text: In the past, the water was very polluted. This affects the river itself, underground water and local villages. The main source of pollution is the Arpechim Refinery. Even today, when the filters stop working, the river is again polluted. To stop this disaster, record fines were given recently. However, there are other sources of pollution, like petrol, when oil pipes are broken by thieves. In the lower part of the valley, pollution may accidentally come from local villagers who wash their cars and animals in the river or take construction materials from the riverbed.

text: In the past, the water was very polluted. This affects the river itself, underground water and local villages. The main source of pollution is the

entity_name: Arpechim Refinery

text: Arpechim

text: Refinery. Even today, when the filters stop working, the river is again polluted. To stop this disaster, record fines were given recently. However, there are other sources of pollution, like

entity_name: Gasoline

text: petrol

text: , when oil pipes are broken by thieves. In the lower part of the valley, pollution may accidentally come from local villagers who wash their cars and animals in the river or take construction materials from the riverbed.

text: Pakistan faces a major scarcity when it comes to water resources, especially finding clean water supplies. There is only one major river, the Indus River that supplies water through out the agricultural plains in Punjab and in Sindh, while the rest of the country has very little access to other fresh water supplies. The scarcity of water not only threatens Pakistan’s economy but also poses a serious threat to the lives of millions of Pakistanis. The issue of water pollution further worsens this problem for Pakistan. The sources for water pollution include, the over use of chemical fertilizers, the dumping of industrial wastes into lakes and rivers, untreated sewage being dumped into the ocean and contaminated pipelines being used to transport water. The contamination of fresh drinking water makes it harder for people to find clean water supplies and increases the prevalence of waterborne diseases. Consequently, most of the reported health problems in Pakistan are either a direct or indirect result of polluted water. According to a report, 45% of infant deaths are due to diarrhea and 60% to overall water borne diseases.

text: Pakistan faces a major scarcity when it comes to water resources, especially finding clean water supplies. There is only one major river, the

entity_name: Indus River

text: Indus River

text: that supplies water through out the agricultural plains in

entity_name: Punjab (region)

text: Punjab

text: and in

entity_name: Sindh

text: Sindh

text: , while the rest of the country has very little access to other fresh water supplies. The scarcity of water not only threatens Pakistan’s economy but also poses a serious threat to the lives of millions of Pakistanis. The issue of water pollution further worsens this problem for Pakistan. The sources for water pollution include, the over use of chemical fertilizers, the dumping of industrial wastes into lakes and rivers, untreated sewage being dumped into the ocean and contaminated pipelines being used to transport water. The contamination of fresh drinking water makes it harder for people to find clean water supplies and increases the prevalence of

entity_name: Waterborne diseases

text: waterborne diseases

text: . Consequently, most of the reported health problems in Pakistan are either a direct or indirect result of polluted water. According to a report, 45% of infant deaths are due to diarrhea and 60% to overall water borne diseases.

method: UNH-qee

text: International conventions have played an important role in creating external networks for governing oil spills in the U.S. international treaties when signed by the U.S. are on the same level as federal law, hence signatory parties must implement domestic legislation to reflect the agreement. This mechanism helps to engineer a number of federal laws governing oil spills such as the intervention on the High Sea Act of 1974.   International conventions serve a key role in developing standards for oil carrying vessels from different nations into the U.S. The two major conventions which have contributed to oil spill governance are the 1969 International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (the Intervention Convention) and the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78).

text: In February 2011, water regulators cited the city for letting tens of thousands of gallons of sewage reach the ocean in six spills since 2005. A report in June 2011 by the Natural Resources Defense Council listed Avalon as having one of the 10 most chronically polluted beaches in the United States. The pollution was caused by the city's sewer system, made of century-old clay and metal pipes. By 2011, city had spent $3.5 million testing and rehabilitating sewer lines, but the water was no cleaner. In February 2012, a cease and desist order was issued against the City for illegally discharging polluted water into the bay. After the cease and desist order, the city invested an additional $5.7 million on sewer main improvements and inspection and tracking systems. As a result of these efforts, the 2014 report showed that water quality had improved, and Avalon Beach was removed from the list of the most polluted beaches.

text: In February 2011, water regulators cited the city for letting tens of thousands of gallons of sewage reach the ocean in six spills since 2005. A report in June 2011 by the

entity_name: Natural Resources Defense Council

text: Natural Resources Defense Council

text: listed Avalon as having one of the 10 most chronically polluted beaches in the United States. The pollution was caused by the city's sewer system, made of century-old clay and metal pipes. By 2011, city had spent $3.5 million testing and rehabilitating sewer lines, but the water was no cleaner. In February 2012, a cease and desist order was issued against the City for illegally discharging polluted water into the bay. After the cease and desist order, the city invested an additional $5.7 million on sewer main improvements and inspection and tracking systems. As a result of these efforts, the 2014 report showed that water quality had improved, and Avalon Beach was removed from the list of the most polluted beaches.

text: Free oxygen also occurs in solution in the world's water bodies. The increased solubility of  at lower temperatures (see Physical properties) has important implications for ocean life, as polar oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen content. Water polluted with plant nutrients such as nitrates or phosphates may stimulate growth of algae by a process called eutrophication and the decay of these organisms and other biomaterials may reduce the  content in eutrophic water bodies. Scientists assess this aspect of water quality by measuring the water's biochemical oxygen demand, or the amount of  needed to restore it to a normal concentration.

text: Free oxygen also occurs in solution in the world's water bodies. The increased solubility of  at lower temperatures (see

entity_name: Oxygen

entity_section: Physical properties

text: Physical properties

text: ) has important implications for ocean life, as polar oceans support a much higher density of life due to their higher oxygen content.

entity_name: Water pollution

text: Water polluted

text: with plant nutrients such as

entity_name: Nitrate

text: nitrate

text: s or

entity_name: Phosphate

text: phosphate

text: s may stimulate growth of algae by a process called

entity_name: Eutrophication

text: eutrophication

text: and the decay of these organisms and other biomaterials may reduce the  content in eutrophic water bodies. Scientists assess this aspect of water quality by measuring the water's

entity_name: Biochemical oxygen demand

text: biochemical oxygen demand

text: , or the amount of  needed to restore it to a normal concentration.

text: Secondary spill containment  is the containment of hazardous liquids in order to prevent pollution of soil and water. Common techniques include the use of spill berms to contain oil-filled equipment, fuel tanks, truck washing decks, or any other places or items that may leak hazardous liquids.

text: Secondary spill containment  is the containment of

text: hazardous liquid

text: s in order to prevent

entity_name: Soil contamination

text: pollution of soil

text: and

text: water

text: . Common techniques include the use of

entity_name: Oil spill

text: spill

entity_name: Berm

text: berm

text: s to contain

entity_name: Oil

text: oil

text: -filled equipment,

entity_name: Fuel tank

text: fuel tank

text: s, truck washing decks, or any other places or items that may leak hazardous liquids.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: A wide and braided watercourse flowing through an alluvial valley, Bell Canyon Creek remains much like its original state before the Spanish arrival, although in recent years, it has seen the introduction of urban runoff, which although does not reach San Juan Creek in the form of surface water, but pollutes groundwater in the Bell Canyon watershed. Work was begun in 2005 to remove polluted water from two Bell Canyon tributaries that flow through residential areas on the west side of the watershed. Several pumps were installed on Dove and Tick Creeks in 2005. The pumps will remove excess surface water flow and feed the urban runoff into a reclaimed-water system, providing extra water for irrigation and reducing the high water flows that have become detrimental to native riparian habitat and provided extra inflow for non-native invasive species (invasive exotics) of plants to grow.

text: A wide and braided

entity_name: Stream

text: watercourse

text: flowing through an

entity_name: Alluvium

text: alluvial

text: valley, Bell Canyon Creek remains much like its original state before the Spanish arrival, although in recent years, it has seen the introduction of

entity_name: Urban runoff

text: urban runoff

text: , which although does not reach San Juan Creek in the form of surface water, but pollutes

entity_name: Groundwater

text: groundwater

text: in the Bell Canyon watershed. Work was begun in 2005 to remove polluted water from two Bell Canyon tributaries that flow through residential areas on the west side of the watershed. Several pumps were installed on Dove and Tick Creeks in 2005. The pumps will remove excess surface water flow and feed the urban runoff into a reclaimed-water system, providing extra water for irrigation and reducing the high water flows that have become detrimental to

entity_name: List of California native plants

text: native

entity_name: Riparian zone

text: riparian

entity_name: Habitat

text: habitat

text: and provided extra inflow for non-native

entity_name: Invasive species

text: invasive species

text: (invasive exotics) of plants to grow.

method: UNH-ecn

text: Sprigg also became active in the Pure Water League, of which he served as chairman. The league was formed in December 1899 for the purpose of cleaning up the pollution of the North Branch Potomac River, Cumberland's main public water source. West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company which was blamed for the majority of the river's pollution. Other cities downstream from the company's Luke pulp mill, including Hancock, complained of pollution and decreased fish populations in the river. The league enlisted U.S. Senator George L. Wellington and U.S. House Representative George Alexander Pearre in seeking congressional support for the river's cleanup. The following year, the West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company came to an agreement with the city of Cumberland, promising to abandon its process of using a sulfite process for producing pulp in favor of soda pulping. In exchange, the league and the city of Cumberland abandoned their pending court cases against the company. To celebrate the league's progress toward meeting its goal, it held a "Jubilee Concert" on August 27, 1900, at Cumberland's Riverside Park.

text: Sprigg also became active in the Pure Water League, of which he served as chairman. The league was formed in December 1899 for the purpose of cleaning up the pollution of the North Branch Potomac River, Cumberland's main public water source.

entity_name: NewPage

text: West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company

text: which was blamed for the majority of the river's pollution. Other cities downstream from the company's

entity_name: Luke, Maryland

text: Luke

text: pulp mill, including

entity_name: Hancock, Maryland

text: Hancock

text: , complained of pollution and decreased fish populations in the river. The league enlisted U.S. Senator

entity_name: George L. Wellington

text: George L. Wellington

text: and U.S. House Representative

entity_name: George Alexander Pearre

text: George Alexander Pearre

text: in seeking congressional support for the river's cleanup. The following year, the West Virginia Pulp and Paper Company came to an agreement with the city of Cumberland, promising to abandon its process of using a

entity_name: Sulfite process

text: sulfite process

text: for producing pulp in favor of

entity_name: Soda pulping

text: soda pulping

text: . In exchange, the league and the city of Cumberland abandoned their pending court cases against the company. To celebrate the league's progress toward meeting its goal, it held a "Jubilee Concert" on August 27, 1900, at Cumberland's Riverside Park.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: An indirect discharger is one that sends its wastewater into a city sewer system, which carries it to the municipal sewage treatment plant or publicly owned treatment works (POTW). At the POTW, harmful pollutants in domestic sewage, called conventional pollutants, are removed from the sewage and then discharged into a surface water. POTWs are not designed to treat toxic or nonconventional pollutants in industrial wastewater, although they may incidentally remove some pollutants.

text: An indirect discharger is one that sends its wastewater into a city sewer system, which carries it to the municipal sewage treatment plant or

entity_name: Publicly owned treatment works

text: publicly owned treatment works

text: (POTW). At the POTW, harmful pollutants in

entity_name: Sewage

text: domestic sewage

text: , called

entity_name: Conventional pollutant

text: conventional pollutant

text: s, are removed from the sewage and then discharged into a surface water. POTWs are not designed to treat toxic or nonconventional pollutants in industrial wastewater, although they may incidentally remove some pollutants.

text: For much of history, the ocean was used generally as a dumping ground for many types of waste such as garbage, acid rain and toxins, including chemical weapons. In 1968, the US National Academy of Sciences estimated the annual release to the marine environment, from both dumping and disposal (through a pipe), of 100 million tons of petroleum products, two to four million tons of acid chemical wastes from pulp mills, more than one million tons of heavy metals in industrial wastes, and more than 100,000 tons of organic chemical wastes. US EPA records indicate that between 1946 and 1970, more than 89,000 containers of radioactive wastes were dumped at Atlantic and Pacific ocean dump sites. One area off the coast of New Jersey was used until 1987 as a disposal area for millions of tons per year  of sewage sludge.  This area is now known as the "12-Mile Dumping Ground," and has a large amount of toxic metals. Divers are still advised to avoid the area due to the high level of refuse materials and toxins. Because ocean contaminants know no boundaries, there have been international and regional parameters established since the 1970s. These regulations consist of regional treaties and conventions related to local marine pollution problems and international conventions that provide a standardized control of worldwide marine pollution. In the early 1970s the United States endorsed the MSRPA to regulate any waste disposal in marine waters that are within U.S. jurisdiction.

text: For much of history, the ocean was used generally as a dumping ground for many types of waste such as garbage, acid rain and toxins, including chemical weapons. In 1968, the US National Academy of Sciences estimated the annual release to the marine environment, from both dumping and disposal (through a pipe), of 100 million tons of petroleum products, two to four million tons of acid chemical wastes from pulp mills, more than one million tons of heavy metals in industrial wastes, and more than 100,000 tons of organic chemical wastes. US EPA records indicate that between 1946 and 1970, more than 89,000 containers of radioactive wastes were dumped at Atlantic and Pacific ocean dump sites. One area off the coast of

entity_name: New Jersey

text: New Jersey

text: was used until 1987 as a disposal area for millions of tons per year  of sewage

entity_name: Sludge

text: sludge

text: .  This area is now known as the "12-Mile Dumping Ground," and has a large amount of

entity_name: Metal toxicity

text: toxic metal

text: s. Divers are still advised to avoid the area due to the high level of refuse materials and toxins. Because ocean contaminants know no boundaries, there have been international and regional parameters established since the 1970s. These regulations consist of regional treaties and conventions related to local marine pollution problems and international conventions that provide a standardized control of worldwide marine pollution. In the early 1970s the United States endorsed the MSRPA to regulate any waste disposal in marine waters that are within U.S. jurisdiction.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: On April 20, 2010, an off shore oil drilling rig, the Deepwater Horizon, exploded and burned off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. Dozens of workers fled the flames and were rescued by lifeboats and helicopters, however 11 were killed and 17 were injured in the incident. The rig burned for 36 hours before sinking. On April 24, it was discovered that a damaged wellhead was leaking oil into the Gulf of Mexico at a rapid rate. For approximately 90 days, tens of thousands of barrels of oil leaked into the ocean every day, resulting in the largest oil spill in United States history. The wellhead was successfully contained in mid-July, stopping the flow, and efforts are ongoing to cap the wellhead and create a replacement well. Despite significant efforts to protect coastlines, the spill has had devastating impacts on the environment and the economies of the Gulf Coast states. The Obama administration has ordered well operator BP responsible for all cleanup costs, which are expected to run in the tens of billions of dollars. The spill has resulted in negative public approval ratings of the U.S. government, the Obama administration, and BP, for their handling of the spill, with BP suffering the worst ratings.

text: On April 20, 2010, an

entity_name: Offshore drilling

text: off shore oil drilling

text: rig, the

entity_name: Deepwater Horizon

text: Deepwater Horizon

entity_name: Deepwater Horizon explosion

text: exploded and burned

text: off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. Dozens of workers fled the flames and were rescued by lifeboats and helicopters, however 11 were killed and 17 were injured in the incident. The rig burned for 36 hours before sinking. On April 24, it was discovered that a damaged wellhead was leaking oil into the Gulf of Mexico at a rapid rate. For approximately 90 days, tens of thousands of barrels of oil leaked into the ocean every day, resulting in the largest oil spill in United States history. The wellhead was successfully contained in mid-July, stopping the flow, and efforts are ongoing to cap the wellhead and create a replacement well. Despite significant efforts to protect coastlines, the spill has had devastating impacts on the environment and the economies of the Gulf Coast states. The Obama administration has ordered well operator

entity_name: BP

text: BP

text: responsible for all cleanup costs, which are expected to run in the tens of billions of dollars. The spill has resulted in negative public approval ratings of the U.S. government, the Obama administration, and BP, for their handling of the spill, with BP suffering the worst ratings.

text: IN DECEMBER of 2003, the Indiana Department of Environmental Management (IDEM) issued a detailed technical report regarding excessive E. coli levels in Trail Creek entitled “Trail Creek Escherichia Coli TMDL (Total Maximum Daily Load) Report.” This report indicates that for point sources of E. coli pollution, such as wastewater treatment plants, the “NPDES permitting and monitoring requirements will provide the necessary reasonable assurance that these sources are not contributing to violations of state E. coli standards.” For non-point sources of E. coli pollution, the report concludes that: “non-point sources will need to be monitored locally for implementation of BMPs (best management practices) or in providing access to watershed grants to assist in reducing non-point sources to meet the load allocations (LA) developed under this TMDL.” The preparation of this watershed management plan update is the next logical step in achieving cleaner water in northwestern LaPorte County as envisioned by IDEM in 2003.(Trail Creek Watershed Management Plan, 2007)

text: Due to the larger area consumed by sprawling suburbs compared to urban neighborhoods, more farmland and wildlife habitats are displaced per resident. As forest cover is cleared and covered with impervious surfaces (concrete and asphalt) in the suburbs, rainfall is less effectively absorbed into the groundwater aquifers. This threatens both the quality and quantity of water supplies. Sprawl increases water pollution as rain water picks up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, and other pollutants in runoff from parking lots and roads.

text: Due to the larger area consumed by sprawling suburbs compared to urban neighborhoods, more farmland and wildlife habitats are displaced per resident. As forest cover is cleared and covered with

entity_name: Impervious surface

text: impervious surfaces

entity_name: Concrete

text: concrete

text: and

entity_name: Asphalt

text: asphalt

text: ) in the suburbs, rainfall is less effectively absorbed into the

text: groundwater

entity_name: Aquifer

text: aquifer

text: s. This threatens both the quality and quantity of water supplies. Sprawl increases

text: water pollution

text: as rain water picks up

text: gasoline

entity_name: Motor oil

text: motor oil

entity_name: Heavy metals

text: heavy metals

text: , and other pollutants in

entity_name: Surface runoff

text: runoff

text: from parking lots and roads.

text: Phytostabilization focuses on the long term stabilization and containment of the pollutant.For example, the plant's presence can reduce wind erosion; or the plant's roots can prevent water erosion, immobilize the pollutants by adsorption or accumulation, and provide a zone around the roots where the pollutant can precipitate and stabilize. Unlike phytoextraction, phytostabilization focuses mainly on sequestering pollutants in soil near the roots but not in plant tissues. Pollutants become less bioavailable, and livestock, wildlife, and human exposure is reduced. An example application of this sort is using a vegetative cap to stabilize and contain mine tailings.

text: Phytostabilization focuses on the long term stabilization and containment of the pollutant.For example, the plant's presence can reduce wind erosion; or the plant's roots can prevent water erosion, immobilize the pollutants by adsorption or accumulation, and provide a zone around the roots where the pollutant can precipitate and stabilize. Unlike phytoextraction, phytostabilization focuses mainly on sequestering pollutants in soil near the roots but not in plant tissues. Pollutants become less bioavailable, and livestock, wildlife, and human exposure is reduced. An example application of this sort is using a vegetative cap to stabilize and contain

entity_name: Tailings

text: mine tailings

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: In addition to its dedication to monitoring and enforcement of point source and non-point source pollution, Potomac Riverkeeper currently focuses on four main issues:

text: The vast majority of surface water on the Earth is neither potable nor toxic. This remains true when seawater in the oceans (which is too salty to drink) is not counted. Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth. Industrial and commercial activities (e.g. manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage.

text: The vast majority of

entity_name: Surface water

text: surface water

text: on the

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: is neither

entity_name: Drinking water

text: potable

text: nor

entity_name: Toxicity

text: toxic

text: . This remains true when

entity_name: Seawater

text: seawater

text: in the

entity_name: Ocean

text: oceans

text: (which is too

entity_name: Salinity

text: salty

text: to drink) is not counted. Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is

entity_name: Pollution

text: polluted

text: or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to the

entity_name: Ecology

text: ecology

text: of the Earth.

entity_name: Industry

text: Industrial

text: and

entity_name: Commerce

text: commercial

text: activities (e.g.

entity_name: Manufacturing

text: manufacturing

entity_name: Mining

text: mining

entity_name: Construction

text: construction

entity_name: Transport

text: transport

text: ) are a major cause of

text: water pollution

text: as are

text: runoff

text: from

entity_name: Farm

text: agricultural

text: areas,

text: urban runoff

text: and discharge of treated and untreated

text: sewage

text: As the largest oil exporter in OPEC, Saudi Arabia contributes to the immense environmental impacts associated with oil drilling. This includes hydraulic fracturing, oil spills, and air pollution. Saudi Arabia contributed to the world's most severe spill, the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill. The environmental impacts from oil spills are long lasting and often irreversible. The Gulf War spill directly affected the Saudi Arabian shoreline. While initial research found miniscule long-term impacts, recent studies show oil persistence in ocean habitats. Oil persistence affects ecosystem relationships and the livelihood of all marine animals. The Gulf Coast spill increased the toxicity of Saudi Arabia's coastline. During the initial aftermath, only visible oil was removed from the Gulf. The rest of the spill has remained in the ocean for the past 25 years and contributes to high-risk amounts of hydrocarbons in the environment. Saudi Arabia's salt marshes have has a hard time recovering from past spills. Thick oil coverage permanently changed the biodiversity and chemical compositions of many ocean related habitats. This environmental damage will take decades to reverse.

text: As the largest oil exporter in

entity_name: OPEC

text: OPEC

text: , Saudi Arabia contributes to the immense environmental impacts associated with oil drilling. This includes

entity_name: Hydraulic fracturing

text: hydraulic fracturing

text: , oil spills, and air pollution. Saudi Arabia contributed to the world's most severe spill, the 1991

entity_name: Gulf War oil spill

text: Gulf War Oil Spill

text: . The environmental impacts from oil spills are long lasting and often irreversible. The

entity_name: Gulf War

text: Gulf War

text: spill directly affected the Saudi Arabian shoreline. While initial research found miniscule long-term impacts, recent studies show oil persistence in ocean habitats. Oil persistence affects ecosystem relationships and the livelihood of all marine animals. The Gulf Coast spill increased the toxicity of Saudi Arabia's coastline. During the initial aftermath, only visible oil was removed from the Gulf. The rest of the spill has remained in the ocean for the past 25 years and contributes to high-risk amounts of

text: hydrocarbon

text: s in the environment. Saudi Arabia's

text: salt marsh

text: es have has a hard time recovering from past spills. Thick oil coverage permanently changed the

text: biodiversity

text: and chemical compositions of many ocean related habitats. This environmental damage will take decades to reverse.

text: Significant issues that lead to water pollution are surface water contamination by squanders and unreasonable water utilize. Water contamination is associated with human movement, such as industrial waste, municipal waste, waste from health centers, and surfaces waste from agri-production. Waste management problems are a big contributor to pollution in the country of Georgia. For instance, according to the Minister of Environment Protection of Georgia, George Kachidze, high levels of ammonia and BOD3 are reported for most of the observed rivers and concentrations of heavy metals exceed permissible levels at certain locals on particular rivers.

text: S.92 – Requirements to take precautions against pollution; The Secretary of State has the power to take precautions to make regulations concerning precautionary measures in relation to any poisonous, noxious or polluting matter to prevent it from entering controlled waters. As a result of these powers the Silage, Slurry, Agricultural and Fuel Oil Regulations 1991 were enacted to aid the control and prevention of pollution e.g. through new storage systems for slurry.

text: "The French feel that the rapid and poorly distributed increase in the price of water leads to new social inequities. They find it hard to accept that the water tariff weighs essentially on urban users and that, in apartment buildings, it is included in the rent. They do not understand that agricultural production is exempt from the Polluter-pays principle and that it continues to deteriorate the quality of groundwater with impunity. They wonder about the lack of transparency that prevails in the provision of public water supply. Finally, they find it very hard to understand their water bills."

text: "The French feel that the rapid and poorly distributed increase in the price of water leads to new social inequities. They find it hard to accept that the water tariff weighs essentially on urban users and that, in apartment buildings, it is included in the rent. They do not understand that agricultural production is exempt from the

text: Polluter-pays principle

text: and that it continues to deteriorate the quality of groundwater with impunity. They wonder about the lack of transparency that prevails in the provision of public water supply. Finally, they find it very hard to understand their water bills."

text: The responsibility for dealing with water is split between several agencies within the government. Water pollution is the responsibility of the environmental authorities, but the water supply itself is managed by the Ministry of Water Resources. Sewage treatment is managed by the Ministry of Construction, but groundwater management falls within the realm of the Ministry of Land and Resources. China grades its water quality in six levels, from Grade I to Grade VI, with Grade VI being the most polluted.

text: The responsibility for dealing with water is split between several agencies within the government. Water pollution is the responsibility of the environmental authorities, but the

text: water supply

text: itself is managed by the

entity_name: Ministry of Water Resources of the People's Republic of China

text: Ministry of Water Resources

text: Sewage treatment

text: is managed by the Ministry of Construction, but

text: groundwater

text: management falls within the realm of the Ministry of Land and Resources. China grades its

text: water quality

text: in six levels, from Grade I to Grade VI, with Grade VI being the most polluted.

text: Command and control policies are direct government regulations.   The Clean Water Act (CWA) is designed with this kind of direct command and control regulation for point source pollution. However, command and control regulations through the CWA apply to nonpoint source pollution a lesser extent. Total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) are one tool in the CWA that directly regulates NPS effluent. As noted earlier, the CWA requires state governments to set TMDLs based on both point source and NPS effluent. However, conventional command and control policies could potentially influence industry structure and cause political reluctance in the event that it could bankrupt businesses.

text: Command and control policies are direct government regulations.   The

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA) is designed with this kind of direct command and control regulation for

text: point source pollution

text: . However, command and control regulations through the CWA apply to nonpoint source pollution a lesser extent.

text: Total maximum daily load

text: s (TMDLs) are one tool in the CWA that directly regulates NPS

text: effluent

text: . As noted earlier, the CWA requires state governments to set TMDLs based on both point source and NPS effluent. However, conventional command and control policies could potentially influence industry structure and cause political reluctance in the event that it could bankrupt businesses.

text: Water pollution to both surface and groundwater is primarily due to agricultural run-off and untreated effluents from mining activities. Honduras produces coffee for export along the Atlantic coast and many of the pesticides used become toxic effluents that contaminate rivers and seep into groundwater tables. Heavy metals that escape from mining operations along the Gulf of Fonseca have become a problem and untreated wastewater originating from large towns and cities has often been discharged into nearby waterways, especially in the case of Lake Yojoa. As of 2000, there were no systematic records of pollution levels in lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.

text: Water pollution to both surface and groundwater is primarily due to agricultural run-off and untreated effluents from mining activities. Honduras produces coffee for export along the Atlantic coast and many of the pesticides used become toxic effluents that contaminate rivers and seep into groundwater tables. Heavy metals that escape from mining operations along the

text: Gulf of Fonseca

text: have become a problem and untreated wastewater originating from large towns and cities has often been discharged into nearby waterways, especially in the case of Lake Yojoa. As of 2000, there were no systematic records of pollution levels in lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.

text: The NPDES permit program sets limits on the amount of pollutants that can be discharged into a waterbody. Technology based effluent limits establish a minimum level of pollution controls for all point source discharges. If technology based limits are not sufficient, water quality based effluent limits are developed.

text: The

text: NPDES

text: permit program sets limits on the amount of pollutants that can be discharged into a waterbody. Technology based effluent limits establish a minimum level of pollution controls for all point source discharges. If technology based limits are not sufficient, water quality based effluent limits are developed.

text: The IUCN describes the significant threats to sea otters as oil pollution, predation by orcas, poaching, and conflicts with fisheries. Sea otters can drown if entangled in fishing gear. They can also be stressed by well-meaning human watchers who approach too closely. The most significant threat to sea otters is oil spills. Sea otters are particularly vulnerable, as they rely on their fur to keep warm. When their fur is soaked with oil, it loses its ability to retain air, and the animal quickly dies from hypothermia. The liver, kidneys, and lungs of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming.

text: The

entity_name: International Union for Conservation of Nature

text: IUCN

text: describes the significant threats to sea otters as

text: oil pollution

text: , predation by

text: orcas

text: , poaching, and conflicts with fisheries. Sea otters can drown if entangled in fishing gear. They can also be stressed by well-meaning human watchers who approach too closely. The most significant threat to sea otters is

text: oil spill

text: s. Sea otters are particularly vulnerable, as they rely on their fur to keep warm. When their fur is soaked with oil, it loses its ability to retain air, and the animal quickly dies from

text: hypothermia

text: . The

text: liver

text: kidneys

text: , and

text: lungs

text: of sea otters also become damaged after they inhale oil or ingest it when grooming.

text: On July 4, 2002, an Enbridge pipeline ruptured in a marsh near the town of Cohasset, Minnesota, in Itasca County, spilling  of crude oil. In an attempt to keep the oil from contaminating the Mississippi River, the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources set a controlled burn that lasted for one day and created a smoke plume about  high and  long.

text: On July 4, 2002, an Enbridge pipeline ruptured in a marsh near the town of

text: Cohasset, Minnesota

text: , in Itasca County, spilling  of crude oil. In an attempt to keep the oil from contaminating the

text: Mississippi River

text: , the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources set a controlled burn that lasted for one day and created a smoke plume about  high and  long.

text: Oil spills are recorded both in case of maritime routes and pipeline routes to the main refineries. Oil spills, amounting to as much as 7.56 billion liters of oil entering the oceans every year, occur due to damaged equipment or human error.

text: Oil spills

text: are recorded both in case of maritime routes and pipeline routes to the main refineries. Oil spills, amounting to as much as 7.56 billion liters of oil entering the oceans every year, occur due to damaged equipment or human error.

text: In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates the preparations and response to oil spills in inland waters, with the United States Coast Guard responding to spills in coastal waters. The EPA oil spill program is further broken down into two segments with different responsibilities. The Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure works with facilities that may leak oil into local rivers, streams, or other bodies of water to prevent said leakage. The Facility Response Plan requires at-risk facilities to have a plan to follow in the event of an oil spill. Both were created to plug holes left in the Clean Water Act, in an amendment called the Oil Pollution Act of 1990.

text: In the United States, the

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

text: regulates the preparations and response to oil spills in inland waters, with the United States Coast Guard responding to spills in coastal waters. The EPA oil spill program is further broken down into two segments with different responsibilities. The Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasure works with facilities that may leak oil into local rivers, streams, or other bodies of water to prevent said leakage. The Facility Response Plan requires at-risk facilities to have a plan to follow in the event of an oil spill. Both were created to plug holes left in the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , in an amendment called the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) reports that the water quality of major rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the lower Chao Phraya River, which flows through Bangkok, contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from phosphates, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD categorised water quality at the mouth of Chao Phraya at Bangkok's Bang Khun Thian District as "very poor" and worse than in 2014. Nearby rivers, such as the Tha Chin in Samut Sakhon, were rated "poor". PCD findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.

text: The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) reports that the water quality of major rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the lower

text: Chao Phraya River

text: , which flows through Bangkok, contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from

text: phosphate

text: s,

text: phosphorus

text: , and

text: nitrogen

text: . Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD categorised water quality at the mouth of Chao Phraya at Bangkok's

text: Bang Khun Thian District

text: as "very poor" and worse than in 2014. Nearby rivers, such as the

text: Tha Chin

text: in

text: Samut Sakhon

text: , were rated "poor". PCD findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.

text: Deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease

text: Deforestation

text: ; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease

text: It is also useful as a form of agricultural and municipal water treatment. It is placed in effluent from black tiger shrimp farms to absorb and metabolize pollutants. The plants grow quickly and take up large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus from the water. The plants that grow in the wastewater can then be used as feed for animals, such as carp, Nile tilapia, and chickens.

text: It is also useful as a form of

text: agricultural

text: and

text: municipal water treatment

text: . It is placed in

text: effluent

text: from

text: black tiger shrimp

text: farms

text: to absorb and metabolize pollutants. The plants grow quickly and take up large amounts of

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: from the water. The plants that grow in the wastewater can then be used as

text: feed

text: for animals, such as

text: carp

text: Nile tilapia

text: , and

text: chicken

text: s.

text: Friends of the Earth U.S. was founded in California in 1969 by prominent environmentalist David Brower after he left the Sierra Club.  The organization was launched with the help of Donald Aitken, Jerry Mander and a $200,000 donation from the personal funds of Robert O. Anderson.  One of its first major campaigns was the protest of nuclear power, particularly in California. Friends of the Earth International was founded in 1971 and today is a network of environmental organizations in 75 countries.  In its early years, Friends of the Earth US was headquartered in San Francisco, but it was a largely decentralized organization, giving significant power and freedom to its local branches.  In 1971, Friends of the Earth U.S. successfully campaigned against federal funding for supersonic transport commercial airlines, and overland commercial supersonic flights were banned as well.  In the early 1980s, the organization campaigned against the World Bank, claiming it was financing projects that caused tropical deforestation, among other environmental concerns.  They also pushed for the 1981 moratorium on new offshore oil leasing in California, which remained in effect until 2008, when the United States Congress did not renew it.  The organization merged with the Environmental Policy Center and the Oceanic Society in 1989.  After the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Friends of the Earth U.S. successfully campaigned for the passage of the Oil Pollution Act in 1990.  In 1992, they teamed with the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe in Washington State to help pass a federal law to protect salmon runs.  In 2003 the organization worked to draft and pass the Clean Car Law in California.

text: Friends of the Earth U.S. was founded in

text: California

text: in 1969 by prominent environmentalist

text: David Brower

text: after he left the

text: Sierra Club

text: .  The organization was launched with the help of Donald Aitken, Jerry Mander and a $200,000 donation from the personal funds of

text: Robert O. Anderson

text: .  One of its first major campaigns was the protest of

text: nuclear power

text: , particularly in California.

text: Friends of the Earth International

text: was founded in 1971 and today is a network of

text: environmental organizations

text: in 75 countries.  In its early years, Friends of the Earth US was headquartered in

text: San Francisco

text: , but it was a largely decentralized organization, giving significant power and freedom to its local branches.  In 1971, Friends of the Earth U.S. successfully campaigned against

entity_name: Administration of federal assistance in the United States

text: federal funding

text: for

text: supersonic

text: transport

text: commercial airlines

text: , and overland commercial supersonic flights were banned as well.  In the early 1980s, the organization campaigned against the

text: World Bank

text: , claiming it was financing projects that caused

text: tropical deforestation

text: , among other

text: environmental concerns

text: .  They also pushed for the

text: 1981 moratorium

text: on new

text: offshore oil

text: leasing in California, which remained in effect until 2008, when the

text: United States Congress

text: did not renew it.  The organization merged with the Environmental Policy Center and the Oceanic Society in 1989.  After the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: , Friends of the Earth U.S. successfully campaigned for the passage of the

text: Oil Pollution Act

text: in 1990.  In 1992, they teamed with the

text: Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe

text: in

text: Washington State

text: to help pass a federal law to protect

text: salmon run

text: s.  In 2003 the organization worked to draft and pass the

text: Clean Car Law

text: in California.

text: Pollution can enter bodies of water in many different ways - Through toxic runoff from pesticides and fertilizers, containers of oil and other hazardous materials falling off of ships, or just from debris  from humans that has not been picked up. No matter what the form of pollution is, the effects water pollution has on animal life can be drastic. For example, the BP oil spill which occurred in 2010 impacted over 82,000 birds, 6,000 sea turtles, approximately 26,000 marine animals, and hundreds of thousands of fish.

text: Pollution can enter bodies of water in many different ways - Through toxic runoff from pesticides and fertilizers, containers of oil and other hazardous materials falling off of ships, or just from debris  from humans that has not been picked up. No matter what the form of pollution is, the effects water pollution has on animal life can be drastic. For example, the

text: BP oil spill

text: which occurred in 2010 impacted over 82,000 birds, 6,000 sea turtles, approximately 26,000 marine animals, and hundreds of thousands of fish.

text: Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often involve water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or automobiles. Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved. Some sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur.

text: Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example,

text: hurricane

text: s often involve water contamination from sewage, and

text: petrochemical

text: spills from ruptured

text: boat

text: s or

text: automobile

text: s. Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal

text: oil rigs

text: or

text: refineries

text: are involved. Some sources of pollution, such as

text: nuclear power

text: plants or

text: oil tanker

text: s, can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur.

text: Wastewater tariffs typically follow the same structure as water tariffs. They are typically measured based on the volume of water supplied, sometimes after subtracting an allowance made for estimated or actual outdoor use. In the case of industries, wastewater tariffs are sometimes differentiated based on the pollutant load of the wastewater. In some cases wastewater tariffs are a fixed percentage of water tariffs, but usually they are set separately. In addition to regular bills, many utilities levy a one-time connection fee both for water and for sewer connections.

text: One of the major environmental impacts of oil exploration on the environment is the contamination of aquatic ecosystems from oil spills and oil seepages from pits. Oftentimes, as is the case in the Ecuadorian Amazon, oil is used to control dust on roadways, causing the precipitation runoff from these roads to also be contaminated. Direct human health hazards occur since many people, including children walk barefoot on these oiled roads putting them in direct contact with the crude oil. Other hazards to humans include seepages into ponds that provide drinking water for the population. During the exploration for oil, mud that has been drilled is deposited into pits. These production pits are often not lined risking the possibility for contaminants to leak into the surrounding environment. Environmental concerns are primarily focused on a group of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). “PAHs accumulate on particles and sediments, which tend to protect them from biodegrading processes", Green and Trett as cited in. During the exploration for oil, mud that has been drilled is deposited into pits. These production pits are often not lined risking the possibility for contaminants to leak into the surrounding environment. Samples were collected from four sites (13 stations) in the Ecuadorian Amazon where crude oil was the main pollutant. The water collected from Site B, a drinking water pond located 100m from an in use pit, had the highest total petroleum hydrocarbon (THP) concentration. Sediments were found to be acutely phototoxic. This area which has poorly developed infrastructure is one where residents collect water for drinking, cooking and bathing from the rivers and ponds nearby. “A recent study observed excess cancer rates in a village in this region” Sebastian et. Al, as cited in. Not only were excess cancer rates apparent but many people in this area that were consuming the water for drinking purposes became ill.In Wernersson’s study, toxicity of water and sediment samples were studied on Daphnia magna (a crustacean zoo-plankton species) and Hyalella azteca (an amphipod). These samples were collected from four sites where crude oil was the main source of pollution. 1-4 day old organisms of both species were used in the tests. Immobility of D. magna was recorded after 24 hours of exposure indoors. They were then moved outdoors where they were exposed to sunlight. After 1–2 hours the samples were removed from the sunlight and it was found that D. Magna often recovered within an hour after UV exposure.Hyalella azteca was cultured in the same medium as was used for the D. Magna species. To minimize stress shade was provided. 16 hours of light and 8 hours of darkness were provided. Lethality was recorded after 96 hours of exposure.

text: One of the major environmental impacts of oil exploration on the environment is the contamination of aquatic ecosystems from

text: oil spill

text: s and oil seepages from pits. Oftentimes, as is the case in the

text: Ecuadorian Amazon

text: , oil is used to control

text: dust

text: on roadways, causing the precipitation

text: runoff

text: from these roads to also be contaminated. Direct human health hazards occur since many people, including children walk barefoot on these oiled roads putting them in direct contact with the crude oil. Other hazards to humans include

text: seepage

text: s into ponds that provide drinking water for the population. During the exploration for oil, mud that has been drilled is deposited into pits. These production pits are often not lined risking the possibility for contaminants to leak into the surrounding environment. Environmental concerns are primarily focused on a group of

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs). “PAHs accumulate on particles and sediments, which tend to protect them from biodegrading processes", Green and Trett as cited in. During the exploration for oil, mud that has been drilled is deposited into pits. These production pits are often not lined risking the possibility for contaminants to leak into the surrounding environment. Samples were collected from four sites (13 stations) in the Ecuadorian Amazon where crude oil was the main pollutant. The water collected from Site B, a drinking water pond located 100m from an in use pit, had the highest

text: total petroleum hydrocarbon

text: (THP) concentration. Sediments were found to be acutely

text: phototoxic

text: . This area which has poorly developed infrastructure is one where residents collect water for drinking, cooking and bathing from the rivers and ponds nearby. “A recent study observed excess

text: cancer rate

text: s in a village in this region” Sebastian et. Al, as cited in. Not only were excess cancer rates apparent but many people in this area that were consuming the water for drinking purposes became ill.In Wernersson’s study, toxicity of water and sediment samples were studied on Daphnia magna (a crustacean zoo-plankton species) and

text: Hyalella azteca

text: (an amphipod). These samples were collected from four sites where crude oil was the main source of pollution. 1-4 day old organisms of both species were used in the tests. Immobility of D. magna was recorded after 24 hours of exposure indoors. They were then moved outdoors where they were exposed to sunlight. After 1–2 hours the samples were removed from the sunlight and it was found that D. Magna often recovered within an hour after UV exposure.Hyalella azteca was cultured in the same medium as was used for the D. Magna species. To minimize stress shade was provided. 16 hours of light and 8 hours of darkness were provided.

text: Lethality

text: was recorded after 96 hours of exposure.

text: One of the main sources of water pollution in the MRSP is the slums around the Guarapiranga and Billings river basins because these neighborhoods often lack adequate sanitation services. The direct discharge of raw sewage into the waterbodies has caused eutrophication in both reservoirs as well as the Baixo Cotia, Biritiba and Ribeirão dos Cristais Rivers. In addition, defects in the wastewater treatment system have caused wastewater to overflow into the tributaries of the Guarapiranga reservoir. Defects in infrastructure for collecting and transporting sewage to the wastewater treatment plants also cause problems. The dumping of industrial effluents and pesticides from agriculture has resulted in additional pollution.

text: One of the main sources of water pollution in the MRSP is the slums around the

text: Guarapiranga

text: and Billings river basins because these neighborhoods often lack adequate sanitation services. The direct discharge of raw sewage into the waterbodies has caused

text: eutrophication

text: in both reservoirs as well as the Baixo

text: Cotia

text: Biritiba

text: and

text: Ribeirão dos Cristais

text: Rivers. In addition, defects in the wastewater treatment system have caused wastewater to overflow into the tributaries of the Guarapiranga reservoir. Defects in infrastructure for collecting and transporting sewage to the wastewater treatment plants also cause problems. The dumping of industrial effluents and pesticides from agriculture has resulted in additional pollution.

text: Section 316 requires standards for thermal pollution discharges, as well as standards for cooling water intake structures.  These standards are applicable to power plants and other industrial facilities.

text: Section 316 requires standards for

text: thermal pollution

text: discharges, as well as standards for

text: cooling water

text: intake structures.  These standards are applicable to

text: power plant

text: s and other industrial facilities.

text: The common roach mostly feeds in the deeper parts of water bodies, but can be found in any water body deeper than  and wider than , and adapts to local circumstances, although in the summer, it can be caught using surface floats and bread. It tolerates organic pollution and is one of the last species to disappear in polluted waters, but is also often the most numerous cyprinid in nutrient-poor waters. It also tolerates brackish water. The lethal temperature is around 31°C (88°F).

text: To maintain public water quality at a level that is safe for human and animal health and for the growth of plants, pollution materials subject to management are designated under the Act on Water Quality and Ecosystem Conservation. Currently, 40 kinds of organic materials, including copper, lead, nickel, and cyanogens, are designated as water pollutants. To manage water quality safety, heavy metals and phenols are designated as specific water pollution material.

text: Water and benthos pollution from industrial sources has been demonstrated to have varying  effects on biological diversity and survival potential of meroplankton. One study conducted in the Vostok Bay region in Russia, demonstrated that even in the presence of industrial pollutants, most species of meroplankton were able to proliferate almost unaffected. The authors of this study attribute these findings to the fact that meroplankton are transported by ocean currents generally from cleaner open waters inshore. Furthermore, the same study also concluded that even in heavily polluted areas, meroplankton populations were able to reestablish if pollution was brought under control and sufficient time was allowed to pass. However, the rate of recolonization was demonstrated to be notably slow, on average talking about 10 years before the abundance and diversity of meroplankton returned to its original levels. This is in part due to the slow nature of detoxification of benthic sediments, which retain much of the heavy metal pollution

text: Water and benthos pollution from industrial sources has been demonstrated to have varying  effects on biological diversity and survival potential of meroplankton. One study conducted in the

text: Vostok Bay

text: region in

text: Russia

text: , demonstrated that even in the presence of industrial pollutants, most species of meroplankton were able to proliferate almost unaffected. The authors of this study attribute these findings to the fact that meroplankton are transported by ocean currents generally from cleaner open waters inshore. Furthermore, the same study also concluded that even in heavily polluted areas, meroplankton populations were able to reestablish if pollution was brought under control and sufficient time was allowed to pass. However, the rate of recolonization was demonstrated to be notably slow, on average talking about 10 years before the abundance and diversity of meroplankton returned to its original levels. This is in part due to the slow nature of detoxification of benthic

text: sediment

text: s, which retain much of the heavy metal

text: pollution

text: Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algal growth. Sources of nutrient pollution include surface runoff from farm fields and pastures, discharges from septic tanks and feedlots, and emissions from combustion. Excess nutrients have been summarized as potentially leading to:

text: Nutrient pollution, a form of

text: water pollution

text: , refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of

text: surface water

text: s, in which excess nutrients, usually

text: nitrogen

text: or

text: phosphorus

text: , stimulate

text: algal

text: growth. Sources of nutrient pollution include

text: surface runoff

text: from farm fields and pastures, discharges from

text: septic tank

text: s and

text: feedlot

text: s, and

text: emissions

text: from combustion. Excess nutrients have been summarized as potentially leading to:

text: Owing to drainage of surface and groundwater in the project area, which waters may be salinized and polluted by agricultural chemicals like biocides and fertilizers, the quality of the river water below the project area can deteriorate, which makes it less fit for industrial, municipal and household use. It may lead to reduced public health.

text: Owing to drainage of surface and groundwater in the project area, which waters may be salinized and polluted by agricultural chemicals like

text: biocides

text: and

text: fertilizer

text: s, the quality of the river water below the project area can deteriorate, which makes it less fit for industrial, municipal and household use. It may lead to reduced public health.

text: Reducing the amount of pollution emitted from both point and non-point represents a direct method to address the source of water quality challenges. Pollution reduction represents a more direct and low-cost method to improve water quality, compared to costly and extensive wastewater treatment improvements.

text: Nitrates and phosphorus used as lawn and crop fertilizers wash into the St. Johns. Broken septic systems and seepage from cattle grazing lands create pollution that also finds its way into the river. Storm water washes from street drains directly to the river and its tributaries: in the 1970s, the Econlockhatchee River received  of treated wastewater every day. Wetlands were drained and paved, unable to filter pollutants from the water, made worse by the river's own slow discharge. Algal blooms, fish kills, and deformations and lesions on fish occur regularly in the river from Palatka to Jacksonville. Although most of the pollutants in the river are washed from the southern parts of the river, the Jacksonville area produces approximately 36 percent of them found in the lower basin.

text: Nitrates

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: used as lawn and crop fertilizers wash into the St. Johns. Broken septic systems and seepage from cattle grazing lands create pollution that also finds its way into the river. Storm water washes from street drains directly to the river and its tributaries: in the 1970s, the Econlockhatchee River received  of treated wastewater every day. Wetlands were drained and paved, unable to filter pollutants from the water, made worse by the river's own slow discharge. Algal blooms, fish kills, and deformations and lesions on fish occur regularly in the river from Palatka to Jacksonville. Although most of the pollutants in the river are washed from the southern parts of the river, the Jacksonville area produces approximately 36 percent of them found in the lower basin.

text: Oil tankers are only one source of oil spills. According to the United States Coast Guard, 35.7% of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships/barges), 27.6% from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9% from non-tank vessels, and 9.3% from pipelines; 7.4% from mystery spills. On the other hand, only 5% of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8% came from other kinds of vessels.

text: Oil tankers are only one source of oil spills. According to the

text: United States Coast Guard

text: , 35.7% of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships/barges), 27.6% from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9% from non-tank vessels, and 9.3% from pipelines; 7.4% from mystery spills. On the other hand, only 5% of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8% came from other kinds of vessels.

text: The Sava River polluted with domestic and industrial waste; pollution of coastal waters with heavy metals and toxic chemicals; forest damage near Koper from air pollution (originating at metallurgical and chemical plants) and resulting acid rain.

text: The

text: Sava River

text: polluted with domestic and industrial waste; pollution of coastal waters with heavy metals and toxic chemicals; forest damage near

text: Koper

text: from air pollution (originating at metallurgical and chemical plants) and resulting

text: acid rain

text: If fish and shellfish inhabit polluted waters, they can accumulate other toxic chemicals, particularly fat-soluble pollutants containing chlorine or bromine, dioxins or PCBs. Fish that is to be eaten should be caught in unpolluted water. Some organisations such as SeafoodWatch, RIKILT, Environmental Defense Fund, IMARES provide information on species that do not accumulate much toxins/metals.

text: If fish and shellfish inhabit

text: polluted waters

text: , they can accumulate other toxic chemicals, particularly fat-soluble pollutants containing chlorine or bromine,

text: dioxins

text: or

text: PCBs

text: . Fish that is to be eaten should be caught in unpolluted water. Some organisations such as SeafoodWatch, RIKILT, Environmental Defense Fund, IMARES provide information on species that do not accumulate much toxins/metals.

text: Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in Egypt using about 85% of available water.Drainage water from the agricultural fields contains pollutants such as pesticide residues, toxic organic and inorganic pollutants, salts and treated and untreated domestic wastewater.  In the East - Delta drains - Faraskour, Serw and Hadous, samples of the water contained high levels of hookworms and other intestinal helminth eggs.In villages where the only available water is from irrigation canals, women use the water for domestic purposes and also dump the used water back into the drainages.In some areas, low water levels do not reach the waterways, so farmers build illegal waterwheels to get the water up the canals to irrigate their land.  Lack of drainage canals and the enforcement by officials to address these problems contribute to pollution of land and water. Villagers drinking polluted water have been affected with kidney and liver diseases.Animal manure, dredged sediments from drains and sludge for fertilizer are leached and the contaminants are a major source of pollution.  Agricultural drainage water reuse is used by farmers legally and illegally.  Improper irrigation and lack of education on effective irrigation methods and crop production contributes to crop failure and polluting of canals.  In areas where there is no formal operational structure for pumping water of individual diesel pumps, the tail-end users usually are not getting enough water to maintain crops.

text: Agriculture

text: There are two main pollutants of water in Pristina: collective pollutants and industrial pollutants. Collective pollutants are households and individuals that throw waste in water and have common canalization system. Industrial pollutants are the largest industrial pollutants, such as agriculture, chemicals, and ironmongery pollutants. There are 6 individual pollutants in Prishtevka River, and 1 collective pollutant. There are 15 collective pollutants in Llapi River, and 7 individual pollutants. Sitnica River has 24 collective pollutants and 7 individual pollutants, and Gracanka River has 3 collective pollutants, and 1 individual pollutant. The table below shows the individualpollutants in Pristina and their landfills.

text: Phosphates enter the water ways through both non-point sources and point sources. Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to water pollution from diffuse sources. Nonpoint source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water at a single location. The non-point sources of phosphates include: natural decomposition of rocks and minerals, storm water runoff, agricultural runoff, erosion and sedimentation, atmospheric deposition, and direct input by animals/wildlife; whereas: point sources may include: waste water treatment plants and permitted industrial discharges. In general, the non-point source pollution typically is significantly higher than the point sources of pollution. Therefore, the key to sound management is to limit the input from both point and non-point sources of phosphate. High concentration of phosphate in water bodies is an indication of pollution and largely responsible for eutrophication.

text: Phosphates enter the water ways through both non-point sources and point sources. Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to water pollution from diffuse sources. Nonpoint source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water at a single location. The non-point sources of phosphates include: natural decomposition of rocks and minerals, storm water runoff, agricultural runoff, erosion and sedimentation, atmospheric deposition, and direct input by animals/wildlife; whereas: point sources may include: waste water treatment plants and permitted industrial discharges. In general, the non-point source pollution typically is significantly higher than the point sources of pollution. Therefore, the key to sound management is to limit the input from both point and non-point sources of phosphate. High concentration of phosphate in water bodies is an indication of pollution and largely responsible for

text: eutrophication

text: The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g.,

text: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

text: Atlantic Empress

text: Amoco Cadiz

text: ). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: Thermal pollution is the artificial reduction in water temperatures, especially in summer and autumn, caused when frigid water is released from the bottom of reservoirs for irrigation demands. Such temperature suppression typically extends several hundred kilometres downstream. Thermal pollution inhibits both the breeding of Murray cod and the survival of Murray cod larvae, and in extreme cases inhibits even the survival of adult Murray cod.

text: Thermal pollution

text: is the artificial reduction in water temperatures, especially in summer and autumn, caused when frigid water is released from the bottom of reservoirs for irrigation demands. Such temperature suppression typically extends several hundred kilometres downstream. Thermal pollution inhibits both the breeding of Murray cod and the survival of Murray cod larvae, and in extreme cases inhibits even the survival of adult Murray cod.

text: Levels of industrial pollution vary significantly throughout the basin. In 2007, significant sources of industrial pollution were identified in Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. Levels of lead, cadmium and arsenic measured in the Sava River at Zagreb in 2003 did not exceed permitted concentrations, but measured levels of mercury exceeded permitted levels in four out of 216 samples. Levels of heavy metals, specifically zinc, copper, lead and cadmium, measured in sediments in the Sava River near Belgrade were assessed as representing little to no risk, and the conclusion drawn was that in order to "reduce the existing bacterial contamination of the Sava River it is necessary to control faecal discharge near cities like Belgrade."  The two countries (Croatia and Montenegro) with greatest direct access to the Adriatic showed by far the least polluted basin surface waters, although other factors, such as demography, agricultural/environmental development and, especially, investment (internal and external), play a role.

text: Levels of industrial pollution vary significantly throughout the basin. In 2007, significant sources of industrial pollution were identified in Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. Levels of lead, cadmium and arsenic measured in the Sava River at Zagreb in 2003 did not exceed permitted concentrations, but measured levels of

text: mercury

text: exceeded permitted levels in four out of 216 samples. Levels of

text: heavy metals

text: , specifically zinc, copper, lead and cadmium, measured in sediments in the Sava River near Belgrade were assessed as representing little to no risk, and the conclusion drawn was that in order to "reduce the existing bacterial contamination of the Sava River it is necessary to control faecal discharge near cities like Belgrade."  The two countries (Croatia and Montenegro) with greatest direct access to the Adriatic showed by far the least polluted basin surface waters, although other factors, such as demography, agricultural/environmental development and, especially, investment (internal and external), play a role.

text: An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution.  The term is usually applied to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land.  Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, pipelines, railcars, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.

text: An oil spill is the release of a

text: liquid

text: petroleum

text: hydrocarbon

text: into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution.  The term is usually applied to

text: marine

text: oil spills, where oil is released into the

text: ocean

text: or

text: coastal waters

text: , but spills may also occur on land.  Oil spills may be due to releases of

text: crude oil

text: from

text: tankers

text: , pipelines, railcars,

text: offshore platforms

text: drilling rig

text: s and

text: wells

text: , as well as spills of

text: refined petroleum products

text: (such as

text: gasoline

text: diesel

text: ) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as

text: bunker fuel

text: , or the spill of any oily refuse or

text: waste oil

text: The Yongding Reservoir is heavily polluted by industrial wastewater, despite efforts at reducing the pollution load undertaken since the 1980s. However, these efforts were dwarfed by new industrial plants, by lax enforcement and by the construction of dams further upstream so that less water was available for dilution. During the 1980s, the Guanting Reservoir was heavily polluted by the development of hotels without wastewater treatment on the shores of the reservoir, by aquaculture in the reservoir, as well as by iron ore mining in its basin. All these activities were shut down in the 1990s and 2000s to protect water quality in the reservoir. There have been substantial efforts to improve the water quality in the reservoir prior to the 2008 Olympics. There is little information on groundwater pollution, but some drinking water wells had to be shut down for "safety reasons".

text: The Yongding Reservoir is heavily polluted by industrial wastewater, despite efforts at reducing the pollution load undertaken since the 1980s. However, these efforts were dwarfed by new industrial plants, by lax enforcement and by the construction of dams further upstream so that less water was available for dilution. During the 1980s, the Guanting Reservoir was heavily polluted by the development of hotels without wastewater treatment on the shores of the reservoir, by aquaculture in the reservoir, as well as by iron ore mining in its basin. All these activities were shut down in the 1990s and 2000s to protect water quality in the reservoir. There have been substantial efforts to improve the water quality in the reservoir prior to the

text: 2008 Olympics

text: . There is little information on groundwater pollution, but some drinking water wells had to be shut down for "safety reasons".

text: The show took place on or around the fictional Coral Island, and revolved around a group of island-dwelling people called Suntots and a trio of polluting treasure hunters called the Smoggies. The Suntots spent much of their time defending their island paradise from the Smoggies, who polluted everything around them and lived on a coal fired steam ship, the SS Stinky Poo, which polluted the water and air around the island. The Smoggies constantly tried to destroy the Suntots' home for their own benefits.

text: Due to its location near the most urbanized and densely populated area of Israel, the Coastal Aquifer is exposed to many sources of pollutants, including chlorides, bynitrates, heavy metals, fuels and organic toxins. As of 2004, approximately 41% of water taken from the Coastal aquifer met safety standards set by the European Union and World Health Organization. High demand for an expanding population has led to over pumping of the Coastal Aquifer, in some cases eclipsing its recharge rate by upwards of 100%. Overuse, introduction of man-made pollutants and absorption of seawater have increased the salinity of the aquifer.

text: Due to its location near the most urbanized and densely populated area of Israel, the

entity_name: Water supply and sanitation in the Palestinian territories

text: Coastal Aquifer

text: is exposed to many sources of pollutants, including chlorides, bynitrates, heavy metals, fuels and organic toxins. As of 2004, approximately 41% of water taken from the Coastal aquifer met safety standards set by the European Union and

text: World Health Organization

text: . High demand for an expanding population has led to over pumping of the Coastal Aquifer, in some cases eclipsing its recharge rate by upwards of 100%. Overuse, introduction of man-made pollutants and absorption of seawater have increased the

text: salinity

text: of the aquifer.

text: Water pollution is a major environmental issue in India. The largest source of water pollution in India is untreatedsewage. Other sources of pollution include agricultural runoff and unregulated small scale industry. Most rivers, lakes and surface water in India are polluted.

text: Water pollution

text: is a major environmental issue in India. The largest source of water pollution in India is untreated

text: sewage

text: . Other sources of pollution include

text: agricultural runoff

text: and unregulated small scale industry. Most rivers, lakes and surface water in India are polluted.

text: Ciliwung tributary that empties into the ocean was used for ship entrance into the castle from the canals to Waterpoort. The Molenvliet, a canal, was constructed to the south of Grote Rivier, mainly for water transportation used by various industries along the side of the river. Back then, Ciliwung River’s waters were used by the citizens for drinking water. In 1689, the river water was not yet polluted and could be used for drinking water. The earthquake, which occurred in January 1699, caused the increase in sedimentation level. Heaps of mud and sand accumulated in the ditch that was dredged to ease the flow of the water to and from the river.

text: Paris in its early history had only the Seine and Bièvre rivers for water. From 1809, the Canal de l'Ourcq provided Paris with water from less-polluted rivers to the north-east of the capital. From 1857, the civil engineer Eugène Belgrand, under Napoleon III, oversaw the construction of a series of new aqueducts that brought water from locations all around the city to several reservoirs built atop the Capital's highest points of elevation. From then on, the new reservoir system became Paris's principal source of drinking water, and the remains of the old system, pumped into lower levels of the same reservoirs, were from then on used for the cleaning of Paris's streets. This system is still a major part of Paris's modern water-supply network. Today Paris has more than  of underground passageways dedicated to the evacuation of Paris's liquid wastes.

text: Paris in its early history had only the Seine and

text: Bièvre

text: rivers for water. From 1809, the

text: Canal de l'Ourcq

text: provided Paris with water from less-polluted rivers to the north-east of the capital. From 1857, the civil engineer

text: Eugène Belgrand

text: , under

text: Napoleon III

text: , oversaw the construction of a series of new aqueducts that brought water from locations all around the city to several reservoirs built atop the Capital's highest points of elevation. From then on, the new reservoir system became Paris's principal source of drinking water, and the remains of the old system, pumped into lower levels of the same reservoirs, were from then on used for the cleaning of Paris's streets. This system is still a major part of Paris's modern water-supply network. Today Paris has more than  of underground passageways dedicated to the evacuation of Paris's liquid wastes.

text: An important turning point in managing drinking water pollution in the United States occurred after passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, which required the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to conduct a study of the issue. The NAS found that there really was not a lot of information available on drinking water quality. Perhaps the most important part of the study, according to senior EPA officials responsible for implementing the 1974 law, was that it described some methodologies for doing risk assessments for chemicals that were suspected carcinogens.

text: The Guanabara Bay, whose waters were used for sailing and windsurfing competitions, is heavily polluted. Among the chief causes of the pollution are uncollected trash fed into the bay via polluted rivers and slums along the coast. Pollution of the Guanabara has been a long-term issue. Officials promised at the Earth Summit in 1992 that they would begin to address the pollution but previous attempts to do so have been insufficient. As an aspect of their bid for the Games, Rio once again committed to making efforts towards cleaning the bay. However, some of these proposed initiatives have faced budgetary issues. Prior to these efforts, only 17% of Rio's sewage was treated; this raw sewage also leaked into the bay. Although Mayor of Rio Eduardo Paes stated that the city may not be able to reach its goal of having 80% of sewage treated, at least 60% of sewage was treated by March 2016, with a projected goal of 65% of sewage being treated by the time the Olympics started.

text: The

text: Guanabara Bay

text: , whose waters were used for sailing and windsurfing competitions, is heavily polluted. Among the chief causes of the pollution are uncollected trash fed into the bay via polluted rivers and

text: slum

text: s along the coast. Pollution of the Guanabara has been a long-term issue. Officials promised at the

text: Earth Summit

text: in 1992 that they would begin to address the pollution but previous attempts to do so have been insufficient. As an aspect of their bid for the Games, Rio once again committed to making efforts towards cleaning the bay. However, some of these proposed initiatives have faced budgetary issues. Prior to these efforts, only 17% of Rio's sewage was treated; this

text: raw sewage

text: also leaked into the bay. Although Mayor of Rio

text: Eduardo Paes

text: stated that the city may not be able to reach its goal of having 80% of sewage treated, at least 60% of sewage was treated by March 2016, with a projected goal of 65% of sewage being treated by the time the Olympics started.

text: As with other roadway types, environmental consequences derive from arterial roadways, including air pollution generation, noise pollution and surface runoff of water pollutants.  Air pollution generation from arterials can be rather concentrated, since traffic volumes can be relatively high, and traffic operating speeds are often low to moderate.  Sound levels can also be considerable due to moderately high traffic volumes characteristic of arterials, and also due to considerable braking and acceleration that often occur on arterials that are heavily signalized.

text: As with other roadway types, environmental consequences derive from arterial roadways, including air pollution generation, noise pollution and

text: surface runoff

text: of water pollutants.  Air pollution generation from arterials can be rather concentrated, since traffic volumes can be relatively high, and traffic operating speeds are often low to moderate.  Sound levels can also be considerable due to moderately high traffic volumes characteristic of arterials, and also due to considerable braking and acceleration that often occur on arterials that are heavily signalized.

text: There are five primary stakeholders involved in NPS water pollution regulation: government agencies, environmental advocacy groups, potentially regulated entities, and the public. Government stakeholders are government agencies responsible for regulating NPS pollution. In addition to scientific results, agencies are concerned with how new regulations may influence their funding.  Environmental advocacy stakeholders are organizations that aim to solve environmental problems, such as the Natural Resources Defense Council.  These groups focus on the involvement of concerned citizens. The potentially regulated entities are the industries that will be regulated under new regulation. The public is a key stackholder group, and various measures have been taken to engage the public on NPS water pollution, including the publication of citizen handbooks on NPS water pollution and online information.  Environmental regulations for nonpoint sources must be expressed in directives that are specifically understandable by the regulatory target and enforceable by subsequent government intervention. The legal section above noted a number of policy options that have been used for regulating NPS water pollution. Some of the options include: volunteerism, command and control regulations, incentive based instruments, design standards, emissions limits, product bans, trading systems, subsidies, liability rules, and other options.

text: There are five primary stakeholders involved in NPS water pollution regulation: government agencies, environmental

text: advocacy group

text: s, potentially regulated entities, and the public. Government stakeholders are government agencies responsible for regulating NPS pollution. In addition to scientific results, agencies are concerned with how new regulations may influence their funding.  Environmental advocacy stakeholders are organizations that aim to solve environmental problems, such as the

text: Natural Resources Defense Council

text: .  These groups focus on the involvement of concerned citizens. The potentially regulated entities are the industries that will be regulated under new regulation. The public is a key stackholder group, and various measures have been taken to engage the public on NPS water pollution, including the publication of citizen handbooks on NPS water pollution and online information.  Environmental regulations for nonpoint sources must be expressed in directives that are specifically understandable by the regulatory target and enforceable by subsequent government intervention. The legal section above noted a number of policy options that have been used for regulating NPS water pollution. Some of the options include: volunteerism,

text: command and control regulation

text: s, incentive based instruments, design standards, emissions limits, product bans, trading systems, subsidies, liability rules, and other options.

text: Contaminated stormwater washed off parking lots, roads and highways, and lawns (often containing fertilizers and pesticides) is called urban runoff. This runoff is often classified as a type of NPS pollution. Some people may also consider it a point source because many times it is channeled into municipal storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to nearby surface waters. However, not all urban runoff flows through storm drain systems before entering water bodies. Some may flow directly into water bodies, especially in developing and suburban areas. Also, unlike other types of point sources, such as industrial discharges, sewage treatment plants and other operations, pollution in urban runoff cannot be attributed to one activity or even group of activities. Therefore, because it is not caused by an easily identified and regulated activity, urban runoff pollution sources are also often treated as true non-point sources as municipalities work to abate them.

text: Contaminated stormwater washed off parking lots, roads and highways, and lawns (often containing

text: fertilizer

text: s and

text: pesticide

text: s) is called

text: urban runoff

text: . This runoff is often classified as a type of NPS pollution. Some people may also consider it a point source because many times it is channeled into municipal storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to nearby

text: surface water

text: s. However, not all urban runoff flows through

text: storm drain

text: systems before entering water bodies. Some may flow directly into water bodies, especially in developing and suburban areas. Also, unlike other types of point sources, such as industrial discharges,

text: sewage treatment

text: plants and other operations, pollution in urban runoff cannot be attributed to one activity or even group of activities. Therefore, because it is not caused by an easily identified and regulated activity, urban runoff pollution sources are also often treated as true non-point sources as municipalities work to abate them.

text: The intended beneficial uses of these water resources include flood control, aids to navigation, irrigation, supplemental water supply, power generation, municipal and industrial water supplies, stream-pollution abatement, sediment control, preservation and enhancement of fish and wildlife, and creation of recreation opportunities.

text: The intended beneficial uses of these water resources include

text: flood control

text: , aids to navigation,

text: irrigation

text: , supplemental

text: water supply

text: power generation

text: , municipal and industrial water supplies,

text: stream-pollution

text: abatement,

text: sediment control

text: preservation

text: and enhancement of

text: fish

text: and

text: wildlife

text: , and creation of recreation opportunities.

text: Drinking water is available throughout Oman, either piped or delivered. The soil in coastal plains, such as Salalah, have shown increased levels of salinity, due to over exploitation of ground water and encroachment by seawater in the water table. Pollution of beaches and other coastal areas by oil tanker traffic through the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman is also a persistent risk.

text: Drinking water is available throughout Oman, either piped or delivered. The soil in coastal plains, such as Salalah, have shown increased levels of salinity, due to over exploitation of ground water and encroachment by seawater in the water table. Pollution of beaches and other coastal areas by oil tanker traffic through the

text: Strait of Hormuz

text: and

text: Gulf of Oman

text: is also a persistent risk.

text: Without appropriate awareness of marine pollution, the necessary global will to effectively address the issues may prove inadequate. Balanced information on the sources and harmful effects of marine pollution need to become part of general public awareness, and ongoing research is required to fully establish, and keep current, the scope of the issues. As expressed in Daoji and Dag’s research, one of the reasons why environmental concern is lacking among the Chinese is because the public awareness is low and therefore should be targeted. Likewise, regulation, based upon such in-depth research should be employed. In California, such regulations have already been put in place to protect Californian coastal waters from agricultural runoff. This includes the California Water Code, as well as several voluntary programs. Similarly, in India, several tactics have been employed that help reduce marine pollution, however, they do not significantly target the problem. In Chennai, sewage has been dumped further into open waters. Due to the mass of waste being deposited, open-ocean is best for diluting, and dispersing pollutants, thus making them less harmful to marine ecosystems.

text: Without appropriate awareness of marine pollution, the necessary global will to effectively address the issues may prove inadequate. Balanced information on the sources and harmful effects of marine pollution need to become part of general public awareness, and ongoing research is required to fully establish, and keep current, the scope of the issues. As expressed in Daoji and Dag’s research, one of the reasons why environmental concern is lacking among the Chinese is because the public awareness is low and therefore should be targeted. Likewise, regulation, based upon such in-depth research should be employed. In California, such regulations have already been put in place to protect Californian coastal waters from agricultural runoff. This includes the California Water Code, as well as several voluntary programs. Similarly, in India, several tactics have been employed that help reduce marine pollution, however, they do not significantly target the problem. In

text: Chennai

text: , sewage has been dumped further into open waters. Due to the mass of waste being deposited, open-ocean is best for diluting, and dispersing pollutants, thus making them less harmful to marine ecosystems.

text: Calculating the TMDL for any given body of water involves the combination of factors that contribute to the problem of nutrient concentrated runoff.  Bodies of water are tested for contaminants based on their intended use.  Each body of water is tested similarly but designated with a different TMDL. Drinking water reservoirs are designated differently from areas for public swimming and water bodies intended for fishing are designated differently from water located in wildlife conservation areas.  The size of the water body also is taken into consideration when TMDL calculating is undertaken.  The larger the body of water, the greater the amounts of contaminants can be present and still maintain a Margin of Safety.  The Margin of Safety (MOS) is numeric estimate included in the TMDL calculation, sometimes 10% of the TMDL, intended to allow a safety buffer between the calculated TMDL and the actual load that will allow the water body to meet it's beneficial use (since the natural world is complex and several variables may alter future conditions).  TMDL is the end product of all point and non-point source pollutants of a single contaminant.  Pollutants that originate from a point source are given allowable levels of contaminants to be discharged; this is the Waste Load Allocation (WLA).  Nonpoint source pollutants are also calculated into the TMDL equation with Load Allocation (LA).

text: There are important differences between point source pollution and NPS pollution. There are many more nonpoint sources than there are point sources, and they are more discrete than nonpoint sources. Furthermore, nonpoint source discharges are not always easily observed, and monitoring nonpoint pollution can be costly. Another difference is that NPS pollution will vary over time and space based on different weather and geographic conditions. All the above factors make nonpoint pollution more difficult to regulate than point sources.

text: In pollution control applications, ultraviolet analyzers are used to detect emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, mercury and ammonia, for example in the flue gas of fossil fired power plants. Ultraviolet radiation can detect thin sheens of spilled oil on water, either by the high reflectivity of oil films at UV wavelengths, fluorescence of compounds in oil, or by absorbing of UV created by Raman scattering in water.

text: In pollution control applications, ultraviolet analyzers are used to detect emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur compounds, mercury and ammonia, for example in the flue gas of fossil fired power plants. Ultraviolet radiation can detect thin sheens of

text: spilled oil

text: on water, either by the high reflectivity of oil films at UV wavelengths, fluorescence of compounds in oil, or by absorbing of UV created by

text: Raman scattering

text: in water.

text: Some coastal power stations or chemical plants intake water from sea for condenser cooling. They either use closed cycle cooling by using cooling towers or once through cooling. Selection of type of system is based on the thermal pollution effect on sea water and techno-economics based on the distance of power station from the coast and cost of pumping sea water. Due to high salt concentration, it is necessary for circulating water make up.

text: According to the International Maritime Organisation oil spills can have serious effects on marine life. The OILPOL Convention recognized that most oil pollution resulted from routine shipboard operations such as the cleaning of cargo tanks.  In the 1950s, the normal practice was simply to wash the tanks out with water and then pump the resulting mixture of oil and water into the sea. OILPOL 54   prohibited the dumping of oily wastes within a certain distance from land and in 'special areas' where the danger to the environment was especially acute. In 1962 the limits were extended by means of an amendment adopted at a conference organized by IMO. Meanwhile, IMO in 1965 set up a Subcommittee on Oil Pollution, under the auspices of its Maritime Safety committee, to address oil pollution issues.

text: Agriculture contributes greatly to soil erosion and sediment deposition through intensive management or inefficient land cover. It is estimated that agricultural land degradation is leading to an irreversible decline in fertility on about 6 million ha of fertile land each year. The accumulation of sediments (i.e. sedimentation) in runoff water affects water quality in various ways. Sedimentation can decrease the transport capacity of ditches, streams, rivers, and navigation channels. It can also limit the amount of light penetrating the water, which affects aquatic biota. The resulting turbidity from sedimentation can interfere with feeding habits of fishes, affecting population dynamics. Sedimentation also affects the transport and accumulation of pollutants, including phosphorus and various pesticides.

text: Agriculture contributes greatly to

text: soil erosion

text: and

text: sediment

text: deposition through intensive management or inefficient land cover. It is estimated that agricultural land degradation is leading to an irreversible decline in fertility on about 6 million ha of fertile land each year. The accumulation of

text: sediment

text: s (i.e. sedimentation) in

text: runoff

text: water affects water quality in various ways. Sedimentation can decrease the transport capacity of ditches, streams, rivers, and navigation channels. It can also limit the amount of light penetrating the water, which affects aquatic biota. The resulting turbidity from sedimentation can interfere with feeding habits of fishes, affecting population dynamics. Sedimentation also affects the transport and accumulation of pollutants, including phosphorus and various pesticides.

text: The use of quality-controlled, commercially available receiving phases allow high reproducibility as compared to some other passive sampling devices. The bound receiving phase also ensures that the active sampling area of the device remains constant during laboratory or field calibration uptake experiments and in field deployments. By altering the combination of receiving phase and diffusion-limiting membrane (low-density polyethylene, polyethersulphone or cellulose acetate), you can monitor potable, surface , coastal and marine environment. The sampler can be deployed in the field for extended periods of time ranging from days to weeks. The specific pollutants of interest are sequestered by the samplers and these are retained on the receiving phase disk. After retrieval from the environment the pollutants are eluted from the disk and analysed in the laboratory using conventional instrumental methods. In order to obtain TWA concentrations the sampler must first be calibrated in the laboratory so as to ascertain the uptake rate (usually measured as the volume of water cleared per unit time i.e. L/h for the analyte) of the pollutant of interest. The Chemcatcher® has been used in a range of aquatic environments; however, most work to date has been in monitoring the TWA concentrations of priority and emerging pollutants surface waters.

text: The use of quality-controlled, commercially available receiving phases allow high reproducibility as compared to some other passive sampling devices. The bound receiving phase also ensures that the active sampling area of the device remains constant during laboratory or field calibration uptake experiments and in field deployments. By altering the combination of receiving phase and diffusion-limiting membrane (low-density polyethylene, polyethersulphone or

text: cellulose acetate

text: ), you can monitor potable, surface , coastal and marine environment. The sampler can be deployed in the field for extended periods of time ranging from days to weeks. The specific pollutants of interest are sequestered by the samplers and these are retained on the receiving phase disk. After retrieval from the environment the pollutants are eluted from the disk and analysed in the laboratory using conventional instrumental methods. In order to obtain TWA concentrations the sampler must first be calibrated in the laboratory so as to ascertain the uptake rate (usually measured as the volume of water cleared per unit time i.e. L/h for the analyte) of the pollutant of interest. The Chemcatcher® has been used in a range of aquatic environments; however, most work to date has been in monitoring the TWA concentrations of priority and emerging pollutants surface waters.

text: Israel is one on the world’s most densely populated countries, with most people living in the center and on the Mediterranean Coast. Israel’s total population is approximately 8,174,527, with an annual growth rate of 1.53%. Some authors suggest this rapid population growth is a product of pro-natal/immigration policies pursued by the Israel government throughout its formative years. However, with little room to expand this rate of growth is putting unsustainable pressure on the environment in the form of increased consumption, transportation, destruction of natural spaces and waste production. On the Coastal Plain, rapid urbanization, pollution, the introduction of predatory weeds and habitat fragmentation have damaged or destroyed many natural spaces. Reduction in public beach space, and pollution along the coastlines of the Mediterranean and Red Sea have forced the Israeli government to pursue varied cleanup and inspection programs, including being party to the Mediterranean Action Plan. Additionally, air pollution has been exacerbated by population growth. Despite reductions in per-capita emissions from the transportation and industrial sectors, population growth has led to an overall increase in air pollution. According to a report by the Israeli Ministry of Environmental Protection, the pressure exerted by Israel’s growing population needs to be reduced in order to prevent the loss of open spaces and ecological corridors near and between surface water bodies.

text: Israel is one on the world’s most densely populated countries, with most people living in the center and on the Mediterranean Coast. Israel’s total population is approximately 8,174,527, with an annual growth rate of 1.53%. Some authors suggest this rapid population growth is a product of pro-natal/immigration policies pursued by the Israel government throughout its formative years. However, with little room to expand this rate of growth is putting unsustainable pressure on the environment in the form of increased consumption, transportation, destruction of natural spaces and waste production. On the Coastal Plain, rapid urbanization, pollution, the introduction of predatory weeds and habitat fragmentation have damaged or destroyed many natural spaces. Reduction in public beach space, and pollution along the coastlines of the Mediterranean and Red Sea have forced the Israeli government to pursue varied cleanup and inspection programs, including being party to the

text: Mediterranean Action Plan

text: . Additionally, air pollution has been exacerbated by population growth. Despite reductions in per-capita emissions from the transportation and industrial sectors, population growth has led to an overall increase in air pollution. According to a report by the Israeli Ministry of Environmental Protection, the pressure exerted by Israel’s growing population needs to be reduced in order to prevent the loss of open spaces and ecological corridors near and between surface water bodies.

text: All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called xenobiotics. Xenobiotics such as synthetic drugs, natural poisons and antibiotics are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include cytochrome P450 oxidases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, and glutathione S-transferases. This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In ecology, these reactions are particularly important in microbial biodegradation of pollutants and the bioremediation of contaminated land and oil spills. Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even persistent organic pollutants such as organochloride compounds.

text: All organisms are constantly exposed to compounds that they cannot use as foods and would be harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic function. These potentially damaging compounds are called

text: xenobiotic

text: s. Xenobiotics such as

text: synthetic drugs

text: natural poisons

text: and

text: antibiotic

text: s are detoxified by a set of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. In humans, these include

text: cytochrome P450 oxidases

text: UDP-glucuronosyltransferases

text: , and

text: glutathione S-transferases

text: . This system of enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase II). The modified water-soluble xenobiotic can then be pumped out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized before being excreted (phase III). In

text: ecology

text: , these reactions are particularly important in microbial

text: biodegradation

text: of pollutants and the

text: bioremediation

text: of contaminated land and oil spills. Many of these microbial reactions are shared with multicellular organisms, but due to the incredible diversity of types of microbes these organisms are able to deal with a far wider range of xenobiotics than multicellular organisms, and can degrade even

text: persistent organic pollutant

text: s such as

text: organochloride

text: compounds.

text: Calculations of tidal prism are useful in determining the residence time of water (and pollutants) in an estuary.If it is known how much water is exported compared to how much of the estuarine water remains, it can be determined how long pollutants reside in that estuary.  If the tidal prism forms a large proportion of the water in an estuary at high tide, then when the tide ebbs, it will take with it the majority of the water (this occurs in shallow estuaries) and any pollutants or sediments suspended in that water.  This means that the estuary has a good flushing time, or that the residence time of water in that estuary is low.  On the contrary, in deeper estuaries, the amount of water that is influenced by the tides forms a smaller proportion of the total water.  The difference between high tide and low tide is not as great as in shallower estuaries creating a smaller tidal prism and a longer residence time.

text: Calculations of tidal prism are useful in determining the residence time of water (and

text: pollutant

text: s) in an estuary.If it is known how much

text: water

text: is exported compared to how much of the estuarine water remains, it can be determined how long pollutants reside in that estuary.  If the tidal prism forms a large proportion of the water in an estuary at high tide, then when the tide ebbs, it will take with it the majority of the water (this occurs in shallow estuaries) and any pollutants or

text: sediment

text: s suspended in that water.  This means that the estuary has a good flushing time, or that the residence time of water in that estuary is low.  On the contrary, in deeper estuaries, the amount of water that is influenced by the tides forms a smaller proportion of the total water.  The difference between high tide and low tide is not as great as in shallower estuaries creating a smaller tidal prism and a longer residence time.

text: Although a temporary seasonal feature, the thermal bar plays an important role in lake ecology by restricting mixing between coastal and offshore waters. This role is particularly evident during the spring runoff period when the retention of coastal waters may benefit aquatic organisms by providing warmer water temperatures and elevated nutrient concentrations, or may threaten coastal environments by retaining pollutants in coastal waters.

text: Although a temporary seasonal feature, the thermal bar plays an important role in lake

text: ecology

text: by restricting mixing between coastal and offshore waters. This role is particularly evident during the spring runoff period when the retention of coastal waters may benefit aquatic organisms by providing warmer water temperatures and elevated nutrient concentrations, or may threaten coastal environments by retaining pollutants in coastal waters.

text: The Water Quality Act of 1965 had a major impact on controlling water pollution in the Connecticut River and its tributaries.

text: The

text: Water Quality Act

text: of 1965 had a major impact on controlling

text: water pollution

text: in the Connecticut River and its tributaries.

text: Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

text: Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin

text: oil slick

text: which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly

text: bulldozed

text: around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

text: In 1990, in the wake of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Congress enacted the Oil Pollution Act to consolidate various oil spill and oil pollution statutes into a single unified law, and to provide for a statutory regime for handling oil spill cleanup. This law was challenged as a bill of attainder by the shipping division of ExxonMobil.

text: In 1990, in the wake of the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: , Congress enacted the

text: Oil Pollution Act

text: to consolidate various oil spill and oil pollution statutes into a single unified law, and to provide for a statutory regime for handling oil spill cleanup. This law was challenged as a bill of attainder by the shipping division of

text: ExxonMobil

text: The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program addresses water pollution by regulating point sources that discharge pollutants to waters of the United States. Created in 1972 by the Clean Water Act, the NPDES permit program is authorized to state governments by EPA to perform many permitting, administrative, and enforcement aspects of the program.

text: States have primary responsibility for implementing NPS water pollution regulations. Both the CZMA and the CWA direct the states to draft and implement NPS plans, and the federal government plays a limited role. As noted in the previous section on federal regulations, the CWA and CZMA provide financing for states to implement NPS programs, and those NPS programs have taken a variety of forms.  The majority of state plans rely on education and technical assistance, including the development of best management practices, to reduce NPS water pollution. Local governments also have an important role to play in NPS regulation. Local municipality, water conservation districts and other entities with land management responsibility provide planning, zoning, and technical and informational assistance to control NPS pollution. While the approaches states and local governments have taken to regulating NPS water pollution are perhaps too numerous to count, a survey of a few state approaches can provide insight on common NPS implementation plans.

text: Domestic activities, industry and agriculture cause water pollution in Sri Lanka.

text: Domestic activities,

text: industry

text: and agriculture cause water pollution in Sri Lanka.

text: Environmental engineers conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.

text: Environmental engineers

text: conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of

text: acid rain

text: , global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.

text: Company founder Jim O'Brien fought his first oil spill in 1969 as an officer with the United States Coast Guard.  In 1983 he retired to form his own company, O'Brien's Oil Pollution Service, known as "OOPS Inc.", in Slidell, Louisiana.  O'Brien soon gained fame in the 1980s as the "Red Adair of oil spill cleanup".  O'Brien also helped manage the Exxon Valdez oil spill of 1989.  Following that event the United States enacted the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, requiring ships to carry sufficient insurance and hire a management company to handle any oil spill.

text: Company founder Jim O'Brien fought his first oil spill in 1969 as an officer with the

text: United States Coast Guard

text: .  In 1983 he retired to form his own company, O'Brien's Oil Pollution Service, known as "OOPS Inc.", in

text: Slidell, Louisiana

text: .  O'Brien soon gained fame in the 1980s as the "

text: Red Adair

text: of oil spill cleanup".  O'Brien also helped manage the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: of 1989.  Following that event the United States enacted the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: , requiring ships to carry sufficient insurance and hire a management company to handle any oil spill.

text: Thailand's Pollution Control Department reports divide the country into five main geographical regions: north, northeast, central, south, and east. Thailand has a total of 25 river basins in the country and Thailand's annual rainfall is around 1,700 mm. Despite the annual southwest monsoon, Thailand is subject to drought, particularly the northeastern region. As of 2002, Thailand had less water available per person than any other country in Asia, and nearly one-third of its water was "unsuitable for human consumption." Non-potable water was a result of increasing untreated domestic sewage, industrial waste water, and solid hazardous wastes. This is a critical environmental problem for Thailand. Like air pollution, water pollution is most serious in the populous central region, with high levels of industrial and domestic waste water.

text: Thailand's Pollution Control Department reports divide the country into five main geographical

text: regions

text: north

text: northeast

text: central

text: south

text: , and

text: east

text: . Thailand has a total of 25 river basins in the country and Thailand's annual rainfall is around 1,700 mm. Despite the annual southwest

text: monsoon

text: Thailand

text: is subject to drought, particularly the northeastern region. As of 2002, Thailand had less water available per person than any other country in Asia, and nearly one-third of its water was "unsuitable for human consumption." Non-potable water was a result of increasing untreated domestic sewage, industrial waste water, and solid hazardous wastes. This is a critical environmental problem for Thailand. Like air pollution, water pollution is most serious in the populous central region, with high levels of industrial and domestic waste water.

text: Within the current regulatory framework, Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) is a regime for controlling pollution from certain industrial activities. The regime introduces the concept of Best Available Techniques ("BAT") to environmental regulations. Operators must use the BAT to control pollution from their industrial activities to prevent, and where that is not practicable, to reduce to acceptable levels, pollution to air, land and water from industrial activities. The Best Available Techniques also aim to balance the cost to the operator against benefits to the environment.The system of Pollution Prevention and Control is replacing that of Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) (which was established by the Environmental Protection Act 1990) and is taking effect between 2000 and 2007. The Pollution Prevention and Control regime implements the European Directive (EC/96/61) on integrated pollution prevention and control.

text: Within the current regulatory framework, Pollution Prevention and Control (PPC) is a regime for controlling pollution from certain industrial activities. The regime introduces the concept of

text: Best Available Techniques

text: ("BAT") to environmental regulations. Operators must use the BAT to control pollution from their industrial activities to prevent, and where that is not practicable, to reduce to acceptable levels, pollution to air, land and water from industrial activities. The Best Available Techniques also aim to balance the cost to the operator against benefits to the environment.The system of Pollution Prevention and Control is replacing that of Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) (which was established by the Environmental Protection Act 1990) and is taking effect between 2000 and 2007. The Pollution Prevention and Control regime implements the European Directive (EC/96/61) on integrated pollution prevention and control.

text: Numerous different uses of the model have been made including (a)analysis of public policies for urban stormwater runoff, (b) researching agricultural methods for surface runoff minimization, (c) innovative solutions for non-point source control and d)engineering aspects of treated wastewater discharge.  Regarding stormwater runoff in Washoe County, the specific elements within a new xeriscape ordinance were analyzed for efficacy using the model.  For the varied agricultural uses in the watershed, the model was run to understand the principal sources of adverse impact, and management practices were developed to reduce in river pollution. Use of the model has specifically been conducted to analyze survival of two endangered species found in the Truckee River and Pyramid Lake: the Cui-ui sucker fish (endangered 1967) and the Lahontan cutthroat trout (threatened 1970).  When the model is used for surface runoff reaching a stream, this pollutant input can be viewed as a line source (e.g., a continuous linear source of pollution entering the waterway).

text: Numerous different uses of the model have been made including (a)analysis of public policies for urban

text: stormwater

text: runoff, (b) researching agricultural methods for

text: surface runoff

text: minimization, (c) innovative solutions for non-point source control and d)engineering aspects of treated wastewater discharge.  Regarding stormwater runoff in

text: Washoe County

text: , the specific elements within a new

text: xeriscape

text: ordinance were analyzed for efficacy using the model.  For the varied agricultural uses in the watershed, the model was run to understand the principal sources of adverse impact, and management practices were developed to reduce in river pollution. Use of the model has specifically been conducted to analyze survival of two

text: endangered species

text: found in the

text: Truckee River

text: and

text: Pyramid Lake

text: : the

text: Cui-ui

text: sucker fish

text: (endangered 1967) and the

text: Lahontan cutthroat trout

text: (threatened 1970).  When the model is used for

text: surface runoff

text: reaching a stream, this pollutant input can be viewed as a

text: line source

text: (e.g., a continuous linear source of pollution entering the waterway).

text: Until recently the river was heavily polluted, and in 1969 even caught fire.  The passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972 made it unlawful to discharge any pollution from a point source into navigable waters and the EPA's National Pollution Discharge Elimination Program was created to regulate these discharges.  In 1986, a non-profit organization of concerned citizens called Friends of the Rouge was formed and began organizing an annual cleanup called Rouge Rescue to raise awareness about the need to clean up the Rouge. In 1987, the entire watershed was designated a Great Lakes Area of Concern under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and nine Beneficial Use Impairments were identified. In 1992, a massive project called the Rouge River National Wet Weather Demonstration Project was implemented  and further cleanup measures are ongoing. The Alliance of Rouge Communities is an organization of governmental and non-governmental entities created in 2006 to manage the watershed.

text: Until recently the river was heavily polluted, and in 1969 even caught fire.  The passage of the

text: Clean Water Act

text: in 1972 made it unlawful to discharge any pollution from a point source into navigable waters and the EPA's National Pollution Discharge Elimination Program was created to regulate these discharges.  In 1986, a non-profit organization of concerned citizens called Friends of the Rouge was formed and began organizing an annual cleanup called Rouge Rescue to raise awareness about the need to clean up the Rouge. In 1987, the entire watershed was designated a Great Lakes Area of Concern under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and nine Beneficial Use Impairments were identified. In 1992, a massive project called the Rouge River National Wet Weather Demonstration Project was implemented  and further cleanup measures are ongoing. The

text: Alliance of Rouge Communities

text: is an organization of governmental and non-governmental entities created in 2006 to manage the watershed.

text: Calico main textile unit was the only textile plant in Ahmedabad to be fuelled by natural gas, with virtually no smoke and no air pollution. To minimize water pollution, Calico had its own primary effluent processing plant, which ensured that no waste was thrown directly into municipal sewers.

text: While the Santa Barbara oil spill was not the sole event which built the regulatory and legislative superstructure of the modern environmental movement in the United States – some prominent pieces of which include the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the Clean Water Act, and in California the California Coastal Commission and California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) – it was one of the most dramatic and visible of the several key events that led up to those changes.  Through the 1960s, industrial pollution and its consequences had come more and more to the public attention, commencing with Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring and including such events as the passage of the Water Quality Act, the campaign to ban DDT, the creation of the National Wilderness Preservation System, the 1967 Torrey Canyon tanker accident which devastated coastal areas in both England and France, and the burning of the Cuyahoga River in downtown Cleveland, Ohio.  At the time, the Santa Barbara spill was the largest oil spill ever in U.S. waters, and its occurrence during a fierce battle between local residents and the very oil company responsible for the spill only made the controversy more intense, the battle more public, and the anti-oil cause seem more valid to a wider segment of the populace.  In the several years after the spill, more environmental legislation was passed than in any other similar period in U.S. history.

text: While the Santa Barbara oil spill was not the sole event which built the regulatory and legislative superstructure of the modern environmental movement in the United States – some prominent pieces of which include the

text: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

text: , the

text: National Environmental Policy Act

text: (NEPA), the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , and in California the

text: California Coastal Commission

text: and

text: California Environmental Quality Act

text: (CEQA) – it was one of the most dramatic and visible of the several key events that led up to those changes.  Through the 1960s, industrial pollution and its consequences had come more and more to the public attention, commencing with Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring and including such events as the passage of the Water Quality Act, the campaign to ban DDT, the creation of the

text: National Wilderness Preservation System

text: , the 1967

text: Torrey Canyon

text: tanker accident which devastated coastal areas in both England and France, and the burning of the

text: Cuyahoga River

text: in downtown

text: Cleveland

text: , Ohio.  At the time, the Santa Barbara spill was the largest oil spill ever in U.S. waters, and its occurrence during a fierce battle between local residents and the very oil company responsible for the spill only made the controversy more intense, the battle more public, and the anti-oil cause seem more valid to a wider segment of the populace.  In the several years after the spill, more environmental legislation was passed than in any other similar period in U.S. history.

text: The role of incineration of waste and equipment used for it has changed radically in the recent years. While they were formerly notorious as pollutant spewing technical monsters in the eyes of citizens' groups, nowadays, thermal waste treatment facilities are considered to be the essential pillars of sustainable, forward-looking recycling and raw material sectors.

text: The role of

text: incineration

text: of waste and equipment used for it has changed radically in the recent years. While they were formerly notorious as pollutant spewing technical monsters in the eyes of citizens' groups, nowadays, thermal

text: waste treatment

text: facilities are considered to be the essential pillars of sustainable, forward-looking

text: recycling

text: and

text: raw material

text: sectors.

text: Originally constituted on 11 August 1959, the Sea Pollution Act set out to prevent the pollution of the sea, gave effect to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, and related matters. Also included was the maintenance of marine pollution, oil pollution, and waste water.

text: Originally constituted on 11 August 1959, the Sea Pollution Act set out to prevent the pollution of the sea, gave effect to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, and related matters. Also included was the maintenance of

text: marine

text: pollution, oil pollution, and waste water.

text: There are a variety of water quality parameters that may be affected by point source water pollution. They include: dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), temperature, pH, turbidity, phosphorus, nitrates, total suspended solids, conductivity, alkalinity, and fecal coliform. Given that much of the point source water pollution in the United States comes from municipal wastewater treatment plants, BOD is perhaps the most widely used metric to assess water quality.

text: There are a variety of

text: water quality

text: parameters that may be affected by point source water pollution. They include:

text: dissolved oxygen

text: and

text: biochemical oxygen demand

text: (BOD), temperature,

text: pH

text: turbidity

text: phosphorus

text: nitrate

text: s,

text: total suspended solids

text: conductivity

text: alkalinity

text: , and

text: fecal coliform

text: . Given that much of the point source water pollution in the United States comes from municipal wastewater treatment plants, BOD is perhaps the most widely used metric to assess water quality.

text: A second source of circulation is water as it follows its natural path through the water cycle. The water cycle, put simply, represents the path that water takes as it circulates around planet earth. It follows a series of stages in which the water changes state multiple times until it finally falls back to earth where it will once again be circulated. In the water cycle, both organic and inorganic pollutants are biodegraded or filtered out whereas they no longer present much of a threat. This is also true for small amounts of chemicals present in the water. However, when there are very large amounts of chemicals, organic or inorganic, present in the water as it cycles through the atmosphere, harmful effects can be seen in areas where this water falls as precipitation. This precipitation re-enters the ongoing circulation of water pollution.

text: A second source of circulation is water as it follows its natural path through the

text: water cycle

text: . The water cycle, put simply, represents the path that water takes as it circulates around planet earth. It follows a series of stages in which the water changes state multiple times until it finally falls back to earth where it will once again be circulated. In the water cycle, both organic and inorganic pollutants are biodegraded or filtered out whereas they no longer present much of a threat. This is also true for small amounts of chemicals present in the water. However, when there are very large amounts of chemicals, organic or inorganic, present in the water as it cycles through the atmosphere, harmful effects can be seen in areas where this water falls as

text: precipitation

text: . This precipitation re-enters the ongoing circulation of water pollution.

text: Regulatory regimes may also use definitions to reflect policy decisions, excluding certain classes of materials from the definition of water pollution that would otherwise be considered to constitute water pollution. For example, the U.S. Clean Water Act definition quoted above later excludes sewage discharged from vessels (further information at Regulation of ship pollution in the United States) - meaning that a common and important class of water pollution is, by definition, not considered a pollutant for purposes of the United States' primary water quality law.

text: Regulatory regimes may also use definitions to reflect policy decisions, excluding certain classes of materials from the definition of water pollution that would otherwise be considered to constitute water pollution. For example, the U.S. Clean Water Act definition quoted above later excludes sewage discharged from vessels (further information at

entity_name: Regulation of ship pollution in the United States

text: Regulation of ship pollution in the United States

text: ) - meaning that a common and important class of

text: water pollution

text: is, by definition, not considered a pollutant for purposes of the United States' primary water quality law.

text: Water pollution sources in Peru include industrial waste, sewage and oil related waste. Peru has 1746 cu km of renewable water resources and 86% of this water is used for farming and 7% for industrial activity. In urban areas only 87% and in rural areas 62% of the population have access to clean water. In major cities 3.0 million tons of waste per year is created. President Alan García campaigned for a "water for all" strategic program, which proposed that and investment of 185 water pipes and sanitation projects. The objective of this program is to expand potable water services from 76%-88% of households; Sanitation from 57%-77%; and sewage from 22%-100% by 2015.Lake Titicaca is a specific concern to Puno in southeastern Peru because of its spiritual and historical significance. Contamination and pollution of the lake seriously affects the health of those that depend on it because the monitoring and testing of the lake is primitive, underfunded and polluted. Because of violence in around the area the government is only now addressing the problem.According to the Oxfam report, more than half of Peru's rivers are extremely polluted in the North the Chillón, Yauli and Mantaro in the central region; and the Chili River in the South.

text: Water pollution sources in Peru include

text: industrial waste

text: sewage

text: and oil related waste. Peru has 1746 cu km of renewable water resources and 86% of this water is used for

text: farming

text: and 7% for industrial activity. In urban areas only 87% and in rural areas 62% of the population have access to clean water. In major cities 3.0 million tons of waste per year is created. President

text: Alan García

text: campaigned for a "water for all" strategic program, which proposed that and investment of 185 water pipes and

text: sanitation

text: projects. The objective of this program is to expand potable water services from 76%-88% of households; Sanitation from 57%-77%; and sewage from 22%-100% by 2015.

text: Lake Titicaca

text: is a specific concern to Puno in southeastern Peru because of its spiritual and historical significance. Contamination and pollution of the lake seriously affects the health of those that depend on it because the monitoring and testing of the lake is primitive, underfunded and polluted. Because of violence in around the area the government is only now addressing the problem.According to the

text: Oxfam

text: report, more than half of Peru's rivers are extremely polluted in the North the

text: Chillón

text: Yauli

text: and

text: Mantaro

text: in the central region; and the

text: Chili River

text: in the South.

text: Nonpoint source pollution from farms is caused by surface runoff from fields during rain storms.  Agricultural runoff is a major source of pollution, in some cases the only source, in many watersheds.

text: Nonpoint source pollution

text: from farms is caused by

text: surface runoff

text: from fields during rain storms.  Agricultural runoff is a major source of

text: pollution

text: , in some cases the only source, in many

text: watersheds

text: Coastal communities that emit waste also contribute to arctic pollution. Arctic coastal communities do not presently have the infrastructure necessary to properly deal with their waste, this could lead to greater pollution in the future as these communities continue to grow in size. Other than coastal communities, waste and litter from the rest of the world continues to be a significant issue in the Arctic, with waste levels doubling in the past ten years. The most significant types of litter found are plastic items and plastic bags.

text: The Waikato River has a high level of pollution due to various point and non-point sources.

text: The

text: Waikato River

text: has a high level of pollution due to various

text: point

text: and

text: non-point source

text: s.

text: The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, or Clean Water Act (CWA), is the principal U.S. law concerned with limiting polluting activity in the nation’s streams, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters. The act’s primary mechanism for controlling pollutant discharges is the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program, authorized in Section 402. In accordance with the NPDES program, pollutant discharges from point sources — a term that includes vessels — are prohibited unless a permit has been obtained. While sewage is defined as a pollutant under the act, sewage from vessels is exempt from this statutory definition and is therefore exempt from the requirement to obtain an NPDES permit. Further, EPA regulations implementing the NPDES permit program provide that “discharges incidental to the normal operation of vessels” are excluded from regulation and thus from permit requirements. However, a 2006 federal court ruling could result in changes to these regulations that would remove the current permitting exemption (see discussion of "Ballast water").

text: The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, or

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA), is the principal U.S. law concerned with limiting polluting activity in the nation’s

text: stream

text: s,

text: lake

text: s,

text: estuaries

text: , and

text: coastal waters

text: . The act’s primary mechanism for controlling pollutant discharges is the

entity_section: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

text: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

text: (NPDES) program, authorized in Section 402. In accordance with the NPDES program, pollutant discharges from

text: point sources

text: — a term that includes vessels — are prohibited unless a permit has been obtained. While

text: sewage

text: is defined as a pollutant under the act, sewage from vessels is exempt from this statutory definition and is therefore exempt from the requirement to obtain an NPDES permit. Further, EPA regulations implementing the NPDES permit program provide that “discharges incidental to the normal operation of vessels” are excluded from regulation and thus from permit requirements. However, a 2006 federal court ruling could result in changes to these regulations that would remove the current permitting exemption (see discussion of "

text: Ballast water

text: Water resources are polluted by the discharge of untreated or insufficiently treated industrial and domestic wastewater, leaching from septic tanks, agricultural non-point sources such as pesticides and nitrates, hospital waste and domestic solid waste, as well as the discharge of motor oil. The Ghadir river in the South of Beirut is probably the most polluted river in the country, while the Wazzani River in South Lebanon may be the least polluted river because of limited economic activity in its basin. The discharge of untreated municipal and industrial effluents, the drainage from agricultural lands, and the uncontrolled discharge of solid wastes have considerably degraded the water quality of the  Qaraoun Lake and the Litani River. Untreated industrial effluents are discharged into the lake and river from sugar-beet factories, paper factories, lead recovery plants, limestone crushers, agro-industries, poultry farms, tanneries and slaughterhouses. According to a 1998 study by the National Council of Scientific Research of Lebanon for UNICEF 60–70% percent of all natural sources were affected by bacterial contamination. An example is the Jeita spring, which has witnessed an increase in fecal coliform bacteria.

text: The environment of Hong Kong has improved while that of Mainland China is heavily polluted. The Pearl River Delta faced serious water pollution and much farmland was turned into industrial uses. The primary industry of Guangdong decreased from 70.7% to only 32.9%, while that of the secondary industry rose from 12.2% to 20.7%. From 1988 to 2009, the area of rice fields dropped by 32%. Consequently, local governments of South China passed laws to restrict industrial pollution.

text: The water footprint of an individual, community or business is defined as the total volume of freshwater used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise or economic sector). The water footprint is a geographically explicit indicator, not only showing volumes of water use and pollution, but also the locations.

text: The Pannagam thodu is almost free from water pollution. There are a few issues affecting the water pollution mainly by disposal of urban and domestic waste into the streams.

text: The Pannagam thodu is almost free from

text: water pollution

text: . There are a few issues affecting the water pollution mainly by disposal of urban and domestic waste into the streams.

text: The overproduction and low cost of commodity grains encourages the  mass production of livestock in concentrated feedlots and has led to large expansions in cattle feedlots, hog factories and broiler productions. The USDA provides marketing assistance to agriculture, encouraging Americans to drink more milk, eat more eggs and eat more meat. Encouraging the increased consumption of these foods heightens the demand for commodity corn, since one of its main usages is animal feed. Large scale expansion of concentrated animal feeding operations contributes to air, water and soil pollution. Combined, the poultry, pork and beef industries produce six to ten times more waste than humans.  The Environmental Protection Agency also explains that waste from animals from factory farms contains phosphorus, nitrogen, pathogens and veterinary pharmaceuticals (including hormones and antibiotics) which runoff and pollute the soil and water. Emissions of gases and particulates from the animals also pollute the air.

text: The overproduction and low cost of commodity grains encourages the  mass production of livestock in concentrated

text: feedlots

text: and has led to large expansions in cattle feedlots, hog factories and broiler productions. The USDA provides marketing assistance to agriculture, encouraging Americans to drink more milk, eat more eggs and eat more meat. Encouraging the increased consumption of these foods heightens the demand for commodity corn, since one of its main usages is animal feed. Large scale expansion of concentrated animal feeding operations contributes to

text: air

text: water

text: and

text: soil pollution

text: . Combined, the

text: poultry

text: pork

text: and

text: beef

text: industries produce six to ten times more

text: waste

text: than humans.  The

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: also explains that waste from animals from factory farms contains

text: phosphorus

text: nitrogen

text: pathogens

text: and veterinary

text: pharmaceuticals

text: (including

text: hormones

text: and

text: antibiotics

text: ) which

text: runoff

text: and pollute the soil and water. Emissions of

text: gases

text: and particulates from the animals also pollute the air.

text: By the 1980s, the countryside was beginning to show the effects of pollution, both from herbicides used in agriculture and from industrial pollutants. Most noticeable was the gradual contamination of the country's bodies of water, endangering fish and wildlife. Although concern was mounting over these disturbing threats to the environment, no major steps had yet been taken to arrest them.

text: Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment, and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions.

text: Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and

text: remediation

text: of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport,

text: water purification

text: waste water treatment

text: , air pollution,

text: solid waste treatment

text: , and

text: hazardous waste management

text: . Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering, and

text: industrial ecology

text: . Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions.

text: In the United States, Water Quality Standards are defined by state agencies for various water bodies, guided by the desired uses for the water body (e.g., fish habitat, drinking water supply, recreational use). The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d) and 305(b) reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and approved by, EPA. These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction, typically a state environmental agency. EPA recommends that each state submit a single "Integrated Report" comprising its list of impaired waters and the status of all water bodies in the state. The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a general report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition. The CWA requires states to adopt standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Should evidence suggest or document that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet the water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on a list of impaired waters. Once a state has placed a water body on this list, it must develop a management plan establishing Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for the pollutant(s) impairing the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses.

text: In the United States,

text: Water Quality Standards

text: are defined by state agencies for various water bodies, guided by the desired uses for the water body (e.g., fish habitat, drinking water supply, recreational use). The

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA) requires each governing jurisdiction (states, territories, and covered tribal entities) to submit a set of biennial reports on the quality of water in their area. These reports are known as the 303(d) and 305(b) reports, named for their respective CWA provisions, and are submitted to, and approved by, EPA. These reports are completed by the governing jurisdiction, typically a

text: state environmental agency

text: . EPA recommends that each state submit a single "Integrated Report" comprising its list of impaired waters and the status of all water bodies in the state. The National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress is a general report on water quality, providing overall information about the number of miles of streams and rivers and their aggregate condition. The CWA requires states to adopt standards for each of the possible designated uses that they assign to their waters. Should evidence suggest or document that a stream, river or lake has failed to meet the water quality criteria for one or more of its designated uses, it is placed on a list of impaired waters. Once a state has placed a water body on this list, it must develop a management plan establishing

text: Total Maximum Daily Load

text: s (TMDLs) for the pollutant(s) impairing the use of the water. These TMDLs establish the reductions needed to fully support the designated uses.

text: The Deputy Secretary for Water Management plans, directs, and coordinates departmental programs associated with the management and protection of the commonwealth’s water resources; coordinates policies, procedures, and regulations that influence public water supply withdrawals and quality, sewage facilities planning, point source municipal and industrial discharges, encroachments upon waterways and wetlands, dam safety, earth disturbance activities, and control of stormwater and non-point source pollution; and coordinates the planning, design, and construction of flood protection and stream improvement projects. The bureaus of Conservation and Restoration, Waterways Engineering and Wetlands, Point and Non-Point Source Regulation, and Safe Drinking Water and the Office of Interstate Waters are housed here.

text: EPA investigations have been completed at multiple areas of contamination including landfills, discharge areas, chemical disposal areas, fire training areas, fuel spill areas, and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) spill areas. Through the fiscal year 2006, $164.27 million was spent on cleanup activities at Castle. The USAF expects to spend an additional $70.98 million through fiscal year 2044. Approximately 6000 people obtain their drinking water from both municipal and private wells located near the site. The principal pollutant at the base, trichloroethylene (TCE), was found in a plume. Merced Irrigation purified the water at the edge of the plume and released the purified water outside the plume. Working their way inward, they managed to clean the contaminated water. The methods used to purify the groundwater included passing the water through carbon filters and then aerating it. The pollutant remaining after purification was packaged in a barrel and removed from the site. In 1991, a Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Cleanup Team (BCT) was created to review and offer comments/recommendations on the progress of the cleanup effort at Castle. BCT membership included representatives from the Air Force, federal and state regulatory agencies, and appointed representatives from the governing bodies of surrounding communities. The Castle RAB, or Restoration Advisory Board, which was established in 1994 on behalf of the former Castle Air Force Base, was responsible for reviewing Federal cleanup methods and efforts, and was officially adjourned on January 16, 2007.

text: EPA

text: investigations have been completed at multiple areas of contamination including

text: landfills

text: , discharge areas, chemical disposal areas, fire training areas, fuel spill areas, and

text: polychlorinated biphenyl

text: (PCB) spill areas. Through the fiscal year 2006, $164.27 million was spent on cleanup activities at Castle. The USAF expects to spend an additional $70.98 million through fiscal year 2044. Approximately 6000 people obtain their

text: drinking water

text: from both municipal and private wells located near the site. The principal pollutant at the base,

text: trichloroethylene

text: (TCE), was found in a plume. Merced Irrigation purified the water at the edge of the plume and released the purified water outside the plume. Working their way inward, they managed to clean the contaminated water. The methods used to purify the groundwater included passing the water through carbon filters and then aerating it. The pollutant remaining after purification was packaged in a barrel and removed from the site. In 1991, a Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Cleanup Team (BCT) was created to review and offer comments/recommendations on the progress of the cleanup effort at Castle. BCT membership included representatives from the Air Force, federal and state regulatory agencies, and appointed representatives from the governing bodies of surrounding communities. The Castle RAB, or Restoration Advisory Board, which was established in 1994 on behalf of the former Castle Air Force Base, was responsible for reviewing Federal cleanup methods and efforts, and was officially adjourned on January 16, 2007.

text: Threats to water quality come from point and non-point discharges. Point source pollution is discharged directly from a specific site such as a municipal sewage treatment plant or an industrial outfall pipe. There are no point source discharges within the Town of Columbia.

text: The spill had a severe impact on the coastal area surrounding Madinat 'al-Jubayl as Sinaiyah, the major industrial and population center newly planned and built by the Saudi government. The spill threatened industrial facilities in 'Al Jubayl because of the seawater cooling system for primary industries and threatened the supply of potable water produced by seawater-fed desalination plants. The 'Al Jubayl community harbor and Abu Ali Island, which juts into the gulf immediately north of 'Al Jubayl, experienced the greatest pollution, with the main effect of the spill concentrated in mangrove areas and shrimp grounds. Large numbers of marine birds, such as cormorants, grebes, and auks, were killed when their plumage was coated with oil. In addition, beaches along the entire 'Al Jubayl coastline were covered with oil and tar balls.

text: Almost 90% of plastic debris that pollutes ocean water, which translates to 5.6 million tons, comes from ocean-based sources. Merchant ships expel cargo, sewage, used medical equipment, and other types of waste that contain plastic into the ocean. Naval and research vessels also eject waste and military equipment that are deemed unnecessary. Pleasure crafts also release fishing gear and other types of waste. These different ships do not have enough storage space to keep these pollutants on the ship, and thus they are discarded. These plastic items can also accidentally end up in the water through negligent handling. The largest ocean-based source of plastic pollution is discarded fishing gear, responsible for up to 90% of plastic debris in some areas. This equipment includes a variety of traps and nets.

text: Oils spills, when they occur, are detrimental to the surrounding environment, humans, and native wildlife. This type of spill is statistically rare, given how much oil is pumped, refined, transported, and stored each day. In 1999, according to US Coast Guard data, of over 3.2 billion barrels of oil transported by oil tanker in the US, fewer than 200 barrels were spilled. The occurrence of oil spills has decreased in the current decades, with approximately 77% less oil spilled since the 1970s. This is due to increased awareness and improved technology.

text: Oils spills

text: , when they occur, are detrimental to the surrounding environment, humans, and native wildlife. This type of spill is statistically rare, given how much oil is pumped, refined, transported, and stored each day. In 1999, according to US Coast Guard data, of over 3.2 billion barrels of oil transported by oil tanker in the US, fewer than 200 barrels were spilled. The occurrence of oil spills has decreased in the current decades, with approximately 77% less oil spilled since the 1970s. This is due to increased awareness and improved technology.

text: Agricultural operations account for a large percentage of all nonpoint source pollution in the United States. When large tracts of land are plowed to grow crops, it exposes and loosens soil that was once buried. This makes the exposed soil more vulnerable to erosion during rainstorms. It also can increase the amount of fertilizer and pesticides carried into nearby bodies of water.

text: Agricultural operations account for a large percentage of all nonpoint source pollution in the United States. When large tracts of land are

text: plow

text: ed to grow

text: crops

text: , it exposes and loosens soil that was once buried. This makes the exposed soil more vulnerable to

text: erosion

text: during

text: rainstorm

text: s. It also can increase the amount of fertilizer and pesticides carried into nearby bodies of water.

text: Following the Exxon Valdez spill, the United States passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA-90), which excluded single-hull tank vessels of 5,000 gross tons or more from US waters from 2010 onward, apart from those with a double bottom or double sides, which may be permitted to trade to the United States through 2015, depending on their age. Following the sinkings of the Erika (1999) and Prestige (2002), the European Union passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I, II, and III), which also require all tankers entering its waters to be double-hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence".

text: Following the Exxon Valdez spill, the United States passed the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: (OPA-90), which excluded single-hull tank vessels of 5,000 gross tons or more from US waters from 2010 onward, apart from those with a double bottom or double sides, which may be permitted to trade to the United States through 2015, depending on their age. Following the sinkings of the

text: Erika

text: (1999) and

text: Prestige

text: (2002), the European Union passed its own stringent anti-pollution packages (known as Erika I, II, and III), which also require all tankers entering its waters to be double-hulled by 2010. The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of "serious negligence".

text: Hoy no Circula was started in late 1989, and consisted of prohibiting the circulation of 20% of vehicles from Monday to Friday depending on the last digit of their license plates (see table). The program was planned to apply only during the winter, when air pollution is at its worst. Winter follows the rainy season when thermal inversion, an atmospheric condition which traps smog and pollution close to the ground, increases air pollution noticeably. However, the program was made permanent at the end of the 1990 winter season.

text: Hoy no Circula was started in late 1989, and consisted of prohibiting the circulation of 20% of vehicles from Monday to Friday depending on the last digit of their

text: license plate

text: s (see table). The program was planned to apply only during the winter, when

text: air pollution

text: is at its worst. Winter follows the rainy season when

text: thermal inversion

text: , an atmospheric condition which traps smog and pollution close to the ground, increases air pollution noticeably. However, the program was made permanent at the end of the 1990 winter season.

text: Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water occasionally results in significant environmental degradation resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated drill cuttings, but also from oil spills. While the oil gusher involved in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico originates from a wellhead only 1500 meters below the ocean surface, it nevertheless illustrates the kind of environmental disaster that can result from mishaps related to offshore drilling for oil and gas.

text: Hydrocarbon exploration in deep water occasionally results in significant

text: environmental degradation

text: resulting mainly from accumulation of contaminated

text: drill cuttings

text: , but also from

text: oil spill

text: s. While the

text: oil gusher

text: involved in the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: originates from a

text: wellhead

text: only 1500 meters below the ocean surface, it nevertheless illustrates the kind of

text: environmental disaster

text: that can result from mishaps related to

text: offshore drilling

text: for oil and gas.

text: Unlike the crew aboard the Emily S., the governments of the United States and Puerto Rico were well prepared to deal with the spill. The two countries also met most of the requirements that were set forth by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. For example, a spill response plan for the area had been developed and it was executed to near perfection. Millions of dollars of oil cleanup equipment was already stationed in Puerto Rico and was deployed into action within a matter of hours after the spill. As mentioned earlier, despite the overall success of Puerto Rico's oil spill response plans there were still some areas for improvement. For example, there were some mechanical failures with some skimmer boats, inappropriate use of oil soaking materials, and an insufficient number of properly trained personnel. There were also problems with communication between agencies as well as some organizational issues during the cleanup process. The Berman spill served as a field test of how well the plans set forth by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 worked, and provided many examples on how future spill response efforts could be improved. Several, though not all, of the things learned during this spill affected response efforts for future spills such as the BP Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010.

text: Unlike the crew aboard the Emily S., the governments of the

text: United States

text: and Puerto Rico were well prepared to deal with the spill. The two countries also met most of the requirements that were set forth by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. For example, a spill response plan for the area had been developed and it was executed to near perfection. Millions of dollars of oil cleanup equipment was already stationed in Puerto Rico and was deployed into action within a matter of hours after the spill. As mentioned earlier, despite the overall success of Puerto Rico's oil spill response plans there were still some areas for improvement. For example, there were some mechanical failures with some skimmer boats, inappropriate use of oil soaking materials, and an insufficient number of properly trained personnel. There were also problems with communication between agencies as well as some organizational issues during the cleanup process. The Berman spill served as a field test of how well the plans set forth by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 worked, and provided many examples on how future spill response efforts could be improved. Several, though not all, of the things learned during this spill affected response efforts for future spills such as the

text: BP Oil Spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: in 2010.

text: The European Commission published three reports on the implementation of the directive, the latest in 2004. The report noted that the wastewater treatment situation in Europe is still very unsatisfactory and that none of the deadlines has been met by all member countries. Only Austria, Denmark and Germany fully complied with the directive. The report noted that BOD levels in European rivers have been reduced by 20–30 percent since the enactment of the directive, but that other pollution parameters such as nitrogen levels remained high. The reason is that much of the nitrogen pollution comes from non-point sources in agriculture, and the still insufficient nutrient removal by wastewater treatment plants. The eutrophication of the Baltic Sea, North Sea and considerable parts of the Mediterranean thus remains a "severe problem". The report also noted that it is estimated that more than 50 percent of the discharges into sensitive areas was not treated sufficiently. Even for non-sensitive areas, although the picture was less bleak, only 69% of the discharge received treatment and the 2000 deadline was not met by most member countries. 25 out of 556 cities in the EU still had no wastewater treatment system at all.

text: The

text: European Commission

text: published three reports on the implementation of the directive, the latest in 2004. The report noted that the wastewater treatment situation in Europe is still very unsatisfactory and that none of the deadlines has been met by all member countries. Only Austria, Denmark and Germany fully complied with the directive. The report noted that

text: BOD

text: levels in European rivers have been reduced by 20–30 percent since the enactment of the directive, but that other pollution parameters such as nitrogen levels remained high. The reason is that much of the nitrogen pollution comes from non-point sources in agriculture, and the still insufficient nutrient removal by wastewater treatment plants. The

text: eutrophication

text: of the

text: Baltic Sea

text: North Sea

text: and considerable parts of the

text: Mediterranean

text: thus remains a "severe problem". The report also noted that it is estimated that more than 50 percent of the discharges into sensitive areas was not treated sufficiently. Even for non-sensitive areas, although the picture was less bleak, only 69% of the discharge received treatment and the 2000 deadline was not met by most member countries. 25 out of 556 cities in the EU still had no wastewater treatment system at all.

text: Coastal pollution is widespread, leading to declines in habitat quality and increasing harmful algal blooms. The largest algal bloom recorded in history occurred in China around the southern Yellow Sea in 2008, and was easily observed from space.

text: Coastal pollution is widespread, leading to declines in habitat quality and increasing harmful

text: algal bloom

text: s. The largest

text: algal bloom

text: recorded in history occurred in China around the southern Yellow Sea in 2008, and was easily observed from space.

text: Sewer overflows. Combined sewer overflows (CSO) and sanitary sewer overflows affect the quality of water resources in many parts of the U.S. About 772 communities have combined sewer systems, serving about 40 million people, mostly in the Northeast, the Great Lakes Region and the Pacific Northwest. CSO discharges during heavy storms can cause serious water pollution. A 2004 EPA report to Congress estimated that there are 9,348 CSO outflows in the U.S., discharging about  of untreated wastewater and storm water to the environment. EPA estimates that between 23,000 and 75,000 sanitary sewer overflows occur each year, resulting in releases of between 3 and  of untreated wastewater.

text: Sewer overflows.

text: Combined sewer overflow

text: s (CSO) and

text: sanitary sewer

text: overflows affect the quality of water resources in many parts of the U.S. About 772 communities have

text: combined sewer

text: systems, serving about 40 million people, mostly in the Northeast, the Great Lakes Region and the Pacific Northwest. CSO discharges during heavy storms can cause serious

text: water pollution

text: . A 2004 EPA report to Congress estimated that there are 9,348 CSO outflows in the U.S., discharging about  of untreated wastewater and storm water to the environment. EPA estimates that between 23,000 and 75,000 sanitary sewer overflows occur each year, resulting in releases of between 3 and  of untreated wastewater.

text: There are three primary federal laws effecting NPS water pollution: the Clean Water Act, the Clean Water Action Plan, and the Coastal Zone Management Act.

text: Point-source pollution occurs when pollutants enter a waterway directly. This could be from such causes as waste being dumped into a waterway. In the past, lakes and other waterways were used as a place to dump waste because it was thought that water could dilute anything, whereas more recent studies have shown this to be extremely incorrect. After several hundreds of years of constant dumping, many waterways have become contaminated with toxic chemicals and human waste.

text: TMDLs apply to both point sources and nonpoint sources and they represent the primary impetus for WQT programs. Point sources of pollutants that require NPDES permits often have strict discharge limits based on a TMDL. WQT can allow these sources to obtain lower costs of compliance, while still achieving the overall desired pollution reduction. Several factors influence whether or not a TMDL-based water quality trading program will be successful. First, the market must be appropriately structured within the regulatory framework of the Clean Water Act. Second, the pollutant must be well-suited for trading. Third, implementation of a WQT market requires public input and voluntary participation. Finally, there must be adequate differences in pollution control costs and available opportunities for reduction.

text: The reasonable use of the water by a riparian owner is subject to the downstream riparian owners 'riparian right' to receive waters undiminished in flow and quality. Since all surface waters eventually flow to the public ocean, federal regulatory authority under the Clean Waters Act, like the Clean Air Act, extends beyond only public (navigable) waters to prevent downstream pollution.

text: The pollution produced by heavy industry seriously degraded air quality.  The air contained high concentrations of sulfur dioxide because the energy production was largely based on combustion of fuel high in sulfur.  As a result, 50 percent of the forests were either dead or dying.  Cases of bronchitis and asthma in children almost doubled with the increase in the use of sulfur dioxide.  The water, too, was affected by the excessive pollution, both from industrial fertilizers and oil spills.  The lack of water waste treatment meant that a large portion of the water was undrinkable for the population, and some of the water was so bad that it was even unusable by the industry.  Conditions were worst in Northern Bohemia, which was a part of the so-called ‘triangle of death’ that also included South-East East Germany and South-West Poland, but the effects were also felt beyond the region in which the pollution originated.  The Danube River carried much of the pollution to other areas of the state and other countries, and acid rain brought the pollution directly to the cities, where it could eat away at the buildings and statues.

text: The

text: pollution

text: produced by heavy industry seriously degraded air quality.  The air contained high concentrations of

text: sulfur dioxide

text: because the energy production was largely based on combustion of fuel high in sulfur.  As a result, 50 percent of the forests were either dead or dying.  Cases of

text: bronchitis

text: and

text: asthma

text: in children almost doubled with the increase in the use of sulfur dioxide.  The water, too, was affected by the excessive pollution, both from industrial

text: fertilizer

text: s and

text: oil spill

text: s.  The lack of water

text: waste treatment

text: meant that a large portion of the water was undrinkable for the population, and some of the water was so bad that it was even unusable by the industry.  Conditions were worst in Northern

text: Bohemia

text: , which was a part of the so-called ‘triangle of death’ that also included South-East

text: East Germany

text: and South-West

text: Poland

text: , but the effects were also felt beyond the region in which the pollution originated.  The

text: Danube River

text: carried much of the pollution to other areas of the state and other countries, and

text: acid rain

text: brought the pollution directly to the cities, where it could eat away at the buildings and statues.

text: The definition of NPS water pollution is open to interpretation. However, federal regulation under the CWA provides a specific legal definition for the term. A "nonpoint source" is defined as any source of water pollution that is not a "point source" as defined in section 502(14) of the Clean Water Act.  That definition states: "The term 'point source' means any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft, from which pollutants are or may be discharged. This term does not include agricultural storm water discharges and return flows from irrigated agriculture."

text: Significant quantities of air pollutants are emitted from each plant, although considerable resources are expended in applying Best Available Control Technology.  For example, in the city of Philadelphia, O'Brien Cogeneration operates two separate plants that emit a total of approximately 17,000 pounds per year of air pollutants, making O'Brien a medium size industrial emitter in that city; in Philadelphia a total of six discrete chemical air pollutants are recognised, and a total of twelve distinct stack sources are present.

text: Significant quantities of air pollutants are emitted from each plant, although considerable resources are expended in applying

text: Best Available Control Technology

text: .  For example, in the city of Philadelphia, O'Brien Cogeneration operates two separate plants that emit a total of approximately 17,000 pounds per year of air pollutants, making O'Brien a medium size industrial emitter in that city; in Philadelphia a total of six discrete chemical air pollutants are recognised, and a total of twelve distinct stack sources are present.

text: Oil spills are probably the most emotive of marine pollution events. However, while a tanker wreck may result in extensive newspaper headlines, much of the oil in the world’s seas comes from other smaller sources, such as tankers discharging ballast water from oil tanks used on return ships, leaking pipelines or engine oil disposed of down sewers.

text: Rich agricultural soil is sacrificed for urbanisation. The urbanisation resulting from migratie from areas with employment opportunities results in pollution of the surface water, soil erosion and environmental pollution because of the lack of water purifying installtions and uncontrolled waste disposal.

text: Again computer models are needed to address the complexity of such an extended linear discharge into a dynamic medium such as flowing water.  The resulting surface runoff water carrying pollutants may be considered a line source discharging into a river or stream.  The chemical composition of this surface runoff may be characterized by a surface runoff model such as the USGS runoff precipitation algorithm, while the instream transport may be analyzed by a dynamic river pollutant model such as DSSAM.

text: Again computer models are needed to address the complexity of such an extended linear discharge into a dynamic medium such as flowing water.  The resulting surface runoff water carrying pollutants may be considered a line source discharging into a river or stream.  The chemical composition of this surface runoff may be characterized by a surface runoff model such as the USGS runoff precipitation algorithm, while the instream transport may be analyzed by a dynamic river pollutant model such as

text: DSSAM

text: The Ibar gained notoriety as being the most polluted river in Serbia (together with its major tributary, the Sitnica), especially from frequent spills of extremely poisonous phenol, which causes constant problems for the population of Kraljevo, since the city uses the river's water for public waterworks.

text: Due to the year round cooling process,the warm water has an affect on the environment called Thermal Pollution. Thermal pollution is defined as "a rise in the temperature of rivers and lakes that is injurious to water-dwelling life, and is caused by the disposal of heated industrial waste water." One effect that thermal pollution has, is it reduces the levels of Dissolved Oxygen in the water. The dissolved oxygen reduces the amount of oxygen in the water that plants and animals need to survive. Warm water also provokes the spread of algae in the water which can also reduce levels of oxygen. Another effect that thermal pollution has on the environment is it increases the metabolic rate of organisms. "Increasing enzyme activity occurs that causes organisms to consume more food than what is normally required... It disrupts the stability of the food chain and (can) alter the balance of species composition." However, it is hard to tell if the thermal pollution from the plant is affecting the environment to the point where plants and animals are dying off. While many people are attracted to the lake for the warm water and  fishing, others refuse to go near the lake due to the possible toxicants it may carry.

text: Due to the year round cooling process,the warm water has an affect on the environment called

text: Thermal Pollution

text: . Thermal pollution is defined as "a rise in the temperature of rivers and lakes that is injurious to water-dwelling life, and is caused by the disposal of heated industrial waste water." One effect that thermal pollution has, is it reduces the levels of

text: Dissolved Oxygen

text: in the water. The dissolved oxygen reduces the amount of oxygen in the water that plants and animals need to survive. Warm water also provokes the spread of algae in the water which can also reduce levels of oxygen. Another effect that thermal pollution has on the environment is it increases the metabolic rate of organisms. "Increasing enzyme activity occurs that causes organisms to consume more food than what is normally required... It disrupts the stability of the food chain and (can) alter the balance of species composition." However, it is hard to tell if the thermal pollution from the plant is affecting the environment to the point where plants and animals are dying off. While many people are attracted to the lake for the warm water and  fishing, others refuse to go near the lake due to the possible toxicants it may carry.

text: There is decreasing biodiversity, deforestation, grasslands destruction, monoculture tree plantations, and invasive exotic plant species in the park.There is sewage pollution, solid waste pollution and mercury contamination,Mercury pollution There is also sound pollution, visual pollution, uncontrolled tourism, overdevelopment and lake eutrophication in and near Kodaikanal town. The Government of Tamil Nadu and several local NGO conservation groups  are actively working to reduce some of these threats:

text: There is decreasing

text: biodiversity

text: deforestation

text: , grasslands destruction,

text: monoculture

text: tree plantations, and

text: invasive

text: exotic plant species

text: in the park.There is

text: sewage

text: pollution

text: solid waste

text: pollution and

text: mercury

text: contamination

text: Mercury pollution

text: There is also

text: sound pollution

text: visual pollution

text: , uncontrolled

text: tourism

text: overdevelopment

text: and lake

text: eutrophication

text: in and near Kodaikanal town. The Government of Tamil Nadu and several local

text: NGO

text: conservation

text: groups  are actively working to reduce some of these threats:

text: There is a serious concern for pollution in the seas surrounding the Liancourt Rocks. The sewage water treatment system established on the islets has malfunctioned and sewage water produced by inhabitants of the Liancourt Rocks such as South Korean Coast Guard and lighthouse staff is being dumped directly into the ocean. Significant water pollution has been observed; sea water has turned milky white, sea vegetation is progressively dying off, and calcification of coral reefs is spreading. The pollution is also causing loss of biodiversity in the surrounding seas. In November 2004, eight tons of malodorous sludge was being dumped into the ocean every day. Efforts have since been made by both public and private organizations to help curb the level of pollution surrounding the Rocks.

text: There is a serious concern for pollution in the seas surrounding the Liancourt Rocks. The sewage water treatment system established on the islets has malfunctioned and sewage water produced by inhabitants of the Liancourt Rocks such as South Korean Coast Guard and lighthouse staff is being dumped directly into the ocean. Significant water pollution has been observed; sea water has turned milky white, sea vegetation is progressively dying off, and calcification of coral reefs is spreading. The pollution is also causing loss of

text: biodiversity

text: in the surrounding seas. In November 2004, eight tons of malodorous

text: sludge

text: was being dumped into the ocean every day. Efforts have since been made by both public and private organizations to help curb the level of pollution surrounding the Rocks.

text: Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen of water. This can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and other aquatic organisms. Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not changed. An increased metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result, food chains of the old and new environments may be compromised. Some fish species will avoid stream segments or coastal areas adjacent to a thermal discharge. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result.

text: Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of

text: dissolved oxygen

text: of water. This can harm aquatic animals such as fish,

text: amphibians

text: and other aquatic organisms. Thermal pollution may also increase the

text: metabolic

text: rate of aquatic animals, as

text: enzyme

text: activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not changed. An increased metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result,

text: food chain

text: s of the old and new environments may be compromised. Some fish species will avoid stream segments or coastal areas adjacent to a thermal discharge.

text: Biodiversity

text: can be decreased as a result.

text: When a collection system is used, the offgas must be cooled to condense the bulk of the volatilized components into a liquid. The offgas will exit most desorbers in the 350-900 °F range. The offgas is then typically cooled to somewhere between 120 and 40 °F to condense the bulk of the volatilized water and organic contaminants. Even at 40 °F, there may be measurable amounts of non-condensed organics. For this reason, after the condensation step, further treatment of the offgas is usually required. The cooled offgas may be treated by carbon adsorption, or thermal oxidation. Thermal oxidation can be accomplished using a catalytic oxidizer, an afterburner or by routing the offgas to the combustion heat source for the desorber. The volume of gas requiring treatment for indirect fired desorbers is a fraction of that required for a direct fired desorber. This requires smaller air pollution control trains for the gaseous process vent emissions. Some thermal desorption systems recycle the carrier gas, thereby further reducing the volume of gaseous emissions.

text: Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing release of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic plume.

text: Interactions between

text: groundwater

text: and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface

text: water pollution

text: . By its very nature, groundwater

text: aquifer

text: s are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing release of chemical or

text: radionuclide

text: contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic

text: plume

text: Another serious effect created by the oil-related industries has been the pollution around the Houston Ship Channel and in Galveston Bay. By the 1970s, these waterways were among the most polluted waters in the United States. Though industrial sources were major sources of pollution, urbanization around the bay also contributed significantly to pollution levels. In recent decades, most of the pollution in the bay is the result of storm run-off from various smaller commercial, agricultural, and residential sources, as opposed to the major industrial complexes. Conservation efforts in the mid to late 20th century by area industries and municipalities have helped to dramatically improve water quality in the bay reversing at least some of the earlier damage to the ecosystem.

text: Water is also used in many large scale industrial processes, such as thermoelectric power production, oil refining, fertilizer production and other chemical plant use, and natural gas extraction from shale rock. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and increased water temperature (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge. Most of this pure water is generated on site, either from natural freshwater or from municipal grey water. Industrial consumption of water is generally much lower than withdrawal, due to laws requiring industrial grey water to be treated and returned to the environment. Thermoelectric powerplants using cooling towers have high consumption, nearly equal to their withdrawal, as most of the withdrawn water is evaporated as part of the cooling process. The withdrawal, however, is lower than in once-through cooling systems.

text: Water is also used in many large scale industrial processes, such as thermoelectric power production, oil refining, fertilizer production and other chemical plant use, and natural gas extraction from shale rock. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and increased water temperature (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge. Most of this pure water is generated on site, either from natural freshwater or from municipal

text: grey water

text: . Industrial consumption of water is generally much lower than withdrawal, due to laws requiring industrial grey water to be treated and returned to the environment. Thermoelectric powerplants using

text: cooling towers

text: have high consumption, nearly equal to their withdrawal, as most of the withdrawn water is evaporated as part of the cooling process. The withdrawal, however, is lower than in

text: once-through cooling

text: systems.

text: Two years following the Torrey Canyon spill, an oil platform eruption in the Santa Barbara Channel made national headlines and thrust oil pollution into the public spot light. As a result, in 1970, Congress placed oil pollution under the authority of the Federal Water Pollution Act (FWPA) of 1965, which later became the Clean Water Act of 1972 and had previously only covered sewage and Industrial discharge.  The FWPA set specific liability limitations. For example, vessels transporting oil were liable only up to $250,000 or $150 per gross ton. These limitations rarely covered the cost of removal and cleanup, let alone damages.

text: Two years following the Torrey Canyon spill, an oil platform eruption in the

text: Santa Barbara Channel

text: made national headlines and thrust oil pollution into the public spot light. As a result, in 1970,

text: Congress

text: placed oil pollution under the authority of the Federal Water Pollution Act (FWPA) of 1965, which later became the

text: Clean Water Act of 1972

text: and had previously only covered sewage and Industrial discharge.  The FWPA set specific liability limitations. For example, vessels transporting oil were liable only up to $250,000 or $150 per gross ton. These limitations rarely covered the cost of removal and cleanup, let alone damages.

text: TDEC is legally responsible for the protection of Tennessee's air, water, and soil quality. As of 2006, the Department had at least fourteen divisions: the Division of Air Pollution Control, the Division of Archaeology, the Division of Geology, the Division of Ground Water Protection, the Division of Internal Audit, the Division of Natural Heritage, the Division of Radiological Health, the Division of Remediation, the Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management, the Division of Underground Storage Tanks, the Division of Water Pollution Control, the Division of Water Supply, the Recreational Services Division, and the Department of Energy Oversight Division. The Department also manages Tennessee's state parks and the Tennessee Historical Commission. According to the Tennessee State Library and Archives governor papers, the Department once had a Hotel & Restaurant Division, which today exists in the Department of Tourist Development.

text: TDEC is legally responsible for the protection of Tennessee's air,

text: water

text: , and soil quality. As of 2006, the Department had at least fourteen divisions: the Division of

text: Air Pollution

text: Control, the

text: Division of Archaeology

text: , the Division of

text: Geology

text: , the Division of

text: Ground Water

text: Protection, the Division of Internal Audit, the Division of Natural Heritage, the Division of Radiological Health, the Division of

text: Remediation

text: , the Division of Solid and

text: Hazardous

text: Waste Management

text: , the Division of

text: Underground Storage Tank

text: s, the Division of

text: Water Pollution

text: Control, the Division of

text: Water Supply

text: , the

text: Recreation

text: al Services Division, and the

text: Department of Energy

text: Oversight Division. The Department also manages

text: Tennessee's state parks

text: and the

text: Tennessee Historical Commission

text: . According to the

text: Tennessee State Library and Archives

text: governor papers, the Department once had a Hotel & Restaurant Division, which today exists in the

entity_name: Tennessee Department of Tourist Development

text: Department of Tourist Development

text: Pollution and environment<br>Air pollution is a problem for Jeddah, particularly on hot summer days. The city has experienced bush fires, landfill fires, and pollution from the two industrial zones in the north and the south of the metropolitan area. A water treatment factory and the seaport also contribute to water pollution. Much of the seafront, however, is considered to be safe and clean.

text: Pollution and environment<br>Air pollution is a problem for Jeddah, particularly on hot summer days. The city has experienced bush fires,

text: landfill

text: fires, and pollution from the two industrial zones in the north and the south of the metropolitan area. A water treatment factory and the

text: seaport

text: also contribute to water pollution. Much of the seafront, however, is considered to be safe and clean.

text: The two main contributors to water pollution caused by CAFOs are soluble nitrogen compounds and phosphorus. The eutrophication of water bodies from such waste is harmful to wildlife and water quality in aquatic system like streams, lakes, and oceans.

text: The two main contributors to water pollution caused by CAFOs are soluble nitrogen compounds and phosphorus. The

text: eutrophication

text: of water bodies from such waste is harmful to wildlife and water quality in aquatic system like streams, lakes, and oceans.

text: While soil pollution is present in Canada, it is not yet an area of great national concern. Some of the main causes of soil pollution include chemical/oil spills into the ground, road salt, excessive pesticide use by farmers, acid rain, and polluted water.

text: Major oil spills include the Kuwaiti oil fires, Kuwaiti oil lakes, Lakeview Gusher, Gulf War oil spill, and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Spilt oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.

text: Major oil spills include the

text: Kuwaiti oil fires

text: Kuwaiti oil lakes

text: Lakeview Gusher

text: Gulf War oil spill

text: , and the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: . Spilt oil penetrates into the structure of the

text: plumage

text: of birds and the

text: fur

text: of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less

text: buoyant

text: in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.

text: There are dozens of different transport models that can be generally grouped by pollutants addressed, complexity of pollutant sources, whether the model is steady state or dynamic, and time period modeled. Another important designation is whether the model is distributed (i.e. capable of predicting multiple points within a river) or lumped. In a basic model, for example, only one pollutant might be addressed from a simple point discharge into the receiving waters. In the most complex of models, various line source inputs from surface runoff might be added to multiple point sources, treating a variety of chemicals plus sediment in a dynamic environment including vertical river stratification and interactions of pollutants with in-stream biota. In addition watershed groundwater may also be included. The model is termed "physically based" if its parameters can be measured in the field.

text: There are dozens of different transport models that can be generally grouped by

text: pollutants

text: addressed, complexity of pollutant sources, whether the model is steady state or dynamic, and time period modeled. Another important designation is whether the model is distributed (i.e. capable of predicting multiple points within a river) or lumped. In a basic model, for example, only one pollutant might be addressed from a simple point discharge into the

text: receiving water

text: s. In the most complex of models, various

text: line source

text: inputs from

text: surface runoff

text: might be added to multiple

text: point source

text: s, treating a variety of

text: chemical

text: s plus

text: sediment

text: in a dynamic environment including vertical river stratification and interactions of pollutants with in-stream

text: biota

text: . In addition

text: watershed

text: groundwater

text: may also be included. The model is termed "physically based" if its parameters can be measured in the field.

text: Other than near its source, the Liane's water quality was mediocre to highly polluted during the years 1980-1990, mainly as a result of industrial and urban waste. Towns and industries are now polluting less, but ploughing has conquered land from farming and pasture which have been pushed back in this region, and farmland erosion and fields which are kept barren in winter and autumn are a cause of the Liane's almost constant turbidity. In 2005, the Liane remained turbid and its French water quality grade insatisfaisante (unsatisfactory), with too much nitrates and organic substances from Carly onwards, according to the water agency. At the mouth at Boulogne, the Liane's waters are graded as mauvaise (bad), with all the indicators being bad: macro-pollutants, organic and oxidizable substances, azot substances (nitrates) and phosphoric substances.

text: Other than near its

text: source

text: , the Liane's water quality was mediocre to highly

text: polluted

text: during the years 1980-1990, mainly as a result of

text: industrial

text: and

text: urban waste

text: . Towns and industries are now polluting less, but ploughing has conquered land from farming and pasture which have been pushed back in this region, and farmland erosion and fields which are kept barren in winter and autumn are a cause of the Liane's almost constant turbidity. In 2005, the Liane remained turbid and its French water quality grade insatisfaisante (unsatisfactory), with too much nitrates and organic substances from Carly onwards, according to the water agency. At the mouth at Boulogne, the Liane's waters are graded as mauvaise (bad), with all the indicators being bad: macro-pollutants, organic and oxidizable substances, azot substances (nitrates) and phosphoric substances.

text: Many industrial sites in the upper Kocher valley and poor sewage plants led to heavy pollution of the Kocher. In 1984, the Kocher was declared the most polluted river in the administrative district of Stuttgart. After only a six years remediation project, the water quality significantly improved and today the Kocher is only moderately polluted. The mostly brown color of the Kocher comes from mud in the water and does not mean bad water quality.

text: Intensive agriculture in the Vakhsh basin has left the river polluted with fertilizers, pesticides, and salts. Also, chemicals have leached into groundwater from the heavy industries near the Vakhsh’s dams, which has in turn contaminated surface water. However, ever since Tajikistan lost their Soviet agricultural subsidies with the breakup of the Soviet Union, farms have not been able to afford as many fertilizers or pesticides as before, thus decreasing levels of pollution in the river. The 2008 financial crisis has further increased poverty, which in turn has further decreased pollution.

text: Intensive agriculture in the Vakhsh basin has left the river polluted with fertilizers, pesticides, and salts. Also, chemicals have leached into groundwater from the heavy industries near the Vakhsh’s dams, which has in turn contaminated surface water. However, ever since Tajikistan lost their Soviet agricultural subsidies with the

text: breakup of the Soviet Union

text: , farms have not been able to afford as many fertilizers or pesticides as before, thus decreasing levels of pollution in the river. The

text: 2008 financial crisis

text: has further increased poverty, which in turn has further decreased pollution.

text: In response to water pollution and flooding challenges, the Government of Argentina (GoA) is working with the World Bank to address industrial water pollution by providing technical assistance and mentoring to the 50 worst industrial polluters which represent 95% of the total effluent. Oversight and monitoring is provided by the Matanza-Riachuelo River Basin Authority (ACUMAR). The Urban Flood Prevention and Drainage Program (APL) is the government's commitment to flood prevention and risk management and falls within the framework of the Buenos Aires Hydraulic Master Plan. The "Master Plan" focuses on implementing non-structural measures throughout the entire city.

text: In response to water pollution and flooding challenges, the Government of Argentina (GoA) is working with the

text: World Bank

text: to address industrial water pollution by providing technical assistance and mentoring to the 50 worst industrial polluters which represent 95% of the total

text: effluent

text: . Oversight and monitoring is provided by the Matanza-Riachuelo River Basin Authority (ACUMAR). The Urban Flood Prevention and Drainage Program (APL) is the government's commitment to flood prevention and risk management and falls within the framework of the Buenos Aires Hydraulic Master Plan. The "Master Plan" focuses on implementing non-structural measures throughout the entire city.

text: In 1989 he ran for Mayor of the Municipal Chamber of Lisbon (Mayor of Lisbon) but lost to Jorge Sampaio, though he did win a seat as City Councilor (Vereador). In that campaign he took a plunge into the waters of the Tagus River to prove they were not polluted despite claims to the contrary.

text: In 1989 he ran for

text: Mayor

text: of the

text: Municipal Chamber

text: of

text: Lisbon

text: Mayor of Lisbon

text: ) but lost to

text: Jorge Sampaio

text: , though he did win a seat as

text: City Council

text: or (

text: Vereador

text: ). In that campaign he took a plunge into the waters of the

text: Tagus River

text: to prove they were not

text: polluted

text: despite claims to the contrary.

text: While drinking water is good in many parts of the country, there are still many concerns about the quality of water in streams and lakes. It has been estimated that surface water pollution is a threefold problem. Untreated effluents from urban wastewater (only 3% of wastewaters receive treatment) account for 20% of the problem, 40% from solid waste and industrial effluents (heavy metals are the primary culprit), and 40% from the agricultural sector. In the agriculture sector alone, 70% of pollution comes from debris of coffee plantations. Water basins that are receiving large quantities of contaminated runoff include the Grande de Tárcoles and Large Terraba rivers.

text: While drinking water is good in many parts of the country, there are still many concerns about the quality of water in streams and lakes. It has been estimated that surface water pollution is a threefold problem. Untreated effluents from urban

text: wastewater

text: (only 3% of wastewaters receive treatment) account for 20% of the problem, 40% from solid waste and industrial

text: effluents

text: (heavy metals are the primary culprit), and 40% from the agricultural sector. In the agriculture sector alone, 70% of pollution comes from debris of coffee plantations. Water basins that are receiving large quantities of contaminated runoff include the Grande de Tárcoles and Large Terraba rivers.

text: The legal framework referred to as the "Clean Water Act" (CWA) has its statutory basis in the Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which was the first federal regulation designed to address water pollution.  The Clean Water Act has been amended many times, but the CWA amendments of 1972 provide the core statutory basis for the regulation of point source water pollution and created the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permit program. The CWA amendments of 1972 were also the first instance where Congress acknowledged the problem of NPS water pollution through the passage of section 208 of the CWA. Congress passed additional amendments to the CWA in 1987 that address NPS water pollution. This section will chronologically address the parts of the CWA that regulate NPS water pollution.

text: The legal framework referred to as the "

text: Clean Water Act

text: " (CWA) has its

text: statutory

text: basis in the Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which was the first federal regulation designed to address water pollution.  The Clean Water Act has been amended many times, but the CWA amendments of 1972 provide the core statutory basis for the regulation of point source water pollution and created the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permit program. The CWA amendments of 1972 were also the first instance where Congress acknowledged the problem of NPS water pollution through the passage of section 208 of the CWA. Congress passed additional amendments to the CWA in 1987 that address NPS water pollution. This section will chronologically address the parts of the CWA that regulate NPS water pollution.

text: The command-and-control permitting structure of the Clean Water Act (CWA) provides the basis for nearly all regulation of CAFOs in the United States. Generally speaking, the CWA prohibits the discharge of pollution to the "waters of the United States" from any "point source," unless the discharge is authorized by a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit issued by the EPA (or a state delegated by the EPA). CAFOs are explicitly listed as a "point source" in the CWA. Unauthorized discharges made from CAFOs (and other point sources) violate the CWA, even if the discharges are "unplanned or accidental." CAFOs that do not apply for NPDES permits "operate at their own risk because any discharge from an unpermitted CAFO (other than agricultural stormwater) is a violation of the CWA subject to enforcement action, including third party citizen suits."

text: The command-and-control permitting structure of the

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA) provides the basis for nearly all regulation of CAFOs in the United States. Generally speaking, the CWA prohibits the discharge of pollution to the "waters of the United States" from any "point source," unless the discharge is authorized by a

text: (NPDES) permit issued by the EPA (or a state delegated by the EPA). CAFOs are explicitly listed as a "point source" in the CWA. Unauthorized discharges made from CAFOs (and other point sources) violate the CWA, even if the discharges are "unplanned or accidental." CAFOs that do not apply for NPDES permits "operate at their own risk because any discharge from an unpermitted CAFO (other than agricultural

text: stormwater

text: ) is a violation of the CWA subject to enforcement action, including third party citizen suits."

text: The Najafgarh drain or Najafgarh nallah (nallah in Hindi means drain) is just another name for the River Sahibi which continues its flow through Delhi where it is channelled due to control floods, it is a tributary to River Yamuna in which it outfalls here. Within Delhi it is erroneously called "Najafgarh drain" or "Najafgarh nallah"', it gets this name from the once famous and huge Najafgarh lake near the town of Najafgarh in southwest Delhi and within urbanised Delhi it is the Indian capital's most polluted water body due to direct inflow of untreated sewage from surrounding populated areas. A January 2005 report by the Central Pollution Control Board clubs this drain with 13 other highly polluted wetlands under category "D" for assessing the water quality of wetlands in wildlife habitats.

text: The Najafgarh drain or Najafgarh nallah (nallah in

text: Hindi

text: means drain) is just another name for the

text: River Sahibi

text: which continues its flow through

text: Delhi

text: where it is channelled due to control floods, it is a

text: tributary

text: to River Yamuna in which it outfalls here. Within Delhi it is erroneously called "Najafgarh drain" or "Najafgarh nallah"', it gets this name from the once famous and huge

text: Najafgarh lake

text: near the town of

text: Najafgarh

text: in southwest Delhi and within urbanised Delhi it is the Indian capital's most polluted water body due to direct inflow of untreated sewage from surrounding populated areas. A January 2005 report by the Central Pollution Control Board clubs this drain with 13 other highly polluted wetlands under category "D" for assessing the water quality of wetlands in wildlife habitats.

text: Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory- Palestinian Environmental NGOs Network- Paper shredder- Paper towel- Paperless office- Parametrization (climate)- Paraquat- Partial Test Ban Treaty- Partial zero-emissions vehicle- Particle radiation- Particulate- Passenger pigeon- Passive solar- Peak grain- Peak water- Pebble bed reactor- Percy Schmeiser- Periodicals- Permaculture- Permanent crop- Permeable paving- Persistent Organic Pollutant- Persistent organic pollutants- Pest (animal)- Pest control- Pesticide- Pesticide misuse- Pesticide poisoning- Pesticide side effects- Pesticide toxicity to bees- Pesticides- Phagy- Phytotreatment- Pigovian tax- Pioneer plant- Pioneer species- Planetary boundary layer- Planetary ecosynthesis- Planetary engineering- Planetary protection- Planned obsolescence- Plastic- Plastic bullet- Plastic goods- Plastic mulch- Plastic recycling- Plastic shopping bag- Plastic wrap- Poaching- Point of no return- Political ecology- Pollinator decline- Pollutant- Polluter Pays- Polluter pays principle- Pollution- Polychlorinated biphenyl- Polyculture- Polymer chemistry- Polymer clay- Polymer degradation- Polymer solar cells- Polystyrene- Polyvinyl chloride- POP Air Pollution Protocol- Population- Population control- Population decline- Population density- Population growth- Population growth rate- Population process- Population size- Population statistics- Population transfer- Population viability analysis- Post-industrial economy- Post-industrial society- Power station- Precautionary principle- Preservationist- Property and Environment Research Center- Protected area- Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty- Pulpwood- Quality of life

text: Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory

text: Palestinian Environmental NGOs Network

text: Paper shredder

text: Paper towel

text: Paperless office

text: Parametrization (climate)

text: Paraquat

text: Partial Test Ban Treaty

text: Partial zero-emissions vehicle

text: Particle radiation

text: Particulate

text: Passenger pigeon

text: Passive solar

text: Peak grain

text: Peak water

text: Pebble bed reactor

text: Percy Schmeiser

text: Periodicals

text: Permaculture

text: Permanent crop

text: Permeable paving

text: Persistent Organic Pollutant

text: Persistent organic pollutants

text: Pest (animal)

text: Pest control

text: Pesticide

text: Pesticide misuse

text: Pesticide poisoning

text: Pesticide side effects

text: Pesticide toxicity to bees

text: Pesticides

text: Phagy

text: Phytotreatment

text: Pigovian tax

text: Pioneer plant

text: Pioneer species

text: Planetary boundary layer

text: Planetary ecosynthesis

text: Planetary engineering

text: Planetary protection

text: Planned obsolescence

text: Plastic

text: Plastic bullet

text: Plastic goods

text: Plastic mulch

text: Plastic recycling

text: Plastic shopping bag

text: Plastic wrap

text: Poaching

text: Point of no return

text: Political ecology

text: Pollinator decline

text: Pollutant

text: Polluter Pays

text: Polluter pays principle

text: Pollution

text: Polychlorinated biphenyl

text: Polyculture

text: Polymer chemistry

text: Polymer clay

text: Polymer degradation

text: Polymer solar cells

text: Polystyrene

text: Polyvinyl chloride

text: POP Air Pollution Protocol

text: Population

text: Population control

text: Population decline

text: Population density

text: Population growth

text: Population growth rate

text: Population process

text: Population size

text: Population statistics

text: Population transfer

text: Population viability analysis

text: Post-industrial economy

text: Post-industrial society

text: Power station

text: Precautionary principle

text: Preservationist

entity_name: Property and Environment Research Center

text: Property and Environment Research Center

text: Protected area

entity_name: Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty

text: Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty

text: Pulpwood

text: Quality of life

text: Some statutes strengthen common law rules imposing liability for environmental damage. Regulations issued under other statutes are intended to increase the effectiveness of liability rules by requiring that facilities seeking permits to handle hazardous materials have sufficient insurance or other resources to pay for potential damage caused by their activities.Liability guides compensation when polluters are sued. Liability could be strict (pay for any damages), or negotiable with the victims. However, private lawsuits are a difficult way to resolve nonpoint source pollution because it is difficult to prove NPS pollution was the proximate cause of damages.  The inability to trace nonpoint sources could greatly weaken the effectiveness of liability. Agriculture is a major source for nonpoint pollution sources, including nutrients, sediments, pesticides and salts, etc. Disaster insurance for agricultural sector could be necessary for preventing nonpoint pollution based on its characteristics. The uncertainty associate with nonpoint pollution may demand an “insurance policy” to protect water quality.

text: Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. These can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

text: oil slick

text: which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. These can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly

text: bulldozed

text: While WSS improvements were exceptional, the traditional water management approach did not account for domestic and industrial wastewater treatment and non-point sources pollution control resulting in the environmental degradation of water bodies. These systems were viewed as separate and the management strategy did not account for treatment facilities, local streams, and overall water quality within them. The philosophy is evolving however, and water resources management practice is becoming more of an integrated approach taking into account a multi-sectoral approach looking at water supply, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), drainage and irrigation as one entity. According to pollution control work presented by a team of researchers at the British Hydrological Society symposium in 2008, there is a need to consider the sewer system, the WWTP, and the river as one system. These developments in the Bogotá water management system offer multiple opportunities to incorporate integrated methodologies both now and in the future.

text: In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is charged with regulating stormwater pursuant to the Clean Water Act (CWA). The goal of the CWA is to restore all "Waters of the United States" to their "fishable" and "swimmable" conditions. Point source discharges, which originate mostly from municipal wastewater (sewage) and industrial wastewater discharges, have been regulated since enactment of the CWA in 1972. Pollutant loadings from these sources are tightly controlled through the issuance of National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits. However, despite these controls, thousands of water bodies in the U.S. remain classified as "impaired," meaning that they contain pollutants at levels higher than is considered safe by EPA for the intended beneficial uses of the water. Much of this impairment is due to polluted runoff.

text: In the

text: United States

text: , the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) is charged with

text: regulating

text: stormwater pursuant to the

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA). The goal of the CWA is to restore all "Waters of the United States" to their "fishable" and "swimmable" conditions. Point source discharges, which originate mostly from municipal

text: wastewater

text: sewage

text: ) and industrial wastewater discharges, have been regulated since enactment of the CWA in 1972. Pollutant loadings from these sources are tightly controlled through the issuance of National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (

text: NPDES

text: ) permits. However, despite these controls, thousands of water bodies in the U.S. remain classified as "impaired," meaning that they contain pollutants at levels higher than is considered safe by EPA for the intended beneficial uses of the water. Much of this impairment is due to polluted runoff.

text: A total of 145,000 square kilometers of shallow waters along China's vast coast failed to meet national quality standards for clean oceanic water, of which 29,000 square kilometers of seawater were seriously polluted. These severely polluted water areas included East Liaoning, Bohai and Hangzhou bays, and the estuaries of Yellow, Yangtze and Zhujiang rivers, as well as inshore areas of major coastal cities. Content of major pollutants, such as inorganic nitrogen and phosphate, remains high in contaminated seawater. During the past 50 years, the inshore ecosystem had seen 50 percent of coastal wetlands disappear in excessive reclamation and 80 percent of coral reefs and mangroves destroyed.

text: A total of 145,000 square kilometers of shallow waters along China's vast coast failed to meet national quality standards for clean oceanic water, of which 29,000 square kilometers of seawater were seriously polluted. These severely polluted water areas included East Liaoning, Bohai and Hangzhou bays, and the estuaries of Yellow, Yangtze and Zhujiang rivers, as well as inshore areas of major coastal cities. Content of major pollutants, such as inorganic nitrogen and phosphate, remains high in contaminated seawater. During the past 50 years, the inshore ecosystem had seen 50 percent of coastal wetlands disappear in excessive

text: reclamation

text: and 80 percent of coral reefs and mangroves destroyed.

text: Entamoeba moshkovskii is transmitted by contact or ingestion of any unclean water sources. It is known to be found in areas with polluted water such as brackish coastal pools, river line sediments, and originally sewage.

text: Entamoeba moshkovskii is transmitted by contact or ingestion of any unclean water sources. It is known to be found in areas with polluted water such as

text: brackish

text: coastal pools, river line

text: sediments

text: , and originally

text: sewage

text: Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports, waterways and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that container ships lose over 10,000 containers at sea each year (usually during  storms). Ships also create noise pollution that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other invasive species.

text: Discharge of cargo residues from

text: bulk carrier

text: s can pollute ports, waterways and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that

text: container ship

text: s lose over 10,000

text: containers

text: at sea each year (usually during  storms). Ships also create

text: noise pollution

text: that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from

text: ballast

text: tanks can spread harmful

text: algae

text: and other

text: invasive species

text: Environment - current issues: air pollution, especially in urban areas, from vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; oil pollution in the Persian Gulf; wetland losses from drought; soil degradation (salination); inadequate supplies of potable water; water pollution from raw sewage and industrial waste; urbanization. Iran ranked worst in the world for soil erosion in 2011.

text: Environment - current issues:

text: air pollution

text: , especially in urban areas, from vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; oil pollution in the Persian Gulf; wetland losses from drought; soil degradation (salination); inadequate supplies of potable water; water pollution from raw sewage and industrial waste; urbanization. Iran ranked worst in the world for soil erosion in 2011.

text: Numerous spills have resulted from damage to Iraq’s oil infrastructure, and the lack of water treatment facilities at Iraqi refineries has led to pollution from those installations.

text: An optimal economical trading ratio for tradable permits, like through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), which defines allowable emissions or loading amount for polluters that hold a permit. The number of polluters then becomes the key factor for this instrument. Based on the stochastic nature of nonpoint pollution, NPDES permit system for point sources can not simply be used on nonpoint sources. Although many literature reviews mention tradable permits between point sources and nonpoint sources, unfortunately, current economic literature provides little guidance as to how to set trading ratios. Important factors like environmental risk and relative contributions to ambient pollution are critical to designing the appropriate ratio.

text: An optimal economical trading ratio for tradable permits, like through the

text: (NPDES), which defines allowable emissions or loading amount for polluters that hold a permit. The number of polluters then becomes the key factor for this instrument. Based on the stochastic nature of nonpoint pollution, NPDES permit system for

text: point sources

text: can not simply be used on nonpoint sources. Although many literature reviews mention tradable permits between point sources and nonpoint sources, unfortunately, current economic literature provides little guidance as to how to set trading ratios. Important factors like environmental risk and relative contributions to ambient pollution are critical to designing the appropriate ratio.

text: Environment Agency Wales' role included: reducing industry’s impacts on the environment, enforcing pollution legislation and reducing the harm caused by flooding and pollution incidents. It also oversaw the management of waste, water resources and freshwater fisheries; cleaning up rivers, coastal waters and contaminated land and improving wildlife habitats.

text: In 1968 - 1969 a study conducted by Metcalf and Eddy, under the auspices of the State Water Control Board, determined that water quality deterioration in the reservoir was caused by substandard wastewater discharges from 11 secondary wastewater treatment plants and non-point sources of pollution.  Following the commissioning of UOSA, the water quality of the Occoquan Reservoir has greatly improved.

text: The extensive mining and nickel processing has large impact on the local environment. The coastal waters and nearby land is contaminated by the pollution from mines and processing plants.

text: The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA) (101 H.R.1465, P.L. 101-380) was passed by the 101st United States Congress and signed by President George H. W. Bush. The Oil Pollution Act works to avoid oil spills from vessels and facilities by enforcing removal of spilled oil and assigning liability for the cost of cleanup and damages. The act requires specific operating procedures; defines responsible parties and financial liability; implements processes for measuring damages; specifies damages for which violators are liable; and establishes a fund for damages, cleanup, and removal costs. This statute has resulted in instrumental changes in the oil production, transportation, and distribution industries.

text: The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA) (101 H.R.1465, P.L. 101-380) was passed by the

text: 101st United States Congress

text: and signed by President

text: George H. W. Bush

text: . The Oil Pollution Act works to avoid oil spills from vessels and facilities by enforcing removal of spilled oil and assigning liability for the cost of cleanup and damages. The act requires specific operating procedures; defines responsible parties and financial liability; implements processes for measuring damages; specifies damages for which violators are liable; and establishes a fund for damages, cleanup, and removal costs. This statute has resulted in instrumental changes in the oil production, transportation, and distribution industries.

text: According to the Clean Water Act of 2004, the DENR (through the LLDA) shall implement a wastewater charge system in all management areas including the Laguna Lake region and Regional Industrial Centers through the collection of wastewater charges/fees. The system shall be established on the basis of payment to the government for discharging wastewater into the water bodies. Wastewater charges shall be established taking into consideration the following: a) to provide strong economic inducement for polluters to modify their production or management processes or to invest in pollution control technology in order to reduce the amount of water pollutants generated; b) to cover the cost of administering water quality management or improvement programs, including the cost of administering the discharge permitting and water pollution charge system; c) reflect damages caused by water pollution on the surrounding environment, including the cost of rehabilitation; d) type of pollutant; e) classification of the receiving water body; and f) other special attributes of the water body.

text: In the 1970s, SkIO, in conjunction with the University of British Columbia and the Dept. of Fisheries for Scotland, initiated the Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment (CEPEX), which studied the responses of pelagic marine organisms when exposed to low, chronic levels of various pollutants. The studies were conducted in the open ocean, and the ecosystems were controlled by capturing water of various depths in large plastic enclosures.

text: In the 1970s, SkIO, in conjunction with the

text: University of British Columbia

text: and the Dept. of Fisheries for

text: Scotland

text: , initiated the Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment (CEPEX), which studied the responses of

text: pelagic

text: marine organisms when exposed to low, chronic levels of various pollutants. The studies were conducted in the open ocean, and the ecosystems were controlled by capturing water of various depths in large plastic enclosures.

text: BES monitors water quality at three Tryon Creek sites. Two are near I-5 and Barbur Boulevard in the upper watershed, and the third is at Southwest Boones Ferry Road, about  from the mouth. BES looks at several indicators such as dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and total suspended solids. Diffuse pollution from nonpoint sources enters the creek from its urban surroundings. Point sources of pollution in the creek include two major upper-watershed stormwater outfalls draining  of the upper watershed and contributing about half of the creek's total suspended solids. As of 2004, the only water-quality indicator in the watershed that failed to meet minimal standards was the water temperature.

text: BES monitors water quality at three Tryon Creek sites. Two are near I-5 and Barbur Boulevard in the upper watershed, and the third is at Southwest Boones Ferry Road, about  from the mouth. BES looks at several indicators such as dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and

text: total suspended solids

text: . Diffuse pollution from

text: nonpoint sources

text: enters the creek from its urban surroundings.

text: Point sources

text: of pollution in the creek include two major upper-watershed

text: stormwater

text: outfalls draining  of the upper watershed and contributing about half of the creek's total suspended solids. As of 2004, the only water-quality indicator in the watershed that failed to meet minimal standards was the water temperature.

text: Marine pollution is a generic term for the harmful entry into the ocean of chemicals or particles. The main culprits are those using the rivers for disposing of their waste. The rivers then empty into the ocean, often also bringing chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.

text: Marine pollution is a generic term for the harmful entry into the ocean of chemicals or particles. The main culprits are those using the rivers for disposing of their waste. The rivers then empty into the ocean, often also bringing chemicals used as

text: fertilizer

text: s in agriculture. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water leads to

text: hypoxia

text: and the creation of a

text: dead zone

text: Several recent oil spills have led to water pollution. In February 2012 a PDVSA pipeline ruptured next to the Guarapiche River and fouled it for many days. The technicians in charge refused to close down the pumping because they did not want to stop the process, and this led to massive pollution of the area. A dam providing water to Maturín was said to be polluted, even though the national government denied this. This has led to a rupture between the national government and the Monagas governor.

text: Several recent oil spills have led to water pollution. In February 2012 a

text: PDVSA

text: pipeline ruptured next to the

text: Guarapiche River

text: and fouled it for many days. The technicians in charge refused to close down the pumping because they did not want to stop the process, and this led to massive pollution of the area. A dam providing water to Maturín was said to be polluted, even though the national government denied this. This has led to a rupture between the national government and the Monagas governor.

text: Other sources of water pollution include agriculture run off and small scale factories along the rivers and lakes of India. Fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture in northwest have been found in rivers, lakes and ground water. Flooding during monsoons worsens India's water pollution problem, as it washes and moves all sorts of solid garbage and contaminated soils into its rivers and wetlands.

text: The National Pollutant Release Inventory indexes sources by pollutant and location.

text: On the downside, agriculture has many negative effects on health. Agricultural production, trade, and distribution can negatively affect the environment through pesticide and fertilizer runoff polluting the soil and ground water. According to WHO, around 1.1 billion people still lack access to safe drinking water.

text: On the downside, agriculture has many negative effects on health. Agricultural production,

text: trade

text: , and distribution can negatively affect the environment through pesticide and fertilizer runoff polluting the soil and ground water. According to WHO, around 1.1 billion people still lack access to safe drinking water.

text: Most of the years, the river water is not joining the sea due to full utilisation of water mainly in agriculture. The river receives the waste from the large number of cities and the river basin population has increased to 80 million enhancing pollution load many folds in to the river. Adequate average and minimum continuous environmental flows to the sea are not taking place in most of the years constricting salt export and leading to formation of saline and sodic alkaline soils in the lower reaches of the river basin. High alkalinity water is discharged from the ash dump areas of many coal fired power stations in to the river which further increases the alkalinity of the river water whose water is naturally of high alkalinity since the river basin is draining vast area of basalt rock formations. The following are the few coal fired power stations located in the river basin

text: Most of the years, the river water is not joining the sea due to full utilisation of water mainly in agriculture. The river receives the waste from the large number of cities and the river basin population has increased to 80 million enhancing pollution load many folds in to the river. Adequate average and minimum continuous

text: environmental flows

text: to the sea are not taking place in most of the years constricting

text: salt export

text: and leading to formation of saline and

text: sodic alkaline soils

text: in the lower reaches of the river basin.

text: High alkalinity water

text: is discharged from the ash dump areas of many coal fired power stations in to the river which further increases the

text: alkalinity

text: of the river water whose water is naturally of high alkalinity since the river basin is draining vast area of

text: basalt rock

text: formations. The following are the few coal fired power stations located in the river basin

text: Large-scale use of chemicals for cotton cultivation, inefficient irrigation systems, and poor drainage systems are examples of the conditions that led to a high filtration of salinized and contaminated water back into the soil. Post-Soviet policies have become even more dangerous; in the early 1990s, the average application of chemical fertilizers and insecticides throughout the Central Asian republics was twenty to twenty-five kilograms per hectare, compared with the former average of three kilograms per hectare for the entire Soviet Union. As a result, the supply of fresh water has received further contaminants. Industrial pollutants also have damaged Uzbekistan's water. In the Amu Darya, concentrations of phenol and oil products have been measured at far above acceptable health standards. In 1989 the minister of health of the Turkmen SSR described the Amu Darya as a sewage ditch for industrial and agricultural waste substances. Experts who monitored the river in 1995 reported even further deterioration.

text: Typically, a large variety of aqueous solutions can be used in place of plain water. This battery type is specifically designed to pollute less (see environmentally friendly claims) due to the lesser use or the absence of heavy metals. Water-activated batteries have been used in radiosondes that shouldn't contain heavy metals since they regularly fall to the ground or ocean surface, and indefinitely remain there.

text: Typically, a large variety of

text: aqueous solution

text: s can be used in place of plain water. This battery type is specifically designed to pollute less (see

text: environmentally friendly

text: claims) due to the lesser use or the absence of

text: heavy metals

text: . Water-activated batteries have been used in

text: radiosonde

text: s that shouldn't contain

text: heavy metals

text: since they regularly fall to the ground or

text: ocean

text: surface, and indefinitely remain there.

text: After graduating from MIT and until 1903, Phelps worked as an assistant bacteriologist at the famous Lawrence Experiment Station in Lawrence, Massachusetts. From 1903 until 1911, he was a chemist/microbiologist with the Sanitary Research Laboratory at MIT. He also taught at MIT during this period as an assistant professor of chemistry and biology. Early in his career, he investigated a typhoid fever epidemic at the State Hospital in Trenton, New Jersey. During this same period, he worked for the U.S. Geological Survey as an assistant hydrographer. In part, he worked on the purification of industrial wastes and he began his investigations on stream pollution with that agency. In 1910 to 1911 he conducted groundbreaking research with Colonel William M. Black of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on the pollution of New York Harbor. This work established for the first time the concept of using dissolved oxygen concentrations in the water as a measure of water quality in the harbor.

text: After graduating from MIT and until 1903, Phelps worked as an assistant bacteriologist at the famous

text: Lawrence Experiment Station

text: in

text: Lawrence, Massachusetts

text: . From 1903 until 1911, he was a chemist/microbiologist with the Sanitary Research Laboratory at MIT. He also taught at MIT during this period as an assistant professor of chemistry and biology. Early in his career, he investigated a typhoid fever epidemic at the State Hospital in

text: Trenton, New Jersey

text: . During this same period, he worked for the U.S. Geological Survey as an assistant hydrographer. In part, he worked on the purification of industrial wastes and he began his investigations on stream pollution with that agency. In 1910 to 1911 he conducted groundbreaking research with Colonel William M. Black of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on the pollution of New York Harbor. This work established for the first time the concept of using dissolved oxygen concentrations in the water as a measure of water quality in the harbor.

text: Najafgarh is located at  in South West Delhi district in the NCT of Delhi. Najafgarh is situated 29 km south-west of the New Delhi City Center and 10 km north-west to the district headquarters at Dwarka. It has an average elevation of  above mean Sea Level. Najafgarh Drain, the continuation of the Sahibi River and an elongation of the Najafgarh Lake is the Indian capital’s most polluted water body due to direct inflow of untreated sewage from surrounding populated areas. A January 2005 report by the Central Pollution Control Board classifies this drain, with 13 other highly polluted wetlands, under category ‘‘D’’ for assessing the water quality of wetlands in wildlife habitats.

text: Najafgarh is located at  in

text: South West Delhi district

text: in the

text: NCT of Delhi

text: . Najafgarh is situated 29 km south-west of the

text: New Delhi

text: City Center

text: and 10 km north-west to the district headquarters at

text: Dwarka

text: . It has an average elevation of  above mean Sea Level.

text: Najafgarh Drain

text: , the continuation of the

text: Sahibi River

text: and an elongation of the

text: Najafgarh Lake

text: is the Indian capital’s most polluted water body due to direct inflow of untreated sewage from surrounding populated areas. A January 2005 report by the

text: Central Pollution Control Board

text: classifies this drain, with 13 other highly polluted wetlands, under category ‘‘D’’ for assessing the water quality of wetlands in wildlife habitats.

text: Water pollution id by the discharge of wastewater from commercial and industrial waste (intentionally or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of untreated domestic sewage, and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated sewage; release of waste and contaminants into surface runoff flowing to surface waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical fertilizers and pesticides); waste disposal and leaching into groundwater; eutrophication and littering.

text: Water pollution

text: id by the discharge of

text: wastewater

text: from commercial and

text: industrial waste

text: (intentionally or through spills) into

text: surface water

text: s; discharges of untreated domestic

text: sewage

text: , and chemical contaminants, such as

text: chlorine

text: , from treated sewage; release of waste and contaminants into surface

text: runoff

text: flowing to surface waters (including

text: urban runoff

text: and agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical

text: fertilizers

text: and

text: pesticides

text: ); waste disposal and leaching into

text: groundwater

text: eutrophication

text: and littering.

text: The severity of damage directly correlates with the amount of oil spilled and the animal's exposure to oil. However, a small spill at a more sensitive season or environment may have more drastic impacts than a large spill in a less sensitive season or environment. External exposure to oil often leads to destroyed insulating fur or feathers, resulting in death from hypothermia. Contact with oil can also result in blindness, which impairs animals' ability to compete for food or to avoid predators.

text: New technologies, like reverse osmosis can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from humid air. Water makers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into potable water and brine. Atmospheric water generators extract moisture from dry desert air and filter it to pure water.

text: New technologies, like

text: reverse osmosis

text: can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from humid air. Water makers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into

text: potable water

text: and

text: brine

text: Atmospheric water generator

text: s extract moisture from dry desert air and filter it to pure water.

text: Health effects (or health impacts) are changes in health resulting from exposure to a source. Health effects are an important consideration in many areas, such as hygiene, pollution studies, occupational safety and health, nutrition and health sciences in general.  Some of the major environmental sources of health effects are air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, noise pollution and over-illumination.

text: Health effects (or health impacts) are changes in

text: health

text: resulting from exposure to a source. Health effects are an important consideration in many areas, such as

text: hygiene

text: pollution

text: studies,

text: occupational safety and health

text: nutrition

text: and

text: health sciences

text: in general.  Some of the major environmental sources of health effects are

text: air pollution

text: water pollution

text: soil contamination

text: noise pollution

text: and

text: over-illumination

text: About 860 communities in the US have combined sewer systems, serving about 40 million people. CSO discharges during heavy storms can cause serious water pollution problems in these communities. Pollutants from CSO discharges can include bacteria and other pathogens, toxic chemicals, and debris. These pollutants have also been linked with antimicrobial resistance, posing serious public health concerns.  The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a policy in 1994 requiring municipalities to make improvements to reduce or eliminate CSO-related pollution problems. It is managed by the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit program. The policy defined water quality parameters for the safety of an ecosystem; it allowed for action that are site specific to control CSOs in most practical way for community; it made sure the CSO control is not beyond a community’s budget; and allowed water quality parameters to be flexible, based upon the site specific conditions. The CSO Control Policy required all states to have ″nine minimum controls″ in place by January 1, 1997, to decrease the effects of sewage overflow by making small improvements in existing processes. In 2000 Congress amended the Clean Water Act to require the municipalities to comply with the EPA policy.

text: About 860 communities in the US have combined sewer systems, serving about 40 million people. CSO discharges during heavy storms can cause serious water pollution problems in these communities. Pollutants from CSO discharges can include

text: bacteria

text: and other

text: pathogen

text: s,

text: toxic

text: chemicals, and debris. These pollutants have also been linked with

text: antimicrobial resistance

text: , posing serious public health concerns.  The

text: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) issued a policy in 1994 requiring municipalities to make improvements to reduce or eliminate CSO-related pollution problems. It is managed by the

text: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)

text: permit program. The policy defined water quality parameters for the safety of an ecosystem; it allowed for action that are site specific to control CSOs in most practical way for community; it made sure the CSO control is not beyond a community’s budget; and allowed water quality parameters to be flexible, based upon the site specific conditions. The CSO Control Policy required all states to have ″nine minimum controls″ in place by January 1, 1997, to decrease the effects of sewage overflow by making small improvements in existing processes. In 2000

text: Congress

text: amended the

text: Clean Water Act

text: to require the municipalities to comply with the EPA policy.

text: Water pollution is also derived from ethanol production. Due to the size of the industry, its agroindustrial activity in growing, harvesting, and processing sugarcane generates water pollution from the application of fertilizers and agrochemicals, soil erosion, cane washing, fermentation, distillation, the energy producing units installed in mills and by other minor sources of waste water.

text: Around 90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries. Increasingly, agriculture is using untreated wastewater for irrigation. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste directly to water their crops.

text: Around 90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread

text: water pollution

text: , especially in low-income countries. Increasingly,

text: agriculture

text: is using untreated wastewater for irrigation. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce

text: water resources

text: with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use

text: water polluted

text: with urban waste directly to water their crops.

text: The process begins with some governments setting aggregate pollution quotas (e.g., for carbon emissions) and selling pollution permits to the public respectively.  Polluters are required to buy those credits to match their pollution outputs. Some of the cost producers pay for pollution will result in higher costs for consumers, who as citizens are additionally faced with the environmental costs of the pollution. Under the cap and dividend system, public revenues raised from the sale of pollution credits is rebated to citizens or to consumers as a subsidy for increasing efficiency.

text: The storm water component contributes pollutants to CSO; but a major faction of pollution is the first foul flush of accumulated biofilm and sanitary solids scoured from the dry weather wetted perimeter of combined sewers during peak flow turbulence. Each storm is different in the quantity and type of pollutants it contributes. For example, storms that occur in late summer, when it has not rained for a while, have the most pollutants. Pollutants like oil, grease, fecal coliform from pet and wildlife waste, and pesticides get flushed into the sewer system. In cold weather areas, pollutants from cars, people and animals also accumulate on hard surfaces and grass during the winter and then are flushed into the sewer systems during heavy spring rains.

text: The storm water component contributes pollutants to CSO; but a major faction of pollution is the

text: first foul flush

text: of accumulated

text: biofilm

text: and sanitary solids scoured from the dry weather

text: wetted perimeter

text: of combined sewers during peak flow

text: turbulence

text: . Each storm is different in the quantity and type of pollutants it contributes. For example, storms that occur in late summer, when it has not rained for a while, have the most pollutants. Pollutants like oil, grease,

text: fecal coliform

text: from pet and wildlife waste, and

text: pesticide

text: s get flushed into the sewer system. In cold weather areas, pollutants from cars, people and animals also accumulate on hard surfaces and grass during the winter and then are flushed into the sewer systems during heavy spring rains.

text: Extensive research has shown that the SML contains elevated concentration of bacteria, viruses, toxic metals and organic pollutants as compared to the sub-surface water. These materials can be transferred from the sea-surface to the atmosphere in the form of wind-generated aqueous aerosols due to their high vapor tension and a process known as volatilisation. When airborne, these microbes can be transported long distances to coastal regions. If they hit land they can have detrimental effects on animals, vegetation and human health. Marine aerosols that contain viruses can travel hundreds of kilometers from their source and remain in liquid form as long as the humidity is high enough (over 70%). These aerosols are able to remain suspended in the atmosphere for about 31 days.  Evidence suggests that bacteria can remain viable after being transported inland through aerosols. Some reached as far as 200 meters at 30 meters above sea level. A month-long study done by scientists in the Tyrrhenian Sea in 1999 revealed that signals of pollution from chemicals of petrogenic origin in the harbor of Livorno was the result of chemicals found in the SML. It was also noted that the process which transfers this material to the atmosphere causes further enrichment in both bacteria and viruses in comparison to either the SML or sub-surface waters (up to three orders of magnitude in some locations).

text: Extensive research has shown that the SML contains elevated concentration of

text: bacteria

text: viruses

text: toxic metals

text: and organic pollutants as compared to the sub-surface water. These materials can be transferred from the sea-surface to the atmosphere in the form of wind-generated aqueous aerosols due to their high vapor tension and a process known as

text: volatilisation

text: . When airborne, these

text: microbes

text: can be transported long distances to coastal regions. If they hit land they can have detrimental effects on animals, vegetation and human health. Marine aerosols that contain viruses can travel hundreds of kilometers from their source and remain in liquid form as long as the humidity is high enough (over 70%). These aerosols are able to remain suspended in the atmosphere for about 31 days.  Evidence suggests that bacteria can remain viable after being transported inland through aerosols. Some reached as far as 200 meters at 30 meters above sea level. A month-long study done by scientists in the

text: Tyrrhenian Sea

text: in 1999 revealed that signals of pollution from chemicals of petrogenic origin in the harbor of

text: Livorno

text: was the result of chemicals found in the SML. It was also noted that the process which transfers this material to the atmosphere causes further enrichment in both bacteria and viruses in comparison to either the SML or sub-surface waters (up to three orders of magnitude in some locations).

text: A waste pond or chemical pond is a small impounded water body used for the disposal of water pollutants, and sometimes utilized as a method of recycling or decomposing toxic substances.  Such waste ponds may be used for regular disposal of pollutant materials or may be used as upset receivers for special pollution events.  Often, chemical ponds themselves are addressed for cleanup action after their useful life is over or when a risk of groundwater contamination arises.  Peak usage of waste ponds in the United States occurred in the period 1955 to 1985, after which the environmental risks of pond technology were sufficiently understood, such that alternative technologies for waste disposal gradually began to displace many of the waste ponds.   Waste ponds often have pond liners, such as concrete or robust synthetic polymeric materials, to prevent infiltration of chemicals to soil or groundwater.

text: A waste pond or chemical pond is a small impounded water body used for the disposal of

text: water pollutant

text: s, and sometimes utilized as a method of

text: recycling

text: or decomposing

text: toxic

text: substances.  Such waste ponds may be used for regular disposal of pollutant materials or may be used as upset receivers for special pollution events.  Often, chemical ponds themselves are addressed for

text: cleanup

text: action after their useful life is over or when a risk of

text: groundwater

text: contamination arises.  Peak usage of waste ponds in the United States occurred in the period 1955 to 1985, after which the environmental risks of pond technology were sufficiently understood, such that alternative technologies for waste disposal gradually began to displace many of the waste ponds.   Waste ponds often have pond liners, such as

text: concrete

text: or robust synthetic

text: polymer

text: ic materials, to prevent

text: infiltration

text: of

text: chemical

text: s to soil or groundwater.

text: The Ngakawau Riverwatch environmental group formed in 2001 to address the water pollution in the river.

text: Numerous efforts have been undertaken in the United States to control the pollution of water resources and to make drinking water safe. The most comprehensive federal regulations and standards for the water treatment industry were implemented in the 1970s, in reaction to a huge increase in environmental concerns in the country. In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act, with the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. In 1974, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act, specifying a number of contaminants that had to be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels. Both Acts were complemented by substantial federal grant funding to improve infrastructure in the form of construction grants.

text: Numerous efforts have been undertaken in the United States to control the pollution of water resources and to make drinking water safe. The most comprehensive federal regulations and standards for the water treatment industry were implemented in the 1970s, in reaction to a huge increase in environmental concerns in the country. In 1972, Congress passed the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , with the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. In 1974, Congress passed the

text: Safe Drinking Water Act

text: , specifying a number of contaminants that had to be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels. Both Acts were complemented by substantial federal grant funding to improve infrastructure in the form of construction grants.

text: An effluent limitation is a United States Clean Water Act standard of performance reflecting a specified level of discharge reduction achievable by the best available technology or related standards for various sources of water pollution.  These sources include all industries, businesses, municipal sewage treatment plants and storm sewer systems, and other facilities that discharge to surface waters. Effluent limitations are implemented in discharge permits issued by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state agencies, through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).

text: An effluent limitation is a

text: United States

text: Clean Water Act

text: standard of performance reflecting a specified level of discharge reduction achievable by the

text: best available technology

text: or related standards for various sources of

text: water pollution

text: .  These sources include all industries, businesses, municipal

text: sewage treatment

text: plants and

text: storm sewer

text: systems, and other facilities that discharge to

text: surface water

text: s. Effluent limitations are implemented in discharge permits issued by the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) and

text: state

text: agencies, through the

text: (NPDES).

text: Anthropogenic factors that may be to blame for this decline are water pollution, run-off from agriculture, and siltation

text: In 2008, GSU renovated several parking lots, replacing asphalt with permeable pavers—interlocking bricks that allow rainwater to seep down, trapping heavy metals and pollutants before they enter storm sewers. GSU is also home to one of the state’s largest solar-thermal systems, which preheats water for the campus swimming pool and provides about one-third of the domestic hot water for the university’s main building.

text: In 2008, GSU renovated several parking lots, replacing

text: asphalt

text: with permeable pavers—interlocking bricks that allow rainwater to seep down, trapping

text: heavy metals

text: and pollutants before they enter

text: storm sewers

text: . GSU is also home to one of the state’s largest solar-thermal systems, which preheats water for the campus swimming pool and provides about one-third of the domestic hot water for the university’s main building.

text: One olf is the sensory pollution strength from a standard person defined as an average adult working in an office or similar non-industrial workplace, sedentary and in thermal comfort, with a hygienic standard equivalent of 0.7 baths per day and whose skin has a total area of 1.8 square metres. It was defined to quantify the strength of pollution sources which can be perceived by humans.

text: One olf is the sensory pollution strength from a standard person defined as an average adult working in an office or similar non-industrial workplace, sedentary and in thermal comfort, with a hygienic standard equivalent of 0.7

text: baths

text: per day and whose skin has a total area of 1.8 square metres. It was defined to quantify the strength of pollution sources which can be perceived by humans.

text: The Wilderness Society has programs that work with the government to guide oil and gas drilling away from the nation’s most sensitive wildlands. The organization is concerned about the impacts oil and gas drilling is known to have on wild areas, including habitat fragmentation, water and air pollution, toxic oil spills, noise pollution and overall spoiled beauty. It identified numerous wild areas at high risk of oil development, including Southeast Utah, Colorado and Alaska's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.

text: The Clean Water Act regulates discharges of pollutants, including discharges of pollutants from municipal stormwater systems. The petition of a writ of certiorari (filed October 11, 2011) posed two questions to the Supreme Court:

text: The Clean Water Act regulates discharges of pollutants, including discharges of pollutants from municipal stormwater systems. The petition of a writ of

text: certiorari

text: (filed October 11, 2011) posed two questions to the Supreme Court:

text: There is very little defined structure to environmental laws and offences in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The criminal codes pertaining to the environment are called "Criminal offences against the environment, agriculture and natural resources." Some laws and regulations that are not necessarily qualified or organized under the environmental category, do pertain to the environment. Examples of such laws are, "Illicit Procurement and Disposal of Nuclear Material", "Pollution of Potable Water and Foodstuff." In an analysis from 2012, the most common criminal offence against the environment was forestry theft. This pertains to cutting down trees for the purpose of selling and if the quantity was anywhere from 2 to five cubic meters. The prison sentence is determined by the volume of the trees cut down. This crime accounts for 96% of all environmental crimes prosecuted this year.This indicates that other environmental crimes are either not reporter or properly prosecuted.  Other laws pertain to mining, national parks, water usage, air protection, geological research, waste management, agriculture, agricultural land, energy protection and fresh water.

text: Sex is influenced by water pollutants that are encountered in everyday life. These sources of water can range from the simplicity of a water fountain to the entirety of the oceans.  The pollutants within the water range from Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals (EDCs) in birth control to Bisphenol-A (BPA). Foreign substances such as chemical pollutants that cause an alteration of sex have been found in growing prevalence in the circulating waters of the world. These pollutants have affected not only humans, but also animals in contact with the pollutants.

text: Sex

text: is influenced by water

text: pollutants

text: that are encountered in everyday life. These sources of water can range from the simplicity of a water fountain to the entirety of the oceans.  The pollutants within the water range from

text: Endocrine Disruptor Chemicals (EDCs)

text: in birth control to

text: Bisphenol-A (BPA)

text: . Foreign substances such as chemical pollutants that cause an alteration of sex have been found in growing prevalence in the circulating waters of the world. These pollutants have affected not only humans, but also animals in contact with the pollutants.

text: Marine environments are especially vulnerable since pollution such as oil spills are not containable. In addition to anthropogenic pollution, millions of tons of petroleum annually enter the marine environment from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities.  Particularly successful is a recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB) that may offer useful genes.

text: Marine environments are especially vulnerable since pollution such as

text: oil spills

text: are not containable. In addition to anthropogenic pollution, millions of tons of

text: petroleum

text: annually enter the marine environment from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities.  Particularly successful is a recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called

text: hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria

text: (HCCB) that may offer useful genes.

text: The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especially pollution, were Arabic medical treatises written by al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities. Cordoba, Al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection.

text: The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and

text: environmental science

text: , especially pollution, were

text: Arabic medical treatises

text: written by

text: al-Kindi

text: Qusta ibn Luqa

text: al-Razi

text: Ibn Al-Jazzar

text: al-Tamimi

text: al-Masihi

text: Avicenna

text: Ali ibn Ridwan

text: Ibn Jumay

text: Isaac Israeli ben Solomon

entity_name: Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (medieval writer)

text: Abd-el-latif

text: , Ibn al-Quff, and

text: Ibn al-Nafis

text: . Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution,

text: water pollution

text: soil contamination

text: municipal solid waste

text: mishandling, and

text: environmental impact assessment

text: s of certain localities.

text: Cordoba

text: Al-Andalus

text: also had the first

text: waste container

text: s and

text: waste disposal

text: facilities for

text: litter

text: collection.

text: Land degradation/desertification (soil erosion resulting from farming of marginal areas, overgrazing, destruction of vegetation); water supplies contaminated by raw sewage; siltation of reservoirs; oil pollution of coastal waters.

text: As a Miss Earth delegate, an environmental advocacy is a must. Based from Miss Earth's website, Sophie's advocacy focuses on water pollution. She mentions "industry, agriculture, waste-water and automobile oil spills" as several factors that contributes to the effects of water pollution. She chooses water pollution because "...it is a major cause of human, animal and plant mortality on a massive scale. Since the late twentieth century, with the use of plastics mainly glass and stainless very poorly degradable, the impact of marine human waste has become increasingly important ! ! Various studies have now found plastic particles in the oceans of the world and at all depths : 100 million tons of plastic waste are scattered in the world's oceans." She said that, "The fight against pollution is difficult, because what is at the bottom or diluted in water is often invisible. In addition, some toxic infiltrated into the ground often produce their effects after a long time! However, we can act!! As we see, the plastic is the material that occupies most of the waste found at sea and eliminate waste, it must first collect."

text: As a Miss Earth delegate, an environmental advocacy is a must. Based from Miss Earth's website, Sophie's advocacy focuses on

text: water pollution

text: . She mentions "industry, agriculture, waste-water and automobile oil spills" as several factors that contributes to the effects of water pollution. She chooses water pollution because "...it is a major cause of human, animal and plant mortality on a massive scale. Since the late twentieth century, with the use of plastics mainly glass and stainless very poorly degradable, the impact of marine human waste has become increasingly important ! ! Various studies have now found plastic particles in the oceans of the world and at all depths : 100 million tons of plastic waste are scattered in the world's oceans." She said that, "The fight against pollution is difficult, because what is at the bottom or diluted in water is often invisible. In addition, some toxic infiltrated into the ground often produce their effects after a long time! However, we can act!! As we see, the plastic is the material that occupies most of the waste found at sea and eliminate waste, it must first collect."

text: When the plan was introduced in October in 2003, it originally contained 65 actions built on previous legislation. Their immediate goal was to halt and reverse the decline in water quality entering the reef by 2013. By 2020, they hope that the quality of the water entering in the reef improves enough so that it doesn't have a detrimental impact on the health of the Great Barrier Reef. To achieve these goals they decided to reduce pollutants in the water entering the reef and to rehabilitate and conserve areas of the reef that naturally help reduce water pollutants. To achieve the objectives described above, this plan focuses on non-point sources of pollution, which cannot be traced to a single source such as a waste outlet.

text: Nonpoint source (NPS) water pollution regulations are environmental regulations that restrict or limit water pollution from diffuse or nonpoint effluent sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas in a river catchments or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. In the United States, governments have taken a number of legal and regulatory approaches to controlling NPS effluent. Nonpoint water pollution sources include, for example, leakage from underground storage tanks, storm water runoff, atmospheric deposition of contaminants, and golf course, agricultural, and forestry runoff. Nonpoint sources are the most significant single source of water pollution in the United States, accounting for almost half of all water pollution, and agricultural runoff is the single largest source of nonpoint source water pollution.  This water pollution has a number of detrimental effects on human health and the environment. Unlike point source pollution, nonpoint source pollution arises from numerous and diverse sources, making identification, monitoring, and regulation more complex.

text: Nonpoint source (NPS) water pollution regulations are environmental regulations that restrict or limit

text: water pollution

text: from diffuse or nonpoint

text: effluent

text: sources such as polluted

text: runoff

text: from agricultural areas in a river catchments or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. In the United States, governments have taken a number of legal and regulatory approaches to controlling NPS effluent.

text: Nonpoint water pollution

text: sources include, for example, leakage from underground storage tanks, storm water runoff, atmospheric deposition of contaminants, and golf course, agricultural, and forestry runoff. Nonpoint sources are the most significant single source of

text: water pollution in the United States

text: , accounting for almost half of all water pollution, and agricultural runoff is the single largest source of nonpoint source water pollution.  This water pollution has a number of detrimental effects on human health and the environment. Unlike

text: point source

text: pollution, nonpoint source pollution arises from numerous and diverse sources, making identification, monitoring, and regulation more complex.

text: Parts-per notation is often used describing dilute solutions in chemistry, for instance, the relative abundance of dissolved minerals or pollutants in water. The unit “1 ppm” can be used for a mass fraction if a water-borne pollutant is present at one-millionth of a gram per gram of sample solution.  When working with aqueous solutions, it is common to assume that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL.  Therefore, it is common to equate 1 kilogram of water with 1 L of water.  Consequently, 1 ppm corresponds to 1 mg/L and 1 ppb corresponds to 1 μg/L.

text: Parts-per notation is often used describing dilute solutions in

text: chemistry

text: , for instance, the relative abundance of dissolved minerals or pollutants in water. The unit “1 ppm” can be used for a mass fraction if a water-borne pollutant is present at one-millionth of a

text: gram

text: per gram of sample solution.  When working with aqueous solutions, it is common to assume that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL.  Therefore, it is common to equate 1 kilogram of water with 1 L of water.  Consequently, 1 ppm corresponds to 1 mg/L and 1 ppb corresponds to 1 μg/L.

text: Exhaust from internal combustion engines (mainly automobiles and trucks, as well as marine vessels in coastal waters) is a major internal anthropogenic source.  Other human-caused sources include: Industrial, agricultural (e.g. manure spreading), commercial operations (e.g., dry cleaners and gas stations) and home heating appliances (furnaces, fireplaces). Radionuclides are generally not a concern with regards to air pollution issues in BC, except for radon gas. Background pollution occurs in areas not directly affected by pollution sources.

text: Exhaust

text: from

text: internal combustion

text: engines (mainly automobiles and trucks, as well as marine vessels in coastal waters) is a major internal anthropogenic source.  Other human-caused sources include:

text: Industrial

text: , agricultural (e.g. manure spreading), commercial operations (e.g., dry cleaners and gas stations) and home heating appliances (furnaces, fireplaces).

text: Radionuclide

text: s are generally not a concern with regards to air pollution issues in BC, except for

text: radon

text: gas. Background pollution occurs in areas not directly affected by pollution sources.

text: The Act requires use of best management practices for a wide range of other water discharges including nonpoint source pollution. Amendments in 1977 required stricter regulation of toxic pollutants. In 1987 Congress added NPDES permit coverage for municipal and industrial stormwater discharges.

text: The Act requires use of

entity_name: Best management practice for water pollution

text: best management practices

text: for a wide range of other water discharges including

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: . Amendments in 1977 required stricter regulation of

text: toxic

text: pollutants. In 1987 Congress added NPDES permit coverage for municipal and industrial

text: stormwater

text: discharges.

text: Ship pollution is the pollution of air and water by shipping. It is a problem that has been accelerating as trade has become increasingly globalized, posing an increasing threat to the world’s oceans and waterways as globalization continues. It is expected that, “...shipping traffic to and from the United States is projected to double by 2020." Because of increased traffic in ocean ports, pollution from ships also directly affects coastal areas. The pollution produced affects biodiversity, climate, food, and human health. However, the degree to which humans are polluting and how it affects the world is highly debated and has been a hot international topic for the past 30 years.

text: Ship pollution is the pollution of air and water by

text: shipping

text: . It is a problem that has been accelerating as trade has become increasingly globalized, posing an increasing threat to the world’s oceans and waterways as

text: globalization

text: continues. It is expected that, “...shipping traffic to and from the United States is projected to double by 2020." Because of increased traffic in ocean

text: port

text: s, pollution from ships also directly affects coastal areas. The pollution produced affects

text: biodiversity

text: , climate, food, and human health. However, the degree to which humans are polluting and how it affects the world is highly debated and has been a hot international topic for the past 30 years.

text: Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can leach out into their surroundings when exposed to water. Waterborne hydrophobic pollutants collect and magnify on the surface of plastic debris, thus making plastic far more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land. Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to bioaccumulate in fatty tissues, biomagnifying up the food chain and putting pressure on apex predators. Some plastic additives are known to disrupt the endocrine system when consumed, others can suppress the immune system or decrease reproductive rates. Floating debris can also absorb persistent organic pollutants from seawater, including PCBs, DDT and PAHs.  Aside from toxic effects, when ingested some of these are mistaken by the animal brain for estradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.

text: Toxic additives used in the manufacture of plastic materials can

text: leach

text: out into their surroundings when exposed to water. Waterborne

text: hydrophobic

text: pollutants

text: collect and magnify on the surface

text: of plastic debris, thus making plastic far more deadly in the ocean than it would be on land. Hydrophobic contaminants are also known to

text: bioaccumulate

text: in fatty tissues,

text: biomagnifying

text: up the food chain and putting pressure on

text: apex predator

text: s. Some plastic additives are known to disrupt the

text: endocrine system

text: when consumed, others can suppress the immune system or decrease reproductive rates. Floating debris can also absorb

text: persistent organic pollutant

text: s from seawater, including

text: PCBs

text: DDT

text: and

text: PAHs

text: .  Aside from toxic effects, when ingested some of these are mistaken by the animal brain for

text: estradiol

text: , causing hormone disruption in the affected wildlife.

text: California's NPS plan requires coordination from 28 different state agencies,  which reveals the institutional challenges NPS regulation may encounter.  The State Water Resources Control Board's Division of Water Quality and the California Coastal Commission (CCC), designed California's NPS plan pursuant to the CWA and the Federal Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments of 1990. California's NPS plan for 1998-2013 is available here: http://www.swrcb.ca.gov/water_issues/programs/nps/docs/planvol1.pdf. The plan notes that California, like Indiana, uses a watershed management approach to controlling NPS pollution. The plan began by identifying roughly 1,500 water body-pollutant combinations that would require a TMDL under the CWA section 303(d).

text: The Miccosukee Tribe filed suit under the CWA, which prohibits "the discharge of any pollutant by any person" unless done in compliance with the Act. Under the Act's NPDES, dischargers must obtain permits limiting the type and quantity of pollutants they can release into the Nation's waters. The Act defines " 'discharge of a pollutant' " as "any addition of any pollutant to navigable waters from any point source," and defines " 'point source' " as "any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance" "from which pollutants are or may be discharged." The Tribe claimed that S–9 requires an NPDES permit because it moves phosphorus-laden water from C–11 into WCA–3, but the District contended that S–9's operation does not constitute the "discharge of [a] pollutant" under the Act. The District Court granted the Tribe summary judgment, and the Eleventh Circuit affirmed.

text: The

text: Miccosukee Tribe

text: filed suit under the CWA, which prohibits "the discharge of any pollutant by any person" unless done in compliance with the Act. Under the Act's NPDES, dischargers must obtain permits limiting the type and quantity of pollutants they can release into the Nation's waters. The Act defines " 'discharge of a pollutant' " as "any addition of any pollutant to navigable waters from any point source," and defines " 'point source' " as "any discernible, confined and discrete conveyance" "from which pollutants are or may be discharged." The Tribe claimed that S–9 requires an NPDES permit because it moves phosphorus-laden water from C–11 into WCA–3, but the District contended that S–9's operation does not constitute the "discharge of [a] pollutant" under the Act. The District Court granted the Tribe summary judgment, and the Eleventh Circuit affirmed.

text: Mining activities pollute Lake Yojoa with heavy metals which is Honduras largest source of fresh water. Some rivers and streams are also polluted by mining. Hurricane Mitch caused severe damage in 1998.

text: Mining activities pollute

text: Lake Yojoa

text: with

text: heavy metals

text: which is Honduras largest source of fresh water. Some rivers and streams are also polluted by mining.

text: Hurricane Mitch

text: caused severe damage in 1998.

text: The single most important authority governing oil spills in the United States is the Federal government. The federal government has jurisdiction over oil responses and oil spills that occur in state and federal navigable waters alike.

text: Pollution, trawling, and human development are major human disasters that affect coastal regions.  There are two main categories related to pollution, point source pollution, and nonpoint source pollution.  Point source pollution is when there is an exact location such as a pipeline or a body of water that leads into the rivers and oceans.  Known dumping into the ocean is also another point source of pollution.  Nonpoint source pollution would pertain more to fertilizer runoff, and industrial waste.  Examples of pollution that affect the coastal regions are but are not limited to; fertilizer runoff, oil spills, and dumping of hazardous materials into the oceans.  More human acts that hurt the coastline are as follows; waste discharge, fishing, dredging, mining, and drilling.  Oil spills are one of the most hazardous dangers towards coastal communities.  They are hard to contain, difficult to clean up, and devastate everything.  The fish, animals such as birds, the water, and especially the coastline near the spill.  The most recent oil spill that had everybody concerned with oil spill was the BP oil spill.

text: Pollution, trawling, and human development are major human disasters that affect coastal regions.  There are two main categories related to pollution,

text: point source pollution

text: , and

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: .  Point source pollution is when there is an exact location such as a pipeline or a body of water that leads into the rivers and oceans.  Known dumping into the ocean is also another point source of pollution.  Nonpoint source pollution would pertain more to fertilizer runoff, and industrial waste.  Examples of pollution that affect the coastal regions are but are not limited to; fertilizer runoff, oil spills, and dumping of hazardous materials into the oceans.  More human acts that hurt the coastline are as follows; waste discharge, fishing, dredging, mining, and drilling.  Oil spills are one of the most hazardous dangers towards coastal communities.  They are hard to contain, difficult to clean up, and devastate everything.  The fish, animals such as birds, the water, and especially the coastline near the spill.  The most recent oil spill that had everybody concerned with oil spill was the

text: BP oil spill

text: Water pollution is largely the product of poor urban wastewater management but solid waste and agriculture are also water polluters. In some cases, high salinity, pesticides and other pollutants are present in water close to agricultural, urban, and industrial areas. Downstream of metal mining, flows of effluents also show high levels of cadmium, chrome and other heavy metals – high levels of mercury have been found in the waters of Samana Bay and the presence of pesticides and persistent organic pollutants (such as DDT and PCBs) in estuary mollusks has also been reported.

text: Water pollution is largely the product of poor urban wastewater management but solid waste and agriculture are also water polluters. In some cases, high salinity, pesticides and other pollutants are present in water close to agricultural, urban, and industrial areas. Downstream of metal mining, flows of effluents also show high levels of

text: cadmium

text: chrome

text: and other

text: heavy metals

text: – high levels of

text: mercury

text: have been found in the waters of Samana Bay and the presence of pesticides and persistent organic pollutants (such as DDT and PCBs) in estuary mollusks has also been reported.

text: New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) are pollution control standards issued by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).  The term is used in the Clean Air Act Extension of 1970 (CAA) to refer to air pollution emission standards, and in the Clean Water Act (CWA) referring to standards for water pollution discharges of industrial wastewater to surface waters.

text: New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) are pollution control

text: standards

text: issued by the

text: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA).  The term is used in the

text: Clean Air Act Extension of 1970

text: (CAA) to refer to

text: air pollution

text: emission standards, and in the

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA) referring to standards for

text: water pollution

text: discharges of

text: industrial wastewater

text: to

text: surface water

text: s.

text: where L is the pollutant load (as mass flux), c the maximum allowable concentration and c the natural concentration of the pollutant in the receiving water body (both expressed in mass/volume).

text: where L is the pollutant load (as

text: mass flux

text: ), c the maximum allowable concentration and c the natural concentration of the pollutant in the receiving water body (both expressed in mass/volume).

text: On March 24, 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker struck Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska and spilled more than  of crude oil. The Exxon Valdez oil spill was the second largest in U.S. history, and in the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez incident, the U.S. Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. An initial award of $5 billion USD punitive was reduced to $507.5 million by the US Supreme Court in June 2008, and distributions of this award have commenced.

text: On March 24, 1989, the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: oil tanker

text: struck

text: Bligh Reef

text: in

text: Prince William Sound

text: Alaska

text: and spilled more than  of crude oil. The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: was the second largest in U.S. history, and in the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez incident, the

text: U.S. Congress

text: passed the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: . An initial award of $5 billion USD

text: punitive

text: was reduced to $507.5 million by the US Supreme Court in June 2008, and distributions of this award have commenced.

text: Under Nigerian law the operating company is responsible for cleaning up oil spills from its facilities, even if the spill is the result of third-party action. Therefore, the human and environmental impact of Shell's failure to properly clean up pollution cannot be defended by reference to illegal activity that, allegedly, caused the oil spills.

text: For the purposes of determining whether there has been "any addition of any pollutant to navigable waters from any point source," the Government argued that all water bodies that fall within the Act's definition of "navigable water" should be viewed unitarily for purposes of NPDES permitting requirements. Since the Act requires NPDES permits only when a pollutant is added to navigable waters, the Government contended that such permits are not required when water from one navigable body is discharged, unaltered, into another navigable water. Nonetheless, because neither the District nor the Government raised the "unitary waters" approach before the Eleventh Circuit or in their briefs respecting certiori, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to resolve the argument here and the unitary waters argument was remanded to the lower court. In addition, the U.S. Supreme Court concluded that summary judgment is appropriate only where there is no genuine issue of material fact but some factual issues remain unresolved in this case. Although the District Court correctly characterized the flow through S–9 as non-natural, it appears that if S–9 were shut down, the water in the C–11 canal might flow east instead of west, the water in the canal could flood and would be part of a larger water body. The District Court did not address this issue when it granted summary judgment; therefore, further development of the record was found necessary to resolve the question over the validity of the distinction between C-11 and WCA-3 waters and the Government's broader "unitary waters" argument was left open to the District on remand.

text: The warmed water is returned directly to the aquatic environment, often at temperatures significantly (to aquatic life) above the ambient receiving water. Thermal pollution of rivers, estuaries and coastal waters is a consideration when siting such plants.

text: The warmed water is returned directly to the aquatic environment, often at temperatures significantly (to aquatic life) above the ambient receiving water.

text: Thermal pollution

text: of rivers, estuaries and coastal waters is a consideration when siting such plants.

text: The Clean Water Act is a result of the 1972 amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, which was passed to ultimately eliminate pollution discharge into any body of water in the United States. One of the major mechanisms for implementing this statute was to create a permitting process for all discharging methods that involved dumping pollutants into streams, lakes, rivers, wetlands, or creeks. The National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permitting requirements apply to all phases of the petroleum industry. Petroleum industry waste, including frac flowback and produced water, cannot be discharged to the waters of the United States, except under an NPDES or equivalent state permit.

text: The Clean Water Act is a result of the 1972 amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, which was passed to ultimately eliminate pollution discharge into any body of water in the United States. One of the major mechanisms for implementing this statute was to create a permitting process for all discharging methods that involved dumping pollutants into streams, lakes, rivers, wetlands, or creeks. The

text: National Pollution Discharge Elimination System

text: (NPDES) permitting requirements apply to all phases of the petroleum industry. Petroleum industry waste, including frac flowback and produced water, cannot be discharged to the waters of the United States, except under an NPDES or equivalent state permit.

text: On March 24, 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on Bligh Reef, spilling eleven million gallons of crude oil into the waters of Prince William Sound. The Exxon Valdez oil spill was the largest in United States history.

text: On March 24, 1989, the

text: oil tanker

text: Exxon Valdez

text: ran aground on

text: Bligh Reef

text: , spilling eleven million gallons of crude oil into the waters of

text: Prince William Sound

text: . The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: was the largest in United States history.

text: SAFE AIR  (Simulation of Air pollution From Emissions Above Inhomogeneous Regions) is an advanced atmospheric pollution dispersion model for calculating concentrations of atmospheric pollutants emitted both continuously or intermittently from point, line, volume and area sources. It adopts an integrated Gaussian puff modeling system.SAFE AIR  consists of three main parts: the meteorological pre-processor WINDS (Wind-field Interpolation by Non Divergent Schemes) to calculate wind fields, the meteorological pre-processor ABLE (Acquisition of Boundary Layer parameters) to calculate atmospheric parameters and a lagrangian multisource model named P6 (Program Plotting Paths of Pollutant Puffs and Plumes) to calculate pollutant dispersion.SAFE AIR  is included in the online Model Documentation System (MDS) of the European Environment Agency (EEA) and of the .Italian Agency for the Protection of the Environment (APAT).

text: SAFE AIR  (Simulation of Air pollution From Emissions Above Inhomogeneous Regions) is an advanced

text: atmospheric pollution dispersion model

text: for calculating concentrations of

text: atmospheric pollutants

text: emitted both

text: continuously

text: or

text: intermittently

text: from

text: point, line, volume and area sources

text: . It adopts an integrated

text: Gaussian puff modeling system

text: .SAFE AIR  consists of three main parts: the meteorological pre-processor WINDS (Wind-field Interpolation by Non Divergent Schemes) to calculate wind fields, the meteorological pre-processor ABLE (Acquisition of Boundary Layer parameters) to calculate atmospheric parameters and a lagrangian multisource model named P6 (Program Plotting Paths of Pollutant Puffs and Plumes) to calculate pollutant dispersion.SAFE AIR  is included in the online Model Documentation System (MDS) of the

text: European Environment Agency

text: (EEA) and of the .Italian Agency for the Protection of the Environment (APAT).

text: A Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) is a regulatory term in the U.S. Clean Water Act, describing a value of the maximum amount of a pollutant that a body of water can receive while still meeting water quality standards. Alternatively, TMDL is an allocation of that water pollutant deemed acceptable to the subject receiving waters.TMDLs have been used extensively by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state environmental agencies in implementing the Clean Water Act by establishing maximum pollution limits for industrial wastewater dischargers.  EPA published regulations in 1992 establishing TMDL procedures. Application of TMDL has broadened significantly in the last decade to include many watershed-scale efforts.  This process incorporates both point source and nonpoint source pollutants within a watershed.

text: A Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) is a regulatory term in the U.S.

text: Clean Water Act

text: , describing a value of the maximum amount of a

text: pollutant

text: that a

text: body of water

text: can receive while still meeting

text: water quality standards

text: . Alternatively, TMDL is an allocation of that

text: water pollutant

text: deemed acceptable to the subject

text: receiving water

text: s.TMDLs have been used extensively by the

text: (EPA) and state environmental agencies in implementing the Clean Water Act by establishing maximum pollution limits for

text: industrial wastewater

text: dischargers.  EPA published regulations in 1992 establishing TMDL procedures. Application of TMDL has broadened significantly in the last decade to include many watershed-scale efforts.  This process incorporates both

text: point source

text: and

text: nonpoint source

text: pollutants within a

text: watershed

text: Mangroves maintain coastal water quality by abiotic and biotic retention, removal, and cycling of nutrients, pollutants, and particulate matter from land-based sources, filtering these materials from water before they reach seaward coral reef and seagrass habitats. Mangrove root systems slow water flow, facilitating the deposition of sediment. Toxins and nutrients can be bound to sediment particles or within the molecular lattice of clay particles and are removed during sediment deposition. Compared with the expense of constructing a wastewater treatment plant, mangroves are commonly selected as receiving areas of effluent. Increasingly the notion of specifically constructed mangrove wetlands is being adopted and used for treatment of aquaculture and sewage effluents.

text: Mangroves maintain coastal water quality by abiotic and biotic retention, removal, and cycling of

text: nutrients

text: pollutants

text: , and particulate matter from land-based sources, filtering these materials from water before they reach seaward coral reef and

text: seagrass

text: habitats

text: . Mangrove root systems slow water flow, facilitating the deposition of sediment.

text: Toxins

text: and

text: nutrients

text: can be bound to sediment particles or within the molecular lattice of clay particles and are removed during sediment deposition. Compared with the expense of constructing a

text: wastewater treatment plant

text: , mangroves are commonly selected as receiving areas of effluent. Increasingly the notion of specifically constructed mangrove wetlands is being adopted and used for treatment of

text: aquaculture

text: and sewage effluents.

text: Environment - current issues:deforestation (some the result of illegal logging); overgrazing of the slopes of the coast and sierra leading to soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Lima; pollution of rivers and coastal waters from municipal and mining wastes

text: Due to high levels of pollution, including 125 MLD of untreated sewerage water being discharged into the river by the Pune Municipal Corporation, the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board has classified the water quality to be of Class-IV. The Pune Municipal Corporation announced plans to clean up and restore the river by pumping in oxygen on the lines of restoration efforts undertaken in Mumbai for the Mithi River.

text: Due to high levels of pollution, including 125 MLD of untreated sewerage water being discharged into the river by the

text: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: , the

text: Maharashtra Pollution Control Board

text: has classified the water quality to be of Class-IV. The Pune Municipal Corporation announced plans to clean up and restore the river by pumping in oxygen on the lines of restoration efforts undertaken in

text: Mumbai

text: for the

text: Mithi River

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is a dynamic rainfall–runoff–subsurface runoff simulation model used for single-event to long-term (continuous) simulation of the surface/subsurface hydrology quantity and quality from primarily urban/suburban areas. The hydrology component of SWMM operates on a collection of subcatchment areas divided into impervious and pervious areas with and without depression storage to predict runoff  and pollutant loads from precipitation, evaporation and infiltration losses from each of the subcatchment.  In addition low impact development (LID) and best management practice areas on the subcatchment can be modeled to reduce the impervious and pervious runoff.  The routing or hydraulics section of SWMM transports this water and possible associated water quality constituents through a system of closed pipes, open channels, storage/treatment devices, ponds, storages, pumps, orifices, weirs, outlets, outfalls and other regulators. SWMM tracks the quantity and quality of the flow generated within each subcatchment, and the flow rate, flow depth, and quality of water in each pipe and channel during a simulation period composed of multiple fixed or variable time steps. The water quality constituents such as water quality constituents can be simulated from buildup on the subcatchments through washoff to a hydraulic network with optional first order decay and linked pollutant removal, best management practice and low-impact development (LID) removal and treatment can be simulated at selected storage nodes. SWMM is one of the hydrology transport models which the EPA and other agencies have applied widely throughout North America and through consultants and universities throughout the world.  The latest update notes and new features can be found on the EPA website in the download section.  Recently added in November 2015 was the EPA SWMM 5.1 Hydrology Manual

text: The

text: (EPA) Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) is a dynamic rainfall–

text: runoff

text: subsurface runoff

text: simulation model

text: used for single-event to long-term (continuous)

text: simulation

text: of the surface/subsurface hydrology quantity and

text: quality

text: from primarily urban/suburban areas. The hydrology component of SWMM operates on a collection of

text: subcatchment areas

text: divided into

text: impervious

text: and pervious areas with and without

text: depression

text: storage to predict

text: runoff

text: and

text: pollutant

text: loads from precipitation, evaporation and

text: infiltration

text: losses from each of the subcatchment.  In addition low impact development (LID) and best management practice areas on the subcatchment can be modeled to reduce the impervious and pervious runoff.  The routing or hydraulics section of SWMM transports this water and possible associated

text: water quality

text: constituents through a system of closed pipes, open channels, storage/treatment devices, ponds, storages, pumps, orifices, weirs, outlets, outfalls and other regulators. SWMM tracks the quantity and quality of the flow generated within each

text: subcatchment

text: , and the flow rate, flow depth, and quality of water in each pipe and channel during a simulation period composed of multiple fixed or variable

text: time steps

text: . The water quality constituents such as

text: water quality constituents

text: can be simulated from buildup on the subcatchments through washoff to a

text: hydraulic

text: network with optional first order decay and linked pollutant removal, best management practice and

entity_name: Low-impact development (U.S. and Canada)

text: low-impact development

text: (LID) removal and treatment can be simulated at selected storage nodes. SWMM is one of the

text: hydrology transport model

text: s which the EPA and other agencies have applied widely throughout North America and through consultants and universities throughout the world.  The latest update notes and new features can be found on the EPA website in the download section.  Recently added in November 2015 was the EPA SWMM 5.1 Hydrology Manual

text: The Miccosukee Tribe filed suit under the Clean Water Act, which prohibits "the discharge of any pollutant by any person" unless done in compliance with the Act. The Tribe claimed that the pump station required an NPDES permit, because it moved phosphorus-laden water from the canal into the wetland area, but the District contended that the pump's operation did not constitute the "discharge of a pollutant" under the Act. The District Court granted the Tribe summary judgment, and the Eleventh Circuit affirmed. For the purposes of NPDES permitting requirements, the Government (as an impartial adviser to the District) contended that all water bodies that fall within the Act's definition of "navigable water" (which are defined as "the waters of the U.S.") should be viewed collectively. Since the Act requires NPDES permits only when there is an addition of a pollutant to "navigable waters," this approach implied that such permits are not required when water is transferred from one navigable water, unaltered, into another navigable water body. However, because neither the District nor the Government raised the "unitary waters" approach before the Eleventh Circuit or in their briefs respecting certiori and because some factual issues remained unresolved, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to resolve the unitary waters argument and the case was remanded to the lower court.

text: The

text: Miccosukee Tribe

text: The California State Water Resources Control Board currently funds the Engineered Soils project at the Sustainable Technology Optimization Research Center. This project was implemented at the STORC to initiate engineered soil designs for local public agencies to reduce issues relating to Low-Impact Development. Storm water runoff can carry harmful pollutants impacting wildlife, vegetation, recreational areas, and drinking water. Low Impact Development (LID) is an approach to minimized storm water pollution keeping runoff close to source. Efforts at the STORC include engineering soil designs to reduce barriers associated with Low Impact Development such as nutrient export issues, groundwater contamination, and information regarding treatment of pollutants is lacking.

text: The

entity_name: California State Water Resources Control Board

text: California State Water Resources Control Board

text: currently funds the Engineered Soils project at the Sustainable Technology Optimization Research Center. This project was implemented at the STORC to initiate engineered soil designs for local public agencies to reduce issues relating to

text: Low-Impact Development

text: . Storm water runoff can carry harmful pollutants impacting wildlife, vegetation, recreational areas, and drinking water. Low Impact Development (LID) is an approach to minimized storm water pollution keeping runoff close to source. Efforts at the STORC include engineering soil designs to reduce barriers associated with Low Impact Development such as nutrient export issues, groundwater contamination, and information regarding treatment of pollutants is lacking.

text: In the United States, about 75 to 82 percent of thermal pollution is generated by power plants. The remainder is from industrial sources such as petroleum refineries, pulp and paper mills, chemical plants, steel mills and smelters. Heated water from these sources may be controlled with:

text: In the

text: United States

text: , about 75 to 82 percent of thermal pollution is generated by power plants. The remainder is from industrial sources such as

text: petroleum refineries

text: pulp and paper mill

text: s,

text: chemical plant

text: s,

text: steel mill

text: s and

text: smelter

text: s. Heated water from these sources may be controlled with:

text: The major environmental issues in Argentina are pollution and the loss of agricultural lands. The soil is threatened by erosion, salinization, and deforestation. Air pollution is also a problem due to chemical agents from industrial sources. The water supply is threatened by uncontrolled dumping of pesticides, hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. Argentina has a renewable water supply of 276 cubic km. In 2002, some 97% of all city dwellers and over 70% of rural dwellers had access to improved water sources. In 2000, about 12.7% of the land area contained forest and woodland.

text: The major environmental issues in Argentina are

text: pollution

text: and the loss of agricultural lands. The soil is threatened by

text: erosion

text: salinization

text: , and

text: deforestation

text: Air pollution

text: is also a problem due to chemical agents from industrial sources. The water supply is threatened by uncontrolled dumping of

text: pesticide

text: s,

text: hydrocarbon

text: s, and

text: heavy metal

text: s. Argentina has a renewable water supply of 276 cubic km. In 2002, some 97% of all city dwellers and over 70% of rural dwellers had access to improved water sources. In 2000, about 12.7% of the land area contained forest and woodland.

text: In the coastal commercial sector, for instance, the livelihood of fishing people and those engaged in allied activities—roughly 5.6 million people—began to be imperiled in the late 1970s by declining fish stocks brought about by the contamination of coastal waters. Fishermen in northern Java experienced marked declines in certain kinds of fish catches and by the mid-1980s saw the worst virtual disappearance of the fish in some areas. Effluent from fertiliser plants in Gresik in northern Java polluted ponds and killed milkfish fry and young shrimp. The pollution of the Strait of Malacca between Malaysia and Sumatra from oil leakage from the Japanese supertanker Showa Maru in January 1975 was a major environmental disaster for the fragile Sumatran coastline. The danger of supertanker accidents also increased in the heavily trafficked strait.

text: In the coastal commercial sector, for instance, the livelihood of fishing people and those engaged in allied activities—roughly 5.6 million people—began to be imperiled in the late 1970s by declining fish stocks brought about by the contamination of coastal waters. Fishermen in northern Java experienced marked declines in certain kinds of fish catches and by the mid-1980s saw the worst virtual disappearance of the fish in some areas. Effluent from

text: fertiliser

text: plants in Gresik in northern Java polluted ponds and killed

text: milkfish

text: fry and young shrimp. The pollution of the Strait of Malacca between Malaysia and Sumatra from oil leakage from the Japanese supertanker Showa Maru in January 1975 was a major environmental disaster for the fragile Sumatran coastline. The danger of supertanker accidents also increased in the heavily trafficked strait.

text: Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean, a lake, or a river, or a cooling pond, instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or once-through cooling system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping cooling water through the plant's heat exchangers. However, the waste heat can cause thermal pollution as the water is discharged. Power plants using natural bodies of water for cooling are designed with mechanisms such as fish screens, to limit intake of organisms into the cooling machinery. These screens are only partially effective and as a result billions of fish and other aquatic organisms are killed by power plants each year. For example, the cooling system at the Indian Point Energy Center in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually.

text: Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean, a lake, or a river, or a cooling pond, instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or

text: once-through cooling

text: system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping cooling water through the plant's

text: heat exchanger

text: s. However, the waste heat can cause

text: thermal pollution

text: as the water is discharged. Power plants using natural bodies of water for cooling are designed with mechanisms such as

text: fish screen

text: s, to limit intake of organisms into the cooling machinery. These screens are only partially effective and as a result billions of fish and other aquatic organisms are killed by power plants each year. For example, the cooling system at the

text: Indian Point Energy Center

text: in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually.

text: According to the Palestinian Environmental NGOs Network, "The public health and safety and environmental hazards stemming from the damage caused to infrastructure as a result of this military operation include water shortages, contaminated remaining drinking water, uncontrolled discharge and untreated sewage flowing in the streets resulting in groundwater pollution, pollution of agricultural land which Gazans will now be unable to cultivate to harvest crops, negatively impacting their earning."

text: According to the

text: Palestinian Environmental NGOs Network

text: , "The public health and safety and environmental hazards stemming from the damage caused to infrastructure as a result of this military operation include

text: water shortages

text: , contaminated remaining

text: drinking water

text: , uncontrolled discharge and

text: untreated sewage

text: flowing in the streets resulting in

text: groundwater pollution

text: , pollution of agricultural land which Gazans will now be unable to cultivate to harvest crops, negatively impacting their earning."

text: Some petroleum industry operations have been responsible for water pollution through by-products of refining and oil spills.  The industry is the largest industrial source of emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), a group of chemicals that contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone (smog).

text: Some petroleum industry operations have been responsible for

text: water pollution

text: through by-products of refining and

text: oil spill

text: s.  The industry is the largest industrial source of emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), a group of chemicals that contribute to the formation of ground-level

text: ozone

text: smog

text: In the first two “Reports for the Club of Rome” in 1972 and 1974, the anthropogenic climate changes by  increase as well as by Waste heat were mentioned. About the latter John Holdren wrote in a study cited in the 1st report, “… that global thermal pollution is hardly our most immediate environmental threat. It could prove to be the most inexorable, however, if we are fortunate enough to evade all the rest.” Simple global-scale estimates that recently have been actualized and confirmed by more refined model calculations show noticeable contributions from waste heat to global warming after the year 2100, if its growth rates are not strongly reduced (below the averaged 2% p.a. which occurred since 1973).

text: In the first two “Reports for the Club of Rome” in 1972 and 1974, the anthropogenic climate changes by  increase as well as by

text: Waste heat

text: were mentioned. About the latter

text: John Holdren

text: wrote in a study cited in the 1st report, “… that global thermal pollution is hardly our most immediate environmental threat. It could prove to be the most inexorable, however, if we are fortunate enough to evade all the rest.” Simple global-scale estimates that recently have been actualized and confirmed by more refined model calculations show noticeable contributions from waste heat to global warming after the year 2100, if its growth rates are not strongly reduced (below the averaged 2% p.a. which occurred since 1973).

text: While many technologies are aimed towards preventing oil spills or towards preparation for the spills, there is also technology available that can be quickly implemented in the event of a spill. As was the case with the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, it may take a very long time for spills to be contained.

text: While many technologies are aimed towards preventing oil spills or towards preparation for the spills, there is also technology available that can be quickly implemented in the event of a spill. As was the case with the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in 2010, it may take a very long time for spills to be contained.

text: The Najafgarh drain or Najafgarh nallah (nallah in Hindi means drain)  is just another name for the River Sahibi which continues its flow through Delhi where it is channelized due to flood control purposes, it is a tributary to River Yamuna in which it outfalls here. Within Delhi it is erroneously called "Najafgarh drain" or "Najafgarh nallah"', it gets this name from the once famous and huge Najafgarh Jheel (lake) near the town of Najafgarh in southwest Delhi and within urbanized Delhi it is the Indian Capital’s most polluted water body due to direct inflow of untreated sewage from surrounding populated areas. A January 2005 report by the Central Pollution Control Board clubs this drain with 13 other highly polluted wetlands under category ‘‘D ’’ for assessing the water quality of wetlands in wildlife habitats.

text: Hindi

text: means drain)  is just another name for the

text: River Sahibi

text: which continues its flow through

text: Delhi

text: where it is channelized due to flood control purposes, it is a

text: tributary

text: to River Yamuna in which it outfalls here. Within Delhi it is erroneously called "Najafgarh drain" or "Najafgarh nallah"', it gets this name from the once famous and huge Najafgarh Jheel (lake) near the town of

text: Najafgarh

text: in southwest Delhi and within urbanized Delhi it is the Indian Capital’s most polluted water body due to direct inflow of untreated sewage from surrounding populated areas. A January 2005 report by the Central Pollution Control Board clubs this drain with 13 other highly polluted wetlands under category ‘‘D ’’ for assessing the water quality of wetlands in wildlife habitats.

text: Section 85 of the WRA is concerned with the offence of polluting controlled water. The purpose of the section is to impose criminal liability on those who pollute natural water resources. The main offence states that it is an offence to cause or knowingly permit poisonous, noxious, or polluting matter or any solid waste to enter any controlled waters. Further offences, for example, a breach of conditions in a discharge consent, are also introduced by s.85.

text: Prior to the 1970s the protection of basic air and water supplies was a matter mainly left to each state. During the 1970s, primary responsibility for clean air and water shifted to the federal government. Growing concerns, both environmental and economic, from cites and towns as well as sportsman and other local groups, and senators such as Maine's Edmund S. Muskie, led to passage of extensive legislation, notably the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. Other legislation included National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), signed into law in 1970, which established a United States Environmental Protection Agency and a Council on Environmental Quality; the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972; the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1977, which became known as the Clean Water Act, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, commonly known as the Superfund Act (1980). These laws regulated public drinking water systems, toxic substances, pesticides, and ocean dumping; and protected wildlife, wilderness, and wild and scenic rivers. Moreover, the new laws provide for pollution research, standard setting, contaminated site cleanup, monitoring, and enforcement.

text: Prior to the 1970s the protection of basic air and water supplies was a matter mainly left to each state. During the 1970s, primary responsibility for clean air and water shifted to the federal government. Growing concerns, both environmental and economic, from cites and towns as well as sportsman and other local groups, and senators such as Maine's

text: Edmund S. Muskie

text: , led to passage of extensive legislation, notably the

text: Clean Air Act

text: of 1970 and the

text: Water Pollution Control Act

text: Amendments of 1972. Other legislation included

text: National Environmental Policy Act

text: (NEPA), signed into law in 1970, which established a

text: and a

text: Council on Environmental Quality

text: ; the

entity_name: Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

text: Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972

text: ; the

text: Endangered Species Act

text: of 1973, the

text: Safe Drinking Water Act

text: (1974), the

text: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

text: (1976), the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1977, which became known as the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, commonly known as the

text: Superfund Act

text: (1980). These laws regulated public drinking water systems, toxic substances, pesticides, and ocean dumping; and protected wildlife, wilderness, and wild and scenic rivers. Moreover, the new laws provide for pollution research, standard setting, contaminated site cleanup, monitoring, and enforcement.

text: According to a report published in October 2011 by the French Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety, between 21 March and mid-July around 2.7 × 10 Bq of caesium-137 (about 8.4 kg) entered the ocean, about 82 percent having flowed into the sea before 8 April. This emission of radioactivity into the sea represents the most important individual emission of artificial radioactivity into the sea ever observed. However, the Fukushima coast has some of the world's strongest currents and these transported the contaminated waters far into the Pacific Ocean, thus causing great dispersion of the radioactive elements. The results of measurements of both the seawater and the coastal sediments led to the supposition that the consequences of the accident, in terms of radioactivity, would be minor for marine life as of autumn 2011 (weak concentration of radioactivity in the water and limited accumulation in sediments). On the other hand, significant pollution of sea water along the coast near the nuclear plant might persist, because of the continuing arrival of radioactive material transported towards the sea by surface water running over contaminated soil. Further, some coastal areas might have less-favorable dilution or sedimentation characteristics than those observed so far. Finally, the possible presence of other persistent radioactive substances, such as strontium-90 or plutonium, has not been sufficiently studied. Recent measurements show persistent contamination of some marine species (mostly fish) caught along the coast of Fukushima district. Organisms that filter water and fish at the top of the food chain are, over time, the most sensitive to caesium pollution. It is thus justified to maintain surveillance of marine life that is fished in the coastal waters off Fukushima. Despite caesium isotopic concentration in the waters off of Japan being 10 to 1000 times above concentration prior to the accident, radiation risks are below what is generally considered harmful to marine animals and human consumers.

text: According to a report published in October 2011 by the

entity_name: Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire

text: French Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety

text: A Discharge Monitoring Report (DMR) is a United States regulatory term for a periodic water pollution report prepared by industries, municipalities and other facilities discharging to surface waters. The facilities collect wastewater samples, conduct chemical and/or biological tests of the samples, and submit reports to a state agency or the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). All point source dischargers to ”Waters of the U.S.” must obtain a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit from the appropriate agency, and many permittees are required to file DMRs.

text: A Discharge Monitoring Report (DMR) is a

text: United States

text: regulatory term for a periodic

text: water pollution

text: report prepared by

text: industries

text: municipalities

text: and other facilities discharging to

text: surface water

text: s. The facilities collect

text: wastewater

text: samples, conduct

text: chemical

text: and/or

text: biological

text: tests of the samples, and submit reports to a

text: state

text: agency or the

text: (EPA). All

text: point source

text: dischargers to

text: ”Waters of the U.S.”

text: must obtain a

text: (NPDES) permit from the appropriate agency, and many permittees are required to file DMRs.

text: Water quality has improved and, partially in recognition of this improvement, the Cuyahoga was designated one of 14 American Heritage Rivers in 1998. Despite these efforts, pollution continues to exist in the Cuyahoga River due to other sources of pollution, including urban runoff, nonpoint source problems, combined sewer overflows, and stagnation due to water impounded by dams. For this reason, the Environmental Protection Agency classified portions of the Cuyahoga River watershed as one of 43 Great Lakes Areas of Concern. The most polluted portions of the river now generally meet established aquatic life water quality standards except near dam impoundments. The reasons for not meeting standards near the dam pools are habitat and fish passage issues rather than water quality. River reaches that were once devoid of fish now support 44 species. The most recent survey in 2008 revealed the two most common species in the river were hogsuckers and spotfin shiners, both moderately sensitive to water quality. Habitat issues within the  navigation channel still preclude a robust fishery in that reach. Recreation water quality standards (using bacteria as indicators) are generally met during dry weather conditions, but are often exceeded during significant rains due to nonpoint sources and combined sewer overflows.

text: Water quality

text: has improved and, partially in recognition of this improvement, the Cuyahoga was designated one of 14

text: American Heritage River

text: s in 1998. Despite these efforts, pollution continues to exist in the Cuyahoga River due to other sources of pollution, including

text: urban runoff

text: nonpoint source

text: problems,

text: combined sewer overflow

text: s, and

text: stagnation

text: due to water impounded by dams. For this reason, the Environmental Protection Agency classified portions of the Cuyahoga River

text: watershed

text: as one of 43

text: Great Lakes Areas of Concern

text: . The most polluted portions of the river now generally meet established

text: aquatic life

text: water quality standards except near dam impoundments. The reasons for not meeting standards near the dam pools are habitat and fish passage issues rather than water quality. River reaches that were once devoid of fish now support 44 species. The most recent survey in 2008 revealed the two most common species in the river were

text: hogsucker

text: s and

text: spotfin shiners

text: , both moderately sensitive to water quality. Habitat issues within the  navigation

text: channel

text: still preclude a robust fishery in that reach. Recreation water quality standards (using bacteria as indicators) are generally met during dry weather conditions, but are often exceeded during significant rains due to nonpoint sources and combined sewer overflows.

text: The biggest river flowing into Vučitrn is the Sitnica. It is the second biggest natural basin river of Kosovo (), after the Drini i Bardhe (). According to many years of hydro-metrical observation, the Sitnica flows at a rate of approximately  , or 439.11 million m³ of water per year. The Sitnica river gathers smaller rivers such as Llapi, Lumkuqi, Tërrstena, Banja e Gjytezës and some other water flows that comes from the east side of the Čičavica mountain. The Sitnica river is in the fourth category of pollution, a category which includes the most polluted rivers in Kosovo. Besides chemical pollution, Sitnica river is also contaminated by KEDS's phenol, industrial and urban water.

text: The biggest river flowing into Vučitrn is the Sitnica. It is the second biggest natural basin river of Kosovo (), after the

text: Drini i Bardhe

text: (). According to many years of hydro-metrical observation, the Sitnica flows at a rate of approximately  , or 439.11 million m³ of water per year. The Sitnica river gathers smaller rivers such as Llapi, Lumkuqi, Tërrstena, Banja e Gjytezës and some other water flows that comes from the east side of the

text: Čičavica

text: mountain. The Sitnica river is in the fourth category of pollution, a category which includes the most polluted rivers in Kosovo. Besides chemical pollution, Sitnica river is also contaminated by KEDS's

text: phenol

text: , industrial and urban water.

text: The fast pace of economic growth for the Monterrey Metro Area (MMA) has placed an increasing toll on water quality as industry (ex. Electronics) has discharged untreated industrial effluents and population has grown at a faster rate than the rest of Mexico. Consequently, availability of clean water resources has been impaired by contamination from industrial and residential sources along the Rio San Juan. Another river that first became polluted from industrial effluents and then completely dry from overuse is the Santa Catarina River.

text: Coastal pollution accruing from industrial and human sewage waste and the cumulative impacts of coastal development would mean tainting the water which the dolphins live in. Before issuing protection measures and drawing up conservation programmes, the impacts that these threats on dolphins have to be first addressed and understood.

text: The Environmental Protection Agency had found no violations and had not taken enforcement actions against the Freedom Industries Charleston facility within the last five years. DEP did reveal that the facility had been the subject of a previous "odor complaint" "several years ago," although the complaint was determined by DEP to be unfounded. Following the spill, the DEP issued a violation notice on January 10 to Freedom Industries for releasing MCHM into the air and violating West Virginia's Air Pollution Control Act and the Water Pollution Control Act, and it subsequently ordered that its Charleston facility's 11 other tanks be emptied and the chemicals moved off site. By the night of January 9, the West Virginia National Guard began testing the contaminated water in the Elk River. The National Guard utilized its own lab, in addition to labs from DuPont and the West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources. The National Guard also requested two additional labs to expedite the water testing process. West Virginia American Water coordinated with DuPont and the United States Army Corps of Engineers to determine the contamination level within its system. A total of four labs were set up to continue testing the amount of the chemical remaining in the water.

text: The

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: had found no violations and had not taken enforcement actions against the Freedom Industries Charleston facility within the last five years. DEP did reveal that the facility had been the subject of a previous "odor complaint" "several years ago," although the complaint was determined by DEP to be unfounded. Following the spill, the DEP issued a violation notice on January 10 to Freedom Industries for releasing MCHM into the air and violating West Virginia's Air Pollution Control Act and the Water Pollution Control Act, and it subsequently ordered that its Charleston facility's 11 other tanks be emptied and the chemicals moved off site. By the night of January 9, the West Virginia National Guard began testing the contaminated water in the Elk River. The National Guard utilized its own lab, in addition to labs from

text: DuPont

text: and the West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources. The National Guard also requested two additional labs to expedite the water testing process. West Virginia American Water coordinated with DuPont and the

text: United States Army Corps of Engineers

text: to determine the contamination level within its system. A total of four labs were set up to continue testing the amount of the chemical remaining in the water.

text: Pollutants released to the ground can work their way down into the groundwater, leading to groundwater pollution. The resulting body of polluted water within an aquifer is called a plume, with its migrating edges called plume fronts. Plumes are used to locate, map, and measure water pollution within the aquifer's total body of water, and plume fronts to determine directions and speed of the contamination's spreading in it.

text: Pollutants

text: released to the ground can work their way down into the

text: groundwater

text: , leading to

text: groundwater pollution

text: . The resulting body of polluted water within an

text: aquifer

text: is called a plume, with its migrating edges called plume fronts. Plumes are used to locate, map, and measure

text: water pollution

text: within the aquifer's total body of water, and plume fronts to determine directions and speed of the contamination's spreading in it.

text: Current environmental degradation concerns include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes, and pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills.

text: Current

text: environmental degradation

text: concerns include

text: deforestation

text: soil erosion

text: desertification

text: air pollution

text: in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of

text: industrial waste

text: s, and pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills.

text: On January 1, 2007, an Enbridge pipeline that runs from Superior, Wisconsin to near Whitewater, Wisconsin cracked open and spilled ~ of crude oil onto farmland and into a drainage ditch. The same pipeline was struck by construction crews on February 2, 2007, in Rusk County, Wisconsin, spilling ~ of crude, of which about 87,000 gallons were recovered. Some of the oil filled a hole more than  deep and contaminated the local water table.

text: On January 1, 2007, an Enbridge pipeline that runs from

text: Superior, Wisconsin

text: to near

text: Whitewater, Wisconsin

text: cracked open and spilled ~ of crude oil onto farmland and into a drainage ditch. The same pipeline was struck by construction crews on February 2, 2007, in Rusk County, Wisconsin, spilling ~ of crude, of which about 87,000 gallons were recovered. Some of the oil filled a hole more than  deep and contaminated the local water table.

text: Forestry and mining operations can have significant inputs to non-point source pollution.

text: Forestry

text: and mining operations can have significant inputs to non-point source pollution.

text: The Rivers Trust and Catchment Sensitive Farming created Pinpoint to reduce water pollution created from farming. Pinpoint supplies training, and support to keep farmers up to date and informed on the methods for sustainability. They have a number of courses on the process of how to diffuse water pollution from our environment and agriculture, and courses on educating farmers on sediment-related problems. The Rivers Trust focuses heavily on why it is important to reduce diffuse water pollution from agriculture. Diffuse water pollution is created from many sources making it difficult to track. Run off has many sources like transportation, urban living, remnants of contaminated land; nutrients; pesticides, and sediment created by farmers. To best reduce diffuse water pollution from agriculture, farmers must be educated. Small steps can lead to a huge impact like moving their gate entrance to prevent field erosion, or separating clean and dirty water.

text: Over the past two hundred years, human use of the lake and its watershed have changed significantly. Only a fraction of the historical springs feeding the lake still remain and a much greater percentage of the lake's water budget comprises chemically, biologically and thermally polluted surface runoff. Lake Wingra, like other lakes in the Yahara chain (Mendota, Monona, Waubesa and Kegonsa), is severely stressed by a combination of toxic pollutants, such as mercury and PCBs, thermal pollution, sedimentation, exotic species (plant, animal and microbial), intense human recreational use and hyper-nutrification with nitrogen and phosphorus.

text: Over the past two hundred years, human use of the lake and its watershed have changed significantly. Only a fraction of the historical springs feeding the lake still remain and a much greater percentage of the lake's water budget comprises chemically, biologically and thermally polluted

text: surface runoff

text: . Lake Wingra, like other lakes in the Yahara chain (

text: Mendota

text: Monona

text: Waubesa

text: and

text: Kegonsa

text: ), is severely stressed by a combination of toxic pollutants, such as mercury and PCBs, thermal pollution, sedimentation, exotic species (plant, animal and microbial), intense human recreational use and hyper-nutrification with nitrogen and phosphorus.

text: The grey water footprint is the volume of polluted water that associates with the production of all goods and services for the individual or community. The latter can be estimated as the volume of water that is required to dilute pollutants to such an extent that the quality of the water remains at or above agreed water quality standards. It is calculated as:

text: The grey water footprint is the volume of

text: polluted water

text: that associates with the production of all goods and services for the individual or community. The latter can be estimated as the volume of water that is required to dilute pollutants to such an extent that the quality of the water remains at or above agreed water quality standards. It is calculated as:

text: Sedimentation and discharge of industrial effluents are prominent sources of water pollution, and the burning of wood for fuel is a significant source of indoor air pollution and respiratory problems. Vehicular and industrial emissions increasingly have contributed to air pollution in urban areas.

text: Sedimentation and discharge of industrial effluents are prominent sources of

text: water pollution

text: , and the burning of wood for fuel is a significant source of

text: indoor air pollution

text: and respiratory problems. Vehicular and industrial emissions increasingly have contributed to air pollution in urban areas.

text: Water pollution can also be linked to non-treated and semi-treated human and industrial waste discharge. Annually over 120 million cubic meters of waste waster is disposed of without treatment.

text: Water pollution from industrial effluents is a considerable challenge and the risk of continued contamination is very likely. The Government of Argentina (GoA) has a particular focus on the Matanza-Riachuelo River Basin in Buenos Aires where at least 50 industries are discharging ~95% of the total load of contaminants into the Parana river. Pollution and overuse of the aquifer in Mendoza have become a problem where agriculture and industrial runoff and mismanagement of irrigation water has deteriorated the first levels of the aquifer. This has led to over pumping and exploitation of deeper wells that reach the second and third layers of water. Older wells have been abandoned without being properly sealed posing a risk of vertical filtration (e.g. contaminated water from higher levels filters down to lower levels) into deeper water tables where farmers are pumping from. Abandoned wells also result in fields becoming stagnant and barren creating an economic loss for the region.

text: Water pollution from industrial effluents is a considerable challenge and the risk of continued contamination is very likely. The Government of Argentina (GoA) has a particular focus on the Matanza-Riachuelo River Basin in Buenos Aires where at least 50 industries are discharging ~95% of the total load of contaminants into the Parana river. Pollution and overuse of the aquifer in

text: Mendoza

text: have become a problem where agriculture and industrial runoff and mismanagement of irrigation water has deteriorated the first levels of the aquifer. This has led to over pumping and exploitation of deeper wells that reach the second and third layers of water. Older wells have been abandoned without being properly sealed posing a risk of vertical filtration (e.g. contaminated water from higher levels filters down to lower levels) into deeper water tables where farmers are pumping from. Abandoned wells also result in fields becoming stagnant and barren creating an economic loss for the region.

text: In the first half of the 20th century water supply and sanitation were a local government responsibility with regulation at the state level; the federal government played almost no role in the sector at that time. This changed with the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which provided for comprehensive planning, technical services, research, and financial assistance by the federal government to state and local governments for sanitary infrastructure. The Act was amended in 1965, establishing a uniform set of water quality standards and creating a Federal Water Pollution Control Administration authorized to set standards where states failed to do so. Comprehensive federal regulations for water supply and sanitation were introduced in the 1970s, in reaction to an increase in environmental concerns. In 1970 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created. In 1972, the Clean Water Act was passed, requiring industrial plants to proactively improve their waste procedures in order to limit the effect of contaminants on freshwater sources. In 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act was adopted for the regulation of public water systems. This law specified a number of contaminants that must be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the maximum contaminant levels allowed. From then on, drinking water systems were closely monitored by federal, state, and municipal governments for safety and compliance with existing regulations. The Clean Water Act set the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized massive expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. The funds initially provided an incentive to build centralized wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure instead of decentralized systems. However, the 1977 amendments to the Clean Water Act required communities to consider alternatives to the conventional centralized sewer systems, and financial assistance was made available. In the mid-1990s decentralized systems served approximately 25 percent of the U.S. population, and approximately 37 percent of new housing developments.

text: In the first half of the 20th century water supply and sanitation were a local government responsibility with regulation at the state level; the federal government played almost no role in the sector at that time. This changed with the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948, which provided for comprehensive planning, technical services, research, and financial assistance by the federal government to state and local governments for sanitary infrastructure. The Act was amended in 1965, establishing a uniform set of water quality standards and creating a Federal Water Pollution Control Administration authorized to set standards where states failed to do so. Comprehensive federal regulations for water supply and sanitation were introduced in the 1970s, in reaction to an increase in environmental concerns. In 1970 the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) was created. In 1972, the

text: Clean Water Act

text: was passed, requiring industrial plants to proactively improve their waste procedures in order to limit the effect of contaminants on freshwater sources. In 1974, the

text: Safe Drinking Water Act

text: was adopted for the regulation of public water systems. This law specified a number of contaminants that must be closely monitored and reported to residents should they exceed the

text: maximum contaminant level

text: s allowed. From then on, drinking water systems were closely monitored by federal, state, and municipal governments for safety and compliance with existing regulations. The Clean Water Act set the unprecedented goal of eliminating all water pollution by 1985 and authorized massive expenditures of $24.6 billion in research and construction grants. The funds initially provided an incentive to build centralized wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure instead of decentralized systems. However, the 1977 amendments to the Clean Water Act required communities to consider alternatives to the conventional centralized sewer systems, and financial assistance was made available. In the mid-1990s decentralized systems served approximately 25 percent of the U.S. population, and approximately 37 percent of new housing developments.

text: This center verifies commercial-ready technologies that control stationary and mobile air pollution sources, and mitigate the effects of indoor air pollutants.

text: These aquifers are close to the surface, and have a high hydraulic conductivity, so they are at a high risk for pollution. Known pollutants in this area are arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc due to mining activities coupled with elevated levels of phosphorus and nitrogen due to agriculture activities.Water withdrawals from the aquifer region are derived 80% from surface water, 20% groundwater; however 60% of domestic, commercial and municipal water supply comes from groundwater. Wells range from 50 to 1,125 feet deep. This region of the United States is not heavily populated, but more than half the population relies on these aquifers for drinking water, and the aquifers are highly susceptible for pollution.

text: The direct approach measures the exposures to pollutants by monitoring the pollutant concentrations reaching the respondents.  The pollutant concentrations are directly monitored on or within the person through point of contact, biological monitoring, or biomarkers.  The point of contact approach indicates the total concentration reaching the host, while biological monitoring and the use of biomarkers infer the dosage of the pollutant through the determination of the body burden.  The respondents often record their daily activities and locations during the measurement of the pollutants to identify the potential sources, microenvironments, or human activities contributing the pollutant exposure.  An advantage of the direct approach is that the exposures through multiple media (air, soil, water, food, etc.) are accounted for through one study technique.  The disadvantages include the invasive nature of the data collection and associated costs.

text: The direct approach measures the exposures to pollutants by monitoring the pollutant concentrations reaching the respondents.  The pollutant concentrations are directly monitored on or within the person through point of contact, biological monitoring, or

text: biomarker

text: s.  The point of contact approach indicates the total concentration reaching the host, while biological monitoring and the use of biomarkers infer the dosage of the pollutant through the determination of the body burden.  The respondents often record their daily activities and locations during the measurement of the pollutants to identify the potential sources, microenvironments, or human activities contributing the pollutant exposure.  An advantage of the direct approach is that the exposures through multiple media (air, soil, water, food, etc.) are accounted for through one study technique.  The disadvantages include the invasive nature of the data collection and associated costs.

text: Sources of various types of pollution are often considered as point sources in large-scale studies of pollution.

text: The Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality are guidelines for drinking water quality standards in Canada developed by Health Canada. These guidelines set forth recommendations for the maximum concentrations of various substances in drinking water. Provinces and territories are responsible for enforcing these guidelines, as there is no national regulatory body for drinking water. Water pollution by sewage is one of the main culprits involved in polluting drinking water. Advocacy group Ecojustice estimates overall raw sewage dumping in Canada to be around 200 billion litres a year. The Canadian government recently announced waste water regulations that would allow for sewage to be dumped into Canadian waters until 2040. Proper measures for waste water disposal will not immediately be put in place, rather, they will be implemented gradually from 2020 to 2040. However, in the meantime, Canadian municipalities may continue to pollute their waters by dumping sewage. This can prominently be viewed with Halifax, Nova Scotia. In Halifax, human waste is dumped directly into the Halifax harbour. This dumping can mainly be attributed to a failure in their sewage treatment infrastructure. Victoria, British Columbia also follows a similar practice by getting rid of their untreated waste into the ocean. However, the government has plans to open operational treatment facilities for 2016.

text: The Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality are guidelines for

text: drinking water

text: quality

text: standards in Canada developed by Health Canada. These guidelines set forth recommendations for the maximum concentrations of various substances in drinking water. Provinces and territories are responsible for enforcing these guidelines, as there is no national regulatory body for drinking water. Water pollution by sewage is one of the main culprits involved in polluting drinking water. Advocacy group

text: Ecojustice

text: estimates overall raw sewage dumping in Canada to be around 200 billion litres a year. The Canadian government recently announced waste water regulations that would allow for sewage to be dumped into Canadian waters until 2040. Proper measures for waste water disposal will not immediately be put in place, rather, they will be implemented gradually from 2020 to 2040. However, in the meantime, Canadian municipalities may continue to pollute their waters by dumping sewage. This can prominently be viewed with

text: Halifax

text: Nova Scotia

text: . In Halifax, human waste is dumped directly into the Halifax harbour. This dumping can mainly be attributed to a failure in their sewage treatment infrastructure. Victoria, British Columbia also follows a similar practice by getting rid of their untreated waste into the ocean. However, the government has plans to open operational treatment facilities for 2016.

text: Disposal of wastewaters from an industrial plant is a difficult and costly problem. Most petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have onsite facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the local and/or national regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into community treatment plants or into rivers, lakes or oceans. Constructed wetlands are being used in an increasing number of cases as they provided high quality and productive on-site treatment. Other industrial processes that produce a lot of waste-waters such as paper and pulp production has created environmental concern, leading to development of processes to recycle water use within plants before they have to be cleaned and disposed.

text: Disposal of wastewaters from an industrial plant is a difficult and costly problem. Most

text: petroleum refineries

text: , chemical and

text: petrochemical

text: plants have onsite facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the local and/or national regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into community treatment plants or into rivers, lakes or oceans. Constructed wetlands are being used in an increasing number of cases as they provided high quality and productive on-site treatment. Other industrial processes that produce a lot of waste-waters such as

text: paper and pulp production

text: has created environmental concern, leading to development of processes to recycle water use within plants before they have to be cleaned and disposed.

text: In the United States, offshore oil spill prevention contingency plans and emergency response plans are federally mandated requirements for all offshore oil facilities in U.S. Federal waters.  Currently administered by the Minerals Management Service (MMS), these regulatory functions were ordered on May 19, 2010 to be transferred to the United States Department of the Interior's newly created Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement.  Oil spills in inland waters are the responsibility of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), while  oil spills in coastal waters and deepwater ports are the responsibility of the U.S. Coast Guard.

text: In the United States, offshore oil spill prevention contingency plans and emergency response plans are federally mandated requirements for all offshore oil facilities in U.S. Federal waters.  Currently administered by the

text: Minerals Management Service

text: (MMS), these regulatory functions were ordered on May 19, 2010 to be transferred to the

entity_name: United States Department of the Interior

text: United States Department of the Interior

text: 's newly created

entity_name: Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement

text: Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement

text: .  Oil spills in inland waters are the responsibility of the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA), while  oil spills in coastal waters and deepwater ports are the responsibility of the

text: U.S. Coast Guard

text: Oil spills penetrate into the structure of the plumage of birds and the fur of mammals, reducing its insulating ability, and making them more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon many factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water (affecting evaporation and biodegradation), and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up.

text: Oil spills penetrate into the structure of the

text: plumage

text: of birds and the

text: fur

text: buoyant

text: Soil erosion (especially from agricultural activity) is considered to be the leading global cause of diffuse water pollution, due to the effects of the excess sediments flowing into the world's waterways. The sediments themselves act as pollutants, as well as being carriers for other pollutants, such as attached pesticide molecules or heavy metals.

text: Soil erosion (especially from agricultural activity) is considered to be the leading global cause of diffuse

text: water pollution

text: , due to the effects of the excess sediments flowing into the world's waterways. The sediments themselves act as pollutants, as well as being carriers for other pollutants, such as attached pesticide molecules or heavy metals.

text: Land runoff containing particulate pollutants and excess nutrients often causes problems in estuaries and coastal waters. Bivalves can filter the particulate pollutants, and either eat them or discharge them as pseudofeces deposits onto the benthic substrate, where they are then relatively harmless. Chesapeake Bay's once-flourishing oyster populations historically filtered the estuary's entire water volume of excess nutrients every three or four days.

text: Land runoff

text: containing

text: particulate

text: pollutants and excess nutrients often causes problems in

text: estuaries

text: and coastal waters. Bivalves can filter the particulate pollutants, and either eat them or discharge them as pseudofeces deposits onto the

text: benthic

text: substrate, where they are then relatively harmless.

text: Chesapeake Bay's

text: once-flourishing oyster populations historically filtered the estuary's entire water volume of excess nutrients every three or four days.

text: Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by storm water management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.

text: Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by storm water management facilities that absorb the runoff or direct it into

text: groundwater

text: , such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.

text: The Gulf killifish, Fundulus grandis, is one of the largest members of the genus Fundulus; it is capable of growing up to 18 cm in length, whereas the majority of other Fundulus reach a maximum length of 10 cm. Therefore, F. grandis is among the largest minnows preyed upon by many sport fish, such as flounder, speckled trout, and red snapper. Fundulus derives from the Latin meaning "bottom," and grandis means "large".  The Gulf killifish is native the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to Florida and the eastern coast of Florida to Cuba in the Atlantic Ocean.  Threats to the survival of the Gulf killifish include extreme changes in salinity, changes in temperatures, and toxic events such as the hypoxic dead zone in Louisiana and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The Gulf killifish is currently being used to test the effects of oil and oil dispersants  on the physiology of marine species affected by these substances. This is significant to conservation biology, because with the continued extraction of oil and other natural resources from North American waters, it has become increasingly important to understand the risks and consequences in worst-case scenarios, such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, and the lasting effects on the marine ecosystem.

text: The Gulf killifish, Fundulus grandis, is one of the largest members of the genus Fundulus; it is capable of growing up to 18 cm in length, whereas the majority of other Fundulus reach a maximum length of 10 cm. Therefore, F. grandis is among the largest minnows preyed upon by many sport fish, such as flounder, speckled trout, and red snapper. Fundulus derives from the Latin meaning "bottom," and grandis means "large".  The Gulf killifish is native the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to Florida and the eastern coast of Florida to Cuba in the Atlantic Ocean.  Threats to the survival of the Gulf killifish include extreme changes in salinity, changes in temperatures, and toxic events such as the

text: hypoxic dead zone

text: in Louisiana and the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: . The Gulf killifish is currently being used to test the effects of oil and

text: oil dispersants

text: on the physiology of marine species affected by these substances. This is significant to

text: conservation biology

text: , because with the continued extraction of oil and other natural resources from North American waters, it has become increasingly important to understand the risks and consequences in worst-case scenarios, such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, and the lasting effects on the marine ecosystem.

text: Statoil had three oil spills in Arctic waters near Norway.  All the spills occurred from its ocean rig called the Erik Raude.  The company was searching for oil in the region, which environmentalists were against because they wanted the sensitive area free from pollution.  However, the Norwegian government allowed oil exploration, as long as there were no emissions.  After the merger to StatoilHydro, in December 2007,  of oil leaked into the North Sea.  This was Statoil’s 2nd worst oil spill.  Two leaks also occurred in February 2008.  In March, Statoil dropped about 1.6 tons of pure hydraulic oil in the Barents Sea.  Hydraulic oil is said to be the 2nd most hazardous pollutant.  Since the leaks, Statoil has stated that the oil has mostly dissolved, and there is not much proof of ecological harm.  The Norwegian government has not stopped the oil drilling in the Arctic waters, and Statoil started up its oil operations in April. Bellona, a Norwegian environmental group, is looking to take legal action.  They want the end of oil drilling in the Barents Sea.

text: Statoil had three oil spills in Arctic waters near Norway.  All the spills occurred from its ocean rig called the Erik Raude.  The company was searching for oil in the region, which environmentalists were against because they wanted the sensitive area free from pollution.  However, the Norwegian government allowed oil exploration, as long as there were no emissions.  After the merger to StatoilHydro, in December 2007,  of oil leaked into the North Sea.  This was Statoil’s 2nd worst oil spill.  Two leaks also occurred in February 2008.  In March, Statoil dropped about 1.6 tons of pure hydraulic oil in the Barents Sea.  Hydraulic oil is said to be the 2nd most hazardous pollutant.  Since the leaks, Statoil has stated that the oil has mostly dissolved, and there is not much proof of ecological harm.  The Norwegian government has not stopped the oil drilling in the Arctic waters, and Statoil started up its oil operations in April.

text: Bellona

text: , a Norwegian environmental group, is looking to take legal action.  They want the end of oil drilling in the Barents Sea.

text: A conventional pollutant is a term used in the USA to describe a water pollutant that is amenable to treatment by a municipal sewage treatment plant.  A basic list of conventional pollutants is defined in the U.S. Clean Water Act. The list has been amended in regulations issued by the Environmental Protection Agency:

text: A conventional pollutant is a term used in the USA to describe a

text: water pollutant

text: that is amenable to treatment by a municipal

text: sewage treatment

text: plant.  A basic list of conventional pollutants is defined in the U.S.

text: Clean Water Act

text: . The list has been amended in regulations issued by the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: Environment - current issues:desertification; depletion of ground water resources; the lack of perennial rivers or permanent water bodies has prompted the development of extensive seawater desalination facilities; coastal pollution from oil spills

text: A 2007 article in China Daily stated that large scale use of pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture also contribute to water pollution.

text: A 2007 article in China Daily stated that large scale use of

text: pesticides

text: and

text: fertilizers

text: from agriculture also contribute to water pollution.

text: In May 2010, McNutt headed the Flow Rate Technical Group which attempted to measure the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Preliminary reports from the group said that the rate of the oil spill was at least twice and possibly up to five times as much as previously acknowledged. Subsequent estimates, based on six independent methodologies, were four times the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. A refined estimate based on new pressure readings, data, and analysis, released by the United States Secretary of Energy Steven Chu and McNutt in August, said that 4.9 million barrels (with uncertainty of plus or minus approximately 10 percent) of oil had leaked from the well until it was capped on July 15. The disaster was the largest ever accidental spill of oil into marine waters.

text: In May 2010, McNutt headed the

text: Flow Rate Technical Group

text: which attempted to measure the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . Preliminary reports from the group said that the rate of the oil spill was at least twice and possibly up to five times as much as previously acknowledged. Subsequent estimates, based on six independent methodologies, were four times the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: . A refined estimate based on new pressure readings, data, and analysis, released by the

text: United States Secretary of Energy

text: Steven Chu

text: and McNutt in August, said that 4.9 million barrels (with uncertainty of plus or minus approximately 10 percent) of oil had leaked from the well until it was capped on July 15. The disaster was the largest ever accidental spill of oil into marine waters.

text: Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion is a book devoted to the fundamentals of air pollution dispersion modeling of continuous, buoyant pollution plumes from stationary point sources. The first edition was published in 1979. The current fourth edition was published in 2005.

text: Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion is a book devoted to the fundamentals of

text: air pollution dispersion modeling

text: of continuous,

text: buoyant pollution plumes

text: from

text: stationary point sources

text: . The first edition was published in 1979. The current fourth edition was published in 2005.

text: Spurred by the 1972 Federal Clean Water Act, the State of Texas sued Houston in 1976 over pollution levels, toxic run-off, and untreated sewage that was being discharged into the bayous. This led to a $3 billion sewer upgrade in the metropolitan area which has significantly improved water quality in the region, although much effort still needs to be expended to reduce non-point source pollution from the urban watersheds.

text: Spurred by the 1972 Federal

text: Clean Water Act

text: , the State of Texas sued Houston in 1976 over pollution levels, toxic run-off, and untreated sewage that was being discharged into the bayous. This led to a $3 billion sewer upgrade in the metropolitan area which has significantly improved water quality in the region, although much effort still needs to be expended to reduce

text: non-point source pollution

text: from the urban watersheds.

text: As a result of the Soviet planning of the industrial boom era, the city became heavily polluted. Soon after Azerbaijan's independence, the industrial sectors went into decline.  The Absheron Peninsula (which consists of Sumqayit, Baku and the Absheron Rayon) was considered by scientists to be the most ecologically devastated part of Azerbaijan.  The city was known for its children's cemetery, known as the "Baby Cemetery" which contains many graves of infants born with deformities and mental retardation that were further complicated by the lack of adequate medical care for the poor. Sumgayit was named as most polluted place on earth by the US based environmental group the Blacksmith Institute in 2006 and placed on their list of The World's Most Polluted Places by Time magazine in 2007. The report noted the former Soviet industrial base was polluting the local environment with industrial chemicals like chlorine and heavy metals. The report also mentioned cancer rates in Sumgayit were as much as 51% higher than the national average and that genetic mutations and birth defects were commonplace.The city administration prepared an environmental protection plan for 2003–2010 which has been steadily decreasing the levels of pollution to minimal. The program oversees 118 activities aimed at minimizing pollution at all possible levels of economic production. The program was prepared with participation of all industrial enterprises in the city and its enforcement is being regulated by the executive power of the city. For instance, the amount of waste water from industrial production went down from 600 thousand m during the 1990s to 76.3 thousand m in 2005. Solid waste went down from 300 thousand to 3,868 tons a year. The World Bank has issued a loan to the Azerbaijani government for construction of a burial range for mercury waste.

text: As a result of the Soviet planning of the industrial boom era, the city became heavily polluted. Soon after Azerbaijan's independence, the industrial sectors went into decline.  The Absheron Peninsula (which consists of Sumqayit,

text: Baku

text: and the

text: Absheron Rayon

text: ) was considered by scientists to be the most ecologically devastated part of Azerbaijan.  The city was known for its children's cemetery, known as the "Baby Cemetery" which contains many graves of infants born with deformities and mental retardation that were further complicated by the lack of adequate medical care for the poor. Sumgayit was named as most polluted place on earth by the US based environmental group the

text: Blacksmith Institute

text: in 2006 and placed on their list of The World's Most Polluted Places by

text: Time

text: magazine in 2007. The report noted the former Soviet industrial base was polluting the local environment with industrial chemicals like chlorine and

text: heavy metals

text: . The report also mentioned

text: cancer

text: rates in Sumgayit were as much as 51% higher than the national average and that

text: genetic mutations

text: and

text: birth defects

text: were commonplace.The city administration prepared an environmental protection plan for 2003–2010 which has been steadily decreasing the levels of pollution to minimal. The program oversees 118 activities aimed at minimizing pollution at all possible levels of economic production. The program was prepared with participation of all industrial enterprises in the city and its enforcement is being regulated by the executive power of the city. For instance, the amount of waste water from industrial production went down from 600 thousand m during the 1990s to 76.3 thousand m in 2005. Solid waste went down from 300 thousand to 3,868 tons a year. The

text: World Bank

text: has issued a loan to the Azerbaijani government for construction of a burial range for

text: mercury

text: waste.

text: Intake fraction is the total mass of a pollutant ingested or inhaled by all exposed individuals over a given time, per total mass of the pollutant emitted. The intake fraction can be divided into components that identify the specific pollutant source, route, media, and subpopulation of exposed individuals.  For example, policy makers may be interested in the total mass of mercury emitted by one specific coal-burning electric generator that is ingested in water by the residents living below the poverty level in one specific town.

text: Intake fraction is the total mass of a pollutant ingested or inhaled by all exposed individuals over a given time, per total mass of the pollutant emitted. The intake fraction can be divided into components that identify the specific pollutant source, route, media, and subpopulation of exposed individuals.  For example, policy makers may be interested in the total mass of mercury emitted by one specific coal-burning

text: electric generator

text: that is ingested in water by the residents living below the

text: poverty level

text: in one specific town.

text: While direct pollution of lotic systems has been greatly reduced in the United States under the government’s Clean Water Act, contaminants from diffuse non-point sources remain a large problem.

text: While direct pollution of lotic systems has been greatly reduced in the United States under the government’s

text: Clean Water Act

text: , contaminants from diffuse non-point sources remain a large problem.

text: The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, or Clean Water Act (CWA), is the principal U.S. law concerned with limiting polluting activity in the nation’s streams, lakes, estuaries, and coastal waters. Under the act, pollutant discharges from point sources — a term that includes vessels — are prohibited unless a permit has been obtained. Sewage from cruise ships and other vessels is exempt from the requirement to obtain an NPDES permit.

text: Clean Water Act

text: stream

text: s,

text: lake

text: s,

text: estuaries

text: , and

text: coastal waters

text: . Under the act, pollutant discharges from

text: point source

text: s — a term that includes vessels — are prohibited unless a permit has been obtained. Sewage from cruise ships and other vessels is exempt from the requirement to obtain an

text: NPDES permit

text: Water pollution is a serious concern in Sarnia.  A June 2003 Ryerson University study concluded that the main source of water pollution in the St. Clair River occurs at the Sarnia Water Pollution Control Center due to chemical spills and ship emissions. (WPCC).  The study goes on to say that "A significant reduction of the pollution to the St. Clair River will only be achieved by improving the quality of the Sarnia WPCC effluent." In 2008, the city resolved to replace the aging sewer pumps that controlled the effluent.  Minutes of a meeting between Mayor Mike Bradley and Sarnia City Council state "The cost of repairing the raw sewage pumps is a significant portion of purchasing a new unit. However based on the performance of the existing units over the past 8 years, City staff prefers to look at other manufacturers for replacing the existing Fairbanks-Morse pumps as they require their second rebuilding."  In 2010, though, the Water Distribution Report indicated that "It should be noted that no filter effluent turbidity exceeded the prescribed test result for adverse reporting..."  Further, the Water Distribution Report concluded that "Note- No inorganic or organic parameters exceeded half the standard prescribed in Schedule 2 of the Ontario Drinking Water Quality Standards."

text: Water pollution is a serious concern in Sarnia.  A June 2003 Ryerson University study concluded that the main source of water pollution in the

text: St. Clair River

text: occurs at the Sarnia Water Pollution Control Center due to chemical spills and ship emissions. (WPCC).  The study goes on to say that "A significant reduction of the pollution to the St. Clair River will only be achieved by improving the quality of the Sarnia WPCC effluent." In 2008, the city resolved to replace the aging sewer pumps that controlled the effluent.  Minutes of a meeting between Mayor

text: Mike Bradley

text: and Sarnia City Council state "The cost of repairing the raw sewage pumps is a significant portion of purchasing a new unit. However based on the performance of the existing units over the past 8 years, City staff prefers to look at other manufacturers for replacing the existing

text: Fairbanks-Morse

text: pumps as they require their second rebuilding."  In 2010, though, the Water Distribution Report indicated that "It should be noted that no filter effluent turbidity exceeded the prescribed test result for adverse reporting..."  Further, the Water Distribution Report concluded that "Note- No inorganic or organic parameters exceeded half the standard prescribed in Schedule 2 of the Ontario Drinking Water Quality Standards."

text: The Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) is a branch of the California Department of Fish and Wildlife that is tasked with responding to pollution and protecting the wildlife of California. The OSPR has authority over all surface waters in California, both inland and up to 200 miles off the coast. The funding for the OSPR's Oil Spill Prevention Administration Fund comes from a fee placed on every barrel of crude oil entering California.

text: s, which reduces the oxygen content and has negative consequences on fish populations. The Kelani river is especially polluted because it flows through industrial areas. Industrial waste is often discharged into the river, treated or untreated. Moreover, dumps that are located close to rivers have negative influences on the water quality. Large amounts of pesticides used in the agricultural sector also get into the water of rivers and lakes. Groundwater and surface water are also polluted by the heavy use of fertilizer and pesticides and by storm run-offs. Coastal and marine waters are threatened by pesticides, fertilizer, industrial waste and run-offs from waste dumps. Rivers that flow out into the sea deteriorate the sea water. Oil spills, chemicals and waste also decrease the quality of Sri Lanka’s seawater.

text: s, which reduces the

text: oxygen

text: content and has negative consequences on fish populations. The

text: Kelani river

text: is especially polluted because it flows through industrial areas. Industrial waste is often discharged into the river, treated or untreated. Moreover, dumps that are located close to rivers have negative influences on the water quality. Large amounts of

text: pesticide

text: s used in the agricultural sector also get into the water of rivers and lakes.

text: Groundwater

text: and

text: surface water

text: are also polluted by the heavy use of

text: fertilizer

text: and pesticides and by storm run-offs. Coastal and

text: marine waters

text: are threatened by pesticides, fertilizer, industrial waste and run-offs from waste dumps. Rivers that flow out into the sea deteriorate the sea water.

text: Oil spill

text: s, chemicals and waste also decrease the quality of Sri Lanka’s seawater.

text: Agricultural runoff from farms and ranches in the Snake River Plain and many other areas has severely hurt the ecology of the river throughout the 20th century. After the first irrigation dams on the river begun operation in the first decade of the 20th century, much of the arable land in a strip a few miles wide along the Snake River was cultivated or turned to pasture, and agricultural return flows began to pollute the Snake. Runoff from several feedlots was dumped into the river until laws made the practice illegal. Fertilizer, manure and other chemicals and pollutants washed into the river greatly increase the nutrient load, especially of phosphorus, fecal coliforms and nitrogen. During low water, algae blooms occur throughout the calm stretches of the river, depleting its oxygen supply.

text: Agricultural runoff from farms and

text: ranch

text: es in the Snake River Plain and many other areas has severely hurt the ecology of the river throughout the 20th century. After the first irrigation dams on the river begun operation in the first decade of the 20th century, much of the

text: arable land

text: in a strip a few miles wide along the Snake River was

text: cultivated

text: or turned to

text: pasture

text: , and agricultural return flows began to pollute the Snake. Runoff from several

text: feedlot

text: s was dumped into the river until laws made the practice illegal.

text: Fertilizer

text: manure

text: and other chemicals and pollutants washed into the river greatly increase the nutrient load, especially of

text: phosphorus

text: fecal coliform

text: s and

text: nitrogen

text: . During low water,

text: algae bloom

text: s occur throughout the calm stretches of the river, depleting its oxygen supply.

text: Environment – current issues:air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to acid rain; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations

text: Environment – current issues:air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to

text: acid rain

text: ; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations

text: Agricultural runoff (except for concentrated animal feeding operations, or "CAFO") is classified as nonpoint source pollution under the CWA. It is not included in the CWA definition of "point source" and therefore not subject to NPDES permit requirements. The 1987 CWA amendments established a non-regulatory program at EPA for nonpoint source pollution management consisting of research and demonstration projects. Related programs are conducted by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) in the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

text: Agricultural runoff (except for concentrated animal feeding operations, or "

text: CAFO

text: ") is classified as

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: under the CWA. It is not included in the CWA definition of "point source" and therefore not subject to NPDES permit requirements. The 1987 CWA amendments established a non-regulatory program at EPA for nonpoint source pollution management consisting of research and demonstration projects. Related programs are conducted by the

text: Natural Resources Conservation Service

text: (NRCS) in the U.S.

text: Department of Agriculture

text: On a ship, oil often leaks from engine and machinery spaces or from engine maintenance activities and mixes with water in the bilge, the lowest part of the hull of the ship, but there is a filter to clean bilge water before being discharged. Oil, gasoline, and by-products from the biological breakdown of petroleum products can harm fish and wildlife and pose threats to human health if ingested. Oil in even minute concentrations can kill fish or have various sub-lethal chronic effects. Bilge water also may contain solid wastes and pollutants containing high levels of oxygen-demanding material, oil and other chemicals. A typically large cruise ship will generate an average of 8 metric tons of oily bilge water for each 24 hours of operation. To maintain ship stability and eliminate potentially hazardous conditions from oil vapors in these areas, the bilge spaces need to be flushed and periodically pumped dry. However, before a bilge can be cleared out and the water discharged, the oil that has been accumulated needs to be extracted from the bilge water, after which the extracted oil can be reused, incinerated, and/or offloaded in port. If a separator, which is normally used to extract the oil, is faulty or is deliberately bypassed, untreated oily bilge water could be discharged directly into the ocean, where it can damage marine life. A number of cruise lines have been charged with environmental violations related to this issue in recent years.

text: On a ship, oil often leaks from

text: engine

text: and

text: machine

text: ry spaces or from engine maintenance activities and mixes with water in the

text: bilge

text: , the lowest part of the

text: hull

text: of the ship, but there is a filter to clean bilge water before being discharged. Oil,

text: gasoline

text: , and

text: by-product

text: s from the biological breakdown of petroleum products can harm fish and

text: wildlife

text: and pose threats to human health if ingested. Oil in even minute concentrations can kill fish or have various

text: sub-lethal

text: chronic effects. Bilge water also may contain solid wastes and

text: pollutant

text: s containing high levels of

text: oxygen-demanding

text: material, oil and other chemicals. A typically large cruise ship will generate an average of 8 metric tons of oily bilge water for each 24 hours of operation. To maintain ship stability and eliminate potentially hazardous conditions from oil

text: vapor

text: s in these areas, the bilge spaces need to be flushed and periodically pumped dry. However, before a bilge can be cleared out and the water discharged, the oil that has been accumulated needs to be extracted from the bilge water, after which the extracted oil can be reused, incinerated, and/or offloaded in port. If a separator, which is normally used to extract the oil, is faulty or is deliberately bypassed, untreated oily bilge water could be discharged directly into the ocean, where it can damage marine life. A number of cruise lines have been charged with

text: environmental violation

text: s related to this issue in recent years.

text: Plants like Utricularia, Chara, Wolffia grow in polluted waters. Bacteria like E. coli also indicate water pollution. Presence of diatoms in water indicates pollution by sewage.

text: Drinking water has become a rare commodity on Majorca because of the increasing number of hotels and golf courses, that are irrigated daily. The groundwater level has sunken with effects on vegetation and climate as well as an intrusion of salt water. During the summer months drinking water has to be shipped in by tankers from continental Spain. Desalination plants are rare due to their expense and high consumption of electricity. Many sites lack sufficient sewage treatment and wastewater pollutes the Mediterranean Sea. Abnormal green algae populations are found, and are indicators of nutrient pollution. The dying bay of Santa Ponsa is an example of this pollution.

text: Drinking water has become a rare commodity on Majorca because of the increasing number of hotels and golf courses, that are irrigated daily. The groundwater level has sunken with effects on vegetation and climate as well as an intrusion of salt water. During the summer months drinking water has to be shipped in by tankers from continental Spain.

text: Desalination

text: plants are rare due to their expense and high consumption of electricity. Many sites lack sufficient

text: sewage treatment

text: and wastewater pollutes the Mediterranean Sea. Abnormal

text: green algae

text: populations are found, and are indicators of

text: nutrient pollution

text: . The dying bay of

text: Santa Ponsa

text: is an example of this pollution.

text: Efforts to stem the Deepwater Horizon oil spill were ongoing from the time that the Deepwater Horizon exploded on April 20, 2010 until the well was sealed by a cap on July 15, 2010. Various species of dolphins and other mammals (61 casualties), birds (2,095 casualties), and the endangered sea turtles (467 casualties) have been killed either directly or indirectly by the oil spill. The Deepwater Horizon spill has surpassed in volume the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill as the largest ever to originate in U.S.-controlled waters; it is comparable to the 1979 Ixtoc I oil spill in total volume released (Ixtoc discharged  to ; as of mid-July 2010, Deepwater Horizon has spilled  to ).

text: Efforts to stem the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: were ongoing from the time that the

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: exploded

text: on April 20, 2010 until the well was sealed by a cap on July 15, 2010. Various species of

text: dolphin

text: s and other

text: mammal

text: s (61 casualties),

text: bird

text: s (2,095 casualties), and the endangered

text: sea turtle

text: s (467 casualties) have been killed either directly or indirectly by the oil spill. The Deepwater Horizon spill has surpassed in volume the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: as the largest ever to originate in

text: U.S.-controlled waters

text: ; it is comparable to the 1979

text: Ixtoc I oil spill

text: in

text: total volume released

text: (Ixtoc discharged  to ; as of mid-July 2010, Deepwater Horizon has spilled  to ).

text: Before the CWA was enacted, companies indiscriminately discharged their effluents into water bodies. One such water body was the Cuyahoga River located in north-east Ohio. The river was thrust into the national limelight in 1969 when it caught fire, although the river had been plagued by fires since 1936. Pollution of the river had become prevalent in the early 1800s as contaminants from municipal and industrial discharges, bank erosion, commercial/residential development, atmospheric deposition, hazardous waste disposal sites, urban storm water runoff, combined sewer overflows (CSOs) and wastewater treatment plant bypasses were discharged into the river. Time magazine described the Cuyahoga as the river that "oozes rather than flows" and in which a person "does not drown but decays.” The 1969 fire drew significant public attention to the state of the nation’s waterways and is sometimes credited for the creation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), commonly called the Clean Water Act, the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, and the establishment of federal and state agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

text: Before the CWA was enacted, companies indiscriminately discharged their effluents into water bodies. One such water body was the

text: Cuyahoga River

text: located in north-east

text: Ohio

text: . The river was thrust into the national limelight in 1969 when it caught fire, although the river had been plagued by fires since 1936. Pollution of the river had become prevalent in the early 1800s as contaminants from municipal and industrial discharges, bank

text: erosion

text: , commercial/residential

text: development

text: , atmospheric deposition,

text: hazardous waste

text: disposal sites,

text: urban storm water runoff

text: combined sewer overflow

text: s (CSOs) and wastewater treatment plant bypasses were discharged into the river. Time magazine described the Cuyahoga as the river that "oozes rather than flows" and in which a person "does not drown but decays.” The 1969 fire drew significant public attention to the state of the nation’s waterways and is sometimes credited for the creation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), commonly called the Clean Water Act, the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: , and the establishment of federal and state agencies such as the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA).

text: Water quality laws must identify the substances and energies which qualify as "water pollution" for purposes of further control. From a regulatory perspective, this requires defining the class(es) of materials that qualify as pollutants, and the activities that transform a material into a pollutant.

text: Water quality laws must identify the substances and energies which qualify as "

text: water pollution

text: " for purposes of further control. From a regulatory perspective, this requires defining the class(es) of materials that qualify as pollutants, and the activities that transform a material into a pollutant.

text: The Ilek River (, ) is a steppe river at the southern end of the Ural Mountains. It is a tributary of the Ural River and lies in the Orenburg Oblast in Russia and Republic of Kazakhstan. It rises just south of Orsk, flows south a short distance and then flows westward south of and parallel to the Ural River, with many meanders and oxbow lakes, and joins the Ural about  west of Orenburg. Two main cities lie on the banks of the Ilek River: Sol-Iletsk and Aqtöbe (alternate spelling: Aktöbe, Aktyubinsk). The Ilek River remains the most polluted water body in the Ural-Caspian basin. The content of boron and chromium in the river is caused by the tailing ponds of former chemical plants via ground water. The quality class of water in the Ilek River changes from 4 – “polluted water” to 6 – “very polluted water” ("Water resources of Kazakhstan in the new millennium," Water Resources Committee of RK, 2002).A further tributary of the Ilek River is the Bol'saja Chobda. It is also of archeological significance since it has been discovered as the site of certain Kurgan (Indo-European) burials. .

text: The Ilek River (, ) is a steppe river at the southern end of the Ural Mountains. It is a tributary of the

text: Ural River

text: and lies in the

text: Orenburg Oblast

text: in

text: Russia

text: and Republic of

text: Kazakhstan

text: . It rises just south of

text: Orsk

text: , flows south a short distance and then flows westward south of and parallel to the Ural River, with many meanders and oxbow lakes, and joins the Ural about  west of

text: Orenburg

text: . Two main cities lie on the banks of the Ilek River:

text: Sol-Iletsk

text: and

text: Aqtöbe

text: (alternate spelling: Aktöbe,

text: Aktyubinsk

text: ). The Ilek River remains the most polluted water body in the Ural-Caspian basin. The content of boron and chromium in the river is caused by the tailing ponds of former chemical plants via ground water. The quality class of water in the Ilek River changes from 4 – “polluted water” to 6 – “very polluted water” ("Water resources of Kazakhstan in the new millennium," Water Resources Committee of RK, 2002).A further tributary of the Ilek River is the

text: Bol'saja Chobda

text: . It is also of archeological significance since it has been discovered as the site of certain

text: Kurgan

text: (Indo-European) burials. .

text: Sometimes a drywell with a series of gravel layers near the lowest spot in the rain garden will help facilitate percolation. However, a drywell placed at the lowest spot can become clogged with silt prematurely turning the garden into an infiltration basin defeating its purpose. Depression-focused recharge of polluted water into wells poses a serious threat and should be avoided. Similarly plans to install a rain garden near a septic system should be reviewed by a qualified engineer. The more polluted the water, the longer it must be retained in the soil for purification. This is often achieved by installing several smaller rain garden basins with soil deeper than the seasonal high water table. In some cases lined bioretention cells with subsurface drainage are used to retain smaller amounts of water and filter larger amounts without letting water percolate as quickly.

text: Sometimes a

text: drywell

text: with a series of gravel layers near the lowest spot in the rain garden will help facilitate percolation. However, a drywell placed at the lowest spot can become clogged with silt prematurely turning the garden into an

text: infiltration basin

text: defeating its purpose.

text: Depression-focused recharge

text: of polluted water into wells poses a serious threat and should be avoided. Similarly plans to install a rain garden near a septic system should be reviewed by a qualified engineer. The more polluted the water, the longer it must be retained in the soil for purification. This is often achieved by installing several smaller rain garden basins with soil deeper than the seasonal high

text: water table

text: . In some cases lined

text: bioretention

text: cells with

text: subsurface drainage

text: are used to retain smaller amounts of water and filter larger amounts without letting water percolate as quickly.

text: Active mining operations are considered point sources, however runoff from abandoned mining operations contribute to nonpoint source pollution. In strip mining operations, the top of the mountain is removed to expose the desired ore. If this area is not properly reclaimed once the mining has finished, soil erosion can occur. Additionally, there can be chemical reactions with the air and newly exposed rock to create acidic runoff. Water that seeps out of abandoned subsurface mines can also be highly acidic. This can seep into the nearest body of water and change the pH in the aquatic environment.

text: Active mining operations are considered point sources, however runoff from abandoned mining operations contribute to nonpoint source pollution. In

text: strip mining

text: operations, the top of the mountain is removed to expose the desired

text: ore

text: . If this area is not properly reclaimed once the mining has finished,

text: soil erosion

text: can occur. Additionally, there can be chemical reactions with the air and newly exposed rock to create acidic runoff. Water that seeps out of abandoned

text: subsurface mines

text: can also be highly acidic. This can seep into the nearest body of water and change the pH in the aquatic environment.

text: Cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers and crew have been compared to “floating cities,” and the volume of wastes that they produce is comparably large, consisting of sewage; wastewater from sinks, showers, and galleys (graywater); hazardous wastes; solid waste; oily bilge water; ballast water; and air pollution. The waste streams generated by cruise ships are governed by a number of international protocols (especially MARPOL) and U.S. domestic laws (including the Clean Water Act and the Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships), regulations, and standards, but there is no single law or rule. Some cruise ship waste streams appear to be well regulated, such as solid wastes (garbage and plastics) and bilge water. But there is overlap of some areas, and there are gaps in others. Some, such as graywater and ballast water, are not regulated (except in the Great Lakes), and concern is increasing about the impacts of these discharges on public health and the environment. In other areas, regulations apply, but critics argue that they are not stringent enough to address the problem — for example, with respect to standards for sewage discharges. Environmental advocates have raised concerns about the adequacy of existing laws for managing these wastes, and they contend that enforcement is weak.

text: Cruise ship

text: s carrying several thousand passengers and crew have been compared to “floating cities,” and the volume of wastes that they produce is comparably large, consisting of sewage;

text: wastewater

text: from

text: sink

text: s,

text: shower

text: s, and

text: galley

text: s (

text: graywater

text: hazardous waste

text: s; solid waste; oily

text: bilge water

text: ballast water

text: ; and

text: air pollution

text: . The

text: waste stream

text: s generated by cruise ships are governed by a number of international protocols (especially

text: MARPOL

text: ) and U.S. domestic laws (including the

text: Clean Water Act

text: and the

text: Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships

text: ), regulations, and standards, but there is no single law or rule. Some cruise ship waste streams appear to be well regulated, such as solid wastes (garbage and plastics) and bilge water. But there is overlap of some areas, and there are gaps in others. Some, such as graywater and ballast water, are not regulated (except in the

text: Great Lakes

text: ), and concern is increasing about the impacts of these discharges on public health and the environment. In other areas, regulations apply, but critics argue that they are not stringent enough to address the problem — for example, with respect to standards for sewage discharges. Environmental advocates have raised concerns about the adequacy of existing laws for managing these wastes, and they contend that enforcement is weak.

text: • Water Sampling allows Environmental Surveyors to gain a picture of the quality of and pollution levels in local water sources.

text: Some of the effects of non-sustainable practices are: Severe degradation of the surrounding ecosystem; harm to human health, especially in the case of degraded drinking water supplies; harm to flora and fauna and their habitats; sedimentation of surface waters caused by stormwater runoff; chemical pollutants in drinking water caused by pesticide runoff; health problems caused by toxic fertilizers, toxic pesticides, improper use, handling, storage and disposal of pesticides; air and noise pollution caused by landscape equipment; invasion of wild lands by non-native weeds and insect pests; and over-use of limited natural resources.

text: Some of the effects of non-sustainable practices are: Severe degradation of the surrounding ecosystem; harm to human health, especially in the case of

text: degraded

text: drinking water

text: supplies; harm to flora and fauna and their habitats; sedimentation of surface waters caused by storm

text: water runoff

text: ; chemical pollutants in drinking water caused by pesticide runoff; health problems caused by toxic fertilizers, toxic

text: pesticide

text: s, improper use, handling, storage and disposal of pesticides;

text: air

text: and

text: noise pollution

text: caused by landscape equipment; invasion of wild lands by non-native weeds and insect pests; and over-use of

text: limited natural resources

text: Water pollution is caused by industrial and municipal wastewater, as well as by agriculture. Concerning municipal wastewater, the bulk of collected sewage is discharged untreated and constitutes a major source of pollution to groundwater and a risk to public health. In a number of cities without sanitary sewerage, households discharge their sewage through open rainwater drains.

text: In 1993, the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research summarised available data on the quality of  water in rivers. They concluded that "lowland river reaches in agriculturally developed catchments are in poor condition" reflecting "agriculturally derived diffuse and point source waste inputs in isolation or in addition to urban or industrial waste inputs". The key contaminants identified in lowland rivers were dissolved inorganic nitrogen, dissolved reactive phosphorus and faecal contamination. Small streams in dairy farming areas were identified as being in very poor condition.  New Zealand's rivers and lakes are becoming increasingly nutrient enriched and degraded by nitrogen, animal faecal matter, and eroded sediment. Many waterways are now unsafe for swimming. Fish and Game New Zealand launched a "dirty dairying" campaign to highlight the effect of intensive agriculture on waterways. Fonterra, the largest dairy company in New Zealand, in conjunction with government agencies responded with the Dairying and Clean Streams Accord. In 2009, the Crafar Farms group of dairy farms in the North Island became known as the 'poster boys for dirty dairying' after a string of prosecutions in the Environment Court for unlawful discharges of dairy effluent.

text: In 1993, the

entity_name: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research

text: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research

text: summarised available data on the quality of  water in rivers. They concluded that "lowland river reaches in agriculturally developed catchments are in poor condition" reflecting "agriculturally derived diffuse and point source waste inputs in isolation or in addition to urban or industrial waste inputs". The key contaminants identified in lowland rivers were dissolved inorganic nitrogen, dissolved reactive phosphorus and faecal contamination. Small streams in dairy farming areas were identified as being in very poor condition.  New Zealand's rivers and lakes are becoming increasingly

text: nutrient

text: enriched and degraded by

text: nitrogen

text: , animal faecal matter, and eroded

text: sediment

text: . Many waterways are now unsafe for swimming.

text: Fish and Game New Zealand

text: launched a "

text: dirty dairying

text: " campaign to highlight the effect of intensive agriculture on waterways.

text: Fonterra

text: , the largest dairy company in New Zealand, in conjunction with government agencies responded with the

text: Dairying and Clean Streams Accord

text: . In 2009, the

text: Crafar Farms

text: group of dairy farms in the North Island became known as the 'poster boys for dirty dairying' after a string of prosecutions in the

text: Environment Court

text: for unlawful discharges of dairy effluent.

text: Water quality in Chile has steadily increased after the 'right to live in a pollution-free environment' mentioned above was written into the 1980 Constitution, however, water pollution is still a concern. This is mostly due to point-source discharges of untreated domestic and industrial wastewaters.In the early 1990s, domestic and industrial wastewater discharge totaled approximately 43 cubic meters per second (1,520 ft/s) with domestic contamination representing 56% of this total and industrial effluent at 44%.The problem was compounded by a lack of chlorination systems among water service providers. Therefore, 20% of water service providers in 1991 did not comply with bacteriological norms. From its inception in 1990, the Superintendencia de Servicios Sanitarios (SISS) put greater attention and effort towards increasing the number of adequate chlorination systems. By 2006, improvements were made regarding chlorination systems and only 1% of water service providers were non-compliant. Furthermore, compliance with disinfection norms increased from 89% to more than 99% in 2006 through similar effort.

text: Almost no species in the Persian Gulf is spared from the real estate development of UAE and Oman, including the hawksbill turtle, the flamingo, and the booted warblers, mainly due to destruction of the mangrove habitats to make way for towers, hotels, and luxury resorts. Even dolphins that frequent the gulf in northern waters, around Iran are at serious risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse seine fishing nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps the most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran's Hormozgan province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs.

text: Almost no species in the Persian Gulf is spared from the real estate development of UAE and Oman, including the

text: hawksbill turtle

text: , the

text: flamingo

text: , and the booted

text: warblers

text: , mainly due to destruction of the mangrove habitats to make way for towers, hotels, and luxury resorts. Even dolphins that frequent the gulf in northern waters, around Iran are at serious risk. Recent statistics and observations show that dolphins are at danger of entrapment in purse

text: seine fishing

text: nets and exposure to chemical pollutants; perhaps the most alarming sign is the "mass suicides" committed by dolphins off Iran's

text: Hormozgan

text: province, which are not well understood, but are suspected to be linked with a deteriorating marine environment from water pollution from oil, sewage, and industrial run offs.

text: Environment - current issues: Soil salinity is rising. There is beach pollution from oil spills. There are very limited natural fresh water resources.

text: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was discovered on the afternoon of 22 April 2010 when a large oil slick began to spread at the former rig site. According to the Flow Rate Technical Group, the leak amounted to about  of oil, exceeding the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill as the largest ever to originate in U.S.-controlled waters and the 1979 Ixtoc I oil spill as the largest spill in the Gulf of Mexico.  BP has challenged this calculation saying that it is overestimated as it includes over  of oil which was collected before it could enter the Gulf waters.

text: The

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: was discovered on the afternoon of 22 April 2010 when a large oil slick began to spread at the former rig site. According to the

text: Flow Rate Technical Group

text: , the leak amounted to about  of oil, exceeding the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: as the largest ever to originate in

text: U.S.-controlled waters

text: and the 1979

text: Ixtoc I oil spill

text: as the largest spill in the Gulf of Mexico.  BP has challenged this calculation saying that it is overestimated as it includes over  of oil which was collected before it could enter the Gulf waters.

text: Rabalais has testified to Congress on the problem of nutrient pollution from agricultural and storm water runoff.

text: Low Impact Development: The federation works on multiple projects supporting Low Impact Development (LID), a fairly recent strategy in reducing and preventing stormwater pollution in land development.  Through collaboration with coastwide partners and governments, NCCF is establishing stormwater reduction measures at current areas of stormwater pollution and creating LID ordinances for recent development in addition to retrofitting current projects. Such efforts include the construction and installation of wetlands, rain barrels, bio-retention areas, large cisterns and rain gardens with the goal of protecting and restoring the coastal swimming waters and shellfish population from bacterial pollution.

text: Low Impact Development: The federation works on multiple projects supporting

text: Low Impact Development (LID)

text: , a fairly recent strategy in reducing and preventing stormwater pollution in land development.  Through collaboration with coastwide partners and governments, NCCF is establishing stormwater reduction measures at current areas of stormwater pollution and creating LID ordinances for recent development in addition to retrofitting current projects. Such efforts include the construction and installation of wetlands, rain barrels, bio-retention areas, large cisterns and rain gardens with the goal of protecting and restoring the coastal swimming waters and shellfish population from bacterial pollution.

text: Simultaneously, the waters of Lake Chapala are polluted by municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes, coming primarily from the Lerma River. The increased presence of nutrients from the pollution combined with the warmer water has been a boon to an invasive species of water hyacinth. The water hyacinth further exacerbates the problem of a shrinking lake depth through its own consumption of the water.

text: Simultaneously, the waters of Lake Chapala are polluted by municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes, coming primarily from the

text: Lerma River

text: . The increased presence of nutrients from the pollution combined with the warmer water has been a boon to an invasive species of

text: water hyacinth

text: . The water hyacinth further exacerbates the problem of a shrinking lake depth through its own consumption of the water.

text: According to the organisation Schéma d’Aménagement et de Gestion des Eaux (SAGE) de l'Yser, the water quality of the Peene Becque is poor, with domestic pollution having a greater impact than agricultural pollution, especially in summer when the water level is low.

text: Potential risks associated with these pollution sources include possible residues in the water or leaching into the surrounding soil and creek bed.

text: The Community Center was founded in 2006 to serve local residents of St. Bernard Parish after the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita. In St Bernard Parish, the epicenter of devastation, fully 93% of homes were rated as "severely damaged" or "destroyed". This is the only Parish (county) in the history of our country to have been completely inundated by flood waters. In many cases homes and businesses were covered up to the rooftops. One hundred and eighty people in the Parish drowned. It is also the home to the largest residential domestic oil spill in US history, when the Murphy Oil Spill (Chalmette, Louisiana)released more than 1,000,000 gallons of crude oil.

text: The Community Center was founded in 2006 to serve local residents of St. Bernard Parish after the devastation caused by

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: and

text: Hurricane Rita

text: . In

text: St Bernard Parish

text: , the epicenter of devastation, fully 93% of homes were rated as "severely damaged" or "destroyed". This is the only Parish (county) in the history of our country to have been completely inundated by flood waters. In many cases homes and businesses were covered up to the rooftops. One hundred and eighty people in the Parish drowned. It is also the home to the largest residential domestic oil spill in US history, when the

text: Murphy Oil Spill (Chalmette, Louisiana)

text: released more than 1,000,000 gallons of crude oil.

text: Environment - current issues:soil erosion; air pollution caused by industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution, especially in coastal areas

text: Environment - current issues:

text: soil erosion

text: air pollution

text: caused by industrial and vehicle emissions;

text: water pollution

text: , especially in coastal areas

text: As a result of mining, industry, large scale unsustainable agriculture, and somewhat lax and unenforced pollution laws, many rivers and lakes in Zimbabwe are polluted. This has made drinking and bathing in these rivers and lakes unsafe. In particular the water of several rivers that go through the Marange diamond fields in eastern Zimbabwe has been so polluted that it has killed livestock that drank it and given rashes to bathers. Another area of Zimbabwe with especially high levels of water pollution is Harare and its nearby suburbs. This is due to the large population of Harare, decrepit and broken sewage systems, and mismanagement by government agencies designated to enforce environmental and water quality regulations. Fortunately, there are programs in place that inspect the quality of the water of many of the major rivers as well as gauging stations that measure the water supply levels of Zimbabwe's dams.

text: As a result of mining, industry, large scale unsustainable agriculture, and somewhat lax and unenforced pollution laws, many rivers and lakes in Zimbabwe are polluted. This has made drinking and bathing in these rivers and lakes unsafe. In particular the water of several rivers that go through the

text: Marange diamond fields

text: in eastern Zimbabwe has been so polluted that it has killed livestock that drank it and given rashes to bathers. Another area of Zimbabwe with especially high levels of water pollution is

text: Harare

text: and its nearby suburbs. This is due to the large population of Harare, decrepit and broken sewage systems, and mismanagement by government agencies designated to enforce environmental and water quality regulations. Fortunately, there are programs in place that inspect the quality of the water of many of the major rivers as well as gauging stations that measure the water supply levels of Zimbabwe's dams.

text: Oil spills can occur during transportation of oil or during extraction.  Such spills may dump significant quantities of oil into the ocean and pollute the environment, affecting ecosystems near and far.

text: Oil spills

text: can occur during

text: transportation of oil

text: or

text: during extraction

text: .  Such spills may dump significant quantities of oil into the ocean and pollute the environment, affecting ecosystems near and far.

text: Water pollution manifestations of an area source include:

text: Water pollution

text: manifestations of an area source include:

text: The State Water Board’s Division of Financial Assistance (DFA) has a number of programs designed to help local agencies and individuals prevent or clean up water pollution.  The DFA provides loans and grants for constructing municipal sewage and water recycling facilities, remediation for underground storage tank releases, watershed protection projects, and for nonpoint source pollution control projects. (Nonpoint source pollution usually involves contaminants flowing into a body of water from diffuse sources such as runoff from storm water, which may contain road dirt or fertilizers and pesticides from lawns, as well as water that collects debris from construction sites and fecal matter from barnyards and flows into nearby rivers, streams and lakes.)

text: The State Water Board’s Division of Financial Assistance (DFA) has a number of programs designed to help local agencies and individuals prevent or clean up water pollution.  The DFA provides loans and grants for constructing municipal sewage and water recycling facilities, remediation for underground storage tank releases, watershed protection projects, and for

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: control projects. (Nonpoint source pollution usually involves contaminants flowing into a body of water from diffuse sources such as runoff from storm water, which may contain road dirt or fertilizers and pesticides from lawns, as well as water that collects debris from construction sites and fecal matter from barnyards and flows into nearby rivers, streams and lakes.)

text: On March 31, 2010, President Obama announced that he was opening new areas in U.S. coastal waters to offshore drilling for gas and oil. This was in stark contrast to his reaction only a few weeks later to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico that has become the largest offshore oil spill in United States history. In November 2010, the Obama administration rescinded the decision to open new areas.

text: On March 31, 2010, President Obama announced that he was opening new areas in U.S. coastal waters to offshore drilling for gas and oil. This was in stark contrast to his reaction only a few weeks later to the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in the Gulf of Mexico that has become the largest offshore

text: oil spill

text: in United States history. In November 2010, the Obama administration rescinded the decision to open new areas.

text: Even though Croatia has sufficient water resources at its disposal, these are not uniformly distributed and public water supply network losses remain high—estimated at 44%. Between 2004 and 2008, the number of stations monitoring surface water pollution increased by 20%; the CEA reported 476 cases of water pollution in this period. At the same time organic waste pollution levels decreased slightly, which is attributed to the completion of new sewage treatment plants; their number increased 20%, reaching a total of 101. Nearly all of Croatia's groundwater aquifers are top quality, unlike the available surface water; the latter's quality varies in terms of biochemical oxygen demand and bacteriological water analysis results. As of 2008, 80% of the Croatian population are served by the public water supply system, but only 44% of the population have access to the public sewerage network, with septic systems in use. Adriatic Sea water quality monitoring between 2004 and 2008 indicated very good, oligotrophic conditions along most of the coast, while areas of increased eutrophication were identified in the Bay of Bakar, the Bay of Kaštela, the Port of Šibenik and near Ploče; other areas of localized pollution were identified near the larger coastal cities. In the period between 2004 and 2008, the CEA identified 283 cases of marine pollution (including 128 from vessels), which was a drop of 15% relative to the period encompassed by the previous report, 1997 to August 2005.

text: Even though Croatia has sufficient

text: water resources

text: at its disposal, these are not uniformly distributed and public

text: water supply network

text: losses remain high—estimated at 44%. Between 2004 and 2008, the number of stations monitoring surface

text: water pollution

text: increased by 20%; the CEA reported 476 cases of water pollution in this period. At the same time

text: organic waste

text: pollution levels decreased slightly, which is attributed to the completion of new

text: sewage treatment

text: plants; their number increased 20%, reaching a total of 101. Nearly all of Croatia's

text: groundwater

text: aquifer

text: s are top

text: quality

text: , unlike the available surface water; the latter's quality varies in terms of

text: biochemical oxygen demand

text: and

text: bacteriological water analysis

text: results. As of 2008, 80% of the Croatian population are served by the public

text: water supply

text: system, but only 44% of the population have access to the public

text: sewerage

text: network, with

text: septic system

text: s in use. Adriatic Sea water quality monitoring between 2004 and 2008 indicated very good,

text: oligotroph

text: ic conditions along most of the coast, while areas of increased

text: eutrophication

text: were identified in the

text: Bay of Bakar

text: , the Bay of

text: Kaštela

text: , the Port of

text: Šibenik

text: and near

text: Ploče

text: ; other areas of localized pollution were identified near the larger coastal cities. In the period between 2004 and 2008, the CEA identified 283 cases of

text: marine pollution

text: (including 128

text: from vessels

text: ), which was a drop of 15% relative to the period encompassed by the previous report, 1997 to August 2005.

text: As in other regions of the country and the region, water pollution is a major problem affecting the inhabitants of the area. In Naolinco there are numerous cases of people suffering from congenital (birth) diseases as well as health alterations linked to cancer. Similarly, a large name of inhabitants burn waste and trash affecting air quality and generating even more pollution problems with health consequences. The lack of drinking water and environmental education is a situation that causes serious problems for the municipality.Based on data from Mexican Social Security Institute, there is evidence and recorded cases of people affected by Skin Cancer, Down syndrome and Autism.Also, Xalapa Naolinco next town, has high levels of environmental pollution

text: As in other regions of the country and the region, water pollution is a major problem affecting the inhabitants of the area. In Naolinco there are numerous cases of people suffering from congenital (birth) diseases as well as health alterations linked to cancer. Similarly, a large name of inhabitants burn waste and trash affecting air quality and generating even more pollution problems with health consequences. The lack of drinking water and environmental education is a situation that causes serious problems for the municipality.Based on data from

text: Mexican Social Security Institute

text: , there is evidence and recorded cases of people affected by

text: Skin Cancer

text: Down syndrome

text: and

text: Autism

text: .Also, Xalapa Naolinco next town, has high levels of environmental pollution

text: While Typha latifolia grows all over, including in rural areas, it is not advisable to eat specimens deriving from polluted water as it absorbs pollutants and in fact is used as a bioremediator.  Specimens with a very bitter or spicy taste should not be eaten.

text: While Typha latifolia grows all over, including in rural areas, it is not advisable to eat specimens deriving from

text: polluted water

text: as it absorbs pollutants and in fact is used as a

text: bioremediator

text: .  Specimens with a very bitter or spicy taste should not be eaten.

text: On June 17 a second oil spill that occurred at the Penglai 19-3 oilfield, but was contained within 48 hours.  By the second leak, it was reported that a total of 840 square kilometers of first grade clean water in Bohai Bay was polluted.

text: On June 17 a second oil spill that occurred at the Penglai 19-3 oilfield, but was contained within 48 hours.  By the second leak, it was reported that a total of 840 square kilometers of first grade clean water in

text: Bohai Bay

text: was polluted.

text: It is the leading cause of water pollution in the United States today, with polluted runoff from agriculture the primary cause.

text: Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the change in temperature decreases oxygen supply and affects ecosystem composition. Fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by an abrupt change in water temperature (either a rapid increase or decrease) known as "thermal shock."

text: Thermal pollution is the degradation of

text: water quality

text: by any process that changes ambient water

text: temperature

text: . A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a

text: coolant

text: by

text: power plants

text: and industrial manufacturers. When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the change in temperature decreases

text: oxygen

text: supply and affects

text: ecosystem

text: composition. Fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by an abrupt change in water temperature (either a rapid increase or decrease) known as "thermal shock."

text: The primary concern of air pollution is how widespread the pollution can become in a short period of time. Acid rain is one of the largest forms of pollution today. The issue with acid rain is that it affects literally every living organism it comes in contact with, whether that be trees in a forest, water in an ocean or lake, or the skin of humans and animals. Typically, acid rain is a combination of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that are emitted from factories. If it is not controlled in a timely manner, it could lead to loss of life due to the dangerous nature of the composition of the rain.

text: The primary concern of air pollution is how widespread the pollution can become in a short period of time.

text: Acid rain

text: is one of the largest forms of pollution today. The issue with acid rain is that it affects literally every living organism it comes in contact with, whether that be trees in a forest, water in an ocean or lake, or the skin of humans and animals. Typically, acid rain is a combination of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that are emitted from factories. If it is not controlled in a timely manner, it could lead to loss of life due to the dangerous nature of the composition of the rain.

text: Microbeads can cause plastic particle water pollution and pose an environmental hazard for aquatic animals in freshwater and ocean water. In the US, the Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015 phases out microbeads in rinse off cosmetics by July 2017.

text: Microbeads can cause

text: plastic particle water pollution

text: and pose an environmental hazard for aquatic animals in freshwater and ocean water. In the US, the Microbead-Free Waters Act of 2015 phases out microbeads in rinse off cosmetics by July 2017.

text: There are many sources of environmental toxicity that can lead to the presence of toxicants in our food, water and air. These sources include organic and inorganic pollutants, pesticides and biological agents, all of which can have harmful effects on living organisms. There can be so called point sources of pollution, for instance the drains from a specific factory but also non-point sources (diffuse sources) like the rubber from car tires that contain numerous chemicals and heavy metals that are spread in the environment.

text: There are many sources of environmental

text: toxicity

text: that can lead to the presence of toxicants in our food, water and air. These sources include organic and inorganic pollutants,

text: pesticides

text: and biological agents, all of which can have harmful effects on living organisms. There can be so called

text: point sources

text: of pollution, for instance the drains from a specific factory but also

text: non-point sources

text: (diffuse sources) like the rubber from car tires that contain numerous chemicals and heavy metals that are spread in the environment.

text: Local water boards were set up to maintain integrity of water defences around local polders, to maintain waterways inside polders and to control various water levels in and outside local polders. The mandate of these water boards (which remains largely unchanged) was maintenance of dikes, dunes and waterways (and roads too, in several municipalities), control of water level and quality of all surface water (including punishing polluters). The original water boards varied much in organisation, power and area they managed. The differences were often dictated by different circumstances, whether they had to defend a sea dike against a storm surge or keep water level in a polder within bounds. Hoogheemraadschappen were responsible for protecting the land against the sea and for regulating water levels of various canals and lakes into which water was pumped from polders and waterschappen.

text: Local water boards were set up to maintain integrity of water defences around local

text: polders

text: , to maintain waterways inside polders and to control various water levels in and outside local polders. The mandate of these water boards (which remains largely unchanged) was maintenance of dikes, dunes and waterways (and roads too, in several municipalities), control of water level and quality of all surface water (including punishing polluters). The original water boards varied much in organisation, power and area they managed. The differences were often dictated by different circumstances, whether they had to defend a sea dike against a storm surge or keep water level in a polder within bounds. Hoogheemraadschappen were responsible for protecting the land against the sea and for regulating water levels of various canals and lakes into which water was pumped from

text: polder

text: s and waterschappen.

text: A pneumatic barrier is a method of containing oil spills. Air bubbling through a perforated pipe causes an upward water flow that slows the spread of oil. It can also be used to stop fish from entering polluted water. Pneumatic barriers are also known as air curtains.

text: A pneumatic barrier is a method of containing

text: oil spill

text: s. Air bubbling through a perforated pipe causes an upward water flow that slows the spread of oil. It can also be used to stop

text: fish

text: from entering

text: polluted water

text: . Pneumatic barriers are also known as air curtains.

text: Deforestation (major forest damage occurred as a result of severe December 1999 windstorm); air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from urban wastes, deserttification, agricultural runoff

text: Deforestation

text: (major forest damage occurred as a result of severe December 1999 windstorm); air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from urban wastes, deserttification, agricultural runoff

text: The principal agricultural activity in the wet tropics is sugar cane farming, while cattle grazing is the primary industry in the dry tropics regions. Both are considered significant threats to high water quality. Copper, a common industrial pollutant in the waters of the Great Barrier Reef, has been shown to interfere with the development of coral polyps.

text: The principal agricultural activity in the wet tropics is

text: sugar cane

text: farming, while cattle grazing is the primary industry in the dry tropics regions. Both are considered significant threats to high water quality.

text: Copper

text: , a common industrial pollutant in the waters of the Great Barrier Reef, has been shown to interfere with the development of coral polyps.

text: The logical building block for this theory was the use of the Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation for point sources.   One of the early point source air pollutant plume dispersion equations was derived by Bosanquet and Pearson in 1936.  Their equation did not include the effect of ground reflection of the pollutant plume.  Sir Graham Sutton derived a point source air pollutant plume dispersion equation in 1947 which included the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the vertical and crosswind dispersion of the plume and also addressed the effect of ground reflection of the plume.  Further advances were made by G. A. Briggs in model refinement and validation and by D.B. Turner  for his user-friendly workbook that included screening calculations which do not require a computer.

text: The logical building block for this theory was the use of the

entity_name: List of things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: Gaussian

text: air pollutant

text: dispersion equation for

text: point source

text: s.   One of the early point source air pollutant

text: plume

text: dispersion equations was derived by Bosanquet and Pearson in 1936.  Their equation did not include the effect of ground reflection of the pollutant plume.  Sir Graham Sutton derived a point source air pollutant plume dispersion equation in 1947 which included the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the vertical and

text: crosswind

text: dispersion of the plume and also addressed the effect of ground reflection of the plume.  Further advances were made by G. A. Briggs in model refinement and validation and by D.B. Turner  for his user-friendly workbook that included screening calculations which do not require a computer.

text: Human health is most directly affected when polluted water is ingested into the body.  Nonpoint source pollution can often have toxic contaminants and chemicals present in the water.  Additionally, there can be both bacteria and viruses (aka pathogens) found in the water.

text: Human health is most directly affected when polluted water is ingested into the body.  Nonpoint source pollution can often have

text: toxic

text: contaminants and chemicals present in the water.  Additionally, there can be both bacteria and viruses (aka pathogens) found in the water.

text: Kennedy wrote the majority decision in Coeur Alaska, Inc. v. Southeast Alaska Conservation Council (2009), which involved an Alaskan mining company that planned to extract new gold from a mine that had been closed for decades using a technique known as "froth-flotation". This technique would produce approximately 4.5 million tons of "slurry", a thick waste product laced with toxic elements such as lead and mercury. The company intended to dispose of the waste in a nearby lake, which would eventually decrease the depth of the lake by fifty feet and flood the surrounding land with contaminated water. While federal law forbids "[t]he use of any river, lake, stream or ocean as a waste treatment system", Kennedy's decision stated that pollutants are exempt from this law so long as they have "the effect of … changing the bottom elevation of water". Justice Ginsburg's dissent stated that such a reading of federal law "strains credulity" because it allows "[w]hole categories of regulated industries" to "gain immunity from a variety of pollution-control standards".

text: Kennedy wrote the majority decision in

entity_name: Coeur Alaska, Inc. v. Southeast Alaska Conservation Council

text: Coeur Alaska, Inc. v. Southeast Alaska Conservation Council

text: (2009), which involved an Alaskan mining company that planned to extract new gold from a mine that had been closed for decades using a technique known as "froth-flotation". This technique would produce approximately 4.5 million tons of "slurry", a thick waste product laced with toxic elements such as lead and mercury. The company intended to dispose of the waste in a nearby lake, which would eventually decrease the depth of the lake by fifty feet and flood the surrounding land with contaminated water. While federal law forbids "[t]he use of any river, lake, stream or ocean as a waste treatment system", Kennedy's decision stated that pollutants are exempt from this law so long as they have "the effect of … changing the bottom elevation of water". Justice Ginsburg's dissent stated that such a reading of federal law "strains credulity" because it allows "[w]hole categories of regulated industries" to "gain immunity from a variety of pollution-control standards".

text: Less common are line source applications in the field of water pollutant dispersal.  This phenomenon generally arises when surface runoff scours soil contaminants from upper soil layers and transports these pollutants to a linear receiving water, such as a river.  The underlying land management practices which lead to such sources of water pollution are logging, pesticide application, construction grading, slash-and-burn activity and urban stormwater runoff.

text: Less common are line source applications in the field of water pollutant dispersal.  This phenomenon generally arises when

text: surface runoff

text: scours

text: soil contaminants

text: from upper soil layers and transports these pollutants to a linear receiving water, such as a river.  The underlying land management practices which lead to such sources of water pollution are

text: logging

text: pesticide

text: application,

text: construction

text: grading,

text: slash-and-burn

text: activity and urban

text: stormwater

text: runoff.

text: In environmental management, water analysis is frequently deployed when pollution is suspected to identify the pollutant in order to take remedial action. The analysis can often enable the polluter to be identified. Such forensic work can examine the ratios of various components and can "type" samples of oils or other mixed organic contaminants to directly link the pollutant with the source. In drinking water supplies the cause of unacceptable quality can similarly be determined by carefully targeted chemical analysis of samples taken throughout the distribution system. In manufacturing, off-spec products may be directly tied back to unexpected changes in wet processing stages and analytical chemistry can identify which stages may be at fault and for what reason.

text: The Lower Saxon water quality report  of 2004 assessed the chemical water pollution level of the Aller overall as moderately polluted (quality level II). Some individual indicators were rated as quality level I (unpolluted to very lightly polluted), some however showed heavy levels of pollution (quality levels III-IV). Heavy pollution is predominantly caused by nitrates. Pollution by ammonium in places is ascribed to the unsatisfactory operation of certain sewage works. Raised phosphate values were put down to intensive arable farming near the source of the river. Its salt content today is above the critical level for aquatic plants. Since 1990, the salt content has reduced considerably, which may be connected with lower discharges from the former East German area following the Wende in 1989. Biological water quality, based on the research into its saprobian systems, is generally rated as unpolluted to very lightly polluted. The only area that is critically contaminated is the region of Wolfsburg, where deposits of digested sludge in the river are responsible.

text: The Lower Saxon water quality report  of 2004 assessed the chemical

text: water pollution

text: level of the Aller overall as moderately polluted (quality level II). Some individual indicators were rated as quality level I (unpolluted to very lightly polluted), some however showed heavy levels of pollution (quality levels III-IV). Heavy pollution is predominantly caused by

text: nitrate

text: s. Pollution by

text: ammonium

text: in places is ascribed to the unsatisfactory operation of certain sewage works. Raised

text: phosphate

text: values were put down to intensive arable farming near the source of the river. Its

text: salt

text: content today is above the critical level for

text: aquatic plant

text: s. Since 1990, the salt content has reduced considerably, which may be connected with lower discharges from the former

text: East German

text: area following the

text: Wende

text: in 1989. Biological

entity_name: Freshwater environmental quality parameters

text: water quality

text: , based on the research into its

text: saprobian systems

text: , is generally rated as unpolluted to very lightly polluted. The only area that is critically contaminated is the region of Wolfsburg, where deposits of digested

text: sludge

text: in the river are responsible.

text: Around 90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries. Increasingly, agriculture uses untreated wastewater as a source of irrigation water. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users (see Water scarcity below), there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their crops. Significant health hazards can result from using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water. The International Water Management Institute has worked in India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Ghana, Ethiopia, Mexico and other countries on various projects aimed at assessing and reducing risks of wastewater irrigation. They advocate a 'multiple-barrier' approach to wastewater use, where farmers are encouraged to adopt various risk-reducing behaviours. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectant or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure. The World Health Organization has developed guidelines for safe water use.

text: Around 90% of wastewater produced globally remains untreated, causing widespread water

text: pollution

text: , especially in low-income countries. Increasingly, agriculture uses untreated wastewater as a source of irrigation water. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users (see Water scarcity below), there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their crops. Significant health hazards can result from using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water. The

entity_name: International Water Management Institute

text: International Water Management Institute

text: has worked in India, Pakistan, Vietnam, Ghana, Ethiopia, Mexico and other countries on various projects aimed at assessing and reducing risks of wastewater irrigation. They advocate a 'multiple-barrier' approach to wastewater use, where farmers are encouraged to adopt various risk-reducing behaviours. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectant or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure. The

text: World Health Organization

text: has developed guidelines for safe water use.

text: In 2004 a biomass generating plant  was proposed to take advantage of the former Westfield River Paper Co. site along the Westfield River with access to water, the former Boston and Albany Railroad line, and abundant supplies of waste wood in rejuvenating forests as a byproduct of real estate development, logging and forestry work to remove defective trees and less valuable species.  The biomass proposal proved highly controversial.  Although it would have created a number of jobs and lightened the tax burden , opponents have raised concerns of truck traffic through town, air pollution, water withdrawals and thermal pollution of water returned to the river after use for cooling purposes.

text: In 2004 a

text: biomass

text: generating plant  was proposed to take advantage of the former Westfield River Paper Co. site along the

text: Westfield River

text: with access to water, the former

text: Boston and Albany Railroad

text: line, and abundant supplies of waste wood in rejuvenating forests as a byproduct of real estate development,

text: logging

text: and

text: forestry work

text: to remove defective trees and less valuable species.  The biomass proposal proved highly controversial.  Although it would have created a number of jobs and lightened the tax burden , opponents have raised concerns of truck traffic through town, air pollution, water withdrawals and thermal pollution of water returned to the river after use for cooling purposes.

text: Pollution can occur from a number of sources: garbage and industrial debris; the transportation of petroleum in tankers, increasing the probability of large oil spills; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush bilge water into the ocean.

text: Pollution

text: can occur from a number of sources:

text: garbage and industrial debris

text: ; the

text: transportation of petroleum

text: in

text: tankers

text: , increasing the probability of large

text: oil spill

text: s; small oil spills created by large and small vessels, which flush

text: bilge

text: water into the ocean.

text: Water pollution is the contamination of natural water bodies by chemical, physical, radioactive or pathogenic microbial substances. Point sources of water pollution are described by the CWA as "any discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance from which pollutants are or may be discharged." These include pipes or man-made ditches from stationary locations such as sewage treatment plants, factories, industrial wastewater treatment facilities, septic systems, ships, and other sources that are clearly discharging pollutants into water sources.

text: Water pollution

text: is the contamination of natural water bodies by chemical, physical, radioactive or pathogenic microbial substances. Point sources of water pollution are described by the CWA as "any discernible, confined, and discrete conveyance from which pollutants are or may be discharged." These include pipes or man-made ditches from stationary locations such as

text: sewage treatment

text: plants, factories,

text: industrial wastewater treatment

text: facilities,

text: septic systems

text: ships

text: , and other sources that are clearly discharging pollutants into water sources.

text: With rapid increase in population, urbanization, and industrialization, the quality of Philippine waters is reduced especially in densely populated areas and regions of industrial and agricultural activities. According to data from the DENR and PEM, domestic wastewater discharges, agricultural wastewater, and industrial wastewater are the three main sources of water pollution. These are also known as "point sources" that emanate toxic substances into "non-point sources" or certain bodies of water. Domestic wastewater consists of sewage containing organic waste, solids, and coliforms produced by domestic activities such as laundry, bathing, cooking, and other kitchen activities. Agricultural wastewater, the major source of pollution in rural areas, contain pollutants resulting from agricultural and livestock activities like the maintenance of piggeries which usually do not have proper wastewater treatment facilities. Different industries also contribute largely to the water pollution. Industrial activities such as manufacturing of food, textile, paper, and slaughterhouses emit large amounts of organic waste.

text: Singrauli region has been identified as a critically polluted area (CPA) by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). Incremental coal mining activities in the region and the rapid development of coal-based thermal power plants has resulted in acute air and water pollution, leading to serious health problems among the residents of the locality, which remain unaddressed. With the coming up of many more power companies the problem is expected to increase. Power plants in the area are poisoning the air and water in the district with mercury, a neurotoxin. Mercury is one of the natural, and perhaps the most harmful, components of coal. During combustion at temperature above 1,100 °C, it vapourises. Given the large quantity of coal burned in thermal plants, a considerable amount of mercury is released into the atmosphere. Some of it cools down and condenses while passing through the plant’s boiler and air pollution control system and enters the environment through soil and water. It also enters the environment through run-off from coal mines. In humans, mercury can cause several chronic diseases and death. In 1998, the Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (IITR), a premier publicly funded scientific agency based in Lucknow, tested over 1,200 people from the Singrauli region for mercury poisoning. It found high levels of mercury in humans and in the environment. The Central Pollution Control Board analysed 11 coal samples from Singrauli and found mercury concentration in coal ranging between 0.09 parts per million (ppm) and 0.487 ppm. In 2011, Delhi-based non-profit Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) had found 0.15 ppm mercury in coal at Anpara village in Sonbhadra. It is estimated that a 1,000 MW thermal power plant is emitting at least 500 kg of mercury every year in Singrauli.

text: Pakistan's coastline, which stretches over 1,046 km, is facing severe pollution due  to a combination of industrial, port, municipal, and transportation activities in the area.  The coastline is being overwhelmed with water-borne pollution being discharged in the  shipping process into the marine environment. A recent study found that some of the  marine life was contaminated with lead, which if consumed by humans through seafood, has been linked to anemia, kidney failure and brain damage. In fact, the study also discovered that even the mangrove forests protecting the feeder creeks from sea erosion  as well as a source of sustenance for fishermen are threatened by this pollution.

text: Pakistan's coastline, which stretches over 1,046 km, is facing severe pollution due  to a combination of industrial, port, municipal, and transportation activities in the area.  The coastline is being overwhelmed with

text: water-borne pollution

text: being discharged in the  shipping process into the marine environment. A recent study found that some of the  marine life was

text: contaminated with lead

text: , which if consumed by humans through

text: seafood

text: , has been linked to

text: anemia

text: kidney failure

text: and

text: brain damage

text: . In fact, the study also discovered that even the

text: mangrove

text: forests protecting the feeder creeks from sea erosion  as well as a source of sustenance for fishermen are threatened by this pollution.

text: The District operates a "municipal separate storm sewer system" (MS4), which is a conveyance or a system of conveyances that collects and transports stormwater runoff into waters of the U.S. The District's MS4 transports stormwater through rivers and channels flowing to the Pacific Ocean. Because stormwater is often heavily polluted from various non-point sources, the Clean Water Act and its implementing regulations require certain MS4s to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit before discharging stormwater into navigable waters. Between 2002 and 2008, monitoring stations in the Los Angeles River, San Gabriel River, Santa Clara River, and Malibu Creek continually detected water pollution levels that exceeded its MS4 permit in its stormwater channel system.  Some of the pollution levels exceeded included high levels of aluminum, copper, cyanide, fecal coliform bacteria, and zinc.

text: The District operates a "municipal separate storm sewer system" (MS4), which is a conveyance or a system of conveyances that collects and transports stormwater runoff into waters of the U.S. The District's MS4 transports stormwater through rivers and channels flowing to the Pacific Ocean. Because stormwater is often heavily polluted from various non-point sources, the

text: Clean Water Act

text: and its implementing regulations require certain MS4s to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit before discharging stormwater into navigable waters. Between 2002 and 2008, monitoring stations in the Los Angeles River, San Gabriel River,

text: Santa Clara River

text: , and Malibu Creek continually detected water pollution levels that exceeded its MS4 permit in its stormwater channel system.  Some of the pollution levels exceeded included high levels of aluminum, copper, cyanide, fecal coliform bacteria, and zinc.

text: In the earlier days, agriculture was the primary activity with hygienic and sweet water available from the multitude of tanks also called " Kuttai" and " "Kulam". There were green pastures and one could see herds of goats, sheep and buffaloes grazing. This aided development of agro based industries like butter making and Uthukuli was known for its famed Butter. There were also many Rice and Paddy Hulling mills facilitating agro based trade. However  the rapid expansion of textile industries in Tiruppur led to installation of many dyeing units and soon, polluted effluents from the Textile city of Tiruppur converted the once fertile Noyyal river into a virtual drain. The polluted river and vanishing tanks had dealt a big, still unrecoverable blow to agriculture, dairy farming and Rice mills / Paddy Hulling  in these areas. Consequently the young and old  of this land are now forced to seek employment opportunities outside this once scenic spot. Apart from water pollution, scarcity of water and steep rise in labor costs in an unorganized labor sector has resulted in agriculture taking a back seat and the traditional hereditary farms called "Thottams" are fast vanishing.

text: Agricultural pollution takes several forms: direct pollution (discharge of manure directly in the rivers) and diffused pollution (infiltration of fertilizer products in the groundwater). Diffused pollution is difficult to control because it has a multitude of sources throughout the whole region. Yet without a solution to this problem the water quality of the river will never have the desired quality.

text: Agricultural pollution takes several forms: direct pollution (discharge of

text: manure

text: directly in the rivers) and diffused pollution (infiltration of

text: fertilizer

text: products in the

text: groundwater

text: ). Diffused pollution is difficult to control because it has a multitude of sources throughout the whole region. Yet without a solution to this problem the water quality of the river will never have the desired quality.

text: The California Water Code Section 35539.12 grants IRWD the authority to provide urban runoff treatment services within the District. Urban runoff is the excess water that carries pollutants into storm drains and then to the ocean.  Residents who live miles inland can contribute to ocean pollution simply by leaving their sprinklers on too long. After this wasted water flows to the curb it carries trash, fertilizers, pet waste and other pollutants into the storm drain system which flows into San Diego Creek, eventually ending up in ecologically sensitive Upper Newport Bay and the Pacific ocean. Urban runoff can be prevented by implementing efficient irrigation practices. Additionally, an urban runoff treatment system, like the IRWD Natural Treatment System program, helps protect the San Diego Creek Watershed by naturally removing some of the contaminants in from urban runoff before it reaches the ocean.

text: The California Water Code Section 35539.12 grants IRWD the authority to provide urban runoff treatment services within the District.

text: Urban runoff

text: is the excess water that carries pollutants into storm drains and then to the ocean.  Residents who live miles inland can contribute to ocean pollution simply by leaving their sprinklers on too long. After this wasted water flows to the curb it carries trash, fertilizers, pet waste and other pollutants into the storm drain system which flows into

text: San Diego Creek

text: , eventually ending up in ecologically sensitive

text: Upper Newport Bay

text: and the

text: Pacific ocean

text: . Urban runoff can be prevented by implementing efficient irrigation practices. Additionally, an urban runoff treatment system, like the IRWD Natural Treatment System program, helps protect the San Diego Creek Watershed by naturally removing some of the contaminants in from urban runoff before it reaches the ocean.

text: Nonpoint source pollution is pollution that occurs when runoff from streets, lawns, and other areas nearby a waterway carries toxins, chemicals, and silt into lakes, rivers, and oceans causing pollution and buildup of sediment. Nonpoint source pollution is said to be the most problematic and hardest to reverse of the types of pollution because it is so hard to regulate and pinpoint where it originates. Many experts agree that nonpoint source pollution is the biggest concern facing the Great Lakes. With the increase of urbanization, a toll has been taken on the lakes in these areas. Lakes that once had stable ecosystems with the appropriate amount of plant life are now full of massive amounts of plants and algae that have been fed by local lawns with their fertilizers, killing off many species of fish and other water life.

text: Nonpoint source pollution

text: is pollution that occurs when runoff from streets, lawns, and other areas nearby a waterway carries toxins, chemicals, and silt into lakes, rivers, and oceans causing pollution and buildup of sediment. Nonpoint source pollution is said to be the most problematic and hardest to reverse of the types of pollution because it is so hard to regulate and pinpoint where it originates. Many experts agree that nonpoint source pollution is the biggest concern facing the Great Lakes. With the increase of urbanization, a toll has been taken on the lakes in these areas. Lakes that once had stable ecosystems with the appropriate amount of plant life are now full of massive amounts of plants and algae that have been fed by local lawns with their fertilizers, killing off many species of fish and other water life.

text: Exploitation has decreased in importance as a threat. Other threats include the ingestion of plastic flotsam. Once swallowed, plastic can cause a general decline in the fitness of the bird, or in some cases lodge in the gut and cause a blockage, leading to death by starvation. It can also be picked up by foraging adults and fed to chicks, stunting their development and reducing the chances of successfully fledging.  Procellariids are also vulnerable to marine pollution, as well as oil spills. Some species, such as Barau's petrel, Newell's shearwater and  Cory's shearwater, which nest high up on large developed islands, are victims of light pollution. Fledging chicks are attracted to streetlights and may then be unable to reach the sea. An estimated 20 to 40 percent of fledging Barau's petrels and 45 to 60 percent of fledging Cory's shearwater are attracted to the streetlights on Réunion and Tenerife, respectively.

text: Exploitation has decreased in importance as a threat. Other threats include the ingestion of plastic

text: flotsam

text: . Once swallowed, plastic can cause a general decline in the fitness of the bird, or in some cases lodge in the gut and cause a blockage, leading to death by starvation. It can also be picked up by foraging adults and fed to chicks, stunting their development and reducing the chances of successfully fledging.  Procellariids are also vulnerable to

text: marine pollution

text: , as well as

text: oil spill

text: s. Some species, such as

text: Barau's petrel

text: Newell's shearwater

text: and  Cory's shearwater, which nest high up on large developed islands, are victims of light pollution. Fledging chicks are attracted to streetlights and may then be unable to reach the sea. An estimated 20 to 40 percent of fledging Barau's petrels and 45 to 60 percent of fledging Cory's shearwater are attracted to the streetlights on

text: Réunion

text: and

text: Tenerife

text: , respectively.

text: The proposal states the plant will draw its water from the Passur River, taking up to 219, 600 cubic metres of water everyday. Activists worry about the effect on local water supplies as that means the plant will discharge treated waste water back into the river.They argue that the pollutants introduced into the water supply can harm the mangroves, the marine animals living there, and nearby human communities who use the water body for fishing and agriculture. Environmentalists are also fearful of the increased chances of a catastrophic oil spill. There is historical evidence of the damage that can cause in the Sundarbans. In 2014, when an oil tanker spilled 75,000 gallons into the fragile ecosystem, locals communities had no tools or assistance from the government to fight the toxic spill with.

text: Thermal pollution, which refers to the degradation of water quality by changing the ambient water temperature, has a serious effect on natal homing of Chum salmon. Chum salmon is a typical cold water fish that prefer water around 10 degrees Celsius. When water temperature is raised due to thermal pollution, Chum salmon tends to dive into deep water for thermoregulation. This reduces the time Chum salmon spent in surface water column and reduce the chance for Chum salmon to approach natal river since chemical cue for natal homing is concentrated on surface water.

text: Thermal pollution

text: , which refers to the degradation of water quality by changing the ambient water temperature, has a serious effect on natal homing of

text: Chum salmon

text: . Chum salmon is a typical cold water fish that prefer water around 10 degrees Celsius. When water temperature is raised due to thermal pollution, Chum salmon tends to dive into deep water for

text: thermoregulation

text: . This reduces the time Chum salmon spent in surface water column and reduce the chance for Chum salmon to approach natal river since chemical cue for natal homing is concentrated on surface water.

text: Water pollution is another type of widespread contaminant which has ethical implications in mitigating the source and balancing conflicting priorities. The two types of water contaminants are anthropogenic compounds (generally referred to as pollutants, such as disinfection products, metals, municipal and agricultural waste, and petroleum and coal hydrocarbons) and natural contaminants (such as microorganisms or chemicals like arsenic and nitrogen, which are naturally present in the soil). the common misconception is that chemicals leaking into the soil will be diluted over time and rendered harmless. This theory does not take into account Persistent Organic Pollutants, which do not break down easily, and sometimes break down into more harmful constituents. Most industrialized nations have legislation in place to protect the public from impure drinking water. The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 established maximum levels of pollutants in public drinking water, however its power to regulate private sources of bottled water or wells is severely limited. An additional issue regarding water pollution is the relative scarcity of clean fresh water on the earth, an issue which acutely presents itself in areas prone to drought. Agriculture uses a great deal of water, so much so that shortages in drought-prone areas can significantly affect crop yield. The main ethical issues with water pollution is whether growth should be restricted in order to preserve public health. An additional issue is the regulation of private corporations, whose activities may put populations of citizens at risk for groundwater contamination.

text: Most modern technological processes produce unwanted by products in addition to the desired products, which is known as industrial waste and pollution.  While most material waste is re-used in the industrial process, many forms are released into the environment, with negative environmental side effects, such as pollution and lack of sustainability.  Different social and political systems establish different balances between the value they place on additional goods versus the disvalues of waste products and pollution. Some technologies are designed specifically with the environment in mind, but most are designed first for economic or ergonomic effects. Historically, the value of a clean environment and more efficient productive processes has been the result of an increase in the wealth of society, because once people are able to provide for their basic needs, they are able to focus on less-tangible goods such as clean air and water.

text: The 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred as the oil tanker Exxon Valdez was leaving the terminal at Valdez full of oil.  The spill occurred at Bligh Reef, about  from Valdez.  Although the oil did not reach Valdez, it devastated much of the marine life in the surrounding area. The clean-up of the oil caused a short-term boost to the economy of Valdez.

text: The 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: occurred as the oil tanker

text: Exxon Valdez

text: was leaving the terminal at Valdez full of oil.  The spill occurred at

text: Bligh Reef

text: , about  from Valdez.  Although the oil did not reach Valdez, it devastated much of the marine life in the surrounding area. The clean-up of the oil caused a short-term boost to the economy of Valdez.

text: Trees also reduce pollution by actively removing it from the atmosphere. Leaf stomata, the pores on the leaf surface, take in polluting gases which are then absorbed by water inside the leaf. Some species of trees are more susceptible to the uptake of pollution, which can negatively affect plant growth. Ideally, trees should be selected that take in higher quantities of polluting gases and are resistant to the negative affects they can cause.

text: Trees also reduce pollution by actively removing it from the atmosphere. Leaf

text: stoma

text: ta, the pores on the leaf surface, take in polluting gases which are then absorbed by water inside the leaf. Some species of trees are more susceptible to the uptake of pollution, which can negatively affect plant growth. Ideally, trees should be selected that take in higher quantities of polluting gases and are resistant to the negative affects they can cause.

text: Marine pollution is both directly harmful to sea turtles as well as indirectly, through the deterioration of their natural habitats.  Some of the most dangerous ocean pollutants include toxic metals, PCBs, fertilizers, untreated waste, chemicals, and a variety of petroleum products. Oil spills are particularly dangerous to sea turtles.<ref name="conserveturtles">"Sea Turtle Threats: Oil Spills." Sea Turtle Conservancy (2010): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010.

text: Marine pollution

text: is both directly harmful to sea turtles as well as indirectly, through the deterioration of their natural habitats.  Some of the most dangerous ocean pollutants include

text: toxic metal

text: s,

text: PCB

text: s,

text: fertilizer

text: s, untreated waste,

text: chemicals

text: , and a variety of

text: petroleum

text: products.

text: Oil spill

text: s are particularly dangerous to sea turtles.<ref name="conserveturtles">"Sea Turtle Threats: Oil Spills." Sea Turtle Conservancy (2010): n. pag. Web. 8 Dec 2010.

text: Dangerous or polluting goods on board a ship must be declared by the shipper to the master or operator of the vessel, who must then in turn provide the information to the authorities. The master of a ship is required to immediately report any incident or accident affecting the safety of the ship or other shipping, any sightings of polluting materials or drifting containers, and any situation liable to lead to pollution of EU waters or shores.

text: Near Warmenau there has been a water quality station since 1967, where water quality has been regularly tested since 1976. The 2004 Lower Saxon water quality report assesses the chemical water pollution of the Kleine Aller as variable. The values for organic pollution, nitrate, ammonium and phosphate contamination vary from lightly polluted to very heavily polluted. Ammonium levels in particular suffer from wide variations and sometimes high values. This is due to the fact that the waterway receives the discharge from five sewage works and that the nitrogen content in these installations has not been reduced sufficiently.

text: Near Warmenau there has been a water quality station since 1967, where water quality has been regularly tested since 1976. The 2004 Lower Saxon

text: water quality report

text: assesses the chemical

text: water pollution

text: of the Kleine Aller as variable. The values for organic pollution, nitrate, ammonium and phosphate contamination vary from lightly polluted to very heavily polluted. Ammonium levels in particular suffer from wide variations and sometimes high values. This is due to the fact that the waterway receives the discharge from five

text: sewage works

text: and that the nitrogen content in these installations has not been reduced sufficiently.

text: The Court observed that the Clean Water Act did not define discharge, but stated that "the term ‘discharge’ when used without qualification includes a discharge of a pollutant, and a discharge of pollutants."  The Act furthermore defined "discharge of a pollutant" and "discharge of pollutants," as meaning "any addition of any pollutant to navigable waters from any point source."  The Court believed this meant "discharge" was broader than these definitions, or else the term was superfluous.  Because of the lack of a statutory definition, and because it is not a term of art, the Court was left to instead construe it "in accordance with its ordinary or natural meaning."

text: The Court observed that the

text: Clean Water Act

text: did not define discharge, but stated that "the term ‘discharge’ when used without qualification includes a discharge of a pollutant, and a discharge of pollutants."  The Act furthermore defined "discharge of a

text: pollutant

text: " and "discharge of pollutants," as meaning "any addition of any pollutant to navigable waters from any point source."  The Court believed this meant "discharge" was broader than these definitions, or else the term was superfluous.  Because of the lack of a statutory definition, and because it is not a

text: term of art

text: , the Court was left to instead construe it "in accordance with its ordinary or natural meaning."

text: Water pollution is one of the main concerns of the world today. The governments of numerous countries have striven to find solutions to reduce this problem. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most widespread, especially in developing countries, is the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters;  this method of sewage disposal is the most common method in underdeveloped countries, but also is prevalent in quasi-developed countries such as China, India, Nepal and Iran.Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic pollutants are all dumped into the water.  Even if sewage is treated, problems still arise. Treated sewage forms sludge, which may be placed in landfills, spread out on land, incinerated or dumped at sea. In addition to sewage, nonpoint source pollution such as agricultural runoff is a significant source of pollution in some parts of the world, along with urban stormwater runoff and chemical wastes dumped by industries and governments.

text: Water pollution

text: is one of the main concerns of the world today. The governments of numerous countries have striven to find solutions to reduce this problem. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most widespread, especially in developing countries, is the discharge of raw

text: sewage

text: into natural waters;  this method of sewage disposal is the most common method in underdeveloped countries, but also is prevalent in quasi-developed countries such as China, India, Nepal and

text: Iran

text: .Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic pollutants are all dumped into the water.  Even if sewage is treated, problems still arise. Treated sewage forms sludge, which may be placed in landfills, spread out on land, incinerated or dumped at sea. In addition to sewage,

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: such as

text: agricultural

text: runoff is a significant source of pollution in some parts of the world, along with urban

text: stormwater

text: runoff and

text: chemical waste

text: s dumped by industries and governments.

text: Oil tankers are only one source of oil spills. According to the United States Coast Guard, 35.7% of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships/barges), 27.6% from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9% from non-tank vessels, and 9.3% from pipelines; 7.4% from mystery spills. On the other hand, only 5% of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8% came from other kinds of vessels. The detailed statistics for 2004 shown in the table below show tank vessels responsible for somewhat less than 5% of the number of total spills but more than 60% of the volume. In summary, spills are much more rare but much more serious on tank vessels than on non-tank vessels.

text: United States Coast Guard

text: , 35.7% of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels (ships/barges), 27.6% from facilities and other non-vessels, 19.9% from non-tank vessels, and 9.3% from pipelines; 7.4% from mystery spills. On the other hand, only 5% of the actual spills came from oil tankers, while 51.8% came from other kinds of vessels. The detailed statistics for 2004 shown in the table below show tank vessels responsible for somewhat less than 5% of the number of total spills but more than 60% of the volume. In summary, spills are much more rare but much more serious on tank vessels than on non-tank vessels.

text: In discussing pollution, density maps can be very useful in indicating sources and areas of greatest contamination. Contour maps are especially useful for diffuse forms or scales of pollution. Acid precipitation is indicated on maps with isoplats.  Some of the most widespread applications of environmental science contour maps involve mapping of environmental noise (where lines of equal sound pressure level are denoted isobels), air pollution, soil contamination, thermal pollution and groundwater contamination.  By contour planting and contour ploughing, the rate of water runoff and thus soil erosion can be substantially reduced; this is especially important in riparian zones.

text: In discussing pollution, density maps can be very useful in indicating sources and areas of greatest contamination. Contour maps are especially useful for diffuse forms or scales of pollution. Acid precipitation is indicated on maps with isoplats.  Some of the most widespread applications of environmental science contour maps involve mapping of

text: environmental noise

text: (where lines of equal sound pressure level are denoted isobels),

text: air pollution

text: soil contamination

text: thermal pollution

text: and

text: groundwater

text: contamination.  By

text: contour planting

text: and

text: contour ploughing

text: , the rate of

text: water runoff

text: and thus

text: soil erosion

text: can be substantially reduced; this is especially important in

text: riparian

text: zones.

text: Being an old plant, Badarpur Thermal Power Station (BTPS) has little automation. Its performance is deteriorating due to various reasons, like aging, poor quantity and quality of cooling water etc. It receive cooling water from Agra Canal, which is an irrigation canal from Yamuna river. Due to rising water pollution, the water of Yamuna is highly polluted. This polluted water when goes into condenser, adversely affect life of condenser tubes, resulting in frequent tube leakages. This dirty water from tube leakages, gets mixed into feed water cycle causes numerous problems, like frequent boiler tube leakages, and silica deposition on turbine blades.

text: Being an old plant, Badarpur Thermal Power Station (BTPS) has little automation. Its performance is deteriorating due to various reasons, like aging, poor quantity and quality of cooling water etc. It receive cooling water from Agra Canal, which is an irrigation canal from

text: Yamuna river

text: . Due to rising water pollution, the water of Yamuna is highly polluted. This polluted water when goes into condenser, adversely affect life of condenser tubes, resulting in frequent tube leakages. This dirty water from tube leakages, gets mixed into feed water cycle causes numerous problems, like frequent boiler tube leakages, and silica deposition on turbine blades.

text: Not all industries pollute the same amount; chemical and paper manufacturing industries, for example, tend to pollute more than others. It is difficult to accurately measure the pollution level of each industry in order to categorize and to set up a fair set of policies. In particular, improved water quality might highly favor the higher income groups due to the fact that most improvements are done in the urban areas.

text: The qualitative and quantitative aspects of drinking water requirements of domesticated animals are studied and described within the context of animal husbandry. However, relatively few studies have been focused on the drinking behavior of wild animals. A recent study has shown that feral pigeons do not discriminate drinking water according to its content of metabolic wastes, such as uric acid or urea (mimicking faeces-pollution by birds or urine-pollution by mammals respectively).

text: The qualitative and quantitative aspects of drinking water requirements of

text: domesticated animals

text: are studied and described within the context of

text: animal husbandry

text: . However, relatively few studies have been focused on the drinking behavior of wild animals. A recent study has shown that

text: feral pigeon

text: s do not discriminate drinking water according to its content of metabolic wastes, such as

text: uric acid

text: or

text: urea

text: (mimicking faeces-pollution by birds or urine-pollution by mammals respectively).

text: With the presence of ports, sea-based sources of pollution around the bay are from ships and motorized boats. Twelve oil spills were recorded in 1995, but it was in 1999 where the highest total volume of oil spill occurred in the Manila South Harbor and Limay, Bataan. Increased presence of oil and grease in the waters are attributed to maritime activities at the harbors, together with the presence of oil terminals and the discharges from industries. These factors directly impacted the health of Manila Bay's waters.

text: Indiana uses a common approach to address NPS pollution known as the watershed approach. A watershed includes "the total geographic area that drains storm water (and pollutants) to a particular stream, lake, aquifer, or other water body."  The watershed approach to addressing NPS water pollution attempts to address all the relevant water bodies holistically in the context of their watershed while also considering all the potential sources of pollution within a watershed.

text: Indiana uses a common approach to address NPS pollution known as the

text: watershed

text: approach. A watershed includes "the total geographic area that drains storm water (and pollutants) to a particular stream, lake, aquifer, or other water body."  The watershed approach to addressing NPS water pollution attempts to address all the relevant water bodies holistically in the context of their watershed while also considering all the potential sources of pollution within a watershed.

text: Cleaning and Sanitation Services: Bilge, slops and ballast water disposal is a major pollution hazard for the Bohai Bay, and it is tightly regulated by the MSA. Only specially authorized enterprises can engage in their removal and disposal, or in tank cleanup. Nevertheless, illegal dumping of ballast water is a persistent problem and one of the Port's major law enforcement challenges. Ships carrying oil or liquid chemicals, and all ships over 10,000 gt are required to sign an "Agreement for Ship Pollution Response" with one of four authorized emergency spill response companies.

text: Cleaning and Sanitation Services:

text: Bilge

text: slops

text: and

text: ballast water

text: disposal is a major pollution hazard for the Bohai Bay, and it is tightly regulated by the MSA. Only specially authorized enterprises can engage in their removal and disposal, or in tank cleanup. Nevertheless, illegal dumping of ballast water is a persistent problem and one of the Port's major law enforcement challenges. Ships carrying oil or liquid chemicals, and all ships over 10,000 gt are required to sign an "Agreement for Ship Pollution Response" with one of four authorized emergency spill response companies.

text: Flooding during monsoons worsens India's water pollution problem, as it washes and moves  solid waste and contaminated soils into its rivers and wetlands. The annual average precipitation in India is about 4000 billion cubic metres. From this, with the state of Indian infrastructure in 2005, the available water resource through the rivers is about 1869 billion cubic meters. Accounting to uneven distribution of rain over the country each year, water resources available for utilization, including ground water, is claimed to be about 1122 billion cubic meters. Much of this water is unsafe, because pollution degrades water quality. Water pollution severely limits the amount of water available to Indian consumer, its industry and its agriculture.

text: Between 21 March and mid-July, around 2.7 × 10 Bq of caesium-137 (about 8.4 kg) entered the ocean, with about 82 percent having flowed into the sea before 8 April. However, the Fukushima coast has some of the world's strongest currents and these transported the contaminated waters far into the Pacific Ocean, thus causing great dispersion of the radioactive elements. The results of measurements of both the seawater and the coastal sediments led to the supposition that the consequences of the accident, in terms of radioactivity, would be minor for marine life as of autumn 2011 (weak concentration of radioactivity in the water and limited accumulation in sediments). On the other hand, significant pollution of sea water along the coast near the nuclear plant might persist, due to the continuing arrival of radioactive material transported towards the sea by surface water running over contaminated soil. Organisms that filter water and fish at the top of the food chain are, over time, the most sensitive to caesium pollution. It is thus justified to maintain surveillance of marine life that is fished in the coastal waters off Fukushima. Despite caesium isotopic concentration in the waters off of Japan being 10 to 1000 times above concentration prior to the accident, radiation risks are below what is generally considered harmful to marine animals and human consumers.

text: Coastal Risk was founded in August 2014 by former environmental attorney and law professor Albert Slap and former Florida Atlantic University climate scientist and Director of the Florida Center for Environmental Studies Leonard Berry. Over the years, Slap used America's environmental laws to protect public health and the environment by fighting water and air pollution, toxic waste dumping, and by forcing local governments to replace aging and polluting sewer infrastructure. His citizen suits against the City of Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and Miami-Dade County brought billions of dollars of investment in wastewater treatment plants and tens of thousands of new construction jobs in those cities. Mr. Slap was senior counsel to Biscayne Bay Waterkeeper in the first lawsuit in the nation to force local government to make critical public infrastructure climate ready and storm safe. Co-founder Dr. Berry was a lead author on the United States 3rd National Climate Assessment in 2015. Other key members of the Coastal Risk scientific team include University of Miami professor and lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Brian Soden, and FAU geoscientist Keren Bolter.

text: Coastal Risk was founded in August 2014 by former

text: environmental attorney

text: and law

text: professor

text: Albert Slap and former

text: Florida Atlantic University

text: climate scientist

text: and Director of the Florida Center for Environmental Studies Leonard Berry. Over the years, Slap used America's

text: environmental laws

text: to protect

text: public health

text: and the environment by fighting water and air

text: pollution

text: toxic waste

text: dumping, and by forcing local governments to replace aging and polluting

text: sewer infrastructure

text: . His

text: citizen suits

text: against the City of

text: Philadelphia

text: Cincinnati

text: , and

text: Miami-Dade County

text: brought billions of dollars of investment in

text: wastewater treatment plants

text: and tens of thousands of new

text: construction

text: jobs in those cities. Mr. Slap was senior counsel to Biscayne Bay Waterkeeper in the first lawsuit in the nation to force local government to make critical public infrastructure climate ready and storm safe. Co-founder Dr. Berry was a lead author on the United States 3rd National Climate Assessment in 2015. Other key members of the Coastal Risk scientific team include

text: University of Miami

text: professor and lead author of the

entity_name: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: , Brian Soden, and FAU

text: geoscientist

text: Keren Bolter.

text: The Company has also been implicated in generating water pollution and toxic waste. In 1993, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued an order for U.S. Steel to clean up a site in Fairless Hills, Pennsylvania, on the Delaware River, where the soil had been contaminated with arsenic, lead, and other heavy metals, as well as naphthalene; groundwater at the site was found to be polluted with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and trichloroethylene (TCE). In 2005, the EPA, United States Department of Justice, and the State of Ohio reached a settlement requiring U.S. Steel to pay more than $100,000 in penalties and $294,000 in reparations in answer to allegations that the company illegally released pollutants into Ohio waters.  U.S. Steel's Gary, Indiana facility has been repeatedly charged with discharging polluted wastewater into Lake Michigan and the Grand Calumet River, and in 1998 agreed to a $30 million settlement to clean up contaminated sediments from a five-mile (8 km) stretch of the river.

text: The Company has also been implicated in generating

text: water pollution

text: and

text: toxic waste

text: . In 1993, the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) issued an order for U.S. Steel to clean up a site in

text: Fairless Hills, Pennsylvania

text: , on the

text: Delaware River

text: , where the soil had been contaminated with

text: arsenic

text: lead

text: , and other

text: heavy metals

text: , as well as

text: naphthalene

text: ; groundwater at the site was found to be polluted with

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s and

text: trichloroethylene

text: (TCE). In 2005, the EPA,

text: United States Department of Justice

text: , and the

text: State of Ohio

text: reached a

text: settlement

text: requiring U.S. Steel to pay more than $100,000 in penalties and $294,000 in reparations in answer to allegations that the company illegally released pollutants into Ohio waters.  U.S. Steel's

text: Gary, Indiana

text: facility has been repeatedly charged with discharging polluted wastewater into

text: Lake Michigan

text: and the

text: Grand Calumet River

text: , and in 1998 agreed to a $30 million settlement to clean up contaminated sediments from a five-mile (8 km) stretch of the river.

text: 1940s - The Commission's first (1943) report on the condition of Potomac basin waters precipitates adoption of a pollution abatement program (1945), an intensive survey of industrial pollution (1946), and definition of a set of "Minimum Water Quality Criteria" (1946) by which Potomac streams and waterways may be judged suitable or unsuitable for several principal water uses. Concurrent to Congress enacting the first Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1948), ICPRB initiates a continuous water-quality sampling program in the basin. By 1949, ICPRB is given credit for coordination with local authorities to "radically" improve conditions on the Potomac's Shenandoah River tributary, recently referred to as a "biological desert" due to pollution from industrial waste.

text: 1940s - The Commission's first (1943) report on the condition of Potomac basin waters precipitates adoption of a pollution abatement program (1945), an intensive survey of

text: industrial pollution

text: (1946), and definition of a set of "Minimum Water Quality Criteria" (1946) by which Potomac streams and waterways may be judged suitable or unsuitable for several principal water uses. Concurrent to Congress enacting the first

text: Federal Water Pollution Control Act

text: (1948), ICPRB initiates a continuous water-quality sampling program in the basin. By 1949, ICPRB is given credit for coordination with local authorities to "radically" improve conditions on the Potomac's

text: Shenandoah River

text: tributary, recently referred to as a "biological desert" due to

text: pollution

text: from

text: industrial waste

text: Water Quality Management Systems involve area designations by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), national sewage and septage management programs and allocation of special funds to support and maintain water quality. Areas that have similar hydrogeological conditions, which affect the physiochemical, biological and bacteriological reactions and diffusions of pollutants in the water bodies, are declared as Water Quality Management Areas. The management area is governed by a DENR representative as chair and board members composed of representatives from local government units (LGUs), relevant national government agencies, registered non-governmental organizations, water utility sectors and the business sector. On the other hand, water bodies with specific pollutants that have exceeded the guidelines for water quality are identified as Non-attainment Areas. LGUs are tasked to prepare and implement contingency plans, such as relocations, for the protection of the health and welfare of the residents, while the government improves the affected quality of water within the potentially affected areas.

text: Aquatic Biomonitoring is important in monitoring marine life and their ecosystems. Monitoring aquatic life can also be beneficial in understanding land ecosystems as well. Before there were tetrapods, there were fish. These fish then evolved into tetrapods that we see today. Because of this, aquatic life still has a major impact on life on land. Aquatic biomonitoring can represent the overall health and status of the environment, detect different environmental trends and how different stressors will affect those trends, and interpret the affect of different environmental activity will have on the overall health of the environment. Pollution and general stresses to aquatic life can have a huge impact on the environment in general. The main sources of pollution to oceans, rivers, and lakes are sewage, oil spills, land runoff, littering, ocean mining, and nuclear waste. These types of pollution cause a huge upset to marine life and can endanger any species in the water or that live close to the water. When aquatic species are affected, it causes a ripple effect. Many aquatic animals are a main food source for many land animals. For example: if a specific species of fish ingest toxins and become sick, the birds that ingest that species of fish will also become sick. Then the animal that ingest that bird will also become sick. This is a problem that can be avoided by monitoring all life and conditions in different bodies of water, including fresh and salt water.

text: The Morris J. Berman oil spill occurred on January 7, 1994, when the Morris J. Berman, a single-hull 302-foot-long barge, with the capacity to carry more than 3 million gallons of oil, collided with a coral reef near San Juan, Puerto Rico, causing the release of 750,000 gallons of heavy grade oil. The spill affected the tourism and fishing industries as well as wildlife along the shores of Puerto Rico, Isla de Culebra, and Isla de Vieques. The spill had major long-lasting impacts on the biological and natural resources of the entire Puerto Rican area. This spill was also the first to occur in U.S. waters after the passing of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990.

text: The Morris J. Berman oil spill occurred on January 7, 1994, when the Morris J. Berman, a single-hull 302-foot-long barge, with the capacity to carry more than 3 million gallons of oil, collided with a coral reef near

text: San Juan, Puerto Rico

text: , causing the release of 750,000 gallons of heavy grade oil. The spill affected the tourism and fishing industries as well as wildlife along the shores of

text: Puerto Rico

text: Isla de Culebra

text: , and

text: Isla de Vieques

text: . The spill had major long-lasting impacts on the biological and natural resources of the entire Puerto Rican area. This spill was also the first to occur in U.S. waters after the passing of the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: As a result of efforts to control water resources in Florida and projects to drain the Everglades during the early and mid-20th century, water flow into Biscayne Bay has been altered by the construction of canals. These canals channel water from portions of the southeastern Everglades now used for agriculture into the bay. Prior to canal construction, most fresh water inflow came from rain and groundwater, but the canals are now altering the salinity profile of the bay, conveying sediment and pollutants and leading to saltwater intrusion into the Biscayne aquifer. The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) was established in 2000 to mitigate the effects of human intervention into the natural water flow of the Everglades. Primarily aimed at the restoration of historical patterns of water flow into Everglades National Park, the project will also deal with issues arising from the diversion of water out of the southern Everglades into Biscayne Bay. The Biscayne Bay Coastal Wetlands Project (BBCW) is a CERP component specifically intended to redistribute water flow so that fresh water is introduced gradually through creeks and marshes rather than short, heavy discharges through drainage canals.

text: As a result of efforts to control water resources in Florida and projects to drain the

text: Everglades

text: during the early and mid-20th century, water flow into Biscayne Bay has been altered by the construction of canals. These canals channel water from portions of the southeastern Everglades now used for agriculture into the bay. Prior to canal construction, most fresh water inflow came from rain and groundwater, but the canals are now altering the salinity profile of the bay, conveying sediment and pollutants and leading to saltwater intrusion into the Biscayne aquifer. The

entity_name: Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

text: Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan

text: (CERP) was established in 2000 to mitigate the effects of human intervention into the natural water flow of the Everglades. Primarily aimed at the

text: restoration of historical patterns of water flow

text: into Everglades National Park, the project will also deal with issues arising from the diversion of water out of the southern Everglades into Biscayne Bay. The Biscayne Bay Coastal Wetlands Project (BBCW) is a CERP component specifically intended to redistribute water flow so that fresh water is introduced gradually through creeks and marshes rather than short, heavy discharges through drainage canals.

text: On February 5, 1970 a mile long oil slick had formed and was heading for Cape Breton Island, the northern side of the bay.  Small aircraft attempted to disperse the oil dropping a chemical dispersant known as COREXIT on the spill, but this failed. The oil spread and washed ashore on many beaches in the bay.  In a week’s span, the oil spread to occupy 75 miles of beachheads and threatened to spread even further. In the end the oil spill claimed 190 miles of shoreline and some amount of pollution still remains to day eating away at the local environment.  The clean-up took months to complete.  The pollution caused by the spill handicapped the fishing industry in the bay. Studies were performed on the pollution by testing local fish and crustacean life in the bay.  Fisherman were catching lobsters and fish completely coated in Bunker C.    The Fisheries Research Board of Canada performed a series of experiments in May 1970 to evaluate the cleanliness of the aquatic life in the bay.  They came up with a series of rules for the commercial fishing business to abide by for the health of humans consuming their products. In all aspects the cost of cleaning the spill and the cost of the environmental impact cost the local government millions.

text: On February 5, 1970 a mile long

text: oil slick

text: had formed and was heading for Cape Breton Island, the northern side of the bay.  Small aircraft attempted to disperse the oil dropping a chemical dispersant known as

text: COREXIT

text: on the spill, but this failed. The oil spread and washed ashore on many beaches in the bay.  In a week’s span, the oil spread to occupy 75 miles of beachheads and threatened to spread even further. In the end the oil spill claimed 190 miles of shoreline and some amount of pollution still remains to day eating away at the local environment.  The clean-up took months to complete.  The pollution caused by the spill handicapped the fishing industry in the bay. Studies were performed on the pollution by testing local fish and crustacean life in the bay.  Fisherman were catching lobsters and fish completely coated in Bunker C.    The Fisheries Research Board of Canada performed a series of experiments in May 1970 to evaluate the cleanliness of the aquatic life in the bay.  They came up with a series of rules for the commercial fishing business to abide by for the health of humans consuming their products. In all aspects the cost of cleaning the spill and the cost of the environmental impact cost the local government millions.

text: Environment - current issues:pollution of coastal waters and shorelines from discharges by pleasure yachts and other effluents; in some areas, pollution is severe enough to make swimming prohibitive

text: Water pollution is one of the main concerns regarding water resources. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry.  Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants, which use water for cooling, ore and oil refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.

text: Water pollution

text: is one of the main concerns regarding water resources. It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry.  Major industrial users include hydroelectric dams,

text: thermoelectric power plants

text: , which use water for cooling,

text: ore

text: and

text: oil

text: refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.

text: For the first time ever, all the sources of pollution around an entire sea were made subject to a single convention, signed in 1974 by the then seven Baltic coastal states. The 1974 Convention entered into force on 3 May 1980.

text: The locations in which the Georgia blind salamander are found are connected by the Floridan aquifer and it is presumed that it is by this means that populations are linked. The water is usually clear, but may become cloudy after heavy rain, and remains at  throughout the year. Two of the caves in which this species was found at one time have since been destroyed. Other caves in the Florida Caverns State Park are protected and in these, populations of the salamander seem stable. The IUCN considers this species vulnerable. Threats include pollution from agricultural activities and changes in the water table due to the extraction of water from the aquifer. There is a possibility that populations may be impacted by over-removal for scientific purpose or by collectors.

text: The locations in which the Georgia blind salamander are found are connected by the Floridan aquifer and it is presumed that it is by this means that populations are linked. The water is usually clear, but may become cloudy after heavy rain, and remains at  throughout the year. Two of the caves in which this species was found at one time have since been destroyed. Other caves in the

text: Florida Caverns State Park

text: are protected and in these, populations of the salamander seem stable. The

text: IUCN

text: considers this species vulnerable. Threats include pollution from agricultural activities and changes in the

text: water table

text: due to the extraction of water from the aquifer. There is a possibility that populations may be impacted by over-removal for scientific purpose or by collectors.

text: Water pollution poses a significant health risk, especially in heavily industrialized, heavily populated areas like China. In response to a worsening situation in which entire cities lacked safe drinking water, China passed a revised Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law. The possibility of polluted water making it way across international boundaries, as well as unrecognized water pollution within a poorer country brings up questions of human rights, allowing for international input on water pollution. There is no single framework for dealing with pollution disputes local to a nation.

text: Water pollution

text: poses a significant health risk, especially in heavily industrialized, heavily populated areas like China. In response to a worsening situation in which entire cities lacked safe drinking water, China passed a revised Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law. The possibility of polluted water making it way across international boundaries, as well as unrecognized water pollution within a poorer country brings up questions of human rights, allowing for international input on water pollution. There is no single framework for dealing with pollution disputes local to a nation.

text: In the two departments where the oil was spilled, the Department of Finistère and the Department of Cotes-du-Nord, now known as Côtes-d'Armor implemented Plan Polmar, the French national oil spill response plan, was implemented. Thus, national army personnel played a role in the cleanup. Furthermore, The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) advised and monitored the situation for the International Oil Pollution Compensation (IOPC) Fund. All together, damage and cleanup costs were over $50 million.

text: In the two departments where the oil was spilled, the Department of

text: Finistère

text: and the Department of Cotes-du-Nord, now known as

text: Côtes-d'Armor

text: implemented

text: Plan Polmar

text: , the French national oil spill response plan, was implemented. Thus, national army personnel played a role in the cleanup. Furthermore, The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) advised and monitored the situation for the International Oil Pollution Compensation (IOPC) Fund. All together, damage and cleanup costs were over $50 million.

text: The Vessel Management Cell widely known as 'VMC' is an operational wing of NIOT which proficiently manages the running, operation and maintenance of the fleet of MoES research vessels viz. ORV Sagar Nidhi, BTV Sagar Manjusha, CRV Sagar Purvi and CRV Sagar Paschimi.Established back in 1996, with an aim to manage two coastal research vessels CRV Sagar Purvi and CRV Sagar Paschimi acquired by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), for understanding coastal pollution, coastal pollution monitoring, coastal surveys and near shore multidisciplinary work. During 2001, VMC committed to manage a barge, Sagar Shakthi that was used for implementing 1MW gross pilot plant to demonstrate OTEC technology, which is first ever attempt in the world with a major success.

text: There is also a pollution threat to the town as many industries are being set up in the locality. There is also a thermal power (MPS) being built in the locality. These are a lot of water-consuming industries and will consume water from the river Barakar itself. This is going to create pollution as well as water crisis in the area. The underground water level has already decreased over the years which further strains the water resources.

text: Many locals in the region attest to environmental damage that allegedly developed as a result of the leak. Oil spills in the delta's creeks have been left to fester for decades, polluting the air, soil, and water of impoverished communities. Nigeria sees its future output growth largely in offshore fields and does not want spills there to compound its environmental woes. Checks by Sahara Reporters revealed that the fishermen reportedly hauled in fish killed in the ExxonMobil’s oil spill in a location about 20 kilometers from the shoreline and supplied the bad fish to unsuspecting members of the public. The Nigerian Environmental Rights Action group issued a demand for N51 billion ($100 Million) from ExxonMobil in Nigeria for their failure to compensate fishermen within the coastal areas who suffered devastating losses due to the oil company’s exploration activities and major oil spills. Thick balls of tar have also been sighted washed upon the shoreline as well as oil slicks. The spill has only exacerbated the already growing problem of pollution in the Delta. The Nigerian government estimates there were over 7,000 spills, large and small, between 1970 and 2000, according to the BBC.  That is approximately 300 spills a year, and some spills have been leaking for years. Vast swathes of the Delta have been seen covered with tar and stagnant lakes of crude due to oil spills of the past.

text: Many locals in the region attest to environmental damage that allegedly developed as a result of the leak. Oil spills in the delta's creeks have been left to fester for decades, polluting the air, soil, and water of impoverished communities. Nigeria sees its future output growth largely in offshore fields and does not want spills there to compound its environmental woes. Checks by

text: Sahara Reporters

text: revealed that the fishermen reportedly hauled in fish killed in the ExxonMobil’s oil spill in a location about 20 kilometers from the shoreline and supplied the bad fish to unsuspecting members of the public. The Nigerian Environmental Rights Action group issued a demand for N51 billion ($100 Million) from ExxonMobil in Nigeria for their failure to compensate fishermen within the coastal areas who suffered devastating losses due to the oil company’s exploration activities and major oil spills. Thick balls of tar have also been sighted washed upon the shoreline as well as oil slicks. The spill has only exacerbated the already growing problem of pollution in the Delta. The Nigerian government estimates there were over 7,000 spills, large and small, between 1970 and 2000, according to the

text: BBC

text: .  That is approximately 300 spills a year, and some spills have been leaking for years. Vast swathes of the Delta have been seen covered with tar and stagnant lakes of crude due to oil spills of the past.

text: Combined sewage overflow (CSO) has been occurring in the Puget Sound. CSO occur during rain events when runoff with the combination of raw sewage overflows the pipes and it carries pollutants, harmful pathogens, and excess nutrients directly into Puget Sound. This is a threat to the biodiversity of marine wildlife as it degrades/damages the marine habitat. Due to high amounts of excess nutrients and water disturbance, there are fewer number of benthic invertebrate species found near CSO outfalls. One of the nutrients found in excess amounts is Nitrogen, which can cause low oxygen level. Excess nitrogen can causes algae blooms which leads to low oxygen level which is dangerous for marine organism that need oxygen. Furthermore, at the outfall the output disturbs the soils, which makes the water more turbid. Turbid water can increase the number of pathogens in the water.  Many fishes and shellfish can be affected by some pathogens that are naturally found in the Puget Sound. High turbidity can decrease light penetration which can decrease food sources for fishes.   If the turbidity is high enough it can kill fishes and/or affect reproduction and growth. Other pollutants carried by the runoff can have direct harm on many marine organisms and pollute the soils. For example, heavy metal buildup can cause physiological and reproductive harm.  For example, lead in river otters and spotted sandpiper affect their reproduction. Furthermore, build-up in pollutants has been found to affect fish growth.To reach standards stated in the Clean Water Act, Washington State must have a long-term CSO Control Plan so that 1 or fewer overflow events occur on average in a year.

text: Combined sewage overflow (CSO) has been occurring in the

text: Puget Sound

text: CSO

text: occur during rain events when runoff with the combination of raw sewage overflows the pipes and it carries pollutants, harmful

text: pathogen

text: s, and excess nutrients directly into Puget Sound. This is a threat to the biodiversity of marine wildlife as it degrades/damages the marine habitat. Due to high amounts of excess nutrients and water disturbance, there are fewer number of benthic invertebrate species found near CSO outfalls. One of the nutrients found in excess amounts is

text: Nitrogen

text: , which can cause low oxygen level. Excess nitrogen can causes

text: algae bloom

text: s which leads to low oxygen level which is dangerous for marine organism that need oxygen. Furthermore, at the outfall the output disturbs the soils, which makes the water more

text: turbid

text: . Turbid water can increase the number of pathogens in the water.  Many fishes and shellfish can be affected by some pathogens that are naturally found in the Puget Sound. High turbidity can decrease light penetration which can decrease food sources for fishes.   If the turbidity is high enough it can kill fishes and/or affect reproduction and growth. Other pollutants carried by the runoff can have direct harm on many marine organisms and

text: pollute the soils

text: . For example, heavy metal buildup can cause physiological and reproductive harm.  For example, lead in

text: river otters

text: and

text: spotted sandpiper

text: affect their

text: reproduction

text: . Furthermore, build-up in pollutants has been found to affect fish growth.To reach standards stated in the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , Washington State must have a long-term CSO Control Plan so that 1 or fewer overflow events occur on average in a year.

text: Now the Nervión river has lost economic importance, the navigable part of the river is being abandoned in favour of the external port, to allow urban development to take place in the banks of the river after the dismantlement of the industry.The quality of the water has improved through refuse water cleaning and the disappearance of the most polluting industries.

text: Actual purification of the waste water from the Brussels-Capital Region was not completed until the 21st century, when two purification stations were built. The south station treats refuse water from 360,000 inhabitants, which is about one third of the polluted water, and lies on the border of Anderlecht and Forest. The north station, completed in March 2007, is located near the border of the Brussels-Capital Region, between the Senne and the Charleroi-Willebroek Canal, near Buda Bridge. A portion of the cost was footed by the Flemish Government, as 7 of the adjacent municipalities lie within the Flemish Region. This station is capable of treating the water of 1,100,000 inhabitants and should finally be capable of fully purifying the Senne, which had long caused much of the pollution of the Scheldt river.

text: Actual purification of the waste water from the

text: Brussels-Capital Region

text: was not completed until the 21st century, when two purification stations were built. The south station treats refuse water from 360,000 inhabitants, which is about one third of the polluted water, and lies on the border of

text: Anderlecht

text: and

text: Forest

text: . The north station, completed in March 2007, is located near the border of the Brussels-Capital Region, between the Senne and the Charleroi-Willebroek Canal, near Buda Bridge. A portion of the cost was footed by the

text: Flemish Government

text: , as 7 of the adjacent municipalities lie within the

text: Flemish Region

text: . This station is capable of treating the water of 1,100,000 inhabitants and should finally be capable of fully purifying the Senne, which had long caused much of the pollution of the

text: Scheldt

text: river.

text: In late 2010, Obama administration officials stated that the Deepwater Horizon spill exceeded the Exxon Valdez spill, as they estimated that the gusher had spewed between  and  of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Young claimed that the oil pumping into the Gulf was not an "environmental disaster", stating that it was a "natural phenomena" as "oil has seeped into this ocean for centuries, will continue to do it. During World War II there was over ten million barrels of oil spilt from ships, and no natural catastrophe. We will lose some birds, we will lose some fixed sealife, but overall it will recover." According to the Flow Rate Technical Group, the Deepwater Horizon blowout amounted to about  of oil, exceeding the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill as the largest ever to originate in U.S.-controlled waters and the 1979 Ixtoc I oil spill as the largest spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: In late 2010, Obama administration officials stated that the

text: Deepwater Horizon spill

text: exceeded the Exxon Valdez spill, as they estimated that the gusher had spewed between  and  of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Young claimed that the oil pumping into the Gulf was not an "environmental disaster", stating that it was a "natural phenomena" as "oil has seeped into this ocean for centuries, will continue to do it. During World War II there was over ten million barrels of oil spilt from ships, and no natural catastrophe. We will lose some birds, we will lose some fixed sealife, but overall it will recover." According to the

text: Flow Rate Technical Group

text: , the Deepwater Horizon blowout amounted to about  of oil, exceeding the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: as the largest ever to originate in

text: U.S.-controlled waters

text: and the 1979

text: Ixtoc I oil spill

text: as the largest spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: The Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund is a trust fund managed by the federal government and financed by a per-barrel tax on crude oil produced domestically in the United States and on petroleum products imported to the United States for consumption. The fund was created in 1986, but use of the fund was not authorized until the Oil Pollution Act’s passage in 1990. The funds may be called upon to cover the cost of federal, tribal, state, and claimant oil spill removal actions and damage assessments as well as unpaid liability and damages claims. No more than one billion dollars may be withdrawn from the fund per spill incident. Over two decades of court cases have demonstrated that obtaining funding from the Oil Pollution Spill Liability Fund can be a difficult task.

text: Overpopulation and the ensuing overuse of scarce resources such as water put heavy pressure on the environment. The city suffers from air pollution caused by road dust and industry, with comparatively smaller contributions from unclean engines in transportation, especially diesel-powered city buses and trucks, and 2-wheelers and 3-wheelers with two-stroke engines. Noise pollution comes mainly from motorcycle and automobile traffic. Water pollution and a lack of solid waste treatment facilities have caused serious damage to the river on whose banks Delhi grew, the Yamuna. Besides human and environmental damage, pollution has caused economic damage as well; Delhi may have lost the competition to host the 2014 Asian Games because of its poor environment.

text: Overpopulation and the ensuing overuse of scarce resources such as water put heavy pressure on the environment. The city suffers from air pollution caused by road dust and industry, with comparatively smaller contributions from unclean engines in transportation, especially diesel-powered city buses and trucks, and 2-wheelers and 3-wheelers with two-stroke engines. Noise pollution comes mainly from motorcycle and automobile traffic. Water pollution and a lack of solid waste treatment facilities have caused serious damage to the river on whose banks Delhi grew, the

text: Yamuna

text: . Besides human and environmental damage, pollution has caused economic damage as well; Delhi may have lost the competition to host the

text: 2014 Asian Games

text: because of its poor environment.

text: Under the 1970 Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, the Canadian government established a document to prevent pollution of Canadian Arctic waters. However, in recent years Arctic waters have become increasingly polluted. It was recently found that due to pollution some waters have levels of lead that are higher than the Canadian guidelines.

text: Under the 1970

text: Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act

text: , the Canadian government established a document to prevent pollution of Canadian Arctic waters. However, in recent years Arctic waters have become increasingly polluted. It was recently found that due to pollution some waters have levels of lead that are higher than the Canadian guidelines.

text: The data shows that coastal and marine pollution originates from shoreline activities and is a local problem. Many companies and factories and also individuals are unawareness of the problem. More education are needed.

text: When they live in polluted waters, bivalve molluscs have a tendency to accumulate substances such as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants in their tissues. This is because they ingest the chemicals as they feed but their enzyme systems are not capable of metabolising them and as a result, the levels build up. This may be a health hazard for the molluscs themselves, and is one for humans who eat them. It also has certain advantages in that bivalves can be used in monitoring the presence and quantity of pollutants in their environment.

text: When they live in polluted waters, bivalve molluscs have a tendency to accumulate substances such as

text: heavy metals

text: and

text: persistent organic pollutants

text: in their tissues. This is because they ingest the chemicals as they feed but their enzyme systems are not capable of metabolising them and as a result, the levels build up. This may be a health hazard for the molluscs themselves, and is one for humans who eat them. It also has certain advantages in that bivalves can be used in

text: monitoring

text: the presence and quantity of pollutants in their environment.

text: Point Source pollution within the watershed is fairly well identified and regulated with few options to further reduce inputs outside investment in better technologies to remove contamination from water to be discharged into the system.  Because higher tech systems come at a higher cost it may be more effective for users to pay for removal of an equal or larger amount of nutrients from the system by installing natural storm water treatment features in urban and agricultural areas that will provide a better return on investment than trying the remove the last 5 mg/L of a nutrient out of wastewater discharge point.  Generally nutrients from waste water can be reduced to around 10 ppm using low tech solutions, in order to achieve lower concentrations to meet TMDL’s higher technology systems must be used.Water, 2016</ref>)

text: Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.

text: Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment. Crude oil contains

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs) which are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the

text: sediment

text: and marine environment. Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles.

text: As an example, the United States employs water quality standards as part of its regulation of surface water quality under the Clean Water Act. The Clean Water Act Water Quality Standards (WQS) Program begins with U.S. states designating intended uses (e.g., recreation, drinking water, natural habitat) for surface water, after which they develop science-based water quality criteria - including numeric pollutant concentration limits, narrative goals (e.g., free from algae blooms), and narrative biological criteria (i.e., the aquatic life that should be able to live in the waterbody). If the water body fails the existing WQS criteria, the state must develop a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for pollutants of concern. Human activity impacting water quality will then be controlled via other regulatory means in order to achieve the TMDL targets.

text: As an example, the United States employs water quality standards as part of its regulation of surface water quality under the

text: Clean Water Act

text: . The

text: Clean Water Act Water Quality Standards (WQS) Program

text: begins with U.S. states designating intended uses (e.g., recreation, drinking water, natural habitat) for surface water, after which they develop science-based water quality criteria - including numeric pollutant concentration limits, narrative goals (e.g., free from algae blooms), and narrative biological criteria (i.e., the aquatic life that should be able to live in the waterbody). If the water body fails the existing WQS criteria, the state must develop a

text: Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL)

text: for pollutants of concern. Human activity impacting water quality will then be controlled via other regulatory means in order to achieve the TMDL targets.

text: Pollutants entering surface waters during precipitation events is termed polluted runoff.  Daily human activities result in deposition of pollutants on roads, lawns, roofs, farm fields, etc.  When it rains or there is irrigation, water runs off and ultimately makes its way to a river, lake, or the ocean.  While there is some attenuation of these pollutants before entering the receiving waters, the quantity of human activity results in large enough quantities of pollutants to impair these receiving waters.

text: Pollutants entering surface waters during precipitation events is termed polluted runoff.  Daily human activities result in deposition of pollutants on

text: road

text: s,

text: lawn

text: s,

text: roof

text: s,

text: farm

text: fields, etc.  When it

text: rains

text: or there is

text: irrigation

text: water

text: runs off and ultimately makes its way to a

text: river

text: lake

text: , or the

text: ocean

text: .  While there is some

text: attenuation

text: of these pollutants before entering the receiving waters, the quantity of

text: human

text: activity results in large enough quantities of pollutants to impair these receiving waters.

text: In 1995, due to scientific research showing that mining had caused the pollution of groundwater, Utah passed laws to make Kennecott companies pay $37 million to control water pollution.

text: In 1995, due to scientific research showing that mining had caused the pollution of

text: groundwater

text: , Utah passed laws to make Kennecott companies pay $37 million to control

text: water pollution

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency has Cottus carolinae listed as intolerant to habitat destruction and intermediately intolerant to pollution. As a species that feeds and reproduces benthically, C. carolinae is more vulnerable to stream degradation that non-benthic species. Because of this pollution sensitive nature, the species is often used as an indicator of stream health. Studies have shown that populations of C. carolinae decrease in the presence of silts, pollution, and disturbance and it has been shown in the past that C. carolinae densities are negatively correlated with water metal concentrations. Though there is not a huge threat to the species from invasive species, excess trout introduction in some areas has reduced species numbers.

text: Soil washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States. Excess sediment causes high levels of turbidity in water bodies, which can inhibit growth of aquatic plants, clog fish gills and smother animal larvae.

text: Soil

text: washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the United States. Excess sediment causes high levels of

text: turbidity

text: in water bodies, which can inhibit growth of

text: aquatic plant

text: s, clog

text: fish

text: gill

text: s and smother animal

text: larva

text: e.

text: A point source of pollution is a single identifiable source of air, water, thermal, noise or light pollution. A point source has negligible extent, distinguishing it from other pollution source geometries. The sources are called point sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as a mathematical point to simplify analysis. Pollution point sources are identical to other physics, engineering, optics, and chemistry point sources and include:

text: A point source of pollution is a single identifiable source of

text: air

text: water

text: thermal

text: noise

text: or

text: light

text: pollution

text: . A

text: point source

text: has negligible extent, distinguishing it from other pollution source geometries. The sources are called point sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as a mathematical

text: point

text: to simplify analysis. Pollution point sources are identical to other

text: physics

text: engineering

text: optics

text: , and

text: chemistry

text: point sources and include:

text: In 1934, when the park was designated as the first national park in Japan, the area was much smaller than the area is now. Sixteen years later, it was extended to almost the same size as now in order to include other famous places in the area.  Also, the park is the biggest national park in Japan. In 1996, Itsukushima Shrine in the park which is located in Hiroshima prefecture was registered as a cultural site of world heritage by UNESCO. It is known as one of the three most scenic spots in Japan. But in the 1960’s and 70’s, which was a period of rapid economic growth in Japan, industrialization contaminated the environment. For example, bank protection works, pollution of the discharge from chemical works, and farm cultivation led to environmental deterioration. These changes had an influence on an ecosystem and water pollution. Recently, the water has been improved because of a high-performance sewage disposal.

text: Due to the sensitive ecology of the Baltic Sea, it has been agreed in the Helsinki Convention (HELCOM) that instead of using dispersants to dissolve the oil slicks, combatting the spills is based on mechanical recovery using oil booms to limit the spill and skimmers to collect the oil from the surface as quickly and completely as possible. For this purpose every Finnish pollution control vessel is equipped with permanently installed built-in recovery equipment and such systems have also been installed on several patrol vessels of the Finnish Border Guard. As the primary mission of the new vessel is pollution prevention, the ship has an extensive array of equipment capable of detecting and recovering spilled oil and chemicals in open water, high seas and ice conditions. Some of the equipment, such as an oil-detecting radar and a thermographic camera in the mast, are used for the first time in a Finnish oil recovery vessel. In addition the ship has a weather station and a wet laboratory capable of analyzing water samples automatically.

text: Due to the sensitive ecology of the Baltic Sea, it has been agreed in the

text: Helsinki Convention

text: (HELCOM) that instead of using

text: dispersants

text: to dissolve the oil slicks, combatting the spills is based on mechanical recovery using oil booms to limit the spill and skimmers to collect the oil from the surface as quickly and completely as possible. For this purpose every Finnish pollution control vessel is equipped with permanently installed built-in recovery equipment and such systems have also been installed on several patrol vessels of the

text: Finnish Border Guard

text: . As the primary mission of the new vessel is pollution prevention, the ship has an extensive array of equipment capable of detecting and recovering spilled oil and chemicals in open water, high seas and ice conditions. Some of the equipment, such as an oil-detecting radar and a

text: thermographic camera

text: in the mast, are used for the first time in a Finnish oil recovery vessel. In addition the ship has a weather station and a

text: wet laboratory

text: capable of analyzing water samples automatically.

text: The water pollution is relative low and mostly originates from the numerous plants and mines standing on the Lena, Yana and Anabar rivers. Their waste is contaminated with phenols (0.002–0.007 mg/L), copper (0.001–0.012 mg/L) and zinc (0.01–0.03 mg/L) and is continuously washed down the rivers into the sea. Another regular polluter is the coastal Urban-type settlement of Tiksi. Occasional petrol spills occurred due to navigation and petrol mining. Another major contaminant is associated with floating and sunken wood in the sea, due to decades of rafting activities. As a result, the phenol concentration in the Laptev Sea is the highest over the Arctic waters.

text: The water pollution is relative low and mostly originates from the numerous plants and mines standing on the Lena, Yana and Anabar rivers. Their waste is contaminated with phenols (0.002–0.007 mg/L), copper (0.001–0.012 mg/L) and zinc (0.01–0.03 mg/L) and is continuously washed down the rivers into the sea. Another regular polluter is the coastal

text: Urban-type settlement

text: of Tiksi. Occasional petrol spills occurred due to navigation and petrol mining. Another major contaminant is associated with floating and sunken wood in the sea, due to decades of rafting activities. As a result, the phenol concentration in the Laptev Sea is the highest over the Arctic waters.

text: The Lower Saxony water quality report of 2004 assessed chemical water pollution of the Ise as variable. The values for organic pollution, nitrate, ammonium and phosphate contamination varied from lightly polluted to critically polluted. At the Jägerhof, a popular destination for day trippers, on the B 188 near Gifhorn there has been a testing station since 1967 where water quality is measured. The White-stem Pondweed, a species of plant that is in danger of becoming extinct in Lower Saxony, grows very luxuriantly in this particular area.

text: The Lower Saxony

text: water quality report

text: of 2004 assessed chemical

text: water pollution

text: of the Ise as variable. The values for organic pollution, nitrate, ammonium and phosphate contamination varied from lightly polluted to critically polluted. At the Jägerhof, a popular destination for day trippers, on the

text: B 188

text: near Gifhorn there has been a testing station since 1967 where water quality is measured. The

text: White-stem Pondweed

text: , a species of plant that is in danger of becoming extinct in Lower Saxony, grows very luxuriantly in this particular area.

text: A number of policies have been developed that are intended to inform regulators and private citizens as to how NPS effluent can be better controlled. One example is with the CZMA mentioned earlier, the EPA is required to provide states with a listing of best management practices (BMPs) for controlling NPS coastal pollution. BMPs are state-of-the-art methods to treat NPS pollution. There is no shortage of BMPs to reduce NPS pollution. For agriculture, examples of BMPs include: conservation easements, cover crops, drainage management, grid sampling, manure injection, manure staging, reduced tillage practices, rotational grazing, and two stage ditches.  Additional examples are offered in the nonpoint source pollution page. The obvious problem with educational and informational tools, however, is there is no guarantee they will be implemented.

text: A number of policies have been developed that are intended to inform regulators and private citizens as to how NPS effluent can be better controlled. One example is with the CZMA mentioned earlier, the EPA is required to provide states with a listing of best management practices (BMPs) for controlling NPS coastal pollution. BMPs are state-of-the-art methods to treat NPS pollution. There is no shortage of BMPs to reduce NPS pollution. For agriculture, examples of BMPs include:

text: conservation easement

text: s,

text: cover crop

text: s, drainage management, grid sampling, manure injection, manure staging, reduced tillage practices, rotational grazing, and two stage ditches.  Additional examples are offered in the

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: page. The obvious problem with educational and informational tools, however, is there is no guarantee they will be implemented.

text: Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are  directly or indirectly discharged  into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.

text: Water pollution is the contamination of

text: water

text: bodies (e.g.

text: lake

text: s,

text: river

text: s,

text: ocean

text: s,

text: aquifer

text: s and

text: groundwater

text: ). This form of

text: environmental degradation

text: occurs when

text: pollutant

text: s are  directly or indirectly discharged  into water bodies without adequate

text: treatment

text: to remove harmful compounds.

text: Offshore oil production involves environmental risks, most notably oil spills from oil tankers or pipelines transporting oil from the platform to onshore facilities, and from leaks and accidents on the platform. Produced water is also generated, which is water brought to the surface along with the oil and gas; it is usually highly saline and may include dissolved or unseparated hydrocarbons.

text: Offshore oil production involves environmental risks, most notably

text: oil spill

text: s from oil tankers or pipelines transporting oil from the platform to onshore facilities, and from leaks and accidents on the platform.

text: Produced water

text: is also generated, which is water brought to the surface along with the oil and gas; it is usually highly saline and may include dissolved or unseparated hydrocarbons.

text: In the decades to follow, several other laws that dealt with oil spill liability and compensation were passed. These statues include: the Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972, the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act of 1973, the Deep Water Port Act of 1974, the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1978, and the Alaska Oil Spill Commission of 1990. However, this fragmented collection of federal and state laws provided only limited safeguards against the hazards of oils spills. In 1976, a bill to create a cohesive safe measure for oil pollution was introduced to Congress. Neither the House of Representatives nor the Senate could agree on a single statue and the bill fell out of consideration numerous times.

text: In the decades to follow, several other laws that dealt with oil spill liability and compensation were passed. These statues include: the Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972, the

text: Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act of 1973

text: , the Deep Water Port Act of 1974, the

text: Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

text: of 1978, and the Alaska Oil Spill Commission of 1990. However, this fragmented collection of federal and state laws provided only limited safeguards against the hazards of oils spills. In 1976, a bill to create a cohesive safe measure for oil pollution was introduced to Congress. Neither the

text: House of Representatives

text: nor the

text: Senate

text: could agree on a single statue and the bill fell out of consideration numerous times.

text: Due to high levels of pollution, including 125 MLD of untreated sewerage water being discharged into the river by the Pune Municipal Corporation, the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board has classified the water quality to be of Class-IV.

text: Pune Municipal Corporation

text: , the

text: Maharashtra Pollution Control Board

text: has classified the water quality to be of Class-IV.

text: Water resources management in El Salvador is characterized by difficulties in addressing severe water pollution throughout much of the country's surface waters due to untreated discharges of agricultural, domestic and industrial run off. The river that drains the capital city of San Salvador is considered to be polluted beyond the capability of most treatment procedures.

text: Water resources management in

text: El Salvador

text: is characterized by difficulties in addressing severe water pollution throughout much of the country's surface waters due to untreated discharges of agricultural, domestic and industrial run off. The river that drains the capital city of

text: San Salvador

text: is considered to be polluted beyond the capability of most treatment procedures.

text: In addition to air pollution problems, a 2007 study finds that discharge of untreated sewage is single most important cause for pollution of surface and ground water in India. There is a large gap between generation and treatment of domestic wastewater in India. The problem is not only that India lacks sufficient treatment capacity but also that the sewage treatment plants that exist do not operate and are not maintained. Majority of the government-owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of the time in part because of the lack of reliable electricity supply to operate the plants. The wastewater generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or evaporates. The uncollected wastes accumulate in the urban areas cause unhygienic conditions, release heavy metals and pollutants that leaches to surface and groundwater. Almost all rivers, lakes and water bodies are severely polluted in India. Water pollution also adversely impacts river, wetland and ocean life. Reliable generation and supply of electricity is essential for addressing India's water pollution and associated environmental issues.

text: The Source Water Protection Program includes partnerships that traverse city boundaries.]] -->Philadelphia Water began its Source Water Protection Program in 1999 when the Office of Watersheds was created. The Delaware and Schuylkill rivers each make up about half of the Philadelphia area's drinking water supply, and Philadelphia Water delivers about 250 million gallons of this drinking water to customers on a daily basis through its treatment plants. This program implements the monitoring of these rivers' water quality conditions, major sources of contamination, and flow patterns. Philadelphia lists climate change, forest clearing and development, stormwater runoff, agricultural runoff, spills and accidents, treated wastewater effluent, pharmaceuticals, pollution from geese and wildlife, and improper disposal of waste and trash as the program's primary concerns related to maintaining high quality drinking water.

text: The Source Water Protection Program includes partnerships that traverse city boundaries.]] -->Philadelphia Water began its

entity_name: Grassroots Source Water Protection Program

text: Source Water Protection Program

text: in 1999 when the Office of Watersheds was created. The

text: Delaware

text: and

text: Schuylkill rivers

text: each make up about half of the Philadelphia area's drinking water supply, and Philadelphia Water delivers about 250 million gallons of this drinking water to customers on a daily basis through its

text: treatment plant

text: s. This program implements the monitoring of these rivers'

text: water quality

text: conditions, major sources of

text: contamination

text: , and flow patterns. Philadelphia lists

text: climate change

text: forest clearing

text: and development,

text: stormwater runoff

text: agricultural runoff

text: , spills and accidents, treated wastewater

text: effluent

text: pharmaceuticals

text: , pollution from geese and wildlife, and improper disposal of waste and trash as the program's primary concerns related to maintaining high quality drinking water.

text: Primary sources for TDS in receiving waters are agricultural and residential runoff, clay rich mountain waters, leaching of soil contamination and point source water pollution discharge from industrial or sewage treatment plants. The most common chemical constituents are calcium, phosphates, nitrates, sodium, potassium and chloride, which are found in nutrient runoff, general stormwater runoff and runoff from snowy climates where road de-icing salts are applied. The chemicals may be cations, anions, molecules or agglomerations on the order of one thousand or fewer molecules, so long as a soluble micro-granule is formed. More exotic and harmful elements of TDS are pesticides arising from surface runoff. Certain naturally occurring total dissolved solids arise from the weathering and dissolution of rocks and soils. The United States has established a secondary water quality standard of 500 mg/l to provide for palatability of drinking water.

text: Primary sources for TDS in receiving waters are

text: agricultural

text: and residential runoff, clay rich mountain waters, leaching of

text: soil contamination

text: and

text: point source

text: water pollution

text: discharge from industrial or

text: sewage treatment

text: plants. The most common chemical constituents are

text: calcium

text: phosphate

text: s,

text: nitrate

text: s,

text: sodium

text: potassium

text: and

text: chloride

text: , which are found in

text: nutrient

text: runoff, general

text: stormwater

text: runoff and runoff from snowy climates where road

text: de-icing

text: salts are applied. The chemicals may be

text: cation

text: s,

text: anion

text: s,

text: molecule

text: s or agglomerations on the order of one thousand or fewer molecules, so long as a soluble micro-

text: granule

text: is formed. More exotic and harmful elements of TDS are

text: pesticide

text: s arising from

text: surface runoff

text: . Certain naturally occurring total dissolved solids arise from the weathering and dissolution of rocks and soils. The United States has established a secondary water quality standard of 500 mg/l to provide for palatability of drinking water.

text: Although widely employed, the scientific community is still unsure of the physical phenomena underpinning biofilter operation, and information about the microorganisms involved continues to be developed. A biofilter/bio-oxidation system is a fairly simple device to construct and operate and offers a cost-effective solution provided the pollutant is biodegradable within a moderate time frame (increasing residence time = increased size and capital costs), at reasonable concentrations (and lb/hr loading rates) and that the airstream is at an organism-viable temperature.  For large volumes of air, a biofilter may be the only cost-effective solution. There is no secondary pollution (unlike the case of incineration where additional CO and NO are produced from burning fuels) and degradation products form additional biomass, carbon dioxide and water. Media irrigation water, although many systems recycle part of it to reduce operating costs, has a moderately high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and may require treatment before disposal. However, this "blowdown water", necessary for proper maintenance of any bio-oxidation system, is generally accepted by municipal publicly owned treatment works without any pretreatment.

text: Although widely employed, the scientific community is still unsure of the physical phenomena underpinning biofilter operation, and information about the microorganisms involved continues to be developed. A biofilter/bio-oxidation system is a fairly simple device to construct and operate and offers a cost-effective solution provided the pollutant is biodegradable within a moderate time frame (increasing residence time = increased size and capital costs), at reasonable concentrations (and lb/hr loading rates) and that the airstream is at an organism-viable temperature.  For large volumes of air, a biofilter may be the only cost-effective solution. There is no secondary pollution (unlike the case of

text: incineration

text: where additional CO and NO are produced from burning fuels) and degradation products form additional biomass, carbon dioxide and water. Media irrigation water, although many systems recycle part of it to reduce operating costs, has a moderately high

text: biochemical oxygen demand

text: (BOD) and may require treatment before disposal. However, this "blowdown water", necessary for proper maintenance of any bio-oxidation system, is generally accepted by municipal

text: publicly owned treatment works

text: without any pretreatment.

text: Beginning in the 19th century, with increasing mining and agriculture upstream and urban sewage and runoff downstream, the water quality of the Potomac River deteriorated. This created conditions of severe eutrophication. It is said that President Abraham Lincoln used to escape to the highlands on summer nights to escape the river's stench. In the 1960s, with dense green algal blooms covering the river's surface, President Lyndon Johnson declared the river "a national disgrace" and set in motion a long-term effort to reduce pollution from sewage and restore the beauty and ecology of this historic river. One of significant pollution control projects at the time was the expansion of the Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant, which serves Washington and several surrounding communities. Enactment of the 1972 Clean Water Act led to construction or expansion of additional sewage treatment plants in the Potomac watershed. Controls on phosphorus, one of the principal contributors to eutrophication, were implemented in the 1980s, through sewage plant upgrades and restrictions on phosphorus in detergents.

text: Beginning in the 19th century, with increasing

text: mining

text: and

text: agriculture

text: upstream and urban

text: sewage

text: and

text: runoff

text: downstream, the

text: water quality

text: of the Potomac River deteriorated. This created conditions of severe

text: eutrophication

text: . It is said that President

text: Abraham Lincoln

text: used to escape to the highlands on summer nights to escape the river's stench. In the 1960s, with dense green

text: algal

text: blooms covering the river's surface, President

text: Lyndon Johnson

text: declared the river "a national disgrace" and set in motion a long-term effort to reduce

text: pollution

text: from

text: sewage

text: and restore the beauty and ecology of this historic river. One of significant pollution control projects at the time was the expansion of the

entity_name: Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant

text: Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant

text: , which serves Washington and several surrounding communities. Enactment of the 1972

text: Clean Water Act

text: led to construction or expansion of additional

text: sewage treatment

text: plants in the Potomac watershed. Controls on

text: phosphorus

text: , one of the principal contributors to eutrophication, were implemented in the 1980s, through sewage plant upgrades and restrictions on phosphorus in detergents.

text: Threats to this species include pollution via runoff of fertilizers, pesticides, oil, and other materials. Sediment and silt degrade the habitat. Hurricane Katrina impacted the local area, washing pollutants and salt water into the river. The release of dioxin into the Pascagoula system has been mitigated, but dioxin embedded in the substrate may be stirred up at times, entering the water. Riverside urbanization may lead to organic wastes being released into the water. Sand and gravel mining occur in the river system and destabilize the substrate. Habitat destruction has led to the species' populations being split and isolated, creating a disjunct distribution. This split makes it more likely that populations will become extirpated.

text: Threats to this species include

text: pollution

text: via runoff of fertilizers, pesticides, oil, and other materials. Sediment and silt degrade the habitat.

text: Hurricane Katrina

text: impacted the local area, washing pollutants and salt water into the river. The release of

text: dioxin

text: into the Pascagoula system has been mitigated, but dioxin embedded in the substrate may be stirred up at times, entering the water. Riverside

text: urbanization

text: may lead to organic wastes being released into the water. Sand and gravel mining occur in the river system and destabilize the substrate. Habitat destruction has led to the species' populations being split and isolated, creating a

text: disjunct distribution

text: . This split makes it more likely that populations will become extirpated.

text: The principal environmental issues associated with runoff are the impacts to surface water, groundwater and soil through transport of water pollutants to these systems. Ultimately these consequences translate into human health risk, ecosystem disturbance and aesthetic impact to water resources. Some of the contaminants that create the greatest impact to surface waters arising from runoff are petroleum substances, herbicides and fertilizers. Quantitative uptake by surface runoff of pesticides and other contaminants has been studied since the 1960s, and early on contact of pesticides with water was known to enhance phytotoxicity.  In the case of surface waters, the impacts translate to water pollution, since the streams and rivers have received runoff carrying various chemicals or sediments. When surface waters are used as potable water supplies, they can be compromised regarding health risks and drinking water aesthetics (that is, odor, color and turbidity effects). Contaminated surface waters risk altering the metabolic processes of the aquatic species that they host; these alterations can lead to death, such as fish kills, or alter the balance of populations present. Other specific impacts are on animal mating, spawning, egg and larvae viability, juvenile survival and plant productivity.  Some researches show surface runoff of pesticides, such as DDT, can alter the gender of fish species genetically, which transforms male into female fish.

text: The principal environmental issues associated with runoff are the impacts to surface water,

text: groundwater

text: and

text: soil

text: through transport of water pollutants to these systems. Ultimately these consequences translate into human health risk, ecosystem disturbance and aesthetic impact to water resources. Some of the contaminants that create the greatest impact to surface waters arising from runoff are

text: petroleum

text: substances,

text: herbicide

text: s and

text: fertilizer

text: s. Quantitative uptake by surface runoff of pesticides and other contaminants has been studied since the 1960s, and early on contact of pesticides with water was known to enhance

text: phytotoxicity

text: .  In the case of surface waters, the impacts translate to

text: water pollution

text: , since the streams and rivers have received runoff carrying various chemicals or sediments. When surface waters are used as

text: potable water

text: supplies, they can be compromised regarding

text: health risks

text: and drinking water

text: aesthetics

text: (that is, odor, color and

text: turbidity

text: effects). Contaminated surface waters risk altering the metabolic processes of the aquatic

text: species

text: that they host; these alterations can lead to death, such as

text: fish kill

text: s, or alter the balance of populations present. Other specific impacts are on animal mating, spawning,

text: egg

text: and

text: larva

text: e viability, juvenile survival and plant productivity.  Some researches show surface runoff of pesticides, such as

text: DDT

text: , can alter the gender of fish species genetically, which transforms male into female fish.

text: When AMSA, now NACWA, members learned that President Nixon was planning to veto the bill, the Association sent him a telegram urging him to sign it.  Although the President did veto the bill, Congress overrode the veto and the Clean Water Act was enacted.  The legislation created programs to help municipalities clean up local waters. Shortly after passage, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created. From that point on, EPA and NACWA worked together to clean up water pollution in the Nation’s cities. By that time, NACWA "had become an organization consulted by members of the federal government concerned with water pollution".

text: On March 24, 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker struck Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound, spilling an estimated 260,000 to 750,000 barrels of crude oil. The Exxon Valdez oil spill was a major environmental disaster for the state. Governor Steve Cowper, who held office at the time of the spill, appointed Walter Parker as the chairman of the Alaska Oil Spill Commission in 1989. The Alaska Oil Spill Commission was created by the Alaska state government to investigate the causes of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Under Parker, the Commission issued 52 recommendations to improve national, state and oil industry policies in the wake of the Exxon Valdez disaster. One the recommendations called for a creation of a citizen committee to oversee the oil industry in the Prince William Sound, which led to the formation of the Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council. The United States Congress adopted 50 of the Committee's 52 recommendations into the Oil Pollution Act of 1990.

text: On March 24, 1989, the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: oil tanker struck

text: Bligh Reef

text: in

text: Prince William Sound

text: , spilling an estimated 260,000 to 750,000 barrels of

text: crude oil

text: . The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: was a major

text: environmental disaster

text: for the state. Governor

text: Steve Cowper

text: , who held office at the time of the spill, appointed Walter Parker as the chairman of the

text: Alaska Oil Spill Commission

text: in 1989. The Alaska Oil Spill Commission was created by the Alaska state government to investigate the causes of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Under Parker, the Commission issued 52 recommendations to improve national, state and oil industry policies in the wake of the Exxon Valdez disaster. One the recommendations called for a creation of a citizen committee to oversee the oil industry in the Prince William Sound, which led to the formation of the

entity_name: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council

text: Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council

text: . The United States Congress adopted 50 of the Committee's 52 recommendations into the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million gallons of oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.

text: In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million gallons of oil into the

text: Mississippi

text: and

text: Minnesota River

text: s. The oil covered the Mississippi River from

text: St. Paul

text: to

text: Lake Pepin

text: , creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.

text: Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the world the influence can be traced one hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter-feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River, but  south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to the coriolis force. Further south are areas of oxygen depletion caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a cumulative concentration of pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT. This is known as bio-magnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bio-accumulation.

text: Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the world the influence can be traced one hundred miles from the mouth by studies using

text: hydrology transport model

text: s. Advanced

text: computer model

text: s such as

text: SWMM

text: or the

text: DSSAM Model

text: have been used in many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator

text: filter-feeding

text: species such as

text: copepods

text: have also been used to study pollutant fates in the

text: New York Bight

text: , for example. The highest

text: toxin

text: loads are not directly at the mouth of the

text: Hudson River

text: , but  south, since several days are required for incorporation into

text: plankton

text: ic tissue. The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to the

text: coriolis force

text: . Further south are areas of

text: oxygen depletion

text: caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by

text: algae bloom

text: s, caused by excess

text: nutrient

text: s from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and

text: shellfish

text: kills have been reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume

text: copepods

text: , then large fish eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a cumulative concentration of pollutants such as

text: heavy metals

text: (e.g.

text: mercury

text: ) and

text: persistent organic pollutants

text: such as

text: DDT

text: . This is known as bio-magnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with bio-accumulation.

text: Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of reservoirs into warmer rivers.

text: Inland mining for copper, gold. etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of the pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some minerals discharged in the course of the mining can cause problems, such as copper, a common industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps. Mining has a poor environmental track record. For example, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over 40% of watersheds in the western continental US. Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.

text: Inland

text: mining

text: for copper, gold. etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of the pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some minerals discharged in the course of the mining can cause problems, such as

text: copper

text: , a common industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the

text: life history

text: and development of coral polyps. Mining has a poor environmental track record. For example, according to the

text: , mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over 40% of watersheds in the western continental US. Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.

text: The nine semi-autonomous Regional Water Boards were created in 1949 by the Dickey Water Pollution Act and have been responsible for protecting the surface, ground and coastal waters of their regions since then.

text: Environment - current issues: soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters; Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable water

text: Environment - current issues:

text: soil erosion

text: from overgrazing and other poor farming practices;

text: desertification

text: ; dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters; Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable water

text: The pressures associated with diffuse pollution are important throughout the basin due to the high density of both agricultural lands and livestock farming occurring in certain areas in the basin. Livestock farming includes pig farms and poultry, with the dung spread directly to the land. Another main issue concerning diffuse pollution is the existence of several mines throughout the basin. Although some of them have direct discharges in water courses, the metals contained in the soils extracted can also reach surface waters through runoff. Finally, the disposal of solid wastes and wastes from agricultural activity in the river banks is another pressure that significantly contributes to the organic pollution of the water.

text: In 2014, County Executive Bellone announced that improving the region’s water quality would be his administration’s top priority, and launched the “Reclaim Our Water “ initiative – a comprehensive plan to improve Suffolk County’s water quality and eradicate nitrogen pollution.Failing and unmaintained septic systems and cesspools have created an excess amount of nitrogen pollution in the region’s water supply, becoming a serious threat to Long Island’s water quality, wildlife, quality of life; and has already decimated the once iconic shellfish industry.  Nitrogen poisoning has additionally destroyed the region’s coastal vegetation, which acts as a natural habitat for marine and aviary life as well as a natural buffer against devastating storm surges as seen during Superstorm Sandy.The County has identified 360,000 unsewered homes that contribute to nearly 70% of the nitrogen pollution load, and has developed an actionable, long term plan to sewer targeted areas, fortify existing waste water infrastructure, and bring advanced on-site waste water treatment systems to residential properties that are contributing most to the nitrification of waters.To date, Bellone has worked extensively with state and federal officials to secure a historic investment of more than $380 million and is seeking further funding to help reduce excess nitrogen pollution, invest in wastewater infrastructure and help to protect coastal vegetation and marshlands.

text: In 2014, County Executive Bellone announced that improving the region’s water quality would be his administration’s top priority, and launched the “Reclaim Our Water “ initiative – a comprehensive plan to improve Suffolk County’s water quality and eradicate

text: nitrogen pollution

text: .Failing and unmaintained septic systems and cesspools have created an excess amount of nitrogen pollution in the region’s water supply, becoming a serious threat to Long Island’s water quality, wildlife, quality of life; and has already decimated the once iconic shellfish industry.  Nitrogen poisoning has additionally destroyed the region’s coastal vegetation, which acts as a natural habitat for marine and aviary life as well as a natural buffer against devastating storm surges as seen during

text: Superstorm Sandy

text: .The County has identified 360,000 unsewered homes that contribute to nearly 70% of the nitrogen pollution load, and has developed an actionable, long term plan to sewer targeted areas, fortify existing waste water infrastructure, and bring advanced on-site waste water treatment systems to residential properties that are contributing most to the nitrification of waters.To date, Bellone has worked extensively with state and federal officials to secure a historic investment of more than $380 million and is seeking further funding to help reduce excess nitrogen pollution, invest in wastewater infrastructure and help to protect coastal vegetation and marshlands.

text: Pollution from human activity, including oil spills and also presents a problem for freshwater resources.  The largest petroleum spill that has ever occurred in fresh water was caused by a Royal Dutch Shell tank ship in Magdalena, Argentina, on 15 January 1999, polluting the environment, drinkable water, plants and animals.

text: Pollution from human activity, including oil spills and also presents a problem for freshwater resources.  The largest

text: petroleum

text: spill that has ever occurred in fresh water was caused by a

text: Royal Dutch Shell

text: tank ship in Magdalena,

text: Argentina

text: , on 15 January 1999, polluting the environment, drinkable water, plants and animals.

text: Water pollution is defined by the Federal Clean Water Act as "dredge spoil, solid waste, incinerator residue, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt, and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water."  More generally, pollution  is defined as the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change.

text: Water pollution is defined by the Federal

text: Clean Water Act

text: as "dredge spoil, solid waste, incinerator residue, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt, and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water."  More generally, pollution  is defined as the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change.

text: As with many Southern California rivers, the Santa Ana is heavily polluted and used. The main stem above Seven Oaks Dam is free-flowing, as are many of its upper tributaries. Once the river enters the Inland Empire basin, however, much of its flow is diverted for municipal and agricultural water use. Most of the flow in the river below the city of San Bernardino consists of effluent from 45 wastewater treatment plants and dry season urban runoff, which is collected behind Prado Dam. Any flow that makes it downstream to Orange County is diverted by another pair of dams into approximately  of groundwater recharge basins, providing approximately  of municipal water for the county every year, or one-third of its water supply. Downstream of that dam, the river gathers further urban runoff before finally making it into the Pacific. The Santa Ana River is included on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) list of "304 (l) 'toxic hot spots' list of impaired waterways".

text: As with many Southern California rivers, the Santa Ana is heavily polluted and used. The main stem above

text: Seven Oaks Dam

text: is free-flowing, as are many of its upper tributaries. Once the river enters the Inland Empire basin, however, much of its flow is diverted for

text: municipal

text: and

text: agricultural

text: water use. Most of the flow in the river below the city of San Bernardino consists of effluent from 45

text: wastewater treatment plants

text: and dry season

text: urban runoff

text: , which is collected behind

text: Prado Dam

text: . Any flow that makes it downstream to Orange County is diverted by another pair of dams into approximately  of

text: groundwater

text: recharge basins, providing approximately  of municipal water for the county every year, or one-third of its water supply. Downstream of that dam, the river gathers further urban runoff before finally making it into the Pacific. The Santa Ana River is included on the

text: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

text: 's (EPA) list of "304 (l) 'toxic hot spots' list of impaired waterways".

text: Oceanside Clean Water Program is set-up to improve the water quality in their local creeks, rivers and oceans and to keep in accordance with the state and regional environmental regulations. The program focuses on education the community, specifically the developers, residents, industrial and commercial companies and the academia about pollution and how they can prevent it from happening. They monitor the water quality, inspect construction sites and perform educational outreaches to their community because they are susceptible to stormwater pollution being a coastal community.

text: As the climate warms, it changes the nature of global rainfall, evaporation, snow, stream flow and other factors that affect water supply and quality. Freshwater resources are highly sensitive to variations in weather and climate. Climate change is projected to affect water availability.  In areas where the amount of water in rivers and streams depends on snow melting, warmer temperatures increase the fraction of precipitation falling as rain rather than as snow, causing the annual spring peak in water runoff to occur earlier in the year. This can lead to an increased likelihood of winter flooding and reduced late summer river flows. Rising sea levels cause saltwater to enter into fresh underground water and freshwater streams. This reduces the amount of freshwater available for drinking and farming. Warmer water temperatures also affect water quality and accelerate water pollution.

text: As the climate warms, it changes the nature of global rainfall, evaporation, snow, stream flow and other factors that affect water supply and quality.

text: Freshwater

text: resources are highly sensitive to variations in weather and climate. Climate change is projected to affect water availability.  In areas where the amount of water in rivers and streams depends on snow melting, warmer temperatures increase the fraction of precipitation falling as rain rather than as snow, causing the annual spring peak in water runoff to occur earlier in the year. This can lead to an increased likelihood of winter

text: flood

text: ing and reduced late summer river flows. Rising sea levels cause saltwater to enter into fresh

text: underground water

text: and freshwater streams. This reduces the amount of freshwater available for drinking and farming. Warmer water temperatures also affect water quality and accelerate

text: water pollution

text: Pristina City has limited quantities of surface and groundwater, which are mainly distributed in the peripheral areas. A small fraction of the available water is found as underground water, such as that in "Pajtimi" field that amounts to 50 liters / sec and "Germia" source that amounts to     15 liters /sec.  Watercourses are scarce. There are small rivers in the urban area, such as Pristina and Vellusha Rivers that collect the water flows of faux pas coming from Lagjia e Spitalit, Mati, Kodra e Trimave, and Shkabaj.Vellusha and Pristina Rivers serve to collect rainwater from all urban areas of Pristina. The main drinking water sources remain Batllava and Badovc Lakes. Batllava Lake – it has a capacity of 38 million m³ of water and supplies the town of Pristina with 65% of drinking water. Batllava represents the main source of drinking water for the municipality of Pristina. It was built in 1960-1963; initially it worked only for technical water supply to the energy complex in Obilic. From 1982 it turned into water resource for drinking water for the Pristina region. Recently, the water treatment plant in Shajkovc was built, which has a maximum capacity of 900 liters/sec. Badovci Lake- has a volume of 27 million m³ and supplies the town of Pristina with 35% of drinking water. It was initially built in 1960 for the supply of drinking water, irrigation, and technical water for Kishnica mine. From1980 this lake is mainly used for drinking water purposes for Pristina region. The water treatment plant has been built in Badovc, which has a maximum capacity 400l/sec.Those two lakes are the main source of water in Pristine. They both supply around 90% of population in Pristina region with drinking water. However, the distribution power has many problems. Most of the pipes used are older than 50 years, which lose around 50% of available water; 35% are technical losses, while 15% are commercial losses.  As a result there are reductions on available water to citizens, with 8-10 hours/day water cuts to each household. Another problem is the water contamination. There is no urban water monitoring in Kosovo. There are only some small regional, water companies that do not have large competencies on water monitoring. Wastewater discharges remain the main pollutants of water in Pristina. Those wastes are dangerous because they contain substances such as soluble compounds of phosphorus, dissolved oxygen, pathogenic bacteria and viruses, nitrogen (eutrophication), and other matters that affect the water quality.   Main carrier of underground waters pollution is Prishtevka River, which at the same time is the main carrier of sewage and rainwater.

text: The biggest obstacle to the widespread adoption of WQT markets is lack of supply and demand. In fact, studies of current water quality trading programs indicate that the typical problems associated with inhibition of water quality trading, such as high transaction costs, poor institutional infrastructure, and uncertain criteria, are being overcome. The main problem is that, under existing regulatory conditions, there are simply not enough willing buyers and sellers. Currently, most nonpoint sources of water pollution are unregulated or, assuming detection occurs, have relatively small consequences for violations. Consequently, nonpoint sources do not have incentive to participate in WQT. For WQT markets to be successful, greater demand is needed for pollution credits. For this to happen, water quality standards need to be clear and enforceable.

text: The biggest obstacle to the widespread adoption of WQT markets is lack of

text: supply and demand

text: . In fact, studies of current water quality trading programs indicate that the typical problems associated with inhibition of water quality trading, such as high

text: transaction costs

text: , poor institutional infrastructure, and uncertain criteria, are being overcome. The main problem is that, under existing regulatory conditions, there are simply not enough willing buyers and sellers. Currently, most nonpoint sources of water pollution are unregulated or, assuming detection occurs, have relatively small consequences for violations. Consequently, nonpoint sources do not have incentive to participate in WQT. For WQT markets to be successful, greater demand is needed for pollution credits. For this to happen, water quality standards need to be clear and enforceable.

text: Air pollution (sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal is a major issue, along with water pollution from untreated wastes and use of debated standards of pollutant concentration rather than Total Maximum Daily Load. There are water shortages, particularly in the north. The eastern part of China often experiences smoke and dense fog in the atmosphere as a result of industrial pollution. Heavy deforestation with an estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development is occurring with resulting desertification. China is a party to the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, the Antarctic Treaty, the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Climate Change treaty, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, the Endangered Species treaty, the Hazardous Wastes treaty, the Law of the Sea, the International Tropical Timber Agreements of 1983 and 1994, the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, and agreements on Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, and Wetlands protection. China has signed, but not ratified the Kyoto Protocol (but is not yet required to reduce its carbon emission under the agreement, as is India), and the Nuclear Test Ban treaty.

text: Air pollution

text: sulfur dioxide

text: particulates) from reliance on

text: coal

text: is a major issue, along with

text: water pollution

text: from untreated wastes and use of debated standards of pollutant concentration rather than

text: Total Maximum Daily Load

text: . There are water shortages, particularly in the north. The eastern part of China often experiences smoke and dense fog in the atmosphere as a result of industrial pollution. Heavy

text: deforestation

text: with an estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to

text: soil erosion

text: and economic development is occurring with resulting

text: desertification

text: . China is a party to the

text: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol

text: , the

text: Antarctic Treaty

text: , the

text: Convention on Biological Diversity

text: , the

text: Climate Change

text: treaty, the

entity_name: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

text: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

text: , the

text: Endangered Species

text: treaty, the Hazardous Wastes treaty, the

text: Law of the Sea

text: , the International Tropical Timber Agreements of

entity_name: International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983

text: and

entity_name: International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994

text: , the

entity_name: International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

text: International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

text: , and agreements on Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection,

text: Ship Pollution

text: , and Wetlands protection. China has signed, but not ratified the

text: Kyoto Protocol

text: (but is not yet required to reduce its carbon emission under the agreement, as is India), and the

text: Nuclear Test Ban

text: treaty.

text: Most pristine rivers will have a 5-day carbonaceous BOD below 1 mg/L. Moderately polluted rivers may have a BOD value in the range of 2 to 8 mg/L. Rivers may be considered severely polluted when BOD values exceed 8 mg/L. Municipal sewage that is efficiently treated by a three-stage process would have a value of about 20 mg/L or less. Untreated sewage varies, but averages around 600 mg/L in Europe and as low as 200 mg/L in the U.S., or where there is severe groundwater or surface water Infiltration/Inflow. The generally lower values in the U.S. derive from the much greater water use per capita than in other parts of the world.

text: Most pristine rivers will have a 5-day carbonaceous BOD below 1 mg/L. Moderately

text: polluted

text: rivers may have a BOD value in the range of 2 to 8 mg/L. Rivers may be considered severely polluted when BOD values exceed 8 mg/L. Municipal

text: sewage

text: that is efficiently treated by a

text: three-stage process

text: would have a value of about 20 mg/L or less. Untreated sewage varies, but averages around 600 mg/L in

text: Europe

text: and as low as 200 mg/L in the U.S., or where there is severe

text: groundwater

text: or

text: surface water

text: Infiltration/Inflow

text: . The generally lower values in the U.S. derive from the much greater water use per capita than in other parts of the world.

text: Other causes of a UHI are due to geometric effects. The tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated. This is called the "urban canyon effect". Another effect of buildings is the blocking of wind, which also inhibits cooling by convection and prevents pollution from dissipating. Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning, industry, and other sources also contributes to the UHI.  High levels of pollution in urban areas can also increase the UHI, as many forms of pollution change the radiative properties of the atmosphere. As UHI raises the temperature of cities, it also increases the concentration of ozone, a greenhouse gas whose production accelerates with an increase in temperature.

text: Other causes of a UHI are due to geometric effects. The tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated. This is called the "

text: urban canyon effect

text: ". Another effect of buildings is the blocking of wind, which also inhibits cooling by

text: convection

text: and prevents pollution from dissipating. Waste heat from automobiles, air conditioning, industry, and other sources also contributes to the UHI.  High levels of pollution in urban areas can also increase the UHI, as many forms of pollution change the radiative properties of the atmosphere. As UHI raises the temperature of cities, it also increases the concentration of ozone, a greenhouse gas whose production accelerates with an increase in temperature.

text: The PCSOPEP (Panama Canal Ship Oil Pollution Emergency plan), which became effective 1 January 2005. Under these regulations,vessels present a plan for Canal waters and pay tariffs for the availability of personnel and equipment for oil spill response. In return, the ACP (Panama Canal Authority) acts as the sole Oil Spill Response Organization (OSRO) for vessels in transit or awaiting transit of the Panama Canal.

text: A rain garden is a planted depression or a hole that allows rainwater runoff from impervious urban areas, like roofs, driveways, walkways, parking lots, and compacted lawn areas, the opportunity to be absorbed. This reduces rain runoff by allowing stormwater to soak into the ground (as opposed to flowing into storm drains and surface waters which causes erosion, water pollution, flooding, and diminished groundwater). They should be designed for specific soils and climates. The purpose of a rain garden is to improve water quality in nearby bodies of water and to ensure that rainwater becomes available for plants as groundwater rather than being sent through stormwater drains straight out to sea. Rain gardens can cut down on the amount of pollution reaching creeks and streams by up to 30%.

text: A rain garden is a planted depression or a hole that allows rainwater

text: runoff

text: from

text: impervious

text: urban areas, like roofs, driveways, walkways, parking lots, and compacted lawn areas, the opportunity to be absorbed. This reduces rain runoff by allowing

text: stormwater

text: to soak into the ground (as opposed to flowing into

text: storm drain

text: s and

text: surface water

text: s which causes

text: erosion

text: water pollution

text: flooding

text: , and diminished

text: groundwater

text: ). They should be designed for specific soils and climates. The purpose of a rain garden is to improve water quality in nearby bodies of water and to ensure that rainwater becomes available for plants as groundwater rather than being sent through stormwater drains straight out to sea. Rain gardens can cut down on the amount of pollution reaching creeks and streams by up to 30%.

text: She impressed the judges with her statement: "I feel strongly that we as human beings are all entitled to fresh clean drinking water. However, our precious eco-system and oceans are under constant threat from polluted stormwater. It is our actions through land filling and vegetation clearing that result in erosion and pollution to water catchments. We can all develop strategies to minimise the amount of 'dirty water' entering our waterways. Simple measures from switching to environmentally friendly detergents and soaps to council initiatives for restoring creeks and preventing pollution. I would be honoured to encourage people to focus on cleaning our waterways so we can all enjoy our beautiful beaches and clean water for many years to come." She nailed the competition with her answer.

text: On 4 September 2014, U.S. District Judge Carl Barbier ruled BP was guilty of gross negligence and willful misconduct. He described BP's actions as "reckless." He said Transocean's and Halliburton's actions were "negligent." He apportioned 67% of the blame for the spill to BP, 30% to Transocean, and 3% to Halliburton. Fines would be apportioned commensurate with the degree of negligence of the parties, measured against the number of barrels of oil spilled. Under the Clean Water Act fines can be based on a cost per barrel of up to $4,300, at the discretion of the judge. The number of barrels was in dispute at the conclusion of the trial with BP arguing 2.5 million barrels were spilled over the 87 days the spill lasted, while the court contends 4.2 million barrels were spilled. BP issued a statement strongly disagreeing with the finding, and saying the court's decision would be appealed.

text: On 4 September 2014, U.S. District Judge

text: Carl Barbier

text: ruled BP was guilty of gross negligence and willful misconduct. He described BP's actions as "reckless." He said Transocean's and Halliburton's actions were "negligent." He apportioned 67% of the blame for the spill to BP, 30% to Transocean, and 3% to Halliburton. Fines would be apportioned commensurate with the degree of negligence of the parties, measured against the number of barrels of oil spilled. Under the Clean Water Act fines can be based on a cost per barrel of up to $4,300, at the discretion of the judge. The number of barrels was in dispute at the conclusion of the trial with BP arguing 2.5 million barrels were spilled over the 87 days the spill lasted, while the court contends 4.2 million barrels were spilled. BP issued a statement strongly disagreeing with the finding, and saying the court's decision would be appealed.

text: 70% of the population is connected to sewers. However, as of 2010 all wastewater treatment plants established during the Soviet period were out of order orprovided only primary treatment. As a result, untreated municipal wastewater is a major polluter of surface waters.

text: Endorheic lakes are usually in the interior of a landmass, far from an ocean in areas of relatively low rainfall. Their watersheds are often confined by natural geologic land formations such as a mountain range, cutting off water egress to the ocean. The inland water flows into dry watersheds where the water evaporates, leaving a high concentration of minerals and other inflow erosion products. Over time this input of erosion products can cause the endorheic lake to become relatively saline (a "salt lake"). Since the main outflow pathways of these lakes are chiefly through evaporation and seepage, endorheic lakes are usually more sensitive to environmental pollutant inputs than water bodies that have access to oceans, as pollution can be trapped in them and accumulate over time.

text: The process of the EDCs entering the water source all begins with a source. Whether it comes from an industrial plant, pharmaceutical, or human source, it eventually finds its way to a larger water source, usually in the form of a waste product. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has documented the amount of pharmaceuticals released into the environment from manufacturing plants, however, this documentation is not as prevalent on a household level. There are some on-going efforts to attempt to minimize this pollution. For example, 80 percent of pharmacies in Clark County, Washington have contributed to efforts emphasizing the safe disposal of noncontrolled drugs. Attempts to control water pollution are gaining support as pollution gradually becomes more visible. However, these efforts are still in the process of being implemented on a large scale. The polluted water is then sent to a number of places.

text: The process of the EDCs entering the water source all begins with a source. Whether it comes from an

text: industrial plant

text: , pharmaceutical, or human source, it eventually finds its way to a larger water source, usually in the form of a waste product. The

text: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

text: has documented the amount of pharmaceuticals released into the environment from manufacturing plants, however, this documentation is not as prevalent on a household level. There are some on-going efforts to attempt to minimize this pollution. For example, 80 percent of

text: pharmacies

text: in

text: Clark County, Washington

text: have contributed to efforts emphasizing the safe disposal of noncontrolled drugs. Attempts to control water pollution are gaining support as pollution gradually becomes more visible. However, these efforts are still in the process of being implemented on a large scale. The polluted water is then sent to a number of places.

text: The plan takes a three tiered approach to implement management measures for NPS pollution. The first tier considers "self-determined implementation of best management practices." This essentially considers voluntary programs, grants, and education. California has a number of educational programs designed to help alert local policymakers to the problems associated with NPS pollution, including the California Water and Land Use Partnership and the Model Urban Runoff Program. Incentive programs under this tier include measure like financial assistance for local watershed stewardship projects through grants from the CWA section 319 and environmental quality incentives programs for implementation cost-sharing. The first tier is less stringent than tiers two or three. The second tier of the plan is called the "regulatory-based encouragement of management practices." The second tier essentially works by allowing polluters to adopt certain managements measures that discourage NPS pollution rather than go through various permitting procedures. Regional water quality control boards may work with landowners and resource managers to waive the adoption of waste discharge requirements (WDRs), a type of effluent limitation, if a polluter adopts certain BMPs. The third tier is called "effluent limitations and enforcement." The effluent limitations may be set at a level where the only realistic manner of compliance is the adoption of BMPs. These limitations are command and control requirements for some activities, including for example WDRs for commercial nurseries, WDRs for selenium for the San Joaquin River, permitted storm water programs, erosion Control for Lake Tahoe, and WDRs for dairies.

text: In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled  of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.

text: In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled  of

text: soybean oil

text: into the Mississippi and

text: Minnesota

text: rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control

text: water pollution

text: Duleepsinhji also visited the first and the only public utility thermal power station in the State, at that time located at Shapur Sorath, near a village Vanthly (near Junagadh). As this power station was using crushed coal as fuel for boilers and chlorination for the cooling water system, which normally polluted the local atmosphere; he wanted to see personally the working conditions and the amenities provided for the villagers housing and the recreation facilities.

text: Duleepsinhji also visited the first and the only public utility

text: thermal power station

text: in the State, at that time located at

text: Shapur Sorath

text: , near a village Vanthly (near

text: Junagadh

text: ). As this power station was using crushed

text: coal

text: as fuel for boilers and chlorination for the cooling water system, which normally polluted the local atmosphere; he wanted to see personally the working conditions and the amenities provided for the villagers housing and the recreation facilities.

text: Cumming was assigned to a variety of posts during his early career in the Service, especially quarantine stations in the South and on the West Coast of the United States. He also served on immigration duty at Ellis Island, New York. For 3 years, from February 1906 to February 1909, Cumming was detailed to the office of the United States Consul General in Yokohama, Japan, where he was concerned with immigration and quarantinable diseases. From 1913 to 1919, he was assigned to the Hygienic Laboratory (forerunner of the National Institutes of Health) in Washington, DC. There he was placed in charge of an investigation of the pollution of tidal waters of Maryland and Virginia. One of his concerns was the shellfish industry, and the potential threat to human health from consuming oysters grown in waters polluted with sewage.

text: Cumming was assigned to a variety of posts during his early career in the Service, especially

text: quarantine

text: stations in the

text: South

text: and on the

text: West Coast of the United States

text: . He also served on immigration duty at Ellis Island, New York. For 3 years, from February 1906 to February 1909, Cumming was detailed to the office of the

text: United States Consul General

text: in

text: Yokohama

text: Japan

text: , where he was concerned with

text: immigration

text: and quarantinable

text: disease

text: s. From 1913 to 1919, he was assigned to the

text: Hygienic Laboratory

text: (forerunner of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: ) in

text: Washington, DC

text: . There he was placed in charge of an investigation of the

text: pollution

text: of tidal waters of

text: Maryland

text: and

text: Virginia

text: . One of his concerns was the

text: shellfish

text: industry, and the potential threat to human health from consuming

text: oyster

text: s grown in waters polluted with

text: sewage

text: Congress exempted some water pollution sources from the point source definition in the 1972 CWA, and was unclear on the status of some other sources.  These sources were therefore considered to be nonpoint sources that were not subject to the permit program.

text: Congress exempted some water pollution sources from the point source definition in the 1972 CWA, and was unclear on the status of some other sources.  These sources were therefore considered to be

text: nonpoint sources

text: that were not subject to the permit program.

text: Mexico City started in November 1989 its driving restriction program, "Hoy no Circula" (literally in Spanish: "today [your car] does not circulate", known as "No-drive days"), which consisted of prohibiting the circulation of 20% of vehicles from Monday to Friday depending on the last digit of their license plates. Record levels of ozone and other airborne pollutants led the city government to implement the scheme. The program was planned to apply only during the winter, when air pollution is at its worst. Winter follows the rainy season when thermal inversion, an atmospheric condition which traps smog and pollution close to the ground, increases air pollution noticeably. However, the program was made permanent at the end of the 1990 winter season.

text: Mexico City

text: started in November 1989 its driving restriction program, "Hoy no Circula" (literally in

text: Spanish

text: : "today [your car] does not circulate", known as "No-drive days"), which consisted of prohibiting the circulation of 20% of vehicles from Monday to Friday depending on the last digit of their license plates. Record levels of

text: ozone

text: and other

text: airborne pollutants

text: led the city government to implement the scheme. The program was planned to apply only during the winter, when air pollution is at its worst. Winter follows the rainy season when

text: thermal inversion

text: Earlier in the Middle East, the Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s commanded his army to "Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire," and "Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food." Arabic medical treatises during the 9th to 13th centuries dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, including pollution, were written by Al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, Al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities.

text: Earlier in the

text: Middle East

text: , the

text: Caliph

text: Abu Bakr

text: in the 630s commanded his army to "Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire," and "Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food."

text: Arabic medical

text: treatises during the 9th to 13th centuries dealing with environmentalism and

text: environmental science

text: , including pollution, were written by

text: Al-Kindi

text: Qusta ibn Luqa

text: Al-Razi

text: Ibn Al-Jazzar

text: al-Tamimi

text: al-Masihi

text: Avicenna

text: Ali ibn Ridwan

text: Ibn Jumay

text: Isaac Israeli ben Solomon

text: Abd-el-latif

text: , Ibn al-Quff, and

text: Ibn al-Nafis

text: . Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution,

text: water pollution

text: soil contamination

text: municipal solid waste

text: mishandling, and

text: environmental impact assessment

text: s of certain localities.

text: To control non-point source pollution, many different approaches can be undertaken in both urban and suburban areas. Buffer strips provide a barrier of grass in between impervious paving material like parking lots and roads, and the closest body of water.  This allows the soil to absorb any pollution before it enters the local aquatic system. Retention ponds can be built in drainage areas to create an aquatic buffer between runoff pollution and the aquatic environment. Runoff and storm water drain into the retention pond allowing for the contaminants to settle out and become trapped in the pond. The use of porous pavement allows for rain and storm water to drain into the ground beneath the pavement, reducing the amount of runoff that drains directly into the water body. Restoration methods such as constructing wetlands are also used to slow runoff as well as absorb contamination.

text: To control non-point source pollution, many different approaches can be undertaken in both urban and suburban areas.

text: Buffer strip

text: s provide a barrier of grass in between impervious paving material like parking lots and roads, and the closest body of water.  This allows the soil to absorb any pollution before it enters the local aquatic system.

text: Retention pond

text: s can be built in drainage areas to create an aquatic buffer between runoff pollution and the aquatic environment. Runoff and storm water drain into the retention pond allowing for the contaminants to settle out and become trapped in the pond. The use of

text: porous pavement

text: allows for rain and storm water to drain into the ground beneath the pavement, reducing the amount of runoff that drains directly into the water body. Restoration methods such as

text: constructing wetlands

text: are also used to slow runoff as well as absorb contamination.

text: Another path in which the water can circulate is by flowing directly to the ocean. Pollutants are prevalent in coastal and open-ocean waters as contaminated water flows from point sources to the sea. These pollutants are then distributed globally due to the circulation of the ocean currents and migration of exposed marine life. This becomes an explanation of how the chemicals, once again, find their way to a human consumer. Marine wildlife in a polluted area exists in and consumes contaminated water daily. When it is harvested, it has accumulated an amount of harmful chemicals/EDCs relatively high to that compared to ambient ocean levels. This is then passed on to consumers of the seafood: humans, whereas the chemicals bioaccumulate in their bodies eventually causing sex-related health problems.

text: Another path in which the water can circulate is by flowing directly to the ocean. Pollutants are prevalent in coastal and open-ocean waters as contaminated water flows from point sources to the sea. These pollutants are then distributed globally due to the circulation of the ocean currents and

text: migration

text: of exposed marine life. This becomes an explanation of how the chemicals, once again, find their way to a human consumer. Marine wildlife in a polluted area exists in and consumes contaminated water daily. When it is harvested, it has accumulated an amount of harmful chemicals/EDCs relatively high to that compared to ambient ocean levels. This is then passed on to consumers of the seafood: humans, whereas the chemicals bioaccumulate in their bodies eventually causing sex-related health problems.

text: "One of the first modern environmental protection laws enacted in the United States was the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), which requires the government to consider the impact of its actions or policies on the environment. NEPA remains one of the most commonly used environmental laws in the nation. In addition to NEPA, there are numerous pollution-control statutes that apply to such specific environmental media as air and water. The best known of these laws are the Clean Air Act (CAA), Clean Water Act (CWA), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) commonly referred to as Superfund. Among the many other important pollution control laws are the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), Oil Pollution Prevention Act (OPP), Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), and the Pollution Prevention Act (PPA)."

text: "One of the first modern environmental protection laws enacted in the United States was the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), which requires the government to consider the impact of its actions or policies on the environment. NEPA remains one of the most commonly used environmental laws in the nation. In addition to NEPA, there are numerous pollution-control statutes that apply to such specific environmental media as air and water. The best known of these laws are the Clean Air Act (CAA), Clean Water Act (CWA), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) commonly referred to as

text: Superfund

text: . Among the many other important pollution control laws are the

text: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

text: (RCRA),

text: Toxic Substances Control Act

text: (TSCA),

text: Oil Pollution Prevention Act

text: (OPP), Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), and the Pollution Prevention Act (PPA)."

text: The pollution often comes from non point sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris and dust. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algae growth.

text: The pollution often comes from

text: non point source

text: s such as agricultural

text: runoff

text: , wind-blown debris and dust.

text: Nutrient pollution

text: , a form of

text: water pollution

text: , refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of

text: eutrophication

text: of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually

text: nitrogen

text: or

text: phosphorus

text: , stimulate algae growth.

text: In El Salvador, rivers and streams in the principal agricultural areas are highly polluted by pesticides, particularly by DDT in cotton cultivations in the south-eastern coastal plains. Concentrations of 3.15 mg of DDT per litre of water have been discovered in the Río Grande de San Miguel.

text: In El Salvador, rivers and streams in the principal agricultural areas are highly polluted by pesticides, particularly by

text: DDT

text: in cotton cultivations in the south-eastern coastal plains. Concentrations of 3.15 mg of DDT per litre of water have been discovered in the Río Grande de San Miguel.

text: Because groundwater and surface water are closely linked, water pollution from CAFOs can affect both sources if one or the other is contaminated. Surface water may be polluted by CAFO waste through the runoff of nutrients, organics, and pathogens from fields and storage. Waste can be transmitted to groundwater through the leaching of pollutants. Some facility designs, such as lagoons, can reduce the risk of groundwater contamination, but the microbial pathogens from animal waste may still pollute surface and groundwater, causing adverse effects on wildlife and human health.

text: Because

text: groundwater

text: and surface water are closely linked, water pollution from CAFOs can affect both sources if one or the other is contaminated. Surface water may be polluted by CAFO waste through the runoff of nutrients, organics, and pathogens from fields and storage. Waste can be transmitted to groundwater through the

text: leaching

text: of pollutants. Some facility designs, such as lagoons, can reduce the risk of groundwater contamination, but the microbial pathogens from animal waste may still pollute surface and groundwater, causing adverse effects on wildlife and human health.

text: In areas adjacent to water bodies with fish or shellfish intended for human consumption, improperly maintained and failing septic systems contribute to pollution levels that can force harvest restrictions and/or commercial or recreational harvest closures. In Washington State, for example, a "shellfish protection district" or "clean water district" is a geographic service area designated by a county to protect water quality and tideland resources. The district provides a mechanism to generate local funds for water quality services to control non-point sources of pollution, such as septic system maintenance. The district also serves as an educational resource, calling attention to the pollution sources that threaten shellfish growing waters.

text: In areas adjacent to water bodies with fish or

text: shellfish

text: intended for human consumption, improperly maintained and failing septic systems contribute to pollution levels that can force harvest restrictions and/or commercial or recreational harvest closures. In

text: Washington State

text: , for example, a "shellfish protection district" or "clean water district" is a geographic service area designated by a county to protect water quality and tideland resources. The district provides a mechanism to generate local funds for water quality services to control non-point sources of pollution, such as septic system maintenance. The district also serves as an educational resource, calling attention to the pollution sources that threaten shellfish growing waters.

text: The development of the new multipurpose vessel began on 25 May 2003 when the Ministry of Transport and Communications appointed a work group to investigate the technical requirements and economic aspects of building a new multipurpose icebreaker capable of combating oil and chemical spills around the year. The amount of oil transported in the Gulf of Finland had increased from a mere 15 million tons per year in the early 1990s to 69 million tons in 2003 and was expected to reach 130 million tons by 2010 after the new Russian oil terminals became operational, increasing the risk of a large spill in the vulnerable sea area considerably. While Finland already had a fleet of vessels with oil recovery equipment, none of them were capable of collecting spilled oil efficiently in heavy seas or in ice. The new multipurpose icebreaker would be designed to be capable of recovering spilled oil and chemicals in both open water and ice conditions, extinguishing shipboard fires and emergency towing of the largest merchant ships operating in the Gulf of Finland. The new vessel would also have sufficient icebreaking capability to assist oil tankers to the Kilpilahti oil refinery in Porvoo during winter. However, in the interim report, published on 30 September 2003, the work group noted that unless other work outside the winter months could be arranged and the new multipurpose icebreaker would have to spend the rest of the year in pollution control readiness, the operating expenses would be very high.

text: The development of the new multipurpose vessel began on 25 May 2003 when the

entity_name: Ministry of Transport and Communications (Finland)

text: Ministry of Transport and Communications

text: appointed a work group to investigate the technical requirements and economic aspects of building a new multipurpose

text: icebreaker

text: capable of combating oil and chemical spills around the year. The amount of oil transported in the

text: Gulf of Finland

text: had increased from a mere 15 million tons per year in the early 1990s to 69 million tons in 2003 and was expected to reach 130 million tons by 2010 after the new Russian oil terminals became operational, increasing the risk of a large spill in the vulnerable sea area considerably. While Finland already had a fleet of vessels with oil recovery equipment, none of them were capable of collecting spilled oil efficiently in heavy seas or in ice. The new multipurpose icebreaker would be designed to be capable of recovering spilled oil and chemicals in both open water and ice conditions, extinguishing shipboard fires and

text: emergency towing

text: of the largest merchant ships operating in the Gulf of Finland. The new vessel would also have sufficient icebreaking capability to assist

text: oil tanker

text: s to the Kilpilahti

text: oil refinery

text: in

text: Porvoo

text: during winter. However, in the interim report, published on 30 September 2003, the work group noted that unless other work outside the winter months could be arranged and the new multipurpose icebreaker would have to spend the rest of the year in pollution control readiness, the operating expenses would be very high.

text: According to one report, virtually all the large underground fresh-water supplies in Uzbekistan are polluted by industrial and chemical wastes. An official in Uzbekistan's Ministry of Environment estimated that about half of the country's population lives in regions where the water is severely polluted. The government estimated in 1995 that only 230 of the country's 8,000 industrial enterprises were following pollution control standards.

text: The input of pollutants into a water body may impact the water's ability to deliver ecological, recreational, educational, and economic services. While the impacts of water pollution vary considerably based on a variety of site-specific factors, they may be either direct or indirect. Pollutants that are directly toxic pose a threat to organisms that may come into contact with contaminated water. These include persistent organic pollutants used as pesticides and toxic byproducts of industrial activity (such as cyanide). Other pollutants may indirectly impact ecosystem services by causing a change in water conditions that allows for a harmful activity to take place. This includes sediment (loose soil) inputs that decrease the amount of light that can penetrate through the water, reducing plant growth and diminishing oxygen availability for other aquatic organisms.

text: The input of pollutants into a water body may impact the water's ability to deliver ecological, recreational, educational, and economic services. While the impacts of water pollution vary considerably based on a variety of site-specific factors, they may be either direct or indirect. Pollutants that are directly

text: toxic

text: pose a threat to organisms that may come into contact with contaminated water. These include persistent organic pollutants used as

text: pesticide

text: s and toxic byproducts of industrial activity (such as

text: cyanide

text: ). Other pollutants may indirectly impact ecosystem services by causing a change in water conditions that allows for a harmful activity to take place. This includes sediment (loose

text: soil

text: ) inputs that decrease the amount of light that can penetrate through the water, reducing plant growth and diminishing oxygen availability for other aquatic organisms.

text: Despite the threat to groundwater resources, no Federal or State statute comprehensively addresses groundwater protection. There are currently only patchworks of law at the Federal and State levels that address groundwater protection. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, or just EPA) has been designated by Congress to be the primary Federal agency responsible for groundwater protection; however, there is no comprehensive Federal groundwater law comparable to the legislation addressing surface-water pollution. Instead, the EPA enforces requirements of a myriad of Federal laws having provisions that protect groundwater quality. These laws include among others: the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974 (42 USC §300f et seq.[and the following]) and amendments; the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 (42 USC §6901 et seq.); and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) of 1980 (42 USC §9601 et seq.) and amendments. The Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1972 (33 USC §1251 et seq.), including the 1977 amendments, is the primary Federal law in the United States that governs the discharge of pollutants into the Nation’s waters. The CWA’s primary regulatory mechanism is the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), which requires permits to be issued for discharges of any pollutant or combination of pollutants into navigable waters. Certain sections specifically address groundwater, but it is unclear whether the CWA’s pollution-control provisions apply to groundwater. Some provisions of the CWA clearly apply to groundwater. For example, Section 106 provides for regional monitoring of surface water and groundwater; and Section 304 provides for development of specific water-quality criteria, which would include groundwater quality (Quatrochi, 1996).

text: Despite the threat to groundwater resources, no Federal or State statute comprehensively addresses groundwater protection. There are currently only patchworks of law at the Federal and State levels that address groundwater protection. The

text: (USEPA, or just EPA) has been designated by Congress to be the primary Federal agency responsible for groundwater protection; however, there is no comprehensive Federal groundwater law comparable to the legislation addressing surface-water pollution. Instead, the EPA enforces requirements of a myriad of Federal laws having provisions that protect groundwater quality. These laws include among others: the

text: Safe Drinking Water Act

text: (SDWA) of 1974 (42 USC §300f et seq.[and the following]) and amendments; the

text: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

text: (RCRA) of 1976 (42 USC §6901 et seq.); and the

text: Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

text: (CERCLA) of 1980 (42 USC §9601 et seq.) and amendments. The

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA) of 1972 (33 USC §1251 et seq.), including the 1977 amendments, is the primary Federal law in the United States that governs the discharge of pollutants into the Nation’s waters. The CWA’s primary regulatory mechanism is the

text: (NPDES), which requires permits to be issued for discharges of any pollutant or combination of pollutants into navigable waters. Certain sections specifically address groundwater, but it is unclear whether the CWA’s pollution-control provisions apply to groundwater. Some provisions of the CWA clearly apply to groundwater. For example, Section 106 provides for regional monitoring of surface water and groundwater; and Section 304 provides for development of specific water-quality criteria, which would include groundwater quality (Quatrochi, 1996).

text: Four industrial elements of the Reșița works are listed as historic monuments: the UCM locomotive factory, and from the CSR, blast furnace #2, the brick factory and the puddling and steam laminating workshop. In addition, two villas belonging to the UCM authorities are listed, as well as a number of those belonging to the UDR leadership. Although blast furnace #1 was demolished, the remaining one, representing the fifth generation of blast furnaces on the same site, was left standing due to its symbolic significance in the city's cultural identity and contribution to the industrial landscape. By the early 1990s, the works had caused serious air, water and soil pollution, making Reșița among the most severely polluted areas of Eastern Europe.

text: Four industrial elements of the Reșița works are listed as

entity_name: National Register of Historic Monuments in Romania

text: historic monuments

text: : the UCM locomotive factory, and from the CSR, blast furnace #2, the brick factory and the

text: puddling

text: and steam laminating workshop. In addition, two villas belonging to the UCM authorities are listed, as well as a number of those belonging to the UDR leadership. Although blast furnace #1 was demolished, the remaining one, representing the fifth generation of blast furnaces on the same site, was left standing due to its symbolic significance in the city's cultural identity and contribution to the industrial landscape. By the early 1990s, the works had caused serious air, water and soil pollution, making Reșița among the most severely polluted areas of Eastern Europe.

text: Environment - current issues:widespread deforestation, mining; air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage.

text: Environment - current issues:widespread

text: deforestation

text: mining

text: air pollution

text: from industrial and vehicle emissions;

text: water pollution

text: from raw

text: sewage

text: Agriculture is the dominant use of land in New Zealand and has had the most widespread impact on water quality. In 1993, the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research summarised available data on the quality of water in rivers. They concluded that "lowland river reaches in agriculturally developed catchments are in poor condition" reflecting "agriculturally derived diffuse and point source waste inputs in isolation or in addition to urban or industrial waste inputs". The key contaminants identified in lowland rivers were dissolved inorganic nitrogen, dissolved reactive phosphorus, sediment and faecal contamination. Small streams in dairy farming areas were identified as being in very poor condition.

text: Agriculture is the dominant use of land in New Zealand and has had the most widespread impact on water quality. In 1993, the

text: summarised available data on the quality of water in rivers. They concluded that "lowland river reaches in agriculturally developed catchments are in poor condition" reflecting "agriculturally derived diffuse and point source waste inputs in isolation or in addition to urban or industrial waste inputs". The key contaminants identified in lowland rivers were dissolved inorganic nitrogen, dissolved reactive phosphorus, sediment and faecal contamination. Small streams in dairy farming areas were identified as being in very poor condition.

text: According to the report,"substantial economic injury results from the inability to market shellfish or shellfish products in interstate commerce because of pollution caused by sewage and industrial wastes discharged to the Penobscot River and upper Penobscot Bay area and action of state authorities." The WPCA noted that "accordingly the pollution of these navigable waters is subject to abatement under procedures described in Section 10 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended"

text: Proper collection and safe, nuisance-free disposal of the liquid wastes of a community are legally recognized as a necessity in an urbanized, industrialized society. The reality is, however, that most wastewater produced globally remains untreated causing widespread water pollution, especially in low-income countries: A global estimate by UNDP and UN-Habitat is that 90% of all wastewater generated is released into the environment untreated. In many developing countries the bulk of domestic and industrial wastewater is discharged without any treatment or after primary treatment only.

text: Proper collection and safe, nuisance-free disposal of the liquid wastes of a community are legally recognized as a necessity in an urbanized, industrialized society. The reality is, however, that most wastewater produced globally remains untreated causing widespread

text: water pollution

text: , especially in low-income countries: A global estimate by

text: UNDP

text: and

entity_name: United Nations Human Settlements Programme

text: UN-Habitat

text: is that 90% of all wastewater generated is released into the environment untreated. In many developing countries the bulk of domestic and industrial wastewater is discharged without any treatment or after primary treatment only.

text: Water chemistry analyses are carried out to identify and quantify the chemical components and properties of water samples. The type and sensitivity of the analysis  depends on the purpose of the analysis and the anticipated use of the water.Chemical water analysis is carried out on water used in industrial processes, on waste-water stream, on rivers and stream, on rainfall and on the sea. In all cases the results of the analysis provides information that can be used to make decisions or to provide re-assurance that conditions are as expected.The analytical parameters selected are chosen to be appropriate for the decision making process or to establish acceptable normality.Water chemistry analysis is often the groundwork of studies of water quality, pollution, hydrology and geothermal waters.Analytical methods routinely used can detect and measure all the natural elements and their inorganic compounds and a very wide range of organic chemical species using methods such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In water treatment plants producing drinking water and in some industrial processes using products with distinctive taste and odours , specialised organoleptic methods may be used to detect smells at very low Water chemistry analyses are carried out to identify and quantify the chemical components and properties of water samples. The type and sensitivity of the analysis depends on the purpose of the analysis and the anticipated use of the water. Chemical water analysis is carried out on water used in industrial processes, on waste-water stream, on rivers and stream, on rainfall and on the sea. In all cases the results of the analysis provides information that can be used to make decisions or to provide re-assurance that conditions are as expected. The analytical parameters selected are chosen to be appropriate for the decision making process or to establish acceptable normality. Water chemistry analysis is often the groundwork of studies of water quality, pollution, hydrology and geothermal waters. Analytical methods routinely used can detect and measure all the natural elements and their inorganic compounds and a very wide range of organic chemical species using methods such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In water treatment plants producing drinking water and in some industrial processes using products with distinctive taste and odours , specialised organoleptic methods may be used to detect smells at very low concentrations.

text: Water chemistry analyses are carried out to identify and quantify the chemical components and properties of water samples. The type and sensitivity of the analysis  depends on the purpose of the analysis and the anticipated use of the water.Chemical water analysis is carried out on water used in industrial processes, on waste-water stream, on rivers and stream, on rainfall and on the sea. In all cases the results of the analysis provides information that can be used to make decisions or to provide re-assurance that conditions are as expected.The analytical parameters selected are chosen to be appropriate for the decision making process or to establish acceptable normality.Water chemistry analysis is often the groundwork of studies of

text: water quality

text: pollution

text: hydrology

text: and

text: geothermal water

text: s.Analytical methods routinely used can detect and measure all the natural elements and their inorganic compounds and a very wide range of organic chemical species using methods such as

text: gas chromatography

text: and

text: mass spectrometry

text: . In water treatment plants producing drinking water and in some industrial processes using products with distinctive taste and odours , specialised

text: organoleptic

text: methods may be used to detect smells at very low Water chemistry analyses are carried out to identify and quantify the chemical components and properties of water samples. The type and sensitivity of the analysis depends on the purpose of the analysis and the anticipated use of the water. Chemical water analysis is carried out on water used in industrial processes, on waste-water stream, on rivers and stream, on rainfall and on the sea. In all cases the results of the analysis provides information that can be used to make decisions or to provide re-assurance that conditions are as expected. The analytical parameters selected are chosen to be appropriate for the decision making process or to establish acceptable normality. Water chemistry analysis is often the groundwork of studies of water quality, pollution, hydrology and geothermal waters. Analytical methods routinely used can detect and measure all the natural elements and their inorganic compounds and a very wide range of organic chemical species using methods such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. In water treatment plants producing drinking water and in some industrial processes using products with distinctive taste and odours , specialised organoleptic methods may be used to detect smells at very low concentrations.

text: Mercury is a toxic heavy metal which cycles through atmosphere, water, and soil in various forms to different partsof the world. Due to this natural cycle, irrespective of which part of the world releases mercury it could affect an entirely different part of the world making mercury pollution a global concern. Mercury pollution is now identified as a global problem and awareness has been raised on an international action plan to minimize anthropogenic mercury emissions and clean up mercury pollution. In Global Mercury Assessment - 2002 concluded that, International actions to address the global mercury problem should not be delayed”. Among many environments that are under the impact of mercury pollution, the ocean is one which cannot be neglected as it has the ability to act as a “storage closet” for mercury. According to a recent model study the total anthropogenic mercury released into the ocean is estimated to be around 80,000 to 45,000 metric tons and two thirds of this enormous amount is estimated to be found in waters shallower than 1000m level where many consumable fish live. Mercury can get bio-accumulated in marine food chains in the form of highly toxic methyl mercury which can cause health risks to human seafood consumers., According to statistics, about 66% of the global fish consumption comes from ocean. Therefore, it is important to monitor and regulate oceanic mercury levels to prevent more and more mercury reaching human population through seafood consumption.,

text: Mercury

text: Much of the land surrounding the Detroit River is urbanized and, in some places, heavily industrialized. This has resulted in excessive water pollution from the unregulated dumping of chemicals and industrial waste for many decades. Much of the garbage and sewage from Detroit's rapid industrialization found its way into the river. Much of the Detroit River and its shoreline were heavily polluted and unsafe for recreational use. Large quantities of this pollution collected around the mouth of the Detroit River at Lake Erie. The pollutants were so high after the spring thaw that thousands of migrating birds were killed by oil slicks and contaminated water every year. Oxygen levels in the river were depleted to the point where fish were unable to inhabit its waters. Because much of this pollution drained into and affected Lake Erie, the lake itself was considered "dead" and unable to support aquatic life.

text: Much of the land surrounding the Detroit River is urbanized and, in some places, heavily industrialized. This has resulted in excessive

text: water pollution

text: from the unregulated dumping of chemicals and industrial waste for many decades. Much of the garbage and sewage from Detroit's rapid industrialization found its way into the river. Much of the Detroit River and its shoreline were heavily polluted and unsafe for recreational use. Large quantities of this pollution collected around the mouth of the Detroit River at

text: Lake Erie

text: . The pollutants were so high after the spring thaw that thousands of migrating birds were killed by oil slicks and contaminated water every year. Oxygen levels in the river were depleted to the point where fish were unable to inhabit its waters. Because much of this pollution drained into and affected Lake Erie, the lake itself was considered "dead" and unable to support aquatic life.

text: Water pollution is a serious issue in Vietnam as a result of rapid industrialization and urbanization without adequate environmental management. As of 2008 only 10 percent of municipal wastewater was treated, and only 45% of industrial zones were expected to have wastewater treatment of some kind in 2010. The pollution of rivers and lakes in Hanoi is "alarming" according to municipal authorities, as up to 98 per cent of 200 rivers and lakes fail to meet the required water quality. Sewer systems consist of combined sewers, channeling both rainwater and municipal sewage. Small enterprises engaged in food processing and textile dyeing in so-called "craft villages", of which there are 700 in the Red River Delta alone, discharge untreated wastewater. An analysis by the University of Technologies and the Ministry of Science and Technology showed that 100% of wastewater samples taken from craft villages exceed allowed levels of pollution. Vietnam also has more than 200 registered industrial zones without sustainable wastewater treatment. Industrial zones discharge 1 million cubic meters of untreated sewage per day, about 70 percent of all industrial wastewater. 8 industrial zones will be equipped with wastewater treatment plants with the help of a US$50 million loan from the World Bank approved in 2012. It is also planned to construct 30 wastewater treatment plants in the Mekong Delta until 2020, including 13 plants for domestic wastewater treatment and 17 for industrial wastewater treatment in Can Tho, An Giang, Kien Giang and Ca Mau provinces. In 2012 Hanoi expected to start the operation of the upgraded Yen So waste water treatment plant with a design capacity of 200,000 cubic meters per day; eight more wastewater treatment plants are planned in Hanoi alone.

text: The Clean Water Act has made great strides in reducing point source water pollution, but this effect is overshadowed by the fact that nonpoint source pollution, which is not subject to regulation under the Act, has correspondingly increased. One of the solutions to address this imbalance is point/nonpoint source trading of pollutants. In January 2003, the EPA Water Quality Trading Policy was issued. At this time, many waters in the United States did not support their designated uses. Specifically, 40 percent of rivers, 45 percent of streams, and 50 percent of lakes that had been surveyed were unfit. Consequently, when The Water Quality Trading Policy was issued it acknowledged that “the progress made toward restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters under the 1972 Clean Water Act and its National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits has been incomplete.”

text: The Clean Water Act has made great strides in reducing point source water pollution, but this effect is overshadowed by the fact that

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: , which is not subject to regulation under the Act, has correspondingly increased. One of the solutions to address this imbalance is point/nonpoint source trading of pollutants. In January 2003, the EPA Water Quality Trading Policy was issued. At this time, many waters in the United States did not support their designated uses. Specifically, 40 percent of rivers, 45 percent of streams, and 50 percent of lakes that had been surveyed were unfit. Consequently, when The Water Quality Trading Policy was issued it acknowledged that “the progress made toward restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation’s waters under the 1972 Clean Water Act and its National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits has been incomplete.”

text: The Oil Pollution Act of 1973 or Oil Pollution Act Amendments of 1973, 33 U.S.C. Chapter 20 §§ 1001-1011, was a United States federal law which amended the United States Statute . The Act of Congress sustained the United States commitment to control the discharge of fossil fuel pollutants from nautical vessels and to acknowledge the embargo of coastal zones in trans-boundary waters.

text: The Oil Pollution Act of 1973 or Oil Pollution Act Amendments of 1973, 33 U.S.C. Chapter 20 §§ 1001-1011, was a

text: United States federal law

text: which amended the

text: United States Statute

text: . The

text: Act of Congress

text: sustained the United States commitment to control the discharge of

text: fossil fuel

text: pollutants

text: from

text: nautical vessels

text: and to acknowledge the

text: embargo

text: of coastal zones in

text: trans-boundary waters

text: Every year thousands of Californians are exposed to hazardous waste, viruses, and bacteria contained in the millions of gallons of untreated water that flows daily into our ocean.  Recreational ocean users and people fishing along the US-Mexico border are those most affected.  The Coastal Conservation Program was developed to raise awareness of the public and environmental health risks associated with the pollution, to create a dialogue among stakeholders – residents, businesses, government agencies and to promote national media attention on a problem that threatens our communities and is often dismissed as an insurmountable problem.

text: Every year thousands of Californians are exposed to

text: hazardous waste

text: viruses

text: , and

text: bacteria

text: contained in the millions of gallons of

text: untreated water

text: that flows daily into our ocean.  Recreational ocean users and people fishing along the US-Mexico border are those most affected.  The Coastal Conservation Program was developed to raise awareness of the public and environmental health risks associated with the pollution, to create a dialogue among stakeholders – residents, businesses, government agencies and to promote national media attention on a problem that threatens our communities and is often dismissed as an insurmountable problem.

text: Kofarnihon River () or Kofirnihan (also transliterated from Russian as Kafirnigan) is one of the major tributaries of Amudarya (together with Vakhsh and Panj). It rises on the southern slopes of Gissar Range in Vahdat district, formerly Kofarnihon district, and flows for about 400 km in the general south-western direction past the cities of Kofarnihon, Vahdat, and Dushanbe, where it turns south and runs through Khatlon Province toward the border with Afghanistan. It falls into Amudarya some 40 km west of the confluence point of Vakhsh and Panj rivers. Kofarnihon River is an important source of drinking water, and yet it is highly polluted by irrigation runoff and inadequately cleaned recycled water around the cities of Dushanbe and Vahdat.

text: Kofarnihon River () or Kofirnihan (also transliterated from Russian as Kafirnigan) is one of the major tributaries of

text: Amudarya

text: (together with

text: Vakhsh

text: and

text: Panj

text: ). It rises on the southern slopes of

text: Gissar Range

text: in

text: Vahdat district

text: , formerly Kofarnihon district, and flows for about 400 km in the general south-western direction past the cities of Kofarnihon,

text: Vahdat

text: , and

text: Dushanbe

text: , where it turns south and runs through

text: Khatlon Province

text: toward the border with

text: Afghanistan

text: . It falls into Amudarya some 40 km west of the confluence point of Vakhsh and Panj rivers. Kofarnihon River is an important source of drinking water, and yet it is highly polluted by irrigation runoff and inadequately cleaned recycled water around the cities of Dushanbe and Vahdat.

text: NILU was founded in 1969 and the institute conducts environmental research with emphasis on the sources of air pollution and on air pollution dispersion, transport, transformation and deposition. It is also involved in the assessment of the effects of pollution on ecosystems, human health and materials. Integrated environmental assessments and optimal abatement strategy planning has been a field of priority during the last few years. Assessment of transboundary transport of air pollutants, acid rain and global air quality are important tasks.

text: NILU was founded in 1969 and the institute conducts environmental research with emphasis on the sources of

text: air pollution

text: and on

text: air pollution dispersion

text: , transport, transformation and

text: deposition

text: . It is also involved in the assessment of the effects of

text: pollution

text: on

text: ecosystem

text: s,

text: human health

text: and materials. Integrated environmental assessments and optimal abatement strategy planning has been a field of priority during the last few years.

text: Assessment

text: of transboundary transport of

text: air pollutant

text: s,

text: acid rain

text: and global

text: air quality

text: are important tasks.

text: As far as industries and factories are concerned, there are about 1,481 and increase is expected. Of the said figure, about 695 have wastewater treatment facilities. Despite this, the lake is absorbing huge amounts of pollution from these industries in the forms of discharges of industrial cooling water, toxic spills from barges and transport operations, and hazardous chemicals like lead, mercury, aluminum and cyanide. Based from the said figure, 65% are classified as “pollutive” industries.

text: In 2009, a court victory for Friends of the Everglades was overturned by an appeals court, where the federal appellate court based its opinion on the  "unitary waters" theory, which is an interpretation of the Clean Water Act which treats all bodies of water in the United States as a single body. The implication of this was that transferring polluted water from one body of water to another, even if polluted water was being transferred to pristine water, is considered to be legal. The focus of the ongoing legal debate has been on the definition of the word "addition" in the Clean Water Act. The Clean Water Act mandates that the addition of pollutants to clean water requires a federal permit. If polluted water is being transferred one body of water to another, some courts have interpreted this as meaning no permit is needed, whereas other courts have maintained that the wording of the Clean Water Act was not intended to allow transference of polluted water from, for example, a polluted stream to a pristine lake.

text: In 2009, a court victory for Friends of the Everglades was overturned by an appeals court, where the

text: federal appellate court

text: based its opinion on the  "unitary waters" theory, which is an interpretation of the

text: Clean Water Act

text: which treats all bodies of water in the United States as a single body. The implication of this was that transferring polluted water from one body of water to another, even if polluted water was being transferred to pristine water, is considered to be legal. The focus of the ongoing legal debate has been on the definition of the word "addition" in the Clean Water Act. The Clean Water Act mandates that the addition of pollutants to clean water requires a federal permit. If polluted water is being transferred one body of water to another, some courts have interpreted this as meaning no permit is needed, whereas other courts have maintained that the wording of the Clean Water Act was not intended to allow transference of polluted water from, for example, a polluted stream to a pristine lake.

text: City sewer systems are overtaxed. Other issues include water pollution from sewer discharge and industrial effluents, acid rain, drift net fishing, and wasteful packaging of consumer goods. Transboundary pollution concerns spurred the creation of a joint commission among South Korea, Japan, and China to address environmental problems.  South Korea is the second-largest consumer of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons.

text: City

text: sewer

text: systems are overtaxed. Other issues include

text: water pollution

text: from sewer discharge and industrial effluents,

text: acid rain

text: drift net

text: fishing, and wasteful packaging of consumer goods. Transboundary

text: pollution

text: concerns spurred the creation of a joint commission among South Korea,

text: Japan

text: , and China to address environmental problems.  South Korea is the second-largest consumer of

text: ozone

text: -depleting

text: chlorofluorocarbons

text: As of August 18, more than 700 villagers in Qinzhou, a city in south China's Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, have been trapped in their homes by typhoon-triggered flooding, the local government said. In Qinzhou, heavy rains have swept the city inundating three villages in Dazhi Township, Qinbei District. The local government sent rescue boats and relief materials to the trapped villagers. Two people remained missing after falling into a river in Shangsi County. More than 300 police officers and firefighters have been organized and dispatched to carry out relief efforts across the city, the flood control and drought relief bureau said. The typhoon caused heavy damage in China's two provinces killing one person and causing economic loss running into $315 million. It also affected 1.74 million people in nearby Guangdong province before moving to Guangxi. An oil ship anchored near Beihai, a coastal city in Guangxi, drifted and collided into the bank, spilling five tonnes of oil. The local government initiated an emergency response plan and sent a work team to clean up the spill and cordon off the contaminated area to prevent the pool from expanding. Clean up efforts have ended and marine authorities have taken samples of the sea water to test the pollution level around the location of the accident, the report said.

text: As of August 18, more than 700 villagers in Qinzhou, a city in south China's Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, have been trapped in their homes by typhoon-triggered flooding, the local government said. In Qinzhou, heavy rains have swept the city inundating three villages in

text: Dazhi

text: Township,

text: Qinbei District

text: . The local government sent rescue boats and relief materials to the trapped villagers. Two people remained missing after falling into a river in Shangsi County. More than 300 police officers and firefighters have been organized and dispatched to carry out relief efforts across the city, the flood control and drought relief bureau said. The typhoon caused heavy damage in China's two provinces killing one person and causing economic loss running into $315 million. It also affected 1.74 million people in nearby Guangdong province before moving to Guangxi. An oil ship anchored near Beihai, a coastal city in Guangxi, drifted and collided into the bank, spilling five tonnes of oil. The local government initiated an emergency response plan and sent a work team to clean up the spill and cordon off the contaminated area to prevent the pool from expanding. Clean up efforts have ended and marine authorities have taken samples of the sea water to test the pollution level around the location of the accident, the report said.

text: The Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health Act of 2000, or BEACH Act, is a United States federal statute that sets national standards for recreational water testing and authorizes grants to pay for beach monitoring programs at state and federal levels. The Act was signed by President Bill Clinton to amend the Clean Water Act and requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set standard criteria for testing, monitoring, and notifying the public of possible pollution within coastal recreational waters. Water pollution levels are required to be monitored regularly for bacteria, such as Escherichia coli (E.coli), and other pathogen indicators. Agencies at local, state, and federal levels report and monitor the levels and post warning signs as necessary.

text: The Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health Act of 2000, or BEACH Act, is a United States federal statute that sets national standards for recreational water testing and authorizes grants to pay for beach monitoring programs at state and federal levels. The Act was signed by

text: President Bill Clinton

text: to amend the

text: Clean Water Act

text: and requires the

text: Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) to set standard criteria for testing, monitoring, and notifying the public of possible pollution within coastal recreational waters. Water pollution levels are required to be monitored regularly for bacteria, such as

text: Escherichia coli

text: (E.coli), and other pathogen indicators. Agencies at local, state, and federal levels report and monitor the levels and post warning signs as necessary.

text: Peroxyacetyl nitrate is a peroxyacyl nitrate.  It is a secondary pollutant present in photochemical smog. It is thermally unstable and decomposes into peroxyethanoyl radicals and nitrogen dioxide gas. It is a lachrymatory substance.

text: Peroxyacetyl nitrate is a

text: peroxyacyl nitrate

text: .  It is a secondary

text: pollutant

text: present in

text: photochemical smog

text: . It is thermally unstable and decomposes into peroxyethanoyl radicals and

text: nitrogen dioxide

text: gas. It is a

text: lachrymatory

text: substance.

text: The water quality of the L'Assomption River is seriously affected by the area's social-economic conditions. Since 1950, the situation has been complicated by the urbanization of the river banks, by diversified agriculture, and by industrialisation along the southern portion of the river. Although the source of pollution has changed since 1950, because of strict environmental laws and the use of water purification equipment, water pollution is still not fully curbed.

text: The water quality of the L'Assomption River is seriously affected by the area's social-economic conditions. Since 1950, the situation has been complicated by the

text: urbanization

text: of the river banks, by diversified

text: agriculture

text: , and by

text: industrialisation

text: along the southern portion of the river. Although the source of

text: pollution

text: has changed since 1950, because of strict environmental laws and the use of water purification equipment, water pollution is still not fully curbed.

text: The Adriatic Sea ecosystem is threatened by excessive input of nutrients through drainage from agricultural land and wastewater flowing from cities; this includes both along its coast and from rivers draining into the sea—especially from the Po River. Venice is often cited as an example of polluted coastal waters where shipping, transportation, farming, manufacturing and wastewater disposal contribute to polluting the sea. A further risk is presented by ballast water discharge by ships, especially tankers. Still, since most of the cargo handled by the Adriatic ports, and virtually all liquid (tanker) cargo handled by the ports, is coming to—not coming from—the Adriatic Basin, the risk from ballast water (from tankers expelling ballast water then loading in the Adriatic) remains minimal. However, proposed export oil pipelines were objected to specifically because of this issue. Oil spills are a major concern in terms of potential environmental impact and damage to tourism and fisheries. It is estimated that if a major oil spill happened, a million people would lose their livelihoods in Croatia alone. An additional risk is presented by oil refineries in the Po River basin where oil spills have occurred before, in addition to accidents occurring in the Adriatic already, so far with no significant environmental consequences. Since 2006, Italy has been considering the construction of an offshore and an onshore LNG terminal in the Gulf of Trieste, as well as a pipeline, in the immediate vicinity of the Slovenian–Italian border. The Slovenian government and municipalities, the municipal council of Trieste, and non-governmental organisations have voiced concern over their environmental hazards, effect on transport and effect on tourism.

text: The Adriatic Sea ecosystem is threatened by excessive input of nutrients through drainage from agricultural land and wastewater flowing from cities; this includes both along its coast and from rivers draining into the sea—especially from the

text: Po River

text: . Venice is often cited as an example of polluted coastal waters where shipping, transportation, farming, manufacturing and wastewater disposal contribute to polluting the sea. A further risk is presented by

entity_name: Ballast water discharge and the environment

text: ballast water discharge

text: by ships, especially

text: tankers

text: . Still, since most of the cargo handled by the Adriatic ports, and virtually all liquid (tanker) cargo handled by the ports, is coming to—not coming from—the Adriatic Basin, the risk from ballast water (from tankers expelling ballast water then loading in the Adriatic) remains minimal. However, proposed export oil pipelines were objected to specifically because of this issue. Oil spills are a major concern in terms of potential environmental impact and damage to tourism and fisheries. It is estimated that if a major oil spill happened, a million people would lose their livelihoods in Croatia alone. An additional risk is presented by oil refineries in the Po River basin where oil spills have occurred before, in addition to accidents occurring in the Adriatic already, so far with no significant environmental consequences. Since 2006, Italy has been considering the construction of an offshore and an onshore

text: LNG

text: terminal in the

text: Gulf of Trieste

text: , as well as a pipeline, in the immediate vicinity of the Slovenian–Italian border. The Slovenian government and municipalities, the municipal council of Trieste, and non-governmental organisations have voiced concern over their environmental hazards, effect on transport and effect on tourism.

text: When the air has little moisture or when an inversion stops the warm air from rising high enough for the moisture to condense, thermals do not create cumulus clouds. Typical locations to find thermals are over towns, freshly ploughed fields and asphalt roads, but thermals are often hard to associate with any feature on the ground. Occasionally thermals are caused by the exhaust gases from power stations or by fires.

text: When the air has little moisture or when an

text: inversion

text: stops the warm air from rising high enough for the moisture to condense, thermals do not create cumulus clouds. Typical locations to find thermals are over towns, freshly

text: plough

text: ed fields and

text: asphalt

text: roads, but thermals are often hard to associate with any feature on the ground. Occasionally thermals are caused by the exhaust gases from

text: power station

text: s or by fires.

text: Nutrients from human activities tend to travel from land to either surface or ground water. Nitrogen in particular is removed through storm drains, sewage pipes, and other forms of surface runoff.Nutrient losses in runoff and leachate are often associated with agriculture. Modern agriculture often involves the application of nutrients onto fields in order to maximise production. However, farmers frequently apply more nutrients than are taken up by crops or pastures. Regulations aimed at minimising nutrient exports from agriculture are typically far less stringent than those placed on sewage treatment plants and other point source polluters. It should be also noted that lakes within forested land are also under surface runoff influences. Runoff can wash out the mineral nitrogen and phosphorus from detritus and in consequence supply the water bodies leading to slow, natural eutrophication.

text: Nutrients from human activities tend to travel from land to either surface or ground water. Nitrogen in particular is removed through

text: storm drains

text: , sewage pipes, and other forms of

text: surface runoff

text: .Nutrient losses in runoff and

text: leachate

text: are often associated with

text: agriculture

text: . Modern agriculture often involves the application of nutrients onto fields in order to maximise production. However, farmers frequently apply more nutrients than are taken up by crops or pastures. Regulations aimed at minimising nutrient exports from agriculture are typically far less stringent than those placed on sewage treatment plants and other point source polluters. It should be also noted that lakes within forested land are also under surface runoff influences. Runoff can wash out the mineral nitrogen and phosphorus from detritus and in consequence supply the water bodies leading to slow, natural eutrophication.

text: The spill affected most of the environmental resources present in the shore and offshore areas near San Juan. 1,100 square miles of surface waters along the north coast of Puerto Rico were projected to have felt effects from the oil. It was also projected that 103 miles of ocean shore line and 66 miles of bay shoreline were covered in oil. Seagrasses and sediments were also contaminated in the spill area. It is projected that 40,000 square meters of seagrasses in lagoons near the spill area were impacted by sunken oil. This caused most of the grasses to die. All of the affected areas were covered in varying amounts oil which resulted in large amounts of pollution, loss of tourism, loss of habitat, and the loss of life for living organisms.

text: The spill affected most of the environmental resources present in the shore and offshore areas near San Juan. 1,100 square miles of surface waters along the north coast of Puerto Rico were projected to have felt effects from the oil. It was also projected that 103 miles of ocean shore line and 66 miles of bay shoreline were covered in oil.

text: Seagrasses

text: and sediments were also contaminated in the spill area. It is projected that 40,000 square meters of seagrasses in lagoons near the spill area were impacted by sunken oil. This caused most of the grasses to die. All of the affected areas were covered in varying amounts oil which resulted in large amounts of pollution, loss of tourism, loss of habitat, and the loss of life for living organisms.

text: The Pau Amarelo Dam was built in 1912 to distribute water to Greater Vitória.From this date there was little human interference with the ecosystem to avoid polluting the drinking water.The Duas Bocas Dam was built 1949–54 to accommodate population growth, and still supplies water to some of the residents of  the municipality of Cariacica.The Duas Bocas Forest Reserve was created on 12 January 1965 to protect the area.

text: The Pau Amarelo Dam was built in 1912 to distribute water to

text: Greater Vitória

text: .From this date there was little human interference with the ecosystem to avoid polluting the drinking water.The Duas Bocas Dam was built 1949–54 to accommodate population growth, and still supplies water to some of the residents of  the municipality of Cariacica.The Duas Bocas Forest Reserve was created on 12 January 1965 to protect the area.

text: For example, the manufacturing cost of a car (i.e., the costs of buying inputs, land tax rates for the car plant, overhead costs of running the plant and labor costs) reflects the private cost for the manufacturer (in some ways, normal profit can also be seen as a cost of production; see, e.g., Ison and Wall, 2007, p. 181). The polluted waters or polluted air also created as part of the process of producing the car is an external cost borne by those who are affected by the pollution or who value unpolluted air or water. Because the manufacturer does not pay for this external cost (the cost of emitting undesirable waste into the commons), and does not include this cost in the price of the car (a Kaldor-Hicks compensation), they are said to be external to the market pricing mechanism. The air pollution from driving the car is also an externality produced by the car user in the process of using his good. The driver does not compensate for the environmental damage caused by using the car.

text: It is estimated that 90 percent of the surface water bodies are contaminated. Nearly all municipal wastewater (98 percent) and 90 percent of industrial wastewater is discharged to rivers and creeks without any treatment. The highest priority for pollution abatement is estimated to be in the basins of the Río Acelhuate and Río Sucio, an area that supplies a third of the water supply of the Metropolitan area of San Salvador.

text: It is estimated that 90 percent of the surface water bodies are contaminated. Nearly all municipal wastewater (98 percent) and 90 percent of industrial wastewater is discharged to rivers and creeks without any treatment. The highest priority for pollution abatement is estimated to be in the basins of the Río Acelhuate and Río Sucio, an area that supplies a third of the water supply of the Metropolitan area of

text: San Salvador

text: Given the population growth over the past 50 years, a particular concern is the potential eutrophication of currently oligotrophic Lake Ohrid from increased pollution. Indeed, sediment cores show a ~3.5 fold increase in phosphorus concentration over the past century. On the one hand, shifts from endemic to common European species, which are better adapted to higher nutrient conditions, have already been observed close to polluted inflows. On the other hand, higher nutrient levels have reduced the water transparency, as well as the oxygen availability in the deep water and at the lake bottom, two properties which are requisite for the endemic flora and fauna. Still, the lake is in a comparably good state at the moment. However it may take more than a decade to see the effects of today's pollution level in the lake, because of its long water residence time. Moreover, it was shown that the negative effects from eutrophication would be significantly amplified by global warming. Although there is time to react, computer simulations indicate that at least a 50% reduction in phosphorus input must be reached to keep the deep water oxygenated for the next 50 years at predicted atmospheric warming. This aim could be reached by controlling household wastewater, which is by far the biggest phosphorus source at the moment. First steps in that direction have been taken by extending and improving the existing sewage system in Macedonia in the framework of a GEF (Global Environment Facility) program. The most important next task would be a solution for three remaining, severely polluted tributaries, one in Macedonia and two in Albania.

text: Given the population growth over the past 50 years, a particular concern is the potential

text: eutrophication

text: of currently

text: oligotroph

text: ic Lake Ohrid from increased pollution. Indeed,

text: sediment

text: cores show a ~3.5 fold increase in

text: phosphorus

text: concentration over the past century. On the one hand, shifts from endemic to common European species, which are better adapted to higher nutrient conditions, have already been observed close to polluted inflows. On the other hand, higher nutrient levels have reduced the water transparency, as well as the oxygen availability in the deep water and at the lake bottom, two properties which are requisite for the endemic flora and fauna. Still, the lake is in a comparably good state at the moment. However it may take more than a decade to see the effects of today's pollution level in the lake, because of its long water residence time. Moreover, it was shown that the negative effects from eutrophication would be significantly amplified by

text: global warming

text: . Although there is time to react, computer simulations indicate that at least a 50% reduction in phosphorus input must be reached to keep the deep water oxygenated for the next 50 years at predicted atmospheric warming. This aim could be reached by controlling household wastewater, which is by far the biggest phosphorus source at the moment. First steps in that direction have been taken by extending and improving the existing sewage system in Macedonia in the framework of a GEF (

text: Global Environment Facility

text: ) program. The most important next task would be a solution for three remaining, severely polluted tributaries, one in Macedonia and two in Albania.

text: The Najafgarh Drain or Najafgarh Nallah (nallah in Hindi means drain) is another name for the Sahibi River, which continues its flow through Delhi where it is channelised for flood control purposes. It is a tributary to the Yamuna River, into which it flows. The Najafgarh Drain gets its name from the once famous and huge Najafgarh Lake near the town of Najafgarh in southwest Delhi. The Najafgarh Drain is the capital’s most polluted body of water due to the direct inflow of untreated sewage from surrounding populated areas. Assessing the water quality of wetlands in wildlife habitats, a January 2005 report by the Central Pollution Control Board rated the Najafgarh Drain under category D, along with 13 other highly polluted wetlands.

text: The Najafgarh Drain or Najafgarh Nallah (nallah in

text: Hindi

text: means drain) is another name for the Sahibi River, which continues its flow through Delhi where it is channelised for flood control purposes. It is a tributary to the Yamuna River, into which it flows. The Najafgarh Drain gets its name from the once famous and huge

text: Najafgarh Lake

text: near the town of

text: Najafgarh

text: in southwest Delhi. The Najafgarh Drain is the capital’s most polluted body of water due to the direct inflow of untreated sewage from surrounding populated areas. Assessing the water quality of wetlands in wildlife habitats, a January 2005 report by the Central Pollution Control Board rated the Najafgarh Drain under category D, along with 13 other highly polluted wetlands.

text: Hayward stated that his job might be at risk as a result of the spill, saying "we made a few little mistakes early on." He received criticism for various statements he had made during the spill, including telling a camera man to "get out of there" during a photo-op on the shores of Louisiana. On 30 May, he told a reporter "we're sorry for the massive disruption it's caused to their lives. There's no one who wants this thing over more than I do, I'd like my life back." He was widely condemned for his comment which was perceived as selfish, and United States Representative Charlie Melancon (D-La.) called on Hayward to resign in the wake of this comment.</ref> He later apologised for the comment on BP America's Facebook Page.On 31 May, Hayward disputed claims of huge underwater plumes of oil suspended in the Gulf, as had been reported by scientists from three universities. Hayward said there was "no evidence" that plumes of oil were suspended under the sea, and that because it is lighter than water any plumes seen are just in the process of rising to the surface. A chemist from Louisiana State University agreed with this assessment. Still other scientists have suggested that the manner of expulsion of the oil from the well and the use of dispersants may have led to an emulsion situation in which the oil is suspended in water for some time.

text: Hayward stated that his job might be at risk as a result of the spill, saying "we made a few little mistakes early on." He received criticism for various statements he had made during the spill, including telling a camera man to "get out of there" during a photo-op on the shores of Louisiana. On 30 May, he told a reporter "we're sorry for the massive disruption it's caused to their lives. There's no one who wants this thing over more than I do, I'd like my life back." He was widely condemned for his comment which was perceived as selfish, and United States Representative

text: Charlie Melancon

text: (D-La.) called on Hayward to resign in the wake of this comment.</ref> He later apologised for the comment on BP America's Facebook Page.On 31 May, Hayward disputed claims of huge underwater plumes of oil suspended in the Gulf, as had been reported by scientists from three universities. Hayward said there was "no evidence" that plumes of oil were suspended under the sea, and that because it is lighter than water any plumes seen are just in the process of rising to the surface. A chemist from

text: Louisiana State University

text: agreed with this assessment. Still other scientists have suggested that the manner of expulsion of the oil from the well and the use of dispersants may have led to an emulsion situation in which the oil is suspended in water for some time.

text: Currently, the Tippecanoe darter is listed as vulnerable in Kentucky and imperiled in West Virginia and Pennsylvania.  The species is extremely vulnerable to turbidity and siltation.  In parts of the species native range where it is considered threatened, streamside management is an important tool.  Improper forestry practices, mining, and road construction are all threats to the reproductive health of the species.  The Clean Water Act is the most important piece of legislation for this species.  Another bill regulating nonpoint source pollution is pending a vote in Congress and could also help the Tippecanoe darter.Indiana uses a common approach to address nonpoint source pollution known as the watershed approach, which assesses the total geographic area that drains storm water (and pollutants) into a particular stream, lake, aquifer, or other water body.  This attempts to quantify all potential sources of pollution within a watershed.

text: Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged vulnerable ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the Galapagos Islands, France, the Sundarbans, Ogoniland, and many other places. The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz), but volume is a limited barometer of damage or impact. Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill because of the remoteness of the site or the difficulty of an emergency environmental response.

text: Crude oil and refined fuel spills from

text: tanker ship

text: accidents have damaged vulnerable

text: ecosystem

text: s in

text: Alaska

text: , the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: France

text: , the

text: Sundarbans

text: , Ogoniland, and many

text: other places

text: . The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g.,

text: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

text: Atlantic Empress

text: Amoco Cadiz

text: ), but volume is a limited barometer of damage or impact. Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: because of the remoteness of the site or the difficulty of an emergency environmental response.

text: Exhaust gases from ships are considered to be a significant source of air pollution, both for conventional pollutants and greenhouse gases.

text: Exhaust gas

text: es from ships are considered to be a significant source of

text: air pollution

text: , both for conventional pollutants and greenhouse gases.

text: Much of the land surrounding the Detroit River is urbanized and, in some places, heavily industrialized. This has resulted in excessive water pollution from the unregulated dumping of chemicals and industrial waste for many decades. Much of the garbage and sewage from Detroit's rapid industrialization found its way into the river. Much of the Detroit River and its shoreline were heavily polluted and unsafe for recreational use. Large quantities of this pollution collected around the mouth of the Detroit River at Lake Erie. The pollutants were so high after the spring thaw that thousands of migrating birds were killed by oil slicks and contaminated water every year. Oxygen levels in the river were depleted to the point where fish were unable to inhabit its waters. Because much of this pollution drained into and affected Lake Erie, portions of the lake itself were considered “dead” and unable to support aquatic life. Swimming in the water or consuming any of its remaining fish were considered health risks.

text: water pollution

text: Lake Erie

text: . The pollutants were so high after the spring thaw that thousands of migrating birds were killed by oil slicks and contaminated water every year. Oxygen levels in the river were depleted to the point where fish were unable to inhabit its waters. Because much of this pollution drained into and affected Lake Erie, portions of the lake itself were considered “dead” and unable to support aquatic life. Swimming in the water or consuming any of its remaining fish were considered health risks.

text: Other environmental issues are that the river is purportedly becoming marshy. The water lily, torfaceous snowdrop, and white Kamchia lily are also disappearing according to the World Wildlife Fund. The Storage Battery Plant in Targovishte is a significant polluter, (spilling heavy metals), of the Kamchia River.

text: Other environmental issues are that the river is purportedly becoming marshy. The water lily, torfaceous snowdrop, and white Kamchia lily are also disappearing according to the

text: World Wildlife Fund

text: . The Storage Battery Plant in Targovishte is a significant polluter, (spilling heavy metals), of the Kamchia River.

text: Lower down three dams intercept the greatest part of water, creating businesses which pollute it. The first dam is where woodworking enterprise pollute the water. The second dam is cleaner, but on its banks there are various industrial buildings. Behind the second dam Sviyaga becomes a small streamlet and then in Kuzovatovo becomes a small river proceeding for some kilometers on wide floodplains. Here the upper part of Sviyaga is deeper because of an abundance of springs from underground aquifers.

text: The river has suffered from decades upon decades of industrial pollution, although cleanups following the Clean Water Act mean that pollution is vastly improved from the 1950s and 1960s.

text: The river has suffered from decades upon decades of

text: industrial pollution

text: , although cleanups following the

text: Clean Water Act

text: mean that pollution is vastly improved from the 1950s and 1960s.

text: The spring, located in the middle of the settled area, contains high-quality water. Polluting the spring is forbidden, as are economic or industrial activity within the protected zone. Cleaning the bed of the spring is permitted. The streams feed the rivers of the area and provide water for the population.

text: Water pollution typically occurs due to the discharge of effluent into water systems, improper landfill techniques, flooding of urban areas resulting in pollution from urban run-off, and agricultural practices. For example, the cities La Rioja and Catamarca have constraints on expansion of freshwater supplies forcing the residents to use only water they have available even if it is contaminated. The lack of piped water and sewage can exacerbate the water pollution problem through excessive contamination from excrements. For example, communities having 5,000-10,000 residents and urban centers with 200,000-500,000 residents have 90% and 60% of those respective residents that lack connection to sewers.

text: Water pollution typically occurs due to the discharge of effluent into water systems, improper landfill techniques, flooding of urban areas resulting in pollution from urban run-off, and agricultural practices. For example, the cities

text: La Rioja

text: and

text: Catamarca

text: have constraints on expansion of freshwater supplies forcing the residents to use only water they have available even if it is contaminated. The lack of piped water and sewage can exacerbate the water pollution problem through excessive contamination from excrements. For example, communities having 5,000-10,000 residents and urban centers with 200,000-500,000 residents have 90% and 60% of those respective residents that lack connection to sewers.

text: Zhao Lianhai was a worker who defended the victims of the 2008 Chinese milk scandal.  On December 29, 2010 Wang Guangya said that because of the One country, two systems Hong Kong should not interfere with the issue.  He then made the controversial statement, "well water (HK) should not pollute the river water (China)" (). Pro-Beijing member Ip Kwok-him then tried to defend the director by saying that HK citizens were only concerned about mainland affairs, and that they do care about One country two systems as well as the mainland justice system. Chief Secretary for Administration Henry Tang was asked to interpret what the water-river statement meant. He only smiled and did not answer.  The phrase was first used by former CPC General Secretary Jiang Zemin in December 1989 when he met the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.  He previously said "Well water should not pollute river water, river water should not pollute well water."

text: Zhao Lianhai

text: was a worker who defended the victims of the

text: 2008 Chinese milk scandal

text: .  On December 29, 2010 Wang Guangya said that because of the

text: One country, two systems

text: Hong Kong should not interfere with the issue.  He then made the controversial statement, "well water (HK) should not pollute the river water (China)" (). Pro-Beijing member

text: Ip Kwok-him

text: then tried to defend the director by saying that HK citizens were only concerned about mainland affairs, and that they do care about One country two systems as well as the mainland justice system.

text: Chief Secretary for Administration

text: Henry Tang

text: was asked to interpret what the water-river statement meant. He only smiled and did not answer.  The phrase was first used by former

entity_name: General Secretary of the Communist Party of China

text: CPC General Secretary

text: Jiang Zemin

text: in December 1989 when he met the

text: Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

text: .  He previously said "Well water should not pollute river water, river water should not pollute well water."

text: The major water issue in Switzerland is water pollution from the increased use of agricultural fertilizers as well as hydrocarbon pollution from transport and industry. While improvements have been made, there are still issues with eutrophication (an increase in nitrogen and phosphates) in many lakes in the Swiss Plateau.

text: The major water issue in Switzerland is

text: water pollution

text: from the increased use of agricultural fertilizers as well as

text: hydrocarbon

text: pollution from transport and industry. While improvements have been made, there are still issues with

text: eutrophication

text: (an increase in nitrogen and phosphates) in many lakes in the Swiss Plateau.

text: If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater source may become saline.  This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated farmland.  In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization.  Humans can also cause groundwater to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution.  Humans can increase the input to a groundwater source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.

text: If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a groundwater source may become

text: saline

text: .  This situation can occur naturally under

text: endorheic

text: bodies of water, or artificially under

text: irrigated

text: farmland.  In coastal areas, human use of a groundwater source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause

text: soil salinization

text: .  Humans can also cause groundwater to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution.  Humans can increase the input to a groundwater source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.

text: Air pollution from industry and transportation and water pollution are especially acute in urban centers. In 1996, Chile's industrial carbon dioxide emissions totaled 48.7 million metric tons. Untreated sewage poses the major threat to the nation's water quality. As of 2001, Chile had 928 cu km of renewable water resources. While 99% of its urban dwellers have pure drinking water, only 58% of its rural dwellers have the same access.

text: The Market for Liberty, published in 1970, stated that "as companies drilling for off-shore oil have proved, there is no reason why a piece of land cannot be owned and used simply because it is covered by water." In proposing privatization, Walter Block stated that "there are vast areas of human existence where private property rights play no role at all: oceans, seas, rivers and other bodies of water. But why should we expect that there would be any better results from such 'water socialism' than we have experienced from socialism on land?" Murray Rothbard's For a New Liberty likewise notes, "Anyone can capture fish in the ocean, or extract its resources, but only on the run, only as hunters and gatherers. No one can farm the ocean, no one can engage in aquaculture. In this way we are deprived of the use of the immense fish and mineral resources of the seas...Even now there is a simple but effective technique that could be used for increasing fish productivity: parts of the ocean could be fenced off electronically, and through this readily available electronic fencing, fish could be segregated by size. By preventing big fish from eating smaller fish, the production of fish could be increased enormously." Mary Ruwart's Healing Our World states, "Owners would also be more likely to invest in artificial reefs to bolster the fish population. Whalers could operate only with the permission of the owners, much as hunters must request permission to stalk deer on privately owned land. Ocean owners profit most by making sure that the valuable species in their region are not hunted to extinction." Much as ownership of land also, under the common law, included ownership of all the airspace above him upward indefinitely unto the heavens and downward into the center of the earth, and causing polluted air to enter another person's airspace would constitute aggression, causing polluted water to enter waters owned by another person would constitute aggression that would be legally treated as such, under an anarcho-capitalist system.

text: The Market for Liberty

text: , published in 1970, stated that "as companies drilling for off-shore oil have proved, there is no reason why a piece of land cannot be owned and used simply because it is covered by water." In proposing privatization,

text: Walter Block

text: stated that "there are vast areas of human existence where private property rights play no role at all: oceans, seas, rivers and other bodies of water. But why should we expect that there would be any better results from such 'water socialism' than we have experienced from

text: socialism

text: on land?"

text: Murray Rothbard

text: 's

text: For a New Liberty

text: likewise notes, "Anyone can capture fish in the ocean, or extract its resources, but only on the run, only as

text: hunters and gatherers

text: . No one can farm the ocean, no one can engage in

text: aquaculture

text: . In this way we are deprived of the use of the immense fish and mineral resources of the seas...Even now there is a simple but effective technique that could be used for increasing fish productivity: parts of the ocean could be fenced off electronically, and through this readily available

text: electronic fencing

text: , fish could be segregated by size. By preventing big fish from eating smaller fish, the production of fish could be increased enormously."

text: Mary Ruwart

text: 's

text: Healing Our World

text: states, "Owners would also be more likely to invest in

text: artificial reef

text: s to bolster the fish population.

text: Whaler

text: s could operate only with the permission of the owners, much as hunters must request permission to stalk deer on privately owned land. Ocean owners profit most by making sure that the valuable species in their region are not hunted to extinction." Much as ownership of land also, under the

text: common law

text: , included ownership of all the airspace above him upward indefinitely unto the heavens and downward into the center of the earth, and causing polluted air to enter another person's airspace would constitute

text: aggression

text: , causing polluted water to enter waters owned by another person would constitute aggression that would be legally treated as such, under an

text: anarcho-capitalist

text: system.

text: Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.

text: Pollution is the introduction of

text: contaminant

text: s into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of

text: chemical substance

text: s or

text: energy

text: , such as noise, heat or light.

text: Pollutant

text: s, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as

text: point source

text: or

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: The City has a Shoreland Ordinance, which is typical of communities in Minnesota with lakes.  The text of the Ordinance states that uncontrolled use of shorelands of the City affects the public health, safety and general welfare by contributing to pollution of public waters. The purpose of the ordinance is to protect the public's health, safety, and welfare, and to provide for the wise development of shorelands of public waters. The Minnesota Legislature has delegated responsibility to the municipalities of the State to regulate the subdivision, use, and development of the shorelands of public waters, and thus preserve and enhance the quality of surface waters, preserve the economic and natural environmental values of shorelands, and provide for the wise utilization of waters and related land resources.  The State has not, however, required that the delegated responsibility be exercised with respect to enforcement of the corresponding laws, ordinances, and regulations, nor does the State require that the municipality have an established administrative sanction (fine) process at its disposal for the punishment of violators.

text: Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the source and the water is a successful means of prevention. Riparian buffer zones are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land, and have been created near waterways in an attempt to filter pollutants; sediment and nutrients are deposited here instead of in water. Creating buffer zones near farms and roads is another possible way to prevent nutrients from traveling too far. Still, studies have shown that the effects of atmospheric nitrogen pollution can reach far past the buffer zone. This suggests that the most effective means of prevention is from the primary source.

text: Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the source and the water is a successful means of prevention.

text: Riparian buffer zones

text: are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land, and have been created near waterways in an attempt to filter pollutants;

text: sediment

text: and nutrients are deposited here instead of in water. Creating buffer zones near farms and roads is another possible way to prevent nutrients from traveling too far. Still, studies have shown that the effects of atmospheric nitrogen pollution can reach far past the buffer zone. This suggests that the most effective means of prevention is from the primary source.

text: Point source water pollution is a source of concern along the US-Mexico border as pollutants from both countries are entering shared waterways due to agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, and untreated sewage. Various policy issues arise in attempting to deal with this and include:

text: Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included  under the category of NPS pollution. However, because this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, it becomes a point source.

text: Contaminated storm water washed off of

text: parking lot

text: s, roads and highways, called

text: urban runoff

text: , is sometimes included  under the category of NPS pollution. However, because this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, it becomes a point source.

text: Oil pollution toxicity to marine fish has been observed from oil spills such as the Exxon Valdez disaster, and from nonpoint sources, such as runoff, which is the largest source of oil pollution in marine waters. Crude oil entering waterways from spills or runoff contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most toxic components of oil. The route of PAH uptake into fish depends on many environmental factors and the properties of the PAH. The common routes are ingestion, ventilation of the gills, and dermal uptake. Fish exposed to these PAHs exhibit an array of toxic effects including genetic damage, morphological deformities, altered growth and development, decreased body size, inhibited swimming abilities and mortality. The morphological deformities of PAH exposure, such as fin and jaw malformations, result in significantly reduced survival in fish due to the reduction of swimming and feeding abilities. While the exact mechanism of PAH toxicity is unknown, there are four proposed mechanisms. The difficulty in finding a specific toxic mechanism is largely due to the wide variety of PAH compounds with differing properties.

text: Oil pollution toxicity to marine fish has been observed from oil spills such as the Exxon Valdez disaster, and from nonpoint sources, such as runoff, which is the largest source of oil pollution in marine waters. Crude oil entering waterways from spills or runoff contain

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: s (PAHs), the most toxic components of oil. The route of PAH uptake into fish depends on many environmental factors and the properties of the PAH. The common routes are ingestion, ventilation of the gills, and dermal uptake. Fish exposed to these PAHs exhibit an array of toxic effects including genetic damage, morphological deformities, altered growth and development, decreased body size, inhibited swimming abilities and mortality. The morphological deformities of PAH exposure, such as fin and jaw malformations, result in significantly reduced survival in fish due to the reduction of swimming and feeding abilities. While the exact mechanism of PAH toxicity is unknown, there are four proposed mechanisms. The difficulty in finding a specific toxic mechanism is largely due to the wide variety of PAH compounds with differing properties.

text: A variety of factors affect the water and coastline of Lebanon, including marine pollution and the environmental impact of shipping. A list of such factors includes oil spills, noxious liquid substances spills, sewage spills, and the dumping of radioactive and medical waste.

text: A variety of factors affect the water and coastline of Lebanon, including

text: marine pollution

text: and the

text: environmental impact of shipping

text: . A list of such factors includes oil spills, noxious liquid substances spills, sewage spills, and the dumping of

text: radioactive

text: and

text: medical waste

text: Section 208 was Congress' first attempt to regulate NPS water pollution, and it directed states and local governments to create management plans that identified future waste treatment needs and identify and control NPS water pollution. The section notes that any areawide management plan must discuss how to identify “agriculturally and silviculturally related nonpoint sources of pollution,” and “runoff from manure disposal areas, and from land used for livestock and crop production.” Section 208 is in essence a federal funding mechanism for state programs that attempt to control NPS pollution, but its meager funding was completely used up by 1980. Section 208 was widely considered a failure because it did little to actually reduce NPS pollution. It created a voluntary provision that directs states to study whether regulatory controls are needed. The section placed full control over regulation of NPS water pollution with the states and did not provide any mechanisms to actually control NPS water pollution.

text: In developed areas, natural depressions where storm water would pool, are filled in. The surface of the ground is often leveled or paved. Storm water is directed into storm drains which often may cause overflows of combined sewer systems or poisoning, erosion or flooding of waterways receiving the storm water runoff. Redirected storm water is often warmer than the groundwater normally feeding a stream, and has been linked to upset in some aquatic ecosystems primarily through the reduction of dissolved oxygen (DO). Storm water runoff is also a source of a wide variety of pollutants washed off hard or compacted surfaces during rain events. These pollutants include volatile organic compounds, pesticides, herbicides, hydrocarbons and trace metals Rain gardens are designed to capture the initial flow of storm water and reduce the accumulation of toxins flowing directly into natural waterways through ground filtration. They also reduce energy consumption. For example, “the cumulative storage capacity of these rain gardens exceeds a conventional stormwater’s system’s by 10 times.” The National Science Foundation, the United States Environmental Protection Agency, and a number of research institutions are presently studying the impact of augmenting rain gardens with materials capable of capture or chemical reduction of the pollutants to benign compounds.

text: In developed areas, natural

text: depressions

text: where

text: storm water

text: would pool, are filled in. The surface of the ground is often

text: leveled

text: or paved. Storm water is directed into

text: storm drain

text: s which often may cause overflows of

text: combined sewer

text: systems or poisoning, erosion or flooding of waterways receiving the storm water runoff. Redirected storm water is often warmer than the

text: groundwater

text: normally feeding a stream, and has been linked to upset in some aquatic ecosystems primarily through the reduction of

text: dissolved oxygen

text: (DO). Storm water runoff is also a source of a wide variety of pollutants washed off hard or compacted surfaces during rain events. These pollutants include

text: volatile organic compounds

text: pesticides

text: herbicides

text: hydrocarbons

text: and

text: trace metals

text: Rain gardens are designed to capture the initial flow of storm water and reduce the accumulation of toxins flowing directly into natural waterways through ground filtration. They also reduce energy consumption. For example, “the cumulative storage capacity of these rain gardens exceeds a conventional stormwater’s system’s by 10 times.” The

text: National Science Foundation

text: , the

text: , and a number of research institutions are presently studying the impact of augmenting rain gardens with materials capable of capture or

text: chemical reduction

text: of the pollutants to benign compounds.

text: While Polaris is designed primarily for icebreaking duties, she has a secondary role as an oil spill response vessel. The new icebreaker is fitted with equipment for mechanical recovery of spilled oil from the sea in both open water and ice conditions. The permanently installed advancing system and the stern-mounted brush skimmers are similar to the recovery systems fitted on latest Finnish oil spill response vessels such as the 2011-built pollution control vessel Louhi and 2014-built offshore patrol vessel Turva. The recovery tanks have a total capacity of .

text: While Polaris is designed primarily for icebreaking duties, she has a secondary role as an oil spill response vessel. The new icebreaker is fitted with equipment for mechanical recovery of spilled oil from the sea in both open water and ice conditions. The permanently installed advancing system and the stern-mounted brush skimmers are similar to the recovery systems fitted on latest Finnish oil spill response vessels such as the 2011-built

text: pollution control vessel Louhi

text: and 2014-built

text: offshore patrol vessel Turva

text: . The recovery tanks have a total capacity of .

text: According to a ITOPF study, 91% of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill. Lebanese public opinion and Lebanese authorities do not react to these minor spills occurring by the merchant ships calling the Lebanese ports. Being without inspection, and discharging close to the shore, oil Tankers are polluting  the coast of Amsheet, Beirut, Jieh, Tripoli, Zahrani and Zouk. These pollutions have a direct effect on the marine life in these regions. Also, big cargo ships coming to Lebanon transport the equivalent oil volume of small tankers, and are polluting essentially from their machinery space. See Marpol Annex I.

text: According to a

text: ITOPF study

text: , 91% of the operational oil spills are small, resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill. Lebanese public opinion and Lebanese authorities do not react to these minor spills occurring by the

text: merchant ships

text: calling the Lebanese ports. Being without inspection, and discharging close to the shore, oil Tankers are polluting  the coast of

text: Amsheet

text: Beirut

text: Jieh

text: Tripoli

text: , Zahrani and

text: Zouk

text: . These pollutions have a direct effect on the marine life in these regions. Also, big

text: cargo ships

text: coming to Lebanon transport the equivalent oil volume of small tankers, and are polluting essentially from their

text: machinery space

text: . See

text: Marpol Annex I

text: In 1962 Stoddart moved to a small community, Groton in Massachusetts from Nevada with their three children.  Her home in Groton was only three quarters of a mile from the Nashua River, which by then was already known to be highly polluted, and even dangerous. Organizing the Nashua River Clean Up committee she enlisted the help of thousands of ordinary citizens. She met with Massachusetts Governor John Volpe, Fitchburg Mayor William Flynn, plus executives of the paper mills which were polluting the river. Through her tireless efforts Stoddart was able to get the first anti-water pollution bill enacted by any state in the US: the 1965 Massachusetts Clean Water Act.

text: In 1962 Stoddart moved to a small community,

text: Groton

text: in Massachusetts from Nevada with their three children.  Her home in Groton was only three quarters of a mile from the Nashua River, which by then was already known to be highly polluted, and even dangerous. Organizing the Nashua River Clean Up committee she enlisted the help of thousands of ordinary citizens. She met with Massachusetts Governor John Volpe, Fitchburg Mayor William Flynn, plus executives of the paper mills which were polluting the river. Through her tireless efforts Stoddart was able to get the first anti-water pollution bill enacted by any state in the US: the 1965 Massachusetts Clean Water Act.

text: The major environmental issues in Tajikistan are concentrations of agricultural chemicals and salts in the soil and groundwater, pockets of high air pollution caused by industry and motor vehicles, water pollution from agricultural runoff and disposal of untreated industrial waste and sewage, poor management of water resources, and soil erosion.

text: The major environmental issues in Tajikistan are concentrations of agricultural chemicals and salts in the soil and groundwater, pockets of high

text: air pollution

text: caused by industry and motor vehicles,

text: water pollution

text: from agricultural

text: runoff

text: and disposal of untreated

text: industrial waste

text: and sewage, poor management of water resources, and

text: soil erosion

text: The water in the Cheetham Wetlands is dependent on the pumping of water from Skeleton Creek. Pumping of water from the estuary must continue for the wetlands to flourish and maintain diversity in habitats as well as fauna species. Pollution of waterways and lakes is a real threat to the biodiversity of the parklands. Pollutants from sewage discharge points in Port Phillip Bay include elevated levels of Nitrogen. Other pollutants that need to be reduced come from storm-water runoff, such as heavy metals, oils, and litter. There is also the potential threat of pollutants in runoff after heavy rainfall events, which can include biocides, sediments and nutrients. This can lead to blooms of blue-green algae if nutrient levels are high. Pumping of water from the Skeleton Creek during periods of high runoff may lead to the accumulation of these pollutants in the wetlands. Litter, especially plastics have the potential to harm or kill wildlife in the park and in the marine sanctuary as waterbirds and marine mammals often consume or get trapped in these plastic that don’t break down.

text: The water in the Cheetham Wetlands is dependent on the pumping of water from Skeleton Creek. Pumping of water from the estuary must continue for the wetlands to flourish and maintain diversity in habitats as well as fauna species.

text: Pollution

text: of waterways and lakes is a real threat to the

text: biodiversity

text: of the parklands. Pollutants from sewage discharge points in Port Phillip Bay include elevated levels of Nitrogen. Other pollutants that need to be reduced come from storm-water runoff, such as heavy metals, oils, and litter. There is also the potential threat of pollutants in runoff after heavy rainfall events, which can include biocides, sediments and nutrients. This can lead to blooms of blue-green algae if nutrient levels are high. Pumping of water from the Skeleton Creek during periods of high runoff may lead to the accumulation of these pollutants in the wetlands.

text: Litter

text: , especially plastics have the potential to harm or kill wildlife in the park and in the marine sanctuary as waterbirds and marine mammals often consume or get trapped in these plastic that don’t break down.

text: The Kuwaiti oil fires in addition to continued pollution from the oil industry not only threaten water quality but also have made some water sources unusable.  When the fires occurred, the ash that responsible for health problems settled in water sources, such as reservoirs, streams and fresh water storages for desalination plants. In addition, much of the oil burned, released chemicals into the Earth that seeped into underground water aquifers. Humans and nonhumans depend on these sources, supported by aquifers, thus making pollution consequential to the health of many species.

text: This method of finding the ocean is successful in natural beaches, but in developed beaches, the intense artificial lights from buildings, light houses, and even abandoned fires overwhelm the sea turtles and cause them to head towards the artificial light instead of the ocean. Scientists call this misorientation. Sea turtles can also become disoriented and circle around in the same place. Numerous cases show that misoriented hatchling sea turtles either die from dehydration, get consumed by a predator, or even burn to death in an abandoned fire. The direct impact of light pollution on the number of sea turtles has been too difficult to measure. However, this problem is exacerbated because all species of sea turtles are endangered. Other animals, including migratory birds and insects, are also victims to light pollution because they also depend on light intensity at night to properly orient themselves. (See Threats to sea turtles for more information.)

text: This method of finding the ocean is successful in natural beaches, but in developed beaches, the intense artificial lights from buildings, light houses, and even abandoned fires overwhelm the sea turtles and cause them to head towards the artificial light instead of the ocean. Scientists call this misorientation. Sea turtles can also become disoriented and circle around in the same place. Numerous cases show that misoriented hatchling sea turtles either die from dehydration, get consumed by a predator, or even burn to death in an abandoned fire. The direct impact of

text: light pollution

text: on the number of sea turtles has been too difficult to measure. However, this problem is exacerbated because all species of sea turtles are endangered. Other animals, including migratory birds and insects, are also victims to light pollution because they also depend on light intensity at night to properly orient themselves. (See

text: Threats to sea turtles

text: for more information.)

text: The IJkdijk is a facility in the Netherlands to test dikes and to develop sensor network technologies for early warning systems. Furthermore, the sensor network will be able to detect many water-related environmental factors that affect the health of humans such as pollution and biological changes. Disasters on rivers and coastal waters are also detected.

text: The IJkdijk is a facility in the

text: Netherlands

text: to test

text: dikes

text: and to develop

text: sensor

text: network technologies for

text: early warning systems

text: . Furthermore, the sensor network will be able to detect many water-related environmental factors that affect the health of humans such as pollution and biological changes. Disasters on rivers and coastal waters are also detected.

text: At the south end of the Bluff is the South Durban Basin (as the area is known) there are five main residential suburbs: Austerville, Merebank, Merewent, Stanvac and Treasure Beach. Interspersed among the houses are a number of industries, including two of South Africa’s largest oil refineries (Sapref and Engen facilities), the Mondi paper mill and other smaller factories. Durban's main airport was located here until 2010. Durban International Airport changed both its location and its name for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, relocating from the South Durban Basin to just before Ballito, on the North Coast. The mixture of residential homes and large industries in the basin creates a challenge for all those who live and work in the area. Air pollution, water pollution, overcrowding and litter are some of the problems that residents and industries work to resolve.

text: In 2007, The City of Meycauayan and the neighboring town of Marilao in Bulacan province share a slot in the list of the world’s 30 most polluted places in the developing world drawn up by a private New York-based institute. In its report, “The World’s Worst Polluted Places” for 2007, the Blacksmith Institute said: “Industrial waste is haphazardly dumped into the Meycauayan, Marilao and Obando River system, a source of drinking and agricultural water supplies for the 250,000 people living in and around” the Meycauayan-Marilao area. Meycauayan also shares border with Caloocan City.

text: Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes. The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.

entity_name: United States regulation of point source water pollution

text: Point source water pollution

text: refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a

text: pipe

text: or

text: ditch

text: . Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a

text: sewage treatment

text: plant, a factory, or a city

text: storm drain

text: . The U.S.

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA) defines point source for

text: regulatory

text: enforcement purposes. The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.

text: The use of passive sampling devices, such as the Chemcatcher®, and the polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS), have a number of advantages over the use of spot or bottle sampling for monitoring pollutants in the aquatic environment. The latter technique gives only an instantaneous concentration of the pollutant as the specific time of sampling. Passive samplers, depending on their mode of use can give either the TWA or equilibrium concentration of the pollutant over the deployment period. The measurement of TWA concentrations give a better indication of the long-term environmental conditions and enables improved risk assessment. Such devices have potential roles in monitoring programmes such as those underpinning the European Union’s Water Framework Directive and Marine Strategy Framework Directive. An ISO standard concerning the use of passive samplers for the determination of priority pollutants in surface waters is available for end users of this technology.

text: The use of passive sampling devices, such as the Chemcatcher®, and the

entity_name: Polar organic chemical integrative sampler

text: polar organic chemical integrative sampler

text: (POCIS), have a number of advantages over the use of spot or bottle sampling for

text: monitoring pollutants in the aquatic environment

text: . The latter technique gives only an instantaneous concentration of the pollutant as the specific time of sampling. Passive samplers, depending on their mode of use can give either the TWA or equilibrium concentration of the pollutant over the deployment period. The measurement of TWA concentrations give a better indication of the long-term environmental conditions and enables improved risk assessment. Such devices have potential roles in monitoring programmes such as those underpinning the European Union’s

text: Water Framework Directive

text: and Marine Strategy Framework Directive. An

entity_name: International Organization for Standardization

text: ISO standard

text: concerning the use of passive samplers for the determination of priority pollutants in surface waters is available for end users of this technology.

text: The University of Washington's Climate Impacts Group (CIG) has worked to study the factors that affect the coastal regions. One prominent area of focus for CIG is forestry practices. To help protect coastal waters, there has been a reforestation act that states that satisfactory reforestation must take place within need a number here? years after logging.  How does this citation correspond to what is cited? And what would be considered “satisfactory reforestation?” Research results suggests that as forest cover decreases to a point where less than 65% of the forest has surface cover greater than 10%, the conditions stray outside the norm.   Despite the research, there is still much uncertainty as to how pollution and logging will affect the climate.

text: The University of Washington's Climate Impacts Group (CIG) has worked to study the factors that affect the coastal regions. One prominent area of focus for CIG is

text: forestry

text: practices. To help protect coastal waters, there has been a reforestation act that states that satisfactory

text: reforestation

text: must take place within need a number here? years after logging.  How does this citation correspond to what is cited? And what would be considered “satisfactory reforestation?” Research results suggests that as forest cover decreases to a point where less than 65% of the forest has surface cover greater than 10%, the conditions stray outside the norm.   Despite the research, there is still much uncertainty as to how

text: pollution

text: and

text: logging

text: will affect the climate.

text: Air pollution is a significant problem in the municipality as it is in the rest of Mexico City. Most comes from vehicular traffic and industry; it includes ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide as well as suspended particles. Noise pollution is caused by industry and truck traffic. Although the municipality has no surface water, water pollution in its drainage is a problem from residential areas and industry. Industry contamination is mostly in the form of poor water use and the dumping of prime materials often from cleaning and includes organic matter, grease, soaps and detergents, dyes, solvents and more. Solid waste production is a problem from industrial and residential sources. The amount of waste produced in the municipality has grown almost seven-fold since the 1980s at a current rate of 571 tons per day.

text: Air pollution is a significant problem in the municipality as it is in the rest of Mexico City. Most comes from vehicular traffic and industry; it includes

text: ozone

text: carbon monoxide

text: nitrogen oxide

text: and

text: sulfur dioxide

text: as well as suspended particles. Noise pollution is caused by industry and truck traffic. Although the municipality has no surface water, water pollution in its drainage is a problem from residential areas and industry. Industry contamination is mostly in the form of poor water use and the dumping of prime materials often from cleaning and includes organic matter, grease, soaps and detergents, dyes, solvents and more. Solid waste production is a problem from industrial and residential sources. The amount of waste produced in the municipality has grown almost seven-fold since the 1980s at a current rate of 571 tons per day.

text: •Pollution in the Coastal Arctic

text: •Pollution in the Coastal Arctic

text: The construction of Shasta Dam and its afterbay (regulating downstream dam), Keswick Dam, in 1943 and 1950, respectively, severely impaired the capability of the Sacramento River to flush away pollutants from the mine. Acid mine drainage flowed, unfettered, down Spring Creek directly into the Keswick Reservoir, depositing contaminated sediment and turning a portion of the water a rusty red shade. Previously, the water would have continued down the creek into the river, and flushed to the Pacific Ocean. The pooling of the water, however, made it extremely difficult for the pollutants to be removed. From 1955 to 1962, open pit mining began on the site. At its peak, the mine discharged 5 tons of iron,  of copper, and  of zinc into the stream per day. By then, the water flowing down the drainage was so contaminated that it necessitated the construction of a holding dam, the Spring Creek Dam.

text: The construction of

text: Shasta Dam

text: and its afterbay (regulating downstream dam), Keswick Dam, in 1943 and 1950, respectively, severely impaired the capability of the Sacramento River to flush away pollutants from the mine.

text: Acid mine drainage

text: flowed, unfettered, down Spring Creek directly into the Keswick Reservoir, depositing contaminated sediment and turning a portion of the water a rusty red shade. Previously, the water would have continued down the creek into the river, and flushed to the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: . The pooling of the water, however, made it extremely difficult for the pollutants to be removed. From 1955 to 1962,

text: open pit mining

text: began on the site. At its peak, the mine discharged 5 tons of

text: iron

text: ,  of

text: copper

text: , and  of

text: zinc

text: into the stream per day. By then, the water flowing down the drainage was so contaminated that it necessitated the construction of a holding dam, the Spring Creek Dam.

text: Ott was working in Cordova, Alaska in 1989 when the Exxon Valdez was grounded onto the nearby Bligh Reef. The subsequent oil spill (then the largest in U.S. history) had major ramifications for the local ecosystem and for Cordova. Ott participated in the legal response to Exxon and became an activist and organizer. As a marine biologist and participant in the fishing industry, Ott quickly became a key spokesperson for those affected by the spill. She helped to draft parts of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, which authorized the creation of the Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council and called for the introduction of double-hull oil tankers.

text: Ott was working in

text: Cordova

text: , Alaska in 1989 when the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: was grounded onto the nearby

text: Bligh Reef

text: . The subsequent

text: oil spill

text: (then the largest in U.S. history) had major ramifications for the local ecosystem and for Cordova. Ott participated in the legal response to Exxon and became an activist and organizer. As a marine biologist and participant in the fishing industry, Ott quickly became a key spokesperson for those affected by the spill. She helped to draft parts of the

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: , which authorized the creation of the Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council and called for the introduction of double-hull oil tankers.

text: Hazardous materials encapsulated within tires and other items of illegally dumped rubbish can leach into water sources, contaminate the soil and pollute the air.

text: Hazardous materials encapsulated within tires and other items of illegally dumped rubbish can

text: leach

text: into water sources,

text: contaminate

text: the soil and

text: pollute

text: the air.

text: Atmospheric inputs of pollution into the air can come from multiple sources. Typically, industrial facilities, like factories, emit air pollution via a smokestack. Although this is a point source, due to the distributional nature, long-range transport, and multiple sources of the pollution, it is considered a nonpoint source. Additionally, atmospheric pollution can become water pollution, by being washed out of the atmosphere in the form of rain or snow.

text: Atmospheric inputs of pollution into the air can come from multiple sources. Typically, industrial facilities, like

text: factories

text: , emit air pollution via a

text: smokestack

text: . Although this is a point source, due to the distributional nature, long-range transport, and multiple sources of the pollution, it is considered a nonpoint source. Additionally, atmospheric pollution can become water pollution, by being washed out of the atmosphere in the form of rain or snow.

text: River conservation is threatened by pollution inflows from point and non-point sources. In the past rivers had been used for pollution discharges from factories and municipal sewerage plants.  With increasing environmental awareness and the passing of the Resource Management Act 1991, these sources of pollution are now less problematic. Water abstraction, especially for irrigation, is now a major threat to the character of rivers. An upsurge in conversion of land to dairy farming is stretching water resources. Also, since dairy farming is becoming more intensified in New Zealand and requires large amounts of water, the problem is therefore being exacerbated.

text: River conservation is threatened by pollution inflows from

text: point

text: and

text: non-point source

text: s. In the past rivers had been used for pollution discharges from factories and municipal sewerage plants.  With increasing environmental awareness and the passing of the

text: Resource Management Act 1991

text: , these sources of pollution are now less problematic. Water abstraction, especially for irrigation, is now a major threat to the character of rivers. An upsurge in conversion of land to

text: dairy farming

text: is stretching water resources. Also, since dairy farming is becoming more intensified in New Zealand and requires large amounts of water, the problem is therefore being exacerbated.

text: Worst Case Discharge (WCD) is a calculation used by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement to determine the maximum flow rate for an offshore oil well in the event of an oil spill. WCD first came to prominence in the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill to determine potential liability if another oil spill were to occur.

text: Worst Case Discharge (WCD) is a calculation used by the

text: Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement

text: to determine the maximum

text: flow rate

text: for an

text: offshore oil well

text: in the event of an

text: oil spill

text: . WCD first came to prominence in the aftermath of the

text: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

text: to determine potential liability if another oil spill were to occur.

text: The industrial park is located above the drainage basin of the Nahal Prat Nature Reserve and is therefore subject to rigorous standards on soil and water pollution. A water purification facility processes the park's waste water and the establishment of polluting heavy industry is prohibited.

text: The industrial park is located above the drainage basin of the

text: Nahal Prat

text: Nature Reserve and is therefore subject to rigorous standards on soil and water pollution. A water purification facility processes the park's waste water and the establishment of polluting heavy industry is prohibited.

text: In addition to the section 404 program, questions arise about impacts of the SWANCC ruling on other parts of the CWA, especially its principal permit program, the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) program under section 402. It requires permits for pollutant discharges from point sources (industrial facilities and municipal sewage plants) into the nation's waters. Another provision, section 311, concerns liability for oil discharges into the nation's waters. Neither of these was at issue in this case but might be challenged through extension of the ruling. The January 19 joint Corps-EPA memorandum states that federal implementation of any other CWA provision that involves "waters of the United States" will be governed by the same interpretation that applies to section 404. As a result, federal jurisdiction to require NPDES permits or assess oil spill liability in some isolated waters could be limited. These impacts will become clearer in time.

text: The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was introduced in the wake of the Exxon Valdez oil spill of 1989.  Under this legislation every ship entering United States waters has to prove evidence of its ability to pay for the consequences of oil pollution.

text: The

text: Oil Pollution Act of 1990

text: was introduced in the wake of the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: of 1989.  Under this legislation every ship entering United States waters has to prove evidence of its ability to pay for the consequences of

text: oil pollution

text: Seawater is invariably salty and, although its degree of saltiness (salinity) can vary, about 90% of the water in the ocean has 34– (1.2 oz.) of dissolved solids per liter, producing a salinity between 3.4 and 3.5%. To easily describe small differences, however, oceanographers usually express salinity as a millage (‰) or part per thousand (ppt) instead of using percents. The surface salinity of waters in the Northern Hemisphere are generally closer to the 34‰ mark, while those in the South are closer to 35‰. The solutes in ocean water come both from inflowing river water and from the ocean floor. The relative composition of the solutes is stable throughout the world's oceans: sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) make up about 85%. Other solutes include metal ions such as magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) and negative ions such as sulfate (SO₄), carbonate (CO₃), and bromides. In the absence of other pollution, seawater would not be harmful to drink except that it is much too saline; similarly, it cannot be used for irrigating most plants without being desalinated. For scientific and technical purposes, a standardized form of artificial seawater is often used.

text: Seawater is invariably salty and, although its degree of saltiness (salinity) can vary, about 90% of the water in the ocean has 34– (1.2

text: oz

text: .) of

text: dissolved solids

text: per

text: liter

text: , producing a salinity between 3.4 and 3.5%. To easily describe small differences, however, oceanographers usually express salinity as a

text: millage

text: (‰) or

text: part per thousand

text: (ppt) instead of using percents. The surface salinity of waters in the Northern Hemisphere are generally closer to the 34‰ mark, while those in the South are closer to 35‰. The solutes in ocean water come

text: both from inflowing river water and from the ocean floor

text: . The relative composition of the solutes is stable throughout the world's oceans:

text: sodium

text: (Na) and

text: chloride

text: (Cl) make up about 85%. Other solutes include

text: metal ions

text: such as

text: magnesium

text: (Mg) and

text: calcium

text: (Ca) and

text: negative ion

text: s such as

text: sulfate

text: carbonate

text: (CO₃), and

text: bromide

text: s. In the absence of

text: other pollution

text: , seawater would not be harmful to drink except that it is much too saline; similarly, it cannot be used for

text: irrigating

text: most

text: plant

text: s without being

text: desalinated

text: . For scientific and technical purposes, a standardized form of

text: artificial seawater

text: is often used.

text: The ADMS 3 (Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling System) is an advanced atmospheric pollution dispersion model for calculating concentrations of atmospheric pollutants emitted both continuously from point, line, volume and area sources, or intermittently from point sources. It was developed by Cambridge Environmental Research Consultants (CERC) of the UK in collaboration with the UK Meteorological Office, National Power plc (now INNOGY Holdings plc) and the University of Surrey. The first version of ADMS was released in 1993. The version of the ADMS model discussed on this page is version 3 and was released in February 1999. It runs on Microsoft Windows. The current release, ADMS 5 Service Pack 1, was released in April 2013 with a number of additional features.

text: The ADMS 3 (Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling System) is an advanced

text: atmospheric pollution dispersion model

text: for calculating concentrations of

text: atmospheric pollutants

text: emitted both

text: continuously

text: from

text: point, line, volume and area sources

text: , or

text: intermittently

text: from point sources. It was developed by Cambridge Environmental Research Consultants (CERC) of the UK in collaboration with the

text: UK Meteorological Office

text: National Power plc

text: (now INNOGY Holdings plc) and the

text: University of Surrey

text: . The first version of ADMS was released in 1993. The version of the ADMS model discussed on this page is version 3 and was released in February 1999. It runs on

text: Microsoft Windows

text: . The current release, ADMS 5 Service Pack 1, was released in April 2013 with a number of additional features.

text: In the areas surrounding urban centres, agriculture must compete with industry and municipal users for safe water supplies, while traditional water sources are becoming polluted with urban runoff. As cities offer the best opportunities for selling produce, farmers often have no alternative to using polluted water to irrigate their crops. Depending on how developed a city’s wastewater treatment is, there can be significant health hazards related to the use of this water. Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of pollutants. There is usually wastewater from kitchens and toilets along with rainwater runoff. This means that the water usually contains excessive levels of nutrients and salts, as well as a wide range of pathogens. Heavy metals may also be present, along with traces of antibiotics and endocrine disruptors, such as oestrogens.

text: In the areas surrounding urban centres,

text: agriculture

text: must compete with industry and municipal users for safe

text: water supplies

text: , while traditional water sources are becoming

text: polluted

text: with

text: urban runoff

text: . As cities offer the best opportunities for selling produce, farmers often have no alternative to using polluted water to

text: irrigate

text: their crops. Depending on how developed a city’s

text: wastewater treatment

text: is, there can be significant health hazards related to the use of this water. Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of pollutants. There is usually wastewater from kitchens and toilets along with

text: rainwater runoff

text: . This means that the water usually contains excessive levels of nutrients and salts, as well as a wide range of

text: pathogen

text: s.

text: Heavy metal

text: s may also be present, along with traces of

text: antibiotics

text: and

text: endocrine disruptor

text: s, such as oestrogens.

text: In many areas of the DRC, land use changes are associated with degradation of drinking water sources. The main threat to drinking water sources poses the unregulated growth of urban and rural areas. The nonexistence of drinking water protection zones results in the exposure of vulnerable source areas to pollution and land degradation. Springs, river intake zones, wellheads, priority lake and reservoir segments as well as aquifer recharge areas comprise the most endangered water source areas, which typically lack any form of identifiable demarcation and protection. Modification of runoff patterns, increased erosion and environmental degradation are the consequences of unregulated expansion of inhabited and agricultural areas. Development of housing, poor road construction, pit latrines, septic tanks, mining operations, and tailings are important contributors to pollution of water sources. In urban areas, industry, fuel stations, garages, abattoirs and storm water runoff are further sources of contamination. Biological contamination from sewage and solid waste disposal and increased suspended sediment loads are the two main sources of pollution.

text: In many areas of the DRC, land use changes are associated with degradation of drinking water sources. The main threat to drinking water sources poses the unregulated growth of urban and rural areas. The nonexistence of drinking water protection zones results in the exposure of vulnerable source areas to

text: pollution

text: and

text: land degradation

text: . Springs, river intake zones,

text: wellhead

text: s, priority lake and reservoir segments as well as

text: aquifer recharge areas

text: comprise the most endangered water source areas, which typically lack any form of identifiable demarcation and protection. Modification of

text: runoff

text: patterns, increased

text: erosion

text: and

text: environmental degradation

text: are the consequences of unregulated expansion of inhabited and agricultural areas. Development of housing, poor

text: road construction

text: pit latrine

text: s,

text: septic tank

text: s,

text: mining

text: operations, and

text: tailings

text: are important contributors to pollution of water sources. In urban areas, industry,

text: fuel stations

text: , garages,

text: abattoirs

text: and storm water runoff are further sources of

text: contamination

text: Biological contamination

text: from

text: sewage

text: and solid waste disposal and increased

text: suspended sediment

text: loads are the two main sources of pollution.

text: In the 1950s or earlier hydrology transport models appeared to calculate surface runoff, primarily for flood forecasting. Beginning in the early 1970s computer models were developed to analyze the transport of runoff carrying water pollutants, which considered dissolution rates of various chemicals, infiltration into soils and ultimate pollutant load delivered to receiving waters. One of the earliest models addressing chemical dissolution in runoff and resulting transport was developed in the early 1970s by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.  This computer model formed the basis of much of the regulatory framework that led to strategies for water pollution control via land use and chemical handling techniques.People produce so much trash that half of it goes in water sources.

text: In the 1950s or earlier

text: hydrology transport model

text: s appeared to calculate

text: surface runoff

text: , primarily for flood forecasting. Beginning in the early 1970s computer models were developed to analyze the transport of runoff carrying

text: water pollutant

text: s, which considered

text: dissolution

text: rates of various chemicals,

text: infiltration

text: into soils and ultimate pollutant load delivered to

text: receiving waters

text: . One of the earliest models addressing chemical dissolution in runoff and resulting transport was developed in the early 1970s by the

text: .  This

text: computer model

text: formed the basis of much of the regulatory framework that led to strategies for water pollution control via

text: land use

text: and chemical handling techniques.People produce so much trash that half of it goes in water sources.

text: Agricultural pollution refers to biotic and abiotic byproducts of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic interests. The pollution may come from a variety of sources, ranging from point source pollution (from a single discharge point) to more diffuse, landscape-level causes, also known as non-point source pollution. Management practices play a crucial role in the amount and impact of these pollutants. Management techniques range from animal management and housing to the spread of pesticides and fertilizers in global agricultural practices.

text: Agricultural pollution refers to

text: biotic

text: and

text: abiotic

text: byproducts of

text: farming

text: practices that result in

text: contamination or degradation

text: of the environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic interests. The pollution may come from a variety of sources, ranging from

text: point source pollution

text: (from a single discharge point) to more diffuse, landscape-level causes, also known as

text: non-point source pollution

text: . Management practices play a crucial role in the amount and impact of these pollutants. Management techniques range from animal management and housing to the spread of

text: pesticide

text: s and

text: fertilizer

text: s in global agricultural practices.

text: Iran has 1,786 kilometers of coastline on the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. These southern waters are rich in fish and other marine resources. In 2004 the catch off the southern coast totaled 299,000 tons. This represented an average annual increase of 12.6 percent since 1976. The southern catch either is used directly by households and restaurants or processed and preserved by industry. Expansion of the fishery infrastructure would enable the country to harvest an estimated 700,000 tons of fish annually from the southern waters. However, increased pollution from the oil industry and other enterprises poses a serious threat to this area’s fishing industry.

text: Marine cloud brightening activities would be furthered governed by the international law of sea, and particularly by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).  Parties to the UNCLOS are obligated to "protect and preserve the marine environment," including by preventing, reducing, and controlling pollution of the marine environment from any source. The "marine environment" is not defined but is widely interpreted as including the ocean's water, lifeforms, and the air above. "Pollution of the marine environment" is defined in a way that includes global warming and greenhouse gases. The UNCLOS could thus be interpreted as obligating it Parties to use methods such as marine cloud brightening if these were found to be effective and environmentally benign. Whether marine cloud brightening itself could be such pollution of the marine environment is unclear. At the same time, in combating pollution, Parties are "not to transfer, directly or indirectly, damage or hazards from one area to another or transform one type of pollution into another." If marine cloud brightening were found to cause damage or hazards, the UNCLOS could prohibit it. If marine cloud brightening activities were to be "marine scientific research" -- also an undefined term -- then UNCLOS Parties have a right to conduct the research, subject to some qualifications. Like all other ships, those that would conduct marine cloud brightening must bear the flag of the country that has given them permission to do so and to which the ship has a genuine link, even if the ship is unmanned or automated. The flagged state must exercise its jurisdiction over those ships. The legal implications would depend on, among other things, whether the activity were to occur in territorial waters, an exclusive economic zone (EEZ), or the high seas; and whether the activity was scientific research or not. Coastal states would need to approve any marine cloud brightening activities in their territorial waters. In the EEZ, the ship must comply with the coastal state's laws and regulations. It appears that the state conducting marine cloud brightening activities in another state's EEZ would not need the latter's permission, unless the activity were marine scientific research. In that case, the coastal state should grant permission in normal circumstances. States would be generally free to conduct marine cloud brightening activities on the high seas, provided that this is done with "due regard" for other states' interests. There is some legal unclarity regarding unmanned or automated ships.

text: Marine cloud brightening activities would be furthered governed by the international law of sea, and particularly by the

entity_name: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

text: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

text: territorial waters

text: , an

text: exclusive economic zone

text: (EEZ), or the

text: high seas

text: ; and whether the activity was scientific research or not. Coastal states would need to approve any marine cloud brightening activities in their territorial waters. In the EEZ, the ship must comply with the coastal state's laws and regulations. It appears that the state conducting marine cloud brightening activities in another state's EEZ would not need the latter's permission, unless the activity were marine scientific research. In that case, the coastal state should grant permission in normal circumstances. States would be generally free to conduct marine cloud brightening activities on the high seas, provided that this is done with "due regard" for other states' interests. There is some legal unclarity regarding unmanned or automated ships.

text: Chemical Valley and the surrounding area are home to 62 facilities and refineries.  These industrial complexes are the heart of Sarnia's infrastructure and economy.  They directly employ nearly 8,000, and contribute to almost 45,000 additional jobs in the area. In 1971, the Canadian government deemed this area so important to the economic development of the country that it printed an image of a Sarnia Oil Refinery on the reverse of the Canadian $10 note. The huge industrial area is the cause of significant air and water pollution. The Canada Wide Daily Standard for airborne particulate matter and ozone pollution, regulation PM2.5, is 30 micrograms per cubic metre. Forty-five percent of this particulate air pollution in Sarnia comes from Chemical Valley, and the rest drifts over the St. Clair River from the neighbouring United States in the form of what is known as "Transboundary Air Pollution."

text: Chemical Valley and the surrounding area are home to 62 facilities and refineries.  These industrial complexes are the heart of Sarnia's infrastructure and economy.  They directly employ nearly 8,000, and contribute to almost 45,000 additional jobs in the area. In 1971, the Canadian government deemed this area so important to the economic development of the country that it printed an image of a Sarnia Oil Refinery on the reverse of the

text: Canadian $10 note

text: . The huge industrial area is the cause of significant air and water pollution. The Canada Wide Daily Standard for airborne particulate matter and ozone pollution, regulation PM2.5, is 30 micrograms per cubic metre. Forty-five percent of this particulate air pollution in Sarnia comes from Chemical Valley, and the rest drifts over the St. Clair River from the neighbouring United States in the form of what is known as "Transboundary Air Pollution."

text: Pollution has been a major concern in Tiruchirappalli. The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board has set up five stations in the city to check the quality of air. As of 2012, about  of solid waste are produced in the city every day. Solid waste management in the city is handled by the corporation; places such as the Gandhi Market, Central Bus terminus and the Chathram bus terminus are being monitored by other agencies. The principal landfill is at Ariyamangalam. Waste water management in the Trichy-Srirangam underground drainage (UGD) areas is handled by the Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board (TWAD) and in other areas by the Tiruchirappalli Municipal Corporation. As of 2013, there were a total of 40,580 UGD connections maintained by the municipal corporation. The high toxicity of the waste water released by the Trichy Distilleries and Chemicals Limited (TDCL) is a major cause of concern for the corporation. The corporation's annual expenditure for the year 2010–11 was estimated to be . In 2013, researchers from Bharathidasan University assessed water quality in the Tiruchirappalli area and concluded that although the quality of the groundwater was suitable for human consumption, the quality of the pond water in the city was "not fit for human usage, agricultural or industrial purposes".

text: Pollution has been a major concern in Tiruchirappalli. The

text: Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board

text: has set up five stations in the city to check the quality of air. As of 2012, about  of solid waste are produced in the city every day. Solid waste management in the city is handled by the corporation; places such as the Gandhi Market, Central Bus terminus and the Chathram bus terminus are being monitored by other agencies. The principal landfill is at Ariyamangalam. Waste water management in the Trichy-Srirangam underground drainage (UGD) areas is handled by the

entity_name: Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board

text: Tamil Nadu Water Supply and Drainage Board

text: (TWAD) and in other areas by the Tiruchirappalli Municipal Corporation. As of 2013, there were a total of 40,580 UGD connections maintained by the municipal corporation. The high toxicity of the waste water released by the Trichy Distilleries and Chemicals Limited (TDCL) is a major cause of concern for the corporation. The corporation's annual expenditure for the year 2010–11 was estimated to be . In 2013, researchers from Bharathidasan University assessed water quality in the Tiruchirappalli area and concluded that although the quality of the groundwater was suitable for human consumption, the quality of the pond water in the city was "not fit for human usage, agricultural or industrial purposes".

text: Water quality is quite good in Chile and is recognized for outstanding water supply and sanitation systems. The National Commission of the Environment (CONAMA) set a goal to treat 95% of wastewater by 2010. Point source pollution from mining effluent and nonpoint source agricultural runoff is a problem as untreated water discharges into lakes, rivers, and aquifers. Chile has improved in this area since the 1980 declaration to 'live in a pollution-free environment'.

text: Water quality is quite good in Chile and is recognized for outstanding water supply and sanitation systems. The National Commission of the Environment (CONAMA) set a goal to treat 95% of wastewater by 2010.

text: Point source

text: pollution from mining effluent and

text: nonpoint source

text: agricultural runoff is a problem as untreated water discharges into lakes, rivers, and aquifers. Chile has improved in this area since the 1980 declaration to 'live in a pollution-free environment'.

text: Pollution of water resources has reached a worrying degree. Groundwater in the Mitidja plain close to Algiers is polluted with nitrates, and groundwater in coastal areas is often damaged by saline intrusion from the sea due to overpumping. This is the case in the Oran, Algiers and Jijel areas. Major parts of the rivers Tafna, Macta, Chéliff, Soummam and Seybousse are polluted. Some of them, such as the country's largest river, the Chéliff that supplies the Oran area, are used for drinking water supply. In the Constantine area the level of manganese and of chlorides in drinking water was close to those allowed by the WHO as of 2004.

text: Pollution of water resources has reached a worrying degree. Groundwater in the Mitidja plain close to Algiers is polluted with nitrates, and groundwater in coastal areas is often damaged by saline intrusion from the sea due to overpumping. This is the case in the Oran, Algiers and

text: Jijel

text: areas. Major parts of the rivers Tafna, Macta,

text: Chéliff

text: , Soummam and Seybousse are polluted. Some of them, such as the country's largest river, the Chéliff that supplies the Oran area, are used for drinking water supply. In the Constantine area the level of

text: manganese

text: and of

text: chlorides

text: in drinking water was close to those allowed by the WHO as of 2004.

text: As a result of the severe weather during the time of the spill, the oil spread quickly to the deeper levels of water, making clean up a more difficult and the skimming method less effective. Several organizations worked together to create a restoration plan following the spill. The primary organizations involved were the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management. This was the first oil spill whose damages were to be assessed by the new federal regulations of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, a law designed to compensate the public for losses resulting from an oil spill. Projects included restocking wildlife populations and protecting and enhancing their habitats. The total project cost was $117 million. This incident and other disturbances have illustrated the need to improve both the ecological and social resilience of coastal environments. Many organizations were involved to find a solution to the disaster, and to find a way to clean up all the oil from the deep levels of the bay.

text: As a result of the severe weather during the time of the spill, the oil spread quickly to the deeper levels of water, making clean up a more difficult and the skimming method less effective. Several organizations worked together to create a restoration plan following the spill. The primary organizations involved were the

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: , the

text: United States Fish and Wildlife Service

text: , and the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management. This was the first oil spill whose damages were to be assessed by the new federal regulations of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, a law designed to compensate the public for losses resulting from an oil spill. Projects included restocking wildlife populations and protecting and enhancing their habitats. The total project cost was $117 million. This incident and other disturbances have illustrated the need to improve both the ecological and social resilience of coastal environments. Many organizations were involved to find a solution to the disaster, and to find a way to clean up all the oil from the deep levels of the bay.

text: Veolia Water collects and then treats water in line with national and international regulations. Different treatments are provided depending on the level of pollution. Afterwards, the water re-enters the water cycle. Veolia Water delivers water treatment services to 68 million people around the world and, as of 2009, it managed 3,229 municipal water treatment plants.

text: Water quality trading (WQT) is a market-based approach, implemented on a watershed-scale, used to improve or maintain water quality. It involves the voluntary exchange of pollution reduction credits from sources with low costs of pollution control to those with high costs of pollution control. WQT programs are still subject to the requirements of the Clean Water Act, but they can be used to reduce the overall cost of compliance. Usually, permitted point sources of water pollution, such as wastewater treatment plants, have high discharge treatment costs, whereas nonpoint sources of water pollution, such as agriculture, have low costs of pollution reduction. Therefore, it is generally assumed that most trades would take place between point sources and nonpoint sources. However, point source-point source trades could also occur as well as pretreatment trades and intra-plant trades.

text: Water quality trading (WQT) is a market-based approach, implemented on a watershed-scale, used to improve or maintain

text: water quality

text: . It involves the voluntary exchange of pollution reduction credits from sources with low costs of pollution control to those with high costs of pollution control. WQT programs are still subject to the requirements of the Clean Water Act, but they can be used to reduce the overall cost of compliance. Usually, permitted point sources of water pollution, such as wastewater treatment plants, have high discharge treatment costs, whereas nonpoint sources of water pollution, such as agriculture, have low costs of pollution reduction. Therefore, it is generally assumed that most trades would take place between point sources and nonpoint sources. However, point source-point source trades could also occur as well as pretreatment trades and intra-plant trades.

text: The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especially pollution, were Arabic medical treatises written by al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay‘, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities. Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection.<ref>S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. <br> F. B. Artz (1980), The Mind of the Middle Ages, Third edition revised, University of Chicago Press, pp 148-50.

text: The earliest known treatises dealing with

text: environmentalism

text: and

text: environmental science

text: , especially

text: pollution

text: , were

text: Arabic medical treatises

text: written by

text: al-Kindi

text: Qusta ibn Luqa

text: al-Razi

text: Ibn Al-Jazzar

text: al-Tamimi

text: al-Masihi

text: Avicenna

text: Ali ibn Ridwan

text: Ibn Jumay‘

text: Isaac Israeli ben Solomon

text: , Ibn al-Quff, and

text: Ibn al-Nafis

text: . Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as

text: air pollution

text: water pollution

text: soil contamination

text: municipal solid waste

text: mishandling, and

text: environmental impact assessment

text: s of certain localities.

text: Cordoba

text: al-Andalus

text: also had the first

text: waste container

text: s and

text: waste disposal

text: facilities for

text: litter

text: collection.<ref>S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. <br> F. B. Artz (1980), The Mind of the Middle Ages, Third edition revised,

text: University of Chicago Press

text: , pp 148-50.

text: Pollution from the industrial city and port of Karachi is a threat to habitats in the delta, as is depletion of the Indus as water is extracted. Oil spills are another hazard. Most of the Indus Delta mangroves have been cleared for firewood and to create grazing land but some remains in three protected areas: Marho Kotri, Cut Munarki Chach Wildlife Sanctuaries and Mirpur Sakro Game Reserve.The World Wildlife Fund assesses the status of the mangrove habitat as being critical or endangered.

text: Pollution from the industrial city and port of

text: Karachi

text: is a threat to habitats in the delta, as is depletion of the Indus as water is extracted. Oil spills are another hazard. Most of the Indus Delta mangroves have been cleared for firewood and to create grazing land but some remains in three protected areas:

text: Marho Kotri

text: Cut Munarki Chach

text: Wildlife Sanctuaries and

text: Mirpur Sakro

text: Game Reserve.The World Wildlife Fund assesses the status of the mangrove habitat as being critical or endangered.

text: Since a few years, Firozabad has been suffering with a severe water pollution problem. The water has been polluted by the indiscriminate discharge of wastes by the industries, causing a literal water "crisis". The water has been tendered practically unusable. Citizens have no option but to install water purifiers at home and use packaged drinking water for consumption.

text: Environment - current issues:air pollution, especially in urban areas, from vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents; deforestation; desertification; oil pollution in the Persian Gulf; wetland losses from drought; soil degradation (salination); inadequate supplies of potable water in some areas; water pollution from raw sewage and industrial waste; urbanization.

text: Environment - current issues:

text: air pollution

text: , especially in urban areas, from vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents;

text: deforestation

text: desertification

text: oil pollution

text: in the

text: Persian Gulf

text: ; wetland losses from drought;

text: soil degradation

text: salination

text: ); inadequate supplies of

text: potable water

text: in some areas;

text: water pollution

text: from raw

text: sewage

text: and industrial waste;

text: urbanization

text: Point source water pollution comes from discrete conveyances and alters the chemical, biological, and physical characteristics of water. In the United States, it is largely regulated by the Clean Water Act (CWA). Among other things, the Act requires dischargers to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit to legally discharge pollutants into a water body. However, point source pollution remains an issue in some water bodies, due to some limitations of the Act. Consequently, other regulatory approaches have emerged, such as water quality trading and voluntary community-level efforts.

text: Point source

text: water pollution comes from discrete conveyances and alters the chemical, biological, and physical characteristics of water. In the United States, it is largely regulated by the

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA). Among other things, the Act requires dischargers to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit to legally discharge pollutants into a water body. However, point source pollution remains an issue in some water bodies, due to some limitations of the Act. Consequently, other regulatory approaches have emerged, such as water quality trading and voluntary community-level efforts.

text: Overall, compact development generates less pollutants to the natural world. Research has shown that low-density development can exacerbate non-point source pollutant loadings by consuming absorbent open space and increasing impervious surface area relative to compact development. While increasing densities regionally can better protect water resources at a regional level, higher-density development can create more impervious cover, which increases water quality problems in nearby or adjacent water bodies.

text: Overall, compact development generates less pollutants to the natural world. Research has shown that low-density development can exacerbate

text: non-point source pollutant

text: loadings by consuming absorbent open space and increasing

text: impervious surface

text: area relative to compact development. While increasing densities regionally can better protect water resources at a regional level, higher-density development can create more impervious cover, which increases water quality problems in nearby or adjacent water bodies.

text: Water pollution causes the greatest damage in the Mekong Delta. The delta is considered as Vietnam´s rice bowl. Water pollution caused by the rapid growing industry results in high rates of diarrhea since most people in this region depend on surface water of the river.

text: Water pollution causes the greatest damage in the

text: Mekong Delta

text: . The delta is considered as Vietnam´s rice bowl. Water pollution caused by the rapid growing industry results in high rates of diarrhea since most people in this region depend on surface water of the river.

text: The ability of double-hulled tankers to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for other types of ships including oil tankers by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention. In 1992, MARPOL was amended, making it "mandatory for tankers of 5,000 dwt and more ordered after 6 July 1993 to be fitted with double hulls, or an alternative design approved by IMO". However, in the aftermath of the Erika incident of the coast off France in December 1999, members of IMO adopted a revised schedule for the phase-out of single-hull tankers, which came into effect on 1 September 2003, with further amendments validated on 5 April 2005.

text: The ability of double-hulled tankers to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for other types of ships including oil tankers by the

text: International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

text: or

text: MARPOL

text: Convention. In 1992, MARPOL was amended, making it "mandatory for tankers of 5,000 dwt and more ordered after 6 July 1993 to be fitted with double hulls, or an alternative design approved by

text: IMO

text: ". However, in the aftermath of the Erika incident of the coast off France in December 1999, members of IMO adopted a revised schedule for the phase-out of single-hull tankers, which came into effect on 1 September 2003, with further amendments validated on 5 April 2005.

text: NPS may derive from many different sources with no specific solution may change to rectify the problem, making it difficult to regulate. Non point source water pollution is difficult to control because it comes from the everyday activities of many different people, such as fertilizing a lawn, using a pesticide, or constructing a road or building.

text: NPS may derive from many different sources with no specific solution may change to rectify the problem, making it difficult to regulate. Non point source water pollution is difficult to control because it comes from the everyday activities of many different people, such as

text: fertilizing

text: a lawn, using a

text: pesticide

text: , or

text: constructing a road

text: or

text: building

text: Intermittent (or temporary) rivers cease to flow every year or at least twice every five years. Such rivers drain large arid and semi-arid areas, covering approximately a third of the earth’s surface. The extent of temporary rivers is increasing, as many formerly perennial rivers are becoming temporary because of increasing water demand, particularly for irrigation. The combination of dry crusted soils and the highly erosive energy of the rain cause sediment resuspension and transport to the coastal areas. They are among the aquatic habitats most altered by human activities. During the summer even under no flow conditions the point sources are still active such as the wastewater effluents, resulting in nutrients and organic pollutants accumulating in the sediment. Sediment operates as a pollution inventory and pollutants are moved to the next basin with the first flush. Their vulnerability is intensified by the conflict between water use demand and aquatic ecosystem conservation. Advanced modelling tools have been developed to better describe intermittent flow dynamic changes such as the tempQsim model.

text: Intermittent (or temporary) rivers cease to flow every year or at least twice every five years. Such

text: river

text: s drain large

text: arid

text: and

text: semi-arid

text: areas, covering approximately a third of the earth’s surface. The extent of temporary rivers is increasing, as many formerly

text: perennial rivers

text: are becoming temporary because of increasing water demand, particularly for

text: irrigation

text: . The combination of dry crusted

text: soil

text: s and the highly

text: erosive

text: energy of the

text: rain

text: cause sediment re

text: suspension

text: and transport to the

text: coast

text: al areas. They are among the

text: aquatic habitat

text: s most altered by human activities. During the summer even under no flow conditions the point sources are still active such as the

text: wastewater effluent

text: s, resulting in nutrients and organic pollutants accumulating in the sediment. Sediment operates as a

text: pollution

text: inventory and pollutants are moved to the next basin with the first flush. Their vulnerability is intensified by the conflict between water use demand and

text: aquatic ecosystem conservation

text: . Advanced modelling tools have been developed to better describe intermittent flow dynamic changes such as the

text: tempQsim

text: model.

text: China's environmental movement is characterized by spontaneous alliances that often only occur at the local level. The Chinese have realized the ability of riots and protests to have success and had led to an increase in disputes in China by 30% since 2005 to more than 50,000 events. Protests cover topics such as environmental issues, land-loss, income, and political issues. They have also grown in size from about 10 people or fewer in the mid-1990s to 52 people per incident in 2004. China has more relaxed environmental laws than other countries in Asia, so many polluting factories have relocated to China causing pollution in China. Water pollution, water scarcity, soil pollution, soil degradation, and desertification are issues currently in discussion in China. The groundwater table of the North China Plain is dropping by 1.5 m (5 ft) per year. This groundwater table occurs in the region of China that produces 40% of the country's grain.

text: China's environmental movement is characterized by spontaneous alliances that often only occur at the local level. The Chinese have realized the ability of riots and protests to have success and had led to an increase in disputes in China by 30% since 2005 to more than 50,000 events. Protests cover topics such as environmental issues, land-loss, income, and political issues. They have also grown in size from about 10 people or fewer in the mid-1990s to 52 people per incident in 2004. China has more relaxed environmental laws than other countries in Asia, so many polluting factories have relocated to China causing pollution in China. Water pollution, water scarcity, soil pollution, soil degradation, and desertification are issues currently in discussion in China. The groundwater table of the

text: North China Plain

text: is dropping by 1.5 m (5 ft) per year. This groundwater table occurs in the region of China that produces 40% of the country's grain.

text: The Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation (discussed above) requires the input of H which is the pollutant plume's centerline height above ground level—and His the sum of H (the actual physical height of the pollutant plume's emission source point) plus ΔH (the plume rise due the plume's buoyancy).

text: According to the Water Quality Index, 96% of Mexico's surface water bodies have different levels of pollution. OECD estimates the economic cost of water pollution in Mexico at US$6 billion per year. The problem is most serious in the Valle de Mexico region where 100% of the water bodies have different levels of contamination, 18% of which are highly polluted. Low water quality is due to untreated discharge of industrial effluents and municipal wastewater into rivers and lakes, solid waste deposits along river banks, uncontrolled seepage from unsanitary landfills, and non-point pollution mainly from agricultural production.

text: According to the Water Quality Index, 96% of Mexico's surface water bodies have different levels of

text: pollution

text: . OECD estimates the economic cost of water pollution in Mexico at US$6 billion per year. The problem is most serious in the

text: Valle de Mexico

text: region where 100% of the water bodies have different levels of contamination, 18% of which are highly polluted. Low water quality is due to untreated discharge of industrial effluents and municipal wastewater into rivers and lakes, solid waste deposits along river banks, uncontrolled seepage from unsanitary landfills, and non-point pollution mainly from agricultural production.

text: Corexit 9580 was used during the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster in Alaska. Corexit 7764 and Corexit 9527 were both used during the 1992 Port Bonython oil spill in South Australia. 45,000 litres of Corexit 9500 and 9527 were used in the response to the Montara oil spill off Australia's north-west shelf in 2009 and 2,000 litres of Corexit 9527 were used after the Chinese bulk carrier Shen Neng was grounded on Australia's Great Barrier Reef in 2010. Corexit EC9500A and Corexit EC9527A were used during the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill.

text: Corexit 9580 was used during the 1989

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: disaster in Alaska. Corexit 7764 and Corexit 9527 were both used during the 1992

text: Port Bonython oil spill

text: in

text: South Australia

text: . 45,000 litres of Corexit 9500 and 9527 were used in the response to the

text: Montara oil spill

text: off Australia's north-west shelf in 2009 and 2,000 litres of Corexit 9527 were used after the Chinese bulk carrier

text: Shen Neng

text: was grounded on Australia's

text: Great Barrier Reef

text: in 2010. Corexit EC9500A and Corexit EC9527A were used during the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: A line source, as opposed to a point source, area source, or  volume source,  is a source of air, noise, water contamination or electromagnetic radiation that emanates from a linear (one-dimensional) geometry.  The most prominent linear sources are roadway air pollution, aircraft air emissions, roadway noise, certain types of water pollution sources that emanate over a range of river extent rather than from a discrete point, elongated light tubes, certain dose models in medical physics and electromagnetic antennas. While point sources of pollution were studied since the late nineteenth century, linear sources did not receive much attention from scientists until the late 1960s, when environmental regulations for highways and airports began to emerge. At the same time, computers with the processing power to accommodate the data processing needs of the computer models required to tackle these one-dimensional sources became more available.

text: A line source, as opposed to a

text: point source

text: area source

text: , or

text: volume source

text: ,  is a source of air, noise, water contamination or electromagnetic radiation that emanates from a linear (one-dimensional) geometry.  The most prominent linear sources are

text: roadway air pollution

text: aircraft

text: air

text: emissions

text: roadway noise

text: , certain types of water pollution sources that emanate over a range of river extent rather than from a discrete point, elongated light tubes, certain dose models in

text: medical physics

text: and electromagnetic

text: antennas

text: . While

text: point sources

text: of

text: pollution

text: were studied since the late nineteenth century, linear sources did not receive much attention from scientists until the late 1960s, when environmental regulations for

text: highway

text: s and

text: airport

text: s began to emerge. At the same time, computers with the processing power to accommodate the data processing needs of the

text: computer model

text: s required to tackle these one-dimensional sources became more available.

text: There are hidden wells in Pristina, which most of them are covered with waste and are in the most polluted areas of Pristina. These sources are used when surface water is lacking. Recently, water has been found in "Pajtimi" field, which currently is one of the waste polluted areas.   However, in an attempt to clean Pristina environment, and also find water, the opening phase of these wells has started and they are estimated to be completed by mid-2014. In this place, 9 wells are found, and the flow is estimated at 60 liters/sec. There are two other wells in Llukar village. Those wells are estimated to have a flow of 50 liters/sec. The problem with those two wells is their usage, mainly for auto washing. Those wells ceased being used in 1989, and they are expected to become active again by mid-2014. A plan to plant trees in Pristina and lower air pollution, has prompted that 17 artificial wells to be opened in Pristina. The Pristina municipal government has provided funding for these wells, which would supply the water the irrigation of the newly planted trees.

text: A little over 10% of plastic debris in ocean water comes from land-based sources, responsible for 0.8 million tons every year. A source that has caused concern is landfills. Most waste in the form of plastic in landfills are single-use items such as packaging. Discarding plastics this way leads to accumulation. Although disposing of plastic waste in landfills has less of a gas emission risk than disposal through incineration, the former has space limitations. Another concern is that the liners acting as protective layers between the landfill and environment can break, thus leaking toxins and contaminating the nearby soil and water. Landfills located near oceans often contribute to ocean debris because content is easily swept up and transported to the sea by wind or small waterways like rivers and streams. Marine debris can also result from sewage water that has not been efficiently treated, which is eventually transported to the ocean through rivers. Plastic items that have been improperly discarded can also be carried to oceans through storm waters.

text: A little over 10% of plastic debris in ocean water comes from land-based sources, responsible for 0.8 million tons every year. A source that has caused concern is

text: landfills

text: . Most waste in the form of plastic in landfills are single-use items such as packaging. Discarding plastics this way leads to accumulation. Although disposing of plastic waste in landfills has less of a gas emission risk than disposal through incineration, the former has space limitations. Another concern is that the liners acting as protective layers between the landfill and environment can break, thus leaking toxins and contaminating the nearby soil and water. Landfills located near oceans often contribute to ocean debris because content is easily swept up and transported to the sea by wind or small waterways like rivers and streams. Marine debris can also result from sewage water that has not been efficiently treated, which is eventually transported to the ocean through rivers. Plastic items that have been improperly discarded can also be carried to oceans through storm waters.

text: Consider an environment in which pollution of a particular type is maximum. Let us consider the effluents of a starch industry  which has mixed up with a local water body like a lake or pond.  We find huge deposits of starch which are not so easily taken up for degradation by micro-organisms except for a few exemptions.  we isolate a few micro-organisms from the polluted site and scan for any significant changes in their genome like mutations or evolutions.  The modified genes are then identified.  This is done because, the isolate would have adapted itself to degrade/utilize the starch better than other microbes of the same genus.  Thus, the resultant genes are cloned onto industrially significant micro-organisms and are used for more economically significant processes like in pharmaceutical industry, fermentations...etc.

text: Water pollution resulting from sewage can also be attributed to error in sewage facilities. A recent example can be evidenced with Ottawa. In 2004 Ottawa experienced a 190 million liter raw sewage spill into the Ottawa River. Similarly, Winnipeg, released "partially treated sewage water into the Red River for seven weeks" in 2011. However, in this case, the city was actually charged for their pollution. Numerous other places like Richmond B.C and Calgary A.B, have experienced significant sewage spills in their native waters.

text: Water pollution resulting from sewage can also be attributed to error in sewage facilities. A recent example can be evidenced with Ottawa. In 2004 Ottawa experienced a 190 million liter raw sewage spill into the

text: Ottawa River

text: . Similarly, Winnipeg, released "partially treated sewage water into the

text: Red River

text: for seven weeks" in 2011. However, in this case, the city was actually charged for their pollution. Numerous other places like Richmond B.C and Calgary A.B, have experienced significant sewage spills in their native waters.

text: Spawning fishes and juveniles appear to be more sensitive to high TDS levels. For example, it was found that concentrations of 350 mg/l TDS reduced spawning of Striped bass (Morone saxatilis) in the San Francisco Bay-Delta region, and that concentrations below 200 mg/l promoted even healthier spawning conditions. In the Truckee River, EPA found that juvenile Lahontan cutthroat trout were subject to higher mortality when exposed to thermal pollution stress combined with high total dissolved solids concentrations.

text: Spawning

text: fish

text: es and juveniles appear to be more sensitive to high TDS levels. For example, it was found that concentrations of 350 mg/l TDS reduced spawning of

text: Striped bass

text: (Morone saxatilis) in the

text: San Francisco Bay

text: -Delta region, and that concentrations below 200 mg/l promoted even healthier spawning conditions. In the

text: Truckee River

text: , EPA found that juvenile

text: Lahontan cutthroat trout

text: were subject to higher mortality when exposed to

text: thermal pollution

text: stress combined with high total dissolved solids concentrations.

text: Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, also referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill or ongoing release of chemical or radionuclide contaminants into soil (located away from a surface water body) may not create point or non-point source pollution but can contaminate the aquifer below, creating a toxic plume. The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a hydrological transport model or groundwater model. Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on soil characteristics and site geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants.

text: Interactions between

text: groundwater

text: and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater pollution, also referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as surface water pollution. By its very nature, groundwater

text: aquifer

text: radionuclide

text: plume

text: . The movement of the plume, called a plume front, may be analyzed through a

text: hydrological transport model

text: or

text: groundwater model

text: . Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on

text: soil

text: characteristics and site geology,

text: hydrogeology

text: hydrology

text: , and the nature of the contaminants.

text: Rhinella atacamensis, sometimes called the Vallenar toad or Atacama toad, is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae. It is endemic to Chile and occurs between Paposo (Antofagasta Region) and Las Chilcas (Valparaíso Region). It inhabits the desert Pacific coastal region with Mediterranean influences (including the Chilean matorral) and is found in and near oases and streams. Breeding takes place in permanent pools (including water tanks for livestock), streams, and rivers. While abundant at a few sites, it has declined overall and gone locally extinct at some sites. Threats to this species include extensive droughts and water pollution as well as extraction of surface water, mining, agriculture, livestock farming, and timber plantations.

text: Rhinella atacamensis, sometimes called the Vallenar toad or Atacama toad, is a species of

text: toad

text: in the family

text: Bufonidae

text: . It is

text: endemic

text: to

text: Chile

text: and occurs between Paposo (

text: Antofagasta Region

text: ) and Las Chilcas (

text: Valparaíso Region

text: ). It inhabits the desert Pacific coastal region with Mediterranean influences (including the

text: Chilean matorral

text: ) and is found in and near oases and streams. Breeding takes place in permanent pools (including water tanks for livestock), streams, and rivers. While abundant at a few sites, it has declined overall and gone locally extinct at some sites. Threats to this species include extensive droughts and water pollution as well as extraction of surface water, mining, agriculture, livestock farming, and timber plantations.

text: Water pollution from dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas; deforestation; concern for oil spills from increasing Bosphorus ship traffic.

text: Water pollution from dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas;

text: deforestation

text: ; concern for oil spills from increasing

text: Bosphorus

text: ship traffic.

text: 2006 – The Australian Government contributed Php 7.3 million in emergency humanitarian relief to the Philippines. This was in response to the M/T Solar Oil Spill that happened on 11 August 2006. The 7.3 million will be used for shelter and education, health and nutrition and water and sanitation.

text: According to the UNEP assessment in 8/2011 the oil contamination is widespread in Ogoniland and oil spills continue still even in the old oil field areas. The Ogoni people live with this pollution every day. As Ogoniland has high rainfall, delay in cleaning of the oil spills leads to spread oil contamination in the farmlands. Oil contamination of land areas, sediments and swampland is extensive. The wetlands around Ogoniland are highly degraded and facing disintegration. Fishermen must move to less contaminated areas in search of fish. Current Ogoniland community have lived with chronic oil pollution throughout their lives. Of most immediate concern in 12/2011, community members at Nisisioken Ogale are drinking water contaminated with benzene, a known carcinogen, at levels over 900 times above the WHO guideline.

text: According to the UNEP assessment in 8/2011 the oil contamination is widespread in Ogoniland and oil spills continue still even in the old oil field areas. The Ogoni people live with this pollution every day. As Ogoniland has high rainfall, delay in cleaning of the oil spills leads to spread oil contamination in the farmlands. Oil contamination of land areas, sediments and swampland is extensive. The wetlands around Ogoniland are highly degraded and facing disintegration. Fishermen must move to less contaminated areas in search of fish. Current Ogoniland community have lived with chronic oil pollution throughout their lives. Of most immediate concern in 12/2011, community members at Nisisioken Ogale are drinking water contaminated with

text: benzene

text: , a known carcinogen, at levels over 900 times above the

text: WHO

text: guideline.

text: The Clean Air Act amendments of 1970 and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act amendments of 1972 moved environmental concerns in a new direction. The standards that they put in place were unattainable with existing technology — they were technology forcing. The standards that the EPA put into place called mainly for state implementation. Each state prepared state implementation plans (SIPs), requiring EPA approval, and each state had to request permits from the EPA to emit pollution into any surface water. Congress also provided for a massive public works program to assist in the construction of water and waste treatment plants for municipalities. The 1970 Clean Air Act also enacted deadlines and penalties for automobile emission standards in new cars, resulting in the development and adoption of catalytic converters and greatly reducing automobile pollution.

text: The Clean Air Act amendments of 1970 and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act amendments of 1972 moved environmental concerns in a new direction. The standards that they put in place were unattainable with existing technology — they were technology forcing. The standards that the EPA put into place called mainly for state implementation. Each state prepared state implementation plans (SIPs), requiring EPA approval, and each state had to request permits from the EPA to emit pollution into any surface water. Congress also provided for a massive public works program to assist in the construction of water and waste treatment plants for municipalities. The 1970 Clean Air Act also enacted deadlines and penalties for automobile emission standards in new cars, resulting in the development and adoption of

text: catalytic converter

text: s and greatly reducing automobile pollution.

text: Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as externalities for which the market cannot account. Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms' profits are not redistributed to the local population, victims of this pollution. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.

text: Polluting water

text: may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the polluter. Like other types of pollution, this does not enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as

text: externalities

text: for which the market cannot account. Thus other people pay the price of water pollution, while the private firms' profits are not redistributed to the local population, victims of this pollution.

text: Pharmaceuticals

text: consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on

text: aquatic

text: life if they

text: bioaccumulate

text: and if they are not

text: biodegradable

text: The Gulf of Mexico is one of the United States’ richest fishing grounds, and the Mega Borg spill added to an abundance of oil spills that have happened in the area. This effects not only marine microorganisms in deep waters, but larger deep-water fish and thus both recreational and commercial fishermen.  Additionally, the National Wildlife Refuges near Galveston’s shores, nearby salt marches, and oyster reefs were all in potential danger depending on the extent of the slick’s spread.

text: The

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: is one of the United States’ richest fishing grounds, and the Mega Borg spill added to an abundance of oil spills that have happened in the area. This effects not only marine microorganisms in deep waters, but larger deep-water fish and thus both recreational and commercial fishermen.  Additionally, the

text: National Wildlife Refuge

text: s near Galveston’s shores, nearby salt marches, and oyster reefs were all in potential danger depending on the extent of the slick’s spread.

text: In the industrial revolution many rivers in industrial areas became too polluted by effluents to be usable for water supply. The Dee however remained clean with relatively few polluting effluents in the Dee catchment upstream of Chester. Consequently, the City of Chester has been able to directly abstract Dee water since the first Chester Waterworks Company was formed in 1826.

text: In the industrial revolution many rivers in industrial areas became too polluted by effluents to be usable for water supply. The Dee however remained clean with relatively few polluting effluents in the Dee catchment upstream of Chester. Consequently, the City of

text: Chester

text: has been able to directly abstract Dee water since the first Chester Waterworks Company was formed in 1826.

text: Double hulls' ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for other types of ships including oil tankers by the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships or MARPOL Convention. A double hull does not protect against major, high-energy collisions or groundings which cause the majority of oil pollution, despite this being the reason that the double hull was mandated by United States legislation. After the Exxon Valdez oil spill disaster, when that ship grounded on Bligh Reef outside the port of Valdez, Alaska, the US Government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull.

text: Double hulls' ability to prevent or reduce oil spills led to double hulls being standardized for other types of ships including

text: oil tankers

text: by the

text: or MARPOL Convention. A double hull does not protect against major, high-energy collisions or groundings which cause the majority of oil pollution, despite this being the reason that the double hull was mandated by United States legislation. After the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: disaster, when that ship grounded on

text: Bligh Reef

text: outside the port of

text: Valdez

text: Alaska

text: , the US Government required all new oil tankers built for use between US ports to be equipped with a full double hull.

text: Early industries discharged a variety of pollutants into the river including dyes from textile mills and heavy metals and solvents from metal and woodworking industries. Much of this early pollution lies trapped in sediments behind historic dams on the river and continues to affect the ecosystem today. Much recent pollution can be traced to the Upper Blackstone Water Pollution Abatement District (UBWPAD), the wastewater treatment plant for Worcester, Massachusetts and surrounding communities, which discharges into the Blackstone. A 2005 report written by the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management said, ". . . [the] UBWPAD, North Attleboro, and Attleboro WWTFs play a significant role in the ability to improve water quality in the Providence and Seekonk River system [into which the Blackstone discharges], and efforts to reduce their nitrogen inputs should be initiated as soon as possible." In September 2010, the Conservation Law Foundation, citing this report, filed a lawsuit claiming that the discharge permit issued to the UBWPAD by the Environmental Protection Agency is not "sufficient to meet state water quality standards."

text: Early industries discharged a variety of pollutants into the river including dyes from textile mills and heavy metals and solvents from metal and woodworking industries. Much of this early pollution lies trapped in sediments behind historic dams on the river and continues to affect the ecosystem today. Much recent pollution can be traced to the Upper Blackstone Water Pollution Abatement District (UBWPAD), the wastewater treatment plant for

text: Worcester, Massachusetts

text: and surrounding communities, which discharges into the Blackstone. A 2005 report written by the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management said, ". . . [the] UBWPAD, North Attleboro, and Attleboro WWTFs play a significant role in the ability to improve water quality in the Providence and Seekonk River system [into which the Blackstone discharges], and efforts to reduce their nitrogen inputs should be initiated as soon as possible." In September 2010, the

text: Conservation Law Foundation

text: , citing this report, filed a lawsuit claiming that the discharge permit issued to the UBWPAD by the Environmental Protection Agency is not "sufficient to meet state water quality standards."

text: In Cape Cod, Massachusetts, small ponds in the inland areas and the surrounding waters of the Atlantic Ocean have become increasingly polluted over the years. The main pollutant considered to be problematic in these waters is nitrogen. The large amount of nitrogen in the water stems from the widespread use of private septic tanks in homes instead of the use of a town-owned sewer. This is because many Cape Cod towns opted out of purchasing sewer systems when the federal government subsidized them in the 1960s and 1970s for fear of attracting too many new homeowners to the communities. However, Cape Cod communities still grew despite the lack of public sewage systems, which resulted in the installation of many septic tanks in new homes.

text: In

text: Cape Cod, Massachusetts

text: , small ponds in the inland areas and the surrounding waters of the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: have become increasingly polluted over the years. The main pollutant considered to be problematic in these waters is

text: nitrogen

text: . The large amount of nitrogen in the water stems from the widespread use of private

text: septic tank

text: s in homes instead of the use of a town-owned sewer. This is because many Cape Cod towns opted out of purchasing sewer systems when the federal government subsidized them in the 1960s and 1970s for fear of attracting too many new homeowners to the communities. However, Cape Cod communities still grew despite the lack of public sewage systems, which resulted in the installation of many septic tanks in new homes.

text: A recent survey of global ocean health concluded that all parts of the ocean have been impacted by human development and that 41 percent has been fouled with human polluted runoff, overfishing, and other abuses. Pollution is not easy to fix, because pollution sources are so dispersed, and are built into the economic systems we depend on.

text: A recent survey of global ocean health concluded that all parts of the ocean have been impacted by human development and that 41 percent has been fouled with human polluted runoff,

text: overfishing

text: , and other abuses.

text: Pollution

text: is not easy to fix, because pollution sources are so dispersed, and are built into the economic systems we depend on.

text: In industrial process, the control of the quality of process water can be critical to the quality of the end product. Water is often used as a carrier of reagents  and the loss of reagent to product must be continuously monitored to ensure that correct replacement rate. Parameters measured relate specifically to the process in use and to any of the expected contaminants that may arise as by-products. This may include unwanted organic chemicals appearing in an inorganic chemical process through contamination with oils and greases from machinery. Monitoring the quality of the waste water discharged from industrial premises is a key factor in controlling and minimising pollution of the environment. In this application  monitoring schemes analyse for all possible contaminants arising within the process and in addition contaminants that may have particularly adverse impacts on the environment such as Cyanide and many organic species such as pesticides. In then nuclear industry analysis focuses on specific isotopes or elements of interest. Where the nuclear industry makes waste water discharges  to rivers which have drinking water abstraction on them, radio-isotopes which could potentially be harmful or those with long half-lives such as Tritium will form part of the routine monitoring suite.

text: In industrial process, the control of the quality of process water can be critical to the quality of the end product. Water is often used as a carrier of reagents  and the loss of reagent to product must be continuously monitored to ensure that correct replacement rate. Parameters measured relate specifically to the process in use and to any of the expected contaminants that may arise as by-products. This may include unwanted organic chemicals appearing in an inorganic chemical process through contamination with oils and greases from machinery. Monitoring the quality of the waste water discharged from industrial premises is a key factor in controlling and minimising pollution of the environment. In this application  monitoring schemes analyse for all possible contaminants arising within the process and in addition contaminants that may have particularly adverse impacts on the environment such as

text: Cyanide

text: and many organic species such as

text: pesticide

text: s. In then nuclear industry analysis focuses on specific isotopes or elements of interest. Where the nuclear industry makes waste water discharges  to rivers which have drinking water abstraction on them, radio-isotopes which could potentially be harmful or those with long

text: half-lives

text: such as

text: Tritium

text: will form part of the routine monitoring suite.

text: Installing spill containment measures prior to a spill can result in significant savings in the event of a spill. Cleanup costs are impacted by numerous factors such as location of the spill, type of oil spilled, surrounding sensitive areas, and local regulations. For example, the average cost of cleanup (per ton) after an oil spill is drastically different for a spill in the Gulf of Mexico than it would be in South American waters, where there is a difference of almost $70,000. Instead of paying for a costly cleanup, containment measures reduce the impact on the environment and the surrounding area, and may save some of the resource.

text: Environment - current issues: soil erosion and degradation; water pollution; air pollution in south from industrial effluents; contamination of Danube delta wetlands

text: Phytoremediation was used at Greenwich Peninsula Ecology Park to extract and degrade pollutants. Many willows (genus Salix) of various species and life stages are grown in the park. These deciduous plants are tolerant of toxins and pollutants and are hyperaccumulators, making them well-suited to phytoremediation. Willows can phytoremediate silver, chromium, mercury, lead, selenium, zinc and several other heavy metals and organic contaminants. Toxins and pollutants which exist in high concentrations in the soil pose a threat of leaking into water sources and causing health problems if not remedied. Willows were planted in Greenwich Peninsula Ecology Park with the goal of having their roots reach the water table to bioaccumulate (via osmosis) these hydrocarbons and other contaminants. Small contaminant molecules such as 1,4-dioxane are evaporated to the atmosphere where ultraviolet light breaks down the compound into harmless chemical. With good management, phytoremediation is an economical, effective and environmental friendly way to quickly remove contaminants in soil and water.

text: Phytoremediation

text: was used at Greenwich Peninsula Ecology Park to extract and degrade pollutants. Many willows (

text: genus

text: Salix) of various

text: species

text: and

text: life stages

text: are grown in the park. These

text: deciduous

text: plants are tolerant of

text: toxin

text: s and pollutants and are

text: hyperaccumulators

text: , making them well-suited to phytoremediation. Willows can phytoremediate

text: silver

text: chromium

text: mercury

text: lead

text: selenium

text: zinc

text: and several other

text: heavy metals

text: and

text: organic

text: contaminants. Toxins and pollutants which

text: exist in high concentrations in the soil

text: pose a threat of leaking into water sources and causing health problems if not remedied. Willows were planted in Greenwich Peninsula Ecology Park with the goal of having their

text: root

text: s reach the

text: water table

text: to

text: bioaccumulate

text: (via

text: osmosis

text: ) these

text: hydrocarbon

text: s and other contaminants. Small contaminant

text: molecule

text: s such as

text: are evaporated to the

text: atmosphere

text: where

text: ultraviolet

text: light

text: breaks down the compound into harmless chemical. With good management, phytoremediation is an economical, effective and

text: environmental friendly

text: way to quickly remove contaminants in soil and water.

text: In addition to the increased risk of salinized by the sea-level rise, the freshwater lens is at risk from over extraction due to the large population that now occupies Fongafale islet; the increased extraction can be exacerbated by a decrease of the rainfall recharge rate associated with the climate change. Water pollution is also a chronic problem, with domestic wastewater identified as the primary pollution source.  Approximately 92% of households on Fongafale islet have access to septic tanks and pit toilets. However these sanitary facilities are not built as per the design specifications or they are not suitable for the geophysical characteristics, which results in seepage into the fresh water lens and run off into coastal waters.

text: The regulatory mechanism in the United States, a Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL), prescribes the maximum amount of a pollutant (including nutrients) that a body of water can receive while still meeting U.S. Clean Water Act water quality standards. Specifically, Section 303 of the Clean Water Act requires each state to generate a TMDL report for each body of water impaired by pollutants. TMDL reports identify pollutant levels and strategies to accomplish pollutant reduction goals. EPA has described TMDLs as establishing a pollutant budget then allocating portions of the overall budget to the pollutant's sources. For many coastal water bodies, the main pollutant issue is excess nutrients, also termed nutrient over-enrichment.A TMDL can prescribe the minimum level of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) available in a body of water, which is directly related to nutrient levels. (See Aquatic Hypoxia.) In 2010, 18 percent of TMDLs nationwide were related to nutrient levels  including organic enrichment/oxygen depletion, noxious plants, algal growth, and ammonia. In Long Island Sound the TMDL development process enabled the Connecticut Department of Environmental  Protection (CTDEP) and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) to incorporate a 58.5 percent nitrogen reduction target into a regulatory and legal framework.

text: The regulatory mechanism in the United States, a

text: Total Maximum Daily Load

text: (TMDL), prescribes the maximum amount of a pollutant (including nutrients) that a body of water can receive while still meeting U.S.

text: Clean Water Act

text: water quality standards. Specifically, Section 303 of the Clean Water Act requires each state to generate a TMDL report for each body of water impaired by pollutants. TMDL reports identify pollutant levels and strategies to accomplish pollutant reduction goals. EPA has described TMDLs as establishing a pollutant budget then allocating portions of the overall budget to the pollutant's sources. For many coastal water bodies, the main pollutant issue is excess nutrients, also termed nutrient over-enrichment.A TMDL can prescribe the minimum level of

text: Dissolved Oxygen

text: (DO) available in a body of water, which is directly related to nutrient levels. (See

text: Aquatic Hypoxia

text: .) In 2010, 18 percent of TMDLs nationwide were related to nutrient levels  including organic enrichment/oxygen depletion, noxious plants, algal growth, and ammonia. In

text: Long Island Sound

text: the TMDL development process enabled the Connecticut Department of Environmental  Protection (CTDEP) and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) to incorporate a 58.5 percent nitrogen reduction target into a regulatory and legal framework.

text: On 18 March 1967 the world’s first major oil pollution incident occurred when a supertanker, the Torrey Canyon hit the Pollard’s Rock, tearing a  gash in her side and spilling 860,000 barrels of oil into the sea. Westerly winds and currents caused the oil to pollute  of the Cornish coast and  of the Brittany coast. She now lies in  of water. Large amounts of toxic detergent was sprayed on the oil in an attempt to disperse it and, along with the oil, accounted for the loss of much of the marine life and 15,000 birds. At the time it was the world's costliest shipping disaster, and to date, still the worst oil spill on the coast of the United Kingdom.

text: On 18 March 1967 the world’s first major oil pollution incident occurred when a

text: supertanker

text: , the Torrey Canyon hit the Pollard’s Rock, tearing a  gash in her side and spilling 860,000 barrels of oil into the sea. Westerly winds and currents caused the oil to pollute  of the Cornish coast and  of the

text: Brittany

text: coast. She now lies in  of water. Large amounts of toxic

text: detergent

text: was sprayed on the oil in an attempt to disperse it and, along with the oil, accounted for the loss of much of the marine life and 15,000 birds. At the time it was the world's costliest shipping disaster, and to date, still the worst oil spill on the coast of the United Kingdom.

text: Fertilizers that often contain manure are used to grow crops (such as cereals and fodder) that contain phosphorus and nitrogen, 95% of which is estimated to be lost to the environment. Water pollution from agricultural runoff causes dead zones for plants and aquatic animals due to the lack of oxygen in the water. This lack of oxygen, known as eutrophication, is caused when organisms present in the water grow excessively and then later decompose, in the process using up the oxygen in the water. A prominent example is the Gulf of Mexico, where much of the nutrients in fertilizer used in the US Midwest is funneled down the Mississippi River into the Gulf, causing massive dead zones. Other pollutants not commonly considered are antibiotics and hormones. In southern Asia, vultures that consumed carcasses of livestock declined 95% due to their ingestion of the antibiotic known as diclofenac.

text: Fertilizers that often contain manure are used to grow crops (such as cereals and fodder) that contain phosphorus and nitrogen, 95% of which is estimated to be lost to the environment. Water pollution from agricultural runoff causes dead zones for plants and aquatic animals due to the lack of oxygen in the water. This lack of oxygen, known as

text: eutrophication

text: , is caused when organisms present in the water grow excessively and then later decompose, in the process using up the oxygen in the water. A prominent example is the Gulf of Mexico, where much of the nutrients in fertilizer used in the US Midwest is funneled down the Mississippi River into the Gulf, causing massive dead zones. Other pollutants not commonly considered are antibiotics and hormones. In southern Asia, vultures that consumed carcasses of livestock declined 95% due to their ingestion of the antibiotic known as

text: diclofenac

text: While exercising the right to take measures "necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate grave and imminent danger to their coastline or related interests" from oil pollution, the coastal State is obligated to:

text: The external costs of automobiles, as similarly other economic externalities, are the measurable costs for other parties except the car proprietor, such costs not being taken into account when the proprietor opts to drive their car. According to the Harvard University, the main externalities of driving are local and global pollution, oil dependence, traffic congestionand traffic accidents; while according to a meta-study conducted by the Delft University these externalities are congestion and scarcity costs, accident costs, air pollution costs, noise costs, climate change costs, costs for nature and landscape, costs for water pollution, costs for soil pollution and costs of energy dependency.The existence of the car allows on-demand travel, given, that the necessary infrastructure is in place. This infrastructure represents a monetary cost, but also cost in terms of common assets that are difficult to represent monetarily, such as land use and air pollution.

text: The external costs of automobiles, as similarly other economic

text: externalities

text: , are the measurable costs for other parties except the car proprietor, such costs not being taken into account when the proprietor opts to drive their car. According to the

text: Harvard University

text: , the main externalities of driving are local and global

text: pollution

text: oil dependence

text: traffic congestion

text: and

text: traffic accidents

text: ; while according to a meta-study conducted by the

text: Delft University

text: these externalities are

text: congestion

text: and

text: scarcity

text: costs,

text: accident

text: costs,

text: air pollution

text: costs,

text: noise

text: costs,

text: climate change

text: costs, costs for nature and landscape, costs for

text: water pollution

text: , costs for

text: soil pollution

text: and costs of energy dependency.The existence of the car allows on-demand travel, given, that the necessary infrastructure is in place. This infrastructure represents a monetary cost, but also cost in terms of common assets that are difficult to represent monetarily, such as land use and air pollution.

text: The US Department of the Interior's Water Pollution Control Administration and the US Public Health Service then conducted a joint investigation of the lower Penobscot River and upper Penobscot Bay "to determine the sources of this pollution, the direction of travel of this pollution and the degree of economic injury involved."

text: The US Department of the Interior's Water Pollution Control Administration and the

text: US Public Health Service

text: then conducted a joint investigation of the lower Penobscot River and upper Penobscot Bay "to determine the sources of this pollution, the direction of travel of this pollution and the degree of economic injury involved."

text: In Northern regions of Chile, point source pollution from mining effluent is a problem. Because there is not much water in rivers, dilution of contaminants is greatly reduced. In Central Chile industrial pollution is an issue. Very often these discharges go untreated directly into river basins, lakes, and irrigation channels. Nonpoint source pollution from agricultural runoff including nitrates from fertilizers and untreated sewage is contaminating underground waters. The severity of the problem has yet to be thoroughly quantified.

text: In Northern regions of Chile,

text: point source

text: pollution from mining effluent is a problem. Because there is not much water in rivers, dilution of contaminants is greatly reduced. In Central Chile industrial pollution is an issue. Very often these discharges go untreated directly into river basins, lakes, and irrigation channels.

text: Nonpoint source

text: pollution from agricultural runoff including nitrates from fertilizers and untreated sewage is contaminating underground waters. The severity of the problem has yet to be thoroughly quantified.

text: Some of the issues that Ocean Champions has lobbied in Congress include: harmful algal blooms, ending overfishing, national ocean policy (OCEANS-21), national endowment for the oceans, offshore oil drilling, water pollution prevention and ocean acidification.

text: The possibility of a low cost river water treatment plant utilizing water from Yamuna-Ichhamati at Gighata has been considered. However, this is not considered feasible because the river is highly polluted, costs would considerably increased because of installation of chemical treatment plant to remove pollutants, and the volume of water in the river in summer season is not sufficient.

text: Mining presents a different problem, as the mines have been abandoned, but the pollution continues. Near Penistone, ochre discharged into the river from old ganister mine workings, giving it an orange colour for about six miles, eventually remedied, while at Beeley Wood, the ochre comes from a pile of waste metal on the river bank. A nearby paper mill has also been a significant polluter of the river. Some of the problem has been mitigated by the construction of lagoons, into which mine discharges have been diverted. Water quality on the Dearne and the Rother has not improved as much as on the Don, and pollution of the lower reaches is compounded by the fact that the pollutants, which include dioxins, are locked up in the river bed sediments. Despite the steady improvement in water quality, restocking of the river with fish, attempted on several occasions between 1981 and 1994, was largely ineffective, caused by intermittent discharges of pollutants. In November 2011, the Environment Agency announced that they had recently re-stocked the Don with 1,000 barbel. A spokesman said that the fish in the river were now at a sustainable level with a breeding population and these would be the last fish added as part of a 10-year programme to help the Don recover from an industrial heritage that had depleted fish stocks.

text: Mining presents a different problem, as the mines have been abandoned, but the pollution continues. Near

text: Penistone

text: ochre

text: discharged into the river from old

text: ganister

text: mine workings, giving it an orange colour for about six miles, eventually remedied, while at

text: Beeley Wood

text: , the ochre comes from a pile of waste metal on the river bank. A nearby paper mill has also been a significant polluter of the river. Some of the problem has been mitigated by the construction of lagoons, into which mine discharges have been diverted. Water quality on the Dearne and the Rother has not improved as much as on the Don, and pollution of the lower reaches is compounded by the fact that the pollutants, which include

text: dioxins

text: , are locked up in the river bed sediments. Despite the steady improvement in water quality, restocking of the river with fish, attempted on several occasions between 1981 and 1994, was largely ineffective, caused by intermittent discharges of pollutants. In November 2011, the

text: Environment Agency

text: announced that they had recently re-stocked the Don with 1,000

text: barbel

text: . A spokesman said that the fish in the river were now at a sustainable level with a breeding population and these would be the last fish added as part of a 10-year programme to help the Don recover from an industrial heritage that had depleted fish stocks.

text: Pollution prevention reduces the amount of pollution generated by a process, whether by industry, agriculture or consumers. In contrast to most pollution control strategies, which seek to manage a pollutant after it is emitted and reduce its impact upon the environment, the pollution prevention approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process, thereby reducing the amount of pollution generated at its source. Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy, some professionals also use the term pollution prevention to include pollution reduction.

text: Pollution prevention reduces the amount of

text: pollution

text: generated by a process, whether by industry, agriculture or consumers. In contrast to most pollution control strategies, which seek to manage a pollutant after it is emitted and reduce its impact upon the environment, the pollution prevention approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process, thereby reducing the amount of pollution generated at its source. Although there is wide agreement that source reduction is the preferred strategy, some professionals also use the term pollution prevention to include pollution reduction.

text: govern the release of pollutants into water resources, including surface water, ground water, and stored drinking water. Some water quality laws, such as drinking water regulations, may be designed solely with reference to human health. Many others, including restrictions on the alteration of the chemical, physical, radiological, and biological characteristics of water resources, may also reflect efforts to protect aquatic ecosystems more broadly. Regulatory efforts may include identifying and categorizing water pollutants, dictating acceptable pollutant concentrations in water resources, and limiting pollutant discharges from effluent sources. Regulatory areas include sewage treatment and disposal, industrial and agricultural waste water management, and control of surface runoff from construction sites and urban environments.

text: govern the

text: release of pollutants into water resources

text: , including

text: surface water

text: ground water

text: , and stored

text: drinking water

text: . Some water quality laws, such as drinking water regulations, may be designed solely with reference to human health. Many others, including restrictions on the alteration of the

text: chemical, physical, radiological, and biological characteristics of water resources

text: , may also reflect efforts to protect

text: aquatic ecosystem

text: s more broadly. Regulatory efforts may include identifying and categorizing water pollutants, dictating acceptable pollutant concentrations in water resources, and limiting pollutant discharges from effluent sources. Regulatory areas include

text: sewage treatment and disposal

text: industrial

text: and

text: agricultural

text: waste water management, and control of

text: surface runoff

text: from construction sites and urban environments.

text: The Olympic Games can affect water quality in the surrounding region in several ways, including water runoff and the transfer of polluting substances from the air to water sources through rainfall. Harmful particulates come from both natural substances (such as plant matter crushed by higher volumes of pedestrian and vehicle traffic) and man-made substances (such as exhaust from vehicles or industry). Contaminants from these two categories lead to elevated amounts of toxins in street dust. Street dust then reaches water sources through runoff, facilitating the transfer of toxins to environments and communities that rely on these water sources. For example, one method of measuring the runoff contamination of water sources involves magnetism. Magnetism measurement systems allow specialists to measure the differences in mineral magnetic parameters in samples of water, air, and vegetation. Unlike traditional methods of measuring pollutants, magnetism is relatively inexpensive, and can identify smaller particle sizes.Another method used to assess the amount and effects of water pollutants is to measure the amount of PM2.5 in rainfall. Measuring PM2.5 (the amount of aerodynamic diameter of particle≤2.5 μm in a given amount of air) is a common metric for assessing air quality. Comparing PM2.5 levels between air and rainfall samples allows scientists to determine the amount of air pollution being transferred to water sources. Pollutants in rainfall quickly and directly affect pollution in groundwater sources. In 2013, researchers in Beijing found a significant relationship between the amount of PM2.5 concentrations in the air and in rainfall. Studies showed that rainfall had a significant “washing” effect on PM2.5 in the air, transferring a large portion of these pollutants from the air to water sources. In this way, Beijing’s notorious air pollution has a direct and significant impact on rainfall, and therefore, on water resources throughout the region.

text: Water in Singapore is polluted by unwanted materials contributed by industrial facilities, coupled by oil from both incoming and outgoing trading vessels. Corrective measures are taken, and affected water is taken for treatment at specialised centres. Plants such as NEWater treat unwanted water into drinkable water. One major water body in Singapore which used to be polluted is the Singapore River.

text: Water in Singapore is polluted by unwanted materials contributed by industrial facilities, coupled by oil from both incoming and outgoing trading vessels. Corrective measures are taken, and affected water is taken for treatment at specialised centres. Plants such as

text: NEWater

text: treat unwanted water into drinkable water. One major water body in Singapore which used to be polluted is the

text: Singapore River

text: Ships are polluting both in the marine environment and in the atmosphere, and although it is difficult to estimate the magnitude of the problem, there is no uncertainty that increased usage of such ships will increase pollution. As the underwater logging industry becomes more popular and profitable, this increased usage will occur. The process of underwater logging itself will also have a negative impact on the environment, as the logs themselves add weight to the ships, forcing said ships to work harder and use more time and energy to transport their cargo. In terms of transportation, cargo ships transport the logs across the water. They use an immense amount of ballast water, which can have negative effects on the environment. When the ships reach the mills they empty the water, “Ballast water discharge typically contains a variety of biological materials, including plants, animals, viruses, and bacteria”. Dumping the ballast can change the aquatic ecosystems and even make the water undrinkable.

text: Industrial, municipal and agricultural pollution of the river results in poor water quality and negative impacts on the health of people, plants and animals dependent on the river water.

text: Focused research on oil pollution toxicity to fish began in earnest in 1989, after the Exxon Valdez tanker struck a reef in Prince William Sound, Alaska and spilled approximately 11 million gallons of crude oil into the surrounding water. At the time, the Exxon Valdez oil spill was the largest in the history of the United States. There were many adverse ecological impacts of the spill including the loss of the loss of billions of Pacific herring and pink salmon eggs. Pacific herring were just beginning to spawn in late March when the spill occurred, resulting in nearly half of the populations eggs being exposed to crude oil. Pacific herring spawn in the intertidal and subtidal zones, making the vulnerable eggs easily exposed to pollution.

text: Focused research on oil pollution toxicity to fish began in earnest in 1989, after the Exxon Valdez tanker struck a reef in

text: Prince William Sound

text: , Alaska and spilled approximately 11 million gallons of crude oil into the surrounding water. At the time, the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: was the largest in the history of the United States. There were many adverse ecological impacts of the spill including the loss of the loss of billions of

text: Pacific herring

text: and

text: pink salmon

text: eggs. Pacific herring were just beginning to spawn in late March when the spill occurred, resulting in nearly half of the populations eggs being exposed to crude oil. Pacific herring spawn in the

text: intertidal

text: and

text: subtidal

text: zones, making the vulnerable eggs easily exposed to pollution.

text: Pollution produced by humans may be seriously weakening the Earth's water cycle — reducing rainfall and threatening fresh water supplies. A 2001 study by researchers at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography suggests that tiny particles of soot and other pollutants have a significant effect on the hydrological cycle. According to Veerabhadran Ramanathan, "the energy for the hydrological cycle comes from sunlight. As sunlight heats the ocean, water escapes into the atmosphere and falls out as rain. So as aerosols cut down sunlight by large amounts, they may be spinning down the hydrological cycle of the planet."

text: Pollution produced by humans may be seriously weakening the Earth's

text: water cycle

text: — reducing rainfall and threatening fresh water supplies. A 2001 study by researchers at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography suggests that tiny particles of soot and other pollutants have a significant effect on the hydrological cycle. According to

text: Veerabhadran Ramanathan

text: , "the energy for the hydrological cycle comes from sunlight. As sunlight heats the ocean, water escapes into the atmosphere and falls out as rain. So as aerosols cut down sunlight by large amounts, they may be spinning down the hydrological cycle of the planet."

text: The plan specifically targets nutrients, pesticides and sediment that make their way into the reef as a result of agricultural activities. Other non-point sources of pollution that are attributed to urban areas are covered under different legislation. In 2009, the plan was updated. The updated version states that to date, none of the efforts undertaken to improve the quality of water entering the reef has been successful. The new plan attempts to address this issue by "targeting priority outcomes, integrating industry and community initiatives and incorporating new policy and regulatory frameworks (Reef Plan 5)". This updated version has improved the clarity of the previous plan and targets set by that plan, have improved accountability and further improved monitoring and assessment. The 2009 report found that 41 out of the 65 actions met their original goals, however, 18 were not progressing well according to evaluation criteria as well as 6 were rated as having unsatisfactory levels of progress.

text: Kivalina has also sued Canadian mining company Teck Cominco for polluting its water source.

text: Kivalina has also sued Canadian mining company

text: Teck Cominco

text: for polluting its water source.

text: Pollution: Severe eutrophication caused by polluted runoff has made red tides in the Bohai Bay common. Combined with overfishing, this has put pressure on once-abundant fish stocks. Biological pollution is also a problem, with illegal ballast water discharges creating a strong danger of invasive exotic species. Habitat destruction caused by reclamation has damaged coastal wetlands, intertidal flats and shallow water hatcheries essential for many fish and bird species.

text: Pollution: Severe

text: eutrophication

text: caused by

text: polluted runoff

text: has made

text: red tides

text: in the Bohai Bay common. Combined with overfishing, this has put pressure on once-abundant fish stocks.

text: Biological pollution

text: is also a problem, with illegal

text: ballast

text: water discharges creating a strong danger of invasive exotic species. Habitat destruction caused by reclamation has damaged coastal wetlands, intertidal flats and shallow water hatcheries essential for many fish and bird species.

text: The Karachi coastline, which stretches over 135 km, is facing severe pollution due  to a combination of industrial, port, municipal, and transportation activities in the area.  The coastline is being overwhelmed with water-borne pollution being discharged in the  shipping process into the marine environment. A recent study found that some of the  marine life was contaminated with lead, which if consumed by humans through seafood, has been linked to anemia, kidney failure and brain damage. In fact, the study also discovered that even the mangrove forests protecting the feeder creeks from sea erosion  as well as a source of sustenance for fishermen are threatened by this pollution. In the Korangi Industrial Area, 2,500 industrial units including 170 tanneries dispose untreated waste into the Arabian Sea.

text: The

text: Karachi

text: coastline, which stretches over 135 km, is facing severe pollution due  to a combination of industrial, port, municipal, and transportation activities in the area.  The coastline is being overwhelmed with

text: water-borne pollution

text: contaminated with lead

text: , which if consumed by humans through

text: seafood

text: , has been linked to

text: anemia

text: kidney failure

text: and

text: brain damage

text: mangrove

text: forests protecting the feeder creeks from sea erosion  as well as a source of sustenance for fishermen are threatened by this pollution. In the

text: Korangi Industrial Area

text: , 2,500 industrial units including 170 tanneries dispose untreated waste into the

text: Arabian Sea

text: The largest oil spill in fresh water was caused by a Shell Petroleum tanker in the Río de la Plata, off Magdalena, on January 15, 1999, polluting the environment, drinking water, and local wildlife.

text: The largest oil spill in fresh water was caused by a

text: Shell Petroleum

text: tanker in the Río de la Plata, off

text: Magdalena

text: , on January 15, 1999, polluting the environment, drinking water, and local wildlife.

text: A 2003 report released by the Federation of Consumer Associations (FCA) found that much of the drinking water in Kolkata was polluted with human waste. According to this report, 87% of reservoirs supplying water to residential buildings were contaminated with human excrement. There were significant traces of faecal matter in 63% of faucets, and 20% of the water samples collected from various city hospitals were also found to be contaminated. The study reported that approximately one-fifth of the deep water wells and hand pumps operated by the Kolkata Municipal Corporation were polluted with human waste. The former director of the All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health blamed the ongoing water pollution on a leaky sewer system and water pressure inconsistencies.

text: A 2003 report released by the Federation of Consumer Associations (FCA) found that much of the

text: drinking water

text: in Kolkata was polluted with

text: human waste

text: . According to this report, 87% of reservoirs supplying water to residential buildings were contaminated with human excrement. There were significant traces of faecal matter in 63% of faucets, and 20% of the water samples collected from various city hospitals were also found to be contaminated. The study reported that approximately one-fifth of the

text: deep water wells

text: and

text: hand pump

text: s operated by the

text: Kolkata Municipal Corporation

text: were polluted with human waste. The former director of the

text: All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health

text: blamed the ongoing water pollution on a leaky sewer system and water pressure inconsistencies.

text: Mike Mitchell is an American artist known for his pop surrealism and for leading the online grassroots movement in supporting Conan O'Brien during the 2010 Tonight Show conflict. He designed the "I'm with Coco" poster, which was based on a photo, that went viral on the internet in January 2010. The poster has been widely circulated and displayed on the web and at various rallies during the 2010 Tonight Show conflict, and afterwards for O'Brien's The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour. He also designed a poster in response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill depicting a dead SpongeBob SquarePants floating on a polluted sea, with the caption: "Who died in an oil spill because of BP".

text: Mike Mitchell is an

text: American

text: artist

text: known for his

text: pop surrealism

text: and for leading the online grassroots movement in supporting

text: Conan O'Brien

text: during the

text: 2010 Tonight Show conflict

text: . He designed the "I'm with Coco" poster, which was based on a photo, that went viral on the internet in January 2010. The poster has been widely circulated and displayed on the web and at various rallies during the 2010 Tonight Show conflict, and afterwards for O'Brien's

entity_name: The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour

text: The Legally Prohibited from Being Funny on Television Tour

text: . He also designed a poster in response to the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: depicting a dead

text: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: floating on a polluted sea, with the caption: "Who died in an oil spill because of BP".

text: Pollution is another crucial influencer on the threatening of animal life, and human life, across the world. Every form of pollution has an effect on wildlife, whether it be through the air, water, or ground. While sometimes the origin and form of pollution is visible and easy to determine, other times it can be a mystery as to what exactly is causing the death of animals. Through constant and consistent observation of habitat analysis, humans can help prevent the loss of animal life by recognizing the early signs of pollution before the problem becomes too large.

text: Pollution

text: is another crucial influencer on the threatening of animal life, and human life, across the world. Every form of pollution has an effect on wildlife, whether it be through the air, water, or ground. While sometimes the origin and form of pollution is visible and easy to determine, other times it can be a mystery as to what exactly is causing the death of animals. Through constant and consistent observation of habitat analysis, humans can help prevent the loss of animal life by recognizing the early signs of pollution before the problem becomes too large.

text: Israel’s Mountain aquifer has suffered from excessive pumping to the point where its water level sank below the legal minimum set by the Israeli water commission. The decline in water level has had negative effects on water sources in surrounding wetlands and nature reserves. A survey by the Hydrological Service of Israel in 2002 found that improperly handled waste from several settlements had filtered into the aquifer, introducing nitrates and other pollutants into the water supply. The threat of pollution to the Mountain Aquifer is far greater than that of the Coastal Aquifer due to its karstic composition, allowing for quicker absorption of both water and pollutants.

text: During excessive heat plants shut their leaf pores (stomata), a protective mechanism to conserve water but also curtails plants' absorption capabilities. Thus, leaving more pollution and ozone in the air, which leads to a higher mortality in the population. It has been estimated that extra pollution during the hot summer 2006 in the UK, cost 460 lives. The European heat waves from summer 2003 are estimated to have caused 30,000 excess deaths, due to heat stress and air pollution.

text: During excessive heat plants shut their leaf pores (

text: stomata

text: ), a protective mechanism to conserve water but also curtails plants' absorption capabilities. Thus, leaving more pollution and ozone in the air, which leads to a higher mortality in the population. It has been estimated that extra pollution during the hot summer 2006 in the UK, cost 460 lives. The European heat waves from summer 2003 are estimated to have caused 30,000 excess deaths, due to heat stress and air pollution.

text: In 1948 in the USA, a Water Pollution Control Act (WPA) was passed by the federal government. This act gave rights to the surgeon general of the public health service to make programs to decrease the amount of pollution in the world's waters. The main concern was to save water, protect fish, and have clean water for agricultural usage. The WPA also helped to start the process of building water treatment plants. This is to guard against sewage from polluting drinking water. In 1972 the WPA was amended to include more requirements in order to insure that the water is chemically sound. This amendment also furthered regulations to insure the quality of the water was up to par. In 1987 the WPA was amended again to put an even more strict control on water supply pollution. With this new amendment water sources had to fit a specific set of criteria to fight against pollution.

text: In 1948 in the USA, a

text: Water Pollution Control Act

text: (WPA) was passed by the federal government. This act gave rights to the surgeon general of the public health service to make programs to decrease the amount of pollution in the world's waters. The main concern was to save water, protect fish, and have clean water for agricultural usage. The WPA also helped to start the process of building water treatment plants. This is to guard against sewage from polluting drinking water. In 1972 the WPA was amended to include more requirements in order to insure that the water is chemically sound. This amendment also furthered regulations to insure the quality of the water was up to par. In 1987 the WPA was amended again to put an even more strict control on water supply pollution. With this new amendment water sources had to fit a specific set of criteria to fight against pollution.

text: Whereas in most debates about accountability for water use, privatization is seen as the enemy of the people dependent on the water, many NGOs in this (former Soviet) region claim instead that the source of the water-related problems lies in the irresponsible use of water, mainly by the agricultural sector (which is still predominantly owned by the state). Many claim that this can only be changed by changing the soviet paradigm, namely by putting a price tag on water: the more water one uses and/or pollutes, the more one should pay.

text: Whereas in most debates about accountability for water use,

text: privatization

text: is seen as the enemy of the people dependent on the water, many

text: NGO

text: s in this (former

text: Soviet

text: ) region claim instead that the source of the water-related problems lies in the irresponsible use of water, mainly by the agricultural sector (which is still predominantly owned by the state). Many claim that this can only be changed by changing the soviet

text: paradigm

text: , namely by putting a price tag on water: the more water one uses and/or pollutes, the more one should pay.

text: Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, has a beach on its northern coast in Jakarta Bay. The water of Jakarta Bay is relatively polluted, the result of the poor living condition of the majority of people living along the bay, as well as nutrient inputs from agricultural runoff, industrial pollution, and waste water.

text: Jakarta

text: , the capital of Indonesia, has a beach on its northern coast in

text: Jakarta Bay

text: . The water of Jakarta Bay is relatively polluted, the result of the poor living condition of the majority of people living along the bay, as well as nutrient inputs from agricultural runoff, industrial pollution, and waste water.

text: The externalities of automobiles, as similarly other economic externalities, are the measurable costs for other parties except the car proprietor, such costs not being taken into account when the proprietor opts to drive their car. According to the Harvard University, the main externalities of driving are local and global pollution, oil dependence, traffic congestionand traffic accidents; while according to a meta-study conducted by the Delft University these externalities are congestion and scarcity costs, accident costs, air pollution costs, noise costs, climate change costs, costs for nature and landscape, costs for water pollution, costs for soil pollution and costs of energy dependency.

text: The externalities of automobiles, as similarly other economic

text: externalities

text: Harvard University

text: pollution

text: oil dependence

text: traffic congestion

text: and

text: traffic accidents

text: Delft University

text: these externalities are

text: congestion

text: and

text: scarcity

text: costs,

text: accident

text: costs,

text: air pollution

text: costs,

text: noise

text: costs,

text: climate change

text: water pollution

text: , costs for

text: soil pollution

text: and costs of

text: energy dependency

text: Water quality modeling involves the prediction of water pollution using mathematical simulation techniques. A typical water quality model consists of a collection of formulations representing physical mechanisms that determine position and momentum of pollutants in a water body.  Models are available for individual components of the hydrological system such as surface runoff; there also exist basinwide models addressing hydrologic transport and for ocean and estuarine applications.  Often finite difference methods are used to analyse these phenomena, and, almost always, large complex computer models are required.

text: Water quality modeling involves the prediction of

text: water pollution

text: using

text: mathematical simulation

text: techniques. A typical

text: water quality

text: model consists of a collection of formulations representing physical mechanisms that determine position and momentum of

text: pollutants

text: in a water body.  Models are available for individual components of the hydrological system such as

text: surface runoff

text: ; there also exist basinwide models addressing

text: hydrologic transport

text: and for ocean and estuarine applications.  Often

text: finite difference

text: methods are used to analyse these phenomena, and, almost always, large complex

text: computer model

text: s are required.

text: Non-point source (NPS) pollution includes both water and air pollution from diffuse sources. Non-point source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Non-point source air pollution affects air quality from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes. Although these pollutants have originated from a point source, the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a non-point source of pollution. Non-point source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location.

text: Non-point source (NPS) pollution includes both

text: water

text: and

text: air pollution

text: from diffuse sources. Non-point source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as polluted

text: runoff

text: from

text: agricultural

text: areas draining into a river, or wind-borne

text: debris

text: blowing out to sea. Non-point source air pollution affects air quality from sources such as

text: smokestack

text: s or car

text: tailpipe

text: s. Although these pollutants have originated from a point source, the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a non-point source of pollution. Non-point source pollution can be contrasted with

text: point source pollution

text: , where discharges occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location.

text: Other computer models have been developed (such as the DSSAM Model) that allow surface runoff to be tracked through a river course as reactive water pollutants. In this case the surface runoff may be considered to be a line source of water pollution to the receiving waters.

text: Other computer models have been developed (such as the

text: DSSAM Model

text: ) that allow surface runoff to be tracked through a river course as reactive water pollutants. In this case the surface runoff may be considered to be a

text: line source

text: of

text: water pollution

text: to the receiving waters.

text: The U.S. Congress created the Clean Water Act (CWA) in 1972 when it reworked the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments. It specifically defines CAFOs as point source polluters and required operations managers and/or owners to obtain permits from the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) in order to legally discharge wastewater from its facilities.

text: The U.S. Congress created the

text: Clean Water Act

text: (CWA) in 1972 when it reworked the Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments. It specifically defines CAFOs as point source polluters and required operations managers and/or owners to obtain permits from the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) in order to legally discharge wastewater from its facilities.

text: The Neuse has been plagued in recent years with environmental and public health problems related to municipal and agricultural waste water discharge, storm runoff, and other sources of pollution. Pollution was particularly bad in the aftermath of hurricanes Fran and Floyd in the late 1990s.

text: The Neuse has been plagued in recent years with environmental and public health problems related to municipal and agricultural

text: waste water

text: discharge, storm

text: runoff

text: , and other sources of pollution. Pollution was particularly bad in the aftermath of hurricanes

text: Fran

text: and

text: Floyd

text: in the late 1990s.

text: With attempts to mitigate and manage urban heat islands, Temperature changes and availability of food and water are reduced.  With temperate climates, urban heat islands will extend the growing season, therefore altering breeding strategies of inhabiting species.  This can be seen the best in the effects that urban heat islands have on water temperature.  With the temperature of the nearby buildings sometimes reaching over 50 degrees different from the near-surface air temperature, precipitation will warm rapidly, causing runoff into nearby streams, lakes and rivers (or other bodies of water) to provide excessive thermal pollution.  The increase in the thermal pollution has the ability to increase water temperature by 20 to 30 degrees.  This increase will cause the fish species inhabiting the body of water to undergo thermal stress and shock due to the rapid change in temperature to their climate.

text: The beaches, one of Spittal's main attractions have recently been criticized for having poor water quality.  East Lothian News reports that a main contributor to this could be the recent pollution of the River Tweed which is a main tributary to the Spittal coastal waters.  As the only beach in the Northern region classified as poor, Spittal officials are scrambling to find solutions to the pollution issue.

text: The beaches, one of Spittal's main attractions have recently been criticized for having poor water quality.  East Lothian News reports that a main contributor to this could be the recent pollution of the

text: River Tweed

text: which is a main tributary to the Spittal coastal waters.  As the only beach in the Northern region classified as poor, Spittal officials are scrambling to find solutions to the pollution issue.

text: The equipment on board is used for containment, recovery, separation and dispersal of pollutants. High tech control systems enable simultaneous tasks to be performed by a single operator. The vessel is be fitted with latest pollution control equipment including two rigid sweeping arms enabling it to contain oil spill whilst in motion. An advanced software would assist in predicting the spread of the complex oil spill pattern. The vessel is designed to recover the lightest to the most viscous oil at the rate of 300 tons per hour. The contaminated water can be pumped on board and analysed in a laboratory. The oil can then be separated and held in storage tanks of 300 tonnes capacity or 1000 tonnes in inflatable barges which can be towed behind the vessel to free up deck space. The vessel is also equipped with fire fighting and salvage systems.

text: The river is notorious for being heavily polluted. Reported to be crystal clear in 1875, the industrialization of Silesia caused the river to become so polluted that all the fish died out by 1893. The continued growth of industry and cities throughout the 20th century, combined with little effort towards preserving the environment, continued to degrade the quality of the water in the river. In 1992, the river, leaving Katowice, was claimed to contain only 14% water, and a popular joke among the local citizens was to warn each other 'not to throw a lit match into the river'. Currently the upper part of the river is officially classified as sewage and the plan is to direct the entire river flow through a treatment plant. In the 1990s plans to improve water quality and restore the ecology of the river were begun. So far new sewage treatment plants have been completed, and the plan is supposed to significantly improve the river's quality by 2010.

text: The river is notorious for being heavily polluted. Reported to be crystal clear in 1875, the

text: industrialization

text: of

text: Silesia

text: caused the river to become so polluted that all the fish died out by 1893. The continued growth of industry and cities throughout the 20th century, combined with little effort towards preserving the environment, continued to degrade the quality of the water in the river. In 1992, the river, leaving Katowice, was claimed to contain only 14% water, and a popular joke among the local citizens was to warn each other 'not to throw a lit match into the river'. Currently the upper part of the river is officially classified as sewage and the plan is to direct the entire river flow through a treatment plant. In the 1990s plans to improve water quality and restore the ecology of the river were begun. So far new sewage treatment plants have been completed, and the plan is supposed to significantly improve the river's quality by 2010.

text: The organization also uses water quality trading to fix rivers. Water quality trading is a collaborative solution to address water quality and pollutant loads in a watershed. Water quality trading allows permitted point-source dischargers to invest in “green” rather than “gray” infrastructure (natural versus built) solutions. The Freshwater Trust assists a point source with designing and implementing trading program and bringing in regulators and non-point sources. The U.S. Water Alliance awarded The Freshwater Trust the 2013 U.S. Water Prize for its work in this field.

text: Atmospheric pollution is pollution that falls from the sky and comes to rest back on earth in the water table and in the lakes and oceans. This air pollution usually comes from smoke and chemicals being thrown into the air from smoke stacks and hospitals. One of the most troubling facts about atmospheric pollution is that it usually falls hundreds of miles away from its source and therefore is difficult to track and locate, but it is a major contributor to the pollution of not only the Great Lakes but all over the world. Pollution from one country can be hurting another. The best-known type of atmospheric pollution is acid rain. One of the biggest contributors to acid rain is the burning of coal and fossil fuels.

text: Atmospheric pollution is pollution that falls from the sky and comes to rest back on earth in the water table and in the lakes and oceans. This air pollution usually comes from smoke and chemicals being thrown into the air from smoke stacks and hospitals. One of the most troubling facts about atmospheric pollution is that it usually falls hundreds of miles away from its source and therefore is difficult to track and locate, but it is a major contributor to the pollution of not only the Great Lakes but all over the world. Pollution from one country can be hurting another. The best-known type of atmospheric pollution is

text: acid rain

text: . One of the biggest contributors to acid rain is the burning of coal and fossil fuels.

text: Four Greenpeace activists first occupied Brent Spar on 30 April 1995. In total, 25 activists, photographers and journalists were involved in this stage of occupation. They chose to cover up the Exxon logos on the platform. At this time, activists collected a sample of the contents of the Brent Spar and sent it for testing to determine the nature of the pollutants which the platform contained. This sample was collected incorrectly, leading to a large overestimate in the contents of the facility. Although Greenpeace quoted Shell's own estimate of the amount of heavy metals and other chemicals on board, they claimed there were more than 5,500 tonnes of oil on the Spar – far more than Shell's estimate of 50 tonnes. For context, the Exxon Valdez oil spill involved around 42,000 tonnes.

text: Four Greenpeace

text: activist

text: s first occupied Brent Spar on 30 April 1995. In total, 25 activists, photographers and journalists were involved in this stage of occupation. They chose to cover up the Exxon logos on the platform. At this time, activists collected a sample of the contents of the Brent Spar and sent it for testing to determine the nature of the pollutants which the platform contained. This sample was collected incorrectly, leading to a large overestimate in the contents of the facility. Although Greenpeace quoted Shell's own estimate of the amount of heavy metals and other chemicals on board, they claimed there were more than 5,500 tonnes of oil on the Spar – far more than Shell's estimate of 50 tonnes. For context, the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: involved around 42,000 tonnes.

text: To enforce TMDLs with point sources, water quality-based effluent limitations (WQBELs) must be developed and incorporated into discharge permits for these sources. The permits are issued by EPA and state agencies under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Nonpoint source discharges (e.g. agriculture) are generally in a voluntary compliance scenario.  The TMDL implementation plan is intended to help bridge this divide and ensure that watershed beneficial uses are restored and maintained. Local watershed groups play a critical role in educating stakeholders, generating funding, and implementing projects to reduce nonpoint sources of pollution.

text: To enforce TMDLs with point sources, water quality-based effluent limitations (WQBELs) must be developed and incorporated into discharge permits for these sources. The permits are issued by EPA and state agencies under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (

text: NPDES

text: Nonpoint source discharges

text: (e.g. agriculture) are generally in a voluntary compliance scenario.  The TMDL implementation plan is intended to help bridge this divide and ensure that watershed beneficial uses are restored and maintained. Local watershed groups play a critical role in educating stakeholders, generating funding, and implementing projects to reduce nonpoint sources of pollution.

text: Chalk Point plant is by far the leading polluter in Prince George's County, Maryland, according to pollution research site Scorecard.org. It produced  of air pollution (not counting CO) and  of water pollution in 2002. (The second largest polluter, the USDA's Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, produced  of mostly land pollution in 2002.)

text: Chalk Point plant is by far the leading polluter in

text: Prince George's County, Maryland

text: , according to pollution research site Scorecard.org. It produced  of

text: air pollution

text: (not counting CO) and  of

text: water pollution

text: in 2002. (The second largest polluter, the

text: USDA

text: 's

entity_name: Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center

text: Henry A. Wallace Beltsville Agricultural Research Center

text: , produced  of mostly

text: land pollution

text: in 2002.)

text: Environmental hazards are those hazards where the effects are seen in biomes or ecosystems rather than directly on living organisms. Well known examples include oil spills, water pollution, slash and burn de-forestation etc.

text: Environmental hazards are those hazards where the effects are seen in

text: biome

text: s or

text: ecosystem

text: s rather than directly on living organisms. Well known examples include

text: oil spill

text: s,

text: water pollution

text: , slash and burn de-forestation etc.

text: In general, more human activity up stream (i.e. the larger the stream/river) the greater the potential for contamination from sewage effluent, surface runoff, or industrial pollutants.  Groundwater pollution may occur from human activity (e.g. on-site sanitation systems or mining) or might be naturally occurring (e.g. from arsenic in some regions of India and Bangladesh).  Water collected as far upstream as possible above  all known or anticipated risks of pollution poses the lowest risk of contamination and is best suited to portable treatment methods.

text: In general, more human activity up stream (i.e. the larger the stream/river) the greater the potential for contamination from

text: sewage effluent

text: surface runoff

text: , or industrial

text: pollutants

text: Groundwater pollution

text: may occur from human activity (e.g. on-site

text: sanitation

text: systems or mining) or might be naturally occurring (e.g. from

text: arsenic

text: in some regions of India and Bangladesh).  Water collected as far upstream as possible above  all known or anticipated risks of pollution poses the lowest risk of contamination and is best suited to portable treatment methods.

text: Due to the emergence of vehicular traffic, and modern industries such as the thermal power plant, petrochemical complex, and the oil refinery in the west of the city, air pollution levels have increased continuously since the second half of the 20th century. However, due to the efforts of local industries to comply with the new limits on pollution, as per the Environmental National Code, the level of industrial pollution has been reduced to 558,167 tons of pollutants per year. Although this is a significant improvement, air pollution remains a serious burden to overcome.

text: It came to the attention of conservationists that there was a big problem in late 1998 when populations of the Florida applesnail underwent a dramatic decline, then the iconic Limpkin bird followed suit and left by the fall of 1999.  What was once a thriving and diverse ecosystem in North Florida is transitioning into a “biological dessert” says Wakulla Springs conservationist Jim Stevenson The problem is people. Human population increase has rendered grave consequence on our natural surrounding. The Wakulla springs basin stretches about 1,300 miles north of the spring in Florida and even into some of South Georgia. The water pollution from storm water runoff, as well as nitrate rich human water contamination through waste and pollution seeps into the underground aquifer and trickles down and flows out of the Wakulla spring as water at the end of the pipe.

text: It came to the attention of conservationists that there was a big problem in late 1998 when populations of the

text: Florida applesnail

text: underwent a dramatic decline, then the iconic

text: Limpkin

text: bird followed suit and left by the fall of 1999.  What was once a thriving and diverse ecosystem in North Florida is transitioning into a “biological dessert” says Wakulla Springs conservationist Jim Stevenson The problem is people. Human population increase has rendered grave consequence on our natural surrounding. The Wakulla springs basin stretches about 1,300 miles north of the spring in Florida and even into some of South Georgia. The water pollution from storm water runoff, as well as

text: nitrate

text: rich human water contamination through waste and pollution seeps into the underground aquifer and trickles down and flows out of the Wakulla spring as water at the end of the pipe.

text: David Schindler, environmental scientist conducted research to assess the way water pollution was investigated in the Oil Sands. Schindler's research indicated that the water monitoring was only regulated by the industry not outside environmental consultants. This led to inaccurate levels of carginigins reported over time. Chief Allan Adams of the Athabasca area is consulting with David Schindler to provide evidence of water pollution linked to the seepage from the tailings ponds. There are

text: David Schindler

text: , environmental scientist conducted research to assess the way water pollution was investigated in the Oil Sands. Schindler's research indicated that the water monitoring was only regulated by the industry not outside environmental consultants. This led to inaccurate levels of carginigins reported over time. Chief Allan Adams of the Athabasca area is consulting with David Schindler to provide evidence of water pollution linked to the seepage from the tailings ponds. There are

text: After the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion, the Obama Administration ordered the EPA, the Department of Homeland Security and the Department of Interior to coordinate federal emergency response efforts. Jackson's agency oversaw environmental and public health concerns during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, including air and water monitoring and assessing aquatic life and other environmental destruction. Jackson authorized and defended BP's choice to use the dispersant Corexit to combat the 210 million gallons of oil spilled in the Gulf of Mexico. The use of Corexit was criticized because it's more toxic and less effective than other EPA approved dispersants, which later studies showed that Corexit had major effects on the aquatic life's food chain in the Gulf of Mexico. While testifying before the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee, Jackson called the use of dispersants an "environmental tradeoff", and that "We know dispersants are generally less toxic than the oils they break down." Jackson's agency is facing a lawsuit in response of the spill from health and environmental groups for not setting adequate guidelines on how and where dispersants can be used safely. Jackson was designated by President Obama to serve as Chair on the Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force, a federal effort to restore damages and preserve the ecosystem in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: After the

text: Deepwater Horizon drilling rig explosion

text: , the

text: Obama Administration

text: ordered the EPA, the

entity_name: United States Department of Homeland Security

text: Department of Homeland Security

text: and the

text: Department of Interior

text: to coordinate federal emergency response efforts. Jackson's agency oversaw environmental and public health concerns during the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: , including air and water monitoring and assessing aquatic life and other environmental destruction. Jackson authorized and defended

text: BP

text: 's choice to use the dispersant

text: Corexit

text: to combat the 210 million gallons of oil spilled in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: . The use of Corexit was criticized because it's more toxic and less effective than other EPA approved dispersants, which later studies showed that Corexit had major effects on the aquatic life's food chain in the Gulf of Mexico. While testifying before the

entity_name: United States Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies

text: Senate Appropriations Subcommittee

text: , Jackson called the use of dispersants an "environmental tradeoff", and that "We know dispersants are generally less toxic than the oils they break down." Jackson's agency is facing a lawsuit in response of the spill from health and environmental groups for not setting adequate guidelines on how and where dispersants can be used safely. Jackson was designated by President Obama to serve as Chair on the

entity_name: Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force

text: Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Task Force

text: , a federal effort to restore damages and preserve the ecosystem in the Gulf of Mexico.

text: The gradual decrease in Peru's water quality is due to the release of untreated effluents from mining, industries, municipalities and polluted runoff from agriculture. Of the 53 rivers in the coastal aea, 16 are polluted by lead, manganese and iron threatening irrigation and potable water supplies. In particular, the Ministry of Agriculture considers "alarming" the quality of seven rivers: the Mantaro and Tambo rivers in the Central Andes that drain towards the Amazonas; the small Moche River near the northern coastal city Trujillo and the Santa near the northern coastal city Chimbote; the Chillon and Rimac rivers near Lima; and the Chili River near Arequipa which is well known for its rafting. In the Mantaro basin alone 18 mining facilities discharge polluted water into the river.

text: The gradual decrease in Peru's water quality is due to the release of untreated effluents from mining, industries, municipalities and polluted runoff from agriculture. Of the 53 rivers in the coastal aea, 16 are polluted by

text: lead

text: manganese

text: and

text: iron

text: threatening irrigation and potable water supplies. In particular, the Ministry of Agriculture considers "alarming" the quality of seven rivers: the

text: Mantaro

text: and

text: Tambo

text: rivers in the Central Andes that drain towards the Amazonas; the small Moche River near the northern coastal city Trujillo and the

text: Santa

text: near the northern coastal city

text: Chimbote

text: ; the

text: Chillon

text: and

text: Rimac

text: rivers near Lima; and the Chili River near Arequipa which is well known for its rafting. In the Mantaro basin alone 18 mining facilities discharge polluted water into the river.

text: The objective is to prevent water pollution by managing and monitoring the quality of discharged water, while inducing each business to make efforts for production process improvement by analyzing and managing water pollution levels. A reasonable and objective effluent charge is determined in order to improve policy credibility by identifying the exact pollution level for each period of time. Technical support and consultation for the establishment of control methods for the pollutants discharged by a business are provided, through the continuous assessment and analysis of the pollution level by the remote control of water quality.

text: Post-treatment of the product streams is dependent on the composition of the permeate and retentate and its end-use or government regulation. In cases such as milk separation both streams (milk and whey) can be collected and made into useful products. Additional drying of the retentate will produce whey powder. In the paper mill industry, the retentate (non-biodegradable organic material) is incinerated to recover energy and permeate (purified water) is discharged into waterways. It is essential for the permeate water to be pH balanced and cooled to avoid thermal pollution of waterways and altering its pH.

text: When anthropogenic contaminants are dissolved or suspended in runoff, the human impact is expanded to create water pollution. This pollutant load can reach various receiving waters such as streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries and oceans with resultant water chemistry changes to these water systems and their related ecosystems.

text: When anthropogenic contaminants are dissolved or suspended in runoff, the human impact is expanded to create

text: water pollution

text: . This pollutant load can reach various receiving waters such as streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries and oceans with resultant water chemistry changes to these water systems and their related ecosystems.

text: In waste water treatment, the most commonly used adsorbent is granular activated carbon (GAC), often used as to treat both liquid and gas phase volatile organic compounds and organic pollutants. Activated carbon beds vary in lifetime depending on the concentration of the pollutant(s) being removed, their associated adsorption isotherms, inlet flow rates and required discharge consents. Life- times of these beds can range between hours and months. Activated carbon is often landfilled at the end of its useful life but sometimes it is possible to regenerate it restoring its adsorptive capacity allowing it to be re-used. Thermal regeneration is the most prolific regeneration technique but has drawbacks in terms of high energy and commercial costs and a significant carbon footprint. These drawbacks have encouraged research into alternative regeneration techniques such as electrochemical regeneration.

text: In waste water treatment, the most commonly used adsorbent is granular activated carbon (GAC), often used as to treat both liquid and gas phase

text: volatile organic compounds

text: and

text: organic

text: pollutants. Activated carbon beds vary in lifetime depending on the concentration of the pollutant(s) being removed, their associated

text: adsorption isotherms

text: , inlet flow rates and required discharge consents. Life- times of these beds can range between hours and months. Activated carbon is often landfilled at the end of its useful life but sometimes it is possible to regenerate it restoring its adsorptive capacity allowing it to be re-used. Thermal regeneration is the most prolific regeneration technique but has drawbacks in terms of high energy and commercial costs and a significant carbon footprint. These drawbacks have encouraged research into alternative regeneration techniques such as electrochemical regeneration.

text: The mining industry makes up 1% of the GDP. Mined commodities include oil shale, peat, and industrial minerals, such as clays, limestone, sand and gravel. Soviets created badly polluting industry in the early 1950s, concentrated in the north-east of the country. Socialist economy and military areas left the country highly polluted, and mainly because of oil shale industry in East-Virumaa, sulphur dioxide emissions per person is almost as high as in Czech Republic. The coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations, mainly the east. The government is looking for ways to reduce pollution further. In 2000, the emissions were 80% smaller than in 1980, and the amount of unpurified wastewater discharged to water bodies was 95% smaller than in 1980.

text: The

text: mining industry

text: makes up 1% of the GDP. Mined commodities include oil shale,

text: peat

text: , and industrial minerals, such as

text: clay

text: s,

text: limestone

text: sand

text: and

text: gravel

text: . Soviets created badly polluting industry in the early 1950s, concentrated in the north-east of the country. Socialist economy and military areas left the country highly polluted, and mainly because of

text: oil shale industry

text: in East-Virumaa,

text: sulphur dioxide

text: emissions per person is almost as high as in Czech Republic. The coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations, mainly the east. The government is looking for ways to reduce pollution further. In 2000, the emissions were 80% smaller than in 1980, and the amount of unpurified wastewater discharged to water bodies was 95% smaller than in 1980.

text: Lebanon's agriculture, which offers fertile land, landscaped terraces, and fresh and healthy produce, faces several challenges in recent years. Improper agricultural practices leading to soil erosion and impoverishment, depletion of underground water resources, water pollution and health impacts from inappropriate use of pesticides and fertilizers, and environmental pollution from haphazard dumping of slaughter waste and animal farms are from the main problems of this sector. Agriculture is also diminishing to rampant urbanization, such as in the coastal plains and in parts of the Beqaa Valley. The government's policies appear to be targeting the increase in the availability of water irrigation (especially in the South) and controlling the use of pesticides, with no or little investment or incentives for water- and soil-conserving irrigation techniques. The private sector is gradually taking advantage of new but small scale opportunities offered by organic farming and high-value agricultural produce.

text: Lebanon's agriculture, which offers fertile land, landscaped terraces, and fresh and healthy produce, faces several challenges in recent years. Improper agricultural practices leading to soil erosion and impoverishment, depletion of underground water resources, water pollution and health impacts from inappropriate use of

text: pesticides

text: and

text: fertilizers

text: , and environmental pollution from haphazard dumping of slaughter waste and animal farms are from the main problems of this sector. Agriculture is also diminishing to rampant urbanization, such as in the coastal plains and in parts of the Beqaa Valley. The government's policies appear to be targeting the increase in the availability of water irrigation (especially in the

text: South

text: ) and controlling the use of pesticides, with no or little investment or incentives for water- and soil-conserving irrigation techniques. The private sector is gradually taking advantage of new but small scale opportunities offered by organic farming and high-value agricultural produce.

text: Oil spills are known to cause both immediate and long-term harm to human health and ecosystems. Research into the impacts of this spill is ongoing. Studies in 2013 suggested that as much as one-third of the released oil remains in the gulf. Further research suggested that the oil on the bottom of the seafloor was not degrading. Oil in affected coastal areas increased erosion due to the death of mangrove trees and marsh grass. Researchers say the oil and dispersant mixture, including PAHs, permeated the food chain through zooplankton. In 2013 it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate, and half the dolphins examined in a December 2013 study were seriously ill or dying. BP said the report was “inconclusive as to any causation associated with the spill."

text: Oil spills are known to cause both immediate and long-term harm to human health and ecosystems. Research into the impacts of this spill is ongoing. Studies in 2013 suggested that as much as one-third of the released oil remains in the gulf. Further research suggested that the oil on the bottom of the seafloor was not degrading. Oil in affected coastal areas increased erosion due to the death of mangrove trees and marsh grass. Researchers say the oil and dispersant mixture, including

text: PAHs

text: , permeated the

text: food chain

text: through

text: zooplankton

text: . In 2013 it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate, and half the

text: dolphin

text: s examined in a December 2013 study were seriously ill or dying. BP said the report was “inconclusive as to any causation associated with the spill."

text: The Badarpur Thermal Power Station, a coal-fired power plant built in 1973, is another major source of air pollution in Delhi. Despite producing less than 8% of the city's electric power, it produces 80 to 90% of the particulate matter pollution from the electric power sector in Delhi. During the Great smog of Delhi in November 2016, the Badarpur Power Plant was temporarily shut down to alleviate the acute air pollution, but will be allowed to restart on February 1, 2017.

text: The

text: Badarpur Thermal Power Station

text: , a coal-fired power plant built in 1973, is another major source of air pollution in Delhi. Despite producing less than 8% of the city's electric power, it produces 80 to 90% of the

text: particulate matter

text: pollution from the electric power sector in Delhi. During the

text: Great smog of Delhi

text: in November 2016, the Badarpur Power Plant was temporarily shut down to alleviate the acute air pollution, but will be allowed to restart on February 1, 2017.

text: Until Victorian times, the river was used to harness power via water mills. Being far from the industrial hub of Swansea, the river was not subject to much pollution from the docks and copper works in the city. Despite the river remaining an ideal habitat for them, fish that swam up the river to spawn were driven away by the pollution in Swansea Bay, once a famous spot for fishing. The vast oyster beds (which gave the area of Oystermouth its name) disappeared, and the variety of birds that once came to the river mouth to feed were driven away. However, since the water quality in Swansea Bay has improved, the fish and birds are returning to the river in droves.

text: Until

text: Victorian

text: times, the river was used to harness power via water mills. Being far from the industrial hub of Swansea, the river was not subject to much pollution from the docks and copper works in the city. Despite the river remaining an ideal habitat for them, fish that swam up the river to spawn were driven away by the pollution in Swansea Bay, once a famous spot for fishing. The vast oyster beds (which gave the area of Oystermouth its name) disappeared, and the variety of birds that once came to the river mouth to feed were driven away. However, since the water quality in Swansea Bay has improved, the fish and birds are returning to the river in droves.

text: Every method of transporting this petroleum have the potential for a major oil spill. However, the amount of oil spilt while it is in transport is a surprisingly small percentage of the total oil spilled. Most oil is spilt during loading and unloading and industrial plants accidentally spilling the oil into the ground. Regulations are created to help prevent oil from spilling everywhere. Some of these regulations include forcing marine tankers to have double hulls, and making a minimum of two man crew on trains that are carrying crude oil. Even though the least amount of oil spills happens when the oil is in transit, regulations are still put in. if the oil was spilt while it is in a ship, tank truck, pipeline or rail car, it can result in fire, poising of plants, injuries and fatalities of the crew and citizens. There are also regulations put in place to prevent the spilling of oil and petroleum vapors while loading and unloading these fuels as well as processing the oil. The goal of these regulations is to make sure that all the oil is delivered or processed equals the amount of oil that was received.  A simple example of this is the vapor guard on the nozzle of the gas pump at the gas stations. These regulations make sure that the companies watch to see that they do not have leaks in any pipes or equipment. When the oil is being processed is when it has a great potential of being leaked, so constant watch is required. These regulations are constantly changing as more discoveries on how to better control oil spills are being found.

text: Every method of transporting this petroleum have the potential for a major

text: oil spill

text: Some commentators have credited this purported effect with increasing public awareness of the dangers of pollution, for instance in the case of the fate of sea otters after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, and in the public interest in scaring birds off airfields in non-lethal ways. In the case of invasive species, perceived cuteness may help thwart efforts to eradicate non-native intruders, such as the white fallow deer in Point Reyes, California. The effect is also cited as the anthropomorphic quality of modern cinema: most people in modern Western civilization are not familiar with wildlife, other than "through TV or cinema, where fuzzy little critters discuss romance, self-determination and loyalty like pals over a cup of coffee", which has led to influences on public policy and the image of businesses cast in movies as polluting or otherwise harming the environment.

text: Some commentators have credited this purported effect with increasing public awareness of the dangers of

text: pollution

text: , for instance in the case of the fate of

text: sea otter

text: s after the

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: , and in the public interest in scaring birds off airfields in non-lethal ways. In the case of

text: invasive species

text: , perceived cuteness may help thwart efforts to eradicate non-native intruders, such as the white

text: fallow deer

text: in

text: Point Reyes

text: , California. The effect is also cited as the anthropomorphic quality of modern cinema: most people in modern

text: Western civilization

text: are not familiar with wildlife, other than "through TV or cinema, where fuzzy little critters discuss romance, self-determination and loyalty like pals over a cup of coffee", which has led to influences on public policy and the image of businesses cast in movies as polluting or otherwise harming the environment.

text: TASK C is the detailed survey of selected watersheds to determine the sources of pollutants, their relative significance and the assessment of the degree of transmission of pollutants to boundary waters. See details of this Task below.  (See Task "C" Reports)

text: The Environment Agency is responsible for monitoring water quality on the river and its tributaries, which have been divided into seventeen separate water bodies. In 2013, seven water bodies were assessed as having good quality and ten as being moderate. The reasons for not achieving good status included pollution from waste water, pollution from agriculture and physical modifications. The physical modifications include dredging work on the lower reaches, near the junction with the Parrett to increase the channel flow to reduce flooding. The use and storage of the dredged material in bank restoration may also have an impact. In 1998 improvements were sought to treatment works and surface water outfalls to improve water quality. A vegetable washing plant on the Chelston stream at Wellington was also identified as a source of pollution. The waters of the Upper Tone have been classified as having good ecological status, whereas the section from Wellington to Taunton and downstrean of Taunton are rated as moderate.

text: The

text: Environment Agency

text: is responsible for monitoring water quality on the river and its tributaries, which have been divided into seventeen separate water bodies. In 2013, seven water bodies were assessed as having good quality and ten as being moderate. The reasons for not achieving good status included pollution from waste water, pollution from agriculture and physical modifications. The physical modifications include dredging work on the lower reaches, near the junction with the Parrett to increase the channel flow to reduce flooding. The use and storage of the dredged material in bank restoration may also have an impact. In 1998 improvements were sought to treatment works and surface water outfalls to improve water quality. A vegetable washing plant on the Chelston stream at Wellington was also identified as a source of pollution. The waters of the Upper Tone have been classified as having good ecological status, whereas the section from Wellington to Taunton and downstrean of Taunton are rated as moderate.

text: Direct discharges are pollutants that are discharged directly into the water. To legally discharge pollutants directly into a waterbody, a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit must be obtained.

text: The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) has reported that the water quality of rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the Tha Chin estuary contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from phosphates, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD rated water quality in the river in 2015 as "poor". The PCD findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.

text: The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) has reported that the water quality of rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the Tha Chin estuary contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from

text: phosphate

text: s,

text: phosphorus

text: , and

text: nitrogen

text: . Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD rated water quality in the river in 2015 as "poor". The PCD findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.

text: Those chemicals enter freshwater or marine environments as runoff of sewage and agricultural wastes, with additional nitrates and phosphates introduced from atmospheric pollution. Coastal areas worldwide, especially wetlands and estuaries, coral reefs and swamps, are prone to being overloaded with those nutrients. Most of the large cities along the Mediterranean Sea, for example, discharge all of their sewage into the sea untreated. The same is true for most coastal developing countries.

text: Those chemicals enter freshwater or marine environments as runoff of sewage and agricultural wastes, with additional nitrates and phosphates introduced from atmospheric pollution. Coastal areas worldwide, especially wetlands and estuaries, coral reefs and swamps, are prone to being overloaded with those nutrients. Most of the large cities along the

text: Mediterranean Sea

text: , for example, discharge all of their sewage into the sea untreated. The same is true for most coastal developing countries.

text: Conversely, industry groups criticize the EPA's rules as overly stringent. Industry groups vocally opposed the requirement in the 2008 rule (since struck down by the Fifth Circuit) that required CAFOs to seek a permit if they "propose to discharge" into waters of the United States. Generally speaking, the farm industry disputes the presumption that CAFOs do discharge pollutants and it therefore objects to the pressure that the EPA places on CAFOs to voluntarily seek an NPDES permit. As a starting point, farm industry groups "emphasize that most farmers are diligent stewards of the environment, since they depend on natural resources of the land, water, and air for their livelihoods and they, too, directly experience adverse impacts on water and air quality." Some of the agricultural industry groups continue to maintain that the EPA should have no authority to regulate any of the runoff from land application areas because they believe this constitutes a nonpoint source that is outside the scope of the CWA. According to this viewpoint, voluntary programs adequately address any problems with excess manure.

text: In 2012, Lythrum salicaria, Typha angustifolia and Iris wilsonii were studied to see which plants were ideal in removing nitrogen and phosphorus in lightly polluted urban landscape water. All three plants grew well in the polluted water could help to remove some of the pollutants in polluted rivers.

text: In 2012, Lythrum salicaria,

text: Typha angustifolia

text: and Iris wilsonii were studied to see which plants were ideal in removing nitrogen and phosphorus in lightly polluted urban landscape water. All three plants grew well in the polluted water could help to remove some of the pollutants in polluted rivers.

text: Oil spills can have disastrous consequences for society; economically, environmentally, and socially. As a result, oil spill accidents have initiated intense media attention and political uproar, bringing many together in a political struggle concerning government response to oil spills and what actions can best prevent them from happening.

text: Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge.

text: Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the

text: steam turbine

text: and

text: heat exchanger

text: , in addition to its use as a chemical

text: solvent

text: . Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is

text: pollution

text: . Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (

text: thermal pollution

text: ). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge.

text: Sewage treatment is conceptually similar to water purification. Sewage treatments are very important as they purify water per levels of its pollution. The most polluted water is not used for anything, and the least polluted water is supplied to places where water is used affluently. It may lead to various other concepts of environmental protection, sustainability etc.

text: Sewage treatment

text: is conceptually similar to water purification. Sewage treatments are very important as they purify water per levels of its pollution. The most polluted water is not used for anything, and the least polluted water is supplied to places where water is used affluently. It may lead to various other concepts of environmental protection, sustainability etc.

text: Reports on the extent of the oil spills vary. The Department of Petroleum Resources estimated 1.89 million barrels of petroleum were spilled into the Niger Delta between 1976 and 1996 out of a total of 2.4 million barrels spilled in 4,835 incidents. (approximately 220 thousand cubic metres). A UNDP report states that there have been a total of 6,817 oil spills between 1976 and 2001, which account for a loss of three million barrels of oil, of which more than 70% was not recovered. 69% of these spills occurred off-shore, a quarter was in swamps and 6% spilled on land.

text: Reports on the extent of the oil spills vary. The

text: Department of Petroleum Resources

text: estimated 1.89 million barrels of

text: petroleum

text: were spilled into the

text: Niger Delta

text: between 1976 and 1996 out of a total of 2.4 million barrels spilled in 4,835 incidents. (approximately 220 thousand cubic metres). A

text: UNDP

text: report states that there have been a total of 6,817 oil spills between 1976 and 2001, which account for a loss of three million barrels of oil, of which more than 70% was not recovered. 69% of these spills occurred off-shore, a quarter was in swamps and 6% spilled on land.

text: By observing the thickness of the film of oil and its appearance on the surface of the water, it is possible to estimate the quantity of oil spilled. If the surface area of the spill is also known, the total volume of the oil can be calculated.

text: Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted. As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent national report on water quality in the United States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as polluted. The head of China's national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin.

text: Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of

text: water resource policy

text: at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness every day. About 90 percent of the

text: water in the cities of China

text: is polluted. As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in

text: developing countries

text: developed countries

text: also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent national report on

text: water quality

text: in the United States, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64 percent of assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed

text: bays

text: and

text: estuarine

text: square miles were classified as polluted. The head of China's national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin.

text: Point source water pollution is largely regulated through the Clean Water Act, which gives the EPA the authority to set limits on the acceptable amount of pollutants that can be discharged into waters of the United States. The Act broadly defines a pollutant as any type of industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water, such as: dredged soil, solid waste, incinerator residue, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive materials, heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste. Point source water pollution is discharged into waters through both direct and indirect methods.

text: Point source water pollution is largely regulated through the

text: Clean Water Act

text: , which gives the EPA the authority to set limits on the acceptable amount of pollutants that can be discharged into waters of the United States. The Act broadly defines a pollutant as any type of industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water, such as: dredged soil, solid waste, incinerator residue, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive materials, heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste.

text: Point source water pollution

text: is discharged into waters through both direct and indirect methods.

text: Until the early 1980s, industry was a major source of water pollution. Although many plants and factories can be found along the Rhine up into Switzerland, it is along the Lower Rhine that the bulk of them are concentrated, as the river passes the major cities of Cologne, Düsseldorf and Duisburg. Duisburg is the home of Europe's largest inland port and functions as a hub to the sea ports of Rotterdam, Antwerp and Amsterdam. The Ruhr, which joins the Rhine in Duisburg, is nowadays a clean river, thanks to a combination of stricter environmental controls, a transition from heavy industry to light industry and cleanup measures, such as the reforestation of Slag and brownfields. The Ruhr currently provides the region with drinking water. It contributes  to the Rhine. Other rivers in the Ruhr Area, above all, the Emscher, still carry a considerable degree of pollution.

text: Until the early 1980s, industry was a major source of water pollution. Although many plants and factories can be found along the Rhine up into

text: Switzerland

text: , it is along the

text: Lower Rhine

text: that the bulk of them are concentrated, as the river passes the major cities of

text: Cologne

text: Düsseldorf

text: and

text: Duisburg

text: . Duisburg is the home of Europe's largest inland port and functions as a hub to the sea ports of

text: Rotterdam

text: , Antwerp and

text: Amsterdam

text: . The

text: Ruhr

text: , which joins the Rhine in Duisburg, is nowadays a clean river, thanks to a combination of stricter environmental controls, a transition from heavy industry to light industry and cleanup measures, such as the

text: reforestation

text: of

text: Slag

text: and

text: brownfields

text: . The Ruhr currently provides the region with drinking water. It contributes  to the Rhine. Other rivers in the

text: Ruhr Area

text: , above all, the

text: Emscher

text: , still carry a considerable degree of pollution.

text: Other than contributing to acid rain and high levels of metals in water, sites of oil production can also cause significant damage by human error and runoff. A prominent example is the 2007 case involving the Athabasca River. Due to human error, energy magnate Suncor spilled 9.8 million liters of oil sands waste water into the river causing adverse effects for people and wildlife in the area. The Athabasca River can also be used as an example of oil sands runoff. It was found that the Athabasca's waters, which are downstream from the oil sands, had higher concentrations of pollutants as a result of runoff. High concentrations of pollutants can have serious consequences for wildlife and humans. Recently, it was reported that there were significant increases in fish deformities as well as an increase in cancer rates in a Native community downstream from the Athabasca.

text: Other than contributing to acid rain and high levels of metals in water, sites of oil production can also cause significant damage by human error and runoff. A prominent example is the 2007 case involving the

text: Athabasca River

text: . Due to human error, energy magnate

text: Suncor

text: spilled 9.8 million liters of oil sands waste water into the river causing adverse effects for people and wildlife in the area. The Athabasca River can also be used as an example of oil sands runoff. It was found that the Athabasca's waters, which are downstream from the oil sands, had higher concentrations of pollutants as a result of runoff. High concentrations of pollutants can have serious consequences for wildlife and humans. Recently, it was reported that there were significant increases in fish deformities as well as an increase in cancer rates in a Native community downstream from the Athabasca.

text: As a harbor almost completely surrounded by shipping and industrial activities, the waters of the bay suffer from environmental stress. This in turn affects the water quality of the Caribbean Sea into which it flows. Water entering the bay as river flows or effluent from industrial processes has a residence in the harbor of 8 days, on average. It receives approximately 48,000 m3 of waste water per day, which carries about 4,800 kg of nitrogen and 1,200 kg of phosphorus, which results in elevated concentrations of nutrients. Havana Bay is strongly affected by sewage dumping, and it also receives suspended solids, hydrocarbons, heavy metals and pollutants from agriculture, industry and port activities. The leading sources of pollution in the bay have been identified as the Luyano River which contains organic material, nutrients, sewage, solid waste, the Regla oil refinery, fish hatcheries, and port activities. The high concentration of hydrocarbons, heavy metals and other pollutants is of concern as the harbor is an important fishing port.

text: As a harbor almost completely surrounded by shipping and industrial activities, the waters of the bay suffer from environmental stress. This in turn affects the water quality of the

text: Caribbean Sea

text: into which it flows. Water entering the bay as river flows or effluent from industrial processes has a residence in the harbor of 8 days, on average. It receives approximately 48,000 m3 of waste water per day, which carries about 4,800 kg of nitrogen and 1,200 kg of phosphorus, which results in elevated concentrations of nutrients. Havana Bay is strongly affected by sewage dumping, and it also receives suspended solids, hydrocarbons, heavy metals and pollutants from agriculture, industry and port activities. The leading sources of pollution in the bay have been identified as the

text: Luyano River

text: which contains organic material, nutrients, sewage, solid waste, the Regla oil refinery, fish hatcheries, and port activities. The high concentration of hydrocarbons, heavy metals and other pollutants is of concern as the harbor is an important fishing port.

text: A concern is that a pipeline spill could pollute air and critical water supplies and harm migratory birds and other wildlife. Its original route plan crossed the Sandhills, the large wetland ecosystem in Nebraska, and the Ogallala Aquifer, one of the largest reserves of fresh water in the world. The Ogallala Aquifer spans eight states, provides drinking water for two million people, and supports $20 billion in agriculture. Critics say that a major leak could ruin drinking water and devastate the mid-western U.S. economy. After opposition for laying the pipeline in this area, TransCanada agreed to change the route and skip the Sandhills.

text: A concern is that a pipeline spill could pollute air and critical water supplies and harm migratory birds and other wildlife. Its original route plan crossed the

text: Sandhills

text: , the large wetland ecosystem in Nebraska, and the

text: Ogallala Aquifer

text: , one of the largest reserves of

text: fresh water

text: in the world. The Ogallala Aquifer spans eight states, provides

text: drinking water

text: for two million people, and supports $20 billion in agriculture. Critics say that a major leak could ruin drinking water and devastate the mid-western U.S. economy. After opposition for laying the pipeline in this area, TransCanada agreed to change the route and skip the Sandhills.

text: While in the Senate, DeVeber chaired the Standing Committee on Public Health and Inspection of Foods.  One issue examined by this committee was water pollution: beginning in March 1909 and for nearly a year afterwards, it studied the question in view of the increasing mortality from typhoid fever, and concluded, in the words of the University of Michigan's Jennifer Read, "that the country required some form of legislation to manage the problem.  However, it was at a loss about the form it should take and from what body it should emanate."  As chair of the committee, DeVeber attended an October 1910 federal-provincial conference in Ottawa called to attempt to coordinate all Canadian jurisdictions' responses to water pollution.  Besides recommending that provincial governments use their constitutional authority over health and municipal government to prevent undue water pollution from municipal sewage systems, it advised the federal government to use its authority over navigable waterways to prohibit the dumping of most waste into them; DeVeber supplied a draft bill for Parliament's consideration.

text: While in the Senate, DeVeber chaired the Standing Committee on Public Health and Inspection of Foods.  One issue examined by this committee was

text: water pollution

text: : beginning in March 1909 and for nearly a year afterwards, it studied the question in view of the increasing mortality from

text: typhoid fever

text: , and concluded, in the words of the

text: University of Michigan

text: 's Jennifer Read, "that the country required some form of legislation to manage the problem.  However, it was at a loss about the form it should take and from what body it should emanate."  As chair of the committee, DeVeber attended an October 1910 federal-provincial conference in

text: Ottawa

text: called to attempt to coordinate all Canadian jurisdictions' responses to water pollution.  Besides recommending that provincial governments use their constitutional authority over health and municipal government to prevent undue water pollution from municipal sewage systems, it advised the federal government to use its authority over navigable waterways to prohibit the dumping of most waste into them; DeVeber supplied a draft bill for Parliament's consideration.

text:
|-| Continent || Europe / Asia|-| Subregion || Southwest Asia / Eastern Europe|-| Geographic coordinates || |-| Area || |-| Coastline || 310 km|-| Land boundaries || 1,814 km|-| Countries bordered || Russia 894 km, Turkey 273 km, Armenia 219 km, Azerbaijan 428 km|-| Maritime claims || |-| Highest point || Mount Shkhara, 5,201 m|-| Lowest point || Bogs between Poti and Kulevi, (-1.5-2.3 m)|-| Longest river || Kura River, 1,364 km|-| Land Use
 - Arable land
 - Permanent
   crops
 - Other ||
5.76%

1.80%

92.44% (2012)|-| Climate: || Temperate to Subtropical, warm and pleasant, Mediterranean-like on Black Sea coast|-| Terrain: || plains, mountains, valleys|-| Natural resources ||  timber, hydropower, manganese deposits, iron ore, copper, minor coal and petroleum deposits; coastal climate and soils allow for important tea and citrus growth|-| Natural hazards || earthquakes|-| Environmental issues || air and water pollution, soil pollution from toxic chemicals|}

text: |-| Continent || Europe / Asia|-| Subregion ||

text: Southwest Asia / Eastern Europe

text: |-| Geographic coordinates || |-| Area || |-| Coastline || 310 km|-| Land boundaries || 1,814 km|-| Countries bordered || Russia 894 km, Turkey 273 km, Armenia 219 km, Azerbaijan 428 km|-| Maritime claims || |-| Highest point ||

text: Mount Shkhara

text: , 5,201 m|-| Lowest point ||

text: Bog

text: s between

text: Poti

text: and

text: Kulevi

text: , (-1.5-2.3 m)|-| Longest river ||

text: Kura River

text:
, 1,364 km|-| Land Use
 - Arable land
 - Permanent
   crops
 - Other ||
5.76%

1.80%

92.44% (2012)|-| Climate: ||

text: Temperate

text: to

text: Subtropical

text: , warm and pleasant,

text: Mediterranean

text: -like on Black Sea coast|-| Terrain: ||

text: plain

text: s,

text: mountain

text: s,

text: valley

text: s|-| Natural resources ||  timber, hydropower,

text: manganese

text: deposits,

text: iron ore

text: copper

text: , minor

text: coal

text: and

text: petroleum

text: deposits; coastal climate and soils allow for important

text: tea

text: and

text: citrus

text: growth|-| Natural hazards ||

text: earthquake

text: s|-| Environmental issues ||

text: air

text: and

text: water pollution

text: soil pollution

text: from toxic chemicals|}

text: LME-based conservation is based on recognition that the world’s coastal ocean waters are degraded by unsustainable fishing practices, habitat degradation, eutrophication, toxic pollution, aerosol contamination, and emerging diseases, and that positive actions to mitigate these threats require coordinated actions by governments and civil society to recover depleted fish populations, restore degraded habitats and reduce coastal pollution.

text: LME-based conservation is based on recognition that the world’s coastal ocean waters are degraded by unsustainable fishing practices,

text: habitat degradation

text: eutrophication

text: , toxic pollution, aerosol contamination, and emerging diseases, and that positive actions to mitigate these threats require coordinated actions by governments and civil society to recover depleted fish populations, restore degraded habitats and reduce coastal pollution.

text: Energy development – the effort to provide sufficient primary energy sources and secondary energy forms for supply, cost, impact on air pollution and water pollution, mitigation of climate change with renewable energy.

text: Energy development

text: – the effort to provide sufficient primary energy sources and secondary energy forms for supply, cost, impact on air pollution and water pollution, mitigation of climate change with renewable energy.

text: Both point and non-point pollution affects North Creek. Combined Sewer Overflow events influence Fecal Coliform Bacteria and E. coli concentrations in North Creek. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits are issued to deal with known point sources, while non-point sources including poor land management, leaky septic systems, exist undealt with. Urban stormwater likely contains FCB from pet waste as well. The high levels of FCB in North Creek limit its use for recreation, while low dissolved oxygen levels negatively affect salmonid spawning.

text: Both

text: point and non-point pollution

text: affects North Creek.

text: Combined Sewer Overflow events

text: influence Fecal Coliform Bacteria and E. coli concentrations in North Creek. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits are issued to deal with known point sources, while non-point sources including poor land management, leaky septic systems, exist undealt with. Urban stormwater likely contains FCB from pet waste as well. The high levels of FCB in North Creek limit its use for recreation, while low dissolved oxygen levels negatively affect salmonid spawning.

text: Groundwater remediation is the process that is used to treat polluted groundwater by removing the pollutants or converting them into harmless products. Groundwater is water present below the ground surface that saturates the pore space in the subsurface. Globally, between 25 per cent and 40 per cent of the world's drinking water is drawn from boreholes and dug wells. Groundwater is also used by farmers to irrigate crops and by industries to produce everyday goods. Most groundwater is clean, but groundwater can become polluted, or contaminated as a result of human activities or as a result of natural conditions.

text: Groundwater remediation is the process that is used to treat

text: polluted groundwater

text: by removing the pollutants or converting them into harmless products.

text: Groundwater

text: is water present below the ground surface that saturates the pore space in the subsurface. Globally, between 25 per cent and 40 per cent of the world's

text: drinking water

text: is drawn from boreholes and dug

text: well

text: s. Groundwater is also used by farmers to

text: irrigate

text: crops and by industries to produce everyday goods. Most groundwater is clean, but groundwater can become polluted, or contaminated as a

text: result of human activities

text: or as a result of natural conditions.

text: The Everglades Agricultural Area is a major center for agriculture. The environmental impact of agriculture, especially water pollution, is a major issue in Florida today.

text: The Everglades Agricultural Area is a major center for agriculture. The environmental impact of agriculture, especially

text: water pollution

text: , is a major issue in Florida today.

text: The Coastal Aquifer is the only source of water in the Gaza strip. It runs beneath the coast of Israel, with Gaza downstream at the end of the basin. With the water flows underground mainly east-west, however, Palestinian extractions from the aquifer have no effect on the Israeli side. Israel, on the contrary, has installed a cordon of  numerous deep wells along the Gaza border and in this way extracts much of the groundwater before it can reach Gaza. Israel sells a limited part of the water to the Palestinians in Gaza. While Israel transports water from the north of its territory to the south, the Palestinians are not allowed to move water from the West Bank to Gaza. This is a reason why this aquifer is heavily over-exploited, resulting in seawater intrusion. The aquifer is polluted by salt as well as nitrate from wastewater infiltration and fertilizers. Only 5-10% of the aquifer yields drinking water quality. By 2000, the water from the Coastal Aquifer in the Gaza region was considered no longer drinkable due to high salinity from the sea water intrusion and high nitrate pollution from agricultural activity.

text: The Coastal Aquifer is the only source of water in the Gaza strip. It runs beneath the coast of Israel, with Gaza downstream at the end of the basin. With the water flows underground mainly east-west, however, Palestinian extractions from the aquifer have no effect on the Israeli side. Israel, on the contrary, has installed a cordon of  numerous deep wells along the Gaza border and in this way extracts much of the groundwater before it can reach Gaza. Israel sells a limited part of the water to the Palestinians in Gaza. While Israel transports water from the north of its territory to the south, the Palestinians are not allowed to move water from the West Bank to Gaza. This is a reason why this aquifer is heavily over-exploited, resulting in seawater intrusion. The aquifer is polluted by salt as well as

text: nitrate

text: from wastewater infiltration and fertilizers. Only 5-10% of the aquifer yields drinking water quality. By 2000, the water from the Coastal Aquifer in the Gaza region was considered no longer drinkable due to high salinity from the sea water intrusion and high nitrate pollution from agricultural activity.

text: The Deepwater Horizon oil spill has had a significant impact on the Gulf of Mexico economy and ecosystem, as well as a continuing financial, legal, and public relations burden for BP, whose conduct was found to be "reckless" in a court ruling in September 2014. BP had expended $28 billion because of the spill by September 2014 and faced $18 billion in additional penalties, which, The New York Times reported, "casts a cloud over BP’s future." On 20 April 2010, the semi-submersible exploratory offshore drilling rig Deepwater Horizon located in the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico exploded after a blowout, killing 11 people, injuring 16 others. After burning for two days, the rig sank and caused the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry, estimated to be between 8% and 31% larger in volume than the earlier Ixtoc I oil spill. Before the well was capped on 15 July 2010, an estimated  of oil was leaked with plus or minus 10% uncertainty.   of oil was collected or burned while  entered the Gulf waters.   of Corexit dispersant was applied.

text: The

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: has had a significant impact on the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: economy and

text: ecosystem

text: , as well as a continuing financial, legal, and public relations burden for BP, whose conduct was found to be "reckless" in a court ruling in September 2014. BP had expended $28 billion because of the spill by September 2014 and faced $18 billion in additional penalties, which,

text: The New York Times

text: reported, "casts a cloud over BP’s future." On 20 April 2010, the semi-submersible exploratory offshore drilling rig

text: Deepwater Horizon

text: located in the

text: Macondo Prospect

text: in the Gulf of Mexico

text: exploded

text: after a

text: blowout

text: , killing 11 people, injuring 16 others. After burning for two days, the rig sank and caused the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry, estimated to be between 8% and 31% larger in volume than the earlier

text: Ixtoc I oil spill

text: . Before the well was capped on 15 July 2010, an estimated  of oil was leaked with plus or minus 10% uncertainty.   of oil was collected or burned while  entered the Gulf waters.   of

text: Corexit

text: dispersant was applied.

text: Environment –  current issues: Natural fresh water resources scarce and polluted in north, inaccessible and poor quality in center and extreme southeast; raw sewage and industrial effluents polluting rivers in urban areas; deforestation; widespread erosion; desertification; serious air pollution in the national capital and urban centers along the US-Mexico border; land subsudence in Valley of Mexico caused by groundwater delpletion.

text: Environment –  current issues: Natural fresh water resources scarce and polluted in north, inaccessible and poor quality in center and extreme southeast; raw sewage and industrial effluents polluting rivers in urban areas;

text: deforestation

text: ; widespread

text: erosion

text: desertification

text: ; serious air pollution in the

text: national capital

text: and urban centers along the

text: US-Mexico border

text: ; land subsudence in Valley of Mexico caused by groundwater delpletion.

text: The AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, was first published by the US Public Health Service in 1968. In 1972, it was revised and issued as the second edition by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In 1985, the subsequent fourth edition was split into two volumes. Volume I includes stationary point and area source emission factors, and Volume II includes mobile source emission factors. Volume I is currently in its fifth edition and is available on the Internet. Volume II is no longer maintained as such, but roadway air dispersion models for estimating emissions from onroad vehicles and from non-road vehicles and mobile equipment are also available on the Internet.

text: The AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, was first published by the US Public Health Service in 1968. In 1972, it was revised and issued as the second edition by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). In 1985, the subsequent fourth edition was split into two volumes. Volume I includes stationary

text: point and area source

text: emission factor

text: s, and Volume II includes

text: mobile source

text: emission factors. Volume I is currently in its fifth edition and is available on the Internet. Volume II is no longer maintained as such, but

text: roadway air dispersion model

text: s for estimating emissions from onroad vehicles and from

text: non-road vehicle

text: s and mobile equipment are also available on the Internet.

text: Microalgae production also includes the ability to use saline waste or waste  streams as an energy source.  This opens a new strategy to produce biofuel in conjunction with waste water treatment, while being able to produce clean water as a byproduct.  When used in a microalgal bioreactor, harvested microalgae will capture significant quantities of organic compounds as well as heavy metal contaminants absorbed from wastewater streams that would otherwise be directly discharged into surface and ground-water.  Moreover, this process also allows the recovery of phosphorus from waste, which is an essential but scarce element in nature – the reserves of which are estimated to have depleted in the last 50 years.  Another possibility is the use of algae production systems to clean up non-point source pollution, in a system known as an algal turf scrubber (ATS).  This has been demonstrated to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus levels in rivers and other large bodies of water affected by eutrophication, and systems are being built that will be capable of processing up to 110 million liters of water per day.  ATS can also be used for treating point source pollution, such as the waste water mentioned above, or in treating livestock effluent.

text: One possibility is that the water is sent to a waste management facility to be treated and then recirculated. However, experts have found that sewage treatment does not remove these chemicals completely from drinking supplies.In response to this, the water industry has stated that there is no evidence of a risk to overall health as a result of exposure to these chemicals. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states in its review of water pollution that many contaminants survive wastewater treatment and biodegradation, and are detectable in the environment. Therefore, the tainted source is recycled through a community, exposing more people and releasing more chemicals along the way.

text: One possibility is that the water is sent to a waste management facility to be treated and then recirculated. However, experts have found that sewage treatment does not remove these chemicals completely from drinking supplies.In response to this, the

text: water industry

text: has stated that there is no evidence of a risk to overall health as a result of exposure to these chemicals. The

text: Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

text: states in its review of water pollution that many contaminants survive wastewater treatment and

text: biodegradation

text: , and are detectable in the environment. Therefore, the tainted source is recycled through a community, exposing more people and releasing more chemicals along the way.

text: Mai Miyazaki was a Japanese environmentalist who was murdered by operatives of the Shogun Oil Company. While protesting at a Shogun Oil drilling rig in the sea off the coast of Alaska, she was set on fire by a Shogun Oil employee under orders from his superior. The employee deliberately fires a flare gun into the oil spill surrounding her dingy. Mai died but was reborn as the Water Elemental Naiad. She destroys the drilling rig but oil and other chemicals which spill into the waters poison her, and drive her mad. Enraged and out of control Naiad attacks Firestorm because he is the incarnation of fire, and the last thing she remembers is death by fire. [[Image:maya2dcu0.jpg|thumb|left|75px|Maya from Firestorm vol. 2 #92, artist Tom Mandrake]]Swamp Thing begins looking for Firestorm (Ronnie Raymond/Mikhail Arkadin) because his attempts to terraform and heal an African desert valley which ended up mutating and scarring the "Green". Firestorm is able to temporarily calm a mindless Naiad and a discorporate Red Tornado, both of whom were being pushed to attack humanity due to pain being caused them by poisons in the air and water, they believed the only way to "heal the planet" was by eliminating humanity. Naiad and the Red Tornado discover that no elemental can attack another elemental directly, so they use earth to bury Firestorm underwater and head for Japan intending to terminate the island nation's entire population.

text: Mai Miyazaki was a Japanese

text: environmentalist

text: who was murdered by operatives of the Shogun Oil Company. While protesting at a Shogun Oil

text: drilling rig

text: in the sea off the coast of

text: Alaska

text: , she was set on fire by a Shogun Oil employee under orders from his superior. The employee deliberately fires a

text: flare gun

text: into the

text: oil spill

text: surrounding her

text: dingy

text: . Mai died but was reborn as the Water Elemental Naiad. She destroys the drilling rig but oil and other chemicals which spill into the waters poison her, and drive her mad. Enraged and out of control Naiad attacks Firestorm because he is the incarnation of fire, and the last thing she remembers is death by fire. [[Image:maya2dcu0.jpg|thumb|left|75px|Maya from Firestorm vol. 2 #92, artist

text: Tom Mandrake

text: Swamp Thing

text: begins looking for

text: Firestorm

text: (Ronnie Raymond/Mikhail Arkadin) because his attempts to

text: terraform

text: and heal an African desert valley which ended up mutating and scarring the "Green". Firestorm is able to temporarily calm a mindless Naiad and a discorporate

text: Red Tornado

text: , both of whom were being pushed to attack humanity due to pain being caused them by poisons in the air and water, they believed the only way to "heal the planet" was by eliminating humanity. Naiad and the Red Tornado discover that no elemental can attack another elemental directly, so they use earth to bury Firestorm underwater and head for

text: Japan

text: intending to terminate the island nation's entire population.

text: Other environmental issues include water pollution from industrial emissions and raw sewage, contamination of drinking water supplies, and trade in endangered species. Though regulation of sulfate aerosol emissions from petroleum combustion is becoming stringent, acid rain remains a threat to the health of residents and forests. Atmospheric scientists in Taiwan estimate that more than half of the pollutants causing Taiwan's acid rain are carried from mainland China by monsoon winds.

text: Other environmental issues include

text: water pollution

text: from industrial emissions and raw

text: sewage

text: , contamination of drinking water supplies, and trade in

text: endangered species

text: . Though regulation of sulfate aerosol emissions from petroleum combustion is becoming stringent,

text: acid rain

text: remains a threat to the health of residents and forests. Atmospheric scientists in Taiwan estimate that more than half of the pollutants causing Taiwan's acid rain are carried from mainland China by monsoon winds.

text: Many events are held at Aix-les-Bains. The convention centre, the  or even the Victoria Cinema contribute to the special conferences, such as for broadcasts of documentaries, films and ecology. Between 27–29 September 2005 the first national water meeting was organized. The municipality wanted to, through organised days, increase the exchange of information and experiences for greater synergy in the field of preservation and protection of water. It also created and published the Charter of Environmental Quality and Accessibility at construction sites. This charter aims to reduce and limit pollution caused by urban sites such as noise pollution, waste products and water and soil pollution.

text: Many events are held at Aix-les-Bains. The convention centre, the  or even the Victoria Cinema contribute to the special conferences, such as for broadcasts of documentaries, films and ecology. Between 27–29 September 2005 the first national

text: water

text: meeting was organized. The municipality wanted to, through organised days, increase the exchange of information and experiences for greater synergy in the field of preservation and protection of water. It also created and published the Charter of Environmental Quality and Accessibility at construction sites. This charter aims to reduce and limit pollution caused by urban sites such as noise pollution, waste products and water and soil pollution.

text: Today, a large portion of the river's flow originates as municipal and industrial effluent, cooling and process water and storm water overflows. Although discharges have been reduced, a number of contaminants continue to impair the area.  The river is among the country's most severely polluted, and as of 2015 was in the late stages of a major dredging project to remove thousands of tons of contaminated sediment and rehabilitate the river ecosystem.

text: Today, a large portion of the river's flow originates as municipal and industrial

text: effluent

text: , cooling and process water and storm water overflows. Although discharges have been reduced, a number of contaminants continue to impair the area.  The river is among the country's most severely polluted, and as of 2015 was in the late stages of a major dredging project to remove thousands of tons of contaminated sediment and rehabilitate the river ecosystem.

text: Thermal pollution is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.

text: Thermal pollution

text: is a

text: temperature

text: change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.

text: For example, the United States Clean Water Act defines "pollution" (i.e., water pollution) very broadly to include any and all "man-made or man-induced alteration of the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological integrity of water." However, the Act defines "pollutants" subject to its control more specifically, as "dredged spoil, solid waste, incinerator residue, filter backwash, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive materials [with certain exceptions], heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water. "  This definition begins to define both the classes or types of materials (e.g., solid waste) and energies (e.g., heat) that may constitute water pollution, and indicates the moment at which otherwise useful materials may be transformed into pollution for regulatory purposes: when they are "discharged into water," defined elsewhere as "addition" of the material to regulated waters.

text: For example, the United States

text: Clean Water Act

text: defines "pollution" (i.e., water pollution) very broadly to include any and all "man-made or man-induced alteration of the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological integrity of water." However, the Act defines "pollutants" subject to its control more specifically, as "dredged spoil, solid waste, incinerator residue, filter backwash, sewage, garbage, sewage sludge, munitions, chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive materials [with certain exceptions], heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand, cellar dirt and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water. "  This definition begins to define both the classes or types of materials (e.g., solid waste) and energies (e.g., heat) that may constitute water pollution, and indicates the moment at which otherwise useful materials may be transformed into pollution for regulatory purposes: when they are "discharged into water," defined elsewhere as "addition" of the material to regulated waters.

text: The integrity of the Reunion Island coral reef has recently become threatened by an increase in pollution and human exploitation of the ecologically-sensitive marine life. Ocean water quality and the health of coral species are both symbiotic and reflexive; polluted water negatively impacts the health of coral reefs, and unhealthy reefs add to the degradation of ocean water quality. Studies show that ocean pollution inhibits coral growth and therefore contributes to algal blooms, which result in hypoxic conditions for coral reefs.

text: The integrity of the Reunion Island coral reef has recently become threatened by an increase in pollution and human exploitation of the ecologically-sensitive marine life. Ocean water quality and the health of coral species are both symbiotic and reflexive; polluted water negatively impacts the health of coral reefs, and unhealthy reefs add to the degradation of ocean water quality. Studies show that ocean pollution inhibits coral growth and therefore contributes to

text: algal blooms

text: , which result in

text: hypoxic

text: conditions for coral reefs.

text: The separate, waterless collection and treatment of urine and feces in UDDTs prevents hormones, pharmaceutical residues and other micro-pollutants which are contained in human excreta from entering surface water or groundwater via treated sewage. This is because in conventional sewage treatment plants, these micro-pollutants are only partially removed and the remainder is discharged into surface water, possibly reaching the groundwater. Detected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in groundwater were in the order of 50 ng/L in several locations in Germany.

text: The separate, waterless collection and treatment of urine and feces in UDDTs prevents

text: hormones

text: pharmaceutical

text: residues and other micro-pollutants which are contained in human excreta from entering surface water or groundwater via treated sewage. This is because in conventional sewage treatment plants, these micro-pollutants are only partially removed and the remainder is discharged into surface water, possibly reaching the groundwater. Detected concentrations of pharmaceutical residues in groundwater were in the order of 50 ng/L in several locations in Germany.

text: Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters.

text: Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a

text: coolant

text: by

text: power plants

text: and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter

text: food chain

text: composition, reduce species

text: biodiversity

text: , and foster invasion by new

text: thermophilic

text: species. Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters.

text: The area still faces many threats. One of them is the pollution of water and soil. Many streambeds contain severely polluted sediments, a remainder from the sixties and seventies, when the rivers Rhine and Meuse were much more polluted than they are today. Because there is little net flow in the Biesbosch (because the connection with both rivers and the sea has been blocked, although this will change in the future) the build-up of polluted sediments in the Biesbosch has been severe. Completely restoring the Biesbosch ecosystem cannot happen without an extensive cleanup of all the creeks, which will be an enormous and costly task.

text: The main concern of scientists and Defenders of Wildlife is global warming issues. The world and the U.S are extremely threatened by rising sea levels, melting ice, draughts, and distractions of species. As consequence, it was proposed to reduce global warming pollutants and as solution to this problem, Senators Bernie Sanders and Barbara Boxer introduced the Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007. The purpose of this bill is to avoid the most catastrophic consequences of global warming by increasing energy efficiency, which will reduce air pollution, oil, and produce more jobs. Moreover, the bill creates targets of pollution reduction, which help to keep temperature below a dangerous “tipping point”, beyond which climate change will be unavoidable.

text: The use of Command and Control in regulation involves the government or similar body to “command” the reduction of pollution (e.g. setting emissions levels) levels and to “control” the manner in which it is achieved (e.g. by installing pollution-control technologies). It has been argued that CAC has the potential to be effective under certain conditions. Often its effectiveness can be determined by whether the problem has a diffuse or a point source. A CAC approach is relatively compatible with point source and regulation of these can often achieve success. On the other hand, CAC struggles to appropriately tackle issues that have a diffuse, non-point source. Evans draws on the following example: “it is relatively easy to regulate the emissions from 10 large coal burning power stations in a single country, but far less easy to monitor the emissions caused by millions of motorists or the effluent discharges from tens of thousands of farms across the world.”

text: The use of Command and Control in regulation involves the government or similar body to “command” the reduction of pollution (e.g. setting emissions levels) levels and to “control” the manner in which it is achieved (e.g. by installing pollution-control technologies). It has been argued that CAC has the potential to be effective under certain conditions. Often its effectiveness can be determined by whether the problem has a diffuse or a point source. A CAC approach is relatively compatible with

text: point source

text: and regulation of these can often achieve success. On the other hand, CAC struggles to appropriately tackle issues that have a

text: diffuse

text: , non-point source. Evans draws on the following example: “it is relatively easy to regulate the emissions from 10 large coal burning power stations in a single country, but far less easy to monitor the emissions caused by millions of motorists or the effluent discharges from tens of thousands of farms across the world.”

text: NPS water pollution is regulated at the federal, state, and local level. Yet, the pollution persists and remains a significant problem. There are a number of reasons why current regulations have failed to stem the flow of pollution. NPS water pollution comes from numerous and diverse sources, and control measures are expensive to implement. Also, local governments are generally responsible for implementing NPS regulations. Coordination among localities can be difficult, and, furthermore, localities often lack the incentive to rigorously enforce NPS regulations because their NPS pollution is exported downriver, where other towns and cities must deal with the consequences. This section will introduce the laws currently in place at the federal, state, and local level that regulate NPS water pollution. It will also discuss some of the successes and failures of those regulations.

text: A number of these regulations are derived from California's Porter-Cologne Act, which established the State Water Resources Control Board, along with nine regional boards that are tasked with implementing the Porter Cologne Act. The Act created state water quality standards that the boards must enforce. WDRs are one direct regulation California government agencies use under the Act to regulate NPS pollution. California has a number of other pieces of legislation that address NPS pollution, like the California Coastal Act and the California Environmental Quality Act.

text: Mitra et al. () has pioneered a novel architecture in producing CNT based membrane. This method creates a superior membrane by immobilizing carbon nanotubes in the pores and on the membrane surface. In their work, the CNTs are immobilized into polymeric or ceramic membranes leading to the development of unique membrane structure referred to as the carbon nanotube immobilized membrane (CNIM). This was achieved by immobilizing CNT from a dispersed form. Such membranes are robust, thermally stable, and possess high selectivity. The goal here is to immobilize CNTs such that their surfaces are free to interact directly with the solute. The membrane produced by this method has shown dramatic enhancements in flux and selectivity in various applications, such as sea water desalination (), membrane extraction (), water purification by the removal of volatile organics from water () and for micro scale membrane extraction for the analysis of water pollutants ().

text: The prognostic mesoscale model MEMO describes the dynamics of the atmospheric boundary layer. In the present model version, air is assumed to be unsaturated. The model solves the continuity equation, the momentum equations and several transport equations for scalars (including the thermal energy equation and, as options, transport equations for water vapour, the turbulent kinetic energy and pollutant  concentrations).

text: The prognostic mesoscale model MEMO describes the dynamics of the

text: atmospheric boundary layer

text: . In the present model version, air is assumed to be unsaturated. The model solves the

text: continuity equation

text: , the

text: momentum

text: equations and several

text: transport equation

text: s for scalars (including the thermal energy equation and, as options, transport equations for water vapour, the turbulent kinetic energy and

text: pollutant

text: concentrations).

text: The Telangana Pollution Control Board (TSPCB) is a regulatory and screening authority of pollution in Hyderabad. The rapid rate of urbanisation with increased economic activities had encouraged migration and industries in Hyderabad, these changes led to an increase of air pollution, industrial waste, sound pollution and water pollution. The city is among the 16 most polluted cities of India, transportation vehicles are the main source of air pollution in the city. Every year there are around 1 million vehicles registrations in the city that increase air and sound pollution. The estimated deaths from particulate matter are about 1700–3000 persons every year in Hyderabad.<ref>

text: The

text: Telangana Pollution Control Board

text: (TSPCB) is a regulatory and screening authority of pollution in Hyderabad. The rapid rate of urbanisation with increased economic activities had encouraged migration and industries in Hyderabad, these changes led to an increase of air pollution,

text: industrial waste

text: sound pollution

text: and

text: water pollution

text: . The city is among the 16 most polluted cities of India, transportation vehicles are the main source of air pollution in the city. Every year there are around 1 million vehicles registrations in the city that increase air and sound pollution. The estimated deaths from

text: particulate matter

text: are about 1700–3000 persons every year in Hyderabad.<ref>

text: The Chambira River is a life source for many things near its waters, but pollution in the river is starting to raise questions whether this will be a viable water source in the future.  Dating back to the 1970s, Occidental Petroleoum, and later Pluspetrol started extracting oil out of the Peruvian rainforest and transporting it back to the coast using the river system.  In addition to 18 other previous spills, the most recent spill on January 16, 2011, was of over 400 barrels of crude oil.  Although there are methods of cleaning oil out of a water system, the buildup of heavy metals and other toxins in the Chambira are of concern given the vast number of spills.  The most recent spill occurred near a humedal, or a part of the wetland rainforest that remains partially flooded, which poses risks for the fish-spawning grounds located there.  Hunting and fishing are far more crucial than farming to the indigenous population's survival.  The food source provided by the river maintains the Urarina's lifestyle.  With so much depending on the stable balance of the Chambira River's ecosystem, manmade disasters such as oil spills are of concern for Pluspetrol, the indigenous populations, as well as the Peruvian government.

text: The Chambira River is a life source for many things near its waters, but pollution in the river is starting to raise questions whether this will be a viable water source in the future.  Dating back to the 1970s, Occidental Petroleoum, and later Pluspetrol started extracting oil out of the Peruvian rainforest and transporting it back to the coast using the river system.  In addition to 18 other previous spills, the most recent spill on January 16, 2011, was of over 400

text: barrels

text: of crude

text: oil

text: .  Although there are methods of cleaning oil out of a water system, the buildup of

text: heavy metals

text: and other toxins in the Chambira are of concern given the vast number of spills.  The most recent spill occurred near a humedal, or a part of the wetland rainforest that remains partially flooded, which poses risks for the

text: fish

text: -spawning grounds located there.  Hunting and fishing are far more crucial than farming to the indigenous population's survival.  The food source provided by the river maintains the

text: Urarina

text: 's lifestyle.  With so much depending on the stable balance of the Chambira River's

text: ecosystem

text: , manmade disasters such as oil spills are of concern for Pluspetrol, the indigenous populations, as well as the

text: Peruvian government

text: In Malaysia, the citizens have been experiencing harms from water pollutants in the river that have been accumulating over decades due to fast growing urbanization and industrialization. The planners of Malaysia have been trying to coming up with models that indicate the amount of pollutants has grown over time as cities became more industrialized and how these chemicals are distributed in various regions with the usage of econometrics and various scientific tools. Such an attempt is encourages in-depth researches because sources should be able to analyzed numerically and give economic evaluations while also evaluating the environment. With abundance of evidences provided by models which reveal the inadequacy of current policies, the Malaysian decisions-makers now recognize that appropriate treatments are necessary in regions that are industrialized to protect the residents from water pollutants. As a result, the government seeks to increase public awareness and provide affordable water services to residents by year 2020.

text: In some areas, especially along the U.S. coast, polluted runoff from roads and highways may be the largest source of water pollution. For example, about 75 percent of the toxic chemicals getting to Seattle, Washington's Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards, and other developed land.

text: In some areas, especially along the U.S. coast, polluted runoff from roads and highways may be the largest source of water pollution. For example, about 75 percent of the toxic chemicals getting to

text: Seattle

text: , Washington's

text: Puget Sound

text: are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards, and other developed land.

text: There are many different ways to categorize, and examine the inputs of pollution into our marine ecosystems. Patin (n.d.) notes that generally there are three main types of inputs of pollution into the ocean: direct discharge of waste into the oceans, runoff into the waters due to rain, and pollutants that are released from the atmosphere.

text: Due to its chemical composition, world-wide dispersion and effects on the environment, used motor oil is considered a serious environmental problem. Most current motor oil lubricants contain petroleum base stocks, which are toxic to the environment and difficult to dispose of after use. Over 40% of the pollution in America's waterways is from used motor oil. Used oil is considered the largest source of oil pollution in the U.S. harbor and waterways, at 385 million gallons per year, mostly from improper disposal. By far, the greatest cause of motor oil pollution in our oceans comes from drains and urban street runoff, much of which is from improper disposal of engine oil. One gallon of used oil can create an eight-acre slick on surface water, threatening fish, waterfowl and other aquatic life. According to the U.S. EPA, films of oil on the surface of water prevent the replenishment of dissolved oxygen, impair photosynthetic processes, and block sunlight. Toxic effects of used oil on freshwater and marine organisms vary, but significant long-term effects have been found at concentrations of 310 ppm in several freshwater fish species and as low as 1 ppm in marine life forms. Motor oil can have an incredibly detrimental effect on the environment, particularly to plants that depend on healthy soil to grow. There are three main ways that motor oil affects plants: contaminating water supplies, contaminating soil, and poisoning plants. Used motor oil dumped on land reduces soil productivity. Improperly disposed used oil ends up in landfills, sewers, backyards, or storm drains where soil, groundwater and drinking water may be contaminated.

text: 2004 Nature Management and Water Environment Division of Fyn County, DenmarkThe Nature Management and Water Environment Division of Fyn County, Denmark, received the award for its monitoring and analysis of the water environment and pollution discharge and long-term efforts that have laid the foundation for cost effective point and non-point source pollution prevention measures in pursuit of an improved Baltic Sea marine environment.

text: The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) was passed in 1972 and provides for the management of the nation's coast lands and the Great Lakes. When Congress reauthorized the CZMA in 1990, it identified NPS water pollution as a significant factor in the degradation of coastal waters.  To address NPS water pollution in coastal areas, the 1990 amendments to the CZMA created the Coastal Zone Enhancement Grants (CZEG) Program. The states must submit information on their programs to the Secretary of Commerce and the EPA Administrator, who are in charge of approving the plan. The plan is to be implemented in conjunction with the states NPS water pollution plan under section 319 of the CWA and through changes in the overall coastal zone management program. If a state does not submit an approved program, the state may lose a percentage of the grant money provided under the CZMA and under section 319 of the CWA. The EPA is also to provide some guidance to states in developing their NPS coastal management plans through the publication of national guidelines on management measures. These management measures must be economically achievable for new and existing NPS water pollution and must reduce pollution to the greatest extent achievable through the current best management practices.

text: The

text: Coastal Zone Management Act

text: (CZMA) was passed in 1972 and provides for the management of the nation's coast lands and the Great Lakes. When Congress reauthorized the CZMA in 1990, it identified NPS water pollution as a significant factor in the degradation of coastal waters.  To address NPS water pollution in coastal areas, the 1990 amendments to the CZMA created the Coastal Zone Enhancement Grants (CZEG) Program. The states must submit information on their programs to the Secretary of Commerce and the EPA Administrator, who are in charge of approving the plan. The plan is to be implemented in conjunction with the states NPS water pollution plan under section 319 of the CWA and through changes in the overall coastal zone management program. If a state does not submit an approved program, the state may lose a percentage of the grant money provided under the CZMA and under section 319 of the CWA. The EPA is also to provide some guidance to states in developing their NPS coastal management plans through the publication of national guidelines on management measures. These management measures must be economically achievable for new and existing NPS water pollution and must reduce pollution to the greatest extent achievable through the current best management practices.

text: In addition to overfishing, coastal communities are suffering the impacts of growing numbers of large commercial fishing vessels in causing reductions of small local fishing fleets. Many local lowland rivers which are sources of fresh water have become degraded because of the inflows of pollutants and sediments.

text: In addition to overfishing, coastal communities are suffering the impacts of growing numbers of large commercial

text: fishing vessel

text: s in causing reductions of small local fishing fleets. Many local lowland rivers which are sources of fresh water have become degraded because of the inflows of pollutants and sediments.

text: Actions on Polluted Runoff: One of the major focuses regarding advocacy is to reduce the amount of stormwater runoff that enters the waters along the coast of NC. The federation works with local communities, schools and environmental organizations to develop strategies to decrease stormwater runoff in coastal waterways. Stormwater runoff is the most significant water quality issue along the coast, specifically in the White Oak River and other coastal waters, as the influx of pollutants threatens the wellbeing of the ecosystem.

text: Actions on Polluted Runoff: One of the major focuses regarding advocacy is to reduce the amount of

text: stormwater runoff

text: that enters the waters along the coast of NC. The federation works with local communities, schools and environmental organizations to develop strategies to decrease stormwater runoff in coastal waterways. Stormwater runoff is the most significant water quality issue along the coast, specifically in the White Oak River and other coastal waters, as the influx of pollutants threatens the wellbeing of the ecosystem.

text: Research on the environmental impact of the petroleum industry began in earnest, during the mid to late 20th century, as the oil industry developed and expanded. Large scale transport of crude oil increased as a result of the increasing worldwide demand for oil, subsequently increasing the number of oil spills. Oil spills provided perfect opportunities for scientists to examine the in situ effects of crude oil exposure to marine ecosystems, and collaborative efforts between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Coast Guard resulted in improved response efforts and detailed research on oil pollution's effects. The Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989, and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, both resulted in increased scientific knowledge on the specific effects of oil pollution toxicity to marine fish.

text: Research on the

entity_name: Environmental impact of the petroleum industry

text: environmental impact of the petroleum industry

text: began in earnest, during the mid to late 20th century, as the oil industry developed and expanded. Large scale transport of crude oil increased as a result of the increasing worldwide demand for oil, subsequently increasing the number of oil spills. Oil spills provided perfect opportunities for scientists to examine the

text: in situ

text: effects of crude oil exposure to marine ecosystems, and collaborative efforts between the

text: (NOAA) and the

text: United States Coast Guard

text: resulted in improved response efforts and detailed research on oil pollution's effects. The

text: Exxon Valdez oil spill

text: in 1989, and the

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: in 2010, both resulted in increased scientific knowledge on the specific effects of oil pollution toxicity to marine fish.

text: Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when there is a single, identifiable, and localized source of the pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean.  Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint source pollution occurs when the pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agricultural runoff and wind blown debris are prime examples.

text: Pollution is often classed as

text: point source

text: or

text: nonpoint source pollution

text: . Point source pollution occurs when there is a single, identifiable, and localized source of the pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean.  Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint source pollution occurs when the pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agricultural

text: runoff

text: and wind blown

text: debris

text: are prime examples.

text: Municipalities, especially in urban or residential areas, have been concerned at the pollution by concrete batching plants.   The absence of suitable dust collection and filter systems in cement silos or at the truck loading point is the major source of particulate matter emission in the air.  The loading point is a large emission point for dust pollution, so many concrete producers utilize central dust collectors to contain this dust.  Notably, many transit mix (dry loading) plants create significantly more dust pollution than central mix plants due to the nature of the batching  process.  A final source of concern for many municipalities is the presence of extensive water runoff and reuse for water spilled on a producer's sites.

text: Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand or CBOD is a method defined test measured by the depletion of dissolved oxygen by biological organisms in a body of water in which the contribution from nitrogenous bacteria has been suppressed. CBOD is a method defined parameter is widely used as an indication of the pollutant removal from wastewater. It is listed as a conventional pollutant in the U.S. Clean Water Act.

text: Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand or CBOD is a method defined test measured by the depletion of dissolved oxygen by biological organisms in a body of water in which the contribution from nitrogenous bacteria has been suppressed. CBOD is a method defined parameter is widely used as an indication of the pollutant removal from

text: wastewater

text: . It is listed as a conventional pollutant in the U.S.

text: Clean Water Act

text: There are limitations to the use of bivalves as bioindicators. The level of pollutants found in the tissues varies with species, age, size, time of year and other factors. The quantities of pollutants in the water may vary and the molluscs may reflect past rather than present values. In a study of several bivalve species present in lagoons in Ghana it was found that the findings could be anomalous. Levels of zinc and iron tended to rise in the wet season due to run-off from the galvanized roofing sheets used in many of the houses. Cadmium levels were lower in young animals than in older ones because they were growing so fast that, despite the fact that their bodies were accumulating the metal, the concentration in their tissues reduced. In a study near Vladivostok it was found that the level of pollutants in the bivalve tissues did not always reflect the high levels in the surrounding sediment in such places as harbours. The reason for this was thought to be that the bivalves in these locations did not need to filter so much water as elsewhere because of the water's high nutritional content.

text: There are limitations to the use of bivalves as

text: bioindicator

text: s. The level of pollutants found in the tissues varies with species, age, size, time of year and other factors. The quantities of pollutants in the water may vary and the molluscs may reflect past rather than present values. In a study of several bivalve species present in lagoons in

text: Ghana

text: it was found that the findings could be anomalous. Levels of

text: zinc

text: and

text: iron

text: tended to rise in the wet season due to run-off from the galvanized roofing sheets used in many of the houses.

text: Cadmium

text: levels were lower in young animals than in older ones because they were growing so fast that, despite the fact that their bodies were accumulating the metal, the concentration in their tissues reduced. In a study near

text: Vladivostok

text: it was found that the level of pollutants in the bivalve tissues did not always reflect the high levels in the surrounding sediment in such places as harbours. The reason for this was thought to be that the bivalves in these locations did not need to filter so much water as elsewhere because of the water's high nutritional content.

text: The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska, on Good Friday, March 24, 1989, when Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker bound for Long Beach, California, struck Prince William Sound's Bligh Reef at 12:04 am local time and spilled  of crude oil over the next few days. It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused environmental disasters. The Valdez spill was the largest in US waters until the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, in terms of volume released. However, Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region is a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirds. The oil, originally extracted at the Prudhoe Bay oil field, eventually covered  of coastline, and  of ocean.

text: The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in

text: Prince William Sound

text: Alaska

text: , on Good Friday, March 24, 1989, when

text: Exxon Valdez

text: , an

text: oil tanker

text: bound for

text: Long Beach

text: , California, struck

text: Prince William Sound

text: 's

text: Bligh Reef

text: at 12:04 am local time and

text: spilled

text: of

text: crude oil

text: over the next few days. It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused

text: environmental disaster

text: s. The Valdez spill was the largest in US waters until the 2010

text: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

text: , in terms of volume released. However, Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, or boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region is a

text: habitat

text: for

text: salmon

text: sea otter

text: s,

text: seals

text: and

text: seabird

text: s. The oil, originally extracted at the

text: Prudhoe Bay oil field

text: , eventually covered  of coastline, and  of ocean.

text: Besides the urban and industrial pollution, agricultural pollution also contributes greatly to the environment's contamination.

text: The quality of the water is generally good, helped by the fact that the groundwater in the chalk aquifer is of very high quality. However, some of the small streams in the upper reaches are polluted by discharges of effluent which are not licensed, and there are areas where the water in the aquifer, and hence the river, has raised levels of nitrates, largely caused by agricultural fertilisers. The Environment Agency has produced improvement plans to address a number of sources of both agricultural and urban pollution. Natural flows in the river are affected by the abstraction of water for the public water supply. There are many locations at which water is abstracted along the course of the river, including a site in the upper reaches where more than  per day is abstacted from the aquifer, and another where the volume exceeds . Just above the junction with the River Arun, the Hardham Water Treatment Works removes more than  per day from the river.

text: The quality of the water is generally good, helped by the fact that the groundwater in the chalk aquifer is of very high quality. However, some of the small streams in the upper reaches are polluted by discharges of effluent which are not licensed, and there are areas where the water in the aquifer, and hence the river, has raised levels of

text: nitrate

text: s, largely caused by agricultural fertilisers. The Environment Agency has produced improvement plans to address a number of sources of both agricultural and urban pollution. Natural flows in the river are affected by the abstraction of water for the public water supply. There are many locations at which water is abstracted along the course of the river, including a site in the upper reaches where more than  per day is abstacted from the aquifer, and another where the volume exceeds . Just above the junction with the River Arun, the Hardham Water Treatment Works removes more than  per day from the river.

text: Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are majorly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well as birth defects.

text: Oil spills can cause

text: skin

text: irritations and

text: rash

text: es. Noise pollution induces

text: hearing loss

text: high blood pressure

text: stress

text: , and

text: sleep disturbance

text: Mercury

text: has been linked to

text: developmental deficits

text: in children and

text: neurologic

text: symptoms. Older people are majorly exposed to

text: diseases induced by air pollution

text: . Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk.

text: Lead

text: and other

text: heavy metals

text: have been shown to cause neurological problems. Chemical and

text: radioactive

text: substances can

text: cause

text: cancer

text: and

text: as well as

text: birth defect

text: s.

text: Municipalities throughout the United States, from the largest cities to the smallest towns, sometimes fail to meet EPA standards. The EPA may fine the jurisdiction responsible for the violation, but this does not always motivate the municipality to take corrective action. In such cases, non-compliance with EPA may continue for many months or years after the initial violation. This could result from the fact that the city simply doesn't have the financial resources necessary to replace aging water pipes or upgrade their purification equipment. In rare cases, the source water used by the municipality could be so polluted that water purification processes can't do an adequate job. This can occur when a town is downstream from a large sewage treatment plant or large-scale agricultural operations. Citizens who live in such places—especially young children, the elderly, or people of any age with autoimmune deficiencies—may suffer serious health complications as a long-term result of drinking water from their own taps.

text: Municipalities throughout the United States, from the largest cities to the smallest towns, sometimes fail to meet EPA standards. The EPA may fine the jurisdiction responsible for the violation, but this does not always motivate the municipality to take corrective action. In such cases, non-compliance with EPA may continue for many months or years after the initial violation. This could result from the fact that the city simply doesn't have the financial resources necessary to replace aging water pipes or upgrade their purification equipment. In rare cases, the source water used by the municipality could be so polluted that

text: water purification

text: processes can't do an adequate job. This can occur when a town is downstream from a large

text: sewage treatment

text: plant or large-scale agricultural operations. Citizens who live in such places—especially young children, the elderly, or people of any age with

text: autoimmune

text: deficiencies—may suffer serious health complications as a long-term result of drinking water from their own taps.

text: Drug pollution or pharmaceutical pollution is pollution of the environment with pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites, which reach the marine environment (groundwater, rivers, lakes, and oceans) through wastewater. Drug pollution is therefore mainly a form of water pollution.

text: Drug pollution or pharmaceutical pollution is

text: pollution

text: of the

text: environment

text: with

text: pharmaceutical drug

text: s and their

text: metabolite

text: s, which reach the marine environment (

text: groundwater

text: river

text: s,

text: lake

text: s, and

text: ocean

text: s) through

text: wastewater

text: . Drug pollution is therefore mainly a form of

text: water pollution

text: In 2012, it was estimated that there was approximately 165 million tons of plastic pollution in the world's oceans. One type of plastic that is of concern in terms of ocean plastic pollution is nurdles. Nurdles are manufactured plastic pellets (a type of microplastic) used in the creation of plastic products and are often shipped via cargo ship. A significant amount of nurdles is spilled into oceans, and it has been estimated that globally, around 10% of beach litter consists of nurdles. Plastics in oceans typically degrade within a year, but not entirely. In the process, toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A and polystyrene can leach into waters from some plastics. Polystyrene pieces and nurdles are the most common types of plastic pollution in oceans, and combined with plastic bags and food containers make up the majority of oceanic debris.

text: In 2012, it was estimated that there was approximately 165 million tons of plastic pollution in the world's oceans. One type of plastic that is of concern in terms of ocean plastic pollution is

text: nurdles

text: . Nurdles are manufactured plastic pellets (a type of

text: microplastic

text: ) used in the creation of plastic products and are often shipped via

text: cargo ship

text: . A significant amount of nurdles is spilled into oceans, and it has been estimated that globally, around 10% of beach litter consists of nurdles. Plastics in oceans typically degrade within a year, but not entirely. In the process, toxic chemicals such as

text: bisphenol A

text: and

text: polystyrene

text: can

text: leach

text: into waters from some plastics. Polystyrene pieces and nurdles are the most common types of plastic pollution in oceans, and combined with

text: plastic bag

text: s and food containers make up the majority of oceanic debris.

text: Increasingly, agriculture is using untreated wastewater for irrigation. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their crops. There can be significant health hazards related to using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water.

text: Increasingly,

text: agriculture

text: is using untreated wastewater for irrigation. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste, including sewage, directly to water their crops. There can be significant health hazards related to using water loaded with pathogens in this way, especially if people eat raw vegetables that have been irrigated with the polluted water.

text: Mining, which provided more than 60% of Peru's export earnings in 2006, is a major water user and polluter. It is estimated that mining uses about 5% of Peru's water. In addition, it severely affects water quality. It has been estimated that more than half of Peru's peasant communities have been affected by mining activities, leading to the creation of organizations such as the National Committee of Mine Affected Communities (CONACAMI). The government had to declare an environmental state of emergency at several mining sites due to environmental disasters. For example, in July 2008 it declared a state of emergency at a mine near Lima over fears that arsenic, lead and cadmium from its tailings dam could pollute the main water supply for the capital. In July 2010 the government declared another state of environmental emergency in the central mining district of Huancavelica after a wastewater storage dam of the Caudalosa Chica company collapsed and leaked water laden with heavy metals into local rivers. The city La Oroya on the Mantaro River in Central Peru where the company Doe Run operates a big mining complex has been ranked as one of the 10 most contaminated cities in the world in 2007. Furthermore, an estimated 100,000 small-scale informal miners pollute rivers with cyanide and mercury.

text: Mining, which provided more than 60% of Peru's export earnings in 2006, is a major water user and polluter. It is estimated that mining uses about 5% of Peru's water. In addition, it severely affects water quality. It has been estimated that more than half of Peru's peasant communities have been affected by mining activities, leading to the creation of organizations such as the National Committee of Mine Affected Communities (CONACAMI). The government had to declare an environmental state of emergency at several mining sites due to environmental disasters. For example, in July 2008 it declared a state of emergency at a mine near Lima over fears that arsenic, lead and cadmium from its tailings dam could pollute the main water supply for the capital. In July 2010 the government declared another state of environmental emergency in the central mining district of

text: Huancavelica

text: after a wastewater storage dam of the Caudalosa Chica company collapsed and leaked water laden with heavy metals into local rivers. The city

text: La Oroya

text: on the Mantaro River in Central Peru where the company Doe Run operates a big mining complex has been ranked as one of the 10 most contaminated cities in the world in 2007. Furthermore, an estimated 100,000 small-scale informal miners pollute rivers with cyanide and mercury.

text: Indonesian fishermen have claimed that the spill and response polluted their national waters, killed thousands of fish and caused skin diseases and loss of human life. NGOs in Indonesia expressed concern about the oil spill's effects on the Indonesian environment and traditional fishing grounds as the oil spill drifted towards the islands of Timor and Sumba. The Montara oil field is situated south of Indonesia's Pasir Island, a popular fishing location for many East Nusa Tenggara fishermen.

text: Indonesian fishermen have claimed that the spill and response polluted their national waters, killed thousands of fish and caused skin diseases and loss of human life.

text: NGOs

text: in

text: Indonesia

text: expressed concern about the oil spill's effects on the Indonesian environment and traditional fishing grounds as the oil spill drifted towards the islands of

text: Timor

text: and

text: Sumba

text: . The Montara oil field is situated south of Indonesia's Pasir Island, a popular fishing location for many

text: East Nusa Tenggara

text: fishermen.

text: The Porter-Cologne Act also known as the California Water Code, Section 7 was created in 1969 and is the law that governs the water quality regulation in California. It was established to be a program to protect the water quality as well as the beneficial uses of water. This act applies to surface water, groundwater, wetlands and both point and nonpoint sources of pollution. There are nine regional water boards and one state water board that has resulted from this act. The act requires the adoption of water quality control plans that contain the guiding policies of water pollution management in California.

text: The Porter-Cologne Act also known as the California Water Code, Section 7 was created in 1969 and is the law that governs the water quality regulation in California. It was established to be a program to protect the water quality as well as the beneficial uses of water. This act applies to

text: surface water

text: groundwater

text: wetland

text: s and both point and

text: nonpoint sources

text: of pollution. There are nine regional water boards and one state water board that has resulted from this act. The act requires the adoption of water quality control plans that contain the guiding policies of water pollution management in California.

text: The Dasmariñas Bagong Bayan – NHA Industrial Estate is all of 8.6 hectares in Dasmariñas. The Local Waterworks Utilities Administration manages the water system. Its 18 pumps and its 18 elevated storage tanks, having an average capacity of 60,000 gallons each, can very well serve the needs of the occupants. Labor-intensive, export-oriented, non- hazardous, and non-pollutive industries are best situated in the area. GMA-NHA Industrial Estate The General Mariano Galvez – NHA Industrial Estate compromises 10 hectares of land in the municipality of Gen. Mariano Alvarez. Types of industries preferred for this estate are those, which are non-pollutive, labor-intensive, export-oriented, and non-hazardous such as the 6 companies that have located therein.

text: The southern region of the depression, or the north coast of the Caspian Sea, is characterized by large development of damp sites resulting from tidal phenomena. The depression is also home to a large number of insect species, with several thousand different species likely living in the region around the Caspian Sea. Studies have shown that water pollution, mostly coming from the Volga River, poses a serious threat to the biodiversity of the Caspian Depression. Water pollution is contributed mainly by industrial, agricultural, and household discharges.

text: The southern region of the depression, or the north coast of the Caspian Sea, is characterized by large development of damp sites resulting from

text: tidal

text: phenomena. The depression is also home to a large number of

text: insect

text: species

text: , with several thousand different species likely living in the region around the Caspian Sea. Studies have shown that

text: water pollution

text: , mostly coming from the Volga River, poses a serious threat to the

text: biodiversity

text: of the Caspian Depression. Water pollution is contributed mainly by

text: industrial

text: agricultural

text: , and household discharges.

text: Sediment from erosion of hills and river banks is also a source of pollution of waters.

text: Environment – current issues:  air polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; however, the amount of pollutants emitted to the air have fallen steadily, the emissions of 2000 were 80% less than in 1980; the amount of unpurified wastewater discharged to water bodies in 2000 was 1/20 the level of 1980; in connection with the start-up of new water purification plants, the pollution load of wastewater decreased; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and man-made lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas need to be monitored; coastal seawater is polluted in certain locations.

text: Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75% of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land.

text: Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75% of the toxic chemicals that flow into

text: Puget Sound

text: are carried by

text: stormwater

text: that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land.

text: There are many environmental issues in India. Air pollution, water pollution, garbage, and pollution of the natural environment are all challenges for India. The situation was worse between 1947 through 1995. According to data collection and environment assessment studies of World Bank experts, between 1995 through 2010, India has made one of the fastest progress in the world, in addressing its environmental issues and improving its environmental quality. Still, India has a long way to go to reach environmental quality similar to those enjoyed in developed economies. Pollution remains a major challenge and opportunity for India.

text: There are many environmental issues in India.

text: Air pollution

text: water pollution

text: , garbage, and pollution of the natural environment are all challenges for India. The situation was worse between 1947 through 1995. According to data collection and environment assessment studies of

text: World Bank

text: experts, between 1995 through 2010, India has made one of the fastest progress in the world, in addressing its environmental issues and improving its environmental quality. Still, India has a long way to go to reach environmental quality similar to those enjoyed in developed economies. Pollution remains a major challenge and opportunity for India.

text: Water quality is good as the strait is located downstream from Södra Björkfjärden, one of the largest and cleanest bodies of water in Lake Mälaren. The marina at Slagsta contributes some oil and paint spills. Closer to Stockholm stormwater discharge causes increased levels of chloride and phosphorus.

text: Water quality is good as the strait is located downstream from

text: Södra Björkfjärden

text: , one of the largest and cleanest bodies of water in Lake Mälaren. The marina at Slagsta contributes some oil and paint spills. Closer to Stockholm

text: stormwater

text: discharge causes increased levels of

text: chloride

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: Cape Dutch architecture was prominent in the early days (17th century) of the Cape Colony, and the name derives from the fact that the initial settlers of the Cape were primarily Dutch. The style has roots in medieval Holland, Germany, France and Indonesia. Houses in this style have a distinctive and recognizable design, with a prominent feature being the grand, ornately rounded gables, reminiscent of features in townhouses of Amsterdam built in the Dutch style.

text: Cape Dutch architecture

text: was prominent in the early days (17th century) of the

text: Cape Colony

text: , and the name derives from the fact that the initial settlers of the Cape were primarily Dutch. The style has roots in medieval Holland, Germany, France and Indonesia. Houses in this style have a distinctive and recognizable design, with a prominent feature being the grand, ornately rounded gables, reminiscent of features in townhouses of

text: Amsterdam

text: built in the

text: Dutch style

text: 'When your father lived in China, he refused to eat pastries because he didn’t want to eat the dirt the women kneaded from between their fingers.’

text: There are three main groups of Rhizaria:

text: The Engagements on Lake Ontario encompass the prolonged naval contest for control of the lake during the War of 1812. Few actions were fought, none of which had decisive results, and the contest essentially became a naval building race, sometimes referred to sarcastically as the "Battle of the Carpenters".

text: The Engagements on Lake Ontario encompass the prolonged naval contest for control of the lake during the

text: War of 1812

text: . Few actions were fought, none of which had decisive results, and the contest essentially became a naval building race, sometimes referred to sarcastically as the "Battle of the Carpenters".

text: According to the director It was a difficult task to convince both families – the wife’s and the dead husband’s – to participate in the film, since the conflict was far from being over. On the other hand, they had never seen a film, and, as I found out as soon as we began shooting, they hadn’t quite realized the purpose of their participation. They simply wanted to seize the opportunity to relive the events in order to get even once and for all. Every time there was a pause in the shooting the conflict would resume on a parallel level, with unpredictable events on both sides. This made me bring a second camera into the scene in order to register such events and those situations in which the main characters would ignore the script and try to introduce other elements, or simply refuse to stick to it. Since it was so closely related to the story, this “making of” became a fundamental element in the dramatic structure of the film.

text: He was born in St. John's and was educated at the General Protestant Academy. He first worked as a draper, later working as a bookkeeper for several firms. He became manager at J. & W. Stewart's; when that company ceased to operate in Newfoundland, Cowan took over the business.

text: He was born in

text: St. John's

text: and was educated at the General Protestant Academy. He first worked as a

text: draper

text: , later working as a bookkeeper for several firms. He became manager at J. & W. Stewart's; when that company ceased to operate in Newfoundland, Cowan took over the business.

text: Chembur has pollution problems and was ranked 46th in a list of the most polluted industrial clusters in India. Studies in Chembur has also found high levels of copper, chromium, calcium, aArsenic and mercury in ground water. Effluents from oil refineries, fertilizer plants and reactors located in Chembur are also said to have polluted sea water in Thane Creek and affected marine life.

text: PAHs typically disperse from urban and suburban non-point sources through road run-off, sewage, and atmospheric circulation and subsequent deposition of particulate air pollution. Soil and river sediment near industrial sites such as creosote manufacturing facilities can be highly contaminated with PAHs. Oil spills, creosote, coal mining dust, and other fossil fuel sources can also distribute PAHs in the environment.

text: PAHs typically disperse from

text: urban

text: and

text: suburban

text: non-point sources

text: through road

text: run-off

text: sewage

text: , and

text: atmospheric circulation

text: and subsequent deposition of particulate air pollution.

text: Soil

text: and river

text: sediment

text: near industrial sites such as creosote manufacturing facilities can be highly contaminated with PAHs.

text: Oil spill

text: s, creosote,

text: coal mining

text: dust, and other fossil fuel sources can also distribute PAHs in the environment.

text: Coastal water quality has always been an important part of the federal—state coastal zone management program.  In 1992 Congress provided for increased emphasis on coastal non-point pollution.  WA, along with other states in the national CZM program is developing a Coastal Non-point Pollution Management plan.

text: His main position in high school was shooting guard but he learned to be a point guard in college. Reynolds attended Roanoke Catholic High School from 1999 to 2002. There he played on the basketball team, and played on three state-championship teams during those four years.

text: His main position in high school was shooting guard but he learned to be a point guard in college. Reynolds attended

text: Roanoke Catholic High School

text: from 1999 to 2002. There he played on the basketball team, and played on three state-championship teams during those four years.

text: The style is characterized by ornate decorative facades covered with floral designs, chandeliers, festoons, fantastic creatures and all sorts of configurations. The spatial arrangement, however, is more clearly Gothic-inspired. This fixation on specific parts and their spacing, without structural changes of the Gothic pattern, causes it to be often classified as simply a variation of Renaissance style. In New Spain the Plateresque acquired its own configuration, clinging tightly to its Mudéjar heritage and blending with Native American influences. A Plateresque style could also be said to have developed in the first decades of the 16th century in southern France and Portugal.

text: The style is characterized by ornate decorative facades covered with floral designs, chandeliers,

text: festoon

text: s, fantastic creatures and all sorts of configurations. The spatial arrangement, however, is more clearly Gothic-inspired. This fixation on specific parts and their spacing, without structural changes of the Gothic pattern, causes it to be often classified as simply a variation of Renaissance style. In New Spain the Plateresque acquired its own configuration, clinging tightly to its Mudéjar heritage and blending with Native American influences. A Plateresque style could also be said to have developed in the first decades of the 16th century in southern France and Portugal.

text: On September 9, 2001, two days before the September 11 attacks in the United States, Massoud was assassinated in Takhar Province of Afghanistan by suspected al-Qaeda agents. The funeral, although taking place in a rather rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands of mourning people. The following year, he was named "National Hero" by the order of Afghan President Hamid Karzai. The date of his death, September 9, is observed as a national holiday in Afghanistan, known as "Massoud Day". The year following his assassination, in 2002, Massoud was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize (which, incidentally, is never awarded posthumously).

text: On September 9, 2001, two days before the

text: September 11 attacks

text: in the United States, Massoud was assassinated in

text: Takhar Province

text: of Afghanistan by suspected

text: al-Qaeda

text: agents. The funeral, although taking place in a rather rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands of mourning people. The following year, he was named "National Hero" by the order of Afghan President

text: Hamid Karzai

text: . The date of his death, September 9, is observed as a national holiday in Afghanistan, known as "Massoud Day". The year following his assassination, in 2002, Massoud was nominated for the

text: Nobel Peace Prize

text: (which, incidentally, is never awarded posthumously).

text: • 2013–14 Fife and Lothians Junior cup.

text: • 2013–14 Fife and Lothians Junior cup.

text: Harlow was originally expected to provide a majority of employment opportunities in manufacturing, with two major developments of The Pinnacles and Templefields providing the biggest employers in the region; as with the rest of the country, this manufacturing base has declined and Harlow has had to adjust.

text: Sally Chepyego Kaptich (; born 3 October 1985) is a Kenyan long-distance runner who competes mainly in track and road running events.

text: Sally Chepyego Kaptich (; born 3 October 1985) is a

text: Kenya

text: n

text: long-distance runner

text: who competes mainly in

text: track

text: and

text: road running

text: events.

text: Despite being one of the main sources of Bandung's water supply, the river is classified as heavily polluted. Domestic waste, including human waste and detergents, is the main source of pollution as more people are living along the river banks. Other sources of pollutants are industry agriculture and farming.

text: In addition, the local river, the Hengshui River, known locally as "The Dead River", is Shangba's only water supply, has become so polluted that it is endangering the  of those living nearby. One of the major pollutants in the river and well water is lead, which a provincial research institute reported as being present in the well water at some fifteen times what the national government set as a maximum acceptable rate for drinking water.

text: In addition, the local river, the

text: Hengshui River

text: , known locally as "The Dead River", is Shangba's only water supply, has become so polluted that it is endangering the  of those living nearby. One of the major pollutants in the river and well water is

text: lead

text: , which a provincial research institute reported as being present in the well water at some fifteen times what the national government set as a maximum acceptable rate for drinking water.

text: Environmental issues are water pollution from agricultural chemicals, industrial wastes, and raw sewage; oil pollution of beaches; deforestation; soil erosion.

text: Environmental issues are

text: water pollution

text: from agricultural chemicals, industrial wastes, and raw

text: sewage

text: ; oil pollution of beaches;

text: deforestation

text: soil erosion

text: Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other non-conventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention.

text: Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other non-conventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the partially treated

text: wastewater

text: to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention.

text: Consider a bipartite graph

text: Consider a

text: bipartite graph

text: The larvae feed on Acer argutum, Acer distylum, Acer ginnala, Acer micranthum, Acer mono, Acer pentaphyllum, Acer rufinerve, Acer semenovii, Acer tschonoskii and Acer ukurunduense. They probably mine the leaves of their host plant.

text: The

text: larva

text: e feed on

text: Acer argutum

text: Acer distylum

text: Acer ginnala

text: Acer micranthum

text: Acer mono

text: Acer pentaphyllum

text: Acer rufinerve

text: Acer semenovii

text: Acer tschonoskii

text: and

text: Acer ukurunduense

text: . They probably

text: mine

text: the leaves of their host plant.

text: The Canary Islands have low levels of air pollution thanks to the lack of factories and industry and the tradewinds which naturally move away contaminated air from the islands. According to official data offered by the Health and Industry Ministry in Spain, Tenerife is one of cleanest places in the country with an air pollution index that is below the national average. Despite this, there are still agents which affect pollution levels in the island, the main polluting agents being the refinery at Santa Cruz, the thermal power plants at Las Caletillas and Granadilla, and road traffic, increased by the high level of tourism in the island. In addition at the island of Tenerife like at La Palma light pollution must be also controlled, to help the astrophysical observatories located in the island's summits.Water is generally of a very high quality, and all the beaches of the island of Tenerife have been catalogued by the Ministry of Health and Consumption as waters suitable for bathing.

text: The Canary Islands have low levels of air pollution thanks to the lack of factories and industry and the tradewinds which naturally move away contaminated air from the islands. According to official data offered by the Health and Industry Ministry in Spain, Tenerife is one of cleanest places in the country with an air pollution index that is below the national average. Despite this, there are still agents which affect pollution levels in the island, the main

text: polluting agents

text: being the

text: refinery at Santa Cruz

text: , the

text: thermal power

text: plants at

text: Las Caletillas

text: and

text: Granadilla

text: , and road traffic, increased by the high level of tourism in the island. In addition at the island of Tenerife like at La Palma light pollution must be also controlled, to help the

text: astrophysical observatories

text: located in the island's summits.Water is generally of a very high quality, and all the beaches of the island of Tenerife have been catalogued by the Ministry of Health and Consumption as waters suitable for bathing.

text: In mathematics, a Whittaker function is a special solution of Whittaker's equation, a modified form of the confluent hypergeometric equation introduced by  to make the formulas involving the solutions more symmetric. More generally,  introduced Whittaker functions of reductive groups over local fields, where the functions studied by Whittaker are essentially the case where the local field is the real numbers and the group is SL(R).

text: In mathematics, a Whittaker function is a special solution of Whittaker's equation, a modified form of the

text: confluent hypergeometric equation

text: introduced by  to make the formulas involving the solutions more symmetric. More generally,  introduced Whittaker functions of

text: reductive group

text: s over

text: local field

text: s, where the functions studied by Whittaker are essentially the case where the local field is the real numbers and the group is SL(R).

text: He was married to the actress Annekathrin Bürger, appearing with her in the 1972 Red Western Tecumseh. He also starred in other westerns including The Sons of Great Bear (1966) and Chingachgook (1967).

text: He was married to the actress

text: Annekathrin Bürger

text: , appearing with her in the 1972

text: Red Western

text: Tecumseh

text: . He also starred in other westerns including

text: The Sons of Great Bear

text: (1966) and

text: Chingachgook

text: Strangeways devised and implemented the deception Operation Quicksilver, a significant part of Operation Fortitude, with the intent of fooling the Germans that the Allied invasion would take place in the Pas-de-Calais area. After the Allied landings in Normandy in June 1944, R Force moved to the continent where it operated under the 21st Army Group. It was one of the first units to enter Brussels and Rouen, and later conducted a deception campaign for the crossing of the Rhine River.

text: Strangeways devised and implemented the deception

text: Operation Quicksilver

text: , a significant part of

text: Operation Fortitude

text: , with the intent of fooling the Germans that the Allied invasion would take place in the

text: Pas-de-Calais

text: area. After the

text: Allied landings in Normandy

text: in June 1944, R Force moved to the continent where it operated under the 21st Army Group. It was one of the first units to enter

text: Brussels

text: and

text: Rouen

text: , and later conducted a deception campaign for the

text: crossing of the Rhine River

text: The line was to be 10¼ miles in length from Yelverton Siding (on the Plymouth to Tavistock line, at the south end of the tunnel) to Princetown. Adopting part of the route of the 1814 Plymouth and Dartmoor Railway and joining with the GWR, it made working arrangements with those companies and received subscription support from them towards its authorised capital of £60,000, with borrowing powers of £20,000.

text: The line was to be 10¼ miles in length from Yelverton Siding (on the Plymouth to Tavistock line, at the south end of the tunnel) to Princetown. Adopting part of the route of the 1814

text: Plymouth and Dartmoor Railway

text: and joining with the GWR, it made working arrangements with those companies and received subscription support from them towards its authorised capital of £60,000, with borrowing powers of £20,000.

text: Transnistria may refer to:

text: Transnistria may refer to:

text: The spill was over five feet deep in places and covered nearby residents' yards.  The spill polluted hundreds of miles (300 – 500 km) of the Big Sandy River and its tributaries and the Ohio River.  The water supply for over 27,000 residents was contaminated, and all aquatic life in Coldwater Fork and Wolf Creek was killed. The spill was 30 times larger than the Exxon Valdez oil spill () and one of the worst environmental disasters ever in the southeastern United States, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The spill was exceeded in volume by the Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill in 2008.

text: The spill was over five feet deep in places and covered nearby residents' yards.  The spill polluted hundreds of miles (300 – 500 km) of the Big Sandy River and its tributaries and the Ohio River.  The water supply for over 27,000 residents was contaminated, and all aquatic life in Coldwater Fork and Wolf Creek was killed. The spill was 30 times larger than the

text: Exxon Valdez

text: oil spill () and one of the worst environmental disasters ever in the

text: southeastern United States

text: , according to the

text: . The spill was exceeded in volume by the

entity_name: Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill

text: Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill

text: in 2008.

text: Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.

text: Marine pollution

text: is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture

text: fertilizer

text: chemicals as well as

text: livestock

text: and

text: human

text: waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to

text: hypoxia

text: and the creation of a

text: dead zone

text: Yu enrolled at Notre Dame Law School in 1990.  She graduated with her law degree in 1993.

text: Yu enrolled at

text: Notre Dame Law School

text: in 1990.  She graduated with her

text: law degree

text: in 1993.

text: The Zarqa River is severely polluted by industry, municipal wastewater and non-point sources. The King Talal Dam, Jordan's largest surface water reservoir, faces low water levels and pollution. However, water quality in the King Talal reservoir has improved as a result of the construction of the new As-Samra wastewater treatment plant. The National Water Strategy estimates total renewable freshwater resources at 575 million cubic metres/year plus 90 million cubic metres/year of treated wastewater, totaling 665 million cubic metres/year.

text: The Zarqa River is severely polluted by industry, municipal wastewater and

text: non-point sources

text: . The

text: King Talal Dam

text: , Jordan's largest surface water reservoir, faces low water levels and pollution. However, water quality in the King Talal reservoir has improved as a result of the construction of the new As-Samra wastewater treatment plant. The National Water Strategy estimates total renewable freshwater resources at 575 million cubic metres/year plus 90 million cubic metres/year of treated wastewater, totaling 665 million cubic metres/year.

text: The power sector in Kazakhstan is one of the main sources of atmospheric pollution through its emissions of sulfur oxide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide and ash. In 1990 the energy sector emitted around 2.3 million tons of such pollution, accounting for 35% of total atmospheric emissions and 53% of emissions from stationary sources. In 1996, there were about 1 million tons emitted, or 28% of the total volume of emissions and 41% of emissions from stationary sources. Much of this pollution is caused by the use of low quality coal as the main fuel, and also by poorly equipped thermal power stations with systems of purification of volatile gases of boiler-houses.Due to decreases in thermal and electric power production the amounts of pollutants emitted by the energy sector have decreased by almost 50%. Nevertheless, the atmospheric pollution problem caused by the energy sector remains severe.

text: The power sector in

text: Kazakhstan

text: is one of the main sources of

text: atmospheric pollution

text: through its emissions of

text: sulfur oxide

text: nitrogen

text: carbon monoxide

text: and ash. In 1990 the energy sector emitted around 2.3 million tons of such pollution, accounting for 35% of total atmospheric emissions and 53% of emissions from stationary sources. In 1996, there were about 1 million tons emitted, or 28% of the total volume of emissions and 41% of emissions from stationary sources. Much of this pollution is caused by the use of low quality coal as the main fuel, and also by poorly equipped thermal power stations with systems of purification of volatile gases of boiler-houses.Due to decreases in thermal and electric power production the amounts of pollutants emitted by the energy sector have decreased by almost 50%. Nevertheless, the atmospheric pollution problem caused by the energy sector remains severe.

text: Repaired and with a lengthened and glazed cockpit, the Fafnir was flown on some notable flights in 1933, including one of over  from Darmstadt to France and others above Berlin. In 1934 it was taken to South America and flown for over seven hours over Buenos Aires.  On return it continued to fly from its Darnstadt home until retired to a Berlin museum, where it was destroyed by bombing in World War II.

text: Repaired and with a lengthened and glazed cockpit, the Fafnir was flown on some notable flights in 1933, including one of over  from

text: Darmstadt

text: to

text: France

text: and others above

text: Berlin

text: . In 1934 it was taken to

text: South America

text: and flown for over seven hours over

text: Buenos Aires

text: .  On return it continued to fly from its Darnstadt home until retired to a Berlin museum, where it was destroyed by bombing in

text: World War II

text: The oil spill is in part connected to the oil operations at Map Ta Phut. Anthony Zola, an American environmental consultant is reported to have said "In rural areas, there is almost no enforcement at all. Water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution—you can make all the complaints you want, and no one pays any attention to you." Map Ta Phut was closed down in 2009 by the previous Prime Minister, Abhisit Vejjaijiva due to safety concerns. The New York Times reported "Even among critics of the court decisions, there is widespread agreement that Map Ta Phut is heavily polluted and unhealthy for those who live nearby. But environmental experts remain skeptical that the court decisions will fix the problem."

text: The Katharinenviertel makes up the eastern part of the district; with its buildings from the Gründerzeit (late 19th century period of industrialisation), green areas, traffic-free zones and cycle lanes, it is a surprisingly quiet, green zone situated between the major roads of Lotter Straße to the north and Martinistraße to the south. The convenient location of the district between the main sites of the city’s university and applied sciences college have long made the Weststadt home to many student flats. The EMMA-Theater – a neo-Romanesque showcase building housing a stage owned by the Theater Osnabrück – is located in the west side of the district. This was formerly the location of the Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Gymnasium school (from 1867 to 1980) and subsequently the Hans-Calmeyer-Orientierungsstufe (orientation school, on this site from 1980 to 2003). The Möser-Realschule am Westerberg (Möser Westerberg Secondary School) has used parts of this building since 2004. The west side of the district is also home to the Illoshöhe municipal sports centre; the Osnabrücker Turnerbund (Osnabrück Gymnastics Association) is based here and also uses parts of the buildings. There are two churches based in the Weststadt district – the evangelical Bonnuskirche and the Catholic St. Elisabeth Kirche (St. Elizabeth’s Church). Services for members of the Old Catholic community are also available at the Bonnuskirche.

text: The Katharinenviertel makes up the eastern part of the district; with its buildings from the Gründerzeit (late 19th century period of industrialisation), green areas, traffic-free zones and cycle lanes, it is a surprisingly quiet, green zone situated between the major roads of Lotter Straße to the north and Martinistraße to the south. The convenient location of the district between the main sites of the city’s

text: university

text: and

entity_name: Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences

text: applied sciences college

text: have long made the Weststadt home to many student flats. The EMMA-Theater – a neo-Romanesque showcase building housing a stage owned by the Theater Osnabrück – is located in the west side of the district. This was formerly the location of the Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Gymnasium school (from 1867 to 1980) and subsequently the Hans-Calmeyer-Orientierungsstufe (orientation school, on this site from 1980 to 2003). The Möser-Realschule am Westerberg (Möser Westerberg Secondary School) has used parts of this building since 2004. The west side of the district is also home to the Illoshöhe municipal sports centre; the Osnabrücker Turnerbund (Osnabrück Gymnastics Association) is based here and also uses parts of the buildings. There are two churches based in the Weststadt district – the evangelical Bonnuskirche and the Catholic St. Elisabeth Kirche (St. Elizabeth’s Church). Services for members of the Old Catholic community are also available at the Bonnuskirche.

text: On June 27, 2008, recovery efforts ceased due to the discovery that 10,000 kilos of the dangerous pesticide endosulfan were on board. The government announced that they were considering filing charges, as it is illegal to transport dangerous goods on passenger vessels in the Philippines.

text: On June 27, 2008, recovery efforts ceased due to the discovery that 10,000 kilos of the dangerous pesticide

text: endosulfan

text: were on board. The government announced that they were considering filing charges, as it is illegal to transport dangerous goods on passenger vessels in the Philippines.

text: Two former employees and one former contractor were indicted for statements made in multiple documents and one videotape, over several years, for hiding evidence that the reactor pressure vessel was being corroded by boric acid.  The maximum penalty for the three is 25 years in prison.  The indictment mentions that other employees also provided false information to inspectors, but does not name them.

text: Before the investigation could reach conclude both Moragoda and Jayasriya crossed over to the government. Reporting on the privatisation of Lanka Marine Service COPE stated that by his actions Moragoda had at the very least incurred a loss of 1.7 Bn rupees for the government.