text: In 2009, President Barack Obama in the inaugural address called for the expanded use of renewable energy to meet the twin challenges of energy security and climate change. Those were the first references ever to the nation's energy use, to renewable resources, and to climate change in an inauguration speech of a U.S. president. President Obama looked to the near future, saying that as a nation, the United States will "harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories."

text: In 2009, President

entity_name: Barack Obama

text: Barack Obama

text: in the

entity_name: United States presidential inauguration

text: inaugural address

text: called for the expanded use of renewable energy to meet the twin challenges of

entity_name: Energy security

text: energy security

text: and

entity_name: Climate change

text: climate change

text: . Those were the first references ever to the nation's energy use, to renewable resources, and to climate change in an inauguration speech of a U.S. president. President Obama looked to the near future, saying that as a nation, the United States will "harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories."

text: The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) published in 2012, a report with an assessment of average greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in car batteries considering the full life-cycle (well-to-wheel analysis) and the fuel used to generate electric power by region in the U.S. The study used the Nissan Leaf all-electric car to establish the analysis's baseline. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of carbon dioxide emissions per year. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, or renewable resources such as hydroelectric, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal, hybrid electric cars produce less  emissions than plug-in electric cars, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a plug-in car. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway fuel economy of . In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the plug-in would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at  combined.

text: The

entity_name: Union of Concerned Scientists

text: Union of Concerned Scientists

text: (UCS) published in 2012, a report with an assessment of average greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in car batteries considering the full life-cycle (

entity_name: Life-cycle assessment

entity_section: Well-to-wheel

text: well-to-wheel

text: analysis) and the fuel used to generate electric power by region in the U.S. The study used the

entity_name: Nissan Leaf

text: Nissan Leaf

text: all-electric car to establish the analysis's baseline. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of

entity_name: Fuel economy in automobiles

text: miles per gallon

text: instead of the conventional unit of grams of

entity_name: Carbon dioxide equivalent

text: carbon dioxide

text: emissions per year. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, or renewable resources such as hydroelectric, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal,

entity_name: Hybrid electric vehicle

text: hybrid electric car

text: s produce less  emissions than

entity_name: Plug-in electric vehicle

text: plug-in electric car

text: s, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered

entity_name: Subcompact car

text: subcompact car

text: produces slightly less emissions than a plug-in car. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway fuel economy of . In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the plug-in would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at  combined.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: For the most part, mitigation involves fuel conservation, and the use of alternative and renewable energy sources.  The development of unconventional oil resources can extend the supply of petroleum, but does not reduce consumption.

text: For the most part, mitigation involves

entity_name: Energy conservation

text: fuel conservation

text: , and the use of

entity_name: Alternative energy

text: alternative

text: and

entity_name: Renewable energy

text: renewable energy

text: sources.  The development of

entity_name: Unconventional oil

text: unconventional oil

text: resources can extend the supply of petroleum, but does not reduce consumption.

text: Renewable energy is energy that comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). In 2008, about 19% of global final energy consumption came from renewables. During the five years from the end of 2004 through 2009, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60 percent annually for many technologies. For wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth accelerated in 2009 relative to the previous four years. More wind power capacity was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology. However, grid-connected photovoltaics increased the fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 60 percent annual average growth rate for the five-year period.

text: Renewable energy is

entity_name: Energy

text: energy

text: that comes from

entity_name: Natural resource

text: natural resource

text: s such as

entity_name: Sunlight

text: sunlight

entity_name: Wind

text: wind

entity_name: Rain

text: rain

entity_name: Tidal power

text: tides

text: , and

entity_name: Geothermal energy

text: geothermal heat

text: , which are

entity_name: Renewable resource

text: renewable

text: (naturally replenished). In 2008, about 19% of global final energy consumption came from renewables. During the five years from the end of 2004 through 2009, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60 percent annually for many technologies. For wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth accelerated in 2009 relative to the previous four years. More wind power capacity was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology. However, grid-connected

entity_name: Photovoltaics

text: photovoltaics

text: increased the fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 60 percent annual average growth rate for the five-year period.

method: UNH-ecn

text: In the first quarter of 2011, renewable energy contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production (2.245 quadrillion BTUs of energy), surpassing energy production from nuclear power (2.125 quadrillion BTUs). 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production.

text: In the first quarter of 2011,

text: renewable energy

text: contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production (2.245 quadrillion BTUs of energy), surpassing energy production from nuclear power (2.125 quadrillion BTUs). 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: The U.S. state of Massachusetts has vast wind energy resources onshore as well as offshore and the installed capacity has been growing in recent years due to a variety of regulatory actions and financial incentives enacted by the state government. Notable policies include a Renewable portfolio standard that requires 22% of the state's electricity to come from renewable sources by 2020 and a goal of installing 2,000 MW of wind power in the state by 2020.

text: The U.S. state of

entity_name: Massachusetts

text: Massachusetts

text: has vast wind energy resources onshore as well as offshore and the installed capacity has been growing in recent years due to a variety of regulatory actions and financial incentives enacted by the state government. Notable policies include a

entity_name: Renewable portfolio standard

text: Renewable portfolio standard

text: that requires 22% of the state's electricity to come from renewable sources by 2020 and a goal of installing 2,000 MW of wind power in the state by 2020.

text: Then-US Energy Secretary Stephen Chu and researchers for the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory have noted that greater electrical generation by non-dispatchable renewables, such as wind and solar, will also increase the need for flexible natural gas-powered generators, to supply electricity during those times when solar and wind power are unavailable. Gas-powered generators have the ability to ramp up and down quickly to meet changing loads.

text: Then-US Energy Secretary

entity_name: Steven Chu

text: Stephen Chu

text: and researchers for the US

entity_name: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: have noted that greater electrical generation by non-

entity_name: Dispatchable generation

text: dispatchable

text: renewables, such as wind and solar, will also increase the need for flexible natural gas-powered generators, to supply electricity during those times when solar and wind power are unavailable. Gas-powered generators have the ability to ramp up and down quickly to meet changing loads.

text: The shift from coal to natural gas in power plants, and the promotion of the use of clean and renewable energy sources such as wind and solar energy to replace energy from fossil fuels present significant opportunities.

text: Some energy producers, e.g., electric utilities, may have margins protected by regulation that allows them to price on a ‘cost-plus’ basis. Such factors allow energy producers to pass on cost increases to consumers. Energy-producing industries also generally tend to be capital intensive. This capital-intensity could create entry barriers, giving them greater pricing power. For all these reasons, the net impact of fossil fuel price increases on energy producers is to maintain or increase margins, and thereby, their stock prices. Finally, many energy producers own fossil fuel reserves. Higher fossil fuel prices will have a direct positive impact  on their share prices by increasing the market value of reserve assets.

text: Some energy producers, e.g., electric utilities, may have margins protected by regulation that allows them to price on a ‘cost-plus’ basis. Such factors allow energy producers to pass on cost increases to consumers. Energy-producing industries also generally tend to be capital intensive. This capital-intensity could create entry barriers, giving them greater

entity_name: Market power

text: pricing power

text: . For all these reasons, the net impact of fossil fuel price increases on energy producers is to maintain or increase margins, and thereby, their stock prices. Finally, many energy producers own fossil fuel reserves. Higher fossil fuel prices will have a direct positive impact  on their share prices by increasing the market value of reserve assets.

text: Waste-to-energy is one way to dispose of all combustible waste in which recycling alone is not economically viable. As income levels rise in the southern region of Brazil, citizens are urging officials to improve waste management systems. However, the results are limited as no commercial facilities are currently being constructed. Even though citizens and officials are beginning to understand the harm of landfills and the importance of waste management, most do not understand waste-to-energy systems. On the other hand, waste-to-energy industry leaders do not understand the current waste condition in Brazil. In order to provide specific solutions to problems in Brazil, the Waste to Energy Research Technology Counsel in Brazil is developing a hybrid municipal solid waste (MSW)/natural gas cycle. This system burns a small amount of natural gas that is 45% efficient and 80% of the energy that is produced by MSW is 34% efficient. Their patented system takes a small gas turbine and mixes it with preheated air. Another benefit of using low amounts of natural gas is the possibility of replacing it with landfill gas, ethanol, or renewable fuels. Another benefit is that this system does not change current incinerator technology, which allows it to use components that already exist in other waste-to-energy plants. Private sector involvement in the waste-to-energy industry includes companies such as Siemens, CNIM, Keppel-Seghers, Hitachi Zosen Inova, Sener, Pöyry, Fisia-Babcock, Malcolm Pirnie and others who are already established in Brazil and developing waste-to-energy projects. Some cities currently considering such projects are Belo Horizonte, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, São José dos Campos, São Bernardo do Campo and others.Clean development mechanism projects are also beginning to develop at some Brazilian landfills. These projects are established to collect gases produced on-site and convert them into energy. For example, at a landfill in Nova Iguaçu (Rio de Janeiro area), methane is being collected and converted into electricity. This process is expected to eliminate 2.5 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions by 2012.

entity_name: Waste-to-energy

text: Waste-to-energy

text: is one way to dispose of all combustible waste in which recycling alone is not economically viable. As income levels rise in the southern region of Brazil, citizens are urging officials to improve waste management systems. However, the results are limited as no commercial facilities are currently being constructed. Even though citizens and officials are beginning to understand the harm of landfills and the importance of waste management, most do not understand waste-to-energy systems. On the other hand, waste-to-energy industry leaders do not understand the current waste condition in Brazil. In order to provide specific solutions to problems in Brazil, the Waste to Energy Research Technology Counsel in Brazil is developing a hybrid

entity_name: Municipal solid waste

text: municipal solid waste

text: (MSW)/natural gas cycle. This system burns a small amount of natural gas that is 45% efficient and 80% of the energy that is produced by MSW is 34% efficient. Their patented system takes a small gas turbine and mixes it with preheated air. Another benefit of using low amounts of natural gas is the possibility of replacing it with landfill gas, ethanol, or renewable fuels. Another benefit is that this system does not change current incinerator technology, which allows it to use components that already exist in other waste-to-energy plants. Private sector involvement in the waste-to-energy industry includes companies such as Siemens,

entity_name: Constructions industrielles de la Méditerranée

text: CNIM

text: , Keppel-Seghers, Hitachi Zosen Inova, Sener, Pöyry, Fisia-Babcock, Malcolm Pirnie and others who are already established in Brazil and developing waste-to-energy projects. Some cities currently considering such projects are

entity_name: Belo Horizonte

text: Belo Horizonte

entity_name: Rio de Janeiro

text: Rio de Janeiro

text: , São Paulo,

entity_name: São José dos Campos

text: São José dos Campos

entity_name: São Bernardo do Campo

text: São Bernardo do Campo

text: and others.Clean development mechanism projects are also beginning to develop at some Brazilian landfills. These projects are established to collect gases produced on-site and convert them into energy. For example, at a landfill in Nova Iguaçu (Rio de Janeiro area), methane is being collected and converted into electricity. This process is expected to eliminate 2.5 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions by 2012.

text: Cruz voted against the Water Resources Development Act of 2013 that would have created the National Endowment for the Oceans and authorized more than $26 billion in projects to be built by the Army Corps of Engineers, at least $16 billion of which would have come from federal taxpayers. Cruz voted against the bill because it neglected "to reduce a substantial backlog of projects, to the detriment of projects with national implications, such as the Sabine–Neches Waterway". Cruz stated that the Corps' responsibilities were expanded without providing adequate measures for state participation. Proponents of the bill argued that it would provide steady funding to support research and restoration projects, funded primarily by dedicating 12.5% of revenues from offshore energy development, including oil, gas, and renewable energy, through offshore lease sales and production based royalty payments, distributed through a competitive grant program.

text: Cruz voted against the

entity_name: Water Resources Development Act

text: Water Resources Development Act

text: of 2013 that would have created the National Endowment for the Oceans and authorized more than $26 billion in projects to be built by the

entity_name: United States Army Corps of Engineers

text: Army Corps of Engineers

text: , at least $16 billion of which would have come from federal taxpayers. Cruz voted against the bill because it neglected "to reduce a substantial backlog of projects, to the detriment of projects with national implications, such as the

entity_name: Sabine–Neches Waterway

text: Sabine–Neches Waterway

text: ". Cruz stated that the Corps' responsibilities were expanded without providing adequate measures for state participation. Proponents of the bill argued that it would provide steady funding to support research and restoration projects, funded primarily by dedicating 12.5% of revenues from offshore energy development, including oil, gas, and renewable energy, through offshore lease sales and production based royalty payments, distributed through a competitive grant program.

text: The Renewable Energy Development and Energy Transition Financing Law (LAERFTE) mandated the Secretary of Energy (SENER) to produce a Special Program for Development of Renewable Energy (PEAER), and a National Strategy for Energy Transition and Sustainable Energy Use (ENTEASE), to be updated yearly. The main objective of the law is to regulate the use of renewable energy resources and clean technology, as well as to establish financing instruments to allow Mexico to scale-up electricity generation based on renewable resources. SENER and the Energy Regulatory Commission (CRE) are responsible for defining those mechanisms and establishing legal instruments.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: On April 21, 2011, Greenpeace released a report showing that of the top ten big brands in cloud computing, Facebook was most reliant on coal for electricity for its data centers. At the time, data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase. Phil Radford of Greenpeace said "we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today." On December 15, 2011, Greenpeace and Facebook announced together that Facebook would shift to use clean and renewable energy to power its own operations. Marcy Scott Lynn, of Facebook's sustainability program, said it looked forward "to a day when our primary energy sources are clean and renewable" and that the company is "working with Greenpeace and others to help bring that day closer."

text: On April 21, 2011,

entity_name: Greenpeace

text: Greenpeace

text: released a report showing that of the top ten big brands in cloud computing, Facebook was most reliant on coal for electricity for its data centers. At the time, data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase.

entity_name: Phil Radford

text: Phil Radford

text: of Greenpeace said "we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today." On December 15, 2011, Greenpeace and Facebook announced together that Facebook would shift to use clean and renewable energy to power its own operations. Marcy Scott Lynn, of Facebook's sustainability program, said it looked forward "to a day when our primary energy sources are clean and renewable" and that the company is "working with Greenpeace and others to help bring that day closer."

text: Coal is mined commercially in over 50 countries. Over 7,036 Mt/yr of hard coal is currently produced, a substantial increase over the past 25 years. In 2006, the world production of brown coal and lignite was slightly over 1,000 Mt, with Germany the world’s largest brown coal producer at 194.4 Mt, and China second at 100.6 Mt.

text: Coal is mined commercially in over 50 countries. Over 7,036 Mt/yr of

entity_name: Anthracite

text: hard coal

text: is currently produced, a substantial increase over the past 25 years. In 2006, the world production of

entity_name: Lignite

text: brown coal

text: and

text: lignite

text: was slightly over 1,000 Mt, with Germany the world’s largest brown coal producer at 194.4 Mt, and China second at 100.6 Mt.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: Industries with large amounts of CO emissions (such as the coal industry) are interested in biosequestration as a means of offsetting their greenhouse gas production. In Australia, university researchers are engineering algae to produce biofuels (hydrogen and biodiesel oils) and investigating whether this process can be used to biosequester carbon. Algae naturally capture sunlight and use its energy to split water into hydrogen, oxygen and oil which can be extracted. Such clean energy production also can be coupled with desalination using salt-tolerant marine algae to generate fresh water and electricity.Many new bioenergy (biofuel) technologies, including cellulosic ethanol biorefineries (using stems and branches of most plants including crop residues such as corn stalks, wheat straw and rice straw) are being promoted because they have the added advantage of biosequestration of CO. The Garnaut Climate Change Review recommends that a carbon price in a carbon emission trading scheme could include a financial incentive for biosequestration processes. Garnaut recommends the use of algal biosequestration (see algae bioreactor) to absorb the constant stream of carbon dioxide emissions from coal-fired electricity generation and metal smelting until renewable forms of energy, such as solar and wind power, become more established contributors to the grid. Garnaut, for example, states: "Some algal biosequestration processes could absorb emissions from coal-fired electricity generation and metals smelting." The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD Programme) is a collaboration between FAO, UNDP and UNEP under which a trust fund established in July 2008 allows donors to pool resources to generate the requisite transfer flow of resources to significantly reduce global emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. The UK government's Stern Review on the economics of climate change argued that curbing deforestation was a "highly cost-effective way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions".

text: Industries with large amounts of CO emissions (such as the

entity_name: Coal

text: coal industry

text: ) are interested in biosequestration as a means of offsetting their

entity_name: Greenhouse gas

text: greenhouse gas

text: production. In Australia, university researchers are engineering

entity_name: Algae

text: algae

text: to produce

entity_name: Biofuel

text: biofuels

text: (hydrogen and biodiesel oils) and investigating whether this process can be used to biosequester carbon. Algae naturally capture sunlight and use its energy to split water into hydrogen, oxygen and oil which can be extracted. Such

entity_name: Sustainable energy

text: clean energy

text: production also can be coupled with

entity_name: Desalination

text: desalination

text: using salt-tolerant marine algae to generate fresh water and electricity.Many new bioenergy (

text: biofuel

text: ) technologies, including cellulosic ethanol biorefineries (using stems and branches of most plants including crop residues such as corn stalks, wheat straw and rice straw) are being promoted because they have the added advantage of biosequestration of CO. The

entity_name: Garnaut Climate Change Review

text: Garnaut Climate Change Review

text: recommends that a carbon price in a

entity_name: Carbon emission trading

text: carbon emission trading

text: scheme could include a financial incentive for biosequestration processes. Garnaut recommends the use of

text: algal

text: biosequestration (see

entity_name: Algae bioreactor

text: algae bioreactor

text: ) to absorb the constant stream of

entity_name: Carbon dioxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: emissions from coal-fired

entity_name: Electricity generation

text: electricity generation

text: and

entity_name: Smelting

text: metal smelting

text: until renewable forms of energy, such as solar and wind power, become more established contributors to the grid. Garnaut, for example, states: "Some algal biosequestration processes could absorb emissions from coal-fired electricity generation and metals smelting." The

entity_name: United Nations

text: United Nations

text: Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (

entity_name: United Nations REDD Programme

text: UN-REDD

text: Programme) is a collaboration between

entity_name: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: FAO

entity_name: United Nations Development Programme

text: UNDP

text: and

entity_name: United Nations Environment Programme

text: UNEP

text: under which a trust fund established in July 2008 allows donors to pool resources to generate the requisite transfer flow of resources to significantly reduce global emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. The UK government's

entity_name: Stern Review

text: Stern Review

text: on the economics of climate change argued that curbing

entity_name: Deforestation

text: deforestation

text: was a "highly cost-effective way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions".

text: Turkey enacted its second Renewable Energy Law, namely Law No. 6094 Concerning the use of Renewable Energy Resources for the Generation of Electrical Energy, in 2010.

text: Turkey enacted its second

entity_name: Renewable energy law

text: Renewable Energy Law

text: , namely Law No. 6094 Concerning the use of Renewable Energy Resources for the Generation of Electrical Energy, in 2010.

text: In the apple pickers and tractor example there is a further consideration where the tractor is replaced by animal type of tractor power, for example a horse. If the horse is being feed on 'low-value' energy inputs such as grass grown in situ with the apple trees.  The grass would have been utilized by the living ecosystem around the apple trees by, for example rotting down and providing humus but has, instead, been used by the horse with most of the energy content of the grass being used to produce waste heat by the muscular action of the horse but the remainder being returned to the apple tree ecosystem in the form of dung.Whereas the tractor has used a 'high cost' and effective non-renewable source of energy in the form of petrol, the horse has used a relatively 'low cost' fuel in the form of grass that is quickly renewed by the energy input of the sun. As long as overgrazing does not occur resulting in the degradation of the apple orchard ecosystem.

text: In the apple pickers and tractor example there is a further consideration where the tractor is replaced by animal type of tractor power, for example a horse. If the horse is being feed on 'low-value' energy inputs such as grass grown in situ with the apple trees.  The grass would have been utilized by the living ecosystem around the apple trees by, for example rotting down and providing

entity_name: Humus

text: humus

text: but has, instead, been used by the horse with most of the energy content of the grass being used to produce waste heat by the muscular action of the horse but the remainder being returned to the apple tree ecosystem in the form of dung.Whereas the tractor has used a 'high cost' and effective non-renewable source of energy in the form of petrol, the horse has used a relatively 'low cost' fuel in the form of grass that is quickly renewed by the energy input of the sun. As long as overgrazing does not occur resulting in the degradation of the apple orchard ecosystem.

text: The Devonian Woodford Shale in Oklahoma is from 50 to 300 feet (15 – 91 m) thick. Although the first gas production was recorded in 1939, by late 2004, there were only 24 Woodford Shale gas wells. By early 2008, there were more than 750 Woodford gas wells.  Like many shale gas plays, the Woodford started with vertical wells, then became dominantly a play of horizontal wells.  The play is mostly in the Arkoma Basin of southeast Oklahoma, but some drilling has extended the play west into the Anadarko Basin and south into the Ardmore Basin. The largest gas producer from the Woodford is Newfield Exploration; other operators include Devon Energy, Chesapeake Energy, Cimarex Energy, Antero Resources, St. Mary Land and Exploration, XTO Energy, Pablo Energy, Petroquest Energy, Continental Resources, and Range Resources. As of 2011, production from the Woodford Shale had peaked and was declining.

text: The Devonian Woodford Shale in Oklahoma is from 50 to 300 feet (15 – 91 m) thick. Although the first gas production was recorded in 1939, by late 2004, there were only 24 Woodford Shale gas wells. By early 2008, there were more than 750 Woodford gas wells.  Like many shale gas plays, the Woodford started with vertical wells, then became dominantly a play of horizontal wells.  The play is mostly in the

text: Arkoma Basin

text: of southeast Oklahoma, but some drilling has extended the play west into the

text: Anadarko Basin

text: and south into the

text: Ardmore Basin

text: . The largest gas producer from the Woodford is

text: Newfield Exploration

text: ; other operators include

text: Devon Energy

text: Chesapeake Energy

text: Cimarex Energy

text: Antero Resources

text: St. Mary Land and Exploration

text: XTO Energy

text: Pablo Energy

text: Petroquest Energy

text: Continental Resources

text: , and

text: Range Resources

text: . As of 2011, production from the Woodford Shale had peaked and was declining.

text: A power unit based on advanced steam technology burning fossil fuel will inevitably emit carbon dioxide, a long-lasting greenhouse gas. However, significant reductions, compared to other combustion technologies, of other pollutants such as CO and NO are achievable by steam technology, which does not involve explosive combustion, without the need for add-ons such as filters etc. or special preparation of fuel.

text: A power unit based on advanced steam technology burning

text: fossil fuel

text: will inevitably emit

text: carbon dioxide

text: , a long-lasting

text: greenhouse gas

text: . However, significant reductions, compared to other combustion technologies, of other pollutants such as

text: CO

text: and

text: NO

text: are achievable by steam technology, which does not involve explosive combustion, without the need for add-ons such as filters etc. or special preparation of fuel.

text: As a result of climate change and extreme pollution, the 21st century has seen the world increase its use of renewable resources from hydro power, solar power and wind power. Iran does not have any rivers large enough that would produce enough energy for a hydroelectric dam to be an effective source of renewable energy. As for solar power, Iran is a great county for solar power to be an effective source of energy its warm and dry climate would be ideal for a large scale solar farm. However, with the extreme sanctions placed on Iran, the import of materials and resources to start a large scale solar power initiative would be extremely expensive and time-consuming, as materials would be hard to attain legally or cheaply. With so many challenges and obstacles facing Iran's energy sector they started to search for a more practical energy solution: wind power. Iran began really investing in wind power in the early 2000s and has increased the size and scale of its wind turbines.

text: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) officially rated the 2011 model year Volt's combined city/highway fuel economy in all-electric mode at 93 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) (2.5 L gasoline equivalent/100 km; 112 mpg-imp gasoline equivalent) and 94 MPG-e for the 2012 model year. This rating considers a conversion factor of  of electricity being the energy equivalent of a gallon of gasoline. The EPA rating in gasoline-only mode is . The overall combined city/highway gasoline-electricity fuel economy rating for the 2011 Volt is  equivalent (MPG-e), The EPA also included in the 2011 Volt's fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: 30, 45, 60 and  driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario. This information was included in order to make the consumers aware of the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges. Under the gasoline-only scenario (never charge), the  figure results from  city driving and  on the highway.

text: The

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

text: (EPA) officially rated the 2011 model year Volt's combined city/highway

text: fuel economy

text: in

text: all-electric mode

text: at 93

text: miles per gallon gasoline equivalent

text: (MPG-e) (2.5 L gasoline equivalent/100 km; 112 mpg-imp gasoline equivalent) and 94 MPG-e for the 2012 model year. This rating considers a conversion factor of  of electricity being the energy equivalent of a gallon of gasoline. The EPA rating in gasoline-only mode is . The overall combined city/highway gasoline-electricity fuel economy rating for the 2011 Volt is

text: equivalent

text: (MPG-e), The EPA also included in the 2011 Volt's fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: 30, 45, 60 and  driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario. This information was included in order to make the consumers aware of the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges. Under the gasoline-only scenario (never charge), the  figure results from  city driving and  on the highway.

text: During the OPEC 1973 oil crisis, Reed and Lerner (1973) proposed methanol from coal as a proven fuel with well-established manufacturing technology and sufficient resources to replace gasoline. Hagen (1976) reviewed prospects for synthesizing methanol from renewable resources and its use as a fuel.  Then in 1986, the Swedish Motor Fuel Technology Co. (SBAD) extensively reviewed the use of alcohols and alcohol blends as motor fuels. It reviewed the potential for methanol production from natural gas, very heavy oils, bituminous shales, coals, peat and biomass.In 2005, 2006 Nobel prize winner George A. Olah and colleagues advocated an entire methanol economy based on energy storage in synthetically produced methanol.The Methanol Institute, the methanol trade industry organization, posts reports and presentations on methanol. Director Gregory Dolan presented the 2008 global methanol fuel industry in China.

text: During the OPEC

text: 1973 oil crisis

text: , Reed and Lerner (1973) proposed methanol from coal as a proven fuel with well-established manufacturing technology and sufficient resources to replace gasoline. Hagen (1976) reviewed prospects for synthesizing methanol from renewable resources and its use as a fuel.  Then in 1986, the Swedish Motor Fuel Technology Co. (SBAD) extensively reviewed the use of alcohols and alcohol blends as motor fuels. It reviewed the potential for methanol production from natural gas, very heavy oils, bituminous shales, coals, peat and biomass.In 2005, 2006

text: Nobel prize

text: winner

text: George A. Olah

text: and colleagues advocated an entire

text: methanol economy

text: based on energy storage in synthetically produced methanol.The Methanol Institute, the methanol trade industry organization, posts reports and presentations on methanol. Director Gregory Dolan presented the 2008 global methanol fuel industry in China.

text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a synthetic fuel – such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel – produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue-gas emissions, recovered from automotive exhaust gas, or derived from carbonic acid in seawater.Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation.Such fuels are produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in turn in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.

text: A carbon-neutral fuel is a

text: synthetic fuel

text: – such as

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: jet fuel

text: – produced from renewable or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

entity_name: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

text: power plant flue-gas emissions

text: , recovered from automotive

text: exhaust gas

text: , or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: .Such fuels are carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: s, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to

text: carbon capture

text: at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: .Such fuels are produced by the

text: electrolysis of water

text: to make

text: hydrogen

text: used in turn in the

text: Sabatier reaction

text: to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in

text: power plants

text: as synthetic

text: natural gas

text: , transported by

text: pipeline

text: truck

text: , or

text: tanker ship

text: , or be used in

text: gas to liquids

text: processes such as the

text: Fischer–Tropsch process

text: to make traditional transportation or heating

text: fuel

text: s.

text: The theme was introduced for research in the Eighties and has gained importance over the time. Research activities on non-renewable resources such as coal, iron ore, petroleum and oil, irrigation and water management, solar, biogas and renewable energy technologies have gained momentum at the Institute. Simultaneously, forest related issues and industrial pollution are also treated as high priority subjects.

text: To the ancient Israelite there was no oil or fat with more symbolic meaning than olive oil. It was used as an emollient, a fuel for keeping their lamps lit, as a food, and for many other purposes. It was scented olive oil which was chosen to be a holy anointing oil for the Israelites.

text: To the ancient Israelite there was no oil or fat with more symbolic meaning than olive oil. It was used as an emollient, a fuel for keeping their lamps lit, as a food, and for many other purposes. It was scented olive oil which was chosen to be a holy anointing oil for the

text: Israelites

text: In addition to its current operations, the Company presently conducts preliminary checks of further options, in the fields of alternative energy, renewable energy and oil and gas exploration in various sites elsewhere in the world. Since the end of November 2010, the Company has been a public company traded on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange and since December 2011, it is included in the T-A 100 Index, the T-A 75 Index and the T-A Oil & Gas Index. ILDC Energy operates directly and via Company-controlled corporations.

text: Author Bill McKibben has estimated that to sustain human life in the world, up to $20 trillion worth of fossil fuel reserves will need to remain in the ground. The Stern report in 2006 stated that the benefits of strong, early action to decrease the use of oil, coal and gas considerably outweigh the costs. Fossil fuel contributors, the building industry, and land use practices ignore the responsibility of the external costs and ignore the polluter pays principle according to which climate change costs will be paid by historical climate polluters.

text: Author

text: Bill McKibben

text: has estimated that to sustain human life in the world, up to $20 trillion worth of fossil fuel reserves will need to remain in the ground. The

text: Stern report

text: in 2006 stated that the benefits of strong, early action to decrease the use of oil, coal and gas considerably outweigh the costs. Fossil fuel contributors, the building industry, and land use practices ignore the responsibility of the external costs and ignore the

text: polluter pays principle

text: according to which climate change costs will be paid by historical climate polluters.

text: Natural gas is often stored underground inside depleted gas reservoirs from previous gas wells, salt domes, or in tanks as liquefied natural gas.  The gas is injected in a time of low demand and extracted when demand picks up. Storage nearby end users helps to meet volatile demands, but such storage may not always be practicable.

text: Natural gas is often stored underground inside depleted gas reservoirs from previous gas wells,

text: salt domes

text: , or in tanks as liquefied natural gas.  The gas is injected in a time of low demand and extracted when demand picks up. Storage nearby end users helps to meet volatile demands, but such storage may not always be practicable.

text: The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects. A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.

text: The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion

text: tonnes

text: gigatonne

text: s) of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es that enhances

text: radiative forcing

text: and contributes to

text: global warming

text: , causing the

text: average surface temperature

text: of the Earth to rise in response, which

text: the vast majority of climate scientists

text: agree will cause major

text: adverse effects

text: . A global movement towards the generation of

text: renewable energy

text: is therefore under way to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions.

text: The EWG further maintains that neither new production techniques such as fracking, nor nuclear energy nor a diversification of the fossil fuel portfolio can reverse the trend of a perishing conventional energy system. A recent EWG report warns that fracking not only has catastrophic consequences for the environmental and detrimental health impacts, but is also economically unviable, particularly in Europe. The US is heading straight to a peak in shale gas extraction after which production will plummet within this decade. Another study claims that a diversification of natural gas imports to decrease the EU's dependence on Russia is not an option. Neither Russia nor any other producer of natural gas can be a reliable energy supplier for Europe. While Russian gas supply is declining, there is increasing demand by other countries competing for resources such as China or Japan. Moreover, liquid natural gas (LNG) cannot contribute to security of supply. While the EU has the capacity to import 200 billion m³/year it only imported 45 billion m³/year. According to the EWG, this is a clear indication that the producing countries lack export capacities. To substitute for the declining fossil fuel reserves with nuclear energy is also doomed to fail due to two factors. First, with the proven reserves, the stocks will be exhausted in 30 years if demand would remain constant. Second, while only 3–4 reactors per year are currently completed, the competition of 15-20 would be required to maintain present reactor capacity.

text: The EWG further maintains that neither new production techniques such as

text: fracking

text: , nor nuclear energy nor a diversification of the fossil fuel portfolio can reverse the trend of a perishing

text: conventional energy system

text: . A recent EWG report warns that fracking not only has catastrophic consequences for the environmental and detrimental health impacts, but is also economically unviable, particularly in Europe. The US is heading straight to a peak in

text: shale gas

text: extraction after which production will plummet within this decade. Another study claims that a diversification of

text: natural gas

text: imports to decrease the EU's dependence on Russia is not an option. Neither Russia nor any other producer of natural gas can be a reliable energy supplier for Europe. While Russian gas supply is declining, there is increasing demand by other countries competing for resources such as China or Japan. Moreover,

text: liquid natural gas

text: (LNG) cannot contribute to security of supply. While the EU has the capacity to import 200 billion m³/year it only imported 45 billion m³/year. According to the EWG, this is a clear indication that the producing countries lack export capacities. To substitute for the declining fossil fuel reserves with nuclear energy is also doomed to fail due to two factors. First, with the proven reserves, the stocks will be exhausted in 30 years if demand would remain constant. Second, while only 3–4 reactors per year are currently completed, the competition of 15-20 would be required to maintain present reactor capacity.

text: The most economical method of coal extraction from coal seams depends on the depth and quality of the seams, and the geology and environmental factors. Coal mining processes are differentiated by whether they operate on the surface or underground. Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on the following: regional geological conditions; overburden characteristics; coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth; strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions; topography (especially altitude and slope); climate; land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access; surface drainage patterns; ground water conditions; availability of labor and materials; coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination; and capital investment requirements.

text: The most economical method of coal extraction from coal seams depends on the depth and quality of the seams, and the

text: geology

text: and environmental factors. Coal mining processes are differentiated by whether they operate on the surface or underground. Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a

text: coal preparation plant

text: . Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on the following: regional geological conditions;

text: overburden

text: characteristics; coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth; strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions; topography (especially altitude and slope); climate; land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access; surface drainage patterns; ground water conditions; availability of labor and materials; coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination; and capital investment requirements.

text: Iran is still very dependent on fossil fuels and nuclear power to provide the country with almost all of its power.  With wind power being a very cheap and effective renewable resource and does not take up large amounts of land, Iran is still investing in their wind power.  However, with international sanctions starting to be eased with the recent nuclear deal with the United States, it is likely that Iran will be investing more in their nuclear program rather than the wind power. One issue with Iran's wind program is that around every 10–15 years or so wind turbines require repairs and if they are not properly maintained then the turbines will no longer function. If Iran refocuses its priorities to nuclear power rather than their wind farms then the progress they have made in wind power could be in jeopardy. Although wind power is only a small fraction of Iran's energy, it is a renewable resource and has produced increased megawatts on a consistent basis—as well as being a relatively cheap and easy power source to maintain. However, now with international sanctions on Iran being lessened it could have the potential to explore more renewable energy options like solar power while maintaining the growth of wind power.  Such measures could prove to be an effective and environmentally friendly way to meet Iranian energy needs without being too rooted in fossil fuels and nuclear options.

text: Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to the nuclear fuel cycle. Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations, emission standards, fiscal policies, and legislation on energy trading, transport of nuclear waste and contaminated materials, and their storage.  Governments might subsidize nuclear energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of nuclear technology, electricity, nuclear waste, and uranium.

text: Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to the

text: nuclear fuel cycle

text: . Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations,

text: emission standard

text: s,

text: fiscal policies

text: , and

text: legislation

text: on energy trading, transport of

text: nuclear waste

text: and

text: contaminated

text: materials, and their storage.  Governments might subsidize nuclear energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of

text: nuclear technology

text: electricity

text: nuclear waste

text: , and

text: uranium

text: Natural gas has a variety of chemical constituents that must be removed or diluted with other gas to achieve consistent pipeline quality.  Pipeline gas specifications vary from line to line, but generally the gas must contain no appreciable hydrogen sulfide (which is toxic), less than a few percent carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which is corrosive to iron and steel pipe), and a British thermal unit (BTU) content of 900 or more. Natural gas delivered to consumers generally has a BTU content of about 1020 to 1050 per standard cubic foot, slightly higher than that of pure methane (1010 BTU).

text: According to a study conducted by the Energy Research Institute of the National Development and Reform Commission on the economic circumstances of China's crude oil and chemical industry as of 2007, in recent years China has wasted an average of 400 megatons of coal equivalents per year. In 2006, China consumed a total of 2.46 gigatons coal equivalents, up from 1.4 gigatons of coal equivalents consumed nationwide in 2000. With energy consumption increasing at the rate of 10%/year, in the last 5 years total energy consumption has exceeded the combined amount of energy consumption over the previous 20 years. According to Dai Yande, the chairman of the Energy Research Institute of the NDRC, while continued high consumption of energy is unavoidable, China must take steps to change the form of its economic growth and increase substantially the energy efficiency of Chinese industry and society generally. Among other things China should find new points of economic development that moves China away from being the "World's Factory" and improves energy efficiency. China also must avoid unnecessary waste, foster a sustainable economy and encourage renewable energy sources to reduce China's reliance on petrochemical energy resources.

text: According to a study conducted by the Energy Research Institute of the

entity_name: National Development and Reform Commission

text: National Development and Reform Commission

text: on the economic circumstances of China's

text: crude oil

text: and

text: chemical industry

text: as of 2007, in recent years China has wasted an average of 400 megatons of coal equivalents per year. In 2006, China consumed a total of 2.46 gigatons coal equivalents, up from 1.4 gigatons of coal equivalents consumed nationwide in 2000. With energy consumption increasing at the rate of 10%/year, in the last 5 years total energy consumption has exceeded the combined amount of energy consumption over the previous 20 years. According to Dai Yande, the chairman of the Energy Research Institute of the NDRC, while continued high consumption of energy is unavoidable, China must take steps to change the form of its

text: economic growth

text: and increase substantially the

text: energy efficiency

text: of Chinese industry and society generally. Among other things China should find new points of

text: economic development

text: that moves China away from being the "World's Factory" and improves energy efficiency. China also must avoid unnecessary waste, foster a sustainable economy and encourage renewable energy sources to reduce China's reliance on

text: petrochemical

text: energy resources.

text: The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years was first introduced by Georgius Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.

text: The theory that fossil fuels formed from the

text: fossilized remains

text: of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years was first introduced by

text: Georgius Agricola

text: in 1556 and later by

text: Mikhail Lomonosov

text: in the 18th century.

text: In 2009, the global primary energy use corresponded to  oil equivalent corresponding to ). According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) 13,6% of that was used by the EU. Within the EU, 75.9% came from fossil fuels, 14.1% from nuclear energy, 7% from biofuels, 2.9 from renewable energy resources.

text: In 2009, the

text: global primary energy use

text: corresponded to

text: oil equivalent

text: corresponding to ). According to the

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA) 13,6% of that was used by the

text: EU

text: . Within the EU, 75.9% came from

text: fossil fuel

text: s, 14.1% from

text: nuclear energy

text: , 7% from

text: biofuel

text: s, 2.9 from

text: renewable energy

text: resources.

text: The utilization of solar water heaters and biodiesel resources in South Africa within recent years reveals that renewable energy can significantly diminish poverty, for the implementation of clean energy systems has led to improvement in health, and general welfare of the people. The assimilation of these programs also generates employment, and develops empowerment of the people due to a localized level of energy operation.

text: The major difficulty in the use of natural gas is transportation. Natural gas pipelines are economical and common on land and across medium-length stretches of water (like Langeled, Interconnector and Trans-Mediterranean Pipeline), but are impractical across large oceans. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) tanker ships, railway tankers, and tank trucks are also used.

text: The major difficulty in the use of natural gas is

text: transport

text: ation. Natural gas

text: pipelines

text: are economical and common on land and across medium-length stretches of water (like

text: Langeled

text: Interconnector

text: and

text: Trans-Mediterranean Pipeline

text: ), but are impractical across large oceans. Liquefied natural gas (

text: LNG

text: tanker ships

text: , railway tankers, and

text: tank truck

text: s are also used.

text: .  This variable is the current amount of non-renewable resources divided by the initial amount of non-renewable resources available.  As such

text: Severance taxes are incurred when non-renewable natural resources are extracted (or severed) within a taxing jurisdiction.  Resources that typically incur severance taxes when extracted are oil, natural gas, coal, uranium, and timber.  Some jurisdictions use other terms like gross production tax.

text: Severance taxes are incurred when

text: non-renewable natural resources

text: are extracted (or severed) within a taxing jurisdiction.  Resources that typically incur severance taxes when extracted are

text: oil

text: natural gas

text: coal

text: uranium

text: , and

text: timber

text: .  Some jurisdictions use other terms like

text: gross production tax

text: Proponents  have long made inflated projections of the expected growth of nuclear power, but major accidents and high costs have kept growth much lower.  In 1973 and 1974, the International Atomic Energy Agency predicted a worldwide installed nuclear capacity of 3,600 to 5,000 gigawatts by 2000. The IAEA's 1980 projection was for 740 to 1,075 gigawatts of installed capacity by the year 2000.  Even after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, the Nuclear Energy Agency forecasted an installed nuclear capacity of 497 to 646 gigawatts for the year 2000.  The actual capacity in 2000 was 356 gigawatts.  Moreover, construction costs have often been much higher, and times much longer than projected, failing to meet optimistic projections of “unlimited cheap, clean, and safe electricity.”

text: Proponents  have long made inflated projections of the expected growth of nuclear power, but major accidents and high costs have kept growth much lower.  In 1973 and 1974, the

text: International Atomic Energy Agency

text: predicted a worldwide installed nuclear capacity of 3,600 to 5,000 gigawatts by 2000. The IAEA's 1980 projection was for 740 to 1,075 gigawatts of installed capacity by the year 2000.  Even after the 1986

text: Chernobyl disaster

text: , the

text: Nuclear Energy Agency

text: forecasted an installed nuclear capacity of 497 to 646 gigawatts for the year 2000.  The actual capacity in 2000 was 356 gigawatts.  Moreover, construction costs have often been much higher, and times much longer than projected, failing to meet optimistic projections of “unlimited cheap, clean, and safe electricity.”

text: Consumer acceptance may be limited due to the potentially offensive banana-like smell of n-butanol. Plans are underway to market a fuel that is 85% Ethanol and 15% Butanol (E85B), so existing E85 internal combustion engines can run on a 100% renewable fuel that could be made without using any fossil fuels. Because its longer hydrocarbon chain causes it to be fairly non-polar, it is more similar to gasoline than it is to ethanol. Butanol has been demonstrated to work in vehicles designed for use with gasoline without modification.

text: Consumer acceptance may be limited due to the potentially offensive

text: banana

text: -like smell of n-butanol. Plans are underway to market a fuel that is 85% Ethanol and 15% Butanol (E85B), so existing E85 internal combustion engines can run on a 100% renewable fuel that could be made without using any fossil fuels. Because its longer hydrocarbon chain causes it to be fairly non-

text: polar

text: , it is more similar to gasoline than it is to ethanol. Butanol has been demonstrated to work in vehicles designed for use with gasoline without modification.

text: The industrial society, from 1860 to 1950, had to import coal as it was the main source of energy but not much available as a natural resource. Also an important source of energy was water power at low or high pressure. Then came the consumer society, which needs mostly oil and natural gas and, to a lesser extent, water power (turbines) and later nuclear energy. The oil crisis and pollution of the environment prompted to make use (in a limited extent) of renewable energy. It is notable that 100% of the Swiss railway network is electrified: - the high proportion of energy generated through hydroelectric power and the lack of natural resources (e.g. coal and oil) help to explain why such a situation is strategically beneficial in Switzerland.

text: The industrial society, from 1860 to 1950, had to import coal as it was the main source of energy but not much available as a natural resource. Also an important source of energy was water power at low or high pressure. Then came the consumer society, which needs mostly oil and natural gas and, to a lesser extent, water power (turbines) and later

text: nuclear energy

text: . The oil crisis and pollution of the environment prompted to make use (in a limited extent) of

text: renewable energy

text: . It is notable that 100% of the Swiss railway network is electrified: - the high proportion of energy generated through hydroelectric power and the lack of natural resources (e.g. coal and oil) help to explain why such a situation is strategically beneficial in Switzerland.

text: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services. Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our global energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively.

text: Renewable energy

text: is generally defined as energy that comes from

text: resources

text: which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: . Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas:

text: electricity generation

text: , air and water heating/cooling,

text: motor fuel

text: s, and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services. Based on

text: 's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our

text: global energy consumption

text: and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively.

text: The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels. Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity. Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease. In the mid-20th century, a gathering environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed. In the late 20th century, environmental problems became global in scale. The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources.

text: The Western

text: industrial revolution

text: of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in

text: fossil fuels

text: Coal

text: was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity. Modern

text: sanitation

text: systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease. In the mid-20th century, a gathering

text: environmental movement

text: pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed. In the late 20th century, environmental problems became global in scale. The 1973 and 1979

text: energy crises

text: demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non-renewable energy resources.

text: Buddhist economics also gives importance to natural, renewable, and non-renewable resources. They feel that non renewable resources should only be used when most needed and then also with utmost care, meticulously planning out its use. They believe that using them extravagantly is violent and not in keeping with the Buddhist belief of nonviolence. According to them, if the entire population relies on non renewable resources for their existence, they are behaving parasitically, preying on capital goods instead of income. Adding to this, they feel that this uneven distribution and ever increasing exploitation of natural resources will lead to violence between man.

text: Buddhist economics also gives importance to natural, renewable, and

text: non-renewable resources

text: . They feel that non renewable resources should only be used when most needed and then also with utmost care, meticulously planning out its use. They believe that using them extravagantly is violent and not in keeping with the Buddhist belief of nonviolence. According to them, if the entire population relies on non renewable resources for their existence, they are behaving parasitically, preying on capital goods instead of income. Adding to this, they feel that this uneven distribution and ever increasing exploitation of natural resources will lead to violence between man.

text: Gazprom Promgaz plans gas transportation and its distribution systems, as well as investigating various research in the field of natural gas. The company is the general planner of the natural gas supply program for Russian regions, developed by Gazprom. The company is also a research center of Gazprom in the field of regional power systems, the supply, distribution and use of gas, efficient energy use and energy-savings, price setting for construction of gas industry objectives, the development of regional hydrocarbon fields and development of non-traditional hydrocarbon resources including coal bed methane.

text: In Canada's federal system of government, jurisdiction over energy is divided between the federal and provincial and territorial governments. Provincial governments have jurisdiction over the exploration, development, conservation, and management of non-renewable resources, as well as the generation and production of electricity. Federal jurisdiction in energy is primarily concerned with regulation of inter-provincial and international trade and commerce, and the management of non-renewable resources on federal lands.

text: In Canada's

text: federal system

text: of government, jurisdiction over energy is divided between the

text: federal

text: and

text: provincial and territorial governments

text: . Provincial governments have jurisdiction over the exploration, development, conservation, and management of

text: non-renewable resources

text: , as well as the generation and production of

text: electricity

text: . Federal jurisdiction in energy is primarily concerned with regulation of inter-provincial and

text: international trade

text: and commerce, and the management of non-renewable resources on

text: federal lands

text: In 1960, Ovshinsky and his soon-to-be second wife, Iris Dibner, founded Energy Conversion Laboratory in a storefront in Detroit, dedicating the laboratory to the solution of important societal problems using science and technology.  Focusing on the critical areas of energy and information, their new company, reconstituted in 1964 as Energy Conversion Devices (ECD), went on to become a forefront invention and development laboratory whose products have built new industries, many of them aimed at making fossil fuel obsolete. ECD continues (through joint ventures and license partners) to be a leading solar energy and battery production firm.

text: In 1960, Ovshinsky and his soon-to-be second wife,

text: Iris Dibner

text: , founded Energy Conversion Laboratory in a storefront in

text: Detroit

text: , dedicating the laboratory to the solution of important societal problems using science and technology.  Focusing on the critical areas of energy and information, their new company, reconstituted in 1964 as

text: Energy Conversion Devices

text: (ECD), went on to become a forefront invention and development laboratory whose products have built new industries, many of them aimed at making

text: fossil fuel

text: obsolete. ECD continues (through joint ventures and license partners) to be a leading

text: solar energy

text: and

text: battery

text: production firm.

text: Coal mining in the United States is a major industry, coal being mined in 25 states, 40% on public lands. Mined tonnage reached an all-time high of 1.06 Gt (1.17 billion short tons) in 2008, but by 2015 had declined to 986 million short tons. The U.S. is a net exporter of coal. U.S. coal exports, for which Europe is the largest customer, peaked in 2012, and have declined since. In 2015, the U.S. exported 7.0 percent of mined coal.From 2015 to 2016, four publicly traded US coal companies have declared bankruptcy, including the fourth-largest Alpha Natural Resources, the second-largest producer Arch Coal and the largest producer Peabody Energy.

text: Coal mining in the United States is a major industry, coal being mined in 25 states, 40% on public lands. Mined tonnage reached an all-time high of 1.06

text: Gt

text: (1.17 billion

text: short tons

text: ) in 2008, but by 2015 had declined to 986 million short tons. The U.S. is a net exporter of coal. U.S. coal exports, for which Europe is the largest customer, peaked in 2012, and have declined since. In 2015, the U.S. exported 7.0 percent of mined coal.From 2015 to 2016, four publicly traded US coal companies have declared bankruptcy, including the fourth-largest Alpha Natural Resources, the second-largest producer

text: Arch Coal

text: and the largest producer

text: Peabody Energy

text: Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate incineration of biodegradable waste as renewable energy. The rest – mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products – is generally treated as non-renewables.

text: Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate incineration of biodegradable waste as

text: renewable energy

text: . The rest – mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products – is generally treated as

text: non-renewables

text: Another project to build a hydrogen-powered H-ship started in February 2004 and is looking at the practicalities of using hydrogen as a fuel for Iceland's fishing fleet, one of the country's main industries. The project will identify and try to remove barriers that may prevent marine vehicles from using hydrogen as a fuel, such as problems caused by water and salt. It will also try to identify and remedy weakness within the fuel cell to ensure the protection of marine life.  The H-ship project is a major step in the plan for Iceland to become the first country to phase out the use of fossil fuels.Government funding as well as private organizations such as the World Renewable Energy Congress are the primary sponsors of research in this sector.

text: Another project to build a hydrogen-powered H-

text: ship

text: started in February 2004 and is looking at the practicalities of using hydrogen as a fuel for Iceland's fishing fleet, one of the country's main industries. The project will identify and try to remove barriers that may prevent

text: marine vehicles

text: from using hydrogen as a fuel, such as problems caused by

text: water

text: and

text: salt

text: . It will also try to identify and remedy weakness within the

text: fuel cell

text: to ensure the protection of

text: marine life

text: .  The H-ship project is a major step in the plan for Iceland to become the first country to phase out the use of

text: fossil fuels

text: .Government funding as well as private organizations such as the World Renewable Energy Congress are the primary sponsors of research in this sector.

text: The context of the emergence of this branch of artwork is directly related to our current socio-political situation in the world, about the increasing urgency of leaving the use of fossil fuels and gambling on new types of energy, which are much more efficient based on renewable resources. This process of change has a reflection within the art world, which wants to have an active participation in this common objective (sustainable art). Within these numerous artistic initiatives that exist with the ecology as a background, we can find a little group of designers who want to use the science of solar power collection as part of their artistic production. Works of solar art are an illustrative example about how far the relationship could go between art, architecture and the new technologies from the point of an artistic insight, in addition to their practical contribution.

text: The context of the emergence of this branch of artwork is directly related to our current socio-political situation in the world, about the increasing urgency of leaving the use of

text: fossil fuels

text: and gambling on new types of energy, which are much more efficient based on

text: renewable resources

text: . This process of change has a reflection within the art world, which wants to have an active participation in this common objective (

text: sustainable art

text: ). Within these numerous artistic initiatives that exist with the

text: ecology

text: as a background, we can find a little group of designers who want to use the science of solar power collection as part of their artistic production. Works of solar art are an illustrative example about how far the relationship could go between art, architecture and the new technologies from the point of an artistic insight, in addition to their practical contribution.

text: Vostochny (from Russian language: "Eastern") Coal Mine is a coal mining company located in Ekibastuz, Kazakhstan. The company is included in the JSC Eurasian Energy Corporation.The Vostochny Coal Mine was commissioned on 19 September 1985 and has produced more than 240 million tons of coal since the start of operations. The projected capacity of the mine defined by the institute "Karagandagiproshaht" is 20 million tons of coal a year. On October 1, 1996 Vostochny Mine became one of the companies of Eurasian Natural Resources Corporation. In 2008, 19.8 million tons of coal were extracted from the mine.

text: Vostochny (from Russian language: "Eastern") Coal Mine is a

text: coal mining

text: company located in

text: Ekibastuz

text: Kazakhstan

text: . The company is included in the JSC

text: Eurasian Energy Corporation

text: .The Vostochny Coal Mine was commissioned on 19 September 1985 and has produced more than 240 million tons of coal since the start of operations. The projected capacity of the mine defined by the institute "Karagandagiproshaht" is 20 million tons of coal a year. On October 1, 1996 Vostochny Mine became one of the companies of

text: Eurasian Natural Resources Corporation

text: . In 2008, 19.8 million tons of coal were extracted from the mine.

text: The Ministry of Energy is a Cabinet-level agency of the government of the Canadian province of Alberta responsible for coordinating policy relating to the development of mineral and energy resources. It is also responsible for assessing and collecting non-renewable resource (NRR) royalties, freehold mineral taxes, rentals, and bonuses. The Alberta Petroleum Marketing Commission, which is fully integrated with the Department of Energy within the ministry, and fully funded by the Crown, accepts delivery of the Crown's royalty share of conventional crude oil and sells it at the current market value.

text: The Ministry of Energy is a

text: Cabinet

text: -level agency of the government of the

text: Canadian

text: province of

text: Alberta

text: responsible for coordinating policy relating to the development of

text: mineral

text: and

text: energy

text: resources. It is also responsible for assessing and collecting

text: non-renewable resource

text: (NRR)

text: royalties

text: , freehold mineral taxes, rentals, and bonuses. The Alberta Petroleum Marketing Commission, which is fully integrated with the Department of Energy within the ministry, and fully funded by the Crown, accepts delivery of the Crown's royalty share of conventional

text: crude oil

text: and sells it at the current market value.

text: The Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDE) was formed in 1987 and officially ended 30 June 2014. It was initiated as a multilateral agreement under the International Energy Agency (IEA) agreement network, replacing numerous other bilateral agreements. The multilateral agreement was for the international exchange of energy research and development and information. The exchange resulted in a database which was the world's largest collection of energy research, technology, and development (RTD) information (ETDEWEB - described below).  The collection of information was generated from energy RTD literature published in member countries and through other partnering arrangements with organizations such as the International Nuclear Information System (a unit of the International Atomic Energy Agency).  This had the effect of creating a broad spectrum of information that was included in the ETDE database. The range of content included fossil fuels, renewable energies (including Hydrogen), End-Use (Buildings, Industry and Transport), fusion, energy policy, conservation, and efficiency, and cross-sectional activities. This fulfilled the need for timely exchange of global information towards the goal of a sustainable energy future.  ETDE operated under an IEA Implementing Agreement and was governed by an Executive Committee of delegates from ETDE member countries.  Officers of the Executive Committee included a Chair and two Vice-Chairs, elected to three-year terms.  Day-to-day operations were managed through an operating agent organization, which reported to the Executive Committee.

text: The Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDE) was formed in 1987 and officially ended 30 June 2014. It was initiated as a

text: multilateral agreement

text: under the

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA) agreement network, replacing numerous other

text: bilateral agreement

text: s. The multilateral agreement was for the international exchange of

text: energy research

text: and development and information. The exchange resulted in a

text: database

text: which was the world's largest collection of energy research, technology, and development (RTD) information (

text: ETDEWEB

text: - described below).  The collection of information was generated from energy RTD literature published in member countries and through other partnering arrangements with organizations such as the

entity_name: International Nuclear Information System

text: International Nuclear Information System

text: (a unit of the

text: International Atomic Energy Agency

text: ).  This had the effect of creating a broad spectrum of information that was included in the ETDE database. The range of content included

text: fossil fuel

text: s,

text: renewable energies

text: (including

text: Hydrogen

text: ), End-Use (

text: Building

text: s,

text: Industry

text: and

text: Transport

text: fusion

text: , energy policy, conservation, and efficiency, and cross-sectional activities. This fulfilled the need for timely exchange of global information towards the goal of a sustainable energy future.  ETDE operated under an IEA Implementing Agreement and was governed by an Executive Committee of delegates from ETDE member countries.  Officers of the Executive Committee included a Chair and two Vice-Chairs, elected to three-year terms.  Day-to-day operations were managed through an operating agent organization, which reported to the Executive Committee.

text: The Canadian Society of Unconventional Resources (CSUR) identifies four types of oil: conventional oil, tight oil, oil shale and heavy oil like WCS.

text: The most practical solution was mentioned by Gujba, Mulugetta and Azapagic, (2011). The authors of this article suggested that a harmonization of different forms of energy take place. In their sustainable development scenario they suggested some reliance on renewable energy sources and a slow change from fossil fuels to the renewable energy sources. Since the rural areas are further from the electricity grid and most currently do not have power, each area would become a little hub where they would produce their own power by whatever resource was closest. For example, in the northern areas the mini-grids would work off of wind and solar power energy. Hydropower development would have to increase in order for this to be successful.  Winkler, Howells and Baumert (2002) talk about envisioning where a country wants to end up before the development of energy resources. This is a great perspective about how to fix the energy crisis because taking the big picture into account before the development of the sector could include things outside of simply fixing the energy crisis such as: poverty eradication, job creation, reducing carbon emissions etc.  Fixing the energy supply will solve many problems such as the over pricing of electricity due to the loss of the electricity within the grid (Winkler, Howells & Baumert, 2002)

text: Natural gas prices, as with other commodity prices, are mainly driven by supply and demand fundamentals.  However, natural gas prices may also be linked to the price of crude oil and/or petroleum products, especially in continental Europe. Natural gas prices in the US had historically followed oil prices, but in recent years have decoupled from oil and are now trending somewhat with coal prices.

text: Natural gas prices, as with other commodity prices, are mainly driven by

text: supply and demand

text: fundamentals.  However,

text: natural gas

text: prices may also be linked to the price of

text: crude oil

text: and/or petroleum products, especially in continental Europe. Natural gas prices in the US had historically followed oil prices, but in recent years have decoupled from oil and are now trending somewhat with coal prices.

text: Renewable energy is generated from natural resources—such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat—which are renewable (naturally replenished).  When comparing the processes for producing energy, there remain several fundamental differences between renewable energy and fossil fuels.  The process of producing oil, coal, or natural gas fuel is a difficult and demanding process that requires a great deal of complex equipment, physical and chemical processes. On the other hand, alternative energy can be widely produced with basic equipment and natural processes.  Wood, the most renewable and available alternative energy, burns the same amount of carbon it would emit if it degraded naturally. Nuclear power is an alternative to fossil fuels that is non-renewable, like fossil fuels, nuclear ones are a finite resource.

text: Renewable energy is generated from

text: natural resource

text: s—such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: and

text: geothermal heat

text: —which are renewable (naturally replenished).  When comparing the processes for producing energy, there remain several fundamental differences between renewable energy and fossil fuels.  The process of producing oil, coal, or natural gas fuel is a difficult and demanding process that requires a great deal of complex equipment, physical and chemical processes. On the other hand, alternative energy can be widely produced with basic equipment and natural processes.  Wood, the most renewable and available alternative energy, burns the same amount of carbon it would emit if it degraded naturally. Nuclear power is an alternative to fossil fuels that is non-renewable, like fossil fuels, nuclear ones are a finite resource.

text: Germany has a long history of coal mining, going back to the Middle Ages. Coal mining greatly increased during the industrial revolution and the following decades. The main mining areas were around Aachen, the Ruhr and Saar area, along with many smaller areas in other parts of Germany.These areas grew and were shaped by coal mining and coal processing, and this is still visible even after the end of the coal mining.

text: Germany has a long history of coal mining, going back to the

text: Middle Ages

text: . Coal mining greatly increased during the

text: industrial revolution

text: and the following decades. The main mining areas were around

text: Aachen

text: , the

text: Ruhr

text: and

text: Saar

text: area, along with many smaller areas in other parts of Germany.These areas grew and were shaped by coal mining and coal processing, and this is still visible even after the end of the coal mining.

text: The more recent discoveries of coal, petroleum and natural gas are modern extensions of this trend. These fossil fuels are the remnants of ancient plant and animal matter, formed using energy from sunlight and then trapped within Earth for millions of years. Because the stored energy in these fossil fuels has accumulated over many millions of years, they have allowed modern humans to massively increase the production and consumption of primary energy. As the amount of fossil fuel is large but finite, this cannot continue indefinitely, and various theories exist as to what will follow this stage of human civilization (e.g., alternative fuels, Malthusian catastrophe, new urbanism, peak oil).

text: The more recent discoveries of

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: and

text: natural gas

text: are modern extensions of this trend. These

text: fossil fuel

text: s are the remnants of ancient plant and animal matter, formed using energy from sunlight and then trapped within Earth for millions of years. Because the stored energy in these fossil fuels has accumulated over many millions of years, they have allowed modern humans to massively increase the production and consumption of

text: primary energy

text: . As the amount of fossil fuel is large but finite, this cannot continue indefinitely, and various theories exist as to what will follow this stage of human civilization (e.g.,

text: alternative fuels

text: Malthusian catastrophe

text: new urbanism

text: peak oil

text: More than eighty anti-nuclear groups are operating, or have operated, in the United States. These include: Abalone Alliance, Clamshell Alliance, Greenpeace USA,  Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, Musicians United for Safe Energy, Nevada Desert Experience, Nuclear Control Institute, Nuclear Information and Resource Service, Public Citizen Energy Program, Shad Alliance, and the Sierra Club. These are direct action, environmental, health, and public interest organizations who oppose nuclear weapons and/or nuclear power. In 1992, the chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission said that "his agency had been pushed in the right direction on safety issues because of the pleas and protests of nuclear watchdog groups".

text: More than eighty

text: anti-nuclear

text: groups are operating, or have operated, in the United States. These include:

text: Abalone Alliance

text: Clamshell Alliance

text: Greenpeace USA

entity_name: Institute for Energy and Environmental Research

text: Institute for Energy and Environmental Research

text: Musicians United for Safe Energy

text: Nevada Desert Experience

text: Nuclear Control Institute

entity_name: Nuclear Information and Resource Service

text: Nuclear Information and Resource Service

text: Public Citizen Energy Program

text: Shad Alliance

text: , and the

text: Sierra Club

text: . These are

text: direct action

text: , environmental, health, and public interest organizations who oppose

text: nuclear weapons

text: and/or

text: nuclear power

text: . In 1992, the chairman of the

text: Nuclear Regulatory Commission

text: said that "his agency had been pushed in the right direction on safety issues because of the pleas and protests of nuclear watchdog groups".

text: Energy is used all the way down the food chain from farm to fork. In industrial agriculture, energy is used in on-farm mechanisation, food processing, storage, and transportation processes.  It has therefore been found that energy prices are closely linked to food prices. Oil is also used as an input in agricultural chemicals. Higher prices of non-renewable energy resources are projected by the International Energy Agency. Increased energy prices as a result of fossil fuel resources being depleted may therefore decrease global food security unless action is taken to 'decouple' fossil fuel energy from food production, with a move towards 'energy-smart' agricultural systems.The use of solar powered irrigation in Pakistan has come to be recognized as a leading example of energy use in creating a closed system for water irrigation in agricultural activity.

text: Energy is used all the way down the food chain from farm to fork. In industrial agriculture, energy is used in on-farm mechanisation, food processing, storage, and transportation processes.  It has therefore been found that energy prices are closely linked to food prices. Oil is also used as an input in agricultural chemicals. Higher prices of non-renewable energy resources are projected by the

text: International Energy Agency

text: . Increased energy prices as a result of fossil fuel resources being depleted may therefore decrease global food security unless action is taken to 'decouple' fossil fuel energy from food production, with a move towards 'energy-smart' agricultural systems.The use of solar powered irrigation in

text: Pakistan

text: has come to be recognized as a leading example of energy use in creating a closed system for water irrigation in agricultural activity.

text: Nuclear energy policy is a national and international policy concerning some or all aspects of nuclear energy and the nuclear fuel cycle, such as uranium mining, ore concentration, conversion, enrichment for nuclear fuel, generating electricity by nuclear power, storing and reprocessing spent nuclear fuel, and disposal of radioactive waste.

text: Nuclear energy policy is a national and international

text: policy

text: concerning some or all aspects of

text: nuclear energy

text: and the

text: nuclear fuel cycle

text: , such as

text: uranium mining

text: , ore concentration, conversion,

text: enrichment

text: for

text: nuclear fuel

text: generating electricity

text: by

text: nuclear power

text: , storing and

text: reprocessing

text: spent nuclear fuel

text: , and disposal of

text: radioactive waste

text: The proposed Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) trade agreement now threatens to overturn feed-in tariff schemes throughout the Europe Union.  The draft energy chapter of the TTIP, leaked to The Guardian in July 2016, mandates that operators of energy networks grant access to gas and electricity "on commercial terms that are reasonable, transparent and non-discriminatory, including as between types of energy".  This would open feed-in tariff schemes to commercial challenge, including that used by Germany.  The Green MEP Claude Turmes stated: "These [TTIP] proposals are completely unacceptable. They would sabotage EU legislators' ability to privilege renewables and energy efficiency over unsustainable fossil fuels. This is an attempt to undermine democracy in Europe."

text: The proposed

entity_name: Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership

text: Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership

text: (TTIP)

text: trade agreement

text: now threatens to overturn feed-in tariff schemes throughout the Europe Union.  The draft energy chapter of the TTIP, leaked to The Guardian in July 2016, mandates that operators of energy networks grant access to gas and electricity "on commercial terms that are reasonable, transparent and non-discriminatory, including as between types of energy".  This would open feed-in tariff schemes to commercial challenge, including

text: that

text: used by Germany.  The

text: Green

text: MEP

text: Claude Turmes

text: stated: "These [TTIP] proposals are completely unacceptable. They would sabotage EU legislators' ability to privilege renewables and energy efficiency over unsustainable fossil fuels. This is an attempt to undermine democracy in Europe."

text: Critics of the anti-nuclear movement point to independent studies that show that the capital resources required for renewable energy sources are higher than those required for nuclear power.

text: The utilization of heavy fossil fuels or biomass rich in carbohydrates, (CHO), for fuels or chemicals requires an initial thermochemical process called pyrolysis which fractures large polymers to mixtures of small volatile organic compounds (VOCs).  A specific method of pyrolysis of biomass, termed "fast pyrolysis," converts particles of biomass to about 10% carbon-rich solid called char, about 15% gases such as carbon dioxide, and about 70% a mixture of organic compounds commonly referred to as "bio-oil" at 500 °C in 1–2 seconds.

text: The utilization of heavy fossil fuels or biomass rich in

text: carbohydrates

text: , (CHO), for fuels or chemicals requires an initial thermochemical process called

text: pyrolysis

text: which fractures large polymers to mixtures of small volatile organic compounds (VOCs).  A specific method of pyrolysis of biomass, termed "fast pyrolysis," converts particles of biomass to about 10% carbon-rich solid called

text: char

text: , about 15% gases such as carbon dioxide, and about 70% a mixture of organic compounds commonly referred to as "

text: bio-oil

text: " at 500 °C in 1–2 seconds.

text: Nanotechnology- Nanotoxicity- NASA Clean Air Study- NASA Earth Observatory- Nasdaq Biotechnology Index- National Ambient Air Quality Standards- Native Forest Action- Native Forest Action Council- Native Forest Council- Native Forest Restoration Trust- Native planting- Natural capital- Natural capitalism- Natural disaster- Natural environment- Natural Environment Research Council- Natural gas- Natural History Museum- Natural landscape- Natural phenomenon- Natural region- Natural resource- Natural Resources Canada- Natural Resources Conservation Service- Natural Resources Defense Council- Natural World- Nature- Nature (journal)- Nature (TV series)- Nature Clinical Practice Oncology- Nature Conservancy Council- Nature Heritage Fund- Nature Publishing Group- Nature reserve- Nature Society (Singapore)- Naturefriends- Naturejobs- Natureland Seal Sanctuary- Nature's Classroom- Neighborhood electric vehicle- Neo-luddism- New Jersey- New Naturalist- New town- New Urbanism- New Zealand Ecological Restoration Network- New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987- Newlands Reclamation Act- Niagara Falls- Night soil- Nitrate Vulnerable Zone- No-dig gardening- Noise (environmental)- Noise Control Act- Noise health effects- Noise pollution- Non-renewable energy- North American Butterfly Association- North American smallpox epidemic- North American Solar Challenge- North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission- North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization- North China Institute of Water Conservancy and Hydroelectric Power- Northern Ireland Environment Agency- Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization- Not in Our Genes- No-till farming- NSW Wildlife Information and Rescue Service- Nuclear winter

text: Nanotechnology

text: Nanotoxicity

text: NASA Clean Air Study

text: NASA Earth Observatory

text: Nasdaq Biotechnology Index

text: National Ambient Air Quality Standards

text: Native Forest Action

text: Native Forest Action Council

text: Native Forest Council

text: Native Forest Restoration Trust

text: Native planting

text: Natural capital

text: Natural capitalism

text: Natural disaster

text: Natural environment

text: Natural Environment Research Council

text: Natural gas

text: Natural History Museum

text: Natural landscape

text: Natural phenomenon

text: Natural region

text: Natural resource

text: Natural Resources Canada

text: Natural Resources Conservation Service

text: Natural Resources Defense Council

text: Natural World

text: Nature

text: Nature (journal)

text: Nature (TV series)

text: Nature Clinical Practice Oncology

text: Nature Conservancy Council

text: Nature Heritage Fund

text: Nature Publishing Group

text: Nature reserve

text: Nature Society (Singapore)

text: Naturefriends

text: Naturejobs

text: Natureland Seal Sanctuary

text: Nature's Classroom

text: Neighborhood electric vehicle

text: Neo-luddism

text: New Jersey

text: New Naturalist

text: New town

text: New Urbanism

entity_name: New Zealand Ecological Restoration Network

text: New Zealand Ecological Restoration Network

entity_name: New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987

text: New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987

text: Newlands Reclamation Act

text: Niagara Falls

text: Night soil

text: Nitrate Vulnerable Zone

text: No-dig gardening

text: Noise (environmental)

text: Noise Control Act

text: Noise health effects

text: Noise pollution

text: Non-renewable energy

text: North American Butterfly Association

entity_name: 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic

text: North American smallpox epidemic

text: North American Solar Challenge

text: North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission

entity_name: North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization

text: North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization

entity_name: North China University of Water Conservancy and Electric Power

text: North China Institute of Water Conservancy and Hydroelectric Power

text: Northern Ireland Environment Agency

entity_name: Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization

text: Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization

text: Not in Our Genes

text: No-till farming

entity_name: NSW Wildlife Information Rescue and Education Service

text: NSW Wildlife Information and Rescue Service

text: Nuclear winter

text: The oil and gas industry is seen as distinct. So, whilst it is true that natural gas is a "gas" used in "industry" - often as a fuel, sometimes as a feedstock, and in this generic sense is an "industrial gas"; this term is not generally used by industrial enterprises for hydrocarbons produced by the petroleum industry directly from natural resources or in an oil refinery. Materials such as LPG and LNG are complex mixtures often without precise chemical composition that often also changes whilst stored.

text: The

text: oil and gas

text: industry is seen as distinct. So, whilst it is true that natural gas is a "gas" used in "industry" - often as a fuel, sometimes as a feedstock, and in this generic sense is an "industrial gas"; this term is not generally used by industrial enterprises for

text: hydrocarbons

text: produced by the

text: petroleum industry

text: directly from

text: natural resources

text: or in an

text: oil refinery

text: . Materials such as LPG and LNG are complex mixtures often without precise chemical composition that often also changes whilst stored.

text: As a solar energy provider, Island Pacific Energy owns, operates and maintains the photovoltaic systems on the roofs of commercial and non-profit entities and sells the clean renewable energy that is generated to the customer under long term power purchase agreements. This arrangement enables customers who cannot take advantage of the incentives (tax credits) to still reap the economic benefits of solar power. Island Pacific Energy was the first company to execute a power purchase agreement with a non-profit entity in the state of Hawaii.

text: As a solar energy provider, Island Pacific Energy owns, operates and maintains the photovoltaic systems on the roofs of commercial and non-profit entities and sells the clean renewable energy that is generated to the customer under long term

text: power purchase agreement

text: s. This arrangement enables customers who cannot take advantage of the incentives (tax credits) to still reap the economic benefits of solar power. Island Pacific Energy was the first company to execute a

text: power purchase agreement

text: with a non-profit entity in the state of Hawaii.

text: The term Peak coal is used to refer to the point in time at which coal production and consumption reaches its maximum, after which, it is assumed, production and consumption will decline steadily. The term was originally used in connection with M. King Hubbert's Hubbert peak theory, in which the finite nature of the resource determines a constraint on production. However, since the expansion of renewable energy particularly in electricity generation, the term is now commonly used with reference to a peak in coal demand, which may already have occurred.

text: The term Peak coal is used to refer to the point in time at which coal production and consumption reaches its maximum, after which, it is assumed, production and consumption will decline steadily. The term was originally used in connection with

text: M. King Hubbert

text: 's

text: Hubbert peak theory

text: , in which the finite nature of the resource determines a constraint on production. However, since the expansion of

text: renewable energy

text: particularly in electricity generation, the term is now commonly used with reference to a peak in coal demand, which may already have occurred.

text: Petroleum is a fossil fuel derived from ancient fossilized organic materials, such as zooplankton and algae. Vast quantities of these remains settled to sea or lake bottoms, mixing with sediments and being buried under anoxic conditions. As further layers settled to the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure build up in the lower regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in various oil shales around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as catagenesis. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis in a variety of mainly endothermic reactions at high temperature and/or pressure.

text: Petroleum is a

text: fossil fuel

text: derived from ancient

text: fossilized

text: organic material

text: s, such as

text: zooplankton

text: and

text: algae

text: . Vast quantities of these remains settled to sea or lake bottoms, mixing with sediments and being buried under

text: anoxic conditions

text: . As further layers settled to the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure build up in the lower regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as

text: kerogen

text: , which is found in various

text: oil shale

text: s around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as

text: catagenesis

text: . Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon

text: pyrolysis

text: in a variety of mainly

text: endothermic

text: reactions at high temperature and/or pressure.

text: :For another use of the term "shale oil", meaning synthetic crude oil derived from oil shale, see shale oilTight oil (also known as shale oil or light tight oil, abbreviated LTO) is petroleum that consists of light crude oil contained in petroleum-bearing formations of low permeability, often shale or tight sandstone. Economic production from tight oil formations requires the same hydraulic fracturing and often uses the same horizontal well technology used in the production of shale gas. It should not be confused with oil shale, which is shale rich in kerogen, or shale oil, which is oil produced from oil shales.  Therefore, the International Energy Agency recommends to use the term "light tight oil" for oil produced from shales or other very low permeability formations, while World Energy Resources 2013 report by the World Energy Council uses the term "tight oil".

text: :For another use of the term "shale oil", meaning synthetic crude oil derived from

text: oil shale

text: , see

text: shale oil

text: Tight oil (also known as shale oil or light tight oil, abbreviated LTO) is petroleum that consists of light

text: crude oil

text: contained in

text: petroleum

text: -bearing formations of low

text: permeability

text: , often

text: shale

text: or tight sandstone. Economic production from tight oil formations requires the same

text: hydraulic fracturing

text: and often uses the same

text: horizontal well

text: technology used in the production of

text: shale gas

text: . It should not be confused with

text: oil shale

text: , which is shale rich in

text: kerogen

text: , or

text: shale oil

text: , which is oil produced from oil shales.  Therefore, the

text: International Energy Agency

text: recommends to use the term "light tight oil" for oil produced from shales or other very low permeability formations, while World Energy Resources 2013 report by the

text: World Energy Council

text: uses the term "tight oil".

text: The United States has some of the best renewable energy resources in the world, which have the potential to meet a rising and significant share of the nation's energy demand. A quarter of the U.S. land area has winds strong enough to generate electricity at the same price as natural gas and coal.

text: In 2009, Bryant joined Renewable Algal Energy (RAE, LLC) as an inventor and patent strategist. As a RAE team member, Dr. Bryant is using the same inventive skills and patent techniques that he employed in organic chemistry to work with non-GMO algae aquaculture, including  harvesting and extracting oil from algae. In this new capacity, he has already assisted RAE in filing several new patent applications in their state-of-the-art technology for harvesting and extracting oil from algae.  Another easy transition for Dr. Bryant in this new career has been embracing the ‘green’ philosophy of the RAE team. His lifelong work ethic has been that of ‘working with nature to minimize nature’ a philosophy also shared by RAE’s scientific team. All aquaculture work conducted by RAE is with native strains of algae, non-GMO (not genetically modified), and with open ponds unlined with plastic. Thus, common problems of being unable to produce algae-to-oil at a commercially viable rate have been solved.

text: Energy independence, while being attempted by large or resource-rich and economically strong countries like United States, Russia, China and the Near East, is an idealized status that at present can only be approximated through non-sustainable exploitation of a country's (non-renewable) natural resources. Another factor in reducing dependence is of course the addition of renewable energy sources to the energy mix. Usually, a country will rely on local and global energy renewable and non-renewable resources, a mixed-model solution that presumes various energy sources and modes of energy transfer between countries like electric power transmission, oil transport (oil and gas pipelines and tankers), etc.. The European dependence on Russian energy is a case in point.

text: Energy independence, while being attempted by large or resource-rich and economically strong countries like United States, Russia, China and the

text: Near East

text: , is an idealized status that at present can only be approximated through

text: non-sustainable

text: exploitation

text: of a country's (

text: non-renewable

text: natural resource

text: s. Another factor in reducing dependence is of course the addition of

text: renewable energy

text: sources to the

text: energy mix

text: . Usually, a country will rely on local and global energy renewable and non-renewable resources, a mixed-model solution that presumes various energy sources and modes of

text: energy transfer

text: between countries like

text: electric power transmission

text: , oil transport (

text: oil

text: and

text: gas pipeline

text: s and

text: tankers

text: ), etc.. The

text: European dependence on Russian energy

text: is a case in point.

text: In 2010 the Arizona Legislature included nuclear power in a proposed bill for electric utility renewable energy standards.  The bill defined "renewable energy" as energy that is renewable and non-carbon emitting.  It listed solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, hydroelectric, agricultural waste, landfill gas and nuclear sources.

text: In 2010 the

text: Arizona Legislature

text: included nuclear power in a proposed bill for electric utility renewable energy standards.  The bill defined "renewable energy" as energy that is renewable and non-carbon emitting.  It listed solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, hydroelectric, agricultural waste, landfill gas and nuclear sources.

text: Renewable energy encompasses wind, hydropower, solar power (thermal and photovoltaic), geothermal, and ocean power. These renewable sources are to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) and nuclear fuel (uranium). Solving the energy problem is regarded as the most important challenge facing humankind in the 21st century.

text: Renewable energy encompasses

text: wind

text: hydropower

text: solar power

text: (thermal and photovoltaic),

text: geothermal

text: , and

text: ocean power

text: . These renewable sources are to serve as an alternative to fossil fuels (

text: oil

text: coal

text: natural gas

text: ) and

text: nuclear fuel

text: (uranium). Solving the energy problem is regarded as the most important challenge facing humankind in the 21st century.

text: Like nuclear energy, renewable electricity supply, of primarily hydropower, in the 20-50+% range has already been implemented in several European systems, albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system. In 2012, the share of electricity generated by all types of renewable sources in Germany was 21.9%, compared to 16.0% for nuclear power after Germany shut down 7-8 of its 18 nuclear reactors in 2011. In the United Kingdom, the amount of energy produced from renewable energy is expected to exceed that from nuclear power by 2018, and Scotland plans to obtain all electricity from renewable energy by 2020. The majority of installed renewable energy across the world is in the form of hydro power.

text: Like nuclear energy, renewable electricity supply, of primarily

text: hydropower

text: , in the 20-50+% range has already been implemented in several European systems, albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system. In 2012, the share of electricity generated by all types of renewable sources in Germany was 21.9%, compared to 16.0% for nuclear power after Germany shut down 7-8 of its 18 nuclear reactors in 2011. In the United Kingdom, the amount of energy produced from renewable energy is expected to exceed that from nuclear power by 2018, and Scotland plans to obtain all electricity from renewable energy by 2020. The majority of installed renewable energy across the world is in the form of

text: hydro power

text: Butanol can be made from algae or diatoms using only a solar powered biorefinery. This fuel has an energy density 10% less than gasoline, and greater than that of either ethanol or methanol. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or E85.

text: Butanol can be made from

text: algae

text: or

text: diatom

text: s using only a solar powered

text: biorefinery

text: . This fuel has an

text: energy density

text: 10% less than gasoline, and greater than that of either

text: ethanol

text: or

text: methanol

text: . In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or

text: The IEA estimates that, in 2013, total world energy consumption was 9,301 Mtoe, or 3.89 × 10 joules, equal to an average power consumption of 12.3 terawatts.   From 2000–2012 coal was the source of energy with the largest growth. The use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth, followed by hydro power and renewable energy. Renewable energy grew at a rate faster than any other time in history during this period, which can possibly be explained by an increase in international investment in renewable energy. The demand for nuclear energy decreased, possibly due to the accidents at Chernobyl and Three Mile Island.

text: The IEA estimates that, in 2013, total world energy consumption was 9,301

text: Mtoe

text: , or 3.89 × 10

text: joule

text: s, equal to an average power consumption of 12.3

text: terawatts

text: .   From 2000–2012 coal was the source of energy with the largest growth. The use of oil and natural gas also had considerable growth, followed by hydro power and renewable energy. Renewable energy grew at a rate faster than any other time in history during this period, which can possibly be explained by an increase in international investment in renewable energy. The demand for nuclear energy decreased, possibly due to the accidents at Chernobyl and Three Mile Island.

text: Natural gas was discovered in the Rio Vista area in 1936 and the Rio Vista Field,  the largest natural gas field in California,  became a major source of employment for the remainder of the 20th century. Other industries include agriculture, manufacturing and tourism. There are over 750 wind turbines belonging to the three renewable energy projects (Shiloh Wind Power Plant, NextEra Energy Resources' High Winds Energy Center and one owned by the Sacramento Municipal Utility District) on the Montezuma Hills, close to the city. There are plans to add an additional 200 wind turbines.

text: Natural gas was discovered in the Rio Vista area in 1936 and the

text: Rio Vista Field

text: ,  the largest natural gas field in California,  became a major source of employment for the remainder of the 20th century. Other industries include agriculture, manufacturing and tourism. There are over 750

text: wind turbine

text: s belonging to the three

text: renewable energy

text: projects (

text: Shiloh Wind Power Plant

text: NextEra Energy Resources

text: ' High Winds Energy Center and one owned by the Sacramento Municipal Utility District) on the

text: Montezuma Hills

text: , close to the city. There are plans to add an additional 200 wind turbines.

text: With such a high demand for oil many countries in the Middle East (e.g.  Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Afghanistan, and Kuwait) have all been involved in armed conflicts with western oil interests.  With the political battle for oil raging in the region for over 30 years now and with fewer Middle Eastern allies, Iran has started to expand its energy sector to try meets its growing needs.  While Iran has been investing in nuclear energy since the 1950s, in the last 15 years they have dedicated much more time and resources to strengthen their nuclear program. Nuclear energy produced by refining of uranium is an excellent source of energy and is a strong alternative in the face of falling oil sales and a growing population. However the United States and their allies such as Israel, Great Britain, France, etc. have expressed fears that Iran's nuclear program is really to achieve nuclear weapons of mass destruction which threaten the safety and stability of countries in the region, as well as the world. As a result, the United States imposed strong sanctions against Iran extremely limiting their nuclear capabilities which impacted Iran's own growing demand for energy.  Faced with the issue of limited energy, Iran has begun to invest in a very effective renewable resource, wind power.

text: Olive oil is the oil consisting of a blend of refined olive oil and virgin olive oils fit for consumption as they are. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 1 gram per 100 grams and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in the IOC standard.

text: Olive oil is the oil consisting of a blend of refined olive oil and virgin olive oils fit for consumption as they are. It has a

text: free acidity

text: , expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 1 gram per 100 grams and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in the IOC standard.

text: The subsidies for Oil-Diesel fuel rebate program are worth about $2 billion, which are much more than the grants devoted to renewable energy. Whilst renewable energy is out of scope at this stage, an alternative diesel–renewable hybrid system is highly recommended. If the subsidies for diesel were bounded with the renewable subsides, remote communities could adapt hybrid electric generation systems. The Energy Grants Credit Scheme (EGCS), an off-road component is a rebate program for diesel and diesel-like fuels.

text: The subsidies for Oil-Diesel fuel rebate program are worth about $2 billion, which are much more than the grants devoted to renewable energy. Whilst renewable energy is out of scope at this stage, an alternative

text: diesel–renewable hybrid system

text: is highly recommended. If the subsidies for diesel were bounded with the renewable subsides, remote communities could adapt

text: hybrid electric generation systems

text: . The Energy Grants Credit Scheme (EGCS), an off-road component is a rebate program for diesel and diesel-like fuels.

text: The EPA announced that the 2009 Renewable Fuel Standard will require most refiners, importers, and non-oxygenate blenders of gasoline to displace 10.21% of their gasoline with renewable fuels such as ethanol. That requirement aims to ensure that at least  of renewable fuels will be sold in 2009, in keeping with the targets established by the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA). While the RFS requirement is increasing by about 23%—from  in 2008 to  in 2009—the percentage requirement is increasing by nearly one third, from 7.76% in 2008 to 10.21% in 2009.

text: The EPA announced that the 2009 Renewable Fuel Standard will require most refiners, importers, and non-oxygenate blenders of gasoline to displace 10.21% of their gasoline with renewable fuels such as ethanol. That requirement aims to ensure that at least  of renewable fuels will be sold in 2009, in keeping with the targets established by the

entity_name: Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007

text: Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007

text: (EISA). While the RFS requirement is increasing by about 23%—from  in 2008 to  in 2009—the percentage requirement is increasing by nearly one third, from 7.76% in 2008 to 10.21% in 2009.

text: Maharashtra constitutes 13% of the total installed electricity generation capacity in India, which is mainly produced from non-renewable resources, using fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas.

text: Maharashtra constitutes 13% of the total installed

text: electricity generation

text: capacity in India, which is mainly produced from

text: non-renewable resource

text: s, using

text: fossil fuel

text: s such as

text: coal

text: and

text: natural gas

text: Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as tar sands.  These latter sources are properly known as mineral fuels.

text: Fossil fuels are

text: hydrocarbon

text: s, primarily

text: coal

text: and

text: petroleum

text: liquid petroleum

text: or

text: natural gas

text: ), formed from the

text: fossilized remains

text: of ancient plants and animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the

text: Earth

text: 's

text: crust

text: over hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes hydrocarbon-containing

text: natural resource

text: s that are not derived entirely from biological sources, such as

text: tar sands

text: .  These latter sources are properly known as mineral fuels.

text: Following her tenure at CCHD, Kelley worked for three years at Environmental Resources Trust (ERT), a business unit of the non-profit organization Winrock International dedicated to promoting renewable energy development and climate change mitigation. There she worked on renewable energy policy and development projects, including a partnership between ERT and Verdant Power.

text: Following her tenure at CCHD, Kelley worked for three years at Environmental Resources Trust (ERT), a business unit of the

text: non-profit organization

text: Winrock International dedicated to promoting

text: renewable energy

text: development and

text: climate change

text: mitigation. There she worked on renewable energy policy and development projects, including a partnership between ERT and

text: Verdant Power

text: Hydro-electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP) and some biomass technologies. Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today". A series of studies by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory modeled the "grid in the Western US under a number of different scenarios where intermittent renewables accounted for 33 percent of the total power." In the models, inefficiencies in cycling the fossil fuel plants to compensate for the variation in solar and wind energy resulted in an additional cost of "between $0.47 and $1.28 to each MegaWatt hour generated"; however, the savings in the cost of the fuels saved "adds up to $7 billion, meaning the added costs are, at most, two percent of the savings."

text: Hydro-electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the levelised cost of electricity (

text: LCOE

text: ) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (

text: PV

text: ), concentrated solar power (

text: CSP

text: ) and some biomass technologies. Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today". A series of studies by the US

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: modeled the "grid in the Western US under a number of different scenarios where intermittent renewables accounted for 33 percent of the total power." In the models, inefficiencies in cycling the fossil fuel plants to compensate for the variation in solar and wind energy resulted in an additional cost of "between $0.47 and $1.28 to each MegaWatt hour generated"; however, the savings in the cost of the fuels saved "adds up to $7 billion, meaning the added costs are, at most, two percent of the savings."

text: The World Council for Renewable Energy defends, develops, and promotes policies on the multinational, governmental, regional and individual levels in favor of the use of natural and renewable forms of energy to replace fossil and nuclear energy.

text: The World Council for Renewable Energy defends, develops, and promotes policies on the multinational, governmental, regional and individual levels in favor of the use of natural and

text: renewable forms of energy

text: to replace

text: fossil

text: and

text: nuclear energy

text: The tragedy of the commons can be considered in relation to environmental issues such as sustainability. The commons dilemma stands as a model for a great variety of resource problems in society today, such as water, forests, fish, and non-renewable energy sources such as oil and coal.

text: The tragedy of the commons can be considered in relation to environmental issues such as

text: sustainability

text: . The commons dilemma stands as a model for a great variety of resource problems in society today, such as water, forests, fish, and

text: non-renewable energy

text: sources such as oil and coal.

text: This involves the use of the existing natural gas (methane) grid as the store. In this case, the carbon dioxide is given economic value as a component of energy carrier. This "solar fuel" cycle uses the excess electrical renewable energy that cannot be used instantaneously in the grid, which otherwise would be wasted to create hydrogen via electrolysis of water. The hydrogen is then combined with CO to create synthetic or substitute natural gas SNG and stored in the natural gas network. The natural gas is used to create electrical energy (and the heat used as well in CHP) on demand when there is not enough sun (photovoltaic, CSP...) or wind (turbines) or water (hydro, ocean current, waves,...).  The German natural gas grid, for example, has two months of storage, more than enough to outlast renewable energy low production points.

text: In pursuit of the supply objective, policy initiatives, particularly with respect to crude oil and natural gas,Malaysia have aimed at both extending the life of domestic non-renewable energy resources, as well as diversification away from oil dependence to include other forms of energy sources.

text: In pursuit of the supply objective, policy initiatives, particularly with respect to

text: crude oil

text: and natural gas,Malaysia have aimed at both extending the life of domestic non-renewable energy resources, as well as diversification away from oil dependence to include other forms of energy sources.

text: One parameter used to characterise an oil is its acidity. In this context, "acidity" is not chemical acidity in the sense of pH, but the percent (measured by weight) of free oleic acid. Measured by quantitative analysis, acidity is a measure of the hydrolysis of the oil's triglycerides: as the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the glycerides, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing hydrolytic rancidity. Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the peroxide value, which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized damaged by free radicals, leading to oxidative rancidity. Phenolic acids present in olive oil also add acidic sensory properties to aroma and flavor.

text: One parameter used to characterise an oil is its

text: acidity

text: . In this context, "acidity" is not

text: chemical acidity

text: in the sense of

text: pH

text: , but the percent (measured by weight) of

text: free

text: oleic acid

text: . Measured by

text: quantitative analysis

text: , acidity is a measure of the

text: hydrolysis

text: of the oil's triglycerides: as the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the

text: glyceride

text: s, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing

text: hydrolytic rancidity

text: . Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the

text: peroxide value

text: , which measures the degree to which the oil is

text: oxidized

text: damaged by

text: free radicals

text: , leading to oxidative

text: rancidity

text: Phenolic acids

text: present in olive oil also add acidic

text: sensory

text: properties to aroma and flavor.

text: Meanwhile, activists like Bo Webb and Lorelei Scarbro, who live in the shadow of Coal River Mountain, have organized a group of citizens to propose that instead of destroying the mountain, a sustainable wind farm be built on the mountain’s ridges instead – an energy project that could power 70,000 homes with renewable energy virtually forever. But Massey Energy and now Alpha Natural Resources has a permit to destroy over  of the mountain instead. Over time, the wind farm would provide more jobs to the community, and on day-one it would pay more taxes to the county than the coal strip mine, Scarbro explains. Members of Climate Ground Zero pull off a tree-sit in the blasting zone of Coal River Mountain one winter night and sit in protest for nine days until they are arrested for attempting to halt the destruction of this symbolic mountain.

text: Meanwhile, activists like Bo Webb and Lorelei Scarbro, who live in the shadow of Coal River Mountain, have organized a group of citizens to propose that instead of destroying the mountain, a sustainable wind farm be built on the mountain’s ridges instead – an energy project that could power 70,000 homes with renewable energy virtually forever. But

text: Massey Energy

text: and now

text: Alpha Natural Resources

text: has a permit to destroy over  of the mountain instead. Over time, the wind farm would provide more jobs to the community, and on day-one it would pay more taxes to the county than the coal strip mine, Scarbro explains. Members of

text: Climate Ground Zero

text: pull off a tree-sit in the blasting zone of Coal River Mountain one winter night and sit in protest for nine days until they are arrested for attempting to halt the destruction of this symbolic mountain.

text: In October 2014, Senator Meredith was named "Legislator of the Year" by the N.C. Sustainable Energy Association for his "vocal support of clean energy policies" and his support for the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficient Portfolio Standard, a program which requires the state's electrical power producers to utilize renewable sources for a proportion of their electricity generation, as well as the Renewable Energy Investment Tax Credit.  Additionally, Meredith was recognized through the honor for his work with Fort Bragg to help take advantage of the renewable energy that the is produced at the base.

text: In October 2014, Senator Meredith was named "Legislator of the Year" by the N.C. Sustainable Energy Association for his "vocal support of clean energy policies" and his support for the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficient Portfolio Standard, a program which requires the state's electrical power producers to utilize renewable sources for a proportion of their electricity generation, as well as the Renewable Energy Investment Tax Credit.  Additionally, Meredith was recognized through the honor for his work with

text: Fort Bragg

text: to help take advantage of the renewable energy that the is produced at the base.

text: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on  renewable energy; it has no carbon footprint and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet. Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal, oil and gas, unintentionally emitting carbon. Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these fossil fuels. To become a zero carbon city, an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to zero and all practices that emit greenhouse gases must cease. Also, renewable energy must supersede other non-renewable energy sources and become the sole source of energy, so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city. This transition which includes decarbonising electricity (increasing the importance of the sources of renewable electricity) and zero-emission transport, is undertaken as a response to climate change. Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating environmental impact. Instead of using established cities, many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city. This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free.

text: A zero-carbon city runs entirely on

text: renewable energy

text: ; it has no

text: carbon footprint

text: and will in this respect not cause harm to the planet. Most cities throughout the world produce energy by burning coal, oil and gas, unintentionally emitting carbon. Almost every activity humans do involves burning one of these

text: fossil fuel

text: s. To become a zero carbon city, an established modern city must collectively reduce emissions of

text: greenhouse gases

text: to zero and all practices that

text: emit

text: greenhouse gases must cease. Also, renewable energy must supersede other

text: non-renewable energy

text: sources and become the sole source of energy, so a zero-carbon city is a renewable-energy-economy city. This transition which includes decarbonising electricity (increasing the importance of the sources of

text: renewable electricity

text: ) and

text: zero-emission transport

text: , is undertaken as a response to

text: climate change

text: . Zero-carbon cities maintain optimal living conditions while eliminating

text: environmental impact

text: . Instead of using established cities, many developers are starting from scratch in order to create a zero-carbon city. This way they can make sure every aspect of a city contributes to it being carbon free.

text: Berkshire Wind Power Cooperative Corporation is a non-profit entity created by 14 Massachusetts municipal utilities and the Massachusetts Municipal Wholesale Electric Company (MMWEC). In addition to MMWEC, members of the Cooperative include the consumer-owned, municipal utilities serving the communities of Ashburnham, Boylston, Groton, Holden, Hull, Ipswich, Marblehead, Paxton, Peabody, Shrewsbury, Sterling, Templeton, Wakefield, and West Boylston. Unlike other utilities, municipal utilities are not required to the Massachusetts renewable portfolio standard, though Each of these public power utilities have embraced the state's call for renewable energy development voluntarily because their customers support renewable energy development, these public entities took the initiative to form the Cooperative and complete the Berkshire Wind Power Project.

text: Berkshire Wind Power Cooperative Corporation is a non-profit entity created by 14 Massachusetts municipal utilities and the Massachusetts Municipal Wholesale Electric Company (MMWEC). In addition to MMWEC, members of the Cooperative include the consumer-owned, municipal utilities serving the communities of

text: Ashburnham

text: Boylston

text: Groton

text: Holden

text: Hull

text: Ipswich

text: Marblehead

text: Paxton

text: Peabody

text: Shrewsbury

text: Sterling

text: Templeton

text: Wakefield

text: , and

text: West Boylston

text: . Unlike other utilities, municipal utilities are not required to the

text: Massachusetts

text: renewable portfolio standard

text: , though Each of these public power utilities have embraced the state's call for renewable energy development voluntarily because their customers support renewable energy development, these public entities took the initiative to form the Cooperative and complete the Berkshire Wind Power Project.

text: Many stages of the nuclear fuel chain — mining, milling, transport, fuel fabrication, enrichment, reactor construction, decommissioning and waste management — use fossil fuels, or involve changes to land use, and hence emit carbon dioxide and conventional pollutants. Nuclear energy contributes a very small amount of emissions into the atmosphere which can cause many environmental problems such as global warming.  Uranium is not burned in a nuclear power plant as coal is so there are no emissions from it.  All of the waste that comes from the fission of uranium stays in the plant and is therefore able to be disposed of in a safe way in which the uranium is kept out of the environment (The Franklin Institute Science Museum 2014).  “About 73 percent of emissions-free electricity in the United States comes from nuclear plants.”  Nuclear energy produces far less carbon dioxide than coal, 9 grams per kilowatt hour compared to 790-1017 grams per kilowatt hour for coal.  Also, nuclear energy produces the same amount if not less greenhouse gasses than renewable resources.Like all energy sources, various life cycle analysis (LCA) studies have led to a range of estimates on the median value for nuclear power, with most comparisons of carbon dioxide emissions show nuclear power as comparable to renewable energy sources.

text: Many stages of the

text: nuclear fuel chain

text: — mining, milling, transport, fuel fabrication, enrichment, reactor construction, decommissioning and waste management — use fossil fuels, or involve changes to land use, and hence emit carbon dioxide and conventional pollutants. Nuclear energy contributes a very small amount of emissions into the atmosphere which can cause many environmental problems such as global warming.  Uranium is not burned in a nuclear power plant as coal is so there are no emissions from it.  All of the waste that comes from the fission of uranium stays in the plant and is therefore able to be disposed of in a safe way in which the uranium is kept out of the environment (The Franklin Institute Science Museum 2014).  “About 73 percent of emissions-free electricity in the United States comes from nuclear plants.”  Nuclear energy produces far less carbon dioxide than coal, 9 grams per kilowatt hour compared to 790-1017 grams per kilowatt hour for coal.  Also, nuclear energy produces the same amount if not less greenhouse gasses than renewable resources.Like all energy sources, various

text: life cycle analysis

text: (LCA) studies have led to a range of estimates on the

text: median

text: value for nuclear power, with most comparisons of carbon dioxide emissions show

text: nuclear power

text: as comparable to

text: renewable energy

text: sources.

text: Gold theorized that since petroleum and its component hydrocarbons were present across the entire universe, there was no reason to believe "that on Earth they must be biological in origin". Gold proposed that fossil fuels were trapped inside the core of the Earth in randomized molecular form nearly 4.5 billion years ago. Over time, the extreme heat of the core "sweated" the rocks that contained these molecules, pushing them up through the porous layers of the Earth. As they move up toward the surface, the hydrocarbons fueled the development of large microbial colonies, which served as the basis for life on Earth. The migrating fossil fuels collect biological remnants before becoming trapped in deep underground reservoirs. Soon after Gold started publishing his theories, researchers discovered a number of ecosystems functioning under "conditions of heat and pressure once thought impossible to sustain life". In addition, Gold discovered that the location of major oil-producing regions in the Middle East and southeast Asia was defined by large scale patterns in surface geology and topography, such as deep fault lines. He also pointed to the abundance of helium in oil and gas reserves as evidence for "a deep source of the hydrocarbons". Moreover, a few oil reserves thought to have been exhausted were suddenly generating vast amounts of crude oil.  From this, Gold proposed that the Earth may possess a virtually endless supply – suggesting as much as "at least 500 million years' worth of gas" – of fossil fuels.

text: Gold theorized that since petroleum and its component hydrocarbons were present across the entire universe, there was no reason to believe "that on Earth they must be biological in origin". Gold proposed that fossil fuels were trapped inside the core of the Earth in randomized molecular form nearly 4.5 billion years ago. Over time, the extreme heat of the core "sweated" the rocks that contained these molecules, pushing them up through the porous layers of the Earth. As they move up toward the surface, the hydrocarbons fueled the development of large microbial colonies, which served as the basis for life on Earth. The migrating fossil fuels collect biological remnants before becoming trapped in deep underground reservoirs. Soon after Gold started publishing his theories, researchers discovered a number of ecosystems functioning under "conditions of heat and pressure once thought impossible to sustain life". In addition, Gold discovered that the location of major oil-producing regions in the Middle East and southeast Asia was defined by large scale patterns in surface geology and topography, such as deep fault lines. He also pointed to the abundance of

text: helium

text: in oil and gas reserves as evidence for "a deep source of the hydrocarbons". Moreover, a few

text: oil reserve

text: s thought to have been exhausted were suddenly generating vast amounts of crude oil.  From this, Gold proposed that the Earth may possess a virtually endless supply – suggesting as much as "at least 500 million years' worth of gas" – of fossil fuels.

text: In the rest of the world, natural gas is sold in gigajoule retail units. LNG (liquefied natural gas) and LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) are traded in metric tons or MMBTU as spot deliveries. Long term natural gas distribution contracts are signed in cubic metres, and LNG contracts are in metric tonnes (1,000 kg). The LNG and LPG is transported by specialized transport ships, as the gas is liquified at cryogenic temperatures. The specification of each LNG/LPG cargo will usually contain the energy content, but this information is in general not available to the public.

text: In the rest of the world, natural gas is sold in gigajoule retail units. LNG (liquefied natural gas) and LPG (

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: ) are traded in metric tons or MMBTU as spot deliveries. Long term natural gas distribution contracts are signed in cubic metres, and LNG contracts are in metric tonnes (1,000 kg). The LNG and LPG is transported by specialized

text: transport ships

text: , as the gas is liquified at

text: cryogenic

text: temperatures. The specification of each LNG/LPG cargo will usually contain the energy content, but this information is in general not available to the public.

text: In the Independent Energy Partners' Geothermic Fuels Cells (GFC), a high-temperature stack of fuel cells is placed in situ or in place within a formation. During an initial warm-up period, the cells are fueled by an external source of natural gas. Afterwards, the process is able to fuel itself using oil shale gas generated by its own waste heat.  The formation is fractured by rising fluid pressure in the heated zone. Alternatively, the formation can be pre-fractured to enhance the shale oil flow between heating and producing wells.  The company asserts a ratio of approximately 7 units of energy produced per unit used, when primary recovery is combined with gasification of the residual char and use of the resulting oil shale gas.  In addition, the fuel cell produces electric power as a by-product of the process.

text: In the Independent Energy Partners' Geothermic Fuels Cells (GFC), a high-temperature stack of

text: fuel cell

text: s is placed in situ or in place within a formation. During an initial warm-up period, the cells are fueled by an external source of

text: natural gas

text: . Afterwards, the process is able to fuel itself using

text: oil shale gas

text: generated by its own waste heat.  The formation is fractured by rising fluid pressure in the heated zone. Alternatively, the formation can be pre-fractured to enhance the

text: shale oil

text: flow between heating and producing wells.  The company asserts a ratio of approximately 7 units of energy produced per unit used, when primary recovery is combined with

text: gasification

text: of the residual char and use of the resulting oil shale gas.  In addition, the fuel cell produces

text: electric power

text: as a by-product of the process.

text: The U.S. electric power industry now relies on large, central power stations, including coal, natural gas, nuclear, and hydropower plants that together generate more than 95% of the nation’s electricity. Over the next few decades uses of renewable energy could help to diversify the nation’s bulk power supply.  Already, appropriate renewable resources (which excludes large hydropower) produce 12% of northern California’s electricity.

text: Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), also known as Green tags, Renewable Energy Credits, Renewable Electricity Certificates, or Tradable Renewable Certificates (TRCs), are tradable, non-tangible energy commodities in the United States that represent proof that 1 megawatt-hour (MWh) of electricity was generated from an eligible renewable energy resource (renewable electricity) and was fed into the shared system of power lines which transport energy. Solar renewable energy certificates (SRECs) are RECs that are specifically generated by solar energy. Renewable Energy Certificates provide a mechanism for the purchase of renewable energy that is added to and pulled from the electrical grid.

text: Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), also known as Green tags, Renewable Energy Credits, Renewable Electricity Certificates, or Tradable Renewable Certificates (TRCs), are tradable, non-tangible energy commodities in the United States that represent proof that 1

text: megawatt-hour

text: (MWh) of

text: electricity

text: was generated from an eligible

text: renewable energy

text: resource (

text: renewable electricity

text: ) and was fed into the shared system of power lines which transport energy.

text: Solar renewable energy certificates

text: (SRECs) are RECs that are specifically generated by solar energy. Renewable Energy Certificates provide a mechanism for the purchase of renewable energy that is added to and pulled from the

text: electrical grid

text: The International Nuclear Library Network was founded in 2005 by the IAEA Library and the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) Library. In its initial years, it counted a total of five members (in addition to the initiators, the National Atomic Energy Commission of Argentina, the Turkish Atomic Energy Agency and the Institute of Nuclear Physics of Uzbekistan Academy of Science. In 2006, the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) also joined the network. In 2007, the INLN welcomed four new members: the China Nuclear Information Centre, the Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority, the Obninsk State Technical University for Nuclear Power Engineering in the Russian Federation, and the Russian Association of Nuclear Science and Education (RANSE), thus increasing the membership to ten participants. In 2008, at the meeting of INLN Members and prospective members, during the 34th International Nuclear Information System (INIS) Liaison Officers Meeting in Vienna, a large number of nuclear libraries from around the world expressed their interest and subsequently joined the INLN: the Belarus INIS Center, Chair of Ecological Information Systems, the Nuclear Research Institute Rez plc of Czech Republic, the Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA), the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission Library, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) of India, the Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland, the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares (ININ), Centro de Información y Documentación Nuclear (CIDN) of Mexico, the Centre National de l' Energie des Sciences et des Techniques Nucléaires (CNESTEN) of Morocco, the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) at the University of Science and Technology (South Korea), the Vinca Nuclear Institute of Serbia,  the Centre National des Sciences et Technologies Nucléaires (CNSTN) of Tunisia. In November of the same year, the Library Network of the Brazilian Nuclear Energy Commission (Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear – CNEN), consisting of seven nuclear libraries, became an INLN official member. In January 2009, the Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique (CEA) - Centre de Saclay - Centre de Ressources Documentaires joined the Network, while in 2010, the National Atomic Energy Commission, the Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority, and the Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology decided to become INLN members. The Nuclear Energy Regulatory Agency of Indonesia - Badan Pengawas Tenaga Nuklir and the New Zealand Institute of Environmental Science and Research – National Radiation Laboratory are the newest members, raising the total number of Nuclear Libraries/Information Centres participating in the INLN to 37.

text: The International Nuclear Library Network was founded in 2005 by the IAEA Library and the

text: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited

text: (AECL) Library. In its initial years, it counted a total of five members (in addition to the initiators, the

text: National Atomic Energy Commission

text: of Argentina, the

text: Turkish Atomic Energy Agency

text: and the

text: Institute of Nuclear Physics of Uzbekistan Academy of Science

text: . In 2006, the

entity_name: Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation

text: Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation

text: (ANSTO) also joined the network. In 2007, the INLN welcomed four new members: the

text: China Nuclear Information Centre

text: , the

text: Nigerian Nuclear Regulatory Authority

text: , the

entity_name: Obninsk Institute for Nuclear Power Engineering

text: Obninsk State Technical University for Nuclear Power Engineering

text: in the Russian Federation, and the

text: Russian Association of Nuclear Science and Education

text: (RANSE), thus increasing the membership to ten participants. In 2008, at the meeting of INLN Members and prospective members, during the 34th

text: (INIS) Liaison Officers Meeting in Vienna, a large number of nuclear libraries from around the world expressed their interest and subsequently joined the INLN: the

text: Belarus INIS Center, Chair of Ecological Information Systems

text: , the

text: Nuclear Research Institute Rez plc of Czech Republic

text: , the

text: Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority

text: (EAEA), the

text: Ghana Atomic Energy Commission Library

text: , the

text: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre

text: (BARC) of India, the

entity_name: Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland

text: Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland

text: , the

text: Japan Atomic Energy Agency

text: (JAEA), the

text: Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares

text: (ININ),

text: Centro de Información y Documentación Nuclear

text: (CIDN) of Mexico, the

text: Centre National de l' Energie des Sciences et des Techniques Nucléaires

text: (CNESTEN) of Morocco, the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute (KAERI) at the

entity_name: Korea University of Science and Technology

text: University of Science and Technology (South Korea)

text: , the

text: Vinca Nuclear Institute

text: of Serbia,  the Centre National des Sciences et Technologies Nucléaires (CNSTN) of Tunisia. In November of the same year, the Library Network of the

text: Brazilian Nuclear Energy Commission

text: (Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear – CNEN), consisting of seven nuclear libraries, became an INLN official member. In January 2009, the

entity_name: French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission

text: Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique

text: (CEA) - Centre de Saclay - Centre de Ressources Documentaires joined the Network, while in 2010, the

text: National Atomic Energy Commission

text: , the

entity_name: Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority

text: Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority

text: , and the

entity_name: Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology

text: Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology

text: decided to become INLN members. The Nuclear Energy Regulatory Agency of Indonesia -

text: Badan Pengawas Tenaga Nuklir

text: and the New Zealand

entity_name: Institute of Environmental Science and Research

text: Institute of Environmental Science and Research

text: – National Radiation Laboratory are the newest members, raising the total number of Nuclear Libraries/Information Centres participating in the INLN to 37.

text: Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of non-conventional energy resources, in the early 1980s. Its cumulative grid interactive or grid tied renewable energy capacity (excluding large hydro) has reached 33.8 GW, of which 66% comes from wind, while solar power contributes 4.59% along with biomass and hydro power.

text: Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the

text: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

text: . India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of

text: non-conventional energy

text: resources, in the early 1980s. Its cumulative grid interactive or grid tied renewable energy capacity (excluding large hydro) has reached 33.8 GW, of which 66% comes from wind, while solar power contributes 4.59% along with biomass and hydro power.

text: Iceland began utilising renewable energy early in the 20th century and so since has been a low-carbon economy. However, since dramatic economic growth, Iceland's emissions have increased significantly per capita. As of 2009, Iceland energy is sourced from mostly geothermal energy and hydropower, renewable energy in Iceland and, since 1999, has provided over 70% of the nation's primary energy and 99.9% of Iceland's electricity. As a result of this, Iceland's carbon emissions per capita are 62% lower than those of the United States despite using more primary energy per capita, due to the fact that it is renewable and low-cost. Iceland seeks carbon neutrality and expects to use 100% renewable energy by 2050 by generating hydrogen fuel from renewable energy sources.

text: Iceland began utilising renewable energy early in the 20th century and so since has been a low-carbon economy. However, since dramatic economic growth, Iceland's emissions have increased significantly per capita. As of 2009, Iceland energy is sourced from mostly

text: geothermal energy

text: and

text: hydropower

text: renewable energy in Iceland

text: and, since 1999, has provided over 70% of the nation's

text: primary energy

text: and 99.9% of Iceland's

text: electricity

text: . As a result of this, Iceland's carbon emissions per capita are 62% lower than those of the

text: United States

text: despite using more primary energy per capita, due to the fact that it is renewable and low-cost. Iceland seeks

text: carbon neutrality

text: and expects to use 100% renewable energy by 2050 by generating

text: hydrogen fuel

text: from renewable energy sources.

text: Through the end of the 20th century, China has been working to establish long-term energy security. Achieving this goal has required investment in oil and gas fields abroad, diversifying energy resource providers, and incorporating non-traditional energy sources like nuclear, solar and other renewables.

text: Through the end of the 20th century, China has been working to establish long-term

text: energy security

text: . Achieving this goal has required investment in oil and gas fields abroad, diversifying energy resource providers, and incorporating non-traditional energy sources like nuclear, solar and other renewables.

text: The usage and pricing of gasoline (or petrol) results from factors such as crude oil prices, processing and distribution costs, local demand, the strength of local currencies, local taxation, and the availability of local sources of gasoline (supply).  Since fuels are traded worldwide, the trade prices are similar.  The price paid by consumers largely reflects national pricing policy.  Some regions, such as Europe and Japan, impose high taxes on gasoline (petrol); others, such as Saudi Arabia and Venezuela, subsidize the cost. Western countries have among the highest usage rates per person. The largest consumer is the United States, which used an average of 368 million US gallons (1.46 gigalitres) each day in 2011.

text: The usage and pricing of gasoline (or petrol) results from factors such as

text: crude oil

text: prices, processing and distribution costs, local demand, the strength of local currencies, local taxation, and the availability of local sources of gasoline (supply).  Since fuels are traded worldwide, the trade prices are similar.  The price paid by consumers largely reflects national pricing policy.  Some regions, such as Europe and Japan, impose high

text: taxes

text: on gasoline (petrol); others, such as

text: Saudi Arabia

text: and

text: Venezuela

text: , subsidize the cost. Western countries have among the highest usage rates per person. The largest consumer is the United States, which used an average of 368 million

text: US gallons

text: gigalitre

text: s) each day in 2011.

text: The Energy Strategy Guidelines for Uruguay were defined in 2006 by the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Mines (MIEM). This strategy includes: (i) diversifying energy sources to reduce costs and emissions, as well as increase energy security; (ii) increasing private participation in new renewable power generation; (iii) increasing regional energy trade; and (iv) facilitating availability and acquisition of energy efficient goods and services, including efforts to raise public awareness regarding demand-side management interventions. According to the National Directorate for Energy and Nuclear Technology (DNETN), grid-connected wind power generation is one of the domestic resources with both medium and long term potential in Uruguay.

text: Florida ranks forty-fifth in total energy consumption per capita, despite the heavy reliance on air conditioners and pool pumps. This includes coal, natural gas, petroleum, and retail electricity sales. It is estimated that approximately 4 percent of energy in the state is generated through renewable resources. Florida's energy production is 6.0% of the nation's total energy output, while total production of pollutants is lower, with figures of 5.6 percent for nitrogen oxide, 5.1 percent for carbon dioxide, and 3.5 percent for sulfur dioxide.

text: Florida ranks forty-fifth in total energy consumption per capita, despite the heavy reliance on air conditioners and pool pumps. This includes

text: coal

text: natural gas

text: petroleum

text: , and retail

text: electricity

text: sales. It is estimated that approximately 4 percent of energy in the state is generated through

text: renewable resources

text: . Florida's energy production is 6.0% of the nation's total energy output, while total production of pollutants is lower, with figures of 5.6 percent for

text: nitrogen oxide

text: , 5.1 percent for

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and 3.5 percent for

text: sulfur dioxide

text: An energy superpower is a nation that supplies large amounts of energy resources (crude oil, natural gas, coal, uranium, etc.) to a significant number of other states, and therefore has the potential to influence world markets to gain a political or economic advantage. It is used to describe Russia, and has been used with other countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Canada, Venezuela, and Iran. The United States is said to be a potential energy superpower because of its large shale gas reserves.

text: An energy superpower is a nation that supplies large amounts of energy

text: resources

text: crude oil

text: natural gas

text: coal

text: uranium

text: , etc.) to a significant number of other states, and therefore has the potential to influence world markets to gain a political or economic advantage. It is used to describe

text: Russia

text: , and has been used with other countries, such as

text: Saudi Arabia

text: Canada

text: Venezuela

text: , and

text: Iran

text: . The

text: United States

text: is said to be a potential energy superpower because of its large

text: shale gas

text: reserves.

text: Dependence on fossil fuels from regions or countries creates energy security risks for dependent countries. Oil dependence in particular has led to war, funding of radicals, monopolization, and socio-political instability. Fossil fuels are non-renewable, un-sustainable resources, which will eventually decline in production and become exhausted, with consequences to societies that remain dependent on them. Fossil fuels are actually slowly forming continuously, but are being consumed quicker than are formed. Extracting fuels becomes increasingly extreme as society consumes the most accessible fuel deposits. Extraction in fuel mines get intensive and oil rigs drill deeper (going further out to sea). Extraction of fossil fuels results in environmental degradation, such as the strip mining and mountaintop removal of coal.

text: Dependence on fossil fuels

text: from regions or countries creates

text: energy security

text: risks for dependent countries. Oil dependence in particular has led to war, funding of radicals, monopolization, and socio-political instability. Fossil fuels are non-

text: renewable

text: , un-

text: sustainable

text: resources, which will eventually

text: decline in production

text: and become exhausted, with consequences to societies that remain dependent on them. Fossil fuels are actually slowly forming continuously, but are

text: being consumed

text: quicker than are formed. Extracting fuels becomes increasingly extreme as society consumes the most accessible fuel deposits. Extraction in fuel

text: mine

text: s get intensive and

text: oil rig

text: s drill deeper (going further out to sea). Extraction of fossil fuels results in

text: environmental degradation

text: , such as the

text: strip mining

text: and

text: mountaintop removal

text: of coal.

text: The bill would also make appropriations for FY2014 to the United States Department of Energy (DOE) for energy and science programs, including: (1) energy efficiency and renewable energy, (2) electricity delivery and energy reliability, (3) nuclear energy, (4) fossil energy research and development, (5) naval petroleum and oil shale reserves, (6) the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) and the Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve, (7) the Energy Information Administration, (8) non-defense environmental cleanup, (9) the Uranium Enrichment Decontamination and Decommissioning Fund, (10) science activities, (11) the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), (12) the Title 17 Innovative Technology Loan Guarantee Loan Program, (13) the Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program, (14) departmental administration, (15) the Office of the Inspector General, (16) the National Nuclear Security Administration and atomic energy defense weapons activities, (17) defense nuclear nonproliferation activities, (18) naval reactors activities, (19) Office of the Administrator in the National Nuclear Security Administration, (20) defense environmental cleanup, and (21) other defense activities.

text: The bill would also make appropriations for FY2014 to the

text: United States Department of Energy

text: (DOE) for energy and science programs, including: (1)

text: energy efficiency

text: and

text: renewable energy

text: , (2) electricity delivery and energy reliability, (3)

text: nuclear energy

text: , (4)

text: fossil energy

text: research and development, (5) naval petroleum and

text: oil shale

text: reserves, (6) the

entity_name: Strategic Petroleum Reserve (United States)

text: Strategic Petroleum Reserve

text: (SPR) and the

text: Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve

text: , (7) the

text: Energy Information Administration

text: , (8) non-defense environmental cleanup, (9) the Uranium Enrichment Decontamination and Decommissioning Fund, (10) science activities, (11) the

text: Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy

text: (ARPA-E), (12) the Title 17 Innovative Technology Loan Guarantee Loan Program, (13) the Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program, (14) departmental administration, (15) the Office of the Inspector General, (16) the

entity_name: National Nuclear Security Administration

text: National Nuclear Security Administration

text: and atomic energy defense weapons activities, (17) defense nuclear nonproliferation activities, (18) naval reactors activities, (19) Office of the Administrator in the National Nuclear Security Administration, (20) defense environmental cleanup, and (21) other defense activities.

text: The effect of ethanol use on gasoline prices is the source of conflicting opinion from economic studies, further complicated by the non-market forces of tax credits, met and unmet government quotas, and the dramatic recent increase in domestic oil production.  According to a 2012 Massachusetts Institute of Technology analysis, ethanol, and biofuel in general, does not materially influence the price of gasoline, while a runup in the price of government mandated Renewable Identification Number credits has driven up the price of gasoline.  These in contrast to a May, 2012, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development study which showed a $0.29 to $1.09 reduction in per gallon gasoline price from ethanol use.

text: The effect of ethanol use on gasoline prices is the source of conflicting opinion from economic studies, further complicated by the non-market forces of tax credits, met and unmet government quotas, and the dramatic recent increase in domestic oil production.  According to a 2012

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

text: analysis, ethanol, and biofuel in general, does not materially influence the price of gasoline, while a runup in the price of government mandated

text: Renewable Identification Number

text: credits has driven up the price of gasoline.  These in contrast to a May, 2012, Center for Agricultural and Rural Development study which showed a $0.29 to $1.09 reduction in per gallon gasoline price from ethanol use.

text: Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates had anticipated. Wind turbines generate 39 percent of Danish electricity, and Denmark has many biogas digesters and waste-to-energy plants as well. Together, wind and biomass provide 44% of the electricity consumed by the country's six million inhabitants. In 2010, Portugal’s 10 million people produced more than half their electricity from indigenous renewable energy resources. Spain’s 40 million inhabitants meet one-third of their electrical needs from renewables.

text: Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates had anticipated.

text: Wind turbine

text: s generate 39 percent of Danish electricity, and Denmark has many biogas digesters and waste-to-energy plants as well. Together, wind and biomass provide 44% of the electricity consumed by the country's six million inhabitants. In 2010, Portugal’s 10 million people produced more than half their electricity from indigenous renewable energy resources. Spain’s 40 million inhabitants meet one-third of their electrical needs from renewables.

text: Some sixty anti-nuclear power groups are operating, or have operated, in the United States. These include: Abalone Alliance, Clamshell Alliance, Greenpeace USA, Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, Musicians United for Safe Energy, Nuclear Control Institute, Nuclear Information and Resource Service, Public Citizen Energy Program, Shad Alliance, and the Sierra Club.

text: Some sixty

entity_name: Anti-nuclear groups in the United States

text: anti-nuclear power groups

text: are operating, or have operated, in the United States. These include:

text: Abalone Alliance

text: Clamshell Alliance

text: Greenpeace USA

text: Musicians United for Safe Energy

text: Nuclear Control Institute

text: Public Citizen Energy Program

text: Shad Alliance

text: , and the

text: Sierra Club

text: And a fifth is that economic growth is largely related to the concept of energy returned on energy invested (EROEI), or energy surplus, which with the discovery of fossil fuels shot up to very high and historically unprecedented levels. This allowed, and in effect fueled, dramatic increases in human consumption since the Industrial Revolution and many related technological advances. Under this argument, diminishing and increasingly difficult to access fossil fuel reserves directly lead to significantly reduced EROEI, and therefore put a brake on, and potentially reverse, long-term economic growth, leading to secular stagnation. Linked to the EROEI argument are those stemming from the Limits to Growth school of thinking, whereby environmental and resource constraints in general are likely to impose an eventual limit on the continued expansion of human consumption and incomes. While 'limits to growth' thinking went out of fashion in the decades following the initial publication in 1972, a recent study shows human development continues to align well with the 'overshoot and collapse' projection outlined in the standard run of the original analysis, and this is before factoring in the potential effects of climate change.

text: And a fifth is that economic growth is largely related to the concept of

text: energy returned on energy invested

text: (EROEI), or energy surplus, which with the discovery of

text: fossil fuels

text: shot up to very high and historically unprecedented levels. This allowed, and in effect fueled, dramatic increases in human consumption since the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: and many related technological advances. Under this argument, diminishing and increasingly difficult to access fossil fuel reserves directly lead to significantly reduced EROEI, and therefore put a brake on, and potentially reverse, long-term economic growth, leading to secular stagnation. Linked to the EROEI argument are those stemming from the

text: Limits to Growth

text: school of thinking, whereby environmental and resource constraints in general are likely to impose an eventual limit on the continued expansion of human consumption and incomes. While 'limits to growth' thinking went out of fashion in the decades following the initial publication in 1972, a recent study shows human development continues to align well with the 'overshoot and collapse' projection outlined in the standard run of the original analysis, and this is before factoring in the potential effects of

text: climate change

text: An important renewable resource is wood provided by means of forestry, which is used for construction, housing and firewood since ancient times.   Plants provide the main sources for renewable resources, the main distinction is made between energy crops and Non-food crops. A large variety of lubricants, industrially used vegetable oils, textiles and fibre made e.g. of cotton, copra or hemp, paper derived from wood, rags or grasses, bioplastic are based on plant renewable resources. A large variety of chemical base products like latex, ethanol, resin, sugar and starch can be provided with plant renewables. Animal based renewables include fur, leather, technical fat and lubricants and further derived products, as e.g. animal glue, tendons, casings or in historical times ambra and baleen provided by whaling.

text: An important renewable resource is

text: wood

text: provided by means of

text: forestry

text: , which is used for construction, housing and firewood since ancient times.   Plants provide the main sources for renewable resources, the main distinction is made between

text: energy crop

text: s and

text: Non-food crop

text: s. A large variety of

text: lubricants

text: , industrially used vegetable oils, textiles and fibre made e.g. of

text: cotton

text: copra

text: or

text: hemp

text: paper

text: derived from

text: wood

text: rags

text: or

text: grass

text: es,

text: bioplastic

text: are based on plant renewable resources. A large variety of chemical base products like

text: latex

text: ethanol

text: resin

text: sugar

text: and

text: starch

text: can be provided with plant renewables. Animal based renewables include

text: fur

text: leather

text: , technical

text: fat

text: and lubricants and further derived products, as e.g.

text: animal glue

text: tendon

text: s,

text: casings

text: or in historical times

text: ambra

text: and

text: baleen

text: provided by

text: whaling

text: In May 2011, the Russian energy company Inter RAO announced that it had received a license to develop oil shale resources in the Negev desert. The company was said to be planning an oil extraction plant and a 150 MW oil shale-fired power plant.  The license ended on 9 April 2012 and was not renewed.

text: In May 2011, the Russian energy company

text: Inter RAO

text: announced that it had received a license to develop oil shale resources in the Negev desert. The company was said to be planning an oil extraction plant and a 150 MW oil shale-fired power plant.  The license ended on 9 April 2012 and was not renewed.

text: On 6 April, the television station MTV3 organised a debate for all the incumbent parties represented in the parliament. On the question of Finland's participation in NATO operations in Libya during the 2011 Libyan civil war, Soini, saying "Finland should not be taken into wars," was accompanied by the Left Alliance's leader Paavo Arhinmäki on disagreeing with the other party leaders' stance on supporting Finland's participation. All the opposition parties criticised the government's tax policies which they claimed were aiming towards the establishment of a flat tax. On the question of energy policy, the chairpersons of the NCP, True Finns and SPP were in favour of building more nuclear energy on the grounds of achieving energy self-sufficiency. Jyrki Katainen said that "we need to decide to either import nuclear energy from Russia or produce it ourselves" and Soini pointed out that the steel industry does not get along with mere wind energy,— while the leaders of the other five parties were against it, with some preferring instead to build more renewable energy infrastructure. Anni Sinnemäki of the Green League said that "not all renewable energy is expensive" and Urpilainen insisted that after the summer 2010 decisions to give licences for two nuclear plants, a halt was needed for reconsideration in any decision to further nuclear projects. Stefan Wallin of the SPP was the only party leader willing to force municipalities to take in the refugees allocated to them.

text: On 6 April, the television station

text: organised a debate for all the incumbent parties represented in the parliament. On the question of Finland's participation in NATO operations in

text: Libya

text: during the

text: 2011 Libyan civil war

text: , Soini, saying "Finland should not be taken into wars," was accompanied by the Left Alliance's leader Paavo Arhinmäki on disagreeing with the other party leaders' stance on supporting Finland's participation. All the opposition parties criticised the government's tax policies which they claimed were aiming towards the establishment of a

text: flat tax

text: . On the question of energy policy, the chairpersons of the NCP, True Finns and SPP were in favour of building more nuclear energy on the grounds of achieving energy self-sufficiency. Jyrki Katainen said that "we need to decide to either import nuclear energy from Russia or produce it ourselves" and Soini pointed out that the steel industry does not get along with mere

text: wind energy

text: ,— while the leaders of the other five parties were against it, with some preferring instead to build more

text: renewable energy

text: infrastructure. Anni Sinnemäki of the Green League said that "not all renewable energy is expensive" and Urpilainen insisted that after the summer 2010 decisions to give licences for two nuclear plants, a halt was needed for reconsideration in any decision to further nuclear projects. Stefan Wallin of the SPP was the only party leader willing to force municipalities to take in the refugees allocated to them.

text: The Coalition advocates increased federal support for energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies.  They also recommend reducing federal support for non-sustainable energy resources (by virtue of their polluting qualities, or safety issues involved in their extraction or waste generation)

text: The Coalition advocates increased federal support for

text: energy efficiency

text: and

text: renewable energy

text: technologies.  They also recommend reducing federal support for non-sustainable energy resources (by virtue of their polluting qualities, or safety issues involved in their extraction or waste generation)

text: However the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh government had tentatively proposed the FRL level 112.77 m MSL fearing some coal deposits would be submerged above this level. The delay in taking up this project is boon in disguise to Telangana state. Presently underground coal gasification technology is very well developed and in commercial use. This technology is used to exploit coal deposits located deep in the underground (600 meters depth & more), the abandoned underground coal mines and also coal deposits located in seabed. The latest technology adopted from oil & gas wells drilling such as serpentine drilling / in seam drilling, guided drilling, bunching of wells, etc. has made in situ coal gasification technology a reliable and commercial proposition. With underground coal gasification technology, the coal deposits (if any), which got submerged under the reservoir water, can be exploited economically. Moreover, coal deposits are losing importance as this highly pollution causing energy source has become costly compared to abundant and pollution free renewable energy sources such as wind power and solar power in India.

text: However the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh government had tentatively proposed the FRL level 112.77 m MSL fearing some coal deposits would be submerged above this level. The delay in taking up this project is boon in disguise to Telangana state. Presently

text: underground coal gasification

text: technology is very well developed and in commercial use. This technology is used to exploit coal deposits located deep in the underground (600 meters depth & more), the abandoned underground coal mines and also coal deposits located in seabed. The latest technology adopted from oil & gas wells drilling such as serpentine drilling / in seam drilling, guided drilling, bunching of wells, etc. has made in situ coal gasification technology a reliable and commercial proposition. With underground coal gasification technology, the coal deposits (if any), which got submerged under the reservoir water, can be exploited economically. Moreover, coal deposits are losing importance as this highly pollution causing energy source has become costly compared to abundant and pollution free

text: renewable energy

text: sources such as

text: wind power

text: and

text: solar power

text: in India.

text: To extract the oil, the seeds are roasted, then mashed, and the oil extracted. The oil serves several purposes, and can be used to soften leather, oiling bowstrings, or as a general ointment. Alternatively, the oil can be used cosmetically for the hair or for the skin to soothe chafing. The oil can also be used as fuel for lamps.

text: To extract the oil, the seeds are roasted, then mashed, and the oil extracted. The oil serves several purposes, and can be used to soften leather, oiling bowstrings, or as a general

text: ointment

text: . Alternatively, the oil can be used cosmetically for the hair or for the skin to soothe

text: chafing

text: . The oil can also be used as fuel for lamps.

text: In 2009, the US Congress considered Federal level RPS requirements.  The "American Clean Energy and Security Act" reported out of committee in July by the Senate Committee on Energy & Natural Resources includes a Renewable Electricity Standard that calls for 3% of U.S. electrical generation to come from non-hydro renewables by 2011–2013. However, the proposed Support Renewable Energy Act died in the 111th Congress.

text: In 2009, the US Congress considered Federal level RPS requirements.  The "

text: American Clean Energy and Security Act

text: " reported out of committee in July by the Senate Committee on Energy & Natural Resources includes a Renewable Electricity Standard that calls for 3% of U.S. electrical generation to come from non-hydro renewables by 2011–2013. However, the proposed

text: Support Renewable Energy Act

text: died in the 111th Congress.

text: Variable renewable energy (VRE) is a renewable energy source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature, like wind power and solar power, as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as hydroelectricity, or biomass, or a relatively constant source such as geothermal power or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity. Skeptics of wind and solar power warn of their variable output, but many studies have shown that the grid can cope, and it is doing so in Denmark, Germany, and Spain.

text: Variable renewable energy (VRE) is a

text: renewable energy

text: source that is non-dispatchable due to its fluctuating nature, like

text: wind power

text: and

text: solar power

text: , as opposed to a controllable renewable energy source such as

text: hydroelectricity

text: , or

text: biomass

text: , or a relatively constant source such as

text: geothermal

text: power or

text: run-of-the-river hydroelectricity

text: . Skeptics of wind and solar power warn of their variable output, but many studies have shown that the grid can cope, and it is doing so in

text: Denmark

text: Germany

text: , and

text: Spain

text: A February Institute for Science and International Security report argued there was a perceived "fundamental inconsistency" between the stated purposes and available information on the capabilities of Iran's domestic uranium production program. The report, citing data published by Iran and the IAEA on Iran's uranium resources, argued that those resources are sufficient for developing a weapons capability, but would not meet the requirements for even a single power reactor. The report stated that "the absence of activity at one of Iran's two uranium mines casts further doubt on its claims that it can establish independence in the fuel cycle required for a civil nuclear energy program."[ The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran responded to this and related stories by saying it had sufficient uranium mines. The Foreign Ministry of Iran said Western claims of a uranium shortage were "media speculation without any scientific basis" and that Iran was not seeking uranium on international markets. The Atomic Energy Organization of Iran has said surveys had shown proven reserves of approximately 3,000 tons of uranium so far and that the expected resources of Iran could be at the range of 20,000–30,000 tons. The organization said that "according to all the surveys performed in power sector of Iran, nuclear option is the most competitive to fossil alternatives if the existing low domestic fuel prices are gradually increased to its opportunity costs at the level of international prices." In effect, the Bush administration took the position that Iran was too dangerous to be allowed "the technology to produce nuclear material for electricity".

text: A February

entity_name: Institute for Science and International Security

text: Institute for Science and International Security

text: Navarre lacks thermal, nuclear, coal, oil, gas fields, or hefty hydro-electric power stations, but does possess considerable wind renewable resources, which the Government of Navarre pursued to drop its external energy dependence.Navarre was entirely reliant on imported energy until wind-power development and utilization began progress in 1996.

text: Nuclear reactors create energy through fission, as opposed to burning fuel.  Because of this, no greenhouse gases are produced in the energy creation process.  Nuclear energy is completely self-contained and produces no airborne by-products.  The waste created through nuclear power is contained in the reactor and is disposed of when the vessel is decommissioned or the reactor is replaced.

text: Nuclear reactors create energy through fission, as opposed to burning fuel.  Because of this, no

text: greenhouse gases

text: are produced in the energy creation process.  Nuclear energy is completely self-contained and produces no airborne by-products.  The waste created through nuclear power is contained in the reactor and is disposed of when the vessel is decommissioned or the reactor is replaced.

text: On April 21, 2011, Greenpeace released a report highlighting the fact that data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase. Phil Radford of Greenpeace said "we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today." On April 17, 2012, following a Greenpeace protest of Apple, Apple Inc. released a statement committing to ending its use of coal and shifting to 100% clean energy. In 2013 Apple announced it was using 100% renewable energy to power their data centers, and overall 75% of its power comes from renewable sources.

text: On April 21, 2011,

text: Greenpeace

text: released a report highlighting the fact that data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase.

text: Phil Radford

text: of Greenpeace said "we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today." On April 17, 2012, following a Greenpeace protest of Apple, Apple Inc. released a statement committing to ending its use of coal and shifting to 100% clean energy. In 2013 Apple announced it was using 100% renewable energy to power their data centers, and overall 75% of its power comes from renewable sources.

text: Nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low fuel costs. Although nuclear power plants can vary their output the electricity is generally less favorably priced when doing so. Nuclear power plants are therefore typically run as much as possible to keep the cost of the generated electrical energy as low as possible, supplying mostly base-load electricity.

text: Nuclear power plant

text: s typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low fuel costs. Although nuclear power plants can vary their output the electricity is generally less favorably priced when doing so. Nuclear power plants are therefore typically run as much as possible to keep the cost of the generated electrical energy as low as possible, supplying mostly base-load electricity.

text: The ethanol market share in the U.S. gasoline supply grew by volume from just over 1 percent in 2000 to more than 3 percent in 2006 to 10 percent in 2011. Domestic production capacity  increased fifteen times after 1990, from 900 million US gallons to 1.63 billion US gal in 2000, to 13.5 billion US gallons in 2010. The Renewable Fuels Association reported 209 ethanol distilleries in operation located in 29 states in 2011, and 140 under construction or expansion as of December 2011, that upon completion, would bring U.S. total installed capacity to 15.0 billion US gallons. Most expansion projects are aimed to update the refinery's technology to improve ethanol production,energy efficiency, and the quality of the livestock feed they produce.

text: The ethanol market share in the U.S. gasoline supply grew by volume from just over 1 percent in 2000 to more than 3 percent in 2006 to 10 percent in 2011. Domestic production capacity  increased fifteen times after 1990, from 900 million US gallons to 1.63 billion US gal in 2000, to 13.5 billion US gallons in 2010. The

text: Renewable Fuels Association

text: reported 209 ethanol distilleries in operation located in 29 states in 2011, and 140 under construction or expansion as of December 2011, that upon completion, would bring U.S. total installed capacity to 15.0 billion US gallons. Most expansion projects are aimed to update the refinery's technology to improve ethanol production,energy efficiency, and the quality of the livestock feed they produce.

text: The main contributors of waste energy are municipal solid waste, manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Energy derived from biomass is projected to be the largest non-hydroelectric renewable resource of electricity in the US between 2000 and 2020.

text: The main contributors of

text: waste energy

text: are

text: municipal solid waste

text: manufacturing waste

text: , and

text: landfill gas

text: . Energy derived from biomass is projected to be the largest non-hydroelectric renewable resource of electricity in the US between 2000 and 2020.

text: Rabbit-proof fence- Rabbits in Australia- Rachel Carson- Radiative forcing- Radical environmentalism- Radio Frequency Interference- Radioactive decay- Radioactive waste- Rain garden- Ralph Nader- Ramsar Convention- Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance- RealClimate- Rechargeable battery- Reclaimed water- Reconciliation Ecology- Rectenna- Recumbent bicycle- Recycling- Recycling of PET Bottles- Recycling Symbol- Red panda- Red tide- Reducing environment- Refined resource- Reforestation- Refrigerant- Refurbishment- Regenerative (design)- Regenerative fuel cell- Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals- Remanufacturing- Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory- Renewable energy- Renewable energy commercialization- Renewable energy development- Renewable resource- Renovation- Repair and maintenance- Research institutes- Research Natural Area- Residual fuel- Resin identification code- Resource- Resource Conservation and Recovery Act- Resource curse- Resource depletion- Resource economics- Resource extraction- Resource Management Act 1991- Resource rent- Respect diversity- Respect for diversity- Restoration ecology- Restricted use pesticides- Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive- Resurrection ecology- Reuse- Right of public access to the wilderness- Rimini protocol- Rio Declaration on Environment and Development- Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve- Road pricing- Road verge- Roads Beautifying Association- Roads to Resources Program- Roof garden- Royal Society of Wildlife Trusts- RTECS- Runoff (water)- Rush hour

text: Rabbit-proof fence

text: Rabbits in Australia

text: Rachel Carson

text: Radiative forcing

text: Radical environmentalism

text: Radio Frequency Interference

text: Radioactive decay

text: Radioactive waste

text: Rain garden

text: Ralph Nader

text: Ramsar Convention

entity_name: List of Ramsar wetlands of international importance

text: Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance

text: RealClimate

text: Rechargeable battery

text: Reclaimed water

text: Reconciliation Ecology

text: Rectenna

text: Recumbent bicycle

text: Recycling

text: Recycling of PET Bottles

text: Recycling Symbol

text: Red panda

text: Red tide

text: Reducing environment

text: Refined resource

text: Reforestation

text: Refrigerant

text: Refurbishment

text: Regenerative (design)

text: Regenerative fuel cell

entity_name: Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals

text: Registration, Evaluation and Authorization of Chemicals

text: Remanufacturing

entity_name: Research centers and laboratories at the University of California, Berkeley

text: Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory

text: Renewable energy

text: Renewable energy commercialization

text: Renewable energy development

text: Renewable resource

text: Renovation

text: Repair and maintenance

entity_name: List of environmental research institutes

text: Research institutes

text: Research Natural Area

text: Residual fuel

text: Resin identification code

text: Resource

text: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

text: Resource curse

text: Resource depletion

text: Resource economics

text: Resource extraction

text: Resource Management Act 1991

text: Resource rent

text: Respect diversity

text: Respect for diversity

text: Restoration ecology

text: Restricted use pesticides

entity_name: Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive

text: Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive

text: Resurrection ecology

text: Reuse

text: Right of public access to the wilderness

text: Rimini protocol

entity_name: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

text: Rio Declaration on Environment and Development

text: Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve

text: Road pricing

text: Road verge

text: Roads Beautifying Association

text: Roads to Resources Program

text: Roof garden

text: Royal Society of Wildlife Trusts

entity_name: Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances

text: RTECS

text: Runoff (water)

text: Rush hour

text: NETL provides technical, administrative, and project management services to customers within DOE and other federal agencies. NETL primarily manages research, development, demonstration, and deployment activities for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) and the DOE Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE). These projects and activities are related to energy efficiency in vehicles, buildings, and manufacturing facilities, as well as the enhancement, security and reliability of America’s electrical and natural gas transmission and distribution systems. NETL manages activities on behalf of the EERE Vehicle Technologies Office, especially EERE’s efforts to advance the development and deployment of advanced vehicle technologies, including electric vehicles, engine efficiency, and lightweight materials. In addition, NETL supports administration of the Clean Cities Program, which increases the use of alternative fuels for transportation by building coalitions of state and local governments, private industry, non-profit organizations, and fleet managers. For the EERE Building Technologies Office, NETL supports the Solid-State Lighting Initiative, which is pursuing next-generation lighting technologies that will eventually replace the traditional incandescent light bulb. NETL is also managing Combined Heat and Power and Distributed Generation project activities on behalf of the EERE Advanced Manufacturing Office. For OE, NETL actively participates in DOE’s response to disruptions to our nation’s energy infrastructure, such as hurricanes and other natural disasters, and is laying the groundwork to modernize the national electric grid.

text: NETL provides technical, administrative, and project management services to customers within DOE and other federal agencies. NETL primarily manages research, development, demonstration, and deployment activities for the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) and the DOE Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE). These projects and activities are related to energy efficiency in vehicles, buildings, and manufacturing facilities, as well as the enhancement, security and reliability of America’s electrical and natural gas transmission and distribution systems. NETL manages activities on behalf of the EERE Vehicle Technologies Office, especially EERE’s efforts to advance the development and deployment of advanced vehicle technologies, including electric vehicles, engine efficiency, and lightweight materials. In addition, NETL supports administration of the

text: Clean Cities

text: Program, which increases the use of alternative fuels for transportation by building coalitions of state and local governments, private industry, non-profit organizations, and fleet managers. For the EERE Building Technologies Office, NETL supports the Solid-State Lighting Initiative, which is pursuing next-generation lighting technologies that will eventually replace the traditional incandescent light bulb. NETL is also managing Combined Heat and Power and Distributed Generation project activities on behalf of the EERE Advanced Manufacturing Office. For OE, NETL actively participates in DOE’s response to disruptions to our nation’s energy infrastructure, such as hurricanes and other natural disasters, and is laying the groundwork to modernize the national electric grid.

text: Italy consumed about 185 Mtoe of primary energy in 2010. This came mostly from fossil fuels. Among the most used resources are petroleum (mostly used for the transport sector), natural gas (used for electric energy production and heating), coal and renewables.

text: Italy

text: consumed about 185

text: Mtoe

text: of

text: primary energy

text: in 2010. This came mostly from

text: fossil fuels

text: . Among the most used resources are

text: petroleum

text: (mostly used for the transport sector),

text: natural gas

text: (used for electric energy production and heating),

text: coal

text: and

text: renewables

text: Gasoline is the most widely used liquid fuel. Gasoline, as it is known in United States and Canada, or petrol virtually everywhere else, is made of hydrocarbon molecules (compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only) forming aliphatic compounds, or chains of carbons with hydrogen atoms attached. However, many aromatic compounds (carbon chains forming rings) such as benzene are found naturally in gasoline and cause the health risks associated with prolonged exposure to the fuel.

text: Gasoline is the most widely used liquid fuel. Gasoline, as it is known in United States and Canada, or petrol virtually everywhere else, is made of hydrocarbon

text: molecules

text: (compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon only) forming

text: aliphatic compound

text: s, or chains of carbons with hydrogen atoms attached. However, many

text: aromatic compound

text: s (carbon chains forming rings) such as

text: benzene

text: are found naturally in gasoline and cause the health risks associated with prolonged exposure to the fuel.

text: In addition, although it only makes a minor contribution to the total, Japan was the world's second largest producer of photovoltaic electricity in early 2000s, until overtaken by Germany in 2005, a year in which it had 38% of the world supply compared to Germany's 39%.In December 2011, Tohoku Electric Power began operating a solar power plant in Hachinohe, Aomori. The 10,000 panel plant, occupying a 50,000 square meter site, is expected to produce 1.6 million kwh of electricity a year, about the equivalent needed to power 500 households. On 1 July 2012, new tariffs for renewable energy were introduced by the Japanese government. Tariffs, set at ¥42 per kWh over the next 20 years to solar power producers, are among the highest in the world. They are expected to provide incentive for widespread expansion of solar power energy sources in the country.With the incentives in place after the nuclear disaster at Fukushima, Japan has added 1,394 MW of renewable energy in 2012. One third of the renewable energy is solar energy, with production increasing for additional solar installations in 2013.Tariffs are expected to increase Japan's share of renewable energy to 20% by 2020. Japan's total solar capacity was 7.4GW at the end of 2012. A gigawatt can supply power to an estimated 250,000 homes.

text: In addition, although it only makes a minor contribution to the total, Japan was the world's second largest producer of

text: photovoltaic electricity

text: in early 2000s, until overtaken by

text: Germany

text: in 2005, a year in which it had 38% of the world supply compared to Germany's 39%.In December 2011,

text: Tohoku Electric Power

text: began operating a solar power plant in

text: Hachinohe, Aomori

text: . The 10,000 panel plant, occupying a 50,000 square meter site, is expected to produce 1.6 million kwh of electricity a year, about the equivalent needed to power 500 households. On 1 July 2012, new tariffs for renewable energy were introduced by the Japanese government. Tariffs, set at ¥42 per kWh over the next 20 years to solar power producers, are among the highest in the world. They are expected to provide incentive for widespread expansion of solar power energy sources in the country.With the incentives in place after the nuclear disaster at Fukushima, Japan has added 1,394 MW of renewable energy in 2012. One third of the renewable energy is solar energy, with production increasing for additional solar installations in 2013.Tariffs are expected to increase Japan's share of renewable energy to 20% by 2020. Japan's total solar capacity was 7.4GW at the end of 2012. A gigawatt can supply power to an estimated 250,000 homes.

text: Natural gas originates by the same geological thermal cracking process that converts kerogen to petroleum.  As a consequence, oil and natural gas are often found together.  In common usage, deposits rich in oil are known as oil fields, and deposits rich in natural gas are called natural gas fields.

text: Natural gas

text: originates by the same geological

text: thermal cracking

text: process that converts

text: kerogen

text: to

text: petroleum

text: .  As a consequence, oil and natural gas are often found together.  In common usage, deposits rich in oil are known as

text: oil field

text: s, and deposits rich in natural gas are called natural gas fields.

text: Fossil-fuel companies currently have about 2,795 gigatons of carbon already contained in their proven coal and oil and gas reserves, and is the amount of fossil fuels they are currently planning to burn. 2,795 gigatons is five times higher than the limit of 565 gigatons that would keep Earth under a global temperature increase of 2 degrees Celsius.

text: Efforts to develop an open-pit coal mine in Phulbari, Dinajpur District, have met with large, violent protests in 2006 because of feared environmental effects, and six people were killed and hundreds injured. At the time, the government closed the project, for which it was working with Asia Energy (now Global Coal Resources). It was encouraged in December 2009 to re-open it by the United States ambassador in private communication. In October 2010 protesters make a week-long march from Phulbari to Dhaka against the mine; a coalition of other groups protested at a Global Coal Resources meeting in London.

text: Efforts to develop an open-pit coal mine in

text: Phulbari

text: Dinajpur District

text: , have met with large, violent protests in 2006 because of feared environmental effects, and six people were killed and hundreds injured. At the time, the government closed the project, for which it was working with

text: Asia Energy

text: (now Global Coal Resources). It was encouraged in December 2009 to re-open it by the United States ambassador in private communication. In October 2010 protesters make a week-long march from Phulbari to Dhaka against the mine; a coalition of other groups protested at a Global Coal Resources meeting in London.

text: The first CLOUD experiments showed that sulphuric acid (derived from sulphur dioxide, for which fossil fuels are the predominant source) as such has a much smaller effect than had been assumed. In 2014, CLOUD researchers presented newer experimental results showing an interaction between oxidised biogenic vapours (e.g., alpha-pinene emitted by trees) and sulphuric acid. Ions produced in the atmosphere by galactic cosmic rays enhance the formation rate of these particles significantly, provided the concentrations of sulphuric acid and oxidised organic vapours are quite low. This new process may account for seasonal variations in atmospheric aerosol particles, which are being related to higher global tree emissions in the northern hemisphere summer.

text: A 2004 study by the Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL) at UC Berkeley reported that the renewable energy sector generates more jobs than the fossil fuel-based energy sector per unit of energy delivered (i.e., per average megawatt) across a broad range of scenarios. Contrarily, a report by Gabriel Calzada Alvarez analyzing the impact of an eleven-year Green energy project in Spain concluded that the U.S. should expect a loss of at least 2.2 jobs on average for each "green job" created, or about 9 jobs lost for every 4 created, in addition to those jobs that non-subsidized investments with the same resources would have created. A rebuttal to the Spanish study by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) presented numerous allegations of methodological flaws in the Spanish study, citing outdated data, non-standard measures of job creation, and a lack of accompanying statistical analysis among the limitations of the study.

text: A 2004 study by the Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL) at UC Berkeley reported that the renewable energy sector generates more jobs than the fossil fuel-based energy sector per unit of energy delivered (i.e., per average megawatt) across a broad range of scenarios. Contrarily, a report by

text: Gabriel Calzada Alvarez

text: analyzing the impact of an eleven-year Green energy project in Spain concluded that the U.S. should expect a loss of at least 2.2 jobs on average for each "green job" created, or about 9 jobs lost for every 4 created, in addition to those jobs that non-subsidized investments with the same resources would have created. A rebuttal to the Spanish study by the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: (NREL) presented numerous allegations of methodological flaws in the Spanish study, citing outdated data, non-standard measures of job creation, and a lack of accompanying statistical analysis among the limitations of the study.

text: Oil is the fuel extracted from oil rigs.  There are two forms of oil:  crude and refined.  Crude oil is the base form of oil extracted from oil rigs.  Refined oil is obtained by constructing an Oil Refinery.  Refined oil is the final type of fuel used to power and produce certain units.  75 crude oil converts to 1 refined oil. The oil extraction rate per hour is currently up to 120 crude oil.

text: In Finland district heating accounts for about 50% of the total heating market, 80% of which is produced by combined heat and power plants. Over 90% of apartment blocks, more than half of all terraced houses, and the bulk of public buildings and business premises are connected to a district heating network. Natural gas is mostly used in the south-east gas pipeline network, imported coal is used in areas close to ports, and peat is used in northern areas where peat is a natural resource. Other renewables, such as wood chips and other paper industry combustible by-products, are also used, as is the energy recovered by the incineration of municipal solid waste. Industrial units which generate heat as an industrial by-product may sell otherwise waste heat to the network rather than release it into the environment. Excess heat and power from pulp mill recovery boilers is a significant source in mill towns. In some towns waste incineration can contribute as much as 8% of the district heating heat requirement. Availability is 99.98% and disruptions, when they do occur, usually reduce temperatures by only a few degrees.

text: In Finland district heating accounts for about 50% of the total heating market, 80% of which is produced by combined heat and power plants. Over 90% of apartment blocks, more than half of all terraced houses, and the bulk of public buildings and business premises are connected to a district heating network.

text: Natural gas

text: is mostly used in the south-east gas pipeline network, imported

text: coal

text: is used in areas close to ports, and

text: peat

text: is used in northern areas where peat is a natural resource. Other renewables, such as wood chips and other paper industry combustible by-products, are also used, as is the energy recovered by the

text: incineration

text: of

text: municipal solid waste

text: . Industrial units which generate heat as an industrial by-product may sell otherwise waste heat to the network rather than release it into the environment. Excess heat and power from

text: pulp mill

text: recovery boiler

text: s is a significant source in mill towns. In some towns waste incineration can contribute as much as 8% of the district heating heat requirement.

text: Availability

text: is 99.98% and disruptions, when they do occur, usually reduce temperatures by only a few degrees.

text: In 2004, the California Public Utilities Commission approved SDG&E's long-term energy resource plan, which relies on a balanced mix of resources to meet the growing energy needs of San Diego. That mix includes increased emphasis on energy efficiency, more renewable energy resources, and additional baseload generation plants and transmission capacity. In 2014 SDG&E had a renewables mix of 36.4%, more than the 33% requirement by 2020.

text: In 2004, the

text: California Public Utilities Commission

text: approved SDG&E's long-term energy resource plan, which relies on a balanced mix of resources to meet the growing energy needs of San Diego. That mix includes increased emphasis on energy efficiency, more renewable energy resources, and additional baseload generation plants and transmission capacity. In 2014 SDG&E had a

text: renewables mix

text: of 36.4%, more than the 33% requirement by 2020.

text: According to Ford Motor Company, "when FCVs are run on hydrogen reformed from natural gas using this process, they do not provide significant environmental benefits on a well-to-wheels basis (due to GHG emissions from the natural gas reformation process)." While methods of hydrogen production that do not use fossil fuel would be more sustainable, currently renewable energy represents only a small percentage of energy generated, and power produced from renewable sources can be used in electric vehicles and for non-vehicle applications.

text: Solar Radiation Resource Assessment stations (51 nos) have been installed across India by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) to create a database of solar energy potential. Data is collected and reported to the Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET), in order to create a Solar Atlas. In June 2015, India started a  project to measure solar radiation with a spatial resolution of 3 km x 3 km. This solar radiation measuring network will provide the basis for the functioning of the Indian Solar Radiation Atlas. According to officials at NIWE, the Solar Radiation Resource Assessment wing (SRRA) 121 ground stations would measure the three parameters of solar radiation: Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) to give a highly accurate measure of solar radiation in a particular region.

text: Solar Radiation Resource Assessment stations (51 nos) have been installed across India by the

text: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

text: (MNRE) to create a database of solar energy potential. Data is collected and reported to the Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET), in order to create a Solar Atlas. In June 2015, India started a  project to measure solar radiation with a spatial resolution of 3 km x 3 km. This solar radiation measuring network will provide the basis for the functioning of the Indian Solar Radiation Atlas. According to officials at NIWE, the Solar Radiation Resource Assessment wing (SRRA) 121 ground stations would measure the three parameters of solar radiation: Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI) to give a highly accurate measure of solar radiation in a particular region.

text: The estimates of remaining non-renewable worldwide energy resources vary, with the remaining fossil fuels totaling an estimated 0.4  yottajoule (YJ) or 4 × 10 joules, and the available nuclear fuel such as uranium exceeding 2.5 YJ. Fossil fuels range from 0.6 to 3 YJ if estimates of reserves of methane clathrates are accurate and become technically extractable. The total power flux from the sun intercepting the Earth is 5.5 YJ per year, though not all of this is available for human consumption. The IEA estimates for the world to meet global energy demand for the two decades from 2015 to 2035 it will require investment of $48 trillion and "credible policy frameworks."

text: The estimates of remaining non-renewable worldwide energy resources vary, with the remaining fossil fuels totaling an estimated 0.4  yottajoule (

text: YJ

text: ) or 4 × 10 joules, and the available nuclear fuel such as

text: uranium

text: exceeding 2.5 YJ. Fossil fuels range from 0.6 to 3 YJ if estimates of reserves of

text: methane clathrates

text: are accurate and become technically extractable. The total power flux from the sun intercepting the Earth is 5.5 YJ per year, though not all of this is available for human consumption. The IEA estimates for the world to meet global energy demand for the two decades from 2015 to 2035 it will require investment of $48 trillion and "credible policy frameworks."

text: Of all the state-based RPS programs in place today, no two are the same. Each has been designed taking into account state-specific policy objectives (e.g.  economic growth, diversity of energy supply, environmental concerns), local resource endowment, political considerations, and the capacity to expand renewable energy production. At the most basic level, this gives rise to differing RPS targets and years (e.g. Arizona's 15% by 2025 and Colorado's 30% by 2020). Other factors in program design include resource eligibility, in-state requirements, new build requirements, technology favoritism, lobbying by industry associations and non-profits, groups cost caps, program coverage (IOUs versus Cooperatives and Municipal utilities), cost recovery by utilities, penalties for non-compliance, rules regarding REC creation and trading, and additional non-binding goals. Since RPS programs create a mandate to purchase renewable energy, they create a lucrative captive market of buyers for renewable energy producers who are eligible in a particular state's RPS program to issue RECs. A state may choose to promote new investment in renewable energy generation capacity by not making eligible existing renewable energy such as hydroelectric plants or geothermal energy to qualify under an RPS program.

text: Of all the state-based RPS programs in place today, no two are the same. Each has been designed taking into account state-specific policy objectives (e.g.  economic growth, diversity of energy supply, environmental concerns), local resource endowment, political considerations, and the capacity to expand renewable energy production. At the most basic level, this gives rise to differing RPS targets and years (e.g. Arizona's 15% by 2025 and Colorado's 30% by 2020). Other factors in program design include resource eligibility, in-state requirements, new build requirements, technology favoritism, lobbying by industry associations and non-profits, groups cost caps, program coverage (IOUs versus Cooperatives and Municipal utilities), cost recovery by utilities, penalties for non-compliance, rules regarding REC creation and trading, and additional non-binding goals. Since RPS programs create a mandate to purchase renewable energy, they create a lucrative

text: captive market

text: of buyers for renewable energy producers who are eligible in a particular state's RPS program to issue RECs. A state may choose to promote new investment in renewable energy generation capacity by not making eligible existing renewable energy such as hydroelectric plants or geothermal energy to qualify under an RPS program.

text: First Electric states that it supports fuel diversity, including power generation through a mix of energy resources including renewable energy, nuclear power, natural gas and clean coal. The utility says a balanced approach to power generation will help ensure affordable, reliable sources of power.

text: The new stadium project aimed to ensure a low environmental impact to the nature and its surroundings via the use of advanced state of the art sustainable technologies. This stadium will be constructed to reduce energy consumption from non-renewable energy sources by reducing waste and optimizing the resources available.The Green Building concept of Vodafone Arena ensures environment friendly and resource efficient processes at each stage of construction, right from site selection and designing to construction by using Green Building certified construction materials, operation followed by maintenance, renovation or even demolition to seek minimum possible impact on environment.

text: The new stadium project aimed to ensure a low environmental impact to the nature and its surroundings via the use of advanced state of the art sustainable technologies. This stadium will be constructed to reduce energy consumption from non-renewable energy sources by reducing waste and optimizing the resources available.The

text: Green Building

text: concept of Vodafone Arena ensures environment friendly and resource efficient processes at each stage of construction, right from site selection and designing to construction by using Green Building certified construction materials, operation followed by maintenance, renovation or even demolition to seek minimum possible impact on environment.

text: One of the biggest problems currently facing natural gas providers is the ability to store and transport it. With its low density, it is difficult to build enough pipelines in North America to transport sufficient natural gas to match demand. These pipelines are reaching near capacity and even at full capacity do not produce the amount of gas needed.

text: Water can be considered a renewable material when carefully controlled usage, treatment, and release are followed. If not, it would become a non-renewable resource at that location. For example, groundwater is usually removed from an aquifer at a rate much greater than its very slow natural recharge, and so groundwater is considered non-renewable. Removal of water from the pore spaces may cause permanent compaction (subsidence) that cannot be renewed. 97.5% of the water on the Earth is salt water, and 3% is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction (0.008%) present above ground or in the air.

text: Water

text: can be considered a renewable material when carefully controlled usage, treatment, and release are followed. If not, it would become a non-renewable resource at that location. For example,

text: groundwater

text: is usually removed from an

text: aquifer

text: at a rate much greater than its very slow natural recharge, and so groundwater is considered non-renewable. Removal of water from the pore spaces may cause permanent compaction (

text: subsidence

text: ) that cannot be renewed. 97.5% of the water on the Earth is salt water, and 3% is

text: fresh water

text: ; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in

text: glacier

text: s and

text: polar

text: ice cap

text: s. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction (0.008%) present above ground or in the air.

text: In January 2012, the campaign group Energy Fair, supported by a number of other organisations and environmentalists, filed a formal complaint with the European Commission over alleged unlawful State aid in the form of subsidies for nuclear power industry, in breach of European Union competition law. It claims that the subsidies arise from underwriting commercial risk and decommissioning costs, protection against terrorist attacks, the disposal of nuclear waste, and by providing 'institutional support' in the form of various government funded or subsidised bodies such as the National Nuclear Laboratory, the Nuclear Institute, and Nuclear Decommissioning Authority without providing corresponding levels of support for renewable technologies, without which nuclear power would not be commercially viable, so distorting the energy market. The group claims that the subsidies divert resources from renewable technologies that would 'cut emissions more deeply, more quickly, more cheaply, and with none of the risks and other problems with nuclear power'.

text: In January 2012, the campaign group

text: Energy Fair

text: , supported by a number of other organisations and environmentalists, filed a formal complaint with the

text: European Commission

text: over alleged unlawful State aid in the form of subsidies for nuclear power industry, in breach of

text: European Union competition law

text: . It claims that the subsidies arise from underwriting commercial risk and decommissioning costs, protection against terrorist attacks, the disposal of nuclear waste, and by providing 'institutional support' in the form of various government funded or subsidised bodies such as the

text: National Nuclear Laboratory

text: , the

text: Nuclear Institute

text: , and

text: Nuclear Decommissioning Authority

text: without providing corresponding levels of support for renewable technologies, without which nuclear power would not be commercially viable, so distorting the energy market. The group claims that the subsidies divert resources from renewable technologies that would 'cut emissions more deeply, more quickly, more cheaply, and with none of the risks and other problems with nuclear power'.

text: In April 2016, construction began for the largest onshore windpower project in Europe on the Fosen Peninsula near Trondheim, doubling Norway's windpower capacity. The project, which would produce approximately 3.4 terawatt hours annually (enough energy to power 170,000 Norwegian homes), has been promoted as an important source of renewable energy exports to other areas of Europe (as Norway already generates 98% of its own electricity through renewable resources). However, the economic viability and actual effect of reduction on fossil fuel usage in the European energy market is subject to significant dispute.

text: In April 2016, construction began for the largest onshore windpower project in Europe on the

text: Fosen Peninsula

text: near

text: Trondheim

text: , doubling Norway's windpower capacity. The project, which would produce approximately 3.4 terawatt hours annually (enough energy to power 170,000 Norwegian homes), has been promoted as an important source of renewable energy exports to other areas of Europe (as Norway already generates 98% of its own electricity through renewable resources). However, the economic viability and actual effect of reduction on fossil fuel usage in the European energy market is subject to significant dispute.

text: INL is pioneering the research and testing associated with hybrid energy systems that combine multiple energy sources for optimum carbon management and energy production. For example, a nuclear reactor could provide electricity when certain renewable resources aren't available, while also providing a carbon-free source of heat and hydrogen that could be used, for example, to make liquid transportation fuels from coal.

text: The lowest level of the dividend (1%) is still likely to have a big impact on international development goals (e.g. the Millennium Development Goals). Supporters of the Global Resources Dividend argue that it would also have an environmental benefit by reducing demand for non-renewable energy sources.

text: The lowest level of the dividend (1%) is still likely to have a big impact on international development goals (e.g. the

text: Millennium Development Goals

text: ). Supporters of the Global Resources Dividend argue that it would also have an environmental benefit by reducing demand for non-renewable energy sources.

text: The concept of a "backstop" resource is a resource that is sufficiently abundant and sustainable to replace non-renewable resources. Thus, solar and other renewable energy sources are considered "backstop" energy options for unsustainable fossil fuels. Similarly, Gleick and Palaniappan defined "backstop water sources" to be those resources that can replace unsustainable and non-renewable use of water, albeit typically at a higher cost.The classic backstop water source is desalination of seawater. If the rate of water production is not sufficient in one area, another "backstop" could be increased interbasin transfers, such as pipelines to carry freshwater from where it is abundant to an area where water is needed. Water can be imported into an area using water trucks. The most expensive and last resort measures of getting water to a community such as desalination, water transfers are called “backstop” water sources. Fog catchers are the most extreme of backstop methods.

text: The concept of a "backstop" resource is a resource that is sufficiently abundant and sustainable to replace non-renewable resources. Thus, solar and other renewable energy sources are considered "backstop" energy options for unsustainable

text: fossil fuel

text: s. Similarly, Gleick and Palaniappan defined "backstop water sources" to be those resources that can replace unsustainable and non-renewable use of water, albeit typically at a higher cost.The classic backstop water source is

text: desalination

text: of seawater. If the rate of water production is not sufficient in one area, another "backstop" could be increased interbasin transfers, such as pipelines to carry freshwater from where it is abundant to an area where water is needed. Water can be imported into an area using water trucks. The most expensive and last resort measures of getting water to a community such as desalination, water transfers are called “backstop” water sources. Fog catchers are the most extreme of backstop methods.

text: Early development of wind energy in Canada was located primarily in Ontario, Quebec, and Alberta. Throughout the late 1990s and early years of the 21st Century every Canadian province has pursued wind power to supplement their provincial energy grids. Alberta built the first commercial wind farm in Canada in 1993. British Columbia was the last province to add wind power to its grid with the completion of the Bear Mountain Wind Park in November 2009. With increasing population growth, Canada has seen wind power as a way to diversify energy supplies away from traditional reliance on fossil fuel burning thermal plants and heavy reliance on hydroelectricity in some provinces. In provinces like Nova Scotia, where only 12% of electricity comes from renewable sources, the development of wind energy projects will provide a measure of electricity security that some jurisdictions are lacking. In the case of British Columbia, wind energy will help close the electricity deficit that the province is facing into the 2010s and help reduce the reliance on importing power from other jurisdictions that may not use renewable energy sources.An additional 2,004 megawatts of wind power is to come on stream in Quebec between 2011 and 2015.  The new energy will cost 10.5 cents per kilowatt-hour, a price described as "highly competitive".

text: Early development of wind energy in Canada was located primarily in

text: Ontario

text: Quebec

text: , and

text: Alberta

text: . Throughout the late 1990s and early years of the 21st Century every Canadian province has pursued wind power to supplement their provincial energy grids.

text: Alberta

text: built the first commercial wind farm in Canada in 1993.

text: British Columbia

text: was the last province to add wind power to its grid with the completion of the

text: Bear Mountain Wind Park

text: in November 2009. With increasing population growth, Canada has seen wind power as a way to diversify energy supplies away from traditional reliance on

text: fossil fuel

text: burning thermal plants and heavy reliance on hydroelectricity in some provinces. In provinces like Nova Scotia, where only 12% of electricity comes from renewable sources, the development of wind energy projects will provide a measure of electricity security that some jurisdictions are lacking. In the case of British Columbia, wind energy will help close the electricity deficit that the province is facing into the 2010s and help reduce the reliance on importing power from other jurisdictions that may not use renewable energy sources.An additional 2,004 megawatts of wind power is to come on stream in Quebec between 2011 and 2015.  The new energy will cost 10.5 cents per kilowatt-hour, a price described as "highly competitive".

text: Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels (see solar power by country). Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies:

text: Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their grids to supplement or provide an alternative to

text: conventional energy

text: sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels (see

text: solar power by country

text: ). Long distance transmission allows remote

text: renewable energy

text: resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies:

text: Energy transition is generally defined as a long-term structural change in energy systems. These have occurred in the past, and still occur worldwide. Historic energy transitions are most broadly described by Vaclav Smil. Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives, drivers and governance. In a more narrow sense, a sustainable energy transition is the shift by some countries, most notably Germany (), to decentralised renewable energy, and energy efficiency. Although so far these shifts have been replacing nuclear energy, their declared goal is also the abolishment of coal and other non-renewable energy sources and the creation of an energy system based on 100% renewable energy.

text: Energy transition is generally defined as a long-term structural change in energy systems. These have occurred in the past, and still occur worldwide. Historic energy transitions are most broadly described by

text: Vaclav Smil

text: . Contemporary energy transitions differ in terms of motivation and objectives, drivers and governance. In a more narrow sense, a sustainable energy transition is the shift by some countries, most notably Germany (), to decentralised

text: renewable energy

text: , and

text: energy efficiency

text: . Although so far these shifts have been replacing nuclear energy, their declared goal is also the

text: abolishment of coal

text: and other non-renewable energy sources and the creation of an energy system based on

text: 100% renewable energy

text: The practice of extracting coal from the earth for energy production purposes has been the subject of controversy for an extended duration of time. The Sierra Club has expressed concern regarding Peabody Energy's initial opposition to the Clean Air Act and other environmental regulations, as well as its support for the expanded use of coal generated electricity as a means of meeting increasing worldwide energy usage demands.  The Natural Resources Defense Council has been critical of Peabody's advocacy for expanding coal generated electricity in the U.S., specifically on account of the environmental impacts of surface mining operations. The environmental impact of Peabody's surface mining operations in Muhlenberg County, Kentucky was also the subject of criticism in John Prine's 1971 song "Paradise." In Newsweek's 2011 rankings of the least eco-friendly companies in the US, Peabody Energy was ranked #9 out of the top 500 largest US companies based on their environmental impact.

text: The practice of extracting coal from the earth for energy production purposes has been the subject of controversy for an extended duration of time. The

text: Sierra Club

text: has expressed concern regarding Peabody Energy's initial opposition to the Clean Air Act and other environmental regulations, as well as its support for the expanded use of coal generated electricity as a means of meeting increasing worldwide energy usage demands.  The

text: Natural Resources Defense Council

text: has been critical of Peabody's advocacy for expanding coal generated electricity in the U.S., specifically on account of the environmental impacts of surface mining operations. The environmental impact of Peabody's surface mining operations in

text: Muhlenberg County, Kentucky

text: was also the subject of criticism in

text: John Prine

text: 's 1971 song "

text: Paradise

text: ." In

text: Newsweek

text: 's 2011 rankings of the least eco-friendly companies in the US, Peabody Energy was ranked #9 out of the top 500 largest US companies based on their environmental impact.

text: Philip R. Sharp served as president from 2005 to 2016. Before joining RFF, Sharp served 10 terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Indiana (1975 to 1995). He then joined the faculty of the John F. Kennedy School of Government and the Institute of Politics at Harvard University. As of 2010, Sharp is co-chair of the Energy Board of the Keystone Center and serves on the Board of Directors of the Duke Energy Corporation and the Energy Foundation. He is also a member of the Cummins Science and Technology Advisory Council and serves on the Advisory Board of the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations and on the External Advisory Board of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Energy Initiative. He is a member of the Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future and the U.S. Partnership for Renewable Energy Finance. He was an inaugural inductee into the Energy Efficiency Forum Hall of Fame in 2009.

text: Philip R. Sharp served as president from 2005 to 2016. Before joining RFF, Sharp served 10 terms as a member of the

text: United States House of Representatives

text: from Indiana (1975 to 1995). He then joined the faculty of the John F. Kennedy School of Government and the Institute of Politics at

text: Harvard University

text: . As of 2010, Sharp is co-chair of the Energy Board of the Keystone Center and serves on the Board of Directors of the

text: Duke Energy

text: Corporation and the Energy Foundation. He is also a member of the Cummins Science and Technology Advisory Council and serves on the Advisory Board of the

text: Institute of Nuclear Power Operations

text: and on the External Advisory Board of the

text: Massachusetts Institute of Technology

text: Energy Initiative. He is a member of the Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future and the U.S. Partnership for Renewable Energy Finance. He was an inaugural inductee into the Energy Efficiency Forum Hall of Fame in 2009.

text: The Fossil Fuel Levy (FFL) is a levy paid by suppliers of electricity from non-renewable energy sources in the United Kingdom. The costs are shared by the suppliers and consumers, as a proportion of the cost is passed on to consumers in the cost of the electricity supplied. The Fossil Fuel Levy was imposed to fund the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation.

text: The Fossil Fuel Levy (FFL) is a levy paid by suppliers of

text: electricity

text: from non-

text: renewable energy

text: sources in the

text: United Kingdom

text: . The costs are shared by the suppliers and consumers, as a proportion of the cost is passed on to consumers in the cost of the electricity supplied. The Fossil Fuel Levy was imposed to fund the

text: Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation

text: There is a limited amount of fossil fuel inside the Earth.  Since the current world energy resources and consumption is mainly fossil fuels, we are very dependent on them for both transportation and electric power generation.  The Hubbert peak theory predicts that oil depletion will result in oil production dropping off in the not too distant future.  As time goes on our economy will have to transition to some alternative fuels. Fossil fuels have solved two problems which could be separately solved in the future: the problem of a source of primary energy and of energy storage.  Along with straight vegetable oil and biodiesel, some energy technologies that could play an important part in the future include:

text: There is a limited amount of

text: fossil fuel

text: inside the

text: Earth

text: .  Since the current

text: world energy resources and consumption

text: is mainly fossil fuels, we are very dependent on them for both

text: transportation

text: and

text: electric power generation

text: .  The

text: Hubbert peak theory

text: predicts that

text: oil depletion

text: will result in oil production dropping off in the not too distant future.  As time goes on our economy will have to transition to some

text: alternative fuels

text: . Fossil fuels have solved two problems which could be separately solved in the future: the problem of a source of

text: primary energy

text: and of

text: energy storage

text: .  Along with

text: straight vegetable oil

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: , some energy technologies that could play an important part in the future include:

text: Today, his most important book is considered to be "In a hundred years: the world's future energy supply" (In hundert Jahren - Die künftige Energieversorgung der Welt), which was published in 1931 for Franckh's "Friends of Nature Club" (Gesellschaft der Naturfreunde). In this book, he started by pointing out that humanity would one day run out of coal (he dismissed petroleum as a source of energy, because he felt that it would run out very quickly), and went on to discuss other possible sources of energy that could replace coal, including geothermal power (which already existed in Italy at the time the book was written), and other types of renewable energy that had not yet actually been used: the solar updraft tower, wave farms, and tidal power plants.

text: Today, his most important book is considered to be "In a hundred years: the world's future energy supply" (In hundert Jahren - Die künftige Energieversorgung der Welt), which was published in 1931 for Franckh's "Friends of Nature Club" (Gesellschaft der Naturfreunde). In this book, he started by pointing out that humanity would one day run out of coal (he dismissed petroleum as a source of energy, because he felt that it would run out very quickly), and went on to discuss other possible sources of energy that could replace coal, including

text: geothermal power

text: (which already existed in Italy at the time the book was written), and other types of renewable energy that had not yet actually been used: the

text: solar updraft tower

text: wave farm

text: s, and

text: tidal power plants

text: Kovel notes that "events in nature are reciprocal and multi-determined" and can therefore not be predictably "fixed"; socially, technologies cannot solve social problems because they are not "mechanical". He posits an analysis, developed from Marx, that patterns of production and social organisation are more important then the forms of technology used within a given configuration of society. Under capitalism, he suggests that technology "has been the sine qua non of growth" – thus he believes that, even in a world with hypothetical "free energy", the effect would be to lower the cost of automobile production, leading to the massive overproduction of vehicles, "collapsing infrastructure", chronic resource depletion and the "paving over" of the "remainder of nature". In the modern world, Kovel considers the supposed efficiency of new post-industrial commodities is a "plain illusion", as miniaturized components involve many substances and are therefore non-recyclable (and, theoretically, only simple substances could be retrieved by burning out-of-date equipment, releasing more pollutants). He is quick to warn "environmental liberals" against over-selling the virtues of renewable energies that cannot meet the mass energy consumption of the era; although he would still support renewable energy projects, he believes it is more important to restructure societies to reduce energy use before relying on renewable energy technologies alone.

text: Kovel notes that "events in nature are reciprocal and multi-determined" and can therefore not be predictably "fixed"; socially, technologies cannot solve social problems because they are not "mechanical". He posits an analysis, developed from

text: Marx

text: , that patterns of production and social organisation are more important then the forms of technology used within a given configuration of society. Under capitalism, he suggests that technology "has been the sine qua non of

text: growth

text: " – thus he believes that, even in a world with hypothetical "free energy", the effect would be to lower the cost of

text: automobile

text: production, leading to the massive

text: overproduction

text: of

text: vehicle

text: s, "collapsing infrastructure", chronic

text: resource depletion

text: and the "paving over" of the "remainder of

text: nature

text: ". In the modern world, Kovel considers the supposed efficiency of new

text: post-industrial

text: commodities is a "plain illusion", as

text: miniaturized

text: components involve many substances and are therefore non-

text: recyclable

text: (and, theoretically, only simple substances could be retrieved by burning out-of-date equipment, releasing more

text: pollutants

text: ). He is quick to warn "environmental

text: liberals

text: " against over-selling the virtues of

text: renewable energies

text: that cannot meet the mass energy consumption of the era; although he would still support

text: renewable energy

text: projects, he believes it is more important to restructure societies to reduce energy use before relying on

text: renewable energy

text: technologies alone.

text: Fossil fuels are also an unsuitable long-term energy source because rapidly depleting coal, oil and natural gas stocks. In the succeeding decades, it is predicted that diminishing fossil fuel reserves will result in supply constraints that appreciably drive up coal, oil and natural gas prices. Thus, the costs associated with procuring and using fossil fuel are expected to rise. It is also predicted that nearly all economically recoverable sources of fossil fuels will be fully depleted before the end of the 21st century.

text: The growth of Tambeyneftegaz brought Bogochyov into conflict with Gazprom bank officials over control of certain gas fields. The conflict has been temporarily settled by his allocation of his interest in those fields to Gazprom. In January, 2007 Nikolay Bogachev was forced to sell his company to Gazprom for about a 10th of its value.Same year Bogachev founded "Young Energy Prize" and is now devoting all of his time to his new creation.  Through this vehicle he owns a considerable stake in Magellan Petroleum Corporation, a stranded gas / energy resource developer with interests in Australia, the United Kingdom, and North America.   In Australia, his focus is the development of substantial discovered natural gas reserves into Asian market growth.

text: The growth of Tambeyneftegaz brought Bogochyov into conflict with

text: Gazprom

text: bank officials over control of certain gas fields. The conflict has been temporarily settled by his allocation of his interest in those fields to Gazprom. In January, 2007 Nikolay Bogachev was forced to sell his company to Gazprom for about a 10th of its value.Same year Bogachev founded "Young Energy Prize" and is now devoting all of his time to his new creation.  Through this vehicle he owns a considerable stake in Magellan Petroleum Corporation, a stranded gas / energy resource developer with interests in Australia, the United Kingdom, and North America.   In Australia, his focus is the development of substantial discovered natural gas reserves into Asian market growth.

text: Peak uranium is the point in time that the maximum global uranium production rate is reached. After that peak, according to Hubbert peak theory, the rate of production enters a terminal decline. While uranium is used in nuclear weapons, its primary use is for energy generation via nuclear fission of the uranium-235 isotope in a nuclear power reactor.  Each kilogram of uranium-235 fissioned releases the energy equivalent of millions of times its mass in chemical reactants, as much energy as 2700 tons of coal, but uranium-235 is only 0.7% of the mass of natural uranium. Uranium-235 is a finite non-renewable resource. However, the current reserves of uranium have the potential (assuming breeder reactor technology) to provide power for humanity for billions of years, until the death of our sun, so nuclear power can be considered sustainable energy.

text: Peak uranium is the point in time that the maximum global

text: uranium

text: production rate is reached. After that peak, according to

text: Hubbert peak theory

text: , the rate of production enters a terminal decline. While uranium is used in

text: nuclear weapon

text: s, its primary use is for energy generation via

text: nuclear fission

text: of the

text: isotope

text: in a

text: nuclear power reactor

text: .  Each kilogram of

text: fissioned releases the energy equivalent of millions of times its mass in chemical reactants, as much energy as 2700 tons of

text: coal

text: , but

text: is only 0.7% of the mass of

text: natural uranium

text: . Uranium-235 is a finite

text: non-renewable resource

text: . However, the current reserves of uranium have the potential (assuming

text: breeder reactor

text: technology) to provide power for humanity for billions of years, until the death of our sun, so

entity_name: Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy

text: nuclear power can be considered sustainable energy

text: Energy released in most nuclear reactions are much larger than in chemical reactions, because the binding energy that holds a nucleus together is far greater than the energy that holds electrons to a nucleus. For example, the ionization energy gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is —less than one-millionth of the  released in the deuterium–tritium (D–T) reaction shown in the adjacent diagram. The complete conversion of one gram of matter would release 9×10 joules of energy. Fusion reactions have an energy density many times greater than nuclear fission; the reactions produce far greater energy per unit of mass even though individual fission reactions are generally much more energetic than individual fusion ones, which are themselves millions of times more energetic than chemical reactions. Only direct conversion of mass into energy, such as that caused by the annihilatory collision of matter and antimatter, is more energetic per unit of mass than nuclear fusion.

text: Energy released in most

text: nuclear reaction

text: s are much larger than in

text: chemical reaction

text: s, because the

text: binding energy

text: that holds a nucleus together is far greater than the energy that holds

text: electron

text: s to a nucleus. For example, the

text: ionization energy

text: gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is —less than one-millionth of the  released in the

text: deuterium

text: tritium

text: (D–T) reaction shown in the adjacent diagram. The complete conversion of one

text: gram

text: of matter would release 9×10 joules of energy. Fusion reactions have an

text: energy density

text: many times greater than

text: nuclear fission

text: ; the reactions produce far greater energy per unit of mass even though individual fission reactions are generally much more energetic than individual fusion ones, which are themselves millions of times more energetic than chemical reactions. Only

text: direct conversion

text: of

text: mass into energy

text: , such as that caused by the

text: annihilatory

text: collision of

text: matter

text: and

text: antimatter

text: , is more energetic per unit of mass than nuclear fusion.

text: When generating renewable energy and feeding it back into the grid (in participating countries such as the US and Germany), producing households are typically paid at least the full standard electricity rate by their utility and are also given separate renewable energy credits that they can then sell to their utility, additionally (utilities are interested in buying these renewable energy credits because it allows them to claim that they produce renewable energy). In some special cases, producing households may be paid up to four times the standard electricity rate, but this is not common.

text: Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).  Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.Fuels are a source of energy.

text: Fossil fuels are

text: non-renewable resources

text: because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation of

text: renewable energy

text: is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion

text: tonnes

text: gigatonne

text: s) of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide).  Carbon dioxide is one of the

text: greenhouse gas

text: es that enhances

text: radiative forcing

text: and contributes to

text: global warming

text: , causing the

text: average surface temperature

text: of the Earth to rise in response, which

text: the vast majority of climate scientists

text: agree will cause major

text: adverse effects

text: .Fuels are a source of energy.

text: Growing national concerns regarding peak oil and climate change have driven the subject of renewable energy high up the political agenda. Various public bodies and public-private partnerships have been created to develop the potential. The Forum for Renewable Energy Development in Scotland, (FREDS) is a partnership between industry, academia and Government aimed at enabling Scotland to capitalise on its renewable energy resource. The Scottish Renewables Forum is an important intermediary organisation for the industry, hosting the annual Green Energy Awards. Community Energy Scotland provides advice, funding and finance for renewable energy projects developed by community groups. Aberdeen Renewable Energy Group (AREG) is a public-private partnership created to identify and promote renewable energy opportunities for businesses in the north-east. In 2009 AREG formed an alliance with North Scotland Industries Group to help promote the North of Scotland as an "international renewable energy hub".

text: Growing national concerns regarding

text: peak oil

text: and climate change have driven the subject of renewable energy high up the political agenda. Various public bodies and public-private partnerships have been created to develop the potential. The

entity_name: Forum for Renewable Energy Development in Scotland

text: Forum for Renewable Energy Development in Scotland

text: , (FREDS) is a partnership between industry, academia and Government aimed at enabling Scotland to capitalise on its renewable energy resource. The Scottish Renewables Forum is an important intermediary organisation for the industry, hosting the annual Green Energy Awards.

text: Community Energy Scotland

text: provides advice, funding and finance for renewable energy projects developed by community groups. Aberdeen Renewable Energy Group (AREG) is a public-private partnership created to identify and promote renewable energy opportunities for businesses in the north-east. In 2009 AREG formed an alliance with North Scotland Industries Group to help promote the North of Scotland as an "international renewable energy hub".

text: Under capitalism, he suggests that technology "has been the sine qua non of growth" - thus he believes that, even in a world with hypothetical "free energy", the effect would be to lower the cost of automobile production, leading to the massive overproduction of vehicles, "collapsing infrastructure", chronic resource depletion and the "paving over" of the "remainder of nature". In the modern world, Kovel considers the supposed efficiency of new post-industrial commodities is a "plain illusion", as miniaturized components involve many substances and are therefore non-recyclable (and, theoretically, only simple substances could be retrieved by burning out-of-date equipment, releasing more pollutants). He is quick to warn "environmental liberals" against over-selling the virtues of renewable energies that cannot meet the mass energy consumption of the era; although he would still support renewable energy projects, he believes it is more important to restructure societies to reduce energy use before relying on renewable energy technologies alone.

text: Under

text: capitalism

text: , he suggests that technology "has been the sine qua non of

text: growth

text: " - thus he believes that, even in a world with hypothetical "free energy", the effect would be to lower the cost of

text: automobile

text: production, leading to the massive

text: overproduction

text: of

text: vehicle

text: s, "collapsing infrastructure", chronic

text: resource depletion

text: nature

text: post-industrial

text: commodities is a "plain illusion", as

text: miniaturized

text: recyclable

text: pollutants

text: ). He is quick to warn "environmental

text: liberals

text: " against over-selling the virtues of

text: renewable energies

text: renewable energy

text: renewable energy

text: technologies alone.

text: The Constitution is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, or ecosystem rights. Article 71-74 prohibits the extraction of non-renewable resources in protected areas. Moreover, the production of monocultures will be avoided for reforestation and rehabilitation of the soil. The state will also protect the intellectual property of collective work based on national biodiversity and begin to recognize the Rights of Nature.

text: The Cell was initially developed as a lower-cost alternative to conventional column flotation cells for recovering fine particles, and was first used in the Mount Isa lead–zinc concentrator in 1988. Since then, use of the technology has spread to include coal flotation, base and precious metal flotation, potash flotation, oil sands flotation, molybdenum flotation, graphite flotation and cleaning solvent extraction liquors. Xstrata Technology, Glencore Xstrata's technology marketing arm, listed 328 Jameson Cell installations in May 2013. Cells have been installed by 94 companies in 27 countries. Today, the technology is the standard in the Australian Coal Industry where well over one hundred Cells have been installed to recover coal fines. It is mainly used in metals applications to solve final grade and capacity issues from conventional cell cleaner circuits. It has  found a niche in transforming traditional circuit designs where its inclusion allows cleaner circuits to be designed with fewer cells in a smaller footprint, while achieving cleaner and/or higher grade concentrates. It has also made possible the recovery of previously discarded fine materials, such as coal and phosphate fines, thereby increasing the efficiency and extending the life of the world's non-renewable natural resources.

text: The Cell was initially developed as a lower-cost alternative to conventional column flotation cells for recovering fine particles, and was first used in the Mount Isa lead–zinc concentrator in 1988. Since then, use of the technology has spread to include coal flotation, base and precious metal flotation, potash flotation, oil sands flotation, molybdenum flotation, graphite flotation and cleaning

text: solvent extraction

text: liquors. Xstrata Technology, Glencore Xstrata's technology marketing arm, listed 328 Jameson Cell installations in May 2013. Cells have been installed by 94 companies in 27 countries. Today, the technology is the standard in the Australian Coal Industry where well over one hundred Cells have been installed to recover coal fines. It is mainly used in metals applications to solve final grade and capacity issues from conventional cell cleaner circuits. It has  found a niche in transforming traditional circuit designs where its inclusion allows cleaner circuits to be designed with fewer cells in a smaller footprint, while achieving cleaner and/or higher grade concentrates. It has also made possible the recovery of previously discarded fine materials, such as coal and phosphate fines, thereby increasing the efficiency and extending the life of the world's non-renewable natural resources.

text: In 1950, the E.J. Stoneman generating station (“Stoneman”) was built by Dairyland Power Cooperative ("Dairyland") placed into service.  The plant was named after Erle Stoneman, a director of Grant Electric Cooperative and an original incorporator of Dairyland.  In 1993, E.J. Stoneman was closed due to economic reasons.  In 1996, Dairyland sold the mothballed Stoneman plant to Mid-American power, an Arkansas-based subsidiary of WPS Resources, and put Stoneman back into operation.  In 2007, WPS Resources merged with a group of Illinois natural gas utilities, forming Integrys Energy.  In 2008, Integrys sold Stoneman to DTE Stoneman, LLC, a non-utility subsidiary of DTE Energy.  One week later, Dairyland Power announced an agreement to purchase the facility’s entire 40 MW net output from DTE upon conversion to a biomass burning plant.

text: China is the world's largest consumer of electricity, and its demand is expected to double by   next decade , and triple by 2035. In 2010, 70 percent of China's electricity generation came from coal-fired power plants, but now the Chinese government is investing heavily in renewable energy technologies. As of 2013, 21 percent of China's electricity generation comes from renewable sources. This represents only 9 percent of China's overall primary energy use coming from renewable resources. China's latest goal is to increase renewable energy to 9.5 percent of overall primary energy use by 2015. To implement China's new clean energy capacity into the national power grid, and to improve the reliability of the country's existing infrastructure, requires significant upgrades and ultimately, a smart grid.

text: China is the world's largest consumer of electricity, and its demand is expected to double by   next decade , and triple by 2035. In 2010, 70 percent of China's electricity generation came from coal-fired power plants, but now the Chinese government is investing heavily in renewable energy technologies. As of 2013, 21 percent of China's electricity generation comes from renewable sources. This represents only 9 percent of China's overall primary energy use coming from renewable resources. China's latest goal is to increase renewable energy to 9.5 percent of overall primary energy use by 2015. To implement China's new clean energy capacity into the national

text: power grid

text: , and to improve the reliability of the country's existing infrastructure, requires significant upgrades and ultimately, a

text: smart grid

text: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources that are not significantly depleted by their use, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy is gradually replacing conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from

text: resources

text: that are not significantly depleted by their use, such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: and

text: geothermal heat

text: . Renewable energy is gradually replacing conventional fuels in four distinct areas:

text: electricity generation

text: hot water

text: space heating

text: motor fuel

text: s, and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: Human-made carbon dioxide (CO) continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years. Currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.

text: Human-made carbon dioxide (CO) continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years. Currently, about half of the carbon dioxide released from the

text: burning of fossil fuels

text: remains in the

text: atmosphere

text: and is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans.

text: Despite being technically non-renewable, fusion power has many of the benefits of renewable energy sources (such as being a long-term energy supply and emitting no greenhouse gases) as well as some of the benefits of the resource-limited energy sources as hydrocarbons and nuclear fission (without reprocessing). Like these currently dominant energy sources, fusion could provide very high power-generation density and uninterrupted power delivery (because it is not dependent on the weather, unlike wind and solar power).

text: Despite being technically

text: non-renewable

text: , fusion power has many of the benefits of renewable energy sources (such as being a long-term energy supply and emitting no

text: greenhouse gas

text: es) as well as some of the benefits of the resource-limited energy sources as hydrocarbons and nuclear fission (without

text: reprocessing

text: ). Like these currently dominant energy sources, fusion could provide very high power-generation density and uninterrupted power delivery (because it is not dependent on the

text: weather

text: , unlike wind and solar power).

text: Arthur Nozik is a researcher at the National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL). He is also a professor at the University of Colorado, which is located in Boulder. He researches semiconductor quantum dots at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and is a chemistry professor at the University of Colorado. He also does research for the advancement of solar energy, for which he won the Intergovernmental Renewable Energy Organization (IREO) Award for Science and Technology in 2009.

text: Arthur Nozik is a researcher at the

text: National Renewable Energy Lab

text: (NREL). He is also a professor at the

text: University of Colorado

text: , which is located in

text: Boulder

text: . He researches semiconductor quantum dots at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and is a chemistry professor at the University of Colorado. He also does research for the advancement of solar energy, for which he won the Intergovernmental Renewable Energy Organization (IREO) Award for Science and Technology in 2009.

text: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Renewable energy

text: is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: and

text: geothermal heat

text: electricity generation

text: hot water

text: space heating

text: motor fuel

text: s, and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: In 2006, the European Commission tabled a proposal to the European Parliament to establish a framework for soil protection within the union. Soil is recognised as a non-renewable resource because of its slow formation process. However—unlike other non-renewable resources, such as coal, that have explicit policies governing extraction methods, trading, and consumption in the EU—soil governance is contained within the contexts of environmental policies and regulation on various entities of the biosphere. The draft policy recognised that soil governance had been "scattered" in EU legislation, and lacked a cohesive isolated framework, therefore governance and management of the same resource was open to interpretation depending on the main resource and industry policy in question. The policy sought to unify the "scattered" regulations because they lacked the mandate to "identify and cover all soil threats". This view was supported by extensive consultation between stakeholders and the European commission that started in February 2003, and saw member states convey their support for a framework based on regional action in 2004. The framework was developed as a directive to member states; this form of legislation allows interpretation by stakeholders at national and local levels, and between networks thus complying with the subsidiarity principle. The principle provides that EU political decisions must be implemented at "the lowest possible administrative and political level, and as close to the citizens as possible", unless in areas where action by individual countries is insufficient. It is under this principle that member states rejected the proposal to establish a framework for soil protection as the proposal argued that member states are unable to effectively monitor and manage their soils. Inconsistencies in national soil governance strategies and, classification and treatment of contaminants would disable the objectives of the proposal because of the complexities of trans-border soil pollution and management. Furthermore, soil degradation and mismanagement affects other environmental areas, and industries governed through EU legislation such as water, biodiversity, and food production, thus it was deemed appropriate to have uniform legislation across all entities. Member states argued that soil management should not be negotiated at the European Regional level as they already had strong domestic policies regulating soil usage and management, therefore focus should be directed at strengthening local policies and regulatory institution. Consequently, the EU does not have a cohesive soil governance policy and relies on environmental policies, and non-renewable resource policies and legislations of member states to guide utilisation, management and regulate pollutants of the soil.

text: In 2006, the European Commission tabled a proposal to the European Parliament to establish a framework for soil protection within the union. Soil is recognised as a non-renewable resource because of its slow formation process. However—unlike other non-renewable resources, such as coal, that have explicit policies governing extraction methods, trading, and consumption in the EU—soil governance is contained within the contexts of environmental policies and regulation on various entities of the

text: biosphere

text: . The draft policy recognised that soil governance had been "scattered" in EU legislation, and lacked a cohesive isolated framework, therefore governance and management of the same resource was open to interpretation depending on the main resource and industry policy in question. The policy sought to unify the "scattered" regulations because they lacked the mandate to "identify and cover all soil threats". This view was supported by extensive consultation between stakeholders and the European commission that started in February 2003, and saw member states convey their support for a framework based on regional action in 2004. The framework was developed as a directive to member states; this form of legislation allows interpretation by stakeholders at national and local levels, and between networks thus complying with the

text: subsidiarity

text: Gingrich also published Drill Here, Drill Now, Pay Less: A Handbook for Slashing Gas Prices and Solving Our Energy Crisis, which outlines a plan for reducing both gas prices and America's dependence on foreign oil. Throughout the book, Gingrich argues that gas prices and overall rising energy costs are a reflection of bad government policy rather than a scarcity of resources. Gingrich proposes tapping into American oil reserves along with pursuing other energy resources including nuclear, coal and renewable energy resources.

text: Gingrich also published Drill Here, Drill Now, Pay Less: A Handbook for Slashing Gas Prices and Solving Our Energy Crisis, which outlines a plan for reducing both gas prices and America's dependence on foreign oil. Throughout the book, Gingrich argues that gas prices and overall rising energy costs are a reflection of bad government policy rather than a scarcity of resources. Gingrich proposes tapping into American oil reserves along with pursuing other energy resources including

text: nuclear

text: coal

text: and

text: renewable energy

text: resources.

text: Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum, and natural gas.They range from volatile  materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This biogenic theory was first introduced by German scholar Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.

text: Fossil fuels contain high percentages of

text: carbon

text: and include

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: .They range from

text: volatile

text: materials with low

text: carbon

text: hydrogen

text: ratios like

text: methane

text: , to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like

text: anthracite

text: coal. Methane can be found in

text: hydrocarbon

text: fields, alone, associated with oil, or in the form of

text: methane clathrates

text: . Fossil fuels formed from the

text: fossilized remains

text: of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This

text: biogenic theory

text: was first introduced by German scholar

text: Georg Agricola

text: in 1556 and later by

text: Mikhail Lomonosov

text: in the 18th century.

text: Despite its heavy reliance on fossil fuels for energy, the Philippines does utilize renewable sources of energy in its current energy mix. In particular, the Philippines utilizes hydropower, geothermal, solar, wind and biomass resources. Together, these renewable energy sources contributed 19,903 GWh of electrical energy in 2013, or 26.44% of the country’s power needs.

text: Despite its heavy reliance on fossil fuels for energy, the Philippines does utilize renewable sources of energy in its current

text: energy mix

text: . In particular, the Philippines utilizes

text: hydropower

text: geothermal

text: solar

text: wind

text: and

text: biomass

text: resources. Together, these renewable energy sources contributed 19,903 GWh of electrical energy in 2013, or 26.44% of the country’s power needs.

text: Logan Township was the proposed location for the Crown Landing LNG Terminal, a liquefied natural gas (LNG) off-loading and processing facility to be sited along the Delaware River. The facility would have included an off-loading pier that would technically enter the waters of the State of Delaware. Delaware opposed to the project and filed a lawsuit in Federal court to stop the project from going forward on the basis that they control the waters in which part of the pier would be situated; a lawsuit the State of Delaware lost. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission approved the Crown Landing LNG Terminal on June 15, 2006. In 2009, long after the project should have been completed, Hess Energy acquired the project after BP failed to get plans approved and construction started. On January 6, 2012, Hess Energy surrendered its authorization to construct and operate the terminal. In a letter to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), Hess said it determined that the terminal would not be profitable, saying that "significant increases in natural gas production from North American shale resources" would affect prices and demand for natural gas.

text: Logan Township was the proposed location for the

text: Crown Landing LNG Terminal

text: , a

text: liquefied natural gas

text: (LNG) off-loading and processing facility to be sited along the

text: Delaware River

text: . The facility would have included an off-loading pier that would technically enter the waters of the State of

text: Delaware

text: . Delaware opposed to the project and filed a lawsuit in Federal court to stop the project from going forward on the basis that they control the waters in which part of the pier would be situated; a lawsuit the State of Delaware lost. The

text: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

text: approved the Crown Landing LNG Terminal on June 15, 2006. In 2009, long after the project should have been completed, Hess Energy acquired the project after BP failed to get plans approved and construction started. On January 6, 2012, Hess Energy surrendered its authorization to construct and operate the terminal. In a letter to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), Hess said it determined that the terminal would not be profitable, saying that "significant increases in natural gas production from North American shale resources" would affect prices and demand for natural gas.

text: A bill proposed in the South Carolina Legislature in 2007-2008 aimed to classify nuclear power as renewable energy.  The bill listed as renewable energy: solar photovoltaic energy, solar thermal energy, wind power, hydroelectric, geothermal energy, tidal energy, recycling, hydrogen fuel derived from renewable resources, biomass energy, nuclear energy, and landfill gas.

text: A bill proposed in the South Carolina Legislature in 2007-2008 aimed to classify nuclear power as renewable energy.  The bill listed as renewable energy: solar photovoltaic energy, solar thermal energy, wind power, hydroelectric, geothermal energy, tidal energy, recycling, hydrogen fuel derived from renewable resources, biomass energy, nuclear energy, and

text: landfill gas

text: Antonis Paschalides vigorously sought to bring changes to the still oil based energy production of Cyprus and during his first 3 years as Minister responsible for Energy, the country saw huge changes which put it on the world energy map.a.	He brought forward the issue of switching the energy production of Cyprus from oil to natural gas, a topic which had been in discussion for years but never actually dealt with.b.	For years it was believed that the Cyprus sea was rich in the resources of oil and natural gas, but was never investigated. Antonis Paschalides proceeded to have the Cyprus sea bed tested and entered an agreement with Noble Energy for the exploitation of these resources.c.	He is considered one of the masterminds behind the signing of an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) with Lebanon and Israel where in a visit in March 2011 he was welcomed as Mr. Energy and Mr. Gas. d.	He encouraged and facilitated the building of a huge oil and natural gas depot on the coast of Cyprus from where the fuel will be distributed to the surrounding countries making Cyprus an important fuel route.e.	While Cyprus was still a completely a virgin market for renewable energy (almost 0%), during his term the country saw a complete turnaround to the use of renewable energy sources which now make up around 9%, and fast growing, of the Country’s power needs.

text: Anna saheb patil is a chief strategician for BJP renwable energy cell and he has taken a lead role in formulating BJP Renewable energy policy in a pan Indian view Anna saheb is holding respected positions in national and international renewable energy organizations, apart from these he is the current chairman of International Bio energy forum. Anna saheb himself a pioneer and an expert in chemical engineering and a leader with a technological vision, His policies and wisdom helped BJP to co ordinate its renewable energy cell, BJP president himself satisfied with his work and offering him every support from the party. Currently he is in touch with all the BJP ruling states to expand and improve the solar energy production and investment in the field of solar energy. His ideas and policies inspired energetic BJP leaders like Narendra Modi, Shiva Raj singh Chauhan, sushil kumar Modi and other NDA ruling state leaders, He is widely acclaimed by all the leaders of India cutting across party line. Anna saheb has a  bio energy vision, he urged the state governments to  start mixing ethanol with gasoline in an attempt to protect the nation's petroleum reserve. Due to Anna saheb's frequent efforts, now karnataka government has started the process of blending ethanol with petrol, states like Gujarat, Madhya pradesh, Punjab,Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh were also soon to follow the suit.According to Anna Saheb's view adding the 20% blending of ethanol with petrol not only adds tremendously to the petroleum preserve of the nation, it also contributed substantially to clean air in the environment. For the diesel-ignited engines, according to his opinion  diesel mixed with 25% of bio-diesel made from vegetable oil extracted from palas, mahua, and other seeds had immense impact on the petroleum reserve and the environment, while also utilizing more than four lakh hectares of waste, low-quality land currently not under cultivation. During the NDA regime his rural development policies were widely accaimed by every one, Prime minister A B Vajpayee himself praised Annasaheb's work and had given him every support from the government.

text: In order to help reduce dependence on fossil fuels the U.S. government subsidizes the monocropping of corn and soybeans to be used in ethanol production (S, 2007). However monocropping itself is highly chemical- and energy-intensive, as studies by Nelson (2006) indicate. Such studies have shown that the "hidden" energy costs associated with producing each unit of bio-fuel are significantly larger than the amount of energy available from the fuel itself.

text: In order to help reduce dependence on fossil fuels the U.S. government subsidizes the monocropping of corn and soybeans to be used in

text: ethanol production

text: (S, 2007). However monocropping itself is highly chemical- and energy-intensive, as studies by Nelson (2006) indicate. Such studies have shown that the "hidden"

text: energy costs

text: associated with producing each unit of bio-fuel are significantly larger than the amount of energy available from the fuel itself.

text: Schmidt has proposed that the easiest way to solve all of the domestic problems of the United States at once is by a stimulus program that rewards renewable energy and, over time, attempts to replace fossil fuels with renewable energy.

text: Schmidt has proposed that the easiest way to solve all of the domestic problems of the United States at once is by a stimulus program that rewards

text: renewable energy

text: and, over time, attempts to replace

text: fossil fuel

text: s with renewable energy.

text: As with the EU, the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) and the California Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) both require specific levels of lifecycle greenhouse gas reductions compared to equivalent fossil fuel consumption. The RFS requires that at least half of the biofuels production mandated by 2022 should reduce lifecycle emissions by 50 percent. The LCFS is a performance standard that calls for a minimum of 10 percent emissions reduction per unit of transport energy by 2020. Both the U.S. and California standards currently address only greenhouse gas emissions, but California plans to "expand its policy to address other sustainability issues associated with liquid biofuels in the future".

text: As with the EU, the

text: U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard

text: (RFS) and the

text: California Low Carbon Fuel Standard

text: (LCFS) both require specific levels of lifecycle greenhouse gas reductions compared to equivalent fossil fuel consumption. The RFS requires that at least half of the biofuels production mandated by 2022 should reduce lifecycle emissions by 50 percent. The LCFS is a performance standard that calls for a minimum of 10 percent emissions reduction per unit of transport energy by 2020. Both the U.S. and California standards currently address only greenhouse gas emissions, but California plans to "expand its policy to address other sustainability issues associated with liquid biofuels in the future".

text: In early 2006, Taft announced his "Energy Action Plan", which included doubling the use of E85 ethanol in state fleets from  to 60,000, increasing the use of biodiesel in state fleets by  annually, while mandating the purchase of flex-fuel only vehicles for the state fleet, and allocating $3.6 million from the Energy Loan Fund to make state buildings energy efficient. The plan also called for $25 million from the Energy Loan Fund to be set aside over five years for wind turbine producing companies, and to set aside a grant of 1.2 cents per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced by wind energy. Taft called for a pilot program to create jet fuel from coal, moving Ohio's geological information on fossil fuel sources to digital formats, and reaffirming the state's commitment to FutureGen, a clean coal initiative.

text: In early 2006, Taft announced his "Energy Action Plan", which included doubling the use of E85 ethanol in state fleets from  to 60,000, increasing the use of biodiesel in state fleets by  annually, while mandating the purchase of flex-fuel only vehicles for the state fleet, and allocating $3.6 million from the Energy Loan Fund to make state buildings energy efficient. The plan also called for $25 million from the Energy Loan Fund to be set aside over five years for wind turbine producing companies, and to set aside a grant of 1.2 cents per kilowatt-hour of electricity produced by wind energy. Taft called for a pilot program to create jet fuel from coal, moving Ohio's geological information on fossil fuel sources to digital formats, and reaffirming the state's commitment to

text: FutureGen

text: , a clean coal initiative.

text: Renewable Energy is also another example of a technological fix, as technology is being used in attempts to reduce and mitigate the effects of global warming. Renewable Energy refers to technologies that has been designed to be eco-friendly and efficient for the well-being of the Earth. They are generally regarded as infinite energy sources, which means they will never run out, unlike fossil fuels such as oil and coal, which are finite sources of energy. They additionally release no green house gases such as carbon dioxide, which is harmful for the planet as it depletes the ozone layer. Examples of renewable energy can be seen by wind turbines, solar energy such as solar panels and kinetic energy from waves. These energies are regarded as a technological fix as they have been designed and innovated to overcome issues with energy insecurity, as well as to help protect Earth from the harmful emissions released from non-renewable energy sources, and thus overcome global warming. It is also know that such technologies will in turn require their own technological fixes. For example, some types of solar energy have local impacts on ambient temperature, which can be a hazard to birdlife.

text: Renewable Energy

text: is also another example of a technological fix, as technology is being used in attempts to reduce and mitigate the effects of

text: global warming

text: Renewable Energy

text: refers to technologies that has been designed to be eco-friendly and efficient for the well-being of the Earth. They are generally regarded as infinite energy sources, which means they will never run out, unlike fossil fuels such as

text: oil

text: and

text: coal

text: , which are finite sources of energy. They additionally release no

text: green house gases

text: such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: , which is harmful for the planet as it depletes the

text: ozone

text: layer. Examples of renewable energy can be seen by

text: wind turbine

text: s,

text: solar energy

text: such as solar panels and

text: kinetic energy

text: from waves. These energies are regarded as a technological fix as they have been designed and innovated to overcome issues with energy insecurity, as well as to help protect Earth from the harmful emissions released from non-renewable energy sources, and thus overcome global warming. It is also know that such technologies will in turn require their own technological fixes. For example, some types of solar energy have local impacts on ambient temperature, which can be a hazard to birdlife.

text: Gasoline is difficult to sell in a fair and consistent manner by volumetric units. It expands and contracts significantly as its temperature changes. A comparison of the coefficient of thermal expansion for gasoline and liquid water at 20°C indicates that the volume of gasoline changes at about 4.5 times the rate of water.

text: Gasoline is difficult to sell in a fair and consistent manner by volumetric units. It expands and contracts significantly as its temperature changes. A comparison of the

text: coefficient of thermal expansion

text: for gasoline and liquid water at 20°C indicates that the volume of gasoline changes at about 4.5 times the rate of water.

text: California has long been one of the nation's most important oil-producing states, and the San Joaquin Valley has long since eclipsed the Los Angeles Basin as the state's primary oil production region. Scattered oil wells on small oil fields are found throughout the region, and several enormous extraction facilities – most notably near Lost Hills and Taft, including the enormous Midway-Sunset Oil Field, the third-largest oil field in the United States – are veritable forests of pumps.

text: California has long been one of the nation's most important oil-producing states, and the San Joaquin Valley has long since eclipsed the

text: Los Angeles Basin

text: as the state's primary oil production region. Scattered oil wells on small

text: oil field

text: s are found throughout the region, and several enormous extraction facilities – most notably near

text: Lost Hills

text: and

text: Taft

text: , including the enormous

text: Midway-Sunset Oil Field

text: , the third-largest oil field in the United States – are veritable forests of pumps.

text: Metals and their compounds have been used for millennia because of their unique properties. They are used in highly valued products of modern technology, furthermore, they plan an essential role in renewable energy technologies. After having analyzed issues of metal stocks in society and recycling rates and recycling conditions and opportunities in the previous two reports on metals, Metal Stocks in Society report and Recycling Rates of Metals report, the International Resource Panel decides to address the environmental and energy issues related to the use and the production of metals. In this report, an assessment is made of literature on metal flows and cycles in nature and in society, the way they are connected, and the potential impacted related to them. The four areas of focus are 1) Local impacts of mining, 2) life cycle energy use, 3) non-metal sources, and 4) the need for a final sink. Furthermore, the author point out that a sustainable metals management cannot be defined in isolation, because a global issue like this is linked to many other issues at the global level: population and welfare increase, the concurrent expected rise in demand for food, water, and energy, the availability of metals and other non-renewable materials, the shift to a renewable energy system, dietary choices, etc. Therefore it should be part of an overall effort to steer society towards a more sustainable development.

text: Metals and their compounds have been used for millennia because of their unique properties. They are used in highly valued products of modern technology, furthermore, they plan an essential role in renewable energy technologies. After having analyzed issues of metal stocks in society and recycling rates and recycling conditions and opportunities in the previous two reports on metals,

text: Metal Stocks in Society report

text: and

text: Recycling Rates of Metals report

text: , the International Resource Panel decides to address the environmental and energy issues related to the use and the production of metals. In this report, an assessment is made of literature on metal flows and cycles in nature and in society, the way they are connected, and the potential impacted related to them. The four areas of focus are 1) Local impacts of mining, 2) life cycle energy use, 3) non-metal sources, and 4) the need for a final sink. Furthermore, the author point out that a sustainable metals management cannot be defined in isolation, because a global issue like this is linked to many other issues at the global level: population and welfare increase, the concurrent expected rise in demand for food, water, and energy, the availability of metals and other non-renewable materials, the shift to a renewable energy system, dietary choices, etc. Therefore it should be part of an overall effort to steer society towards a more sustainable development.

text: Fossil fuels such as coal and oil are made primarily of plant material that was deposited millions of years ago. This period of time equates to thousands of half-lives of C, so essentially all of the C in fossil fuels has decayed. Fossil fuels also are depleted in C relative to the atmosphere, because they were originally formed from living organisms. Therefore, the carbon from fossil fuels that is returned to the atmosphere through combustion is depleted in both C and C compared to atmospheric carbon dioxide.

text: Fossil fuels such as

text: coal

text: and

text: oil

text: are made primarily of plant material that was deposited millions of years ago. This period of time equates to thousands of half-lives of C, so essentially all of the C in fossil fuels has decayed. Fossil fuels also are depleted in C relative to the atmosphere, because they were originally formed from living organisms. Therefore, the carbon from fossil fuels that is returned to the atmosphere through combustion is depleted in both C and C compared to atmospheric carbon dioxide.

text: She received a research post at the university, where she conducts research in atmospheric and space weather physics, particle physics, and electronics. Her research is conducted to solve Nigerian environmental challenges. To reduce the number of trees cut down for firewood, for instance, one study was about use scraps of wood from carpentry projects for briquettes that could be to use as a fuel, thereby reducing the rate at which the country's forests are diminished. She also gathers atmospheric data and studies the effects of deforestation and dust aerosols on climate temperatures. Her goal is to encourage greater reliance in Nigeria on renewable energy sources—like wind power, solar energy, and hydropower—that are less harmful to the environment than fossil fuels.

text: She received a research post at the university, where she conducts research in

text: atmospheric

text: and

text: space weather physics

text: particle physics

text: , and electronics. Her research is conducted to solve Nigerian environmental challenges. To reduce the number of trees cut down for firewood, for instance, one study was about use scraps of wood from carpentry projects for briquettes that could be to use as a fuel, thereby reducing the rate at which the country's forests are diminished. She also gathers atmospheric data and studies the effects of

text: deforestation

text: and

text: dust aerosols

text: on climate temperatures. Her goal is to encourage greater reliance in Nigeria on renewable energy sources—like wind power, solar energy, and hydropower—that are less harmful to the environment than

text: fossil fuel

text: s.

text: In 2008 for the first time, more renewable energy than conventional power capacity was added in both the European Union and United States, demonstrating a "fundamental transition" of the world's energy markets towards renewables, according to a report released by REN21, a global renewable energy policy network based in Paris. In 2010, renewable power consisted about a third of the newly built power generation capacities.

text: In 2008 for the first time, more renewable energy than conventional power capacity was added in both the European Union and United States, demonstrating a "fundamental transition" of the world's energy markets towards renewables, according to a report released by

text: , a global renewable energy policy network based in Paris. In 2010, renewable power consisted about a third of the newly built power generation capacities.

text: Technologies that promote sustainable energy include renewable energy sources, such as hydroelectricity, solar energy, wind energy, wave power, geothermal energy, bioenergy, tidal power and also technologies designed to improve energy efficiency. Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years, and continue to fall. Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so. Increasingly, effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding. Considerable progress is being made in the energy transition from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems, to the point where many studies support 100% renewable energy.

text: Technologies that promote

text: sustainable

text: energy include

text: renewable energy

text: sources, such as

text: hydroelectricity

text: solar energy

text: wind energy

text: wave power

text: geothermal energy

text: bioenergy

text: tidal power

text: and also technologies designed to improve

text: energy efficiency

text: . Costs have fallen dramatically in recent years, and continue to fall. Most of these technologies are either economically competitive or close to being so. Increasingly, effective government policies support investor confidence and these markets are expanding. Considerable progress is being made in the

text: energy transition

text: from fossil fuels to ecologically sustainable systems, to the point where many studies support

text: 100% renewable energy

text: In 2009, Gerlach opposed HR 2454, which was designed to amend several laws related to energy and the environment, and included a “cap-and-trade” program to limit greenhouse gas emissions. As Gerlach later explained, “While the bill included some positive provisions to develop alternative and renewable energy our country needs, I voted against this bill because of the devastating effect it will have on working families and the people who create jobs in my district and across Pennsylvania."  The League of Conservation Voters, “a national non-profit organization that works to turn environmental values into national priorities,” rated Gerlach at 44 percent on their National Environmental Scorecard. In his 2010 campaign, Gerlach received $41,250 from the Energy/Natural Resource sector.

text: The MIPS method can be used to measure natural resource consumption in five categories, viz. abiotic and biotic resources, earth movements in agriculture and silviculture, water and air. Abiotic resources refer to non-renewable resources like minerals, fossil energy sources and soil excavations. Biotic resources refer to renewable resources like plant biomass. Earth movements include mechanical movements and erosion. Water includes surface, ground and deep ground water used by humans. Air is calculated when it is used in combustion processes or chemically or physically transformed.The concept of total material requirement (TMR) used in many cases used in macro-level statistics and it refers to sum of abiotic and biotic resources and erosion.

text: The MIPS method can be used to measure natural resource consumption in five categories, viz.

text: abiotic

text: and

text: biotic

text: resources, earth movements in agriculture and

text: silviculture

text: , water and air. Abiotic resources refer to non-renewable resources like minerals, fossil energy sources and soil excavations. Biotic resources refer to renewable resources like plant

text: biomass

text: . Earth movements include mechanical movements and erosion. Water includes surface, ground and deep ground water used by humans. Air is calculated when it is used in combustion processes or chemically or physically transformed.The concept of total material requirement (TMR) used in many cases used in macro-level statistics and it refers to sum of abiotic and biotic resources and erosion.

text: The US DOE believes that high-pressure electrolysis, supported by ongoing research and development, will contribute to the enabling and acceptance of technologies where hydrogen is the energy carrier between renewable energy resources and clean energy consumers.

text: The

text: US DOE

text: believes that high-pressure electrolysis, supported by ongoing research and development, will contribute to the enabling and acceptance of technologies where hydrogen is the energy carrier between renewable energy resources and clean energy consumers.

text: Production of biomass and biofuels are growing industries as interest in sustainable fuel sources is growing. Utilizing waste products avoids a food vs fuel trade-off, and burning methane gas reduces greenhouse gas emissions, because even though it releases carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide is 23 times less of a greenhouse gas than is methane. Biofuels represent a sustainable partial replacement for fossil fuels, but their net impact on greenhouse gas emissions depends on the agricultural practices used to grow the plants used as feedstock to create the fuels. While it is widely believed that biofuels can be carbon-neutral, there is evidence that biofuels produced by current farming methods are substantial net carbon emitters. Geothermal and biomass are the only two renewable energy sources that require careful management to avoid local depletion.

text: Production of biomass and biofuels are growing industries as interest in sustainable fuel sources is growing. Utilizing waste products avoids a

text: food vs fuel

text: trade-off, and burning

text: methane gas

text: reduces greenhouse gas emissions, because even though it releases carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide is 23 times less of a greenhouse gas than is methane. Biofuels represent a sustainable partial replacement for fossil fuels, but their net impact on

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions depends on the agricultural practices used to grow the plants used as feedstock to create the fuels. While it is widely believed that biofuels can be carbon-neutral, there is evidence that biofuels produced by current farming methods are substantial net carbon emitters. Geothermal and biomass are the only two renewable energy sources that require careful management to avoid local depletion.

text: Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of cogeneration, gas turbines and steam turbines. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association with renewable energy sources such as wind or solar and for alimenting peak-load power stations functioning in tandem with hydroelectric plants. Most grid peaking power plants and some off-grid engine-generators use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other hydrocarbon fuels, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released.  For transportation, burning natural gas produces about 30 percent less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 45 percent less carbon dioxide than burning coal for power. The US Energy Information Administration reports the following emissions in million metric tons of carbon dioxide in the world for 2012:

text: Natural gas is a major source of

text: electricity generation

text: through the use of

text: cogeneration

text: gas turbine

text: s and

text: steam turbine

text: s. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association with

text: renewable energy

text: sources such as wind or

text: solar

text: and for alimenting

text: peak-load

text: power stations functioning in tandem with

text: hydroelectric

text: plants. Most grid

text: peaking power plant

text: s and some off-grid

text: engine-generator

text: s use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in

text: combined cycle

text: mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other

text: hydrocarbon fuel

text: s, such as oil and coal, and produces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released.  For transportation, burning natural gas produces about 30 percent less

text: carbon dioxide

text: than burning

text: petroleum

text: . For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 45 percent less carbon dioxide than burning

text: coal

text: for power. The US

text: Energy Information Administration

text: reports the following emissions in million

text: metric tons

text: of carbon dioxide in the world for 2012:

text: Although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability of water. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some of these nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, land suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes either unusable or suffers from reduced yields. Sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as natural gas (used in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizer), or mineral ores (e.g., phosphate). Possible sources of nitrogen that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include:

text: Although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability of water. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some of these nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, land suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes either unusable or suffers from reduced

text: yields

text: . Sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as

text: natural gas

text: (used in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizer), or mineral ores (e.g., phosphate). Possible sources of nitrogen that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include:

text: Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation.

text: Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn

text: coal

text: or

text: hydrocarbon

text: fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal,

text: petroleum

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: . Another fossil fuel,

text: liquefied petroleum gas

text: (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles,

text: industrial process

text: es, or

text: electrical power generation

text: Energy related issues have been actively present in economic literature since the 1973 oil crisis, but have their roots much further back in the history. As early as 1865, W.S. Jevons expressed his concern about the eventual depletion of coal resources in his book The Coal Question. One of the best known early attempts to work on the economics of exhaustible resources (incl. fossil fuel) was made by H. Hotelling, who derived a price path for non-renewable resources, known as Hotelling's rule.

text: Energy related issues have been actively present in economic literature since the

text: 1973 oil crisis

text: , but have their roots much further back in the history. As early as 1865,

text: W.S. Jevons

text: expressed his concern about the eventual depletion of coal resources in his book The Coal Question. One of the best known early attempts to work on the economics of exhaustible resources (incl. fossil fuel) was made by

text: H. Hotelling

text: , who derived a price path for

text: non-renewable resources

text: , known as

text: Hotelling's rule

text: Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on imported energy sources. Proponents claim that nuclear power produces virtually no conventional air pollution, such as greenhouse gases and smog, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Nuclear power can produce base-load power unlike many renewables which are intermittent energy sources lacking large-scale and cheap ways of storing energy. M. King Hubbert saw oil as a resource that would run out, and proposed nuclear energy as a replacement energy source. Proponents claim that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants.

text: Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a

text: sustainable energy

text: source that reduces

text: carbon emissions

text: and increases

text: energy security

text: by decreasing dependence on imported energy sources. Proponents claim that nuclear power produces virtually no conventional air pollution, such as greenhouse gases and smog, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of

text: fossil fuel

text: . Nuclear power can produce

text: base-load

text: power unlike many renewables which are

text: intermittent energy source

text: s lacking large-scale and cheap ways of storing energy.

text: M. King Hubbert

text: saw oil as a resource that would

text: run out

text: , and proposed nuclear energy as a replacement energy source. Proponents claim that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants.

text: The principle of carbon offset is fairly simple: a business decides that it doesn't want to contribute further to global warming, and it has already made efforts to reduce its carbon (dioxide) emissions, so it decides to pay someone else to further reduce its net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies. Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees—or not emitted due to funding of renewable energy deployment—offsets the emissions from fossil fuel use. In many cases, funding of renewable energy, energy efficiency, or tree planting—particularly in developing nations—can be a relatively cheap way of making an event, project, or business "carbon neutral".  Many carbon offset providers—some as inexpensive as $0.10 per ton of carbon dioxide—are referenced in the Carbon Offset article of this encyclopedia.

text: The principle of

text: carbon offset

text: is fairly simple: a business decides that it doesn't want to contribute further to global warming, and it has already made efforts to reduce its carbon (dioxide) emissions, so it decides to pay someone else to further reduce its net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies. Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees—or not emitted due to funding of renewable energy deployment—offsets the emissions from fossil fuel use. In many cases, funding of renewable energy, energy efficiency, or tree planting—particularly in developing nations—can be a relatively cheap way of making an event, project, or business "carbon neutral".  Many carbon offset providers—some as inexpensive as $0.10 per ton of carbon dioxide—are referenced in the

text: Carbon Offset

text: article of this encyclopedia.

text: As long as exergy stands for the useful energy required for an economic activity to be accomplished, it is reasonable to evaluate the cost of the energy on the basis of its exergy content. Besides, as exergy can be considered as measure of the departure of the environmental conditions, it also serves as an indicator of environmental impact, taking into account both the efficiency of supply chain (from primary exergy inputs) and the efficiency of the production processes. In this way, exergoeconomy can be used to rationally distribute the exergy costs and CO2 emission cost among the products and by-products of a highly integrated Brazilian electricity mix. Based on the thermoeconomy methodologies, some authors have shown that exergoeconomy provides an opportunity to quantify the renewable and non-renewable specific exergy consumption; to properly allocate the associated CO2 emissions among the streams of a given production route; as well as to determine the overall exergy conversion efficiency of the production processes. Accordingly, the non-renewable unit exergy cost (cNR) [kJ/kJ] is defined as the rate of non-renewable exergy necessary to produce one unit of exergy rate/flow rate of a substance, fuel, electricity, work or heat flow, whereas the Total Unit Exergy Cost (cT) includes the Renewable (cR) and Non-Renewable Unit Exergy Costs. Analogously, the CO2 emission cost (cCO2) [gCO2/kJ] is defined as the rate of CO2 emitted to obtain one unit of exergy rate/flow rate.

text: As long as exergy stands for the useful energy required for an economic activity to be accomplished, it is reasonable to evaluate the cost of the energy on the basis of its exergy content. Besides, as exergy can be considered as measure of the departure of the environmental conditions, it also serves as an indicator of environmental impact, taking into account both the efficiency of supply chain (from primary exergy inputs) and the efficiency of the production processes. In this way,

text: exergoeconomy

text: can be used to rationally distribute the exergy costs and CO2 emission cost among the products and by-products of a highly integrated Brazilian electricity mix. Based on the

text: thermoeconomy

text: methodologies, some authors have shown that exergoeconomy provides an opportunity to quantify the renewable and non-renewable specific exergy consumption; to properly allocate the associated CO2 emissions among the streams of a given production route; as well as to determine the overall exergy conversion efficiency of the production processes. Accordingly, the non-renewable unit exergy cost (cNR) [kJ/kJ] is defined as the rate of non-renewable exergy necessary to produce one unit of exergy rate/flow rate of a substance, fuel, electricity, work or heat flow, whereas the Total Unit Exergy Cost (cT) includes the Renewable (cR) and Non-Renewable Unit Exergy Costs. Analogously, the CO2 emission cost (cCO2) [gCO2/kJ] is defined as the rate of CO2 emitted to obtain one unit of exergy rate/flow rate.

text: Renewable natural gas can be produced economically, and distributed via the existing gas grid, making it an attractive means of supplying existing premises with renewable heat and renewable gas energy, while requiring no extra capital outlay of the customer. Renewable natural gas can be converted into liquefied natural gas (LNG) for direct use as fuel in transport sector. LNG would fetch good price equivalent to gasoline or diesel as it can replace these fuels in transport sector.

text: Renewable natural gas can be produced economically, and distributed via the existing gas grid, making it an attractive means of supplying existing premises with

text: renewable heat

text: and renewable gas energy, while requiring no extra capital outlay of the customer. Renewable natural gas can be converted into

text: liquefied natural gas

text: (LNG) for direct use as fuel in transport sector. LNG would fetch good price equivalent to gasoline or diesel as it can replace these fuels in transport sector.

text: On 9 March 2010 a consortium of 13 mining companies with coal operations in Queensland, known as the Queensland Coal Industry Rail Group and headed by former NSW premier Nick Greiner, announced their intention to buy QR's coal rail network. The consortium made a formal $4.85 billion offer on 26 May for the tracks used exclusively or predominantly to haul export coal to port, and excluding QR's trains and freight businesses. If the bid is accepted the rail assets would be managed by the Australian Rail Track Corporation, a federal government owned body who manages the Australian interstate freight network. Premier Anna Bligh and Treasurer Andrew Fraser said it would consider the offer but believed a public float was the best option. The companies providing the equity included Anglo American Metallurgical Coal, BHP Billiton, Ensham Resources, Felix Resources, Jellinbah Group, Macarthur Coal, Peabody Energy, Rio Tinto Coal Australia, Vale Australia, Wesfarmers Resources and Xstrata Coal; with Aquila Resources and New Hope Coal are supporting parties and may provide equity at a later stage. QR chief executive Lance Hockridge rejected the bid in June 2010, saying it is not in the best interests of the future expansion of the state's coal network. The consortium increased their bid for QR National to $5.2 billion on 10 August 2010 and the Queensland Government confirmed they are in negotiations with the consortium over this bid. During the negotiations the consortium received access to the QR National's financials. The negotiations ended when the consortium did not meet the deadline of 10 September 2010 for making a binding offer for QR National.

text: On 9 March 2010 a consortium of 13 mining companies with coal operations in Queensland, known as the Queensland Coal Industry Rail Group and headed by former NSW premier

text: Nick Greiner

text: , announced their intention to buy QR's coal rail network. The consortium made a formal $4.85 billion offer on 26 May for the tracks used exclusively or predominantly to haul export coal to port, and excluding QR's trains and freight businesses. If the bid is accepted the rail assets would be managed by the

text: Australian Rail Track Corporation

text: , a federal government owned body who manages the Australian interstate freight network. Premier

text: Anna Bligh

text: and Treasurer

text: Andrew Fraser

text: said it would consider the offer but believed a public float was the best option. The companies providing the equity included

text: Anglo American Metallurgical Coal

text: BHP Billiton

text: Ensham Resources

text: Felix Resources

text: Jellinbah Group

text: Macarthur Coal

text: Peabody Energy

text: Rio Tinto Coal Australia

text: Vale Australia

text: Wesfarmers Resources

text: and

text: Xstrata Coal

text: ; with

text: Aquila Resources

text: and

text: New Hope Coal

text: are supporting parties and may provide equity at a later stage. QR chief executive Lance Hockridge rejected the bid in June 2010, saying it is not in the best interests of the future expansion of the state's coal network. The consortium increased their bid for QR National to $5.2 billion on 10 August 2010 and the Queensland Government confirmed they are in negotiations with the consortium over this bid. During the negotiations the consortium received access to the QR National's

text: financials

text: . The negotiations ended when the consortium did not meet the deadline of 10 September 2010 for making a binding offer for QR National.

text: Climate change, pollution, and energy insecurity are significant problems, and addressing them requires major changes to energy infrastructures. Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to world energy security, reduce dependency on fossil fuels, and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. Climate-disrupting fossil fuels are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy:

text: Climate change

text: , pollution, and energy insecurity are significant problems, and addressing them requires major changes to energy infrastructures.

text: Renewable energy

text: technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to

text: world energy security

text: , reduce dependency on

text: fossil fuel

text: s, and provide opportunities for mitigating

text: greenhouse gases

text: . Climate-disrupting

text: fossil fuels

text: are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy:

text: Definitions of renewable: resources may also include agricultural production, as in sustainable agriculture and to an extent water resources. In 1962 Paul Alfred Weiss defined Renewable Resources as: "The total range of living organisms providing man with food, fibres, drugs, etc...". Another type of renewable resources is renewable energy resources. Common sources of renewable energy include solar, geothermal and wind power, which are all categorised as renewable resources.

text: Definitions of renewable: resources may also include agricultural production, as in

text: sustainable agriculture

text: and to an extent

text: water resources

text: . In 1962

text: Paul Alfred Weiss

text: defined Renewable Resources as: "The total range of living organisms providing man with food, fibres, drugs, etc...". Another type of renewable resources is

text: renewable energy

text: resources. Common sources of renewable energy include solar, geothermal and wind power, which are all categorised as renewable resources.

text: Carbon neutral fuel is synthetic fuel—such as methane, gasoline, diesel fuel or jet fuel—produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater. Such fuels are potentially carbon neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace fossil fuels, or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid, and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe, they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere, and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation. Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels.

text: Carbon neutral fuel

text: is

text: synthetic fuel

text: —such as

text: methane

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: jet fuel

text: —produced from

text: renewable

text: or

text: nuclear energy

text: used to

text: hydrogenate

text: waste

text: carbon dioxide

text: recycled from

text: power plant flue

text: exhaust gas

text: or derived from

text: carbonic acid

text: in

text: seawater

text: . Such fuels are potentially

text: carbon neutral

text: because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric

text: greenhouse gas

text: es. To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace

text: fossil fuel

text: carbon capture

text: negative carbon dioxide emission

text: and net

text: carbon dioxide removal

text: greenhouse gas remediation

text: . Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by the

text: electrolysis of water

text: to make

text: hydrogen

text: used in the

text: Sabatier reaction

text: to produce methane which may then be

text: stored

text: to be burned later in

text: power plants

text: as synthetic

text: natural gas

text: , transported by

text: pipeline

text: truck

text: , or

text: tanker ship

text: , or be used in

text: gas to liquids

text: processes such as the

text: Fischer–Tropsch process

text: fuel

text: s.

text: Several legal and economic means have been used to enhance the market share of renewables.The UK uses Non-Fossil Fuel Obligations (NFFO), a collection of orders requiring the electricity Distribution Network Operators in England and Wales to purchase electricity from the nuclear power and renewable energy sectors. Similar mechanisms operate in Scotland (the Scottish Renewable Orders under the Scottish Renewables Obligation) and Northern Ireland (the Northern Ireland Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation). In the USA, Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), use a similar approach. German Energiewende is using fed-in tariffs. An unexpected outcome of the subsidies was the quick increase of pellet byfiring in conventional fossil fuel plants (compare Tilbury power stations) and cement works, making wood respectively biomass accounting for about half of Europe’s renewable-energy consumption.

text: Several legal and economic means have been used to enhance the market share of renewables.The UK uses

text: Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation

text: s (NFFO), a collection of

text: orders

text: requiring the electricity

text: Distribution Network Operator

text: s in

text: England

text: and

text: Wales

text: to purchase electricity from the

text: nuclear power

text: and

text: renewable energy

text: sectors. Similar mechanisms operate in

text: Scotland

text: (the Scottish Renewable Orders under the Scottish Renewables Obligation) and

text: Northern Ireland

text: (the Northern Ireland Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation). In the USA,

entity_name: Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)

text: Renewable Energy Certificates

text: (RECs), use a similar approach. German

text: Energiewende

text: is using fed-in tariffs. An unexpected outcome of the subsidies was the quick increase of pellet byfiring in conventional fossil fuel plants (compare

text: Tilbury power stations

text: ) and cement works, making wood respectively biomass accounting for about half of Europe’s renewable-energy consumption.

text: The Energy transition is the shift by several countries to sustainable economies by means of renewable energy, energy efficiency and sustainable development. The final goal is the abolishment of coal and other non-renewable energy sources.

text: The

text: Energy transition

text: is the shift by several countries to sustainable economies by means of

text: renewable energy

text: energy efficiency

text: and

text: sustainable development

text: . The final goal is the abolishment of coal and other non-renewable energy sources.

text: Oil is an extremely valuable and vital resource to economies and societies everywhere.  There is a strong relationship between the increase in oil prices, and real growth in the economy.  When a society suffers a disturbance in energy supplies, there is potential for a shock to expensive consumption or investment goods that are heavily dependent on energy, like motor vehicles and machinery.  This is because disruption in energy supplies creates uncertainty regarding availability and upcoming prices of these supplies.  Often consumers attempt to delay the purchase of such items until they have a better idea of what energy prices are going to look like after the subsiding of the disruption.  Increases in the price of oil means a greater portion of the consumer’s income is required to purchase oil, and therefore less can be used in the purchase of other goods.  Oil price changes, both increases and decreases, have an extremely potent effect on allocation channels.

text: Oil

text: is an extremely valuable and vital resource to economies and societies everywhere.  There is a strong relationship between the increase in oil prices, and real growth in the economy.  When a

text: society

text: suffers a disturbance in energy supplies, there is potential for a shock to expensive consumption or investment goods that are heavily dependent on energy, like motor vehicles and machinery.  This is because disruption in energy supplies creates uncertainty regarding availability and upcoming prices of these supplies.  Often consumers attempt to delay the purchase of such items until they have a better idea of what energy prices are going to look like after the subsiding of the disruption.  Increases in the price of oil means a greater portion of the consumer’s income is required to purchase oil, and therefore less can be used in the purchase of other goods.  Oil price changes, both increases and decreases, have an extremely potent effect on allocation channels.

text: Nuclear power and fossil fuels are subsidized by many governments, and wind power and other forms of renewable energy are also often subsidized. For example, a 2009 study by the Environmental Law Institute assessed the size and structure of U.S. energy subsidies over the 2002–2008 period. The study estimated that subsidies to fossil-fuel based sources amounted to approximately $72 billion over this period and subsidies to renewable fuel sources totalled $29 billion. In the United States, the federal government has paid US$74 billion for energy subsidies to support R&D for nuclear power ($50 billion) and fossil fuels ($24 billion) from 1973 to 2003. During this same time frame, renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency received a total of US$26 billion. It has been suggested that a subsidy shift would help to level the playing field and support growing energy sectors, namely solar power, wind power, and biofuels. History shows that no energy sector was developed without subsidies.

text: Nuclear power

text: and

text: fossil fuel

text: s are

text: subsidized by many governments

text: , and wind power and other forms of renewable energy are also often subsidized. For example, a 2009 study by the Environmental Law Institute assessed the size and structure of U.S. energy subsidies over the 2002–2008 period. The study estimated that subsidies to fossil-fuel based sources amounted to approximately $72 billion over this period and subsidies to renewable fuel sources totalled $29 billion. In the United States, the federal government has paid US$74 billion for energy subsidies to support

text: R&D

text: for

text: nuclear power

text: ($50 billion) and

text: fossil fuels

text: ($24 billion) from 1973 to 2003. During this same time frame,

text: renewable energy

text: technologies and

text: energy efficiency

text: received a total of US$26 billion. It has been suggested that a subsidy shift would help to level the playing field and support growing energy sectors, namely

text: solar power

text: , wind power, and

text: biofuels

text: . History shows that no energy sector was developed without subsidies.

text: Early modern times and the 19th century saw the previous resource base partially replaced respectively supplemented by large scale chemical synthesis and by the use of fossil and mineral resources respectively. Besides the still central role of wood, there is a sort of renaissance of renewable products based on modern agriculture, genetic research and extraction technology. Besides fears about an upcoming global shortage of fossil fuels, local shortages due to boycotts, war and blockades or just transportation problems in remote regions have contributed to different methods of replacing or substituting fossil resources based on renewables.

text: Early modern times and the 19th century saw the previous resource base partially replaced respectively supplemented by large scale chemical synthesis and by the use of fossil and mineral resources respectively. Besides the still central role of wood, there is a sort of renaissance of renewable products based on modern agriculture, genetic research and extraction technology. Besides fears about an upcoming

text: global shortage of fossil fuels

text: , local shortages due to boycotts, war and blockades or just transportation problems in remote regions have contributed to different methods of replacing or substituting fossil resources based on renewables.

text: Nuclear power plants are a complex energy system.  and opponents of nuclear power have criticized the sophistication and complexity of the technology. Helen Caldicott has said: "... in essence, a nuclear reactor is just a very sophisticated and dangerous way to boil water -- analogous to cutting a pound of butter with a chain saw." These critics of nuclear power advocate the use of energy conservation, efficient energy use, and appropriate renewable energy technologies to create our energy future. Amory Lovins, from the Rocky Mountain Institute, has argued that centralized electricity systems with giant power plants are becoming obsolete. In their place are emerging "distributed resources"—smaller, decentralized electricity supply sources (including efficiency) that are cheaper, cleaner, less risky, more flexible, and quicker to deploy. Such technologies are often called "soft energy technologies" and Lovins viewed their impacts as more gentle, pleasant, and manageable than hard energy technologies such as nuclear power.

text: Nuclear power plants are a complex energy system.  and opponents of nuclear power have criticized the sophistication and complexity of the technology.

text: Helen Caldicott

text: has said: "... in essence, a nuclear reactor is just a very sophisticated and dangerous way to boil water -- analogous to cutting a pound of butter with a chain saw." These critics of nuclear power advocate the use of

text: energy conservation

text: efficient energy use

text: , and appropriate

text: renewable energy

text: technologies to create our energy future.

text: Amory Lovins

text: , from the

text: Rocky Mountain Institute

text: , has argued that centralized electricity systems with giant power plants are becoming obsolete. In their place are emerging "distributed resources"—smaller, decentralized electricity supply sources (including efficiency) that are cheaper, cleaner, less risky, more flexible, and quicker to deploy. Such technologies are often called "

text: soft energy technologies

text: " and Lovins viewed their impacts as more gentle, pleasant, and manageable than hard energy technologies such as nuclear power.

text: Iroquois Gas Transmission System is a natural gas pipeline that brings gas from eastern Canada to the New York City area.  It is owned by TransCanada Corporation, Dominion Resources, KeySpan Corporation, New Jersey Resources Corporation, and Energy East Corporation.  Its FERC code is 110.

text: Iroquois Gas Transmission System is a

text: natural gas

text: pipeline that brings gas from eastern

text: Canada

text: to the

text: New York City

text: area.  It is owned by

text: TransCanada Corporation

text: Dominion Resources

text: KeySpan Corporation

text: New Jersey Resources Corporation

text: , and

text: Energy East Corporation

text: .  Its

text: FERC

text: code is 110.

text: At high pressure and temperature, the organic material of a dead organism undergoes chemical reactions in which volatiles such as water and carbon dioxide are expulsed. The fossil, in the end, consists of a thin layer of pure carbon or its mineralized form, graphite. This form of fossilisation is called carbonisation. It is particularly important for plant fossils. The same process is responsible for the formation of fossil fuels like lignite or coal.

text: At high pressure and temperature, the

text: organic material

text: of a dead organism undergoes chemical reactions in which

text: volatiles

text: such as

text: water

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: are expulsed. The fossil, in the end, consists of a thin layer of pure carbon or its mineralized form,

text: graphite

text: . This form of fossilisation is called

text: carbonisation

text: . It is particularly important for plant fossils. The same process is responsible for the formation of

text: fossil fuel

text: s like

text: lignite

text: or

text: coal

text: Resource depletion is the consumption of a resource faster than it can be replenished. Natural resources are commonly divided between renewable resources and non-renewable resources (see also mineral resource classification). Use of either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be resource depletion.

text: Resource depletion is the consumption of a resource faster than it can be replenished.

text: Natural resource

text: s are commonly divided between

text: renewable resource

text: s and

text: non-renewable resource

text: s (see also

text: mineral resource classification

text: ). Use of either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be resource depletion.

text: As petroleum is a non-renewable natural resource the industry is faced with an inevitable eventual depletion of the world's oil supply. The BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2007 listed the reserve/production ratio for proven resources worldwide. The study placed the ratio of proven reserves to production in the Middle East at 79.5 years, Latin America at 41.2 years and North America at 12 years. A simplistic interpretation of the ratio has led to many false predictions of immanent "running out of oil" since the early years of the oil industry in the 1800s. This has been especially true in the United States, where the ratio of proved reserves-to-production has been between 8 years and 17 years since 1920. Many have mistakenly interpreted the result as the number of years before the oil supply is exhausted. Such analyses do not take into account future reserves growth.

text: As petroleum is a

text: non-renewable natural resource

text: the industry is faced with an inevitable eventual depletion of the world's oil supply. The BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2007 listed the

text: reserve/production ratio

text: for proven resources worldwide. The study placed the ratio of proven reserves to production in the Middle East at 79.5 years, Latin America at 41.2 years and North America at 12 years. A simplistic interpretation of the ratio has led to many false predictions of immanent "running out of oil" since the early years of the oil industry in the 1800s. This has been especially true in the United States, where the ratio of proved reserves-to-production has been between 8 years and 17 years since 1920. Many have mistakenly interpreted the result as the number of years before the

text: oil supply is exhausted

text: . Such analyses do not take into account future

text: reserves growth

text: The wave of direct action spread to Alberta when Premier Peter Lougheed and his Conservatives won power in 1971, ending 36 years of Social Credit rule. Lougheed's elaborate election platform, titled New Directions, sounded themes common among OPEC countries by pledging to create provincial resources and oil growth companies, collect a greater share of energy revenues, and foster economic diversification to prepare for the day when petroleum reserves ran out. The idea of limited resources emerged from the realm of theory into hard facts of policy when the NEB rejected natural-gas export applications in 1970 and 1971, on grounds that there was no surplus and Canada needed the supplies. The strength of the new conservationist sentiment was underlined when the NEB stuck to its guns despite a 1971 declaration by the federal Department of Energy that it thought Canada had a 392-year supply of natural gas and enough oil for 923 years.

text: The wave of direct action spread to Alberta when Premier

text: Peter Lougheed

text: and his Conservatives won power in 1971, ending 36 years of

text: Social Credit

text: rule. Lougheed's elaborate election platform, titled New Directions, sounded themes common among OPEC countries by pledging to create provincial resources and oil growth companies, collect a greater share of energy revenues, and foster economic diversification to prepare for the day when petroleum reserves ran out. The idea of limited resources emerged from the realm of theory into hard facts of policy when the NEB rejected natural-gas export applications in 1970 and 1971, on grounds that there was no surplus and Canada needed the supplies. The strength of the new conservationist sentiment was underlined when the NEB stuck to its guns despite a 1971 declaration by the federal Department of Energy that it thought Canada had a 392-year supply of

text: natural gas

text: and enough oil for 923 years.

text: The exploitation of natural resources is the use of natural resources for economic growth, sometimes with a negative connotation of accompanying environmental degradation. It started to emerge on an industrial scale in the 19th century as the extraction and processing of raw materials (such as in mining, steam power, and machinery) developed much further than it had in preindustrial eras. During the 20th century, energy consumption rapidly increased. Today, about 80% of the world’s energy consumption is sustained by the extraction of fossil fuels, which consists of oil, coal and gas. Another non-renewable resource that is exploited by humans is subsoil minerals such as precious metals that are mainly used in the production of industrial commodities. Intensive agriculture is an example of a mode of production that hinders many aspects of the natural environment, for example the degradation of forests in a terrestrial ecosystem and water pollution in an aquatic ecosystem. As the world population rises and economic growth occurs, the depletion of natural resources influenced by the unsustainable extraction of raw materials becomes an increasing concern.

text: The exploitation of natural resources is the use of

text: natural resource

text: s for

text: economic growth

text: , sometimes with a

text: negative connotation

text: of accompanying

text: environmental degradation

text: . It started to emerge on an

text: industrial

text: scale in the 19th century as the extraction and processing of

text: raw material

text: s (such as in

text: mining

text: steam power

text: , and

text: machinery

text: ) developed much further than it had in preindustrial eras. During the 20th century,

text: energy

text: consumption rapidly increased. Today, about 80% of the

text: world’s energy consumption

text: is sustained by the extraction of

text: fossil fuel

text: s, which consists of

text: oil

text: coal

text: and

text: gas

text: . Another

text: non-renewable resource

text: that is exploited by humans is

text: subsoil minerals

text: such as

text: precious metal

text: s that are mainly used in the production of industrial

text: commodities

text: Intensive agriculture

text: is an example of a mode of production that hinders many aspects of the

text: natural environment

text: , for example the degradation of

text: forest

text: s in a

text: terrestrial ecosystem

text: and

text: water pollution

text: in an

text: aquatic ecosystem

text: . As the

text: world population

text: rises and

text: economic growth

text: occurs, the

text: depletion of natural resources

text: influenced by the unsustainable extraction of

text: raw materials

text: becomes an increasing concern.

text: The industrialization of coal mining led to a sharp increase in the burning of coal in stoves for home heating and cooking. Coal burns with twice the Btu of wood or peat, creating greater heat. Coal's greatest drawback, aside from being non-renewable, is that it creates thick, toxic smoke. This creates dense smog in urban areas, for example, in London, England during the Victorian era.

text: The industrialization of coal mining led to a sharp increase in the burning of coal in stoves for home heating and cooking. Coal burns with twice the

text: Btu

text: of wood or peat, creating greater heat. Coal's greatest drawback, aside from being non-renewable, is that it creates thick, toxic smoke. This creates dense

text: smog

text: in urban areas, for example, in

text: London, England

text: during the

text: Victorian era

text: Finkel has served as consultant to numerous organizations, including law firms and pharmaceutical companies, in the areas of epidemiology and health care policy. She has been appointed by the Director General of the WHO to the WHO Expert Advisory Panel on Drug Evaluation. She is a member of the American College of Epidemiology, an advisor to the American Council on Science and Health, and Secretary of the Board of the Christian Medical College Vellore Foundation (USA). Finkel also serves as a Scientific Advisor and Board Member to Physicians, Scientists, and Engineers for Healthy Energy (PSE), a non-profit organization whose focus is to examine the empirical bases and assumptions of unconventional energy production as well as the energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable energies.

text: Finkel has served as consultant to numerous organizations, including law firms and pharmaceutical companies, in the areas of epidemiology and health care policy. She has been appointed by the Director General of the

text: WHO

text: to the WHO Expert Advisory Panel on Drug Evaluation. She is a member of the

text: American College of Epidemiology

text: , an advisor to the

text: American Council on Science and Health

text: , and Secretary of the Board of the Christian Medical College Vellore Foundation (USA). Finkel also serves as a Scientific Advisor and Board Member to Physicians, Scientists, and Engineers for Healthy Energy (PSE), a non-profit organization whose focus is to examine the empirical bases and assumptions of unconventional energy production as well as the energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable energies.

text: The manufacturing and marketing rights to the patented BioSphere technology were licensed to a Shenzhen-based Chinese consortium in 2013. BioSphere is one of several waste to energy technologies invented, patented, designed, developed and commercialized by McCormack who is a Fulbright Scholar, Fogarty Fellow and an Elected Member of The Physiological Society. BioSphere superseded DiGenter which was first patented in 1986 and developed with the support of the Ford Motor Company and The University of California-Riverside and Energy Resource Institute of California. DiGenter a technology which was deployed widely in China and India was one of the first successful commercial scale sustainable cellulosic waste to ethanol technologies; a forerunner to the now successful DuPont technologies manufacturing renewable fuel grade Bio-ethanol and gasoline from non-food feedstock's, waste materials, bagasse and biomass.

text: Nuclear energy may or may not be classified as a green source depending on the country. Although there used to be much more privatization in this energy sector, after the 2011 Fukushima district nuclear power plant disaster in Japan, there has been a move away from nuclear energy itself, especially for privately owned nuclear power plants. The criticism being that privatization of companies tend to have the companies themselves cutting corners and costs for profits which has proven to be disastrous in the worst-case scenarios. This placed a strain on many other countries as many foreign governments felt pressured to close nuclear power plants in response to public concerns. Nuclear energy however still holds a major part in many communities around the world.

text: Proponents of nuclear energy contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on imported energy sources. Proponents claim that nuclear power produces virtually no conventional air pollution, such as greenhouse gases and smog, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents claim that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants. "Some technologies, such as nuclear power, can elicit an almost religious feeling of sublimity.  They can provoke awe and wonder, capturing the imaginations and hearts of proponents in addition to their minds and pocketbooks."

text: sustainable energy

text: source that reduces

text: carbon emissions

text: and increases

text: energy security

text: by decreasing dependence on imported energy sources. Proponents claim that nuclear power produces virtually no conventional air pollution, such as

text: greenhouse gases

text: and smog, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of

text: fossil fuel

text: . Proponents claim that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the

text: operational safety record

text: in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants. "Some technologies, such as nuclear power, can elicit an almost religious feeling of sublimity.  They can provoke awe and wonder, capturing the imaginations and hearts of proponents in addition to their minds and pocketbooks."

text: Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to sustainable energy as they generally contribute to world energy security, reducing dependence on fossil fuel resources, and providing opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. The International Energy Agency states that:

text: Renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to sustainable energy as they generally contribute to world

text: energy security

text: , reducing dependence on

text: fossil fuel

text: resources, and providing opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. The

text: International Energy Agency

text: states that:

text: Government agencies in some countries publish maps (commonly collected together as a national 'wind atlas') of estimated wind resources, which serve to inform policy-making and encourage wind power development. Examples include the Canadian Wind Atlas, the European Wind Atlas, and the Wind Resource Atlas of the United States. Recognizing the lack of knowledge of wind (and solar) resource potential in developing countries, the Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) project was initiated by the United Nations Environment Program in 2002, with funding from the Global Environment Facility, to carry out initial mapping using only satellite-based data. More recently the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), a program within the World Bank, has launched an initiative to map wind and other renewable energy resources in a number of developing countries, with the intention of developing high quality mapping outputs (and associated datasets) that are validated with specially commissioned ground-based data. There is also an ongoing effort by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) to create a Global Atlas for Renewable Energy, which brings together publicly available GIS data on wind and other renewable energy resources.

text: Government agencies in some countries publish maps (commonly collected together as a national 'wind atlas') of estimated wind resources, which serve to inform policy-making and encourage wind power development. Examples include the Canadian Wind Atlas, the European Wind Atlas, and the Wind Resource Atlas of the United States. Recognizing the lack of knowledge of wind (and solar) resource potential in developing countries, the Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) project was initiated by the

text: United Nations Environment Program

text: in 2002, with funding from the

text: Global Environment Facility

text: , to carry out initial mapping using only satellite-based data. More recently the

entity_name: Energy Sector Management Assistance Program

text: Energy Sector Management Assistance Program

text: (ESMAP), a program within the

text: World Bank

text: , has launched an initiative to map wind and other renewable energy resources in a number of developing countries, with the intention of developing high quality mapping outputs (and associated datasets) that are validated with specially commissioned ground-based data. There is also an ongoing effort by the

text: International Renewable Energy Agency

text: (IRENA) to create a Global Atlas for Renewable Energy, which brings together publicly available

text: GIS

text: data on wind and other renewable energy resources.

text: The carbon in proven conventional oil and gas reserves was estimated to be much less than the cumulative carbon emissions associated with atmospheric stabilization of CO concentrations at levels of 450 ppmv or higher. The Third Assessment Report suggested that the future makeup of the world's energy mix would determine whether or not greenhouse gas concentrations were stabilized in the 21st century. The future energy mix might be based more on the exploitation of unconventional oil and gas (e.g., oil sands, shale oil, tight oil, shale gas), or more on the use of non-fossil energy sources, like renewable energy.

text: The carbon in proven conventional

text: oil

text: and

text: gas

text: reserves was estimated to be much less than the cumulative carbon emissions associated with atmospheric stabilization of CO concentrations at levels of 450

text: ppmv

text: or higher. The Third Assessment Report suggested that the future makeup of the world's energy mix would determine whether or not greenhouse gas concentrations were stabilized in the 21st century. The future energy mix might be based more on the exploitation of

text: unconventional oil

text: and gas (e.g.,

text: oil sands

text: shale oil

text: tight oil

text: shale gas

text: ), or more on the use of non-fossil energy sources, like

text: renewable energy

text: The following page lists all power stations that run on natural gas, a non-renewable resource. Stations that are only at a proposed stage or decommissioned, and power stations that are smaller than  in nameplate capacity, are not included in this list.

text: The following page lists all power stations that run on

text: natural gas

text: , a

text: non-renewable

text: resource. Stations that are only at a proposed stage or decommissioned, and power stations that are smaller than  in nameplate capacity, are not included in this list.

text: Fossil fuels are nonrenewable energy like burning coal, oil and others that will eventually run out. A large reason that humans are so inclined to use fossil fuels is because of the cost.  It is generally found in massive quantities which makes it much and apart from extraction, there are not many other costs associated with it.  Coal is the largest source of energy for electricity production in the world.  These are the primary factors that lead to the use of coal and other fossil fuels.  Cost is the most important factor to so many people that nothing matters.

text: The United States accounts for about 44% of the world’s gasoline consumption. In 2003 The US consumed , which equates to  of gasoline each day. The US used about  of gasoline in 2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade.

text: Natural resources such as coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see renewable energy.

text: Natural resources such as

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: (crude oil) and

text: natural gas

text: take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see

text: renewable energy

text: In 2010, as the petition to repeal the HST was very successful in his riding, Pimm became one of 24 MLAs targeted for recall by Bill Vander Zalm's FightHST group. However, several months later, his name was removed from the list as the group prioritized candidates for recall campaigns. In October, during Campbell's final cabinet shuffle before resigning, the post of Parliamentary Secretary for the Natural Gas Initiative was created for Pimm under the Ministry of Energy. In January 2011, with community opposition to a transfer move Oil and Gas Commission engineering jobs, from Fort St. John to Kelowna, Pimm intervened by arranging a public meeting with the Minister of Natural Resource Operations Steve Thomson, the CEO of the Commission, as well as industry and public representatives, which resulted in several positions staying in Fort St. John. During the BC Liberal Party leadership electionto replace Campbell, Pimm endorsed Kevin Falcon in mid-December citing Falcon's performance as Minister of Transportation where he directed significant funding to improving oil and gas resource roads and the Alaska Highway. In March 2011, after Christy Clark won the leadership election and was named Premier, she kept Pimm as Parliamentary Secretary for Natural Gas to the Minister of Energy and Mines. On June 27, 2011, he resigned from his Parliamentary Secretary position and from the BC Liberal caucus following a domestic dispute involving his wife which resulted in the RCMP detaining him overnight. A special prosecutor was assigned to his case given his status as an elected official.  On July 13, the special prosecutor announced they would not be pressing charges and the BC Liberal caucus allowed Pimm to re-join. Pimm returned to his role as Parliamentary Secretary for Natural Gas and spent the summer consulting with stakeholders for what would become BC's Natural Gas Strategy and BC's Liquefied Natural Gas Strategy. In September 2012, he was made deputy whip, replacing Eric Foster who became whip.

text: In 2010, as the petition to repeal the HST was very successful in his riding, Pimm became one of 24 MLAs targeted for recall by

text: Bill Vander Zalm

text: 's FightHST group. However, several months later, his name was removed from the list as the group prioritized candidates for recall campaigns. In October, during Campbell's final cabinet shuffle before resigning, the post of Parliamentary Secretary for the Natural Gas Initiative was created for Pimm under the Ministry of Energy. In January 2011, with community opposition to a transfer move

text: Oil and Gas Commission

text: engineering jobs, from Fort St. John to

text: Kelowna

text: , Pimm intervened by arranging a public meeting with the Minister of Natural Resource Operations

text: Steve Thomson

text: , the CEO of the Commission, as well as industry and public representatives, which resulted in several positions staying in Fort St. John. During the

entity_name: British Columbia Liberal Party leadership election, 2011

text: BC Liberal Party leadership election

text: to replace Campbell, Pimm endorsed

text: Kevin Falcon

text: in mid-December citing Falcon's performance as Minister of Transportation where he directed significant funding to improving oil and gas resource roads and the

text: Alaska Highway

text: . In March 2011, after

text: Christy Clark

text: won the leadership election and was named Premier, she kept Pimm as Parliamentary Secretary for Natural Gas to the Minister of Energy and Mines. On June 27, 2011, he resigned from his Parliamentary Secretary position and from the BC Liberal caucus following a

text: domestic dispute

text: involving his wife which resulted in the RCMP detaining him overnight. A special prosecutor was assigned to his case given his status as an elected official.  On July 13, the special prosecutor announced they would not be pressing charges and the BC Liberal caucus allowed Pimm to re-join. Pimm returned to his role as Parliamentary Secretary for Natural Gas and spent the summer consulting with stakeholders for what would become BC's Natural Gas Strategy and BC's Liquefied Natural Gas Strategy. In September 2012, he was made deputy whip, replacing

text: Eric Foster

text: who became whip.

text: In the third quarterly fiscal update published in February 2016, forecasts for the Crown debt was $18.9 billion compared to a surplus of $1.12 billion in 2014/2015. The deficit was forecast at $6.3 billion, revenue was forecast to be $43.1 billion and the expense was forecast at $49.4 billion. The 2015/2016 forecast for non-renewable resource revenue has been decreased to $2.47, down from In 2014-15 the non-renewable resource revenue was $8.95 billion. In the 2015 spring budget it was projected to be $2.77 billion. With the lower exchange rate crude oil royalties—budgeted at $610 million are forecast to be $74 million higher but remain much lower than the $2.25 billion in 2014-15. Transfers from the federal government are forecast at a total of 7,256 million up from 5,982 in 2014-15. If global oil production continued to outperform expectations for an even more prolonged period, Alberta's outlook will be further weakened. In January 2016 the price of Western Canadian Select WCS—the Alberta heavy oil benchmark—fell below US$20 per barrel—"the lowest level since trading began in 2004." However, Alberta's economy experienced real GDP growth because of an improved trade balance with declining imports and rising exports—mainly because of the low Canadian dollar. The unemployment rate was expected to average 7.4% in 2016.

text: In the third quarterly fiscal update published in February 2016, forecasts for the Crown debt was $18.9 billion compared to a surplus of $1.12 billion in 2014/2015. The deficit was forecast at $6.3 billion, revenue was forecast to be $43.1 billion and the expense was forecast at $49.4 billion. The 2015/2016 forecast for non-renewable resource revenue has been decreased to $2.47, down from In 2014-15 the non-renewable resource revenue was $8.95 billion. In the 2015 spring budget it was projected to be $2.77 billion. With the lower exchange rate crude oil royalties—budgeted at $610 million are forecast to be $74 million higher but remain much lower than the $2.25 billion in 2014-15. Transfers from the federal government are forecast at a total of 7,256 million up from 5,982 in 2014-15. If global oil production continued to outperform expectations for an even more prolonged period, Alberta's outlook will be further weakened. In January 2016 the price of

text: Western Canadian Select

text: WCS—the Alberta heavy oil benchmark—fell below US$20 per barrel—"the lowest level since trading began in 2004." However, Alberta's economy experienced real GDP growth because of an improved trade balance with declining imports and rising exports—mainly because of the low Canadian dollar. The unemployment rate was expected to average 7.4% in 2016.

text: An alternative hypothesis is that carbon based fuel is virtually inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon-based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are vastly greater than all other carbon based fossil fuel resources combined. These sources of carbon are also considered non-renewable, although their rate of formation/replenishment on the sea floor is not known. However their extraction at economically viable costs and rates has yet to be determined.

text: Concerns of inefficiency and expense are holding Saudi Arabia back from converting to renewable energy. Long term costs for environmentally friendly practices are low. However, developers often ignore environmental restrictions during oil expansion. It is possible for Saudi Arabia to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and encourage renewable energy use. Preoccupation on energy security strengthen the movement towards renewable energies. The current wealth from oil abundance and pressure from international organizations could encourage the energy sector to move towards sustainable policy. Natural resources are finite. The transition from voluntary sustainability to mandatory environmental regulation can push Saudi Arabia towards environmentally friendly practices.

text: Concerns of inefficiency and expense are holding Saudi Arabia back from converting to renewable energy. Long term costs for environmentally friendly practices are low. However, developers often ignore environmental restrictions during oil expansion. It is possible for Saudi Arabia to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and encourage renewable energy use. Preoccupation on energy security strengthen the movement towards renewable energies. The current wealth from oil abundance and pressure from international organizations could encourage the energy sector to move towards sustainable policy. Natural resources are finite. The transition from voluntary sustainability to mandatory

text: environmental regulation

text: can push Saudi Arabia towards environmentally friendly practices.

text: One liter of ethanol contain 21.1 MJ, a liter of methanol 15.8 MJ and a liter of gasoline approximately 32.6 MJ. In other words, for the same energy content as one liter or one gallon of gasoline, one needs 1.6 liters/gallons of ethanol and 2.1 liters/gallons of methanol. The raw energy-per-volume numbers produce misleading fuel consumption numbers however, because alcohol-fueled engines can be made substantially more energy-efficient. A larger percentage of the energy available in a liter of alcohol fuel can be converted to useful work. This difference in efficiency can partially or totally balance out the energy density difference, depending on the particular engines being compared.

text: Renewable energy consumption more than quadrupled from 48 PJ in 1990 to 203 PJ in 2015. Whilst renewable energy consumption was rising between 1990 and 2013 gross energy consumption actually fell by 7%. Most of the fall can be attributed to a great increase in combined power and heat generation (CHP) and the growth in wind power. This has increased energy conversion efficiency, reducing conversion losses by 28% or 7% relative to gross energy consumption. Put simply smaller and decentralised CHP plants use fuels far more efficiently than older centralised power plants, and wind power has no fossil fuel to waste. Thus the growth of these two sources (10% during the period) has displaced fossil fuels by more than a one-to-one ratio. The use of Biofuels in local CHP plants has further displaced fossil fuel consumption. The figures in the table above show that whilst the reduction in fossil fuel use has been most pronounced in coal use, there has also been a significant reduction in oil and natural gas usage since 2000.  Oil has fared better than the other fuels because it still dominates usage in the transport sector and alternative fuels and transport solutions are not yet widely deployed. The Danish Government has introduced the following targets for national energy policy:

text: IET is doing so by carrying out research in both nuclear and non-nuclear energy domains, with partners from the Member States and beyond. In state-of-the-art experimental facilities, IET carries out key scientific activities in the following fields: renewable energies including solar, photovoltaics and biomass; sustainable & safe nuclear energy for current & future reactor systems;  energy infrastructures and security of supply; sustainable transport, fuels and technologies including hydrogen and fuel cells as well as clean fossil fuel; energy techno/economic assessment; bioenergy including biofuels; energy efficiency in buildings, industry, transport and end-use.

text: Conventional production of oil has peaked, conservatively, between 2007 and 2010. In 2010, it was estimated that an investment in non-renewable resources of $8 trillion would be required to maintain current levels of production for 25 years. In 2010, governments subsidized fossil fuels by an estimated $500 billion a year.  Fossil fuels are also a source of greenhouse gas emissions, leading to concerns about global warming if consumption is not reduced.

text: Conventional production of oil has peaked, conservatively, between 2007 and 2010. In 2010, it was estimated that an investment in non-renewable resources of $8 trillion would be required to maintain current levels of production for 25 years. In 2010, governments subsidized

text: fossil fuel

text: s by an estimated $500 billion a year.  Fossil fuels are also a source of

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions, leading to concerns about

text: global warming

text: if consumption is not reduced.

text: The top three oil producing countries are Russia, Saudi Arabia and the United States. About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from the Arab 5: Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iraq, Qatar and Kuwait. A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as bitumen in Canada and extra heavy oil in Venezuela. While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil. Thus, Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future.

text: The top three oil producing countries are Russia,

text: Saudi Arabia

text: and the United States. About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from the Arab 5:

text: Saudi Arabia

text: UAE

text: Iraq

text: Qatar

text: and

text: Kuwait

text: . A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as

text: bitumen

text: in

text: Canada

text: and

text: extra heavy oil

text: in

text: Venezuela

text: . While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil. Thus, Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future.

text: The Department of Communications, Climate Change and Natural Resources oversees the formulation and implementation of policies concerning Ireland's  coal, gas, peat, oil, electricity and renewable energy supply. The department strives to protect Ireland's energy supply, generation, security, affordability and sustainability, and to ensure that Ireland complies with international energy and climate change policies.

text: The Department of Communications, Climate Change and Natural Resources oversees the formulation and implementation of policies concerning Ireland's

text: coal

text: gas

text: peat

text: oil

text: electricity

text: and

text: renewable energy

text: supply. The department strives to protect Ireland's energy supply, generation, security, affordability and sustainability, and to ensure that Ireland complies with international energy and climate change policies.

text: Despite abundant natural resources and a relatively small population, New Zealand is a net importer of energy, in the form of petroleum products. The ratio of non-renewable and renewable energy sources was fairly consistent from 1975 to 2008, with about 70 per cent of primary energy supply coming from hydrocarbon fuels. This ratio decreased to about 60 per cent in 2014. The proportion of non-renewable energy varies annually, depending on water flows into hydro-electricity lakes and demand for energy. In 2014, approximately 60% of primary energy was from non-renewable hydrocarbon fuels and 40% was from renewable sources. In 2007 energy consumption per capita was 120 gigajoules. Per capita energy consumption had increased 8 per cent since 1998. New Zealand uses more energy per capita than 17 of 30 OECD countries.  New Zealand is one of 13 OECD countries that does not operate nuclear power stations.

text: Despite abundant natural resources and a relatively small population,

text: New Zealand

text: is a net importer of energy, in the form of

text: petroleum

text: products. The ratio of non-renewable and

text: renewable energy

text: sources was fairly consistent from 1975 to 2008, with about 70 per cent of primary energy supply coming from

text: hydrocarbon

text: fuels. This ratio decreased to about 60 per cent in 2014. The proportion of non-renewable energy varies annually, depending on water flows into hydro-electricity lakes and demand for energy. In 2014, approximately 60% of

text: primary energy

text: was from non-renewable hydrocarbon fuels and 40% was from renewable sources. In 2007 energy consumption per capita was 120 gigajoules. Per capita energy consumption had increased 8 per cent since 1998. New Zealand uses more energy per capita than 17 of 30 OECD countries.  New Zealand is one of 13 OECD countries that does not operate

text: nuclear power station

text: s.

text: In 1983, physicist Bernard Cohen proposed that uranium is effectively inexhaustible, and could therefore be considered a renewable source of energy.  He claims that fast breeder reactors, fueled by naturally replenished uranium extracted from seawater, could supply energy at least as long as the sun's expected remaining lifespan of five billion years. While uranium is a finite mineral resource within the earth, the hydrogen in the sun is finite too – thus, if the resource of nuclear fuel can last over such time scales, as Cohen contends, then nuclear energy is every bit as sustainable as solar power or any other source of energy, in terms of sustainability over the time scale of life surviving on this planet.

text: In 1983, physicist

text: Bernard Cohen

text: proposed that uranium is effectively inexhaustible, and could therefore be considered a renewable source of energy.  He claims that

text: fast breeder reactors

text: , fueled by naturally replenished uranium extracted from seawater, could supply energy at least as long as the sun's expected remaining lifespan of five billion years. While uranium is a finite mineral resource within the earth, the hydrogen in the sun is finite too – thus, if the resource of nuclear fuel can last over such time scales, as Cohen contends, then nuclear energy is every bit as sustainable as solar power or any other source of energy, in terms of sustainability over the time scale of life surviving on this planet.

text: The RFS is subject to arguments both for and against the policy. Supporters of the RFS claim it serves several public policy interests. The RFS reduces the risk of investing in renewable biofuels by guaranteeing demand for a projected period. It enhances U.S. energy security by promoting production of a liquid fuel from renewable, domestic sources. This in turn results in a decreased reliance on imported fossil fuels. The RFS acts as a boost to the US agricultural sector by providing an additional source of demand for U.S. agricultural products, and increases rural incomes and rural employment opportunities. Supporters argue that renewable biofuels go unrecognized for the full extent of their environmental benefits. Unlike gasoline and gasoline additives, biofuels are non-toxic and biodegradable, and emitsubstantially lower volumes of direct greenhouse gases than fossil fuels when produced, harvested, and processed under the right circumstances.

text: A large nationally representative 2010 British survey about energy issues found that public opinion is divided on the issue of nuclear power. The majority of people are concerned about nuclear power and public trust in the government and nuclear industry remains relatively low.  The survey showed that there is a clear preference for renewable energy sources over nuclear power.

text: A large nationally representative 2010 British survey about energy issues found that public opinion is divided on the issue of nuclear power. The majority of people are concerned about nuclear power and public trust in the government and nuclear industry remains relatively low.  The survey showed that there is a clear preference for

text: renewable energy

text: sources over nuclear power.

text: Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) and subsidies create protected markets for renewable energy. RPS require utilities to obtain a minimum percentage of their energy from renewable sources. In some states, utilities can purchase Renewable Energy Certificates (USA), Renewable Energy Certificate System (EU), Renewable Energy Certificates Registry (AUS) to meet this requirement. These certificates are issued to renewable energy producers based on the amount of energy they feed into the grid. Selling the certificates is another way for the renewable producer to supplement its revenues.

text: Renewable Portfolio Standard

text: s (RPS) and subsidies create protected markets for renewable energy. RPS require utilities to obtain a minimum percentage of their energy from renewable sources. In some states, utilities can purchase

text: Renewable Energy Certificates

text: (USA),

text: Renewable Energy Certificate System

text: (EU),

text: Renewable Energy Certificates Registry

text: (AUS) to meet this requirement. These certificates are issued to renewable energy producers based on the amount of energy they feed into the grid. Selling the certificates is another way for the renewable producer to supplement its revenues.

text: Figure 2 shows non-renewable environmental contributions (N) as an emergy storage of materials, renewable environmental inputs (R), and inputs from the economy as purchased (F) goods and services. Purchased inputs are needed for the process to take place and include human service and purchased non-renewable energy and material brought in from elsewhere (fuels, minerals, electricity, machinery, fertilizer, etc.). Several ratios, or indices are given in Figure 2 that assess the global performance of a process.

text: Renewable energies and renewable energy technologies have many advantages over their fossil fuel counterparts. These advantages include the absence of local pollution such as particulates, sulphur oxides (SOX's) and nitrous oxides (NOX's). For the business community, the economic advantages are also becoming clearer. Numerous studies have shown that the working environment has a significant effect on workforce morale. Renewable energy solutions are a part of this, wind turbines in particular being seen by many as a potent symbol of a new modernity, where environmental considerations are taken seriously. A workforce seeing a forward-looking and responsible company is more likely to feel good about working for such a company. A happier workforce is a more productive workforce.

text: Some countries, with favorable geography, geology and weather well suited to an economical exploitation of renewable energy sources, already get most of their electricity from renewables, including from geothermal energy in Iceland (100 percent), and Hydroelectric power in Brazil (85 percent), Austria (62 percent), New Zealand (65 percent), and Sweden (54 percent). Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, with wind power providing a significant share of electricity in some regional areas: for example, 14 percent in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40 percent in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 20 percent in Denmark. Solar water heating makes an important and growing contribution in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70 percent of the global total (180 GWth). Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. The use of biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct geothermal heating is also growing rapidly. Renewable biofuels for transportation, such as ethanol fuel and biodiesel, have contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption in the United States since 2006. The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5 percent of world gasoline production.

text: Some countries, with favorable

text: geography

text: geology

text: and

text: weather

text: well suited to an economical exploitation of renewable energy sources, already get most of their electricity from renewables, including from

text: geothermal energy

text: in Iceland (100 percent), and

text: Hydroelectric

text: power in Brazil (85 percent), Austria (62 percent), New Zealand (65 percent), and Sweden (54 percent). Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, with wind power providing a significant share of electricity in some regional areas: for example, 14 percent in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40 percent in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 20 percent in Denmark.

text: Solar water heating

text: makes an important and growing contribution in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70 percent of the global total (180 GWth). Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. The use of

text: biomass

text: for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct

text: geothermal heating

text: is also growing rapidly. Renewable

text: biofuel

text: s for transportation, such as

text: ethanol fuel

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: , have contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption in the United States since 2006. The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5 percent of world gasoline production.

text: Renewable energy in Pakistan is a relatively underdeveloped sector; however, in recent years, there has been some interest by environmentalist groups and from the authorities to explore renewable energy resources for energy production, in light of the energy crises and power shortages affecting the country. Most of the renewable energy in Pakistan comes from hydroelectricity.

text: Renewable energy in Pakistan is a relatively underdeveloped sector; however, in recent years, there has been some interest by environmentalist groups and from the authorities to explore

text: renewable energy

text: resources for

text: energy production

text: , in light of the energy crises and

text: power shortage

text: s affecting the country. Most of the renewable energy in Pakistan comes from

text: hydroelectricity

text: Depending on the marketplace, the price of natural gas is expressed in US dollars (or other currency) per 1 million British thermal units (MMBtu), million cubic feet (Mcf), or 1,000 cubic meters. Note that, for  natural gas price comparisons, $ per MMBtu multiplied by 1.025 = $ per Mcf of pipeline-quality gas, which is what is delivered to consumers. For rough comparisons, one  million Btu is approximately equal to a thousand cubic feet of natural gas. Pipeline-quality gas has a BTU value slightly higher than that of pure methane, which has 1,012 BTU per cubic foot. Natural gas as it comes out of the ground is most often predominantly methane, but may have a wide range of BTU values, from much lower (due to dilution by non-hydrocarbon gasses) to much higher (due to the presence of ethane, propane, and heavier compounds) than standard pipeline-quality gas.

text: Depending on the marketplace, the price of natural gas is expressed in US dollars (or other currency) per 1 million British thermal units (

text: MMBtu

text: ), million cubic feet (Mcf), or 1,000 cubic meters. Note that, for  natural gas price comparisons, $ per MMBtu multiplied by 1.025 = $ per Mcf of pipeline-quality gas, which is what is delivered to consumers. For rough comparisons, one  million

text: Btu

text: is approximately equal to a thousand cubic feet of natural gas. Pipeline-quality gas has a BTU value slightly higher than that of pure methane, which has 1,012 BTU per cubic foot. Natural gas as it comes out of the ground is most often predominantly methane, but may have a wide range of BTU values, from much lower (due to dilution by non-hydrocarbon gasses) to much higher (due to the presence of ethane, propane, and heavier compounds) than standard pipeline-quality gas.

text: August 8, 2005, President George W. Bush signed the Energy Policy Act of 2005 into law shortly after it passed in the Senate by a 74-26 margin and in the House by a 275-156 margin. Its focus was to provide funding and tax breaks to producers and consumers alike. Although it provided many incentives to individual consumers and green energy technology, nuclear energy gained the most concessions. The following are the incentives for nuclear energy:

text: August 8, 2005, President

text: George W. Bush

text: signed the

text: Energy Policy Act of 2005

text: into law shortly after it passed in the Senate by a 74-26 margin and in the House by a 275-156 margin. Its focus was to provide funding and tax breaks to producers and consumers alike. Although it provided many incentives to individual consumers and green energy technology, nuclear energy gained the most concessions. The following are the incentives for nuclear energy:

text: Sumitomo's strategy focused on natural resources through 2014, when the company booked hundreds of billions of yen in losses on shale oil and other energy-related investments. The company's president, Kuniharu Nakamura, attributed these losses to both adverse market factors and Sumitomo's relative inexperience in the field. As a result of these setbacks, Sumitomo was overtaken by Itochu as Japan's third-largest general trading company. Sumitomo announced in 2015 that it would refocus its business on the automotive and infrastructure industries and other non-resource businesses.

text: Sumitomo's strategy focused on natural resources through 2014, when the company booked hundreds of billions of yen in losses on

text: shale oil

text: and other energy-related investments. The company's president, Kuniharu Nakamura, attributed these losses to both adverse market factors and Sumitomo's relative inexperience in the field. As a result of these setbacks, Sumitomo was overtaken by

text: Itochu

text: as Japan's third-largest general trading company. Sumitomo announced in 2015 that it would refocus its business on the automotive and infrastructure industries and other non-resource businesses.

text: , Germany was the world's sixth-largest consumer of energy, and 60% of its primary energy was imported. In 2014, energy sources were: oil (35.0%); coal, including lignite (24.6%); natural gas (20.5%); nuclear (8.1%); hydro-electric and renewable sources (11.1%). The government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021. It also enforces energy conservation, green technologies, emission reduction activities, and aims to meet the country's electricity demands using 40% renewable sources by 2020. Germany is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, water management, and the renewable energy commercialisation. The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world — at around 65%. Nevertheless, the country's greenhouse gas emissions were the highest in the EU . The German energy transition (Energiewende) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.

text: , Germany was the world's sixth-largest consumer of energy, and 60% of its primary energy was imported. In 2014, energy sources were: oil (35.0%); coal, including lignite (24.6%); natural gas (20.5%); nuclear (8.1%); hydro-electric and renewable sources (11.1%). The government and the

text: nuclear power industry

text: agreed to phase out all

text: nuclear power plant

text: s by 2021. It also enforces

text: energy conservation

text: green technologies

text: , emission reduction activities, and aims to meet the country's electricity demands using 40%

text: renewable sources

text: by 2020. Germany is committed to the

text: Kyoto protocol

text: and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards,

text: water management

text: , and the

text: renewable energy commercialisation

text: . The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world — at around 65%. Nevertheless, the country's

entity_name: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions

text: greenhouse gas emissions

text: were the highest in the EU . The

text: German energy transition

text: (Energiewende) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.

text: Sapphire Energy produces “Green Crude” from algae, creating a crude oil containing many of the properties found in fossil crude oil. Green Crude is a low carbon, 100% renewable crude oil offering a reduction in carbon emissions compared to petroleum-based equivalents. Its production doesn’t impact agricultural crops, land, or water, since algae are grown in salty, non-potable water, using lands not suitable for agriculture, and require only sunlight and CO2 to grow.  It also drops right into the current infrastructure of today's cars, trucks, and aircraft without modifications. Sapphire Energy’s Green Crude can be refined in a typical refinery and scaled to meet the growing demand for new sources of energy which are renewable, environmentally-friendly, and reduce dependence on foreign oil.

text: In June 1986, Martin was nominated by President Reagan and confirmed by the United States Senate as United States Deputy Secretary of Energy, the number two official of the United States Department of Energy. Martin reported to Secretary of Energy John S. Herrington. The DOE is responsible for the nation's nuclear weapons complex, scientific research and energy policy. At the time of his confirmation, the department had over 150,000 employees and contractors. Martin was awarded the department's highest award by Energy Secretary John S. Herrington for a report he produced, Energy Security: Report to the President of the United States. It was the first comprehensive inter-agency, publicly available study on US energy security and concluded that energy imports would continue to rise and that US must strive for greater energy efficiency and development of clean coal technology, safe nuclear power, natural gas, solar and other renewable technologies, as well as to maintain incentives for environmentally sensitive domestic oil development. Martin testified before the United States Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee on the study conclusions. His testimony can be seen online. For this, he was commended by the Democratic Chairman of the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce, John Dingell.  Martin was also the administration's top energy adviser on the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement that opened up energy markets between the United States and Canada. He was commended for his work as a member of the negotiating team and core member of the Cabinet group that oversaw the negotiations with Canada. Martin's testimony on behalf of the agreement before the US House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Economic Policy, Trade and Western Hemisphere Affairs can be seen online. The full text of theses Congressional hearings on the agreement is available online.

text: In June 1986, Martin was nominated by President Reagan and confirmed by the

text: United States Senate

text: as United States Deputy Secretary of Energy, the number two official of the

text: United States Department of Energy

text: . Martin reported to Secretary of Energy

text: John S. Herrington

text: . The DOE is responsible for the nation's nuclear weapons complex, scientific research and energy policy. At the time of his confirmation, the department had over 150,000 employees and contractors. Martin was awarded the department's highest award by Energy Secretary

text: John S. Herrington

text: for a report he produced, Energy Security: Report to the President of the United States. It was the first comprehensive inter-agency, publicly available study on US energy security and concluded that energy imports would continue to rise and that US must strive for greater energy efficiency and development of clean coal technology, safe nuclear power, natural gas, solar and other renewable technologies, as well as to maintain incentives for environmentally sensitive domestic oil development. Martin testified before the United States Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee on the study conclusions. His testimony can be seen online. For this, he was commended by the Democratic Chairman of the

entity_name: United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce

text: United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce

text: John Dingell

text: .  Martin was also the administration's top energy adviser on the

entity_name: Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement

text: Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement

text: that opened up energy markets between the United States and Canada. He was commended for his work as a member of the negotiating team and core member of the Cabinet group that oversaw the negotiations with Canada. Martin's testimony on behalf of the agreement before the US House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on International Economic Policy, Trade and Western Hemisphere Affairs can be seen online. The full text of theses Congressional hearings on the agreement is available online.

text: Increasing the price paid for coal can increase the amount of economically recoverable coal, but increasing the price of coal will also increase the production cost for the coal. In addition, because coal is a solid, not a liquid, it cannot be produced from many scattered wells as oil and gas can be. Rather, coal has to be produced from mines that expand slowly by moving massive quantities of overburden.

text: Thirty Seconds to Mars premiered the music video for the single "A Beautiful Lie" on January 30, 2008. It was directed by Jared Leto under the pseudonym of Angakok Panipaq, and was filmed 200 miles north of the Arctic Circle in Greenland. Determined to offset the impact that filming would have on the environment, Thirty Seconds to Mars worked with the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) to develop strategies that would minimize fuel consumption on the shoot. The band purchased a renewable energy certificate product from the Bonneville Environmental Foundation (BEF), a non-profit organization which aim to develop new sources of renewable energy. Thirty Seconds to Mars also launched a website, called abeautifullie.org, to provide information about environmental issues and ways to participate in environmental activities. People can make donations through the site to support the Natural Resources Defense Council. Leto described the experience saying,

text: Thirty Seconds to Mars premiered the music video for the single "

text: A Beautiful Lie

text: " on January 30, 2008. It was directed by

text: Jared Leto

text: under the pseudonym of Angakok Panipaq, and was filmed 200 miles north of the Arctic Circle in Greenland. Determined to offset the impact that filming would have on the environment, Thirty Seconds to Mars worked with the

text: Natural Resources Defense Council

text: (NRDC) to develop strategies that would minimize fuel consumption on the shoot. The band purchased a

text: renewable energy certificate

text: product from the

text: Bonneville Environmental Foundation

text: (BEF), a non-profit organization which aim to develop new sources of renewable energy. Thirty Seconds to Mars also launched a website, called abeautifullie.org, to provide information about environmental issues and ways to participate in environmental activities. People can make donations through the site to support the Natural Resources Defense Council. Leto described the experience saying,

text: Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation, or more commonly, dimerization. The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming, which involves removing hydrogen from hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as aromatics.  Intermediate products such as gasoils can even be reprocessed to break a heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking, thermal cracking, and hydrocracking. The final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures, and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products (residual oils) uses a devolatilization process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material.

text: Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller molecules such as

text: isobutane

text: and

text: propylene

text: or

text: butylene

text: s can be recombined to meet specific

text: octane

text: requirements by processes such as

text: alkylation

text: , or more commonly,

text: dimerization

text: . The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by

text: catalytic reforming

text: , which involves removing

text: hydrogen

text: from hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as

text: aromatics

text: .  Intermediate products such as

text: gasoil

text: s can even be reprocessed to break a heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms of

text: cracking

text: such as

text: fluid catalytic cracking

text: thermal cracking

text: , and

text: hydrocracking

text: . The final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings,

text: vapor pressure

text: s, and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products (residual oils) uses a

text: devolatilization

text: process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material.

text: Large coal power plants use large amounts of coal each day; enough to fill a hundred train coal cars carrying  each.  Water used to transport the coal is likewise significant, particularly in arid regions like the Southwestern United States. Such a power plant would use about  with a coal slurry pipeline or about  with a coal log pipeline. This amounts to about  per year respectively.The  Mohave Generating Station in Laughlin, Nevada had the longest coal slurry pipeline in the world at . From 1969 until 2005, the pipeline used  of water per year to carry about  of coal to the plant from the Black Mesa Mine in the northeastern corner of Arizona. The plant was shut down on December 31, 2005 because the controversial coal and water supply terms were being renegotiated.

text: Large coal power plants use large amounts of coal each day; enough to fill a hundred train coal cars carrying  each.  Water used to transport the coal is likewise significant, particularly in

text: arid

text: regions like the

text: Southwestern United States

text: . Such a power plant would use about  with a coal slurry pipeline or about  with a coal log pipeline. This amounts to about  per year respectively.The

text: Mohave Generating Station

text: in

text: Laughlin, Nevada

text: had the longest coal slurry pipeline in the world at . From 1969 until 2005, the pipeline used  of water per year to carry about  of coal to the plant from the

text: Black Mesa Mine

text: in the northeastern corner of

text: Arizona

text: . The plant was shut down on December 31, 2005 because the controversial coal and water supply terms were being

text: renegotiated

text: While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development. United Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. As most of renewables provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification, which has several benefits: Electricity can be converted to heat (where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels), can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption. In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements, because most renewables don't have a steam cycle with high losses (fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65%).

text: While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to

text: rural

text: and remote areas and

entity_name: Renewable energy in developing countries

text: developing countries

text: , where energy is often crucial in

text: human development

text: United Nations

text: ' Secretary-General

text: Ban Ki-moon

text: has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. As most of renewables provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further

text: electrification

text: , which has several benefits: Electricity can be converted to heat (where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels), can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption. In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements, because most renewables don't have a steam cycle with high losses (fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65%).

text: Coal quality parameters of greatest interest include ash, moisture, sulfur, and energy density (also known as heat content). Although most coal operations can obtain this information about coal quality by taking physical samples, preparing the samples, and analyzing them with laboratory equipment, these processes often involve a time lag of up to 24 hours from gathering the sample to final analysis results. In contrast, coal analyzers provide analysis information each minute on material being transported by conveyor either at the mine or the power plant. This timely coal quality information in turn allows the operator to improve his process by taking timely process control actions, such as sorting, blending, coal homogenization, or prep plant control.

text: Coal quality parameters of greatest interest include ash, moisture, sulfur, and

text: energy density

text: (also known as

text: heat content

text: ). Although most coal operations can obtain this information about coal quality by taking physical samples, preparing the samples, and analyzing them with laboratory equipment, these processes often involve a time lag of up to 24 hours from gathering the sample to final analysis results. In contrast, coal analyzers provide analysis information each minute on material being transported by conveyor either at the mine or the power plant. This timely coal quality information in turn allows the operator to improve his process by taking timely

text: process control

text: actions, such as sorting, blending,

text: coal homogenization

text: , or prep plant control.

text: During the financial year 2012–13, the production of crude oil is 37.86 million tons and 40,679 million standard cubic meters (nearly 26.85 million tons) natural gas. The net import of crude oil  & petroleum products is 146.70 million tons worth of Rs 5611.40 billions. This includes 9.534 million tons of LNG imports worth of Rs. 282.15 billions. Internationally, LNG price  (One mmBtu of LNG = 0.1724 barrels of crude oil (boe) = 24.36 cubic meters of natural gas = 29.2 litres diesel) is fixed below crude oil price in terms of heating value. LNG is slowly gaining its role as direct use fuel in road  and marine transport without regasification. By the end of June 2016, LNG price has fallen by nearly 50% below its oil parity price making it more economical fuel than diesel/gas oil in transport sector.  In 2012-13, India consumed 15.744 million tons petrol and 69.179 million tons diesel which are mainly produced from imported crude oil at huge foreign exchange out go. Use of natural gas  for heating, cooking and electricity generation is not economical as more and more locally produced natural gas will be converted into LNG for use in transport sector to reduce crude oil imports. In addition to the conventional natural gas production, coal gasification, coal bed methane, coal mine methane and Biogas digesters / Renewable natural gas will also become source of LNG forming decentralised base for production of LNG to cater to the widely distributed demand. There is possibility to convert most of the heavy duty vehicles  (including diesel driven rail engines) into  LNG fuelled vehicles to reduce diesel consumption drastically with operational cost and least pollution benefits. Also, the break even price at user end for switching from imported coal to LNG in electricity generation is estimated near 6 US$/mmBtu.

text: During the financial year 2012–13, the production of crude oil is 37.86 million tons and 40,679 million standard cubic meters (nearly 26.85 million tons)

text: natural gas

text: . The net import of crude oil  & petroleum products is 146.70 million tons worth of Rs 5611.40 billions. This includes 9.534 million tons of

text: LNG

text: imports worth of Rs. 282.15 billions. Internationally, LNG price  (One

text: mmBtu

text: of LNG = 0.1724 barrels of crude oil (boe) = 24.36 cubic meters of natural gas = 29.2 litres

text: diesel

text: ) is fixed below crude oil price in terms of heating value. LNG is slowly gaining its role as direct use fuel in road  and marine transport without

text: regasification

text: . By the end of June 2016, LNG price has fallen by nearly 50% below its

text: oil parity

text: price making it more economical fuel than diesel/gas oil in transport sector.  In 2012-13, India consumed 15.744 million tons petrol and 69.179 million tons diesel which are mainly produced from imported crude oil at huge foreign exchange out go. Use of natural gas  for heating, cooking and electricity generation is not economical as more and more locally produced natural gas will be converted into LNG for use in transport sector to reduce crude oil imports. In addition to the conventional natural gas production,

text: coal gasification

text: coal bed methane

text: coal mine methane

text: and

text: Biogas digesters

text: Renewable natural gas

text: will also become source of LNG forming decentralised base for production of LNG to cater to the widely distributed demand. There is possibility to convert most of the heavy duty vehicles  (including diesel driven rail engines) into

text: LNG fuelled vehicles

text: to reduce diesel consumption drastically with operational cost and least pollution benefits. Also, the break even price at user end for switching from imported coal to LNG in electricity generation is estimated near 6 US$/mmBtu.

text: The density of gasoline ranges from 0.71–0.77 kg/L ( ; 0.026 lb/in; 6.073 lb/US gal; 7.29 lb/imp gal), higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics.  Since gasoline floats on water, water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire unless used in a fine mist.Finished marketable gasoline is traded with a standard reference of 0.755 kg/L, and its price is escalated/de-escalated according to its actual density.

text: The density of gasoline ranges from 0.71–0.77 kg/L ( ; 0.026

text: lb

text: in

text: ; 6.073 lb/

text: US gal

text: ; 7.29 lb/

text: imp gal

text: ), higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics.  Since gasoline floats on water, water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire unless used in a fine mist.Finished marketable gasoline is traded with a standard reference of 0.755 kg/L, and its price is escalated/de-escalated according to its actual density.

text: There is however no small volume of intensely radioactive spent fuel that needs to be stored or reprocessed with conventional renewable energy sources. A nuclear plant needs to be disassembled and removed. Much of the disassembled nuclear plant needs to be stored as low level nuclear waste for a few decades. However, from a safety stand point, nuclear power, in terms of lives lost per unit of electricity delivered, is comparable to and in some cases, lower than many renewable energy sources.

text: The renewable energy from the sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of water (hydropower, tidal power and wave power), wind and radiant energy from geothermal heat (used for geothermal power) and solar energy (used for solar power) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.

text: The renewable energy from the

text: sun

text: wind

text: wave

text: biomass

text: and

text: geothermal

text: energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of

text: water

text: hydropower

text: tidal power

text: and

text: wave power

text: wind

text: and

text: radiant energy

text: from geothermal heat (used for

text: geothermal power

text: ) and solar energy (used for

text: solar power

text: ) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.

text: Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$214 billion in 2013, with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels. Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.

text: Based on

text: 's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19 percent to our energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy (non-biomass), 3.8% hydro electricity and 2% electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$214 billion in 2013, with countries like

text: China

text: and the

text: United States

text: heavily investing in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels. Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and

text: energy efficiency

text: is resulting in significant

entity_name: Energy security and renewable technology

text: energy security

text: climate change mitigation

text: , and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.

text: More serious are concerns about the emissions that result from fossil fuel burning. Fossil fuels constitute a significant repository of carbon buried deep underground. Burning them results in the conversion of this carbon to carbon dioxide, which is then released into the atmosphere. The estimated CO2 emission from the world's electrical power industry is 10 billion tonnes yearly.  This results in an increase in the Earth's levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which enhances the greenhouse effect and contributes to global warming. The linkage between increased carbon dioxide and global warming is well accepted, though fossil-fuel producers vigorously contest these findings.

text: More serious are concerns about the emissions that result from

text: fossil fuel burning

text: . Fossil fuels constitute a significant repository of

text: carbon

text: buried deep underground. Burning them results in the conversion of this carbon to

text: carbon dioxide

text: , which is then released into the atmosphere. The estimated CO2 emission from the world's electrical power industry is 10 billion tonnes yearly.  This results in an increase in the Earth's levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which enhances the

text: greenhouse effect

text: and contributes to

text: global warming

text: . The linkage between increased carbon dioxide and global warming is well accepted, though fossil-fuel producers vigorously contest these findings.

text: From a safety stand point, nuclear power, in terms of lives lost per unit of electricity delivered, is comparable to and in some cases, lower than many renewable energy sources. There is however no radioactive spent fuel that needs to be stored or reprocessed with conventional renewable energy sources. A nuclear plant needs to be disassembled and removed. Much of the disassembled nuclear plant needs to be stored as low level nuclear waste.

text: From a safety stand point, nuclear power, in terms of lives lost per unit of electricity delivered, is comparable to and in some cases, lower than many

text: renewable energy

text: sources. There is however no radioactive spent fuel that needs to be stored or reprocessed with conventional renewable energy sources. A nuclear plant needs to be disassembled and removed. Much of the disassembled nuclear plant needs to be stored as low level nuclear waste.

text: The energy efficiency principal agent problem applies in many cases to rented buildings and apartments, but arises in other circumstances, most often involving relatively high up-front costs for energy-efficient technology. Though it is challenging to assess exactly, the principal agent problem is considered to be a major barrier to the diffusion of efficient technologies. This can be addressed in part by promoting shared-savings performance-based contracts, where both parties benefit from the efficiency savings. The issues of market barriers to energy efficiency, and the principal agent problem in particular, are receiving renewed attention because of the importance of global climate change and rising prices of the finite supply of fossil fuels. The principal–agent problem in energy efficiency is the topic of an International Energy Agency report:"Mind the Gap—Quantifying Principal–Agent Problems in Energy Efficiency" (2007).

text: The energy efficiency principal agent problem applies in many cases to rented buildings and apartments, but arises in other circumstances, most often involving relatively high up-front costs for energy-efficient technology. Though it is challenging to assess exactly, the principal agent problem is considered to be a major barrier to the diffusion of efficient technologies. This can be addressed in part by promoting shared-savings performance-based contracts, where both parties benefit from the efficiency savings. The issues of market barriers to energy efficiency, and the principal agent problem in particular, are receiving renewed attention because of the importance of global

text: climate change

text: and rising prices of the finite supply of

text: fossil fuels

text: . The principal–agent problem in energy efficiency is the topic of an

text: International Energy Agency

text: report:"Mind the Gap—Quantifying Principal–Agent Problems in Energy Efficiency" (2007).

text: Hayes moved to Bend, Oregon, from Washington in summer 1998 and began a career in clean energy and sustainable economic development. That year Hayes founded 3EStrategies, a Bend-based clean-economy consulting firm that grew out of the nonprofit organization she launched two years before, called Earth Connections. As CEO of 3EStrategies, Hayes helped launched the Building Green Council, which is now a component of the Central Oregon Builders Association. The council was started to make it easier for people to build energy- and resource-efficient homes and commercial buildings, and bring together developers interested in promoting and learning more about green construction. Hayes published and edited the Green + Solar Building Oregon magazine from 2004 to 2009, created with contributions from writers and photographers throughout the state. She served as a member and co-chair of the Oregon Renewable Energy Working Group (REWG), which developed the state Renewable Energy Standard, Renewable Fuels Standard, and other clean energy policies. Since 2012 Hayes has also worked as a professional writer, contributing to online news sources including The Huffington Post  and Grist. In 2015 Hayes launched an independent blog which included a public statement about her appearances in the media that year, and in 2016 she joined Bend-based Issue Magazine as a staff journalist.

text: Hayes moved to

text: Bend, Oregon

text: , from

text: Washington

text: in summer 1998 and began a career in clean energy and sustainable economic development. That year Hayes founded 3EStrategies, a Bend-based clean-economy consulting firm that grew out of the nonprofit organization she launched two years before, called Earth Connections. As CEO of 3EStrategies, Hayes helped launched the Building Green Council, which is now a component of the Central Oregon Builders Association. The council was started to make it easier for people to build energy- and resource-efficient homes and commercial buildings, and bring together developers interested in promoting and learning more about green construction. Hayes published and edited the Green + Solar Building Oregon magazine from 2004 to 2009, created with contributions from writers and photographers throughout the state. She served as a member and co-chair of the Oregon Renewable Energy Working Group (REWG), which developed the state Renewable Energy Standard, Renewable Fuels Standard, and other clean energy policies. Since 2012 Hayes has also worked as a professional writer, contributing to online news sources including

text: The Huffington Post

text: and

text: Grist

text: . In 2015 Hayes launched an independent blog which included a public statement about her appearances in the media that year, and in 2016 she joined Bend-based Issue Magazine as a staff journalist.

text: Coal in Europe  describes coal as energy fuel in Europe today. Coal includes hard coal, brown coal, and lignite.

text: Coal in Europe  describes coal as

text: energy

text: fuel in Europe today. Coal includes

text: hard coal

text: brown coal

text: , and

text: lignite

text: Studies have determined that replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources, such as biofuels, have the capability of reducing  emissions by up to 80%.  An algae-based system could capture approximately 80% of the  emitted from a power plant when sunlight is available.  Although this  will later be released into the atmosphere when the fuel is burned, this  would have entered the atmosphere regardless.  The possibility of reducing total  emissions therefore lies in the prevention of the release of  from fossil fuels.  Furthermore, compared to fuels like diesel and petroleum, and even compared to other sources of biofuels, the production and combustion of algal biofuel does not produce any sulfur oxides or nitrous oxides, and produces a reduced amount of carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and reduced emission of other harmful pollutants. Since terrestrial plant sources of biofuel production simply do not have the production capacity to meet current energy requirements, microalgae may be one of the only options to approach complete replacement of fossil fuels.

text: NASA Climate scientist James Hansen discusses the problem with rapid phase out of fossil fuels and said that while it is conceivable in places such as New Zealand and Norway, "suggesting that renewables will let us phase rapidly off fossil fuels in the United States, China, India, or the world as a whole is almost the equivalent of believing in the Easter Bunny and Tooth Fairy." In 2013, Smil analyzed proposals to depend on wind and solar-generated electricity including the proposals of Jacobson and colleagues, and writing in an issue of Spectrum prepared by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, he identified numerous points of concern, such as cost, intermittent power supply, growing NIMBYism, and a lack of infrastructure as negative factors and said that "History and a consideration of the technical requirements show that the problem is much greater than these advocates have supposed." Smil and Hansen are concerned about the variable output of solar and wind power, but many other scientists and engineers have analysed this situation and said that the electricity grid can cope, just as it routinely backs up nonworking coal-fired and nuclear plants with working ones.

text: NASA

text: Climate scientist

text: James Hansen

text: discusses the problem with rapid

text: phase out of fossil fuels

text: and said that while it is conceivable in places such as New Zealand and Norway, "suggesting that renewables will let us phase rapidly off fossil fuels in the United States, China, India, or the world as a whole is almost the equivalent of believing in the

text: Easter Bunny

text: and

text: Tooth Fairy

text: ." In 2013, Smil analyzed proposals to depend on wind and solar-generated electricity including the proposals of Jacobson and colleagues, and writing in an issue of Spectrum prepared by the

entity_name: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

text: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

text: , he identified numerous points of concern, such as cost, intermittent power supply, growing

text: NIMBY

text: ism, and a lack of infrastructure as negative factors and said that "History and a consideration of the technical requirements show that the problem is much greater than these advocates have supposed." Smil and Hansen are concerned about the

text: variable output

text: of solar and wind power, but many other scientists and engineers have analysed this situation and said that the

text: electricity grid

text: can cope, just as it routinely backs up nonworking coal-fired and nuclear plants with working ones.

text: Green economies require green energy generation based on renewable energy to replace  fossil fuels as well as energy conservation and efficient energy use.

text: Green economies require

text: green energy

text: generation based on

text: renewable energy

text: to replace

text: fossil fuels

text: as well as

text: energy conservation

text: and

text: efficient energy use

text: In 2012, over 40 per cent of Scotland's electricity came from renewable energy, and Scotland contributed almost 40 per cent of the UK's renewables output. At the end of 2012, there was 5,801 megawatts (MW) of installed renewables electricity capacity in Scotland, an increase of 20.95 per cent (1,005 MW) on the end of 2011. Renewable electricity generation in 2012 was a record high at 14,756 GWh – an increase of 7.3 per cent on 2011, the previous record year for renewables output. The bulk of electricity production is derived from gas and oil. 2002 figures used in RSPB Scotland et al. (2006) are gas (34%), oil (28%), coal (18%) and nuclear (17%), with renewables 3% (principally hydro-electric), prior to the substantial growth in wind power output. It should be borne in mind that electricity production is only part of the overall energy use budget. In 2002, Scotland consumed a total of 175 Terawatt-hours (TWh) of energy in all forms, some 2% less than in 1990. Of this, only 20% was consumed in the form of electricity by end users, the great majority of energy utilised being from the burning of oil (41%) and gas (36%).

text: In 2012, over 40 per cent of Scotland's electricity came from renewable energy, and Scotland contributed almost 40 per cent of the UK's renewables output. At the end of 2012, there was 5,801

text: megawatts

text: (MW) of installed renewables electricity capacity in Scotland, an increase of 20.95 per cent (1,005 MW) on the end of 2011. Renewable electricity generation in 2012 was a record high at 14,756 GWh – an increase of 7.3 per cent on 2011, the previous record year for renewables output. The bulk of electricity production is derived from gas and oil. 2002 figures used in RSPB Scotland et al. (2006) are gas (34%), oil (28%), coal (18%) and

text: nuclear

text: (17%), with renewables 3% (principally hydro-electric), prior to the substantial growth in wind power output. It should be borne in mind that electricity production is only part of the overall energy use budget. In 2002, Scotland consumed a total of 175

text: Terawatt-hours

text: (TWh) of energy in all forms, some 2% less than in 1990. Of this, only 20% was consumed in the form of electricity by end users, the great majority of energy utilised being from the burning of oil (41%) and gas (36%).

text: Nigeria has a poor outlook on climate change and this reflects heavily in their policies surrounding climate change. Nigeria has not developed policies surrounding environmental change. What they have created has done so little for the environment as to be close to meaningless (Gujba, Mulugetta & Azapagic, 2011). Their overall lack of control over the oil industry and allowing for the vadalizm and theft of oil leading to oil spills along with the poor maintenance of the pipelines also describes a nation that is not conscious of environmental change (US Energy Administration, 2013). Lastly Nigeria has also done proposals to further develop their non-renewable resources as sources for electricity production instead of reducing it (US Energy Administration, 2013). They seem to not care that they are at high risk of being effected by environmental change and are simply going for the cheapest alternative- coal, instead of developing new renewable sources of energy (Gujba, Mulugetta & Azapagic, 2011). In light of all of these factors I would give Nigeria a grade of “F” (failure) for their ability to deal with their energy crisis and decrease their carbon emissions.

text: Finland classifies peat as a slowly renewing biomass fuel, and that position has also been taken by the European Union. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has taken the position that peat is not a fossil fuel. Peat producers in Finland often claim that peat is a special form of biofuel because of the relatively fast retake rate of released CO if the bog is not forested for the following 100 years. Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew, leading to lower levels of CO storage than the original peat bog.

text: Finland classifies peat as a slowly renewing

text: biomass fuel

text: , and that position has also been taken by the

text: European Union

text: . The

entity_name: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: has taken the position that peat is not a

text: fossil fuel

text: . Peat producers in Finland often claim that peat is a special form of

text: biofuel

text: because of the relatively fast retake rate of released

text: CO

text: if the bog is not forested for the following 100 years. Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew, leading to lower levels of CO storage than the original peat bog.

text: eGRID data are used for carbon footprinting; emission reduction calculations; calculating indirect greenhouse gas emissions for The Climate Registry, the California Climate Action Registry, California’s Mandatory GHG emissions reporting program (Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006, AB 32), and other GHG protocols;  were used as the starting point for the new international carbon emissions database, CARMA.  EPA tools and programs such as Power Profiler (which has been updated with eGRID year 2012 data), Portfolio Manager, the WasteWise Office Carbon Footprint Tool, the Green Power Equivalency Calculator, the Personal Greenhouse Gas Emissions Calculator, and the Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator use eGRID.  Other tools such as labeling/environmental disclosure,  Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) and Renewable Energy Credits (RECs) attributes are supported by eGRID data.  States also rely on eGRID data for electricity labeling (environmental disclosure programs), emissions inventories, and for policy decisions such as output based standards.  eGRID is additionally used by nongovernmental organizations for tools and analysis by the  International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM), the Rocky Mountain Institute, the National Resource Defense Council (NRDC), the Ozone Transport Commission (OTC), Powerscorecard.org, and the Greenhouse Gas Protocol Initiative.

text: eGRID data are used for carbon footprinting; emission reduction calculations; calculating indirect greenhouse gas emissions for The Climate Registry,

text: the California Climate Action Registry

text: , California’s Mandatory GHG emissions reporting program (

text: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006

text: , AB 32), and other GHG protocols;  were used as the starting point for the new international carbon emissions database, CARMA.  EPA tools and programs such as Power Profiler (which has been updated with eGRID year 2012 data), Portfolio Manager, the WasteWise Office Carbon Footprint Tool, the Green Power Equivalency Calculator, the Personal Greenhouse Gas Emissions Calculator, and the Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator use eGRID.  Other tools such as labeling/environmental disclosure,

text: Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS)

text: and

text: Renewable Energy Credits (RECs)

text: attributes are supported by eGRID data.  States also rely on eGRID data for electricity labeling (environmental disclosure programs), emissions inventories, and for policy decisions such as output based standards.  eGRID is additionally used by nongovernmental organizations for tools and analysis by the

text: International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI)

text: , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM), the

text: Rocky Mountain Institute

text: , the

text: National Resource Defense Council (NRDC)

text: , the Ozone Transport Commission (OTC), Powerscorecard.org, and the Greenhouse Gas Protocol Initiative.

text: In Germany, gasoline is called Benzin (which is derived from the chemical mixture benzine). The song uses the word "Gasolin", however the word does not exist in the German language, but it is an English word made German.  There was, however, a German chain of gas stations called "Gasolin."

text: In

text: Germany

text: gasoline

text: is called Benzin (which is derived from the chemical mixture

text: benzine

text: ). The song uses the word "Gasolin", however the word does not exist in the

text: German language

text: , but it is an

text: English

text: word made German.  There was, however, a German chain of gas stations called "Gasolin."

text: Gasoline, when used in high-compression internal combustion engines, tends to autoignite (detonate) causing damaging "engine knocking" (also called "pinging" or "pinking") noise. To address this problem, tetraethyllead (TEL) was widely adopted as an additive for gasoline in the 1920s.  With the discovery of the extent of environmental and health damage caused by the lead, however, and the incompatibility of lead with catalytic converters, leaded gasoline was phased out in the USA beginning in 1973. By 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and under 2000 short tons (1814 t) of lead per year in the USA. From 1 January 1996, the U.S. Clean Air Act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles in the USA. The use of TEL also necessitated other additives, such as dibromoethane.First European countries started replacing lead by the end of the 1980s and by the end of the 1990s leaded gasoline was banned within the entire European Union.  Reduction in the average blood lead level is believed to have been a major cause for falling violent crime rates in the United States and South Africa.  A statistically significant correlation has been found between the usage rate of leaded gasoline and violent crime: taking into account a 22-year time lag, the violent crime curve virtually tracks the lead exposure curve.

text: Gasoline, when used in high-

text: compression

text: internal combustion engines, tends to autoignite (detonate) causing damaging "

text: engine knocking

text: " (also called "pinging" or "pinking") noise. To address this problem,

text: tetraethyllead

text: (TEL) was widely adopted as an additive for gasoline in the 1920s.  With the discovery of the extent of environmental and health damage caused by the lead, however, and the incompatibility of lead with

text: catalytic converter

text: s, leaded gasoline was phased out in the USA beginning in 1973. By 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and under 2000

text: short tons

text: (1814 t) of lead per year in the USA. From 1 January 1996, the

text: U.S. Clean Air Act

text: banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles in the USA. The use of TEL also necessitated other additives, such as dibromoethane.First European countries started replacing lead by the end of the 1980s and by the end of the 1990s leaded gasoline was banned within the entire European Union.  Reduction in the average blood lead level is believed to have been a major cause for falling violent crime rates in the United States and South Africa.  A statistically significant correlation has been found between the usage rate of leaded gasoline and violent crime: taking into account a 22-year time lag, the violent crime curve virtually tracks the lead exposure curve.

text: It is claimed to be a zero-emissions vehicle. The only problem is the recharging, but if the energy is produced solely via renewable resources such as wind, geothermal power or solar power, the emission is zero. On the other hand, most electricity worldwide is made by burning coal, oil or natural gas, or from nuclear energy.

text: It is claimed to be a

text: zero-emissions vehicle

text: . The only problem is the recharging, but if the energy is produced solely via

text: renewable resource

text: s such as

text: wind

text: geothermal power

text: or

text: solar power

text: , the emission is zero. On the other hand, most electricity worldwide is made by burning coal, oil or natural gas, or from nuclear energy.

text: Non-hydroelectric renewable energy in Russia is largely undeveloped although Russia has many potential renewable energy resources.

text: Non-hydroelectric

text: renewable energy

text: in Russia is largely undeveloped although Russia has many potential renewable energy resources.

text: As MMS Director, Birnbaum administered programs that ensure the effective management of renewable energy, such as wind, wave, ocean current energy, and traditional energy and mineral resources on the nation's Outer Continental Shelf, including the environmentally safe exploration, development, and production of oil and natural gas.

text: As MMS Director, Birnbaum administered programs that ensure the effective management of renewable energy, such as wind, wave, ocean current energy, and traditional energy and mineral resources on the nation's

text: Outer Continental Shelf

text: , including the environmentally safe exploration, development, and production of oil and natural gas.

text: In Honduras, there is great potential of untapped indigenous renewable energy resources. Due to the likely long-term trend of high oil prices, such resources could be developed at competitive prices. However, except for the large hydro projects, the potential for the development of renewable energy is yet to be explored.

text: In Honduras, there is great potential of untapped indigenous

text: renewable energy

text: resources. Due to the likely long-term trend of high oil prices, such resources could be developed at competitive prices. However, except for the large hydro projects, the potential for the development of renewable energy is yet to be explored.

text: Capture and use of landfill gas can be expensive. Some environmental groups claim that the projects do not produce "renewable power" because trash (their source) is not renewable. The Sierra Club opposes government subsidies for such projects.  The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) argues that government incentives should be directed more towards solar, wind, and energy-efficiency efforts.

text: Capture and use of landfill gas can be expensive. Some environmental groups claim that the projects do not produce "renewable power" because trash (their source) is not renewable. The

text: Sierra Club

text: opposes government subsidies for such projects.  The

text: Natural Resources Defense Council

text: (NRDC) argues that government incentives should be directed more towards solar, wind, and energy-efficiency efforts.

text: The world faces the challenge of a global transformation to sustainable energy systems. Substantial up-front investments are needed to improve energy efficiency and switch to renewable energies. At the same time, these investments offer great opportunities, because strategic innovations can be triggered and new markets can develop in the course of the transformation process. Savings on the cost of fossil fuels in conventional technologies could completely offset the investment in renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency by as early as 2040. The private capital needed for the transformation is available and can be mobilised if a suitable political framework is put into place. A corresponding regulatory policy should be introduced to make such investment more attractive for the private sector. The WBGU advocates a proactive state that integrates energy, environmental and climate policy; this could reduce existing investment risks by developing a stable, long-term transformative regulatory framework. At the same time, policy makers should expand the opportunities for participation. Germany is currently leading this transformation, both in terms of technological innovations and in the creation of a suitable policy framework. Our country is able to give the world an example of how the Energiewende (energy-system transformation) can generate more, not less prosperity.

text: Energiewende

text: (energy-system transformation) can generate more, not less prosperity.

text: Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011, when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production (2.245 quadrillion BTU of energy), surpassing energy production from nuclear power (2.125 quadrillion BTU). 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production.

text: Renewable energy

text: reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011, when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production (2.245 quadrillion BTU of energy), surpassing energy production from nuclear power (2.125 quadrillion BTU). 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production.

text: In Europe, gasoline is unleaded and available in 95 RON (Eurosuper) and, in nearly all countries, 98 RON (Super Plus) octanes; in some countries 91 RON octane gasoline is offered as well. In addition, 100 RON petrol is offered in some countries in continental Europe (Shell markets this as V-Power Racing). Some stations offer 98 RON with lead substitute (often called "Lead-Replacement Petrol, or LRP).

text: In Europe, gasoline is unleaded and available in 95 RON (Eurosuper) and, in nearly all countries, 98 RON (Super Plus) octanes; in some countries 91 RON octane gasoline is offered as well. In addition, 100 RON petrol is offered in some countries in continental Europe (Shell markets this as

text: V-Power

text: Racing). Some stations offer 98 RON with lead substitute (often called "Lead-Replacement Petrol, or LRP).

text: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from

text: renewable resource

text: s, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas:

text: electricity generation

text: , air and water heating/cooling,

text: transportation

text: , and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: Crude oil is composed of more than 17,000 compounds. Among these 17,000 compounds are PAHs, which are considered the most toxic components of oil. PAHs are formed by pyrogenic and petrogenic processes. Petrogenic PAHs are formed by the elevated pressure of organic material. In contrast, pyrogenic PAHs are formed through the incomplete combustion of organic material. Crude oil naturally contains petrogenic PAHs and these PAH levels are increased significantly through the burning of oil which creates pyrogenic PAHs. The level of PAHs found in crude oil differs with the type of crude oil. For example, crude oil from the Exxon Valdez oil spill had PAH concentrations of 1.47%, while PAH concentrations from the North Sea have much lower PAH concentrations of 0.83%.

text: Crude oil

text: is composed of more than 17,000 compounds. Among these 17,000 compounds are PAHs, which are considered the most toxic components of oil. PAHs are formed by

text: pyrogenic

text: and petrogenic processes. Petrogenic PAHs are formed by the elevated pressure of organic material. In contrast, pyrogenic PAHs are formed through the incomplete combustion of organic material. Crude oil naturally contains petrogenic PAHs and these PAH levels are increased significantly through the burning of oil which creates pyrogenic PAHs. The level of PAHs found in crude oil differs with the type of crude oil. For example, crude oil from the Exxon Valdez oil spill had PAH concentrations of 1.47%, while PAH concentrations from the North Sea have much lower PAH concentrations of 0.83%.

text: Anti-nuclear groups also favour the use of renewable energy, such as hydro, wind power, solar power, geothermal energy and biofuel. According to the International Energy Agency renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to world energy security and provide opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases. Fossil fuels are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy. According to Lester R. Brown:

text: Anti-nuclear groups also favour the use of

text: renewable energy

text: , such as

text: hydro

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: geothermal energy

text: and

text: biofuel

text: . According to the

text: International Energy Agency

text: renewable energy technologies are essential contributors to the energy supply portfolio, as they contribute to

text: world energy security

text: and provide opportunities for mitigating

text: greenhouse gases

text: . Fossil fuels are being replaced by clean, climate-stabilizing, non-depletable sources of energy. According to

text: Lester R. Brown

text: An air source heat pump designed specifically for very cold climates can extract useful heat from ambient air as cold as -20F or even -25F (-30C). Manufacturers include Mitsubishi and Fujitsu. One Mitsubishi model provides heat at -35C, but the Coefficient of performance (COP) drops to 0.9, indicating that resistance heating would be more efficient at that temperature. At -30C, the COP is 1.1, according to the manufacturer's data, although the manufacturer's marketing literature also claims a minimum COP of 1.4 and performance to -30C. Although the best air source heat pumps are still less efficient than the best ground source heat pumps, air source heat pumps have lower initial costs and may be the most economic or practical choice. A study by Natural Resources Canada found that cold climate air source heat pumps (CC-ASHPs) do work in Canadian winters, based on testing in Ottawa, Ontario in late December 2012 to early January 2013 using a ducted CC-ASHP. (The report does not explicitly state whether backup heat sources should be considered for temperatures below -30C. The record low for Ottawa is -36C.) The CC-ASHP provided 60% energy (though not energy cost) savings compared to natural gas, when considering only energy efficiency in the home. When considering energy efficiency in electricity generation however, more energy would be used with the CC-ASHP, relative to natural gas heating, in provinces or territories (Alberta, Nova Scotia, and the Northwest Territories) where coal-fired generation was the predominant method of electricity generation. (The energy savings in Saskatchewan were marginal. Other provinces use primarily hydroelectric and/or nuclear generation.) Despite the significant energy savings relative to gas in provinces not relying primarily on coal, the higher cost of electricity relative to natural gas (using 2012 retail prices in Ottawa, Ontario) made natural gas the less expensive energy source. (The report did not calculate the cost of operation in the province of Quebec, which has lower electricity rates, nor did it show the impact of time of use electricity rates.) The study found that in Ottawa a CC-ASHP cost 124% more to operate than the natural gas system. However, in areas where natural gas is not available to homeowners, 59% energy cost savings can be realized relative to heating with fuel oil. The report noted that about 1 million residences in Canada (8%) are still heated with fuel oil. The report shows 54% energy cost savings for CC-ASHPs relative to electric baseboard resistance heating. Based on these savings, the report showed a five-year payback for converting from either fuel oil or electric baseboard resistance heating to a CC-ASHP. (The report did not specify whether that calculation considered the possible need for an electrical service upgrade in the case of converting from fuel oil. Presumably no electrical service upgrade would be needed if converting from electric resistance heat.) The report did note greater fluctuations in room temperature with the heat pump due to its defrost cycles.

text: An air source heat pump designed specifically for very cold climates can extract useful heat from ambient air as cold as -20F or even -25F (-30C). Manufacturers include Mitsubishi and Fujitsu. One Mitsubishi model provides heat at -35C, but the

text: Coefficient of performance

text: (COP) drops to 0.9, indicating that resistance heating would be more efficient at that temperature. At -30C, the COP is 1.1, according to the manufacturer's data, although the manufacturer's marketing literature also claims a minimum COP of 1.4 and performance to -30C. Although the best air source heat pumps are still less efficient than the best

text: ground source heat pump

text: s, air source heat pumps have lower initial costs and may be the most economic or practical choice. A study by

text: Natural Resources Canada

text: found that cold climate air source heat pumps (CC-ASHPs) do work in Canadian winters, based on testing in

text: Ottawa

text: Ontario

text: in late December 2012 to early January 2013 using a ducted CC-ASHP. (The report does not explicitly state whether backup heat sources should be considered for temperatures below -30C. The record low for Ottawa is -36C.) The CC-ASHP provided 60% energy (though not energy cost) savings compared to natural gas, when considering only energy efficiency in the home. When considering energy efficiency in electricity generation however, more energy would be used with the CC-ASHP, relative to natural gas heating, in provinces or territories (

text: Alberta

text: Nova Scotia

text: , and the

text: Northwest Territories

text: ) where coal-fired generation was the predominant method of electricity generation. (The energy savings in

text: Saskatchewan

text: were marginal. Other provinces use primarily hydroelectric and/or nuclear generation.) Despite the significant energy savings relative to gas in provinces not relying primarily on coal, the higher cost of electricity relative to natural gas (using 2012 retail prices in Ottawa, Ontario) made natural gas the less expensive energy source. (The report did not calculate the cost of operation in the province of

text: Quebec

text: , which has lower electricity rates, nor did it show the impact of time of use electricity rates.) The study found that in Ottawa a CC-ASHP cost 124% more to operate than the natural gas system. However, in areas where natural gas is not available to homeowners, 59% energy cost savings can be realized relative to heating with fuel oil. The report noted that about 1 million residences in Canada (8%) are still heated with fuel oil. The report shows 54% energy cost savings for CC-ASHPs relative to electric baseboard resistance heating. Based on these savings, the report showed a five-year payback for converting from either fuel oil or electric baseboard resistance heating to a CC-ASHP. (The report did not specify whether that calculation considered the possible need for an electrical service upgrade in the case of converting from fuel oil. Presumably no electrical service upgrade would be needed if converting from electric resistance heat.) The report did note greater fluctuations in room temperature with the heat pump due to its defrost cycles.

text: Natural gas is a fossil fuel, and when it burns to create heat it adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. But the additional concern is that natural gas releases less carbon dioxide per unit of energy produced than oil does - especially heavy oil, or synthetic crude. So, a relatively clean non-renewable fossil fuel is being burned to create a very dirty fossil fuel.

text: Coal mining produced almost 4 million tonnes of coal in 2014, of which 44% was exported. New Zealand coal reserves are in excess of 15 billion tonnes, mainly in Waikato, Taranaki, West Coast, Otago and Southland. Over 80% of the reserves are in Southland lignite deposits worth $100 billion. Coal is produced from four underground and 21 opencast mines.  The largest coal mining company is Solid Energy, a state-owned enterprise.

text: Coal mining produced almost 4 million tonnes of coal in 2014, of which 44% was exported. New Zealand coal reserves are in excess of 15 billion tonnes, mainly in

text: Waikato

text: Taranaki

text: West Coast

text: Otago

text: and

text: Southland

text: . Over 80% of the reserves are in Southland

text: lignite

text: deposits worth $100 billion. Coal is produced from four underground and 21 opencast mines.  The largest coal mining company is

text: Solid Energy

text: , a

text: state-owned enterprise

text: Environment and natural resources aspects involve the required energy, water and other natural resources for construction, operation and maintenance of the system, as well as the potential emissions to the environment resulting from use. It also includes the degree of recycling and reuse of excreta practiced and the effects of these, for example reusing the wastewater, returning nutrients and organic material to agriculture, and the protecting of other non-renewable resources, for example through the production of renewable energy (e.g. biogas or fuel wood).

text: Environment and natural resources aspects involve the required energy, water and other natural resources for construction, operation and maintenance of the system, as well as the potential emissions to the environment resulting from use. It also includes the degree of recycling and

text: reuse of excreta

text: practiced and the effects of these, for example reusing the

text: wastewater

text: , returning nutrients and organic material to agriculture, and the protecting of other non-renewable resources, for example through the production of

text: renewable energy

text: (e.g.

text: biogas

text: or fuel wood).

text: The 11th Five-Year Program (2006–10), announced in 2005 and approved by the National People's Congress in March 2006, called for greater energy conservation measures, including development of renewable energy sources and increased attention to environmental protection. Guidelines called for a 20% reduction in energy consumption per unit of GDP by 2010. Moving away from coal towards cleaner energy sources including oil, natural gas, renewable energy, and nuclear power is an important component of China's development program. Beijing also intends to continue to improve energy efficiency and promote the use of clean coal technology. China has abundant hydroelectric resources; the Three Gorges Dam, for example, will have a total capacity of 18 gigawatts when fully on-line (projected for 2009). In addition, the share of electricity generated by nuclear power is projected to grow from 1% in 2000 to 5% in 2030. China's renewable energy law, which went into effect in 2006, calls for 10% of its energy to come from renewable energy sources by 2020.

text: The

text: 11th Five-Year Program

text: (2006–10), announced in 2005 and approved by the National People's Congress in March 2006, called for greater energy conservation measures, including development of renewable energy sources and increased attention to environmental protection. Guidelines called for a 20% reduction in energy consumption per unit of GDP by 2010. Moving away from coal towards cleaner energy sources including oil, natural gas, renewable energy, and nuclear power is an important component of China's development program. Beijing also intends to continue to improve energy efficiency and promote the use of

text: clean coal technology

text: . China has abundant hydroelectric resources; the Three Gorges Dam, for example, will have a total capacity of 18 gigawatts when fully on-line (projected for 2009). In addition, the share of electricity generated by nuclear power is projected to grow from 1% in 2000 to 5% in 2030. China's renewable energy law, which went into effect in 2006, calls for 10% of its energy to come from renewable energy sources by 2020.

text: Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 has been used as a model to increase cyanobacterial energy yields through genetic engineering by the following manipulations: broadening the range of photosynthetic light absorption, altering antenna size in photosystem II, increasing bicarbonate uptake,  modifying the Rubisco enzyme to increase carbon fixation, and introduction of biofuel producing metabolic pathways. It is not yet clear whether cyanobacterial biofuels will be a viable future alternative to non-renewable fossil fuels.

text: Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 has been used as a model to increase cyanobacterial energy yields through genetic engineering by the following manipulations: broadening the range of photosynthetic light

text: absorption

text: , altering antenna size in

text: photosystem II

text: , increasing

text: bicarbonate

text: uptake,  modifying the

text: Rubisco

text: enzyme

text: to increase

text: carbon fixation

text: , and introduction of biofuel producing

text: metabolic pathways

text: . It is not yet clear whether cyanobacterial biofuels will be a viable future alternative to non-renewable fossil fuels.

text: Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas.  Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane. Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquids like petroleum, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates.

text: Fossil fuels are

text: fuel

text: s formed by natural processes such as

text: anaerobic decomposition

text: of buried dead

text: organism

text: s, containing energy originating in ancient

text: photosynthesis

text: . The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years. Fossil fuels contain high percentages of

text: carbon

text: and include

text: petroleum

text: coal

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: .  Other commonly used derivatives include

text: kerosene

text: and

text: propane

text: . Fossil fuels range from

text: volatile

text: materials with low

text: carbon

text: hydrogen

text: ratios like

text: methane

text: , to liquids like petroleum, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like

text: anthracite

text: coal. Methane can be found in

text: hydrocarbon

text: fields either alone, associated with

text: oil

text: , or in the form of

text: methane clathrates

text: Gasoline is produced in oil refineries. Roughly 19 US gallons (72 L) of gasoline is derived from a 42-gallon (159 L) barrel of crude oil. Material separated from crude oil via distillation, called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet specifications for modern engines (particularly the octane rating, see below), but can be pooled to the gasoline blend.

text: Gasoline is produced in

text: oil refineries

text: . Roughly 19 US gallons (72 L) of gasoline is derived from a 42-gallon (159 L) barrel of crude oil. Material separated from

text: crude oil

text: via

text: distillation

text: , called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet specifications for modern engines (particularly the octane rating, see below), but can be pooled to the gasoline blend.

text: The ecosystem is sustainable  whereas the anthroposystem is not. The ecosystem is a closed loop in which nearly everything is recycled whereas the anthroposystem is an open loop where very little is recycled.  In contrast to the ecosystem, the anthroposystem's producers and consumers are significantly more spatially displaced than those in the ecosystem and thus, more energy is required to transfer matter to a producer or recycler. Currently, a large majority of this energy comes from non-renewable fossil fuels.

text: The ecosystem is

text: sustainable

text: whereas the anthroposystem is not. The ecosystem is a

text: closed loop

text: in which nearly everything is recycled whereas the anthroposystem is an

text: open loop

text: where very little is recycled.  In contrast to the ecosystem, the anthroposystem's producers and consumers are significantly more spatially displaced than those in the ecosystem and thus, more energy is required to transfer matter to a producer or recycler. Currently, a large majority of this energy comes from non-renewable fossil fuels.

text: Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels. Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies:

text: Many industrialized nations have installed significant

text: solar power

text: capacity into their electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative to

text: conventional energy

text: sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels. Long distance transmission allows remote

text: renewable energy

text: CalCars (also known as The California Cars Initiative) was a charitable, non-profit organization founded in 2002 to promote plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) as a key to addressing oil dependence and global warming both nationally and internationally.  It was active until 2010, when the first mass-produced PHEVs arrived. CalCars envisioned millions of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, charged by off-peak electricity from renewable energy sources, and with their internal combustion engines powered by low-carbon alternative fuels, as a way to significantly reduce greenhouse gases that come from transportation.

text: CalCars (also known as The California Cars Initiative) was a charitable,

text: non-profit organization

text: founded in 2002 to promote

text: plug-in hybrid

text: electric vehicle

text: s (PHEVs) as a key to addressing

text: oil dependence

text: and

text: global warming

text: both nationally and internationally.  It was active until 2010, when the first mass-produced PHEVs arrived. CalCars envisioned millions of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, charged by off-peak electricity from

text: renewable energy

text: sources, and with their

text: internal combustion engine

text: s powered by low-carbon

text: alternative fuel

text: s, as a way to significantly reduce

text: greenhouse gases

text: that come from transportation.

text: The natural resource base for renewables is extraordinary by European, and even global standards. In addition to an existing installed capacity of 1.3 Gigawatts (GW) of hydro-electric schemes, Scotland has an estimated potential of 36.5 GW of wind and 7.5 GW of tidal power, 25% of the estimated total capacity for the European Union and up to 14 GW of wave power potential, 10% of EU capacity. The renewable electricity generating capacity may be 60 GW or more, considerably greater than the existing capacity from all Scottish fuel sources of 10.3 GW. Scotland exceeded its renewable energy target, set in 2007, for 31% of total power generation coming from renewables by 2011, and the 2020 target for the renewable share of total electricity generation has been raised from 50% to 80%.

text: The natural resource base for

text: renewables

text: is extraordinary by

text: European

text: , and even global standards. In addition to an existing installed capacity of 1.3 Gigawatts (GW) of

text: hydro-electric

text: schemes, Scotland has an estimated potential of 36.5 GW of

text: wind

text: and 7.5 GW of

text: tidal power

text: , 25% of the estimated total capacity for the

text: European Union

text: and up to 14 GW of

text: wave power

text: potential, 10% of EU capacity. The renewable electricity generating capacity may be 60 GW or more, considerably greater than the existing capacity from all Scottish fuel sources of 10.3 GW. Scotland exceeded its renewable energy target, set in 2007, for 31% of total power generation coming from renewables by 2011, and the 2020 target for the renewable share of total electricity generation has been raised from 50% to 80%.

text: The National Promotion Direction (DNPROM) within the Energy Secretariat (SENER) is responsible for the design of programs and actions conducive to the development of renewable energies (through the Renewable Energy Coordination) and energy efficiency (through the Energy Efficiency Coordination) initiatives. Complementarily, the Secretariat for the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) is responsible for environmental policy and the preservation of renewable and non-renewable resources.

text: Despite an abundance of renewable energy sources in the country, the government of Armenia is currently discussing the issue of constructing a new nuclear power plant of either 1,000 MW or 1,200 MW, with a projected cost of $4 billion and $5.2-7.2 billion dollars respectively. Armenian Deputy Minister of Energy and natural Resources Areg Galstyan said that the construction of the new nuclear power plant may start in 2011. The new NPP is expected to be commissioned in 2017.

text: In the report, the IPCC said "as infrastructure and energy systems develop, in spite of the complexities, there are few, if any, fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet a majority share of total energy demand in locations where suitable renewable resources exist or can be supplied". Under favourable circumstances, cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist. IPCC scenarios "generally indicate that growth in renewable energy will be widespread around the world". The IPCC said that if governments were supportive, and the full range of renewable technologies were deployed, renewable energy could account for almost 80% of the world's energy supply within four decades. Rajendra Pachauri, chairman of the IPCC, said the necessary investment in renewables would cost only about 1% of global GDP annually. This approach could keep greenhouse gas concentrations to less than 450 parts per million, the safe level beyond which climate change becomes catastrophic and irreversible.

text: In the report, the IPCC said "as infrastructure and energy systems develop, in spite of the complexities, there are few, if any, fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet a majority share of total energy demand in locations where suitable renewable resources exist or can be supplied". Under favourable circumstances, cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist. IPCC scenarios "generally indicate that growth in renewable energy will be widespread around the world". The IPCC said that if governments were supportive, and the full range of renewable technologies were deployed, renewable energy could account for almost 80% of the world's energy supply within four decades.

text: Rajendra Pachauri

text: , chairman of the IPCC, said the necessary investment in renewables would cost only about 1% of global GDP annually. This approach could keep greenhouse gas concentrations to less than 450 parts per million, the safe level beyond which climate change becomes catastrophic and irreversible.

text: Environmental organizations such as the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) also oppose the project due to its transportation of oil from oil sands. In its March 2010 report, the NRDC stated that "the Keystone XL Pipeline undermines the U.S. commitment to a clean energy economy", instead "delivering dirty fuel at high costs". On June 23, 2010, 50 Democrats in Congress in their letter to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton warned that "building this pipeline has the potential to undermine America's clean energy future and international leadership on climate change", referencing the higher input quantity of fossil fuels necessary to take the tar and turn it into a usable fuel product in comparison to other conventionally derived fossil fuels.

text: Environmental organizations such as the

text: Natural Resources Defense Council

text: (NRDC) also oppose the project due to its transportation of oil from oil sands. In its March 2010 report, the NRDC stated that "the Keystone XL Pipeline undermines the U.S. commitment to a

text: clean energy

text: economy", instead "delivering dirty fuel at high costs". On June 23, 2010, 50 Democrats in Congress in their letter to Secretary of State

text: Hillary Clinton

text: warned that "building this pipeline has the potential to undermine America's clean energy future and international leadership on climate change", referencing the higher input quantity of fossil fuels

text: necessary to take the tar and turn it into a usable fuel product

text: in comparison to other

text: conventionally derived fossil fuels

text: Young Brothers invested in renewable energy in November 2010 with 432 new solar panels installed at its Pier 40 location at Honolulu Harbor.  The 116 kW photovoltaic system will produce enough clean, renewable energy over its lifetime to preserve more than 15,000 trees and conserve more than 400,000 gallons of gasoline.

text: In March 2009, he testified before the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources to discuss the limits inherent in renewable energy, saying "no matter how you do the calculations, renewable energy by itself, can not, will not, be able to replace hydrocarbons over the next two to three decades, and that’s a conservative estimate".

text: In March 2009, he testified before the

entity_name: United States Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources

text: Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources

text: to discuss the limits inherent in renewable energy, saying "no matter how you do the calculations, renewable energy by itself, can not, will not, be able to replace hydrocarbons over the next two to three decades, and that’s a conservative estimate".

text: 2015 Parliamentary elections brought Michal a personal record of votes and a strong mandate from the people. Therefore, Michal was also included in the new government as the Minister of Economic Affairs and Infrastructure. Under his leadership the government has planned to relocate the Competition Authority from the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications to the Ministry of Justice and bring the natural resources management under the MMinistry of Economic Affairs and Communications. In transport, the main focus will be on Rail Baltic - finalizing the route and starting construction. Energy sector will focus on connecting the gas network with Central-Europe and increasing the share of renewable energy in energy consumption. Also, increasing energy efficiency among companies. In the field of IT, the ministry will create new e-services and continue with the e-residency programme. One of broader goals is to re-structure the policy for government owned companies.

text: 2015 Parliamentary elections brought Michal a personal record of votes and a strong mandate from the people. Therefore, Michal was also included in the new government as the Minister of Economic Affairs and Infrastructure. Under his leadership the government has planned to relocate the Competition Authority from the

entity_name: Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications

text: Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications

text: to the

text: Ministry of Justice

text: and bring the natural resources management under the MMinistry of Economic Affairs and Communications. In transport, the main focus will be on Rail Baltic - finalizing the route and starting construction. Energy sector will focus on connecting the gas network with Central-Europe and increasing the share of renewable energy in energy consumption. Also, increasing energy efficiency among companies. In the field of IT, the ministry will create new e-services and continue with the e-residency programme. One of broader goals is to re-structure the policy for government owned companies.

text: This broad degree area covers many areas but is mainly mechanically and electrically biased. It seeks to explore cleaner, more efficient ways of using fossil fuels, while investigating and developing systems using renewable and sustainable resources, such as solar, wind and wave energy.

text: This broad degree area covers many areas but is mainly mechanically and electrically biased. It seeks to explore cleaner, more efficient ways of using

text: fossil fuels

text: , while investigating and developing systems using renewable and sustainable resources, such as

text: solar

text: wind

text: and

text: wave

text: energy.

text: Ecological energetics- Electric potential energy- Electrochemical energy conversion- Embodied energy- Encircled energy- Energy- Energy accidents- Energy accounting- Energy amplifier- Energy analyser- Energy applications of nanotechnology- Energy balance (biology)- Energy bar- Energy barrier- Energy being- Energy carrier- Energy Catalyzer- Energy cell- Energy charge- Energy conservation- Energy conversion efficiency- Energy crop- Energy current- Energy density- Energy-depth relationship in a rectangular channel- Energy development- Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy- Energy distance- Energy drift- Energy drink- Energy efficiency gap- Energy-Efficient Ethernet- Energy-efficient landscaping- Energy elasticity- Energy engineering- Energy (esotericism)- Energy expenditure- Energy factor- Energy field disturbance- Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy- Energy transfer- Energy flow (ecology)- Energy flux- Energy forestry- Energy functional- Energy gel- Energy harvesting- Energy input labeling- Energy landscape- Energy level- Energy level splitting- Energy management software- Energy management system- Energy–maneuverability theory- Energy Manufacturing Co. Inc- Energy medicine- Energy–momentum relation- Energy monitoring and targeting- Energy Probe- Energy profile (chemistry)- Energy quality- Energy recovery ventilation- Energy security- Energy (signal processing)- Energy Slave- Energy Star- Energy statistics- Energy Storage Challenge- Energy storage- Energy system- Energy technology- Energy tower (downdraft)- Energy transfer- Energy transfer upconversion- Energy transformation- Energy value of coal- Energy vortex (stargate)- Enthalpy- Entropy- Equipartition theorem- E-statistic- Exertion

text: Ecological energetics

text: Electric potential energy

text: Electrochemical energy conversion

text: Embodied energy

text: Encircled energy

text: Energy

text: Energy accidents

text: Energy accounting

text: Energy amplifier

text: Energy analyser

text: Energy applications of nanotechnology

text: Energy balance (biology)

text: Energy bar

text: Energy barrier

text: Energy being

text: Energy carrier

text: Energy Catalyzer

text: Energy cell

text: Energy charge

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy conversion efficiency

text: Energy crop

text: Energy current

text: Energy density

entity_name: Energy–depth relationship in a rectangular channel

text: Energy-depth relationship in a rectangular channel

text: Energy development

text: Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

text: Energy distance

text: Energy drift

text: Energy drink

text: Energy efficiency gap

text: Energy-Efficient Ethernet

text: Energy-efficient landscaping

text: Energy elasticity

text: Energy engineering

text: Energy (esotericism)

text: Energy expenditure

text: Energy factor

text: Energy field disturbance

entity_name: Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy

text: Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy

text: Energy transfer

text: Energy flow (ecology)

text: Energy flux

text: Energy forestry

text: Energy functional

text: Energy gel

text: Energy harvesting

text: Energy input labeling

text: Energy landscape

text: Energy level

text: Energy level splitting

text: Energy management software

text: Energy management system

text: Energy–maneuverability theory

text: Energy Manufacturing Co. Inc

text: Energy medicine

text: Energy–momentum relation

text: Energy monitoring and targeting

text: Energy Probe

text: Energy profile (chemistry)

text: Energy quality

text: Energy recovery ventilation

text: Energy security

text: Energy (signal processing)

text: Energy Slave

text: Energy Star

text: Energy statistics

text: Energy Storage Challenge

text: Energy storage

text: Energy system

text: Energy technology

text: Energy tower (downdraft)

text: Energy transfer

text: Energy transfer upconversion

text: Energy transformation

text: Energy value of coal

text: Energy vortex (stargate)

text: Enthalpy

text: Entropy

text: Equipartition theorem

text: E-statistic

text: Exertion

text: Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011, when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production (2.245 quadrillion BTUs of energy), surpassing energy production from nuclear power (2.125 quadrillion BTUs). 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production.

text: Renewable energy

text: reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011, when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production (2.245 quadrillion BTUs of energy), surpassing energy production from nuclear power (2.125 quadrillion BTUs). 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production.

text: Western Australia's Department of Planning and Infrastructure operated three Daimler Chrysler Citaro fuel cell buses as part of its Sustainable Transport Energy for Perth Fuel Cells Bus Trial in Perth. The buses were operated by Path Transit on regular Transperth public bus routes. The trial began in September 2004 and concluded in September 2007. The buses' fuel cells used a proton exchange membrane system and were supplied with raw hydrogen from a BP refinery in Kwinana, south of Perth. The hydrogen was a byproduct of the refinery's industrial process. The buses were refueled at a station in the northern Perth suburb of Malaga.  The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources have signed in 2003 a $40 million trust fund agreement for the creation of the International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies (UNIDO-ICHET) in Istanbul, which started operation in 2004. A hydrogen forklift, a hydrogen cart and a mobile house powered by renewable energies are being demonstrated in UNIDO-ICHET's premises. An uninterruptible power supply system has been working since April 2009 in the headquarters of Istanbul Sea Buses company.

text: Western Australia's Department of Planning and Infrastructure operated three Daimler Chrysler Citaro fuel cell buses as part of its Sustainable Transport Energy for Perth Fuel Cells Bus Trial in Perth. The buses were operated by Path Transit on regular Transperth public bus routes. The trial began in September 2004 and concluded in September 2007. The buses' fuel cells used a proton exchange membrane system and were supplied with raw hydrogen from a BP refinery in Kwinana, south of Perth. The hydrogen was a byproduct of the refinery's industrial process. The buses were refueled at a station in the northern Perth suburb of Malaga.  The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (

text: UNIDO

text: ) and the

entity_name: Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey)

text: Turkish Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources

text: have signed in 2003 a $40 million trust fund agreement for the creation of the

entity_name: International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies

text: International Centre for Hydrogen Energy Technologies

text: (UNIDO-ICHET) in

text: Istanbul

text: , which started operation in 2004. A hydrogen forklift, a hydrogen cart and a mobile house powered by renewable energies are being demonstrated in UNIDO-ICHET's premises. An uninterruptible power supply system has been working since April 2009 in the headquarters of

text: Istanbul Sea Buses

text: company.

text: The exact question posed by the survey was as follows:More than half of power plant-generated electricity comes from coal. Experts say that power plants are responsible for about 40 percent of U.S. carbon dioxide pollution linked to global warming. There are plans to build more than 150 new coal-fired power plants over the next several years. Would you support a five-year moratorium on new coal-fired power plants in the United States if there was stepped-up investment in clean, safe and renewable energy—such as wind and solar—and improved home energy-efficiency standards? Would you say definitely yes, probably yes, probably no, definitely no, or don't know.

text: The Energiewende (German for energy transition) is the transition by Germany to a low carbon, environmentally sound, reliable, and affordable energy supply.  The new system will rely heavily on renewable energy (particularly wind, photovoltaics, and biomass) energy efficiency, and energy demand management.  Most if not all existing coal-fired generation will need to be retired.  The phase-out of Germany's fleet of nuclear reactors, to be complete by 2022, is a key part of the program.

text: The

text: Energiewende

text: German

text: for energy transition) is the

text: transition

text: by

text: Germany

text: to a

text: low carbon

text: , environmentally sound, reliable, and affordable energy supply.  The new system will rely heavily on

text: renewable energy

text: (particularly

text: wind

text: photovoltaics

text: , and

text: biomass

text: energy efficiency

text: , and

text: energy demand management

text: .  Most if not all existing

text: coal-fired generation

text: will need to be retired.  The

text: phase-out

text: of Germany's fleet of

text: nuclear reactor

text: s, to be complete by 2022, is a key part of the program.

text: The recent Sino-Angolan association is illustrative. When a petroleum-rich area called for investment and rebuilding, China advanced a $5 billion loan to be repaid in oil. They sent Chinese technicians, fixing a large part of the electrical system, and leading a part of the reconstruction. In the short term Angola benefits from Chinese-built roads, hospitals, schools, hotels, football stadiums, shopping centers and telecommunications projects. In turn, Angola mortgaged future oil production of a valuable, non-renewable resource. It may turn out to be a costly trade for Angola, but their needs for infrastructure is immediate and that is precisely what China provideds when no one else is willing to do so. And thusly, Angola has become China's leading energy supplier.

text: The recent Sino-Angolan association is illustrative. When a petroleum-rich area called for investment and rebuilding, China advanced a $5 billion loan to be repaid in oil. They sent Chinese technicians, fixing a large part of the electrical system, and leading a part of the reconstruction. In the short term Angola benefits from Chinese-built roads, hospitals, schools, hotels, football stadiums, shopping centers and telecommunications projects. In turn, Angola mortgaged future oil production of a valuable,

text: non-renewable resource

text: . It may turn out to be a costly trade for Angola, but their needs for infrastructure is immediate and that is precisely what China provideds when no one else is willing to do so. And thusly, Angola has become China's leading energy supplier.

text: Natural Gas Choice programs in United States of America allow residential consumers and other small volume gas users to purchase natural gas from someone other than their traditional utility company.  With Natural Gas Choice programs, customers can either purchase from their natural gas utility or choose to receive their gas supply from non-utility Choice suppliers. Large commercial and industrial consumers have had the option of purchasing the natural gas commodity separately from natural gas services for many years.

text: Natural Gas Choice programs in

text: United States of America

text: allow residential consumers and other small volume gas users to purchase

text: natural gas

text: from someone other than their traditional

text: utility company

text: .  With Natural Gas Choice programs, customers can either purchase from their natural gas utility or choose to receive their gas supply from non-utility Choice suppliers. Large commercial and industrial consumers have had the option of purchasing the natural gas commodity separately from natural gas services for many years.

text: Established as a 501(c)(3) non-profit, ACORE does not lobby at the federal or state level. Instead, ACORE’s focus is to disseminate factual information about current renewable energy policy, market trends, and the numerous benefits of renewable energy and energy efficiency, without bias for specific technologies, to its members and the general public. In addition, ACORE convenes forums throughout the year on various topics in renewable energy to bring together leaders from its own membership base and from the wider network of professionals involved in the sector to collaborate on solutions to the industry’s challenges.

text: Established as a

text: 501(c)(3) non-profit

text: , ACORE does not lobby at the federal or state level. Instead, ACORE’s focus is to disseminate factual information about current renewable energy policy, market trends, and the numerous benefits of renewable energy and

text: energy efficiency

text: , without bias for specific technologies, to its members and the general public. In addition, ACORE convenes forums throughout the year on various topics in renewable energy to bring together leaders from its own membership base and from the wider network of professionals involved in the sector to collaborate on solutions to the industry’s challenges.

text: Biogas can be used in many different countries with the same function and uses. The renewable energy sector in Afghanistan is strong though has potential to grow through initiatives like Biogas (Amjid et al.) The “use of biogas produced from anaerobic decomposition of organic material. This biogas typically contains equal amounts of CH and CO,”(Barrai et al., p. 391). When biogas is converted in the right way, that is when the renewable energy and resource is possible deriving the hydrogen from the waste. (Amjid et al.) Biogas “decompose municipal solid wastes anaerobically  [1]and landfill gas to energy projects that directly combust the landfill gas are being implemented” (Barrai et al., p. 391). The strength of Biogas is incredible, it has [2]been proven that the “biogas energy corridor can work as a good substitute for nearly 70% of the country’s population residing in rural areas. Installation of plants to bottle the biogas can be additional opportunity. The need of a national policy is imperative to bring this technology at farmer’s doorstep.” (Amjid et al., p. 2833). The renewable energy that this brings is very strong through reducing the carbon footprint of each community immeasurably (Amjid et al.). The system of biogas also creates immense potential for capacity building through the community connectedness that goes into the process (Barrai et al.) The teamwork is inevitable that comes from this initiative with begins with an exchange of knowledge, both shared and new. Then capacity building can begin to form contributing to resources and market development growing rapidly (Amjid et al.). Advocacy for all parties is the only way for effective participatory renewable energy to be made (BORDA).  The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)  spoke on the topic when the Country Program Manager of Afghanistan had this to say,

text: A 2008 estimate set the total world resources of oil shale at 689 gigatons — equivalent to yield of  of shale oil, with the largest reserves in the United States, which is thought to have , though only a part of it is recoverable.  According to the 2010 World Energy Outlook by the International Energy Agency, the world oil shale resources may be equivalent of more than  of oil in place of which more than  may be technically recoverable.  For comparison, the world's proven conventional oil reserves were estimated at , as of 1 January 2007.  The largest deposits in the world occur in the United States in the Green River Formation, which covers portions of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming; about 70% of this resource lies on land owned or managed by the United States federal government.Deposits in the United States constitute 62% of world resources; together, the United States, Russia and Brazil account for 86% of the world's resources in terms of shale-oil content. These figures remain tentative, with exploration or analysis of several deposits still outstanding. Professor Alan R. Carroll of University of Wisconsin–Madison regards the Upper Permian lacustrine oil-shale deposits of northwest China, absent from previous global oil shale assessments, as comparable in size to the Green River Formation.

text: A 2008 estimate set the total world resources of oil shale at 689

text: gigaton

text: s — equivalent to yield of  of shale oil, with the largest reserves in the

text: United States

text: , which is thought to have , though only a part of it is recoverable.  According to the

text: 2010 World Energy Outlook

text: by the

text: International Energy Agency

text: , the world oil shale resources may be equivalent of more than  of oil in place of which more than  may be technically recoverable.  For comparison, the world's proven conventional

text: oil reserves

text: were estimated at , as of 1 January 2007.  The largest deposits in the world occur in the United States in the

text: Green River Formation

text: , which covers portions of

text: Colorado

text: Utah

text: , and

text: Wyoming

text: ; about 70% of this resource lies on land owned or managed by the United States federal government.Deposits in the United States constitute 62% of world resources; together, the United States, Russia and Brazil account for 86% of the world's resources in terms of shale-oil content. These figures remain tentative, with exploration or analysis of several deposits still outstanding. Professor Alan R. Carroll of

text: University of Wisconsin–Madison

text: regards the Upper Permian lacustrine oil-shale deposits of northwest China, absent from previous global oil shale assessments, as comparable in size to the Green River Formation.

text: Some examples of types of products that after use, can be labeled as used oil are: hydraulic oil, transmission oil, brake fluids, motor oil, crankcase oil, gear box oil, synthetic oil, and grades 1, 2, 3 and 4 fuel oil.

text: Some examples of types of products that after use, can be labeled as used oil are:

text: hydraulic oil

text: , transmission oil, brake fluids,

text: motor oil

text: crankcase

text: oil,

text: gear box

text: oil,

text: synthetic oil

text: , and grades 1, 2, 3 and 4

text: fuel oil

text: Large, prolific aquifers (notably the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System and the Ogallala Aquifer) containing fossil water are of significant socio-economic value. Fossil water is extracted from these aquifers for many human purposes, notably, agriculture, industry, and consumption. In arid regions, some aquifers containing available and usable water receive little to no significant recharge, effectively making groundwater in those aquifers a non-renewable resource. Extraction rates greater than recharge rates result in lowering of the water table and can lead to groundwater depletion. Extraction of non-renewable groundwater resources is referred to as groundwater "mining" because of their finite nature.

text: Large, prolific aquifers (notably the

text: Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System

text: and the

text: Ogallala Aquifer

text: ) containing fossil water are of significant socio-economic value. Fossil water is extracted from these aquifers for many human purposes, notably, agriculture, industry, and consumption. In arid regions, some aquifers containing available and usable water receive little to no significant recharge, effectively making groundwater in those aquifers a

text: non-renewable resource

text: . Extraction rates greater than recharge rates result in lowering of the water table and can lead to groundwater depletion. Extraction of non-renewable groundwater resources is referred to as groundwater "mining" because of their finite nature.

text: The jurisdiction over the petroleum industry in Canada, which includes energy policies regulating the petroleum industry, is shared between the federal and provincial and territorial governments. Provincial governments have jurisdiction over the exploration, development, conservation, and management of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products. Federal jurisdiction in energy is primarily concerned with regulation of inter-provincial and international trade (which included pipelines) and commerce, and the management of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products on federal lands.

text: The jurisdiction over the petroleum industry in Canada, which includes energy policies regulating the petroleum industry, is shared between the

text: federal

text: and

text: provincial and territorial governments

text: non-renewable resources

text: such as petroleum products. Federal jurisdiction in energy is primarily concerned with regulation of inter-provincial and

text: international trade

text: (which included pipelines) and commerce, and the management of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products on

text: federal lands

text: Aliyu, Ramli  and Saleh, (2013) claim that these blackouts cripple the industrial sector. For example, outages in this area of the world also have implications for the mining industry. When power fails, workers may be trapped in the mines, so as soon as there is a risk of failure the operations are such down, which leads to economic difficulties (Kaseke & Hosking, 2013). Lack of electricity also causes problems for agriculture. Most irrigation lines are run by electricity, so when the power is cut out then the crop yield decreases, (Kaseke & Hosking, 2013). Nigeria’s energy grid is arguably in crisis due to lack of development. The key to making a more reliable energy sector is to find and use a renewable energy resources, rather than simply relying on the country’s non-renewable resources.The crisis of energy is a complex problem stemming from a variety of issues. This paper will cover role of the government in the electricity problem, the environmental impacts of the current system, the effect on the people who live in Nigeria and the potential solutions to the crisis.

text: All biomass goes through at least some of these steps: it needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented, distilled, and burned. All of these steps require resources and an infrastructure. The total amount of energy input into the process compared to the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel is known as the energy balance (or "energy returned on energy invested"). Figures compiled in a 2007 by National Geographic Magazine point to modest results for corn ethanol produced in the US: one unit of fossil-fuel energy is required to create 1.3 energy units from the resulting ethanol. The energy balance for sugarcane ethanol produced in Brazil is more favorable, with one unit of fossil-fuel energy required to create 8 from the ethanol. Energy balance estimates are not easily produced, thus numerous such reports have been generated that are contradictory. For instance, a separate survey reports that production of ethanol from sugarcane, which requires a tropical climate to grow productively, returns from 8 to 9 units of energy for each unit expended, as compared to corn, which only returns about 1.34 units of fuel energy for each unit of energy expended. A 2006 University of California Berkeley study, after analyzing six separate studies, concluded that producing ethanol from corn uses much less petroleum than producing gasoline.

text: All biomass goes through at least some of these steps: it needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented, distilled, and burned. All of these steps require resources and an infrastructure. The total amount of energy input into the process compared to the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel is known as the energy balance (or "

text: energy returned on energy invested

text: "). Figures compiled in a 2007 by

text: National Geographic Magazine

text: point to modest results for corn ethanol produced in the US: one unit of fossil-fuel energy is required to create 1.3 energy units from the resulting ethanol. The energy balance for sugarcane ethanol produced in Brazil is more favorable, with one unit of fossil-fuel energy required to create 8 from the ethanol. Energy balance estimates are not easily produced, thus numerous such reports have been generated that are contradictory. For instance, a separate survey reports that production of ethanol from sugarcane, which requires a tropical climate to grow productively, returns from 8 to 9 units of energy for each unit expended, as compared to corn, which only returns about 1.34 units of fuel energy for each unit of energy expended. A 2006 University of California Berkeley study, after analyzing six separate studies, concluded that producing ethanol from corn uses much less petroleum than producing gasoline.

text: Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate WtE of the biomass part of waste as renewable energy. The rest—mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products—is generally treated as non-renewables.

text: Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate WtE of the biomass part of waste as

text: renewable energy

text: . The rest—mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products—is generally treated as

text: non-renewables

text: EGAT continues to press forward with plans to construct six new coal-fired power plants by 2025 in spite of institutions such as the World Bank halting funding for new coal projects except in "rare circumstances". Rachel Kyte, the World Bank climate change envoy, said continued use of coal was exacting a heavy cost on some of the world's poorest countries, in local health impacts as well as climate change, which is imposing even graver consequences on the developing world. "In general globally we need to wean ourselves off coal,...There is a huge social cost to coal and a huge social cost to fossil fuels...if you want to be able to breathe clean air." EGAT "...has—in TV commercials—ridiculed renewable energy as expensive and insufficient to deal with rising electricity demand."

text: EGAT continues to press forward with plans to construct six new coal-fired power plants by 2025 in spite of institutions such as the

text: World Bank

text: halting funding for new coal projects except in "rare circumstances". Rachel Kyte, the World Bank climate change envoy, said continued use of coal was exacting a heavy cost on some of the world's poorest countries, in local health impacts as well as climate change, which is imposing even graver consequences on the developing world. "In general globally we need to wean ourselves off coal,...There is a huge social cost to coal and a huge social cost to fossil fuels...if you want to be able to breathe clean air." EGAT "...has—in TV commercials—ridiculed renewable energy as expensive and insufficient to deal with rising electricity demand."

text: Malta has no domestic resource of fossil fuels and no gas distribution network. Primary energy supply of Malta is exclusively based on oil. Gross consumption has increased by 53% in 1990-2004. In 2008 the renewable energy market was at an early stage  in Malta. Only solar energy and biofuels were used. The potential for solar and wind is substantial according to the EU.  Energy import dependency was 100% in 2004.

text: Malta has no domestic resource of fossil fuels and no gas distribution network. Primary energy supply of Malta is exclusively based on

text: oil

text: . Gross consumption has increased by 53% in 1990-2004. In 2008 the renewable energy market was at an early stage  in Malta. Only solar energy and biofuels were used. The potential for

text: solar

text: and

text: wind

text: is substantial according to the EU.  Energy import dependency was 100% in 2004.

text: In 2011, seven Chinese coal mining companies produced 100 million metric tonnes of coal or more. These companies were Shenhua Group, China Coal Group, Shaanxi Coal and Chemical Industry, Shanxi Coking Coal Group, Datong Coal Mine Group, Jizhong Energy, and Shandong Energy.  The largest metallurgical coal producer was Shanxi Coking Coal Group.

text: In 2011, seven Chinese coal mining companies produced 100 million metric tonnes of coal or more. These companies were

text: Shenhua Group

text: China Coal Group

text: Shaanxi Coal and Chemical Industry

text: Shanxi Coking Coal Group

text: Datong Coal Mine Group

text: Jizhong Energy

text: , and

text: Shandong Energy

text: .  The largest metallurgical coal producer was Shanxi Coking Coal Group.

text: Michael Mariotte (1952-2016) was president and executive director of the Nuclear Information and Resource Service for 30 years.  He was a well-known opponent of nuclear power and organised anti-nuclear activities in Europe after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. Mariotte was a keen supporter of renewable energy and efficient energy use. He believed that nuclear power would become obsolete, to be replaced by clean energy sources.

text: Michael Mariotte (1952-2016) was president and executive director of the Nuclear Information and Resource Service for 30 years.  He was a well-known opponent of

text: nuclear power

text: and organised

text: anti-nuclear

text: activities in Europe after the 1986

text: Chernobyl disaster

text: . Mariotte was a keen supporter of

text: renewable energy

text: and

text: efficient energy use

text: . He believed that nuclear power would become obsolete, to be replaced by

text: clean energy

text: sources.

text: Various campaigns such as 350.org and many Greenpeace projects have been started in an effort to push the world's leaders towards changing laws and policies that would effectively reduce the world's carbon emissions and use of non-renewable energy resources.

text: Various campaigns such as

text: and many

text: Greenpeace

text: projects have been started in an effort to push the world's leaders towards changing laws and policies that would effectively reduce the world's carbon emissions and use of non-renewable energy resources.

text: In the year 2007, President Rafael Correa of Ecuador, initiated the Yasuni-ITT project by means of which Ecuador offered a perpetual suspension of oil extraction in part of the Yasuni National Park called Ishpingo-Tambococha-Tiputini (ITT) in return for payments of $ 3.6 billion from the international community (half of what Ecuador would have realized in revenue from exploiting the resources at 2007 prices). It envisioned the transition to a sustainable economy, using the funds to create jobs in such sectors as renewable energy while respecting the region's biodiversity and social equality. By 2012 only $200 million had been pledged. Various economic rationales converge on roughly the same payment. The reserve has around 846 million barrels, or 20% of the country's proven oil reserve. The aim of the initiative is to conserve biodiversity, protect indigenous peoples living in voluntary isolation, and avoid the release of CO emissions. The Yasuni-ITT Trust Fund was officially launched on 3 August 2010.

text: In the year 2007, President

text: Rafael Correa

text: of

text: Ecuador

text: , initiated the Yasuni-ITT project by means of which Ecuador offered a perpetual suspension of oil extraction in part of the

text: Yasuni National Park

text: called Ishpingo-Tambococha-Tiputini (ITT) in return for payments of $ 3.6 billion from the international community (half of what Ecuador would have realized in revenue from exploiting the resources at 2007 prices). It envisioned the transition to a sustainable economy, using the funds to create jobs in such sectors as renewable energy while respecting the region's biodiversity and social equality. By 2012 only $200 million had been pledged. Various economic rationales converge on roughly the same payment. The reserve has around 846 million barrels, or 20% of the country's proven oil reserve. The aim of the initiative is to conserve

text: biodiversity

text: , protect

text: indigenous people

text: s living in voluntary isolation, and avoid the release of CO emissions. The Yasuni-ITT Trust Fund was officially launched on 3 August 2010.

text: One of the widely disputed aspects of the proposed National Energy Policy is the how the plan suggests balancing needs for future sources of renewable energy with the immediate reliance on petroleum. In Chapter Six of the policy, titled "Nature’s Power: Increasing America’s Use of Renewable and Alternative Energy", domestic energy sources such as wind, geothermal, solar and bio-fuel are cited as necessary to stabilize and protect the United States' interests. Future energy sources such as hydrogen and fusion are also cited as long term projects. However, the Policy also states the necessity for plans to improve and expand the current pipeline systems within the US, implying that reliance on oil and natural gas will exist for years to come. The plan then goes on to detail American interests in foreign energy resources. In a section titled "Diversity of Supply", the policy explains why diversifying dependence on foreign oil is a key factor in securing short term stability. Canada, South America and the Caribbean, Africa, Russia and Asia were all detailed as having supplies of oil that could add to the supply of resources available to US consumption.

text: The Subcommittee's jurisdiction includes national energy policy generally; fossil energy, renewable energy resources and synthetic fuels; energy conservation; energy information; energy regulation and utilization; utility issues and regulation of nuclear facilities; interstate energy compacts; nuclear energy and waste; the Clean Air Act; all laws, programs, and government activities affecting such matters; and Homeland security-related aspects of the foregoing.

text: The Subcommittee's jurisdiction includes national energy policy generally; fossil energy, renewable energy resources and synthetic fuels; energy conservation; energy information; energy regulation and utilization; utility issues and regulation of nuclear facilities; interstate energy compacts; nuclear energy and waste; the

text: Clean Air Act

text: ; all laws, programs, and government activities affecting such matters; and Homeland security-related aspects of the foregoing.

text: Biogas can be compressed, the same way natural gas is compressed to CNG, and used to power motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel. It qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, when it becomes bio-methane. Biogas is considered to be a renewable resource because its production-and-use cycle is continuous, and it generates no net carbon dioxide. Organic material grows, is converted and used and then regrows in a continually repeating cycle. From a carbon perspective, as much carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere in the growth of the primary bio-resource as is released when the material is ultimately converted to energy.

text: Biogas can be compressed, the same way

text: natural gas

text: is compressed to

text: CNG

text: , and used to power

text: motor vehicles

text: . In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel. It qualifies for renewable

text: energy subsidies

text: in some parts of the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, when it becomes bio-methane. Biogas is considered to be a renewable resource because its production-and-use cycle is continuous, and it generates no net carbon dioxide. Organic material grows, is converted and used and then regrows in a continually repeating cycle. From a carbon perspective, as much carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere in the growth of the primary bio-resource as is released when the material is ultimately converted to energy.

text: Sustainable energy is clean and can be used over a long period of time. Unlike fossil fuels that most countries are using, renewable energy only produces little or even no pollution. The most common types of renewable energy in US are hydroelectric, solar and wind energy. Solar energy is commonly used on public parking meters, street lights and the roof of buildings. Wind power has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%. Most of California's fossil fuel infrastructures are sited in or near low-income communities, and have traditionally suffered the most from California's fossil fuel energy system.  These communities are historically left out during the decision-making process, and often end up with dirty power plants and other dirty energy projects that poison the air and harm the area. These toxicants are major contributors to health problems in the communities. As renewable energy becomes more common, fossil fuel infrastructures are replaced by renewables, providing  better social equity to these communities.Overall, and in the long run, sustainable development in the field of energy is also deemed to contribute to economic sustainability and national security of communities, thus being increasingly encouraged through investment policies.

text: Sustainable energy is clean and can be used over a long period of time. Unlike fossil fuels that most countries are using, renewable energy only produces little or even no pollution. The most common types of

text: renewable energy

text: in US are hydroelectric, solar and wind energy.

text: Solar energy

text: is commonly used on public parking meters, street lights and the roof of buildings.

text: Wind power

text: has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%. Most of California's fossil fuel infrastructures are sited in or near low-income communities, and have traditionally suffered the most from California's fossil fuel energy system.  These communities are historically left out during the decision-making process, and often end up with dirty power plants and other dirty energy projects that poison the air and harm the area. These toxicants are major contributors to health problems in the communities. As renewable energy becomes more common, fossil fuel infrastructures are replaced by renewables, providing  better social equity to these communities.Overall, and in the long run, sustainable development in the field of energy is also deemed to contribute to economic sustainability and national security of communities, thus being increasingly encouraged through investment policies.

text: Competition from renewable energy sources may lead to the loss of value of fossil fuel companies due to their inability to compete commercially with the renewable energy sources. In some cases this has already happened. Deutsche Bank predicts that 80% of the global electricity market will have reached grid parity for solar electricity generation by the end of 2017. In 2012, 67% of the world's electricity generation was produced from fossil fuels.

text: Recently there has been a large increase in international agreements and national Energy Action Plans, such as the EU 2009 Renewable Energy Directive, to increase the use of renewable energy due to the growing concerns about pollution from energy sources that come from fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas. One such initiative was the United Nations Development Programme's World Energy Assessment in 2000 that highlighted many challenges humanity would have to overcome in order to shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. From 2000–2012 renewable energy grew at a rate higher than any other point in history, with a consumption increase of 176.5 million tonnes of oil. During this period, oil, coal, and natural gas continued to grow and had increases that were much higher than the increase in renewable energy. The following figures illustrate the growth in consumption of fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas as well as renewable sources of energy during this period.

text: The methanol economy is a synfuel production energy plan which may begin with hydrogen production. Hydrogen in a full "hydrogen economy" was initially suggested as a way to make renewable energy, in non-polluting form, available to automobiles. However, a theoretical alternative to address the same problem is to produce hydrogen centrally and immediately use it to make liquid fuels from a CO source. This would eliminate the requirement to transport and store the hydrogen. The source could be CO that is produced by fuel-burning power plants. In order to be greenhouse-neutral, the source for CO in such a plan would need to be from air, biomass, or other source of CO which is already in, or to be released into, the air.  Direct methanol fuel cells are in commercial use, though as of August 2011 they are not efficient.

text: The methanol economy is a synfuel production energy plan which may begin with hydrogen production. Hydrogen in a full "hydrogen economy" was initially suggested as a way to make

text: renewable energy

text: , in non-polluting form, available to automobiles. However, a theoretical alternative to address the same problem is to produce hydrogen centrally and immediately use it to make liquid fuels from a CO source. This would eliminate the requirement to transport and store the hydrogen. The source could be CO that is produced by fuel-burning power plants. In order to be greenhouse-neutral, the source for CO in such a plan would need to be from air, biomass, or other source of CO which is already in, or to be released into, the air.

text: Direct methanol fuel cell

text: s are in commercial use, though as of August 2011 they are not efficient.

text: Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of internal combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment, both in local effects (e.g., smog) and in global effects (e.g., effect on the climate). Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from storage tanks, from spills, etc. As an example of efforts to control such leakage, many (underground) storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent such leaks. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens. Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation.

text: Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of internal combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment, both in local effects (e.g.,

text: smog

text: ) and in global effects (e.g.,

text: effect on the climate

text: ). Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from storage tanks, from spills, etc. As an example of efforts to control such leakage, many (underground) storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent such leaks. Gasoline contains

text: benzene

text: and other known

text: carcinogen

text: s. Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation.

text: The history of energy production in the UK has been based on natural resources of fossil fuels. This means that UK has not been as active in exploitation of renewable resources. Compared to many other Member States, the UK is starting from a very low level of renewable energy consumption and thus the challenge of meeting the 2020 targets is even greater.

text: In February 2012 the Province of Alberta "expected $13.4 billion in revenue from non-renewable resources in 2013-14. By January 2013 the province was anticipating only $7.4 billion. "30 per cent of Alberta’s approximately $40-billion budget is funded through oil and gas revenues. Bitumen royalties represent about half of that total." In 2009/10 royalties from the oil sands amounted to $1.008 billion (Budget 2009 cited in Energy Alberta 2009.

text: In the US Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used in rural homes without connections to piped-in public utility services, or with portable grills. Natural gas is also supplied by independent natural gas suppliers through Natural Gas Choice programs throughout the United States. However, as CNG costs more than LPG, LPG (propane) is the dominant source of rural gas.

text: In the US

text: Compressed natural gas

text: (CNG) is used in

text: rural

text: homes without connections to

text: pipe

text: d-in

text: public utility

text: services, or with portable

text: grill

text: s. Natural gas is also supplied by independent natural gas suppliers through

text: Natural Gas Choice

text: programs throughout the United States. However, as CNG costs more than

text: LPG

text: , LPG (propane) is the dominant source of rural gas.

text: As an Opposition MP, Lukiwski argued that non-renewable natural resource revenues, such as revenues from oil and gas, should be excluded from the calculations of the equalization formula.  Despite acknowledging that Saskatchewan was no longer a "have-not" province, Lukiwski estimated that Saskatchewan would be between $800 million to $1.5 billion wealthier each year if non-renewable resources were removed from the equalization formula.

text: As an

text: Opposition

text: MP, Lukiwski argued that non-renewable natural resource revenues, such as revenues from oil and gas, should be excluded from the calculations of the

text: equalization formula

text: .  Despite acknowledging that Saskatchewan was no longer a

text: "have-not" province

text: , Lukiwski estimated that Saskatchewan would be between $800 million to $1.5 billion wealthier each year if

text: non-renewable resource

text: s were removed from the equalization formula.

text: Lovins has described the "hard energy path" as involving inefficient energy use and centralized, non-renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels. One of Lovins' main concerns was the danger of committing to nuclear energy to meet a society's energy needs, due chiefly to what he considered its poor economics and high risk of fostering nuclear weapons proliferation.

text: Lovins has described the "hard energy path" as involving inefficient energy use and centralized, non-renewable energy sources such as

text: fossil fuels

text: . One of Lovins' main concerns was the danger of committing to

text: nuclear energy

text: to meet a society's energy needs, due chiefly to what he considered its poor economics and high risk of fostering

text: nuclear weapons

text: proliferation.

text: While the financial incentive of burning fossil fuels to create energy is certainly there, there are many negatives associated with it.  A very large argument against the use of fossil fuels is uncertainty.  There is a large debate about how much is left in the Earth’s fossil fuel reserves.  It is estimated that by 2042 and 2112, the planet will be completely out of oil and coal, respectively.  When the Earth eventually runs out of fossil fuels, we will be forced into using strictly renewable sources of energy.  The pending depletion of fossil fuels is a large argument to invest in renewables, because at some point we will need to or it will be too late.  Another argument against using fossils fuels is the level of efficiency.  It is estimated 29% more energy to create a gallon of ethanol than there is energy in a gallon of ethanol.  This level of inefficiency seems very impractical when trying to decide on a method on energy production for the future.  Efficiency and cost aside, it is well documented that the burning of fossil fuels is very bad for the environment.  The burning of fossil fuels releases many harmful chemicals into the air that can lead to air pollution and the deterioration of the atmosphere.

text: The German agricultural biogas production was given a further push in 2004 by implementing the so-called NawaRo-Bonus. This is a special payment given for the use of renewable resources, that is, energy crops. In 2007 the German government stressed its intention to invest further effort and support in improving the renewable energy supply to provide an answer on growing climate challenges and increasing oil prices by the ‘Integrated Climate and Energy Programme’.

text: According to M. King Hubbert's Hubbert peak theory, Peak gas is the point in time at which the maximum global natural gas (fossil gas) production rate will be reached, after which the rate of production will enter its terminal decline.  Natural gas is a fossil fuel formed from plant matter over the course of millions of years.  It is a finite resource and thus considered to be a non-renewable energy source.

text: According to

text: M. King Hubbert

text: 's

text: Hubbert peak theory

text: , Peak gas is the point in time at which the maximum global

text: natural gas

text: (fossil gas) production rate will be reached, after which the rate of production will enter its terminal decline.  Natural gas is a

text: fossil fuel

text: formed from plant matter over the course of millions of years.  It is a finite resource and thus considered to be a

text: non-renewable energy

text: source.

text: Tight oil, including light tight oil (sometimes confusingly the term 'shale oil' is used instead of 'light tight oil') is crude oil contained in petroleum-bearing formations of low permeability, often shale or tight sandstone. Economic production from tight oil formations requires the same hydraulic fracturing and often uses the same horizontal well technology used in the production of shale gas. It should not be confused with oil shale, which is shale rich in kerogen, or shale oil, which is synthetic oil produced from oil shales.  Therefore, the International Energy Agency recommends to use the term "light tight oil" for oil produced from shales or other very low permeability formations, while World Energy Resources 2013 report by the World Energy Council uses the term "tight oil".

text: Tight oil, including light tight oil (sometimes confusingly the term 'shale oil' is used instead of 'light tight oil') is crude oil contained in petroleum-bearing formations of low

text: permeability

text: , often

text: shale

text: hydraulic fracturing

text: and often uses the same

text: horizontal well

text: technology used in the production of

text: shale gas

text: . It should not be confused with

text: oil shale

text: , which is shale rich in

text: kerogen

text: , or

text: shale oil

text: , which is synthetic oil produced from oil shales.  Therefore, the

text: International Energy Agency

text: World Energy Council

text: uses the term "tight oil".

text: Life on our planet is an endless exchange of energies among living things and the environment. Most of the energy resources we currently use, such as oil, coal, natural gas and uranium are non-renewable. The supply of them buried in the earth is limited and we are using them up at a rapid pace.Renewable energy resources such as Solar energy, wind energy, small hydroelectricity (e.g. Swimming hydroelectric power plant), geothermal energy and biomass fuels are becoming increasingly attractive. Solar, Photovoltaics, water and wind energy do not send pollutants into the air as occurs with coal and petroleum energy.

text: Life on our planet is an endless exchange of energies among living things and the environment. Most of the energy resources we currently use, such as oil, coal, natural gas and uranium are non-renewable. The supply of them buried in the earth is limited and we are using them up at a rapid pace.Renewable energy resources such as

text: Solar energy

text: wind energy

text: , small hydroelectricity (e.g. Swimming hydroelectric power plant),

text: geothermal energy

text: and biomass fuels are becoming increasingly attractive. Solar,

text: Photovoltaics

text: , water and wind energy do not send pollutants into the air as occurs with coal and petroleum energy.

text: Most home fuel cells are comparable to residential solar energy photovoltaic systems on a dollar per watt-installed basis. Some natural gas driven home fuel cells can generate eight times more energy per year than the same size solar installation, even in the best solar locations. For example, a 5 kW home fuel cell produces about 80 MWh of annual combined electricity and heat, compared to approximately 10MWh generated by a 5 kW solar system. However, these systems are not directly comparable because solar power is a renewable resource with basically no operating cost while natural gas is neither.

text: Most home fuel cells are comparable to residential

text: solar energy

text: photovoltaic system

text: s on a dollar per watt-installed basis. Some natural gas driven home fuel cells can generate eight times more energy per year than the same size solar installation, even in the best solar locations. For example, a 5 kW home fuel cell produces about 80 MWh of annual combined electricity and heat, compared to approximately 10MWh generated by a 5 kW solar system. However, these systems are not directly comparable because solar power is a renewable resource with basically no operating cost while natural gas is neither.

text: Depending on the particular fossil fuel and the method of burning, other emissions may be produced as well.  Ozone, sulfur dioxide, NO and other gases are often released, as well as particulate matter. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides contribute to smog and acid rain. In the past, plant owners addressed this problem by building very tall flue-gas stacks, so that the pollutants would be diluted in the atmosphere. While this helps reduce local contamination, it does not help at all with global issues.

text: Depending on the particular fossil fuel and the method of burning, other emissions may be produced as well.

text: Ozone

text: , sulfur dioxide,

text: NO

text: and other gases are often released, as well as

text: particulate matter

text: . Sulfur and nitrogen oxides contribute to

text: smog

text: and

text: acid rain

text: . In the past, plant owners addressed this problem by building very tall

text: flue-gas stack

text: s, so that the pollutants would be diluted in the atmosphere. While this helps reduce local contamination, it does not help at all with global issues.

text: Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources, including solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, and biomass, as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these. By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas, creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises. In many circumstances, these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems.

text: Most developing countries have abundant

text: renewable energy

text: resources, including

text: solar energy

text: wind power

text: geothermal energy

text: , and

text: biomass

text: , as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these. By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas, creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises. In many circumstances, these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems.

text: In their response to the 2010 competitive review with input from the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) and the Small Explorers and Producers Association of Canada, Alberta Energy lowered non-renewable resource (NRR) royalty rates.

text: In their response to the 2010 competitive review with input from the

entity_name: Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers

text: Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers

text: (CAPP) and the Small Explorers and Producers Association of Canada, Alberta Energy lowered non-renewable resource (NRR) royalty rates.

text: Human activities influence the natural environment in many different ways. Processes needed to execute these activities need resources, energy and human manpower. Production, delivery and consummation of goods generates emissions and waste. The SPI includes all these different issues affecting the environment. A total area A which would be needed to embed human activities into ecosphere can so be aggregated.A = A + A + A + A + A 	[m] (1)A = A + A + A					[m] (2)A = A + A 							[m] (3)The sum for the total area is the sum of all partial areas (Formel 1). A, the area needed to provide raw materials, is the sum (formula 2) of all areas needed to provide renewable resources (A), fossil resources (A) and non-renewable resources (A). A is the area needed to provide process energy (incl. electricity). A, the area needed to provide the infrastructure for the process is the sum (formula 3) of direct land use (A) and the area needed to provide the area for buildings and process plants (A). A is the area needed for the supply of the staff and A is the area needed for a sustainable embedding of emissions and waste into ecosphere. The SPI aggregates partial footprints from mass, energy and emission inventories of every sub-process and refers them to the end product. This means that a is the total footprint of a considered product per measurement unit. Seven different categories were defined to guarantee a better visibility of the different impact categories:

text: Taiwan has significant coal deposits and some insignificant petroleum and natural gas deposits. , oil accounts for 49.0% of the total energy consumption. Coal comes next with 32.1%, followed by nuclear energy with 8.3%, natural gas (indigenous and liquefied) with 10.2%, and energy from renewable sources with 0.5%. Taiwan has six nuclear reactors and two under construction. Nearly all oil and gas for transportation and power needs must be imported, making Taiwan particularly sensitive to fluctuations in energy prices. Taiwan is rich in wind energy resources, with wind farms both onshore and offshore, though limited land area favors offshore wind resources. By promoting renewable energy, Taiwan's government hopes to also aid the nascent renewable energy manufacturing industry, and develop it into an export market.

text: Taiwan has significant coal deposits and some insignificant

text: petroleum

text: and

text: natural gas

text: deposits. ,

text: oil

text: accounts for 49.0% of the total energy consumption.

text: Coal

text: comes next with 32.1%, followed by

text: nuclear energy

text: with 8.3%,

text: natural gas

text: (indigenous and liquefied) with 10.2%, and energy from renewable sources with 0.5%. Taiwan has

text: six nuclear reactors

text: and two under construction. Nearly all oil and gas for transportation and power needs must be imported, making Taiwan particularly sensitive to fluctuations in energy prices. Taiwan is rich in

text: wind energy

text: resources, with wind farms both onshore and offshore, though limited land area favors offshore wind resources. By promoting renewable energy, Taiwan's government hopes to also aid the nascent renewable energy manufacturing industry, and develop it into an export market.

text: A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in American English) is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol (gasoline) and similar volatile fuels. The first practical petrol engine was built in 1876 in Germany by Nikolaus August Otto, although there had been earlier attempts by Étienne Lenoir, Siegfried Marcus, Julius Hock and George Brayton. The first petrol combustion engine (one cylinder, 121.6 cm displacement) was prototyped in 1882 in Italy by Enrico Bernardi. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-mixed before compression (although some modern petrol engines now use cylinder-direct petrol injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now it is done by electronically controlled fuel injection, except in small engines where the cost/complication of electronics does not justify the added engine efficiency. The process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process.  In a diesel engine, only air is compressed (and therefore heated), and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites.

text: A petrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in

text: American English

text: ) is an

text: internal combustion engine

text: with

text: spark-ignition

text: , designed to run on petrol (

text: gasoline

text: ) and similar volatile fuels. The first practical petrol engine was built in 1876 in Germany by

text: Nikolaus August Otto

text: , although there had been earlier attempts by

text: Étienne Lenoir

text: Siegfried Marcus

text: Julius Hock

text: and

text: George Brayton

text: . The first petrol combustion engine (one cylinder, 121.6 cm displacement) was prototyped in 1882 in Italy by

text: Enrico Bernardi

text: . In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-mixed before compression (although some modern petrol engines now use cylinder-direct petrol injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a

text: carburetor

text: , but now it is done by electronically controlled

text: fuel injection

text: , except in small engines where the cost/complication of electronics does not justify the added engine efficiency. The process differs from a

text: diesel engine

text: in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using

text: spark plug

text: s to initiate the combustion process.  In a diesel engine, only air is compressed (and therefore heated), and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites.

text: As economies grow, the need for resources growsaccordingly. There is a fixed supply of non-renewableresources, such as petroleum (oil), and theseresources will inevitably be depleted. Renewable resources can also be depleted if extracted at unsustainable rates over extended periods. For example, this has occurred with 'caviar' production in the Caspian Sea. There is much concern as to how growing demand for these resources will be met as supplies decrease. Many organizations and governments look to energy technologies such as biofuels, solar cells, and wind turbines to meet the demand gap after peak oil. Others have argued that none of the alternatives could effectively replace versatility and portability of oil. Authors of the book Techno-Fix criticize technological optimists for overlooking the limitations of technology in solving agricultural and social challenges arising from growth.

text: PURPA provided favorable terms to companies that produced electricity from renewable (non-fossil-fuel) resources.

text: One of the most important features of green design is a shift from the reliance on depleting fossil fuels to renewable energy resources. The independence from fossil fuels will save the library large sums of money, and it will relish its independence if prices continue to rise.

text: A diverse energy portfolio, depending on the local availability of natural resources, includes (1) solar, wind, biomass-to-power, ocean, and geothermal energy for power generation, and (2) renewable hydrocarbons, biomass- and algae-derived biofuels, and electric vehicles for transportation.  The private sector and the markets should determine which of those forms of low-carbon energy are most appropriate and cost-effective locally in different parts of the country and the world.

text: Paul voted on multiple occasions in 2007—2012 to block measures that would have eliminated or reduced tax breaks for oil and gas producers. For example, in January 2007, he voted against the Energy Independence and Security Act, which supporters said would have rescinded $14 billion in tax breaks for oil and gas drillers. In February 2008, he voted against the Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Tax Act, which supporters said would have eliminated $18 billion in tax benefits for oil companies and substituted tax credits for wind, solar, and other renewable energy sources. In May 2008, he voted against the Energy Improvement and Extension Act, which supporters said contained provisions to cut tax breaks for oil companies and to expand tax breaks for alternative energies like solar and geothermal power, biodiesel fuels, and plug-in hybrid vehicles. In July 2010, he voted against the Consolidated Land, Energy, and Aquatic Resources Act of 2009, which would have removed federal caps on oil companies' liability for oil spills, and would have cut certain tax breaks for oil companies. In February 2011, he voted against a measure to reinstate royalties assessed for oil drilled when oil prices are high. In March, April, and May 2011, he voted against measures that would have allowed consideration of legislation to eliminate tax breaks for oil companies and promote production and use of alternative energy sources.

text: Paul voted on multiple occasions in 2007—2012 to block measures that would have eliminated or reduced tax breaks for oil and gas producers. For example, in January 2007, he voted against the

text: Energy Independence and Security Act

text: , which supporters said would have rescinded $14 billion in tax breaks for oil and gas drillers. In February 2008, he voted against the Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Tax Act, which supporters said would have eliminated $18 billion in tax benefits for oil companies and substituted tax credits for wind, solar, and other renewable energy sources. In May 2008, he voted against the

text: Energy Improvement and Extension Act

text: , which supporters said contained provisions to cut tax breaks for oil companies and to expand tax breaks for alternative energies like solar and geothermal power, biodiesel fuels, and plug-in hybrid vehicles. In July 2010, he voted against the Consolidated Land, Energy, and Aquatic Resources Act of 2009, which would have removed federal caps on oil companies' liability for oil spills, and would have cut certain tax breaks for oil companies. In February 2011, he voted against a measure to reinstate royalties assessed for oil drilled when oil prices are high. In March, April, and May 2011, he voted against measures that would have allowed consideration of legislation to eliminate tax breaks for oil companies and promote production and use of alternative energy sources.

text: Usually however, renewable energy is derived from the mains electricity grid. This means that energy storage is mostly not used, as the mains electricity grid is organised to produce the exact amount of energy being consumed at that particular moment. Energy production on the mains electricity grid is always set up as a combination of (large-scale) renewable energy plants, as well as other power plants as fossil-fuel power plants and nuclear power. This combination however, which is essential for this type of energy supply (as e.g. wind turbines, solar power plants etc.) can only produce when the wind blows and the sun shines. This is also one of the main drawbacks of the system as fossil fuel powerplants are polluting and are a main cause of global warming (nuclear power being an exception). Although fossil fuel power plants too can be made emissionless (through carbon capture and storage), as well as renewable (if the plants are converted to e.g. biomass) the best solution is still to phase out the latter power plants over time. Nuclear power plants too can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of nuclear reprocessing and newer plants as fast breeder and nuclear fusion plants.

text: Usually however, renewable energy is derived from the mains electricity grid. This means that energy storage is mostly not used, as the mains electricity grid is organised to produce the exact amount of energy being consumed at that particular moment. Energy production on the mains electricity grid is always set up as a combination of (large-scale) renewable energy plants, as well as other power plants as

text: fossil-fuel power plant

text: s and

text: nuclear power

text: . This combination however, which is essential for this type of energy supply (as e.g. wind turbines, solar power plants etc.) can only produce when the wind blows and the sun shines. This is also one of the main drawbacks of the system as fossil fuel powerplants are polluting and are a main cause of

text: global warming

text: (nuclear power being an exception). Although fossil fuel power plants too can be made emissionless (through carbon capture and storage), as well as renewable (if the plants are converted to e.g. biomass) the best solution is still to phase out the latter power plants over time. Nuclear power plants too can be more or less eliminated from their problem of nuclear waste through the use of

text: nuclear reprocessing

text: and newer plants as

text: fast breeder

text: and

text: nuclear fusion

text: plants.

text: In order to create ethanol, all biomass needs to go through some of these steps: it needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented, and burned. All of these steps require resources and an infrastructure. The ratio of the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel to the energy used in the process, is known as the ethanol fuel energy balance (sometimes called "Net energy gain") and studied as part of the wider field of energy economics. Figures compiled in a 2007 National Geographic Magazine article  point to modest results for corn ethanol produced in the US: 1 unit of energy input equals 1.3 energy units of corn ethanol energy. The energy balance for sugarcane ethanol produced in Brazil is much more favorable, 1 to 8. Over the years, however, many reports have been produced with contradicting energy balance estimates. A 2006 University of California Berkeley study, after analyzing six separate studies, concluded that producing ethanol from corn uses marginally less petroleum than producing gasoline.

text: In order to create ethanol, all

text: biomass

text: needs to go through some of these steps: it needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented, and burned. All of these steps require resources and an infrastructure. The ratio of the energy released by burning the resulting

text: ethanol fuel

text: to the energy used in the process, is known as the ethanol fuel energy balance (sometimes called "

text: Net energy gain

text: ") and studied as part of the wider field of

text: energy economics

text: . Figures compiled in a 2007

text: National Geographic Magazine

text: article  point to modest results for corn ethanol produced in the US: 1 unit of energy input equals 1.3 energy units of corn ethanol energy. The

text: energy balance

text: for sugarcane ethanol produced in Brazil is much more favorable, 1 to 8. Over the years, however, many reports have been produced with contradicting energy balance estimates. A 2006 University of California Berkeley study, after analyzing six separate studies, concluded that producing ethanol from corn uses marginally less petroleum than producing gasoline.

text: In many countries of the world, there has been a phase-out of lightweight plastic bags. Single-use plastic shopping bags, commonly made from high-density polyethylene (HDPE) plastic, have traditionally been given free to customers by stores when purchasing goods—a popular method considered a strong, cheap, and hygienic way of transporting items. Problems associated with plastic bags include use of non-renewable resources (such as crude oil, gas and coal), disposal, and environmental impacts.

text: In many countries of the world, there has been a phase-out of lightweight plastic bags. Single-use

text: plastic shopping bag

text: s, commonly made from

text: high-density polyethylene

text: (HDPE) plastic, have traditionally been given free to customers by

text: stores

text: when purchasing

text: goods

text: —a popular method considered a strong, cheap, and

text: hygienic

text: way of transporting items. Problems associated with plastic bags include use of non-renewable resources (such as crude oil, gas and coal), disposal, and environmental impacts.

text: An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils,  aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An oil is "essential" in the sense that it contains the "essence of" the plant's fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived. The term essential used here does not mean indispensable as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid which are so called since they are nutritionally required by a given living organism.

text: An essential oil is a concentrated

text: hydrophobic

text: liquid containing volatile

text: aroma compound

text: s from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils,  aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as

text: oil of clove

text: . An

text: oil

text: is "essential" in the sense that it contains the "essence of" the plant's fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived. The term essential used here does not mean indispensable as with the terms

text: essential amino acid

text: or

text: essential fatty acid

text: which are so called since they are nutritionally required by a given living organism.

text: Coal includes anthracite, bituminous coal, lignite, and peat. Coal from fields differ in ash and moisture content, energy value, volatile elements, sulphur content, and other properties.  Anthracite and bituminous coal are relatively high value compared to lignite and peat, which have lower energy and higher moisture contents. Coal is often used in the iron and steel industry, or to produce energy.

text: Coal includes

text: anthracite

text: bituminous coal

text: lignite

text: , and

text: peat

text: . Coal from fields differ in ash and moisture content, energy value, volatile elements, sulphur content, and other properties.  Anthracite and bituminous coal are relatively high value compared to lignite and peat, which have lower energy and higher moisture contents. Coal is often used in the iron and steel industry, or to produce energy.

text: Energy. Energy resources are abundant in the subregion. In addition to oil, natural gas and coal resources, EAGA offers investment opportunities in the renewable energy sector, taking advantage of geothermal, biomass, hydro and wind power.

text: Petroleum, otherwise known as "crude oil", has become the resource most used by countries all around the world including Russia, China (actually, China is mostly dependent on coal (70.5% in 2010)) and the United States of America.  With all the oil wells located around the world energy security has become a main issue to ensure the safety of the petroleum that is being harvested.  In the middle east oil fields become main targets for sabotage because of how heavily countries rely on oil.  Many countries hold strategic petroleum reserves as a buffer against the economic and political impacts of an energy crisis. All 28 members of the International Energy Agency hold a minimum of 90 days of their oil imports, for example.

text: Petroleum, otherwise known as "crude oil", has become the resource most used by countries all around the world including Russia, China (actually, China is mostly

text: dependent

text: on

text: coal

text: (70.5% in 2010)) and the United States of America.  With all the oil wells located around the world energy security has become a main issue to ensure the safety of the petroleum that is being harvested.  In the middle east oil fields become main targets for sabotage because of how heavily countries rely on oil.  Many countries hold

text: strategic petroleum reserves

text: as a buffer against the

text: economic

text: and political impacts of an

text: energy crisis

text: . All 28 members of the

text: International Energy Agency

text: hold a minimum of 90 days of their oil imports, for example.

text: Renewable fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources.  Examples include: biofuels (e.g. Vegetable oil used as fuel, ethanol, methanol from clean energy and carbon dioxide or biomass, and biodiesel) and Hydrogen fuel (when produced with renewable processes).  This is in contrast to non-renewable fuels such as natural gas, LPG (propane), petroleum and other fossil fuels and nuclear energy.  Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar.  Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their sustainability, low contributions to the carbon cycle, and in some cases lower amounts of greenhouse gases.  The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest, particularly to industrialized economies which desire independence from Middle Eastern oil.

text: Renewable fuels are

text: fuel

text: s produced from renewable resources.  Examples include:

text: biofuels

text: (e.g.

text: Vegetable oil used as fuel

text: ethanol

text: methanol

text: from

text: clean energy and carbon dioxide

text: or biomass, and biodiesel) and

text: Hydrogen

text: fuel (when produced with renewable processes).  This is in contrast to

text: non-renewable

text: fuels such as

text: natural gas

text: LPG

text: propane

text: petroleum

text: and other

text: fossil fuels

text: and

text: nuclear energy

text: .  Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from

text: renewable energy

text: sources, such as wind and solar.  Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their

text: sustainability

text: low contributions

text: to the

text: carbon cycle

text: , and in some cases lower amounts of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es.  The geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest, particularly to industrialized economies which desire

text: independence

text: from

text: Middle Eastern

text: oil.

text: The National Development Plan for the Utilisation of Oil Shale 2008–2015 prioritises oil shale as a resource for ensuring Estonia's electricity supply and  energy security.  However, the share of oil shale in Estonia's electricity and heat production is set to decrease due to the European Union's climate policy as well as the country's recognition of the environmental impact of oil shale-fired power stations and need to diversify the national energy balance. Although Estonia has the right to allocate a gradually decreasing limited number of emission allowances free of charge, this will be phased out by 2020.  According to the International Energy Agency, Estonia should adopt the energy strategy in order to reduce the share of oil shale in the primary energy supply by improving the efficiency of shale-fired power stations and increasing the use of other energy sources such as renewable energy and natural gas.

text: The National Development Plan for the Utilisation of Oil Shale 2008–2015 prioritises oil shale as a resource for ensuring Estonia's electricity supply and

text: energy security

text: .  However, the share of oil shale in Estonia's electricity and heat production is set to decrease due to the

entity_name: European Union climate and energy package

text: European Union's climate policy

text: as well as the country's recognition of the environmental impact of oil shale-fired power stations and need to diversify the national energy balance. Although Estonia has the right to allocate a gradually decreasing limited number of

text: emission allowances

text: free of charge, this will be phased out by 2020.  According to the

text: International Energy Agency

text: , Estonia should adopt the energy strategy in order to reduce the share of oil shale in the primary energy supply by improving the efficiency of shale-fired power stations and increasing the use of other energy sources such as renewable energy and natural gas.

text: Arguments have been made that fostering renewable energy through subsidies and other adoption-mechanisms are the path towards increasing the percentage of carbon-neutral renewable technologies that are used. According to IEA (2011) energy subsidies artificially lower the price of energy paid by consumers, raise the price received by producers or lower the cost of production. "Fossil fuels subsidies costs generally outweigh the benefits. Subsidies to renewables and low-carbon energy technologies can bring long-term economic and environmental benefits". In November 2011, an IEA report entitled Deploying Renewables 2011 said "subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits". The IEA's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand. "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," the IEA said, and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue."

text: Arguments have been made that

text: fostering renewable energy through subsidies

text: and other adoption-mechanisms are the path towards increasing the percentage of carbon-neutral renewable technologies that are used. According to

text: IEA

text: (2011) energy subsidies artificially lower the price of energy paid by consumers, raise the price received by producers or lower the cost of production. "Fossil fuels subsidies costs generally outweigh the benefits. Subsidies to renewables and low-carbon energy technologies can bring long-term economic and environmental benefits". In November 2011, an IEA report entitled Deploying Renewables 2011 said "subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits". The IEA's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand. "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," the IEA said, and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue."

text: Biotic resources are obtained from the living and organic material. These include forest products, wildlife, crops and other living organisms. Most of these resources are renewable because they can regenerate themselves. Fossil fuels are considered as biotic because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Fossil fuels are non-renewable.

text: Biotic resources

text: are obtained from the living and organic material. These include forest products, wildlife, crops and other living organisms. Most of these resources are renewable because they can regenerate themselves. Fossil fuels are considered as biotic because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Fossil fuels are non-renewable.

text: A RECS energy certificate is issued for every 1 megawatt-hour (MWh) of renewable energy produced by an electricity generation facility that has been registered with the relevant national RECS issuing body. These certificates can be transferred between market parties in different countries, and are used to provide evidence of the consumption of renewable energy – at which point they are made non-transferable, in order to ensure that the "renewable benefit" is not double-sold.

text: A RECS

text: energy certificate

text: is issued for every 1 megawatt-hour (MWh) of renewable energy produced by an electricity generation facility that has been registered with the relevant national RECS issuing body. These certificates can be transferred between market parties in different countries, and are used to provide evidence of the consumption of renewable energy – at which point they are made non-transferable, in order to ensure that the "renewable benefit" is not double-sold.

text: Because the manufacturing and transportation of disposable water bottles requires petroleum, a non-renewable resource, the single-serve bottled water industry has come under pressure from concerned consumers. The Pacific Institute calculates that it required about 17 million barrels of oil to make the disposable plastic bottles for single-serve water that Americans consumed in 2006. To sustain the consumptive use of products relying on plastic components and level of manufactured demand for plastic water bottles,  the end result is shortages of fossil fuels. Furthermore, it means not only a shortage of the raw materials to make plastics, but also a shortage of the energy required to fuel their production.

text: Because the manufacturing and transportation of disposable water bottles requires

text: petroleum

text: , a non-renewable resource, the single-serve bottled water industry has come under pressure from concerned consumers. The

text: Pacific Institute

text: calculates that it required about 17 million barrels of oil to make the disposable plastic bottles for single-serve water that Americans consumed in 2006. To sustain the consumptive use of products relying on plastic components and level of

text: manufactured demand

text: for plastic water bottles,  the end result is shortages of

text: fossil fuels

text: . Furthermore, it means not only a shortage of the raw materials to make plastics, but also a shortage of the energy required to fuel their production.

text: Jan Hamrin has spent 30 years promoting renewable energy through research, policy formulation, and the development of consumer programs. She founded the non-profit Center for Resource Solutions in 1997 and retired as president of CRS at the end of 2007.

text: Jan Hamrin has spent 30 years

text: promoting renewable energy

text: through research, policy formulation, and the development of consumer programs. She founded the non-profit

text: Center for Resource Solutions

text: in 1997 and retired as president of CRS at the end of 2007.

text: Although nuclear power is considered a form of low-carbon power, its legal inclusion with renewable energy power sources has been a subject of debate and classification. Statutory definitions of renewable energy usually exclude many present nuclear energy technologies, with notable exceptions in the states of Utah, and Arizona in the United States, where only a particular implementation of nuclear fission with "waste"/fuel recycling meets the state's criteria. Dictionary sourced definitions of renewable energy technologies often omit or explicitly exclude mention to every nuclear energy source, with an exception made for the natural nuclear decay heat generated within the Earth/geothermal energy.

text: Although

text: nuclear power

text: is considered a form of

text: low-carbon power

text: , its legal inclusion with

text: renewable energy

text: power sources has been a subject of debate and classification.

text: Statutory

text: definitions of renewable energy usually exclude many present nuclear energy technologies, with notable exceptions in the states of

text: Utah

text: , and

text: Arizona

text: in the United States, where only a particular implementation of

text: nuclear fission

text: with "waste"/

text: fuel recycling

text: meets the state's criteria. Dictionary sourced definitions of renewable energy technologies often omit or explicitly exclude mention to every nuclear energy source, with an exception made for the natural nuclear

text: decay heat

text: generated within the Earth/

text: geothermal energy

text: Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has recently signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels, support the growth of the clean energy technology industry, and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state.  The Clean Energy Biofuels Act, signed in late July, exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state's gasoline tax, but only if the ethanol achieves a 60% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline. The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2% "substitute fuel" by July 2010, where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.  In early 2008 August, Governor Patrick signed two additional bills: the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act. The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state, backed by $68 million in funding over 5 years. The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10%-25% below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80% below 1990 levels by 2050.

text: Massachusetts

text: Governor

text: Deval Patrick

text: has recently signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote

text: advanced biofuel

text: s, support the growth of the clean energy technology industry, and cut the emissions of

text: greenhouse gas

text: es within the state.  The Clean Energy Biofuels Act, signed in late July, exempts

text: cellulosic ethanol

text: from the state's gasoline tax, but only if the ethanol achieves a 60% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline. The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2% "substitute fuel" by July 2010, where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.  In early 2008 August, Governor Patrick signed two additional bills: the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act. The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state, backed by $68 million in funding over 5 years. The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10%-25% below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80% below 1990 levels by 2050.

text: Many energy markets, institutions, and policies have been developed to support the production and use of fossil fuels. Newer and cleaner technologies may offer social and environmental benefits, but utility operators often reject renewable resources because they are trained to think only in terms of big, conventional power plants. Consumers often ignore renewable power systems because they are not given accurate price signals about electricity consumption. Intentional market distortions (such as subsidies), and unintentional market distortions (such as split incentives) may work against renewables. Benjamin K. Sovacool has argued that "some of the most surreptitious, yet powerful, impediments facing renewable energy and energy efficiency in the United States are more about culture and institutions than engineering and science".

text: Many energy markets, institutions, and policies have been developed to support the production and use of fossil fuels. Newer and cleaner technologies may offer social and environmental benefits, but utility operators often reject renewable resources because they are trained to think only in terms of big, conventional power plants. Consumers often ignore renewable power systems because they are not given accurate price signals about electricity consumption. Intentional market distortions (such as subsidies), and unintentional market distortions (such as split incentives) may work against renewables.

text: Benjamin K. Sovacool

text: has argued that "some of the most surreptitious, yet powerful, impediments facing renewable energy and energy efficiency in the United States are more about culture and institutions than engineering and science".

text: Over time, the volume of industrial biomass energy has increased in the industrial use. As the energy consumption has increased, the share of renewables has stayed constant. However, simultaneously the use of non-renewable energy has grown about 20%. In comparison, in Germany the non-RE source of electricity grew only 2% (1990–2005).

text: Over time, the volume of industrial biomass energy has increased in the industrial use. As the energy consumption has increased, the share of renewables has stayed constant. However, simultaneously the use of non-renewable energy has grown about 20%. In comparison, in

text: Germany

text: the non-RE source of electricity grew only 2% (1990–2005).

text: In the North American Deserts there are emerging natural resources within the ecosystem. A few natural resources within the desert consist of oil, sunlight, copper, zinc, and water. Some of these resources are renewable and some are non-renewable. Most of these resources are being exploited by humans and most actions are not sustainable.Sunlight is one of the deserts most important resource as it is renewable and has sustainable exploitations. Deserts within North America tend to have fields of solar panels, so they can reuse the sun as energy. Areas such as New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and the Great Basin area, put up fields for green energy. We monitored how the sun provides energy for resources such as plants and animals; we decided to make solar panels to produce energy for us. Water is also a resource found in the desert that can be reused and has sustainable exploitations.

text: Abu Dhabi, 17th January 2013. Over 160 countries today endorsed the growth of renewable energy in a balanced global energy portfolio and noted the leading role of the UAE and Middle East.  In the Declaration of the Abu Dhabi International Renewable Energy Conference (ADIREC), ministers called for a doubling of the world’s share of renewable energy by 2030 under the leadership of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), capping off three days of discussions among government delegations, business leaders, NGOs, and international organizations.  Held this year as part of Abu Dhabi Sustainability Week, the world’s largest annual sustainable energy event with over 30,000 participants, ADIREC is the fifth IREC, building upon successful outcomes in Delhi in 2010 (DIREC), Washington in 2008 (WIREC), Beijing in 2005, and Bonn in 2004.  ADIREC this year also complements the General Assembly of IRENA, the 159 member country organization headquartered in Abu Dhabi. Dr Sultan Al Jaber, the UAE’s Special Envoy for Energy and Climate Change and Managing Director and Chief Executive Officer of Masdar, commented: “ADIREC and Abu Dhabi Sustainability Week have brought together the world’s renewable energy leaders in Abu Dhabi, home of IRENA, to debate strategies for the rapid expansion of renewable energy globally. The events spotlight the huge transformation in both global and regional energy markets, with billions of dollars of new renewable energy projects in the Gulf alone.” The renewable energy market in the MENA region is rapidly expanding, with a diverse range of countries announcing projects and policies to harness the region’s abundance of renewable energy resources for economic growth and energy security enhancement.  With its strong demographic growth, urbanization and expanding economy, as well as high temperatures, the MENA region is experiencing marked growth in energy and electricity demand, which conference participants and IRENA estimate could be met by renewable energy on a cost-competitive basis. Supporting the discussions, REN21 launched the Renewables Global Futures Report, providing a mosaic of credible renewable energy futures, as well as the Executive Summary of the MENA Renewables Status Report, which highlights the new investment opportunities in the MENA region and the improving direction of underpinning policy frameworks. Mr. Mohamed El-Ashry, Chairman of REN21, said: “With the world’s energy dynamics becoming increasingly complex, there is a need for greater global integration and collaboration to address how the world will power its future generations. The future of renewable energy looks very different today than it did a decade ago. The recent unanimous declaration by the UN General Assembly designating 2014-2024 as the United Nations Decade of Sustainable Energy for All underscores the importance of energy to sustainable development and the need for increased use of renewable sources of energy, energy efficiency, and the sustainable use of traditional energy resources. The UAE has shown tremendous leadership in this area and will continue to do so. I would like to thank the UAE for the excellent collaboration with REN21 on ADIREC and beyond.” ADIREC is jointly organized by the UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Directorate of Energy and Climate Change; Masdar, Abu Dhabi’s multi-faceted clean energy company; and REN21, the -based renewable energy policy network.

text: The book was published in September 2000 as a hardcover, and Homer-Dixon shortly after began a 10-city tour across Canada with stops in Toronto, Ottawa, Kingston, Hamilton, London, Winnipeg, Calgary, Edmonton, Vancouver, and Victoria, amongst several other smaller venues. Promotional events were also held in the United States and England. It was published by Knopf in North America and by Jonathan Cape in the United Kingdom. An excerpt was published in the October issue of Report on Business Magazine. In the Canadian market, the book spent seven weeks on the Maclean's nonfiction best sellers' list, including three weeks at the #1 spot. It did not sell well in the United States. Homer-Dixon was awarded the 2001 Governor General's Award for English language non-fiction for the book. The trade paperback was released a year after the hardcover edition. It was translated into French and published in 2002 by Éditions du Boréal. A Spanish version was published by Espasa in 2003. Homer-Dixon went on to write a similar book, The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of Civilization, in which he elaborates upon the idea that societies are becoming less able to cope with problems, like global warming or population imbalances, as complexities compound each other and the readily available resources, like fossil fuels, are rapidly consumed.

text: The book was published in September 2000 as a hardcover, and Homer-Dixon shortly after began a 10-city tour across Canada with stops in Toronto, Ottawa, Kingston, Hamilton, London, Winnipeg, Calgary, Edmonton, Vancouver, and Victoria, amongst several other smaller venues. Promotional events were also held in the United States and England. It was published by

text: Knopf

text: in North America and by

text: Jonathan Cape

text: in the United Kingdom. An excerpt was published in the October issue of

text: Report on Business Magazine

text: . In the Canadian market, the book spent seven weeks on the

text: Maclean's

text: nonfiction best sellers' list, including three weeks at the #1 spot. It did not sell well in the United States. Homer-Dixon was awarded the 2001

entity_name: Governor General's Award for English-language non-fiction

text: Governor General's Award for English language non-fiction

text: for the book. The trade paperback was released a year after the hardcover edition. It was translated into French and published in 2002 by Éditions du Boréal. A Spanish version was published by Espasa in 2003. Homer-Dixon went on to write a similar book,

text: The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity, and the Renewal of Civilization

text: , in which he elaborates upon the idea that societies are becoming less able to cope with problems, like global warming or population imbalances, as complexities compound each other and the readily available resources, like fossil fuels, are rapidly consumed.

text: Apparently, total exergy cost of wind and natural-gas fired technologies are almost the same, but contrarily to the wind power plants, the non-renewable unit exergy costs of NG-fired power plants is practically equal to the total cost. It should be noted that this result is a consequence of the efficiency assumed for wind power plants. If energy storage is to be taken into account for intermittent technologies such as wind farms, the total exergy cost could be slightly increased. The upstream and downstream CO2 emissions in the coal route represent a very small part of the total CO2 emissions, if compared with the direct emissions of coal burning in the power plant. Finally, it is pointed out that controversies related to the flooding dams of vast zones with complex ecosystems should be carefully analysed since, according to the results reported by Dones et al., the GHG emissions could be increased up to achieve emission levels comparable to those of gas combined cycles power plants.

text: Through NETL’s basic and applied research and collaboration with industry, academia, non-government organizations, and others, the resulting technologies create commercially viable solutions to national energy and environmental problems. NETL’s fossil fuel research, development, and demonstration focus on efficient energy use and clean energy production from domestic fossil fuel resources.

text: Similar to many other countries, development of renewable electricity in Australia has been encouraged by government energy policy implemented in response to concerns about climate change, energy independence and economic stimulus. A key policy that has been in place since 2001 to encourage large-scale renewable energy development is a mandatory renewable energy target, which in 2010 was increased to 41,000 gigawatt-hours of renewable generation from power stations. This was subsequently reduced to 33,000 gigawatt-hours by the Abbott Government with the agreement of the Labor opposition. Alongside this there is the Small-Scale Renewable Energy Scheme, an uncapped scheme to support rooftop solar power and solar hot water and several State schemes providing feed-in tariffs to encourage photovoltaics. In 2012, these policies were supplemented by a carbon price and a 10 billion-dollar fund to finance renewable energy projects, although these initiatives were later withdrawn by the Federal Government.

text: Similar to many other countries, development of renewable electricity in Australia has been encouraged by

text: government energy policy

text: implemented in response to concerns about

text: climate change

text: energy independence

text: and economic stimulus. A key policy that has been in place since 2001 to encourage large-scale renewable energy development is a

text: mandatory renewable energy target

text: , which in 2010 was increased to 41,000 gigawatt-hours of renewable generation from power stations. This was subsequently reduced to 33,000 gigawatt-hours by the

text: Abbott Government

text: with the agreement of the Labor opposition. Alongside this there is the Small-Scale Renewable Energy Scheme, an uncapped scheme to support rooftop solar power and solar hot water and several State schemes providing

text: feed-in tariffs

text: to encourage

text: photovoltaics

text: . In 2012, these policies were supplemented by a

text: carbon price

text: and a 10 billion-dollar fund to finance renewable energy projects, although these initiatives were later withdrawn by the Federal Government.

text: Natural gas is typically produced in association with oil from wells.  Wells can also be drilled into geological formations that have mostly gas and very little oil.  In the infancy of the oil industry, any natural gas produced from oil wells was burned off. Later, states passed  conservation laws which required the gas to be captured and transported in pipelines for useful purposes.  In order to prevent any gaps in the natural gas regulation when natural gas flows in interstate commerce, Congress enacted the Natural Gas Act of 1938.  That law required that companies must obtain from the Federal Power Commission (FPC) a "certificate of public convenience and necessity" (certificate) before making any sale for resale natural gas in interstate commerce. The FPC set the maximum prices charged for gas sold under a certificate. For example, if gas flowed from a well in Texas through a pipeline to New York where it was sold to a gas distribution company, the sale by the pipeline to the distributor would need a certificate.  The final sale to retail customers were exempt from the law.  Although the Natural Gas Act regulated both the transportation and sale of gas in interstate commerce, the "production and gathering" of gas was exempt from federal regulation, although potentially subject to state control.  Production means bringing the gas out of the ground to a pipe at the top of the wellhead.  Gathering refers to the flow of gas through low pressure lines to the center of a gas field where the gas is treated and compressed to bring it up to the high pressures used in long-distance pipelines.

text: Natural gas is typically produced in association with oil from

text: well

text: s.  Wells can also be drilled into geological formations that have mostly gas and very little oil.  In the infancy of the oil industry, any natural gas produced from oil wells was burned off. Later, states passed  conservation laws which required the gas to be captured and transported in

text: pipelines

text: for useful purposes.  In order to prevent any gaps in the natural gas regulation when natural gas flows in interstate commerce, Congress enacted the

text: Natural Gas Act of 1938

text: .  That law required that companies must obtain from the

text: Federal Power Commission

text: (FPC) a "certificate of public convenience and necessity" (certificate) before making any sale for resale natural gas in interstate commerce. The FPC set the maximum prices charged for gas sold under a certificate. For example, if gas flowed from a well in Texas through a pipeline to New York where it was sold to a gas distribution company, the sale by the pipeline to the distributor would need a certificate.  The final sale to retail customers were exempt from the law.  Although the Natural Gas Act regulated both the transportation and sale of gas in interstate commerce, the "production and gathering" of gas was exempt from federal regulation, although potentially subject to state control.  Production means bringing the gas out of the ground to a pipe at the top of the wellhead.  Gathering refers to the flow of gas through low pressure lines to the center of a gas field where the gas is treated and compressed to bring it up to the high pressures used in long-distance pipelines.

text: Oiling predominates for roofing and flashing work. The most popular oils are Lemon Oil, U.S.P., Lemon Grass Oil, Native E.I., paraffin oils, linseed oil, and castor oil. On copper roofing or flashing, reapplication as infrequently as once every three years can effectively retard patina formation. In arid climates, the maximum span between oilings may be extended to from three to five years.

text: Oiling predominates for roofing and flashing work. The most popular oils are Lemon Oil, U.S.P., Lemon Grass Oil, Native E.I., paraffin oils,

text: linseed oil

text: , and

text: castor oil

text: . On copper roofing or flashing, reapplication as infrequently as once every three years can effectively retard patina formation. In arid climates, the maximum span between oilings may be extended to from three to five years.

text: In 2008, about 56% of Morocco's electricity supply was provided by coal. However, as forecasts indicate that energy requirements in Morocco will rise 6% per year between 2012 and 2050, a new law passed encouraging Moroccans to look for ways to diversify the energy supply, including more renewable resources. The Moroccan government has launched a project to build a solar thermal energy power plant and is also looking into the use of natural gas as a potential source of revenue for Morocco's government.

text: In 2008, about 56% of Morocco's electricity supply was provided by coal. However, as forecasts indicate that energy requirements in Morocco will rise 6% per year between 2012 and 2050, a new law passed encouraging Moroccans to look for ways to diversify the energy supply, including more

text: renewable resources

text: . The Moroccan government has launched a project to build a

text: solar thermal energy

text: power plant

text: and is also looking into the use of natural gas as a potential source of revenue for Morocco's government.

text: The obstacles to the widespread commercialization of renewable energy technologies are primarily political, not technical, and there have been many studies which have identified a range of  "non-technical barriers" to renewable energy use. These barriers are impediments which put renewable energy at a marketing, institutional, or policy disadvantage relative to other forms of energy.  Key barriers include:

text: Nowadays, the United Arab Emirates are mainly focused on the economic challenges of the diminishing volume of natural resources while also regulating the stability of imports and exports. That is the reason why UAE decided to ensure energy security with nuclear power as well as renewable energy, in particular solar energy.

text: Nowadays, the United Arab Emirates are mainly focused on the economic challenges of the diminishing volume of natural resources while also regulating the stability of imports and exports. That is the reason why UAE decided to ensure energy security with

text: nuclear power

text: as well as renewable energy, in particular solar energy.

text: While many of the costs of fossil fuels are well known, others (pollution related health problems, environmental degradation, the impact on national security from relying on foreign energy sources) are indirect and difficult to calculate. These are traditionally external to the pricing system, and are thus often referred to as externalities. A corrective pricing mechanism, such as a carbon tax, could lead to renewable energy, such as solar thermal power, becoming cheaper to the consumer than fossil fuel based energy.

text: While many of the costs of fossil fuels are well known, others (pollution related health problems, environmental degradation, the impact on

text: national security

text: from relying on foreign energy sources) are indirect and difficult to calculate. These are traditionally external to the pricing system, and are thus often referred to as

text: externalities

text: . A corrective pricing mechanism, such as a

text: carbon tax

text: , could lead to

text: renewable energy

text: , such as solar thermal power, becoming cheaper to the consumer than fossil fuel based energy.

text: The Coal Question; An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal Mines (1865) was a book by economist William Stanley Jevons that explored the implications of Britain's reliance on coal. Given that coal was a finite, non-renewable energy resource, Jevons raised the question of sustainability. "Are we wise," he asked rhetorically, "in allowing the commerce of this country to rise beyond the point at which we can long maintain it?" His central thesis was that the supremacy of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland over global affairs was transitory, given the finite nature of its primary energy resource. In propounding this thesis, Jevons covered a range of issues central to sustainability, including limits to growth, overpopulation, overshoot, energy return on energy input (EROEI), taxation of energy resources, renewable energy alternatives, and resource peakinga subject widely discussed today under the rubric of peak oil.

text: The Coal Question; An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal Mines (1865) was a book by

text: economist

text: William Stanley Jevons

text: that explored the implications of Britain's reliance on

text: coal

text: . Given that coal was a finite, non-renewable energy resource, Jevons raised the question of

text: sustainability

text: . "Are we

text: wise

text: ," he asked rhetorically, "in allowing the commerce of this country to rise beyond the point at which we can long maintain it?" His central thesis was that the supremacy of the

entity_name: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

text: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

text: over global affairs was transitory, given the finite nature of its primary energy resource. In propounding this thesis, Jevons covered a range of issues central to sustainability, including

text: limits to growth

text: overpopulation

text: , overshoot, energy return on energy input (

text: EROEI

text: ), taxation of energy resources,

text: renewable energy

text: alternatives, and resource peakinga subject widely discussed today under the rubric of

text: peak oil

text: AIWC was identified as a Nodal Agency by the Ministry of non conventional energy resources in 1989 to implement the Improved Chullah program and biogas development program. AIWC conducts programmes on renewable energy among woman at the grassroots level and demonstrates how use these technologies to achieve economic self-sufficiency.

text: Henry Kissinger appointed Tom to the role of Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs in 1973.  Tom’s job was to corral the allies into a common approach to the energy crisis and prevent bilateralism from gaining the upper hand. The US spearheaded the International Energy Program (IEP) Agreement, underpinned by the International Energy Agency(IEA), which still exists today, as a counterweight to OPEC. To make the US credible on the IEA, Congress adopted our first energy legislation in 1975 promoting conservation, renewable and alternative energy resources.

text: Henry Kissinger

text: appointed Tom to the role of

entity_name: Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs

text: Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs

text: in 1973.  Tom’s job was to corral the allies into a common approach to the energy crisis and prevent bilateralism from gaining the upper hand. The US spearheaded the International Energy Program (IEP) Agreement, underpinned by the

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA), which still exists today, as a counterweight to

text: OPEC

text: . To make the US credible on the IEA, Congress adopted our first energy legislation in 1975 promoting conservation, renewable and alternative energy resources.

text: Deploying Renewables 2011: Best and Future Policy Practice is a 2011 book by the International Energy Agency. The book analyses the recent successes in renewable energy, which now accounts for almost a fifth of all electricity produced worldwide, and addresses how countries can best capitalize on that growth to realise a sustainable energy future. The book says that renewable energy commercialization must be stepped up, especially given the world’s increasing appetite for energy and the need to meet this demand more efficiently and with low-carbon energy sources. Wind power and other renewable energy sources offer great potential to address issues of energy security and sustainability.

text: Deploying Renewables 2011: Best and Future Policy Practice is a 2011 book by the

text: International Energy Agency

text: . The book analyses the recent successes in

text: renewable energy

text: , which now accounts for almost a fifth of all

text: electricity produced worldwide

text: , and addresses how countries can best capitalize on that growth to realise a

text: sustainable energy

text: future. The book says that

text: renewable energy commercialization

text: must be stepped up, especially given the world’s increasing appetite for energy and the need to meet this demand more efficiently and with low-carbon energy sources.

text: Wind power

text: and other

text: renewable energy

text: sources offer great potential to address issues of

text: energy security

text: and

text: sustainability

text: To ensure the provision of adequate, secure and cost-effective energy supplies through developing indigenous energy resources both non-renewable and renewable energy resources using the latest cost options and diversification of supply sources both from within and outside the country.

text: To ensure the provision of adequate, secure and cost-effective energy supplies through developing indigenous

text: energy resource

text: s both

text: non-renewable

text: and

text: renewable energy resources

text: using the latest cost options and diversification of supply sources both from within and outside the country.

text: Renewable energy is energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. As of 2013, 19% of global final energy consumption comes from renewable resources, with 9% of all energy from traditional biomass, mainly used for heating, 4% from hydroelectricity 1% from biofuels and 4% from biomass, geothermal or solar heat . Popular renewables (wind, solar, geothermal and biomass for power) accounted for another 1.3% and are growing rapidly.

text: Renewable energy is

text: energy

text: that comes from resources which are naturally replenished such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: . As of 2013, 19% of global final energy consumption comes from

text: renewable resource

text: s, with 9% of all energy from traditional

text: biomass

text: , mainly used for

text: heating

text: , 4% from

text: hydroelectricity

text: 1% from biofuels and 4% from biomass, geothermal or solar heat . Popular renewables (wind, solar, geothermal and biomass for power) accounted for another 1.3% and are growing rapidly.

text: Use of the term "embodied energy" for this concept was modified in 1986 when David Scienceman, a visiting scholar at the University of Florida from Australia, suggested the term “emergy” and "emjoule" or "emcalorie" as the unit of measure to distinguish emergy units from units of available energy. The term transformation ratio was shortened to transformity in about the same time. It is important to note that throughout this twenty years the baseline or the basis for evaluating forms of energy and resources shifted from organic matter, to fossil fuels and finally to solar energy.

text: Use of the term "embodied energy" for this concept was modified in 1986 when

text: David Scienceman

text: , a visiting scholar at the University of Florida from Australia, suggested the term “emergy” and "emjoule" or "emcalorie" as the unit of measure to distinguish emergy units from units of available energy. The term transformation ratio was shortened to

text: transformity

text: in about the same time. It is important to note that throughout this twenty years the baseline or the basis for evaluating forms of energy and resources shifted from organic matter, to fossil fuels and finally to solar energy.

text: The EI's extensive resource of information, statistics and reference material relating to all sectors of the energy industry is available online at knowledge.energyinst.org, including a new member service – the Energy Matrix. This online tool, which contains over 80,000 records and is continually updated, enables members to search across the EI’s entire database and archive, or browse by theme.  The Matrix houses published academic resources, news and abstracts, EI training and events, periodicals, data sheets, and more.  Data sheets on 80 topics are also available via email subscription on topics including renewable energy, electricity, coal, nuclear, and oil and gas.

text: Nevertheless, the United States and Turkey share membership in NATO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the G-20, and continue to cooperate in important projects, such as the Joint Strike Fighter program. The United States also actively supports Turkey's membership bid to join the European Union, lobbying frequently on behalf of Ankara through its diplomatic missions in EU capital cities. In June 2008, The United States and Turkey began to cooperate on peaceful uses of nuclear energy with a pact that aims for the transfer of technology, material, reactors and components for nuclear research and nuclear power production in Turkey for an initial 15-year period followed by automatic renewals in five-year increments that provides a comprehensive framework for peaceful nuclear cooperation between the two nations under the agreed non-proliferation conditions and controls. A parallel U.S. bipartisan resolution has recently highlighted the importance for Turkish Republic's key role in providing her western (EU and US) and regional allies Eurasian energy security.

text: Nevertheless, the United States and Turkey share membership in

text: NATO

text: , the

entity_name: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: (OECD), the

entity_name: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

text: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

text: (OSCE) and the

text: , and continue to cooperate in important projects, such as the

text: Joint Strike Fighter

text: program. The United States also actively supports Turkey's membership bid to join the

text: European Union

text: , lobbying frequently on behalf of Ankara through its diplomatic missions in EU capital cities. In June 2008, The United States and Turkey began to cooperate on peaceful uses of nuclear energy with a pact that aims for the transfer of technology, material, reactors and components for nuclear research and nuclear power production in Turkey for an initial 15-year period followed by automatic renewals in five-year increments that provides a comprehensive framework for peaceful nuclear cooperation between the two nations under the agreed non-proliferation conditions and controls. A parallel U.S. bipartisan resolution has recently highlighted the importance for Turkish Republic's key role in providing her western (EU and US) and regional allies Eurasian energy security.

text: Worldwide demand and competition for resources has risen due to growing populations and industrialization, especially in India, China and Brazil (see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita). This increased demand is causing increased levels of environmental degradation and a growing threat of global warming. That in turn has spurred the development of alternate, renewable sources of energy (notably solar energy and wind energy), proposals for cleaner fossil fuel technologies and expanded use of nuclear energy (somewhat dampened by nuclear-plant accidents), and, conversely, calls to eschew the indiscriminate large-scale employment of the "fissile-fossil complex" of fissile- (nuclear) and fossil-fuel (coal, petroleum, natural-gas) energy generation.

text: Worldwide

text: demand

text: and

text: competition

text: for

text: resources

text: has risen due to growing populations and industrialization, especially in India, China and

text: Brazil

text: (see

entity_name: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita

text: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita

text: ). This increased demand is causing increased levels of environmental degradation and a growing threat of

text: global warming

text: . That in turn has spurred the development of alternate,

text: renewable

text: sources of

text: energy

text: (notably

text: solar energy

text: and

text: wind energy

text: ), proposals for cleaner

text: fossil fuel

text: technologies and expanded use of

text: nuclear energy

text: (somewhat dampened by

entity_name: Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents

text: nuclear-plant accidents

text: ), and, conversely, calls to eschew the indiscriminate large-scale employment of the "fissile-fossil complex" of fissile- (nuclear) and fossil-fuel (coal, petroleum, natural-gas) energy generation.

text: While the Midwest has intensive manufacturing and agriculture sectors, making it the most coal-dependent region in North America, it also has significant renewable energy resources and is particularly vulnerable to the climate change caused by burning coal and other fossil fuels.

text: Fossil fuel divestment aims to reduce carbon emissions by accelerating the adoption of renewable energy through the stigmatisation of fossil fuel companies. This includes putting public pressure on companies that are currently involved in fossil fuel extraction to invest in renewable energy.

text: Renewable energy refers to the provision of energy via renewable resources which are naturally replenished fast enough as being used. It includes  e.g. sunlight, wind, biomass, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy may replace or enhance fossil energy supply various distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Renewable energy

text: refers to the provision of energy via renewable resources which are naturally replenished fast enough as being used. It includes  e.g.

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: biomass

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: and

text: geothermal heat

text: . Renewable energy may replace or enhance fossil energy supply various distinct areas:

text: electricity generation

text: hot water

text: space heating

text: motor fuel

text: s, and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: Fossil fuel phase out is the proposed energy transition beyond fossil fuels through multiple means, including transport electrification, fossil fuel divestment, decommissioning of operating fossil fuel-fired power plants and prevention of the construction of new fossil fuel-fired power stations. Its purpose is to reduce air pollution, mining tragedies, and greenhouse gas emissions which cause climate change. A move to the many forms of renewable energy or nuclear energy is involved in shifting away from fossil fuels.

text: Fossil fuel phase out is the proposed

text: energy transition

text: beyond

text: fossil fuels

text: through multiple means, including

text: transport electrification

text: fossil fuel divestment

text: , decommissioning of operating

text: fossil fuel-fired power plants

text: and prevention of the construction of new fossil fuel-fired power stations. Its purpose is to reduce

text: air pollution

text: mining tragedies

text: , and

text: greenhouse gas emissions

text: which cause

text: climate change

text: . A move to the many forms of

text: renewable energy

text: or nuclear energy is involved in shifting away from fossil fuels.

text: 1. Energy industries (renewable - / non-renewable sources)2. Energy distribution3. Energy demand4. Manufacturing industries5. Chemical industry8. Mining/Mineral production13. Waste handling and disposal14. Afforestation and reforestation15. Agriculture

text: There are also several physico-chemical methods for producing hydrogen; most of these methods require electrolysis of water. When this process draws its power from renewable energy sources like wind turbines or photovoltaic cells, the production requires little consumption of non-renewable resources. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a renewable fuel.

text: There are also several physico-chemical methods for producing hydrogen; most of these methods require electrolysis of water. When this process draws its power from renewable energy sources like

text: wind turbines

text: or

text: photovoltaic cells

text: , the production requires little consumption of non-renewable resources. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a renewable fuel.

text: In 2008, Wired News reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long.  In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions."  The Economist magazine, in 2008, quoted Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, as saying: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'". The magazine noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars.  On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."  The Los Angeles Times wrote in 2009, "Any way you look at it, hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars." The Washington Post asked in November 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries...?"

text: In 2008,

text: Wired News

text: reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long.  In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions."

text: The Economist

text: magazine, in 2008, quoted

text: Robert Zubrin

text: , the author of

text: Energy Victory

text: , as saying: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'". The magazine noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars.  On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."  The Los Angeles Times wrote in 2009, "Any way you look at it, hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars."

text: The Washington Post

text: asked in November 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries...?"

text: Rather than highlighting the problems with use of fossil fuels, Carbon Nation presents a series of ways in which the 16 terawatts of energy the world consumes can be met while reducing or eliminating carbon-based sources.  It contains optimistic interviews with experts in various fields, business CEOs, and sustainable energy supporters to present a compelling case for change while having a neutral, matter-of-fact explanation.

text: Rather than highlighting the problems with use of fossil fuels, Carbon Nation presents a series of ways in which the

text: 16 terawatts of energy

text: the world consumes can be met while reducing or eliminating carbon-based sources.  It contains optimistic interviews with experts in various fields, business CEOs, and

text: sustainable energy

text: supporters to present a compelling case for change while having a neutral, matter-of-fact explanation.

text: To promote exploration and sound management of the petroleum and natural gas resources as also non-conventional hydrocarbon energy resources having balanced regard for the environment, safety, technological and economic aspects.

text: The Government of Alberta owns about 80% of the province's mineral rights, such as oil, natural gas, coal, and the oil sands. In other words, most resources are owned by the people of Alberta through their government. While private companies can develop these resources, the ERCB was authorized by the government to protect the public's interest relating to the discovery, development, and delivery of these resources. Regulation was needed so that non-renewable resources were produced in a safe, responsible, and efficient manner, without waste.

text: The

text: Government of Alberta

text: owns about 80% of the province's

text: mineral rights

text: , such as

text: oil

text: natural gas

text: coal

text: , and the

text: oil sands

text: . In other words, most resources are owned by the people of Alberta through their government. While private companies can develop these resources, the ERCB was authorized by the government to protect the public's interest relating to the discovery, development, and delivery of these resources. Regulation was needed so that

text: non-renewable resources

text: were produced in a safe, responsible, and efficient manner, without waste.

text: The Energy Construct is a 2007 non-fiction book by author Ben Cipiti that examines the challenge of achieving a clean, independent, and economical energy future for the United States. The book examines alternative transportation fuels, renewable energy, nuclear energy, and clean fossil energy to develop a path forward.

text: The Energy Construct is a 2007

text: non-fiction

text: book by author Ben Cipiti that examines the challenge of achieving a clean, independent, and economical energy future for the United States. The book examines alternative transportation fuels,

text: renewable energy

text: nuclear energy

text: , and clean

text: fossil energy

text: to develop a path forward.

text: Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE (possibly even 1000 BCE). They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt, in the Ziliujing District of Sichuan. The world's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at Fredonia, New York, United States in 1825. By 2009, 66 000 km³ (or 8%) had been used out of the total 850 000 km³ of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas. Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km³ of gas per year, the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years.

text: Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE (possibly even 1000 BCE). They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to

text: extract the salt

text: , in the

text: Ziliujing District

text: of

text: Sichuan

text: . The world's first industrial extraction of natural gas started at

text: Fredonia, New York

text: United States

text: in 1825. By 2009, 66 000 km³ (or 8%) had been used out of the total 850 000 km³ of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas. Based on an estimated 2015 world consumption rate of about 3400 km³ of gas per year, the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas would last 250 years at current consumption rates. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years.

text: Natural gas  is a fossil fuel formed when layers of buried plants, gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in natural gas. Natural gas is a nonrenewable resource because it cannot be replenished on a human time frame. Natural gas is a hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, but commonly includes varying amounts of other higher alkanes and even a lesser percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide.  Natural gas is an energy source often used for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals.

text: Natural gas  is a

text: fossil fuel

text: formed when layers of buried plants, gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in natural gas. Natural gas is a nonrenewable resource because it cannot be replenished on a human time frame. Natural gas is a

text: hydrocarbon

text: gas

text: mixture consisting primarily of

text: methane

text: , but commonly includes varying amounts of other higher

text: alkanes

text: and even a lesser percentage of

text: carbon dioxide

text: nitrogen

text: , and

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: .  Natural gas is an energy source often used for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of

text: plastics

text: and other commercially important

text: organic chemicals

text: The Ministry of Power became a ministry on July 2, 1992. Prior to that time it had been a department (the Department of Power) in the Ministry of Power, Coal and Non-Conventional Energy Sources. That ministry was split into the Ministry of Power, Ministry of Coal, and Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (renamed the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy in 2006).

text: The Ministry of Power became a ministry on July 2, 1992. Prior to that time it had been a department (the Department of Power) in the Ministry of Power, Coal and Non-Conventional Energy Sources. That ministry was split into the Ministry of Power,

text: Ministry of Coal

text: , and Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (renamed the

text: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

text: in 2006).

text: The current use of fossil fuels enhances any of these three conditions. First, fossil fuel combustion generates water vapor. Additionally, this combustion also generates the formation of small solid particles that can act as condensation nuclei. Finally, all the combustion processes emit energy that enhance vertical upward movements.

text: There is a wide range of published energy-related studies which conclude that energy efficiency programs and renewable power technologies are a better energy option than nuclear power plants. This diverse range of studies come from many different sources, across the political spectrum, and from various academic disciplines, which suggests that there is a consensus among many independent, non-partisan energy experts that nuclear power plants are a poor way to produce electrical power.

text: There is a wide range of published energy-related studies which conclude that

text: energy efficiency programs

text: and

text: renewable power technologies

text: are a better energy option than nuclear power plants. This diverse range of studies come from many different sources, across the political spectrum, and from various academic disciplines, which suggests that there is a consensus among many independent, non-partisan energy experts that nuclear power plants are a poor way to produce electrical power.

text: Renewable natural gas is defined as gas obtained from biomass which is upgraded to a quality similar to natural gas. By upgrading the quality to that of natural gas, it becomes possible to distribute the gas to customers via the existing gas grid. According to the Energy research Centre of the Netherlands, renewable natural gas is 'cheaper than alternatives where biomass is used in a combined heat and power plant or local combustion plant'. Energy unit costs are lowered through 'favourable scale and operating hours', and end-user capital costs eliminated through distribution via the existing gas grid.

text: Renewable natural gas

text: is defined as gas obtained from

text: biomass

text: which is upgraded to a quality similar to

text: natural gas

text: . By upgrading the quality to that of natural gas, it becomes possible to distribute the gas to customers via the existing gas grid. According to the Energy research Centre of the Netherlands, renewable natural gas is 'cheaper than alternatives where biomass is used in a combined heat and power plant or local combustion plant'. Energy unit costs are lowered through 'favourable scale and operating hours', and end-user capital costs eliminated through distribution via the existing gas grid.

text: Coal and oil began to be burned in large quantities during the 19th century. Both are sufficiently old that they contain little detectable  and, as a result, the  released substantially diluted the atmospheric / ratio. Dating an object from the early 20th century hence gives an apparent date older than the true date.  For the same reason,  concentrations in the neighbourhood of large cities are lower than the atmospheric average. This fossil fuel effect (also known as the Suess effect, after Hans Suess, who first reported it in 1955) would only amount to a reduction of 0.2% in  activity if the additional carbon from fossil fuels were distributed throughout the carbon exchange reservoir, but because of the long delay in mixing with the deep ocean, the actual effect is a 3% reduction.

text: But shifting the focus of sustainable development from conservation to development has had the imperceptible effect of stretching the original forest management term of sustainable yield from the use of renewable resources only (like forestry), to now also accounting for the use of non-renewable resources (like minerals). This stretching of the term has been questioned. Thus, environmental economist Kerry Turner has argued that literally, there can be no such thing as overall 'sustainable development' in an industrialised world economy that remains heavily dependent on the extraction of Earth's finite stock of exhaustible mineral resources:

text: But shifting the focus of sustainable development from conservation to development has had the imperceptible effect of stretching the original forest management term of

text: sustainable yield

text: from the use of renewable resources only (like forestry), to now also accounting for the use of non-renewable resources (like

text: minerals

text: ). This stretching of the term has been questioned. Thus, environmental economist Kerry Turner has argued that literally, there can be no such thing as overall 'sustainable development' in an industrialised

text: world economy

text: that remains heavily dependent on the extraction of Earth's finite stock of exhaustible mineral resources:

text: During Pence's term in office, the Republican-controlled Indiana General Assembly "repeatedly tried to roll back renewable energy standards and successfully ended Indiana's energy efficiency efforts." Pence has been an outspoken supporter of the coal industry, declaring in his 2015 State of the State address that "Indiana is a pro-coal state," expressing support for an  "all-of-the-above energy strategy," and stating: "we must continue to oppose the overreaching schemes of the EPA until we bring their war on coal to end." In 2015, Pence sent a letter to President Obama denouncing the EPA's Clean Power Plan (which would regulate carbon emissions from existing power plans) and stating that Indiana would refuse to comply with the plan. Indiana joined other states in a lawsuit seeking to invalidate the plan. In 2016, Pence stated that even if legal challenges failed, Indiana would continue to defy the rule and would not come up with its own plan to reduce emissions.

text: During Pence's term in office, the Republican-controlled

text: Indiana General Assembly

text: "repeatedly tried to roll back renewable energy standards and successfully ended Indiana's energy efficiency efforts." Pence has been an outspoken supporter of the

text: coal industry

text: , declaring in his 2015

text: State of the State address

text: that "Indiana is a pro-coal state," expressing support for an  "all-of-the-above energy strategy," and stating: "we must continue to oppose the overreaching schemes of the EPA until we bring their war on coal to end." In 2015, Pence sent a letter to President Obama denouncing the EPA's

text: Clean Power Plan

text: (which would regulate carbon emissions from existing power plans) and stating that Indiana would refuse to comply with the plan. Indiana joined other states in a lawsuit seeking to invalidate the plan. In 2016, Pence stated that even if legal challenges failed, Indiana would continue to defy the rule and would not come up with its own plan to reduce emissions.

text: In the autumn of 2008, Anders Eldrup stated that DONG Energy is to develop from being a company, where most of the electricity and power is produced from fossil fuels to a company where renewable energy dominates. Eldrup calls this the 85/15 vision because today, about 85 percent of DONG Energy's heat and power production comes from fossil fuels whereas 15 percent comes from renewable energy. Eldrup has declared that by 2040 DONG Energy will have changed the fraction, so that 85 percent come from renewable energy and by 2020, half of DONG Energy’s heat and power production will come from renewable energy.

text: The characteristic of a particular gasoline blend to resist igniting too early (which causes knocking and reduces efficiency in reciprocating engines) is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating. Tetraethyllead and other lead compounds are no longer used in most areas to regulate and increase octane-rating, but many other additives are put into gasoline to improve its chemical stability, control corrosiveness and provide fuel system 'cleaning,' and determine performance characteristics under intended use. Sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons.

text: The characteristic of a particular gasoline blend to resist igniting too early (which causes knocking and reduces efficiency in reciprocating engines) is measured by its

text: octane rating

text: . Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating.

text: Tetraethyllead

text: and other lead compounds are no longer used in most areas to regulate and increase octane-rating, but many other additives are put into gasoline to improve its chemical stability, control corrosiveness and provide fuel system 'cleaning,' and determine performance characteristics under intended use. Sometimes, gasoline also contains

text: ethanol

text: as an

text: alternative fuel

text: , for economic or environmental reasons.

text: O'Connor cites nuclear power as an example, which he sees as a form of producing energy that is advertised as an alternative to carbon-intensive, non-renewable fossil fuels, but creates long-term radioactive waste and other dangers to health and security. While O'Connor believes that capitalism is capable of spreading out its economic supports so widely that it can afford to destroy one ecosystem before moving onto another, he and many other eco-socialists now fear that, with the onset of globalization, the system is running out of new ecosystems. Kovel adds that capitalist firms have to continue to extract profit through a combination of intensive or extensive exploitation and selling to new markets, meaning that capitalism must grow indefinitely to exist, which he thinks is impossible on a planet of finite resources.

text: O'Connor cites

text: nuclear power

text: as an example, which he sees as a form of producing energy that is advertised as an alternative to carbon-intensive, non-renewable

text: fossil fuels

text: , but creates long-term

text: radioactive waste

text: and other dangers to health and security. While O'Connor believes that capitalism is capable of spreading out its economic supports so widely that it can afford to destroy one

text: ecosystem

text: before moving onto another, he and many other eco-socialists now fear that, with the onset of globalization, the system is running out of new

text: ecosystem

text: s. Kovel adds that capitalist firms have to continue to extract profit through a combination of intensive or extensive exploitation and selling to new markets, meaning that capitalism must

text: grow

text: indefinitely to exist, which he thinks is impossible on a planet of finite resources.

text: After the war, the North Sea lost much of its military significance because it is bordered only by NATO member-states.  However, it gained significant economic importance in the 1960s as the states on the North Sea coasts began full-scale exploitation of its oil and gas resources.  The North Sea continues to be an active trade route. The countries bordering the North Sea all claim the  of territorial waters within which they have exclusive fishing rights. Today, the North Sea is more important as a fishery and source of fossil fuel and renewable energy, since territorial expansion of the adjoining countries has ceased.

text: After the war, the North Sea lost much of its military significance because it is bordered only by

text: NATO

text: member-states.  However, it gained significant economic importance in the 1960s as the states on the North Sea coasts began full-scale exploitation of its

text: oil and gas resources

text: .  The North Sea continues to be an active trade route. The countries bordering the North Sea all claim the  of

text: territorial waters

text: within which they have exclusive fishing rights. Today, the North Sea is more important as a fishery and source of fossil fuel and renewable energy, since territorial expansion of the adjoining countries has ceased.

text: The Coal Measures is a lithostratigraphical term for the coal-bearing part of the Upper Carboniferous System. The Coal Measures Group consists of the Upper Coal Measures Formation, the Middle Coal Measures Formation and the Lower Coal Measures Formation. The group records the deposition of fluvio-deltaic sediments which consists mainly of clastic rocks (claystones, shales, siltstones, sandstones, conglomerates) interstratified with the beds of coal. In most places, the Coal Measures are underlain by coarser clastic sequences known as Millstone Grit, of Namurian age. The top of the Coal Measures may be marked by an unconformity, the overlying rocks being Permian or later in age. In some parts of Britain, however, the Coal Measures grade up into mainly coal-barren red beds of late Westphalian and possibly Stephanian age. Within the Pennine Basin these barren measures are now referred to as the Warwickshire Group, from the district where they achieve their thickest development.

text: The Coal Measures is a

text: lithostratigraphical

text: term for the coal-bearing part of the Upper

text: Carboniferous

text: System. The

text: Coal Measures Group

text: consists of the Upper Coal Measures Formation, the Middle Coal Measures Formation and the Lower Coal Measures Formation. The group records the deposition of fluvio-deltaic sediments which consists mainly of

text: clastic rock

text: s (

text: claystone

text: s,

text: shale

text: s,

text: siltstone

text: s,

text: sandstone

text: s,

text: conglomerates

text: ) interstratified with the beds of

text: coal

text: . In most places, the Coal Measures are underlain by coarser clastic sequences known as

text: Millstone Grit

text: , of

text: Namurian

text: age. The top of the Coal Measures may be marked by an

text: unconformity

text: , the overlying rocks being

text: Permian

text: or later in age. In some parts of Britain, however, the Coal Measures grade up into mainly coal-barren

text: red beds

text: of late

text: Westphalian

text: and possibly

text: Stephanian

text: age. Within the

text: Pennine Basin

text: these barren measures are now referred to as the

text: Warwickshire Group

text: , from the district where they achieve their thickest development.

text: The resource consent process has favoured non-renewable energy projects.  This century, thermal projects have received consents (Rodney, Stratford) while several renewable energy projects have had consent applications declined (Awhitu, Mokau hydro, Mount Cass, Project Hayes, Te Waka, Waitahora).

text: The

text: resource consent

text: process has favoured non-renewable energy projects.  This century, thermal projects have received consents (

text: Rodney

text: Stratford

text: ) while several renewable energy projects have had consent applications declined (

text: Awhitu

text: Mokau hydro

text: Mount Cass

text: Project Hayes

text: Te Waka

text: Waitahora

text: Sierra Suntower has been certified by the California Energy Commission as a renewable energy facility. Power from the facility is sold under a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with SCE, providing  renewable energy for up to 4,000 homes.

text: Sierra Suntower has been certified by the

text: California Energy Commission

text: as a renewable energy facility. Power from the facility is sold under a

text: Power Purchase Agreement

text: (PPA) with SCE, providing  renewable energy for up to 4,000 homes.

text: Renewable energy and energy efficiency are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that sustainable energy has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable resources decline. This is reinforced by climate change concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste, high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government support for renewable energy. These factors are commercializing renewable energy, enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.

text: Renewable energy and

text: energy efficiency

text: are no longer niche

text: sector

text: s that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that sustainable energy has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable resources decline. This is reinforced by

text: climate change

text: concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste,

text: high oil prices

text: peak oil

text: and increasing government support for renewable energy. These factors are

text: commercializing renewable energy

text: , enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.

text: UK Coal is the United Kingdom’s largest coal mining company, producing approximately 8.7 million tonnes of coal annually from deep mines and surface mines, and possesses estimated reserves in excess of 200 million tonnes of coal. The firm is the successor of British Coal, which was privatised in 1997. Total proved coal reserves in the United Kingdom are estimated at 220 million tonnes, although possible reserves could exceed 1 billion tonnes. UK coal production peaked in 1913 at 287 million tonnes, and has been falling ever since, chiefly due to cleaner energy generation and the loss of heavy industry.

text: UK Coal

text: is the United Kingdom’s largest coal mining company, producing approximately 8.7 million tonnes of coal annually from deep mines and surface mines, and possesses estimated reserves in excess of 200 million tonnes of coal. The firm is the successor of

text: British Coal

text: , which was privatised in 1997. Total proved coal reserves in the United Kingdom are estimated at 220 million tonnes, although possible reserves could exceed 1 billion tonnes. UK coal production peaked in 1913 at 287 million tonnes, and has been falling ever since, chiefly due to cleaner energy generation and the loss of heavy industry.

text: SATIIM has protested the expansion of seismic tests for oil and other resources by US Capital Energy in Sarstoon-Temash National Park since 2009. SATIIM criticized the Forest Ministry for stonewalling the organization in negotiating a renewal of US Capital Energy's contract to conduct seismic tests in the park. In an interview with Channel 5 Belize, SATIIM's director Gregory Ch'oc alleged that US Capital Energy's seismic tests had led to the start of a forest fire inside of the park, and have criticized US Capital for allowing illegal loggers to enter into the park's territory. In response to a letter writing campaign against the seismic tests that SATIIM spearheaded, Prime Minister Dean Barrow noted, "Clearly this is an organized effort on the part of SATIIM and more power to them but I can tell them that that effort will have absolutely no impact on the government."

text: SATIIM has protested the expansion of seismic tests for oil and other resources by

text: US Capital Energy

text: in Sarstoon-Temash National Park since 2009. SATIIM criticized the Forest Ministry for stonewalling the organization in negotiating a renewal of US Capital Energy's contract to conduct seismic tests in the park. In an interview with Channel 5 Belize, SATIIM's director Gregory Ch'oc alleged that US Capital Energy's seismic tests had led to the start of a forest fire inside of the park, and have criticized US Capital for allowing illegal loggers to enter into the park's territory. In response to a letter writing campaign against the seismic tests that SATIIM spearheaded, Prime Minister

text: Dean Barrow

text: noted, "Clearly this is an organized effort on the part of SATIIM and more power to them but I can tell them that that effort will have absolutely no impact on the government."

text: Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as coconut oil, palm oil and palm kernel oil are solid.

text: Cooking oil is typically a liquid at room temperature, although some oils that contain saturated fat, such as

text: coconut oil

text: palm oil

text: and

text: palm kernel oil

text: are solid.

text: Resource consumption is about the consumption of non-renewable, or less often, renewable resources. Specifically, it may refer to:

text: Resource consumption is about the

text: consumption

text: of

text: non-renewable

text: , or less often,

text: renewable resource

text: s. Specifically, it may refer to:

text: In a worst-case scenario where incremental electricity demand would be met exclusively with coal, a 2009 study conducted by the World Wide Fund for Nature and IZES found that a mid-size EV would emit roughly , compared with an average of  for a gasoline-powered compact car. This study concluded that introducing 1 million EV cars to Germany would, in the best-case scenario, only reduce  emissions by 0.1%, if nothing is done to upgrade the electricity infrastructure or manage demand. A more reasonable estimate, relaxing the coal assumption, was provided by Massiani and Weinmann taking into account that the source of energy used for electricity generation would be determined based on the temporal pattern of the additional electricity demand (in other words an increase in electricity consumption at peak hour will activate the marginal technology, while an off peak increase would typically activate other technologies). Their conclusion is that natural gas will provide most of the energy used to reload EV, while renewable energy will not represent more than a few percent of the energy used.

text: In a worst-case scenario where incremental electricity demand would be met exclusively with coal, a 2009 study conducted by the

text: World Wide Fund for Nature

text: and IZES found that a mid-size EV would emit roughly , compared with an average of  for a gasoline-powered compact car. This study concluded that introducing 1 million EV cars to Germany would, in the best-case scenario, only reduce  emissions by 0.1%, if nothing is done to upgrade the electricity infrastructure or manage demand. A more reasonable estimate, relaxing the coal assumption, was provided by Massiani and Weinmann taking into account that the source of energy used for electricity generation would be determined based on the temporal pattern of the additional electricity demand (in other words an increase in electricity consumption at peak hour will activate the marginal technology, while an off peak increase would typically activate other technologies). Their conclusion is that natural gas will provide most of the energy used to reload EV, while renewable energy will not represent more than a few percent of the energy used.

text: Hersh is currently a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and the World Economic Forum, and is also on the boards of the National Association for Urban Debate Leagues (NAUDL) and the George W. Bush Foundation. On May 31, 2016, he was appointed CEO and president of the George W. Bush Presidential Center. Hersh has been on the board of directors for numerous private and public companies, including Energy Transfer Equity, Energy Transfer Partners, and Pioneer Natural Resources Company. He currently serves as chairman of the Hersh Foundation, a non-profit organization with aims to "secure long-term financial commitments to non-profits in [the North Texas] community." In 2010 Hersh founded the Global Adaptation Institute, a non-profit which aims to show "which countries are best prepared" to handle climate change through its Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index (ND-GAIN). Among other accolades, in June 2014 Ernst & Young named Hersh their Master Entrepreneur of the Year for the Southwest Region of the United States. Hersh regularly presents at conferences on private equity, energy, and corporate finance, and has been featured on media outlets such as CNBC as an expert on natural gas and energy investment.

text: Hersh is currently a member of the

text: Council on Foreign Relations

text: and the

text: World Economic Forum

text: , and is also on the boards of the

entity_name: National Association for Urban Debate Leagues

text: National Association for Urban Debate Leagues

text: (NAUDL) and the

text: George W. Bush Foundation

text: . On May 31, 2016, he was appointed CEO and president of the

text: George W. Bush Presidential Center

text: . Hersh has been on the

text: board of directors

text: for numerous private and public companies, including

text: Energy Transfer Equity

text: Energy Transfer Partners

text: , and

text: Pioneer Natural Resources Company

text: . He currently serves as chairman of the Hersh Foundation, a non-profit organization with aims to "secure long-term financial commitments to non-profits in [the North Texas] community." In 2010 Hersh founded the Global Adaptation Institute, a non-profit which aims to show "which countries are best prepared" to handle

text: climate change

text: through its Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index (ND-GAIN). Among other accolades, in June 2014

text: Ernst & Young

text: named Hersh their Master Entrepreneur of the Year for the Southwest Region of the United States. Hersh regularly presents at conferences on

text: private equity

text: , energy, and

text: corporate finance

text: , and has been featured on media outlets such as

text: CNBC

text: as an expert on natural gas and energy investment.

text: The world's dependence on the declining reserves of fossil fuels poses not only environmental problems but also geopolitical ones. Solar fuels, in particular hydrogen, are viewed as an alternative source of energy for replacing fossil fuels especially where storage is essential. Electricity can be produced directly from sunlight through photovoltaics, but this form of energy is rather inefficient to store compared to hydrogen. A solar fuel can be produced when and where sunlight is available, and stored and transported for later usage.

text: The world's dependence on the declining reserves of fossil fuels poses not only

text: environmental problems

text: but also

text: geopolitical

text: ones. Solar fuels, in particular hydrogen, are viewed as an alternative source of energy for replacing fossil fuels especially where storage is essential.

text: Electricity

text: can be produced directly from sunlight through

text: photovoltaics

text: , but this form of energy is rather inefficient to store compared to hydrogen. A solar fuel can be produced when and where sunlight is available, and stored and transported for later usage.

text: Molecular hydrogen is not available on Earth in convenient natural reservoirs. Most hydrogen in the lithosphere is bonded to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen does require the consumption of a hydrogen carrier such as a fossil fuel or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil resource and produces carbon dioxide, but often requires no further energy input beyond the fossil fuel.  Decomposing water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some primary energy source (fossil fuel, nuclear power or a renewable energy). Hydrogen can also be produced by refining the effluent from geothermal sources in the lithosphere. Hydrogen produced by zero emission renewable energy sources such as electrolysis of water using wind power, solar power, hydro power, wave power or tidal power is referred to as green hydrogen. Hydrogen produced by non-renewable energy sources may be referred to as brown hydrogen. Hydrogen produced as a waste by-product or industrial by-product is sometimes referred to as grey hydrogen.

text: Molecular hydrogen is not available on Earth in convenient natural reservoirs. Most hydrogen in the

text: lithosphere

text: is bonded to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen does require the consumption of a hydrogen carrier such as a

text: fossil fuel

text: or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil resource and produces carbon dioxide, but often requires no further energy input beyond the fossil fuel.

text: Decomposing

text: water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some primary energy source (

text: fossil fuel

text: nuclear power

text: or a

text: renewable energy

text: ). Hydrogen can also be produced by refining the effluent from geothermal sources in the

text: lithosphere

text: . Hydrogen produced by zero emission renewable energy sources such as

text: electrolysis of water

text: using

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: hydro power

text: wave power

text: or

text: tidal power

text: is referred to as green hydrogen. Hydrogen produced by non-renewable energy sources may be referred to as brown hydrogen. Hydrogen produced as a waste by-product or industrial by-product is sometimes referred to as grey hydrogen.

text: While there are some non-technical barriers to the widespread use of renewables, global warming concerns coupled with high oil prices and increasing government support are driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries.

text: While there are some non-technical barriers to the widespread use of renewables,

text: global warming

text: concerns coupled with high oil prices and increasing government support are driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries.

text: The Southeastern United States shows tremendous promise for renewable energy generation. Recent developments indicate slow but steady movement toward realizing this potential. There are vast opportunities which offer clean, renewable energy like solar and wind. The South has been slower to adopt renewable energy technologies than many other parts of the country, thus prolonging dependence on high-risk energy sources. Advocacy by SACE and other environmental groups remains critical to build on current momentum and create a clean energy economy in the Southeast.

text: Fission-electric power stations are one of the leading low carbon power generation methods of producing electricity, and in terms of total life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy generated, has emission values lower than "renewable energy" when the latter is taken as a single energy source. As all electricity supplying technologies use cement etc., during construction, emissions are yet to be brought to zero. A 2014 analysis of the carbon footprint literature by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that the embodied total life-cycle emission intensity of fission electricity has a median value of 12 g  eq/kWh which is the lowest out of all commercial baseload energy sources, and second lowest out of all commercial electricity technologies known, after wind power which is an Intermittent energy source with embodied greenhouse gas emissions, per unit of energy generated of 11 g eq/kWh. Each result is contrasted with coal & fossil gas at 820 and 490 g  eq/kWh. With this translating into, from the beginning of Fission-electric power station commercialization in the 1970s, having prevented the emission of about 64 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, greenhouse gases that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of fossil fuels in thermal power stations.

text: Fission-electric

text: power stations

text: are one of the leading

text: low carbon power generation

text: methods of producing

text: electricity

text: , and in terms of

entity_name: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources

text: total life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy generated

text: , has emission values lower than "

text: renewable energy

text: " when the latter is taken as a single energy source. As all electricity supplying technologies use

text: cement

text: etc., during construction, emissions are yet to be brought to zero. A 2014 analysis of the

text: carbon footprint

text: literature by the

text: (IPCC) reported that the embodied

text: total life-cycle

text: emission intensity

text: of fission electricity has a

text: median

text: value of 12 g

text: eq

text: kWh

text: which is the lowest out of all commercial

text: baseload

text: energy sources, and second lowest out of all commercial electricity technologies known, after

text: wind power

text: which is an

text: Intermittent energy source

text: with embodied greenhouse gas emissions, per unit of energy generated of 11 g eq/kWh. Each result is contrasted with coal &

text: fossil gas

text: at 820 and 490 g  eq/kWh. With this translating into, from the beginning of

text: Fission-electric power station

text: commercialization in the 1970s, having prevented the emission of about 64 billion tonnes of

text: carbon dioxide equivalent

text: , greenhouse gases that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of fossil fuels in

text: thermal power station

text: s.

text: Transportation and supply is an important aspect of the gas business, since natural gas reserves are normally quite distant from consumer markets. Natural gas has far more volume than oil to transport, and most gas is transported by pipelines. There is a natural gas pipeline network in the former Soviet Union, Europe and North America. Natural gas is less dense, even at higher pressures. Natural gas will travel much faster than oil through a high-pressure pipeline, but can transmit only about a fifth of the amount of energy per day due to the lower density.  Natural gas is usually liquefied to LNG at the end of the pipeline, prior to shipping.

text: Transportation and supply is an important aspect of the gas business, since natural gas reserves are normally quite distant from consumer markets. Natural gas has far more volume than oil to transport, and most gas is transported by pipelines. There is a natural gas pipeline network in the former

text: Soviet Union

text: , Europe and North America. Natural gas is less dense, even at higher pressures. Natural gas will travel much faster than oil through a high-pressure pipeline, but can transmit only about a fifth of the amount of energy per day due to the lower density.  Natural gas is usually liquefied to LNG at the end of the pipeline, prior to shipping.

text: SustainableEnergy’s aim is to work for a resource- and environment-conscious energy policy through grassroots initiatives to reach 100% renewable energy supply in Denmark by 2030.

text: SustainableEnergy’s aim is to work for a resource- and environment-conscious energy policy through grassroots initiatives to reach 100%

text: renewable energy

text: supply in Denmark by 2030.

text: With CIC's license coming up for renewal, the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources put up the Mmamabula South and Central blocks for tender in June 2012.These blocks held about 670 million tonnes of coal.  Bids would be evaluated in part on how quickly the bidder would be able to start exploiting the coal field.However, in August 2012 the government decided to renew CIC's retention licence for the central block, with about 361 million tonnes of coal. A week later the Competition Authority approved a proposed takeover of CIC Energy by Jindal Steel and Power.Jindal requires large supplies of coal for its Indian steel plants.  Jindal Steel and Power, chaired by Naveen Jindal, is also a subsidiary of the Jindal Group.In September 2012 it was announced that Jindal Steel and Power was completing a $116 million purchase of CIC Energy, acquiring its rights in the coalfield. Jindal said it planned to invest up to $700 million to develop a coal mine and a 300 MW power plant.  It would also develop coal exports from the field, possibly via rail to Mozambique. The deal was conditional on approval by the Minister of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources.

text: With CIC's license coming up for renewal, the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources put up the Mmamabula South and Central blocks for tender in June 2012.These blocks held about 670 million tonnes of coal.  Bids would be evaluated in part on how quickly the bidder would be able to start exploiting the coal field.However, in August 2012 the government decided to renew CIC's retention licence for the central block, with about 361 million tonnes of coal. A week later the Competition Authority approved a proposed takeover of CIC Energy by

text: Jindal Steel and Power

text: .Jindal requires large supplies of coal for its Indian steel plants.  Jindal Steel and Power, chaired by

text: Naveen Jindal

text: , is also a subsidiary of the Jindal Group.In September 2012 it was announced that Jindal Steel and Power was completing a $116 million purchase of CIC Energy, acquiring its rights in the coalfield. Jindal said it planned to invest up to $700 million to develop a coal mine and a 300 MW power plant.  It would also develop coal exports from the field, possibly via rail to Mozambique. The deal was conditional on approval by the Minister of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources.

text: Renewable Energy Credit is one of two main outputs or benefits from generation of new power from renewable sources. Renewable power generation creates actual power in the form of electricity, and environmental benefits to society from “green” power production – such as minimizing pollution and slowing the rate finite fuel resources are used. The actual power is sold into the local grid, and the societal benefits are sold in the form of Renewable Energy Credits or “RECs”, sold separately as a commodity into the marketplace. While RECs are not actually a measure of power, each REC represents one megawatt hour (MWh) of renewable-generated energy. For each REC purchased the customer is able to claim the equivalent MWh of energy reduction as on offset to their conventional energy use.

text: In environmental policy, the EDU does not see the real problem as in climate change, but rather in the enormous consumption of resources and energy. Thus, the EDU supports a dedicated, time-limited incentive tax on the oil tax for fossil fuels and propellants and calls the replacement of the Climate Cent and the CO2 tax (gasoline, etc.). The proceeds of this incentive tax would go to renewable energy sources such as water, wind, and solar energy and would promote energy efficiency. In the long term, the EDU wants to phase out nuclear energy in Switzerland. The EDU supports the expansion of the public transportation system, but only supports the implementation of large projects when funding is secured.

text: In environmental policy, the EDU does not see the real problem as in climate change, but rather in the enormous consumption of resources and energy. Thus, the EDU supports a dedicated, time-limited incentive tax on the oil tax for fossil fuels and propellants and calls the replacement of the Climate Cent and the CO2 tax (gasoline, etc.). The proceeds of this incentive tax would go to renewable energy sources such as water, wind, and solar energy and would promote energy efficiency. In the long term, the EDU wants to phase out

text: nuclear energy in Switzerland

text: . The EDU supports the expansion of the public transportation system, but only supports the implementation of large projects when funding is secured.

text: Africa has significant resources for generating energy in several forms (hydroelectric, reserves of petroleum and gas, coal production, uranium production, renewable energy such as solar and geothermal). The lack of development and infrastructure means that little of this potential is actually in use today. The largest consumers of electric power in Africa are South Africa, Libya, Namibia, Egypt, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe, which each consume between 1000 and 5000 KWh/m per person, in contrast with African states such as Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Tanzania, where electricity consumption per person is negligible.

text: As the 21st century began, fossil fuel was still relatively cheap, but rising concerns over energy security, global warming, and eventual fossil fuel depletion led to an expansion of interest in all available forms of renewable energy. The fledgling commercial wind power industry began expanding at a robust growth rate of about 25% per year, driven by the ready availability of large wind resources, and falling costs due to improved technology and wind farm management.

text: As the 21st century began, fossil fuel was still relatively cheap, but rising concerns over

text: energy security

text: global warming

text: , and eventual

text: fossil fuel depletion

text: led to an expansion of interest in all available forms of

text: renewable energy

text: . The fledgling commercial wind power industry began expanding at a robust growth rate of about 25% per year, driven by the ready availability of large wind resources, and falling costs due to improved technology and wind farm management.

text: Minerals are needed to provide food, clothing, and housing. A United States Geological Survey (USGS) study found a significant long-term trend over the 20th century for non-renewable resources such as minerals to supply a greater proportion of the raw material inputs to the non-fuel, non-food sector of the economy; an example is the greater consumption of crushed stone, sand, and gravel used in construction.

text: Minerals are needed to provide food, clothing, and housing. A

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS) study found a significant long-term trend over the 20th century for non-renewable resources such as minerals to supply a greater proportion of the raw material inputs to the non-fuel, non-food sector of the economy; an example is the greater consumption of crushed stone, sand, and gravel used in construction.

text: Gasoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline and compress it by the movement of the piston from bottom dead center to top dead center when the fuel is at maximum compression.  The reduction in the size of the swept area of the cylinder and taking into account the volume of the combustion chamber is described by a ratio.  Early engines had compression ratios of 6 to 1.  As compression ratios were increased the efficiency of the engine increased as well.

text: Current trends in CWKPS sectors will have their follow-on stories. Enthusiasm seems to be at a high level among over a thousand workers in the crosswind kite power realm that includes scales from toy scale to utility-grid. Speculation for traveling and moving goods without fuel around the world by use of CWKPS is envisioned both by systems staying connected to the ground and some systems fully disconnected from the ground. Objectives for the future discussed in the literature regard CWKPS facing toy, sport, industry, science, commerce, energy for electrical grid, sailing, and a host of other tasking applications. For CWKPS to compete with solar energy, nuclear energy, fossil fuels, conventional wind power, DWKPS, or other renewable energy sources, the levelized cost of energy from CWKPS will need to become competitive, proven, made known, and adopted; during CWKPS march into the future, other competing sectors will be advancing also. The variety of configurations of kite systems that will fly wings to crosswind for the enhanced power is expected to grow; however, for specific purposes and applications, some winning formats are expected to eventually shine. Placing wing elements that fly to crosswind on huge lofted rope-based arches or even net domes is being researched.

text: Current trends in CWKPS sectors will have their follow-on stories. Enthusiasm seems to be at a high level among over a thousand workers in the crosswind kite power realm that includes scales from toy scale to utility-grid. Speculation for traveling and moving goods without fuel around the world by use of CWKPS is envisioned both by systems staying connected to the ground and some systems fully disconnected from the ground. Objectives for the future discussed in the literature regard CWKPS facing toy, sport, industry, science, commerce, energy for electrical grid, sailing, and a host of other tasking applications. For CWKPS to compete with

text: solar energy

text: nuclear energy

text: fossil fuels

text: , conventional

text: wind power

text: , DWKPS, or other

text: renewable energy

text: sources, the

text: levelized cost of energy

text: from CWKPS will need to become competitive, proven, made known, and adopted; during CWKPS march into the future, other competing sectors will be advancing also. The variety of configurations of kite systems that will fly wings to crosswind for the enhanced power is expected to grow; however, for specific purposes and applications, some winning formats are expected to eventually shine. Placing wing elements that fly to crosswind on huge lofted rope-based arches or even net domes is being researched.

text: As the Jordanian government moves closer to the development of nuclear power plants, the anti-nuclear movement has picked up. The movement is spearheaded by Basel Burgan, an environmentalist and activist who leads the National Campaign, which strives to protect the people of Jordan from the dangers of nuclear energy. Burgan is one of the largest advocates for a nuclear free Jordan. The National Campaign stresses the idea that the nuclear power plants would contaminate Jordan's scarce water supply. Greenpeace Jordan has also made numerous contributions to the movement against nuclear energy in Jordan. Greenpeace Jordan has encouraged the Jordanian government to entertain the idea of creating an energy policy based on renewable resources. Greenpeace Jordan created the "Future of Energy of Jordan" report to introduce the possibility for wind and solar energy. The report brings to light some of the major issues that would occur from Jordan becoming a nuclear energy using nation and proposes a way for Jordan to thrive as a nuclear free nation. The deprivation of water in Jordan combined with heavy seismic activity. Greenpeace Jordan believes that by 2050 they will be able to attain 100% renewable energy. A possible site would be placed above the Azraq Aquifer, which provides one of the largest sources of freshwater to Amman. Environmentalists suggest that one minor accident at the plant could poison up to 1/3 of the water in the country. Jordan is already facing a high paced depletion of water resources, calling into question if the country can actually afford to take the risk of building these power plants. Jordan's Federation for Environmental Societies has used Jordan's lack of water resources as a platform for their anti-nuclear views. Jordan is ranked as the fourth water-poorest country in the world and falls 15% below the water poverty line set by the United Nations. The lack of water has also contributed to concerns about the cooling of the reactors. In cooling the reactors, Jordan would need to use approximately 500 million cubic meters of water annually. Many proponents against nuclear energy in Jordan cite water resource issues at the forefront of their protests; many believe that Jordan does not have room for water to spare.

text: As the Jordanian government moves closer to the development of nuclear power plants, the

text: anti-nuclear movement

text: has picked up. The movement is spearheaded by Basel Burgan, an environmentalist and activist who leads the National Campaign, which strives to protect the people of Jordan from the dangers of nuclear energy. Burgan is one of the largest advocates for a nuclear free Jordan. The National Campaign stresses the idea that the nuclear power plants would contaminate Jordan's scarce water supply. Greenpeace Jordan has also made numerous contributions to the movement against nuclear energy in Jordan. Greenpeace Jordan has encouraged the Jordanian government to entertain the idea of creating an energy policy based on renewable resources. Greenpeace Jordan created the "Future of Energy of Jordan" report to introduce the possibility for wind and solar energy. The report brings to light some of the major issues that would occur from Jordan becoming a nuclear energy using nation and proposes a way for Jordan to thrive as a nuclear free nation. The deprivation of water in Jordan combined with heavy seismic activity. Greenpeace Jordan believes that by 2050 they will be able to attain 100% renewable energy. A possible site would be placed above the Azraq Aquifer, which provides one of the largest sources of freshwater to

text: Amman

text: . Environmentalists suggest that one minor accident at the plant could poison up to 1/3 of the water in the country. Jordan is already facing a high paced depletion of water resources, calling into question if the country can actually afford to take the risk of building these power plants. Jordan's Federation for Environmental Societies has used Jordan's lack of water resources as a platform for their anti-nuclear views. Jordan is ranked as the fourth water-poorest country in the world and falls 15% below the water poverty line set by the United Nations. The lack of water has also contributed to concerns about the cooling of the reactors. In cooling the reactors, Jordan would need to use approximately 500 million cubic meters of water annually. Many proponents against nuclear energy in Jordan cite water resource issues at the forefront of their protests; many believe that Jordan does not have room for water to spare.

text: Zero Carbon Australia Renewable Energy Superpower Report 2015 is Beyond Zero Emissions' estimate of the size and value of Australia's economically demonstrated solar photovoltaic and wind resources situated within 10km of the existing electricity grid. The size of the resource is found to be much larger than non-renewable energy resources, and ranks Australia in the global top 3 for quality - and potential cheapness - of its renewable energy.  The report assesses the worlds clean energy transition and its energy-intensive sectors and then suggests that if it were paired with energy intensive ore and resource-processing industries,  potentially worth billions to the economy, Australia's renewable energy resource would position Australia as a renewable energy superpower with a strong sustained and sustainable competitive advantage.

text: Many studies have documented how nuclear power plants generate 16% of global electricity, but provide only 6.3% of energy production and 2.6% of final energy consumption. This mismatch stems mainly from the poor consumption efficiency of electricity compared to other energy carriers, and the transmission losses associated with nuclear plants which are usually situated far away from sources of demand.

text: In 2004 representatives of BMW, General Motors, Honda, and Toyota got together to specify what makes a good fuel. Using recommendations from the Worldwide Fuel Charter, a global committee of automakers and engine manufacturers, they established a proprietary standard for a class of gasoline called "TOP TIER" Detergent Gasoline The new standard required increased levels of detergents, and restricted metallic content. Volkswagen/Audi joined the group of automakers in 2007. Gas brands can participate and get a TOP TIER license if they meet certain standards, which includes performance tests for intake valve and combustion chamber deposits, fuel injector fouling, and intake valve sticking. Additive manufacturers pay for the testing, the cost of which varies from year to year, while gasoline companies pay an annual fee based on the number of stations it operates to participate in the program.

text: In 2004 representatives of

text: BMW

text: General Motors

text: Honda

text: , and

text: Toyota

text: got together to specify what makes a good fuel. Using recommendations from the Worldwide Fuel Charter, a global committee of automakers and engine manufacturers, they established a proprietary standard for a class of gasoline called "TOP TIER" Detergent Gasoline The new standard required increased levels of detergents, and restricted metallic content.

text: Volkswagen

text: Audi

text: joined the group of automakers in 2007. Gas brands can participate and get a TOP TIER license if they meet certain standards, which includes performance tests for intake valve and combustion chamber deposits, fuel injector fouling, and intake valve sticking. Additive manufacturers pay for the testing, the cost of which varies from year to year, while gasoline companies pay an annual fee based on the number of stations it operates to participate in the program.

text: A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames. An example is carbon-based, organically-derived fuel. The original organic material, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth minerals and metal ores, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all considered non-renewable resources, though individual elements are almost always conserved.

text: A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames. An example is carbon-based, organically-derived fuel. The original organic material, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas.

text: Earth

text: mineral

text: s and

text: metal

text: ore

text: s,

text: fossil fuel

text: s (

text: coal

text: petroleum

text: natural gas

text: ) and

text: groundwater

text: in certain

text: aquifer

text: s are all considered non-renewable resources, though individual

text: element

text: s are almost always conserved.

text: AEP currently gets .02% of its energy from renewable energy resources like wind and solar. They are planning to increase their reliance on coal in the next five years. They occasionally support renewable energy in their utility territories, but only when they can own it through their regulated assets.

text: Conventional nuclear reactions such as nuclear fission and nuclear fusion convert relatively small amounts of matter only indirectly into useful energy, such as electricity or rocket thrust. For electricity production released nuclear energy in the form of heat is typically used to boil water to turn a turbine-generator.

text: Conventional nuclear reactions such as

text: nuclear fission

text: and

text: nuclear fusion

text: convert relatively small amounts of matter only indirectly into useful energy, such as electricity or rocket thrust. For electricity production released nuclear energy in the form of heat is typically used to boil water to turn a turbine-generator.

text: Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal, hydro, biomass, and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market. The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of fossil fuels as well as their negative environmental impacts. While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7% globally in 2010, most installation of new capacity has been with renewables. Few new installations were from fossil fuel‐based power plants. The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020. Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in power plants, the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce CO emissions. Hence, renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies.

text: Renewable energy

text: sources such as

text: solar

text: wind

text: tidal

text: hydro

text: biomass

text: , and

text: geothermal

text: have become significant sectors of the energy market. The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of

text: fossil fuel

text: s as well as their negative

text: environmental impact

text: s. While the average capacity of renewable energy sources was only 7% globally in 2010, most installation of new capacity has been with renewables. Few new installations were from fossil fuel‐based power plants. The trend towards new power capacity by renewables is expected to continue through 2020. Since renewable energy supplies offset the amount of fossil fuels that need to be combusted in

text: power plant

text: s, the use of renewables indirectly helps to reduce

entity_name: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions

text: CO emissions

text: . Hence, renewable energy supplies enable societies to progress towards lower-carbon-based economies.

text: Several mandates have been proposed over the years, such as gasoline will never exceed $1.00/gallon (Nixon), and the United States will never again import as much oil as it did in 1977 (Carter), but no comprehensive long-term energy policy has been proposed, although there has been concern over this failure.   Three Energy Policy Acts have been passed, in 1992, 2005, and 2007, which include many provisions for conservation, such as the Energy Star program, and energy development, with grants and tax incentives for both renewable energy and non-renewable energy.

text: Several mandates have been proposed over the years, such as gasoline will never exceed $1.00/gallon (

text: Nixon

text: ), and the United States will never again import as much oil as it did in 1977 (

text: Carter

text: ), but no comprehensive long-term energy policy has been proposed, although there has been concern over this failure.   Three

text: Energy Policy Acts

text: have been passed, in 1992, 2005, and 2007, which include many provisions for conservation, such as the

text: Energy Star

text: program, and energy development, with grants and tax incentives for both

text: renewable energy

text: and non-renewable energy.

text: Concept of Smart villages is a global modern approach for off-grid communities.  Vision behind this concept is to assist the policy makers, donors and socio-economic planner for rural electrification worldwide, with special focus on Asian and African countries.  Smart villages concept is engaged in efforts to combat the real barriers to energy access in villages, particularly in developing countries with technological, financial and educational methodology.  Since 20th Century Electricity has become a vital part of our lives, though we can survive without electricity but cannot progress and enjoy the benefits of science.  World’s large oil companies have predicted that by 2050, one third of the energy will need to come from Solar, Wind and other renewable resources, therefore adoption of renewable resource in place of fossil fuel is the best approach that can be developed through off-grid systems or communities.

text: .  This combines both energy resources and non-energy resources.  Examples of nonrenewable energy resources would include oil and coal.  Examples of material nonrenewable resources would include aluminum and zinc.  This assumption allows costless substitution between any nonrenewable resource.  The model ignores differences between discovered resources and undiscovered resources.

text: Although in many ways fossil fuels provide a simple, easy to use energy source that powered the industrialization of most modern nations, the issues associated with the widespread use of fossil fuels are now numerous, consisting of some of the world's most difficult and large scale global political, economic, health and environmental problems. The looming energy crisis results from consuming these fossil fuels at a rate which is unsustainable, with the global demand for fossil fuels expected to increase every year for the next several decades, compounding existing problems.

text: Although in many ways

text: fossil fuels

text: provide a simple, easy to use energy source that powered the industrialization of most modern nations, the issues associated with the widespread use of fossil fuels are now numerous, consisting of some of the world's most difficult and large scale global political, economic, health and environmental problems. The looming

text: energy crisis

text: results from consuming these fossil fuels at a rate which is unsustainable, with the global demand for fossil fuels expected to increase every year for the next several decades, compounding existing problems.

text: In 2007, Google launched a project centered on developing renewable energy, titled the "Renewable Energy Cheaper than Coal (RE<C)" project. However, the project was cancelled in 2014, after engineers Ross Koningstein and David Fork understood, after years of study, that "best-case scenario, which was based on our most optimistic forecasts for renewable energy, would still result in severe climate change", writing that they "came to the conclusion that even if Google and others had led the way toward a wholesale adoption of renewable energy, that switch would not have resulted in significant reductions of carbon dioxide emissions".

text: Iran has made the development of non-oil exports a priority. The country has the advantage of a broad domestic industrial base, technology an educated and motivated workforce, cheap labor and energy resources and geographical location, which gives it access to an estimated population of some 300 million people in Caspian markets, Persian Gulf states and countries further east. Iran has the consumer potential of Turkey, the oil reserves of Saudi Arabia, the natural gas reserves of Russia, and the mineral reserves of Australia. Iran's area roughly equals that of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined. Iran has a diverse climate which makes it suitable for a wide range of agricultural products.

text: Iran has made the development of non-oil exports a priority. The country has the advantage of a

text: broad domestic industrial base

text: technology

text: an

text: educated and motivated workforce

text: , cheap labor and energy resources and

text: geographical location

text: , which gives it access to an estimated population of some 300 million people in

text: Caspian

text: markets,

text: Persian Gulf

text: states and countries further east. Iran has the

text: consumer potential

text: of

text: Turkey

text: , the

text: oil reserves

text: of

text: Saudi Arabia

text: , the

text: natural gas reserves

text: of

text: Russia

text: , and the

text: mineral reserves

text: of

text: Australia

text: Iran's area

text: roughly equals that of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined. Iran has a

text: diverse climate

text: which makes it suitable for

text: a wide range of agricultural products

text: TEA promotes the use of thorium using a diverse rationale. Increasing world population, depleting resources  and global warming have put severe constraints on the choices of power generation available today. Traditional fossil fuel based energy generation faces two-fold challenges in terms of depleting resources and need to keep greenhouse gas emissions in control. While interim measures like natural gas and unconventional oil are proposed, these still have a carbon footprint and are not universally available. Hydropower use has reached a natural limit in many parts of the world, and the existing capacity is under stress due to climate change. Renewable energy is seen as an important component of future energy generation, but being essentially intermittent, can not be effectively managed by the current power distribution technologies.  Hence, nuclear energy is seen as an important option for power generation in many countries.

text: TEA promotes the use of thorium using a diverse rationale.

text: Increasing world population

text: depleting resources

text: and

text: global warming

text: have put severe constraints on the choices of

text: power

text: generation available today. Traditional

text: fossil fuel

text: based energy generation faces two-fold challenges in terms of depleting resources and need to keep

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions in control. While interim measures like

text: natural gas

text: and

text: unconventional oil

text: are proposed, these still have a

text: carbon footprint

text: and are not universally available.

text: Hydropower

text: use has reached a natural limit in many parts of the world, and the existing capacity is under stress due to

text: climate change

text: Renewable energy

text: is seen as an important component of future energy generation, but being essentially intermittent, can not be effectively managed by the current power distribution technologies.  Hence,

text: nuclear energy

text: is seen as an important option for power generation in many countries.

text: Energy in Indonesia describes energy and electricity production, consumption, import and export in Indonesia. In 2009 Indonesia produced oil, coal, natural gas and palm oil, utilised also as energy raw material in 2010. Renewable energy potential in Indonesia is high: solar, wind, hydro and geothermal energy. Tropical rain forests and peat land areas have extensive coal storage. Indonesia is geologically unstable country.According to IEA Indonesia was the 10th top natural gas producer in 2009: 76 billion cubics (bcm) 2.5% of world production of which 36 bcm was exported. In 2009 Indonesia was the 5th top coal producer: 263 million tonnes hard coal and 38 million tonnes brown. The majority of this, 230 Mt of hard coal, was exported.

text: Energy in Indonesia describes

text: energy

text: and

text: electricity

text: production, consumption, import and export in

text: Indonesia

text: . In 2009 Indonesia produced oil,

text: coal

text: natural gas

text: and

text: palm oil

text: , utilised also as energy raw material in 2010. Renewable energy potential in Indonesia is high:

text: solar

text: wind

text: hydro

text: and

text: geothermal energy

text: Tropical rain forests

text: and

text: peat

text: land areas have extensive coal storage. Indonesia is geologically unstable country.According to

text: IEA

text: Indonesia was the 10th top natural gas producer in 2009: 76 billion cubics (bcm) 2.5% of world production of which 36 bcm was exported. In 2009 Indonesia was the 5th top coal producer: 263 million tonnes hard coal and 38 million tonnes brown. The majority of this, 230 Mt of hard coal, was exported.

text: Fossil-fuel consumption subsidies were $409 billion in 2010, oil products being half of it. Renewable-energy subsidies were $66 billion in 2010 and will reach $250 billion by 2035, according to IEA. Renewable energy is subsidized in order to compete in the market, increase their volume and develop the technology so that the subsidies become unnecessary with the development. Eliminating fossil-fuel subsidies could bring economic and environmental benefits. Phasing out fossil-fuel subsidies by 2020 would cut primary energy demand 5%. Since the start of 2010, at least 15 countries have taken steps to phase out fossil-fuel subsidies.  According to IEA onshore wind may become competitive around 2020 in the European Union.

text: Biofuel is a type of fuel whose energy is derived from biological carbon fixation. Biofuels include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as  solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases.  Although fossil fuels have their origin in ancient carbon fixation, they are not considered biofuels by the generally accepted definition because they contain carbon that has been "out" of the carbon cycle for a very long time. Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, and support from government subsidies.

text: Biofuel is a type of fuel whose energy is derived from biological

text: carbon fixation

text: . Biofuels include fuels derived from

text: biomass

text: conversion, as well as

text: solid biomass

text: liquid fuels

text: and various

text: biogas

text: es.  Although

text: fossil fuel

text: s have their origin in ancient

text: carbon fixation

text: , they are not considered biofuels by the generally accepted definition because they contain carbon that has been "out" of the carbon cycle for a very long time. Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as

text: oil price spikes

text: , the need for increased

text: energy security

text: , concern over

text: greenhouse gas

text: emissions from

text: fossil fuel

text: s, and support from

text: government subsidies

text: In 2011 Mass Inc polling group hosted a poll " The 80 percent Challenge: A Survey of Climate Change Opinion and Action in Massachusetts. Its findings showed "when asked about future energy needs, large majorities said they would like to see more reliance on solar power (87%), wind power (86%), and natural gas (64%) far higher than levels who want to see more coal (21%), oil (14%) or nuclear power (31%)." Further more, "The survey showed, among many factors, strong support for renewable energy, with eight in ten residents willing to pay an extra one dollar, and 60 percent saying they’d pay up to 5 dollars more for renewable energy over traditional sources like oil or coal."

text: A number of publicly traded oil and gas companies have drilling rigs in the Bakken trend. These include EOG Resources Inc., Continental Resources Inc., Whiting Oil & Gas Inc., Marathon Oil Corporation, QEP Resources, Hess Corporation, Samson Oil and Gas Ltd, In Canada, operators include Lightstream Resources (formerly PetroBakken Energy), Crescent Point Energy, and Tundra Oil & Gas Partnership. LIG Assets, Inc. has also announced that the company recently elected to participate in a 10% industry position in a group of oil leases located in the Bakken formation in North Dakota. The leases comprise approximately 1,280 acres in McKenzie County, the most productive oil producing county in the state.

text: A number of publicly traded oil and gas companies have drilling rigs in the Bakken trend. These include

text: EOG Resources Inc.

text: Continental Resources Inc.

text: Whiting Oil & Gas Inc.

text: Marathon Oil Corporation

text: QEP Resources

text: Hess Corporation

text: Samson Oil and Gas Ltd

text: , In Canada, operators include

text: Lightstream Resources

text: (formerly

text: PetroBakken Energy

text: Crescent Point Energy

text: , and

text: Tundra Oil & Gas Partnership

text: . LIG Assets, Inc. has also announced that the company recently elected to participate in a 10% industry position in a group of oil leases located in the Bakken formation in North Dakota. The leases comprise approximately 1,280 acres in McKenzie County, the most productive oil producing county in the state.

text: The history of coal mining goes back thousands of years. It became important in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th and 20th centuries, when it was primarily used to power steam engines, heat buildings and generate electricity. Coal mining continues as an important economic activity today. Compared to wood fuels, coal yields a higher amount of energy per mass and can often be obtained in areas where wood is not readily available. Though it was used historically as a domestic fuel, coal is now used mostly in industry, especially in smelting and alloy production as well as electricity generation. Large-scale coal mining developed during the Industrial Revolution, and coal provided the main source of primary energy for industry and transportation in industrial areas from the 18th century to the 1950s. Coal remains an important energy source because of its low cost and abundance compared to other fuels, particularly for electricity generation. Coal is also mined today on a large scale by open pit methods wherever the coal strata strike the surface or are relatively shallow. Britain developed the main techniques of underground coal mining from the late 18th century onward, with further progress being driven by 19th century and early 20th century progress. However, oil and its associated fuels began to be used as alternatives from the 1860s onward.

text: The history of coal mining goes back thousands of years. It became important in the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: of the 19th and 20th centuries, when it was primarily used to power steam engines, heat buildings and generate electricity. Coal mining continues as an important economic activity today. Compared to

text: wood fuel

text: s, coal yields a higher amount of energy per mass and can often be obtained in areas where wood is not readily available. Though it was used historically as a domestic fuel, coal is now used mostly in industry, especially in

text: smelting

text: and

text: alloy

text: production as well as

text: electricity generation

text: . Large-scale

text: coal mining

text: developed during the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: , and coal provided the main source of

text: primary energy

text: for industry and transportation in industrial areas from the 18th century to the 1950s. Coal remains an important energy source because of its low cost and abundance compared to other fuels, particularly for electricity generation. Coal is also mined today on a large scale by

text: open pit

text: methods wherever the coal

text: strata

text: strike the surface or are relatively shallow. Britain developed the main techniques of underground coal mining from the late 18th century onward, with further progress being driven by 19th century and early 20th century progress. However, oil and its associated fuels began to be used as alternatives from the 1860s onward.

text: Production of gasoline is achieved by distillation of crude oil. The desirable liquid is separated from the crude oil in refineries. Crude oil is extracted from the ground in several processes, the most commonly seen may be beam pumps. To create gasoline, petroleum must first be removed from crude oil.

text: Production of gasoline is achieved by

text: distillation

text: of

text: crude oil

text: . The desirable liquid is separated from the crude oil in

text: refineries

text: . Crude oil is extracted from the ground in several processes, the most commonly seen may be

text: beam pump

text: s. To create gasoline,

text: petroleum

text: must first be removed from crude oil.

text: The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (Pub.L. 110-140  originally named the Clean Energy Act of 2007) is an Act of Congress concerning the energy policy of the United States.  As part of the Democratic Party's 100-Hour Plan during the 110th Congress, it was introduced in the United States House of Representatives by Representative Nick Rahall of West Virginia, along with 198 cosponsors.  Despite Rahall becoming 1 of only 4 Democrats to oppose the final bill, it passed in the House without amendment in January 2007.  When the Act was introduced in the Senate in June 2007, it was combined with Senate Bill S. 1419: Renewable Fuels, Consumer Protection, and Energy Efficiency Act of 2007.  This amended version passed the Senate on June 21, 2007. After further amendments and negotiation between the House and Senate, a revised bill passed both houses on December 18, 2007 and President Bush, a Republican, signed it into law on December 19, 2007, in response to his "Twenty in Ten" challenge to reduce gasoline consumption by 20% in 10 years.

text: The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (Pub.L. 110-140  originally named the Clean Energy Act of 2007) is an

text: Act of Congress

text: concerning the

text: energy policy of the United States

text: .  As part of the

text: Democratic Party's

text: 100-Hour Plan

text: during the

text: 110th Congress

text: , it was introduced in the

text: United States House of Representatives

text: by Representative

text: Nick Rahall

text: of

text: West Virginia

text: , along with 198 cosponsors.  Despite Rahall becoming 1 of only 4 Democrats to oppose the final bill, it passed in the House without amendment in January 2007.  When the Act was introduced in the

text: Senate

text: in June 2007, it was combined with Senate Bill S. 1419: Renewable Fuels, Consumer Protection, and Energy Efficiency Act of 2007.  This amended version passed the Senate on June 21, 2007. After further amendments and negotiation between the House and Senate, a revised bill passed both houses on December 18, 2007 and President

text: Bush

text: , a

text: Republican

text: signed it into law

text: on December 19, 2007, in response to his "Twenty in Ten" challenge to reduce gasoline consumption by 20% in 10 years.

text: The Environmental and Energy Study Institute (EESI) is a non-profit organization which promotes environmentally sustainable societies.  Founded in 1984 by a group of Congressional Members, EESI seeks to be a catalyst that moves society away from environmentally damaging fossil fuels and toward a clean energy future. EESI presents policy solutions that will result in decreased global warming and air pollution; improvements in public health, energy security and rural economic development opportunities; increased use of renewable energy sources and improved energy efficiency.

text: The

text: Environmental and Energy Study Institute

text: (EESI) is a non-profit

text: organization

text: which promotes environmentally

text: sustainable

text: societies.  Founded in 1984 by a group of

text: Congressional Members

text: , EESI seeks to be a catalyst that moves society away from environmentally damaging

text: fossil fuels

text: and toward a clean energy future. EESI presents policy solutions that will result in decreased

text: global warming

text: and

text: air pollution

text: ; improvements in public health,

text: energy security

text: and rural economic development opportunities; increased use of

text: renewable energy

text: sources and improved

text: energy efficiency

text: Furthermore, the region’s highly educated labour force, access to energy, and non-renewable natural and renewable raw resources would be an excellent basis for a strong manufacturing sector.

text: Oil is the most exploited resource within the deserts. In the North American desert most of the oil is found within the Great Basin region and this resource is non-renewable. Oil is mined out of rocks and creates massive holes that disrupt the ecosystem. The process with taking oil is not sustainable and this resource is scarce.Another resource that is mined is copper. Along with oil, this resource is also scarce as it is non-renewable and also has the same mining affects as oil does. This resource can be used for things such as computers, TVs, cell phones, and other electronics. Copper is mainly found in California. Other mined resources consist of zinc, uranium, rocks, jade, crystals, gold, and quartz.

text: A 2011 report "The True Cost of Coal: The monstrous price of South Africa's coal addiction" by Greenpeace Africa and the University of Pretoria’s Business Enterprises unit calculated the full costs of the Kusile plant, from climate change to water use, and the impact on health and the environment. It was estimated that the damage caused by Kusile will cost South Africa between R31.2 billion and R60.6 billion a year, and that just 30% of Kusile’s externality cost would be able to generate five times the coal station’s proposed power with renewable energy. Roughly 70% of the total cost was water-related.

text: A 2011 report "The True Cost of Coal: The monstrous price of South Africa's coal addiction" by Greenpeace Africa and the University of Pretoria’s Business Enterprises unit calculated the full costs of the Kusile plant, from climate change to water use, and the impact on health and the environment. It was estimated that the damage caused by Kusile will cost South Africa between R31.2 billion and R60.6 billion a year, and that just 30% of Kusile’s

text: externality

text: cost would be able to generate five times the coal station’s proposed power with

text: renewable energy

text: . Roughly 70% of the total cost was water-related.

text: The Economist magazine, in September 2008, quoted Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, as saying: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'".  The magazine noted the withdrawal of California from earlier goals: "In March [2008] the California Air Resources Board, an agency of California's state government and a bellwether for state governments across America, changed its requirement for the number of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) to be built and sold in California between 2012 and 2014. The revised mandate allows manufacturers to comply with the rules by building more battery-electric cars instead of fuel-cell vehicles."  The magazine also noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars.  On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."

text: The Economist

text: magazine, in September 2008, quoted

text: Robert Zubrin

text: , the author of

text: Energy Victory

text: , as saying: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'".  The magazine noted the withdrawal of California from earlier goals: "In March [2008] the

text: California Air Resources Board

text: , an agency of California's state government and a bellwether for state governments across America, changed its requirement for the number of

text: zero-emission vehicle

text: s (ZEVs) to be built and sold in California between 2012 and 2014. The revised mandate allows manufacturers to comply with the rules by building more battery-electric cars instead of fuel-cell vehicles."  The magazine also noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars.  On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."

text: The energy landscape of Idaho is favorable to the development of renewable energy systems. The state is rich in renewable energy resources but has limited fossil fuel resources. The Snake River Plain and smaller river basins provide Idaho with some of the best hydroelectric power resources in the nation and its geologically active mountain areas have significant geothermal power and wind power potential. These realities have shaped much of the state's current energy landscape.

text: The energy landscape of Idaho is favorable to the development of

text: renewable energy

text: systems. The state is rich in renewable energy resources but has limited fossil fuel resources. The

text: Snake River Plain

text: and smaller river basins provide Idaho with some of the best

text: hydroelectric power

text: resources in the nation and its geologically active mountain areas have significant

text: geothermal power

text: and

text: wind power

text: potential. These realities have shaped much of the state's current energy landscape.

text: In April 2014, McCoy launched a new web-based initiative on energy and the environment for the Canadian context: Your Energy Story.  According to the site, it was designed "to make linkages between energy end uses and energy sources" and provides raw data on energy consumption and generation for both renewable and non-renewable resources, organized by provinces and territories across Canada. It employs one common energy unit for all types of energy – the gigajoule – in order to make comparisons between energy types possible for the average consumer. It also provides greenhouse gas emissions for the production of each energy type and end use.

text: In April 2014, McCoy launched a new web-based initiative on

text: energy

text: and the

text: environment

text: for the Canadian context: Your Energy Story.  According to the site, it was designed "to make linkages between energy end uses and energy sources" and provides raw data on energy consumption and generation for both renewable and non-renewable resources, organized by provinces and territories across Canada. It employs one common energy unit for all types of energy – the

text: gigajoule

text: – in order to make comparisons between energy types possible for the average consumer. It also provides

text: greenhouse gas emissions

text: for the production of each energy type and end use.

text: According to M. King Hubbert's Hubbert peak theory, Peak coal is the point in time at which the maximum global coal production rate is reached, after which, according to the theory, the rate of production will enter a terminal decline.  Coal is a fossil fuel formed from plant matter over the course of millions of years.  It is a finite resource and thus considered to be a non-renewable energy source.

text: According to

text: M. King Hubbert

text: 's

text: Hubbert peak theory

text: , Peak coal is the point in time at which the maximum global coal production rate is reached, after which, according to the theory, the rate of production will enter a terminal decline.

text: Coal

text: is a

text: fossil fuel

text: non-renewable energy

text: source.

text: Natural gas from gas wells and from condensate wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is called non-associated gas. Gas wells typically produce only raw natural gas, while condensate wells produce raw natural gas along with other low molecular weight hydrocarbons. Those that are liquid at ambient conditions (i.e., pentane and heavier) are called natural gas condensate (sometimes also called natural gasoline or simply condensate).

text: Natural gas from gas wells and from condensate wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is called non-associated gas. Gas wells typically produce only raw natural gas, while condensate wells produce raw natural gas along with other low molecular weight hydrocarbons. Those that are liquid at ambient conditions (i.e.,

text: pentane

text: and heavier) are called

text: natural gas condensate

text: (sometimes also called

text: natural gasoline

text: or simply condensate).

text: In project management terminology, resources are required to carry out the project tasks. They can be people, equipment, facilities, funding, or anything else capable of definition (usually other than labour) required for the completion of a project activity. The lack of a resource will therefore be a constraint on the completion of the project activity. Resources may be storable or non storable. Storable resources remain available unless depleted by usage, and may be replenished by project tasks which produce them. Non-storable resources must be renewed for each time period, even if not utilised in previous time periods.

text: In

text: project management

text: terminology, resources are required to carry out the

text: project

text: task

text: s. They can be people, equipment, facilities,

text: funding

text: , or anything else capable of definition (usually other than

text: labour

text: ) required for the completion of a project activity. The lack of a resource will therefore be a constraint on the completion of the project activity. Resources may be storable or non storable. Storable resources remain available unless depleted by usage, and may be replenished by project tasks which produce them. Non-storable resources must be renewed for each time period, even if not utilised in previous time periods.

text: In government, Huhne maintained a flexible approach on the subject of nuclear energy, advocating the three-pronged portfolio approach to energy: a commitment to nuclear energy; the development of more renewable energy, such as wind and sea power; and new carbon-capture technology to mitigate the damaging environmental effects of fossil fuel-fired power plants and industrial facilities. In an interview with The Observer in March 2011, after the Fukushima disaster in Japan, Huhne stated that: "there are a lot of issues outside of the realm of nuclear safety, which we will have to assess. One is what the economics of nuclear power post-Fukushima will be, if there is an increase in the cost in capital to nuclear operators." This represents an evolution of his approach to the nuclear issue. In 2007, Huhne was quoted as saying: "Nuclear is a tried, tested and failed technology and the government must stop putting time, effort and subsidies into this outdated industry."

text: In government, Huhne maintained a flexible approach on the subject of nuclear energy, advocating the three-pronged portfolio approach to energy: a commitment to nuclear energy; the development of more renewable energy, such as wind and sea power; and new carbon-capture technology to mitigate the damaging environmental effects of fossil fuel-fired power plants and industrial facilities. In an interview with

text: The Observer

text: in March 2011, after the

text: Fukushima disaster

text: in Japan, Huhne stated that: "there are a lot of issues outside of the realm of nuclear safety, which we will have to assess. One is what the economics of nuclear power post-Fukushima will be, if there is an increase in the cost in capital to nuclear operators." This represents an evolution of his approach to the nuclear issue. In 2007, Huhne was quoted as saying: "Nuclear is a tried, tested and failed technology and the government must stop putting time, effort and subsidies into this outdated industry."

text: The most common fuel used in conventional nuclear fission power stations, uranium-235 is "non-renewable" according to the Energy Information Administration, the organization however is silent on the recycled fuel of MOX. Similarly, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory does not mention nuclear power in its "energy basics" definition.

text: The most common fuel used in conventional

text: nuclear fission power stations

text: is "non-renewable" according to the

text: Energy Information Administration

text: , the organization however is silent on the recycled fuel of

text: MOX

text: . Similarly, the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: does not mention nuclear power in its "energy basics" definition.

text: Observers have noted that in some Western countries, the state purchases renewable energy from producers first before purchasing non-renewable energy. If renewables fail to meet the country's energy demand, it is topped up using non-renewable energy sources. In Thailand, this policy is reversed.

text: The goal of Ghana regarding bio-energy, as articulated its energy sector policy, is to modernize and examine the benefits of bio-energy on a sustainable basis. Biomass is Ghana's dominant energy resource in terms of endowment and consumption, with the two primary bio-fuels consumed being ethanol and biodiesel. To that effect, the Ghana ministry of Energy in 2010 developed the energy sector strategy and development plan. Highlights of the key policy objectives strategy for the renewable energy subsector include sustaining the supply and efficient use of wood-fuels while ensuring that their utilization does not lead to deforestation. The plan would support private sector investments in the cultivation of bio-fuel feedstock, extraction of bio-oil and its refining into secondary products, thereby creating appropriate financial and tax incentives. The Ghana Renewal Energy Act provides the necessary fiscal incentives for renewable energy development by the private sector, and also details the control and management of bio-fuel and wood- fuel projects in Ghana. The Ghana National Petroleum Authority (NPA) was tasked by the Renewable Energy Act 2011 to price Ghana's bio-fuel blend in accordance with the prescribed petroleum pricing formula.

text: The goal of Ghana regarding bio-energy, as articulated its energy sector policy, is to modernize and examine the benefits of

text: bio-energy

text: on a sustainable basis.

text: Biomass

text: is Ghana's dominant energy resource in terms of endowment and consumption, with the two primary

text: bio-fuel

text: s consumed being

text: ethanol

text: and

text: biodiesel

text: . To that effect, the Ghana ministry of Energy in 2010 developed the energy sector strategy and development plan. Highlights of the key policy objectives strategy for the renewable energy subsector include sustaining the supply and efficient use of

text: wood-fuels

text: while ensuring that their utilization does not lead to

text: deforestation

text: . The plan would support

text: private sector

text: investments in the cultivation of

text: bio-fuel

text: feedstock, extraction of

text: bio-oil

text: and its refining into secondary products, thereby creating appropriate financial and tax incentives. The Ghana Renewal Energy Act provides the necessary fiscal incentives for

text: renewable energy

text: development by the private sector, and also details the control and management of

text: bio-fuel

text: and

text: wood- fuel

text: projects in Ghana. The Ghana National Petroleum Authority (NPA) was tasked by the

text: Renewable Energy

text: Act 2011 to price Ghana's

text: bio-fuel

text: blend in accordance with the prescribed

text: petroleum

text: pricing formula.

text: Reliant Energy claims to have made efforts toward more environmentally safe practices through the use of renewable resources such as solar energy, wind power, landfill gas, and coal refuse.

text: Reliant Energy claims to have made efforts toward more environmentally safe practices through the use of renewable resources such as

text: solar energy

text: wind power

text: landfill gas

text: , and

text: coal refuse

text: Gasoline-powered vehicles, also known as "fuelies" or "gassers", run on a mix of gasoline and oil. They cost much more (usually $800–$3000 RTR) than nitro and electric cars. They are also much bigger and therefore require much more space to run. They do not usually have as high top end speeds (compared to nitro and some electrics) but have lots of power and do not take a lot of fuel to run. Over time the cost of a gas-powered car can be less than some nitro-powered vehicles, because of the high cost of nitro fuel and buying new nitro engines to replace worn-out ones. In addition, gas-powered motors rarely if ever require tuning and have a very long lifespan. These gas-powered vehicles really pertain to the individual who is more interested in scale than imagination. These large scale models have been popular in Europe for over a decade and have recently become very popular in the US thanks to companies like HPI Racing and FG Modelsport producing affordable high quality models locally. HPI Racing is the most known gasoline-powered RC car maker, because they have engineered one of the best gas powered rc cars which is the HPI Baja 5B.

text: According to International Energy Agency (IEA) (2011) energy subsidies artificially lower the price of energy paid by consumers, raise the price received by producers or lower the cost of production. "Fossil fuels subsidies costs generally outweigh the benefits. Subsidies to renewables and low-carbon energy technologies can bring long-term economic and environmental benefits". In November 2011, an IEA report entitled Deploying Renewables 2011 said "subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits". The IEA's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand. "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," the IEA said, and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue."

text: According to

text: International Energy Agency

text: (IEA) (2011) energy subsidies artificially lower the price of energy paid by consumers, raise the price received by producers or lower the cost of production. "Fossil fuels subsidies costs generally outweigh the benefits. Subsidies to renewables and low-carbon energy technologies can bring long-term economic and environmental benefits". In November 2011, an IEA report entitled

text: Deploying Renewables 2011

text: said "subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits". The IEA's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand. "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost-competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support," the IEA said, and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue."

text: Anders Eldrup served as Vice President of DONG's board while he was Secretary of State. Over the next years he headed the transformation from DONG to DONG Energy – a merger between DONG and five other Danish energy companies, Elsam, Energi E2, Nesa, Københavns Energi (only the power division) and Frederiksberg Forsyning (only the power division). The merger meant that DONG went from being a Danish company, importing and trading natural gas, to be a North European energy company producing and trading electricity, heat, oil and natural gas and distributing electricity and natural gas.

text: The Government articulated its stance on energy management in general in October 2009. Writing in The Australian Financial Review, the resources minister, Martin Ferguson, acknowledged that withholding resources such as coal (either black or brown) is unlikely to do much to assist in reducing emissions or alter demand. Instead the government hopes to become a world-leading investor in carbon capture and storage technologies, and is expanding Australia's natural gas production, while continuing to support a raft of new coal mining projects worth about $11 billion. The government also has plans to build up the entire renewable energy industry.

text: The Government articulated its stance on energy management in general in October 2009. Writing in

text: The Australian Financial Review

text: , the resources minister,

text: Martin Ferguson

text: , acknowledged that withholding resources such as coal (either

text: black

text: or

text: brown

text: ) is unlikely to do much to assist in reducing emissions or alter demand. Instead the government hopes to become a world-leading investor in

text: carbon capture and storage

text: technologies, and is expanding Australia's natural gas production, while continuing to support a raft of new coal mining projects worth about $11 billion. The government also has plans to build up the entire renewable energy industry.

text: Renewable energy in Chile is a fast growing sector that in 2014 provided 9% of the country's electricity. Chile has vast geothermal, solar and wind energy resources while fossil fuel resources are limited. It has a legislated renewable energy target of 20% by 2025.

text: Renewable energy in Chile is a fast growing sector that in 2014 provided 9% of the

text: country's electricity

text: Chile

text: has vast

text: geothermal

text: solar

text: and

text: wind energy

text: resources while

text: fossil fuel

text: resources are limited. It has a legislated

text: renewable energy target

text: of 20% by 2025.

text: The development of industrial agricultural systems for the food economy is the utilization of energy flows to provide for more economical and widespread production. Although energy flows between trophic levels is an elementary part of life, modern day industrial practices impacts the environment, prompting greater threats to sustainability. In evaluating the efficiency of agricultural systems to support current food consumption and sustain future resources, ecometrics analyzes current use of non-renewable and renewable resources. Energy flows and Efficiency of conversion show that food resources are lost within degree food systems. Next the adverse effects of these components are shown through other process within the production cycle, including the transportation and pesticide impacts of meat and feed production. The impacts of meat consumption are compared to vegetarian consumption. It can be seen that meat production scales the impact of feed production(transportation and pesticide use), and makes additional impacts.

text: The development of industrial agricultural systems for the food economy is the utilization of energy flows to provide for more economical and widespread production. Although energy flows between trophic levels is an elementary part of life, modern day industrial practices impacts the environment, prompting greater threats to sustainability. In evaluating the efficiency of agricultural systems to support current food consumption and sustain future resources, ecometrics analyzes current use of non-renewable and renewable resources.

text: Energy flow

text: s and

text: Efficiency of conversion

text: show that food resources are lost within degree food systems. Next the adverse effects of these components are shown through other process within the production cycle, including the transportation and pesticide impacts of meat and feed production. The impacts of meat consumption are compared to vegetarian consumption. It can be seen that meat production scales the impact of feed production(transportation and pesticide use), and makes additional impacts.

text: Natural gas is a mixture of gases containing approximately 80% methane (CH4) and its heating value varies from about 975 Btu/cf (1.026 Mcf/dth) to 1100 Btu/cf (0.91 Mcf/dth) depending on the mix of different gases in the gas stream. Noncombustible carbon dioxide (CO2) lowers the heating value of natural gas.  Heavier hydrocarbons such as ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), and  butane (C4H10) increase its heating value.  Since customers who buy natural gas are actually buying heat, gas distribution companies who bill by volume routinely adjust their rates to compensate for this.

text: Shale gas is present in the siliceous shales of all three members of the Horn River Formation in northeastern British Columbia, and it is produced in the Greater Sierra oil field north of Fort Nelson. Horizontal drilling and fracturing techniques are used to extract the gas from the low permeability shales. The original-gas-in-place volumes are estimated to be up to 500 Tcf, making it the third largest North American natural gas accumulation discovered prior to 2010.  Companies involved in the extraction of natural gas from the Horn River Shale include EnCana, Apache, EOG, Stone Mountain Resources, Exxon, Quicksilver Resources, Nexen and Devon Energy.

text: Shale gas

text: is present in the siliceous shales of all three members of the Horn River Formation in northeastern British Columbia, and it is produced in the

text: Greater Sierra oil field

text: north of Fort Nelson.

text: Horizontal drilling

text: and

text: fracturing

text: techniques are used to extract the gas from the low

text: permeability

text: shales. The original-gas-in-place volumes are estimated to be up to 500 Tcf, making it the third largest North American natural gas accumulation discovered prior to 2010.  Companies involved in the extraction of natural gas from the Horn River Shale include

text: EnCana

text: Apache

text: EOG

text: , Stone Mountain Resources,

text: Exxon

text: Quicksilver Resources

text: Nexen

text: and

text: Devon Energy

text: Olive oil is the oil obtained solely from the fruit of the olive tree (Olea europaea L.), to the exclusion of oils obtained using solvents or re-esterification processes and of any mixture with oils of other kinds. It is marketed in accordance with the following designations and definitions:

text: Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund (HSTF), established in 1976 by former Alberta Premier Peter Lougheed had three objectives: "to save for the future, to strengthen or diversify the economy, and to improve the quality of life of Albertans." The HSTF operates under the Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund Act and provides "prudent stewardship of the savings from Alberta’s non-renewable resources by providing the greatest financial returns on those savings for current and future generations of Albertans." The Heritage Savings Trust Fund used oil revenues to invest for the long term in such areas as health care, education and research and as a way of ensuring that the exploitation of non-renewable resources would be of long-term benefit to Alberta.  As of 2012, the fund was invested in stocks, bonds, real estate and other ventures, with the aim of generating revenue for the province.

text: Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund (HSTF), established in 1976 by former Alberta Premier

text: Peter Lougheed

text: had three objectives: "to save for the future, to strengthen or diversify the economy, and to improve the quality of life of Albertans." The HSTF operates under the Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund Act and provides "prudent stewardship of the savings from Alberta’s non-renewable resources by providing the greatest financial returns on those savings for current and future generations of Albertans." The Heritage Savings Trust Fund used oil revenues to invest for the long term in such areas as health care, education and research and as a way of ensuring that the exploitation of non-renewable resources would be of long-term benefit to Alberta.  As of 2012, the fund was invested in stocks, bonds, real estate and other ventures, with the aim of generating revenue for the province.

text: However, the use of multiple alternative energy sources, such as solar panels to power generators/compressors, could decrease the need for electricity created by fossil fuels.

text: However, the use of multiple alternative energy sources, such as solar panels to power generators/compressors, could decrease the need for electricity created by

text: fossil fuels

text: The hope is that using renewable resources as feedstocks for chemical processes will reduce the environmental footprint by reducing the demand on non-renewable fossil fuels currently used in the chemical industry and reduce the overall production of carbon dioxide, the most notable greenhouse gas. One NOP producer, Cargill, estimates that its BiOH(TM)polyol manufacturing process produces 36% less global warming emissions (carbon dioxide), a 61% reduction in non-renewable energy use (burning fossil fuels), and a 23% reduction in the total energy demand, all relative to polyols produced from petrochemicals.

text: The hope is that using renewable resources as feedstocks for chemical processes will reduce the

text: environmental footprint

text: by reducing the demand on non-renewable

text: fossil fuels

text: currently used in the chemical industry and reduce the overall production of

text: carbon dioxide

text: , the most notable

text: greenhouse gas

text: . One NOP producer, Cargill, estimates that its BiOH(TM)polyol manufacturing process produces 36% less

text: global warming

text: emissions (carbon dioxide), a 61% reduction in non-renewable energy use (burning fossil fuels), and a 23% reduction in the total energy demand, all relative to polyols produced from

text: petrochemical

text: s.

text: The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined,

text: The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000

text: exajoules

text: (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined,

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.  In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Some places and at least two countries, Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100% renewable energy in the future. For example, in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply (electricity, mobility and heating/cooling) to 100% renewable energy by 2050.

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to

text: other energy sources

text: , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and

text: energy efficiency

text: is resulting in significant

text: energy security

text: climate change mitigation

text: , and economic benefits. The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as

text: greenhouse gas

text: (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.  In international

text: public opinion surveys

text: there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Some places and at least two countries, Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and many other countries have the set a goal to reach

text: 100% renewable energy

text: in the future. For example, in

text: Denmark

text: the government decided to

text: switch the total energy supply

text: (electricity, mobility and heating/cooling) to 100% renewable energy by 2050.

text: Agricultural production and consumption within the economy is the modern human ecosystem. This system has been made feasible as industrial practices and transportation systems have improved, allowing for cost-effective production and distribution across scaled markets. The change of these scales is the expansion of the distance between consumer and producer and the increase in consumer population. Industrial production and distribution of agricultural resources utilizes non-renewable resources and harmful chemicals. As the scales of production and distribution have grown, there has been a corresponding increase in the use of non-renewable and chemical resources.

text: Large reserves of natural gas were discovered off the coast of Bintulu in 1969. Following this, a feasibility study was done in 1975, and Tanjung Kidurong was found to be a suitable site for a deep-water port. On 14 June 1978, Malaysia LNG Sdn Bhd (MLNG Satu) was established by Petronas, a Malaysian national oil and gas company for Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) processing at Bintulu. On 8 July 1978, the Bintulu Development Authority (BDA) was established by the Sarawak state government for infrastructure development and to promote industrial investment in the area. On 15 August 1981, the Bintulu Port Authority was established at Tanjung Kidurong, starting operation on 1 January 1983. Since the establishment of Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) in 2008, Bintulu become the gateway to Samalajau Industrial Park, which is located  away from Bintulu. The industrial park is a centre of heavy, energy-intensive industry. Among the companies that started their operations in the industrial park are Tokuyama Malaysia Sdn Bhd, Press Metal Bintulu Sdn Bhd, and OM Materials Sdn Bhd.

text: Large reserves of natural gas were discovered off the coast of Bintulu in 1969. Following this, a feasibility study was done in 1975, and

text: Tanjung Kidurong

text: was found to be a suitable site for a deep-water port. On 14 June 1978,

text: Malaysia LNG Sdn Bhd

text: (MLNG Satu) was established by

text: Petronas

text: , a Malaysian national oil and gas company for

text: Liquefied Natural Gas

text: (LNG) processing at Bintulu. On 8 July 1978, the

text: Bintulu Development Authority

text: (BDA) was established by the Sarawak state government for

text: infrastructure

text: development and to promote industrial investment in the area. On 15 August 1981, the Bintulu Port Authority was established at Tanjung Kidurong, starting operation on 1 January 1983. Since the establishment of

text: Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy

text: (SCORE) in 2008, Bintulu become the gateway to Samalajau Industrial Park, which is located  away from Bintulu. The industrial park is a centre of heavy, energy-intensive industry. Among the companies that started their operations in the industrial park are

text: Tokuyama Malaysia Sdn Bhd

text: , Press Metal Bintulu Sdn Bhd, and OM Materials Sdn Bhd.

text: Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans. Those termed non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels, only renew over geological timescales.

text: Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans. Those termed

text: non-renewable resources

text: , such as

text: fossil fuel

text: s, only renew over geological timescales.

text: In 2013 the SVP power mix consisted of 24.2% from eligible renewal resources as defined by the California Energy Commission, 43.7% natural gas, 17.7% large hydroelectric, 8.4% coal, and 6.0% from unspecified sources. Total kilowatt-hour (kWh) retail sales in 2014 were 3,052,050,846 kWh.

text: McDonnell advocated making Virginia the energy capital of the East Coast. He supported drilling for oil off of the coast of Virginia while simultaneously developing new technologies for wind, solar, biomass, and other renewable energy resources. He also intended to expand investments in renewable energy sources and incentivize green job creation.

text: McDonnell advocated making Virginia the energy capital of the East Coast. He supported

entity_name: Offshore drilling on the Atlantic coast of the United States

text: drilling for oil

text: off of the coast of Virginia while simultaneously developing new technologies for

text: wind

text: solar

text: biomass

text: , and other

text: renewable energy

text: resources. He also intended to expand investments in renewable energy sources and incentivize green job creation.

text: Energy security is the intersection of national security and the availability of natural resources for energy consumption. Access to cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led to significant vulnerabilities. Threats to energy security include the political instability of several energy producing countries, the manipulation of energy supplies, the competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure, as well as accidents, natural disasters, the funding to foreign dictators, rising terrorism, and dominant countries reliance to the foreign oil supply. The limited supplies, uneven distribution, and rising costs of fossil fuels, such as oil and gas, create a need to change to more sustainable energy sources in the foreseeable future.  With as much dependence that the U.S. currently has for oil and with the peaking limits of oil production; economies and societies will begin to feel the decline in the resource that we have become dependent upon.  Energy security has become one of the leading issues in the world today as oil and other resources have become as vital to the world's people.  However, with oil production rates decreasing and oil production peak nearing the world has come to protect what resources we have left in the world.  With new advancements in renewable resources less pressure has been put on companies that produce the world's oil, these resources are, geothermal, solar power, wind power and hydro-electric.  Although these are not all the current and possible future options for the world to turn to as the oil depletes the most important issue is protecting these vital resources from future threats.  These new resources will become more useful as the price of exporting and importing oil will increase due to increase of demand.

text: Energy security is the intersection of

text: national security

text: and the availability of

text: natural resource

text: s for

text: energy

text: consumption. Access to cheap

text: energy

text: has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led to significant vulnerabilities. Threats to energy security include the political instability of several energy producing countries, the manipulation of energy supplies, the competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure, as well as accidents, natural disasters, the funding to foreign dictators, rising terrorism, and dominant countries reliance to the foreign oil supply. The limited supplies, uneven distribution, and rising costs of

text: fossil fuels

text: , such as oil and gas, create a need to change to more

text: sustainable energy

text: sources in the foreseeable future.  With as much dependence that the U.S. currently has for oil and with the peaking limits of oil production; economies and societies will begin to feel the decline in the resource that we have become dependent upon.  Energy security has become one of the leading issues in the world today as oil and other resources have become as vital to the world's people.  However, with oil production rates decreasing and oil production peak nearing the world has come to protect what resources we have left in the world.  With new advancements in renewable resources less pressure has been put on companies that produce the world's oil, these resources are, geothermal, solar power, wind power and hydro-electric.  Although these are not all the current and possible future options for the world to turn to as the oil depletes the most important issue is protecting these vital resources from future threats.  These new resources will become more useful as the price of exporting and importing oil will increase due to increase of demand.

text: The combustion of fossil fuels produces greenhouse gases and other air pollutants as by-products. Pollutants include nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile organic compounds and heavy metals.

text: The combustion of fossil fuels produces

text: greenhouse gases

text: and other air pollutants as by-products. Pollutants include

text: nitrogen oxide

text: s,

text: sulphur dioxide

text: volatile organic compound

text: s and

text: heavy metals

text: Carbon dioxide emitting fossil fuels continue to be abundant and their prices are consequently low accounting in 2010 for over 80% of the world's energy needs. Advanced recovery technologies like horizontal drilling, offshore oil production, and oil sand recovery technologies continue to push back the threshold of Peak Oil and with it the high prices seen necessary to foster the development of viable alternative energy technologies that can replace fossil fuels in a post-hydrocarbon economy. Renewables in 2010 accounted for 16.7% of the world's energy, however Biomass energy accounted for 11.4% meaning that non-carbon dioxide producing renewables accounted for only 4.9% of the world's energy use with the vast majority of that renewable energy coming from hydroelectric production at 3.34% further leaving 1.56% of renewable energy derived from newer advanced technologies like ethanol, biodiesel, wind, solar, ocean power and geothermal (see graph to right).

text: Carbon dioxide emitting fossil fuels continue to be abundant and their prices are consequently low accounting in 2010 for over 80% of the world's energy needs. Advanced recovery technologies like horizontal drilling, offshore oil production, and oil sand recovery technologies continue to push back the threshold of

text: Peak Oil

text: and with it the high prices seen necessary to foster the development of viable alternative energy technologies that can replace fossil fuels in a post-hydrocarbon economy. Renewables in 2010 accounted for 16.7% of the world's energy, however

text: Biomass energy

text: accounted for 11.4% meaning that non-carbon dioxide producing renewables accounted for only 4.9% of the world's energy use with the vast majority of that renewable energy coming from hydroelectric production at 3.34% further leaving 1.56% of renewable energy derived from newer advanced technologies like ethanol, biodiesel, wind, solar, ocean power and geothermal (see graph to right).

text: Gore was criticized by the TCPR again in June 2008, after the group obtained his public utility bills from the Nashville Electric Service and compared "electricity consumption between the 12 months before June 2007, when it says he installed his new technology, and the year since then." According to their analysis, the Gores consumed 10% more energy in the year since their home received its eco-friendly modifications. TCPR also argued that, while the "average American household consumes 11,040 kWh in an entire year," the Gore residence "uses an average of 17,768 kWh per month –1,638 kWh more energy per month than before the renovations." Gore's spokeswoman Kalee Kreider countered the claim by stating that the Gores' "utility bills have gone down 40 percent since the green retrofit." and that "the three-year renovation on the home wasn't complete until November, so it's a bit early to attempt a before-and-after comparison." She also noted that TCPR did not include Gore's gas bill in their analysis (which they had done the previous year) and that the gas "bill has gone down 90 percent [...] And when the Gores do power up, they pay for renewable resources, like wind and solar power or methane gas."Media Matters for America also discussed the fact that "100 percent of the electricity in his home comes from green power" and quoted the Tennessee Valley Authority as stating that "[a]lthough no source of energy is impact-free, renewable resources create less waste and pollution."

text: Gore was criticized by the TCPR again in June 2008, after the group obtained his public utility bills from the

text: Nashville Electric Service

text: and compared "electricity consumption between the 12 months before June 2007, when it says he installed his new technology, and the year since then." According to their analysis, the Gores consumed 10% more energy in the year since their home received its eco-friendly modifications. TCPR also argued that, while the "average American household consumes 11,040 kWh in an entire year," the Gore residence "uses an average of 17,768 kWh per month –1,638 kWh more energy per month than before the renovations." Gore's spokeswoman Kalee Kreider countered the claim by stating that the Gores' "utility bills have gone down 40 percent since the green retrofit." and that "the three-year renovation on the home wasn't complete until November, so it's a bit early to attempt a before-and-after comparison." She also noted that TCPR did not include Gore's gas bill in their analysis (which they had done the previous year) and that the gas "bill has gone down 90 percent [...] And when the Gores do power up, they pay for renewable resources, like wind and solar power or methane gas."

text: Media Matters for America

text: also discussed the fact that "100 percent of the electricity in his home comes from green power" and quoted the

text: Tennessee Valley Authority

text: as stating that "[a]lthough no source of energy is impact-free, renewable resources create less waste and pollution."

text: The bill would make appropriations for FY2015 to the United States Department of Energy (DOE) for energy and science programs, including: (1) energy efficiency and renewable energy, (2) electricity delivery and energy reliability, (3) nuclear energy, (4) fossil energy research and development, (5) naval petroleum and oil shale reserves, (6) the Elk Hills School Lands Fund, (7) the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) and the Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve, (8) the Energy Information Administration, (9) non-defense environmental cleanup, (10) the Uranium Enrichment Decontamination and Decommissioning Fund, (11) science activities, (12) Nuclear Waste Disposal, (13) the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), (14) the Title 17 Innovative Technology Loan Guarantee Loan Program, (15) the Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program, (16) departmental administration, (17) the Office of the Inspector General, (18) the National Nuclear Security Administration and atomic energy defense weapons activities, (19) defense nuclear nonproliferation activities, (20) naval reactors activities, (21) Office of the Administrator in the National Nuclear Security Administration, (22) defense environmental cleanup, and (23) other defense activities.

text: The bill would make appropriations for FY2015 to the

text: United States Department of Energy

text: energy efficiency

text: and

text: renewable energy

text: nuclear energy

text: , (4) fossil energy research and development, (5) naval

text: petroleum

text: and

text: oil shale

text: reserves, (6) the

text: Elk Hills School Lands Fund

text: , (7) the

text: Strategic Petroleum Reserve

text: (SPR) and the

text: Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve

text: , (8) the

text: Energy Information Administration

text: , (9) non-defense environmental cleanup, (10) the

text: Uranium Enrichment Decontamination and Decommissioning Fund

text: , (11) science activities, (12)

text: Nuclear Waste Disposal

text: , (13) the

text: (ARPA-E), (14) the Title 17 Innovative Technology Loan Guarantee Loan Program, (15) the

entity_name: Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program

text: Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program

text: , (16) departmental administration, (17) the Office of the Inspector General, (18) the

text: and atomic energy defense weapons activities, (19) defense nuclear nonproliferation activities, (20) naval reactors activities, (21) Office of the Administrator in the National Nuclear Security Administration, (22) defense environmental cleanup, and (23) other defense activities.

text: Oil is extracted from both the pulp of the fruit (palm oil, an edible oil) and the kernel (palm kernel oil, used in foods and for soap manufacture). For every 100 kg of fruit bunches, typically 22 kg of palm oil and 1.6 kg of palm kernel oil can be extracted.

text: Oil is extracted from both the pulp of the fruit (

text: palm oil

text: , an edible oil) and the kernel (

text: palm kernel oil

text: , used in foods and for

text: soap

text: manufacture). For every 100 kg of fruit bunches, typically 22 kg of palm oil and 1.6 kg of palm kernel oil can be extracted.

text: If "possible and economically sensible", renewable energy will be used directly in all sectors, and electricity from renewable sources will be used efficiently for heating, transport, and industry.  The utilization of biomass will be limited and sourced mostly from waste.  The plan states that transitioning to a power supply based on renewables while ensuring supply security is "technically feasible".  During the transition, "less carbon-intensive natural gas power plants and the existing most modern coal power plants play an important role as interim technologies".

text: Rep. Hastings, who introduced the bill, argued that "the current turmoil in Iraq has already caused the price of gasoline to increase, and it serves as an important reminder of why we need to increase production here at home" because it is the "best way to protect ourselves from price spikes caused by international conflicts." Hastings blamed President Obama for the high gas prices, saying that "since President Obama took office, gasoline prices have doubled and our federal energy resources have been put under tight lock-and-key." Hastings also argued that the bill would "create over 1 million new American jobs."

text: By contrast, Fossil-fuel consumption subsidies were $409 billion in 2010, oil products ca half of it. Renewable-energy subsidies were $66 billion in 2010 and will reach according to IEA $250 billion by 2035. Renewable energy is subsidized in order to compete in the market, increase their volume and develop the technology so that the subsidies become unnecessary with the development. Eliminating fossil-fuel subsidies could bring economic and environmental benefits. Phasing out fossil-fuel subsidies by 2020 would cut primary energy demand 5%. Since the start of 2010, at least 15 countries have taken steps to phase out fossil-fuel subsidies.  According to IEA onshore wind may become competitive around 2020 in the European Union.

text: Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity.  Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially dangerous radioactive contamination as it relies upon unstable elements.  In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of low and intermediate level waste (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of high level waste (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.

text: Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity.  Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially dangerous

text: radioactive contamination

text: as it relies upon unstable elements.  In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of

text: low and intermediate level waste

text: (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of

text: high level waste

text: (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.

text: For some countries, nuclear power affords energy independence. In the words of the French, "We have no coal, we have no oil, we have no gas, we have no choice." Japan—similarly lacking in indigenous natural resources for power supply—relied on nuclear power for 1/3 of its energy mix prior to the Fukushima nuclear disaster; since March 2011, Japan has sought to offset the loss of nuclear power with increased reliance on imported liquefied natural gas, which has led to the country's first trade deficits in decades. Therefore, the discussion of a future for nuclear energy is intertwined with a discussion of energy security and the use of energy mix, including renewable energy development.

text: For some countries, nuclear power affords energy independence. In the words of the French, "We have no

text: coal

text: , we have no

text: oil

text: , we have no

text: gas

text: , we have no choice." Japan—similarly lacking in indigenous natural resources for power supply—relied on nuclear power for 1/3 of its energy mix prior to the Fukushima nuclear disaster; since March 2011, Japan has sought to offset the loss of nuclear power with increased reliance on imported liquefied natural gas, which has led to the country's first trade deficits in decades. Therefore, the discussion of a future for nuclear energy is intertwined with a discussion of

text: energy security

text: and the use of energy mix, including

text: renewable energy development

text: A 1997 report by the United States Department of Energy found available domestic solar energy (including biomass) technically accessible regardless of cost amounted to 586,687 Quadrillion BTUs (Quads); 95% of this was biomass. Coal represented the second largest resource, a distant 38,147 Quads. Predictions of how much solar power was economically feasible to collect amounted to 352 quads, compared with 5,266 quads from coal. The assumptions used in the report were based on a predicted 2010 price of a barrel of oil being $38, and multiplied annual renewable resources by 30 for comparison with non-renewable resources. The total annual energy consumption of the United States in 2007 was approximately 100 Quads, less than 0.5% of what is theoretically available from sunlight.

text: A 1997 report by the

text: United States Department of Energy

text: found available domestic solar energy (including biomass) technically accessible regardless of cost amounted to 586,687 Quadrillion BTUs (Quads); 95% of this was biomass. Coal represented the second largest resource, a distant 38,147 Quads. Predictions of how much solar power was economically feasible to collect amounted to 352 quads, compared with 5,266 quads from coal. The assumptions used in the report were based on a predicted 2010 price of a barrel of oil being $38, and multiplied annual renewable resources by 30 for comparison with non-renewable resources. The total annual energy consumption of the United States in 2007 was approximately 100 Quads, less than 0.5% of what is theoretically available from sunlight.

text: Besides the greening of fossil fuel and nuclear power plants, another option is the distribution and immediate use of power from solely renewable sources. In this set-up energy storage is again not necessary. For example, TREC has proposed to distribute solar power from the Sahara to Europe. Europe can distribute wind and ocean power to the Sahara and other countries. In this way, power is produced at any given time as at any point of the planet as the sun or the wind is up or ocean waves and currents are stirring. This option however is probably not possible in the short-term, as fossil fuel and nuclear power are still the main sources of energy on the mains electricity net and replacing them will not be possible overnight.

text: Besides the greening of fossil fuel and nuclear power plants, another option is the distribution and immediate use of power from solely renewable sources. In this set-up energy storage is again not necessary. For example,

text: TREC

text: has proposed to distribute solar power from the Sahara to Europe. Europe can distribute wind and ocean power to the Sahara and other countries. In this way, power is produced at any given time as at any point of the planet as the sun or the wind is up or ocean waves and currents are stirring. This option however is probably not possible in the short-term, as fossil fuel and nuclear power are still the main sources of energy on the mains electricity net and replacing them will not be possible overnight.

text: The supply of oil is dependent on geological discovery, the legal and tax framework for oil extraction, the cost of extraction, the availability and cost of technology for extraction, and the political situation in oil-producing countries. Both domestic political instability in oil producing countries and conflicts with other countries can destabilise the oil price. In 2008 the New York Times reported, for example, in the 1940s the price of oil was about $17 rising to just over $20 during the Korean War (1951–1953). During the Vietnam War (1950s1970s) the price of oil slowly declined to under $20. During the Arab oil embargo of 1973—the first oil shock—the price of oil rapidly rose to double in price. During the 1979 Iranian Revolution the price of oil rose. During the second oil shock the price of oil peaked in April 1980 at $103.76. During the 1980s there was a period of "conservation and insulation efforts" and the price of oil dropped slowly to . It again reached a peak of c. $65 during the 1990 Persian Gulf crisis and war. Following that, there was a period of global recessions and the price of oil hit a low of  before it peaked at a high of $45 on September 11, 2001 only to drop again to a low of $26 on May 8, 2003. The price rose to $80 with the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. By March 3, 2008 the price of oil reached $103.95 a barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange.

text: The supply of oil is dependent on geological discovery, the legal and tax framework for oil extraction, the cost of extraction, the availability and cost of technology for extraction, and the political situation in oil-producing countries. Both domestic political instability in oil producing countries and conflicts with other countries can destabilise the oil price. In 2008 the

text: New York Times

text: reported, for example, in the 1940s the price of oil was about $17 rising to just over $20 during the

text: Korean War

text: (1951–1953). During the

text: Vietnam War

text: (1950s1970s) the price of oil slowly declined to under $20. During the

text: Arab oil embargo of 1973

text: —the first oil shock—the price of oil rapidly rose to double in price. During the 1979

text: Iranian Revolution

text: the price of oil rose. During the second oil shock the price of oil peaked in April 1980 at $103.76. During the

text: there was a period of "conservation and insulation efforts" and the price of oil dropped slowly to . It again

text: reached a peak

text: of c. $65 during the

text: 1990 Persian Gulf crisis and war.

text: Following that, there was a period of global recessions and the price of oil hit a low of  before it peaked at a high of $45 on

text: September 11, 2001

text: only to drop again to a low of $26 on May 8, 2003. The price rose to $80 with the U.S.-led

text: invasion of Iraq.

text: By March 3, 2008 the price of oil reached $103.95 a barrel on the New York Mercantile Exchange.

text: An abundance of natural resources such as coal, iron and zinc contributed significantly to the industrial growth of Scotland during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, energy is a major component of Scotland's economy. Whilst Scotland is the largest producer of petroleum in the European Union, the production potential of renewable energy has emerged as an important economic and environmental issue in recent years.

text: An abundance of natural resources such as

text: coal

text: iron

text: and

text: zinc

text: contributed significantly to the industrial growth of Scotland during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Today,

text: energy

text: is a major component of Scotland's economy. Whilst Scotland is the largest producer of

text: petroleum

text: in the

text: European Union

text: , the production potential of

text: renewable energy

text: has emerged as an important economic and environmental issue in recent years.

text: The 2000s saw a slight economic boom to the city. The industrial base within the city, while most were not coal related, gave opportunity to a number of city residents. American Coal and Arclar, the only two coal mines in the county were producing low sulfur coal as an energy resource. Kerr-McGee Coal Corporation's Galatia Complex was purchased by the American Coal Company in 1998. American Coal employed about 580 workers, while Arclar employed 175 persons. Nationwide Glove Factory employed 225 persons, and American Needle was the second-largest non coal company with 125 workers. Southern Truss and Harrisburg Truss companies employed together 100 employees manufacturing building components. In 2008 construction on the Harrisburg Wal-Mart Supercenter was completed. Wal-Mart will give $21,950 in grants to the Anna Bixby Women's Center, Bridge Medical Clinic, CASA of Saline County, Harrisburg District Library, Harrisburg Police Department, Harvest Deliverance Center Food Pantry, Regional Superintendent of Schools, Saline County Senior Citizens Council and Saline County Sheriff's Department. The building is  and added 150 new jobs to the county. The Supercenter became the second-largest employer in the city, with 340 employees on its payroll. A new strip mall was completed on the south side of town, and Parker Plaza, the oldest shopping center in town was renovated with a new facade to promote commercial growth in the city.

text: The

text: saw a slight economic boom to the city. The industrial base within the city, while most were not coal related, gave opportunity to a number of city residents. American Coal and Arclar, the only two coal mines in the county were producing low

text: sulfur

text: coal as an energy resource.

text: Kerr-McGee

text: Coal Corporation's Galatia Complex was purchased by the American Coal Company in 1998. American Coal employed about 580 workers, while Arclar employed 175 persons. Nationwide Glove Factory employed 225 persons, and American Needle was the second-largest non coal company with 125 workers. Southern Truss and Harrisburg Truss companies employed together 100 employees manufacturing building components. In 2008 construction on the Harrisburg

text: Wal-Mart

text: Supercenter was completed. Wal-Mart will give $21,950 in grants to the Anna Bixby Women's Center, Bridge Medical Clinic, CASA of Saline County, Harrisburg District Library, Harrisburg Police Department, Harvest Deliverance Center Food Pantry, Regional Superintendent of Schools, Saline County Senior Citizens Council and Saline County Sheriff's Department. The building is  and added 150 new jobs to the county. The Supercenter became the second-largest employer in the city, with 340 employees on its payroll. A new strip mall was completed on the south side of town, and Parker Plaza, the oldest shopping center in town was renovated with a new facade to promote commercial growth in the city.

text: 1993	Unitil founds Unitil Resources, Inc. as a non-utility subsidiary. Its affiliate, Usource LLC., provides energy brokerage services to large energy users throughout the northeast seeking competitive electricity or natural gas supply.

text: Globally, we can measure how much the human economy demands against what the biosphere can renew. One accounting approach is the ecological footprint. Footprint accounting measures the demand on biocapacity, i.e., area of biologically productive land and water required to produce the ecological services (including resource regeneration and waste absorption) for a given population. Biocapacity encompasses the biologically productive capacity of all of the planet's surface areas – cropland, grazing land, forest, fresh water etc. Footprint accounts include non-renewable resources like fossil fuels and other minerals in as far as their use puts a demand on biocapacity. Some demands are difficult to measure and are not included in the accounts – hence the results tend to underestimate dependency. Ecological footprint and biocapacity are measured in global hectares (hectares with world average biological productivity). Thus increased productivity would reduce dependency; while increased population or consumption per head would increase it.

text: Globally, we can measure how much the human economy demands against what the biosphere can renew. One accounting approach is the

text: ecological footprint

text: . Footprint accounting measures the demand on

text: biocapacity

text: , i.e., area of biologically productive land and water required to produce the ecological services (including resource regeneration and waste absorption) for a given population. Biocapacity encompasses the biologically productive capacity of all of the planet's surface areas – cropland, grazing land, forest, fresh water etc. Footprint accounts include non-renewable resources like fossil fuels and other minerals in as far as their use puts a demand on biocapacity. Some demands are difficult to measure and are not included in the accounts – hence the results tend to underestimate dependency. Ecological footprint and biocapacity are measured in global hectares (hectares with world average biological productivity). Thus increased productivity would reduce dependency; while increased population or consumption per head would increase it.

text: A 2008 estimate set the total world resources of oil shale at 689 gigatons — equivalent to yield of  of shale oil, with the largest resource deposits in the United States, which is thought to have , though only a part of it is recoverable.  According to the 2010 World Energy Outlook by the International Energy Agency, the world oil shale resources may be equivalent of more than  of oil in place of which more than  may be technically recoverable.  For comparison, the world's proven conventional oil reserves are estimated to be , as of 1 January 2007.

text: gigaton

text: s — equivalent to yield of  of shale oil, with the largest resource deposits in the

text: United States

text: 2010 World Energy Outlook

text: by the

text: International Energy Agency

text: , the world oil shale resources may be equivalent of more than  of

text: oil in place

text: of which more than  may be technically recoverable.  For comparison, the world's proven conventional

text: oil reserves

text: are estimated to be , as of 1 January 2007.

text: In addition, South Africa alone obtains the sixth largest coal reserves on the planet, after China, the US, India, Russia and Australia. Specific renewable resources in South Africa include solar, wind, hydropower, wave energy, and bio-energy.

text: The objective of DLR’s aeronautics research is to strengthen the competitive advantage of the national and European aeronautical industry and aviation sector, and to meet political and social demands – for instance with regard to climate-friendly aviation. German space research activities range from experiments under conditions of weightlessness to the exploration of other planets and environmental monitoring from space. In addition to these activities, DLR performs tasks of public authority pertaining to the planning and implementation of the German space programme, in its capacity as the official space agency of the Federal Republic of Germany. DLR’s Project Management Agency (German: Projektträger im DLR) has also been entrusted with tasks of public authority pertaining to the administration of subsidies. In the field of energy research, DLR is working on highly efficient, low- power generation technologies based on gas turbines and fuel cells, on solar thermal power generation, and on the efficient use of heat, including cogeneration based on fossil and renewable energy sources. The topics covered by DLR’s transportation research are maintaining mobility, protecting the environment and saving resources, and improving transportation safety.

text: The objective of DLR’s

text: aeronautics

text: research is to strengthen the competitive advantage of the national and European aeronautical industry and aviation sector, and to meet political and social demands – for instance with regard to climate-friendly aviation. German

text: space research

text: activities range from experiments under conditions of weightlessness to the exploration of other planets and environmental monitoring from space. In addition to these activities, DLR performs tasks of public authority pertaining to the planning and implementation of the German space programme, in its capacity as the official space agency of the Federal Republic of Germany. DLR’s Project Management Agency (German: Projektträger im DLR) has also been entrusted with tasks of public authority pertaining to the administration of subsidies. In the field of

text: energy research

text: , DLR is working on highly efficient, low- power generation technologies based on gas turbines and fuel cells, on solar thermal power generation, and on the efficient use of heat, including

text: cogeneration

text: based on fossil and renewable energy sources. The topics covered by DLR’s

text: transportation research

text: are maintaining mobility, protecting the environment and saving resources, and improving transportation safety.

text: Government agencies worldwide have struggled with finding new and innovative approaches to address the growing problem of air pollution and global warming. Experts in the field have recognized the importance of developing solutions to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Most proposed strategies to mitigate global climate change focus on reducing the dominant source of GHG emissions to the atmosphere – combustion of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide emissions represent about 84 percent of total U.S. GHG emissions. In the United States, most carbon dioxide (98 percent) is emitted as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels; consequently, carbon dioxide emissions and energy use are highly correlated.

text: Government agencies worldwide have struggled with finding new and innovative approaches to address the growing problem of air pollution and global warming. Experts in the field have recognized the importance of developing solutions to reduce

text: greenhouse gas

text: (GHG) emissions. Most proposed strategies to mitigate global

text: climate change

text: focus on reducing the dominant source of GHG emissions to the atmosphere – combustion of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide emissions represent about 84 percent of total U.S. GHG emissions. In the United States, most carbon dioxide (98 percent) is emitted as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels; consequently, carbon dioxide emissions and energy use are highly correlated.

text: Reform Party (a group largely sympathetic toward the Republican Party following annexation) member Lorrin Thurston was a strong supporter of the formation of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Governor Lingle proposed a Clean Energy Initiative to encourage and promote clean and renewable energy reasorces. The goal of the Initiative is to make Hawaii 70% energy self-sustainable by 2030. The indicative uses solar, wind, ocean, geothermal, and biomass as energy resources and a phased reduction in the use of fossil fuels.

text: Reform Party

text: (a group largely sympathetic toward the Republican Party following annexation) member

text: Lorrin Thurston

text: was a strong supporter of the formation of

text: Hawaii Volcanoes National Park

text: . Governor Lingle proposed a Clean Energy Initiative to encourage and promote clean and renewable energy reasorces. The goal of the Initiative is to make Hawaii 70% energy self-sustainable by 2030. The indicative uses

text: solar

text: wind

text: ocean

text: geothermal

text: , and

text: biomass

text: as energy resources and a phased reduction in the use of

text: fossil fuels

text: Nuclear potential energy is the potential energy of the particles inside an atomic nucleus. The nuclear particles are bound together by the strong nuclear force. Weak nuclear forces provide the potential energy for certain kinds of radioactive decay, such as beta decay.

text: Nuclear potential energy is the potential energy of the

text: particles

text: inside an

text: atomic nucleus

text: . The nuclear particles are bound together by the

text: strong nuclear force

text: Weak nuclear force

text: s provide the potential energy for certain kinds of radioactive decay, such as

text: beta decay

text: Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.4% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing very rapidly.

text: Renewable energy is

text: energy

text: which comes from

text: natural resource

text: s such as

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: , which are

text: renewable

text: (naturally replenished). About 16% of global final energy consumption comes from renewables, with 10% coming from traditional

text: biomass

text: , which is mainly used for

text: heating

text: , and 3.4% from

text: hydroelectricity

text: . New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) account for another 3% and are growing very rapidly.

text: Climate Code Red states that the key strategies for cutting greenhouse gas emissions to zero are resource efficiency backed up by the substitution of renewable energy for fossil fuel sources. The report sites ultra-efficient technologies and synergies, and wind power as ways in which to tackle the climate change problem within Australia.

text: Climate Code Red

text: states that the key strategies for cutting greenhouse gas emissions to zero are resource efficiency backed up by the substitution of renewable energy for fossil fuel sources. The report sites ultra-efficient technologies and synergies, and wind power as ways in which to tackle the climate change problem within Australia.

text: In the Directive 2001/77/EC, otherwise known as the RES-E Directive, the European Union stated a goal to have 22% of the total energy consumed by member states to be produced from renewable energy resources by 2010. As a result, Ireland, in a report titled "Policy Consideration for Renewable Electricity to 2010", made the commitment to have 4% of its total energy consumption come from renewable energy resources by 2002 and 13.2% by 2010. The Department of Communications Marine and Natural Resources (DCMNR) founded the Renewable Energy Group (REG) which established the short term analysis group (STAG) to investigate a means of accomplishing this goal. To meet the 2010 target of 13.2%, 1,432 MW of electricity will need to be generated from renewable resources with 1,100 MW being generated from wind resources both onshore and offshore.

text: In the

text: Directive

text: 2001/77/EC, otherwise known as the RES-E Directive, the

text: European Union

text: stated a goal to have 22% of the total energy consumed by member states to be produced from renewable energy resources by 2010. As a result, Ireland, in a report titled "Policy Consideration for Renewable Electricity to 2010", made the commitment to have 4% of its total energy consumption come from renewable energy resources by 2002 and 13.2% by 2010. The Department of Communications Marine and Natural Resources (DCMNR) founded the Renewable Energy Group (REG) which established the short term analysis group (STAG) to investigate a means of accomplishing this goal. To meet the 2010 target of 13.2%, 1,432 MW of electricity will need to be generated from renewable resources with 1,100 MW being generated from wind resources both onshore and offshore.

text: The incentive to use 100% renewable energy for electricity, heating and cooling and transport is motivated by global warming, pollution and other ecological as well as economic and energy security concerns. Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system. In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand. Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated.

text: The incentive to use 100%

text: renewable energy

text: for electricity, heating and cooling and transport is motivated by

text: global warming

text: , pollution and other ecological as well as economic and

text: energy security

text: concerns. Shifting the total global

text: primary energy

text: supply to renewable sources requires a

text: transition of the energy system

text: . In 2013 the

text: has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand.

text: Renewable energy use

text: has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated.

text: The term "shale oil" is also used for crude oil produced from shales of other very low permeability formations.  However, to reduce the risk of confusion of shale oil produced from oil shale with crude oil in oil-bearing shales, the term "tight oil" is preferred for the latter.  The International Energy Agency recommends to use the term "light tight oil" and World Energy Resources 2013 report by the World Energy Council uses the term "tight oil" for crude oil in oil-bearing shales.

text: The term "shale oil" is also used for crude oil produced from shales of other very low permeability formations.  However, to reduce the risk of confusion of shale oil produced from oil shale with crude oil in oil-bearing shales, the term "

text: tight oil

text: " is preferred for the latter.  The

text: International Energy Agency

text: recommends to use the term "

text: light tight oil

text: " and World Energy Resources 2013 report by the

text: World Energy Council

text: uses the term "

text: tight oil

text: " for crude oil in oil-bearing shales.

text: In developing countries the challenges are slightly different.  Developing countries see carbon dioxide emitting fossil fuels as a cost effective and proven energy source to fuel their growing economies.  Sometimes renewable energy technologies are not readily available to developing countries because of cost or due to export restrictions from developed countries who own those technologies.

text: Energy from any grid-tied source is bought and sold with contracts specifying the generator and purchaser. In the trade of renewable energy, RECs specify that a unit of renewable energy was generated.  Because once electricity is placed on the electrical grid it mixes with electricity from multiple sources and becomes indistinguishable, RECs are used to track the ownership of environmental and social benefits of the renewable energy.  The majority of RECs are sold separately from the electricity itself.  In these cases, the electricity is sold as "null" energy without its environmental and social benefits, as if it were generated by non-renewable resources such as coal, nuclear or natural gas.  When RECs are purchased in combination with non-renewable electricity this constitutes the legal purchase of renewable energy.  This is how electrical grid connected renewable energy is traded in the U.S.  Grid-connected renewable energy is used by electric utility companies in meeting their regulatory requirements and by individuals and businesses wishing to lessen their environmental impact.  RECs allow for purchasers to support renewable energy generation and allows the economic forces of supply and demand to spur the further development of renewable energy generation.

text: Energy from any grid-tied source is bought and sold with contracts specifying the generator and purchaser. In the trade of renewable energy, RECs specify that a unit of renewable energy was generated.  Because once electricity is placed on the

text: electrical grid

text: it mixes with electricity from multiple sources and becomes indistinguishable, RECs are used to track the ownership of environmental and social benefits of the renewable energy.  The majority of RECs are sold separately from the electricity itself.  In these cases, the electricity is sold as "null" energy without its environmental and social benefits, as if it were generated by non-renewable resources such as coal, nuclear or natural gas.  When RECs are purchased in combination with non-renewable electricity this constitutes the legal purchase of renewable energy.  This is how

text: electrical grid

text: connected renewable energy is traded in the U.S.  Grid-connected renewable energy is used by electric utility companies in meeting their regulatory requirements and by individuals and businesses wishing to lessen their environmental impact.  RECs allow for purchasers to support renewable energy generation and allows the economic forces of supply and demand to spur the further development of renewable energy generation.

text: Only about 40% of coal is produced directly by the company, 60% comes from subsidiaries.  Three fourths of the company's 60 mines are underground operations.  In 2008 the biggest source of coal production, the Powder River Basin (53% = 49.2mt) was home to only 32% of coal reserves (behind U.S. Northern Appalachia (35% = 800mt) and Central Appalachia (32%, thermal coal).  After the merger with Massey the company controlled 150 coal mines and 40 preparation plants which was up significantly from the 65 mines under its control at the end of 2007.  For 2011 Massey expected to ship 10 to 14 million tons of metallurgical coal, about the same as Alpha (in 2010 was 11.88 million tons or 14% of total production).  In its last annual report (2009) Massey Energy reported coal sales of 38 million tons (ranking sixth in the USA), that compares to 84.8 million tons sold by Alpha Natural Resources in 2010.  In the fourth quarter of 2010 Massey Energy had a coal shipment shortfall of 1.4 million tons half of which was due to rail problems the other half a result of misproduction.

text: Only about 40% of coal is produced directly by the company, 60% comes from subsidiaries.  Three fourths of the company's 60 mines are underground operations.  In 2008 the biggest source of coal production, the

text: Powder River Basin

text: (53% = 49.2mt) was home to only 32% of coal reserves (behind U.S. Northern Appalachia (35% = 800mt) and Central Appalachia (32%, thermal coal).  After the merger with Massey the company controlled 150 coal mines and 40 preparation plants which was up significantly from the 65 mines under its control at the end of 2007.  For 2011 Massey expected to ship 10 to 14 million tons of metallurgical coal, about the same as Alpha (in 2010 was 11.88 million tons or 14% of total production).  In its last annual report (2009) Massey Energy reported coal sales of 38 million tons (ranking sixth in the USA), that compares to 84.8 million tons sold by Alpha Natural Resources in 2010.  In the fourth quarter of 2010 Massey Energy had a coal shipment shortfall of 1.4 million tons half of which was due to rail problems the other half a result of misproduction.

text: Heavy crude oil, which is much more viscous than conventional crude oil, and tar sands, where bitumen is found mixed with sand and clay, are becoming more important as sources of fossil fuel. Oil shale and similar materials are sedimentary rocks containing kerogen, a complex mixture of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which yield synthetic crude oil when heated (pyrolyzed). These materials have yet to be exploited commercially. These fuels can be employed in internal combustion engines, fossil fuel power stations and other uses.

text: Heavy crude oil

text: , which is much more viscous than conventional crude oil, and

text: tar sands

text: , where

text: bitumen

text: is found mixed with sand and clay, are becoming more important as sources of fossil fuel.

text: Oil shale

text: and similar materials are

text: sedimentary

text: rocks containing

text: kerogen

text: , a complex mixture of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which yield

text: synthetic crude oil

text: when heated (

text: pyrolyzed

text: ). These materials have yet to be exploited commercially. These fuels can be employed in internal combustion engines,

text: fossil fuel power station

text: s and other uses.

text: Gasoline contains about 42.4 MJ/kg (120 MJ/US gal, 33.3 kWh/US gal, 11.8 kWh/kg, 120,000 BTU/US gal) quoting the lower heating value. Gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies according to the season and producer by up to 1.75% more or less than the average. On average, about 74 L of gasoline (19.5 US gal, 16.3 imp gal) are available from a barrel of crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude and grade of gasoline. The remainder are products ranging from tar to naphtha.

text: Gasoline contains about 42.4

text: MJ

text: /kg (120 MJ/US gal, 33.3 kWh/US gal, 11.8 kWh/kg, 120,000 BTU/US gal) quoting the lower heating value. Gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies according to the season and producer by up to 1.75% more or less than the average. On average, about 74 L of gasoline (19.5 US gal, 16.3 imp gal) are available from a barrel of crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude and grade of gasoline. The remainder are products ranging from tar to

text: naphtha

text: Geothermal energy is produced by tapping into the thermal energy created and stored within the earth. It arises from the radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium and other elements found in the Earth's crust. Geothermal energy can be obtained by drilling into the ground, very similar to oil exploration, and then it is carried by a heat-transfer fluid (e.g. water, brine or steam). Geothermal systems that are mainly dominated by water have the potential to provide greater benefits to the system and will generate more power. Within these liquid-dominated systems, there are possible concerns of subsidence and contamination of ground-water resources. Therefore, protection of ground-water resources is necessary in these systems. This means that careful reservoir production and engineering is necessary in liquid-dominated geothermal reservoir systems. Geothermal energy is considered sustainable because that thermal energy is constantly replenished. However, the science of geothermal energy generation is still young and developing economic viability. Several entities, such as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories are conducting research toward the goal of establishing a proven science around geothermal energy. The International Centre for Geothermal Research (IGC), a German geosciences research organization, is largely focused on geothermal energy development research.

text: Geothermal energy

text: is produced by tapping into the thermal energy created and stored within the earth. It arises from the radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium and other elements found in the Earth's crust. Geothermal energy can be obtained by drilling into the ground, very similar to oil exploration, and then it is carried by a heat-transfer fluid (e.g. water, brine or steam). Geothermal systems that are mainly dominated by water have the potential to provide greater benefits to the system and will generate more power. Within these liquid-dominated systems, there are possible concerns of subsidence and contamination of ground-water resources. Therefore, protection of ground-water resources is necessary in these systems. This means that careful reservoir production and engineering is necessary in liquid-dominated geothermal reservoir systems. Geothermal energy is considered sustainable because that thermal energy is constantly replenished. However, the science of geothermal energy generation is still young and developing economic viability. Several entities, such as the

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: and

text: Sandia National Laboratories

text: are conducting research toward the goal of establishing a proven science around geothermal energy. The International Centre for Geothermal Research (IGC), a German geosciences research organization, is largely focused on geothermal energy development research.

text: The gasoline is fed either from a pressurised tank (whose pressure can be hand-pumped or fed from a gas cylinder). OR from a non pressurised tank with the fuel being drawn into the torch by venturi action by the pressurised oxygen flow. Another low cost approach commonly used by jewelry makers in Asia is using air bubbled through a gasoline container by a foot-operated air pump, and burning the fuel-air mixture in a specialized welding torch.

text: At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels.  Since the dawn of internal combustion engine technologies in the 17th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand.  As a result, conventional infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe.  The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to increase global warming and cause more severe climate change.

text: At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable

text: fossil fuels

text: .  Since the dawn of

text: internal combustion engine

text: technologies in the 17th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand.  As a result, conventional

text: infrastructure

text: and

text: transport

text: systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe.  The continual use of fossil fuels at the current rate is believed to increase

text: global warming

text: and cause more severe

text: climate change

text: Coal comes in four main types or ranks: lignite or brown coal, bituminous coal or black coal, anthracite and graphite. Each type of coal has a certain set of physical parameters which are mostly controlled by moisture, volatile content (in terms of aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons) and carbon content.

text: Coal comes in four main types or ranks:

text: lignite

text: or

text: brown coal

text: bituminous coal

text: or black coal,

text: anthracite

text: and

text: graphite

text: . Each type of coal has a certain set of physical parameters which are mostly controlled by moisture, volatile content (in terms of

text: aliphatic

text: or

text: aromatic hydrocarbons

text: ) and carbon content.

text: The goal of coal mining is to obtain coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its energy content, and, since the 1880s, has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore and for cement production. In the United Kingdom and South Africa, a coal mine and its structures are a colliery. In Australia, "colliery" generally refers to an underground coal mine. In the United States "colliery" has historically been used to describe a coal mine operation, but the word today is not commonly used.

text: The goal of coal mining is to obtain

text: coal

text: from the ground. Coal is valued for its energy content, and, since the 1880s, has been widely used to generate electricity.

text: Steel

text: and

text: cement

text: industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from

text: iron ore

text: and for cement production. In the

text: United Kingdom

text: and

text: South Africa

text: , a coal mine and its structures are a colliery. In

text: Australia

text: , "colliery" generally refers to an underground coal mine. In the

text: United States

text: "colliery" has historically been used to describe a coal mine operation, but the word today is not commonly used.

text: Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gases, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel-cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines do not agree on whether a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gases would result. Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs. As of 2015, 33 percent of U.S. electricity was produced from renewable sources (including 7% from hydro and 20% from nuclear). In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen, and Denmark is using wind.

text: Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of

text: greenhouse gases

text: , a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel-cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines do not agree on whether a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gases would result. Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs. As of 2015, 33 percent of U.S. electricity was produced from renewable sources (including 7% from hydro and 20% from nuclear). In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example,

text: Iceland

text: is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen, and

text: Denmark

text: is using wind.

text: In 2015 the Arizona bill specified that "Nuclear energy from sources fueled by uranium fuel rods that include 80 percent or more of recycled nuclear fuel and natural thorium reactor resources under development" are renewable.

text: In 2015 the Arizona bill specified that "Nuclear energy from sources fueled by uranium

text: fuel rod

text: s that include 80 percent or more of recycled nuclear fuel and natural

text: thorium reactor

text: resources under development" are renewable.

text: Coal is delivered by highway truck, rail, barge, collier ship or coal slurry pipeline. Some plants are even built near coal mines and coal is delivered by conveyors. A large coal train called a "unit train" may be two kilometers (over a mile) long, containing 130-140 cars with 100 short tons of coal in each one, for a total load of over 15,000 tons. A large plant under full load requires at least one coal delivery this size every day. Plants may get as many as three to five trains a day, especially in "peak season" during the hottest summer or coldest winter months (depending on local climate) when power consumption is high. A large thermal power plant such as the one in Nanticoke, Ontario stores several million metric tons of coal for winter use when the lakes are frozen.

text: Coal is delivered by highway

text: truck

text: rail

text: barge

text: collier

text: ship or

text: coal slurry pipeline

text: . Some plants are even built near coal mines and coal is delivered by conveyors. A large coal

text: train

text: called a "unit train" may be two kilometers (over a mile) long, containing 130-140 cars with 100

text: short ton

text: s of coal in each one, for a total load of over 15,000 tons. A large plant under full load requires at least one coal delivery this size every day. Plants may get as many as three to five trains a day, especially in "peak season" during the hottest summer or coldest winter months (depending on local climate) when power consumption is high. A large thermal power plant such as the one in

text: Nanticoke

text: , Ontario stores several million metric tons of coal for winter use when the lakes are frozen.

text: The 2011 Japanese Fukushima nuclear disaster has led some European energy officials to "think twice about nuclear expansion". Switzerland has abandoned plans to replace its old nuclear reactors and will take the last one offline in 2034. Anti-nuclear opposition intensified in Germany. In the following months the government decided to shut down eight reactors immediately (6 August 2011) and to have the other nine off the grid by the end of 2022. Renewable energy in Germany is believed to be able to compensate for much of the loss. In September 2011 Siemens, which had been responsible for constructing all 17 of Germany's existing nuclear power plants, announced that it would exit the nuclear sector following the Fukushima disaster and the subsequent changes to German energy policy. Chief executive Peter Loescher has supported the German government's planned energy transition to renewable energy technologies, calling it a "project of the century" and saying Berlin's target of reaching 35% renewable energy sources by 2020 was feasible.

text: The 2011 Japanese

text: Fukushima nuclear disaster

text: has led some European energy officials to "think twice about nuclear expansion".

text: Switzerland

text: has abandoned plans to replace its old nuclear reactors and will take the last one offline in 2034.

text: Anti-nuclear opposition

text: intensified in

text: Germany

text: . In the following months

text: the government

text: decided to shut down eight reactors immediately (6 August 2011) and to have the other nine off the grid by the end of 2022.

text: Renewable energy in Germany

text: is believed to be able to compensate for much of the loss. In September 2011 Siemens, which had been responsible for constructing all 17 of Germany's existing nuclear power plants, announced that it would exit the

text: nuclear sector

text: following the Fukushima disaster and the subsequent changes to German energy policy. Chief executive Peter Loescher has supported the German government's planned

text: energy transition

text: to renewable energy technologies, calling it a "project of the century" and saying Berlin's target of reaching 35% renewable energy sources by 2020 was feasible.

text: In the first part of the book, Sovacool explores the problems with the current system of large-scale electricity generation being used in the United States, powered by fossil fuels and nuclear power reactors. He identifies "The Big Four Energy Challenges" as rising fossil fuel costs, increasing pollution, inefficient and brittle transmission networks, as well as widespread system vulnerability to natural disasters, sabotage, and financial manipulations. "The Big Four Clean Solutions" of renewable energy, efficient energy use, distributed generation, and combined heat and power will do a better job of providing needed energy while protecting consumers and the planet.

text: In the first part of the book, Sovacool explores the problems with the current system of large-scale electricity generation being used in the United States, powered by

text: fossil fuel

text: s and

text: nuclear power

text: reactors. He identifies "The Big Four Energy Challenges" as rising fossil fuel costs, increasing pollution, inefficient and brittle transmission networks, as well as widespread system vulnerability to natural disasters, sabotage, and financial manipulations. "The Big Four Clean Solutions" of

text: renewable energy

text: efficient energy use

text: , distributed generation, and

text: combined heat and power

text: will do a better job of providing needed energy while protecting consumers and the planet.

text: In the early 1990s, a policy was proposed which called for a complete abandonment of fossil-fuel-based energy. The objective was to supply, in a first step, the town of Güssing and subsequently the whole district with regionally available renewable energy sources.The election of the town’s current mayor, Peter Vadasz, in 1992 accelerated the process, particularly when he appointed Reinhard Koch, an electrical engineer and native of Güssing, to assess how the town could benefit from its natural resources, i.e. forest land. Koch was "fresh" out of university and was not willing to share the destiny on many local commuters to Vienna.The first step taken was to order that all public buildings in the town should stop using fossil fuels.

text: Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments with a medium of drying oil as the binder. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil,  poppy seed oil, walnut oil, and safflower oil. The choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the oil paint, such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are also visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use several different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium. The oil may be boiled with a resin, such as pine resin or frankincense, to create a varnish prized for its body and gloss.

text: Oil painting is the process of

text: painting

text: with

text: pigments

text: with a medium of

text: drying oil

text: as the

text: binder

text: . Commonly used drying oils include

text: linseed oil

text: poppy seed oil

text: walnut oil

text: , and

text: safflower oil

text: . The choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the

text: oil paint

text: , such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. Certain differences, depending on the oil, are also visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use several different oils in the same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium. The oil may be boiled with a

text: resin

text: , such as pine resin or

text: frankincense

text: , to create a varnish prized for its body and gloss.

text: The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO) refers to a collection of orders requiring the electricity Distribution Network Operators in England and Wales to purchase electricity from the nuclear power and renewable energy sectors. Similar mechanisms operate in Scotland (the Scottish Renewable Orders under the Scottish Renewables Obligation) and Northern Ireland (the Northern Ireland Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation).

text: The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO) refers to a collection of

text: orders

text: requiring the electricity

text: Distribution Network Operator

text: s in

text: England

text: and

text: Wales

text: to purchase electricity from the

text: nuclear power

text: and

text: renewable energy

text: sectors. Similar mechanisms operate in

text: Scotland

text: Northern Ireland

text: (the Northern Ireland Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation).

text: Several countries and regions have introduced policies or adopted standards to promote sustainable biofuels production and use, most prominently the European Union and the United States. The 2009 EU Renewable Energy Directive, which requires 10 percent of transportation energy from renewable energy by 2020, is the most comprehensive mandatory sustainability standard in place as of 2010. The Directive requires that the lifecycle  greenhouse gas emissions of biofuels consumed be at least 50 percent less than the equivalent emissions from gasoline or diesel by 2017 (and 35 percent less starting in 2011). Also, the feedstocks for biofuels "should not be harvested from lands with high biodiversity value, from carbon-rich or forested land, or from wetlands".

text: Several countries and regions have introduced policies or adopted standards to promote sustainable biofuels production and use, most prominently the

text: European Union

text: and the

text: United States

text: . The 2009

text: EU Renewable Energy Directive

text: , which requires 10 percent of transportation energy from

text: renewable energy

text: by 2020, is the most comprehensive mandatory sustainability standard in place as of 2010. The Directive requires that the lifecycle

text: greenhouse gas emission

text: s of biofuels consumed be at least 50 percent less than the equivalent emissions from gasoline or diesel by 2017 (and 35 percent less starting in 2011). Also, the feedstocks for biofuels "should not be harvested from lands with high biodiversity value, from carbon-rich or forested land, or from wetlands".

text: Sustainable energy is energy obtained from non-exhaustible resources, serving the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs as well. Technologies that promote sustainable energy include renewable energy sources and also technologies designed to improve energy efficiency. Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that is collected from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

text: Sustainable energy is energy obtained from non-exhaustible resources, serving the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs as well. Technologies that promote

text: sustainable

text: energy include renewable energy sources and also technologies designed to improve

text: energy efficiency

text: . Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that is collected from

text: resources

text: sunlight

text: wind

text: rain

text: tides

text: waves

text: , and

text: geothermal heat

text: electricity generation

text: , air and water heating/cooling,

text: transportation

text: , and

text: rural (off-grid)

text: energy services.

text: Energy security measures center on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy or supplier, exploiting renewable energy resources, and reducing demand by energy conservation. Finland is highly dependent on energy import from Russia: 71% of total energy in 2007: Hard coal 92%, raw oil 75% and natural gas 100%. The support of domestic energy has been mainly based on traditional bioenergy and highly disputed fossil peat energy alternatives.  The new renewable energy alternatives have not been effectively promoted by the end of 2010. This strategy was criticised by the IEA in its country evaluation in 2007. According to the renewable energy statistics of EU countries Finland has low capacities of wind power (19/27), solar power (17/27) and solar heating (23/27) in 2010. Wind power is repeatedly the most favoured power source in Finland with over 90% of support according to the public opinion tests. In this respect the official energy policy of Finland has promoted the market control of traditional energy sources and companies.

text: Energy security

text: measures center on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy or supplier, exploiting

text: renewable energy

text: resources, and reducing demand by

text: energy conservation

text: . Finland is highly dependent on energy import from Russia: 71% of total energy in 2007: Hard coal 92%, raw oil 75% and natural gas 100%. The support of domestic energy has been mainly based on traditional bioenergy and highly disputed fossil

text: peat energy

text: alternatives.  The new renewable energy alternatives have not been effectively promoted by the end of 2010. This strategy was criticised by the IEA in its country evaluation in 2007. According to the renewable energy statistics of EU countries Finland has low capacities of

text: wind power

text: solar power

text: (17/27) and

text: solar heating

text: (23/27) in 2010. Wind power is repeatedly the most favoured power source in Finland with over 90% of support according to the public opinion tests. In this respect the official energy policy of Finland has promoted the market control of traditional energy sources and companies.

text: Like other hydroelectric and renewable source power generation, pollution and consumption of fossil fuels is reduced, though there is still typically an environmental cost to the manufacture of the generator and distribution methods.

text: Like other hydroelectric and renewable source power generation, pollution and consumption of fossil fuels is reduced, though there is still typically an

text: environmental cost

text: to the manufacture of the generator and distribution methods.

text: The pessimistic belief of resource scarcity emerged once again in the 1990s, and with it the hope that the newly independent states of Central Asia and the Caucasus would provide a resource boom - the new "Persian Gulf" - and with it competition for oil and gas in a 21st-century version of The Great Game. These expectations were not supported by the facts, and came with an exaggeration of the region's commercial and geopolitical value. Since that time, some journalists have used the expression The New Great Game to describe what they proposed was a renewed geopolitical interest in Central Asia because of the mineral wealth of the region, which was at that time becoming more available to foreign investment after the end of the Soviet Union. One journalist linked the term to an interest in the region's minerals and another to its minerals and energy.

text: The pessimistic belief of resource scarcity emerged once again in the 1990s, and with it the hope that the newly independent states of Central Asia and the Caucasus would provide a resource boom - the new "Persian Gulf" - and with it competition for oil and gas in a 21st-century version of The Great Game. These expectations were not supported by the facts, and came with an exaggeration of the region's commercial and geopolitical value. Since that time, some journalists have used the expression

text: The New Great Game

text: to describe what they proposed was a renewed

text: geopolitical interest

text: in Central Asia because of the mineral wealth of the region, which was at that time becoming more available to foreign investment after the end of the Soviet Union. One journalist linked the term to an interest in the region's minerals and another to its minerals and energy.

text: Piyasvasti Amranand (; RTGS: Piyasawat Ammaranan, born 11 July 1953) was Thailand's Energy Minister between 9 October 2006 and 6 February 2008. He is former Secretary-General of the Thai National Energy Policy Office, Chairman of Kasikorn Asset Management, and Chairman of Panel of Advisors for the CEO of Kasikornbank. He was President of Thai Airways International between October 2009 and June 2012. He is currently chairman of the Energy for Environment Foundation, a non-profit organization undertaking renewable energy and energy efficiency projects.

text: Piyasvasti Amranand (;

entity_name: Royal Thai General System of Transcription

text: RTGS:

text: Piyasawat Ammaranan, born 11 July 1953) was

text: Thailand

text: 's Energy Minister between 9 October 2006 and 6 February 2008. He is former Secretary-General of the Thai National Energy Policy Office, Chairman of Kasikorn Asset Management, and Chairman of Panel of Advisors for the CEO of

text: Kasikornbank

text: . He was President of

text: Thai Airways International

text: between October 2009 and June 2012. He is currently chairman of the Energy for Environment Foundation, a non-profit organization undertaking renewable energy and energy efficiency projects.

text: In economics, a non-renewable resource is defined as goods, where greater consumption today implies less consumption tomorrow. David Ricardo in his early works analysed the pricing of exhaustible resources, where he argued that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time. He argued that the spot price is always determined by the mine with the highest cost of extraction, and mine owners with lower extraction costs benefit from a differential rent. The first model is defined by Hotelling's rule, which is a 1931 economic model of non-renewable resource management by Harold Hotelling. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable conditions, lead to a depletion of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "Hotelling rent" for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the rate of interest, reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resources.The Hartwick's rule provides an important result about the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable source.

text: In economics, a non-renewable resource is defined as

text: goods

text: , where greater consumption today implies less consumption tomorrow.

text: David Ricardo

text: in his early works analysed the pricing of exhaustible resources, where he argued that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time. He argued that the spot price is always determined by the mine with the highest cost of extraction, and mine owners with lower extraction costs benefit from a differential rent. The first model is defined by

text: Hotelling's rule

text: , which is a 1931 economic model of non-renewable

text: resource management

text: by

text: Harold Hotelling

text: . It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable conditions, lead to a

text: depletion

text: of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "

text: Hotelling rent

text: " for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the

text: rate of interest

text: , reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resources.The

text: Hartwick's rule

text: provides an important result about the

text: sustainability

text: of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable source.

text: Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing." This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut etc.), and it is preferred by most "health-food" customers in the United States and in Europe. There are several different types of mechanical extraction. Expeller-pressing extraction is common, though the screw press, ram press, and Ghani (powered mortar and pestle) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the Ghani is primarily used in India. The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting mowrah butter in India:

text: Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed "crushing" or "pressing." This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut etc.), and it is preferred by most "

text: health-food

text: " customers in the United States and in Europe. There are several different types of mechanical extraction.

text: Expeller

text: -pressing extraction is common, though the

text: screw press

text: ram press

text: , and Ghani (powered

text: mortar and pestle

text: ) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the Ghani is primarily used in India. The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting

text: mowrah butter

text: in India:

text: 1. Non-renewable energy sources: 62.42%, as follows

text: Nuclear power, or nuclear energy, is the use of exothermic nuclear processes, to generate useful heat and electricity. The term includes nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion. Presently the nuclear fission of elements in the actinide series of the periodic table produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind, with nuclear decay processes, primarily in the form of geothermal energy, and radioisotope thermoelectric generators, in niche uses making up the rest. Nuclear (fission) power stations, excluding the contribution from naval nuclear fission reactors, provided about 5.7% of the world's energy and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012. In 2013, the IAEA report that there are 437 operational nuclear power reactors, in 31 countries,  although not every reactor is producing electricity. In addition, there are approximately 140 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion in operation, powered by some 180 reactors. As of 2013, attaining a net energy gain from sustained nuclear fusion reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the Sun, remains an ongoing area of international physics and engineering research. More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.

text: Nuclear power, or nuclear

text: energy

text: , is the use of

text: exothermic nuclear processes

text: , to generate useful

text: heat

text: and

text: electricity

text: . The term includes

text: nuclear fission

text: nuclear decay

text: and

text: nuclear fusion

text: . Presently the

text: nuclear fission

text: of elements in the

text: actinide

text: series of the

text: periodic table

text: produce the vast majority of nuclear energy in the direct service of humankind, with

text: nuclear decay

text: processes, primarily in the form of

text: geothermal energy

text: , and

text: radioisotope thermoelectric generator

text: s, in niche uses making up the rest.

text: Nuclear (fission) power stations

text: , excluding the contribution from

text: naval nuclear fission reactors

text: , provided about 5.7% of the world's

text: energy

text: and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012. In 2013, the

text: IAEA

text: report that there are 437 operational nuclear power reactors, in

text: 31 countries

text: ,  although not every reactor is producing electricity. In addition, there are approximately 140 naval vessels using

text: nuclear propulsion

text: in operation, powered by some 180 reactors. As of 2013, attaining a

text: net energy gain

text: from sustained nuclear fusion reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the

text: Sun

text: , remains an ongoing area of international

text: physics

text: and

entity_name: International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility

text: engineering research

text: . More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.

text: Long-term measures to increase energy security center on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy, increasing the number of suppliers, exploiting native fossil fuel or renewable energy resources, and reducing overall demand through energy conservation measures. It can also involve entering into international agreements to underpin international energy trading relationships, such as the Energy Charter Treaty in Europe.  All the concern coming from security threats on oil sources long term security measures will help reduce the future cost of importing and exporting fuel into and out of countries without having to worry about harm coming to the goods being transported.

text: Long-term measures to increase energy security center on reducing

text: dependence

text: on any one source of imported energy, increasing the number of suppliers, exploiting native

text: fossil fuel

text: or

text: renewable energy

text: resources, and reducing overall demand through

text: energy conservation

text: measures. It can also involve entering into international agreements to underpin international energy trading relationships, such as the

text: Energy Charter Treaty

text: in Europe.  All the concern coming from security threats on oil sources long term security measures will help reduce the future cost of importing and exporting fuel into and out of countries without having to worry about harm coming to the goods being transported.

text: When fossil fuels are burned, Nitric oxide and Nitrogen dioxide are produced. These pollutants initiate  reactions which result in production of ozone and acid rain. NOx formation takes place due to (1) High temperature combustion i.e. thermal NOx and (2)Nitrogen bound to fuel i.e. fuel NOx and which is insignificant. In the majority of cases the level of thermal NOx can be reduced by lowering flame temperature. This can be done by modifying the burner to create a larger (hence lower temperature) flame, in turn reducing the NOx formation. The role of CFD analysis is vital for design and analysis of such low NOx burners. Many available CFD tools, such as CFX, Fluent, Star CCM++ with different models as RNG k-ε turbulence models with hybrid and CONDIF upwind differencing schemes has been used for analysis purpose and the data obtained with these analysis helped in modifying the burner design in turn lowering the adverse effect on the environment due to NOx formation during combustion.

text: When

text: fossil fuel

text: s are burned,

text: Nitric oxide

text: and

text: Nitrogen dioxide

text: are produced. These pollutants initiate  reactions which result in production of

text: ozone

text: and

text: acid rain

text: . NOx formation takes place due to (1) High temperature combustion i.e. thermal NOx and (2)Nitrogen bound to fuel i.e. fuel NOx and which is insignificant. In the majority of cases the level of thermal NOx can be reduced by lowering flame temperature. This can be done by modifying the burner to create a larger (hence lower temperature) flame, in turn reducing the NOx formation. The role of CFD analysis is vital for design and analysis of such low NOx burners. Many available CFD tools, such as CFX, Fluent, Star CCM++ with different models as RNG k-ε turbulence models with hybrid and CONDIF upwind differencing schemes has been used for analysis purpose and the data obtained with these analysis helped in modifying the burner design in turn lowering the adverse effect on the environment due to NOx formation during combustion.

text: When the rest of the UK generating industry was privatised, the Government introduced the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation, initially as a means of supporting the nuclear generators, which remained under state ownership until the formation of British Energy. British Energy, the private sector company that now operates the UK's more modern nuclear plants, came close to bankruptcy and in 2004 was restructured with UK government investment of over £3 billion, although this has since been paid back in full. In January 2009, British Energy was bought for approximately £12 billion by EDF Energy (a subsidiary of Électricité de France (EDF)) and Centrica (a major operator of CCGT power stations and renewable sources in the UK and parent company of British Gas) in an 80/20 split.

text: When the rest of the UK generating industry was

text: privatised

text: , the Government introduced the

text: Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation

text: , initially as a means of supporting the nuclear generators, which remained under state ownership until the formation of

text: British Energy

text: . British Energy, the private sector company that now operates the UK's more modern nuclear plants, came close to bankruptcy and in 2004 was restructured with UK government investment of over £3 billion, although this has since been paid back in full. In January 2009, British Energy was bought for approximately £12 billion by EDF Energy (a subsidiary of

text: Électricité de France

text: (EDF)) and

text: Centrica

text: (a major operator of CCGT power stations and renewable sources in the UK and parent company of British Gas) in an 80/20 split.

text: By 2011, the price of PV modules per MW had fallen by 60% since 2008, according to Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates, putting solar power for the first time on a competitive footing with the retail price of electricity in some sunny countries; an alternative and consistent price decline figure of 75% from 2007 to 2012 has also been published, though it is unclear whether these figures are specific to the United States or generally global. The levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) from PV is competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions, particularly when the time of generation is included, as electricity is worth more during the day than at night. There has been fierce competition in the supply chain, and further improvements in the levelised cost of energy for solar lie ahead, posing a growing threat to the dominance of fossil fuel generation sources in the next few years. As time progresses, renewable energy technologies generally get cheaper, while fossil fuels generally get more expensive:

text: The Nankai Trough is located beneath the Pacific Ocean off the southeast coast of Japan, and extends more than 700 km in a southwest-northward trending direction. The Nankai Trough is not only known as an active subduction and earthquake zone, but also for its large clathrate hydrate deposits occurring on the shelf and continental slope. Due to the combination of Japan’s lack of domestic fossil energy sources, along with a projected continued rise in energy consumption, the methane hydrate occurrences in Nankai Trough sedimentary sequences are increasingly the focus of energy resource studies. These resources have the potential to secure a supply of domestic natural gas to meet Japan’s needs for decades to come.

text: The

text: Nankai Trough

text: is located beneath the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: off the southeast coast of Japan, and extends more than 700 km in a southwest-northward trending direction. The Nankai Trough is not only known as an active

text: subduction

text: and

text: earthquake zone

text: , but also for its large

text: clathrate hydrate

text: deposits occurring on the

text: shelf

text: and

text: continental slope

text: . Due to the combination of Japan’s lack of domestic fossil energy sources, along with a projected continued rise in energy consumption, the methane hydrate occurrences in Nankai Trough sedimentary sequences are increasingly the focus of energy resource studies. These resources have the potential to secure a supply of domestic natural gas to meet

text: Japan

text: ’s needs for decades to come.

text: Eurosolar is the non-profit European Association for Renewable Energy () that conducts its work independently of political parties, institutions, commercial enterprises, and interest groups. Eurosolar develops and encourages political and economic action plans and concepts for the introduction of renewable energy. The association has offices in 14 countries that include Austria, Italy, Turkey, and Ukraine. Eurosolar has approximately 2,500 members, close to 400 legal groups,  and owns the Solar Age magazine, released four times a year.  A history of the association is available.

text: Eurosolar is the non-profit European Association for Renewable Energy () that conducts its work independently of

text: political parties

text: institution

text: s,

text: commercial enterprise

text: s, and

text: interest group

text: s. Eurosolar develops and encourages political and economic

text: action plan

text: s and concepts for the introduction of

text: renewable energy

text: . The association has offices in 14 countries that include Austria, Italy, Turkey, and Ukraine. Eurosolar has approximately 2,500 members, close to 400 legal groups,  and owns the Solar Age magazine, released four times a year.  A history of the association is available.

text: Consumption of primary geothermal energy in 2004 was 79.7 petajoules (PJ), approximately 53.4% of the total national consumption of primary energy, 149.1 PJ. The corresponding share for hydro power was 17.2%, petroleum was 26.3%, and coal was 3%. Plans are underway to turn Iceland into a 100% fossil-fuel-free nation in the near future. For example, Iceland's abundant geothermal energy has enabled renewable energy initiatives, such as Carbon Recycling International's carbon dioxide to methanol fuel process. The following are the five largest power stations in Iceland.

text: Consumption of primary geothermal energy in 2004 was 79.7

text: petajoules (PJ)

text: , approximately 53.4% of the total national consumption of

text: primary energy

text: , 149.1 PJ. The corresponding share for

text: hydro power

text: was 17.2%,

text: petroleum

text: was 26.3%, and coal was 3%. Plans are underway to turn Iceland into a 100% fossil-fuel-free nation in the near future. For example, Iceland's abundant geothermal energy has enabled renewable energy initiatives, such as

text: Carbon Recycling International

text: 's carbon dioxide to methanol fuel process. The following are the five largest power stations in Iceland.

text: The principle of supply and demand holds that as hydrocarbon supplies diminish, prices will rise. Therefore, higher prices will lead to increased alternative, renewable energy supplies as previously uneconomic sources become sufficiently economical to exploit. Artificial gasolines and other renewable energy sources currently require more expensive production and processing technologies than conventional petroleum reserves, but may become economically viable in the near future.Different alternative sources of energy include nuclear, hydroelectric, solar, wind, and geothermal.

text: The principle of

text: supply and demand

text: holds that as hydrocarbon supplies diminish, prices will rise. Therefore, higher prices will lead to increased alternative,

text: renewable energy

text: supplies as previously uneconomic sources become sufficiently economical to exploit. Artificial gasolines and other

text: renewable energy

text: sources currently require more expensive production and processing technologies than conventional

text: petroleum reserves

text: , but may become economically viable in the near future.Different

text: alternative sources of energy

text: include

text: nuclear

text: hydroelectric

text: solar

text: wind

text: , and

text: geothermal

text: Clinton has emphasized the jobs that renewable energy creates, saying in an April 2016 town-hall event broadcast on MSNBC that the U.S. must "use clean renewable energy to create more jobs." Clinton has said that "somebody is going to be the 21st century clean energy superpower.  It's either going to be China, Germany or us.  I want it to be us because there will be a lot of jobs, again, that have to be done right here in America." On one occasion in December 2015, Clinton stated that "we now have more jobs in solar than we do in oil"; PolitiFact found that this was not true, although the number of workers in the oil and gas industry has been declining while the number of workers employees in the solar industry has increased.

text: Clinton has emphasized the jobs that renewable energy creates, saying in an April 2016 town-hall event broadcast on MSNBC that the U.S. must "use clean renewable energy to create more jobs." Clinton has said that "somebody is going to be the 21st century clean energy superpower.  It's either going to be

text: China

text: Germany

text: or us.  I want it to be us because there will be a lot of jobs, again, that have to be done right here in America." On one occasion in December 2015, Clinton stated that "we now have more jobs in solar than we do in oil"; PolitiFact found that this was not true, although the number of workers in the oil and gas industry has been declining while the number of workers employees in the solar industry has increased.

text: Many countries are both importers and exporters of natural gas. For instance, although Canada appears on the list below as the world's fourteenth-largest gas importer, It exports more natural gas than it imports, and so is a net exporter of natural gas. See: List of countries by natural gas exports.

text: Many countries are both importers and exporters of natural gas. For instance, although Canada appears on the list below as the world's fourteenth-largest gas importer, It exports more natural gas than it imports, and so is a net exporter of natural gas. See:

entity_name: List of countries by natural gas exports

text: List of countries by natural gas exports

text: The use of the word Gasoline instead of Petrol outside North America can often be confusing. Shortening Gasoline to Gas, which happens often, causes confusion with various forms of gas used as car fuel (compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)). In many countries, gasoline has a colloquial name derived from that of the chemical benzene (e.g., German Benzin, Czech benzín, Dutch benzine, Italian benzina, Polish benzyna, Chilean Spanish bencina, Thai เบนซิน bensin, Greek βενζίνη venzini, Romanian benzină, Swedish bensin, Arabic بنزين binzīn).  Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Italy use the colloquial name nafta derived from that of the chemical naphtha.

text: The use of the word Gasoline instead of Petrol outside North America can often be confusing. Shortening Gasoline to Gas, which happens often, causes confusion with various forms of gas used as car fuel (

text: compressed natural gas (CNG)

text: liquefied natural gas (LNG)

text: and

text: liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)

text: ). In many countries, gasoline has a colloquial name derived from that of the chemical

text: benzene

text: (e.g., German Benzin, Czech benzín, Dutch benzine, Italian benzina, Polish benzyna, Chilean Spanish bencina, Thai เบนซิน bensin, Greek βενζίνη venzini, Romanian benzină, Swedish bensin, Arabic بنزين binzīn).  Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Italy use the colloquial name nafta derived from that of the chemical

text: naphtha

text: As more effort is put into maximizing an engine to take advantage of E85's higher "octane", engines achieve greater power advantages. One car that has higher power on ethanol is the Koenigsegg CCXR, which on ethanol is the third-most powerful production car, with 20% more hp on E85 than on gasoline. According to the manufacturer, this is due to the cooling properties of ethanol. E85 has an octane rating higher than that of regular gasoline's typical rating of 87, or premium gasoline's 91-93.  This allows it to be used in higher-compression engines, which tend to produce more power per unit of displacement than their gasoline counterparts. Examples of octane mis-citation can be found at the Iowa Renewable Fuels Association titled "E85 Facts" which cites a range of 100-105, and a document at the Texas State Energy Conservation Office titled "Ethanol", which cites a 113 rating.

text: As more effort is put into maximizing an engine to take advantage of E85's higher "octane", engines achieve greater power advantages. One car that has higher power on ethanol is the

text: Koenigsegg CCXR

text: , which on ethanol is the third-most powerful production car, with 20% more hp on E85 than on gasoline. According to the manufacturer, this is due to the cooling properties of ethanol. E85 has an

text: octane rating

text: higher than that of regular gasoline's typical rating of 87, or premium gasoline's 91-93.  This allows it to be used in higher-compression engines, which tend to produce more power per unit of displacement than their gasoline counterparts. Examples of octane mis-citation can be found at the Iowa Renewable Fuels Association titled "E85 Facts" which cites a range of 100-105, and a document at the Texas State Energy Conservation Office titled "Ethanol", which cites a 113 rating.

text: A Boston-based think tank, the Institute for Energy Economic & Financial Analysis study estimated that, since 1991, $29 billion over a 30-year period was lost in the Powder River Basin, due to lack of competitive bidding. The Institute’s mission statement notes that its goals include: “… to reduce dependence on coal and other non-renewable energy resources.”

text: The shift to a renewable fuel resource has been a target for many years now. However, most of its production is with the use of corn ethanol. In the year 2000, there was only 6.2 billion liters produced in the United States and it has expanded over 800% to 50 billion litres in just a decade (2010). Government pressures to shift to renewable fuel resources has been apparent since the U.S Environmental Protection Agency has implemented the 2007 Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) to use a percentage of renewable fuel in products or face penalties. The shift to cellulosic ethanol production instead of corn has been strongly promoted by the US government. Even with these policies in place and the government attempting to create a market for cellulose ethanol, there was no commercial production of this fuel in 2010 and 2011. The Energy Independence and Security Act originally set goals of 100 million, 250 million and 500 million gallons for the years 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively. However, as of 2012 it was projected that the production of cellulosic ethanol would be approximately 10.5 million far from its target. In 2007 alone, the US government provided 1 billion US dollars for cellulosic ethanol projects, while China invested 500 million US dollars into cellulosic ethanol research.

text: The United States currently uses over four trillion kilowatt-hours per year in order to fulfill its energy needs. Data given by the United States Energy Information Administration (EIA) shows a steady growth in energy usage dating back to 1990, which showed the United States used around 3 trillion kilowatt hours of energy that year. Traditionally, the energy sources used to fulfill the United States energy needs have been oil, coal, nuclear, renewable energy, and natural gas. The breakdown of each of these fuels as a percentage of the overall consumption in the year 1993, according to the data given by the EIA is as follows; coal was 53%, nuclear energy was 19%, natural gas was 13%, renewable energy was 11%, and oil provided 4% of the overall energy needs. In the most recent year where data was analyzed, 2011, the breakdown was as follows; coal was 42%, nuclear was 19%, natural gas was 25%, renewable energy was 13% and oil dropped down to 1%. These figures show a dramatic drop in energy from coal, and a significant increase in both natural gas as well as renewable energy. 	According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS) data from 2006, hydroelectric power accounted for most of the renewable energy production in the United States. However, increasing government funding, grants, and incentives have been drawing many companies towards the biofuel, wind, and solar energy production industries.

text: The United States currently uses over four trillion kilowatt-hours per year in order to fulfill its energy needs. Data given by the

text: United States Energy Information Administration

text: (EIA) shows a steady growth in energy usage dating back to 1990, which showed the United States used around 3 trillion kilowatt hours of energy that year. Traditionally, the energy sources used to fulfill the United States energy needs have been oil, coal,

text: nuclear

text: renewable energy

text: , and

text: natural gas

text: . The breakdown of each of these fuels as a percentage of the overall consumption in the year 1993, according to the data given by the EIA is as follows; coal was 53%, nuclear energy was 19%, natural gas was 13%, renewable energy was 11%, and oil provided 4% of the overall energy needs. In the most recent year where data was analyzed, 2011, the breakdown was as follows; coal was 42%, nuclear was 19%, natural gas was 25%, renewable energy was 13% and oil dropped down to 1%. These figures show a dramatic drop in energy from coal, and a significant increase in both natural gas as well as renewable energy. 	According to the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS) data from 2006, hydroelectric power accounted for most of the renewable energy production in the United States. However, increasing government funding, grants, and incentives have been drawing many companies towards the biofuel, wind, and solar energy production industries.

text:
|-| Continent || Europe|-| Subregion || British Isles
Northern Europe|-| Area
 - Total
 - Land (%)
 - Water (%)|

 97%
 3%|-| Coastline || |-| Land borders || England
 |-| Highest point || Ben Nevis
|-| Lowest point || Atlantic Ocean, 0 m|-| Longest river || River Tay
 |-| Largest inland body of water || Loch Lomond
 |-| Climate: || Temperate |-| Terrain: || mountains, hills, forest, bog, urban|-| Natural resources ||  iron,  zinc, potash, silica sand, coal, fish, timber, wildlife,  petroleum, natural gas, hydropower|-| Natural hazards || windstorms, floods|-| Environmental issues || climate change, renewable energy, waste disposal and water pollution|}

text: Continent

text: || Europe|-|

text: Subregion

text: British Isles

text: <br>

text: Northern Europe

text: Area

text:
 - Total
 - Land (%)
 - Water (%)|

 97%
 3%|-| Coastline || |-| Land borders || England
 |-| Highest point ||

text: Ben Nevis

text: <br>|-| Lowest point ||

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , 0 m|-| Longest river ||

text: River Tay

text: <br> |-| Largest inland body of water ||

text: Loch Lomond

text: <br> |-|

text: Climate

text: Temperate

text: Terrain

text: mountain

text: s,

text: hill

text: s,

text: forest

text: bog

text: urban

text: |-| Natural resources ||

text: iron

text: zinc

text: potash

text: silica sand

text: coal

text: fish

text: timber

text: wildlife

text: petroleum

text: natural gas

text: hydropower

text: |-| Natural hazards ||

text: windstorm

text: s,

text: flood

text: s|-| Environmental issues ||

text: climate change

text: renewable energy

text: waste disposal

text: and

text: water pollution

text: The bidirectional or reversible reaction catalyzed by hydrogenase allows for the capture and storage of renewable energy as fuel with use on demand. This can be demonstrated through the chemical storage of electricity obtained from a renewable source (e.g. solar, wind, hydrothermal) as H during periods of low energy demands. When energy is desired, H can be oxidized to produce electricity.

text: The bidirectional or

text: reversible

text: reaction catalyzed by hydrogenase allows for the capture and storage of renewable energy as fuel with use on demand. This can be demonstrated through the chemical storage of electricity obtained from a renewable source (e.g. solar, wind,

text: hydrothermal

text: ) as H during periods of low energy demands. When energy is desired, H can be oxidized to produce electricity.

text: Austria embarked on its energy transition (Energiewende) some decades ago. Due to geographical conditions, energy production in Austria relies heavily on renewable energies, notably hydropower. 78.4% of domestic production in 2013 came from renewable energy, 9.2% from natural gas and 7.2% from petroleum. (rest: waste). On the basis of the Federal Constitutional Law for a Nuclear-Free Austria, no nuclear power plants are in operation in Austria.But domestic energy production makes up only 36% of Austria's total energy consumption, which among other things encompasses transport, electricity production, and heating. In 2013, oil accounts for about 36.2% of total energy consumption, renewable energies 29.8%, gas 20.6%, and coal 9.7%. In the past 20 years, the structure of gross domestic energy consumption has shifted from coal and oil to new renewables, in particular between 2005 and 2013 (plus 60%). The EU target for Austria require a renewables share of 34% by 2020 (gross final energy consumption). Austria is on a good way to achieve this target (32.5% in 2013). Energy transition in Austria can be also seen on the local level, in some villages, towns and regions. For example, the town of Güssing in the state of Burgenland is a pioneer in independent and sustainable energy production. Since 2005, Güssing has already produced significantly more heating (58 gigawatt hours) and electricity (14 GWh) from renewable resources than the city itself needs.

text: Austria embarked on its energy transition (Energiewende) some decades ago. Due to geographical conditions, energy production in Austria relies heavily on renewable energies, notably hydropower. 78.4% of domestic production in 2013 came from renewable energy, 9.2% from natural gas and 7.2% from petroleum. (rest: waste). On the basis of the Federal Constitutional Law for a Nuclear-Free Austria, no nuclear power plants are in operation in Austria.But domestic energy production makes up only 36% of Austria's total energy consumption, which among other things encompasses transport, electricity production, and heating. In 2013, oil accounts for about 36.2% of total energy consumption, renewable energies 29.8%, gas 20.6%, and coal 9.7%. In the past 20 years, the structure of gross domestic energy consumption has shifted from coal and oil to new renewables, in particular between 2005 and 2013 (plus 60%). The EU target for Austria require a renewables share of 34% by 2020 (gross final energy consumption). Austria is on a good way to achieve this target (32.5% in 2013). Energy transition in Austria can be also seen on the local level, in some villages, towns and regions. For example, the town of

text: Güssing

text: in the state of Burgenland is a pioneer in independent and sustainable energy production. Since 2005, Güssing has already produced significantly more heating (58 gigawatt hours) and electricity (14 GWh) from renewable resources than the city itself needs.

text: The Laclede Group, Inc. () is a public utility holding company based in St. Louis, Missouri providing natural gas service through its regulated core utility operations while engaging in non-regulated activities that provide business opportunities. Its primary subsidiary Laclede Gas Company is the largest natural gas distribution utility in Missouri, serving approximately 631,000 residential, commercial and industrial customers in the City of St. Louis and ten counties in eastern Missouri. Its primary non-regulated activities include Laclede Energy Resources, Inc., a natural gas marketer located in St. Louis, Missouri.

text: The Laclede Group, Inc. () is a

text: public utility

text: holding company

text: based in

text: St. Louis, Missouri

text: providing

text: natural gas

text: service through its regulated core utility operations while engaging in non-regulated activities that provide business opportunities. Its primary subsidiary

text: Laclede Gas Company

text: is the largest natural gas distribution utility in Missouri, serving approximately 631,000

text: residential

text: commercial

text: and

text: industrial

text: customers

text: in the City of St. Louis and ten counties in eastern Missouri. Its primary non-regulated activities include

text: Laclede Energy Resources, Inc.

text: , a natural gas

text: marketer

text: located in St. Louis, Missouri.

text: The Reserves-to-production ratio (RPR or R/P) is the remaining amount of a non-renewable resource, expressed in time. While applicable to all natural resources, the RPR is most commonly applied to fossil fuels, particularly petroleum and natural gas. The reserve portion (numerator) of the ratio is the amount of a resource known to exist in an area and to be economically recoverable (proved reserves). The production portion (denominator) of the ratio is the amount of resource produced in one year at the current rate.

text: The Reserves-to-production ratio (RPR or R/P) is the remaining amount of a

text: non-renewable resource

text: , expressed in time. While applicable to all

text: natural resource

text: s, the RPR is most commonly applied to

text: fossil fuels

text: , particularly

text: petroleum

text: and

text: natural gas

text: . The reserve portion (

text: numerator

text: ) of the ratio is the amount of a resource known to exist in an area and to be economically recoverable (proved

text: reserves

text: ). The production portion (

text: denominator

text: ) of the ratio is the amount of resource produced in one year at the current rate.

text: On April 29, 2008, U.S. President George W. Bush declared during a press conference that "85 percent of the world's food prices are caused by weather, increased demand and energy prices", and recognized that "15 percent has been caused by ethanol". He added that "the high price of gasoline is going to spur more investment in ethanol as an alternative to gasoline. And the truth of the matter is it's in our national interests that our farmers grow energy, as opposed to us purchasing energy from parts of the world that are unstable or may not like us." Regarding the effect of agricultural subsidies on rising food prices, Bush said that "Congress is considering a massive, bloated farm bill that would do little to solve the problem. The bill Congress is now considering would fail to eliminate subsidy payments to multi-millionaire farmers", he continued, "this is the right time to reform our nation's farm policies by reducing unnecessary subsidies".

text: On April 29, 2008, U.S. President

text: George W. Bush

text: declared during a

text: press conference

text: that "85 percent of the world's food prices are caused by weather, increased demand and energy prices", and recognized that "15 percent has been caused by ethanol". He added that "the high price of gasoline is going to spur more investment in ethanol as an alternative to gasoline. And the truth of the matter is it's in our national interests that our farmers grow energy, as opposed to us purchasing energy from parts of the world that are unstable or may not like us." Regarding the effect of agricultural subsidies on rising food prices, Bush said that "Congress is considering a massive, bloated farm bill that would do little to solve the problem. The bill Congress is now considering would fail to eliminate subsidy payments to multi-millionaire farmers", he continued, "this is the right time to reform our nation's farm policies by reducing unnecessary subsidies".

text: Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the energy humans get from food.  Civilisation gets the energy it needs from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The processes of Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun and the geothermal energy contained within the earth.

text: Living organisms require

text: available energy

text: to stay alive, such as the

text: energy humans get from food

text: .  Civilisation gets the energy it needs from

text: energy resource

text: s such as

text: fossil fuel

text: s,

text: nuclear fuel

text: , or

text: renewable energy

text: . The processes of Earth's

text: climate

text: and

text: ecosystem

text: are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun and the

text: geothermal energy

text: contained within the earth.

text: The Senate Natural Resources and the Environment Committee has jurisdiction over energy resources and development. This includes industry-wide regulation on issues of conservation, use and maintenance of strategic reserves, and for standards of use of public lands and their renewable resources. The scope incorporates any surface mining operation, coal mining, oil and gas mining and exploration, all aspects of mineral leasing, and the regulation of the state's water resources.

text: Utah's energy resource consumption consists of both fossils fuels and renewable resources.  In 2009, residents, business and industries combined, consumed approximately 27,411 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electricity; 0.01% of which was solar generated. Of the total energy produced in 2009, 1090 trillion Btus, 0.1% was solar generated.

text: Energy production in Hawaii is a difficult issue due to the islands' isolated location and lack of local resources. The state relies heavily on imports of petroleum and coal for power although recent initiatives have increased use of alternative resources. High levels of solar photovoltaic and wind power use have led to power balance issues which have made Hawaii a study case for renewable use. Commercial-scale batteries and upgraded grid resources and management are among the solutions being advanced.

text: Energy production in

text: Hawaii

text: is a difficult issue due to the islands' isolated location and lack of local resources. The state relies heavily on imports of petroleum and coal for power although recent initiatives have increased use of alternative resources. High levels of solar

text: photovoltaic

text: and

text: wind power

text: use have led to power balance issues which have made Hawaii a study case for renewable use. Commercial-scale batteries and upgraded grid resources and management are among the solutions being advanced.

text: Methanol is an alternative fuel for internal combustion and other engines, either in combination with gasoline or directly ("neat"). It is used in racing cars in many countries. In the U.S., methanol fuel has received less attention than ethanol fuel as an alternative to petroleum-based fuels. In general, ethanol is less toxic and has higher energy density, although methanol is less expensive to produce sustainably and is a less expensive way to reduce the carbon footprint. However, for optimizing engine performance, fuel availability, toxicity and political advantage, a blend of ethanol, methanol and petroleum is likely to be preferable to using any of these individual substances alone. Methanol may be made from hydrocarbon or renewable resources, in particular natural gas and biomass respectively. It can also be synthesized from CO (carbon dioxide) and hydrogen.

text: Methanol is an alternative fuel for internal combustion and other engines, either in combination with

text: gasoline

text: or directly ("neat"). It is used in racing cars in many countries. In the U.S.,

text: methanol

text: fuel has received less attention than

text: ethanol fuel

text: as an alternative to

text: petroleum

text: -based fuels. In general, ethanol is less toxic and has higher energy density, although methanol is less expensive to produce sustainably and is a less expensive way to reduce the

text: carbon footprint

text: . However, for optimizing engine performance, fuel availability, toxicity and political advantage, a blend of ethanol, methanol and petroleum is likely to be preferable to using any of these individual substances alone. Methanol may be made from hydrocarbon or renewable resources, in particular

text: natural gas

text: and

text: biomass

text: respectively. It can also be synthesized from CO (

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) and

text: hydrogen

text: The International Energy Agency's World Energy Outlook 2006 concludes that rising oil demand, if left unchecked,would accentuate the consuming countries' vulnerability to a severe supply disruption and resulting price shock. Renewable biofuels for transport represent a key source of diversification from petroleum products. Biofuels from grain and beet in temperate regions have a part to play, but they are relatively expensive and their energy efficiency and CO2 savings benefits, are variable. Biofuels from sugar cane and other highly productive tropical crops are much more competitive and beneficial. But all first generation biofuels ultimately compete with food production for land, water, and other resources. Greater efforts are required to develop and commercialize second generation biofuel technologies, such as biorefineries and ligno-cellulosics, enabling the flexible production of biofuels and other products from non-edible plant materials.

text: The

text: International Energy Agency

text: 's World Energy Outlook 2006 concludes that rising oil demand, if left unchecked,would accentuate the consuming countries' vulnerability to a severe supply disruption and resulting price shock. Renewable biofuels for transport represent a key source of diversification from

text: petroleum products

text: . Biofuels from grain and beet in

text: temperate region

text: s have a part to play, but they are relatively expensive and their energy efficiency and CO2 savings benefits, are variable. Biofuels from sugar cane and other highly productive tropical crops are much more competitive and beneficial. But all first generation biofuels ultimately compete with food production for land, water, and other resources. Greater efforts are required to develop and commercialize second generation biofuel technologies, such as biorefineries and

text: ligno-cellulosics

text: , enabling the flexible production of biofuels and other products from non-edible plant materials.

text: The two main government agencies in charge of developing renewable energy resources are SEMARNAT and SENER. The Environment and Natural Resources Secretariat (SEMARNAT) is responsible for environmental policy and the preservation of renewable and non-renewable resources, while SENER defines the national energy policy. CONAE, the National Commission for Energy Savings, is responsible for promoting energy savings and energy efficiency. Finally, SEDESOL, the National Secretariat for Social Development, includes the promotion and use of renewable energy in some of their projects.

text: Kick The Fossil Fuel Habit: 10 Clean Technologies to Save Our World is a 2010 book by clean energy venture capitalist Tom Rand. The book is about making an energy transition from fossil fuels to clean technologies, by changing to 100% renewable energy. It includes detailed descriptions of the technologies required - solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy and more. Author Tom Rand says we will "need to deploy resources on a scale not seen since World War II, generate international co-operation, and develop rules to put a price on carbon."

text: Kick The Fossil Fuel Habit: 10 Clean Technologies to Save Our World is a 2010 book by clean energy venture capitalist Tom Rand. The book is about making an energy transition from

text: fossil fuel

text: s to clean technologies, by changing to

text: 100% renewable energy

text: . It includes detailed descriptions of the technologies required -

text: solar energy

text: wind power

text: geothermal energy

text: and more. Author Tom Rand says we will "need to deploy resources on a scale not seen since World War II, generate international co-operation, and develop rules to put a price on carbon."

text: The general definition of oil includes classes of chemical compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties, and uses. Oils may be animal, vegetable, or petrochemical in origin, and may be volatile or non-volatile. They are used for food (e.g., olive oil), fuel (e.g., heating oil),  medical purposes (e.g., mineral oil), lubrication (e.g. motor oil), and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in some religious ceremonies and ritluals as purifying agents.

text: The general definition of oil includes classes of chemical compounds that may be otherwise unrelated in structure, properties, and uses. Oils may be

text: animal

text: vegetable

text: , or

text: petrochemical

text: in origin, and may be

text: volatile

text: or non-volatile. They are used for food (e.g.,

text: olive oil

text: ), fuel (e.g.,

text: heating oil

text: ),  medical purposes (e.g.,

text: mineral oil

text: lubrication

text: (e.g.

text: motor oil

text: ), and the manufacture of many types of paints, plastics, and other materials. Specially prepared oils are used in some religious ceremonies and ritluals as purifying agents.

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.

text: Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and

text: energy efficiency

text: is resulting in significant

text: energy security

text: climate change mitigation

text: , and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.

text: Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals. It is a non-renewable resource.

text: Natural gas is a

text: fossil fuel

text: used as a source of energy for heating, cooking, and electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical feedstock in the manufacture of

text: plastics

text: and other commercially important

text: organic chemicals

text: . It is a

text: non-renewable resource

text: In Honduras, there is an important potential of untapped indigenous renewable energy resources. Due to the variability of high oil prices and declining renewable infrastructure costs, such resources could be developed at competitive prices.

text: In Honduras, there is an important potential of untapped indigenous

text: renewable energy

text: resources. Due to the variability of high oil prices and declining renewable infrastructure costs, such resources could be developed at competitive prices.

text: IRELP’s partners include the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety; Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT);  Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP); National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL); La Fundación Centro de Educación a Distancia para el Desarrollo Económico y Tecnológico (CEDDET); York University Faculty of Environmental Studies Sustainable Energy Initiative (SEI);  Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM); Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (RCREEE); Canadian GeoExchange Coalition (CGC); International Geothermal Association (IGA); International Hydropower Association (IHA); International Solar Energy Society (ISES) and the World Wind Energy Association (WWEA).

text: IRELP’s partners include the

text: Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety

text: ; Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT);

text: Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership

text: (REEEP);

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: (NREL); La Fundación Centro de Educación a Distancia para el Desarrollo Económico y Tecnológico (CEDDET); York University Faculty of Environmental Studies Sustainable Energy Initiative (SEI);  Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM);

text: Regional Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency

text: (RCREEE); Canadian GeoExchange Coalition (CGC); International Geothermal Association (IGA);

text: International Hydropower Association

text: (IHA);

text: International Solar Energy Society

text: (ISES) and the

text: World Wind Energy Association

text: (WWEA).

text: Natural gas depends on pipelines for economical transport. Without pipeline connections, natural gas must be transported as liquefied natural gas (LNG), an expensive process. For this reason, the price of natural gas tends to differ between regions not connected by gas pipelines. The North American market, consisting of Canada, Mexico, and the United States, all connected by a common pipeline network, has had much lower gas prices in recent years than some other major world gas markets, such as Europe (since 2010), Japan (since 2008), and Korea.

text: Coal mining in Brazil is the country's largest source of non-renewable energy, and is an important part of Brazil's energy economy. Brazil is the tenth largest energy consumer and the third largest in the Western Hemisphere, Coal accounts for approximately 5.8 percent of the country’s total primary energy supply. It is the country’s largest source of non-renewable energy (50 percent), followed by nuclear energy (27 percent), petroleum (eight percent), and natural gas (2.5 percent). Brazil produces about 6 million tons of coal per year, and total coal reserves are estimated at approximately 32.3 billion tons. It is also important in reducing reliance on imported oil and gas.

text: Coal mining in Brazil is the country's largest source of

text: non-renewable energy

text: , and is an important part of Brazil's

text: energy economy

text: . Brazil is the tenth largest energy consumer and the third largest in the Western Hemisphere, Coal accounts for approximately 5.8 percent of the country’s total primary energy supply. It is the country’s largest source of non-renewable energy (50 percent), followed by

text: nuclear energy

text: (27 percent),

text: petroleum

text: (eight percent), and

text: natural gas

text: (2.5 percent). Brazil produces about 6 million tons of coal per year, and total

text: coal reserves

text: are estimated at approximately 32.3 billion tons. It is also important in reducing reliance on imported oil and gas.

text: Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel or fuel oil. There's a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.

text: Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like

text: natural gas

text: or

text: petroleum

text: products such as

text: gasoline

text: diesel fuel

text: or

text: fuel oil

text: . There's a growing usage of

text: renewable fuels

text: like

text: biodiesel

text: for compression ignition engines and

text: bioethanol

text: or

text: methanol

text: for spark ignition engines.

text: Hydrogen

text: is sometimes used, and can be made from either fossil fuels or renewable energy.

text: As the 21st century began, rising concerns over energy security, global warming, and eventual fossil fuel depletion led to an expansion of interest in all available forms of renewable energy. Worldwide, many thousands of wind turbines are now operating, with a total nameplate capacity of 194,400 MW. Europe accounted for 48% of the total in 2009.

text: As the 21st century began, rising concerns over

text: energy security

text: global warming

text: , and eventual

text: fossil fuel depletion

text: renewable energy

text: . Worldwide, many thousands of wind turbines are now operating, with a total

text: nameplate capacity

text: of 194,400 MW.

text: Europe

text: accounted for 48% of the total in 2009.

text: A coal-mining region is a region in which coal mining is a significant economic activity. Coal-mining regions are often associated with the social, environmental and cultural impact of coal mining.

text: A coal-mining region is a

text: region

text: in which

text: coal mining

text: is a significant

text: economic

text: activity. Coal-mining regions are often associated with the social, environmental and cultural impact of coal mining.

text: According to Roberts, oil faces three major dilemmas. Most importantly, all fossil fuels are by their very nature limited in supply; as far as oil is concerned, the resulting dilemma is best known as the question of peak oil. Further, much of the oil consumed by affluent countries such as the United States is extracted in countries that are rather unstable politically, such as some of the members of the OPEC. The oil trade is therefore prone to become intertwined with international relations, although the nature of this interplay is highly controversial, with some citing oil as a reason for conflicts such as the Iraq War and others denying such claims. Finally, since the burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide that was previously locked in the ground, humanity's reliance on oil may contribute to global warming.

text: According to Roberts, oil faces three major dilemmas. Most importantly, all fossil fuels are by their very nature limited in supply; as far as oil is concerned, the resulting dilemma is best known as the question of

text: peak oil

text: . Further, much of the oil consumed by affluent countries such as the United States is extracted in countries that are rather unstable politically, such as some of the members of the

text: OPEC

text: . The oil trade is therefore prone to become intertwined with

text: international relations

text: , although the nature of this interplay is highly controversial, with some citing oil as a reason for conflicts such as the

text: Iraq War

text: and others denying such claims. Finally, since the burning of fossil fuels releases

text: carbon dioxide

text: that was previously locked in the ground, humanity's reliance on oil may contribute to

text: global warming

text: MTBE was phased out in the US due to ground water contamination and the resulting regulations and lawsuits. Ethanol and, to a lesser extent, the ethanol-derived ETBE are common replacements. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called gasohol or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called E85. The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in Brazil, where the ethanol is derived from sugarcane. In 2004, over 3.4 billion US gallons (2.8 billion imp gal/13 million m³) of ethanol was produced in the United States for fuel use, mostly from corn, and E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the United States, though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to the general public. The use of bioethanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of such ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged by the European Union Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport. Since producing bioethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves distillation, though, ordinary people in much of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at present (unlike in the US, where getting a BATF distillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis).

text: MTBE was phased out in the US due to ground water contamination and the resulting regulations and lawsuits. Ethanol and, to a lesser extent, the ethanol-derived ETBE are common replacements. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called

text: gasohol

text: or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called

text: . The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in

text: Brazil

text: , where the ethanol is derived from

text: sugarcane

text: . In 2004, over 3.4 billion US gallons (2.8 billion imp gal/13 million m³) of ethanol was produced in the United States for fuel use, mostly from

text: corn

text: , and E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the United States, though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to the general public. The use of

text: bioethanol

text: , either directly or indirectly by conversion of such ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged by the European Union

entity_name: Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport

text: Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport

text: . Since producing bioethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves

text: distillation

text: , though, ordinary people in much of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at present (unlike in the US, where getting a

entity_name: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives

text: BATF

text: distillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis).

text: It has been estimated that since 2008, NAB has loaned A$11.2 billion to the fossil fuel industry in Australia, positioning itself as the 3rd largest lender in this regard. Comparatively, loans to renewable energy are estimated at A$2.2 billion over the same period, or approximately 20% of the amount to fossil fuels. The Big Four Australian banks, of which NAB is part, are estimated to have provided approximately one third of all loans to the fossil fuel industry in Australia since 2008. Financed emissions count toward a company's Scope 3 emissions under the Greenhouse Gas Protocol.

text: It has been estimated that since 2008, NAB has loaned A$11.2 billion to the

text: fossil fuel

text: industry in Australia, positioning itself as the 3rd largest lender in this regard. Comparatively, loans to renewable energy are estimated at A$2.2 billion over the same period, or approximately 20% of the amount to fossil fuels. The

text: Big Four Australian banks

text: , of which NAB is part, are estimated to have provided approximately one third of all loans to the fossil fuel industry in Australia since 2008. Financed emissions count toward a company's

text: Scope 3 emissions

text: under the

text: Greenhouse Gas Protocol

text: The energy mix of insular energy systems is dominated by diesel and heavy fuel oil. The vast amounts of imported fossil fuel necessary to fulfil the energy needs of these systems create instability in the economy as well as the security of the countries. Additionally, the domination of fossil-fueled energy generation is strongly supported by several other factors, including the inefficiency of indigenous energy resources, the limited infrastructure of energy delivery, the lack of storage, and the flexibility of the power generators to meet seasonal needs. Insular energy systems typically have only a few independent power producers and a limited range of power generation technologies. Furthermore, there is lack of attractive support schemes or incentives for the progression of the system from fossil fuels to renewable and low-carbon energy sources. At the same time, their efforts to meet international or European obligations often fail and are normally also costly.

text: The energy mix of insular energy systems is dominated by

text: diesel

text: and heavy fuel oil. The vast amounts of imported

text: fossil fuel

text: necessary to fulfil the energy needs of these systems create instability in the economy as well as the security of the countries. Additionally, the domination of fossil-fueled energy generation is strongly supported by several other factors, including the inefficiency of indigenous energy resources, the limited infrastructure of energy delivery, the lack of storage, and the flexibility of the power generators to meet seasonal needs. Insular energy systems typically have only a few independent power producers and a limited range of power generation technologies. Furthermore, there is lack of attractive support schemes or incentives for the progression of the system from fossil fuels to renewable and low-carbon energy sources. At the same time, their efforts to meet international or European obligations often fail and are normally also costly.

text: From 1987 to 1990, Moynihan was Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Department of the Environment responsible for water privatisation, National Heritage, the National Rivers Authority, Inner City policy, planning and urban regeneration. During his time at the Department of the Environment he worked closely with Michael Howard who, when subsequently Leader of the Conservative Party, appointed Moynihan as his Special Adviser and Chairman of the Conservative Campaigning Board. From 1990–92 he was joint-Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Energy in both the Thatcher and Major governments responsible for oil, gas and renewable energy policy, a field in which he took a leading interest through the establishment of the first Government UK Renewable Energy Advisory Group which he chaired and the introduction of the first Non Fossil Fuel Obligation in Parliament which initiated Government support for renewable energy. During his time in the House of Commons, he chaired the All Party Parliamentary Group on Afghanistan, was Hon. Secretary of the Conservative Foreign Affairs Committee, the Parliamentary British Latin America Group and the Parliamentary Friends of the British Council. Whilst Moynihan's House of Commons seat was lost to Labour's Bridget Prentice in the General Election of 1992, his half-brother's death in 1991 opened the door to him for continuing his political career in the House of Lords, but he did not officially succeed to the title until 1997.

text: From 1987 to 1990, Moynihan was

text: Parliamentary Under Secretary of State

text: at the

text: Department of the Environment

text: responsible for water privatisation,

text: National Heritage

text: , the National Rivers Authority,

text: Inner City

text: policy, planning and urban regeneration. During his time at the Department of the Environment he worked closely with

text: Michael Howard

text: who, when subsequently Leader of the Conservative Party, appointed Moynihan as his Special Adviser and Chairman of the Conservative Campaigning Board. From 1990–92 he was joint-

text: Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State

text: for Energy in both the Thatcher and Major governments responsible for oil, gas and renewable energy policy, a field in which he took a leading interest through the establishment of the first Government UK Renewable Energy Advisory Group which he chaired and the introduction of the first

text: Non Fossil Fuel Obligation

text: in Parliament which initiated Government support for renewable energy. During his time in the House of Commons, he chaired the All Party Parliamentary Group on Afghanistan, was Hon. Secretary of the Conservative Foreign Affairs Committee, the Parliamentary British Latin America Group and the Parliamentary Friends of the British Council. Whilst Moynihan's

text: House of Commons

text: seat was lost to Labour's

text: Bridget Prentice

text: in the

text: General Election of 1992

text: , his half-brother's death in 1991 opened the door to him for continuing his political career in the

text: House of Lords

text: , but he did not officially succeed to the title until 1997.

text: The natural gas industry in the United States goes back to 1821, when natural gas was discovered and used in Fredonia, New York. From the start, the market for natural gas was limited by pipeline technology. The gas for Fredonia, New York in 1821 was supplied through wooden pipes, which were incapable of carrying gas for long distances.

text: The natural gas industry in the United States goes back to 1821, when natural gas was discovered and used in

text: Fredonia, New York

text: . From the start, the market for natural gas was limited by pipeline technology. The gas for Fredonia, New York in 1821 was supplied through wooden pipes, which were incapable of carrying gas for long distances.

text: In 1987 the United Nation's World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), in its report Our Common Future suggested that development was acceptable, but it must be sustainable development that would meet the needs of the poor while not increasing environmental problems. Humanity’s demand on the planet has more than doubled over the past 45 years as a result of population growth and increasing individual consumption. In 1961 almost all countries in the world had more than enough capacity to meet their own demand; by 2005 the situation had changed radically with many countries able to meet their needs only by importing resources from other nations. A move toward sustainable living by increasing public awareness and adoption of recycling, and renewable energies emerged. The development of renewable sources of energy in the 1970s and '80s, primarily in wind turbines and photovoltaics and increased use of hydroelectricity, presented some of the first sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and nuclear energy generation, the first large-scale solar and wind power plants appearing during the 1980s and '90s. Also at this time many local and state governments in developed countries began to implement small-scale sustainability policies.

text: In 1987 the

text: United Nation's

text: World Commission on Environment and Development

text: (the Brundtland Commission), in its report Our Common Future suggested that development was acceptable, but it must be

text: sustainable development

text: that would meet the needs of the poor while not increasing environmental problems. Humanity’s demand on the planet has more than doubled over the past 45 years as a result of population growth and increasing individual consumption. In 1961 almost all countries in the world had more than enough capacity to meet their own demand; by 2005 the situation had changed radically with many countries able to meet their needs only by importing resources from other nations. A move toward

text: sustainable living

text: by increasing public awareness and adoption of

text: recycling

text: , and

text: renewable energies

text: emerged. The development of renewable sources of energy in the 1970s and '80s, primarily in

text: wind turbines

text: and

text: photovoltaics

text: and increased use of

text: hydroelectricity

text: , presented some of the first sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel and

text: nuclear energy

text: generation, the first large-scale solar and wind power plants appearing during the 1980s and '90s. Also at this time many local and state governments in developed countries began to implement small-scale sustainability policies.

text: The National Renewable Energy Laboratory believes that US counties have the potential to produce more renewable hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles than the gasoline they consumed in 2002.

text: The

text: National Renewable Energy Laboratory

text: believes that

text: US counties

text: have the potential to produce more renewable hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles than the gasoline they consumed in 2002.

text: Along with other sustainable energy sources, nuclear power is a low carbon power generation method of producing electricity, with an analysis of the literature on its total life cycle emission intensity finding that it is similar to other renewable sources in a comparison of greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions per unit of energy generated. With this translating into, from the beginning of nuclear power station commercialization in the 1970s, having prevented the emission of approximately 64 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent(GtCO2-eq) greenhouse gases, gases that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of oil, coal or natural gas in fossil-fuel power stations.

text: Along with other sustainable energy sources, nuclear power is a

text: low carbon power generation

text: method of producing electricity, with an analysis of the literature on its

text: total life cycle

text: emission intensity

text: finding that it is similar to other renewable sources in a comparison of

text: greenhouse gas

text: (GHG) emissions per unit of energy generated. With this translating into, from the beginning of

text: nuclear power station

text: commercialization in the 1970s, having prevented the emission of approximately 64

text: gigaton

text: nes of

text: carbon dioxide equivalent

text: greenhouse gases

text: , gases that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of oil, coal or natural gas in

text: fossil-fuel power station

text: s.

text: His other acting credits include roles in Ambush Bay (1966), In the Heat of the Night (1967), Counterpoint (1968), Von Richthofen and Brown (1971), Tomorrow (1972), The Exorcist (1973), Man on a Swing (1974) and Gardens of Stone (1987).

text: His other acting credits include roles in

text: Ambush Bay

text: In the Heat of the Night

text: Counterpoint

text: Von Richthofen and Brown

text: Tomorrow

text: The Exorcist

text: Man on a Swing

text: (1974) and

text: Gardens of Stone

text: Nuclear binding energy is the energy that would be required to disassemble the nucleus of an atom into its component parts. These component parts are neutrons and protons, which are collectively called nucleons. The binding energy of nuclei is due to the attractive forces that hold these nucleons together, and it is usually a positive number, since most nuclei would require the expenditure of energy to separate them into individual protons and neutrons. The mass of an atomic nucleus is usually less than the sum of the individual masses of the constituent protons and neutrons (according to Einstein's equation E=mc) and this 'missing mass' is known as the mass defect, and represents the energy that was released when the nucleus was formed.

text: Nuclear binding energy is the energy that would be required to disassemble the

text: nucleus of an atom

text: into its component parts. These component parts are

text: neutron

text: s and

text: proton

text: s, which are collectively called

text: nucleon

text: s. The binding energy of nuclei is due to the attractive forces that hold these nucleons together, and it is usually a positive number, since most nuclei would require the expenditure of energy to separate them into individual protons and neutrons. The

text: mass

text: of an atomic nucleus is usually less than the sum of the individual masses of the

text: constituent

text: protons and neutrons (according to Einstein's equation E=mc) and this 'missing mass' is known as the

text: mass defect

text: , and represents the energy that was released when the nucleus was formed.

text: Energy accounting was proposed in the early 1930s as a scientific alternative to a price system, or money method of regulating society. Joseph Tainter suggests that a diminishing ratio of energy returned on energy invested is a chief cause of the collapse of complex societies.  Falling EROEI due to depletion of non-renewable resources also poses a difficult challenge for industrial economies. Sustainability becomes an issue as survival is threatened due to climate change.

text: Energy accounting

text: was proposed in the early 1930s as a scientific alternative to a

text: price system

text: , or money method of regulating society.

text: Joseph Tainter

text: suggests that a diminishing ratio of

text: energy returned on energy invested

text: is a chief cause of the collapse of complex societies.  Falling EROEI due to depletion of non-renewable resources also poses a difficult challenge for industrial economies.

text: Sustainability

text: becomes an issue as survival is threatened due to climate change.

text: The Bo’ness and Kinneil Railway is a heritage railway in Bo'ness, near Edinburgh, Scotland.  It is operated by the Scottish Railway Preservation Society (SRPS), and operates a total of over 5 miles of track (between Bo'ness and Manuel Junction, via Kinneil and Birkhill), virtually the entire Slamannan and Borrowstounness Railway that became part of the former North British Railway on the Firth of Forth. Bo'ness railway station is the nucleus of the planned Scottish Railway Museum.

text: The Bo’ness and Kinneil Railway is a heritage railway in Bo'ness, near Edinburgh, Scotland.  It is operated by the

text: Scottish Railway Preservation Society

text: (SRPS), and operates a total of over 5 miles of track (between Bo'ness and Manuel Junction, via Kinneil and Birkhill), virtually the entire

text: Slamannan and Borrowstounness Railway

text: that became part of the former

text: North British Railway

text: on the

text: Firth of Forth

text: Bo'ness railway station

text: is the nucleus of the planned

text: Scottish Railway Museum

text: A plague epidemic that followed the Great Northern War (1700–1721, Sweden v. Russia and allies) wiped out almost 1/3 of the population in the region. An estimated one-third of East Prussia's population died in the plague of 1709–1711. The plague of 1710 killed two-thirds of the inhabitants of Helsinki. An outbreak of plague between 1710 and 1711 claimed a third of Stockholm’s population.

text: A plague epidemic that followed the

text: Great Northern War

text: Sweden

text: v. Russia and allies) wiped out almost 1/3 of the population in the region. An estimated one-third of

text: East Prussia

text: 's population died in the plague of 1709–1711. The plague of 1710 killed two-thirds of the inhabitants of

text: Helsinki

text: . An outbreak of plague between 1710 and 1711 claimed a third of

text: Stockholm

text: ’s population.

text: - Men Basketball Team

text: - Men Basketball Team

text: The International Energy Agency's World Energy Outlook 2006 concludes that rising petroleum demand, if left unchecked, would accentuate vulnerability to a severe supply disruption and resulting sudden price increases, in consuming countries. Renewable biofuels for transport represent a key source of diversification from petroleum products. Biofuels from grain and beet in temperate regions have a role, but they are relatively expensive and their energy efficiency and carbon dioxide savings, vary. Biofuels from sugar cane and other highly productive tropical crops are much more competitive and beneficial. But all first generation biofuels ultimately compete with the production of food for land, water, and other resources. More effort is required to develop and commercialize second generation biofuel technologies, such as biorefineries and cellulosic ethanol, enabling the flexible production of biofuels and related products from non-edible parts of the plant.

text: The

text: International Energy Agency

text: 's World Energy Outlook 2006 concludes that rising petroleum demand, if left unchecked, would accentuate vulnerability to a severe supply disruption and resulting sudden price increases, in consuming countries. Renewable biofuels for transport represent a key source of diversification from

text: petroleum products

text: . Biofuels from grain and beet in

text: temperate region

text: s have a role, but they are relatively expensive and their energy efficiency and carbon dioxide savings, vary. Biofuels from sugar cane and other highly productive tropical crops are much more competitive and beneficial. But all first generation biofuels ultimately compete with the production of food for land, water, and other resources. More effort is required to develop and commercialize second generation biofuel technologies, such as biorefineries and

text: cellulosic ethanol

text: , enabling the flexible production of biofuels and related products from non-edible parts of the plant.

text: Preservation period of Records

text: Preservation period of Records

text: Free will is something many mental health experts dismiss in favor of determinism. According to Rychlak, the modern psychologist dismisses the idea of free will, claiming it as being something disproven by science. Rychlak points out that when dealing with legal matters, free will is abundant and in fact, the Supreme Court maintained their belief on the matter  - “men usually intend to do what they do”. Rychlak claimed that the determinism that psychology holds on to may have had a negative impact on the law. In a courtroom, a lawyer could look at an expert witness for their opinion on whether a person behaved on their own free will or if there were outside influences. This opinion is tainted by the expert witness’ denial of the existence of free will.

text: Free will

text: is something many mental health experts dismiss in favor of

text: determinism

text: . According to Rychlak, the modern psychologist dismisses the idea of

text: free will

text: , claiming it as being something disproven by science. Rychlak points out that when dealing with legal matters, free will is abundant and in fact, the Supreme Court maintained their belief on the matter  - “men usually intend to do what they do”. Rychlak claimed that the determinism that psychology holds on to may have had a negative impact on the law. In a courtroom, a lawyer could look at an expert witness for their opinion on whether a person behaved on their own free will or if there were outside influences. This opinion is tainted by the expert witness’ denial of the existence of free will.

text: Friedrich of Germany or Frederick of Germany may refer to:

text: 2011 Woods Hole Film Festival - Official Selection

text: | class="note" | | class="note" | |- class="vcard"| class="fn org" | Nether Edge| class="adr" |

text: | class="note" | | class="note" | |- class="vcard"| class="fn org" |

text: Nether Edge

text: | class="adr" |

text: Attaining his first cap in 1996, Blain became Scotland's youngest-capped cricketer since 1890. He played during the 1996 European Championship taking seven wickets at 9.85. Blain was initially signed as a footballer to Falkirk but decided to switch to cricket, signing for Northamptonshire, having not made an impact as a footballer.

text: Attaining his first

text: cap

text: in 1996, Blain became Scotland's youngest-capped cricketer since 1890. He played during the 1996

text: European Championship

text: taking seven wickets at 9.85. Blain was initially signed as a

text: footballer

text: to

text: Falkirk

text: but decided to switch to cricket, signing for

text: Northamptonshire

text: , having not made an impact as a footballer.

text: The historical maritime station of Ponte dei Mille is today a technologically advanced cruise terminal, with facilities designed after the world's most modern airports, in order to ensure fast embarking and disembarking of latest generation ships carrying thousand passengers.

text: Yevgeni Aleksandrovich Gurulyov (; born 25 May 1994) is a Russian football player.

text: Yevgeni Aleksandrovich Gurulyov (; born 25 May 1994) is a

text: Russia

text: n

text: football

text: player.

text: Ill-fated French ocean liner MS Georges Philippar was named after him.

text: Ill-fated French

text: ocean liner

text: MS Georges Philippar

text: was named after him.

text: •VEMULAPALLE

text: •VEMULAPALLE

text: The School of Arts is located on Macrossan Street, the main street of Ravenswood. It is on the edge of the town's commercial centre and close to the Imperial Hotel. Ravenswood is located in a mining landscape which consists of disturbed ground with scattered ruins and mullock heaps, set amongst distinctive chinkee apples and rubber vines.

text: The School of Arts is located on Macrossan Street, the main street of Ravenswood. It is on the edge of the town's commercial centre and close to the

text: Imperial Hotel

text: . Ravenswood is located in a mining landscape which consists of disturbed ground with scattered ruins and mullock heaps, set amongst distinctive

text: chinkee apples

text: and rubber vines.

text: Taqwa Pinero (born Taquan Dean on August 6, 1983) is an American professional basketball player who currently plays for Iberostar Tenerife of the Spanish League.

text: Taqwa Pinero (born Taquan Dean on August 6, 1983) is an American professional

text: basketball

text: player who currently plays for

text: Iberostar Tenerife

text: of the

text: Spanish League

text: There were 3,358 households out of which 42.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.0% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.2% were non-families. 16.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.91 and the average family size was 3.29.

text: There were 3,358 households out of which 42.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.0% were

text: married couples

text: living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.2% were non-families. 16.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.91 and the average family size was 3.29.

text: Khalid Muhammad Ishaq  (16 August 1926 – 7 February 2004), Senior Advocate Supreme Court, was an eminent Pakistani jurist and scholar of law, Islamic studies and literature.

text: Khalid Muhammad Ishaq  (16 August 1926 – 7 February 2004),

text: Senior Advocate Supreme Court

text: , was an eminent

text: Pakistan

text: i

text: jurist

text: and scholar of

text: law

text: Islamic studies

text: and

text: literature

text: Alaska has a large resource of natural gas stranded in its Prudhoe Bay oil field. The largest gas plant in the United States exists there exclusively to reinject the associated gas into the oil fields. Marketing of the gas awaits the completion of the Alaska gas pipeline to carry it to the lower 48 states. Building of the pipeline has been delayed by the availability of low-cost natural gas in Canada and development of non-conventional gas fields in the lower 48 states, as well as political considerations.

text: Alaska has a large resource of natural gas stranded in its

text: Prudhoe Bay oil field

text: . The largest gas plant in the United States exists there exclusively to reinject the associated gas into the oil fields. Marketing of the gas awaits the completion of the

text: Alaska gas pipeline

text: to carry it to the lower 48 states. Building of the pipeline has been delayed by the availability of low-cost natural gas in Canada and development of

text: non-conventional gas

text: fields in the lower 48 states, as well as political considerations.

text: Over the years, the average energy content per ton of coal mined in the US has declined as mining shifts to coals of lower rank. Although the tonnage of coal mined in the United States reached its latest peak in 2008, the peak in terms of coal energy content occurred in 1998, at 598 Millions of metric tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe); by 2005 this had fallen to 576 Mtoe, or about 4% lower.

text: Over the years, the average energy content per ton of coal mined in the US has declined as mining shifts to coals of lower rank. Although the tonnage of coal mined in the United States reached its latest peak in 2008, the peak in terms of coal energy content occurred in 1998, at 598

text: Millions of metric tons of oil equivalent

text: (Mtoe); by 2005 this had fallen to 576 Mtoe, or about 4% lower.

text: The two processors communicated through four pairs of FIFO buffers in the Tube ULA. Console input/output, error messages, data transfers and system calls each had their own pair of buffers, one for each direction.  The queue capacity varied between 1 and 24 bytes, depending on the dedicated buffer function.  Each buffer had a control register and status register to monitor its state and configure the raising of interrupts.

text: The two processors communicated through four pairs of

text: FIFO

text: buffers in the Tube ULA.

text: Console

text: input/output,

text: error message

text: s, data transfers and

text: system call

text: s each had their own pair of buffers, one for each direction.  The queue capacity varied between 1 and 24 bytes, depending on the dedicated buffer function.  Each buffer had a control register and status register to monitor its state and configure the raising of

text: interrupt

text: s.

text: The regiment lost a total of 113 men during service; 10 enlisted men killed or mortally wounded, 1 officer and 102 enlisted men died of disease.

text: India census, Papampeta had a population of 9,308. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Papampeta has an average literacy rate of 60%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 68%, and female literacy is 50%. In Papampeta, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.

text: India

text: census

text: , Papampeta had a population of 9,308. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%. Papampeta has an average literacy rate of 60%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 68%, and female literacy is 50%. In Papampeta, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.

text: In 1895 Logan Senior transferred his boat building business to the south side of Waitemata Harbour. By 1900 Logan had a shed 120 feet long by 50 feet wide which enabled him to build vessels under cover up to 120 feet long.

text: In 1895 Logan Senior transferred his boat building business to the south side of

text: Waitemata Harbour

text: . By 1900 Logan had a shed 120 feet long by 50 feet wide which enabled him to build vessels under cover up to 120 feet long.

text: Cocker was brought up and educated in Buxton, Derbyshire, the gateway to the Peak District National Park. This early access to the spectacular limestone flora of the Derbyshire Dales and the specialised upland birds of the Dark Peak provided formative experiences in his evolution as a naturalist.

text: Cocker was brought up and educated in

text: Buxton

text: , Derbyshire, the gateway to the

text: Peak District National Park

text: . This early access to the spectacular

text: limestone

text: flora

text: of the

text: Derbyshire Dales

text: and the specialised upland birds of the

text: Dark Peak

text: provided formative experiences in his evolution as a naturalist.

text: Key changes from 2016 include:

text: Key changes from 2016 include:

text: In March 2011 the nuclear emergencies at Japan's Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and shutdowns at other nuclear facilities raised questions among some commentators over the future of the renaissance. Platts has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world". In 2011 Siemens exited the nuclear power sector following the Fukushima disaster and subsequent changes to German energy policy, and supported the German government's planned energy transition to renewable energy technologies.  China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy and the Philippines have reviewed their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. Countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Norway remain opposed to nuclear power. Following the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035.

text: In March 2011 the

entity_name: Timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

text: nuclear emergencies

text: at Japan's

text: Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant

text: and shutdowns at

text: other nuclear facilities

text: raised questions among some commentators over the future of the renaissance.

text: Platts

text: has reported that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world". In 2011

text: Siemens

text: exited the

text: nuclear power

text: sector following the

text: Fukushima disaster

text: and subsequent changes to German energy policy, and supported the German government's planned

text: energy transition

text: to

text: renewable energy

text: technologies.  China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, Italy and the Philippines have reviewed their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants. Countries such as

text: Australia

text: Austria

text: Denmark

text: Greece

text: Ireland

text: Latvia

text: Liechtenstein

text: Luxembourg

text: Portugal

text: Israel

text: Malaysia

text: New Zealand

text: , and

text: Norway

text: remain opposed to nuclear power. Following the

text: Fukushima I nuclear accidents

text: , the

text: International Energy Agency

text: halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity built by 2035.

text: indexes task, and

text: indexes task, and

text: Pilarryggen () is a rock ridge at the west side of Portalen Pass in the Borg Massif of Queen Maud Land. Mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition (NBSAE) (1949–52) and named Pilarryggen (the pillar ridge).

text: Pilarryggen () is a rock ridge at the west side of

text: Portalen Pass

text: in the

text: Borg Massif

text: of

text: Queen Maud Land

text: . Mapped by Norwegian cartographers from surveys and air photos by

text: Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition

text: (NBSAE) (1949–52) and named Pilarryggen (the pillar ridge).

text: By 1930 the original mine was worked out and the company went into liquidation. A new coal seam was found 3.5 km to the south; a new company, "Wilton Collieries Ltd", was formed to operate this line, which was known as the Waipa Railway and Collieries Limited private line, and from October 1944 as the Wilton Collieries Limited private line. The railway line was sold to the new company for £10,000 in November 1930 and extended by about 2.2 km. The company purchased two ex-NZR tank locomotives, W 356 and W 316 in 1934 and 1933 to run the line, W 356 being purchased primarily to replace the former Waipa Railway & Collieries N 1 which had been lost in the Windy Creek runaway and derailment in 1933. Both of the W class locomotives were noted as being beyond repair by 1935.

text: By 1930 the original mine was worked out and the company went into liquidation. A new coal seam was found 3.5 km to the south; a new company, "Wilton Collieries Ltd", was formed to operate this line, which was known as the Waipa Railway and Collieries Limited private line, and from October 1944 as the Wilton Collieries Limited private line. The railway line was sold to the new company for £10,000 in November 1930 and extended by about 2.2 km. The company purchased two ex-NZR tank locomotives,

text: W

text: 356 and W 316 in 1934 and 1933 to run the line, W 356 being purchased primarily to replace the former Waipa Railway & Collieries N 1 which had been lost in the Windy Creek runaway and derailment in 1933. Both of the W class locomotives were noted as being beyond repair by 1935.

text: In 2003, she was appointed to the position of managing director of the Illinois Film Office by Rod Blagojevich. Many people were skeptical of this decision, because Sexton did not have a strong background in the film business. Also, her ex-husband was a generous contributor to Blagojevich, donating $260,000 to his 2002 campaign. He recommended Sexton to Blagojevich.

text: In 2003, she was appointed to the position of managing director of the Illinois Film Office by

text: Rod Blagojevich

text: . Many people were skeptical of this decision, because Sexton did not have a strong background in the film business. Also, her ex-husband was a generous contributor to Blagojevich, donating $260,000 to his 2002 campaign. He recommended Sexton to Blagojevich.

text: Sturgis occupies a total land area of about 3.5 square kilometers.  The town has a population density of 181.6 people per square kilometer.  The density for the census district is 2.3 persons per square kilometer and 1.8 persons per square kilometer for Saskatchewan as a whole.

text: Another concern is that the reasoning behind the big immediate push for a natural gas future, is to lock out possible development and implementation of more viable renewable energy sources. If people can be convinced that natural gas is the best possible future, and a large expenditure can be made now for a massive natural gas infrastructure to use natural gas for vehicle fuel, it will be much more difficult to abandon natural gas as a vehicle fuel and move on to newer, less expensive renewable energy sources as they become more viable to use. If renewable fuel sources are allowed to develop before the country can be convinced to move to natural gas, the window of opportunity to addict the country to natural gas may close, and the people associated with the natural gas industry would lose a lot of money now and in the foreseeable future.

text: Hammel worked in several occupations before he settled on writing and publishing.  He has been a stringer and contributing editor to Leatherneck Magazine.  He owned and operated a publishing business under the names Pacifica Press and Pacifica Military History.

text: Hammel worked in several occupations before he settled on writing and publishing.  He has been a

text: stringer

text: and contributing editor to

text: Leatherneck Magazine

text: .  He owned and operated a

text: publishing

text: business under the names Pacifica Press and Pacifica Military History.

text: 2000: Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature

text: 2000: Fellow of the

text: Royal Society of Literature

text: Grumbla (, meaning the cromlech) is a hamlet in the parish of Sancreed, Cornwall, England, UK.

text: Grumbla (, meaning the

text: cromlech

text: ) is a

text: hamlet

text: in the parish of

text: Sancreed

text: Cornwall

text: , England, UK.

text: Theodore D. "Tito" Maddox (born June 7, 1981) is an American former  professional basketball player who played in the NBA.Maddox was the center of a major illegal benefits scandal while a student-athlete at Fresno State, creating NCAA rules violations.He was drafted in the second round of the NBA draft but played only one season in the NBA.

text: Theodore D. "Tito" Maddox (born June 7, 1981) is an American former  professional

text: basketball

text: player who played in the

text: NBA

text: .Maddox was the center of a major illegal benefits scandal while a student-athlete at Fresno State, creating NCAA rules violations.He was drafted in the second round of the NBA draft but played only one season in the NBA.

text: His signature campaign issue was the Iraq War.  Hawkins criticized incumbent Senator Hillary Clinton's endorsement of the Iraq war resolution, and continued support for an American troop presence in Iraq. Hawkins pledged to implement what he describes as a modern-day version of the McGovern–Hatfield Amendment — a proposed Senate resolution intended to cut off funding for the Vietnam War — which would defund military operations for the U.S. Armed Forces unless and until they were redeployed out of theater.  He also campaigned for a World War II scale mobilization for a Clean Energy Transition, with renewable energy replacing carbon and nuclear fuels and the money for investing in the transition coming from cuts in the militarybudget on the order of 50-75 percent.

text: His signature campaign issue was the

text: Iraq War

text: .  Hawkins criticized incumbent Senator

text: Hillary Clinton

text: 's endorsement of the

text: Iraq war resolution

text: , and continued support for an American troop presence in Iraq. Hawkins pledged to implement what he describes as a modern-day version of the

text: McGovern–Hatfield Amendment

text: — a proposed Senate resolution intended to cut off funding for the

text: Vietnam War

text: — which would defund military operations for the U.S. Armed Forces unless and until they were redeployed out of theater.  He also campaigned for a World War II scale mobilization for a Clean Energy Transition, with

text: renewable energy

text: replacing carbon and nuclear fuels and the money for investing in the transition coming from cuts in the militarybudget on the order of 50-75 percent.

text: A criticism is that the BRIC projections are based on the assumptions that resources are limitless and endlessly available when needed. In reality, many important resources currently necessary to sustain economic growth, such as oil, natural gas, coal, other fossil fuels, and uranium might soon experience a peak in production before enough renewable energy can be developed and commercialized, which might result in slower economic growth than anticipated, thus throwing off the projections and their dates. The economic emergence of the BRICs will have unpredictable consequences for the global environment. Indeed, proponents of a set carrying capacity for the Earth may argue that, given current technology, there is a finite limit to how much the BRICs can develop before exceeding the ability of the global economy to supply.

text: A criticism is that the BRIC projections are based on the assumptions that resources are limitless and endlessly available when needed. In reality, many important resources currently necessary to sustain economic growth, such as

text: oil, natural gas, coal, other fossil fuels, and uranium

text: might soon experience a peak in production before enough renewable energy can be developed and commercialized, which might result in slower economic growth than anticipated, thus throwing off the projections and their dates. The economic emergence of the BRICs will have unpredictable consequences for the global environment. Indeed, proponents of a set

text: carrying capacity

text: for the Earth may argue that, given current technology, there is a finite limit to how much the BRICs can develop before exceeding the ability of the global economy to supply.

text: Tirat Zvi sits 220 meters below sea level. On 21 June 1942, it recorded the highest daytime temperature in Asia (54°C; 129.2°F), although the validity of this measurement has been questioned.

text: Tirat Zvi sits 220 meters below

text: sea level

text: . On 21 June 1942, it recorded the

text: highest daytime temperature in Asia

text: (54°C; 129.2°F), although the validity of this measurement has been questioned.

text: In 2011, Foot filmed a series of TV adverts for Virgin Mobile in Australia. He helped to devise his character in the campaign called "Robin Da Hood", a bizarre fusion of medieval eccentricities and modern-day Australian urbanity. The first of these adverts featured an emergency phone conversation between Foot and head of the Virgin Group Sir Richard Branson.

text: In 2011, Foot filmed a series of TV adverts for Virgin Mobile in Australia. He helped to devise his character in the campaign called "Robin Da Hood", a bizarre fusion of medieval eccentricities and modern-day Australian urbanity. The first of these adverts featured an emergency phone conversation between Foot and head of the

text: Virgin Group

text: Sir

text: Richard Branson

text: Russia is the largest oil producer in the non-OPEC countries, and second biggest in the world after Saudi Arabia, which it overtakes as the world's number one from time to time.  In 2006, Russia contributed 12.1% of global oil production and 11.6% of global oil exports. In June 2006, Russian crude oil and condensate production reached the post-Soviet maximum of  per day, exceeding production in 2000 by . Russian export consists more than  of oil and nearly  of refined products, which go mainly to the European market. The domestic demand in 2005 was  on average.  Russia is also the main transit country for oil from Kazakhstan.

text: Russia is the largest oil producer in the non-

text: OPEC

text: countries, and second biggest in the world after

text: Saudi Arabia

text: , which it overtakes as the world's number one from time to time.  In 2006, Russia contributed 12.1% of global oil production and 11.6% of global oil exports. In June 2006, Russian crude oil and condensate production reached the post-Soviet maximum of  per day, exceeding production in 2000 by . Russian export consists more than  of oil and nearly  of refined products, which go mainly to the European market. The domestic demand in 2005 was  on average.  Russia is also the main transit country for oil from

text: Kazakhstan

text: The Clean Energy Biofuels Act, signed in late July, exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state's gasoline tax, but only if the ethanol achieves a 60% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline. The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2% "substitute fuel" by July 2010, where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013, after which it holds steady 5%. The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil, and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative.

text: The Clean Energy Biofuels Act, signed in late July, exempts

text: cellulosic ethanol

text: from the state's gasoline tax, but only if the ethanol achieves a 60% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline. The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2% "substitute fuel" by July 2010, where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013, after which it holds steady 5%. The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil, and it requires the state to work to establish a

text: low-carbon fuel standard

text: under the

text: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative