text: The Czn system maintains homeostasis of Cadmium, Zinc, and Nickel resistance; it is involved in Urease modulation, and gastric colonization by H. pylori. The CznC and CznA proteins play the dominating role in nickel homeostasis.

text: The Czn system maintains homeostasis of

entity_name: Cadmium

text: Cadmium

entity_name: Zinc

text: Zinc

text: , and

entity_name: Nickel

text: Nickel

text: resistance; it is involved in

entity_name: Urease

text: Urease

text: modulation, and gastric colonization by

entity_name: Helicobacter pylori

text: H. pylori

text: The CznC and CznA proteins play the dominating role in nickel homeostasis.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Substances in the circulation can also increase the amount of circulating fluid by increasing the osmolarity of the blood. This has the effect of pulling water from the interstitial space, making more water available in the blood and causing the kidney to compensate by removing it as urine. In hypotension, often colloids are used intravenously to increase circulating volume in themselves, but as they exert a certain amount of osmotic pressure, water is therefore also moved, further increasing circulating volume. As blood pressure increases, the kidney removes the excess fluid as urine. Sodium, chloride, potassium are excreted in Osmotic diuresis, originating from Diabetes Mellitus (DM). Osmotic diuresis results in dehydration from polyuria and the classic polydipsia (excessive thirst) associated with DM.

text: Substances in the circulation can also increase the amount of circulating fluid by increasing the osmolarity of the blood. This has the effect of pulling water from the

entity_name: Interstitial fluid

text: interstitial

text: space, making more water available in the blood and causing the kidney to compensate by removing it as urine. In

entity_name: Hypotension

text: hypotension

text: , often

entity_name: Colloid

text: colloid

text: s are used intravenously to increase circulating volume in themselves, but as they exert a certain amount of osmotic pressure, water is therefore also moved, further increasing circulating volume. As blood pressure increases, the kidney removes the excess fluid as urine.

entity_name: Sodium

text: Sodium

entity_name: Chloride

text: chloride

entity_name: Potassium

text: potassium

text: are excreted in Osmotic diuresis, originating from

entity_name: Diabetes mellitus

text: Diabetes Mellitus

text: (DM). Osmotic diuresis results in

entity_name: Dehydration

text: dehydration

text: from

entity_name: Polyuria

text: polyuria

text: and the classic

entity_name: Polydipsia

text: polydipsia

text: (excessive thirst) associated with DM.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Glycidamide can be detoxified through different pathways to glycidamide-glutathione conjugates. There is an enzymatic pathway via glutathione-S-transferase and a non-enzymatic pathway. These glycidamide-glutathione conjugates are further metabolized to mercapturic acids by different peptidases and transferases, such as gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase, dipeptidase and N-acetyltransferase. The mercapturic acids that can be formed are N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-cysteine (AAMA), N-acetyl-S-(1-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-cysteine (GAMA2), and N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-cysteine (GAMA3) (Huang et al., 2011). These mercapturic acids are excreted through urine.

text: Glycidamide can be detoxified through different pathways to glycidamide-glutathione conjugates. There is an enzymatic pathway via glutathione-S-transferase and a non-enzymatic pathway. These glycidamide-glutathione conjugates are further metabolized to mercapturic acids by different

entity_name: Protease

text: peptidases

text: and

entity_name: Transferase

text: transferase

text: s, such as gamma-glutamyl-transpeptidase, dipeptidase and N-acetyltransferase. The mercapturic acids that can be formed are N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-cysteine (AAMA), N-acetyl-S-(1-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-cysteine (GAMA2), and N-acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-cysteine (GAMA3) (Huang et al., 2011). These mercapturic acids are excreted through urine.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: Urease production leads to precipitation of organic and inorganic compounds, which leads to struvite stone formation. Struvite stones are composed of a combination of magnesium ammonium phosphate (struvite) and calcium carbonate-apatite.  Struvite stone formation can be sustained only when ammonia production is increased and the urine pH is elevated to decrease the solubility of phosphate. Both of these requirements can occur only when urine is infected with a urease-producing organism such as Proteus. Urease metabolizes urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide: urea 2 NH + CO. The ammonia/ammonium buffer pair has a pK of 9.0, resulting in the combination of highly alkaline, ammonia-rich urine.

text: In the kidney, AVPR2's primary property is to respond to arginine vasopressin by stimulating mechanisms that concentrate the urine and maintain water homeostasis in the organism. When the function of AVPR2 is lost, the disease Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus (NDI) results.

text: In the kidney, AVPR2's primary property is to respond to arginine vasopressin by stimulating mechanisms that concentrate the

entity_name: Urine

text: urine

text: and maintain

entity_name: Water

text: water

entity_name: Homeostasis

text: homeostasis

text: in the organism. When the function of AVPR2 is lost, the disease

entity_name: Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus

text: Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus

text: (NDI) results.

text: Urea is synthesized in the body of many organisms as part of the urea cycle, either from the oxidation of amino acids or from ammonia.  In this cycle, amino groups donated by ammonia and L-aspartate are converted to urea, while L-ornithine, citrulline, L-argininosuccinate, and L-arginine act as intermediates.  Urea production occurs in the liver and is regulated by N-acetylglutamate.  Urea is then dissolved into the blood (in the reference range of 2.5 to 6.7 mmol/liter) and further transported and excreted by the kidney as a component of urine. In addition, a small amount of urea is excreted (along with sodium chloride and water) in sweat.

text: Urea is synthesized in the body of many organisms as part of the

entity_name: Urea cycle

text: urea cycle

text: , either from the oxidation of

entity_name: Amino acid

text: amino acid

text: s or from

entity_name: Ammonia

text: ammonia

text: .  In this cycle,

entity_name: Amine

text: amino

text: groups donated by ammonia and L-

entity_name: Aspartic acid

text: aspartate

text: are converted to urea, while L-

entity_name: Ornithine

text: ornithine

entity_name: Citrulline

text: citrulline

text: , L-

entity_name: Argininosuccinic acid

text: argininosuccinate

text: , and L-

entity_name: Arginine

text: arginine

text: act as intermediates.  Urea production occurs in the

entity_name: Liver

text: liver

text: and is regulated by

entity_name: N-Acetylglutamic acid

text: N-acetylglutamate

text: .  Urea is then dissolved into the blood (in the

entity_name: Reference ranges for blood tests

text: reference range

text: of 2.5 to 6.7 mmol/liter) and further transported and excreted by the kidney as a component of

text: urine

text: . In addition, a small amount of urea is excreted (along with

entity_name: Sodium chloride

text: sodium chloride

text: and water) in

entity_name: Perspiration

text: sweat

text: It is estimated that kidney disease affects 31 million people in the United States alone, with African Americans being 3 times more likely to experience kidney failure. Last year, 90,000 Americans were killed by kidney disease, more than breast cancer and prostate cancer. Some doctors believe kidney disease of this nature might be the next epidemic of our generation.

text: These system differ from all traditional IT developments in that everything is time based.  Traditional systems (often found as Legacy systems) are 'passive', in that they provide excellent functionality when specifically asked to do something - they will answer enquiries, process updates and produce reports.  Active systems are driven by time - in what sequence must activities happen; when must tasks be completed and by when; what happens if work misses a deadline; how are parallel activities to be resynchronised.  These facilities are all handled by true Automated Business Process systems.

text: These system differ from all traditional IT developments in that everything is time based.  Traditional systems (often found as

entity_name: Legacy system

text: Legacy system

text: s) are 'passive', in that they provide excellent functionality when specifically asked to do something - they will answer enquiries, process updates and produce reports.  Active systems are driven by time - in what sequence must activities happen; when must tasks be completed and by when; what happens if work misses a deadline; how are parallel activities to be resynchronised.  These facilities are all handled by true Automated Business Process systems.

text: Kidney disease is a chronic non-communicable disease, having serious consequences if it cannot be controlled effectively. Generally, the process of kidney disease development is from light to serious. The process of most kidney diseases is renal insufficiency, renal failure, and then uremia.

text: Kidney disease is a chronic

entity_name: Non-communicable disease

text: non-communicable disease

text: , having serious consequences if it cannot be controlled effectively. Generally, the process of kidney disease development is from light to serious. The process of most kidney diseases is renal insufficiency, renal failure, and then uremia.

text: Cystectomy is a medical term for surgical removal of all or part of the urinary bladder. It may also be rarely used to refer to the removal of a cyst, or the gallbladder. The most common condition warranting removal of the urinary bladder is bladder cancer. After the bladder has been removed, an  urinary diversion is necessary. Ureterocutaneostomy, ureterosigmoidostomy, ileal conduit, continent cutaneous pouch formations and neobladder substutitions using intestinal segments are main types of urinary diversions. Even though ileal conduit has been known as the most common type of urinary diversion, contemporary surgical practice has evolved to use of neobladder substitutions as first choice. A neobladder substutition is constructed as a pouch from a section of ileum or colon, which can act as a form of replacement bladder, storing urine until the patient desires to release it, which can be achieved by either abdominal straining or self catheterisation.Future treatment for this condition may involve a full replacement with an artificial bladder.

text: Cystectomy is a medical term for

entity_name: Surgery

text: surgical

text: removal of all or part of the

entity_name: Urinary bladder

text: urinary bladder

text: . It may also be rarely used to refer to the removal of a

entity_name: Cyst

text: cyst

text: , or the

entity_name: Gallbladder

text: gallbladder

text: . The most common condition warranting removal of the

text: urinary bladder

text: is

entity_name: Bladder cancer

text: bladder cancer

text: . After the bladder has been removed, an

entity_name: Urinary diversion

text: urinary diversion

text: is necessary. Ureterocutaneostomy, ureterosigmoidostomy, ileal conduit, continent cutaneous pouch formations and neobladder substutitions using intestinal segments are main types of urinary diversions. Even though ileal conduit has been known as the most common type of urinary diversion, contemporary surgical practice has evolved to use of neobladder substitutions as first choice. A neobladder substutition is constructed as a pouch from a section of

entity_name: Ileum

text: ileum

text: or

entity_name: Large intestine

entity_section: Structure

text: colon

text: , which can act as a form of replacement bladder, storing urine until the patient desires to release it, which can be achieved by either abdominal straining or self

entity_name: Catheter

text: catheter

text: isation.Future treatment for this condition may involve a full replacement with an

entity_name: Artificial urinary bladder

text: artificial bladder

text: Easley received a new kidney two years later at the University of Washington Medical Center. After his retirement Easley cut most of his ties with the Seahawks organization, citing the lawsuit, how his "dignity" was affected by the Stouffer trade, and how no one from the organization offered condolences after his transplant.

text: Easley received a new kidney two years later at the

entity_name: University of Washington Medical Center

text: University of Washington Medical Center

text: . After his retirement Easley cut most of his ties with the Seahawks organization, citing the lawsuit, how his "dignity" was affected by the Stouffer trade, and how no one from the organization offered condolences after his transplant.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Marine arthropods range in size from the microscopic crustacean Stygotantulus to the Japanese spider crab. Arthropods' primary internal cavity is a hemocoel, which accommodates their internal organs, and through which their haemolymph - analogue of blood - circulates; they have open circulatory systems. Like their exteriors, the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their nervous system is "ladder-like", with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and forming paired ganglia in each segment. Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus. The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the subphylum to which they belong.

text: Marine arthropods range in size from the microscopic

entity_name: Crustacean

text: crustacean

entity_name: Stygotantulus

text: Stygotantulus

text: to the

entity_name: Japanese spider crab

text: Japanese spider crab

text: . Arthropods' primary internal cavity is a

entity_name: Circulatory system

text: hemocoel

text: , which accommodates their internal

entity_name: Organ (anatomy)

text: organs

text: , and through which their

entity_name: Hemolymph

text: haemolymph

text: - analogue of

entity_name: Blood

text: blood

text: - circulates; they have

text: open circulatory systems

text: . Like their exteriors, the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their

entity_name: Nervous system

text: nervous system

text: is "ladder-like", with paired

entity_name: Anatomical terms of location

text: ventral

entity_name: Ventral nerve cord

text: nerve cords

text: running through all segments and forming paired

entity_name: Ganglion

text: ganglia

text: in each segment. Their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their

entity_name: Brain

text: brain

text: s are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the

entity_name: Esophagus

text: esophagus

text: . The

entity_name: Respiratory system

text: respiratory

text: and

entity_name: Excretion

text: excretory

text: systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the

entity_name: Subphylum

text: subphylum

text: to which they belong.

text: In the kidney, renal filtration is the filtration of blood in the glomerulus, followed by selective reabsorbtion of many substances essential for the body to maintain homeostasis.

text: In the

entity_name: Kidney

text: kidney

entity_name: Renal physiology

entity_section: Filtration

text: renal filtration

text: is the filtration of

text: blood

text: in the

entity_name: Glomerulus

text: glomerulus

text: , followed by selective reabsorbtion of many substances essential for the body to maintain homeostasis.

text: The gabT gene encodes for GABA transaminase, an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of GABA and 2-oxoglutarate into succinate semialdehyde and glutamate. Succinate semialdehyde is then oxidized into succinate by succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase which is encoded by the gabP gene, thereby entering the TCA cycle as a usable source of energy. The gab operon contributes to homeostasis of polyamines such as putrescine, during nitrogen-limited growth. It is also known to maintain high internal glutamate concentrations under stress conditions.

text: The gabT gene encodes for

entity_name: 4-aminobutyrate transaminase

text: GABA transaminase

text: , an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of GABA and 2-oxoglutarate into succinate semialdehyde and glutamate. Succinate semialdehyde is then oxidized into succinate by

entity_name: Succinate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase

text: succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase

text: which is encoded by the gabP gene, thereby entering the

entity_name: Citric acid cycle

text: TCA cycle

text: as a usable source of energy. The gab operon contributes to homeostasis of

entity_name: Polyamine

text: polyamines

text: such as

text: putrescine

text: , during nitrogen-limited growth. It is also known to maintain high internal

text: glutamate

text: concentrations under stress conditions.

text: Medical anthropologist, epidemiologists, and clinical researchers are just beginning to understand the nature of syndemics.  There is a critical need for new research in this area. Important arenas of inquiry include the following: First, there is a need for studies that examine the processes by which syndemics emerge, including the specific sets of health and social conditions that foster the occurrence of multiple epidemics in a population and how syndemics function to produce specific kinds of health outcomes in populations.  Second, there is a need to better understand processes of interaction between specific diseases with each other and with health-related factors like malnutrition, structural violence, discrimination, stigmatization, and toxic environmental exposure that reflect oppressive social relationships.  Specifically, there is a need to identify all of the ways, directly and indirectly, that diseases can interact and have, as a result, enhanced impact on human health. Third there is a need for the development of an eco-syndemic understanding of the ways in which global warming is contributing to the spread of diseases to new areas and to the potential for new disease interactions. Already it is clear that as a result of global warming infectious diseases such as West Nile Virus are spreading to new places.  Similarly malaria is now found in new places because it is spread by particular mosquito species that are migrating to new locations as a result of changing climates.  As a consequence, diseases that did not often interact in the past---through co-infection of the same individuals within a population---may begin interacting more regularly. Finally, there is a need for a better understanding of how the public health systems and communities can best respond to and limit the health consequences of syndemics. Systems are needed to monitor the emergence of syndemics and to allow early-bird medical and public health responses designed to lessen their impact. Systematic ethno-epidemiological surveillance with populations subject to multiple social stressors must be one component of such a monitoring system. Current efforts by researchers at the CDC to expand the discussion of syndemics in public health discourse is an important step in the development of a funded research agenda that addresses these research needs. Given the nature of syndemics, this research requires a bio-cultural/social approach that attends to both clinical and social processes.

text: Medical anthropologist, epidemiologists, and clinical researchers are just beginning to understand the nature of syndemics.  There is a critical need for new research in this area. Important arenas of inquiry include the following: First, there is a need for studies that examine the processes by which syndemics emerge, including the specific sets of health and social conditions that foster the occurrence of multiple epidemics in a population and how syndemics function to produce specific kinds of health outcomes in populations.  Second, there is a need to better understand processes of interaction between specific diseases with each other and with health-related factors like malnutrition, structural violence, discrimination, stigmatization, and toxic environmental exposure that reflect oppressive social relationships.  Specifically, there is a need to identify all of the ways, directly and indirectly, that diseases can interact and have, as a result, enhanced impact on human health. Third there is a need for the development of an eco-syndemic understanding of the ways in which

text: global warming

text: is contributing to the spread of diseases to new areas and to the potential for new disease interactions. Already it is clear that as a result of global warming infectious diseases such as

text: West Nile Virus

text: are spreading to new places.  Similarly malaria is now found in new places because it is spread by particular mosquito species that are migrating to new locations as a result of changing climates.  As a consequence, diseases that did not often interact in the past---through co-infection of the same individuals within a population---may begin interacting more regularly. Finally, there is a need for a better understanding of how the public health systems and communities can best respond to and limit the health consequences of syndemics. Systems are needed to monitor the emergence of syndemics and to allow early-bird medical and public health responses designed to lessen their impact. Systematic ethno-epidemiological surveillance with populations subject to multiple social stressors must be one component of such a monitoring system. Current efforts by researchers at the CDC to expand the discussion of syndemics in public health discourse is an important step in the development of a funded research agenda that addresses these research needs. Given the nature of syndemics, this research requires a bio-cultural/social approach that attends to both clinical and social processes.

text: Twenty nine stanzas detail various taboos that throw superstition of the time.  Verses 5-8 deal with eccil (pollution) that arises from urination, excretion, sexual contact, saliva, looking at an untouchable, but broadly misses the birth and death time pollutions.  While bathing one must now swim, spit into water (14, 35, 36) and one should not see his reflection in water, scratch ground (13), not wear others' soiled slippers  or clothes (12, 36), wear two garments while coming out of bath with one garment (11), not sleep opposite to door step (22, 45), nor facing north or midway point (30), use of both hands while providing drinks to elders (28), extinguish fire with water during the day (33), bow towards one sneezes (31), spitting or passing motion in various places (32), not to excrete facing south during the day or north during night (33), not pass motions imagining one is facing all ten directions (34).

text: An artificial kidney is a machine and its related devices which clean blood for patients who have an acute or chronic failure of their kidneys. The first artificial kidney was developed by Dutchman Willem Johan Kolff. The procedure of cleaning the blood by this means is called dialysis, a type of renal replacement therapy that is used to provide an artificial replacement for lost kidney function due to renal failure. It is a life support treatment and does not treat disease.

text: An

text: artificial kidney

text: is a machine and its related devices which clean blood for patients who have an acute or chronic failure of their kidneys. The first artificial kidney was developed by Dutchman

text: Willem Johan Kolff

text: . The procedure of cleaning the blood by this means is called

text: dialysis

text: , a type of

text: renal replacement therapy

text: that is used to provide an artificial replacement for lost

text: kidney

text: function due to

text: renal failure

text: . It is a

text: life support

text: treatment and does not treat disease.

text: Common four-letter words (in this sense) that are widely considered vulgar or offensive to a notable degree include: cunt, fuck (and regional variants such as feck, fick and foak), jism (or gism), jizz,shit,twat and tits.  Piss (formerly an offensive swear word) in particular, however, may be used in non-excretory contexts (pissed off, i.e. "angry", in US English and British UK English ; pissed, i.e. "drunk" in UK English) that are often not considered particularly offensive, and the word also occurs several times with its excretory meaning in the King James Bible. Several of these have been declared legally indecent under the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) TV and radio open-airwave broadcasting regulations.

text: Common four-letter words (in this sense) that are widely considered

text: vulgar

text: or

text: offensive

text: to a notable degree include:

text: cunt

text: fuck

text: (and regional variants such as feck, fick and foak),

text: jism

text: (or gism),

text: jizz

text: shit

text: twat

text: and

text: tits

text: .  Piss (formerly an offensive swear word) in particular, however, may be used in non-excretory contexts (pissed off, i.e. "angry", in

text: US English and British UK English

text: ; pissed, i.e. "drunk" in

text: UK English

text: ) that are often not considered particularly offensive, and the word also occurs several times with its excretory meaning in the

text: King James Bible

text: . Several of these have been declared legally

text: indecent

text: under the

text: United States Federal Communications Commission

text: (FCC) TV and radio open-airwave broadcasting regulations.

text: The area is very sensitive to expansion and once stretched to a certain degree, the urinary bladder signals the brain of its need to empty. The signals become stronger as the bladder continues to fill.

text: The area is very sensitive to expansion and once stretched to a certain degree, the urinary bladder signals the

text: brain

text: of its need to empty. The signals become stronger as the bladder continues to fill.

text: Like other herbivorous lizards, the rock iguanas are presented with a special problem for osmoregulation: plant matter contains more potassium and has less nutritional content per gram than meat so more must be eaten to meet the lizard's metabolic needs. Unlike mammals, reptile kidneys cannot concentrate urine to save on water intake. Instead reptiles excrete toxic nitrogenous wastes as solid uric acid through their cloaca. In the case of the rock iguana which consumes large amounts of vegetation, these excess salt ions are excreted through their salt gland in the same manner as birds.

text: Like other herbivorous lizards, the rock iguanas are presented with a special problem for

text: osmoregulation

text: : plant matter contains more

text: potassium

text: and has less nutritional content per gram than meat so more must be eaten to meet the lizard's metabolic needs. Unlike mammals, reptile kidneys cannot concentrate urine to save on water intake. Instead reptiles excrete toxic nitrogenous wastes as solid uric acid through their

text: cloaca

text: . In the case of the rock iguana which consumes large amounts of vegetation, these excess salt ions are excreted through their

text: salt gland

text: in the same manner as birds.

text: The morbidity associated with the Wertheim-Meigs operation is substantial. The most important complications are ureteral, ureterovaginal, and vesicovaginal fistulae, appearing during the immediate postoperative convalescence period or later mainly in patients who received subsequent radiotherapy. Other complications are described: intraoperative hemorrhage due to pelvic large vessel lesion, ureter or bladder accidental section, abdominal wall dehiscence, ureteral obstruction causing hydronephrosis and renal exclusion, disorders such as urinary incontinence, pollakiuria, vesical atony, often accompanied by urinary tract infection and hematuria.

text: The morbidity associated with the Wertheim-Meigs operation is substantial. The most important complications are

text: ureteral

text: , ureterovaginal, and

text: vesicovaginal fistulae

text: , appearing during the immediate postoperative

text: convalescence

text: period or later mainly in patients who received subsequent

text: radiotherapy

text: . Other complications are described: intraoperative

text: hemorrhage

text: due to pelvic large vessel lesion, ureter or

text: bladder

text: accidental section,

text: abdominal wall dehiscence

text: , ureteral obstruction causing

text: hydronephrosis

text: and

text: renal exclusion

text: , disorders such as

text: urinary incontinence

text: pollakiuria

text: vesical atony

text: , often accompanied by

text: urinary tract infection

text: and

text: hematuria

text: Many point-of-care test systems are realized as easy-to-use membrane-based test strips, often enclosed by a plastic test cassette. This concept often is realized in test systems for detecting pathogens. Very recently such test systems for rheumatology diagnostics have been developed, too. These tests require only a single drop of whole blood, urine or saliva, and they can be performed and interpreted by any general physician within minutes.

text: Many

text: point-of-care

text: test systems are realized as easy-to-use membrane-based test strips, often enclosed by a plastic test cassette. This concept often is realized in test systems for detecting pathogens. Very recently such test systems for rheumatology diagnostics have been developed, too. These tests require only a single drop of whole blood, urine or saliva, and they can be performed and interpreted by any general physician within minutes.

text: The urinary bladder is the organ that collects waste excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by urination. It is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, and sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra.

text: The

text: urinary bladder

text: is the organ that collects waste excreted by the kidneys prior to disposal by

text: urination

text: . It is a hollow

text: muscular

text: , and distensible (or elastic) organ, and sits on the

text: pelvic floor

text: . Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the

text: urethra

text: The exhibit is set up so that one starts at the skeletal system, and more layers (muscular, nervous, circulatory, digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems; as well as fetal development and the treated body) are added in successive rooms. Containing about twenty bodies in total, each exhibition uses real human bodies that have been preserved permanently by a process called "polymer preservation" so that they will not decay. This exhibition is organized by the publicly traded corporation, Premier Exhibitions Incorporated, which also staged Bodies Revealed first in Seoul, South Korea and more recently in the US. The company received the cadavers for research from the Chinese government, who donated them because all the bodies at the time of death had no close next of kin or immediate families to claim the bodies. The dissections took place at the Dalian University in Liaoning, China and the resulting specimens were leased to Premier Exhibitions for the five-year duration of the show.

text: The exhibit is set up so that one starts at the

text: skeletal system

text: , and more layers (

text: muscular

text: nervous

text: circulatory

text: digestive

text: respiratory

text: urinary

text: , and

text: reproductive

text: systems; as well as

text: fetal development

text: and the treated body) are added in successive rooms. Containing about twenty bodies in total, each exhibition uses real human bodies that have been preserved permanently by a process called "

text: polymer preservation

text: " so that they will not decay. This exhibition is organized by the publicly traded corporation,

text: Premier Exhibitions Incorporated

text: , which also staged

text: Bodies Revealed

text: first in Seoul, South Korea and more recently in the US. The company received the

text: cadavers

text: for research from the

text: Chinese

text: government, who donated them because all the bodies at the time of death had no close

text: next of kin

text: or immediate families to claim the bodies. The dissections took place at the

text: Dalian University

text: in

text: Liaoning

text: , China and the resulting specimens were leased to Premier Exhibitions for the five-year duration of the show.

text: Unlike supplemental calcium, high intakes of dietary calcium do not appear to cause kidney stones and may actually protect against their development. This is perhaps related to the role of calcium in binding ingested oxalate in the gastrointestinal tract. As the amount of calcium intake decreases, the amount of oxalate available for absorption into the bloodstream increases; this oxalate is then excreted in greater amounts into the urine by the kidneys. In the urine, oxalate is a very strong promoter of calcium oxalate precipitation—about 15 times stronger than calcium. A 2004 study found that diets low in calcium are associated with a higher overall risk for kidney stone formation. For most individuals, other risk factors for kidney stones, such as high intakes of dietary oxalates and low fluid intake, play a greater role than calcium intake.

text: One of the variations is known as omorashi yagai, which translates as "to wet oneself outdoors (or publicly)." A further variation includes yagai hōnyō, or "outdoor (or public) urination", in which the subject publicly removes their clothes to urinate. Other yagai hōnyō practitioners operate much like graffiti artists, attempting public urination acts without being caught.

text: One of the variations is known as omorashi yagai, which translates as "to wet oneself outdoors (or publicly)." A further variation includes yagai hōnyō, or "outdoor (or public) urination", in which the subject publicly removes their clothes to urinate. Other yagai hōnyō practitioners operate much like

text: graffiti

text: artists, attempting public urination acts without being caught.

text: The fetal pig's urogenital system is similar to the adult pig's system with the exception of the reproductive organs.  The fetal pig urinary tract is relatively developed and easy to locate during dissection. The kidneys are located behind the abdominal organs and are partially embedded into the dorsal body wall by the spine. The ureters carry the urine to the urinary bladder, the large sack-like organ by the umbilical artery and vein, to the urethra. From there, the urine can be excreted.

text: The fetal pig's urogenital system is similar to the adult pig's system with the exception of the reproductive organs.  The fetal pig urinary tract is relatively developed and easy to locate during dissection. The

text: kidneys

text: are located behind the abdominal organs and are partially embedded into the dorsal body wall by the spine. The

text: ureters

text: carry the urine to the

text: urinary bladder

text: , the large sack-like organ by the umbilical artery and vein, to the

text: urethra

text: . From there, the urine can be excreted.

text: The main internal organs of these reptiles are the lungs, heart, stomach, liver,  intestines, and the urinary bladder. A cloaca serves both excretory and reproductive functions.

text: The main internal organs of these reptiles are the

text: lungs

text: heart

text: stomach

text: liver

text: intestine

text: s, and the

text: urinary bladder

text: . A

text: cloaca

text: serves both excretory and reproductive functions.

text: Elevated protein levels in urine mark some kidney disease.  The most sensitive marker of proteinuria is elevated urine albumin.  Persistent presence of more than 30 mg albumin per gram creatinine in the urine is diagnostic of chronic kidney disease (microalbuminuria is a level of 30 mg/L to 299 mg/L urine or 30–299 mg/24 h; a concentration of albumin in the urine that is not detected by usual urine dipstick methods).

text: Elevated protein levels in urine mark some kidney disease.  The most sensitive marker of

text: proteinuria

text: is elevated urine albumin.  Persistent presence of more than 30 mg albumin per gram creatinine in the urine is diagnostic of chronic kidney disease (

text: microalbuminuria

text: is a level of 30 mg/L to 299 mg/L urine or 30–299 mg/24 h; a concentration of

text: albumin

text: in the

text: urine

text: that is not detected by usual urine

text: dipstick

text: methods).

text: Disadvantages and challenges with urine diversion systems include:

text: Pharmaceutical residues may reach the environment by a number of different routes. It is generally assumed (albeit hardly verified) that the production of pharmaceuticals in industrialised countries is well controlled and unharmful to the environment, due to the local legal restrictions usually required to permit production. However, a substantial fraction of the global production of pharmaceuticals takes place in low-cost production countries like India and China. Recent reports from India demonstrate that such production sites may emit very large quantities of e.g. antibiotics, yielding levels of the drugs in local surface waters higher than those found in the blood of patients under treatment.The major route for pharmaceutical residues to reach the aquatic environment is most probably by excretion from patients undergoing pharma treatment. Since many pharmaceutical substances are not metabolized in the body they may be excreted in biologically active form, usually via the urine. Furthermore, many pharmaceutical substances are not fully taken up from the intestine (following oral administration in patients) into their blood stream. The fraction not taken up into the blood stream will remain in the gut and eventually be excreted via the faeces. Hence, both urine and faeces from treated patients contain pharmaceutical residues. Between 30 and 90% of the orally administered dose is generally excreted as active substance in the urine. An additional source to environmental pollution with pharmaceuticals is improper disposal of unused or expired drug residues. In European countries take-back systems for such residues are usually in place (although not always utilized to full extent) while in e.g. the US only voluntary initiatives on a local basis exist. Though most of the waste goes to incineration and people are asked to throw unused or expired pharmaceuticals into the household waste investigations in Germany showed that up to 24% of liquid pharmaceuticals and 7% of tablets or ointments are disposed always or at least “rarely” via the toilet or sink. Proper destruction of pharma residues should yield rest products without any pharmaceutical or ecotoxic activity. Furthermore, the residues should not act as components in the environmental formation of new such products. Incineration at a high temperature (>1000 degrees Celsius) is considered to fulfil the requirements, but even following such incineration residual ashes from the incineration should be properly taken care of.

text: The main costs associated with transitioning to management intensive rotational grazing are purchasing fencing, fencers, and water supply materials.  If a pasture was continuously grazed in the past, likely capital has already been invested in fencing and a fencer system.  Cost savings to graziers can also be recognized when one considers that many of the costs associated with livestock operations are transmitted to the grazers.  For example, the grazers actively harvest their own sources of food for the portion of the year where grazing is possible.  This translates into lower costs for feed production and harvesting, which are fuel intensive endeavors.  MIRG systems rely on the grazers to produce fertilizer sources via their excretion.  There is also no need for collection, storage, transportation, and application of manure, which are also all fuel intensive.  Additionally, external fertilizer use contributes to other costs such as labor, purchasing costs.

text: The main costs associated with transitioning to management intensive rotational grazing are purchasing fencing, fencers, and water supply materials.  If a pasture was continuously grazed in the past, likely capital has already been invested in fencing and a fencer system.  Cost savings to

text: grazier

text: s can also be recognized when one considers that many of the costs associated with livestock operations are transmitted to the grazers.  For example, the grazers actively harvest their own sources of food for the portion of the year where grazing is possible.  This translates into lower costs for feed production and harvesting, which are fuel intensive endeavors.  MIRG systems rely on the grazers to produce fertilizer sources via their excretion.  There is also no need for collection, storage, transportation, and application of manure, which are also all fuel intensive.  Additionally, external fertilizer use contributes to other costs such as labor, purchasing costs.

text: The atria of the heart also function as part of the excretory system by filtering waste products out of the blood and dumping it into the coelom as urine. A pair of nephridia ("little kidneys") to the rear of and connected to the coelom extracts any re-usable materials from the urine and dumps additional waste products into it, and then ejects it via tubes that discharge into the mantle cavity.

text: The atria of the heart also function as part of the

text: excretory system

text: by filtering waste products out of the blood and dumping it into the coelom as

text: urine

text: . A pair of

text: nephridia

text: ("little kidneys") to the rear of and connected to the coelom extracts any re-usable materials from the urine and dumps additional waste products into it, and then ejects it via tubes that discharge into the mantle cavity.

text: Kidney transplant requirements vary from program to program and country to country. Many programs place limits on age (e.g. the person must be under a certain age to enter the waiting list) and require that one must be in good health (aside from the kidney disease).  Significant cardiovascular disease, incurable terminal infectious diseases and cancer are often transplant exclusion criteria.  In addition, candidates are typically screened to determine if they will be compliant with their medications, which is essential for survival of the transplant.  People with mental illness and/or significant on-going substance abuse issues may be excluded.

text: Kidney transplant requirements vary from program to program and country to country. Many programs place limits on age (e.g. the person must be under a certain age to enter the waiting list) and require that one must be in good health (aside from the kidney disease).  Significant

text: cardiovascular disease

text: , incurable terminal infectious diseases and

text: cancer

text: are often transplant exclusion criteria.  In addition, candidates are typically screened to determine if they will be compliant with their medications, which is essential for survival of the transplant.  People with

text: mental illness

text: and/or significant on-going

text: substance abuse

text: issues may be excluded.

text: Anterograde pyelography is the procedure used to visualize the upper collecting system of the urinary tract, i.e., kidney and ureter.It is done in cases where excretory or retrograde pyelogaphy has failed or contraindicated,or when there is nephrostomy tube is in place or delineation of upper tract is desired.It is commonly used to diagnose upper tract obstruction, Hydronephrosis, Ureteropelvic junction obstruction.In this, radiocontrast dye is injected into the renal pelvis and X-rays are taken.It provides detailed anatomy of the upper collecting system.As it is an invasive procedure, it is chosen when other non-invasive tests are non confirmatory or contraindicated and patient monitoring is required prior and after the procedure.

text: Anterograde pyelography is the procedure used to visualize the upper collecting system of the urinary tract, i.e.,

text: kidney

text: and

text: ureter

text: .It is done in cases where excretory or retrograde pyelogaphy has failed or contraindicated,or when there is nephrostomy tube is in place or delineation of upper tract is desired.It is commonly used to diagnose upper tract obstruction,

text: Hydronephrosis

text: , Ureteropelvic junction obstruction.In this, radiocontrast dye is injected into the renal pelvis and

text: X-rays

text: are taken.It provides detailed anatomy of the upper collecting system.As it is an invasive procedure, it is chosen when other non-invasive tests are non confirmatory or contraindicated and patient monitoring is required prior and after the procedure.

text: The following morning, Tilly wakes up and runs downstairs to get some food for the bear. When she runs upstairs, she finds that the bear has excreted on the stairs. Tilly cleans up the waste and empties it outside before walking into the bathroom and nearly slipping over the bear's urine. Crossed, she then mops up the urine and watches on as the bear drinks out of the toilet. Then Tilly moves the bear and runs a bath to wash him. He soaks Tilly in the process of getting into it and already beginning to tire of him, she washes the bear. In the kitchen, Tilly dries and brushes the bear and proceeds to feed him with honey. While eating the honey, the bear makes a mess of the kitchen and gets his nose stuck in the jar (to Tilly's amusement). Then Tilly and the bear go to her parents' bedroom and sleep. Tilly wakes up to the sound of the door of her parents returning from work. She hugs her mother and they later sit down to watch The Snowman as the bear walks in and heads out. That night, the bear hides under Tilly's bed as she is put to bed by her mother. Tilly falls asleep and moves over as the bear climbs onto the bed with her.

text: The following morning, Tilly wakes up and runs downstairs to get some food for the bear. When she runs upstairs, she finds that the bear has excreted on the stairs. Tilly cleans up the waste and empties it outside before walking into the bathroom and nearly slipping over the bear's

text: urine

text: . Crossed, she then mops up the urine and watches on as the bear drinks out of the toilet. Then Tilly moves the bear and runs a bath to wash him. He soaks Tilly in the process of getting into it and already beginning to tire of him, she washes the bear. In the kitchen, Tilly dries and brushes the bear and proceeds to feed him with honey. While eating the honey, the bear makes a mess of the kitchen and gets his nose stuck in the jar (to Tilly's amusement). Then Tilly and the bear go to her parents' bedroom and sleep. Tilly wakes up to the sound of the door of her parents returning from work. She hugs her mother and they later sit down to watch The Snowman as the bear walks in and heads out. That night, the bear hides under Tilly's bed as she is put to bed by her mother. Tilly falls asleep and moves over as the bear climbs onto the bed with her.

text: Several factors contribute to the formation of renal stones in space.  Dietary changes, bone metabolism, dehydration, increased salt intake as well as decreased urine volumes and increased urine saturation are all possible causes of renal stone formation.  It has been noted that spaceflight-induced changes in urine biochemistry are conducive for stone formation.

text: The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood in the kidneys. In a healthy human the kidney receives between 12 and 30% of cardiac output, but it averages about 20% or about 1.25 L/min.

text: The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood in the kidneys. In a healthy human the kidney receives between 12 and 30% of

text: cardiac output

text: , but it averages about 20% or about 1.25 L/min.

text: This gene is a member of the paired box (PAX) family of transcription factors. Members of this gene family typically encode proteins which contain a paired box domain, an octapeptide, and a paired-type homeodomain.  The PAX gene family has an important role in the formation of tissues and organs during embryonic development and maintaining the normal function of some cells after birth.  The PAX genes give instructions for making proteins that attach themselves to certain areas of DNA. This nuclear protein is involved in thyroid follicular cell development and expression of thyroid-specific genes. PAX8 releases the hormones important for regulating growth, brain development, and metabolism. Also functions in very early stages of kidney organogenesis, the müllerian system, and the thymus. Additionally, PAX8 is expressed in the renal excretory system, epithelial cells of the endocervix, endometrium, ovary, Fallopian tube, seminal vesicle, epididymis, pancreatic islet cells and lymphoid cells.  PAX8 and other transcription factors play a role in binding to DNA and regulating the genes that drive thyroid hormone synthesis (Tg, TPO, Slc5a5 and Tshr).

text: This gene is a member of the paired box (

text: PAX

text: ) family of

text: transcription factor

text: s. Members of this gene family typically encode proteins which contain a

text: paired box domain

text: , an octapeptide, and a paired-type

text: homeodomain

text: .  The PAX gene family has an important role in the formation of tissues and organs during embryonic development and maintaining the normal function of some cells after birth.  The PAX genes give instructions for making proteins that attach themselves to certain areas of DNA. This nuclear protein is involved in

text: thyroid follicular cell

text: development and expression of thyroid-specific genes. PAX8 releases the hormones important for regulating growth, brain development, and metabolism. Also functions in very early stages of kidney organogenesis, the müllerian system, and the thymus. Additionally, PAX8 is expressed in the renal excretory system, epithelial cells of the endocervix, endometrium, ovary, Fallopian tube, seminal vesicle, epididymis, pancreatic islet cells and lymphoid cells.  PAX8 and other transcription factors play a role in binding to DNA and regulating the genes that drive thyroid hormone synthesis (Tg, TPO, Slc5a5 and Tshr).

text: Sponges do not have distinct circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and excretory systems – instead the water flow system supports all these functions. They filter food particles out of the water flowing through them. Particles larger than 50 micrometers cannot enter the ostia and pinacocytes consume them by phagocytosis (engulfing and internal digestion). Particles from 0.5 μm to 50 μm are trapped in the ostia, which taper from the outer to inner ends. These particles are consumed by pinacocytes or by archaeocytes which partially extrude themselves through the walls of the ostia. Bacteria-sized particles, below 0.5 micrometers, pass through the ostia and are caught and consumed by choanocytes. Since the smallest particles are by far the most common, choanocytes typically capture 80% of a sponge's food supply. Archaeocytes transport food packaged in vesicles from cells that directly digest food to those that do not. At least one species of sponge has internal fibers that function as tracks for use by nutrient-carrying archaeocytes, and these tracks also move inert objects.

text: Sponges do not have distinct

text: circulatory

text: respiratory

text: digestive

text: , and

text: excretory

text: systems – instead the water flow system supports all these functions. They

text: filter

text: food particles out of the water flowing through them. Particles larger than 50 micrometers cannot enter the

text: ostia

text: and

text: pinacocyte

text: s consume them by

text: phagocytosis

text: (engulfing and internal digestion). Particles from 0.5 μm to 50 μm are trapped in the ostia, which taper from the outer to inner ends. These particles are consumed by pinacocytes or by

text: archaeocyte

text: s which partially extrude themselves through the walls of the ostia. Bacteria-sized particles, below 0.5 micrometers, pass through the ostia and are caught and consumed by

text: choanocyte

text: s. Since the smallest particles are by far the most common, choanocytes typically capture 80% of a sponge's food supply. Archaeocytes transport food packaged in

text: vesicle

text: s from cells that directly digest food to those that do not. At least one species of sponge has internal fibers that function as tracks for use by nutrient-carrying archaeocytes, and these tracks also move inert objects.

text: The urine sodium is expressed as a concentration (such as milimoles per liter).  The result must therefore be interpreted in the context of the degree of urine concentration present.  Alternatively, the urine sodium can be standardized to the excretion of creatinine using a formula such as the fractional excretion of sodium (FENa).

text: The urine sodium is expressed as a concentration (such as milimoles per liter).  The result must therefore be interpreted in the context of the degree of urine concentration present.  Alternatively, the urine sodium can be standardized to the excretion of

text: creatinine

text: using a formula such as the

text: fractional excretion of sodium (FENa)

text: As with myocardial ischaemia referred pain in a certain portion of the body can lead to a diagnosis of the correct local center. Somatic mapping of referred pain and the corresponding local centers has led to various topographic maps being produced to aid in pinpointing the location of pain based on the referred areas. For example, local pain stimulated in the esophagus is capable of producing referred pain in the upper abdomen, the oblique muscles, and the throat. Local pain in the prostate can radiate referred pain to the abdomen, lower back, and calf muscles. Kidney stones can cause visceral pain in the ureter as the stone is slowly passed into the excretory system. This can cause immense referred pain in the lower abdominal wall.

text: As with

text: myocardial ischaemia

text: referred pain in a certain portion of the body can lead to a diagnosis of the correct local center. Somatic mapping of referred pain and the corresponding local centers has led to various topographic maps being produced to aid in pinpointing the location of pain based on the referred areas. For example, local pain stimulated in the esophagus is capable of producing referred pain in the upper abdomen, the oblique muscles, and the throat. Local pain in the prostate can radiate referred pain to the abdomen, lower back, and calf muscles.

text: Kidney stone

text: s can cause visceral pain in the ureter as the stone is slowly passed into the excretory system. This can cause immense referred pain in the lower abdominal wall.

text: When the urine becomes supersaturated (when the urine solvent contains more solutes than it can hold in solution) with one or more calculogenic (crystal-forming) substances, a seed crystal may form through the process of nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation (where there is a solid surface present on which a crystal can grow) proceeds more rapidly than homogeneous nucleation (where a crystal must grow in a liquid medium with no such surface), because it requires less energy. Adhering to cells on the surface of a renal papilla, a seed crystal can grow and aggregate into an organized mass. Depending on the chemical composition of the crystal, the stone-forming process may proceed more rapidly when the urine pH is unusually high or low.

text: When the urine becomes

text: supersaturated

text: (when the urine

text: solvent

text: contains more

text: solutes

text: than it can hold in

text: solution

text: ) with one or more calculogenic (crystal-forming) substances, a

text: seed crystal

text: may form through the process of

text: nucleation

text: . Heterogeneous nucleation (where there is a solid surface present on which a crystal can grow) proceeds more rapidly than homogeneous nucleation (where a crystal must grow in a liquid medium with no such surface), because it requires less energy. Adhering to cells on the surface of a

text: renal papilla

text: , a seed crystal can grow and aggregate into an organized mass. Depending on the chemical composition of the crystal, the stone-forming process may proceed more rapidly when the urine pH is unusually high or low.

text: Urine specimens showed that no other microbiologically active metabolites were present except cephaloridine and that cephaloridine is excreted unchanged. Renal clearances were reported to be 146-280 ml/min, a plasma clearance of 167 ml/min/1,73m2 and a renal clearance of 125 ml/min/1,73m2. A serum half-life of 1,1-1,5 hour and a volume of distribution of 16 liters were reported.

text: "Three or four people in a closed nexus will maintain a status quo which suits them, forming a collusive alliance to neutralize anyone who threatens its stability." Building on W. R. Bion's account "of the numbing feeling of reality that is a concomitant of this state", and on Klein's accounts of how "we are all prone to be drawn into social phantasy systems " - accounts of how a group's basic assumptions could radiate "long silences, sighs of boredom, movements of discomfort...the hostility of the individuals was being contributed to the group anonymously" - Laing described how "the energy of the nexus is used to prevent anything going on...exchanges are boring, repetitious, concerned only with trivia."

text: "Three or four people in a closed nexus will maintain a status quo which suits them, forming a collusive alliance to neutralize anyone who threatens its stability." Building on

text: W. R. Bion

text: 's account "of the numbing feeling of reality that is a concomitant of this state", and on

text: Klein's

text: accounts of how "we are all prone to be drawn into social phantasy systems " - accounts of how a group's

entity_section: Group dynamics — the "basic assumptions"

text: basic assumptions

text: could radiate "long silences, sighs of boredom, movements of discomfort...the hostility of the individuals was being contributed to the group anonymously" - Laing described how "the energy of the nexus is used to prevent anything going on...exchanges are boring, repetitious, concerned only with trivia."

text: The presence of a peritrophic matrix significantly simplifies the excretion process. Rather than having to continually sift through a mixture of digestible and unwanted molecules, digestible molecules are quickly broken down by enzymes, removed from the matrix and absorbed. Once the digestive process is completed, unwanted molecules are kept confined within the endoperitrophic space and excreted along with the matrix.

text: Joan had been a patient at Sharpstown General for six hours when her kidneys began to fail; she was not passing any urine and had edema. Her intravenous fluids were increased with the hope of being able to prompt her kidneys into producing urine.  By 8 p.m., Joan Robinson Hill's kidneys had failed to respond and her condition was considered to be "grave".  Dr. Bernard Hicks, a kidney specialist, was called in to consult. Dr. Hicks determined Joan was in severe kidney failure.  Since Sharpstown General had no dialysis machine, the medical team debated about transferring Joan to Houston Methodist Hospital, where such equipment was available, but Dr. Hicks believed she was too ill to be transferred.  The option for treating her at the hospital was to begin peritoneal dialysis.  Dr. Hicks wanted the consent of John Hill before beginning this procedure and phoned him at the Kirby Drive home at 9:15 p.m.  Hill left the house after taking the telephone call but did not arrive at Sharpstown General to give his consent until 11 p.m. His wife was conscious and begged him to stay with her, saying that she was frightened.

text: Joan had been a patient at Sharpstown General for six hours when her kidneys began to fail; she was not passing any

text: urine

text: and had

text: edema

text: . Her intravenous fluids were increased with the hope of being able to prompt her kidneys into producing urine.  By 8 p.m., Joan Robinson Hill's kidneys had failed to respond and her condition was considered to be "grave".  Dr. Bernard Hicks, a

text: kidney

text: specialist, was called in to consult. Dr. Hicks determined Joan was in severe

text: kidney failure

text: .  Since Sharpstown General had no

text: dialysis

text: machine, the medical team debated about transferring Joan to

text: Houston Methodist Hospital

text: , where such equipment was available, but Dr. Hicks believed she was too ill to be transferred.  The option for treating her at the hospital was to begin

text: peritoneal dialysis

text: .  Dr. Hicks wanted the consent of John Hill before beginning this procedure and phoned him at the Kirby Drive home at 9:15 p.m.  Hill left the house after taking the telephone call but did not arrive at Sharpstown General to give his consent until 11 p.m. His wife was conscious and begged him to stay with her, saying that she was frightened.

text: The effect of eating asparagus on urine excreted afterwards has long been observed:

text: The effect of eating asparagus on

text: urine

text: excreted afterwards has long been observed:

text: The concept of allostasis was proposed by Sterling and Eyer in 1988 to describe an additional process of reestablishing homeostasis, but one that responds to a challenge instead of to subtle ebb and flow. This theory suggests that both homeostasis and allostasis are endogenous systems responsible for maintaining the internal stability of an organism. Homeostasis, from the Greek homeo, means "similar," while stasis means "stand;" thus, "standing at about the same level." (The term was not coined as "homostasis" or "standing the same" because internal states are frequently being disturbed and corrected, thus rarely perfectly constant.) Allostasis was coined similarly, from the Greek allo, which means "variable;" thus, "remaining stable by being variable" (; ).  Allostatic regulation reflects, at least partly, cephalic involvement in primary regulatory events, in that it is anticipatory to systemic physiological regulation (; ). The term Heterostasis is also used in place of Allostasis, particularly where state changes are finite in number and therefore discrete (e.g. computational processes). Wingfield states:

text: The concept of allostasis was proposed by Sterling and Eyer in 1988 to describe an additional process of reestablishing homeostasis, but one that responds to a challenge instead of to subtle ebb and flow. This theory suggests that both homeostasis and allostasis are endogenous systems responsible for maintaining the internal stability of an organism. Homeostasis, from the Greek homeo, means "similar," while stasis means "stand;" thus, "standing at about the same level." (The term was not coined as "homostasis" or "standing the same" because internal states are frequently being disturbed and corrected, thus rarely perfectly constant.) Allostasis was coined similarly, from the Greek allo, which means "variable;" thus, "remaining stable by being variable" (; ).  Allostatic regulation reflects, at least partly, cephalic involvement in primary regulatory events, in that it is anticipatory to systemic physiological regulation (; ). The term

text: Heterostasis

text: is also used in place of Allostasis, particularly where state changes are finite in number and therefore discrete (e.g. computational processes). Wingfield states:

text: Urine is a by-product of the body secreted by the kidney, and cellular metabolism generates numerous by-products that require clearance from the bloodstream.  An exhaustive description of the composition of human urine was prepared for NASA in 1971. Urine is an aqueous solution of greater than 95% water, with the remaining constituents, in order of decreasing concentration urea 9.3 g/L, chloride 1.87 g/L, sodium 1.17 g/L, potassium 0.750 g/L, creatinine 0.670 g/L and other dissolved ions, inorganic and organic compounds.

text: Urine is a by-product of the body secreted by the kidney, and cellular metabolism generates numerous by-products that require

text: clearance

text: from the

text: bloodstream

text: .  An exhaustive description of the composition of human urine was prepared for NASA in 1971. Urine is an aqueous solution of greater than 95% water, with the remaining constituents, in order of decreasing concentration

text: urea

text: 9.3 g/L,

text: chloride

text: 1.87 g/L,

text: sodium

text: 1.17 g/L,

text: potassium

text: 0.750 g/L,

text: creatinine

text: 0.670 g/L and other dissolved ions, inorganic and organic compounds.

text: The human kidney is fairly typical of that of mammals. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids, and of a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla. The latter feature is due to the presence of elongated loops of Henle; these are much shorter in birds, and not truly present in other vertebrates (although the nephron often has a short intermediate segment between the convoluted tubules). It is only in mammals that the kidney takes on its classical "kidney" shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed reniculate kidneys of pinnipeds and cetaceans.

text: The human kidney is fairly typical of that of

text: mammal

text: s. Distinctive features of the mammalian kidney, in comparison with that of other vertebrates, include the presence of the renal pelvis and renal pyramids, and of a clearly distinguishable cortex and medulla. The latter feature is due to the presence of elongated

text: loops of Henle

text: ; these are much shorter in birds, and not truly present in other vertebrates (although the nephron often has a short intermediate segment between the convoluted tubules). It is only in mammals that the kidney takes on its classical "kidney" shape, although there are some exceptions, such as the multilobed

text: reniculate kidney

text: s of

text: pinniped

text: s and

text: cetacea

text: ns.

text: Effluent sewer systems, as well as all sewer systems, can use two methods to transport wastewater to a treatment facility. These methods are gravity and pumping, also called pressure systems. Gravity systems use pipes that are laid on a slight downhill slope to transport wastewater. Effluent pumping systems have pipes that are buried at a constant depth, such as a metre and a half, and rely on pumping stations that create pressure to move the waste to a treatment facility. An effluent sewer that uses gravity may be called a septic tank effluent gravity (STEG) system, while a pumping system may be called a septic tank effluent pumping (STEP) system. It is also possible to have a hybrid system that uses gravity and pumping. Gravity and pumping effluent sewer systems both have advantages and disadvantages. The best type of system to use depends on the area it will be serving. Factors such as population size, topography, groundwater level, as well as locations for pumping stations and the treatment plant, must be taken into account. STEG systems should not be confused with traditional sewer systems that use gravity to transport untreated sewage to a wastewater treatment plant, which are typically referred to as gravity sewer systems.

text: Effluent sewer systems, as well as all sewer systems, can use two methods to transport wastewater to a treatment facility. These methods are gravity and pumping, also called pressure systems. Gravity systems use pipes that are laid on a slight downhill slope to transport

text: wastewater

text: . Effluent pumping systems have pipes that are buried at a constant depth, such as a metre and a half, and rely on pumping stations that create pressure to move the waste to a treatment facility. An effluent sewer that uses gravity may be called a septic tank effluent gravity (STEG) system, while a pumping system may be called a septic tank effluent pumping (STEP) system. It is also possible to have a hybrid system that uses gravity and pumping. Gravity and pumping effluent sewer systems both have advantages and disadvantages. The best type of system to use depends on the area it will be serving. Factors such as population size, topography, groundwater level, as well as locations for pumping stations and the treatment plant, must be taken into account. STEG systems should not be confused with traditional sewer systems that use gravity to transport untreated sewage to a wastewater treatment plant, which are typically referred to as gravity sewer systems.

text: Secernentea are the main class of nematodes, characterised by numerous caudal papillae and an excretory system possessing lateral canals. Like all nematodes, they have no circulatory or respiratory system. These are also called as phasmidians as they have the phasmids which are the posterior glandulo sensory and excretory structure.

text: Secernentea are the main

text: class

text: of

text: nematodes

text: , characterised by numerous

text: caudal papilla

text: e and an

text: excretory system

text: possessing lateral canals. Like all nematodes, they have no circulatory or respiratory system. These are also called as phasmidians as they have the phasmids which are the posterior glandulo sensory and excretory structure.

text: The kidneys have an important role in maintaining health. When healthy, the kidneys maintain the body's internal equilibrium of water and minerals (sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfate). The acidic metabolism end-products that the body cannot get rid of via respiration are also excreted through the kidneys. The kidneys also function as a part of the endocrine system, producing erythropoietin, calcitriol and renin. Erythropoietin is involved in the production of red blood cells and calcitriol plays a role in bone formation. Dialysis is an imperfect treatment to replace kidney function because it does not correct the compromised endocrine functions of the kidney. Dialysis treatments replace some of these functions through diffusion (waste removal) and ultrafiltration (fluid removal).

text: The

text: kidney

text: s have an important role in maintaining health. When healthy, the kidneys maintain the body's internal equilibrium of water and minerals (sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfate). The acidic

text: metabolism

text: end-products that the body cannot get rid of via respiration are also excreted through the kidneys. The kidneys also function as a part of the

text: endocrine system

text: , producing

text: erythropoietin

text: calcitriol

text: and

text: renin

text: . Erythropoietin is involved in the production of red blood cells and calcitriol plays a role in bone formation. Dialysis is an imperfect treatment to replace kidney function because it does not correct the compromised endocrine functions of the kidney. Dialysis treatments replace some of these functions through

text: diffusion

text: (waste removal) and

text: ultrafiltration

text: (fluid removal).

text: To date, there have been no conclusive or major studies relating to female ejaculation. The largest study being an internet survey consisting of 320 participants.  Much of the problem in arriving at a consensus relates to a failure to adopt generally agreed-on definitions or research methodology. Research has used highly selected individuals, case studies, or very small numbers of subjects, making generalization difficult. For instance, much of the research into the nature of the fluid focuses on determining whether it is or contains urine. There are also problems involved in the collection of specimens and issues of contamination. Since the area of interest is para-urethral glands, it is impossible to completely separate the secretions from urine, especially considering that there may be retrograde ejaculation into the urethra towards the bladder. The best current data comes from studies where women have abstained from coitus, and where their own urine is used as a control both pre- and post-orgasm. Research has attempted to use chemicals that are excreted in the urine so that any urinary contamination can be detected. Further methodological issues include the fact that the composition of the fluid appears to vary with the menstrual cycle, and that the biochemical profile of the para-urethral tissues varies with age.Other issues relate to the sensitivity and specificity of the markers chosen. The key questions are the source of the fluid produced, and its composition.

text: To date, there have been no conclusive or major studies relating to female ejaculation. The largest study being an internet survey consisting of 320 participants.  Much of the problem in arriving at a consensus relates to a failure to adopt generally agreed-on definitions or research methodology. Research has used highly selected individuals, case studies, or very small numbers of subjects, making generalization difficult. For instance, much of the research into the nature of the fluid focuses on determining whether it is or contains urine. There are also problems involved in the collection of specimens and issues of contamination. Since the area of interest is para-urethral glands, it is impossible to completely separate the secretions from urine, especially considering that there may be

text: retrograde ejaculation

text: into the urethra towards the bladder. The best current data comes from studies where women have abstained from coitus, and where their own urine is used as a control both pre- and post-orgasm. Research has attempted to use chemicals that are excreted in the urine so that any urinary contamination can be detected. Further methodological issues include the fact that the composition of the fluid appears to vary with the menstrual cycle, and that the biochemical profile of the para-urethral tissues varies with age.Other issues relate to the sensitivity and specificity of the markers chosen. The key questions are the source of the fluid produced, and its composition.

text: Urine diversion toilets have two compartments, one for urine and one for feces. One or both compartment may be flushed with water. A Urine-diverting dry toilet can be linked to systems which reuse excreta as a fertilizer or biofuel. Astronauts use a UDDT type of space toilet to recover potable water.

text: Urine diversion

text: toilets have two compartments, one for urine and one for feces. One or both compartment may be flushed with water. A

text: Urine-diverting dry toilet

text: can be linked to systems which

text: reuse excreta

text: as a fertilizer or

text: biofuel

text: . Astronauts use a UDDT type of

text: space toilet

text: to recover

text: potable water

text: The effects of diuretic factors are tested in fluid secretion experiments, usually conducted using the Ramsay assay, in which isolated Malpighian tubules are placed in droplets of saline solution under liquid paraffin. The ends of the tubules are drawn out of the saline and wrapped around minuten pins. The diameter of the secreted droplets is measured, whereby the volume, in nanolitres, and hence rate of secretion, can be calculated. Test substances are added to the saline and changes in secretion rate are recorded. Isolated tubules continue to secrete for many hours, and because the Ramsay assay is fairly easy to perform, many peptides are tested using this method. As a result, the effects of diuretic peptides are often tested only on the tubules and their role in other parts of the insect excretory system is not investigated.

text: The effects of diuretic factors are tested in fluid secretion experiments, usually conducted using the

text: Ramsay assay

text: , in which isolated Malpighian tubules are placed in droplets of

text: saline solution

text: under liquid

text: paraffin

text: . The ends of the tubules are drawn out of the saline and wrapped around minuten pins. The diameter of the secreted droplets is measured, whereby the volume, in nanolitres, and hence rate of secretion, can be calculated. Test substances are added to the saline and changes in secretion rate are recorded. Isolated tubules continue to secrete for many hours, and because the Ramsay assay is fairly easy to perform, many peptides are tested using this method. As a result, the effects of diuretic peptides are often tested only on the tubules and their role in other parts of the insect excretory system is not investigated.

text: Deficiency in the enzymes of the porphyrin pathway leads to insufficient production of heme. Heme function plays a central role in cellular metabolism. This is not the main problem in the porphyrias; most heme synthesis enzymes—even dysfunctional enzymes—have enough residual activity to assist in heme biosynthesis. The principal problem in these deficiencies is the accumulation of porphyrins, the heme precursors, which are toxic to tissue in high concentrations. The chemical properties of these intermediates determine the location of accumulation, whether they induce photosensitivity, and whether the intermediate is excreted (in the urine or feces).

text: Deficiency in the

text: enzymes

text: of the porphyrin pathway leads to insufficient production of

text: heme

text: Heme

text: function plays a central role in cellular

text: metabolism

text: . This is not the main problem in the porphyrias; most

text: heme

text: synthesis

text: enzymes

text: —even dysfunctional

text: enzymes

text: —have enough residual activity to assist in

text: heme

text: biosynthesis. The principal problem in these deficiencies is the accumulation of

text: porphyrin

text: s, the

text: heme

text: precursors, which are toxic to tissue in high concentrations. The chemical properties of these intermediates determine the location of accumulation, whether they induce

text: photosensitivity

text: , and whether the intermediate is excreted (in the

text: urine

text: or

text: feces

text: The cause is not known. It does not seem to be an immune type reaction. In other words, calciphylaxis is not a hypersensitivity reaction (i.e., allergic reaction) leading to sudden local calcification. Clearly, additional factors are involved in calciphylaxis. It is also known as calcific uremic arteriolopathy; however, the disease is not limited to patients with kidney failure. The current belief is that in end-stage renal disease, abnormal calcium and phosphate homeostasis result in the deposition of calcium in the vessels, also known as metastatic calcification.  Once the calcium has been deposited, a thrombotic event occurs within the lumen of these vessels, resulting in tissue infarction.  It is unknown what the triggers are that cause the thrombotic and ischemic event.  Reported risk factors include female sex, obesity, elevated calcium*phosphate product, medications such as warfarin, calcium-based binders, or systemic steroids, protein C or S deficiency, hypoalbuminemia, and diabetes.

text: The cause is not known. It does not seem to be an immune type reaction. In other words, calciphylaxis is not a

text: hypersensitivity

text: reaction (i.e., allergic reaction) leading to sudden local calcification. Clearly, additional factors are involved in calciphylaxis. It is also known as calcific uremic arteriolopathy; however, the disease is not limited to patients with kidney failure. The current belief is that in end-stage renal disease, abnormal calcium and phosphate homeostasis result in the deposition of calcium in the vessels, also known as metastatic calcification.  Once the calcium has been deposited, a thrombotic event occurs within the lumen of these vessels, resulting in tissue infarction.  It is unknown what the triggers are that cause the thrombotic and ischemic event.  Reported risk factors include female sex, obesity, elevated calcium*phosphate product, medications such as warfarin, calcium-based binders, or systemic steroids, protein C or S deficiency, hypoalbuminemia, and diabetes.

text: In the USA, the National Kidney Foundation is a national organization representing patients and professionals who treat kidney diseases. The American Kidney Fund is a national nonprofit organization providing treatment-related financial assistance to one of every five dialysis patients each year. The Renal Support Network is a nonprofit, patient-focused, patient-run organization that provides nonmedical services to those affected by CKD. The American Association of Kidney Patients is a nonprofit, patient-centric group focused on improving the health and well-being of CKD and dialysis patients. The Renal Physicians Association is an association representing nephrology professionals.

text: In the USA, the

text: National Kidney Foundation

text: is a national organization representing patients and professionals who treat kidney diseases. The

text: American Kidney Fund

text: is a national nonprofit organization providing treatment-related financial assistance to one of every five dialysis patients each year. The

text: Renal Support Network

text: is a nonprofit, patient-focused, patient-run organization that provides nonmedical services to those affected by CKD. The

text: American Association of Kidney Patients

text: is a nonprofit, patient-centric group focused on improving the health and well-being of CKD and

text: dialysis

text: patients. The

text: Renal Physicians Association

text: is an association representing

text: nephrology

text: professionals.

text: Henoch–Schönlein purpura is a small-vessel vasculitis in which complexes of immunoglobulin A (IgA) and complement component 3 (C3) are deposited on arterioles, capillaries, and venules. As with IgA nephropathy, serum levels of IgA are high in HSP and there are identical findings on renal biopsy; however, IgA nephropathy has a predilection for young adults while HSP is more predominant among children. Further, IgA nephropathy typically only affects the kidneys while HSP is a systemic disease. HSP involves the skin and connective tissues, scrotum, joints, gastrointestinal tract and kidneys.

text: Henoch–Schönlein purpura is a small-vessel vasculitis in which complexes of

text: immunoglobulin A

text: (IgA) and

text: complement component 3

text: (C3) are deposited on arterioles, capillaries, and venules. As with

text: IgA nephropathy

text: , serum levels of IgA are high in HSP and there are identical findings on renal biopsy; however, IgA nephropathy has a predilection for young adults while HSP is more predominant among children. Further, IgA nephropathy typically only affects the kidneys while HSP is a systemic disease. HSP involves the skin and connective tissues, scrotum, joints, gastrointestinal tract and kidneys.

text: Teeth are not subject to continual remodelling and so their isotopic oxygen ratios remain constant from the time of formation. The isotopic oxygen ratios, then, of teeth represent the ratios of the region in which the individual was born and raised. Where deciduous teeth are present, it is also possible to determine the age at which a child was weaned. Breast milk production draws upon the body water of the mother, which has higher levels of O due to the preferential loss of O through sweat, urine, and expired water vapour.

text: Teeth

text: are not subject to continual remodelling and so their isotopic oxygen ratios remain constant from the time of formation. The isotopic oxygen ratios, then, of teeth represent the ratios of the region in which the individual was born and raised. Where

text: deciduous teeth

text: are present, it is also possible to determine the age at which a child was

text: weaned

text: Breast milk

text: production draws upon the

text: body water

text: of the mother, which has higher levels of O due to the preferential loss of O through sweat, urine, and expired water vapour.

text: | bioavailability   =| protein_bound     =| metabolism        =| elimination_half-life =| excretion         =

text: The autonomic nervous system plays a central role in maintaining cardiovascular homeostasis via pressure, volume, and chemoreceptor signals. It does this by regulating the peripheral vasculature, and kidney function, which in turn affect cardiac output, vascular resistance, and fluid retention. Excess activity of the sympathetic nervous system increases blood pressure and contributes to hypertension.

text: The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: plays a central role in maintaining cardiovascular homeostasis via

text: pressure

text: volume

text: , and

text: chemoreceptor

text: signals. It does this by regulating the peripheral vasculature, and kidney function, which in turn affect

text: cardiac output

text: vascular resistance

text: , and

text: fluid retention

text: . Excess activity of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: increases blood pressure and contributes to hypertension.

text: Diabetic nephropathy (or diabetic kidney disease) is a progressive kidney disease caused by damage to the capillaries in the kidneys' glomeruli. It is characterized by nephrotic syndrome and diffuse scarring of the glomeruli. It is due to longstanding diabetes mellitus, and is a prime reason for dialysis in many developed countries.It is classified as a small blood vessel complication of diabetes.

text: Diabetic nephropathy (or diabetic kidney disease) is a progressive

text: kidney disease

text: caused by

text: damage

text: to the

text: capillaries

text: in the

text: kidney

text: s'

text: glomeruli

text: . It is characterized by

text: nephrotic syndrome

text: and diffuse

text: scarring of the glomeruli

text: . It is due to longstanding

text: diabetes mellitus

text: , and is a prime reason for

text: dialysis

text: in many developed countries.It is classified as a

text: small blood vessel complication

text: of diabetes.

text: Excretory system: The renal pore is between heart and anus.

text: Excretory system

text: : The renal pore is between heart and anus.

text: The minor criteria are the following: a low urine volume (less than  per day), low sodium concentration in the urine, a urine osmolality that is greater than that in the blood, the absence of red blood cells in the urine, and a serum sodium concentration of less than 130 mmol/L.

text: The minor criteria are the following: a

text: low urine volume

text: (less than  per day), low

text: sodium

text: concentration in the urine, a

text: urine osmolality

text: that is greater than that in the

text: blood

text: , the absence of

text: red blood cells

text: in the urine, and a serum sodium concentration of less than 130 mmol/L.

text: An argument first presented by Judith Jarvis Thomson states that even if the fetus is a person and has a right to life, abortion is morally permissible because a woman has a right to control her own body and its life-support functions. Thomson's variant of this argument draws an analogy between forcing a woman to continue an unwanted pregnancy and forcing a person to allow his body to be used to maintain blood homeostasis (as a dialysis machine is used) for another person suffering from kidney failure.  It is argued that just as it would be permissible to "unplug" and thereby cause the death of the person who is using one's kidneys, so it is permissible to abort the fetus (who similarly, it is said, has no right to use one's body's life-support functions against one's will).

text: An argument first presented by

text: Judith Jarvis Thomson

text: states that even if the fetus is a person and has a right to life, abortion is morally permissible because a woman has a right to control her own body and its life-support functions. Thomson's variant of this argument draws an analogy between forcing a woman to continue an unwanted pregnancy and forcing a person to allow his body to be used to maintain blood

text: homeostasis

text: (as a

text: dialysis

text: machine is used) for another person suffering from

text: kidney failure

text: .  It is argued that just as it would be permissible to "unplug" and thereby cause the death of the person who is using one's kidneys, so it is permissible to abort the fetus (who similarly, it is said, has no right to use one's body's life-support functions against one's will).

text: Professor Dharma-wardana has recently engaged himself in trying to unravel the origins of the mysterious kidney disease that has appeared (since 1992) in the North Central Province (NCP) of Sri Lanka, and now rising to near epidemic proportions, killing thousands of people. The disease has similarities to Danubian endemic familial nephropathy or DEFN. The cause of the disease is unknown and hence it is called chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology (CKDU) by medical scientists. A paper authored by him and three other well-known Sri Lankan scientists appeared in the journal Environmental Health and Geochemistry setting the trend for a new paradigm regarding CKDU.

text: Professor Dharma-wardana has recently engaged himself in trying to unravel the origins of the mysterious kidney disease that has appeared (since 1992) in the

text: North Central Province

text: (NCP) of Sri Lanka, and now rising to near epidemic proportions, killing thousands of people. The disease has similarities to

text: Danubian endemic familial nephropathy

text: or DEFN. The cause of the disease is unknown and hence it is called

text: chronic kidney disease

text: of unknown aetiology (CKDU) by medical scientists. A paper authored by him and three other well-known Sri Lankan scientists appeared in the journal Environmental Health and Geochemistry setting the trend for a new paradigm regarding CKDU.

text: If urine is to be collected for use as a fertiliser in agriculture, then the easiest method of doing so is (in increasing order of costs) by using waterless urinals, urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDTs) or urine diversion flush toilets.

text: If urine is to be collected for use as a fertiliser in agriculture, then the easiest method of doing so is (in increasing order of costs) by using waterless

text: urinals

text: urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDTs)

text: or

text: urine diversion

text: flush toilets.

text: The general structure of the veliger includes a shell that surrounds the visceral organs of the larva (e.g., digestive tract, much of the nervous system, excretory organs) and a ciliated velum that extends beyond the shell as a single or multi-lobed structure used for swimming and particulate food collection. The larva may have, or may develop, a foot that will be used by the newly settled veliger as it moves about and searches for an appropriate place to metamorphose.

text: About 10–15% of urinary calculi are composed of struvite (ammonium magnesium phosphate, NHMgPO·6HO). Struvite stones (also known as "infection stones", urease or triple-phosphate stones), form most often in the presence of infection by urea-splitting bacteria. Using the enzyme urease, these organisms metabolize urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. This alkalinizes the urine, resulting in favorable conditions for the formation of struvite stones. Proteus mirabilis, Proteus vulgaris, and Morganella morganii are the most common organisms isolated; less common organisms include Ureaplasma urealyticum, and some species of Providencia, Klebsiella, Serratia, and Enterobacter. These infection stones are commonly observed in people who have factors that predispose them to urinary tract infections, such as those with spinal cord injury and other forms of neurogenic bladder, ileal conduit urinary diversion, vesicoureteral reflux, and obstructive uropathies. They are also commonly seen in people with underlying metabolic disorders, such as idiopathic hypercalciuria, hyperparathyroidism, and gout. Infection stones can grow rapidly, forming large calyceal staghorn (antler-shaped) calculi requiring invasive surgery such as percutaneous nephrolithotomy for definitive treatment.

text: About 10–15% of urinary calculi are composed of

text: struvite

text: ammonium magnesium phosphate

text: , NHMgPO·6HO). Struvite stones (also known as "infection stones",

text: urease

text: or triple-phosphate stones), form most often in the presence of infection by urea-splitting

text: bacteria

text: . Using the enzyme urease, these organisms

text: metabolize

text: urea

text: into

text: ammonia

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: . This

text: alkalinizes

text: the urine, resulting in favorable conditions for the formation of struvite stones.

text: Proteus mirabilis

text: Proteus vulgaris

text: , and

text: Morganella morganii

text: are the most common organisms isolated; less common organisms include

text: Ureaplasma urealyticum

text: , and some species of

text: Providencia

text: Klebsiella

text: Serratia

text: , and

text: Enterobacter

text: . These infection stones are commonly observed in people who have factors that predispose them to

text: urinary tract infection

text: s, such as those with

text: spinal cord injury

text: and other forms of

text: neurogenic bladder

text: ileal conduit urinary diversion

text: vesicoureteral reflux

text: , and

text: obstructive uropathies

text: . They are also commonly seen in people with underlying metabolic disorders, such as

text: idiopathic

text: hypercalciuria

text: hyperparathyroidism

text: , and

text: gout

text: . Infection stones can grow rapidly, forming large calyceal staghorn (

text: antler

text: -shaped) calculi requiring invasive surgery such as percutaneous nephrolithotomy for definitive treatment.

text: In 2014, US communities with non-hospital-based urgent care centers (UCCs) were mainly urban, located in areas with higher income levels and higher levels of private insurance.Kaissi et al considered local multi-hospital systems in Florida, Maryland, Nevada, Texas, Virginia and Washington.  In 2012 50% of 117 hospital-based "clusters" included either UCCs, retail clinics, or both. 57% of systems in Washington operated an UCC, compared to 36% of systems in Washington, while systems in Florida had the largest share of UCCs (17.6%).  Authors noted unexplained state-by-state variation in hospital system partnership with UCC and retail clinic models.  Corwin et al considered Medicare beneficiaries presenting to an UCC (n=1,426,354) emergency department (ED) (n=334,841) or physicians office (n=8,359,498) with upper respiratory or urinary tract infections, bronchitis, sprains or contusions, and back or arthritic pain, in 2012.  Patients who presented to an ED were more likely to be female (67% of ED presentations) compared to those who presented to a UCC or physicians office (65% and 64% respectively).  Patients who presented to an UCC were significantly more likely to be aged over 85 (27%, compared to 15% of physicians office presentations, and 13% of ED presentations) or Black (11%, compared to 6% of physicians office presentations, and 4% of ED presentations).In 2014, 3.1% of Family Physicians in the United States worked primarily in UCCs, with a male:female ratio of workforce is 6:7, and an urban:rural ratio of 2:1.  This compares to 3.6% of Family Physicians working primarily in Emergency Care, with a male:female ratio of 5:3 and urban:rural ratio approaching 1:2.

text: Long-term exposure of adults can result in decreased performance in some tests that measure functions of the nervous system. Long-term exposure to lead or its salts (especially soluble salts or the strong oxidant PbO) can cause nephropathy, and colic-like abdominal pains. It may also cause weakness in fingers, wrists, or ankles. Lead exposure also causes small increases in blood pressure, particularly in middle-aged and older people and can cause anemia. Exposure to high lead levels can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys in adults or children and ultimately cause death. In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. Chronic, high-level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males. Lead also damages nervous connections (especially in young children) and causes blood and brain disorders. Lead poisoning typically results from ingestion of food or water contaminated with lead, but may also occur after accidental ingestion of contaminated soil, dust, or lead-based paint. It is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and is believed to have adverse effects on the central nervous system, the cardiovascular system, kidneys, and the immune system.

text: Long-term exposure of adults can result in decreased performance in some tests that measure functions of the nervous system. Long-term exposure to lead or its salts (especially soluble salts or the strong oxidant PbO) can cause

text: nephropathy

text: , and

text: colic

text: -like abdominal pains. It may also cause weakness in fingers, wrists, or ankles. Lead exposure also causes small increases in blood pressure, particularly in middle-aged and older people and can cause anemia. Exposure to high lead levels can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys in adults or children and ultimately cause death. In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. Chronic, high-level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males. Lead also damages nervous connections (especially in young children) and causes blood and brain disorders. Lead poisoning typically results from ingestion of food or water contaminated with lead, but may also occur after accidental ingestion of contaminated soil, dust, or lead-based paint. It is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and is believed to have adverse effects on the central nervous system, the cardiovascular system, kidneys, and the immune system.

text: The urinary system is regulated by the endocrine system by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone.

text: The urinary system is regulated by the

text: endocrine system

text: by

text: hormone

text: s such as

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: aldosterone

text: , and

text: parathyroid hormone

text: Data gathered during 129- to 208-day Shuttle-Mir missions suggest that the spaceflight environment and subsequent return to Earth change the composition of the astronauts' urine and promoted the formation of renal stones.  This data shows that there was an increased risk for calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate stones during flight, and an increased risk for calcium oxalate and uric acid stones immediately after flight.  This post-flight stone development could be attributed to low urine volumes and higher urinary pH.

text: Data gathered during 129- to 208-day

text: Shuttle-Mir

text: missions suggest that the spaceflight environment and subsequent return to Earth change the composition of the astronauts' urine and promoted the formation of renal stones.  This data shows that there was an increased risk for calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate stones during flight, and an increased risk for calcium oxalate and uric acid stones immediately after flight.  This post-flight stone development could be attributed to low urine volumes and higher urinary pH.

text: The specific kidney injuries induced by analgesics are renal papillary necrosis and chronic interstitial nephritis. They appear to result from decreased blood flow to the kidney, rapid consumption of antioxidants, and subsequent oxidative damage to the kidney. This kidney damage may lead to progressive chronic kidney failure, abnormal urinalysis results, high blood pressure, and anemia. A small proportion of individuals with analgesic nephropathy may develop end-stage kidney disease.

text: The specific kidney injuries induced by analgesics are

text: renal papillary necrosis

text: and

text: chronic interstitial nephritis

text: . They appear to result from decreased

text: blood flow to the kidney

text: , rapid consumption of

text: antioxidant

text: s, and subsequent

text: oxidative damage

text: to the kidney. This kidney damage may lead to progressive

text: chronic kidney failure

text: , abnormal

text: urinalysis

text: results,

text: high blood pressure

text: , and

text: anemia

text: . A small proportion of individuals with analgesic nephropathy may develop

text: end-stage kidney disease

text: A primitive nervous system, without centralization, coordinates the processes involved in maintaining homeostasis, as well as biochemical and physical responses to various stimuli. No specialized sense organs are present.

text: Using iTunes®, Falk and his fellow nephrologists in the UNC Kidney Center have recorded many podcasts covering kidney disease topics that are available through iTunes®. Detailed patient education materials about kidney disease have also been developed and are available through the UNC Kidney Center Health Library at http://www.unckidneycenter.org/kidneyhealthlibrary.html.

text: Though recited normally by observant Jews each time excretory functions are used, hence giving it the name the "bathroom blessing", it is also recited during the Shacharit service due to its spiritual significance (to Jews, humans are made in God's image, so it is an expression of awe toward God's creations).

text: Though recited normally by observant Jews each time excretory functions are used, hence giving it the name the "bathroom blessing", it is also recited during the

text: Shacharit

text: service due to its spiritual significance (to Jews, humans are made in God's image, so it is an expression of awe toward God's creations).

text: Northwest Kidney Centers’ mission is to promote the optimal health, quality of life and independence of people with kidney disease through patient care, education and research.

text: The kidneys and excretory system are much the same as in other reptiles, but crocodilians do not have a bladder. In fresh water, the osmolality (the concentration of solutes that contribute to a solution's osmotic pressure) in the plasma is much higher than it is in the surrounding water. The animals are well-hydrated, and the urine in the cloaca is abundant and dilute, nitrogen being excreted as ammonium bicarbonate. Sodium loss is low and mainly takes place through the skin in freshwater conditions. In seawater, the opposite is true. The osmolality in the plasma is lower than the surrounding water, which is dehydrating for the animal. The cloacal urine is much more concentrated, white, and opaque, with the nitrogenous waste being mostly excreted as insoluble uric acid.

text: The kidneys and excretory system are much the same as in other reptiles, but crocodilians do not have a

text: bladder

text: . In fresh water, the

text: osmolality

text: (the concentration of solutes that contribute to a solution's

text: osmotic pressure

text: ) in the

text: plasma

text: is much higher than it is in the surrounding water. The animals are well-hydrated, and the urine in the cloaca is abundant and dilute, nitrogen being excreted as

text: ammonium bicarbonate

text: . Sodium loss is low and mainly takes place through the skin in freshwater conditions. In seawater, the opposite is true. The osmolality in the plasma is lower than the surrounding water, which is dehydrating for the animal. The cloacal urine is much more concentrated, white, and opaque, with the nitrogenous waste being mostly excreted as insoluble

text: uric acid

text: Ontologically, an idiolect is construed as a (possibly infinite) set of abstract sentences: form-meaning pairs consisting, in the case of a spoken rather than a written or signed idiolect, of a structured phonetic sound sequence and a meaning of this sequence. For each idiolect in a language, there is a system (idiolect system) that specifies which form-meaning pairs are elements of the idiolect. Every idiolect system consists of (technically: is an n-tuple whose components are) a phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexico-semantic, and sentence-semantic part; and each part determines a different type of properties that the form-meaning pairs must have in order to belong to the idiolect. In written idiolect systems, the phonetic and phonological parts are replaced by a graphetic and a graphematic part, in signed idiolect systems by a cheremic and a cherematic part. (There may be other components in addition to the ones listed above; the precise structure of idiolect systems is a matter of ongoing research.) The parts of an idiolect system are grouped into the sound system (script system, chereme system), the morpho-syntactic (or grammatical) subsystem, and the semantic subsystem of the idiolect system. (There is no pragmatic part or subsystem – 'pragmatic' properties of form-meaning pairs, as far as they are determined by the idiolect system itself, are covered by the semantic subsystem, or else indirectly by the idiolect's place in the variety structure.) Finally, a system for a language (or language variety) is a construct of properties shared by every system of every idiolect in the language (or language variety). Idiolects, varieties, languages, and their systems are all construed as extramental and abstract.

text: Ontologically, an idiolect is construed as a (possibly infinite) set of abstract

text: sentences

text: : form-meaning pairs consisting, in the case of a spoken rather than a written or signed idiolect, of a structured phonetic sound

text: sequence

text: and a meaning of this sequence. For each idiolect in a language, there is a system (idiolect system) that specifies which form-meaning pairs are elements of the idiolect. Every idiolect system consists of (technically: is an n-

text: tuple

text: whose components are) a phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexico-semantic, and sentence-semantic part; and each part determines a different type of properties that the form-meaning pairs must have in order to belong to the idiolect. In written idiolect systems, the

text: phonetic

text: and

text: phonological

text: parts are replaced by a

text: graphetic

text: and a

text: graphematic

text: part, in signed idiolect systems by a cheremic and a cherematic part. (There may be other components in addition to the ones listed above; the precise structure of idiolect systems is a matter of ongoing research.) The parts of an idiolect system are grouped into the sound system (script system, chereme system), the morpho-syntactic (or grammatical) subsystem, and the semantic subsystem of the idiolect system. (There is no

text: pragmatic

text: part or subsystem – 'pragmatic' properties of form-meaning pairs, as far as they are determined by the idiolect system itself, are covered by the semantic subsystem, or else indirectly by the idiolect's place in the variety structure.) Finally, a system for a language (or language variety) is a construct of properties shared by every system of every idiolect in the language (or language variety). Idiolects, varieties, languages, and their systems are all construed as extramental and

text: abstract

text: Psilocybin is metabolized mostly in the liver. As it becomes converted to psilocin, it undergoes a first-pass effect, whereby its concentration is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation. Psilocin is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase to produce several metabolites that can circulate in the blood plasma, including 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetaldehyde, 4-hydroxytryptophol, and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid. Some psilocin is not broken down by enzymes and instead forms a glucuronide; this is a biochemical mechanism animals use to eliminate toxic substances by linking them with glucuronic acid, which can then be excreted in the urine. Psilocin is glucuronated by the glucuronosyltransferase enzymes UGT1A9 in the liver, and by UGT1A10 in the small intestine. Based on studies using animals, about 50% of ingested psilocybin is absorbed through the stomach and intestine. Within 24 hours, about 65% of the absorbed psilocybin is excreted into the urine, and a further 15–20% is excreted in the bile and feces. Although most of the remaining drug is eliminated in this way within 8 hours, it is still detectable in the urine after 7 days. Clinical studies show that psilocin concentrations in the plasma of adults average about 8 µg/liter within 2 hours after ingestion of a single 15 mg oral psilocybin dose; psychological effects occur with a blood plasma concentration of 4–6 µg/liter. Psilocybin is about 100 times less potent than LSD on a weight per weight basis, and the physiological effects last about half as long.

text: Psilocybin is metabolized mostly in the

text: liver

text: . As it becomes converted to psilocin, it undergoes a

text: first-pass effect

text: , whereby its concentration is greatly reduced before it reaches the

text: systemic circulation

text: . Psilocin is broken down by the enzyme

text: monoamine oxidase

text: to produce several

text: metabolite

text: s that can circulate in the blood plasma, including 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetaldehyde, 4-hydroxytryptophol, and 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid. Some psilocin is not broken down by enzymes and instead forms a

text: glucuronide

text: ; this is a biochemical mechanism animals use to eliminate toxic substances by linking them with

text: glucuronic acid

text: , which can then be excreted in the urine. Psilocin is glucuronated by the

text: glucuronosyltransferase

text: enzymes

text: in the liver, and by

text: in the small intestine. Based on

text: studies using animals

text: , about 50% of ingested psilocybin is absorbed through the stomach and intestine. Within 24 hours, about 65% of the absorbed psilocybin is

text: excreted

text: into the urine, and a further 15–20% is excreted in the

text: bile

text: and feces. Although most of the remaining drug is eliminated in this way within 8 hours, it is still detectable in the urine after 7 days. Clinical studies show that psilocin concentrations in the plasma of adults average about 8 µg/liter within 2 hours after ingestion of a single 15 mg oral psilocybin dose; psychological effects occur with a blood plasma concentration of 4–6 µg/liter. Psilocybin is about 100 times less potent than LSD on a weight per weight basis, and the physiological effects last about half as long.

text: The term human biocomputer, coined by John C. Lilly, refers to the "hardware" of the human anatomy. This would include the brain, internal organs, and other human organ systems such as cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, immune, integumentary, lymphatic, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, skeletal, and urinary systems. The biocomputer has stored program properties, and self-metaprogramming properties, with limits determinable and to be determined.

text: The term human biocomputer, coined by

text: John C. Lilly

text: , refers to the "hardware" of the

text: human anatomy

text: . This would include the

text: brain

text: internal organs

text: , and other human organ systems such as

text: cardiovascular

text: digestive

text: endocrine

text: immune

text: integumentary

text: lymphatic

text: muscular

text: nervous

text: reproductive

text: respiratory

text: skeletal

text: , and

text: urinary

text: systems. The biocomputer has stored program properties, and self-metaprogramming properties, with limits determinable and to be determined.

text: On World Kidney Day, the foundation sponsors KEEP Healthy screenings around the United States. NKF holds hundreds of kidney-health screenings throughout the year to identify individuals who are at risk for chronic kidney disease.

text: On

text: World Kidney Day

text: , the foundation sponsors KEEP Healthy screenings around the United States. NKF holds hundreds of kidney-health screenings throughout the year to identify individuals who are at risk for chronic kidney disease.

text: Meiere is an inherited Indo-European word. It relates to Sanskrit mehati, "urinates", Persian mīz, "urine"; Lithuanian myža, "he/she urinates", Greek ὀμείχειν (omeikhein), "to urinate", which, taken together, point to an Indo-European *h3meiģh-. This IE root with a palatal ģh was formerly mixed up (e. g. in Pokorny's IEW) with another one with velar *gh meaning "mist" (Russian mgla), hence erroneous tentative overall translations like "to sprinkle" or "to wet" which still turn up sometimes.

text: Many urine tests (urinalysis) monitor the amount of urobilin in urine, as its levels can give insight on the effectiveness of urinary tract function. Normally, urine would appear as either light yellow urine or colorless. A lack of water intake, for example following sleep or dehydration, reduces the water content of urine, thereby concentrating urobilin and producing a darker color of urine. Obstructive jaundice reduces biliary bilirubin excretion, which is then excreted directly from the blood stream into the urine, giving a dark-colored urine but with a paradoxically low urobilin concentration, no urobilinogen, and usually with correspondingly pale faeces.  Darker urine also results due to other chemicals, such as various ingested dietary components or drugs, porphyrins in porphyria, and homogentisate in patients with alcaptonuria.

text: Many urine tests (urinalysis) monitor the amount of urobilin in urine, as its levels can give insight on the effectiveness of urinary tract function. Normally, urine would appear as either light yellow urine or colorless. A lack of water intake, for example following sleep or dehydration, reduces the water content of urine, thereby concentrating urobilin and producing a darker color of urine.

text: Obstructive jaundice

text: reduces biliary bilirubin excretion, which is then excreted directly from the blood stream into the urine, giving a dark-colored urine but with a paradoxically low urobilin concentration, no urobilinogen, and usually with correspondingly pale faeces.  Darker urine also results due to other chemicals, such as various ingested dietary components or drugs,

text: porphyrins

text: in

text: porphyria

text: , and

text: homogentisate

text: in patients with

text: alcaptonuria

text: There are myriad factors that affect health disparities between racial groups. Among these factors are genetic differences within racial populations, cultural mores, and social and environmental factors. For instance, in some populations where perceptions of race are linked with socioeconomic disparities and differences, the access to care can be considerably lesser. Dually, bias in healthcare systems themselves can perpetuate non-biologically founded higher instances of disease. For instance, in a study conducted by the National Health Service checks programme in the United Kingdom, which aims to increase diagnosis across demographics, "due to the reported lower screening in specific black and minority ethnic communities [-] who are recognised as being more at risk of cardiovascular disease [-] there are concerns that NHS Health Checks may increase inequalities in health." In this specific case, the structure of services intended to treat and diagnose, these lower levels of attention to certain demographics can be seen as a cause of increased instances of disease from this lack of proper, equal preventative care. One must consider these external factors in evaluating statistics on the prevalence of disease in populations, as, though genetic components can be at play in terms of predispositions to contracting some illnesses, these linkages should be more closely evaluated than by ethnicity. Overall, health disparities, which include variations in life expectancy and prevalence of disease, due to the differences in health conditions across various ethnic populations that can be attributed to inequalities in living environment and access to healthcare may also play a role.

text: Metabolic wastes or excretes are substances left over from metabolic processes (such as cellular respiration), which cannot be used by the organism (they are surplus or toxic), and must therefore be excreted. This includes nitrogen compounds, water, CO, phosphates, sulfates, etc. Animals treat these compounds as excretes. Plants have chemical "machinery" which transforms some of them (primarily the nitrogen compounds) into useful substances, and it has been shown by Brian J. Ford that abscissa leaves also carry wastes away from the parent plant. In this way, Ford argues that the shed leaf acts as an excretory (an organ carrying away excretory products).

text: Metabolic wastes or excretes are

text: substance

text: s left over from

text: metabolic

text: processes (such as

text: cellular respiration

text: ), which cannot be used by the

text: organism

text: (they are surplus or

text: toxic

text: ), and must therefore be

text: excreted

text: . This includes

text: nitrogen

text: compounds,

text: water

text: CO

text: phosphate

text: s,

text: sulfate

text: s, etc.

text: Animal

text: s treat these compounds as excretes.

text: Plant

text: s have

text: chemical

text: "machinery" which transforms some of them (primarily the nitrogen compounds) into useful substances, and it has been shown by

text: Brian J. Ford

text: that

text: abscissa

text: leaves also carry wastes away from the parent plant. In this way, Ford argues that the shed leaf acts as an excretory (an organ carrying away excretory products).

text: Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in the bodies of many animals, including humans. It is expelled from the kidneys and flows through the ureters to the urinary bladder, from which it is soon excreted from the body through the urethra during urination.

text: Urine is a

text: liquid

text: by-product of

text: metabolism

text: in the bodies of many

text: animal

text: s, including humans. It is expelled from the

text: kidney

text: s and flows through the

text: ureter

text: s to the

text: urinary bladder

text: , from which it is soon

text: excreted

text: from the body through the

text: urethra

text: during

text: urination

text: The excretory system consists of two nephridia, which connect to the pericardial cavity around the heart, and remove excreta through a pore that opens near the rear of the mantle cavity. The single gonad is located in front of the heart, and releases gametes through a pair of pores just in front of those used for excretion.

text: The excretory system consists of two

text: nephridia

text: , which connect to the

text: pericardial cavity

text: around the heart, and remove excreta through a pore that opens near the rear of the mantle cavity. The single

text: gonad

text: is located in front of the heart, and releases gametes through a pair of pores just in front of those used for excretion.

text: There is much discussion about the extent to which the volume of these additional funds creates multiple effects that impact – positively and negatively – on health outcomes for specific diseases and also on health systems themselves. Assessing the impact of GHIs on specific diseases and health systems is also notoriously difficult, not least because of the problem of attributing particular effects to individual GHIs. A common response in evaluations of GHIs, therefore, is to acknowledge the inherent limitations of establishing causal chains in what is a highly complex public health environment, and to base conclusions on adequacy statements resulting from trends that demonstrate substantial growth in process and impact indicators.

text: Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems, although there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include support and drivers for. Operating systems vary on file system support and on the disk formats they may be installed on. Under Windows, each file system is usually limited in application to certain media; for example, CDs must use ISO 9660 or UDF, and as of Windows Vista, NTFS is the only file system which the operating system can be installed on.  It is possible to install Linux onto many types of file systems. Unlike other operating systems, Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc (CD, DVD...), a USB flash drive, or even contained within a file located on another file system.

text: Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems, although there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include support and drivers for. Operating systems vary on file system support and on the disk formats they may be installed on. Under Windows, each file system is usually limited in application to certain media; for example, CDs must use

text: ISO 9660

text: or

text: UDF

text: , and as of

text: Windows Vista

text: NTFS

text: is the only file system which the operating system can be installed on.  It is possible to install Linux onto many types of file systems. Unlike other operating systems, Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc (CD, DVD...), a USB flash drive, or even contained within a file located on another file system.

text: The National Kidney Foundation, Inc. (NKF) is a major voluntary health organization in the United States, headquartered in New York City with over 30 local offices across the country.  Its mission is to prevent kidney and urinary tract diseases, improve the health and well-being of individuals and families affected by these diseases, and increase the availability of all organs for transplantation.

text: The National Kidney Foundation, Inc. (NKF) is a major voluntary health organization in the

text: United States

text: , headquartered in

text: New York City

text: with over 30 local offices across the country.  Its mission is to prevent

text: kidney

text: and

text: urinary tract

text: diseases, improve the health and well-being of individuals and families affected by these diseases, and increase the availability of all organs for

text: transplantation

text: Another cause of severe water retention is kidney failure, where the kidneys are no longer able to filter fluid out of the blood and turn it into urine. Kidney disease often starts with inflammation, for instance in the case of diseases such as nephrotic syndrome or lupus. Once again, this type of water retention is usually visible in the form of swollen legs and ankles.

text: Another cause of severe water retention is

text: kidney failure

text: , where the

text: kidneys

text: are no longer able to filter fluid out of the

text: blood

text: and turn it into

text: urine

text: Kidney disease

text: often starts with

text: inflammation

text: , for instance in the case of diseases such as

text: nephrotic syndrome

text: or

text: lupus

text: . Once again, this type of water retention is usually visible in the form of swollen

text: leg

text: s and

text: ankle

text: s.

text: NSAIDs are also associated with a fairly high incidence of renal adverse drug reactions (ADRs). The mechanism of these renal ADRs is due to changes in renal haemodynamics (kidney blood flow), ordinarily mediated by prostaglandins, which are affected by NSAIDs. Prostaglandins normally cause vasodilation of the afferent arterioles of the glomeruli. This helps maintain normal glomerular perfusion and glomerular filtration rate (GFR), an indicator of renal function. This is particularly important in renal failure where the kidney is trying to maintain renal perfusion pressure by elevated angiotensin II levels. At these elevated levels, angiotensin II also constricts the afferent arteriole into the glomerulus in addition to the efferent arteriole it normally constricts. Prostaglandins serve to dilate the afferent arteriole; by blocking this prostaglandin-mediated effect, particularly in renal failure, NSAIDs cause unopposed constriction of the afferent arteriole and decreased RPF (renal perfusion pressure).

text: NSAIDs are also associated with a fairly high incidence of renal adverse drug reactions (

text: ADRs

text: ). The mechanism of these renal ADRs is due to changes in renal haemodynamics (kidney blood flow), ordinarily mediated by prostaglandins, which are affected by NSAIDs. Prostaglandins normally cause vasodilation of the

text: afferent arteriole

text: s of the

text: glomeruli

text: . This helps maintain normal glomerular perfusion and

text: glomerular filtration rate

text: (GFR), an indicator of

text: renal function

text: . This is particularly important in renal failure where the kidney is trying to maintain renal perfusion pressure by elevated angiotensin II levels. At these elevated levels, angiotensin II also constricts the afferent arteriole into the glomerulus in addition to the efferent arteriole it normally constricts. Prostaglandins serve to dilate the afferent arteriole; by blocking this prostaglandin-mediated effect, particularly in renal failure, NSAIDs cause unopposed constriction of the afferent arteriole and decreased RPF (renal perfusion pressure).

text: In many marine nematodes, one or two unicellular 'renette glands' excrete salt through a pore on the underside of the animal, close to the pharynx. In most other nematodes, these specialised cells have been replaced by an organ consisting of two parallel ducts connected by a single transverse duct. This transverse duct opens into a common canal that runs to the excretory pore.

text: In many marine nematodes, one or two unicellular '

text: renette gland

text: s' excrete salt through a pore on the underside of the animal, close to the pharynx. In most other nematodes, these specialised cells have been replaced by an organ consisting of two parallel ducts connected by a single transverse duct. This transverse duct opens into a common canal that runs to the excretory pore.

text: The kidneys are supposed to filter wastes (especially urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. When they are not performing this task the patient is suffering from kidney disease. The medical field that studies the kidneys and diseases affecting the kidney is called nephrology, from the Ancient Greek name for kidney.	Doctors would test urine using a visual examination. If the urine was red and/or foamy the patient was suffering from kidney disease.

text: The kidneys are supposed to filter wastes (especially urea) from the blood and excrete them, along with water, as urine. When they are not performing this task the patient is suffering from

text: kidney disease

text: . The medical field that studies the kidneys and diseases affecting the kidney is called nephrology, from the Ancient Greek name for kidney.	Doctors would test urine using a visual examination. If the urine was red and/or foamy the patient was suffering from kidney disease.

text: In almost every segment is a pair of excretory organs called nephridia, which are derived from coelom tissue. Each consists of a small pouch that is connected, via a flagellated conductor called a nephridioduct, to an opening at the base of the nearest leg known as a nephridiopore. The pouch is occupied by special cells called podocytes, which facilitate ultrafiltration of the blood through the partition between haemocoelom and nephridium. The composition of the urinary solution is modified in the nephridioduct by selective recovery of nutrients and water and by isolation of poison and waste materials, before it is excreted to the outside world via the nephridiopore. The most important nitrogenous excretion product is the water-insoluble uric acid; this can be excreted in solid state, with very little water. This so-called uricotelic excretory mode represents an adjustment to life on land and the associated necessity of dealing economically with water. A pair of former nephridia in the head were converted secondarily into the salivary glands, while another pair in the final segment of male specimens now serve as glands that apparently play a role in reproduction.

text: In almost every segment is a pair of excretory organs called nephridia, which are derived from coelom tissue. Each consists of a small pouch that is connected, via a

text: flagellated

text: conductor called a nephridioduct, to an opening at the base of the nearest leg known as a nephridiopore. The pouch is occupied by special cells called

text: podocyte

text: s, which facilitate

text: ultrafiltration

text: of the blood through the partition between haemocoelom and nephridium. The composition of the

text: urinary

text: solution is modified in the nephridioduct by selective recovery of nutrients and water and by isolation of poison and waste materials, before it is excreted to the outside world via the nephridiopore. The most important nitrogenous excretion product is the water-insoluble

text: uric acid

text: ; this can be excreted in solid state, with very little water. This so-called

text: uricotelic

text: excretory mode represents an adjustment to life on land and the associated necessity of dealing economically with water. A pair of former nephridia in the head were converted secondarily into the salivary glands, while another pair in the final segment of male specimens now serve as glands that apparently play a role in reproduction.

text: Early in her career, Callan was a staff anesthesiologist at St. Francis Hospital in Hartford, Connecticut, from 1972 to 1975. She later worked for the state of Connecticut, as medical director of the Department of Income Maintenance, where she administered medical aspects of Connecticut's Medicaid program, from 1978 to 1984. She was director of medical affairs for Abbott Laboratories from 1985 to 1992, where she did critical research on new anesthesia products. The team she led completed the global development of a new drug within two years, and their work included innovative research on kidney function that led to the conclusion that the kidney is a metabolic as well as an excretory organ. Before joining the staff of the AMA in 1999, Callan was vice president of Abbott's Hospital Products Division.

text: Early in her career, Callan was a staff anesthesiologist at

text: St. Francis Hospital

text: in

text: Hartford, Connecticut

text: , from 1972 to 1975. She later worked for the state of Connecticut, as medical director of the Department of Income Maintenance, where she administered medical aspects of Connecticut's

text: Medicaid

text: program, from 1978 to 1984. She was director of medical affairs for

text: Abbott Laboratories

text: from 1985 to 1992, where she did critical research on new anesthesia products. The team she led completed the global development of a new drug within two years, and their work included innovative research on kidney function that led to the conclusion that the kidney is a metabolic as well as an excretory organ. Before joining the staff of the AMA in 1999, Callan was vice president of Abbott's Hospital Products Division.

text: Adineta ricciae is a microscopic invertebrate that can grow to a length of about . It has a retractable head with two pigmented, front-facing eyes, a mouth aperture and a corona of cilia. The bands of cilia are used in locomotion with two separate groups twirling in opposite directions. The body is slightly broader than the head and is cylindrical and contains the internal organs. It has muscles, a large stomach and short intestine, a cloaca, an excretory system, nerve ganglia, organs sensitive to touch and a pair of ovaries. At the posterior end is a foot with foot glands, short triangular spurs and three toes. The whole is enclosed in a flexible, transparent cuticle.

text: Adineta ricciae is a microscopic invertebrate that can grow to a length of about . It has a retractable head with two pigmented, front-facing eyes, a mouth aperture and a corona of

text: cilia

text: . The bands of cilia are used in locomotion with two separate groups twirling in opposite directions. The body is slightly broader than the head and is cylindrical and contains the internal organs. It has muscles, a large stomach and short intestine, a

text: cloaca

text: , an

text: excretory system

text: , nerve

text: ganglia

text: , organs sensitive to touch and a pair of

text: ovaries

text: . At the posterior end is a foot with foot glands, short triangular spurs and three toes. The whole is enclosed in a flexible, transparent

text: cuticle

text: The DaVita Kidney Rock is a 5K run walk event that raises awareness of chronic kidney disease and funds in support of this cause. The 2011 DaVita Kidney Rock was held in Denver’s City Park and featured complimentary kidney disease screenings for participants by The Kidney TRUST; a health fair; and games and prizes in the Kids Zone.

text: The DaVita Kidney Rock is a

text: 5K run walk

text: event that raises awareness of chronic kidney disease and funds in support of this cause. The 2011 DaVita Kidney Rock was held in

text: Denver’s City Park

text: and featured complimentary kidney disease screenings for participants by

text: The Kidney TRUST

text: ; a health fair; and games and prizes in the Kids Zone.

text: According to Moreno (1996) and her quotes from Huey an Olympic athlete trainer, the benefits of water resistance training include the activation of opposing muscle groups for a balanced workout. The push and pull of the water allows both increased muscle training and a built-in safety barrier for joints. In fact, before water aerobics water, injury therapy used the benefits of water. The water also helps to reduce lactic acid buildup. Another obvious benefit to water exercise is the cooling effect of the water on the system. The average temperature around 78 degrees in a group fitness pool, this temperature will force the body to burn calories to stay at homeostasis while also maintaining a cool, comfortable atmosphere with less sweat noticeable to the participant.

text: When healthy, the kidneys are responsible for the continuous filtration of blood in order to maintain fluid, electrolyte, and organic solute balance in the body.  However, when the kidneys are damaged, they are no longer able to do this. Dialysis, used in end stage renal disease (also referred to as renal failure, chronic kidney disease, and kidney failure), it is a process where a machine filters the blood since the kidneys are no longer able to. In addition to the inability to filter blood, renal failure results in the body’s inability to make some vitamins and minerals (example: vitamin D), as well as difficulty excreting excessive amounts of certain vitamins and minerals (example: phosphorus).

text: When healthy, the

text: kidney

text: s are responsible for the continuous filtration of blood in order to maintain fluid, electrolyte, and organic solute balance in the body.  However, when the kidneys are damaged, they are no longer able to do this.

text: Dialysis

text: , used in end stage renal disease (also referred to as

text: renal failure

text: chronic kidney disease

text: , and

text: kidney failure

text: ), it is a process where a machine filters the blood since the kidneys are no longer able to. In addition to the inability to filter blood, renal failure results in the body’s inability to make some

text: vitamins

text: and minerals (example: vitamin D), as well as difficulty excreting excessive amounts of certain vitamins and minerals (example: phosphorus).

text: Due to health problems (chronic kidney disease) he was forced to retire from competitions in 2008. On 25 October 2008, a kidney transplantation was carried out successfully.

text: Due to health problems (

text: chronic kidney disease

text: ) he was forced to retire from competitions in 2008. On 25 October 2008, a

text: kidney transplantation

text: was carried out successfully.

text: Two functional groups contribute significantly to aminosteroidal neuromuscular blocking potency, it is presumed to enable them to bind the receptor at two points. A bis-quaternary two point arrangement on A and D-ring (binding inter-site) or a D-ring acetylcholine moiety (binding at two points intra-site) are most likely to succeed. A third group can have variable effects. The quaternary and acetyl groups on the A and D ring of pipecuronium prevent it from binding intra-site (binding to two points at the same site). Instead, it must bind as bis-quaternary (inter-site). These structures are very dissimilar from acetylcholine and free pipecuronium from nicotinic or muscarinic side-effects linked to acetylcholine moiety. Also, they protect the molecule from hydrolysis by cholinesterases, which explain its nature of kidney excretion. The four methyl-groups on the quaternary N atoms make it less lipophilic than most aminosteroids. This also affects pipecuroniums metabolism by resisting hepatic uptake, metabolism, and biliary excretion. The length of the molecule (2.1 nm, close to ideal) and its rigidness make pipecuronium the most potent and clean one-bulk bis-quaternary. Even though the N-N distance (1.6 nm) is far away from what is considered ideal, its onium heads are well-exposed, and the quaternary groups help to bring together the onium heads to the anionic centers of the receptors without chirality issues.

text: Two functional groups contribute significantly to

text: aminosteroid

text: al neuromuscular blocking potency, it is presumed to enable them to bind the receptor at two points. A bis-quaternary two point arrangement on A and D-ring (binding inter-site) or a D-ring acetylcholine moiety (binding at two points intra-site) are most likely to succeed. A third group can have variable effects. The quaternary and acetyl groups on the A and D ring of pipecuronium prevent it from binding intra-site (binding to two points at the same site). Instead, it must bind as bis-quaternary (inter-site). These structures are very dissimilar from acetylcholine and free pipecuronium from nicotinic or muscarinic side-effects linked to acetylcholine moiety. Also, they protect the molecule from hydrolysis by cholinesterases, which explain its nature of kidney excretion. The four

text: methyl-groups

text: on the quaternary N atoms make it less lipophilic than most aminosteroids. This also affects pipecuroniums metabolism by resisting hepatic uptake, metabolism, and

text: biliary

text: excretion. The length of the molecule (2.1 nm, close to ideal) and its rigidness make pipecuronium the most potent and clean one-bulk bis-quaternary. Even though the N-N distance (1.6 nm) is far away from what is considered ideal, its onium heads are well-exposed, and the quaternary groups help to bring together the onium heads to the anionic centers of the receptors without chirality issues.

text: Plumbers' unions initially opposed waterless urinals, citing concerns about health and safety, which have been debunked by scientists who have studied the devices. Facing opposition to their attempts to have the devices allowed in plumbing codes, manufacturers devised a compromise. The Uniform Plumbing Code was modified to allow waterless urinals to be installed, provided that unneeded water lines were nevertheless run to the back of the urinals. This allows conventional water-flushing urinals to be retrofitted later, if waterless models were judged to be unsatisfactory over time.

text: Plumbers'

text: union

text: s initially opposed waterless urinals, citing concerns about health and safety, which have been debunked by scientists who have studied the devices. Facing opposition to their attempts to have the devices allowed in plumbing codes, manufacturers devised a compromise. The

text: Uniform Plumbing Code

text: was modified to allow waterless urinals to be installed, provided that unneeded water lines were nevertheless run to the back of the urinals. This allows conventional water-flushing urinals to be retrofitted later, if waterless models were judged to be unsatisfactory over time.

text: In animals, the main excretory products are carbon dioxide, ammonia (in ammoniotelics), urea (in ureotelics), uric acid (in uricotelics), guanine (in Arachnida) and creatine. The liver and kidneys clear many substances from the blood (for example, in renal excretion), and the cleared substances are then excreted from the body in the urine and feces.

text: In animals, the main excretory products are

text: carbon dioxide

text: ammonia

text: (in

text: ammoniotelic

text: s),

text: urea

text: (in

text: ureotelic

text: s),

text: uric acid

text: (in

text: uricotelic

text: s),

text: guanine

text: (in

text: Arachnida

text: ) and

text: creatine

text: . The liver and kidneys

text: clear

text: many substances from the

text: blood

text: (for example, in

text: renal excretion

text: ), and the cleared substances are then excreted from the body in the

text: urine

text: and

text: feces

text: The size is approximately 280μ long by 5μ to 6μ wide. The cephalic tip is bluntly rounded. The nerve ring (excretory pore) and the nucleus of the excretory cell are said to be similar to B. malayi. Behind the nerve ring it was found that the cells of the nuclear column overtime become less dense. The central viscus (Innenkorper) begin around the middle of the body, the body nuclei are scatter which causes trouble in experiments the reason being that it is difficult to stain. There are four rectal cells ("G" or "R" cells), R is the most prominent of the rectal cells, and it is about four-fifths of the body width. The anal spot is V-shaped. The nucleus is around 3μ in diameter. Females are about 38 to 63 mm long (Schacher, 1962a). This genus of Brugia is most commonly recognized by the spicules in males, which are needle like mating structures that open the vulva of the female worm.

text: During this time, children, especially girls, show increased awareness of social norms regarding sex, nudity, and privacy. Children may use sexual terms to test adult reaction. "Bathroom humor" (jokes and conversation relating to excretory functions), present in earlier stages, continues.

text: After oral administration, abiraterone acetate, the prodrug form in the commercial preparation, is converted into the active form, abiraterone. This conversion is likely to be esterase-mediated and not CYP-mediated. Administration with food increases absorption of the drug and thus has the potential to result in increased and highly variable exposures; the drug should be consumed on an empty stomach at least one hour before or two hours after food. The drug is highly protein bound (>99%), and is metabolised in the liver by CYP3A4 and SULT2A1 to inactive metabolites. The drug is excreted in feces (~88%) and urine (~5%), and has a terminal half-life of 12 ± 5 hours.

text: After oral administration, abiraterone acetate, the prodrug form in the commercial preparation, is converted into the active form, abiraterone. This conversion is likely to be esterase-mediated and not CYP-mediated. Administration with food increases absorption of the drug and thus has the potential to result in increased and highly variable exposures; the drug should be consumed on an empty stomach at least one hour before or two hours after food. The drug is highly

text: protein bound

text: (>99%), and is metabolised in the liver by

text: and

text: to inactive metabolites. The drug is excreted in feces (~88%) and urine (~5%), and has a terminal half-life of 12 ± 5 hours.

text: In addition, poppy seed consumption does not serve as a defense for heroin consumption.  This is because a unique metabolite (6-monoacetylmorphine) is produced from heroin use that is never produced from consuming any other substance, even other opiates like the ones present in poppy seeds.  Modern tests can thus readily determine whether it was heroin or some other opiate that was ingested, should someone who had used heroin try to claim he or she merely ate poppy seeds. It is widely believed that there is no way to distinguish between poppy seeds and any other kind of opiate. However a study published by the University of Connecticut's Department of Chemistry, proposed that Thebaine could be used as a marker of poppy seed consumption. They examined the urine of test subjects given 11 grams of poppy seeds, the urine of heroin users and clean urine spiked with thebaine, as a reference for GC-MS. They also tested street heroin, 1 morphine tablet and 1 codeine tablet. Urine specimens were screened by EMIT and confirmed for thebaine by GC-MS using a solid-phase extraction method. Only the subjects who had consumed the poppy seeds had thebaine in their urine, with concentrations ranging from 2 to 81 ng/mL with a limit of detection of 0.5 ng/mL. Thebaine was not detected in any of the tested powdered drugs (street heroin, morphine tablet, codeine tablet) or the urine of the heroin users.

text: In addition, poppy seed consumption does not serve as a defense for

text: heroin

text: consumption.  This is because a unique metabolite (

text: ) is produced from heroin use that is never produced from consuming any other substance, even other opiates like the ones present in poppy seeds.  Modern tests can thus readily determine whether it was heroin or some other opiate that was ingested, should someone who had used heroin try to claim he or she merely ate poppy seeds. It is widely believed that there is no way to distinguish between poppy seeds and any other kind of opiate. However a study published by the

text: University of Connecticut

text: 's Department of Chemistry, proposed that

text: Thebaine

text: could be used as a marker of poppy seed consumption. They examined the urine of test subjects given 11 grams of poppy seeds, the urine of

text: heroin

text: users and clean urine spiked with thebaine, as a reference for

text: GC-MS

text: . They also tested street heroin, 1

text: morphine

text: tablet and 1

text: codeine

text: tablet. Urine specimens were screened by EMIT and confirmed for thebaine by GC-MS using a

text: solid-phase extraction method

text: . Only the subjects who had consumed the poppy seeds had thebaine in their urine, with concentrations ranging from 2 to 81 ng/mL with a limit of detection of 0.5 ng/mL. Thebaine was not detected in any of the tested powdered drugs (street heroin, morphine tablet, codeine tablet) or the urine of the heroin users.

text: A urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT) is a type of dry toilet with urine diversion that can be used to provide safe, affordable sanitation in a variety of contexts worldwide. Through the separate collection of feces (faeces) and urine without any flush water, many advantages can be realized, such as odor-free operation and pathogen reduction by drying. While dried feces and urine harvested from UDDTs can be and routinely are used in agriculture (respectively, as a soil amender and nutrient-rich fertilizer—this practice being known as reuse of excreta in agriculture), many UDDTs installations do not make use of any sort of recovery scheme. The UDDT is an example of a technology that can be used to achieve a sustainable sanitation system. This dry excreta management system (or "dry sanitation" system) is an alternative to pit latrines and flush toilets, especially where water is scarce, a connection to a sewer system and centralized wastewater treatment plant is not feasible or desired, fertilizer and soil conditioner are needed for agriculture, or groundwater pollution should be minimized.

text: A urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT) is a type of

text: dry toilet

text: with

text: urine diversion

text: that can be used to provide safe, affordable

text: sanitation

text: in a variety of contexts worldwide. Through the separate collection of

text: feces

text: (faeces) and

text: urine

text: without any flush water, many advantages can be realized, such as odor-free operation and pathogen reduction by drying. While dried feces and urine harvested from UDDTs can be and routinely are used in agriculture (respectively, as a soil amender and nutrient-rich fertilizer—this practice being known as

text: reuse of excreta

text: in agriculture), many UDDTs installations do not make use of any sort of recovery scheme. The UDDT is an example of a technology that can be used to achieve a

text: sustainable sanitation

text: system. This dry excreta management system (or "dry

text: sanitation

text: " system) is an alternative to

text: pit latrine

text: s and flush

text: toilet

text: s, especially where water is scarce, a connection to a

text: sewer system

text: and centralized

text: wastewater treatment plant

text: is not feasible or desired,

text: fertilizer

text: and

text: soil conditioner

text: are needed for agriculture, or

text: groundwater pollution

text: should be minimized.

text: Historically, kidney disease has been classified according to the part of the kidney anatomy involved.

text: The meeting was attended by "more than 100 people." Bill Gannon, a resident of Crestwood since 1972 told the panel on stage "What kind of whitewash is this...these aren't facts...these are just part-time facts put in where you feel like putting them in." Howard Smith, a Manteno resident who worked at ComEd in Crestwood for almost 30 years, asked health officials about possibly including people in the cancer study who didn't live in the village but worked there for decades. Smith himself has kidney disease. Linda Malin, a Crestwood resident with Parkinsons disease said "I believe (drinking the water for) 15 years has an effect on you."

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "fight or flight" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness.  This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. the norepinephrine and epinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart in order to feed the heart sympathetic nerve fibers to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction. as a result more blood is being circulated increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system in an effort to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system in order to optimize blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. this plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The para-sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "rest and digest" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and more obviously by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system in order to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. In order to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system in an effort to optimize blood flow to the digestive tract causing low heart and respiratory rates. parasympathetic plays no role in acute stress response (VanPutte Regan Russo 2014).

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "

text: fight or flight

text: Excretion: repaglinide is 90% excreted in the feces and 8% in the urine. 0.1% is cleared unchanged in the urine. Less than 2% is unchanged in the feces.

text: Cat urine, especially that of male cats, contains the putative cat pheromone 3-mercapto-3-methylbutan-1-ol (MMB), a compound that gives cat urine its typical odor. The MMB precursor felinine is synthesized in the urine from 3-methylbutanol-cysteinylglycine (3-MBCG) by the excreted peptidase cauxin. Felinine then slowly degrades into the volatile MMB.

text: Cat urine

text: , especially that of male cats, contains the putative cat pheromone

text: (MMB), a compound that gives cat urine its typical odor. The MMB precursor

text: felinine

text: is synthesized in the urine from 3-methylbutanol-cysteinylglycine (3-MBCG) by the excreted

text: peptidase

text: cauxin

text: . Felinine then slowly degrades into the volatile MMB.

text: The extent of excreted pigment depends on:

text: Extracellular fluid, in conjunction with intracellular fluid, helps control the movement of water and electrolytes throughout the body. In order to maintain osmotic balance, the extracellular compartments of a mammal's body must be able to excrete and absorb water to and from the environment. Inorganic ions must also be exchanged between ECF and the external environment to maintain homeostasis. These exchanges occur across specialized epithelial cells and through a filtration process in the kidneys. Extracellular fluid allows a solute balance between the outside and the inside of the cell, or to produce a gradient (which is commonly used to initiate diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, etc.). Blood flow delivers oxygen to arterioles, capillaries, and venules and clears waste products of metabolism. A second flow of fluid important to organ function is filtration of plasma across the microcirculation into the interstitial lymphatic compartment of the ECF. Multiple mechanisms regulate this flow and the distribution of ECF between the plasma volume and interstitial lymphatic fluid compartments.

text: Sodium-dependent glucose cotransporters (or sodium-glucose linked transporter, SGLT) are a family of glucose transporter found in the intestinal mucosa (enterocytes) of the small intestine (SGLT1) and the proximal tubule of the nephron (SGLT2 in PCT and SGLT1 in PST). They contribute to renal glucose reabsorption. In the kidneys, 100% of the filtered glucose in the glomerulus has to be reabsorbed along the nephron (98% in PCT, via SGLT2). If the plasma glucose concentration is too high (hyperglycemia), glucose is excreted in urine (glucosuria) because SGLT are saturated with the filtered glucose. Glucose is never secreted by a healthy nephron.

text: Sodium-dependent glucose cotransporters (or sodium-glucose linked transporter, SGLT) are a family of

text: glucose transporter

text: found in the intestinal

text: mucosa

text: enterocytes

text: ) of the

text: small intestine

text: (SGLT1) and the

text: proximal tubule

text: of the

text: nephron

text: (SGLT2 in

text: PCT

text: and SGLT1 in

text: PST

text: ). They contribute to

text: renal glucose reabsorption

text: . In the kidneys, 100% of the filtered glucose in the

text: glomerulus

text: has to be reabsorbed along the nephron (98% in

text: PCT

text: , via SGLT2). If the plasma glucose concentration is too high (

text: hyperglycemia

text: ), glucose is excreted in urine (

text: glucosuria

text: ) because SGLT are saturated with the filtered glucose. Glucose is never secreted by a healthy

text: nephron

text: In 2015 Williams began having health issue that would later be diagnosed as End Stage Renal Disease (stage 5) or better known as kidney failure. Williams is diabetic and it is claimed that the diabetes has been a major factor in her kidney problems. Williams was placed on the kidney donor list by Emory Hospital in Atlanta. Various fundraisers have been held to bring awareness to the disease and to help defray Williams growing medical expenses.

text: In 2015 Williams began having health issue that would later be diagnosed as End Stage Renal Disease (stage 5) or better known as

text: kidney failure

text: . Williams is diabetic and it is claimed that the diabetes has been a major factor in her kidney problems. Williams was placed on the kidney donor list by Emory Hospital in

text: Atlanta

text: . Various fundraisers have been held to bring awareness to the disease and to help defray Williams growing medical expenses.

text: These excretions are crucial in the maintenance of Antarctic ecosystems. Penguin rookeries can be home to thousands of penguins, all of which are concentrating waste products in their digestive tracts and nasal glands. These excretions will inevitably drop to the ground. The concentration of salts and nitrogenous wastes helps to facilitate the flow of material from the sea to the land, serving to make it habitable for bacteria which live in the soils.

text: Some marine oligochaeta (e.g., Olavius or Inanidrillus) have obligate extracellular endosymbionts that fill the entire body of their host. These marine worms are nutritionally dependent on their symbiotic chemoautotrophic bacteria lacking any digestive or excretory system (no gut, mouth, or nephridia).

text: Some marine

text: oligochaeta

text: (e.g.,

text: Olavius

text: or

text: Inanidrillus

text: ) have obligate extracellular endosymbionts that fill the entire body of their host. These marine worms are nutritionally dependent on their symbiotic

text: chemoautotroph

text: ic bacteria lacking any digestive or excretory system (no gut, mouth, or

text: nephridia

text: It is commonly believed that urine is sterile until it reaches the urethra, where epithelial cells lining the urethra are colonized by facultatively anaerobic Gram negative rods and cocci. Current research suggests though that urine is not sterile, even in the bladder.   Regardless, subsequent to elimination from the body, urine can acquire strong odors due to bacterial action, and in particular the release of ammonia from the breakdown of urea.

text: It is commonly believed that urine is

text: sterile

text: until it reaches the urethra, where

text: epithelial cells

text: lining the urethra are colonized by

text: facultatively anaerobic

text: Gram negative rods and cocci

text: . Current research suggests though that urine is not sterile, even in the bladder.   Regardless, subsequent to elimination from the body, urine can acquire strong odors due to bacterial action, and in particular the release of

text: ammonia

text: from the breakdown of urea.

text: The flame cell has a nucleated cell body, with a "cup-shaped" projection, with flagella covering the inner surface of the cup. The beating of these flagella resemble a flame, giving the cell its name. The cup is attached to a tube cell, whose inner surface is also coated in cilia, which help to move liquid through the tube cell. The tube opens externally through a nephropore, or, in the trematoda, into an excretory bladder. The function of these cells is to regulate the osmotic pressure of the worm, and maintain its ionic balance. Microvilli in the tube cell may be used to reabsorb some ions.

text: The flame cell has a

text: nucleated

text: cell body, with a "cup-shaped" projection, with

text: flagella

text: covering the inner surface of the cup. The beating of these flagella resemble a flame, giving the cell its name. The cup is attached to a tube cell, whose inner surface is also coated in

text: cilia

text: , which help to move liquid through the tube cell. The tube opens externally through a nephropore, or, in the

text: trematoda

text: , into an excretory

text: bladder

text: . The function of these cells is to regulate the

text: osmotic pressure

text: of the worm, and maintain its ionic balance.

text: Microvilli

text: in the tube cell may be used to reabsorb some

text: ion

text: s.

text: Rhabdomyolysis may cause kidney failure by several mechanisms. The most important is the accumulation of myoglobin in the kidney tubules. Normally, the blood protein haptoglobin binds circulating myoglobin and other heme-containing substances, but in rhabdomyolysis the quantity of myoglobin exceeds the binding capacity of haptoglobin. Myoglobinuria, the presence of myoglobin in the urine, occurs when the level in plasma exceeds 0.5–1.5 mg/dl; once plasma levels reach 100 mg/dl, the concentration in the urine becomes sufficient for it to be visibly discolored and corresponds with the destruction of about 200 grams of muscle. As the kidneys reabsorb more water from the filtrate, myoglobin interacts with Tamm–Horsfall protein in the nephron to form casts (solid aggregates) that obstruct the normal flow of fluid; the condition is worsened further by high levels of uric acid and acidification of the filtrate, which increase cast formation. Iron released from the heme generates reactive oxygen species, damaging the kidney cells. In addition to the myoglobinuria, two other mechanisms contribute to kidney impairment: low blood pressure leads to constriction of the blood vessels and therefore a relative lack of blood flow to the kidney, and finally uric acid may form crystals in the tubules of the kidneys, causing obstruction. Together, these processes lead to acute tubular necrosis, the destruction of the cells of tubules. Glomerular filtration rate falls and the kidney is unable to perform its normal excretory functions. This causes disruption of electrolyte regulation, leading to a further rise in potassium levels, and interferes with vitamin D processing, further worsening the low calcium levels.

text: Rhabdomyolysis may cause kidney failure by several mechanisms. The most important is the accumulation of myoglobin in the

text: kidney tubules

text: . Normally, the blood protein

text: haptoglobin

text: binds circulating myoglobin and other heme-containing substances, but in rhabdomyolysis the quantity of myoglobin exceeds the binding capacity of haptoglobin.

text: Myoglobinuria

text: , the presence of myoglobin in the urine, occurs when the level in

text: plasma

text: exceeds 0.5–1.5

text: mg/dl

text: ; once plasma levels reach 100 mg/dl, the concentration in the urine becomes sufficient for it to be visibly discolored and corresponds with the destruction of about 200 grams of muscle. As the kidneys reabsorb more water from the

text: filtrate

text: , myoglobin interacts with

text: Tamm–Horsfall protein

text: in the

text: nephron

text: to form

text: casts

text: (solid aggregates) that obstruct the normal flow of fluid; the condition is worsened further by high levels of uric acid and acidification of the filtrate, which increase cast formation. Iron released from the heme generates reactive oxygen species, damaging the kidney cells. In addition to the myoglobinuria, two other mechanisms contribute to kidney impairment: low blood pressure leads to

text: constriction of the blood vessels

text: and therefore a relative lack of blood flow to the kidney, and finally uric acid may form crystals in the tubules of the kidneys, causing obstruction. Together, these processes lead to

text: acute tubular necrosis

text: , the destruction of the cells of tubules.

text: Glomerular filtration rate

text: falls and the kidney is unable to perform its normal excretory functions. This causes disruption of electrolyte regulation, leading to a further rise in potassium levels, and interferes with

text: vitamin D

text: processing, further worsening the low calcium levels.

text: Examination of the urine (urinalysis) allows a direct assessment for possible kidney problems, which may be suggested by appearance of blood in the urine (haematuria), protein in the urine (proteinuria), pus cells in the urine (pyuria) or cancer cells in the urine. A 24-hour urine collection can be used to quantify daily protein loss (see proteinuria), urine output, creatinine clearance or electrolyte handling by the renal tubules.

text: Examination of the urine (

text: urinalysis

text: ) allows a direct assessment for possible kidney problems, which may be suggested by appearance of blood in the urine (

text: haematuria

text: ), protein in the urine (

text: proteinuria

text: ), pus cells in the urine (

text: pyuria

text: ) or cancer cells in the urine. A

text: 24-hour urine collection

text: can be used to quantify daily protein loss (see

text: proteinuria

text: ), urine output,

text: creatinine clearance

text: or electrolyte handling by the

text: renal tubules

text: Millions of people across the world suffer from kidney disease. Of those millions, several thousand will eventually or do need kidney transplants.  Out of those millions in the world, 16,500 in the United States needed a kidney transplant in 2008.  Of those 16,500 people, 5,000 died while waiting for a transplant.  Currently, there is a shortage of donors, and in 2007 there were only 64,606 kidney transplants in the world. This shortage of donors is causing countries to place monetary value on kidneys.  Countries such as Iran and Singapore are eliminating their lists by paying their citizens to donate.  Also, the black market accounts for 5-10 percent of transplants that occur worldwide.  The act of buying an organ through the black market is illegal in the United States.   To be put on the waiting list for a kidney transplant, patients must first be referred by a physician, then they must choose and contact a donor hospital.  Once they choose a donor hospital, patients must then receive an evaluation to make sure they are sustainable to receive a transplant. In order to be a match for a kidney transplant, patients must match blood type and human leukocyte antigen factors with their donors.  They must also have no reactions to the antibodies from the donor’s kidneys.

text: Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes. In humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the urinary system and, to a lesser extent in terms of urea, removed by perspiration. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The system produces urine by a process of filtration, reabsorption, and tubular secretion. The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds. The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins. Urine flows from the kidney through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing from the body.

text: Most animals have

text: excretory system

text: s for elimination of soluble toxic wastes. In humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the

text: urinary system

text: and, to a lesser extent in terms of

text: urea

text: , removed by

text: perspiration

text: . The urinary system consists of the

text: kidney

text: s,

text: ureter

text: s,

text: urinary bladder

text: , and

text: urethra

text: . The system produces urine by a process of

text: filtration

text: reabsorption

text: , and tubular secretion. The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds. The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins. Urine flows from the kidney through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing from the body.

text: Uremia can be translated as "urea in the blood". Urea is one of the primary components of urine. It can be defined as an excess of amino acid and protein metabolism end products, such as urea and creatinine, in the blood that would be normally excreted in the urine. The Uremic Syndrome can be defined as the terminal clinical manifestation of kidney failure (also called renal failure). It is the signs, symptoms and results from laboratory tests which result from inadequate excretory, regulatory and endocrine function of the kidneys. Both uremia and the uremic syndrome have been used interchangeably to define a very high plasma urea concentration that is the result of renal failure. The latter definition will be used for the rest of the article.

text: Uremia can be translated as "

text: urea

text: in the blood". Urea is one of the primary components of urine. It can be defined as an excess of

text: amino acid

text: and protein metabolism end products, such as

text: urea

text: and

text: creatinine

text: , in the blood that would be normally excreted in the urine. The Uremic Syndrome can be defined as the terminal clinical manifestation of

text: kidney failure

text: (also called renal failure). It is the signs, symptoms and results from laboratory tests which result from inadequate excretory, regulatory and endocrine function of the kidneys. Both uremia and the uremic syndrome have been used interchangeably to define a very high plasma urea concentration that is the result of renal failure. The latter definition will be used for the rest of the article.

text: Under its trade name Benlysta, belimumab was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of SLE on March 9, 2011. The FDA Advisory committee approved it with a 13-to-2 vote, despite reservations that the improvement of only 4 points on the SELENA-SLEDA scale was only marginally effective, and despite reservations about additional deaths in the treatment group. Based on the number needed to treat, approximately eleven patients must be treated for one to benefit. It was not tested in severe forms of SLE, which involve active damage to the kidneys or central nervous system in the phase III trials. Subjects with active kidney disease were included in the Phase II trials of the drug. "Patients with active lupus that involved the kidneys ... were excluded from participating in the trials. Study participants of African American or African descent did not significantly respond to belimumab."  It has subsequently been approved for use in Europe and Canada.

text: Under its trade name Benlysta, belimumab was approved by the

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA) for treatment of SLE on March 9, 2011. The FDA Advisory committee approved it with a 13-to-2 vote, despite reservations that the improvement of only 4 points on the SELENA-SLEDA scale was only marginally effective, and despite reservations about additional deaths in the treatment group. Based on the

text: number needed to treat

text: , approximately eleven patients must be treated for one to benefit. It was not tested in severe forms of SLE, which involve active damage to the kidneys or central nervous system in the phase III trials. Subjects with active kidney disease were included in the Phase II trials of the drug. "Patients with active lupus that involved the kidneys ... were excluded from participating in the trials. Study participants of African American or African descent did not significantly respond to belimumab."  It has subsequently been approved for use in Europe and Canada.

text: Other well known causes include diseases of the kidney. This includes diseases such as polycystic kidney disease which is a cystic genetic disorder of the kidneys,  PKD is characterized by the presence of multiple cysts (hence, "polycystic") in both kidneys, can also damage the liver, pancreas, and rarely, the heart and brain.It can be autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive, with the autosomal dominant form being more common and characterized by progressive cyst development and bilaterally enlarged kidneys with multiple cysts, with concurrent development of hypertension, renal insufficiency and renal pain. Or chronic glomerulonephritis which is a disease characterized by inflammation of the glomeruli, or small blood vessels in the kidneys.

text: Other well known causes include diseases of the

text: kidney

text: . This includes diseases such as

text: polycystic kidney disease

text: which is a

text: cystic

text: genetic disorder

text: of the

text: kidneys

text: PKD

text: is characterized by the presence of multiple

text: cysts

text: (hence, "polycystic") in both

text: kidneys

text: , can also damage the

text: liver

text: pancreas

text: , and rarely, the

text: heart

text: and

text: brain

text: .It can be

text: autosomal dominant

text: or

text: autosomal recessive

text: , with the autosomal dominant form being more common and characterized by progressive cyst development and bilaterally enlarged kidneys with multiple cysts, with concurrent development of hypertension,

text: renal insufficiency

text: and

text: renal

text: pain. Or chronic

text: glomerulonephritis

text: which is a disease characterized by

text: inflammation

text: of the

text: glomeruli

text: , or small

text: blood vessel

text: s in the kidneys.

text: Although all three of these proteins are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), activation of AVPR1A and AVPR1B stimulate phospholipase C, while activation of AVPR2 stimulates adenylate cyclase. These three receptors for vasopressin have unique tissue distributions. AVPR1A are expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells, hepatocytes, platelets, brain cells, and uterus cells. AVPR1B are expressed in cells of the anterior pituitary and throughout the brain, especially in the pyramidal neurons of the hippocampal CA2 field. AVPR2 are expressed in the kidney tubule, predominantly in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts, in fetal lung tissue and lung cancer, the last two being associated with alternative splicing. AVPR2 is also expressed in the liver where stimulation releases a variety of clotting factors into the bloodstream. In the kidney, AVPR2's primary function is to respond to arginine vasopressin by stimulating mechanisms that concentrate the urine and maintain water homeostasis in the organism. When the function of AVPR2 is lost, the disease Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus (NDI) results.

text: Although all three of these proteins are

text: G-protein coupled receptors

text: (GPCRs), activation of AVPR1A and AVPR1B stimulate

text: phospholipase C

text: , while activation of AVPR2 stimulates

text: adenylate cyclase

text: . These three receptors for vasopressin have unique tissue distributions. AVPR1A are expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells, hepatocytes, platelets, brain cells, and uterus cells. AVPR1B are expressed in cells of the anterior pituitary and throughout the brain, especially in the pyramidal neurons of the hippocampal CA2 field. AVPR2 are expressed in the

text: kidney tubule

text: , predominantly in the

text: distal convoluted tubule

text: and

text: collecting duct

text: s, in

text: fetal

text: lung

text: tissue and

text: lung cancer

text: , the last two being associated with

text: alternative splicing

text: . AVPR2 is also expressed in the liver where stimulation releases a variety of

text: clotting factor

text: s into the bloodstream. In the kidney, AVPR2's primary function is to respond to arginine vasopressin by stimulating mechanisms that concentrate the

text: urine

text: and maintain

text: water

text: homeostasis

text: Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus

text: (NDI) results.

text: Because of their small size, copepods have no need of any heart or circulatory system (the members of the order Calanoida have a heart, but no blood vessels), and most also lack gills. Instead, they absorb oxygen directly into their bodies. Their excretory system consists of maxillary glands.

text: Because of their small size, copepods have no need of any

text: heart

text: or circulatory system (the members of the order Calanoida have a heart, but no

text: blood vessel

text: s), and most also lack

text: gill

text: s. Instead, they absorb oxygen directly into their bodies. Their excretory system consists of

text: maxillary gland

text: s.

text: It is well-known that as kidney function declines, there is a progressive deterioration in mineral homeostasis, with a disruption of normal serum and tissue concentrations of phosphorus and calcium, and changes in circulating levels of hormones. These include parathyroid hormone (PTH), 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH) vitamin D; calcidiol), 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2 vitamin D; calcitriol), and other vitamin D metabolites, fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), and growth hormone. Beginning in CKD stage 3, the ability of the kidneys to appropriately excrete a phosphate load is diminished, leading to hyperphosphatemia, elevated PTH (secondary hyperparathyroidism), and decreased 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D with associated elevations in the levels of FGF-23. The conversion of 25(OH) virtamin D to 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D is impaired, reducing intestinal calcium absorption and increasing PTH. The kidney fails to respond adequately to PTH, which normally promotes phosphaturia and calcium reabsorption, or to FGF-23, which also enhances phosphate excretion. In addition, there is evidence at the tissue level of a downregulation of vitamin D receptor and of resistance to the actions of PTH. Therapy is generally focused on correcting biochemical and hormonal abnormalities in an effort to limit their consequences.

text: It is well-known that as kidney function declines, there is a progressive deterioration in mineral homeostasis, with a disruption of normal serum and tissue concentrations of

text: phosphorus

text: and

text: calcium

text: , and changes in circulating levels of

text: hormone

text: s. These include

text: parathyroid hormone

text: (PTH), 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH) vitamin D;

text: calcidiol

text: ), 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2 vitamin D;

text: calcitriol

text: ), and other vitamin D metabolites,

text: fibroblast growth factor 23

text: (FGF-23), and growth hormone. Beginning in CKD stage 3, the ability of the kidneys to appropriately excrete a phosphate load is diminished, leading to

text: hyperphosphatemia

text: , elevated PTH (

text: secondary hyperparathyroidism

text: ), and decreased 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D with associated elevations in the levels of FGF-23. The conversion of 25(OH) virtamin D to 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D is impaired, reducing intestinal calcium absorption and increasing PTH. The kidney fails to respond adequately to PTH, which normally promotes phosphaturia and calcium reabsorption, or to FGF-23, which also enhances phosphate excretion. In addition, there is evidence at the tissue level of a downregulation of vitamin D receptor and of resistance to the actions of PTH. Therapy is generally focused on correcting biochemical and hormonal abnormalities in an effort to limit their consequences.

text: Around the age of 38, and with a remarkable academic career behind him, Malpighi decided to dedicate his free time to anatomical studies. Although he conducted some of his studies using vivisection and others through the dissection of corpses, his most illustrative efforts appear to have been based on the use of the microscope. Because of this work, many microscopic anatomical structures are named after Malpighi, including a skin layer (Malpighi layer) and two different Malpighian corpuscles in the kidneys and the spleen, as well as the Malpighian tubules in the excretory system of insects.

text: Around the age of 38, and with a remarkable academic career behind him, Malpighi decided to dedicate his free time to anatomical studies. Although he conducted some of his studies using vivisection and others through the dissection of corpses, his most illustrative efforts appear to have been based on the use of the microscope. Because of this work, many microscopic anatomical structures are named after Malpighi, including a skin layer (Malpighi layer) and two different Malpighian corpuscles in the kidneys and the spleen, as well as the

text: Malpighian tubules

text: in the excretory system of insects.

text: The ostrich is well adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of excretory organs. The ostrich has an extremely long and developed colon the length of approximately  between the coprodeum and the paired caeca, which are around  long. A well developed caeca is also found and in combination with the rectum forms the microbial fermentation chambers used for carbohydrate breakdown. The catabolism of carbohydrates produces around  of water that can be used internally. The majority of their urine is stored in the coprodeum, and the faeces are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the ureters open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected in a species inhabiting arid regions, dehydration causes a reduction in faecal water, or dry feces. This reduction is believed to be caused by high levels of plasma aldosterone, which leads to rectal absorption of sodium and water. Also expected is the production of hyperosmotic urine; cloacal urine has been found to be 800 mosmol/L. The U:P (urine:plasma) ratio of the ostrich is therefore greater than one. Diffusion of water to the coprodeum (where urine is stored) from plasma across the epithelium is voided. This void is believed to be caused by the thick mucosal layering of the coprodeum.

text: The ostrich is well adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of

text: excretory

text: organs. The ostrich has an extremely long and developed

text: colon

text: the length of approximately  between the coprodeum and the paired

text: caeca

text: , which are around  long. A well developed caeca is also found and in combination with the

text: rectum

text: forms the

text: microbial fermentation

text: chambers used for

text: carbohydrate

text: breakdown. The

text: catabolism

text: of carbohydrates produces around  of water that can be used internally. The majority of their

text: urine

text: is stored in the coprodeum, and the

text: faeces

text: are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the

text: ureters

text: open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected in a species inhabiting arid regions, dehydration causes a reduction in faecal water, or dry feces. This reduction is believed to be caused by high levels of plasma

text: aldosterone

text: , which leads to rectal absorption of sodium and water. Also expected is the production of

text: hyperosmotic

text: urine; cloacal urine has been found to be 800

text: mosmol

text: /L. The U:P (urine:plasma) ratio of the ostrich is therefore greater than one. Diffusion of water to the coprodeum (where urine is stored) from plasma across the

text: epithelium

text: is voided. This void is believed to be caused by the thick

text: mucosal

text: layering of the coprodeum.

text: All iPods except for the iPod Touch can function in "disk mode" as mass storage devices to store data files but this may not be the default behavior, and in the case of the iPod Touch, requires special software.  If an iPod is formatted on a Mac OS computer, it uses the HFS+ file system format, which allows it to serve as a boot disk for a Mac computer. If it is formatted on Windows, the FAT32 format is used. With the release of the Windows-compatible iPod, the default file system used on the iPod line switched from HFS+ to FAT32, although it can be reformatted to either file system (excluding the iPod Shuffle which is strictly FAT32). Generally, if a new iPod (excluding the iPod Shuffle) is initially plugged into a computer running Windows, it will be formatted with FAT32, and if initially plugged into a Mac running Mac OS it will be formatted with HFS+.

text: All iPods except for the iPod Touch can function in "disk mode" as

text: mass storage devices

text: to store data files but this may not be the default behavior, and in the case of the iPod Touch, requires special software.  If an iPod is formatted on a Mac OS computer, it uses the

text: HFS+

text: file system format, which allows it to serve as a

text: boot disk

text: for a Mac computer. If it is formatted on Windows, the

text: format is used. With the release of the Windows-compatible iPod, the default file system used on the iPod line switched from HFS+ to FAT32, although it can be reformatted to either file system (excluding the iPod Shuffle which is strictly FAT32). Generally, if a new iPod (excluding the iPod Shuffle) is initially plugged into a computer running Windows, it will be formatted with FAT32, and if initially plugged into a Mac running Mac OS it will be formatted with HFS+.

text: The endoderm later forms the lining of the tongue, digestive tract, lungs, bladder and several glands. The mesoderm forms muscle, bone, and lymph tissue, as well as the interior of the lungs, heart, and reproductive and excretory systems. It also gives rise to the spleen, and produces blood cells. The ectoderm forms the skin, nails, hair, cornea, lining of the internal and external ear, nose, sinuses, mouth, anus, teeth, pituitary gland, mammary glands, eyes, and all parts of the nervous system.

text: The endoderm later forms the lining of the

text: tongue

text: digestive tract

text: lung

text: s,

text: bladder

text: and several

text: gland

text: s. The mesoderm forms

text: muscle

text: bone

text: , and

text: lymph

text: tissue, as well as the interior of the lungs,

text: heart

text: , and

text: reproductive

text: and

text: excretory system

text: s. It also gives rise to the

text: spleen

text: , and produces blood cells. The ectoderm forms the

text: skin

text: nail

text: s,

text: hair

text: cornea

text: , lining of the internal and external

text: ear

text: nose

text: sinus

text: es,

text: mouth

text: anus

text: teeth

text: pituitary gland

text: mammary gland

text: s,

text: eye

text: s, and all parts of the

text: nervous system

text: Bile excretion is different from kidney excretion as it is always involves energy expenditure in active transport across the epithelium of the bile duct against a concentration gradient. This transport system can also be saturated if the plasma concentrations of the drug are high. Bile excretion of drugs mainly takes place where their molecular weight is greater than 300 and they contain both polar and lipophilic groups. The glucuronidation of the drug in the kidney also facilitates bile excretion. Substances with similar physicochemical properties can block the receptor, which is important in assessing interactions. A drug excreted in the bile duct can occasionally be reabsorbed by the intestines (in the entero-hepatic circuit), which can also lead to interactions with other drugs.

text: Bile

text: excretion is different from kidney excretion as it is always involves energy expenditure in active transport across the epithelium of the bile duct against a concentration

text: gradient

text: . This transport system can also be saturated if the plasma concentrations of the drug are high. Bile excretion of drugs mainly takes place where their

text: molecular weight

text: is greater than 300 and they contain both polar and lipophilic groups. The

text: glucuronidation

text: of the drug in the kidney also facilitates bile excretion. Substances with similar physicochemical properties can block the receptor, which is important in assessing interactions. A drug excreted in the bile duct can occasionally be reabsorbed by the intestines (in the entero-hepatic circuit), which can also lead to interactions with other drugs.

text: People with certain rare inborn errors of metabolism have a propensity to accumulate crystal-forming substances in their urine. For example, those with cystinuria, cystinosis, and Fanconi syndrome may form stones composed of cystine. Cystine stone formation can be treated with urine alkalinization and dietary protein restriction.  People afflicted with xanthinuria often produce stones composed of xanthine. People afflicted with adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency may produce 2,8-dihydroxyadenine stones, alkaptonurics produce homogentisic acid stones, and iminoglycinurics produce stones of glycine, proline and hydroxyproline. Urolithiasis has also been noted to occur in the setting of therapeutic drug use, with crystals of drug forming within the renal tract in some people currently being treated with agents such as indinavir, sulfadiazine and triamterene.

text: People with certain rare

text: inborn errors of metabolism

text: have a propensity to accumulate crystal-forming substances in their urine. For example, those with

text: cystinuria

text: cystinosis

text: , and

text: Fanconi syndrome

text: may form stones composed of

text: cystine

text: . Cystine stone formation can be treated with urine alkalinization and dietary protein restriction.  People afflicted with

text: xanthinuria

text: often produce stones composed of

text: xanthine

text: . People afflicted with

text: adenine phosphoribosyltransferase deficiency

text: may produce

text: stones,

text: alkaptonurics

text: produce

text: homogentisic acid

text: stones, and

text: iminoglycinurics

text: produce stones of

text: glycine

text: proline

text: and

text: hydroxyproline

text: . Urolithiasis has also been noted to occur in the setting of therapeutic drug use, with crystals of drug forming within the renal tract in some people currently being treated with agents such as

text: indinavir

text: sulfadiazine

text: and

text: triamterene

text: The involvement of the kidney can be caused by primary renal parenchymal lesions, or an underlying vasculitis, or another associated autoimmune disease. Actual kidney involvement is quite rare, elevated creatinine levels are reported in approximately 10% of people with RP, and abnormalities in urinalysis in 26%. Involvement of the kidney often indicates a worse prognosis, with a 10-year survival rate of 30%.The most common histopathologic finding is mild mesangial proliferation, that is followed by focal and segmental necrotizing glomerulonephritis with crescents. Other abnormalities that are found include glomerulosclerosis, IgA nephropathy and interstitial nephritis. Immunofluorescence studies most often reveal faint deposists of C3, IgG or IgM in the primarily mesangium.

text: The involvement of the kidney can be caused by primary renal parenchymal lesions, or an underlying

text: vasculitis

text: , or another associated autoimmune disease. Actual kidney involvement is quite rare, elevated

text: creatinine

text: levels are reported in approximately 10% of people with RP, and abnormalities in

text: urinalysis

text: in 26%. Involvement of the kidney often indicates a worse prognosis, with a 10-year survival rate of 30%.The most common histopathologic finding is mild mesangial proliferation, that is followed by focal and segmental necrotizing

text: glomerulonephritis

text: with crescents. Other abnormalities that are found include

text: glomerulosclerosis

text: IgA nephropathy

text: and

text: interstitial nephritis

text: . Immunofluorescence studies most often reveal faint deposists of C3, IgG or IgM in the primarily mesangium.

text: Stahl professed an animistic system, in opposition to the materialism of Hermann Boerhaave and Friedrich Hoffmann. His main argument on living things was that there is an agent responsible for delaying this decomposition of living things and that agent is the anima or soul of the living organism. The anima controls all of the physical processes that happen in the body. It not only just controls the mechanical aspects of it but the direction and goals of them too. How the anima controls these processes is through motion. He believed that the three important motions of the body are the circulation of blood, excretion and secretion.

text: Stahl professed an

text: animistic

text: system, in opposition to the

text: materialism

text: of

text: Hermann Boerhaave

text: and

text: Friedrich Hoffmann

text: . His main argument on living things was that there is an agent responsible for delaying this decomposition of living things and that agent is the

text: anima

text: or soul of the living organism. The anima controls all of the physical processes that happen in the body. It not only just controls the mechanical aspects of it but the direction and goals of them too. How the anima controls these processes is through motion. He believed that the three important motions of the body are the

text: circulation of blood

text: excretion

text: and

text: secretion

text: The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body. The dual function of excretory systems is the elimination of the waste products of metabolism and to drain the body of used up and broken down components in a liquid and gaseous state. In humans and other amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) most of these substances leave the body as urine and to some degree exhalation, mammals also expel them through sweating.

text: The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an

text: organism

text: , so as to help maintain internal chemical

text: homeostasis

text: and prevent damage to the body. The dual function of excretory systems is the elimination of the

text: waste products

text: of

text: metabolism

text: and to drain the body of used up and broken down components in a liquid and gaseous state. In humans and other

text: amniote

text: s (

text: mammal

text: s,

text: bird

text: s and

text: reptile

text: s) most of these substances leave the body as

text: urine

text: and to some degree exhalation, mammals also expel them through

text: sweat

text: ing.

text: The role of osmoregulation—the maintenance of a precise balance of solute and water concentrations within the body—is performed by a number of bodily functions working together. In Phoenicopterus ruber, the kidney, the lower gastrointestinal tract and the salt glands work together to maintain the homeostasis between ions and fluids. In mammals, the kidneys and urinary bladder are the primary organs used in osmoregulation. Birds, however, lack a urinary bladder and must compensate using these three organs.

text: The role of

text: osmoregulation

text: —the maintenance of a precise balance of solute and water concentrations within the body—is performed by a number of bodily functions working together. In Phoenicopterus ruber, the

text: kidney

text: , the lower gastrointestinal tract and the

text: salt glands

text: work together to maintain the

text: homeostasis

text: between ions and fluids. In mammals, the kidneys and urinary bladder are the primary organs used in osmoregulation. Birds, however, lack a urinary bladder and must compensate using these three organs.

text: The surgeon will create an incised opening laterally between the known outer borders of the defect, retract the incised opening to the desired diameter, and position the graft to cover the incision. This will form a tunnel, or diversion through the stricture which is 10 mm (optimally) in estimated diameter, to allow for the flow of urine. Using micro surgical techniques, the buccal graft will be sutured in place and fibrin glue applied to the suture line to prevent leakage and formation of a fistula. At this time an appropriately sized  (a) Foley catheter will be inserted through the repair and into the bladder (and connected to a urinary drainage system), and the incision closed (layer by layer). Some surgeons will inject a local anesthetic such as 2% plain lidocaine or 0.5% bupivicaine into the areas to allow the patient an additional period of relief from discomfort.

text: The surgeon will create an incised opening laterally between the known outer borders of the defect, retract the incised opening to the desired diameter, and position the graft to cover the incision. This will form a tunnel, or diversion through the stricture which is 10 mm (optimally) in estimated diameter, to allow for the flow of urine. Using

text: micro surgical

text: techniques, the buccal graft will be sutured in place and

text: fibrin glue

text: applied to the suture line to prevent leakage and formation of a

text: fistula

text: . At this time an appropriately sized  (a) Foley catheter will be inserted through the repair and into the bladder (and connected to a urinary drainage system), and the incision closed (layer by layer). Some surgeons will inject a

text: local anesthetic

text: such as 2% plain

text: lidocaine

text: or 0.5%

text: bupivicaine

text: into the areas to allow the patient an additional period of relief from discomfort.

text: Only the organs specifically used for the excretion are considered a part of the excretory system. In the narrow sense, the term refer to the urinary system. However, as excretion involves several functions that are only superficially related, it is not usually used in more formal classifications of anatomy or function.

text: Only the organs specifically used for the excretion are considered a part of the excretory system. In the narrow sense, the term refer to the

text: urinary system

text: . However, as excretion involves several functions that are only superficially related, it is not usually used in more formal classifications of anatomy or function.

text: Acidosis inhibits bone osteoblast matrix mineralization with reciprocal effect on osteoclast activation. The combined responses of these cells to acidosis maximizes the availability of hydroxyl ions in solution that can be used to buffer protons. The utilization of bone to buffer even a small percentage of daily acid production can lead to significant loss of bone mass in the course of a decade. Additionally, as the body ages there is a steady decline in renal function. Metabolic acidosis can become more severe as kidney function weakens, and the body will depend more heavily on bone and blood to maintain acid-base homeostasis.

text: Acidosis inhibits bone

text: osteoblast

text: matrix mineralization with reciprocal effect on

text: osteoclast

text: activation. The combined responses of these cells to acidosis maximizes the availability of hydroxyl ions in solution that can be used to buffer protons. The utilization of bone to buffer even a small percentage of daily acid production can lead to significant loss of bone mass in the course of a decade. Additionally, as the body ages there is a steady decline in

text: renal

text: function.

text: Metabolic acidosis

text: can become more severe as kidney function weakens, and the body will depend more heavily on bone and blood to maintain acid-base homeostasis.

text: Blood levels of hormones reflect a balance between secretion and degradation/excretion. The liver and kidneys are the major organs that degrade hormones; breakdown products are excreted in urine and feces.

text: Blood levels of hormones reflect a balance between

text: secretion

text: and degradation/

text: excretion

text: . The

text: liver

text: and

text: kidney

text: s are the major organs that degrade hormones; breakdown products are excreted in urine and feces.

text: There are several functions of the Urinary System:

text: Many scientists believe that Depleted Uranium is the main reason of appearing new disease like new illnesses in the kidney, lungs, liver, and  total immune system collapse. In addition, it has been noticed that the number of abortions higher in the busy area of military operations. Families are afraid to have  babies . Moreover, because of the second Gulf War many new diseases spread in the region. Also, respiratory diseases increased horribly.

text: Many scientists believe that

text: Depleted Uranium

text: is the main reason of appearing new

text: disease

text: like new

text: illnesses

text: in the

text: kidney

text: lungs

text: liver

text: , and  total

text: immune system collapse

text: . In addition, it has been noticed that the number of abortions higher in the busy area of

text: military operations

text: . Families are afraid to have  babies . Moreover, because of the

text: second Gulf War

text: many new diseases spread in the region. Also, respiratory diseases increased horribly.

text: Metolazone and the other thiazide diuretics inhibit the function of the sodium-chloride symporter, preventing sodium and chloride, and therefore water too, from leaving the lumen to enter the tubule cell. As a result, water remains in the lumen and is excreted as urine, instead of being reabsorbed into the bloodstream. Since most of the sodium in the lumen has already been reabsorbed by the time the filtrate reaches the distal convoluted tubule, thiazide diuretics have limited effects on water balance and on electrolyte levels. Nevertheless, they can be associated with low sodium levels, volume depletion, and low blood pressure, among other adverse effects.

text: Metolazone and the other thiazide diuretics inhibit the function of the sodium-chloride symporter, preventing sodium and chloride, and therefore water too, from leaving the lumen to enter the tubule cell. As a result, water remains in the lumen and is excreted as urine, instead of being reabsorbed into the bloodstream. Since most of the sodium in the lumen has already been reabsorbed by the time the filtrate reaches the distal convoluted tubule, thiazide diuretics have limited effects on water balance and on

text: electrolyte

text: levels. Nevertheless, they can be associated with

text: low sodium levels

text: volume depletion

text: , and

text: low blood pressure

text: , among other adverse effects.

text: Alcohol is removed from the bloodstream by a combination of metabolism, excretion, and evaporation. The relative proportion disposed of in each way varies from person to person, but typically about 95% is metabolized by the liver. The remainder of the alcohol is eliminated through excretion in breath, urine, sweat, feces, milk and saliva. Excretion into urine typically begins after about 40 minutes, whereas metabolisation commences as soon as the alcohol is absorbed, and even before alcohol levels have risen in the brain.

text: Alcohol is removed from the bloodstream by a combination of

text: metabolism

text: , excretion, and evaporation. The relative proportion disposed of in each way varies from person to person, but typically about 95% is metabolized by the liver. The remainder of the alcohol is eliminated through excretion in breath, urine, sweat, feces, milk and saliva. Excretion into urine typically begins after about 40 minutes, whereas metabolisation commences as soon as the alcohol is absorbed, and even before alcohol levels have risen in the brain.

text: In terms of population health, life expectancy in 2006 was about two and a half years longer in Canada, with Canadians living to an average of 79.9 years and Americans 77.5 years. Infant and child mortality rates are also higher in the U.S. Some comparisons suggest that the American system underperforms Canada's system as well as those of other industrialized nations with universal coverage. For example, a ranking by the World Health Organization of health care system performance among 191 member nations, published in 2000, ranked Canada 30th and the U.S. 37th, and the overall health of Canada 35th to the American 72nd.  The WHO did not merely consider health care outcomes, but also placed heavy emphasis on the health disparities between rich and poor, funding for the health care needs of the poor, and the extent to which a country was reaching the potential health care outcomes they believed were possible for that nation. In an international comparison of 21 more specific quality indicators conducted by the Commonwealth Fund International Working Group on Quality Indicators, the results were more divided. One of the indicators was a tie, and in 3 others, data was unavailable from one country or the other. Canada performed better on 11 indicators; such as survival rates for colorectal cancer, childhood leukemia, and kidney and liver transplants. The U.S. performed better on 6 indicators, including survival rates for breast and cervical cancer, and avoidance of childhood diseases such as pertussis and measles.  It should be noted that the 21 indicators were distilled from a starting list of 1000.  The authors state that, "It is an opportunistic list, rather than a comprehensive list."

text: In terms of population health,

text: life expectancy

text: in 2006 was about two and a half years longer in Canada, with Canadians living to an average of 79.9 years and Americans 77.5 years. Infant and child mortality rates are also higher in the U.S. Some comparisons suggest that the American system underperforms Canada's system as well as those of other industrialized nations with universal coverage. For example, a ranking by the World Health Organization of health care system performance among 191 member nations, published in 2000, ranked Canada 30th and the U.S. 37th, and the overall health of Canada 35th to the American 72nd.  The WHO did not merely consider health care outcomes, but also placed heavy emphasis on the health disparities between rich and poor, funding for the health care needs of the poor, and the extent to which a country was reaching the potential health care outcomes they believed were possible for that nation. In an international comparison of 21 more specific quality indicators conducted by the Commonwealth Fund International Working Group on Quality Indicators, the results were more divided. One of the indicators was a tie, and in 3 others, data was unavailable from one country or the other. Canada performed better on 11 indicators; such as survival rates for colorectal cancer,

text: childhood leukemia

text: , and kidney and liver transplants. The U.S. performed better on 6 indicators, including survival rates for breast and cervical cancer, and avoidance of childhood diseases such as pertussis and measles.  It should be noted that the 21 indicators were distilled from a starting list of 1000.  The authors state that, "It is an opportunistic list, rather than a comprehensive list."

text: According to Becky Schlikerman of the SouthTown Star "Other diseases weren't studied." She reported that "officials from the Illinois Department of Health, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry and the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency didn't have answers...about kidney disease, gastrointestinal diseases and neurological diseases."

text: Dr. Arnaout’s research on the biology and structure of integrins has led to scientific observations that span the entire spectrum from gene discovery to 3-dimensional protein structure to clinical translation. He described an inherited deficiency in leukocyte adhesion in a lead article in the New England Journal of Medicine; defined the biochemical and molecular basis of this disease, which he traced to a deficiency in a family of leukocyte receptors, now known as leukocyte integrins and elucidated the role of these cell adhesion molecules in the immune system. He was also the first to determine the crystal structures of integrins. His molecular and structural studies in integrins were instrumental in understanding the processes involved in organ development, maintenance of organ architecture and homeostasis in the adult, cancer growth and metastasis, and the response of organs to acute and chronic inflammatory or autoimmune injury. For example, in the kidney, integrins are now known to be critical in maintaining the kidney filtration barrier thus preventing loss of blood and proteins in the urine, and also mediate the respiratory distress observed in kidney failure patients when hemodialyzed using cuprophane membranes. Arnaout's current research aims at translating his discoveries in integrin biology and structure into novel and safer drugs for treating inflammatory, thrombotic, fibrotic and autoimmune diseases and cancer, using structure-based drug design.

text: Dr. Arnaout’s research on the biology and structure of integrins has led to scientific observations that span the entire spectrum from gene discovery to 3-dimensional protein structure to clinical translation. He described an inherited deficiency in

text: leukocyte

text: adhesion in a lead article in the New England Journal of Medicine; defined the biochemical and molecular basis of this disease, which he traced to a deficiency in a family of leukocyte receptors, now known as leukocyte integrins and elucidated the role of these

text: cell adhesion molecule

text: s in the

text: immune system

text: . He was also the first to determine the

text: crystal structure

text: s of integrins. His molecular and structural studies in integrins were instrumental in understanding the processes involved in organ development, maintenance of organ architecture and homeostasis in the adult, cancer growth and metastasis, and the response of organs to acute and chronic inflammatory or autoimmune injury. For example, in the kidney, integrins are now known to be critical in maintaining the kidney filtration barrier thus preventing loss of blood and proteins in the urine, and also mediate the respiratory distress observed in kidney failure patients when hemodialyzed using cuprophane membranes. Arnaout's current research aims at translating his discoveries in integrin biology and structure into novel and safer drugs for treating inflammatory, thrombotic, fibrotic and autoimmune diseases and cancer, using

text: structure-based drug design

text: The kidneys of fish are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. They are similar to the mesonephros of higher vertebrates (reptiles, birds and mammals). The kidneys contain clusters of nephrons, serviced by collecting ducts which usually drain into a mesonephric duct. However, the situation is not always so simple. In cartilaginous fish there is also a shorter duct which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the mesonephric duct at the bladder or cloaca. Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult. Hagfish and lamprey kidneys are unusually simple. They consist of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the mesonephric duct.

text: The

text: kidney

text: s of fish are typically narrow, elongated organs, occupying a significant portion of the trunk. They are similar to the

text: mesonephros

text: of higher vertebrates (reptiles, birds and mammals). The kidneys contain clusters of

text: nephron

text: s, serviced by collecting ducts which usually drain into a

text: mesonephric duct

text: . However, the situation is not always so simple. In

text: cartilaginous fish

text: there is also a shorter duct which drains the posterior (metanephric) parts of the kidney, and joins with the mesonephric duct at the

text: bladder

text: or

text: cloaca

text: . Indeed, in many cartilaginous fish, the anterior portion of the kidney may degenerate or cease to function altogether in the adult.

text: Hagfish

text: and

text: lamprey

text: kidneys are unusually simple. They consist of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the mesonephric duct.

text: One of the main roles of the kidneys in humans and other mammals is to aid in the clearance of various water-soluble molecules, including toxins, toxicants, and metabolic waste.  The body excretes some of these waste molecules via urination, and the role of the kidney is to concentrate the urine, such that waste molecules can be excreted with minimal loss of water and nutrients. The concentration of the excreted molecules determines the urine's specific gravity. In adult humans, normal specific gravity values range from 1.000 to 1.030.

text: One of the main roles of the

text: kidney

text: s in humans and other mammals is to aid in the

text: clearance

text: of various water-soluble molecules, including

text: toxins

text: toxicant

text: s, and

text: metabolic waste

text: .  The body

text: excretes

text: some of these waste molecules via

text: urination

text: , and the role of the kidney is to

text: concentrate

text: the urine, such that waste molecules can be excreted with minimal loss of water and nutrients. The concentration of the excreted molecules determines the urine's

text: specific gravity

text: . In adult humans, normal specific gravity values range from 1.000 to 1.030.

text: M. morganii  can produce the enzyme catalase, so is able to convert hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. This is a common enzyme found in most living organisms. In addition, it is indole test-positive representing this organism can split tryptophan to indole, pyruvate, and ammonia. Methyl red tests positive in M.morganii, an indicator dye that turns red in acidic solutions. Although a rare human pathogen, M. morganii has been reported as a cause of urinary tract infections, nosocomial surgical wound infections, peritonitis, central nervous system infection, endophthalmitis, pneumonia, chorioamnionitis, neonatal sepsis, pyomyositis, necrotizing fasciitis, and arthritis. Numerous cases of nosocomial infection have been described, usually as postsurgical wound infections or urinary tract infections. Patients in whom bacteremia develops are typically immunocompromised, diabetic, or elderly, or have at least one serious underlying disease.

text: M. morganii  can produce the enzyme

text: catalase

text: , so is able to convert

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: to water and oxygen. This is a common enzyme found in most living organisms. In addition, it is

text: indole test

text: -positive representing this organism can split tryptophan to indole, pyruvate, and ammonia.

text: Methyl red

text: tests positive in M.morganii, an indicator dye that turns red in acidic solutions. Although a rare human pathogen, M. morganii has been reported as a cause of urinary tract infections, nosocomial surgical wound infections, peritonitis, central nervous system infection, endophthalmitis, pneumonia, chorioamnionitis, neonatal sepsis, pyomyositis, necrotizing fasciitis, and arthritis. Numerous cases of nosocomial infection have been described, usually as postsurgical wound infections or urinary tract infections. Patients in whom bacteremia develops are typically immunocompromised, diabetic, or elderly, or have at least one serious underlying disease.

text: Studies on urinary excretion revealed that almost all of the injected butyrfentanyl was excreted or metabolized within the first 3 h after injection, and only very low concentrations were still detectable after 3 h. Urinary concentrations of butyrylfentanyl from animals injected with 15 μg/kg and 45 μg/kg i.v. were measured by two techniques: radioreceptorassay and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS).

text: Studies on urinary excretion revealed that almost all of the injected butyrfentanyl was excreted or metabolized within the first 3 h after injection, and only very low concentrations were still detectable after 3 h. Urinary concentrations of butyrylfentanyl from animals injected with 15 μg/kg and 45 μg/kg i.v. were measured by two techniques: radioreceptorassay and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (

text: GC/MS

text: Laboratory registries allow for the analysis of the incidence and prevalence of the target condition as well as trends in the level of control. For instance, an NIH-funded program called the Vermedx Diabetes Information System maintained a registry of laboratory values of diabetic adults in Vermont and northern New York State in the US with several years of laboratory results on thousands of patients. The data included measures of blood sugar control (glycosolated hemoglobin A1C), cholesterol, and kidney function (serum creatinine and urine protein), and were used to monitor the quality of care at the patient, practice, and population levels.  Since the data contained each patient's name and address, the system was also used to communicate directly with patients when the laboratory data indicated the need for attention. Out of control test results generated a letter to the patient suggesting they take action with their medical provider. Tests that were overdue generated reminders to have testing performed. The system also generated reminders and alerts with guideline-based advice for the practice as well as a periodic roster of each provider's patients and a report card summarizing the health status of the population. Clinical and economic evaluations of the system, including a large randomized clinical trial, demonstrated improvements in adherence to practice guidelines and reductions in the need for emergency room and hospital services as well as total costs per patient. The system has been commercialized and distributed to physicians, insurers, employers and others responsible for the care of chronically ill patients. It is now being expanded to other conditions such as chronic kidney disease.

text: Laboratory registries allow for the analysis of the incidence and prevalence of the target condition as well as trends in the level of control. For instance, an NIH-funded program called the Vermedx Diabetes Information System maintained a registry of laboratory values of diabetic adults in Vermont and northern New York State in the US with several years of laboratory results on thousands of patients. The data included measures of

text: blood sugar

text: control (

text: glycosolated hemoglobin A1C

text: cholesterol

text: , and kidney function (serum

text: creatinine

text: and urine protein), and were used to monitor the quality of care at the patient, practice, and population levels.  Since the data contained each patient's name and address, the system was also used to communicate directly with patients when the laboratory data indicated the need for attention. Out of control test results generated a letter to the patient suggesting they take action with their medical provider. Tests that were overdue generated reminders to have testing performed. The system also generated reminders and alerts with guideline-based advice for the practice as well as a periodic roster of each provider's patients and a report card summarizing the health status of the population. Clinical and economic evaluations of the system, including a large randomized clinical trial, demonstrated improvements in adherence to practice guidelines and reductions in the need for emergency room and hospital services as well as total costs per patient. The system has been commercialized and distributed to physicians, insurers, employers and others responsible for the care of chronically ill patients. It is now being expanded to other conditions such as

text: chronic kidney disease

text: In addition, heme degradation appears to be an evolutionarily-conserved response to oxidative stress. Briefly, when cells are exposed to free radicals, there is a rapid induction of the expression of the stress-responsive heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX1) isoenzyme that catabolizes heme (see below). The reason why cells must increase exponentially their capability to degrade heme in response to oxidative stress remains unclear but this appears to be part of a cytoprotective response that avoids the deleterious effects of free heme. When large amounts of free heme accumulates, the heme detoxification/degradation systems get overwhelmed, enabling heme to exert its damaging effects.In the second reaction, biliverdin is converted to bilirubin by biliverdin reductase (BVR):Bilirubin is transported into the liver by facilitated diffusion bound to a protein (serum albumin), where it is conjugated with glucuronic acid to become more water-soluble. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme UDP-glucuronosyltransferase.This form of bilirubin is excreted from the liver in bile. Excretion of bilirubin from liver to biliary canaliculi is an active, energy dependent and rate limiting process. The intestinal bacteria deconjugate bilirubin diglucuronide and convert bilirubin to urobilinogens. Some urobilinogen is absorbed by intestinal cells and transported into the kidneys and excreted with urine (urobilin, which is the product of oxidation of urobilinogen, is responsible for the yellow colour of urine). The remainder travels down the digestive tract and is converted to stercobilinogen. This is oxidized to stercobilin, which is excreted and is responsible for the color of feces.

text: In addition, heme degradation appears to be an evolutionarily-conserved response to

text: oxidative stress

text: . Briefly, when cells are exposed to

text: free radical

text: s, there is a rapid induction of the expression of the stress-responsive

text: heme oxygenase-1

text: (HMOX1) isoenzyme that catabolizes heme (see below). The reason why cells must increase exponentially their capability to degrade heme in response to oxidative stress remains unclear but this appears to be part of a cytoprotective response that avoids the deleterious effects of free heme. When large amounts of free heme accumulates, the heme detoxification/degradation systems get overwhelmed, enabling heme to exert its damaging effects.In the second reaction,

text: biliverdin

text: is converted to

text: bilirubin

text: by

text: biliverdin reductase

text: (BVR):Bilirubin is transported into the liver by facilitated diffusion bound to a protein (

text: serum albumin

text: ), where it is conjugated with

text: glucuronic acid

text: to become more water-soluble. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme UDP-

text: glucuronosyltransferase

text: .This form of bilirubin is excreted from the liver in

text: bile

text: . Excretion of bilirubin from liver to biliary canaliculi is an active, energy dependent and rate limiting process. The

text: intestinal bacteria

text: deconjugate

text: bilirubin diglucuronide

text: and convert bilirubin to

text: urobilinogen

text: s. Some urobilinogen is absorbed by intestinal cells and transported into the

text: kidney

text: s and excreted with

text: urine

text: urobilin

text: , which is the product of oxidation of urobilinogen, is responsible for the yellow colour of urine). The remainder travels down the digestive tract and is converted to

text: stercobilinogen

text: . This is oxidized to

text: stercobilin

text: , which is excreted and is responsible for the color of

text: feces

text: The nervous system is similar to that of other arthropods, including a ventral nerve cord with ganglia in each segment. Although the body contains a haemocoel, there are no circulatory, respiratory, or excretory organs.

text: The nervous system is similar to that of other arthropods, including a ventral nerve cord with

text: ganglia

text: in each segment. Although the body contains a

text: haemocoel

text: , there are no circulatory, respiratory, or excretory organs.

text: However, many instances of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity cannot be ascribed to "fight" or "rest" situations. For example, standing up from a reclining or sitting position would entail an unsustainable drop in blood pressure if not for a compensatory increase in the arterial sympathetic tonus. Another example is the constant, second-to-second, modulation of heart rate by sympathetic and parasympathetic influences, as a function of the respiratory cycles. In general, these two systems should be seen as permanently modulating vital functions, in usually antagonistic fashion, to achieve homeostasis. Some typical actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are listed below.

text: Aircraft systems, ship systems, missile systems, and space systems have a large number of failure modes that must be addressed with limited resources.

text: Systems design is the process of defining the  architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements. Systems design could be seen as the application of systems theory to product development. There is some overlap with the disciplines of systems analysis, systems architecture and systems engineering.

text: Systems design is the process of defining the

text: architecture

text: , components, modules, interfaces, and

text: data

text: for a

text: system

text: to satisfy specified

text: requirement

text: s. Systems design could be seen as the application of

text: systems theory

text: to

text: product development

text: . There is some overlap with the disciplines of

text: systems analysis

text: systems architecture

text: and

text: systems engineering

text: The intermediate mesoderm connects the paraxial mesoderm with the lateral plate and differentiates into urogenital structures. In upper thoracic and cervical regions this forms the nephrotomes, and in caudally regions this forms the nephrogenic cord. It also helps to develop the excretory units of the urinary system and the gonads.

text: The urinary system, also known as the renal system, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. Each kidney consists of millions of functional units called nephrons. The purpose of the renal system is to eliminate wastes from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which leave the kidneys via the renal vein. Following filtration of blood and further processing, wastes (in the form of urine) exit the kidney via the ureters, tubes made of smooth muscle fibers that propel urine towards the urinary bladder, where it is stored and subsequently expelled from the body by urination (voiding). The female and male urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.

text: The urinary system, also known as the renal system, consists of the

text: kidneys

text: ureters

text: bladder

text: , and the

text: urethra

text: . Each kidney consists of millions of functional units called

text: nephrons

text: . The purpose of the renal system is to eliminate wastes from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which leave the kidneys via the renal vein. Following filtration of blood and further processing, wastes (in the form of

text: urine

text: ) exit the kidney via the ureters, tubes made of smooth muscle fibers that propel urine towards the urinary bladder, where it is stored and subsequently expelled from the body by

text: urination

text: voiding

text: ). The female and male urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.

text: Dydrogesterone and its metabolites are excreted predominantly in urine. Total clearance of plasma is at a rate of 6.4 L/min. Within 72 hours, excretion is virtually complete. DHD is preponderantly present in the urine as a conjugate of glucuronic acid. Approximately 85% of the oral dose is successfully egested from the body within 24 hours.

text: Dydrogesterone and its metabolites are excreted predominantly in

text: urine

text: . Total clearance of plasma is at a rate of 6.4 L/min. Within 72 hours, excretion is virtually complete. DHD is preponderantly present in the urine as a conjugate of

text: glucuronic acid

text: . Approximately 85% of the oral dose is successfully

text: egested

text: from the body within 24 hours.

text: T. semipenetrans is the only species of Tylenchulidae that are economically important to agriculture. Citrus nematode range from 0.25-0.35 mm long. They have an amalgamated procorpus and metacorpus, distinct isthmus, and a bulb-shaped postcorpus. They are distinct in juveniles. Both the juvenile stages and the adult male stage are vermiform in shape. The male has significantly reduced esophagus and stylet. The posterior end of the female citrus nematode becomes swollen upon feeding. She contains a single ovary and the vulva is subterminal. The female will lay up to 100 eggs deposited in a gelatinous matrix secreted from the nearby excretory pore. The pore is surrounded by small, irregularly shaped lobes; and the excretory duct is directed forward. The rectum and anus are atrophied or absent; non-functional.

text: Circulating water and solutes in the body maintain blood pressure in the blood, as well as other functions such as regulation of body temperature. When salt is ingested, it is dissolved in the blood as two separate ions - Na and Cl. The water potential in blood will decrease due to the increase solutes, and blood osmotic pressure will increase. While the kidney reacts to excrete excess sodium and chloride in the body, water retention causes blood pressure to increase.

text: Circulating water and

text: solutes

text: in the body maintain blood pressure in the blood, as well as other functions such as regulation of

text: body temperature

text: . When salt is ingested, it is dissolved in the blood as two separate ions - Na and Cl. The

text: water potential

text: in blood will decrease due to the increase solutes, and blood

text: osmotic pressure

text: will increase. While the kidney reacts to excrete excess sodium and chloride in the body,

text: water retention

text: causes blood pressure to increase.

text: 1 in 3 American adults are at a risk for developing kidney disease. Over 26 million American adults have kidney disease and they are not even aware of it. Of those individuals more than 661,000 people have kidney failure and 468,000 are on dialysis. Since there is a large population of individuals with kidney failure, there continues to be advancements in technology of artificial kidneys so that more people can have access to treatments.

text: Woods test: This is an ultraviolet light with a magnifying lens. Only 50% of M. canis will show up as an apple-green fluorescence on hair shafts, under the UV light. The other fungi do not show. The fluorescent material is not the fungus itself (which does not fluoresce), but rather an excretory product of the fungus which sticks to hairs. Infected skin does not fluoresce.

text: Woods test: This is an

text: ultraviolet light

text: with a magnifying lens. Only 50% of M. canis will show up as an apple-green fluorescence on hair shafts, under the UV light. The other fungi do not show. The fluorescent material is not the fungus itself (which does not fluoresce), but rather an excretory product of the fungus which sticks to hairs. Infected skin does not fluoresce.

text: Squid have three hearts. Two branchial hearts feed the gills, each surrounding the larger systemic heart that pumps blood around the body. Squid blood contains the copper-rich protein hemocyanin for transporting oxygen. The faintly greenish hearts are surrounded by the renal sacs - the main excretory system. The kidneys are difficult to identify and stretch from the hearts (located at the posterior side of the ink sac) to the liver. The systemic heart is made of three chambers, a lower ventricle and two upper auricles.

text: Squid have three

text: heart

text: s. Two

text: branchial heart

text: s feed the gills, each surrounding the larger systemic heart that pumps blood around the body. Squid blood contains the

text: copper

text: -rich

text: protein

text: hemocyanin

text: for transporting

text: oxygen

text: . The faintly greenish hearts are surrounded by the renal sacs - the main excretory system. The

text: kidney

text: s are difficult to identify and stretch from the hearts (located at the posterior side of the ink sac) to the liver. The systemic heart is made of three chambers, a lower

text: ventricle

text: and two upper

text: auricles

text: Northwest Kidney Centers is a regional, not-for-profit community-based provider of kidney dialysis, public health education, and research into the causes and treatments of chronic kidney disease. Established in Seattle in 1962, it was the world's first out-of-hospital dialysis provider. It offers dialysis throughout the greater Seattle area in 15 free-standing clinics, nine hospitals and its home dialysis program.

text: Northwest Kidney Centers is a regional,

text: not-for-profit

text: community-based provider of kidney dialysis, public health education, and research into the causes and treatments of

text: chronic kidney disease

text: . Established in

text: Seattle

text: in 1962, it was the world's first out-of-hospital

text: dialysis

text: provider. It offers dialysis throughout the greater Seattle area in 15 free-standing clinics, nine hospitals and its home dialysis program.

text: Renal stem cells are self-renewing, multipotent stem cells which are able to give rise to all the cell types of the kidney. It is involved in the homeostasis and repair of the kidney, and holds therapeutic potential for treatment of kidney failure.

text: Renal stem cells are self-renewing,

text: multipotent

text: stem cells

text: which are able to give rise to all the cell types of the

text: kidney

text: . It is involved in the

text: homeostasis

text: and repair of the kidney, and holds therapeutic potential for treatment of

text: kidney failure

text: As illustrated in figure 3 the first step is a hydrolysis reaction to N-methyl-N'-(2,4-xylyl)-formamidine, which already can be excreted in the urine but is still pharmacological active. Depending on the dose, the quantity of this metabolite in the urine can vary from 4% at low doses to 23%-38% at high doses (e.g. in case of rats: 1–100 mg per kg body weight).As it isn't excreted it also can be oxidized to 4-N-Methyl-formidoyl)amino-meta-toluic acid, which can be further oxidized to  4-formamido-meta-toluic acid.Form-2,4-xylidine is formed directly by hydrolysis from amitraz or arises from N-methyl- N'-(2,4-xylyl)formamidine.  During this early stage of biotransformation N-methyl- N'-(2,4-xylyl) formamidine and Form-2,4-xylidine may already form conjugates.But the major route followed after the formation of Form-2,4-xylidine is the oxidation to 4-formamido-meta-toluic acid, which is further metabolized to its acetyl conjugate, 4-acetamido-meta-toluic acid  or 4-amino- meta-toluic acid.4-formamido- meta-toluic acid and 4-acetamido- meta-toluic acid make 32% of the metabolites found in urine and are detected at any administered dose. Therefore, they are considered as two of the major metabolites in the amitraz pathway. Form-2',4'-xylidide and 4-amino- meta-toluic acid account only for 2% of the total excretion.In insects different metabolites are formed. N-methyl- N'-(2,4-xylyl)formamidine,  Form-2,4-xylidine and 4-Amino-meta-toluic acid occur, but in addition several unidentified metabolites were detected, too.

text: As illustrated in figure 3 the first step is a hydrolysis reaction to N-methyl-N'-(2,4-xylyl)-formamidine, which already can be excreted in the urine but is still pharmacological active. Depending on the dose, the quantity of this metabolite in the urine can vary from 4% at low doses to 23%-38% at high doses (e.g. in case of rats: 1–100 mg per kg body weight).As it isn't excreted it also can be oxidized to 4-N-Methyl-formidoyl)amino-meta-toluic acid, which can be further oxidized to  4-formamido-meta-toluic acid.Form-2,4-xylidine is formed directly by

text: hydrolysis

text: from amitraz or arises from N-methyl- N'-(2,4-xylyl)formamidine.  During this early stage of

text: biotransformation

text: N-methyl- N'-(2,4-xylyl) formamidine and Form-2,4-xylidine may already form conjugates.But the major route followed after the formation of Form-2,4-xylidine is the oxidation to 4-formamido-meta-toluic acid, which is further metabolized to its acetyl conjugate, 4-acetamido-meta-toluic acid  or 4-amino- meta-toluic acid.4-formamido- meta-toluic acid and 4-acetamido- meta-toluic acid make 32% of the

text: metabolites

text: found in urine and are detected at any administered dose. Therefore, they are considered as two of the major metabolites in the amitraz pathway. Form-2',4'-xylidide and 4-amino- meta-toluic acid account only for 2% of the total excretion.In insects different metabolites are formed. N-methyl- N'-(2,4-xylyl)formamidine,  Form-2,4-xylidine and 4-Amino-meta-toluic acid occur, but in addition several unidentified metabolites were detected, too.

text: By 1966, health issues forced Fagerquist to withdraw from studio recording altogether. He died from kidney disease January 24, 1974, at his home in California.

text: By 1966, health issues forced Fagerquist to withdraw from studio recording altogether. He died from

text: kidney disease

text: January 24, 1974, at his home in California.

text: Arthropod bodies are also segmented internally, and the nervous, muscular, circulatory, and excretory systems have repeated components. Arthropods come from a lineage of animals that have a coelom, a membrane-lined cavity between the gut and the body wall that accommodates the internal organs. The strong, segmented limbs of arthropods eliminate the need for one of the coelom's main ancestral functions, as a hydrostatic skeleton, which muscles compress in order to change the animal's shape and thus enable it to move. Hence the coelom of the arthropod is reduced to small areas around the reproductive and excretory systems. Its place is largely taken by a hemocoel, a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through which blood flows.

text: Arthropod bodies are also segmented internally, and the nervous, muscular, circulatory, and excretory systems have repeated components. Arthropods come from a lineage of animals that have a

text: coelom

text: , a membrane-lined cavity between the gut and the body wall that accommodates the internal organs. The strong, segmented limbs of arthropods eliminate the need for one of the coelom's main ancestral functions, as a

text: hydrostatic skeleton

text: , which muscles compress in order to change the animal's shape and thus enable it to move. Hence the coelom of the arthropod is reduced to small areas around the reproductive and excretory systems. Its place is largely taken by a

text: hemocoel

text: , a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through which

text: blood

text: flows.

text: Another system maintaining the extracellular fluid volume, peripheral resistance, and that if disturbed may lead to hypertension, is the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system. Renin is a circulating enzyme that participates in maintaining extracellular volume and arterial vasoconstriction, therefore contributing to regulation of blood pressure. It performs this function by breaking down (hydrolyzing) angiotensinogen, secreted from the liver, into the peptide angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is further cleaved by an enzyme that is located primarily but not exclusively in the pulmonary circulation bound to endothelium; that enzyme is angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). This cleavage produces angiotensin II, the most vasoactive peptide. Angiotensin II is a potent constrictor of all blood vessels. It acts on the musculature of arteries, raising peripheral resistance and thereby elevating blood pressure. Angiotensin II also causes the adrenal glands to release aldosterone, which stimulates the epithelial cells of the kidneys to increase re-absorption of salt and water, leading to raised blood volume and raised blood pressure. So elevated renin levels in the blood (normally 1.98-2.46 ng/ml in the upright position) leads to hypertension.

text: Another system maintaining the

text: extracellular fluid volume

text: peripheral resistance

text: , and that if disturbed may lead to hypertension, is the

text: renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system

text: Renin

text: is a circulating

text: enzyme

text: that participates in maintaining

text: extracellular

text: volume and arterial

text: vasoconstriction

text: , therefore contributing to regulation of

text: blood pressure

text: . It performs this function by breaking down (

text: hydrolyzing

text: angiotensinogen

text: , secreted from the liver, into the peptide

text: angiotensin I

text: . Angiotensin I is further cleaved by an enzyme that is located primarily but not exclusively in the

text: pulmonary circulation

text: bound to

text: endothelium

text: ; that enzyme is

text: angiotensin converting enzyme

text: (ACE). This cleavage produces

text: angiotensin II

text: , the most vasoactive peptide. Angiotensin II is a potent constrictor of all blood vessels. It acts on the musculature of arteries, raising peripheral resistance and thereby elevating blood pressure. Angiotensin II also causes the adrenal glands to release

text: aldosterone

text: , which stimulates the epithelial cells of the kidneys to increase re-absorption of salt and water, leading to raised blood volume and raised blood pressure. So elevated

text: renin

text: levels in the blood (normally 1.98-2.46 ng/ml in the upright position) leads to hypertension.

text: Estriol sulfate, or estriol 3-sulfate, is a conjugated metabolite of estriol that is present in high quantities during pregnancy. It is formed from estriol in the liver and is eventually excreted in the urine by the kidneys. It has much higher water solubility than does estriol. Estriol sulfate is the second most prevalent conjugated metabolite of estriol during pregnancy; 35 to 46% is estriol glucuronide and 15 to 22% is estriol 3-sulfate, while the double conjugate estriol sulfate glucuronide also occurs. Estriol sulfate was a component, along with estriol glucuronide, of the early pharmaceutical estrogens Progynon and Emmenin.

text: Estriol sulfate, or estriol 3-sulfate, is a

text: conjugated

text: metabolite

text: of

text: estriol

text: that is present in high quantities during

text: pregnancy

text: . It is formed from estriol in the

text: liver

text: and is eventually

text: excreted

text: in the

text: urine

text: by the

text: kidney

text: s. It has much higher

text: water solubility

text: than does estriol. Estriol sulfate is the second most prevalent conjugated metabolite of estriol during

text: pregnancy

text: ; 35 to 46% is

text: estriol glucuronide

text: and 15 to 22% is estriol 3-sulfate, while the double conjugate

text: estriol sulfate glucuronide

text: also occurs. Estriol sulfate was a component, along with estriol glucuronide, of the early pharmaceutical estrogens

text: Progynon

text: and

text: Emmenin

text: Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine. In most living species, uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste. However, at least some modern birds (such as hummingbirds) can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. They also excrete creatine, rather than creatinine like mammals. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the cloaca. In addition, many species regurgitate pellets, and fossil pellets that may have come from dinosaurs are known from as long ago as the Cretaceous period.

text: Like other

text: reptile

text: s, dinosaurs are primarily

text: uricotelic

text: , that is, their

text: kidney

text: s extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as

text: uric acid

text: instead of

text: urea

text: or

text: ammonia

text: via the ureters into the intestine. In most living species, uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste. However, at least some modern birds (such as

text: hummingbird

text: s) can be facultatively

text: ammonotelic

text: , excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. They also excrete

text: creatine

text: , rather than

text: creatinine

text: like mammals. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the

text: cloaca

text: . In addition, many species regurgitate

text: pellets

text: , and fossil pellets that may have come from dinosaurs are known from as long ago as the Cretaceous period.

text: Morgan would play in the minor leagues for 15 seasons and batted .301 in 5,273 at bats, but he never made Washington's Major League roster and in 1961 he became a manager in the newly relocated Twins' farm system. Morgan managed for eight seasons in the Alabama–Florida League, Northern League and Carolina League — compiling a won/loss mark of 488–540 (.475) — until he was appointed to the Minnesota MLB coaching staff for 1969. He served as the Twins' first base coach for almost seven seasons, until he was forced to the sidelines by kidney disease in September 1975. Morgan received a kidney transplant during the autumn of 1975, but his body rejected it and he died in Minneapolis, Minnesota, at the age of 47.

text: Morgan would play in the minor leagues for 15 seasons and batted .301 in 5,273

text: at bats

text: , but he never made Washington's Major League roster and in 1961 he became a manager in the newly relocated Twins' farm system. Morgan managed for eight seasons in the

text: Alabama–Florida League

text: Northern League

text: and

text: Carolina League

text: — compiling a won/loss mark of 488–540 (.475) — until he was appointed to the Minnesota MLB coaching staff for 1969. He served as the Twins' first base coach for almost seven seasons, until he was forced to the sidelines by

text: kidney disease

text: in September 1975. Morgan received a

text: kidney transplant

text: during the autumn of 1975, but his body rejected it and he died in

text: Minneapolis, Minnesota

text: , at the age of 47.

text: For many PAHs it has been proven that they are conjugated, in phase II, with either glucuronide, sulfate or glutathione. More research on this topic is necessary for benzo[c]fluorene. Glucuronide and sulfate conjugates of PAH metabolites are generally excreted in the bile and urine.Glutathione conjugates are further metabolized to mercapturic acids in the kidney and are excreted in the urine. The hydroxylated metabolites of the PAHs are excreted in human urine both as free hydroxylated metabolites and as hydroxylated metabolites conjugated to glucuronic acid and sulfate.

text: For many PAHs it has been proven that they are conjugated, in

text: phase II

text: , with either

text: glucuronide

text: sulfate

text: or

text: glutathione

text: . More research on this topic is necessary for benzo[c]fluorene. Glucuronide and sulfate conjugates of PAH metabolites are generally excreted in the

text: bile

text: and

text: urine

text: .Glutathione conjugates are further metabolized to mercapturic acids in the kidney and are excreted in the urine. The hydroxylated metabolites of the PAHs are excreted in human urine both as free hydroxylated metabolites and as hydroxylated metabolites conjugated to glucuronic acid and sulfate.

text: Urine contains large quantities of nitrogen (mostly as urea), as well as significant quantities of dissolved phosphates and potassium, the main macronutrients required by plants. The exact composition of nutrients in urine varies with diet.

text: Urine contains large quantities of nitrogen (mostly as

text: urea

text: ), as well as significant quantities of dissolved phosphates and potassium, the main

text: macronutrients

text: required by plants. The exact composition of nutrients in urine varies with diet.

text: A study in an Adelie penguin colony found that the tick had alternate periods of feeding and off-host aggregation under rocks. The engorged ticks found an aggregation site with the help of a pheromone released by other ticks. Guanine, the major excretory product of ticks, encouraged assembly. Non-fed stages responded positively to guano and uric acid, excretory products of the penguins, suggesting that these act as a kairomone to help them locate their host. After feeding, the immature ticks’ response to both the assembly and kairomones ceased for a few days until after they had moulted.

text: A study in an

text: Adelie penguin

text: colony found that the tick had alternate periods of feeding and off-host aggregation under rocks. The engorged ticks found an aggregation site with the help of a

text: pheromone

text: released by other ticks.

text: Guanine

text: , the major excretory product of ticks, encouraged assembly. Non-fed stages responded positively to guano and

text: uric acid

text: , excretory products of the penguins, suggesting that these act as a

text: kairomone

text: to help them locate their host. After feeding, the immature ticks’ response to both the assembly and kairomones ceased for a few days until after they had moulted.

text: An infibulated girl may be left with an opening as small as 2–3 mm, which can cause prolonged, drop-by-drop urination, pain while urinating, and a feeling of needing to urinate all the time. Urine may collect underneath the scar, leaving the area under the skin constantly wet, which can lead to infection and the formation of small stones. The opening is larger in women who are sexually active or have given birth by vaginal delivery, but the urethra opening may still be obstructed by scar tissue. Vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae can develop (holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina). This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence, pain during sexual intercourse and infertility.

text: An infibulated girl may be left with an opening as small as 2–3 mm, which can cause prolonged, drop-by-drop

text: urination

text: pain while urinating

text: , and a feeling of needing to urinate all the time. Urine may collect underneath the scar, leaving the area under the skin constantly wet, which can lead to infection and the formation of small stones. The opening is larger in women who are sexually active or have given birth by vaginal delivery, but the

text: urethra

text: opening may still be obstructed by scar tissue.

text: Vesicovaginal

text: or

text: rectovaginal fistula

text: e can develop (holes that allow urine or faeces to seep into the vagina). This and other damage to the urethra and bladder can lead to infections and incontinence,

text: pain during sexual intercourse

text: and

text: infertility

text: Humans excrete small amounts of conjugated 2-amino-3-hydroxyacetophenone, a product of tryptophan metabolism, in the urine.

text: Humans excrete small amounts of conjugated

text: , a product of tryptophan metabolism, in the urine.

text: In placental mammals, these three systems are more separated. In females, separate orifices have evolved for all three, while in males, a common urinary meatus discharges both urine and semen from the urethra.

text: In

text: placental mammals

text: , these three systems are more separated. In females, separate

text: orifice

text: s have evolved for all three, while in males, a common

text: urinary meatus

text: discharges both

text: urine

text: and

text: semen

text: from the

text: urethra

text: Consistent with the broader scope of systems engineering, the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK) has defined three types of systems engineering: (1) Product Systems Engineering (PSE) is the traditional systems engineering focused on the design of physical systems consisting of hardware and software. (2) Enterprise Systems Engineering (ESE) pertains to the view of enterprises, that is, organizations or combinations of organizations, as systems. (3) Service Systems Engineering (SSE) has to do with the engineering of service systems. Checkland defines a service system as a system which is conceived as serving another system. Most civil infrastructure systems are service systems.

text: Another common type of governmental redistribution of income are direct benefit programs. These programs are also funded by the United States tax payers. Direct benefit programs involve either cash transfers or the purchase of specific services for an individual. By far the largest direct benefit programs are Social Security and Medicare. Unlike subsidies and voucher programs, Social Security recipients receive a direct payment not a voucher that is limited as to what it can buy. Medicare is a government run health insurance program that covers people that are 65 or older, certain younger people with disabilities, and people with End-Stage Renal Disease (permanent kidney failure requiring dialysis or a transplant, sometimes called ESRD).This is a direct benefit program because the government is directly providing health insurance for those who qualify.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause (genotype) despite the widely varying set of medical characteristics (phenotype) that are clinically visible in the disorders.  Dandy–Walker syndrome is one such  disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies.  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles which are present in many cellular types throughout the human body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: , that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause (

text: genotype

text: ) despite the widely varying set of medical characteristics (

text: phenotype

text: ) that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: .  Dandy–Walker syndrome is one such  disease, part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: .  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: s which are present in many cellular types throughout the

text: human

text: body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often

text: multi-symptom

text: nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: Sika’s product range includes concrete admixtures, concrete repair & protection systems, specialty mortars, grouting and anchoring systems, sealants and adhesives, damping and reinforcing materials, structural strengthening systems, steel corrosion protection systems, flooring and wall coating systems, fire protection systems as well as roofing and waterproofing systems.

text: Sika’s product range includes

text: concrete

text: admixtures, concrete repair & protection systems, specialty

text: mortar

text: s, grouting and anchoring systems,

text: sealants

text: and

text: adhesives

text: damping

text: and reinforcing materials, structural strengthening systems, steel corrosion protection systems,

text: flooring

text: and wall coating systems, fire protection systems as well as

entity_name: List of commercially available roofing material

text: roofing

text: and

text: waterproofing

text: systems.

text: The excretory system consists of two pairs of coxal glands connected to a bladder that opens near the base of the last pair of walking legs. The brain is relatively large, and, as in many arthropods, surrounds the oesophagus. In both sexes, the single gonad lies next to the intestine and opens on the underside of the opisthosoma.

text: The excretory system consists of two pairs of

text: coxal gland

text: s connected to a

text: bladder

text: that opens near the base of the last pair of walking legs. The brain is relatively large, and, as in many arthropods, surrounds the oesophagus. In both sexes, the single

text: gonad

text: lies next to the intestine and opens on the underside of the opisthosoma.

text: Screening those who have neither symptoms nor risk factors for CKD is not recommended. Those who should be screened include: those with hypertension or history of cardiovascular disease, those with diabetes or marked obesity, those aged > 60 years, subjects with indigenous racial origin, those with a history of kidney disease in the past and subjects who have relatives who had kidney disease requiring dialysis. Screening should include calculation of estimated GFR from the serum creatinine level, and measurement of urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR) in a first-morning urine specimen (this reflects the amount of a protein called albumin in the urine), as well as a urine dipstick screen for hematuria. The GFR (glomerular filtration rate) is derived from the serum creatinine and is proportional to 1/creatinine, i.e. it is a reciprocal relationship (the higher the creatinine, the lower the GFR). It reflects one aspect of kidney function: how efficiently the glomeruli (filtering units) work. But as they make up <5% of the mass of the kidney, the GFR does not tell you about all aspects of kidney health and function. This can be done by combining the GFR level with the clinical assessment of the patient (especially fluid state) and measuring the levels of hemoglobin, potassium, phosphate and parathyroid hormone (PTH). Normal GFR is 90-120 mLs/min. The units of creatinine vary from country to country.

text: To excrete nitrogenous waste products, mammals (and most amphibians) excrete urea diluted in water. Such xerocoles have adapted to make their urine as concentrated as possible (i.e. use the least amount of water) to dissolve urea. Desert mammals have longer and more deeply inset nephrons, as well as smaller and fewer cortical and juxtamedullary glomeruli (glomeruli being capillary networks where both fluid and waste are extracted from blood). This in turn leads to a smaller glomerular filtration rate, and on the whole, less water is transferred from the blood to the kidney. The kidneys of desert mammals are also better adapted at reabsorbing water from the tubular fluid: though there are fewer glomeruli, the xerocole has larger juxtamedullary glomeruli than cortical glomeruli (the former playing an important role in concentrating urine), whereas the opposite is true for non-xerocoles. Desert mammals also have longer loops of Henle, structures whose efficiency in concentrating urine is directly proportional to their length. The efficiency of their loops of Henle is augmented by the increased antidiuretic hormone in their blood.

text: To excrete

text: nitrogenous waste products

text: , mammals (and most amphibians) excrete

text: urea

text: diluted in water. Such xerocoles have adapted to make their urine as concentrated as possible (i.e. use the least amount of water) to dissolve urea. Desert mammals have longer and more deeply inset

text: nephrons

text: , as well as smaller and fewer

text: cortical

text: and

text: juxtamedullary

text: glomeruli (glomeruli being capillary networks where both fluid and waste are extracted from blood). This in turn leads to a smaller

text: glomerular filtration rate

text: , and on the whole, less water is transferred from the blood to the kidney. The kidneys of desert mammals are also better adapted at reabsorbing water from the

text: tubular fluid

text: : though there are fewer glomeruli, the xerocole has larger juxtamedullary glomeruli than cortical glomeruli (the former playing an important role in concentrating urine), whereas the opposite is true for non-xerocoles. Desert mammals also have longer

text: loops of Henle

text: , structures whose efficiency in concentrating urine is directly proportional to their length. The efficiency of their loops of Henle is augmented by the increased

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: in their blood.

text: Hypertension can also be age related, and if this is the case, it is likely to be multifactorial. One possible mechanism involves a reduction in vascular compliance due to the stiffening of the arteries. This can build up due to isolated systolic hypertension with a widened pulse pressure. A decrease in glomerular filtration rate is related to aging and this results in decreasing efficiency of sodium excretion. The developing of certain diseases such as renal microvascular disease and capillary rarefaction may relate to this decrease in efficiency of sodium excretion. There is experimental evidence that suggests that renal microvascular disease is an important mechanism for inducing salt-sensitive hypertension.

text: It is excreted mostly in feces, but also in urine. Because the main route of excretion is through biliary excretion into the feces, it is mainly the liver that is exposed to oleandrin. As excretion in urine is only a smaller route, the kidneys are less exposed. There is also accumulation in the cardiac tissue, which explains its potential for cardiac toxicity. In mouse studies, it also appeared that oleandrin rapidly accumulates in brain tissue, as it can pass through the blood–brain barrier. The data suggest that other components within oleander extract may enhance transport of oleandrin across the blood–brain barrier.

text: It is excreted mostly in feces, but also in urine. Because the main route of excretion is through biliary excretion into the feces, it is mainly the liver that is exposed to oleandrin. As excretion in urine is only a smaller route, the kidneys are less exposed. There is also accumulation in the cardiac tissue, which explains its potential for cardiac toxicity. In mouse studies, it also appeared that oleandrin rapidly accumulates in brain tissue, as it can pass through the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: . The data suggest that other components within oleander extract may enhance transport of oleandrin across the blood–brain barrier.

text: Normally, in an average adult, the amount of calcium excreted in the urine is 100–250 mg over a 24-hour period.<ref name=foley&boccuzzi>medscape.com > Urine Calcium: Laboratory Measurement and Clinical Utility By Kevin F. Foley, PhD, DABCC; Lorenzo Boccuzzi, DO. Posted: 12/26/2010; Laboratory Medicine. 2010;41(11):683-686. © 2010 American Society for Clinical Pathology. In turn citing:

text: Human pollution can be a threat to belugas' health when they congregate in river estuaries. Chemical substances such as DDT and heavy metals such as lead, mercury and cadmium have been found in individuals of the Saint Lawrence River population. Local beluga carcasses contain so many contaminants, they are treated as toxic waste. Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls  between 240 and 800 ppm have been found in belugas' brains, liver and muscles, with the highest levels found in males. These levels are significantly greater than those found in Arctic populations. These substances have a proven adverse effect on these cetaceans, as they cause cancers, reproductive diseases, and the deterioration of the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to pneumonias, ulcers, cysts, tumours, and bacterial infections. Although the populations that inhabit the river estuaries run the greatest risk of contamination, high levels of zinc, cadmium, mercury, and selenium have also been found in the muscles, livers, and kidneys of animals that live in the open sea.

text: Human pollution can be a threat to belugas' health when they congregate in river estuaries. Chemical substances such as

text: DDT

text: and heavy metals such as

text: lead

text: mercury

text: and

text: cadmium

text: have been found in individuals of the Saint Lawrence River population. Local beluga carcasses contain so many contaminants, they are treated as toxic waste. Levels of

text: polychlorinated biphenyls

text: between 240 and 800

text: ppm

text: have been found in belugas'

text: brain

text: s,

text: liver

text: and

text: muscle

text: s, with the highest levels found in males. These levels are significantly greater than those found in Arctic populations. These substances have a proven adverse effect on these cetaceans, as they cause

text: cancer

text: s, reproductive diseases, and the deterioration of the

text: immune system

text: , making individuals more susceptible to

text: pneumonia

text: s,

text: ulcer

text: s,

text: cyst

text: s,

text: tumour

text: s, and bacterial

text: infection

text: s. Although the populations that inhabit the river estuaries run the greatest risk of contamination, high levels of

text: zinc

text: cadmium

text: , mercury, and

text: selenium

text: have also been found in the muscles, livers, and

text: kidney

text: s of animals that live in the open sea.

text: The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by metabolism into the urine. These include the nitrogenous wastes urea, from protein catabolism, and uric acid, from nucleic acid metabolism.  The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is dependent on an elaborate countercurrent multiplication mechanism. This requires several independent nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In addition, passive countercurrent exchange by the vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function.

text: The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced by

text: metabolism

text: into the urine. These include the nitrogenous wastes

text: urea

text: , from protein

text: catabolism

text: , and

text: uric acid

text: , from

text: nucleic acid

text: metabolism.  The ability of mammals and some birds to concentrate wastes into a volume of urine much smaller than the volume of blood from which the wastes were extracted is dependent on an elaborate

text: countercurrent multiplication

text: mechanism. This requires several independent nephron characteristics to operate: a tight hairpin configuration of the tubules, water and ion permeability in the descending limb of the loop, water impermeability in the ascending loop, and active ion transport out of most of the ascending limb. In addition, passive

text: countercurrent exchange

text: by the vessels carrying the blood supply to the nephron is essential for enabling this function.

text: Elasmobranchs' ability to enter fresh water is limited because their blood is normally at least as salty (in terms of osmotic strength) as seawater through the accumulation of urea and trimethylamine oxide, but Bull sharks living in fresh water show a significantly reduced concentration of urea within their blood. Despite this, the solute composition (i.e. osmolarity) of a Bull shark in freshwater is still much higher than that of the external environment. This results in a large influx of water across the gills due to osmosis and loss of sodium and chloride from the shark's body. However, Bull sharks in freshwater possess several organs with which to maintain appropriate salt and water balance; these are the rectal gland, kidneys, liver and gills. All elasmobranchs have a rectal gland which functions in the excretion of excess salts accumulated as a consequence of living in seawater. Bull sharks in freshwater environments decrease the salt-excretory activity of the rectal gland, thereby conserving sodium and chloride. The kidneys produce large amounts of dilute urine, but also play an important role in the active reabsorption of solutes into the blood. The gills of Bull sharks are likely to be involved in the uptake of sodium and chloride from the surrounding freshwater, whereas urea is produced in the liver as required with changes in environmental salinity. Recent work also shows that the differences in density of freshwater to that of marine waters result in significantly greater negative buoyancies in sharks occupying freshwater, resulting in increasing costs of living in freshwater. Bull Sharks caught in freshwater have subsequently been shown to have lower liver densities than sharks living in marine waters. This may reduce the added cost of greater negative buoyancy.

text: Elasmobranchs' ability to enter fresh water is limited because their blood is normally at least as salty (in terms of

text: osmotic strength

text: ) as seawater through the accumulation of

text: urea

text: and

text: trimethylamine oxide

text: Some parts of the digestive system are also part of the excretory system.

text: Some parts of the digestive system are also part of the

text: excretory system

text: Hair cells are the source of the most detailed understanding of mechanosensation. They are present in sensory epithelia of the inner ear and are responsible for the auditory system and vestibular system.

text: Hair cells

text: are the source of the most detailed understanding of mechanosensation. They are present in sensory epithelia of the inner ear and are responsible for the

text: auditory system

text: and

text: vestibular system

text: Excretion

text: Excretion

text: The body is radially symmetrical.  There is only one body cavity known as the gastrovascular cavity.  This is a primitive gut or digestive cavity with only one opening that is used for ingestion and excretion; there are four long oral arms with crenulated margins that are the primary feeding surface.  Each P. noctiluca medusa has 8 long tentacles that emerge from the umbrella margin. Being radially symmetrical it has no head and thus no centralized nervous system.  The nervous system present is primitive,  consisting of a simple net composed of naked and largely non-polar neurons.  In addition P. noctiluca also lacks a gaseous exchange, excretory and circulatory system. However cnidaria have evolved cnidae, cells which serve for a variety of functions that include prey capture, defense, locomotion and attachment. When fully formed cnidae are called cnidocytes.  When stimulated the cnidae secrete nematocyst toxins that are biological poisons.

text: The body is radially symmetrical.  There is only one body cavity known as the gastrovascular cavity.  This is a primitive gut or digestive cavity with only one opening that is used for ingestion and excretion; there are four long oral arms with crenulated margins that are the primary feeding surface.  Each P. noctiluca medusa has 8 long tentacles that emerge from the umbrella margin. Being radially symmetrical it has no head and thus no centralized nervous system.  The

text: nervous system

text: present is primitive,  consisting of a simple net composed of naked and largely non-polar

text: neuron

text: s.  In addition P. noctiluca also lacks a gaseous exchange, excretory and circulatory system. However cnidaria have evolved cnidae, cells which serve for a variety of functions that include prey capture, defense, locomotion and attachment. When fully formed cnidae are called

text: cnidocytes

text: .  When stimulated the cnidae secrete nematocyst

text: toxin

text: s that are biological poisons.

text: Waterless urinals are often installed alongside UDDTs for the convenience of male users. Urinals also reduce the risk that male users standing over the UDDT for urination (rather than sitting or squatting) inadvertently urinate into the feces vault or feces container. It is generally advisable that all UDDT users sit or squat to urinate. If urinals are provided, they can be used for those who prefer a standing position.  Female urination devices are also available but they are not necessary for use with UDDTs as women normally sit or squat to urinate, a good posture which minimises urine from getting into the feces vault.

text: Waterless

text: urinal

text: s are often installed alongside UDDTs for the convenience of male users. Urinals also reduce the risk that male users standing over the UDDT for urination (rather than sitting or squatting) inadvertently urinate into the feces vault or feces container. It is generally advisable that all UDDT users sit or squat to urinate. If urinals are provided, they can be used for those who prefer a standing position.

text: Female urination device

text: s are also available but they are not necessary for use with UDDTs as women normally sit or squat to urinate, a good posture which minimises urine from getting into the feces vault.

text: Many studies have been done regarding PMA and its effects on health, specifically with people of serious illnesses such as cancer and kidney disease. Cancer specifically has received a lot of attention since Lance Armstrong, along with other survivors, have given their stories.  People with PMA have a significantly higher chance of survival and recovery. A study comparing people with chronic kidney disease with people kidney disease free showed that there was a significant difference between the groups.  The kidney disease free group rated much higher in PMA.  There was no difference found in spirituality and females with chronic kidney disease were found to be significantly more superstitious.   A study done with HIV-positive individuals found that a high health self-efficacy, a task-oriented coping style, and a positive mental attitude were strong predictors or a health-promoting lifestyle which has a significant effect on overall health (coping and surviving).

text: The heart is divided into two equal halves, each with its own auricle, ventricle and aorta. The left and right aorta fuse shortly after leaving the heart, and supply blood to the open circulatory system. There are six pairs of nephridial excretory organs, which empty into the mantle cavity.

text: The heart is divided into two equal halves, each with its own

text: auricle

text: ventricle

text: and

text: aorta

text: . The left and right aorta fuse shortly after leaving the heart, and supply blood to the

text: open circulatory system

text: . There are six pairs of

text: nephridia

text: l excretory organs, which empty into the mantle cavity.

text: Northwest Kidney Centers provides free classes on issues related to kidney disease, including nutrition, types of dialysis treatment and kidney transplants. In 2014, more than 1,500 people affected by chronic kidney disease attended a class. The organization also participates in events and health fairs throughout the year, and its nutrition experts not only counsel patients on the role of nutrition in preventing and treating kidney disease, they also contribute articles to professional journals and columns to community newspapers.

text: Normally, the body produces a hormone that can slow the making of urine. This hormone is called antidiuretic hormone, or ADH. The body normally produces more ADH during sleep so that the need to urinate is lower. If the body does not produce enough ADH at night, the making of urine may not be slowed down, leading to bladder overfilling. If a child does not sense the bladder filling and awaken to urinate, then wetting will occur.

text: Normally, the body produces a hormone that can slow the making of urine. This hormone is called

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: , or ADH. The body normally produces more ADH during sleep so that the need to urinate is lower. If the body does not produce enough ADH at night, the making of urine may not be slowed down, leading to bladder overfilling. If a child does not sense the bladder filling and awaken to urinate, then wetting will occur.

text: Atrial natriuretic peptide (CDD/ANP-99-126) is a hormone system of clinical importance. Urodilatin (CDD/ ANP-95-126) is a homologue natriuretic peptide that differs from CDD/ANP-99-126  which is excreted into the circulation via exocytosis. The prototype of the natriuretic hormones is cardiodilatin/atrial natriuretic peptide (CDD/ANP). The endocrine heart is composed of specific myoendocrine cells that synthesize and secrete the natriuretic peptide hormones which exhibit diuretic, and vasorelaxant properties; secretion is the basis for a paracrine system regulating water and sodium reabsorption. Research efforts since the early 1980s have studied their effects on electrolyte homeostasis. When administered intravenously, URO induces strong diuresis and natriuresis with tolerable hemodynamic side effects. Urodilatin is localized in the kidney, differentially processed (involved in the regulation of body fluid volume and water-electrolyte excretion, while circulating), and secreted into the urine. As a consequence, urodilatin is involved in drug development along with the prohormone CDD/ANP-1-126  and cardiodilatin CDD/ANP-99-126. A message for the preprohormone is transcribed in the heart and kidneys from the gene of NP type A, resulting in a cGMP-dependent signal transduction which induces diuresis and natriuresis, differentially processed to a peptide of 32 amino acids from the same precursor as renal ANP, may not be identical to the circulating cardiac hormone ANP. The kidneys produce their own natriuretic 32-residue peptide. Urodilatin renal natriuretic peptide potency equals or exceeds that of Atriopeptin [ANP-(99-126)], the prototype of cardiodilatin. Atriopeptin is only of trivial importance in the regulation of sodium excretion during normal living conditions. Urodilatin is little affected by renal enzymes that inactivate atriopeptin, as the kidney elutes with urodilatin rather than with ANP. The degradation rates of (125I)-urodilatin and [125I]-ANP by pure recombinant NEP (rNEP) were compared. Phosphoramidon, a potent inhibitor of NEP, completely protected both peptides from metabolism by rNEP. Urodilatin, has a four-residue extension at the N-terminus neutral endopeptidase-24.11 (NEP)  plays a physiological role in metabolizing atrial natriuretic peptide, and C-type natriuretic peptide (prohormone) degraded the bioactive peptides at about half the rate though the C-terminal that compete with natriuretic peptides for hydrolysis by neutral endopeptidase.

text: Atrial natriuretic peptide

text: (CDD/ANP-99-126) is a hormone system of clinical importance. Urodilatin (CDD/ ANP-95-126) is a

text: homologue

text: natriuretic peptide

text: that differs from CDD/ANP-99-126  which is excreted into the circulation via

text: exocytosis

text: . The

text: prototype

text: of the natriuretic hormones is

text: cardiodilatin

text: atrial natriuretic peptide

text: (CDD/ANP). The endocrine heart is composed of specific myo

text: endocrine

text: cells that synthesize and secrete the natriuretic peptide hormones which exhibit

text: diuretic

text: , and

text: vasorelaxant

text: properties; secretion is the basis for a

text: paracrine

text: system regulating water and

text: sodium

text: reabsorption

text: . Research efforts since the early 1980s have studied their effects on

text: electrolyte

text: homeostasis

text: . When administered

text: intravenous

text: ly, URO induces strong

text: diuresis

text: and

text: natriuresis

text: with tolerable

text: hemodynamic

text: side effects. Urodilatin is localized in the

text: kidney

text: , differentially processed (involved in the regulation of body fluid volume and water-electrolyte excretion, while circulating), and secreted into the urine. As a consequence, urodilatin is involved in drug development along with the

text: prohormone

text: CDD/ANP-1-126  and

text: cardiodilatin

text: CDD/ANP-99-126. A message for the

text: preprohormone

text: is transcribed in the heart and kidneys from the gene of NP type A, resulting in a

text: cGMP

text: -dependent signal transduction which induces diuresis and natriuresis, differentially processed to a peptide of 32

text: amino acid

text: s from the same precursor as renal ANP, may not be identical to the circulating cardiac hormone ANP. The kidneys produce their own natriuretic 32-residue peptide. Urodilatin renal natriuretic peptide potency equals or exceeds that of

text: Atriopeptin

text: [ANP-(99-126)], the prototype of cardiodilatin. Atriopeptin is only of trivial importance in the regulation of sodium excretion during normal living conditions. Urodilatin is little affected by renal

text: enzymes

text: that inactivate

text: atriopeptin

text: , as the kidney elutes with urodilatin rather than with ANP. The degradation rates of (

text: )-urodilatin and [125I]-ANP by pure

text: recombinant

text: NEP (rNEP) were compared.

text: Phosphoramidon

text: , a potent inhibitor of NEP, completely protected both peptides from metabolism by rNEP. Urodilatin, has a four-residue extension at the

text: N-terminus

text: neutral endopeptidase

text: -24.11 (NEP)  plays a physiological role in metabolizing

text: atrial natriuretic peptide

text: , and C-type natriuretic peptide (

text: prohormone

text: ) degraded the bioactive peptides at about half the rate though the

text: C-terminal

text: that compete with natriuretic peptides for

text: hydrolysis

text: by

text: neutral endopeptidase

text: Many different types of dry toilets exist. For example, from simple to more complex: a bucket toilet (honey bucket), a tree bog or arborloo (two simple systems for converting excrement to direct fertiliser for trees), a pit toilet (a deep hole in the ground), a vault toilet (which keeps all the waste underground until it is pumped out), a composting toilet (which mixes excreta with carbon-rich materials for faster decomposition), a urine-diverting dry toilet (which keeps urine separate from feces), and the self-explanatory incinerating and freezing toilets. Dry toilets use no, or very little, water; they do not depend on flushing, and so do not produce Wastewater. Some of these devices are high-tech, all the way to the space toilet on the International Space Station, but many are extremely basic; hundreds of thousands of Indian people are still employed as manual scavengers in emptying buckets and pit latrines.

text: Many different types of

text: dry toilet

text: s exist. For example, from simple to more complex: a

text: bucket toilet

text: (honey bucket), a

text: tree bog

text: or

text: arborloo

text: (two simple systems for converting excrement to direct fertiliser for trees), a

text: pit toilet

text: (a deep hole in the ground), a vault toilet (which keeps all the waste underground until it is pumped out), a

text: composting toilet

text: (which mixes excreta with carbon-rich materials for faster decomposition), a

text: urine-diverting dry toilet

text: (which keeps urine separate from feces), and the self-explanatory

text: incinerating

text: and

text: freezing

text: toilets. Dry toilets use no, or very little, water; they do not depend on flushing, and so do not produce

text: Wastewater

text: . Some of these devices are high-tech, all the way to the

text: space toilet

text: on the

text: International Space Station

text: , but many are extremely basic; hundreds of thousands of Indian people are still employed as

text: manual scavengers

text: in emptying buckets and pit latrines.

text: Since physical abnormalities can affect all body parts along the midline of the body, many different body systems are at risk of being damaged. Those systems commonly affected are the nervous, digestive, cardiovascular, respiratory and reproductive. Typically, those diagnosed with either type of Opitz G/BBB syndrome will also have ocular hypertelorism, or eyes that are excessively spaced apart. Patients will commonly experience physical defects in the larynx, trachea and esophagus and will often cause breathing and swallowing difficulties. Further facial anomalies may occur, such as a prominent forehead, widow’s peak, broad nasal bridge. Those with the disease may also experience hypospadias (urinary opening in males is not at the head of the penis) and developmental delay, as well.

text: Since physical abnormalities can affect all body parts along the midline of the body, many different body systems are at risk of being damaged. Those systems commonly affected are the

text: nervous

text: digestive

text: cardiovascular

text: respiratory

text: and

text: reproductive

text: . Typically, those diagnosed with either type of Opitz G/BBB syndrome will also have

text: ocular hypertelorism

text: , or eyes that are excessively spaced apart. Patients will commonly experience physical defects in the

text: larynx

text: trachea

text: and

text: esophagus

text: and will often cause breathing and swallowing difficulties. Further facial

text: anomalies

text: may occur, such as a prominent forehead,

text: widow’s peak

text: , broad nasal bridge. Those with the disease may also experience

text: hypospadias

text: (urinary opening in males is not at the head of the penis) and

text: developmental delay

text: , as well.

text: This type of flush might be regarded as standard in the United States. Each urinal is equipped with a button or short lever to activate the flush, with users expected to operate it as they leave. Such a directly controlled system is the most efficient, provided that patrons remember to use it. This is far from certain, however, often because of fear of touching the handle, which is located too high to kick. Urinals with foot-activated flushing systems are sometimes found in high-traffic areas; these systems have a button set into the floor or a pedal on the wall at ankle height.  The Americans with Disabilities Act requires that flush valves be mounted no higher than  AFF (above the finished floor). Additionally, the urinal is to be mounted no higher than  AFF, and to have a rim that is tapered and elongated and protrudes at least  from the wall. This enables users in wheelchairs to straddle the lip of the urinal and urinate without having to "arc" the flow of urine upwards.

text: This type of flush might be regarded as standard in the United States. Each urinal is equipped with a button or short lever to activate the flush, with users expected to operate it as they leave. Such a directly controlled system is the most efficient, provided that patrons remember to use it. This is far from certain, however, often because of fear of touching the handle, which is located too high to kick. Urinals with foot-activated flushing systems are sometimes found in high-traffic areas; these systems have a button set into the floor or a pedal on the wall at ankle height.  The

text: Americans with Disabilities Act

text: requires that flush valves be mounted no higher than  AFF (above the finished floor). Additionally, the urinal is to be mounted no higher than  AFF, and to have a rim that is tapered and elongated and protrudes at least  from the wall. This enables users in wheelchairs to straddle the lip of the urinal and urinate without having to "arc" the flow of urine upwards.

text: , which is allowed to vary within a very wide range of values, before eliciting a corrective ventilatory response.  However, when the atmospheric pressure (and therefore the partial pressure of oxygen in the ambient air) falls to below 75% of its value at sea level, oxygen homeostasis is given priority over carbon dioxide homeostasis. This switch-over occurs at an elevation of about 2500 m (or about 8000 ft). If this switch occurs relatively abruptly, the hyperventilation at high altitude will cause a severe fall in the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, with a consequent rise in the pH of the arterial plasma. This is one contributor to high altitude sickness. On the other hand, if the switch to oxygen homeostasis is incomplete, then hypoxia may complicate the clinical picture with potentially fatal results.

text: , which is allowed to vary within a very wide range of values, before eliciting a corrective ventilatory response.  However, when the atmospheric pressure (and therefore the partial pressure of oxygen in the ambient air) falls to below 75% of its value at sea level, oxygen

text: homeostasis

text: is given priority over carbon dioxide homeostasis. This switch-over occurs at an elevation of about 2500 m (or about 8000 ft). If this switch occurs relatively abruptly, the hyperventilation at high altitude will cause a severe fall in the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, with a

text: consequent rise in the pH of the arterial plasma

text: . This is one contributor to

text: high altitude sickness

text: . On the other hand, if the switch to oxygen homeostasis is incomplete, then

text: hypoxia

text: may complicate the clinical picture with potentially fatal results.

text: In anatomy, the (from Greek - ourethra) is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. In humans, the urethra has an excretory function in both genders to pass.

text: In anatomy, the (from

text: Greek

text: - ourethra) is a tube which connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. In humans, the urethra has an excretory function in both genders to pass.

text: In 2011 the Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center did a study to compare the acute health impacts of the spill with the acute health impacts reported from previous spills to  predict health impacts in Louisiana as compared with the health impacts reported from prior crude oil spills. The study reported that "Acute health effects in cleanup workers mirrored those reported in cleanup workers following prior oil spills as ranked by systems (and by symptoms)."  The study advised that affected individuals "will require long-term surveillance for chronic adverse health effects including cancer, liver and kidney diseases, mental health disorders, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders."

text: In 2011 the

text: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center

text: did a study to compare the acute health impacts of the spill with the acute health impacts reported from previous spills to  predict health impacts in Louisiana as compared with the health impacts reported from prior crude oil spills. The study reported that "Acute health effects in cleanup workers mirrored those reported in cleanup workers following prior oil spills as ranked by systems (and by symptoms)."  The study advised that affected individuals "will require long-term surveillance for chronic adverse health effects including cancer, liver and kidney diseases, mental health disorders, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders."

text: The EPG5 human gene is located on chromosome 18q12.3, has a length of 119,67Kb (NC_000018.10), consists of 44 exons and is transcriptionally driven from the centromere toward the telomere. The messenger RNA (mRNA) is 12633bp long (NM_020964.2) and contains a CDS of 7740 bp translated into a protein sequence of 2579 amino acids (NP_066015.2) with a molecular weight of 280kDa, presumed. The protein EPG5 is expressed primarily in the central nervous system (CNS), skeletal muscle, heart, thymus, cells of the immune system, lungs and kidneys.

text: The vestibulospinal reflex uses the vestibular organs as well as skeletal muscle in order to maintain balance, posture, and stability in an environment with gravity. These reflexes can be further broken down by timing into a dynamic reflex, static reflex or tonic reflex. It can also be categorized by the sensory input as either canals, otolith, or both. The term vesitbulospinal reflex, is most commonly used when the sensory input evokes a response from the muscular system below the neck. These reflexes are important in the maintenance of homeostasis.

text: The vestibulospinal

text: reflex

text: uses the vestibular organs as well as skeletal muscle in order to maintain balance, posture, and stability in an environment with gravity. These reflexes can be further broken down by timing into a dynamic reflex, static reflex or tonic reflex. It can also be categorized by the sensory input as either

text: canals

text: otolith

text: , or both. The term vesitbulospinal reflex, is most commonly used when the sensory input evokes a response from the

text: muscular system

text: below the neck. These reflexes are important in the maintenance of

text: homeostasis

text: The urinary bladder is lined with transitional epithelium. It does not produce mucus. The internal lining of the bladder wall is termed the urothelium and lamina propria, and this layer is thought to regulate some aspects of the overall bladder physiology in response to stimuli such as stretch during filling.

text: The urinary bladder is lined with

text: transitional epithelium

text: . It does not produce mucus. The internal lining of the bladder wall is termed the urothelium and lamina propria, and this layer is thought to regulate some aspects of the overall bladder physiology in response to stimuli such as stretch during filling.

text: Planaria receive oxygen and release carbon dioxide by diffusion. The excretory system is made of many tubes with many flame cells and excretory pores on them. Also, flame cells remove unwanted liquids from the body by passing them through ducts which lead to excretory pores, where waste is released on the dorsal surface of the planarian.

text: Planaria receive oxygen and release carbon dioxide by diffusion. The excretory system is made of many tubes with many

text: flame cell

text: s and excretory pores on them. Also, flame cells remove unwanted liquids from the body by passing them through ducts which lead to excretory pores, where waste is released on the dorsal surface of the planarian.

text: Thagard then flew on STS-51-B, the Spacelab-3 science mission, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on April 29, 1985, aboard the Challenger. He assisted the commander and pilot on ascent and entry. Mission duration was 168 hours. Duties on orbit included satellite deployment operation with the NUSAT satellite as well as animal care for the 24 rats and two squirrel monkeys contained in the Research Animal Holding Facility (RAHF). Other duties were operation of the Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC), Urinary Monitoring System (UMS) and the Ionization States of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Ray Heavy Nuclei (IONS) experiment. After 110 orbits of the Earth, Challenger landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on May 6, 1985.

text: Thagard then flew on

text: , the Spacelab-3 science mission, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on April 29, 1985, aboard the Challenger. He assisted the commander and pilot on ascent and entry. Mission duration was 168 hours. Duties on orbit included satellite deployment operation with the NUSAT satellite as well as animal care for the 24 rats and two squirrel monkeys contained in the Research Animal Holding Facility (RAHF). Other duties were operation of the Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC), Urinary Monitoring System (UMS) and the Ionization States of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Ray Heavy Nuclei (IONS) experiment. After 110 orbits of the

text: Earth

text: , Challenger landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on May 6, 1985.

text: Sodium is reabsorbed to maintain extracellular volume, osmotic pressure, and serum sodium concentration within narrow limits; potassium is reabsorbed to maintain serum potassium concentration within narrow limits. Sodium pumps in the renal tubules operate to reabsorb sodium. Potassium must be conserved also, but, because the amount of potassium in the blood plasma is very small and the pool of potassium in the cells is about thirty times as large, the situation is not so critical for potassium. Since potassium is moved passively in counter flow to sodium in response to an apparent (but not actual) Donnan equilibrium, the urine can never sink below the concentration of potassium in serum except sometimes by actively excreting water at the end of the processing. Potassium is excreted twice and reabsorbed three times before the urine reaches the collecting tubules. At that point, urine usually has about the same potassium concentration as plasma. At the end of the processing, potassium is secreted one more time if the serum levels are too high.

text: Sodium is reabsorbed to maintain extracellular volume, osmotic pressure, and serum sodium concentration within narrow limits; potassium is reabsorbed to maintain serum potassium concentration within narrow limits.

text: Sodium pump

text: s in the renal tubules operate to reabsorb sodium. Potassium must be conserved also, but, because the amount of potassium in the blood plasma is very small and the pool of potassium in the cells is about thirty times as large, the situation is not so critical for potassium. Since potassium is moved passively in counter flow to sodium in response to an apparent (but not actual)

text: Donnan equilibrium

text: , the urine can never sink below the concentration of potassium in serum except sometimes by actively excreting water at the end of the processing. Potassium is excreted twice and reabsorbed three times before the urine reaches the collecting tubules. At that point, urine usually has about the same potassium concentration as plasma. At the end of the processing, potassium is secreted one more time if the serum levels are too high.

text: Adult schistosomes share all the fundamental features of the digenea. They have a basic bilateral symmetry, oral and ventral suckers, a body covering of a syncytial tegument, a blind-ending digestive system consisting of mouth, esophagus and bifurcated caeca; the area between the tegument and alimentary canal filled with a loose network of mesoderm cells, and an excretory or osmoregulatory system based on flame cells. Adult worms tend to be  long and use globins from their hosts' hemoglobin for their own circulatory system.

text: Adult schistosomes share all the fundamental features of the digenea. They have a basic

text: bilateral symmetry

text: , oral and ventral suckers, a body covering of a

text: syncytial

text: tegument

text: , a blind-ending

text: digestive system

text: consisting of

text: mouth

text: esophagus

text: and bifurcated

text: caeca

text: ; the area between the tegument and alimentary canal filled with a loose network of

text: mesoderm

text: cells

text: , and an excretory or osmoregulatory system based on

text: flame cell

text: s. Adult worms tend to be  long and use

text: globin

text: s from their hosts'

text: hemoglobin

text: for their own circulatory system.

text: Potassium, the most abundant intracellular cation, is essential for life. An adequate gradient of potassium across the cell membrane is necessary in order to enable excitability of cell membranes. This is particularly important for nerve and muscle function. In humans, mainly the kidneys are responsible for the regulation of serum potassium levels by excreting excess potassium via the urine. As kidney failure progresses, with a consequent decline of excretory function, potassium is likely to accumulate with probable harmful effects on the cellular membrane potential and cardiac arrhythmias as the primary symptom. If the physiological potassium blood level of between 3.8 mmol/L and 5.2 mmol/L is exceeded, hyperkalaemia is diagnosed. The mainstay of the treatment for chronic kidney disease patients is potassium removal through the dialysis procedure. However, dietary restrictions and pharmaceutical therapy with potassium binders are important complementary treatment options.

text: Potassium, the most abundant intracellular cation, is essential for life. An adequate gradient of potassium across the cell membrane is necessary in order to enable excitability of cell membranes. This is particularly important for nerve and muscle function. In humans, mainly the kidneys are responsible for the regulation of serum potassium levels by excreting excess potassium via the urine. As kidney failure progresses, with a consequent decline of excretory function, potassium is likely to accumulate with probable harmful effects on the cellular

text: membrane potential

text: and

text: cardiac arrhythmia

text: s as the primary symptom. If the physiological potassium blood level of between 3.8 mmol/L and 5.2 mmol/L is exceeded, hyperkalaemia is diagnosed. The mainstay of the treatment for chronic kidney disease patients is potassium removal through the dialysis procedure. However, dietary restrictions and pharmaceutical therapy with potassium binders are important complementary treatment options.

text: Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) which causes kidney failure in affected adult cats has an incidence rate of 36–49% in the Persian breed. Cysts develop and grow in the kidney over time, replacing kidney tissues and enlarging the kidney. Kidney failure develops later in life, at an average age of 7 years old (ranging from 3 to 10 years old). Symptoms include excessive drinking and urination, reduced appetite, weight loss and depression. The disease is autosomal dominant and DNA screening is the preferred method of eliminating the gene in the breed.  Because of DNA testing, most responsible Persian breeders now have cats that no longer carry the PKD gene, hence their offspring also do not have the gene.  Before DNA screening was available, ultrasound was done.  However, an ultrasound is only as good as the day it's done, and many cats that were thought to be clear, were in fact, a carrier of the PKD gene.  Only DNA screening and then breeding negative to negative for the PKD gene will produce negative kittens which effectively removes this gene from the breeding pool has allowed some lines and catteries to  eliminate the incidence  of the disease.

text: Polycystic kidney disease

text: (PKD) which causes kidney failure in affected adult cats has an incidence rate of 36–49% in the Persian breed. Cysts develop and grow in the kidney over time, replacing kidney tissues and enlarging the kidney. Kidney failure develops later in life, at an average age of 7 years old (ranging from 3 to 10 years old). Symptoms include excessive drinking and urination, reduced appetite, weight loss and depression. The disease is

text: autosomal dominant

text: and DNA screening is the preferred method of eliminating the gene in the breed.  Because of DNA testing, most responsible Persian breeders now have cats that no longer carry the PKD gene, hence their offspring also do not have the gene.  Before DNA screening was available, ultrasound was done.  However, an ultrasound is only as good as the day it's done, and many cats that were thought to be clear, were in fact, a carrier of the PKD gene.  Only DNA screening and then breeding negative to negative for the PKD gene will produce negative kittens which effectively removes this gene from the breeding pool has allowed some lines and catteries to  eliminate the incidence  of the disease.

text: Many African Americans are descendants of people of West African nations and consequently, also have a high prevalence of APOL1 risk alleles as well as APOL1 associated kidney diseases. The frequency of the risk alleles in African Americans is more than 30%. The existence of these alleles has been shown to increase the risk of developing diseases such as Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis(FSGS), Hypertension Attributed-End Stage Kidney Disease, and HIV-Associated Nephropathy(HIVAN). The prevalence of the risk alleles in African Americans with these kidney diseases shown in recent studies are 67% in HIVAN, 66% in FSGS, and 47% in hypertension-attributed ESKD. Studies have also determined the prevalence of each individual allele in FSGS cases as well. The prevalence of the G1 risk allele in African Americans with FSGS is 52% and 18-23% in those without FSGS.  The prevalence of the G2 risk allele in African Americans with FSGS is 23% and 15% in those without FSGS. Hispanic populations such as Dominicans and Puerto Ricans demonstrate a mixture of genetic influences that include African ancestry resulting in a prevalence of the APOL1 variants as well.

text: Many African Americans are descendants of people of West African nations and consequently, also have a high prevalence of APOL1 risk alleles as well as APOL1 associated kidney diseases. The frequency of the risk alleles in African Americans is more than 30%. The existence of these alleles has been shown to increase the risk of developing diseases such as

text: Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis

text: (FSGS), Hypertension Attributed-End Stage Kidney Disease, and

text: HIV-Associated Nephropathy

text: (HIVAN). The prevalence of the risk alleles in African Americans with these kidney diseases shown in recent studies are 67% in HIVAN, 66% in FSGS, and 47% in hypertension-attributed ESKD. Studies have also determined the prevalence of each individual allele in FSGS cases as well. The prevalence of the G1 risk allele in African Americans with FSGS is 52% and 18-23% in those without FSGS.  The prevalence of the G2 risk allele in African Americans with FSGS is 23% and 15% in those without FSGS. Hispanic populations such as Dominicans and Puerto Ricans demonstrate a mixture of genetic influences that include African ancestry resulting in a prevalence of the APOL1 variants as well.

text: The kidney failure in hepatorenal syndrome is believed to arise from abnormalities in blood vessel tone in the kidneys. The predominant theory (termed the underfill theory) is that blood vessels in the kidney circulation are constricted because of the dilation of blood vessels in the splanchnic circulation (which supplies the intestines), which is mediated by factors released by liver disease. Nitric oxide, prostaglandins, and other vasoactive substances have been hypothesized as powerful mediators of splanchnic vasodilation in cirrhosis. The consequence of this phenomenon is a decrease in the "effective" volume of blood sensed by the juxtaglomerular apparatus, leading to the secretion of renin and the activation of the renin–angiotensin system, which results in the vasoconstriction of vessels systemically and in the kidney specifically. However, the effect of this is insufficient to counteract the mediators of vasodilation in the splanchnic circulation, leading to persistent "underfilling" of the kidney circulation and worsening kidney vasoconstriction, leading to kidney failure.

text: The

text: kidney failure

text: in hepatorenal syndrome is believed to arise from abnormalities in

text: blood vessel

text: tone in the kidneys. The predominant theory (termed the underfill theory) is that blood vessels in the kidney circulation are constricted because of the dilation of blood vessels in the

text: splanchnic circulation

text: (which supplies the

text: intestines

text: ), which is mediated by factors released by liver disease.

text: Nitric oxide

text: prostaglandins

text: , and other vasoactive substances have been hypothesized as powerful mediators of splanchnic vasodilation in cirrhosis. The consequence of this phenomenon is a decrease in the "effective" volume of blood sensed by the

text: juxtaglomerular apparatus

text: , leading to the secretion of

text: renin

text: and the activation of the

text: renin–angiotensin system

text: , which results in the vasoconstriction of vessels systemically and in the kidney specifically. However, the effect of this is insufficient to counteract the mediators of vasodilation in the splanchnic circulation, leading to persistent "underfilling" of the kidney circulation and worsening kidney vasoconstriction, leading to kidney failure.

text: Currently, there are HIFU systems approved to treat uterine fibroids, pain from bone metastases and the prostate in Asia, Canada, Europe, Israel, Latin America and the United States. There is regulatory approval to treat a range of cancers, including breast, kidney, liver, the pancreas and soft tissue sarcoma in Europe and Asia. There is a brain system approved in Europe, Korea and Russia to treat essential tremor, Parkinsonian tremor and neuropathic pain. Non-image guided HIFU devices may be marketed for cosmetic purposes (typically for body fat reduction) in some jurisdictions.

text: Currently, there are HIFU systems approved to treat

text: uterine fibroids

text: , pain from bone metastases and the prostate in Asia, Canada, Europe, Israel, Latin America and the United States. There is regulatory approval to treat a range of cancers, including breast, kidney, liver, the pancreas and soft tissue sarcoma in Europe and Asia. There is a brain system approved in Europe, Korea and Russia to treat essential tremor, Parkinsonian tremor and neuropathic pain. Non-image guided HIFU devices may be marketed for cosmetic purposes (typically for body fat reduction) in some jurisdictions.

text: The way they prison gangs consolidate and maintain power is also comparable to how actors behave in Charles Tilly's predatory theory of state building model. Prison gangs engage in "war making," or monopolizing on force and occupying the power vacuum of state authority. They eliminate rivals (in the US mostly along racial lines) within their territories, and in doing so they carry out "state making." Gangs offer protection to their members, affiliates, and clients. They also extract or collect taxes from client gangs and those in the trade to maintain and expand their system.

text: The way they prison gangs consolidate and maintain power is also comparable to how actors behave in

text: Charles Tilly

text: 's predatory theory of state building model. Prison gangs engage in "war making," or monopolizing on force and occupying the power vacuum of state authority. They eliminate rivals (in the US mostly along racial lines) within their territories, and in doing so they carry out "state making." Gangs offer protection to their members, affiliates, and clients. They also extract or collect taxes from client gangs and those in the trade to maintain and expand their system.

text: In addition to RBPs' functions in germline development, post-transcriptional control also plays a significant role in somatic development. Differing from RBPs that are involved in germline and early embryo development, RBPs functioning in somatic development regulate tissue-specific alternative splicing of the mRNA targets. For instance, MEC-8 and UNC-75 containing RRM domains localize to regions of hypodermis and nervous system, respectively. Furthermore, another RRM-containing RBP, EXC-7, is revealed to localize in embryonic excretory canal cells and throughout the nervous system during somatic development.

text: The most common cause of polyuria in both adults and children is uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, which causes  osmotic diuresis, when glucose levels are so high that glucose is excreted in the urine. Water follows the glucose concentration passively, leading to abnormally high urine output. In the absence of diabetes mellitus, the most common causes are decreased secretion of aldosterone due to adrenal cortical tumor, primary polydipsia (excessive fluid drinking), central diabetes insipidus and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Polyuria may also be due to various chemical substances, such as diuretics, caffeine, and ethanol. It may also occur after supraventricular tachycardias, during an onset of atrial fibrillation, childbirth, and the removal of an obstruction within the urinary tract. Diuresis is controlled by antidiuretics such as vasopressin, angiotensin II and aldosterone. Cold diuresis is the occurrence of increased urine production on exposure to cold, which also partially explains immersion diuresis. High-altitude diuresis occurs at altitudes above  and is a desirable indicator of adaptation to high altitudes. Mountaineers who are adapting well to high altitudes experience this type of diuresis. Persons who produce less urine even in the presence of adequate fluid intake are probably not adapting well to altitude.

text: The most common cause of polyuria in both adults and children is uncontrolled

text: diabetes mellitus

text: , which causes

text: osmotic diuresis

text: , when glucose levels are so high that glucose is excreted in the urine. Water follows the glucose concentration passively, leading to abnormally high urine output. In the absence of diabetes mellitus, the most common causes are decreased secretion of aldosterone due to adrenal cortical tumor,

text: primary polydipsia

text: (excessive fluid

text: drinking

text: central diabetes insipidus

text: and

text: nephrogenic diabetes insipidus

text: . Polyuria may also be due to various chemical substances, such as

text: diuretic

text: s,

text: caffeine

text: , and

text: ethanol

text: . It may also occur after

text: supraventricular tachycardia

text: s, during an onset of

text: atrial fibrillation

text: childbirth

text: , and the removal of an obstruction within the

text: urinary tract

text: . Diuresis is controlled by

text: antidiuretic

text: s such as

text: vasopressin

text: angiotensin II

text: and

text: aldosterone

text: . Cold diuresis is the occurrence of increased urine production on exposure to cold, which also partially explains

text: immersion diuresis

text: . High-altitude diuresis occurs at altitudes above  and is a desirable indicator of

text: adaptation to high altitudes

text: . Mountaineers who are adapting well to high altitudes experience this type of diuresis. Persons who produce less urine even in the presence of adequate fluid intake are probably not adapting well to altitude.

text: The conditions Eve has waited for have arrived; she has found the perfect host in the body of Kiyomi Nagishima. At the start of the book, Eve is the mitochondria in Kiyomi's body. She causes Kiyomi to crash her car; Kiyomi survives but is brain dead. Kiyomi's husband is Toshiaki, a research assistant teaching and researching biological science. Eve influences Toshiaki and a doctor to ensure that one of Kiyomi's kidneys is transplanted into the teenage girl Mariko Anzai as an organ donation. As part of Kiyomi's body, the kidney is also a part of Eve; this prepares Mariko to be a suitable host for giving birth to mitochondrial life, as her immune system would otherwise rebel.

text: The conditions Eve has waited for have arrived; she has found the perfect host in the body of Kiyomi Nagishima. At the start of the book, Eve is the mitochondria in Kiyomi's body. She causes Kiyomi to crash her car; Kiyomi survives but is

text: brain dead

text: . Kiyomi's husband is Toshiaki, a

text: research

text: assistant teaching and researching biological

text: science

text: . Eve influences Toshiaki and a

text: doctor

text: to ensure that one of Kiyomi's kidneys is transplanted into the teenage girl Mariko Anzai as an organ donation. As part of Kiyomi's body, the kidney is also a part of Eve; this prepares Mariko to be a suitable host for giving birth to mitochondrial life, as her

text: immune system

text: would otherwise rebel.

text: Ampicillin/sulbactam has poor absorption when given orally.  The two drugs have similar pharmacokinetic profiles that appear unchanged when given together. Ampicillin and sulbactam are both hydrophilic antibiotics and have a volume of distribution (Vd) similar to the volume of extra-cellular body water. The volume that the drug distributes throughout in healthy patients is approximately 0.2 liters per kilogram of body weight.  Patients on hemodialysis, elderly patients, and pediatric patients have shown a slightly increased volume of distribution. Using typical doses, ampicillin/sulbactam has been shown to reach desired levels to treat infections in the brain, lungs, and abdominal tissues. Both agents have moderate protein binding, reported at 38% for sulbactam and 28% for ampicillin.15,16  The half-life of ampicillin is approximately 1 hour, when used alone or in combination with sulbactam; therefore it will be completely eliminated from a healthy person in around 5 hours.  It is eliminated primarily by the urinary system, with 75% excreted unchanged in the urine. Only small amounts of each drug were found to be excreted in the bile. Ampicillin/sulbactam should be given with caution in infants less than a week old and premature neonates.  This is due to the underdeveloped urinary system in these patients, which can cause a significantly increased half-life for both drugs.16   Based on its elimination, ampicillin/sulbactam is typically given every 6 to 8 hours. Slowed clearance of both drugs has been seen in the elderly, renal disease patients, and critically ill patients on renal replacement therapy. Reduced clearance has been seen in both pediatric and post-operative patients.  Adjustments in dosing frequency may be required in these patients due to these changes.

text: The Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information Service is an information dissemination service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). The NIDDK is part of the National Institutes of Health, which is part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

text: The Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information Service is an information dissemination service of the

entity_name: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

text: National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

text: (NIDDK). The NIDDK is part of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: , which is part of the

entity_name: United States Department of Health and Human Services

text: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

text: Kaliuresis (, ) or kaluresis () is the condition of excreting potassium in the urine.

text: Kaliuresis (, ) or kaluresis () is the condition of excreting

text: potassium

text: in the

text: urine

text: Most animal feces are over 75% water; xerocoles, however, reabsorb water in the gut and produce much drier feces. For example, the kangaroo rat's feces contain only  as much water as that of other, non-desert rodents. In insects, the rectal gland also absorbs water, and the insects excrete dry pellets. In birds, along with some other vertebrates, the ureter and rectum both lead to the cloaca, whose walls also absorb water.

text: Most animal feces are over 75% water; xerocoles, however, reabsorb water in the gut and produce much drier feces. For example, the kangaroo rat's feces contain only  as much water as that of other, non-desert rodents. In insects, the rectal gland also absorbs water, and the insects excrete dry pellets. In birds, along with some other vertebrates, the

text: ureter

text: and

text: rectum

text: both lead to the

text: cloaca

text: , whose walls also absorb water.

text: Her early work with Andrew Murray at Harvard University provided the first insight into the genetic basis of the spindle assembly checkpoint. The paper documenting this work is one of the Nature Milestones in Cell Division. Li has subsequently made a number of significant discoveries in the area of mitotic exit control and cytokinesis. She is recognized as a leader in the study of cell polarity in the context of morphogenesis and asymmetric cell division, and has been at the forefront of using mathematical and biophysical approaches to understand cell polarity as a self-organizing, dynamical system. This advancement of quantitative and predictive understanding of cellular behavior relates to health, to learning and to human individuality, especially her research on topics such as cell polarity, asymmetric cell division, polycystic kidney disease, and adaptive evolution.

text: Her early work with Andrew Murray at

text: Harvard University

text: provided the first insight into the genetic basis of the

text: spindle assembly checkpoint

text: . The paper documenting this work is one of the Nature Milestones in Cell Division. Li has subsequently made a number of significant discoveries in the area of mitotic exit control and cytokinesis. She is recognized as a leader in the study of

text: cell polarity

text: in the context of

text: morphogenesis

text: and

text: asymmetric cell division

text: , and has been at the forefront of using mathematical and

text: biophysical approaches

text: to understand

text: cell polarity

text: as a self-organizing, dynamical system. This advancement of

text: quantitative

text: and

text: predictive understanding

text: of cellular behavior relates to

text: health

text: , to

text: learning

text: and to human individuality, especially her research on topics such as

text: cell polarity

text: asymmetric cell division

text: polycystic kidney disease

text: , and

text: adaptive evolution

text: A number of avian species use nasal salt glands, alongside their kidneys, to control hypertonicity in their blood plasma. However, the ostrich shows no nasal glandular function in regard to this homeostatic process. Even in a state of dehydration, which increases the osmolality of the blood, nasal salt glands show no sizeable contribution of salt elimination. Also, the overall mass of the glands was less than that of the duck’s nasal gland. The ostrich, having a heavier body weight, should have larger, heavier nasal glands to more effectively excrete salt from a larger volume of blood, but this is not the case. These unequal proportions contribute to the assumption that the ostrich’s nasal glands do not play any role in salt excretion. The nasal glands may be the result of an ancestral trait, which is no longer needed by the ostrich, but has not been bred out of their gene pool.

text: A number of avian species use

text: nasal salt glands

text: , alongside their kidneys, to control

text: hypertonicity

text: in their

text: blood plasma

text: . However, the ostrich shows no nasal glandular function in regard to this homeostatic process. Even in a state of dehydration, which increases the

text: osmolality

text: of the blood, nasal salt glands show no sizeable contribution of salt elimination. Also, the overall mass of the glands was less than that of the duck’s nasal gland. The ostrich, having a heavier body weight, should have larger, heavier nasal glands to more effectively excrete salt from a larger volume of blood, but this is not the case. These unequal proportions contribute to the assumption that the ostrich’s nasal glands do not play any role in salt excretion. The nasal glands may be the result of an ancestral trait, which is no longer needed by the ostrich, but has not been bred out of their gene pool.

text: These treatments are not truly cures for kidney disease. In the context of chronic kidney disease, they are more accurately viewed as life-extending treatments, although if chronic kidney disease is managed well with dialysis and a compatible graft is found early and is successfully transplanted, the clinical course can be quite favorable, with life expectancy of many years. Likewise, in certain acute illnesses or trauma resulting in acute kidney injury, a person could very well survive for many years, with relatively good kidney function, before needing intervention again, as long as they had good response to dialysis, they got a kidney transplant fairly quickly if needed, their body did not reject the transplanted kidney, and they had no other significant health problems. Early dialysis (and, if indicated, early renal transplant) in acute renal failure usually brings more favorable outcomes.

text: These treatments are not truly

text: cure

text: s for

text: kidney disease

text: . In the context of chronic kidney disease, they are more accurately viewed as life-extending treatments, although if chronic kidney disease is managed well with dialysis and a compatible graft is found early and is successfully transplanted, the clinical course can be quite favorable, with

text: life expectancy

text: of many years. Likewise, in certain acute illnesses or

text: trauma

text: resulting in acute kidney injury, a person could very well survive for many years, with relatively good

text: kidney function

text: , before needing intervention again, as long as they had good response to dialysis, they got a kidney transplant fairly quickly if needed, their body did not

text: reject the transplanted kidney

text: , and they had no other significant health problems. Early

text: dialysis

text: (and, if

text: indicated

text: , early renal transplant) in acute renal failure usually brings more favorable outcomes.

text: Pronephros the most basic of the three excretory organs that develop in vertebrates, corresponding to the first stage of kidney development. It is succeeded by the mesonephros, which in fish and amphibians remains as the adult kidney. In amniotes the mesonephros is the embryonic kidney and a more complex metanephros acts as the adult kidney. Once a more advanced kidney forms, the previous version typically degenerates by apoptosis or becomes part of the male reproductive system.

text: Pronephros the most basic of the three

text: excretory organ

text: s that develop in

text: vertebrate

text: s, corresponding to the first stage of

text: kidney

text: development. It is succeeded by the

text: mesonephros

text: , which in fish and amphibians remains as the adult kidney. In amniotes the mesonephros is the embryonic kidney and a more complex metanephros acts as the adult kidney. Once a more advanced kidney forms, the previous version typically degenerates by apoptosis or becomes part of the male reproductive system.

text: CPA is excreted 70% in feces and 30% in urine.

text: CPA is

text: excreted

text: 70% in

text: feces

text: and 30% in

text: urine

text: In healthy volunteers, 1.0 to 3.5% of an administered dose was excreted unchanged in the urine. The metabolites also are excreted unchanged in the urine.

text: Research looking at the duration of urination in a range of mammal species found that 9 larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size. Smaller species including rodents and bats cannot produce jets and instead urinate with a series of drops.

text: Research looking at the duration of

text: urination

text: in a range of

text: mammal

text: species found that 9 larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size. Smaller species including rodents and bats cannot produce jets and instead urinate with a series of drops.

text: Pre-urine is formed in the tubules, when nitrogenous waste and electrolytes are transported through the tubule walls. Wastes such as urea and amino acids are thought to diffuse through the walls, while ions such as sodium and potassium are transported by active pump mechanisms. Water follows thereafter. The pre-urine, along with digested food, merge in the hindgut. At this time, uric acid precipitates out, and sodium and potassium ions are actively absorbed by the rectum, along with water via osmosis. Uric acid is left to mix with feces, which are then excreted.

text: Pre-urine is formed in the tubules, when

text: nitrogenous waste

text: and

text: electrolytes

text: are transported through the tubule walls. Wastes such as

text: urea

text: and

text: amino acids

text: are thought to diffuse through the walls, while ions such as

text: sodium

text: and

text: potassium

text: are transported by active pump mechanisms. Water follows thereafter. The pre-urine, along with digested food, merge in the hindgut. At this time, uric acid precipitates out, and sodium and potassium ions are actively absorbed by the rectum, along with water via

text: osmosis

text: . Uric acid is left to mix with feces, which are then

text: excreted

text: Like most other molluscs, the excretory organs of bivalves are a pair of nephridia. Each of these consists of a long, looped, glandular tube, which opens into the body cavity just beneath the heart, and a bladder to store urine. The pericardial glands either line the auricles of the heart or attach to the pericardium, and serve as extra filtration organs. Metabolic waste is voided from the bladders through a pair of openings near the front of the upper part of the mantle cavity, from where it joins the stream of exhalant water.

text: Like most other molluscs, the excretory organs of bivalves are a pair of

text: nephridia

text: . Each of these consists of a long, looped, glandular tube, which opens into the body cavity just beneath the heart, and a

text: bladder

text: to store urine. The pericardial glands either line the auricles of the heart or attach to the pericardium, and serve as extra filtration organs. Metabolic waste is voided from the bladders through a pair of openings near the front of the upper part of the mantle cavity, from where it joins the stream of exhalant water.

text: The definition of life is controversial. The current definition is that organisms maintain homeostasis, are composed of cells, undergo metabolism, can grow, adapt to their environment, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. However, many other biological definitions have been proposed, and there are some borderline cases, such as viruses. Throughout history, there have been many attempts to define what is meant by "life" and many theories on the properties and emergence of living things, such as materialism, the belief that everything is made out of matter and that life is merely a complex form of it; hylomorphism, the belief that all things are a combination of matter and form, and the form of a living thing is its soul; spontaneous generation, the belief that life repeatedly emerges from non-life; and vitalism, a now largely discredited hypothesis that living organisms possess a "life force" or "vital spark". Modern definitions are more complex, with input from a diversity of scientific disciplines. Biophysicists have proposed many definitions based on chemical systems; there are also some living systems theories, such as the Gaia hypothesis, the idea that the Earth itself is alive. Another theory is that life is the property of ecological systems, and yet another is elaborated in complex systems biology, a branch or subfield of mathematical biology. Abiogenesis describes the natural process of life arising from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds. Properties common to all organisms include the need for certain core chemical elements to sustain biochemical functions.

text: The definition of life is controversial. The current definition is that

text: organism

text: s maintain

text: homeostasis

text: , are composed of

text: cells

text: , undergo

text: metabolism

text: , can

text: grow

text: adapt

text: to their environment, respond to

text: stimuli

text: , and

text: reproduce

text: . However, many other biological definitions have been proposed, and there are some borderline cases, such as viruses. Throughout history, there have been many attempts to define what is meant by "life" and many theories on the properties and emergence of living things, such as

text: materialism

text: , the belief that everything is made out of matter and that life is merely a complex form of it;

text: hylomorphism

text: , the belief that all things are a combination of matter and form, and the form of a living thing is its soul;

text: spontaneous generation

text: , the belief that life repeatedly emerges from non-life; and

text: vitalism

text: , a now largely discredited hypothesis that living organisms possess a "life force" or "vital spark". Modern definitions are more complex, with input from a diversity of scientific disciplines.

text: Biophysicists

text: have proposed many definitions based on chemical

text: systems

text: ; there are also some

text: living systems theories

text: , such as the

text: Gaia hypothesis

text: , the idea that the

text: Earth

text: itself is alive. Another theory is that life is the property of

text: ecological systems

text: , and yet another is elaborated in

text: complex systems biology

text: , a branch or subfield of

text: mathematical biology

text: Abiogenesis

text: describes the natural process of life arising from non-living matter, such as simple

text: organic compounds

text: . Properties common to all organisms include the need for certain core

text: chemical element

text: s to sustain

text: biochemical

text: functions.

text: The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases,  stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis. The study of the blood flow is called hemodynamics. The study of the properties of the blood flow is called hemorheology.

text: The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an

text: organ system

text: that permits

text: blood

text: to circulate and transport

text: nutrient

text: s (such as

text: amino acids

text: and

text: electrolytes

text: oxygen

text: carbon dioxide

text: hormone

text: s, and

text: blood cell

text: s to and from the

text: cells

text: in the body to provide nourishment and help in

text: fighting diseases

text: stabilize temperature

text: and

text: pH

text: , and maintain

text: homeostasis

text: . The study of the blood flow is called

text: hemodynamics

text: . The study of the properties of the blood flow is called

text: hemorheology

text: Many diets have been proposed for treatment of Crohn's disease, and many do improve symptoms, but none have been proven to actually cure Crohn's disease.  Specific Carbohydrate Diet usually needs adjustments for patients so that they can handle the diet.If a patient finds that certain foods increase or decrease the symptoms, then they may adjust their diet accordingly. A food diary is recommended to see what positive or negative effects particular foods have. A low residue diet may be used to reduce the volume of stools excreted daily.  People with lactose intolerance due to small bowel disease may benefit from avoiding lactose-containing foods.   Patients who cannot eat are recommended to take total parenteral nutrition (TPN) – a source of vitamins and nutrients.

text: Many

text: diets

text: have been proposed for treatment of Crohn's disease, and many do improve symptoms, but none have been proven to actually cure Crohn's disease.

text: Specific Carbohydrate Diet

text: usually needs adjustments for patients so that they can handle the diet.If a patient finds that certain foods increase or decrease the symptoms, then they may adjust their diet accordingly. A food diary is recommended to see what positive or negative effects particular foods have. A

text: low residue diet

text: may be used to reduce the volume of stools excreted daily.  People with

text: lactose intolerance

text: due to small bowel disease may benefit from avoiding

text: lactose

text: -containing foods.   Patients who cannot eat are recommended to take total parenteral nutrition (TPN) – a source of vitamins and nutrients.

text: HMB is eliminated via the kidneys, with roughly 10–40% of an ingested dose being excreted unchanged in urine. The remaining 60–90% of the dose is retained in tissues or excreted as HMB metabolites. The fraction of a given dose of HMB that is excreted unchanged in urine increases with the dose.

text: HMB is eliminated via the

text: kidneys

text: , with roughly 10–40% of an ingested dose being excreted unchanged in urine. The remaining 60–90% of the dose is retained in tissues or excreted as HMB metabolites. The fraction of a given dose of HMB that is excreted unchanged in urine increases with the dose.

text: An idioblast is an isolated plant cell that differs from neighboring tissues. They have various functions such as storage of reserves, excretory materials, pigments, and minerals. They could contain oil, latex, gum, resin, tannin or pigments etc. Some can contain mineral crystals such as acrid tasting and poisonous calcium oxalate or carbonate or silica.   Any of the tissue or tissue systems of plants can contain idioblasts. Idioblasts are divided into three main categories: excretory, tracheoid, and sclerenchymatous.

text: An idioblast is an isolated plant cell that differs from neighboring tissues. They have various functions such as storage of reserves, excretory materials, pigments, and minerals. They could contain oil, latex, gum, resin, tannin or pigments etc. Some can contain mineral crystals such as acrid tasting and poisonous

text: calcium oxalate

text: or carbonate or silica.   Any of the tissue or tissue systems of plants can contain idioblasts. Idioblasts are divided into three main categories: excretory, tracheoid, and

text: sclerenchyma

text: tous.

text: Though urine has been used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in several traditional systems, and mentioned in some medical texts, auto-urine therapy as a system of alternative medicine was popularized by British naturopath John W. Armstrong in early 20th century. Armstrong was inspired by his family's practice of using urine to treat minor stings and toothaches, by a metaphorical reading of the Biblical Proverb 5:15 "Drink waters out of thine own cistern, and running waters out of thine own well", and his own experience with ill-health that he treated with a 45-day fast "on nothing but urine and tap water". Starting in 1918, Armstrong prescribed urine-therapy regimens that he devised to many thousands of patients, and in 1944 he published The Water of Life: A treatise on urine therapy, which became a founding document of the field.

text: Though urine has been used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in several traditional systems, and mentioned in some medical texts, auto-urine therapy as a system of

text: alternative medicine

text: was popularized by British

text: naturopath

text: John W. Armstrong in early 20th century. Armstrong was inspired by his family's practice of using urine to treat minor stings and toothaches, by a metaphorical reading of the

text: Biblical Proverb 5:15

text: "Drink waters out of thine own cistern, and running waters out of thine own well", and his own experience with ill-health that he treated with a 45-day fast "on nothing but urine and tap water". Starting in 1918, Armstrong prescribed urine-therapy regimens that he devised to many thousands of patients, and in 1944 he published The Water of Life: A treatise on urine therapy, which became a founding document of the field.

text: Sadly, when Chuyi grown older, she realised that she has some conditions that is similar to that of her father's. Chuyi was worried if she have kidney disease, like her father. After the checkup, Chuyi is diagnosed with acute kidney disease. Chuyi’s boyfriend, Ding Zhanpeng (Allen Chen), leaves her as his parents disapprove them from being together. Chuyi's mother, Chen Miaoyu (Aileen Tan) is devastated and tries to donate her kidney to save Chuyi but is unable to do so because of her own health problems. Jiayi cannot bear to see Chuyi tormented by kidney disease, she decides to donate a kidney to her. Chuyi is adamant about refusing it, not to mention that Jiayi’s parents oppose the decision vehemently. Before Jiayi manages to convince her parents, she is killed in a car accident at an early age. In accordance with the organ pledge form that she had signed before her death, Jiayi’s kidney is donated to Chuyi….

text: Sadly, when Chuyi grown older, she realised that she has some conditions that is similar to that of her father's. Chuyi was worried if she have kidney disease, like her father. After the checkup, Chuyi is diagnosed with acute kidney disease. Chuyi’s boyfriend, Ding Zhanpeng (Allen Chen), leaves her as his parents disapprove them from being together. Chuyi's mother, Chen Miaoyu (

text: Aileen Tan

text: ) is devastated and tries to donate her kidney to save Chuyi but is unable to do so because of her own health problems. Jiayi cannot bear to see Chuyi tormented by kidney disease, she decides to donate a kidney to her. Chuyi is adamant about refusing it, not to mention that Jiayi’s parents oppose the decision vehemently. Before Jiayi manages to convince her parents, she is killed in a car accident at an early age. In accordance with the organ pledge form that she had signed before her death, Jiayi’s kidney is donated to Chuyi….

text: In the excretory system, the nephridium is central, tending to the right side of the body, as a thin dark layer of glandular tissue. The nephridium is anterior and ventral of the digestive gland, and is in contact with the dorsal side of the foregut.

text: In the

text: excretory system

text: , the

text: nephridium

text: is central, tending to the right side of the body, as a thin dark layer of glandular tissue. The nephridium is anterior and ventral of the digestive gland, and is in contact with the dorsal side of the foregut.

text: Generally, if the patient is treated and survives then a full recovery is expected. Patients who present early to medical facilities and have prompt medical treatment typically will have a favorable outcome. Alternatively, patients presenting late with signs and symptoms of coma, hyperkalemia, seizures, or severe acidosis have a poor prognosis. Patients who develop severe central nervous system manifestations or stroke who survive may have long term neurologic dysfunction; in some cases they may recover, although convalescence may be prolonged. The most significant long-term complication is related to the kidneys. Cases of permanent kidney damage, often requiring chronic dialysis or kidney transplantation, have been reported after severe poisoning.

text: Generally, if the patient is treated and survives then a full recovery is expected. Patients who present early to medical facilities and have prompt medical treatment typically will have a favorable outcome. Alternatively, patients presenting late with signs and symptoms of coma, hyperkalemia, seizures, or severe acidosis have a poor prognosis. Patients who develop severe central nervous system manifestations or

text: stroke

text: who survive may have long term neurologic dysfunction; in some cases they may recover, although convalescence may be prolonged. The most significant long-term complication is related to the kidneys. Cases of permanent kidney damage, often requiring chronic dialysis or

text: kidney transplantation

text: , have been reported after severe poisoning.

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related. As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying symptoms apparent on clinical examination. Agenesis of the corpus callosum is one such disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies. The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell organelles that are present in many cellular types throughout the human body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases. Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: , that are now being found to be related. As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their

text: root cause

text: despite the widely varying

text: symptoms

text: apparent on clinical examination. Agenesis of the corpus callosum is one such disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: . The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: s that are present in many cellular types throughout the

text: human

text: body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often

text: multi-symptom

text: nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases. Known ciliopathies include

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: , and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: As opposed to western medicine, where the bladders function is the storage and excretion of urine, the bladder in Traditional Chinese Medicine has extended functions, including how fluids are transformed during urine production. Fluids are still sent from the small intestine to the bladder for storage, but the bladders capabilities are dependent on the kidney yang. If the kidney is yang deficient, the bladder may not have the sufficient qi and heat to transform fluids properly into urine. This could result in overly clear urine that must be excreted more frequently.

text: Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology. The human body consists of the legs, the torso, the arms, the neck, and the head. An adult human body consists of about 100 trillion (10) cells. The most commonly defined body systems in humans are the nervous, the cardiovascular, the circulatory, the digestive, the endocrine, the immune, the integumentary, the lymphatic, the muscoskeletal, the reproductive, the respiratory, and the urinary system.

text: Most aspects of human physiology are closely

text: homologous

text: to corresponding aspects of

text: animal

text: physiology. The human body consists of the

text: legs

text: , the

text: torso

text: , the

text: arm

text: s, the

text: neck

text: , and the

text: head

text: . An

text: adult

text: human body

text: consists of about 100 trillion (10)

text: cell

text: s. The most commonly defined

text: body systems

text: in humans are the

text: nervous

text: , the

text: cardiovascular

text: , the

text: circulatory

text: , the

text: digestive

text: , the

text: endocrine

text: , the

text: immune

text: , the

text: integumentary

text: , the

text: lymphatic

text: , the

text: muscoskeletal

text: , the

text: reproductive

text: , the

text: respiratory

text: , and the

text: urinary system

text: Reed Wickner graduated from Cornell University with a B.A. degree in 1962. He then went to medical school at Georgetown University and received his M.D. degree in 1966. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences [(AAAS)], and the American Academy of Microbiology, and has been a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.  He is (as of 2012) Chief of the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Genetics at the National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases, part of the National Institutes of Health. His research interests pertain to prions and amyloid diseases.

text: Reed Wickner graduated from

text: Cornell University

text: with a B.A. degree in 1962. He then went to medical school at

text: Georgetown University

text: and received his M.D. degree in 1966. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences [(AAAS)], and the American Academy of Microbiology, and has been a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.  He is (as of 2012) Chief of the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Genetics at the National Institute of Diabetes & Digestive & Kidney Diseases, part of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: . His research interests pertain to prions and

text: amyloid

text: diseases.

text: Although possession of the APOL1 risk variants increases susceptibility to non-diabetic kidney disease, not all people who possess these variants develop kidney disease, which indicates another factor may initiate progression of kidney disease. Similarly in HIV positive patients, although the majority of African-American patients with HIVAN have twoAPOL1 risk alleles other as yet unknown factors in the host, including genetic risk variants and environmental or viral factors, may influence the development of this disorder in those with zero or one APOL1 risk allele. Kidney Int. 2012 Aug;82(3):338-43. The African American population has a total lifetime risk of developing FSGS of 0.8%.  For those with 0 risk alleles the risk of developing FSGS is 0.2%, 0.3% with 1 risk allele, 4.25% with 2 risk alleles and a 50% chance of developing HIVAN for untreated HIV infected individuals.

text: Amniocentesis (process of sampling amniotic fluid) and chorionic villus sampling cannot be performed until approximately 3 months into the pregnancy. Given that SLOS is a very severe syndrome, parents may want to choose to terminate their pregnancy if their fetus is affected. Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling leave very little time to make this decision (abortions become more difficult as the pregnancy advances), and can also pose severe risks to the mother and baby. Thus, there is a very large desire for noninvasive midgestation diagnostic tests. Examining the concentrations of sterols in maternal urine is one potential way to identify SLOS prenatally. During pregnancy, the fetus is solely responsible for synthesizing the cholesterol needed to produce estriol. A fetus with SLOS cannot produce cholesterol, and may use 7DHC or 8DHC as precursors for estriol instead. This creates 7- or 8-dehydrosteroids (such as 7-dehydroestriol), which may show up in the maternal urine. These are novel metabolites due to the presence of a normally reduced double bond at carbon 7 (caused by the inactivity of DHCR7), and may be used as indicators of SLOS. Other cholesterol derivatives which possess a double bond at the 7th or 8th position and are present in maternal urine may also be indicators of SLOS. 7- and 8-dehydropregnanetriols have been shown to be present in the urine of mothers with an affected fetus but not with an unaffected fetus, and thus are used in diagnosis. These pregnadienes originated in the fetus and traveled through the placenta before reaching the mother. Their excretion indicates that neither the placenta nor the maternal organs have necessary enzymes needed to reduce the double bond of these novel metabolites.

text: Amniocentesis

text: (process of sampling amniotic fluid) and chorionic villus sampling cannot be performed until approximately 3 months into the pregnancy. Given that SLOS is a very severe syndrome, parents may want to choose to terminate their pregnancy if their fetus is affected. Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling leave very little time to make this decision (abortions become more difficult as the pregnancy advances), and can also pose severe risks to the mother and baby. Thus, there is a very large desire for noninvasive midgestation diagnostic tests. Examining the concentrations of

text: sterol

text: s in maternal urine is one potential way to identify SLOS prenatally. During pregnancy, the fetus is solely responsible for synthesizing the cholesterol needed to produce

text: estriol

text: . A fetus with SLOS cannot produce cholesterol, and may use 7DHC or 8DHC as precursors for estriol instead. This creates 7- or 8-dehydrosteroids (such as 7-dehydroestriol), which may show up in the maternal urine. These are novel metabolites due to the presence of a normally reduced

text: double bond

text: at carbon 7 (caused by the inactivity of DHCR7), and may be used as indicators of SLOS. Other cholesterol derivatives which possess a double bond at the 7th or 8th position and are present in maternal urine may also be indicators of SLOS. 7- and 8-dehydropregnanetriols have been shown to be present in the urine of mothers with an affected fetus but not with an unaffected fetus, and thus are used in diagnosis. These

text: pregnadiene

text: s originated in the fetus and traveled through the

text: placenta

text: before reaching the mother. Their excretion indicates that neither the placenta nor the maternal organs have necessary enzymes needed to reduce the double bond of these novel metabolites.

text: Causes of kidney disease include deposition of the IgA antibodies in the glomerulus, administration of analgesics, xanthine oxidase deficiency, toxicity of chemotherapy agents, and long-term exposure to lead or its salts. Chronic conditions that can produce nephropathy include systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetes mellitus and high blood pressure (hypertension), which lead to diabetic nephropathy and hypertensive nephropathy, respectively.

text: Causes of kidney disease include deposition of the

text: IgA

text: antibodies in the

text: glomerulus

text: , administration of

text: analgesic

text: s,

text: xanthine oxidase deficiency

text: , toxicity of chemotherapy agents, and long-term exposure to

text: lead

text: or its salts. Chronic conditions that can produce nephropathy include

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: diabetes mellitus

text: and

text: high blood pressure

text: (hypertension), which lead to

text: diabetic nephropathy

text: and

text: hypertensive nephropathy

text: , respectively.

text: Urine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of hydration, as well as other factors. Normal urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber but is usually a pale yellow. In the urine of a healthy individual the color comes primarily from the presence of urobilin. Urobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of heme from hemoglobin during the destruction of aging blood cells.

text: Urine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of

text: hydration

text: , as well as other factors. Normal urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber but is usually a pale yellow. In the urine of a healthy individual the color comes primarily from the presence of

text: urobilin

text: . Urobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of

text: heme

text: from

text: hemoglobin

text: during the destruction of aging blood cells.

text: During erection, these centers block the relaxation of the sphincter muscles, so as to act as a physiological separation of the excretory and reproductive function of the penis, and preventing urine from entering the upper portion of the urethra during ejaculation.

text: Ricinulei (hooded tickspiders) are 5–10 mm long. Their most notable feature is a "hood" that can be raised and lowered over the head; when lowered, it covers the mouth and the chelicerae. Ricinulei have no eyes. The pedipalps end in pincers that are small relative to their bodies, when compared to those of the related orders of scorpions and pseudoscorpions. The heavy-bodied abdomen forms a narrow pedicel, or waist, where it attaches to the prosoma. In males, the third pair of legs are modified to form copulatory organs. Malpighian tubules and a pair of coxal glands make up the excretory system. They have no lungs, as gas exchange takes place through the trachea.

text: Ricinulei (hooded tickspiders) are 5–10 mm long. Their most notable feature is a "hood" that can be raised and lowered over the head; when lowered, it covers the mouth and the chelicerae. Ricinulei have no eyes. The pedipalps end in pincers that are small relative to their bodies, when compared to those of the related orders of

text: scorpion

text: s and

text: pseudoscorpion

text: s. The heavy-bodied abdomen forms a narrow pedicel, or waist, where it attaches to the

text: prosoma

text: . In males, the third pair of legs are modified to form copulatory organs.

text: Malpighian tubule

text: s and a pair of

text: coxal glands

text: make up the excretory system. They have no lungs, as gas exchange takes place through the trachea.

text: In millipedes, the second maxillae have been lost, reducing the mouthparts to only the first maxillae which have fused together to form a gnathochilarium, acting as a lower lip to the buccal cavity and the mandibles which have been enlarged and specialized greatly, used for chewing food. The gnathochilarium is richly infused with chemosensory and tactile receptors along its edge. A pair of maxillary glands, also called nephridial organs, involved in osmoregulation and excreting nitrogenous waste open up to the gnathochilarium and wastes are passed entirely through the digestive tract before being evacuated. The neprhidial organs are thought to be derived from similar organs in annelids, although reduced in number since the open circulatory system of arthropods lessens the demand on separate excretory organs. The reason for their anterior location is probably because these organs must be developed early on in the embryo and millipedes and other arthropods develop mainly by proliferation of cells at the posterior of the embryo.

text: In

text: millipede

text: s, the second maxillae have been lost, reducing the mouthparts to only the first maxillae which have fused together to form a gnathochilarium, acting as a lower lip to the buccal cavity and the

text: mandibles

text: which have been enlarged and specialized greatly, used for chewing food. The gnathochilarium is richly infused with chemosensory and tactile receptors along its edge. A pair of maxillary glands, also called nephridial organs, involved in

text: osmoregulation

text: and excreting

text: nitrogenous waste

text: open up to the gnathochilarium and wastes are passed entirely through the digestive tract before being evacuated. The neprhidial organs are thought to be derived from similar organs in

text: annelids

text: , although reduced in number since the

text: open circulatory system

text: of arthropods lessens the demand on separate excretory organs. The reason for their anterior location is probably because these organs must be developed early on in the embryo and millipedes and other arthropods develop mainly by proliferation of cells at the posterior of the embryo.

text: Immune organs vary by type of fish.In the jawless fish (lampreys and hagfish), true lymphoid organs are absent. These fish rely on regions of lymphoid tissue within other organs to produce immune cells. For example, erythrocytes, macrophages and plasma cells are produced in the anterior kidney (or pronephros) and some areas of the gut (where granulocytes mature.) They resemble primitive bone marrow in hagfish.Cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) have a more advanced immune system. They have three specialized organs that are unique to Chondrichthyes; the epigonal organs (lymphoid tissue similar to mammalian bone) that surround the gonads, the Leydig's organ within the walls of their esophagus, and a spiral valve in their intestine. These organs house typical immune cells (granulocytes, lymphocytes and plasma cells). They also possess an identifiable thymus and a well-developed spleen (their most important immune organ) where various lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages develop and are stored.Chondrostean fish (sturgeons, paddlefish, and bichirs) possess a major site for the production of granulocytes within a mass that is associated with the meninges (membranes surrounding the central nervous system.) Their heart is frequently covered with tissue that contains lymphocytes, reticular cells and a small number of macrophages. The chondrostean kidney is an important hemopoietic organ; where erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes and macrophages develop.

text: Immune organs vary by type of fish.In the

text: jawless fish

text: (lampreys and hagfish), true

text: lymph

text: oid organs are absent. These fish rely on regions of

text: lymphoid tissue

text: within other organs to produce immune cells. For example,

text: erythrocytes

text: macrophages

text: and

text: plasma cells

text: are produced in the anterior kidney (or

text: pronephros

text: ) and some areas of the gut (where

text: granulocytes

text: mature.) They resemble primitive

text: bone marrow

text: in hagfish.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: (sharks and rays) have a more advanced immune system. They have three specialized organs that are unique to

text: Chondrichthyes

text: ; the epigonal organs (lymphoid tissue similar to mammalian bone) that surround the gonads, the

text: Leydig's organ

text: within the walls of their esophagus, and a

text: spiral valve

text: in their intestine. These organs house typical immune cells (granulocytes, lymphocytes and plasma cells). They also possess an identifiable

text: thymus

text: and a well-developed

text: spleen

text: (their most important immune organ) where various

text: lymphocyte

text: s, plasma cells and macrophages develop and are stored.

text: Chondrostean

text: fish (sturgeons, paddlefish, and bichirs) possess a major site for the production of granulocytes within a mass that is associated with the

text: meninges

text: (membranes surrounding the central nervous system.) Their heart is frequently covered with tissue that contains lymphocytes,

text: reticular cell

text: s and a small number of

text: macrophage

text: s. The chondrostean kidney is an important

text: hemopoietic

text: organ; where erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes and macrophages develop.

text: There are reports of kidney damage with creatine use, such as interstitial nephritis; patients with kidney disease should avoid use of this supplement. In similar manner, liver function may be altered, and caution is advised in those with underlying liver disease, although studies have shown little or no adverse impact on kidney or liver function from oral creatine supplementation. In 2004 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published a record which stated that oral long-term intake of 3 g pure creatine per day is risk-free. A 2003 study on athletes who took creatine for 21 months found no significant changes in markers of renal function; a 2008 study on athletes who took creatine for 3 months found no evidence of kidney damage during that time.

text: There are reports of kidney damage with creatine use, such as interstitial nephritis; patients with kidney disease should avoid use of this supplement. In similar manner, liver function may be altered, and caution is advised in those with underlying liver disease, although studies have shown little or no adverse impact on kidney or liver function from oral creatine supplementation. In 2004 the

text: European Food Safety Authority

text: (EFSA) published a record which stated that oral long-term intake of 3 g pure creatine per day is risk-free. A 2003 study on athletes who took creatine for 21 months found no significant changes in markers of renal function; a 2008 study on athletes who took creatine for 3 months found no evidence of kidney damage during that time.

text: The kidney’s primary function is storing and controlling ‘essence’, or jing. Jing is the essence of qi and the basis for body matter and functional activities.  There are two types of jing, congenital jing and acquired jing, which are stored in the kidney and known as kidney jing. Unlike qi, jing circulates in long cycles (seven years for females and eight years for males) governing developmental stages.  The function of jing is to promote growth, development and reproduction, provide the basis for kidney qi, produce marrow, and provide the basis for jing, qi and shen (mind).

text: The kidney’s primary function is storing and controlling ‘essence’, or jing. Jing is the essence of qi and the basis for body matter and functional activities.  There are two types of jing, congenital jing and acquired jing, which are stored in the kidney and known as kidney jing. Unlike qi, jing circulates in long cycles (seven years for females and eight years for males) governing developmental stages.  The function of jing is to promote growth, development and reproduction, provide the basis for kidney qi, produce

text: marrow

text: , and provide the basis for jing, qi and shen (mind).

text: Later developers began to write a second type of system which could manage electronic documents, i.e., all those documents, or files, created on computers, and often stored on users' local file-systems. The earliest electronic document management (EDM) systems managed either proprietary file types, or a limited number of file formats.  Many of these systems later became known as document imaging systems, because they focused on the capture, storage, indexing and retrieval of image file formats. EDM systems evolved to a point where systems could manage any type of file format that could be stored on the network. The applications grew to encompass electronic documents, collaboration tools, security, workflow, and auditing capabilities.

text: Later developers began to write a second type of system which could manage electronic documents, i.e., all those documents, or files, created on computers, and often stored on users' local

text: file-system

text: s. The earliest electronic document management (EDM) systems managed either proprietary file types, or a limited number of

text: file format

text: s.  Many of these systems later became known as

text: document imaging

text: systems, because they focused on the capture, storage, indexing and retrieval of

text: image file formats

text: . EDM systems evolved to a point where systems could manage any type of file format that could be stored on the network. The applications grew to encompass electronic documents,

text: collaboration tool

text: s, security, workflow, and

text: audit

text: ing capabilities.

text: Documentation testing being part of non-functional testing and a type of black box testing is the most important testing as it ensures that documentation about how to use the system match exactly with what the system does as, a convincing part of the system changes in the last minute testing and improvement of the system. Documentation testing includes the plans, results, and testing of a system or system component. Its types include test case specification, test plan, test procedure, test report and test log. It is about the testing of all the documents stating, defining, explaining and reporting or validating requirements, procedures followed and results. Documentation testing starts with the beginning of the very first software process and is cost effective as it saves a lot of money. Hence if documentation of software will not be writing it will cause serious cost and scheduling problems. So Documentation testing is about checking the spelling and grammar to review any ambiguity or inconsistency between what functionality it performs and what it is supposed to do.

text: Excretion is the process by which metabolic wastes and other non-useful materials are eliminated from an organism. In vertebrates this is primarily carried out by the lungs, kidneys and skin. This is in contrast with secretion, where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the cell. Excretion is an essential process in all forms of life. For example, in mammals urine is expelled through the urethra, which is part of the excretory system. In single-celled organisms, waste products are discharged directly through the surface of the cell.

text: Excretion is the process by which

text: metabolic waste

text: s and other non-useful materials are eliminated from an

text: organism

text: . In vertebrates this is primarily carried out by the

text: lungs

text: kidneys

text: and

text: skin

text: . This is in contrast with

text: secretion

text: , where the substance may have specific tasks after leaving the

text: cell

text: . Excretion is an essential process in all forms of life. For example, in mammals

text: urine

text: is expelled through the

text: urethra

text: , which is part of the

text: excretory system

text: . In

text: single-celled organisms

text: , waste products are discharged directly through the surface of the cell.

text: Extraglomerular mesangial cells (also known as Lacis cells, Goormaghtigh cells, or Polkissen cells) are light-staining pericytes in the kidney found outside the glomerulus, near the vascular pole.  They resemble smooth muscle cells and play a role in renal autoregulation of blood flow to the kidney and regulation of systemic blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin system.  Extraglomerular mesangial cells are part of the juxtaglomerular apparatus, along with the macula densa cells of the distal convoluted tubule and the juxtaglomerular cells of the afferent arteriole.

text: Extraglomerular mesangial cells (also known as Lacis cells, Goormaghtigh cells, or Polkissen cells) are light-staining

text: pericytes

text: in the

text: kidney

text: found outside the

text: glomerulus

text: , near the

text: vascular pole

text: .  They resemble smooth muscle cells and play a role in

text: renal autoregulation

text: of blood flow to the kidney and regulation of systemic

text: blood pressure

text: through the

text: renin-angiotensin system

text: .  Extraglomerular mesangial cells are part of the

text: juxtaglomerular apparatus

text: , along with the

text: macula densa

text: cells of the

text: distal convoluted tubule

text: and the

text: juxtaglomerular cells

text: of the

text: afferent arteriole

text: The kidney is responsible for maintaining a balance of the following substances:

text: The excretory system consists of three regions. The basal region has three cells found within the posterior portion of the midgut. The anterior and superior cavity are formed by the bases of four malpighian tubules. The superior cavity opens into the lumen of the small intestine. The rectum is a large but thin-walled sac that occupies the posterior fifth of the larvae. The release of waste is controlled by the rectal valves that lead to the anus. Sometimes, the larvae secrete a liquid that consists of uric acid, water and salts. These contents are often carried outside by workers and ejected, but colonies under water stress may consume the contents. In the reproductive system, queens release a pheromone that prevents dealation and oogenesis in virgin females; those tested in colonies without a queen begin oocyte development after dealation and take up the egg-laying role. Flight muscle degeneration is initiated by mating and juvenile hormones, and prevented by corpus allatectomy. Histolysis begins with the dissolution of the myofibril and the slow breakdown of the myofilaments. Such dissolution continues until it reaches the only free Z-line materials, which would also disappear; only the nuclei and lamellar bodies remain. In one study, the amino acids increase in the hemolymph after insemination.

text: The

text: excretory system

text: consists of three regions. The basal region has three cells found within the posterior portion of the midgut. The anterior and superior cavity are formed by the bases of four

text: malpighian tubule

text: s. The superior cavity opens into the

text: lumen

text: of the small intestine. The rectum is a large but thin-walled sac that occupies the posterior fifth of the larvae. The release of waste is controlled by the

text: rectal valves

text: that lead to the anus. Sometimes, the larvae secrete a liquid that consists of

text: uric acid

text: , water and salts. These contents are often carried outside by workers and ejected, but colonies under water stress may consume the contents. In the

text: reproductive system

text: , queens release a

text: pheromone

text: that prevents dealation and

text: oogenesis

text: in virgin females; those tested in colonies without a queen begin

text: oocyte

text: development after dealation and take up the egg-laying role. Flight muscle degeneration is initiated by mating and juvenile hormones, and prevented by

text: corpus allatectomy

text: Histolysis

text: begins with the dissolution of the

text: myofibril

text: and the slow breakdown of the

text: myofilament

text: s. Such dissolution continues until it reaches the only free Z-line materials, which would also disappear; only the

text: nuclei

text: and

text: lamellar bodies

text: remain. In one study, the

text: amino acid

text: s increase in the

text: hemolymph

text: after insemination.

text: Disinfection by chlorination can be problematic, in some circumstances. Chlorine can react with naturally occurring organic compounds found in the water supply to produce compounds known as disinfection by-products (DBPs). The most common DBPs are trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs). Trihalomethanes are the main disinfectant by-products created from chlorination with two different types, bromoform and dibromochloromethane, which are mainly responsible for health hazards. Their effects depend strictly on the duration of their exposure to the chemicals and the amount ingested into the body. In high doses, bromoform mainly slows down regular brain activity, which is manifested by symptoms such as sleepiness or sedation. Chronic exposure of both bromoform and dibromochloromethane can cause liver and kidney cancer, as well as heart disease, unconsciousness, or death in high doses. Due to the potential carcinogenicity of these compounds, drinking water regulations across the developed world require regular monitoring of the concentration of these compounds in the distribution systems of municipal water systems. The World Health Organization has stated that "the risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection".

text: Disinfection by chlorination can be problematic, in some circumstances. Chlorine can react with naturally occurring

text: organic compound

text: s found in the water supply to produce compounds known as

text: disinfection by-product

text: s (DBPs). The most common DBPs are

text: trihalomethane

text: s (THMs) and

text: haloacetic acid

text: s (HAAs). Trihalomethanes are the main disinfectant by-products created from chlorination with two different types,

text: bromoform

text: and

text: dibromochloromethane

text: , which are mainly responsible for health hazards. Their effects depend strictly on the duration of their exposure to the chemicals and the amount ingested into the body. In high doses, bromoform mainly slows down regular brain activity, which is manifested by symptoms such as sleepiness or sedation. Chronic exposure of both bromoform and dibromochloromethane can cause liver and kidney cancer, as well as heart disease, unconsciousness, or death in high doses. Due to the potential

text: carcinogenicity

text: of these compounds, drinking water regulations across the developed world require regular monitoring of the concentration of these compounds in the distribution systems of municipal water systems. The

text: World Health Organization

text: has stated that "the risks to health from these by-products are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection".

text: At the hospital, the family learns that Peter's condition has a big chance of suddenly failing and thus killing him. They learn that the only other option besides the daily procedures is that one must give up one of their kidneys to Peter. Lois volunteers to give up one of hers, but is informed that she isn't a match. Brian then also volunteers, and they discover that he has the same kidney type as Peter. However, as dog kidneys are smaller than human's, the donation requires both kidneys. If the procedure was successful, Brian would lose his life. Brian decides to go along with the procedure to save Peter's life. Reluctant to lose Brian, Stewie kidnaps him and takes him to the local playground, in hopes of staying there the rest of their lives. Brian convinces Stewie to let him go, stating that Stewie needs his father more than he needs his dog. The next day, Brian and Peter prepare to undergo the kidney transfer. However, Dr. Hartman reveals that he is also a match and has decided to donate one of his own kidneys. Thus, Brian's life is spared.

text: At the hospital, the family learns that Peter's condition has a big chance of suddenly failing and thus killing him. They learn that the only other option besides the daily procedures is that one must give up one of their kidneys to Peter. Lois volunteers to give up one of hers, but is informed that she isn't a match.

text: Brian

text: then also volunteers, and they discover that he has the same kidney type as Peter. However, as dog kidneys are smaller than human's, the donation requires both kidneys. If the procedure was successful, Brian would lose his life. Brian decides to go along with the procedure to save Peter's life. Reluctant to lose Brian, Stewie kidnaps him and takes him to the local playground, in hopes of staying there the rest of their lives. Brian convinces Stewie to let him go, stating that Stewie needs his father more than he needs his dog. The next day, Brian and Peter prepare to undergo the kidney transfer. However, Dr. Hartman reveals that he is also a match and has decided to donate one of his own kidneys. Thus, Brian's life is spared.

text: In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions about how the water will be used. In the case of natural water bodies, they also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Natural water bodies will vary in response to environmental conditions. Environmental scientists work  to understand how these systems function, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policymakers work to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use.

text: In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions about how the water will be used. In the case of natural

text: water bodies

text: , they also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Natural water bodies will vary in response to environmental conditions.

text: Environmental scientists

text: work  to understand how these systems function, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of

text: contaminants

text: Environmental lawyers

text: and

text: policymakers

text: work to define

text: legislation

text: with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use.

text: Any study done to determine nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all the materials excreted and eliminated from the body (including urine and feces). Comparing food to waste material can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized by the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period of time, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of human nutrition is still slowly evolving.

text: Any study done to determine nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the

text: chemical

text: composition of the whole diet and of all the materials

text: excreted

text: and eliminated from the body (including

text: urine

text: and feces). Comparing food to waste material can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized by the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period of time, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of

text: variables

text: involved in such

text: experiment

text: s is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of human nutrition is still slowly evolving.

text: In his work, How Curious a Land, Bryant shows how the local elite whites used the law and the legal system to maintain and extend their power. Before the Civil War, Green county was controlled by a small group of extremely wealthy slave owning planters. These men used the legal and social structures of slavery, marriage, and capitalism to maintain and increase their wealth and power.  Lawyers and merchants played a secondary in the power structure as facilitators of the planters’ power.  The vast majority of whites in the county were small farmers, craftsmen, or tenant farmers. More than sixty percent of the county’s population were slaves working on cotton plantations.  These plantations produced huge amounts of wealth for the plantation elite.

text: In his work, How Curious a Land, Bryant shows how the local elite whites used the

text: law

text: and the

text: legal system

text: to maintain and extend their power. Before the Civil War, Green county was controlled by a small group of extremely wealthy slave owning planters. These men used the legal and social structures of

text: slavery

text: marriage

text: , and

text: capitalism

text: to maintain and increase their wealth and power.  Lawyers and merchants played a secondary in the power structure as facilitators of the planters’ power.  The vast majority of whites in the county were small farmers, craftsmen, or tenant farmers. More than sixty percent of the county’s population were slaves working on

text: cotton

text: plantations.  These

text: plantations

text: produced huge amounts of wealth for the plantation elite.

text: The major homeostatic control point for maintaining this stable balance is renal excretion.  The kidney is directed to excrete or retain sodium via the action of aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and other hormones. Abnormal ranges of the fractional excretion of sodium can imply acute tubular necrosis or glomerular dysfunction.

text: The major

text: homeostatic

text: control point for maintaining this stable balance is renal excretion.  The kidney is directed to excrete or retain sodium via the action of

text: aldosterone

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: (ADH, or vasopressin),

text: atrial natriuretic peptide

text: (ANP), and other hormones. Abnormal ranges of the

text: fractional excretion of sodium

text: can imply

text: acute tubular necrosis

text: or

text: glomerular

text: dysfunction.

text: The mesonephros () is one of three excretory organs that develop in vertebrates. It serves as the main excretory organ of aquatic vertebrates and as a temporary kidney in reptiles, birds, and mammals. The mesonephros is included in the Wolffian body after Caspar Friedrich Wolff who described it in 1759. (The Wolffian body is composed of : mesonephros + paramesonephrotic blastema)

text: The mesonephros () is one of three

text: excretory organs

text: that develop in

text: vertebrate

text: s. It serves as the main excretory organ of aquatic vertebrates and as a temporary kidney in reptiles, birds, and mammals. The mesonephros is included in the Wolffian body after

text: Caspar Friedrich Wolff

text: who described it in 1759. (The Wolffian body is composed of : mesonephros + paramesonephrotic blastema)

text: The organs of Bojanus or Bojanus organs are excretory glands that serve the function of kidneys in some of the Mollusca. In other words, these are metanephridia that are found in some mollusks, for example in the bivalves. Some other molluscs have another type of organ for excretion called Keber's organ.

text: The organs of Bojanus or Bojanus organs are excretory glands that serve the function of

text: kidney

text: s in some of the

text: Mollusca

text: . In other words, these are

text: metanephridia

text: that are found in some mollusks, for example in the

text: bivalves

text: . Some other molluscs have another type of organ for

text: excretion

text: called

text: Keber's organ

text: The kidney participates in whole-body homeostasis, regulating acid-base balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular fluid volume, and blood pressure. The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the endocrine system. Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine functions; these include renin, angiotensin II, aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide, among others.

text: The kidney participates in whole-body

text: homeostasis

text: , regulating

text: acid-base balance

text: electrolyte

text: concentrations,

text: extracellular fluid volume

text: , and

text: blood pressure

text: . The kidney accomplishes these homeostatic functions both independently and in concert with other organs, particularly those of the

text: endocrine system

text: . Various endocrine hormones coordinate these endocrine functions; these include

text: renin

text: angiotensin II

text: aldosterone

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: , and

text: atrial natriuretic peptide

text: , among others.

text: Two manga adaptations of Umi Monogatari were serialized in two different magazines by different publishers. The first one, with the title Umi Monogatari ~Anata ga Ite Kureta Koto~, follows the same story as the anime. The second, titled Umi Monogatari: Minna Aishiteru! (Sea Story: Everyone, I love you!), has a yonkoma format and follows Marin and Urin's experiences on the island.

text: Two manga adaptations of Umi Monogatari were serialized in two different magazines by different publishers. The first one, with the title Umi Monogatari ~Anata ga Ite Kureta Koto~, follows the same story as the anime. The second, titled Umi Monogatari: Minna Aishiteru! (Sea Story: Everyone, I love you!), has a

text: yonkoma

text: format and follows Marin and Urin's experiences on the island.

text: Large-format line arrays are designed for large venues or outdoor festivals. These boxes typically included multiple vertically aligned high frequency compression drivers and multiple midrange and low drivers arranged symmetrically around the compression driver. The low frequency driver is typically 15 or 18 inches in diameter. Mid-format line arrays are typically two or three way and use 10 or 12 inch low-frequency drivers. The horizontal coverage is typically 90 degrees wide but some systems employ narrower boxes at the top or wider boxes at the bottom of the array. Using a transition frame (which aligns the rigging on dissimilar systems), system engineers may sometimes hang a mid-format box below a large-format box to cover the closest audience members. Speaker boxes from different manufacturers are not mixed because each system has a particular 'voicing' which may be common to a single manufacturer.

text: An urostomy is a related procedure performed more distally along the urinary system to provide urinary diversion.

text: An

text: urostomy

text: is a related procedure performed more distally along the urinary system to provide urinary diversion.

text: There are no nephridia ("little kidneys") or other excretory organs in bryozoa, and it is thought that ammonia diffuses out through the body wall and lophophore. More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the polypide, which degenerates after a few weeks. Some of the old polypide is recycled, but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes, and this is compressed into a "brown body". When the degeneration is complete, the cystid (outer part of the animal) produces a new polypide, and the brown body remains in the coelom, or in the stomach of the new polypide and is expelled next time the animal defecates.

text: There are no

text: nephridia

text: ("little kidneys") or other

text: excretory

text: organs in bryozoa, and it is thought that

text: ammonia

text: diffuses

text: out through the body wall and lophophore. More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the

text: polypide

text: , which degenerates after a few weeks. Some of the old polypide is recycled, but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes, and this is compressed into a "brown body". When the degeneration is complete, the cystid (outer part of the animal) produces a new polypide, and the brown body remains in the

text: coelom

text: , or in the stomach of the new polypide and is expelled next time the animal

text: defecate

text: s.

text: It is exemplified that in Segmentary differentiation if a segment fails to fulfill its function it does not affect or threaten the larger system. If an auto plant in Michigan stops production this does not threaten the overall system, or the plants in other locations. However, as complexity increases so does the risk of system breakdown. If a rank structure in a Stratified system fails, it threatens the system; a Center-Periphery system might be threatened if the control measure, or the Center/Headquarters failed; and in a Functionally differentiated system, due to the existence of interdependence despite independence the failure of one unit will cause a problem for the social system, possibly leading to its breakdown. The growth of complexity increases the abilities of a system to deal with its environment, but complexity increases the risk of system breakdown. It is important to note that more complex systems do not necessarily exclude less complex systems, in some instances the more complex system may require the existence of the less complex system to function (Ritzer 2007:98-100).

text: According to the model, to promote a shift in needs, an intervener communicatively increases attention to how current needs are not being met or how needs expectancies are unfulfilled. Then the intervener advocates an alternative interpretation of needs and shows how it makes better sense of experience in the attempt to increase others' openness to this needs proposal. To prevent a shift in needs, an intervener foregrounds anomalies in the proposed interpretation of needs. Then the intervener advocates a way to account for anomalies in the currently existing interpretation of needs to attempt to maintain the current interpretation of needs. In both cases, communication drives social system change and continuity.

text: The expression of hepcidin, which only occurs in certain cell types such as hepatocytes, is tightly controlled at the transcriptional level and it represents the link between cellular and systemic iron homeostasis due to hepcidin's role as "gatekeeper" of iron release from enterocytes into the rest of the body. Erythroblasts produce erythroferrone, a hormone which inhibits hepcidin and so increases the availability of iron needed for hemoglobin synthesis.

text: The expression of hepcidin, which only occurs in certain cell types such as

text: hepatocyte

text: s, is tightly controlled at the transcriptional level and it represents the link between cellular and systemic iron homeostasis due to hepcidin's role as "gatekeeper" of iron release from enterocytes into the rest of the body.

text: Erythroblasts

text: produce

text: erythroferrone

text: , a hormone which inhibits hepcidin and so increases the availability of iron needed for hemoglobin synthesis.

text: In this research, Haddad has brought a longstanding research theme to fruition by his work on vector dissipative systems approaches to large-scale nonlinear dynamical systems. This work has broad application to large-scale aerospace systems, air traffic control systems, power and energy grid systems, manufacturing and processing systems, transportation systems, communication and information networks, integrative biological systems, biological neural networks, biomolecular and biochemical systems, nervous systems, immune systems, environmental and ecological systems, molecular, quantum, and nanoscale systems, particulate and chemical reaction systems, and economic and financial systems, to name but a few examples. His most recent book in this area, Stability and Control of Large-Scale Dynamical Systems: A Vector Dissipative Systems Approach, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011, addresses highly interconnected and mutually interdependent complex aerospace dynamical systems.

text: In this research, Haddad has brought a longstanding research theme to fruition by his work on vector dissipative systems approaches to large-scale nonlinear dynamical systems. This work has broad application to large-scale

text: aerospace systems

text: air traffic control

text: systems,

text: power

text: and energy grid systems,

text: manufacturing

text: and

text: process

text: ing systems,

text: transportation

text: systems,

text: communication

text: and

text: information networks

text: , integrative

text: biological systems

text: biological neural networks

text: biomolecular and biochemical systems

text: nervous systems

text: immune systems

text: environmental and ecological systems

text: molecular

text: quantum

text: , and

text: nanoscale systems

text: , particulate and

text: chemical reaction

text: systems, and

text: economic

text: and

text: financial

text: systems, to name but a few examples. His most recent book in this area,

text: Stability and Control of Large-Scale Dynamical Systems: A Vector Dissipative Systems Approach

text: , Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011, addresses highly interconnected and mutually interdependent complex aerospace dynamical systems.

text: People excrete far more water-soluble plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) in urine than in feces. Human urine can be used directly as fertilizer or it can be put onto compost. Adding a healthy person's urine to compost usually will increase temperatures and therefore increase its ability to destroy pathogens and unwanted seeds. Urine from a person with no obvious symptoms of infection is much more sanitary than fresh feces. Unlike feces, urine does not attract disease-spreading flies (such as house flies or blow flies), and it does not contain the most hardy of pathogens, such as parasitic worm eggs. Urine usually does not stink for long, particularly when it is fresh, diluted, or put on sorbents.

text: People excrete far more

text: water-soluble

text: plant nutrients (

text: nitrogen

text: phosphorus

text: potassium

text: ) in

text: urine

text: than in

text: feces

text: . Human

text: urine can be used directly as fertilizer

text: or it can be put onto compost. Adding a healthy person's urine to compost usually will increase temperatures and therefore increase its ability to destroy pathogens and unwanted seeds. Urine from a person with no obvious symptoms of infection is much more sanitary than fresh feces. Unlike feces, urine does not attract disease-spreading flies (such as

text: house flies

text: or

text: blow flies

text: ), and it does not contain the most hardy of pathogens, such as

text: parasitic worm

text: eggs. Urine usually does not stink for long, particularly when it is fresh, diluted, or put on

text: sorbent

text: s.

text: F. hepatica's excretory system contains a network of tubules surrounding one main excretory canal. This canal leads to the excretory pore at the posterior end of the fluke. This main canal branches into four sections within the dorsal and ventral regions of the body. The role of F. hepatica's excretory system is excretion and osmoregulation. Each tubule within the excretory system is connected to a flame cell, otherwise known as protonephridia. These cells are modified parenchyme cells. In F. hepatica their role is to perform excretory, but more importantly, osmoregulatory functions. Flame cells are therefore primarily used to remove excess water.

text: F. hepatica's

text: excretory system

text: contains a network of

text: tubules

text: surrounding one main

text: excretory canal

text: . This canal leads to the

text: excretory pore

text: at the posterior end of the

text: fluke

text: . This main canal branches into four sections within the dorsal and ventral regions of the body. The role of F. hepatica's

text: excretory system

text: is

text: excretion

text: and

text: osmoregulation

text: . Each

text: tubule

text: within the

text: excretory system

text: is connected to a

text: flame cell

text: , otherwise known as

text: protonephridia

text: . These cells are modified

text: parenchyme

text: cells. In F. hepatica their role is to perform

text: excretory

text: , but more importantly,

text: osmoregulatory

text: functions.

text: Flame cell

text: s are therefore primarily used to remove excess water.

text: Debate exists about whether all—or only some—people produce the smell, and whether all (or only some) people identify the smell. Originally, this was thought to be because some people digested asparagus differently from others, so some excreted odorous urine after eating asparagus, and others did not. In the 1980s, three studies from France, China, and Israel published results showing that producing odorous urine from asparagus was a common human characteristic. The Israeli study found that from their 307 subjects, all of those who could smell 'asparagus urine' could detect it in the urine of anyone who had eaten asparagus, even if the person who produced it could not detect it. However, a 2010 study found variations in both production of odorous urine and the ability to detect the odor, but that these were not tightly related. Most people are thought to produce the odorous compounds after eating asparagus, but the differing abilities of various individuals to detect the odor at increasing dilutions suggests a genetically determined specific sensitivity.

text: The integumentary system functions in osmoregulation by acting as a barrier between the extracellular compartment and the environment to regulate water gain and loss, as well as solute flux. The permeability of the integument to water and solutes varies from animal to animal. The excretory system is responsible for regulating water and solute levels in the body fluids. Pigeons can produce hyperosmotic urine but their renal system is different from other animals. They do not produce concentrated urine to reduce water loss but produce a whitish part called urate. It is considered as uric acid solid crystals and it is less toxic than urea. The wastes move from the blood of the peritubular capillaries passes through the tubule cells and into the collecting ducts and transported as urate (uric acid). Urate is then transported to the cloaca and from there to the large intestine where uric acid particle and water and solutes in the urine can be reabsorbed and balanced. Thus this allows them to save their body water instead of excreting large volume of dilute urea. Cells of the proximal tubule have numerous microvilli and mitochondria which provide surface area and energy to the proximal tubule cells.

text: The integumentary system functions in osmoregulation by acting as a barrier between the extracellular compartment and the environment to regulate water gain and loss, as well as solute flux. The permeability of the integument to water and solutes varies from animal to animal. The

text: excretory system

text: is responsible for regulating water and solute levels in the body fluids. Pigeons can produce hyperosmotic urine but their renal system is different from other animals. They do not produce concentrated urine to reduce water loss but produce a whitish part called urate. It is considered as uric acid solid crystals and it is less toxic than urea. The wastes move from the blood of the peritubular capillaries passes through the tubule cells and into the collecting ducts and transported as urate (uric acid). Urate is then transported to the

text: cloaca

text: and from there to the large intestine where

text: uric acid

text: particle and water and solutes in the urine can be reabsorbed and balanced. Thus this allows them to save their body water instead of excreting large volume of dilute urea. Cells of the

text: proximal tubule

text: have numerous microvilli and mitochondria which provide surface area and energy to the proximal tubule cells.

text: Metallotolerants adapt to their environment by reducing energy loss by excreting less.

text: About half the initial dosage is excreted after 6 hours, but some studies suggest that it is not metabolized at all before excretion. Mescaline appears to not be subject to metabolism by CYP2D6 and between 20% and 50% of mescaline is excreted in the urine unchanged, and the rest being excreted as the carboxylic acid form of mescaline, a likely result of MAO degradation. The LD of mescaline has been measured in various animals: 212 mg/kg i.p. (mice), 132 mg/kg i.p. (rats), and 328 mg/kg i.p. (guinea pigs).

text: About half the initial dosage is excreted after 6 hours, but some studies suggest that it is not metabolized at all before excretion. Mescaline appears to not be subject to metabolism by

text: and between 20% and 50% of mescaline is excreted in the urine unchanged, and the rest being excreted as the

text: carboxylic acid

text: form of mescaline, a likely result of

text: MAO

text: degradation. The

text: LD

text: of mescaline has been measured in various animals: 212 mg/kg i.p. (mice), 132 mg/kg i.p. (rats), and 328 mg/kg i.p. (guinea pigs).

text: Most metabolic processes have a specific and narrow range of pH where operation is possible, multiple regulatory systems are in place to maintain homeostasis. Fluctuations away from optimal operating pH can slow or impair reactions and possibly cause damage to cellular structures or proteins. To maintain homeostasis the body may excrete excess acid or base through the urine, via gas exchange in the lungs, or buffer it in the blood. The bicarbonate buffering system of blood plasma effectively holds a steady pH and helps to hold extracellular pH around 7.35. The kidneys are responsible for the majority of acid-base regulation but can excrete urine no lower than a pH of 5. This means that a 330mL can of cola, for example, usually ranging in pH from 2.8 - 3.2, would need to be diluted 100 fold before being excreted. Instead of producing 33L of urine from one can of cola, the body relies on buffer to neutralize the acid. Systemic acidosis can be the result of multiple factors, not just diet. Anaerobic exercise, diabetes, AIDS, aging, menopause, inflammation, infections, tumours, and other wounds and fractures all contribute to acidosis. Blood has an average pH of 7.40 but interstitial fluid can vary. Interstitial pH of the skin, for example, is ~7.1. There is no data available for bone.

text: Most metabolic processes have a specific and narrow range of pH where operation is possible, multiple regulatory systems are in place to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: . Fluctuations away from optimal operating pH can slow or impair reactions and possibly cause damage to cellular structures or proteins. To maintain homeostasis the body may excrete excess acid or base through the

text: urine

text: , via

text: gas exchange

text: in the lungs, or buffer it in the blood. The

text: bicarbonate buffering system

text: of blood plasma effectively holds a steady pH and helps to hold

text: extracellular

text: pH around 7.35. The

text: kidneys

text: are responsible for the majority of acid-base regulation but can excrete urine no lower than a pH of 5. This means that a 330mL can of cola, for example, usually ranging in pH from 2.8 - 3.2, would need to be diluted 100 fold before being excreted. Instead of producing 33L of urine from one can of cola, the body relies on buffer to neutralize the acid. Systemic acidosis can be the result of multiple factors, not just diet.

text: Anaerobic exercise

text: diabetes

text: AIDS

text: , aging,

text: menopause

text: inflammation

text: infections

text: tumours

text: , and other wounds and fractures all contribute to acidosis. Blood has an average pH of 7.40 but interstitial fluid can vary. Interstitial pH of the skin, for example, is ~7.1. There is no data available for bone.

text: Renal physiology (Latin rēnēs, "kidneys") is the study of the physiology of the kidney. This encompasses all functions of the kidney, including maintenance of acid-base balance; regulation of fluid balance; regulation of sodium, potassium, and other electrolytes; clearance of toxins; absorption of glucose, amino acids, and other small molecules;  regulation of blood pressure; production of various hormones, such as erythropoietin; and activation of vitamin D.

text: Renal physiology (

text: Latin

text: rēnēs, "kidneys") is the study of the

text: physiology

text: of the

text: kidney

text: . This encompasses all functions of the kidney, including maintenance of

text: acid-base balance

text: ; regulation of

text: fluid balance

text: ; regulation of

text: sodium

text: potassium

text: , and other

text: electrolyte

text: s;

text: clearance

text: of

text: toxin

text: s; absorption of

text: glucose

text: amino acid

text: s, and other small molecules;  regulation of

text: blood pressure

text: ; production of various

text: hormone

text: s, such as

text: erythropoietin

text: ; and activation of

text: vitamin D

text: The kidneys are slower to compensate, but renal physiology has several powerful mechanisms to control pH by the excretion of excess acid or base. In response to acidosis, tubular cells reabsorb more bicarbonate from the tubular fluid, collecting duct cells secrete more hydrogen and generate more bicarbonate, and ammonia genesis leads to increased formation of the  buffer. In responses to alkalosis, the kidney may excrete more bicarbonate by decreasing hydrogen ion secretion from the tubular epithelial cells, and lowering rates of glutamine metabolism and ammonium excretion.

text: The

text: kidneys

text: are slower to compensate, but

text: renal physiology

text: has several powerful mechanisms to control pH by the excretion of excess acid or base. In response to

text: acidosis

text: tubular

text: cells reabsorb more bicarbonate from the tubular fluid,

text: collecting duct

text: cells secrete more hydrogen and generate more bicarbonate, and ammonia genesis leads to increased formation of the  buffer. In responses to

text: alkalosis

text: , the kidney may excrete more bicarbonate by decreasing hydrogen ion secretion from the tubular

text: epithelial

text: cells, and lowering rates of

text: glutamine

text: metabolism and ammonium excretion.

text: Fell's career began during the early stages of the development of tissue culture as a method for working with living cells. Before Fell joined, this research was originally started by biologist Ross Harrison in 1907. In 1910 he started by performing small experiments.This enabled scientists to study living differentiated cells in environments that resembled the behaviour of organs in the animal body. The transition from histological examination of fixed, stained tissues to observation of living cells attracted great enthusiasm when the techniques were first developed, although their utility was somewhat controversial among scientists during the early days.The most remarkable and fundamental method on cell culture is cell hybridization.  An organ culture is an excellent experimental system to study the responses of organized, functional cells to environmental factors.  Tissue culture also attracted significant popular media interest, with contemporary reports describing Fell as a woman working on "cultivating life in bottles" and tissue culture as leading to the growth of human babies in test tubes. Even though tissue culture has made such progress, it cannot tell us about the physiology of an animal’s circulatory or excretory systems or the physiology of its brain or sense organs. Which means the chemical compound that might appear quite harmless when tested on a tissue culture when administered, it might have disastrous side-effects.

text: Fell's career began during the early stages of the development of

text: tissue culture

text: as a method for working with living

text: cells

text: . Before Fell joined, this research was originally started by biologist Ross Harrison in 1907. In 1910 he started by performing small experiments.This enabled scientists to study living

text: differentiated

text: cells in environments that resembled the behaviour of organs in the animal body. The transition from

text: histological

text: examination of

text: fixed

text: stained

text: tissues to observation of living cells attracted great enthusiasm when the techniques were first developed, although their utility was somewhat controversial among scientists during the early days.The most remarkable and fundamental method on cell culture is cell hybridization.  An organ culture is an excellent experimental system to study the responses of organized, functional cells to environmental factors.  Tissue culture also attracted significant popular media interest, with contemporary reports describing Fell as a woman working on "cultivating life in bottles" and tissue culture as leading to the growth of human babies in test tubes. Even though tissue culture has made such progress, it cannot tell us about the physiology of an animal’s circulatory or excretory systems or the physiology of its brain or sense organs. Which means the chemical compound that might appear quite harmless when tested on a tissue culture when administered, it might have disastrous side-effects.

text: The mission of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) is to conduct and support medical research and research training and to disseminate science-based information on diabetes and other endocrine and metabolic diseases; digestive diseases, nutritional disorders, and obesity; and kidney, urologic, and hematologic diseases, to improve people’s health and quality of life.

text: The lacrimal system is made up of a secretory system, which produces tears, and an excretory system, which drains the tears. The lacrimal gland is primarily responsible for producing emotional or reflexive tears. As tears are produced, some fluid evaporates between blinks, and some is drained through the lacrimal punctum. The tears that are drained through the punctum will eventually be drained through the nose. Any excess fluid that did not go into the punctum will fall over the eyelid, which produces tears that are cried.

text: The

text: lacrimal system

text: is made up of a secretory system, which produces tears, and an excretory system, which drains the tears. The lacrimal gland is primarily responsible for producing emotional or reflexive tears. As tears are produced, some fluid evaporates between blinks, and some is drained through the

text: lacrimal punctum

text: . The tears that are drained through the punctum will eventually be drained through the nose. Any excess fluid that did not go into the punctum will fall over the eyelid, which produces tears that are cried.

text: PAH is a critical enzyme in phenylalanine metabolism and catalyzes the rate-limiting step in its complete catabolism to carbon dioxide and water. Regulation of flux through phenylalanine-associated pathways is critical in mammalian metabolism, as evidenced by the toxicity of high plasma levels of this amino acid observed in phenylketonuria (see below.) The principal source of phenylalanine is ingested proteins but relatively little of this pool is used for protein synthesis. Instead, the majority of ingested phenylalanine is catabolized through PAH to form tyrosine; addition of the hydroxyl group allows for the benzene ring to be broken in subsequent catabolic steps. Transamination to phenylpyruvate, whose metabolites are excreted in the urine, represents another pathway of phenylalanine turnover, but catabolism through PAH predominates.

text: FVRCP vaccines have also come under scrutiny of late due to possible risks to long term health. A study at Colorado State University noted an association between vaccination with parenteral (injectable) FVRCP vaccinations and development of antibodies against feline kidney tissue. Antibody development is hypothesized to develop when the immune system reacts to protein contaminants from the cell line used to cultivate vaccinial viruses. The cell line in question, the Crandell-Rees Feline Kidney (CRFK) cell line, was derived from a cat kidney. It is currently unknown whether this antibody development can lead to renal disease, though a recent follow-up study demonstrated evidence of inflammation on re-biopsy samples from some of the study cats.

text: An actuary may refer to risk homeostasis, where (for example) people who have anti-lock brakes have no better safety record than those without anti-lock brakes, because the former unconsciously compensate for the safer vehicle via less-safe driving habits. Previous to the innovation of anti-lock brakes, certain maneuvers involved minor skids, evoking fear and avoidance: Now the anti-lock system moves the boundary for such feedback, and behavior patterns expand into the no-longer punitive area. It has also been suggested  that ecological crises are an instance of risk homeostasis in which a particular behavior continues until proven dangerous or dramatic consequences actually occur.

text: An

text: actuary

text: may refer to risk homeostasis, where (for example) people who have anti-lock brakes have no better safety record than those without anti-lock brakes, because the former unconsciously compensate for the safer vehicle via less-safe driving habits. Previous to the innovation of anti-lock brakes, certain maneuvers involved minor skids, evoking fear and avoidance: Now the anti-lock system moves the boundary for such feedback, and behavior patterns expand into the no-longer punitive area. It has also been suggested  that ecological crises are an instance of risk homeostasis in which a particular behavior continues until proven dangerous or dramatic consequences actually occur.

text: Regucalcin plays a pivotal role in the keep of intracellular Ca homeostasis due to activating Ca pump enzymes in the plasma membrane (basolateral membrane), microsomes (endoplasmic reticulum) and mitochondria of many cells. Regucalcin is localized in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, microsomes and nucleus. Regucalcin is translocated from cytoplasm to nucleus with hormone stimulation. Regucalcin has a suppressive effect on calcium signaling from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in the proliferative cells. Also, regucalcin has been demonstrated to transport into the nucleus of cells, and it can inhibit nuclear protein kinase, protein phosphatase, and deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid synthesis. Regucalcin can control enhancement of cell proliferation due to hormonal stimulation. Moreover, regucalcin has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on aminoacyl t-RNA synthetase, a rate limiting enzyme at translational process of protein synthesis and an activatory effect on cystein protease and superoxide dismutase in liver and kidney cells.

text: Regucalcin plays a pivotal role in the keep of intracellular Ca homeostasis due to activating Ca pump enzymes in the

text: plasma membrane

text: (basolateral membrane), microsomes (endoplasmic reticulum) and mitochondria of many cells. Regucalcin is localized in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, microsomes and nucleus. Regucalcin is translocated from cytoplasm to nucleus with hormone stimulation. Regucalcin has a suppressive effect on

text: calcium signaling

text: from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in the proliferative cells. Also, regucalcin has been demonstrated to transport into the nucleus of cells, and it can inhibit nuclear

text: protein kinase

text: protein phosphatase

text: , and deoxyribonucleic acid and

text: ribonucleic acid

text: synthesis. Regucalcin can control enhancement of

text: cell proliferation

text: due to hormonal stimulation. Moreover, regucalcin has been shown to have an inhibitory effect on aminoacyl t-RNA synthetase, a rate limiting enzyme at translational process of

text: protein synthesis

text: and an activatory effect on cystein protease and superoxide dismutase in liver and kidney cells.

text: In late 2012, scientists at Emory University compared health risks in workers at a DuPont chemical plant in West Virginia with high PFOA exposure to the risks of the same diseases in other regional DuPont factory workers and in the US population. In comparison with the other DuPont workers, workers at the high-PFOA plant were at roughly three times the risk of dying of mesothelioma or chronic kidney disease, and roughly twice the risk of dying of diabetes mellitus. Workers were at similarly elevated risk for kidney cancer and for non-cancer kidney diseases. In rodents, PFOA concentrates in the kidneys.

text: In late 2012, scientists at Emory University compared health risks in workers at a DuPont chemical plant in West Virginia with high PFOA exposure to the risks of the same diseases in other regional DuPont factory workers and in the US population. In comparison with the other DuPont workers, workers at the high-PFOA plant were at roughly three times the risk of dying of

text: mesothelioma

text: or chronic kidney disease, and roughly twice the risk of dying of diabetes mellitus. Workers were at similarly elevated risk for kidney cancer and for non-cancer kidney diseases. In rodents, PFOA concentrates in the kidneys.

text: 2008-08-22 Cabin Attendant Excretion Hell –  [JDSD-04] (Starring Biki Nakahara)

text: The results of these tests are used to assess the excretory function of the kidneys. Staging of chronic kidney disease is based on categories of GFR as well as albuminuria and cause of kidney disease.

text: The results of these tests are used to assess the excretory function of the kidneys. Staging of

text: chronic kidney disease

text: is based on categories of GFR as well as

text: albuminuria

text: and cause of

text: kidney disease

text: Some studies seem to suggest that the longer a patient is on dialysis before the transplant, the less time the kidney will last. It is not clear why this occurs, but it underscores the need for rapid referral to a transplant program. Ideally, a kidney transplant should be pre-emptive, i.e., take place before the patient begins dialysis. The reason why kidneys fail over time after transplantation has been elucidated in recent years. Apart from recurrence of the original kidney disease, also rejection (mainly antibody-mediated rejection) and progressive scarring (multifactorial) play a decisive role. Avoiding rejection by strict medication adherence is of utmost importance to avoid failure of the kidney transplant.

text: The Balinese caste system is a system of social organization similar to the Indian caste system.

text: The Balinese caste system is a system of social organization similar to the

text: Indian caste system

text: <u>Excretion<u>

text: <u>Excretion<u>

text: Crystallization of calcium oxalate appears to be inhibited by certain substances in the urine that retard the formation, growth, aggregation, and adherence of crystals to renal cells. By purifying urine using salt precipitation, isoelectric focusing, and size-exclusion chromatography, some researchers have found that calgranulin, a protein formed in the kidney, is a potent inhibitor of the in vivo formation of calcium oxalate crystals. Considering its extremely high levels of inhibition of growth and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals, calgranulin might be an important intrinsic factor in the prevention of nephrolithiasis.

text: Crystallization

text: of calcium oxalate appears to be inhibited by certain substances in the urine that retard the formation, growth, aggregation, and adherence of crystals to renal cells. By purifying urine using

text: salt precipitation

text: isoelectric focusing

text: , and

text: size-exclusion chromatography

text: , some researchers have found that

text: calgranulin

text: , a protein formed in the kidney, is a potent inhibitor of the

text: in vivo

text: formation of calcium oxalate crystals. Considering its extremely high levels of inhibition of growth and aggregation of calcium oxalate crystals, calgranulin might be an important intrinsic factor in the prevention of nephrolithiasis.

text: Dicarboxylic aminoaciduria involves excretion of urinary glutamate and aspartate, resulting from the incomplete reabsorption of anionic amino acids from the glomerular filtrate in the kidney. This affects a diseased individual's amino acid pool, as they will have to spend additional resources to replenish the amino acids which would have otherwise been present. Additionally, glutamate transporters are responsible for the synaptic release of the glutamate (neurotransmitter) within the interneuronal synaptic cleft. This hindrance of functionality in individuals with dicarboxylic aminoaciduria may be related to growth retardation, intellectual disability, and a tendency toward fasting hypoglycemia and ketoacidosis . Dicarboxylic aminoaciduria is diagnosed by finding the increased presence of glutamate and aspartate in the urine.

text: Dicarboxylic aminoaciduria involves excretion of urinary glutamate and aspartate, resulting from the incomplete reabsorption of anionic amino acids from the glomerular filtrate in the

text: kidney

text: . This affects a diseased individual's

text: amino acid

text: pool, as they will have to spend additional resources to replenish the

text: amino acids

text: which would have otherwise been present. Additionally, glutamate transporters are responsible for the synaptic release of the glutamate (

text: neurotransmitter

text: ) within the interneuronal synaptic cleft. This hindrance of functionality in individuals with dicarboxylic aminoaciduria may be related to growth retardation,

text: intellectual disability

text: , and a tendency toward fasting

text: hypoglycemia

text: and

text: ketoacidosis

text: . Dicarboxylic aminoaciduria is diagnosed by finding the increased presence of glutamate and aspartate in the urine.

text: The major focus of the Collaboration is on raising awareness of the issue around the world, through events such as the 1st UN Global Road Safety Week in 2007; World Day of Remembrance for Road Traffic Victims celebrated on the 3rd Sunday in November every year and the First Global Ministerial Conference on Road Safety as well as by providing technical support to countries and guidelines on best practice.  Members of the UNRSC have published guidance on how to set up and monitor programmes around helmet wearing, drinking and driving, speed management, seat-belt and child restraint usage  as well as how to set up and maintain optimal road safety data systems and road safety management systems.

text: The urinary system is under influence of circulatory system, nervous system and endocrine system.

text: The urinary system is under influence of

text: circulatory system

text: nervous system

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: In the chaetonotidans, the excretory system consists of a single pair of protonephridia, which open through separate pores on the lateral underside of the animal, usually in the midsection of the body. In the macrodasyidans, there are several pairs of these opening along the side of the body. Nitrogenous waste is probably excreted through the body wall, as part of respiration, and the protonephridia are believed to function mainly in osmoregulation. Unusually, the protonephridia do not take the form of flame cells, but, instead, the excretory cells consist of a skirt surrounding a series of cytoplasmic rods that in turn enclose a central flagellum. These cells, termed cyrtocytes, connect to a single outlet cell which passes the excreted material into the protonephridial duct.

text: In the chaetonotidans, the excretory system consists of a single pair of

text: protonephridia

text: , which open through separate pores on the lateral underside of the animal, usually in the midsection of the body. In the macrodasyidans, there are several pairs of these opening along the side of the body.

text: Nitrogenous waste

text: is probably excreted through the body wall, as part of respiration, and the protonephridia are believed to function mainly in

text: osmoregulation

text: . Unusually, the protonephridia do not take the form of

text: flame cell

text: s, but, instead, the excretory cells consist of a skirt surrounding a series of

text: cytoplasm

text: ic rods that in turn enclose a central

text: flagellum

text: . These cells, termed cyrtocytes, connect to a single outlet cell which passes the excreted material into the protonephridial duct.

text: In cases where no reuse is possible or desired, urine is usually infiltrated in the soil unless this practice would cause groundwater pollution. In eThekwini municipality in South Africa or in Lima, Peru, for example, urine from UDDTs is safely infiltrated into the soil because the groundwater level is very low there and the groundwater is not used for any particular purpose. Infiltration can be done by directing the urine to a soak pit or by running a perforated urine pipe from the toilet to an area outside, where the hose is sloping gently downhill (for rural areas). Clogging of the pipe's holes can be avoided by ensuring there are no T-junctions, no joints and that a plastic mesh is installed in the urine funnel of the toilet to keep everything other than urine out.

text: In cases where no reuse is possible or desired, urine is usually infiltrated in the soil unless this practice would cause

text: groundwater

text: pollution. In eThekwini municipality in South Africa or in Lima, Peru, for example, urine from UDDTs is safely infiltrated into the soil because the groundwater level is very low there and the groundwater is not used for any particular purpose. Infiltration can be done by directing the urine to a soak pit or by running a perforated urine pipe from the toilet to an area outside, where the hose is sloping gently downhill (for rural areas). Clogging of the pipe's holes can be avoided by ensuring there are no T-junctions, no joints and that a plastic mesh is installed in the urine funnel of the toilet to keep everything other than urine out.

text: The first reports of kidney failure occurring in individuals with chronic liver diseases were from the late 19th century by Frerichs and Flint.  However, the hepatorenal syndrome was first defined as acute kidney failure that occurred in the setting of biliary surgery.  The syndrome was soon re-associated with advanced liver disease, and, in the 1950s, was clinically defined by Sherlock, Hecker, Papper and Vessin as being associated with systemic hemodynamic abnormalities and high mortality.  Hecker and Sherlock specifically identified that individuals with HRS had low urinary output, very low sodium in the urine, and no protein in the urine.  Murray Epstein was the first to characterize splanchnic vasodilation and kidney vasoconstriction as the key alterations in hemodynamics in patients with the syndrome.  The functional nature of the kidney impairment in HRS was crystallized by studies demonstrating that kidneys transplanted from patients with hepatorenal syndrome returned to function in the new host, leading to the hypothesis that hepatorenal syndrome was a systemic condition and not a kidney disease. The first systematic attempt to define hepatorenal syndrome was made in 1994 by the International Ascites Club, a group of liver specialists. The more recent history of HRS has involved elucidation of the various vasoactive mediators that cause the splanchnic and kidney blood flow abnormalities of the condition.

text: The first reports of kidney failure occurring in individuals with chronic liver diseases were from the late 19th century by Frerichs and Flint.  However, the hepatorenal syndrome was first defined as acute kidney failure that occurred in the setting of

text: biliary surgery

text: .  The syndrome was soon re-associated with advanced liver disease, and, in the 1950s, was clinically defined by

text: Sherlock

text: , Hecker, Papper and Vessin as being associated with systemic hemodynamic abnormalities and high mortality.  Hecker and Sherlock specifically identified that individuals with HRS had low urinary output, very low

text: sodium

text: in the urine, and no protein in the urine.  Murray Epstein was the first to characterize splanchnic vasodilation and kidney vasoconstriction as the key alterations in hemodynamics in patients with the syndrome.  The functional nature of the kidney impairment in HRS was crystallized by studies demonstrating that kidneys transplanted from patients with hepatorenal syndrome returned to function in the new host, leading to the hypothesis that hepatorenal syndrome was a systemic condition and not a kidney disease. The first systematic attempt to define hepatorenal syndrome was made in 1994 by the International Ascites Club, a group of

text: liver specialists

text: . The more recent history of HRS has involved elucidation of the various vasoactive mediators that cause the splanchnic and kidney blood flow abnormalities of the condition.

text: Marcello Malpighi (10 March 1628 – 29 November 1694) was an Italian biologist and physician, who is referred to as the "Father of microscopical anatomy, histology, physiology and embryology". Malpighi's name bears to several physiological features related to the biological excretory system, such as the Malpighian corpuscles and Malpighian pyramids of the kidneys and the Malpighian tubule system of insects. The splenic lymphoid nodules are often called the "Malpighian bodies of the spleen" or Malpighian corpuscles. The botanical family Malpighiaceae is also named after him. He was the first person to see capillaries in animals, and he discovered the link between arteries and veins that had eluded William Harvey and Malpighi has been the earliest person to observe red blood cells under a microscope. His treatise De polypo cordis (1666) was important for understanding blood composition, as well as how blood clots. In it, Malpighi described how the form of a blood clot differed in the right against the left sides of the heart.

text: Marcello Malpighi (10 March 1628 – 29 November 1694) was an

text: Italian

text: biologist

text: and

text: physician

text: , who is referred to as the "Father of microscopical anatomy, histology, physiology and embryology". Malpighi's name bears to several physiological features related to the biological

text: excretory system

text: , such as the

text: Malpighian corpuscles

text: and

text: Malpighian pyramids

text: of the

text: kidney

text: s and the

text: Malpighian tubule system

text: of

text: insects

text: . The

text: splenic lymphoid nodules

text: are often called the "Malpighian bodies of the spleen" or

text: Malpighian corpuscles

text: . The botanical family

text: Malpighiaceae

text: is also named after him. He was the first person to see capillaries in animals, and he discovered the link between arteries and veins that had eluded

text: William Harvey

text: and Malpighi has been the earliest person to observe red blood cells under a microscope. His treatise De polypo cordis (1666) was important for understanding blood composition, as well as how blood clots. In it, Malpighi described how the form of a blood clot differed in the right against the left sides of the

text: heart

text: The urinary bladder is formed partly from the endodermal cloaca and partly from the ends of the Wolffian ducts. In other words, the allantois takes no share in its formation.

text: The

text: urinary bladder

text: is formed partly from the endodermal

text: cloaca

text: and partly from the ends of the Wolffian ducts. In other words, the

text: allantois

text: takes no share in its formation.

text: Exhaled CO(g) depletes CO(aq) which in turn consumes HCO causing the aforementioned shift left in the first reaction by Le Châtelier's principle.  By the same principle when the pH is too high, the kidneys excrete bicarbonate () into urine as urea via the urea cycle (a.k.a. the Krebs–Henseleit ornithine cycle).  By removing the bicarbonate more H is generated from carbonic acid (HCO) which come from CO(g) produced by cellular respiration.

text: Exhaled CO(g) depletes CO(aq) which in turn consumes HCO causing the aforementioned shift left in the first reaction by

text: Le Châtelier's principle

text: .  By the same principle when the pH is too high, the kidneys excrete bicarbonate () into urine as urea via the

text: urea cycle

text: (a.k.a. the Krebs–Henseleit ornithine cycle).  By removing the bicarbonate more H is generated from carbonic acid (HCO) which come from CO(g) produced by

text: cellular respiration

text: Nevertheless, the resistance of extracellular matrix proteins to proteolysis renders their advanced glycation end products less conducive to being eliminated. While the AGE free adducts are released directly into the urine, AGE peptides are endocytosed by the epithelial cells of the proximal tubule and then degraded by the endolysosomal system to produce AGE amino acids. It is thought that these acids are then returned to the kidney's inside space, or lumen, for excretion. AGE free adducts are the major form through which AGEs are excreted in urine, with AGE-peptides occurring to a lesser extent but accumulating in the plasma of patients with chronic kidney failure.

text: Nevertheless, the resistance of

text: extracellular matrix

text: proteins to proteolysis renders their advanced glycation end products less conducive to being eliminated. While the AGE free adducts are released directly into the urine, AGE peptides are

text: endocytosed

text: by the

text: epithelial cells

text: of the

text: proximal tubule

text: and then degraded by the

text: endolysosomal system

text: to produce AGE amino acids. It is thought that these acids are then returned to the kidney's inside space, or

text: lumen

text: , for

text: excretion

text: . AGE free adducts are the major form through which AGEs are excreted in urine, with AGE-peptides occurring to a lesser extent but accumulating in the plasma of patients with chronic kidney failure.

text: Sweat glands in the skin secrete a fluid waste called sweat or perspiration; however, its primary functions are temperature control and pheromone release. Therefore, its role as a part of the excretory system is minimal. Sweating also maintains the level of salt in the body.

text: Sweat gland

text: s in the skin secrete a fluid waste called sweat or

text: perspiration

text: ; however, its primary functions are temperature control and pheromone release. Therefore, its role as a part of the excretory system is minimal. Sweating also maintains the level of salt in the body.

text: Located at the rear of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneal space, the kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries, and drain into the paired renal veins. Each kidney excretes urine into a ureter which empties into the bladder.

text: Located at the rear of the

text: abdominal cavity

text: in the

text: retroperitoneal space

text: , the kidneys receive blood from the paired

text: renal arteries

text: , and drain into the paired

text: renal vein

text: s. Each kidney excretes urine into a

text: ureter

text: which empties into the bladder.

text: In the most primitive vertebrates, the hagfish and lampreys, the kidney is unusually simple: it consists of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the archinephric duct. Invertebrates may possess excretory organs that are sometimes referred to as "kidneys", but, even in Amphioxus, these are never homologous with the kidneys of vertebrates, and are more accurately referred to by other names, such as nephridia.

text: In the most primitive vertebrates, the

text: hagfish

text: and

text: lamprey

text: s, the kidney is unusually simple: it consists of a row of nephrons, each emptying directly into the archinephric duct. Invertebrates may possess excretory organs that are sometimes referred to as "kidneys", but, even in

text: Amphioxus

text: , these are never homologous with the kidneys of vertebrates, and are more accurately referred to by other names, such as

text: nephridia

text: -phenylalanine is excreted in the urine without penetrating the central nervous system.

text: -phenylalanine is excreted in the

text: urine

text: without penetrating the central nervous system.

text: Fimasartan is rapidly absorbed and has minimal accumulation in the body 7 days after administration. Fimasartan possesses a half-life of 9 to 16 hours, appropriate for daily dosing. Fimasartan was found to be effective in fasted or fed states, with a variety of dosing regimens. In trials, the maximum effects of the drug occurred slightly after the maximum plasma concentration (T-max) was achieved, which occurs 30 minutes to 3 hours after dosing. Fimasartan was found mostly in unmetabolized form in the plasma and in bile excretions. Urinary elimination of the drug was low, at less than 3% 24 hours after administration, entailing that the fimasartan does not undergo renal excretion.

text: Fimasartan is rapidly absorbed and has minimal accumulation in the body 7 days after administration. Fimasartan possesses a

text: half-life

text: of 9 to 16 hours, appropriate for daily dosing. Fimasartan was found to be effective in fasted or fed states, with a variety of dosing regimens. In trials, the maximum effects of the drug occurred slightly after the maximum plasma concentration (

text: T-max

text: ) was achieved, which occurs 30 minutes to 3 hours after dosing. Fimasartan was found mostly in unmetabolized form in the plasma and in

text: bile

text: excretions. Urinary elimination of the drug was low, at less than 3% 24 hours after administration, entailing that the fimasartan does not undergo renal excretion.

text: Although adapted to terrestrial life, frogs resemble freshwater fish in their inability to conserve body water effectively. When they are on land, much water is lost by evaporation from the skin. The excretory system is similar to that of mammals and there are two kidneys that remove nitrogenous products from the blood. Frogs produce large quantities of dilute urine in order to flush out toxic products from the kidney tubules. The nitrogen is excreted as ammonia by tadpoles and aquatic frogs but mainly as urea, a less toxic product, by most terrestrial adults. A few species of tree frog with little access to water excrete the even less toxic uric acid. The urine passes along paired ureters to the urinary bladder from which it is vented periodically into the cloaca. All bodily wastes exit the body through the cloaca which terminates in a cloacal vent.

text: Although adapted to terrestrial life, frogs resemble freshwater fish in their inability to conserve body water effectively. When they are on land, much water is lost by evaporation from the skin. The excretory system is similar to that of mammals and there are two

text: kidney

text: s that remove nitrogenous products from the blood. Frogs produce large quantities of dilute urine in order to flush out toxic products from the kidney tubules. The nitrogen is excreted as

text: ammonia

text: by tadpoles and aquatic frogs but mainly as

text: urea

text: , a less toxic product, by most terrestrial adults. A few species of tree frog with little access to water excrete the even less toxic

text: uric acid

text: . The urine passes along paired

text: ureter

text: s to the

text: urinary bladder

text: from which it is vented periodically into the cloaca. All bodily wastes exit the body through the cloaca which terminates in a cloacal vent.

text: In adult males, the kidney weighs between 125 and 170 grams. In females the weight of the kidney is between 115 and 155 grams. A Danish study measured the median renal length to be  on the left side and  on the right side in adults. Median renal volumes were 146 cm on the left and 134 cm on the right.

text: Although initially taught in a Modular system-based format, innovative changes were introduced into the curriculum at JUST in 1999. Balancing basic science principles, clinical skills, and psychosocial concepts, the new curriculum placed the student at the centre. Rather than relying on the teacher to deliver knowledge, students were empowered to become more self-directed in their learning.During the first year and a half of their program, students are taught basic science in a traditional format. In an integratedmodule fashion, the next year and half is devoted to studying nine body systems: cardiovascular, respiratory, hematopoietic, digestive, endocrine, musculoskeletal, neuroscience 1 and 2, and reproductive and urinary. Towards the end of the third year students begin direct contact with patients in hospital settings. The last three years are spent in supervised inpatient and outpatient settings to develop their diagnostic and treatment competencies; the clinical years begin fully at the beginning of year 4 where students rotate through various areas of general clinical medicine. Year 5 continues this pattern focusing more on specialized areas of medicine and surgery. In total, students are required to complete 257 hours of classes divided among compulsory and elective courses. After completion of their 6th year, students are required to complete internship (imtiaz), which is a one-year term in general practice for which they are not compensated for.

text: Although initially taught in a Modular system-based format, innovative changes were introduced into the curriculum at JUST in 1999. Balancing basic science principles, clinical skills, and psychosocial concepts, the new curriculum placed the student at the centre. Rather than relying on the teacher to deliver knowledge, students were empowered to become more self-directed in their learning.During the first year and a half of their program, students are taught basic science in a traditional format. In an integratedmodule fashion, the next year and half is devoted to studying nine

text: body systems

text: cardiovascular

text: respiratory

text: hematopoietic

text: digestive

text: endocrine

text: musculoskeletal

text: neuroscience

text: 1 and 2, and

text: reproductive

text: and

text: urinary

text: . Towards the end of the third year students begin direct contact with patients in hospital settings. The last three years are spent in supervised inpatient and outpatient settings to develop their diagnostic and treatment competencies; the clinical years begin fully at the beginning of year 4 where students rotate through various areas of general clinical medicine. Year 5 continues this pattern focusing more on specialized areas of medicine and surgery. In total, students are required to complete 257 hours of classes divided among compulsory and elective courses. After completion of their 6th year, students are required to complete internship (imtiaz), which is a one-year term in general practice for which they are not compensated for.

text: Urine is formed in the kidneys through a filtration of blood. The urine is then passed through the ureters to the bladder, where it is stored. During urination, the urine is passed from the bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body.

text: Urine is formed in the kidneys through a filtration of

text: blood

text: . The urine is then passed through the ureters to the bladder, where it is stored. During urination, the urine is passed from the bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body.

text: As detectable levels of myoglobinemia and myoglobinuria occur, blood tests and urine tests may show elevated levels of myoglobin. For example, a urine test strip may reveal a positive result for "blood", even though no red blood cells can be identified on microscopy of the urine; this occurs because the reagent on the test strip reacts with myoglobin. The same phenomenon may happen in conditions that lead to hemolysis, the destruction of red blood cells; in hemolysis the blood serum is also visibly discolored, while in rhabdomyolysis it is normal. If kidney damage has occurred, microscopy of the urine also reveals urinary casts that appear pigmented and granular.

text: As detectable levels of

text: myoglobinemia

text: and

text: myoglobinuria

text: occur,

text: blood test

text: s and

text: urine test

text: s may show elevated levels of myoglobin. For example, a

text: urine test strip

text: may reveal a positive result for "blood", even though no

text: red blood cell

text: s can be identified on

text: microscopy

text: of the urine; this occurs because the reagent on the test strip reacts with myoglobin. The same phenomenon may happen in conditions that lead to

text: hemolysis

text: , the destruction of red blood cells; in hemolysis the

text: blood serum

text: is also visibly discolored, while in rhabdomyolysis it is normal. If kidney damage has occurred, microscopy of the urine also reveals

text: urinary cast

text: s that appear pigmented and granular.

text: The bi-partisan group of legislators that back the Golden Goose award and the founding organizations cite odd-titled research of the past which led to widely used scientific advances. The first cited example is when Alexander Fleming published Anti-Bacterial Substance in Filtrates of Broth in 1926 which has become known as penicillin. Second, X-rays probably sounded odd in 1895 after Wilhelm Röntgen named such phenomena that caused a glow in a nearby chemically coated screen. Third, studies on the excretion of urine in dogs and the excretion of insulin by dog fish ultimately led to advancements in understanding diabetes which earned the National Medal of Science.

text: The bi-partisan group of legislators that back the Golden Goose award and the founding organizations cite odd-titled research of the past which led to widely used scientific advances. The first cited example is when

text: Alexander Fleming

text: published Anti-Bacterial Substance in Filtrates of Broth in 1926 which has become known as

text: penicillin

text: . Second,

text: X-ray

text: s probably sounded odd in 1895 after

text: Wilhelm Röntgen

text: named such phenomena that caused a glow in a nearby chemically coated screen. Third, studies on the excretion of urine in dogs and the excretion of

text: insulin

text: by

text: dog fish

text: ultimately led to advancements in understanding

text: diabetes

text: which earned the

text: National Medal of Science

text: Sotolon (also known as sotolone) is a lactone and an extremely powerful aroma compound, with the typical smell of fenugreek or curry at high concentrations and maple syrup, caramel, or burnt sugar at lower concentrations. Sotolon is the major aroma and flavor component of fenugreek seed and lovage, and is one of several aromatic and flavor components of artificial maple syrup. It is also present in molasses, aged rum, aged sake and white wine, flor sherry, roast tobacco, and dried fruiting bodies of the mushroom Lactarius helvus. Sotolon can pass through the body relatively unchanged, and consumption of foods high in sotolon, such as fenugreek, can impart a maple syrup aroma to one's sweat and urine. In some individuals with the genetic disorder maple syrup urine disease, it is spontaneously produced in their bodies and excreted in their urine, leading to the disease's characteristic smell.

text: Sotolon (also known as sotolone) is a

text: lactone

text: and an extremely powerful

text: aroma compound

text: , with the typical smell of

text: fenugreek

text: or

text: curry

text: at high concentrations and

text: maple syrup

text: caramel

text: , or burnt sugar at lower concentrations. Sotolon is the major aroma and flavor component of fenugreek seed and

text: lovage

text: , and is one of several aromatic and flavor components of

text: artificial maple syrup

text: . It is also present in

text: molasses

text: , aged

text: rum

text: , aged sake and white wine,

text: flor

text: sherry

text: , roast tobacco, and dried fruiting bodies of the mushroom

text: Lactarius helvus

text: . Sotolon can pass through the body relatively unchanged, and consumption of foods high in sotolon, such as fenugreek, can impart a maple syrup aroma to one's sweat and urine. In some individuals with the genetic disorder

text: maple syrup urine disease

text: , it is spontaneously produced in their bodies and excreted in their urine, leading to the disease's characteristic smell.

text: The Systems Management (SM) programme centre provides through-life systems management support for a wide spectrum of systems to MINDEF and the SAF. It is responsible for ensuring good system health, high availability and high serviceability of these systems and equipment.

text: Thiazide is used in treatment because diabetes insipidus causes the excretion of more water than sodium (i.e. dilute urine). This condition results in a net concentrating effect on the serum (increasing its osmolarity). This high serum osmolarity stimulates excessive thirst in an attempt to dilute the serum back to normal and provide free water for excreting the excess serum solutes. However, since the patient is unable to concentrate urine to excrete the excess solutes, the resulting urine fails to decrease serum osmolarity and the cycle repeats itself, hence excessive urination. Thiazide diuretics allow increased excretion of Na+ and water, thereby reducing the serum osmolarity and eliminating volume excess. Basically, thiazides allow increased solute excretion in the urine, breaking the polydipsia-polyuria cycle.

text: Thiazide is used in treatment because diabetes insipidus causes the excretion of more water than sodium (i.e. dilute urine). This condition results in a net concentrating effect on the serum (increasing its osmolarity). This high serum osmolarity stimulates

text: excessive thirst

text: in an attempt to dilute the serum back to normal and provide free water for excreting the excess serum solutes. However, since the patient is unable to concentrate urine to excrete the excess solutes, the resulting urine fails to decrease serum osmolarity and the cycle repeats itself, hence

text: excessive urination

text: . Thiazide diuretics allow increased excretion of Na+ and water, thereby reducing the serum osmolarity and eliminating volume excess. Basically, thiazides allow increased solute excretion in the urine, breaking the polydipsia-polyuria cycle.

text: In order to understand how blood is delivered to cranial tissues, it is important to understand the vascular anatomy of the space itself. Large cerebral arteries in the brain split into smaller arterioles, also known as pial arteries. These consist of endothelial cells and smooth muscle, and as these pial arteries further branch and run deeper into the brain, they associate with glial cells, namely astrocytes and pericytes. The intracerebral arterioles and capillaries are unlike systemic arterioles and capillaries in that they do not readily allow substances to diffuse through them; they are connected by tight junctions in order to form the blood brain barrier (BBB). Endothelial cells, smooth muscle, neurons, astrocytes, and pericytes work together in the brain order to maintain the BBB while still delivering nutrients to tissues and adjusting blood flow in the intracranial space to maintain homeostasis. As they work as a functional unit, alterations in their interactions at the cellular level can impair HR in the brain and lead to deviations in normal nervous function.

text: In order to understand how blood is delivered to cranial tissues, it is important to understand the vascular anatomy of the space itself. Large cerebral arteries in the brain split into smaller

text: arterioles

text: , also known as pial arteries. These consist of

text: endothelial cells

text: and

text: smooth muscle

text: , and as these pial arteries further branch and run deeper into the brain, they associate with glial cells, namely astrocytes and

text: pericytes

text: . The intracerebral arterioles and

text: capillaries

text: are unlike systemic arterioles and capillaries in that they do not readily allow substances to diffuse through them; they are connected by tight junctions in order to form the

text: blood brain barrier

text: (BBB). Endothelial cells, smooth muscle, neurons, astrocytes, and pericytes work together in the brain order to maintain the BBB while still delivering nutrients to tissues and adjusting blood flow in the intracranial space to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: . As they work as a functional unit, alterations in their interactions at the cellular level can impair HR in the brain and lead to deviations in normal nervous function.

text: As interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), dietary flavonoids have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion. Unlike controlled test tube conditions where antioxidant effects may result when high concentrations of flavonoids are used, the fate of ingested flavonoids in vivo shows they are poorly conserved (less than 5%), with most of what is absorbed existing as chemically-modified metabolites destined for rapid excretion.

text: As interpreted by the

text: Linus Pauling Institute

text: and the

text: European Food Safety Authority

text: (EFSA), dietary

text: flavonoid

text: s have little or no direct

text: antioxidant

text: food value following digestion. Unlike controlled test tube conditions where antioxidant effects may result when high concentrations of flavonoids are used, the fate of ingested flavonoids

text: in vivo

text: shows they are poorly conserved (less than 5%), with most of what is absorbed existing as chemically-modified metabolites destined for rapid excretion.

text: Several studies, however, have found no evidence of protein toxicity due to high protein intakes on kidney function in healthy people. Diets that regularly exceed the recommendations for protein intake have been found to lead to an increased glomerular filtration rate in the kidneys and also have an effect on the hormone systems in the body. It is well established that these physiological effects are harmful to individuals with renal disease, but research has not found these responses to be detrimental to those who are healthy and demonstrate adequate renal activity. In people with healthy kidney function, the kidneys work continuously to excrete the by-products of protein metabolism which prevents protein toxicity from occurring. In response to an increased consumption of dietary protein, the kidneys maintain homeostasis within the body by operating at an increased capacity, producing a higher amount of urea and subsequently excreting it from the body. Although some have proposed that this increase in waste production and excretion will cause increased strain on the kidneys, other research has not supported this.   Currently, evidence suggests that changes in renal function that occur in response to an increased dietary protein intake are part of the normal adaptive system employed by the body to sustain homeostasis.  In a healthy individual with well-functioning kidneys, there is no need for concern that an increased dietary protein intake will lead to protein toxicity and decreased renal function.

text: Several studies, however, have found no evidence of protein toxicity due to high protein intakes on kidney function in healthy people. Diets that regularly exceed the recommendations for protein intake have been found to lead to an increased

text: glomerular filtration rate

text: in the kidneys and also have an effect on the hormone systems in the body. It is well established that these physiological effects are harmful to individuals with renal disease, but research has not found these responses to be detrimental to those who are healthy and demonstrate adequate renal activity. In people with healthy kidney function, the kidneys work continuously to excrete the by-products of

text: protein metabolism

text: which prevents protein toxicity from occurring. In response to an increased consumption of dietary protein, the kidneys maintain homeostasis within the body by operating at an increased capacity, producing a higher amount of urea and subsequently excreting it from the body. Although some have proposed that this increase in waste production and excretion will cause increased strain on the kidneys, other research has not supported this.   Currently, evidence suggests that changes in renal function that occur in response to an increased dietary protein intake are part of the normal adaptive system employed by the body to sustain homeostasis.  In a healthy individual with well-functioning kidneys, there is no need for concern that an increased dietary protein intake will lead to protein toxicity and decreased renal function.

text: Nephrology concerns the diagnosis and treatment of kidney diseases, including electrolyte disturbances and hypertension, and the care of those requiring renal replacement therapy, including dialysis and renal transplant patients. Many diseases affecting the kidney are systemic disorders not limited to the organ itself, and may require special treatment. Examples include acquired conditions such as systemic vasculitides (e.g. ANCA vasculitis) and autoimmune diseases (e.g., lupus), as well as congenital or genetic conditions such as polycystic kidney disease.

text: Nephrology concerns the diagnosis and treatment of kidney diseases, including

text: electrolyte disturbance

text: s and

text: hypertension

text: , and the care of those requiring

text: renal replacement therapy

text: , including

text: dialysis

text: and

text: renal transplant

text: patients. Many diseases affecting the kidney are systemic disorders not limited to the organ itself, and may require special treatment. Examples include acquired conditions such as systemic vasculitides (e.g. ANCA vasculitis) and

text: autoimmune diseases

text: (e.g.,

text: lupus

text: ), as well as congenital or genetic conditions such as polycystic kidney disease.

text: Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) and ageing-related motor degeneration share clear parallels with ALS in the patterns and specificity of motor neuron loss. Though it is completely distinct from ALS in its pathogenesis, SMA leads to a similar rapid death of FF motor neurons, with S type neurons being generally spared. Further, motor pools controlling facial muscles (including those of the eye) and voluntary excretory muscles are spared. Motor neuron degeneration caused by ageing similarly affects FF types but not S types; ageing also seems to spare ocular motor pools. These similar patterns of neurodegeneration in three different diseases have led researchers to speculate that slow-twitch motor neurons, along with motor pools of the eyes and excretory muscles, have intrinsic neuroprotective properties that are not disease-specific. Research is currently being conducted to discover a possible molecular basis for neuroprotection in these cell types.

text: Spinal muscular atrophy

text: (SMA) and ageing-related motor degeneration share clear parallels with

text: ALS

text: in the patterns and specificity of motor neuron loss. Though it is completely distinct from ALS in its

text: pathogenesis

text: , SMA leads to a similar rapid death of FF motor neurons, with S type neurons being generally spared. Further, motor pools controlling

text: facial muscles

text: (including those of the

text: eye

text: ) and voluntary excretory muscles are spared. Motor neuron degeneration caused by ageing similarly affects FF types but not S types; ageing also seems to spare ocular motor pools. These similar patterns of

text: neurodegeneration

text: in three different diseases have led researchers to speculate that slow-twitch motor neurons, along with motor pools of the eyes and excretory muscles, have intrinsic neuroprotective properties that are not disease-specific. Research is currently being conducted to discover a possible molecular basis for

text: neuroprotection

text: in these cell types.

text: A system  developed for renal patients, Renal patient view, provides online information for kidney patients’ including diagnoses, treatment and latest test results.  Almost all renal units in the UK can use this system, and it has been extended to patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease and diabetes in Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust. The Scottish Government is funding a pilot for patients with heart failure.

text: A system  developed for

text: renal

text: patients, Renal patient view, provides online information for kidney patients’ including diagnoses, treatment and latest test results.  Almost all renal units in the UK can use this system, and it has been extended to patients with

text: Inflammatory Bowel Disease

text: and

text: diabetes

text: in

text: Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust

text: . The

text: Scottish Government

text: is funding a pilot for patients with

text: heart failure

text: Echinostoma have a digestive system consisting of a pharynx, oesophagus and an excretory pore.

text: Echinostoma have a digestive system consisting of a

text: pharynx

text: oesophagus

text: and an excretory pore.

text: Kidney failure, also known as renal failure or renal insufficiency, is a medical condition of impaired kidney function in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter metabolic wastes from the blood. The two main forms are acute kidney injury, which is often reversible with adequate treatment, and chronic kidney disease, which is often not reversible. In both cases, there is usually an underlying cause.

text: Kidney failure, also known as renal failure or renal insufficiency, is a medical condition of impaired

text: kidney function

text: in which the

text: kidney

text: s fail to adequately

text: filter

text: metabolic waste

text: s from the

text: blood

text: . The two main forms are

text: acute kidney injury

text: , which is often reversible with adequate treatment, and

text: chronic kidney disease

text: , which is often not reversible. In both cases, there is usually an underlying cause.

text: During the recent years, Gerakas is trying to balance between the variant forms of development and its urbanization, while it seems to "flirt" with the borders of the Athens metropolitan city. Some of the city's conveniencies are the easy connection between the Athens basin and the East Attica plain,  the significant location between the two greak attica mountains and the modern architecture. Among the problems the municipality faces are the delay of the excretory system and some bungling of the street layout. The city recently participated at the SPAP organization as the 23rd member which aims to protect and recreate the wounded mountain of Penteli, as well as the Marathonios Anaptyksiaki which aims to the development of the northern mesogea municipalities. A significant role is also attributed to the local cultural union of "Pigi" that tries to help the city to be known and developed.

text: During the recent years, Gerakas is trying to balance between the variant forms of development and its urbanization, while it seems to "flirt" with the borders of the Athens metropolitan city. Some of the city's conveniencies are the easy connection between the Athens basin and the East Attica plain,  the significant location between the two greak attica mountains and the modern architecture. Among the problems the municipality faces are the delay of the excretory system and some bungling of the street layout. The city recently participated at the

text: SPAP

text: organization as the 23rd member which aims to protect and recreate the wounded mountain of Penteli, as well as the

text: Marathonios Anaptyksiaki

text: which aims to the development of the northern mesogea municipalities. A significant role is also attributed to the local cultural union of "Pigi" that tries to help the city to be known and developed.

text: A wearable artificial kidney is a wearable dialysis machine that a person with end-stage kidney disease could use daily or even continuously. A wearable artificial kidney (WAK) is not available, but research teams are in the process of developing such a device. The goal is to develop a portable device that will be able to imitate the functions of the regular kidney. This device would allow for a patient to be treated twenty-four hours a day. With the development of miniature pumps, the idea of an effective wearable hemodialysis device has become more achievable. Many patients are already receiving a continuous peritoneal dialysis treatment which allows them to remain ambulatory. One of the problems with this treatment is that only a small portion of dialysis patients use peritoneal dialysis as their method of treatment because it requires large amounts of dialysate to be stored and disposed of throughout the treatment. In a healthy individual the kidneys filter blood for roughly 168 hours a week compared to an individual with end-stage renal disease whose treatment plan is to be on dialysis for approximately 12 hours a week. This treatment is inadequate and results in a lower quality of life as well as a high mortality rate for patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD). Therefore, there is a need for an around-the-clock device that will allow ESRD patients to be administered higher doses of dialysis continuously while still maintaining a normal life. The FDA has approved the first human clinical trial in the United States for a wearable artificial kidney designed by Blood Purification Technologies Inc. of Beverly Hills, California. The present prototype of the WAK is a 10-pound device, powered by nine-volt batteries, which connects to a patient via a catheter. It is designed to run continuously on batteries which will allow patients to be ambulatory when wearing the device ultimately leading to a greater quality of life.The device is also designed to make improvement in other physiological aspects of the patient’s health such as improvement in volume control, a decrease in hypertension and sodium retention, as well as a decreased chance of developing cardiovascular disease and stroke.

text: A wearable artificial kidney is a wearable

text: dialysis machine

text: that a person with end-stage

text: kidney disease

text: could use daily or even continuously. A wearable artificial kidney (WAK) is not available, but research teams are in the process of developing such a device. The goal is to develop a portable device that will be able to imitate the functions of the regular kidney. This device would allow for a patient to be treated twenty-four hours a day. With the development of miniature pumps, the idea of an effective wearable hemodialysis device has become more achievable. Many patients are already receiving a continuous peritoneal dialysis treatment which allows them to remain ambulatory. One of the problems with this treatment is that only a small portion of dialysis patients use peritoneal dialysis as their method of treatment because it requires large amounts of

text: dialysate

text: to be stored and disposed of throughout the treatment. In a healthy individual the kidneys filter blood for roughly 168 hours a week compared to an individual with end-stage renal disease whose treatment plan is to be on dialysis for approximately 12 hours a week. This treatment is inadequate and results in a lower quality of life as well as a high mortality rate for patients with

text: end stage renal disease

text: (ESRD). Therefore, there is a need for an around-the-clock device that will allow ESRD patients to be administered higher doses of dialysis continuously while still maintaining a normal life. The FDA has approved the first human clinical trial in the United States for a wearable artificial kidney designed by Blood Purification Technologies Inc. of Beverly Hills, California. The present prototype of the WAK is a 10-pound device, powered by nine-volt batteries, which connects to a patient via a catheter. It is designed to run continuously on batteries which will allow patients to be ambulatory when wearing the device ultimately leading to a greater quality of life.The device is also designed to make improvement in other physiological aspects of the patient’s health such as improvement in volume control, a decrease in

text: hypertension

text: and sodium retention, as well as a decreased chance of developing

text: cardiovascular disease

text: and

text: stroke

text: The topics of the third term, 2003-2004 were selected to be for Grand Hamdan International Award - Renal Diseases: Pathogenesis & Management, and for Hamdan Award for Medical Research Excellence - Emerging Viral & Prion Diseases, Minimally Invasive Surgical Technology, Prevention & Non-invasive Therapy of Gastrointestinal Disorders. Renal disease affects people of all ages and lead to considerable distress and early death for a significant number of persons. Kidney disease appears at all ages with newborn babies being affected with congenital and genetic problems, young children developing kidney problems as a primary condition or as a complication of other disease. The elderly, especially, are prone to develop kidney problems and renal failure as their health deteriorates.

text: Urine typically contains 70% of the nitrogen and more than half the phosphorus and potassium found in urban waste water flows, while making up less than 1% of the overall volume. If urine is to be collected for use as a fertiliser in agriculture, then the easiest method of doing so is with sanitation systems that utilise waterless urinals, urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDTs) or urine diversion flush toilets. Thus far, source separation, or urine diversion systems have been implemented in South Africa, China, Sweden and many other countries.

text: Urine typically contains 70% of the

text: nitrogen

text: and more than half the

text: phosphorus

text: and

text: potassium

text: found in urban waste water flows, while making up less than 1% of the overall volume. If urine is to be collected for use as a fertiliser in agriculture, then the easiest method of doing so is with

text: sanitation

text: systems that utilise waterless

text: urinals

text: urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDTs)

text: or

text: urine diversion

text: flush toilets. Thus far, source separation, or

text: urine diversion

text: systems have been implemented in South Africa, China, Sweden and many other countries.

text: The main organs involved in urination are the urinary bladder and the urethra. The smooth muscle of the bladder, known as the detrusor, is innervated by sympathetic nervous system fibers from the lumbar spinal cord and parasympathetic fibers from the sacral spinal cord. Fibers in the pelvic nerves constitute the main afferent limb of the voiding reflex; the parasympathetic fibers to the bladder that constitute the excitatory efferent limb also travel in these nerves. Part of the urethra is surrounded by the male or female external urethral sphincter, which is innervated by the somatic pudendal nerve originating in the  cord, in an area termed Onuf's nucleus.

text: The main organs involved in urination are the

text: urinary bladder

text: and the

text: urethra

text: . The

text: smooth muscle

text: of the bladder, known as the

text: detrusor

text: , is innervated by

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: fibers from the

text: lumbar

text: spinal cord

text: and

text: parasympathetic

text: fibers from the

text: sacral

text: spinal cord. Fibers in the

text: pelvic nerves

text: constitute the main afferent limb of the voiding reflex; the parasympathetic fibers to the bladder that constitute the excitatory efferent limb also travel in these nerves. Part of the urethra is surrounded by the

entity_name: External sphincter muscle of male urethra

text: male

text: or

entity_name: External sphincter muscle of female urethra

text: female external urethral sphincter

text: , which is innervated by the somatic

text: pudendal nerve

text: originating in the  cord, in an area termed

text: Onuf's nucleus

text: All the metabolic wastes are excreted in a form of water solutes through the excretory organs (nephridia, Malpighian tubules, kidneys), with the exception of CO, which is excreted together with the water vapor throughout the lungs. The elimination of these compounds enables the chemical homeostasis of the organism.

text: All the metabolic wastes are excreted in a form of

text: water

text: solutes

text: through the excretory

text: organs

text: nephridia

text: Malpighian tubule

text: s,

text: kidney

text: s), with the exception of CO, which is excreted together with the

text: water vapor

text: throughout the

text: lung

text: s. The elimination of these compounds enables the chemical

text: homeostasis

text: of the organism.

text: Part Four of "Some Informal Remarks" is the novel Neveryóna, and Part Five is the AIDS novella, "The Tale of Plagues and Carnivals". Starting with Trouble of Triton, the “Informal Remarks” are constituted by the sections in which the doubling (discussed earlier in this article) has most to do with writing. In "Closures and Openings” (in Return to Nevèrÿon), section 15 discusses the Modular Calculus directly, for those who need a helping hand or who have not carefully pursued the notion for themselves through all the "Informal Remarks". As Delany puts it in another interview, "The Second Science Fiction Studies Interview", he quotes from "The Informal Remarks, Part II" (the second appendix to Trouble on Triton), "How can one relational system model another? . . . What must pass from system-A to System-B for us (system-C) to be able to say that system-B now contains some model of system-A? . . . Granted the proper passage, what must be the internal structure of system-B for us (or it) to say it contains any model of system-A?”. In the interview Delany goes on to answer his own question: “The question encompasses the semiotic situation, since the answer to the second part of the question ("What must pass from system-A to System-B...") is some form of the answer ‘signs’; and the answer to the third part ("...what must be the internal structure of system-B for us (or it) to say it contains any model of system-A?”) is: "Clearly it must be of an internal structure that allows it to interpret signs—i.e., its internal structure must be one that allows it to perform some sort of semiosis." To the extent that Return to Nevèrÿon deals with narrativity and writing, this would explain one of Delany's most often quoted comments about this major project, that Return to Nevèrÿon was conceived as "a child’s garden of semiotics."

text: semiotics

text: Amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes via the therapsids. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.

text: Amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice (known as the

text: cloaca

text: ) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for

text: copulation

text: and

text: egg

text: -laying.

text: Monotreme

text: mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest

text: amniote

text: s via the

text: therapsid

text: s.

text: Marsupial

text: s have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate

text: vagina

text: for reproduction. Female

text: placental

text: mammals have completely separate orifices for

text: defecation

text: urination

text: , and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and

text: another for both urination and reproduction

text: , although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.

text: In animal anatomy, a cloaca   (plural cloacae   or  ) is the posterior orifice that serves as the only opening for the digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts (if present) of certain animals, opening at the vent. All amphibians, birds, reptiles, and a few mammals (monotremes, tenrecs, golden moles, and marsupial moles) have this orifice, from which they excrete both urine and feces; this is in contrast to most placental mammals, which have two or three separate orifices for evacuation. Excretory systems with analogous purpose in certain invertebrates are also sometimes referred to as cloacae.

text: In animal anatomy, a cloaca   (plural cloacae   or  ) is the posterior

text: orifice

text: that serves as the only opening for the

text: digestive

text: , reproductive, and

text: urinary tract

text: s (if present) of certain animals, opening at the vent. All

text: amphibian

text: s,

text: bird

text: s,

text: reptile

text: s, and a few mammals (

text: monotreme

text: s,

text: tenrec

text: s,

text: golden mole

text: s, and

text: marsupial mole

text: s) have this orifice, from which they excrete both

text: urine

text: and

text: feces

text: ; this is in contrast to most

text: placental

text: mammals, which have two or three separate orifices for evacuation. Excretory systems with analogous purpose in certain

text: invertebrate

text: s are also sometimes referred to as cloacae.

text: Kountz completed a master's degree in chemistry in 1956; two years later he received his M.D. He spent the next year as an intern with the highly competitive Stanford Service of San Francisco General Hospital, and, in 1959, he began his surgical training at the Stanford University School of Medicine. It was at Stanford that he studied the field of organ transplantation, and decided to make transplant surgery his life's work. He was still a resident in 1961, when he made medical history by performing the first kidney transplant using a non-twin donor. Among Kountz's other contributions were the discovery that large doses of the steroid drug methylprednisolone could reverse acute rejection of a transplanted kidney, and that re-implantation (the implantation of a second donor kidney at the earliest indication that the first might be rejected) could mean the difference between the death and survival for transplant patients. A tireless proponent of organ donation, he once performed a kidney transplant on live television, The Today Show, in 1976, inspiring some 20,000 viewers to offer their kidneys to patients who needed them. In addition, his groundbreaking research in the area of tissue typing helped improve the results of kidney transplantation and led to the increased use of kidneys from unrelated donors.

text: Kountz completed a master's degree in chemistry in 1956; two years later he received his M.D. He spent the next year as an intern with the highly competitive Stanford Service of

text: San Francisco General Hospital

text: , and, in 1959, he began his surgical training at the

text: Stanford University School of Medicine

text: . It was at

text: Stanford

text: that he studied the field of organ transplantation, and decided to make transplant surgery his life's work. He was still a resident in 1961, when he made medical history by performing the first

text: kidney transplant

text: using a non-twin donor. Among Kountz's other contributions were the discovery that large doses of the steroid drug

text: methylprednisolone

text: could reverse acute rejection of a transplanted kidney, and that re-implantation (the implantation of a second donor kidney at the earliest indication that the first might be rejected) could mean the difference between the death and survival for transplant patients. A tireless proponent of organ donation, he once performed a

text: kidney transplant

text: on live television,

text: The Today Show

text: , in 1976, inspiring some 20,000 viewers to offer their kidneys to patients who needed them. In addition, his groundbreaking research in the area of tissue typing helped improve the results of kidney transplantation and led to the increased use of kidneys from unrelated donors.

text: A ureotelic organism is one whose main way to excrete excess nitrogen is via urea. Ureotelism is one of the three major forms of excretion of nitrogenous waste in organisms, the others being ammonotelism and uricotelism.

text: A ureotelic

text: organism

text: is one whose main way to

text: excrete

text: excess

text: nitrogen

text: is via

text: urea

text: . Ureotelism is one of the three major forms of excretion of

text: nitrogenous waste

text: in organisms, the others being

text: ammonotelism

text: and

text: uricotelism

text: Research indicates that a high protein diet is carcinogenic, and that the cancer risk is somewhat decreased if it's non-animal protein. When a high dietary protein intake is consumed, there is an increase in urea excretion, which suggests that amino acid oxidation is increased.High levels of protein intake increase the activity of branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase. As a result, oxidation is facilitated, and the amino group of the amino acid is excreted to the liver. This process suggests that excess protein consumption results in protein oxidation and that the protein is excreted.  The body is unable to store excess protein. Protein is digested into amino acids, which enter the bloodstream. Excess amino acids are converted to other usable molecules by the liver in a process called deamination. Deamination converts nitrogen from the amino acid into ammonia, which is converted by the liver into urea in the urea cycle. Excretion of urea is performed by the kidneys.These organs can normally cope with any extra workload, but, if kidney disease occurs, a decrease in protein will often be prescribed. When there is excess protein intake, amino acids can be converted to glucose or ketones, in addition to being oxidized for fuel. When food protein intake is periodically high or low, the body tries to keep protein levels at an equilibrium by using the "labile protein reserve", which serves as a short-term protein store to be used for emergencies or daily variations in protein intake. However, that reserve is not utilized as longer-term storage for future needs.

text: Research indicates that a high protein diet is carcinogenic, and that the cancer risk is somewhat decreased if it's non-animal protein. When a high dietary protein intake is consumed, there is an increase in urea excretion, which suggests that amino acid oxidation is increased.High levels of protein intake increase the activity of branched-chain ketoacid dehydrogenase. As a result, oxidation is facilitated, and the amino group of the amino acid is excreted to the liver. This process suggests that excess protein consumption results in protein oxidation and that the protein is excreted.  The body is unable to store excess protein. Protein is digested into amino acids, which enter the bloodstream. Excess amino acids are converted to other usable molecules by the liver in a process called

text: deamination

text: . Deamination converts nitrogen from the amino acid into ammonia, which is converted by the liver into urea in the

text: urea cycle

text: . Excretion of urea is performed by the kidneys.These organs can normally cope with any extra workload, but, if

text: kidney disease

text: occurs, a decrease in protein will often be prescribed. When there is excess protein intake, amino acids can be converted to

text: glucose

text: or

text: ketones

text: , in addition to being oxidized for fuel. When food protein intake is periodically high or low, the body tries to keep protein levels at an equilibrium by using the "labile protein reserve", which serves as a short-term protein store to be used for emergencies or daily variations in protein intake. However, that reserve is not utilized as longer-term storage for future needs.

text: A variety of modified urinals and personal funnels have been invented to make it easier for women to urinate standing up. None has become widespread enough to affect policy formation on potty parity.

text: Upon entry, the Lassa virus infects almost every tissue in the human body. It starts with the mucosa, intestine, lungs and urinary system, and then progresses to the vascular system.

text: Upon entry, the Lassa virus infects almost every tissue in the human body. It starts with the

text: mucosa

text: , intestine, lungs and urinary system, and then progresses to the vascular system.

text: Symptoms can vary from person to person. Someone in early stage kidney disease may not feel sick or notice symptoms as they occur. When kidneys fail to filter properly, waste accumulates in the blood and the body, a condition called azotemia. Very low levels of azotaemia may produce few, if any, symptoms. If the disease progresses, symptoms become noticeable (if the failure is of sufficient degree to cause symptoms). Kidney failure accompanied by noticeable symptoms is termed uraemia.

text: Symptoms can vary from person to person. Someone in early stage kidney disease may not feel sick or notice symptoms as they occur. When kidneys fail to filter properly, waste accumulates in the blood and the body, a condition called

text: azotemia

text: . Very low levels of azotaemia may produce few, if any, symptoms. If the disease progresses, symptoms become noticeable (if the failure is of sufficient degree to cause symptoms). Kidney failure accompanied by noticeable symptoms is termed

text: uraemia

text: The Malpighian tubule system is a type of excretory and osmoregulatory system found in some  insects, myriapods, arachnids, and tardigrades.

text: The Malpighian tubule system is a type of

text: excretory

text: and

text: osmoregulatory

text: system found in some

text: insect

text: s,

text: myriapods

text: arachnid

text: s, and

text: tardigrade

text: s.

text: Kidneys play a very large role in human osmoregulation by regulating the amount of water reabsorbed from glomerular filtrate in kidney tubules, which is controlled by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aldosterone, and angiotensin II. For example, a decrease in water potential of detected by osmoreceptors in hypothalamus, which stimulates ADH release from pituitary gland  to increase the permeability of the wall of the collecting ducts in the kidneys. Therefore, a large proportion of water is reabsorbed from fluid to prevent a fair proportion of water from being excreted.

text: Kidneys

text: play a very large role in human osmoregulation by regulating the amount of water reabsorbed from

text: glomerular filtrate

text: in kidney tubules, which is controlled by

text: hormones

text: such as

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: (ADH),

text: aldosterone

text: , and

text: angiotensin II

text: . For example, a decrease in

text: water potential

text: of detected by

text: osmoreceptors

text: in

text: hypothalamus

text: , which stimulates ADH release from

text: pituitary gland

text: to increase the

text: permeability

text: of the wall of the

text: collecting ducts

text: in the kidneys. Therefore, a large proportion of water is reabsorbed from fluid to prevent a fair proportion of water from being excreted.

text: Urine leaves the medullary collecting ducts through the renal papillae, emptying into the renal calyces, the renal pelvis, and finally into the urinary bladder via the ureter.

text: Urine leaves the medullary collecting ducts through the

text: renal papilla

text: e, emptying into the

text: renal calyces

text: , the

text: renal pelvis

text: , and finally into the

text: urinary bladder

text: via the

text: ureter

text: The SWB baseline is maintained by psychological and biological homeostasis (Brickman & Campbell, 1971; Cummins & Lau, 2004). Measurement of overall happiness determined the SWB baseline. A higher SWB baseline indicates a higher SPQL. People who have experienced more positive and less negative intense experiences during their lives (i.e., transient deviations), have a higher SPQL. Intense experiences were assessed through measuring the frequency and intensity of nonnormative transient subjective experiences of happiness/unhappiness that deviate from the SWB baseline throughout time.

text: Basic physiology suggests that the urine produced in the first hours or day after being cut off from fluid supplies may be a useful source of fluid. Under conditions of dehydration, the kidneys need only 0.5 liters of water per 24 hours to excrete the 'waste' i.e. the salts and organic material that needs to be removed from the blood. Under normal conditions a healthy adult will produce some 2 L of urine, of which 1.5 L can be considered 'free water' while the other 0.5 L is needed to remove waste. Thus theoretically, drinking one L of normal human urine is equivalent to drinking 0.75 L of water. As dehydration proceeds, urine will become more concentrated and approach the limit of 0.5 L/24h where it is no longer useful as a 'beverage.'. However this theory neglects to include the need for additional water in order to reprocess the removed waste contained in the urine, which includes a substantial amount salt.

text: In east Asian countries practitioners commonly refer to acupuncture points by their traditional names.  Some points have several names.  When acupuncture was adopted in the western world, a standard nomenclature was developed to unambiguously identify the acupuncture points on meridians.  This model achieved wide acceptance and today virtually every book on acupuncture refers to acupuncture points using it.  The World Health Organization (WHO) published A Proposed Standard International Acupuncture Nomenclature Report in 1991, listing 361 classical acupuncture points organized according to the fourteen meridians, eight extra meridians, 48 extra points, and scalp acupuncture points, and published Standard Acupuncture Nomenclature in 1993, focused on the 361 classical acupuncture points.  Each acupuncture point is identified by the meridian on which it is located and its number in the point sequence on that channel.  For example, Lu-9 identifies the 9th acupuncture point on the lung meridian, tài yuān (太渊) or gui xin (鬼心), two names used for this same point. The only glitch with this unique systemized method can be found on the urinary bladder meridian, where the outer line of 14 points found on the back near the spine are inserted in one of two ways; following the last point of the inner line along the spine (會陽) and resuming with the point found in the crease of the buttocks (承扶), or following the point in the center of the crease of the knee (委中) and resuming with the point just below that (合陽), found in the bifurcation of the gastrocnemius muscle.  Although classification of the extra points often tries to utilize a similar shortcut method, where a numbered sequence along an assigned body part is used, there is no commonly agreed-upon system and therefore universal identification of these points relies on the original naming system of traditional Chinese characters.

text: In east Asian countries practitioners commonly refer to acupuncture points by their traditional names.  Some points have several names.  When acupuncture was adopted in the western world, a standard nomenclature was developed to unambiguously identify the acupuncture points on meridians.  This model achieved wide acceptance and today virtually every book on acupuncture refers to acupuncture points using it.  The

text: World Health Organization (WHO)

text: In busy washrooms, urinals are installed for efficiency: compared with urination in a general-purpose toilet, usage is faster because within the room there are no additional doors, no locks, and no seat to turn up; also a urinal takes less space, is simpler, and consumes less water per flush (or even no water at all) than a flush toilet. Urinals also come in different heights, to accommodate tall and short users, men or boys. There are often privacy barriers between the urinals.

text: In busy

text: washroom

text: s, urinals are installed for efficiency: compared with

text: urination

text: in a general-purpose toilet, usage is faster because within the room there are no additional doors, no locks, and no seat to turn up; also a urinal takes less space, is simpler, and consumes less water per flush (or even no water at all) than a

text: flush toilet

text: . Urinals also come in different heights, to accommodate tall and short users, men or boys. There are often privacy barriers between the urinals.

text: The circulatory and excretory system are closely related, in that the heart is surrounded by the triangular kidney. The kidney has a lamellate (layered) structure and it has two ureters. In this slug species, the ventricle of the heart is directed towards, and is very close to, the anal and respiratory openings. The ventricle of the heart is further away and further back than it is in species of the related genus Arion, the type genus of the family Arionidae.

text: The

text: circulatory

text: and

text: excretory system

text: are closely related, in that the heart is surrounded by the triangular

text: kidney

text: . The kidney has a lamellate (layered) structure and it has two

text: ureter

text: s. In this slug species, the

text: ventricle

text: of the heart is directed towards, and is very close to, the

text: anal

text: and

text: respiratory

text: openings. The ventricle of the heart is further away and further back than it is in species of the related genus

text: Arion

text: , the type genus of the family Arionidae.

text: The excretory system consists of segmented "kidneys" containing protonephridia instead of nephrons, and quite unlike those of vertebrates. Also unlike vertebrates, there are numerous, segmented gonads.

text: The excretory system consists of segmented "kidneys" containing

text: protonephridia

text: instead of

text: nephron

text: s, and quite unlike those of vertebrates. Also unlike vertebrates, there are numerous, segmented

text: gonad

text: s.

text: A reaction, similar to the above-mentioned is seen in the normal population, who excrete small amounts of the chemical in their urine. Normal urine reacting to hydrogen peroxide does at times produce a bluish tinge.Tryptophan is first converted to indole (excreted in faeces), then to indican by bacteria in the gut. Indican, being water-soluble, is then excreted through the urine. Following absorption from the gut, indole is converted to 3-hydroxy indole (indoxyl or indican) in the liver, where it is again then conjugated with sulfuric acid or glucoronic acid through normal xenobiotic metabolism pathways. It is then transported to the kidneys for excretion.

text: A reaction, similar to the above-mentioned is seen in the normal population, who excrete small amounts of the chemical in their urine. Normal urine reacting to

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: does at times produce a bluish tinge.Tryptophan is first converted to

text: indole

text: (excreted in faeces), then to indican by

text: bacteria

text: in the gut. Indican, being water-soluble, is then

text: excreted

text: through the

text: urine

text: . Following absorption from the gut,

text: indole

text: is converted to 3-hydroxy indole (

text: indoxyl

text: or indican) in the liver, where it is again then conjugated with

text: sulfuric acid

text: or

text: glucoronic acid

text: through normal

text: xenobiotic metabolism

text: pathways. It is then transported to the kidneys for excretion.

text: Due to the importance of IFT in maintaining functional cilia, defective IFT machinery has now been implicated in many disease phenotypes generally associated with non-functional (or absent) cilia. IFT88, for example, encodes a protein also known as Tg737 or Polaris in mouse and human, and the loss of this protein has been found to cause an autosomal-recessive polycystic kidney disease model phenotype in mice. Other human diseases such as retinal degeneration, situs inversus (a reversal of the body's left-right axis), Senior-Loken syndrome, liver disease, primary ciliary dyskinesia, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, Sensenbrenner syndrome, Jeune syndrome, and Bardet-Biedl syndrome, which causes both cystic kidneys and retinal degeneration, have been linked to the IFT machinery. This diverse group of genetic syndromes and genetic diseases are now understood to arise due to malfunctioning cilia, and the term "ciliopathy" is now used to indicate their common origin.These and possibly many more disorders may be better understood via study of IFT.

text: Due to the importance of IFT in maintaining functional cilia, defective IFT machinery has now been implicated in many disease

text: phenotype

text: s generally associated with non-functional (or absent) cilia. IFT88, for example, encodes a protein also known as Tg737 or Polaris in mouse and human, and the loss of this protein has been found to cause an

text: autosomal

text: recessive

text: polycystic kidney disease

text: model phenotype in mice. Other human diseases such as

text: retinal degeneration

text: situs inversus

text: (a reversal of the body's left-right axis),

text: Senior-Loken syndrome

text: liver disease

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: Sensenbrenner syndrome

text: Jeune syndrome

text: , and

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: , which causes both cystic kidneys and retinal degeneration, have been linked to the IFT machinery. This diverse group of

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: are now understood to arise due to malfunctioning cilia, and the term "

text: ciliopathy

text: " is now used to indicate their common origin.These and possibly many more disorders may be better understood via study of IFT.

text: In 1993, Pro Radio Inc. bought the stations. The FM call letters were switched on Oct. 8, 1993, to the current WNKI  The change was controversial in that several popular personalities were let go as Pro Radio launched a top 40 format under the name of Wink 106 with a staff of air personalities, who were popular on other stations in the market. The change made some unwanted headlines when a presumably irate listener entered the main office (then at 99 W. First St.) after hours and doused it with fox urine.

text: In 1993, Pro Radio Inc. bought the stations. The FM call letters were switched on Oct. 8, 1993, to the current WNKI  The change was controversial in that several popular personalities were let go as Pro Radio launched a

text: top 40

text: format under the name of Wink 106 with a staff of air personalities, who were popular on other stations in the market. The change made some unwanted headlines when a presumably irate listener entered the main office (then at 99 W. First St.) after hours and doused it with

text: fox urine

text: Bithynia siamensis serves as a first intermediate host for Southeast Asian liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini. The number of excretory cells of the digestive system is increased in infected Bithynia siamensis.

text: Bithynia siamensis serves as a first

text: intermediate host

text: for Southeast Asian liver fluke

text: Opisthorchis viverrini

text: . The number of excretory cells of the

text: digestive system

text: is increased in infected Bithynia siamensis.

text: There are three main sites where drug excretion occurs. The kidney is the most important site and it is where products are excreted through urine. Biliary excretion or fecal excretion is the process that initiates in the liver and passes through to the gut until the products are finally excreted along with waste products or feces. The last main method of excretion is through the lungs (e.g. anesthetic gases).

text: Public urinals usually have a plastic mesh guard, which may optionally contain a deodorizing urinal deodorizer block or "urinal cake". The mesh is intended to prevent solid objects (such as cigarette butts, feces, chewing gum, or paper) from being flushed and possibly causing a plumbing stoppage. In some restaurants, bars, and clubs, ice may be put in the urinals, serving some of the same purposes as the deodorizing block without dispensing odorous chemicals.

text: Public urinals usually have a plastic mesh guard, which may optionally contain a deodorizing

text: urinal deodorizer block

text: or "urinal cake". The mesh is intended to prevent solid objects (such as

text: cigarette butt

text: s, feces,

text: chewing gum

text: , or paper) from being flushed and possibly causing a plumbing stoppage. In some restaurants, bars, and clubs, ice may be put in the urinals, serving some of the same purposes as the deodorizing block without dispensing odorous chemicals.

text: It has been suggested that polymers might be developed that can learn and self-correct behavior over time. Although this might be a far distant possibility, there are other more feasible applications that appear to be coming in the near future. One of these is the idea of smart toilettes that analyze urine and help identify health problems. In environmental biotechnology, smart irrigation systems have been also been proposed. It would be incredibly useful to have a system that turns on and off, and controls fertilizer concentrations, based on soil moisture, pH and nutrient levels. Many creative approaches to targeted drug delivery systems that self-regulate based on their unique cellular surroundings, are also under investigation.

text: It has been suggested that polymers might be developed that can learn and self-correct behavior over time. Although this might be a far distant possibility, there are other more feasible applications that appear to be coming in the near future. One of these is the idea of smart toilettes that analyze urine and help identify health problems. In

text: environmental biotechnology

text: , smart

text: irrigation

text: systems have been also been proposed. It would be incredibly useful to have a system that turns on and off, and controls

text: fertilizer

text: concentrations, based on soil

text: moisture

text: , pH and

text: nutrient levels

text: . Many creative approaches to targeted drug delivery systems that self-regulate based on their unique

text: cell

text: ular surroundings, are also under investigation.

text: The main excretion-pathway is revealed to be through urine where up to one-third of the administered compound was recovered unchanged. o-toluidine and metabolites are known to bind to hemoglobin. The o-toluidine metabolite o-nitrosotoluene, is proven to cause bladder cancer in rats and is thought to bind to hemoglobin in humans.  o-Toluidine exposure has been researched in a number of different degrees in animals.

text: The GFR can be determined by injecting inulin or the inulin-analog sinistrin into the plasma.  Since both inulin and sinistrin are neither reabsorbed nor secreted by the kidney after glomerular filtration, their rate of excretion is directly proportional to the rate of filtration of water and solutes across the glomerular filter. Compared to the MDRD formula, the inulin clearance slightly overestimates the glomerular function. In early stage renal disease, the inulin clearance may remain normal due to hyperfiltration in the remaining nephrons. Incomplete urine collection is an important source of error in inulin clearance measurement.

text: The GFR can be determined by injecting

text: inulin

text: or the inulin-analog

text: sinistrin

text: into the plasma.  Since both inulin and sinistrin are neither reabsorbed nor secreted by the kidney after glomerular filtration, their rate of excretion is directly proportional to the rate of filtration of water and solutes across the glomerular filter. Compared to the MDRD formula, the inulin clearance slightly overestimates the glomerular function. In early stage renal disease, the inulin clearance may remain normal due to

text: hyperfiltration

text: in the remaining

text: nephrons

text: . Incomplete urine collection is an important source of error in inulin clearance measurement.

text: The pharynx is a muscular food pump in the head of C. elegans, which is triangular in cross-section. This grinds food and transports it directly to the intestine. A set of "valve cells" connects the pharynx to the intestine, but how this valve operates is not understood. After digestion, the contents of the intestine are released via the rectum, as is the case with all other nematodes. No direct connection exists between the pharynx and the excretory canal, which functions in the release of liquid urine.

text: The pharynx is a muscular food pump in the head of C. elegans, which is triangular in cross-section. This grinds food and transports it directly to the intestine. A set of "valve cells" connects the pharynx to the intestine, but how this valve operates is not understood. After digestion, the contents of the intestine are released via the rectum, as is the case with all other nematodes. No direct connection exists between the pharynx and the

text: excretory

text: canal, which functions in the release of liquid urine.

text: It is soon revealed that Beth is actually Felicia's daughter, aiding her mother in revenge on Paul. After she and Paul sleep together, Beth questions her mother's sanity and if she knew for certain Paul killed her sister, so the two women have a fight. When Paul is shot later in the season, Beth returns to jail, convinced her mother had something to do with it but Felicia is honestly surprised to hear it happened. Unknown to Beth, the detectives investigating the shooting told Paul how she was Felicia's daughter, making him realize how she has been using him all along. While Paul develops hatred for Beth, Beth falls in love with Paul, and has turned against Felicia to support Paul. He kicks Beth out of the house, but she tries to get back with Paul, telling him how she believed her mother's claims of Paul killing her aunt but now that she knows him, does not believe it. She is thus shocked when Paul confesses to having killed Martha after all. Beth goes to see Felicia in prison where her mother berates her for being so stupid as to not get the confession on tape and that Beth is useless to her, telling the guards to remove her daughter from the visitor list. Beth then learns is a match to be a kidney donor for Susan. With nothing else to live for, Beth goes to the hospital and makes sure the nurse in the waiting room files the paperwork ensuring her kidney will go to Susan. Beth then pulls a gun out of her purse and shoots herself in the head, leaving her brain dead. At first, Paul refuses to give Susan Beth's kidney, but later decides to let Susan have the kidney and mourns his wife.

text: Though the collecting duct is normally impermeable to water, it becomes permeable in the presence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH affects the function of aquaporins, resulting in the reabsorption of water molecules as it passes through the collecting duct. Aquaporins are membrane proteins that selectively conduct water molecules while preventing the passage of ions and other solutes. As much as three-quarters of the water from urine can be reabsorbed as it leaves the collecting duct by osmosis. Thus the levels of ADH determine whether urine will be concentrated or diluted. An increase in ADH is an indication of dehydration, while water sufficiency results in a decrease in ADH allowing for diluted urine.

text: Though the collecting duct is normally impermeable to water, it becomes permeable in the presence of

text: antidiuretic hormone

text: (ADH). ADH affects the function of

text: aquaporins

text: , resulting in the reabsorption of water molecules as it passes through the collecting duct. Aquaporins are membrane proteins that selectively conduct water molecules while preventing the passage of ions and other solutes. As much as three-quarters of the water from urine can be reabsorbed as it leaves the collecting duct by osmosis. Thus the levels of ADH determine whether urine will be concentrated or diluted. An increase in ADH is an indication of

text: dehydration

text: , while water sufficiency results in a decrease in ADH allowing for diluted urine.

text: Unacceptable combinations are non-dihydropyridine calcium blockers (such as verapamil or diltiazem) and beta-blockers, dual renin–angiotensin system blockade (e.g. angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor + angiotensin receptor blocker), renin–angiotensin system blockers and beta-blockers, beta-blockers and centrally acting medications. Combinations of an ACE-inhibitor or angiotensin II–receptor antagonist, a diuretic and an NSAID (including selective COX-2 inhibitors and non-prescribed medications such as ibuprofen) should be avoided whenever possible due to a high documented risk of acute kidney failure. The combination is known colloquially as a "triple whammy" in the Australian health industry. Tablets containing fixed combinations of two classes of medications are available and while convenient for the people, may be best reserved for those who have been established on the individual components. Additionally, the use of treatments with vasoactive agents for people with pulmonary hypertension with left heart disease or hypoxemic lung diseases may cause harm and unnecessary expense.

text: Unacceptable combinations are non-dihydropyridine calcium blockers (such as verapamil or diltiazem) and beta-blockers, dual renin–angiotensin system blockade (e.g. angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor + angiotensin receptor blocker), renin–angiotensin system blockers and beta-blockers, beta-blockers and centrally acting medications. Combinations of an ACE-inhibitor or angiotensin II–receptor antagonist, a diuretic and an

text: NSAID

text: (including selective COX-2 inhibitors and non-prescribed medications such as ibuprofen) should be avoided whenever possible due to a high documented risk of acute kidney failure. The combination is known colloquially as a "triple whammy" in the Australian health industry. Tablets containing fixed combinations of two classes of medications are available and while convenient for the people, may be best reserved for those who have been established on the individual components. Additionally, the use of treatments with vasoactive agents for people with pulmonary hypertension with left heart disease or

text: hypoxemic

text: lung diseases may cause harm and unnecessary expense.

text: The development of the urinary system as a part of the prenatal development, concerns the urinary system and sex organs. The latter is a part of the stages of sexual differentiation.

text: The development of the urinary system as a part of the

text: prenatal development

text: , concerns the

text: urinary system

text: and

text: sex organs

text: . The latter is a part of the stages of

text: sexual differentiation

text: Excretion: Clearance: Plasma: 99-119 mL/minute

text: Eszopiclone acts on benzodiazepine binding site situated on GABA neurons as an agonist.Eszopiclone is rapidly absorbed after oral administration, with serum levels peaking between .45 and 1.3 hours. The elimination half-life of eszopiclone is approximately 6 hours and it is extensively metabolized by oxidation and demethylation. Approximately 52% to 59% of a dose is weakly bound to plasma protein. Cytochrome P450 (CYP) isozymes CYP3A4 and CYP2E1 are involved in the biotransformation of eszopiclone; thus, drugs that induce or inhibit these CYP isozymes may affect the metabolism of eszopiclone. Less than 10% of the orally administered dose is excreted in the urine as racemic zopiclone. In terms of benzodiazepine receptor binding and relevant potency, 3 mg of eszopiclone is equivalent to 10 mg of diazepam.

text: Eszopiclone acts on

text: benzodiazepine

text: binding site situated on

text: GABA neurons

text: as an

text: agonist

text: .Eszopiclone is rapidly absorbed after oral administration, with serum levels peaking between .45 and 1.3 hours. The elimination half-life of eszopiclone is approximately 6 hours and it is extensively metabolized by oxidation and demethylation. Approximately 52% to 59% of a dose is weakly bound to plasma protein. Cytochrome P450 (CYP) isozymes

text: and

text: are involved in the biotransformation of eszopiclone; thus, drugs that induce or inhibit these CYP isozymes may affect the metabolism of eszopiclone. Less than 10% of the orally administered dose is excreted in the urine as racemic zopiclone. In terms of benzodiazepine receptor binding and relevant potency, 3 mg of eszopiclone is equivalent to 10 mg of

text: diazepam

text: The ground substance, according to German research, determines what enters and exits the cell and maintains homeostasis, which requires a rapid communication system to respond to complex signals(see also Bruce Lipton).

text: The ground substance, according to German research, determines what enters and exits the cell and maintains homeostasis, which requires a rapid communication system to respond to complex signals(see also

text: Bruce Lipton

text: Chronic kidney disease was the cause of 956,000 deaths globally in 2013, up from 409,000 deaths in 1990. In Canada 1.9 to 2.3 million people were estimated to have CKD in 2008. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that CKD affected an estimated 16.8% of U.S. adults aged 20 years and older in the period from 1999 to 2004. UK estimates suggested that in 2007 8.8% of the population of Great Britain and Northern Ireland had symptomatic CKD.

text: Chronic kidney disease was the cause of 956,000 deaths globally in 2013, up from 409,000 deaths in 1990. In Canada 1.9 to 2.3 million people were estimated to have CKD in 2008. The U.S.

entity_name: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: found that CKD affected an estimated 16.8% of U.S. adults aged 20 years and older in the period from 1999 to 2004. UK estimates suggested that in 2007 8.8% of the population of Great Britain and Northern Ireland had symptomatic CKD.

text: The excretory and circulatory systems are located at the right side of the body just at the beginning of the visceral hump.

text: The

text: excretory

text: and

text: circulatory systems

text: are located at the right side of the body just at the beginning of the visceral hump.

text: Nephrology (from Greek νεφρός nephros "kidney", combined with the suffix -logy, "the study of") is a specialty of medicine and pediatrics that concerns itself with the study of normal kidney function, kidney problems, the treatment of kidney problems and renal replacement therapy (dialysis and kidney transplantation). Systemic conditions that affect the kidneys (such as diabetes and autoimmune disease) and systemic problems that occur as a result of kidney problems (such as renal osteodystrophy and hypertension) are also studied in nephrology. A physician who has undertaken additional training to become an expert in nephrology may call themselves a nephrologist or renal physician.

text: Nephrology (from

text: Greek

text: νεφρός

text: nephros "

text: kidney

text: ", combined with the suffix -logy, "the study of") is a

text: specialty

text: of

text: medicine

text: and

text: pediatrics

text: that concerns itself with the study of normal kidney function, kidney problems, the treatment of kidney problems and

text: renal replacement therapy

text: dialysis

text: and

text: kidney transplantation

text: ). Systemic conditions that affect the kidneys (such as

text: diabetes

text: and

text: autoimmune disease

text: ) and systemic problems that occur as a result of kidney problems (such as

text: renal osteodystrophy

text: and

text: hypertension

text: ) are also studied in nephrology. A physician who has undertaken additional training to become an

text: expert

text: in nephrology may call themselves a nephrologist or renal physician.

text: The Kidney TRUST was founded in 2006 by DaVita. It is an independent, nonprofit organization that believes everyone should be empowered to take a proactive role in their health. The Kidney TRUST is seeking to reduce the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) through free, rapid screening in non-medical settings and providing financial assistance to people affected

text: There are two main excretion processes of acrylonitrile. The primary method is excretion in urine when acrylonitrile is metabolized by being directly conjugated to glutathione. The other method is when acrylonitrile is metabolized with 2-cyanoethylene oxide to produce cyanide end products that ultimately forms thiocyanate, which is excreted via urine, or carbon dioxide and eliminated through the lungs. Metabolites can be detected in the blood and urine.

text: There are two main excretion processes of acrylonitrile. The primary method is excretion in urine when acrylonitrile is metabolized by being directly conjugated to

text: glutathione

text: . The other method is when acrylonitrile is metabolized with

text: 2-cyanoethylene oxide

text: to produce

text: cyanide

text: end products that ultimately forms

text: thiocyanate

text: , which is excreted via urine, or

text: carbon dioxide

text: and eliminated through the lungs. Metabolites can be detected in the blood and urine.

text: The Excretory organs are only the left ones, in the pallial cavity. In the circulatory system the haemolymph circulates as follows: mantle → nephridium or nephridia  → heart.

text: The

text: Excretory organs

text: are only the left ones, in the pallial cavity. In the

text: circulatory system

text: the

text: haemolymph

text: circulates as follows:

text: mantle

text: nephridium

text: or nephridia  → heart.

text: Difficulty was found by other workers in repeating Belzer's successful 72-hour perfusion storage experiments. Woods  was able to achieve successful 48-hour storage of 3 out of 6 kidneys when he used the Belzer additives with cryoprecipitated plasma as the perfusate in a hypothermic perfusion system, but he was unable to extend the storage time to 72 hours as Belzer had done. However, Woods  later achieved successful 3 and 7 days storage of dog kidneys. Woods had modified Belzer's perfusate by the addition of 250 mg of methyl prednisolone, increased the magnesium sulphate content to 16.2 mEq and the insulin to 320 units. Six of 6 kidneys produced life sustaining function when they were reimplanted after 72 hours storage despite immediate contralateral nephrectomies; 1 of 2 kidneys produced life sustaining function after 96 hours storage, 1 of 2 after 120 hours storage, and 1 of 2 after 168 hours storage. Perfusate pressure was 60 mm Hg with a perfusate pump rate of 70 beats per minute, and perfusate pH was automatically maintained at 7.4 by a C02 titrator. Woods stressed the importance of hydration of the donor and recipient animals. Without the methyl prednisolone, Woods found vessel fragility to be a problem when storage times were longer than 48 hours.

text: The role of BMP7 in mammalian kidney development is through induction of MET of the metanephrogenic blastema. The epithelial tissue emerging from this MET process eventually forms the tubules and glomeruli of the nephron. BMP-7 is also important in homeostasis of the adult kidney by inhibiting ephithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). BMP-7 expression is attenuated when the nephron is placed under inflammatory or ischemic stress, leading to EMT, which can result in fibrosis of the kidney. This type of fibrosis often leads to renal failure, and is predictive of end stage renal disease.

text: In some traditions such as Hinduism, the third eye is said to be located around the middle of the forehead, slightly above the junction of the eyebrows. In other traditions, as in Theosophy, it is believed to be connected with the pineal gland. According to this theory, humans had in far ancient times an actual third eye in the back of the head with a physical and spiritual function. Over time, as humans evolved, this eye atrophied and sunk into what today is known as the pineal gland. Dr. Rick Strassman has hypothesized that the pineal gland, which maintains light sensitivity, is responsible for the production and release of DMT (dimethyltryptamine), an entheogen which he believes possibly could be excreted in large quantities at the moments of birth and death.

text: In some traditions such as Hinduism, the third eye is said to be located around the middle of the forehead, slightly above the junction of the eyebrows. In other traditions, as in

text: Theosophy

text: , it is believed to be connected with the

text: pineal gland

text: . According to this theory, humans had in far ancient times an actual third eye in the back of the head with a physical and spiritual function. Over time, as humans evolved, this eye atrophied and sunk into what today is known as the pineal gland. Dr.

text: Rick Strassman

text: has hypothesized that the pineal gland, which maintains light sensitivity, is responsible for the production and release of

text: DMT

text: (dimethyltryptamine), an

text: entheogen

text: which he believes possibly could be excreted in large quantities at the moments of birth and death.

text: Furthermore, for more complex systems it should be questioned if (derived, lower level) requirements and related product specifications are validated? Will it later result in worn items and systems, by general wear, fatigue or corrosion mechanisms, debris accumulation or due to maintenance induced failures? Are there interactions on any system level (as investigated by for example Fault Tree Analysis)? How many of these systems still meet function and fulfill the needs after a week of operation? What performance losses  occurred? Did full system failure occur? What happens after the end of a one-year warranty period? And what happens after 50 years (a common lifetime for aircraft, trains, nuclear systems, etc...)? That is where "reliability" comes in. These issues are far more complex and can not be controlled only by a standard "quality" (six sigma) way of working. They need a systems engineering approach.

text: Furthermore, for more complex systems it should be questioned if (derived, lower level) requirements and related product specifications are validated? Will it later result in worn items and systems, by general wear, fatigue or corrosion mechanisms, debris accumulation or due to maintenance induced failures? Are there interactions on any system level (as investigated by for example Fault Tree Analysis)? How many of these systems still meet function and fulfill the needs after a week of operation? What performance losses  occurred? Did full system failure occur? What happens after the end of a one-year warranty period? And what happens after 50 years (a common lifetime for aircraft, trains, nuclear systems, etc...)? That is where "reliability" comes in. These issues are far more complex and can not be controlled only by a standard "quality" (six sigma) way of working. They need a

text: systems engineering

text: approach.

text: Huber’s research focus is to understand the complex signaling networks that regulate the development, maintenance and disease progression of the kidney. His translational research program involves model organisms, transgenic mouse models, high-throughput screenings, systems biology and high-resolution imaging approaches to elucidate kidney signaling programs in health and disease. Huber's team identified several molecular mechanisms important for renal development, maintenance, ageing and disease of the kidney.

text: Huber’s research focus is to understand the complex signaling networks that regulate the development, maintenance and disease progression of the

text: kidney

text: . His

text: translational research

text: program involves

text: model organism

text: s,

text: transgenic mouse models

text: high-throughput screening

text: s,

text: systems biology

text: and high-resolution imaging approaches to elucidate kidney

text: signaling programs

text: in health and disease. Huber's team identified several molecular mechanisms important for renal development, maintenance, ageing and

text: disease

text: of the kidney.

text: Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the neuroendocrine system. The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via nerve impulses and neurotransmitters. At the same time, the endocrine system releases hormones, such as to help regulate blood pressure and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (pH).

text: Each system contributes to homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. Some combined systems are referred to by joint names. For example, the nervous system and the endocrine system operate together as the

text: neuroendocrine system

text: . The nervous system receives information from the body, and transmits this to the brain via

text: nerve impulse

text: s and

text: neurotransmitter

text: s. At the same time, the

text: endocrine system

text: releases hormones, such as to help regulate

text: blood pressure

text: and volume. Together, these systems regulate the internal environment of the body, maintaining blood flow, posture, energy supply, temperature, and acid balance (

text: pH

text: The design difference between the various models is the shape and size of the two compartments and in the way the flush water is introduced for the two compartments. In addition, the Roederig NoMix toilet was the only toilet that was able to collect the urine pure - without any flush water - due to a valve on the urine compartment that was opened when the user sat down and closed when the user stood up and flushed the toilet. It was also this valve that caused a lot of maintenance issues due to struvite precipitation in this valve. In the other urine diversion flush toilet models, the urine is diluted with a small amount of flush water, usually about one litre per flush.

text: Effects from oral doses often are felt within an hour of administration, lasting somewhere from six to eight hours in effect.  A non-selective depressant of the CNS, Butabarbital sodium is used as a sedative hypnotic, depending on dose, to induce drowsiness or sleep, or reduce anxiety and tension.  Butabarbital sodium can be used as a pre-surgical anesthetic aid or in the short-term treatment of sleep and anxiety disorders.  For short term sleep maintenance and induction butabarbital sodium treatment is recommended to be limited to two weeks, after which it begins to lose efficacy. The half life is approximately 100hrs, eliminated primarily by hepatic microsomal enzymes and excreted in the urine.

text: The nephridia consists of an opening called nephrostome, a long convoluted tubule and another opening called the nephridiopore. Body fluids are filtered in through the nephrostome and passed through the convoluted tubule system. Essential substances are reabsorbed through active mechanisms and waste products are secreted back into the lumen of the tube. The resulting excretory fluid or urine is passed out through the nephridiopore.

text: The nephridia consists of an opening called

text: nephrostome

text: , a long

text: convoluted tubule

text: and another opening called the nephridiopore. Body fluids are

text: filtered

text: in through the

text: nephrostome

text: and passed through the convoluted tubule system. Essential substances are

text: reabsorbed

text: through active mechanisms and waste products are

text: secreted

text: back into the lumen of the tube. The resulting excretory fluid or

text: urine

text: is passed out through the nephridiopore.

text: A protonephridium (proto = "first") is a network of dead-end tubules lacking internal openings found in the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea and Rotifera. The ends are called flame cells (if ciliated) or solenocytes (if flagellated); they function in osmoregulation and ionoregulation, respectively. The terminal cells are located at the blind end of the protonephridium. Each cell has one or more cilia and their beating inside the protonephridial tube creates an outward going current and hence a partial pressurization in the blind of the tube. Because of this, pressurization drives waste fluids from the inside of the animal, and they are pulled through small perforations in the terminal cells and into the protonephridium. The perforations in the terminal cell are large enough for small molecules to pass, but larger proteins are retained within the animal. From the bottom of the protonephridium the solutes are led through the tube, formed by the canal cells, and exits the animal from a small opening formed by the nephridiopore. Selective reabsorption of useful molecules by the canal cells occurs as the solutes pass down the tubule. Protonephridia are generally found in basal organisms such as flatworms. Protonephridia likely first arose as a way to cope with a hypotonic environment by removing excess water from the organism (osmoregulation). Their use as excretory and ionoregulatory structures likely arose secondarily.

text: A protonephridium (proto = "first") is a network of dead-end

text: tubule

text: s lacking internal openings found in the phyla

text: Platyhelminthes

text: Nemertea

text: and

text: Rotifera

text: . The ends are called

text: flame cell

text: s (if ciliated) or

text: solenocyte

text: s (if flagellated); they function in

text: osmoregulation

text: and

text: ionoregulation

text: , respectively. The terminal cells are located at the blind end of the protonephridium. Each cell has one or more

text: cilia

text: and their beating inside the protonephridial tube creates an outward going current and hence a partial

text: pressurization

text: in the blind of the tube. Because of this, pressurization drives

text: waste fluids

text: from the inside of the animal, and they are pulled through small perforations in the terminal cells and into the protonephridium. The perforations in the terminal cell are large enough for small

text: molecule

text: s to pass, but larger

text: protein

text: s are retained within the animal. From the bottom of the protonephridium the solutes are led through the tube, formed by the canal cells, and exits the animal from a small opening formed by the

text: nephridiopore

text: . Selective reabsorption of useful molecules by the canal cells occurs as the solutes pass down the tubule. Protonephridia are generally found in basal organisms such as

text: flatworm

text: s. Protonephridia likely first arose as a way to cope with a hypotonic environment by removing excess water from the organism (

text: osmoregulation

text: ). Their use as excretory and ionoregulatory structures likely arose secondarily.

text: The National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse (NDDIC) is an information dissemination service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). The NIDDK is part of the National Institutes of Health, which is under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

text: The National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse (NDDIC) is an information dissemination service of the

text: (NIDDK). The NIDDK is part of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: , which is under the

text: Drugs are excreted from the kidney by glomerular filtration and by active tubular secretion following the same steps and mechanisms as the products of intermediate metabolism. Therefore, drugs that are filtered by the glomerulus are also subject to the process of passive tubular reabsorption.  Glomerular filtration will only remove those drugs or metabolites that are not bound to proteins present in blood plasma (free fraction) and many other types of drugs (such as the organic acids) are actively secreted.  In the proximal and  distal convoluted tubules non-ionised acids and weak bases are reabsorbed both actively and passively. Weak acids are excreted when the tubular fluid becomes too alkaline and this reduces passive reabsorption. The opposite occurs with weak bases. Poisoning treatments use this effect to increase elimination, by alkalizing the urine causing forced diuresis which promotes excretion of a weak acid, rather than it getting reabsorbed. As the acid is ionised, it cannot pass through the plasma membrane back into the blood stream and instead gets excreted with the urine. Acidifying the urine has the same effect for weakly basic drugs.

text: Drugs are excreted from the kidney by

text: glomerular filtration

text: and by active

text: tubular secretion

text: following the same steps and mechanisms as the products of intermediate metabolism. Therefore, drugs that are filtered by the

text: glomerulus

text: are also subject to the process of passive

text: tubular reabsorption

text: .  Glomerular filtration will only remove those drugs or metabolites that are not bound to proteins present in blood plasma (free fraction) and many other types of drugs (such as the organic acids) are actively secreted.  In the

text: proximal

text: and

text: distal convoluted tubule

text: s non-ionised acids and weak bases are reabsorbed both actively and passively. Weak acids are excreted when the tubular fluid becomes too alkaline and this reduces passive reabsorption. The opposite occurs with weak bases. Poisoning treatments use this effect to increase elimination, by alkalizing the urine causing

text: forced diuresis

text: which promotes excretion of a weak acid, rather than it getting reabsorbed. As the acid is

text: ionised

text: , it cannot pass through the

text: plasma membrane

text: back into the blood stream and instead gets excreted with the urine. Acidifying the urine has the same effect for weakly basic drugs.

text: In most cases the barely functioning existing kidneys are not removed, as removal has been shown to increase the rates of surgical morbidity. Therefore, the kidney is usually placed in a location different from the original kidney, often in the iliac fossa, so it is often necessary to use a different blood supply:

text: In most cases the barely functioning existing kidneys are not removed, as removal has been shown to increase the rates of surgical morbidity. Therefore, the kidney is usually placed in a location different from the original kidney, often in the

text: iliac fossa

text: , so it is often necessary to use a different blood supply:

text: Ostrich kidneys are fairly large, and so are able to hold significant amounts of solutes. Hence, ostriches drink relatively large volumes of water daily, and excrete generous quantities of highly concentrated urine. It is when drinking water is unavailable or withdrawn, that the urine becomes highly concentrated with uric acid and urates. It seems that ostriches who normally drink relatively large amounts of water tend to rely on renal conservation of water when drinking water is scarce within the kidney system. Though there have been no official detailed renal studies conducted on the flow rate (Poiseuille's Law) and composition of the ureteral urine in the ostrich, knowledge of renal function has been based on samples of cloacal urine, and samples or quantitative collections of voided urine. Studies have shown that the amount of water intake, and dehydration impacts the plasma osmolality and urine osmolality within various sized ostriches. During a normal hydration state of the kidneys, young ostriches tend to have a measured plasma osmolality of 284 mOsm, and urine osmolality of 62 mOsm. Adults have higher rates with a plasma osmolality of 330 mOsm, and a urine osmolality of 163 mOsm. The osmolality of both plasma and urine can alter in regards to whether there is an excess or depleted amount of water present within the kidneys. An interesting fact of ostriches is that when water is freely available, the urine osmolality can reduce to 60–70 mOsm,  not losing any necessary solutes from the kidneys when excess water is excreted. Dehydrated or salt-loaded ostriches can reach a maximal urine osmolality of approximately 800 mOsm. When the plasma osmolality has been measured simultaneously with the maximal osmotic urine, it is seen that the urine:plasma ratio is 2.6:1, the highest encountered among avian species. Along with dehydration, there is also a reduction in flow rate from 20 L·d to only 0.3–0.5 L·d.

text: Ostrich kidneys are fairly large, and so are able to hold significant amounts of

text: solutes

text: . Hence, ostriches drink relatively large volumes of water daily, and

text: excrete

text: generous quantities of highly concentrated

text: urine

text: . It is when drinking water is unavailable or withdrawn, that the urine becomes highly concentrated with

text: uric acid and urates

text: . It seems that ostriches who normally drink relatively large amounts of water tend to rely on

text: renal conservation

text: of water when drinking water is scarce within the kidney system. Though there have been no official detailed

text: renal studies

text: conducted on the

text: flow rate

text: Poiseuille's Law

text: ) and composition of the ureteral urine in the ostrich, knowledge of

text: renal function

text: has been based on samples of

text: cloacal urine

text: , and samples or quantitative collections of

text: voided urine

text: . Studies have shown that the amount of water intake, and

text: dehydration

text: impacts the

text: plasma osmolality

text: and

text: urine osmolality

text: within various sized ostriches. During a normal hydration state of the kidneys, young ostriches tend to have a measured plasma osmolality of 284

text: mOsm

text: , and urine osmolality of 62 mOsm. Adults have higher rates with a plasma osmolality of 330 mOsm, and a urine osmolality of 163 mOsm. The

text: osmolality

text: of both plasma and urine can alter in regards to whether there is an excess or depleted amount of water present within the kidneys. An interesting fact of ostriches is that when water is freely available, the

text: urine osmolality

text: can reduce to 60–70

text: mOsm

text: ,  not losing any necessary solutes from the kidneys when excess water is excreted. Dehydrated or salt-loaded ostriches can reach a maximal

text: urine osmolality

text: of approximately 800 mOsm. When the plasma osmolality has been measured simultaneously with the maximal osmotic urine, it is seen that the urine:plasma ratio is 2.6:1, the highest encountered among

text: avian species

text: . Along with dehydration, there is also a reduction in

text: flow rate

text: from 20 L·d to only 0.3–0.5 L·d.

text: According to Kidney Research UK, the charity's vision is: "A world free from kidney disease".  Its stated mission is to fund its research into kidney disease, to improve the quality of life of those with the kidney disorders and to increase public awareness of kidney health.

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved InterStim Therapy, by Medtronic, as a sacral nerve stimulator for treatment of urinary incontinence, high urinary frequency and urinary retention.  Sacral nerve stimulation is also under investigation as treatment for other conditions, including constipation brought on by nerve damage due to surgical procedures. An experimental procedure for constipation in children is being conducted in Nationwide Children's Hospital.

text: The U.S.

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: has approved InterStim Therapy, by

text: Medtronic

text: , as a sacral nerve stimulator for treatment of

text: urinary incontinence

text: , high

text: urinary frequency

text: and

text: urinary retention

text: .  Sacral nerve stimulation is also under investigation as treatment for other conditions, including

text: constipation

text: brought on by nerve damage due to surgical procedures. An experimental procedure for constipation in children is being conducted in Nationwide Children's Hospital.

text: Insects have an open circulatory system, so there are no blood vessels found within their ganglia. However, they do have a sheath of perineurial glial cells that envelops the nervous system and exhibit the same tight occluding junctions that are induced by the glia limitans in humans.  These cells act as a barrier and are responsible for establishing permeability gradients.

text: Insect

text: s have an

text: open circulatory system

text: , so there are no blood vessels found within their

text: ganglia

text: . However, they do have a sheath of

text: perineurial glial cells

text: that envelops the nervous system and exhibit the same tight occluding junctions that are induced by the glia limitans in humans.  These cells act as a barrier and are responsible for establishing permeability gradients.

text: Miske fought his last bout against Bill Brennan, whom he met on November 7, 1923.  At this point in his life, Miske knew he didn't have much time left before his kidneys gave out (doctors had told him he had only months to live because of his Bright's Disease). Due to his family's economic situation, however, Miske decided he had to step into the ring one more time.  His health prevented him from training for the fight. Amazingly, though, Miske knocked Brennan out in the fourth round. Miske died in St. Paul, Minnesota of kidney failure less than 2 months later on January 1, 1924.

text: Miske fought his last bout against

text: Bill Brennan

text: , whom he met on November 7, 1923.  At this point in his life, Miske knew he didn't have much time left before his kidneys gave out (doctors had told him he had only months to live because of his

text: Bright's Disease

text: ). Due to his family's economic situation, however, Miske decided he had to step into the ring one more time.  His health prevented him from training for the fight. Amazingly, though, Miske knocked Brennan out in the fourth round. Miske died in

text: St. Paul, Minnesota

text: of kidney failure less than 2 months later on January 1, 1924.

text: A flame cell is a specialized excretory cell found in the simplest freshwater invertebrates, including  flatworms (except the turbellarian order Acoela), rotifers and nemerteans; these are the simplest animals to have a dedicated excretory system. Flame cells function like a kidney, removing waste materials. Bundles of flame cells are called protonephridia.

text: A flame cell is a specialized excretory cell found in the simplest freshwater

text: invertebrate

text: s, including

text: flatworm

text: s (except the turbellarian

text: order

text: Acoela),

text: rotifers

text: and

text: nemertea

text: ns; these are the simplest animals to have a dedicated

text: excretory system

text: . Flame cells function like a

text: kidney

text: , removing waste materials. Bundles of flame cells are called

text: protonephridia

text: Used in health care, an ADT system is usually the foundation for other types of health care information systems because it holds valuable patient information such as a medical record number, age, name, and contact information. Using the ADT system, patient information can be shared, when appropriate, with other health care facilities and systems (McGonigle, D., & Mastrain, K., 2012). ADT systems can also be used as an alert system upon a patient's admission (Pittet, D., Safran, E., et al., 1996). This can be helpful if a patient has had a history of an infectious disease or heart ailments. When admitted, the ADT system may alert the admitting staff that the patient needs to be in an isolation room or on a cardiac floor, for example.

text: Used in health care, an ADT system is usually the foundation for other types of

text: health care information systems

text: because it holds valuable patient information such as a

text: medical record

text: number, age, name, and contact information. Using the ADT system, patient information can be shared,

text: when appropriate

text: , with other health care facilities and systems (McGonigle, D., & Mastrain, K., 2012). ADT systems can also be used as an alert system upon a patient's admission (Pittet, D., Safran, E., et al., 1996). This can be helpful if a patient has had a

text: history

text: of an infectious disease or heart ailments. When admitted, the ADT system may alert the admitting staff that the patient needs to be in an

text: isolation room

text: or on a cardiac floor, for example.

text: In 2015, Marks published a new theoretical explanation of obesity based on the concept of homeostasis, a property of all living things (Marks, 2015). Physiological homeostasis maintains equilibrium at set-points using feedback loops for optimum functioning of the organism. Long-term imbalances in homeostasis arise though genetic, environmental or biopsychosocial mechanisms causing illness and/or loss of well-being. Psychological homeostasis works in a similar fashion to maintain stability in emotion and behaviour. However, rapid environmental and economic changes generate challenging conditions for the human organism.  Over-consumption of high-caloric, low-nutrient foods, combined with stressful living and working conditions, have caused imbalances in homeostasis, overweight and obesity in more than two billion people.

text: In 2015, Marks published a new theoretical explanation of

text: obesity

text: based on the concept of

text: homeostasis

text: , a property of all living things (Marks, 2015). Physiological homeostasis maintains equilibrium at set-points using feedback loops for optimum functioning of the organism. Long-term imbalances in homeostasis arise though genetic, environmental or biopsychosocial mechanisms causing illness and/or loss of well-being. Psychological homeostasis works in a similar fashion to maintain stability in emotion and behaviour. However, rapid environmental and economic changes generate challenging conditions for the human organism.  Over-consumption of high-caloric, low-nutrient foods, combined with stressful living and working conditions, have caused imbalances in homeostasis, overweight and

text: obesity

text: in more than two billion people.

text: A few minutes after ingestion, strychnine is excreted unchanged in the urine, and accounts for about 5 to 15% of a sublethal dose given over 6 hours. Approximately 10 to 20% of the dose will be excreted unchanged in the urine in the first 24 hours. The percentage excreted decreases with the increasing dose. Of the amount excreted by the kidneys, about 70% is excreted in the first 6 hours, and almost 90% in the first 24 hours. Excretion is virtually complete in 48 to 72 hours.

text: The sheen on some jelly-like gelatinous lichens is from mucusy excretions.

text: The sheen on some jelly-like gelatinous lichens is from

text: mucusy

text: excretions.

text: Infantile free sialic acid storage disease (ISSD) is a lysosomal storage disease caused when sialic acid, a kind of charged sugar, is unable to be transported out of the lysosomal membrane and instead, accumulates in the tissue and free sialic acid is excreted in the urine. Mutations in the SLC17A5 (solute carrier family 17 (anion/sugar transporter), member 50) gene cause all forms of sialic acid storage disease.  The SLC17A5 gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 6 between positions 14 and 15. This gene provides instructions for producing a protein called sialin that is located mainly on the membranes of lysosomes, compartments in the cell that digest and recycle materials.

text: Infantile free sialic acid storage disease (ISSD) is a

text: lysosomal storage disease

text: caused when sialic acid, a kind of charged sugar, is unable to be transported out of the lysosomal membrane and instead, accumulates in the tissue and free sialic acid is excreted in the urine. Mutations in the SLC17A5 (solute carrier family 17 (anion/sugar transporter), member 50) gene cause all forms of sialic acid storage disease.  The SLC17A5 gene is located on the long (q) arm of

text: chromosome 6

text: between positions 14 and 15. This gene provides instructions for producing a protein called sialin that is located mainly on the membranes of lysosomes, compartments in the cell that digest and recycle materials.

text: De-oxygenated haemolymph drains into a large venous sinus within the head and foot, which contains the nephridium, an excretory organ with a function similar to that of the vertebrate kidney. From here it passes into vessels within the gill, or into the capillary network of the pulmonate lung, before returning to the heart.

text: De-oxygenated haemolymph drains into a large venous sinus within the head and foot, which contains the

text: nephridium

text: , an excretory organ with a function similar to that of the vertebrate

text: kidney

text: . From here it passes into vessels within the gill, or into the capillary network of the

text: pulmonate

text: lung, before returning to the heart.

text: At this time the surgical team will perform testing to determine if the anesthesia has taken effect. Upon satisfactory finding(s), a suprapubic catheter (with drainage system) will be inserted into the urinary bladder (to create urinary diversion during the procedure), and the chosen procedure will then be initiated.

text: The urinary system refers to the structures that produce and conduct urine to the point of excretion. The human body normally has two paired kidneys, one on the left and one on the right. Urine is formed by nephrons, the functional unit of the kidney, and then flows through a system of converging tubules called collecting ducts. The collecting ducts join together to form minor calyces, then major calyces, which ultimately join the pelvis of the kidney (renal pelvis). Urine flows from the renal pelvis into the ureter, a tube-like structure that carries the urine from the kidneys into the bladder.

text: The urinary system refers to the structures that produce and conduct

text: urine

text: to the point of excretion. The human body normally has two paired

text: kidney

text: s, one on the left and one on the right. Urine is formed by

text: nephron

text: s, the functional unit of the kidney, and then flows through a system of converging tubules called

text: collecting ducts

text: . The collecting ducts join together to form

text: minor calyces

text: , then

text: major calyces

text: , which ultimately join the

text: pelvis

text: of the kidney (renal pelvis). Urine flows from the renal pelvis into the

text: ureter

text: , a tube-like structure that carries the urine from the kidneys into the

text: bladder

text: When the glucose concentration in the blood remains high over time, the kidneys will reach a threshold of reabsorption, and glucose will be excreted in the urine (glycosuria).  This increases the osmotic pressure of the urine and inhibits reabsorption of water by the kidney, resulting in increased urine production (polyuria) and increased fluid loss. Lost blood volume will be replaced osmotically from water held in body cells and other body compartments, causing dehydration and increased thirst (polydipsia).

text: When the glucose concentration in the blood remains high over time, the

text: kidneys

text: will reach a threshold of

text: reabsorption

text: , and glucose will be excreted in the

text: urine

text: glycosuria

text: ).  This increases the

text: osmotic pressure

text: of the urine and inhibits reabsorption of water by the kidney, resulting in increased urine production (

text: polyuria

text: ) and increased fluid loss. Lost blood volume will be replaced osmotically from water held in body cells and other body compartments, causing

text: dehydration

text: and increased thirst (

text: polydipsia

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorders.  Exencephaly is one such  disease that has recently been identified as part of an emerging class of diseases called cilopathies.  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles which are present in many cellular types throughout the human body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alström syndrome, Meckel–Gruber syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: , that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their

text: root cause

text: despite the widely varying set of medical

text: symptoms

text: that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: .  Exencephaly is one such  disease that has recently been identified as part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: cilopathies

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: human

text: multi-symptom

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet–Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alström syndrome

text: Meckel–Gruber syndrome

text: and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: The body is very sensitive to its pH. Outside the range of pH that is compatible with life, proteins are denatured and digested, enzymes lose their ability to function, and the body is unable to sustain itself. The kidneys maintain acid-base homeostasis by regulating the pH of the blood plasma. Gains and losses of acid and base must be balanced. Acids are divided into "volatile acids" and "nonvolatile acids". See also titratable acid.

text: The body is very sensitive to its

text: pH

text: . Outside the range of pH that is compatible with life, proteins are denatured and digested, enzymes lose their ability to function, and the body is unable to sustain itself. The kidneys maintain

text: acid-base homeostasis

text: by regulating the pH of the

text: blood plasma

text: . Gains and losses of acid and base must be balanced. Acids are divided into "volatile acids" and "nonvolatile acids". See also

text: titratable acid

text: In the United Kingdom, the UK National Kidney Federation and British Kidney Patient Association (BKPA) represents patients, and the Renal Association represents renal physicians and works closely with the National Service Framework for kidney disease.

text: In the United Kingdom, the

text: UK National Kidney Federation

text: and British Kidney Patient Association (BKPA) represents patients, and the

text: Renal Association

text: represents renal physicians and works closely with the

text: National Service Framework

text: for kidney disease.

text: Excretion is performed mainly by two small kidneys. In diapsids, uric acid is the main nitrogenous waste product; turtles, like mammals, excrete mainly urea. Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a loop of Henle, which is present in the nephrons of birds and mammals. Because of this, many reptiles use the colon to aid in the reabsorption of water. Some are also able to take up water stored in the bladder. Excess salts are also excreted by nasal and lingual salt glands in some reptiles.

text: Excretion

text: is performed mainly by two small

text: kidney

text: s. In diapsids,

text: uric acid

text: is the main

text: nitrogen

text: ous waste product; turtles, like

text: mammal

text: s, excrete mainly

text: urea

text: . Unlike the kidneys of mammals and birds, reptile kidneys are unable to produce liquid urine more concentrated than their body fluid. This is because they lack a specialized structure called a

text: loop of Henle

text: , which is present in the

text: nephron

text: s of birds and mammals. Because of this, many reptiles use the

text: colon

text: to aid in the

text: reabsorption

text: of water. Some are also able to take up water stored in the

text: bladder

text: . Excess salts are also excreted by nasal and lingual

text: salt gland

text: s in some reptiles.

text: Nordazepam is a partial agonist at the GABA receptor, which makes it less potent than other benzodiazepines, particularly in its amnesic and muscle-relaxing effects. Its elimination half life is between 36 and 200 hours, with wide variation among individuals; factors such as age and gender are known to impact it. The variation of reported half-lifes are attributed to differences in nordazepam metabolism and that of its metabolites as nordazepam is hydroxylated to active metabolites such as oxazepam, before finally being glucuronidated and excreted in the urine. This can be attributed to extremely variable hepatic and renal metabolic functions among individuals depending upon a number of factors (including age, ethnicity, disease, and current or previous use/abuse of other drugs/medicines).

text: Nordazepam is a

text: partial agonist

text: at the

text: GABA receptor

text: , which makes it less potent than other benzodiazepines, particularly in its amnesic and muscle-relaxing effects. Its

text: elimination half life

text: is between 36 and 200 hours, with wide variation among individuals; factors such as age and gender are known to impact it. The variation of reported half-lifes are attributed to differences in nordazepam metabolism and that of its metabolites as nordazepam is hydroxylated to active metabolites such as oxazepam, before finally being glucuronidated and excreted in the urine. This can be attributed to extremely variable hepatic and renal metabolic functions among individuals depending upon a number of factors (including age, ethnicity, disease, and current or previous use/abuse of other drugs/medicines).

text: By the start of 1893 it had become apparent that something was seriously wrong with Short's health. Doctors determined that he was suffering from one of the kidney diseases that then went under the now obsolete classification of Bright's disease. These diseases would be described in modern medicine as acute or chronic nephritis. Short's symptoms would have included high blood pressure and urine of a dark or bloody color. Edema, then called "dropsy", would have contributed to a slight puffiness in his face, as well as the accumulation of fluids in his lower legs that would have made it difficult for Short to stand for prolonged periods of time. Short was in Fort Worth when a Kansas newspaper reported that he was "lying at death's door."  Short and a number of friends, and with Hattie beside him, took the north-bound Santa Fe train for Geuda Springs, Kansas. The place offered a change of climate as well as the "medicinal qualities of the famous waters, which, it was hoped, would "prolong his life."   It did not have the desired effect.

text: By the start of 1893 it had become apparent that something was seriously wrong with Short's health. Doctors determined that he was suffering from one of the kidney diseases that then went under the now obsolete classification of

text: Bright's disease

text: . These diseases would be described in modern medicine as acute or chronic nephritis. Short's symptoms would have included high blood pressure and urine of a dark or bloody color. Edema, then called "dropsy", would have contributed to a slight puffiness in his face, as well as the accumulation of fluids in his lower legs that would have made it difficult for Short to stand for prolonged periods of time. Short was in Fort Worth when a Kansas newspaper reported that he was "lying at death's door."  Short and a number of friends, and with Hattie beside him, took the north-bound Santa Fe train for Geuda Springs, Kansas. The place offered a change of climate as well as the "medicinal qualities of the famous waters, which, it was hoped, would "prolong his life."   It did not have the desired effect.

text: In the physiology of the kidney, tubuloglomerular feedback (TGF) is a feedback system inside the kidneys. Within each nephron, information from the renal tubules (a downstream area of the tubular fluid) is signaled to the glomerulus (an upstream area). Tubuloglomerular feedback is one of several mechanisms the kidney uses to regulate glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It involves the concept of purinergic signaling, in which an increased distal tubular sodium chloride concentration causes a basolateral release of adenosine from the macula densa cells. This initiates a cascade of events that ultimately brings GFR to an appropriate level.

text: In the

text: physiology of the kidney

text: , tubuloglomerular feedback (TGF) is a

text: feedback

text: system inside the

text: kidney

text: s. Within each

text: nephron

text: , information from the

text: renal tubule

text: s (a downstream area of the

text: tubular fluid

text: ) is signaled to the

text: glomerulus

text: (an upstream area). Tubuloglomerular feedback is one of several mechanisms the kidney uses to regulate

text: glomerular filtration rate

text: (GFR). It involves the concept of

text: purinergic signaling

text: , in which an increased distal tubular

text: sodium chloride

text: concentration causes a basolateral release of

text: adenosine

text: from the

text: macula densa

text: cells. This initiates a cascade of events that ultimately brings GFR to an appropriate level.

text: The main nitrogenous waste product is ammonia. Starfish have no distinct excretory organs; waste ammonia is removed by diffusion through the tube feet and papulae. The body fluid contains phagocytic cells, coelomocytes, which are also found within the hemal and water vascular systems. These cells engulf waste material, and eventually migrate to the tips of the papulae, where a portion of body wall is nipped off and ejected into the surrounding water. Some waste may also be excreted by the pyloric glands and voided with the faeces.

text: The main nitrogenous waste product is

text: ammonia

text: . Starfish have no distinct excretory organs; waste ammonia is removed by diffusion through the tube feet and papulae. The body fluid contains

text: phagocytic

text: cells, coelomocytes, which are also found within the hemal and water vascular systems. These cells engulf waste material, and eventually migrate to the tips of the papulae, where a portion of body wall is nipped off and ejected into the surrounding water. Some waste may also be excreted by the pyloric glands and voided with the

text: faeces

text: Nervous system, digestive system, circulatory system, excretory system and reproductive system are described by Neusser et al. (2011) in detail.

text: Nervous system

text: digestive system

text: circulatory system

text: excretory system

text: and

text: reproductive system

text: are described by Neusser et al. (2011) in detail.

text: There are a variety of methods used to detect prey. Sensory systems used include the visual system, olfactory system (smell), auditory system (hearing) and the somatosensory system (such as touch). Some predators may use all of these senses in pinpointing their prey, while others may depend mainly or entirely on a single one. Detection methods may also be divided into direct detection of the prey organism itself, and indirect clues, such as the smell of its urine.

text: There are a variety of methods used to detect prey. Sensory systems used include the

text: visual system

text: olfactory system

text: (smell),

text: auditory system

text: (hearing) and the

text: somatosensory system

text: (such as touch). Some predators may use all of these senses in pinpointing their prey, while others may depend mainly or entirely on a single one. Detection methods may also be divided into direct detection of the prey organism itself, and indirect clues, such as the smell of its urine.

text: The controlling council consists of the patient Associations of hospital renal units. As its members are not healthcare professionals, its role is restricted to campaigning for improvements to renal provision and treatment, and national patient support services. It works closely with the All Party Parliamentary Kidney Group (APPKG) whose stated purpose is: "To improve understanding in Parliament of kidney disease and transplant medicine and promote improvements in the health and care services that are available to improve the health of people with renal failure.

text: The controlling council consists of the patient Associations of hospital renal units. As its members are not healthcare professionals, its role is restricted to campaigning for improvements to renal provision and treatment, and national patient support services. It works closely with the All Party Parliamentary Kidney Group (APPKG) whose stated purpose is: "To improve understanding in Parliament of kidney disease and transplant medicine and promote improvements in the health and care services that are available to improve the health of people with

text: renal failure

text: The Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System (WBDOSS) is a national surveillance system maintained by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The WBDOSS receives data about waterborne disease outbreaks and single cases of waterborne diseases of public health importance (for example, Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)) in the United States and then disseminates information about these diseases, outbreaks, and their causes. WBDOSS was initiated in 1971 by CDC, the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Data are reported by public health departments in individual states, territories, and the Freely Associated States (composed of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of Palau; formerly parts of the U.S.-administered Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands).  Although initially designed to collect data about drinking water outbreaks in the United States, WBDOSS now includes outbreaks associated with recreational water,  as well as outbreaks associated with water that is not intended for drinking (non-recreational) and water for which the intended use is unknown.

text: The Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Surveillance System (WBDOSS) is a national surveillance system maintained by the U.S.

text: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

text: . The WBDOSS receives data about

entity_name: Waterborne Disease and Outbreak Reporting System

entity_section: Definition of a Waterborne Disease Outbreak

text: waterborne disease outbreaks

text: and single cases of waterborne diseases of public health importance (for example,

text: Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)

text: ) in the United States and then disseminates information about these diseases, outbreaks, and their causes. WBDOSS was initiated in 1971 by CDC, the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE), and the

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

text: . Data are reported by public health departments in individual states, territories, and the Freely Associated States (composed of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of Palau; formerly parts of the U.S.-administered Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands).  Although initially designed to collect data about drinking water outbreaks in the United States, WBDOSS now includes outbreaks associated with recreational water,  as well as outbreaks associated with water that is not intended for drinking (non-recreational) and water for which the intended use is unknown.

text: Laboratory tests are generally conducted when the patient presents with signs and symptoms that may be characteristic of kidney impairment. They are not primarily used to diagnose kidney cancer, due to its asymptomatic nature and are generally found incidentally during tests for other illnesses such as gallbladder disease.  In other words, these cancers are not detected usually because they do not cause pain or discomfort when they are discovered. Laboratory analysis can provide an assessment on the overall health of the patient and can provide information in determining the staging and degree of metastasis to other parts of the body (if a renal lesion has been identified) before treatment is given.

text: Laboratory tests are generally conducted when the patient presents with signs and symptoms that may be characteristic of kidney impairment. They are not primarily used to diagnose kidney cancer, due to its

text: asymptomatic

text: nature and are generally found incidentally during tests for other illnesses such as

text: gallbladder

text: disease.  In other words, these cancers are not detected usually because they do not cause pain or discomfort when they are discovered. Laboratory analysis can provide an assessment on the overall health of the patient and can provide information in determining the staging and degree of

text: metastasis

text: to other parts of the body (if a renal

text: lesion

text: has been identified) before treatment is given.

text: Named after the allantois (an amniote embryonic excretory organ in which it concentrates during development in most mammals except humans and other higher apes), it is a product of oxidation of uric acid by purine catabolism. After birth, it is the predominant means by which nitrogenous waste is excreted in the urine of these animals. In humans and other higher apes, the metabolic pathway for conversion of uric acid to allantoin is not present, so the former is excreted. Recombinant rasburicase is sometimes used as a drug to catalyze this metabolic conversion in patients. In fish, allantoin is broken down further (into ammonia) before excretion.

text: Named after the

text: allantois

text: (an

text: amniote

text: embryonic excretory organ in which it concentrates during development in most

text: mammal

text: s except humans and other higher apes), it is a product of oxidation of

text: uric acid

text: by

text: purine

text: catabolism

text: . After birth, it is the predominant means by which

text: nitrogenous waste

text: is excreted in the

text: urine

text: of these animals. In humans and other higher apes, the metabolic pathway for conversion of

text: uric acid

text: to allantoin is not present, so the former is excreted. Recombinant

text: rasburicase

text: is sometimes used as a drug to catalyze this metabolic conversion in patients. In fish, allantoin is broken down further (into

text: ammonia

text: ) before excretion.

text: After topical application, crotamiton is absorbed systemically. It has an elimination half-life of 30.9 hours and 4.8-8.8% is excreted in the urine.

text: The kidneys regulate the serum magnesium. About 2400 mg of magnesium passes through the kidneys daily, of which 5% (120 mg) is excreted through urine. The loop of Henle is the major site for magnesium homeostasis, and 60% is reabsorbed.

text: The

text: kidney

text: s regulate the serum magnesium. About 2400 mg of magnesium passes through the kidneys daily, of which 5% (120 mg) is excreted through

text: urine

text: . The

text: loop of Henle

text: is the major site for magnesium homeostasis, and 60% is reabsorbed.

text: On June 11, 2007, the plaintiffs presented their first argument, in which they contended that Michelle Cedillo, as well as other children with autism, suffered from a "mercury efflux disorder" which was described by Aposhian, their first expert witness, as "a problem with getting a metal, in this case mercury, out of a cell." As evidence that such disorders have been documented before, he pointed to Wilson's disease. Aposhian based this claim, in part, on three peer-reviewed papers. The first such study was co-authored by Boyd Haley, and concluded that hair of children with autism contained less mercury than that of children without autism. Aposhian stated that "we know that the hair is an excretory organ and that the hair is reflective of the mercury or the metal in the blood, and the blood is a reflection of the mercury in the tissues, and so the fact that the children with autism had less mercury in their hair was a hint or indication that perhaps there was mercury efflux disorder." The second of these studies was conducted by James B. Adams, and found that baby teeth of children with autism had more than twice as much mercury as those of children without autism. Aposhian cited this study as evidence that "autistic children have a greater body burden of mercury." Another study which Aposhian used to back up this statement was one conducted by Jeff Bradstreet and Mark Geier, which gave dimercaptosuccinic acid, a chelating agent, to children and concluded that children with autism excreted much more mercury thereafter than children without autism.  Aposhian also cited a number of in vitro studies as evidence that thimerosal could cause immune system dysregulation.

text: On June 11, 2007, the plaintiffs presented their first argument, in which they contended that Michelle Cedillo, as well as other children with autism, suffered from a "mercury efflux disorder" which was described by Aposhian, their first expert witness, as "a problem with getting a metal, in this case mercury, out of a cell." As evidence that such disorders have been documented before, he pointed to

text: Wilson's disease

text: . Aposhian based this claim, in part, on three peer-reviewed papers. The first such study was co-authored by

text: Boyd Haley

text: , and concluded that hair of children with autism contained less mercury than that of children without autism. Aposhian stated that "we know that the hair is an excretory organ and that the hair is reflective of the mercury or the metal in the blood, and the blood is a reflection of the mercury in the tissues, and so the fact that the children with autism had less mercury in their hair was a hint or indication that perhaps there was mercury efflux disorder." The second of these studies was conducted by

text: James B. Adams

text: , and found that baby teeth of children with autism had more than twice as much mercury as those of children without autism. Aposhian cited this study as evidence that "autistic children have a greater body burden of mercury." Another study which Aposhian used to back up this statement was one conducted by

text: Jeff Bradstreet

text: and

text: Mark Geier

text: , which gave

text: dimercaptosuccinic acid

text: , a chelating agent, to children and concluded that children with autism excreted much more mercury thereafter than children without autism.  Aposhian also cited a number of

text: in vitro

text: studies as evidence that thimerosal could cause immune system dysregulation.

text: Sarcoptic mites as adults are microscopic, nearly circular in outline, and their legs are short, adapted for burrowing. The females, after mating with males on the surface of their host's skin, burrow into the living layers of the epidermis (mainly the stratum spinosum). They make tunnels horizontal to the surface of the skin. Here, eggs are laid and development of larvae and nymphs occurs. The mites have low mobility and transmission between hosts occurs only during close contact. The feeding of the mites and their excretory products irritates and inflames the skin, causing intense pruritus. Dermal hypersensitivity reactions develop in the host. Chronic infestations lead to thickening of the skin by overproduction of epidermal cells (acanthosis), resulting in a characteristic depilated and scaly appearance. Stress caused by the pruritus can be severe, and will result in 6% to 23% lost productivity of commercially reared pigs. Camels are prone to severe infestation with Sarcoptes.

text: Sarcoptic mites as adults are microscopic, nearly circular in outline, and their legs are short, adapted for burrowing. The females, after mating with males on the surface of their host's skin, burrow into the living layers of the epidermis (mainly the stratum spinosum). They make tunnels horizontal to the surface of the skin. Here, eggs are laid and development of larvae and nymphs occurs. The mites have low mobility and transmission between hosts occurs only during close contact. The feeding of the mites and their excretory products irritates and inflames the skin, causing intense pruritus. Dermal hypersensitivity reactions develop in the host. Chronic infestations lead to thickening of the skin by overproduction of epidermal cells (

text: acanthosis

text: ), resulting in a characteristic depilated and scaly appearance. Stress caused by the pruritus can be severe, and will result in 6% to 23% lost productivity of commercially reared pigs. Camels are prone to severe infestation with Sarcoptes.

text: There is no cure for EDS. Treatment is supportive, including close monitoring of the digestive, excretory, and particularly the cardiovascular systems. Physical therapy, bracing, and corrective surgery may help with injuries and pain that tend to develop in certain types of EDS, although extra caution and special practices are advised to prevent permanent damage. EDS is a long term disease.

text: There is no cure for EDS. Treatment is

text: supportive

text: , including close monitoring of the digestive, excretory, and particularly the cardiovascular systems.

text: Physical therapy

text: , bracing, and corrective surgery may help with injuries and pain that tend to develop in certain types of EDS, although extra caution and special practices are advised to prevent permanent damage. EDS is a long term disease.

text: There are two main types of the disease: the localized form (called localized scleroderma, limited scleroderma, or morphea) and the systemic form (called systemic scleroderma, diffuse scleroderma, generalized scleroderma, or systemic sclerosis). Limited scleroderma involves mainly the skin of the hands, arms and face. Diffuse scleroderma is rapidly progressing and affects a large area of the skin and one or more internal organs, frequently the kidneys, esophagus, heart and/or lungs.  This form of scleroderma can be quite disabling. A limited cutaneous subtype of it is called CREST syndrome.

text: There are two main types of the disease: the

text: localized

text: form (called localized scleroderma, limited scleroderma, or

text: morphea

text: ) and the

text: systemic

text: form (called

text: systemic scleroderma

text: , diffuse scleroderma, generalized scleroderma, or systemic sclerosis). Limited scleroderma involves mainly the skin of the hands, arms and face. Diffuse scleroderma is rapidly progressing and affects a large area of the skin and one or more internal organs, frequently the

text: kidney

text: s,

text: esophagus

text: heart

text: and/or

text: lung

text: s.  This form of scleroderma can be quite disabling. A limited

text: cutaneous

text: subtype of it is called

text: CREST syndrome

text: The nitrogen compounds through which excess nitrogen is eliminated from organisms are called nitrogenous wastes () or nitrogen wastes. They are ammonia, urea, uric acid, and creatinine. All of these substances are produced from protein metabolism. In many animals, the urine is the main route of excretion for such wastes; in some, the feces is.

text: The nitrogen compounds through which excess nitrogen is eliminated from organisms are called nitrogenous wastes () or nitrogen wastes. They are

text: ammonia

text: urea

text: uric acid

text: , and

text: creatinine

text: . All of these substances are produced from

text: protein

text: metabolism. In many animals, the

text: urine

text: is the main route of

text: excretion

text: for such wastes; in some, the

text: feces

text: is.

text: Cats living in groups can infect each other with different strains of the virus during visits to a communal litter tray. Some cats are resistant to the virus and can avoid infection or even becoming carriers, while others may become FECV carriers. Carriers may heal spontaneously, but acquired immunity may be short, and they may go on to reinfect, usually within a few weeks, if they are living in a group with healthy, but persistent, excretory carriers. Some cats never heal, and the excretory phase remains permanently.

text: Kidney disease, also known as nephropathy or renal disease, is damage to or disease of a kidney. Nephritis is inflammatory kidney disease. Nephrosis is noninflammatory nephropathy. Kidney disease usually causes kidney failure (renal failure) to more or less degree, with the amount depending on the type of disease. In precise usage, disease denotes the structural and etiologic disease entity whereas failure denotes the dysfunction (lack of working well, that is, impaired renal function); but in common usage these meanings overlap; for example, the terms chronic kidney disease and chronic renal failure are usually considered synonymous. Acute kidney disease has often been called acute renal failure, although nephrologists now often tend to call it acute kidney injury. About 1 in 8 Americans suffer from chronic kidney disease.

text: Kidney disease, also known as nephropathy or renal disease, is damage to or

text: disease

text: of a

text: kidney

text: Nephritis

text: is

text: inflammatory

text: kidney disease.

text: Nephrosis

text: is noninflammatory nephropathy. Kidney disease usually causes kidney failure (

text: renal failure

text: ) to more or less degree, with the amount depending on the type of disease. In precise

text: usage

text: , disease

text: denotes

text: the

text: structural

text: and

text: etiologic

text: disease entity whereas failure denotes the dysfunction (lack of working well, that is, impaired

text: renal function

text: ); but in common usage these meanings overlap; for example, the terms

text: chronic kidney disease

text: and

text: chronic renal failure

text: are usually considered

text: synonym

text: ous. Acute kidney disease has often been called acute renal failure, although nephrologists now often tend to call it

text: acute kidney injury

text: . About 1 in 8 Americans suffer from chronic kidney disease.

text: Although the excretion of nitrogenous waste occurs mostly through the tegument, trematodes do possess an excretory system, which is instead mainly concerned with osmoregulation. This consists of two or more protonephridia, with those on each side of the body opening into a collecting duct. The two collecting ducts typically meet up at a single bladder, opening to the exterior through one or two pores near the posterior end of the animal.

text: Although the excretion of

text: nitrogenous waste

text: occurs mostly through the

text: tegument

text: , trematodes do possess an

text: excretory system

text: , which is instead mainly concerned with

text: osmoregulation

text: . This consists of two or more

text: protonephridia

text: , with those on each side of the body opening into a collecting duct. The two collecting ducts typically meet up at a single

text: bladder

text: , opening to the exterior through one or two pores near the posterior end of the animal.

text: Molecular Systems Biology is an open-access peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing research within systems biology at the molecular level, including genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, microbial systems, the integration of cell signaling and regulatory networks, and synthetic biology.

text: Molecular Systems Biology is an

text: open-access

text: peer-reviewed

text: scientific journal

text: publishing research within

text: systems biology

text: at the molecular level, including

text: genomics

text: proteomics

text: metabolomics

text: microbial

text: systems, the integration of

text: cell signaling

text: and

text: regulatory networks

text: , and

text: synthetic biology

text: In order to keep the excreted metabolites in solution, the kidney also has to excrete water. This is in contrast to complete oxidation of lactic acid, which would actually yield metabolic water for the body. This may lead to onset of acute thirst some tens of minutes into exercise in this state, if the water balance in the body was neutral initially.

text: As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely regulated to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called homeostasis. Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the flux through the pathway). For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.

text: As the environments of most organisms are constantly changing, the reactions of metabolism must be finely

text: regulated

text: to maintain a constant set of conditions within cells, a condition called

text: homeostasis

text: . Metabolic regulation also allows organisms to respond to signals and interact actively with their environments. Two closely linked concepts are important for understanding how metabolic pathways are controlled. Firstly, the regulation of an enzyme in a pathway is how its activity is increased and decreased in response to signals. Secondly, the control exerted by this enzyme is the effect that these changes in its activity have on the overall rate of the pathway (the

text: flux

text: through the pathway). For example, an enzyme may show large changes in activity (i.e. it is highly regulated) but if these changes have little effect on the flux of a metabolic pathway, then this enzyme is not involved in the control of the pathway.

text: The dog whelk can only survive out of water for a limited period, as it will gradually become desiccated and die if emersed for too long. Metabolic processes within cells take place in solution, and a decrease in water content makes it impossible for the organism to function properly. In experiments it has been shown that 50% of dog whelks die at 40°C, and it can be assumed that at temperatures lower than this a smaller proportion will be killed off. Furthermore, the dog whelk has to excrete ammonia directly into water, as it does not have the adaptation possessed by many upper shore species which would allow it to produce uric acid for excretion without loss of water. When kept emersed for seven days at a temperature of 18°C, 100% of dog whelks die, in contrast to many periwinkle species which can lose even more water than the dog whelk (i.e. more than 37% of their total body mass) but survive as a result of their ability to excrete toxic waste products more efficiently.

text: The dog whelk can only survive out of water for a limited period, as it will gradually become

text: desiccated

text: and die if emersed for too long.

text: Metabolic

text: processes within cells take place in solution, and a decrease in water content makes it impossible for the organism to function properly. In experiments it has been shown that 50% of dog whelks die at 40°C, and it can be assumed that at temperatures lower than this a smaller proportion will be killed off. Furthermore, the dog whelk has to

text: excrete

text: ammonia

text: directly into

text: water

text: , as it does not have the adaptation possessed by many upper shore species which would allow it to produce

text: uric acid

text: for excretion without loss of water. When kept emersed for seven days at a temperature of 18°C, 100% of dog whelks die, in contrast to many

text: periwinkle

text: species which can lose even more water than the dog whelk (i.e. more than 37% of their total body mass) but survive as a result of their ability to excrete toxic waste products more efficiently.

text: The Clinic implements diagnosis and treatment of the following diseases:Early and elder age children and adolescents pathology.Urinary system diseasesUrinary system infections (cystitis, pyelonephritis, urosepsis),nephritic syndrome,glomerulopathy,tubulointerstitial diseases,urine stones disease,chronic kidney disease and its complications,water electrolyte and acid-base balances’ deviations,lower urinary tract dysfunction, urinary incontinence, enuresis,neonatal nephrology,renal and renovascular hypertensionmetabolic bone diseases (rickets / osteomalacia, osteoporosis, osteogenesis imperfecta, osteopetrosis, hypophosphatasia, etc.)phosphorus-calcium exchange disorders,ezofagogastroduodenal zone diseases,hepatobiliary system diseases,pancreas diseases,inflammatory diseases of the intestine,malabsorption syndrome,chronic constipation,Wilson's disease,Storage Diseases (glycogenosis),acute rheumatic fever,infective endocarditis,juvenile rheumatoid arthritis,juvenile spondiloarthritis,systemic lupus erythematosus,systemic sclerodermajuvenile dermatomyositis,systemic [visceral] angiitisreactive arthritisbronchial asthma.allergic rhinitis and conjunctivitis,atopic dermatitis,Acute and chronic Urticaria,drug allergy,insects allergy,Stevens-Johnson syndrome.3. Bone and mineral exchange disorders,4. Digestive disorders,5. cardioreumatological diseases,6. allergological diseases.Clinic staff shows considerable assistance to the practical health care; actively takes part both in physicians improving courses and professional Doors open days in RA regions and in Artsakh.

text: In males, the expulsion of urine from the body is done through the penis. The urethra drains the bladder through the prostate gland where it is joined by the ejaculatory duct, and then onward to the penis. At the root of the penis (the proximal end of the corpus spongiosum) lies the external sphincter muscle. This is a small sphincter of striated muscle tissue and is in healthy males under voluntary control. Relaxing the urethra sphincter allows the urine in the upper urethra to enter the penis properly and thus empty the urinary bladder.

text: In males, the expulsion of

text: urine

text: from the body is done through the penis. The

text: urethra

text: drains the bladder through the

text: prostate gland

text: where it is joined by the

text: ejaculatory duct

text: , and then onward to the penis. At the root of the penis (the proximal end of the corpus spongiosum) lies the

text: external sphincter muscle

text: . This is a small sphincter of

text: striated muscle tissue

text: and is in healthy males under voluntary control. Relaxing the urethra sphincter allows the urine in the upper urethra to enter the penis properly and thus empty the urinary bladder.

text: The surgeon will create an incised opening laterally between the known outer borders of the defect, retract the incised opening to the desired diameter, and position the graft to cover the incision. This will form a tunnel, or diversion through the stricture which is 10 mm (optimally) in estimated diameter, to allow for the flow of urine. Using micro surgical techniques, the scrotal graft or penile island flap will be sutured in place and fibrin glue applied to the suture line to help prevent leakage and formation of a fistula. At this time an appropriately sized (b) Foley catheter will be inserted through the repair and into the bladder (and connected to a urinary drainage system), and the incision closed (layer by layer). Some surgeons will inject a local anesthetic such as 2% plain lidocaine or 0.5% bupivicaine into the areas to allow the patient an additional period of relief from discomfort.

text: micro surgical

text: techniques, the scrotal graft or penile island flap will be sutured in place and

text: fibrin glue

text: applied to the suture line to help prevent leakage and formation of a

text: fistula

text: . At this time an appropriately sized (b) Foley catheter will be inserted through the repair and into the bladder (and connected to a urinary drainage system), and the incision closed (layer by layer). Some surgeons will inject a

text: local anesthetic

text: such as 2% plain

text: lidocaine

text: or 0.5%

text: bupivicaine

text: The kidney has a bean-shaped structure with a convex and a concave border. A recessed area on the concave border is the renal hilum, where the renal artery enters the kidney and the renal vein and ureter leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the renal capsule, which is itself surrounded by perirenal fat (adipose capsule), renal fascia, and pararenal fat (paranephric body). The anterior (front) surface of these tissues is the peritoneum, while the posterior (rear) surface is the transversalis fascia.

text: The kidney has a

text: bean

text: -shaped structure with a

text: convex

text: and a

text: concave

text: border. A recessed area on the concave border is the

text: renal hilum

text: , where the

text: renal artery

text: enters the kidney and the

text: renal vein

text: and

text: ureter

text: leave. The kidney is surrounded by tough fibrous tissue, the

text: renal capsule

text: , which is itself surrounded by perirenal fat (

text: adipose capsule

text: renal fascia

text: , and pararenal fat (

text: paranephric body

text: ). The anterior (front) surface of these tissues is the

text: peritoneum

text: , while the posterior (rear) surface is the

text: transversalis fascia

text: In order to maintain homeostasis, the central nervous system responds constantly, via neural feedback, to environmental cues. Stressful events disrupt the rhythmic structure of autonomic states, and subsequently, behaviors. Since the vagus plays such an integral role in the PNS via regulation of heart rate, it follows that the amplitude of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) is a good index of PNS activity via the cardiac vagus. That is, RSA is a measurable, noninvasive way to see how the vagus modulates heart rate activity in response to stress. This method is useful to measure individual differences in stress reactivity.

text: In order to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: , the central nervous system responds constantly, via neural feedback, to environmental cues. Stressful events disrupt the rhythmic structure of autonomic states, and subsequently, behaviors. Since the vagus plays such an integral role in the PNS via regulation of heart rate, it follows that the amplitude of

text: respiratory sinus arrhythmia

text: (RSA) is a good index of PNS activity via the cardiac vagus. That is, RSA is a measurable, noninvasive way to see how the vagus modulates heart rate activity in response to stress. This method is useful to measure individual differences in stress reactivity.

text: It has been hypothesised that the wearing of helmets may make cyclists feel safer and thus take more risks. This hypothetical effect is known as risk compensation or risk homeostasis. Some authors have suggested that risk compensation occurs with other road safety interventions such as seat belts and anti-lock braking systems, but these views are disputed by other road safety experts.

text: It has been hypothesised that the wearing of helmets may make cyclists feel safer and thus take more risks. This hypothetical effect is known as

text: risk compensation

text: or risk homeostasis. Some authors have suggested that risk compensation occurs with other road safety interventions such as

text: seat belt

text: s and

text: anti-lock braking system

text: s, but these views are disputed by other road safety experts.

text: Only the free fraction of a drug that is dissolved in the blood plasma can be removed through the kidney. Therefore, drugs that are tightly bound to proteins are not available for renal excretion, as long as they are not metabolized when they may be eliminated as metabolites.Creatinine clearance is used as a measure of kidney functioning but it is only useful in cases where the drug is excreted in an unaltered form in the urine. The excretion of drugs from the kidney's nephrons has the same properties as that of any other organic solute: passive filtration, reabsorption and active secretion. In the latter phase the secretion of drugs is an active process that is subject to conditions relating to the saturability of the transported molecule and competition between substrates. Therefore, these are key sites where interactions between drugs could occur.Filtration depends on a number of factors including the pH of the urine, it having been shown that the drugs that act as weak bases are increasingly excreted as the pH of the urine becomes more acidic, and the inverse is true for weak acids. This mechanism is of great use when treating intoxications (by making the urine more acidic or more alkali) and it is also used by some drugs and herbal products to produce their interactive effect.

text: Only the free fraction of a drug that is dissolved in the blood plasma can be removed through the

text: kidney

text: . Therefore, drugs that are tightly bound to proteins are not available for renal excretion, as long as they are not metabolized when they may be eliminated as metabolites.

text: Creatinine clearance

text: is used as a measure of kidney functioning but it is only useful in cases where the drug is excreted in an unaltered form in the urine. The excretion of drugs from the kidney's nephrons has the same properties as that of any other organic solute: passive filtration, reabsorption and active secretion. In the latter phase the secretion of drugs is an active process that is subject to conditions relating to the saturability of the transported molecule and competition between substrates. Therefore, these are key sites where interactions between drugs could occur.Filtration depends on a number of factors including the

text: pH

text: of the urine, it having been shown that the drugs that act as

text: weak bases

text: are increasingly excreted as the pH of the urine becomes more acidic, and the inverse is true for

text: weak acid

text: s. This mechanism is of great use when treating intoxications (by making the urine more acidic or more alkali) and it is also used by some drugs and herbal products to produce their interactive effect.

text: Another potential problem that arises at the interface between wheel and axle (or axle and body) is the ability of an organism to transfer materials across this interface. If the tissues that make up a wheel are living, they will need to be supplied with oxygen and nutrients and have wastes removed in order to sustain metabolism. A typical animal circulatory system, composed of blood vessels, would not be able to provide transportation across the interface. In the absence of circulation, oxygen and nutrients would need to diffuse across the interface, a process that would be greatly limited by the available partial pressure and surface area, in accordance with Fick's law of diffusion. For large multicellular animals, diffusion would be insufficient. Alternately, a wheel could be composed of excreted, nonliving material such as keratin, of which hair and nails are composed.

text: Another potential problem that arises at the interface between wheel and axle (or axle and body) is the ability of an organism to transfer materials across this interface. If the tissues that make up a wheel are living, they will need to be supplied with

text: oxygen

text: and nutrients and have wastes removed in order to sustain

text: metabolism

text: . A typical animal

text: circulatory system

text: , composed of blood vessels, would not be able to provide transportation across the interface. In the absence of circulation, oxygen and nutrients would need to

text: diffuse

text: across the interface, a process that would be greatly limited by the available

text: partial pressure

text: and

text: surface area

text: , in accordance with

text: Fick's law of diffusion

text: . For large multicellular animals, diffusion would be insufficient. Alternately, a wheel could be composed of excreted, nonliving material such as

text: keratin

text: , of which

text: hair

text: and

text: nails

text: are composed.

text: 2008-05-09 Heroine Excretion Hell Vol. 11 –  [JHHD-11] (Starring Sakura Aragaki)

text: Practitioners of Gaianism are termed "Gaians", or sometimes Gaianists. Followers typically approach the philosophy with the perspective that you should honor the earth, reduce or soften the human impact on the earth, and to be respectful of all life on earth. The latter perspective is extended to all forms of life such as plant, animal, or human, and followers will often try to maintain a close relationship with the planet in order to strive toward world peace, maintain global homeostasis and find inner fulfillment. Gaians will occasionally follow Gaianism along with other religions, but for many Gaianism is not necessarily religious.

text: Practitioners of Gaianism are termed "Gaians", or sometimes Gaianists. Followers typically approach the philosophy with the perspective that you should honor the earth, reduce or soften the

text: human impact on the earth

text: , and to be respectful of all life on earth. The latter perspective is extended to all forms of life such as plant, animal, or human, and followers will often try to maintain a close relationship with the planet in order to strive toward

text: world peace

text: , maintain global

text: homeostasis

text: and find inner fulfillment. Gaians will occasionally follow Gaianism along with other religions, but for many Gaianism is not necessarily religious.

text: Many workers have attempted to prevent kidneys rewarming during reimplantation but only Cohen has described using a system of active cooling. Measurements of lysosomal enzyme release from kidneys subjected to sham anastomoses, when either in or out of the cooling system, demonstrated how sensitive kidneys were to rewarming after a period of cold storage, and confirmed the effectiveness of the cooling system in preventing enzyme release. A further factor in minimising injury at the reimplantation operations may have been that the kidneys were kept at 7 °C within the cooling coil, which was within a degree of the temperature used during perfusion storage, so that the kidneys were not subjected to the greater changes in temperature that would have occurred if ice cooling had been used.

text: Kidneys are usually grilled or sautéed, but in more complex dishes they are stewed with a sauce that will improve their flavor. In many preparations, kidneys are combined with pieces of meat or liver, as in mixed grill or meurav Yerushalmi. Dishes include the British steak and kidney pie, the Swedish hökarpanna (pork and kidney stew), the French rognons de veau sauce moutarde (veal kidneys in mustard sauce) and the Spanish riñones al Jerez (kidneys stewed in sherry sauce) .

text: Kidneys are usually grilled or sautéed, but in more complex dishes they are stewed with a sauce that will improve their flavor. In many preparations, kidneys are combined with pieces of meat or liver, as in

text: mixed grill

text: or meurav Yerushalmi. Dishes include the

text: British

text: steak and kidney pie

text: , the

text: Swedish

text: hökarpanna (pork and kidney stew), the

text: French

text: rognons de veau sauce moutarde (veal kidneys in

text: mustard

text: sauce) and the

text: Spanish

text: riñones al Jerez (kidneys stewed in

text: sherry

text: sauce) .

text: Serum T levels remain fairly constant in healthy individuals, but D2 and D3 can regulate tissue specific intracellular levels of T to maintain homeostasis since T and T levels may vary by organ.  Deiodinases also provide spatial and temporal developmental control of thyroid hormone levels.  D3 levels are highest early in development and decrease over time, while D2 levels are high at moments of significant metamorphic change in tissues.  Thus D2 enables production of sufficient T at necessary time points while D3 may shield tissue from overexposure to T.

text: Serum T levels remain fairly constant in healthy individuals, but D2 and D3 can regulate tissue specific intracellular levels of T to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: since T and T levels may vary by organ.  Deiodinases also provide spatial and temporal developmental control of thyroid hormone levels.  D3 levels are highest early in development and decrease over time, while D2 levels are high at moments of significant metamorphic change in tissues.  Thus D2 enables production of sufficient T at necessary time points while D3 may shield tissue from overexposure to T.

text: The body uses a complex system of hormones and hormone-like substances called prostaglandins to keep its volume of fluid at a constant level. If one were to intake an excessive amount of fluid in one day, the amount of fluid would not be affected in the long term. This is because the kidneys quickly excrete the excess in the form of urine. Likewise, if one did not get enough to drink, the body would hold on to its fluids and urinate less than usual. Imbalances in this system can lead to water retention, which can range from mild and unnoticeable to symptomatic with swelling.

text: The body uses a complex system of

text: hormone

text: s and hormone-like substances called

text: prostaglandin

text: s to

text: keep its volume of fluid at a constant level

text: . If one were to intake an excessive amount of fluid in one day, the amount of fluid would not be affected in the long term. This is because the

text: kidneys

text: quickly excrete the excess in the form of

text: urine

text: . Likewise, if one did not get enough to drink, the body would hold on to its fluids and urinate less than usual. Imbalances in this system can lead to water retention, which can range from mild and unnoticeable to

text: symptom

text: atic with

text: swelling

text: The metasoma (the "abdomen") of the ant houses important internal organs, including those of the reproductive, respiratory (tracheae), and excretory systems. Workers of many species have their egg-laying structures modified into stings that are used for subduing prey and defending their nests.

text: The

text: metasoma

text: (the "abdomen") of the ant houses important internal organs, including those of the reproductive, respiratory (tracheae), and excretory systems. Workers of many species have their

text: egg-laying structures

text: modified into

text: stings

text: that are used for subduing

text: prey

text: and defending their nests.

text: Normal renal function requires that the flow through the nephron is kept within a narrow range. When tubular flow (that is, GFR) lies outside this range, the ability of the nephron to maintain solute and water balance is compromised. Additionally, changes in GFR may result from changes in renal blood flow (RBF), which itself must be maintained within narrow limits. Elevated RBF may damage the glomerulus, while diminished RBF may deprive the kidney of oxygen. Tubuloglomerular feedback provides a mechanism by which changes in GFR can be detected and rapidly corrected for on a minute-to-minute basis as well as over sustained periods.

text: Normal renal function requires that the flow through the

text: nephron

text: is kept within a narrow range. When tubular flow (that is, GFR) lies outside this range, the ability of the nephron to maintain solute and water balance is compromised. Additionally, changes in GFR may result from changes in

text: renal blood flow

text: (RBF), which itself must be maintained within narrow limits. Elevated RBF may damage the

text: glomerulus

text: , while diminished RBF may deprive the kidney of oxygen. Tubuloglomerular feedback provides a mechanism by which changes in GFR can be detected and rapidly corrected for on a minute-to-minute basis as well as over sustained periods.

text: Over the course of his thirty-nine-year career, Domingue received funding from the National Institutes of Health, Veterans Administration, and a variety of national and international research foundations; served on grant review committees of these agencies as well as consultant to various journal review boards. He also served as clinical microbiology and research consultant to hospital clinical laboratories and to industry. He enjoys international recognition as an authority on the basic biology and medical significance of atypical bacterial organisms and is considered a pioneer and an expert on the role of these unusual bacteria in the persistence and expression of kidney and urological infectious diseases.

text: Over the course of his thirty-nine-year career, Domingue received funding from the

text: National Institutes of Health

entity_name: United States Department of Veterans Affairs

text: Veterans Administration

text: , and a variety of national and international research foundations; served on grant review committees of these agencies as well as consultant to various journal review boards. He also served as clinical microbiology and research consultant to hospital clinical laboratories and to industry. He enjoys international recognition as an authority on the basic biology and medical significance of atypical bacterial organisms and is considered a pioneer and an expert on the role of these unusual bacteria in the persistence and expression of kidney and urological infectious diseases.

text: The functions of the kidney can be divided into three groups: secretion of hormones, gluconeogenesis and extracellular homeostasis of pH and blood components. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.

text: The functions of the kidney can be divided into three groups: secretion of hormones,

text: gluconeogenesis

text: and extracellular homeostasis of pH and blood components. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.

text: The urinary bladder is a hollow muscular organ that collects urine from the kidneys before disposal by urination.  A hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, the bladder sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra. The typical human bladder capacity is between 300 and  (10.14 and ).

text: The urinary bladder is a hollow muscular organ that collects

text: urine

text: from the

text: kidney

text: s before disposal by

text: urination

text: .  A hollow

text: muscular

text: , and distensible (or elastic) organ, the bladder sits on the

text: pelvic floor

text: . Urine enters the bladder via the

text: ureter

text: s and exits via the

text: urethra

text: . The typical human bladder capacity is between 300 and  (10.14 and ).

text: These are excretory systems in phyla Platyhelminthes and are also called blind tubules. These tubules bear a tuft of cilia or flagellum. An organ of excretion in flatworms: a hollow cup-shaped cell containing a bunch of cilia or flagellum, whose movement draws in waste products and wafts them to the outside through a connecting tubule.

text: These are excretory systems in phyla

text: Platyhelminthes

text: and are also called blind tubules. These tubules bear a tuft of

text: cilia

text: or

text: flagellum

text: . An organ of excretion in flatworms: a hollow cup-shaped cell containing a bunch of cilia or flagellum, whose movement draws in waste products and wafts them to the outside through a connecting tubule.

text: Treatment for kidney cancer depends on the type and stage of the disease. Surgery is the most common treatment as kidney cancer does not often respond to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. If the cancer has not spread it will usually be removed by surgery. In some cases this involves removing the whole kidney however most tumors are amenable to partial removal to eradicate the tumor and preserve the remaining normal portion of the kidney. Surgery is not always possible - for example the patient may have other medical conditions that prevent it, or the cancer may have spread around the body and doctors may not be able to remove it. There is currently no evidence that body-wide medical therapy after surgery where there is no known residual disease, that is, adjuvant therapy, helps to improve survival in kidney cancer. If the cancer cannot be treated with surgery other techniques such as freezing the tumour or treating it with high temperatures may be used. However these are not yet used as standard treatments for kidney cancer.

text: Treatment for kidney cancer depends on the type and stage of the disease. Surgery is the most common treatment as kidney cancer does not often respond to

text: chemotherapy

text: and

text: radiotherapy

text: . If the cancer has not spread it will usually be removed by surgery. In some cases this involves

text: removing the whole kidney

text: however most tumors are amenable to

text: partial removal

text: to eradicate the tumor and preserve the remaining normal portion of the kidney. Surgery is not always possible - for example the patient may have other medical conditions that prevent it, or the cancer may have spread around the body and doctors may not be able to remove it. There is currently no evidence that body-wide medical therapy after surgery where there is no known residual disease, that is,

text: adjuvant therapy

text: , helps to improve survival in kidney cancer. If the cancer cannot be treated with surgery other techniques such as

text: freezing the tumour

text: or

text: treating it with high temperatures

text: may be used. However these are not yet used as standard treatments for kidney cancer.

text: 2009-05-08 Heroine Excretion Hell Vol. 20 –  [JHHD-20] (Starring Shino Nakamura)

text: Under microscopy, the urinary system is covered in a unique lining called urothelium, a type of transitional epithelium. Unlike the epithelial lining of most organs, transitional epithelium can flatten and distend. Urothelium covers most of the urinary system, including the renal pelvis, ureters, and bladder.

text: Under microscopy, the urinary system is covered in a unique lining called

text: urothelium

text: , a type of

text: transitional epithelium

text: . Unlike the

text: epithelial

text: lining of most organs, transitional epithelium can flatten and distend. Urothelium covers most of the urinary system, including the renal pelvis, ureters, and bladder.

text: Intensive marine aquaculture in the last decade has increased considerably and resulted in considerable adverse environmental impacts. Large discharge volumes of organic matter from uneaten feed and excretory waste from aquacultured species has resulted in high levels of nutrients within coastal waters. Large quantities of nitrogen (~ 75%) excreted from bivalves, salmon and shrimp, enter into the coastal environment, with the potential to develop algal blooms, and reduce dissolved oxygen in the water.

text: Intensive marine aquaculture in the last decade has increased considerably and resulted in considerable adverse environmental impacts. Large discharge volumes of organic matter from uneaten feed and excretory waste from aquacultured species has resulted in high levels of nutrients within coastal waters. Large quantities of nitrogen (~ 75%) excreted from

text: bivalves

text: salmon

text: and

text: shrimp

text: , enter into the coastal environment, with the potential to develop

text: algal blooms

text: , and reduce dissolved oxygen in the water.

text: Yam khanom chin (, pronounced [jām kʰà.nǒm t͡ɕīːn]; also spelled Yum khanohm jeen)  is a Thai dish. It is a spicy and sour salad made with Khanom chin. Khanom chin are thin rice noodles, and most commonly used in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia.  The basic ingredients of yum khanom chin are lime juice, ground chili, fish sauce, sugar and another variant of yum khanom chin has fermented fish sauce also. Certainly, Yum Khanom chin has a good spicy and sour taste.  Yum Khanom chin is difficult to find, although it is known well.  This recipe is beneficial for people who want to diet because it boosts and speeds up the metabolism, and helps excretory system, it does not have to work hard to process. Also, Yum Khanom chin is a low-calorie food, it has  220 calories per dish.Literally, the name "yam khanom chin" is a derivative from two Thai words: "yam" refers to a  Thai spicy and sour salad while "khanom chin" refers to thin rice noodles in Thai cuisine.

text: Yam khanom chin (, pronounced [jām kʰà.nǒm t͡ɕīːn]; also spelled Yum khanohm jeen)  is a Thai dish. It is a spicy and sour salad made with Khanom chin. Khanom chin are thin

text: rice noodles

text: , and most commonly used in the cuisines of East and Southeast Asia.  The basic ingredients of yum khanom chin are lime juice, ground chili, fish sauce, sugar and another variant of yum khanom chin has fermented fish sauce also. Certainly, Yum Khanom chin has a good spicy and sour taste.  Yum Khanom chin is difficult to find, although it is known well.  This recipe is beneficial for people who want to diet because it boosts and speeds up the metabolism, and helps excretory system, it does not have to work hard to process. Also, Yum Khanom chin is a low-calorie food, it has  220 calories per dish.Literally, the name "yam khanom chin" is a derivative from two Thai words: "yam" refers to a  Thai spicy and sour salad while "khanom chin" refers to thin rice noodles in

text: Thai cuisine

text: The external surface of tegument is associated with unique defining structures in cestodes and trematodes. In cestodes the tegument is further covered with highly specialized microvilli, called "microtriches", projecting from the outer limiting membrane of the tegument. These microtriches are fine hair-like filaments distributed throughout the surface of the body, and give the body surface a smooth and silky appearance. Since cestodes are devoid of any digestive and excretory systems, the tegument with its microtriches constitute the principal site of absorption of nutrients and elimination of waste materials. In fact the tegument highly resembles the gut of animals turned inside out.

text: The external surface of tegument is associated with unique defining structures in cestodes and trematodes. In cestodes the tegument is further covered with highly specialized

text: microvilli

text: , called "

text: microtriches

text: ", projecting from the outer limiting membrane of the tegument. These microtriches are fine hair-like filaments distributed throughout the surface of the body, and give the body surface a smooth and silky appearance. Since cestodes are devoid of any

text: digestive

text: and

text: excretory system

text: s, the tegument with its microtriches constitute the principal site of absorption of

text: nutrients

text: and elimination of waste materials. In fact the tegument highly resembles the

text: gut

text: of

text: animals

text: turned inside out.

text: Nematodes have longitudinal muscles along the body wall. The muscles are obliquely arranged in bands. Dorsal, ventral and longitudinal nerve cords are connected to the main body of the muscle.As a nematode in the group Secernentea, Gnathostoma have specialized tubular excretory system with three canals. The canals are arranged to form an H.

text: Another possible cause of Kidney disease is due to decreased function of xanthine oxidase in the purine degradation pathway. Xanthine oxidase will degrade hypoxanthine to xanthine and then to uric acid. Xanthine is not very soluble in water; therefore, an increase in xanthine forms crystals (which can lead to kidney stones) and result in damage of the kidney. Xanthine oxidase inhibitors, like allopurinol, can cause nephropathy.

text: Another possible cause of Kidney disease is due to decreased function of

text: xanthine oxidase

text: in the

text: purine

text: degradation pathway. Xanthine oxidase will degrade

text: hypoxanthine

text: to

text: xanthine

text: and then to

text: uric acid

text: . Xanthine is not very soluble in water; therefore, an increase in xanthine forms crystals (which can lead to

text: kidney stone

text: s) and result in damage of the kidney.

text: Xanthine oxidase

text: inhibitors, like

text: allopurinol

text: , can cause nephropathy.

text: Until recently, medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related. As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorders. Anencephaly is one such disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies. The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles present in many cellular types throughout the human body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and, thus, offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases. Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alström syndrome, Meckel-Gruber syndrome, and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: Until recently, medical literature did not indicate a connection among many

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: root cause

text: symptoms

text: that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: . Anencephaly is one such disease, part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: s present in many cellular types throughout the

text: human

text: body. The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and, thus, offer a plausible hypothesis for the often

text: multi-symptom

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet-Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alström syndrome

text: Meckel-Gruber syndrome

text: , and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: Acoelomorphs resemble flatworms in many respects, but have a simpler anatomy, not even having a gut. Like flatworms, they have no circulatory or respiratory systems, but they also lack an excretory system. They lack body cavities (acoelomate structure), a hindgut or an anus.

text: Vespasian imposed a Urine Tax () on the distribution of urine from public urinals in Rome's Cloaca Maxima (great sewer) system. (The Roman lower classes urinated into pots which were emptied into cesspools.) The urine collected from public urinals was sold as an ingredient for several chemical processes. It was used in tanning, and also by launderers as a source of ammonia to clean and whiten woollen togas. The buyers of the urine paid the tax.

text: Vespasian

text: imposed a Urine Tax () on the distribution of

text: urine

text: from public urinals in Rome's

text: Cloaca Maxima

text: (great sewer) system. (The Roman lower classes urinated into pots which were emptied into

text: cesspool

text: s.) The urine collected from public urinals was sold as an ingredient for several chemical processes. It was used in

text: tanning

text: , and also by

text: launderers

text: as a source of

text: ammonia

text: to clean and whiten

text: wool

text: len

text: toga

text: s. The buyers of the urine paid the tax.

text: In pursuit of its aim and objectives, NAOWA support governments and other agencies in the provision of self-help projects, vocational training centres,  periodic donation and contribution of  cash, drugs, treated mosquito nets and other relief materials to ‘Homes’ for the motherless, elderly and destitute. The activities of the association is not only limited to barracks alone, it is also extended to the surrounding communities.  Hence the need to embark on the construction of a modern maternity centre equipped with state-of-the-art facility in Kaduna (Northern Nigeria) for the provision of maternal and child health services. The centre, when established, will improve access to basic health care and medical services, especially focused on improving women's health and drastically reducing child and maternal mortality. NAOWA is also making effort to partner with local community leaders to extend quality health services beyond the formal healthcare system. The association is concerned with preventive rather than curative aspects of health within a larger population-level, rather than individual-level health issues.  The main focus of the association is intervention to prevent rather than treat a disease through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviours.  In many cases treating a disease may be vital to preventing it in others, such as during an outbreak of an infectious disease.   In addition, NAOWA also carries out a periodic enlightenment campaign on hand washing, vaccination programme, and environmental sanitation to improve lives through the prevention and treatment of diseases.

text: For an adult patient with isolated hematuria, tests such as ultrasound of the kidney and cystoscopy are usually done first to pinpoint the source of the bleeding. These tests would rule out kidney stones and bladder cancer, two other common urological causes of hematuria. In children and younger adults, the history and association with respiratory infection can raise the suspicion of IgA nephropathy. A kidney biopsy is necessary to confirm the diagnosis. The biopsy specimen shows proliferation of the mesangium, with IgA deposits on immunofluorescence and electron microscopy. However, patients with isolated microscopic hematuria (i.e. without associated proteinuria and with normal kidney function) are not usually biopsied since this is associated with an excellent prognosis. A urinalysis will show red blood cells, usually as red cell urinary casts. Proteinuria, usually less than 2 grams per day, also may be present. Other renal causes of isolated hematuria include thin basement membrane disease and Alport syndrome, the latter being a hereditary disease associated with hearing impairment and eye problems.

text: For an adult patient with isolated

text: hematuria

text: , tests such as

text: ultrasound

text: of the kidney and

text: cystoscopy

text: are usually done first to pinpoint the source of the

text: bleeding

text: . These tests would rule out

text: kidney stones

text: and

text: bladder cancer

text: , two other common

text: urological

text: causes of hematuria. In children and younger adults, the history and association with respiratory infection can raise the suspicion of IgA nephropathy. A kidney

text: biopsy

text: is necessary to confirm the diagnosis. The biopsy specimen shows proliferation of the

text: mesangium

text: , with IgA deposits on

text: immunofluorescence

text: and

text: electron microscopy

text: . However, patients with isolated

text: microscopic hematuria

text: (i.e. without associated proteinuria and with normal

text: kidney function

text: ) are not usually biopsied since this is associated with an excellent

text: prognosis

text: . A

text: urinalysis

text: will show

text: red blood cells

text: , usually as red cell

text: urinary casts

text: Proteinuria

text: , usually less than 2 grams per day, also may be present. Other

text: renal

text: causes of isolated hematuria include

text: thin basement membrane disease

text: and

text: Alport syndrome

text: , the latter being a

text: hereditary disease

text: associated with

text: hearing impairment

text: and eye problems.

text: Members of the Eucestoda have no mouth or digestive tract, and instead absorb nutrients through a layer of microtriches over the tegument at the shared body wall surface. In addition to the body wall, several other systems are common to the whole length of the tapeworm, including excretory canals, nerve fibers, and longitudinal muscles. The excretory system is responsible for osmoregulation and consists of blind-ending flame bulbs communicating through a duct system. The nervous system, often referred to as a "ladder system," is a system of longitudinal connectives and transverse ring commissures.

text: Members of the Eucestoda have no mouth or digestive tract, and instead absorb nutrients through a layer of

text: microtriches

text: over the tegument at the shared body wall surface. In addition to the body wall, several other systems are common to the whole length of the tapeworm, including excretory canals, nerve fibers, and longitudinal muscles. The excretory system is responsible for osmoregulation and consists of blind-ending flame bulbs communicating through a duct system. The nervous system, often referred to as a "ladder system," is a system of longitudinal connectives and transverse ring commissures.

text: Generally, penicillamine is the first treatment used. This binds copper (chelation) and leads to excretion of copper in the urine. Hence, monitoring of the amount of copper in the urine can be done to ensure a sufficiently high dose is taken. Penicillamine is not without problems: about 20% experience a side effect or complication of penicillamine treatment, such as drug-induced lupus (causing joint pains and a skin rash) or myasthenia (a nerve condition leading to muscle weakness). In those who presented with neurological symptoms, almost half experience a paradoxical worsening in their symptoms. While this phenomenon is observed in other treatments for Wilson's, it is usually taken as an indication for discontinuing penicillamine and commencing second-line treatment. Those intolerant to penicillamine may instead be commenced on trientine hydrochloride, which also has chelating properties. Some recommend trientine as first-line treatment, but experience with penicillamine is more extensive. A further agent, under clinical investigation by Wilson Therapeutics, with known activity in Wilson's disease is tetrathiomolybdate.  This is regarded as experimental, though some studies have shown a beneficial effect.

text: Generally,

text: penicillamine

text: is the first treatment used. This binds copper (

text: chelation

text: ) and leads to excretion of copper in the urine. Hence, monitoring of the amount of copper in the urine can be done to ensure a sufficiently high dose is taken. Penicillamine is not without problems: about 20% experience a side effect or complication of penicillamine treatment, such as drug-induced

text: lupus

text: (causing joint pains and a skin rash) or

text: myasthenia

text: (a nerve condition leading to muscle weakness). In those who presented with neurological symptoms, almost half experience a paradoxical worsening in their symptoms. While this phenomenon is observed in other treatments for Wilson's, it is usually taken as an indication for discontinuing penicillamine and commencing second-line treatment. Those intolerant to penicillamine may instead be commenced on

text: trientine hydrochloride

text: , which also has chelating properties. Some recommend trientine as first-line treatment, but experience with penicillamine is more extensive. A further agent, under clinical investigation by

text: Wilson Therapeutics

text: , with known activity in Wilson's disease is

text: tetrathiomolybdate

text: .  This is regarded as experimental, though some studies have shown a beneficial effect.

text: Renal replacement therapy (RRT) is therapy that replaces the normal blood-filtering function of the kidneys. It is used when the kidneys are not working well, which is called  renal failure and includes acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease. Renal replacement therapy includes dialysis (hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis), hemofiltration, and hemodiafiltration, which are various ways of filtration of blood with or without machine. Renal replacement therapy also includes kidney transplantation, which is the ultimate form of replacement in that the old kidney is replaced by a donor kidney.

text: Renal replacement therapy (RRT) is

text: therapy

text: that replaces the normal

text: blood

text: -filtering function of the

text: kidney

text: s. It is used when the kidneys are not working well, which is called

text: renal failure

text: and includes

text: acute kidney injury

text: and

text: chronic kidney disease

text: . Renal replacement therapy includes

text: dialysis

text: hemodialysis

text: or

text: peritoneal dialysis

text: hemofiltration

text: , and

text: hemodiafiltration

text: , which are various ways of filtration of blood with or without machine. Renal replacement therapy also includes

text: kidney transplantation

text: , which is the ultimate form of replacement in that the old kidney is replaced by a

text: donor

text: kidney.

text: Hereditary mucoepithelial dysplasia (HMD), or simply mucoepithelial dysplasia, is a rare autosomal dominant multiepithelial disorder causing systemic maldevelopment of the epithelia and mucous membranes that line the surface of tissues and structures throughout the body, particularly affecting systems affiliated with mucosa, which includes the respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive and immune systems. The disorder is attributed to improper formation of desmosomes and gap junctions, which prevents proper cornification of the epithelial layer of the skin.

text: Hereditary mucoepithelial dysplasia (HMD), or simply mucoepithelial dysplasia, is a rare

text: autosomal

text: dominant

text: multiepithelial disorder causing systemic maldevelopment of the

text: epithelia

text: and

text: mucous membrane

text: s that line the surface of

text: tissues

text: and structures throughout the body, particularly affecting systems affiliated with mucosa, which includes the

text: respiratory

text: digestive

text: urinary

text: reproductive

text: and

text: immune system

text: s. The disorder is attributed to improper formation of

text: desmosome

text: s and

text: gap junction

text: s, which prevents proper

text: cornification

text: of the epithelial layer of the skin.

text: Several performance artists have attempted to "contribute" to the piece by urinating in it.South African born artist Kendell Geers, rose to international notoriety in 1993 when, at a show in Venice, he urinated into the Fountain. Artist / musician Brian Eno declared successfully urinating in the Fountain while exhibited in the MOMA in 1993. He admitted that it was only a technical triumph because he needed to urinate in a tube in advance so he could get the fluid through a gap between the protective glass. Swedish artist Björn Kjelltoft urinated in the Fountain at Moderna Museet in Stockholm in 1999.

text: Several performance artists have attempted to "contribute" to the piece by urinating in it.South African born artist

text: Kendell Geers

text: , rose to international notoriety in 1993 when, at a show in Venice, he urinated into the Fountain. Artist / musician

text: Brian Eno

text: declared successfully urinating in the Fountain while exhibited in the MOMA in 1993. He admitted that it was only a technical triumph because he needed to urinate in a tube in advance so he could get the fluid through a gap between the protective glass. Swedish artist Björn Kjelltoft urinated in the Fountain at

text: Moderna Museet

text: in Stockholm in 1999.

text: Renal physiology is the study of kidney function, while nephrology is the medical specialty concerned with kidney diseases. Diseases of the kidney are diverse, but individuals with kidney disease frequently display characteristic clinical features. Common clinical conditions involving the kidney include the nephritic and nephrotic syndromes, renal cysts, acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, urinary tract infection, nephrolithiasis, and urinary tract obstruction. Various cancers of the kidney exist. The most common adult renal cancer is renal cell carcinoma. Cancers, cysts, and some other renal conditions can be managed with removal of the kidney. This is known as nephrectomy. When renal function, measured by the glomerular filtration rate, is persistently poor, dialysis and kidney transplantation may be treatment options. Although they are not normally harmful, kidney stones can be extremely painful.

text: Renal physiology

text: is the study of kidney function, while

text: nephrology

text: is the medical specialty concerned with

text: kidney disease

text: s. Diseases of the kidney are diverse, but individuals with kidney disease frequently display characteristic clinical features. Common clinical conditions involving the kidney include the

text: nephritic

text: and

text: nephrotic syndrome

text: s,

text: renal cyst

text: s,

text: acute kidney injury

text: chronic kidney disease

text: urinary tract infection

text: nephrolithiasis

text: , and

text: urinary tract obstruction

text: . Various cancers of the kidney exist. The most common adult renal cancer is

text: renal cell carcinoma

text: . Cancers, cysts, and some other renal conditions can be managed with removal of the kidney. This is known as

text: nephrectomy

text: . When

text: renal function

text: , measured by the

text: glomerular filtration rate

text: , is persistently poor,

text: dialysis

text: and

text: kidney transplantation

text: may be treatment options. Although they are not normally harmful,

text: kidney stone

text: s can be extremely painful.

text: There is no FDA-approved treatment. However, it has been shown that mild to moderate dietary restrictions slow the progression of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD). If and when the disease progresses enough in a given case, the nephrologist or other practitioner and the patient will have to decide what form of renal replacement therapy will be used to treat end-stage kidney disease (kidney failure, typically stage 4 or 5 of chronic kidney disease).

text: There is no FDA-approved treatment. However, it has been shown that mild to moderate dietary restrictions slow the progression of

entity_name: Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease

text: autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease

text: (ADPKD). If and when the disease progresses enough in a given case, the

text: nephrologist

text: or other practitioner and the patient will have to decide what form of

text: renal replacement therapy

text: will be used to treat end-stage kidney disease (

text: kidney failure

text: , typically stage 4 or 5 of chronic kidney disease).

text: In terms of ions, however, there does seem to be a discrepancy between ionic concentrations found in the seawater and those found within cephalopods. In general, it seems as though they maintain hypoionic concentrations of sodium, calcium and chloride in contrast to the saltwater. Sulfate and potassium exist in a hypoionic state as well, with the exception of the excretory systems of cephalopods where the urine is hyperionic. These ions are free to diffuse, and because they exist in hypoionic concentrations within the organism, they would be moving into the organism from the seawater. The fact that the organism can maintain hypoionic concentrations suggests not only that a form of ionic regulation exists within cephalopods, but that they also actively excrete certain ions such as potassium and sulfate in order to maintain homeostasis.

text: In terms of

text: ions

text: , however, there does seem to be a discrepancy between ionic concentrations found in the seawater and those found within cephalopods. In general, it seems as though they maintain hypoionic concentrations of sodium, calcium and chloride in contrast to the saltwater. Sulfate and potassium exist in a hypoionic state as well, with the exception of the excretory systems of cephalopods where the urine is hyperionic. These ions are free to diffuse, and because they exist in hypoionic concentrations within the organism, they would be moving into the organism from the seawater. The fact that the organism can maintain hypoionic concentrations suggests not only that a form of ionic regulation exists within cephalopods, but that they also actively excrete certain ions such as potassium and sulfate in order to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: Embryologically, the bladder is derived from the urogenital sinus, and it is initially continuous with the allantois. In human males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the prostate, and separated from the rectum by the rectovesical excavation. In females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the vagina. It is separated from the uterus by the vesicouterine excavation. In infants and young children, the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.

text: Embryologically, the bladder is derived from the

text: urogenital sinus

text: , and it is initially continuous with the

text: allantois

text: . In human males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the

text: prostate

text: , and separated from the

text: rectum

text: by the

text: rectovesical excavation

text: . In females, the bladder sits inferior to the

text: uterus

text: and anterior to the

text: vagina

text: . It is separated from the uterus by the

text: vesicouterine excavation

text: . In

text: infants

text: and young children, the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.

text: In normal individuals, a 25 g oral dose of D-xylose will be absorbed and excreted in the urine at approximately 4.5 g in 5 hours. A decreased urinary excretion of D-xylose is seen in conditions involving the GI mucosa, such as small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and Whipple's disease. In cases of bacterial overgrowth, the values of D-xylose absorption return to normal after treatment with antibiotics. In contrast, if the D-xylose urinary excretion is not normal after a course of antibiotics, then the problem must be due to a non-infectious cause of malabsorption (i.e., celiac disease).

text: In normal individuals, a 25 g oral dose of D-xylose will be absorbed and excreted in the urine at approximately 4.5 g in 5 hours. A decreased urinary excretion of D-xylose is seen in conditions involving the GI mucosa, such as

text: small intestinal bacterial overgrowth

text: and

text: Whipple's disease

text: . In cases of bacterial overgrowth, the values of D-xylose absorption return to normal after treatment with

text: antibiotic

text: s. In contrast, if the D-xylose urinary excretion is not normal after a course of antibiotics, then the problem must be due to a non-infectious cause of malabsorption (i.e.,

text: celiac disease

text: In spite of his speedy and remarkable recovery from the spinal injury he received in the train accident in 1899, Albert Johnson continued to feel the effects of his injury for the rest of his life. Although he regained the ability to walk, he suffered from partial paralysis below the waist, specifically paralysis of the excretory organs. His paralysis was such that Johnson was forced to catheterize himself multiple times every day to assist in his ability to urinate, and keep meticulous records of his daily fluid intake and output in order to monitor his own health.

text: These various fluid-filled spaces, in addition to transporting nutrients around the body, also function as both a respiratory and an excretory system. Oxygen is absorbed primarily through the tube feet, which are the most thin-walled parts of the body, while waste is collected by phagocytic coelomocytes.

text: These various fluid-filled spaces, in addition to transporting nutrients around the body, also function as both a respiratory and an excretory system. Oxygen is absorbed primarily through the tube feet, which are the most thin-walled parts of the body, while waste is collected by

text: phagocytic

text: coelomocytes.

text: Another study demonstrated that skeletal muscle fibres of collagen VI knockout mice showed signs of degeneration due to an insufficiency of autophagy which led to an accumulation of damaged mitochondria and excessive cell death. Exercise-induced autophagy was unsuccessful however; but when autophagy was induced artificially post-exercise, the accumulation of damaged organelles in collagen VI deficient muscle fibres was prevented and cellular homeostasis was maintained. Both studies demonstrate that autophagy induction may contribute to the beneficial metabolic effects of exercise and that it is essential in the maintaining of muscle homeostasis during exercise, particularly in collagen VI fibres.

text: Another study demonstrated that

text: skeletal muscle

text: fibres of

text: collagen VI

text: knockout mice showed signs of degeneration due to an insufficiency of autophagy which led to an accumulation of damaged mitochondria and excessive

text: cell death

text: . Exercise-induced autophagy was unsuccessful however; but when autophagy was induced artificially post-exercise, the accumulation of damaged organelles in

text: collagen VI

text: deficient muscle fibres was prevented and cellular homeostasis was maintained. Both studies demonstrate that autophagy induction may contribute to the beneficial metabolic effects of exercise and that it is essential in the maintaining of muscle homeostasis during exercise, particularly in collagen VI fibres.

text: The Special Forces communications sergeant has to learn U.S. communication systems as well as those systems found throughout the world. He must incorporate this information and technology into his communications planning, and teach it to the other members of his ODA. Communications sergeants have a thorough grounding in communication basics, communications procedures, computer technology; assembly and systems applications.They must understand communication theory – how to install, operate and maintain radio systems across all bands. They must be able to make communications in voice to data, and to read voice and data radio nets by using computer systems and networks.Communications sergeants are experts in sending and receiving messages to link the SFODA with its command and control elements. They are familiar with antenna theory, radio wave propagation and how to teach it to others. Communications sergeants prepare the communications portion of area studies, briefbacks and operation plans and orders. They can recruit, organize, train and advise or command indigenous combat forces up to company size.The course provides training in computer applications, satellite radios and satellite and antenna theory and radio wave propagation. Soldiers learn how to construct field-expedient antennas, employing communications procedures and techniques and communicate throughout the HF, VHF and UHF spectrums, all culminating with a field training exercise. The course goal is to develop a world-class SF Communicator capable of employing, accessing and familiar with SF, joint and interagency communications.

text: Surgical intervention may be required but it depends on what organ systems are affected by the wound and the extent of the damage. It is important for care providers to thoroughly check the wound site inasmuch as a laceration of an artery often results in delayed complications sometimes leading to death. In cases where there is no suspicion of bleeding or infection, there is no known benefit of surgery to correct any present injuries. Typically a surgeon will track the path of the weapon to determine the anatomical structures that were damaged and repair any damage they deem necessary. Surgical packing of the wounds is generally not the favored technique to control bleeding as it can less useful then fixing the directly effected organs. In severe cases when homeostasis cannot be maintained the use of damage control surgery may be utilized.

text: Surgical intervention

text: may be required but it depends on what

text: organ system

text: s are affected by the wound and the extent of the damage. It is important for care providers to thoroughly check the wound site inasmuch as a

text: laceration

text: of an

text: artery

text: often results in delayed complications sometimes leading to

text: death

text: . In cases where there is no suspicion of bleeding or infection, there is no known benefit of surgery to correct any present injuries. Typically a

text: surgeon

text: will track the path of the weapon to determine the anatomical structures that were damaged and repair any damage they deem necessary. Surgical packing of the wounds is generally not the favored technique to control bleeding as it can less useful then fixing the directly effected organs. In severe cases when

text: homeostasis

text: cannot be maintained the use of

text: damage control surgery

text: may be utilized.

text: In addition to the pericardial glands and nephridum, excretory cells are also present in the digestive glands opening into the stomach. These glands have a metabolic function, somewhat similar to that of the vertebrate liver, and excrete waste products directly into the digestive system, where it is voided with the faeces.

text: In addition to the pericardial glands and nephridum, excretory cells are also present in the digestive glands opening into the

text: stomach

text: . These glands have a metabolic function, somewhat similar to that of the vertebrate

text: liver

text: , and excrete waste products directly into the digestive system, where it is voided with the

text: faeces

text: Shen Chuyi (Rui En) is a happy-go-lucky girl who, since she was a child, has seen how much her father has suffered from kidney dialysis. Thus, she has cultivated the good habit of eating healthily, and often reminds people around her to maintain a healthy diet. Chuyi works in the events company of Yu Yang (Pierre Png), the fiancé of her bosom friend, Cai Jiayi. The three of them volunteer regularly in the charity activities of NKF.

text: Shen Chuyi (

text: Rui En

text: ) is a happy-go-lucky girl who, since she was a child, has seen how much her father has suffered from kidney dialysis. Thus, she has cultivated the good habit of eating healthily, and often reminds people around her to maintain a healthy diet. Chuyi works in the events company of Yu Yang (

text: Pierre Png

text: ), the fiancé of her bosom friend, Cai Jiayi. The three of them volunteer regularly in the charity activities of NKF.

text: Tunicates lack the kidney-like metanephridial organs typical of deuterostomes. Most have no excretory structures, but rely on the diffusion of ammonia across their tissues to rid themselves of nitrogenous waste, though some have a simple excretory system. The typical renal organ is a mass of large clear-walled vesicles that occupy the rectal loop, and the structure has no duct. Each vesicle is a remnant of a part of the primitive coelom, and its cells extract nitrogenous waste matter from circulating blood. They accumulate the wastes inside the vesicles as urate crystals, and do not have any obvious means of disposing of the material during their lifetimes.

text: Tunicates lack the kidney-like

text: metanephridial

text: organs typical of

text: deuterostome

text: s. Most have no excretory structures, but rely on the diffusion of

text: ammonia

text: across their tissues to rid themselves of nitrogenous waste, though some have a simple excretory system. The typical

text: renal

text: organ is a mass of large clear-walled

text: vesicles

text: that occupy the rectal loop, and the structure has no duct. Each vesicle is a remnant of a part of the primitive coelom, and its cells extract nitrogenous waste matter from circulating blood. They accumulate the wastes inside the vesicles as

text: urate crystals

text: , and do not have any obvious means of disposing of the material during their lifetimes.

text: Regulation of serum potassium is a function of intake, appropriate distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments, and effective bodily excretion. In healthy individuals, homeostasis is maintained when cellular uptake and kidney excretion naturally counterbalance a patient’s dietary intake of potassium. When kidney function becomes compromised, the ability of the body to effectively regulate serum potassium via the kidney declines. To compensate for this deficit in function, the colon increases its potassium secretion as part of an adaptive response. However, serum potassium remains elevated as the colonic compensating mechanism reaches its limits.

text: A poikilotherm () is an organism whose internal temperature varies considerably.  It is the opposite of a homeotherm, an organism which maintains thermal homeostasis.  Usually the variation is a consequence of variation in the ambient environmental temperature. Many terrestrial ectotherms are poikilothermic. However some ectotherms remain in temperature-constant environments to the point that they are actually able to maintain a constant internal temperature (i.e. are homeothermic).  It is this distinction that often makes the term "poikilotherm" more useful than the vernacular "cold-blooded", which is sometimes used to refer to ectotherms more generally.

text: A poikilotherm () is an

text: organism

text: whose internal temperature varies considerably.  It is the opposite of a

text: homeotherm

text: , an organism which maintains

text: thermal

text: homeostasis

text: .  Usually the variation is a consequence of variation in the

text: ambient environmental temperature

text: . Many terrestrial

text: ectotherm

text: s are poikilothermic. However some ectotherms remain in temperature-constant environments to the point that they are actually able to maintain a constant internal temperature (i.e. are

text: homeotherm

text: ic).  It is this distinction that often makes the term "poikilotherm" more useful than the vernacular "cold-blooded", which is sometimes used to refer to

text: ectotherm

text: s more generally.

text: P2X receptors are expressed in cells from a wide variety of animal tissues. On presynaptic and postsynaptic nerve terminals and glial cells throughout the central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, P2X receptors have been shown to modulate synaptic transmission. Furthermore, P2X receptors are able to initiate contraction in cells of the heart muscle, skeletal muscle, and various smooth muscle tissues, including that of the vasculature, vas deferens and urinary bladder. P2X receptors are also expressed on leukocytes, including lymphocytes and macrophages, and are present on blood platelets. There is some degree of subtype specificity as to which P2X receptor subtypes are expressed on specific cell types, with P2X receptors being particularly prominent in smooth muscle cells, and P2X being widespread throughout the autonomic nervous system. However, such trends are very general and there is considerable overlap in subunit distribution, with most cell types expressing more than one subunits. For example, P2X and P2X subunits are commonly found co-expressed in sensory neurons, where they often co-assemble into functional P2X receptors.

text: P2X receptors are expressed in cells from a wide variety of animal

text: tissues

text: . On presynaptic and postsynaptic

text: nerve terminals

text: and

text: glial

text: cells throughout the

text: central

text: peripheral

text: and

text: autonomic

text: nervous systems, P2X receptors have been shown to modulate

text: synaptic transmission

text: . Furthermore, P2X receptors are able to initiate

text: contraction

text: in cells of the

text: heart muscle

text: skeletal muscle

text: , and various

text: smooth muscle

text: tissues, including that of the

text: vasculature

text: vas deferens

text: and

text: urinary bladder

text: . P2X receptors are also expressed on

text: leukocytes

text: , including lymphocytes and macrophages, and are present on blood

text: platelet

text: s. There is some degree of subtype specificity as to which P2X receptor subtypes are expressed on specific cell types, with P2X receptors being particularly prominent in smooth muscle cells, and P2X being widespread throughout the autonomic nervous system. However, such trends are very general and there is considerable overlap in subunit distribution, with most cell types expressing more than one subunits. For example, P2X and P2X subunits are commonly found co-expressed in

text: sensory neuron

text: s, where they often co-assemble into functional P2X receptors.

text: Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney, as one has more functioning renal tissue than is needed to survive. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished does one develop chronic kidney disease. Renal replacement therapy, in the form of dialysis or kidney transplantation, is indicated when the glomerular filtration rate has fallen very low or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms.

text: Generally, humans can live normally with just one kidney, as one has more functioning renal tissue than is needed to survive. Only when the amount of functioning kidney tissue is greatly diminished does one develop

text: chronic kidney disease

text: Renal replacement therapy

text: , in the form of

text: dialysis

text: or

text: kidney transplantation

text: , is indicated when the

text: glomerular filtration rate

text: has fallen very low or if the renal dysfunction leads to severe symptoms.

text: Some of the side effects from HAART that may affect how the body absorbs and utilizes nutrients include fatigue, nausea, and poor appetite.As well, the nutritional needs of people with HIV/AIDS are greater due to their immune system fighting off opportunistic infections that do not normally cause disease in people with healthy immune systems. Medication along with proper nutrition is a major component of maintaining good health and quality of life for people living with HIV/AIDS.

text: Some of the side effects from HAART that may affect how the body absorbs and utilizes nutrients include

text: fatigue

text: nausea

text: , and poor appetite.As well, the nutritional needs of people with HIV/AIDS are greater due to their

text: immune system

text: fighting off

text: opportunistic infections

text: that do not normally cause disease in people with healthy immune systems. Medication along with proper nutrition is a major component of maintaining good health and quality of life for people living with HIV/AIDS.

text: Determining the cause of a metabolic acidosis that lacks a serum anion gap often depends on determining whether the kidney is appropriately excreting acid. The urine anion gap is an 'artificial' and calculated measure that is representative of the unmeasured ions in urine. Usually the most important unmeasured ion in urine is NH since it is the most important form of acid excretion by the kidney.  Urine NH is difficult to measure directly, but its excretion is usually accompanied by the anion chloride. A negative urine anion gap can be used as evidence of increased NH excretion.  In a metabolic acidosis without a serum anion gap:

text: Determining the cause of a metabolic acidosis that lacks a serum anion gap often depends on determining whether the kidney is appropriately excreting acid. The urine anion gap is an 'artificial' and calculated measure that is representative of the unmeasured ions in urine. Usually the most important unmeasured ion in urine is

text: NH

text: since it is the most important form of acid excretion by the kidney.  Urine NH is difficult to measure directly, but its excretion is usually accompanied by the anion chloride. A negative urine anion gap can be used as evidence of increased NH excretion.  In a metabolic acidosis without a serum anion gap:

text: Until recently, the medical literature did not indicate a connection among many genetic disorders, both genetic syndromes and genetic diseases, that are now being found to be related.  As a result of new genetic research, some of these are, in fact, highly related in their root cause despite the widely varying set of medical symptoms that are clinically visible in the disorders.  Ellis–van Creveld syndrome is one such  disease, part of an emerging class of diseases called ciliopathies.  The underlying cause may be a dysfunctional molecular mechanism in the primary cilia structures of the cell, organelles which are present in many cellular types throughout the human body.  The cilia defects adversely affect "numerous critical developmental signaling pathways" essential to cellular development and thus offer a plausible hypothesis for the often multi-symptom nature of a large set of syndromes and diseases.  Known ciliopathies include primary ciliary dyskinesia, Bardet–Biedl syndrome, polycystic kidney and liver disease, nephronophthisis, Alstrom syndrome, Meckel–Gruber syndrome and some forms of retinal degeneration.

text: genetic disorder

text: s, both

text: genetic syndromes

text: and

text: genetic diseases

text: root cause

text: symptoms

text: that are clinically visible in the

text: disorders

text: .  Ellis–van Creveld syndrome is one such  disease, part of an

text: emerging

text: class of diseases called

text: ciliopathies

text: cilia

text: structures of the

text: cell

text: organelle

text: human

text: multi-symptom

text: primary ciliary dyskinesia

text: Bardet–Biedl syndrome

text: polycystic kidney

text: and

text: liver disease

text: nephronophthisis

text: Alstrom syndrome

text: Meckel–Gruber syndrome

text: and some forms of

text: retinal degeneration

text: Urine contains most (94% according to Wolgast) of the NPK nutrients excreted by the human body. The more general limitations to using urine as fertiliser depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen (due to the high ratio of that macronutrient), and inorganic salts such as sodium chloride, which are also part of the wastes excreted by the renal system. The degree to which these factors impact the effectiveness depends on the term of use, salinity tolerance of the plant, soil composition, addition of other fertilising compounds, and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation.

text: Urine contains most (94% according to Wolgast) of the

text: NPK

text: nutrients excreted by the human body. The more general limitations to using urine as fertiliser depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen (due to the high ratio of that macronutrient), and inorganic

text: salt

text: s such as

text: sodium chloride

text: , which are also part of the wastes excreted by the

text: renal system

text: . The degree to which these factors impact the effectiveness depends on the term of use, salinity tolerance of the plant, soil composition, addition of other fertilising compounds, and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation.

text: As calculated by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, in order to maintain a normal pH of 7.4 in the blood (whereby the pKa of carbonic acid is 6.1 at physiological temperature), a 20:1 bicarbonate to carbonic acid must constantly be maintained; this homeostasis is mainly mediated by pH sensors in the medulla oblongata of the brain and probably in the kidneys, linked via negative feedback loops to effectors in the respiratory and renal systems. In the blood of most animals, the bicarbonate buffer system is coupled to the lungs via respiratory compensation, the process by which the rate of breathing changes to compensate for changes in the blood concentration of CO. By Le Chȃtlier’s Principle, the release of CO from the lungs pushes the reaction above to the left, causing carbonic anhydrase to form CO until all excess acid is removed. Bicarbonate concentration is also further regulated by renal compensation, the process by which the kidneys regulate the concentration of bicarbonate ions by excreting H ions into the urine while, at the same time, secreting HCO ions into the blood plasma, or vice versa, depending on whether the plasma pH is falling or rising, respectively.

text: As calculated by the

text: Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

text: , in order to maintain a normal pH of 7.4 in the blood (whereby the pKa of carbonic acid is 6.1 at physiological temperature), a 20:1 bicarbonate to carbonic acid must constantly be maintained; this

text: homeostasis

text: is mainly mediated by pH sensors in the

text: medulla oblongata

text: of the brain and probably in the

text: kidney

text: s, linked via negative feedback loops to effectors in the

text: respiratory

text: and

text: renal

text: systems. In the blood of most animals, the bicarbonate buffer system is coupled to the

text: lung

text: s via

text: respiratory compensation

text: , the process by which the rate of breathing changes to compensate for changes in the blood concentration of CO. By

text: Le Chȃtlier’s Principle

text: , the release of CO from the lungs pushes the reaction above to the left, causing carbonic anhydrase to form CO until all excess acid is removed. Bicarbonate concentration is also further regulated by

text: renal compensation

text: , the process by which the kidneys regulate the concentration of bicarbonate ions by excreting H ions into the urine while, at the same time, secreting HCO ions into the blood plasma, or vice versa, depending on whether the plasma pH is falling or rising, respectively.

text: The insect excretory system, responsible for regulating water balance in the insect, comprises the Malpighian tubules and the hindgut (the ileum and rectum). Malpighian tubules secrete primary urine, most of which is passed into the hindgut where water, ions and essential metabolites are reabsorbed before the fluid is excreted. Excretion is under the control of diuretic and anti-diuretic factors, or hormones, comprehensively reviewed by Coast et al. (2002).

text: The

text: insect

text: excretory system

text: , responsible for regulating water balance in the insect, comprises the

text: Malpighian tubules

text: and the

text: hindgut

text: (the

text: ileum

text: and

text: rectum

text: ). Malpighian tubules secrete primary

text: urine

text: , most of which is passed into the hindgut where water,

text: ion

text: s and essential metabolites are reabsorbed before the fluid is excreted. Excretion is under the control of

text: diuretic

text: and anti-diuretic factors, or

text: hormones

text: , comprehensively reviewed by Coast et al. (2002).

text: Some people have brief, isolated episodes of urinary difficulty in situations where other people are in close proximity.  Paruresis, however, goes beyond simple shyness, embarrassment, fear of exposure, or fear of being judged for not being able to urinate. Other people may find that they are unable to urinate while in moving vehicles, or are fixated on the sounds of their urination in quiet restrooms or residential settings. In severe cases, a person with paruresis can urinate only when alone at home or through the process of catheterization.

text: Some people have brief, isolated episodes of urinary difficulty in situations where other people are in close proximity.  Paruresis, however, goes beyond simple

text: shyness

text: embarrassment

text: , fear of exposure, or fear of being judged for not being able to urinate. Other people may find that they are unable to urinate while in moving vehicles, or are fixated on the sounds of their urination in quiet restrooms or residential settings. In severe cases, a person with paruresis can urinate only when alone at home or through the process of catheterization.

text: Orotidine is a nucleoside formed by attaching orotic acid to a ribose ring via a β-N-glycosidic bond. It is found in bacteria, fungi and plants. It was first isolated in 1951 from the fungus Neurospora by A. Michael Michelson, William Drell, and Herschel K. Mitchell. In humans, orotidine occurs as its 5'-phosphate (orotidylic acid), which is an intermediate in pyrimidine nucleotide biosynthesis (cytidine and uridine) that are found in nucleic acids. Orotidine itself is not a component of nucleic acid. Large amounts of orotidine are excreted in the urine of cancer patients treated with 6-azauridine.

text: Orotidine is a

text: nucleoside

text: formed by attaching

text: orotic acid

text: to a

text: ribose

text: ring via a β-N-

text: glycosidic bond

text: . It is found in

text: bacteria

text: fungi

text: and plants. It was first isolated in 1951 from the fungus

text: Neurospora

text: by A. Michael Michelson, William Drell, and Herschel K. Mitchell. In humans, orotidine occurs as its 5'-phosphate (

text: orotidylic acid

text: ), which is an intermediate in

text: pyrimidine

text: nucleotide biosynthesis (

text: cytidine

text: and

text: uridine

text: ) that are found in

text: nucleic acid

text: s. Orotidine itself is not a component of nucleic acid. Large amounts of orotidine are excreted in the urine of cancer patients treated with 6-azauridine.

text: Excreted toxins may help deter predators and bacteria which are drawn in by phytoplankton waste products. Phytoplankton are known to excrete waste metabolites into the surrounding environment. This is a potential source of reduced nutrients and carbon for bacteria and may act as a signal for predators which can detect and follow kairomone gradients in their environment. Excreted toxins would seem most advantageous to the individual cell in their ability to keep predators and/or parasitic and algicidal bacteria at a distance. However, continuous toxin production and excretion carries a metabolic cost.For excreted toxins to be effective, they must have a low molecular weight to rapidly diffuse in the marine environment and to be energetically cheap to produce. However, excreted toxins may not actually repel larger motile predators because molecular diffusivity is slow and turbulence at the millimeter scale is large in water. Excreted phycotoxins may act as repellents if their signal registers at the same speed as other signals that potential grazers can detect (kairomones), assuming both are encountered by a predator at the same time.Additionally, excreted toxins may be effective method of keeping harmful bacteria and other phytoplankton competitors outside of the phycotoxin producer's microzone of nutrients.

text: Excreted toxins may help deter predators and bacteria which are drawn in by phytoplankton waste products. Phytoplankton are known to excrete waste

text: metabolites

text: into the surrounding environment. This is a potential source of

text: reduced

text: nutrients and carbon for bacteria and may act as a signal for predators which can detect and follow

text: kairomone

text: gradients in their environment. Excreted toxins would seem most advantageous to the individual cell in their ability to keep predators and/or

text: parasitic

text: and

text: algicidal

text: bacteria at a distance. However, continuous toxin production and excretion carries a metabolic cost.For excreted toxins to be effective, they must have a low

text: molecular weight

text: to rapidly diffuse in the marine environment and to be energetically cheap to produce. However, excreted toxins may not actually repel larger

text: motile

text: predators because

text: molecular diffusivity

text: is slow and

text: turbulence

text: at the millimeter scale is large in water. Excreted phycotoxins may act as repellents if their signal registers at the same speed as other signals that potential grazers can detect (kairomones), assuming both are encountered by a predator at the same time.Additionally, excreted toxins may be effective method of keeping harmful bacteria and other phytoplankton competitors outside of the phycotoxin producer's microzone of nutrients.

text: Urination is the release of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. It is the urinary system's form of excretion. It is also known medically as micturition, voiding, uresis, or, rarely, emiction, and known colloquially by various names including tinkling, peeing, weeing, whizzing and pissing.

text: Urination is the release of

text: urine

text: from the

text: urinary bladder

text: through the

text: urethra

text: to the outside of the body. It is the

text: urinary system

text: 's form of

text: excretion

text: . It is also known medically as micturition, voiding, uresis, or, rarely, emiction, and known colloquially by various names including tinkling, peeing, weeing, whizzing and pissing.

text: The urinary and reproductive tracts are closely linked, and disorders of one often affect the other. Thus, a major spectrum of the conditions managed in urology exists under the domain of genitourinary disorders. Urology combines the management of medical (i.e., non-surgical) conditions, such as urinary tract infections and benign prostatic hyperplasia, with the management of surgical conditions such as bladder or prostate cancer, kidney stones, congenital abnormalities, traumatic injury, and stress incontinence.

text: The urinary and reproductive tracts are closely linked, and disorders of one often affect the other. Thus, a major spectrum of the conditions managed in urology exists under the domain of

text: genitourinary disorders

text: . Urology combines the management of medical (i.e., non-surgical) conditions, such as

text: urinary tract infection

text: s and

text: benign prostatic hyperplasia

text: , with the management of surgical conditions such as bladder or

text: prostate cancer

text: kidney stone

text: s, congenital abnormalities, traumatic injury, and

text: stress incontinence

text: The urethra, which is the last part of the urinary tract, traverses the corpus spongiosum, and its opening, known as the meatus , lies on the tip of the glans penis. It is a passage both for urine and for the ejaculation of semen. Sperm are produced in the testes and stored in the attached epididymis. During ejaculation, sperm are propelled up the vas deferens, two ducts that pass over and behind the bladder. Fluids are added by the seminal vesicles and the vas deferens turns into the ejaculatory ducts, which join the urethra inside the prostate gland. The prostate as well as the bulbourethral glands add further secretions, and the semen is expelled through the penis.

text: The

text: urethra

text: , which is the last part of the

text: urinary tract

text: , traverses the corpus spongiosum, and its opening, known as the

text: meatus

text: , lies on the tip of the glans penis. It is a passage both for

text: urine

text: and for the

text: ejaculation

text: of

text: semen

text: Sperm

text: are produced in the

text: testes

text: and stored in the attached

text: epididymis

text: . During ejaculation, sperm are propelled up the

text: vas deferens

text: , two ducts that pass over and behind the bladder. Fluids are added by the

text: seminal vesicle

text: s and the vas deferens turns into the

text: ejaculatory duct

text: s, which join the urethra inside the

text: prostate

text: gland. The prostate as well as the

text: bulbourethral gland

text: s add further secretions, and the semen is expelled through the penis.

text: In humans, the kidneys are located  high in the abdominal cavity, one on each side of the spine, and lie in a retroperitoneal position at a slightly oblique angle. The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity, caused by the position of the liver, typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left, and being placed slightly more to the middle than the left kidney. The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level T12 to L3, and the right is slightly lower. The right kidney sits just below the diaphragm and posterior to the liver. The left sits below the diaphragm and posterior to the spleen. On top of each kidney is an adrenal gland. The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the 11th and 12th ribs. Each kidney, with its adrenal gland is surrounded by two layers of fat: the perinephric fat present between renal fascia and renal capsule and paranephric fat superior to the renal fascia.

text: In humans, the kidneys are located  high in the

text: abdominal cavity

text: , one on each side of the

text: spine

text: , and lie in a

text: retroperitoneal

text: position at a slightly oblique angle. The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity, caused by the position of the

text: liver

text: , typically results in the right kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left, and being placed slightly more to the middle than the left kidney. The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level

text: to

text: , and the right is slightly lower. The right kidney sits just below the

text: diaphragm

text: and posterior to the

text: liver

text: . The left sits below the diaphragm and posterior to the

text: spleen

text: . On top of each kidney is an

text: adrenal gland

text: . The upper parts of the kidneys are partially protected by the 11th and 12th

text: rib

text: s. Each kidney, with its adrenal gland is surrounded by two layers of fat: the

text: perinephric

text: fat present between renal fascia and renal capsule and

text: paranephric

text: fat superior to the

text: renal fascia

text: Excretion: Primarily in urine as unchanged drug

text: Urine is primarily composed of water and urea. Although metabolites of urea are nitrogen fertilizers, it is easy to over-fertilize with urine, or to utilize urine containing pharmaceutical (or other) content, creating too much ammonia for plants to absorb, acidic conditions, or other phytotoxicity.

text: Urine is primarily composed of water and

text: urea

text: . Although metabolites of urea are nitrogen fertilizers, it is easy to over-fertilize with urine, or to utilize urine containing pharmaceutical (or other) content, creating too much ammonia for plants to absorb, acidic conditions, or other

text: phytotoxicity

text: The kidney and the liver are two main organs responsible for the metabolic homeostasis of pH. Bicarbonate is a base that helps to accept excess hydrogen ions whenever there is acidaemia. However, this mechanism is slower than the respiratory pathway and may take from a few hours to 3 days to take effect. In acidaemia, the bicarbonate levels rise, so that they can neutralize the excess acid, while the contrary happens when there is alkalaemia. Thus when an arterial blood gas test reveals, for example, an elevated bicarbonate, the problem has been present for a couple of days, and metabolic compensation took place over a blood acedemia problem.

text: Bicalutamide is eliminated in feces (43%) and urine (34%), whereas its metabolites are eliminated in approximately equal proportions in urine and bile. It is excreted to a substantial extent in its unmetabolized form, with both bicalutamide and its metabolites excreted mainly as glucuronide conjugates.

text: Bicalutamide is

text: eliminated

text: in

text: feces

text: (43%) and

text: urine

text: (34%), whereas its metabolites are eliminated in approximately equal proportions in urine and

text: bile

text: . It is excreted to a substantial extent in its unmetabolized form, with both bicalutamide and its metabolites excreted mainly as

text: glucuronide

text: conjugate

text: s.

text: Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, including the biological features of the cells involved, and how they communicate. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called neuroendocrine integration, to regulate the physiological processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the hypothalamus, controls secretion of pituitary gland hormones, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.

text: Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interaction between the

text: nervous system

text: and the

text: endocrine system

text: , including the biological features of the cells involved, and how they communicate. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called

text: neuroendocrine integration

text: , to regulate the

text: physiological

text: processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the

text: hypothalamus

text: , controls secretion of

text: pituitary gland

text: hormone

text: s, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.

text: Apart from the entities that are homeostatically controlled in the internal environment of the body, and the mechanisms that are responsible for this regulation, there are variables that are neither homeostatically controlled nor involved in the operation of homeostats. The blood urea concentration is an example. Mammals do not have “urea sensors”. Instead the concentration of urea is determined by a dynamic equilibrium, in much the same way that the water level in a river at any particular point along its course is determined. The level of a river is simply dependent on the rate at which water flows into a particular section and how fast it flows away from there. It therefore varies with the rainfall in the catchment area and obstructions or otherwise to the flow down stream – there is no energy consuming “regulation”. The blood urea concentration is comparable to the water level in a natural river. It is manufactured by the liver from the amino groups of the amino acids of proteins that are being degraded in this organ. It is then excreted by the kidneys which simply pass most of the urea in the glomerular filtrate on into the urine without active resorption or excretion by the renal tubules (a relatively small proportion of the urea in the tubules diffuses passively back into the blood as its concentration in the tubules rises when water, without urea, is removed from the tubular fluid). A high protein diet therefore produces high blood urea concentrations, and a protein-poor diet produced low blood plasma urea concentrations, without any physiological attempt to correct or mitigate these fluctuations in the level of urea in the extracellular fluids.

text: Apart from the entities that are homeostatically controlled in the internal environment of the body, and the mechanisms that are responsible for this regulation, there are variables that are neither homeostatically controlled nor involved in the operation of homeostats. The blood urea concentration is an example. Mammals do not have “urea sensors”. Instead the concentration of urea is determined by a

text: dynamic equilibrium

text: , in much the same way that the water level in a river at any particular point along its course is determined. The level of a river is simply dependent on the rate at which water flows into a particular section and how fast it flows away from there. It therefore varies with the rainfall in the catchment area and obstructions or otherwise to the flow down stream – there is no energy consuming “regulation”. The blood urea concentration is comparable to the water level in a natural river. It is manufactured by the liver from the amino groups of the

text: amino acids

text: of

text: proteins

text: that are being degraded in this organ. It is then excreted by the

text: kidneys

text: which simply pass most of the urea in the

text: glomerular filtrate

text: on into the urine without active resorption or excretion by the

text: renal tubules

text: (a relatively small proportion of the urea in the tubules diffuses passively back into the blood as its concentration in the tubules rises when water, without urea, is removed from the tubular fluid). A high protein diet therefore produces high blood urea concentrations, and a protein-poor diet produced low blood plasma urea concentrations, without any physiological attempt to correct or mitigate these fluctuations in the level of urea in the extracellular fluids.

text: Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable conditions by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis.

text: Homeostasis is the ability of an

text: open system

text: to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable conditions by means of multiple

text: dynamic equilibrium

text: adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living

text: organism

text: s, whether

text: unicellular

text: or

text: multicellular

text: , exhibit homeostasis.

text: While the function of the subcommissural organ is still under investigation, it has been hypothesized that it is also part of the mechanism of aldosterone secretion and CSF detoxification, along with osmoregulation. The SCO is innervated by many systems, the most common of which is associated with the serotonergic system. The serotonergic system influences water and sodium intake. During water deprivation it will also reduce its innervation to the SCO. The reduction of input to the SCO causes a marked decrease in RF production. This finding implies that the subcommissural organ and its associated Reissner's fibers are an integral part of fluid electrolyte balance and water homeostasis.

text: By 2006, isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS) became the reference method. To improve the accuracy in creatinine testing, new standards were developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The College of American Pathologists (CAP) and  the National Kidney Disease Education Program (NKDEP) collaborated with NIST to develop a new control reference called standard reference material 967 (SRM 967). SRM 967 aims to standardize calibration of creatinine testing, including Jaffe methods. Use of both IDMS and SRM 967 are currently recommended by the National Institutes of Health.

text: By 2006,

text: isotope dilution mass spectrometry

text: (IDMS) became the reference method. To improve the accuracy in creatinine testing, new standards were developed by the

entity_name: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: (NIST). The

text: College of American Pathologists

text: (CAP) and  the National Kidney Disease Education Program (NKDEP) collaborated with NIST to develop a new control reference called standard reference material 967 (SRM 967). SRM 967 aims to standardize calibration of creatinine testing, including Jaffe methods. Use of both IDMS and SRM 967 are currently recommended by the National Institutes of Health.

text: To achieve urine diversion, the following technical components are used: waterless urinals, urine diversion toilets, urine piping to a urine storage tank (or to a sewer) and a reuse or treatment and disposal system for the urine.

text: To achieve urine diversion, the following technical components are used: waterless urinals, urine diversion toilets, urine piping to a urine storage tank (or to a sewer) and a

text: reuse

text: or treatment and disposal system for the urine.

text: Estrone has been proven to be a known carcinogen for human females.  The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) classifies estrone as an OSHA Select carcinogen.  Exposure to estrone can cause breast tenderness or pain, cervical hyper secretion, menstrual disorders including menorrhagia and  metrorrhagia, nausea, headache, hypertension, leg cramps, vision disturbances, and endometriosis pain in women. Mothers lactating can also experience a decrease in the production of breast milk.  Estrone can be found in the urine of pregnant women and can also be excreted in feces. Estrone is commonly produced in large quantities of the livers of transgender women who take oral estradiol. This is a result of first pass metabolism converting estradiol to estrone.

text: Estrone has been proven to be a known

text: carcinogen

text: for human females.  The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (

text: OSHA

text: ) classifies estrone as an OSHA Select carcinogen.  Exposure to estrone can cause breast tenderness or pain, cervical hyper secretion, menstrual disorders including menorrhagia and  metrorrhagia, nausea, headache, hypertension, leg cramps, vision disturbances, and endometriosis pain in women. Mothers lactating can also experience a decrease in the production of breast milk.  Estrone can be found in the urine of pregnant women and can also be excreted in feces. Estrone is commonly produced in large quantities of the livers of

text: transgender women

text: who take oral estradiol. This is a result of first pass metabolism converting estradiol to estrone.

text: Ševčenko's law, or Ševčenko's law of the dog and the forest is the tendency of historians to repeat the coverage and the work of previous historians, to the disadvantage of general historical coverage.  The situation is compared to a dog and a forest. A dog going into a virgin forest picks a tree at random, and urinates against it. Despite the tree having no intrinsic outstanding attraction as an object for urinating against, other dogs subsequently entering the same forest will show a tendency to urinate against the same tree.

text: Ševčenko's law, or Ševčenko's law of the dog and the forest is the tendency of historians to repeat the coverage and the work of previous historians, to the disadvantage of general historical coverage.  The situation is compared to a

text: dog

text: and a

text: forest

text: . A dog going into a virgin forest picks a tree at random, and

text: urinates against it

text: . Despite the tree having no intrinsic outstanding attraction as an object for urinating against, other dogs subsequently entering the same forest will show a tendency to urinate against the same tree.

text: This is often done using a mule's gastrointestinal tract or other body cavities as containers. Swallowing has been used for the transportation of heroin, cocaine, and MDMA/Ecstasy. A swallower typically fills tiny balloons with small quantities of a drug. The balloons may be made with multilayered condoms, fingers of latex gloves, or more sophisticated hollow pellets. One smuggling method involves swallowing the balloons, which are recovered later from the excreted feces. Alternately, the balloons may be hidden in other natural or artificial body cavities – such as rectum, colostomy, vagina, and mouth – although this method is far more vulnerable to body cavity searches. A drug mule may swallow dozens upon dozens of balloons. The swallower then attempts to cross international borders, excrete the balloons, and sell the drugs.

text: This is often done using a mule's

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: or other

text: body cavities

text: as containers. Swallowing has been used for the transportation of

text: heroin

text: cocaine

text: , and

text: MDMA/Ecstasy

text: . A swallower typically fills tiny balloons with small quantities of a drug. The balloons may be made with multilayered

text: condom

text: s, fingers of

text: latex glove

text: s, or more sophisticated hollow

text: pellets

text: . One smuggling method involves swallowing the balloons, which are recovered later from the excreted

text: feces

text: . Alternately, the balloons may be hidden in other natural or artificial body cavities – such as

text: rectum

text: colostomy

text: vagina

text: , and mouth – although this method is far more vulnerable to

text: body cavity search

text: es. A drug mule may swallow dozens upon dozens of balloons. The swallower then attempts to cross international borders, excrete the balloons, and sell the drugs.

text: NIDDK conducts and supports research on many chronic and costly diseases affecting public health: diabetes, obesity, nutrition, digestive disorders, endocrine and metabolic disorders, hematologic diseases, and kidney and urologic diseases, as well as complications from HIV infection. NIDDK’s biomedical research efforts could be generally characterized as “internal medicine”-oriented as they relate to the medical specialties of endocrinology, gastroenterology, hematology, infectious disease, and nephrology. NIDDK employs clinicians who conduct and manage clinical research studies on these various diseases. NIDDK employs medicinal chemists, who conduct research to synthesize and evaluate both macro-molecules and small molecules, including agonists and antagonists to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) such as Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Adenosine, and 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptors. In addition, NIDDK employs biologists and process scientists who create a vast array of technologies ranging from cell lines to transgenic and knock-out mouse models. The biological modeling mathematicians generate new tools such as the Body Weight Simulator, an online tool for obesity researchers and weight management professionals to better understand how diet and exercise quantitatively contribute to weight loss and weight loss maintenance.

text: NIDDK conducts and supports research on many chronic and costly diseases affecting public health:

text: diabetes

text: obesity

text: , nutrition,

text: digestive

text: disorders, endocrine and metabolic disorders, hematologic diseases, and kidney and urologic diseases, as well as complications from

text: HIV

text: infection. NIDDK’s biomedical research efforts could be generally characterized as “internal medicine”-oriented as they relate to the medical specialties of endocrinology, gastroenterology, hematology, infectious disease, and nephrology. NIDDK employs clinicians who conduct and manage clinical research studies on these various diseases. NIDDK employs medicinal chemists, who conduct research to synthesize and evaluate both macro-molecules and small molecules, including agonists and antagonists to

text: G protein-coupled receptors

text: (GPCRs) such as

text: Thyroid-stimulating hormone

text: (TSH),

text: Adenosine

text: , and

text: (5-HT) receptors. In addition, NIDDK employs biologists and process scientists who create a vast array of technologies ranging from

text: cell lines

text: to

text: transgenic

text: and

text: knock-out mouse

text: models. The biological modeling mathematicians generate new tools such as the Body Weight Simulator, an online tool for obesity researchers and weight management professionals to better understand how diet and exercise quantitatively contribute to weight loss and weight loss maintenance.

text: Rick Porter of Zap2it worried how the series would fit in "the likes" of Elvis Costello, Mary J. Blige, Sheryl Crow, Clay Aiken and Adam Levine "without it overwhelming the episode", and reported that the answer to that "turned out to be 'very effectively.'" In regards to the storylines, itself, he noted that Jack's quest in getting Milton a kidney "balanced nicely" with Liz's story, and that Tracy's "had some good moments". In conclusion, Porter wrote "For a show that doesn't always know how to end episodes, it's done really well at ending seasons." TV Guide Magazine’s Sandra Kofler wrote that the "He Needs a Kidney" song was hilarious, and that it "stole [30 Rock’s] season finale." Patrick Goldstein, a contributor for the Los Angeles Times, was favorable to the musical number, reporting "[t]he song itself is a hoot, highlighted by a wonderful spoken-word kidney donation pitch that begins with Costello saying: 'Listen, when someone starts talking in the middle of a song, you know it's serious.'" Entertainment Weekly contributor Annie Barrett said "Kidney Now!" was "sweet and all", and noted that the "Vontella-as-Tyra spoof" was "brilliant." Time contributor James Poniewozik wrote that this episode "was a fitting end for a guest-star-heavy ... season of 30 Rock", but added that the finale overall was "maybe average", however, "the ending at least delivered the goods, with the best sitcom celebrity benefit song".

text: Rick Porter of

text: worried how the series would fit in "the likes" of Elvis Costello, Mary J. Blige, Sheryl Crow, Clay Aiken and Adam Levine "without it overwhelming the episode", and reported that the answer to that "turned out to be 'very effectively.'" In regards to the storylines, itself, he noted that Jack's quest in getting Milton a kidney "balanced nicely" with Liz's story, and that Tracy's "had some good moments". In conclusion, Porter wrote "For a show that doesn't always know how to end episodes, it's done really well at ending seasons."

text: TV Guide Magazine

text: ’s Sandra Kofler wrote that the "He Needs a Kidney" song was hilarious, and that it "stole [30 Rock’s] season finale." Patrick Goldstein, a contributor for the

text: Los Angeles Times

text: , was favorable to the musical number, reporting "[t]he song itself is a hoot, highlighted by a wonderful spoken-word kidney donation pitch that begins with Costello saying: 'Listen, when someone starts talking in the middle of a song, you know it's serious.'"

text: Entertainment Weekly

text: contributor Annie Barrett said "Kidney Now!" was "sweet and all", and noted that the "Vontella-as-

text: Tyra

text: spoof" was "brilliant."

text: Time

text: contributor

text: James Poniewozik

text: wrote that this episode "was a fitting end for a guest-star-heavy ... season of 30 Rock", but added that the finale overall was "maybe average", however, "the ending at least delivered the goods, with the best sitcom celebrity benefit song".

text: Undiluted urine can chemically burn the roots of some plants which is why it is usually applied diluted with water, which also reduces odour development during application. When diluted with water (at a 1:5 ratio for container-grown annual crops with fresh growing medium each season,or a 1:8 ratio for more general use), it can be applied directly to soil as a fertilizer. The fertilization effect of urine has been found to be comparable to that of commercial fertilizers with an equivalent NPK rating. Concentrations of heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, commonly found in solid human waste, are much lower in urine.The more general limitations to using urine as fertilizer then depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen (due to the high ratio of nitrogen), and inorganic salts such as sodium chloride, which are also part of the wastes excreted by the renal system. The degree to which these factors impact the effectiveness depends on the term of use, salinity tolerance of the plant, soil composition, addition of other fertilizing compounds, and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation.

text: Undiluted urine can chemically burn the roots of some plants which is why it is usually applied diluted with water, which also reduces odour development during application. When diluted with water (at a 1:5 ratio for container-grown

text: annual

text: crops with fresh growing medium each season,or a 1:8 ratio for more general use), it can be applied directly to soil as a fertilizer. The fertilization effect of urine has been found to be comparable to that of commercial fertilizers with an equivalent

text: NPK rating

text: . Concentrations of heavy metals such as

text: lead

text: mercury

text: , and

text: cadmium

text: , commonly found in solid human waste, are much lower in urine.The more general limitations to using urine as fertilizer then depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen (due to the high ratio of nitrogen), and inorganic

text: salt

text: s such as

text: sodium chloride

text: renal system

text: . The degree to which these factors impact the effectiveness depends on the term of use, salinity tolerance of the plant, soil composition, addition of other fertilizing compounds, and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation.

text: The parasite can irritate the mucosa of the urinary system (bladder and tract), sometimes with painful urination and incontinence. They reportedly infect the large intestine but have been found in the urinary bladder of the cat, resulting in feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD). In cats with a heavy infection, symptoms can include frequent urination, painful urination, bloody urine, straining to urinate.

text: In renal physiology, net acid excretion (NAE) is the net amount of acid excreted in the urine per unit time. Its value depends on urine flow rate, urine acid concentration, and the concentration of bicarbonate in the urine (the loss of bicarbonate, a buffering agent, is physiologically equivalent to a gain in acid). NAE is commonly expressed in units of milliliters per minute (ml/min) and is given by the following equation:

text: In

text: renal physiology

text: , net acid excretion (NAE) is the net amount of acid excreted in the

text: urine

text: per unit time. Its value depends on urine flow rate, urine acid concentration, and the concentration of

text: bicarbonate

text: in the urine (the loss of bicarbonate, a

text: buffering agent

text: , is physiologically equivalent to a gain in acid). NAE is commonly expressed in units of

text: milliliter

text: s per

text: minute

text: (ml/min) and is given by the following equation:

text: Wimsatt made many research trips to Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands, but his most desired research trips were to the tropics of Mexico. In 1962, he spent a year working with Dr. Bernardo Villa at the University of Mexico after receiving a Guggenheim Fellowship. He spent three sabbatical leaves at the University of Arizona College of Medicine working with Dr. Philip Krutzsch, who shared similar research interests.  He was a widely acclaimed as editor of the  series Biology of Bats. His expertise was on the functional morphology of placentae. A look at his publications reveals his ability to use novel approaches in diverse areas of reproductive biology (e.g., embryology, placentation, and fetal membranes), ecological physiology, hibernation, and the integumentary, urinary, and digestive systems. This broad background served him well as an Associate Editor of The American Journal of Anatomy from 1974 until shortly before his death.

text: Wimsatt made many research trips to

text: Central

text: and

text: South America

text: and the

text: Caribbean Islands

text: , but his most desired research trips were to the tropics of

text: Mexico

text: . In 1962, he spent a year working with Dr. Bernardo Villa at the

entity_name: National Autonomous University of Mexico

text: University of Mexico

text: after receiving a

text: Guggenheim Fellowship

text: . He spent three sabbatical leaves at the

entity_name: University of Arizona College of Medicine

text: University of Arizona College of Medicine

text: working with Dr. Philip Krutzsch, who shared similar research interests.  He was a widely acclaimed as editor of the  series

text: Biology of Bats

text: . His expertise was on the functional morphology of placentae. A look at his publications reveals his ability to use novel approaches in diverse areas of reproductive biology (e.g., embryology, placentation, and fetal membranes), ecological physiology, hibernation, and the integumentary, urinary, and digestive systems. This broad background served him well as an Associate Editor of The American Journal of Anatomy from 1974 until shortly before his death.

text: According to local historian Jennette Rivers, the townspeople were wary of the relatively new technology for several reasons. One of the reasons was that there were many falsified accounts of urinal related injury spreading throughout the town. The townspeople were wary of this new technology and its potential harmful impact and were susceptible to believing rumors regarding health risks involved with urinal use. Another worry to the community was the lack of privacy associated with urinals. Urinals were more exposed than the traditional stalls or outhouses and this was considered immodest by the elders of what was a heavily Protestant community.

text: The salt gland is an organ for excreting excess salts. It is found in elasmobranchs (sharks, rays, and skates), seabirds, and some reptiles.  Sharks' glands are found in their rectum, birds' and reptiles' in or on the skull in the area of the eyes, nostrils or mouth. These glands are lobed containing many secretory tubules which radiate outward from the excretory canal at the center. Secretory tubules are lined with a single layer of epithelial cells. The diameter and length at which these glands are vary depending on the salt uptake of the species.

text: The salt gland is an

text: organ

text: for excreting excess

text: salt

text: s. It is found in

text: elasmobranch

text: s (sharks, rays, and skates),

text: seabird

text: s, and some

text: reptile

text: s.

text: Shark

text: s'

text: gland

text: s are found in their

text: rectum

text: , birds' and reptiles' in or on the skull in the area of the

text: eye

text: s,

text: nostril

text: s or

text: mouth

text: . These glands are lobed containing many secretory tubules which radiate outward from the excretory canal at the center. Secretory tubules are lined with a single layer of

text: epithelial cells

text: . The diameter and length at which these glands are vary depending on the salt uptake of the species.

text: When considering the potential for privacy law breaches, particularly within the smart cities context containing a vast scope of data that is available to the Government, data may often need to be de-identified to maintain privacy. Whilst this may make it difficult to reconcile data collected from multiple services, it could still allow for the useful collection and aggregation of data for defined purposes. The E-CAF system (Common Assessment Framework), where a database of all children assessed by government services (including police, social services and schools) is maintained by the UK Government, highlights how anonymity is fading due to data-driven technologies. The system allows authorities to predict which children will commit crime in the future and allow them to intervene, based on a number of risk factors and profiling. It is evident that citizens captured by the database as children will no longer be "anonymous" members of society. Given the potential Government presumption that parties unwilling to share their information are inherently suspicious, the difficulty of maintaining anonymity in modern smart cities is clearly quite high.

text: As the week begins, Bill picks up a bag of speed and starts walking the streets in a desperate attempt to make some money and, more importantly, escape his nightmares. Streetwalking leads to bed-hopping and Bill falls for a one-night stand just long enough to earn, and subsequently, betray her trust. When Bill wakes up from the whole affair in an excretory abyss, his friend Jerm (Keith Brunsmann) provides some support, however Bill fails to express what's truly bothering him.

text: There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors— such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals—contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may possess the potential to overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain homeostasis, the recent explosive introduction of high glycemic index and processed foods into the human diet may possess the potential to overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic).

text: There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors— such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals—contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may possess the potential to overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: , the recent explosive introduction of high

text: glycemic index

text: and processed foods into the human diet may possess the potential to overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic).

text: 90% of each dose is excreted in the urine and the other 10% is excreted in the feces.

text: Macitentan is taken as a 10 mg oral dose once a day. Its half-life in humans is about 16 hours and steady state is reached by the third day of administration. It is absorbed slowly into the plasma. Macitentan has an active metabolite, ACT-132577, which reaches its peak plasma concentration about 30 hours after the first dose is administered, and has a half-life of approximately 48 hours. Although ACT-132577 has a lower affinity for the ET receptors than its parent compound, it does have higher plasma concentrations than macitentan. Both compounds can be excreted from the body through the urine or feces.

text: Due to the importance of C3b, disruptions resulting in deficiencies or up regulation of C3b generation can have serious implications for human health. For example, the uncontrolled cleavage of C3b is associated with the disease C3 glomerulopathy, in which deposits of C3 in the glomeruli disrupt kidney function and can eventually result in kidney failure.

text: Pharmacokinetics studies the manner and speed with which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated by the various excretory organs. This elimination will be proportional to the drug’s plasmatic concentrations. In order to model these processes a working definition is required for some of the concepts related to excretion.

text: At the end of 1995, Lomu was diagnosed with nephrotic syndrome, a serious kidney disorder. His rugby union career went on hold whilst the disorder was treated. In May 2003, the NZRFU announced that Lomu had been put on dialysis three times a week due to deterioration in his kidney function. Side effects of Lomu's dialysis treatment led to severe nerve damage in his feet and legs; his doctors warned him that he faced life in a wheelchair if a kidney transplant was not performed soon. At the end of July 2004 it was reported that Lomu had indeed undergone a kidney transplant on Tuesday, 28 July, in Auckland, New Zealand. The kidney was donated by Wellington radio presenter Grant Kereama.

text: At the end of 1995, Lomu was diagnosed with

text: nephrotic syndrome

text: , a serious

text: kidney

text: disorder. His rugby union career went on hold whilst the disorder was treated. In May 2003, the

text: NZRFU

text: announced that Lomu had been put on

text: dialysis

text: three times a week due to

text: deterioration in his kidney function

text: Side effects

text: of Lomu's dialysis treatment led to severe

text: nerve damage

text: in his

text: feet and legs

text: ; his doctors warned him that he faced life in a wheelchair if a kidney transplant was not performed soon. At the end of July 2004 it was reported that Lomu had indeed undergone a kidney transplant on Tuesday, 28 July, in

text: Auckland

text: , New Zealand. The kidney was donated by

text: Wellington

text: radio presenter

text: Grant Kereama

text: Artificial kidney is often a synonym for hemodialysis, but may also, more generally, refer to renal replacement therapies (with exclusion of kidney transplantation) that are in use and/or in development. This article deals with bioengineered kidneys/bioartificial kidneys that are grown from renal cell lines/renal tissue.

text: Artificial kidney is often a

text: synonym

text: for

text: hemodialysis

text: , but may also, more generally, refer to

text: renal replacement therapies

text: (with exclusion of

text: kidney transplantation

text: ) that are in use and/or in development. This article deals with

text: bioengineered

text: kidney

text: s/bioartificial kidneys that are grown from renal

text: cell

text: lines/renal tissue.

text: Urine-indicator dye is a substance which is supposed to be able to react with urine to form a colored cloud in a swimming pool, thus indicating the location of people who are urinating while they are in the pool. A 2015 report from the National Swimming Pool Foundation called this "the most common pool myth of all time", with nearly half of Americans surveyed by researchers believing that the dye existed.

text: Urine-indicator dye is a substance which is supposed to be able to react with urine to form a colored cloud in a

text: swimming pool

text: , thus indicating the location of people who are urinating while they are in the pool. A 2015 report from the

text: National Swimming Pool Foundation

text: called this "the most common pool myth of all time", with nearly half of Americans surveyed by researchers believing that the dye existed.

text: Chronic kidney disease–mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD) is one of the many complications associated with chronic kidney disease. It represents a  systemic disorder of mineral and bone metabolism due to CKD manifested by either one or a combination of the following:

text: Chronic kidney disease–mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD) is one of the many complications associated with

text: chronic kidney disease

text: . It represents a

text: systemic disorder

text: of mineral and bone metabolism due to CKD manifested by either one or a combination of the following:

text: Nematomorphs possess an external cuticle without cilia. Internally, they have only longitudinal muscle and a non-functional gut, with no excretory, respiratory or circulatory systems. The nervous system consists of a nerve ring near the anterior end of the animal, and a ventral nerve cord running along the body.

text: Nematomorphs possess an external

text: cuticle

text: without

text: cilia

text: . Internally, they have only longitudinal muscle and a non-functional gut, with no

text: excretory

text: respiratory

text: or

text: circulatory system

text: s. The nervous system consists of a

text: nerve ring

text: near the anterior end of the animal, and a

text: ventral nerve cord

text: running along the body.

text: The collecting duct system is the final component of the kidney to influence the body's electrolyte and fluid balance. In humans, the system accounts for 4–5% of the kidney's reabsorption of sodium and 5% of the kidney's reabsorption of water. At times of extreme dehydration, over 24% of the filtered water may be reabsorbed in the collecting duct system.

text: The collecting duct system is the final component of the kidney to influence the body's

text: electrolyte

text: and fluid balance. In humans, the system accounts for 4–5% of the kidney's reabsorption of

text: sodium

text: and 5% of the kidney's reabsorption of water. At times of extreme dehydration, over 24% of the filtered water may be reabsorbed in the collecting duct system.

text: The excretory system of gastropods removes nitrogenous waste and maintains the internal water balance of these creatures, commonly referred to as snails and slugs. The primary organ of excretion is a nephridium.

text: The

text: excretory system

text: of

text: gastropod

text: s removes nitrogenous waste and maintains the internal water balance of these creatures, commonly referred to as

text: snail

text: s and

text: slug

text: s. The primary organ of excretion is a

text: nephridium

text: A description of the experiment and the performancestatus is given in ESA's Erasmus Experiment Archive (EEA) and in addition a condensed account of the experiment's aim and foundation has been provided in ESA's Human Spaceflight Science Newsletter no.1, 2010. The experimentneeds 8-10 human test subjects for medical statistics reasons,for it to be completed. The experiment tests two hypotheses that are based ona more than two decades long research in understanding the reaction of the cardiovascular system to exposure tomicrogravity. The responses that can be observed in Space in the areas of adjustment of blood pressure, resistance inthe circulation, tissue fluid filling and urine excretion, etc. do not fit completely with theories. Thus, the new theoriesfor how the observable reactions could be explained.

text: Horizontal transmission plays an important role among livestock due to their often close quarters, especially during winter stabling. Free virus or virus infected cells are generally transferred in through inhalation of respiratory secretions. Additionally, fecal-oral transmission often occurs through contamination of drinking water. Sexual transmission has also been shown to be possible  No link has yet been made between transmission and other excretory products such as saliva and urine.

text: Horizontal transmission

text: plays an important role among livestock due to their often close quarters, especially during winter stabling. Free virus or virus infected cells are generally transferred in through inhalation of respiratory secretions. Additionally, fecal-oral transmission often occurs through contamination of drinking water. Sexual transmission has also been shown to be possible  No link has yet been made between transmission and other excretory products such as saliva and urine.

text: Reyes was a Board Member of the Kidney Foundation of Canada - Manitoba Branch from 2013 - 2016 where he would initiate the Filipino Kidney Health Initiative because of the high rates of kidney disease in the Filipino Community.

text: Systemic therapy uses medications to treat cancer cells throughout the body. Any combination of systemic treatments may be used to treat breast cancer. Systemic treatments include chemotherapy, immune therapy, and hormonal therapy.

text: Prosecutors in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to the European Commission for Democracy through Law 'the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance with Council of Europe standards". The criminal judicial system maintains an average conviction rate of over 99%, equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial. On 24 March 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organization". One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system." The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.

text: Prosecutor

text: s in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to the

text: European Commission for Democracy through Law

text: 'the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance with

text: Council of Europe

text: standards". The criminal judicial system maintains an average

text: conviction rate

text: of over 99%, equal to the conviction rate of the

text: Soviet Union

text: , with suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial. On 24 March 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organization". One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system." The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.

text: When the kidneys are no longer able to sustain the demands of the body, end-stage kidney failure is said to have occurred. Without renal replacement therapy, death from kidney failure will eventually result. Dialysis is an artificial method of replacing some kidney function to prolong life. Renal transplantation replaces kidney function by inserting into the body a healthier kidney from an organ donor and inducing immunologic tolerance of that organ with immunosuppression. At present, renal transplantation is the most effective treatment for end-stage kidney failure although its worldwide availability is limited by lack of availability of donor organs.

text: When the kidneys are no longer able to sustain the demands of the body, end-stage kidney failure is said to have occurred. Without

text: renal replacement therapy

text: , death from

text: kidney failure

text: will eventually result.

text: Dialysis

text: is an artificial method of replacing some kidney function to prolong life.

text: Renal transplantation

text: replaces kidney function by inserting into the body a healthier kidney from an

text: organ donor

text: and inducing

text: immunologic tolerance

text: of that organ with

text: immunosuppression

text: . At present,

text: renal transplantation

text: is the most effective treatment for end-stage kidney failure although its worldwide availability is limited by lack of availability of donor organs.

text: A histiocytoma is a tumour consisting of histiocytes. Histiocytes are cells that are a part of the mononuclear phagocytic system, a part of the body's immune system that consists of phagocytic cells, which are responsible for engulfing solid particles by the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome by phagocytes and protists.

text: A histiocytoma is a

text: tumour

text: consisting of

text: histiocyte

text: s. Histiocytes are

text: cell

text: s that are a part of the

text: mononuclear phagocytic system

text: , a part of the body's

text: immune system

text: that consists of

text: phagocytic

text: cells, which are responsible for engulfing solid particles by the

text: cell membrane

text: to form an internal

text: phagosome

text: by

text: phagocytes

text: and

text: protists

text: After entering a living mammal (such as a human being), some of the  is excreted in feces. The remainder is taken up by tissues, mainly the liver, kidneys, and bones, where the prolonged exposure to gamma radiation can cause cancer. Over time, the absorbed cobalt is eliminated in urine.

text: After entering a living mammal (such as a human being), some of the  is excreted in

text: feces

text: . The remainder is taken up by tissues, mainly the

text: liver

text: kidney

text: s, and

text: bone

text: s, where the prolonged exposure to gamma radiation can cause cancer. Over time, the absorbed cobalt is eliminated in urine.

text: Most of the ammonium that is excreted in the urine is formed in the proximal tubule via the breakdown of glutamine to alpha-ketoglutarate. This takes place in two steps, each of which generates an ammonium anion: the conversion of glutamine to glutamate and the conversion of glutamate to alpha-ketoglutarate. The alpha-ketoglutarate generated in this process is then further broken down to form two bicarbonate anions, which are  pumped out of the basolateral portion of the tubule cell by co-transport with sodium ions.

text: Most of the

text: ammonium

text: that is excreted in the urine is formed in the proximal tubule via the breakdown of

text: glutamine

text: to

text: alpha-ketoglutarate

text: . This takes place in two steps, each of which generates an ammonium anion: the conversion of glutamine to

text: glutamate

text: and the conversion of glutamate to alpha-ketoglutarate. The alpha-ketoglutarate generated in this process is then further broken down to form two

text: bicarbonate

text: anions, which are  pumped out of the basolateral portion of the tubule cell by co-transport with sodium ions.

text: Several factors were involved in the choice of the site. The building was an independent and free-standing toilet which needed both a urine draining system and a pan cleansing service. It therefore had to be near a drain and there had to be space and cover for the pan-changing operation. This may account partly for the location and the associated garden. Not only was the toilet built practically on top of a main drain, it was an easily accessible location, both for users and for the sanitary service men, and with sufficient room for a little garden of modesty and salubrity. A second factor concerns urban design. Dr Price wanted "... a healthy city, a convenient city - good roads, good footpaths, and an easy way of getting about, a beautiful city with trees and parks and gardens." This linking of urban health to urban beauty fits the urinal neatly into a scheme for making the area around the railway station more attractive. There were plans to improve the railway precinct and these may have influenced the decision to site the little building with its garden at the city end of the railway station. The street facade of the urinal is certainly handsome enough to suit an urban beauty program. Indeed, this secondary role of urban design may explain why the toilet has quite such a delightful facade. In this sense, urban beauty became a sign of urban health.

text: Chronic kidney disease (CKD), also known as chronic renal disease, is progressive loss in kidney function over a period of months or years. The symptoms of worsening kidney function are not specific, and might include feeling generally unwell and experiencing a reduced appetite. Often, chronic kidney disease is diagnosed as a result of screening of people known to be at risk of kidney problems, such as those with high blood pressure or diabetes and those with a bloodline relative with CKD. This disease may also be identified when it leads to one of its recognized complications, such as cardiovascular disease, anemia, pericarditis or renal osteodystrophy (the latter included in the novel term CKD-MBD). CKD is a long-term form of kidney disease; thus, it is differentiated from acute kidney disease (acute kidney injury) in that the reduction in kidney function must be present for over 3 months. CKD is an internationally recognized public health problem affecting 5–10% of the world population.

text: Chronic kidney disease (CKD), also known as chronic renal disease, is progressive loss in

text: kidney function

text: over a period of months or years. The symptoms of worsening kidney function are not specific, and might include feeling

text: generally unwell

text: and experiencing a

text: reduced appetite

text: . Often, chronic kidney disease is diagnosed as a result of

text: screening

text: of people known to be at risk of kidney problems, such as those with

text: high blood pressure

text: or

text: diabetes

text: and those with a bloodline relative with CKD. This disease may also be identified when it leads to one of its recognized complications, such as

text: cardiovascular disease

text: anemia

text: pericarditis

text: or

text: renal osteodystrophy

text: (the latter included in the novel term

entity_name: Chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder

text: CKD-MBD

text: ). CKD is a long-term form of

text: kidney disease

text: ; thus, it is differentiated from acute kidney disease (

text: acute kidney injury

text: ) in that the reduction in kidney function must be present for over 3 months. CKD is an internationally recognized public health problem affecting 5–10% of the world population.

text: An ileal conduit urinary diversion is one of various surgical techniques for urinary diversion. It has sometimes been referred to as the Bricker ileal conduit after its inventor, Eugene M. Bricker. It is a form of incontinent urostomy, and was developed during the 1940s and is still one of the most used techniques for the diversion of urine after a patient has had their bladder removed, due to its low complication rate and high patient satisfaction level. It is usually used in conjunction with radical cystectomy in order to control invasive bladder cancer.

text: An ileal conduit urinary diversion is one of various surgical techniques for

text: urinary diversion

text: . It has sometimes been referred to as the Bricker ileal conduit after its inventor, Eugene M. Bricker. It is a form of incontinent

text: urostomy

text: , and was developed during the 1940s and is still one of the most used techniques for the diversion of urine after a patient has had their bladder removed, due to its low complication rate and high patient satisfaction level. It is usually used in conjunction with radical

text: cystectomy

text: in order to control invasive bladder cancer.

text: In this disease, symptoms result from ischemic damage to affected organs, often the skin, heart, kidneys, and nervous system. Generalised symptoms include fever, fatigue, weakness, loss of appetite, and weight loss. Muscle and joint aches are common. The skin may show rashes, swelling, ulcers, and lumps. Palpable purpura and livedo reticularis can occur in some patients.

text: In this disease, symptoms result from ischemic damage to affected organs, often the skin, heart, kidneys, and nervous system. Generalised symptoms include fever, fatigue, weakness, loss of appetite, and weight loss. Muscle and joint aches are common. The skin may show rashes, swelling, ulcers, and lumps. Palpable purpura and

text: livedo reticularis

text: can occur in some patients.

text: Oversaturation of urine with crystals is by the far the biggest factor in 99% of animals in all of Europe. Stone formation.  This oversaturation can be caused by increased excretion of crystals by the kidneys, water reabsorption by the renal tubules resulting in concentration of the urine, and changes in urine pH that influence crystallization.  Other contributing factors include diet, frequency of urination, genetics, current medications, and the presence of a urinary tract infection.

text: Oversaturation of

text: urine

text: with crystals is by the far the biggest factor in 99% of animals in all of Europe. Stone formation.  This oversaturation can be caused by increased excretion of crystals by the kidneys, water reabsorption by the

text: renal tubule

text: s resulting in concentration of the urine, and changes in urine

text: pH

text: that influence crystallization.  Other contributing factors include diet, frequency of urination, genetics, current medications, and the presence of a

text: urinary tract infection

text: Tubocurarine, found in curare of the South American plant Pareira, Chondrodendron tomentosum, is the prototypical non-depolarizing neuromuscular blocker. It has a slow onset (>5 min) and a long duration of action (30 mins). Side-effects include hypotension, which is partially explained by its effect of increasing histamine release, a vasodilator, as well as its effect of blocking autonomic ganglia.  It is excreted in the urine.

text: Tubocurarine

text: , found in

text: curare

text: of the South American plant Pareira,

text: Chondrodendron tomentosum

text: , is the prototypical non-depolarizing neuromuscular blocker. It has a slow onset (>5 min) and a long

text: duration of action

text: (30 mins). Side-effects include

text: hypotension

text: , which is partially explained by its effect of increasing

text: histamine

text: release, a

text: vasodilator

text: , as well as its effect of blocking

text: autonomic ganglia

text: .  It is excreted in the

text: urine

text: Organisms in aquatic and terrestrial environments must maintain the right concentration of solutes and amount of water in their body fluids; this involves excretion (getting rid of metabolic nitrogenous wastes and other substances such as hormones that would be toxic if allowed to accumulate in the blood) through organs such as the skin and the kidneys.

text: Organisms in aquatic and terrestrial environments must maintain the right concentration of

text: solutes

text: and amount of water in their body fluids; this involves

text: excretion

text: (getting rid of metabolic nitrogenous wastes and other substances such as

text: hormone

text: s that would be toxic if allowed to accumulate in the

text: blood

text: ) through organs such as the

text: skin

text: and the

text: kidneys

text: The main advantage of the flux balance approach is that it does not require any knowledge of the metabolite concentrations, or more importantly, the enzyme kinetics of the system; the homeostasis assumption precludes the need for knowledge of metabolite concentrations at any time as long as that quantity remains constant, and additionally it removes the need for specific rate laws since it assumes that at steady state, there is no change in the size of the metabolite pool in the system. The stoichiometric coefficients alone are sufficient for the mathematical maximization of a specific objective function.

text: The main advantage of the flux balance approach is that it does not require any knowledge of the metabolite concentrations, or more importantly, the

text: enzyme kinetics

text: of the system; the homeostasis assumption precludes the need for knowledge of metabolite concentrations at any time as long as that quantity remains constant, and additionally it removes the need for specific

text: rate laws

text: since it assumes that at steady state, there is no change in the size of the metabolite pool in the system. The stoichiometric coefficients alone are sufficient for the mathematical maximization of a specific

text: objective function

text: Leakey was diagnosed with a terminal kidney disease in 1969. Ten years later he became seriously ill but received a kidney transplant from his brother, Philip and recovered to full health.

text: Leakey was diagnosed with a terminal

text: kidney

text: disease in 1969. Ten years later he became seriously ill but received a

text: kidney transplant

text: from his brother, Philip and recovered to full health.

text: The primary sites of gas exchange in marine teleosts, the gills, are also responsible for osmoregulation. Because gills are designed to increase surface area and minimize diffusion distance for gas exchange between the blood and water, they may contribute to the problem of water loss by osmosis and passive salt gain. This is called the osmo-respiratory compromise. To overcome this, tunas constantly drink seawater to compensate for water loss. They excrete highly concentrated urine which is approximately isosmotic to blood plasma, i.e. urine solute to plasma solute ratio is close to 1 (U/P≅1). Because of this, solely excreting urine is not sufficient to resolve the osmoregulatory problem in tunas. In turn, they excrete only the minimum volume of urine necessary to rid of solutes that are not excreted by other routes, and the salt is mostly excreted via gills. This is why the composition of solutes in urine differs significantly from that of the blood plasma. Urine has a high concentration of divalent ions, such as Mg and SO (U/P>>1), as these ions are mostly excreted by the kidneys keeping their concentration in blood plasma from rising. Monovalent ions (Na, Cl, K) are excreted by the gills, so their U/P ratios in the urine are below 1. The excretion of inorganic ions by structures other than kidneys is called the extrarenal salt excretion.

text: The primary sites of gas exchange in marine teleosts, the

text: gills

text: , are also responsible for

text: osmoregulation

text: . Because gills are designed to increase surface area and minimize diffusion distance for gas exchange between the blood and water, they may contribute to the problem of water loss by

text: osmosis

text: and passive salt gain. This is called the osmo-respiratory compromise. To overcome this, tunas constantly drink seawater to compensate for water loss. They excrete highly concentrated urine which is approximately isosmotic to

text: blood plasma

text: , i.e. urine solute to plasma solute ratio is close to 1 (U/P≅1). Because of this, solely excreting urine is not sufficient to resolve the osmoregulatory problem in tunas. In turn, they excrete only the minimum volume of urine necessary to rid of solutes that are not excreted by other routes, and the salt is mostly excreted via gills. This is why the composition of solutes in urine differs significantly from that of the blood plasma. Urine has a high concentration of divalent ions, such as Mg and SO (U/P>>1), as these ions are mostly excreted by the kidneys keeping their concentration in blood plasma from rising. Monovalent ions (Na, Cl, K) are excreted by the gills, so their U/P ratios in the urine are below 1. The excretion of inorganic ions by structures other than kidneys is called the extrarenal salt excretion.

text: There is no circulatory system, although the body cavity (or pseudocoel) is well developed, and includes amoebocytes. The excretory system consists of two protonephridia emptying through pores in the final segment.

text: There is no circulatory system, although the body cavity (or

text: pseudocoel

text: ) is well developed, and includes

text: amoebocyte

text: s. The excretory system consists of two

text: protonephridia

text: emptying through pores in the final segment.

text: As predators, centipedes mainly use their antennae to seek out their prey. The digestive tract forms a simple tube, with digestive glands attached to the mouthparts. Like insects, centipedes breathe through a tracheal system, typically with a single opening, or spiracle on each body segment. They excrete waste through a single pair of malpighian tubules.

text: As predators, centipedes mainly use their antennae to seek out their prey. The digestive tract forms a simple tube, with digestive glands attached to the mouthparts. Like insects, centipedes breathe through a

text: tracheal system

text: , typically with a single opening, or

text: spiracle

text: on each body segment. They excrete waste through a single pair of

text: malpighian tubule

text: s.

text: Brochosomes are produced within cells of specialized glandular segments of the Malpighian tubules – the primary excretory organs of insects, which often serve additional functions.  Each cell simultaneously manufactures a large number of brochosomes within its Golgi complexes and eventually releases them into the lumen of the tubule.

text: Brochosomes are produced within cells of specialized glandular segments of the

text: Malpighian tubule

text: s – the primary excretory organs of insects, which often serve additional functions.  Each cell simultaneously manufactures a large number of brochosomes within its

text: Golgi complex

text: es and eventually releases them into the lumen of the tubule.

text: A uricotelic organism is one whose main way to excrete excess nitrogen is by uric acid or its salts. Among the three major forms of excretion of nitrogenous waste in organisms (uricotelism, ammonotelism, and ureotelism), uric acid is the least toxic and the least soluble in water. It can be stored in cells and body tissues without toxic effects and requires only a tiny amount of water, about 0.001 L, per 1 g of nitrogen. A single molecule of uric acid can also remove four atoms of nitrogen, making it more efficient than ammonotelism and ureotelism.

text: A uricotelic

text: organism

text: is one whose main way to

text: excrete

text: excess

text: nitrogen

text: is by

text: uric acid

text: or its

text: salt

text: s. Among the three major forms of excretion of

text: nitrogenous waste

text: in organisms (uricotelism,

text: ammonotelism

text: , and

text: ureotelism

text: ), uric acid is the least

text: toxic

text: and the least

text: soluble

text: in water. It can be stored in

text: cell

text: s and

text: body tissue

text: s without toxic effects and requires only a tiny amount of water, about 0.001 L, per 1 g of

text: nitrogen

text: . A single molecule of uric acid can also remove four atoms of nitrogen, making it more efficient than ammonotelism and ureotelism.

text: Like other herbivorous lizards, the Cuban iguana is presented with a problem for osmoregulation: plant matter contains more potassium and has less nutritional content per gram than meat so more must be eaten to meet the lizard's metabolic needs.  Unlike those of mammals, reptile kidneys cannot concentrate urine to save on water intake. Instead, reptiles excrete toxic nitrogenous wastes as solid uric acid through their cloaca. In the case of the Cuban iguana, which consumes large amounts of vegetation, these excess salt ions are excreted through the salt gland in the same manner as in birds.

text: Like other herbivorous lizards, the Cuban iguana is presented with a problem for

text: osmoregulation

text: : plant matter contains more

text: potassium

text: and has less nutritional content per gram than meat so more must be eaten to meet the lizard's metabolic needs.  Unlike those of mammals, reptile kidneys cannot concentrate urine to save on water intake. Instead, reptiles excrete toxic nitrogenous wastes as solid uric acid through their

text: cloaca

text: . In the case of the Cuban iguana, which consumes large amounts of vegetation, these excess salt ions are excreted through the

text: salt gland

text: in the same manner as in birds.

text: Larvae glow to attract prey into their threads, perhaps luring them into believing they are outdoors, for the roof of a cave covered with larvae can look remarkably like a starry sky at night. A hungry larva glows brighter than one which has just eaten. The glow is the result of a chemical reaction that involves luciferin, the substrate; luciferase, the enzyme that acts upon luciferin; adenosine triphosphate, the energy molecule; and oxygen. It occurs in modified excretory organs known as Malpighian tubules in the abdomen.

text: Larvae glow to attract prey into their threads, perhaps luring them into believing they are outdoors, for the roof of a cave covered with larvae can look remarkably like a starry sky at night. A hungry larva glows brighter than one which has just eaten. The glow is the result of a chemical reaction that involves

text: luciferin

text: , the substrate;

text: luciferase

text: , the enzyme that acts upon luciferin;

text: adenosine triphosphate

text: , the energy molecule; and

text: oxygen

text: . It occurs in modified excretory organs known as

text: Malpighian tubules

text: in the abdomen.

text: However, problematic aspects of the original Gleason grading system still characterize the 2005 revision. The predominant lowest score assigned is Gleason 3+3 = 6. Patients who are told their Gleason score is 6 out of 10 may interpret that they have a more aggressive intermediate cancer and experience greater anxiety. More importantly, some classification systems fail to clearly distinguish between Gleason 3+4 = 7 and Gleason 4+3 = 7, with the latter having a worse prognosis.  Therefore, in 2014 an international multidisciplinary conference was convened to revise the 2005 system. A 5-point Gleason Grade grouping similar to those such as PI-RADS used with prostate MRI evaluations was proposed to denote prognostically distinct stratification. The number 1 would indicate the lowest risk cancer while 5 would indicate the most aggressive disease. The system was tested and validated against 20,000 prostatectomy specimens and at least 16,000 biopsy samples. The majority of conference participants concurred on the superiority of the scale over the 2005 Gleason grading system, pointing to the likelihood that overtreatment could be avoided for patients whose cancer was assigned a 1. The World Health Organization’s 2016 edition of Pathology and Genetics: Tumours of the Urinary System and Male Genital Organs has accepted the 2014 system, which can be used in conjunction with the 2005 Gleason system.

text: However, problematic aspects of the original Gleason grading system still characterize the 2005 revision. The predominant lowest score assigned is Gleason 3+3 = 6. Patients who are told their Gleason score is 6 out of 10 may interpret that they have a more aggressive intermediate cancer and experience greater

text: anxiety

text: . More importantly, some classification systems fail to clearly distinguish between Gleason 3+4 = 7 and Gleason 4+3 = 7, with the latter having a worse prognosis.  Therefore, in 2014 an international multidisciplinary conference was convened to revise the 2005 system. A 5-point Gleason Grade grouping similar to those such as

text: PI-RADS

text: used with prostate MRI evaluations was proposed to denote prognostically distinct stratification. The number 1 would indicate the lowest risk cancer while 5 would indicate the most aggressive disease. The system was tested and validated against 20,000 prostatectomy specimens and at least 16,000 biopsy samples. The majority of conference participants concurred on the superiority of the scale over the 2005 Gleason grading system, pointing to the likelihood that

text: overtreatment

text: could be avoided for patients whose cancer was assigned a 1. The

text: World Health Organization

text: ’s 2016 edition of Pathology and Genetics: Tumours of the Urinary System and Male Genital Organs has accepted the 2014 system, which can be used in conjunction with the 2005 Gleason system.

text: To maintain cellular homeostasis, the cellular quality control system must distinguish between folded and misfolded proteins. A misfolded protein will be recognized and tightly taken care of by either refolding or ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation.

text: In the gastrointestinal tract, protein digestion and absorption are key to establishing and maintaining amino acid pools. In the case of dicarboxylic aminoaciduria, where glutamate and aspartate transport are impaired, the alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism are affected. Enterocytes in the intestines break up peptides into residual amino acids where they would normally use charge-specific amino acid transporters to get across the epithelial cells. In dicarboxylic aminoaciduria, the anionic amino acid transporter, EAAT3, cannot bring glutamate and aspartate across epithelial cells, leading to them being excreted via the urine.

text: In the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , protein digestion and absorption are key to establishing and maintaining

text: amino acid

text: pools. In the case of dicarboxylic aminoaciduria, where

text: glutamate

text: and

text: aspartate

text: transport are impaired, the

text: alanine

text: aspartate

text: and

text: glutamate

text: metabolism are affected.

text: Enterocytes

text: in the

text: intestines

text: break up

text: peptides

text: into residual amino acids where they would normally use charge-specific

text: amino acid

text: transporters to get across the

text: epithelial

text: cells. In dicarboxylic aminoaciduria, the

text: anionic

text: amino acid

text: transporter,

text: , cannot bring glutamate and aspartate across

text: epithelial

text: cells, leading to them being

text: excreted

text: via the

text: urine

text: Risk factors for kidney disease include diabetes, high blood pressure, family history, older age, ethnic group and smoking.For most patients, a GFR over 60 mL/min/1.73m is adequate. But significant decline of the GFR from a previous test result can be an early indicator of kidney disease requiring medical intervention. The sooner kidney dysfunction is diagnosed and treated the greater odds of preserving remaining nephrons, and preventing the need for dialysis.

text: Acid–base homeostasis is the part of biologic homeostasis (See The extracellular fluid pH homeostat) concerning the proper balance between chemical acids and bases, also called body pH. The body is very sensitive to its extracellular pH level, so strong mechanisms exist to maintain it. Outside the acceptable range of pH, proteins are denatured and digested, enzymes lose their ability to function, and death may occur. The principles of general acid–base equilibrium apply in the physiology of living systems.

text: Acid–base homeostasis is the part of biologic

text: homeostasis

text: (See

text: The extracellular fluid pH homeostat

text: ) concerning the proper balance between chemical acids and

text: bases

text: , also called body

text: pH

text: . The body is very sensitive to its extracellular pH level, so strong mechanisms exist to maintain it. Outside the acceptable range of pH,

text: protein

text: s are denatured and digested,

text: enzyme

text: s lose their ability to function, and

text: death

text: may occur. The principles of general

text: acid–base equilibrium

text: apply in the

text: physiology

text: of

text: living systems

text: Excretory system: The renal tube extends straightly from the pericardial region toward the mantle collar, diagonally across the roof of the pallial cavity. In its distal part, behind the osphradium, it shows two distinct flexures, coming back upon itself and, after a short course, bending sharply cephalad and rightward forming a ureter which tapers to a subterminal meatus behind the pneumostome.

text: Excretory system

text: : The renal tube extends straightly from the

text: pericardial

text: region toward the

text: mantle

text: collar, diagonally across the roof of the

text: pallial cavity

text: . In its distal part, behind the

text: osphradium

text: , it shows two distinct flexures, coming back upon itself and, after a short course, bending sharply cephalad and rightward forming a

text: ureter

text: which tapers to a subterminal meatus behind the

text: pneumostome

text: In medicine, dialysis (from Greek διάλυσις, diàlysis, meaning dissolution, διά, dià, meaning through, and λύσις, lỳsis, meaning loosening or splitting) is a process for removing waste and excess water from the blood and is used primarily as an artificial replacement for lost kidney function in people with kidney failure. Dialysis may be used for those with an acute disturbance in kidney function (acute kidney injury, previously acute renal failure) or progressive but chronically worsening kidney function—a state known as chronic kidney disease stage 5 (previously chronic kidney failure or end-stage renal disease). The latter form may develop over months or years, but in contrast to acute kidney injury is not usually reversible and dialysis is regarded as a "holding measure" until a kidney transplant can be performed or sometimes as the only supportive measure in those for whom a transplant would be inappropriate.

text: In medicine, dialysis (from

text: Greek

text: διάλυσις, diàlysis, meaning dissolution, διά, dià, meaning through, and λύσις, lỳsis, meaning loosening or splitting) is a process for removing waste and excess water from the

text: blood

text: and is used primarily as an

text: artificial replacement

text: for lost

text: kidney function

text: in people with

text: kidney failure

text: . Dialysis may be used for those with an acute disturbance in kidney function (

text: acute kidney injury

text: , previously acute renal failure) or progressive but chronically worsening kidney function—a state known as

text: chronic kidney disease

text: stage 5 (previously chronic kidney failure or end-stage renal disease). The latter form may develop over months or years, but in contrast to acute kidney injury is not usually reversible and dialysis is regarded as a "holding measure" until a

text: kidney transplant

text: can be performed or sometimes as the only supportive measure in those for whom a transplant would be inappropriate.

text: The kidney's ability to perform many of its functions depends on the three fundamental functions of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, whose sum is called renal clearance or renal excretion.  That is:

text: The kidney's ability to perform many of its functions depends on the three fundamental functions of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, whose sum is called renal

text: clearance

text: or renal excretion.  That is:

text: It is very important for the bumble bees to have bodily homeostasis over their body. However, the Bombus morio do not have a rectal pad. Instead, the excretion system in the Bombus morio, consisting of the Malpighian tubles, ileum, and rectum, gives the bees an efficient method of keeping homeostasis. An analysis of these organs showed that the Bombus morio Malpighian tubles are made up of two cell types, and the ileum four types. The Malpighian tubles are significant for excretory features by throwing out excess and unnecessary solutes. Ileum, on the other hand, has the function of balancing the ion, water, organic compounds, and protein balance in the body. Together, the two organs work together to achieve homeostasis within the Bombus morios bodies despite the lack of rectal papillae.

text: It is very important for the bumble bees to have bodily

text: homeostasis

text: over their body. However, the Bombus morio do not have a rectal pad. Instead, the excretion system in the Bombus morio, consisting of the

text: Malpighian tubles

text: , ileum, and rectum, gives the bees an efficient method of keeping homeostasis. An analysis of these organs showed that the Bombus morio Malpighian tubles are made up of two cell types, and the ileum four types. The Malpighian tubles are significant for excretory features by throwing out excess and unnecessary solutes. Ileum, on the other hand, has the function of balancing the ion, water, organic compounds, and protein balance in the body. Together, the two organs work together to achieve homeostasis within the Bombus morios bodies despite the lack of rectal papillae.

text: Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases. Methyl isothiazolinone, which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes problems with the eyes and skin. Anthracene, which is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause problems in the kidneys and liver and is also considered a carcinogen. Formaldehyde and arsenic, which are used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens. The waste from leather tanneries is detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies plays a large factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is especially prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries.

text: Chromium is not solely responsible for these diseases. Methyl isothiazolinone, which is used for microbiological protection (fungal or bacterial growth), causes problems with the eyes and skin.

text: Anthracene

text: , which is used as a leather tanning agent, can cause problems in the kidneys and liver and is also considered a

text: carcinogen

text: Formaldehyde

text: and arsenic, which are used for leather finishing, cause health problems in the eyes, lungs, liver, kidneys, skin, and lymphatic system and are also considered carcinogens. The waste from leather tanneries is detrimental to the environment and the people who live in it. The use of old technologies plays a large factor in how hazardous wastewater results in contaminating the environment. This is especially prominent in small and medium-sized tanneries in developing countries.

text: The indication for kidney transplantation is end-stage renal disease (ESRD), regardless of the primary cause. This is defined as a glomerular filtration rate <15ml/min/1.73 sq.m. Common diseases leading to ESRD include malignant hypertension, infections, diabetes mellitus, and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis; genetic causes include polycystic kidney disease, a number of inborn errors of metabolism, and autoimmune conditions such as lupus. Diabetes is the most common known cause of kidney transplantation, accounting for approximately 25% of those in the US. The majority of renal transplant recipients are on dialysis (peritoneal dialysis or hemodialysis) at the time of transplantation. However, individuals with chronic kidney disease who have a living donor available may undergo pre-emptive transplantation before dialysis is needed.  If a patient is put on the waiting list for a deceased donor transplant early enough, they may also be transplanted pre-dialysis.

text: The indication for kidney transplantation is

text: end-stage renal disease

text: (ESRD), regardless of the primary cause. This is defined as a glomerular filtration rate <15ml/min/1.73 sq.m. Common diseases leading to ESRD include

text: malignant hypertension

text: infection

text: s,

text: diabetes mellitus

text: , and

text: focal segmental glomerulosclerosis

text: ; genetic causes include

text: polycystic kidney disease

text: , a number of inborn errors of metabolism, and autoimmune conditions such as

text: lupus

text: . Diabetes is the most common known cause of kidney transplantation, accounting for approximately 25% of those in the

text: US

text: . The majority of renal transplant recipients are on dialysis (

text: peritoneal dialysis

text: or

text: hemodialysis

text: ) at the time of transplantation. However, individuals with chronic kidney disease who have a living donor available may undergo pre-emptive transplantation before dialysis is needed.  If a patient is put on the waiting list for a deceased donor transplant early enough, they may also be transplanted pre-dialysis.

text: As of now, there are no established treatments for skeletal fluorosis patients. However, it is reversible in some cases, depending on the progression of the disease. If fluorine intake is stopped, the fluorine existing in bone structures will deplete and be excreted via urine. However, it is a very slow process to eliminate the fluorine from the body completely. Minimal results are seen in patients.Treatment of side effects is also very difficult. For example, a patient with a bone fracture cannot be treated according to standard procedures, because the bone is very brittle. In this case, recovery will take a very long time and a pristine healing cannot be guaranteed.

text: Specific therapy should be tailored to the type of stones involved. Diet can have a profound influence on the development of kidney stones. Preventive strategies include some combination of dietary modifications and medications with the goal of reducing the excretory load of calculogenic compounds on the kidneys. Current dietary recommendations to minimize the formation of kidney stones include:

text: Bucket toilets are a simple portable toilet option. They can be upgraded in various ways, one of them being urine diversion which can make them similar to urine-diverting dry toilets. Urine diversion can significantly reduce odors from dry toilets. Examples of using this type of toilet to reduce open defecation are the "MoSan" toilet (used in Kenya) or the urine-diverting dry toilet promoted by SOIL in Haiti.

text: Bucket toilet

text: s are a simple

text: portable toilet

text: option. They can be upgraded in various ways, one of them being

text: urine diversion

text: which can make them similar to

text: urine-diverting dry toilet

text: s. Urine diversion can significantly reduce odors from

text: dry toilet

text: s. Examples of using this type of toilet to reduce open defecation are the "MoSan" toilet (used in Kenya) or the urine-diverting dry toilet promoted by

entity_name: Sustainable Organic Integrated Livelihoods

text: SOIL

text: in Haiti.

text: The integumentary system has multiple roles in homeostasis. All body systems work in an interconnected manner to maintain the internal conditions essential to the function of the body.  The skin has an important job of protecting the body and acts as the body’s first line of defense against infection, temperature change, and other challenges to homeostasis. Functions include:

text: The integumentary system has multiple roles in

text: homeostasis

text: . All body systems work in an interconnected manner to maintain the internal conditions essential to the function of the body.  The skin has an important job of protecting the body and acts as the body’s first line of defense against infection, temperature change, and other challenges to homeostasis. Functions include:

text: Walter Cannon's notion of homeostasis also has its origins in vis medicatrix naturae. "All that I have done thus far in reviewing the various protective and stabilizing devices of the body is to present a modern interpretation of the natural vis medicatrix.". In this, Cannon stands in contrast to Claude Bernard (the father of modern physiology), and his earlier idea of milieu interieur that he proposed to replace vitalistic ideas about the body. However, both the notions of homeostasis and milieu interieur are ones concerned with how the body's physiology regulates itself through multiple mechanical equilibrium adjustment feedbacks rather than nonmechanistic life forces.

text: Walter Cannon

text: 's notion of

text: homeostasis

text: also has its origins in vis medicatrix naturae. "All that I have done thus far in reviewing the various protective and stabilizing devices of the body is to present a modern interpretation of the natural vis medicatrix.". In this, Cannon stands in contrast to

text: Claude Bernard

text: (the father of modern

text: physiology

text: ), and his earlier idea of

text: milieu interieur

text: that he proposed to replace vitalistic ideas about the body. However, both the notions of homeostasis and milieu interieur are ones concerned with how the body's physiology regulates itself through multiple mechanical equilibrium adjustment feedbacks rather than nonmechanistic

text: life forces

text: Gentile's commentary de urinarum iudiciis makes a first attempt to comprehend the physiology of urine formation; aided by his dissection of cadavers, Gentile asserted that urine associated with the blood passes per poros euritides ("through the porous tubules") of the kidney and is then delivered to the bladder. Commenting on De pulsibus, he connected the relationship between fast pulse rate and urine output and correlated the color of urine with the condition of the heart.  For the originality of his thought Mario Timio suggested that Gentile could be indicated as the 'first' cardionephrologist in the history of medicine.

text: Gentile's commentary de urinarum iudiciis makes a first attempt to comprehend the physiology of

text: urine formation

text: ; aided by his dissection of cadavers, Gentile asserted that urine associated with the blood passes per poros euritides ("through the

text: porous tubules

text: ") of the kidney and is then delivered to the bladder. Commenting on De pulsibus, he connected the relationship between fast pulse rate and urine output and correlated the color of urine with the condition of the heart.  For the originality of his thought Mario Timio suggested that Gentile could be indicated as the 'first'

text: cardionephrologist

text: in the

text: history of medicine

text: The kidneys are bean-shaped organs which are present on each side of the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity. Humans have two kidneys and each kidney is supplied with blood from the renal artery. The kidneys remove from the blood the nitrogenous wastes such as urea, as well as salts and excess water, and excrete them in the form of urine. This is done with the help of millions of nephrons present in the kidney. The filtrated blood is carried away from the kidneys by the renal vein (or kidney vein). The urine from the kidney is collected by the ureter (or excretory tubes), one from each kidney, and is passed to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder collects and stores the urine until urination. The urine collected in the bladder is passed into the external environment from the body through an opening called the urethra.

text: The kidneys are bean-shaped organs which are present on each side of the

text: vertebral column

text: in the

text: abdominal cavity

text: . Humans have two kidneys and each kidney is supplied with blood from the

text: renal artery

text: . The kidneys remove from the blood the nitrogenous wastes such as urea, as well as salts and excess water, and excrete them in the form of urine. This is done with the help of millions of

text: nephrons

text: present in the kidney. The filtrated blood is carried away from the kidneys by the

text: renal vein

text: (or kidney vein). The urine from the kidney is collected by the ureter (or excretory tubes), one from each kidney, and is passed to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder collects and stores the urine until urination. The urine collected in the bladder is passed into the external environment from the body through an opening called the urethra.

text: From the central sinus in the collar, blood flows to a complex series of sinuses and peritoneal folds in the proboscis. This set of structures is referred to as a glomerulus and may have an excretory function, since acorn worms otherwise have no defined excretory system. From the proboscis, blood flows into a single blood vessel running underneath the digestive tract, from which smaller sinuses supply blood to the trunk, and back into the dorsal vessel.

text: From the central sinus in the collar, blood flows to a complex series of sinuses and

text: peritoneal

text: folds in the proboscis. This set of structures is referred to as a glomerulus and may have an excretory function, since acorn worms otherwise have no defined excretory system. From the proboscis, blood flows into a single blood vessel running underneath the digestive tract, from which smaller sinuses supply blood to the trunk, and back into the dorsal vessel.

text: Just as there was a shift from viewing disease as a state to thinking of it as a process, the same shift happened in definitions of health. Again, the WHO played a leading role when it fostered the development of the health promotion movement in the 1980s. This brought in a new conception of health, not as a state, but in dynamic terms of resiliency, in other words, as "a resource for living". The 1984 WHO revised definition of health defined it as "the extent to which an individual or group is able to realize aspirations and satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living; it is a positive concept, emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities". Thus, health referred to the ability to maintain homeostasis and recover from insults. Mental, intellectual, emotional, and social health referred to a person's ability to handle stress, to acquire skills, to maintain relationships, all of which form resources for resiliency and independent living.

text: Reasons for performing a retrograde pyelogram include identification of filling defects (e.g. stones or tumors), as an adjunct during the placement of ureteral stents or ureteroscopy, or to delineate renal anatomy in preparation for surgery. Retrograde pyelography is generally done when an intravenous excretory study (intravenous pyelogram or contrast CT scan) cannot be done because of renal disease or allergy to intravenous contrast.

text: Reasons for performing a retrograde pyelogram include identification of filling defects (e.g. stones or tumors), as an adjunct during the placement of ureteral stents or

text: ureteroscopy

text: , or to delineate renal anatomy in preparation for surgery. Retrograde pyelography is generally done when an intravenous

text: excretory

text: study (

text: intravenous pyelogram

text: or contrast

text: CT scan

text: ) cannot be done because of

text: renal disease

text: or allergy to intravenous contrast.

text: Mahamane Kalil Maiga started his medical career as a Medical intern in nephrology for the Department of Nephrology of the Academy of Medicine in Wroclaw, Poland from 1975 to 1977.  During these years he also taught nephrology and hypertension courses and conducted research activities on prostaglandin hormones at the academy. When he moved to Germany, he was appointed as the Deputy Head of Clinic in internal medicine and nephrology of Klinikum Stieglitz at the Free University of Berlin from 1978 to 1981. Simultaneously, he continued to teach courses of nephrology, kidney transplant and hypertension and conducting research activities on prostaglandins hormones at the Free University of Berlin. Since returning to Mali in 1981 until the present, he founded the Nephrology and Haemodialysis Department of the National University Hospital of Point G in Bamako, Mali. From 1981 to date he has the Head of the Department at the hospital as well as a Professor of nephrology and internal medicine at the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of the University of Bamako in Mali while conducting a research program on kidney disorders risk factors. During his years in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, he has been working as Associate Professor of public health dealing with HIV/AIDS management in Sub-Saharan Africa for the School of Public Health of Boston University. Early in his career Mahamane Kalil Maiga engaged in a campaign to reform the public healthcare system in Mali. He participated in the set-up of community health centers and the evaluation of the Primary Health Care (PHC) teams at district levels in Mali. Later he joined international organizations to further contribute to this effort and engage the global community to aid Mali.  From 1991 to 1996, he worked for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the World Health Organization (WHO) leading the Mali country teams. He also played a key role working for WHO during the Rwanda genocide.  From 1994 to 1995, he was the Team leader of the WHO team in Goma-North Kivu, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), dealing with emergency humanitarian aid and epidemiology surveillance in the Rwanda refugees’ camps. He then became the Head of the WHO Rwanda office and Senior WHO Epidemiologist in charge of the project for the rehabilitation of the national system of epidemiological surveillance in Rwanda. He was also responsible for the preparation of a health sector contingency plan for the return and reintegration of Rwanda refugees.

text: Mahamane Kalil Maiga started his medical career as a Medical intern in nephrology for the Department of Nephrology of the Academy of Medicine in Wroclaw, Poland from 1975 to 1977.  During these years he also taught nephrology and

text: hypertension

text: courses and conducted research activities on

text: prostaglandin

text: hormones at the academy. When he moved to Germany, he was appointed as the Deputy Head of Clinic in internal medicine and nephrology of Klinikum Stieglitz at the Free University of Berlin from 1978 to 1981. Simultaneously, he continued to teach courses of nephrology,

text: kidney transplant

text: and hypertension and conducting research activities on prostaglandins hormones at the Free University of Berlin. Since returning to Mali in 1981 until the present, he founded the Nephrology and

text: Haemodialysis

text: Department of the National University Hospital of Point G in Bamako, Mali. From 1981 to date he has the Head of the Department at the hospital as well as a Professor of nephrology and internal medicine at the Faculty of Medicine and

text: Pharmacy

text: of the University of Bamako in Mali while conducting a research program on

text: kidney disorder

text: s

text: risk factor

text: s. During his years in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, he has been working as Associate Professor of

text: public health

text: dealing with HIV/AIDS management in

text: Sub-Saharan Africa

text: for the School of Public Health of Boston University. Early in his career Mahamane Kalil Maiga engaged in a campaign to reform the

text: public healthcare

text: system in Mali. He participated in the set-up of community health centers and the evaluation of the Primary Health Care (PHC) teams at district levels in Mali. Later he joined international organizations to further contribute to this effort and engage the global community to aid Mali.  From 1991 to 1996, he worked for the

text: United Nations Development Programme

text: (UNDP) and the

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) leading the Mali country teams. He also played a key role working for WHO during the

text: Rwanda genocide

text: .  From 1994 to 1995, he was the Team leader of the WHO team in

text: Goma

text: North Kivu

text: , in the

text: Democratic Republic of Congo

text: (DRC), dealing with emergency

text: humanitarian aid

text: and

text: epidemiology

text: surveillance in the

text: Rwanda

text: refugees’ camps. He then became the Head of the WHO Rwanda office and Senior WHO Epidemiologist in charge of the project for the rehabilitation of the national system of

text: epidemiological surveillance

text: in Rwanda. He was also responsible for the preparation of a

text: health sector

text: contingency plan for the return and reintegration of Rwanda refugees.

text: 2009-09-11 The Inferno of Assumption and Excretion –  [JDSD-10]

text: Qilin culture, according to Zhang, was made up of eight "systems": a philosophical system based on the traditional "diagram of ultimate return," which is to explain the origin of all creatures, their functions, and final destinations; a system of life sciences based on the use of qi to penetrate the mystery of biological systems; a system of "special medicine," which was different in important ways from Chinese and Western medicine, and "even garden variety qigong"; a system of art and aesthetics included qigong art, architecture, dance, music; a system of education; a system of industrial and political management; a system of everyday behaviour; a system of body practices.

text: World Kidney Day (WKD) is a global health awareness campaign focusing on the importance of the kidneys and reducing the frequency and impact of kidney disease and its associated health problems worldwide.

text: World Kidney Day (WKD) is a global health awareness campaign focusing on the importance of the

text: kidneys

text: and reducing the frequency and impact of kidney disease and its associated health problems worldwide.

text: The most radical of amputations is hemicorporectomy (translumbar or waist amputation) which removes the legs, the pelvis, urinary system, excretory system and the genital area (penis/testes in males and vagina/vulva in females).  This operation is done in two stages.   First stage is doing the colostomy and the urinary conduit, the second stage is the amputation. This is a mutilating operation and is only done as a last resort (e.g. when even pelvic exenteration does not work or in cases of advanced pelvic/reproductive cancers)

text: The most radical of amputations is

text: hemicorporectomy

text: (translumbar or waist amputation) which removes the legs, the pelvis, urinary system, excretory system and the genital area (penis/testes in males and vagina/vulva in females).  This operation is done in two stages.   First stage is doing the colostomy and the urinary conduit, the second stage is the amputation. This is a mutilating operation and is only done as a last resort (e.g. when even

text: pelvic exenteration

text: does not work or in cases of advanced pelvic/reproductive cancers)

text: A facility information model can be implemented in various ways. The essence is that the user of a system by which the data and documents are accessed should experience it as one integrated system. Nevertheless, the system may be constructed such that the documents are stored in a simple directory or such that they are stored in a separate document management system and the data are stored in one or more databases.Important kinds of systems in which Facility Information Models will most likely be implemented are document-oriented systems, such as Electronic Document Management Systems (EDMSs), Content Management Systems (CMS systems) or Enterprise Content Management Systems (ECM systems). Another kind of systems in which facility information models may be implemented are more data-oriented systems, such as Product Data Management Systems (PDM systems) and Product lifecycle management systems (PLM systems).

text: A facility information model can be implemented in various ways. The essence is that the user of a system by which the data and documents are accessed should experience it as one integrated system. Nevertheless, the system may be constructed such that the documents are stored in a simple directory or such that they are stored in a separate document management system and the data are stored in one or more databases.Important kinds of systems in which Facility Information Models will most likely be implemented are document-oriented systems, such as Electronic

text: Document Management Systems

text: (EDMSs),

text: Content Management Systems

text: (CMS systems) or Enterprise Content Management Systems (ECM systems). Another kind of systems in which facility information models may be implemented are more data-oriented systems, such as Product Data Management Systems (PDM systems) and

text: Product lifecycle management

text: systems (PLM systems).

text: Much of renal physiology is studied at the level of the nephron, the smallest functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron begins with a filtration component that filters the blood entering the kidney. This filtrate then flows along the length of the nephron, which is a tubular structure lined by a single layer of specialized cells and surrounded by capillaries. The major functions of these lining cells are the reabsorption of water and small molecules from the filtrate into the blood, and the secretion of wastes from the blood into the urine.

text: Much of renal physiology is studied at the level of the

text: nephron

text: , the smallest functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron begins with a

text: filtration

text: component that filters the

text: blood

text: entering the kidney. This filtrate then flows along the length of the nephron, which is a tubular structure lined by a single layer of specialized

text: cells

text: and surrounded by

text: capillaries

text: . The major functions of these lining cells are the

text: reabsorption

text: of water and small molecules from the filtrate into the blood, and the

text: secretion

text: of wastes from the blood into the

text: urine

text: Testosterone and its metabolites are eliminated in the urine. It is excreted mainly as androsterone glucuronide and etiocholanolone glucuronide. It is also excreted to a small extent as other conjugates such as testosterone glucuronide (1%), testosterone sulfate (0.03%), and androstanediol glucuronides. Only a very small amount of testosterone (less than 0.01%) is found unchanged in the urine.

text: Testosterone and its metabolites are

text: eliminated

text: in the urine. It is

text: excreted

text: mainly as androsterone glucuronide and etiocholanolone glucuronide. It is also excreted to a small extent as other conjugates such as

text: testosterone glucuronide

text: testosterone sulfate

text: (0.03%), and

text: androstanediol glucuronide

text: s. Only a very small amount of testosterone (less than 0.01%) is found unchanged in the urine.

text: In pharmacology the elimination or excretion of a drug is understood to be any one of a number of processes by which a drug is eliminated from an organism either in an unaltered form (unbound molecules) or modified as a metabolite. The kidney is the main excretory organ although others exist such as the liver, the skin, the lungs or glandular structures, such as the salivary glands and the lacrimal glands. These organs or structures use specific routes to expel a drug from the body, these are termed elimination pathways:

text: In

text: pharmacology

text: the elimination or excretion of a drug is understood to be any one of a number of processes by which a drug is eliminated from an organism either in an unaltered form (unbound molecules) or modified as a metabolite. The

text: kidney

text: is the main excretory organ although others exist such as the

text: liver

text: , the

text: skin

text: , the

text: lungs

text: or

text: gland

text: ular structures, such as the

text: salivary gland

text: s and the

text: lacrimal gland

text: s. These organs or structures use specific routes to expel a drug from the body, these are termed elimination pathways:

text: Lim1 is a transcription factor in mice that prompts formation of head structures. It is derived from the anterior visceral endoderm, is in tissues formed by the primitive streak, and is required in both tissues for head formation. If a Lim1 gene mutation occurs, head development will be severely affected. If the Lim1 gene is not present in the embryo, the embryo will develop without a head. Lim1 is down regulated after embryonic day 7.5. Then, the Lim1 gene, with help from the anterior definitive mesoderm, goes to regulate sequential signaling from the anterior visceral endoderm. This signal regulation is necessary for head formation. Lim1 is a member of the LIM homeobox gene and encodes a 406 amino acid protein. Lim1 is expressed during embryogenesis to promote head formation. The Lim1 gene is also expressed in adult life, possibly to maintain a differentiated state in neural tissue of adults. During embryogenesis, Lim1 is expressed from the central nervous system (CNS) and the excretory system (primarily the kidney). In the CNS, it is expressed approximately 10 days after fertilization and patterns the forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord regions. In the spinal cord Lim1 is expressed in dorsal and lateral parts but is not detected in the ventricular region.

text: Lim1 is a

text: transcription factor

text: in

text: mice

text: that prompts formation of head structures. It is derived from the anterior visceral endoderm, is in tissues formed by the

text: primitive streak

text: , and is required in both tissues for head formation. If a Lim1 gene mutation occurs, head development will be severely affected. If the Lim1 gene is not present in the embryo, the embryo will develop without a head. Lim1 is

text: down regulated

text: after embryonic day 7.5. Then, the Lim1 gene, with help from the anterior definitive mesoderm, goes to regulate sequential signaling from the anterior visceral endoderm. This signal regulation is necessary for head formation. Lim1 is a member of the LIM

text: homeobox

text: gene and encodes a 406 amino acid protein. Lim1 is expressed during embryogenesis to promote head formation. The Lim1 gene is also expressed in adult life, possibly to maintain a differentiated state in neural tissue of adults. During embryogenesis, Lim1 is expressed from the central nervous system (CNS) and the

text: excretory system

text: (primarily the kidney). In the CNS, it is expressed approximately 10 days after fertilization and patterns the

text: forebrain

text: midbrain

text: hindbrain

text: , and

text: spinal cord

text: regions. In the spinal cord Lim1 is expressed in dorsal and lateral parts but is not detected in the ventricular region.

text: The kidneys are bean-shaped organs that serve several essential regulatory roles in vertebrates. Their main function is to regulate the balance of electrolytes in the blood, along with maintaining pH homeostasis. They also remove excess organic molecules from the blood, and it is by this action that their best-known function is performed: the removal of waste products of metabolism. Kidneys are essential to the urinary system and also serve homeostatic functions such as the regulation of electrolytes (including salts), maintenance of acid–base balance, maintenance of fluid balance, and regulation of blood pressure (via the salt and water balance). They serve the body as a natural filter of the blood, and remove water-soluble wastes which are diverted to the bladder. In producing urine, the kidneys excrete nitrogenous wastes such as urea and ammonium. They are also responsible for the reabsorption of water, glucose, and amino acids. The kidneys also produce hormones including calcitriol and erythropoietin. An important enzyme, renin, is also produced in the kidneys; it acts in negative feedback.

text: The kidneys are

text: bean

text: -shaped

text: organs

text: that serve several essential regulatory roles in

text: vertebrate

text: s. Their main function is to regulate the balance of

text: electrolytes

text: in the blood, along with maintaining

text: pH

text: homeostasis

text: . They also remove excess

text: organic molecules

text: from the

text: blood

text: , and it is by this action that their best-known function is performed: the removal of

text: waste products

text: of

text: metabolism

text: . Kidneys are essential to the

text: urinary system

text: and also serve

text: homeostatic

text: functions such as the regulation of

text: electrolyte

text: s (including

text: salts

text: ), maintenance of

text: acid–base balance

text: , maintenance of

text: fluid balance

text: , and regulation of

text: blood pressure

text: (via the salt and water balance). They serve the body as a natural filter of the

text: blood

text: , and remove water-soluble wastes which are diverted to the

text: bladder

text: . In producing

text: urine

text: , the kidneys excrete

text: nitrogen

text: ous wastes such as

text: urea

text: and

text: ammonium

text: . They are also responsible for the reabsorption of

text: water

text: glucose

text: , and

text: amino acid

text: s. The kidneys also produce

text: hormone

text: s including

text: calcitriol

text: and

text: erythropoietin

text: . An important

text: enzyme

text: renin

text: , is also produced in the kidneys; it acts in

text: negative feedback

text: If the patient is institutionalised, monitoring of behaviour and serum sodium levels is necessary. In treatment-resistant polydipsic psychiatric patients, regulation in the inpatient setting can be accomplished by use of a weight-water protocol. First, base-line weights must be established and correlated to serum sodium levels. Weight will normally fluctuate during the day, but as the water intake of the polydipsic goes up, the weight will naturally rise. The physician can order a stepped series of interventions as the weight rises. The correlation must be individualized with attention paid to the patient's normal weight and fluctuations, diet, comorbid disorders (such as a seizure disorder) and urinary system functioning. Progressive steps might include redirection, room restriction, and increasing levels of physical restraint with monitoring. Such plans should also include progressive increases in monitoring, as well as a level at which a serum sodium level is drawn.

text: If the patient is

text: institutionalised

text: , monitoring of behaviour and serum sodium levels is necessary. In treatment-resistant polydipsic psychiatric patients, regulation in the inpatient setting can be accomplished by use of a weight-water protocol. First, base-line weights must be established and correlated to serum sodium levels. Weight will normally fluctuate during the day, but as the water intake of the polydipsic goes up, the weight will naturally rise. The physician can order a stepped series of interventions as the weight rises. The correlation must be individualized with attention paid to the patient's normal weight and fluctuations, diet,

text: comorbid

text: disorders (such as a

text: seizure disorder

text: ) and urinary system functioning. Progressive steps might include redirection, room restriction, and increasing levels of physical restraint with monitoring. Such plans should also include progressive increases in monitoring, as well as a level at which a serum sodium level is drawn.

text: Isosthenuria refers to the excretion of urine whose specific gravity (concentration) is neither greater (more concentrated) nor less (more dilute) than that of protein-free plasma, typically 1.008-1.012.  Isosthenuria reflects renal tubular damage/failure of renal medullary function.

text: Isosthenuria refers to the excretion of urine whose

text: specific gravity

text: (concentration) is neither greater (more concentrated) nor less (more dilute) than that of protein-free

text: plasma

text: , typically 1.008-1.012.  Isosthenuria reflects renal tubular damage/failure of renal medullary function.

text: Opposition campaigns involve newspaper articles, talk radio, and public forums. Media reporters are often poorly equipped to explain the scientific issues, and are motivated to present controversy regardless of the underlying scientific merits. Websites, which are increasingly used by the public for health information, contain a wide range of material about fluoridation ranging from factual to fraudulent, with a disproportionate percentage opposed to fluoridation. Antifluoridationist literature links fluoride exposure to a wide variety of effects, including AIDS, allergy, Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, cancer, and low IQ, along with diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, kidney, pineal gland, and thyroid.

text: Opposition campaigns involve newspaper articles, talk radio, and public forums. Media reporters are often poorly equipped to explain the scientific issues, and are motivated to present controversy regardless of the underlying scientific merits. Websites, which are increasingly used by the public for health information, contain a wide range of material about fluoridation ranging from factual to fraudulent, with a disproportionate percentage opposed to fluoridation. Antifluoridationist literature links fluoride exposure to a wide variety of effects, including

text: AIDS

text: allergy

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: arthritis

text: cancer

text: , and low

text: IQ

text: , along with diseases of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: kidney

text: pineal gland

text: , and

text: thyroid

text: This conjugated bilirubin is excreted from the liver into the biliary and cystic ducts as part of bile. Intestinal bacteria convert the bilirubin into urobilinogen. From here  urobilinogen can take two pathways. It can either be further converted into stercobilinogen, which is then oxidized to stercobilin and passed out in the feces, or it can be reabsorbed by the intestinal cells, transported in the blood to the kidneys, and passed out in the urine as the oxidised product urobilin. Stercobilin and urobilin are the products responsible for the coloration of feces and urine, respectively.

text: This conjugated bilirubin is excreted from the liver into the biliary and cystic ducts as part of

text: bile

text: . Intestinal bacteria convert the bilirubin into

text: urobilinogen

text: . From here  urobilinogen can take two pathways. It can either be further converted into

text: stercobilinogen

text: , which is then

text: oxidized

text: to

text: stercobilin

text: and passed out in the

text: feces

text: , or it can be reabsorbed by the intestinal cells, transported in the blood to the

text: kidneys

text: , and passed out in the

text: urine

text: as the oxidised product

text: urobilin

text: . Stercobilin and urobilin are the products responsible for the coloration of feces and urine, respectively.

text: In bound systems, if the binding energy is removed from the system, it must be subtracted from the mass of the unbound system, simply because this energy has mass. Thus, if energy is removed (or emitted) from the system at the time it is bound, the loss of energy from the system will also result in the loss of the mass of the energy from the system. System mass is not conserved in this process because the system is "open" (i.e., is not an isolated system to mass or energy input or loss) during the binding process.

text: In bound systems, if the binding energy is removed from the system, it must be subtracted from the

text: mass

text: of the unbound system, simply because this energy has mass. Thus, if energy is removed (or emitted) from the system at the time it is bound, the loss of energy from the system will also result in the loss of the mass of the energy from the system. System mass is not conserved in this process because the system is "open" (i.e., is not an

text: isolated system

text: to mass or energy input or loss) during the binding process.

text: Through its Kidney Research Institute, Northwest Kidney Centers conducts research into the early detection, prevention and treatment of kidney disease and its complications. The Kidney Research Institute has received more than $70 million in research funding, primarily from the National Institutes of Health, and published more than 600 scientific papers. More than 60 studies are actively underway.

text: Through its Kidney Research Institute, Northwest Kidney Centers conducts research into the early detection, prevention and treatment of kidney disease and its complications. The Kidney Research Institute has received more than $70 million in research funding, primarily from the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: , and published more than 600 scientific papers. More than 60 studies are actively underway.

text: The effects of Benoxaprofen on animals were tested in a series of experiments. Benoxaprofen had a considerably anti-inflammatory, analgesic and also anti-pyretic activity in those tests. In all six animals tested, which included rats, dogs, rhesus monkeys, rabbits, guinea pigs and mice, the drug was well absorbed orally. In three of the six species benoxaprofen was then effectively taken up from the gastrointestinal tract (after oral doses of 1–10 mg/kg). The plasma half life was found to be different, being less than 13 hours in the dog, rabbit and monkey, it was notable longer in mice. Furthermore, there were species differences found in the rate and route of excretion of the compound. Whereas benoxaprofen was excreted into the urine by the rabbit and guinea pig, biliary excretion was the way of clearance found in rats and dogs. In all species only unchanged benoxaprofen was found in the plasma mostly extensively bound to proteins.

text: Urine contains large quantities of nitrogen (mostly as urea), as well as significant quantities of dissolved phosphates and potassium, the main macronutrients required by plants. The nutrient concentrations in urine vary with diet.

text: Urine

text: contains large quantities of nitrogen (mostly as

text: urea

text: macronutrients

text: required by plants. The nutrient concentrations in urine vary with diet.

text: The classic traditional forms were emanating from and could be described by using Euclidean geometry  for instance in relation to the cartesian triedre (one perpendicular axe for three "dimensions"). These forms can have material realisations (cubes, balls..). Many  natural  objects however  cannot be satisfactorily described using the Euclidean geometry. Many of them are for instance fractals (Mandelbrot,1983 ), because they are branched, have holes, or are too anfractuous, etc.. In their case the three dimensions are no more linked linearly. This is particularly true for surfaces and volumes. As already stressed by Stevens (1974) some morphological pattern may offer precise advantages.  An example can be given from two extremes where the surface of objects is fundamental. The surface is the place where objects exchange between an inside and an outside. In the case where the more advantageous is to have the minimal exchange, the chosen shape is generally the ovoid (such are eggs, grains, fruits, cetaceans, etc. with the sphere as the perfect limit), which for a given volume limits the surface to its minimum. When the exchange is fundamental important surface is necessary an aminimal material cost. The binary branching increases considerably the surface without increasing much the volume of matter. This is the case for vegetal trees and vascular, pulmonary, urinary systems. The nervous system may be seen as a system of exchanges between emitting and receiving binary arborizations, offering a huge combinatorial range.

text: The classic traditional forms were emanating from and could be described by using Euclidean geometry  for instance in relation to the cartesian triedre (one perpendicular axe for three "dimensions"). These forms can have material realisations (cubes, balls..). Many  natural  objects however  cannot be satisfactorily described using the Euclidean geometry. Many of them are for instance fractals (

text: Mandelbrot

text: ,1983 ), because they are branched, have holes, or are too anfractuous, etc.. In their case the three dimensions are no more linked linearly. This is particularly true for surfaces and volumes. As already stressed by Stevens (1974) some morphological pattern may offer precise advantages.  An example can be given from two extremes where the surface of objects is fundamental. The surface is the place where objects exchange between an inside and an outside. In the case where the more advantageous is to have the minimal exchange, the chosen shape is generally the ovoid (such are eggs, grains, fruits, cetaceans, etc. with the sphere as the perfect limit), which for a given volume limits the surface to its minimum. When the exchange is fundamental important surface is necessary an aminimal material cost. The binary branching increases considerably the surface without increasing much the volume of matter. This is the case for vegetal trees and vascular, pulmonary, urinary systems. The nervous system may be seen as a system of exchanges between emitting and receiving binary arborizations, offering a huge combinatorial range.

text: When applied topically UV filters, such as oxybenzone, are absorbed through the skin, metabolized, and excreted primarily through the urine. The method of biotransformation, the process by which a foreign compound is chemically transformed to form a metabolite, was determined by Okereke and colleagues through oral and dermal administration of oxybenzone to rats. The scientists analyzed blood, urine, feces, and tissue samples and found three metabolites: 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone(DHB), 2,2-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (DHMB) and 2,3,4-trihydroxybenzophenone (THB). To form DHB the methoxy functional group undergoes o-dealkylation; to form THB the same ring is hydroxylated. Ring B in oxybenzone is hydroxylated to form DHMB.

text: When applied topically UV filters, such as oxybenzone, are absorbed through the skin, metabolized, and excreted primarily through the urine. The method of

text: biotransformation

text: , the process by which a foreign compound is chemically transformed to form a metabolite, was determined by Okereke and colleagues through oral and dermal administration of oxybenzone to rats. The scientists analyzed blood, urine, feces, and tissue samples and found three metabolites: 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone(DHB), 2,2-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (DHMB) and 2,3,4-trihydroxybenzophenone (THB). To form DHB the methoxy functional group undergoes o-dealkylation; to form THB the same ring is hydroxylated. Ring B in oxybenzone is hydroxylated to form DHMB.

text: Most spiders convert nitrogenous waste products into uric acid, which can be excreted as a dry material. Malphigian tubules ("little tubes") extract these wastes from the blood in the hemocoel and dump them into the cloacal chamber, from which they are expelled through the anus. Production of uric acid and its removal via Malphigian tubules are a water-conserving feature that has evolved independently in several arthropod lineages that can live far away from water, for example the tubules of insects and arachnids develop from completely different parts of the embryo. However, a few primitive spiders, the sub-order Mesothelae and infra-order Mygalomorphae, retain the ancestral arthropod nephridia ("little kidneys"), which use large amounts of water to excrete nitrogenous waste products as ammonia.

text: Most spiders convert

text: nitrogen

text: ous waste products into

text: uric acid

text: , which can be excreted as a dry material.

text: Malphigian tubules

text: ("little tubes") extract these wastes from the blood in the hemocoel and dump them into the

text: cloaca

text: l chamber, from which they are expelled through the

text: anus

text: . Production of uric acid and its removal via Malphigian tubules are a water-conserving feature that has evolved independently in several

text: arthropod

text: lineages that can live far away from water, for example the tubules of

text: insect

text: s and arachnids develop from completely different parts of the

text: embryo

text: . However, a few primitive spiders, the sub-

text: order

text: Mesothelae

text: and infra-order

text: Mygalomorphae

text: , retain the ancestral arthropod

text: nephridia

text: ("little

text: kidney

text: s"), which use large amounts of water to excrete nitrogenous waste products as

text: ammonia

text: Implementation of a computerized system from a manual system can cause restructuring within an organisation. People's position and status may change. These changes can alter people's awareness of employment, security, authority and interaction with other staff. People refuse to change to a new computer system may be related to the inability of the system to do specific job requirements, security aspects, possible loss of data, concern about making mistakes when using the system and effects on health. Likewise, computerized system can affect managers in terms of their management role and decision making process. Systems which are user friendly often meet less refusal as users feel comfortable with the system, have sense of control and be able to evaluate their stored input data. The system itself should also be sufficiently adaptable to suit different backgrounds and proficiency levels of users. Overcoming refusal to change and the adoption of the new system is a management issue. This may be influenced by the attitudes towards the system and knowledge of human-computer interaction.  Thus communication skills are required to convince people of the benefits of the new system. People should be given opportunity to learn and evaluate the system. Once they have seen and experienced the benefits of the new system, they will be more ready to accept and run the system

text: On March 10, 2016, it was announced that Benjamin will chair the National Kidney Foundation’s CKDinsight summit. The summit is slated for fall of 2016, and it’s a component of the National Kidney Foundation’s new CKDintercept program, a multi-year initiative that aims to elevate chronic kidney disease (CKD) diagnosis and management to the front lines of preventative health in the U.S. health system.  In addition to Dr. Benjamin, the list of invited stakeholders includes, but is not limited to, medical professional groups, large healthcare systems, laboratory services, advocacy groups, technology industry experts, and government and retail insurers. They will meet to develop innovative approaches to overcoming the obstacles that inhibit timely diagnosis of kidney disease. The goal of the meeting is to generate a clear, cohesive strategy that will create a roadmap for change that will elevate the national perception of kidney disease and create a culture where early detection is a priority.

text: Many of the kidney's functions are accomplished by relatively simple mechanisms of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, which take place in the nephron. Filtration, which takes place at the renal corpuscle, is the process by which cells and large proteins are filtered from the blood to make an ultrafiltrate that eventually becomes urine. The kidney generates 180 liters of filtrate a day, while reabsorbing a large percentage, allowing for the generation of only approximately 2 liters of urine. Reabsorption is the transport of molecules from this ultrafiltrate and into the blood. Secretion is the reverse process, in which molecules are transported in the opposite direction, from the blood into the urine.

text: Many of the kidney's functions are accomplished by relatively simple mechanisms of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, which take place in the

text: nephron

text: . Filtration, which takes place at the

text: renal corpuscle

text: , is the process by which cells and large proteins are filtered from the blood to make an

text: ultrafiltrate

text: that eventually becomes urine. The kidney generates 180 liters of filtrate a day, while reabsorbing a large percentage, allowing for the generation of only approximately 2 liters of urine. Reabsorption is the transport of molecules from this ultrafiltrate and into the blood. Secretion is the reverse process, in which molecules are transported in the opposite direction, from the blood into the urine.

text: Blood pressure and fluid and electrolyte homeostasis is regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system.Renin, an enzyme released from the kidneys, converts the inactive plasma protein angiotensinogen into angiotensin I (Ang I).  Then Ang I is converted to Ang II with angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), see figure 2. Ang II in plasma then binds to AT-receptors.

text: Blood pressure and fluid and electrolyte

text: homeostasis

text: is regulated by the

text: renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system

text: Renin

text: , an enzyme released from the kidneys, converts the inactive plasma protein

text: angiotensinogen

text: into angiotensin I (Ang I).  Then Ang I is converted to Ang II with

text: angiotensin converting enzyme

text: (ACE), see figure 2. Ang II in plasma then binds to AT-receptors.

text: Kidneys can be used from category II donors, and all organs except the heart can potentially be used from category III, IV and V donors.  An unsuccessful kidney recipient can remain on dialysis, unlike recipients of some other organs, meaning that a failure will not result in death.

text: Kidneys can be used from category II donors, and all organs except the

text: heart

text: can potentially be used from category III, IV and V donors.  An unsuccessful kidney recipient can remain on

text: dialysis

text: , unlike recipients of some other organs, meaning that a failure will not result in death.

text: Another method is NASA's urine-to-water distillation system.

text: Another method is NASA's

text: urine

text: -to-water

text: distill

text: ation system.

text: There are two different types of arthropod excretory systems. In aquatic arthropods, the end-product of biochemical reactions that metabolise nitrogen is ammonia, which is so toxic that it needs to be diluted as much as possible with water. The ammonia is then eliminated via any permeable membrane, mainly through the gills. All crustaceans use this system, and its high consumption of water may be responsible for the relative lack of success of crustaceans as land animals. Various groups of terrestrial arthropods have independently developed a different system: the end-product of nitrogen metabolism is uric acid, which can be excreted as dry material; the Malpighian tubule system filters the uric acid and other nitrogenous waste out of the blood in the hemocoel, and dumps these materials into the hindgut, from which they are expelled as feces. Most aquatic arthropods and some terrestrial ones also have organs called nephridia ("little kidneys"), which extract other wastes for excretion as urine.

text: There are two different types of arthropod excretory systems. In aquatic arthropods, the end-product of biochemical reactions that

text: metabolise

text: nitrogen

text: is

text: ammonia

text: , which is so toxic that it needs to be diluted as much as possible with water. The ammonia is then eliminated via any permeable membrane, mainly through the gills. All crustaceans use this system, and its high consumption of water may be responsible for the relative lack of success of crustaceans as land animals. Various groups of terrestrial arthropods have independently developed a different system: the end-product of nitrogen metabolism is

text: uric acid

text: , which can be excreted as dry material; the

text: Malpighian tubule system

text: filters the uric acid and other nitrogenous waste out of the blood in the hemocoel, and dumps these materials into the hindgut, from which they are expelled as

text: feces

text: . Most aquatic arthropods and some terrestrial ones also have organs called

text: nephridia

text: ("little

text: kidney

text: s"), which extract other wastes for excretion as

text: urine

text: Radiographs are useful in the detection of pathology of the skeletal system as well as for detecting some disease processes in soft tissue. Some notable examples are the very common chest X-ray, which can be used to identify lung diseases such as pneumonia, lung cancer, or pulmonary edema, and the abdominal x-ray, which can detect bowel (or intestinal) obstruction, free air (from visceral perforations) and free fluid (in ascites). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as gallstones (which are rarely radiopaque) or kidney stones which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the brain or muscle.

text: Radiographs are useful in the detection of

text: pathology

text: of the

text: skeletal system

text: as well as for detecting some disease processes in

text: soft tissue

text: . Some notable examples are the very common

text: chest X-ray

text: , which can be used to identify lung diseases such as

text: pneumonia

text: lung cancer

text: , or

text: pulmonary edema

text: , and the

text: abdominal x-ray

text: , which can detect

text: bowel (or intestinal) obstruction

text: , free air (from visceral perforations) and free fluid (in

text: ascites

text: ). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as

text: gallstone

text: s (which are rarely

text: radiopaque

text: ) or

text: kidney stone

text: s which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the

text: brain

text: or

text: muscle

text: While urinals are generally intended for use by males, it is also possible for females to use them. Designers of urinals for women have adopted various approaches: some intending the user to "hover" over the unit, facing away from it, others intending the user to stand facing the urinal, with or without a female urination device. While uncommon due to restroom segregation, it is possible for females to use male urinals.

text: While urinals are generally intended for use by males, it is also possible for females to use them. Designers of urinals for women have adopted various approaches: some intending the user to "hover" over the unit, facing away from it, others intending the user to stand facing the urinal, with or without a

text: female urination device

text: . While uncommon due to

text: restroom

text: segregation, it is possible for females to use male urinals.

text: The proposed mechanism for this phenomenon does not include a reduced sensitivity of mineralocorticoid receptors to aldosterone, because low serum potassium is often seen in these patients, which is the direct result of aldosterone-induced expression of ENaC channels. Furthermore, electrolyte homeostasis is maintained in these patients, which excludes the possibility that other Na transporters elsewhere in the kidney are being shut down. If, in fact, other transporters such as the Na-H antiporter in the proximal tubule or the Na/K/2Cl symporter in the thick ascending loop of Henle were being blocked, other electrolyte disturbances would be expected, such as seen during use of diuretics.

text: As a major organ for excretion, the kidney removes waste materials and chemicals from the body, such as increased concentrations of intermediary metabolites of a particular pathway, making urine (the waste product from the kidney) particularly useful for medical diagnostics. The key advantages of using urine as a biofluid are: (1) its sterility; (2) accessibility and non-invasive method of collection; and (3) it being largely free from interfering proteins or lipids.

text: Many studies have concluded magnesium in the diet is a primary cause of struvite urolithiasis in cats. However, researchers have found that urine pH is a more important contributing factor. Urine that is acidic helps to dissolve struvite uroliths and also provides a less favourable environment for its formation.Commercial feline diets now limit the amount of magnesium and add acidifiers in the food to increase urine acidity, thereby reducing the likelihood of struvite formation. The decrease of struvite uroliths coincides with an increase in oxalate uroliths, low magnesium levels and urine pH both being a factor in calcium oxalate formation. Oxalate uroliths are not dissolvable in cat urine and have to be removed surgically, barring those small enough to pass out the urinary tract.

text: Many studies have concluded

text: magnesium

text: in the diet is a primary cause of struvite urolithiasis in cats. However, researchers have found that urine

text: pH

text: is a more important contributing factor. Urine that is acidic helps to dissolve struvite uroliths and also provides a less favourable environment for its formation.Commercial feline diets now limit the amount of magnesium and add acidifiers in the food to increase urine acidity, thereby reducing the likelihood of struvite formation. The decrease of struvite uroliths coincides with an increase in oxalate uroliths, low magnesium levels and urine pH both being a factor in calcium oxalate formation. Oxalate uroliths are not dissolvable in cat urine and have to be removed surgically, barring those small enough to pass out the urinary tract.

text: About 80% of kidney stones are partially or entirely of the calcium oxalate type. They form when urine has been persistently acidic. Some of the oxalate in urine is produced by the body. Calcium and oxalate in the diet play a part, but are not the only factors that affect the formation of calcium oxalate stones. Dietary oxalate is an organic ion found in many vegetables, fruits, and nuts. Calcium from bone may also play a role in kidney stone formation.

text: Magnesium toxicity from magnesium salts is rare in healthy individuals with a normal diet, because excess magnesium is readily excreted in urine by the kidneys. A few cases of oral magnesium toxicity have been described in persons with normal renal function ingesting large amounts of magnesium salts, but it is rare. If a large amount of magnesium chloride is eaten, it will have effects similar to magnesium sulfate, causing diarrhea, although the sulfate also contributes to the laxative effect in magnesium sulfate, so the effect from the chloride is not as severe.

text: Magnesium toxicity from magnesium salts is rare in healthy individuals with a normal diet, because excess magnesium is readily excreted in

text: urine

text: by the

text: kidneys

text: . A few cases of

text: oral

text: magnesium toxicity have been described in persons with normal renal function ingesting large amounts of magnesium salts, but it is rare. If a large amount of magnesium chloride is eaten, it will have effects similar to

text: magnesium sulfate

text: , causing diarrhea, although the sulfate also contributes to the laxative effect in magnesium sulfate, so the effect from the chloride is not as severe.

text: The kidney and nervous system communicate via the renal plexus, whose fibers course along the renal arteries to reach each kidney. Input from the sympathetic nervous system triggers vasoconstriction in the kidney, thereby reducing renal blood flow. The kidney also receives input from the parasympathetic nervous system, by way of the renal branches of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X); the function of this is yet unclear. Sensory input from the kidney travels to the T10-11 levels of the spinal cord and is sensed in the corresponding dermatome. Thus, pain in the flank region may be referred from corresponding kidney.

text: The kidney and

text: nervous system

text: communicate via the

text: renal plexus

text: , whose fibers course along the renal arteries to reach each kidney. Input from the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: triggers

text: vasoconstriction

text: in the kidney, thereby reducing

text: renal blood flow

text: . The kidney also receives input from the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: , by way of the renal branches of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X); the function of this is yet unclear. Sensory input from the kidney travels to the T10-11 levels of the

text: spinal cord

text: and is sensed in the corresponding

text: dermatome

text: . Thus, pain in the flank region may be referred from corresponding kidney.

text: In 2007, Knurek became an organ donor when he donated a kidney to a family member. Knurek and his cousin underwent the transplantation surgery at the University of Michigan Health System’s Transplant Center on July 11, 2007. His cousin suffered from Polycystic kidney disease.

text: In 2007, Knurek became an organ donor when he donated a kidney to a family member. Knurek and his cousin underwent the transplantation surgery at the

text: University of Michigan Health System

text: ’s Transplant Center on July 11, 2007. His cousin suffered from

text: Polycystic kidney disease

text: Cancer cells have defects in the control mechanisms that govern how often they divide, and in the feedback systems that regulate these control mechanisms (i.e. defects in homeostasis).

text: Cancer cells have defects in the control mechanisms that govern how often they divide, and in the feedback systems that regulate these control mechanisms (i.e. defects in

text: homeostasis

text: The Hematologic Diseases Information Service is an information dissemination service of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). The NIDDK is part of the National Institutes of Health, which is part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Hematologic Diseases Information Service is a part of the NIDDK's Division of Kidney, Urologic, and Hematologic Diseases.

text: The Hematologic Diseases Information Service is an information dissemination service of the

text: (NIDDK). The NIDDK is part of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: , which is part of the

text: . The Hematologic Diseases Information Service is a part of the NIDDK's Division of Kidney, Urologic, and Hematologic Diseases.

text: Aloysius' health continued to cause problems. In addition to the kidney disease, he also suffered from a skin disease, chronic headaches and insomnia. He was sent to Milan for studies, but after some time he was sent back to Rome because of his health. On November 25, 1587, he took the three religious vows of chastity, poverty and obedience. In February and March 1588, he received minor orders and started studying theology to prepare for ordination. In 1589, he was called to Mantua to mediate between his brother, Rodolfo, and the Duke of Mantua. He returned to Rome in May 1590. It is said that later that year, he had a vision in which the Archangel Gabriel told him that he would die within a year.

text: Aloysius' health continued to cause problems. In addition to the kidney disease, he also suffered from a skin disease, chronic headaches and

text: insomnia

text: . He was sent to

text: Milan

text: for studies, but after some time he was sent back to Rome because of his health. On November 25, 1587, he took the three religious

text: vows

text: of

text: chastity, poverty and obedience

text: . In February and March 1588, he received

text: minor orders

text: and started studying

text: theology

text: to prepare for

text: ordination

text: . In 1589, he was called to

text: Mantua

text: to mediate between his brother, Rodolfo, and the Duke of Mantua. He returned to Rome in May 1590. It is said that later that year, he had a vision in which the

text: Archangel Gabriel

text: told him that he would die within a year.

text: Pressure-sensitive baroreceptors are found in the vessel walls of nearly all large arteries in the thorax and neck, but are particularly plentiful in the sinuses of the carotid arteries and in the arch of the aorta. These specialized receptors are sensitive to changes in mean arterial pressure. An increase in sensed pressure results in an increased rate of firing by the baroreceptors and a negative feedback response, lowering systemic arterial pressure. Aldosterone release causes sodium and water retention, which causes increased blood volume, and a subsequent increase in blood pressure, which is sensed by the baroreceptors.  To maintain normal homeostasis these receptors also detect low blood pressure or low blood volume, causing aldosterone to be released. This results in sodium retention in the kidney, leading to water retention and increased blood volume.

text: Acupuncture is an ancient form of medicine using small filiform needles placed at predetermined points on the body. The goal of acupuncture is to move Qi—the force that makes us alive. Western medicine has no equivocal term to describe Qi. Qi flows throughout the body along meridians, or paths that interconnect the external surface of the body with the internal organs. When needles are placed in points, Qi moves freely. As Qi moves freely, the body maintains its balance, or homeostasis.

text: Acupuncture is an ancient form of medicine using small filiform needles placed at predetermined points on the body. The goal of acupuncture is to move Qi—the force that makes us alive. Western medicine has no equivocal term to describe Qi. Qi flows throughout the body along

text: meridians

text: , or paths that interconnect the external surface of the body with the internal organs. When needles are placed in points, Qi moves freely. As Qi moves freely, the body maintains its balance, or homeostasis.

text: November 20, 1985—The Health Research Extension Act of 1985 (P.L. 99—158) changed the Institute's name to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. The act also established the National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Advisory Board. The law gave parallel special authorities to all Institute operating divisions, including authorization of the National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse; National Kidney, Urologic, and Hematologic Diseases Coordinating Committee; National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Data System; National Digestive Diseases Data System; Kidney and Urologic Diseases Research Centers; and Digestive Diseases Research Centers.

text: The surgery is performed with the patient under general anesthesia. A kidney can be removed through an open incision or laparoscopically.  For the open procedure, the surgeon makes an incision in the side of the abdomen to reach the kidney. Depending on circumstances, the incision can also be made midline.  The ureter and blood vessels are disconnected, and the kidney is then removed.  The laparoscopic approach utilizes three or four small (5–10 mm) cuts in the abdominal and flank area.  The kidney is completely detached inside the body and then placed in a bag.  One of the incisions is then expanded to remove the kidney for cancer operations.  If the kidney is being removed for other causes, it can be morcellated and removed through the small incisions. Recently, this procedure is performed through a single incision in the patient's belly-button. This advanced technique is called single port laparoscopy.

text: The surgery is performed with the patient under

text: general anesthesia

text: . A kidney can be removed through an open incision or

text: laparoscopically

text: .  For the open procedure, the surgeon makes an incision in the side of the

text: abdomen

text: to reach the kidney. Depending on circumstances, the incision can also be made

text: midline

text: .  The

text: ureter

text: and blood vessels are disconnected, and the kidney is then removed.  The laparoscopic approach utilizes three or four small (5–10 mm) cuts in the abdominal and flank area.  The kidney is completely detached inside the body and then placed in a bag.  One of the incisions is then expanded to remove the kidney for cancer operations.  If the kidney is being removed for other causes, it can be morcellated and removed through the small incisions. Recently, this procedure is performed through a single incision in the patient's belly-button. This advanced technique is called

text: single port laparoscopy

text: The excretory system contains a pair of nephridia in every segment, except for the first three and the last ones. The three types of nephridia are: integumentary, septal, and pharyngeal. The integumentary nephridia lie attached to the inner side of the body wall in all segments except the first two. The septal nephridia are attached to both sides of the septa behind the 15th segment. The pharyngeal nephridia are attached to fourth, fifth and sixth segments. The waste in the coelom fluid from a forward segment is drawn in by the beating of cilia of the nephrostome. From there it is carried through the septum (wall) via a tube which forms a series of loops entwined by blood capillaries that also transfer waste into the tubule of the nephrostome. The excretory wastes are then finally discharged through a pore on the worm's side.

text: The excretory system contains a pair of

text: nephridia

text: in every segment, except for the first three and the last ones. The three types of nephridia are: integumentary, septal, and pharyngeal. The integumentary nephridia lie attached to the inner side of the body wall in all segments except the first two. The septal nephridia are attached to both sides of the septa behind the 15th segment. The pharyngeal nephridia are attached to fourth, fifth and sixth segments. The waste in the coelom fluid from a forward segment is drawn in by the beating of

text: cilia

text: of the

text: nephrostome

text: . From there it is carried through the septum (wall) via a tube which forms a series of loops entwined by blood capillaries that also transfer waste into the tubule of the nephrostome. The excretory wastes are then finally discharged through a pore on the worm's side.

text: Systems sciences covers formal sciences fields like complex systems, cybernetics, dynamical systems theory, and systems theory, and applications in the field of the natural and social sciences and engineering, such as control theory, operations research, social systems theory, systems biology, systems dynamics, systems ecology, systems engineering and systems psychology.

text: Systems sciences covers

text: formal sciences

text: fields like

text: complex systems

text: cybernetics

text: dynamical systems theory

text: , and

text: systems theory

text: , and applications in the field of the natural and social sciences and engineering, such as

text: control theory

text: operations research

text: , social systems theory,

text: systems biology

text: systems dynamics

text: systems ecology

text: systems engineering

text: and

text: systems psychology

text: The term "dry sanitation" is somewhat misleading as sanitation includes hand-washing and can never be "dry". A more precise term would be "dry excreta management". When people speak of "dry sanitation" they usually mean sanitation systems with dry toilets with urine diversion, in particular the urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT).

text: The term "dry sanitation" is somewhat misleading as sanitation includes hand-washing and can never be "dry". A more precise term would be "dry excreta management". When people speak of "dry sanitation" they usually mean sanitation systems with

text: dry toilet

text: s with

text: urine diversion

text: , in particular the

text: urine-diverting dry toilet

text: (UDDT).

text: The kidneys are slower to compensate, but renal physiology has several powerful mechanisms to control pH by the excretion of excess acid or base. In responses to acidosis, tubular cells reabsorb more bicarbonate from the tubular fluid, collecting duct cells secrete more hydrogen and generate more bicarbonate, and ammoniagenesis leads to increased formation of the NH buffer. In responses to alkalosis, the kidney may excrete more bicarbonate by decreasing hydrogen ion secretion from the tubular epithelial cells, and lowering rates of glutamine metabolism and ammonia excretion.

text: The

text: kidneys

text: are slower to compensate, but

text: renal physiology

text: has several powerful mechanisms to control pH by the excretion of excess acid or base. In responses to acidosis,

text: tubular

text: collecting duct

text: cells secrete more hydrogen and generate more bicarbonate, and

text: ammoniagenesis

text: leads to increased formation of the NH buffer. In responses to alkalosis, the kidney may excrete more bicarbonate by decreasing hydrogen ion secretion from the tubular epithelial cells, and lowering rates of

text: glutamine

text: metabolism and ammonia excretion.

text: (vi) The person has a concentration of L.S.D. in the person’s urine of at least twenty-five nanograms of L.S.D. per milliliter of the person’s urine or a concentration of L.S.D. in the person’s whole blood or blood serum or plasma of at least ten nanograms of L.S.D. per milliliter of the person’s whole blood or blood serum or plasma.(vii) The person has a concentration of marihuana in the person’s urine of at least ten nanograms of marihuana per milliliter of the person’s urine or has a concentration of marihuana in the person’s whole blood or blood serum or plasma of at least two nanograms of marihuana per milliliter of the person’s whole blood or blood serum or plasma. "

text: Spironolactone may rarely cause more severe side effects such as anaphylaxis, renal failure, hepatitis (two reported cases, neither serious), agranulocytosis, DRESS syndrome, Stevens-Johnson Syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis. Five cases of breast cancer in patients who took spironolactone for prolonged periods of time have been reported. It should also be used with caution in people with some neurological disorders, anuria, acute kidney injury, or significant impairment of renal excretory function with risk of hyperkalemia.

text: Spironolactone may rarely cause more severe side effects such as

text: anaphylaxis

text: renal failure

text: hepatitis

text: (two reported cases, neither serious),

text: agranulocytosis

entity_name: Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms

text: DRESS syndrome

text: Stevens-Johnson Syndrome

text: or

text: toxic epidermal necrolysis

text: . Five cases of

text: breast cancer

text: in patients who took spironolactone for prolonged periods of time have been reported. It should also be used with caution in people with some

text: neurological disorders

text: anuria

text: acute kidney injury

text: , or significant impairment of

text: renal excretory function

text: with risk of hyperkalemia.

text: Two organ systems, the kidneys and lungs, maintain acid-base homeostasis, which is the maintenance of pH around a relatively stable value. The lungs contribute to acid-base homeostasis by regulating carbon dioxide (CO) concentration.  The kidneys have two very important roles in maintaining the acid-base balance: to reabsorb and regenerate bicarbonate from urine, and to excrete hydrogen ions and fixed acids (anions of acids) into urine.

text: Two organ systems, the kidneys and lungs, maintain acid-base homeostasis, which is the maintenance of

text: pH

text: around a relatively stable value. The lungs contribute to acid-base homeostasis by regulating

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) concentration.  The kidneys have two very important roles in maintaining the acid-base balance: to reabsorb and regenerate bicarbonate from urine, and to excrete

text: hydrogen

text: ions and fixed acids (anions of acids) into urine.

text: Briefly, to excrete free water from urine, the urine flow (which is solute clearance + free water clearance) will equal the rate of solute excretion divided by the urine osmolality. With a diet of only solute poor beer, only about 200-300 mOSM (normal 750mOSM to greater than 900mOSM) of solute will be excreted per day, capping the amount of free water excretion at four liters. Any intake above 4 liters would lead to a dilution of the serum sodium concentration and thus hyponatremia.

text: Briefly, to excrete free water from urine, the urine flow (which is solute clearance + free water clearance) will equal the rate of solute excretion divided by the urine

text: osmolality

text: . With a diet of only solute poor beer, only about 200-300 mOSM (normal 750mOSM to greater than 900mOSM) of solute will be excreted per day, capping the amount of free water excretion at four liters. Any intake above 4 liters would lead to a dilution of the serum sodium concentration and thus hyponatremia.

text: The Kidney Education Foundation (KEF) is a health awareness organization dedicated to educating individuals and their families affected by kidney diseases. It provides free and easy access to information about prevention and care of kidney diseases through books and websites currently translated in 26 international languages.

text: Many physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients. Hermogenes wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases. Abdul Malik Ibn Habib of Andalusia d.862 AD, mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the Umayyad empire. Diabetes mellitus got its name because the urine is plentiful and sweet. The name uroscopy refers to any visual examination of the urine, including microscopy, although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or protoscientific forms of urine examination. Clinical urine tests today duly note the gross color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include urinalysis, which chemically analyzes the urine and quantifies its constituents. A culture of the urine is performed when a urinary tract infection is suspected, as bacteria in the urine are unusual otherwise. A microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.

text: Many physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients.

text: Hermogenes

text: wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases. Abdul Malik Ibn Habib of

text: Andalusia

text: d.862 AD, mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the

text: Umayyad

text: empire.

text: Diabetes mellitus

text: got its name because the urine is

text: plentiful

text: and

text: sweet

text: . The name

text: uroscopy

text: refers to any visual examination of the urine, including

text: microscopy

text: , although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or protoscientific forms of urine examination.

text: Clinical urine tests

text: today duly note the gross color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include

text: urinalysis

text: , which chemically analyzes the urine and

text: quantifies

text: its constituents. A

text: culture

text: of the urine is performed when a

text: urinary tract infection

text: is suspected, as

text: bacteria in the urine

text: are unusual otherwise. A microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.

text: For ease of recall, one can just remember the fractional excretion of sodium is the clearance of sodium divided by the glomerular filtration rate (i.e. the "fraction" excreted).

text: Enoplea are distinguished from Chromadorea by a number of characteristics. The enoplean esophagus is cylindrical or "bottle-shaped", compared to the bulbous chromadorean esophagus. Enopleans have pocket-like amphids, while chromadoreans have amphids shaped like slits, pores, coils, or spirals. An enoplean is smooth or marked with fine lines, while a chromadorean may have rings, projections, or setae. The enoplean excretory system is simple, sometimes made up of a single cell, while chromadoreans have more complex, tubular systems, sometimes with glands.

text: Enoplea are distinguished from Chromadorea by a number of characteristics. The enoplean

text: esophagus

text: is cylindrical or "bottle-shaped", compared to the bulbous chromadorean esophagus. Enopleans have pocket-like

text: amphid

text: s, while chromadoreans have amphids shaped like slits, pores, coils, or spirals. An enoplean is smooth or marked with fine lines, while a chromadorean may have rings, projections, or

text: seta

text: e. The enoplean

text: excretory system

text: is simple, sometimes made up of a single cell, while chromadoreans have more complex, tubular systems, sometimes with glands.

text: The mission of the Office of the U.S. Global AIDS Coordinator (OGAC) is to lead the implementation of the U.S. President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief (PEPFAR), the largest commitment ever by any nation for an international health initiative dedicated to a single disease. Initiated in 2003, PEPFAR has been reauthorized three times. What began as an emergency response has since developed into one of the largest international health initiatives. PEPFAR has supported countries in the development of national health and information systems to support the fight of HIV/AIDS and other diseases, and is collaborating with countries around the world to work towards epidemic control.

text: The mission of the Office of the U.S. Global AIDS Coordinator (OGAC) is to lead the implementation of the U.S.

entity_name: President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief

text: President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief

text: (PEPFAR), the largest commitment ever by any nation for an international health initiative dedicated to a single disease. Initiated in 2003, PEPFAR has been reauthorized three times. What began as an emergency response has since developed into one of the largest international health initiatives. PEPFAR has supported countries in the development of national health and information systems to support the fight of HIV/AIDS and other diseases, and is collaborating with countries around the world to work towards epidemic control.

text: Batroxobin is excreted by the liver, kidney and spleen. The excretion of batroxobin can be detected by small metabolite molecules in the urine. With use of the immunoassay only 0.2 - 1.9% of the dose was detected in the urine. The amount of radioactivity of 125I-batroxobin was 69% in rats and 73% in dogs within 48 hours. So batroxobin is mainly excreted through the kidneys in its degraded form. So it isn’t detectable with an immunoassay.

text: The numbers in this section apply to the efficiency of the drive-train, including means of transmission and any gearing system.  In this context efficiency is concerned with how much power is delivered to the wheel compared with how much power is put into the pedals.  For a well-maintained transmission system, efficiency is generally between 86% and 99%, as detailed below.

text: Pyroluria (or malvaria from the term mauve factor) involves hypothetical excessive levels of pyrroles in the body resulting from improper hemoglobin synthesis. Carl Pfeiffer believed that pyroluria is a form of schizophrenic porphyria, similar to acute intermittent porphyria where both pyrroles and porphyrins are excreted in the human urine to an excessive degree. and orthomolecular psychiatrists have alleged that pyroluria is related to diagnoses of ADHD, alcoholism, autism, depression, down syndrome, manic-depression, schizophrenia, celiac disease, epilepsy, and psychosis.  Pfeiffer's methods have not been rigorously tested, and pyrroles are not considered to be related to schizophrenia. Studies have either failed to detect hemopyrrole and kryptopyrrole in the urine of normal controls and schizophrenics, or found no correlation between these chemicals and mental illness. Few, if any, medical experts regard the condition as genuine, and few or no articles on pyroluria are found in modern medical literature; the approach is described as "snake oil" by pediatrician and author Julian Haber.

text: Pyroluria (or malvaria from the term mauve factor) involves hypothetical excessive levels of

text: pyrrole

text: s in the body resulting from improper hemoglobin synthesis.

text: Carl Pfeiffer

text: believed that pyroluria is a form of

text: schizophrenic

text: porphyria

text: , similar to

text: acute intermittent porphyria

text: where both

text: pyrrole

text: s and

text: porphyrin

text: s are excreted in the

text: human urine

text: to an excessive degree. and orthomolecular psychiatrists have alleged that pyroluria is related to diagnoses of

text: ADHD

text: alcoholism

text: autism

text: depression

text: down syndrome

text: manic-depression

text: schizophrenia

text: celiac disease

text: epilepsy

text: , and

text: psychosis

text: .  Pfeiffer's methods have not been rigorously tested, and pyrroles are not considered to be related to schizophrenia. Studies have either failed to detect hemopyrrole and kryptopyrrole in the urine of normal controls and schizophrenics, or found no correlation between these chemicals and mental illness. Few, if any, medical experts regard the condition as genuine, and few or no articles on pyroluria are found in modern medical literature; the approach is described as "snake oil" by pediatrician and author Julian Haber.

text: Complications of postsurgical wounds can be reduced before, during and after surgery. Before surgery, clinicians can treat the patient to reduce hemoglobin A1c levels to less than 7%. Those anticipating surgery can reduce their risk of complications by stopping smoking thirty days prior to surgery. The patient's skin can be evaluated for the presence of Staphylococcus areus prior to surgery since this bacterium causes wound infections in postoperative wounds. Treating any other infections prior to surgery also reduces the risks of a postoperative wound infection. Examples of these pre-existing infections are urinary tract infection or lower reproductive system infection. Removing the hair where the skin will be cut helps to reduce the risk of complications, though shaving is not considered to be appropriate and instead depilatories are used. Those who come in contact with the person who is receiving the surgery clean and disinfect their own skin surfaces. The patient's skin is also cleaned, scrubbed and treated with antiseptics. Patients undergoing surgery often receive antibiotics before surgery.

text: Proteins and fats are excreted in the urine, and there is an abnormally high fat level in the blood. Swelling occurs due to kidney failure, combined with the loss of blood protein. This is because proteins in the blood normally keep fluids in the blood stream, and when protein level is low, the fluid can leak into the body tissues.

text: Protein

text: s and

text: fat

text: s are excreted in the urine, and there is an abnormally high fat level in the blood. Swelling occurs due to

text: kidney failure

text: , combined with the loss of blood protein. This is because proteins in the blood normally keep fluids in the

text: blood stream

text: , and when protein level is low, the fluid can leak into the body tissues.

text: A high protein diet is a health concern for those suffering from renal disease. The main concern is that a high protein intake may promote further renal damage that can lead to protein toxicity. The physiological changes induced by an increased protein intake, such as an increased glomerular pressure and hyperfiltration, place further strain on already damaged kidneys. This strain can cause the kidneys to be unable to metabolize the protein adequately and subsequent toxicity may occur. A diet high in protein can lead to complications for those with renal disease and has been linked to further progression of the disease. The well-known Nurse’s Health Study found a correlation between the loss of kidney function and an increased dietary intake of animal protein by patients who had already been diagnosed with renal disease. This association suggests that a total protein intake that exceeds the recommendations may accelerate renal disease and lead to risk of protein toxicity within a diseased individual. For this reason, dietary protein restriction is a common treatment for patients with renal disease in which proteinuria is present. Protein restricted patients have been shown to have slower rates of progression of their renal diseases.

text: A high protein diet is a health concern for those suffering from

text: renal disease

text: . The main concern is that a high protein intake may promote further renal damage that can lead to protein toxicity. The physiological changes induced by an increased protein intake, such as an increased glomerular pressure and

text: hyperfiltration

text: , place further strain on already damaged kidneys. This strain can cause the kidneys to be unable to metabolize the protein adequately and subsequent toxicity may occur. A diet high in protein can lead to complications for those with renal disease and has been linked to further progression of the disease. The well-known Nurse’s Health Study found a correlation between the loss of kidney function and an increased dietary intake of animal protein by patients who had already been diagnosed with renal disease. This association suggests that a total protein intake that exceeds the recommendations may accelerate renal disease and lead to risk of protein toxicity within a diseased individual. For this reason, dietary protein restriction is a common treatment for patients with renal disease in which proteinuria is present. Protein restricted patients have been shown to have slower rates of progression of their renal diseases.

text: Basic blood tests can be used to check the concentration of hemoglobin, platelets, sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, urea, creatinine, calcium, magnesium or phosphate in the blood. All of these may be affected by kidney problems. The serum creatinine concentration can be used to estimate the function of the kidney, called the creatinine clearance or estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR). More specialized tests can be ordered to discover or link certain systemic diseases to kidney failure such as infections (hepatitis B, hepatitis C), autoimmune conditions (systemic lupus erythematosus, ANCA vasculitis), paraproteinemias (amyloidosis, multiple myeloma) and metabolic diseases (diabetes, cystinosis).

text: Basic blood tests can be used to check the concentration of

text: hemoglobin

text: platelets

text: , sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate,

text: urea

text: creatinine

text: , calcium, magnesium or phosphate in the blood. All of these may be affected by kidney problems. The serum creatinine concentration can be used to estimate the function of the kidney, called the

text: creatinine clearance

text: or estimated

text: glomerular filtration rate

text: (GFR). More specialized tests can be ordered to discover or link certain

text: systemic disease

text: s to kidney failure such as infections (

text: hepatitis B

text: hepatitis C

text: ), autoimmune conditions (

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: ANCA vasculitis

text: paraproteinemias

text: amyloidosis

text: multiple myeloma

text: ) and metabolic diseases (

text: diabetes

text: cystinosis

text: Nadolol is a non-selective beta blocker; that is, it non-selectively blocks both beta-1 and beta-2 receptors. It has a preference for beta-1 receptors, which are predominantly located in the heart, thereby inhibiting the effects of catecholamines and causing a decrease in heart rate and blood pressure. Its inhibition of beta-2 receptors, which are mainly located in the bronchial smooth muscle of the airways, leads to airway constriction similar to that seen in asthma. Inhibition of beta-1 receptors in the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidney inhibits the renin-angiotensin system, causing a decrease in vasoconstriction and a decrease in water retention. Nadolol's inhibition of beta-1 receptors in the heart and kidney leads to its effects on lowering blood pressure.

text: Nadolol is a non-selective

text: beta blocker

text: ; that is, it non-selectively blocks both

text: and

text: beta-2 receptor

text: s. It has a preference for beta-1 receptors, which are predominantly located in the

text: heart

text: , thereby inhibiting the effects of

text: catecholamine

text: s and causing a decrease in

text: heart rate

text: and

text: blood pressure

text: . Its inhibition of beta-2 receptors, which are mainly located in the

text: bronchial

text: smooth muscle

text: of the

text: airway

text: s, leads to airway constriction similar to that seen in

text: asthma

text: . Inhibition of beta-1 receptors in the

text: juxtaglomerular apparatus

text: of the

text: kidney

text: inhibits the

text: renin-angiotensin system

text: , causing a decrease in

text: vasoconstriction

text: and a decrease in water retention. Nadolol's inhibition of beta-1 receptors in the heart and kidney leads to its effects on lowering blood pressure.

text: The substance, or parenchyma, of the kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone-shaped renal lobes, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a renal pyramid (of Malpighi). Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called renal columns (or Bertin columns). Nephrons, the urine-producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the renal corpuscle which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a renal tubule that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a medullary ray is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single collecting duct.

text: The substance, or

text: parenchyma

text: , of the kidney is divided into two major structures: the outer

text: renal cortex

text: and the inner

text: renal medulla

text: . Grossly, these structures take the shape of eight to 18 cone-shaped

text: renal lobe

text: s, each containing renal cortex surrounding a portion of medulla called a

text: renal pyramid

text: (of

text: Malpighi

text: ). Between the renal pyramids are projections of cortex called

text: renal column

text: s (or

text: Bertin

text: columns).

text: Nephron

text: s, the urine-producing functional structures of the kidney, span the cortex and medulla. The initial filtering portion of a nephron is the

text: renal corpuscle

text: which is located in the cortex. This is followed by a

text: renal tubule

text: that passes from the cortex deep into the medullary pyramids. Part of the renal cortex, a

text: medullary ray

text: is a collection of renal tubules that drain into a single

text: collecting duct

text: Clinical signs and symptoms of complement-mediated TMA can include abdominal pain, confusion, fatigue, edema (swelling), nausea/vomiting and diarrhea.  aHUS often presents with malaise and fatigue, as well as microangiopathic anemia. However, severe abdominal pain and bloody diarrhea are unusual.  Laboratory tests may also reveal low levels of platelets (cells in the blood that aid in clotting), elevated lactate dehydrogenase (LDH, a chemical released from damaged cells, and which is therefore a marker of cellular damage), decreased haptoglobin (indicative of the breakdown of red blood cells), anemia (low red blood cell count)/schistocytes (damaged red blood cells), elevated creatinine (indicative of kidney dysfunction), and proteinuria (indicative of kidney injury). Patients with aHUS often present with an abrupt onset of systemic signs and symptoms such as acute kidney failure, hypertension (high blood pressure), myocardial infarction (heart attack), stroke, lung complications, pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas), liver necrosis (death of liver cells or tissue), encephalopathy (brain dysfunction), seizure, or coma. Failure of neurologic, cardiac, kidney, and gastrointestinal (GI) organs, as well as death, can occur unpredictably at any time, either very quickly or following prolonged symptomatic or asymptomatic disease progression. For example, approximately 1 in 6 patients with aHUS initially will present with proteinuria or hematuria without acute kidney failure. Patients who survive the presenting signs and symptoms endure a chronic thrombotic and inflammatory state, which puts many of them at lifelong elevated risk of sudden blood clotting, kidney failure, other severe complications and premature death.

text: is an office within the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). TAO facilitates research collaborations and the exchange of research materials by use of a Material Transfer Agreement or other types of technology transfer agreements between NIDDK and the global scientific community by developing research partnerships.  Unlike most technology transfer and development offices, TAO also helps NIDDK inventors advance their technologies through preclinical development.

text: is an office within the

text: (NIDDK), of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: (NIH), which is an agency of the

text: United States Department of Health and Human Services

text: (HHS). TAO facilitates research collaborations and the exchange of research materials by use of a

text: Material Transfer Agreement

text: or other types of technology transfer agreements between NIDDK and the global scientific community by developing research partnerships.  Unlike most technology transfer and development offices, TAO also helps NIDDK inventors advance their technologies through preclinical development.

text: 2009-01-09 Heroine Excretion Hell Vol. 17 –  [JHHD-17] (Starring Yuuka Naoe)

text: Although the strictest sense of the word excretion with respect to the urinary system is urination itself, renal clearance is also conventionally called excretion (for example, in the set term fractional excretion of sodium).

text: Although the strictest

text: sense

text: of the word

text: excretion

text: with respect to the

text: urinary system

text: is

text: urination

text: itself, renal clearance is also conventionally called excretion (for example, in the set term

text: fractional excretion of sodium

text: Urine typically contains 70% of the nitrogen and more than half the phosphorus and potassium found in urban waste water flows, while making up less than 1% of the overall volume. Human urine can be collected with sanitation systems that utilise urinals or urine diversion toilets. Thus far, source separation, or urine diversion systems have been implemented in South Africa, China, Sweden and many other countries. Since about 2011, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation is providing research funding sanitation systems that recover the nutrients in urine.

text: Urine typically contains 70% of the

text: nitrogen

text: and more than half the

text: phosphorus

text: and

text: potassium

text: found in urban waste water flows, while making up less than 1% of the overall volume. Human urine can be collected with

text: sanitation

text: systems that utilise

text: urinals

text: or

text: urine diversion

text: toilets. Thus far, source separation, or

text: urine diversion

text: systems have been implemented in South Africa, China, Sweden and many other countries. Since about 2011, the

text: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation

text: is providing research funding sanitation systems that recover the nutrients in urine.

text: Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including urine and feces, sweating, and by water vapour in the exhaled breath. Therefore, it is necessary to adequately rehydrate to replace lost fluids.

text: Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including

text: urine

text: and

text: feces

text: sweating

text: , and by

text: water vapour

text: in the exhaled breath. Therefore, it is necessary to adequately rehydrate to replace lost fluids.

text: Magnesium homeostasis comprises three systems: kidney, small intestine, and bone. In the acute phase of magnesium deficiency there is an increase in absorption in the distal small intestine and tubular resorption in the kidneys. When this condition persists, serum magnesium drops and is corrected with magnesium from bone tissue. The level of intracellular magnesium is controlled through the reservoir in bone tissue.

text: The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) is part of the United States National Institutes of Health, which in turn is part of the Department of Health and Human Services. NIDDK is approximately the fifth-largest of the 27 NIH institutes. The institute's mission is to support research, training, and communication with the public in the topic areas of "diabetes and other endocrine and metabolic diseases; digestive diseases, nutritional disorders, and obesity; and kidney, urologic, and hematologic diseases". As of 2015, the Director of the institute is Dr. Griffin P. Rodgers, who assumed the position on an acting basis in 2006 and on a permanent basis in 2007.

text: The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) is part of the United States

text: National Institutes of Health

text: , which in turn is part of the

text: Department of Health and Human Services

text: . NIDDK is approximately the fifth-largest of the 27

entity_name: List of institutes and centers of the National Institutes of Health

text: NIH institutes

text: . The institute's mission is to support research, training, and communication with the public in the topic areas of "diabetes and other endocrine and metabolic diseases; digestive diseases, nutritional disorders, and obesity; and kidney, urologic, and hematologic diseases". As of 2015, the Director of the institute is Dr.

text: Griffin P. Rodgers

text: , who assumed the position on an acting basis in 2006 and on a permanent basis in 2007.

text: Unlike a number other bird species which have the salt gland as the primary osmoregulatory organ, Columba livia does not use its salt gland even though it exists. Columba livia uses the function of their kidneys to maintain homeostatic balance of ions such as sodium and potassium while preserving water quantity in the body. Filtration of the blood, reabsorption of ions and water, and secretion of uric acid are all components of the kidney's process. The kidneys of Columba livia are located in its pelvic region. Columba livia has two kidneys that are coupled, each having three partially separate lobes; the posterior lobe is the largest in size. Like mammalian kidneys, the avian kidney contains a medullary region and a cortical region. Peripherally located around the cortical region, the collecting ducts gather into cone-like ducts, medullary cones, which converge into the ureters. There are two types of nephrons in the kidney; nephrons that are located in the cortex and do not contain the loop of Henle are called loopless nephrons, the other type is called looped or mammalian nephrons. Looped nephrons contain the loop of Henle that continue down into the medulla then enter the distal tubule drain towards the ureter. Mammals generally have a more vascularised glomeruli than the nephrons in birds. The nephrons of avian species can not produce urine that is hyperosmotic to the blood, but, the loop of Henle utilises countercurrent multiplication which allows it to become hyperosmotic in the collecting duct. This alternation of permeability between different sections of the ascending and descending loop allows for the elevation of the urine osmotic pressure 2.5 times above the blood osmotic pressure.

text: Unlike a number other bird species which have the

text: salt gland

text: as the primary osmoregulatory organ, Columba livia does not use its salt gland even though it exists. Columba livia uses the function of their

text: kidney

text: s to maintain homeostatic balance of ions such as sodium and potassium while preserving water quantity in the body.

text: Filtration

text: of the blood,

text: reabsorption

text: of ions and water, and

text: secretion

text: of uric acid are all components of the kidney's process. The kidneys of Columba livia are located in its pelvic region. Columba livia has two kidneys that are coupled, each having three partially separate lobes; the posterior lobe is the largest in size. Like mammalian kidneys, the avian kidney contains a

text: medulla

text: ry region and a

text: cortical

text: region. Peripherally located around the cortical region, the collecting ducts gather into cone-like ducts, medullary cones, which converge into the ureters. There are two types of

text: nephron

text: s in the kidney; nephrons that are located in the cortex and do not contain the

text: loop of Henle

text: are called loopless nephrons, the other type is called looped or mammalian nephrons. Looped nephrons contain the loop of Henle that continue down into the medulla then enter the distal tubule drain towards the ureter. Mammals generally have a more

text: vascularised

text: glomeruli

text: than the nephrons in birds. The nephrons of avian species can not produce urine that is

text: hyperosmotic

text: to the blood, but, the loop of Henle utilises

text: countercurrent multiplication

text: which allows it to become hyperosmotic in the collecting duct. This alternation of permeability between different sections of the ascending and descending loop allows for the elevation of the urine osmotic pressure 2.5 times above the blood osmotic pressure.

text: Lonicera japonica contains methyl caffeate, 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid, methyl 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinate, protocatechuic acid, methyl chlorogenic acid and luteolin. These compounds have an inhibitory effect on human platelet aggregation that may explain the possible role of Japanese honeysuckle in maintaining vascular homeostasis. The two biflavonoids, 3′-O-methyl loniflavone and loniflavone along with luteolin and chrysin can be isolated from the leaves. Other phenolic compounds present in the plant are hyperoside, chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid.

text: Lonicera japonica contains

text: methyl caffeate

text: 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid

text: methyl 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinate

text: protocatechuic acid

text: methyl chlorogenic acid

text: and

text: luteolin

text: . These compounds have an inhibitory effect on human platelet aggregation that may explain the possible role of Japanese honeysuckle in maintaining vascular homeostasis. The two biflavonoids,

text: 3′-O-methyl loniflavone

text: and

text: loniflavone

text: along with luteolin and

text: chrysin

text: can be isolated from the leaves. Other phenolic compounds present in the plant are

text: hyperoside

text: chlorogenic acid

text: and

text: caffeic acid

text: There are a number of ways to classify low back pain with no consensus that any one method is best. There are three general types of low back pain by cause: mechanical back pain (including nonspecific musculoskeletal strains, herniated discs, compressed nerve roots, degenerative discs or joint disease, and broken vertebra), non-mechanical back pain (tumors, inflammatory conditions such as spondyloarthritis, and infections), and referred pain from internal organs (gallbladder disease, kidney stones, kidney infections, and aortic aneurysm, among others). Mechanical or musculoskeletal problems underlie most cases (around 90% or more), and of those, most (around 75%) do not have a specific cause identified, but are thought to be due to muscle strain or injury to ligaments. Rarely, complaints of low back pain result from systemic or psychological problems, such as fibromyalgia and somatoform disorders.

text: There are a number of ways to classify low back pain with no consensus that any one method is best. There are three general types of low back pain by cause: mechanical back pain (including nonspecific musculoskeletal strains,

text: herniated disc

text: s, compressed

text: nerve root

text: s,

text: degenerative disc

text: s or

text: joint disease

text: , and broken vertebra), non-mechanical back pain (

text: tumors

text: , inflammatory conditions such as

text: spondyloarthritis

text: , and infections), and

text: referred pain

text: from internal organs (

text: gallbladder disease

text: kidney stone

text: s,

text: kidney infection

text: s, and

text: aortic aneurysm

text: , among others). Mechanical or musculoskeletal problems underlie most cases (around 90% or more), and of those, most (around 75%) do not have a specific cause identified, but are thought to be due to muscle strain or injury to ligaments. Rarely, complaints of low back pain result from systemic or psychological problems, such as

text: fibromyalgia

text: and

text: somatoform disorders

text: On April 16, 1987, the FCC concluded that Stern had aired indecent material several times. In some instances, his broadcasts "did not merely consist of an occasional off-color reference or expletive, but...a dwelling on sexual and excretory matters in a way that was patently offensive". No fine was imposed, since the FCC believed there may have been some uncertainty as to the reach of the Carlin case, and that its Section 1464 indecency provisions were applied for the first time in a number of years. Infinity was instead warned of the risk of fines or the loss of its broadcast license if violations occurred. The investigation caused the FCC to expand its indecency standard beyond the seven dirty words, to "language or material that depicts or describes, in terms patently offensive as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium, sexual or excretory activities or organs". As the comments cited in the initial complaints were made between 6:00 and 10:00 am, when there is a "reasonable risk that children may have been in the audience", they would be termed indecent, and therefore actionable, under the new definition.

text: On April 16, 1987, the FCC concluded that Stern had aired indecent material several times. In some instances, his broadcasts "did not merely consist of an occasional off-color reference or expletive, but...a dwelling on sexual and excretory matters in a way that was patently offensive". No fine was imposed, since the FCC believed there may have been some uncertainty as to the reach of the Carlin case, and that its Section 1464 indecency provisions were applied for the first time in a number of years. Infinity was instead warned of the risk of fines or the loss of its broadcast license if violations occurred. The investigation caused the FCC to expand its indecency standard beyond the seven dirty words, to "language or material that depicts or describes, in terms patently offensive as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast medium, sexual or excretory activities or organs". As the comments cited in the initial complaints were made between 6:00 and 10:00 am, when there is a "reasonable risk that children may have been in the audience", they would be termed indecent, and therefore

text: actionable

text: , under the new definition.

text: The Beverage Containers Act contains the guidelines on how to establish and maintain the deposit/refund system for beverage containers.

text: A major way animals have evolved to osmoregulate is by controlling the amount of water lost through the excretory system.

text: A major way animals have evolved to osmoregulate is by controlling the amount of water lost through the

text: excretory system

text: The genitourinary system or urogenital system is the organ system of the reproductive organs and the urinary system. These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways, like the male urethra. Also, because of their proximity, the systems are sometimes imaged together.

text: The genitourinary system or urogenital system is the

text: organ system

text: of the

text: reproductive organ

text: s and the

text: urinary system

text: . These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other,

text: their common embryological origin

text: and the use of common pathways, like the

text: male urethra

text: . Also, because of their proximity, the systems are sometimes imaged together.

text: At Paris, he studied under Anatole Chauffard (1855-1932) and Augustin Nicolas Gilbert (1855-1927), and performed investigations involving renal functionality with internist Emile Charles Achard (1860-1944). With Achard, the "Achard-Castaigne test" is named, a urinary test using methylene blue dye to analyze the excretory function of the kidneys. His name is also lent to the "Castaigne test", a method for examining the density of urine.

text: At Paris, he studied under

text: Anatole Chauffard

text: (1855-1932) and

text: Augustin Nicolas Gilbert

text: (1855-1927), and performed investigations involving

text: renal

text: functionality with

text: internist

text: Emile Charles Achard

text: (1860-1944). With Achard, the "Achard-Castaigne test" is named, a urinary test using

text: methylene blue

text: dye to analyze the excretory function of the

text: kidneys

text: . His name is also lent to the "Castaigne test", a method for examining the density of

text: urine

text: Roughly  of an oral dose of nitazoxanide is excreted as its metabolites in feces, while the remainder of the dose excreted in urine. Tizoxanide is excreted in the urine, bile and feces. Tizoxanide glucuronide is excreted in urine and bile.

text: Roughly  of an oral dose of nitazoxanide is excreted as its metabolites in feces, while the remainder of the dose excreted in urine. Tizoxanide is excreted in the

text: urine

text: bile

text: and

text: feces

text: . Tizoxanide glucuronide is excreted in urine and bile.

text: In humans, glutathione synthetase functions in a similar manner. Its product GSH participates in cellular pathways involved in homeostasis and cellular maintenance. For instance, glutathione peroxidases catalyze the oxidation of GSH to glutathione disulfide (GSSG) by reducing free radicals and reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide. Glutathione S-transferase uses GSH to clean up various metabolites, xenobiotics, and electrophiles to mercapturates for excretion. Because of its antioxidant role, GSS mostly produce GSH inside the cytoplasm of liver cells and imported to mitochondria where detoxification occurs.]] GSH is also essential for the activation of the immune system to generate robust defense mechanisms against invading pathogens. GSH is capable of preventing infection from the influenza virus.

text: In humans, glutathione synthetase functions in a similar manner. Its product GSH participates in cellular pathways involved in homeostasis and cellular maintenance. For instance,

text: glutathione peroxidases

text: catalyze the oxidation of GSH to

text: glutathione disulfide

text: (GSSG) by reducing free radicals and reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide.

text: Glutathione S-transferase

text: uses GSH to clean up various metabolites, xenobiotics, and electrophiles to

text: mercapturates

text: for excretion. Because of its antioxidant role, GSS mostly produce GSH inside the cytoplasm of liver cells and imported to mitochondria where detoxification occurs.]] GSH is also essential for the activation of the immune system to generate robust defense mechanisms against invading pathogens. GSH is capable of preventing infection from the influenza virus.

text: Feces were excreted into a container such as a chamber pot, and sometimes collected in the container with urine and other waste ("slops", hence slopping out). The excrement in the pail was often covered with earth (soil), which may have contributed to the term "night soil." Often the deposition or excretion occurred within the residence, such as in a shophouse. This system may still be used in isolated rural areas or in urban slums in developing countries. The material was collected for temporary storage and disposed of depending on local custom.

text: Feces were excreted into a container such as a

text: chamber pot

text: , and sometimes collected in the container with urine and other waste ("slops", hence

text: slopping out

text: ). The excrement in the pail was often covered with earth (soil), which may have contributed to the term "night soil." Often the deposition or excretion occurred within the residence, such as in a

text: shophouse

text: . This system may still be used in isolated rural areas or in urban slums in developing countries. The material was collected for temporary storage and disposed of depending on local custom.

text: Increasing the urine pH to around 6.5 provides optimal conditions for dissolution of uric acid stones. Increasing the urine pH to a value higher than 7.0 increases the risk of calcium phosphate stone formation. Testing the urine periodically with nitrazine paper can help to ensure the urine pH remains in this optimal range. Using this approach, stone dissolution rate can be expected to be around  of stone radius per month.

text: Increasing the urine pH to around 6.5 provides optimal conditions for

text: dissolution

text: of uric acid stones. Increasing the urine pH to a value higher than 7.0 increases the risk of calcium phosphate stone formation. Testing the urine periodically with

text: nitrazine

text: paper can help to ensure the urine pH remains in this optimal range. Using this approach, stone dissolution rate can be expected to be around  of stone radius per month.

text: In various animals, including humans, the acid–base homeostasis system can be analyzed into 3 subsystems that are interrelated. They are the bicarbonate buffer system, the phosphate buffer system, and the protein buffer system. Respiratory compensation and renal compensation are two ways that the body can excrete excess molecules to maintain pH. Acidosis or alkalosis results if the balance is disturbed.

text: In various animals, including humans, the acid–base homeostasis system can be analyzed into 3 subsystems that are interrelated. They are the

text: bicarbonate buffer system

text: , the phosphate buffer system, and the protein buffer system.

text: Respiratory compensation

text: and

text: renal compensation

text: are two ways that the body can

text: excrete

text: excess molecules to maintain pH.

text: Acidosis

text: or

text: alkalosis

text: results if the balance is disturbed.

text: Since identifying the color of the urine is essential for a proper diagnosis, the lighting is crucial. This is a very complicated step in the uroscopy test. The doctor must not visually examine the urine in an overly lit location, because it will make the urine seem too bright. He can not examine the urine in a poorly lit location, because he will not be able to properly see the urine. So, he must examine the urine in both conditions. This is done to offset the effects of not enough light and too much light. After he examines in both conditions the doctor must use his best judgment, to make a diagnosis.

text: Sport, music, religious, and educational works are exempt from classification under the Act. Exemption may be forfeited if the work depicts excessive human sexual activity or acts of force or restraint associated with such activity, mutilation or torture of humans or animals, human genital organs or urinary or excretory functions, or techniques likely to be useful in the perpetration of criminal acts or illicit activity.

text: Sport

text: music

text: religious

text: , and

text: education

text: al works are exempt from classification under the Act. Exemption may be forfeited if the work depicts excessive human

text: sexual

text: activity or acts of force or restraint associated with such activity,

text: mutilation

text: or

text: torture

text: of humans or animals, human

text: genital

text: organs or

text: urinary

text: or excretory functions, or techniques likely to be useful in the perpetration of criminal acts or illicit activity.

text: The underlying starvation, malnourishment, and usually dehydration, associated with emaciation, affect and are harmful to organ systems throughout the body. The emaciated individual experiences disturbances of the blood, circulatory, and urinary systems; these include hyponatremia and/or hypokalemia (low sodium and/or potassium in the blood, respectively), anemia (low hemoglobin), improper function of lymph (immune system-related white blood matter) and the lymphatic system, and pleurisy (fluid in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs) and edema (swelling in general) caused by poor or improper function of the kidneys to eliminate wastes from the blood.

text: The underlying starvation, malnourishment, and usually dehydration, associated with emaciation, affect and are harmful to

text: organ system

text: s throughout the body. The emaciated individual experiences disturbances of the blood,

text: circulatory

text: , and

text: urinary system

text: s; these include

text: hyponatremia

text: and/or

text: hypokalemia

text: (low

text: sodium

text: and/or

text: potassium

text: in the blood, respectively),

text: anemia

text: (low

text: hemoglobin

text: ), improper function of

text: lymph

text: immune system

text: -related

text: white blood

text: matter) and the

text: lymphatic system

text: , and

text: pleurisy

text: (fluid in the

text: pleural cavity

text: surrounding the lungs) and

text: edema

text: (swelling in general) caused by poor or improper function of the kidneys to eliminate wastes from the blood.

text: In the USA, founded in 1964, the National Kidney Foundation is a national organization representing patients and professionals who treat kidney diseases. Founded in 1966, the American Society of Nephrology (ASN) is the world’s largest professional society devoted to the study of kidney disease. The American Nephrology Nurses' Association (ANNA), founded in 1969, promotes excellence in and appreciation of nephrology nursing to make a positive difference for patients with kidney disease. The American Association of Kidney Patients (AAKP) is a non-profit, patient-centric group focused on improving the health and well-being of CKD and dialysis patients. The National Renal Administrators Association (NRAA), founded in 1977, is a national organization that represents and supports the independent and community-based dialysis providers. The American Kidney Fund directly provides financial support to patients in need, as well as participating in health education and prevention efforts. ASDIN (American Society of Diagnostic and Interventional Nephrology) is the main organization of interventional nephrologists. Other organizations include CIDA, VASA etc. which deal with dialysis vascular access.  The Renal Support Network (RSN) is a nonprofit, patient-focused, patient-run organization that provides non-medical services to those affected by chronic kidney disease (CKD).

text: In the USA, founded in 1964, the

text: National Kidney Foundation

text: is a national organization representing patients and professionals who treat kidney diseases. Founded in 1966, the

text: American Society of Nephrology

text: (ASN) is the world’s largest professional society devoted to the study of kidney disease. The

text: American Nephrology Nurses' Association

text: (ANNA), founded in 1969, promotes excellence in and appreciation of nephrology nursing to make a positive difference for patients with kidney disease. The

text: American Association of Kidney Patients

text: (AAKP) is a non-profit, patient-centric group focused on improving the health and well-being of CKD and

text: dialysis

text: patients. The

text: National Renal Administrators Association

text: (NRAA), founded in 1977, is a national organization that represents and supports the independent and community-based dialysis providers. The

text: American Kidney Fund

text: directly provides financial support to patients in need, as well as participating in health education and prevention efforts. ASDIN (American Society of Diagnostic and Interventional Nephrology) is the main organization of interventional nephrologists. Other organizations include CIDA, VASA etc. which deal with dialysis vascular access.  The

text: Renal Support Network

text: (RSN) is a nonprofit, patient-focused, patient-run organization that provides non-medical services to those affected by chronic kidney disease (CKD).

text: The body stores urine — water and wastes removed by the kidneys — in the urinary bladder, a balloon-like organ. The bladder connects to the urethra, the tube through which urine leaves the body.

text: The body stores urine — water and wastes removed by the kidneys — in the

text: urinary bladder

text: , a balloon-like organ. The bladder connects to the

text: urethra

text: , the tube through which urine leaves the body.

text: Through biological monitoring it was discovered that o-toluidine may be absorbed through inhalation and dermal contact. Extensive absorption (at least 92% of the administered oral dose) of o-toluidine from the gastrointestinal tract was observed. Studies show that the absorption of o-toluidine from the gastrointestinal tract in rats is rapid with peak values at 1 hour; the blood values were near zero in 24 hours. It is expected of aromatic amines, like o-toluidine, to be absorbable through the skin due to their lipid solubility. 48 hours following subcutaneous injection of labeled o-toluidine hydrochloride into rats, detected radioactivity in decreasing range: liver > kidney > spleen, colon > lung, bladder. In another study, 72 hours after oral application to rats, radioactivity was detected in decreasing range: blood > spleen > kidney > liver > subcutaneous abdominal fat > lung > heart > abdominal skin > bladder > gastrointestinal tract > bone marrow > brain > muscle > testes. The main excretion pathway is through the urine where up to one-third of the administered compound was recovered unchanged. Major metabolites were determined to be 4-amino-m-cresol and to a lesser extent, N-acetyl-4-amino-m-cresol, azoxytoluene, o-nitrosotoluene, N-acetyl-o-toluidine, N-acetyl-o-aminobenzyl alcohol, anthranilic acid, N-acetyl-anthranilic acid, 2-amino-m-cresol, p-hydroxy-o-toluidine and other unidentified substances. Conjugates that were formed were predominated by sulfate conjugates over glucuronide conjugates by a ratio of 6:1.

text: Through biological monitoring it was discovered that o-toluidine may be absorbed through inhalation and dermal contact. Extensive absorption (at least 92% of the administered oral dose) of o-toluidine from the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: was observed. Studies show that the absorption of o-toluidine from the gastrointestinal tract in rats is rapid with peak values at 1 hour; the blood values were near zero in 24 hours. It is expected of aromatic

text: amine

text: s, like o-toluidine, to be absorbable through the skin due to their lipid solubility. 48 hours following subcutaneous injection of

text: labeled

text: o-toluidine hydrochloride into rats, detected radioactivity in decreasing range:

text: liver

text: kidney

text: spleen

text: colon

text: lung

text: bladder

text: . In another study, 72 hours after oral application to rats, radioactivity was detected in decreasing range:

text: blood

text: > spleen > kidney > liver >

text: subcutaneous abdominal fat

text: > lung >

text: heart

text: > abdominal skin > bladder > gastrointestinal tract >

text: bone marrow

text: brain

text: muscle

text: testes

text: . The main

text: excretion

text: pathway is through the

text: urine

text: where up to one-third of the administered compound was recovered unchanged. Major metabolites were determined to be 4-amino-m-cresol and to a lesser extent, N-acetyl-4-amino-m-cresol, azoxytoluene, o-nitrosotoluene, N-acetyl-o-toluidine, N-acetyl-o-aminobenzyl alcohol, anthranilic acid, N-acetyl-anthranilic acid, 2-amino-m-cresol, p-hydroxy-o-toluidine and other unidentified substances. Conjugates that were formed were predominated by

text: sulfate

text: conjugates over

text: glucuronide

text: conjugates by a ratio of 6:1.

text: Bilirubin is conjugated with glucuronic acid in the liver by the enzyme glucuronyltransferase, making it soluble in water. Much of it goes into the bile and thus out into the small intestine. Although 95% of the secreted bile is reabsorbed by the small intestine, conjugated bilirubin is not reabsorbed in small intestine. All conjugated bilirubin in the large intestine is metabolised by colonic bacteria to urobilinogen, which is then further oxidized to urobilin and stercobilin. Urobilin, stercobilin and their degradation products give feces its brown color.    However, just like bile, some of the urobilinogen  reabsorbed is resecreted in the bile which is also part of enterohepatic circulation. The rest of the reabsorbed urobilinogen is excreted in the urine where it is converted to an oxidized form, urobilin, which gives urine its characteristic yellow color.

text: Bilirubin

text: is conjugated with

text: glucuronic acid

text: in the liver by the enzyme

text: glucuronyltransferase

text: , making it soluble in water. Much of it goes into the bile and thus out into the small intestine. Although 95% of the secreted bile is reabsorbed by the small intestine, conjugated bilirubin is not reabsorbed in small intestine. All conjugated bilirubin in the large intestine is metabolised by colonic bacteria to

text: urobilinogen

text: , which is then further oxidized to

text: urobilin

text: and

text: stercobilin

text: . Urobilin, stercobilin and their degradation products give feces its brown color.    However, just like bile, some of the urobilinogen  reabsorbed is resecreted in the bile which is also part of enterohepatic circulation. The rest of the reabsorbed urobilinogen is excreted in the urine where it is converted to an oxidized form,

text: urobilin

text: , which gives urine its characteristic yellow color.

text: In forming or understanding a word root, one needs a basic comprehension of the terms and the source language. The study of the origin of words is called etymology. For example, if a word was to be formed to indicate a condition of kidneys, there are two primary roots – one from Greek (νεφρός nephr(os)) and one from Latin (ren(es)). Renal failure would be a condition of kidneys, and nephritis is also a condition, or inflammation, of the kidneys. The suffix -itis means inflammation, and the entire word conveys the meaning inflammation of the kidney. To continue using these terms, other combinations will be presented for the purpose of examples:The term supra-renal is a combination of the prefix supra- (meaning "above"), and the word root for kidney, and the entire word means "situated above the kidneys". The word "nephrologist" combines the root word for kidney to the suffix -ologist with the resultant meaning of "one who studies the kidneys".

text: In forming or understanding a word root, one needs a basic comprehension of the terms and the source language. The study of the origin of words is called

text: etymology

text: . For example, if a word was to be formed to indicate a condition of kidneys, there are two primary roots – one from Greek (νεφρός nephr(os)) and one from Latin (ren(es)).

text: Renal failure

text: would be a condition of

text: kidney

text: s, and nephritis is also a condition, or inflammation, of the kidneys. The suffix -itis means inflammation, and the entire word conveys the meaning inflammation of the kidney. To continue using these terms, other combinations will be presented for the purpose of examples:The term supra-renal is a combination of the prefix supra- (meaning "above"), and the word root for kidney, and the entire word means "situated above the kidneys". The word "

text: nephrologist

text: " combines the root word for kidney to the suffix -ologist with the resultant meaning of "one who studies the kidneys".

text: Each opens upon the surface by a long excretory duct.

text: Each opens upon the surface by a long excretory

text: duct

text: The amount of lead in the blood and tissues, as well as the time course of exposure, determine toxicity.Lead poisoning may be acute (from intense exposure of short duration) or chronic (from repeat low-level exposure over a prolonged period), but the latter is much more common.Diagnosis and treatment of lead exposure are based on blood lead level (the amount of lead in the blood), measured in micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood (μg/dL). Urine lead levels may be used as well, though less commonly. In cases of chronic exposure lead often sequesters in the highest concentrations first in the bones, then in the kidneys. If a provider is performing a provocative excretion test, or "chelation challenge", a measurement obtained from urine rather than blood is likely to provide a more accurate representation of total lead burden to a skilled interpreter.

text: The amount of lead in the blood and tissues, as well as the time course of exposure, determine toxicity.Lead poisoning may be acute (from intense exposure of short duration) or chronic (from repeat low-level exposure over a prolonged period), but the latter is much more common.Diagnosis and treatment of lead exposure are based on blood lead level (the amount of lead in the blood), measured in

text: microgram

text: s of lead per

text: deciliter

text: of blood (μg/dL). Urine lead levels may be used as well, though less commonly. In cases of chronic exposure lead often sequesters in the highest concentrations first in the bones, then in the kidneys. If a provider is performing a provocative excretion test, or "chelation challenge", a measurement obtained from urine rather than blood is likely to provide a more accurate representation of total lead burden to a skilled interpreter.

text: Common causes of kidney disease include diabetes, heart disease, long term untreated high blood pressure, as well as abuse of analgesics like ibuprofen, aspirin, and paracetamol. Kidney disease like the Polycystic Disease can be genetic in nature and progress as the patient ages.

text: Common causes of kidney disease include

text: diabetes

text: heart disease

text: , long term untreated

text: high blood pressure

text: , as well as abuse of analgesics like

text: ibuprofen

text: aspirin

text: , and

text: paracetamol

text: . Kidney disease like the Polycystic Disease can be genetic in nature and progress as the patient ages.

text: VMA is found in the urine, along with other catecholamine metabolites, including homovanillic acid (HVA), metanephrine, and normetanephrine.  In timed urine tests the quantity excreted (usually per 24 hours) is assessed along with creatinine clearance, and the quantity of cortisols, catecholamines, and metanephrines excreted is also measured.

text: VMA is found in the

text: urine

text: , along with other catecholamine metabolites, including

text: homovanillic acid

text: (HVA),

text: metanephrine

text: , and

text: normetanephrine

text: .  In timed

text: urine test

text: s the quantity excreted (usually per 24 hours) is assessed along with

text: creatinine

text: clearance, and the quantity of

text: cortisol

text: s,

text: catecholamine

text: s, and

text: metanephrine

text: s excreted is also measured.

text: This fundamental fat-soluble vitamin has been long known for its important role in calcium absorption in the body, especially in musculoskeletal health. The health impacts commonly caused by deficiency of Vitamin D are rickets in children and osteoporosis in the elderly populations. Low levels of Vitamin D have also been associated with other conditions such as heart disease, cancer and kidney disease but further research is required. Recent evidence suggests Vitamin D is also linked to many other health diseases such as cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, diabetes mellitus, multiple sclerosis and some form of cancer.

text: A uroscopy flask is a piece of glass that is circular at the bottom, while there is a thin neck at the top, and on top of that neck there is an opening for urine.  In order for a doctor to examine a patients urine one would have to urinate into a uroscopy flask. A uroscopy flask is a glass bottle that must be transparent. If there is any color to the uroscopy flask, diagnosis could be wrong. In the process of uroscopy, color is very crucial to find diseases. If the uroscopy flask has a tint of color, the doctor may not be able effectively diagnose the patient. The glass must also have an even thickness throughout the flask. If the top is very thin glass and the bottom is thick glass, then the impurities in the top may look different from the top and bottom. While in all actuality they could be the very same impurities.  The impurities in urine have varying shapes, uneven glass will corrupt the diagnosis.

text: Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage and some irreversible diseases. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity. Organophosphates and carbonates can induce a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in groundwater contaminated through soil.

text: Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher incidence of leukemia. Mercury and

text: cyclodiene

text: s are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage and some irreversible diseases. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity.

text: Organophosphate

text: s and

text: carbonate

text: s can induce a chain of responses leading to

text: neuromuscular blockage

text: . Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of contaminants in

text: groundwater contaminated

text: through soil.

text: Following feeding, most insects retain enough water to completely hydrate their bodies, excreting the remainder.  However, the amount of water excreted differs between species, and depends on the relative humidity and dryness of the environment.  For example, Tsetse flies maintained at a high relative humidity, and thus non-arid conditions, excrete fecal matter with approximately 75% water content, whereas Tsetse flies maintained at a low relative humidity, and thus dry conditions, excrete fecal matter with only 35% water content.  This adaptation helps minimize water loss in unfavorable conditions and increase chances of survival.

text: Following feeding, most insects retain enough water to completely hydrate their bodies, excreting the remainder.  However, the amount of water excreted differs between species, and depends on the relative humidity and dryness of the environment.  For example,

text: Tsetse flies

text: maintained at a high relative humidity, and thus non-arid conditions, excrete fecal matter with approximately 75% water content, whereas Tsetse flies maintained at a low relative humidity, and thus dry conditions, excrete fecal matter with only 35% water content.  This adaptation helps minimize water loss in unfavorable conditions and increase chances of survival.

text: Latin for "Red".  The figure is an overturned glass; an inversion, meaning good in all that is evil, and evil in all that is good.  Like the Tail of the Dragon, the figure is considered so unfavourable that if it were the first in a reading, the reading would end. Astrologically it is associated with Scorpio and Mars retrograde; its inner element is ruled by air, and its outer element ruled by water. It represents passion, deception, violence, and vice.  Its planetary intelligence is Graphiel and its spirit is Bartzabel; it is associated with the god Mavors, and the angels Samael and Barbiel.  It is associated with the reproductive and excretory systems along with the genitals.

text: Latin for "Red".  The figure is an overturned glass; an inversion, meaning good in all that is evil, and evil in all that is good.  Like the Tail of the Dragon, the figure is considered so unfavourable that if it were the first in a reading, the reading would end. Astrologically it is associated with

text: Scorpio

text: and Mars retrograde; its inner element is ruled by air, and its outer element ruled by water. It represents passion, deception, violence, and vice.  Its planetary intelligence is Graphiel and its spirit is Bartzabel; it is associated with the god Mavors, and the angels Samael and Barbiel.  It is associated with the reproductive and excretory systems along with the genitals.

text: In order to understand how heterophoria occurs, we must understand of how the eye can maintain proper fixation with non aligned visual axis. Heterophoria is actually the misalignment of the visual axis of both eyes. In other words, one  or both eyes are not properly fixated to an object of interest. However, we must know that the eyes have a fusional vergence system which corrects this misalignment.

text: Because the hypothalamus/osmoreceptor system ordinarily works well to cause drinking or urination to restore the body's sodium concentrations to normal, this system can be used in medical treatment to regulate the body's total fluid content, by first controlling the body's sodium content. Thus, when a powerful diuretic drug is given which causes the kidneys to excrete sodium, the effect is accompanied by an excretion of body water (water loss accompanies sodium loss). This happens because the kidney is unable to efficiently retain water while excreting large amounts of sodium. In addition, after sodium excretion, the osmoreceptor system may sense lowered sodium concentration in the blood and then direct compensatory urinary water loss in order to correct the hyponatremic (low blood sodium) state.

text: Because the

text: hypothalamus

text: osmoreceptor

text: system ordinarily works well to cause drinking or urination to restore the body's sodium concentrations to normal, this system can be used in medical treatment to regulate the body's total fluid content, by first controlling the body's sodium content. Thus, when a powerful

text: diuretic

text: drug is given which causes the kidneys to excrete sodium, the effect is accompanied by an excretion of body water (water loss accompanies sodium loss). This happens because the kidney is unable to efficiently retain water while excreting large amounts of sodium. In addition, after sodium excretion, the

text: osmoreceptor

text: system may sense lowered sodium concentration in the blood and then direct compensatory urinary water loss in order to correct the

text: hyponatremic

text: (low blood sodium) state.

text: Blum was born in Davenport, Iowa, and raised from the age of five on in Chicago by her Orthodox Jewish mother and grandparents. In the early 1960s, she attended Reed College in Portland, Oregon. Her first climb was in Washington, where she failed to reach the summit of Mount Adams. However, she persevered, climbing throughout her college days. In 1960, she requested to join a high altitude expedition, but was told that she was welcome to come as far as the base camp to "help with the cooking." However, she was able to go climbing as part of her research for her senior thesis, which was on the topic of volcanic gases on Oregon's Mount Hood. She was rejected from an Afghanistan expedition in 1969, with its leader writing to her, "One woman and nine men would seem to me to be unpleasant high on the open ice, not only in excretory situations but in the easy masculine companionship which is so vital a part of the joy of an expedition." Blum graduated from Reed and attended MIT and UC Berkeley, where she earned a PhD in biophysical chemistry in 1971. After graduate school, Blum embarked on what she called the "endless winter" – spending more than a year climbing peaks all over the world.

text: Blum was born in

text: Davenport, Iowa

text: , and raised from the age of five on in Chicago by her

text: Orthodox Jewish

text: mother and grandparents. In the early 1960s, she attended

text: Reed College

text: in

text: Portland, Oregon

text: . Her first climb was in

text: Washington

text: , where she failed to reach the summit of

text: Mount Adams

text: . However, she persevered, climbing throughout her college days. In 1960, she requested to join a high altitude expedition, but was told that she was welcome to come as far as the base camp to "help with the cooking." However, she was able to go climbing as part of her research for her senior thesis, which was on the topic of volcanic gases on

text: Oregon

text: 's

text: Mount Hood

text: . She was rejected from an Afghanistan expedition in 1969, with its leader writing to her, "One woman and nine men would seem to me to be unpleasant high on the open ice, not only in excretory situations but in the easy masculine companionship which is so vital a part of the joy of an expedition." Blum graduated from Reed and attended

text: MIT

text: and

text: UC Berkeley

text: , where she earned a PhD in

text: biophysical chemistry

text: in 1971. After graduate school, Blum embarked on what she called the "endless winter" – spending more than a year climbing peaks all over the world.

text: This failure of acid secretion may be due to a number of causes, and it leads to an inability to acidify the urine to a pH of less than 5.3. Because renal excretion is the primary means of eliminating  from the body, there is consequently a tendency towards acidemia. There is an inability to excrete H while  cannot be reclaimed by the cell, leading to acidemia (as  builds up in the body) and hypokalemia (as  cannot be reabsorbed by the alpha cell).

text: This failure of acid secretion may be due to a number of causes, and it leads to an inability to acidify the urine to a

text: pH

text: of less than 5.3. Because renal excretion is the primary means of eliminating  from the body, there is consequently a tendency towards

text: acidemia

text: . There is an inability to excrete H while  cannot be reclaimed by the cell, leading to acidemia (as  builds up in the body) and hypokalemia (as  cannot be reabsorbed by the alpha cell).

text: The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes toxic materials from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body.

text: The

text: urinary system

text: consists of the

text: kidney

text: s,

text: ureter

text: s,

text: bladder

text: , and

text: urethra

text: . It removes toxic materials from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess

text: ion

text: s and water out of the body.

text: AFGPs are created in the pancreas and are released into the digestive tract to wrap around ice crystals so they can be safely excreted with excrement. Unused AFGPs are recycled by entering the bloodstream and cycling back to the liver for storage. Fish also excrete AFGPs in their mucus and on the surface of their skin to prevent external freezing.

text: The Colton antigen system (Co) is present on the membranes of red blood cells and in the tubules of the kidney and helps determine a person's blood type. The Co antigen is found on a protein called aquaporin-1 which is responsible for water homeostasis and urine concentration.

text: The Colton antigen system (Co) is present on the membranes of

text: red blood cells

text: and in the tubules of the

text: kidney

text: and helps determine a person's

text: blood type

text: . The Co

text: antigen

text: is found on a

text: protein

text: called

text: which is responsible for water

text: homeostasis

text: and urine concentration.

text: Nephrotic syndrome is characterized by large proteinuria (>3.5 g per 1.73 m body surface area per day, or > 40 mg per square meter body surface area per hour in children), hypoalbuminemia (< 2,5 g/dl), hyperlipidaemia, and edema (which is generalized and also known as anasarca or dropsy) that begins in the face. Lipiduria (lipids in urine) can also occur, but is not essential for the diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome. Hyponatremia also occurs with a low fractional sodium excretion.

text: Nephrotic syndrome is characterized by large

text: proteinuria

text: (>3.5 g per 1.73 m body surface area per day, or > 40 mg per square meter body surface area per hour in children),

text: hypoalbuminemia

text: (< 2,5 g/dl),

text: hyperlipidaemia

text: , and

text: edema

text: (which is generalized and also known as

text: anasarca

text: or dropsy) that begins in the face.

text: Lipiduria

text: (lipids in urine) can also occur, but is not essential for the diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome.

text: Hyponatremia

text: also occurs with a low

text: fractional sodium excretion

text: An acute hypoglycemic episode (very low blood sugar) can happen to even careful pet owners, since cats' insulin requirements sometimes change without warning.  The symptoms include depression/lethargy, confusion/dizziness, loss of excretory/bladder control, vomiting, and then loss of consciousness and/or seizures.  Immediate treatment includes administering honey or corn syrup by rubbing on the gums of the cat (even if unconscious, but not if in seizures).  Symptomatic hypoglycemia in cats is a medical emergency and the cat will require professional medical attention.  The honey/corn syrup should continue to be administered on the way to the vet, as every minute without blood sugar causes brain damage.

text: Inhalation of aluminum arsenide may cause acute irritation to the respiratory system. It may also cause chronic arsenic poisoning, ulceration of the nasal septum, liver damage and cancer/diseases of the blood, kidneys and nervous system. Aluminum arsenide is poisonous if ingested and may cause gastrointestinal and skin effects and acute arsenic poisoning. Chronic implications from ingestion include arsenic poisoning, gastrointestinal disturbances, liver damage, and cancer/disease of the blood, kidneys and nervous system. If applied to the skin, aluminum arsenide may cause acute irritation, but there are no chronic health effects recorded.

text: Inhalation of aluminum arsenide may cause acute irritation to the respiratory system. It may also cause chronic arsenic poisoning, ulceration of the nasal septum, liver damage and cancer/diseases of the blood, kidneys and nervous system. Aluminum arsenide is poisonous if ingested and may cause gastrointestinal and skin effects and acute

text: arsenic poisoning

text: . Chronic implications from ingestion include arsenic poisoning, gastrointestinal disturbances, liver damage, and cancer/disease of the blood, kidneys and nervous system. If applied to the skin, aluminum arsenide may cause acute irritation, but there are no chronic health effects recorded.

text: 10% to 25% of the dose of gallium-67 is excreted within 24 hours after injection (the majority of which is excreted through the kidneys). After 24 hours the principal excretory pathway is colon. The "target organ" (organ that receives the largest radiation dose in the average scan) is the colon (large bowel).

text: In adults, kidney involvement progresses to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) more often than in children. In a UK series of 37 patients, 10 (27%) developed advanced kidney disease. Proteinuria, hypertension at presentation, and pathology features (crescentic changes, interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy) predicted progression. About 20% of children that exhibit nephrotic or nephritic features experience long permanent renal impairment.

text: In adults, kidney involvement progresses to

text: end-stage renal disease

text: (ESRD) more often than in children. In a UK series of 37 patients, 10 (27%) developed advanced kidney disease. Proteinuria, hypertension at presentation, and pathology features (crescentic changes, interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy) predicted progression. About 20% of children that exhibit nephrotic or nephritic features experience long permanent renal impairment.

text: There is no recommended diet to dissolve calcium oxalate stones.  For prevention a diet low in protein and oxalates and high in magnesium, phosphorus, and calcium is recommended.  Increased dietary magnesium and phosphorus decreases the amount of calcium in the urine, and increased dietary calcium reduces absorption of oxalates from the intestines.  Potassium citrate has been recommended as a preventative for calcium oxalate stone formation because it forms a soluble complex with oxalates and promotes the formation of alkaline urine.

text: There is no recommended diet to dissolve calcium oxalate stones.  For prevention a diet low in protein and

text: oxalate

text: s and high in magnesium, phosphorus, and calcium is recommended.  Increased dietary magnesium and phosphorus decreases the amount of calcium in the urine, and increased dietary calcium reduces absorption of oxalates from the intestines.

text: Potassium citrate

text: has been recommended as a preventative for calcium oxalate stone formation because it forms a soluble complex with oxalates and promotes the formation of alkaline urine.

text: The excretory pore is located near the junction of the oesophagus and intestine. The intestine is dark, almost straight, broad, being narrowed at its anterior and posterior ends only. Three conspicuously large oval unicellular rectal glands are present, one dorsal and two subventral. The tail is conical and short. The length of the male body is ; in females it ranges between .

text: In 1897, along with internist Joseph Castaigne (1871–1951), he developed a urinary test using methylene blue dye for examining the excretory function of the kidneys. The procedure was to become known as the "Achard-Castaigne test". With Castaigne and Georges Maurice Debove (1845-1920), he published Manuel des maladies du tube digestif.

text: In 1897, along with

text: internist

text: Joseph Castaigne

text: (1871–1951), he developed a urinary test using

text: methylene blue

text: dye for examining the excretory function of the

text: kidneys

text: . The procedure was to become known as the "Achard-Castaigne test". With Castaigne and

text: Georges Maurice Debove

text: (1845-1920), he published Manuel des maladies du tube digestif.

text: Phoronis ovalis is a small horseshoe worm growing to an extended length of  and a diameter of . It exhibits many primitive traits. The lophophore is simple and oval in shape, with 11 to 28 tentacles. The giant nerve fibre typical of the genus is not present. The animal is transparent, sometimes with a brownish lophophore. The haemal, excretory and nervous systems are bilaterally symmetrical, which is not the case with other members of the genus.

text: Phoronis ovalis is a small horseshoe worm growing to an extended length of  and a diameter of . It exhibits many primitive traits. The

text: lophophore

text: is simple and oval in shape, with 11 to 28 tentacles. The giant nerve fibre typical of the genus is not present. The animal is transparent, sometimes with a brownish lophophore. The haemal, excretory and nervous systems are bilaterally symmetrical, which is not the case with other members of the genus.

text: A 2012 survey of the health effects of the spill on cleanup workers reported "eye, nose and throat irritation; respiratory problems; blood in urine, vomit and rectal bleeding; seizures; nausea and violent vomiting episodes that last for hours; skin irritation, burning and lesions; short-term memory loss and confusion; liver and kidney damage; central nervous system effects and nervous system damage; hypertension; and miscarriages". Dr. James Diaz, writing for the American Journal of Disaster Medicine, said these ailments appearing in the Gulf reflected those reported after previous oil spills, like the Exxon Valdez. Diaz warned that "chronic adverse health effects, including cancers, liver and kidney disease, mental health disorders, birth defects and developmental disorders should be anticipated among sensitive populations and those most heavily exposed". Diaz also believes neurological disorders should be expected.

text: Ciprofloxacin for systemic administration is available as immediate-release tablets, extended-release tablets, an oral suspension, and as a solution for intravenous administration.  When administered over one hour as an intravenous infusion, ciprofloxacin rapidly distributes into the tissues, with levels in some tissues exceeding those in the serum.  Penetration into the central nervous system is relatively modest, with cerebrospinal fluid levels normally less than 10% of peak serum concentrations.  The serum half-life of ciprofloxacin is about 4–6 hours, with 50-70% of an administered dose being excreted in the urine as unmetabolized drug. An additional 10% is excreted in urine as metabolites.  Urinary excretion is virtually complete 24 hours after administration. Dose adjustment is required in the elderly and in those with renal impairment.

text: Under normal circumstances, a tiny amount of urobilinogen, if any, is excreted in the urine. If the liver's function is impaired or when biliary drainage is blocked, some of the conjugated bilirubin leaks out of the hepatocytes and appears in the urine, turning it dark amber. However, in disorders involving hemolytic anemia, an increased number of red blood cells are broken down, causing an increase in the amount of unconjugated bilirubin in the blood. Because the unconjugated bilirubin is not water-soluble, one will not see an increase in bilirubin in the urine. Because there is no problem with the liver or bile systems, this excess unconjugated bilirubin will go through all of the normal processing mechanisms that occur (e.g., conjugation, excretion in bile, metabolism to urobilinogen, reabsorption) and will show up as an increase in urine urobilinogen. This difference between increased urine bilirubin and increased urine urobilinogen helps to distinguish between various disorders in those systems.

text: Under normal circumstances, a tiny amount of urobilinogen, if any, is excreted in the

text: urine

text: . If the liver's function is impaired or when biliary drainage is blocked, some of the conjugated bilirubin leaks out of the hepatocytes and appears in the urine, turning it dark amber. However, in disorders involving

text: hemolytic anemia

text: , an increased number of red blood cells are broken down, causing an increase in the amount of unconjugated bilirubin in the blood. Because the unconjugated bilirubin is not water-soluble, one will not see an increase in bilirubin in the urine. Because there is no problem with the liver or bile systems, this excess unconjugated bilirubin will go through all of the normal processing mechanisms that occur (e.g., conjugation, excretion in bile, metabolism to urobilinogen, reabsorption) and will show up as an increase in urine urobilinogen. This difference between increased urine bilirubin and increased urine urobilinogen helps to distinguish between various disorders in those systems.

text: Birds excrete their nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of a paste. This is metabolically more expensive, but allows more efficient water retention and it can be stored more easily in the egg. Many avian species, especially seabirds, can also excrete salt via specialized nasal salt glands, the saline solution leaving through nostrils in the beak.

text: Bird

text: s excrete their nitrogenous wastes as

text: uric acid

text: in the form of a paste. This is metabolically more expensive, but allows more efficient

text: water

text: retention and it can be stored more easily in the

text: egg

text: . Many avian species, especially

text: seabird

text: s, can also excrete salt via specialized nasal salt glands, the saline solution leaving through nostrils in the

text: beak

text: In January 1982 five U.S. Navy divers died when a vacuum was inadvertently drawn in a chamber on Grayback off the coast of Subic Bay, P.I.  The diving accident led to changes in how the Navy designed, built, maintained and operated complex submarine based diving systems.

text: The Rice Diet Program was founded in 1939 by Dr. Walter Kempner, a refugee from the Nazis, who was at that time associated with Duke University.  Kempner had many patients with malignant hypertension with kidney failure, and there were no good treatments for those patients.  He believed that the kidney had two functions, one excretory and the other metabolic, and "he theorized that if the protein and electrolyte load on the kidney was reduced to a minimum, the kidney might better perform its more essential metabolic role. The details of his reasoning are obscure, but he began to treat patients with malignant hypertension with a diet composed of nothing but rice and fruit, and amazingly, they rapidly improved."

text: The Rice Diet Program was founded in 1939 by Dr. Walter Kempner, a refugee from the Nazis, who was at that time associated with

text: Duke University

text: .  Kempner had many patients with

text: malignant hypertension

text: with kidney failure, and there were no good treatments for those patients.  He believed that the kidney had two functions, one excretory and the other metabolic, and "he theorized that if the protein and electrolyte load on the kidney was reduced to a minimum, the kidney might better perform its more essential metabolic role. The details of his reasoning are obscure, but he began to treat patients with malignant hypertension with a diet composed of nothing but rice and fruit, and amazingly, they rapidly improved."

text: After injection into the venous system, the compound is excreted by the kidneys and its progress through the renal system can be tracked with a gamma camera. If the kidney is not getting blood for example, it will not be viewed at all, even if it looks structurally normal in medical ultrasonography or magnetic resonance imaging. If the kidney is getting blood, but there is an obstruction inferior to the kidney in the bladder or ureters, the radioisotope will not pass beyond the level of the obstruction, whereas if there is a partial obstruction then there is a delayed transit time for the MAG3 to pass. More information can be gathered by calculating time activity curves; with normal kidney perfusion, peak activity should be observed after 3–5 minutes. The relative quantitative information gives the differential function between each kidney's filtration activity.

text: After injection into the venous system, the compound is excreted by the kidneys and its progress through the renal system can be tracked with a

text: gamma camera

text: . If the kidney is not getting blood for example, it will not be viewed at all, even if it looks structurally normal in

text: medical ultrasonography

text: or

text: magnetic resonance imaging

text: . If the kidney is getting blood, but there is an obstruction inferior to the kidney in the bladder or ureters, the radioisotope will not pass beyond the level of the obstruction, whereas if there is a partial obstruction then there is a delayed transit time for the MAG3 to pass. More information can be gathered by calculating time activity curves; with normal kidney perfusion, peak activity should be observed after 3–5 minutes. The relative quantitative information gives the differential function between each kidney's filtration activity.

text: When Green retired in 1914, Holt succeeded him as Chief Inspector. Scientific work was stopped when World War I broke out, and the administrative duties of his post did not allow Holt to continue research work of his own. After the war, the political changes in Ireland as well as Holt's failing health prevented further serious research. In May 1922, Holt became seriously ill and left Dublin for London, where he died on 10 June that year of Bright's disease (an old term for glomerulonephritis, a kidney disease). In 1949, the MBA put into service a research vessel named after him.

text: When Green retired in 1914, Holt succeeded him as Chief Inspector. Scientific work was stopped when

text: World War I

text: broke out, and the administrative duties of his post did not allow Holt to continue research work of his own. After the war, the political changes in Ireland as well as Holt's failing health prevented further serious research. In May 1922, Holt became seriously ill and left

text: Dublin

text: for London, where he died on 10 June that year of

text: Bright's disease

text: (an old term for

text: glomerulonephritis

text: , a kidney disease). In 1949, the MBA put into service a research vessel named after him.

text: The temperature at which the urine is examined is a very important factor to consider in the process of uroscopy. When a patient urinates, the urine will be warm, so it is necessary for it to stay warm for proper evaluation. The external temperature should be the same as the internal temperature. When the temperature of urine goes down the bubbles in it will change. Some of them will disappear, but some will remain. With the temperature decrease particles and impurities will be more difficult to evaluate. They will move toward the middle of the flask, then sink to the bottom. They will all mix, making it more difficult to see the impurities.

text: Parliamentary elections were held in Seychelles from 8 to 10 September 2016. Three parties and three independent candidates ran for the 25 directly-elected seats. The result was a victory for the opposition Linyon Demokratik Seselwa alliance, which won 19 of the 33 seats. It was the first time since the 1993 elections that the People's Party did not win a majority of seats.

text: Parliamentary elections were held in

text: Seychelles

text: from 8 to 10 September 2016. Three parties and three independent candidates ran for the 25 directly-elected seats. The result was a victory for the opposition

text: Linyon Demokratik Seselwa

text: alliance, which won 19 of the 33 seats. It was the first time since the

text: 1993 elections

text: that the

text: People's Party

text: did not win a majority of seats.

text: Per J. Husabø (6 May 1928 – 3 March 2012) was a Norwegian politician for the Christian Democratic Party.

text: Per J. Husabø (6 May 1928 – 3 March 2012) was a Norwegian politician for the

text: Christian Democratic Party

text: Milford Graves on Logan:

text: Milford Graves on Logan:

text: James Sims (1741–1820) was an Anglo-Irish physician.

text: In Hungary: Gyula, Doboz

text: In Hungary:

text: Gyula

text: Doboz

text: „Interlibrary Loan at the Librari of Congress”// Gazeta bibliotecarului.-2003.-Nr.3

text: His sister, Indralakshmi married the Indian Brahman Divakarabhatta.

text: Forrest retired to Claremont, and died in 1917. He was buried at Karrakatta Cemetery.

text: Forrest retired to

text: Claremont

text: , and died in 1917. He was buried at

text: Karrakatta Cemetery

text: There were already wrestling styles among Native Americans varying from tribe and nation by the 15th and 16th centuries, when the first Europeans settled. The English and French who settled on the North American continent sought out wrestling as a popular pastime. Soon, there were local champions in every settlement, with contests between them on a regional level. The colonists in what would become the United States started out with something more akin to Greco-Roman wrestling, but soon found that style too restrictive in favor of a style which a greater allowance of holds.

text: There were already wrestling styles among

text: Native Americans

text: varying from tribe and nation by the 15th and 16th centuries, when the first

text: Europe

text: ans settled. The

text: English

text: and

text: French

text: who settled on the North American continent sought out wrestling as a popular pastime. Soon, there were local champions in every settlement, with contests between them on a regional level. The colonists in what would become the

text: United States

text: started out with something more akin to Greco-Roman wrestling, but soon found that style too restrictive in favor of a style which a greater allowance of holds.

text: The ureters are a component of the urinary system. Urine, produced by the kidneys, travels along the ureters to the bladder.

text: The ureters are a component of the

text: urinary system

text: . Urine, produced by the kidneys, travels along the ureters to the bladder.

text: Willis "Spider" Bennett (born August 4, 1943) is a retired American basketball player.

text: Willis "Spider" Bennett (born August 4, 1943) is a retired American

text: basketball

text: player.

text: On 15 June 2009, Costello announced that he would retire from Parliament at the next Federal election. However on 7 October 2009, Costello announced he would be resigning from Parliament when it resumed later in the month. He resigned on 19 October 2009, triggering the 2009 Higgins by-election.

text: On 15 June 2009, Costello announced that he would retire from Parliament at the

text: next Federal election

text: . However on 7 October 2009, Costello announced he would be resigning from Parliament when it resumed later in the month. He resigned on 19 October 2009, triggering the

text: 2009 Higgins by-election

text: All parties involved in the transportation of LLW must maintain the following information: descriptions of the radioactive material, any special health concerns, and procedures to be used during an emergency. Those responsible for the generation of the waste must also maintain a 24-hour emergency telephone number monitored by qualified emergency response personnel. Those responsible of the actual transport of the material must also train employees on how to respond if a spill or accident were to occur.In order to enforce regulations for LLW the USDOT has an audit program. Any company that transports LLW is given a safety rating based on: inspection results, accident record, and the size and number of vehicles; this safety rating is then used to prioritize audits of the companies. Some states allow the NRC to complete inspections under USDOT regulations.

text: Vokesimurex hirasei is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Muricidae, the murex snails or rock snails.

text: Vokesimurex hirasei is a

text: species

text: of

text: sea snail

text: , a marine

text: gastropod

text: mollusk

text: in the

text: family

text: Muricidae

text: , the murex snails or rock snails.

text: Adjunct faculty include:

text: Adjunct faculty include:

text: The embryonic and prenatal development of the male reproductive system is the process whereby the reproductive organs grow, mature and are established. It begins with a single fertilized egg and culminates 38 weeks later with birth of a male child. It is a part of the stages of sexual differentiation. The development of the male reproductive system coincides with the urinary system. The development of them can also be described together as the development of the urinary and reproductive organs.

text: The embryonic and prenatal development of the male reproductive system is the process whereby the reproductive organs grow, mature and are established. It begins with a single fertilized egg and culminates 38 weeks later with birth of a male child. It is a part of the stages of

text: sexual differentiation

text: . The development of the male reproductive system coincides with the urinary system. The development of them can also be described together as the

text: development of the urinary and reproductive organs

text: Estriol sulfate glucuronide, or estriol 3-sulfate 16α-glucuronide, is an endogenous, naturally occurring diconjugated metabolite of estriol. It is generated in the liver from estriol sulfate by UDP-glucuronyltransferase and is eventually excreted in the urine by the kidneys. It occurs in high concentrations during pregnancy along with estriol sulfate and estriol glucuronide, and was a component of the early pharmaceutical estrogens Progynon and Emmenin.

text: Estriol sulfate glucuronide, or estriol 3-sulfate 16α-glucuronide, is an

text: endogenous

text: naturally occurring

text: diconjugated

text: metabolite

text: of

text: estriol

text: . It is generated in the

text: liver

text: from

text: estriol sulfate

text: by

text: UDP-glucuronyltransferase

text: and is eventually

text: excreted

text: in the

text: urine

text: by the

text: kidney

text: s. It occurs in high concentrations during

text: pregnancy

text: along with

text: estriol sulfate

text: and

text: estriol glucuronide

text: , and was a component of the early pharmaceutical estrogens

text: Progynon

text: and

text: Emmenin

text: Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem in 661.

text: Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in

text: Jerusalem

text: in 661.

text: Allman made her film debut as an actress in 1940's The Road to Singapore in an unbilled bit (as were the majority of Allman's motion picture appearances in the '40s) as a homely woman who pursues Bob Hope. She worked most successfully during this period as a radio comedian playing assorted guest parts, typically as a shrewish woman.  One of her more steady radio gigs was on the Blondie radio series in the part of Cora Dithers, the domineering wife of Dagwood Bumstead's boss.

text: Allman made her film debut as an actress in 1940's

text: The Road to Singapore

text: in an unbilled bit (as were the majority of Allman's motion picture appearances in the '40s) as a homely woman who pursues

text: Bob Hope

text: . She worked most successfully during this period as a

text: radio

text: comedian playing assorted guest parts, typically as a shrewish woman.  One of her more steady radio gigs was on the

text: Blondie

text: radio series in the part of Cora Dithers, the domineering wife of

text: Dagwood Bumstead

text: 's boss.

text: The training sailing ship "Friendship" was built in Poland for ONMA.

text: In response to revelations about MPs' expenses, Clegg set out his plans for reform of Parliament in The Guardian. Speaking about the plans, he said: "let us bar the gates of Westminster and stop MPs leaving for their summer holidays until this crisis has been sorted out, and every nook and cranny of our political system has been reformed." He argued for the "reinvention of British politics" within 100 days, calling for a commitment to accept the Kelly expenses report in full; the power to recall members suspended for misconduct; House of Lords reform; reform of party funding; fixed-term parliaments; enabling legislation for a referendum on AV+; and changes to House of Commons procedure to reduce executive power.

text: In response to revelations about MPs' expenses, Clegg set out his plans for reform of Parliament in

text: The Guardian

text: . Speaking about the plans, he said: "let us bar the gates of Westminster and stop MPs leaving for their summer holidays until this crisis has been sorted out, and every nook and cranny of our political system has been reformed." He argued for the "reinvention of British politics" within 100 days, calling for a commitment to accept the Kelly expenses report in full; the power to

text: recall

text: members suspended for misconduct;

text: House of Lords

text: reform; reform of party funding; fixed-term parliaments; enabling legislation for a referendum on

text: AV+

text: ; and changes to House of Commons procedure to reduce executive power.

text: He then landed a job with B. B. King.  He toured internationally with King and his orchestra for six and a half years.

text: He then landed a job with

text: B. B. King

text: .  He toured internationally with King and his orchestra for six and a half years.

text: Hematometra typically presents as cyclic, cramping pain in the midline of the pelvis or lower abdomen. Patients may also report urinary frequency and urinary retention. Premenopausal women with hematometra often experience abnormal vaginal bleeding, including dysmenorrhea (pain during menstruation) or amenorrhea (lack of menstruation), while postmenopausal women are more likely to be asymptomatic. Due to the accumulation of blood in the uterus, patients may develop low blood pressure or a vasovagal response. When palpated, the uterus will typically feel firm and enlarged.

text: Hematometra typically presents as cyclic, cramping pain in the midline of the pelvis or lower abdomen. Patients may also report

text: urinary frequency

text: and

text: urinary retention

text: . Premenopausal women with hematometra often experience abnormal vaginal bleeding, including

text: dysmenorrhea

text: (pain during menstruation) or

text: amenorrhea

text: (lack of menstruation), while postmenopausal women are more likely to be asymptomatic. Due to the accumulation of blood in the uterus, patients may develop

text: low blood pressure

text: or a

text: vasovagal response

text: . When palpated, the uterus will typically feel firm and enlarged.

text: is defined as follows:

text: is defined as follows:

text: 11.  Finland

text: Finland

text: At Bela:

text: At Bela:

text: If indicated, examine excretions or drainage for characteristics, colour, and consistency.Abdominal assessment.

text: This is a list of the 100 busiest airports in :Europe, ranked by total passengers per year, including both terminal and transit passengers. Data is for 2015 from a variety of sources, normally the national aviation authority statistics, or those of the airport operator. The tables also show the percentage change in total passengers for each airport over the last year. Data is sourced individually for each airport and normally originates from national aviation authority statistics, or those of the airport operator. Lists of the rankings for 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011 and 2010 are also presented. European airports are defined as those that are within the airspace of the member and candidate states of The Council of Europe.

text: This is a list of the 100 busiest airports in

text: :Europe

text: , ranked by total passengers per year, including both terminal and transit passengers. Data is for 2015 from a variety of sources, normally the national aviation authority statistics, or those of the airport operator. The tables also show the percentage change in total passengers for each airport over the last year. Data is sourced individually for each airport and normally originates from national aviation authority statistics, or those of the airport operator. Lists of the rankings for 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011 and 2010 are also presented. European airports are defined as those that are within the airspace of the member and candidate states of

text: The Council of Europe

text: A few species, such as Anelosimus eximius, are also known to have reproductive skew, where some of the females reproduce and others do not. Even though these spiders cooperate by caring for each other's young, cooperating in prey capture and sharing food, they are not considered eusocial as they do not have defined castes. Any female has the potential to reproduce, therefore differences in the reproductive success is due to competition for scarce food resources rather than the existence of physically distinct castes.

text: A few species, such as

text: Anelosimus eximius

text: , are also known to have reproductive skew, where some of the females reproduce and others do not. Even though these spiders cooperate by caring for each other's young, cooperating in prey capture and sharing food, they are not considered

text: eusocial

text: as they do not have defined castes. Any female has the potential to reproduce, therefore differences in the reproductive success is due to competition for scarce food resources rather than the existence of physically distinct castes.

text: Human research has also been conducted on sugar (in the form of sugar-sweetened beverages) and its effects on the kidneys. Sugar consumption has been associated with the rising prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease in the United States. Since 1997, the nation has dramatically increased sugar consumption to nearly half a pound per person per day. Much of this increase is driven by high fructose syrup (HFCS) consumption, which now amounts to over 62 lb per person per year, largely in form of sugar-sweetened beverages. In addition to dietary sugar being associated with CKD risk factors, data from animal studies do suggest that sugar consumption may independently affect kidney disease risk. Studies have been conducted to highlight the severity of sugary sweetened beverage consumption. These studies were completed with a variety of test subjects to account for age, sex, diets, lifestyle choices, physical activity, smoking, level of education, and health status. The variety in the test subjects created a wide spectrum of results to match any individual. Also, the experiments consisted of a variety of consumption frequencies. Some studies only consumed one glass of a sugary sweetened beverage a week, while others consumed more than seven glasses of a sugary sweetened beverage a week.

text: McNamara was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1958.

text: McNamara was inducted into the

text: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: in 1958.

text: He was first elected at the Coast Chilcotin riding in the 1972 general election. After serving one term, the 29th Canadian Parliament, he was defeated at Coast Chilcotin by Jack Pearsall of the Liberal party in the 1974 election. He also campaigned in the 1979 and 1980 federal elections at Cariboo—Chilcotin, but was defeated by Lorne Greenaway of the Progressive Conservative party.

text: He was first elected at the

text: Coast Chilcotin

text: riding in the

text: 1972 general election

text: . After serving one term, the

text: 29th Canadian Parliament

text: , he was defeated at Coast Chilcotin by

text: Jack Pearsall

text: of the

text: Liberal party

text: in the

text: 1974 election

text: . He also campaigned in the

text: and

text: 1980 federal election

text: s at

text: Cariboo—Chilcotin

text: , but was defeated by

text: Lorne Greenaway

text: of the

entity_name: Progressive Conservative Party of Canada

text: Progressive Conservative party

text: She wrote the libretto for composer Ellen Bender’s opera after Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Marble Faun, and served as literary co-translator of “A Crowning Experience” by Kostiantyn Moskalets in From Three Worlds: New Writing From the Ukraine.She is on the Board of Directors of PEN-New England.

text: She wrote the libretto for composer

text: Ellen Bender

text: ’s opera after

text: Nathaniel Hawthorne

text: ’s

text: The Marble Faun

text: , and served as literary co-translator of “A Crowning Experience” by

text: Kostiantyn Moskalets

text: in From Three Worlds: New Writing From the Ukraine.She is on the Board of Directors of PEN-New England.

text: [ AllMusic.com]

text: [ AllMusic.com]

text: eo:Hnilec

text: eo:Hnilec

text: The TEAMS competition was created in 1975 at the University of Illinois for the state of Illinois. In 1978, JETS expanded TEAMS to become a national competition. In 1993, the TEAMS test changed format into a format very similar to the one used today. Since 2008, the TEAMS competitions have had a theme.

text: The TEAMS competition was created in 1975 at the

entity_name: University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

text: University of Illinois

text: for the state of

text: Illinois

text: . In 1978, JETS expanded TEAMS to become a national competition. In 1993, the TEAMS test changed format into a format very similar to the one used today. Since 2008, the TEAMS competitions have had a theme.

text: M. D. Pallavi started training in Hindustani classical.

text: All vertebrates share similarities in body structure; they all have a skeleton, a nervous system, a circulatory system, a digestive system and excretory system. Similar to humans, non-human animals also have a sensory system. The sensory system is responsible for the basic five senses from touch to tasting. Most of the physiological and biochemical responses found in animals are found in humans. Neurophysiologists have not found any fundamental difference between the structure and function of neurons and synapse between humans and other animals.

text: Screening of at-risk people is important because treatments exist that delay the progression of CKD. If an underlying cause of CKD, such as vasculitis, or obstructive nephropathy (blockage to the drainage system of the kidneys) is found, it may be treated directly to slow the damage. In more advanced stages, treatments may be required for anemia and kidney bone disease [also called renal osteodystrophy, secondary hyperparathyroidism or chronic kidney disease – mineral bone disorder (CKD-MBD)]. Chronic kidney disease was the cause of 956,000 deaths globally in 2013, up from 409,000 in 1990.

text: Screening of at-risk people is important because treatments exist that delay the progression of CKD. If an underlying cause of CKD, such as

text: vasculitis

text: , or obstructive nephropathy (blockage to the drainage system of the kidneys) is found, it may be treated directly to slow the damage. In more advanced stages, treatments may be required for anemia and kidney

text: bone disease

text: [also called

text: renal osteodystrophy

text: secondary hyperparathyroidism

text: or chronic kidney disease – mineral bone disorder (CKD-MBD)]. Chronic kidney disease was the cause of 956,000 deaths globally in 2013, up from 409,000 in 1990.

text: This defect leads to a multi-systemic disorder of the connective tissue, muscles, central nervous system (CNS), and cardiovascular system. Homocystinuria represents a group of hereditary metabolic disorders characterized by an accumulation of the amino acid homocysteine in the serum and an increased excretion of homocysteine in the urine. Infants appear to be normal and early symptoms, if any are present, are vague.

text: This defect leads to a multi-systemic disorder of the

text: connective tissue

text: muscle

text: s,

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), and

text: cardiovascular system

text: . Homocystinuria represents a group of hereditary

text: metabolic disorder

text: s characterized by an accumulation of the amino acid

text: homocysteine

text: in the

text: serum

text: and an increased excretion of homocysteine in the

text: urine

text: . Infants appear to be normal and early symptoms, if any are present, are vague.

text: At the 2007 BET Hip Hop Awards, Kanye West won the Best Hip Hop Video award but felt this video deserved it more. He called Big Boi during his acceptance speech, who felt Kanye deserved it.  During both the 2007 BET Hip Hop Awards and 2008 BET Awards, only Bun B and Big Boi were there to accept the award.

text: Neurourology concerns nervous system control of the genitourinary system, and of conditions causing abnormal urination. Neurological diseases and disorders such as a stroke, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and spinal cord injury can disrupt the lower urinary tract and result in conditions such as urinary incontinence, detrusor overactivity, urinary retention, and detrusor sphincter dyssynergia. Urodynamic studies play an important diagnostic role in neurourology. Therapy for nervous system disorders includes clean intermittent self-catheterization of the bladder, anticholinergic drugs, injection of Botulinum toxin into the bladder wall and advanced and less commonly used therapies such as sacral neuromodulation.Less marked neurological abnormalities can cause urological disorders as well—for example, abnormalities of the sensory nervous system are thought by many researchers to play a role in disorders of painful or frequent urination (e.g. painful bladder syndrome also known as interstitial cystitis).

text: Neurourology concerns

text: nervous system

text: control of the genitourinary system, and of conditions causing abnormal

text: urination

text: . Neurological diseases and disorders such as a stroke,

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Parkinson's disease

text: , and

text: spinal cord injury

text: can disrupt the lower urinary tract and result in conditions such as

text: urinary incontinence

text: detrusor

text: overactivity,

text: urinary retention

text: , and

text: detrusor sphincter dyssynergia

text: Urodynamic studies

text: play an important diagnostic role in neurourology. Therapy for nervous system disorders includes clean intermittent self-catheterization of the bladder, anticholinergic drugs, injection of Botulinum toxin into the bladder wall and advanced and less commonly used therapies such as sacral

text: neuromodulation

text: .Less marked neurological abnormalities can cause urological disorders as well—for example, abnormalities of the sensory nervous system are thought by many researchers to play a role in disorders of painful or frequent urination (e.g. painful bladder syndrome also known as

text: interstitial cystitis

text: In 1937, Burke published For Your Convenience: A Learned Dialogue Instructive to all Londoners and London Visitors. Burke's nonfictional account, according to Houlbrook, "offers an ironic—if heavily veiled—indictment of contemporary sexual mores", and again establishes public, rather than private spaces, particularly urinals, as the sites of homosexual desire. By providing a verbal and visual map of London with the locations of urinals clearly marked, Burke "[formalizes] men's knowledge of these sexual possibilities" and "[codifies] their knowledge of the tactics needed to use these sites safely". Burke's work as an urban observer thus allows him to map the public world of London's queer and to reflect upon the extent to which interaction with London's public landmarks engaged homosexual communities in an historical narrative of identity formation.

text: In traditional medicinal texts, Platyhelminthes are divided into Turbellaria, which are mostly non-parasitic animals such as planarians, and three entirely parasitic groups: Cestoda, Trematoda and Monogenea; however, since the turbellarians have since been proven not to be monophyletic, this classification is now deprecated. Free-living flatworms are mostly predators, and live in water or in shaded, humid terrestrial environments, such as leaf litter. Cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes) have complex life-cycles, with mature stages that live as parasites in the digestive systems of fish or land vertebrates, and intermediate stages that infest secondary hosts. The eggs of trematodes are excreted from their main hosts, whereas adult cestodes generate vast numbers of hermaphroditic, segment-like proglottids that detach when mature, are excreted, and then release eggs. Unlike the other parasitic groups, the monogeneans are external parasites infesting aquatic animals, and their larvae metamorphose into the adult form after attaching to a suitable host.

text: In traditional medicinal texts, Platyhelminthes are divided into

text: Turbellaria

text: , which are mostly non-

text: parasitic

text: animals such as

text: planarian

text: s, and three entirely parasitic groups:

text: Cestoda

text: Trematoda

text: and

text: Monogenea

text: ; however, since the turbellarians have since been proven not to be

text: monophyletic

text: , this classification is now deprecated. Free-living flatworms are mostly predators, and live in water or in shaded, humid terrestrial environments, such as

text: leaf litter

text: . Cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes) have complex life-cycles, with mature stages that live as parasites in the digestive systems of fish or land

text: vertebrate

text: s, and intermediate stages that infest secondary hosts. The eggs of trematodes are excreted from their main hosts, whereas adult cestodes generate vast numbers of

text: hermaphroditic

text: , segment-like

text: proglottid

text: s that detach when mature, are excreted, and then release eggs. Unlike the other parasitic groups, the monogeneans are external parasites infesting aquatic animals, and their larvae metamorphose into the adult form after attaching to a suitable host.

text: , full-sphere systems require

text: , full-sphere systems require