitrous oxides. These molecules cause a depletion of the ozone layer that protects the surface from ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. An increase in UV-B radiation of only 10–30% is sufficient to cause a significant impact to life; particularly to the phytoplankton that form the base of the oceanic food chain. A supernova explosion at a distance of 26 light years will reduce the ozone column density by half. On average, a supernova explosion occurs within 32 light years once every few hundred million years, resulting in a depletion of the ozone layer lasting several centuries. Over the next two billion years, there will be about 20 supernova explosions and one gamma ray burst that will have a significant impact on the planet's biosphere.

text: A

text: supernova

text: is a cataclysmic explosion of a star. Within the Milky Way galaxy, supernova explosions occur on average once every 40 years. During the history of the Earth, multiple such events have likely occurred within a distance of 100 light years. Explosions inside this distance can contaminate the planet with

text: radioisotope

text: s and possibly impact the biosphere.

text: Gamma ray

text: s emitted by a supernova react with nitrogen in the atmosphere, producing

text: nitrous oxide

text: s. These molecules cause a depletion of the

text: ozone layer

text: that protects the surface from

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation from the Sun. An increase in

text: UV-B

text: radiation of only 10–30% is sufficient to cause a significant impact to life; particularly to the

text: phytoplankton

text: that form the base of the oceanic

text: food chain

text: . A supernova explosion at a distance of 26 light years will reduce the ozone column density by half. On average, a supernova explosion occurs within 32 light years once every few hundred million years, resulting in a depletion of the ozone layer lasting several centuries. Over the next two billion years, there will be about 20 supernova explosions and one

text: gamma ray burst

text: that will have a significant impact on the planet's biosphere.

text: Over land, intense, rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum.  The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air.  This, combined with the rising of the hot air, results in the formation of a low pressure area.  Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude.   Over the water, instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body.  Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations, and can extend to  in height.  Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America, northern Africa, and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions.  Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes.  Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality.

text: Over land, intense, rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum.  The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air.  This, combined with the rising of the hot air, results in the formation of a low pressure area.  Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude.   Over the water, instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body.  Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations, and can extend to  in height.  Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America, northern Africa, and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer

text: monsoon

text: conditions.  Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of

text: sea breeze

text: s.  Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality.

text: After freshening, Exosphere contested the T J Smith Stakes, finishing 9 lengths behind winner Chautauqua. Jockey James Mcdonald noted, "I got him out and he just did nothing."

text: After freshening, Exosphere contested the

text: T J Smith Stakes

text: , finishing 9 lengths behind winner Chautauqua. Jockey James Mcdonald noted, "I got him out and he just did nothing."

text: Helium and hydrogen are two gases whose Joule–Thomson inversion temperatures at a pressure of one atmosphere are very low (e.g., about 45 K (−228 °C) for helium).  Thus, helium and hydrogen warm when expanded at constant enthalpy at typical room temperatures.  On the other hand, nitrogen and oxygen, the two most abundant gases in air, have inversion temperatures of 621 K (348 °C) and 764 K (491 °C) respectively: these gases can be cooled from room temperature by the Joule–Thomson effect.

text: Helium

text: and

text: hydrogen

text: are two gases whose Joule–Thomson inversion temperatures at a pressure of one

text: atmosphere

text: are very low (e.g., about 45 K (−228 °C) for helium).  Thus, helium and hydrogen warm when expanded at constant enthalpy at typical room temperatures.  On the other hand,

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: oxygen

text: , the two most abundant gases in air, have inversion temperatures of 621 K (348 °C) and 764 K (491 °C) respectively: these gases can be cooled from room temperature by the Joule–Thomson effect.

text: Bulk WS forms dark gray hexagonal crystals with a layered structure.  Like the closely related MoS,  it exhibits properties of a dry lubricant. It is chemically fairly inert but is attacked by a mixture of nitric and hydrofluoric acids. When heated in oxygen-containing atmosphere, WS converts to tungsten trioxide. When heated in absence of oxygen, WS does not melt but decomposes to tungsten and sulfur, but only at 1250 °C.

text: Bulk WS forms dark gray hexagonal crystals with a layered structure.  Like the closely related MoS,  it exhibits properties of a

text: dry lubricant

text: . It is chemically fairly inert but is attacked by a mixture of

text: nitric

text: and

text: hydrofluoric acid

text: s. When heated in oxygen-containing atmosphere, WS converts to

text: tungsten trioxide

text: . When heated in absence of oxygen, WS does not melt but decomposes to tungsten and sulfur, but only at 1250 °C.

text: Above all, Porcupine Tree's music has maintained a strong textural and experimental quality, often fusing many genres in a single track. The band's work is noted for its atmospheric nature, largely due to Barbieri's keyboard style and sound-processing abilities, and Wilson's cinematic scope, as a declared fan of American filmmaker David Lynch, whose films are renowned for their sonic content. "Very layered, very produced, very arranged and [with] complex arrangements" is the way Wilson describes the sound of the band. Apart from their regular edition, the albums Stupid Dream, Lightbulb Sun, In Absentia, Deadwing, Fear of a Blank Planet and The Incident are available in DTS (5.1 Surround Sound) mix; this mixing technique has become a tradition for the band in recent years.

text: Above all, Porcupine Tree's music has maintained a strong textural and experimental quality, often fusing many genres in a single track. The band's work is noted for its

text: atmospheric

text: nature, largely due to Barbieri's keyboard style and sound-processing abilities, and Wilson's cinematic scope, as a declared fan of American filmmaker

text: David Lynch

text: , whose films are renowned for their sonic content. "Very layered, very produced, very arranged and [with] complex arrangements" is the way Wilson describes the sound of the band. Apart from their regular edition, the albums Stupid Dream, Lightbulb Sun, In Absentia, Deadwing, Fear of a Blank Planet and The Incident are available in

text: DTS

text: (5.1 Surround Sound) mix; this mixing technique has become a tradition for the band in recent years.

text: The British measured boost pressure as lbf/in² (psi). The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 psi, so a reading of +6 means that the air/fuel mix is being compressed by a supercharger blower to 20.7 psi before entering the engine; +25 means that the air/fuel mix is now being compressed to 39.7 psi.

text: High-pressure systems form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs.  Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.  On weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as confluence, or converging height lines near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere.  High-pressure systems are alternatively referred to as anticyclones.  On weather maps, high-pressure centers are associated with the letter H placed within the isobar with the highest pressure value.  On constant pressure upper level charts, it is located within the highest height line contour.

text: troposphere

text: , the

text: atmospheric

text: layer where

text: weather

text: occurs.  Preferred areas within a

text: synoptic

text: flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.  On weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as

text: confluence

text: , or converging height lines near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere.  High-pressure systems are alternatively referred to as anticyclones.  On weather maps, high-pressure centers are associated with the letter H placed within the

text: isobar

text: with the highest pressure value.  On constant pressure upper level charts, it is located within the highest height line contour.

text: Superheated flow material flashed water in Spirit Lake and North Fork Toutle River to steam, creating a larger, secondary explosion that was heard as far away as British Columbia, Montana, Idaho, and Northern California. Yet many areas closer to the eruption (Portland, Oregon, for example) did not hear the blast. This so-called "quiet zone" extended radially a few tens of miles from the volcano and was created by the complex response of the eruption's sound waves to differences in temperature and air motion of the atmospheric layers and, to a lesser extent, local topography.

text: Superheated flow material flashed water in Spirit Lake and North Fork Toutle River to steam, creating a larger, secondary explosion that was heard as far away as

text: British Columbia

text: Montana

text: Idaho

text: , and

text: Northern California

text: . Yet many areas closer to the eruption (

text: Portland, Oregon

text: , for example) did not hear the blast. This so-called "quiet zone" extended radially a few tens of miles from the volcano and was created by the complex response of the eruption's sound waves to differences in temperature and air motion of the atmospheric layers and, to a lesser extent, local

text: topography

text: In the field of planetary atmospheres, David Catling and Tyler Robinson have proposed a general explanation for a curious observation: the minimum air temperature between the troposphere (the lowest atmospheric layer where temperature declines with altitude) and stratosphere (where temperature increases with altitude in an 'inversion') occurs a pressure of about 0.1 bar on Earth, Titan, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. This level is the tropopause. Robinson and Catling used the physics of radiation to explain why the tropopause temperature minimum in these extremely different atmospheres occurs at a common pressure.  They propose that a pressure around 0.1 bar could be a fairly general rule for planets with stratospheric temperature inversions. This rule could constrain the atmospheric structure on exoplanets and hence their surface temperature and habitability.

text: In the field of planetary atmospheres, David Catling and Tyler Robinson have proposed a general explanation for a curious observation: the minimum air temperature between the

text: troposphere

text: (the lowest atmospheric layer where temperature declines with altitude) and

text: stratosphere

text: (where temperature increases with altitude in an '

text: inversion

text: ') occurs a pressure of about 0.1 bar on Earth, Titan, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. This level is the

text: tropopause

text: . Robinson and Catling used the physics of radiation to explain why the tropopause temperature minimum in these extremely different atmospheres occurs at a common pressure.  They propose that a pressure around 0.1 bar could be a fairly general rule for planets with stratospheric temperature inversions. This rule could constrain the atmospheric structure on exoplanets and hence their surface temperature and habitability.

text: We start with an example to invert for earth parameter values from temperature depth distribution in a given earth region. Although this example does not directly relate to seismic inversion since no traveling acoustic waves are involved, it nonetheless introduces practical application of the inversion technique in a manner easy to comprehend, before moving on to seismic applications. In this example, the temperature of the earth is measured at discrete locations in a well bore by placing temperature sensors in the target depths. By assuming a forward model of linear distribution of temperature with depth, two parameters are inverted for from the temperature depth measurements.

text: We start with an example to invert for earth parameter values from temperature depth distribution in a given earth region. Although this example does not directly relate to

text: seismic inversion

text: since no traveling acoustic waves are involved, it nonetheless introduces practical application of the inversion technique in a manner easy to comprehend, before moving on to seismic applications. In this example, the temperature of the earth is measured at discrete locations in a well bore by placing temperature sensors in the target depths. By assuming a forward model of linear distribution of temperature with depth, two parameters are inverted for from the temperature depth measurements.

text: Ozone is produced by ultraviolet light from the Sun hitting the Earth's atmosphere (especially in the ozone layer), lightning, certain high-voltage electric devices (such as air ionizers), and as a by-product of other types of pollution.

text: Ozone

text: is produced by

text: ultraviolet light

text: from the Sun hitting the Earth's atmosphere (especially in the

text: ozone layer

text: lightning

text: , certain

text: high-voltage

text: electric devices (such as

text: air ionizer

text: s), and as a by-product of other types of pollution.

text: One common example of chemically assisted degradation is the degradation of rubber by ozone particles. Ozone is a naturally occurring atmospheric molecule that is produced by electric discharge or through a reaction of Oxygen with solar radiation. Ozone is also produced with atmospheric pollutants reacted with ultraviolet radiation. For a reaction to occur, ozone concentrations only have to be as low as 3-5 parts per hundred million (pphm) and when these concentrations are reached, a reaction occurs with a thin surface layer (5 x10-7 metres) of the material.The ozone molecules react with the rubber which in most cases is unsaturated (contains double bonds), however a reaction will still occur in saturated polymers (those containing only single bonds). When reaction occurs, scission of the polymer chain (breaking of double covalent bonds) takes place forming decomposition products:

text: One common example of chemically assisted degradation is the degradation of

text: rubber

text: by ozone particles.

text: Ozone

text: is a naturally occurring atmospheric molecule that is produced by electric discharge or through a reaction of

text: Oxygen

text: with solar radiation. Ozone is also produced with atmospheric pollutants reacted with

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation. For a reaction to occur, ozone concentrations only have to be as low as 3-5 parts per hundred million (pphm) and when these concentrations are reached, a reaction occurs with a thin surface layer (5 x10-7 metres) of the material.The ozone molecules react with the rubber which in most cases is unsaturated (contains double bonds), however a reaction will still occur in saturated polymers (those containing only single bonds). When reaction occurs, scission of the polymer chain (breaking of double covalent bonds) takes place forming

text: decomposition

text: products:

text: After launch, GOLD will perform a two-year mission, imaging the Earth’s thermosphere and ionosphere from geostationary orbit.  The GOLD instrument is a two-channel Far Ultraviolet (FUV) imaging spectrograph that will be built by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) at the University of Colorado Boulder, and will be flown as a hosted payload on a commercial communications satellite owned and operated by SES S.A.. The SES-14 mission is scheduled to launch in the fourth quarter of 2017 on a Falcon 9 rocket.

text: After launch, GOLD will perform a two-year mission, imaging the Earth’s thermosphere and ionosphere from geostationary orbit.  The GOLD instrument is a two-channel Far Ultraviolet (FUV) imaging

text: spectrograph

text: that will be built by the

entity_name: Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics

text: Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics

text: (LASP) at the

text: University of Colorado Boulder

text: , and will be flown as a hosted payload on a commercial communications satellite owned and operated by

text: SES S.A.

text: . The

text: mission is scheduled to launch in the fourth quarter of 2017 on a

text: Falcon 9

text: rocket.

text: Given that the lapse rate is not a conservative quantity when the tropopause is considered for stratosphere-troposphere exchanges studies, there exists an alternative definition named dynamic tropopause. It is formed with the aid of potential vorticity, which is defined as the product of the isentropic density, i.e. the density that arises from using potential temperature as the vertical coordinate, and the absolute vorticity, given that this quantity attains quite different values for the troposphere and the stratosphere. Instead of using the vertical temperature gradient as the defining variable, the dynamic tropopause surface is expressed in potential vorticity units (PVU).

text: Given that the lapse rate is not a conservative quantity when the tropopause is considered for stratosphere-troposphere exchanges studies, there exists an alternative definition named dynamic tropopause. It is formed with the aid of

text: potential vorticity

text: , which is defined as the product of the

text: isentropic

text: density

text: , i.e. the density that arises from using

text: potential temperature

text: as the vertical coordinate, and the

text: absolute vorticity

text: , given that this quantity attains quite different values for the troposphere and the stratosphere. Instead of using the vertical temperature gradient as the defining variable, the dynamic tropopause surface is expressed in

text: potential vorticity unit

text: s (PVU).

text: Project Manhigh was a pre–Space Age military project that took men in balloons to the middle layers of the stratosphere. It was conducted by the United States Air Force between 1955 and 1958.

text: Project Manhigh was a pre–

text: Space Age

text: military project that took men in

text: balloons

text: to the middle layers of the

text: stratosphere

text: . It was conducted by the

text: United States Air Force

text: between 1955 and 1958.

text: In addition to its main campus located at Thumba and Veli, VSSC has integration and checkout facilities located at Valiamala. Facilities for development of reinforced plastics and composites are located at Vattiyoorkavu in Thiruvananthapuram. An experimental plant in Aluva produces ammonium perchlorate, a vital ingredient for solid propellant motors. TERLS and the Space Physics Laboratory (SPL) are also within the VSSC campus. SPL focuses on research activities in disciplines such as Atmospheric surface boundary layer physics, numerical atmospheric modeling, atmospheric aerosols, chemistry of radiation, atmospheric dynamics, etc. Satish Dhawan Supercomputing Facility.

text: In addition to its main campus located at

text: Thumba

text: and

text: Veli

text: , VSSC has integration and checkout facilities located at

text: Valiamala

text: . Facilities for development of reinforced plastics and composites are located at

text: Vattiyoorkavu

text: in Thiruvananthapuram. An experimental plant in

text: Aluva

text: produces

text: ammonium perchlorate

text: , a vital ingredient for solid propellant motors. TERLS and the Space Physics Laboratory (SPL) are also within the VSSC campus. SPL focuses on research activities in disciplines such as Atmospheric surface boundary layer physics, numerical atmospheric modeling, atmospheric aerosols, chemistry of radiation, atmospheric dynamics, etc. Satish Dhawan Supercomputing Facility.

text: In the Earth's atmosphere, temperature varies greatly at different heights relative to the Earth's surface. The coldest temperatures lie near the mesopause, an area approximately  to  above the surface. In contrast, some of the warmest temperatures can be found in the thermosphere, which receives strong ionizing radiation at the level of the Van Allen radiation belt.

text: In the Earth's atmosphere, temperature varies greatly at different heights relative to the

text: Earth

text: 's surface. The coldest temperatures lie near the

text: mesopause

text: , an area approximately  to  above the surface. In contrast, some of the warmest temperatures can be found in the

text: thermosphere

text: , which receives strong

text: ionizing radiation

text: at the level of the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: Going upward from the surface, it is the point where air ceases to cool with height, and becomes almost completely dry. More formally, the tropopause is the region of the atmosphere where the environmental lapse rate changes from positive, as it behaves in the troposphere, to the stratospheric negative one. Following is the exact definition used by the World Meteorological Organization:

text: Going upward from the surface, it is the point where air ceases to cool with height, and becomes almost completely dry. More formally, the tropopause is the region of the atmosphere where the

text: environmental lapse rate

text: changes from positive, as it behaves in the troposphere, to the stratospheric negative one. Following is the exact definition used by the

text: World Meteorological Organization

text: In an air mass moving, vertical movements occur when there is convergence and divergence at different levels of the atmosphere. For example, when we are near the jet stream, winds increase when approaching its most intense region and decreases when it moves away. So there are areas where the air accumulates and must come down, while in other areas there is a loss and an updraft from lower layers. These upward or downward flows will be relatively diffuse.

text: In an air mass moving, vertical movements occur when there is

text: convergence

text: and

text: divergence

text: at different levels of the atmosphere. For example, when we are near the

text: jet stream

text: , winds increase when approaching its most intense region and decreases when it moves away. So there are areas where the air accumulates and must come down, while in other areas there is a loss and an updraft from lower layers. These upward or downward flows will be relatively diffuse.

text: Among the witnesses who supported Samford's explanation was the crew of a B-25 bomber, which had been flying over Washington during the sightings of July 26–27. The bomber was vectored several times by National Airport over unknown targets on the airport's radarscopes, yet the crew could see nothing unusual. Finally, as a crew member related, "the radar had a target which turned out to be the Wilson Lines steamboat trip to Mount Vernon...the radar was sure as hell picking up the steamboat." Air Force Captain Harold May was in the radar center at Andrews AFB during the sightings of July 19–20. Upon hearing that National Airport's radar had picked up an unknown object heading in his direction, May stepped outside and saw "a light that was changing from red to orange to green to red again...at times it dipped suddenly and appeared to lose altitude." However, May eventually concluded that he was simply seeing a star that was distorted by the atmosphere, and that its "movement" was an illusion. At 3 a.m. on July 27, an Eastern Airlines flight over Washington was told that an unknown object was in its vicinity; the crew could see nothing unusual. When they were told that the object had moved directly behind their plane, they began a sharp turn to try to see the object, but were told by National Airport's radar center that the object had "disappeared" when they began their turn. At the request of the Air Force, the CAA's Technical Development and Evaluation Center did an analysis of the radar sightings. Their conclusion was that "a temperature inversion had been indicated in almost every instance when the unidentified radar targets or visual objects had been reported." Project Blue Book would eventually label the unknown Washington radar blips as false images caused by temperature inversion, and the visual sightings as misindentified meteors, stars, and city lights. In later years two prominent UFO skeptics, Dr. Donald Menzel, an astronomer at Harvard University, and Philip Klass, a senior editor for Aviation Week magazine, would also argue in favor of the temperature inversion/mirage hypothesis. In 2002 Klass told a reporter that "radar technology in 1952 wasn't sophisticated enough to filter out many ordinary objects, such as flocks of birds, weather balloons, or temperature inversions." The reporter added that "UFO proponents argue that even then seasoned controllers could differentiate between spurious targets and solid, metallic objects. Klass disagrees. It may be that "we had two dumb controllers at National Airport on those nights"...[Klass] added that the introduction of digital filters in the 1970s led to a steep decline in UFO sightings on radar."

text: Among the witnesses who supported Samford's explanation was the crew of a

text: bomber, which had been flying over Washington during the sightings of July 26–27. The bomber was vectored several times by National Airport over unknown targets on the airport's radarscopes, yet the crew could see nothing unusual. Finally, as a crew member related, "the radar had a target which turned out to be the Wilson Lines steamboat trip to

text: Mount Vernon

text: ...the radar was sure as hell picking up the steamboat." Air Force Captain Harold May was in the radar center at Andrews AFB during the sightings of July 19–20. Upon hearing that National Airport's radar had picked up an unknown object heading in his direction, May stepped outside and saw "a light that was changing from red to orange to green to red again...at times it dipped suddenly and appeared to lose altitude." However, May eventually concluded that he was simply seeing a star that was distorted by the atmosphere, and that its "movement" was an illusion. At 3 a.m. on July 27, an

text: Eastern Airlines

text: flight over Washington was told that an unknown object was in its vicinity; the crew could see nothing unusual. When they were told that the object had moved directly behind their plane, they began a sharp turn to try to see the object, but were told by National Airport's radar center that the object had "disappeared" when they began their turn. At the request of the Air Force, the

entity_name: United States government role in civil aviation

text: CAA

text: 's Technical Development and Evaluation Center did an analysis of the radar sightings. Their conclusion was that "a temperature inversion had been indicated in almost every instance when the unidentified radar targets or visual objects had been reported." Project Blue Book would eventually label the unknown Washington radar blips as false images caused by temperature inversion, and the visual sightings as misindentified meteors, stars, and city lights. In later years two prominent UFO skeptics, Dr.

text: Donald Menzel

text: , an astronomer at

text: Harvard University

text: , and

text: Philip Klass

text: , a senior editor for Aviation Week magazine, would also argue in favor of the temperature inversion/mirage hypothesis. In 2002 Klass told a reporter that "radar technology in 1952 wasn't sophisticated enough to filter out many ordinary objects, such as flocks of birds, weather balloons, or temperature inversions." The reporter added that "UFO proponents argue that even then seasoned controllers could differentiate between spurious targets and solid, metallic objects. Klass disagrees. It may be that "we had two dumb controllers at National Airport on those nights"...[Klass] added that the introduction of digital filters in the 1970s led to a steep decline in UFO sightings on radar."

text: The value of subscript b ranges from 0 to 6 in accordance with each of seven successive layers of the atmosphere shown in the table below. The reference value for ρ for b = 0 is the defined sea level value, ρ = 1.2250 kg/m or 0.0023768908 slug/ft. Values of ρ of b = 1 through b = 6 are obtained from the application of the appropriate member of the pair equations 1 and 2 for the case when h = h.

text: Advanced Rayleigh Guided Ground Layer Adaptive Optics System (ARGOS) is a multi-star adaptive optics system which is built for use with the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT). With ARGOS, both sides of the LBT will be equipped with a multi-laser beacon system and corresponding wavefront sensors. The artificial beacons are created by Rayleigh scattering the earth´s atmosphere using high power pulsed green lasers. The purpose of ARGOS is to generate six artificial laser guide stars to correct the ground layer turbulence above the LBT mirrors. This will decrease the distortions induced by the atmospheric turbulence, and therefore the imaging and spectroscopic capability of LUCIFER, the LBT spectrograph.

text: Advanced Rayleigh Guided Ground Layer Adaptive Optics System (ARGOS) is a multi-star adaptive optics system which is built for use with the

text: Large Binocular Telescope

text: (LBT). With ARGOS, both sides of the LBT will be equipped with a multi-laser beacon system and corresponding wavefront sensors. The artificial beacons are created by

text: Rayleigh scattering

text: the earth´s

text: atmosphere

text: using high power pulsed green

text: lasers

text: . The purpose of ARGOS is to generate six artificial laser guide stars to correct the ground layer turbulence above the LBT mirrors. This will decrease the distortions induced by the atmospheric turbulence, and therefore the imaging and spectroscopic capability of LUCIFER, the LBT spectrograph.

text: The movement of this water can be explained by the theory of water transport through a plant.  This well established theory is called the cohesion-tension theory.   In brief, it states that movement of water through the plant depends on having a continuous column of water, from the roots to the leaves.  Water is then pulled from the roots to the leaves, through the plant system, by the difference in water potential between the boundary layers of the soil and the atmosphere.  Therefore, the driving force for moving water through a plant is the cohesive strength of water molecules and a pressure gradient from the roots to the leaves.  This theory can still be applied when the boundary layer to the atmosphere is closed, e.g. when plant stomata are closed or in senesced plants. The pressure gradient is between soil layers with different water potentials; water moves through the roots from wetter to drier soil layers in the same manner as it does when the plant is transpiring.

text: The movement of this water can be explained by the theory of water transport through a plant.  This well established theory is called the

text: cohesion-tension theory

text: .   In brief, it states that movement of water through the plant depends on having a continuous column of water, from the roots to the leaves.  Water is then pulled from the roots to the leaves, through the plant system, by the difference in water potential between the

text: boundary layer

text: s of the

text: soil

text: and the

text: atmosphere

text: .  Therefore, the driving force for moving water through a plant is the cohesive strength of water molecules and a pressure gradient from the roots to the leaves.  This theory can still be applied when the boundary layer to the atmosphere is closed, e.g. when

text: plant

text: stomata

text: are closed or in senesced plants. The pressure gradient is between soil layers with different water potentials; water moves through the roots from wetter to drier soil layers in the same manner as it does when the plant is transpiring.

text: Close to the earth's surface, the atmosphere normally gets colder with height, but on certain days, the atmosphere begins to get warmer with height a short distance from the earth's surface, and air emissions build up under this "cap" on the vertical mixing. Topographic features (such as a valley) that prevent lateral atmospheric mixing, coupled with the vertical cap on atmospheric mixing caused by an inversion, can lead to especially high air pollutant concentrations, for example, the 1948 Donora smog.

text: Close to the earth's surface, the atmosphere normally gets colder with height, but on certain days, the atmosphere begins to get warmer with height a short distance from the earth's surface, and air emissions build up under this "cap" on the vertical mixing. Topographic features (such as a valley) that prevent lateral atmospheric mixing, coupled with the vertical cap on atmospheric mixing caused by an inversion, can lead to especially high air pollutant concentrations, for example, the

text: 1948 Donora smog

text: This would have been aided, on each occasion, by a temperature inversion in the atmosphere with temperature increasing with altitude above the canal, similar to the phenomenon of the superior image mirage. Temperature inversions like this are common. An increase in air temperature or lapse rate of 0.11 degrees Celsius per metre of altitude would create an illusion of a flat canal, and all optical measurements made near ground level would be consistent with a completely flat surface. If the lapse rate were higher than this (temperature increasing with height at a greater rate), all optical observations would be consistent with a concave surface, a "bowl-shaped earth". Under average conditions, optical measurements are consistent with a spherical Earth approximately 15% less curved than its true diameter. Repetition of the atmospheric conditions required for each of the many observations is not unlikely, and warm days over still water can produce favourable conditions.

text: This would have been aided, on each occasion, by a

text: temperature inversion

text: in the atmosphere with temperature increasing with altitude above the canal, similar to the phenomenon of the

text: superior image mirage

text: . Temperature inversions like this are common. An increase in air temperature or

text: lapse rate

text: of 0.11 degrees

text: Celsius

text: per metre of altitude would create an illusion of a flat canal, and all optical measurements made near ground level would be consistent with a completely flat surface. If the lapse rate were higher than this (temperature increasing with height at a greater rate), all optical observations would be consistent with a concave surface, a "bowl-shaped earth". Under average conditions, optical measurements are consistent with a spherical Earth approximately 15% less curved than its true diameter. Repetition of the atmospheric conditions required for each of the many observations is not unlikely, and warm days over still water can produce favourable conditions.

text: To a first approximation, an example of radiative exchange equilibrium is in the exchange of non-window wavelength thermal radiation between the land-and-sea surface and the lowest atmosphere, when there is a clear sky. As a first approximation (Swinbank 1963, Paltridge and Platt 1976, pages 139-140), in the non-window wavenumbers, there is zero net exchange between the surface and the atmosphere, while, in the window wavenumbers, there is simply direct radiation from the land-sea surface to space. A like situation occurs between adjacent layers in the turbulently mixed boundary layer of the lower troposphere, expressed in the so-called "cooling to space approximation", first noted by Rodgers and Walshaw (1966).

text: To a first approximation, an example of radiative exchange equilibrium is in the exchange of non-

text: window

text: wavelength thermal radiation between the land-and-sea surface and the lowest atmosphere, when there is a clear sky. As a first approximation (Swinbank 1963, Paltridge and Platt 1976, pages 139-140), in the non-window

text: wavenumber

text: s, there is zero net exchange between the surface and the atmosphere, while, in the window wavenumbers, there is simply direct radiation from the land-sea surface to space. A like situation occurs between adjacent layers in the turbulently mixed

text: boundary layer

text: of the lower

text: troposphere

text: , expressed in the so-called "cooling to space approximation", first noted by Rodgers and Walshaw (1966).

text: ) as well as in the thermodynamic structure of the troposphere, which are controlled by the large-scale dynamics of the tropical climate. These processes are modulated by factors including the sea surface temperature (and underlying ocean dynamics), background near-surface wind speed, and the vertical structure of atmospheric radiative heating. The nature of this modulation is complex, particularly on climate time-scales (decades or longer).  On shorter time-scales, variability in the maximum potential intensity is commonly linked to sea surface temperature perturbations from the tropical mean, as regions with relatively warm water have thermodynamic states much more capable of sustaining a tropical cyclone than regions with relatively cold water.<ref name="Sobel_Bretherton_2000_JC">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013

text: Temperature of upper layers of the atmosphere does not show noticeable temporal changes. In 1988, 2002 and 2006 it was approximately constant and equal to  (with uncertainty about ), despite twofold increase of the pressure. Dependence on latitude or morning/evening conditions is also absent: temperature is the same above all the surface. It is consistent with theoretical data, which predict fast mixing of the atmosphere. But there are evidence for a small vertical heterogeneities of temperature. They reveal themselves in sharp and brief spikes of brightness during stellar occultations. Amplitude of these heterogeneities is estimated to be  on the scale of a few km. They can be caused by gravity waves or turbulence, which can be related to convection or wind.

text: Temperature of upper layers of the atmosphere does not show noticeable temporal changes. In 1988, 2002 and 2006 it was approximately constant and equal to  (with uncertainty about ), despite twofold increase of the pressure. Dependence on latitude or morning/evening conditions is also absent: temperature is the same above all the surface. It is consistent with theoretical data, which predict fast mixing of the atmosphere. But there are evidence for a small vertical heterogeneities of temperature. They reveal themselves in sharp and brief spikes of brightness during stellar occultations. Amplitude of these heterogeneities is estimated to be  on the scale of a few km. They can be caused by

text: gravity wave

text: s or turbulence, which can be related to

text: convection

text: or wind.

text: The planet is a gas giant that is about  in diameter. Like most gas giants, it has a solid core that consists of metal followed by layers of metallic gases. Many of the layers of gas are poisonous, and the pressure and temperature are far above what a human could tolerate. But from approximately  down from outer space, there is a habitable layer known as the Bespin Life Zone. This layer has an oxygen atmosphere with the temperature and pressure that makes it ideal for human life. It is in this layer that Cloud City is located.

text: The planet is a

text: gas giant

text: that is about  in diameter. Like most gas giants, it has a solid core that consists of metal followed by layers of metallic gases. Many of the layers of gas are poisonous, and the pressure and temperature are far above what a human could tolerate. But from approximately  down from

text: outer space

text: , there is a habitable layer known as the Bespin Life Zone. This layer has an

text: oxygen

text: atmosphere

text: with the temperature and pressure that makes it ideal for human life. It is in this layer that Cloud City is located.

text: The SST was the topic of considerable concern within and outside the aviation industry. From the start, the airline industry had noted that the economics of the design were questionable, concerns that were only partially addressed during development. Outside the field, the entire SST concept was the subject of considerable negative press, centered on the issue of sonic booms and effects on the ozone layer.

text: The SST was the topic of considerable concern within and outside the aviation industry. From the start, the airline industry had noted that the economics of the design were questionable, concerns that were only partially addressed during development. Outside the field, the entire SST concept was the subject of considerable negative press, centered on the issue of

text: sonic boom

text: s and effects on the

text: ozone layer

text: Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind. Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The Kármán line, defined as 100 km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space.

text: Above the troposphere, the atmosphere is usually divided into the

text: stratosphere

text: mesosphere

text: , and

text: thermosphere

text: . Each layer has a different

text: lapse rate

text: , defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the

text: exosphere

text: thins out into the

text: magnetosphere

text: , where the geomagnetic fields interact with the

text: solar wind

text: . Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The

text: Kármán line

text: , defined as 100 km above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and

text: outer space

text: Compounds containing C–H bonds (such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs) have been designed to replace CFCs in certain applications. These replacement compounds are more reactive and less likely to survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere where they could affect the ozone layer. While being less damaging than CFCs, HCFCs can have a negative impact on the ozone layer, so they are also being phased out. These in turn are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds that do not destroy stratospheric ozone at all.

text: Compounds containing C–H bonds (such as

text: hydrochlorofluorocarbon

text: s, or HCFCs) have been designed to replace CFCs in certain applications. These replacement compounds are more reactive and less likely to survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere where they could affect the ozone layer. While being less damaging than CFCs, HCFCs can have a negative impact on the ozone layer, so they are also being phased out. These in turn are being replaced by

text: hydrofluorocarbons

text: (HFCs) and other compounds that do not destroy stratospheric ozone at all.

text: The loss of the Martian magnetic field strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this change significantly degraded surface habitability. When there was a magnetic field, the atmosphere would have been protected from erosion by solar wind, which would ensure the maintenance of a dense atmosphere, necessary for liquid water to exist on the surface of Mars. The loss of the atmosphere was accompanied by decreasing temperatures. A part of the liquid water inventory sublimed and was transported to the poles, while the rest becametrapped in a subsurface ice layer.

text: The loss of the Martian

text: magnetic field

text: strongly affected surface environments through atmospheric loss and increased radiation; this change significantly degraded surface habitability. When there was a magnetic field, the atmosphere would have been protected from erosion by

text: solar wind

text: , which would ensure the maintenance of a dense atmosphere, necessary for liquid water to exist on the surface of Mars. The loss of the atmosphere was accompanied by decreasing temperatures. A part of the liquid water inventory sublimed and was transported to the poles, while the rest becametrapped in a subsurface ice layer.

text: The tropopause is the boundary region between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

text: The process regenerates Cl• to destroy more O. The Cl• thus is a catalyst, which destroy an average of 100,000 O molecules during its atmospheric lifetime of 1–2 years. In some parts of the world, these reactions have significantly thinned the Earth's natural stratospheric ozone layer that shields the biosphere against solar UV radiation; increased UV levels at the surface can cause skin cancer or even blindness.

text: The process regenerates Cl• to destroy more O. The Cl• thus is a

text: catalyst

text: , which destroy an average of 100,000 O molecules during its atmospheric lifetime of 1–2 years. In some parts of the world, these reactions have significantly thinned the Earth's natural stratospheric ozone layer that shields the biosphere against solar UV radiation; increased UV levels at the surface can cause skin cancer or even blindness.

text: When the inverse temperature

text: When the

text: inverse temperature

text: Abdullah's research interests included cloud stratification,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Abdullah|first=Abdul Jabbar|title=STRATIFICATION OF CLOUD LAYERS IN A STABLE ATMOSPHERE|journal=Monthly Weather Review|year=1967|url=http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/095/mwr-095-04-0189.pdf | doi = 10.1175/1520-0493(1967)095

text: A high layer of haze was detected around the sunlit pole, which also was found to radiate large amounts of ultraviolet light, a phenomenon dubbed "electroglow". The average temperature of the atmosphere of the planet is about 59 kelvins. Surprisingly, the illuminated and dark poles, and most of the planet, show nearly the same temperature at the cloud tops.

text: A high layer of haze was detected around the sunlit

text: pole

text: , which also was found to radiate large amounts of

text: ultraviolet light

text: , a phenomenon dubbed "electroglow". The average

text: temperature

text: of the atmosphere of the planet is about 59 kelvins. Surprisingly, the illuminated and dark poles, and most of the planet, show nearly the same temperature at the cloud tops.

text: During the years that followed, he named the two layers of the atmosphere known as the "troposphere" and the "stratosphere". This naming convention has since been maintained, with (higher-altitude) layers that were subsequently discovered being given names of this sort. After Teisserenc de Bort's death in 1913, the heirs donated the observatory to the state so that the research tasks could be continued.

text: During the years that followed, he named the two

text: layers of the atmosphere

text: known as the "

text: troposphere

text: " and the "

text: stratosphere

text: ". This naming convention has since been maintained, with (higher-altitude) layers that were subsequently discovered being given names of this sort. After Teisserenc de Bort's death in 1913, the heirs donated the observatory to the state so that the research tasks could be continued.

text: He was born in London and educated at Cambridge University, where he graduated with first class honours in Applied Mathematics in 1937 and in Economics a year later. He joined the British Meteorological Office in 1939 and was asked to study turbulent diffusion in the atmospheric boundary layer (the first few hundred metres of atmosphere above the earth's surface). In 1943 he was transferred to the upper-air unit and helped prepare the D-Day weather forecast.

text: He was born in London and educated at

text: Cambridge University

text: , where he graduated with first class honours in Applied Mathematics in 1937 and in Economics a year later. He joined the British

text: Meteorological Office

text: in 1939 and was asked to study turbulent diffusion in the atmospheric boundary layer (the first few hundred metres of atmosphere above the earth's surface). In 1943 he was transferred to the upper-air unit and helped prepare the D-Day weather forecast.

text: The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun's medium-frequency ultraviolet light (from about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength), which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life forms near the surface.

text: The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun's medium-frequency ultraviolet light (from about 200

text: nm

text: to 315 nm

text: wavelength

text: ), which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life forms near the surface.

text: The most common type of directly heated cathode, used in most high power transmitting tubes, is the thoriated tungsten filament, discovered in 1914 and made practical by Irving Langmuir in 1923. A small amount of thorium is added to the tungsten of the filament. The filament is heated white-hot, at about 2400 °C, and thorium atoms migrate to the surface of the filament and form the emissive layer. Heating the filament in a hydrocarbon atmosphere carburizes the surface and stabilizes the emissive layer.  Thoriated filaments can have very long lifetimes and are resistant to the ion bombardment that occurs at high voltages, because fresh thorium continually diffuses to the surface, renewing the layer. They are used in nearly all high-power vacuum tubes for radio transmitters, and in some tubes for hi-fi amplifiers. Their lifetimes tend to be longer than those of oxide cathodes.

text: The most common type of directly heated cathode, used in most high power transmitting tubes, is the

text: thoriated tungsten

text: filament, discovered in 1914 and made practical by

text: Irving Langmuir

text: in 1923. A small amount of

text: thorium

text: is added to the tungsten of the filament. The filament is heated white-hot, at about 2400 °C, and thorium atoms migrate to the surface of the filament and form the emissive layer. Heating the filament in a hydrocarbon atmosphere carburizes the surface and stabilizes the emissive layer.  Thoriated filaments can have very long lifetimes and are resistant to the ion bombardment that occurs at high voltages, because fresh thorium continually diffuses to the surface, renewing the layer. They are used in nearly all high-power vacuum tubes for radio transmitters, and in some tubes for

text: hi-fi

text: amplifiers. Their lifetimes tend to be longer than those of oxide cathodes.

text: Lacquer vessels, boxes and trays have a coiled or woven bamboo-strip base often mixed with horsehair, and the thitsee may be mixed with ashes or sawdust to form a putty-like substance called thayo which can be sculpted. The object is coated layer upon layer with thitsee and thayo to make a smooth surface, polished and engraved with intricate designs, commonly using red, green and yellow colours on a red or black background. Shwezawa is a distinctive form in its use of gold leaf to fill in the designs on a black background.

text: Temperature data can be used for various kinds of studies. An important aspect of temperature data is the ability to correlate temperature with various factors that may be affecting or occurring in the environment. Oftentimes, temperature data is collected long-term by the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), and made available to the scientific community through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Data can be overlaid with maps of terrain, urban features, and other spatial areas to create heat maps. These heat maps can be used to view trends and distribution over time and space.

text: Temperature

text: data can be used for various kinds of studies. An important aspect of temperature data is the ability to correlate temperature with various factors that may be affecting or occurring in the environment. Oftentimes, temperature data is collected long-term by the

entity_name: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research

text: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research

text: (OAR), and made available to the scientific community through the

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: (NOAA). Data can be overlaid with maps of terrain, urban features, and other spatial areas to create heat maps. These heat maps can be used to view trends and distribution over time and space.

text: Antiferromagnets can couple to ferromagnets, for instance, through a mechanism known as exchange bias, in which the ferromagnetic film is either grown upon the antiferromagnet or annealed in an aligning magnetic field, causing the surface atoms of the ferromagnet to align with the surface atoms of the antiferromagnet. This provides the ability to "pin" the orientation of a ferromagnetic film, which provides one of the main uses in so-called spin valves, which are the basis of magnetic sensors including modern hard drive read heads. The temperature at or above which an antiferromagnetic layer loses its ability to "pin" the magnetization direction of an adjacent ferromagnetic layer is called the blocking temperature of that layer and is usually lower than the Néel temperature.

text: Antiferromagnets can couple to

text: ferromagnets

text: , for instance, through a mechanism known as

text: exchange bias

text: , in which the

text: ferromagnetic

text: film is either grown upon the antiferromagnet or annealed in an aligning magnetic field, causing the surface atoms of the

text: ferromagnet

text: to align with the surface atoms of the antiferromagnet. This provides the ability to "pin" the orientation of a

text: ferromagnetic

text: film, which provides one of the main uses in so-called

text: spin valves

text: , which are the basis of magnetic sensors including modern

text: hard drive

text: read heads. The temperature at or above which an antiferromagnetic layer loses its ability to "pin" the magnetization direction of an adjacent ferromagnetic layer is called the blocking temperature of that layer and is usually lower than the Néel temperature.

text: Computational work of Yakobson and others published on January 17, 2014 supports this theory of lightning directly forming diamond from the elemental carbon and nanographite; as Yakobson et al. have subsequently shown that few layer graphene from such lightning strikes can be subsequently converted directly to diamond at low pressure as in the storm clouds of the upper atmospheres of Saturn and Jupiter from even the heat (and the magnetic field as by RBL) of subsequent lightning strikes atomizing hydrogen (the major component of the atmospheres of these planets) and hydrogen atoms attaching to few layer graphene edges near the bolts to transform the few layer graphene to thin diamond without the need for the graphene to fall deep into the interior of Saturn and Jupiter for high pressures to convert the graphite to diamond by what Yakobson notes "chemically induced phase transition". The heat and hydrogen may allow nucleating thin nanodiamond from thin few layer graphene, but the magnetic fields of the lightning are important for stabilizing formation of larger diamond  during such processes beyond the nanosize and thinnest. The easy of suspension of few layer graphene in such upper clouds in these planets and the nice electrical conduction path by such suspended graphene for subsequent multiple lightning strikes through the suspended graphene give more feasibility to this direct lightning driven diamond formation theory in the hydrogen atmospheres of Saturn and Jupiter as initially expressed by RBL.;

text: This heat wave, like all extreme weather events, has its direct cause in a complex set of atmospheric conditions that produce short-term weather. However, weather occurs within the broader context of the climate, and many scientists agree that global warming has made it more likely that heat waves of this magnitude will occur. A NASA-sponsored study indicates an increase in the drying tendency from spring to summer over the U.S. Central Plains, especially during the transition from June to July.  The intensified deficit in precipitation is accompanied by increased downward shortwave radiation flux, tropospheric subsidence, enhanced evaporative fraction, and elevated planetary boundary layer height, all of which can lead to surface drying.  These conditions are similar to those accompanying the 2012 drought and intense heat that occurred in mid-summer.

text: His mothers Indo (Eurasian) family belonged to the lower social layer of European society, where constant lack of money, outright poverty and a continues struggle for existence characterized life in the late 19th century. An atmosphere and world he would display in his literary work.

text: Measuring the temperature change with height through the troposphere and the stratosphere identifies the location of the tropopause. In the troposphere, temperature decreases with altitude. In the stratosphere, however, the temperature remains constant for a while and then increases with altitude. The region of the atmosphere where the lapse rate changes from positive (in the troposphere) to negative (in the stratosphere), is defined as the tropopause. Thus, the tropopause is an inversion layer, and there is little mixing between the two layers of the atmosphere.

text: Measuring the temperature change with height through the troposphere and the stratosphere identifies the location of the tropopause. In the troposphere, temperature decreases with altitude. In the stratosphere, however, the temperature remains constant for a while and then increases with altitude. The region of the atmosphere where the lapse rate changes from positive (in the troposphere) to negative (in the stratosphere), is defined as the tropopause. Thus, the tropopause is an

text: inversion layer

text: , and there is little mixing between the two layers of the atmosphere.

text: The mesosphere of Venus extends from 65 km to 120 km in height, and the thermosphere begins at approximately 120 km, eventually reaching the upper limit of the atmosphere (exosphere) at about 220 to 350 km. The exosphere is the altitude at which the atmosphere becomes collisionless.

text: The

text: mesosphere

text: of Venus extends from 65 km to 120 km in height, and the

text: thermosphere

text: begins at approximately 120 km, eventually reaching the upper limit of the atmosphere (exosphere) at about 220 to 350 km. The exosphere is the altitude at which the atmosphere becomes collisionless.

text: Rossby-gravity waves, first observed in the stratosphere by M. Yanai, always carry energy eastward.  But, oddly, their 'crests' and 'troughs' may propagate westward if their periods are long enough.  The eastward speed of propagation of these waves can be derived for an inviscid slowly moving layer of fluid of uniform depth H.  Because the Coriolis parameter (ƒ = 2Ω sin(θ) where Ω is the angular velocity of the earth, 7.2921

text: Rossby-gravity waves, first observed in the stratosphere by M. Yanai, always carry energy eastward.  But, oddly, their 'crests' and 'troughs' may propagate westward if their periods are long enough.  The eastward speed of propagation of these waves can be derived for an inviscid slowly moving layer of fluid of uniform depth H.  Because the

text: Coriolis parameter

text: (ƒ = 2Ω sin(θ) where Ω is the

text: angular velocity

text: of the earth, 7.2921

text: In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO. Unlike the troposphere, where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up, increased CO in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission. This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO. Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause, though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study. Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out.

text: In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global

text: climate change

text: associated with increases in CO. Unlike the

text: troposphere

text: , where

text: greenhouse gases

text: result in the atmosphere heating up, increased CO in the

text: mesosphere

text: acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission. This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO. Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause, though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study. Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out.

text: Jupiter is covered with a cloud layer about 50 km deep. The clouds are composed of ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide. The clouds are located in the tropopause and are arranged into bands of different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These are sub-divided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. The best-known feature of the cloud layer is the Great Red Spot, a persistent anticyclonic storm located 22° south of the equator that is larger than Earth. In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller in size. The feature was named Oval BA, and has been nicknamed Red Spot Junior.

text: Jupiter is covered with a cloud layer about 50 km deep. The clouds are composed of

text: ammonia

text: crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide. The clouds are located in the

text: tropopause

text: and are arranged into bands of different

text: latitude

text: s, known as tropical regions. These are sub-divided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these conflicting

text: circulation

text: patterns cause storms and

text: turbulence

text: . The best-known feature of the cloud layer is the

text: Great Red Spot

text: , a persistent

text: anticyclonic

text: storm

text: located 22° south of the equator that is larger than Earth. In 2000, an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot, but smaller in size. The feature was named

text: Oval BA

text: , and has been nicknamed Red Spot Junior.

text: The atmosphere was at first predicted "pL class", lacking a temperature-inversion stratosphere; like L dwarfs which lack titanium and vanadium oxides. Follow-up measurements, tested against a stratospheric model, yielded inconclusive results. Atmospheric condensates form a haze 1000 km above the surface as viewed in the infrared. A sunset viewed from that surface would be red. Sodium and potassium signals were predicted by Tinetti 2007. First obscured by the haze of condensates, sodium was eventually observed at three times the concentration of HD 209458 b's sodium layer. HD 189733 is also the first extrasolar planet confirmed to have carbon dioxide in its atmosphere.

text: The atmosphere was at first predicted "pL class", lacking a temperature-inversion

text: stratosphere

text: ; like

text: L dwarfs

text: which lack titanium and vanadium oxides. Follow-up measurements, tested against a stratospheric model, yielded inconclusive results. Atmospheric condensates form a haze 1000 km above the surface as viewed in the infrared. A sunset viewed from that surface would be red. Sodium and potassium signals were predicted by Tinetti 2007. First obscured by the haze of condensates, sodium was eventually observed at three times the concentration of

text: HD 209458 b

text: 's sodium layer. HD 189733 is also the first extrasolar planet confirmed to have carbon dioxide in its atmosphere.

text: The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach  during the day. Even though the temperature is so high, one would not feel warm in the thermosphere, because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat. A normal thermometer might be significantly below , at least at night, because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact. In the anacoustic zone above , the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound.

text: The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach  during the day. Even though the temperature is so high, one would not feel warm in the thermosphere, because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat. A normal

text: thermometer

text: might be significantly below , at least at night, because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact. In the

text: anacoustic zone

text: above , the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound.

text: Obsolescence- Obsolescence Management- Ocean colonization- Ocean Dumping Act- Ocean Dumping Ban Act- Office of the Gene Technology Regulator- Ogallala Aquifer- Oglala National Grassland- Oil desulfurization- Oklo- Old growth forest- Oncomouse- One-child policy- Ontario Nature- Open pollination- Operation Crossroads- Operation Grapple- Operation Plumbbob- Orchard- Organic certification- Organic electronics- Organic farming- Organic food- Organic gardening- Organic horticulture- Organic lawn management- Organic light-emitting diode- Organic movement- Organochlorine compound- Our Common Future- Our Posthuman Future- Outline of forestry- Over-consumption- Overpopulation- Oxygen saturation- Ozone depletion- Ozone depletion potential- Ozone layer- Ozone-oxygen cycle

text: Obsolescence

text: Obsolescence Management

text: Ocean colonization

entity_name: Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

text: Ocean Dumping Act

text: Ocean Dumping Ban Act

text: Office of the Gene Technology Regulator

text: Ogallala Aquifer

text: Oglala National Grassland

text: Oil desulfurization

text: Oklo

text: Old growth forest

text: Oncomouse

text: One-child policy

text: Ontario Nature

text: Open pollination

text: Operation Crossroads

text: Operation Grapple

text: Operation Plumbbob

text: Orchard

text: Organic certification

text: Organic electronics

text: Organic farming

text: Organic food

text: Organic gardening

text: Organic horticulture

text: Organic lawn management

text: Organic light-emitting diode

text: Organic movement

text: Organochlorine compound

text: Our Common Future

text: Our Posthuman Future

text: Outline of forestry

text: Over-consumption

text: Overpopulation

text: Oxygen saturation

text: Ozone depletion

text: Ozone depletion potential

text: Ozone layer

text: Ozone-oxygen cycle

text: Observations with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph of the Hubble Space Telescope, first described in 1995, revealed that Europa has a thin atmosphere composed mostly of molecular oxygen (O). The surface pressure of Europa's atmosphere is 0.1 μPa, or 10 times that of the Earth. In 1997, the Galileo spacecraft confirmed the presence of a tenuous ionosphere (an upper-atmospheric layer of charged particles) around Europa created by solar radiation and energetic particles from Jupiter's magnetosphere, providing evidence of an atmosphere.

text: Observations with the

text: Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph

text: of the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: , first described in 1995, revealed that Europa has a thin

text: atmosphere

text: composed mostly of

text: molecular oxygen

text: (O). The surface pressure of Europa's atmosphere is 0.1

text: μPa

text: , or 10 times that of the Earth. In 1997, the

text: Galileo

text: spacecraft confirmed the presence of a tenuous

text: ionosphere

text: (an upper-atmospheric layer of charged particles) around Europa created by solar radiation and energetic particles from Jupiter's

text: magnetosphere

text: , providing evidence of an atmosphere.

text: Natural daylight has a high color temperature (approximately 5000-5800 K).  Visible light color varies according to the weather and the angle of the Sun, and specific quantities of light (measured in lumens) stimulate photosynthesis. Distance from the sun has little effect on seasonal changes in the quality and quantity of light and the resulting plant behavior during those seasons. The axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit around the sun. During half of the year the north pole is tilted towards sun so the northern hemisphere gets nearly direct sunlight and the southern hemisphere gets oblique sunlight that must travel through more atmosphere before it reaches the Earth's surface. In the other half of the year, this is reversed. The color spectrum of light that the sun emits does not change, only the quantity (more during the summer and less in winter) and quality of overall light reaching the Earth's surface. Some supplemental LED grow lights in vertical greenhouses produce a combination of only red and blue wavelengths. The color rendering index allows comparison of how closely the light matches the natural color of regular sunlight.

text: Natural daylight has a high

text: color temperature

text: (approximately 5000-5800 K).  Visible light color varies according to the weather and the angle of the Sun, and specific quantities of light (measured in lumens) stimulate photosynthesis. Distance from the sun has little effect on seasonal changes in the quality and quantity of light and the resulting plant behavior during those seasons. The axis of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit around the sun. During half of the year the north pole is tilted towards sun so the northern hemisphere gets nearly direct sunlight and the southern hemisphere gets oblique sunlight that must travel through more atmosphere before it reaches the Earth's surface. In the other half of the year, this is reversed. The color spectrum of light that the sun emits does not change, only the quantity (more during the summer and less in winter) and quality of overall light reaching the Earth's surface. Some supplemental LED grow lights in vertical greenhouses produce a combination of only red and blue wavelengths. The

text: color rendering index

text: allows comparison of how closely the light matches the natural color of regular sunlight.

text: The effect is a consequence of the Coriolis effect which subjects  moving objects to a force to the right of their direction of motion in the northern hemisphere (and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere). Thus, when a persistent wind blows over an extended area of the ocean surface in the northern hemisphere, it causes a surface current which accelerates in that direction, which then experiences a Coriolis force and acceleration to the right of the wind:  the current will turn gradually to the right as it gains speed.  As the flow is now somewhat right of the wind, the Coriolis force perpendicular to the flow's motion is now partly directed against the wind.  Eventually, the current will reach a top speed when the force of the wind, of the Coriolis effect, and the resistant drag of the subsurface water balance, and the current will flow at a constant speed and direction as long as the wind persists.  This surface current drags on the water layer below it, applying a force in its own direction of motion to that layer, repeating the process whereby that layer eventually becomes a steady current even further to the right of the wind, and so on for deeper layers of water, resulting in a continuous rotation (or spiraling) of current direction with changing depth.  As depth increases, the force transmitted from the driving wind declines and thus the speed of the resultant steady current decreases, hence the tapered spiral representation in the accompanying diagram.  The depth to which the Ekman spiral penetrates is determined by how far turbulent mixing can penetrate over the course of a pendulum day.

text: The effect is a consequence of the

text: Coriolis effect

text: pendulum day

text: Outflow, in meteorology, is air that flows outwards from a storm system.  It is associated with ridging, or anticyclonic flow.  In the low levels of the troposphere, outflow radiates from thunderstorms in the form of a wedge of rain-cooled air, which is visible as a thin rope-like cloud on weather satellite imagery or a fine line on weather radar imagery.  Low-level outflow boundaries can disrupt the center of small tropical cyclones.  However, outflow aloft is essential for the strengthening of a tropical cyclone.  If this outflow is undercut, the tropical cyclone weakens.  If two tropical cyclones are in proximity, the upper level outflow from the system to the west can limit the development of the system to the east.

text: Outflow, in

text: meteorology

text: , is air that flows outwards from a storm system.  It is associated with ridging, or

text: anticyclonic

text: flow.  In the low levels of the

text: troposphere

text: , outflow radiates from thunderstorms in the form of a wedge of rain-cooled air, which is visible as a thin rope-like cloud on

text: weather satellite

text: imagery or a fine line on

text: weather radar

text: imagery.  Low-level outflow boundaries can disrupt the center of small

text: tropical cyclone

text: s.  However, outflow aloft is essential for the strengthening of a tropical cyclone.  If this outflow is undercut, the tropical cyclone weakens.  If two tropical cyclones are in proximity, the upper level outflow from the system to the west can limit the development of the system to the east.

text: A blue iris in an eye is due to Tyndall scattering in a translucent layer in the iris. Brown and black irises have the same layer except with more melanin in it. The melanin absorbs light. In the absence of melanin, the layer is translucent (i.e. the light passing through is randomly and diffusely scattered) and a noticeable portion of the light that enters this translucent layer re-emerges via a scattered path. That is, there is backscatter, the redirection of the lightwaves back out to the open air. Scattering takes place to a greater extent at the shorter wavelengths. The longer wavelengths tend to pass straight through the translucent layer with unaltered paths, and then encounter the next layer further back in the iris, which is a light absorber. Thus, the longer wavelengths are not reflected (by scattering) back to the open air as much as the shorter wavelengths are. Because the shorter wavelengths are the blue wavelengths, this gives rise to a blue hue in the light that comes out of the eye. The blue iris is an example of a structural color, in contradistinction to a pigment color. The complete absence of pigment in eyes (albinism) causes the eye to appear red, due to the visibility of the red of the retina through the iris.

text: A blue

text: iris

text: in an eye is due to Tyndall scattering in a translucent layer in the iris. Brown and black irises have the same layer except with more

text: melanin

text: in it. The melanin absorbs light. In the absence of melanin, the layer is

text: translucent

text: (i.e. the light passing through is randomly and diffusely scattered) and a noticeable portion of the light that enters this translucent layer re-emerges via a scattered path. That is, there is

text: backscatter

text: , the redirection of the lightwaves back out to the open air. Scattering takes place to a greater extent at the shorter wavelengths. The longer wavelengths tend to pass straight through the translucent layer with unaltered paths, and then encounter the next layer further back in the iris, which is a light absorber. Thus, the longer wavelengths are not reflected (by scattering) back to the open air as much as the shorter wavelengths are. Because the shorter wavelengths are the blue wavelengths, this gives rise to a blue hue in the light that comes out of the eye. The blue iris is an example of a

text: structural color

text: , in contradistinction to a

text: pigment color

text: . The complete absence of pigment in eyes (

text: albinism

text: ) causes the eye to appear red, due to the visibility of the red of the retina through the iris.

text: Groundwater may have played an important part in forming layers in many locations.  Calculations and simulations show that groundwater carrying dissolved minerals would surface in the same locations that have abundant rock layers.   According to these ideas, deep canyons and large craters would receive water coming from the ground.  Many craters in the Arabia area of Mars contain groups of layers.  Some of these layers may have resulted from climate changes.  The tilt of the rotational axis of Mars has repeatedly changed in the past.  Some changes are large.  Because of these variations of climate, at times the atmosphere of Mars will be much thicker and contain more moisture.  The amount of atmospheric dust also has increased and decreased. It is believed that these frequent changes helped to deposit material in craters and other low places. The rising of mineral-rich ground water cemented these materials. The model also predicts that after a crater is full of layered rocks; additional layers will be laid down in the area around the crater. So, the model predicts that layers may also have formed in intercrater regions, and layers in these regions have been observed.Layers can be hardened by the action of groundwater.  Martian ground water probably moved hundreds of kilometers, and in the process it dissolved many minerals from the rock it passed through.  When ground water surfaces in low areas containing sediments, water evaporates in the thin atmosphere and leaves behind minerals as deposits and/or cementing agents. Consequently, layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together. On Earth, mineral-rich waters often evaporate forming large deposits of various types of salts and other minerals. Sometimes water flows through Earth's aquifers, and then evaporates at the surface just as is hypothesed for Mars.  One location this occurs on Earth is the Great Artesian Basin of Australia.  On Earth the hardness of many sedimentary rocks, like sandstone, is largely due to the cement that was put in place as water passed through.

text: salts

text: and other

text: mineral

text: Great Artesian Basin

text: of

text: Australia

text: .  On Earth the hardness of many

text: sedimentary rock

text: s, like

text: sandstone

text: However in many cases the input source's noise temperature is much higher, such as an antenna at lower frequencies where atmospheric noise dominates. Then there will be little degradation of the SNR. On the other hand a good satellite dish looking through the atmosphere into space (so that it sees a much lower noise temperature) would have the SNR of a signal degraded by more than 6 dB. In those cases a reference to the amplifier's noise temperature itself, rather than the noise figure defined according to room temperature, is more appropriate.

text: The neutral atmospheric stability assumption discussed above is reasonable when the hourly mean wind speed at a height of 10 m exceeds 10 m/s where turbulent mixing overpowers atmospheric instability.

text: Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the ozone layer in the atmosphere above Antarctica. In 1985, three British scientists working on data they had gathered at Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. It was eventually determined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) emitted by human products. With the ban of CFCs in the Montreal Protocol of 1989, climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.

text: Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the

text: ozone layer

text: in the

text: atmosphere

text: above Antarctica. In 1985, three British scientists working on data they had gathered at

text: Halley Station

text: on the

text: Brunt Ice Shelf

text: discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. It was eventually determined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) emitted by human products. With the ban of CFCs in the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: of 1989, climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.

text: Yaozhou and the other Northern Celadons have a clay body that fires to a light grey under glaze, and a "yellowish to olive-brown where exposed".  The glaze is transparent, at least until later examples, and lacks the opalescence that Longquan celadon received from millions of tiny gas bubbles trapped in the glaze, as well as the grey and blue tints that the green of southern wares could achieve.  Instead the colour "tends to yellowish or muddy brown tones", generally where the reducing atmosphere is not strong enough.

text: Yaozhou and the other Northern Celadons have a clay body that fires to a light grey under glaze, and a "yellowish to olive-brown where exposed".  The glaze is transparent, at least until later examples, and lacks the opalescence that

text: Longquan celadon

text: received from millions of tiny gas bubbles trapped in the glaze, as well as the grey and blue tints that the green of southern wares could achieve.  Instead the colour "tends to yellowish or muddy brown tones", generally where the

text: reducing atmosphere

text: is not strong enough.

text: The density of the Earth's atmosphere decreases nearly exponentially with altitude. The total mass of the atmosphere  is M = ρ H  ≃ 1 kg/cm within a column of one square centimeter above the ground (with ρ = 1.29 kg/m the atmospheric density on the ground at z = 0 m altitude, and H ≃ 8 km the average atmospheric scale height). 80% of that mass is concentrated within the troposphere. The mass of the thermosphere above about 85 km is only 0.002% of the total mass. Therefore, no significant energetic feedback from the thermosphere to the lower atmospheric regions can be expected.

text: The density of the Earth's atmosphere decreases nearly exponentially with altitude. The total mass of the atmosphere  is M = ρ H  ≃ 1 kg/cm within a column of one square centimeter above the ground (with ρ = 1.29 kg/m the atmospheric density on the ground at z = 0 m altitude, and H ≃ 8 km the average atmospheric

text: scale height

text: ). 80% of that mass is concentrated within the

text: troposphere

text: . The mass of the thermosphere above about 85 km is only 0.002% of the total mass. Therefore, no significant energetic feedback from the thermosphere to the lower atmospheric regions can be expected.

text: Heaviside advanced the idea that the Earth's uppermost atmosphere contained an ionized layer known as the ionosphere; in this regard, he predicted the existence of what later was dubbed the Kennelly–Heaviside layer. In 1945 Edward Victor Appleton received the Nobel Prize in Physics for proving that this layer really existed.

text: Heaviside advanced the idea that the Earth's uppermost atmosphere contained an ionized layer known as the

text: ionosphere

text: ; in this regard, he predicted the existence of what later was dubbed the

text: Kennelly–Heaviside layer

text: . In 1945

text: Edward Victor Appleton

text: received the Nobel Prize in Physics for proving that this layer really existed.

text: Description: This paper warned of the danger of ozone depletion due to man-made chlorofluorocarbons. The main atmospheric sink for these compounds was identified as ultraviolet photolysis, liberating chlorine atoms which catalyze the destruction of stratospheric ozone and have the potential to significantly deplete the ozone layer.

text: Description: This paper warned of the danger of

text: ozone depletion

text: due to man-made

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: . The main atmospheric sink for these compounds was identified as ultraviolet

text: photolysis

text: , liberating chlorine atoms which catalyze the destruction of

text: stratospheric

text: ozone and have the potential to significantly deplete the ozone layer.

text: Contains three stories. "Children's Play", "Northern Lights", and "Rear Under". Notably, "Northern Lights" was one of the three stories which spanned multiple games.

text: To allow modeling conditions below mean sea level, the troposphere actually extends to about , where the temperature is , pressure is , and density is .

text: To allow modeling

entity_name: List of places on land with elevations below sea level

text: conditions below mean sea level

text: , the troposphere actually extends to about , where the temperature is , pressure is , and density is .

text: At the larger, synoptic, scale of oceans and continents, this effect is seasonal or even decadal.  Warm air rising over the equatorial, continental, and western Pacific Ocean regions. When it reaches the tropopause, it cools and subsides in a region of relatively cooler water mass.

text: At the larger, synoptic, scale of oceans and continents, this effect is seasonal or even

text: decadal

text: .  Warm air rising over the

text: equator

text: ial,

text: continent

text: al, and western Pacific Ocean regions. When it reaches the tropopause, it cools and

text: subside

text: s in a region of relatively cooler water mass.

text: Troposphere 1, which was planned for launch in April 2007, was canceled due to technical problems. Troposphere 3 scheduled for October 12, 2007 was also a failure.

text: The Chemical Sciences Division (CSD) studies chemical processes in the Earth's atmosphere that affect climate, air quality, and the ozone layer.

text: Marten’s first artistic period was marked by Abstract Expressionism and Pop Art, producing “Mechanical Landscapes”, but also works inspired by Classical culture, such as "Il Ritorno d’Úlise". Even at that time, his painting demonstrated his characteristically baroque use of colors, in combination with transparent layers. A second is deemed by some more mature. Kimonos, fans, and oriental motifs spread all over the canvas reflected his fascination for the East, especially Japan. The last works in this series are called “Magiciens de la Terre”, “Atmospheric Phenomena”, and “The Protecting Veil.” These paintings include highly poetical images with mystic elements in a mixed-media technique.

text: Marten’s first artistic period was marked by

text: Abstract Expressionism

text: and

text: Pop Art

text: , producing “Mechanical Landscapes”, but also works inspired by Classical culture, such as "Il Ritorno d’Úlise". Even at that time, his painting demonstrated his characteristically baroque use of colors, in combination with transparent layers. A second is deemed by some more mature. Kimonos, fans, and oriental motifs spread all over the canvas reflected his fascination for the East, especially Japan. The last works in this series are called “Magiciens de la Terre”, “Atmospheric Phenomena”, and “The Protecting Veil.” These paintings include highly poetical images with mystic elements in a mixed-media technique.

text: The middle layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the stratosphere, where temperature generally increases with altitude from 53 K in the tropopause to between 800 and 850 K at the base of the thermosphere. The heating of the stratosphere is caused by absorption of solar UV and IR radiation by methane and other hydrocarbons, which form in this part of the atmosphere as a result of methane photolysis. Heat is also conducted from the hot thermosphere. The hydrocarbons occupy a relatively narrow layer at altitudes of between 100 and 300 km corresponding to a pressure range of 10 to 0.1 mbar (1000 to 10 kPa) and temperatures of between 75 and 170 K. The most abundant hydrocarbons are methane, acetylene and ethane with mixing ratios of around 10 relative to hydrogen. The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide is similar at these altitudes. Heavier hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide have mixing ratios three orders of magnitude lower. The abundance ratio of water is around 7. Ethane and acetylene tend to condense in the colder lower part of stratosphere and tropopause (below 10 mBar level) forming haze layers, which may be partly responsible for the bland appearance of Uranus. The concentration of hydrocarbons in the Uranian stratosphere above the haze is significantly lower than in the stratospheres of the other giant planets.

text: The middle layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the

text: stratosphere

text: , where temperature generally increases with altitude from 53 K in the

text: tropopause

text: to between 800 and 850 K at the base of the thermosphere. The heating of the stratosphere is caused by absorption of solar UV and IR radiation by methane and other

text: hydrocarbon

text: s, which form in this part of the atmosphere as a result of methane

text: photolysis

text: . Heat is also conducted from the hot thermosphere. The hydrocarbons occupy a relatively narrow layer at altitudes of between 100 and 300 km corresponding to a pressure range of 10 to 0.1 mbar (1000 to 10 kPa) and temperatures of between 75 and 170 K. The most abundant hydrocarbons are methane,

text: acetylene

text: and

text: ethane

text: with

text: mixing ratio

text: s of around 10 relative to hydrogen. The mixing ratio of

text: carbon monoxide

text: is similar at these altitudes. Heavier hydrocarbons and

text: carbon dioxide

text: have mixing ratios three orders of magnitude lower. The abundance ratio of water is around 7. Ethane and acetylene tend to condense in the colder lower part of stratosphere and tropopause (below 10 mBar level) forming haze layers, which may be partly responsible for the bland appearance of Uranus. The concentration of hydrocarbons in the Uranian stratosphere above the haze is significantly lower than in the stratospheres of the other giant planets.

text: The sigma coordinate system allows surfaces to follow model terrain; where terrain is sharply sloped, so are the sigma surfaces. This allows for continuous fields, such as temperature, to be represented especially smoothly at the lowest layers in the model. Further, with the exponential decaying nature of density within the atmosphere, sigma coordinates provide a greater vertical resolution near the surface. The sloping nature of the coordinate surfaces does require additional interpolation of the pressure gradient force, and the smoothing of terrain can often cause it to extend beyond the true boundaries of land.

text: Stratosphere: Conquest of the Skies is a Vehicular combat game and also a real-time strategy PC game, developed by Kodiak Interactive and published by Ripcord Games in 1998. Stratosphere focuses on floating island battles which players control.

text: Stratosphere: Conquest of the Skies is a

text: Vehicular combat game

text: and also a

text: real-time strategy

text: PC game, developed by

text: Kodiak Interactive

text: and published by

text: Ripcord Games

text: in 1998. Stratosphere focuses on floating island battles which players control.

text: Methane also affects the degradation of the ozone layer, when methane is transformed into water in the stratosphere. This process is enhanced by global warming, because warmer air holds more water vapor than colder air, so the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increases as it is warmed by the greenhouse effect. Climate models also indicate that greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane may enhance the transport of water into the stratosphere; though this is not fully understood.

text: Methane also affects the degradation of the

text: ozone layer

text: , when methane is transformed into water in the stratosphere. This process is enhanced by global warming, because warmer air holds more water vapor than colder air, so the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increases as it is warmed by the greenhouse effect. Climate models also indicate that greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane may enhance the transport of water into the stratosphere; though this is not fully understood.

text: The lower boundary of the exosphere is called the exobase. It is also called exopause and 'critical altitude' as this is the altitude where barometric conditions no longer apply. Atmospheric temperature becomes nearly a constant above this altitude. On Earth, the altitude of the exobase ranges from about  depending on solar activity.

text: The lower boundary of the exosphere is called the

text: exobase

text: . It is also called exopause and 'critical altitude' as this is the altitude where

text: barometric conditions

text: no longer apply. Atmospheric temperature becomes nearly a constant above this altitude. On Earth, the altitude of the exobase ranges from about  depending on solar activity.

text: The tropopause as defined above renders as a first-order discontinuity surface, that is, temperature as a function of height varies continuously through the atmosphere but the temperature gradient does not.

text: The tropopause as defined above renders as a

text: first-order discontinuity

text: surface, that is, temperature as a function of height varies continuously through the atmosphere but the temperature gradient does not.

text: The launch of the Troposphere 4 rocket took place in the presence of the Congolese Minister of Higher Education, University and Scientific Research, Leonard Masuga Rugamika. After the success of this launch, the Congolese government decided to get involved with the Troposphere project.

text: The launch of the Troposphere 4 rocket took place in the presence of the Congolese Minister of Higher Education, University and Scientific Research, Leonard Masuga Rugamika. After the success of this launch, the

entity_name: Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

text: Congolese government

text: decided to get involved with the Troposphere project.

text: The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with ozone depletion, i.e., the destruction of stratospheric ozone (e.g., the ozone layer) by chlorofluorocarbons. Although there are a few areas of linkage, the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures, while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger warming effect.

text: The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with

text: ozone depletion

text: , i.e., the destruction of

text: stratospheric ozone (e.g., the ozone layer)

text: by

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: . Although there are a few

text: areas of linkage

text: , the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures, while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger warming effect.

text: The Obukhov length is used to describe the effects of buoyancy on turbulent flows, particularly in the lower tenth of the atmospheric boundary layer.  It was first defined by Alexander Obukhov in 1946. It is also known as the Monin–Obukhov length because of its important role in the similarity theory developed by Monin and Obukhov. A simple definition of the Monin-Obukhov length is that height at which turbulence is generated more by buoyancy than by wind shear.

text: The Obukhov length is used to describe the effects of buoyancy on turbulent flows, particularly in the lower tenth of the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: .  It was first defined by

text: Alexander Obukhov

text: in 1946. It is also known as the Monin–Obukhov length because of its important role in the similarity theory developed by

text: Monin

text: and Obukhov. A simple definition of the Monin-Obukhov length is that height at which turbulence is generated more by buoyancy than by wind shear.

text: A radio acoustic sounding system (RASS) is a system for measuring the atmospheric lapse rate using backscattering of  radio waves from an acoustic wave front to measure the speed of sound at various heights above the ground. This is possible because the compression and rarefaction of air by an acoustic wave changes the dielectric properties, producing partial reflection of the transmitted radar signal.From the speed of sound, the temperature of the air in the planetary boundary layer can be computed.The maximum altitude range of RASS systems is typically 750 meters, although observations have been reported up to 1.2 km in moist air.

text: A radio acoustic sounding system (RASS) is a system for measuring the atmospheric

text: lapse rate

text: using

text: backscatter

text: ing of

text: radio

text: waves from an

text: acoustic

text: wave front to measure the

text: speed of sound

text: at various heights above the ground. This is possible because the compression and rarefaction of air by an acoustic wave changes the

text: dielectric

text: properties, producing partial reflection of the transmitted

text: radar

text: signal.From the speed of sound, the temperature of the air in the

text: planetary boundary layer

text: can be computed.The maximum

text: altitude

text: range of RASS systems is typically 750 meters, although observations have been reported up to 1.2 km in moist air.

text: Suzuki confirmed in August 2007 the Suzuki Stratosphere would enter production, although expected release date, initial model year, initial pricing, and specific list of changes from the original prototype shown in Tokyo were not released, aside from the fact that it would retain the six-cylinder narrow-bore engine. Given Suzuki's experience with the B-King, it was likely that the Stratosphere would appear, at least visually, very similar to the prototype, although the aluminum fairings were apt to be replaced by ABS fairings, and many of the specialty electronics (GPS, HUD, etc.) were unlikely to see production.

text: Suzuki confirmed in August 2007 the Suzuki Stratosphere would enter production, although expected release date, initial model year, initial pricing, and specific list of changes from the original prototype shown in Tokyo were not released, aside from the fact that it would retain the six-cylinder narrow-bore engine. Given Suzuki's experience with the

text: B-King

text: , it was likely that the Stratosphere would appear, at least visually, very similar to the prototype, although the aluminum fairings were apt to be replaced by ABS fairings, and many of the specialty electronics (GPS, HUD, etc.) were unlikely to see production.

text: The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (NO), hydroxyl (OH), atomic chlorine (Cl), and atomic bromine (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these species, the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man-made organohalogen compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and bromofluorocarbons. These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the stratosphere, where Cl and Br radicals are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities.

text: The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including

text: nitric oxide

text: (NO),

text: nitrous oxide

text: (NO),

text: hydroxyl

text: (OH), atomic

text: chlorine

text: (Cl), and atomic

text: bromine

text: (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these

text: species

text: , the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man-made

text: organohalogen

text: compounds, especially

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) and

text: bromofluorocarbons

text: . These highly stable compounds are capable of surviving the rise to the

text: stratosphere

text: , where Cl and Br

text: radicals

text: are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities.

text: The content of this journal covers physical, chemical and biological processes occurring in the lowest few kilometres of the Earth's atmosphere. During its existence, Boundary-Layer Meteorology has become the primary medium for the publication of theoretical, numerical and experimental studies of the atmospheric boundary layer over both land and sea surfaces. Subject areas covered in the journal include: agriculture and forestry, air pollution, hydrology, theoretical and numerical experimental studies of the atmospheric boundary layer over land and sea surfaces, micrometeorology, the planetary boundary layer, numerical modelling of the lower atmosphere, remote sensing and urban meteorology.

text: The content of this journal covers physical, chemical and biological processes occurring in the lowest few kilometres of the Earth's atmosphere. During its existence, Boundary-Layer Meteorology has become the primary medium for the publication of theoretical, numerical and experimental studies of the atmospheric boundary layer over both land and sea surfaces. Subject areas covered in the journal include:

text: agriculture

text: and

text: forestry

text: air pollution

text: hydrology

text: , theoretical and numerical experimental studies of the atmospheric

text: boundary layer

text: over land and sea surfaces,

text: micrometeorology

text: , the planetary

text: boundary layer

text: , numerical modelling of the lower

text: atmosphere

text: remote sensing

text: and urban meteorology.

text: The track "Midnight City" has been singled out for praise. Paste named it the second best song of the year. PopMatters named the track the best song of 2011, with Ryan Reed writing: "On this transcendent standout [...] Anthony Gonzalez and co-synth-scientist Justin Meldal-Johnsen build layer upon layer of keys, arena-sized drums, and vocal atmospherics (not mentioning one of the tastiest sax solos this side of a Springsteen record). The result? The synth Sistine Chapel."

text: The track "

text: Midnight City

text: " has been singled out for praise. Paste named it the second best song of the year.

text: PopMatters

text: named the track the best song of 2011, with Ryan Reed writing: "On this transcendent standout [...] Anthony Gonzalez and co-synth-scientist Justin Meldal-Johnsen build layer upon layer of keys, arena-sized drums, and vocal atmospherics (not mentioning one of the tastiest sax solos this side of a Springsteen record). The result? The synth Sistine Chapel."

text: Trioxygen () is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue. Ozone is produced in the upper atmosphere when  combines with atomic oxygen made by the splitting of  by ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of the spectrum, the ozone layer of the upper atmosphere functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet. Near the Earth's surface, it is a pollutant formed as a by-product of automobile exhaust. The metastable molecule tetraoxygen () was discovered in 2001,<ref name="o4">{{cite journal|last=Cacace|first=Fulvio|last2=de Petris|first2=Giulia|last3=Troiani|first3=Anna |date=2001|title=Experimental Detection of Tetraoxygen|journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition|volume=40|issue=21|pages=4062–65|doi = 10.1002/1521-3773(20011105)40:21

text: Trioxygen () is usually known as

text: ozone

text: and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue. Ozone is produced in the

text: upper atmosphere

text: when  combines with atomic oxygen made by the splitting of  by

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) radiation. Since ozone absorbs strongly in the UV region of the

text: spectrum

text: , the

text: ozone layer

text: of the upper atmosphere functions as a protective radiation shield for the planet. Near the Earth's surface, it is a

text: pollutant

text: formed as a by-product of automobile exhaust. The

text: metastable

text: molecule

text: tetraoxygen

text: () was discovered in 2001,<ref name="o4">{{cite journal|last=Cacace|first=Fulvio|last2=de Petris|first2=Giulia|last3=Troiani|first3=Anna |date=2001|title=Experimental Detection of Tetraoxygen|journal=

text: Angewandte Chemie

text: International Edition|volume=40|issue=21|pages=4062–65|doi = 10.1002/1521-3773(20011105)40:21

text: Within an unstable layer in the troposphere, the lifting of air parcels will occur, and continue for as long as the nearby atmosphere remains unstable.  Once overturning through the depth of the troposphere occurs (with convection being capped by the relatively warmer, more stable layer of the stratosphere), deep convective currents lead to thunderstorm development when enough moisture is present.  Over warm ocean waters and within a region of the troposphere with light vertical wind shear and significant low level spin (or vorticity), such thunderstorm activity can grow in coverage and develop into a tropical cyclone.  Over hot surfaces during warm days, unstable dry air can lead to significant refraction of the light within the air layer, which causes inferior mirages.

text: Within an unstable layer in the troposphere, the lifting of air parcels will occur, and continue for as long as the nearby atmosphere remains unstable.  Once overturning through the depth of the troposphere occurs (with convection being capped by the relatively warmer, more stable layer of the

text: stratosphere

text: ), deep convective currents lead to thunderstorm development when enough moisture is present.  Over warm ocean waters and within a region of the troposphere with light vertical

text: wind shear

text: and significant low level spin (or vorticity), such thunderstorm activity can grow in coverage and develop into a

text: tropical cyclone

text: .  Over hot surfaces during warm days, unstable dry air can lead to significant refraction of the light within the air layer, which causes inferior

text: mirage

text: s.

text: In principle, the exosphere covers distances where particles are still gravitationally bound to Earth, i.e. particles still have ballistic orbits that will take them back towards Earth. The upper boundary of the exosphere can be defined as the distance at which the influence of solar radiation pressure on atomic hydrogen exceeds that of Earth's gravitational pull. This happens at half the distance to the Moon (the average distance between Earth and the Moon is ). The exosphere, observable from space as the geocorona, is seen to extend to at least  from Earth's surface. The exosphere is a transitional zone between Earth's atmosphere and space.

text: In principle, the exosphere covers distances where particles are still

text: gravitationally

text: bound to

text: Earth

text: , i.e. particles still have ballistic orbits that will take them back towards Earth. The upper boundary of the exosphere can be defined as the distance at which the influence of solar

text: radiation pressure

text: on atomic

text: hydrogen

text: exceeds that of Earth's gravitational pull. This happens at half the distance to the Moon (the average distance between Earth and the Moon is ). The exosphere, observable from space as the

text: geocorona

text: , is seen to extend to at least  from Earth's surface. The exosphere is a transitional zone between Earth's atmosphere and space.

text: Buon fresco  pigment mixed with water of room temperature on a thin layer of wet, fresh plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster, intonaco, is used. Because of the chemical makeup of the plaster, a binder is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco, which itself becomes the medium holding the pigment. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster; after a number of hours, the plaster dries in reaction to air: it is this chemical reaction which fixes the pigment particles in the plaster.The chemical processes are as follows:

text: Buon fresco

text: pigment

text: mixed with water of room temperature on a thin layer of wet, fresh

text: plaster

text: , for which the Italian word for plaster,

text: intonaco

text: , is used. Because of the chemical makeup of the plaster, a

text: binder

text: is not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink into the intonaco, which itself becomes the medium holding the pigment. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster; after a number of hours, the plaster dries in reaction to air: it is this chemical reaction which fixes the pigment particles in the plaster.The chemical processes are as follows:

text: In environments containing permafrost, the active layer is the top layer of soil that thaws during the summer and freezes again during the autumn. In all climates, whether they contain permafrost or not, the temperature in the lower levels of the soil will remain more stable than that at the surface, where the influence of the ambient temperature is greatest. This means that, over many years, the influence of cooling in winter and heating in summer (in temperate climates) will decrease as depth increases.

text: In environments containing

text: permafrost

text: , the active layer is the top layer of

text: soil

text: that thaws during the summer and freezes again during the autumn. In all

text: climate

text: s, whether they contain permafrost or not, the temperature in the lower levels of the soil will remain more stable than that at the surface, where the influence of the ambient

text: temperature

text: is greatest. This means that, over many years, the influence of cooling in winter and heating in summer (in temperate climates) will decrease as depth increases.

text: Until the 1990s, the refrigerants were often chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane), one in a class of several refrigerants using the brand name Freon, a trademark of DuPont. Its manufacture is now banned or severely restricted by the Montreal Protocol of August 1987 because of the damage that CFCs cause to the ozone layer if released into the atmosphere.

text: Until the 1990s, the

text: refrigerant

text: s were often

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s such as R-12 (

text: dichlorodifluoromethane

text: ), one in a class of several refrigerants using the brand name

text: Freon

text: , a trademark of

text: DuPont

text: . Its manufacture is now banned or severely restricted by the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: of August 1987 because of the

text: damage

text: that

text: CFCs

text: cause to the

text: ozone layer

text: if released into the

text: atmosphere

text: To use a separatory funnel, the two phases and the mixture to be separated in solution are added through the top with the stopcock at the bottom closed. The funnel is then closed and shaken gently by inverting the funnel multiple times; if the two solutions are mixed together too vigorously emulsions will form. The funnel is then inverted and the tap carefully opened to release excess vapor pressure. The separating funnel is set aside to allow for the complete separation of the phases. The top and the bottom tap are then opened and the lower phase is released by gravitation. The top must be opened while releasing the lower phase to allow pressure equalization between the inside of the funnel and the atmosphere. When the bottom layer has been removed, the stopcock is closed and the upper layer is poured out through the top into another container.

text: To use a separatory funnel, the two phases and the mixture to be separated in solution are added through the top with the stopcock at the bottom closed. The funnel is then closed and shaken gently by inverting the funnel multiple times; if the two solutions are mixed together too vigorously emulsions will form. The funnel is then inverted and the tap carefully opened to release excess

text: vapor pressure

text: . The separating funnel is set aside to allow for the complete separation of the phases. The top and the bottom tap are then opened and the lower phase is released by

text: gravitation

text: . The top must be opened while releasing the lower phase to allow pressure equalization between the inside of the funnel and the atmosphere. When the bottom layer has been removed, the stopcock is closed and the upper layer is poured out through the top into another container.

text: The log wind profile is generally considered to be a more reliable estimator of mean wind speed  than the Wind profile power law in the lowest 10–20 m of the planetary boundary layer. Between 20 m and 100 m both methods can produce reasonable predictions of mean wind speed in neutral atmospheric conditions. From 100 m to near the top of the atmospheric boundary layer the power law produces more accurate predictions of mean wind speed (assuming neutral atmospheric conditions).

text: The log wind profile is generally considered to be a more reliable estimator of mean wind speed  than the

text: Wind profile power law

text: in the lowest 10–20 m of the planetary boundary layer. Between 20 m and 100 m both methods can produce reasonable predictions of mean wind speed in neutral atmospheric conditions. From 100 m to near the top of the atmospheric boundary layer the power law produces more accurate predictions of mean wind speed (assuming neutral atmospheric conditions).

text: In 1956, Norman Phillips developed a mathematical model that could realistically depict monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere. It became the first successful climate model. Following Phillips's work, several groups began working to create GCMs. The first to combine both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. By the early 1980s, the United States' National Center for Atmospheric Research had developed the Community Atmosphere Model; this model has been continuously refined. In 1996, efforts began to model soil and vegetation types. Later the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research's HadCM3 model coupled ocean-atmosphere elements. The role of gravity waves was added in the mid-1980s. Gravity waves are required to simulate regional and global scale circulations accurately.

text: In 1956, Norman Phillips developed a mathematical model that could realistically depict monthly and seasonal patterns in the

text: troposphere

text: . It became the first successful

text: climate model

text: . Following Phillips's work, several groups began working to create GCMs. The first to combine both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the

text: NOAA

text: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory

text: . By the early 1980s, the United States'

entity_name: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: National Center for Atmospheric Research

text: had developed the Community Atmosphere Model; this model has been continuously refined. In 1996, efforts began to model soil and vegetation types. Later the

entity_name: Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research

text: Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research

text: 's

text: model coupled ocean-atmosphere elements. The role of

text: gravity wave

text: s was added in the mid-1980s. Gravity waves are required to simulate regional and global scale circulations accurately.

text: At the beginning of his career in Germany, England, and Ireland, Jánossy focussed on cosmic rays, both experiment and theory. His name is linked to Geiger's coincidence detector development with special application to  cosmic-ray secondary components created in the upper layers of the atmosphere  (mesons such as kaons, muons, gamma rays). He demonstrated how primary cosmic rays colliding with the Earth's atmosphere produced secondary penetrating showers cascading to the surface of the earth (1940–1941).

text: At the beginning of his career in Germany, England, and Ireland, Jánossy focussed on

text: cosmic rays

text: , both experiment and theory. His name is linked to

text: Geiger

text: 's

text: coincidence

text: detector development with special application to  cosmic-ray secondary components created in the upper layers of the atmosphere  (

text: meson

text: s such as

text: kaons

text: muon

text: s,

text: gamma rays

text: ). He demonstrated how primary cosmic rays colliding with the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: produced secondary penetrating showers cascading to the surface of the earth (1940–1941).

text: Earth’s atmosphere consists of multiple layers with differenttemperature and density characteristics; common atmospheric modelsinclude the International Standard Atmosphere and theUS Standard Atmosphere. A good approximation for many purposes is apolytropic troposphere of 11 km height with a lapse rate of6.5 K/km and an isothermal stratosphere of infinite height(Garfinkel 1967), which corresponds very closelyto the first two layers of the International Standard Atmosphere. Morelayers can be used if greater accuracy is required.

text: Earth’s atmosphere

text: consists of multiple layers with differenttemperature and density characteristics; common

text: atmospheric models

text: include the

text: International Standard Atmosphere

text: and the

text: US Standard Atmosphere

text: . A good approximation for many purposes is apolytropic

text: troposphere

text: of 11 km height with a lapse rate of6.5 K/km and an isothermal

text: stratosphere

text: of infinite height(

text: Garfinkel 1967

text: ), which corresponds very closelyto the first two layers of the International Standard Atmosphere. Morelayers can be used if greater accuracy is required.

text: The outermost layer of the Uranus' atmosphere, extending for thousands of kilometres, is the thermosphere/exosphere, which has a uniform temperature of around 800 to 850 K. This is much higher than, for instance, the 420 K observed in the thermosphere of Saturn. The heat sources necessary to sustain such high temperatures are not understood, since neither solar FUV/EUV radiation nor auroral activity can provide the necessary energy. The weak cooling efficiency due to the depletion of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere may contribute to this phenomenon. In addition to molecular hydrogen, the thermosphere contains a large proportion of free hydrogen atoms, while helium is thought to be absent here, because it separates diffusively at lower altitudes.

text: The outermost layer of the Uranus' atmosphere, extending for thousands of kilometres, is the

text: thermosphere

text: /exosphere, which has a uniform temperature of around 800 to 850 K. This is much higher than, for instance, the 420 K observed in the thermosphere of Saturn. The heat sources necessary to sustain such high temperatures are not understood, since neither solar

text: FUV

text: EUV

text: radiation nor

text: auroral

text: activity can provide the necessary energy. The weak cooling efficiency due to the depletion of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere may contribute to this phenomenon. In addition to

text: molecular hydrogen

text: , the thermosphere contains a large proportion of free

text: hydrogen atom

text: s, while helium is thought to be absent here, because it separates diffusively at lower altitudes.

text: However from the historical data, a far more authoritative source, a paper in 1973 as it appeared in the journal Nature depicts both the stratospheric ozone levels worldwide overlayed upon the number of nuclear detonations during the era of atmospheric testing, the authors conclude that neither the data nor their models show any correlation between the 500 or so megatons in historical atmospheric testing and when ozone increased or decreased in concentration. In 1976 a study on the experimental measurements of an earlier atmospheric nuclear test as it affected the ozone layer, also found that nuclear detonations are tentatively exonerated in depleting ozone, after the at first, alarming model calculations of the time. Similarly a 1981 paper found that models on ozone destruction from one test, and physical measurements taken, were in disagreement, as no destruction was observed. In total about 500 megatons were atmospherically detonated between 1945 and 1971, with a peak occurring in 1961–62, when 340 megatons were detonated in the atmosphere by the United States and Soviet Union. During this 1–2 year peak, counting only the multi-megaton range detonations in the two nations nuclear test series, a total yield estimated at 300 megatons of energy was released, due to this, 3 × 10 additional molecules of nitric oxide (about 5000 tons per megaton, "5 x 10^9 g per Mton") are believed to have entered the stratosphere, and while ozone depletion of 2.2 percent was noted in 1963, the decline had started prior to 1961 and is believed to have been caused by other meteorological effects, thus the 1985 book The Effects on the Atmosphere of a Major Nuclear Exchange states: "one can not draw definite conclusions about the effects of nuclear explosions on stratospheric ozone".

text: However from the historical data, a far more authoritative source, a paper in 1973 as it appeared in the journal Nature depicts both the stratospheric ozone levels worldwide overlayed upon the number of nuclear detonations during the era of atmospheric testing, the authors conclude that neither the data nor their models show any correlation between the 500 or so megatons in historical atmospheric testing and when ozone increased or decreased in concentration. In 1976 a study on the experimental measurements of an earlier

text: atmospheric nuclear test

text: as it affected the ozone layer, also found that nuclear detonations are tentatively

text: exonerated

text: in depleting ozone, after the at first, alarming model calculations of the time. Similarly a 1981 paper found that models on ozone destruction from one test, and physical measurements taken, were in disagreement, as no destruction was observed. In total about 500 megatons were atmospherically detonated between 1945 and 1971, with a peak occurring in 1961–62, when 340 megatons were detonated in the atmosphere by the United States and Soviet Union. During this 1–2 year peak, counting only the multi-megaton range detonations in the

text: two nations nuclear test series

text: , a total yield estimated at 300 megatons of energy was released, due to this,

text: 3 × 10 additional molecules

text: of

text: nitric oxide

text: (about 5000 tons per megaton, "5 x 10^9 g per Mton") are believed to have entered the stratosphere, and while ozone depletion of 2.2 percent was noted in 1963, the decline had started prior to 1961 and is believed to have been caused by other meteorological effects, thus the 1985 book The Effects on the Atmosphere of a Major Nuclear Exchange states: "one can not draw definite conclusions about the effects of nuclear explosions on stratospheric ozone".

text: and inverse temperature

text: and inverse temperature

text: Blamont is credited with the discovery of Turbopause in 1959, the Interstellar wind in 1970, the Hydrogen envelope of comets in 1971 and the polar Noctilucent clouds in 1973. He is known to have made the measurement of the temperature of the neutral atmosphere from 100 to 500 km, the dynamic paramters of the Mesopause region, and Einstein's general relativity Redshift on the Sun for the first time. He was the head of the group which introduced scientific ballooning and Lidar technology for atmospheric probing in Europe. The image compression device developed by Blamont is in use with various space agencies for planetary missions around the Moon, Mars and Titan. He has also contributed to the establishment of a shooting range, in Kourou, French Guyana.

text: Blamont is credited with the discovery of

text: Turbopause

text: in 1959, the

text: Interstellar wind

text: in 1970, the

text: Hydrogen envelope

text: of comets in 1971 and the polar

text: Noctilucent clouds

text: in 1973. He is known to have made the measurement of the temperature of the neutral atmosphere from 100 to 500 km, the dynamic paramters of the

text: Mesopause region

text: , and

text: Einstein's general relativity

text: Redshift

text: on the Sun for the first time. He was the head of the group which introduced scientific ballooning and

text: Lidar

text: technology for atmospheric probing in Europe. The image compression device developed by Blamont is in use with various space agencies for planetary missions around the Moon, Mars and

text: Titan

text: . He has also contributed to the establishment of a shooting range, in

text: Kourou, French Guyana

text: Surface anticyclones form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs.  Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.  On weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as confluence, or converging height lines near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up the troposphere.  Because they weaken with height, these high-pressure systems are cold.

text: Surface anticyclones form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs.  Preferred areas within a

text: synoptic

text: confluence

text: , or converging height lines near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up the troposphere.  Because they weaken with height, these high-pressure systems are cold.

text: Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From highest to lowest, these layers are:

text: In addition to Venus, floating cities have been proposed in science fiction on several other planets. For example, floating cities might also permit settlement of the outer three gas giants, as the gas giants lack solid surfaces.  Jupiter is not promising for habitation due to its high gravity, escape velocity and radiation, but the solar system's other gas giants (Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) may be more practical.  In 1978, the British Interplanetary Society's Project Daedalus envisioned floating factories in the atmospheres of Jupiter refining helium-3 to produce fuel for an interstellar probe.  Michael McCollum notes that the "surface" gravity of Saturn (that is, at the visible cloud layer, where the atmospheric pressure is about the same as Earth's) is very close to that of Earth, and in his novel The Clouds of Saturn, he envisioned cities floating in the Saturnian atmosphere, where the buoyancy is provided by envelopes of hydrogen heated by fusion reactors. Uranus and Neptune also have "surface" gravities comparable to Earth's, and even lower escape velocities than Saturn. Cecelia Holland populated Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus with mutant humans, the Styth, in floating cities in her only SF novel, Floating Worlds (1975).

text: In addition to Venus, floating cities have been proposed in science fiction on several other planets. For example, floating cities might also permit settlement of the outer three

text: gas giant

text: s, as the gas giants lack solid surfaces.

text: Jupiter

text: is not promising for habitation due to its high

text: gravity

text: escape velocity

text: and

text: radiation

text: , but the

text: solar system

text: 's other gas giants (

text: Saturn

text: Uranus

text: , and

text: Neptune

text: ) may be more practical.  In 1978, the

text: British Interplanetary Society

text: 's

text: Project Daedalus

text: envisioned floating factories in the atmospheres of Jupiter refining

text: to produce fuel for an

text: interstellar probe

text: Michael McCollum

text: notes that the "surface" gravity of Saturn (that is, at the visible cloud layer, where the atmospheric pressure is about the same as Earth's) is very close to that of Earth, and in his novel The Clouds of Saturn, he envisioned cities floating in the Saturnian atmosphere, where the buoyancy is provided by envelopes of

text: hydrogen

text: heated by

text: fusion reactors

text: . Uranus and Neptune also have "surface" gravities comparable to Earth's, and even lower escape velocities than Saturn.

text: Cecelia Holland

text: populated Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus with mutant humans, the Styth, in floating cities in her only SF novel, Floating Worlds (1975).

text: August 1966, August 1968:  The Cricketsonde system was used in conjunction with lidar to make vertical temperature and humidity structure observations. These observations were used to examine any relationship between vertical distribution of atmospheric aerosols and the vertical profiles of temperature and humidity, the purpose being to explore the utility of optical radar to detect and measure meteorological features of the lower atmosphere, such as temperature inversions, haze and smog layers, and humidity variations.

text: If the Championship Manager 1.x series laid the groundwork, the success of the franchise went stratospheric with the release of Championship Manager 2 in September 1995. The game again included up-to-date squads for each team, added photos of each ground to build an atmosphere of the teams you were managing/visiting, and included a now infamous in-match commentary engine with the voice of Clive Tyldesley.

text: If the Championship Manager 1.x series laid the groundwork, the success of the franchise went stratospheric with the release of Championship Manager 2 in September 1995. The game again included up-to-date squads for each team, added photos of each ground to build an atmosphere of the teams you were managing/visiting, and included a now infamous in-match commentary engine with the voice of

text: Clive Tyldesley

text: The simple one-level atmospheric model can be readily extended to a multiple-layer atmosphere. In this case the equations for the temperatures become a series of coupled equations. This simple model always predicts a decreasing temperature away from the surface, and all levels increase in temperature as "greenhouse gases are added". Neither of these effects are fully realistic: in the real atmosphere temperatures increase above the tropopause, and temperatures in that layer are predicted (and observed) to decrease as GHG's are added. This is directly related to the non-greyness of the real atmosphere.

text: Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as auroras still occur. Meteors begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's ionosphere, important to HF radio propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the International Space Station and Space Shuttle typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the F-layer of the ionosphere where they encounter enough atmospheric drag to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.

text: Even above the Kármán line, significant atmospheric effects such as

text: auroras

text: still occur.

text: Meteors

text: begin to glow in this region, though the larger ones may not burn up until they penetrate more deeply. The various layers of Earth's

text: ionosphere

text: , important to

text: HF radio

text: propagation, begin below 100 km and extend beyond 500 km. By comparison, the

text: International Space Station

text: and

text: Space Shuttle

text: typically orbit at 350–400 km, within the

text: F-layer

text: of the ionosphere where they encounter enough

text: atmospheric drag

text: to require reboosts every few months. Depending on solar activity, satellites can experience noticeable atmospheric drag at altitudes as high as 700–800 km.

text: Winds in the Central plains region of the U.S. are variable on both short (minutes) and long (days) time scales. Variations in wind speed result in variations in power output from wind farms, which poses difficulties incorporating wind power into an integrated power system. Wind turbines are driven by boundary layer winds, those that occur near the surface of the earth, at around 300 feet. Boundary layer winds are controlled by wind in the higher free atmosphere and have turbulence due to interaction with surface features such as trees, hills, and buildings. Short term or high frequency variations are due to this turbulence in the boundary layer.

text: The NIWA atmospheric research laboratory takes atmospheric measurements for the purpose of observing and better understanding interactions between the stratosphere, troposphere and global climate. This is achieved through measurements of ozone, ozone depleting substances (ODS), solar radiation, aerosols and greenhouse gases.

text: The

entity_name: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research

text: NIWA atmospheric research laboratory

text: takes atmospheric measurements for the purpose of observing and better understanding interactions between the

text: stratosphere

text: troposphere

text: and global

text: climate

text: . This is achieved through measurements of

text: ozone

text: ozone depleting substances (ODS)

text: solar radiation

text: aerosols

text: and

text: greenhouse gases

text: These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up  into the atmosphere. The densest part of the plume, directly above the volcano, is driven internally by gas expansion. As it reaches higher into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense, convection and thermal expansion of volcanic ash drive it even further up into the stratosphere. At the top of the plume, powerful prevailing winds drive the plume in a direction away from the volcano.

text: These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up  into the

text: atmosphere

text: . The densest part of the plume, directly above the volcano, is driven internally by

text: gas expansion

text: . As it reaches higher into the air the plume expands and becomes less dense,

text: convection

text: and

text: thermal expansion

text: of

text: volcanic ash

text: drive it even further up into the

text: stratosphere

text: . At the top of the plume, powerful

text: prevailing wind

text: s drive the plume in a direction away from the

text: volcano

text: There is a zone of the atmosphere in which ozone absorbs some 98% of non-ionizing but dangerous UV-C and UV-B. This so-called ozone layer, starts at about  and extends upward. Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground (the part that begins above energies of 3.1 eV, a wavelength less than 400 nm) is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.

text: There is a zone of the atmosphere in which ozone absorbs some 98% of non-ionizing but dangerous UV-C and UV-B. This so-called

text: ozone layer

text: , starts at about  and extends upward. Some of the ultraviolet spectrum that does reach the ground (the part that begins above energies of 3.1 eV, a wavelength less than 400 nm) is non-ionizing, but is still biologically hazardous due to the ability of single photons of this energy to cause electronic excitation in biological molecules, and thus damage them by means of unwanted reactions. An example is the formation of

text: pyrimidine dimer

text: s in DNA, which begins at wavelengths below 365 nm (3.4 eV), which is well below ionization energy. This property gives the ultraviolet spectrum some of the dangers of ionizing radiation in biological systems without actual ionization occurring. In contrast, visible light and longer-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as infrared, microwaves, and radio waves, consists of photons with too little energy to cause damaging molecular excitation, and thus this radiation is far less hazardous per unit of energy.

text: Take Care expands on the low-tempo, sensuous, and dark sonic aesthetic of Thank Me Later. Primarily a hip hop album, it has a languid, grandiose production that incorporates R&B, pop, electronica, and post-dubstep styles. The music is typified by an atmospheric sound, muted textures, slow tempos, subtle chords, melodic synth tracks, low-end grooves, and sparse, ambient arrangements. Noah "40" Shebib contributed to most of the album's production with murky beats, dark synth layers, atmospheric keyboards, moody guitar sounds, smooth piano, muffled drums, dramatic flourishes, and low-pass filters. Although he is credited as producer for only eight of the album's 17 songs, Shebib also served as audio engineer and mix engineer on the album. His production for the album is characteristic of the Toronto hip hop scene, which experienced a mainstream breakthrough with Shebib's work with Drake, producers Boi-1da and T-Minus, and singer-songwriter The Weeknd, all of whom contributed to Take Care. Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club comments that the album is "crafted primarily around the oblique production of Drake's native Toronto—all rippling synths, distant pulses, and purposeful empty space".

text: Take Care expands on the low-tempo, sensuous, and dark sonic aesthetic of Thank Me Later. Primarily a

text: hip hop

text: album, it has a languid, grandiose production that incorporates

text: R&B

text: pop

text: electronica

text: , and

text: post-dubstep

text: styles. The music is typified by an atmospheric sound, muted textures, slow

text: tempo

text: s, subtle

text: chord

text: s, melodic synth tracks,

text: low-end

text: groove

text: s, and sparse, ambient arrangements. Noah "40" Shebib contributed to most of the album's production with murky beats, dark synth layers, atmospheric keyboards, moody guitar sounds, smooth piano, muffled drums, dramatic flourishes, and

text: low-pass filter

text: s. Although he is credited as producer for only eight of the album's 17 songs, Shebib also served as

text: audio engineer

text: and

text: mix engineer

text: on the album. His production for the album is characteristic of the Toronto hip hop scene, which experienced a mainstream breakthrough with Shebib's work with Drake, producers

text: and

text: T-Minus

text: , and singer-songwriter

text: The Weeknd

text: , all of whom contributed to Take Care. Evan Rytlewski of

text: The A.V. Club

text: comments that the album is "crafted primarily around the oblique production of Drake's native Toronto—all rippling synths, distant pulses, and purposeful empty space".

text: Typically used for production boats because of its ability to reuse a female mold as the foundation for the shape of the boat. The resulting structure is strong in tension but often needs to be either laid up with many heavy layers of resin-saturated fiberglass or reinforced with wood or foam in order to provide stiffness. GRP hulls are largely free of corrosion though not normally fireproof. These can be solid fiberglass or of the sandwich (cored) type, in which a core of balsa, foam or similar material is applied after the outer layer of fiberglass is laid to the mold, but before the inner skin is laid. This is similar to the next type, composite, but is not usually classified as composite, since the core material in this case does not provide much additional strength. It does, however, increase stiffness, which means that less resin and fiberglass cloth can be used in order to save weight. Most fibreglass boats are currently made in an open mold, with fibreglass and resin applied by hand (hand-lay-up method). Some are now constructed by vacuum infusion where the fibres are laid out and resin is pulled into the mold by atmospheric pressure. This can produce stronger parts with more glass and less resin, but takes special materials and more technical knowledge. Older fibreglass boats before 1990 were often not constructed in controlled temperature buildings leading to the widespread problem of fibreglass pox, where seawater seeped through small holes and caused delamination. The name comes from the multiude of surface pits in the outer gelcoat layer which resembles smallpox. Sometimes the problem was caused by atmospheric moisture being trapped in the layup during construction in humid weather.

text: Typically used for production boats because of its ability to reuse a female mold as the foundation for the shape of the boat. The resulting structure is strong in tension but often needs to be either laid up with many heavy layers of resin-saturated fiberglass or reinforced with wood or foam in order to provide stiffness. GRP hulls are largely free of corrosion though not normally fireproof. These can be solid fiberglass or of the sandwich (cored) type, in which a core of

text: balsa

text: foam

text: or similar material is applied after the outer layer of fiberglass is laid to the mold, but before the inner skin is laid. This is similar to the next type, composite, but is not usually classified as composite, since the core material in this case does not provide much additional strength. It does, however, increase stiffness, which means that less resin and fiberglass cloth can be used in order to save weight. Most fibreglass boats are currently made in an open mold, with fibreglass and resin applied by hand (

text: hand-lay-up

text: method). Some are now constructed by vacuum infusion where the fibres are laid out and resin is pulled into the mold by atmospheric pressure. This can produce stronger parts with more glass and less resin, but takes special materials and more technical knowledge. Older fibreglass boats before 1990 were often not constructed in controlled temperature buildings leading to the widespread problem of fibreglass pox, where seawater seeped through small holes and caused delamination. The name comes from the multiude of surface pits in the outer gelcoat layer which resembles smallpox. Sometimes the problem was caused by atmospheric moisture being trapped in the layup during construction in humid weather.

text: For reasons that remain obscure, the planet's thermosphere is at an anomalously high temperature of about 750 K. The planet is too far from the Sun for this heat to be generated by ultraviolet radiation. One candidate for a heating mechanism is atmospheric interaction with ions in the planet's magnetic field. Other candidates are gravity waves from the interior that dissipate in the atmosphere. The thermosphere contains traces of carbon dioxide and water, which may have been deposited from external sources such as meteorites and dust.

text: For reasons that remain obscure, the planet's thermosphere is at an anomalously high temperature of about 750 K. The planet is too far from the Sun for this heat to be generated by

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation. One candidate for a heating mechanism is atmospheric interaction with ions in the planet's

text: magnetic field

text: . Other candidates are

text: gravity wave

text: s from the interior that dissipate in the atmosphere. The

text: thermosphere

text: contains traces of

text: carbon dioxide

text: and water, which may have been deposited from external sources such as

text: meteorite

text: s and dust.

text: LIDAR comprises firing lasers at relevant portions of the atmosphere where light is backscattered. By analyzing the reflected laser beam for Doppler shifts, wind speeds and wind directions in the target region may be calculated. The thermal structure, diurnal/semi-diurnal tides, and seasonal variations in the mesopause region may thus be studied. This is a valuable faculty for meteorologists and climatologists, as these properties can be significant.

text: LIDAR comprises firing lasers at relevant portions of the atmosphere where light is

text: backscatter

text: ed. By analyzing the reflected laser beam for

text: Doppler shift

text: s, wind speeds and wind directions in the target region may be calculated. The thermal structure, diurnal/semi-diurnal

text: tide

text: s, and seasonal variations in the

text: mesopause

text: region may thus be studied. This is a valuable faculty for

text: meteorologists

text: and

text: climatologists

text: , as these properties can be significant.

text: If one is to analyze the vertical pressure variation of the Atmosphere of Earth, the length scale is very significant (troposphere alone being several kilometres tall; thermosphere being several hundred kilometres) and the involved fluid (air) is compressible. Gravity can still be reasonably approximated as constant, because length scales on the order of kilometres are still small in comparison to Earth's radius, which is on average about 6371 km, and gravity is a function of distance from Earth's core.

text: If one is to analyze the vertical pressure variation of the

text: Atmosphere of Earth

text: , the length scale is very significant (

text: troposphere

text: alone being several

text: kilometres

text: tall;

text: thermosphere

text: being several hundred kilometres) and the involved fluid (air) is compressible. Gravity can still be reasonably approximated as constant, because length scales on the order of kilometres are still small in comparison to Earth's radius, which is on average about 6371 km, and gravity is a function of distance from Earth's core.

text: Each of these main layers can be further divided in sub-layers. For example, in the Business layer, the primary business processes realising the products of a company may make use of a layer of secondary (supporting) business processes; in the Application layer, the end-user applications may make use of generic services offered by supporting applications. On top of the Business layer, a separate Environment layer may be added, modelling the external customers that make use of the services of the organisation (although these may also be considered part of the Business layer).

text: Furthermore, layers with an inverse trend of temperature or humidity cause atmospheric ducting, which bends the beam downward or even traps radio waves so that they do not spread out vertically. This phenomenon occurs in two circumstances:

text: Furthermore, layers with an inverse trend of temperature or humidity cause

text: atmospheric duct

text: ing, which bends the beam downward or even traps radio waves so that they do not spread out vertically. This phenomenon occurs in two circumstances:

text: During the final week of production, scenes were filmed over six days at the Stratosphere Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. Interior shots included the resort's Top of the World restaurant, which was closed at the time for renovations. The Stratosphere was not in the original script. Executive producer Barry Waldman met with the casino's owners in summer 2004 to discuss featuring it in the movie, which the owners agreed to after small changes were made to the script. Tony Scott said an eight-minute BMW commercial he shot at the resort was "a testing ground" for Domino.

text: During the final week of production, scenes were filmed over six days at the

text: Stratosphere Hotel and Casino

text: in

text: Las Vegas

text: . Interior shots included the resort's Top of the World restaurant, which was closed at the time for renovations. The Stratosphere was not in the original script. Executive producer Barry Waldman met with the casino's owners in summer 2004 to discuss featuring it in the movie, which the owners agreed to after small changes were made to the script. Tony Scott said an eight-minute BMW commercial he shot at the resort was "a testing ground" for Domino.

text: Because ozone filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, the discovery of holes in the ozone layer of the earth's atmosphere has raised concern about how much ultraviolet light reaches the earth's surface. Of particular concern are the questions of how deeply into sea water ultraviolet radiation penetrates and how it affects marine organisms, especially plankton (floating microorganisms) and viruses that attack plankton. Plankton form the base of the marine food chains and are believed to affect our planet's temperature and weather by uptake of CO

text: Because

text: ozone

text: filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, the discovery of holes in the

text: ozone

text: layer of the earth's atmosphere has raised concern about how much

text: ultraviolet light

text: reaches the earth's surface. Of particular concern are the questions of how deeply into sea water ultraviolet radiation penetrates and how it affects

text: marine organisms

text: , especially

text: plankton

text: (floating microorganisms) and

text: viruses

text: that attack

text: plankton

text: Plankton

text: form the base of the marine food chains and are believed to affect our planet's temperature and weather by uptake of CO

text: Jet Standard Atmosphere is often used by jet manufactures. It assumes a mean sea level temperature of +15 C. The temperature then lapses 2 C per 1000 ft to infinity. There is no Tropopause in the jet standard atmosphere. In the standard atmosphere, the Tropopause is the height at which the temperature stops decreasing. It is also the end of the Troposphere and start of the Stratosphere.

text: Jet Standard Atmosphere is often used by

text: jet

text: manufactures. It assumes a mean sea level temperature of +15 C. The

text: temperature

text: then lapses 2 C per 1000 ft to infinity. There is no

text: Tropopause

text: in the jet standard atmosphere. In the standard atmosphere, the Tropopause is the height at which the temperature stops decreasing. It is also the end of the

text: Troposphere

text: and start of the

text: Stratosphere

text: SAFE AIR  (Simulation of Air pollution From Emissions Above Inhomogeneous Regions) is an advanced atmospheric pollution dispersion model for calculating concentrations of atmospheric pollutants emitted both continuously or intermittently from point, line, volume and area sources. It adopts an integrated Gaussian puff modeling system.SAFE AIR  consists of three main parts: the meteorological pre-processor WINDS (Wind-field Interpolation by Non Divergent Schemes) to calculate wind fields, the meteorological pre-processor ABLE (Acquisition of Boundary Layer parameters) to calculate atmospheric parameters and a lagrangian multisource model named P6 (Program Plotting Paths of Pollutant Puffs and Plumes) to calculate pollutant dispersion.SAFE AIR  is included in the online Model Documentation System (MDS) of the European Environment Agency (EEA) and of the .Italian Agency for the Protection of the Environment (APAT).

text: SAFE AIR  (Simulation of Air pollution From Emissions Above Inhomogeneous Regions) is an advanced

text: atmospheric pollution dispersion model

text: for calculating concentrations of

text: atmospheric pollutants

text: emitted both

text: continuously

text: or

text: intermittently

text: from

text: point, line, volume and area sources

text: . It adopts an integrated

text: Gaussian puff modeling system

text: .SAFE AIR  consists of three main parts: the meteorological pre-processor WINDS (Wind-field Interpolation by Non Divergent Schemes) to calculate wind fields, the meteorological pre-processor ABLE (Acquisition of Boundary Layer parameters) to calculate atmospheric parameters and a lagrangian multisource model named P6 (Program Plotting Paths of Pollutant Puffs and Plumes) to calculate pollutant dispersion.SAFE AIR  is included in the online Model Documentation System (MDS) of the

text: European Environment Agency

text: (EEA) and of the .Italian Agency for the Protection of the Environment (APAT).

text: All of these ciphers use the same round function consisting of four stages, as shown in the diagram: a key-mixing stage, a substitution layer, another key-mixing stage, and finally a diffusion layer. In the first key-mixing stage, the plaintext block is divided into eight 8-bit segments, and subkeys are added using either addition modulo 256 (denoted by a "+" in a square) or XOR (denoted by a "+" in a circle). The substitution layer consists of two S-boxes, each the inverse of each other, derived from discrete exponentiation (45) and logarithm (logx) functions. After a second key-mixing stage there is the diffusion layer: a novel cryptographic component termed a pseudo-Hadamard transform (PHT). (The PHT was also later used in the Twofish cipher.)

text: All of these ciphers use the same round function consisting of four stages, as shown in the diagram: a key-mixing stage, a substitution layer, another key-mixing stage, and finally a diffusion layer. In the first key-mixing stage, the plaintext block is divided into eight 8-bit segments, and subkeys are added using either addition modulo 256 (denoted by a "+" in a square) or

text: XOR

text: (denoted by a "+" in a circle). The substitution layer consists of two

text: S-box

text: es, each the inverse of each other, derived from discrete

text: exponentiation

text: (45) and

text: logarithm

text: (logx) functions. After a second key-mixing stage there is the diffusion layer: a novel cryptographic component termed a

text: pseudo-Hadamard transform

text: (PHT). (The PHT was also later used in the

text: Twofish

text: cipher.)

text: The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the distance from the body at which the temperature is 99% of the temperature found from an inviscid solution. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by the Prandtl number. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same thickness.  If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary layer. If the Prandtl number is less than 1, which is the case for air at standard conditions, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary layer.

text: The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the distance from the body at which the temperature is 99% of the temperature found from an inviscid solution. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by the

text: Prandtl number

text: . If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same thickness.  If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary layer. If the Prandtl number is less than 1, which is the case for air at standard conditions, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary layer.

text: The shape of the cloud is influenced by the local atmospheric conditions and wind patterns.  The fallout distribution is predominantly a downwind plume. However, if the cloud reaches the tropopause, it may spread against the wind, because its convection speed is higher than the ambient wind speed. At the tropopause, the cloud shape is roughly circular and spread out.

text: The shape of the cloud is influenced by the local atmospheric conditions and wind patterns.  The fallout distribution is predominantly a downwind

text: plume

text: . However, if the cloud reaches the

text: tropopause

text: , it may spread against the wind, because its convection speed is higher than the ambient wind speed. At the tropopause, the cloud shape is roughly circular and spread out.

text: On 6 December 2007, AAD successfully intercepted a modified Prithvi-II missile acting as an incoming ballistic missile enemy target. The endo-atmospheric interception was carried out at an altitude of . The interceptor and all the elements performed in a copy book fashion validating the endo-atmospheric layer of the defence system. The launch was also shown through a video link at a control room of DRDO Bhawan,at Delhi.

text: The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. Measurements of the sun showed that the radiation sent out from its surface and reaching the ground on Earth is usually consistent with the spectrum of a black body with a temperature in the range of 5,500–6,000 K (5,227 to 5,727 °C), except that there was no radiation below a wavelength of about 310 nm at the ultraviolet end of the spectrum. It was deduced that the missing radiation was being absorbed by something in the atmosphere. Eventually the spectrum of the missing radiation was matched to only one known chemical, ozone. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958, Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day. The "Dobson unit", a convenient measure of the amount of ozone overhead, is named in his honor.

text: The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists

text: Charles Fabry

text: and

text: Henri Buisson

text: . Measurements of the sun showed that the radiation sent out from its surface and reaching the ground on Earth is usually consistent with the spectrum of a

text: black body

text: with a temperature in the range of 5,500–6,000 K (5,227 to 5,727 °C), except that there was no radiation below a wavelength of about 310 nm at the ultraviolet end of the spectrum. It was deduced that the missing radiation was being absorbed by something in the atmosphere. Eventually the spectrum of the missing radiation was matched to only one known chemical, ozone. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist

text: G. M. B. Dobson

text: , who developed a simple

text: spectrophotometer

text: (the

text: Dobsonmeter

text: ) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958, Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day. The "

text: Dobson unit

text: ", a convenient measure of the

text: amount

text: of ozone overhead, is named in his honor.

text: The low-lying damp ground can produce a visual effect known as a Fata Morgana. This optical phenomenon occurs because rays of light are strongly bent when they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep thermal inversion where an atmospheric duct has formed. The Italian name Fata Morgana is derived from the name of Morgan le Fay, who was alternatively known as Morgane, Morgain, Morgana and other variants. Morgan le Fay was described as a powerful sorceress and antagonist of King Arthur and Queen Guinevere in the Arthurian legend.

text: The low-lying damp ground can produce a visual effect known as a

text: Fata Morgana

text: . This

text: optical phenomenon

text: occurs because rays of light are strongly bent when they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep

text: thermal inversion

text: where an

text: atmospheric duct

text: has formed. The Italian name Fata Morgana is derived from the name of

text: Morgan le Fay

text: , who was alternatively known as Morgane, Morgain, Morgana and other variants. Morgan le Fay was described as a powerful

text: sorceress

text: and

text: antagonist

text: of

text: King Arthur

text: and

text: Queen Guinevere

text: in the

text: Arthurian legend

text: The 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, or CLRTAP, is an early international effort to protect and gradually reduce and prevent air pollution. It is implemented by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP), directed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).  The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, or Montreal Protocol (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer), is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989.

text: The 1979

entity_name: Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution

text: Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution

text: , or CLRTAP, is an early international effort to protect and gradually reduce and prevent air pollution. It is implemented by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP), directed by the

entity_name: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

text: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

text: (UNECE).  The

text: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

text: , or Montreal Protocol (a protocol to the

text: ), is an international

text: treaty

text: designed to protect the

text: ozone layer

text: by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for

text: ozone depletion

text: . The treaty was opened for signature on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989.

text: Warriors of Might and Magic for the PlayStation 2 holds a generally unfavorable averaged review score of 49% on Metacritic. Joe Fielder from GameSpot awarded it a score of 3.6 out of 10, opining "there's a decent game hidden here somewhere; it just exists under many layers of detritus." IGN's Doug Perry awarded it a score of 5.0 out of 10, saying that it "hits the mark on a few cylinders, but its clumsy, redundant nature will put you to sleep, and for a videogame, which is by definition supposed to be 'entertaining', that's not a good sign." The PlayStation version was better received, earning a GameRankings score of 61.33%. Despite the mixed reception from critics, the PlayStation version has received a cult following status among gamers due in part to its satisfying combat and atmospheric environments.

text: Warriors of Might and Magic for the PlayStation 2 holds a generally unfavorable averaged review score of 49% on

text: Metacritic

text: . Joe Fielder from

text: GameSpot

text: awarded it a score of 3.6 out of 10, opining "there's a decent game hidden here somewhere; it just exists under many layers of detritus."

text: IGN

text: 's Doug Perry awarded it a score of 5.0 out of 10, saying that it "hits the mark on a few cylinders, but its clumsy, redundant nature will put you to sleep, and for a videogame, which is by definition supposed to be 'entertaining', that's not a good sign." The PlayStation version was better received, earning a

text: GameRankings

text: score of 61.33%. Despite the mixed reception from critics, the PlayStation version has received a cult following status among gamers due in part to its satisfying combat and atmospheric environments.

text: Aside from chlorofluorocarbons, tritium can act as a transient tracer and has the ability to "outline" the biological, chemical, and physical paths throughout the world oceans because of its evolving distribution. Tritium has thus been used as a tool to examine ocean circulation and ventilation and, for such purposes, is usually measured in Tritium Units where 1 TU is defined as the ratio of 1 tritium atom to 10 hydrogen atoms. As noted earlier, nuclear weapons testing, primarily in the high-latitude regions of the Northern Hemisphere, throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s introduced large amounts of tritium into the atmosphere, especially the stratosphere. Before these nuclear tests, there were only about 3 to 4 kilograms of tritium on the Earth's surface; but these amounts rose by 2 or 3 orders of magnitude during the post-test period.

text: Aside from

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: , tritium can act as a transient tracer and has the ability to "outline" the biological, chemical, and physical paths throughout the world oceans because of its evolving distribution. Tritium has thus been used as a tool to examine ocean circulation and ventilation and, for such purposes, is usually measured in Tritium Units where 1 TU is defined as the ratio of 1 tritium atom to 10 hydrogen atoms. As noted earlier, nuclear weapons testing, primarily in the high-latitude regions of the Northern Hemisphere, throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s introduced large amounts of tritium into the atmosphere, especially the

text: stratosphere

text: . Before these nuclear tests, there were only about 3 to 4 kilograms of tritium on the Earth's surface; but these amounts rose by 2 or 3 orders of magnitude during the post-test period.

text: Band openings are sometimes caused by a weather phenomenon known as a tropospheric 'inversion', where a stagnant high pressure area causes alternating stratified layers of warm and cold air generally trapping the colder air beneath. This may make for smoggy/foggy days but it also causes VHF/UHF radio transmissions to travel or duct along the boundaries of these warm/cold atmospheric layers. Radio signals have been known to travel hundreds, even thousands of kilometers due to these unique weather conditions. For example: The longest distance reported contact due to tropospheric refraction on 2 meters is 4754 km between Hawaii and a ship south of Mexico. There were reports of the reception of one way signals from Réunion to Western Australia, a distance of more than 6000 km.

text: Band openings are sometimes caused by a

text: weather

text: phenomenon known as a

text: tropospheric 'inversion'

text: , where a stagnant high pressure area causes alternating stratified layers of warm and cold air generally trapping the colder air beneath. This may make for smoggy/foggy days but it also causes VHF/UHF radio transmissions to travel or duct along the boundaries of these warm/cold atmospheric layers. Radio signals have been known to travel hundreds, even thousands of kilometers due to these unique weather conditions. For example: The longest distance reported contact due to tropospheric refraction on 2 meters is 4754 km between

text: Hawaii

text: and a ship south of

text: Mexico

text: . There were reports of the reception of one way signals from

text: Réunion

text: to

text: Western Australia

text: , a distance of more than 6000 km.

text: The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the troposphere, stratosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Unlike the Earth's atmosphere, Jupiter's lacks a mesosphere. Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior. This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium, meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases. Hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid at a pressure of around 12 bar.

text: The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers, by increasing altitude: the

text: troposphere

text: stratosphere

text: thermosphere

text: and

text: exosphere

text: . Unlike the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , Jupiter's lacks a

text: mesosphere

text: . Jupiter does not have a solid surface, and the lowest atmospheric layer, the troposphere, smoothly transitions into the planet's fluid interior. This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the

text: critical point

text: s for hydrogen and helium, meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases. Hydrogen becomes a

text: supercritical fluid

text: at a pressure of around 12 bar.

text: The findings of the Huygens probe indicate that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane and other organic compounds onto the moon's surface. In October 2007, observers noted an increase in apparent opacity in the clouds above the equatorial Xanadu region, suggestive of "methane drizzle", though this was not direct evidence for rain. However, subsequent images of lakes in Titan's southern hemisphere taken over one year show that they are enlarged and filled by seasonal hydrocarbon rainfall. It is possible that areas of Titan's surface may be coated in a layer of tholins, but this has not been confirmed. The presence of rain indicates that Titan may be the only Solar System body besides Earth upon which rainbows could form. However, given the extreme opacity of the atmosphere to visible light, the vast majority of any rainbows would be visible only in the infrared.

text: The findings of the Huygens probe indicate that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane and other organic compounds onto the moon's surface. In October 2007, observers noted an increase in apparent opacity in the clouds above the equatorial

text: Xanadu

text: region, suggestive of "methane drizzle", though this was not direct evidence for rain. However, subsequent images of lakes in Titan's southern hemisphere taken over one year show that they are enlarged and filled by seasonal hydrocarbon rainfall. It is possible that areas of Titan's surface may be coated in a layer of

text: tholin

text: s, but this has not been confirmed. The presence of rain indicates that Titan may be the only Solar System body besides Earth upon which

text: rainbow

text: s could form. However, given the extreme opacity of the atmosphere to visible light, the vast majority of any rainbows would be visible only in the infrared.

text: Boundary layer meteorology is the study of processes in the air layer directly above Earth's surface, known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and friction – cause turbulent mixing within the air layer. Significant movement  of heat, matter, or momentum on time scales of less than a day are caused by turbulent motions. Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all types of surface–atmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake, urban land and non-urban land for the study of meteorology.

text: Boundary layer

text: meteorology is the study of processes in the air layer directly above Earth's surface, known as the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: (ABL). The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and

text: friction

text: – cause

text: turbulent mixing

text: within the air layer. Significant movement  of

text: heat

text: matter

text: , or

text: momentum

text: on time scales of less than a day are caused by turbulent motions. Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all types of surface–atmosphere boundary, including ocean, lake, urban land and non-urban land for the study of meteorology.

text: In telecommunication, an atmospheric duct is a horizontal layer in the lower atmosphere in which the vertical refractive index gradients are such that radio signals (and light rays) are guided or ducted, tend to follow the curvature of the Earth, and experience less attenuation in the ducts than they would if the ducts were not present. The duct acts as an atmospheric dielectric waveguide and limits the spread of the wavefront to only the horizontal dimension.

text: In

text: telecommunication

text: , an atmospheric duct is a horizontal layer in the lower atmosphere in which the vertical

text: refractive index

text: gradients are such that

text: radio

text: signals (and light rays) are guided or ducted, tend to follow the curvature of the Earth, and experience less

text: attenuation

text: in the ducts than they would if the ducts were not present. The duct acts as an atmospheric

text: dielectric

text: waveguide

text: and limits the spread of the

text: wavefront

text: to only the horizontal dimension.

text: The thermosphere and upper part of the stratosphere contain a large concentration of ions and electrons, forming the ionosphere of Uranus. Radio occultation observations by the Voyager 2 spacecraft showed that the ionosphere lies between 1,000 and 10,000 km altitude and may include several narrow and dense layers between 1,000 and 3,500 km. The electron density in the Uranian ionosphere is on average , reaching to as high as  in the narrow layers in the stratosphere. The ionosphere is mainly sustained by solar UV radiation and its density depends on the solar activity. The auroral activity on Uranus is not as powerful as at Jupiter and Saturn and contributes little to the ionization. The high electron density may be in part caused by the low concentration of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere.

text: The thermosphere and upper part of the stratosphere contain a large concentration of

text: ion

text: s and

text: electron

text: s, forming the

text: ionosphere

text: of Uranus. Radio occultation observations by the Voyager 2 spacecraft showed that the ionosphere lies between 1,000 and 10,000 km altitude and may include several narrow and dense layers between 1,000 and 3,500 km. The electron density in the Uranian ionosphere is on average , reaching to as high as  in the narrow layers in the stratosphere. The ionosphere is mainly sustained by solar

text: UV

text: radiation and its density depends on the

text: solar activity

text: . The

text: auroral

text: activity on Uranus is not as powerful as at Jupiter and Saturn and contributes little to the ionization. The high electron density may be in part caused by the low concentration of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s in the stratosphere.

text: Despite the fact that there might be a layer in the atmosphere that has positive values of CAPE, if the parcel does not reach or begin rising to that level, the most significant convection that occurs in the FCL will not be realized. This can occur for numerous reasons. Primarily, it is the result of a cap, or convective inhibition (CIN/CINH). Processes that can erode this inhibition are heating of the Earth's surface and forcing. Such forcing mechanisms encourage upward verticalvelocity, characterized by a speed that is relatively low to what you find in a thunderstorm updraft. Because of this, it is not the actual air being pushed to its LFC that "breaks through" the inhibition, but rather the forcing cools the inhibition adiabatically. This would counter, or "erode" the increase of temperature with height that is present during a capping inversion.

text: Despite the fact that there might be a layer in the atmosphere that has positive values of CAPE, if the parcel does not reach or begin rising to that level, the most significant convection that occurs in the FCL will not be realized. This can occur for numerous reasons. Primarily, it is the result of a cap, or

text: convective inhibition (CIN/CINH)

text: . Processes that can erode this inhibition are heating of the Earth's surface and forcing. Such forcing mechanisms encourage upward verticalvelocity, characterized by a speed that is relatively low to what you find in a thunderstorm updraft. Because of this, it is not the actual air being pushed to its LFC that "breaks through" the inhibition, but rather the forcing cools the inhibition adiabatically. This would counter, or "erode" the increase of temperature with height that is present during a capping inversion.

text: The MinXSS mission is to measure the solar soft X-ray spectrum from about 0.5 keV (25 Å) to 30 keV (0.4 Å) with ~0.15 keV FWHM spectral resolution. This part of the solar electromagnetic spectrum is where the largest enhancement from solar flares is expected to occur. It also has an important impact on Earth ionospheric chemistry. Despite this, prior measurements have been either low-resolution broadband, or high-resolution but very narrow bandpass. The relatively recent creation of miniaturized silicon drift detectors has enabled the MinXSS measurements. MinXSS data will provide a means of probing the solar corona—especially in active regions and solar flares—and will be used as an input for models of the Earth's upper atmosphere, particularly the ionosphere, thermosphere, and mesosphere.

text: The MinXSS mission is to measure the solar soft

text: X-ray

text: spectrum from about 0.5

text: keV

text: Å

text: ) to 30 keV (0.4

text: Å

text: ) with ~0.15 keV

text: FWHM

text: spectral resolution

text: . This part of the solar

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: is where the largest enhancement from

text: solar flares

text: is expected to occur. It also has an important impact on Earth

text: ionospheric

text: chemistry. Despite this, prior measurements have been either low-resolution broadband, or high-resolution but very narrow bandpass. The relatively recent creation of miniaturized

text: silicon drift detectors

text: has enabled the MinXSS measurements. MinXSS data will provide a means of probing the solar

text: corona

text: —especially in

text: active regions

text: and

text: solar flares

text: —and will be used as an input for models of the Earth's upper atmosphere, particularly the ionosphere,

text: thermosphere

text: , and

text: mesosphere

text: After O'Leary's resignation from NASA, Carl Sagan recruited him to teach at Cornell University in 1968, where he researched and lectured until 1971 as a research associate (1968-1969) and assistant professor of astronomy (1969-1971). While at Cornell, he studied lunar mascons. During the 1970-1971 academic year, O'Leary was deputy team leader of the Mariner 10 Venus-Mercury TV Science Team as a visiting researcher at the California Institute of Technology.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Brian|last=O'Leary|title=Venus: vertical structure of stratospheric hazes from Mariner 10 pictures|journal=Journal of Atmospheric Science|year=1975|volume=32|pages=1091–1100|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032

text: After O'Leary's resignation from NASA,

text: Carl Sagan

text: recruited him to teach at

text: Cornell University

text: in 1968, where he researched and lectured until 1971 as a research associate (1968-1969) and assistant professor of astronomy (1969-1971). While at Cornell, he studied lunar

text: mascons

text: . During the 1970-1971 academic year, O'Leary was deputy team leader of the

text: Mariner 10

text: Venus

text: Mercury

text: TV Science Team as a visiting researcher at the

text: California Institute of Technology

text: .<ref>{{cite journal|first=Brian|last=O'Leary|title=Venus: vertical structure of stratospheric hazes from Mariner 10 pictures|journal=Journal of Atmospheric Science|year=1975|volume=32|pages=1091–1100|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032

text: 3) Mesosphere (50–80 km)

text: 3) Mesosphere (50–80 km)

text: In an evacuated tube solar hot water heater with an indirect circulation system, evacuated tubes contain a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. Solar thermal energy is absorbed within the evacuated tubes and is converted into usable concentrated heat. Copper heat pipes transfer thermal energy from within the solar tube into a copper header. A thermal transfer fluid (water or glycol mixture) is pumped through the copper header. As the solution circulates through the copper header, the temperature rises. The evacuated glass tubes have a double layer. The outer layer is fully transparent to allow solar energy to pass through unimpeded. The inner layer is treated with a selective optical coating that absorbs energy without reflection. The inner and outer layers are fused at the end, leaving an empty space between the inner and outer layers. All air is pumped out of the space between the two layers (evacuation process), thereby creating the thermos effect which stops conductive and convective transfer of heat that might otherwise escape into the atmosphere. Heat loss is further reduced by the low-emissivity of the glass that is used. Inside the glass tube is the copper heat pipe. It is a sealed hollow copper tube that contains a small amount of proprietary liquid, which under low pressure boils at a very low temperature. Other components include a solar heat exchanger tank and a solar pumping station, with pumps and controllers.

text: In an evacuated tube solar hot water heater with an indirect circulation system, evacuated tubes contain a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. Solar thermal energy is absorbed within the evacuated tubes and is converted into usable concentrated heat. Copper heat pipes transfer thermal energy from within the solar tube into a copper header. A thermal transfer fluid (water or

text: glycol

text: mixture) is pumped through the copper header. As the solution circulates through the copper header, the temperature rises. The evacuated glass tubes have a double layer. The outer layer is fully transparent to allow solar energy to pass through unimpeded. The inner layer is treated with a selective

text: optical coating

text: that absorbs energy without reflection. The inner and outer layers are fused at the end, leaving an empty space between the inner and outer layers. All air is pumped out of the space between the two layers (evacuation process), thereby creating the thermos effect which stops conductive and convective transfer of heat that might otherwise escape into the atmosphere. Heat loss is further reduced by the low-emissivity of the glass that is used. Inside the glass tube is the copper heat pipe. It is a sealed hollow copper tube that contains a small amount of proprietary liquid, which under low pressure boils at a very low temperature. Other components include a solar heat exchanger tank and a solar pumping station, with pumps and controllers.

text: The ability to conduct military activities in the mesosphere gives a country some significant military potential.

text: Biological growth is attached to the surface of the disc and forms a slime layer. The discs contact the wastewater with the atmospheric air for oxidation as it rotates. The rotation helps to slough off excess solids. The disc system can be staged in series to obtain nearly any detention time or degree of removal required. Since the systems are staged, the culture of the later stages can be acclimated to the slowly degraded materials.

text: Stratosphere Girl (also known as The Stratosphere Girl in the United States) is a 2004 film from Germany written and directed by Matthias X. Oberg.

text: Stratosphere Girl (also known as The Stratosphere Girl in the United States) is a

text: film

text: from Germany written and directed by

text: Matthias X. Oberg

text: The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three main layers: the troposphere, between altitudes of −300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar; the stratosphere, spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures of between  and the hot thermosphere (and exosphere) extending from an altitude of 4,000 km to several Uranian radii from the nominal surface at 1 bar pressure. Unlike Earth's, Uranus's atmosphere has no mesosphere.

text: The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three main layers: the

text: troposphere

text: , between altitudes of −300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar; the

text: stratosphere

text: , spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures of between  and the hot

text: thermosphere

text: (and

text: exosphere

text: ) extending from an altitude of 4,000 km to several Uranian radii from the nominal surface at 1 bar pressure. Unlike

text: Earth

text: 's, Uranus's atmosphere has no

text: mesosphere

text: UNAVCO operates the Continuously Operating Caribbean GPS Observational Network (COCONet)[1], which consists of 50 planned continuously operating GPS/weather stations integrated with 65 existing GPS stations operated by partner organizations, 15 of which will be upgraded with new equipment. COCONet provides free, high-quality, open-format GPS and meteorological data for these stations via the internet for use by scientists, government agencies, educators, students, and the private sector. These data are used by local and foreign researchers to study solid earth processes such as tectonic plate motions, tectonic plate boundary interaction and deformation, including earthquake cycle processes and risks. They also serve atmospheric scientists and weather forecasting groups by providing more precise estimates of tropospheric water vapor and enabling better forecasting of the dynamics of airborne moisture associated with the yearly Caribbean hurricane cycle.

text: The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterised by a decrease in temperature with altitude. The temperature falls from about 320 K at the base of the nominal troposphere at −300 km to 53 K at 50 km. The temperatures in the coldest upper region of the troposphere (the tropopause) actually vary in the range between 49 and 57 K depending on planetary latitude. The tropopause region is responsible for the vast majority of Uranus's thermal far infrared emissions, thus determining its effective temperature of .

text: The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterised by a decrease in temperature with altitude. The temperature falls from about 320 K at the base of the nominal troposphere at −300 km to 53 K at 50 km. The temperatures in the coldest upper region of the troposphere (the

text: tropopause

text: ) actually vary in the range between 49 and 57 K depending on planetary latitude. The tropopause region is responsible for the vast majority of Uranus's thermal

text: far infrared

text: emissions, thus determining its

text: effective temperature

text: of .

text: The front part of the hub contained a nearly spherical landing capsule 1 meter in diameter and weighing 383 kg. Compared to previous (failed) Venera probes, the capsule contained an improved heat shield which could withstand temperatures up to . Instead of the previous liquid-based cooling design, a simpler and more reliable gas system was installed. The durability of the capsule was checked by exposing it to high temperatures, pressures and accelerations using three unique testing installations. The heat resistance was checked in a high-temperature vacuum system emulating the upper layers of the atmosphere. The capsule was also pressurized up to 25 atmospheres. (The surface pressure on Venus was unknown at the time.  Estimates ranged from a few to hundreds of atmospheres).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vakhnin, V. M. |year=1968|title=A Review of the Venera 4 Flight and Its Scientific Program |journal=J. Atmos. Sci. |volume=25 |pages= 533–534 |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1968)025

text: The front part of the hub contained a nearly spherical landing capsule 1 meter in diameter and weighing 383 kg. Compared to previous (failed)

text: Venera

text: probes, the capsule contained an improved heat shield which could withstand temperatures up to . Instead of the previous liquid-based cooling design, a simpler and more reliable gas system was installed. The durability of the capsule was checked by exposing it to high temperatures, pressures and accelerations using three unique testing installations. The heat resistance was checked in a high-temperature vacuum system emulating the upper layers of the atmosphere. The capsule was also pressurized up to 25 atmospheres. (The surface pressure on Venus was unknown at the time.  Estimates ranged from a few to hundreds of atmospheres).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vakhnin, V. M. |year=1968|title=A Review of the Venera 4 Flight and Its Scientific Program |journal=J. Atmos. Sci. |volume=25 |pages= 533–534 |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1968)025

text: Because the temperature in the tropopause and lower stratosphere is largely constant with increasing altitude, very little convection and its resultant turbulence occurs there. Most turbulence at this altitude is caused by variations in the jet stream and other local wind shears, although areas of significant convective activity (thunderstorms) in the troposphere below may produce turbulence as a result of  convective overshoot.

text: Because the temperature in the tropopause and lower stratosphere is largely constant with increasing altitude, very little convection and its resultant turbulence occurs there. Most turbulence at this altitude is caused by variations in the

text: jet stream

text: and other local wind shears, although areas of significant convective activity (

text: thunderstorm

text: s) in the troposphere below may produce turbulence as a result of

text: convective overshoot

text: In the 20th century atmospheric science moved on from studying the composition of air to a consideration of how the concentrations of trace gases in the atmosphere have changed over time and the chemical processes which create and destroy compounds in the air. Two particularly important examples of this were the explanation by Sydney Chapman and Gordon Dobson of how the ozone layer is created and maintained, and the explanation of photochemical smog by Arie Jan Haagen-Smit. Further studies on ozone issues led to the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry award shared between Paul Crutzen, Mario Molina and Frank Sherwood Rowland.

text: In the 20th century atmospheric science moved on from studying the composition of air to a consideration of how the concentrations of trace gases in the atmosphere have changed over time and the chemical processes which create and destroy compounds in the air. Two particularly important examples of this were the explanation by

text: Sydney Chapman

text: and

text: Gordon Dobson

text: of how the

text: ozone layer

text: is created and maintained, and the explanation of

text: photochemical smog

text: by

text: Arie Jan Haagen-Smit

text: . Further studies on ozone issues led to the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry award shared between

text: Paul Crutzen

text: Mario Molina

text: and

text: Frank Sherwood Rowland

text: Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=States|first=Robert J.|last2=Gardner|first2=Chester S.|title=Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80–105 km) at 40°N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Variations|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2000|volume=57|pages=66–77|date=January 2000|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057

text: Temperatures drop with increasing altitude to the

text: mesopause

text: that marks the top of this middle layer of the atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Earth and has an average temperature around .<ref>{{Cite journal|last=States|first=Robert J.|last2=Gardner|first2=Chester S.|title=Thermal Structure of the Mesopause Region (80–105 km) at 40°N Latitude. Part I: Seasonal Variations|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 2000|volume=57|pages=66–77|date=January 2000|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057

text: The most important feature of the valley is that it is somehow separated from the surrounding atmosphere and has its own weather system. Loomis calls it a meteorological enclave created by an inversion (i.e., air only rising, not falling), but he views its existence as so unlikely that it is only a theoretical possibility. Loomis' scientific assessment seems correct because the air in a valley could not be separate from the planet's atmosphere unless the valley's walls were unbroken and rose as high as the tropopause, the level at which temperature begins to increase and air only rises. In any other situation, a valley's air would necessarily mix with surrounding air, and pollution would enter from above. However, for the purposes of this story, readers must suspend disbelief to accept that at least one valley with a self-contained weather system exists, allowing some life to continue after global nuclear war.

text: The most important feature of the valley is that it is somehow separated from the surrounding atmosphere and has its own weather system. Loomis calls it a meteorological enclave created by an

text: inversion

text: (i.e., air only rising, not falling), but he views its existence as so unlikely that it is only a theoretical possibility. Loomis' scientific assessment seems correct because the air in a valley could not be separate from the planet's atmosphere unless the valley's walls were unbroken and rose as high as the

text: tropopause

text: , the level at which temperature begins to increase and air only rises. In any other situation, a valley's air would necessarily mix with surrounding air, and pollution would enter from above. However, for the purposes of this story, readers must suspend disbelief to accept that at least one valley with a self-contained weather system exists, allowing some life to continue after global nuclear war.

text: A theory, called bistability, is a mathematical model of the atmosphere. In this model, UV shielding decreases the rate of methane oxidation once oxygen levels are sufficient to support the formation of an ozone layer. This explanation proposes an atmospheric system with two steady states, one with lower (0.02%) atmospheric oxygen content, and the other with higher (21% or more) oxygen content. The Great Oxygenation Event can then be understood as a switch between the lower to the upper stable steady states.

text: A theory, called

text: bistability

text: , is a mathematical model of the atmosphere. In this model, UV shielding decreases the rate of methane oxidation once oxygen levels are sufficient to support the formation of an

text: ozone layer

text: . This explanation proposes an atmospheric system with two

text: steady state

text: s, one with lower (0.02%) atmospheric oxygen content, and the other with higher (21% or more) oxygen content. The Great Oxygenation Event can then be understood as a switch between the lower to the upper stable steady states.

text: The visible light produced by a meteor may take on various hues, depending on the chemical composition of the meteoroid, and the speed of its movement through the atmosphere. As layers of the meteoroid abrade and ionize, the colour of the light emitted may change according to the layering of minerals. Colours of meteors depend on the relative influence of the metallic content of the meteoroid versus the superheated air plasma, which its passage engenders:

text: Farkas monitored ozone from the 1950s until her retirement in 1986, undertaking world-leading research in the field of ozone monitoring over more than three decades. During 1960s her work shifted increasingly to the study of atmospheric ozone including the measurement of total ozone with the Dobson ozone spectrophotometer. She became one of a small international group of atmospheric scientists dedicated to the study of atmospheric ozone-interest in which, in that era, was largely in use as a tracer to aid atmospheric circulation studies. Her work contributed substantially towards the discovery of the "hole in the ozone layer" which changed the world's behavior towards pollution forever. Her interest in atmospheric ozone measurement led naturally to the application of her expertise to the monitoring of surface ozone as part of air pollution studies and also to the measurement of atmospheric turbidity.

text: Farkas monitored

text: ozone

text: from the 1950s until her retirement in 1986, undertaking world-leading research in the field of ozone monitoring over more than three decades. During 1960s her work shifted increasingly to the study of atmospheric ozone including the measurement of total ozone with the Dobson ozone spectrophotometer. She became one of a small international group of atmospheric scientists dedicated to the study of atmospheric ozone-interest in which, in that era, was largely in use as a tracer to aid atmospheric circulation studies. Her work contributed substantially towards the discovery of the "

text: hole in the ozone layer

text: " which changed the world's behavior towards pollution forever. Her interest in atmospheric ozone measurement led naturally to the application of her expertise to the monitoring of surface ozone as part of air pollution studies and also to the measurement of atmospheric turbidity.

text: NOVELTIS is in charge of the industrialization and the distribution of the LMD 4A radiative transfer model. 4A allows fast and accurate computation of transmittance and radiance, owing to the use of a comprehensive database (atlases) of monochromatic optical thicknesses for up to 43 atmospheric molecular species. Precomputed once and for all, the atlases are created by using the line-by-line and layer-by-layer model, STRANSAC, with up to date physics. Owing to the computation of Jacobians (partial derivatives of the radiance with respect to atmospheric variables), the 4A model can be easily coupled with an inversion algorithm for the retrieval of atmospheric temperature or composition from infrared radiance measurements.

text: NOVELTIS is in charge of the industrialization and the distribution of the LMD 4A radiative transfer model. 4A allows fast and accurate computation of

text: transmittance

text: and

text: radiance

text: , owing to the use of a comprehensive

text: database

text: (atlases) of

text: monochromatic

text: optical thicknesses for up to 43 atmospheric molecular species. Precomputed once and for all, the atlases are created by using the line-by-line and layer-by-layer model,

text: STRANSAC

text: , with up to date physics. Owing to the computation of

text: Jacobians

text: partial derivative

text: s of the radiance with respect to atmospheric variables), the 4A model can be easily coupled with an inversion algorithm for the retrieval of atmospheric temperature or composition from infrared radiance measurements.

text: The presence of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, in Pluto's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion, with the average temperature of its atmosphere tens of degrees warmer than its surface, though observations by New Horizons have revealed Pluto's upper atmosphere to be far colder than expected (70 K, as opposed to about 100 K). Pluto's atmosphere is divided into roughly 20 regularly spaced haze layers  up to 150 km high, thought to be the result of pressure waves created by airflow across Pluto's mountains.

text: The presence of methane, a powerful

text: greenhouse gas

text: , in Pluto's atmosphere creates a

text: temperature inversion

text: , with the average temperature of its atmosphere tens of degrees warmer than its surface, though observations by New Horizons have revealed Pluto's upper atmosphere to be far colder than expected (70 K, as opposed to about 100 K). Pluto's atmosphere is divided into roughly 20 regularly spaced haze layers  up to 150 km high, thought to be the result of pressure waves created by airflow across Pluto's mountains.

text: Most models include software to diagnose a wide range of variables for comparison with observations or study of atmospheric processes. An example is the 1.5-metre temperature, which is the standard height for near-surface observations of air temperature. This temperature is not directly predicted from the model but is deduced from surface and lowest-model-layer temperatures. Other software is used for creating plots and animations.

text: Most models include software to diagnose a wide range of variables for comparison with observations or

text: study of atmospheric processes

text: . An example is the 1.5-metre temperature, which is the standard height for near-surface observations of air temperature. This temperature is not directly predicted from the model but is deduced from surface and lowest-model-layer temperatures. Other software is used for creating plots and animations.

text: AIRS provides a global daily 3-D view of Earth's ozone layer, showing how ozone is transported. The instrument also gives scientists their best view of atmospheric ozone in the Antarctic region during the polar winter.

text: AIRS provides a global daily 3-D view of Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: , showing how ozone is transported. The instrument also gives scientists their best view of atmospheric ozone in the

text: Antarctic

text: region during the polar winter.

text: In simple terms, twinkling of stars is caused by the passing of light through different layers of a turbulent atmosphere. Most scintillation effects are caused by anomalous refraction caused by small-scale fluctuations in air density usually related to temperature gradients. Scintillation effects are always much more pronounced near the horizon than near the zenith (straight up), since the light near the horizon passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere. Atmospheric twinkling is measured quantitatively using a scintillometer. The effects of twinkling are reduced by using a larger receiver aperture.  This effect is known as aperture averaging.

text: In simple terms, twinkling of stars is caused by the passing of light through different layers of a turbulent atmosphere. Most scintillation effects are caused by anomalous

text: refraction

text: caused by small-scale fluctuations in

text: air density

text: usually related to temperature gradients. Scintillation effects are always much more pronounced near the horizon than near the

text: zenith

text: (straight up), since the light near the horizon passes through a thicker layer of atmosphere. Atmospheric twinkling is measured quantitatively using a

text: scintillometer

text: . The effects of twinkling are reduced by using a larger receiver

text: aperture

text: .  This effect is known as aperture averaging.

text: Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes, so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected ionised atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars, and this atmospheric loss is being studied by the MAVEN orbiter. Compared to Earth, the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied. Atmospheric pressure on the surface today ranges from a low of  on Olympus Mons to over  in Hellas Planitia, with a mean pressure at the surface level of . The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to that found  above Earth's surface. The resulting mean surface pressure is only 0.6% of that of Earth (101.3 kPa). The scale height of the atmosphere is about , which is higher than Earth's, , because the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38% of Earth's, an effect offset by both the lower temperature and 50% higher average molecular weight of the atmosphere of Mars.

text: Mars lost its

text: magnetosphere

text: 4 billion years ago, possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes, so the

text: solar wind

text: interacts directly with the Martian

text: ionosphere

text: , lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. Both

text: Mars Global Surveyor

text: and

text: Mars Express

text: have detected ionised atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars, and this atmospheric loss is being studied by the

text: MAVEN

text: orbiter. Compared to Earth, the

text: atmosphere

text: of Mars is quite rarefied.

text: Atmospheric pressure

text: on the surface today ranges from a low of  on

text: Olympus Mons

text: to over  in

text: Hellas Planitia

text: , with a mean pressure at the surface level of . The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to that found  above Earth's surface. The resulting mean surface pressure is only 0.6% of that of Earth (101.3 kPa). The

text: scale height

text: of the atmosphere is about , which is higher than Earth's, , because the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38% of Earth's, an effect offset by both the lower temperature and 50% higher average molecular weight of the atmosphere of Mars.

text: The mesosphere (; from Greek mesos "middle" and sphaira "sphere") is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the mesopause. In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as the altitude increases. The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause, which can be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth with temperatures below . The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season, but the lower boundary of the mesosphere is usually located at heights of about  above the Earth's surface and the mesopause is usually at heights near , except at middle and high latitudes in summer where it descends to heights of about .

text: The mesosphere (; from

text: Greek

text: mesos "middle" and sphaira "sphere") is the layer of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: that is directly above the

text: stratosphere

text: and directly below the

text: mesopause

text: . In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as the altitude increases. The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause, which can be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth with temperatures below . The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season, but the lower boundary of the mesosphere is usually located at heights of about  above the Earth's surface and the mesopause is usually at heights near , except at middle and high latitudes in summer where it descends to heights of about .

text: Throughout the entire vertical layer of the moat, there is dry descending air. The dynamics of the moat region are similar to the eye, while the outer eyewall takes on the dynamics of the primary eyewall. The vertical structure of the eye has two layers. The largest layer is that from the top of the tropopause to a capping layer around 700 hPa which is described by descending warm air. Below the capping layer, the air is moist and has convection with the presence of stratocumulus clouds. The moat gradually takes on the characteristics of the eye, upon which the inner eyewall can only dissipate in strength as the majority of the inflow is now being used to maintain the outer eyewall. The inner eye is eventually evaporated as it is warmed by the surrounding dry air in the moat and eye. Models and observations show that once the outer eyewall completely surrounds the inner eye, it takes less than 12 hours for the complete dissipation of the inner eyewall. The inner eyewall feeds mostly upon the moist air in the lower portion of the eye before evaporating.

text: GD 356 is a white dwarf in the constellation of Draco showing an unusual emission of circular polarised light. The star is 65 light years from earth. The class of this white dwarf is DA meaning that it has a cool helium rich atmosphere. This star exhibits emission lines showing the Zeeman effect in the hydrogen Balmer spectrum.  GD 356 belongs to a class of high field magnetic white dwarfs (HFMWD), but it is unique in that the split lines are purely emission lines with no absorption.  The emission region appears to be due to a heated upper layer in the photosphere in which the magnetic field is uniform to within 10%. The emission can be produced by an atmosphere at 7500K in a gravity field of 10 ms and a magnetic field of 13 megaGauss. The magnetically split emission lines, H and H, are circularly polarised. One explanation is that it is caused by a large electric current flowing between the poles of the star and a highly conducting planet.  Other explanations such as being due to Bondi-Hoyle accretion or due to a corona are ruled out by the lack of radio and X-ray emissions.  Accretion of gas at a low rate over a broad area of the star, only results in heating at levels high in the atmosphere and not down to the opacity depth of 1.0 as observed with these lines.

text: GD 356 is a

text: white dwarf

text: in the constellation of

text: Draco

text: showing an unusual emission of circular polarised light. The star is 65 light years from earth. The class of this white dwarf is DA meaning that it has a cool helium rich atmosphere. This star exhibits emission lines showing the

text: Zeeman effect

text: in the hydrogen

text: Balmer

text: spectrum.  GD 356 belongs to a class of

text: high field magnetic white dwarf

text: s (HFMWD), but it is unique in that the split lines are purely emission lines with no absorption.  The emission region appears to be due to a heated upper layer in the

text: photosphere

text: in which the magnetic field is uniform to within 10%. The emission can be produced by an atmosphere at 7500K in a gravity field of 10 ms and a magnetic field of 13 megaGauss. The magnetically split emission lines, H and H, are circularly polarised. One explanation is that it is caused by a large electric current flowing between the poles of the star and a highly conducting planet.  Other explanations such as being due to

text: Bondi-Hoyle accretion

text: or due to a corona are ruled out by the lack of radio and X-ray emissions.  Accretion of gas at a low rate over a broad area of the star, only results in heating at levels high in the atmosphere and not down to the opacity depth of 1.0 as observed with these lines.

text: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth's atmosphere.  Specifically, SAGE has been used to study the Earth's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere.  The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere.  Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation.  This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit. Physically, the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations.  SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols, ozone, water vapor, and other trace gases.

text: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE) is a series of

text: remote sensing

text: satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth's

text: atmosphere

text: .  Specifically, SAGE has been used to study the Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: and

text: aerosols

text: at the

text: troposphere

text: through the

text: stratosphere

text: .  The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere.  Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without

text: atmospheric

text: attenuation

text: .  This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit. Physically, the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via

text: algorithms

text: to determine chemical

text: concentrations

text: .  SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols, ozone, water vapor, and other trace gases.

text: The main dynamic features in this region are strong zonal (East-West) winds, atmospheric tides, internal atmospheric gravity waves (commonly called "gravity waves"), and planetary waves. Most of these tides and waves start in the troposphere and lower stratosphere, and propagate to the mesosphere. In the mesosphere, gravity-wave amplitudes can become so large that the waves become unstable and dissipate. This dissipation deposits momentum into the mesosphere and largely drives global circulation.

text: The main dynamic features in this region are strong zonal (East-West) winds,

text: atmospheric tide

text: s, internal atmospheric gravity waves (commonly called "

text: gravity waves

text: "), and

text: planetary wave

text: s. Most of these tides and waves start in the

text: troposphere

text: and lower

text: stratosphere

text: , and propagate to the mesosphere. In the mesosphere, gravity-wave amplitudes can become so large that the waves become unstable and dissipate. This dissipation deposits momentum into the mesosphere and largely drives global circulation.

text: Northern Lights Shopping Center is a strip mall located in Economy, Pennsylvania near Pittsburgh. While it continues to serve as a traditional community-style strip mall for the immediate area, it was a major power center-style strip mall from its opening until the early 2000s. Due to the high vacancy rate at the plaza, it is today largely considered a dead mall. A Walmart that opened next door to Northern Lights in 2014 is expected to help revitalize the plaza as well as help dilapidated southern Beaver County.

text: Northern Lights Shopping Center is a

text: strip mall

text: located in

text: Economy, Pennsylvania

text: near

text: Pittsburgh

text: . While it continues to serve as a traditional community-style strip mall for the immediate area, it was a major

text: power center

text: -style strip mall from its opening until the early 2000s. Due to the high vacancy rate at the plaza, it is today largely considered a

text: dead mall

text: . A

text: Walmart

text: that opened next door to Northern Lights in 2014 is expected to help revitalize the plaza as well as help dilapidated southern

text: Beaver County

text: In atmospheric chemistry, a null cycle is a catalytic cycle that simply interconverts chemical species without leading to net production or removal of any component. In the stratosphere, null cycles are very important in contrasting series of reactions that lead to net depletion in the ozone layer.

text: In

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: , a null cycle is a

text: catalytic cycle

text: that simply interconverts chemical species without leading to net production or removal of any component. In the

text: stratosphere

text: , null cycles are very important in contrasting series of

text: reactions

text: that lead to net

text: depletion

text: in the

text: ozone layer

text: Some oxygen was stimulated by incoming ultraviolet radiation to form ozone, which collected in a layer near the upper part of the atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbed, and still absorbs, a significant amount of the ultraviolet radiation that once had passed through the atmosphere. It allowed cells to colonize the surface of the ocean and eventually the land: without the ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation bombarding land and sea would have caused unsustainable levels of mutation in exposed cells.

text: Some oxygen was stimulated by incoming ultraviolet radiation to form

text: ozone

text: , which collected in a layer near the upper part of the atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbed, and still absorbs, a significant amount of the ultraviolet radiation that once had passed through the atmosphere. It allowed cells to colonize the surface of the ocean and eventually the land: without the ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation bombarding land and sea would have caused unsustainable levels of mutation in exposed cells.

text: Some locations on the Red Planet show groups of layered rocks.  Rock layers are present under the resistant caps of pedestal craters, on the floors of many large impact craters, and in the area called Arabia.  In some places the layers are arranged into regular patterns.   It has been suggested that the layers were put into place by volcanoes, the wind, or by being at the bottom of a lake or sea.  Calculations and simulations show that groundwater carrying dissolved minerals would surface in the same locations that have abundant rock layers.  According to these ideas, deep canyons and large craters would receive water coming from the ground.  Many craters in the Arabia area of Mars contain groups of layers.  Some of these layers may have resulted from climate changes.  The tilt of the rotational axis of Mars has repeatedly changed in the past.  Some changes are large.  Because of these variations of climate, at times the atmosphere of Mars will be much thicker and contain more moisture.  The amount of atmospheric dust also has increased and decreased. It is believed that these frequent changes helped to deposit material in craters and other low places. The rising of mineral-rich ground water cemented these materials. The model also predicts that after a crater is full of layered rocks; additional layers will be laid down in the area around the crater. So, the model predicts that layers may also have formed in intercrater regions; layers in these regions have been observed.Layers can be hardened by the action of groundwater.  Martian ground water probably moved hundreds of kilometers, and in the process it dissolved many minerals from the rock it passed through.  When ground water surfaces in low areas containing sediments, water evaporates in the thin atmosphere and leaves behind minerals as deposits and/or cementing agents. Consequently, layers of dust could not later easily erode away since they were cemented together. On Earth, mineral-rich waters often evaporate forming large deposits of various types of salts and other minerals. Sometimes water flows through Earth's aquifers, and then evaporates at the surface just as is hypothesed for Mars.  One location this occurs on Earth is the Great Artesian Basin of Australia.  On Earth the hardness of many sedimentary rocks, like sandstone, is largely due to the cement that was put in place as water passed through.

text: Some locations on the Red Planet show groups of layered rocks.  Rock layers are present under the resistant caps of

text: pedestal crater

text: s, on the floors of many large

text: impact craters

text: salts

text: and other

text: mineral

text: Great Artesian Basin

text: of

text: Australia

text: .  On Earth the hardness of many

text: sedimentary rock

text: s, like

text: sandstone

text: In general, winds are strongest immediately under the tropopause (except locally, during tornadoes, tropical cyclones or other anomalous situations). If two air masses of different temperatures or densities meet, the resulting pressure difference caused by the density difference (which ultimately causes wind) is highest within the transition zone. The wind does not flow directly from the hot to the cold area, but is deflected by the Coriolis effect and flows along the boundary of the two air masses.

text: In general, winds are strongest immediately under the tropopause (except locally, during

text: tornado

text: es,

text: tropical cyclone

text: s or other anomalous situations). If two air masses of different temperatures or densities meet, the resulting pressure difference caused by the density difference (which ultimately causes wind) is highest within the transition zone. The wind does not flow directly from the hot to the cold area, but is deflected by the

text: Coriolis effect

text: and flows along the boundary of the two air masses.

text: When light from a star or another astronomical object enters the Earth's atmosphere, atmospheric turbulence (introduced, for example, by different temperature layers and different wind speeds interacting) can distort and move the image in various ways (see astronomical seeing for a full discussion). Visual images produced by any telescope larger than approximately 20 centimeters are blurred by these distortions.

text: When light from a

text: star

text: or another

text: astronomical object

text: enters the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , atmospheric

text: turbulence

text: (introduced, for example, by different temperature layers and different wind speeds interacting) can distort and move the image in various ways (see

text: astronomical seeing

text: for a full discussion). Visual images produced by any telescope larger than approximately 20 centimeters are blurred by these distortions.

text: When the temperature is below freezing and the wind is calm, such as under a high atmospheric pressure at night in the fall, a thin layer of ice will form over open water of a lake. If the depth of the body of water is large enough, its color is black and can be seen through the ice, thus the name black ice.

text: Local area networking standards such as Ethernet and IEEE 802 specifications use terminology from the seven-layer OSI model rather than the TCP/IP model. The TCP/IP model in general does not consider physical specifications, rather it assumes a working network infrastructure that can deliver media level frames on the link. Therefore, RFC 1122 and RFC 1123, the definition of the TCP/IP model, do not discuss hardware issues and physical data transmission and set no standards for those aspects. Some textbook authors have supported the interpretation that physical data transmission aspects are part of the link layer.  Others assumed that physical data transmission standards are not considered communication protocols, and are not part of the TCP/IP model. These authors assume a hardware layer or physical layer below the link layer, and several of them adopt the OSI term data link layer instead of link layer in a modified description of layering. In the predecessor to the TCP/IP model, the ARPAnet Reference Model (RFC 908, 1982), aspects of the link layer are referred to by several poorly defined terms, such as network-access layer, network-access protocol, as well as network layer, while the next higher layer is called internetwork layer. In some modern text books, network-interface layer, host-to-network layer and network-access layer occur as synonyms either to the link layer or the data link layer, often including the physical layer.

text: Local area networking standards such as

text: Ethernet

text: and

text: IEEE 802

text: specifications use terminology from the seven-layer

text: OSI model

text: rather than the TCP/IP model. The TCP/IP model in general does not consider physical specifications, rather it assumes a working network infrastructure that can deliver media level frames on the link. Therefore, RFC 1122 and RFC 1123, the definition of the TCP/IP model, do not discuss hardware issues and physical

text: data transmission

text: and set no standards for those aspects. Some textbook authors have supported the interpretation that physical data transmission aspects are part of the link layer.  Others assumed that physical data transmission standards are not considered communication protocols, and are not part of the TCP/IP model. These authors assume a hardware layer or physical layer below the link layer, and several of them adopt the OSI term

text: data link layer

text: instead of link layer in a modified description of layering. In the predecessor to the TCP/IP model, the ARPAnet Reference Model (RFC 908, 1982), aspects of the link layer are referred to by several poorly defined terms, such as network-access layer, network-access protocol, as well as network layer, while the next higher layer is called internetwork layer. In some modern text books, network-interface layer, host-to-network layer and network-access layer occur as synonyms either to the link layer or the data link layer, often including the physical layer.

text: Solomon Victory Theater makes use of vibrating seats and atmospheric effects to enhance the viewing experience. In addition there are also moving props and scenery, lighting and sound effects and a multi-layered projection process.

text: Noctilucent clouds are located in the mesosphere. The upper mesosphere is also the region of the ionosphere known as the D layer. The D layer is only present during the day, when some ionization occurs with nitric oxide being ionized by Lyman series-alpha hydrogen radiation. The ionization is so weak that when night falls, and the source of ionization is removed, the free electron and ion form back into a neutral molecule. The mesosphere has been called the "ignorosphere" because it is poorly studied relative to the stratosphere (which can be accessed with high-altitude balloons) and the thermosphere (in which satellites can orbit).

text: Noctilucent cloud

text: s are located in the mesosphere. The upper mesosphere is also the region of the

text: ionosphere

text: known as the D layer. The D layer is only present during the day, when some

text: ionization

text: occurs with

text: nitric oxide

text: being ionized by

text: Lyman series

text: -alpha hydrogen radiation. The ionization is so weak that when night falls, and the source of ionization is removed, the free electron and ion form back into a neutral molecule. The mesosphere has been called the "ignorosphere" because it is poorly studied relative to the stratosphere (which can be accessed with high-altitude balloons) and the thermosphere (in which satellites can orbit).

text: Businger was born in Haarlem, the Netherlands, on 29 March 1924. He obtained his PhD in physics and meteorology from Utrecht University in 1954. As a PhD student he did research on turbulent transfer of heat, mass and momentum in the atmospheric surface layer. He came up with a similar concept around the same the Monin–Obukhov similarity theory was founded in the Soviet Union, with the two concepts varying slightly. Businger subsequently spend some time at the Institute of Horticultural Engineering of Wageningen University. At the institute he studied microclimate in greenhouses and the protection of crops from frost by use of sprinklers. Wishing to study atmospheric science further, Businger saw no options to do so in the Netherlands. He thus sent out inquiry letters to different universities in the United States, and in 1956 was hired as research associate by the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

text: Businger was born in

text: Haarlem

text: , the Netherlands, on 29 March 1924. He obtained his PhD in physics and meteorology from

text: Utrecht University

text: in 1954. As a PhD student he did research on turbulent transfer of heat, mass and momentum in the atmospheric

text: surface layer

text: . He came up with a similar concept around the same the

text: Monin–Obukhov similarity theory

text: was founded in the

text: Soviet Union

text: , with the two concepts varying slightly. Businger subsequently spend some time at the Institute of Horticultural Engineering of

entity_name: Wageningen University and Research Centre

text: Wageningen University

text: . At the institute he studied microclimate in greenhouses and the protection of crops from frost by use of sprinklers. Wishing to study atmospheric science further, Businger saw no options to do so in the Netherlands. He thus sent out inquiry letters to different universities in the United States, and in 1956 was hired as research associate by the

text: University of Wisconsin–Madison

text: Alternatives to Halon 1301 in fire extinguishing systems are being deployed. Many installations from which halon is removed can be protected with fire sprinklers, depending on the level of damage the equipment in the space will incur by exposure to water. In other cases, different total flooding agents can be used. The alternatives for normally occupied areas include (PFC-410 or CEA-410), CF (PFC-218 or CEA-308), HCFC Blend A (NAF S-III), HFC-23 (FE 13), HFC-227ea (FM 200), IG-01 (argon), IG-55 (argonite), HFC-125, or HFC-134a. For normally unoccupied areas, the alternatives include carbon dioxide, powdered Aerosol C, CFI, HCFC-22, HCFC-124, HFC-125, HFC-134a, gelled halocarbon/dry chemical suspension (PGA), blend of inert gas, high expansion foam systems and powdered aerosol (FS 0140), and IG-541 (Inergen).Perfluorocarbons, i.e., PFCs such as CF, have very long atmospheric lifetimes and very high global warming potentials.  Hydrochlorofluorocarbons, i.e., HCFCs including HCFC containing NAF S-III, contain chlorine and are stratospheric ozone layer depleters, although less so than Halon 1301.  Their selection for usage as Halon replacements should consider those factors, and is restricted in some countries.

text: Alternatives to Halon 1301 in fire extinguishing systems are being deployed. Many installations from which halon is removed can be protected with

text: fire sprinkler

text: s, depending on the level of damage the equipment in the space will incur by exposure to water. In other cases, different total flooding agents can be used. The alternatives for normally occupied areas include (PFC-410 or CEA-410), CF (PFC-218 or CEA-308), HCFC Blend A (NAF S-III),

text: (FE 13),

text: (FM 200), IG-01 (

text: argon

text: ), IG-55 (

text: argonite

text: , or

text: . For normally unoccupied areas, the alternatives include

text: carbon dioxide

text: , powdered

text: Aerosol C

text: CFI

text: , gelled halocarbon/dry chemical suspension (PGA), blend of inert gas, high expansion foam systems and powdered aerosol (FS 0140), and IG-541 (

text: Inergen

text: ).Perfluorocarbons, i.e., PFCs such as CF, have very long atmospheric lifetimes and very high global warming potentials.  Hydrochlorofluorocarbons, i.e., HCFCs including HCFC containing NAF S-III, contain chlorine and are stratospheric ozone layer depleters, although less so than Halon 1301.  Their selection for usage as Halon replacements should consider those factors, and is restricted in some countries.

text: In the atmospheric boundary layer, mean wind is responsible for the horizontal transport of heat, momentum, moisture and pollutants, while turbulence dominates for the vertical mixing. Turbulences are generated by buoyancy and wind shear. If the buoyancy dominates over shear production, the boundary layer flow is in free convection. When shear generated turbulence is stronger than those generated by buoyancy, the flow is in forced convection.

text: In the atmospheric boundary layer, mean wind is responsible for the horizontal transport of heat,

text: momentum

text: , moisture and pollutants, while

text: turbulence

text: dominates for the vertical mixing. Turbulences are generated by

text: buoyancy

text: and

text: wind shear

text: . If the buoyancy dominates over shear production, the boundary layer flow is in free convection. When shear generated turbulence is stronger than those generated by buoyancy, the flow is in forced convection.

text: LPG is composed mainly of propane and butane, while natural gas is composed of the lighter methane and ethane. LPG, vaporised and at atmospheric pressure, has a higher calorific value (94 MJ/m equivalent to 26.1kWh/m) than natural gas (methane) (38 MJ/m equivalent to 10.6 kWh/m), which means that LPG cannot simply be substituted for natural gas. In order to allow the use of the same burner controls and to provide for similar combustion characteristics, LPG can be mixed with air to produce a synthetic natural gas (SNG) that can be easily substituted. LPG/air mixing ratios average 60/40, though this is widely variable based on the gases making up the LPG. The method for determining the mixing ratios is by calculating the Wobbe index of the mix. Gases having the same Wobbe index are held to be interchangeable.

text: LPG is composed mainly of propane and butane, while natural gas is composed of the lighter methane and ethane. LPG, vaporised and at atmospheric pressure, has a higher

text: calorific value

text: (94 MJ/m equivalent to 26.1kWh/m) than

text: natural gas

text: methane

text: ) (38 MJ/m equivalent to 10.6 kWh/m), which means that LPG cannot simply be substituted for natural gas. In order to allow the use of the same burner controls and to provide for similar combustion characteristics, LPG can be mixed with air to produce a synthetic natural gas (SNG) that can be easily substituted. LPG/air mixing ratios average 60/40, though this is widely variable based on the gases making up the LPG. The method for determining the mixing ratios is by calculating the

text: Wobbe index

text: of the mix. Gases having the same Wobbe index are held to be interchangeable.

text: On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer may be slowing down because of the international regulation of ozone-depleting substances. In a study organized by the American Geophysical Union, three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper-atmosphere ozone-depletion rate slowed down significantly during the previous decade. Some breakdown can be expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases which are already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes, ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.

text: On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer may be slowing down because of the international regulation of ozone-depleting substances. In a study organized by the

text: American Geophysical Union

text: , three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper-atmosphere ozone-depletion rate slowed down significantly during the previous decade. Some breakdown can be expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases which are already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes, ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.

text: Northern Lights – Southern Cross was recorded using a 24-track tape recorder, which allowed Garth Hudson to include multiple layers of keyboards on several tracks.

text: Northern Lights – Southern Cross was recorded using a 24-track tape recorder, which allowed

text: Garth Hudson

text: to include multiple layers of keyboards on several tracks.

text: Hayashi – Star system where the Enterprise-D is ordered to prepare detailed exospheric charts of the system as the first step toward planet colonization.

text: Staff engineers at Stratosphere included Rudyard Lee Cullers, Geoff Sanoff and Arjun Agerwala.

text: Aluminium oxide is responsible for the resistance of metallic aluminium to weathering. Metallic aluminium is very reactive with atmospheric oxygen, and a thin passivation layer of aluminium oxide (4 nm thickness) forms on any exposed aluminium surface. This layer protects the metal from further oxidation. The thickness and properties of this oxide layer can be enhanced using a process called anodising. A number of alloys, such as aluminium bronzes, exploit this property by including a proportion of aluminium in the alloy to enhance corrosion resistance. The aluminium oxide generated by anodising is typically amorphous, but discharge assisted oxidation processes such as plasma electrolytic oxidation result in a significant proportion of crystalline aluminium oxide in the coating, enhancing its hardness.

text: Aluminium oxide is responsible for the resistance of metallic aluminium to

text: weathering

text: . Metallic aluminium is very reactive with atmospheric oxygen, and a thin

text: passivation layer

text: of aluminium oxide (4 nm thickness) forms on any exposed aluminium surface. This layer protects the metal from further oxidation. The thickness and properties of this oxide layer can be enhanced using a process called

text: anodising

text: . A number of

text: alloys

text: , such as

text: aluminium bronze

text: s, exploit this property by including a proportion of aluminium in the alloy to enhance corrosion resistance. The aluminium oxide generated by anodising is typically

text: amorphous

text: , but discharge assisted oxidation processes such as

text: plasma electrolytic oxidation

text: result in a significant proportion of crystalline aluminium oxide in the coating, enhancing its

text: hardness

text: The mixing plenum normally combines two air streams, and includes for three sets of dampers: one for the fresh air, one for the exhaust air, and a mixing damper between the two air streams. The mix of fresh air and recirculated air can thus be adjusted to suit the needs of the building's occupants. Most systems will use motorized dampers to control the air mixing, and controlled by the building management system (BMS), or controls system. Typically as the fresh air and exhaust air dampers are driven from 0% open to 100% open, the mixing damper will in turn be driven from 100% open to 0% open, so as to always ensure a constant volume of supply and extract air.

text: The mixing plenum normally combines two air streams, and includes for three sets of

text: dampers

text: : one for the fresh air, one for the exhaust air, and a mixing damper between the two air streams. The mix of fresh air and recirculated air can thus be adjusted to suit the needs of the building's occupants. Most systems will use motorized dampers to control the air mixing, and controlled by the

text: building management system

text: (BMS), or controls system. Typically as the fresh air and exhaust air dampers are driven from 0% open to 100% open, the mixing damper will in turn be driven from 100% open to 0% open, so as to always ensure a constant volume of supply and extract air.

text: The counterion condensation phenomenon is commonly described by Manning’stheory (Manning 1969), which assumes that counterions can condense onto polyions until the charged density between neighboring monomer charges along the polyion chain is reduced below a certain critical value. In the model the real polyion chain is replaced by an idealized line charge, where the polyion is represented by a uniformly charged thread of zero radius, infinitelength and finite charge density, and the condensed counterion layer is assumed to be in physical equilibrium with the ionic atmosphere surrounding the polyion. The uncondensed mobile ions in the ionic atmosphere are treated within the Debye–Hückel (DH) approximation. The phenomenon of counterion condensation now takes place when the dimensionless Coulomb coupling strength

text: The counterion condensation phenomenon is commonly described by Manning’stheory (Manning 1969), which assumes that

text: counterion

text: s can condense onto polyions until the charged density between neighboring monomer charges along the polyion chain is reduced below a certain critical value. In the model the real polyion chain is replaced by an idealized line charge, where the polyion is represented by a uniformly charged thread of zero radius, infinitelength and finite charge density, and the condensed counterion layer is assumed to be in physical equilibrium with the ionic atmosphere surrounding the polyion. The uncondensed mobile ions in the ionic atmosphere are treated within the

text: Debye–Hückel

text: (DH) approximation. The phenomenon of counterion condensation now takes place when the dimensionless Coulomb coupling strength

text: This pollution layer was observed during the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX) intensive field observation in 1999 and described in the UNEP impact assessment study published 2002. Scientists in India claimed that the Asian Brown cloud is not something specific to Asia. Subsequently, when the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) organized a follow-up international project, the subject of study was renamed the Atmospheric Brown Cloud with focus on Asia.

text: This pollution layer was observed during the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX) intensive field observation in 1999 and described in the UNEP impact assessment study published 2002. Scientists in India claimed that the Asian Brown cloud is not something specific to Asia. Subsequently, when the

text: United Nations Environment Programme

text: (UNEP) organized a follow-up international project, the subject of study was renamed the Atmospheric Brown Cloud with focus on Asia.

text: The hole in the Earth's ozone layer over the South Pole has affected atmospheric circulation in the Southern Hemisphere all the way to the equator. The ozone hole has influenced atmospheric circulation all the way to the tropics and increased rainfall at low, subtropical latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere.

text: The eyes of slow lorises are forward-facing, which gives stereo vision. Their eyes are large and possess a reflective layer, called the tapetum lucidum, that improves low-light vision. It is possible that this layer blurs the images they see, as the reflected light may interfere with the incoming light. Slow lorises have monochromatic vision, meaning they see in shades of only one color. They lack the opsin gene that would allow them to detect short wavelength light, which includes the colors blue and green.

text: The eyes of slow lorises are forward-facing, which gives

text: stereo vision

text: . Their eyes are large and possess a reflective layer, called the

text: tapetum lucidum

text: , that improves low-light vision. It is possible that this layer blurs the images they see, as the reflected light may interfere with the

text: incoming light

text: . Slow lorises have

text: monochromatic vision

text: , meaning they see in shades of only one color. They lack the

text: opsin

text: gene that would allow them to detect short wavelength light, which includes the colors blue and green.

text: There are a variety of techniques for measuring this parameter that can potentially yield different results because different things are actually being measured.  Away from the immediate sea surface, general temperature measurements are accompanied by a reference to the specific depth of measurement.  This is because of significant differences encountered between measurements made at different depths, especially during the daytime when low wind speed and high sunshine conditions may lead to the formation of a warm layer at the ocean's surface and strong vertical temperature gradients (a diurnal thermocline).   Sea surface temperature measurements are confined to the top portion of the ocean, known as the near-surface layer.

text: There are a variety of techniques for measuring this parameter that can potentially yield different results because different things are actually being measured.  Away from the immediate sea surface, general temperature measurements are accompanied by a reference to the specific depth of measurement.  This is because of significant differences encountered between measurements made at different depths, especially during the daytime when low wind speed and high sunshine conditions may lead to the formation of a warm layer at the ocean's surface and strong vertical temperature gradients (a diurnal

text: thermocline

text: ).   Sea surface temperature measurements are confined to the top portion of the ocean, known as the near-surface layer.

text: The circulation patterns in the upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus are completely different from those in the lower atmosphere. At altitudes 90–150 km the Venusian air moves from the dayside to nightside of the planet, with upwelling over sunlit hemisphere and downwelling over dark hemisphere. The downwelling over the nightside causes adiabatic heating of the air, which forms a warm layer in the nightside mesosphere at the altitudes 90–120 km. The temperature of this layer—230 K (−43 °C) is far higher than the typical temperature found in the nightside thermosphere—100 K (−173 °C). The air circulated from the dayside also carries oxygen atoms, which after recombination form excited molecules of oxygen in the long-lived singlet state (Δ), which then relax and emit infrared radiation at the wavelength 1.27 μm. This radiation from the altitude range 90–100 km is often observed from the ground and spacecraft. The nightside upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus is also the source of non-local thermodynamic equilibrium emissions of CO and nitric oxide molecules, which are responsible for the low temperature of the nightside thermosphere.

text: The circulation patterns in the upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus are completely different from those in the lower atmosphere. At altitudes 90–150 km the Venusian air moves from the dayside to nightside of the planet, with upwelling over sunlit hemisphere and downwelling over dark hemisphere. The downwelling over the nightside causes

text: adiabatic

text: heating of the air, which forms a warm layer in the nightside mesosphere at the altitudes 90–120 km. The temperature of this layer—230 K (−43 °C) is far higher than the typical temperature found in the nightside thermosphere—100 K (−173 °C). The air circulated from the dayside also carries oxygen atoms, which after

text: recombination

text: form excited

text: molecule

text: s of

text: oxygen

text: in the long-lived

text: singlet state

text: (Δ), which then relax and emit

text: infrared

text: radiation at the wavelength 1.27 μm. This radiation from the altitude range 90–100 km is often observed from the ground and spacecraft. The nightside upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus is also the source of non-

text: local thermodynamic equilibrium

text: emissions of CO and

text: nitric oxide

text: molecules, which are responsible for the low temperature of the nightside thermosphere.

text: The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterised by a decrease in temperature with altitude. The temperature falls from about 320 K at the base of the troposphere at −300 km to 53 K at 50 km. The temperature at the cold upper boundary of the troposphere (the tropopause) actually varies in the range between 49 and 57 K depending on planetary latitude, with the lowest temperature reached near 25° southern latitude. The troposphere holds almost all of the mass of the atmosphere, and the tropopause region is also responsible for the vast majority of the planet’s thermal far infrared emissions, thus determining its effective temperature of .

text: The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterised by a decrease in temperature with altitude. The temperature falls from about 320 K at the base of the troposphere at −300 km to 53 K at 50 km. The temperature at the cold upper boundary of the troposphere (the tropopause) actually varies in the range between 49 and 57 K depending on planetary latitude, with the lowest temperature reached near 25° southern

text: latitude

text: . The troposphere holds almost all of the mass of the atmosphere, and the tropopause region is also responsible for the vast majority of the planet’s thermal

text: far infrared

text: emissions, thus determining its

text: effective temperature

text: of .

text: Within the atmosphere, this means from the surface to above the 500 hPa level, generally stopping at or defining the tropopause at around 200 hPa. Most atmospheric deep convection occurs in the tropics as the rising branch of the Hadley circulation; it represents a strong coupling between the surface and the upper atmosphere which is largely absent in mid latitudes. Oceanic deep convection only occurs at a few locations. While less dynamically important than in the atmosphere, it is responsible for the spreading of cold water through the low layers of the ocean. As such, it is important for the large-scale temperature structure of the whole ocean.

text: Within the atmosphere, this means from the surface to above the 500 hPa level, generally stopping at or defining the

text: tropopause

text: at around 200

text: hPa

text: . Most atmospheric deep convection occurs in the

text: tropics

text: as the rising branch of the

text: Hadley circulation

text: ; it represents a strong coupling between the surface and the upper atmosphere which is largely absent in mid latitudes. Oceanic deep convection only occurs at a few locations. While less dynamically important than in the atmosphere, it is responsible for the spreading of cold water through the low layers of the ocean. As such, it is important for the large-scale temperature structure of the whole ocean.

text: Armstrong Flight Research Center have a HALE known as Global Hawk. The craft was used in a year 2014 Airborne Tropical Tropopause Experiment. The craft was created and developed by Northrop Grumman. The capacity for Long-endurance for this craft is 24 hours operational time.

text: Armstrong Flight Research Center

text: have a HALE known as

text: Global Hawk

text: . The craft was used in a year 2014 Airborne Tropical Tropopause Experiment. The craft was created and developed by

text: Northrop Grumman

text: . The capacity for Long-endurance for this craft is 24 hours operational time.

text: The climate of the range is Mediterranean, with mostly dry summers (except for rare summer thunderstorms) and cold, wet winters. Snow can fall above 4,000 feet elevation during frontal passages between November and April, but is most common in December through March. Annual precipitation totals are mostly above 25 inches above 3,000 feet elevation, with up to 40 inches falling in some areas above 5,000 feet. The coastal (south) side of the range receives more precipitation than the desert (northern) side. The highest precipitation is found in the central and eastern parts of the range (Mt. Wilson to Mt. San Antonio). Annual precipitation totals can be extremely high during wet "El Nino" years, sometimes over 70 inches, with single storm totals over 10 inches. Runoff from the mountains during big storms often produces flooding in adjacent foothill communities (especially in areas denuded by wildfires). Fires are a problem during summer and fall, before the rains come, especially during dry "Santa Ana" wind events. The range is mostly smog free above 5,000 feet elevation, above the inversion layer. The large telescope installation at Mt. Wilson is a testimony to the clear atmospheric conditions that prevail, although light pollution from the L.A. basin below has hindered telescope activities in recent decades.

text: The northern part of the Monument in part has gently sloping, relatively even surfaces ranging in elevation from about  in the east to about  in the west. These surfaces are upheld by sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous age that are mostly covered by much younger gravel and sand layers deposited in the last several million years. The region is incised by canyons that drain south and west to McElmo Creek; the creek falls from the east at about  west at the Utah border. The oldest rocks are exposed in McElmo Canyon and are sedimentary layers of Jurassic age. In and near the Monument, these sedimentary rocks have been bent upwards to form a dome, the McElmo Dome: most of the Jurassic rocks are below the surface in the regions immediately bordering the area.  The southern boundary of much of the Monument lies just north of McElmo Creek. The Ute Mountains to the south are cored by igneous intrusions and rise to .

text: The northern part of the Monument in part has gently sloping, relatively even surfaces ranging in elevation from about  in the east to about  in the west. These surfaces are upheld by

text: sedimentary rocks

text: of

text: Cretaceous

text: age that are mostly covered by much younger gravel and sand layers deposited in the last several million years. The region is incised by canyons that drain south and west to

text: McElmo Creek

text: ; the creek falls from the east at about  west at the

text: Utah

text: border. The oldest rocks are exposed in McElmo Canyon and are sedimentary layers of

text: Jurassic

text: age. In and near the Monument, these sedimentary rocks have been bent upwards to form a dome, the McElmo Dome: most of the Jurassic rocks are below the surface in the regions immediately bordering the area.  The southern boundary of much of the Monument lies just north of McElmo Creek. The

text: Ute Mountains

text: to the south are cored by

text: igneous

text: intrusions and rise to .

text: There is no agreed-upon end to the upper atmosphere, but rather incrementally thinner air from the stratosphere (~50 km), mesosphere (~85 km), and thermosphere (~690 km) up to the exosphere (~10,000) (see also thermopause). For example, a meteoroid can become a meteor at an altitude of 85–120 km above the Earth.

text: There is no agreed-upon end to the upper atmosphere, but rather incrementally thinner air from the

text: stratosphere

text: (~50 km),

text: mesosphere

text: (~85 km), and

text: thermosphere

text: (~690 km) up to the

text: exosphere

text: (~10,000) (see also

text: thermopause

text: ). For example, a

text: meteoroid

text: can become a

text: meteor

text: at an altitude of 85–120 km above the Earth.

text: Prior to El Nino, the warm pool stores heat and is confined to the far western Pacific.  During the El Nino, the warm pool migrates eastward along with the concomitant precipitation and current anomalies.  The fetch of the westerlies is increased during this time, reinforcing the event.  Using data from the ship of opportunity and Tropical Atmosphere – Ocean (TAO) moorings in the western Pacific, the east and west migration of the warm pool was tracked over 1992-2000 using sea surface salinity (SSS), sea surface temperature (SST), currents, and subsurface data from Conductivity, temperature, depth taken on various research cruises.  This work showed that during westward flow, the BLT in the western Pacific along the equator (138E-145E, 2N-2S) was between 18 m – 35 m corresponding with warm SST and serving as an efficient storage mechanism for heat.   Barrier layer formation is driven by westward (i.e. converging and subducting) currents along the equator near the eastern edge of the salinity front that defines the warm pool.  These westward currents are driven by downwelling Rossby waves and represent either a westward advection of BLT or a preferential deepening of the deeper thermocline versus the shallower halocline due to Rossby wave dynamics (i.e. these waves favor vertical stretching of the upper water column).  During El Nino, westerly winds drive the warm pool eastward allowing fresh water to ride on top of the local colder/saltier/denser water to the east.   Using coupled, atmospheric/ocean models and tuning the mixing to eliminate BLT for one year prior to El Nino, it was shown that the heat buildup associated with barrier layer is a requirement for big El Nino.  It has been shown that there is a tight relationship between SSS and SST in the western Pacific and the barrier layer is instrumental in maintaining heat and momentum in the warm pool within the salinity stratified layer. Later work, including Argo drifters, confirm the relationship between eastward migration of the warm pool during El Nino and barrier layer heat storage in the western Pacific.   The main impact of barrier layer is to maintain a shallow mixed layer allowing an enhanced air-sea coupled response.  In addition, BLT is the key factor in establishing the mean state that is perturbed during El Nino/La Nina

text: Prior to

text: El Nino

text: , the warm pool stores heat and is confined to the far western Pacific.  During the El Nino, the warm pool migrates eastward along with the concomitant precipitation and current anomalies.  The

text: fetch

text: of the westerlies is increased during this time, reinforcing the event.  Using data from the ship of opportunity and Tropical Atmosphere – Ocean (TAO) moorings in the western Pacific, the east and west migration of the warm pool was tracked over 1992-2000 using sea surface salinity (SSS), sea surface temperature (SST), currents, and subsurface data from

text: Conductivity, temperature, depth

text: taken on various research cruises.  This work showed that during westward flow, the BLT in the western Pacific along the equator (138E-145E, 2N-2S) was between 18 m – 35 m corresponding with warm SST and serving as an efficient storage mechanism for heat.   Barrier layer formation is driven by westward (i.e. converging and subducting)

text: currents

text: La Nina

text: The São João platform, along the northern flank of the Sintra Mountains, has altitudes between  and , while the southern part of the mountains, the Cascais platform, is lower: sloping from  to the sea, terminating along the coast, around  above sea level. The spectacular relief results from the east-west orientation of the massif's axis, its terminus at the coast, and the nature of igneous rocks, which are resistant to erosion. The Eruptive Massif of Sintra (MES) is a dome structure, formed by layers of sedimentary rocks (limestones and sandstones) from the Upper Jurassic and early Cretaceous periods. A metamorphosed igneous intrusion resulted in a narrow halo of metamorphic rocks, but also strongly deformed these sedimentary layers causing a vertical exposure. While in the south there are enclosed sedimentary layers, to the north (around Praia Grande) the massif is steep. The sedimentary formations, until the beginning of the Upper Cretaceous, are deformed by the intrusion which limits the MES to the end the Cretaceous. Radiometric aging of different rocks from the massif has indicated an age between 80 and 75 million years (confirming the installation of the massive Upper Cretaceous).

text: The São João platform, along the northern flank of the Sintra Mountains, has altitudes between  and , while the southern part of the mountains, the Cascais platform, is lower: sloping from  to the sea, terminating along the coast, around  above sea level. The spectacular relief results from the east-west orientation of the massif's axis, its terminus at the coast, and the nature of igneous rocks, which are resistant to erosion. The Eruptive Massif of Sintra (MES) is a dome structure, formed by layers of sedimentary rocks (limestones and sandstones) from the

text: Upper Jurassic

text: and early

text: Cretaceous

text: periods. A metamorphosed igneous intrusion resulted in a narrow halo of metamorphic rocks, but also strongly deformed these sedimentary layers causing a vertical exposure. While in the south there are enclosed sedimentary layers, to the north (around Praia Grande) the massif is steep. The sedimentary formations, until the beginning of the Upper Cretaceous, are deformed by the intrusion which limits the MES to the end the Cretaceous. Radiometric aging of different rocks from the massif has indicated an age between 80 and 75 million years (confirming the installation of the massive Upper Cretaceous).

text: On November 16, 1952 at 11:30 local time (23:30 GMT) a B-36H bomber dropped the bomb over a point  north of Runit Island in the Enewetak atoll, resulting in a 500 kiloton explosion at . The tropopause height at the time of the detonation was about . The top of the King cloud reached about  with the mushroom base at about .

text: On November 16, 1952 at 11:30 local time (23:30 GMT) a

text: B-36H bomber

text: dropped the bomb over a point  north of

text: Runit Island

text: in the

text: Enewetak

text: atoll, resulting in a 500

text: kiloton

text: explosion at . The

text: tropopause

text: height at the time of the detonation was about . The top of the King cloud reached about  with the mushroom base at about .

text: The northern and southern hemispheres have atmospheric circulation systems that are sufficiently independent of each other that there is a noticeable time lag in mixing between the two. The atmospheric / ratio is lower in the southern hemisphere, with an apparent additional age of 30 years for radiocarbon results from the south as compared to the north. This is probably because the greater surface area of ocean in the southern hemisphere means that there is more carbon exchanged between the ocean and the atmosphere than in the north. Since the surface ocean is depleted in  because of the marine effect,  is removed from the southern atmosphere more quickly than in the north.

text: The northern and southern hemispheres have

text: atmospheric circulation

text: systems that are sufficiently independent of each other that there is a noticeable time lag in mixing between the two. The atmospheric / ratio is lower in the southern hemisphere, with an apparent additional age of 30 years for radiocarbon results from the south as compared to the north. This is probably because the greater surface area of ocean in the southern hemisphere means that there is more carbon exchanged between the ocean and the atmosphere than in the north. Since the surface ocean is depleted in  because of the marine effect,  is removed from the southern atmosphere more quickly than in the north.

text: Pöschl is also the founder and chief executive editor of Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (ACP), an open access peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the European Geosciences Union (EGU). It covers research on the Earth's atmosphere and the underlying chemical and physical processes, including the altitude range from the land and ocean surface up to the turbopause, including the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. Founded in 2001 as the world's first scientific journal with public peer review and discussion, it has become one of the major environmental and earth sciences journal. Pöschl is also a council member of the EGU, and he has been the Chair of the EGU Publication Committee.

text: Pöschl is also the founder and chief executive editor of

text: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

text: (ACP), an

text: open access

text: peer-reviewed

text: scientific journal

text: published by the

text: European Geosciences Union

text: (EGU). It covers research on the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: and the underlying chemical and physical processes, including the altitude range from the land and ocean surface up to the

text: turbopause

text: , including the

text: troposphere

text: stratosphere

text: , and

text: mesosphere

text: . Founded in 2001 as the world's first scientific journal with public peer review and discussion, it has become one of the major environmental and earth sciences journal. Pöschl is also a council member of the EGU, and he has been the Chair of the EGU Publication Committee.

text: Uranus and Neptune have very hazy atmospheric layers with small amounts of methane, giving them aquamarine colors; light blue and ultramarine respectively. Both have magnetic fields that are sharply inclined to their axes of rotation.

text: Homer decides that his family should stay in the bomb shelter that Ned Flanders built, and soon, the rest of the townspeople arrive. Homer is unable to close the door so Ned is kicked out. Eventually, Homer feels guilty and leaves as well, followed by the other townspeople and they all converge on a hill with Ned to await death. As the comet enters the atmosphere, it burns up in the thick layer of pollution over Springfield, leaving the town safe.

text: Homer

text: decides that his family should stay in the

text: bomb shelter

text: that

text: Ned Flanders

text: built, and soon, the rest of the townspeople arrive. Homer is unable to close the door so Ned is kicked out. Eventually, Homer feels guilty and leaves as well, followed by the other townspeople and they all converge on a hill with Ned to await death. As the comet enters the atmosphere, it burns up in the thick layer of

text: pollution

text: over Springfield, leaving the town safe.

text: The environment in space is quite different. Because there is no atmosphere, the solar spectrum is different (AM0). The cells have a poor current match due to a greater photon flux of photons above 1.87eV vs. those between 1.87eV and 1.42eV.  This results in too little current in the GaAs junction, and hampers the overall efficiency since the InGaP junction operates below MPP current and the GaAs junction operates above MPP current.  To improve current match, the InGaP layer is intentionally thinned to allow additional photons to penetrate to the lower GaAs layer.

text: the material is a good insulator (or dielectric) or a poor conductor and substantially transmit waves that are incident upon it. Virtually no RF power is absorbed but some can be reflected at its boundaries depending on its relative permittivity compared to that of free space, which is unity. This uses the concept of intrinsic impedance, which is described below. There are few large physical objects that are also good insulators, with the interesting exception of fresh water icebergs but these do not usually feature in most urban environments. However large volumes of gas generally behave as dielectrics. Examples of these are regions of the Earths atmosphere, which gradually reduce in density at increasing altitudes up to 10 to 20 km. At greater altitudes from about 50 km to 200 km various ionospheric layers also behave like dielectrics and are heavily dependent on the influence of the Sun. Ionospheric layers are not gases but plasmas.

text: the material is a good insulator (or dielectric) or a poor conductor and substantially transmit waves that are incident upon it. Virtually no RF power is absorbed but some can be reflected at its boundaries depending on its relative permittivity compared to that of free space, which is unity. This uses the concept of intrinsic impedance, which is described below. There are few large physical objects that are also good insulators, with the interesting exception of fresh water

text: iceberg

text: s but these do not usually feature in most urban environments. However large volumes of gas generally behave as dielectrics. Examples of these are regions of the Earths

text: atmosphere

text: , which gradually reduce in density at increasing

text: altitude

text: s up to 10 to 20 km. At greater altitudes from about 50 km to 200 km various ionospheric layers also behave like dielectrics and are heavily dependent on the influence of the

text: Sun

text: . Ionospheric layers are not gases but

text: plasmas

text: Representation of the air flow in the atmospheric boundary layer

text: Comedian Sue Perkins won the competition in 2006, marking the first time in the event's history that a woman won the competition. Her winning tall tale was about how the ozone layer became damaged, ice caps melted and people had to be taken to work on camels.

text: Comedian

text: Sue Perkins

text: won the competition in 2006, marking the first time in the event's history that a woman won the competition. Her winning tall tale was about how the

text: ozone layer

text: became damaged, ice caps melted and people had to be taken to work on camels.

text: Shapley persuaded Payne to write a doctoral dissertation, and so in 1925 she became the first person to earn a Ph.D. in astronomy from Radcliffe College (now part of Harvard). Her thesis was "Stellar Atmospheres, A Contribution to the Observational Study of High Temperature in the Reversing Layers of Stars". Astronomers Otto Struve (d. 1963) and Velta Zeberg called it "undoubtedly the most brilliant Ph.D. thesis ever written in astronomy".

text: Shapley persuaded Payne to write a doctoral dissertation, and so in 1925 she became the first person to earn a

text: Ph.D.

text: in astronomy from

text: Radcliffe College

text: (now part of

text: Harvard

text: ). Her thesis was "Stellar Atmospheres, A Contribution to the Observational Study of High Temperature in the Reversing Layers of Stars". Astronomers

text: Otto Struve

text: (d. 1963) and

text: Velta Zeberg

text: called it "undoubtedly the most brilliant Ph.D. thesis ever written in astronomy".

text: While the northern part of the system was producing severe damage in Canada (northeastern Ontario and southern Quebec), an associated cold front led to significant damage in the US Midwest and Southern Ontario as it crossed the area later that  same evening. There were dozens of reports of significant wind or tornado damage, especially in Michigan but also in southern Ontario, Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and as far south as northern Missouri. The setup was similar along the long cold front, and the hot, humid air mass led to the damaging derecho, although the stronger derecho that affected areas well north of there formed much earlier that day in Upper Michigan just before noon local time. It had a clearly defined bow echo (squall line) formation, unlike these cells which were more fragmented. Relevant to the atmospheric dynamics at this time is the fact that, according to the NWS forecast discussion from a number of stations, a terrestrial subtropical storm had developed over Iowa and was moving slowly northeast—apparently this was a low pressure area devoid or almost devoid of extratropical characteristics.

text: While the northern part of the system was producing severe damage in Canada (northeastern Ontario and southern Quebec), an associated cold front led to significant damage in the

text: US Midwest

text: and

text: Southern Ontario

text: as it crossed the area later that  same evening. There were dozens of reports of significant wind or tornado damage, especially in

text: Michigan

text: but also in southern

text: Ontario

text: Wisconsin

text: Illinois

text: Iowa

text: , and as far south as northern

text: Missouri

text: . The setup was similar along the long cold front, and the hot, humid air mass led to the damaging derecho, although the stronger derecho that affected areas well north of there formed much earlier that day in Upper Michigan just before noon local time. It had a clearly defined bow echo (

text: squall line

text: ) formation, unlike these cells which were more fragmented. Relevant to the atmospheric dynamics at this time is the fact that, according to the NWS forecast discussion from a number of stations, a terrestrial

text: subtropical storm

text: had developed over Iowa and was moving slowly northeast—apparently this was a low pressure area devoid or almost devoid of extratropical characteristics.

text: 4) Thermosphere (80 km-Karman Line)

text: 4) Thermosphere (80 km-Karman Line)

text: is inversely related to temperature

text: is inversely related to temperature

text: For example, the existence of the Van Allen radiation belts was unknown until their discovery by the United States' first artificial satellite, Explorer 1. These belts contain radiation trapped by Earth's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical.Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth-based phenomena. For instance, the hole in the ozone layer was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify.

text: For example, the existence of the

text: Van Allen radiation belt

text: s was unknown until their discovery by the United States' first artificial satellite,

text: Explorer 1

text: . These belts contain radiation trapped by Earth's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical.Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth-based phenomena. For instance, the

text: hole in the ozone layer

text: was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify.

text: Depletion on the ozone layer is one more threat. An ozone hole has been detected above Antarctica. The cause of the depletion of the ozone layer is due to chlorofluorocarbons and other greenhouse gases. The other main reason is due to man made gases that are released into the atmosphere. There are many environmental effects due to this because the gases that are being released five times faster than they are destroyed.

text: Depletion on the

text: ozone layer

text: is one more threat. An

text: ozone hole

text: has been detected above Antarctica. The cause of the depletion of the ozone layer is due to

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s and other

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. The other main reason is due to man made gases that are released into the atmosphere. There are many environmental effects due to this because the gases that are being released five times faster than they are destroyed.

text: The stratosphere is the middle layer of the Uranian atmosphere, in which temperature generally increases with altitude from 53 K in the tropopause to between 800 and 850 K at the base thermosphere. The heating of the stratosphere is caused by the downward heat conduction from the hot thermosphere as well as by absorption of solar UV and IR radiation by methane and the complex hydrocarbons formed as a result of methane photolysis. The methane enters the stratosphere through the cold tropopause, where its mixing ratio relative to molecular hydrogen is about 3, three times below saturation. It decreases further to about 10 at the altitude corresponding to pressure of 0.1 mbar.

text: The

text: stratosphere

text: is the middle layer of the Uranian atmosphere, in which temperature generally increases with altitude from 53 K in the

text: tropopause

text: to between 800 and 850 K at the base

text: thermosphere

text: . The heating of the stratosphere is caused by the downward

text: heat conduction

text: from the hot thermosphere as well as by absorption of solar

text: UV

text: and

text: IR

text: radiation by methane and the complex hydrocarbons formed as a result of methane

text: photolysis

text: . The methane enters the stratosphere through the cold tropopause, where its mixing ratio relative to molecular hydrogen is about 3, three times below saturation. It decreases further to about 10 at the altitude corresponding to pressure of 0.1 mbar.

text: The term boundary layer is used in meteorology and in physical oceanography. The atmospheric surface layer is the lowest part of the atmospheric boundary layer (typically the bottom 10% where the log wind profile is valid). The ocean has two surface layers: the benthic, found immediately above the sea floor and the marine surface layer, at the air-sea interface.

text: The term

text: boundary layer

text: is used in

text: meteorology

text: and in

text: physical oceanography

text: . The atmospheric surface layer is the lowest part of the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: (typically the bottom 10% where the

text: log wind profile

text: is valid). The ocean has two surface layers: the

text: benthic

text: , found immediately above the

text: sea floor

text: and the

text: marine

text: surface layer, at the air-sea

text: interface

text: A superior mirage occurs when the air below the line of sight is colder than the air above it. This unusual arrangement is called a temperature inversion, since warm air above cold air is the opposite of the normal temperature gradient of the atmosphere. Passing through the temperature inversion, the light rays are bent down, and so the image appears above the true object, hence the name superior. Superior mirages are in general less common than inferior mirages, but, when they do occur, they tend to be more stable, as cold air has no tendency to move up and warm air has no tendency to move down.

text: A superior mirage occurs when the air below the line of sight is colder than the air above it. This unusual arrangement is called a

text: temperature inversion

text: , since warm air above cold air is the opposite of the normal temperature gradient of the atmosphere. Passing through the temperature inversion, the light rays are bent down, and so the image appears above the true object, hence the name superior. Superior mirages are in general less common than inferior mirages, but, when they do occur, they tend to be more stable, as cold air has no tendency to move up and warm air has no tendency to move down.

text: Spare the Air is a program established by the Bay Area Air Quality Management District in 1991 to combat air pollution during the summer in the San Francisco Bay Area, the season when clear skies, hot temperatures, lighter winds, and a strong temperature inversion combine and trap air pollutants near the ground.

text: Spare the Air is a program established by the

entity_name: Bay Area Air Quality Management District

text: Bay Area Air Quality Management District

text: in 1991 to combat

text: air pollution

text: during the summer in the

text: San Francisco Bay Area

text: , the season when clear skies, hot temperatures, lighter winds, and a strong

text: temperature inversion

text: combine and trap air pollutants near the ground.

text: Returning in February 2016, Exosphere contested the Black Caviar Lightning. With the 1000m race running down the Flemington straight, the field split into two groups, with Exosphere in the slower part of the track. "He jumped left and by the time he looked up and realised the chances had gone to the other side and it was game over. I'd say there was probably a two to four length disparity between the inside and the outside at Flemington yesterday," said O'Shea. Exosphere finished fourth.

text: Returning in February 2016, Exosphere contested the

text: Black Caviar Lightning

text: . With the 1000m race running down the Flemington straight, the field split into two groups, with Exosphere in the slower part of the track. "He jumped left and by the time he looked up and realised the chances had gone to the other side and it was game over. I'd say there was probably a two to four length disparity between the inside and the outside at Flemington yesterday," said O'Shea. Exosphere finished fourth.

text: Engine vacuum is the difference between the pressures in the intake manifold and ambient atmospheric pressure.  Engine vacuum is a "gauge" pressure, since gauges by nature measure a pressure difference, not an absolute pressure. The engine fundamentally responds to air mass, not vacuum, and absolute pressure is necessary to calculate mass. The mass of air entering the engine is directly proportional to the air density, which is proportional to the absolute pressure, and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.

text: Engine vacuum is the difference between the pressures in the intake manifold and ambient atmospheric pressure.  Engine vacuum is a "gauge" pressure, since gauges by nature measure a pressure difference, not an absolute pressure. The engine fundamentally responds to air mass, not vacuum, and absolute pressure is necessary to calculate mass. The mass of air entering the engine is directly proportional to the air density, which is proportional to the absolute pressure, and inversely proportional to the

text: absolute temperature

text: Almost from the moment of General Samford's press conference, eyewitnesses, UFO researchers, and Air Force personnel came forward to criticize the temperature inversion/mirage explanation. Captain Ruppelt noted that Major Fournet and Lt. Holcomb, who disagreed with the Air Force's explanation, were not in attendance at Samford's press conference. Ruppelt himself discovered that "hardly a night passed in June, July, and August in 1952 that there wasn't a [temperature] inversion in Washington, yet the slow-moving, solid radar targets appeared on only a few nights."

text: The thermal pulse also is responsible for warming the atmospheric nitrogen close to the bomb, and causing the creation of atmospheric NOx smog components. This, as part of the mushroom cloud, is shot into the stratosphere where it is responsible for dissociating ozone there, in exactly the same way as combustion NOx compounds do.  The amount created depends on the yield of the explosion and the blast's environment. Studies done on the total effect of nuclear blasts on the ozone layer have been at least tentatively exonerating after initial discouraging findings.

text: The thermal pulse also is responsible for warming the atmospheric nitrogen close to the bomb, and causing the creation of atmospheric

text: NOx

text: smog components. This, as part of the mushroom cloud, is shot into the

text: stratosphere

text: where it is responsible for

text: dissociating

text: ozone

text: there

text: , in exactly the same way as combustion NOx compounds do.  The amount created depends on the yield of the explosion and the blast's environment. Studies done on the total effect of nuclear blasts on the ozone layer have been at least tentatively exonerating after initial discouraging findings.

text: Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time; it does have a tenuous surface-bounded exosphere containing hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium and others at a surface pressure of less than approximately 0.5 nPa (0.005 picobars). This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen atoms and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury's magnetosphere before later escaping back into space. Radioactive decay of elements within Mercury's crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium. MESSENGER found high proportions of calcium, helium, hydroxide, magnesium, oxygen, potassium, silicon and sodium. Water vapor is present, released by a combination of processes such as: comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O, OH, and HO was a surprise. Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind.

text: Mercury is too small and hot for its

text: gravity

text: to retain any significant

text: atmosphere

text: over long periods of time; it does have a tenuous surface-bounded

text: exosphere

text: containing

text: hydrogen

text: helium

text: oxygen

text: sodium

text: calcium

text: potassium

text: and others at a surface pressure of less than approximately 0.5 nPa (0.005 picobars). This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources.

text: Hydrogen atom

text: s and

text: helium atom

text: s probably come from the

text: solar wind

text: diffusing

text: into Mercury's

text: magnetosphere

text: before later escaping back into space.

text: Radioactive decay

text: of elements within Mercury's crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium.

text: MESSENGER

text: found high proportions of calcium, helium,

text: hydroxide

text: magnesium

text: , oxygen, potassium,

text: silicon

text: and sodium. Water vapor is present, released by a combination of processes such as: comets striking its surface,

text: sputtering

text: creating water out of hydrogen from the

text: solar wind

text: and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O, OH, and HO was a surprise. Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind.

text: In addition to controlling the temperature of the sample, it is also important to control its environment (e.g. atmosphere). Measurements may be carried out in air or under an inert gas (e.g. nitrogen or helium). Reducing or reactive atmospheres have also been used and measurements are even carried out with the sample surrounded by water or other liquids. Inverse gas chromatography is a technique which studies the interaction of gases and vapours with a surface - measurements are often made at different temperatures so that these experiments can be considered to come under the auspices of Thermal Analysis.

text: In addition to controlling the temperature of the sample, it is also important to control its environment (e.g. atmosphere). Measurements may be carried out in air or under an inert gas (e.g. nitrogen or helium). Reducing or reactive atmospheres have also been used and measurements are even carried out with the sample surrounded by water or other liquids.

text: Inverse gas chromatography

text: is a technique which studies the interaction of gases and vapours with a surface - measurements are often made at different temperatures so that these experiments can be considered to come under the auspices of Thermal Analysis.

text: The property's signature attraction is the  Stratosphere Tower, the tallest freestanding observation tower in the United States, and the second-tallest in the Western Hemisphere, surpassed only by the CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario. It is the tallest tower west of the Mississippi River and also the tallest structure in Las Vegas and in the State of Nevada. The hotel is a separate building with 24 stories, 2,427 rooms and an  casino. The Stratosphere is owned and operated by American Casino & Entertainment Properties.

text: The property's signature attraction is the

text: Stratosphere Tower

text: , the tallest

text: freestanding observation tower

text: in the United States, and the second-tallest in the

text: Western Hemisphere

text: , surpassed only by the

text: CN Tower

text: in

text: Toronto

text: Ontario

text: . It is the tallest tower west of the Mississippi River and also the

text: tallest structure in Las Vegas and in the State of Nevada

text: . The hotel is a separate building with 24 stories, 2,427 rooms and an  casino. The Stratosphere is owned and operated by

entity_name: American Casino & Entertainment Properties

text: American Casino & Entertainment Properties

text: The Great Dark Spot generated large white clouds at or just below the tropopause layer similar to high-altitude cirrus clouds found on Earth. Unlike the clouds on Earth, however, which are composed of crystals of ice, Neptune's cirrus clouds are made up of crystals of frozen methane. And while cirrus clouds usually form and then disperse within a period of a few hours, the clouds in the Great Dark Spot were still present after 36 hours, or two rotations of the planet.

text: The Great Dark Spot generated large white clouds at or just below the

text: tropopause

text: layer similar to high-altitude

text: cirrus clouds

text: found on

text: Earth

text: . Unlike the clouds on Earth, however, which are composed of crystals of ice, Neptune's cirrus clouds are made up of crystals of frozen

text: methane

text: . And while cirrus clouds usually form and then disperse within a period of a few hours, the clouds in the Great Dark Spot were still present after 36 hours, or two rotations of the planet.

text: Ethane, acetylene and diacetylene condense in the colder lower part of stratosphere forming haze layers with an optical depth of about 0.01 in visible light. Condensation occurs at approximately 14, 2.5 and 0.1 mbar for ethane, acetylene and diacetylene, respectively. The concentration of hydrocarbons in the Uranian stratosphere is significantly lower than in the stratospheres of the other giant planets—the upper atmosphere of Uranus is very clean and transparent above the haze layers. This depletion is caused by weak vertical mixing, and makes Uranus's stratosphere less opaque and, as a result, colder than those of other giant planets. The hazes, like their parent hydrocarbons, are distributed unevenly across Uranus; at the solstice of 1986 they were concentrated near the sunlit pole, making it dark in ultraviolet light.

text: Ethane, acetylene and diacetylene condense in the colder lower part of stratosphere forming

text: haze

text: layers with an

text: optical depth

text: of about 0.01 in visible light. Condensation occurs at approximately 14, 2.5 and 0.1 mbar for ethane, acetylene and diacetylene, respectively. The concentration of hydrocarbons in the Uranian stratosphere is significantly lower than in the stratospheres of the other

text: giant planet

text: s—the upper atmosphere of Uranus is very clean and transparent above the haze layers. This depletion is caused by weak vertical

text: mixing

text: , and makes Uranus's stratosphere less

text: opaque

text: and, as a result, colder than those of other giant planets. The hazes, like their parent hydrocarbons, are distributed unevenly across Uranus; at the solstice of 1986 they were concentrated near the sunlit pole, making it dark in ultraviolet light.

text: Atmospheric convection can also be responsible for and have implications on a number of other weather conditions. A few examples on the smaller scale would include: Convection mixing the planetary boundary layer (PBL) and allowing drier air aloft to the surface thereby decreasing dew points, creating cumulus-type clouds which can limit a small amount of sunshine, increasing surface winds,  making outflow boundaries/and other smaller boundaries more diffuse, and the eastward propagation of the dryline during the day. On the larger scale, rising of air can lead to warm core surface lows, often found in the desert southwest.

text: Further discussions concerned whether the nightglow was a static or dynamic phenomena, the sources or causes of nightglow, the photochemical reactions in Earth's upper atmosphere, the appearance of the nightglow from space in Earth's exosphere and geocorona. The book also dealt with the polar aurora, auroral arcs, the varying brightness of the "Nightglow Layer" depending on zenithal distance, dust-scattered starlight, the diffuse galactic light, dust in the interplanetary and interstellar environment concerning the "Zodiacal Dust Cloud", and interstellar dust. The text ended with a summation concerning the cosmic light between galaxies and the contemplative topic of cosmology.

text: Further discussions concerned whether the nightglow was a static or dynamic phenomena, the sources or causes of nightglow, the

text: photochemical reactions

text: in Earth's

text: upper atmosphere

text: , the appearance of the nightglow from space in Earth's

text: exosphere

text: and

text: geocorona

text: . The book also dealt with the

text: polar aurora

text: , auroral arcs, the varying brightness of the "Nightglow Layer" depending on

text: zenithal distance

text: , dust-scattered starlight, the diffuse galactic light, dust in the

text: interplanetary

text: and

text: interstellar

text: environment concerning the "

text: Zodiacal Dust Cloud

text: ", and interstellar dust. The text ended with a summation concerning the cosmic light between

text: galaxies

text: and the contemplative topic of

text: cosmology

text: In geology, the mesosphere refers to the mantle in the region under the lithosphere and the asthenosphere, but above the outer core. The upper boundary is defined as the sharp increase in seismic wave velocities and density at a depth of . At a depth of 660 km, ringwoodite (gamma-(Mg,Fe)SiO) decomposes into Mg-Si perovskite and magnesiowustite. This reaction marks the boundary between upper mantle and lower mantle. This measurement is estimated from seismic data and high-pressure laboratory experiments.

text: In geology, the mesosphere refers to the

text: mantle

text: in the region under the

text: lithosphere

text: and the

text: asthenosphere

text: , but above the

text: outer core

text: . The upper boundary is defined as the sharp increase in

text: seismic wave

text: velocities and

text: density

text: at a depth of . At a depth of 660 km,

text: ringwoodite

text: (gamma-(Mg,Fe)SiO) decomposes into

text: Mg-Si perovskite

text: and

text: magnesiowustite

text: . This reaction marks the boundary between upper mantle and lower mantle. This measurement is estimated from seismic data and high-pressure laboratory experiments.

text: Interpretation of the FAST spacecraft data proposed strong double layers in the auroral acceleration region. Strong double layers have also been reported in the downward current region by Andersson et al. Parallel electric fields with amplitudes reaching nearly 1 V/m were inferred to be confined to a thin layer of approximately 10 Debye lengths. It is stated that the structures moved ‘at roughly the ion acoustic speed in the direction of the accelerated electrons, i.e., anti-earthward.’ That raises a question of what role, if any, double layers might play in accelerating auroral electrons that are precipitated downwards into the atmosphere from the magnetosphere.

text: Interpretation of the

text: FAST

text: spacecraft data proposed strong double layers in the auroral acceleration region. Strong double layers have also been reported in the downward current region by Andersson et al. Parallel electric fields with amplitudes reaching nearly 1 V/m were inferred to be confined to a thin layer of approximately 10 Debye lengths. It is stated that the structures moved ‘at roughly the ion acoustic speed in the direction of the accelerated electrons, i.e., anti-earthward.’ That raises a question of what role, if any, double layers might play in accelerating auroral electrons that are precipitated downwards into the atmosphere from the magnetosphere.

text: Frankland's analyses were both chemical and bacteriological, and his dissatisfaction with the processes in vogue for the former at the time of his appointment caused him to spend two years in devising new and more accurate methods. In 1859 Frankland passed a night on the very top of Mont Blanc in company with John Tyndall. One of the purposes of the expedition was to discover whether the rate of combustion of a candle varies with the density of the atmosphere in which it is burnt, a question which was answered in the negative. Other observations made by Frankland at the time formed the starting-point of a series of experiments which yielded far-reaching results. He noticed that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light, and was thereby led to investigate the effect produced on luminous flames by varying the pressure of the atmosphere in which they are burning. He found that pressure increases luminosity, so that hydrogen, for example, the flame of which gives no light in normal circumstances, burns with a luminous flame under a pressure of ten or twenty atmospheres, and the inference he drew was that the presence of solid particles is not the only factor that determines the light-giving power of a flame, Further, he showed that the spectrum of a dense ignited gas resembles that of an incandescent liquid or solid, and he traced a gradual change in the spectrum of an incandescent gas under increasing pressure, the sharp lines observable when it is extremely attenuated broadening out to nebulous bands as the pressure rises, till they merge in the continuous spectrum as the gas approaches a density comparable with that of the liquid state. An application of these results to solar physics in conjunction with Sir Norman Lockyer led to the view that at least the external layers of the sun cannot consist of matter in the liquid or solid forms, but must be composed of gases or vapours.

text: Frankland's analyses were both chemical and bacteriological, and his dissatisfaction with the processes in vogue for the former at the time of his appointment caused him to spend two years in devising new and more accurate methods. In 1859 Frankland passed a night on the very top of

text: Mont Blanc

text: in company with

text: John Tyndall

text: . One of the purposes of the expedition was to discover whether the rate of

text: combustion

text: of a candle varies with the density of the atmosphere in which it is burnt, a question which was answered in the negative. Other observations made by Frankland at the time formed the starting-point of a series of experiments which yielded far-reaching results. He noticed that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light, and was thereby led to investigate the effect produced on

text: luminous flame

text: s by varying the pressure of the atmosphere in which they are burning. He found that pressure increases luminosity, so that hydrogen, for example, the flame of which gives no light in normal circumstances, burns with a luminous flame under a pressure of ten or twenty atmospheres, and the inference he drew was that the presence of solid particles is not the only factor that determines the light-giving power of a flame, Further, he showed that the spectrum of a dense ignited gas resembles that of an incandescent liquid or solid, and he traced a gradual change in the spectrum of an incandescent gas under increasing pressure, the sharp lines observable when it is extremely attenuated broadening out to nebulous bands as the pressure rises, till they merge in the continuous spectrum as the gas approaches a density comparable with that of the liquid state. An application of these results to solar physics in conjunction with Sir

text: Norman Lockyer

text: led to the view that at least the external layers of the sun cannot consist of matter in the liquid or solid forms, but must be composed of gases or vapours.

text: The undular bore's wavelength can measure  peak to peak and can travel  to .  The medium it travels through is the atmosphere.  There are several varying types of ‘‘bores’’ in different layers of the atmosphere, such as the mesospheric bore which occurs in the mesosphere.

text: The undular bore's wavelength can measure  peak to peak and can travel  to .  The medium it travels through is the

text: atmosphere

text: .  There are several varying types of ‘‘bores’’ in different layers of the atmosphere, such as the mesospheric bore which occurs in the

text: mesosphere

text: Remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer refers to the utilization of ground based, flight based, or satellite based remote sensing instruments to measure properties of the planetary boundary layer including boundary layer height, aerosols and clouds. Satellite remote sensing of the atmosphere has the advantage of being able to provide global coverage of atmospheric planetary boundary layer properties while simultaneously providing relatively high temporal sampling rates. Advancements in satellite remote sensing have provided greater vertical resolution which enables higher accuracy for planetary boundary layer measurements.

text: Remote sensing

text: of the

text: planetary boundary layer

text: refers to the utilization of ground based, flight based, or satellite based remote sensing instruments to measure properties of the planetary boundary layer including boundary layer height, aerosols and clouds. Satellite remote sensing of the atmosphere has the advantage of being able to provide global coverage of atmospheric planetary boundary layer properties while simultaneously providing relatively high temporal sampling rates. Advancements in satellite remote sensing have provided greater vertical resolution which enables higher accuracy for planetary boundary layer measurements.

text: Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated interactions with other ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric altitudes it cruised. It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet meant overall ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible. In 1995, David Fahey, of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the United States, warned that a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft with exhausts similar to Concorde might produce in a 2 per cent drop in global ozone levels, much higher than previously thought. Each 1 per cent drop in ozone is estimated to increase the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer worldwide by 2 per cent. Dr Fahey said if these particles are produced by highly oxidised sulphur in the fuel, as he believed, then removing sulphur in the fuel will reduce the ozone-destroying impact of supersonic transport.

text: Concorde produced nitrogen oxides in its exhaust, which, despite complicated interactions with other ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to result in degradation to the

text: ozone layer

text: at the

text: stratospheric

text: altitudes it cruised. It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the layers is restricted. The small fleet meant overall ozone-layer degradation caused by Concorde was negligible. In 1995, David Fahey, of the

text: in the United States, warned that a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft with exhausts similar to Concorde might produce in a 2 per cent drop in global ozone levels, much higher than previously thought. Each 1 per cent drop in ozone is estimated to increase the incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer worldwide by 2 per cent. Dr Fahey said if these particles are produced by highly oxidised sulphur in the fuel, as he believed, then removing sulphur in the fuel will reduce the ozone-destroying impact of supersonic transport.

text: Because the altitude of the tropopause is not constant, an airplane that flies at a constant altitude would traverse it and encounter any associated CAT.

text: The atmosphere of Mars varies significantly between Northern and Southern hemispheres, for reasons related and unrelated to the geographic dichotomy.

text: The

text: atmosphere of Mars

text: varies significantly between Northern and Southern hemispheres, for reasons related and unrelated to the geographic dichotomy.

text: Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly). It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow, resulting in a small north-south circulation.

text: Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter (sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly). It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole. Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause. In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to

text: gravity wave

text: dissipation, which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow, resulting in a small north-south circulation.

text: As have Janette Turner Hospital and Andrew Crumey, the writer explores the relationships between quantum physics and post-modernist and deconstructionist theory.  The description of the Troposphere has been compared to the novels of Neal Stephenson and William Gibson, and shares similarities to The Matrix.<ref>Book review in the Independent

text: As have

text: Janette Turner Hospital

text: and

text: Andrew Crumey

text: , the writer explores the relationships between quantum physics and post-modernist and deconstructionist theory.  The description of the Troposphere has been compared to the novels of

text: Neal Stephenson

text: and

text: William Gibson

text: , and shares similarities to

text: The Matrix

text: .<ref>Book review in the Independent

text: When cephalopod molluscs like squid and cuttlefish find themselves against a light background, they contract many of their chromatophores, concentrating the pigment into a smaller area, resulting in a pattern of tiny, dense, but widely spaced dots, appearing light. When they enter a darker environment, they allow their chromatophores to expand, creating a pattern of larger dark spots, and making their bodies appear dark. Amphibians such as frogs have three kinds of star-shaped chromatophore cells in separate layers of their skin. The top layer contains 'xanthophores' with orange, red, or yellow pigments; the middle layer contains 'iridophores' with a silvery light-reflecting pigment; while the bottom layer contains 'melanophores' with dark melanin.

text: When

text: cephalopod

text: molluscs

text: like

text: squid

text: and cuttlefish find themselves against a light background, they contract many of their chromatophores, concentrating the pigment into a smaller area, resulting in a pattern of tiny, dense, but widely spaced dots, appearing light. When they enter a darker environment, they allow their chromatophores to expand, creating a pattern of larger dark spots, and making their bodies appear dark.

text: Amphibians

text: such as frogs have three kinds of star-shaped chromatophore cells in separate layers of their skin. The top layer contains '

text: xanthophores

text: ' with orange, red, or yellow pigments; the middle layer contains '

text: iridophores

text: ' with a silvery light-reflecting pigment; while the bottom layer contains '

text: melanophores

text: ' with dark melanin.

text: Cyberspace is the fourth album of the composer Eloy Fritsch. Nicely layered arrangements float serenely by. The emphasis is on orchestral-sounding synthesizers, with soft atmospheric touches. “Lost Paradise” includes majestic rhythms to go along with it, marching triumphantly at a steady pace. The entire work is completely electronic in nature, with a vast array of synthesizers listed in the credits, as well as displayed surrounding the artist on the cover

text: Cyberspace is the fourth album of the composer

text: Eloy Fritsch

text: . Nicely layered arrangements float serenely by. The emphasis is on orchestral-sounding synthesizers, with soft atmospheric touches. “Lost Paradise” includes majestic rhythms to go along with it, marching triumphantly at a steady pace. The entire work is completely electronic in nature, with a vast array of synthesizers listed in the credits, as well as displayed surrounding the artist on the cover

text: A-35 was upgraded during the 1980s to a two-layer system, the A-135. The Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) long-range missile was designed to handle intercepts outside the atmosphere, and the Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3) short-range missile endoatmospheric intercepts that eluded Gorgon. The A-135 system is considered to be technologically equivalent to the United States Safeguard system of 1975.

text: A-35 was upgraded during the 1980s to a two-layer system, the

text: . The Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) long-range missile was designed to handle intercepts outside the atmosphere, and the

text: Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3)

text: short-range missile endoatmospheric intercepts that eluded Gorgon. The A-135 system is considered to be technologically equivalent to the United States Safeguard system of 1975.

text: Atmospheric convection is the result of a parcel-environment instability, or temperature difference, layer in the atmosphere. Different lapse rates within dry and moist air lead to instability. Mixing of air during the day which expands the height of the planetary boundary layer leads to increased winds, cumulus cloud development, and decreased surface dew points. Moist convection leads to thunderstorm development, which is often responsible for severe weather throughout the world. Special threats from thunderstorms include hail, downbursts, and tornadoes.

text: Atmospheric convection is the result of a

text: parcel

text: -environment instability, or temperature difference, layer in the atmosphere. Different

text: lapse rate

text: s within dry and moist air lead to instability. Mixing of air during the day which expands the height of the

text: planetary boundary layer

text: leads to increased winds,

text: cumulus cloud

text: development, and decreased surface

text: dew point

text: s. Moist convection leads to

text: thunderstorm

text: development, which is often responsible for

text: severe weather

text: throughout the world. Special threats from thunderstorms include

text: hail

text: downburst

text: s, and

text: tornado

text: es.

text: The low-altitude stratus clouds that make up the June Gloom cloud layer form over the nearby ocean, and are transported over the coastal areas by the region's prevailing westerly winds. The sheet-like stratus clouds are almost uniformly horizontal, covering large areas but having relatively shallow depth of . These clouds begin to form when wind mixes moisture from the ocean surface into the air. The air cools and expands as it is mixed and moves upward, and this cooling increases the relative humidity. When the relative humidity reaches 100%, the water vapor condenses into liquid water droplets and the clouds begin to form. The stable top of the marine layer, a result of the temperature inversion, prevents any dry, warm air from above the inversion from mixing with the stratus deck. This confines the stratus deck to a relatively narrow vertical band in the atmosphere, allowing it to strengthen.

text: The low-altitude stratus clouds that make up the June Gloom cloud layer form over the nearby ocean, and are transported over the coastal areas by the region's prevailing westerly winds. The sheet-like stratus clouds are almost uniformly horizontal, covering large areas but having relatively shallow depth of . These clouds begin to form when wind mixes moisture from the ocean surface into the air. The air cools and expands as it is mixed and moves upward, and this cooling increases the

text: relative humidity

text: . When the relative humidity reaches 100%, the water vapor condenses into liquid water droplets and the clouds begin to form. The stable top of the marine layer, a result of the temperature inversion, prevents any dry, warm air from above the inversion from mixing with the stratus deck. This confines the stratus deck to a relatively narrow vertical band in the atmosphere, allowing it to strengthen.

text: Ozone is produced by short wavelength (110 nm – 220 nm) UV photolysis of oxygen in the upper atmosphere. The photochemical reaction of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons from automobile exhausts is another source. Ozone plays a dual role in weathering. The concentrated layer in the upper atmosphere absorbs the short wavelength (≤300 nm) ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun and thus plays a critical role in protecting terrestrial objects from this actinic radiation. Ozone is also a powerful oxidant and reported to react rapidly with elastomers and other unsaturated polymers. Ozonolysis typically results in stiffening and cracking, particularly under mechanical stress. However, the contribution of ozonolysis reactions to the overall photooxidation process is still subject to controversy.

text: Ozone

text: is produced by short wavelength (110 nm – 220 nm) UV

text: photolysis

text: of oxygen in the

text: upper atmosphere

text: . The photochemical reaction of

text: nitrogen oxide

text: s and

text: hydrocarbon

text: s from

text: automobile exhaust

text: s is another source. Ozone plays a dual role in weathering. The concentrated layer in the upper atmosphere absorbs the short wavelength (≤300 nm) ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun and thus plays a critical role in protecting terrestrial objects from this

text: actinic radiation

text: . Ozone is also a powerful

text: oxidant

text: and reported to react rapidly with

text: elastomer

text: s and other

text: unsaturated

text: polymer

text: s.

text: Ozonolysis

text: typically results in stiffening and cracking, particularly under mechanical stress. However, the contribution of ozonolysis reactions to the overall photooxidation process is still subject to controversy.

text: The immediate cause of the phenomenon is the lower than normal rates of heat loss from the sea to the atmosphere, compounded with lower than usual water circulation resulting in a static upper layer of water. Both of these are attributed to a static high pressure region in the atmosphere, termed the Ridiculously Resilient Ridge, which has existed since spring 2014. The lack of air movement impacts the wind-forced currents and the wind-generated stirring of surface waters. These in turn have influenced the weather in the Pacific Northwest from the winter of 2013–2014 onwards and may have been associated with the unusually hot summer experienced in the continental Pacific Northwest in 2014.

text: The immediate cause of the phenomenon is the lower than normal rates of heat loss from the sea to the atmosphere, compounded with lower than usual water circulation resulting in a static upper layer of water. Both of these are attributed to a static high pressure region in the atmosphere, termed the

text: Ridiculously Resilient Ridge

text: , which has existed since spring 2014. The lack of air movement impacts the wind-forced currents and the wind-generated stirring of surface waters. These in turn have influenced the weather in the Pacific Northwest from the winter of 2013–2014 onwards and may have been associated with the unusually hot summer experienced in the continental Pacific Northwest in 2014.

text: Observations of Mercury's polar regions by radar from Earth and the MESSENGER spacecraft have been consistent with water ice and/or other frozen volatiles being present in permanently shadowed areas of craters in Mercury's polar regions. Measurements of Mercury's exosphere, which is practically a vacuum, revealed more ions derived from water than scientists had expected. These volatiles would be available to hypothetical future colonists of Mercury.

text: Observations of Mercury's polar regions by radar from Earth and the

text: MESSENGER

text: spacecraft have been consistent with water ice and/or other frozen volatiles being present in permanently shadowed areas of craters in Mercury's polar regions. Measurements of Mercury's exosphere, which is practically a vacuum, revealed more ions derived from water than scientists had expected. These volatiles would be available to hypothetical future colonists of Mercury.

text: A mysterious meteorite is hurtling towards the earth. During its entry into the atmosphere, it almost wounds Rayquaza, a sky guardian living in the ozone layer. The meteorite crashes into a polar zone, revealing two egg-shaped objects. The purple egg regenerates into a Deoxys and picks up the green egg. Rayquaza descends from the ozone layer to fight the invader (believing it to be an enemy). A battle ensues, destroying a nearby research site and traumatizing a young boy Tory (Tou'i), scared by a stampede of Spheal, Sealeo, and Walrein. Deoxys engages Rayquaza and the two take turns delivering devastating blows to each other, but the fight draws to a conclusion when Rayquaza surprises the alien Pokémon and fires a point blank Hyper Beam at it. Deoxys' body is destroyed, leaving only the purple crystal in its chest that falls into the sea, while some researchers take a similar green crystal that it found with them to Hoenn. Beneath the sea, the injured Deoxys regenerates and waits.

text: A mysterious

text: meteorite

text: is hurtling towards the earth. During its entry into the atmosphere, it almost wounds

text: Rayquaza

text: , a sky guardian living in the ozone layer. The meteorite crashes into a polar zone, revealing two egg-shaped objects. The purple egg regenerates into a

text: Deoxys

text: and picks up the green egg. Rayquaza descends from the

text: ozone layer

text: to fight the invader (believing it to be an enemy). A battle ensues, destroying a nearby research site and traumatizing a young boy Tory (Tou'i), scared by a stampede of

text: Spheal

text: Sealeo

text: , and

text: Walrein

text: . Deoxys engages Rayquaza and the two take turns delivering devastating blows to each other, but the fight draws to a conclusion when Rayquaza surprises the alien Pokémon and fires a point blank Hyper Beam at it. Deoxys' body is destroyed, leaving only the purple crystal in its chest that falls into the sea, while some researchers take a similar green crystal that it found with them to Hoenn. Beneath the sea, the injured Deoxys regenerates and waits.

text: The degree of the mixing of polar and mid-latitude air depends on the evolution and position of the polar night jet. In general, the mixing is less inside the vortex than outside. Mixing occurs with unstable planetary waves that are characteristic of the middle and upper stratosphere in winter. Prior to vortex breakdown, there is little transport of air out of the Arctic Polar Vortex due to strong barriers above 420 km (261 miles). The polar night jet which exists below this, is weak in the early winter. As a result, it does not deviate any descending polar air, which then mixes with air in the mid-latitudes. In the late winter, air parcels do not descend as much, reducing mixing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manney |first1=G |last2=Zurek |first2=R |last3=O'Neill |first3=A |last4=Swinbank |first4=R |year=1994 |title=On the motion of air through the stratospheric polar vortex |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1994)051

text: The degree of the mixing of polar and mid-latitude air depends on the evolution and position of the

text: polar night jet

text: . In general, the mixing is less inside the vortex than outside. Mixing occurs with unstable planetary waves that are characteristic of the middle and upper stratosphere in winter. Prior to vortex breakdown, there is little transport of air out of the Arctic Polar Vortex due to strong barriers above 420 km (261 miles). The polar night jet which exists below this, is weak in the early winter. As a result, it does not deviate any descending polar air, which then mixes with air in the mid-latitudes. In the late winter, air parcels do not descend as much, reducing mixing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manney |first1=G |last2=Zurek |first2=R |last3=O'Neill |first3=A |last4=Swinbank |first4=R |year=1994 |title=On the motion of air through the stratospheric polar vortex |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1994)051

text: Because Callisto and Ganymede are structurally similar to Titan, it is unclear why their atmospheres are insignificant relative to Titan's. Nevertheless, the origin of Titan's N via geologically ancient photolysis of accreted and degassed NH, as opposed to degassing of N from accretionary clathrates, may be the key to a correct inference. Had N been released from clathrates, Ar and Ar that are inert primordial isotopes of the Solar System should also be present in the atmosphere, but neither has been detected in significant quantities. The insignificant concentration of Ar and Ar also indicates that the ~40 K temperature required to trap them and N in clathrates did not exist in the Saturnian subnebula. Instead, the temperature may have been higher than 75 K, limiting even the accumulation of NH as hydrates. Temperatures would have been even higher in the Jovian subnebula due to the greater gravitational potential energy release, mass, and proximity to the Sun, greatly reducing the NH inventory accreted by Callisto and Ganymede. The resulting N atmospheres may have been too thin to survive the atmospheric erosion effects that Titan has withstood.

text: Because

text: Callisto

text: and

text: Ganymede

text: are structurally similar to Titan, it is unclear why their atmospheres are insignificant relative to Titan's. Nevertheless, the origin of Titan's N via geologically ancient photolysis of

text: accreted

text: and

text: degassed

text: NH, as opposed to degassing of N from accretionary

text: clathrate

text: s, may be the key to a correct inference. Had N been released from clathrates, Ar and Ar that are

text: inert

text: primordial isotope

text: s of the Solar System should also be present in the atmosphere, but neither has been detected in significant quantities. The insignificant concentration of Ar and Ar also indicates that the ~40 K temperature required to trap them and N in clathrates did not exist in the

text: Saturnian subnebula

text: . Instead, the temperature may have been higher than 75 K, limiting even the accumulation of NH as

text: hydrate

text: s. Temperatures would have been even higher in the

text: Jovian subnebula

text: due to the greater gravitational potential energy release, mass, and proximity to the Sun, greatly reducing the NH inventory accreted by Callisto and Ganymede. The resulting N atmospheres may have been too thin to survive the atmospheric erosion effects that Titan has withstood.

text: Temperature inversion and anomalous propagation can occur at most latitudes but they are more common in tropical climates than temperate climates, usually associated with high pressure areas (anticyclones).

text: Temperature inversion and anomalous propagation can occur at most latitudes but they are more common in

text: tropical

text: climates than

text: temperate

text: climates, usually associated with high pressure areas (anticyclones).

text: The ozone layer of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the surface. As DNA is readily damaged by UV light, this serves to protect life at the surface. The atmosphere also retains heat during the night, thereby reducing the daily temperature extremes.

text: The

text: ozone layer

text: of the Earth's atmosphere plays an important role in depleting the amount of

text: ultraviolet

text: DNA

text: The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid body at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid flow). Displacement Thickness is an alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass flow compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the inviscid case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The no-slip condition requires the flow velocity at the surface of a solid object be zero and the fluid temperature be equal to the temperature of the surface. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the boundary layer, governed by the boundary layer equations, below.

text: The

text: thickness

text: of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid body at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid flow). Displacement Thickness is an alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass flow compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the inviscid case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The

text: no-slip condition

text: requires the flow velocity at the surface of a solid object be zero and the fluid temperature be equal to the temperature of the surface. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the boundary layer, governed by the boundary layer equations, below.

text: The upper part of the thermosphere, where the mean free path of the molecules exceeds the scale height, is called the exosphere. The lower boundary of the Uranian exosphere, the exobase, is located at a height of about 6,500 km, or 1/4 of the planetary radius, above the surface. The exosphere is unusually extended, reaching as far as several Uranian radii from the planet. It is made mainly of hydrogen atoms and is often called the hydrogen corona of Uranus. The high temperature and relatively high pressure at the base of the thermosphere explain in part why Uranus's exosphere is so vast. The number density of atomic hydrogen in the corona falls slowly with the distance from the planet, remaining as high a few hundred atoms per cm at a few radii from Uranus. The effects of this bloated exosphere include a drag on small particles orbiting Uranus, causing a general depletion of dust in the Uranian rings. The infalling dust in turn contaminates the upper atmosphere of the planet.

text: The upper part of the thermosphere, where the

text: mean free path

text: of the molecules exceeds the

text: scale height

text: , is called the

text: exosphere

text: . The lower boundary of the Uranian exosphere, the exobase, is located at a height of about 6,500 km, or 1/4 of the planetary radius, above the surface. The exosphere is unusually extended, reaching as far as several Uranian radii from the planet. It is made mainly of hydrogen atoms and is often called the hydrogen

text: corona

text: of Uranus. The high temperature and relatively high pressure at the base of the thermosphere explain in part why Uranus's exosphere is so vast. The number density of atomic hydrogen in the corona falls slowly with the distance from the planet, remaining as high a few hundred atoms per cm at a few radii from Uranus. The effects of this bloated exosphere include a

text: drag

text: on small particles orbiting Uranus, causing a general depletion of

text: dust

text: in the Uranian rings. The infalling dust in turn contaminates the upper atmosphere of the planet.

text: Data from the Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere satellite suggests that noctilucent clouds require water vapour, dust, and very cold temperatures to form. The sources of both the dust and the water vapour in the upper atmosphere are not known with certainty. The dust is believed to come from micrometeors, although particulates from volcanoes and dust from the troposphere are also possibilities. The moisture could be lifted through gaps in the tropopause, as well as forming from the reaction of methane with hydroxyl radicals in the stratosphere.

text: Data from the

text: Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere

text: satellite suggests that noctilucent clouds require water vapour, dust, and very cold temperatures to form. The sources of both the dust and the water vapour in the upper atmosphere are not known with certainty. The dust is believed to come from

text: micrometeors

text: , although particulates from

text: volcano

text: es and dust from the

text: troposphere

text: are also possibilities. The moisture could be lifted through gaps in the

text: tropopause

text: , as well as forming from the reaction of

text: methane

text: with

text: hydroxyl radical

text: s in the

text: stratosphere

text: The last municipal district (M.D.) to rebrand itself as a county was the M.D. of Northern Lights No. 22, which was renamed as the County of Northern Lights on February 3, 2010.

text: The last municipal district (M.D.) to rebrand itself as a county was the M.D. of Northern Lights No. 22, which was renamed as the

text: County of Northern Lights

text: on February 3, 2010.

text: Adventure Gamers offered a more favourable analysis, concluding: "A philosophically ambitious game that distinguishes itself from the crowd. A rewarding experience, but expect plenty of confusion along the way", praising its "unique, complex premise; atmospheric, multi-layered mystery; high production values; excellent music; nice puzzle variety".

text: Another line of evidence against the sun having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed.Models and observations (see figure above, middle) show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the lower atmosphere at the surface (called the troposphere) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the stratosphere). Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants has also resulted in a cooling effect in the stratosphere. If the sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as increase solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen. The stratosphere has a reverse temperature gradient than the troposphere so as the temperature of the troposphere cools with altitude, the stratosphere rises with altitude. Hadley cells are the mechanism by which equatorial generated ozone in the tropics (highest area of UV irradiance in the stratosphere) is moved poleward. Global climate models suggest that climate change may widen the Hadley cells and push the jetstream northward thereby expanding the tropics region and resulting in warmer, dryer conditions in those areas overall.

text: Another line of evidence against the sun having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed.Models and observations (see figure above, middle) show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the lower atmosphere at the surface (called the

text: troposphere

text: ) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (called the

text: stratosphere

text: Depletion

text: of the

text: ozone layer

text: by chemical

text: refrigerant

text: s has also resulted in a cooling effect in the stratosphere. If the sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as increase solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen. The stratosphere has a reverse temperature gradient than the troposphere so as the temperature of the troposphere cools with altitude, the stratosphere rises with altitude.

text: Hadley cells

text: are the mechanism by which equatorial generated ozone in the tropics (highest area of UV irradiance in the stratosphere) is moved poleward. Global climate models suggest that climate change may widen the Hadley cells and push the jetstream northward thereby expanding the tropics region and resulting in warmer, dryer conditions in those areas overall.

text: Between the layers (and between the application and the top-most layer), the layers pass service data units across the interfaces.  The application or higher layer understands the structure of the data in the SDU, but the lower layer at the interface does not; it treats it as payload, undertaking to get it to the same interface at the destination.  In order to do this, the protocol layer will add to the SDU certain data it needs to perform its function.  For example, it might add a port number to identify the application, a network address to help with routing, a code to identify the type of data in the packet and error-checking information.  All this additional information, plus the original service data unit from the higher layer, constitutes the protocol data unit at this layer.  The significance of this is that the PDU is the structured information that is passed to a matching protocol layer further along on the data's journey that allows the layer to deliver its intended function or service.  The matching layer, or "peer", decodes the data to extract the original service data unit, decide if it is error-free and where to send it next, etc.  Unless we have already arrived at the lowest (physical) layer, the PDU is passed to the peer using services of the next lower layer in the protocol "stack".  When the PDU passes over the interface from the layer that constructed it to the layer that merely delivers it (and therefore does not understand its internal structure), it becomes a service data unit to that layer.  The addition of addressing and control information (which is called encapsulation) to an SDU to form a PDU and the passing of that PDU to the next lower layer as an SDU repeats until the lowest layer is reached and the data passes over some medium as a physical signal.

text: Between the layers (and between the application and the top-most layer), the layers pass service data units across the interfaces.  The application or higher layer understands the structure of the data in the SDU, but the lower layer at the interface does not; it treats it as

text: payload

text: This first release features a heavy and layered gothic sound, very atmospheric yet melodic, drawing consistent influence from doom metal and reminiscent of Novembre and mid-period Katatonia.

text: This first release features a heavy and layered

text: gothic

text: sound, very atmospheric yet melodic, drawing consistent influence from

text: doom metal

text: and reminiscent of

text: Novembre

text: and mid-period

text: Katatonia

text: When multiple layers of glazes are used, the colors in all visible layers can appear combined. However, the pigments are not physically mixed, since the paint is left to dry before each successive glaze is applied. The artist may apply several layers of paint with increasing amounts of oil added to each successive layer. This process of applying the fat layers (more oil in the painter’s medium) over the lean layers (less oil) can minimize cracking; this is the "fat over lean" principle.

text: When multiple layers of glazes are used, the colors in all visible layers can appear combined. However, the pigments are not physically mixed, since the paint is left to dry before each successive glaze is applied. The artist may apply several layers of paint with increasing amounts of oil added to each successive layer. This process of applying the fat layers (more oil in the painter’s medium) over the lean layers (less oil) can minimize cracking; this is the "

text: fat over lean

text: " principle.

text: The Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics, or TIMED, mission  explores Earth's mesosphere and lower thermosphere (40–50 miles up), the least explored and understood region of the atmosphere. Solar events, as well as temperature changes in the stratosphere can perturb this region, but the overall structure of and responses to these effects are not understood. Advances in remote sensing technology employed by TIMED enable it to explore this region on a global basis from space.

text: The Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics, or

text: TIMED

text: , mission  explores Earth's mesosphere and lower thermosphere (40–50 miles up), the least explored and understood region of the atmosphere. Solar events, as well as temperature changes in the stratosphere can perturb this region, but the overall structure of and responses to these effects are not understood. Advances in remote sensing technology employed by TIMED enable it to explore this region on a global basis from space.

text: Gustave Hermite and Georges Besançon, from France, were the first in 1892 to use a balloon to fly the meteograph. In 1898, Léon Teisserenc de Bort organized at the Observatoire de Météorologie Dynamique de Trappes the first regular daily use of these balloons. Data from these launches showed that the temperature lowered with height up to a certain altitude, which varied with the season, and then stabilized above this altitude. De Bort's discovery of the tropopause and stratosphere was announced in 1902 at the French Academy of Sciences. Other researchers, like Richard Aßmann and William Henry Dines, were working at the same times with similar instruments.

text: Gustave Hermite

text: and

text: Georges Besançon

text: , from France, were the first in 1892 to use a balloon to fly the meteograph. In 1898,

text: Léon Teisserenc de Bort

text: organized at the Observatoire de Météorologie Dynamique de

text: Trappes

text: the first regular daily use of these balloons. Data from these launches showed that the temperature lowered with height up to a certain altitude, which varied with the season, and then stabilized above this altitude. De Bort's discovery of the

text: tropopause

text: and

text: stratosphere

text: was announced in 1902 at the French Academy of Sciences. Other researchers, like

text: Richard Aßmann

text: and

text: William Henry Dines

text: , were working at the same times with similar instruments.

text: It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer. However, it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs, the main chemical agents causing ozone depletion. These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol.

text: It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the

text: ozone layer

text: . However, it does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of

text: CFC

text: s, the main chemical agents causing

text: ozone depletion

text: . These are laid out in the accompanying

text: Montreal Protocol

text: The angle of incidence of the microbarom ray determines which of these propagation modes it experiences. Rays directed vertically toward the zenith are dissipated in the thermosphere, and are a significant source of heating in that layer of the upper atmosphere. At mid latitudes in typical summer conditions, rays between approximately 30 and 60 degrees from the vertical are reflected from altitudes above 125 km where the return signals are strongly attenuated first.Rays launched at shallower angles may be reflected from the upper stratosphere at approximately 45 km above the surface in mid latitudes,or from 60–70 km in low latitudes.

text: The angle of incidence of the microbarom ray determines which of these propagation modes it experiences. Rays directed vertically toward the zenith are dissipated in the thermosphere, and are a significant source of heating in that layer of the

text: upper atmosphere

text: . At mid latitudes in typical summer conditions, rays between approximately 30 and 60 degrees from the vertical are reflected from altitudes above 125 km where the return signals are strongly

text: attenuated

text: first.Rays launched at shallower angles may be reflected from the upper stratosphere at approximately 45 km above the surface in mid latitudes,or from 60–70 km in low latitudes.

text: Northern Lights – Southern Cross was released on November 1, 1975. The album received generally positive reviews, and reached #26 on the Billboard charts, remaining in the Top 40 for five weeks.

text: In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface.  On an aircraft wing the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow.

text: In the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface.  On an

text: aircraft

text: wing

text: the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where

text: viscous

text: force

text: s distort the surrounding non-viscous flow.

text: Pure aluminium naturally forms a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide on contact with oxygen in the atmosphere through a process called oxidation, which creates a physical barrier to corrosion or further oxidation in most environments. Aluminium alloys, however, offer little protection against corrosion. There are three main ways to passivate these alloys: alclading, chromate conversion coating and anodizing. Alclading is the process of metallurgically bonding a thin layer of pure aluminium to the aluminium alloy. Chromate conversion coating is a common way of passivating not only aluminum, but also zinc, cadmium, copper, silver, magnesium, and tin alloys. Anodizing forms a thick oxide coating. This finish is more robust than the other processes and also provides good electrical insulation, which the other two processes do not.

text: Pure

text: aluminium

text: naturally forms a thin surface layer of

text: aluminium oxide

text: on contact with

text: oxygen

text: in the atmosphere through a process called

text: oxidation

text: , which creates a physical barrier to corrosion or further oxidation in most environments.

text: Aluminium alloy

text: s, however, offer little protection against corrosion. There are three main ways to passivate these alloys:

text: alclad

text: ing,

text: chromate conversion coating

text: and

text: anodizing

text: . Alclading is the process of metallurgically bonding a thin layer of pure aluminium to the aluminium alloy. Chromate conversion coating is a common way of passivating not only aluminum, but also

text: zinc

text: cadmium

text: copper

text: silver

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: tin

text: alloys. Anodizing forms a thick oxide coating. This finish is more robust than the other processes and also provides good

text: electrical insulation

text: , which the other two processes do not.

text: Scientific investigation for the IAP is defined by the vertical extent of the atmosphere. Types of investigations include theoretical models, numerical simulation, and experiment for the Earth's boundary layer, troposphere, middle atmosphere, ionosphere and magnetosphere.

text: Scientific investigation for the IAP is defined by the vertical extent of the atmosphere. Types of investigations include

text: theoretical models

text: numerical simulation

text: , and

text: experiment

text: for the Earth's

text: boundary layer

text: troposphere

text: middle atmosphere

text: ionosphere

text: and

text: magnetosphere

text: The troposphere is heated from below by latent heat, longwave radiation, and sensible heat.  Surplus heating and vertical expansion of the troposphere occurs in the tropics. At middle latitudes, tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average of 15 °C at sea level to about -55 °C at the tropopause. At the poles,  tropospheric temperature only decreases from an average of 0 °C at sea level to about -45 °C at the tropopause. At the equator, tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average of 20 °C at sea level to about -70 to -75 °C at the tropopause. The troposphere is thinner at the poles and thicker at the equator. The average thickness of the tropical tropopause is roughly 7 kilometers greater than the average tropopause thickness at the poles.

text: The troposphere is heated from below by

text: latent heat

text: longwave radiation

text: , and

text: sensible heat

text: .  Surplus heating and vertical expansion of the troposphere occurs in the tropics. At middle latitudes, tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average of 15 °C at sea level to about -55 °C at the

text: tropopause

text: . At the

text: pole

text: s,  tropospheric temperature only decreases from an average of 0 °C at sea level to about -45 °C at the tropopause. At the

text: equator

text: , tropospheric temperatures decrease from an average of 20 °C at sea level to about -70 to -75 °C at the tropopause. The troposphere is thinner at the poles and thicker at the equator. The average thickness of the tropical tropopause is roughly 7 kilometers greater than the average tropopause thickness at the poles.

text: ASRC performs research to study the physical and chemical nature of the atmosphere and its implications to the environment. Research areas include boundary layers, solar radiation, radiative transfer, atmospheric chemistry, aerosol physics, air quality, solar energy, cloud physics, climate systems, and air quality monitoring. In addition the center has a large "jungle research group" exploring atmosphere and biosphere relationships in Amazonia, the Alaskan Tundra, the Canadian Boreal Forest, and the Eastern U.S.

text: ASRC performs research to study the physical and chemical nature of the atmosphere and its implications to the environment. Research areas include boundary layers,

text: solar radiation

text: , radiative transfer,

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: , aerosol physics,

text: air quality

text: solar energy

text: , cloud physics, climate systems, and air quality monitoring. In addition the center has a large "jungle research group" exploring atmosphere and biosphere relationships in

text: Amazonia

text: , the Alaskan Tundra, the Canadian Boreal Forest, and the Eastern U.S.

text: "Midnight City" received universal acclaim, and was hailed as one of the best songs of 2011. Pitchfork Media's Brandon Stosuy wrote: "'Midnight City' comes off like Gonzalez's '1979.' The parallels are there, from the instantly memorable riff to the gentle sense of longing". Ryan Reed of PopMatters also praised the song, writing: "On this transcendent standout [...] Anthony Gonzalez and co-synth-scientist Justin Meldal-Johnsen build layer upon layer of keys, arena-sized drums, and vocal atmospherics (not mentioning one of the tastiest sax solos this side of a Springsteen record). The result? The synth Sistine Chapel." Josh Jackson of Paste wrote that the song "[...] sees Anthony Gonzalez at his spacey, dramatic best," while Spins Charles Aaron described the song as "[...] Korg synths set to 'stunned.'"

text: "Midnight City" received universal acclaim, and was hailed as one of the best songs of 2011.

text: Pitchfork Media

text: 's Brandon Stosuy wrote: "'Midnight City' comes off like Gonzalez's '

text: .' The parallels are there, from the instantly memorable riff to the gentle sense of longing". Ryan Reed of

text: PopMatters

text: also praised the song, writing: "On this transcendent standout [...] Anthony Gonzalez and co-synth-scientist Justin Meldal-Johnsen build layer upon layer of keys, arena-sized drums, and vocal atmospherics (not mentioning one of the tastiest sax solos this side of a Springsteen record). The result? The synth Sistine Chapel." Josh Jackson of

text: Paste

text: wrote that the song "[...] sees Anthony Gonzalez at his spacey, dramatic best," while

text: Spin

text: s Charles Aaron described the song as "[...]

text: Korg

text: synths set to 'stunned.'"

text: The song itself is a collaboration of synthetic drums and pads layered over striving constant and uplifting stabs and atmospheric arrangements.

text: Jupiter's atmospheric composition and ammonia clouds were recorded, the clouds possibly created by outflows from the lower depths of the atmosphere. Io's volcanism and plasma interactions with Jupiter's atmosphere were also recorded. The data Galileo collected supported the theory of a liquid ocean under the icy surface of Europa, and there were indications of similar liquid-saltwater layers under the surfaces of Ganymede and Callisto. Ganymede was shown to possess a magnetic field and the spacecraft found new evidence for exospheres around Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Galileo also discovered that Jupiter's faint ring system consists of dust from impacts on the four small inner moons. The extent and structure of Jupiter's magnetosphere was also mapped.

text: Jupiter's atmospheric composition and

text: ammonia

text: clouds were recorded, the clouds possibly created by outflows from the lower depths of the atmosphere.

text: Io

text: 's

text: volcanism

text: and

text: plasma

text: interactions with Jupiter's atmosphere were also recorded. The data Galileo collected supported

text: the theory of a liquid ocean

text: under the icy surface of

text: Europa

text: , and there were indications of similar liquid-

text: saltwater

text: layers under the surfaces of

text: Ganymede

text: and

text: Callisto

text: . Ganymede was shown to possess a

text: magnetic field

text: and the spacecraft found new evidence for

text: exosphere

text: s around Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Galileo also discovered that Jupiter's faint

text: ring system

text: consists of dust from impacts on the four small inner moons. The extent and structure of Jupiter's

text: magnetosphere

text: was also mapped.

text: "Mesosphere" (not to be confused with mesosphere, a layer of the atmosphere) is derived from “mesospheric shell”, coined by Reginald Aldworth Daly, a Harvard University geology professor. In the pre-plate tectonics era, Daly (1940) inferred that the outer earth consisted of three spherical layers: lithosphere (including the crust), asthenosphere, and mesospheric shell. Daly’s hypothetical depths to the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary ranged from , and the top of the mesospheric shell (base of the asthenosphere) were from . Thus, Daly’s asthenosphere was inferred to be  thick. According to Daly, the base of the solid Earth mesosphere could extend to the base of the mantle (and, thus, to the top of the core).

text: "Mesosphere" (not to be confused with

text: mesosphere

text: , a layer of the

text: atmosphere

text: Reginald Aldworth Daly

text: , a

text: Harvard University

text: geology

text: professor. In the pre-

text: plate tectonics

text: era, Daly (1940) inferred that the outer

text: earth

text: consisted of three

text: spherical

text: layers:

text: lithosphere

text: (including the

text: crust

text: asthenosphere

text: , and mesospheric shell. Daly’s hypothetical depths to the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary ranged from , and the top of the mesospheric shell (base of the asthenosphere) were from . Thus, Daly’s asthenosphere was inferred to be  thick. According to Daly, the base of the solid Earth mesosphere could extend to the base of the mantle (and, thus, to the top of the

text: core

text: In general inkjet solar cells are made by using an inkjet printer to put down the semiconductor material and electrodes onto a solar cell substrate. Both organic and inorganic solar cells can be made using the inkjet method. Inkjet printed inorganic solar cells are mainly CIGS solar cells. The organic solar cells are polymer solar cells. First, the ink must be prepared. Generally the ink is composed of a metal salt mixture(CIGS) in the inorganic case. In the organic case the ink is a polymer fullerene blend. The ink is then printed onto a substrate which can vary. These materials are what creates the electric power from sunlight. In most cases more layers of other materials are deposited or the cell goes through another process to complete it. The entire process is done in atmospheric pressure and can use temperatures of up to 500C. Important factors for the efficiency of inkjet printed organic solar cells are the inkjet latency time,the inkjet printing table temperature, and the effect of the chemical properties of the polymer donor.

text: In general inkjet solar cells are made by using an inkjet printer to put down the semiconductor material and electrodes onto a solar cell substrate. Both organic and inorganic solar cells can be made using the inkjet method. Inkjet printed inorganic solar cells are mainly

text: CIGS

text: solar cells. The organic solar cells are

text: polymer solar cells

text: . First, the ink must be prepared. Generally the ink is composed of a metal salt mixture(CIGS) in the inorganic case. In the organic case the ink is a polymer fullerene blend. The ink is then printed onto a substrate which can vary. These materials are what creates the electric power from sunlight. In most cases more layers of other materials are deposited or the cell goes through another process to complete it. The entire process is done in atmospheric pressure and can use temperatures of up to 500C. Important factors for the efficiency of inkjet printed organic solar cells are the inkjet latency time,the inkjet printing table temperature, and the effect of the chemical properties of the polymer donor.

text: The high temperatures coupled with an increase in insolation causes a region of low pressure to develop over west Africa and Nigeria (between March to May). The Tropical continental airmass (CT) from the Sahara Desert in the northern part of West Africa, is weakened due to the overheating of the land surface in west Africa and Nigeria at this time. The Tropical continental airmass (CT) begins to retreat northwards to the Sahara Desert due to massive heating of the land which transfers heat in the form of convection into the Tropical continental airmass (CT) which constitutes the main layer of air above the land. This transfer of heat in the Tropical continental airmass (CT) in turn, causes the wind to expand and become lighter as this is the normal behaviour for winds moving above intensely heated grounds.The Tropical continental airmass (CT) loses its strength as a major airmass in the region of west Africa and over Nigeria at this time (around February in the southern part of Nigeria to June in northern Nigeria) and begins to retreat coupled with the rising of air in form of convection within this airmass (Tropical continental airmass (CT)), further weakening the dominance of the wind over west Africa and Nigeria.The Tropical continental airmass (CT) finally retreats from most part of Nigeria, and the West African atmosphere around April to May, leaving an empty atmosphere over Nigeria. The sun's rays enters into the atmosphere of Nigeria more intense than it does during the presence of the Tropical continental airmass, which contained dust (in form of haze) that reduced the intensity of the sun. The overheating of the west Africa land mass and Nigeria in particular creates a low pressure region over west Africa and Nigeria. This low pressure zone attracts the Tropical Maritime Airmass (MT) from the south Atlantic Ocean since areas of low pressures experiences inward blowing winds because winds are moving air blowing outwards from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure.

text: atmosphere

text: around April to May, leaving an empty atmosphere over Nigeria. The sun's rays enters into the atmosphere of Nigeria more intense than it does during the presence of the Tropical continental airmass, which contained dust (in form of haze) that reduced the intensity of the sun. The overheating of the west Africa land mass and Nigeria in particular creates a low pressure region over west Africa and Nigeria. This low pressure zone attracts the Tropical Maritime Airmass (MT) from the south Atlantic Ocean since areas of low pressures experiences inward blowing winds because winds are moving air blowing outwards from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure.

text: A 2008 study by Michael J. Mills and coauthors, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, found that a nuclear weapons exchange between Pakistan and India using their current arsenals could create a near-global ozone hole, triggering human health problems and causing environmental damage for at least a decade. The computer-modeling study looked at a nuclear war between the two countries involving 50 Hiroshima-sized nuclear devices on each side, producing massive urban fires and lofting as much as five million metric tons of soot about  into the mesosphere. The soot would absorb enough solar radiation to heat surrounding gases, causing a series of surface chemistry reactions that would break down the stratospheric ozone layer protecting Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

text: A 2008 study by Michael J. Mills and coauthors, published in the

entity_name: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

text: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

text: , found that a nuclear weapons exchange between Pakistan and India using their current arsenals could create a near-global ozone hole, triggering human health problems and causing environmental damage for at least a decade. The computer-modeling study looked at a nuclear war between the two countries involving 50 Hiroshima-sized nuclear devices on each side, producing massive urban fires and lofting as much as five million metric tons of soot about  into the

text: mesosphere

text: . The soot would absorb enough solar radiation to heat surrounding gases, causing a series of

text: surface chemistry

text: reactions that would break down the stratospheric ozone layer protecting Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

text: Air conducts sound at a certain speed, the "speed of sound". This becomes slower as the air becomes cooler. Because the temperature of the atmosphere generally decreases with altitude (until the tropopause), the speed of sound also decreases with altitude. (See the International Standard Atmosphere for more on temperature as a function of altitude.)

text: Air conducts sound at a certain speed, the "

text: speed of sound

text: ". This becomes slower as the air becomes cooler. Because the temperature of the atmosphere generally decreases with altitude (until the

text: tropopause

text: ), the speed of sound also decreases with altitude. (See the

text: International Standard Atmosphere

text: for more on temperature as a function of altitude.)

text: The classical thermal escape mechanism is when individual molecules from the high velocity tail of the Maxwell–Boltzmann distributionreach the escape velocity and overcome the gravity field. This is known as Jeans escape and depends on the temperature of the planet's exosphere and the strength of its gravity field. It can be shown that for cold giant gas planets such as Jupiter and Saturn there is no thermal driven atmospheric escape of significance while for smaller and warmer planets such as Earth only light atoms may escape in this manner (heavier atoms stay).

text: The classical thermal escape mechanism is when individual

text: molecule

text: s from the

text: high velocity tail

text: of the

text: Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution

text: reach the

text: escape velocity

text: and overcome the gravity field. This is known as

text: Jeans escape

text: and depends on the temperature of the planet's

text: exosphere

text: and the strength of its gravity field. It can be shown that for cold giant gas planets such as

text: Jupiter

text: and

text: Saturn

text: there is no thermal driven atmospheric escape of significance while for smaller and warmer planets such as Earth only light atoms may escape in this manner (heavier atoms stay).

text: When the water surface begins to lose heat rapidly, the water becomes supercooled. Turbulence, caused by strong winds or flow from a river, will mix the supercooled water throughout its entire depth. The supercooled water will already be encouraging the formation of small ice crystals (frazil ice) and the crystals will be mixed into the upper layer and form a surface layer.

text: When the water surface begins to lose heat rapidly, the water becomes supercooled. Turbulence, caused by strong winds or flow from a river, will mix the

text: supercooled water

text: throughout its entire depth. The supercooled water will already be encouraging the formation of small ice crystals (frazil ice) and the crystals will be mixed into the upper layer and form a surface layer.

text: It requires a large source of energy at a certain altitude to maintain a significant hydrodynamic escape.  Solar radiation is seldom enough for known present day atmospheres in the Solar System. It is speculated that early atmospheres of Earth, Venus and Mars have experienced periods of hydrodynamic escape due to the heat input from planetary accretion processes.

text: It requires a large source of energy at a certain altitude to maintain a significant hydrodynamic escape.  Solar radiation is seldom enough for known present day atmospheres in the Solar System. It is speculated that early atmospheres of Earth, Venus and Mars have experienced periods of hydrodynamic escape due to the heat input from planetary

text: accretion processes

text: Lindzen was born on February 8, 1940 in Webster, Massachusetts. His father, a shoemaker, had fled Hitler's Germany with his mother. He moved to the Bronx soon after his birth and grew up in a Jewish household in a predominantly Catholic neighborhood there. Lindzen attended the Bronx High School of Science (winning Regents' and National Merit Scholarships), Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,and Harvard University. From Harvard, he received an A.B. in physics in 1960, followed by an S.M. in applied mathematics in 1961 and a PhD in applied mathematics in 1964. His doctoral thesis, Radiative and photochemical processes in strato- and mesospheric dynamics, concerned the interactions of ozone photochemistry, radiative transfer, and dynamics in the middle atmosphere.

text: Lindzen was born on February 8, 1940 in

text: Webster, Massachusetts

text: . His father, a shoemaker, had fled

text: Hitler's Germany

text: with his mother. He moved to the Bronx soon after his birth and grew up in a Jewish household in a predominantly Catholic neighborhood there. Lindzen attended the

text: Bronx High School of Science

text: (winning Regents' and

text: National Merit

text: Scholarships),

text: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute

text: ,and

text: Harvard University

text: . From Harvard, he received an A.B. in physics in 1960, followed by an S.M. in applied mathematics in 1961 and a PhD in applied mathematics in 1964. His doctoral thesis, Radiative and photochemical processes in strato- and mesospheric dynamics, concerned the interactions of ozone photochemistry, radiative transfer, and dynamics in the middle atmosphere.

text: to the inverse temperature

text: to the inverse temperature

text: Pesto is traditionally prepared in a marble mortar with a wooden pestle. First, garlic and pine nuts are placed in the mortar and reduced to a cream, then the washed and dried basil leaves are added with coarse salt and ground to a creamy consistency. Only then is a mix of Parmigiano-Reggiano and Pecorino added. To help incorporate the cheese a little extra-virgin olive oil is added. In a tight jar (or simply in an air-tight plastic container), covered by a layer of extra-virgin olive oil, pesto can last in the refrigerator up to a week, and can be frozen for later use.

text: The gelatin silver print or gelatin developing out paper (DOP) is a monochrome imaging process based on the light sensitivity of silver halides. They have been made for both contact printing and enlarging purposes by modifying the paper’s light sensitivity. A brief exposure to a negative produces a latent image, which is then made visible by a developing agent. The image is then made permanent by treatment in a photographic fixer, which removes the remaining light sensitive silver halides. And finally, a water bath clears the fixer from the print. The final image consists of small particles of silver bound in a layer of gelatin. This gelatin image layer is only one of the four layers found in a typical gelatin silver print, which typically include the overcoat, image layer, baryta, and paper support.

text: The gelatin silver print or gelatin developing out paper (DOP) is a monochrome imaging process based on the light sensitivity of

text: silver halide

text: s. They have been made for both contact printing and enlarging purposes by modifying the paper’s light sensitivity. A brief exposure to a negative produces a latent image, which is then made visible by a developing agent. The image is then made permanent by treatment in a photographic fixer, which removes the remaining light sensitive silver halides. And finally, a water bath clears the fixer from the print. The final image consists of small particles of silver bound in a layer of gelatin. This gelatin image layer is only one of the four layers found in a typical gelatin silver print, which typically include the overcoat, image layer, baryta, and paper support.

text: Direct bonded copper (DBC) substrates are commonly used in power modules, because of their very good thermal conductivity. They are composed of a ceramic tile (commonly alumina) with a sheet of copper bonded to one or both sides by a high-temperature oxidation process (the copper and substrate are heated to a carefully controlled temperature in an atmosphere of nitrogen containing about 30 ppm of oxygen; under these conditions, a copper-oxygen eutectic forms which bonds successfully both to copper and the oxides used as substrates). The top copper layer can be preformed prior to firing or chemically etched using printed circuit board technology to form an electrical circuit, while the bottom copper layer is usually kept plain. The substrate is attached to a heat spreader by soldering the bottom copper layer to it.

text: Direct bonded copper (DBC) substrates are commonly used in

text: power module

text: s, because of their very good

text: thermal conductivity

text: . They are composed of a ceramic tile (commonly

text: alumina

text: ) with a sheet of

text: copper

text: bonded to one or both sides by a high-temperature oxidation process (the copper and substrate are heated to a carefully controlled temperature in an atmosphere of nitrogen containing about 30 ppm of oxygen; under these conditions, a copper-oxygen eutectic forms which bonds successfully both to copper and the oxides used as substrates). The top copper layer can be preformed prior to firing or chemically etched using

text: printed circuit board

text: technology to form an electrical circuit, while the bottom copper layer is usually kept plain. The substrate is attached to a

text: heat spreader

text: by soldering the bottom copper layer to it.

text: Temperature inversion stops atmospheric convection (which is normally present) from happening in the affected area and can lead to the air becoming stiller and murky from the collection of dust and  pollutants that are no longer able to be lifted from the surface. This can become a problem in cities where many pollutants exist. Inversion effects occur frequently in big cities such as:

text: Mesoscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from 1 km to 1000 km and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth's surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere, tropopause, and the lower section of the stratosphere. Mesoscale timescales last from less than a day to weeks. The events typically of interest are thunderstorms, squall lines, fronts, precipitation bands in tropical and extratropical cyclones, and topographically generated weather systems such as mountain waves and sea and land breezes.

text: Mesoscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from 1 km to 1000 km and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth's surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere,

text: tropopause

text: , and the lower section of the

text: stratosphere

text: . Mesoscale timescales last from less than a day to weeks. The events typically of interest are

text: thunderstorm

text: s,

text: squall line

text: s,

text: fronts

text: precipitation bands

text: in

text: tropical

text: and

text: extratropical cyclone

text: s, and topographically generated weather systems such as mountain waves and

text: sea and land breezes

text: Although sudden stratospheric warmings are mainly forced by planetary scale waves which propagate up from the lower atmosphere, there is also a subsequent return effect of sudden stratospheric warmings on surface weather.  Following a sudden stratospheric warming, the high altitude winds reverse to flow eastward instead of their usual westward.  The eastward winds progress down through the atmosphere and weaken the jet stream, often giving easterly winds near the surface and resulting in dramatic reductions in temperature in Europe.

text: No-till farming has carbon sequestration potential through storage of soil organic matter in the soil of crop fields. Whereas, when soil is tilled by machinery, the soil layers invert, air  mixes in, and soil microbial activity dramatically increases over baseline levels. Tilling results in soil organic matter being broken down much more rapidly, and carbon is lost from the soil into the atmosphere. In addition to the effect on soil from tilling, emissions from the farm tractors increases carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.

text: No-till farming has

text: carbon sequestration

text: potential through storage of

text: soil organic matter

text: in the soil of crop fields. Whereas, when soil is tilled by machinery, the soil layers invert, air  mixes in, and soil microbial activity dramatically increases over baseline levels. Tilling results in soil organic matter being broken down much more rapidly, and carbon is lost from the soil into the atmosphere. In addition to the effect on soil from tilling, emissions from the farm tractors increases

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels in the atmosphere.

text: Several moons, such as the Moon and the Galilean satellites of Jupiter, have exospheres without a denser atmosphere underneath, referred to as a surface boundary exosphere.  Here, molecules are ejected on elliptic trajectories until they collide with the surface. Smaller bodies such as asteroids, in which the molecules emitted from the surface escape to space, are not considered to have exospheres.

text: Several moons, such as the

text: Moon

text: and the

text: Galilean satellites

text: of

text: Jupiter

text: , have exospheres without a denser atmosphere underneath, referred to as a surface boundary exosphere.  Here, molecules are ejected on

text: elliptic trajectories

text: until they collide with the surface. Smaller bodies such as asteroids, in which the molecules emitted from the surface escape to space, are not considered to have exospheres.

text: According to media sources, the Stratosphere was to enter production as a 2009 model.

text: The Chinchaga fire, also known as the Wisp fire or the Chinchaga River fire, was a forest fire that burned in northern British Columbia and Alberta in the summer and early fall of 1950.  With a final size of between  and , it is the single largest recorded fire in North American history.  The fire was allowed to burn freely, a result of local forest management policy and the lack of settlements in the region. The Chinchaga fire produced large amounts of smoke, creating the "1950 Great Smoke Pall", observed across eastern North America and Europe. As the existence of the massive fire was not well-publicized, and the smoke was mostly in the upper atmosphere and could not be smelled, there was much speculation about the atmospheric haze and its provenance. The Chinchaga firestorm's "historic smoke pall" caused "observations of blue suns and moons in the United States and Europe." It was the biggest firestorm documented in North America—3,500,000 acres of forest burned in northern Alberta and British Columbia—created the world’s largest smoke layer in the atmosphere."

text: The Chinchaga fire, also known as the Wisp fire or the Chinchaga River fire, was a

text: forest fire

text: that burned in northern

text: British Columbia

text: and

text: Alberta

text: in the summer and early fall of 1950.  With a final size of between  and , it is the single largest recorded fire in North American history.  The fire was allowed to burn freely, a result of local forest management policy and the lack of settlements in the region. The Chinchaga fire produced large amounts of smoke, creating the "1950 Great Smoke Pall", observed across eastern North America and Europe. As the existence of the massive fire was not well-publicized, and the smoke was mostly in the upper atmosphere and could not be smelled, there was much speculation about the atmospheric haze and its provenance. The Chinchaga firestorm's "historic smoke pall" caused "observations of blue suns and moons in the United States and Europe." It was the biggest firestorm documented in North America—3,500,000 acres of forest burned in northern Alberta and British Columbia—created the world’s largest smoke layer in the atmosphere."

text: The atmosphere is not uniform. There are four districtive layers or spheres (defined by temperature):

text: Atmospheric electricity is the regular diurnal variations of the Earth's atmospheric electromagnetic network (or, more broadly, any planet's electrical system in its layer of gases). The Earth's surface, the ionosphere, and the atmosphere is known as the global atmospheric electrical circuit. Lightning discharges 30,000 amperes, at up to 100 million volts, and emits light, radio waves, x-rays and even gamma rays. Plasma temperatures in lightning can approach 28,000 kelvins and electron densities may exceed 10/m³.

text: Atmospheric electricity is the regular

text: diurnal

text: variations of the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: atmospheric

text: electromagnetic

text: network

text: (or, more broadly, any

text: planet

text: 's electrical system in its

text: layer of gases

text: ). The

text: Earth's surface

text: , the

text: ionosphere

text: , and the atmosphere is known as the

text: global atmospheric electrical circuit

text: . Lightning discharges 30,000

text: ampere

text: s, at up to 100 million

text: volt

text: s, and emits light, radio waves,

text: x-ray

text: s and even

text: gamma ray

text: s. Plasma temperatures in lightning can approach 28,000

text: kelvin

text: s and

text: electron

text: densities may exceed 10/m³.

text: A natural example of rarefaction occurs in the layers of Earth's atmosphere. Because the atmosphere has mass, most atmospheric matter is nearer to the Earth due to the Earth's gravitation.  Therefore, air at higher layers of the atmosphere is less dense, or rarefied, relative to air at lower layers. Thus rarefaction can refer either to a reduction in density over space at a single point of time, or a reduction of density over time for one particular area.

text: A natural example of rarefaction occurs in the layers of

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . Because the atmosphere has

text: mass

text: , most atmospheric

text: matter

text: is nearer to the Earth due to the Earth's

text: gravitation

text: .  Therefore, air at higher layers of the atmosphere is less dense, or rarefied, relative to air at lower layers. Thus rarefaction can refer either to a reduction in density over space at a single point of time, or a reduction of density over time for one particular area.

text: Freon () is a registered trademark of The Chemours Company, which uses it for a number of halocarbon products. They are stable, nonflammable, moderately toxic gases or liquids which have typically been used as refrigerants and as aerosol propellants. These include the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that cause ozone depletion (such as chlorodifluoromethane), but also include newer refrigerants which typically include fluorine instead of chlorine and do not deplete the ozone layer. Not all refrigerant is labelled as "Freon" since Freon is a brand name for the refrigerants R-12, R-13B1, R-22, R-502, and R-503 manufactured by The Chemours Company.

text: Freon () is a registered

text: trademark

text: of

text: The Chemours Company

text: , which uses it for a number of

text: halocarbon

text: products. They are stable, nonflammable, moderately toxic gases or liquids which have typically been used as

text: refrigerants

text: and as

text: aerosol propellant

text: s. These include the

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) that cause

text: ozone depletion

text: (such as

text: chlorodifluoromethane

text: ), but also include newer refrigerants which typically include fluorine instead of chlorine and do not deplete the ozone layer. Not all refrigerant is labelled as "Freon" since Freon is a brand name for the refrigerants

text: , R-502, and R-503 manufactured by The Chemours Company.

text: In the 2006 environment annual report, the Ministry of Environment reported that current major issues are global warming and preservation of the ozone layer, conservation of the atmospheric environment, water and soil, waste management and recycling, measures for chemical substances, conservation of the natural environment and the participation in the international cooperation.

text: In the 2006 environment annual report, the Ministry of Environment reported that current major issues are

text: global warming

text: and preservation of the

text: ozone layer

text: , conservation of the atmospheric environment, water and soil,

text: waste management

text: and

text: recycling

text: , measures for chemical substances, conservation of the natural environment and the participation in the international cooperation.

text: The main radar operates in mainly two modes: (1) incoherent scatter radar (ISR) mode, and (2) coherent scatter (CSR) mode. In the ISR mode using the high power transmitter, Jicamarca measures the electron density, electron and ion temperature, ion composition and vertical and zonal electric fields in the equatorial ionosphere. Given its location and frequency of operation, Jicamarca has the unique capability of measuring the absolute electron density via Faraday rotation, and the most precise ionospheric electric fields by pointing the beam perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic field. In the CSR mode the radar measures the echoes that are more than 30 dB stronger than the ISR echoes. These echoes come from equatorial irregularities generated in troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, equatorial electrojet, E and F region. Given the strength of the echoes, usually low power transmitters and/or smaller antenna sections are used.

text: The main radar operates in mainly two modes: (1)

text: incoherent scatter

text: radar

text: (ISR) mode, and (2) coherent

text: scatter

text: (CSR) mode. In the ISR mode using the high power transmitter, Jicamarca measures the

text: electron density

text: electron

text: and

text: ion

text: temperature

text: , ion composition and vertical and zonal

text: electric fields

text: in the equatorial

text: ionosphere

text: . Given its location and frequency of operation, Jicamarca has the unique capability of measuring the absolute

text: electron density

text: via

text: Faraday rotation

text: , and the most precise ionospheric

text: electric fields

text: by pointing the beam

text: perpendicular

text: to the

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: . In the CSR mode the

text: radar

text: measures the echoes that are more than 30

text: dB

text: stronger than the ISR echoes. These echoes come from equatorial irregularities generated in

text: troposphere

text: stratosphere

text: mesosphere

text: equatorial electrojet

text: E

text: and

text: F region

text: . Given the strength of the echoes, usually low

text: power

text: transmitters and/or smaller antenna sections are used.

text: The existence of a Mercurian atmosphere had been contentious before 1974, although by that time a consensus had formed that Mercury, like the Moon, lacked any substantial atmosphere. This conclusion was confirmed in 1974 when the unmanned Mariner 10 spaceprobe discovered only a tenuous exosphere. Later, in 2008, improved measurements were obtained by the MESSENGER spacecraft, which discovered magnesium in the Mercurian exosphere.

text: The existence of a Mercurian atmosphere had been contentious before 1974, although by that time a consensus had formed that Mercury, like the

text: Moon

text: , lacked any substantial atmosphere. This conclusion was confirmed in 1974 when the unmanned

text: Mariner 10

text: spaceprobe discovered only a tenuous exosphere. Later, in 2008, improved measurements were obtained by the

text: MESSENGER

text: spacecraft, which discovered

text: magnesium

text: in the Mercurian exosphere.

text: On Earth, the stratopause is  high above the Earth's surface. The atmospheric pressure is around 1/1000 of the pressure at sea level. The temperature in the stratopause is -15 degrees Celsius (5 degrees Fahrenheit).

text: On

text: Earth

text: , the stratopause is  high above the Earth's surface. The atmospheric

text: pressure

text: is around 1/1000 of the pressure at

text: sea level

text: . The temperature in the stratopause is -15 degrees Celsius (5 degrees Fahrenheit).

text: The variety in musical style was expanded upon in the members' side projects during the band's ensuing hiatus. Le Bon and Rhodes focused on the atmospheric, layered sound found in "Tiger Tiger" in their project, Arcadia, while John and Andy Taylor joined with Robert Palmer and members of Chic to create Power Station, built around the rock sound seen developing in "Of Crime and Passion".

text: The variety in musical style was expanded upon in the members' side projects during the band's ensuing hiatus. Le Bon and Rhodes focused on the atmospheric, layered sound found in "Tiger Tiger" in their project,

text: Arcadia

text: , while John and Andy Taylor joined with

text: Robert Palmer

text: and members of

text: Chic

text: to create

text: Power Station

text: , built around the rock sound seen developing in "Of Crime and Passion".

text: The geopotential thickness of an atmospheric layer is described by the hypsometric equation:

text: The geopotential thickness of an atmospheric layer is described by the

text: hypsometric equation

text: In desert areas, dust and sand storms are most commonly caused by either thunderstorm outflows, or by strong pressure gradients which cause an increase in wind velocity over a wide area. The vertical extent of the dust or sand that is raised is largely determined by the stability of the atmosphere above the ground as well as by the weight of the particulates. In some cases, dust and sand may be confined to a relatively shallow layer by a low-lying temperature inversion. In other instances, dust (but not sand) may be lifted as high as 20,000 feet (6,100 m) high.

text: In desert areas, dust and sand storms are most commonly caused by either thunderstorm outflows, or by strong pressure gradients which cause an increase in wind velocity over a wide area. The vertical extent of the dust or sand that is raised is largely determined by the stability of the atmosphere above the ground as well as by the weight of the particulates. In some cases, dust and sand may be confined to a relatively shallow layer by a low-lying

text: temperature inversion

text: . In other instances, dust (but not sand) may be lifted as high as 20,000 feet (6,100 m) high.

text: The mesosphere lies above altitude records for aircraft and balloons, and below the minimum altitude for orbital spacecraft. It has only been accessed through the use of sounding rockets. As a result, it is the least-understood part of the atmosphere. The presence of red sprites and blue jets (electrical discharges or lightning within the lower mesosphere), noctilucent clouds, and density shears within this poorly understood layer are of current scientific interest.

text: The mesosphere lies above altitude records for

text: aircraft

text: and

text: balloons

text: , and below the minimum altitude for

text: orbital

text: spacecraft

text: . It has only been accessed through the use of

text: sounding rockets

text: . As a result, it is the least-understood part of the atmosphere. The presence of

text: red sprite

text: s and

text: blue jet

text: s (electrical discharges or

text: lightning

text: within the lower mesosphere),

text: noctilucent cloud

text: s, and density shears within this poorly understood layer are of current scientific interest.

text: On the surface, the friction due to the terrain and other obstacles (buildings, trees, etc.) may contribute to a slowdown and/or a wind deflection. Thus, a more turbulent wind in the atmospheric boundary layer. This wind can be channeled through narrows, like valleys. The wind will also be raised along the slopes of the mountains to give local air currents.

text: There was some uncertainty on whether detonating a nuclear weapon at such high altitudes would cause a hole in the ozone layer. After multiple underwater tests there was evidence to show the energy created by the blast would create ozone. Project leads determined some destruction of ozone would occur which would then be replaced by the ozone created from the explosion, it was agreed upon that if this theory were wrong the hole created in the ozone layer would be minuscule enough to cause no harm. Upon completion of Operation Newsreel, it was determined that there was very little evidence of any harm being caused to the natural ozone layer.

text: There was some uncertainty on whether detonating a nuclear weapon at such high altitudes would cause a hole in the

text: ozone layer

text: . After multiple

text: underwater tests

text: there was evidence to show the energy created by the blast would create

text: ozone

text: . Project leads determined some destruction of ozone would occur which would then be replaced by the ozone created from the explosion, it was agreed upon that if this theory were wrong the hole created in the ozone layer would be minuscule enough to cause no harm. Upon completion of Operation Newsreel, it was determined that there was very little evidence of any harm being caused to the natural ozone layer.

text: Fluid that is less dense than its surroundings tends to rise until it has the same density as its surroundings. If there is not much energy input to the system, it will tend to become stratified. On a large scale, Earth's atmosphere is divided into a series of layers. Going upwards from the ground, these are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.

text: Fluid that is less dense than its surroundings tends to rise until it has the same density as its surroundings. If there is not much energy input to the system, it will tend to become

text: stratified

text: . On a large scale, Earth's atmosphere is

text: divided into a series of layers

text: . Going upwards from the ground, these are the

text: troposphere

text: stratosphere

text: mesosphere

text: thermosphere

text: , and

text: exosphere

text: In 1955 Hans Suess's carbon-14 isotope analysis showed that  released from fossil fuels was not immediately absorbed by the ocean. In 1957, better understanding of ocean chemistry led Roger Revelle to a realization that the ocean surface layer had limited ability to absorb carbon dioxide, also predicting the rise in levels of  and later being proven by Charles David Keeling.  By the late 1950s, more scientists were arguing that carbon dioxide emissions could be a problem, with some projecting in 1959 that  would rise 25% by the year 2000, with potentially "radical" effects on climate. In 1960 Charles David Keeling demonstrated that the level of  in the atmosphere was in fact rising. Concern mounted year by year along with the rise of the "Keeling Curve" of atmospheric .

text: In 1955

text: Hans Suess

text: 's

text: isotope analysis showed that  released from fossil fuels was not immediately absorbed by the ocean. In 1957, better understanding of ocean chemistry led

text: Roger Revelle

text: to a realization that the ocean surface layer had limited ability to absorb carbon dioxide, also predicting the rise in levels of  and later being proven by

text: Charles David Keeling

text: .  By the late 1950s, more scientists were arguing that carbon dioxide emissions could be a problem, with some projecting in 1959 that  would rise 25% by the year 2000, with potentially "radical" effects on climate. In 1960

text: Charles David Keeling

text: demonstrated that the level of  in the atmosphere was in fact rising. Concern mounted year by year along with the rise of the "

text: Keeling Curve

text: " of atmospheric .

text: Below this, the atmosphere is defined to be active on the insolation received, due to the increased presence of heavier gases such as monatomic oxygen.  The solar constant is thus expressed at the thermopause.  Beyond (above) this, the exosphere describes the thinnest remainder of atmospheric particles with large mean free path, mostly hydrogen and helium. As a limit for the exosphere this boundary is also called exobase.

text: Below this, the atmosphere is defined to be active on the

text: insolation

text: received, due to the increased presence of heavier gases such as monatomic oxygen.  The

text: solar constant

text: is thus expressed at the thermopause.  Beyond (above) this, the

text: exosphere

text: describes the thinnest remainder of atmospheric particles with large mean free path, mostly hydrogen and helium. As a limit for the exosphere this boundary is also called exobase.

text: A good example of convective instability can be found in our own atmosphere. If dry mid-level air is drawn over very warm, moist air in the lower troposphere, a hydrolapse (an area of rapidly decreasing dew point temperatures with height) results in the region where the moist boundary layer and mid-level air meet. As daytime heating increases mixing within the moist boundary layer, some of the moist air will begin to interact with the dry mid-level air above it. Owing to thermodynamic processes, as the dry mid-level air is slowly saturated its temperature begins to drop, increasing the adiabatic lapse rate. Under certain conditions, the lapse rate can increase significantly in a short amount of time, resulting in convection. High convective instability can lead to severe thunderstorms and tornadoes as moist air which is trapped in the boundary layer eventually becomes highly negatively buoyant relative to the adiabatic lapse rate and escapes as a rapidly rising bubble of humid air triggering the development of a cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud.

text: A good example of convective instability can be found in our own atmosphere. If dry mid-level air is drawn over very warm, moist air in the lower

text: troposphere

text: , a

text: hydrolapse

text: (an area of rapidly decreasing dew point temperatures with height) results in the region where the moist

text: boundary layer

text: and mid-level air meet. As daytime heating increases mixing within the moist boundary layer, some of the moist air will begin to interact with the dry mid-level air above it. Owing to thermodynamic processes, as the dry mid-level air is slowly saturated its temperature begins to drop, increasing the

text: adiabatic lapse rate

text: . Under certain conditions, the lapse rate can increase significantly in a short amount of time, resulting in

text: convection

text: . High convective instability can lead to severe

text: thunderstorms

text: and

text: tornadoes

text: as moist air which is trapped in the boundary layer eventually becomes highly negatively buoyant relative to the adiabatic lapse rate and escapes as a rapidly rising bubble of humid air triggering the development of a

text: cumulus

text: or

text: cumulonimbus

text: cloud.

text: A low-pressure area, low or depression, is a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations.  Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere.  The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis.  Within the field of meteorology, atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas.  The first area is on the east side of upper troughs, which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies (a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere).  A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs, which are of smaller wavelength.  Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below, which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity.

text: A low-pressure area, low or depression, is a region where the

text: atmospheric pressure

text: is lower than that of surrounding locations.  Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the

text: troposphere

text: .  The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as

text: cyclogenesis

text: .  Within the field of

text: meteorology

text: , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas.  The first area is on the east side of upper troughs, which form half of a

text: Rossby wave

text: within the

text: Westerlies

text: (a

text: trough

text: with large

text: wavelength

text: that extends through the troposphere).  A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of

text: embedded shortwave troughs

text: , which are of smaller wavelength.  Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause

text: atmospheric

text: lift within the troposphere below, which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity.

text: Odd structures known as polar vortices lie within the cold polar collars. They are giant hurricane-like storms four times larger than their terrestrial analogs. Each vortex has two "eyes"—the centres of rotation, which are connected by distinct S-shaped cloud structures. Such double eyed structures are also called polar dipoles. Vortexes rotate with the period of about 3 days in the direction of general super-rotation of the atmosphere. The linear wind speeds are 35–50 m/s near their outer edges and zero at the poles. The temperature at the cloud-tops in the polar vortexes are much higher than in the nearby polar collars reaching 250 K (−23 °C). The conventional interpretation of the polar vortexes is that they are anticyclones with downwelling in the centre and upwelling in the cold polar collars. This type of circulation resembles the winter polar anticyclonic vortexes on Earth, especially the one found over Antarctica. The observations in the various infrared atmospheric windows indicate that the anticyclonic circulation observed near the poles may penetrate as deep as to 50 km altitude, i.e. to the base of the clouds. The polar upper troposphere and mesosphere are extremely dynamic; large bright clouds may appear and disappear over the space of a few hours. One such event was observed by Venus Express between 9 and 13 January 2007, when the south polar region became brighter by 30%. This event was probably caused by an injection of sulfur dioxide into the mesosphere, which then condensed forming a bright haze. The two eyes in the vortexes have yet to be explained.

text: Odd structures known as

text: polar vortices

text: lie within the cold polar collars. They are giant

text: hurricane

text: -like storms four times larger than their terrestrial analogs. Each vortex has two "eyes"—the centres of rotation, which are connected by distinct S-shaped cloud structures. Such double eyed structures are also called polar

text: dipole

text: s. Vortexes rotate with the period of about 3 days in the direction of general super-rotation of the atmosphere. The linear wind speeds are 35–50 m/s near their outer edges and zero at the poles. The temperature at the cloud-tops in the polar vortexes are much higher than in the nearby polar collars reaching 250 K (−23 °C). The conventional interpretation of the polar vortexes is that they are

text: anticyclone

text: s with downwelling in the centre and upwelling in the cold polar collars. This type of circulation resembles the winter polar anticyclonic vortexes on Earth, especially the one found over

text: Antarctica

text: . The observations in the various

text: infrared

text: atmospheric windows indicate that the

text: anticyclonic

text: circulation observed near the poles may penetrate as deep as to 50 km altitude, i.e. to the base of the clouds. The polar upper troposphere and mesosphere are extremely dynamic; large bright clouds may appear and disappear over the space of a few hours. One such event was observed by

text: Venus Express

text: between 9 and 13 January 2007, when the south polar region became brighter by 30%. This event was probably caused by an injection of

text: sulfur dioxide

text: into the mesosphere, which then condensed forming a bright haze. The two eyes in the vortexes have yet to be explained.

text: On April 19, 2016, Mesosphere open sourced the Datacenter Operating System. At the launch, Autodesk announced that they were able to reduce running AWS instances by 66% using DC/OS.

text: A short period of hot weather can increase temperatures in the surface layer of water, as the warmer water tends to stay near the surface and be further heated by the air.  In this case, the top warmer layer may have more oxygen than the lower, cooler layers because it has constant access to atmospheric oxygen. If a heavy wind or cold rain then occurs (usually during the autumn but sometimes in summer), the layers can mix.  If the volume of low oxygen water is much greater than the volume in the warm surface layer, this mixing can reduce oxygen levels throughout the water column and lead to fish kill.

text: A short period of hot weather can increase temperatures in the surface layer of water, as the warmer water tends to stay near the surface and be further heated by the air.  In this case, the top warmer layer may have more oxygen than the lower, cooler layers because it has constant access to atmospheric oxygen. If a heavy wind or cold rain then occurs (usually during the autumn but sometimes in summer), the

text: layers can mix

text: .  If the volume of low oxygen water is much greater than the volume in the warm surface layer, this mixing can reduce oxygen levels throughout the

text: water column

text: and lead to fish kill.

text: Sprengelmeyer approached the album making process "as a painting and building up layers and atmosphere". Unlike her previous efforts, Sprengelmeyer also increased her involvement on the technical side of the recording process, learning how to engineer her record.

text: In weather forecasting, decoupling is boundary-layer decoupling of atmospheric layers over land at night.  During the day when the sun shines and warms the land, air at the surface of the earth is heated and rises.  This rising air mixes the atmosphere near the earth.   At night this process stops and air near the surface cools as the land loses heat by radiating in the infrared.  If winds are light, air near the surface of the earth can become much colder, compared to the air above it, than if more mixing of air layers occurred.

text: In

text: weather forecasting

text: , decoupling is boundary-layer decoupling of atmospheric layers over land at night.  During the day when the sun shines and warms the land, air at the surface of the earth is heated and rises.  This rising air mixes the atmosphere near the earth.   At night this process stops and air near the surface cools as the land loses heat by radiating in the

text: infrared

text: .  If winds are light, air near the surface of the earth can become much colder, compared to the air above it, than if more mixing of air layers occurred.

text: The Novaya Zemlya effect is a polar mirage caused by high refraction of sunlight between atmospheric thermoclines. The Novaya Zemlya effect will give the impression that the sun is rising earlier than it actually should (astronomically speaking), and depending on the meteorological situation, the effect will present the sun as a line or a square (which is sometimes referred to as the "rectangular sun"), made up of flattened hourglass shapes. The mirage requires rays of sunlight to have an inversion layer for hundreds of kilometres (at least 400 km), and depends on the inversion layer's temperature gradient. The sunlight must bend to the Earth's curvature at least 400 km to allow an elevation rise of 5 degrees for sight of the sun disk.

text: The Novaya Zemlya effect is a

text: polar

text: mirage

text: caused by high

text: refraction

text: of

text: sunlight

text: between atmospheric

text: thermocline

text: s. The Novaya Zemlya effect will give the impression that the

text: sun is rising

text: earlier than it actually should (astronomically speaking), and depending on the

text: meteorological

text: situation, the effect will present the sun as a line or a square (which is sometimes referred to as the "rectangular sun"), made up of flattened hourglass shapes. The mirage requires rays of sunlight to have an

text: inversion layer

text: for hundreds of kilometres (at least 400 km), and depends on the inversion layer's

text: temperature gradient

text: . The sunlight must bend to the Earth's curvature at least 400 km to allow an elevation rise of 5 degrees for sight of the sun disk.

text: He developed, with Prof J Troe, easily used approximate solutions for the pressure dependence of the rate coefficient. He provided the first solutions for cases where angular momentum conservation needs to be incorporated. His methods are used by experimentalists to fit data and extrapolate to different pressure regimes, supplanting previous tools which were of dubious validity and accuracy. His coworkers and he obtained data on the collisional energy transfer process and used them to prove the conjecture that each collision involves only a small exchange of energy. He then developed the first rigorous means to calculate these quantities from basic theory, and the first physical model for the process. His work is widely used, both for basic understanding of the transition states and by atmospheric and combustion modellers. Predicting climate change and effects on the ozone layer rely critically on this modelling.

text: He developed, with Prof J Troe, easily used approximate solutions for the pressure dependence of the rate coefficient. He provided the first solutions for cases where angular momentum conservation needs to be incorporated. His methods are used by experimentalists to fit data and extrapolate to different pressure regimes, supplanting previous tools which were of dubious validity and accuracy. His coworkers and he obtained data on the collisional energy transfer process and used them to prove the conjecture that each collision involves only a small exchange of energy. He then developed the first rigorous means to calculate these quantities from basic theory, and the first physical model for the process. His work is widely used, both for basic understanding of the transition states and by atmospheric and combustion modellers. Predicting

text: climate change

text: and effects on the

text: ozone layer

text: rely critically on this modelling.

text: Moderate to large cumuliform and cumulonimbiform heaps and deep stratiform layers that occupy more than one altitude range are usually classified as vertical or multi-étage. Nimbostratus clouds are stratiform layers with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation. Large cumulus, and cumulonimbus may form anywhere from near the surface to intermediate heights of around 3 kilometres. Of the vertically developed clouds, the cumulonimbus type is the tallest and can virtually span the entire troposphere from a few hundred metres above the ground up to the tropopause. It is the cloud responsible for thunderstorms.

text: Moderate to large cumuliform and cumulonimbiform heaps and deep stratiform layers that occupy more than one altitude range are usually classified as vertical or multi-étage.

text: Nimbostratus

text: clouds are stratiform layers with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation. Large cumulus, and

text: cumulonimbus

text: may form anywhere from near the surface to intermediate heights of around 3 kilometres. Of the vertically developed clouds, the cumulonimbus type is the tallest and can virtually span the entire troposphere from a few hundred metres above the ground up to the tropopause. It is the cloud responsible for thunderstorms.

text: The balloons are maneuvered by adjusting their altitude in the stratosphere to float to a wind layer after identifying the wind layer with the desired speed and direction using wind data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Users of the service connect to the balloon network using a special Internet antenna attached to their building. The signal travels through the balloon network from balloon to balloon, then to a ground-based station connected to an Internet service provider (ISP), then onto the global Internet. The system aims to bring Internet access to remote and rural areas poorly served by existing provisions, and to improve communication during natural disasters to affected regions. Key people involved in the project include Rich DeVaul, chief technical architect, who is also an expert on wearable technology; Mike Cassidy, a project leader; and Cyrus Behroozi, a networking and telecommunication lead.

text: The balloons are maneuvered by adjusting their altitude in the

text: stratosphere

text: to float to a wind layer after identifying the wind layer with the desired speed and direction using wind data from the

text: (NOAA). Users of the service connect to the balloon network using a special Internet antenna attached to their building. The signal travels through the balloon network from balloon to balloon, then to a ground-based station connected to an

text: Internet service provider

text: (ISP), then onto the global Internet. The system aims to bring Internet access to remote and rural areas poorly served by existing provisions, and to improve communication during

text: natural disaster

text: s to affected regions. Key people involved in the project include Rich DeVaul, chief technical architect, who is also an expert on

text: wearable technology

text: Mike Cassidy

text: , a project leader; and Cyrus Behroozi, a networking and telecommunication lead.

text: The Reading Intermediate General Circulation Model (IGCM), is a simplified or "intermediate" Global climate model, which is developed by members of the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading, and by members of the Stratospheric Dynamics and Chemistry Group of the Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences at McGill University.

text: The Reading Intermediate General Circulation Model (IGCM), is a simplified or "intermediate"

text: Global climate model

text: , which is developed by members of the Department of Meteorology at the

text: University of Reading

text: , and by members of the Stratospheric Dynamics and Chemistry Group of the

text: Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences

text: at

text: McGill University

text: A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile (warm air rising into cooler air) and the layer above that is an inversion layer (cooler air below warm air).  Cloud formation from the lower layer is "capped" by the inversion layer.  If the capping inversion layer or "cap" is too strong (too close to the surface), it will prevent thunderstorms from developing.  A strong cap can result in foggy conditions.

text: A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile (warm air rising into cooler air) and the layer above that is an inversion layer (cooler air below warm air).  Cloud formation from the lower layer is "capped" by the inversion layer.  If the capping inversion layer or "cap" is too strong (too close to the surface), it will prevent thunderstorms from developing.  A strong cap can result in

text: fog

text: gy conditions.

text: The orbits of spacecraft in low Earth orbit (LEO) decay to lower and lower altitudes due to the resistance from the friction between the spacecraft's surface (i.e. , drag) and the outer layer of the Earth's atmosphere (a.k.a. the thermosphere and exosphere). Eventually, a LEO spacecraft falls out of orbit and towards the Earth's surface. Many spacecraft launched in the past couple of decades have the ability to fire a small rocket to manage their orbits. The rocket can increase altitude to extend lifetime, to direct the reentry towards a particular (marine) site, or route the satellite to avoid collision with other spacecraft. Such maneuvers require precise information about the orbit. A geomagnetic storm can cause an orbit change over a couple of days that otherwise would occur over a year or more. The geomagnetic storm adds heat to the thermosphere, causing the thermosphere to expand and rise, increasing the drag on spacecraft. The 2009 satellite collision between the Iridium 33 and Cosmos 2251 demonstrated the importance of having precise knowledge of all objects in orbit. Iridium 33 had the capability to maneuver out of the path of Cosmos 2251 and could have evaded the crash, if a credible collision prediction had been available,

text: The orbits of spacecraft in

text: low Earth orbit

text: (LEO) decay to lower and lower altitudes due to the resistance from the friction between the spacecraft's surface (i.e. , drag) and the outer layer of the Earth's atmosphere (a.k.a. the

text: thermosphere

text: and

text: exosphere

text: ). Eventually, a LEO spacecraft falls out of orbit and towards the Earth's surface. Many spacecraft launched in the past couple of decades have the ability to fire a small rocket to manage their orbits. The rocket can increase altitude to extend lifetime, to direct the reentry towards a particular (marine) site, or route the satellite to avoid collision with other spacecraft. Such maneuvers require precise information about the orbit. A

text: geomagnetic storm

text: can cause an orbit change over a couple of days that otherwise would occur over a year or more. The

text: geomagnetic storm

text: adds heat to the thermosphere, causing the thermosphere to expand and rise, increasing the drag on spacecraft. The

text: 2009 satellite collision

text: between the Iridium 33 and Cosmos 2251 demonstrated the importance of having precise knowledge of all objects in orbit. Iridium 33 had the capability to maneuver out of the path of Cosmos 2251 and could have evaded the crash, if a credible collision prediction had been available,

text: The formation of the ozone layer is also caused by photodissociation. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen).  The atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O to create ozone, O. In addition, photolysis is the process by which CFCs are broken down in the upper atmosphere to form ozone-destroying chlorine free radicals.

text: The formation of the

text: ozone layer

text: is also caused by photodissociation. Ozone in the Earth's

text: stratosphere

text: is created by ultraviolet light striking oxygen molecules containing two oxygen

text: atom

text: s (O), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen).  The atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O to create

text: ozone

text: , O. In addition, photolysis is the process by which

text: CFC

text: s are broken down in the upper atmosphere to form ozone-destroying chlorine

text: free radicals

text: The mesosphere of Venus can be divided into two layers: the lower one between 62–73 km and the upper one between 73–95 km. In the first layer the temperature is nearly constant at 230 K (−43 °C). This layer coincides with the upper cloud deck. In the second layer temperature starts to decrease again reaching about 165 K (−108 °C) at the altitude of 95 km, where mesopause begins. It is the coldest part of the Venusian dayside atmosphere. In the dayside mesopause, which serves as a boundary between the mesophere and thermosphere and is located between 95–120 km, temperature increases to a constant—about 300–400 K (27–127 °C)—value prevalent in the thermosphere. In contrast, the nightside Venusian thermosphere is the coldest place on Venus with temperature as low as 100 K (−173 °C). It is even called a cryosphere.

text: The mesosphere of Venus can be divided into two layers: the lower one between 62–73 km and the upper one between 73–95 km. In the first layer the temperature is nearly constant at 230 K (−43 °C). This layer coincides with the upper cloud deck. In the second layer temperature starts to decrease again reaching about 165 K (−108 °C) at the altitude of 95 km, where

text: mesopause

text: begins. It is the coldest part of the Venusian dayside atmosphere. In the dayside mesopause, which serves as a boundary between the mesophere and thermosphere and is located between 95–120 km, temperature increases to a constant—about 300–400 K (27–127 °C)—value prevalent in the thermosphere. In contrast, the nightside Venusian thermosphere is the coldest place on Venus with temperature as low as 100 K (−173 °C). It is even called a cryosphere.

text: The atmospheric component of the CM2.X models employs a 24-level atmosphere with horizontal resolution of 2 degrees in the east-west and 2.5 degrees in the north-south directions. This resolution is sufficient to resolve the large mid-latitude cyclones responsible for weather variability. It is too coarse, however, to resolve processes such as hurricanes or intense thunderstorm outbreaks. The atmosphere includes a representation of radiative fluxes, mixing in the atmospheric boundary layer, representations of the impacts of stratus and cumulus clouds, a scheme for representing drag on upper level winds caused by gravity waves, changes in the spatial distribution of ozone and the ability to represent the impact of multiple greenhouse gases.

text: The atmospheric component of the CM2.X models employs a 24-level atmosphere with horizontal resolution of 2 degrees in the east-west and 2.5 degrees in the north-south directions. This resolution is sufficient to resolve the large mid-latitude cyclones responsible for weather variability. It is too coarse, however, to resolve processes such as hurricanes or intense thunderstorm outbreaks. The atmosphere includes a representation of radiative fluxes, mixing in the atmospheric boundary layer, representations of the impacts of

text: stratus

text: and

text: cumulus

text: clouds, a scheme for representing drag on upper level winds caused by

text: gravity wave

text: s, changes in the spatial distribution of ozone and the ability to represent the impact of multiple greenhouse gases.

text: thermal fade -thermosphere -Time signal -total electron content -troposphere -Tropospheric propagation-tropospheric scatter -tropospheric wave -TV and FM DX -

text: thermal fade

text: thermosphere

text: Time signal

text: total electron content

text: troposphere

text: Tropospheric propagation

text: tropospheric scatter

text: tropospheric wave

text: TV and FM DX

text: The electrical conductivity of the atmosphere increases exponentially with altitude. The amplitudes of the electric and magnetic components depend on season, latitude, and height above the sea level. The greater the altitude the more atmospheric electricity abounds. The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere and is estimated to be 500 km to 1000 km above the Earth's surface, and its upper boundary at about 10,000 km. The thermosphere (upper atmosphere) is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and directly below the exosphere. Within this layer, ultraviolet radiation causes ionization. Theories that have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of the polar aurora, but it has been demonstrated by experiments that it is due to positive charge passing from the higher regions of the atmosphere to the earth.

text: The

text: electrical conductivity

text: of the atmosphere increases exponentially with

text: altitude

text: . The amplitudes of the electric and magnetic components depend on season,

text: latitude

text: , and height above the sea level. The greater the altitude the more atmospheric electricity abounds. The

text: exosphere

text: is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere and is estimated to be 500 km to 1000 km above the Earth's surface, and its upper boundary at about 10,000 km. The

text: thermosphere

text: upper atmosphere

text: ) is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and directly below the exosphere. Within this layer, ultraviolet radiation causes ionization. Theories that have been proposed to explain the phenomenon of the

text: polar aurora

text: , but it has been demonstrated by

text: experiment

text: s that it is due to

text: positive charge

text: passing from the higher regions of the atmosphere to the earth.

text: Ozone  (systematically named 1λ,3λ-trioxidane and catena-trioxygen), or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula . It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope , breaking down in the lower atmosphere to normal dioxygen. Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet light and also atmospheric electrical discharges, and is present in low concentrations throughout the Earth's atmosphere (stratosphere). In total, ozone makes up only  of the atmosphere.

text: Ozone  (systematically named 1λ,3λ-trioxidane and catena-trioxygen), or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the

text: chemical formula

text: . It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. It is an

text: allotrope

text: of

text: oxygen

text: that is much less stable than the

text: diatomic

text: allotrope , breaking down in the lower atmosphere to normal

text: dioxygen

text: . Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of

text: ultraviolet

text: light and also atmospheric electrical discharges, and is present in low concentrations throughout the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: (stratosphere). In total, ozone makes up only  of the atmosphere.

text: The haloalkanes (also known, as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of chemical compounds derived from alkanes containing one or more halogens. They are a subset of the general class of halocarbons, although the distinction is not often made. Haloalkanes are widely used commercially and, consequently, are known under many chemical and commercial names. They are used as flame retardants, fire extinguishants, refrigerants, propellants, solvents, and pharmaceuticals. Subsequent to the widespread use in commerce, many halocarbons have also been shown to be serious pollutants and toxins. For example, the chlorofluorocarbons have been shown to lead to ozone depletion. Methyl bromide is a controversial fumigant. Only haloalkanes which contain chlorine, bromine, and iodine are a threat to the ozone layer, but fluorinated volatile haloalkanes in theory may have activity as greenhouse gases. Methyl iodide, a naturally occurring substance, however, does not have ozone-depleting properties and the United States Environmental Protection Agency has designated the compound a non-ozone layer depleter. For more information, see Halomethane. Haloalkane or alkyl halides are the compounds which have the general formula "RX" where R is an alkyl or substituted alkyl group and X is a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I).

text: The haloalkanes (also known, as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides) are a group of

text: chemical compound

text: s derived from

text: alkane

text: s containing one or more

text: halogen

text: s. They are a subset of the general class of

text: halocarbon

text: s, although the distinction is not often made. Haloalkanes are widely used commercially and, consequently, are known under many chemical and commercial names. They are used as

text: flame retardants

text: fire extinguishants

text: refrigerant

text: s,

text: propellant

text: s,

text: solvent

text: s, and

text: pharmaceutical

text: s. Subsequent to the widespread use in commerce, many halocarbons have also been shown to be serious

text: pollutant

text: s and toxins. For example, the

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s have been shown to lead to

text: ozone depletion

text: Methyl bromide

text: is a controversial fumigant. Only haloalkanes which contain chlorine, bromine, and iodine are a threat to the

text: ozone layer

text: , but fluorinated volatile haloalkanes in theory may have activity as

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.

text: Methyl iodide

text: , a naturally occurring substance, however, does not have ozone-depleting properties and the United States Environmental Protection Agency has designated the compound a non-ozone layer depleter. For more information, see

text: Halomethane

text: . Haloalkane or alkyl halides are the compounds which have the general formula "RX" where R is an alkyl or substituted alkyl group and X is a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I).

text: Working at NOAA's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, first in Washington, DC and later in Princeton, New Jersey, Manabe worked with director Joseph Smagorinsky to develop three-dimensional models of the atmosphere. As the first step, Manabe and Wetherald (1967) developed one-dimensional, single-column model of the atmosphere in radiative-convective equilibrium with positive feedback effect of water vapor. Using the model, they found that, in response to the change in atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, temperature increases at the Earth's surface and in the troposphere, whereas it decreases in the stratosphere. Manabe also played a critical role in the development of comprehensive general circulation model (Manabe et al. 1965). They used the model to simulate for the first time the three-dimensional response of temperature and the hydrologic cycle to increased carbon dioxide(Manabe and Wetherald, 1975). In 1969 Manabe and Kirk Bryan published the first simulations of the climate by a coupled ocean-atmosphere models, exploring the role of oceanic heat transport in determining the global distribution of climate. Throughout the 1990s early 2000s, Manabe's research group published seminal papers using the coupled models to investigate the time-dependent response of climate to changing greenhouse gas concentrations of the atmosphere (Stouffer et al.,1989; Manabe et al., 1991 & 1992). They also applied the model to the study of past climate change, including the role of freshwater input to the North Atlantic Ocean as a potential cause of the so-called, abrupt climate change evident in the paleoclimatic record (Manabe and Stouffer,1995 & 2000).

text: Working at

text: NOAA

text: 's

text: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory

text: , first in

text: Washington, DC

text: and later in

text: Princeton, New Jersey

text: , Manabe worked with director

text: Joseph Smagorinsky

text: to develop

text: three-dimensional

text: models

text: of the

text: atmosphere

text: . As the first step, Manabe and Wetherald (1967) developed one-dimensional, single-column model of the atmosphere in radiative-convective equilibrium with positive feedback effect of water vapor. Using the model, they found that, in response to the change in atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, temperature increases at the Earth's surface and in the troposphere, whereas it decreases in the stratosphere. Manabe also played a critical role in the development of comprehensive general circulation model (Manabe et al. 1965). They used the model to simulate for the first time the three-dimensional response of temperature and the hydrologic cycle to increased carbon dioxide(Manabe and Wetherald, 1975). In 1969 Manabe and Kirk Bryan published the first simulations of the climate by a coupled ocean-atmosphere models, exploring the role of oceanic heat transport in determining the global distribution of climate. Throughout the 1990s early 2000s, Manabe's research group published seminal papers using the coupled models to investigate the time-dependent response of

text: climate

text: to changing

text: greenhouse gas

text: concentrations of the atmosphere (Stouffer et al.,1989; Manabe et al., 1991 & 1992). They also applied the model to the study of past climate change, including the role of freshwater input to the North Atlantic Ocean as a potential cause of the so-called, abrupt climate change evident in the paleoclimatic record (Manabe and Stouffer,1995 & 2000).

text: Inspired by the Diviner and the Rel, the Northern being that crossed from the Northern to the Southern Hemisphere in Midnight at the Well of Souls, several competing factions have discovered that the Northern beings inhabiting the hex of Yugash can "possess" a Southerner and allow him to pass into Yugash. In Exiles at the Well of Souls, two ships were crash-landed on the Well World. The first landed in the South, and was destroyed at the end of the war in Exiles. The second landed in the north, and now the factions that fought the war in Exiles are girding for a race to the second ship.

text: Inspired by the Diviner and the Rel, the Northern being that crossed from the Northern to the Southern Hemisphere in

text: Midnight at the Well of Souls

text: , several competing factions have discovered that the Northern beings inhabiting the hex of Yugash can "possess" a Southerner and allow him to pass into Yugash. In Exiles at the Well of Souls, two ships were crash-landed on the Well World. The first landed in the South, and was destroyed at the end of the war in Exiles. The second landed in the north, and now the factions that fought the war in Exiles are girding for a race to the second ship.

text: Polar meteorology'晚安Surface temperature inversion is typical of polar environments and leads to the katabatic wind phenomenon. The vertical temperature structure of polar environments tends to be more complex than in mid-latitude or tropical climates.

text: Polar

text: meteorology

text: '晚安Surface

text: temperature inversion

text: is typical of polar environments and leads to the

text: katabatic wind

text: phenomenon. The vertical temperature structure of polar environments tends to be more complex than in mid-latitude or

text: tropical

text: climates.

text: After reaching the tropopause, the bottom of the region of strong static stability, the cloud tends to slow its ascent and spread out. If it contains sufficient energy, the central part of it may continue rising up into the stratosphere as an analog of a standard thunderstorm. A mass of air ascending from the troposphere to the stratosphere leads to the formation of acoustic gravity waves, virtually identical to those created by intense stratosphere-penetrating thunderstorms. Smaller-scale explosions penetrating the tropopause generate waves of higher frequency, classified as infrasound.

text: After reaching the

text: tropopause

text: , the bottom of the region of strong static stability, the cloud tends to slow its ascent and spread out. If it contains sufficient energy, the central part of it may continue rising up into the

text: stratosphere

text: as an analog of a standard thunderstorm. A mass of air ascending from the troposphere to the stratosphere leads to the formation of acoustic

text: gravity wave

text: s, virtually identical to those created by intense stratosphere-penetrating

text: thunderstorm

text: s. Smaller-scale explosions penetrating the tropopause generate waves of higher frequency, classified as

text: infrasound

text: "The Thermosphere Murders" is about two American astronauts' murder cases and the abnormal explosion of a Russian spacecraft returning from the imaginary space station - "USS / The Universal Space Station".

text: Gallium reacts with the chalcogens only at relatively high temperatures. At room temperature, gallium metal is not reactive with air and water because it forms a passive, protective oxide layer.  At higher temperatures, however, it reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form gallium(III) oxide, . Reducing  with elemental gallium in vacuum at 500 °C to 700 °C yields the dark brown gallium(I) oxide, .  is a very strong reducing agent, capable of reducing  to .  It disproportionates at 800 °C back to gallium and .

text: Gallium reacts with the

text: chalcogen

text: s only at relatively high temperatures. At room temperature, gallium metal is not reactive with air and water because it forms a

text: passive

text: , protective

text: oxide

text: layer.  At higher temperatures, however, it reacts with atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: to form

text: gallium(III) oxide

text: , . Reducing  with elemental gallium in vacuum at 500 °C to 700 °C yields the dark brown

text: gallium(I) oxide

text: , .  is a very strong

text: reducing agent

text: , capable of reducing

text: to

text: .  It disproportionates at 800 °C back to gallium and .

text: Stratospheric sulfur aerosols are sulfur-rich particles which exist in the stratosphere region of the Earth's atmosphere.  The layer of the atmosphere in which they exist is known as the Junge layer, or simply the stratospheric aerosol layer.  These particles consist of a mixture of sulfuric acid and water.  They are created naturally, such as by photochemical decomposition of sulfur-containing gases, e.g. carbonyl sulfide.  When present in high levels, e.g. after a strong volcanic eruption such as Mount Pinatubo, they produce a cooling effect, by reflecting sunlight, and by modifying clouds as they fall out of the stratosphere.  This cooling may persist for a few years before the particles fall out.

text: Stratospheric sulfur aerosols are

text: sulfur

text: -rich

text: particles

text: which exist in the

text: stratosphere

text: region of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: .  The layer of the atmosphere in which they exist is known as the Junge layer, or simply the stratospheric aerosol layer.  These particles consist of a mixture of

text: sulfuric acid

text: and water.  They are created naturally, such as by

text: photochemical

text: decomposition of sulfur-containing gases, e.g.

text: carbonyl sulfide

text: .  When present in high levels, e.g. after a strong volcanic eruption such as

text: Mount Pinatubo

text: , they produce a cooling effect, by reflecting sunlight, and by modifying clouds as they fall out of the stratosphere.  This cooling may persist for a few years before the particles fall out.

text: Despite their effectiveness, chemical fire extinguishing agents are not without disadvantages. In the early 20th century, carbon tetrachloride was extensively used as a dry cleaning solvent, a refrigerant and as a fire extinguishing agent. In time, it was found carbon tetrachloride could lead to severe health effects. From the mid-1960s Halon 1301 was the industry standard for protecting high-value assets from the threat of fire.  Halon 1301 had many benefits as a fire suppression agent; it is fast-acting, safe for assets and required minimal storage space.  Halon 1301's major drawbacks are that it depletes atmospheric ozone and is potentially harmful to humans. Since 1987, some 191 nations have signed The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.  Among these were halogenated hydrocarbons often used in fire suppression. As a result, manufacturers have focused on alternatives to Halon 1301 and Halon 1211 (halogenated hydrocarbons). A number of countries have also taken steps to mandate the removal of installed Halon systems.  Most notably these include Germany and Australia, the first two countries in the world to require this action.  In both of these countries complete removal of installed Halon systems has been completed except for a very few essential-use applications. The European Union is currently undergoing a similar mandated removal of installed Halon systems.

text: Despite their effectiveness, chemical fire extinguishing agents are not without disadvantages. In the early 20th century,

text: carbon tetrachloride

text: was extensively used as a dry cleaning solvent, a refrigerant and as a fire extinguishing agent. In time, it was found carbon tetrachloride could lead to severe health effects. From the mid-1960s

text: Halon 1301

text: was the industry standard for protecting high-value assets from the threat of fire.  Halon 1301 had many benefits as a fire suppression agent; it is fast-acting, safe for assets and required minimal storage space.  Halon 1301's major drawbacks are that it depletes atmospheric

text: ozone

text: and is potentially harmful to humans. Since 1987, some 191 nations have signed The

text: Montreal Protocol

text: on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.  Among these were

text: halogenated hydrocarbons

text: often used in fire suppression. As a result, manufacturers have focused on alternatives to Halon 1301 and Halon 1211 (halogenated hydrocarbons). A number of countries have also taken steps to mandate the removal of installed Halon systems.  Most notably these include Germany and Australia, the first two countries in the world to require this action.  In both of these countries complete removal of installed Halon systems has been completed except for a very few essential-use applications. The

text: European Union

text: is currently undergoing a similar mandated removal of installed Halon systems.

text: A marine layer is an air mass which develops over the surface of a large body of water such as the ocean or large lake in the presence of a temperature inversion.  The inversion itself is usually initiated by the cooling effect of the water on the surface layer of an otherwise warm air mass.  As it cools, the surface air becomes denser than the warmer air above it, and thus becomes trapped below it.  The layer may thicken through turbulence generated within the developing marine layer itself.  It may also thicken if the warmer air above it is lifted by an approaching area of low pressure.  The layer will also gradually increase its humidity by evaporation of the ocean or lake surface, as well as by the effect of cooling itself.    Fog will form within a marine layer where the humidity is high enough and cooling sufficient to produce condensation. Stratus and stratocumulus will also form at the top of a marine layer in the presence of the same conditions there.

text: A marine layer is an air mass which develops over the surface of a large body of water such as the ocean or large lake in the presence of a

text: temperature inversion

text: .  The inversion itself is usually initiated by the cooling effect of the water on the surface layer of an otherwise warm air mass.  As it cools, the surface air becomes denser than the warmer air above it, and thus becomes trapped below it.  The layer may thicken through turbulence generated within the developing marine layer itself.  It may also thicken if the warmer air above it is lifted by an approaching area of low pressure.  The layer will also gradually increase its

text: humidity

text: by evaporation of the ocean or lake surface, as well as by the effect of cooling itself.

text: Fog

text: will form within a marine layer where the humidity is high enough and cooling sufficient to produce condensation.

text: Stratus

text: and

text: stratocumulus

text: will also form at the top of a marine layer in the presence of the same conditions there.

text: The nickel and barium oxides are also chemically reactive, with tendency to slowly form a layer of hydroxides and carbonates in contact with atmospheric moisture and carbon dioxide.

text: The nickel and barium oxides are also chemically reactive, with tendency to slowly form a layer of

text: hydroxide

text: s and

text: carbonate

text: s in contact with atmospheric moisture and carbon dioxide.

text: Microbaroms that propagate up to the lower thermosphere may be carried in an atmospheric waveguide,refracted back toward the surface from below 120 km and above 150 km altitudes,or dissipated at altitudes between 110 and 140 km.They may also be trapped near the surface in the lower troposphere by planetary boundary layer effects and surface winds, or they may by ducted in the stratosphere by upper level winds and returned to the surface through refraction, diffraction or scattering.These tropospheric and stratospheric ducts are only generated along the dominant wind directions,may vary by time of day and season,and will not return the sound rays to the ground when the upper winds are light.

text: Microbaroms that propagate up to the lower

text: thermosphere

text: may be carried in an

text: atmospheric waveguide

text: refracted

text: back toward the surface from below 120 km and above 150 km altitudes,or

text: dissipated

text: at altitudes between 110 and 140 km.They may also be trapped near the surface in the lower

text: troposphere

text: by

text: planetary boundary layer

text: effects and surface winds, or they may by ducted in the stratosphere by upper level winds and returned to the surface through refraction,

text: diffraction

text: or

text: scattering

text: .These tropospheric and stratospheric ducts are only generated along the dominant wind directions,may vary by time of day and season,and will not return the sound rays to the ground when the upper winds are light.

text: When light passes through Earth's atmosphere, photons interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an overcast day when you cannot see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why sunsets are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.

text: When light passes through Earth's atmosphere,

text: photon

text: s interact with it through scattering. If the light does not interact with the atmosphere, it is called direct radiation and is what you see if you were to look directly at the Sun. Indirect radiation is light that has been scattered in the atmosphere. For example, on an

text: overcast

text: day when you cannot see your shadow there is no direct radiation reaching you, it has all been scattered. As another example, due to a phenomenon called

text: Rayleigh scattering

text: , shorter (blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is why the sky looks blue; you are seeing scattered blue light. This is also why

text: sunset

text: s are red. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.

text: The album is primarily guitar driven, but there are instrumental appearances of the banjo, sparse horn sections, and minimal use of keyboards layering the compositions; most are played by McManus, including the fiddle. The lyrics have been described as abstract, and at times metaphorical, and the music as fluid, atmospheric.

text: In April 1992, the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V - DLR) commenced a programme to develop an aircraft to carry out atmospheric, stratospheric and climatic research.  It chose Grob Aerospace to design and build an aircraft to meet these requirements, based both on its experience in use of composite material in aircraft structures together with its successful development of the Egrett surveillance aircraft, with the aircraft expected to be operational by 1996.

text: In April 1992, the

text: German Aerospace Center

text: (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V - DLR) commenced a programme to develop an aircraft to carry out

text: atmospheric

text: stratospheric

text: and

text: climatic

text: research.  It chose Grob Aerospace to design and build an aircraft to meet these requirements, based both on its experience in use of

text: composite material

text: in aircraft structures together with its successful development of the

text: Egrett

text: surveillance aircraft, with the aircraft expected to be operational by 1996.

text: In an ordinary, non-pressurized, cooking vessel, the boiling point of water is  at standard pressure; the temperature of food is limited by the boiling point of water because excess heat causes boiling water to vaporize into steam. In a sealed pressure cooker, the boiling point of water increases as the pressure rises, resulting in superheated water. At a pressure of 1 bar or ~15 psi (pounds per square inch) above the existing atmospheric pressure, water in a pressure cooker can reach a temperature of up to , depending on altitude.  The boiling temperature of water (and water-based liquids) is determined by the ambient atmospheric pressure. Pressure cookers always require liquid in order to cook food under pressure. At sea level, the boiling temperature of water is  and excess heat only increases the rate at which water evaporates into steam vapour; more heat does not increase the temperature of the water. At higher altitudes above sea level, the atmospheric pressure is lower and thus the boiling temperature of water is lower, because the lower atmospheric pressure pushing on the water makes it easier for the water molecules to escape the surface compared to higher atmospheric pressure. Inside a pressure cooker, once the water (liquid) is boiling and the steam is trapped, the pressure from the trapped steam increases and this pushes on the liquid, which increases its boiling temperature, because it becomes harder for the water molecules to escape from the surface as the pressure increases on it. The heat applied to the liquid by the heat source continues to create more steam pressure and the extra heat also raises the temperature of the liquid under this increased pressure. Both the liquid and steam are at the same temperature. Once the selected pressure level is reached, the pressure regulator on the lid indicates this and now the heat source can be lowered to maintain that pressure level and save energy, since extra heat will not increase the temperature of the liquid if the pressure is not allowed to rise—excess pressure will only escape as fast-flowing steam from the lid.

text: In an ordinary, non-pressurized, cooking vessel, the

text: boiling point

text: of water is  at

entity_name: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: standard pressure

text: ; the temperature of food is limited by the boiling point of water because excess heat causes boiling water to

text: vaporize

text: into

text: steam

text: . In a sealed pressure cooker, the boiling point of water increases as the pressure rises, resulting in

text: superheated water

text: . At a pressure of 1

text: bar

text: or ~15 psi (

text: pounds per square inch

text: ) above the existing

text: atmospheric pressure

text: , water in a pressure cooker can reach a temperature of up to , depending on altitude.  The

text: boiling temperature

text: Northern Light was built in 1898 at Seattle.  The vessel was assigned to routes on southern Puget Sound, including the Anderson Island run.  Northern Light was abandoned in 1920.  The engines were removed and installed in the sternwheeler Fidalgo.

text: Northern Light was built in 1898 at Seattle.  The vessel was assigned to routes on southern Puget Sound, including the

text: Anderson Island

text: run.  Northern Light was abandoned in 1920.  The engines were removed and installed in the sternwheeler

text: Fidalgo

text: Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.

text: Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the surface. This lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is

text: atmospheric circulation

text: that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy.

text: North light is natural light coming from the north (in the Northern Hemisphere). It consists of light which comes from the blue sky rather than directly from the sun.  It is preferred and considered ideal by architects. It is also preferred natural light by artists as well.North light has luminous efficacy /lm/W 48, Colour correlated temperature/K 6500 and colour rendering index/R is equal to 94.northern

text: North light is

text: natural light

text: coming from the

text: north

text: (in the Northern Hemisphere). It consists of light which comes from the blue sky rather than directly from the sun.  It is preferred and considered ideal by

text: architect

text: s. It is also preferred natural light by

text: artist

text: s as well.North light has luminous efficacy /lm/W 48, Colour correlated temperature/K 6500 and colour rendering index/R is equal to 94.northern

text: In Sierra de Pahuatlán y Tetela de Ocampo, this type of forest is dispersed as isolated spots and is formed, in the tree layer (over 15m high), by species like red ocote (pinus patula), Chinese ocote (pinus leiophylla), ocote (pinus montezumae), and broadleaf oak (quercus crassifolia). The middle layer (at 6m) is made up of species like cile (alnus jorullensis) and the strawberry tree (arbustus xalapensis). In the lower layer (at less than 1m), there is broom or tepopote (conferta baccharis) and Pteridium sp. The distribution of species in this type of forest varies from factors such as exposure, moisture, temperature, and wind. In the east/northeast, where the humidity and temperature are high, pinus patula predominates the top tier. In contrast, at lower altitude and with the same exposure, you can find Cornus disciflora, Garrya laurifolia, Mexican Clethra, and ferns in the lowest layer. In this exposition, where humidity is low and temperature is high, the Chinese ocote (leiophylla pinus) dominates.

text: In

text: Sierra de Pahuatlán

text: y

text: Tetela de Ocampo

text: , this type of forest is dispersed as isolated spots and is formed, in the tree layer (over 15m high), by species like red ocote (pinus patula), Chinese ocote (pinus leiophylla), ocote (pinus montezumae), and broadleaf oak (quercus crassifolia). The middle layer (at 6m) is made up of species like cile (alnus jorullensis) and the strawberry tree (arbustus xalapensis). In the lower layer (at less than 1m), there is broom or tepopote (conferta baccharis) and Pteridium sp. The distribution of species in this type of forest varies from factors such as exposure, moisture, temperature, and wind. In the east/northeast, where the humidity and temperature are high, pinus patula predominates the top tier. In contrast, at lower altitude and with the same exposure, you can find Cornus disciflora, Garrya laurifolia, Mexican Clethra, and ferns in the lowest layer. In this exposition, where humidity is low and temperature is high, the Chinese ocote (leiophylla pinus) dominates.

text: Back in 2024, Louise Marcus discovers that the ozone layer has in fact restored itself naturally, which means that the shield is no longer needed. The Shield Corporation is aware of this development, but has chosen to hide it from the general public in order to maintain its main source of profit. Meanwhile, on Zeist, Katana decides that MacLeod cannot be allowed to return, and sends his immortal henchmen, Corda and Reno, to kill him.

text: Carbonyl sulfide is the most abundant sulfur compound naturally present in the atmosphere, at , because it is emitted from oceans, volcanoes and deep sea vents.  As such, it is a significant compound in the global sulfur cycle.  Measurements on the Antarctica ice cores and from air trapped in snow above glaciers (firn air) have provided a detailed picture of OCS concentrations from 1640 to the present day and allow an understanding of the relative importance of anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic sources of this gas to the atmosphere.  Some carbonyl sulfide that is transported into the stratospheric sulfate layer is oxidized to sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid forms particulate which affects energy balance due to light scattering. The long atmospheric lifetime of COS makes it the major source of stratospheric sulfate, though sulfur dioxide from volcanic activity can be significant too. Carbonyl sulfide is also removed from the atmosphere by terrestrial vegetation by enzymes associated with the uptake of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, and by hydrolysis in ocean waters.  Loss processes, such as these, limit the persistence (or lifetime) of a molecule of COS in the atmosphere to a few years.

text: Carbonyl sulfide is the most abundant sulfur compound naturally present in the atmosphere, at , because it is emitted from oceans,

text: volcano

text: es and

text: deep sea vent

text: s.  As such, it is a significant compound in the global

text: sulfur cycle

text: .  Measurements on the

text: Antarctica

text: ice core

text: s and from air trapped in snow above glaciers (

text: firn

text: air) have provided a detailed picture of OCS concentrations from 1640 to the present day and allow an understanding of the relative importance of

text: anthropogenic

text: and non-anthropogenic sources of this gas to the atmosphere.  Some carbonyl sulfide that is transported into the

text: stratospheric sulfate layer

text: is oxidized to sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid forms particulate which affects

text: energy balance

text: due to

text: light scattering

text: . The long atmospheric lifetime of COS makes it the major source of stratospheric sulfate, though

text: sulfur dioxide

text: from volcanic activity can be significant too. Carbonyl sulfide is also removed from the atmosphere by terrestrial vegetation by enzymes associated with the uptake of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, and by hydrolysis in ocean waters.  Loss processes, such as these, limit the persistence (or lifetime) of a molecule of COS in the atmosphere to a few years.

text: The largest-amplitude atmospheric tides are mostly generated in the troposphere and stratosphere when the atmosphere is periodically heated, as water vapor and ozone absorb solar radiation during the day. These tides propagate away from the source regions and ascend into the mesosphere and thermosphere. Atmospheric tides can be measured as regular fluctuations in wind, temperature, density and pressure. Although atmospheric tides share much in common with ocean tides they have two key distinguishing features:

text: The largest-amplitude atmospheric tides are mostly generated in the

text: troposphere

text: and

text: stratosphere

text: when the

text: atmosphere

text: is periodically heated, as

text: water vapor

text: and

text: ozone

text: absorb

text: solar radiation

text: during the day. These tides propagate away from the source regions and ascend into the

text: mesosphere

text: and

text: thermosphere

text: . Atmospheric tides can be measured as regular fluctuations in

text: wind

text: temperature

text: density

text: and

text: pressure

text: . Although atmospheric tides share much in common with ocean tides they have two key distinguishing features:

text: The divide of the atmosphere of the northern hemisphere from the atmosphere of the southern hemisphere is different from that of the Intertropical Convergence Zone.

text: The divide of the

text: atmosphere

text: of the

text: northern hemisphere

text: from the atmosphere of the

text: southern hemisphere

text: is different from that of the

text: Intertropical Convergence Zone

text: The preface to Qieyun indicates that it represented a compromise between northern and southern reading pronunciations from the late Northern and Southern dynasties period.Most linguists now believe that no single dialect contained all the distinctions it recorded, but that each distinction did occur somewhere.The rime tables were compiled centuries later in the time of a new standard, and many of the distinctions in the Qieyun would have been meaningless to the compilers.Edwin Pulleyblank has argued that the tables contain enough evidence to reconstruct the speech of that later period, which he calls this language Late Middle Chinese in contrast to the Early Middle Chinese of the Qieyun, and argues that it was the standard speech of the imperial capital Chang'an in the late Tang dynasty.  His reconstruction accounts for most of the distinctions in modern varieties of Chinese (except Min), as well as layers of Chinese loanwords, such as the Kan-on layer of Sino-Japanese vocabulary.

text: The preface to Qieyun indicates that it represented a compromise between northern and southern reading pronunciations from the late

text: Northern and Southern dynasties

text: period.Most linguists now believe that no single dialect contained all the distinctions it recorded, but that each distinction did occur somewhere.The rime tables were compiled centuries later in the time of a new standard, and many of the distinctions in the Qieyun would have been meaningless to the compilers.

text: Edwin Pulleyblank

text: has argued that the tables contain enough evidence to reconstruct the speech of that later period, which he calls this language Late Middle Chinese in contrast to the Early Middle Chinese of the Qieyun, and argues that it was the standard speech of the imperial capital

text: Chang'an

text: in the late

text: Tang dynasty

text: .  His reconstruction accounts for most of the distinctions in modern varieties of Chinese (except

text: Min

text: ), as well as layers of Chinese loanwords, such as the

text: Kan-on

text: layer of

text: Sino-Japanese vocabulary

text: The mission revealed the composition and meteorological nature of Venus’ atmosphere. Data from the radio science experiment measured the extent to which radio waves passing through the atmosphere were refracted, which was used to calculate the density, pressure, and temperature of the atmosphere at any given altitude. Overall, atmospheric temperature is higher closer to the planet’s surface, but Mariner 10 found four altitudes where the pattern was reversed, which could signify the presence of a layer of clouds. The inversions occurred at the 56, 61, 63, and 81 km levels, confirming previous observations made by the Mariner 5 encounter. The ultraviolet spectrometers identified the chemical substances that comprise Venus’ atmosphere. Analysis of the atmosphere’s hydrogen showed the gas was depleted of deuterium, ruling out the possibility that Venus obtained the element from collisions with comets. Instead, scientists theorized the hydrogen was captured from the solar wind. The elevated concentration of atomic oxygen in the upper atmosphere showed that the atmosphere is stratified into upper and lower layers that do not mix with each other; photographs of the upper and lower cloud layers corroborated this hypothesis. Mariner 10’s ultraviolet photographs were an invaluable information source for studying the churning clouds of Venus’ atmosphere. The mission researchers believed the cloud features they photographed were located in the stratosphere and upper troposphere, created by condensation; they also concluded that the contrast between darker and lighter features was due to differences in the cloud’s absorptivity of UV light. The subsolar region was of particular interest: as the sun is straight overhead, it imparts more solar energy to this area than other part of the planet. Compared to the rest of the planet’s atmosphere, the subsolar region was highly active and irregular. "Cells" of air lifted by convection, each up to 500 km wide, were observed forming and dissipating within the span of a few hours; some had polygonal outlines.

text: The Maze is a 1953 atmospheric horror film in 3-D, starring Richard Carlson and Hillary Brooke. It was directed by William Cameron Menzies and distributed by Allied Artists Pictures. This was to be the second 3-D film designed and directed by William Cameron Menzies, who was known as a director with a very "dimensional" style (e.g. many shots are focused in layers). This was his final film as production designer and director.

text: The Maze is a 1953

text: atmospheric

text: horror film

text: in

text: , starring

text: Richard Carlson

text: and

text: Hillary Brooke

text: . It was directed by

text: William Cameron Menzies

text: and distributed by

text: Allied Artists Pictures

text: . This was to be the second 3-D film designed and directed by William Cameron Menzies, who was known as a director with a very "dimensional" style (e.g. many shots are focused in layers). This was his final film as production designer and director.

text: Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved , forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today. This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and, indirectly, the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O into O. The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C, in contrast to the current +15 °C, and life would likely not exist.

text: Earth's

text: biosphere

text: has significantly altered its

text: atmosphere

text: Oxygenic photosynthesis

text: evolved ,

text: forming

text: the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today. This change enabled the proliferation of

text: aerobic organisms

text: and, indirectly, the formation of the

text: ozone layer

text: due to the subsequent

text: conversion of atmospheric O into O

text: . The ozone layer blocks

text: ultraviolet

text: solar radiation

text: , permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small

text: meteor

text: s to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is known as the

text: greenhouse effect

text: : trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture

text: thermal energy

text: emitted from the ground, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide,

text: methane

text: , and

text: ozone

text: are the primary

text: greenhouse gas

text: es in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C, in contrast to the current +15 °C, and life would likely not exist.

text: Auroras - Constantly orbiting at 400 km (250 mi) above the earth, the ISS is perfectly situated to witness the beautiful streamers of green and red light emanating from the collision of highly charged solar wind particles with oxygen and nitrogen atoms in the earth's atmosphere. Centered about the northern (Aurora Borealis) and southern (Aurora Australis) poles the Auroras move in an almost hypnotic dance below the space station

text: Armand de Gramont who was a rich industrialist and friend of Marcel Proust, is the man who first initiated the will to create the Institut d'Optique. In 1916, Gramont and Henri Chrétien (a French astronomer) were working together at the French Technical Aeronautics Section. Chrétien was working at the time on calculations for optical instruments. They both decided to create the project of building an institute dedicated to teaching Optics. That same year, Gramont became part of a comity that examined inventions that could interest the ministry of Defense. That is where he met Charles Fabry, who had previously become famous thanks to his experimental demonstration of the existence of the Ozone layer in the atmosphere. On October 21, 1916 Gramont had lunch with four government ministers. As a result, a new committee was formed, in charge of establishing the project. During the month of November 1917, the  first board meeting was held.

text: Armand de Gramont who was a rich industrialist and friend of

text: Marcel Proust

text: , is the man who first initiated the will to create the Institut d'Optique. In 1916, Gramont and

text: Henri Chrétien

text: (a French astronomer) were working together at the French Technical Aeronautics Section. Chrétien was working at the time on calculations for optical instruments. They both decided to create the project of building an institute dedicated to teaching Optics. That same year, Gramont became part of a comity that examined inventions that could interest the ministry of Defense. That is where he met

text: Charles Fabry

text: , who had previously become famous thanks to his experimental demonstration of the existence of the Ozone layer in the atmosphere. On October 21, 1916 Gramont had lunch with four government ministers. As a result, a new committee was formed, in charge of establishing the project. During the month of November 1917, the  first board meeting was held.

text: Businger has been described as one of the first to recognize the scientific and practical importance of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) and worked on the development of the sonic anemometer.

text: Businger has been described as one of the first to recognize the scientific and practical importance of the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: (ABL) and worked on the development of the sonic

text: anemometer

text: Being exposed at the surface, it typically becomes turbulently mixed as a result of surface wind-mixing. It is also free to exchange dissolved gases such as O and CO with the atmosphere. Because this layer receives the most sunlight it contains the most phytoplankton. As they grow and reproduce they absorb nutrients from the water, when they die they sink into the hypolimnion resulting in the epilimnion becoming depleted of nutrients.

text: Being exposed at the surface, it typically becomes turbulently mixed as a result of surface wind-mixing. It is also free to exchange dissolved gases such as

text: O

text: and

text: CO

text: with the atmosphere. Because this layer receives the most sunlight it contains the most

text: phytoplankton

text: . As they grow and reproduce they absorb nutrients from the water, when they die they sink into the hypolimnion resulting in the epilimnion becoming depleted of nutrients.

text: Output directly from the NWP model's lowest layer(s) generally is not used by forecasters because the actual physical processes that occur within the Earth's boundary layer are crudely approximated in the model (i.e., physical parameterizations) along with its relatively coarse horizontal resolution. Because of this lack of fidelity and its imperfect initial state, forecasts of near-surface quantities obtained directly from the model are subject to systematic (bias) and random model errors, which tend to grow with time.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lorenz|first1=Edward N.|title=Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences|date=March 1963|volume=20|issue=2|pages=130–141|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1963)020

text: Output directly from the NWP model's lowest layer(s) generally is not used by forecasters because the actual physical processes that occur within the Earth's

text: boundary layer

text: are crudely approximated in the model (i.e.,

text: physical parameterizations

text: ) along with its relatively coarse horizontal resolution. Because of this lack of fidelity and its imperfect initial state, forecasts of near-surface quantities obtained directly from the model are subject to systematic (bias) and random model errors, which tend to grow with time.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lorenz|first1=Edward N.|title=Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow|journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences|date=March 1963|volume=20|issue=2|pages=130–141|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1963)020

text: Within the mesosphere, temperature decreases with increasing height, due to decreasing solar heating and increasing cooling by CO radiative emission. The top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause, is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere. Temperatures in the upper mesosphere fall as low as , varying according to latitude and season.

text: Within the mesosphere, temperature decreases with increasing

text: height

text: , due to decreasing solar heating and increasing cooling by CO radiative emission. The top of the mesosphere, called the

text: mesopause

text: , is the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere. Temperatures in the upper mesosphere fall as low as , varying according to

text: latitude

text: and

text: season

text: The atmosphere is divided into a number of sections depending on altitude. The densest part of the atmosphere, the troposphere, begins at the surface and extends upwards to 65 km. At the furnace-like surface the winds are slow, but at the top of the troposphere the temperature and pressure reaches Earth-like levels and clouds pick up speed to 100 m/s.

text: The atmosphere is divided into a number of sections depending on altitude. The densest part of the atmosphere, the

text: troposphere

text: , begins at the surface and extends upwards to 65 km. At the furnace-like surface the winds are slow, but at the top of the troposphere the temperature and pressure reaches Earth-like levels and clouds pick up speed to 100 m/s.

text: The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly  above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about .

text: The stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the

text: tropopause

text: . This layer extends from the top of the troposphere at roughly  above Earth's surface to the

text: stratopause

text: at an altitude of about .

text: The Ozone layers surrounding the Earth absorb significant amounts of ultraviolet radiation.  A 1976 report by the US Academy of Sciences supported the ozone "depletion hypothesis." Its suffering large losses from chlorinated and nitrogenous compounds was reported in 1985. Earlier studies had led some countries to enact bans on aerosol sprays, so that the Vienna Convention was signed in 1985 the Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 to go in force two years later.  The use of CFC's and HCFC's in refrigeration were and are among the banned technologies.  A German technological institute developed an ozone-safe hydrocarbon alternative refrigerant which came to a Greenpeace campaigner's attention in around 1992.  The rights to the technology were donated to Greenpeace, which maintained it as an open source patent.  With industry resistance, Greenpeace was able to rescue and engage a former East German manufacturer near closure.  Greenpeace's resourceful outreach and marketing resulted in the technologies rapid widespread production in Germany, followed by the banning of CFC technology.  They then succeeded in getting Greenfreeze used in China and elsewhere in Europe, and after some years in Japan and South America, and finally in the US by 2012.

text: Since 1979, microwave sounding units (MSUs) on NOAA polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen. The intensity is proportional to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere, as demonstrated by theory and direct comparisons with atmospheric temperatures from radiosonde (balloon) profiles. Upwelling radiance is measured at different frequencies; these different frequency bands sample a different weighted range of the atmosphere. Channel 2 is broadly representative of the troposphere, albeit with a significant overlap with the lower stratosphere (the weighting function has its maximum at 350 hPa and half-power at about 40 and 800 hPa). In an attempt to remove the stratospheric influence, Spencer and Christy developed the synthetic "2LT" product by subtracting signals at different view angles; this has a maximum at about 650 hPa. However this amplifies noise,<ref name="Christy1998">{{cite journal |last=Christy |first=John R. |authorlink= |author2=Spencer, Roy W. |author3=Lobl, Elena S.  |year=1998 |title=Analysis of the Merging Procedure for the MSU Daily Temperature Time Series |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=2016–2041 |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011

text: Since 1979,

text: microwave sounding unit

text: s (MSUs) on

text: NOAA

text: polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: . The intensity is proportional to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere, as demonstrated by theory and direct comparisons with atmospheric temperatures from radiosonde (balloon) profiles. Upwelling radiance is measured at different frequencies; these different frequency bands sample a different weighted range of the atmosphere. Channel 2 is broadly representative of the troposphere, albeit with a significant overlap with the lower stratosphere (the weighting function has its maximum at 350 hPa and half-power at about 40 and 800 hPa). In an attempt to remove the stratospheric influence, Spencer and Christy developed the synthetic "2LT" product by subtracting signals at different view angles; this has a maximum at about 650 hPa. However this amplifies noise,<ref name="Christy1998">{{cite journal |last=Christy |first=John R. |authorlink= |author2=Spencer, Roy W. |author3=Lobl, Elena S.  |year=1998 |title=Analysis of the Merging Procedure for the MSU Daily Temperature Time Series |journal=Journal of Climate |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=2016–2041 |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011

text: A typical core collapse supernova at the distance of Eta Carinae would peak at an apparent magnitude around −4, similar to Venus.  A hypernova could be five magnitudes brighter, potentially the brightest supernova in recorded history (currently SN 1006). At 7,500 light years from the star it is unlikely to directly affect terrestrial lifeforms, as they will be protected from gamma rays by the atmosphere and from some other cosmic rays by the magnetosphere. The main damage would be restricted to the upper atmosphere, the ozone layer, spacecraft, including satellites, and any astronauts in space. At least one paper has projected that complete loss of the Earth's ozone layer is a plausible consequence of a supernova, which would result in a significant increase in surface UV radiation reaching Earth's surface from the Sun. However this would require a typical supernova to be closer than 50 light-years from Earth, and even a potential hypernova would need to be closer than Eta Carinae.  Another analyses the impacts and also discusses more subtle effects from the unusual illumination, such as possible melatonin suppression with resulting insomnia and increased risk of cancer and depression.  It concludes that a supernova of this magnitude would have to be much closer than Eta Carinae to have any type of major impact on Earth.

text: A typical core collapse supernova at the distance of Eta Carinae would peak at an apparent magnitude around −4, similar to

text: Venus

text: .  A hypernova could be five magnitudes brighter, potentially the brightest supernova in recorded history (currently

text: SN 1006

text: ). At 7,500

text: light years

text: from the star it is unlikely to directly affect terrestrial lifeforms, as they will be protected from

text: gamma rays

text: by the atmosphere and from some other cosmic rays by the

text: magnetosphere

text: . The main damage would be restricted to the upper atmosphere, the

text: ozone layer

text: , spacecraft, including

text: satellites

text: , and any

text: astronauts

text: in space. At least one paper has projected that complete loss of the Earth's ozone layer is a plausible consequence of a supernova, which would result in a significant increase in surface UV radiation reaching Earth's surface from the Sun. However this would require a typical supernova to be closer than 50 light-years from Earth, and even a potential hypernova would need to be closer than Eta Carinae.  Another analyses the impacts and also discusses more subtle effects from the unusual illumination, such as possible

text: melatonin

text: suppression with resulting

text: insomnia

text: and increased risk of cancer and depression.  It concludes that a supernova of this magnitude would have to be much closer than Eta Carinae to have any type of major impact on Earth.

text: The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three main layers: the troposphere, between altitudes of −300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar; the stratosphere, spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures between  and the thermosphere/exosphere extending from 4000 km to as high as a few Uranus radii from the surface. There is no mesosphere.

text: troposphere

text: stratosphere

text: , spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures between  and the

text: thermosphere

text: exosphere

text: extending from 4000 km to as high as a few Uranus radii from the surface. There is no

text: mesosphere

text: Satellite observations allow the very coldest parts of the polar mesosphere to be observed, all the wayto the geographic pole. In the early 1970s, visible airglow photometers first scanned the atmospherichorizon throughout the summer polar mesospause region (Donahue et al., 1972). This experiment,which flew on the OGO-6 satellite, was the first to trace noctilucent-like cloud layers across the polarcap. The very bright scattering layer was seen in full daylight conditions, and was identified as thepoleward extension of noctilucent clouds. In the early 1980s, the layer was observed again from asatellite, the Solar Mesospheric Explorer (SME) . On board this satellite was an ultravioletspectrometer, which mapped the distributions of clouds over the time period 1981 to 1986. Theexperiment measured the altitude profile of scattering from clouds at two spectral channels (primarily)265 nm and 296 nm (Thomas and MacKay, 1985). This phenomenon is now known as PolarMesospheric Clouds.

text: Whether it be a depression in the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) or monsoon trough, a broad surface front, or an outflow boundary, a low level feature with sufficient vorticity and convergence is required to begin tropical cyclogenesis. About 85 to 90 percent of Pacific typhoons form within the monsoon trough. Even with perfect upper level conditions and the required atmospheric instability, the lack of a surface focus will prevent the development of organized convection and a surface low. Vertical wind shear of less than 10 m/s (20 kn, 33 ft/s) between the ocean surface and the tropopause is required for tropical cyclone development. Typically with Pacific typhoons, there are two outflow jets: one to the north ahead of an upper trough in the Westerlies, and a second towards the equator.

text: Whether it be a depression in the

text: Intertropical Convergence Zone

text: (ITCZ) or

text: monsoon trough

text: , a broad

text: surface front

text: , or an

text: outflow boundary

text: , a low level feature with sufficient

text: vorticity

text: and convergence is required to begin tropical cyclogenesis. About 85 to 90 percent of Pacific typhoons form within the monsoon trough. Even with perfect upper level conditions and the required atmospheric instability, the lack of a surface focus will prevent the development of organized convection and a surface low. Vertical wind shear of less than 10 m/s (20 kn, 33 ft/s) between the ocean surface and the

text: tropopause

text: is required for tropical cyclone development. Typically with Pacific typhoons, there are two

text: outflow

text: jets

text: : one to the north ahead of an upper trough in the

text: Westerlies

text: , and a second towards the equator.

text: On a global scale today, rockets have a negligible impact on destruction of the ozone layer. With the increase in rocket launches predicted to occur in the future, rockets may have a larger impact on the ozone layer. It is important to consider changes in fuel sources to minimize the effects. Advancements have been made to make liquid rocket fuel non nitrogen-based to reduce the effects of nitric oxide caused ozone loss. Using chlorine-free rocket fuel is another future approach to help eliminate the effect of chlorine radicals destroying ozone. Chlorine is shown to cause the most damage to the ozone layer from rocket fuel as well as overall due to it being used in a catalytic cycle of destruction. Eliminating chlorine from rocket fuel could have a large impact on protecting the ozone layer from future rocket launches. Solid fueled rockets contribute negligibly to ozone depletion on a global scale due to the understanding of its harmful affects on the ozone layer. With the increasing abundance of space exploration, the use of these solid fueled rockets should be taken into consideration, as they will increase the impact on the global ozone layer. Solid rocket motors cause over sixty times more damage to the ozone layer compared to liquid rocket engines. It is shown to be more efficient to use liquid rocket fueled compared to the traditionally used solid rocket fuel. Rocket emissions have remained unregulated. Rocket launches will continue to increase in abundance into the future and will cause future problems when it comes to the earth’s precious ozone layer.  The chlorine-free rocket fuels will help decrease the destruction of ozone molecules in the atmosphere due to rocket launches.

text: On a global scale today, rockets have a negligible impact on destruction of the ozone layer. With the increase in rocket launches predicted to occur in the future, rockets may have a larger impact on the ozone layer. It is important to consider changes in fuel sources to minimize the effects. Advancements have been made to make liquid rocket fuel non nitrogen-based to reduce the effects of

text: nitric oxide

text: caused ozone loss. Using chlorine-free rocket fuel is another future approach to help eliminate the effect of chlorine radicals destroying ozone.

text: Chlorine

text: is shown to cause the most damage to the ozone layer from rocket fuel as well as overall due to it being used in a catalytic cycle of destruction. Eliminating chlorine from rocket fuel could have a large impact on protecting the ozone layer from future rocket launches. Solid fueled rockets contribute negligibly to ozone depletion on a global scale due to the understanding of its harmful affects on the ozone layer. With the increasing abundance of space exploration, the use of these solid fueled rockets should be taken into consideration, as they will increase the impact on the global ozone layer. Solid rocket motors cause over sixty times more damage to the ozone layer compared to liquid rocket engines. It is shown to be more efficient to use liquid rocket fueled compared to the traditionally used solid rocket fuel. Rocket emissions have remained unregulated. Rocket launches will continue to increase in abundance into the future and will cause future problems when it comes to the earth’s precious ozone layer.  The chlorine-free rocket fuels will help decrease the destruction of ozone molecules in the atmosphere due to rocket launches.

text: Today the term also includes the science of the corresponding regions of the atmospheres of other planets. Aeronomy is a branch of atmospheric physics.  Research in aeronomy requires access to balloons, satellites, and sounding rockets which provide valuable data about this region of the atmosphere.  Atmospheric tides dominate the dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere, essential to understanding the atmosphere as a whole.  Other phenomena studied are upper-atmospheric lightning discharges, such as red sprites, sprite halos or blue jets.

text: Today the term also includes the science of the corresponding regions of the atmospheres of other planets. Aeronomy is a branch of

text: atmospheric physics

text: .  Research in aeronomy requires access to balloons, satellites, and

text: sounding rockets

text: which provide valuable data about this region of the atmosphere.

text: Atmospheric tide

text: s dominate the dynamics of the

text: mesosphere

text: and lower

text: thermosphere

text: , essential to understanding the atmosphere as a whole.  Other phenomena studied are

text: upper-atmospheric lightning

text: discharges, such as

text: red sprites

text: , sprite halos or blue jets.

text: In Meteorology, isopycnals are used to display different layers of gasses in the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, Varying degrees of humidity, temperature, and pressure change the density of air. Isopycnals are not used in meteorology as frequently as they are in oceanography, since the density gradients observed in the atmosphere are typically gradual, unlike in stratified bodies of water. In these cases, isopycnals are less relevant, since they do not display any substantial features.

text: Key rendering features include multiple light types (distant (sun), cone, point, projector, area, custom, line, environment, and atmospheric) whereas the environment and atmospheric lights, which may be considered advanced light types, are especially optimized for global illumination. Both procedural and pre-captured textures are offered and can be mapped onto the surfaces of objects using six different mapping methods: flat, cubic, cylindrical, spherical, parametric, or UV coordinates. Decals can be attached on top of other surface styles to produce a variety of rendering effects, such as labels on objects, graffiti on walls, partially reflective surfaces, masked transparencies, and more. State of the art shaders are used to render surfaces and other effects. A surface style is defined by up to four layers of shaders, which produce color, reflections, transparency, and bump effects. They can be applied independently or can be correlated. Libraries with many predefined materials are included and can be easily extended and customized.

text: Soon, it became clear that the typhoon started to undego an eyewall replacement cycle. Satellite imagery showed a new eye-like feature developing within the system. Tembin continued weakening due to the eyewall replacement cycle and was expected to weaken even further at that moment. Tembin continued to slow down on its track and remained almost stationary.  Located approximately  southeast of Taipei, the storm system became a little less organized over the past couple of hours.  Poleward outflow also started diminishing, as a result. Track speeds continued to be slow as a primary steering influence, a deep layered subtropical ridge to the storm's north, was being weakened by a transiting mid-latitude trough located over the Korean Peninsula. Upper-level analysis indicated that the poleward outflow towards the tropical upper-tropospheric trough cell that was located over southern honshu shut down.

text: Soon, it became clear that the typhoon started to undego an

text: eyewall replacement cycle

text: . Satellite imagery showed a new eye-like feature developing within the system. Tembin continued weakening due to the eyewall replacement cycle and was expected to weaken even further at that moment. Tembin continued to slow down on its track and remained almost stationary.  Located approximately  southeast of Taipei, the storm system became a little less organized over the past couple of hours.  Poleward outflow also started diminishing, as a result. Track speeds continued to be slow as a primary steering influence, a deep layered subtropical ridge to the storm's north, was being weakened by a transiting mid-latitude trough located over the Korean Peninsula. Upper-level analysis indicated that the poleward outflow towards the tropical upper-tropospheric trough cell that was located over southern honshu shut down.

text: The line is named after Theodore von Kármán (1881–1963), a Hungarian-American engineer and physicist. He was active primarily in aeronautics and astronautics. He was the first to calculate that around this altitude, the atmosphere becomes too thin to support aeronautical flight, because a vehicle at this altitude would have to travel faster than orbital velocity to derive sufficient aerodynamic lift to support itself. The line is approximately at the turbopause, above which atmospheric gasses are not well-mixed.  The mesopause atmospheric temperature minimum has been measured variously at 85 km or 100 km, which puts the line at or near the bottom of the thermosphere.

text: The line is named after

text: Theodore von Kármán

text: (1881–1963), a

text: Hungarian

text: American

text: engineer

text: and

text: physicist

text: . He was active primarily in

text: aeronautics

text: and

text: astronautics

text: . He was the first to calculate that around this altitude, the

text: atmosphere

text: becomes too thin to support aeronautical flight, because a vehicle at this altitude would have to travel faster than

text: orbital velocity

text: to derive sufficient

text: aerodynamic lift

text: to support itself. The line is approximately at the

text: turbopause

text: , above which atmospheric gasses are not well-mixed.  The

text: mesopause

text: atmospheric temperature

text: minimum has been measured variously at 85 km or 100 km, which puts the line at or near the bottom of the

text: thermosphere

text: Exosphere  (foaled 25 August 2012) is a Thoroughbred racehorse trained and bred in Australia. He won the Golden Rose Stakes, a Group one race, and has accumulated over a million dollars in winnings.

text: Exosphere  (foaled 25 August 2012) is a

text: Thoroughbred

text: racehorse trained and bred in Australia. He won the

text: Golden Rose Stakes

text: , a Group one race, and has accumulated over a million dollars in winnings.

text: The low-lying damp ground can produce a visual effect known as a Fata Morgana when the Tor appears to rise out of the mist. This optical phenomenon occurs because rays of light are strongly bent when they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep thermal inversion where an atmospheric duct has formed. The Italian term Fata Morgana is derived from the name of Morgan le Fay, a powerful sorceress in Arthurian legend.

text: Fata Morgana

text: when the Tor appears to rise out of the mist. This

text: optical phenomenon

text: thermal inversion

text: where an

text: atmospheric duct

text: has formed. The Italian term Fata Morgana is derived from the name of

text: Morgan le Fay

text: , a powerful

text: sorceress

text: in

text: Arthurian legend

text: Eight kilometers high in the atmosphere near the tropopause, the winds change direction. They now flow to the west and are driven by differences in temperature between the poles and equator. These high winds may distort Triton's atmosphere making it asymmetric. An asymmetry was actually observed during star occultations by Triton in 1990s.

text: Judging by the color of its atmosphere, the sky of Uranus is probably a light blue, i.e. cyan color. It is unlikely that the planet's rings can be seen from its surface, as they are very thin and dark. Uranus has a northern polar star, Sabik (η Ophiuchi), a magnitude 2.4 star. Uranus also has a southern polar star, 15 Orionis, an unremarkable magnitude 4.8 star. Both are fainter than Earth's Polaris (α Ursae Minoris), although Sabik only slightly.

text: Judging by the color of its atmosphere, the sky of

text: Uranus

text: is probably a light blue, i.e.

text: cyan

text: color. It is unlikely that the planet's rings can be seen from its surface, as they are very thin and dark. Uranus has a northern polar star,

text: Sabik

text: (η Ophiuchi), a magnitude 2.4 star. Uranus also has a southern polar star,

text: 15 Orionis

text: , an unremarkable magnitude 4.8 star. Both are fainter than Earth's

text: Polaris

text: (α Ursae Minoris), although Sabik only slightly.

text: Ultraviolet light, specifically UV-B, has been shown to cause cataracts and there is some evidence that sunglasses worn at an early age can slow its development in later life. Most UV light from the sun is filtered out by the atmosphere and consequently airline pilots often have high rates of cataracts because of the increased levels of UV radiation in the upper atmosphere.  It is hypothesized that depletion of the ozone layer and a consequent increase in levels of UV light on the ground may increase future rates of cataracts.  Note that the lens filters UV light, so once that is removed via surgery, one may be able to see UV light.

text: Ultraviolet light, specifically

text: UV-B

text: , has been shown to cause

text: cataracts

text: and there is some evidence that sunglasses worn at an early age can slow its development in later life. Most UV light from the sun is filtered out by the atmosphere and consequently airline pilots often have high rates of cataracts because of the increased levels of UV radiation in the upper atmosphere.  It is hypothesized that

text: depletion of the ozone layer

text: and a consequent increase in levels of UV light on the ground may increase future rates of cataracts.  Note that the lens filters UV light, so once that is removed via surgery, one may be able to see UV light.

text: The inversion temperature in thermodynamics and cryogenics is the critical temperature below which a non-ideal gas (all gases in reality) that is expanding at constant enthalpy will experience a temperature decrease, and above which will experience a temperature increase. This temperature change is known as the Joule-Thomson effect, and is exploited in the liquefaction of gases.Inversion temperature depends on the nature of gas.

text: The inversion temperature in

text: thermodynamics

text: and

text: cryogenics

text: is the critical temperature below which a non-

text: ideal gas

text: (all gases in reality) that is expanding at constant enthalpy will experience a temperature decrease, and above which will experience a temperature increase. This temperature change is known as the

text: Joule-Thomson effect

text: , and is exploited in the

text: liquefaction of gases

text: .Inversion temperature depends on the nature of gas.

text: The context of a photogeochemical reaction is implicitly the surface of Earth, since that is where sunlight is available (although other sources of light such as chemiluminescence would not be strictly excluded from photogeochemical study). Reactions may occur among components of land such as rocks, soil and detritus; components of surface water such as sediment and dissolved organic matter; and components of the atmospheric boundary layer directly influenced by contact with land or water, such as mineral aerosols and gases. Visible and medium- to long-wave ultraviolet radiation is the main source of energy for photogeochemical reactions; wavelengths of light shorter than about 290 nm are completely absorbed by the present atmosphere, and are therefore practically irrelevant, except in consideration of atmospheres different from that of Earth today.

text: The context of a photogeochemical reaction is implicitly the surface of Earth, since that is where

text: sunlight

text: is available (although other sources of light such as

text: chemiluminescence

text: would not be strictly excluded from photogeochemical study). Reactions may occur among components of land such as

text: rocks

text: soil

text: and

text: detritus

text: ; components of

text: surface water

text: such as sediment and dissolved organic matter; and components of the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: directly influenced by contact with land or water, such as mineral

text: aerosol

text: s and gases.

text: Visible

text: and medium- to long-wave

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation is the main source of energy for photogeochemical reactions; wavelengths of light shorter than about 290 nm are completely absorbed by the present atmosphere, and are therefore practically irrelevant, except in consideration of atmospheres different from that of Earth today.

text: ).  This requirement can be fulfilled only under particular conditions, since the atmosphere is continuously changing.  Needed conditions are in particular: the absence of clouds along the optical path, and the absence of variations in the atmospheric aerosol layer.  Since aerosols tend to be more concentrated at low altitude, Langley extrapolation is often performed at high mountain sites.  Data from NASA Glenn Research Center indicates that the Langley plot accuracy is improved if the data is taken above the tropopause.

text: ).  This requirement can be fulfilled only under particular conditions, since the atmosphere is continuously changing.  Needed conditions are in particular: the absence of clouds along the optical path, and the absence of variations in the

text: atmospheric aerosol

text: layer.  Since aerosols tend to be more concentrated at low altitude, Langley extrapolation is often performed at high mountain sites.  Data from

text: NASA

text: Glenn Research Center

text: indicates that the Langley plot accuracy is improved if the data is taken above the

text: tropopause

text: The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the aurora borealis and aurora australis sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth.

text: The exosphere is located too far above Earth for any meteorological phenomena to be possible. However, the

text: aurora borealis

text: and

text: aurora australis

text: sometimes occur in the lower part of the exosphere, where they overlap into the thermosphere. The exosphere contains most of the satellites orbiting Earth.

text: Although the model considered above is reasonably standard, it is not unique; other models also satisfy observations. For instance, if substantial amounts of hydrogen and rocky material are mixed in the ice mantle, the total mass of ices in the interior will be lower, and, correspondingly, the total mass of rocks and hydrogen will be higher. Presently available data does not allow science to determine which model is correct. The fluid interior structure of Uranus means that it has no solid surface. The gaseous atmosphere gradually transitions into the internal liquid layers. For the sake of convenience, a revolving oblate spheroid set at the point at which atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa) is conditionally designated as a "surface". It has equatorial and polar radii of  and , respectively. This surface is used throughout this article as a zero point for altitudes.

text: Although the model considered above is reasonably standard, it is not unique; other models also satisfy observations. For instance, if substantial amounts of hydrogen and rocky material are mixed in the ice mantle, the total mass of ices in the interior will be lower, and, correspondingly, the total mass of rocks and hydrogen will be higher. Presently available data does not allow science to determine which model is correct. The fluid interior structure of Uranus means that it has no solid surface. The gaseous atmosphere gradually transitions into the internal liquid layers. For the sake of convenience, a revolving

text: oblate spheroid

text: set at the point at which atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa) is conditionally designated as a "surface". It has equatorial and

text: polar

text: radii of  and , respectively. This surface is used throughout this article as a zero point for altitudes.

text: In the first stanza the scene and atmosphere is set, "we stood by a pond that winter day". No harsh sounds are present and the sentence epitomizes the tranquility yet disheartening nature of the poem. In the second line we get even more of these very "neutral" monosyllabic words "the sun was white, as though chidden of God" in this sentence the poet's attempt to stay within his own themes are very explicit by the use of the adjective "white" to describe the sun, the sun normally represented by the color yellow and a symbol for happiness and life. The very dismal atmosphere is reinforced by the use of the alliteration of "L" creating a lazy yet unsatisfying tone. The further sibilance of "starving sod" creates a harsh sound, adding a further layer of hopelessness. The metaphor of the "few leaves" symbolizes the end of an era, hinting towards the dying of life. Yet, it is not life that died, but love.

text: Medford sits in a rain shadow between the Cascade Range and Siskiyou Mountains called the Rogue Valley. As such, most of the rain associated with the Pacific Northwest and Oregon in particular skips Medford, making it drier and sunnier than the Willamette Valley. Medford's climate is considerably warmer, both in summer and winter, than its latitude would suggest, with a Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa). Summers are akin to Eastern Oregon, and winters resemble the coast. Here, summer sees an average of 57 days over  and 11 days over . In August 1981, the high temperature reached over  for four consecutive days, with two days reaching . Freezing temperatures occur on 69 nights of the year, and in some years there may be a day or two where the high stays at or below freezing; the average window for freezing temperatures is October 23 through April 23. The city is located in USDA hardiness zone 8. Medford also experiences temperature inversions in the winter which during its lumber mill days produced fog so thick that visibility could be reduced to less than five feet. These inversions can last for weeks; some suggest this is because the metropolitan area has one of the lowest average wind speeds of all American metropolitan areas. The heavy fog returns nearly every winter with the inversions lowering air quality for several months without relief.

text: Medford sits in a

text: rain shadow

text: between the

text: Cascade Range

text: and

text: Siskiyou Mountains

text: called the Rogue Valley. As such, most of the rain associated with the Pacific Northwest and Oregon in particular skips Medford, making it drier and sunnier than the

text: Willamette Valley

text: . Medford's climate is considerably warmer, both in summer and winter, than its latitude would suggest, with a

text: Mediterranean climate

text: Köppen

text: Csa). Summers are akin to Eastern Oregon, and winters resemble the coast. Here, summer sees an average of 57 days over  and 11 days over . In August 1981, the high temperature reached over  for four consecutive days, with two days reaching . Freezing temperatures occur on 69 nights of the year, and in some years there may be a day or two where the high stays at or below freezing; the average window for freezing temperatures is October 23 through April 23. The city is located in USDA

text: hardiness zone

text: 8. Medford also experiences

text: temperature inversion

text: s in the winter which during its lumber mill days produced fog so thick that visibility could be reduced to less than five feet. These inversions can last for weeks; some suggest this is because the metropolitan area has one of the lowest average wind speeds of all American metropolitan areas. The heavy fog returns nearly every winter with the inversions lowering air quality for several months without relief.

text: The stratopause (formerly Mesopeak) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers: the stratosphere and the mesosphere. In the stratosphere the temperature increases with altitude, and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs.This atmospheric feature is not only associated with Earth: it occurs on any other planet or moon that has an atmosphere as well.

text: The stratopause (formerly Mesopeak) is the level of the

text: atmosphere

text: which is the boundary between two layers: the

text: stratosphere

text: and the

text: mesosphere

text: . In the stratosphere the

text: temperature

text: increases with

text: altitude

text: , and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs.This atmospheric feature is not only associated with Earth: it occurs on any other

text: planet

text: or moon that has an

text: atmosphere

text: as well.

text: Using coupled, atmospheric/ocean models and tuning the mixing to eliminate BLT for one year prior to El Nino, it was shown that the heat buildup associated with BLT is a requirement for big El Nino.  It has been shown that there is a tight relationship between SSS and SST in the western Pacific and the barrier layer is instrumental in maintaining heat and momentum in the warm pool within the salinity stratified layer. Later work, including Argo drifters, confirm the relationship between eastward migration of the warm pool during El Nino and BLT heat storage in the western Pacific.   The main impact of BLT is to maintain a shallow mixed layer allowing an enhanced air-sea coupled response.  In addition, the BLT is the key factor in establishing the mean state that is perturbed during El Nino/La Nina

text: Using coupled, atmospheric/ocean models and tuning the mixing to eliminate BLT for one year prior to El Nino, it was shown that the heat buildup associated with BLT is a requirement for big El Nino.  It has been shown that there is a tight relationship between SSS and SST in the western Pacific and the barrier layer is instrumental in maintaining heat and momentum in the warm pool within the salinity stratified layer. Later work, including Argo drifters, confirm the relationship between eastward migration of the warm pool during El Nino and BLT heat storage in the western Pacific.   The main impact of BLT is to maintain a shallow mixed layer allowing an enhanced air-sea coupled response.  In addition, the BLT is the key factor in establishing the mean state that is perturbed during El Nino/

text: La Nina

text: The mixed layer plays an important role in the physical climate. Because the specific heat of ocean water is much larger than that of air, the top 2.5 m of the ocean holds as much heat as the entire atmosphere above it. Thus the heat required to change a mixed layer of 25 m by 1 °C would be sufficient to raise the temperature of the atmosphere by 10 °C. The depth of the mixed layer is thus very important for determining the temperature range in oceanic and coastal regions.   In addition, the heat stored within the oceanic mixed layer provides a source for heat that drives global variability such as El Niño.

text: The mixed layer plays an important role in the physical climate. Because the

text: specific heat

text: of ocean water is much larger than that of air, the top 2.5 m of the ocean holds as much heat as the entire atmosphere above it. Thus the heat required to change a mixed layer of 25 m by 1 °C would be sufficient to raise the temperature of the atmosphere by 10 °C. The depth of the mixed layer is thus very important for determining the temperature range in oceanic and coastal regions.   In addition, the heat stored within the oceanic mixed layer provides a source for heat that drives global variability such as

text: El Niño

text: Although these are all named layers of the atmosphere, the pressure is so negligible that the chiefly-used definitions of outer space are actually below this altitude.  Orbiting satellites do not experience significant atmospheric heating, but their orbits do decay over time, depending on orbit altitude.  Space missions such as the ISS, space shuttle, and Soyuz operate under this layer.

text: Although these are all named layers of the atmosphere, the pressure is so negligible that the chiefly-used definitions of

text: outer space

text: are actually below this altitude.  Orbiting satellites do not experience significant atmospheric heating, but their orbits do decay over time, depending on orbit altitude.  Space missions such as the

text: ISS

text: space shuttle

text: , and

text: Soyuz

text: operate under this layer.

text: Incus is the most type-specific supplementary feature, seen only with cumulonimbus of the species capillatus. A cumulonimbus incus cloud top is one that has spread out into a clear anvil shape as a result of rising air currents hitting the stability layer at the tropopause where the air no longer continues to get colder with increasing altitude.

text: Incus is the most type-specific supplementary feature, seen only with cumulonimbus of the species capillatus. A

text: cumulonimbus incus

text: cloud top is one that has spread out into a clear anvil shape as a result of rising air currents hitting the stability layer at the

text: tropopause

text: where the air no longer continues to get colder with increasing altitude.

text: The marine layer clouds of a June Gloom day usually are at their maximum at dawn, when the surface air is at a minimum temperature and the temperature difference in the inversion layer is at its maximum. The air beneath the inversion base being at its coolest also makes it likely that it will be saturated with a relative humidity of 100%.

text: The vertical temperature variations in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth. The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause, which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. On Jupiter, the tropopause is approximately 50 km above the visible clouds (or 1 bar level), where the pressure and temperature are about 0.1 bar and 110 K. In the stratosphere, the temperatures rise to about 200 K at the transition into the thermosphere, at an altitude and pressure of around 320 km and 1 μbar. In the thermosphere, temperatures continue to rise, eventually reaching 1000 K at about 1000 km, where pressure is about 1 nbar.

text: The vertical temperature variations in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the

text: atmosphere of Earth

text: . The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the

text: tropopause

text: , which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. On Jupiter, the tropopause is approximately 50 km above the visible clouds (or 1 bar level), where the pressure and temperature are about 0.1 bar and 110 K. In the stratosphere, the temperatures rise to about 200 K at the transition into the thermosphere, at an altitude and pressure of around 320 km and 1 μbar. In the thermosphere, temperatures continue to rise, eventually reaching 1000 K at about 1000 km, where pressure is about 1 nbar.

text: The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature inversion is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as , though the gas molecules are so far apart that its temperature in the usual sense is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of oxygen, for example) travels an average of  between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.

text: The temperature of the thermosphere gradually increases with height. Unlike the stratosphere beneath it, wherein a temperature

text: inversion

text: is due to the absorption of radiation by ozone, the inversion in the thermosphere occurs due to the extremely low density of its molecules. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as , though the gas molecules are so far apart that its

text: temperature in the usual sense

text: is not very meaningful. The air is so rarefied that an individual molecule (of

text: oxygen

text: , for example) travels an average of  between collisions with other molecules. Although the thermosphere has a high proportion of molecules with high energy, it would not feel hot to a human in direct contact, because its density is too low to conduct a significant amount of energy to or from the skin.

text: An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground, with possible adverse effects on health. An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a "cap". If this cap is broken for any of several reasons, convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms. Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates.

text: An inversion can lead to pollution such as

text: smog

text: being trapped close to the ground, with possible adverse effects on health. An inversion can also suppress

text: convection

text: by acting as a "cap". If this cap is broken for any of several reasons, convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent

text: thunderstorm

text: s. Temperature inversion can notoriously result in

text: freezing rain

text: in cold climates.

text: This album was the first of the group's albums to be entirely self-produced, recorded with virtually no outside influences. The album, though unnamed until after the recording process was completed, features a lush oceanic theme, complimented by a more layered atmospheric production.

text: The Vienna Conference was the first international conference on ozone layer depletion. It was held in Vienna, Austria in 1985 when a hole in the stratospheric ozone layer was observed in the South Pole marked by increased UV-B infiltration over Antarctica. A 'hole', marked by significant drop in ozone molecules in the layer, as large as that of United States was discovered by a British team.  The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was agreed at the conference and it entered into force in 1987.

text: The Vienna Conference was the first international conference on

text: ozone layer depletion

text: . It was held in

text: Vienna, Austria

text: in 1985 when a hole in the stratospheric ozone layer was observed in the South Pole marked by increased UV-B infiltration over Antarctica. A 'hole', marked by significant drop in ozone molecules in the layer, as large as that of United States was discovered by a British team.  The

text: was agreed at the conference and it entered into force in 1987.

text: The planetary boundary layer is the portion of the troposphere that is influenced by the interaction with the surface of the earth and will adjust to surface forcings within a timescale of 1 hour. The planetary boundary layer is characterized by turbulence during the daytime and by stability during the night. At the top of the planetary boundary layer, there is a stable layer that is frequently termed the inversion layer as temperature tends to increase with height in contrast to much of the troposphere. The planetary boundary layer can have lower level clouds located around the capping inversion top. The two main types of clouds within the planetary boundary layer are fair-weather cumulus clouds and stratocumulus clouds. The underlying surface primarily determines the type of cloud produced within the planetary boundary layer. The presence of the capping inversion can also trap  aerosols within the planetary boundary layer. The increase of anthropogenic aerosols from burning fossil fuels can have significant impacts on precipitation and climate.

text: Standing waves normally do not extend above the tropopause at temperate latitudes. A strong west wind usually decreases above the tropopause, which has been shown to cap or prevent the upward propagation of standing mountain waves. However, at the outer boundary of the polar vortex, in winter, the stratospheric polar night jet exists. Its wind field can join with the wind field of the polar jet stream.  The result is a wind which increases with altitude through the tropopause and upward to 100,000 feet or above. When this conjunction of winds occurs over a barrier mountain, standing mountain waves will propagate through that entire altitude range.  Einar Enevoldson, former NASA test pilot, sought to demonstrate the feasibility of riding these stratospheric standing mountain waves. The weather conditions favorable, although not in every case required to exist simultaneously for a climb into the stratospheric waves, are not exceptional:

text: Standing waves normally do not extend above the tropopause at temperate latitudes. A strong west wind usually decreases above the tropopause, which has been shown to cap or prevent the upward propagation of standing mountain waves. However, at the outer boundary of the

text: polar vortex

text: , in winter, the stratospheric

text: polar night jet

text: exists. Its wind field can join with the wind field of the polar

text: jet stream

text: .  The result is a wind which increases with altitude through the

text: tropopause

text: and upward to 100,000 feet or above. When this conjunction of winds occurs over a barrier mountain, standing mountain waves will propagate through that entire altitude range.

text: Einar Enevoldson

text: , former

text: NASA

text: test pilot, sought to demonstrate the feasibility of riding these stratospheric standing mountain waves. The weather conditions favorable, although not in every case required to exist simultaneously for a climb into the stratospheric waves, are not exceptional:

text: Despite the very low density of the atmosphere, the haze is rather appreciable: it even scatters enough light to allow photographing some details of Pluto's night side. Its normal optical depth is estimated as 0.004 or 0.013 (thus, it diminishes the intensity of a vertical beam of light by 0.4%}} or 1.3%}}; for grazing light the effect is much stronger). Scale height of the haze is ; it approximately coincides with scale height of pressure in the middle atmosphere. On the heights of  it diminishes to 30 km.

text: Despite the very low density of the atmosphere, the haze is rather appreciable: it even scatters enough light to allow photographing some details of Pluto's night side. Its normal

text: optical depth

text: is estimated as 0.004 or 0.013 (thus, it diminishes the intensity of a vertical beam of light by 0.4%}} or 1.3%}}; for grazing light the effect is much stronger).

text: Scale height

text: of the haze is ; it approximately coincides with scale height of pressure in the middle atmosphere. On the heights of  it diminishes to 30 km.

text: Understanding of this proposed technique is partly based on the fact that it is the adaptation of an existing atmospheric process.  The technique is therefore potentially better understood than are comparable (but purely speculative) climate engineering proposals. It is also partly based on the speed of action of any such solution deployed, in contrast to carbon sequestration projects such as carbon dioxide air capture which would take longer to work. However, gaps in understanding of these processes exist, for example the effect on stratospheric climate and on rainfall patterns, and further research is needed.

text: Understanding of this proposed technique is partly based on the fact that it is the adaptation of an existing atmospheric process.  The technique is therefore potentially better understood than are comparable (but purely speculative) climate engineering proposals. It is also partly based on the speed of action of any such solution deployed, in contrast to

text: carbon sequestration

text: projects such as

text: carbon dioxide air capture

text: which would take longer to work. However, gaps in understanding of these processes exist, for example the effect on stratospheric climate and on rainfall patterns, and further research is needed.

text: path loss -path profile -path quality analysis -penumbra -perigee -perihelion -photosphere -plasma -plasma frequency -plasmapause -plasmasphere -Point to Point Lee Model -Polar mesospheric summer echoes-power delay profile -prominence -Propagation path obstruction -pulse (signal processing) -

text: path loss

text: path profile

text: path quality analysis

text: penumbra

text: perigee

text: perihelion

text: photosphere

text: plasma

text: plasma frequency

text: plasmapause

text: plasmasphere

text: Point to Point Lee Model

text: Polar mesospheric summer echoes

text: power delay profile

text: prominence

text: Propagation path obstruction

text: pulse (signal processing)

text: The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth, tells much about what is going on inside the cloud.  Dense deep tropospheric clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases.  As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very dark grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer.  Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background.  High tropospheric and non-tropospheric clouds appear mostly white if composed entirely of ice crystals and/or supercooled water droplets.

text: The color of a cloud, as seen from the Earth, tells much about what is going on inside the cloud.  Dense deep tropospheric clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the

text: visible spectrum

text: . Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top. Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the

text: solar radiation

text: decreases with depth into the gases.  As a result, the

text: cloud base

text: can vary from a very light to very dark grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much

text: light

text: is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer.  Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their

text: environment

text: or background.  High tropospheric and non-tropospheric clouds appear mostly white if composed entirely of ice crystals and/or supercooled water droplets.

text: Convection near Triton's surface heated by the Sun creates a troposphere (a "weather region") rising to an altitude of about 8 km. In it temperature decreases with height reaching a minimum of about 36 K at the tropopause. There is no stratosphere, defined as a layer where heating from the warmer troposphere and thermosphere is balanced by radiative cooling. Higher regions include the thermosphere (8–850 km) and exosphere (above 850 km). In the thermosphere the temperature rises reaching a constant value of about 95 kelvins above 300 km. The upper atmosphere continuously leaks into the space due to the weak gravity of Triton. The loss rate is about 1 nitrogen molecules per second, which equals about 0.3 kg/s.

text: Convection

text: near Triton's surface heated by the Sun creates a

text: troposphere

text: (a "weather region") rising to an altitude of about 8 km. In it temperature decreases with height reaching a minimum of about 36 K at the

text: tropopause

text: . There is no

text: stratosphere

text: , defined as a layer where heating from the warmer troposphere and thermosphere is balanced by radiative cooling. Higher regions include the

text: thermosphere

text: (8–850 km) and

text: exosphere

text: (above 850 km). In the thermosphere the temperature rises reaching a constant value of about 95

text: kelvin

text: s above 300 km. The upper atmosphere continuously leaks into the space due to the weak gravity of Triton. The loss rate is about 1 nitrogen molecules per second, which equals about 0.3 kg/s.

text: The thermosphere contains an appreciable concentration of elemental sodium located in a 10-km thick band that occurs at the edge of the mesosphere, 80 to 100 km above Earth's surface. The sodium has an average concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimeter. This band is regularly replenished by sodium sublimating from incoming meteors. Astronomers have begun utilizing this sodium band to create "guide stars" as part of the optical correction process in producing ultra-sharp ground-based observations.

text: The thermosphere contains an appreciable concentration of elemental

text: sodium

text: located in a 10-km thick band that occurs at the edge of the mesosphere, 80 to 100 km above Earth's surface. The sodium has an average concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimeter. This band is regularly replenished by sodium sublimating from incoming meteors. Astronomers have begun utilizing this sodium band to create "guide stars" as part of the optical correction process in producing ultra-sharp ground-based observations.

text: The same direct relationship applies to gases and vapors diluted in air for example. Although, thorough mixing of gases and vapors may not be as easily accomplished.

text: The same

text: direct relationship

text: applies to

text: gas

text: es and

text: vapor

text: s diluted in air for example. Although, thorough mixing of gases and vapors may not be as easily accomplished.

text: Night clouds or noctilucent clouds are composed of tiny crystals of water ice up to 100 nm in diameter and exist at a height of about , higher than any other clouds in Earth's atmosphere. Clouds in the Earth's lower atmosphere form when water collects on particles, but mesospheric clouds may form directly from water vapour in addition to forming on dust particles.

text: Night clouds or noctilucent clouds are composed of tiny crystals of

text: water ice

text: up to 100

text: nm

text: in diameter and exist at a height of about , higher than any other clouds in Earth's atmosphere. Clouds in the Earth's lower atmosphere form when water collects on particles, but mesospheric clouds may form directly from water vapour in addition to forming on dust particles.

text: The turbopause lies near the mesopause, at the intersection of the mesosphere and the thermosphere, at an altitude of roughly 100 km.

text: The turbopause lies near the

text: mesopause

text: , at the intersection of the

text: mesosphere

text: and the

text: thermosphere

text: , at an altitude of roughly 100 km.

text: The Northern Lights is a blended Canadian whisky, 40% alcohol by volume, 80 proof. It is made with rye, barley and corn (maize). Each grain is fermented, distilled, and aged separately to produce grain whiskies. After distillation Northern Light whisky is aged separately for 36 months in white oak barrels of varying toasting levels. Northern Light Canadian Whisky is a brand owned by the Sazerac Company and bottled at the Barton Brands distillery in Bardstown, Kentucky.

text: The Northern Lights is a blended

text: Canadian whisky

text: , 40% alcohol by volume, 80

text: proof

text: . It is made with

text: rye

text: barley

text: and corn (

text: maize

text: ). Each grain is fermented, distilled, and aged separately to produce grain whiskies. After distillation Northern Light whisky is aged separately for 36 months in white oak barrels of varying toasting levels. Northern Light Canadian Whisky is a brand owned by the

text: Sazerac Company

text: and bottled at the

text: Barton Brands

text: distillery in

text: Bardstown, Kentucky

text: The presence of atmospheric oxygen has led to the formation of ozone (O) and the ozone layer within the stratosphere:

text: The presence of atmospheric oxygen has led to the formation of

text: ozone

text: (O) and the

text: ozone layer

text: within the

text: stratosphere

text: An inversion occurs when the normal temperature (warm air below, cold air above) profile is reversed, creating a stable configuration of dense, cold air sitting below lighter, warm air. An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air, but higher in the atmosphere (generally not touching the surface).

text: Another pattern variation occurs in connection with heat spells that reach the coast from inland.  Such heat waves typically occur when an area of high atmospheric pressure orients itself in such a way that the northerly to northeasterly gradient becomes dominant, driving the marine layer out to sea south and west of the California coast.  These spells typically end with what is called a "southerly surge", when the northerly gradient relaxes, allowing the marine layer to "slosh back" up the coastline.

text: Derek Elley of Film Business Asia gave the film a six out of ten rating, noting that the film has "more atmosphere than plot" Screen Daily gave the film a favorable review praising that it made a "giant furry rabbit suit scary" and the film's use of 3D. The Japan Times gave the film a rating of two and a half out of five, praising the film's cast but they "can't overcome the View-Master diorama atmospherics." Variety gave the film a mixed review, noting that Tormenteds script "lacks the extra layers of meaning and symbolism that make the best kind of horror pics so effective" while stating that the film "works perfectly adequately"

text: Derek Elley of Film Business Asia gave the film a six out of ten rating, noting that the film has "more atmosphere than plot"

text: Screen Daily

text: gave the film a favorable review praising that it made a "giant furry rabbit suit scary" and the film's use of 3D. The

text: Japan Times

text: gave the film a rating of two and a half out of five, praising the film's cast but they "can't overcome the View-Master diorama atmospherics."

text: Variety

text: gave the film a mixed review, noting that Tormenteds script "lacks the extra layers of meaning and symbolism that make the best kind of horror pics so effective" while stating that the film "works perfectly adequately"

text: Global dimming, a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface, was observed from 1961 until at least 1990. Solid and liquid particles known as aerosols, produced by volcanoes and human-made pollutants, are thought to be the main cause of this dimming. They exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion – CO and aerosols – have partially offset one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been due to the increase in non-CO greenhouse gases such as methane. Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally limited due to the processes that remove aerosols from the atmosphere. Removal by clouds and precipitation gives tropospheric aerosols an atmospheric lifetime of only about a week, while stratospheric aerosols can remain for a few years. Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more, and as such, changes in aerosols will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide. Black carbon is second only to carbon dioxide for its contribution to global warming.

text: Global dimming

text: , a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct

text: irradiance

text: at the Earth's surface, was observed from 1961 until at least 1990.

text: Solid and liquid particles

text: known as aerosols, produced by volcanoes and human-made

text: pollutant

text: s, are thought to be the main cause of this dimming. They exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion – CO and aerosols – have partially offset one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been due to the increase in non-CO greenhouse gases such as methane. Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally limited due to the processes that remove aerosols from the atmosphere.

text: Removal by clouds and precipitation

text: gives tropospheric aerosols an

text: atmospheric lifetime

text: of only about a week, while

text: stratospheric

text: aerosols can remain for a few years. Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more, and as such, changes in aerosols will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide.

text: Black carbon

text: is second only to carbon dioxide for its contribution to global warming.

text: The main evidence of such an impact, besides the crater itself, is contained in a thin layer of clay present in the K–Pg boundary across the world. In the late 1970s, the Alvarezes and colleagues reported that it contained an abnormally high concentration of iridium. Iridium levels in this layer reached 6 parts per billion by weight or more compared to 0.4 for the Earth's crust as a whole; in comparison, meteorites can contain around 470 parts per billion of this element. It was hypothesized that the iridium was spread into the atmosphere when the impactor was vaporized and settled across the Earth's surface amongst other material thrown up by the impact, producing the layer of iridium-enriched clay. Similarly, an iridium anomaly in core samples from the Pacific Ocean suggested the Eltanin impact of about 2.5 million years ago.

text: The main evidence of such an impact, besides the crater itself, is contained in a thin layer of clay present in the

text: K–Pg boundary

text: across the world. In the late 1970s, the Alvarezes and colleagues reported that it contained an abnormally high concentration of

text: iridium

text: . Iridium levels in this layer reached 6 parts per billion by weight or more compared to 0.4 for the Earth's crust as a whole; in comparison, meteorites can contain around 470 parts per billion of this element. It was hypothesized that the iridium was spread into the atmosphere when the impactor was vaporized and settled across the Earth's surface amongst other material thrown up by the impact, producing the layer of iridium-enriched clay. Similarly, an

text: iridium anomaly

text: in core samples from the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: suggested the

text: Eltanin impact

text: of about 2.5 million years ago.

text: In this area, temperature inversions consistently form in winter due to the extremely cold and dense air of the Siberian High pooling in deep hollows, so that temperatures increase rather than decrease with higher altitude. In Verkhoyansk it sometimes happens that the average minimum temperatures for January, February, and December are below . Oymyakon and Verkhoyansk are the only two permanently populated places in the world that have recorded temperatures below  every day of January.

text: In this area,

text: temperature inversions

text: consistently form in winter due to the extremely cold and dense air of the

text: Siberian High

text: pooling in deep hollows, so that temperatures increase rather than decrease with higher altitude. In Verkhoyansk it sometimes happens that the average minimum temperatures for January, February, and December are below . Oymyakon and Verkhoyansk are the only two permanently populated places in the world that have recorded temperatures below  every day of January.

text: ) to the air parcel's total (i.e., including dry) mass. Specific humidity is approximately equal to the "mixing ratio", which is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor in an air parcel to the mass of dry air for the same parcel. As temperature decreases, the amount of water vapor needed to reach saturation also decreases. As the temperature of a parcel of air becomes lower it will eventually reach the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass. The differences in the amount of water vapor in a parcel of air can be quite large, for example; A parcel of air that is near saturation may contain 28 grams of water per cubic meter of air at −1 °C, but only 8 grams of water per cubic meter of air at −12 °C.

text: It is very common to have temperature inversions forming near the ground, for instance air cooling at night while remaining warm aloft. This happens equally aloft when a warm and dry airmass overrides a cooler one, like in the subsidence aloft cause by a high pressure intensifying. The index of refraction of air increases in both cases and the EM wave bends toward the ground instead of continuing upward.

text: It is very common to have

text: temperature inversion

text: s forming near the ground, for instance air cooling at night while remaining warm aloft. This happens equally aloft when a warm and dry airmass overrides a cooler one, like in the

text: subsidence

text: aloft cause by a high pressure intensifying. The index of refraction of air increases in both cases and the EM wave bends toward the ground instead of continuing upward.

text: The sodium emissions come from a thin sodium layer approximately 10 km thick at an altitude of 90 – 100 km, above the mesopause and in the D-layer of the ionosphere. The red oxygen lines originate at altitudes of about 300 km, in the F-layer. The green oxygen emissions are more spatially distributed. How sodium gets to mesospheric heights is not yet well understood, but it is believed to be a combination of upward transport of sea salt and meteoritic dust.

text: The sodium emissions come from a thin

text: sodium layer

text: approximately 10 km thick at an altitude of 90 – 100 km, above the

text: mesopause

text: and in the D-layer of the

text: ionosphere

text: . The red oxygen lines originate at altitudes of about 300 km, in the F-layer. The green oxygen emissions are more spatially distributed. How sodium gets to mesospheric heights is not yet well understood, but it is believed to be a combination of upward transport of sea salt and meteoritic dust.

text: This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between .

text: This layer is completely cloudless and free of water vapor. However non-hydrometeorological phenomena such as the

text: aurora borealis

text: and

text: aurora australis

text: are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The

text: International Space Station

text: orbits in this layer, between .

text: After the publication of Twilight at Noon in 1982, the so-called TTAPS team (named for its participants, Richard P. Turco, Owen Toon, Thomas P. Ackerman, James B. Pollack and Carl Sagan) say that they began the process of doing a 1-dimensional computational modeling study of the atmospheric consequences of nuclear war/soot in the stratosphere, though they would not publish a Science paper until late December 1983. The phrase "nuclear winter" was coined by Turco just prior to publication. In this early paper, TTAPS used assumption based estimates on the total smoke and dust emissions that would result from a major nuclear exchange, and with that, began analyzing the subsequent effects on the atmospheric radiation balance and temperature structure as a result of this quantity of assumed smoke. To compute dust and smoke effects, they employed a one-dimensional microphysics/radiative-transfer model of the Earth's lower atmosphere (to the mesopause), which defined only the vertical characteristics of the global climate perturbation.

text: After the publication of Twilight at Noon in 1982, the so-called TTAPS team (named for its participants,

text: Richard P. Turco

text: Owen Toon

text: , Thomas P. Ackerman,

text: James B. Pollack

text: and

text: Carl Sagan

text: ) say that they began the process of doing a 1-dimensional computational modeling study of the atmospheric consequences of nuclear war/soot in the stratosphere, though they would not publish a

text: Science

text: paper until late December 1983. The phrase "nuclear winter" was coined by Turco just prior to publication. In this early paper, TTAPS used assumption based estimates on the total smoke and dust emissions that would result from a major nuclear exchange, and with that, began analyzing the subsequent effects on the atmospheric

text: radiation balance

text: and temperature structure as a result of this quantity of assumed smoke. To compute dust and smoke effects, they employed a one-dimensional microphysics/radiative-transfer model of the Earth's lower atmosphere (to the mesopause), which defined only the vertical characteristics of the global climate perturbation.

text: The Shuttle stack launched vertically like a conventional rocket. It lifted off under the power of its two SRBs and three main engines, which were fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from the ET. The Space Shuttle had a two-stage ascent. The SRBs provided additional thrust during liftoff and first-stage flight. About two minutes after liftoff, frangible nuts were fired, releasing the SRBs, which then parachuted into the ocean, to be retrieved by ships for refurbishment and reuse. The orbiter and ET continued to ascend on an increasingly horizontal flight path under power from its main engines. Upon reaching 17,500 mph (7.8 km/s), necessary for low Earth orbit, the main engines were shut down. The ET, attached by two frangible nuts was then jettisoned to burn up in the atmosphere. After jettisoning the external tank, the orbital maneuvering system (OMS) engines were used to adjust the orbit.The orbiter carried astronauts and payloads such as satellites or space station parts into low Earth orbit, the Earth's upper atmosphere or thermosphere. Usually, five to seven crew members rode in the orbiter. Two crew members, the commander and pilot, were sufficient for a minimal flight, as in the first four "test" flights, STS-1 through STS-4. The typical payload capacity was about  but could be increased depending on the choice of launch configuration. The orbiter carried its payload in a large cargo bay with doors that opened along the length of its top, a feature which made the Space Shuttle unique among spacecraft. This feature made possible the deployment of large satellites such as the Hubble Space Telescope and also the capture and return of large payloads back to Earth.

text: The Shuttle stack launched vertically like a conventional rocket. It lifted off under the power of its two SRBs and three

text: main engines

text: , which were fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen from the ET. The Space Shuttle had a two-stage ascent. The SRBs provided additional thrust during liftoff and first-stage flight. About two minutes after liftoff, frangible nuts were fired, releasing the SRBs, which then parachuted into the ocean, to be retrieved by

text: ships

text: for refurbishment and reuse. The orbiter and ET continued to ascend on an increasingly horizontal flight path under power from its main engines. Upon reaching 17,500 mph (7.8 km/s), necessary for low Earth orbit, the main engines were shut down. The ET, attached by two frangible nuts was then jettisoned to burn up in the atmosphere. After jettisoning the external tank, the

entity_name: Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System

text: orbital maneuvering system

text: (OMS) engines were used to adjust the orbit.The orbiter carried

text: astronaut

text: s and payloads such as satellites or space station parts into low Earth orbit, the Earth's upper atmosphere or

text: thermosphere

text: . Usually, five to seven crew members rode in the orbiter. Two crew members, the commander and pilot, were sufficient for a minimal flight, as in the first four "test" flights, STS-1 through STS-4. The typical payload capacity was about  but could be increased depending on the choice of launch configuration. The orbiter carried its payload in a large cargo bay with doors that opened along the length of its top, a feature which made the Space Shuttle unique among spacecraft. This feature made possible the deployment of large satellites such as the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and also the capture and return of large payloads back to Earth.

text: RLV-TD was mounted on top of and launched aboard a single stage solid fuel booster (HS9 booster) that was derived from strap-on boosters flown on India's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. By the time, the booster consumed its solid propellant in 91 seconds, the RLV-TD separated from its boost stage and peaked to a sub-orbital altitude of about . The heat shield, guidance, navigation and control algorithms were tested at hypersonic speed by accurately steering the vehicle during the descent stage. For the descent back, the test vehicle was programmed to pitch its nose up, exposing silica tiles on its underside and reinforced carbon–carbon nose cap to the airflow into the thick lower layers of the atmosphere. The RLV-TD endured high temperatures of descent through the atmosphere due to its thermal protection system.

text: RLV-TD was mounted on top of and launched aboard a

text: single stage

text: solid fuel

text: booster

text: (HS9 booster) that was derived from

text: strap-on booster

text: s flown on India's

text: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: . By the time, the booster consumed its

text: solid

text: propellant

text: in 91 seconds, the RLV-TD separated from its boost stage and peaked to a sub-orbital altitude of about . The

text: heat shield

text: guidance

text: navigation

text: and

text: control

text: algorithm

text: s were tested at

text: hypersonic speed

text: by accurately steering the vehicle during the

text: descent

text: stage. For the descent back, the test vehicle was programmed to pitch its nose up, exposing silica tiles on its underside and

text: reinforced carbon–carbon

text: nose cap to the

text: airflow

text: into the thick lower layers of the atmosphere. The RLV-TD endured high temperatures of descent through the atmosphere due to its

text: thermal protection system

text: While still at Harvard, Wennberg developed advanced airborne sensors to measure radicals in the atmosphere, in particular the odd-hydrogen radicals OH and HO. The laser-induced fluorescence instrument that he developed was placed in the nose of a  NASA ER-2 aircraft to measure radicals during flight. It has been used to measure radicals in both the troposphere and the stratosphere.

text: While still at Harvard, Wennberg developed advanced airborne sensors to measure

text: radicals

text: in the atmosphere, in particular the odd-hydrogen radicals

text: OH

text: and

text: HO

text: . The laser-induced fluorescence instrument that he developed was placed in the nose of a  NASA ER-2 aircraft to measure radicals during flight. It has been used to measure radicals in both the

text: troposphere

text: and the

text: stratosphere

text: In 1995, Grand Casinos was brought on as an equity partner for the still privately funded project under construction. While construction was still progressing, the Stratosphere Corporation was formed as a public company with shares being offered to the public.

text: In 1995,

text: Grand Casinos

text: was brought on as an equity partner for the still privately funded project under construction. While construction was still progressing, the Stratosphere Corporation was formed as a public company with shares being offered to the public.

text: Carbon is continually cycling between soils, vegetation, and the atmosphere. Currently, carbon flux from permafrost soils is minimal, however studies suggest that future warming and permafrost degradation will increase the CO flux from the soils. Thaw deepens the active layer, exposing old carbon that has been in storage for decades, to centuries, to millennia. The amount of carbon that will be released from warming conditions depends on depth of thaw, carbon content within the thawed soil, and physical changes to the environment. The likelihood of the entire carbon pool mobilizing and entering the atmosphere is low despite the large volumes stored in the soil. Although temperatures are projected to rise, it does not imply complete loss of permafrost and mobilization of the entire carbon pool. Much of the ground underlain by permafrost will remain frozen even if warming temperatures increase the thaw depth or increase thermokarsting and permafrost degradation.

text: Volcanoes with a felsic melt composition produce extremely explosive eruptions that can inject massive quantities of dust and aerosols high into the atmosphere. These particulate emissions are potent climate forcing agents, and can provoke a wide variety of responses including warming, cooling, and rainwater acidification. The climatic response depends on the altitude of the dust cloud as well as the size and composition of the dust. Some volcanic silicates cooled extremely quickly, created a glassy texture; their dark color and reflective nature absorb some radiation and reflect the rest. Such volcanic material injected into the stratosphere blocks solar radiation, heating that layer of the atmosphere and cooling the area beneath it.  Wind patterns can distribute the dust over vast geographic regions; for example, the 1815 eruption of Tambora in Indonesia produced so much dust that a cooling of 1 degree Celsius was noted as far away as New England, and lasted for several months. Europeans and Americans called its effect “the year without a summer”.

text: In August 2015, it was announced that Verizon has selected Mesosphere's DCOS, which is based on open source Apache Mesos, as their nationwide platform for data center service orchestration.

text: In August 2015, it was announced that

text: Verizon

text: has selected Mesosphere's DCOS, which is based on open source Apache Mesos, as their nationwide platform for data center service orchestration.

text: The Poker Flat Research Range (PFRR) is a launch facility and rocket range for sounding rockets in the U.S. state of Alaska, owned and operated by the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) Geophysical Institute since 1948. The world's largest land-based rocket range, it is situated on a  site located approximately 30 miles (50 km) northeast of Fairbanks and is operated under contract to the NASA Wallops Flight Facility. Since its inception PFRR has been closely aligned and funded by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency and its predecessor, the Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA). Other range users include the United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), the Air Force Geophysics Lab (AFGL) and a number of Universities and research laboratories.  More than 1,700 launches have been conducted at the range to study the Earth's atmosphere and the interaction between the atmosphere and the space environment . Areas studied at PFRR include the aurora, plasma physics, the ozone layer, solar proton events, Earth's magnetic field, and ultraviolet radiation.

text: The Poker Flat Research Range (PFRR) is a

text: launch facility

text: and

text: rocket range

text: for

text: sounding rocket

text: s in the

text: U.S. state

text: of

text: Alaska

text: , owned and operated by the

text: University of Alaska Fairbanks

text: (UAF)

text: Geophysical Institute

text: since 1948. The world's largest land-based rocket range, it is situated on a  site located approximately 30 miles (50 km) northeast of

text: Fairbanks

text: and is operated under contract to the NASA

text: Wallops Flight Facility

text: . Since its inception PFRR has been closely aligned and funded by the

text: Defense Threat Reduction Agency

text: and its predecessor, the Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA). Other range users include the

text: United States Naval Research Laboratory

text: (NRL), the Air Force Geophysics Lab (AFGL) and a number of Universities and research laboratories.  More than 1,700 launches have been conducted at the range to study the

text: Earth

text: 's atmosphere and the interaction between the atmosphere and the space environment . Areas studied at PFRR include the

text: aurora

text: , plasma physics, the

text: ozone layer

text: solar proton event

text: s,

text: Earth's magnetic field

text: , and

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation.

text: Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer decreases exponentially with the slant-path thickness and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth’s surface. UV-driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.

text: Ozone, while a minority constituent in Earth's atmosphere, is responsible for most of the absorption of UVB radiation. The amount of UVB radiation that penetrates through the ozone layer

text: decreases exponentially

text: with the slant-path thickness and density of the layer. When stratospheric ozone levels decrease, higher levels of UVB reach the Earth’s surface. UV-driven phenolic formation in tree rings has dated the start of ozone depletion in northern latitudes to the late 1700s.

text: The Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) maintains air and atmospheric measurement equipment at Troll. Combined with a similar measuring station, Zeppelin in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard, Norway. This allows the institute to collect such data from both polar regions. In particular, the facility measures aerosols, organic and inorganic pollution, ozone and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. NILU also creates air samples annually to generate data for trend analysis. The weekly air pollution measurements are compared to equivalent measurements at Zeppelin. Ground measurements are taken of ozone and mercury, two of the greatest pollution threats in the polar regions. Stratosphere measurements are conducted to measure ozone and UV levels, in particular to gain additional information about ozone depletion and the Antarctic ozone hole.

text: The

text: Norwegian Institute for Air Research

text: (NILU) maintains air and atmospheric measurement equipment at Troll. Combined with a similar measuring station,

text: Zeppelin

text: in

text: Ny-Ålesund

text: Svalbard

text: , Norway. This allows the institute to collect such data from both polar regions. In particular, the facility measures

text: aerosol

text: s, organic and inorganic pollution,

text: ozone

text: and

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) radiation. NILU also creates air samples annually to generate data for

text: trend analysis

text: . The weekly air pollution measurements are compared to equivalent measurements at Zeppelin. Ground measurements are taken of ozone and

text: mercury

text: , two of the greatest pollution threats in the polar regions.

text: Stratosphere

text: measurements are conducted to measure ozone and UV levels, in particular to gain additional information about

text: ozone depletion

text: and the Antarctic ozone hole.

text: The mechanism describing the formation of the ozone layer was described by British mathematician Sydney Chapman in 1930. Molecular oxygen absorbs high energy sunlight in the UV-C region, at wavelengths shorter than about 240 nm. The oxygen atoms produced combine with molecular oxygen to form ozone. Ozone in turn is photolysed much more rapidly than molecular oxygen as it has a stronger absorption that occurs at longer wavelengths, where the solar emission is more intense. Ozone (O) photolysis produces O and O. The oxygen atom product combines with atmospheric molecular oxygen to reform O, releasing heat. The rapid photolysis and reformation of ozone heats the stratosphere resulting in a temperature inversion. This increase of temperature with altitude is characteristic of the stratosphere; its resistance to vertical mixing means that it is stratified. Within the stratosphere temperatures increase with  altitude (see temperature inversion); the top of the stratosphere has a temperature of about 270 K (−3°C or 26.6°F). This vertical stratification, with warmer layers above and cooler layers below, makes the stratosphere dynamically stable: there is no regular convection and associated turbulence in this part of the atmosphere. However, exceptionally energetic convection processes, such as volcanic eruption columns and overshooting tops in severe supercell thunderstorms, may carry convection into the stratosphere on a very local and temporary basis. Overall the attenuation of solar UV at wavelengths that damage DNA by the ozone layer allows life to exist on the surface of the planet outside of the ocean. All air entering the stratosphere must pass through the tropopause, the temperature minimum that divides the troposphere and stratosphere. The rising air is literally freeze dried; the stratosphere is a very dry place. The top of the stratosphere is called the stratopause, above which the temperature decreases with height.

text: The mechanism describing the formation of the ozone layer was described by British mathematician

text: Sydney Chapman

text: in 1930. Molecular oxygen absorbs high energy sunlight in the UV-C region, at wavelengths shorter than about 240 nm. The oxygen atoms produced combine with molecular oxygen to form ozone. Ozone in turn is photolysed much more rapidly than molecular oxygen as it has a stronger absorption that occurs at longer wavelengths, where the solar emission is more intense. Ozone (O) photolysis produces O and O. The oxygen atom product combines with atmospheric molecular oxygen to reform O, releasing heat. The rapid photolysis and reformation of ozone heats the stratosphere resulting in a temperature inversion. This increase of temperature with altitude is characteristic of the stratosphere; its resistance to vertical mixing means that it is stratified. Within the stratosphere temperatures increase with  altitude (see

text: temperature inversion

text: ); the top of the stratosphere has a temperature of about 270

text: K

text: °C

text: or 26.6

text: °F

text: ). This vertical

text: stratification

text: , with warmer layers above and cooler layers below, makes the stratosphere dynamically stable: there is no regular

text: convection

text: and associated

text: turbulence

text: in this part of the atmosphere. However, exceptionally energetic convection processes, such as volcanic

text: eruption columns

text: and

text: overshooting tops

text: in severe

text: supercell thunderstorms

text: , may carry convection into the stratosphere on a very local and temporary basis. Overall the attenuation of solar UV at wavelengths that damage DNA by the ozone layer allows life to exist on the surface of the planet outside of the ocean. All air entering the stratosphere must pass through the tropopause, the temperature minimum that divides the troposphere and stratosphere. The rising air is literally freeze dried; the stratosphere is a very dry place. The top of the stratosphere is called the

text: stratopause

text: , above which the temperature decreases with height.

text: The layers of rock, like all the strata on the northern edge of the Harz, were sharply tilted or folded over by the uplifting of the Harz up to the Cretaceous period, so that the surface layers are now upside down. A hiatus in the strata between the lias and the Lower Cretaceous and the discordant, overlapping layering of the Upper Cretaceous up to the muschelkalk indicate that activity took place at different times, particularly on the Northern Harz Boundary Fault.

text: The layers of rock, like all the strata on the northern edge of the Harz, were sharply tilted or folded over by the uplifting of the Harz up to the Cretaceous period, so that the surface layers are now upside down. A

text: hiatus

text: in the strata between the

text: lias

text: and the Lower Cretaceous and the

text: discordant

text: , overlapping layering of the Upper Cretaceous up to the

text: muschelkalk

text: indicate that activity took place at different times, particularly on the

text: Northern Harz Boundary Fault

text: Although they are not reflected by the ionosphere, small amounts of microwave energy are randomly scattered by water vapor molecules in the troposphere.  This is used in troposcatter communications systems, operating at a few GHz, to communicate beyond the horizon.  A powerful microwave beam is aimed just above the horizon; as it passes through the tropopause some of the microwaves are scattered back to Earth to a receiver beyond the horizon.  Distances of 300 km can be achieved.  These are mainly used for military communication.

text: Although they are not reflected by the

text: ionosphere

text: , small amounts of microwave energy are randomly scattered by water vapor molecules in the

text: troposphere

text: .  This is used in

text: troposcatter

text: communications systems, operating at a few GHz, to communicate beyond the horizon.  A powerful microwave beam is aimed just above the horizon; as it passes through the

text: tropopause

text: some of the microwaves are scattered back to Earth to a receiver beyond the horizon.  Distances of 300 km can be achieved.  These are mainly used for military communication.

text: and first explored by Deardorff (1970).  LES is currently applied in a wide variety of engineering applications, including combustion, acoustics, and simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer.

text: The probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere at 22:04 UTC. Before the atmospheric entry, the probe discovered a new radiation belt  above Jupiter's cloud tops. The atmosphere through which it subsequently descended was found to be much denser and hotter than expected. Jupiter was also found to have only half the amount of helium expected and the data did not support the three-layered cloud structure theory. Only one significant cloud layer was measured by the probe, but with many indications of smaller areas of increased particle densities along all of the trajectory. The probe detected less lightning, less water, but more winds than expected. The atmosphere was more turbulent and the winds a lot stronger than the expected maximum of . It required a laborious analysis of the initial wind data from the probe to determine the actual measured wind speeds. The results eventually showed that wind speeds in the outermost layers were 290-360 kilometers per hour (80-100 m/s), in agreement with previous measurements from afar, but that winds increased dramatically at pressure levels of 1-4 bars, then remaining consistently high at around . No solid surface was detected during the  downward journey. Subsequent analysis determined that the Galileo probe had entered a so-called hot spot in Jupiter's atmosphere.

text: The probe entered Jupiter's atmosphere at 22:04 UTC. Before the atmospheric entry, the probe discovered a new

text: radiation belt

text: above Jupiter's cloud tops. The atmosphere through which it subsequently descended was found to be much denser and hotter than expected. Jupiter was also found to have only half the amount of helium expected and the data did not support the three-layered cloud structure theory. Only one significant cloud layer was measured by the probe, but with many indications of smaller areas of increased particle densities along all of the trajectory. The probe detected less lightning, less water, but more winds than expected. The atmosphere was more turbulent and the winds a lot stronger than the expected maximum of . It required a laborious analysis of the initial wind data from the probe to determine the actual measured wind speeds. The results eventually showed that wind speeds in the outermost layers were 290-360 kilometers per hour (80-100 m/s), in agreement with previous measurements from afar, but that winds increased dramatically at pressure levels of 1-4 bars, then remaining consistently high at around . No solid surface was detected during the  downward journey. Subsequent analysis determined that the Galileo probe had entered a so-called

text: hot spot

text: in Jupiter's atmosphere.

text: Northern Lights – Southern Cross is the sixth studio album by Canadian-American rock group the Band, released in 1975. It was the first album to be recorded at their new California studio, Shangri-La, and the first album of all new material since 1971's Cahoots. All eight songs are credited as compositions of guitarist Robbie Robertson.

text: Northern Lights – Southern Cross is the sixth

text: studio album

text: by

text: Canadian

text: American

text: rock group

text: the Band

text: , released in 1975. It was the first album to be recorded at their new California studio, Shangri-La, and the first album of all new material since 1971's

text: Cahoots

text: . All eight songs are credited as compositions of guitarist

text: Robbie Robertson

text: A high power laser is used to melt metal powder supplied coaxially to the focus of the laser beam through a deposition head. The laser beam typically travels through the center of the head and is focused to a small spot by one or more lenses. The X-Y table is moved in raster fashion to fabricate each layer of the object. The head is moved up vertically as each layer is completed. Metal powders are delivered and distributed around the circumference of the head either by gravity, or by using a pressurized carrier gas. An inert shroud gas is often used to shield the melt pool from atmospheric oxygen for better control of properties, and to promote layer to layer adhesion by providing better surface wetting.

text: A high power laser is used to melt metal powder supplied coaxially to the focus of the laser beam through a deposition head. The laser beam typically travels through the center of the head and is focused to a small spot by one or more lenses. The

text: X-Y table

text: is moved in

text: raster

text: fashion to fabricate each layer of the object. The head is moved up vertically as each layer is completed. Metal powders are delivered and distributed around the circumference of the head either by gravity, or by using a pressurized carrier gas. An inert shroud gas is often used to shield the melt pool from atmospheric oxygen for better control of properties, and to promote layer to layer adhesion by providing better surface wetting.

text: The terms "near space" and "upper atmosphere" are generally considered synonymous. However, some sources distinguish between the two. Where such a distinction is made, only the layers closest to the Karman line are called near space, while only the remaining layers between the lower atmosphere and near space are called the upper atmosphere.

text: The terms "near space" and "upper atmosphere" are generally considered synonymous. However, some sources distinguish between the two. Where such a distinction is made, only the layers closest to the

text: Karman line

text: are called near space, while only the remaining layers between the

text: lower atmosphere

text: and near space are called the upper atmosphere.

text: At elevations above the clouds, atmospheric electricity forms a continuous and distinct element (called the electrosphere) in which the Earth is surrounded. The electrosphere layer (from tens of kilometers above the surface of the earth to the ionosphere) has a high electrical conductivity and is essentially at a constant electric potential. The ionosphere is the inner edge of the magnetosphere and is the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. (Photoionisation is a physical process in which a photon is incident on an atom, ion or molecule, resulting in the ejection of one or more electrons.)

text: At elevations above the clouds, atmospheric electricity forms a continuous and distinct element (called the

text: electrosphere

text: ) in which the Earth is surrounded. The electrosphere layer (from tens of kilometers above the surface of the earth to the ionosphere) has a high electrical conductivity and is essentially at a constant electric potential. The

text: ionosphere

text: is the inner edge of the magnetosphere and is the part of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. (

text: Photoionisation

text: is a physical process in which a photon is incident on an atom, ion or molecule, resulting in the ejection of one or more electrons.)

text: Jupiter's troposphere contains a complicated cloud structure. The upper clouds, located in the pressure range 0.6–0.9 bar, are made of ammonia ice. Below these ammonia ice clouds, denser clouds made of ammonium hydrosulfide or ammonium sulfide (between 1–2 bar) and water (3–7 bar) are thought to exist. There are no methane clouds as the temperatures are too high for it to condense. The water clouds form the densest layer of clouds and have the strongest influence on the dynamics of the atmosphere. This is a result of the higher condensation heat of water and higher water abundance as compared to the ammonia and hydrogen sulfide (oxygen is a more abundant chemical element than either nitrogen or sulfur). Various tropospheric (at 200–500 mbar) and stratospheric (at 10–100 mbar) haze layers reside above the main cloud layers. The latter are made from condensed heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or hydrazine, which are generated in the upper stratosphere (1–100 μbar) from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation (UV). The methane abundance relative to molecular hydrogen in the stratosphere is about 10, while the abundance ratio of other light hydrocarbons, like ethane and acetylene, to molecular hydrogen is about 10.

text: Jupiter's troposphere contains a complicated cloud structure. The upper clouds, located in the pressure range 0.6–0.9 bar, are made of ammonia ice. Below these ammonia ice clouds, denser clouds made of

text: ammonium hydrosulfide

text: or

text: ammonium sulfide

text: (between 1–2 bar) and water (3–7 bar) are thought to exist. There are no methane clouds as the temperatures are too high for it to condense. The water clouds form the densest layer of clouds and have the strongest influence on the dynamics of the atmosphere. This is a result of the higher

text: condensation heat

text: of water and higher water abundance as compared to the ammonia and hydrogen sulfide (oxygen is a more abundant chemical element than either nitrogen or sulfur). Various tropospheric (at 200–500 mbar) and stratospheric (at 10–100 mbar) haze layers reside above the main cloud layers. The latter are made from condensed heavy

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s or

text: hydrazine

text: , which are generated in the upper stratosphere (1–100 μbar) from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation (UV). The methane abundance relative to molecular hydrogen in the stratosphere is about 10, while the abundance ratio of other light hydrocarbons, like ethane and acetylene, to molecular hydrogen is about 10.

text: Another form of atmospheric diffraction or bending of light occurs when light moves through fine layers of particulate dust trapped primarily in the middle layers of the troposphere. This effect differs from water based atmospheric diffraction because the dust material is opaque whereas water allows light to pass through it. This has the effect of tinting the light the color of the dust particles. This tinting can vary from red to yellow depending on geographical location. the other primary difference is that dust based diffraction acts as a magnifier instead of creating a distinct halo. This occurs because the opaque matter does not share the lensing properties of water. The effect is to make an object visibly larger while being more indistinct as the dust distorts the image. This effect varies largely based on the amount and type of dust in the atmosphere.

text: Another form of atmospheric

text: diffraction

text: or bending of light occurs when light moves through fine layers of

text: particulate

text: dust trapped primarily in the middle layers of the

text: troposphere

text: . This effect differs from water based atmospheric diffraction because the dust material is

text: opaque

text: whereas water allows light to pass through it. This has the effect of

text: tint

text: ing the light the color of the dust particles. This tinting can vary from red to yellow depending on geographical location. the other primary difference is that dust based diffraction acts as a

text: magnifier

text: instead of creating a distinct

text: halo

text: . This occurs because the opaque matter does not share the lensing properties of water. The effect is to make an object visibly larger while being more indistinct as the dust distorts the image. This effect varies largely based on the amount and type of dust in the atmosphere.

text: The configuration increases drag, as the craft is now less streamlined and results in more atmospheric gas particles hitting the spacecraft at higher altitudes than otherwise. The aircraft thus slows down more in higher atmospheric layers which is the key to efficient reentry. Secondly the aircraft will automatically orient itself in this state to a high drag attitude.

text: Transgressing one or more planetary boundaries may be highly damaging or even catastrophic, due to the risk of crossing thresholds that trigger non-linear, abrupt environmental change within continental- to planetary-scale systems. The 2009 study identified nine planetary boundaries and, drawing on current scientific understanding, the researchers proposed quantifications for seven of them. These seven are climate change (CO concentration in the atmosphere < 350 ppm and/or a maximum change of +1 W/m in radiative forcing); ocean acidification (mean surface seawater saturation state with respect to aragonite ≥ 80% of pre-industrial levels); stratospheric ozone (less than 5% reduction in total atmospheric O from a pre-industrial level of 290 Dobson Units); biogeochemical nitrogen (N) cycle (limit industrial and agricultural fixation of N to 35 Tg N/yr) and phosphorus (P) cycle (annual P inflow to oceans not to exceed 10 times the natural background weathering of P); global freshwater use (< 4000 km/yr of consumptive use of runoff resources); land system change (< 15% of the ice-free land surface under cropland); and the rate at which biological diversity is lost (annual rate of < 10 extinctions per million species). The two additional planetary boundaries for which the group had not yet been able to determine a boundary level are chemical pollution and atmospheric aerosol loading.

text: Transgressing one or more planetary boundaries may be highly damaging or even catastrophic, due to the risk of crossing thresholds that trigger non-linear, abrupt

text: environmental change

text: within

text: continent

text: al- to planetary-scale systems. The 2009 study identified nine planetary boundaries and, drawing on current scientific understanding, the researchers proposed quantifications for seven of them. These seven are climate change (

text: CO

text: concentration in the atmosphere < 350 ppm and/or a maximum change of +1 W/m in

text: radiative forcing

text: ocean acidification

text: (mean surface seawater saturation state with respect to aragonite ≥ 80% of pre-

text: industrial

text: levels);

text: stratospheric

text: ozone (less than 5% reduction in total atmospheric

text: O

text: from a pre-industrial level of 290

text: Dobson Unit

text: s);

text: biogeochemical

text: nitrogen (N) cycle

text: (limit industrial and agricultural fixation of N to 35 Tg N/yr) and

text: phosphorus (P) cycle

text: (annual P inflow to oceans not to exceed 10 times the natural background

text: weathering

text: of P); global freshwater use (< 4000 km/yr of consumptive use of runoff resources); land system change (< 15% of the ice-free land surface under cropland); and the rate at which biological diversity is lost (annual rate of < 10 extinctions per million species). The two additional planetary boundaries for which the group had not yet been able to determine a boundary level are

text: chemical pollution and atmospheric aerosol loading

text: Even before the Nimbus satellites began collecting their observations of Earth's ozone layer, scientists had some understanding of the processes that maintained or destroyed it. They were pretty sure they understood how the layer formed, and they knew from laboratory experiments that halogens could destroy ozone. Finally, weather balloons had revealed that the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere changed over time, and scientists suspected weather phenomena or seasonal change were responsible. But how all of these pieces of information worked together on a global scale was still unclear.

text: Even before the Nimbus satellites began collecting their observations of Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: , scientists had some understanding of the processes that maintained or destroyed it. They were pretty sure they understood how the layer formed, and they knew from laboratory experiments that

text: halogen

text: s could destroy

text: ozone

text: . Finally,

text: weather balloon

text: s had revealed that the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere changed over time, and scientists suspected weather phenomena or seasonal change were responsible. But how all of these pieces of information worked together on a global scale was still unclear.

text: Prior to joining NASA, Schweickart was a research scientist at the Experimental Astronomy Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and his work there involved research upper atmospheric physics, star tracking and stabilization of stellar images. His thesis for a master's degree at MIT concerned stratospheric radiance.

text: Prior to joining NASA, Schweickart was a

text: research scientist

text: at the Experimental Astronomy Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and his work there involved research upper

text: atmospheric physics

text: , star tracking and stabilization of stellar images. His thesis for a master's degree at MIT concerned stratospheric radiance.

text: SteamWorld Dig has received favorable reviews, with the Nintendo 3DS and Steam versions receiving scores of 82/100 and 79/100 respectively on Metacritic. PocketGamer gave it a 10 out of 10 saying "SteamWorld Dig is an utterly phenomenal video game, with layer upon layer of remarkable gameplay to be found." IGN liked its core gameplay mechanics and engrossing atmosphere and gave it a 9.5 out 10. Nintendo World Report gave it a 9 out of 10 saying that "SteamWorld Dig is a fresh game for the Nintendo eShop and one of the best digital games available on Nintendo's 3D handheld." Infendo gave it 4 stars out of 5, calling it "highly addicting." God is a Geek gave the game a 6 out of 10, praising the graphics, music and style, but criticizing the combat and the lack of any real penalty for dying.

text: SteamWorld Dig has received favorable reviews, with the

text: Nintendo 3DS

text: and Steam versions receiving scores of 82/100 and 79/100 respectively on

text: Metacritic

text: PocketGamer

text: gave it a 10 out of 10 saying "SteamWorld Dig is an utterly phenomenal video game, with layer upon layer of remarkable gameplay to be found."

text: IGN

text: liked its core gameplay mechanics and engrossing atmosphere and gave it a 9.5 out 10.

text: Nintendo World Report

text: gave it a 9 out of 10 saying that "SteamWorld Dig is a fresh game for the Nintendo eShop and one of the best digital games available on Nintendo's 3D handheld." Infendo gave it 4 stars out of 5, calling it "highly addicting." God is a Geek gave the game a 6 out of 10, praising the graphics, music and style, but criticizing the combat and the lack of any real penalty for dying.

text: Oceanic anoxic events have had many important consequences. It is believed that they have been responsible for mass extinctions of marine organisms both in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. The early Toarcian and Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic events correlate with the Toarcian and Cenomanian-Turonian extinction events of mostly marine life forms. Apart from possible atmospheric effects, many deeper-dwelling marine organisms could not adapt to an ocean where oxygen penetrated only the surface layers.

text: Oceanic anoxic events have had many important consequences. It is believed that they have been responsible for mass

text: extinctions

text: of marine organisms both in the

text: Paleozoic

text: and

text: Mesozoic

text: . The early Toarcian and

text: Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event

text: s correlate with the

text: Toarcian

text: and

text: Cenomanian-Turonian extinction event

text: s of mostly marine life forms. Apart from possible atmospheric effects, many deeper-dwelling marine organisms could not adapt to an ocean where oxygen penetrated only the surface layers.

text: Crystals undergo slow gradual change of frequency with time, known as aging. There are many mechanisms involved. The mounting and contacts may undergo relief of the built-in stresses. Molecules of contamination either from the residual atmosphere, outgassed from the crystal, electrodes or packaging materials, or introduced during sealing the housing can be adsorbed on the crystal surface, changing its mass; this effect is exploited in quartz crystal microbalances. The composition of the crystal can be gradually altered by outgassing, diffusion of atoms of impurities or migrating from the electrodes, or the lattice can be damaged by radiation. Slow chemical reactions may occur on or in the crystal, or on the inner surfaces of the enclosure. Electrode material, e.g. chromium or aluminium, can react with the crystal, creating layers of metal oxide and silicon; these interface layers can undergo changes in time. The pressure in the enclosure can change due to varying atmospheric pressure, temperature, leaks, or outgassing of the materials inside. Factors outside of the crystal itself are e.g. aging of the oscillator circuitry (and e.g. change of capacitances), and drift of parameters of the crystal oven. External atmosphere composition can also influence the aging; hydrogen can diffuse through nickel housing. Helium can cause similar issues when it diffuses through glass enclosures of rubidium standards.

text: Crystals undergo slow gradual change of frequency with time, known as aging. There are many mechanisms involved. The mounting and contacts may undergo relief of the built-in stresses. Molecules of contamination either from the residual atmosphere,

text: outgassed

text: from the crystal, electrodes or packaging materials, or introduced during sealing the housing can be adsorbed on the crystal surface, changing its mass; this effect is exploited in

text: quartz crystal microbalance

text: s. The composition of the crystal can be gradually altered by outgassing, diffusion of atoms of impurities or migrating from the electrodes, or the lattice can be damaged by radiation. Slow chemical reactions may occur on or in the crystal, or on the inner surfaces of the enclosure. Electrode material, e.g. chromium or aluminium, can react with the crystal, creating layers of metal oxide and silicon; these interface layers can undergo changes in time. The pressure in the enclosure can change due to varying atmospheric pressure, temperature, leaks, or outgassing of the materials inside. Factors outside of the crystal itself are e.g. aging of the oscillator circuitry (and e.g. change of capacitances), and drift of parameters of the crystal oven. External atmosphere composition can also influence the aging;

text: hydrogen

text: can diffuse through nickel housing. Helium can cause similar issues when it diffuses through glass enclosures of

text: rubidium standard

text: s.

text: The 4/3 Earth radius rule of thumb is an average for the Earth's atmosphere assuming it is reasonably homogenised, absent of temperature inversion layers or unusual meteorological conditions. NLOS links that exploit atmospheric refraction typically operate at frequencies in the VHF and UHF bands, including FM and TV terrestrial broadcast services.

text: The 4/3 Earth radius rule of thumb is an average for the Earth's atmosphere assuming it is reasonably

text: homogenised

text: , absent of

text: temperature inversion

text: layers or unusual

text: meteorological

text: conditions. NLOS links that exploit atmospheric refraction typically operate at frequencies in the

text: VHF

text: and

text: UHF

text: bands, including

text: FM

text: and TV terrestrial broadcast services.

text: In 1988/89 ocean acoustic tomography was performed there  to study the Greenland Sea gyre and deep water formation. Deep water formation simply means surface water being transported downwards into the ocean, this is important to drive the global ocean currents by thermohaline circulation.The study showed that the mixed layer at the surface forms in autumn. During winter, the region is covered by sea ice. In early spring when the sea ice vanishes, the layer gets thicker (up to 1.5 km). When the Polar day starts in  late March the seasonal cycle starts again with another shallow mixed layer.

text: In 1988/89

text: ocean acoustic tomography

text: was performed there  to study the

text: Greenland Sea

text: gyre

text: and

text: deep water formation

text: . Deep water formation simply means surface water being transported downwards into the ocean, this is important to drive the global

text: ocean currents

text: by

text: thermohaline circulation

text: .The study showed that the

text: mixed layer

text: at the surface forms in autumn. During winter, the region is covered by

text: sea ice

text: . In early spring when the

text: sea ice

text: vanishes, the layer gets thicker (up to 1.5

text: km

text: ). When the

text: Polar day

text: starts in  late March the seasonal cycle starts again with another shallow mixed layer.

text: For more than twenty-five years, Mims has made accurate and detailed atmospheric measurements.  These include measuring the ozone layer, haze (aerosol optical depth), and the total column water vapor.

text: Of the 50-60 Pg of carbon fixed annually, roughly 10% leaves the surface mixed layer of the oceans, while less than 0.5% of eventually reaches the sea floor. Most is retained in regenerated production in the euphotic zone and a significant portion is remineralized in midwater processes during particle sinking. The portion of carbon that leaves the surface mixed layer of the ocean is sometimes considered "sequestered", and essentially removed from contact with the atmosphere for many centuries. However, work also finds that, in regions such as the Southern Ocean, much of this carbon can quickly (within decades) come back into contact with the atmosphere. The portion of carbon that makes it to the sea floor becomes part of the geologic record and in the case of the calcium carbonate, may form large deposits and resurface through tectonic motion as in the case with the White Cliffs of Dover in Southern England. These cliffs are made almost entirely of the plates of buried coccolithophores.

text: Of the 50-60 Pg of carbon fixed annually, roughly 10% leaves the surface mixed layer of the oceans, while less than 0.5% of eventually reaches the sea floor. Most is retained in regenerated production in the euphotic zone and a significant portion is remineralized in midwater processes during particle sinking. The portion of carbon that leaves the surface mixed layer of the ocean is sometimes considered "sequestered", and essentially removed from contact with the atmosphere for many centuries. However, work also finds that, in regions such as the

text: Southern Ocean

text: , much of this carbon can quickly (within decades) come back into contact with the atmosphere. The portion of carbon that makes it to the sea floor becomes part of the geologic record and in the case of the calcium carbonate, may form large deposits and resurface through tectonic motion as in the case with the

text: White Cliffs of Dover

text: in Southern England. These cliffs are made almost entirely of the plates of buried coccolithophores.

text: Ozone depletion is the reduced concentration of ozone in the Earth's stratosphere (called the ozone layer), where it serves to block much of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which were used beginning in the 1930s in a number of important areas, were determined in 1974 to be responsible for much of the depletion of the ozone layer. Four years later, the EPA and FDA banned CFCs in aerosol cans. As research in the 1980s indicated that the problem was worse than before, and revealed a controversial massive hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica, three international agreements were made to reduce the ozone-damaging substances- the Vienna Convention, the 1987 Montreal Protocol, and a third agreement in 1990 in London. In the United States, the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments phased out production of CFCs and required recycling of CFC products.

text: Ozone depletion

text: is the reduced concentration of

text: ozone

text: in the Earth's

text: stratosphere

text: (called the ozone layer), where it serves to block much of the

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: from the

text: sun

text: Chlorofluorocarbons

text: (CFCs), which were used beginning in the 1930s in a number of important areas, were determined in 1974 to be responsible for much of the depletion of the ozone layer. Four years later, the EPA and

text: FDA

text: banned CFCs in aerosol cans. As research in the 1980s indicated that the problem was worse than before, and revealed a controversial massive hole in the ozone layer over

text: Antarctica

text: , three international agreements were made to reduce the ozone-damaging substances- the

text: Vienna Convention

text: , the 1987

text: Montreal Protocol

text: , and a third agreement in 1990 in London. In the United States, the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments phased out production of CFCs and required recycling of CFC products.

text: where N = N(z) is the Brunt–Väisälä frequency and U = U(z) is the vertical profile of the horizontal wind, both quantities are determined from an atmospheric sounding upstream of the barrier. When l(z) is nearly constant with height, conditions are favorable for vertically propagating mountain waves. When l(z) decreases strongly with height, the waves are trapped in the layer around the mountain top and below.

text: where N = N(z) is the

text: Brunt–Väisälä frequency

text: and U = U(z) is the vertical profile of the horizontal wind, both quantities are determined from an atmospheric sounding upstream of the barrier. When l(z) is nearly constant with height, conditions are favorable for vertically propagating mountain waves. When l(z) decreases strongly with height, the waves are trapped in the layer around the mountain top and below.

text: Project Loon is Google's pursuit to deploy a high-altitude balloon network operating in the stratosphere, at altitudes between 18 km and 25 km. Google asserts that this particular layer of the stratosphere is advantageous because of its relatively low wind speeds (e.g., wind speeds between 5 and 20 mph / 10 to 30 kmph) and minimal turbulence. Moreover, Google claims that it can model, with reasonable accuracy, the seasonal, longitudinal, and latitudinal variations in wind speeds within the 18–25 km stratospheric layer.

text: Project Loon is Google's pursuit to deploy a

text: high-altitude balloon network

text: operating in the

text: stratosphere

text: , at altitudes between 18 km and 25 km. Google asserts that this particular layer of the stratosphere is advantageous because of its relatively low wind speeds (e.g., wind speeds between 5 and 20 mph / 10 to 30 kmph) and minimal

text: turbulence

text: . Moreover, Google claims that it can model, with reasonable accuracy, the seasonal, longitudinal, and latitudinal variations in wind speeds within the 18–25 km stratospheric layer.

text: GEWEX Atmospheric Boundary Layer Study (GABLS) is a more recent addition to GEWEX. The study is tasked with understanding the physical properties of the atmospheric boundary layers for better models which include representation of boundary layers.

text: Reported details about the event, such as water boiling in the muddy crater for ten minutes from the heat of the impact, presented a problem for experts. Because the impact site is at a high altitude of more than , the meteoroid may not have been slowed down as much as it ordinarily would have been by passage through the Earth’s denser lower atmosphere, and kinetic energy at impact may have been unusually high for a terrestrial impact of an object of this size and mass. Most larger meteorites are cold in their bulk mass when they land on Earth, since their heated outer layers ablate from the objects before impacting. It was later confirmed that the meteorite contained a large amount of iron and possessed magnetic properties common to similar metallic objects, which contributed to its capacity to retain heat during atmospheric entry.

text: Reported details about the event, such as water boiling in the muddy crater for ten minutes from the heat of the impact, presented a problem for experts. Because the impact site is at a high altitude of more than , the meteoroid may not have been slowed down as much as it ordinarily would have been by passage through the Earth’s denser lower atmosphere, and kinetic energy at impact may have been unusually high for a terrestrial impact of an object of this size and mass. Most larger meteorites are cold in their bulk mass when they land on Earth, since their heated outer layers

text: ablate

text: from the objects before impacting. It was later confirmed that the meteorite contained a large amount of

text: iron

text: and possessed magnetic properties common to similar metallic objects, which contributed to its capacity to retain heat during

text: atmospheric entry

text: The exhaust can be transported to the Arctic region in little over a day, although the exact mechanism of this very high-speed transport is unknown. As the water migrates northward, it falls from the thermosphere down into the colder mesosphere, which occupies the region of the atmosphere just below. Although this mechanism is the cause of individual noctilucent clouds, it is not thought to be a major contributor to the phenomenon as a whole.

text: The exhaust can be transported to the

text: Arctic

text: region in little over a day, although the exact mechanism of this very high-speed transport is unknown. As the water migrates northward, it falls from the thermosphere down into the colder mesosphere, which occupies the region of the atmosphere just below. Although this mechanism is the cause of individual noctilucent clouds, it is not thought to be a major contributor to the phenomenon as a whole.

text: The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth's atmosphere, occupying the region above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude of about  to the mesopause at  above sea level.

text: The Dobson unit (DU) is a unit of measurement of the columnar density of a trace gas in the Earth's atmosphere. It originated, and continues to be widely used, as a measure of total-column ozone, which is dominated by ozone in the stratospheric ozone layer. It is given as the thickness (in units of 10 µm) of that layer which would be formed by the total gas in a column under standard temperature and pressure, sometimes referred to as a 'milli-atmo-centimeter.' For example, 300 DU of ozone brought down to the surface of the Earth at 0 °C would occupy a layer only 3 mm thick. One DU is 2.69×10 ozone molecules per square centimetre, or 2.69×10 per square metre.This is 0.4462 millimoles of ozone per square metre, or approximately 1.25 ppb of the average total column of air.

text: The Dobson unit (DU) is a unit of measurement of the

text: columnar density

text: of a trace gas in the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: . It originated, and continues to be widely used, as a measure of total-column

text: ozone

text: , which is dominated by ozone in the

text: stratospheric

text: ozone layer

text: . It is given as the thickness (in units of 10 µm) of that layer which would be formed by the total gas in a column under

text: standard temperature and pressure

text: , sometimes referred to as a 'milli-atmo-centimeter.' For example, 300 DU of ozone brought down to the surface of the Earth at 0

text: °C

text: would occupy a layer only 3 mm thick. One DU is 2.69×10 ozone

text: molecule

text: s per

text: square centimetre

text: , or 2.69×10 per

text: square metre

text: .This is 0.4462

text: millimole

text: s of ozone per square metre, or approximately 1.25 ppb of the average total column of air.

text: The depth of the PBL is defined as the height of the inversion level separating the free troposphere (FT) from the boundary layer. Normally at the top of the PBL, buoyancy flux reaches a minimum and large gradients of potential temperature, water vapor, and aerosols are observed. Identifying an accurate position of the depth of the PBL is essential for reliable representation of parameters in meteorological and air quality models as the PBL is the region of maximum turbulence.It is well known that convective mixing processes are predominant in the PBL which in result influences the structure and composition of aerosols. Knowing the vertical extent of the convective mixing will allow a more accurate depiction of the atmosphere in the boundary layer.  In recent years, remote sensing instruments such as lidar have been employed to identify and observe the PBL height. An advantage to using lidar is its high-resolution temporal and vertical spatial coverage which can possibly be operated continuously and in a nearly automated status. Thus, an instantaneous PBL height can be recorded which allows more in-depth analysis such as diurnal evolution and long-term climate studies.

text: The depth of the PBL is defined as the height of the inversion level separating the free troposphere (FT) from the boundary layer. Normally at the top of the PBL, buoyancy flux reaches a minimum and large gradients of

text: potential temperature

text: water vapor

text: , and

text: aerosols

text: are observed. Identifying an accurate position of the depth of the PBL is essential for reliable representation of parameters in meteorological and air quality models as the PBL is the region of maximum turbulence.It is well known that convective mixing processes are predominant in the PBL which in result influences the structure and composition of aerosols. Knowing the vertical extent of the convective mixing will allow a more accurate depiction of the atmosphere in the boundary layer.  In recent years, remote sensing instruments such as lidar have been employed to identify and observe the PBL height. An advantage to using lidar is its high-resolution temporal and vertical spatial coverage which can possibly be operated continuously and in a nearly automated status. Thus, an instantaneous PBL height can be recorded which allows more in-depth analysis such as diurnal evolution and long-term climate studies.

text: From the ground upwards through the troposphere temperature decreases with height; from the tropopause upwards through the stratosphere temperature increases with height. Such variations are examples of temperature gradients.

text: The cloud layer is only about  deep, and consists of at least two decks of clouds: a thick lower deck and a thin clearer region. There may also be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia layer, as evidenced by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. This is caused by water's polarity, which makes it capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth. The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior.

text: The cloud layer is only about  deep, and consists of at least two decks of clouds: a thick lower deck and a thin clearer region. There may also be a thin layer of

text: water

text: clouds underlying the ammonia layer, as evidenced by flashes of

text: lightning

text: detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter. This is caused by water's

text: polarity

text: , which makes it capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning. These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth. The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior.

text: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms, are the most common type of organofluorine compounds. They are commonly used in air conditioning and as refrigerants  in place of the older chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as R-21. They do not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace; however, they do contribute to global warming. Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly increasing, causing international concern about their radiative forcing.

text: Hydrofluorocarbon

text: s (HFCs), organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms, are the most common type of organofluorine compounds. They are commonly used in

text: air conditioning

text: and as

text: refrigerants

text: in place of the older

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s such as

text: and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as

text: . They do not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace; however, they do contribute to

text: global warming

text: . Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to

text: anthropogenic

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions are rapidly increasing, causing international concern about their

text: radiative forcing

text: Since the tropopause responds to the average temperature of the entire layer that lies underneath it, it is at its peak levels over the Equator, and reaches minimum heights over the poles. On account of this, the coolest layer in the atmosphere lies at about 17 km over the equator. Due to the variation in starting height, the tropopause extremes are referred to as the equatorial tropopause and the polar tropopause.

text: Note that only the troposphere (up to approximately  of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes convection: the stratosphere does not generally convect. However, some exceptionally energetic convection processes -- notably volcanic eruption columns and overshooting tops associated with severe supercell thunderstorms -- may locally and temporarily inject convection through the tropopause and into the stratosphere.

text: Note that only the

text: troposphere

text: (up to approximately  of altitude) in the Earth's atmosphere undergoes convection: the

text: stratosphere

text: does not generally convect. However, some exceptionally energetic convection processes -- notably volcanic

text: eruption columns

text: and

text: overshooting tops

text: associated with severe

text: supercell thunderstorms

text: -- may locally and temporarily inject convection through the

text: tropopause

text: and into the stratosphere.

text: In 1916, working with his colleague Alfred Fowler, Strutt was the first to prove the existence of ozone in the atmosphere by examining the ultra-violet spectrum of the setting sun.  Strutt proved that the ozone was mainly located in the upper atmosphere, in what is now called the ozone layer.

text: In 1916, working with his colleague

text: Alfred Fowler

text: , Strutt was the first to prove the existence of ozone in the atmosphere by examining the ultra-violet spectrum of the setting sun.  Strutt proved that the ozone was mainly located in the upper atmosphere, in what is now called the

text: ozone layer

text: In September 2005, NEA announced plans to back Chinese venture firm Northern Light. This venture fund is raising a first, $100 million fund this fall. NEA general partner Scott Sandell described his firm's relationship to Northern Light as akin to a "special LP," whereby Northern Light will receive part of its institutional backing from NEA and provide NEA with deal flow. The new firm, founded by Zhu along with Chinese entrepreneurs Feng Deng and Yan Ke, will share office space in China with NEA venture partner Xiaodong Jiang.

text: In September 2005, NEA announced plans to back Chinese venture firm Northern Light. This venture fund is raising a first, $100 million fund this fall. NEA general partner Scott Sandell described his firm's relationship to Northern Light as akin to a "special LP," whereby Northern Light will receive part of its institutional backing from NEA and provide NEA with deal flow. The new firm, founded by Zhu along with Chinese entrepreneurs

text: Feng Deng

text: and Yan Ke, will share office space in China with NEA venture partner Xiaodong Jiang.

text: Gamma rays can be stopped by a sufficiently thick or dense layer of material, where the stopping power of the material per given area depends mostly (but not entirely) on the total mass along the path of the radiation, regardless of whether the material is of high or low density. However, as is the case with X-rays, materials with high atomic number such as lead or depleted uranium add a modest (typically 20% to 30%) amount of stopping power over an equal mass of less dense and lower atomic weight materials (such as water or concrete).  The atmosphere absorbs all gamma rays approaching Earth from space.  Even air is capable of absorbing gamma rays, halving the energy of such waves by passing through, on the average, .

text: Gamma rays can be stopped by a sufficiently thick or dense layer of material, where the stopping power of the material per given area depends mostly (but not entirely) on the total mass along the path of the radiation, regardless of whether the material is of high or low density. However, as is the case with X-rays, materials with high atomic number such as lead or

text: depleted uranium

text: add a modest (typically 20% to 30%) amount of stopping power over an equal mass of less dense and lower atomic weight materials (such as water or concrete).  The atmosphere absorbs all gamma rays approaching Earth from space.  Even air is capable of absorbing gamma rays, halving the energy of such waves by passing through, on the average, .

text: Asphalt BUR is made up of multiple layers of reinforcing plies and asphalt forming a redundancy of waterproofing layers. The reflectivity of built up roofs depends on the surfacing material used. Gravel is the most common and they are referred to as asphalt and gravel roofs. Asphalt degradation is a growing concern. UV-rays oxidize the surface of the asphalt and produce a chalk-like residue. As plasticizers leach out of the asphalt, asphalt built-up roofs become brittle. Cracking and alligatoring inevitably follows, allowing water to penetrate the system causing blisters, cracks and leaks.  Compared to other systems, installation of asphalt roofs is energy-intensive (hot processes typically use LP gas as the heat source), and contributes to atmospheric air pollution (toxic, and green-house gases are lost from the asphalt during installation).

text: However, there are variations in this trend above . In particular, in the stratosphere above about , the speed of sound increases with height, due to an increase in temperature from heating within the ozone layer. This produces a positive speed of sound gradient in this region. Still another region of positive gradient occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above .

text: However, there are variations in this trend above . In particular, in the

text: stratosphere

text: above about , the speed of sound increases with height, due to an increase in temperature from heating within the

text: ozone layer

text: . This produces a positive speed of sound gradient in this region. Still another region of positive gradient occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named

text: thermosphere

text: above .

text: An experiment was conducted using a pseudo-hexagonal crystal of dickite to determine the unit cell information and the layers that exist within dickite. It was found that there are six layers within the kaolin layer within dickite. This is evidenced in the following findings. There is an oxygen atom from the all oxygen layer that lies at the center. The atoms of the O layer, the Si layer and the O, (OH) layer are situated for the ideal kaolin layer.

text: The mesosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere from  to  high, above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere.  It is very difficult to fly in the mesosphere — the air is too rarefied for aircraft wings to generate lift, but sufficiently dense to cause aerodynamic drag on satellites. In addition, parts of the mesosphere fall inside the ionosphere, meaning the air is ionized due to solar radiation.

text: The mesosphere is the layer of the Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: from  to  high, above the

text: stratosphere

text: and below the

text: thermosphere

text: .  It is very difficult to fly in the mesosphere — the air is too

text: rarefied

text: for aircraft wings to generate

text: lift

text: , but sufficiently dense to cause

text: aerodynamic drag

text: on satellites. In addition, parts of the mesosphere fall inside the

text: ionosphere

text: , meaning the air is ionized due to solar radiation.

text: Mixed layer clays with two equal components (50% of each clay) are the easiest to identify. These clays are thought of as one, non-mixed clay with a 001 spacing that is equal to the sum of the 001 spacing of both components. Some commonly occurring 50/50 mixed-layer clays are even given unique names such as dozyite, a Serpentine/Chlorite.   Mixed clays that have unequal components with random stacking produce aperiodic 00l diffraction patterns known as irrational patterns. The coefficient of variation (CV) is the percent standard deviation of the average of d(001) calculated from various reflections. If CV is less than 0.75% then the mineral is given a unique name. If CV is greater than 0.75% then mixed-layered nomenclature is used.

text: Mixed layer clays with two equal components (50% of each clay) are the easiest to identify. These clays are thought of as one, non-mixed clay with a 001 spacing that is equal to the sum of the 001 spacing of both components. Some commonly occurring 50/50 mixed-layer clays are even given unique names such as dozyite, a

text: Serpentine

text: Chlorite

text: .   Mixed clays that have unequal components with random stacking produce aperiodic 00l diffraction patterns known as irrational patterns. The

text: coefficient of variation

text: (CV) is the percent

text: standard deviation

text: of the average of d(001) calculated from various reflections. If CV is less than 0.75% then the mineral is given a unique name. If CV is greater than 0.75% then mixed-layered nomenclature is used.

text: When blending mixes with pressures up to about , the Ideal gas law provides a reasonable approximation and simple equations can be used to calculate the pressures of each component gas needed to create the mix. At this pressure and normal temperatures, air departs from linearity by about 5%, e.g. a 10-litre cylinder filled to 230 bar with air only contains about 95% of the expected 2300 litres of free air. Above this pressure, the composition of the final mix is difficult to predict using simple equations but needs the more complex Van der Waals equation.

text: When blending mixes with

text: pressure

text: s up to about , the

text: Ideal gas law

text: provides a reasonable approximation and simple equations can be used to calculate the pressures of each component gas needed to create the mix. At this pressure and normal temperatures, air

text: departs from linearity

text: by about 5%, e.g. a 10-litre cylinder filled to 230 bar with air only contains about 95% of the expected 2300 litres of free air. Above this pressure, the composition of the final mix is difficult to predict using simple equations but needs the more complex

text: Van der Waals equation

text: The inversion layer is crucial to the formation of the marine stratus that produce June Gloom. Compression and warming of air sinking out of the North Pacific High-pressure system (which is strongest during the summer) meets with the rising, cooling air from the sea surface, producing a very stable layer of air that caps the cool air from rising any further. The strength of this subsidence inversion affects the strength of the marine layer, and how long it will take the clouds to dissipate. Additionally, the cool ocean water of the California Current, which flows out of the cold Gulf of Alaska, enhances the contrast between the cool air below the inversion layer and the warm air above it. A stronger inversion layer – one with a greater difference in temperature between the air above and the air below – often results in more and deeper marine layer clouds that persist longer into the day. Upwelling of colder-than-normal ocean water, associated with a La Niña, can strengthen this effect even more.

text: The

text: inversion layer

text: is crucial to the formation of the marine stratus that produce June Gloom. Compression and warming of air sinking out of the

text: North Pacific High

text: -pressure system (which is strongest during the summer) meets with the rising, cooling air from the sea surface, producing a very stable layer of air that caps the cool air from rising any further. The strength of this

text: subsidence inversion

text: affects the strength of the marine layer, and how long it will take the clouds to dissipate. Additionally, the cool ocean water of the

text: California Current

text: , which flows out of the cold Gulf of Alaska, enhances the contrast between the cool air below the inversion layer and the warm air above it. A stronger inversion layer – one with a greater difference in temperature between the air above and the air below – often results in more and deeper marine layer clouds that persist longer into the day. Upwelling of colder-than-normal ocean water, associated with a

text: La Niña

text: , can strengthen this effect even more.

text: RV Tauri stars have low masses, but are highly extended cool stars of high luminosity.  U Mon has a luminosity of , although this is both variable and highly uncertain.  The spectral luminosity class is of a bright supergiant, indicating the rarefied nature of its atmosphere and low surface gravity.  The surface gravity varies during the pulsations, dropping to extremely low values as the star passes through its largest size.  The temperature varies by about 1,000 K, being hottest when the star is rising towards a maximum.  Integrated radial velocities indicate that during the largest pulsations, the location of the reversing layer in the atmosphere moves by nearly 90% of the average stellar radius.

text: The mesosphere (middle atmosphere)  is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. The mesosphere is located about 50-80/85 km above Earth's surface. The stratosphere (middle atmosphere) is a layer of Earth's atmosphere that is stratified in temperature and is situated between about 10 km and 50 km altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes, while at the poles it starts at about 8 km altitude. The stratosphere sits directly above the troposphere and directly below the mesosphere. The troposphere (lower atmosphere) is the densest layer of the atmosphere.

text: The

text: mesosphere

text: (middle atmosphere)  is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. The mesosphere is located about 50-80/85 km above Earth's surface. The

text: stratosphere

text: (middle atmosphere) is a layer of Earth's atmosphere that is stratified in temperature and is situated between about 10 km and 50 km altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes, while at the poles it starts at about 8 km altitude. The stratosphere sits directly above the troposphere and directly below the mesosphere. The

text: troposphere

text: (lower atmosphere) is the densest layer of the atmosphere.

text: The band's sound evolved with the addition of musician Summer Bowman. Her voice lent an ethereal quality to the music on the band's first full-length recording in 1997, Underworld. The dark electronics of the debut EP were still there, but multi-layered with an atmospheric mood and style.

text: The band's sound evolved with the addition of musician Summer Bowman. Her voice lent an

text: ethereal

text: quality to the music on the band's first full-length recording in

text: , Underworld. The dark electronics of the debut EP were still there, but multi-layered with an atmospheric mood and style.

text: Rossby waves are strong winds in the upper troposphere. These operate on a global scale and move from West to East (hence being known as Westerlies). The Rossby waves are themselves a different wind speed from what we experience in the lower troposphere.

text: Rossby wave

text: s are strong winds in the upper

text: troposphere

text: . These operate on a global scale and move from West to East (hence being known as

text: Westerlies

text: ). The Rossby waves are themselves a different wind speed from what we experience in the lower

text: troposphere

text: The human population on Earth is expanding rapidly which goes hand in hand with the degradation of the environment at large measures. Humanity's appetite for needs is disarranging the environment's natural equilibrium. Production industries are venting smoke and discharging chemicals that are polluting water resources. The smoke that is emitted into the atmosphere holds detrimental gases such as carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. The high levels of pollution in the atmosphere form layers that are eventually absorbed into the atmosphere. Organic compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) have generated an unwanted opening in the ozone layer, which emits higher levels of ultraviolet radiation putting the globe at large threat.

text: The human population on Earth is expanding rapidly

text: which goes hand in hand with the degradation of the environment at large measures. Humanity's appetite for needs is disarranging the environment's natural equilibrium. Production industries are venting smoke and discharging chemicals that are polluting water resources. The smoke that is emitted into the atmosphere holds detrimental gases such as carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. The high levels of pollution in the atmosphere form layers that are eventually absorbed into the atmosphere. Organic compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) have generated an unwanted opening in the ozone layer, which emits higher levels of ultraviolet radiation putting the globe at large threat.

text: s from continental ice sheets and alpine glaciers have been developed as temperature proxies since the 1950s. Samuel Epstein was one of the first to demonstrate the applicability of this proxy by measuring oxygen isotopes in Antarctic snow, and also pointed out complications in the stable isotope-temperature correlation caused by the history of the air masses from which the snow formed. Ice cores in Greenland and Antarctica can be thousands of meters thick and record snow isotopic composition of the past few glacial-interglacial cycles. Ice cores can be dated by layer counting on the top and ice flow modeling at depth, with additional age constraints from volcanic ash. Cores from Greenland and Antarctica can be aligned in age at high-resolution by comparing globally well-mixed trace gas (e.g. CH) concentrations in the air bubbles trapped in the cores. Some of the first ice core records from Greenland and Antarctica with age estimates go back to the last 100,000 years, and showed a depletion in δD and δO in the last ice age. The ice core record has since been extended to the last 800,000 years in Antarctica, and at least 250,000 years in Greenland. One of the best δD-based ice core temperature records is from the Vostok ice core in Antarctica, which goes back to 420,000 years. The δD-temperature (of the inversion layer where snow forms) conversion in east Antarctica based on modern spatial gradient of δD (9‰/°C) is ΔT=(ΔδD-8ΔδO)/9, which takes into account variations in seawater isotopic composition caused by global ice volume changes. It should be noted that many local effects can influence ice δD in addition to temperature. These effects include moisture origin and transport pathways, evaporation conditions and precipitation seasonality, which can be accounted for in more complicated models. Nevertheless, the Vostok ice core record shows some very important results: (1) A consistent δD depletion of ~70‰ during the last four glacial periods compared to interglacial times, corresponding to a cooling of 8 °C in Antarctica; (2) A consistent drop of atmospheric CO concentration by 100 ppmv and CH drop by ~300 ppbv during glacial times relative to interglacials, suggesting a role of greenhouse gases in regulating global climate; (3) Antarctic air temperature and greenhouse gas concentration changes precede global ice volume and Greenland air temperature changes during glacial terminations, and greenhouse gases may be an amplifier of insolation forcing during glacial-interglacial cycles. Greenland ice core isotope records, in addition to showing glacial-interglacial cycles, also shows millennial-scale climate oscillations that may reflect reorganization in ocean circulation caused by ice melt charges. There have also been ice core records generated in alpine glacials on different continents. A record from the Andes Mountains in Peru shows a temperature decrease of 5-6 °C in the tropics during the last ice age. A record from the Tibetan plateau shows a similar isotope shift and cooling during the last ice age. Other existing alpine glacial isotope records include Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Mount Altai and West Belukha Plateau in Russia, Mount Logan in Canada, the Fremont Glacier in Wyoming, USA, and the Illimani Ice Core in Bolivia, most of which cover an interval of the Holocene epoch.

text: s from continental ice sheets and alpine glaciers have been developed as temperature proxies since the 1950s. Samuel Epstein was one of the first to demonstrate the applicability of this proxy by measuring oxygen isotopes in Antarctic snow, and also pointed out complications in the stable isotope-temperature correlation caused by the history of the air masses from which the snow formed. Ice cores in Greenland and Antarctica can be thousands of meters thick and record snow isotopic composition of the past few glacial-interglacial cycles. Ice cores can be dated by layer counting on the top and ice flow modeling at depth, with additional age constraints from volcanic ash. Cores from Greenland and Antarctica can be aligned in age at high-resolution by comparing globally well-mixed trace gas (e.g. CH) concentrations in the air bubbles trapped in the cores. Some of the first ice core records from Greenland and Antarctica with age estimates go back to the last 100,000 years, and showed a depletion in δD and δO in the last ice age. The ice core record has since been extended to the last 800,000 years in Antarctica, and at least 250,000 years in Greenland. One of the best δD-based ice core temperature records is from the Vostok ice core in Antarctica, which goes back to 420,000 years. The δD-temperature (of the

text: inversion

text: Andes Mountains

text: in Peru shows a temperature decrease of 5-6 °C in the tropics during the last ice age. A record from the Tibetan plateau shows a similar isotope shift and cooling during the last ice age. Other existing alpine glacial isotope records include Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Mount Altai and West Belukha Plateau in Russia, Mount Logan in Canada, the Fremont Glacier in Wyoming, USA, and the Illimani Ice Core in Bolivia, most of which cover an interval of the

text: Holocene

text: epoch.

text: In late March, the US Air Force Space Command reported that the solar storms of March 7–10 could have temporarily knocked American military satellites offline. NASA also reported that these powerful flares heated the Earth's upper atmosphere with the biggest dose of infrared radiation since 2005. From March 8 to March 10, the thermosphere absorbed 26 billion kWh of energy. Infrared radiation from carbon dioxide and nitric oxide, the two most efficient coolants in the thermosphere, re-radiated 95% of that total back into space.

text: In late March, the US

text: Air Force Space Command

text: reported that the solar storms of March 7–10 could have temporarily knocked American military satellites offline. NASA also reported that these powerful flares heated the Earth's upper atmosphere with the biggest dose of infrared radiation since 2005. From March 8 to March 10, the

text: thermosphere

text: absorbed 26 billion kWh of energy. Infrared radiation from

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: nitric oxide

text: , the two most efficient coolants in the thermosphere, re-radiated 95% of that total back into space.

text: One of the sources of information about the ionosphere and thermosphere comes from ground-based measurements of the intense mid-infrared (3–4 μm) emissions of the trihydrogen cation (). The total emitted power is 1–2 W—an order of magnitude higher than that the near-infrared hydrogen quadrupole emissions. Trihydrogen cation functions as one of main coolers of the ionosphere.

text: One of the sources of information about the ionosphere and thermosphere comes from ground-based measurements of the intense

text: mid-infrared

text: (3–4 μm) emissions of the

text: trihydrogen cation

text: (). The total emitted power is 1–2 W—an order of magnitude higher than that the

text: near-infrared

text: hydrogen

text: quadrupole

text: emissions. Trihydrogen cation functions as one of main coolers of the ionosphere.

text: Polar mesospheric clouds (PMCs) are a diffuse scattering layer of water ice crystals near the summer polar mesopause.

text: Polar mesospheric clouds (PMCs) are a diffuse scattering layer of water ice crystals near the summer polar

text: mesopause

text: Based on the results of the 1968 Kansas experiment, the following universal functions are determined for horizontal mean flow and mean virtual potential temperature,<ref name=b71>{{cite journal|last=Businger|first=J. A.|author-link1=Joost Businger|author2=J. C. Wyngaard |author3=Y. Izumi |author4=E. F. Bradley |title=Flux-profile relationships in the atmospheric surface layer|journal=Journal of The Atmospheric Sciences|date=1971|volume=28|pages=181–189|bibcode = 1971JAtS...28..181B |doi = 10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028

text: Temperature effect: A fog can be caused by a temperature inversion where cold air is pooled at the surface which helped to create the fog, while warmer air sits above it. The inverted boundary between cold air and warm air reflects sound waves back toward the ground, allowing sound that would normally radiate out escaping into the upper atmosphere to instead bounce back and travel near the surface. A temperature inversion increases the distance that lower frequency sounds can travel, by reflecting the sound between the ground and the inversion layer.

text: Temperature effect: A fog can be caused by a

text: temperature inversion

text: where cold air is pooled at the surface which helped to create the fog, while warmer air sits above it. The inverted boundary between cold air and warm air reflects sound waves back toward the ground, allowing sound that would normally radiate out escaping into the upper atmosphere to instead bounce back and travel near the surface. A temperature inversion increases the distance that lower frequency sounds can travel, by reflecting the sound between the ground and the inversion layer.

text: Humans with light skin pigmentation living in low sunlight environments experience increased vitamin D synthesis compared to humans with dark skin pigmentation due to the ability to absorb more sunlight. Almost every part of the human body, including the skeleton, the immune system, and brain requires vitamin D. Sunlight is necessary for the production of vitamin D. Vitamin D production in the skin begins when UV radiation penetrates the skin and interacts with a cholesterol-like molecule produce pre-vitamin D3. This reaction only occurs in the presence of medium length UVR, UVB. Most of the UVB and UVC rays are destroyed or reflected by ozone, oxygen, and dust in the atmosphere. UVB reaches the Earth’s surface in the highest amounts when its path is straight and goes through a little layer of atmosphere.

text: Humans with light skin pigmentation living in low sunlight environments experience increased

text: vitamin D

text: synthesis compared to humans with dark skin pigmentation due to the ability to absorb more sunlight. Almost every part of the human body, including the skeleton, the immune system, and brain requires vitamin D. Sunlight is necessary for the production of vitamin D. Vitamin D production in the skin begins when UV radiation penetrates the skin and interacts with a cholesterol-like molecule produce pre-vitamin D3. This reaction only occurs in the presence of medium length UVR, UVB. Most of the UVB and UVC rays are destroyed or reflected by ozone, oxygen, and dust in the atmosphere. UVB reaches the Earth’s surface in the highest amounts when its path is straight and goes through a little layer of atmosphere.

text: The largest-amplitude atmospheric tides are mostly generated in the troposphere and stratosphere when the atmosphere is periodically heated as water vapour and ozone absorb solar radiation during the day. The tides generated are then able to propagate away from these source regions and ascend into the mesosphere and thermosphere. Atmospheric tides can be measured as regular fluctuations in wind, temperature, density and pressure. Although atmospheric tides share much in common with ocean tides they have two key distinguishing features:

text: troposphere

text: and

text: stratosphere

text: when the atmosphere is periodically heated as water vapour and ozone absorb solar radiation during the day. The tides generated are then able to propagate away from these source regions and ascend into the

text: mesosphere

text: and

text: thermosphere

text: . Atmospheric tides can be measured as regular fluctuations in wind, temperature, density and pressure. Although atmospheric tides share much in common with ocean tides they have two key distinguishing features:

text: Atmospheres have dramatic effects on the surfaces of rocky bodies. Objects that have no atmosphere, or that have only an exosphere, have terrain that is covered in craters. Without an atmosphere, the planet  has no protection from meteors, and all of them collide with the surface and create craters.

text: Atmospheres have dramatic effects on the surfaces of rocky bodies. Objects that have no atmosphere, or that have only an exosphere, have terrain that is covered in

text: craters

text: . Without an atmosphere, the planet  has no protection from

text: meteors

text: , and all of them collide with the surface and create craters.

text: The severity of the Blizzard of 2003 can be attributed to the unusually favorable atmospheric conditions surrounding the storm (synoptic conditions). Most notably, the storm allowed for cyclogenesis off of the coastal Carolinas, a feature that is common to most major winter storms in the eastern parts of North America. This secondary system fed off the moisture of the Atlantic Ocean and enhanced precipitation totals from North Carolina to Massachusetts. Secondly, a high pressure system was in place over eastern portions of Canada, allowing for cold air to be brought down into the coastal areas in a process known as cold air advection. This cold air ensured that many areas where storms typically produce mixed precipitation received most or all precipitation in the form of snow.

text: The severity of the Blizzard of 2003 can be attributed to the unusually favorable atmospheric conditions surrounding the storm (

text: synoptic

text: conditions). Most notably, the storm allowed for

text: cyclogenesis

text: off of the coastal

text: Carolinas

text: , a feature that is common to most major winter storms in the eastern parts of

text: North America

text: . This secondary system fed off the moisture of the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: and enhanced precipitation totals from

text: North Carolina

text: to

text: Massachusetts

text: . Secondly, a

text: high pressure

text: system was in place over eastern portions of

text: Canada

text: , allowing for cold air to be brought down into the coastal areas in a process known as cold air advection. This cold air ensured that many areas where storms typically produce mixed precipitation received most or all precipitation in the form of snow.

text: Sudden changes in the atmosphere's vertical moisture content and temperature profiles can on random occasions make microwave and UHF & VHF signals propagate hundreds of kilometers up to about 2,000 kilometers (1,300 mi)—and for ducting mode even farther—beyond the normal radio-horizon. The inversion layer is mostly observed over high pressure regions, but there are several tropospheric weather conditions which create these randomly occurring propagation modes. Inversion layer's altitude for non-ducting is typically found between 100 meters (300 ft) to about 1 kilometer (3,000 ft) and for ducting about 500 meters to 3 kilometers (1,600 to 10,000 ft), and the duration of the events are typically from several hours up to several days. Higher frequencies experience the most dramatic increase of signal strengths, while on low-VHF and HF the effect is negligible. Propagation path attenuation may be below free-space loss. Some of the lesser inversion types related to warm ground and cooler air moisture content occur regularly at certain times of the year and time of day. A typical example could be the late summer, early morning tropospheric enhancements that bring in signals from distances up to few hundred kilometers for a couple of hours, until undone by the Sun's warming effect.

text: Sudden changes in the atmosphere's vertical moisture content and temperature profiles can on random occasions make

text: microwave

text: and

text: UHF

text: VHF

text: signals propagate hundreds of kilometers up to about 2,000 kilometers (1,300 mi)—and for ducting mode even farther—beyond the normal radio-horizon. The

text: inversion layer

text: is mostly observed over high pressure regions, but there are several tropospheric weather conditions which create these randomly occurring propagation modes. Inversion layer's altitude for non-ducting is typically found between 100 meters (300 ft) to about 1 kilometer (3,000 ft) and for ducting about 500 meters to 3 kilometers (1,600 to 10,000 ft), and the duration of the events are typically from several hours up to several days. Higher frequencies experience the most dramatic increase of signal strengths, while on low-VHF and HF the effect is negligible. Propagation path attenuation may be below free-space loss. Some of the lesser inversion types related to warm ground and cooler air moisture content occur regularly at certain times of the year and time of day. A typical example could be the late summer, early morning tropospheric enhancements that bring in signals from distances up to few hundred kilometers for a couple of hours, until undone by the Sun's warming effect.

text: Exosphere's next race was the Roman Consul Stakes. Entering the straight 10 lengths behind the leader, he won by 3 lengths, breaking the race record by over half a second. Exosphere had one more race, where he failed to place, before being spelled.

text: Exosphere's next race was the

text: Roman Consul Stakes

text: . Entering the straight 10 lengths behind the leader, he won by 3 lengths, breaking the race record by over half a second. Exosphere had one more race, where he failed to place, before being spelled.

text: The tropopause is the boundary in the Earth's atmosphere between the troposphere and the stratosphere.

text: The tropopause is the boundary in the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: between the

text: troposphere

text: and the

text: stratosphere

text: Temperature inversions occur most frequently along coastal areas bordering large bodies of water. This is the result of natural onshore movement of cool, humid air shortly after sunset when the ground air cools more quickly than the upper air layers. The same action may take place in the morning when the rising sun warms the upper layers.

text: Some researchers believe, however, that the proposed lack of an ozone layer, as expected during periods of low concentrations of atmospheric oxygen, in combination with lower solar intensity during that time period should have precluded the absence of glaciation without an intense greenhouse effect.

text: Some researchers believe, however, that the proposed lack of an

text: ozone layer

text: , as expected during periods of low concentrations of atmospheric oxygen, in combination with lower solar intensity during that time period should have precluded the absence of glaciation without an intense

text: greenhouse effect

text: Ozone in the stratosphere is mostly produced from short-wave ultraviolet rays between 240 and 160 nm. Oxygen starts to absorb weakly at 240 nm in the Herzberg bands, but most of the oxygen is dissociated by absorption in the strong Schumann–Runge bands between 200 and 160 nm where ozone does not absorb. While shorter wavelength light, extending to even the X-Ray limit, is energetic enough to dissociate molecular oxygen, there is relatively little of it, and, the strong solar emission at Lyman-alpha, 121 nm, falls at a point where molecular oxygen absorption is a minimum.

text: Ozone in the stratosphere is mostly produced from short-wave ultraviolet rays between 240 and 160 nm. Oxygen starts to absorb weakly at 240 nm in the Herzberg bands, but most of the oxygen is dissociated by absorption in the strong

text: Schumann–Runge bands

text: between 200 and 160 nm where ozone does not absorb. While shorter wavelength light, extending to even the X-Ray limit, is energetic enough to dissociate molecular oxygen, there is relatively little of it, and, the strong solar emission at Lyman-alpha, 121 nm, falls at a point where molecular oxygen absorption is a minimum.

text: The Penelopes’ style is a mix of indie and dream pop, combined with disco and electro tight groove, layered with lush and melodies. Their major influences are Cocteau Twins, The Cure, New Order, The Smiths, David Bowie, Joy Division, Devo, and Happy Mondays. The band often mentioned Ride, Slowdive or Prefab Sprout, which Axel considered it as "guilty pleasure". The press often references The Penelopes to Pixies, Daft Punk, M83, and Air.

text: The Penelopes’ style is a mix of indie and

text: dream pop

text: , combined with

text: disco

text: and

text: electro

text: tight groove, layered with lush and melodies. Their major influences are

text: Cocteau Twins

text: The Cure

text: New Order

text: The Smiths

text: David Bowie

text: Joy Division

text: Devo

text: , and

text: Happy Mondays

text: . The band often mentioned

text: Ride

text: Slowdive

text: or

text: Prefab Sprout

text: , which Axel considered it as "guilty pleasure". The press often references The Penelopes to

text: Pixies

text: Daft Punk

text: , and

text: Air

text: The combustion burner reached a temperature of . The alcohol-water fuel was pumped along the double wall of the main combustion burner. This regenerative cooling heated the fuel and cooled the combustion chamber. The fuel was then pumped into the main burner chamber through 1,224 nozzles, which assured the correct mixture of alcohol and oxygen at all times. Small holes also permitted some alcohol to escape directly into the combustion chamber, forming a cooled boundary layer that further protected the wall of the chamber, especially at the throat where the chamber was narrowest. The boundary layer alcohol ignited on contact with the atmosphere, accounting for the long, diffuse exhaust plume. By contrast, later, post-V-2 engine designs not employing this alcohol boundary layer cooling show a translucent plume with shock diamonds.

text: The combustion burner reached a temperature of . The alcohol-water fuel was pumped along the double wall of the main combustion burner. This

text: regenerative cooling

text: heated the fuel and cooled the

text: combustion chamber

text: . The fuel was then pumped into the main burner chamber through 1,224 nozzles, which assured the correct mixture of alcohol and oxygen at all times. Small holes also permitted some alcohol to escape directly into the combustion chamber, forming a cooled

text: boundary layer

text: that further protected the wall of the chamber, especially at the throat where the chamber was narrowest. The boundary layer alcohol ignited on contact with the atmosphere, accounting for the long, diffuse exhaust plume. By contrast, later, post-V-2 engine designs not employing this alcohol boundary layer cooling show a translucent plume with

text: shock diamond

text: s.

text: This optical phenomenon occurs because rays of light are strongly bent when they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep thermal inversion where an atmospheric duct has formed.  A thermal inversion is an atmospheric condition where warmer air exists in a well-defined layer above a layer of significantly cooler air.  This temperature inversion is the opposite of what is normally the case; air is usually warmer close to the surface, and cooler higher up.  In calm weather, a layer of significantly warmer air can rest over colder dense air, forming an atmospheric duct which acts like a refracting lens, producing a series of both inverted and erect images.

text: This optical phenomenon occurs because rays of light are strongly bent when they pass through air layers of different temperatures in a steep

text: thermal inversion

text: where an

text: atmospheric duct

text: has formed.  A thermal inversion is an atmospheric condition where warmer air exists in a well-defined layer above a layer of significantly cooler air.  This temperature inversion is the opposite of what is normally the case; air is usually warmer close to the surface, and cooler higher up.  In calm weather, a layer of significantly warmer air can rest over colder dense air, forming an atmospheric duct which acts like a refracting

text: lens

text: , producing a series of both inverted and erect images.

text: The oceanic or limnological mixed layer is a layer in which active turbulence has homogenized some range of depths. The surface mixed layer is a layer where this turbulence is generated by winds, surface heat fluxes, or processes such as evaporation or sea ice formation which result in an increase in salinity.   The atmospheric mixed layer is a zone having nearly constant potential temperature and specific humidity with height. The depth of the atmospheric mixed layer is known as the mixing height.  Turbulence typically plays a role in the formation of fluid mixed layers.

text: The oceanic or

text: limnological

text: mixed layer is a layer in which active turbulence has homogenized some range of depths. The surface mixed layer is a layer where this turbulence is generated by winds, surface heat fluxes, or processes such as evaporation or sea ice formation which result in an increase in salinity.   The atmospheric mixed layer is a zone having nearly constant

text: potential temperature

text: and

text: specific humidity

text: with height. The depth of the atmospheric mixed layer is known as the mixing height.

text: Turbulence

text: typically plays a role in the formation of

text: fluid

text: mixed layers.

text: Glade Park is located at  (38.993572,-108.749886), and is  west of downtown Grand Junction, Colorado, the largest city on Colorado's western slope.  To access Glade Park, one must either drive up Little Park Road, or drive up the Rim Rock Drive in Colorado National Monument, gaining approximately  elevation over  of hairpin curves.  The views on the drive are spectacular, encompassing red sandstone canyons and sheer rock faces. The elevation of Glade Park is approximately .  Due to the elevation,  the temperature in Glade Park is typically ~10 °F cooler than in Grand Junction, though in winter temperatures can be significantly warmer than in Grand Junction if an inversion layer is present in the Grand Valley below.

text: Glade Park is located at  (38.993572,-108.749886), and is  west of downtown

text: Grand Junction, Colorado

text: , the largest city on Colorado's western slope.  To access Glade Park, one must either drive up Little Park Road, or drive up the

text: Rim Rock Drive

text: in

text: Colorado National Monument

text: , gaining approximately  elevation over  of hairpin curves.  The views on the drive are spectacular, encompassing red sandstone canyons and sheer rock faces. The elevation of Glade Park is approximately .  Due to the elevation,  the temperature in Glade Park is typically ~10 °F cooler than in Grand Junction, though in winter temperatures can be significantly warmer than in Grand Junction if an inversion layer is present in the Grand Valley below.

text: The troposphere hosts four cloud layers: methane clouds at about 1.2 bar, hydrogen sulfide and ammonia clouds at 3–10 bar, ammonium hydrosulfide clouds at 20–40  bar, and finally water clouds below 50 bar. Only the upper two cloud layers have been observed directly—the deeper clouds remain speculative. Above the clouds lie several tenuous layers of photochemical haze. Discrete bright tropospheric clouds are rare on Uranus, probably due to sluggish convection in the planet's interior. Nevertheless observations of such clouds were used to measure the planet's zonal winds, which are remarkably fast with speeds up to 240 m/s.

text: The troposphere hosts four cloud layers: methane clouds at about 1.2

text: bar

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: and

text: ammonia

text: clouds at 3–10 bar,

text: ammonium hydrosulfide

text: clouds at 20–40  bar, and finally water clouds below 50 bar. Only the upper two cloud layers have been observed directly—the deeper clouds remain speculative. Above the clouds lie several tenuous layers of photochemical haze. Discrete bright tropospheric clouds are rare on Uranus, probably due to sluggish

text: convection

text: in the planet's interior. Nevertheless observations of such clouds were used to measure the planet's zonal winds, which are remarkably fast with speeds up to 240 m/s.

text: Under almost all circumstances, potential temperature increases upwards in the atmosphere, unlike actual temperature which may increase or decrease. Potential temperature is conserved for all dry adiabatic processes, and as such is an important quantity in the planetary boundary layer (which is often very close to being dry adiabatic).

text: Under almost all circumstances, potential temperature increases upwards in the atmosphere, unlike actual temperature which may increase or decrease. Potential temperature is conserved for all dry adiabatic processes, and as such is an important quantity in the

text: planetary boundary layer

text: (which is often very close to being dry adiabatic).

text: The SST was seen as particularly offensive due to its sonic boom and the potential for its engine exhaust to damage the ozone layer.  Both problems impacted the thinking of lawmakers, and eventually Congress dropped funding for the US SST program in 1971, and all overland commercial supersonic flight was banned.Presidential advisor Russell Train warned that a fleet of 500 SSTs flying at 65,000 ft. for a period of years could raise stratospheric water content by as much as 50% to 100%. According to Train, this could lead to greater ground-level heat and hamper the formation of ozone. In relation to stratospheric water and its potential to increase ground temperatures, although not mentioning Concorde as the source of the "recent decline in water vapor is unknown", in 2010 the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration noted that Stratospheric Water Vapor levels in the 1980s and 1990s were higher then that in the 2000s, by approximately 10%, with Susan Solomon of NOAA calculating that it is this change which is responsible for the slow down in the rise in surface temperatures from global warming by about 25 percent when compared to the warming rate in the 1990s. Russell Train's other, water-ozone concern, was however countered by Fred Singer in a letter to the journal Nature in 1971, "which upset those who claimed that supersonic transports might seriously affect stratospheric ozone".

text: The SST was seen as particularly offensive due to its

text: sonic boom

text: and the potential for its engine exhaust to damage the

text: ozone layer

text: .  Both problems impacted the thinking of lawmakers, and eventually Congress dropped funding for the US SST program in 1971, and all overland commercial supersonic flight was banned.Presidential advisor Russell Train warned that a fleet of 500 SSTs flying at 65,000 ft. for a period of years could raise stratospheric water content by as much as 50% to 100%. According to Train, this could lead to greater ground-level heat and hamper the formation of

text: ozone

text: . In relation to stratospheric water and its potential to increase ground temperatures, although not mentioning Concorde as the source of the "recent decline in water vapor is unknown", in 2010 the

text: noted that

text: Stratospheric Water Vapor

text: levels in the 1980s and 1990s were higher then that in the 2000s, by

entity_name: Atmospheric chemistry observational databases

text: approximately

text: 10%, with Susan Solomon of NOAA calculating that it is this change which is responsible for the

text: slow down in the rise

text: in surface temperatures from

text: global warming

text: by about 25 percent when compared to the

text: warming rate in the 1990s

text: . Russell Train's other, water-ozone concern, was however countered by

text: Fred Singer

text: in a letter to the journal Nature in 1971, "which upset those who claimed that supersonic transports might seriously affect stratospheric ozone".

text: A combination of atmospheric and oceanic conditions must be just right in order for June Gloom to form, and these conditions usually align only around May and June of each year. These include the marine layer effect common to the west coast of the United States, an atmospheric inversion caused by subsidence of high-pressure air from the subtropical ridge, and sufficiently cool ocean water off the coast. The June Gloom pattern is also enhanced by the Catalina eddy local to southern California.

text: A combination of atmospheric and oceanic conditions must be just right in order for June Gloom to form, and these conditions usually align only around May and June of each year. These include the marine layer effect common to the west coast of the United States, an atmospheric

text: inversion

text: caused by subsidence of high-pressure air from the

text: subtropical ridge

text: , and sufficiently cool ocean water off the coast. The June Gloom pattern is also enhanced by the

text: Catalina eddy

text: local to southern California.

text: There are many regions where an Ekman layer is theoretically plausible; they include the bottom of the atmosphere, near the surface of the earth and ocean, the bottom of the ocean, near the sea floor and at the top of the ocean, near the air-water interface. Different boundary conditions are appropriate for each of these different situations. Each of these situations can be accounted for through the boundary conditions applied to the resulting system of ordinary differential equations. The separate cases of top and bottom boundary layers are shown below.

text: There are many regions where an Ekman layer is theoretically plausible; they include the bottom of the atmosphere, near the surface of the earth and ocean, the bottom of the ocean, near the

text: sea floor

text: and at the top of the ocean, near the air-water interface. Different

text: boundary conditions

text: are appropriate for each of these different situations. Each of these situations can be accounted for through the boundary conditions applied to the resulting system of ordinary differential equations. The separate cases of top and bottom boundary layers are shown below.

text: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere, and is also where all weather takes place. It contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and 99% of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols. The average depths of the troposphere are  in the tropics,  in the mid latitudes, and  in the polar regions in winter. The lowest part of the troposphere, where friction with the Earth's surface influences air flow, is the planetary boundary layer. This layer is typically a few hundred meters to  deep depending on the landform and time of day. Atop the troposphere is the tropopause, which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere. The tropopause is an inversion layer, where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness.

text: The troposphere is the lowest portion of

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , and is also where all weather takes place. It contains approximately 75% of the

text: atmosphere

text: 's

text: mass

text: and 99% of the total mass of

text: water vapor

text: and

text: aerosol

text: s. The average depths of the troposphere are  in the

text: tropics

text: ,  in the mid latitudes, and  in the

text: polar regions

text: in winter. The lowest part of the troposphere, where

text: friction

text: with the Earth's surface influences air flow, is the

text: planetary boundary layer

text: . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to  deep depending on the

text: landform

text: and time of day. Atop the troposphere is the

text: tropopause

text: , which is the border between the troposphere and

text: stratosphere

text: . The tropopause is an

text: inversion layer

text: , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness.

text: Slipher used spectroscopy to investigate the rotation periods of planets and the composition of planetary atmospheres. In 1912, he was the first to observe the shift of spectral lines of galaxies, making him the discoverer of galactic redshifts. In 1914, Slipher also made the first discovery of the rotation of spiral galaxies.He discovered the sodium layer in 1929.  He was responsible for hiring Clyde Tombaugh and supervised the work that led to the discovery of Pluto in 1930.

text: Slipher used

text: spectroscopy

text: to investigate the rotation periods of

text: planets

text: and the composition of planetary atmospheres. In 1912, he was the first to observe the shift of spectral lines of

text: galaxies

text: , making him the discoverer of galactic

text: redshifts

text: . In 1914, Slipher also made the first discovery of the rotation of spiral galaxies.He discovered the

text: sodium layer

text: in 1929.  He was responsible for hiring

text: Clyde Tombaugh

text: and supervised the work that led to the discovery of

text: Pluto

text: in 1930.

text: Although glass as a material is known for its chemical stability resistance to natural deterioration, impurities and variations in glass composition can cause considerable chemical instability that may further destructive processes (Vogel et al. 2007, 7).  Glass is also susceptible to atmospheric pollution, and high levels of humidity or moisture over long periods of time, both of which can speed up the corrosion rate of chemically unstable glass.  Over time, corrosion, marked by pitting or pocking of the glass, can deepen and spread until the surface layer itself breaks apart, uncovering the vulnerable, damaged core, until it becomes opaque (Rauch 2004, 3).  This opacification occurs as water seeps through the subsequent cracks, causing the formation of opaque syngenite and gypsum crystals that block light from filtering through the previously translucent glass (Rauch 2004, 3).  As these crystals continue to grow, they pose an even greater danger to the glass, eventually breaking through the surface and dislodging the delicate paint layer, or even causing cracks (Rauch 2004, 4).  Glass plates can also darken or cloud as the result of the oxidisation of certain metals, such as manganese, which was a common addition to late medieval glass (Rauch 2004, 4).

text: The Stratosphere opened on April 30, 1996. Shortly after opening, the Stratosphere Corporation was forced to file bankruptcy. This caused construction on the second tower to stop, with only a few stories partially built, and it allowed Carl Icahn to gain control through one of his companies by buying a majority of the outstanding bonds.

text: The Stratosphere opened on April 30, 1996. Shortly after opening, the Stratosphere Corporation was forced to file

text: bankruptcy

text: . This caused construction on the second tower to stop, with only a few stories partially built, and it allowed

text: Carl Icahn

text: to gain control through one of his companies by buying a majority of the outstanding bonds.

text: Because long-term climate stability would be required for sustaining a human population, the use of especially powerful fluorine-bearing greenhouse gases, possibly including sulfur hexafluoride or halocarbons such as chlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs) and perfluorocarbons (or PFCs), has been suggested. These gases are proposed for introduction because they produce a greenhouse effect many times stronger than that of . This can conceivably be done by sending rockets with payloads of compressed CFCs on collision courses with Mars. When the rockets crash onto the surface they would release their payloads into the atmosphere. A steady barrage of these "CFC rockets" would need to be sustained for a little over a decade while Mars changes chemically and becomes warmer. However, their lifetime due to photolysis would require an annual replenishing of 170 kilotons, and they would destroy any ozone layer.

text: Because long-term climate stability would be required for sustaining a human population, the use of especially powerful

text: fluorine

text: -bearing greenhouse gases, possibly including

text: sulfur hexafluoride

text: or halocarbons such as

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (or CFCs) and

text: perfluorocarbon

text: s (or PFCs), has been suggested. These gases are proposed for introduction because they produce a greenhouse effect many times stronger than that of . This can conceivably be done by sending rockets with payloads of compressed CFCs on collision courses with Mars. When the rockets crash onto the surface they would release their payloads into the atmosphere. A steady barrage of these "CFC rockets" would need to be sustained for a little over a decade while Mars changes chemically and becomes warmer. However, their lifetime due to photolysis would require an annual replenishing of 170 kilotons, and they would destroy any

text: ozone layer

text: It is also possible to define the tropopause in terms of chemical composition. For example, the lower stratosphere has much higher ozone concentrations than the upper troposphere, but much lower water vapor concentrations, so appropriate cutoffs can be used.

text: It is also possible to define the tropopause in terms of chemical composition. For example, the lower stratosphere has much higher

text: ozone

text: concentrations than the upper troposphere, but much lower

text: water vapor

text: concentrations, so appropriate cutoffs can be used.

text: In synthesizing core shell nanoparticles, scientists have studied and found several wet chemical methods, such as chemical precipitation, sol-gel, microemulsion and inverse micelle formation. Those methods have been used to grow core shell chalcogenide nanoparticles with an emphasis on better control of size, shape, and size distribution. To control the growth of nanoparticles with tunable optical properties, supporing matrices such as glasses, zeolites, polymers or fatty acids have been used. In addition, to prepare nanoparticles of sulfides, selenides and tellurides, the Langmuir–Blodgett film technique has been used successfully. In comparison to wet chemical methods, electrochemical synthesis is more desirable, such as the use of aqueous solvents rather than toxic organic solvents, formation of conformal deposits, room-temperature deposition, low cost, and precise control of composition and thickness of semiconductor coating on metal nanoparticles. However, owing to the difficulty of preparing electrically addressable arrays of nanoparticles, the use of electrochemical techniques to produce core-shell nanoparticles was difficult. Recently, Cadmium Sulfide (CdS) and Copper iodide (CuI) was electrochemically grown on a 3-D nanoelectrode array via layer-by-layer depositing of alternating layers of nanoparticles and Polyoxometalate(POM).

text: In synthesizing core shell nanoparticles, scientists have studied and found several wet chemical methods, such as chemical precipitation, sol-gel, microemulsion and inverse

text: micelle

text: formation. Those methods have been used to grow core shell

text: chalcogenide

text: nanoparticles

text: with an emphasis on better control of size, shape, and size distribution. To control the growth of nanoparticles with tunable optical properties, supporing matrices such as glasses, zeolites, polymers or fatty acids have been used. In addition, to prepare nanoparticles of sulfides, selenides and tellurides, the

text: Langmuir–Blodgett film

text: technique has been used successfully. In comparison to wet chemical methods, electrochemical synthesis is more desirable, such as the use of aqueous solvents rather than toxic organic solvents, formation of conformal deposits, room-temperature deposition, low cost, and precise control of composition and thickness of semiconductor coating on metal nanoparticles. However, owing to the difficulty of preparing electrically addressable arrays of nanoparticles, the use of electrochemical techniques to produce core-shell nanoparticles was difficult. Recently,

text: Cadmium Sulfide

text: (CdS) and

text: Copper iodide

text: (CuI) was electrochemically grown on a 3-D nanoelectrode array via layer-by-layer depositing of alternating layers of nanoparticles and

text: Polyoxometalate

text: (POM).

text: Optical fingerprint imaging involves capturing a digital image of the print using visible light.  This type of sensor is, in essence, a specialized digital camera.  The top layer of the sensor, where the finger is placed, is known as the touch surface.  Beneath this layer is a light-emitting phosphor layer which illuminates the surface of the finger.  The light reflected from the finger passes through the phosphor layer to an array of solid state pixels (a charge-coupled device) which captures a visual image of the fingerprint.  A scratched or dirty touch surface can cause a bad image of the fingerprint.  A disadvantage of this type of sensor is the fact that the imaging capabilities are affected by the quality of skin on the finger.  For instance, a dirty or marked finger is difficult to image properly.  Also, it is possible for an individual to erode the outer layer of skin on the fingertips to the point where the fingerprint is no longer visible. It can also be easily fooled by an image of a fingerprint if not coupled with a "live finger" detector. However, unlike capacitive sensors, this sensor technology is not susceptible to electrostatic discharge damage.

text: Optical fingerprint imaging involves capturing a digital image of the print using

text: visible light

text: .  This type of sensor is, in essence, a specialized

text: digital camera

text: .  The top layer of the sensor, where the finger is placed, is known as the touch surface.  Beneath this layer is a light-emitting phosphor layer which illuminates the surface of the finger.  The light reflected from the finger passes through the phosphor layer to an array of

text: solid state

text: pixels (a

text: charge-coupled device

text: ) which captures a visual image of the fingerprint.  A scratched or dirty touch surface can cause a bad image of the fingerprint.  A disadvantage of this type of sensor is the fact that the imaging capabilities are affected by the quality of skin on the finger.  For instance, a dirty or marked finger is difficult to image properly.  Also, it is possible for an individual to erode the outer layer of skin on the fingertips to the point where the fingerprint is no longer visible. It can also be easily fooled by an image of a fingerprint if not coupled with a "live finger" detector. However, unlike capacitive sensors, this sensor technology is not susceptible to electrostatic discharge damage.

text: The Novaya Zemlya effect is a polar mirage caused by high refraction of sunlight between atmospheric thermoclines. The Novaya Zemlya effect will give the impression that the sun is rising earlier or setting later than it actually should (astronomically speaking).  Depending on the meteorological situation the effect will present the sun as a line or a square (which is sometimes referred to as the "rectangular sun"), made up of flattened hourglass shapes. The mirage requires rays of sunlight to have an inversion layer for hundreds of kilometres, and depends on the inversion layer's temperature gradient. The sunlight must bend to the Earth's curvature at least  to allow an elevation rise of 5 degrees for sight of the sun disk.

text: The

text: Novaya Zemlya effect

text: is a

text: polar

text: mirage caused by high refraction of sunlight between atmospheric

text: thermocline

text: s. The Novaya Zemlya effect will give the impression that the sun is rising earlier or setting later than it actually should (astronomically speaking).  Depending on the

text: meteorological

text: situation the effect will present the sun as a line or a square (which is sometimes referred to as the "rectangular sun"), made up of flattened hourglass shapes. The mirage requires rays of sunlight to have an

text: inversion layer

text: for hundreds of kilometres, and depends on the inversion layer's

text: temperature gradient

text: . The sunlight must bend to the Earth's curvature at least  to allow an elevation rise of 5 degrees for sight of the sun disk.

text: Earth is too large to lose a significant proportion of its atmosphere through Jeans escape. The current rate of loss is about three kilograms (3 kg) of hydrogen and 50 grams (50 g) of helium per second. The exosphere is the high-altitude region where atmospheric density is sparse and Jeans escape occurs. Jeans escape calculations assuming an exosphere temperature of 1,800  K  show that to deplete O ions by a factor of e (2.718...) would take nearly a billion years. 1,800 K is higher than the actual observed exosphere temperature; at the actual average exosphere temperature, depletion of O ions would not occur even over a trillion years. Furthermore, most oxygen on Earth is bound as O, which is too massive to escape Earth by Jeans escape.

text: Earth is too large to lose a significant proportion of its atmosphere through Jeans escape. The current rate of loss is about three kilograms (3 kg) of hydrogen and 50 grams (50 g) of helium per second. The

text: exosphere

text: is the high-altitude region where atmospheric density is sparse and Jeans escape occurs. Jeans escape calculations assuming an exosphere temperature of 1,800  K  show that to deplete O ions by a factor of

text: e

text: (2.718...) would take nearly a billion years. 1,800 K is higher than the actual observed exosphere temperature; at the actual average exosphere temperature, depletion of O ions would not occur even over a trillion years. Furthermore, most oxygen on Earth is bound as O, which is too massive to escape Earth by Jeans escape.

text: Its southern counterpart, the aurora australis (or the southern lights), has features that are almost identical to the aurora borealis and changes simultaneously with changes in the northern auroral zone. It is visible from high southern latitudes in Antarctica, Chile, Argentina, New Zealand, and Australia. Auroras also occur on other planets. Similar to the Earth's aurora, they are also visible close to the planets’  magnetic poles.Auroras also occur poleward of the auroral zone as either diffuse patches or arcs, which can be sub-visual.

text: Its southern counterpart, the aurora australis (or the southern lights), has features that are almost identical to the aurora borealis and changes simultaneously with changes in the northern auroral zone. It is visible from high southern latitudes in

text: Antarctica

text: Chile

text: Argentina

text: New Zealand

text: , and

text: Australia

text: . Auroras also occur

text: on other planets

text: . Similar to the Earth's aurora, they are also visible close to the planets’  magnetic poles.Auroras also occur poleward of the auroral zone as either diffuse patches or arcs, which can be sub-visual.

text: Buisson and Charles Fabry discovered the ozone layer in 1913.

text: Buisson and Charles Fabry discovered the

text: ozone layer

text: in 1913.

text: Stratosphere is the debut studio album by American space-rock band Duster. The album was released on 24 February 1998 on the Up Records label in the United States.

text: Stratosphere is the debut studio album by American space-rock band

text: Duster

text: . The album was released on 24 February 1998 on the

text: Up Records

text: label in the United States.

text: Clouds that form above the mesosphere have a generally cirriform structure, but are not given Latin names based on that characteristic.  Polar mesospheric clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and are given the Latin name noctilucent which refers to their illumination during deep twilight. They are sub-classified alpha-numerically according to specific details of their cirriform physical structure.

text: Clouds that form above the mesosphere have a generally cirriform structure, but are not given Latin names based on that characteristic.  Polar mesospheric clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and are given the Latin name

text: noctilucent

text: which refers to their illumination during deep

text: twilight

text: . They are sub-classified alpha-numerically according to specific details of their cirriform physical structure.

text: At thermospheric heights, attenuation of atmospheric waves, mainly due to collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma, becomes significant so that at above about 150 km altitude, all wave modes gradually become external waves, and the Hough functions degenerate to spherical functions; e.g., mode (1, -2) develops to the spherical function  P(θ), mode (2, 2) becomes P(θ), with θ the co-latitude, etc.. Within the thermosphere, mode (1, -2)  is the predominant mode reaching diurnal temperature amplitudes at the exosphere of at least 140 K  and horizontal winds of the order of  100 m/s and more increasing with geomagnetic activity. It is responsible for the electric Sq currents within the ionospheric dynamo region between about 100 and 200  km altitude.

text: At thermospheric heights,

text: attenuation

text: of atmospheric waves, mainly due to collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma, becomes significant so that at above about 150 km altitude, all wave modes gradually become external waves, and the

text: Hough function

text: s degenerate to

text: spherical function

text: s; e.g., mode (1, -2) develops to the spherical function  P(θ), mode (2, 2) becomes P(θ), with θ the co-latitude, etc.. Within the

text: thermosphere

text: , mode (1, -2)  is the predominant mode reaching diurnal temperature amplitudes at the

text: exosphere

text: of at least 140 K  and horizontal winds of the order of  100 m/s and more increasing with geomagnetic activity. It is responsible for the electric Sq currents within the

text: ionospheric dynamo region

text: between about 100 and 200  km altitude.

text: Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes  - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals.  Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles.

text: Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes  - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals.  Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of

text: light scattering by particles

text: The sodium layer refers to a layer within the Earth's mesosphere of unbound, non-ionized atoms of sodium. The altitude of this layer is usually located between 80–105 km (50–65 miles) and has a depth of about . The sodium comes from the ablation of meteors. Atmospheric sodium below this layer is normally chemically bound in compounds such as sodium oxide, while above the layer the atoms tend to be ionized.

text: The sodium layer refers to a layer within the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: mesosphere

text: of unbound, non-

text: ion

text: ized

text: atom

text: s of

text: sodium

text: . The altitude of this layer is usually located between 80–105 km (50–65 miles) and has a depth of about . The sodium comes from the

text: ablation

text: of

text: meteors

text: . Atmospheric sodium below this layer is normally chemically bound in compounds such as

text: sodium oxide

text: , while above the layer the atoms tend to be ionized.

text: By gaining tropical characteristics, an extratropical low may transit into a subtropical depression or storm.  A subtropical depression/storm may further gain tropical characteristics to become a pure tropical depression or storm, which may eventually develop into a hurricane, and there are at least three cases of tropical storms transforming into a subtropical storm (Hurricane Klaus in 1984, Tropical Storm Allison in 2001 and Tropical Storm Lee in 2011). Generally, a tropical storm or tropical depression is not called subtropical while it is becoming extratropical, after hitting either land or colder waters.  This transition normally requires significant instability through the atmosphere, with temperature differences between the underlying ocean and the mid-levels of the troposphere requiring over 20 °C, or 72 °F, of contrast in this roughly  layer of the lower atmosphere.  The mode of the sea surface temperatures that subtropical cyclones form over is . Transition from subtropical cyclones into tropical cyclones occurs only in very rare cases over the South Atlantic Ocean, such as Hurricane Catarina in 2004.

text: By gaining tropical characteristics, an extratropical low may transit into a subtropical depression or storm.  A subtropical depression/storm may further gain tropical characteristics to become a pure tropical depression or storm, which may eventually develop into a hurricane, and there are at least three cases of tropical storms transforming into a subtropical storm (

text: Hurricane Klaus

text: in 1984,

text: Tropical Storm Allison

text: in 2001 and

text: Tropical Storm Lee

text: in 2011). Generally, a tropical storm or tropical depression is not called subtropical while it is becoming extratropical, after hitting either land or colder waters.  This transition normally requires significant instability through the atmosphere, with temperature differences between the underlying ocean and the mid-levels of the

text: troposphere

text: requiring over 20 °C, or 72 °F, of contrast in this roughly  layer of the lower atmosphere.  The

text: mode

text: of the sea surface temperatures that subtropical cyclones form over is . Transition from subtropical cyclones into tropical cyclones occurs only in very rare cases over the South Atlantic Ocean, such as

text: Hurricane Catarina

text: in 2004.

text: The logarithmic profile of wind speeds is generally limited to the lowest 100 m of the atmosphere (i.e., the surface layer of the atmospheric boundary layer). The rest of the atmosphere is composed of the remaining part of the planetary boundary layer (up to around 1000 m) and the troposphere or free atmosphere.  In the free atmosphere, geostrophic wind relationships should be used.

text: The

text: logarithmic

text: profile of wind speeds is generally limited to the lowest 100 m of the atmosphere (i.e., the

text: surface layer

text: of the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: ). The rest of the atmosphere is composed of the remaining part of the planetary boundary layer (up to around 1000 m) and the troposphere or free atmosphere.  In the free atmosphere, geostrophic wind relationships should be used.

text: Data, existing as of 2014, allowed the scientists to build a model of seasonal changes in Pluto's atmosphere. During the previous aphelion (1865) significant quantity of volatile ices was present in both northern and southern hemispheres. Approximately at the same time, the equinox occurred and the southern hemisphere became tilted towards the Sun. Local ices began to migrate to the northern hemisphere, and around 1900 the southern one became largely devoid of them. After the following equinox (1987), the southern hemisphere turned away from the Sun. Nonetheless, its surface was already substantially heated, and its big thermal inertia (provided by non-volatile water ice) greatly slowed down its cooling. That is why gases, which now intensively evaporate from northern hemisphere, cannot quickly condense in the southern, and keep accumulating in the atmosphere, increasing its pressure. Around , the southern hemisphere will cool enough to permit intensive condensation of the gases, and they will migrate there from the northern hemisphere, where is polar day. It will last till equinox near aphelion (about 2113). The northern hemisphere will not lose its volatile ices completely, and their evaporation will supply the atmosphere even at the aphelion. Overall change of atmospheric pressure in this model is about 4 times; the minimum was reached near , and the maximum near 2030. Full temperature range is only several degrees.

text: Data, existing as of 2014, allowed the scientists to build a model of seasonal changes in Pluto's atmosphere. During the previous aphelion (1865) significant quantity of volatile ices was present in both northern and southern hemispheres. Approximately at the same time, the equinox occurred and the southern hemisphere became tilted towards the Sun. Local ices began to migrate to the northern hemisphere, and around 1900 the southern one became largely devoid of them. After the following equinox (1987), the southern hemisphere turned away from the Sun. Nonetheless, its surface was already substantially heated, and its big

text: thermal inertia

text: (provided by non-volatile water ice) greatly slowed down its cooling. That is why gases, which now intensively evaporate from northern hemisphere, cannot quickly condense in the southern, and keep accumulating in the atmosphere, increasing its pressure. Around , the southern hemisphere will cool enough to permit intensive condensation of the gases, and they will migrate there from the northern hemisphere, where is polar day. It will last till equinox near aphelion (about 2113). The northern hemisphere will not lose its volatile ices completely, and their evaporation will supply the atmosphere even at the aphelion. Overall change of atmospheric pressure in this model is about 4 times; the minimum was reached near , and the maximum near 2030. Full temperature range is only several degrees.

text: Troposphere 4 is the second successfully launched experimental rocket of the Troposphere program, managed by Jean-Patrice Keka.

text: Troposphere 4 is the second successfully launched experimental

text: rocket

text: of the Troposphere program, managed by Jean-Patrice Keka.

text: Surface currents flow at a 45° angle to the wind due to a balance between the Coriolis force and the drags generated by the wind and the water. If the ocean is divided vertically into thin layers, the magnitude of the velocity (the speed) decreases from a maximum at the surface until it dissipates. The direction also shifts slightly across each subsequent layer (right in the northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere). This is called the Ekman spiral. The layer of water from the surface to the point of dissipation of this spiral is known as the Ekman layer. If all flow over the Ekman layer is integrated, the net transportation is at 90° to the right (left) of the surface wind in the northern (southern) hemisphere.

text: Surface currents flow at a 45° angle to the wind due to a balance between the

text: Coriolis

text: force and the

text: drags

text: generated by the wind and the water. If the ocean is divided vertically into thin layers, the magnitude of the velocity (the speed) decreases from a maximum at the surface until it dissipates. The direction also shifts slightly across each subsequent layer (right in the northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere). This is called the

text: Ekman spiral

text: . The layer of water from the surface to the point of dissipation of this spiral is known as the

text: Ekman layer

text: . If all flow over the Ekman layer is integrated, the net transportation is at 90° to the right (left) of the surface wind in the northern (southern) hemisphere.

text: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions. Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide, the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 °C (-148 °F or 173 K). The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km (53 mi.), but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km. (62 mi.)

text: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the

text: mesosphere

text: and the

text: thermosphere

text: atmospheric

text: regions. Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong

text: radiative cooling

text: from

text: carbon dioxide

text: , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 °C (-148 °F or 173

text: K

text: ). The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km (53 mi.), but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km. (62 mi.)

text: As ozone in the atmosphere prevents most energetic ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the earth, astronomical data in these wavelengths has to be gathered from satellites orbiting above the atmosphere and ozone layer. Most of the light from young hot stars is in the ultraviolet and so study of these wavelengths is important for studying the origins of galaxies. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer, GALEX, is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, which operated until early 2012.

text: As ozone in the atmosphere prevents most energetic ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the earth, astronomical data in these wavelengths has to be gathered from satellites orbiting above the atmosphere and ozone layer. Most of the light from young hot stars is in the ultraviolet and so study of these wavelengths is important for studying the origins of galaxies. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer,

text: GALEX

text: , is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, which operated until early 2012.

text: If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of . It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every  or by a factor of 1/e every , the average scale height of the atmosphere below . However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account.

text: If the entire mass of the atmosphere had a uniform density from sea level, it would terminate abruptly at an altitude of . It actually decreases exponentially with altitude, dropping by half every  or by a factor of 1/

text: e

text: every , the average

text: scale height

text: of the atmosphere below . However, the atmosphere is more accurately modeled with a customized equation for each layer that takes gradients of temperature, molecular composition, solar radiation and gravity into account.

text: Bradley Wiggins, who had won the Tour de France five days earlier, opened the ceremony by ringing the Olympic Bell that hung at one end of the stadium.  Four upper-atmosphere balloons were released, each expected to carry a set of Olympic rings and a camera up to the mid-stratosphere.

text: Bradley Wiggins

text: , who had won the

text: Tour de France

text: five days earlier, opened the ceremony by ringing the

text: Olympic Bell

text: that hung at one end of the stadium.  Four

text: upper-atmosphere balloons

text: were released, each expected to carry a set of Olympic rings and a camera up to the mid-

text: stratosphere

text: . Therefore, our inversion temperature is given where the sign flips at zero, or

text: A common example is a burn ban. Residential and commercial burning of wood materials may be restricted during times of poor air quality, eliminating the immediate emission of particulate matter and requiring use of non-polluting heating methods. A more significant example is the widespread ban on the manufacture of dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon)), formerly the standard refrigerant in automobile air conditioning systems. This substance, often released into the atmosphere unintentionally as a result of refrigerant system leaks, was determined to have a significant ozone depletion potential, and its widespread use to pose a significant threat to the Earth's ozone layer. Its manufacture was prohibited as part of a suite of restrictions adopted internationally in the Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. Still another example is the ban on use of asbestos in building construction materials, to eliminate future exposure to carcinogenic asbestos fibers when the building materials are disturbed.

text: A common example is a burn ban. Residential and commercial burning of wood materials may be restricted during times of poor air quality, eliminating the immediate emission of particulate matter and requiring use of non-polluting heating methods. A more significant example is the widespread ban on the manufacture of

text: dichlorodifluoromethane

text: Freon

text: )), formerly the standard refrigerant in automobile air conditioning systems. This substance, often released into the atmosphere unintentionally as a result of refrigerant system leaks, was determined to have a significant

text: ozone depletion potential

text: , and its widespread use to pose a significant threat to the Earth's

text: ozone layer

text: . Its manufacture was prohibited as part of a suite of restrictions adopted internationally in the

text: Montreal Protocol

text: to the

text: . Still another example is the ban on use of

text: asbestos

text: in building construction materials, to eliminate future exposure to carcinogenic asbestos fibers when the building materials are disturbed.

text: Recent evidence suggests that warming of the tropical oceans since a "tipping point" in 2000 may have acted as a negative feedback, reducing the observed warming during the 2000s (decade). As warming and evaporation above the Pacific Ocean, temperatures in the lower stratosphere near the tropopause declined due to both greenhouse gases and ozone-depleting substances, reducing water vapor levels and removing its warming effect, with vapor concentrations below 2.2 ppmv as measured by the HALOE instrument on the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, in the lower stratosphere of the tropics between 5°N - 5°S first being observed since 2001, although a reversal in this pattern is also likely. The water vapor in the stratosphere arrives through tall thunderstorms, while 15% of this vapor is delivered by tropical cyclones, and through chemical breakdown of methane into water vapor and carbon dioxide, both of which are greenhouse gases. The vapor is frozen out of the stratosphere as more of the water is subjected to temperatures that freeze it out of the stratosphere. Water vapor concentrations in the lower stratosphere have declined by 10% (0.4 ppmv) since 2000, reducing warming during the decade by 25%. A rapid cooling of 4 °C to 6 °C also occurred in the lower stratosphere in the mid-1990s, while the rate of ocean warming increased. During the 1990s, increased stratospheric water vapor led to a 30% increase in warming. After 2000, the sea surface temperatures of the tropical Western Pacific, where a warm pool of water exists and where temperatures are heavily influenced by ENSO, between 10°N - 10°S and 139° - 171° longitude became anti-correlated with temperatures at the tropopause in the same latitudes between 171° - 200° longitude, both measured since the early 1980s; although the correlation had been previously positive, since 2000 the SST anomalies increased while tropopause temperatures decreased. A sharp increase in average SSTs within the Western Pacific warm pool by more than 0.25 °C in 2000, which has since stabilized, occurred as the "cold point" temperature of the study area at the tropopause experienced a significant reduction. This resulted in less water vapor from tropical thunderstorms entering the stratosphere. However, prior to 2000, increases in average Western Pacific SSTs had resulted in increases in tropopause cold point temperatures.

text: Recent evidence suggests that warming of the tropical oceans since a "

text: tipping point

text: " in 2000 may have acted as a

text: negative feedback

text: , reducing the observed warming during the 2000s (decade). As warming and evaporation above the Pacific Ocean, temperatures in the lower stratosphere near the

text: tropopause

text: declined due to both greenhouse gases and

text: ozone-depleting substance

text: s, reducing

text: water vapor

text: levels and removing its warming effect, with vapor concentrations below 2.2

text: ppmv

text: as measured by the HALOE instrument on the

text: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite

text: , in the lower stratosphere of the tropics between 5°N - 5°S first being observed since 2001, although a reversal in this pattern is also likely. The water vapor in the stratosphere arrives through tall

text: thunderstorm

text: s, while 15% of this vapor is delivered by

text: tropical cyclone

text: s, and through chemical breakdown of

text: methane

text: into water vapor and carbon dioxide, both of which are greenhouse gases. The vapor is frozen out of the stratosphere as more of the water is subjected to temperatures that freeze it out of the stratosphere. Water vapor concentrations in the lower stratosphere have declined by 10% (0.4 ppmv) since 2000, reducing warming during the decade by 25%. A rapid cooling of 4 °C to 6 °C also occurred in the lower stratosphere in the mid-1990s, while the rate of ocean warming increased. During the 1990s, increased stratospheric water vapor led to a 30% increase in warming. After 2000, the

text: sea surface temperature

text: s of the tropical Western Pacific, where a warm pool of water exists and where temperatures are heavily influenced by

text: ENSO

text: , between 10°N - 10°S and 139° - 171° longitude became anti-correlated with temperatures at the

text: tropopause

text: in the same latitudes between 171° - 200° longitude, both measured since the early 1980s; although the correlation had been previously positive, since 2000 the SST anomalies increased while tropopause temperatures decreased. A sharp increase in average SSTs within the Western Pacific warm pool by more than 0.25 °C in 2000, which has since stabilized, occurred as the "cold point" temperature of the study area at the tropopause experienced a significant reduction. This resulted in less water vapor from tropical thunderstorms entering the stratosphere. However, prior to 2000, increases in average Western Pacific SSTs had resulted in increases in tropopause cold point temperatures.

text: The phenomenon described above that the atmospheric refractive index, relative permittivity or dielectric constant gradually reduces with increasing height is on account of the reduction of the atmospheric air density with increasing height. Air density is also a function of temperature, which ordinarily also reduces with increasing height. However, these are only average conditions; local meteorological conditions can create phenomena such as temperature inversion layers where a warm layer of air settles above a cool layer. At the interface between them exists a relatively abrupt change in refractive index from a smaller value in the cool layer to a larger value in the warm layer. By analogy with the optical Snell's Law, this can cause significant reflections of radio waves back towards the Earth's surface where they are further reflected, thus causing a ducting effect. The result is that radio waves can propagate well beyond their intended service area with less than normal attenuation. This effect is only apparent in the VHF and UHF spectra and is often exploited by amateur radio enthusiasts to achieve communications over abnormally long distances for the frequencies involved. For commercial communication services it cannot be exploited because it is unreliable (the conditions can form and disperse in minutes) and it can cause interference well outside of the normal service area.

text: The phenomenon described above that the atmospheric refractive index, relative permittivity or dielectric constant gradually reduces with increasing height is on account of the reduction of the atmospheric air

text: density

text: with increasing height. Air density is also a function of temperature, which ordinarily also reduces with increasing height. However, these are only average conditions; local meteorological conditions can create phenomena such as

text: temperature inversion

text: layers where a warm layer of air settles above a cool layer. At the interface between them exists a relatively abrupt change in refractive index from a smaller value in the cool layer to a larger value in the warm layer. By analogy with the optical

text: Snell's Law

text: , this can cause significant reflections of radio waves back towards the Earth's surface where they are further reflected, thus causing a

text: ducting effect

text: . The result is that radio waves can propagate well beyond their intended service area with less than normal attenuation. This effect is only apparent in the VHF and UHF spectra and is often exploited by

text: amateur radio

text: enthusiasts to achieve communications over abnormally long distances for the frequencies involved. For commercial communication services it cannot be exploited because it is unreliable (the conditions can form and disperse in minutes) and it can cause interference well outside of the normal service area.

text: The concept of the ablative heat shield was described as early as 1920 by Robert Goddard: "In the case of meteors, which enter the atmosphere with speeds as high as 30 miles per second (48 km/s), the interior of the meteors remains cold, and the erosion is due, to a large extent, to chipping or cracking of the suddenly heated surface. For this reason, if the outer surface of the apparatus were to consist of layers of a very infusible hard substance with layers of a poor heat conductor between, the surface would not be eroded to any considerable extent, especially as the velocity of the apparatus would not be nearly so great as that of the average meteor."

text: The concept of the ablative

text: heat shield

text: was described as early as 1920 by

text: Robert Goddard

text: : "In the case of meteors, which enter the atmosphere with speeds as high as 30 miles per second (48 km/s), the interior of the meteors remains cold, and the erosion is due, to a large extent, to chipping or cracking of the suddenly heated surface. For this reason, if the outer surface of the apparatus were to consist of layers of a very infusible hard substance with layers of a poor heat conductor between, the surface would not be eroded to any considerable extent, especially as the velocity of the apparatus would not be nearly so great as that of the average meteor."

text: Hot air is less dense than cold air, which causes hot air to naturally rise to the ceiling level through a process called stratification. The most efficient and effective way of mixing the air in a stratified space is to push the hot air down to the occupant level. This allows for complete mixing of the air in the space while decreasing both heat loss through the building walls and roof, and building energy consumption. To avoid causing a draft, fans need to be run slowly so that air speed at the occupant level does not exceed .

text: Due to the high temperatures on the illuminated side of the planet, and the likelihood that all surface volatiles have been depleted, silicate rock vaporization may have produced a tenuous atmosphere (with a pressure approaching 1 Pa or 10 bar at 2500 K) consisting predominantly of sodium, O, O and silicon monoxide, as well as smaller amounts of potassium and other metals. Magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), silicon (Si), and iron (Fe) may rain out from such an atmosphere on the planet's daylight side in the form of particles of minerals, such as enstatite, corundum and spinel, wollastonite, silica, and iron (II) oxide, that would condense at altitudes below 10 km. Titanium (Ti) may be depleted (and possibly iron similarly) by being transported towards the night side before condensing as perovskite and geikelite. Sodium (and to a lesser extent, potassium), being more volatile, would be less subject to condensation into clouds, and would dominate the outer layers of the atmosphere. Observations carried out with the UVES spectrograph on COROT-7b in and out of transit, searching for emission and absorption lines originating in the exosphere of the planet, failed to detect any significative feature. Spectral lines of calcium (Ca I, Ca II) and sodium (Na), expected for a Mercury-like planet, are either absent or below detection limits, and even emission lines expected from volcanic activity, due to tidal forces exerted by the gravity of the nearby star, were not found. The lack of detections is in agreement with the previously cited theoretical work, which points to a cloudless atmosphere made of rocky vapours with a very low pressure. From the data available, scientists can only infer that COROT-7b does not resemble any of the rocky planets of the Solar System.

text: Due to the high temperatures on the illuminated side of the planet, and the likelihood that all surface volatiles have been depleted, silicate rock vaporization may have produced a tenuous atmosphere (with a pressure approaching 1 Pa or 10 bar at 2500 K) consisting predominantly of

text: sodium

text: O

text: O

text: and

text: silicon monoxide

text: , as well as smaller amounts of

text: potassium

text: and other metals.

text: Magnesium

text: (Mg),

text: aluminium

text: (Al),

text: calcium

text: (Ca),

text: silicon

text: (Si), and

text: iron

text: (Fe) may rain out from such an atmosphere on the planet's daylight side in the form of particles of minerals, such as

text: enstatite

text: corundum

text: and

text: spinel

text: wollastonite

text: silica

text: , and

text: iron (II) oxide

text: , that would

text: condense

text: at altitudes below 10 km.

text: Titanium

text: (Ti) may be depleted (and possibly iron similarly) by being transported towards the night side before condensing as

text: perovskite

text: and

text: geikelite

text: . Sodium (and to a lesser extent, potassium), being more volatile, would be less subject to condensation into clouds, and would dominate the outer layers of the atmosphere. Observations carried out with the

text: UVES spectrograph

text: on COROT-7b in and out of transit, searching for emission and absorption lines originating in the

text: exosphere

text: of the planet, failed to detect any significative feature. Spectral lines of calcium (Ca I, Ca II) and sodium (Na), expected for a

text: Mercury

text: -like planet, are either absent or below detection limits, and even emission lines expected from volcanic activity, due to

text: tidal forces

text: exerted by the gravity of the nearby star, were not found. The lack of detections is in agreement with the previously cited theoretical work, which points to a cloudless atmosphere made of rocky vapours with a very low pressure. From the data available, scientists can only infer that COROT-7b does not resemble any of the rocky planets of the

text: Solar System

text: Air supply to a building is generally performed by an air handling unit. The process may include for filtering, heating, cooling, humidification, or dehumidification, all of which processes consume energy. Since the fresh air demand for the building occupants may be less than that is required for air conditioning purposes, it would be wasteful if 100% fresh air were used, with wholesome treated air rejected to the atmosphere in its place. Therefore, mixing is used to balance the needs between the occupants requirements for fresh air and the air conditioning process for the building.

text: Air supply to a building is generally performed by an

text: air handling unit

text: . The process may include for filtering, heating, cooling, humidification, or dehumidification, all of which processes consume energy. Since the fresh air demand for the building occupants may be less than that is required for air conditioning purposes, it would be wasteful if 100% fresh air were used, with wholesome treated air rejected to the atmosphere in its place. Therefore, mixing is used to balance the needs between the occupants requirements for fresh air and the air conditioning process for the building.

text: The atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) potential temperature perturbation is defined as the difference between the potential temperature of the ABL and the potential temperature of the free atmosphere above the ABL.  This value is called the potential temperature deficit in the case of a katabatic flow, because the surface will always be colder than the free atmosphere and the PT perturbation will be negative.

text: The

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: (ABL) potential temperature perturbation is defined as the difference between the potential temperature of the ABL and the potential temperature of the free atmosphere above the ABL.  This value is called the potential temperature deficit in the case of a

text: katabatic

text: flow, because the surface will always be colder than the free atmosphere and the PT perturbation will be negative.

text: The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It contains high concentrations of ozone (O) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately  above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically.

text: The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's

text: stratosphere

text: that absorbs most of the

text: Sun

text: 's

text: ultraviolet

text: (UV) radiation. It contains high concentrations of

text: ozone

text: (O) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately  above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically.

text: Exosphere had his first race on 1 November 2014 at Rosehill. Despite entering the race as odds-on favourite, he finished last after over-racing in the lead. The vet said he was distressed after the race.

text: Most climate models simulate a region of the Earth's atmosphere from the surface to the stratopause. There also exist numerical models which simulate the wind, temperature and composition of the Earth's tenuous upper atmosphere, from the mesosphere to the exosphere, including the ionosphere. This region is affected strongly by the 11 year Solar cycle through variations in solar UV/EUV/Xray radiation and solar wind leading to high latitude particle precipitation and aurora. It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere, and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change. For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create "whole atmosphere" models to investigate whether or not this is the case.

text: Most

text: climate models

text: simulate a region of the Earth's atmosphere from the surface to the

text: stratopause

text: . There also exist numerical models which simulate the wind, temperature and composition of the Earth's tenuous upper

text: atmosphere

text: , from the

text: mesosphere

text: to the

text: exosphere

text: , including the

text: ionosphere

text: . This region is affected strongly by the 11 year

text: Solar cycle

text: through variations in solar UV/EUV/Xray radiation and

text: solar wind

text: leading to high latitude particle precipitation and

text: aurora

text: . It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere, and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change. For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create "whole atmosphere" models to investigate whether or not this is the case.

text: The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg, three quarters of which is within about  of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. The Kármán line, at , or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.

text: The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg, three quarters of which is within about  of the surface. The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing

text: altitude

text: , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and

text: outer space

text: . The

text: Kármán line

text: , at , or 1.57% of Earth's radius, is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space. Atmospheric effects become noticeable during

text: atmospheric reentry

text: of spacecraft at an altitude of around . Several

text: layers

text: can be distinguished in the atmosphere, based on characteristics such as temperature and composition.

text: The word troposphere derives from the  for "turn, turn toward, trope" and "-sphere" (as in, the Earth), reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere's structure and behaviour. Most of the phenomena we associate with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere.

text: The word troposphere derives from the  for "turn, turn toward, trope" and "-sphere" (as in, the Earth), reflecting the fact that rotational

text: turbulent

text: mixing plays an important role in the troposphere's structure and behaviour. Most of the phenomena we associate with day-to-day

text: weather

text: occur in the troposphere.

text: The PoWR (Potsdam Wolf-Rayet) code is designed for expanding stellar atmospheres, i.e. for stars with a stellar wind. It has been developed since the 1990s by Wolf-Rainer Hamann and collaborators at the Universität Potsdam (Germany) especially for simulating Wolf-Rayet stars, which are hot stars with very strong mass loss. Adopting spherical symmetry and stationarity, the program computes the occupation numbers of the atomic energy states, including the ionization balance, in non-LTE, and consistently solves the radiative transfer problem in the comoving frame. The stellar wind parameters (mass-loss rate, wind speed) can be specified as free parameter, or, alternatively, calculated from the hydrodynamic equation consistently.As the PoWR code treats consistently the static and expanding layers of the stellar atmosphere, it is applicable for any types of hot stars. The code as such is not yet public, but large sets of models for Wolf-Rayet stars are available on the web.

text: The PoWR (Potsdam Wolf-Rayet) code is designed for expanding stellar atmospheres, i.e. for stars with a stellar wind. It has been developed since the 1990s by Wolf-Rainer Hamann and collaborators at the Universität Potsdam (Germany) especially for simulating

text: Wolf-Rayet stars

text: , which are hot stars with very strong mass loss. Adopting spherical symmetry and stationarity, the program computes the occupation numbers of the atomic energy states, including the ionization balance, in non-LTE, and consistently solves the radiative transfer problem in the comoving frame. The stellar wind parameters (mass-loss rate, wind speed) can be specified as free parameter, or, alternatively, calculated from the hydrodynamic equation consistently.As the PoWR code treats consistently the static and expanding layers of the stellar atmosphere, it is applicable for any types of hot stars. The code as such is not yet public, but large sets of models for Wolf-Rayet stars are available on the web.

text: There is a noticeable difference between the northern and southern Puna in terms of the existence of mafic volcanism, which is much more widespread in the southern Puna. Possibly, during the Miocene and Pliocene a molten layer existed within the  thick crust of the northern Puna. This layer would constitute a density barrier to the rise of mafic magma.

text: There is a noticeable difference between the northern and southern Puna in terms of the existence of mafic volcanism, which is much more widespread in the southern Puna. Possibly, during the Miocene and

text: Pliocene

text: a molten layer existed within the  thick crust of the northern Puna. This layer would constitute a density barrier to the rise of mafic magma.

text: When mesospheric clouds are viewed above the atmosphere, the geometrical limitations of observingfrom the ground are significantly reduced. They may be observed ‘edge-on’ against the comparativelydark sky background, even in full daylight. The photometer field of view must be well baffled to avoidinterference from the very bright Earth about a degree beneath the cloud layer. It is a much moredifficult task to observe the clouds against the bright background of the illuminated Earth, althoughthis has been achieved in the ultraviolet in the 200 to 300 nm spectral region, because of the verysmall albedo of the earth in this part of spectrum.

text: A hot tower is a tropical cumulonimbus cloud that penetrates the tropopause, i.e. it reaches out of the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, into the stratosphere.  In the tropics, the tropopause typically lies at least  above sea level.  These towers are called "hot" because they rise high due to the large amount of latent heat released as water vapor condenses into liquid and freezes into ice.  The presence of hot towers with a tropical cyclone's eyewall can indicate strengthening is more likely during the next six hours.

text: A hot tower is a tropical

text: cumulonimbus

text: cloud that penetrates the

text: tropopause

text: , i.e. it reaches out of the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the

text: troposphere

text: , into the

text: stratosphere

text: .  In the tropics, the tropopause typically lies at least  above

text: sea level

text: .  These towers are called "hot" because they rise high due to the large amount of latent heat released as water vapor condenses into liquid and freezes into ice.  The presence of hot towers with a tropical cyclone's eyewall can indicate strengthening is more likely during the next six hours.

text: As the aircraft left Warsaw, weather conditions were rapidly deteriorating at Smolensk. A temperature inversion had developed, trapping moisture low in the atmosphere and causing a dense fog to develop. At 9:15 Smolensk time, about an hour and a half before the crash, a Yakovlev Yak-40 jet (flight PLF 031) also belonging to the Polish government and carrying Polish journalists from the President's press pool landed at the airbase without incident, though conditions were rapidly worsening at the time. Shortly thereafter, between 9:20 and 9:39 MSD, a Russian Ilyushin Il-76 (tail number 78817) made two attempts to land, but because of low visibility, it diverted to Vnukovo Airport near Moscow. Upon PLF 101s approach to the base, atmospheric conditions continued to worsen, and the fog continued to thicken, further reducing visibility to . The ground control personnel stated to PLF 101 that there were no conditions for landing. The Captain then requested and was given permission to conduct a "trial" approach. The controllers instructed the captain as to the landing minimum of , to which the captain replied, "Yes sir!"

text: As the aircraft left Warsaw, weather conditions were rapidly deteriorating at Smolensk. A

text: temperature inversion

text: had developed, trapping moisture low in the atmosphere and causing a dense fog to develop. At 9:15 Smolensk time, about an hour and a half before the crash, a

text: Yakovlev Yak-40

text: jet (flight PLF 031) also belonging to the Polish government and carrying Polish journalists from the President's

text: press pool

text: landed at the airbase without incident, though conditions were rapidly worsening at the time. Shortly thereafter, between 9:20 and 9:39 MSD, a Russian

text: Ilyushin Il-76

text: (tail number 78817) made two attempts to land, but because of low visibility, it diverted to

text: Vnukovo Airport

text: near Moscow. Upon PLF 101s approach to the base, atmospheric conditions continued to worsen, and the fog continued to thicken, further reducing visibility to . The ground control personnel stated to PLF 101 that there were no conditions for landing. The Captain then requested and was given permission to conduct a "trial" approach. The controllers instructed the captain as to the landing minimum of , to which the captain replied, "Yes sir!"

text: He was born in Barrow-in-Furness, Lancashire, England. Following graduation from the Royal College of Science, London, in 1898, he became an assistant to Guglielmo Marconi, the Italian radio entrepreneur. In 1901 he received his doctorate from the Royal College of Science. Eccles was an advocate of Oliver Heaviside's theory that a conducting layer of the upper atmosphere could reflect radio waves around the curvature of the Earth, thus enabling their transmission over long distances. Originally known as the Kennelly–Heaviside layer, this region of the Earth's atmosphere became known as the Ionosphere. In 1912 Eccles suggested that solar radiation was responsible for the observed differences in radio wave propagation during the day and night. He carried out experiments into atmospheric disturbances of radio waves and used wave detectors and amplifiers in his work. Eccles invented the term Diode to describe an evacuated glass tube containing two electrodes; an anode and a cathode.

text: He was born in

text: Barrow-in-Furness

text: Lancashire

text: England

text: . Following graduation from the

text: Royal College of Science

text: London

text: , in 1898, he became an assistant to

text: Guglielmo Marconi

text: , the Italian radio entrepreneur. In 1901 he received his doctorate from the Royal College of Science. Eccles was an advocate of

text: Oliver Heaviside

text: 's theory that a conducting layer of the upper atmosphere could reflect radio waves around the curvature of the Earth, thus enabling their transmission over long distances. Originally known as the

text: Kennelly–Heaviside layer

text: , this region of the Earth's atmosphere became known as the

text: Ionosphere

text: . In 1912 Eccles suggested that

text: solar radiation

text: was responsible for the observed differences in

text: radio wave

text: propagation during the day and night. He carried out experiments into atmospheric disturbances of radio waves and used wave detectors and amplifiers in his work. Eccles invented the term

text: Diode

text: to describe an evacuated glass tube containing two electrodes; an

text: anode

text: and a

text: cathode

text: In the Earth's atmosphere, gravity waves are a mechanism that produce the transfer of momentum from the troposphere to the stratosphere and mesosphere. Gravity waves are generated in the troposphere by frontal systems or by airflow over mountains. At first, waves propagate through the atmosphere without appreciable change in mean velocity.  But as the waves reach more rarefied (thin) air at higher altitudes, their amplitude increases, and nonlinear effects cause the waves to break, transferring their momentum to the mean flow. This transfer of momentum is responsible for the forcing of the many large-scale dynamical features of the atmosphere. For example, this momentum transfer is partly responsible for the driving of the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation, and in the mesosphere, it is thought to be the major driving force of the Semi-Annual Oscillation. Thus, this process plays a key role in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere.

text: In the

text: Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: , gravity waves are a mechanism that produce the transfer of

text: momentum

text: from the

text: troposphere

text: to the

text: stratosphere

text: and

text: mesosphere

text: . Gravity waves are generated in the troposphere by

text: frontal systems

text: or by airflow over

text: mountain

text: s. At first, waves propagate through the atmosphere without appreciable change in

text: mean

text: velocity

text: .  But as the waves reach more rarefied (thin) air at higher

text: altitude

text: s, their

text: amplitude

text: increases, and

text: nonlinear effects

text: cause the waves to break, transferring their momentum to the mean flow. This transfer of momentum is responsible for the forcing of the many large-scale dynamical features of the atmosphere. For example, this momentum transfer is partly responsible for the driving of the

text: Quasi-Biennial Oscillation

text: , and in the

text: mesosphere

text: , it is thought to be the major driving force of the Semi-Annual Oscillation. Thus, this process plays a key role in the

text: dynamics

text: of the middle

text: atmosphere

text: The pressure of an atmospheric gas decreases with altitude due to the diminishing mass of gas above. The height at which the pressure from an atmosphere declines by a factor of e (an irrational number with a value of 2.71828..) is called the scale height and is denoted by H. For an atmosphere with a uniform temperature, the scale height is proportional to the temperature and inversely proportional to the product of the mean molecular mass of dry air and the local acceleration of gravity at that location. For such a model atmosphere, the pressure declines exponentially with increasing altitude. However, atmospheres are not uniform in temperature, so the exact determination of the atmospheric pressure at any particular altitude is more complex.

text: The pressure of an atmospheric gas decreases with altitude due to the diminishing mass of gas above. The height at which the pressure from an atmosphere declines by a factor of

text: e

text: (an

text: irrational number

text: with a value of 2.71828..) is called the

text: scale height

text: and is denoted by H. For an atmosphere with a uniform temperature, the scale height is proportional to the temperature and inversely proportional to the product of the mean

text: molecular mass

text: of dry air and the local acceleration of gravity at that location. For such a model atmosphere, the pressure declines exponentially with increasing altitude. However, atmospheres are not uniform in temperature, so the exact determination of the atmospheric pressure at any particular altitude is more complex.

text: as the inverse temperature and

text: as the

text: inverse temperature

text: and

text: Another line of evidence is differing temperature changes at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere. Basic physical principles require that the greenhouse effect produces warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere). Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants has also resulted in a strong cooling effect in the stratosphere. If solar variations were responsible for observed warming, warming of both the troposphere and stratosphere would be expected.

text: Another line of evidence is differing temperature changes at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere. Basic physical principles require that the greenhouse effect produces warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) but cooling of the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere). Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical

text: refrigerant

text: s has also resulted in a strong cooling effect in the stratosphere. If solar variations were responsible for observed warming, warming of both the troposphere and stratosphere would be expected.

text: In music, the 'northern lights' chord is an eleven-note chord from Ernst Krenek's Cantata for Wartime (1943), that represents the Northern Lights. Krenek's student, Robert Erickson, cites the chord as an example of a texture arranged so as to, "closely approach the single-object status of fused-ensemble timbres, for example, the beautiful 'northern lights'...chord, in a very interesting distribution of pitches, produces a fused sound supported by a suspended cymbal roll". "The 'northern lights' sounds, so icy and impersonal and menacing, are a brilliant orchestral invention."

text: In

text: music

text: , the 'northern lights' chord is an eleven-

text: note

text: chord

text: from

text: Ernst Krenek

text: 's

text: Cantata for Wartime

text: (1943), that represents the

text: Northern Lights

text: . Krenek's student,

text: Robert Erickson

text: , cites the chord as an example of a texture

text: arranged

text: so as to, "closely approach the single-object status of

text: fused

text: ensemble

text: timbre

text: s, for example, the beautiful 'northern lights'...chord, in a very interesting distribution of pitches, produces a fused sound supported by a

text: suspended cymbal

text: roll

text: ". "The 'northern lights' sounds, so icy and impersonal and menacing, are a brilliant orchestral invention."

text: The upper plains unit is thought to have fallen from the sky.  It drapes various surfaces, as if it fell evenly.  As is the case for other mantle deposits, the upper plains unit has layers, is fine-grained, and is ice-rich.   It is widespread; it does not seem to have a point source.  The surface appearance of some regions of Mars is due to how this unit has degraded.  It is a major cause of the surface appearance of lobate debris aprons.The layering of the upper plains mantling unit and other mantling units are believed to be caused by major changes in the planet’s climate.  Models predict that the obliquity or tilt of the rotational axis has varied from its present 25 degrees to maybe over 80 degrees over geological time.  Periods of high tilt will cause the ice in the polar caps to be redistributed and change the amount of dust in the atmosphere.

text: The upper plains unit is thought to have fallen from the sky.  It drapes various surfaces, as if it fell evenly.  As is the case for other mantle deposits, the upper plains unit has layers, is fine-grained, and is ice-rich.   It is widespread; it does not seem to have a point source.  The surface appearance of some regions of Mars is due to how this unit has degraded.  It is a major cause of the surface appearance of

text: lobate debris apron

text: s.The layering of the upper plains mantling unit and other mantling units are believed to be caused by major changes in the planet’s climate.  Models predict that the obliquity or tilt of the rotational axis has varied from its present 25 degrees to maybe over 80 degrees over geological time.  Periods of high tilt will cause the ice in the polar caps to be redistributed and change the amount of dust in the atmosphere.

text: Temperature inversions often form near the ground, for instance by air cooling at night while remaining warm aloft. As the index of refraction of air decreases faster than normal the radar beam bends toward the ground instead of continuing upward. Eventually, it will hit the ground and be reflected back toward the radar. The processing program will then wrongly place the return echoes at the height and distance it would have been in normal conditions.

text: Temperature inversion

text: s often form near the ground, for instance by air cooling at night while remaining warm aloft. As the

text: index of refraction

text: of air decreases faster than normal the radar beam bends toward the ground instead of continuing upward. Eventually, it will hit the ground and be reflected back toward the radar. The processing program will then wrongly place the return echoes at the height and distance it would have been in normal conditions.

text: It is convenient  to separate the atmospheric regions  according to the two temperature minima at about 12 km altitude (the tropopause) and at about 85 km (the mesopause) (Figure 1). The thermosphere (or the upper atmosphere) is the height region above 85 km, while the region between the tropopause and the mesopause is the middle atmosphere (stratosphere and mesosphere) where absorption of solar UV radiation generates the temperature maximum near 45 km altitude and causes the ozone layer.

text: It is convenient  to separate the atmospheric regions  according to the two temperature minima at about 12 km altitude (the

text: tropopause

text: ) and at about 85 km (the

text: mesopause

text: ) (Figure 1). The thermosphere (or the upper atmosphere) is the height region above 85 km, while the region between the tropopause and the mesopause is the middle atmosphere (

text: stratosphere

text: and

text: mesosphere

text: ) where absorption of solar UV radiation generates the temperature maximum near 45 km altitude and causes the

text: ozone

text: layer.

text: Generally PMSE exhibits dramatic variations in height and intensity as well as large variations in Doppler shift.  PMSE exhibit strong signal power enhancements of scattering cross section at VHF radar frequencies in the range 50 MHz to 250 MHz, at times even to over 1 GHz, that occur in summer at high latitudes. The peak PMSE height is slightly below the summer mesopause temperature minimum at 88 km, and above the noctilucent cloud (NLC) and/or polar mesospheric cloud (PMC) layer at 83–84 km. The usual instrument for observing PMSE is the a VHF Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere (MST) radar, although lidars and sounding rockets have also been used.

text: Generally PMSE exhibits dramatic variations in height and intensity as well as large variations in Doppler shift.  PMSE exhibit strong signal power enhancements of scattering cross section at VHF radar frequencies in the range 50 MHz to 250 MHz, at times even to over 1 GHz, that occur in summer at high latitudes. The peak PMSE height is slightly below the summer mesopause temperature minimum at 88 km, and above the noctilucent cloud (NLC) and/or polar mesospheric cloud (PMC) layer at 83–84 km. The usual instrument for observing PMSE is the a

text: VHF

text: Mesosphere

text: Stratosphere

text: Troposphere

text: (MST)

text: radar

text: , although

text: lidar

text: s and sounding rockets have also been used.

text: The environmental lapse rate (ELR), is the rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time and location. As an average, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines an international standard atmosphere (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of   or  from sea level to 11 km  or . From 11 km up to 20 km  or , the constant temperature is  , which is the lowest assumed temperature in the ISA. The standard atmosphere contains no moisture. Unlike the idealized ISA, the temperature of the actual atmosphere does not always fall at a uniform rate with height. For example, there can be an inversion layer in which the temperature increases with altitude.

text: The environmental lapse rate (ELR), is the rate of decrease of temperature with altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time and location. As an average, the

entity_name: International Civil Aviation Organization

text: International Civil Aviation Organization

text: (ICAO) defines an

text: international standard atmosphere

text: (ISA) with a temperature lapse rate of   or  from sea level to 11 km  or . From 11 km up to 20 km  or , the constant temperature is  , which is the lowest assumed temperature in the ISA. The

text: standard atmosphere

text: contains no moisture. Unlike the idealized ISA, the temperature of the actual atmosphere does not always fall at a uniform rate with height. For example, there can be an

text: inversion

text: layer in which the temperature increases with altitude.

text: The fate of this radical in the troposphere is dependent on factors such as the amount of sunlight, pollution in the atmosphere and the nature of the alkyl radical that formed it.

text: The fate of this radical in the

text: troposphere

text: is dependent on factors such as the amount of sunlight, pollution in the atmosphere and the nature of the

text: alkyl

text: radical that formed it.

text: In addition to his academic and popular contributions to the field of astronomy, Menzel was a prominent skeptic concerning the reality of UFOs. He authored or co-authored three popular books debunking UFOs: Flying Saucers - Myth - Truth - History (1953), The World of Flying Saucers (1963, co-authored with Lyle G Boyd), and The UFO Enigma (1977, co-authored with Ernest H. Taves).  All of Menzel's UFO books argued that UFOs are nothing more than misidentification of prosaic phenomena such as stars, clouds and airplanes; or the result of people seeing unusual atmospheric phenomena they were unfamiliar with. He often suggested that atmospheric hazes or temperature inversions could distort stars or planets, and make them appear to be larger than in reality, unusual in their shape, and in motion. In 1968, Menzel testified before the U.S. House Committee on Science and Astronautics - Symposium on UFOs, stating that he considered all UFO sightings to have natural explanations.

text: In addition to his academic and popular contributions to the field of

text: astronomy

text: , Menzel was a prominent skeptic concerning the reality of

text: UFO

text: s. He authored or co-authored three popular books

text: debunking

text: UFOs: Flying Saucers - Myth - Truth - History (1953), The World of Flying Saucers (1963, co-authored with Lyle G Boyd), and The UFO Enigma (1977, co-authored with Ernest H. Taves).  All of Menzel's UFO books argued that UFOs are nothing more than misidentification of prosaic phenomena such as stars, clouds and airplanes; or the result of people seeing unusual atmospheric phenomena they were unfamiliar with. He often suggested that atmospheric

text: haze

text: s or

text: temperature inversion

text: s could distort stars or planets, and make them appear to be larger than in reality, unusual in their shape, and in motion. In 1968, Menzel testified before the U.S. House Committee on Science and Astronautics - Symposium on UFOs, stating that he considered all UFO sightings to have natural explanations.

text: Many of Rapi's plays since then have been critically acclaimed; The Guardian described the 1993 production of Dangerous Oasis as 'inspirational'; and What's on as 'sensitive...powerful...excellent.', Time Out wrote of Dreamhouse (1991) as 'Atmospheric and economical. Highly commendable new work.' & of Josie's Restrooms (2000) as 'nipple gripping'. While the critic Eleftheria Raptou wrote of Edgewise (2010) 'Nina Rapi creates her own fascinating, multi-layered world and brings to light the social, existential and ultimately political impasse of a society in total, protracted crisis. Our crisis.'

text: Many of Rapi's plays since then have been critically acclaimed;

text: The Guardian

text: described the 1993 production of Dangerous Oasis as 'inspirational'; and What's on as 'sensitive...powerful...excellent.',

text: Time Out

text: wrote of Dreamhouse (1991) as 'Atmospheric and economical. Highly commendable new work.' & of Josie's Restrooms (2000) as 'nipple gripping'. While the critic Eleftheria Raptou wrote of Edgewise (2010) 'Nina Rapi creates her own fascinating, multi-layered world and brings to light the social, existential and ultimately political impasse of a society in total, protracted crisis. Our crisis.'

text: Engineers have developed an electroluminescent "skin" that can stretch more than six times its original size while still emitting light. This hyper-elastic light-emitting capacitor (HLEC) can endure more than twice the strain of previously tested stretchable displays. It consists of layers of transparent hydrogel electrodes sandwiching an insulating elastomer sheet. The elastomer changes luminance and capacitance when stretched, rolled and otherwise deformed. In addition to its ability to emit light under a strain of greater than 480 percent its original size, the group's HLEC was shown to be capable of being integrated into a soft robotic system. Three six-layer HLEC panels were bound together to form a crawling soft robot, with the top four layers making up the light-up skin and the bottom two the pneumatic actuators. The discovery could lead to significant advances in health care, transportation, electronic communication and other areas.

text: Engineers have developed an electroluminescent "skin" that can stretch more than six times its original size while still emitting light. This hyper-elastic light-emitting capacitor (HLEC) can endure more than twice the strain of previously tested stretchable displays. It consists of layers of transparent hydrogel electrodes sandwiching an insulating elastomer sheet. The elastomer changes luminance and capacitance when stretched, rolled and otherwise deformed. In addition to its ability to emit light under a strain of greater than 480 percent its original size, the group's HLEC was shown to be capable of being integrated into a

text: soft robotic

text: system. Three six-layer HLEC panels were bound together to form a crawling soft robot, with the top four layers making up the light-up skin and the bottom two the pneumatic actuators. The discovery could lead to significant advances in health care, transportation, electronic communication and other areas.

text: Mixing is based on grid deformation of quasi uniform air parceldistributions.  The contraction or elongation factors of the distancesto neighboring air parcels are examined: if a critical elongation(contraction) is reached, new air parcels are introduced (taken away).This way, anisotropic diffusion is simulated in a physically realisticmanner.

text: Northern Lights is the self-titled debut album by the progressive bluegrass band Northern Lights, recorded in 1976 under the Revonah Records label.

text: Northern Lights is the self-titled debut album by the

text: progressive bluegrass

text: band

text: Northern Lights

text: , recorded in 1976 under the Revonah Records label.

text: A strong low pressure system passing over southern California will produce the deepest and most extensive June Gloom marine layer. The marine layer effect is weakened when a weak high pressure system is in place over the region, and the marine layer will be very weak or nonexistent when there is a strong high-pressure system affecting southern California. The National Weather Service graphic on the right explains the effects of atmospheric conditions upon the marine layer and local weather conditions in more detail.

text: A strong

text: low pressure system

text: passing over southern California will produce the deepest and most extensive June Gloom marine layer. The marine layer effect is weakened when a weak

text: high pressure system

text: is in place over the region, and the marine layer will be very weak or nonexistent when there is a strong high-pressure system affecting southern California. The National Weather Service graphic on the right explains the effects of atmospheric conditions upon the marine layer and local weather conditions in more detail.

text: The term gained some general popularity after the 1914-18 war, Dr.Walter John Kilner having adopted it for a layer of the "human atmosphere" which, as he claimed in a popular book, could be rendered visible to the naked eye by means of certain exercises.

text: The term gained some general popularity after the 1914-18 war, Dr.

text: Walter John Kilner

text: having adopted it for a layer of the "human atmosphere" which, as he claimed in a popular book, could be rendered visible to the naked eye by means of certain exercises.

text: The lighthouse area in the southern part of the island was once exclusively occupied by the British while the local people preferred to live in the northern part. It has modern instrumentation of electrification and an automatic system of shining mirrors that flash light every 15 seconds. It is also equipped with Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS}. The lighthouse was brought under the control of the Government of India when the Indian National Flag was unfurled over its top on 2nd April 1956.

text: The lighthouse area in the southern part of the island was once exclusively occupied by the British while the local people preferred to live in the northern part. It has modern instrumentation of electrification and an automatic system of shining mirrors that flash light every 15 seconds. It is also equipped with

text: Differential Global Positioning System

text: (DGPS}. The lighthouse was brought under the control of the

text: Government of India

text: when the

text: Indian National Flag

text: was unfurled over its top on 2nd April 1956.

text: The performance of a fire-control radar is determined primarily by two factors: radar resolution and atmospheric conditions. Radar resolution is the ability of the radar to differentiate between two targets closely located. The first, and most problematic, is gaining high-range resolution. To do this in a basic fire-control radar system, it must operate at smaller pulse width. Bearing resolution is typically ensured by using a narrow (one or two degree) beam width. Atmospheric conditions, such as moisture lapse, temperature inversion, and dust particles affect radar performance as well. Moisture lapse and temperature inversion often cause ducting, in which RF energy is bent as it passes through hot and cold layers. This can either extend or reduce the radar horizon, depending on which way the RF is bent. Dust particles, as well as water droplets, cause attenuation of the RF energy, resulting in a loss of effective range. In both cases, a lower pulse repetition frequency makes the radar less susceptible to atmospheric conditions.

text: The performance of a fire-control radar is determined primarily by two factors: radar resolution and atmospheric conditions. Radar resolution is the ability of the radar to differentiate between two targets closely located. The first, and most problematic, is gaining high-range resolution. To do this in a basic fire-control radar system, it must operate at smaller pulse width. Bearing resolution is typically ensured by using a narrow (one or two degree) beam width. Atmospheric conditions, such as moisture lapse, temperature inversion, and dust particles affect radar performance as well. Moisture lapse and temperature inversion often cause ducting, in which RF energy is bent as it passes through hot and cold layers. This can either extend or reduce the

text: radar horizon

text: , depending on which way the RF is bent. Dust particles, as well as water droplets, cause attenuation of the RF energy, resulting in a loss of effective range. In both cases, a lower pulse repetition frequency makes the radar less susceptible to atmospheric conditions.

text: points towards the upper layers of the atmosphere. From this it is easy to see that a ray path

text: The Regener barrel () was the name of a scientific payload for the World War II V-2 rocket.  Mid-1942 plans for subsequent launches to study upper-atmospheric guidance and science were not carried out due to the need for test launches and the eventual advance of the Russian armies.  Instrumentation had been contracted on July 11, 1942; and the Research Foundation for the Physics of the Stratosphere was to develop the "Regener barrel" with a quartz barograph, a recording thermometer, an ultra-violet spectrograph, and an air sampler.  By January 18, 1945, rumors of nearby Soviet tanks resulted in Erich Regener's organization being sent from Peenemünde before the A-4 instrument package had been finished.  The Regener-Tonne parachute was tested at Peenemünde Prüfstand VII and a mock-up was launched in January 1945.

text: The Regener barrel () was the name of a scientific

text: payload

text: for the

text: World War II

text: rocket.  Mid-1942 plans for subsequent launches to study upper-atmospheric guidance and science were not carried out due to the need for test launches and the eventual advance of the Russian armies.  Instrumentation had been contracted on July 11, 1942; and the Research Foundation for the Physics of the Stratosphere was to develop the "Regener barrel" with a quartz barograph, a recording thermometer, an ultra-violet spectrograph, and an air sampler.  By January 18, 1945, rumors of nearby Soviet tanks resulted in

text: Erich Regener

text: 's organization being sent from Peenemünde before the A-4 instrument package had been finished.  The Regener-Tonne parachute was tested at

text: Peenemünde

text: Prüfstand VII

text: and a mock-up was launched in January 1945.

text: Stratosphere was owned by musicians James Iha, Adam Schlesinger, and Andy Chase. Iha was a member of the Smashing Pumpkins,  played guitar in A Perfect Circle, and records as a solo artist. He also produces and is co-owner of the indie label Scratchie Records.

text: Stratosphere was owned by musicians

text: James Iha

text: Adam Schlesinger

text: , and

text: Andy Chase

text: . Iha was a member of the

text: Smashing Pumpkins

text: ,  played guitar in

text: A Perfect Circle

text: , and records as a solo artist. He also produces and is co-owner of the indie label

text: Scratchie Records

text: Troposphere is a Congolese rocket family first established in 2007 at private enterprise Développement Tous Azimuts (DTA). Project is managed by Jean-Patrice Keka Ohemba Okese, head of DTA, a graduate of the Institut Supérieur des Techniques Appliquées (ISTA). The program aimed at launching experimental rockets that would not exceed an altitude of 36 km. The launch site is located in an area owned by DTA at Menkao, 120 km East of Kinshasa.

text: Troposphere is a

text: Congolese

text: rocket

text: family first established in 2007 at private enterprise Développement Tous Azimuts (DTA). Project is managed by Jean-Patrice Keka Ohemba Okese, head of DTA, a graduate of the

text: Institut Supérieur des Techniques Appliquées

text: (ISTA). The program aimed at launching

text: experimental rockets

text: that would not exceed an

text: altitude

text: of 36 km. The launch site is located in an area owned by DTA at

text: Menkao

text: , 120 km East of

text: Kinshasa

text: The study of science and technology related issues led him to research large technical systems, which he did during his time at the Social Science Research Center Berlin (WZB) in the early 1990s. His special interest was focused on the future of automobility. In the mid 1990s he spent three years at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies in Cologne where he studied the efforts to protect the ozone layer (see as well ozone depletion and global warming). Transnational environmental policy - reconstructing Ozone was published in German in 1999 and in 2001 in English. It challenged widespread historical accounts which tend to explain the policies either as a result of scientific consensus, or as an outcome of corporate power. In contrast, it shows the relevance of transnational policy networks. The successful Montreal Protocol is often taken as an exemplar case which serves as the model for an (so far elusive) climate treaty. Grundmann claims that several problematic lessons have been drawn from this case. The book entry quotes Jim Lovelock stating This readable book is the best treatment of the subject published so far and F.Sherwood Rowland with Stimulating and thought-provoking.

text: The study of science and technology related issues led him to research large technical systems, which he did during his time at the

text: Social Science Research Center Berlin

text: (WZB) in the early 1990s. His special interest was focused on the future of automobility. In the mid 1990s he spent three years at the

entity_name: Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies

text: Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies

text: in

text: Cologne

text: where he studied the efforts to protect the

text: ozone layer

text: (see as well

text: ozone depletion and global warming

text: ). Transnational environmental policy - reconstructing Ozone was published in German in 1999 and in 2001 in English. It challenged widespread historical accounts which tend to explain the policies either as a result of scientific consensus, or as an outcome of corporate power. In contrast, it shows the relevance of transnational

text: policy networks.

text: The successful

text: Montreal Protocol

text: is often taken as an exemplar case which serves as the model for an (so far elusive) climate treaty. Grundmann claims that several problematic lessons have been drawn from this case. The book entry quotes

text: Jim Lovelock

text: stating This readable book is the best treatment of the subject published so far and

text: F.Sherwood Rowland

text: with Stimulating and thought-provoking.

text: Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated cloud genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft.

text: Nearly all atmospheric water vapor or moisture is found in the troposphere, so it is the layer where most of Earth's weather takes place. It has basically all the weather-associated

text: cloud

text: genus types generated by active wind circulation, although very tall cumulonimbus thunder clouds can penetrate the tropopause from below and rise into the lower part of the stratosphere. Most conventional aviation activity takes place in the troposphere, and it is the only layer that can be accessed by propeller-driven aircraft.

text: The panels capture the essence of Memling's style, which Ridderbos describes as serene and filled with "sublime peace". The Baptist's decapitation portrayed by Memling, is subdued and restrained, and the apocalyptic scenes on the opposite panel are "more poetic than horrific". Maryan Ainsworth says it shows a carefully balanced composition, painted in light clear colors. Memling catered to foreign patrons, most of whom were Italian, and he became known for his unique style that combined southern Italian elements with those of the northern Netherlandish tradition. He juxtaposed "an Italianate monumentality and simplification of form with a northern sense of atmosphere and light in a format that often placed his subjects before a charming locally inspired landscape background", according to Ainsworth.

text: The general seasonal characteristics of polar mesospheric clouds are well established from the fiveyears of continuous SME data. Over that period, data for four cloud ‘seasons’ in the north, and five‘seasons’ in the south were recorded. In both hemispheres, the season begins about one monthbefore summer solstice and ends about two months afterwards. Since there are no biases due tosuch factors as changing number of hours of visibility, weather conditions, etc. this is a ‘true’behaviour. It is believed to be a result of the fact that summertime mesopause region becomescoldest during this period causing water-ice to form, in contrast to most other regions of theatmosphere which are warmest in summer. Temperatures at latitudes equatorward of the boundaryof detection never get low enough for water-ice to form.

text: The basic mechanism can be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process. The atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window" bands), and most heat loss from the surface is by sensible heat and latent heat transport. Radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to think of the greenhouse effect as applying to a "surface" in the mid-troposphere, which is effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse rate. The simple picture also assumes a steady state, but in the real world, there are variations due to the diurnal cycle as well as the seasonal cycle and weather disturbances. Solar heating only applies during daytime. During the night, the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low. Diurnal temperature changes decrease with height in the atmosphere.

text: The basic mechanism can be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process. The atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window" bands), and most heat loss from the surface is by

text: sensible heat

text: and

text: latent heat

text: transport. Radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere, largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to think of the greenhouse effect as applying to a "surface" in the mid-

text: troposphere

text: , which is effectively coupled to the surface by a

text: lapse rate

text: . The simple picture also assumes a steady state, but in the real world, there are variations due to the

text: diurnal cycle

text: as well as the seasonal cycle and weather disturbances. Solar heating only applies during daytime. During the night, the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low.

text: Diurnal temperature changes

text: decrease with height in the atmosphere.

text: The size and strength of thermals are influenced by the properties of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere). Generally, when the air is cold, bubbles of warm air are formed by the ground heating the air above it and can rise like a hot air balloon.  The air is then referred to as unstable. If there is a warm layer of air higher up, an inversion can prevent thermals from rising high and the air is said to be stable.

text: The size and

text: strength

text: of thermals are influenced by the properties of the lower atmosphere (the

text: troposphere

text: ). Generally, when the air is cold, bubbles of warm air are formed by the ground heating the air above it and can rise like a hot air balloon.  The air is then referred to as unstable. If there is a warm layer of air higher up, an

text: inversion

text: can prevent thermals from rising high and the air is said to be stable.

text: The assumption that an air mass moving over a vegetated surface with abundant water saturates has been questioned later. The lowest and turbulent part of the atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer, is not a closed box, but constantly brings in dry air from higher up in the atmosphere towards the surface. As water evaporates more easily into a dry atmosphere, evapotranspiration is enhanced. This explains the larger than unity value of the Priestley-Taylor parameter \alpha. The proper equilibrium of the system has been derived and involves the characteristics of the interface of the atmospheric boundary layer and the overlying free atmosphere.

text: The assumption that an air mass moving over a vegetated surface with abundant water saturates has been questioned later. The lowest and turbulent part of the atmosphere, the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: , is not a closed box, but constantly brings in dry air from higher up in the atmosphere towards the surface. As water evaporates more easily into a dry atmosphere, evapotranspiration is enhanced. This explains the larger than unity value of the Priestley-Taylor parameter \alpha. The proper equilibrium of the system has been derived and involves the characteristics of the interface of the atmospheric boundary layer and the overlying free atmosphere.

text: In 2010, the research project "Stratosphere: Information Management on the Cloud" (funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG)) was started as a collaboration of Technical University Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Hasso-Plattner-Institut Potsdam. Flink is a Stratosphere fork and it became an Apache Incubator project in March 2014. In December 2014, Flink was accepted as an Apache top-level project.

text: In 2010, the research project "Stratosphere: Information Management on the Cloud" (funded by the

text: German Research Foundation (DFG)

text: ) was started as a collaboration of

text: Technical University Berlin

text: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin

text: , and

text: Hasso-Plattner-Institut

text: Potsdam. Flink is a Stratosphere fork and it became an

text: Apache Incubator

text: project in March 2014. In December 2014, Flink was accepted as an Apache top-level project.

text: During the afternoon hours of February 10, 2009, a strong, middle and upper storm system moved across the Four Corners region into the central and southern Great Plains. A moist, low-level air mass streamed northward across Texas and Louisiana into eastern Oklahoma and the Ozarks ahead of the system. Daytime heating of the moistening boundary layer increased throughout the afternoon across Oklahoma and Texas as cloud cover shifted eastward. Cooling aloft, in conjunction with the approaching storm system, led to atmospheric instability, resulting in thunderstorms. A very strong wind field increased with height through the lower troposphere, resulting in a wind shear favorable for rotation in the thunderstorms.

text: During the afternoon hours of February 10, 2009, a strong, middle and upper storm system moved across the

text: Four Corners

text: region into the central and southern

text: Great Plains

text: . A moist, low-level

text: air mass

text: streamed northward across

text: Texas

text: and

text: Louisiana

text: into eastern

text: Oklahoma

text: and the

text: Ozarks

text: ahead of the system. Daytime heating of the moistening

text: boundary layer

text: increased throughout the afternoon across Oklahoma and Texas as cloud cover shifted eastward. Cooling aloft, in conjunction with the approaching storm system, led to

text: atmospheric instability

text: , resulting in thunderstorms. A very strong wind field increased with height through the lower

text: troposphere

text: , resulting in a

text: wind shear

text: favorable for rotation in the thunderstorms.

text: Roughly speaking, at the distance of Saturn, solar insolation and solar wind flux are sufficiently low that elements and compounds that are volatile on the terrestrial planets tend to accumulate in all three phases. Titan's surface temperature is also quite low, about 94 K.  Consequently, the mass fractions of substances that can become atmospheric constituents are much larger on Titan than on Earth. In fact, current interpretations suggest that only about 50% of Titan's mass is silicates, with the rest consisting primarily of various HO (water) ices and NH·HO (ammonia hydrates). NH, which may be the original source of Titan's atmospheric N (dinitrogen), may constitute as much as 8% of the NH·HO mass. Titan is most likely differentiated into layers, where the liquid water layer beneath ice I may be rich in NH.

text: Roughly speaking, at the distance of

text: Saturn

text: , solar

text: insolation

text: and

text: solar wind

text: flux

text: are sufficiently low that

text: elements

text: and

text: compounds

text: that are volatile on the

text: terrestrial planet

text: s tend to accumulate in all three

text: phases

text: . Titan's surface

text: temperature

text: is also quite low, about 94 K.  Consequently, the

text: mass fraction

text: s of substances that can become atmospheric constituents are much larger on Titan than on

text: Earth

text: . In fact, current interpretations suggest that only about 50% of Titan's mass is

text: silicate

text: s, with the rest consisting primarily of various HO (

text: water

text: ice

text: s and NH·HO (

text: ammonia

text: hydrate

text: s). NH, which may be the original source of Titan's atmospheric N (

text: dinitrogen

text: ), may constitute as much as 8% of the NH·HO mass. Titan is most likely differentiated into layers, where the liquid water layer beneath

text: ice I

text: may be rich in NH.

text: At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation.For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending on temperature and other parameters). In addition, models may consider scattering from molecules or particles, as well as polarisation; however, not all models do so.

text: At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the

text: radiative transfer equation

text: that is numerically solved using a

text: solver

text: such as a

text: discrete ordinate method

text: or a

text: Monte Carlo method

text: . The radiative transfer equation is a

text: monochromatic

text: equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to

text: integrate

text: this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each

text: spectral line

text: for all

text: molecule

text: s in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation.For an instrument response, this is then

text: convolved

text: with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending on

text: temperature

text: and other parameters). In addition, models may consider

text: scattering

text: from molecules or particles, as well as

text: polarisation

text: ; however, not all models do so.

text: The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between radiation and convection. Sunlight hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If radiation were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.

text: The temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of an interaction between

text: radiation

text: and

text: convection

text: . Sunlight hits the ground and heats it. The ground then heats the air at the surface. If

text: radiation

text: were the only way to transfer heat from the ground to space, the

text: greenhouse effect

text: of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly , and the temperature would decay exponentially with height.

text: He was appointed University Lecturer in Meteorology, Oxford. By studying meteorites he noticed that the temperature profile of the tropopause was not constant, as had previously been believed (hence the name stratosphere). In fact there was, he showed, a region where the temperature sharply rose. This, he proposed, was happening because UV radiation was heating ozone in what has become known as the ozone layer.He noted the connection between sunspots and weather, and measured the ultraviolet levels of our star. He built the first Dobson ozone spectrophotometers and studied the results over many years. The Dobson unit, a unit of measurement of vertically integrated atmospheric ozone density, is named after him.  The Brewer-Dobson circulation is a semi-eponymous model of atmospheric currents that explains the distribution of ozone by latitude.

text: He was appointed University Lecturer in Meteorology, Oxford. By studying meteorites he noticed that the temperature profile of the

text: tropopause

text: was not constant, as had previously been believed (hence the name

text: stratosphere

text: ). In fact there was, he showed, a region where the temperature sharply rose. This, he proposed, was happening because UV radiation was heating ozone in what has become known as the

text: ozone layer

text: .He noted the connection between sunspots and weather, and measured the ultraviolet levels of our star. He built the first

text: Dobson ozone spectrophotometer

text: s and studied the results over many years. The

text: Dobson unit

text: , a unit of measurement of vertically integrated atmospheric ozone density, is named after him.  The

text: Brewer-Dobson circulation

text: is a semi-eponymous model of atmospheric currents that explains the distribution of ozone by latitude.

text: From now until at least 2010, UND will play host to NASA's Douglas DC-8 "Flying Laboratory" research aircraft. The University's agreement with NASA is valued at $25 million. The aircraft's areas of research include tracking pollution, monitoring the hole in the ozone layer, and studying the atmosphere's chemistry.

text: From now until at least 2010, UND will play host to

text: NASA

text: 's

text: Douglas DC-8

text: "Flying Laboratory" research aircraft. The University's agreement with NASA is valued at $25 million. The aircraft's areas of research include tracking

text: pollution

text: , monitoring the hole in the

text: ozone layer

text: , and studying the atmosphere's chemistry.

text: The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the solar wind.

text: The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere (i.e. the upper limit of the atmosphere). It extends from the

text: exobase

text: , which is located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km (6,200 mi; 33,000,000 ft) where it merges into the

text: solar wind

text: The Mercurian exosphere consists of a variety of species originating either from the Solar wind or from the planetary crust. The first constituents discovered were atomic hydrogen (H), helium (He) and atomic oxygen (O), which were observed by the ultraviolet radiation photometer of the Mariner 10 spaceprobe in 1974. The near-surface concentrations of these elements were estimated to vary from 230 cm for hydrogen to 44,000 cm for oxygen, with an  intermediate concentration of helium. In 2008 the MESSENGER probe confirmed the presence of atomic hydrogen, although its concentration appeared higher than the 1974 estimate. Mercury's exospheric hydrogen and helium are believed to come from the Solar wind, while the oxygen is likely to be of crustal origin.

text: The Mercurian exosphere consists of a variety of species originating either from the

text: Solar wind

text: or from the

text: planetary crust

text: . The first constituents discovered were

text: atomic hydrogen

text: (H),

text: helium

text: (He) and

text: atomic oxygen

text: (O), which were observed by the ultraviolet radiation

text: photometer

text: of the

text: Mariner 10

text: spaceprobe in 1974. The near-surface concentrations of these elements were estimated to vary from 230 cm for hydrogen to 44,000 cm for oxygen, with an  intermediate concentration of helium. In 2008 the

text: MESSENGER

text: probe confirmed the presence of atomic hydrogen, although its concentration appeared higher than the 1974 estimate. Mercury's exospheric hydrogen and helium are believed to come from the Solar wind, while the oxygen is likely to be of crustal origin.

text: A thermocline (sometimes  metalimnion in lakes) is a thin but distinct layer in a large body of fluid (e.g. water, such as an ocean or lake, or air, such as an atmosphere) in which temperature changes more rapidly with depth than it does in the layers above or below. In the ocean, the thermocline divides the upper mixed layer from the calm deep water below. Depending largely on season, latitude and turbulent mixing by wind, thermoclines may be a semi-permanent feature of the body of water in which they occur or they may form temporarily in response to phenomena such as the radiative heating/cooling of surface water during the day/night. Factors that affect the depth and thickness of a thermocline include seasonal weather variations, latitude and local environmental conditions, such as tides and currents.

text: Today, there are two distinct modern methods for making clotted cream. The "float cream method" includes scalding a floating layer of double cream in milk (skimmed or whole) in shallow trays. To scald, the trays are heated using steam or very hot water. After the mixture has been heated for up to an hour it is slowly cooled for 12 hours or more, before the cream is separated and packaged. The "scald cream method" is similar, but the milk layer is removed and a layer of cream which has been mechanically separated to a minimum fat level is used. This cream is then heated in a similar manner, but at a lower temperature and after a set amount of time it is then chilled and packaged. In the United Kingdom the resultant cream is deemed to be equivalent to pasteurised for legal purposes. Unlike pasteurisation, however, there is no requirement for the temperatures to be recorded on thermograph charts. As the temperatures are lower than used in standard pasteurisation, much care is needed in ensuring high standards of hygiene.

text: Today, there are two distinct modern methods for making clotted cream. The "float cream method" includes

text: scalding

text: a floating layer of

text: double cream

text: in milk (

text: skimmed

text: or

text: whole

text: ) in shallow trays. To scald, the trays are heated using steam or very hot water. After the mixture has been heated for up to an hour it is slowly cooled for 12 hours or more, before the cream is separated and packaged. The "scald cream method" is similar, but the milk layer is removed and a layer of cream which has been mechanically separated to a minimum fat level is used. This cream is then heated in a similar manner, but at a lower temperature and after a set amount of time it is then chilled and packaged. In the United Kingdom the resultant cream is deemed to be equivalent to

text: pasteurised

text: for legal purposes. Unlike pasteurisation, however, there is no requirement for the temperatures to be recorded on thermograph charts. As the temperatures are lower than used in standard pasteurisation, much care is needed in ensuring high standards of hygiene.

text: The eddy covariance (also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers. The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series, and yields values of fluxes of these properties. It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications (micrometeorology, oceanography, hydrology, agricultural sciences, industrial and regulatory applications, etc.) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields, and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas. It is frequently used to estimate momentum, heat, water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane fluxes

text: The eddy covariance (also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within

text: atmospheric boundary layers

text: . The method analyzes high-frequency

text: wind

text: and

text: scalar

text: atmospheric data series, and yields values of

text: flux

text: es of these properties. It is a

text: statistical

text: method used in

text: meteorology

text: and other applications (micrometeorology, oceanography, hydrology, agricultural sciences, industrial and regulatory applications, etc.) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields, and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas. It is frequently used to estimate

text: momentum

text: heat

text: , water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane fluxes

text: Experiments in the Maldives (comparing the atmosphere over the northern and southern islands) in the 1990s showed that the effect of macroscopic pollutants in the atmosphere at that time (blown south from India) caused about a 10% reduction in sunlight reaching the surface in the area under the pollution cloud — a much greater reduction than expected from the presence of the particles themselves.Prior to the research being undertaken, predictions were of a 0.5–1% effect from particulate matter; the variation from prediction may be explained by cloud formation with the particles acting as the focus for droplet creation.Clouds are very effective at reflecting light back out into space.

text: Experiments in the

text: Maldives

text: (comparing the atmosphere over the northern and southern islands) in the 1990s showed that the effect of macroscopic pollutants in the atmosphere at that time (blown south from

text: India

text: ) caused about a 10% reduction in sunlight reaching the surface in the area under the

text: pollution

text: cloud — a much greater reduction than expected from the presence of the particles themselves.Prior to the research being undertaken, predictions were of a 0.5–1% effect from

text: particulate

text: matter; the variation from prediction may be explained by cloud formation with the particles acting as the focus for droplet creation.Clouds are very effective at

text: reflecting

text: light back out into space.

text: At mid-latitudes, the F layer daytime ion production is higher in the summer, as expected, since the Sun shines more directly on the Earth. However, there are seasonal changes in the molecular-to-atomic ratio of the neutral atmosphere that cause the summer ion loss rate to be even higher. The result is that the increase in the summertime loss overwhelms the increase in summertime production, and total F ionization is actually lower in the local summer months. This effect is known as the winter anomaly. The anomaly is always present in the northern hemisphere, but is usually absent in the southern hemisphere during periods of low solar activity.

text: The flow of atmospheric air over obstacles such as islands or isolated mountains sometimes gives birth to von Kármán vortex streets. When a cloud layer is present at the relevant altitude, the streets become visible. Such cloud layer vortex streets have been photographed from satellites.

text: The archipelago's beaches, climate and important natural attractions, especially Maspalomas in Gran Canaria and Teide National Park and Mount Teide (a World Heritage Site) in Tenerife (the third tallest volcano in the world measured from its base on the ocean floor), make it a major tourist destination with over 12 million visitors per year, especially Gran Canaria, Tenerife, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. The islands have a subtropical climate, with long warm summers and moderately warm winters. The precipitation levels and the level of maritime moderation varies depending on location and elevation. Green areas as well as desert exist on the archipelago. Due to their  location above the temperature inversion layer, the high mountains of these islands are ideal for astronomical observation. For this reason, two professional observatories, Teide Observatory on the island of Tenerife and Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma, have been built on the islands.

text: The archipelago's beaches, climate and important natural attractions, especially

text: Maspalomas

text: in

text: Gran Canaria

text: and

text: Teide National Park

text: and Mount

text: Teide

text: (a World Heritage Site) in

text: Tenerife

text: (the third tallest volcano in the world measured from its base on the ocean floor), make it a major tourist destination with over 12 million visitors per year, especially Gran Canaria, Tenerife, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. The islands have a

text: subtropical climate

text: , with long warm summers and moderately warm winters. The precipitation levels and the level of maritime moderation varies depending on location and elevation. Green areas as well as desert exist on the archipelago. Due to their  location above the

text: temperature inversion

text: layer, the high mountains of these islands are ideal for astronomical observation. For this reason, two professional observatories,

text: Teide Observatory

text: on the island of Tenerife and

text: Roque de los Muchachos Observatory

text: on the island of La Palma, have been built on the islands.

text: As with the rest of the British Isles and Scotland, Kinbrace experiences a maritime climate with mild summers and  cool winters. It is nonetheless one of the more frost prone locations in the country, with notable temperatures including a minimum of  during March 2001,  and a daytime maximum of  during November 1985,  when a temperature inversion persisted throughout the day.

text: As with the rest of the

text: British Isles

text: and Scotland, Kinbrace experiences a

text: maritime climate

text: with mild summers and  cool winters. It is nonetheless one of the more frost prone locations in the country, with notable temperatures including a minimum of  during March 2001,  and a daytime maximum of  during November 1985,  when a temperature inversion persisted throughout the day.

text: A hybrid silicon laser is an optical source that is fabricated from both silicon and group III-V semiconductor materials (e.g. Indium(III) phosphide, Gallium(III) arsenide).  It comprises a silicon waveguide fused to an active, light-emitting, III-V epitaxial semiconductor wafer. The III-V epitaxial wafer is designed with different layers such that the active layer can emit light when it is excited either by shining light, e.g. a laser onto it; or by passing electricity through it.  The emitted light from the active layer couples into the silicon waveguide due to their close proximity (<130 nm separation) where it can be guided to reflect off mirrors at the end of the silicon waveguide to form the laser cavity.

text: A hybrid silicon laser is an optical source that is fabricated from both

text: silicon

text: and group III-V semiconductor materials (e.g.

text: Indium(III) phosphide

text: Gallium(III) arsenide

text: ).  It comprises a silicon

text: waveguide

text: fused to an active, light-emitting, III-V epitaxial semiconductor wafer. The III-V epitaxial wafer is designed with different layers such that the active layer can emit light when it is excited either by shining light, e.g. a

text: laser

text: onto it; or by passing electricity through it.  The emitted light from the active layer couples into the silicon waveguide due to their close proximity (<130 nm separation) where it can be guided to reflect off mirrors at the end of the silicon waveguide to form the laser

text: cavity

text: Studies using Dawn's gamma ray and neutron detector (GRaND) reveal that Ceres is accelerating electrons from the solar wind regularly; although there are several possibilities as to what is causing this, the most accepted is that these electrons are being accelerated by collisions between the solar wind and a tenuous water vapor exosphere.

text: As part of the Hadley model of atmospheric circulation, the equator is characterised by the ascending branches of separate meridional cells, driven by intense insolation. The vertical convection draws in air from the surrounding atmosphere, known as the trade winds. As these inwards flows of air converge they reduce horizontal wind speed, and as they rise, they form precipitation. The vertical convection also results in a net export of heat and freshwater from the lower atmosphere into the troposphere This system is known as the ITCZ. The location of the ITCZ is centred on the areas of highest insolation, although it is more stationary over the oceans than landmasses.

text: As part of the

text: Hadley

text: model of atmospheric circulation, the equator is characterised by the ascending branches of separate

text: meridional

text: cells, driven by intense

text: insolation

text: . The vertical

text: convection

text: draws in air from the surrounding atmosphere, known as the

text: trade winds

text: . As these inwards flows of air converge they reduce horizontal wind speed, and as they rise, they form

text: precipitation

text: . The vertical convection also results in a net export of heat and freshwater from the lower atmosphere into the

text: troposphere

text: This system is known as the

text: ITCZ

text: . The location of the ITCZ is centred on the areas of highest insolation, although it is more stationary over the oceans than landmasses.

text: Additionally, other methods of the disc degradation are proposed to be deployed together with the primary one; the concern of the technology developers here is that while the dye oxidation mechanism prevents the disc from being read by current consumer technologies, the information on the disc, recorded in the pattern of the pits in the reflective layer, remains intact and could be recovered.  One of the methods is to make the two reflective layers in the DVD-9 disc of different metals (e.g. aluminium and silver), and separate them with an ionic conductor separator. The atmospheric oxygen then undergoes electrochemical reaction in such crude fuel cell with the silver as cathode and aluminum as anode, leading to growth of dendritic silver through the dielectric layer. When the silver reaches the aluminium, an electric short circuit forms, and galvanic corrosion then rapidly degrades the reflective layers. Many other mechanisms are proposed for this slower, less controlled "backup" method of data destruction, ranging from corrosion of the reflective layers to degradation of the polymer matrix of the disc itself.

text: Additionally, other methods of the disc degradation are proposed to be deployed together with the primary one; the concern of the technology developers here is that while the dye oxidation mechanism prevents the disc from being read by current consumer technologies, the information on the disc, recorded in the pattern of the pits in the reflective layer, remains intact and could be recovered.  One of the methods is to make the two reflective layers in the DVD-9 disc of different metals (e.g.

text: aluminium

text: and

text: silver

text: ), and separate them with an ionic conductor separator. The atmospheric oxygen then undergoes electrochemical reaction in such crude

text: fuel cell

text: with the silver as

text: cathode

text: and aluminum as

text: anode

text: , leading to growth of dendritic silver through the dielectric layer. When the silver reaches the aluminium, an electric short circuit forms, and

text: galvanic corrosion

text: then rapidly degrades the reflective layers. Many other mechanisms are proposed for this slower, less controlled "backup" method of data destruction, ranging from corrosion of the reflective layers to degradation of the polymer matrix of the disc itself.

text: The instrument looked sideways out of the UARS platform to allow the instrument to look through the stratosphere and the lower mesosphere. CLAES produced a 19-month global database showing the vertical distributions of important ozone-layer gases in the stratosphere and their variation with time of day, season, latitude, and longitude.

text: The instrument looked sideways out of the UARS platform to allow the instrument to look through the

text: stratosphere

text: and the lower

text: mesosphere

text: . CLAES produced a 19-month global database showing the vertical distributions of important ozone-layer gases in the stratosphere and their variation with time of day, season, latitude, and longitude.

text: In addition to the direct heating effect and the normal feedbacks, the methane breaks down to carbon dioxide and water. This water is often above the tropopause where little water usually reaches. Ramanathan (1988) notes that both water and ice clouds, when formed at cold lower stratospheric temperatures, are extremely efficient in enhancing the atmospheric greenhouse effect. He also notes that there is a distinct possibility that large increases in future methane may lead to a surface warming that increases nonlinearly with the methane concentration.

text: In the upper atmosphere, a particularly important source of radicals is the photodissociation of normally unreactive chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) by solar ultraviolet radiation, or by reactions with other stratospheric constituents (see eq. 1 below). These reactions give off the chlorine radical, Cl•, which reacts with ozone in a catalytic chain reaction ending in Ozone depletion and regeneration of the chlorine radical, allowing it to reparticipate in the reaction (see – below). Such reactions are believed to be the primary cause of depletion of the ozone layer (the net result is shown in  below), and this is why the use of chlorofluorocarbons as refrigerants has been restricted.

text: In the upper atmosphere, a particularly important source of radicals is the photodissociation of normally unreactive

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) by solar

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: , or by reactions with other stratospheric constituents (see eq. 1 below). These reactions give off the chlorine radical, Cl•, which reacts with

text: ozone

text: in a

text: catalytic

text: chain reaction

text: ending in

text: Ozone depletion

text: and regeneration of the chlorine radical, allowing it to reparticipate in the reaction (see – below). Such reactions are believed to be the primary cause of depletion of the

text: ozone layer

text: (the net result is shown in  below), and this is why the use of chlorofluorocarbons as

text: refrigerant

text: s has been restricted.

text: The outside of the tank has a thick layer of foam insulation that is either fitted in panels or in more modern designs wound round the tank. Over this insulation is a thin layer of "tinfoil" which allows the insulation to be kept dry with a nitrogen atmosphere. This atmosphere is constantly checked for any methane that would indicate a leak of the tank. Also the outside of the tank is checked at 3 month intervals for any cold spots that would indicate breakdown in the insulation.

text: Coolant and refrigerants are found throughout the industrialized world, in homes, offices, and factories, in devices such as refrigerators, air conditioners, central air conditioning systems (HVAC), freezers, and dehumidifiers. When these units are serviced, there is a risk that refrigerant gas will be vented into the atmosphere, hence the creation of technician training and certification programs in order to ensure that the material is conserved and managed safely. Mistreatment of these gases has been shown to deplete the ozone layer and is suspected to contribute to global warming.

text: Coolant and refrigerants are found throughout the industrialized world, in homes, offices, and factories, in devices such as refrigerators, air conditioners, central air conditioning systems (HVAC), freezers, and dehumidifiers. When these units are serviced, there is a risk that refrigerant gas will be vented into the atmosphere, hence the creation of technician training and certification programs in order to ensure that the material is conserved and managed safely. Mistreatment of these gases has been shown to deplete the ozone layer and is suspected to contribute to

text: global warming

text: The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the Earth's stratosphere were discovered by Sydney Chapman in 1930. Short-wavelength UV radiation splits an oxygen () molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone is removed when an oxygen atom and an ozone molecule "recombine" to form two oxygen molecules, i.e. O +  → 2. In the 1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in particular hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination reaction, reducing the overall amount of ozone. These free radicals were known to be present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the natural balance—it was estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it currently is.

text: The basic physical and chemical processes that lead to the formation of an ozone layer in the Earth's stratosphere were discovered by

text: Sydney Chapman

text: in 1930. Short-wavelength UV radiation splits an oxygen () molecule into two oxygen (O) atoms, which then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone is removed when an oxygen atom and an ozone molecule "recombine" to form two oxygen molecules, i.e. O +  → 2. In the 1950s, David Bates and Marcel Nicolet presented evidence that various free radicals, in particular hydroxyl (OH) and nitric oxide (NO), could catalyze this recombination reaction, reducing the overall amount of ozone. These free radicals were known to be present in the stratosphere, and so were regarded as part of the natural balance—it was estimated that in their absence, the ozone layer would be about twice as thick as it currently is.

text: The thermopause is the atmospheric boundary of Earth's energy system, located at the top of the thermosphere. The temperature of the thermopause could range up to absolute zero to .

text: The thermopause is the

text: atmospheric

text: boundary of Earth's energy system, located at the top of the

text: thermosphere

text: . The temperature of the thermopause could range up to absolute zero to .

text: Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the sun. Extremely short or vacuum UV (10–100 nm) is screened out by nitrogen. UV radiation capable of penetrating nitrogen is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (400–315 nm), UV-B (315–280 nm), and UV-C (280–100 nm).

text: is the mixed layer velocity scale defined from surface friction velocity and wind profile function at the surface layer top.

text: The mixed layer is nearest to the surface and can vary in thickness from 10 to 500 meters.  This layer has properties such as temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen which are uniform with depth reflecting a history of active turbulence (the atmosphere has an analogous planetary boundary layer). Turbulence is high in the mixed layer.  However, it becomes zero at the base of the mixed layer. Turbulence again increases below the base of the mixed layer due to shear instabilities. At extratropical latitudes this layer is deepest in late winter as a result of surface cooling and winter storms and quite shallow in summer. Its dynamics is governed by turbulent mixing as well as Ekman pumping, exchanges with the overlying atmosphere, and horizontal advection.

text: The

text: mixed layer

text: is nearest to the surface and can vary in thickness from 10 to 500 meters.  This layer has properties such as temperature,

text: salinity

text: and

text: dissolved oxygen

text: which are uniform with depth reflecting a history of active turbulence (the atmosphere has an analogous

text: planetary boundary layer

text: ). Turbulence is high in the mixed layer.  However, it becomes zero at the base of the mixed layer. Turbulence again increases below the base of the mixed layer due to shear instabilities. At extratropical latitudes this layer is deepest in late winter as a result of surface cooling and winter storms and quite shallow in summer. Its dynamics is governed by turbulent mixing as well as

text: Ekman pumping

text: , exchanges with the overlying atmosphere, and horizontal

text: advection

text: The Convective Boundary layer (CBL), also known as the daytime Planetary boundary layer, is the part of the atmosphere most directly affected by solar heating of the earth's surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kaimal|first=J.C. |author2=J.C. Wyngaard |author3=D.A. Haugen |author4=O.R. Cote |author5=Y. Izumi|title=Turbulence Structure in the Convective Boundary Layer|journal=Journal of the atmospheric Sciences|date=1976|volume=33|pages=2152–2169|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033

text: The Convective Boundary layer (CBL), also known as the daytime

text: Planetary boundary layer

text: , is the part of the atmosphere most directly affected by solar heating of the earth's surface.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kaimal|first=J.C. |author2=J.C. Wyngaard |author3=D.A. Haugen |author4=O.R. Cote |author5=Y. Izumi|title=Turbulence Structure in the Convective Boundary Layer|journal=Journal of the atmospheric Sciences|date=1976|volume=33|pages=2152–2169|doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033

text: Lidars take advantage of resonance scattering in the upper atmosphere to detect metallic atoms. In such systems, the emitted laser light has to be precisely tuned in the resonance frequency of the studied species. The first such measurements were the detection of atomic layers of metallic Sodium (Na) in the mesopause. The same technique is now applied to detect metallic Potassium (K), Lithium (Li), Calcium (Ca), and Calcium ion (Ca ion), and Iron (Fe). These measurements provide important information in an under-studied region of the atmosphere and have helped increase the knowledge on species concentration, origin, and the complex atmospheric dynamics at these altitudes.

text: Mesopotamia was a major departure in style for The B-52s. The band's two previous albums had been more or less true to the live sound that made them favorites of the '70s New York scene, with basic organ, guitar, a keyboard bass and a strong backbeat. Mesopotamia, with Byrne at the helm, showcased a new sound. This included multi-layered guitars, a horn section, atmospheric synths, complex percussion and various instruments including a bass guitar, marimba, piano and accordion.

text: Mesopotamia was a major departure in style for

text: The B-52s

text: . The band's two previous albums had been more or less true to the live sound that made them favorites of the '70s New York scene, with basic organ, guitar, a keyboard bass and a strong backbeat. Mesopotamia, with Byrne at the helm, showcased a new sound. This included multi-layered guitars, a horn section, atmospheric synths, complex percussion and various instruments including a bass guitar, marimba, piano and accordion.

text: α-Humulene is a biogenic volatile organic compound, emitted by numerous plants (see occurrence) with a relatively high potential for secondary organic aerosol formation in the atmosphere. It quickly reacts with ozone in sunlight (photooxidation) to form oxygenated products. α-Humulene has a very high reaction rate coefficient (1.17 × 10 cm molecule s) compared to most monoterpenes. Since it contains three double bonds, first-, second- and third-generation products are possible that can each condense to form secondary organic aerosol. At typical tropospheric ozone mixing ratios of 30 ppb the lifetime of α-humulene is about 2 min, while the first- and second-generation products have average lifetimes of 1 h and 12.5 h, respectively.

text: Air contains water vapor that has been evaporated into it from liquid sources (lakes, sea, etc...). The energy needed to do that has been taken from the air. Taking a volume of air at temperature T and mixing ratio of  r , drying it by condensation will restitute energy to the airmass. This will depend on the latent heat release as:

text: Air

text: contains water vapor that has been evaporated into it from liquid sources (lakes, sea, etc...). The energy needed to do that has been taken from the air. Taking a volume of air at

text: temperature

text: T and

text: mixing ratio

text: of  r , drying it by condensation will restitute energy to the airmass. This will depend on the

text: latent heat

text: release as:

text: This vulnerability is addressed in many commercial products by adding a protective coating to prevent exposure to the atmosphere. Nickel plating or two-layered copper-nickel plating are the standard methods, although plating with other metals, or polymer and lacquer protective coatings are also in use.

text: In 2008 the MESSENGER probe's Fast Imaging Plasma Spectrometer (FIPS) discovered several molecular and different ions in the vicinity of Mercury, including HO (ionized water vapor) and HS (ionized hydrogen sulfide). Their abundances relative to sodium are about 0.2 and 0.7, respectively. Other ions such as HO (hydroxonium), OH (hydroxyl), O and Si are present as well.  During its 2009 flyby, the Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrometer (UVVS) channel of the Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer (MASCS) on board the MESSENGER spacecraft first revealed the presence of magnesium in the Mercurian exosphere. The near-surface abundance of this newly detected constituent is roughly comparable to that of sodium.

text: In 2008 the

text: MESSENGER

text: probe's Fast Imaging Plasma Spectrometer (FIPS) discovered several molecular and different ions in the vicinity of Mercury, including HO (ionized

text: water vapor

text: ) and HS (ionized

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: ). Their abundances relative to sodium are about 0.2 and 0.7, respectively. Other ions such as HO (

text: hydroxonium

text: ), OH (

text: hydroxyl

text: ), O and Si are present as well.  During its 2009 flyby, the Ultraviolet and Visible Spectrometer (UVVS) channel of the Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer (MASCS) on board the MESSENGER spacecraft first revealed the presence of

text: magnesium

text: in the Mercurian exosphere. The near-surface abundance of this newly detected constituent is roughly comparable to that of sodium.

text: Sodium nickel periodate, NaNiIO·0.5HO and potassium nickel periodate, KNiIO·0.5HO were discovered in 1949 by P. Ray and B. Sarma. These double salts are coloured dark purple. The salts were made by oxidising nickel sulfate mixed with potassium periodate (or sodium periodate) with the alkali persulfate salt in boiling water. Similar solids exist for other alkalis such as RbNiIO·0.5HO ,CsNiIO·0.5HO and NHNiIO·0.5HO. The crystalline salts are insoluble in water, acids or bases. Ozone can also be used as the oxidiser. The colour is due to absorbance of visible light shorter than 800 nm, with a peak at 540 nm.  The crystal structure of all the solids has space group P312.  It contains layers of hexagon arrangements of oxygen, in every second layer the alkali atoms fill one third of the holes, and in the alternative layers iodine and nickel fill two thirds of the holes. Analogous mixed periodates also exist for some other tetravalent metals, including manganese, germanium, tin and lead.

text: Sodium nickel periodate, NaNiIO·0.5HO and potassium nickel periodate, KNiIO·0.5HO were discovered in 1949 by P. Ray and B. Sarma. These

text: double salt

text: s are coloured dark purple. The salts were made by oxidising

text: nickel sulfate

text: mixed with

text: potassium periodate

text: (or

text: sodium periodate

text: ) with the alkali

text: persulfate

text: salt in boiling water. Similar solids exist for other alkalis such as RbNiIO·0.5HO ,CsNiIO·0.5HO and NHNiIO·0.5HO. The crystalline salts are insoluble in water, acids or bases.

text: Ozone

text: can also be used as the oxidiser. The colour is due to absorbance of visible light shorter than 800 nm, with a peak at 540 nm.  The crystal structure of all the solids has

text: space group

text: P312.  It contains layers of hexagon arrangements of oxygen, in every second layer the alkali atoms fill one third of the holes, and in the alternative layers

text: iodine

text: and nickel fill two thirds of the holes. Analogous mixed periodates also exist for some other tetravalent metals, including

text: manganese

text: germanium

text: tin

text: and

text: lead

text: Radar studies with the SHAllow RADar (SHARAD) on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter showed that lobate debris aprons (LDA) and lineated valley fill (LVF) contain pure water ice covered with a thin layer of rocks that insulated the ice. Ice was found both in the southern hemisphere  and in the northern hemisphere.  Researchers at the Niels Bohr Institute combined radar observations with ice flow modelling to say that ice in all of the Martian glaciers is equivalent to what could cover the entire surface of Mars with 1.1 meters of ice.  The fact that the ice is still there suggests that a thick layer of dust is protecting the ice; the current atmospheric conditions on Mars are such that any exposed water ice would quickly sublimate.

text: Radar studies with the SHAllow RADar (SHARAD) on the

text: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

text: showed that lobate debris aprons (LDA) and lineated valley fill (LVF) contain pure water ice covered with a thin layer of rocks that insulated the ice. Ice was found both in the southern hemisphere  and in the northern hemisphere.  Researchers at the Niels Bohr Institute combined radar observations with ice flow modelling to say that ice in all of the Martian glaciers is equivalent to what could cover the entire surface of Mars with 1.1 meters of ice.  The fact that the ice is still there suggests that a thick layer of dust is protecting the ice; the current atmospheric conditions on Mars are such that any exposed water ice would quickly sublimate.

text: The Showalter Index is a dimensionless number computed by taking the temperature at the 850 hPa level which is then taken dry adiabatically up to saturation, then up to the 500 hPa level, which is then subtracted by the observated 500 hPa level temperature.  If the value is negative, then the lower portion of the atmosphere is unstable, with thunderstorms expected when the value is below -3. The application of Showalter Index is especially helpful when there is cool, shallow air mass below 850 hPa that conceals the potential convective lifting. However, the index will underestimate the potential convective lifting if there are cool layers that extend above 850 hPa and it does not consider diurnal radiative changes or moisture below 850 hPa.

text: The Showalter Index is a dimensionless number computed by taking the temperature at the 850 hPa level which is then taken dry adiabatically up to saturation, then up to the 500 hPa level, which is then subtracted by the observated 500 hPa level temperature.  If the value is negative, then the lower portion of the atmosphere is unstable, with thunderstorms expected when the value is below -3. The application of Showalter Index is especially helpful when there is cool, shallow air mass below 850 hPa that conceals the potential convective lifting. However, the index will underestimate the potential convective lifting if there are cool layers that extend above 850 hPa and it does not consider

text: diurnal

text: radiative changes or moisture below 850 hPa.

text: The high levels of atmospheric nuclear weapons testing that took place prior to the enactment of the Partial Test Ban Treaty proved to be unexpectedly useful to oceanographers. The high levels of tritium oxide introduced into upper layers of the oceans have been used in the years since then to measure the rate of mixing of the upper layers of the oceans with their lower levels.

text: The high levels of atmospheric

text: nuclear weapons testing

text: that took place prior to the enactment of the

text: Partial Test Ban Treaty

text: proved to be unexpectedly useful to oceanographers. The high levels of tritium oxide introduced into upper layers of the oceans have been used in the years since then to measure the rate of mixing of the upper layers of the oceans with their lower levels.

text: In the northern hemisphere, if the left side of the Moon is dark then the light part is growing, and the Moon is referred to as waxing (moving toward a full moon). If the right side of the Moon is dark then the light part is shrinking, and the Moon is referred to as waning (past full and moving toward a new moon). Assuming that the viewer is in the northern hemisphere, the right portion of the Moon is the part that is always growing (i.e., if the right side is dark, the Moon is growing darker; if the right side is lit, the Moon is growing lighter). In the southern hemisphere the Moon is observed from a perspective inverted to that of the northern hemisphere, so the opposite sides appear to grow (wax) and shrink (wane).

text: In the

text: northern hemisphere

text: , if the left side of the Moon is dark then the light part is growing, and the Moon is referred to as

text: waxing

text: (moving toward a full moon). If the right side of the Moon is dark then the light part is shrinking, and the Moon is referred to as waning (past full and moving toward a new moon). Assuming that the viewer is in the northern hemisphere, the right portion of the Moon is the part that is always growing (i.e., if the right side is dark, the Moon is growing darker; if the right side is lit, the Moon is growing lighter). In the southern hemisphere the Moon is observed from a perspective inverted to that of the northern hemisphere, so the opposite sides appear to grow (wax) and shrink (wane).

text: The album Northern Lights is a live recording of a concert at Bergstadens Ziir ("Jewel of the mountain town" in German), a church from the 17th Century in Røros, Norway (a 17th-Century Germany mining town). It was inspired by Norway's winter, the Blue hour, and the mystical Northern Lights. The music were arranged by Kjetil Bjerkestrand and the musicians sharing the stage with Sissel were the Trondheim Soloists, the Nidaros Cathedral Girls Choir, and Sissel's own band. The concert featured the tenor José Carreras, which performed the Julio Iglesias/Dolly Parton-duet "When You Tell Me That You Love Me" with Sissel. Sissel conducted an eight-city US tour in February 2008, singing selections from Northern Lights. A second leg of the tour covered more cities in the central and southern United States and lasted through April.

text: The album Northern Lights is a live recording of a concert at

text: Bergstadens Ziir

text: ("Jewel of the mountain town" in German), a church from the 17th Century in

text: Røros

text: , Norway (a 17th-Century Germany mining town). It was inspired by Norway's winter, the

text: Blue hour

text: , and the mystical

text: Northern Lights

text: . The music were arranged by Kjetil Bjerkestrand and the musicians sharing the stage with Sissel were the

text: Trondheim Soloists

text: , the

text: Nidaros Cathedral

text: Girls Choir, and Sissel's own band. The concert featured the tenor

text: José Carreras

text: , which performed the

text: Julio Iglesias

text: Dolly Parton

text: duet

text: When You Tell Me That You Love Me

text: " with Sissel. Sissel conducted an eight-city US tour in February 2008, singing selections from Northern Lights. A second leg of the tour covered more cities in the central and southern United States and lasted through April.

text: The troposphere is very dynamic, exhibiting strong zonal winds, bright methane clouds, dark spots and noticeable seasonal changes. (see below)

text: Thunderstorms form when air parcels are lifted vertically.  Deep, moist convection requires a parcel to be lifted to the LFC where it then rises spontaneously until reaching a layer of non-positive buoyancy.  The atmosphere is warm at the surface and lower levels of the troposphere where there is mixing (the planetary boundary layer (PBL)), but becomes substantially cooler with height.  The temperature profile of the atmosphere, the change in temperature, the degree that it cools with height, is the lapse rate.  When the rising air parcel cools more slowly than the surrounding atmosphere, it remains warmer and less dense.  The parcel continues to rise freely (convectively; without mechanical lift) through the atmosphere until it reaches an area of air less dense (warmer) than itself.

text: Thunderstorm

text: s form when

text: air parcel

text: s are lifted vertically.  Deep, moist convection requires a parcel to be lifted to the LFC where it then rises spontaneously until reaching a layer of non-positive buoyancy.  The

text: atmosphere

text: is warm at the surface and lower levels of the

text: troposphere

text: where there is

text: mixing

text: (the

text: planetary boundary layer (PBL)

text: ), but becomes substantially cooler with height.  The temperature profile of the atmosphere, the change in temperature, the degree that it cools with height, is the

text: lapse rate

text: .  When the rising air parcel cools more slowly than the surrounding atmosphere, it remains warmer and less

text: dense

text: .  The parcel continues to rise freely (

text: convectively

text: ; without mechanical lift) through the atmosphere until it reaches an area of air less dense (warmer) than itself.

text: Mixing systems generally supply air such that the supply air mixes with the room air so that the mixed air is at the room design temperature and humidity. In cooling mode, the cool supply air, typically around 55 °F (13 °C) (saturated) at design conditions, exits an outlet at high velocity. The high velocity supply air stream causes turbulence causing the room air to mix with the supply air.  Because the entire room is near-fully mixed, temperature variations are small while the contaminant concentration is fairly uniform throughout the entire room. Diffusers are normally used as the air outlets to create the high velocity supply air stream.  Most often, the air outlets and inlets are placed in the ceiling. Supply diffusers in the ceiling are fed by fan coil units in the ceiling void or by air handling units in a remote plant room. The fan coil or  handling unit take in return air from the ceiling void and mix this with fresh air and cool, or heat it, as required to achieve the room design conditions. This arrangement is known as 'conventional room air distribution'.

text: Mixing systems generally supply air such that the supply air mixes with the room air so that the mixed air is at the room design temperature and humidity. In cooling mode, the cool supply air, typically around 55 °F (13 °C) (saturated) at design conditions, exits an outlet at high velocity. The high velocity supply air stream causes turbulence causing the room air to mix with the supply air.  Because the entire room is near-fully mixed, temperature variations are small while the contaminant concentration is fairly uniform throughout the entire room.

text: Diffusers

text: are normally used as the air outlets to create the high velocity supply air stream.  Most often, the air outlets and inlets are placed in the ceiling. Supply diffusers in the ceiling are fed by

text: fan coil unit

text: s in the ceiling void or by

text: air handling unit

text: s in a remote plant room. The fan coil or  handling unit take in return air from the ceiling void and mix this with fresh air and cool, or heat it, as required to achieve the room design conditions. This arrangement is known as 'conventional room air distribution'.

text: The most common type of OTH radar uses skywave or "skip" propagation, in which shortwave radio waves are reflected off an ionized layer in the atmosphere, the ionosphere.  Given certain conditions in the atmosphere, radio signals transmitted at an angle into the sky will be reflected back towards the ground by the ionosphere, allowing them to return to earth beyond the horizon.  A small amount of this signal will be scattered off desired targets back towards the sky, reflect off the ionosphere again, and return to the receiving antenna by the same path. Only one range of frequencies regularly exhibits this behaviour: the high frequency (HF) or shortwave part of the spectrum from 3 to 30 MHz. The best frequency to use depends on the current conditions of the atmosphere and the sunspot cycle, so systems using skywaves typically employ real-time monitoring of the reception of backscattered signals to continuously adjust the frequency of the transmitted signal.

text: The most common type of OTH radar uses

text: skywave

text: or "skip" propagation, in which

text: shortwave

text: radio waves are reflected off an

text: ionized

text: layer in the atmosphere, the

text: ionosphere

text: .  Given certain conditions in the atmosphere, radio signals transmitted at an angle into the sky will be reflected back towards the ground by the

text: ionosphere

text: , allowing them to return to earth beyond the horizon.  A small amount of this signal will be scattered off desired targets back towards the sky, reflect off the ionosphere again, and return to the receiving antenna by the same path. Only one range of frequencies regularly exhibits this behaviour: the

text: high frequency

text: (HF) or

text: shortwave

text: part of the

text: spectrum

text: from 3 to 30 MHz. The best frequency to use depends on the current conditions of the atmosphere and the

text: sunspot cycle

text: , so systems using skywaves typically employ real-time monitoring of the reception of backscattered signals to continuously adjust the frequency of the transmitted signal.

text: In many air distribution arrangements, air is neither uniform or perfectly mixed. The actual percentage of an enclosure's air which is exchanged in a period depends on the airflow efficiency of the enclosure and the methods used to ventilate it. The actual amount of air changed in a well mixed ventilation scenario will be 63.2% after 1 hour and 1 ACH. In order to achieve equilibrium pressure, the amount of air leaving the space and entering the space must be the same.

text: In many air distribution arrangements, air is neither uniform or perfectly mixed. The actual percentage of an enclosure's air which is exchanged in a period depends on the airflow efficiency of the enclosure and the methods used to ventilate it. The actual amount of air changed in a well mixed ventilation scenario will be 63.2% after 1 hour and 1 ACH. In order to achieve

text: equilibrium

text: pressure, the amount of air leaving the space and entering the space must be the same.

text: GEISA - GEISA (Gestion et Etude des Informations Spectroscopiques Atmosphériques: Management and Study of Spectroscopic Information) is a computer-accessible spectroscopic database, designed to facilitate accurate forward radiative transfer calculations using a line-by-line and layer-by-layer approach. It was started in 1974 at Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (LMD) in France. GEISA is maintained by the ARA  group at LMD (Ecole Polytechnique)  for its scientific part and by the ETHER group  (CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-France) at IPSL (Institut Pierre Simon Laplace) for its technical part. Currently, GEISA is involved in activities related to the assessment of the capabilities of IASI (Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer on board of the METOP European satellite) through the GEISA/IASI database derived from GEISA.

text: GEISA - GEISA (Gestion et Etude des Informations Spectroscopiques Atmosphériques: Management and Study of Spectroscopic Information) is a computer-accessible spectroscopic database, designed to facilitate accurate forward radiative transfer calculations using a line-by-line and layer-by-layer approach. It was started in 1974 at Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (LMD) in France. GEISA is maintained by the ARA  group at LMD (Ecole Polytechnique)  for its scientific part and by the ETHER group  (CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-France) at IPSL (Institut Pierre Simon Laplace) for its technical part. Currently, GEISA is involved in activities related to the assessment of the capabilities of

text: IASI

text: (Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer on board of the

text: METOP

text: European satellite) through the GEISA/IASI database derived from GEISA.

text: Kepler-6b is a hot Jupiter, having a mass 0.669 times that of Jupiter, but an average distance of only 0.046 AU from its star and, thus, an orbital period of 3.23 days. It is almost 10 times closer to its star than Mercury is from our Sun. As a result, Kepler-6b is strongly irradiated by its star, heating its atmosphere to a temperature of 1660 K and puffing it up to a size 1.3 times that of Jupiter. It may also be the case that Kepler-6b has a thermal inversion of its atmosphere, where temperature increases with increasing distance from the center of the planet. However, additional observations are required to confirm or refute this possibility.

text: Kepler-6b is a

text: hot Jupiter

text: , having a mass 0.669 times that of Jupiter, but an

text: average distance

text: of only 0.046

text: AU

text: from its star and, thus, an

text: orbital period

text: of 3.23 days. It is almost 10 times closer to its star than

text: Mercury

text: is from our Sun. As a result, Kepler-6b is strongly irradiated by its star, heating its atmosphere to a temperature of 1660 K and puffing it up to a size 1.3 times that of Jupiter. It may also be the case that Kepler-6b has a

text: thermal inversion

text: of its atmosphere, where temperature increases with increasing distance from the center of the planet. However, additional observations are required to confirm or refute this possibility.

text: When the sun is near the horizon at sunset or sunrise, the light from the sun is red; this is because the light is reaching the observer through an especially thick layer of the atmosphere, which works as a filter, scattering all but the red light.

text: Although the phase-out of CFCs took almost two decades, the policy is generally seen as a success. While a crisis seems to be averted, due to the longevity of CFC particles in the atmosphere, the ozone layer is only expected to start showing sign of recovery by 2024.

text: In the absence of inversions and not considering moisture, the temperature lapse rate for this layer is 6.5 °C per kilometer, on average, according to the U.S. Standard Atmosphere. A measurement of both the tropospheric and the stratospheric lapse rates helps identifying the location of the tropopause, since temperature increases with height in the stratosphere, and hence the lapse rate becomes negative. The tropopause location coincides with the lowest point at which the lapse rate falls below a prescribed threshold.

text: In the absence of

text: inversion

text: s and not considering

text: moisture

text: , the

text: temperature lapse rate

text: for this layer is 6.5 °C per kilometer, on average, according to the U.S. Standard Atmosphere. A measurement of both the tropospheric and the stratospheric lapse rates helps identifying the location of the tropopause, since temperature increases with height in the stratosphere, and hence the lapse rate becomes negative. The tropopause location coincides with the lowest point at which the lapse rate falls below a prescribed threshold.

text: The Sun emits significant UV radiation (about 10% of its total power), including extremely short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would provide some protection for life there). However, most of the Sun's damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere and ozone layer before they reach the surface. The higher energy (shortest wavelength) ranges of UV (called "vacuum UV") are absorbed by nitrogen and, at longer wavelengths, by simple diatomic oxygen in the air. Most of the UV in the mid-range of energy is blocked by the ozone layer, which absorbs strongly in the important 200–315 nm range, the lower energy part of which is too long for ordinary dioxygen in air to absorb. The very lowest energy range of UV between 315 nm and visible light (called UV-A) is not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage. However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage. See ultraviolet for more information.

text: The Sun emits significant UV radiation (about 10% of its total power), including extremely short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would provide some protection for life there). However, most of the Sun's damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed by the atmosphere and

text: ozone layer

text: before they reach the surface. The higher energy (shortest wavelength) ranges of UV (called "vacuum UV") are absorbed by nitrogen and, at longer wavelengths, by simple diatomic

text: oxygen

text: in the air. Most of the UV in the mid-range of energy is blocked by the ozone layer, which absorbs strongly in the important 200–315 nm range, the lower energy part of which is too long for ordinary

text: dioxygen

text: in air to absorb. The very lowest energy range of UV between 315 nm and visible light (called UV-A) is not blocked well by the atmosphere, but does not cause sunburn and does less biological damage. However, it is not harmless and does create oxygen radicals, mutations and skin damage. See

text: ultraviolet

text: for more information.

text: The planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), is the lowest part of the atmosphere and its behavior is directly influenced by its contact with the planetary surface.

text: The

text: planetary boundary layer

text: (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), is the lowest part of the atmosphere and its behavior is directly influenced by its contact with the planetary surface.

text: The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere. The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions in the ionosphere. Taking its name from the Greek θερμός (pronounced thermos) meaning heat, the thermosphere begins about  above the Earth. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass (see turbosphere). Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to . Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged (see ionosphere), enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon. In the exosphere, beginning at  above the Earth's surface, the atmosphere turns into space.

text: The thermosphere is the layer of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: directly above the

text: mesosphere

text: . The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere,

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: causes

text: photoionization

text: /photodissociation of molecules, creating ions in the

text: ionosphere

text: . Taking its name from the

text: Greek

text: θερμός (pronounced thermos) meaning heat, the thermosphere begins about  above the Earth. At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to

text: molecular mass

text: (see

text: turbosphere

text: ). Thermospheric

text: temperature

text: s increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic

text: solar radiation

text: . Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to . Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged (see

text: ionosphere

text: ), enabling

text: radio wave

text: s to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon. In the exosphere, beginning at  above the Earth's surface, the atmosphere turns into

text: space

text: The Tropopause represents high-altitude.

text: The

text: Tropopause

text: represents high-altitude.

text: Ozone (O) is a constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of some regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the ozone layer). The troposphere extends from the Earth's surface to between 12 and 20 kilometers above sea level and consists of many layers. Ozone is more concentrated above the mixing layer, or ground layer. Ground-level ozone, though less concentrated than ozone aloft, is more of a problem because of its health effects.

text: Ozone

text: (O) is a constituent of the

text: troposphere

text: (it is also an important constituent of some regions of the

text: stratosphere

text: commonly known as the

text: ozone layer

text: ). The

text: troposphere

text: extends from the

text: Earth

text: 's surface to between 12 and 20 kilometers above

text: sea level

text: and consists of many layers. Ozone is more concentrated above the mixing layer, or ground layer. Ground-level ozone, though less concentrated than ozone aloft, is more of a problem because of its

text: health effects

text: The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the stratosphere, starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the ozone layer caused by capture of significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named thermosphere above 90 km.

text: The division of the atmosphere into layers mostly by reference to temperature is discussed above. Temperature decreases with altitude starting at sea level, but variations in this trend begin above 11 km, where the temperature stabilizes through a large vertical distance through the rest of the troposphere. In the

text: stratosphere

text: , starting above about 20 km, the temperature increases with height, due to heating within the

text: ozone layer

text: caused by capture of significant

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation from the

text: Sun

text: by the dioxygen and ozone gas in this region. Still another region of increasing temperature with altitude occurs at very high altitudes, in the aptly-named

text: thermosphere

text: above 90 km.

text: The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides, which are driven by the very significant diurnal heating. Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma.

text: The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by

text: atmospheric tide

text: s, which are driven by the very significant

text: diurnal heating

text: . Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma.

text: Database testing usually consists of a layered process, including the user interface (UI) layer, the business layer, the data access layer and the database itself. The UI layer deals with the interface design of the database, while the business layer includes databases supporting business strategies. One of the most critical layers is the data access layer, which deals with databases directly during the communication process. Database testing mainly takes place at this layer and involves testing strategies such as quality control and quality assurance of the product databases. Testing at these different layers is frequently used to maintain consistency of database systems, most commonly    seen in the following examples:

text: Database testing usually consists of a layered process, including the

text: user interface

text: (UI) layer, the business layer, the data access layer and the database itself. The UI layer deals with the interface design of the database, while the business layer includes databases supporting

text: business strategies

text: . One of the most critical layers is the data access layer, which deals with databases directly during the communication process. Database testing mainly takes place at this layer and involves testing strategies such as quality control and quality assurance of the product databases. Testing at these different layers is frequently used to maintain consistency of database systems, most commonly    seen in the following examples:

text: , the most recent version is X-Plane 10.51. X-Plane 10 comes in a cardstock or tin case on eight dual-layer DVDs, most of which comprise the global scenery, which is  compressed. The scenery spans from 70 degrees south to 74 degrees north. Switching the planetary model to Mars is an option that comes with X-Plane 9 only, and although the atmosphere is thin, flight is possible.

text: , the most recent version is X-Plane 10.51. X-Plane 10 comes in a cardstock or tin case on eight dual-layer DVDs, most of which comprise the global scenery, which is  compressed. The scenery spans from

text: 70 degrees south

text: to

text: 74 degrees north

text: . Switching the planetary model to Mars is an option that comes with X-Plane 9 only, and although the atmosphere is thin, flight is possible.

text: Entering the Golden Slipper as second favourite, Exosphere finished last of a field of 16. A post-race examination by the vet revealed he had been suffering from heart arrhythmia, and was immediately spelled.

text: Entering the

text: Golden Slipper

text: as second favourite, Exosphere finished last of a field of 16. A post-race examination by the vet revealed he had been suffering from heart arrhythmia, and was immediately spelled.

text: Watson wrote that "the chief joy [of the episode] was the stealthy way the atmospheric story was built up layer by layer". In The Times, Billen described "Sardines" as "a disciplined comedy, but a little bit of discipline, as one of the League's perverts might say, never did anyone any harm". With the exception of the ending, Billen "loved it". A separate review in The Times, however, praised the twist ending; "this isn't just an inspired set-up performed by a stellar cast – it builds to a macabre and horribly imagined climax." Owen was ambivalent about the ending of "Sardines", saying that it "worked very well in terms of narrative, but perhaps it landed with too much softness". Mark Jones, writing in The Guardian, gave a more mixed review overall, describing "Sardines" as a "slow burner, but a decent introduction to a series". Newsome called the episode a "gem of an opener".

text: The products of high-temperature corrosion can potentially be turned to the advantage of the engineer. The formation of oxides on stainless steels, for example, can provide a protective layer preventing further atmospheric attack, allowing for a material to be used for sustained periods at both room and high temperatures in hostile conditions. Such high-temperature corrosion products, in the form of compacted oxide layer glazes, prevent or reduce wear during high-temperature sliding contact of metallic (or metallic and ceramic) surfaces.

text: The products of high-temperature corrosion can potentially be turned to the advantage of the engineer. The formation of oxides on stainless steels, for example, can provide a protective layer preventing further atmospheric attack, allowing for a material to be used for sustained periods at both room and high temperatures in hostile conditions. Such high-temperature corrosion products, in the form of

text: compacted oxide layer glaze

text: s, prevent or reduce wear during high-temperature sliding contact of metallic (or metallic and ceramic) surfaces.

text: An atmosphere does not abruptly end at any given height, but becomes progressively thinner with altitude. Also, depending on how the various layers that make up the space around the Earth are defined (and depending on whether these layers are considered part of the actual atmosphere), the definition of the edge of space could vary considerably: If one were to consider the thermosphere and exosphere part of the atmosphere and not of space, one might have to extend the boundary to space to at least  above sea level. The Kármán line thus is an arbitrary definition based on the following considerations:

text: An atmosphere does not abruptly end at any given height, but becomes progressively thinner with altitude. Also, depending on how the various layers that make up the space around the

text: Earth

text: are defined (and depending on whether these layers are considered part of the actual atmosphere), the definition of the edge of space could vary considerably: If one were to consider the

text: thermosphere

text: and

text: exosphere

text: part of the atmosphere and not of space, one might have to extend the boundary to space to at least  above sea level. The Kármán line thus is an arbitrary definition based on the following considerations:

text: The UAH satellite temperature dataset, developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville, infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance.

text: The UAH satellite temperature dataset, developed at the

text: University of Alabama in Huntsville

text: , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from

text: satellite

text: measurements of

text: radiance

text: Managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by Ball Space Systems and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the University of Colorado where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved.

text: Managed for

text: NASA

text: by the

text: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

text: , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by

text: Ball Space Systems

text: and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the

text: University of Colorado

text: where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved.

text: A higher-yield detonation can carry the nitrogen oxides from the burst high enough in atmosphere to cause significant depletion of the ozone layer.

text: A higher-yield detonation can carry the nitrogen oxides from the burst high enough in atmosphere to cause significant

text: depletion

text: of the

text: ozone layer

text: The systems are very flexible and can be tailored to all possible dimensions, shapes and lengths for almost all types of rooms and applications.Low velocity systems diffuse air through their surface or micro perforations, higher velocity, mixing systems use laser cut perforations or Textile Nozzles/Jets to throw the air.

text: The systems are very flexible and can be tailored to all possible dimensions, shapes and lengths for almost all types of rooms and applications.Low velocity systems diffuse air through their surface or micro perforations, higher velocity, mixing systems use

text: laser cut

text: perforations or Textile Nozzles/Jets to throw the air.

text: Atmospheric electricity is the pattern of electrical charges in the Earth's atmosphere (or less commonly, that of another planet). The normal movement of electric charges among the Earth's surface, the various layers of the atmosphere, and especially the ionosphere, taken together, are known as the global atmospheric electrical circuit. Much of the reasoning required to explain these currents lies within the field of electrostatics, but also requires understanding of other disciplines within Earth science.

text: Atmospheric electricity is the pattern of

text: electrical charge

text: s in the Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: (or less commonly, that of another

text: planet

text: ). The normal movement of electric charges among the Earth's surface, the various layers of the atmosphere, and especially the

text: ionosphere

text: , taken together, are known as the

text: global atmospheric electrical circuit

text: . Much of the reasoning required to explain these currents lies within the field of

text: electrostatics

text: , but also requires understanding of other disciplines within

text: Earth science

text: The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere, the troposphere extends from the surface to about . Above  is the stratosphere, followed by the mesosphere. In the stratosphere incoming solar radiation creates the ozone layer. At heights of above , in the thermosphere, the atmosphere is so thin that free electrons can exist for short periods of time before they are captured by a nearby positive ion. The number of these free electrons is sufficient to affect radio propagation. This portion of the atmosphere is ionized and contains a plasma which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the negative free electrons and the positive ions are attracted to each other by the electrostatic force, but they are too energetic to stay fixed together in an electrically neutral molecule.

text: The lowest part of the

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , the

text: troposphere

text: extends from the surface to about . Above  is the

text: stratosphere

text: , followed by the

text: mesosphere

text: . In the stratosphere incoming solar radiation creates the

text: ozone layer

text: . At heights of above , in the

text: thermosphere

text: , the atmosphere is so thin that free electrons can exist for short periods of time before they are captured by a nearby positive

text: ion

text: . The number of these free electrons is sufficient to affect

text: radio propagation

text: . This portion of the atmosphere is ionized and contains a

text: plasma

text: which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the negative free electrons and the positive ions are attracted to each other by the electrostatic force, but they are too energetic to stay fixed together in an electrically neutral molecule.

text: The Ionosphere-Thermosphere Storm Probes mission has two goals:

text: Interaction between the atmosphere, ice and ocean is confined to the atmospheric boundary layer, which is mainly influenced by surface characteristics. In polar regions, these are sea ice roughness and sea ice concentration, which greatly influence surface temperature distribution. Wind speed and direction, the temperature of the air, and the location of the wind contact are other factors. Both sea ice and wind have great impact on the atmospheric boundary layer, which is often used to measure conditions in polar areas.

text: Interaction between the atmosphere, ice and ocean is confined to the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: , which is mainly influenced by surface characteristics. In polar regions, these are sea ice roughness and sea ice concentration, which greatly influence surface temperature distribution. Wind speed and direction, the temperature of the air, and the location of the wind contact are other factors. Both sea ice and wind have great impact on the atmospheric boundary layer, which is often used to measure conditions in polar areas.

text: The distribution of power that a black body emits with varying frequency is described by Planck's law. At any given temperature, there is a frequency f at which the power emitted is a maximum. Wien's displacement law, and the fact that the frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength, indicates that the peak frequency f is proportional to the absolute temperature T of the black body. The photosphere of the sun, at a temperature of approximately 6000 K, emits radiation principally in the (humanly) visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Earth's atmosphere is partly transparent to visible light, and the light reaching the surface is absorbed or reflected. Earth's surface emits the absorbed radiation, approximating the behavior of a black body at 300 K with spectral peak at f. At these lower frequencies, the atmosphere is largely opaque and radiation from Earth's surface is absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere. Though some radiation escapes into space, most is absorbed and then re-emitted by atmospheric gases. It is this spectral selectivity of the atmosphere that is responsible for the planetary greenhouse effect, contributing to global warming and climate change in general (but also critically contributing to climate stability when the composition and properties of the atmosphere are not changing).

text: The distribution of power that a black body emits with varying frequency is described by

text: Planck's law

text: . At any given temperature, there is a frequency f at which the power emitted is a maximum. Wien's displacement law, and the fact that the frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength, indicates that the peak frequency f is proportional to the absolute temperature T of the black body. The photosphere of the sun, at a temperature of approximately 6000 K, emits radiation principally in the (humanly) visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Earth's atmosphere is partly transparent to visible light, and the light reaching the surface is absorbed or reflected. Earth's surface emits the absorbed radiation, approximating the behavior of a black body at 300 K with spectral peak at f. At these lower frequencies, the atmosphere is largely opaque and radiation from Earth's surface is absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere. Though some radiation escapes into space, most is absorbed and then re-emitted by atmospheric gases. It is this spectral selectivity of the atmosphere that is responsible for the planetary

text: greenhouse effect

text: , contributing to

text: global warming

text: and

text: climate change

text: in general (but also critically contributing to climate stability when the composition and properties of the atmosphere are not changing).

text: Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation due to favorable observing conditions. The arid conditions are important for submillimeter and infrared astronomy for this region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The summit is above the inversion layer, keeping most cloud cover below the summit and ensuring the air on the summit is dry, and free of atmospheric pollution. The summit atmosphere is exceptionally stable, lacking turbulence for some of the world's best astronomical seeing. The very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea's distance from city lights are preserved by legislation that minimizes light pollution from the surrounding area; the darkness level allows the observation of faint astronomical objects. These factors historically made Mauna Kea an excellent spot for stargazing.

text: Mauna Kea's summit is one of the best sites in the world for

text: astronomical observation

text: due to favorable observing conditions. The arid conditions are important for

text: submillimeter

text: and

text: infrared

text: astronomy for this region of the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: . The summit is above the

text: inversion layer

text: , keeping most

text: cloud cover

text: below the summit and ensuring the air on the summit is dry, and free of

text: atmospheric pollution

text: . The summit atmosphere is exceptionally stable, lacking

text: turbulence

text: for some of the world's best

text: astronomical seeing

text: . The very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea's distance from city lights are preserved by legislation that minimizes

text: light pollution

text: from the surrounding area; the darkness level allows the observation of faint

text: astronomical object

text: s. These factors historically made Mauna Kea an excellent spot for stargazing.

text: Water in Earth's atmosphere is not merely below its boiling point (100 °C), but at altitude it goes below its freezing point (0 °C), due to water's highly polar attraction. When combined with its quantity, water vapor then has a relevant dew point and frost point, unlike e. g., carbon dioxide and methane. Water vapor thus has a scale height a fraction of that of the bulk atmosphere, as the water condenses and exits, primarily in the troposphere, the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide () and methane, being non-polar, rise above water vapor. The absorption and emission of both compounds contribute to Earth's emission to space, and thus the planetary greenhouse effect. This greenhouse forcing is directly observable, via distinct spectral features versus water vapor, and observed to be rising with rising  levels. Conversely, adding water vapor at high altitudes has a disproportionate impact, which is why methane (rising, then oxidizing to  and two water molecules) and jet traffic have disproportionately high warming effects.

text: Water in Earth's atmosphere is not merely below its boiling point (100 °C), but

text: at altitude

text: it

text: goes below

text: its freezing point (0 °C), due to water's

text: highly polar attraction

text: . When combined with its quantity, water vapor then has a relevant

text: dew point

text: and

text: frost point

text: , unlike e. g., carbon dioxide and methane. Water vapor thus has a

text: scale height

text: a fraction of that of the bulk atmosphere, as the water

text: condenses

text: and

text: exits

text: , primarily in the

text: troposphere

text: , the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide () and

text: methane

text: , being non-polar, rise above water vapor. The absorption and emission of both compounds contribute to Earth's emission to space, and thus the

text: planetary greenhouse effect

text: . This greenhouse forcing is directly observable, via distinct

text: spectral features

text: versus water vapor, and observed to be rising with rising  levels. Conversely, adding water vapor at high altitudes has a disproportionate impact, which is why methane (rising, then oxidizing to  and two water molecules) and

text: jet traffic

text: have disproportionately high warming effects.

text: Strong but vertically shallow high-pressure systems moving from higher latitudes to lower latitudes in the northern hemisphere are associated with continental arctic air masses.  The low, sharp temperature inversion can lead to areas of persistent stratocumulus or stratus cloud, known in colloquial terms as anticyclonic gloom. The type of weather brought about by an anticyclone depends on its origin. For example, extensions of the Azores high bubble pressure may bring about anticyclonic gloom during the winter, as they are warmed at the base and will trap moisture as they move over the warmer oceans. High pressures that build to the north and extend southwards will often bring clear weather. This is due to being cooled at the base (as opposed to warmed), which helps prevent clouds from forming.  The highest barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth was  measured in Tonsontsengel, Mongolia on 19 December 2001.

text: Strong but vertically shallow high-pressure systems moving from higher latitudes to lower latitudes in the northern hemisphere are associated with continental arctic air masses.  The low, sharp

text: temperature inversion

text: can lead to areas of persistent

text: stratocumulus

text: or

text: stratus cloud

text: , known in colloquial terms as anticyclonic gloom. The type of weather brought about by an anticyclone depends on its origin. For example, extensions of the Azores high bubble pressure may bring about anticyclonic gloom during the winter, as they are warmed at the base and will trap moisture as they move over the warmer oceans. High pressures that build to the north and extend southwards will often bring clear weather. This is due to being cooled at the base (as opposed to warmed), which helps prevent clouds from forming.  The highest barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth was  measured in

text: Tonsontsengel, Mongolia

text: on 19 December 2001.

text: The convective condensation level (CCL) results when strong surface heating causes buoyant lifting of surface air and subsequent mixing of the planetary boundary layer, so that the layer near the surface ends up with a dry adiabatic lapse rate.  As the mixing becomes deeper, it will get to the point where the LCL of an air parcel starting at the surface is at the top of the mixed region.  When this occurs, then any further solar heating of the surface will cause a cloud to form topping the well-mixed boundary layer, and the level at which this occurs is called the CCL.  If the boundary layer starts off with a stable temperature profile (that is, with a lapse rate less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate), then the CCL will be higher than the LCL.  In nature, the actual cloud base is often initially somewhere between the LCL and the CCL.  If a thunderstorm forms, then as it grows and matures, processes such as increased saturation at lower levels from precipitation and lower surface pressure usually lead to a lowering of the cloud base.

text: The

text: convective condensation level

text: (CCL) results when strong surface heating causes

text: buoyant

text: lifting of surface air and subsequent mixing of the

text: planetary boundary layer

text: , so that the layer near the surface ends up with a dry adiabatic lapse rate.  As the mixing becomes deeper, it will get to the point where the LCL of an air parcel starting at the surface is at the top of the mixed region.  When this occurs, then any further solar heating of the surface will cause a cloud to form topping the well-mixed boundary layer, and the level at which this occurs is called the CCL.  If the boundary layer starts off with a stable temperature profile (that is, with a lapse rate less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate), then the CCL will be higher than the LCL.  In nature, the actual cloud base is often initially somewhere between the LCL and the CCL.  If a thunderstorm forms, then as it grows and matures, processes such as increased saturation at lower levels from precipitation and lower surface pressure usually lead to a lowering of the cloud base.

text: It was invented for use in fire extinguishers by the Germans during the mid-1940s, in an attempt to create a less-toxic, more effective alternative to carbon tetrachloride. This was a concern in aircraft and tanks as carbon tetrachloride produced highly toxic by-products when discharged onto a fire. CBM was slightly less toxic, and used up until the late 1960s, being officially banned by the NFPA for use in fire extinguishers in 1969, as safer and more effective agents such as halon 1211 and 1301 were developed. Due to its ozone depletion potential its production was banned from January 1, 2002, at the Eleventh Meeting of the Parties for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

text: It was invented for use in fire extinguishers by the Germans during the mid-1940s, in an attempt to create a less-toxic, more effective alternative to

text: carbon tetrachloride

text: . This was a concern in aircraft and tanks as carbon tetrachloride produced highly toxic by-products when discharged onto a fire. CBM was slightly less toxic, and used up until the late 1960s, being officially banned by the NFPA for use in fire extinguishers in 1969, as safer and more effective agents such as

text: halon 1211

text: and 1301 were developed. Due to its

text: ozone depletion potential

text: its production was banned from January 1, 2002, at the Eleventh Meeting of the Parties for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.

text: The ionosphere, a layer of the Earth's atmosphere, contains charged particles that reflect some radio waves. Amateur radio enthusiasts make use of this characteristic to help propagate lower frequency HF signals around the world: the waves are trapped, bouncing around in the upper layers of the ionosphere until they are refracted down at another point on the Earth. This is called skywave transmission. UHF TV signals are not carried along the ionosphere but can be reflected off of the charged particles down at another point on Earth in order to reach farther than the typical line-of-sight transmission distances; this is the skip distance. UHF transmission and reception are enhanced or degraded by tropospheric ducting as the atmosphere warms and cools throughout the day. Since the wavelengths of UHF signals are comparable to the size of buildings, trees, vehicles and other common objects, reflection and diffraction affects the propagation of UHF signals, especially in built-up urban areas.

text: The

text: ionosphere

text: , a layer of the Earth's atmosphere, contains charged particles that reflect some radio waves. Amateur radio enthusiasts make use of this characteristic to help propagate lower frequency HF signals around the world: the waves are trapped, bouncing around in the upper layers of the ionosphere until they are refracted down at another point on the Earth. This is called

text: skywave

text: transmission. UHF TV signals are not carried along the ionosphere but can be reflected off of the charged particles down at another point on Earth in order to reach farther than the typical

text: line-of-sight

text: transmission distances; this is the

text: skip distance

text: . UHF transmission and reception are enhanced or degraded by

text: tropospheric ducting

text: as the atmosphere warms and cools throughout the day. Since the wavelengths of UHF signals are comparable to the size of buildings, trees, vehicles and other common objects,

text: reflection

text: and

text: diffraction

text: affects the propagation of UHF signals, especially in built-up urban areas.

text: The elongated orbit had two other benefits:  It allowed the spacecraft time to cool after the times it was between the hot surface of Mercury and the Sun, and also it allowed the spacecraft to measure the effects of solar wind and the magnetic fields of the planet at various distances while still allowing close-up measurements and photographs of the surface and exosphere.

text: The elongated orbit had two other benefits:  It allowed the spacecraft time to cool after the times it was between the hot surface of Mercury and the Sun, and also it allowed the spacecraft to measure the effects of

text: solar wind

text: and the magnetic fields of the planet at various distances while still allowing close-up measurements and photographs of the surface and exosphere.

text: After two trials, Exosphere returned in the Group 2 The Run to the Rose in August. Last of a small field of 5 at the turn, Exosphere won easily. Jockey Sam Clipperton, who was covering for the suspended James McDonald, said, "He is a serious horse. Once I got him out to the centre he sprinted really quickly and had them covered."

text: After two trials, Exosphere returned in the Group 2

text: The Run to the Rose

text: in August. Last of a small field of 5 at the turn, Exosphere won easily. Jockey Sam Clipperton, who was covering for the suspended James McDonald, said, "He is a serious horse. Once I got him out to the centre he sprinted really quickly and had them covered."

text: Neptune's atmosphere is subdivided into two main regions: the lower troposphere, where temperature decreases with altitude, and the stratosphere, where temperature increases with altitude. The boundary between the two, the tropopause, lies at a pressure of . The stratosphere then gives way to the thermosphere at a pressure lower than 10 to 10 microbars (1 to 10 Pa). The thermosphere gradually transitions to the exosphere.

text: Neptune's atmosphere is subdivided into two main regions: the lower

text: troposphere

text: , where temperature decreases with altitude, and the

text: stratosphere

text: , where temperature increases with altitude. The boundary between the two, the

text: tropopause

text: , lies at a pressure of . The stratosphere then gives way to the

text: thermosphere

text: at a pressure lower than 10 to 10 microbars (1 to 10 Pa). The thermosphere gradually transitions to the

text: exosphere

text: Early in Pope's career he published a paper that made him an academic cornerstone of environmental science and policy called "Respiratory hospital admissions associated with PM10 pollution in Utah, Salt Lake, and Cache Valleys".  In Utah Valley the Geneva Steel Mill generated large quantities of particulate matter which is a byproduct of fossil fuel consumption.  The mill was shut down temporarily.  Pope compiled hospital admissions data for the time before, during, and after the temporary closing of the mill and was the first to convincingly show the immediate health harms associated with atmospheric particulate matter.  Asthma, mortality, and respiratory admissions generally were twice as high while the plant was operating than the year in which it was closed.  Utah made a particularly suitable natural experiment as the various valleys included in the study trap pollution in the winter months when temperature inversions stifle the escape of pollution.  His abstract states:

text: Early in Pope's career he published a paper that made him an academic cornerstone of environmental science and policy called "Respiratory hospital admissions associated with PM10 pollution in Utah, Salt Lake, and Cache Valleys".  In

text: Utah Valley

text: the

text: Geneva Steel

text: Mill generated large quantities of particulate matter which is a byproduct of

text: fossil fuel

text: consumption.  The mill was shut down temporarily.  Pope compiled hospital admissions data for the time before, during, and after the temporary closing of the mill and was the first to convincingly show the immediate health harms associated with

text: atmospheric particulate matter

text: Asthma

text: mortality

text: , and

text: respiratory

text: admissions generally were twice as high while the plant was operating than the year in which it was closed.

text: Utah

text: made a particularly suitable

text: natural experiment

text: as the various valleys included in the study trap pollution in the winter months when

text: temperature inversions

text: stifle the escape of pollution.  His abstract states:

text: Problems with high Knudsen numbers include the calculation of the motion of a dust particle through the lower atmosphere, or the motion of a satellite through the exosphere. One of the most widely used applications for the Knudsen number is in microfluidics and MEMS device design. Movements of fluids in situations with a high Knudsen number are said to exhibit Knudsen flow.

text: Problems with high Knudsen numbers include the calculation of the motion of a

text: dust

text: particle through the lower

text: atmosphere

text: , or the motion of a

text: satellite

text: through the

text: exosphere

text: . One of the most widely used applications for the Knudsen number is in

text: microfluidics

text: and

text: MEMS

text: device design. Movements of fluids in situations with a high Knudsen number are said to exhibit

text: Knudsen flow

text: Although oxygen is normally a diatomic gas, oxygen can form an allotrope known as ozone. Ozone is a triatomic gas even more reactive than oxygen. Unlike regular diatomic oxygen, ozone is a toxic material generally considered a pollutant. In the upper atmosphere, some oxygen forms ozone which has the property of absorbing dangerous ultraviolet rays within the ozone layer. Land life was impossible before the formation of an ozone layer.

text: Although oxygen is normally a diatomic gas, oxygen can form an allotrope known as

text: ozone

text: . Ozone is a triatomic gas even more reactive than oxygen. Unlike regular diatomic oxygen, ozone is a toxic material generally considered a pollutant. In the upper atmosphere, some oxygen forms ozone which has the property of absorbing dangerous ultraviolet rays within the

text: ozone layer

text: . Land life was impossible before the formation of an ozone layer.

text: Filters can be constructed with different layers, called mixed bed filters. Sand is a common filter material, but anthracite, granular activated carbon (GAC), garnet and ilmenite are also common filter materials. Anthracite is a harder material and has less volatile compared to other coals. Ilmenite and garnet are heavy compared to sand. Garnet consists several minerals, causing a shifting red colour. Ilmenite is an oxide of iron and titanium. GAC can be used in the process of adsorption and filtration at the same time. These materials can be used both alone, or combined with other media. Different combinations give different filter classification. Monomedia is a one layered filter, commonly consisting of sand and is today replaced by newer technology. Deep-bed monomedia is also a one layered filter which consist of either anthracite or GAC. The deep-bed monomedia filter is used when there is a consistent water quality and this gives a longer run time. Dual media (two layered) often contain a sand layer in the bottom with an anthracite or GAC layer on top. Trimedia or mixed media is a filter with three layers. Trimedia often have garnet or ilmenite in the bottom layer, sand in the middle and anthracite at the top.

text: Joost Alois Businger (born 29 March 1924) is a Dutch-American meteorologist. He is an emeritus professor at the University of Washington. Businger is best known for his work on atmospheric boundary layer (ABL).

text: Joost Alois Businger (born 29 March 1924) is a Dutch-American meteorologist. He is an emeritus professor at the

text: University of Washington

text: . Businger is best known for his work on

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: (ABL).

text: LaRouche was part of what was called the "ozone backlash".  21st Century Science & Technology, which conducted what has been called "a very effective campaign of misinformation on the issue of ozone depletion", published The Holes in the Ozone Scare in 1992. The book, by LaRouche followers Rogelio Maduro and Ralf Schauerhammer, said that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were not destroying the ozone layer and opposed the proposal to ban them. It asserted that most chlorine in the atmosphere came from oceans, volcanoes, or other natural sources, and that CFCs were too heavy to reach the ozone layer. It went on to say that even if the ozone layer were depleted there would not be any harmful effects from additional ultraviolet radiation.  It predicted that a ban would result in an additional 20 to 40 million deaths due to food spoilage. Lewis DuPont Smith, an heir to the DuPont Chemical fortune and a LaRouche follower, told Maduro that the DuPont Company had schemed to ban CFCs, which they had invented but which had become generic, in order to replace them with more expensive proprietary compounds.  It has been called "probably the best known and most widely quoted text aimed at debunking the concept of ozone depletion".  Its assertions were repeated by Dixie Lee Ray in her 1993 book Environmental Overkill, by Rush Limbaugh, and by Ronald Bailey. Some atmospheric scientists have said that it is based on poor research.

text: LaRouche was part of what was called the "ozone backlash".  21st Century Science & Technology, which conducted what has been called "a very effective campaign of misinformation on the issue of ozone depletion", published The Holes in the Ozone Scare in 1992. The book, by LaRouche followers Rogelio Maduro and Ralf Schauerhammer, said that

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs) were not destroying the

text: ozone layer

text: and opposed the proposal to ban them. It asserted that most chlorine in the atmosphere came from oceans, volcanoes, or other natural sources, and that CFCs were too heavy to reach the ozone layer. It went on to say that even if the ozone layer were depleted there would not be any harmful effects from additional ultraviolet radiation.  It predicted that a ban would result in an additional 20 to 40 million deaths due to food spoilage. Lewis DuPont Smith, an heir to the DuPont Chemical fortune and a LaRouche follower, told Maduro that the DuPont Company had schemed to ban CFCs, which they had invented but which had become generic, in order to replace them with more expensive proprietary compounds.  It has been called "probably the best known and most widely quoted text aimed at debunking the concept of ozone depletion".  Its assertions were repeated by

text: Dixie Lee Ray

text: in her 1993 book Environmental Overkill, by

text: Rush Limbaugh

text: , and by

text: Ronald Bailey

text: . Some atmospheric scientists have said that it is based on poor research.

text: The Eady Model makes several assumptions about the state of the atmosphere.  First, the Eady Model assumes the atmosphere is composed of fluid obeying quasi-geostrophic motion.  Second, the Eady Model assumes a constant Coriolis parameter.  The Eady Model also assumes a constant static stability parameter and that fluctuations in the density of the air are small (obeys the Boussinesq approximation). Structurally, the Eady Model is bounded by two flat layers or “rigid lids”: one layer representing the Earth’s surface and the other the tropopause at fixed height H.  To simplify numerical solutions, the Eady Model also assumes rigid walls longitudinally at x=-L and x=L.  Lastly, the Eady model assumes that there is constant shear in the zonal component of the mean state wind; the mean state zonal wind varies linearly with altitude.

text: The Eady Model makes several assumptions about the state of the atmosphere.  First, the Eady Model assumes the atmosphere is composed of fluid obeying quasi-

text: geostrophic motion

text: .  Second, the Eady Model assumes a constant

text: Coriolis parameter

text: .  The Eady Model also assumes a constant

text: static stability parameter

text: and that fluctuations in the density of the air are small (obeys the

text: Boussinesq approximation

text: ). Structurally, the Eady Model is bounded by two flat layers or “rigid lids”: one layer representing the Earth’s surface and the other the

text: tropopause

text: at fixed height H.  To simplify numerical solutions, the Eady Model also assumes rigid walls longitudinally at x=-L and x=L.  Lastly, the Eady model assumes that there is constant

text: shear

text: in the

text: zonal

text: component of the mean state wind; the mean state zonal wind varies linearly with altitude.

text: The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the bottom-most layer. The remaining one percent of the atmosphere (all but the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon) contains small amounts of other gases including CO and water vapors. Water vapors and CO allow the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life.

text: The

text: troposphere

text: stratosphere

text: mesosphere

text: thermosphere

text: , and

text: exosphere

text: are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0%

text: nitrogen

text: , 20.9%

text: oxygen

text: , and 0.92%

text: argon

text: . 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the troposphere, the bottom-most layer. The remaining one percent of the atmosphere (all but the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon) contains small amounts of other gases including CO and water vapors. Water vapors and CO allow the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through a phenomenon called the

text: greenhouse effect

text: . This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life.

text: As transmission frequency increases, atmospheric path losses become greater, particularly at frequencies above 10 GHz.  Additionally, long-distance propagation by F-layer ionospheric skip over the horizon does not typically occur at higher frequencies, and terrain and man-made structures can affect propagation of signals, blocking or redirecting signals.  Factors such as E-layer skip propagation, tropospheric enhancement, and knife-edge diffraction can extend the useful range of signals.

text: As transmission frequency increases, atmospheric

text: path loss

text: es become greater, particularly at frequencies above 10 GHz.  Additionally, long-distance propagation by

text: F-layer

text: ionospheric skip over the horizon does not typically occur at higher frequencies, and terrain and man-made structures can affect propagation of signals, blocking or redirecting signals.  Factors such as

text: E-layer skip

text: propagation,

text: tropospheric enhancement

text: , and

text: knife-edge diffraction

text: can extend the useful range of signals.

text: Many special products are possible with powder metallurgy technology. A nonexhaustive list includes AlO whiskers coated with very thin oxide layers for improved refractories; iron compacts with AlO coatings for improved high-temperature creep strength; light bulb filaments made with powder technology; linings for friction brakes; metal glasses for high-strength films and ribbons; heat shields for spacecraft reentry into Earth's atmosphere; electrical contacts for handling large current flows; magnets; microwave ferrites; filters for gases; and bearings which can be infiltrated with lubricants.

text: Many special products are possible with powder metallurgy technology. A nonexhaustive list includes AlO whiskers coated with very thin oxide layers for improved refractories; iron compacts with AlO coatings for improved high-temperature creep strength;

text: light bulb

text: filaments made with powder technology; linings for friction brakes; metal glasses for high-strength films and ribbons;

text: heat shield

text: s for spacecraft reentry into Earth's atmosphere; electrical contacts for handling large current flows;

text: magnet

text: s;

text: microwave

text: ferrites

text: ; filters for gases; and

text: bearing

text: s which can be infiltrated with

text: lubricant

text: s.

text: UV-C light is weak at the Earth's surface as the ozone layer of the atmosphere blocks it. UVGI devices can produce strong enough UV-C light in circulating air or water systems to make them inhospitable environments to microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, molds and other pathogens. UVGI can be coupled with a filtration system to sanitize air and water.

text: UV-C light is weak at the Earth's surface as the

text: ozone layer of the atmosphere

text: blocks it. UVGI devices can produce strong enough UV-C light in circulating air or water systems to make them inhospitable environments to microorganisms such as

text: bacteria

text: virus

text: es,

text: mold

text: s and other

text: pathogen

text: s. UVGI can be coupled with a filtration system to sanitize air and water.

text: The highest levels of ozone in the atmosphere are in the stratosphere, in a region also known as the ozone layer between about 10 km and 50 km above the surface (or between about 6 and 31 miles). However, even in this "layer", the ozone concentrations are only two to eight parts per million, so most of the oxygen there remains of the dioxygen type.

text: The highest levels of ozone in the atmosphere are in the

text: stratosphere

text: , in a region also known as the

text: ozone layer

text: between about 10 km and 50 km above the surface (or between about 6 and 31 miles). However, even in this "layer", the ozone concentrations are only two to eight parts per million, so most of the oxygen there remains of the dioxygen type.

text: In 1898, Teisserenc de Bort published an important paper in Comptes Rendus detailing his researches by means of balloons into the constitution of the atmosphere.  He noticed that while the air temperature decreased steadily up to approximately 11 kilometers of height, it remained constant above that altitude (up to the highest points he could reach). In other words, he discovered an indication of a temperature inversion or at least of a zero lapse rate above this altitude. For many years he was uncertain whether he discovered a true physical phenomenon or whether his measurements suffered from a systematic bias (indeed, the first measurements did have a positive temperature bias as the instruments were liable to radiative heating by solar radiation). That is why Teisserenc de Bort carried out 200+ more balloon experiments (with a substantial part of them being held during the night to eliminate radiative heating) until 1902, when he suggested that the atmosphere was divided into two layers.

text: In 1898, Teisserenc de Bort published an important paper in Comptes Rendus detailing his researches by means of balloons into the constitution of the atmosphere.  He noticed that while the air

text: temperature

text: decreased steadily up to approximately 11 kilometers of height, it remained constant above that

text: altitude

text: (up to the highest points he could reach). In other words, he discovered an indication of a

text: temperature inversion

text: or at least of a zero lapse rate above this altitude. For many years he was uncertain whether he discovered a true

text: physical phenomenon

text: or whether his measurements suffered from a systematic

text: bias

text: (indeed, the first measurements did have a positive temperature bias as the instruments were liable to radiative heating by

text: solar radiation

text: ). That is why Teisserenc de Bort carried out 200+ more balloon experiments (with a substantial part of them being held during the night to eliminate radiative heating) until 1902, when he suggested that the atmosphere was divided into two layers.

text: Tropospheric ducting is a type of radio propagation that tends to happen during periods of stable, anticyclonic weather. In this propagation method, when the signal encounters a rise in temperature in the atmosphere instead of the normal decrease (known as a temperature inversion), the higher refractive index of the atmosphere there will cause the signal to be bent. Tropospheric ducting affects all frequencies, and signals enhanced this way tend to travel up to  (though some people have received "tropo" beyond 1,000 miles / 1,600 km), while with tropospheric-bending, stable signals with good signal strength from 500+ miles (800+ km) away are not common when the refractive index of the atmosphere is fairly high.

text: Tropospheric ducting is a type of radio propagation that tends to happen during periods of stable, anticyclonic weather. In this propagation method, when the signal encounters a rise in temperature in the atmosphere instead of the normal decrease (known as a temperature inversion), the higher

text: refractive index

text: of the atmosphere there will cause the signal to be bent. Tropospheric ducting affects all frequencies, and signals enhanced this way tend to travel up to  (though some people have received "tropo" beyond 1,000 miles / 1,600 km), while with tropospheric-bending, stable signals with good signal strength from 500+ miles (800+ km) away are not common when the refractive index of the atmosphere is fairly high.

text: Iberulites are a particular type of microspherulites that develop in the atmosphere (troposphere), finally falling to the earth's surface. The name comes from the Iberian Peninsula where they were discovered.

text: Iberulites are a particular type of

text: microspherulite

text: s that develop in the atmosphere (

text: troposphere

text: ), finally falling to the earth's surface. The name comes from the

text: Iberian Peninsula

text: where they were discovered.

text: Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in this world and are second only to the lithosphere in the amount of carbon they store. The oceans' surface layer holds large amounts of dissolved inorganic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is about 15% higher than that of the surface layer. DIC is stored in the deep layer for much longer periods of time. Thermohaline circulation exchanges carbon between these two layers.

text: Oceans contain the greatest quantity of actively cycled carbon in this world and are second only to the

text: lithosphere

text: in the amount of carbon they store. The oceans'

text: surface layer

text: holds large amounts of dissolved inorganic carbon that is exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere. The deep layer's concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) is about 15% higher than that of the surface layer. DIC is stored in the deep layer for much longer periods of time.

text: Thermohaline circulation

text: exchanges carbon between these two layers.

text: Under reducing conditions as those found in gley soils, or in deep environments depleted in oxygen, and often with the assistance of microbial activity, ferrihydrite can be transformed in green rust, a layered double hydroxide (LDH), also known as the mineral fougerite. However, a short exposure of green rust to atmospheric oxygen is sufficient to oxidize it back to ferrihydrite, making it a very elusive compound.

text: Under reducing conditions as those found in

text: gley soil

text: s, or in deep environments depleted in oxygen, and often with the assistance of microbial activity, ferrihydrite can be transformed in

text: green rust

text: , a

text: layered double hydroxide

text: (LDH), also known as the mineral

text: fougerite

text: . However, a short exposure of green rust to atmospheric oxygen is sufficient to oxidize it back to ferrihydrite, making it a very elusive compound.

text: The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground.  Normally, the sun heats the ground, which in turn heats the air just above it.  Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air (warm air is less dense than cold air), a process described by convection. A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation, since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools.

text: The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground.  Normally, the sun heats the ground, which in turn heats the air just above it.

text: Thermal

text: s form when this warm air rises into the cold air (warm air is less

text: dense

text: than cold air), a process described by

text: convection

text: . A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation, since

text: condensation

text: occurs as the warm air rises and cools.

text: A mock mirage of astronomical objects is much more complex than an inferior mirage. While an inferior mirage of astronomical objects can produce only two images, a mock mirage can produce multiple miraged images. The shapes of the miraged object are changing constantly and unpredictably. In order for a mock mirage to appear, the cooler air needs to be trapped below the inversion. Several inversion layers produce multiple pancake-like shapes.

text: A mock mirage of

text: astronomical object

text: s is much more complex than an inferior mirage. While an inferior mirage of astronomical objects can produce only two images, a mock mirage can produce multiple miraged images. The shapes of the miraged object are changing constantly and unpredictably. In order for a mock mirage to appear, the cooler air needs to be trapped below the inversion. Several inversion layers produce multiple pancake-like shapes.

text: Nozomi was to be inserted into a highly eccentric Mars orbit with a periareion 300 km above the surface, an apoareion of 15 Mars radii, and an inclination of 170 degrees with respect to the ecliptic plane. Shortly after insertion, the mast and antennas were to be deployed. The periareion would have been lowered to 150 km, the orbital period to about 38.5 hours. The spacecraft was to be spin stabilized at 7.5 rpm with its spin axis (and the dish antenna) pointed towards Earth. The periapsis portion of the orbit would have allowed in-situ measurements of the thermosphere and lower exosphere and remote sensing of the lower atmosphere and surface. The more distant parts of the orbit would be for study of the ions and neutral gas escaping from Mars and their interactions with the solar wind. The nominal mission was planned for one martian year (approximately two Earth years). An extended mission might have allowed operation of the mission for three to five years. The spacecraft was also to point its cameras at the martian moons Phobos and Deimos.

text: Nozomi was to be inserted into a highly eccentric Mars orbit with a

text: periareion

text: 300 km above the surface, an apoareion of 15 Mars radii, and an

text: inclination

text: of 170

text: degree

text: s with respect to the

text: ecliptic

text: plane. Shortly after insertion, the mast and antennas were to be deployed. The periareion would have been lowered to 150 km, the orbital period to about 38.5 hours. The spacecraft was to be spin stabilized at 7.5

text: rpm

text: with its spin axis (and the dish antenna) pointed towards Earth. The periapsis portion of the orbit would have allowed in-situ measurements of the

text: thermosphere

text: and lower

text: exosphere

text: and remote sensing of the lower atmosphere and surface. The more distant parts of the orbit would be for study of the

text: ion

text: s and neutral

text: gas

text: escaping from Mars and their interactions with the solar wind. The nominal mission was planned for one martian year (approximately two Earth years). An extended mission might have allowed operation of the mission for three to five years. The spacecraft was also to point its cameras at the martian

text: moon

text: s

text: Phobos

text: and

text: Deimos

text: Quantum physics formally assumes infinitely positive or negative temperatures in descriptions of spin system undergoing population inversion from the ground state to a higher energy state by excitation with electromagnetic radiation. The temperature function in these systems exhibits a singularity, meaning the temperature tends to positive infinity, before discontinuously switching to negative infinity. However, this applies only to specific degrees of freedom in the system, while others would have normal temperature dependency. If equipartitioning were possible, such formalisms ignore the fact that the spin system would be destroyed by the decomposition of ordinary matter before infinite temperature could be reached uniformly in the sample.

text: Quantum physics formally assumes infinitely positive or negative temperatures in descriptions of spin system undergoing population inversion from the ground state to a higher energy state by excitation with electromagnetic radiation. The temperature function in these systems exhibits a singularity, meaning the temperature tends to positive infinity, before discontinuously switching to negative infinity. However, this applies only to specific degrees of freedom in the system, while others would have normal temperature dependency. If

text: equipartitioning

text: were possible, such formalisms ignore the fact that the spin system would be destroyed by the decomposition of ordinary matter before infinite temperature could be reached uniformly in the sample.

text: Although the altitudes near the tropopause are usually cloudless, thin cirrus cloud can form where there are abrupt changes of air velocity, for example associated with jet streams. Lines of cirrus perpendicular to the jet stream indicate possible CAT, especially if the ends of the cirrus are dispersed, in which case the direction of dispersal can indicate if the CAT is stronger at the left or at the right of the jet stream.

text: Although the altitudes near the tropopause are usually cloudless, thin

text: cirrus cloud

text: can form where there are abrupt changes of air velocity, for example associated with jet streams. Lines of cirrus perpendicular to the jet stream indicate possible CAT, especially if the ends of the cirrus are dispersed, in which case the direction of dispersal can indicate if the CAT is stronger at the left or at the right of the jet stream.

text: The most common application for an air-mixing plenum is the mixing of return air (or extract air) with fresh air to provide a supply air mixture for onward distribution to the building or area which the ventilation system is serving. The air transferred from the return air stream to the supply air stream is termed recirculated air. All air not mixed is rejected to the atmosphere as exhaust air. Air streams are mixed to save energy and improve energy efficiency.

text: The most common application for an air-mixing plenum is the mixing of return air (or extract air) with fresh air to provide a supply air mixture for onward distribution to the building or area which the ventilation system is serving. The air transferred from the return air stream to the supply air stream is termed recirculated air. All air not mixed is rejected to the atmosphere as exhaust air. Air streams are mixed to save energy and improve

text: energy efficiency

text: The stratosphere, mesosphere and lowest part of the thermosphere are collectively referred to as the "middle atmosphere", which spans heights from approximately  to . The mesopause, at an altitude of , separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere—the second-outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere. This is also around the same altitude as the turbopause, below which different chemical species are well mixed due to turbulent eddies. Above this level the atmosphere becomes non-uniform; the scale heights of different chemical species differ by their molecular masses.

text: The stratosphere, mesosphere and lowest part of the thermosphere are collectively referred to as the "middle atmosphere", which spans heights from approximately  to . The

text: mesopause

text: , at an altitude of , separates the mesosphere from the

text: thermosphere

text: —the second-outermost layer of the Earth's atmosphere. This is also around the same altitude as the

text: turbopause

text: , below which different chemical species are well mixed due to turbulent eddies. Above this level the atmosphere becomes non-uniform; the

text: scale height

text: s of different chemical species differ by their

text: molecular mass

text: es.

text: Sulfuric acid is produced in the upper atmosphere of Venus by the Sun's photochemical action on carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and water vapor. Ultraviolet photons of wavelengths less than 169 nm can photodissociate carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and atomic oxygen. Atomic oxygen is highly reactive. When it reacts with sulfur dioxide, a trace component of the Venusian atmosphere, the result is sulfur trioxide, which can combine with water vapor, another trace component of Venus's atmosphere, to yield sulfuric acid. In the upper, cooler portions of Venus's atmosphere, sulfuric acid exists as a liquid, and thick sulfuric acid clouds completely obscure the planet's surface when viewed from above. The main cloud layer extends from 45–70 km above the planet's surface, with thinner hazes extending as low as 30 km and as high as 90 km above the surface. The permanent Venusian clouds produce a concentrated acid rain, as the clouds in the atmosphere of Earth produce water rain.

text: Sulfuric acid is produced in the upper atmosphere of Venus by the

text: Sun

text: 's

text: photochemical

text: action on

text: carbon dioxide

text: sulfur dioxide

text: , and

text: water

text: vapor.

text: Ultraviolet

text: photon

text: s of wavelengths less than 169

text: nm

text: can

text: photodissociate

text: carbon dioxide into

text: carbon monoxide

text: and atomic

text: oxygen

text: . Atomic oxygen is highly reactive. When it reacts with sulfur dioxide, a trace component of the Venusian atmosphere, the result is

text: sulfur trioxide

text: , which can combine with water vapor, another trace component of Venus's atmosphere, to yield sulfuric acid. In the upper, cooler portions of Venus's atmosphere, sulfuric acid exists as a liquid, and thick sulfuric acid clouds completely obscure the planet's surface when viewed from above. The main cloud layer extends from 45–70 km above the planet's surface, with thinner hazes extending as low as 30 km and as high as 90 km above the surface. The permanent Venusian clouds produce a concentrated acid rain, as the clouds in the atmosphere of Earth produce water rain.

text: Andersen was an environmental entrepreneur at EPA who often accomplished his assignments in unconventional ways and complemented regulatory authority with voluntary partnerships and agreements. Three months after joining EPA, Andersen negotiated an agreement with Soviet authorities to carry a U.S. ozone mapping satellite to space on a Soviet rocket, which was made necessary after the Challenger accident. Within two years, he organized the first EPA voluntary programs (the phaseout of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in food packaging and the recycling of CFCs in automobile air conditioning). He also founded and managed the first EPA international awards (the U.S. EPA Stratospheric Protection Awards  and Climate Protection Awards), which helped create the Industry Cooperative for Ozone Layer Protection (ICOLP) and the Halon Alternatives Research Corporation (HARC) under the Cooperative Research Act. He was EPA Liaison to the U.S. Department of Defense on stratospheric ozone and climate and chaired several DoD committees on solvent validation, aircraft maintenance, manufacturing rockets without ozone-depleting substances (ODSs), and certifying the Joint Strike Fighter for particulate emissions.

text: Ozone in the ozone layer filters out sunlight wavelengths from about 200 nm UV rays to 315 nm, with ozone peak absorption at about 250 nm. This ozone UV absorption is important to life, since it extends the absorption of UV by ordinary oxygen and nitrogen in air (which absorb all wavelengths < 200 nm) through the lower UV-C (200–280 nm) and the entire UV-B band (280–315 nm). The small unabsorbed part that remains of UV-B after passage through ozone causes sunburn in humans, and direct DNA damage in living tissues in both plants and animals. Ozone's effect on mid-range UV-B rays is illustrated by its effect on UV-B at 290 nm, which has a radiation intensity 350 million times as powerful at the top of the atmosphere as at the surface. Nevertheless, enough of UV-B radiation at similar frequency reaches the ground to cause some sunburn, and these same wavelengths are also among those responsible for the production of vitamin D in humans.

text: Ozone in the ozone layer filters out sunlight wavelengths from about 200 nm UV rays to 315 nm, with ozone peak absorption at about 250 nm. This ozone UV absorption is important to life, since it extends the absorption of UV by ordinary oxygen and nitrogen in air (which absorb all wavelengths < 200 nm) through the lower UV-C (200–280 nm) and the entire UV-B band (280–315 nm). The small unabsorbed part that remains of UV-B after passage through ozone causes sunburn in humans, and direct DNA damage in living tissues in both plants and animals. Ozone's effect on mid-range UV-B rays is illustrated by its effect on UV-B at 290 nm, which has a radiation intensity 350 million times as powerful at the top of the atmosphere as at the surface. Nevertheless, enough of UV-B radiation at similar frequency reaches the ground to cause some sunburn, and these same wavelengths are also among those responsible for the production of

text: vitamin D

text: in humans.

text: The shape of the shock wave is influenced by variation of the speed of sound with altitude, and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds. Condensation rings around or above the fireball are a commonly observed feature. Rings around the fireball may become stable, becoming rings around the rising stem. Higher-yield explosions cause intense updrafts, where air speeds can reach 300 miles per hour. The entrainment of higher-humidity air, combined with the associated drop in pressure and temperature, leads to the formation of skirts and bells around the stem. If the water droplets become sufficiently large, the cloud structure they form may become heavy enough to descend; in this way, a rising stem with a descending bell around it can be produced. Layering of humidity in the atmosphere, responsible for the appearance of the condensation rings as opposed to a spherical cloud, also influences the shape of the condensation artifacts along the stem of the mushroom cloud, as the updraft causes laminar flow. The same effect above the top of the cloud, where the expansion of the rising cloud pushes a layer of warm, humid, low-altitude air upwards into cold, high-altitude air, first causes the condensation of water vapour out of the air and then causes the resulting droplets to freeze, forming ice caps (or icecaps), similar in both appearance and mechanism of formation to scarf clouds.

text: The shape of the shock wave is influenced by variation of the speed of sound with altitude, and the temperature and humidity of different atmospheric layers determines the appearance of the Wilson clouds. Condensation rings around or above the fireball are a commonly observed feature. Rings around the fireball may become stable, becoming rings around the rising stem. Higher-yield explosions cause intense

text: updraft

text: s, where air speeds can reach 300 miles per hour. The

text: entrainment

text: of higher-humidity air, combined with the associated drop in pressure and temperature, leads to the formation of skirts and bells around the stem. If the water droplets become sufficiently large, the cloud structure they form may become heavy enough to descend; in this way, a rising stem with a descending bell around it can be produced. Layering of humidity in the atmosphere, responsible for the appearance of the condensation rings as opposed to a spherical cloud, also influences the shape of the condensation artifacts along the stem of the mushroom cloud, as the updraft causes

text: laminar flow

text: . The same effect above the top of the cloud, where the expansion of the rising cloud pushes a layer of warm, humid, low-altitude air upwards into cold, high-altitude air, first causes the condensation of water vapour out of the air and then causes the resulting droplets to freeze, forming ice caps (or icecaps), similar in both appearance and mechanism of formation to

text: scarf cloud

text: s.

text: Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete combustion products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in the air to produce nitrogen oxides ().  is hazardous to both plant and animal health, and leads to the production of ozone (O). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere by the reaction of  and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the same chemical substance, ground-level ozone should not be confused with stratospheric ozone, or the ozone layer, which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.

text: Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces emissions of incomplete combustion products, but also promotes reaction between oxygen and

text: nitrogen

text: in the air to produce

text: nitrogen oxide

text: s ().  is hazardous to both plant and animal health, and leads to the production of

text: ozone

text: (O). Ozone is not emitted directly; rather, it is a secondary air pollutant, produced in the atmosphere by the reaction of  and

text: volatile organic compound

text: s in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. Though the same chemical substance, ground-level ozone should not be confused with

text: stratospheric ozone

text: , or the

text: ozone layer

text: , which protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.

text: Some types of organochlorides, though not all, have significant toxicity to plants or animals, including humans. Dioxins, produced when organic matter is burned in the presence of chlorine, and some insecticides, such as DDT, are persistent organic pollutants which pose dangers when they are released into the environment. For example, DDT, which was widely used to control insects in the mid 20th century, also accumulates in food chains, and causes reproductive problems (e.g., eggshell thinning) in certain bird species. Due to the ready homolytic fission of the C–Cl bond to create chlorine radicals in the upper atmosphere, chlorofluorocarbons have been phased out due to the harm they do to the ozone layer.

text: Some types of organochlorides, though not all, have significant toxicity to plants or animals, including humans. Dioxins, produced when organic matter is burned in the presence of chlorine, and some insecticides, such as

text: DDT

text: , are

text: persistent organic pollutant

text: s which pose dangers when they are released into the environment. For example, DDT, which was widely used to control insects in the mid 20th century, also accumulates in food chains, and causes reproductive problems (e.g., eggshell thinning) in certain bird species. Due to the ready homolytic fission of the C–Cl bond to create chlorine radicals in the upper atmosphere,

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s have been phased out due to the harm they do to the ozone layer.

text: Titan is likely differentiated into several layers with a  rocky center surrounded by several layers composed of different crystalline forms of ice. Its interior may still be hot enough for a liquid layer consisting of a "magma" composed of water and ammonia between the ice I crust and deeper ice layers made of high-pressure forms of ice. The presence of ammonia allows water to remain liquid even at a temperature as low as  (for eutectic mixture with water).  Cassini probe discovered the evidence for the layered structure in the form of natural extremely-low-frequency radio waves in Titan's atmosphere. Titan's surface is thought to be a poor reflector of extremely-low-frequency radio waves, so they may instead be reflecting off the liquid–ice boundary of a subsurface ocean. Surface features were observed by the Cassini spacecraft to systematically shift by up to  between October 2005 and May 2007, which suggests that the crust is decoupled from the interior, and provides additional evidence for an interior liquid layer.  Further supporting evidence for a liquid layer and ice shell decoupled from the solid core comes from the way the gravity field varies as Titan orbits Saturn. Comparison of the gravity field with the RADAR-based topography observations also suggests that the ice shell may be substantially rigid.

text: Titan is likely differentiated into several layers with a  rocky center surrounded by several layers composed of different crystalline forms of ice. Its interior may still be hot enough for a liquid layer consisting of a "

text: magma

text: " composed of water and

text: ammonia

text: between the

text: ice I

text: crust and deeper ice layers made of high-pressure forms of ice. The presence of ammonia allows water to remain liquid even at a temperature as low as  (for

text: eutectic

text: mixture with water).  Cassini probe discovered the evidence for the layered structure in the form of natural

text: extremely-low-frequency

text: radio waves in Titan's atmosphere. Titan's surface is thought to be a poor reflector of extremely-low-frequency radio waves, so they may instead be reflecting off the liquid–ice boundary of a

text: subsurface ocean

text: . Surface features were observed by the Cassini spacecraft to systematically shift by up to  between October 2005 and May 2007, which suggests that the crust is decoupled from the interior, and provides additional evidence for an interior liquid layer.  Further supporting evidence for a liquid layer and ice shell decoupled from the solid core comes from the way the gravity field varies as Titan orbits Saturn. Comparison of the gravity field with the RADAR-based topography observations also suggests that the ice shell may be substantially rigid.

text: Rossby waves, or planetary waves are huge, slow waves generated in the troposphere by temperature differences between the ocean and the continents. Their major restoring force is the change in Coriolis force with latitude. Their wave amplitudes are usually in the tens of meters and very large wavelengths. They are usually found at low or mid latitudes.

text: Rossby wave

text: s, or

text: planetary wave

text: s are huge, slow waves generated in the

text: troposphere

text: by

text: temperature

text: differences between the

text: ocean

text: and the

text: continent

text: s. Their major

text: restoring force

text: is the change in

text: Coriolis force

text: with

text: latitude

text: . Their wave

text: amplitude

text: s are usually in the tens of meters and very large

text: wavelength

text: s. They are usually found at low or mid latitudes.

text: Large values of the BLT are typically found in the equatorial regions and can be as high as 50 m.  Above the barrier layer, the well mixed layer may be due to local precipitation exceeding evaporation (e.g. in the western Pacific), monsoon related river runoff (e.g. in the northern Indian Ocean), or advection of salty water subducted in the subtropics (found in all subtropical ocean gyres).  Barrier layer formation in the subtropics is associated with seasonal change in the mixed layer depth, a sharper gradient in sea surface salinity (SSS) than normal, and subduction across this SSS front.    In particular, the barrier layer is formed in winter season in the equatorward flank of subtropical salinity maxima.  During early winter, the atmosphere cools the surface and strong wind and negative buoyancy forcing mixes temperature to a deep layer.  At this same time, fresh surface salinity is advected from the rainy regions in the tropics.  The deep temperature layer along with strong stratification in the salinity gives the conditions for barrier layer formation.

text: Large values of the BLT are typically found in the equatorial regions and can be as high as 50 m.  Above the barrier layer, the well mixed layer may be due to local precipitation exceeding evaporation (e.g. in the western Pacific), monsoon related river runoff (e.g. in the northern Indian Ocean), or

text: advection

text: of salty water subducted in the subtropics (found in all subtropical

text: ocean gyre

text: s).  Barrier layer formation in the subtropics is associated with seasonal change in the mixed layer depth, a sharper gradient in sea surface salinity (SSS) than normal, and subduction across this SSS front.    In particular, the barrier layer is formed in winter season in the equatorward flank of subtropical salinity maxima.  During early winter, the atmosphere cools the surface and strong wind and negative buoyancy forcing mixes temperature to a deep layer.  At this same time, fresh surface salinity is advected from the rainy regions in the tropics.  The deep temperature layer along with strong stratification in the salinity gives the conditions for barrier layer formation.

text: His research also examines global efforts to prevent stratospheric ozone depletion, address global climate change, and restrict anthropogenic emissions of mercury and of toxic chemicals known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). He has attended dozens of global negotiations on these topics. At many of the meetings associated with the ozone layer , mercury  and POPs,, he worked with the Secretariat as part of the team that drafted the official negotiation reports. For his informal work with the Ozone Secretariat at negotiations in the mid-to-late 1990s and his scholarly writing on global ozone policy from 1993-2014, he was nominated and awarded inclusion in the Montreal Protocol Who’s Who, a collection maintained by the United Nations Environment Programme’s OzonAction unit, “intended to honor the visionaries, innovators, and implementers who are making the Montreal Protocol a global environmental success story.” Downie has also been a long-time advocate of examining opportunities to reduce state, national and international taxes and fees focused on income, especially those paid by the lower and middle classes, and replacing them with taxes on pollution. The author of numerous publications on a variety of topics, his co-authored book, Global Environmental Politics , written with Professor Pamela Chasek (a co-creator of the Earth Negotiations Bulletin), is one of the most widely used in the field.

text: His research also examines global efforts to prevent stratospheric

text: ozone depletion

text: , address global

text: climate change

text: , and restrict anthropogenic emissions of mercury and of toxic chemicals known as

text: persistent organic pollutants

text: (POPs). He has attended dozens of global negotiations on these topics. At many of the meetings associated with the

text: ozone layer

text: , mercury  and POPs,, he worked with the Secretariat as part of the team that drafted the official negotiation reports. For his informal work with the Ozone Secretariat at negotiations in the mid-to-late 1990s and his scholarly writing on global ozone policy from 1993-2014, he was nominated and awarded inclusion in the Montreal Protocol Who’s Who, a collection maintained by the

text: United Nations Environment Programme

text: ’s OzonAction unit, “intended to honor the visionaries, innovators, and implementers who are making the Montreal Protocol a global environmental success story.” Downie has also been a long-time advocate of examining opportunities to reduce state, national and international taxes and fees focused on income, especially those paid by the lower and middle classes, and replacing them with taxes on pollution. The author of numerous publications on a variety of topics, his co-authored book, Global Environmental Politics , written with Professor

text: Pamela Chasek

text: (a co-creator of the

text: Earth Negotiations Bulletin

text: ), is one of the most widely used in the field.

text: Operating altitudes are expected to be in the tropopause—at approximately 65,000 feet—where winds are generally less than 5 knots and clouds do not block sunlight. It is desirable in the United States to operate above 60,000 feet, above which the Federal Aviation Administration does not regulate the airspace.

text: Operating altitudes are expected to be in the

text: tropopause

text: —at approximately 65,000 feet—where winds are generally less than 5 knots and clouds do not block sunlight. It is desirable in the United States to operate above 60,000 feet, above which the Federal Aviation Administration does not regulate the airspace.

text: The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from about  at the poles to  at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The troposphere is bounded above by the tropopause, a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height.

text: The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth's surface to an average height of about 12 km, although this altitude actually varies from about  at the poles to  at the

text: equator

text: , with some variation due to

text: weather

text: . The troposphere is bounded above by the

text: tropopause

text: , a boundary marked in most places by a temperature inversion (i.e. a layer of relatively warm air above a colder one), and in others by a zone which is isothermal with height.

text: The ozone layer has little effect on the longer UV wavelengths called UV-A (315–400 nm), but this radiation does not cause sunburn or direct DNA damage, and while it probably does cause long-term skin damage in certain humans, it is not as dangerous to plants and to the health of surface-dwelling organisms on Earth in general (see ultraviolet for more information on near ultraviolet).

text: The ozone layer has little effect on the longer UV wavelengths called UV-A (315–400 nm), but this radiation does not cause sunburn or direct DNA damage, and while it probably does cause long-term skin damage in certain humans, it is not as dangerous to plants and to the health of surface-dwelling organisms on Earth in general (see

text: ultraviolet

text: for more information on near ultraviolet).

text: . As wavefronts pass through the Earth's atmosphere they may be perturbed by refractive index variations in the atmosphere. The diagram at the top-right of this page shows schematically a turbulent layer in the Earth's atmosphere perturbing planar wavefronts before they enter atelescope. The perturbed wavefront

text: The thickness of the barrier layer is defined as  the difference between mixed layer depth (MLD) calculated from temperature minus the mixed layer depth calculated using density.   The first reference to this difference as the barrier layer was in a paper describing observations in the western Pacific as part of the Western Equatorial Pacific Ocean Circulation Study.  In regions where the barrier layer is present, stratification is stable because of strong buoyancy forcing associated with a fresh lens sitting on top of the water column.

text: The thickness of the barrier layer is defined as  the difference between

text: mixed layer depth

text: (MLD) calculated from temperature minus the mixed layer depth calculated using density.   The first reference to this difference as the barrier layer was in a paper describing observations in the western Pacific as part of the

text: Western Equatorial Pacific Ocean Circulation Study

text: .  In regions where the barrier layer is present,

text: stratification

text: is stable because of strong

text: buoyancy

text: forcing associated with a fresh lens sitting on top of the water column.

text: In the 1920s much of Milne's research was concerned with stars, particularly the outer layers known as stellar atmospheres that produce the radiation observed from the Earth. He considered a grey atmosphere, a simplifying approximation in which the strength of the absorption of light by the hot ionized gas is the same at all wavelengths. This produced predictions of how temperature varies through the atmosphere, including the mathematical expression now known as the Milne Equation. He also calculated how the intensity of light from a star varies with wavelength on the basis of this model.

text: In the 1920s much of Milne's research was concerned with

text: star

text: s, particularly the outer layers known as

text: stellar atmosphere

text: s that produce the radiation observed from the Earth. He considered a

text: grey atmosphere

text: , a simplifying approximation in which the strength of the absorption of light by the hot ionized gas is the same at all wavelengths. This produced predictions of how temperature varies through the atmosphere, including the mathematical expression now known as the Milne Equation. He also calculated how the intensity of light from a star varies with wavelength on the basis of this model.

text: Fourth track "Hearts Without Chains" was described as "an affecting piano-based ballad about healing and moving forward". It was co-written by Fraser T. Smith, who produced Adele's "Set Fire to the Rain". "It's my favorite song of the batch", says Goulding. "It has a folky English quality to it. Plus, it's quite nice to listen to and not be in the state I was when I wrote it." "Under Control" "reclaims empowerment and confidence ('I feel like I'm breathing again'), while wrapped in a mix of fuzzy bass and echoed clanks", as declared by Digital Spy's Lewis Corner. The other three tracks on the album are covers. The first, "How Long Will I Love You?", was originally released by The Waterboys and Goulding transforms it into a sweet, contemplative ballad. It was part of the soundtrack for Richard Curtis' romantic comedy "About Time". The second, Alt-J's "Tessellate" loses some of its cryptic airs as Goulding reveals different layers, featuring a "seductive makeover with Chiddy Bang's Xaphoon Jones on the beat." Finally, Midnight Star's "Midas Touch" is turned inside out into a fittingly atmospheric declaration of self, having a darker tone.

text: Fourth track "Hearts Without Chains" was described as "an affecting piano-based ballad about healing and moving forward". It was co-written by

text: Fraser T. Smith

text: , who produced

text: Adele

text: 's "

text: Set Fire to the Rain

text: ". "It's my favorite song of the batch", says Goulding. "It has a folky English quality to it. Plus, it's quite nice to listen to and not be in the state I was when I wrote it." "Under Control" "reclaims empowerment and confidence ('I feel like I'm breathing again'), while wrapped in a mix of fuzzy bass and echoed clanks", as declared by

text: Digital Spy

text: 's Lewis Corner. The other three tracks on the album are covers. The first, "

text: How Long Will I Love You?

text: ", was originally released by

text: The Waterboys

text: and Goulding transforms it into a sweet, contemplative ballad. It was part of the soundtrack for

text: Richard Curtis

text: romantic comedy

text: About Time

text: ". The second,

text: Alt-J

text: 's "

text: Tessellate

text: " loses some of its cryptic airs as Goulding reveals different layers, featuring a "seductive makeover with

text: Chiddy Bang

text: 's Xaphoon Jones on the beat." Finally,

text: Midnight Star

text: 's "Midas Touch" is turned inside out into a fittingly atmospheric declaration of self, having a darker tone.

text: The atmospheric pressure on Earth's surface averages 101.325 kPa, with a scale height of about 8.5 km. It has a composition of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, with trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gaseous molecules. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.

text: The

text: atmospheric pressure

text: on Earth's surface averages 101.325

text: kPa

text: , with a

text: scale height

text: of about 8.5 km. It has a composition of 78%

text: nitrogen

text: and 21% oxygen, with trace amounts of

text: water vapor

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and other gaseous molecules. The height of the

text: troposphere

text: varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.

text: The interception of precipitation from the atmosphere by the canopy is modeled using the Rutter Interception Model. The land surface evaporation and vegetation transpiration are computed separately using the Two Source Model of Shuttleworth and Gurney, which is based on the energy balance above canopy, within canopy and at soil surface. This model solves the non-linear equations based on the energy balance for the canopy, surface, and air temperatures at canopy height, evaporation from soil surface and transpiration from vegetation. A soil profile of three homogeneous layers (active, transmission and saturated layers) is used to model the soil moisture on the basis of water balance between layers. The active layer is 15–30 cm thick and it simulates the rapid changes of soil moisture content under high frequency atmospheric forcing. The transmission zone lies between the base of the active layer and the top of the capillary fringe and so it more characterizes the seasonal (instead of transient) changes of soil moisture. In modeling the unsaturated flow component of soil water, the water transport is assumed vertical and non-interactive between sub-basins. The lower boundary of the unsaturated zone is the top of capillary fringe controlled by the local average ground water table derived from the catchment average water table and topographic soil index which include the spatial variability of the topographic and soil parameters. Starting with an observed value from the surrounding wells of the modeled basin, the temporal changes in the average ground water depth is based on the water balance analysis for the whole catchment, and the rate of change of the average ground water table is assumed to be the rate of change of local water table.

text: The interception of

text: precipitation

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: by the canopy is modeled using the

text: Rutter Interception Model

text: . The

text: land surface

text: evaporation

text: and

text: vegetation

text: transpiration

text: are computed separately using the

text: Two Source Model

text: of Shuttleworth and Gurney, which is based on the

text: energy balance

text: above canopy, within canopy and at soil surface. This model solves the

text: non-linear equation

text: s based on the energy balance for the canopy, surface, and air temperatures at canopy height, evaporation from soil surface and transpiration from vegetation. A soil profile of three homogeneous layers (active, transmission and saturated layers) is used to model the soil moisture on the basis of water balance between layers. The active layer is 15–30 cm thick and it simulates the rapid changes of soil moisture content under high frequency atmospheric forcing. The transmission zone lies between the base of the active layer and the top of the

text: capillary fringe

text: and so it more characterizes the seasonal (instead of transient) changes of soil moisture. In modeling the unsaturated flow component of soil water, the water transport is assumed vertical and non-interactive between sub-basins. The lower boundary of the unsaturated zone is the top of capillary fringe controlled by the local average ground water table derived from the catchment average

text: water table

text: and topographic soil index which include the spatial variability of the topographic and soil parameters. Starting with an observed value from the surrounding wells of the modeled basin, the temporal changes in the average ground water depth is based on the water balance analysis for the whole catchment, and the rate of change of the average ground water table is assumed to be the rate of change of local water table.

text: Wind shear can also create wave. This occurs when an atmospheric inversion separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction. If the wind encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by thermals coming up from below, it will create significant shear waves that can be used for soaring.

text: Wind shear can also create

text: wave

text: . This occurs when an

text: atmospheric inversion

text: separates two layers with a marked difference in wind direction. If the wind encounters distortions in the inversion layer caused by

text: thermal

text: s coming up from below, it will create significant shear waves that can be used for soaring.

text: The Global Drifter Program (GDP) (formerly known as the Surface Velocity Program (SVP)) is the principal component of the Global Surface Drifting Buoy Array, a branch of NOAA's Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and a scientific project of the Data Buoy Cooperation Panel (DBCP). The project originated in February 1979 as part of the TOGA/Equatorial Paciﬁc Ocean Circulation Experiment (EPOCS) and the first large-scale deployment of drifters was in 1988 with the goal of mapping the tropical Pacific Ocean's surface circulation. The goal of the project is to use 1250 satellite-tracked surface drifting buoys to meet the need for an accurate and globally dense set of in-situ observations of mixed layer currents, sea surface temperature, atmospheric pressure, winds and salinity, as well as create a system to process this amount of data. The GDP program is also important because the horizontal transports in the oceanic mixed layer are relevant to biological and chemical processes

text: The Global Drifter Program (GDP) (formerly known as the Surface Velocity Program (SVP)) is the principal component of the Global Surface Drifting Buoy Array, a branch of

text: NOAA's

text: Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and a scientific project of the Data Buoy Cooperation Panel (DBCP). The project originated in February 1979 as part of the TOGA/Equatorial Paciﬁc Ocean Circulation Experiment (EPOCS) and the first large-scale deployment of

text: drifter

text: s was in 1988 with the goal of mapping the tropical

text: Pacific Ocean

text: 's surface circulation. The goal of the project is to use 1250 satellite-tracked surface drifting buoys to meet the need for an accurate and globally dense set of in-situ observations of mixed layer currents,

text: sea surface temperature

text: atmospheric pressure

text: wind

text: s and

text: salinity

text: , as well as create a system to process this amount of data. The GDP program is also important because the horizontal transports in the oceanic mixed layer are relevant to

text: biological

text: and chemical processes

text: The stratosphere () is the second major layer of Earth's atmosphere, just above the troposphere, and below the mesosphere. About 20% of the atmosphere's mass is contained in the stratosphere. The stratosphere is stratified in temperature, with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth. The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation by ozone. This is in contrast to the troposphere, near the Earth's surface, where temperatures decreases with altitude. The border between the troposphere and stratosphere, the tropopause, marks where this temperature inversion begins. Near the equator, the stratosphere starts at ; at mid latitudes, it starts at  and ends at ; at the poles, it starts at about . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons, in particular with the polar night (winter). The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes.

text: The stratosphere () is the second major layer of

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , just above the

text: troposphere

text: , and below the

text: mesosphere

text: . About 20% of the atmosphere's mass is contained in the stratosphere. The stratosphere is

text: stratified

text: in temperature, with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth. The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation by

text: ozone

text: . This is in contrast to the troposphere, near the Earth's surface, where temperatures decreases with altitude. The border between the troposphere and stratosphere, the

text: tropopause

text: , marks where this temperature inversion begins. Near the equator, the stratosphere starts at ; at mid latitudes, it starts at  and ends at ; at the

text: poles

text: , it starts at about . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons, in particular with the

text: polar night

text: (winter). The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes.

text: A recently developed OPV system based on tetrabenzoporphryin (BP) and either [6,6]-phenyl-C-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) is explained in detail as follows. In this study, the precursor to BP (1,4:8,11:15,18:22,25-tetraethano-29H,31H-tetrabenzo[b,g,l,q]porphyrin (CP) solution is applied as the starting film, and was thermally annealed which caused the CP to convert into BP. The BP:fullerene layer serves as the undoped layer within the device. For surface measurements, the undoped layer is rinsed with a few drops of chloroform and spin-dried until the BP network is exposed at the donor/acceptor interface. For bulk heterojunction characterization, an additional fullerene solution is spin-coated onto the undoped layer, a thin layer of lithium fluoride is then deposited followed by either an aluminum or gold cathode which is thermally annealed to the device. The thin layer of lithium fluoride is deposited to help prevent the oxidation of the device. Controlling the thickness of these layers plays a significant role in the generation of the efficiency of the PV cells. Typically, the thickness of the active layers is usually smaller than 100 nm to produce photocurrents. This dependence on layer thickness is due to the probability that an electron is able to travel distances on the order of exciton diffusion length within the applied electric field. It should be noted that many of the organic semiconductors used in the PV devices are sensitive to water and oxygen. This is due to the likelihood of photo-oxidation which can occur when exposed to these conditions. While the top metal contact can prevent some of this, many studies are either performed in an inert atmosphere such as nitrogen, or under ultra-high vacuum (UHV).

text: ultra-high vacuum

text: (UHV).

text: Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a given mass of dry air, known as the mixing ratio, is measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg). The amount of moisture in air is also commonly reported as relative humidity; which is the percentage of the total water vapor air can hold at a particular air temperature. How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) and forms into a cloud (a group of visible and tiny water and ice particles suspended above the Earth's surface) depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The dew point is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.

text: Air contains water vapor, and the amount of water in a given mass of dry air, known as the mixing ratio, is measured in grams of water per kilogram of dry air (g/kg). The amount of moisture in air is also commonly reported as

text: relative humidity

text: ; which is the percentage of the total water vapor air can hold at a particular air temperature. How much water vapor a parcel of air can contain before it becomes saturated (100% relative humidity) and forms into a

text: cloud

text: (a group of visible and tiny water and ice particles suspended above the Earth's surface) depends on its temperature. Warmer air can contain more water vapor than cooler air before becoming saturated. Therefore, one way to saturate a parcel of air is to cool it. The

text: dew point

text: is the temperature to which a parcel must be cooled in order to become saturated.

text: While the traditional definition of the Strip excludes the Stratosphere, it is often included in travel guides as a Strip attraction. Using this alternate definition, the Stratosphere is the northernmost of the major Strip resorts, and is the only Strip hotel actually located within the City of Las Vegas.

text: A compound analyzed as lead carbide PbC has also been obtained accidentally, as a thin layer (about 10 μm thick) on the inner wall of a graphite crucible that had been used to heat a lead-bismuth eutectic alloy for 100 hours at 1073 K in a helium atmosphere.

text: A compound analyzed as lead carbide PbC has also been obtained accidentally, as a thin layer (about 10

text: μm

text: thick) on the inner wall of a

text: graphite

text: crucible that had been used to heat a lead-

text: bismuth

text: eutectic

text: alloy for 100 hours at 1073

text: K

text: in a

text: helium

text: atmosphere.

text: In calm weather, a layer of significantly warmer air can rest over colder dense air, forming an atmospheric duct which acts like a refracting lens, producing a series of both inverted and erect images. A Fata Morgana requires a duct to be present; thermal inversion alone is not enough to produce this kind of mirage. While a thermal inversion often takes place without there being an atmospheric duct, an atmospheric duct cannot exist without there first being a thermal inversion.

text: In calm weather, a layer of significantly warmer air can rest over colder dense air, forming an atmospheric duct which acts like a refracting

text: lens

text: , producing a series of both inverted and erect images. A Fata Morgana requires a duct to be present; thermal inversion alone is not enough to produce this kind of mirage. While a thermal inversion often takes place without there being an atmospheric duct, an atmospheric duct cannot exist without there first being a thermal inversion.

text: The prognostic mesoscale model MEMO describes the dynamics of the atmospheric boundary layer. In the present model version, air is assumed to be unsaturated. The model solves the continuity equation, the momentum equations and several transport equations for scalars (including the thermal energy equation and, as options, transport equations for water vapour, the turbulent kinetic energy and pollutant  concentrations).

text: The prognostic mesoscale model MEMO describes the dynamics of the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: . In the present model version, air is assumed to be unsaturated. The model solves the

text: continuity equation

text: , the

text: momentum

text: equations and several

text: transport equation

text: s for scalars (including the thermal energy equation and, as options, transport equations for water vapour, the turbulent kinetic energy and

text: pollutant

text: concentrations).

text: Polar mesospheric clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and form near the top of the mesosphere at about ten times the altitude of tropospheric high clouds. From ground level, they can occasionally be seen illuminated by the sun during deep twilight. Ongoing research indicates that convective lift in the mesosphere is strong enough during the polar summer to cause adiabatic cooling of small amount of water vapour to the point of saturation. This tends to produce the coldest temperatures in the entire atmosphere just below the mesopause. These conditions result in the best environment for the formation of polar mesospheric clouds.  There is also evidence that smoke particles from burnt-up meteors provide much of the condensation nuclei required for the formation of noctilucent cloud.

text: Polar mesospheric clouds are the highest in the atmosphere and form near the top of the mesosphere at about ten times the altitude of tropospheric high clouds. From ground level, they can occasionally be seen illuminated by the sun during deep

text: twilight

text: . Ongoing research indicates that convective lift in the mesosphere is strong enough during the polar

text: summer

text: to cause adiabatic cooling of small amount of water vapour to the point of saturation. This tends to produce the coldest temperatures in the entire atmosphere just below the mesopause. These conditions result in the best environment for the formation of polar mesospheric clouds.  There is also evidence that smoke particles from burnt-up meteors provide much of the condensation nuclei required for the formation of noctilucent cloud.

text: Air masses are large bodies of air with similar properties of temperature and humidity that form over source regions.  The warm air mass behind a warm front is not only warmer, but often (but not always) also higher in humidity than the colder air preceding it. Because of a warm air mass’s higher temperature and thus lesser density, mixing between the two air masses is unlikely. Being light, the warm air mass is unable to displace the cooler air mass and instead is forced upward along the upper boundary of the colder air in a process known as overrunning. The boundary between the two air masses has a gradual slope of 1:200 and lifting is slow but persistent.

text: Air masses are large bodies of air with similar properties of

text: temperature

text: and

text: humidity

text: that form over source regions.  The warm air mass behind a warm front is not only warmer, but often (but not always) also higher in humidity than the colder air preceding it. Because of a warm air mass’s higher temperature and thus lesser

text: density

text: , mixing between the two air masses is unlikely. Being light, the warm air mass is unable to displace the cooler air mass and instead is forced upward along the upper boundary of the colder air in a process known as overrunning. The boundary between the two air masses has a gradual slope of 1:200 and lifting is slow but persistent.

text: Cumulate harzburgite is found in some large layered igneous intrusions. At the Earth's surface, basaltic magmas typically crystallize the minerals: olivine, plagioclase, and augite (a high-Ca pyroxene); low-Ca pyroxenes can only co-exist with olivine at low pressure in magma that is high in both MgO and SiO (boninites). At pressures greater than 5 kilobars (0.5 GPa, or 5000x atmospheric pressure), olivine and low-Ca pyroxene (enstatite or bronzite) may crystallize together from normal basalt magmas to form harzburgite. These conditions were common in some layered mafic intrusions, most of which are Proterozoic in age, which formed from enormous sill-like intrusions of basalt into lower continental crust. The classic example of a Proterozoic layered intrusion with cumulate harzburgite is the Stillwater igneous complex of Montana, U.S.A. It is also found in the Bushveld Igneous Complex, a large layered intrusion in South Africa.

text: Cumulate

text: harzburgite is found in some large

text: layered igneous intrusion

text: s. At the Earth's surface, basaltic magmas typically

text: crystallize

text: the minerals: olivine,

text: plagioclase

text: , and

text: augite

text: (a high-Ca pyroxene); low-Ca pyroxenes can only co-exist with olivine at low pressure in magma that is high in both MgO and SiO (

text: boninite

text: s). At pressures greater than 5

text: kilobar

text: s (0.5 GPa, or 5000x

text: atmospheric pressure

text: ), olivine and low-Ca pyroxene (

text: enstatite

text: or

text: bronzite

text: ) may crystallize together from normal basalt magmas to form harzburgite. These conditions were common in some layered

text: mafic

text: intrusions, most of which are

text: Proterozoic

text: in age, which formed from enormous

text: sill

text: -like intrusions of basalt into lower continental crust. The classic example of a Proterozoic layered intrusion with cumulate harzburgite is the

text: Stillwater igneous complex

text: of Montana, U.S.A. It is also found in the

text: Bushveld Igneous Complex

text: , a large layered intrusion in South Africa.

text: At high altitudes, primarily above the mesosphere, there is enough UV radiation from the sun of very short wavelength to cause ionization. When the ions collide with electrically neutral particles they recombine and emit photons in the process, causing airglow. The degree of ionization is sufficiently large to allow a constant emission of radiation even during the night when the upper atmosphere is in the Earth's shadow. Lower in the atmosphere all of the solar photons with energies above the ionization potential of N and O have already been absorbed by the higher layers and thus no appreciable ionization occurs.

text: At high altitudes, primarily above the

text: mesosphere

text: , there is enough UV radiation from the sun of very short wavelength to cause

text: ionization

text: . When the ions collide with electrically neutral particles they recombine and emit photons in the process, causing

text: airglow

text: . The degree of ionization is sufficiently large to allow a constant emission of radiation even during the night when the upper atmosphere is in the Earth's shadow. Lower in the atmosphere all of the solar photons with energies above the ionization potential of N and O have already been absorbed by the higher layers and thus no appreciable ionization occurs.

text: Atmospheric temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed  in a given location during a period of time (e.g., in a given day, month, year, century) or the average (average of all temperature ranges in a period of time). The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation.

text: Atmospheric temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed  in a given location during a period of time (e.g., in a given day, month, year, century) or the average (average of all temperature ranges in a period of time). The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called

text: diurnal temperature variation

text: The whole interior of the church with exception of the narthex is covered with frescoes which is traditional for that type of church. Several artistic traditions have been applied; the figures are dynamic, the characters are emotional and the faces - vivid. The shades are dark, saturated and harmonized. On the vault there are three medallions - one the central one is painted Christ with four angels. On its sides in the two smaller medallions are the images of the prophets - Moses, Aaron, Ezekiel and others. Under them are depicted two layers of scenes: upper layer which includes the big holidays - the Birth, Baptism, Crucifixion and others; and a lower layer with the Passion of Christ. On the northern and southern walls of the church under the Passion there is another frieze of medallions depicting the warrior saints, the three men in the Babylon furnace and others. In the bottom parts of the walls are depicted full-length portraits of saints. On the western wall is depicted the Assumption of Mary and under that scene on the two sides of the door are the images of the sainted rulers Constantine and Helen and Archangel Michael.

text: The whole interior of the church with exception of the narthex is covered with

text: fresco

text: es which is traditional for that type of church. Several artistic traditions have been applied; the figures are dynamic, the characters are emotional and the faces - vivid. The shades are dark, saturated and harmonized. On the vault there are three medallions - one the central one is painted Christ with four angels. On its sides in the two smaller medallions are the images of the prophets - Moses, Aaron, Ezekiel and others. Under them are depicted two layers of scenes: upper layer which includes the big holidays - the Birth, Baptism, Crucifixion and others; and a lower layer with the Passion of Christ. On the northern and southern walls of the church under the Passion there is another frieze of medallions depicting the warrior saints, the three men in the Babylon furnace and others. In the bottom parts of the walls are depicted full-length portraits of saints. On the western wall is depicted the

text: Assumption of Mary

text: and under that scene on the two sides of the door are the images of the sainted rulers Constantine and Helen and Archangel Michael.

text: The concept of potential temperature applies to any stratified fluid. It is most frequently used in the atmospheric sciences and oceanography. The reason that it is usedin both fluids is that changes in pressure result in warmer fluid residing under colder fluid- examples being the fact that air temperature drops as one climbs a mountain and water temperature can increase with depth in very deep ocean trenches and within the ocean mixed layer. When potential temperature is used instead, these apparently unstable conditions vanish.

text: The concept of potential temperature applies to any stratified fluid. It is most frequently used in the

text: atmospheric sciences

text: and

text: oceanography

text: . The reason that it is usedin both fluids is that changes in pressure result in warmer fluid residing under colder fluid- examples being the fact that air temperature drops as one climbs a mountain and water temperature can increase with depth in very deep ocean trenches and within the ocean

text: mixed layer

text: . When potential temperature is used instead, these apparently unstable conditions vanish.

text: In areas where these thunderstorms form in isolation and horizontal visibility is good, pilots can evade these storms rather easily.  In more moist atmospheres which become hazy, pilots navigate above the haze layer in order to get a better vantage point of these storms.  Flying under the anvil of thunderstorms is not advised, as hail is more likely to fall in such areas outside the thunderstorm's main rain shaft.  When an outflow boundary forms due to a shallow layer of rain-cooled air spreading out near ground level from the parent thunderstorm, both speed and directional wind shear can result at the leading edge of the three-dimensional boundary.  The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear will become.

text: In areas where these thunderstorms form in isolation and horizontal visibility is good, pilots can evade these storms rather easily.  In more moist atmospheres which become hazy, pilots navigate above the haze layer in order to get a better vantage point of these storms.  Flying under the anvil of thunderstorms is not advised, as

text: hail

text: is more likely to fall in such areas outside the thunderstorm's main rain shaft.  When an outflow boundary forms due to a shallow layer of rain-cooled air spreading out near ground level from the parent thunderstorm, both speed and directional wind shear can result at the leading edge of the three-dimensional boundary.  The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear will become.

text: In the 1990s the company started to develop energy-saving, ozone layer friendly products. Also it developed Technical Assistance Agreement with major automakers like Ford Motor Company and General Motors Company and expanded its manufacturing capabilities by opening manufacturing plants in France and Thailand. In 2012 also Sanden Manufacturing Mexico was founded.

text: In the 1990s the company started to develop energy-saving, ozone layer friendly products. Also it developed Technical Assistance Agreement with major

text: automaker

text: s like

text: Ford Motor Company

text: and

text: General Motors Company

text: and expanded its manufacturing capabilities by opening manufacturing plants in France and Thailand. In 2012 also Sanden Manufacturing Mexico was founded.

text: The source of all daylight is the sun. The proportion of direct to diffuse light impacts the amount and quality of daylight. Solar radiation that reaches a site without being scattered within the earth’s atmosphere is called direct sunlight. In contrast, light that is scattered in the atmosphere is referred to as diffused daylight. Ground reflected light also contributes to the daylight. Each climate has different composition of these daylights and different cloud coverage, so daylighting strategies vary with site locations and climates. There is no direct sunlight on the polar-side wall (north-facing wall in the northern hemisphere and south-facing wall in the southern hemisphere) of a building  from the autumnal equinox to the spring equinox in parts of the globe north of the Tropic of Cancer and in part of the globe south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Traditionally, houses were designed with minimal windows on the polar side but more and larger windows on the equatorial-side (south-facing wall in the northern hemisphere and north-facing wall in the southern hemisphere). Equatorial-side windows receive at least some direct sunlight on any sunny day of the year (except in tropical latitudes in summertime) so they are effective at daylighting areas of the house adjacent to the windows.  Even so, during mid-winter, light incidence is highly directional and casts deep shadows. This may be partially ameliorated through light diffusion, light pipes or tubes, and through somewhat reflective internal surfaces. In fairly low latitudes in summertime, windows that face east and west and sometimes those that face toward the pole receive more sunlight than windows facing toward the equator.

text: The source of all daylight is the

text: sun

text: . The proportion of direct to diffuse light impacts the amount and quality of daylight. Solar radiation that reaches a site without being scattered within the earth’s atmosphere is called direct sunlight. In contrast, light that is scattered in the atmosphere is referred to as diffused daylight. Ground reflected light also contributes to the daylight. Each climate has different composition of these daylights and different cloud coverage, so daylighting strategies vary with site locations and climates. There is no direct sunlight on the polar-side wall (north-facing wall in the

text: northern hemisphere

text: and south-facing wall in the

text: southern hemisphere

text: ) of a building  from the

text: autumnal equinox

text: to the

text: spring equinox

text: in parts of the globe north of the

text: Tropic of Cancer

text: and in part of the globe south of the

text: Tropic of Capricorn

text: . Traditionally, houses were designed with minimal windows on the polar side but more and larger windows on the equatorial-side (south-facing wall in the northern hemisphere and north-facing wall in the southern hemisphere). Equatorial-side windows receive at least some direct sunlight on any sunny day of the year (except in tropical latitudes in summertime) so they are effective at daylighting areas of the house adjacent to the windows.  Even so, during mid-winter, light incidence is highly directional and casts deep shadows. This may be partially ameliorated through

text: light diffusion

text: light pipes or tubes

text: , and through somewhat reflective internal surfaces. In fairly low latitudes in summertime, windows that face east and west and sometimes those that face toward the pole receive more sunlight than windows facing toward the equator.

text: Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.

text: Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of

text: ozone

text: in

text: Earth's

text: stratosphere

text: (the

text: ozone layer

text: ), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar

text: tropospheric ozone depletion events

text: The troposphere is thought to have a highly complex cloud structure; water clouds are hypothesised to lie in the pressure range of  (5 to 10 MPa), ammonium hydrosulfide clouds in the range of  (2 to 4 MPa), ammonia or hydrogen sulfide clouds at between 3 and 10 bar (0.3 to 1 MPa) and finally directly detected thin methane clouds at  (0.1 to 0.2 MPa). The troposphere is a dynamic part of the atmosphere, exhibiting strong winds, bright clouds and seasonal changes.

text: The troposphere is thought to have a highly complex cloud structure; water clouds are hypothesised to lie in the pressure range of  (5 to 10 MPa),

text: ammonium hydrosulfide

text: clouds in the range of  (2 to 4 MPa), ammonia or

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: clouds at between 3 and 10 bar (0.3 to 1 MPa) and finally directly detected thin methane clouds at  (0.1 to 0.2 MPa). The troposphere is a dynamic part of the atmosphere, exhibiting strong winds, bright clouds and seasonal changes.

text: The lower atmosphere also typically contains a boundary between two distinct regions (the troposphere and stratosphere), but that boundary (the tropopause) displays quite different behavior. However, atmospheric thermoclines, or inversions, can occur, e.g. as nighttime cooling of the Earth's surface produces cold, dense, often calm air adjacent to the ground. The coldest air is next to the ground, with air temperature increasing with height. At the top of this nighttime boundary layer (which may be only a hundred meters) the normal adiabatic temperature profile of the troposphere (i.e. temperature decreasing with altitude) is again observed. The thermocline or inversion layer occurs where the temperature profile changes from positive to negative with increasing height. The stability of the night time inversion is usually destroyed soon after sunrise as the sun's energy warms the ground, which warms the air in the inversion layer. The warmer, less dense air then rises, destroying the stability that characterizes the nightly inversion.

text: The lower atmosphere also typically contains a boundary between two distinct regions (the

text: troposphere

text: and

text: stratosphere

text: ), but that boundary (the

text: tropopause

text: ) displays quite different behavior. However, atmospheric thermoclines, or

text: inversions

text: , can occur, e.g. as nighttime cooling of the Earth's surface produces cold, dense, often calm air adjacent to the ground. The coldest air is next to the ground, with air temperature increasing with height. At the top of this nighttime boundary layer (which may be only a hundred meters) the normal adiabatic temperature profile of the troposphere (i.e. temperature decreasing with altitude) is again observed. The thermocline or inversion layer occurs where the temperature profile changes from positive to negative with increasing height. The stability of the night time inversion is usually destroyed soon after sunrise as the sun's energy warms the ground, which warms the air in the inversion layer. The warmer, less dense air then rises, destroying the stability that characterizes the nightly inversion.

text: In 1970 Paul Crutzen pointed out that emissions of nitrous oxide (), a stable, long-lived gas produced by soil bacteria, from the Earth's surface could affect the amount of nitric oxide (NO) in the stratosphere. Crutzen showed that nitrous oxide lives long enough to reach the stratosphere, where it is converted into NO. Crutzen then noted that increasing use of fertilizers might have led to an increase in nitrous oxide emissions over the natural background, which would in turn result in an increase in the amount of NO in the stratosphere. Thus human activity could affect the stratospheric ozone layer. In the following year, Crutzen and (independently) Harold Johnston suggested that NO emissions from supersonic passenger aircraft, which would fly in the lower stratosphere, could also deplete the ozone layer. However, more recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, found that the drop in ozone would be from 1–2 percent if a fleet of 500 supersonic passenger aircraft were operated. This, Fahey expressed, would not be a showstopper for advanced supersonic passenger aircraft development.

text: In 1970

text: Paul Crutzen

text: pointed out that emissions of

text: nitrous oxide

text: (), a stable, long-lived gas produced by soil bacteria, from the Earth's surface could affect the amount of

text: nitric oxide

text: (NO) in the stratosphere. Crutzen showed that nitrous oxide lives long enough to reach the stratosphere, where it is converted into NO. Crutzen then noted that increasing use of

text: fertilizers

text: might have led to an increase in nitrous oxide emissions over the natural background, which would in turn result in an increase in the amount of NO in the stratosphere. Thus human activity could affect the stratospheric ozone layer. In the following year, Crutzen and (independently) Harold Johnston suggested that NO emissions from

text: supersonic passenger aircraft

text: , which would fly in the lower stratosphere, could also deplete the ozone layer. However, more recent analysis in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the

text: , found that the drop in ozone would be from 1–2 percent if a fleet of 500 supersonic passenger aircraft were operated. This, Fahey expressed, would not be a showstopper for advanced supersonic passenger aircraft development.

text: To generate the Fata Morgana phenomenon, the thermal inversion has to be strong enough that the curvature of the light rays within the inversion layer is stronger than the curvature of the Earth. Under these conditions, the rays bend and create arcs. An observer needs to be within or below an atmospheric duct in order to be able to see a Fata Morgana.

text: To generate the Fata Morgana phenomenon, the

text: thermal inversion

text: has to be strong enough that the curvature of the light rays within the inversion layer is stronger than the curvature of the

text: Earth

text: . Under these conditions, the rays bend and create

text: arc

text: s. An observer needs to be within or below an

text: atmospheric duct

text: in order to be able to see a Fata Morgana.

text: Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES occasionally forms far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most meteors burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by sounding rockets and rocket-powered aircraft.

text: Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric

text: noctilucent cloud

text: s. These are the highest clouds in the atmosphere and may be visible to the naked eye if sunlight reflects off them about an hour or two after sunset or a similar length of time before sunrise. They are most readily visible when the Sun is around 4 to 16 degrees below the horizon. A type of lightning referred to as either

text: sprites

text: or

text: ELVES

text: occasionally forms far above tropospheric thunderclouds. The mesosphere is also the layer where most

text: meteor

text: s burn up upon atmospheric entrance. It is too high above Earth to be accessible to jet-powered aircraft and balloons, and too low to permit orbital spacecraft. The mesosphere is mainly accessed by

text: sounding rocket

text: s and rocket-powered aircraft.

text: The transfer of energy between the wind blowing over the surface of an ocean and the ocean's upper layer is an important element in wave dynamics.  The spectral wave transport equation is used to describe the change in wave spectrum over changing topography.  It simulates wave generation, wave movement (propagation within a fluid), wave shoaling, refraction, energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and resonance between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal|author=Leslie C. Bender|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology|date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|page=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: spectral wave transport equation

text: wave shoaling

text: refraction

text: , energy transfer between waves, and wave dissipation.  Since surface winds are the primary forcing mechanism in the spectral wave transport equation, ocean wave models use information produced by numerical weather prediction models as inputs to determine how much energy is transferred from the atmosphere into the layer at the surface of the ocean. Along with dissipation of energy through whitecaps and

text: resonance

text: between waves, surface winds from numerical weather models allow for more accurate predictions of the state of the sea surface.<ref name="Bender">{{cite journal|author=Leslie C. Bender|title=Modification of the Physics and Numerics in a Third-Generation Ocean Wave Model|journal=

text: |date=January 1996|volume=13|issue=3|page=726|doi=10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013

text: Large values of the BLT are typically found in the equatorial regions and can be as high as 50 m.  Above the barrier layer, the well mixed layer may be due to local precipitation exceeding evaporation (e.g. in the western Pacific), monsoon related river runoff (e.g. in the northern Indian Ocean), or advection of salty water subducted in the subtropics (found in all subtropical ocean gyres).  BLT formation in the subtropics is associated with seasonal change in the mixed layer depth, a sharper gradient in sea surface salinity (SSS) than normal, and subduction across this SSS front.    In particular, BLT is formed in winter season in the equatorward flank of subtropical salinity maxima.  During early winter, the atmosphere cools the surface and strong wind and negative buoyancy forcing mixes temperature to a deep layer.  At this same time, fresh surface salinity is advected from the rainy regions in the tropics.  The deep temperature layer along with strong stratification in the salinity gives the conditions for BLT formation.For the western Pacific, the mechanism for BLT formation is different.  Along the equator, the eastern edge of the warm pool (typically 28C isotherm - see SST plot in the western Pacific) is a demarcation region between warm fresh water to the west and cold, salty, upwelled water in the central Pacific.  A barrier layer is formed in the isothermal layer when salty water is subducted from the east into the warm pool due to local convergence and warm fresh water overrides denser water to the east.  Here, weak winds, heavy precipitation, eastward advection of low salinity water, westward subduction of salty water and downwelling equatorial Kelvin or Rossby waves are factors that contribute to deep BLT formation.

text: advection

text: ocean gyre

text: s).  BLT formation in the subtropics is associated with seasonal change in the mixed layer depth, a sharper gradient in sea surface salinity (SSS) than normal, and subduction across this SSS front.    In particular, BLT is formed in winter season in the equatorward flank of subtropical salinity maxima.  During early winter, the atmosphere cools the surface and strong wind and negative buoyancy forcing mixes temperature to a deep layer.  At this same time, fresh surface salinity is advected from the rainy regions in the tropics.  The deep temperature layer along with strong stratification in the salinity gives the conditions for BLT formation.For the western Pacific, the mechanism for BLT formation is different.  Along the equator, the eastern edge of the warm pool (typically 28C isotherm - see SST plot in the western Pacific) is a demarcation region between warm fresh water to the west and cold, salty,

text: upwelled

text: water in the central Pacific.  A barrier layer is formed in the isothermal layer when salty water is subducted from the east into the warm pool due to local convergence and warm fresh water overrides denser water to the east.  Here, weak winds, heavy precipitation, eastward advection of low salinity water, westward subduction of salty water and downwelling

text: equatorial Kelvin

text: or

text: Rossby waves

text: are factors that contribute to deep BLT formation.

text: The specific objectives of ISAMS were: (i) To obtain measurements of atmospheric temperature as a function of pressure, from the tropopause to the mesopause, with good accuracy and spatial resolution, and hence to study the structure and dynamics of the region, (ii)  To investigate the distribution and variability of water vapour in the middle atmosphere, to determine its role in the atmospheric general circulation, and its sources and sinks in the middle atmosphere, (iii)  To measure the global distribution of oxides of nitrogen and hence to investigate their origins and their roles in catalytic cycles which control the amount of ozone in the stratospheric ozone layer. It also made extensive observations of volcanic aerosols and polar stratospheric clouds in the middle atmosphere. The instrument operated from September 1991–July 1992.

text: The specific objectives of ISAMS were: (i) To obtain measurements of atmospheric temperature as a function of pressure, from the

text: tropopause

text: to the

text: mesopause

text: , with good accuracy and spatial resolution, and hence to study the structure and dynamics of the region, (ii)  To investigate the distribution and variability of water vapour in the middle atmosphere, to determine its role in the atmospheric general circulation, and its sources and sinks in the middle atmosphere, (iii)  To measure the global distribution of oxides of nitrogen and hence to investigate their origins and their roles in catalytic cycles which control the amount of ozone in the stratospheric ozone layer. It also made extensive observations of volcanic aerosols and polar stratospheric clouds in the middle atmosphere. The instrument operated from September 1991–July 1992.

text: The exosphere ( ''éxō'' "outside, external, beyond",  ''sphaĩra'' "sphere") is a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a planet or natural satellite where molecules are gravitationally bound to that body, but where the density is too low for them to behave as a gas by colliding with each other. In the case of bodies with substantial atmospheres, such as Earth's atmosphere, the exosphere is the uppermost layer, where the atmosphere thins out and merges with interplanetary space. It is located directly above the thermosphere.

text: The exosphere ( ''éxō'' "outside, external, beyond",  ''sphaĩra'' "sphere") is a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a

text: planet

text: or

text: natural satellite

text: where

text: molecule

text: s are gravitationally bound to that body, but where the density is too low for them to behave as a gas by

text: colliding

text: with each other. In the case of bodies with substantial atmospheres, such as

text: Earth's atmosphere

text: , the exosphere is the uppermost layer, where the atmosphere thins out and merges with interplanetary space. It is located directly above the

text: thermosphere

text: Ideally, during the day, the art studio should be lit with northern sunlight (in the northern hemisphere), because it is considered more neutral and diffused than the direct, "yellowish" quality of southern sunlight. Since many artists' studios don't have north-facing windows, full-spectrum lamps are sometimes used to approximate such light. Full-spectrum fluorescent lamps are also used by color scientists, color matchers in paint stores and quilters and others working with fabrics or yarn when working under inadequate lighting conditions to assist in achieving the correct hues as they will later appear in daylight or under gallery lighting.

text: Ideally, during the day, the art studio should be lit with northern sunlight (in the northern hemisphere), because it is considered more neutral and diffused than the direct, "yellowish" quality of southern sunlight. Since many artists'

text: studio

text: s don't have north-facing windows, full-spectrum lamps are sometimes used to approximate such light. Full-spectrum

text: fluorescent lamps

text: are also used by color scientists, color matchers in paint stores and

text: quilter

text: s and others working with fabrics or yarn when working under inadequate lighting conditions to assist in achieving the correct hues as they will later appear in daylight or under gallery lighting.

text: The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about  up to the thermopause at an altitude range of . The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the exobase. The lower part of the thermosphere, from  above Earth's surface, contains the ionosphere.

text: The thermosphere is the second-highest layer of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about  up to the

text: thermopause

text: at an altitude range of . The height of the thermopause varies considerably due to changes in solar activity. Because the thermopause lies at the lower boundary of the exosphere, it is also referred to as the

text: exobase

text: . The lower part of the thermosphere, from  above Earth's surface, contains the

text: ionosphere

text: Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an inversion. For instance, during the day the temperature at ground level may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same elevation. This happens on the West Coast of the United States sometimes due to geography.

text: Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an

text: inversion

text: . For instance, during the day the temperature at

text: ground level

text: may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same

text: elevation

text: . This happens on the

text: West Coast of the United States

text: sometimes due to geography.

text: The κ–mechanism is the driving mechanism behind the changes in luminosity of many types of pulsating variable stars. Here, the Greek letter kappa (κ) is used to indicate the radiative opacity at any particular depth of the stellar atmosphere. In a normal star, an increase in compression of the atmosphere causes an increase in temperature and density; this produces a decrease in the opacity of the atmosphere, allowing heat energy to escape more rapidly. The result is an equilibrium condition where temperature and pressure are maintained in a balance. However, in cases where the opacity increases with temperature, the atmosphere becomes unstable against pulsations. If a layer of a stellar atmosphere moves inward, it becomes denser and more opaque, causing heat flow to be checked. In return, this heat increase causes a build-up of pressure that pushes the layer back out again. The result is a cyclic process as the layer repeatedly moves inward and then is forced back out again.

text: The κ–mechanism is the driving mechanism behind the changes in luminosity of many types of

text: pulsating variable

text: stars. Here, the

text: Greek letter

text: kappa

text: (κ) is used to indicate the radiative

text: opacity

text: at any particular depth of the stellar atmosphere. In a normal star, an increase in compression of the atmosphere causes an increase in temperature and density; this produces a decrease in the opacity of the atmosphere, allowing heat energy to escape more rapidly. The result is an equilibrium condition where temperature and pressure are maintained in a balance. However, in cases where the opacity increases with temperature, the atmosphere becomes unstable against pulsations. If a layer of a stellar atmosphere moves inward, it becomes denser and more opaque, causing heat flow to be checked. In return, this heat increase causes a build-up of pressure that pushes the layer back out again. The result is a cyclic process as the layer repeatedly moves inward and then is forced back out again.

text: The thickness of the ozone layer—that is, the total amount of ozone in a column overhead—varies by a large factor worldwide, being in general smaller near the equator and larger towards the poles. It also varies with season, being in general thicker during the spring and thinner during the autumn. The reasons for this latitude and seasonal dependence are complicated, which involve in atmospheric circulation patterns as well as solar intensity.

text: Finally, at radio wavelengths longer than 10 meters or so (about 30 MHz), the air in the lower atmosphere remains transparent to radio, but plasma in certain layers of the ionosphere begins to interact with radio waves (see skywave). This property allows some longer wavelengths (100 meters or 3 MHz) to be reflected and results in shortwave radio beyond line-of-sight. However, certain ionospheric effects begin to block incoming radiowaves from space, when their frequency is less than about 10 MHz (wavelength longer than about 30 meters).

text: Finally, at radio wavelengths longer than 10 meters or so (about 30 MHz), the air in the lower atmosphere remains transparent to radio, but plasma in certain layers of the

text: ionosphere

text: begins to interact with radio waves (see

text: skywave

text: ). This property allows some longer wavelengths (100 meters or 3 MHz) to be reflected and results in

text: shortwave radio

text: beyond line-of-sight. However,

text: certain ionospheric effects

text: begin to block incoming radiowaves from space, when their frequency is less than about 10 MHz (wavelength longer than about 30 meters).

text: , is called the environmental lapse rate (ELR). The ELR is nothing more than the difference in temperature between the surface and the tropopause divided by the height. The ELR assumes that the air is perfectly still, i.e. that there is no mixing of the layers of air from vertical convection, nor winds that would create turbulence and hence mixing of the layers of air. The reason for this temperature difference is that the ground absorbs most of the sun's energy, which then heats the lower levels of the atmosphere with which it is in contact. Meanwhile, the radiation of heat at the top of the atmosphere results in the cooling of that part of the atmosphere.

text: The planetary boundary layer (PBL) is the part of the troposphere that is directly influenced by the presence of the earth’s surface, and responds to surface forcings with a timescale of about an hour or less. Convective turbulent mixing processes are dominant in the mixed layer (ML) of the PBL and have a major influence on the growth and transport of atmospheric pollutants. Meteorological variables (i.e. temperature, humidity, wind) in the PBL are critically important as inputs for reliable simulations in air quality models. One of the key parameters which determine the vertical extent of the ML is the PBL height.

text: The

text: planetary boundary layer

text: (PBL) is the part of the troposphere that is directly influenced by the presence of the earth’s surface, and responds to surface forcings with a timescale of about an hour or less. Convective turbulent mixing processes are dominant in the

text: mixed layer

text: (ML) of the PBL and have a major influence on the growth and transport of atmospheric pollutants. Meteorological variables (i.e.

text: temperature

text: humidity

text: wind

text: ) in the PBL are critically important as inputs for reliable simulations in air quality models. One of the key parameters which determine the vertical extent of the ML is the PBL height.

text: Another line of evidence comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed. Models and observations show that greenhouse gas results in warming of the troposphere, but cooling of the stratosphere. Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants stimulated a stratospheric cooling effect. If the Sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as the increased solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen.

text: Another line of evidence comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth's atmosphere have changed. Models and observations show that

text: greenhouse gas

text: results in warming of the

text: troposphere

text: , but cooling of the stratosphere.

text: Depletion

text: of the

text: ozone layer

text: by chemical

text: refrigerant

text: s stimulated a stratospheric cooling effect. If the Sun was responsible for observed warming, warming of the troposphere at the surface and warming at the top of the stratosphere would be expected as the increased solar activity would replenish ozone and oxides of nitrogen.

text: Jupiter's thermosphere is located at pressures lower than 1 μbar and demonstrates such phenomena as airglow, polar aurorae and X-ray emissions. Within it lie layers of increased electron and ion density that form the ionosphere. The high temperatures prevalent in the thermosphere (800–1000 K) have not been fully explained yet; existing models predict a temperature no higher than about 400 K. They may be caused by absorption of high-energy solar radiation (UV or X-ray), by heating from the charged particles precipitating from the Jovian magnetosphere, or by dissipation of upward-propagating gravity waves. The thermosphere and exosphere at the poles and at low latitudes emit X-rays, which were first observed by the Einstein Observatory in 1983. The energetic particles coming from Jupiter's magnetosphere create bright auroral ovals, which encircle the poles. Unlike their terrestrial analogs, which appear only during magnetic storms, aurorae are permanent features of Jupiter's atmosphere. The thermosphere was the first place outside the Earth where the trihydrogen cation () was discovered. This ion emits strongly in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum, at wavelengths between 3 and 5 μm; this is the main cooling mechanism of the thermosphere.

text: Jupiter's thermosphere is located at pressures lower than 1 μbar and demonstrates such phenomena as

text: airglow

text: , polar

text: aurorae

text: and

text: X-ray

text: emissions. Within it lie layers of increased electron and ion density that form the

text: ionosphere

text: . The high temperatures prevalent in the thermosphere (800–1000 K) have not been fully explained yet; existing models predict a temperature no higher than about 400 K. They may be caused by absorption of high-energy solar radiation (UV or X-ray), by heating from the charged particles precipitating from the Jovian magnetosphere, or by dissipation of upward-propagating

text: gravity wave

text: s. The thermosphere and exosphere at the poles and at low latitudes emit X-rays, which were first observed by the

text: Einstein Observatory

text: in 1983. The energetic particles coming from Jupiter's magnetosphere create bright auroral ovals, which encircle the poles. Unlike their terrestrial analogs, which appear only during

text: magnetic storm

text: s, aurorae are permanent features of Jupiter's atmosphere. The thermosphere was the first place outside the Earth where the

text: trihydrogen cation

text: () was discovered. This ion emits strongly in the mid-infrared part of the spectrum, at wavelengths between 3 and 5 μm; this is the main cooling mechanism of the thermosphere.

text: Some atmospheric models use a hybrid sigma-pressure coordinate scheme, combining sigma-denominated layers at the bottom (following terrain) with isobaric (pressure-denominated) layers aloft. The isobaric upper layers are generally more numerically tractable (since flatter), and specifically more tractable for radiative transfer calculations (important for assimilating satellite radiance observations). Some models (e.g., the 2009 NAM) have a pure sigma domain at the bottom and a fixed transition level, above which all layers are exactly isobaric. Other models (e.g., GFS) gradually transition from sigma to isobaric, which avoids numerical artifacts at the transition level.

text: Some atmospheric models use a hybrid sigma-pressure coordinate scheme, combining sigma-denominated layers at the bottom (following terrain) with

text: isobaric

text: (pressure-denominated) layers aloft. The isobaric upper layers are generally more numerically tractable (since flatter), and specifically more tractable for

text: radiative transfer

text: calculations (important for

text: assimilating

text: satellite radiance observations

text: ). Some models (e.g., the 2009 NAM) have a pure sigma domain at the bottom and a fixed transition level, above which all layers are exactly isobaric. Other models (e.g., GFS) gradually transition from sigma to isobaric, which avoids numerical artifacts at the transition level.

text: Even if it is not destroyed in the troposphere, methane can usually only last 12 years before it is eventually destroyed in Earth’s next atmospheric layer: the stratosphere. Destruction in the stratosphere occurs the same way that it does in the troposphere: methane is oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor.

text: MOZART (Model for OZone And Related chemical Tracers) is a chemistry transport model (CTM) developed jointly by the (US) National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), and the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology (MPI-Met) to simulate changes in ozone concentrations in the Earth's atmosphere. MOZART was designed to simulate tropospheric chemical and transport processes, but has been extended into the stratosphere and mesosphere. It can be driven by standard meteorological fields from, e.g.,

text: MOZART (Model for OZone And Related chemical Tracers) is a

text: chemistry transport model

text: (CTM) developed jointly by the (

text: US

text: (NCAR), the

text: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory

text: (GFDL), and the

text: Max Planck Institute for Meteorology

text: (MPI-Met) to simulate changes in

text: ozone

text: concentrations

text: in the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: atmosphere

text: . MOZART was designed to simulate

text: tropospheric

text: chemical and transport processes, but has been extended into the

text: stratosphere

text: and

text: mesosphere

text: . It can be driven by standard

text: meteorological

text: fields from, e.g.,

text: On July 29, 1987, a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. Tracking westward along the southern edge of the Saharan Air Layer, a feature associated with large masses of dry air, little convective development took place over the following several days. Once near the Lesser Antilles in early August, atmospheric conditions became more favorable for development. Traveling across the Caribbean Sea, the system became increasingly organized and a mid-level circulation formed shortly before the wave moved inland over Central America on August 7. The following day, the northern portion of the wave interacted with a cold-core low over the Gulf of Mexico, resulting in the formation of a low-level circulation, exhibiting tropical characteristics, on August 9. Over the following two days, the system tracked in a general north-northwest direction towards the Texas coastline. Aided by an anticyclone aloft, outflow became pronounced and convection increased in coverage and intensity. Around 1200 UTC, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) estimated that the system developed into a tropical depression while located about 145 miles (235 km) south-southeast of Galveston, Texas.

text: On July 29, 1987, a

text: tropical wave

text: emerged off the west coast of

text: Africa

text: into the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: . Tracking westward along the southern edge of the

text: Saharan Air Layer

text: , a feature associated with large masses of dry air, little

text: convective

text: development took place over the following several days. Once near the

text: Lesser Antilles

text: in early August, atmospheric conditions became more favorable for

text: development

text: . Traveling across the

text: Caribbean Sea

text: , the system became increasingly organized and a mid-level

text: circulation

text: formed shortly before the wave moved inland over

text: Central America

text: on August 7. The following day, the northern portion of the wave interacted with a

text: cold-core low

text: over the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , resulting in the formation of a low-level circulation, exhibiting

text: tropical characteristics

text: , on August 9. Over the following two days, the system tracked in a general north-northwest direction towards the

text: Texas

text: coastline. Aided by an

text: anticyclone

text: aloft,

text: outflow

text: became pronounced and convection increased in coverage and intensity. Around 1200

text: UTC

text: , the

text: National Hurricane Center

text: (NHC) estimated that the system developed into a tropical depression while located about 145 miles (235 km) south-southeast of

text: Galveston, Texas

text: Mahlon Loomis (21 July 1826 – 13 October 1886) was an American dentist known for proposing a wireless communication and power delivery system based on his idea of charging a layer of the earths atmosphere.

text: Mahlon Loomis (21 July 1826 – 13 October 1886) was an American dentist known for proposing a

text: wireless

text: communication and power delivery system based on his idea of charging a layer of the earths atmosphere.

text: Stratosphere Sound is a former recording studio located in New York City. Previously known as "The Place", the studio was renamed Stratosphere Sound in 1999. Originally located in the Meatpacking District, the studio was relocated to Chelsea in 2001 after a fire damaged the original premises. The new location was designed by renowned studio architect Francis Manzella. The studio closed in 2012 due to economic changes in the music business, including decreased recording budgets and the rising cost of rent in Manhattan.

text: Stratosphere Sound is a former recording studio located in

text: New York City

text: . Previously known as "The Place", the studio was renamed Stratosphere Sound in 1999. Originally located in the

text: Meatpacking District

text: , the studio was relocated to

text: Chelsea

text: in 2001 after a fire damaged the original premises. The new location was designed by renowned studio architect Francis Manzella. The studio closed in 2012 due to economic changes in the music business, including decreased recording budgets and the rising cost of rent in

text: Manhattan

text: In 1956, Norman Phillips developed a mathematical model which could realistically depict monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere, which became the first successful climate model. Following Phillips's work, several groups began working to create general circulation models. The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.  By the early 1980s, the United States' National Center for Atmospheric Research had developed the Community Atmosphere Model; this model has been continuously refined into the 2000s.  In 1986, efforts began to initialize and model soil and vegetation types, which led to more realistic forecasts.  For example, the Center for Ocean-Land Atmosphere Studies (COLA) model showed a warm temperature bias of 2-4 °C (4-7 °F) and a low precipitation bias due to incorrect parameterization of crop and vegetation type across the central United States.  Coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models such as the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research's HadCM3 model are currently being used as inputs for climate change studies.  The importance of gravity waves was neglected within these models until the mid-1980s.  Now, gravity waves are required within global climate models in order to properly simulate regional and global scale circulations, though their broad spectrum makes their incorporation complicated.  The Climate System Model (CSM) was developed at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in January 1994.

text: In 1956, Norman Phillips developed a mathematical model which could realistically depict monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere, which became the first successful

text: climate model

text: . Following Phillips's work, several groups began working to create

text: general circulation model

text: s. The first general circulation climate model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the

text: NOAA

text: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory

text: .  By the early 1980s, the United States'

text: had developed the Community Atmosphere Model; this model has been continuously refined into the 2000s.  In 1986, efforts began to initialize and model soil and vegetation types, which led to more realistic forecasts.  For example, the Center for Ocean-Land Atmosphere Studies (COLA) model showed a warm temperature bias of 2-4 °C (4-7 °F) and a low precipitation bias due to incorrect parameterization of crop and vegetation type across the central United States.  Coupled ocean-atmosphere climate models such as the

text: 's

text: model are currently being used as inputs for

text: climate change

text: studies.  The importance of

text: gravity wave

text: s was neglected within these models until the mid-1980s.  Now, gravity waves are required within

text: global climate model

text: s in order to properly simulate regional and global scale circulations, though their

text: broad spectrum

text: makes their incorporation complicated.  The

text: Climate System Model (CSM)

text: was developed at the

text: in January 1994.

text: Heat waves form when high pressure aloft (from ) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks. This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream 'follows the sun'. On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.

text: The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or nacreous clouds are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.

text: The stratospheric temperature profile creates very stable atmospheric conditions, so the stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence that is so prevalent in the troposphere. Consequently, the stratosphere is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather. However, polar stratospheric or

text: nacreous cloud

text: s are occasionally seen in the lower part of this layer of the atmosphere where the air is coldest. The stratosphere is the highest layer that can be accessed by jet-powered aircraft.

text: On the basis of morphology and physical characteristics, tektites have traditionally been divided into four groups. The tektites which have been found on land have traditionally been subdivided into three groups: (1) splash-form (normal) tektites, (2) aerodynamically shaped tektites, and (3) Muong Nong-type (layered) tektites. Splash-form and aerodynamically shaped tektites are only differentiated on the basis of their appearance and some of their physical characteristics. Splash-form tektites are centimeter-sized tektites that are shaped like spheres, ellipsoids, teardrops, dumbbells, and other forms characteristic of isolated molten bodies. They are regarded as having formed from the solidification of rotating liquids, and not atmospheric ablation. Aerodynamically shaped tektites, which are mainly part of the Australasian strewn field, are splash-form tektites (buttons) which display a secondary ring or flange. The secondary ring or flange is argued as having been produced during the high-speed reentry and ablation of a solidified splash-form tektite into the atmosphere. Muong Nong tektites are typically larger, greater than 10 cm in size and 24 kg in weight, irregular, and layered tektites. They have a chunky, blocky appearance, exhibit a layered structure with abundant vesicles, and contain mineral inclusions, such as zircon, baddeleyite, chromite, rutile, corundum, cristobalite and coesite.

text: baddeleyite

text: chromite

text: rutile

text: corundum

text: cristobalite

text: and coesite.

text: It is generally thought that the peculiar surface compositions observed in these hot main-sequence stars have been caused by processes that happened after the star formed, such as diffusion or magnetic effects in the outer layers of the stars.  These processes cause some elements, particularly He, N and O, to "settle" out in the atmosphere into the layers below, while other elements such as Mn, Sr, Y and Zr are "levitated" out of the interior to the surface, resulting in the observed spectral peculiarities. It is assumed that the centers of the stars, and the bulk compositions of the entire star, have more normal chemical abundance mixtures which reflect the compositions of the gas clouds from which they formed. In order for such diffusion and levitation to occur and the resulting layers to remain intact, the atmosphere of such a star must be stable enough to convection that convective mixing does not occur. The proposed mechanism causing this stability is the unusually large magnetic field that is generally observed in stars of this type.

text: It is generally thought that the peculiar surface compositions observed in these hot main-sequence stars have been caused by processes that happened after the star formed, such as diffusion or magnetic effects in the outer layers of the stars.  These processes cause some elements, particularly He, N and O, to "settle" out in the atmosphere into the layers below, while other elements such as

text: Mn

text: Sr

text: Y

text: and

text: Zr

text: are "levitated" out of the interior to the surface, resulting in the observed spectral peculiarities. It is assumed that the centers of the stars, and the bulk compositions of the entire star, have more normal chemical abundance mixtures which reflect the compositions of the gas clouds from which they formed. In order for such diffusion and levitation to occur and the resulting layers to remain intact, the atmosphere of such a star must be stable enough to convection that convective mixing does not occur. The proposed mechanism causing this stability is the unusually large magnetic field that is generally observed in stars of this type.

text: On the third day of the mission, the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was deployed from Discovery's payload bay 350 statute miles above Earth to study human effects on the planet's atmosphere and its shielding ozone layer. The UARS mission objectives were to provide an increased understanding of the energy input into the upper atmosphere, global photochemistry of the upper atmosphere, dynamics of the upper atmosphere, the coupling among these processes, and the coupling between the upper and lower atmosphere. This provided data for a coordinated study of the structure, chemistry, energy balance, and physical action of the Earth's middle atmosphere - thatslice of air between 10 and 60 miles above the Earth.  The UARS was the first major flight element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth, a multi-year global research program that would use ground-based, airborne, and space-based instruments to study the Earth as a complete environmental system. UARS had ten sensing and measuring devices: Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer (CLAES); Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder (ISAMS); Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS); Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE); High Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI); Wind Imaging Interferometer (WlNDII); Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE); Particle Environment Monitor (PEM) and Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor (ACRIM II). UARS's initial 18-month mission was extended several times – it was finally retired after 14 years of service.

text: On the third day of the mission, the

text: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite

text: (UARS) was deployed from Discovery's payload bay 350 statute miles above Earth to study human effects on the planet's atmosphere and its shielding ozone layer. The UARS mission objectives were to provide an increased understanding of the energy input into the upper atmosphere, global photochemistry of the upper atmosphere, dynamics of the upper atmosphere, the coupling among these processes, and the coupling between the upper and lower atmosphere. This provided data for a coordinated study of the structure, chemistry, energy balance, and physical action of the Earth's middle atmosphere - thatslice of air between 10 and 60 miles above the Earth.  The UARS was the first major flight element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth, a multi-year global research program that would use ground-based, airborne, and space-based instruments to study the Earth as a complete environmental system. UARS had ten sensing and measuring devices: Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer (CLAES); Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder (ISAMS);

text: Microwave Limb Sounder

text: (MLS); Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE); High Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI); Wind Imaging Interferometer (WlNDII); Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE); Particle Environment Monitor (PEM) and Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor (ACRIM II). UARS's initial 18-month mission was extended several times – it was finally retired after 14 years of service.

text: The Saharan Air Layer (SAL) is an extremely hot, dry and sometimes dust-laden layer of the atmosphere that often overlies the cooler, more-humid surface air of the Atlantic Ocean.  In the Sahara Desert region of North Africa, where it originates, it is the prevalent atmosphere, extending from the surface upwards several kilometers.  As it drives, or is driven, out over the ocean, it is lifted above the denser marine air.  This arrangement is an inversion where the temperature increases with height. The boundary between the SAL and the marine layer suppresses or "caps" any convection originating in the marine layer.  Since it is dry air, the lapse rate within the SAL itself is steep, that is, the temperature falls rapidly with height.

text: The Saharan Air Layer (SAL) is an extremely hot, dry and sometimes dust-laden layer of the

text: atmosphere

text: that often overlies the cooler, more-humid surface air of the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: .  In the

text: Sahara Desert

text: region of

text: North Africa

text: , where it originates, it is the prevalent atmosphere, extending from the surface upwards several kilometers.  As it drives, or is driven, out over the ocean, it is lifted above the denser

text: marine air

text: .  This arrangement is an

text: inversion

text: where the temperature increases with height. The boundary between the SAL and the marine layer suppresses or "caps" any convection originating in the marine layer.  Since it is dry air, the

text: lapse rate

text: within the SAL itself is steep, that is, the temperature falls rapidly with height.

text: The modification of the characteristics of the atmospheric boundary layer by the presence of a street canyon is called the street canyon effect. As mentioned earlier, street canyons affect temperature, wind speed and wind direction and consequently the air quality with in the canyon.

text: The modification of the characteristics of the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: by the presence of a street canyon is called the street canyon effect. As mentioned earlier, street canyons affect

text: temperature

text: wind speed

text: and

text: wind direction

text: and consequently the

text: air quality

text: with in the canyon.

text: Hydrogen has a clean flame and is good for use on aluminium. It can be used at a higher pressure than acetylene and is therefore useful for underwater welding and cutting. It is a good type of flame to use when heating large amounts of material. The flame temperature is high, about 2,000 °C for hydrogen gas in air at atmospheric pressure, and up to 2800 °C when pre-mixed in a 2:1 ratio with pure oxygen (oxyhydrogen). Hydrogen is not used for welding steels and other ferrous materials, because it causes hydrogen embrittlement.

text: Hydrogen has a clean flame and is good for use on

text: aluminium

text: . It can be used at a higher pressure than acetylene and is therefore useful for underwater welding and cutting. It is a good type of flame to use when heating large amounts of material. The flame temperature is high, about 2,000 °C for hydrogen gas in air at atmospheric pressure, and up to 2800 °C when pre-mixed in a 2:1 ratio with pure oxygen (oxyhydrogen). Hydrogen is not used for welding steels and other ferrous materials, because it causes

text: hydrogen embrittlement

text: Stars, planets, and moons keep their atmospheres by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decreases with distance from the object. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about  at  of altitude, the Kármán line, which is a common definition of the boundary with outer space. Beyond this line, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to radiation pressure from the Sun and the dynamic pressure of the solar winds, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. The thermosphere in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to space weather. Astrophysicists prefer to use number density to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre.

text: Stars, planets, and moons keep their

text: atmosphere

text: s by gravitational attraction, and as such, atmospheres have no clearly delineated boundary: the density of atmospheric gas simply decreases with distance from the object. The Earth's atmospheric pressure drops to about  at  of altitude, the

text: Kármán line

text: , which is a common definition of the boundary with outer space. Beyond this line, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to

text: radiation pressure

text: from the

text: Sun

text: and the

text: dynamic pressure

text: of the

text: solar wind

text: s, so the definition of pressure becomes difficult to interpret. The

text: thermosphere

text: in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to

text: space weather

text: . Astrophysicists prefer to use

text: number density

text: to describe these environments, in units of particles per cubic centimetre.

text: Pluto has no or almost no troposphere; observations by New Horizons suggest a thin tropospheric boundary layer consistent with those models which predicted its thickness . Above it lays a layer with fast increase of temperature with height: stratosphere. The temperature gradient is estimated to be 2.2,  or 5.5 degrees per km. It is a result of greenhouse effect, caused by methane. Mean temperature of the surface is  (measured in 2005), and the mean value for all the atmosphere is  (2008).

text: Pluto has no or almost no

text: troposphere

text: ; observations by New Horizons suggest a thin tropospheric

text: boundary layer

text: consistent with those models which predicted its thickness . Above it lays a layer with fast increase of temperature with height:

text: stratosphere

text: . The temperature gradient is estimated to be 2.2,  or 5.5 degrees per km. It is a result of

text: greenhouse effect

text: , caused by

text: methane

text: . Mean temperature of the surface is  (measured in 2005), and the mean value for all the atmosphere is  (2008).

text: The up and downdrafts of boundary layer convection is the primary way in which the atmosphere moves heat, momentum, moisture, and pollutants between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere. Thus, boundary layer convection is important in the global climate modeling, numerical weather prediction, air-quality modeling and the dynamics of numerous mesoscale phenomena.

text: The up and downdrafts of boundary layer convection is the primary way in which the atmosphere moves heat, momentum, moisture, and pollutants between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere. Thus, boundary layer

text: convection

text: is important in the global climate modeling, numerical weather prediction, air-quality modeling and the dynamics of numerous mesoscale phenomena.

text: A Northern Lights brainbuster, sometimes shortened to Northern Lights buster, is a variation of the brainbuster in which the wrestler will lift the opponent as if they were using a Northern Lights Suplex and lands the opponent on the back of their head.

text: A Northern Lights brainbuster, sometimes shortened to Northern Lights buster, is a variation of the brainbuster in which the wrestler will lift the opponent as if they were using a

text: Northern Lights Suplex

text: and lands the opponent on the back of their head.

text: Thermal-assisted switching, or TAS, is one of the new second-generation approaches to magnetoresistive random-access memory (MRAM) currently being developed.  A few different designs have been proposed, but all rely on the idea of reducing the required switching fields by heating.The first design's cell, which was proposed by James M. Daughton and co-workers, had a heating element, an MRAM bit, an orthogonal digit line,and used a low-Curie point ferromagnetic material as the storage layer.In a second and more-promising design, which was developed by the Spintec Laboratory (France) and subsequently licensed to Crocus Technology, the storage layer is made of a ferromagnetic and an antiferromagnetic layer.  When the cell is heated by flowing a heating current through the junction and the temperature exceeds the "blocking temperature" (T), the ferromagnetic layer is freed, and the data is written by application of a magnetic field while cooling down.When idle, the cell's temperature is below the blocking temperature and much more stable.

text: Thermal-assisted switching, or TAS, is one of the new second-generation approaches to

text: magnetoresistive random-access memory

text: (MRAM) currently being developed.  A few different designs have been proposed, but all rely on the idea of reducing the required switching fields by heating.The first design's cell, which was proposed by James M. Daughton and co-workers, had a heating element, an MRAM bit, an orthogonal digit line,and used a low-

text: Curie point

text: ferromagnetic material as the storage layer.In a second and more-promising design, which was developed by the Spintec Laboratory (France) and subsequently licensed to

text: Crocus Technology

text: , the storage layer is made of a ferromagnetic and an antiferromagnetic layer.  When the cell is heated by flowing a heating current through the junction and the temperature exceeds the "

text: blocking temperature

text: " (T), the ferromagnetic layer is freed, and the data is written by application of a magnetic field while cooling down.When idle, the cell's temperature is below the blocking temperature and much more stable.

text: Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of 10 bars, at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar  with a temperature of around 340 K, is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere. In scientific literature, the 1 bar pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes—a "surface" of Jupiter. As with Earth, the top atmospheric layer, the exosphere, does not have a well defined upper boundary. The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the interplanetary medium approximately 5,000 km above the "surface".

text: Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill-defined, the pressure level of 10

text: bar

text: s, at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar  with a temperature of around 340

text: K

text: , is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere. In scientific literature, the 1 bar pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes—a "surface" of Jupiter. As with Earth, the top atmospheric layer, the exosphere, does not have a well defined upper boundary. The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the

text: interplanetary medium

text: approximately 5,000 km above the "surface".

text: No tornado watches or warnings were issued before the storm struck. This was later determined to be because of missing atmospheric sounding data, as well as an incorrect assessment of the height of the tropopause, which led to an underestimation of the strength of the thunderstorm which produced the tornado. Although a severe thunderstorm warning was issued at 2:57 pm, very few people received the warnings in time.

text: No

text: tornado watch

text: es or

text: warnings

text: were issued before the storm struck. This was later determined to be because of missing

text: atmospheric sounding

text: data, as well as an incorrect assessment of the height of the

text: tropopause

text: , which led to an underestimation of the strength of the thunderstorm which produced the tornado. Although a

text: severe thunderstorm warning

text: was issued at 2:57 pm, very few people received the warnings in time.

text: Kuwait is a country that has committed to the Vienna Convention to protect the Ozone Layer, and the Montreal Protocol concerning exhausted material of Ozone Layer. These conventions brought forth an Ozone layer protection committee that emerged from the Environment Public Authority of Kuwait to analyze and study the provisions of the protocol and convention. The result was  a request to issue the following legislative decrees regarding:

text: Pressure varies smoothly from the Earth's surface to the top of the mesosphere. Although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. One can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity also affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C and a relative humidity of 0%.

text: Pressure varies smoothly from the Earth's surface to the top of the

text: mesosphere

text: . Although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. One can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity also affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C and a relative humidity of 0%.

text: According to Pitchfork, as compared to earlier singles and EPs (which were "promising, with an immediately identifiable aesthetic" but "pulled in a few different directions, between structure and atmosphere, or vulnerable longing and stark, theatrical wailing") The Spoils is "a potent mix of layered and otherworldly vocals, muddy electronics, and storefront-church keyboards", full of tension, dynamics and raw emotion. "Spoils is compelling throughout, but the peak comes much later in its runtime, with 'Smirenye' and especially 'Clay Bodies', argues the reviewer.

text: Shangri-La Studios proved to be a return to a clubhouse atmosphere that The Band had enjoyed previously at Big Pink, and in the spring of 1975, the group began work on Northern Lights – Southern Cross, their first release of original material in four years.

text: Shangri-La Studios proved to be a return to a clubhouse atmosphere that The Band had enjoyed previously at Big Pink, and in the spring of 1975, the group began work on

text: Northern Lights – Southern Cross

text: , their first release of original material in four years.

text: In the laboratory at his father's house Merton had bombarded various newly discovered phosphorescent powders with cathode rays. He was surprised to find that while all lit brilliantly, the afterglow was brief and feeble. By experiment, he discovered that this was because the excitation and emission lines of the spectra barely overlapped, and that by mixing suitable powders he could increase the afterglow. He realized that persistent afterglow could be got by a double layer of powders, in which the light emitted by the back layer excited the front layer, but as this technique seemed to have no practical use he forgot about it for thirty-three years, until 1938 when Sir Henry Tizard asked if he could achieve such a long afterglow. Merton was able to reply by return of post, and soon after was asked to join the air defence committee where he learned that his discovery had made possible the two-layer long-persistence radar screens which helped to bring victory in the Battle of Britain.

text: In the laboratory at his father's house Merton had bombarded various newly discovered

text: phosphorescent

text: powders with

text: cathode rays

text: . He was surprised to find that while all lit brilliantly, the afterglow was brief and feeble. By experiment, he discovered that this was because the excitation and emission lines of the spectra barely overlapped, and that by mixing suitable powders he could increase the afterglow. He realized that persistent afterglow could be got by a double layer of powders, in which the light emitted by the back layer excited the front layer, but as this technique seemed to have no practical use he forgot about it for thirty-three years, until 1938 when Sir

text: Henry Tizard

text: asked if he could achieve such a long afterglow. Merton was able to reply by return of post, and soon after was asked to join the air defence committee where he learned that his discovery had made possible the two-layer long-persistence

text: radar

text: screens which helped to bring victory in the

text: Battle of Britain

text: Sydney Chapman, a mathematician from Eccles, in 1930 explained the ozone-oxygen cycle in the stratosphere, being the first to propose that atmospheric oxygen or ozone molecules absorb (harmful UVB and UVC) ultraviolet wavelengths of light in photolysis, to produce reactive single atoms which accumulate to form the ozone layer.

text: Sydney Chapman

text: , a mathematician from

text: Eccles

text: , in 1930 explained the

text: ozone-oxygen cycle

text: in the

text: stratosphere

text: , being the first to propose that atmospheric oxygen or ozone molecules absorb (harmful UVB and UVC)

text: ultraviolet

text: wavelengths of light in

text: photolysis

text: , to produce reactive single atoms which accumulate to form the

text: ozone layer

text: The outflow of air mass from the cell creates harmonic waves in the atmosphere known as Rossby waves. These ultra-long waves determine the path of the jet stream, which travels within the transitional zone between the tropopause and the Ferrel cell. By acting as a heat sink, the Polar cell moves the abundant heat from the equator toward the polar regions.

text: The outflow of air mass from the cell creates

text: harmonic

text: waves in the atmosphere known as

text: Rossby wave

text: s. These ultra-long waves determine the path of the

text: jet stream

text: , which travels within the transitional zone between the

text: tropopause

text: and the

text: Ferrel cell

text: . By acting as a

text: heat sink

text: , the Polar cell moves the abundant heat from the equator toward the polar regions.

text: An area at Arrival Heights was originally protected because its geographical characteristics, such as its elevated position and broad viewing horizon, as well as the volcanic crater morphology, made it useful as a “quiet” (lacking electromagnetic interference) site for atmospheric studies.  It has the logistic support of McMurdo Station 1.5 km to the south, and Scott Base 3 km to the south-east, and continues to be protected as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.122 (est. 1975) for its value in upper atmospheric research and boundary layer air sampling studies.

text: An area at Arrival Heights was originally protected because its geographical characteristics, such as its elevated position and broad viewing horizon, as well as the volcanic crater morphology, made it useful as a “quiet” (lacking

text: electromagnetic interference

text: ) site for atmospheric studies.  It has the logistic support of

text: McMurdo Station

text: 1.5 km to the south, and

text: Scott Base

text: 3 km to the south-east, and continues to be protected as

text: Antarctic Specially Protected Area

text: (ASPA) No.122 (est. 1975) for its value in

text: upper atmospheric research

text: and

text: boundary layer

text: air sampling studies.

text: This precipitation occurs when the temperature in the lowest part of the atmosphere is slightly above the freezing point of water  The depth of low-level warm air (below the freezing level) needed to melt snow falling from above to rain varies from about  to about  and depends on the mass of the flakes and the lapse rate of the melting layer. Rain and snow typically mix when the melting layer depth falls between these values.

text: This precipitation occurs when the

text: temperature

text: in the lowest part of the atmosphere is slightly above the

text: freezing point

text: of water  The depth of low-level warm air (below the freezing level) needed to melt snow falling from above to rain varies from about  to about  and depends on the mass of the flakes and the lapse rate of the melting layer. Rain and snow typically mix when the melting layer depth falls between these values.

text: may be viewed locally as a continuously differentiable function, and the local response of

text: He has appeared as clarinetist in over eighty-five concerts of chamber music for Radio Canada. He has also appeared in Musicien Québécois.

text: In radio astronomy the air mass (which influences the optical path length) is not relevant.  The lower layers of the atmosphere, modeled by the air mass, do not significantly impede radio waves, which are of much lower frequency than optical waves.  Instead, some radio waves are affected by the ionosphere in the upper atmosphere. Newer aperture synthesis radio telescopes are especially affected by this as they “see” a much larger portion of the sky and thus the ionosphere. In fact, LOFAR needs to explicitly calibrate for these distorting effects (van der Tol and van der Veen 2007; de Vos, Gunst, and Nijboer 2009), but on the other hand can also study the ionosphere by instead measuring these distortions (Thidé 2007).

text: In

text: radio astronomy

text: the air mass (which influences the optical path length) is not relevant.  The lower layers of the atmosphere, modeled by the air mass, do not significantly impede radio waves, which are of much lower frequency than optical waves.  Instead, some radio waves are affected by the

text: ionosphere

text: in the upper atmosphere. Newer

text: aperture synthesis

text: radio telescopes are especially affected by this as they “see” a much larger portion of the sky and thus the ionosphere. In fact,

text: LOFAR

text: needs to explicitly calibrate for these distorting effects (

text: van der Tol and van der Veen 2007

text: de Vos, Gunst, and Nijboer 2009

text: ), but on the other hand can also study the ionosphere by instead measuring these distortions (

text: Thidé 2007

text: Krzywiń  () is a small town in the centre of Poland in the Kościan County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, located at the Obra canal.

text: Krzywiń  () is a small town in the centre of

text: Poland

text: in the

text: Kościan County

text: Greater Poland Voivodeship

text: , located at the

text: Obra

text: canal.

text: On September 5, 2016, O'Dwyer created a YouTube channel titled Noclip. According to a trailer released on September 12, 2016, O'Dwyer says:

text: Ozone may be formed from  by electrical discharges and by action of high energy electromagnetic radiation. Unsuppressed arcing in electrical contacts, motor bushes, or mechanical switches breaks down the chemical bonds of the atmospheric oxygen surrounding the contacts [ → 2O]. Free radicals of oxygen in and around the arc recombine to create ozone []. Certain electrical equipment generate significant levels of ozone. This is especially true of devices using high voltages, such as ionic air purifiers, laser printers, photocopiers, tasers and arc welders. Electric motors using brushes can generate ozone from repeated sparking inside the unit. Large motors that use brushes, such as those used by elevators or hydraulic pumps, will generate more ozone than smaller motors.

text: Ozone may be formed from  by electrical discharges and by action of high energy

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: Unsuppressed arcing

text: in electrical contacts, motor bushes, or mechanical switches breaks down the chemical bonds of the atmospheric oxygen surrounding the contacts [ → 2O]. Free radicals of oxygen in and around the arc recombine to create ozone []. Certain

text: electrical equipment

text: generate significant levels of ozone. This is especially true of devices using

text: high voltage

text: s, such as

text: ionic air purifiers

text: laser printer

text: s,

text: photocopier

text: s,

text: tasers

text: and

text: arc welders

text: Electric motor

text: s using

text: brush

text: es can generate ozone from repeated

text: spark

text: ing inside the unit. Large motors that use brushes, such as those used by elevators or hydraulic pumps, will generate more ozone than smaller motors.

text: Playing for Croatia at the Fed Cup, Lukas has a win–loss record of 2–1.

text: Playing for

text: Croatia

text: at the

text: Fed Cup

text: , Lukas has a win–loss record of 2–1.

text: In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the temperature section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented balloon soundings, the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:

text: In general, air pressure and density decrease with altitude in the atmosphere. However, temperature has a more complicated profile with altitude, and may remain relatively constant or even increase with altitude in some regions (see the

text: temperature

text: section, below). Because the general pattern of the temperature/altitude profile is constant and measurable by means of instrumented

text: balloon soundings

text: , the temperature behavior provides a useful metric to distinguish atmospheric layers. In this way, Earth's atmosphere can be divided (called atmospheric stratification) into five main layers. Excluding the exosphere, Earth has four primary layers, which are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. From highest to lowest, the five main layers are:

text: Within the ISA, the program responsible for The Machine was known as Northern Lights before—after being leaked to the public, Northern Lights was shut down. The private technology firm Decima Technologies steals a hard drive containing code from a separate artificial intelligence, Samaritan, which was commissioned by the ISA as a contingency in case Northern Lights/The Machine became unavailable. In season three, Samaritan is built by Decima, and replaces Northern Lights in supplying information to the government. Samaritan takes a much more active role in shaping society, and The Machine and its human associates go underground, spending season four under cover.

text: Chan Mono is director-general of administration and finance at the Cambodian Justice Ministry.

text: The reaction occurring between double bonds and ozone is known as ozonolysis when one molecule of the gas reacts with the double bond:

text: The reaction occurring between double bonds and ozone is known as

text: ozonolysis

text: when one molecule of the gas reacts with the double bond:

text: – Who Says It's Fair: Part 1- (1985)

text: – Who Says It's Fair: Part 1- (1985)

text: From 1978 until 2011 he was on the Board of Directors at Consumers Union.  He was active with Friends of the Earth and, not limited to activity in the United States, was on the board of the Canadian organization Automobile Protection Association.

text: From 1978 until 2011 he was on the Board of Directors at

text: Consumers Union

text: .  He was active with

text: Friends of the Earth

text: and, not limited to activity in the United States, was on the board of the Canadian organization

text: Automobile Protection Association

text: A contraction of the thermosphere has been observed as a possible result in part due to increased carbon dioxide concentrations, the strongest cooling and contraction occurring in that layer during solar minimum. The most recent contraction in 2008–2009 was the largest such since at least 1967.

text: A contraction of the

text: thermosphere

text: has been observed as a possible result in part due to increased carbon dioxide concentrations, the strongest cooling and contraction occurring in that layer during

text: solar minimum

text: . The most recent contraction in 2008–2009 was the largest such since at least 1967.

text: On November 27, 2010, NASA announced the discovery of a tenuous atmosphere—an exosphere. It consists of oxygen and carbon dioxide in proportion of roughly 5 to 2. The surface density of the exosphere is from 10 to 10 molecules in a cubic centimeter depending on local temperature. The main source of oxygen is radiolysis of water ice at the surface by ions supplied by the magnetosphere of Saturn. The source of the carbon dioxide is less clear, but it may be related to oxidation of the organics present in ice or to outgassing of the moon's interior.

text: On November 27, 2010,

text: NASA

text: announced the discovery of a tenuous atmosphere—an

text: exosphere

text: . It consists of oxygen and carbon dioxide in proportion of roughly 5 to 2. The surface density of the exosphere is from 10 to 10 molecules in a cubic centimeter depending on local temperature. The main source of oxygen is

text: radiolysis

text: of water ice at the surface by ions supplied by the

text: magnetosphere of Saturn

text: . The source of the carbon dioxide is less clear, but it may be related to

text: oxidation

text: of the organics present in ice or to

text: outgassing

text: of the moon's interior.

text: This list of theaters and entertainment venues in Washington, D.C. includes present-day opera houses and theaters, cabarets, music halls and other places of live entertainment in Washington, D.C.

text: This list of theaters and entertainment venues in Washington, D.C. includes present-day opera houses and theaters, cabarets, music halls and other places of live entertainment in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: June 2015 NASA reported the exoplanet has a stratosphere, and the atmosphere contains titanium oxide which creates the stratosphere. Titanium oxide is one of only a few compounds that is a strong absorber of visible and ultraviolet radiation, which heats the atmosphere,  and able to exist in a gas-state in a hot atmosphere.

text: June 2015 NASA reported the exoplanet has a

text: stratosphere

text: , and the

text: atmosphere

text: contains

text: titanium oxide

text: which creates the stratosphere. Titanium oxide is one of only a few compounds that is a strong absorber of visible and ultraviolet radiation, which heats the atmosphere,  and able to exist in a gas-state in a hot atmosphere.

text: Stokes prefaced the first volume with the following objective:

text: Another fingerprint of human effects on climate has been identified by looking at a slice through the layers of the atmosphere, and studying the pattern of temperature changes from the surface up through the stratosphere (see the section on solar activity). The earliest fingerprint work focused on changes in surface and atmospheric temperature. Scientists then applied fingerprint methods to a whole range of climate variables, identifying human-caused climate signals in the heat content of the oceans, the height of the tropopause (the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere, which has shifted upward by hundreds of feet in recent decades), the geographical patterns of precipitation, drought, surface pressure, and the runoff from major river basins.

text: Another fingerprint of human effects on climate has been identified by looking at a slice through the layers of the atmosphere, and studying the pattern of temperature changes from the surface up through the stratosphere (see the section on

text: solar activity

text: ). The earliest fingerprint work focused on changes in surface and atmospheric temperature. Scientists then applied fingerprint methods to a whole range of climate variables, identifying human-caused climate signals in the heat content of the oceans, the height of the

text: tropopause

text: (the boundary between the

text: troposphere

text: and

text: stratosphere

text: , which has shifted upward by hundreds of feet in recent decades), the geographical patterns of precipitation,

text: drought

text: , surface pressure, and the

text: runoff

text: from major

text: river basin

text: s.

text: An extension has been provided in MPEG-2 Layer I and is defined in ISO/IEC 13818-3, which first version was published in 1995.

text: The two most important photodissociaton reactions in the troposphere are firstly:

text: The two most important photodissociaton reactions in the

text: troposphere

text: are firstly: