text: The diet requires restricting or eliminating foods high in Phe, such as soybeans, seal meat, egg whites, shrimps, chicken breast, spirulina, watercress, fish, whale, nuts, crayfish, lobster, tuna, turkey, legumes, and lowfat cottage cheese. Starchy foods, such as potatoes and corn are generally acceptable in controlled amounts, but the quantity of Phe consumed from these foods must be monitored. A food diary is usually kept to record the amount of Phe consumed with each meal, snack, or drink. An "exchange" system can be used to calculate the amount of Phe in a food from the protein content identified on a nutritional information label. Lower-protein "medical food" substitutes are often used in place of normal bread, pasta, and other grain-based foods, which contain a significant amount of Phe. Many fruits and vegetables are lower in Phe and can be eaten in larger quantities. Infants may still be breastfed to provide all of the benefits of breastmilk, but the quantity must also be monitored and supplementation for missing nutrients will be required.  The sweetener aspartame, present in many diet foods and soft drinks, must also be avoided, as aspartame contains phenylalanine.

text: The diet requires restricting or eliminating foods high in Phe, such as

entity_name: Soybean

text: soybeans

entity_name: Seal meat

text: seal meat

entity_name: Egg white

text: egg white

text: s,

entity_name: Shrimp

text: shrimps

entity_name: Chicken as food

text: chicken breast

entity_name: Spirulina (dietary supplement)

text: spirulina

entity_name: Watercress

text: watercress

entity_name: Fish as food

text: fish

entity_name: Whale

text: whale

entity_name: Nut (fruit)

text: nut

text: s,

entity_name: Crayfish

text: crayfish

entity_name: Lobster

text: lobster

entity_name: Tuna

text: tuna

entity_name: Turkey

text: turkey

entity_name: Legume

text: legume

text: s, and lowfat

entity_name: Cottage cheese

text: cottage cheese

text: . Starchy foods, such as

entity_name: Potato

text: potato

text: es and

entity_name: Maize

text: corn

text: are generally acceptable in controlled amounts, but the quantity of Phe consumed from these foods must be monitored. A food diary is usually kept to record the amount of Phe consumed with each meal, snack, or drink. An "exchange" system can be used to calculate the amount of Phe in a food from the protein content identified on a nutritional information label. Lower-protein "medical food" substitutes are often used in place of normal

entity_name: Bread

text: bread

entity_name: Pasta

text: pasta

text: , and other grain-based foods, which contain a significant amount of Phe. Many fruits and vegetables are lower in Phe and can be eaten in larger quantities. Infants may still be breastfed to provide all of the benefits of breastmilk, but the quantity must also be monitored and supplementation for missing nutrients will be required.  The sweetener

entity_name: Aspartame

text: aspartame

text: , present in many diet foods and soft drinks, must also be avoided, as aspartame contains phenylalanine.

text: Adults mate during the months of August and September using internal fertilization. The fish are notably viviparous, giving birth to 30–400 live developed young. Unusually, it does so during winter when water temperatures are extremely cold. Among fish it has one of the longest known pregnancies, lasting approximately six months. It has been discovered that the eelpout suckles its young embryos while still within their mother's body, making it the only fish species to suckle its offspring. The embryos actually suckle from ovarian follicles, ingesting nutrients and gases from these internal structures. After depleting the egg's yolk reserves, the eelpouts attach their mouths to an ovarian follicle, which has a canal in its tip via which fluid and nutrients can flow. This follicle fluid is rich in proteins, fatty acids and glucose. It is also saturated in oxygen, which helps ventilate the gills of the developing fish. Each embryo latches onto a single follicle. This ensures an equal distribution of nutrients.

text: Adults mate during the months of August and September using

entity_name: Internal fertilization

text: internal fertilization

text: . The fish are notably

entity_name: Viviparity

text: viviparous

text: , giving birth to 30–400 live developed young. Unusually, it does so during winter when water temperatures are extremely cold. Among fish it has one of the longest known pregnancies, lasting approximately six months. It has been discovered that the eelpout

entity_name: Breastfeeding

text: suckles

text: its young embryos while still within their mother's body, making it the only

entity_name: Fish

text: fish

text: species to suckle its offspring. The embryos actually suckle from ovarian follicles, ingesting nutrients and gases from these internal structures. After depleting the egg's yolk reserves, the eelpouts attach their mouths to an ovarian follicle, which has a canal in its tip via which fluid and nutrients can flow. This follicle fluid is rich in proteins, fatty acids and glucose. It is also saturated in oxygen, which helps ventilate the gills of the developing fish. Each embryo latches onto a single follicle. This ensures an equal distribution of nutrients.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: Environmental enteropathy, also known as tropical enteropathy or environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), is a condition or subclinical disorder believed to be due to frequent intestinal infections. There are often minimal acute symptoms. There may be chronic problems with absorbing nutrients which may result in malnutrition and growth stunting in children. It may be the chronic form of tropical sprue which is usually brief and presents with diarrhea. Environmental enteropathy results in a number of changes in the intestines including: smaller villi, larger crypts (called crypt hyperplasia), increased permeability, and inflammatory cell build-up within the intestines. These changes result in poor absorption of food, vitamins and minerals – or "modest malabsorption".

text: Environmental enteropathy, also known as tropical enteropathy or environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), is a condition or subclinical disorder believed to be due to frequent intestinal infections. There are often minimal acute symptoms. There may be chronic problems with absorbing nutrients which may result in

entity_name: Malnutrition

text: malnutrition

text: and

entity_name: Stunted growth

text: growth stunting

text: in children. It may be the chronic form of

entity_name: Tropical sprue

text: tropical sprue

text: which is usually brief and presents with

entity_name: Diarrhea

text: diarrhea

text: . Environmental enteropathy results in a number of changes in the intestines including:

entity_name: Atrophy

text: smaller villi

text: , larger crypts (called

entity_name: Intestinal gland

text: crypt hyperplasia

text: ), increased

entity_name: Intestinal permeability

text: permeability

text: , and inflammatory cell build-up within the intestines. These changes result in poor absorption of food, vitamins and minerals – or "modest

entity_name: Malabsorption

text: malabsorption

text: Cabbage is an excellent source of vitamin C and vitamin K, containing more than 20% of the Daily Value (DV) for each of these nutrients per serving (right table of USDA nutrient values). Cabbage is also a good source (10–19% DV) of vitamin B6 and folate, with no other nutrients having significant content per 100 gram serving (table).

text: Cabbage is an excellent source of

entity_name: Vitamin C

text: vitamin C

text: and

entity_name: Vitamin K

text: vitamin K

text: , containing more than 20% of the

entity_name: Reference Daily Intake

text: Daily Value

text: (DV) for each of these nutrients per serving (right table of USDA nutrient values). Cabbage is also a good source (10–19% DV) of

entity_name: Vitamin B6

text: vitamin B6

text: and

entity_name: Folic acid

text: folate

text: , with no other nutrients having significant content per 100 gram serving (table).

text: He then sent Onescratus to bring Dandamis to him. When Onescratus encountered Dandamis in forest, he gave him the message, that Alexander, the Great son of Zeus, has ordered him to come to him. He will give you gold and other rewards but if you refuse, he may behead you. When Dandamis heard that, he did not even raise his head and replied lying in his bed of leaves. God the Great King, is not a source of violence but provider of water, food, light and life. Your king cannot be a God, who loves violence and who is mortal.  Even if you take away my head, you cannot take away my soul, which will depart to my God and leave this body like we throw away old garment. We, Brahmins do not love gold nor fear death. So your king has nothing to offer, which I may need. Go and tell you King : Dandamis, therefore, will not come to you. If he needs Dandamis, he must come to me

text: He then sent

entity_name: Onesicritus

text: Onescratus

text: to bring Dandamis to him. When Onescratus encountered Dandamis in forest, he gave him the message, that Alexander, the Great son of

entity_name: Zeus

text: Zeus

text: , has ordered him to come to him. He will give you gold and other rewards but if you refuse, he may behead you. When Dandamis heard that, he did not even raise his head and replied lying in his bed of leaves. God the Great King, is not a source of violence but provider of water, food, light and life. Your king cannot be a God, who loves violence and who is mortal.  Even if you take away my head, you cannot take away my soul, which will depart to my God and leave this body like we throw away old garment. We,

entity_name: Brahmin

text: Brahmin

text: s do not love gold nor fear death. So your king has nothing to offer, which I may need. Go and tell you King : Dandamis, therefore, will not come to you. If he needs Dandamis, he must come to me

text: The label begins with a standard serving measurement, calories are listed second, and then following is a breakdown of the constituent elements. Always listed are total fat, sodium, carbohydrates and protein; the other nutrients usually shown may be suppressed, if they are zero. Usually all 15 nutrients are shown: calories, calories from fat, fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.

text: The label begins with a standard

entity_name: Serving size

text: serving

text: measurement,

entity_name: Calorie

text: calories

text: are listed second, and then following is a breakdown of the constituent elements. Always listed are

entity_name: Fat

text: total fat

entity_name: Sodium

text: sodium

entity_name: Carbohydrate

text: carbohydrates

text: and

entity_name: Protein

text: protein

text: ; the other nutrients usually shown may be suppressed, if they are zero. Usually all 15 nutrients are shown:

text: calories

text: , calories from fat,

text: fat

entity_name: Saturated fat

text: saturated fat

entity_name: Trans fat

text: trans fat

entity_name: Cholesterol

text: cholesterol

text: sodium

text: carbohydrates

entity_name: Dietary fiber

text: dietary fiber

entity_name: Sugar

text: sugars

text: protein

entity_name: Vitamin A

text: vitamin A

text: vitamin C

entity_name: Calcium

text: calcium

text: , and

entity_name: Iron

text: iron

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Megafauna play a significant role in the lateral transport of mineral nutrients in an ecosystem, tending to translocate them from areas of high to those of lower abundance. They do so by their movement between the time they consume the nutrient and the time they release it through elimination (or, to a much lesser extent, through decomposition after death). In South America's Amazon Basin, it is estimated that such lateral diffusion was reduced over 98% following the megafaunal extinctions that occurred roughly 12,500 years ago. Given that phosphorus availability is thought to limit productivity in much of the region, the decrease in its transport from the western part of the basin and from floodplains (both of which derive their supply from the uplift of the Andes) to other areas is thought to have significantly impacted the region's ecology, and the effects may not yet have reached their limits.

text: Megafauna play a significant role in the lateral transport of mineral nutrients in an ecosystem, tending to translocate them from areas of high to those of lower abundance. They do so by their movement between the time they consume the nutrient and the time they release it through elimination (or, to a much lesser extent, through decomposition after death). In South America's

entity_name: Amazon basin

text: Amazon Basin

text: , it is estimated that such lateral diffusion was reduced over 98% following the megafaunal extinctions that occurred roughly 12,500 years ago. Given that

entity_name: Phosphorus

text: phosphorus

text: availability is thought to limit productivity in much of the region, the decrease in its transport from the western part of the basin and from floodplains (both of which derive their supply from the uplift of the

entity_name: Andes

text: Andes

text: ) to other areas is thought to have significantly impacted the region's ecology, and the effects may not yet have reached their limits.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: The main purpose of the gastrointestinal tract is to digest and absorb nutrients (fat, carbohydrate, protein, micronutrients (vitamins and trace minerals), water, and electrolytes. Digestion involves both mechanical and enzymatic breakdown of food. Mechanical processes include chewing, gastric churning, and the to-and-fro mixing in the small intestine. Enzymatic hydrolysis is initiated by intraluminal processes requiring gastric, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. The final products of digestion are absorbed through the intestinal epithelial cells.

text: The main purpose of the

entity_name: Gastrointestinal tract

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: is to

entity_name: Digestion

text: digest

text: and

entity_name: Small intestine

entity_section: Absorption

text: absorb

text: nutrients (

text: fat

text: carbohydrate

text: protein

text: , micronutrients (

entity_name: Vitamin

text: vitamin

text: s and

entity_name: Mineral (nutrient)

text: trace minerals

text: ), water, and

entity_name: Electrolyte

text: electrolytes

text: Digestion

text: involves both mechanical and

entity_name: Enzyme

text: enzymatic

text: breakdown of food. Mechanical processes include chewing, gastric churning, and the to-and-fro mixing in the

text: small intestine

text: . Enzymatic hydrolysis is initiated by intraluminal processes requiring gastric, pancreatic, and biliary secretions. The final products of digestion are absorbed through the

entity_name: Intestinal epithelium

text: intestinal epithelial

text: cells.

text: GAIN receives funding from a number of organizations including: the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF), The Children's Investment Fund Foundation (CIFF), the Department for International Development (DFID), Agence Française du Développement (AFD), GiveWell, Good Ventures, Goldsmith Foundation, Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development, Canada (DFATD), Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Government of the Netherlands, the GSM Association (GSMA), the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the Irish Aid, the Karl Pedersen og Hustrus Industrifond, the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, the Micronutrient Initiative (MI), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP).

text: GAIN receives funding from a number of organizations including: the

entity_name: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

text: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

text: (BMGF),

entity_name: The Children's Investment Fund Foundation

text: The Children's Investment Fund Foundation

text: (CIFF), the

entity_name: Department for International Development

text: Department for International Development

text: (DFID), Agence Française du Développement (AFD),

entity_name: GiveWell

text: GiveWell

entity_name: Good Ventures

text: Good Ventures

text: , Goldsmith Foundation, Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development, Canada (DFATD), Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Government of the Netherlands, the

entity_name: GSMA

text: GSM Association

text: (GSMA), the

entity_name: Inter-American Development Bank

text: Inter-American Development Bank

text: (IDB), the

entity_name: Irish Aid

text: Irish Aid

text: , the Karl Pedersen og Hustrus Industrifond, the

entity_name: Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine

text: Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine

text: , the

entity_name: Micronutrient Initiative

text: Micronutrient Initiative

text: (MI), the

entity_name: UNICEF

text: United Nations Children’s Fund

text: (UNICEF), the

entity_name: United States Agency for International Development

text: United States Agency for International Development

text: (USAID) and the

entity_name: World Food Programme

text: United Nations World Food Programme

text: (WFP).

text: One common trait found in several Lamiales families that may have led to carnivory is the secretion of proteinase mucilage through leaf surfaces. This mucilage is generally used to prevent insect predation by trapping and degrading potentially harmful insects. Some research suggests these glands can quite easily shift their function from secretion to absorption. This shift may have first occurred in the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of the Lentibulariaceae, introducing absorptive glands that provided additional macronutrients through trapped insects. The additional source of nutrients may have increased fitness of plants growing in low-nutrient habitats which eventually caused an embrace of carnivory. Further mapping of traits also suggests the MRCA was terrestrial and possessed a basal rosette composed of flat leaves and a primary root.

text: One common trait found in several Lamiales families that may have led to carnivory is the secretion of

entity_name: Protease

text: proteinase

text: mucilage through leaf surfaces. This mucilage is generally used to prevent insect predation by trapping and degrading potentially harmful insects. Some research suggests these glands can quite easily shift their function from secretion to absorption. This shift may have first occurred in the

entity_name: Most recent common ancestor

text: most recent common ancestor

text: (MRCA) of the Lentibulariaceae, introducing absorptive glands that provided additional

entity_name: Nutrient

text: macronutrients

text: through trapped insects. The additional source of nutrients may have increased fitness of plants growing in low-nutrient habitats which eventually caused an embrace of carnivory. Further mapping of traits also suggests the MRCA was terrestrial and possessed a basal

entity_name: Rosette (botany)

text: rosette

text: composed of flat leaves and a primary root.

text: Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein.  Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol.

text: Fat is one of the three main

text: macronutrients

text: , along with

text: carbohydrate

text: and

text: protein

text: .  Fats, also known as

text: triglyceride

text: s, are

text: ester

text: s of three

text: fatty acid

text: chains and the

text: alcohol

text: glycerol

text: Other than light and water, phosphorus, nitrogen, and certain micronutrients are also useful and essential in growing algae. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are the two most significant nutrients required for algal productivity, but other nutrients such as carbon and silica are additionally required. Of the nutrients required, phosphorus is one of the most essential ones as it is used in numerous metabolic processes. The microalgae D. tertiolecta was analyzed to see which nutrient affects its growth the most. The concentrations of Phosphorus (P), Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn) and Molybdenum (Mo), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca,), Silicon (Si) and Sulfur (S) concentrations were measured daily using inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis. Among all these elements being measured, phosphorus resulted in the most dramatic decrease, with a reduction of 84% over the course of the culture. This result indicates that phosphorus, in the form of phosphate, is required in high amounts by all organisms for metabolism.

text: V. We believe in the holy sacrament of the supper, with the corporal figures of the bread and the wine, the faithful souls are really and actually feed with the very substance of our Lord Jesus, as our bodies are feed with food, even so we don't want to say that the bread and the wine be transformed or transubstantiated in His body, because the bread keeps in its nature and substance, like the wine, and there is no change or alteration.However, we distinguish this bread and wine from other bread which is dedicated to habitual use, because this is a sacramental sign, which the truth is infallibly received. Nevertheless this receipt is made only by the faith and we cannot imagine as being fleshly, neither prepare the teeth to eat, as said St. Augustine: "Why do you prepares the teeth and the stomach? Believe, and you have eaten."Therefore, the sign does not give us the truth, neither the thing which is denoted; but our Lord Jesus Christ, by His power, virtue and kindness feeds and preserves our souls, and make they partners in His flesh and His blood, and all of His benefactions.Let us see the explanation of Jesus' words: "This is my body." Tertullian, in the fourth book against Marcion, explain in this way: "this is the sign and the figure of my body."St. Augustine says: "The Lord doesn't avoid to say: 'This is my body', when he just give the sign of his body."Hence (as it is ordered in the first canon of the Council of Nicea), in this holy sacrament we can't imagine nothing fleshly and distract in the bread and the wine, which are proposed by signs, but elevate our spirit to the skies and contemplate by the faith the Son of God, our Lord Jesus, seat at the right of God, His Father.In this way, we could swear the article about the Ascension, along with many other sentences of Augustine, which we are omitting, because they are long.

text: V. We believe in the holy sacrament of the supper, with the corporal figures of the bread and the wine, the faithful souls are really and actually feed with the very substance of our Lord Jesus, as our bodies are feed with food, even so we don't want to say that the bread and the wine be transformed or transubstantiated in His body, because the bread keeps in its nature and substance, like the wine, and there is no change or alteration.However, we distinguish this bread and wine from other bread which is dedicated to habitual use, because this is a sacramental sign, which the truth is infallibly received. Nevertheless this receipt is made only by the faith and we cannot imagine as being fleshly, neither prepare the teeth to eat, as said

text: St. Augustine

text: : "Why do you prepares the teeth and the stomach? Believe, and you have eaten."Therefore, the sign does not give us the truth, neither the thing which is denoted; but our Lord Jesus Christ, by His power, virtue and kindness feeds and preserves our souls, and make they partners in His flesh and His blood, and all of His benefactions.Let us see the explanation of Jesus' words: "This is my body."

text: Tertullian

text: , in the fourth book against

text: Marcion

text: , explain in this way: "this is the sign and the figure of my body."St. Augustine says: "The Lord doesn't avoid to say: 'This is my body', when he just give the sign of his body."Hence (as it is ordered in the first canon of the

text: Council of Nicea

text: ), in this holy sacrament we can't imagine nothing fleshly and distract in the bread and the wine, which are proposed by signs, but elevate our spirit to the skies and contemplate by the faith the Son of God, our Lord Jesus, seat at the right of God, His Father.In this way, we could swear the article about the Ascension, along with many other sentences of Augustine, which we are omitting, because they are long.

text: Sponges are some of Earth’s oldest and most ubiquitous animals. The appearance of sponge spicule fossils date back to the Precambrian Era around 580 million years ago. An assemblage of these fossils were found in the Doushanto formation in Southern China. Some circular impressions from the Ediacaran Hills in Southern Australia are also reported to be sponges. They are one of the only lineages of metazoans from this era that continue to survive, and remain relatively unchanged.Sponges are such successful organisms due to their simple, yet effective morphology. They do not possess mouths or any digestive, nervous or circulatory systems. Instead they are filter feeders, which means that they obtain food through nutrients in the water. They have pores, called ostia, that water travels through to a chamber called the spongocoel, and exits through a chamber called the osculum. Through this water filtration system, they obtain nutrients that are needed for their survival. Specifically, they intracellularly digest bacteria, micro-algae or colloids

text: Sponges

text: are some of Earth’s oldest and most ubiquitous animals. The appearance of sponge spicule fossils date back to the Precambrian Era around 580 million years ago. An assemblage of these fossils were found in the Doushanto formation in Southern China. Some circular impressions from the Ediacaran Hills in Southern Australia are also reported to be sponges. They are one of the only lineages of metazoans from this era that continue to survive, and remain relatively unchanged.Sponges are such successful organisms due to their simple, yet effective

text: morphology

text: . They do not possess mouths or any digestive, nervous or circulatory systems. Instead they are

text: filter feeders

text: , which means that they obtain food through nutrients in the water. They have pores, called

text: ostia

text: , that water travels through to a chamber called the

text: spongocoel

text: , and exits through a chamber called the

text: osculum

text: . Through this water filtration system, they obtain nutrients that are needed for their survival. Specifically, they intracellularly digest bacteria, micro-algae or colloids

text: Comparative cooking method studies generally find that, if properly used, microwave cooking does not affect the nutrient content of foods to a larger extent than conventional heating, and that there is a tendency towards greater retention of many micronutrients with microwaving, probably due to the reduced preparation time. Microwaving human milk at high temperatures is contraindicated, due to a marked decrease in activity of anti-infective factors.

text: canning- cannibalism- carbohydrate- carry over cooking- cart noodle- catch and release- casu marzu- cereal- cha chaan teng- charbroil- Churchkhela- comfort food- Common Agricultural Policy- Common Fisheries Policy- control of fire by early humans- conveyor belt sushi- convenience food- cooking- cookware and bakeware- cretan diet- curing— culinary— curry

text: canning

text: cannibalism

text: carbohydrate

text: carry over cooking

text: cart noodle

text: catch and release

text: casu marzu

text: cereal

text: cha chaan teng

text: charbroil

text: Churchkhela

text: comfort food

text: Common Agricultural Policy

text: Common Fisheries Policy

text: control of fire by early humans

text: conveyor belt sushi

text: convenience food

text: cooking

text: cookware and bakeware

text: cretan diet

text: curing

text: culinary

text: curry

text: In 2008, Drewnowski led the development of the Nutrient Rich Foods Index, which ranks foods based on their nutrient density. He has also studied the relationship between poverty and being more likely to become obese, and the relationship between the per-calorie price of food and the amount of key nutrients they contain.

text: In 2008, Drewnowski led the development of the Nutrient Rich Foods Index, which ranks foods based on their

text: nutrient density

text: . He has also studied the relationship between poverty and being more likely to become obese, and the relationship between the per-calorie price of food and the amount of key nutrients they contain.

text: Design of the Food Balance Wheel started with a modified food pyramid at its center. The placement and relative size of each wheel spoke reflects the pyramid’s food groups and serving sizes. The sequencing of the different foods was based on the USDA Nutritive Value of Foods tables. This arrangement presents the three main nutrient categories (protein, carbohydrates, and fats) as a continuum of different foods transitioning from one to the next, based on the relative proportions of each nutrient. In addition, this layout was adjusted to separate fiber from non-fiber foods, and to place foods containing saturated fat in order from lowest to highest to help steer the user to more healthful food choices.

text: Design of the Food Balance Wheel started with a modified food pyramid at its center. The placement and relative size of each wheel spoke reflects the pyramid’s food groups and serving sizes. The sequencing of the different foods was based on the USDA Nutritive Value of Foods tables. This arrangement presents the three main nutrient categories (

text: protein

text: carbohydrates

text: , and

text: fat

text: s) as a continuum of different foods transitioning from one to the next, based on the relative proportions of each nutrient. In addition, this layout was adjusted to separate fiber from non-fiber foods, and to place foods containing saturated fat in order from lowest to highest to help steer the user to more healthful food choices.

text: As societal evidence Buss (2011) cites that modern tribal societies use hunting as their primary means of acquiring food. The Aka pygmies in the Central African Republic spend 56% of their quest for nourishment hunting, 27% gathering, and 17% processing food. Additionally, the !Kung in Botswana retain 40% of their calories from hunting and this percentage varies from 20% to 90% depending on the season.  For physical evidence Buss first looks to the guts of humans and apes.  The human gut consists mainly of the small intestines, which are responsible for the rapid breakdown of proteins and absorption of nutrients. The ape’s gut is primarily colon, which indicates a vegetarian diet. This structural difference supports the hunting hypothesis in being an evolutionary branching point between modern humans and modern primates. Buss also cites human teeth in that fossilized human teeth have a thin enamel coating with very little heavy wear and tear that would result from a plant diet. The absence of thick enamel also indicates that historically humans have maintained a meat-heavy diet.  Buss notes that the bones of animals human ancestors killed found at Olduvai Gorge have cut marks at strategic points on the bones that indicate tool usage and provide evidence for ancestral butchers.

text: As societal evidence Buss (2011) cites that modern tribal societies use hunting as their primary means of acquiring food. The

text: Aka pygmies

text: in the

text: Central African Republic

text: spend 56% of their quest for nourishment hunting, 27% gathering, and 17% processing food. Additionally, the

text: !Kung

text: in Botswana retain 40% of their calories from hunting and this percentage varies from 20% to 90% depending on the season.  For physical evidence Buss first looks to the guts of humans and apes.  The human gut consists mainly of the small

text: intestines

text: , which are responsible for the rapid breakdown of proteins and absorption of nutrients. The ape’s gut is primarily

text: colon

text: , which indicates a vegetarian diet. This structural difference supports the hunting hypothesis in being an evolutionary branching point between modern humans and modern primates. Buss also cites human teeth in that fossilized human teeth have a thin enamel coating with very little heavy wear and tear that would result from a plant diet. The absence of thick enamel also indicates that historically humans have maintained a meat-heavy diet.  Buss notes that the bones of animals human ancestors killed found at Olduvai Gorge have cut marks at strategic points on the bones that indicate tool usage and provide evidence for ancestral butchers.

text: They may debark trees due to shortages of preferred food, and of minerals and trace elements needed for their nutrition, or for maintaining an optimum fiber/protein ratio for proper digestion of food and better assimilation of nutrients. They may turn to available browse species and fibrous teak bark in summer as green grass and herbaceous resources dry up. High concentrations of calcium (22400 ppm) and phosphorus (400 ppm) have been reported in teak bark, so consumption of teak bark may help animals to satisfy both mineral and other food needs. Long-term survival and conservation of these herbivores depend on the availability of preferred plant species for food. Hence, protection of the historically preferred habitats used by gaur is a significant factor in conservation biology.

text: They may debark trees due to shortages of preferred food, and of minerals and trace elements needed for their nutrition, or for maintaining an optimum fiber/protein ratio for proper digestion of food and better assimilation of nutrients. They may turn to available browse species and fibrous teak bark in summer as green grass and herbaceous resources dry up. High concentrations of calcium (22400 ppm) and phosphorus (400 ppm) have been reported in teak bark, so consumption of teak bark may help animals to satisfy both mineral and other food needs. Long-term survival and conservation of these herbivores depend on the availability of preferred plant species for food. Hence, protection of the historically preferred habitats used by gaur is a significant factor in

text: conservation biology

text: The body of Angomonas deanei is elliptical in shape, with a prominent tail-like flagellum at its posterior end for locomotion. The bacterial endosymbiont is inside its body and is surrounded by two membranes typical of Gram-negative bacteria, but its cell membrane presents unusual features, such as the presence of phosphatidylcholine, a major membrane lipid (atypical of bacterial membranes), and the highly reduced peptidoglycan layer, which shows reduced or absence of rigid cell wall. The cell membrane of the protozoan host contains an 18-domain β-barrel porin, which is a characteristic protein of Gram-negative bacteria. In addition it contains cardiolipin and phosphatidylcholine as the major phospholipids, while sterols are absent. Cardiolipin is a typical lipid of bacterial membranes; phosphatidylcholine, on the other hand, is mostly present in symbiotic prokaryotes of eukaryotic cells. For symbiotic adaptation, the host trypanosome has undergone alterations such as reduced paraflagellar rod, which is required full motility of the bacterial flagella. Yet the paraflagellar rod gene PFR1 is fully functional. The bacteria are known to provide essential nutrients to the host, and provide electron transport system for the production of cellular energy, the ATP molecules through its glycosomes. The bacteria synthesise amino acids, vitamins, and haeme for the protozoan. In return the protozoan offers its enzymes for the complete metabolic pathways for the biosysnthesis of amino acids, lipids and nucleotides, that are absent in the bacterium. Phosphatidylinositol, a membrane lipid required for cell-cell interaction, in the bacteria is also synthesised by the protozoan. Thus the two organisms intimately share and exchange their metabolic systems. When the protozoan is removed off of the bacterium using antibiotics, it loses its infectivity to insects, obviously due to the altered glycosylphosphatidylinositol (gp63) in the protozoan flagellum.

text: The body of Angomonas deanei is elliptical in shape, with a prominent tail-like

text: flagellum

text: at its posterior end for locomotion. The bacterial endosymbiont is inside its body and is surrounded by two membranes typical of

text: Gram-negative bacteria

text: , but its

text: cell membrane

text: presents unusual features, such as the presence of

text: phosphatidylcholine

text: , a major membrane lipid (atypical of bacterial membranes), and the highly reduced

text: peptidoglycan

text: layer, which shows reduced or absence of rigid

text: cell wall

text: . The cell membrane of the protozoan host contains an 18-domain

text: β-barrel

text: porin

text: , which is a characteristic

text: protein

text: of

text: Gram-negative bacteria

text: . In addition it contains

text: cardiolipin

text: and phosphatidylcholine as the major

text: phospholipid

text: s, while

text: sterol

text: s are absent. Cardiolipin is a typical lipid of bacterial membranes; phosphatidylcholine, on the other hand, is mostly present in symbiotic prokaryotes of eukaryotic cells. For symbiotic adaptation, the host trypanosome has undergone alterations such as reduced paraflagellar rod, which is required full motility of the bacterial flagella. Yet the paraflagellar rod gene PFR1 is fully functional. The bacteria are known to provide essential nutrients to the host, and provide

text: electron transport system

text: for the production of cellular energy, the

text: ATP

text: molecules through its

text: glycosome

text: s. The bacteria synthesise amino acids, vitamins, and haeme for the protozoan. In return the protozoan offers its enzymes for the complete metabolic pathways for the biosysnthesis of

text: amino acid

text: s,

text: lipid

text: s and

text: nucleotide

text: s, that are absent in the bacterium. Phosphatidylinositol, a membrane lipid required for cell-cell interaction, in the bacteria is also synthesised by the protozoan. Thus the two organisms intimately share and exchange their metabolic systems. When the protozoan is removed off of the bacterium using

text: antibiotics

text: , it loses its infectivity to insects, obviously due to the altered

text: glycosylphosphatidylinositol

text: (gp63) in the protozoan flagellum.

text: Malnutrition has been seen in cats fed home-made or vegetarian/vegan diets produced by owners with good intentions, and most published recipes have been only crudely balanced (by computer) using nutrient averages. Because the palatability, digestibility, and safety of these recipes have not been adequately or scientifically tested, it is difficult to characterize all of these homemade diets. Generally, most formulations contain excessive protein and phosphorus and are deficient in calcium, vitamin E, and microminerals such as copper, zinc, and potassium. Also, the energy density of these diets may be unbalanced relative to the other nutrients. Commonly used meat and carbohydrate ingredients contain more phosphorus than calcium. Homemade feline diets that are not actually deficient in fat or energy usually contain a vegetable oil that cats do not find palatable; therefore, less food is eaten causing a calorie deficiency. Rarely are homemade diets balanced for microminerals or vitamins. Owner neglect is also a frequent contributing factor in malnutrition.

text: Malnutrition

text: has been seen in cats fed home-made or vegetarian/vegan diets produced by owners with good intentions, and most published recipes have been only crudely balanced (by computer) using nutrient averages. Because the palatability,

text: digestibility

text: , and

text: safety

text: of these recipes have not been adequately or scientifically tested, it is difficult to characterize all of these homemade diets. Generally, most formulations contain excessive

text: protein

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: and are deficient in

text: calcium

text: vitamin E

text: , and

text: microminerals

text: such as

text: copper

text: zinc

text: , and

text: potassium

text: . Also, the

text: energy density

text: of these diets may be unbalanced relative to the other

text: nutrients

text: . Commonly used meat and carbohydrate ingredients contain more

text: phosphorus

text: than

text: calcium

text: . Homemade feline diets that are not actually deficient in

text: fat

text: or

text: energy

text: usually contain a

text: vegetable oil

text: that cats do not find

text: palatable

text: ; therefore, less food is eaten causing a

text: calorie deficiency

text: . Rarely are homemade diets balanced for

text: microminerals

text: or

text: vitamins

text: . Owner neglect is also a frequent contributing factor in malnutrition.

text: Plants require some nutrients, such as carbon and nitrogen, in large quantities to survive.  Such nutrients are termed macronutrients, where the prefix macro- (large) refers to the quantity needed, not the size of the nutrient particles themselves.  Other nutrients, called micronutrients, are required only in trace amounts for plants to remain healthy.  Such micronutrients are usually absorbed as ions dissolved in water taken from the soil, though carnivorous plants acquire some of their micronutrients from captured prey.

text: Plants require some

text: nutrient

text: s, such as

text: carbon

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: , in large quantities to survive.  Such nutrients are termed

text: macronutrients

text: , where the prefix macro- (large) refers to the quantity needed, not the size of the nutrient particles themselves.  Other nutrients, called

text: micronutrient

text: s, are required only in trace amounts for plants to remain healthy.  Such micronutrients are usually absorbed as

text: ion

text: s dissolved in water taken from the soil, though

text: carnivorous plant

text: s acquire some of their micronutrients from captured prey.

text: It is an important browse species for domestic livestock and wild animals. Cattle, sheep, and goats all use it as browse. It is sometimes the most preferred food species for white-tailed, black-tailed, and mule deer, elk, moose, and bighorn sheep. Small mammals, bears, upland game birds, and waterfowl feed to a lesser extent on leaves, buds, and seeds. Fresh browse (twigs and leaves) contain 41% dry matter, 4% protein, 2% fat, 20.8% nitrogen-free extract, 11.2% crude fiber, and good quantities of mineral nutrients.

text: It is an important browse species for domestic livestock and wild animals.

text: Cattle

text: sheep

text: , and

text: goat

text: s all use it as browse. It is sometimes the most preferred food species for

text: white-tailed

text: black-tailed

text: , and

text: mule deer

text: elk

text: moose

text: , and

text: bighorn sheep

text: . Small mammals,

text: bear

text: s, upland game birds, and waterfowl feed to a lesser extent on leaves, buds, and seeds. Fresh browse (twigs and leaves) contain 41% dry matter, 4% protein, 2% fat, 20.8% nitrogen-free extract, 11.2% crude fiber, and good quantities of mineral nutrients.

text: The chewed plant material collects in the large cecum, a secondary chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. The pellets are about 56% bacteria by dry weight, largely accounting for the pellets being 24.4% protein on average. The soft feces form here and contain up to five times the vitamins of hard feces. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within the rabbit as rumination does in cattle and sheep.

text: The chewed plant material collects in the large cecum, a secondary chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. The pellets are about 56% bacteria by dry weight, largely accounting for the pellets being 24.4% protein on average. The soft feces form here and contain up to five times the vitamins of hard feces. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within the rabbit as

text: rumination

text: does in cattle and sheep.

text: Like humans, but unlike most other mammals, guinea pigs cannot synthesize their own vitamin C and must obtain this vital nutrient from food. If guinea pigs do not ingest enough vitamin C, they can suffer from potentially fatal scurvy. Guinea pigs require about 10 mg of vitamin C daily (20 mg if pregnant), which can be obtained through fresh, raw fruits and vegetables (such as broccoli, apple, cabbage, carrot, celery, and spinach) or through dietary supplements. Healthy diets for guinea pigs require a complex balance of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and hydrogen ions; adequate amounts of vitamins E, A, and D are also necessary. Imbalanced diets have been associated with muscular dystrophy, metastatic calcification, difficulties with pregnancy, vitamin deficiencies, and teeth problems. Guinea pigs tend to be fickle eaters when it comes to fresh fruits and vegetables, having learned early in life what is and is not appropriate to consume, and their habits are difficult to change after maturity. They do not respond well to sudden changes in diet; they may stop eating and starve rather than accept new food types. A constant supply of hay or other food is generally recommended, as guinea pigs feed continuously and may develop habits such as chewing on their own hair if food is not present. Because guinea pigs' teeth grow constantly, they routinely gnaw, lest their teeth become too large for their mouths, a common problem in rodents. Guinea pigs also chew on cloth, paper, plastic, and rubber.

text: Like humans, but unlike most other

text: mammal

text: s, guinea pigs cannot synthesize their own

text: vitamin C

text: and must obtain this vital nutrient from food. If guinea pigs do not ingest enough vitamin C, they can suffer from potentially fatal

text: scurvy

text: . Guinea pigs require about 10 mg of vitamin C daily (20 mg if pregnant), which can be obtained through fresh, raw fruits and vegetables (such as broccoli, apple, cabbage, carrot, celery, and spinach) or through dietary supplements. Healthy diets for guinea pigs require a complex balance of calcium,

text: magnesium

text: phosphorus

text: potassium

text: , and

text: hydrogen ion

text: s; adequate amounts of vitamins

text: E

text: A

text: , and

text: D

text: are also necessary. Imbalanced diets have been associated with

text: muscular dystrophy

text: metastatic calcification

text: , difficulties with pregnancy, vitamin deficiencies, and teeth problems. Guinea pigs tend to be fickle eaters when it comes to fresh fruits and vegetables, having learned early in life what is and is not appropriate to consume, and their habits are difficult to change after maturity. They do not respond well to sudden changes in diet; they may stop eating and starve rather than accept new food types. A constant supply of hay or other food is generally recommended, as guinea pigs feed continuously and may develop habits such as chewing on their own hair if food is not present. Because guinea pigs' teeth grow constantly, they routinely

text: gnaw

text: , lest their teeth become too large for their mouths, a common problem in

text: rodent

text: s. Guinea pigs also chew on cloth, paper, plastic, and rubber.

text: In water pricing, two elements need to be distinguished: the price of untreated water at the source, and the price of treated water delivered to the final user. In most countries the use of water at the source is free and the price of water recovers part or all of the costs of treating and delivering it. Chile is an exception however; as the 1981 Water Code not only confirmed private property rights to water resources, but also allowed their sale, thus creating a water market and allowing the establishment of prices for water resources. Supply and demand were supposed to determine the allocated water and its price at the source. Price increases that range from 41% to 240% between 1986 and 2000 are only one indicator that market forces are at play in determining what activities are high-value and those that are not.

text: A severe case of an allergic reaction, caused by symptoms affecting the respiratory tract and blood circulation, is called anaphylaxis.  When symptoms are related to a drop in blood pressure, the person is said to be in anaphylactic shock. Anaphylaxis occurs when IgE antibodies are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show symptoms.  This occurs because no nutrients are circulated throughout the body, causing the widening of blood vessels.  This vasodilation causes blood pressure to decrease, which leads to the loss of consciousness.    Those with asthma or an allergy to peanuts, tree nuts, or seafood are at greater risk for anaphylaxis.

text: A severe case of an allergic reaction, caused by symptoms affecting the respiratory tract and blood circulation, is called

text: anaphylaxis

text: .  When symptoms are related to a drop in blood pressure, the person is said to be in

text: anaphylactic shock

text: . Anaphylaxis occurs when

text: IgE antibodies

text: are involved, and areas of the body that are not in direct contact with the food become affected and show symptoms.  This occurs because no nutrients are circulated throughout the body, causing the widening of

text: blood vessels

text: .  This vasodilation causes

text: blood pressure

text: to decrease, which leads to the loss of

text: consciousness

text: .    Those with

text: asthma

text: or an allergy to peanuts, tree nuts, or seafood are at greater risk for anaphylaxis.

text: DVs used by the FDA for the following macronutrients are Daily Reference Values (DRV).

text: DVs used by the FDA for the following

text: macronutrient

text: s are Daily Reference Values (DRV).

text: The Mishnah taught that on the evening of the 14th of Nisan, Jews searched for leavened food in the house by candlelight. Any place into which one did not bring leavened food did not require checking. The Sages taught that one needed to check two rows in a wine cellar, as it was a place into which one brought leavened food. The House of Shammai taught that one needed to check the two front rows of the entire wine cellar, but the House of Hillel taught that one needed to check only the two outer rows that were uppermost. They did not worry that perhaps a weasel had dragged leavened bread from house to house, or from place to place, for if they had, they would have had to worry that the weasel had dragged leavened bread from courtyard to courtyard and from city to city, and there would have been no end to the matter. Rabbi Judah taught that they searched for leavened foods on the evening of the 14th, and on the morning of the 14th, and at the time that they destroyed the leavened foods (in the sixth hour — between 11 a.m. and noon). But the Sages maintained that if they did not search on the evening of the 14th, they needed to search on the 14th; if they did not search in the morning of the 14th, they needed to search at the time that they destroyed the leavened foods; if they did not search at that time, they needed to search after that time. And what they left over for the last morning meal before the Festival, they needed to put away in a hidden place, so that they should not need to search after it. Rabbi Meir taught that they could eat leavened foods through the fifth hour of the morning, and needed to burn it at the beginning of the sixth hour. Rabbi Judah taught that they could eat it through the fourth hour of the morning, needed to keep it in suspense during the fifth hour, and needed to burn it at the beginning of the sixth hour. Rabbi Judah also told that they used to put two unfit loaves of the thank offering on the roof of the Temple portico, and as long as the loaves lay there, all the people would eat leavened foods. When they would remove one loaf, the people would keep leavened foods in suspense, neither eating nor burning it. And when they removed both loaves, the people began burning their leavened foods. Rabban Gamaliel taught that unconsecrated leavened bread (, chullin) could be eaten through the fourth hour of the morning, and leavened bread that was a heave-offering (, terumah) could be eaten through the fifth hour, and they burned them at the beginning of the sixth hour. The Mishnah taught that during the entire time that one was permitted to eat leavened food, one was allowed to feed it to cattle, beasts, and birds; sell it to a gentile; and otherwise to benefit from it. When its period had passed, benefit from it was forbidden, and one was not even allowed to fire an oven or a pot range with it. Rabbi Judah taught that there was no destruction of leavened food except by burning. But the Sages maintained that one could also crumble it and throw it to the wind or casts it into the sea.

text: The Mishnah taught that on the evening of the 14th of Nisan, Jews searched for leavened food in the house by candlelight. Any place into which one did not bring leavened food did not require checking. The Sages taught that one needed to check two rows in a wine cellar, as it was a place into which one brought leavened food. The House of Shammai taught that one needed to check the two front rows of the entire wine cellar, but the House of Hillel taught that one needed to check only the two outer rows that were uppermost. They did not worry that perhaps a weasel had dragged leavened bread from house to house, or from place to place, for if they had, they would have had to worry that the weasel had dragged leavened bread from courtyard to courtyard and from city to city, and there would have been no end to the matter.

text: Rabbi Judah

text: Gamaliel

text: taught that unconsecrated leavened bread (, chullin) could be eaten through the fourth hour of the morning, and leavened bread that was a heave-offering (, terumah) could be eaten through the fifth hour, and they burned them at the beginning of the sixth hour. The Mishnah taught that during the entire time that one was permitted to eat leavened food, one was allowed to feed it to cattle, beasts, and birds; sell it to a gentile; and otherwise to benefit from it. When its period had passed, benefit from it was forbidden, and one was not even allowed to fire an oven or a pot range with it. Rabbi Judah taught that there was no destruction of leavened food except by burning. But the Sages maintained that one could also crumble it and throw it to the wind or casts it into the sea.

text: Foods with low glycemic index rich in fiber and other important nutrients are recommended notwithstanding insufficient evidence.

text: Foods with low

text: glycemic index

text: rich in fiber and other important nutrients are recommended notwithstanding insufficient evidence.

text: Some vitamins and other trace nutrients are lost, particularly from vegetables, partially by enzyme action during cooking and partially due to heat degradation. When vegetables are cooked at higher temperatures these enzymes are rapidly denatured and have less time in which to act during cooking. Since slow cookers work at temperatures well below boiling point and do not rapidly denature enzymes, vegetables tend to lose trace nutrients. Blanched vegetables, having been exposed to very hot water, have already had these enzymes rendered largely ineffective, so a blanching or sauteing pre-cook stage will leave more vitamins intact. This is often a smaller nutrient loss than over-boiling and can be lessened to an extent by not removing the lid until the food is done.

text: Some

text: vitamin

text: s and other trace nutrients are lost, particularly from vegetables, partially by

text: enzyme

text: action during cooking and partially due to heat degradation. When vegetables are cooked at higher temperatures these enzymes are rapidly

text: denatured

text: and have less time in which to act during cooking. Since slow cookers work at temperatures well below boiling point and do not rapidly denature enzymes, vegetables tend to lose trace nutrients.

text: Blanched

text: vegetables, having been exposed to very hot water, have already had these enzymes rendered largely ineffective, so a blanching or sauteing pre-cook stage will leave more vitamins intact. This is often a smaller nutrient loss than over-boiling and can be lessened to an extent by not removing the lid until the food is done.

text: Hydroponics is a method for growing plants in a water-nutrient solution without the use of nutrient-rich soil. It allows researchers and home gardeners to grow their plants in a controlled environment. The most common solution is the Hoagland solution, developed by D. R. Hoagland in 1933. The solution consists of all the essential nutrients in the correct proportions necessary for most plant growth. An aerator is used to prevent an anoxic event or hypoxia. Hypoxia can affect nutrient uptake of a plant because, without oxygen present, respiration becomes inhibited within the root cells. The nutrient film technique is a hydroponic technique in which the roots are not fully submerged. This allows for adequate aeration of the roots, while a "film" thin layer of nutrient-rich water is pumped through the system to provide nutrients and water to the plant.

text: Hydroponics

text: is a method for growing plants in a water-nutrient solution without the use of nutrient-rich soil. It allows researchers and home gardeners to grow their plants in a controlled environment. The most common solution is the

text: Hoagland solution

text: , developed by D. R. Hoagland in 1933. The solution consists of all the essential nutrients in the correct proportions necessary for most plant growth. An aerator is used to prevent an

text: anoxic

text: event or hypoxia.

text: Hypoxia

text: can affect nutrient uptake of a plant because, without oxygen present, respiration becomes inhibited within the root cells. The

text: nutrient film technique

text: is a hydroponic technique in which the roots are not fully submerged. This allows for adequate aeration of the roots, while a "film" thin layer of nutrient-rich water is pumped through the system to provide nutrients and water to the plant.

text: Though not really a nutrient as such, an entry for ash is sometimes found on nutrition labels, especially for pet food.  This entry measures the weight of inorganic material left over after the food is burned for two hours at 600 °C.  Thus, it does not include water, fibre, and nutrients that provide calories, but it does include some nutrients, such as minerals

text: Though not really a nutrient as such, an entry for ash is sometimes found on nutrition labels, especially for

text: pet food

text: .  This entry measures the weight of inorganic material left over after the food is burned for two hours at 600 °C.  Thus, it does not include water, fibre, and nutrients that provide calories, but it does include some nutrients, such as minerals

text: Phytophthora cinnamomi lives in the soil and in plant tissues, can take different shapes and can move in water. During periods of harsh environmental conditions, the organisms become dormant chlamydospores. When environmental conditions are suitable, the chlamydospores germinate, producing mycelia (or hyphae) and sporangia. The sporangia ripen and release zoospores, which infect plant roots by entering the root behind the root tip. Zoospores need water to swim through the soil, therefore infection is most likely in moist soils. Mycelia grow throughout the root absorbing carbohydrates and nutrients, destroying the structure of the root tissues, "rotting" the root, and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients. Sporangia and chlamydospores form on the mycelia of the infected root, and the cycle of infection continues to the next plant.

text: Phytophthora cinnamomi lives in the soil and in plant tissues, can take different shapes and can move in water. During periods of harsh environmental conditions, the organisms become dormant

text: chlamydospore

text: s. When environmental conditions are suitable, the chlamydospores germinate, producing

text: mycelia

text: (or hyphae) and

text: sporangia

text: . The sporangia ripen and release

text: zoospore

text: s, which infect plant

text: root

text: s by entering the root behind the root tip. Zoospores need water to swim through the soil, therefore infection is most likely in moist soils. Mycelia grow throughout the root absorbing

text: carbohydrate

text: s and nutrients, destroying the structure of the root tissues, "rotting" the root, and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients. Sporangia and chlamydospores form on the mycelia of the infected root, and the cycle of infection continues to the next plant.

text: Food Science & Technology is the organized knowledge of applied courses covering subjects such as composition of food, the importance of food nutrients to human health, food analytical chemistry, sensory & microbiological techniques, principles of food preservation, food preparation & processing, food engineering, packaging & storage, food microbiology (food spoilage and their prevention techniques), quality control tests, safety & legislation management programme for food industries. This Department has three major laboratories and one processing hall for under-graduate and post graduate practical and research, well equipped with the latest models of equipments, classical apparatus and utensils (for physical, chemical, sensory, microbial analysis, processing of fruits & vegetables, meat and poultry etc.). Major areas of research are: post-harvest handling of fruits & vegetables, determination and elimination of anti-nutrients of leguminous and cereals products food additives and food components interaction, their determination, and inhibitions techniques, improvements in storage stability of food products with applications of individual or combined preservation techniques, packaging influence on the stability of food nutrients, development of new preserved food products by heating, low temperature canning, drying, radiation and food additives. Outreach activities include advisory services in the field of food science to the food producer, food processors, extension workers, and scientists.

text: Proteins have many different functions in a cell and the function may vary based on the polypeptides they interact with and their cellular environment. Chaperone proteins work to stabilize newly synthesized proteins. They ensure the new protein folds into its correct functional conformation in addition to making sure products do not aggregate in areas where they should not. Proteins can also function as enzymes, increasing the rate of various biochemical reactions and turning substrates into products. Products can be modified by attaching groups such as phosphate via an enzyme to specific amino acids in the primary sequence. Proteins can also be used to move molecules in the cell to where they are needed, these are called motor proteins. The shape of the cell is supported by proteins. Proteins such as actin, microtubules and intermediate filaments provide structure to the cell. Another class of proteins are found in plasma membranes. Membrane proteins can be associated with the plasma membrane in different ways, depending on their structure. These proteins allow the cell to import or export cell products,nutrients or signals to and from the extracellular space. Other proteins help the cell to perform regulatory functions. For example, transcription factors bind to DNA to help transcription of RNA.

text: Proteins have many different functions in a cell and the function may vary based on the polypeptides they interact with and their cellular environment.

text: Chaperone proteins

text: work to stabilize newly synthesized proteins. They ensure the new protein folds into its correct functional conformation in addition to making sure products do not aggregate in areas where they should not. Proteins can also function as

text: enzyme

text: s, increasing the rate of various biochemical reactions and turning substrates into products. Products can be modified by attaching groups such as phosphate via an enzyme to specific amino acids in the primary sequence. Proteins can also be used to move molecules in the cell to where they are needed, these are called

text: motor protein

text: s. The shape of the cell is supported by proteins. Proteins such as

text: actin

text: microtubules

text: and

text: intermediate filament

text: s provide structure to the cell. Another class of proteins are found in plasma membranes.

text: Membrane protein

text: s can be associated with the plasma membrane in different ways, depending on their structure. These proteins allow the cell to import or export cell products,nutrients or signals to and from the extracellular space. Other proteins help the cell to perform regulatory functions. For example,

text: transcription factor

text: s bind to DNA to help transcription of RNA.

text: Consumer-resource interactions are the core motif of ecological food chains or food webs, and are an umbrella term for a variety of more specialized types of biological species interactions including prey-predator (see predation), host-parasite (see parasitism), plant-herbivore and victim-exploiter systems.  These kinds of interactions have been studied and modeled by population ecologists for close on a century, as reviewed in synthetic monographs on this topic by Murdoch et al. and Turchin.  Species at the bottom of the food chain, such as algae and other autotrophs, consume non-biological resources, such as minerals and nutrients of various kinds, and they derive their energy from light (photons) or chemical sources.  Species higher up in the food chain survive by consuming other species and can be classified by what they eat and how they obtain or find their food.

text: Consumer-resource interactions are the core motif of ecological

text: food chains

text: or food webs, and are an umbrella term for a variety of more specialized types of biological species interactions including prey-predator (see

text: predation

text: ), host-parasite (see

text: parasitism

text: ), plant-

text: herbivore

text: and victim-exploiter systems.  These kinds of interactions have been studied and modeled by population ecologists for close on a century, as reviewed in synthetic monographs on this topic by Murdoch et al. and Turchin.  Species at the bottom of the food chain, such as

text: algae

text: and other

text: autotrophs

text: , consume non-biological resources, such as

text: minerals

text: and

text: nutrients

text: of various kinds, and they derive their energy from light (

text: photons

text: ) or chemical sources.  Species higher up in the food chain survive by consuming other species and can be classified by what they eat and how they obtain or find their food.

text: Plants secrete up to 60% of their energy as root mucilage, which they generate from photosynthesis that takes place in the leaves. Root mucilage plays a role in developing a symbiotic relationship with the soil dwelling fungi. This relationship is known to affect 94% of land plants. This important relationship benefits plants by increasing water and nutrient up take from the soil, particularly phosphorus. In return, the fungi receives food in the form of carbohydrate from the plant in the form of broken down root mucilage. Without this relationship many plants would struggle to gain sufficient water or nutrients.

text: Plants secrete up to 60% of their energy as root mucilage, which they generate from

text: photosynthesis

text: that takes place in the leaves. Root mucilage plays a role in developing a symbiotic relationship with the soil dwelling fungi. This relationship is known to affect 94% of land plants. This important relationship benefits plants by increasing water and nutrient up take from the soil, particularly phosphorus. In return, the fungi receives food in the form of

text: carbohydrate

text: from the plant in the form of broken down root mucilage. Without this relationship many plants would struggle to gain sufficient water or nutrients.

text: PLTPs are pan-allergens,and may be directly responsible for cases of food allergy.Pru p 3, the major allergen from peach, is a 9-kDa allergen belonging to the family of lipid-transfer proteins.

text: PLTPs are pan-allergens,and may be directly responsible for cases of

text: food allergy

text: .Pru p 3, the major

text: allergen

text: from

text: peach

text: , is a 9-kDa allergen belonging to the family of lipid-transfer proteins.

text: In Recherches chimiques sur la Végétation, Saussure showed that the increase in the mass of a plant as it grows could not be due only to the uptake of CO, but was also a result of the incorporation of water into plant dry matter.  In addition, Saussure demonstrated that plants obtain their carbon from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, not through uptake from humus in the soil, as his immediate predecessors in photosynthesis research had generally believed.  He also showed that plants require mineral nutrients, which they take up from the soil, and nitrogen, although he did not trace the source of plant nitrogen definitively to the soil. Saussure's finding that the source of plant minerals was the soil disproved the widely held view that mineral substances in plants arose from vague "transmutations" within the plant. His work enabled completion of the basic, overall chemical equation of photosynthesis, according to which carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of light, are converted by a green plant into fixed carbon (such as glucose, food for the plant), with gaseous oxygen released as a byproduct.  Based on his accomplishments in plant chemistry and physiology, Saussure is considered the last of the major early pioneers of photosynthesis research, completing the work begun by his predecessors, including Jan van Helmont, Joseph Priestley, Jan Ingen-Housz, and Jean Senebier.

text: In Recherches chimiques sur la Végétation, Saussure showed that the increase in the mass of a plant as it grows could not be due only to the uptake of

text: CO

text: , but was also a result of the incorporation of water into plant dry matter.  In addition, Saussure demonstrated that plants obtain their carbon from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, not through uptake from

text: humus

text: in the soil, as his immediate predecessors in photosynthesis research had generally believed.  He also showed that plants require mineral nutrients, which they take up from the soil, and nitrogen, although he did not trace the source of plant nitrogen definitively to the soil. Saussure's finding that the source of plant minerals was the soil disproved the widely held view that mineral substances in plants arose from vague "transmutations" within the plant. His work enabled completion of the basic, overall chemical equation of photosynthesis, according to which carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of light, are converted by a green plant into fixed carbon (such as

text: glucose

text: , food for the plant), with gaseous

text: oxygen

text: released as a byproduct.  Based on his accomplishments in plant chemistry and physiology, Saussure is considered the last of the major early pioneers of photosynthesis research, completing the work begun by his predecessors, including

text: Jan van Helmont

text: Joseph Priestley

text: Jan Ingen-Housz

text: , and

text: Jean Senebier

text: An essential nutrient is  a nutrient required for normal physiological function that cannot be synthesized by the body, and thus must be obtained from a dietary source. Apart from water, which is universally required for the maintenance of homeostasis, essential nutrients are indispensable for the metabolic processes of cells, as well as the proper physiological functions of tissues and organs. In the case of humans, there are nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins and fifteen minerals that are considered essential nutrients. In addition, there are several molecules that are considered conditionally essential nutrients since they are indispensable in certain developmental and pathological states.

text: An essential nutrient is  a

text: nutrient

text: required for normal physiological function that cannot be synthesized by the body, and thus must be obtained from a

text: dietary

text: source. Apart from

text: water

text: , which is universally required for the maintenance of

text: homeostasis

text: , essential nutrients are indispensable for the metabolic processes of cells, as well as the proper physiological functions of tissues and organs. In the case of humans, there are nine

text: amino acid

text: s, two

text: fatty acid

text: s, thirteen

text: vitamin

text: s and fifteen

text: minerals

text: that are considered essential nutrients. In addition, there are several molecules that are considered conditionally essential nutrients since they are indispensable in certain developmental and pathological states.

text: Horses that are not subjected to hard work or extreme conditions usually have more than adequate amounts of vitamins in their diet if they are receiving fresh, green, leafy forages.  Sometimes a vitamin supplement is needed when feeding low-quality hay, if a horse is under stress (illness, traveling, showing, racing, and so on), or not eating well.  Grain has a different balance of nutrients than forage, and so requires specialized supplementation to prevent an imbalance of vitamins and minerals.

text: One factor that limits the benefits of food fortification is that isolated nutrients added back into a processed food that has had many of its nutrients removed, does not always result in the added nutrients being as bioavailable as they would be in the original, whole food.  An example is skim milk that has had the fat removed, and then had vitamin A and vitamin D added back.  Vitamins A and D are both fat-soluble and non-water-soluble, so a person consuming skim milk in the absence of fats may not be able to absorb as much of these vitamins as one would be able to absorb from drinking whole milk. On the other hand, the nutrient added as a fortificant may have a higher bioavailability than from foods, which is the case with folic acid used to increase folate intakes.

text: One factor that limits the benefits of food fortification is that isolated nutrients added back into a processed food that has had many of its nutrients removed, does not always result in the added nutrients being as

text: bioavailable

text: as they would be in the original, whole food.  An example is

text: skim milk

text: that has had the fat removed, and then had

text: vitamin A

text: and

text: vitamin D

text: added back.  Vitamins A and D are both fat-soluble and non-water-soluble, so a person consuming skim milk in the absence of fats may not be able to absorb as much of these vitamins as one would be able to absorb from drinking whole milk. On the other hand, the nutrient added as a fortificant may have a higher bioavailability than from foods, which is the case with folic acid used to increase folate intakes.

text: The Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply is a historical data series, beginning in 1909, on the amounts of nutrients per capita per day in food available for consumption. An interactive version of this series allows users to query nutrient and pyramid servings information online.

text: As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as organic essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); however, experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients that are not classified as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), choline, essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.

text: As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as

text: organic

text: essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (

text: Vitamin D

text: is the exception: it can be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of

text: UVB radiation

text: .) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as

text: carnitine

text: , are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different

text: phytochemical

text: s have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including

text: antioxidant

text: activity (see below); however, experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients that are not classified as vitamins include

text: essential amino acid

text: s (see

text: above

text: choline

text: essential fatty acid

text: s (see

text: above

text: ), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.

text: Vitamins are normally contained in foods and supplements. The amount of food eaten after GBP is severely reduced, and vitamin content is correspondingly lowered. Supplements should therefore be taken to complete minimum daily requirements of all vitamins and minerals. Pre-natal vitamins are sometimes suggested by doctors, as they contain more of certain vitamins than most multi-vitamins. Absorption of most vitamins is not seriously affected after proximal GBP, although vitamin B may not be well-absorbed in some persons: sublingual preparations of B provide adequate absorption. Some studies suggest that GBP patients who took probiotics after surgery are able to absorb and retain higher amounts of B than patients who did not take probiotics after surgery. After a distal GBP, fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E may not be well-absorbed, particularly if fat intake is large. Water-dispersed forms of these vitamins may be indicated on specific physician recommendation. For some patients, sublingual B is not enough, and patients may require B injections.

text: Vitamins are normally contained in foods and supplements. The amount of food eaten after GBP is severely reduced, and vitamin content is correspondingly lowered. Supplements should therefore be taken to complete minimum daily requirements of all vitamins and minerals. Pre-natal vitamins are sometimes suggested by doctors, as they contain more of certain vitamins than most multi-vitamins. Absorption of most vitamins is not seriously affected after proximal GBP, although vitamin B may not be well-absorbed in some persons: sublingual preparations of B provide adequate absorption. Some studies suggest that GBP patients who took

text: probiotic

text: s after surgery are able to absorb and retain higher amounts of B than patients who did not take probiotics after surgery. After a distal GBP, fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E may not be well-absorbed, particularly if fat intake is large. Water-dispersed forms of these vitamins may be indicated on specific physician recommendation. For some patients, sublingual B is not enough, and patients may require B injections.

text: In addition to mistletoe berries, painted honeyeaters consume nectar and insects when berries are unavailable. They may also need insects and nectar to account for a low intake of certain nutrients from the berries. Mistletoe fruit is known to be low in amino acids and protein, so painted honeyeaters must rely on these other food sources to make up the remainder of their dietary requirements.

text: The adults and immatures of the chorus cicada both feed on xylem sap made from plants, this sap is low in nutrients and doesn’t contain all the necessary amino acids so to make up for this the insects rely on  an endosymbiotic bacteria to provide the lacking nutrients from the sap. This type of food makes the chorus cicada a generalist feeder as it has a range of host plants that it feeds on. An orchard root system provides a good food source the nymphs which live in the soil.

text: The adults and immatures of the chorus cicada both feed on

text: xylem

text: sap made from plants, this sap is low in nutrients and doesn’t contain all the necessary amino acids so to make up for this the insects rely on  an

text: endosymbiotic

text: bacteria to provide the lacking nutrients from the sap. This type of food makes the chorus cicada a

text: generalist

text: feeder as it has a range of host plants that it feeds on. An orchard root system provides a good food source the nymphs which live in the soil.

text: A very important aspect of rabbit care is proper diet. Many owners unintentionally fail at this point and that often spells disaster for their pet. Netherland Dwarfs have a digestive system even more sensitive than most breeds. The best diet consists of fresh, good quality rabbit .pellets fed in limited amounts—1/8 cup per pound of body weight—with unlimited access to hay for an adult and junior rabbit. look for really dry and green hay. Chopped safe vegetables could also be given, at 2 cups or more per 6 pounds of body weight.)  It is crucial that the pellets be fresh and stored for no longer than six months, do not use pellets which are moldy or have been contaminated. As pellets age they lose important nutrients, and a rabbit’s system will become susceptible to disease. The owner should also check the label for the percentages of protein, fiber, and fat. The National Research Council lists minimum rabbit nutrient requirements for a maintenance diet as 14%-16% crude fiber, 2% fat, and 12% protein. It is best to feed a pellet that is higher in fiber (16-20%) and lower in protein (14-15%) and fat (2-3%) to a pet rabbit. Once you find a good brand, stick with it; frequent changes in diet can cause digestive problems. If you need to change brands, be sure to mix the new feed in with the old and increase the amount of new to old over a week's time so the rabbit can adjust.

text: Researchers discovered in the 1800s that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil are dissolved in water, plant roots absorb nutrients readily, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. This observation is the basis for hydroponics, the growing of plants in a water solution rather than soil, which has become a standard technique in biological research, teaching lab exercises, crop production and as a hobby.

text: Researchers discovered in the 1800s that plants absorb essential mineral nutrients as inorganic ions in water. In natural conditions, soil acts as a mineral nutrient reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the mineral nutrients in the soil are dissolved in water, plant roots absorb nutrients readily, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive. This observation is the basis for

text: hydroponics

text: , the growing of plants in a water solution rather than soil, which has become a standard technique in biological research, teaching lab exercises, crop production and as a hobby.

text: An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances like proteins, polysaccharides, fats, and nucleic acids. These macromolecules must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules like amino acids and simple sugars before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion. The main structure of an insect's digestive system is a long enclosed tube called the alimentary canal, which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal directs food in one direction: from the mouth to the anus. It has three sections, each of which performs a different process of digestion. In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax, adjacent to the foregut. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the foregut, midgut and hindgut.

text: An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of

text: macromolecule

text: s and other complex substances like

text: protein

text: s,

text: polysaccharide

text: s,

text: fat

text: s, and

text: nucleic acid

text: s. These macromolecules must be broken down by

text: catabolic reaction

text: s into smaller molecules like

text: amino acid

text: s and

text: simple sugar

text: s before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion. The main structure of an insect's digestive system is a long enclosed tube called the

text: alimentary canal

text: , which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal directs food in one direction: from the

text: mouth

text: to the

text: anus

text: . It has three sections, each of which performs a different process of digestion. In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax, adjacent to the foregut. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into the

text: foregut

text: midgut

text: and

text: hindgut

text: For remembering macronutrients;

text: For remembering

text: macronutrients

text: Biomolecular engineering is the application of engineering principles and practices to the purposeful manipulation of molecules of biological origin. Biomolecular engineers integrate knowledge of biological processes with the core knowledge of chemical engineering in order to focus on molecular level solutions to issues and problems in the life sciences related to the environment, agriculture, energy, industry, food production, biotechnology and medicine. Biomolecular engineers purposefully manipulate carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids within the framework of the relation between their structure (see: nucleic acid structure, carbohydrate chemistry, protein structure,), function (see: protein function) and properties and in relation to applicability to such areas as environmental remediation, crop and live stock production, biofuel cells and biomolecular diagnostics. Fundamental attention is given to the thermodynamics and kinetics of molecular recognition in enzymes, antibodies, DNA hybridization, bio-conjugation/bio-immobilization and bioseparations. Attention is also given to the rudiments of engineered biomolecules in cell signaling, cell growth kinetics, biochemical pathway engineering and bioreactor engineering. Biomolecular engineers are leading the major shift towards understanding and controlling the molecular mechanisms that define life as we know it.

text: Biomolecular engineering is the application of engineering principles and practices to the

text: purposeful manipulation of molecules of biological origin

text: . Biomolecular engineers integrate knowledge of

text: biological processes

text: with the core knowledge of

text: chemical engineering

text: in order to focus on molecular level solutions to issues and problems in the life sciences related to the

text: environment

text: agriculture

text: energy

text: industry

text: food production

text: biotechnology

text: and medicine. Biomolecular engineers purposefully manipulate

text: carbohydrates

text: proteins

text: nucleic acids

text: and

text: lipids

text: within the framework of the relation between their structure (see:

text: nucleic acid structure

text: carbohydrate chemistry

text: protein structure

text: ,), function (see:

text: protein function

text: ) and properties and in relation to applicability to such areas as

text: environmental remediation

text: , crop and live stock production, biofuel cells and biomolecular diagnostics. Fundamental attention is given to the thermodynamics and kinetics of molecular recognition in

text: enzymes

text: antibodies

text: DNA hybridization

text: bio-conjugation/bio-immobilization

text: and bioseparations. Attention is also given to the rudiments of engineered biomolecules in

text: cell signaling

text: , cell growth kinetics, biochemical pathway engineering and bioreactor engineering. Biomolecular engineers are leading the major shift towards understanding and controlling the

text: molecular

text: mechanisms

text: that define life as we know it.

text: Malabsorption is a state arising from abnormality in absorption of food nutrients across the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Impairment can be of single or multiple nutrients depending on the abnormality. This may lead to malnutrition and a variety of anaemias.

text: Malabsorption is a state arising from abnormality in

text: absorption

text: of

text: food nutrients

text: across the

text: gastrointestinal (GI) tract

text: . Impairment can be of single or multiple nutrients depending on the abnormality. This may lead to

text: malnutrition

text: and a variety of

text: anaemias

text: The widespread availability of nutritional guidelines has done little to address the problems of overeating and poor dietary choice. From 1971 to 2000, obesity rates in the United States increased from 14.5% to 30.9%. During the same period, an increase occurred in the average amount of food energy consumed. For women, the average increase was  per day ( in 1971 and  in 2004), while for men the average increase was  per day ( in 1971 and  in 2004). Most of this extra food energy came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption rather than fat consumption.  The primary sources of these extra carbohydrates are sweetened beverages, which now account for almost 25 percent of daily food energy in young adults in America, and potato chips.  Consumption of sweetened drinks such as soft drinks, fruit drinks, iced tea, and energy and vitamin water drinks is believed to be contributing to the rising rates of obesity and to an increased risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes. Vitamin D deficiency is related to diseases associated with obesity.

text: The widespread availability of

text: nutritional guidelines

text: has done little to address the problems of overeating and poor dietary choice. From 1971 to 2000, obesity rates in the United States increased from 14.5% to 30.9%. During the same period, an increase occurred in the average amount of food energy consumed. For women, the average increase was  per day ( in 1971 and  in 2004), while for men the average increase was  per day ( in 1971 and  in 2004). Most of this extra food energy came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption rather than fat consumption.  The primary sources of these extra carbohydrates are sweetened beverages, which now account for almost 25 percent of daily food energy in young adults in America, and potato chips.  Consumption of sweetened drinks such as soft drinks, fruit drinks, iced tea, and energy and vitamin water drinks is believed to be contributing to the rising rates of obesity and to an increased risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes.

text: Vitamin D deficiency

text: is related to diseases associated with obesity.

text: Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with glycosidic bonds for structural support (e.g. chitin, cellulose) or for energy storage (e.g. glycogen, starch). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form acetyl-CoA, which is a feed stock for the fatty acid synthesis pathway; fatty acids, triglycerides, and other lipids are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids (with a few exceptions, e.g. glycerol).

text: Carbohydrates are typically stored as long polymers of glucose molecules with

text: glycosidic bond

text: s for structural support (e.g.

text: chitin

text: cellulose

text: ) or for energy storage (e.g.

text: glycogen

text: starch

text: ). However, the strong affinity of most carbohydrates for water makes storage of large quantities of carbohydrates inefficient due to the large molecular weight of the solvated water-carbohydrate complex. In most organisms, excess carbohydrates are regularly catabolised to form

text: acetyl-CoA

text: , which is a feed stock for the

text: fatty acid synthesis

text: pathway;

text: fatty acids

text: triglycerides

text: , and other

text: lipids

text: are commonly used for long-term energy storage. The hydrophobic character of lipids makes them a much more compact form of energy storage than hydrophilic carbohydrates. However, animals, including humans, lack the necessary enzymatic machinery and so do not synthesize glucose from lipids (with a few exceptions, e.g. glycerol).

text: Animals that feed on grain or rely on grazing require more water than grain crops. Produce 1 kg of meat requires up to 15,000 liters of water. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), growing crops for farm animals requires nearly half of the US water supply and 80% of its agricultural land. Animals raised for food in the US consume 90% of the soy crop, 80% of the corn crop, and 70% of its grain. However, where an extensive farming system (as opposed to a feedlot) is used, some water and nutrients are returned to the soil to provide a benefit to the pasture. This cycling and processing of water and nutrients is less prevalent in most plant production systems, so may bring the efficiency rate of animal production closer to the efficiency of plant based agricultural systems.  In tracking food animal production from the feed through to the dinner table, the inefficiencies of meat, milk, and egg production range from a 4:1 energy input to protein output ratio up to 54:1. The result is that producing animal-based food is typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables, legumes, seeds, and fruits.

text: Animals that feed on grain or rely on grazing require more water than grain crops. Produce 1 kg of meat requires up to 15,000 liters of water. According to the

text: United States Department of Agriculture

text: (USDA), growing crops for farm animals requires nearly half of the US water supply and 80% of its agricultural land. Animals raised for food in the US consume 90% of the soy crop, 80% of the corn crop, and 70% of its grain. However, where an extensive farming system (as opposed to a feedlot) is used, some water and nutrients are returned to the soil to provide a benefit to the pasture. This cycling and processing of water and nutrients is less prevalent in most plant production systems, so may bring the efficiency rate of animal production closer to the efficiency of plant based agricultural systems.  In tracking food animal production from the feed through to the dinner table, the inefficiencies of meat,

text: milk

text: , and

text: egg

text: production range from a 4:1 energy input to protein output ratio up to 54:1. The result is that producing animal-based food is typically much less efficient than the harvesting of grains, vegetables,

text: legume

text: s, seeds, and fruits.

text: First Nations nutrition experiments were a series of experiments run in Canada by Department of Pensions and National Health (now Health Canada). The experiments involved nutrient-poor isolated communities such as those in  The Pas and Norway House in northern Manitoba and in residential schools and were designed to discover relative importance and optimum levels of the then-newly discovered vitamins. The deaths connected with the experiments have been described as 'genocide', but this is not (yet) a mainstream view.

text: First Nations nutrition experiments were a series of experiments run in Canada by

entity_name: Minister of Pensions and National Health (Canada)

text: Department of Pensions and National Health

text: (now

text: Health Canada

text: ). The experiments involved nutrient-poor isolated communities such as those in

text: The Pas

text: and

text: Norway House

text: in northern

text: Manitoba

text: and in

entity_name: Canadian Indian residential school system

text: residential schools

text: and were designed to discover relative importance and optimum levels of the then-newly discovered

text: vitamins

text: . The deaths connected with the experiments have been described as '

text: genocide

text: ', but this is not (yet) a mainstream view.

text: Diets that lack variety can be deficient in certain nutrients. Sometimes the staple foods of a region can lack particular nutrients, due to the soil of the region or because of the inherent inadequacy of the normal diet.  Addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale deficiency diseases in these cases.

text: Diets that lack variety can be deficient in certain nutrients. Sometimes the

text: staple food

text: s of a region can lack particular nutrients, due to the soil of the region or because of the inherent inadequacy of the normal diet.  Addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale

text: deficiency disease

text: s in these cases.

text: The rule stating that food had to contain 10 percent DV without fortification of one of the six nutrients (Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Iron, Calcium, Protein, and Fiber) is commonly referred to as the Jelly Bean Rule.

text: Sponges do not have distinct circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and excretory systems – instead the water flow system supports all these functions. They filter food particles out of the water flowing through them. Particles larger than 50 micrometers cannot enter the ostia and pinacocytes consume them by phagocytosis (engulfing and internal digestion). Particles from 0.5 μm to 50 μm are trapped in the ostia, which taper from the outer to inner ends. These particles are consumed by pinacocytes or by archaeocytes which partially extrude themselves through the walls of the ostia. Bacteria-sized particles, below 0.5 micrometers, pass through the ostia and are caught and consumed by choanocytes. Since the smallest particles are by far the most common, choanocytes typically capture 80% of a sponge's food supply. Archaeocytes transport food packaged in vesicles from cells that directly digest food to those that do not. At least one species of sponge has internal fibers that function as tracks for use by nutrient-carrying archaeocytes, and these tracks also move inert objects.

text: Sponges do not have distinct

text: circulatory

text: respiratory

text: digestive

text: , and

text: excretory

text: systems – instead the water flow system supports all these functions. They

text: filter

text: food particles out of the water flowing through them. Particles larger than 50 micrometers cannot enter the

text: ostia

text: and

text: pinacocyte

text: s consume them by

text: phagocytosis

text: (engulfing and internal digestion). Particles from 0.5 μm to 50 μm are trapped in the ostia, which taper from the outer to inner ends. These particles are consumed by pinacocytes or by

text: archaeocyte

text: s which partially extrude themselves through the walls of the ostia. Bacteria-sized particles, below 0.5 micrometers, pass through the ostia and are caught and consumed by

text: choanocyte

text: s. Since the smallest particles are by far the most common, choanocytes typically capture 80% of a sponge's food supply. Archaeocytes transport food packaged in

text: vesicle

text: s from cells that directly digest food to those that do not. At least one species of sponge has internal fibers that function as tracks for use by nutrient-carrying archaeocytes, and these tracks also move inert objects.

text: Interest in the application of algae for biofuels was rekindled during the oil embargo and oil price surges of the 1970s, leading the US Department of Energy to initiate the Aquatic Species Program in 1978. The Aquatic Species Program spent $25 million over 18 years with the goal of developing liquid transportation fuel from algae that would be price competitive with petroleum-derived fuels. The research program focused on the cultivation of microalgae in open outdoor ponds, systems which are low in cost but vulnerable to environmental disturbances like temperature swings and biological invasions. 3,000 algal strains were collected from around the country and screened for desirable properties such as high productivity, lipid content, and thermal tolerance, and the most promising strains were included in the SERI microalgae collection at the Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI) in Golden, Colorado and used for further research. Among the program’s most significant findings were that rapid growth and high lipid production were "mutually exclusive," since the former required high nutrients and the latter required low nutrients. The final report suggested that genetic engineering may be necessary to be able to overcome this and other natural limitations of algal strains, and that the ideal species might vary with place and season. Although it was successfully demonstrated that large-scale production of algae for fuel in outdoor ponds was feasible, the program failed to do so at a cost that would be competitive with petroleum, especially as oil prices sank in the 1990s. Even in the best case scenario, it was estimated that unextracted algal oil would cost $59–186 per barrel, while petroleum cost less than $20 per barrel in 1995. Therefore, under budget pressure in 1996, the Aquatic Species Program was abandoned.

text: Interest in the application of algae for biofuels was rekindled during the oil embargo and oil price surges of the 1970s, leading the US Department of Energy to initiate the

text: Aquatic Species Program

text: in 1978. The Aquatic Species Program spent $25 million over 18 years with the goal of developing liquid transportation fuel from algae that would be price competitive with petroleum-derived fuels. The research program focused on the cultivation of microalgae in open outdoor ponds, systems which are low in cost but vulnerable to environmental disturbances like temperature swings and biological invasions. 3,000 algal strains were collected from around the country and screened for desirable properties such as high productivity, lipid content, and thermal tolerance, and the most promising strains were included in the SERI microalgae collection at the

text: Solar Energy Research Institute

text: (SERI) in Golden, Colorado and used for further research. Among the program’s most significant findings were that rapid growth and high lipid production were "mutually exclusive," since the former required high nutrients and the latter required low nutrients. The final report suggested that

text: genetic engineering

text: may be necessary to be able to overcome this and other natural limitations of algal strains, and that the ideal species might vary with place and season. Although it was successfully demonstrated that large-scale production of algae for fuel in outdoor ponds was feasible, the program failed to do so at a cost that would be competitive with petroleum, especially as oil prices sank in the 1990s. Even in the best case scenario, it was estimated that unextracted algal oil would cost $59–186 per barrel, while petroleum cost less than $20 per barrel in 1995. Therefore, under budget pressure in 1996, the Aquatic Species Program was abandoned.

text: King Ajatashatru told his mother,'I did a difficult thing. Why do I say that? I am a king, and because I love my son, I had my meal together with dogs.' The mother said, 'This is nothing difficult. Why do I say that? There are people who eat dog meat, so what is strange in giving food to dogs? Do you know that your father did difficult things?' Ajatashatru asked, 'What difficult things?' The mother said,'When you were young, your finger was wounded. You could not sleep for nights because of the pain. Your father held you on his lap and sucked on your finger. Your father had a soft body, so you could sleep well. Because of the warmth of his mouth, your wound's pus broke out. Your father thought that if he spat out the pus, it would increase your pain, so he swallowed the pus. Your father did such difficult thing for you. Please release him.'

text: At least 17 elements are known to be essential nutrients for plants. In relatively large amounts, the soil supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur; these are often called the macronutrients. In relatively small amounts, the soil supplies iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, and cobalt, the so-called micronutrients. Nutrients must be available not only in sufficient amounts but also in appropriate ratios.

text: At least 17 elements are known to be essential nutrients for plants. In relatively large amounts, the soil supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur; these are often called the

text: macronutrients

text: . In relatively small amounts, the

text: soil

text: supplies iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, and cobalt, the so-called

text: micronutrients

text: . Nutrients must be available not only in sufficient amounts but also in appropriate ratios.

text: Generally speaking, carbohydrates can be classified into two groups, simple sugars and complex carbohydrates. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, are carbohydrates which can not be converted into smaller sugars by hydrolysis. When two or more monosaccharide units are connected to one another via a glycoside linkage, complex carbohydrates are formed. Complex carbohydrates, according to the different number of monosaccharide units, can be classed into three groups, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. A disaccharide is formed from two monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides can be formed by a small number of monosaccharides linked together. Higher oligosaccharides are called polysaccharides. It is now well known that glycoconjugates play an indispensable role in many biological processes. These biological processes in which carbohydrates are involved are typically associated not to monosaccharides, but to oligosaccharides structures of glycoconjugates. Therefore, the oligosaccharide synthesis becomes more and more important in studying the biological activities.

text: Phytoplankton absorb energy from the Sun and nutrients from the water to produce their own food. In the process of photosynthesis, phytoplankton release molecular oxygen () into the water. It is estimated that between 50% — 85% of the world's oxygen is produced via phytoplankton photosynthesis. The rest is produced via photosynthesis on land by plants. Furthermore, phytoplankton photosynthesis has controlled the atmospheric / balance since the early Precambrian Eon.

text: Phytoplankton

text: absorb energy from the Sun and nutrients from the water to produce their own food. In the process of photosynthesis, phytoplankton release molecular

text: oxygen

text: () into the water. It is estimated that between 50% — 85% of the world's oxygen is produced via phytoplankton photosynthesis. The rest is produced via photosynthesis on land by

text: plant

text: s. Furthermore, phytoplankton photosynthesis has controlled the atmospheric / balance since the early

text: Precambrian

text: Eon.

text: Micronutrient deficiencies are associated with 10% of all children's deaths, and are therefore of special concern to those involved with child welfare. Deficiencies of essential vitamins or minerals such as Vitamin A, iron, and zinc may be caused by long-term shortages of nutritious food or by infections such as intestinal worms. They may also be caused or exacerbated when illnesses (such as diarrhoea or malaria) cause rapid loss of nutrients through feces or vomit.

text: Micronutrient deficiencies are associated with 10% of all children's deaths, and are therefore of special concern to those involved with child welfare. Deficiencies of essential vitamins or minerals such as Vitamin A, iron, and zinc may be caused by long-term shortages of nutritious food or by infections such as

text: intestinal worms

text: . They may also be caused or exacerbated when illnesses (such as diarrhoea or malaria) cause rapid loss of nutrients through feces or vomit.

text: Mathematically, PCLake is composed of a set of coupled differential equations. With a large number of state variables (>100) and parameters (>300), the model may be characterized as relatively complex. The main biotic variables are phytoplankton and submerged aquatic vegetation, describing primary production. A simplified food web is made up of zooplankton, zoobenthos, young and adult whitefish and piscivorous fish. The main abiotic factors are transparency and the nutrients phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N) and silica (Si). At the base of the model are the water and nutrient budgets (in- and outflow). The model describes a completely mixed water body and comprises both the water column and the upper sediment layer. The overall nutrient cycles for N, P and Si are described as completely closed (except for in- and outflow and denitrification). Inputs to the model are: lake hydrology, nutrient loading, dimensions and sediment characteristics. The model calculates chlorophyll-a, transparency, cyanobacteria, vegetation cover and fish biomass, as well as the concentrations and fluxes of nutrients N, P and Si, and oxygen. Optionally, a wetland zone with marsh vegetation and water exchange with the lake can be included.

text: Mathematically, PCLake is composed of a set of coupled

text: differential equation

text: s. With a large number of

text: state variables

text: (>100) and

text: parameters

text: (>300), the model may be characterized as relatively complex. The main biotic variables are

text: phytoplankton

text: and

text: submerged aquatic vegetation

text: , describing

text: primary production

text: . A simplified

text: food web

text: is made up of

text: zooplankton

text: , zoo

text: benthos

text: , young and adult whitefish and piscivorous fish. The main abiotic factors are transparency and the nutrients phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N) and silica (Si). At the base of the model are the water and nutrient budgets (in- and outflow). The model describes a completely mixed water body and comprises both the water column and the upper sediment layer. The overall nutrient cycles for N, P and Si are described as completely closed (except for in- and outflow and

text: denitrification

text: ). Inputs to the model are: lake hydrology, nutrient loading, dimensions and sediment characteristics. The model calculates

text: chlorophyll

text: -a, transparency, cyanobacteria, vegetation cover and fish biomass, as well as the concentrations and fluxes of nutrients N, P and Si, and oxygen. Optionally, a wetland zone with marsh vegetation and water exchange with the lake can be included.

text: Vitamin is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems but there is little evidence of benefit when used by those who are otherwise healthy.

text: Vitamin is an

text: organic compound

text: required by an

text: organism

text: as a vital

text: nutrient

text: in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot be

text: synthesized

text: in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example,

text: ascorbic acid

text: (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems but there is little evidence of benefit when used by those who are otherwise healthy.

text: There are several classes of water pollutants that may be arrested with bioswales.  These fall into the categories of silt, inorganic contaminants, organic chemicals and pathogens.  In the case of silt, these effects are resultant turbidity to receiving waters.  Inorganic compounds may be metallic compounds such as lead, chromium, cadmium and other heavy metals.  Lead is the most prevalent chemical of this class, deriving from automotive residue (for example, spillage of leaded gasoline). Other common inorganic compounds are macronutrients such as phosphates and nitrates.  Principal sources of these nutrients are excess fertilization, which can cause eutrophication in receiving waters.  Chief organic chemicals are pesticides, frequently over-dosed in agricultural and urban landscaping .  These chemicals can lead to a variety of organism poisoning and aquatic ecosystem disturbance.  Pathogens typically derive from surface runoff containing animal wastes and can lead to a variety of diseases in humans and aquatic organisms.

text: There are several classes of

text: water pollutant

text: s that may be arrested with bioswales.  These fall into the categories of silt, inorganic contaminants, organic chemicals and

text: pathogen

text: s.  In the case of silt, these effects are resultant

text: turbidity

text: to receiving waters.  Inorganic compounds may be metallic compounds such as

text: lead

text: chromium

text: cadmium

text: and other heavy metals.  Lead is the most prevalent chemical of this class, deriving from automotive residue (for example, spillage of leaded gasoline). Other common inorganic compounds are

text: macronutrient

text: s such as

text: phosphate

text: s and

text: nitrate

text: s.  Principal sources of these nutrients are excess fertilization, which can cause

text: eutrophication

text: in receiving waters.  Chief organic chemicals are

text: pesticide

text: s, frequently over-dosed in

text: agricultural

text: and

text: urban

text: landscaping .  These chemicals can lead to a variety of

text: organism

text: poisoning and

text: aquatic ecosystem

text: disturbance.  Pathogens typically derive from surface runoff containing animal wastes and can lead to a variety of

text: disease

text: s in humans and aquatic organisms.

text: As vegetal material undergoes decomposition, some microbial resistant compounds are formed. These include modified lignins, oils, fats and waxes. Secondly, some new compounds are synthesized, like polysaccharides and polyuronids. These materials form the basis for humus. New reactions take place between these compounds and some proteins and other nitrogen containing products, incorporating thus nitrogen and avoiding its mineralization. Other nutrients are also protected in this way from mineralization.

text: As vegetal material undergoes decomposition, some microbial resistant compounds are formed. These include modified lignins, oils, fats and waxes. Secondly, some new compounds are synthesized, like

text: polysaccharides

text: and

text: polyuronids

text: . These materials form the basis for humus. New reactions take place between these compounds and some proteins and other nitrogen containing products, incorporating thus nitrogen and avoiding its mineralization. Other nutrients are also protected in this way from mineralization.

text: Stable-isotope probing (SIP) is a technique in microbial ecology for tracing fluxes of nutrients in biogeochemical cycling by microorganisms. A substrate is enriched with a heavier stable isotope that is consumed by the organisms to be studied. Biomarkers with the heavier isotope incorporated into them can be separated from biomarkers containing the more naturally abundant lighter isotope by isopycnic centrifugation. For example, CO can be used to find out which organisms are actively photosynthesizing or consuming new photosynthate. As the biomarker, DNA with C is then separated from DNA with C by centrifugation. Sequencing the DNA identifies which organisms were consuming existing carbohydrates and which were using carbohydrates more recently produced from photosynthesis.

text: Stable-isotope probing (SIP) is a technique in

text: microbial ecology

text: for tracing fluxes of

text: nutrient

text: s in

text: biogeochemical cycling

text: by microorganisms. A substrate is enriched with a heavier

text: stable isotope

text: that is consumed by the organisms to be studied.

text: Biomarkers

text: with the heavier isotope incorporated into them can be separated from biomarkers containing the more naturally abundant lighter isotope by

text: isopycnic centrifugation

text: . For example,

text: CO

text: can be used to find out which organisms are actively

text: photosynthesizing

text: or consuming new photosynthate. As the biomarker,

text: DNA

text: with C is then separated from DNA with C by centrifugation.

text: Sequencing

text: the DNA identifies which organisms were consuming existing

text: carbohydrates

text: and which were using carbohydrates more recently produced from photosynthesis.

text: Bioavailability is commonly a limiting factor in the production of crops (due to solubility limitation or adsorption of plant nutrients to soil colloids) and in the removal of toxic substances from the food chain by microorganisms (due to sorption to or partitioning of otherwise degradable substances into inaccessible phases in the environment). A noteworthy example for agriculture is plant phosphorus deficiency induced by precipitation with iron and aluminum phosphates at low soil pH and precipitation with calcium phosphates at high soil pH. Toxic materials in soil, such as lead from paint may be rendered unavailable to animals ingesting contaminated soil by supplying phosphorus fertilizers in excess. Organic pollutants such as solvents or pesticides  may be rendered unavailable to microorganisms and thus persist in the environment when they are adsorbed to soil minerals or partition into hydrophobic organic matter.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-9063(199905)55:5

text: Staple foods vary from place to place, but typically they are inexpensive or readily-available foods that supply one or more of the three organic macronutrients needed for survival and health: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Typical examples of staples include tubers and roots; and grains, legumes, and other seeds. Early agricultural civilizations valued the foods that they established as staples because, in addition to providing necessary nutrition, they generally are suitable for storage over long periods of time without decay. Such nonperishable foods are the only possible staples during seasons of shortage, such as dry seasons or cold temperate winters, against which times harvests have been stored. During seasons of plenty, wider choices of foods may be available.

text: Staple foods vary from place to place, but typically they are inexpensive or readily-available foods that supply one or more of the three organic

text: macronutrients

text: needed for survival and health:

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: protein

text: s, and

text: fat

text: s. Typical examples of staples include

text: tubers

text: and roots; and grains, legumes, and other seeds. Early agricultural civilizations valued the foods that they established as staples because, in addition to providing necessary

text: nutrition

text: , they generally are suitable for storage over long periods of time without decay. Such

text: nonperishable foods

text: are the only possible staples during seasons of shortage, such as dry seasons or cold

text: temperate winters

text: , against which times harvests have been stored. During seasons of plenty, wider choices of foods may be available.

text: Aiptasia is a genus of a symbiotic cnidarian belonging to the class Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals). Aiptasia is a widely distributed genus of temperate and tropical sea anemones of benthic lifestyle typically found living on mangrove roots and hard substrates. These anemones, as well as many other cnidarian species, often contain symbiotic dinoflagellate unicellular algae of the genus Symbiodinium living inside nutritive cells. The symbionts provide food mainly in the form of lipids and sugars produced from photosynthesis to the host while the hosts provides inorganic nutrients and a constant and protective environment to the algae.Species of Aiptasia are relatively weedy anemones able to withstand a relatively wide range of salinities and other water quality conditions.  In the case of A. pallida and A. pulchella, their hardiness coupled with their ability to reproduce very quickly and out-compete other species in culture gives these anemones the status of pest from the perspective of coral reef aquarium hobbyists. These very characteristics make them easy to grow in the laboratory and thus they are extensively used as model organisms for scientific study.  In this respect, Aiptasia have contributed a significant amount of knowledge regarding cnidarian biology, especially our understanding of cnidarian-algal symbioses, a biological phenomenon crucial to the survival of corals and coral reef ecosystems. The dependence of coral reefs on the health of the symbiosis is dramatically illustrated by the devastating effects experienced by corals due to the loss of algal symbionts in response to environmental stress, a phenomenon known as coral bleaching.

text: Aiptasia is a

text: genus

text: of a

text: symbiotic

text: cnidarian

text: belonging to the class

text: Anthozoa

text: sea anemone

text: s,

text: coral

text: s). Aiptasia is a widely distributed genus of temperate and tropical sea anemones of

text: benthic

text: lifestyle typically found living on

text: mangrove

text: roots and hard substrates. These anemones, as well as many other

text: cnidarian

text: species, often contain symbiotic

text: dinoflagellate

text: unicellular algae of the genus

text: Symbiodinium

text: living inside nutritive cells. The symbionts provide food mainly in the form of

text: lipid

text: s and

text: sugar

text: s produced from

text: photosynthesis

text: to the host while the hosts provides inorganic nutrients and a constant and protective environment to the algae.Species of Aiptasia are relatively weedy anemones able to withstand a relatively wide range of salinities and other water quality conditions.  In the case of A. pallida and A. pulchella, their hardiness coupled with their ability to reproduce very quickly and out-compete other species in culture gives these anemones the status of pest from the perspective of coral reef aquarium hobbyists. These very characteristics make them easy to grow in the laboratory and thus they are extensively used as

text: model organism

text: s for scientific study.  In this respect, Aiptasia have contributed a significant amount of knowledge regarding cnidarian biology, especially our understanding of cnidarian-algal symbioses, a biological phenomenon crucial to the survival of corals and

text: coral reef

text: ecosystems. The dependence of coral reefs on the health of the symbiosis is dramatically illustrated by the devastating effects experienced by corals due to the loss of algal symbionts in response to environmental stress, a phenomenon known as

text: coral bleaching

text: The correlation between media image and body image has been proven; in one study, among European American and African American girls ages 7 – 12, greater overall television exposure predicted both a thinner ideal adult body shape and a higher level of disordered eating one year later. Adolescent girls are the most strongly affected demographic; “More and more 12-year-old girls are going on diets because they believe what you weigh determines your worth,” Cutler observed. “When all you see is a body type that only two percent of the population has, it’s difficult to remember what’s real and what’s reasonable to expect of yourself and everyone else.”

text: In advertisements, Shinya has recommended taking enzymes from consumed food. There he cites a medical paper that reports a decrease in the secretion quantity of three kinds of digestive enzyme (and bicarbonate) from the pancreas. The article speculates that this is due to aging, and does not discuss intake of nutrients, so it is irrelevant to his claim. He also says that in recent years vegetables are poorer sources of nutrients, and that it is difficult to obtain sufficient enzymes from consumed food alone. His evidence for this is a chart based on references for 1963 and 2008 which shows values of beta-carotene, vitamin C and iron found in spinach and carrot, from which he appears to infer a comparable enzyme deficit in all vegetable food sources.

text: In advertisements, Shinya has recommended taking

text: enzyme

text: s from consumed food. There he cites a medical paper that reports a decrease in the

text: secretion

text: quantity of three kinds of

text: digestive enzyme

text: (and

text: bicarbonate

text: ) from the

text: pancreas

text: . The article speculates that this is due to

text: aging

text: , and does not discuss intake of

text: nutrients

text: , so it is irrelevant to his claim. He also says that in recent years vegetables are poorer sources of nutrients, and that it is difficult to obtain sufficient enzymes from consumed food alone. His evidence for this is a chart based on references for 1963 and 2008 which shows values of

text: beta-carotene

text: vitamin C

text: and

text: iron

text: found in

text: spinach

text: and

text: carrot

text: , from which he appears to infer a comparable enzyme deficit in all vegetable food sources.

text: Minerals are classified by variety, species, series and group, in order of increasing generality. The basic level of definition is that of mineral species, which is distinguished from other species by specific and unique chemical and physical properties. For example, quartz is defined by its formula, SiO, and a specific crystalline structure that distinguishes it from other minerals with the same chemical formula (termed polymorphs). When there exists a range of composition between two minerals species, a mineral series is defined. For example, the biotite series is represented by variable amounts of the endmembers phlogopite, siderophyllite, annite, and eastonite. In contrast, a mineral group is a grouping of mineral species with some common chemical properties that share a crystal structure. The pyroxene group has a common  formula of XY(Si,Al)O, where X and Y are both cations, with X typically bigger than Y; the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates that crystallize in either the orthorhombic or monoclinic crystal systems. Finally, a mineral variety is a specific type of mineral species that differs by some physical characteristic, such as colour or crystal habit. An example is amethyst, which is a purple variety of quartz.

text: Minerals are classified by variety, species, series and group, in order of increasing generality. The basic level of definition is that of mineral species, which is distinguished from other species by specific and unique chemical and physical properties. For example, quartz is defined by its

text: formula

text: , SiO, and a specific

text: crystalline structure

text: that distinguishes it from other minerals with the same chemical formula (termed

text: polymorphs

text: ). When there exists a range of composition between two minerals species, a mineral series is defined. For example, the

text: biotite

text: series is represented by variable amounts of the endmembers

text: phlogopite

text: siderophyllite

text: annite

text: , and

text: eastonite

text: . In contrast, a mineral group is a grouping of mineral species with some common chemical properties that share a crystal structure. The

text: pyroxene

text: group has a common  formula of XY(Si,Al)O, where X and Y are both cations, with X typically

text: bigger

text: than Y; the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates that crystallize in either the

text: orthorhombic

text: or

text: monoclinic

text: crystal systems. Finally, a mineral variety is a specific type of mineral species that differs by some physical characteristic, such as colour or crystal habit. An example is

text: amethyst

text: , which is a purple variety of quartz.

text: Foods that are low in carbohydrates include:

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) issued consultative recommendatons regarding nutrient requirements in HIV/AIDS. A generally healthy diet was promoted. For HIV-infected adults, the WHO recommended micronutrient intake comes from a good diet at RDA levels; higher intake of vitamin A, zinc, and iron can produce adverse effects in HIV positive adults, and these were not recommended unless there is documented deficiency.

text: The

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) issued consultative recommendatons regarding nutrient requirements in HIV/AIDS. A generally healthy diet was promoted. For HIV-infected adults, the WHO recommended micronutrient intake comes from a good diet at

text: RDA

text: levels; higher intake of vitamin A,

text: zinc

text: , and iron can produce adverse effects in HIV positive adults, and these were not recommended unless there is documented deficiency.

text: Nutrient Systems (nutrient premixes) integrate functional ingredients from vitamins, minerals, amino acids, nucleotides, and nutraceuticals. These mixes are very cost-saving and beneficial to manufacturers, researchers and developers in the food and pharmaceutical industries worldwide. This is a booming business and is part of the multi-billion dollar nutrition industry worldwide. Many everyday foods and pharmaceuticals are derived from nutrient premixes.

text: Nutrient Systems (nutrient premixes) integrate functional ingredients from

text: vitamins

text: minerals

text: amino acids

text: nucleotides

text: , and

text: nutraceuticals

text: . These mixes are very cost-saving and beneficial to manufacturers, researchers and developers in the food and pharmaceutical

text: industries

text: worldwide. This is a booming business and is part of the multi-billion dollar nutrition industry worldwide. Many everyday foods and

text: pharmaceuticals

text: are derived from nutrient premixes.

text: Gluten proteins have low nutritional and biological value, and the grains that contain gluten are not essential in the human diet. However, an unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as iron and B vitamins. Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater lipid / carbohydrate content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits. Nutritional complications can be prevented by a correct dietary education.

text: Gluten proteins have

text: low nutritional and biological value

text: , and the grains that contain gluten are not essential in the human diet. However, an unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as

text: iron

text: and

text: B vitamins

text: . Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater

text: lipid

text: carbohydrate

text: content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits. Nutritional complications can be prevented by a correct dietary education.

text: The first domestication probably occurred in West Africa, but the black-eyed pea is widely grown in many countries in Asia; it was introduced into the Southern United States as early as the 17th century in Virginia. Most of the black-eyed pea cultivation in the region, however, took firmer hold in Florida and the Carolinas during the 18th century, reaching Virginia in full force following the American Revolution. The crop would also eventually prove popular in Texas. Throughout the South, the black-eyed pea is still a widely used ingredient in soul food and various types of Southern U.S. cuisine. The planting of crops of black-eyed peas was promoted by George Washington Carver because, as a legume, it adds nitrogen to the soil and has high nutritional value. Black-eyed peas contain calcium (41 mg) folate (356 mcg), protein (13.22 g), fiber (11.1 g) and vitamin A (26 IU), among other nutrients, all for less than 200 Calories, in a 171-g, one-cup serving.

text: The first domestication probably occurred in West Africa, but the black-eyed pea is widely grown in many countries in

text: Asia

text: ; it was introduced into the

text: Southern United States

text: as early as the 17th century in Virginia. Most of the black-eyed pea cultivation in the region, however, took firmer hold in Florida and the Carolinas during the 18th century, reaching Virginia in full force following the American Revolution. The crop would also eventually prove popular in Texas. Throughout the South, the black-eyed pea is still a widely used ingredient in

text: soul food

text: and various types of

text: Southern U.S. cuisine

text: . The planting of crops of black-eyed peas was promoted by

text: George Washington Carver

text: because, as a

text: legume

text: , it adds

text: nitrogen

text: to the

text: soil

text: and has high

text: nutrition

text: al value. Black-eyed peas contain

text: calcium

text: (41 mg)

text: folate

text: (356 mcg), protein (13.22 g), fiber (11.1 g) and

text: vitamin A

text: (26 IU), among other nutrients, all for less than 200 Calories, in a 171-g, one-cup serving.

text: In his book The Ultimate Resource 2, Julian Simon claimed that there is a strong correlation between government corruption and lack of sufficient supplies of safe, clean water. Simon wrote, "there is complete agreement among water economists that all it takes to ensure an adequate supply for agriculture as well as for households in rich countries is that there be a rational structure of water law and market pricing. The problem is not too many people but rather defective laws and bureaucratic interventions; freeing up markets in water would eliminate just about all water problems forever... In poor water-short countries the problem with water supply—as with so many other matters—is lack of wealth to create systems to supply water efficiently enough. As these countries become richer, their water problems will become less difficult". This theoretical argument, however, ignores real-world conditions, including strong barriers to open water markets, the difficulty of moving water from one region to another, water rights laws that prevent redistribution based solely on economic value, inability of some populations to pay for water, and grossly imperfect information on water use. Actual experience with peak water constraints in some wealthy, but water-short countries and regions still suggests serious difficulties in reducing water challenges.

text: In his book

text: The Ultimate Resource 2

text: Julian Simon

text: claimed that there is a strong correlation between

text: government corruption

text: and lack of sufficient supplies of safe, clean water. Simon wrote, "there is complete agreement among water economists that all it takes to ensure an adequate supply for agriculture as well as for households in rich countries is that there be a rational structure of

text: water law

text: and market pricing. The problem is not too many people but rather defective laws and bureaucratic interventions; freeing up markets in water would eliminate just about all water problems forever... In poor water-short countries the problem with water supply—as with so many other matters—is lack of wealth to create systems to supply water efficiently enough. As these countries become richer, their water problems will become less difficult". This theoretical argument, however, ignores real-world conditions, including strong barriers to open water markets, the difficulty of moving water from one region to another, water rights laws that prevent redistribution based solely on economic value, inability of some populations to pay for water, and grossly imperfect information on water use. Actual experience with peak water constraints in some wealthy, but water-short countries and regions still suggests serious difficulties in reducing water challenges.

text: These diet changes have occurred more in females and calves than in males, though. The bulls do not change as much of their graze time, even if wolves are in the area, because their bodies are not equipped to deal with such bad nutrition right before winter.   The little changes they do make in their diet cause them to be in a poor state when winter finally arrives.  Because of the decrease in available food during the winter, an adult female elk weighing around 200-kg would have to eat an amount of food greater than the biological maximum that can be consumed by this animal in order to get the necessary nutrients.  It is difficult for elk to forage in the winter due to snowfall and lack of suitable live plants. Even without nutrient deficiency from changes in summer foraging patterns, their body conditions deteriorate (Christianson and Creel, 2010). This is just one reason why elk, male and female, have to rely a lot on stored fat and muscle that was gained throughout the rest of the year to meet the needed levels of dietary energy and nitrogen.

text: The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem: the mixture of fresh water and salt water (brackish water) in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life. Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain.

text: The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local

text: ecosystem

text: : the mixture of

text: fresh water

text: and

text: salt water

text: brackish water

text: ) in

text: estuaries

text: provides many nutrients for marine life.

text: Salt marsh

text: es and

text: beach

text: es also support a diversity of

text: plant

text: s,

text: animal

text: s and

text: insect

text: s crucial to the

text: food chain

text: Therefore, I say unto you, Take no thought for your life, what ye shall eat, or what ye shall drink; nor yet for your body, what ye shall put on. Is not the life more than meat, and the body than raiment?<br>

text: Nutrients are important to the growth and survival of living organisms, and hence, are essential for development and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Humans have greatly influenced the phosphorus cycle by mining phosphorus, converting it to fertilizer, and by shipping fertilizer and products around the globe. Transporting phosphorus in food from farms to cities has made a major change in the global Phosphorus cycle. However, excessive amounts of nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, are detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Waters are enriched in phosphorus from farms' run-off, and from effluent that is inadequately treated before it is discharged to waters. Natural eutrophication is a process by which lakes gradually age and become more productive and may take thousands of years to progress. Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication, however, is water pollution caused by excessive plant nutrients; this results in excessive growth in the algal population; when this algae dies its putrefaction depletes the water of oxygen.Such eutrophication may also give rise to toxic algal bloom.Both these effects cause animal and plant death rates to increase as the plants take in poisonous water while the animals drink the poisoned water. Surface and subsurface runoff and erosion from high-phosphorus soils may be major contributing factors to this fresh water eutrophication. The processes controlling soil Phosphorus release to surface runoff and to subsurface flow are a complex interaction between the type of phosphorus input, soil type and management, and transport processes depending on hydrological conditions.

text: Nutrients are important to the growth and survival of living organisms, and hence, are essential for development and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Humans have greatly influenced the phosphorus cycle by mining phosphorus, converting it to fertilizer, and by shipping fertilizer and products around the globe. Transporting phosphorus in food from farms to cities has made a major change in the global Phosphorus cycle. However, excessive amounts of nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, are detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Waters are enriched in phosphorus from farms' run-off, and from effluent that is inadequately treated before it is discharged to waters. Natural

text: eutrophication

text: is a process by which lakes gradually age and become more productive and may take thousands of years to progress. Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication, however, is water pollution caused by excessive plant nutrients; this results in excessive growth in the algal population; when this algae dies its putrefaction depletes the water of oxygen.Such eutrophication may also give rise to toxic algal bloom.Both these effects cause animal and plant death rates to increase as the plants take in poisonous water while the animals drink the poisoned water. Surface and subsurface runoff and erosion from high-phosphorus soils may be major contributing factors to this fresh water eutrophication. The processes controlling soil Phosphorus release to surface runoff and to subsurface flow are a complex interaction between the type of phosphorus input, soil type and management, and transport processes depending on hydrological conditions.

text: The supporting evidence of the cooking hypothesis argues that compared to the nutrient in the raw food, nutrients in cooked food are much easier to digest for hominid as shown in the research of protein ingestion from raw vs. cooke egg. Such a feature is essential for brain evolution: through studying the metabolic activities between primate species, scientists had found that there is a limitation of energy harvesting through food sources due to limited feeding time. Besides the brain, other organs in the human body also demand a high level of metabolism. At the same time, the body mass portion of different organs was changing throughout the process of evolution as a means for brain expansion. Homo genus was able to break through the limit by cooking food to lower their feeding time and be able to absorb more nutrients to accommodate the increasing need for energy. In addition, scientists argue that the Homo species was also able to obtain nutrients like DHA (Docosahexaenoic acid) from algae that were especially beneficial and critical for brain evolution and, as mentioned in the previous sections, the detoxification of the cooking process enabled early humans to access these resources.

text: The supporting evidence of the cooking hypothesis argues that compared to the nutrient in the raw food, nutrients in cooked food are much easier to digest for hominid as shown in the research of protein ingestion from raw vs. cooke egg. Such a feature is essential for brain evolution: through studying the metabolic activities between primate species, scientists had found that there is a limitation of energy harvesting through food sources due to limited feeding time. Besides the brain, other organs in the human body also demand a high level of

text: metabolism

text: . At the same time, the body mass portion of different organs was changing throughout the process of evolution as a means for brain expansion.

text: Homo genus

text: was able to break through the limit by cooking food to lower their feeding time and be able to absorb more nutrients to accommodate the increasing need for energy. In addition, scientists argue that the Homo species was also able to obtain nutrients like DHA (

text: Docosahexaenoic acid

text: ) from algae that were especially beneficial and critical for brain evolution and, as mentioned in the previous sections, the detoxification of the cooking process enabled early humans to access these resources.

text: Developed by ReViVer, a nutritionally-oriented restaurant in New York City,  the ReViVer Score expresses the nutrient density of menu items from a variety of fast food and casual restaurants, based on the amount of 10 nutrients (Vitamins A, C, and E, folate, calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, fiber, and omega-3 fats) per calorie. A score of 100 indicates that the meal provides at least 100% of the recommended daily intake for all ten nutrients, proportionate to the energy (calorie) content of the meal. The score allows consumers to compare the nutritional quality of various restaurant offerings with similar calorie content.

text: Nuphar species occur in ponds, lakes, and slow-moving rivers, growing in water up to 5 metres deep; different species are variously adaptated either to nutrient-rich waters (e.g. Nuphar lutea) or nutrient-poor waters (e.g. Nuphar pumila).

text: Manufacturers of home water distillers claim the opposite—that minerals in water are the cause of many diseases, and that most beneficial minerals come from food, not water. They quote the American Medical Association as saying "The body's need for minerals is largely met through foods, not drinking water." The WHO report agrees that "drinking water, with some rare exceptions, is not the major source of essential elements for humans" and is "not the major source of our calcium and magnesium intake", yet states that demineralized water is harmful anyway. "Additional evidence comes from animal experiments and clinical observations in several countries. Animals given zinc or magnesium dosed in their drinking water had a significantly higher concentration of these elements in the serum than animals given the same elements in much higher amounts with food and provided with low-mineral water to drink."

text: A common feature of many tropical rainforests is the distinct buttress roots of trees.  Instead of penetrating to deeper soil layers, buttress roots create a widespread root network at the surface for more efficient uptake of nutrients in a very nutrient poor and competitive environment. Most of the nutrients within the soil of a tropical rainforest occur near the surface because of the rapid turnover time and decomposition of organisms and leaves. Because of this, the buttress roots occur at the surface so the trees can maximize uptake and actively compete with the rapid uptake of other trees. These roots also aid in water uptake and storage, increase surface area for gas exchange, and collect leaf litter for added nutrition. Additionally, these roots reduce soil erosion and maximize nutrient acquisition during heavy rains by diverting nutrient rich water flowing down the trunk into several smaller flows while also acting as a barrier to ground flow. Also, the large surface areas these roots create provide support and stability to rainforests trees, which commonly grow to significant heights. This added stability allows these trees to withstand the impacts of severe storms, thus reducing the occurrence of fallen trees.

text: A common feature of many tropical rainforests is the distinct

text: buttress root

text: s of trees.  Instead of penetrating to deeper soil layers, buttress roots create a widespread root network at the surface for more efficient uptake of nutrients in a very nutrient poor and competitive environment. Most of the nutrients within the soil of a tropical rainforest occur near the surface because of the rapid turnover time and decomposition of organisms and leaves. Because of this, the buttress roots occur at the surface so the trees can maximize uptake and actively compete with the rapid uptake of other trees. These roots also aid in water uptake and storage, increase surface area for gas exchange, and collect leaf litter for added nutrition. Additionally, these roots reduce soil erosion and maximize nutrient acquisition during heavy rains by diverting nutrient rich water flowing down the trunk into several smaller flows while also acting as a barrier to ground flow. Also, the large surface areas these roots create provide support and stability to rainforests trees, which commonly grow to significant heights. This added stability allows these trees to withstand the impacts of severe storms, thus reducing the occurrence of fallen trees.

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) has issued recommendations regarding nutrient requirements in HIV/AIDS. A generally healthy diet is promoted. Some evidence has shown a benefit from micronutrient supplements. Evidence for supplementation with selenium is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit. There is some evidence that vitamin A supplementation in children reduces mortality and improves growth. In Africa in nutritionally compromised pregnant and lactating women a multivitamin supplementation has improved outcomes for both mothers and children. Dietary intake of micronutrients at RDA levels by HIV-infected adults is recommended by the WHO; higher intake of vitamin A, zinc, and iron can produce adverse effects in HIV positive adults, and is not recommended unless there is documented deficiency.

text: The

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) has issued recommendations regarding nutrient requirements in HIV/AIDS. A generally healthy diet is promoted. Some evidence has shown a benefit from

text: micronutrient

text: supplements. Evidence for supplementation with

text: selenium

text: is mixed with some tentative evidence of benefit. There is some evidence that

text: vitamin A

text: supplementation in children reduces mortality and improves growth. In Africa in nutritionally compromised pregnant and lactating women a

text: multivitamin

text: supplementation has improved outcomes for both mothers and children. Dietary intake of micronutrients at

text: RDA

text: levels by HIV-infected adults is recommended by the WHO; higher intake of vitamin A,

text: zinc

text: , and iron can produce adverse effects in HIV positive adults, and is not recommended unless there is documented deficiency.

text: Ichnofacies can provide information about water depth, salinity, turbidity and energy. In general, traces found in shallower water are vertical, those in deeper water are more horizontal and patterned.  This is partly because of the relative abundance of suspended food particles, such as plankton, in the shallower waters of the photic zone, and partly because vertical burrows are more secure in the turbulent conditions of shallow water.  In deeper waters, there is a necessary transition to sediment feeding (extracting nutrients from the mud).  Food availability, hence trace type, is also controlled by energy: high energy environments keep food particles suspended, whereas in lower energy areas, food settles out evenly, and burrows will tend to spread out to cover as much area as economically as possible.

text: Ichnofacies can provide information about water depth,

text: salinity

text: turbidity

text: and energy. In general, traces found in shallower water are vertical, those in deeper water are more horizontal and patterned.  This is partly because of the relative abundance of suspended food particles, such as

text: plankton

text: , in the shallower waters of the

text: photic zone

text: , and partly because vertical burrows are more secure in the turbulent conditions of shallow water.  In deeper waters, there is a necessary transition to sediment feeding (extracting

text: nutrient

text: s from the mud).  Food availability, hence trace type, is also controlled by energy: high energy environments keep food particles suspended, whereas in lower energy areas, food settles out evenly, and burrows will tend to spread out to cover as much area as economically as possible.

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products.Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases which have become more frequent in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear, however.

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as

text: rice

text: noodles

text: bread

text: , and other

text: grain

text: -based products.Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular diseases which have become more frequent in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is still not clear, however.

text: A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when the organism cannot synthesize the compound in sufficient quantities, and it must be obtained through the diet; thus, the term "vitamin" is conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (one form of vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animal organisms. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people.

text: A vitamin is an

text: organic compound

text: and a vital

text: nutrient

text: that an

text: organism

text: requires in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when the organism cannot

text: synthesize

text: the compound in sufficient quantities, and it must be obtained through the diet; thus, the term "vitamin" is conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism. For example,

text: ascorbic acid

text: (one form of

text: vitamin C

text: ) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animal organisms. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people.

text: The gastrointestinal system, particularly the stomach, releases a peptide hormone called ghrelin. In 1999  experiments have revealed that hunger is communicated from the stomach to the brain via this hormone peptide. This peptide can stimulate thought about food, and is suppressed after food is ingested. Nutrient injection into the blood stream does not suppress ghrelin, so the release of hormone is directed by the digestive system and not by nutrient availability in the blood.  These blood levels of ghrelin increase with fasting and are reduced after a meal.  Ghrelin antibodies or ghrelin receptor antagonists inhibit eating.  Ghrelin also stimulates energy production and signals directly to the hypothalamus regulatory nucli that control energy homeostasis.

text: The gastrointestinal system, particularly the stomach, releases a peptide hormone called

text: ghrelin

text: . In 1999  experiments have revealed that hunger is communicated from the stomach to the brain via this hormone peptide. This peptide can stimulate thought about food, and is suppressed after food is ingested. Nutrient injection into the blood stream does not suppress ghrelin, so the release of hormone is directed by the digestive system and not by nutrient availability in the blood.  These blood levels of ghrelin increase with fasting and are reduced after a meal.  Ghrelin antibodies or ghrelin receptor antagonists inhibit eating.  Ghrelin also stimulates energy production and signals directly to the hypothalamus regulatory nucli that control energy homeostasis.

text: Around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains "homeomerics" (generative components), suggesting the existence of nutrients. Around 400 BC, Hippocrates, who recognized and was concerned with obesity, which may have been common in southern Europe at the time, said, "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food." The works that are still attributed to him, Corpus Hippocraticum, called for moderation and emphasized exercise.

text: Around 475 BC,

text: Anaxagoras

text: stated that food is absorbed by the human body and, therefore, contains "homeomerics" (generative components), suggesting the existence of nutrients. Around 400 BC,

text: Hippocrates

text: , who recognized and was concerned with obesity, which may have been common in southern Europe at the time, said, "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food." The works that are still attributed to him,

text: Corpus Hippocraticum

text: , called for

text: moderation

text: and emphasized

text: exercise

text: In this method of organic hydroponics, organic fertilizer is degraded into inorganic nutrients by microorganisms in the hydroponic solution via ammonification and nitrification. The microorganisms are cultured with a method of multiple parallel mineralization. The culture solution can be used as the hydroponic solution. Practical method of organic hydroponics is developed in National Agriculture and Food Research Organization (NARO), in Japan, in 2005.

text: In this method of organic hydroponics, organic fertilizer is degraded into inorganic nutrients by microorganisms in the hydroponic solution via ammonification and nitrification. The microorganisms are cultured with a method of

text: multiple parallel mineralization

text: . The culture solution can be used as the hydroponic solution. Practical method of organic hydroponics is developed in

entity_name: National Agriculture and Food Research Organization

text: National Agriculture and Food Research Organization

text: (NARO), in Japan, in 2005.

text: From 1950 to 1953, he was a research assistant with the Atlantic Fisheries Experimental Station of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. From 1956 to 1979, he was with the Halifax Laboratory, Fisheries Research Board of Canada as a research chemist, program head for marine oils, assistant director, technological consultant to chairman, group leader of marine lipids, and division chief of marine lipids. From 1979 to 1995, he was a Professor with the Technical University of Nova Scotia, Canadian Institute of Fisheries Technology, Department of Food Science and Technology. In 1995, he was appointed Professor Emeritus. He authored over 550 scientific papers.

text: From 1950 to 1953, he was a research assistant with the Atlantic Fisheries Experimental Station of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada. From 1956 to 1979, he was with the Halifax Laboratory, Fisheries Research Board of Canada as a research chemist, program head for marine oils, assistant director, technological consultant to chairman, group leader of marine lipids, and division chief of marine lipids. From 1979 to 1995, he was a Professor with the

text: Technical University of Nova Scotia

text: , Canadian Institute of Fisheries Technology, Department of Food Science and Technology. In 1995, he was appointed Professor Emeritus. He authored over 550 scientific papers.

text: Understanding food processes and the properties of foods requires a knowledge of physical chemistry and how it applies to specific foods and food processes. Food physical chemistry is essential for improving the quality of foods, their stability and food product development. Because food science is a multi-disciplinary field, food physical chemistry is being developed through interactions with other areas of food chemistry and food science, such as: food analytical chemistry, food process engineering/food processing, food and bioprocess technology, food extrusion, food quality control, food packaging, food biotechnology and food microbiology.

text: Understanding food processes and the properties of foods requires a knowledge of physical chemistry and how it applies to specific foods and food processes. Food physical chemistry is essential for improving the quality of foods, their stability and

text: food product development

text: . Because

text: food science

text: is a multi-disciplinary field, food physical chemistry is being developed through interactions with other areas of food chemistry and food science, such as:

text: food analytical chemistry

text: food process engineering

text: food processing

text: food and bioprocess technology

text: food extrusion

text: , food quality control,

text: food packaging

text: food biotechnology

text: and

text: food microbiology

text: The nutritional value of apple butter varies quite a bit based on the recipe used to prepare that particular product. The ingredient list can be as simple as just two ingredients to a much more complicated mixture of foods. Although the ingredients may vary, which changes the nutritional value of the apple butter, the two main things that stand out to consumers on the nutritional facts table are the amount of carbohydrates and the amount of sugar that the apple butter contains. For 1 tablespoon the amount of carbohydrates range from 4-15 grams and the sugar content ranges from about 4-10 grams. Apple butter is not a good source for iron, calcium, vitamin A, vitamin B, though it contains a small amount of vitamin C. Although all the recipes vary the main ingredients in all apple butters is apples and apple juice. In commercial brands of apple butter the type of apples used are not specified, but in certain homemade recipes they specify what types of apples to use. Commercial brands tend to use corn syrup in their apple butter. In homemade apple butter, sugar or brown sugar are more frequently used. Apple butter may be a healthier choice of spread than other breakfast spreads, but would not be considered to be healthy, as it does not give the consumer very many nutrients. Apple butter is more of an accessory food to put on your toast or other foods simply added for its taste.

text: Ecological interactions can be classified broadly into a host and an associate relationship. A host is any entity that harbours another that is called the associate. Relationships within a species that are mutually or reciprocally beneficial are called mutualisms. Examples of mutualism include fungus-growing ants employing agricultural symbiosis, bacteria living in the guts of insects and other organisms, the fig wasp and yucca moth pollination complex, lichens with fungi and photosynthetic algae, and corals with photosynthetic algae. If there is a physical connection between host and associate, the relationship is called symbiosis. Approximately 60% of all plants, for example, have a symbiotic relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi living in their roots forming an exchange network of carbohydrates for mineral nutrients.

text: Ecological interactions can be classified broadly into a

text: host

text: and an associate relationship. A host is any entity that harbours another that is called the associate. Relationships

text: within a species

text: that are mutually or reciprocally beneficial are called

text: mutualisms

text: . Examples of mutualism include

text: fungus-growing ants

text: employing agricultural symbiosis, bacteria living in the guts of insects and other organisms, the

text: fig wasp

text: and

text: yucca moth

text: pollination complex,

text: lichen

text: s with fungi and photosynthetic

text: algae

text: , and

text: coral

text: s with photosynthetic algae. If there is a physical connection between host and associate, the relationship is called

text: symbiosis

text: . Approximately 60% of all plants, for example, have a symbiotic relationship with

text: arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

text: living in their roots forming an exchange network of carbohydrates for

text: mineral nutrients

text: Plant uptake of nutrients can only proceed when they are present in a plant-available form. In most situations, nutrients are absorbed in an ionic form from (or together with) soil water. Although minerals are the origin of most nutrients, and the bulk of most nutrient elements in the soil is held in crystalline form within primary and secondary minerals, they weather too slowly to support rapid plant growth. For example, The application of finely ground minerals, feldspar and apatite, to soil seldom provides the necessary amounts of potassium and phosphorus at a rate sufficient for good plant growth, as most of the nutrients remain bound in the crystals of those minerals.

text: Plant uptake of nutrients can only proceed when they are present in a plant-available form. In most situations, nutrients are absorbed in an ionic form from (or together with) soil water. Although minerals are the origin of most nutrients, and the bulk of most nutrient elements in the soil is held in crystalline form within primary and secondary minerals, they

text: weather

text: too slowly to support rapid plant growth. For example, The application of finely ground minerals,

text: feldspar

text: and

text: apatite

text: , to soil seldom provides the necessary amounts of potassium and phosphorus at a rate sufficient for good plant growth, as most of the nutrients remain bound in the crystals of those minerals.

text: The Voedingsdriehoek is a (mostly in Flanders) widely used tool for dieticians, health educators, schools, etc. to explain a balanced diet.The triangle is constructed as a pyramid with five different layers. The bottom layer is the largest in area, so the most important, the top is narrow and there represents little food, although it is an essential ingredient. The layers are (from top to bottom):-	Oil / fats-	Protein: meat, fish, eggs, dairy products, meat substitutes-	Fruits and vegetables-	Starch or carbohydrates (bread, potatoes, rice, pasta, etc.)-	DrinksIn 2005 a (rather symbolically) layer was added at the bottom: sports and exercise. This is not a food, but an important part of a healthy diet and lifestyle. The information services use the "active" food pyramid.

text: When sieved from the water, food is swallowed and travels through the esophagus where it enters a three-chambered-stomach. The first compartment is known as the fore-stomach; this is where food gets ground up into an acidic liquid, which is then squirted into the main stomach. Like in humans, the food is mixed with hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes. Then, the partly digested food is moved into the third stomach, where it meets fat-digesting enzymes, and is then mixed with an alkaline liquid to neutralize the acid from the fore-stomach to prevent damage to the intestinal tract. Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food; the walls are folded and contain copious blood vessels, allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed. Baleen whales get the water they need from their food; however, the salt content of most of their prey (invertebrates) are similar to that of seawater, whereas the salt content of a whale's blood is considerably lower (three times lower) than that of seawater. The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt; however, while producing urine more concentrated than seawater, it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced.

text: When sieved from the water, food is swallowed and travels through the

text: esophagus

text: where it enters a three-chambered-stomach. The first compartment is known as the fore-stomach; this is where food gets ground up into an

text: acidic

text: liquid, which is then squirted into the main stomach. Like in humans, the food is mixed with

text: hydrochloric acid

text: and protein-digesting

text: enzyme

text: s. Then, the partly digested food is moved into the third stomach, where it meets fat-digesting enzymes, and is then mixed with an

text: alkaline

text: liquid to

text: neutralize

text: the acid from the fore-stomach to prevent damage to the

text: intestinal tract

text: . Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food; the walls are folded and contain copious

text: blood vessel

text: s, allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed. Baleen whales get the water they need from their food; however, the salt content of most of their prey (

text: invertebrate

text: s) are similar to that of seawater, whereas the salt content of a whale's blood is considerably lower (three times lower) than that of seawater. The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt; however, while producing

text: urine

text: more concentrated than seawater, it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced.

text: This is a categorically-organized list of foods. Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells in an effort to produce energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.

text: This is a categorically-organized list of foods.

text: Food

text: is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of

text: plant

text: or

text: animal

text: origin, and contains essential

text: nutrient

text: s, such as

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: fat

text: s,

text: proteins

text: vitamin

text: s, or

text: mineral

text: s. The substance is

text: ingested

text: by an

text: organism

text: and assimilated by the organism's

text: cells

text: in an effort to produce

text: energy

text: , maintain life, or stimulate growth.

text: Intense activity can cause significant and permanent damage to bodily tissues. In order to repair, vitamin E and other antioxidants are needed to protect muscle damage. Oxidation damage and muscle tissue breakdown happens during endurance running so athletes need to eat foods high in protein in order to repair these muscle tissues. It is important for female endurance runners to consume proper nutrients in their diet that will repair, fuel, and minimize fatigue and injury. To keep a female runner's body performing at its best, the ten nutrients need to be included in their diets.

text: Cestodes are unable to synthesise lipids and are entirely dependent on their host, although lipids are not used as an energy reserve, but for reproduction. Once anchored to the host's intestinal wall, the tapeworm absorbs nutrients through its skin as the food being digested by the host flows over and around it.  Soon, it begins to grow a tail composed of a series of segments, with each segment containing an independent digestive system and reproductive tract.  Older segments are pushed toward the tip of the tail as new segments are produced by the neckpiece. By the time a segment has reached the end of the worm's tail, only the reproductive tract is left.  The segment then separates, carrying the tapeworm eggs out of the definitive host as what is basically a sack of eggs.

text: Cestodes are unable to synthesise

text: lipids

text: and are entirely dependent on their host, although lipids are not used as an energy reserve, but for reproduction. Once anchored to the host's intestinal wall, the tapeworm absorbs nutrients through its skin as the food being digested by the host flows over and around it.  Soon, it begins to grow a tail composed of a series of segments, with each segment containing an independent digestive system and reproductive tract.  Older segments are pushed toward the tip of the tail as new segments are produced by the neckpiece. By the time a segment has reached the end of the worm's tail, only the reproductive tract is left.  The segment then separates, carrying the tapeworm eggs out of the definitive host as what is basically a sack of eggs.

text: Underweight can also be a primary causative condition.  Severely underweight individuals may have poor physical stamina and a weak immune system, leaving them open to infection. According to Robert E. Black of the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health (JHSPH), "Underweight status ... and micronutrient deficiencies also cause decreases in immune and non-immune host defenses, and should be classified as underlying causes of death if followed by infectious diseases that are the terminal associated causes."People who are malnutrative underweight raise special concerns, as not only gross caloric intake may be inadequate, but also intake and absorption of other vital nutrients, especially essential amino acids and micro-nutrients such as vitamins and minerals.

text: Underweight can also be a primary causative condition.  Severely underweight individuals may have poor physical

text: stamina

text: and a weak

text: immune system

text: , leaving them open to

text: infection

text: . According to Robert E. Black of the

entity_name: Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

text: Johns Hopkins School of Public Health

text: (JHSPH), "Underweight status ... and micronutrient deficiencies also cause decreases in immune and non-immune host defenses, and should be classified as underlying causes of death if followed by infectious diseases that are the terminal associated causes."People who are malnutrative underweight raise special concerns, as not only gross caloric intake may be inadequate, but also intake and absorption of other vital nutrients, especially essential

text: amino acid

text: s and micro-nutrients such as

text: vitamin

text: s and minerals.

text: Nutrients such as phosphorus, potassium and micronutrients bind with the soil complex easily, making them unavailable for crops. More soluble nutrients such as nitrogen easily leach from the soil and end up polluting groundwater or streams.

text: Nutrients such as phosphorus, potassium and micronutrients bind with the soil complex easily, making them unavailable for crops. More soluble nutrients such as nitrogen easily leach from the soil and end up polluting

text: groundwater

text: or streams.

text: The number of essential genes is different for each organism. In fact, each organism has a different number of essential genes, depending on which strain (or individual) is tested. In addition, the number depends on the conditions under which an organism is tested. In several bacteria (or other microbes such as yeast) all or most genes have been deleted individually to determine which genes are "essential" for survival. Such tests are usually carried out on rich media which contain all nutrients. However, if all nutrients are provided, genes required for the synthesis of nutrients are not "essential". When cells are grown on minimal media, many more genes are essential as they may be needed to synthesize such nutrients (e.g. vitamins). The numbers provided in the following table typically have been collected using rich media (but consult original references for details).

text: The number of

text: essential gene

text: s is different for each organism. In fact, each organism has a different number of essential genes, depending on which strain (or individual) is tested. In addition, the number depends on the conditions under which an organism is tested. In several bacteria (or other microbes such as yeast) all or most genes have been deleted individually to determine which genes are "essential" for survival. Such tests are usually carried out on rich media which contain all nutrients. However, if all nutrients are provided, genes required for the synthesis of nutrients are not "essential". When cells are grown on minimal media, many more genes are essential as they may be needed to synthesize such nutrients (e.g. vitamins). The numbers provided in the following table typically have been collected using rich media (but consult original references for details).

text: Some of these are considered micronutrients in certain organisms. The mnemonic C. HOPKN'S CaFe Mg (to be used as C. Hopkins coffee mug) is used by some students to remember the list as: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, iron, and magnesium. Silicon, chloride, sodium, copper, zinc, and molybdenum are sometimes also included, but are in other cases considered micronutrients.

text: Some of these are considered micronutrients in certain organisms. The

text: mnemonic

text: C. HOPKN'S CaFe Mg (to be used as C. Hopkins coffee mug) is used by some students to remember the list as:

text: carbon

text: hydrogen

text: oxygen

text: phosphorus

text: potassium

text: nitrogen

text: sulfur

text: calcium

text: iron

text: , and

text: magnesium

text: Silicon

text: chloride

text: sodium

text: copper

text: zinc

text: , and

text: molybdenum

text: are sometimes also included, but are in other cases considered

text: micronutrients

text: The use of an inert blanketing gas for food products helps to keep oxygen levels low in and around the product. Low levels of oxygen surrounding the product help to reduce the amount of oxidation that may occur, and increases shelf life.  In the case of cooking oils, lipid oxidation can cause the oil to change its color, flavor, or aroma. It also decreases the nutrient levels in the food and can even generate toxic substances. Tank blanketing strategies are also implemented to prepare the product for transit (railcar or truck) and for final packaging before sealing the product.

text: The use of an inert blanketing gas for food products helps to keep

text: oxygen

text: levels low in and around the product. Low levels of oxygen surrounding the product help to reduce the amount of oxidation that may occur, and increases shelf life.  In the case of cooking oils, lipid

text: oxidation

text: can cause the oil to change its

text: color

text: flavor

text: , or

text: aroma

text: . It also decreases the

text: nutrient

text: levels in the food and can even generate

text: toxic

text: substances. Tank blanketing strategies are also implemented to prepare the product for transit (

text: railcar

text: or

text: truck

text: ) and for final

text: packaging

text: before sealing the product.

text: Two common classifications, Dana and Strunz, are used for minerals; both rely on composition, specifically with regards to important chemical groups, and structure. James Dwight Dana, a leading geologist of his time, first published his System of Mineralogy in 1837; as of 1997, it is in its eighth edition. The Dana classification assigns a four-part number to a mineral species. Its class number is based on important compositional groups; the type gives the ratio of cations to anions in the mineral; and the last two numbers group minerals by structural similarity within a given type or class. The less commonly used Strunz classification, named for German mineralogist Karl Hugo Strunz, is based on the Dana system, but combines both chemical and structural criteria, the latter with regards to distribution of chemical bonds.

text: Two common classifications, Dana and Strunz, are used for minerals; both rely on composition, specifically with regards to important chemical groups, and structure.

text: James Dwight Dana

text: , a leading geologist of his time, first published his System of Mineralogy in 1837; as of 1997, it is in its eighth edition. The Dana classification assigns a four-part number to a mineral species. Its class number is based on important compositional groups; the type gives the ratio of cations to anions in the mineral; and the last two numbers group minerals by structural similarity within a given type or class. The less commonly used

text: Strunz classification

text: , named for German mineralogist

text: Karl Hugo Strunz

text: , is based on the Dana system, but combines both chemical and structural criteria, the latter with regards to distribution of chemical bonds.

text: The first root that comes from a plant is called the radicle. A root's four major functions are 1) absorption of water and inorganic nutrients, 2) anchoring of the plant body to the ground, and supporting it, 3) storage of food and nutrients, 4) vegetative reproduction and competition with other plants. In response to the concentration of nutrients, roots also synthesise cytokinin, which acts as a signal as to how fast the shoots can grow. Roots often function in storage of food and nutrients. The roots of most vascular plant species enter into symbiosis with certain fungi to form mycorrhizae, and a large range of other organisms including bacteria also closely associate with roots.

text: The first root that comes from a

text: plant

text: is called the

text: radicle

text: . A root's four major functions are 1)

text: absorption of water

text: and inorganic nutrients, 2) anchoring of the plant body to the ground, and

text: supporting

text: it, 3) storage of food and

text: nutrient

text: s, 4)

text: vegetative reproduction

text: and competition with other plants. In response to the concentration of nutrients, roots also synthesise

text: cytokinin

text: , which acts as a signal as to how fast the shoots can grow. Roots often function in storage of food and nutrients. The roots of most vascular plant species enter into symbiosis with certain

text: fungi

text: to form

text: mycorrhiza

text: e, and a large range of other organisms including

text: bacteria

text: also closely associate with roots.

text: Several vitamins and dietary minerals are lost in this removal and the subsequent polishing process. A part of these missing nutrients, such as vitamins B and B, and iron are sometimes added back into the white rice. In the US the result is called "enriched rice", and must comply with Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations for this name to be used.

text: Several

text: vitamin

text: s and

text: dietary mineral

text: s are lost in this removal and the subsequent polishing process. A part of these missing nutrients, such as

text: vitamins B

text: and

text: B

text: , and

text: iron

text: are sometimes added back into the white rice. In the US the result is called "enriched rice", and must comply with

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA) regulations for this name to be used.

text: Phytoplankton are photosynthesizing microscopic organisms that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans and bodies of fresh water on Earth. They are agents for "primary production," the creation of organic compounds from carbon dioxide dissolved in the water, a process that sustains the aquatic food web. Phytoplankton obtain energy through the process of photosynthesis and must therefore live in the well-lit surface layer (termed the euphotic zone) of an ocean, sea, lake, or other body of water. Phytoplankton account for half of all photosynthetic activity on Earth. Their cumulative energy fixation in carbon compounds (primary production) is the basis for the vast majority of oceanic and also many freshwater food webs (chemosynthesis is a notable exception). The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research. Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important effects on future phytoplankton productivity. Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of zooplankton grazing may be significant. As a side note, one of the more remarkable food chains in the ocean – remarkable because of the small number of links – is that of phytoplankton-feeding krill (a crustacean similar to a tiny shrimp) feeding baleen whales.

text: Phytoplankton are

text: photosynthesizing

text: microscopic organisms that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans and bodies of fresh water on Earth. They are agents for "

text: primary production

text: ," the creation of

text: organic compounds

text: from

text: carbon dioxide

text: dissolved in the water, a process that sustains the aquatic food web. Phytoplankton obtain

text: energy

text: through the

text: process

text: of

text: photosynthesis

text: and must therefore live in the well-lit surface layer (termed the

text: euphotic zone

text: ) of an

text: ocean

text: sea

text: lake

text: , or other body of water. Phytoplankton account for half of all

text: photosynthetic activity

text: on Earth. Their cumulative energy fixation in carbon compounds (

text: primary production

text: ) is the basis for the vast majority of oceanic and also many

text: freshwater

text: food web

text: s (

text: chemosynthesis

text: is a notable exception). The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research. Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important effects on future phytoplankton productivity. Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of

text: zooplankton

text: grazing may be significant. As a side note, one of the more remarkable

text: food chain

text: s in the ocean – remarkable because of the small number of links – is that of phytoplankton-feeding

text: krill

text: (a

text: crustacean

text: similar to a tiny shrimp) feeding

text: baleen whale

text: s.

text: Fuhrman has advocated eating at least one pound of raw vegetables and another pound of cooked vegetables each day. He popularized the notion of nutrient density in what he calls the Health Equation: Health = Nutrients/Calories (abbreviated as H = N/C). Peter Lipson, a physician and writer on alternative medicine, has been heavily critical of Fuhrman's health equation, writing that since its terms cannot be quantified, it is "nothing more than a parlor trick". Fuhrman created what he calls the "Aggregate Nutrient Density Index" or ANDI, a ranking of foods based on his claims of micronutrient concentration. Whole Foods began using the scores as a marketing project and reported that the sales of high scoring foods "skyrocketed".

text: Fuhrman has advocated eating at least one pound of raw vegetables and another pound of cooked vegetables each day. He popularized the notion of

text: nutrient density

text: in what he calls the Health Equation: Health = Nutrients/Calories (abbreviated as H = N/C). Peter Lipson, a physician and writer on alternative medicine, has been heavily critical of Fuhrman's health equation, writing that since its terms cannot be quantified, it is "nothing more than a parlor trick". Fuhrman created what he calls the "Aggregate Nutrient Density Index" or ANDI, a ranking of foods based on his claims of micronutrient concentration.

text: Whole Foods

text: began using the scores as a marketing project and reported that the sales of high scoring foods "skyrocketed".

text: Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, and milk as examples. It is similar to biochemistry in its main components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, but it also includes areas such as water, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors, and colors. This discipline also encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening. An example of enhancing a process would be to encourage fermentation of dairy products with microorganisms that convert lactose to lactic acid; an example of preventing a process would be stopping the browning on the surface of freshly cut Red Delicious apples using lemon juice or other acidulated water.

text: Food chemistry is the study of

text: chemical

text: processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as

text: meat

text: poultry

text: lettuce

text: beer

text: , and

text: milk

text: as examples. It is similar to

text: biochemistry

text: in its main components such as

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: lipid

text: s, and

text: protein

text: , but it also includes areas such as water,

text: vitamin

text: s,

text: minerals

text: enzyme

text: s,

text: food additive

text: s,

text: flavor

text: s, and

text: colors

text: . This discipline also encompasses how products change under certain

text: food processing

text: techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening. An example of enhancing a process would be to encourage fermentation of

text: dairy

text: products with

text: microorganism

text: s that convert

text: lactose

text: to

text: lactic acid

text: ; an example of preventing a process would be stopping the

text: browning

text: on the surface of freshly cut

text: Red Delicious

text: apple

text: s using

text: lemon

text: juice or other

text: acidulated water

text: Proponents of raw foodism argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing vitamin C, the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin. However, research has shown that in the specific case of carotenoids a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.

text: Proponents of

text: raw foodism

text: argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing

text: vitamin C

text: , the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin. However, research has shown that in the specific case of

text: carotenoid

text: s a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.

text: The following table shows the nutrient content of millet compared to major staple foods in a raw form. Raw forms, however, are not edible and cannot be fully digested. These must be prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In processed and cooked form, the relative nutritional and antinutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw forms reported in this table. The nutritional value in the cooked form depends on the cooking method.

text: Nitrogen is a common element in nature and an essential plant nutrient. Approximately 78% of Earth's atmosphere is nitrogen (N). The strong bond between the atoms of N makes this gas quite inert and not directly usable by plants and animals. As nitrogen naturally cycles through the air, water and soil it undergoes various chemical and biological transformations. Nitrogen promotes plant growth. Livestock then eat the crops producing manure, which is returned to the soil, adding organic and mineral forms of nitrogen. The cycle is complete when the next crop uses the amended soil. To increase food production, fertilizers, such as nitrate (NO) and ammonium (NH), which are easily absorbed by plants, are introduced to the plant root zone. However, soils do not absorb the excess NO ions, which then move downward freely with drainage water, and are leached into groundwater, streams and oceans. The degree of leaching is affected by:

text: Nitrogen

text: is a common element in nature and an essential plant nutrient. Approximately 78% of Earth's atmosphere is

text: nitrogen

text: (N). The strong bond between the atoms of N makes this gas quite inert and not directly usable by plants and animals. As nitrogen naturally cycles through the air, water and soil it undergoes various chemical and biological transformations. Nitrogen promotes plant growth. Livestock then eat the crops producing manure, which is returned to the soil, adding organic and mineral forms of nitrogen. The cycle is complete when the next crop uses the amended soil. To increase food production, fertilizers, such as

text: nitrate

text: (NO) and

text: ammonium

text: (NH), which are easily absorbed by plants, are introduced to the plant root zone. However, soils do not absorb the excess NO ions, which then move downward freely with drainage water, and are leached into groundwater, streams and oceans. The degree of leaching is affected by:

text: Malnutrition can be caused by a number of things including inadequate or unbalanced diet, problems with digestion or absorption, or certain medical conditions.  Hunger is a main cause of malnutrition because if it is not satisfied then malnutrition is sure to follow.  People suffer from hunger because of a lack of food and the nutrients which accompany food in the short term. If hunger proceeds for an extended period of time there is a good chance that it will lead to malnutrition.Malnutrition can affect people of every age. Though infants, children, and adolescents suffer more from malnutrition because of their need for critical nutrients for their normal development, older people may have problems because of aging or illness. People of college age have issues with malnutrition as well, though it may not be as severe as with the younger kids or the elderly.In people in their undergraduate years of study at a four-year university, malnutrition can occur due to negligence of eating and even their diet.

text: Malnutrition

text: can be caused by a number of things including inadequate or unbalanced

text: diet

text: , problems with

text: digestion

text: or

text: absorption

text: , or certain medical conditions.

text: Hunger

text: is a main cause of malnutrition because if it is not satisfied then malnutrition is sure to follow.  People suffer from hunger because of a lack of food and the

text: nutrients

text: which accompany food in the short term. If hunger proceeds for an extended period of time there is a good chance that it will lead to malnutrition.Malnutrition can affect people of every age. Though infants, children, and adolescents suffer more from malnutrition because of their need for critical nutrients for their normal development, older people may have problems because of aging or illness. People of college age have issues with malnutrition as well, though it may not be as severe as with the younger kids or the elderly.In people in their undergraduate years of study at a four-year university, malnutrition can occur due to negligence of eating and even their diet.

text: The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids (including essential fatty acids), fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and steroids. Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid.

text: The term lipid comprises a diverse range of

text: molecule

text: s and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or

text: nonpolar

text: compounds of biological origin, including

text: wax

text: es,

text: fatty acid

text: s (including

text: essential fatty acid

text: s), fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and

text: steroids

text: . Some lipids are linear

text: aliphatic

text: molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are

text: aromatic

text: , while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid.

text: A food such as spinach or kale, by contrast, contains many nutrients rich in content and so may confer nutritional benefits beyond those of other foods moderate in nutrient content, such as berries.

text: A food such as

text: spinach

text: or

text: kale

text: , by contrast, contains many nutrients rich in content and so may confer nutritional benefits beyond those of other foods moderate in nutrient content, such as berries.

text: Changes in the nutrient composition of the diet (the proportion of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates) may occur during development (e.g. weaning) or with seasonal changes in the abundance of different food types. These diet changes can elicit plasticity in the activity of particular digestive enzymes on the brush border of the small intestine. For example, in the first few days after hatching, nestling house sparrows (Passer domesticus) transition from an insect diet, high in protein and lipids, to a seed based diet that contains mostly carbohydrates; this diet change is accompanied by two-fold increase in the activity of the enzyme maltase, which digests carbohydrates. Acclimatizing animals to high protein diets can increase the activity of aminopeptidase-N, which digests proteins.

text: Changes in the

text: nutrient

text: composition of the diet (the proportion of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates) may occur during development (e.g. weaning) or with seasonal changes in the abundance of different food types. These diet changes can elicit plasticity in the

text: activity

text: of particular digestive enzymes on the

text: brush border

text: of the

text: small intestine

text: . For example, in the first few days after hatching, nestling

text: house sparrow

text: s (Passer domesticus) transition from an insect diet, high in protein and lipids, to a seed based diet that contains mostly carbohydrates; this diet change is accompanied by two-fold increase in the activity of the enzyme

text: maltase

text: , which digests carbohydrates. Acclimatizing animals to high protein diets can increase the activity of

text: aminopeptidase

text: -N, which digests proteins.

text: Proteins are essential to life. Cells produce new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information coded in DNA. Each type of protein is a specialist that usually only performs one function, so if a cell needs to do something new, it must make a new protein. Viruses force the cell to make new proteins that the cell does not need, but are needed for the virus to reproduce. Protein synthesis consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.

text: Proteins are essential to life. Cells produce new protein molecules from

text: amino acid

text: building blocks based on information coded in DNA. Each type of protein is a specialist that usually only performs one function, so if a cell needs to do something new, it must make a new protein. Viruses force the cell to make new proteins that the cell does not need, but are needed for the virus to reproduce.

text: Protein synthesis

text: consists of two major steps:

text: transcription

text: and

text: translation

text: After the embryo passes through a trochophore-like stage during development, it then hatches as a veliger larva. The veliger larva has a shell and ciliated velum. The larva uses the ciliated velum to swim as well as to bring food to its mouth. The veliger larva feed on phytoplankton in the sea-water column. After the food is brought to the mouth by the ciliated velum, it is moved down the digestive tract to the stomach. In the stomach, food is sorted and then moved on to the digestive gland where the food is digested and the nutrients are absorbed by the epithelial cells of the digestive gland.

text: After the

text: embryo

text: passes through a

text: trochophore

text: -like stage during development, it then

text: hatches

text: as a veliger larva. The veliger larva has a shell and ciliated velum. The larva uses the ciliated velum to swim as well as to bring food to its mouth. The veliger larva feed on

text: phytoplankton

text: in the sea-water column. After the food is brought to the mouth by the ciliated velum, it is moved down the digestive tract to the

text: stomach

text: . In the stomach, food is sorted and then moved on to the digestive gland where the food is digested and the

text: nutrients

text: are absorbed by the epithelial cells of the digestive gland.

text: Carbohydrates or "sugars" (this term should not be confused with simple sugars - monosaccharides and disaccharides) as they are generally called, form the third class of biopolymers, other two being proteins and nucleic acids. Unlike proteins and nucleic acids which are linear, carbohydrates are often branched and extremely complex. For instance, just four sugars can be strung together to form more than 5 million different types of carbohydrates or nine different sugars may be assembled into 15 million possible four-sugar-chains. Despite their repetitive nature, carbohydrates are often considered as the "information poor" molecules. Consequently, bioinformatics on glycome is also very poor.

text: Carbohydrates or "sugars" (this term should not be confused with simple sugars - monosaccharides and disaccharides) as they are generally called, form the third class of biopolymers, other two being proteins and nucleic acids. Unlike proteins and nucleic acids which are linear, carbohydrates are often branched and extremely complex. For instance, just four sugars can be strung together to form more than 5 million different types of carbohydrates or nine different sugars may be assembled into 15 million possible four-sugar-chains. Despite their repetitive nature, carbohydrates are often considered as the "information poor" molecules. Consequently, bioinformatics on

text: glycome

text: is also very poor.

text: Some important factors that need to be considered when managing nutrients include (a) the application of nutrients considering the achievable optimum yields and, in some cases, crop quality; (b) the management, application, and timing of nutrients using a budget based on all sources and sinks active at the site; and (c) the management of soil, water, and crop to minimize the off-site transport of nutrients from nutrient leaching out of the root zone, surface runoff, and volatilization (or other gas exchanges).

text: The number of grams of carbohydrate can have a bigger impact than glycemic index on blood sugar levels, depending on quantities. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and carbohydrate counting can be better for lowering the blood sugar level. Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly, and two foods with the same carbohydrate content are, in general, comparable in their effects on blood sugar. A food with a low glycemic index may have a high carbohydrate content or vice versa; this can be accounted for with the glycemic load (GL). Consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index and calculating carbohydrate intake would produce the most stable blood sugar levels.

text: The number of grams of carbohydrate can have a bigger impact than glycemic index on blood sugar levels, depending on quantities. Consuming less dietary energy, losing weight, and

text: carbohydrate counting

text: can be better for lowering the blood sugar level. Carbohydrates impact glucose levels most profoundly, and two foods with the same carbohydrate content are, in general, comparable in their effects on blood sugar. A food with a low glycemic index may have a high carbohydrate content or vice versa; this can be accounted for with the

text: glycemic load (GL).

text: Consuming carbohydrates with a low glycemic index and calculating carbohydrate intake would produce the most stable blood sugar levels.

text: According to the USDA National Nutrient Database, 100 g of raw lentils (variety unspecified) provide 353 calories; the same weight of cooked lentils provides 116 kcal. Raw lentils are 8% water, 63% carbohydrates including 11% dietary fiber, 25% protein and 1% fat (table). Lentils are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of numerous essential nutrients, including folate (120% DV), thiamin (76% DV), pantothenic acid (43% DV),  vitamin B6 (42% DV), phosphorus (40% DV), iron (50% DV) and zinc (35%), among others (table). When lentils are cooked by boiling, protein content declines to 9% of total composition, and B vitamins and minerals decrease due to the overall water content increasing (protein itself isn't lost).

text: According to the

text: USDA National Nutrient Database

text: , 100 g of raw lentils (variety unspecified) provide 353

text: calories

text: ; the same weight of cooked lentils provides 116 kcal. Raw lentils are 8% water, 63%

text: carbohydrates

text: including 11%

text: dietary fiber

text: , 25%

text: protein

text: and 1%

text: fat

text: (table). Lentils are a rich source (20% or more of the

text: Daily Value

text: , DV) of numerous

text: essential nutrients

text: , including

text: folate

text: (120% DV),

text: thiamin

text: (76% DV),

text: pantothenic acid

text: (43% DV),

text: vitamin B6

text: (42% DV),

text: phosphorus

text: (40% DV),

text: iron

text: (50% DV) and

text: zinc

text: (35%), among others (table). When lentils are cooked by boiling, protein content declines to 9% of total composition, and B vitamins and minerals decrease due to the overall water content increasing (protein itself isn't lost).

text: Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body. These are broken down in nutrition as either water-soluble (Vitamin C) or fat-soluble (Vitamin E). An adequate supply of vitamins can prevent diseases such as beriberi, anemia, and scurvy while an overdose of vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death.

text: Vitamins are

text: nutrients

text: required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body. These are broken down in nutrition as either water-soluble (

text: Vitamin C

text: ) or

text: fat

text: -soluble (

text: Vitamin E

text: ). An adequate supply of vitamins can prevent diseases such as

text: beriberi

text: anemia

text: , and

text: scurvy

text: while an overdose of vitamins can produce

text: nausea

text: and

text: vomiting

text: or even death.

text: The margin of variation caused in nutrient density in plants by the mineral profiles of the soils they grew in is of such a scale that any nutritional analysis or ranking of nutrient density may be meaningless without the context of the soil's mineral profile as indicated by a soil test.  The test most commonly used for this purpose is the Mehlich 3.  Soil mineral profiles such as those recommended by Dr. William A. Albrecht and Victor Tiedjens are considered the standards for producing foods to their full potential for nutrient density.

text: A byproduct of the energy created during fermentation is heat which raises the temperature of the fermenting must as the yeast work. When temperatures near 104°F (40°C), activity slows and yeast start to die. If temperatures stay high and the yeast stop reproducing then the fermentation is at grave risk of getting stuck. Even if the must is cooled back down, fermentation will be very difficult to restart due to a chemical compound released by the dying yeast that serves as an inhibitor to the growth of future yeast cells in the batch. Modern winemaking equipment includes temperature control mechanisms such as stainless steel fermenting tanks with a cooling jacket to help regulate temperatures. Another potential cause is a combination of lack of oxygen and yeast nutrients found in the lipids suspended in grape solids. In the absence of oxygen, yeast will seek out the lipids in grape solid as a source of nutrients to sustain its activity. If the wine is lacking grape solids (such as if the wine's been clarified) then the yeast are at risk of starving and causing the fermentation to get stuck. This risk is lower for red wines which are often fermented with their skins in open air containers or oak wine barrels which provide plenty of oxygen and grape solids for the yeast to feed on.

text: A byproduct of the energy created during fermentation is heat which raises the temperature of the fermenting must as the yeast work. When temperatures near 104

text: °F

text: °C

text: ), activity slows and yeast start to die. If temperatures stay high and the yeast stop reproducing then the fermentation is at grave risk of getting stuck. Even if the must is cooled back down, fermentation will be very difficult to restart due to a chemical compound released by the dying yeast that serves as an inhibitor to the growth of future yeast cells in the batch. Modern winemaking equipment includes temperature control mechanisms such as stainless steel fermenting tanks with a cooling jacket to help regulate temperatures. Another potential cause is a combination of lack of oxygen and yeast nutrients found in the

text: lipid

text: s suspended in grape solids. In the absence of oxygen, yeast will seek out the lipids in grape solid as a source of nutrients to sustain its activity. If the wine is lacking grape solids (such as if the wine's been

text: clarified

text: ) then the yeast are at risk of starving and causing the fermentation to get stuck. This risk is lower for red wines which are often fermented

text: with their skins

text: in open air containers or

text: oak

text: wine barrels which provide plenty of oxygen and grape solids for the yeast to feed on.

text: Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet. Most oils and milk products that we use for cooking and eating like butter, cheese, ghee etc., are composed of fats. Vegetable oils are rich in various polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which are the final degradation products of fats and lipids.  Lipids, especially phospholipids, are also used in various pharmaceutical products, either as co-solubilisers (e.g., in parenteral infusions) or else as drug carrier components (e.g., in a liposome or transfersome).

text: Lipids are an integral part of our daily diet. Most

text: oil

text: s and

text: milk product

text: s that we use for cooking and eating like

text: butter

text: cheese

text: ghee

text: etc., are composed of

text: fat

text: s.

text: Vegetable oil

text: s are rich in various

text: polyunsaturated fatty acid

text: s (PUFA). Lipid-containing foods undergo digestion within the body and are broken into fatty acids and glycerol, which are the final degradation products of fats and lipids.  Lipids, especially

text: phospholipid

text: s, are also used in various

text: pharmaceutical product

text: s, either as co-solubilisers (e.g., in

text: parenteral

text: infusions) or else as

text: drug carrier

text: components (e.g., in a

text: liposome

text: or

text: transfersome

text: H. rhamnoides is a very versatile plant and the fruits as well as the leaves can be used. The fruits are processed and then used in the food industry, in traditional medicine, as part of drugs or in the cosmetic industry. The leaves can be used as feed, particularly for ruminants. Because of its tolerance against strongly eroded, nutrient poor and sometime salty soils, the plant is also used for land reclamation or as shelterbelt.

text: H. rhamnoides is a very versatile plant and the fruits as well as the leaves can be used. The fruits are processed and then used in the food industry, in

text: traditional medicine

text: , as part of drugs or in the cosmetic industry. The leaves can be used as feed, particularly for ruminants. Because of its tolerance against strongly eroded, nutrient poor and sometime salty soils, the plant is also used for

text: land reclamation

text: or as

text: shelterbelt

text: A walnut is the nut of any tree of the genus Juglans (Family Juglandaceae), particularly the Persian or English walnut, Juglans regia. Technically a walnut is the seed of a drupe or drupaceous nut, and thus not a true botanical nut. It is used for food after being processed while green for pickled walnuts or after full ripening for its nutmeat. Nutmeat of the eastern black walnut from the Juglans nigra is less commercially available, as are butternut nutmeats from Juglans cinerea. The walnut is nutrient-dense with protein and essential fatty acids.

text: A walnut is the

text: nut

text: of any tree of the genus

text: Juglans

text: (Family

text: Juglandaceae

text: ), particularly the Persian or English walnut,

text: Juglans regia

text: . Technically a walnut is the seed of a

text: drupe

text: or drupaceous nut, and thus not a true

text: botanical nut

text: . It is used for

text: food

text: after being processed while green for pickled walnuts or after full ripening for its nutmeat. Nutmeat of the eastern black walnut from the

text: Juglans nigra

text: is less commercially available, as are butternut nutmeats from

text: Juglans cinerea

text: . The walnut is nutrient-dense with protein and

text: essential fatty acid

text: s.

text: The methods of matter assimilation and nutrient transport used by insects make insect cultivation a more efficient method of converting plant material into biomass than rearing traditional livestock. More than 10 times more plant material is needed to produce one kilogram of meat than one kilogram of insect biomass. The spatial usage and water requirements are only a fraction of that required to produce the same mass of food with cattle farming. Production of 150g of grasshopper meat requires very little water, while cattle requires 3290 liters to produce the same amount of beef. This indicates that lower natural resource use and ecosystem strain could be expected from insects at all levels of the supply chain. Edible insects also display exponentially faster growth and breeding cycles than traditional livestock. An analysis of the carbon intensity of five edible insect species conducted at the University of Wageningen, Netherlands found that "the average daily gain (ADG) of the five insect species studied was 4.0-19.6 percent, the minimum value of this range being close to the 3.2% reported for pigs, whereas the maximum value was 6 times higher. Compared to cattle (0.3%), insect ADG values were much higher." Additionally, all insect species studied produced much lower amounts of ammonia than conventional livestock, though further research is needed to determine the long-term impact. The authors conclude that insects could serve as a more environmentally friendly source of dietary protein.

text: The methods of matter assimilation and

text: nutrient

text: transport used by insects make insect cultivation a more efficient method of converting plant material into

text: biomass

text: than rearing traditional livestock. More than 10 times more plant material is needed to produce one kilogram of meat than one kilogram of insect biomass. The spatial usage and water requirements are only a fraction of that required to produce the same mass of food with cattle farming. Production of 150g of grasshopper meat requires very little water, while cattle requires 3290 liters to produce the same amount of beef. This indicates that lower

text: natural resource

text: use and

text: ecosystem

text: strain could be expected from insects at all levels of the supply chain. Edible insects also display exponentially faster growth and breeding cycles than traditional livestock. An analysis of the carbon intensity of five edible insect species conducted at the

entity_name: Wageningen University and Research Centre

text: University of Wageningen

text: , Netherlands found that "the average daily gain (ADG) of the five insect species studied was 4.0-19.6 percent, the minimum value of this range being close to the 3.2% reported for pigs, whereas the maximum value was 6 times higher. Compared to cattle (0.3%), insect ADG values were much higher." Additionally, all insect species studied produced much lower amounts of

text: ammonia

text: than conventional livestock, though further research is needed to determine the long-term impact. The authors conclude that insects could serve as a more environmentally friendly source of

text: dietary protein

text: Moschops was a roughly , massively built dinocephalian. It had a short, thick and massive head, which was broad across the orbits. Like other members of Tapinocephalidae, the skull had a tiny opening for the pineal organ. The occiput was broad and deep, but the skull was more narrow in the dorsal border. Furthermore, the pterygoid arches and the angular region of the jaw were quite heavy, allowing the insertion of strong jaw muscles. Due to that and because it possessed long-crowned, stout teeth, it is believed that Moschops was a herbivore feeding on nutrient-poor and tough vegetation, like cycad stems. Due to the presumably nutrient-poor food, it very likely had to feed for a very long time. Its anatomy allowed Moschops to open its elbow joint more widely, enabling it to move in a more mammal-like way than the other crawlers in its time. That might have helped it to carry its massive body more easily while feeding. Very likely, most dinocephalians were rather slow-moving animals, but capable of raising themselves, for short bursts. It is also possible that Moschops and other dinocephalians were semiaquatic, given the heavy build and the limbs with their spreading hands and feet. The heavy head could have been useful for diving after food.

text: Moschops was a roughly , massively built dinocephalian. It had a short, thick and massive head, which was broad across the orbits. Like other members of Tapinocephalidae, the skull had a tiny opening for the

text: pineal organ

text: . The

text: occiput

text: was broad and deep, but the skull was more narrow in the dorsal border. Furthermore, the pterygoid arches and the angular region of the jaw were quite heavy, allowing the insertion of strong jaw muscles. Due to that and because it possessed long-crowned, stout teeth, it is believed that Moschops was a herbivore feeding on nutrient-poor and tough vegetation, like cycad stems. Due to the presumably nutrient-poor food, it very likely had to feed for a very long time. Its anatomy allowed Moschops to open its elbow joint more widely, enabling it to move in a more mammal-like way than the other crawlers in its time. That might have helped it to carry its massive body more easily while feeding. Very likely, most dinocephalians were rather slow-moving animals, but capable of raising themselves, for short bursts. It is also possible that Moschops and other dinocephalians were semiaquatic, given the heavy build and the limbs with their spreading hands and feet. The heavy head could have been useful for diving after food.

text: It was advertised as promising "...an Xciting, Xtreme, Xperience...No hotbod beefed up body is needed for this party (though it would be nice) just come in your berms, let your hair down and have a great time. Keep that night free!" The charge was Sing$10 per person for food, with the first drink free. Subsequent drinks cost $2. The organiser-in-charge was Nick Lum (nwl@pacific.net.sg).

text: It was advertised as promising "...an Xciting, Xtreme, Xperience...No hotbod beefed up body is needed for this party (though it would be nice) just come in your berms, let your hair down and have a great time. Keep that night free!" The charge was Sing$10 per person for food, with the first drink free. Subsequent drinks cost $2. The organiser-in-charge was

text: Nick Lum

text: (nwl@pacific.net.sg).

text: He then spent four years at the National Institute for Dental Research, of the National Institutes of Health, investigating carbohydrate transport and cell adhesion in dental micro-organisms. Dr Maryanski regularly serves as an expert consultant on food biotechnology representing the FDA in varying capacities.

text: He then spent four years at the

entity_name: National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research

text: National Institute for Dental Research

text: , of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: , investigating carbohydrate transport and cell adhesion in dental micro-organisms. Dr Maryanski regularly serves as an expert consultant on food biotechnology representing the FDA in varying capacities.

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products.Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides contain one, two, and three or more sugar units, respectively. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long, multiple branched chains of sugar units.

text: Carbohydrates may be classified as

text: monosaccharide

text: s,

text: disaccharide

text: s, or

text: polysaccharide

text: s depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such as

text: rice

text: noodle

text: s,

text: bread

text: , and other

text: grain

text: -based products.Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides contain one, two, and three or more sugar units, respectively. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are typically long, multiple branched chains of sugar units.

text: The core of the Diet consists of 600 calories /day, and utilises fortified formula food specifically developed to reduce the loss of nutrients typical in severe calorie restriction.Like other formulations of this type the approach is intended to initiate significant weight loss, while still providing a sufficient amount of quality protein to protect the bodies lean tissue, the correct level of carbohydrate to promote a mild dietary ketosis (one of the benefits of which is the elimination of hunger), and the correct levels of vitamins, minerals, trace elements and essential fatty acids to maintain good health.

text: The core of the Diet consists of 600 calories /day, and utilises fortified formula food specifically developed to reduce the loss of nutrients typical in severe calorie restriction.Like other formulations of this type the approach is intended to initiate significant

text: weight loss

text: , while still providing a sufficient amount of quality protein to protect the bodies lean tissue, the correct level of carbohydrate to promote a mild dietary

text: ketosis

text: (one of the benefits of which is the elimination of hunger), and the correct levels of

text: vitamins

text: , minerals, trace elements and essential fatty acids to maintain good health.

text: The open water is less-affected by shoreline features, such as wetlands, and more affected by nutrient levels that control the production of algae.  Algae are the basis of the open water food web, and the source of primary production that ends up as Lake Trout and Walleye at the top of the open water food web.

text: Efforts to achieve CFS differ from other food security initiatives (e.g., nutrient supplementation or food assistance programs) in that they view the issue at a local level by concentrating on community infrastructure and local food systems, and vary according to different community needs.  Hamm and Bellows purport that “food security is experienced most poignantly and addressed most innovatively at the community level” (p. 37).  Some of the existing CFS initiatives, such as identifying food costs and quality in low-income neighbourhoods, also seek to provide the evidence needed to make changes in policy.  This further improves the health of citizens by providing sufficient access to nutritious foods for all and improving access to resources needed to produce and process the food locally.

text: Guiding Stars is patented food rating system that rates food based on nutrient density using a scientific algorithm. Foods are credited for vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, whole grains, and Omega-3 fatty acids, and debited for saturated fats, trans fats, added sodium and added sugar. Rated foods are marked with tags indicating one, two or three stars. The  program first launched a Hannaford Supermarkets in 2006, and is currently found in about 1,900 supermarkets in the US and Canada. Guiding Stars has also expanded into public schools, colleges and hospitals.

text: Guiding Stars is patented food rating system that rates food based on nutrient density using a scientific

text: algorithm

text: . Foods are credited for vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, whole grains, and Omega-3 fatty acids, and debited for saturated fats, trans fats, added sodium and added sugar. Rated foods are marked with tags indicating one, two or three stars. The  program first launched a Hannaford Supermarkets in 2006, and is currently found in about 1,900 supermarkets in the US and Canada. Guiding Stars has also expanded into public schools, colleges and hospitals.

text: Peanuts are used to help fight malnutrition. Plumpy Nut, MANA Nutrition, and Medika Mamba are high-protein, high-energy, and high-nutrient peanut-based pastes developed to be used as a therapeutic food to aid in famine relief. The World Health Organization, UNICEF, Project Peanut Butter, and Doctors Without Borders have used these products to help save malnourished children in developing countries.

text: Peanuts are used to help fight

text: malnutrition

text: Plumpy Nut

text: , MANA Nutrition, and Medika Mamba are high-protein, high-energy, and high-nutrient peanut-based pastes developed to be used as a therapeutic food to aid in

text: famine relief

text: . The

text: World Health Organization

text: UNICEF

text: , Project Peanut Butter, and

text: Doctors Without Borders

text: have used these products to help save malnourished children in

text: developing countries

text: Eisenia arborea, or the southern sea palm (not to be confused with the sea palm), is a dominant species of kelp that is found in the Northern and Eastern Pacific from Vancouver Island, Canada south to Isla Magdalena, Mexico, and along the coast of Baja California.  They are commonly found from the midtidal areas stretching to the subtidal areas. It is an edible seaweed, a source of nutrients for grazing marine invertebrates and a source of alginic acid, a food thickener. Some of the algas have a hollow stripe above its holdfast with two branches terminating in multiple blades. Eisenia arborea is studied in order to predict environmental stress in oceans intertidal zones.  Hollow stripes where present when the Eisenia arborea did not receive essential nutrients for its thalli development.  Eisenia arborea with hollow stripes are believed to be evolved algae in order to increase their survival in harsh living conditions.  They play a huge role in determining environmental stress.

text: Eisenia arborea, or the southern sea palm (not to be confused with the

text: sea palm

text: ), is a dominant species of kelp that is found in the

text: Northern and Eastern Pacific

text: from

text: Vancouver Island

text: Canada

text: south to

text: Isla Magdalena

text: Mexico

text: , and along the coast of

text: Baja California

text: .  They are commonly found from the midtidal areas stretching to the subtidal areas. It is an

text: edible seaweed

text: , a source of nutrients for grazing

text: marine

text: invertebrate

text: s and a source of

text: alginic acid

text: , a food

text: thickener

text: . Some of the algas have a hollow stripe above its holdfast with two branches terminating in multiple blades. Eisenia arborea is studied in order to predict environmental stress in oceans intertidal zones.  Hollow stripes where present when the Eisenia arborea did not receive essential nutrients for its thalli development.  Eisenia arborea with hollow stripes are believed to be evolved algae in order to increase their survival in harsh living conditions.  They play a huge role in determining environmental stress.

text: The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions. Some are simple structural molecules, like the fibers formed by the protein collagen. Proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules, sometimes acting as enzymes by facilitating chemical reactions within the bound molecules (without changing the structure of the protein itself). Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood.

text: The specific sequence of amino acids

text: results

text: in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions. Some are simple structural molecules, like the fibers formed by the protein

text: collagen

text: . Proteins can bind to other proteins and simple molecules, sometimes acting as

text: enzyme

text: s by facilitating

text: chemical reaction

text: s within the bound molecules (without changing the structure of the protein itself). Protein structure is dynamic; the protein

text: hemoglobin

text: bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood.

text: This programme aims to reduce malnutrition and increase food availability through creation of home gardens and small farms for raising livestock. In collaboration with local NGOs, HKI provides the seedlings, chicks, start up materials and technical skills to communities. Varieties of fruits and vegetables are grown in these home gardens to provide supplies of nutrient rich foods all year round. The objectives are to increase participants’ micro-nutritional intakes by consuming a wider variety of foods, develop communities and empower women.

text: This programme aims to reduce

text: malnutrition

text: and increase

text: food availability

text: through creation of home gardens and small farms for raising livestock. In collaboration with local NGOs, HKI provides the seedlings, chicks, start up materials and technical skills to communities. Varieties of fruits and vegetables are grown in these home gardens to provide supplies of nutrient rich foods all year round. The objectives are to increase participants’ micro-nutritional intakes by consuming a wider variety of foods, develop communities and empower women.

text: Lipids (oleaginous) are chiefly fatty acid esters, and are the basic building blocks of biological membranes. Another biological role is energy storage (e.g., triglycerides). Most lipids consist of a polar or hydrophilic head (typically glycerol) and one to three nonpolar or hydrophobic fatty acid tails, and therefore they are amphiphilic. Fatty acids consist of unbranched chains of carbon atoms that are connected by single bonds alone (saturated fatty acids) or by both single and double bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). The chains are usually 14-24 carbon groups long, but it is always an even number.

text: Lipid

text: s (oleaginous) are chiefly

text: fatty acid

text: ester

text: s, and are the basic building blocks of

text: biological membranes

text: . Another biological role is energy storage (e.g.,

text: triglyceride

text: s). Most lipids consist of a

text: polar

text: or

text: hydrophilic

text: head (typically glycerol) and one to three nonpolar or

text: hydrophobic

text: fatty acid tails, and therefore they are

text: amphiphilic

text: . Fatty acids consist of unbranched chains of carbon atoms that are connected by single bonds alone (

text: saturated

text: fatty acids) or by both single and

text: double bond

text: s (

text: unsaturated

text: fatty acids). The chains are usually 14-24 carbon groups long, but it is always an even number.

text: Scientists may broadly define lipids as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, multilamellar/unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or "building-blocks": ketoacyl and isoprene groups. Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories: fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids, and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).

text: Scientists may broadly define lipids as

text: hydrophobic

text: or

text: amphiphilic

text: small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as

text: vesicles

text: , multilamellar/

text: unilamellar liposome

text: s, or membranes in an aqueous environment. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or "building-blocks":

text: ketoacyl

text: and

text: isoprene

text: groups. Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories:

text: fatty acid

text: s,

text: glycerolipid

text: s,

text: glycerophospholipid

text: s,

text: sphingolipid

text: s,

text: saccharolipid

text: s, and

text: polyketide

text: s (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).

text: The MWRD began recovering phosphorus and nitrogen from its Stickney Water Reclamation Plant in the fall of 2015. Environmental advocate Robert F. Kennedy Jr. spoke Oct. 8 in Chicago about the significant benefits nutrient recovery will provide to Chicago area watersheds. “Nutrient pollution is the number one challenge facing this country’s waterways,” said Kennedy. “So it isextremely encouraging to see the largest wastewater treatment plant in the world in one of our largest urban centers take a leading role by implementing Ostara’s advanced nutrient recovery technology to recover phosphorus and nitrogen from their wastewater streams. This will not only reduce their nutrient load but help protect precious area waterways that are part of Mississippi River basin.” Kennedy shared the stage at the Water Environment Federation’s 86th Annual Technical Exhibition & Conference (WEFTEC) with MWRD Chairman of Finance Mariyana Spyropoulos and Executive Director David St. Pierre, who officially announced that the MWRD will complete the installation of Ostara’s nutrient recovery technology at the Stickney Water Reclamation Plant in Cicero, IL, within two years, when WEFTEC returns to Chicago. According to the United Nations Environmental Program, nutrient pollution is among the biggestenvironmental problems of the 21st century, and the US Environmental Protection Agency has statedthat the “the problem of nutrient pollution is nationally significant, expanding, and likely to substantially accelerate.” Excess nutrients promote algae blooms and create dead zones, which can have devastating effects on local ecosystems and economies. The MWRD’s nutrient recovery facility will greatly reduce its nutrient effluent load to the Mississippi river basin, in turn, reducing its impact on hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. Ostara’s technology recovers phosphorus and nitrogen from municipal and industrial wastewaterstreams and transforms them into an environmentally responsible, enhanced efficiency fertilizer called Crystal Green, which is used by growers in the agriculture, turf and ornamental sectors throughout North America and in Europe. The MWRD has partnered with Black & Veatch and Ostara to design and build the nutrient recoveryfacility at the Stickney Plant.  Once fully operational in 2015, the plant will be the largest such facility in the world, with the potential capacity to produce between 10,000 and 15,000 tons of Crystal Green fertilizer annually. “The MWRD’s decision to install a nutrient recovery facility is at the forefront of a growing trend we’re seeing within the wastewater treatment sector,” said F. Phillip Abrary, president and CEO of Ostara. “Increasingly, these utilities see themselves as more than simply water treatment plants. Rather, they are resource recovery centers, recycling water, energy and nutrients for beneficial reuse. Our technology helps them fulfill this mandate by recovering phosphorus and nitrogen in a way that is both economically and environmentally sustainable.” Advising the project team is Dr. James L. Barnard, Water Global Practice and Technology Leader at Black and Veatch, and often referred to as “The Father of Biological Nutrient Removal.” According to Dr. Barnard, phosphorus is a non-renewable resource that is critical to farming and food production. “Nothing grows without it but too much of it can negatively impact water quality,” said Barnard.“Biological nutrient removal enables us to address water quality challenges and recover this precious nutrient for beneficial reuse purposes.” “Technologies like Ostara’s are really miracle technologies,” added Kennedy.  “Not only does the process help protect waterways by removing the nutrients from wastewater streams, but the resulting fertilizer, Crystal Green, further reduces nutrient loss due to leaching and runoff because it is highly waterinsoluble and instead releases nutrients in response to plant demand.”

text: The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are usually present in plant tissue in concentrations of between 0.2% and 4.0% (on a dry matter weight basis). Micronutrients are present in plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million, ranging from 0.1 to 200 ppm, or less than 0.02% dry weight.

text: A nutrient is a component in foods that an organism uses to survive and grow. Macronutrients provide the bulk energy an organism's metabolic system needs to function while micronutrients provide the necessary cofactors for metabolism to be carried out. Both types of nutrients can be acquired from the environment. Micronutrients are used to build and repair tissues and to regulate body processes while macronutrients are converted to, and used for, energy. Methods of nutrient intake are different for plants and animals. Plants take in nutrients directly from the soil through their roots and from the atmosphere through their leaves. Animals and protists have specialized digestive systems that work to break down macronutrients for energy and utilize micronutrients for both metabolism and anabolism (constructive synthesis) in the body.

text: A nutrient is a component in foods that an organism uses to survive and grow.

text: Macronutrients

text: provide the bulk energy an organism's metabolic system needs to function while

text: micronutrients

text: provide the necessary cofactors for metabolism to be carried out. Both types of nutrients can be acquired from the environment. Micronutrients are used to build and repair tissues and to regulate body processes while macronutrients are converted to, and used for, energy. Methods of nutrient intake are different for plants and animals. Plants take in nutrients directly from the

text: soil

text: through their

text: root

text: s and from the

text: atmosphere

text: through their leaves. Animals and

text: protist

text: s have specialized digestive systems that work to break down macronutrients for energy and utilize micronutrients for both metabolism and anabolism (constructive synthesis) in the body.

text: Macronutrient preload is a dieting technique in which a small amount of macronutrients are eaten at a fixed interval before a meal.

text: Macronutrient preload is a

text: dieting

text: technique in which a small amount of

text: macronutrient

text: s are eaten at a fixed interval before a meal.

text: Food is conventionally regarded as a means to provide energy and building material within the body. Recently, the ability of food to prevent and protect against diseases has started to become recognized, mainly in relation to the effects of nutrients on molecular processes within the body.Certain cells require particular nutrients to play specific roles in order to function properly, and neurons are not exempt from this.

text: Food

text: is conventionally regarded as a means to provide energy and building material within the body. Recently, the ability of food to prevent and protect against diseases has started to become recognized, mainly in relation to the effects of nutrients on

text: molecular processes

text: within the body.Certain

text: cells

text: require particular nutrients to play specific roles in order to function properly, and

text: neurons

text: are not exempt from this.

text: After the germination of conidia, the initial penetration of the host depends on the formation of appressoria near the stomata. This is largely due to a response of P. hyoscyami f.sp. tabacina to topographical cues of the host such as stomatal openings. Upon entry of an infection peg through a stomatal opening, hyphae grow and develop between plant cells. When hyphae reach a photosynthetic mesophyll cell a peg penetrates the cell and establishes a haustorium which the fungus uses to absorb the necessary nutrients for its own growth. Through the establishment of haustoria the pathogen develops an intimate relationship with the host. In doing so  P. hyoscyami f.sp. tabacina efficiently redirects the nutrients of the host and delivers effector proteins into the host cytoplasm that suppress the host defense response.

text: The Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes macronutrient profile includes:

text: The legal right to use a designated water supply is known as a water right. There are two major models used for water rights. The first is riparian rights, where the owner of the adjacent land has the right to the water in the stream. The other major model is the prior appropriations model, the first party to make use of a water supply has the first rights to it, regardless of whether the property is near the water source. Riparian systems are generally more common in areas where water is plentiful, while appropriations systems are more common in dry climates. As water resource law is complex, many areas have some combination of the two approaches.

text: The legal right to use a designated water supply is known as a

text: water right

text: . There are two major models used for water rights. The first is

text: riparian rights

text: , where the owner of the adjacent land has the right to the water in the stream. The other major model is the

text: prior appropriations model

text: , the first party to make use of a water supply has the first rights to it, regardless of whether the property is near the water source. Riparian systems are generally more common in areas where water is plentiful, while appropriations systems are more common in dry climates. As water resource law is complex, many areas have some combination of the two approaches.

text: Micronutrients and minerals in relation to health outcomes

text: Carbohydrate is found in a number of foods including fruits, starchy vegetables (such as peas, potatoes, and corn), grains, milk and yogurt, legumes, and desserts. In general, foods such as meat, eggs, cheese, fats, and non-starchy vegetables (such as greens and broccoli) have little to no carbohydrate. Other foods free of carbohydrate include small quantities of certain condiments, unsweetened coffee and tea, and sugar free sodas.

text: Fish are consumed as food by many species, including humans. It has been an important source of protein and other nutrients for humans throughout recorded history.

text: Originally credited to Gyorgy Scrinis,  the notion was popularized by Michael Pollan. The key to Pollan's understanding of nutritionism is "the widely shared but unexamined assumption ... that the key to understanding food is indeed the nutrient." Since nutrients are invisible, it is now necessary to rely on nutrition experts to make food choices. Because science has an incomplete understanding of how food affects the human body, Pollan argues, relying solely on information regarding individual nutrients has led people and policy makers to repeatedly make poor decisions relating to nutrition.  Pollan blames nutritionism for many of the health problems relating to diet in the Western World today. He compares Nutritionism to a religion, relying on "priests" (nutritional scientists and journalists) to interpret the latest orthodoxy for the masses. Like many religions, nutritionism has divided the world into good and evil components, although what is good or evil can change dramatically with time. Pollan believes that nutritionism is inherently flawed due to a reductive bias within science to isolate and study individual factors disconnected from their usual contexts such as diet and culture, factors which have repeatedly been shown to have a fundamental impact on nutritional outcomes. Even when scientists have attempted to study factors such as culture, diet, and long term consumption patterns, the enormous difficulties in making accurate measurements relating to individual nutritional components, and producing meaningful conclusions has resulted in incomplete results at best, and misleading or harmful results at worst.

text: Originally credited to Gyorgy Scrinis,  the notion was popularized by Michael Pollan. The key to Pollan's understanding of nutritionism is "the widely shared but unexamined assumption ... that the key to understanding food is indeed the nutrient." Since nutrients are invisible, it is now necessary to rely on nutrition experts to make food choices. Because science has an incomplete understanding of how food affects the human body, Pollan argues, relying solely on information regarding individual nutrients has led people and policy makers to repeatedly make poor decisions relating to nutrition.  Pollan blames nutritionism for many of the health problems relating to diet in the

text: Western World

text: today. He compares Nutritionism to a religion, relying on "priests" (nutritional scientists and journalists) to interpret the latest

text: orthodoxy

text: for the masses. Like many religions, nutritionism has divided the world into good and evil components, although what is good or evil can change dramatically with time. Pollan believes that nutritionism is inherently flawed due to a

text: reductive

text: bias within science to isolate and study individual factors disconnected from their usual contexts such as diet and culture, factors which have repeatedly been shown to have a fundamental impact on nutritional outcomes. Even when scientists have attempted to study factors such as culture, diet, and long term consumption patterns, the enormous difficulties in making accurate measurements relating to individual nutritional components, and producing meaningful conclusions has resulted in incomplete results at best, and misleading or harmful results at worst.

text: The Aggregate Nutrient Density Index is a score assigned to whole foods that contain the highest nutrients per calorie. Each of these whole foods is given a score based on the equation H=N/C, which is that the health of a food is equal to the nutrients it delivers per calorie. Each ANDI score is based on a possible score of 1,000-0, with 1,000 being the most nutrient dense and 0 being the least nutrient dense. Kale, mustard greens, collard greens, and watercress all receive a score of 1,000 using the H=N/C equation, while foods like meat, seafood, and dairy products receive scores below 50.

text: The

text: Aggregate Nutrient Density Index

text: is a score assigned to whole foods that contain the highest nutrients per calorie. Each of these whole foods is given a score based on the equation H=N/C, which is that the health of a food is equal to the nutrients it delivers per calorie. Each ANDI score is based on a possible score of 1,000-0, with 1,000 being the most nutrient dense and 0 being the least nutrient dense.

text: Kale

text: mustard greens

text: collard greens

text: , and

text: watercress

text: all receive a score of 1,000 using the H=N/C equation, while foods like meat, seafood, and dairy products receive scores below 50.

text: Oser then went to work at Food and Drug Research Laboratories, Inc. in Waverly, New York, then known as the Food Research Labs. Inc., during 1926-57 as an assistant director to the vice president and then served as president of the Chemistry Board during 1959-74 before forming his own consulting firm, Bernard L. Oser & Associates from 1974 to 1995. Oser also served as adjunct professor at Columbia University from 1959 to 1971 as well. His research during this time focused on biological and chemical assays on vitamins, proteins, and other nutrient; pharmaceutical vitamin fortification, stabilization, and availability; toxicology and safety evaluation of food additives, drugs, pesticides, and related chemicals; and the scientific aspects of food law and regulations.

text: Oser then went to work at Food and Drug Research Laboratories, Inc. in

text: Waverly, New York

text: , then known as the Food Research Labs. Inc., during 1926-57 as an assistant director to the vice president and then served as president of the

text: Chemistry Board

text: during 1959-74 before forming his own consulting firm, Bernard L. Oser & Associates from 1974 to 1995. Oser also served as adjunct professor at

text: Columbia University

text: from 1959 to 1971 as well. His research during this time focused on

text: biological

text: and

text: chemical

text: assays

text: on vitamins,

text: proteins

text: , and other nutrient;

text: pharmaceutical

text: vitamin fortification, stabilization, and availability;

text: toxicology

text: and safety evaluation of

text: food additives

text: drugs

text: pesticides

text: , and related chemicals; and the scientific aspects of

text: food law and regulations

text: Encouraging agricultural use of biosolids is intended to prevent filling landfills with nutrient-rich organic materials from the treatment of domestic sewage that might be recycled and applied as fertilizer to improve and maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth. Biosolids may contain macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur with micronutrients copper, zinc, calcium, magnesium, iron, boron, molybdenum and manganese.

text: Encouraging agricultural use of biosolids is intended to prevent filling landfills with nutrient-rich organic materials from the treatment of domestic sewage that might be recycled and applied as fertilizer to improve and maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth. Biosolids may contain macronutrients

text: nitrogen

text: phosphorus

text: potassium

text: and

text: sulphur

text: with micronutrients

text: copper

text: zinc

text: calcium

text: magnesium

text: iron

text: boron

text: molybdenum

text: and

text: manganese

text: Nutrition physiology deals with different types of food and their effects on the metabolism. One topic of nutrition physiology is vitamin loss of frozen foods. Another topic is the calculation of required calories per day and what sort of food should best be avoided for a healthy lifestyle.  This can be looked at as the driving viewpoint of nutritional research that guides health and food policy today.  Yet another topic in this expanding field is the direct regulating effects of dietary vitamins and minerals on cell gene expression, or epigenetics.  The direct and specific effect of nutrients from the diet on cell physiology is a growing field with many unknowns still existing.  A current struggle in this research is the ability to evaluate the effects of varying metabolite concentrations on cell function, while keeping all else constant.  The dietary nutrient ratios that produce optimal physiological output is a topic that could produce many solutions to problems such as cancer regulation, individualized sport performance, and much more.

text: Nutrition physiology deals with different types of

text: food

text: and their effects on the

text: metabolism

text: . One topic of nutrition physiology is

text: vitamin

text: loss of frozen foods. Another topic is the calculation of required calories per day and what sort of food should best be avoided for a healthy lifestyle.  This can be looked at as the driving viewpoint of nutritional research that guides health and food policy today.  Yet another topic in this expanding field is the direct regulating effects of dietary

text: vitamins

text: and

text: minerals

text: on cell gene expression, or

text: epigenetics

text: .  The direct and specific effect of nutrients from the diet on cell physiology is a growing field with many unknowns still existing.  A current struggle in this research is the ability to evaluate the effects of varying metabolite concentrations on cell function, while keeping all else constant.  The dietary nutrient ratios that produce optimal physiological output is a topic that could produce many solutions to problems such as cancer regulation, individualized sport performance, and much more.

text: A healthy diet should be based on you (what kinds of food you like, what is easily accessible to you, etc.). In the media today, we are bombarded with different meal-plans and diet fads, secrets to a "Better Butt," and the crazes just keep on coming. No two people will have the same results from the same meal and exercise plan; each body is different. Instead of molding your life to follow what worked for someone else, try new things and make discoveries about what does and doesn't work for your body.

text: In eukaryotic cells, exoenzymes are manufactured like any other enzyme via protein synthesis, and are transported via the secretory pathway. After moving through the rough endoplasmic reticulum, they are processed through the Golgi apparatus, where they are packaged in vesicles and released out of the cell. In humans, a majority of such exoenzymes can be found in the digestive system and are used for metabolic breakdown of macronutrients via hydrolysis. Breakdown of these nutrients allows for their incorporation into other metabolic pathways.

text: In

text: eukaryotic

text: cells, exoenzymes are manufactured like any other

text: enzyme

text: via

text: protein synthesis

text: , and are transported via the

text: secretory pathway

text: . After moving through the

text: rough endoplasmic reticulum

text: , they are processed through the

text: Golgi apparatus

text: , where they are packaged in

text: vesicles

text: and released out of the cell. In

text: humans

text: , a majority of such exoenzymes can be found in the

text: digestive system

text: and are used for

text: metabolic

text: breakdown of

text: macronutrients

text: via

text: hydrolysis

text: . Breakdown of these nutrients allows for their incorporation into other

text: metabolic pathways

text: Other therapies which have been shown to be effective in randomised clinical trials include probiotic therapy, the application of which usually begins as soon as any antibiotic course is completed so as to re-populate the pouch with beneficial bacteria. Biologics, such as anti-TNF antibodies, may also be useful but the evidence for their use is largely anecdotal. In addition, discussion by patients using related internet forums appears to give evidence of benefits (again, after cessation of antibiotics) from certain diets, such as the Specific Carbohydrate Diet, Paleolithic Diet, and Low FODMAP Diet. In particular, attention has been drawn to the exclusion of complex carbohydrates, as well as other foods with high starch content (such as grains, rice, and potatoes) and certain dairy products including milk and soft cheese.

text: Other therapies which have been shown to be effective in randomised clinical trials include probiotic therapy, the application of which usually begins as soon as any antibiotic course is completed so as to re-populate the pouch with beneficial bacteria. Biologics, such as anti-TNF antibodies, may also be useful but the evidence for their use is largely anecdotal. In addition, discussion by patients using related internet forums appears to give evidence of benefits (again, after cessation of antibiotics) from certain diets, such as the

text: Specific Carbohydrate Diet

text: Paleolithic Diet

text: , and Low

text: FODMAP

text: Diet. In particular, attention has been drawn to the exclusion of

text: complex carbohydrates

text: , as well as other foods with high starch content (such as

text: grains

text: rice

text: , and

text: potatoes

text: ) and certain dairy products including milk and soft cheese.

text: The decline of nutrient ratios is also a function of decomposition of litterfall (i.e. as litterfall decomposes, more nutrients enter the soil below and the litter will have a lower nutrient ratio). Litterfall containing high nutrient concentrations will decompose more rapidly and asymptote as those nutrients decrease. Knowing this, ecologists have been able to use nutrient concentrations as measured by remote sensing as an index of a potential rate of decomposition for any given area. Globally, data from various forest ecosystems shows an inverse relationship in the decline in nutrient ratios to the apparent nutrition availability of the forest.

text: The decline of nutrient ratios is also a function of decomposition of litterfall (i.e. as litterfall decomposes, more nutrients enter the soil below and the litter will have a lower nutrient ratio). Litterfall containing high nutrient concentrations will decompose more rapidly and

text: asymptote

text: as those nutrients decrease. Knowing this, ecologists have been able to use nutrient concentrations as measured by

text: remote sensing

text: as an index of a potential rate of decomposition for any given area. Globally, data from various forest ecosystems shows an inverse relationship in the decline in nutrient ratios to the apparent nutrition availability of the forest.

text: The Vitamins can also be interpreted as being metaphors for alcohol. The narrator is seen to be drinking alcohol throughout the story and the vitamins may represent the negative effects played out in the life of his wife, Patti. Patti constantly thinks about vitamins in much the way that an alcoholic thinks about drinking. Patti confides to the narrator that she feels suffocated by vitamins, and that she wants to escape from vitamins. These feelings are similar to ones that an alcoholic feels and in the end, the vitamins are seen to be destroying the marriage.

text: Normally, we are able to get adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals by eating a wide variety of foods. However, many patients on dialysis must follow dietary restrictions, making it difficult for them to get the necessary amounts of certain vitamins and minerals to stay healthy. In addition to this, many vitamins and minerals are lost during the process of dialysis.  Therefore, many dialysis patients are at risk for vitamin and mineral deficiencies. Since vitamins are necessary for proper metabolism, protein building, and growth it is important for the health of dialysis patients that they are supplemented with any vitamins or minerals that they may be deficient in.

text: systems to produce high protein sources of food for a variety of fish. These fish then produce growth-limiting nutrients necessary for vegetable fertilization. These vegetables and other items are grown at STORC and consumed locally. Produce is also fertilized by use of Compost tea, a liquid solution of concentrated compost nutrients.

text: systems to produce high protein sources of food for a variety of fish. These fish then produce growth-limiting nutrients necessary for vegetable fertilization. These vegetables and other items are grown at STORC and consumed locally. Produce is also fertilized by use of

text: Compost tea

text: , a liquid solution of concentrated compost nutrients.

text: In 2006, Reinagel introduced the IF Ratings, a system that attempts to predict the inflammatory or anti-inflammatory potential of foods and mixed meals based on their nutrient composition. Reinagel cites peer-reviewed published research on the associations between various nutrients, food components, and dietary patterns on inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein as the basis for the unpublished formula used to produce the ratings. No analyses of the statistical validity of the IF Ratings or results of any controlled interventions have been published.

text: In 2006, Reinagel introduced the IF Ratings, a system that attempts to predict the inflammatory or anti-inflammatory potential of foods and mixed meals based on their nutrient composition. Reinagel cites peer-reviewed published research on the associations between various nutrients, food components, and dietary patterns on inflammatory markers such as

text: C-reactive protein

text: as the basis for the unpublished formula used to produce the ratings. No analyses of the statistical validity of the IF Ratings or results of any controlled interventions have been published.

text: A liposome is a spherical vesicle having at least one lipid bilayer. The liposome can be used as a vehicle for administration of nutrients and pharmaceutical drugs.  Liposomes can be prepared by disrupting biological membranes (such as by sonication).

text: A liposome is a spherical

text: vesicle

text: having at least one

text: lipid bilayer

text: . The liposome can be used as a vehicle for

text: administration

text: of

text: nutrient

text: s and

text: pharmaceutical drug

text: s.  Liposomes can be prepared by disrupting biological membranes (such as by

text: sonication

text: The reproductive strategy seen in blue mussels is characteristic of planktotrophs, by minimizing nutrients in egg production to the bare minimum they are able to maximize the number of gametes produced. If the adult mussels are stressed during the beginning of gametogenesis, the process is terminated. When stressed while fresh gametes are present, adult mussels reabsorb gametes. Larvae viability is also affected by the condition of parents: high water temperatures, pollutants and scarcity of food, during gamete production. The reduction in viability is probably due to the lack of lipid reserves distributed to the eggs.

text: The reproductive strategy seen in blue mussels is characteristic of planktotrophs, by minimizing nutrients in egg production to the bare minimum they are able to maximize the number of gametes produced. If the adult mussels are stressed during the beginning of gametogenesis, the process is terminated. When stressed while fresh gametes are present, adult mussels reabsorb gametes. Larvae viability is also affected by the condition of parents: high water temperatures, pollutants and scarcity of food, during gamete production. The reduction in viability is probably due to the lack of

text: lipid

text: reserves distributed to the eggs.

text: Proteins perform several functions in living organisms, including catalytic reactions and transport of molecules or ions within the cells, the organs or the whole body. The understanding of the processes in organisms, which are mainly driven by chemical reactions (e.g., protein-protein interactions), depends to a great extent on our ability to isolate active proteins in biological samples for more detailed examination of chemical structure and physiological function in health and disease. As about 30-40% of all known proteins contain one or more metal ion cofactors (e.g., ceruloplasmin, ferritin, amyloid precursor protein), especially native metalloproteins have to be isolated, identified and quantified in biomatrices. Many of these cofactors play a key role in vital enzymatic catalytic processes or stabilize globular protein molecules. Therefore, the protein electrophoresis and other separation techniques are highly relevant as initial step of protein analysis followed by mass spectrometric and magnetic resonance methods for quantifying and identifying the proteins of interest.

text: Proteins perform several functions in

text: living

text: organism

text: s, including

text: catalytic

text: reactions

text: and transport of

text: molecule

text: s or

text: ion

text: s within the

text: cell

text: s, the

text: organs

text: or the whole

text: body

text: . The understanding of the

text: processes

text: in organisms, which are mainly driven by

text: chemical

text: reactions (e.g.,

text: protein-protein interaction

text: s), depends to a great extent on our ability to isolate active proteins in biological samples for more detailed examination of chemical

text: structure

text: and

text: physiological

text: function in

text: health

text: and

text: disease

text: . As about 30-40% of all known proteins contain one or more

text: metal ion cofactors

text: (e.g.,

text: ceruloplasmin

text: ferritin

text: amyloid precursor protein

text: ), especially native metalloproteins have to be isolated, identified and quantified in

text: biomatrices

text: . Many of these cofactors play a key role in vital

text: enzymatic

text: catalytic processes or stabilize

text: globular protein

text: molecules. Therefore, the protein

text: electrophoresis

text: and other

text: separation

text: techniques are highly relevant as initial step of

text: protein analysis

text: followed by

text: mass spectrometric

text: and

entity_name: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of proteins

text: magnetic resonance

text: methods for quantifying and identifying the proteins of interest.

text: In addition to a food's expiration date, the main considerations for hiking food are water content, caloric density (more energy per pound for a given space), and nutritional density (more nutrition per pound for a given space). Water weighs one gram per cubic centimeter, or 8.33 pounds per gallon, so a 4-liter (1 gallon) food container can weigh up to eight pounds less when it contains dehydrated food. Dehydrating foods can reduce weight and may reduce nutrition while increasing the need for water to reconstitute the food. More weight also expends more energy, so packing lighter foods reduces the need for more calories. Calories equate to energy. Nutrition becomes more important as the number of hiking days increases; for example MREs are not intended to be used beyond ten days. Multi-vitamins may help offset some nutrition deficiencies.

text: Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients are fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the minerals and vitamins. Additionally, food contains water and dietary fiber.

text: Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients are fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the

text: minerals

text: and

text: vitamins

text: . Additionally, food contains water and

text: dietary fiber

text: The word "Pachchaperumal" means "The Lord Buddha’s color."  It is a wholesome red rice variety. When cooked, it takes on a deep, rich burgundy color. It is rich in nutrients and proteins, and is considered an excellent choice for an every day meal.  It is also said to be part of a good diet for people with diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

text: The word "Pachchaperumal" means "The Lord

text: Buddha

text: ’s color."  It is a wholesome red rice variety. When cooked, it takes on a deep, rich burgundy color. It is rich in nutrients and proteins, and is considered an excellent choice for an every day meal.  It is also said to be part of a good diet for people with diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

text: When used in feed for livestock or horses, middlings can be a good source of protein, fiber, and phosphorus, along with various other nutrients. However, flour milling products arising from a fairly homogeneous parent grain can vary greatly depending upon the objectives of the milling process. Thus, the degree of nutrient variation in wheat midds can be a major consideration in determining whether its inclusion in a ration or formula feed is beneficial. It has 96 percent of the energy value of barley and 91 percent of the energy value of corn. It is also used frequently as an inexpensive filler for pet food for animals such as dogs and cats, who do not digest wheat products as readily.

text: When used in feed for livestock or

text: horse

text: s, middlings can be a good source of

text: protein

text: fiber

text: , and phosphorus, along with various other nutrients. However, flour milling products arising from a fairly homogeneous parent grain can vary greatly depending upon the objectives of the milling process. Thus, the degree of nutrient variation in wheat midds can be a major consideration in determining whether its inclusion in a ration or formula feed is beneficial. It has 96 percent of the

text: energy value

text: of

text: barley

text: and 91 percent of the energy value of

text: corn

text: . It is also used frequently as an inexpensive filler for pet food for animals such as dogs and cats, who do not digest wheat products as readily.

text: There are so many benefits of eating fermented food. First of all, eating fermented food and drinking fermented drinks such as Shindari will improve your immune system. It will also increase beneficial bacterias in your digestive system and help you to maintain a balance of bacteria and the production of stomach acid. Moreover, it will help you to prevent severe from diseases like cancer. Fermented food is not just directly beneficial, but also indirectly benefits us by helping us absorb the nutrients we’re consuming. Traditional fermented food help the body produce acetylcholine.  It is also beneficial for people with diabetes. Fermented foods have been broken down or “pro-digested.” As a result, they do not put an extra burden on your digestion system unlike ordinary carbohydrates. Besides these benefits, there are a lot more effects that fermented food have (Helmenstine 25-28).

text: As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can alternatively be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), choline, essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.

text: As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (

text: Vitamin D

text: is the exception: it can alternatively be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of

text: UVB radiation

text: carnitine

text: phytochemicals

text: have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including

text: antioxidant

text: activity (see below); experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients not classed as vitamins include

text: essential amino acid

text: s (see

text: above

text: choline

text: essential fatty acid

text: s (see

text: above

text: As for other spices or dried foods, the nutrient content of dried saffron in a 100 gram amount shows richness of nutritional value across B vitamins and dietary minerals (table). In a typical serving of one tablespoon (2 grams), however, only manganese is present as 28% of the Daily Value while other nutrients are negligible.

text: As for other spices or dried foods, the nutrient content of dried saffron in a 100 gram amount shows richness of nutritional value across

text: B vitamins

text: and

text: dietary minerals

text: (table). In a typical serving of one

text: tablespoon

text: (2 grams), however, only

text: manganese

text: is present as 28% of the

text: Daily Value

text: while other nutrients are negligible.

text: 2. Mesenteron (midgut): Digestive enzymes in this region are produced and secreted into the lumen and here nutrients are absorbed into the insect’s body. Food is enveloped by this part of the gut as it arrives from the foregut by the peritrophic membrane which is a mucopolysaccharide layer secreted from the midgut’s epithelial cells. It is thought that this membrane prevents food pathogens from contacting the epithelium and attacking the insects’ body. It also acts as a filter allowing small molecules through, but preventing large molecules and particles of food from reaching the midgut cells. After the large substances are broken down into smaller ones, digestion and consequent nutrient absorption takes place at the surface of the epithelium. Microscopic projections from the mid-gut wall, called microvilli, increase surface area and allow for maximum absorption of nutrients.

text: 2. Mesenteron (midgut): Digestive enzymes in this region are produced and secreted into the

text: lumen

text: and here nutrients are absorbed into the insect’s body. Food is enveloped by this part of the gut as it arrives from the foregut by the

text: peritrophic membrane

text: which is a

text: mucopolysaccharide

text: layer secreted from the midgut’s epithelial cells. It is thought that this membrane prevents food

text: pathogens

text: from contacting the

text: epithelium

text: and attacking the insects’ body. It also acts as a filter allowing small

text: molecules

text: through, but preventing large molecules and particles of food from reaching the midgut cells. After the large substances are broken down into smaller ones, digestion and consequent nutrient absorption takes place at the surface of the epithelium. Microscopic projections from the mid-gut wall, called

text: microvilli

text: , increase surface area and allow for maximum absorption of nutrients.

text: Dry matter can refer to the dry portion of animal feed. A substance in the feed, such as a nutrient or toxin, can be referred to on a dry matter basis (abbreviated DMB) to show its level in the feed (e.g., ppm). Considering nutrient levels in different feeds on a dry matter basis (rather than an as-is basis) makes a comparison easier because feeds contain different percentages of water. This also allows a comparison between the level of a given nutrient in dry matter and the level needed in an animal’s diet. Dry matter intake (DMI) refers to feed intake excluding its water content. The percentage of water is frequently determined by heating the feed on a paper plate in a microwave oven or using the Koster Tester to dry the feed. Ascertaining DMI can be useful for low-energy feeds with a high percentage of water in order to ensure adequate energy intake. Animals eating these kinds of feeds have been shown to consume less dry matter and food energy. A problem called dry matter loss can result from heat generation, as caused by microbial respiration. It decreases the content of nonstructural carbohydrate, protein, and food energy.

text: Dry matter can refer to the dry portion of animal feed. A substance in the feed, such as a nutrient or toxin, can be referred to on a dry matter basis (abbreviated DMB) to show its level in the feed (e.g.,

text: ppm

text: ). Considering nutrient levels in different feeds on a dry matter basis (rather than an as-is basis) makes a comparison easier because feeds contain different percentages of water. This also allows a comparison between the level of a given nutrient in dry matter and the level needed in an animal’s diet. Dry matter intake (DMI) refers to feed intake excluding its water content. The percentage of water is frequently determined by heating the feed on a paper plate in a microwave oven or using the Koster Tester to dry the feed. Ascertaining DMI can be useful for low-energy feeds with a high percentage of water in order to ensure adequate energy intake. Animals eating these kinds of feeds have been shown to consume less dry matter and food energy. A problem called dry matter loss can result from heat generation, as caused by microbial respiration. It decreases the content of nonstructural carbohydrate, protein, and food energy.

text: From trials carried out by a commercial Nepenthes nursery, it appears that micronutrient solutions have "a beneficial effect on plants of improved leaf colouration, with no deleterious effects" as far as can be seen. However, more research is required to verify these results. Actual fertilisers (containing NPK) were, on the other hand, found to "cause damage to plants, promote pathogens and have no observable benefits". Hence, the use of chemical fertilisers is usually not advised.

text: From trials carried out by a commercial Nepenthes nursery, it appears that

text: micronutrient

text: solutions have "a beneficial effect on plants of improved leaf colouration, with no deleterious effects" as far as can be seen. However, more research is required to verify these results. Actual

text: fertiliser

text: s (containing

text: N

text: P

text: K

text: ) were, on the other hand, found to "cause damage to plants, promote

text: pathogen

text: s and have no observable benefits". Hence, the use of chemical fertilisers is usually not advised.

text: Fish waste is organic and composed of nutrients necessary in all components of aquatic food webs. In-ocean aquaculture often produces much higher  than normal fish waste concentrations. The waste collects on the ocean bottom, damaging or eliminating bottom-dwelling life. Waste can also decrease dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, putting further pressure on wild animals.  An alternative model to food being added to the ecosystem, is the installation of artificial reef structures to increase the habitat niches available, without the need to add any more than ambient feed and nutrient. This has been used in the "ranching" of abalone in Western Australia.

text: Fish waste is organic and composed of nutrients necessary in all components of aquatic food webs. In-ocean aquaculture often produces much higher  than normal fish waste concentrations. The waste collects on the ocean bottom, damaging or eliminating bottom-dwelling life. Waste can also decrease

text: dissolved oxygen

text: levels in the

text: water column

text: , putting further pressure on wild animals.  An alternative model to food being added to the ecosystem, is the installation of artificial reef structures to increase the habitat niches available, without the need to add any more than ambient feed and nutrient. This has been used in the "ranching" of abalone in Western Australia.

text: On December 10, 2008, the United States Food and Drug Administration wrote a Warning Letter to The Coca-Cola Company that Diet Coke Plus violates the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. The term "plus" is a regulated term on food and beverages. A food may be labeled "plus" to describe its nutrients only if it contains at least 10% more of the Reference Daily Intake or Daily Reference Value compared to the usual amount. Because Diet Coke Plus labeling does not indicate the increased amount of nutrients, it cannot use the word "plus" on its label. Regardless, snack foods, such as carbonated soda, may never use the word "plus" because the FDA does not consider it appropriate to fortify snack foods. The FDA required The Coca-Cola Company to detail corrective action within 15 days.

text: On December 10, 2008, the United States

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: wrote a

text: Warning Letter

text: to

text: The Coca-Cola Company

text: that Diet Coke Plus violates the

text: Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act

text: . The term "plus" is a regulated term on food and beverages. A food may be labeled "plus" to describe its nutrients only if it contains at least 10% more of the

text: Reference Daily Intake

text: or Daily Reference Value compared to the usual amount. Because Diet Coke Plus labeling does not indicate the increased amount of nutrients, it cannot use the word "plus" on its label. Regardless, snack foods, such as carbonated soda, may never use the word "plus" because the FDA does not consider it appropriate to fortify snack foods. The FDA required The Coca-Cola Company to detail corrective action within 15 days.

text: If people do not have enough food, or cannot afford food, they will most likely not have enough nutrients in their diets. The Mugabe regime is "[violating] the core obligations of the rights to health, water, food, and work" (Sollom 38). Even if Mugabe had been allowing the Zimbabwean citizens these rights, they would not have been able to afford the food they need. What was once Africa's breadbasket is now living in poverty (Tsvangiari 1). Sixty-two percents of Zimbabweans are living on less than  one dollar per day, according to Hazel Chinake. So even if they could afford food, the Zimbabwean people would be starving. Under the white minority rule in what was then called Rhodesia, roughly one fourth of the population was affected with malnutrition.

text: If people do not have enough

text: food

text: , or cannot afford food, they will most likely not have enough

text: nutrient

text: s in their diets. The Mugabe regime is "[violating] the core obligations of the rights to health, water, food, and work" (Sollom 38). Even if Mugabe had been allowing the Zimbabwean citizens these rights, they would not have been able to afford the food they need. What was once Africa's

text: breadbasket

text: is now living in

text: poverty

text: (Tsvangiari 1). Sixty-two percents of Zimbabweans are living on less than  one dollar per day, according to Hazel Chinake. So even if they could afford food, the Zimbabwean people would be starving. Under the white minority rule in what was then called Rhodesia, roughly one fourth of the population was affected with malnutrition.

text: Phoradendron tomentosum, the leafy mistletoe, hairy mistletoe or Christmas mistletoe, is a plant parasite. It is characterized by its larger leaves and smaller berries than dwarf mistletoe. Leafy mistletoe seldom kill but they do rob their hosts of moisture and some minerals, causing stress during drought and reducing crop productions on fruit and nut trees. Leafy mistletoe has the ability to photosynthesize on its own but it relies on other plants in order to obtain its nutrients.  It attaches itself to a tree and then grows haustoria, in order to get the food and water it needs.

text: Phoradendron tomentosum, the leafy

text: mistletoe

text: , hairy mistletoe or Christmas mistletoe, is a plant parasite. It is characterized by its larger leaves and smaller berries than

text: dwarf mistletoe

text: . Leafy mistletoe seldom kill but they do rob their hosts of moisture and some minerals, causing stress during drought and reducing crop productions on fruit and nut trees. Leafy mistletoe has the ability to photosynthesize on its own but it relies on other plants in order to obtain its nutrients.  It attaches itself to a tree and then grows haustoria, in order to get the food and water it needs.

text: If vitamins are prescribed by a medical practitioner, but not purchased from a pharmacist who has recorded the prescription in a prescription record, then the expense is not an eligible medical expense.  However, in recent court cases, they can allow the eligibility of prescribed vitamins, herbs, bottled water, organic and natural foods and not dispensed by a pharmacist if the items are required to sustain the life of the user.  It is not eligible if it is simply to satisfy a lifestyle the user has chosen.

text: Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals. These substances are generally more recent discoveries which have not yet been recognized as vitamins or as required. Phytochemicals may act as antioxidants, but not all phytochemicals are antioxidants.

text: Months of depletion are usually necessary to deplete body stores of most nutrients and a nutritional optic neuropathy may be present in a patient with or without obvious evidence of under-nutrition.  An individual suffering from starvation could be easily recognized as a person who is undernourished due to their cachectic corporal appearance. However, a not so obvious individual may be the recipient of a gastric bypass surgery, a procedure that may lead to vitamin B12 deficiency from poor absorption. The optic neuropathy associated with pernicious anemia and vitamin B12 deficiency can be seen amongst individuals who obtain adequate caloric input from foods low in nutritional and micronutrient density (see Food desert).

text: Months of depletion are usually necessary to deplete body stores of most nutrients and a nutritional optic neuropathy may be present in a patient with or without obvious evidence of under-nutrition.  An individual suffering from starvation could be easily recognized as a person who is undernourished due to their cachectic

text: corporal

text: appearance. However, a not so obvious individual may be the recipient of a

text: gastric bypass

text: surgery, a procedure that may lead to

text: vitamin B12

text: deficiency from poor absorption. The optic neuropathy associated with pernicious

text: anemia

text: and vitamin B12 deficiency can be seen amongst individuals who obtain adequate caloric input from foods low in nutritional and

text: micronutrient

text: density (see

text: Food desert

text: Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other substances such as toxins or various sorts. Some nutrients can be stored internally (e.g., the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much of a required nutrient. For example, both salt and water (both absolutely required) will cause illness or even death in too large amounts.

text: After his death in 2012, the Micronutrient Manufacturers Association named its Mortvedt Award in honor of John, calling him the "leading researcher and educator on micronutrients in crop production".

text: Bamboo shoots are more easily digested than leaves, exhibiting the highest digestibility in summer and autumn, intermediate digestibility in the spring, and lowest digestibility in the winter. These variations correlate with the nutrient contents in the bamboo. Red pandas process bamboo poorly, especially the cellulose and cell wall components. This implies microbial digestion plays only a minor role in their digestive strategy. To survive on this poor-quality diet, they have to eat the high-quality sections of the bamboo plant, such as the tender leaves and shoots, in large quantities, over  of fresh leaves and  of fresh shoots daily. This food passes through the digestive tract fairly rapidly (about 2–4 hr) so as to maximize daily nutrient intake. Red pandas can taste artificial sweeteners, such as aspartame, and are the only nonprimates known to be able to do so.

text: Bamboo shoot

text: s are more easily digested than leaves, exhibiting the highest digestibility in summer and autumn, intermediate digestibility in the spring, and lowest digestibility in the winter. These variations correlate with the nutrient contents in the bamboo. Red pandas process bamboo poorly, especially the cellulose and cell wall components. This implies microbial digestion plays only a minor role in their digestive strategy. To survive on this poor-quality diet, they have to eat the high-quality sections of the bamboo plant, such as the tender leaves and shoots, in large quantities, over  of fresh leaves and  of fresh shoots daily. This food passes through the digestive tract fairly rapidly (about 2–4 hr) so as to maximize daily nutrient intake. Red pandas can taste artificial sweeteners, such as

text: aspartame

text: , and are the only nonprimates known to be able to do so.

text: Protein bars are targeted to people who primarily want a source of protein that doesn't need preparation (unless homemade). There are different kinds of food bars to fill different purposes. Energy bars provide the majority of their food energy (calories) in carbohydrate form. Meal replacement bars are intended to replace the variety of nutrients in a meal. Protein bars are usually lower in carbs than energy bars, lower in vitamins and dietary minerals than meal replacement bars, and significantly higher in protein than either.

text: Protein bars are targeted to people who primarily want a source of protein that doesn't need preparation (unless homemade). There are different kinds of food bars to fill different purposes.

text: Energy bar

text: s provide the majority of their

text: food energy

text: (calories) in carbohydrate form.

text: Meal replacement

text: bars are intended to replace the variety of nutrients in a meal. Protein bars are usually lower in carbs than energy bars, lower in vitamins and dietary minerals than meal replacement bars, and significantly higher in protein than either.

text: Many of the Earth's elements and minerals (or mineral nutrients) are contained within the tissues and diets of organisms. Hence, mineral and nutrient cycles trace food web energy pathways. Ecologists employ stoichiometry to analyze the ratios of the main elements found in all organisms: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P). There is a large transitional difference between many terrestrial and aquatic systems as C:P and C:N ratios are much higher in terrestrial systems while N:P ratios are equal between the two systems. Mineral nutrients are the material resources that organisms need for growth, development, and vitality. Food webs depict the pathways of mineral nutrient cycling as they flow through organisms. Most of the primary production in an ecosystem is not consumed, but is recycled by detritus back into useful nutrients. Many of the Earth's microorganisms are involved in the formation of minerals in a process called biomineralization. Bacteria that live in detrital sediments create and cycle nutrients and biominerals. Food web models and nutrient cycles have traditionally been treated separately, but there is a strong functional connection between the two in terms of stability, flux, sources, sinks, and recycling of mineral nutrients.

text: Many of the Earth's

text: element

text: s and

text: minerals

text: (or mineral nutrients) are contained within the tissues and diets of organisms. Hence, mineral and nutrient cycles trace

text: food

text: web energy pathways. Ecologists employ stoichiometry to analyze the ratios of the main elements found in all organisms: carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P). There is a large transitional difference between many terrestrial and aquatic systems as C:P and C:N ratios are much higher in terrestrial systems while N:P ratios are equal between the two systems.

text: Mineral nutrients

text: are the material resources that organisms need for growth, development, and vitality. Food webs depict the pathways of mineral nutrient cycling as they flow through organisms. Most of the primary production in an ecosystem is not consumed, but is recycled by detritus back into useful nutrients. Many of the Earth's microorganisms are involved in the formation of

text: minerals

text: in a process called

text: biomineralization

text: . Bacteria that live in

text: detrital

text: sediments

text: create and cycle nutrients and biominerals. Food web models and nutrient cycles have traditionally been treated separately, but there is a strong functional connection between the two in terms of stability, flux, sources, sinks, and recycling of mineral nutrients.

text: R. cissoides requires essential plant macronutrients. There are many nutrients which plants require to maintain good growth but the main three are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK). Out of these three macronutrients nitrogen is the most important for plant growth. Nitrogen is essential for the process of photosynthesis to occur. Photosynthesis produces energy for plant. R. cissoides will need a wide range of nutrients in the soil to remain healthy, especially NPK.

text: Attention has been addressed to the decreasing concentrations of elements such as iron, zinc, copper and magnesium in many foods over the last 50–60 years. Intensive farming practices, including the use of synthetic fertilizers are frequently suggested as reasons for these declines and organic farming is often suggested as a solution. Although improved crop yields resulting from NPK fertilizers are known to dilute the concentrations of other nutrients in plants, much of the measured decline can be attributed to the use of progressively higher-yielding crop varieties which produce foods with lower mineral concentrations than their less productive ancestors. It is, therefore, unlikely that organic farming or reduced use of fertilizers will solve the problem; foods with high nutrient density are posited to be achieved using older, lower-yielding varieties or the development of new high-yield, nutrient-dense varieties.

text: Its protein contents are 3.5 times that of rice and 2.5 times that of wheat. It provides an excellent source of protein, particularly for those adopting vegetarian diets or diets which do not contain much meat. It is typically around 25% protein by dry weight, giving it a comparable protein content to meats. However, by weight, cooked (boiled) lentils contains 9% protein, 70% water, 20% carbohydrates (includes 8% fiber), 1% fat. Note that as extra water is added to cooked lentil, as in the case of sambar, proportion of proteins and other nutrients will reduce further. Protein contents of cooked lentil are one third that of cooked chicken. Most lentils(except soybean, being exceptionally higher) have a similar amount of protein.

text: Its protein contents are 3.5 times that of rice and 2.5 times that of wheat. It provides an excellent source of protein, particularly for those adopting vegetarian diets or diets which do not contain much meat. It is typically around 25% protein by dry weight, giving it a comparable protein content to meats. However, by weight, cooked (boiled) lentils contains 9% protein, 70% water, 20% carbohydrates (includes 8% fiber), 1% fat. Note that as extra water is added to cooked lentil, as in the case of sambar, proportion of proteins and other nutrients will reduce further. Protein contents of cooked lentil are one third that of cooked chicken. Most lentils(except

text: soybean

text: , being exceptionally higher) have a similar amount of protein.

text: Mycoplankton are saprotropic members of the plankton communities of marine and freshwater ecosystems. They are composed of filamentous free-living fungi and yeasts that are associated with planktonic particles or phytoplankton. Similar to bacterioplankton, these aquatic fungi play a significant role in heterotrophic mineralization and nutrient cycling. Mycoplankton can be up to 20 mm in diameter and over 50 mm in length.

text: Mycoplankton

text: are

text: saprotropic

text: members of the

text: plankton

text: communities of

text: marine

text: and

text: freshwater

text: ecosystems

text: . They are composed of

text: filamentous

text: free-living

text: fungi

text: and yeasts that are associated with planktonic particles or

text: phytoplankton

text: . Similar to

text: bacterioplankton

text: , these aquatic fungi play a significant role in

text: heterotroph

text: ic

text: mineralization

text: and

text: nutrient cycling

text: . Mycoplankton can be up to 20 mm in diameter and over 50 mm in length.

text: Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides. Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides, and phospholipids), as well as other sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol. Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet.

text: Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for

text: fat

text: s, fats are a subgroup of lipids called

text: triglyceride

text: s. Lipids also encompass molecules such as

text: fatty acid

text: s and their derivatives (including

text: tri-

text: di-

text: monoglyceride

text: s, and

text: phospholipid

text: s), as well as other

text: sterol

text: -containing

text: metabolite

text: s such as

text: cholesterol

text: . Although humans and other mammals use various

text: biosynthetic pathway

text: s both to break down and to synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet.

text: Alpacas will chew their food in a figure eight motion, swallow the food, and then pass it into one of the stomach's chambers. The first and second chambers (called C1 and C2) are where the fermentation process begins digestion. The alpaca will further absorb nutrients and water in the first part of the third chamber. The end of the third chamber (called C3) is where the stomach secretes acids to digest food, and is the likely place where an alpaca will have ulcers, if stressed. The alpaca digestive system is very sensitive and must be kept healthy and balanced.

text: Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones, with many hydroxyl groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides and include galactose, fructose, and most importantly glucose. Monosaccharides can be linked together to form polysaccharides in almost limitless ways.

text: Carbohydrate

text: s are

text: aldehyde

text: s or

text: ketone

text: s, with many

text: hydroxyl

text: groups attached, that can exist as straight chains or rings. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules, and fill numerous roles, such as the storage and transport of

text: energy

text: starch

text: glycogen

text: ) and structural components (

text: cellulose

text: in plants,

text: chitin

text: in animals). The basic carbohydrate units are called

text: monosaccharide

text: s and include

text: galactose

text: fructose

text: , and most importantly

text: glucose

text: . Monosaccharides can be linked together to form

text: polysaccharide

text: s in almost limitless ways.

text: In order to directly address nutrient deficiencies, the INP established a mandatory food fortification program in 2003, which is interrelated to the micronutrient supplementation program. However, the programs have not reached their anticipated success rates. The food fortification program has created a food fortification mix imbedded in maize meal and other complementary foods. The mix's high Folate content seems to have eradicated Folate deficiencies. The food fortification program also made the iodization of salt mandatory since 1995. This seems to have halted incidences of iodine deficiencies. However, any micronutrients lacking in the food fortification mix can still cause malnutrition. Unfortunately, it has been difficult for the micronutrient supplementation program to provide all the lacking micronutrients to those in need. The program faces various limitations in the forms of supply, supplement quality, bio-availability, outreach, and compliance.  For example, the Vitamin A supplementation program has been criticized for its struggles with reaching its most vulnerable target: children and post-partum women.

text: Vitamins are organic molecules essential for an organism that are not classified as amino acids or fatty acids. They commonly function as enzymatic cofactors, metabolic regulators or antioxidants. Humans require thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are actually groups of related molecules (e.g. vitamin E includes tocopherols and tocotrienols).

text: Vitamins are organic molecules essential for an organism that are not classified as

text: amino acid

text: s or

text: fatty acids

text: . They commonly function as

text: enzymatic cofactor

text: s, metabolic regulators or

text: antioxidants

text: . Humans require thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are actually groups of related molecules (e.g.

text: vitamin E

text: includes

text: tocopherol

text: s and

text: tocotrienol

text: s).

text: The following table shows the nutrient content of sorghum and compares it to major staple foods in a raw form. Raw forms of these staples, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In processed and cooked form, the relative nutritional and antinutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of the raw forms reported in this table. The nutrition value for each staple food in cooked form depends on the cooking method (for example: boiling, baking, steaming, frying, etc.).

text: Any processing of food can affect its nutritional density. The amount of nutrients lost depends on the food and processing method. For example, heat destroys vitamin C. Therefore, canned fruits possess less vitamin C than their fresh alternatives. The USDA conducted a study in 2004, creating a nutrient retention table for several foods.

text: Any processing of food can affect its nutritional density. The amount of nutrients lost depends on the food and processing method. For example, heat destroys

text: vitamin C

text: . Therefore, canned fruits possess less vitamin C than their fresh alternatives. The

text: USDA

text: conducted a study in 2004, creating a nutrient retention table for several foods.

text: Ryther and co-workers created modern, integrated, intensive, land mariculture. They originated, both theoretically and experimentally, the integrated use of extractive organisms—shellfish, microalgae and seaweeds—in the treatment of household effluents, descriptively and with quantitative results. A domestic wastewater effluent, mixed with seawater, was the nutrient source for phytoplankton, which in turn became food for oysters and clams. They cultivated other organisms in a food chain rooted in the farm's organic sludge. Dissolved nutrients in the final effluent were filtered by seaweed (mainly Gracilaria and Ulva) biofilters. The value of the original organisms grown on human waste effluents was minimal.

text: Ryther and co-workers created modern, integrated, intensive, land mariculture. They originated, both theoretically and experimentally, the integrated use of extractive organisms—shellfish,

text: microalgae

text: and seaweeds—in the treatment of household

text: effluent

text: s, descriptively and with quantitative results. A domestic

text: wastewater

text: effluent, mixed with seawater, was the nutrient source for

text: phytoplankton

text: , which in turn became food for

text: oyster

text: s and

text: clam

text: s. They cultivated other organisms in a food chain rooted in the farm's organic sludge. Dissolved nutrients in the final effluent were filtered by seaweed (mainly

text: Gracilaria

text: and

text: Ulva

text: ) biofilters. The value of the original organisms grown on human waste effluents was minimal.

text: Female tortoises dig nesting burrows in which they lay from one to 30 eggs. Egg-laying typically occurs at night, after which the mother tortoise covers her clutch with sand, soil, and organic material. The eggs are left unattended, and depending on the species, take from 60 to 120 days to incubate. The size of the egg depends on the size of the mother and can be estimated by examining the width of the cloacal opening between the carapace and plastron. The plastron of a female tortoise often has a noticeable V-shaped notch below the tail which facilitates passing the eggs. Upon completion of the incubation period, a fully formed hatchling uses an egg tooth to break out of its shell. It digs to the surface of the nest and begins a life of survival on its own. They are hatched with an embryonic egg sac which serves as a source of nutrition for the first three to seven days until they have the strength and mobility to find food. Juvenile tortoises often require a different balance of nutrients than adults, so may eat foods which a more mature tortoise would not. For example, the young of a strictly herbivorous species commonly will consume worms or insect larvae for additional protein.

text: Female tortoises dig nesting burrows in which they lay from one to 30 eggs. Egg-laying typically occurs at night, after which the mother tortoise covers her

text: clutch

text: with sand, soil, and organic material. The eggs are left unattended, and depending on the species, take from 60 to 120 days to incubate. The size of the egg depends on the size of the mother and can be estimated by examining the width of the

text: cloacal

text: opening between the

text: carapace

text: and

text: plastron

text: . The plastron of a female tortoise often has a noticeable V-shaped notch below the tail which facilitates passing the eggs. Upon completion of the incubation period, a fully formed

text: hatchling

text: uses an

text: egg tooth

text: to break out of its shell. It digs to the surface of the nest and begins a life of survival on its own. They are hatched with an embryonic egg sac which serves as a source of nutrition for the first three to seven days until they have the strength and mobility to find food. Juvenile tortoises often require a different balance of nutrients than adults, so may eat foods which a more mature tortoise would not. For example, the young of a strictly

text: herbivorous

text: species commonly will consume

text: worm

text: s or insect

text: larva

text: e for additional protein.

text: Sixteen elements or nutrients are essential for plant growth and reproduction. They are carbon C, hydrogen H, oxygen O, nitrogen N, phosphorus P, potassium K, sulfur S, calcium Ca, magnesium Mg, iron Fe, boron B, manganese Mn, copper Cu, zinc Zn, molybdenum Mo, and chlorine Cl. Nutrients required for plants to complete their life cycle are considered essential nutrients. Nutrients that enhance the growth of plants but are not necessary to complete the plant's life cycle are considered non-essential. With the exception of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are supplied by carbon dioxide and water, the nutrients derive originally from the mineral component of the soil.

text: Sixteen elements or nutrients are essential for plant growth and reproduction. They are

text: carbon

text: C,

text: hydrogen

text: H,

text: oxygen

text: O,

text: nitrogen

text: N,

text: phosphorus

text: P,

text: potassium

text: K,

text: sulfur

text: S,

text: calcium

text: Ca,

text: magnesium

text: Mg,

text: iron

text: Fe,

text: boron

text: B,

text: manganese

text: Mn,

text: copper

text: Cu,

text: zinc

text: Zn,

text: molybdenum

text: Mo, and

text: chlorine

text: Cl. Nutrients required for plants to complete their life cycle are considered essential nutrients. Nutrients that enhance the growth of plants but are not necessary to complete the plant's life cycle are considered non-essential. With the exception of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are supplied by carbon dioxide and water, the nutrients derive originally from the mineral component of the soil.

text: Zinc is needed to maintain normal vitamin A levels in blood plasma. It also helps vitamin A become metabolized by the liver. However evidence suggests that when someone is deficient in both vitamin A and zinc, memory is more improved when just vitamin A is increased than when just zinc is increased. Of course memory has the largest improvement when both are increased. When one of these nutrients is not balanced, the other is most likely to be affected because they rely on each other for proper functioning in learning.

text: Zinc is needed to maintain normal

text: vitamin A

text: levels in

text: blood plasma

text: . It also helps vitamin A become

text: metabolized

text: by the

text: liver

text: . However evidence suggests that when someone is deficient in both vitamin A and zinc, memory is more improved when just vitamin A is increased than when just zinc is increased. Of course

text: memory

text: has the largest improvement when both are increased. When one of these

text: nutrient

text: s is not balanced, the other is most likely to be affected because they rely on each other for proper functioning in learning.

text: Functional foods are designed to allow consumers to eat enriched foods close to their natural state, rather than by taking dietary supplements manufactured in liquid or capsule form. Functional foods have been either enriched or fortified, a process called nutrification. This practice restores the nutrient content in a food back to similar levels from before the food was processed. Sometimes, additional complementary nutrients are added, such as vitamin D to milk.

text: Functional food

text: s are designed to allow consumers to eat enriched foods close to their natural state, rather than by taking dietary supplements manufactured in liquid or capsule form. Functional foods have been either enriched or fortified, a process called

text: nutrification

text: . This practice restores the nutrient content in a food back to similar levels from before the food was processed. Sometimes, additional complementary nutrients are added, such as

text: vitamin D

text: to

text: milk

text: The soup is very high in calorie content and in protein. This has its origins in the circumstances after the Paraguayan War (1864 to 1870). The war made food scarce, so daily meals were limited, and had to be calorie and nutrient dense.

text: The soup is very high in calorie content and in protein. This has its origins in the circumstances after the

text: Paraguayan War

text: (1864 to 1870). The war made food scarce, so daily meals were limited, and had to be calorie and nutrient dense.

text: Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, which were determined by the mineral's geological environment when formed. Changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals.

text: Minerals are distinguished by various

text: chemical

text: and

text: physical properties

text: . Differences in

text: chemical composition

text: and

text: crystal structure

text: distinguish the various species, which were determined by the mineral's geological environment when formed. Changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals.

text: In 1912 Casimir Funk coined the term vitamin to label a vital factor in the diet: from the words "vital" and "amine," because these unknown substances preventing scurvy, beriberi, and pellagra, were thought then to derive from ammonia. The vitamins were studied in the first half of the 20th century. In 1913 Elmer McCollum discovered the first vitamins, fat-soluble vitamin A and water-soluble vitamin B (in 1915; later identified as a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel (1872-1935) and Thomas Osborne (1859–1929) also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919 Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency, because he could cure it in dogs with cod-liver oil. In 1922 McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil but found it still cured rickets, thus identifying vitamin D. Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discovered vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, and originally called it "food factor X" until 1925.

text: In 1912

text: Casimir Funk

text: coined the term

text: vitamin

text: to label a vital factor in the diet: from the words "vital" and "amine," because these unknown substances preventing scurvy, beriberi, and

text: pellagra

text: , were thought then to derive from ammonia. The vitamins were studied in the first half of the 20th century. In 1913

text: Elmer McCollum

text: discovered the first vitamins, fat-soluble

text: vitamin A

text: and water-soluble

text: vitamin B

text: (in 1915; later identified as a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named

text: vitamin C

text: as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy.

text: Lafayette Mendel

text: (1872-1935) and

text: Thomas Osborne

text: (1859–1929) also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919 Sir

text: Edward Mellanby

text: incorrectly identified

text: rickets

text: as a vitamin A deficiency, because he could cure it in dogs with

text: cod-liver oil

text: . In 1922 McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil but found it still cured rickets, thus identifying

text: vitamin D

text: . Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discovered

text: vitamin E

text: as essential for rat pregnancy, and originally called it "food factor X" until 1925.

text: Larger yellow dung flies have a competitive advantage. Therefore, body size plasticity must be a survival mechanism. Offspring of large adults still survive under food limitations, despite needing more nutrients for a longer development. Thus, the observed growth plasticity is a result of altering body chemistry and not differing survival rates of offspring from small and large parents. Plastic development rate and body size are effective at avoiding premature death, meaning S. stercoraria adopts a strategy of being small and alive over large and dead. Smaller flies have an advantage in stressful environmental situations, due to larger dung flies needing more energy. Additionally, low genetic differentiation exists between yellow dung fly populations, likely due to extensive gene flow, as S. stercoraria is able to travel great distances. When species are unable to adapt through genetics, phenotypic plasticity is the most viable option to adjust to changing environments. Yellow dung flies develop in extremely variable environments, with pat drying, dung availability, and larval competition hindering survival. Therefore, phenotypic plasticity allows S. stercoraria to adjust development according to unpredictable ecological situations without genetic adaptation.

text: Larger yellow dung flies have a competitive advantage. Therefore, body size plasticity must be a survival mechanism. Offspring of large adults still survive under food limitations, despite needing more nutrients for a longer development. Thus, the observed growth plasticity is a result of altering body chemistry and not differing survival rates of offspring from small and large parents. Plastic development rate and body size are effective at avoiding premature death, meaning S. stercoraria adopts a strategy of being small and alive over large and dead. Smaller flies have an advantage in stressful environmental situations, due to larger dung flies needing more energy. Additionally, low genetic differentiation exists between yellow dung fly populations, likely due to extensive gene flow, as S. stercoraria is able to travel great distances. When species are unable to adapt through genetics, phenotypic plasticity is the most viable option to adjust to changing environments. Yellow dung flies develop in extremely variable environments, with pat drying, dung availability, and larval competition hindering survival. Therefore, phenotypic plasticity allows S. stercoraria to adjust development according to unpredictable

text: ecological

text: situations without genetic adaptation.

text: Excessive intake of required nutrients can also result in them having an anti-nutrient action. Excessive intake of fiber can reduce the transit time through the intestines to such a degree that other nutrients cannot be absorbed. Because calcium, iron, zinc and magnesium share the same transporter within the intestine, excessive consumption of one of these minerals can lead to saturation of the transport system and reduced absorption of the other minerals.

text: Excessive intake of required nutrients can also result in them having an anti-nutrient action. Excessive intake of

text: fiber

text: can reduce the transit time through the intestines to such a degree that other nutrients cannot be absorbed. Because calcium, iron, zinc and magnesium share the same transporter within the intestine, excessive consumption of one of these minerals can lead to saturation of the transport system and reduced absorption of the other minerals.

text: The materials ground by millers are often foodstuffs and particularly grain.  The physical grinding of the food allows for the easier digestion of its nutrients and saves wear on the teeth. Non-food substances needed in a fine, powdered form, such as building materials, may be processed by a miller.

text: The materials ground by millers are often

text: foodstuff

text: s and particularly

text: grain

text: .  The physical grinding of the food allows for the easier digestion of its

text: nutrient

text: s and saves wear on the teeth. Non-food substances needed in a fine, powdered form, such as

text: building materials

text: , may be processed by a miller.

text: Because the alkaline diet promotes excluding certain families of foods, it could result in a less-balanced diet with resulting nutrient deficiencies such as essential fatty acids and phytonutrients. Many websites and books promoting this diet sell courses of supplements and foods; it should not be necessary to purchase any of these products.  The level of effort needed to use this diet is considered "High" as there are many foods that need to be excluded in this diet.

text: Because the alkaline diet promotes excluding certain families of foods, it could result in a less-balanced diet with resulting nutrient deficiencies such as

text: essential fatty acids

text: and

text: phytonutrients

text: . Many websites and books promoting this diet sell courses of supplements and foods; it should not be necessary to purchase any of these products.  The level of effort needed to use this diet is considered "High" as there are many foods that need to be excluded in this diet.

text: In the European Union, weight-reduction meal replacements intended either to supplement ("Meal replacement for weight control") or to replace totally ("Total diet replacement for weight control") normal meals are regulated as to their energy content, the nutrients they must provide, and information and advice on packaging by COMMISSION DIRECTIVE 96/8/EC of 26 February 1996 on foods intended for use in energy-restricted diets for weight reduction. For example, a meal replacement must provide between 200 and 400 food calories of energy, of which not more than 30% from fat, and not less than specified amounts for various vitamins and minerals. Labeling information is prescribed, and packaging must provide information such as a statement that the product should not be used for more than three weeks without medical advice. This protects users of meal replacements without other food from inadvertent malnutrition.

text: In the

text: European Union

text: weight-reduction

text: meal replacements intended either to supplement ("Meal replacement for weight control") or to replace totally ("Total diet replacement for weight control") normal meals are regulated as to their energy content, the

text: nutrient

text: s they must provide, and information and advice on packaging by COMMISSION DIRECTIVE 96/8/EC of 26 February 1996 on foods intended for use in energy-restricted diets for weight reduction. For example, a meal replacement must provide between 200 and 400

text: food calorie

text: s of energy, of which not more than 30% from fat, and not less than specified amounts for various vitamins and minerals. Labeling information is prescribed, and packaging must provide information such as a statement that the product should not be used for more than three weeks without medical advice. This protects users of meal replacements without other food from inadvertent

text: malnutrition

text: In addition to the main source of heat loss at the gills, there is a significant amount of heat lost to the lower temperature water through the body surface. The southern bluefin tuna, being considered a large fish, has a relatively low surface-area-to-volume ratio. This low surface-area-to-volume ratio explains why there is a more significant amount of heat lost at the site of the gills compared to the body surface. As a result, the rete vascular system is located mostly at the site of the gills, but also at several other organs in the tuna. Specifically, due to the high metabolic demand of the southern bluefin tuna, the stomach is an organ requiring a high demand of thermoregulation. It is only able to digest food at specific temperatures, often much higher than the temperature of the surrounding water. Since the food is ingested along with a large amount of seawater, the contents must be heated to a temperature that allows the food to be digested and the nutrients and ions taken up. The southern bluefin tuna seems to increase blood flow to the stomach at times of increased digestion, by increasing the diameter of blood vessels flowing to the stomach, allowing more warm blood to reach the organ at a quicker rate.

text: In addition to the main source of heat loss at the gills, there is a significant amount of heat lost to the lower temperature water through the body surface. The southern bluefin tuna, being considered a large fish, has a relatively low

text: surface-area-to-volume ratio

text: . This low surface-area-to-volume ratio explains why there is a more significant amount of heat lost at the site of the gills compared to the body surface. As a result, the rete vascular system is located mostly at the site of the gills, but also at several other organs in the tuna. Specifically, due to the high metabolic demand of the southern bluefin tuna, the stomach is an organ requiring a high demand of thermoregulation. It is only able to digest food at specific temperatures, often much higher than the temperature of the surrounding water. Since the food is ingested along with a large amount of seawater, the contents must be heated to a temperature that allows the food to be digested and the nutrients and ions taken up. The southern bluefin tuna seems to increase blood flow to the stomach at times of increased digestion, by increasing the diameter of blood vessels flowing to the stomach, allowing more warm blood to reach the organ at a quicker rate.

text: Archaeocytes are special types of cells, in that they can transform into all of the other cell types. They will do what is needed in the sponge body, such as ingest and digest food, transport nutrients to other cells in the sponge body. These cells are also capable of developing into gametes in some sponge species.

text: Archaeocytes

text: are special types of cells, in that they can transform into all of the other cell types. They will do what is needed in the sponge body, such as ingest and digest food, transport nutrients to other cells in the sponge body. These cells are also capable of developing into gametes in some sponge species.

text: Agricen's products, which are manufactured in Denton, Texas, are derived from natural microorganisms and their biochemical byproducts through an industrial fermentation process. Three of the company’s products, Accomplish LM, Extract Powered by Accomplish (PBA), and Titan XC, are distributed by Loveland Products. Three additional products, SoilBuilder, SoilLife and NutriLife, are Agricen's proprietary brands. The products are marketed as biological and biochemical fertilizer catalysts that increase nutrient availability and enhance nutrient use efficiency. Extract PBA is specifically marketed for use in crop residue breakdown and nutrient release.

text: Agricen's products, which are manufactured in

text: Denton, Texas

text: , are derived from natural

text: microorganism

text: s and their

text: biochemical

text: byproducts through an industrial

text: fermentation

text: process. Three of the company’s products, Accomplish LM, Extract Powered by Accomplish (PBA), and Titan XC, are distributed by Loveland Products. Three additional products, SoilBuilder, SoilLife and NutriLife, are Agricen's proprietary brands. The products are marketed as biological and

text: biochemical

text: fertilizer

text: catalysts that increase nutrient availability and enhance nutrient use efficiency. Extract PBA is specifically marketed for use in crop residue breakdown and nutrient release.

text: Another area of concern is the effect of climate change on the nutritional content of food for human consumption. Studies show that increasing atmospheric levels of  have an unfavourable effect on the nutrients in plants. As the carbon concentration in the plant’s tissues increase, there is a corresponding decrease in the concentration of elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, zinc and iodine. Of significant concern is the protein content of plants, which also decreases in relation to elevating carbon content. 	Irakli Loladze explains that the lack of essential nutrients in crops contributes the problem of micronutrient malnutrition in society, commonly known as “hidden hunger”; despite adequate caloric intake, the body still is not nutritionally satisfied and therefore continues to be “hungry”. This problem is aggravated by the rising cost of food, resulting in a global shift towards diets which are less expensive, but high in calories, fats, and animal products. This results in undernutrition and an increase in obesity and diet-related chronic diseases.	Countries worldwide are already impacted by deficiencies in micronutrients and are seeing the effects in the health of their populations. Iron deficiency affects more than 3.5 billion people; increasing maternal mortality and hindering cognitive development in children, leading to education losses. Iodine deficiency leads to ailments like goitre, brain damage and cretinism and is a problem in at least 130 different countries. Even though these deficiencies are invisible, they have great potential to impact human health on a global scale.	It must also be noted that small increases in  levels can cause a  fertilization effect where the growth and reproduction abilities of C plants such as soybeans and rice are actually enhanced by 10-20% in laboratory experiments. This does not take into account, however, the additional burden of pests, pathogens, nutrients and water affecting the crop yield.

text: Another area of concern is the effect of climate change on the nutritional content of food for human consumption. Studies show that increasing atmospheric levels of  have an unfavourable effect on the nutrients in plants. As the

text: carbon

text: concentration in the plant’s tissues increase, there is a corresponding decrease in the concentration of

text: elements

text: such as

text: nitrogen

text: phosphorus

text: zinc

text: and

text: iodine

text: . Of significant concern is the

text: protein

text: content of plants, which also decreases in relation to elevating carbon content. 	Irakli Loladze explains that the lack of

text: essential nutrients

text: in crops contributes the problem of

text: micronutrient malnutrition

text: in society, commonly known as “hidden hunger”; despite adequate caloric intake, the body still is not nutritionally satisfied and therefore continues to be “hungry”. This problem is aggravated by the rising cost of food, resulting in a global shift towards diets which are less expensive, but high in

text: calories

text: fat

text: s, and animal products. This results in

text: undernutrition

text: and an increase in

text: obesity

text: and diet-related

text: chronic diseases

text: .	Countries worldwide are already impacted by deficiencies in micronutrients and are seeing the effects in the health of their populations.

text: Iron deficiency

text: affects more than 3.5 billion people; increasing

text: maternal mortality

text: and hindering

text: cognitive development

text: in children, leading to education losses.

text: Iodine deficiency

text: leads to ailments like

text: goitre

text: brain damage

text: and

text: cretinism

text: and is a problem in at least 130 different countries. Even though these deficiencies are invisible, they have great potential to impact human health on a global scale.	It must also be noted that small increases in  levels can cause a  fertilization effect where the growth and reproduction abilities of

text: C

text: plants such as soybeans and

text: rice

text: are actually enhanced by 10-20% in laboratory experiments. This does not take into account, however, the additional burden of pests, pathogens, nutrients and water affecting the crop yield.

text: It is important to note that ocean currents provide the necessary nutrients for life to sustain itself in the lower latitudes. Should the currents slow down, fewer nutrients would be brought to sustain ocean life resulting in a crumbling of the food chain and irreparable damage to the marine ecosystem. Slower currents would also mean less carbon fixation. Naturally, the ocean is the largest sink within which carbon is stored. When waters become saturated with carbon, excess carbon has nowhere to go, because the currents are not bringing up enough fresh water to fix the excess. This causes a rise in atmospheric carbon which in turn causes positive feedback that can lead to a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: It is important to note that ocean currents provide the necessary nutrients for life to sustain itself in the lower latitudes. Should the currents slow down, fewer nutrients would be brought to sustain ocean life resulting in a crumbling of the food chain and irreparable damage to the marine ecosystem. Slower currents would also mean less

text: carbon fixation

text: . Naturally, the ocean is the largest sink within which carbon is stored. When waters become saturated with carbon, excess carbon has nowhere to go, because the currents are not bringing up enough fresh water to fix the excess. This causes a rise in atmospheric carbon which in turn causes positive feedback that can lead to a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: This research found that the best additive for flowers was the retailer-provided "flower food" that is usually given with a bouquet. Plants are known to thrive in an environment where there are few bacteria, plenty of food for energy, and water uptake is encouraged.  Flower foods contain an acidifier that helps to adjust the water's pH.  With a lower pH the water and food conducting system within the flower can work at maximum efficiency.  The sugar in the food will be used by the plant as an energy source, which had been lost when the flower was cut away from its root. With these nutrients the plant will be able to fully develop.  Finally, there are stem unpluggers that will make sure that the flower can easily take up water and nutrients that can later be used to take care of the needs of the rest of the plant.  This combination gives the fresh cut flowers everything that they need to survive longer. When tests were carried out in St. Mary's College C.S.S.p, Rathmines, Dublin, however, results showed that glucose was more effective at prolonging the life of cut flowers than the commercial plant food. The experiment was carried out as part of the Junior Certificate Science Examination set by the Irish State Examinations Commission 2008.

text: This research found that the best additive for flowers was the retailer-provided "flower food" that is usually given with a bouquet. Plants are known to thrive in an environment where there are few bacteria, plenty of food for

text: energy

text: , and water uptake is encouraged.  Flower foods contain an

text: acidifier

text: that helps to adjust the water's

text: pH

text: .  With a lower pH the water and food conducting system within the flower can work at maximum efficiency.  The

text: sugar

text: in the food will be used by the plant as an energy source, which had been lost when the flower was cut away from its root. With these

text: nutrient

text: s the plant will be able to fully develop.  Finally, there are stem unpluggers that will make sure that the flower can easily take up water and nutrients that can later be used to take care of the needs of the rest of the plant.  This combination gives the fresh cut flowers everything that they need to survive longer. When tests were carried out in St. Mary's College C.S.S.p, Rathmines, Dublin, however, results showed that glucose was more effective at prolonging the life of cut flowers than the commercial plant food. The experiment was carried out as part of the Junior Certificate Science Examination set by the Irish State Examinations Commission 2008.

text: Nutrient film technique (NFT) is a hydroponic technique wherein a very shallow stream of water containing all the dissolved nutrients required for plant growth is re-circulated past the bare roots of plants in a watertight gully, also known as channels. NFT was developed in the mid 1960s in England by Dr. Alen Cooper.  In an ideal system, the depth of the recirculating stream should be very shallow, little more than a film of water, hence the name 'nutrient film'. This ensures that the thick root mat, which develops in the bottom of the channel, has an upper surface, which, although moist, is in the air. Subsequent to this, an abundant supply of oxygen is provided to the roots of the plants. A properly designed NFT system is based on using the right channel slope, the right flow rate, and the right channel length. The main advantage of the NFT system over other forms of hydroponics is that the plant roots are exposed to adequate supplies of water, oxygen and nutrients. In earlier production systems, there was a conflict between the supply of these requirements, since excessive or deficient amounts of one results in an imbalance of one or both of the others. NFT, because of its design, provides a system wherein all three requirements for healthy plant growth can be met at the same time, provided that the simple concept of NFT is always remembered and practiced. The result of these advantages is that higher yields of high-quality produce are obtained over an extended period of cropping. A downside of NFT is that it has very little buffering against interruptions in the flow, e.g., power outages, but, overall, it is one of the more productive techniques.

text: Nutrient film technique (NFT) is a

text: hydroponic

text: technique wherein a very shallow stream of water containing all the dissolved

text: nutrients

text: required for plant growth is re-circulated past the bare

text: root

text: s of plants in a watertight gully, also known as channels. NFT was developed in the mid 1960s in England by Dr. Alen Cooper.  In an ideal system, the depth of the recirculating stream should be very shallow, little more than a film of water, hence the name 'nutrient film'. This ensures that the thick root mat, which develops in the bottom of the channel, has an upper surface, which, although moist, is in the air. Subsequent to this, an abundant supply of oxygen is provided to the roots of the plants. A properly designed NFT system is based on using the right channel slope, the right flow rate, and the right channel length. The main advantage of the NFT system over other forms of hydroponics is that the plant roots are exposed to adequate supplies of water,

text: oxygen

text: and nutrients. In earlier production systems, there was a conflict between the supply of these requirements, since excessive or deficient amounts of one results in an imbalance of one or both of the others. NFT, because of its design, provides a system wherein all three requirements for healthy plant growth can be met at the same time, provided that the simple concept of NFT is always remembered and practiced. The result of these advantages is that higher yields of high-quality produce are obtained over an extended period of cropping. A downside of NFT is that it has very little buffering against interruptions in the flow, e.g., power outages, but, overall, it is one of the more productive techniques.

text: Her work contributed to the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, which is the standard source for food composition data in the U.S. for public and private sector uses. In addition, Holden furthered global food science education by serving as co-director (1994 to at least 2007) of the International Postgraduate Course for the Production, Management, and Use of Food Composition Data, a project of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization's International Network of Food Data Systems (INFOODS).

text: Her work contributed to the

text: USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference

text: , which is the standard source for food composition data in the U.S. for public and private sector uses. In addition, Holden furthered global food science education by serving as co-director (1994 to at least 2007) of the International Postgraduate Course for the Production, Management, and Use of Food Composition Data, a project of the UN

text: Food and Agriculture Organization's

text: International Network of Food Data Systems (INFOODS).

text: GLP-1 secretion by ileal L cells is dependent on the presence of nutrients in the lumen of the small intestine.  The secretagogues (agents that cause or stimulate secretion) of this hormone include major nutrients like carbohydrate, protein and lipid. Once in the circulation, GLP-1 has a half-life of less than 2 minutes, due to rapid degradation by the enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase-4.

text: GLP-1 secretion by ileal L cells is dependent on the presence of nutrients in the lumen of the small intestine.  The

text: secretagogue

text: s (agents that cause or stimulate secretion) of this hormone include major nutrients like

text: carbohydrate

text: protein

text: and

text: lipid

text: . Once in the circulation, GLP-1 has a half-life of less than 2 minutes, due to rapid degradation by the enzyme

text: dipeptidyl peptidase-4

text: The irregular structure characteristic of coral reef bathymetry may enhance mixing and produce pockets of cooler water and variable nutrient content. Arrival of cool, nutrient-rich water from depths due to internal waves and tidal bores has been linked to growth rates of suspension feeders and benthic algae  as well as plankton and larval organisms. Leichter et al.  proposed that Codium isthmocladum react to deep water nutrient sources due to their tissues having different concentrations of nutrients dependent upon depth. Wolanski and Hamner  noted aggregations of eggs, larval organisms and plankton on reefs in response to deep water intrusions. Similarly, as internal waves and bores move vertically, surface-dwelling larval organisms are carried toward the shore. This has significant biological importance to cascading effects of food chains in coral reef ecosystems and may provide yet another key to unlocking "Darwin's Paradox".

text: Certain common compounds found on Earth are poisonous to the Newcomers and some compounds that are poisonous to humans are harmless to Tenctonese. Poisons include salt (harshly caustic); monosodium glutamate (MSG) (mild poison); chocolate (gives them the shakes, leads to a heart attack); tobacco (makes them stutter, leads to laryngitis); fluoride (strong poison); fluorocarbons (choking, leads to asphyxiation); and caffeine (causes dizziness). However, methane, alcohol, asbestos, and radon, have no effect on them. Some Newcomers, such as Uncle Moodri, have demonstrated an ability to touch salt water (Moodri actually walked in ocean water) without harm. Newcomers sprinkle arsenic flakes on their food, but it is unknown whether it is a required nutrient, or just tastes good to them.

text: Certain common compounds found on Earth are poisonous to the Newcomers and some compounds that are poisonous to humans are harmless to Tenctonese. Poisons include

text: salt

text: (harshly caustic);

text: monosodium glutamate

text: (MSG) (mild poison);

text: chocolate

text: (gives them the shakes, leads to a heart attack);

text: tobacco

text: (makes them stutter, leads to

text: laryngitis

text: fluoride

text: (strong poison);

text: fluorocarbon

text: s (choking, leads to asphyxiation); and

text: caffeine

text: (causes dizziness). However,

text: methane

text: , alcohol,

text: asbestos

text: , and

text: radon

text: , have no effect on them. Some Newcomers, such as Uncle Moodri, have demonstrated an ability to touch salt water (Moodri actually walked in ocean water) without harm. Newcomers sprinkle

text: arsenic

text: flakes on their food, but it is unknown whether it is a required nutrient, or just tastes good to them.

text: A 2010 USDA study determined there were no significant differences of macronutrients in various chicken eggs.

text: A 2010 USDA study determined there were no significant differences of

text: macronutrients

text: in various chicken eggs.

text: The nutrient cycle is nature's recycling system. All forms of recycling have feedback loops that use energy in the process of putting material resources back into use. Recycling in ecology is regulated to a large extent during the process of decomposition. Ecosystems employ biodiversity in the food webs that recycle natural materials, such as mineral nutrients, which includes water. Recycling in natural systems is one of the many ecosystem services that sustain and contribute to the well-being of human societies.

text: The nutrient cycle is nature's recycling system. All forms of recycling have feedback loops that use energy in the process of putting material resources back into use. Recycling in ecology is regulated to a large extent during the process of

text: decomposition

text: . Ecosystems employ

text: biodiversity

text: in the food webs that recycle natural materials, such as

text: mineral nutrients

text: , which includes

text: water

text: . Recycling in natural systems is one of the many ecosystem services that sustain and contribute to the well-being of human societies.

text: Multiple types of figs can also contribute to different nutrients for the Acerodon jubatus. Frugivorous bats usually do not consume foods rich in protein. The overconsumption of fruits, paired with leaves may contribute to an adequate amount of protein in their diet. Figs are superior sources of calcium, which may also aid in their growth to adults.

text: The leaves are the most nutritious part of the plant, being a significant source of B vitamins, vitamin C, provitamin A as beta-carotene, vitamin K, manganese, and protein, among other essential nutrients. When compared with common foods particularly high in certain nutrients per 100 g fresh weight, cooked moringa leaves are considerable sources of these same nutrients.  Some of the calcium in moringa leaves is bound as crystals of calcium oxalate though at levels 1/25th to 1/45th of that found in spinach, which is a negligible amount.

text: The leaves are the most nutritious part of the plant, being a significant source of

text: B vitamins

text: vitamin C

text: , pro

text: vitamin A

text: as

text: beta-carotene

text: vitamin K

text: manganese

text: , and

text: protein

text: , among other

text: essential nutrients

text: . When compared with common foods particularly high in certain nutrients per 100 g fresh weight, cooked moringa leaves are considerable sources of these same nutrients.  Some of the calcium in moringa leaves is bound as crystals of

text: calcium oxalate

text: though at levels 1/25th to 1/45th of that found in spinach, which is a negligible amount.

text: The Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative (MRBI) was developed by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) in an attempt to improve the health of the Mississippi River Basin. The Initiative has selected watersheds to improve in 12 states including Arkansas, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, and Wisconsin. South Dakota was added later. The MRBI built upon past efforts of producers, NRCS, partners, and State and federal agencies in this area. By dedicating $80 million per year from 2010 to 2013, the Initiative introduced local producers in the Mississippi River Watershed to conservation practices to control nutrient runoff from agricultural land. These practices helped to reduce nutrient loadings downstream, improve water quality, and restore habitats while maintaining agricultural productivity. Each state selected three area watersheds that the MRBI focused on. The selection was based on the future growth of the site depending on current water quality data, existing strategies to reduce nutrient discharge, and existing models of nitrogen and phosphorus in the watershed. Special consideration were given to watersheds that had the largest impact on managing nutrients.

text: The Mississippi River Basin Healthy Watersheds Initiative (MRBI) was developed by the

text: United States Department of Agriculture

text: (USDA)

text: Natural Resources Conservation Service

text: (NRCS) in an attempt to improve the health of the Mississippi River Basin. The Initiative has selected watersheds to improve in 12 states including

text: Arkansas

text: Kentucky

text: Illinois

text: Indiana

text: Iowa

text: Louisiana

text: Minnesota

text: Mississippi

text: Missouri

text: Ohio

text: Tennessee

text: , and

text: Wisconsin

text: . South Dakota was added later. The MRBI built upon past efforts of producers, NRCS, partners, and State and federal agencies in this area. By dedicating $80 million per year from 2010 to 2013, the Initiative introduced local producers in the Mississippi River Watershed to conservation practices to control nutrient runoff from agricultural land. These practices helped to reduce nutrient loadings downstream, improve water quality, and restore habitats while maintaining agricultural productivity. Each state selected three area watersheds that the MRBI focused on. The selection was based on the future growth of the site depending on current water quality data, existing strategies to reduce nutrient discharge, and existing models of nitrogen and phosphorus in the watershed. Special consideration were given to watersheds that had the largest impact on managing nutrients.

text: This unusual granite mountain is surrounded on three sides by deep waters, which allows the flow of deep nutrient-rich waters over relatively shallow waters with sufficient light to support photosynthesis.

text: This unusual granite mountain is surrounded on three sides by deep waters, which allows the flow of deep nutrient-rich waters over relatively shallow waters with sufficient light to support

text: photosynthesis

text: Nutrients such as vitamins and minerals are examples of micronutrients that are necessary for the proper maintenance of metabolism homeostasis in humans and other species. Micronutrients are also pointed to perform a role in genome stability acting as potential antimutagenic agents (see the examples below):

text: Nutrients such as vitamins and minerals are examples of

text: micronutrients

text: that are necessary for the proper maintenance of metabolism homeostasis in humans and other species. Micronutrients are also pointed to perform a role in genome stability acting as potential antimutagenic agents (see the examples below):

text: Some vitamins in large doses have been linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease, of cancer and of death. The scientific consensus view is that for normal individuals, a balanced diet contains all necessary vitamins and minerals, and that routine supplementation is not necessary absent specific diagnosed deficiencies.

text: Campbell has followed a "99% vegan" diet since around 1990. He does not identify himself as a vegetarian or vegan because, he said, "they often infer something other than what I espouse". He told the New York Times: "The idea is that we should be consuming whole foods. We should not be relying on the idea that genes are determinants of our health. We should not be relying on the idea that nutrient supplementation is the way to get nutrition, because it's not. I'm talking about whole, plant-based foods."

text: Campbell has followed a "99%

text: vegan

text: " diet since around 1990. He does not identify himself as a

text: vegetarian

text: or vegan because, he said, "they often infer something other than what I espouse". He told the New York Times: "The idea is that we should be consuming whole foods. We should not be relying on the idea that genes are determinants of our health. We should not be relying on the idea that nutrient supplementation is the way to get nutrition, because it's not. I'm talking about whole, plant-based foods."

text: Potassium is the third major plant and crop nutrient after nitrogen and phosphorus. It has been used since antiquity as a soil fertilizer (about 90% of current use). Elemental potassium does not occur in nature because it reacts violently with water. As part of various compounds, potassium makes up about 2.6% of the weight of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element, similar in abundance to sodium at approximately 1.8% of the crust. Potash is important for agriculture because it improves water retention, yield, nutrient value, taste, color, texture and disease resistance of food crops. It has wide application to fruit and vegetables, rice, wheat and other grains, sugar, corn, soybeans, palm oil and cotton, all of which benefit from the nutrient’s quality enhancing properties.

text: Potassium is the third major plant and crop nutrient after

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: . It has been used since

text: antiquity

text: as a

text: soil

text: fertilizer

text: (about 90% of current use). Elemental potassium does not occur in nature because it reacts violently with water. As part of various compounds, potassium makes up about 2.6% of the weight of the

text: Earth's crust

text: and is the seventh most abundant element, similar in abundance to sodium at approximately 1.8% of the crust. Potash is important for agriculture because it improves water retention, yield, nutrient value, taste, color, texture and disease resistance of food crops. It has wide application to fruit and vegetables, rice, wheat and other grains, sugar, corn, soybeans, palm oil and cotton, all of which benefit from the nutrient’s quality enhancing properties.

text: There are three primary macronutrients: carbohydrate, protein, fat, . Macronutrients are defined as a class of chemical compounds which humans consume in the largest quantities (must be above a threshold amount) and which provide humans with the bulk of energy. While water does make up a large proportion of the total mass ingested as part of a normal diet, it does not provide any nutritional value. Alcohol is a calorically dense compound that can provide large amounts of bioavailable energy although it is not a necessary dietary component.

text: There are three primary

text: macronutrients

text: carbohydrate

text: protein

text: fat

text: . Macronutrients are defined as a class of chemical compounds which humans consume in the largest quantities (must be above a threshold amount) and which provide humans with the bulk of energy. While water does make up a large proportion of the total mass ingested as part of a normal diet, it does not provide any nutritional value. Alcohol is a calorically dense compound that can provide large amounts of bioavailable energy although it is not a necessary dietary component.

text: Urine contains large quantities of nitrogen (mostly as urea), as well as significant quantities of dissolved phosphates and potassium, the main macronutrients required by plants. The exact composition of nutrients in urine varies with diet.

text: Urine contains large quantities of nitrogen (mostly as

text: urea

text: ), as well as significant quantities of dissolved phosphates and potassium, the main

text: macronutrients

text: required by plants. The exact composition of nutrients in urine varies with diet.

text: The general diet of South Asians by and large is very rich in carbohydrates and this puts a great demand on the insulin secretion. It is therefore essential to improve the general diet of the population. Fortification of foods with nutrients is one cost-effective choice. Alternately genetic engineering of better cereals, fruits and vegetable also could be encouraged. Finally it is very well established that life style changes reduce the disease burden of chronic diseases. Life style changes including work place wellness programs should be encouraged to reduce the disease burden in this population. Prevention in whatever way possible is the primary goal to address this epidemic.

text: On July 29, Garfield met with his Cabinet for the only time during his illness; the members were under strict instruction from the doctors not to discuss anything upsetting. Garfield became increasingly ill over a period of several weeks due to infection, which caused his heart to weaken. He remained bedridden in the White House with fevers and extreme pains. Garfield's weight dropped from over two hundred pounds (90.7 kilograms) to 135 pounds (61.2 kilograms) as his inability to keep down and digest food took its toll. Because of his inability to digest food, nutrient enemas were given in an attempt to extend his life. Blood poisoning and infection set in and for a brief period the President suffered from hallucinations. Pus-filled abscesses spread all over Garfield's body as the infections raged.

text: On July 29, Garfield met with his Cabinet for the only time during his illness; the members were under strict instruction from the doctors not to discuss anything upsetting. Garfield became increasingly ill over a period of several weeks due to infection, which caused his heart to weaken. He remained bedridden in the White House with fevers and extreme pains. Garfield's weight dropped from over two hundred pounds (90.7 kilograms) to 135 pounds (61.2 kilograms) as his inability to keep down and digest food took its toll. Because of his inability to digest food,

text: nutrient enema

text: s were given in an attempt to extend his life.

text: Blood poisoning

text: and infection set in and for a brief period the President suffered from hallucinations. Pus-filled abscesses spread all over Garfield's body as the infections raged.

text: The Dorito Effect: The Surprising New Truth about Food and Flavor, by Mark Schatzker, is a book about two detrimental trends in modern food culture.  The pursuit of maximum monetary gain by means of increased yield and pest resistance has involved the neglect of flavor in the breeding process.  On the other hand, to provide the flavor missing from industrialized food, food processors add flavors which fool the body into believing that it is receiving the necessary nutrients.  The book was published in 2015 by Simon & Schuster.

text: The Dorito Effect: The Surprising New Truth about Food and Flavor, by

text: Mark Schatzker

text: , is a book about two detrimental trends in modern food culture.  The pursuit of maximum monetary gain by means of increased yield and pest resistance has involved the neglect of flavor in the breeding process.  On the other hand, to provide the flavor missing from industrialized food, food processors add flavors which fool the body into believing that it is receiving the necessary nutrients.  The book was published in 2015 by

text: Simon & Schuster

text: With the creation of golden rice in 2000, scientists had genetically modified food to increase its nutrient value for the first time.

text: With the creation of

text: golden rice

text: in 2000, scientists had genetically modified food to increase its nutrient value for the first time.

text: Myrmecophyte (mər′mek•ə‚fīt; literally "ant-plant") is a plant that lives in a mutualistic association with a colony of ants.  There are over 100 different genera of myrmecophytes.  These plants possess structural adaptations that provide ants with food and/or shelter.  These specialized structures include domatia, food bodies, and extrafloral nectaries.  In exchange for food and shelter, ants aid the myrmecophyte in pollination, seed dispersal, gathering of essential nutrients, and/or defense. Specifically, domatia adapted to ants may be called myrmecodomatia.

text: Myrmecophyte (mər′mek•ə‚fīt; literally "ant-plant") is a

text: plant

text: that lives in a

text: mutualistic

text: association with a colony of

text: ant

text: s.  There are over 100 different genera of myrmecophytes.  These plants possess structural

text: adaptations

text: that provide ants with food and/or shelter.  These specialized structures include

text: domatia

text: food bodies

text: , and

text: extrafloral nectaries

text: .  In exchange for food and shelter, ants aid the myrmecophyte in

text: pollination

text: seed dispersal

text: , gathering of essential

text: nutrients

text: , and/or defense. Specifically, domatia adapted to ants may be called myrmecodomatia.

text: The drinking water contribution to mineral nutrients intake is also unclear. Inorganic minerals generally enter surface water and ground water via storm water runoff or through the Earth's crust. Treatment processes also lead to the presence of some minerals. Examples include calcium, zinc, manganese, phosphate, fluoride and sodium compounds. Water generated from the biochemical metabolism of nutrients provides a significant proportion of the daily water requirements for some arthropods and desert animals, but provides only a small fraction of a human's necessary intake. There are a variety of trace elements present in virtually all potable water, some of which play a role in metabolism. For example, sodium, potassium and chloride are common chemicals found in small quantities in most waters, and these elements play a role in body metabolism. Other elements such as fluoride, while beneficial in low concentrations, can cause dental problems and other issues when present at high levels.

text: The drinking water contribution to mineral nutrients intake is also unclear.

text: Inorganic

text: minerals generally enter surface water and ground water via

text: storm water

text: runoff

text: or through the Earth's crust. Treatment processes also lead to the presence of some minerals. Examples include

text: calcium

text: zinc

text: manganese

text: phosphate

text: fluoride

text: and

text: sodium

text: compounds. Water generated from the

text: biochemical

text: metabolism

text: of nutrients provides a significant proportion of the daily water requirements for some

text: arthropod

text: s and

text: desert

text: animals, but provides only a small fraction of a human's necessary intake. There are a variety of trace elements present in virtually all potable water, some of which play a role in metabolism. For example, sodium,

text: potassium

text: and

text: chloride

text: are common chemicals found in small quantities in most waters, and these elements play a role in body metabolism. Other elements such as

text: fluoride

text: , while beneficial in low concentrations, can cause dental problems and other issues when present at high levels.

text: Organic nutrients consist of carbohydrates, fats, proteins (or their building blocks, amino acids), and vitamins. Inorganic chemical compounds such as dietary minerals, water (H2O), and oxygen may also be considered nutrients. A nutrient is considered essential if it must be obtained from an external source either because the organism cannot synthesize it or because insufficient quantities are produced. Nutrients needed in very small amounts are called micronutrients while those needed in large quantities are called macronutrients. The effects of nutrients are dose-dependent; shortages are called deficiencies.

text: Organic

text: nutrients consist of

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: fat

text: s,

text: protein

text: s (or their building blocks,

text: amino acid

text: s), and

text: vitamin

text: s. Inorganic chemical compounds such as

text: dietary mineral

text: s,

text: water

text: (H2O), and

text: oxygen

text: may also be considered nutrients. A nutrient is considered essential if it must be obtained from an external source either because the organism cannot synthesize it or because insufficient quantities are produced. Nutrients needed in very small amounts are called micronutrients while those needed in large quantities are called macronutrients. The effects of nutrients are

text: dose-dependent

text: ; shortages are called deficiencies.

text: Bivalves are aquatic molluscs which have two-part shells. Typically both shells (or valves) are symmetrical along the hinge line.  The class has 30,000 species, including scallops, clams, oysters and mussels. Most bivalves are filter feeders (although some have taken up scavenging and predation), extracting organic matter from the sea in which they live. Nephridia, the shell fish version of kidneys, remove the waste material. Buried bivalves feed by extending a siphon to the surface. For example, oysters draw water in over their gills through the beating of cilia. Suspended food (phytoplankton, zooplankton, algae and other water-borne nutrients and particles) are trapped in the mucus of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested and expelled as feces or pseudofeces. Each oyster filters up to five litres of water per hour. Scientists believe that the Chesapeake Bay's once-flourishing oyster population historically filtered the estuary's entire water volume of excess nutrients every three or four days.  Today that process would take almost a year, and sediment, nutrients, and algae can cause problems in local waters. Oysters filter these pollutants, and either eat them or shape them into small packets that are deposited on the bottom where they are harmless.

text: Bivalve

text: s are aquatic

text: mollusc

text: s which have

text: two-part shell

text: s. Typically both shells (or valves) are

text: symmetrical

text: along the hinge line.  The class has 30,000

text: species

text: , including

text: scallop

text: s,

text: clam

text: s,

text: oyster

text: s and

text: mussel

text: s. Most bivalves are filter feeders (although some have taken up scavenging and predation), extracting organic matter from the sea in which they live.

text: Nephridia

text: , the shell fish version of

text: kidney

text: s, remove the waste material. Buried bivalves feed by extending a siphon to the surface. For example,

text: oyster

text: s draw water in over their gills through the beating of

text: cilia

text: . Suspended food (

text: phytoplankton

text: zooplankton

text: algae

text: and other water-borne nutrients and particles) are trapped in the mucus of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested and expelled as feces or

text: pseudofeces

text: . Each oyster filters up to five litres of water per hour. Scientists believe that the

text: Chesapeake Bay

text: 's once-flourishing oyster population historically filtered the estuary's entire water volume of excess nutrients every three or four days.  Today that process would take almost a year, and sediment, nutrients, and algae can cause problems in local waters. Oysters filter these pollutants, and either eat them or shape them into small packets that are deposited on the bottom where they are harmless.

text: The best method of prevention is to each food rich in B. Generally, this involves the intake of a protein-rich diet. Foods that contain high concentrations of niacin in the free form include beans and organ meat, as well as enriched grain and cereal products. While niacin is present in corn and other grains, the bioavailability of the nutrient is much less than it is in protein-rich sources. Different methods of processing corn may result in a higher degree of bioavailability of the vitamin.

text: The best method of prevention is to each food rich in B. Generally, this involves the intake of a protein-rich diet. Foods that contain high concentrations of niacin in the free form include beans and organ meat, as well as enriched grain and cereal products. While niacin is present in corn and other grains, the

text: bioavailability

text: of the nutrient is much less than it is in protein-rich sources. Different methods of processing corn may result in a higher degree of bioavailability of the vitamin.

text: Atmit is made from rolled oats, powdered milk, powdered sugar, vitamins, and minerals.  It is easily digestible, high in protein and calorie content.  Since severely malnourished people cannot eat solid food, atmit is an ideal way to get them essential nutrients.

text: Despite significant macronutrient concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called HNLC regions). The micronutrient iron is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of blooms of many kinds of phytoplankton. Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface.  Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive, arid land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e.g., the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where trade winds bring dust from the Sahara Desert in north Africa). While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column. At depths where no primary production occurs, zooplankton and bacterioplankton instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above. This flux of sinking material, so-called marine snow, can be especially high following the termination of spring blooms.

text: Despite significant

text: macronutrient

text: concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called

text: HNLC regions

text: ). The

text: micronutrient

text: iron

text: is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of

text: blooms

text: of many kinds of phytoplankton. Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface.  Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive,

text: arid

text: land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e.g., the eastern

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , where

text: trade winds

text: bring dust from the

text: Sahara Desert

text: in north

text: Africa

text: ). While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column. At depths where no primary production occurs,

text: zooplankton

text: and

text: bacterioplankton

text: instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above. This flux of sinking material, so-called

text: marine snow

text: , can be especially high following the termination of

text: spring bloom

text: s.

text: Methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein (MCP) is a transmembrane sensor protein of bacteria. Use of the MCP allows bacteria to detect concentrations of molecules in the extracellular matrix so that the bacteria may smooth swim or tumble accordingly. If the bacteria detects rising levels of attractants (nutrients) or declining levels of repellents (toxins), the bacteria will continue swimming forward, or smooth swimming. If the bacteria detects declining levels of attractants or rising levels of repellents, the bacteria will tumble and re-orient itself in a new direction. In this manner, a bacterium may swim towards nutrients and away from toxins

text: Methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein (MCP) is a

text: transmembrane

text: sensor protein of

text: bacteria

text: . Use of the MCP allows bacteria to detect concentrations of molecules in the

text: extracellular matrix

text: so that the bacteria may smooth swim or tumble accordingly. If the bacteria detects rising levels of attractants (

text: nutrient

text: s) or declining levels of repellents (

text: toxin

text: s), the bacteria will continue swimming forward, or smooth swimming. If the bacteria detects declining levels of attractants or rising levels of repellents, the bacteria will tumble and re-orient itself in a new direction. In this manner, a bacterium may swim towards nutrients and away from toxins

text: Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things is a 2002 non-fiction book by German chemist Michael Braungart and U.S. architect William McDonough. It is a manifesto detailing how to achieve their Cradle to Cradle Design model. It calls for a radical change in industry: a switch from a cradle-to-grave pattern to a cradle-to-cradle pattern. It suggests that the "reduce reuse recycle" methods perpetuate this cradle-to-grave strategy, and that more changes need to be made. The book discourages downcycling, but rather encourages the manufacture of products with the goal of upcycling in mind. This vision of upcycling is based on a system of "lifecycle development" initiated by Braungart and colleagues at the Environmental Protection Encouragement Agency in the 1990s: after products have reached the end of their useful life, they become either "biological nutrients" or "technical nutrients". Biological nutrients are materials that can re-enter the environment. Technical nutrients are materials that remain within closed-loop industrial cycles.

text: Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things is a 2002 non-fiction book by German chemist

text: Michael Braungart

text: and U.S. architect

text: William McDonough

text: . It is a

text: manifesto

text: detailing how to achieve their

text: Cradle to Cradle Design

text: model. It calls for a radical change in industry: a switch from a

text: cradle-to-grave

text: pattern to a

text: cradle-to-cradle

text: pattern. It suggests that the "

text: reduce reuse recycle

text: " methods perpetuate this cradle-to-grave strategy, and that more changes need to be made. The book discourages

text: downcycling

text: , but rather encourages the manufacture of products with the goal of

text: upcycling

text: in mind. This vision of upcycling is based on a system of "lifecycle development" initiated by Braungart and colleagues at the Environmental Protection Encouragement Agency in the 1990s: after products have reached the end of their useful life, they become either "biological nutrients" or "technical nutrients". Biological nutrients are materials that can re-enter the environment. Technical nutrients are materials that remain within closed-loop industrial cycles.

text: It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for domestic purposes. These include drinking water, bathing, cooking, toilet flushing, cleaning, laundry and gardening. Basic domestic water requirements have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding water for gardens.Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the water supplied to domestic, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation.

text: It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for domestic purposes. These include

text: drinking water

text: bathing

text: cooking

text: toilet flushing

text: , cleaning, laundry and

text: gardening

text: . Basic domestic water requirements have been estimated by

text: Peter Gleick

text: at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding water for gardens.Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the water supplied to domestic, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation.

text: Nutrient function claims (formerly known as biological role claims), are a type of function claim that describe the well-established functions of nutrients or energy necessary for the maintenance of good health, normal growth and developmentExample: The claim "Calcium aids in the formation and maintenance of bones and teeth" may be used for foods providing a minimum of 5% of the Recommended Daily Intake of the nutrient per serving of stated size and reference amount of the food.

text: Nutrient function claims (formerly known as biological role claims), are a type of function claim that describe the well-established functions of nutrients or energy necessary for the maintenance of good health, normal growth and developmentExample: The claim "Calcium aids in the formation and maintenance of bones and teeth" may be used for foods providing a minimum of 5% of the

text: Recommended Daily Intake

text: of the nutrient per serving of stated size and reference amount of the food.

text: Today, AFA is marketed as a nutrient-dense food, harvested primarily from Upper Klamath Lake in North America.

text: Today, AFA is marketed as a nutrient-dense food, harvested primarily from

text: Upper Klamath Lake

text: in North America.

text: The types of lipids involved in Lipid Metabolism include:

text: Micronutrient deficiency or dietary deficiency is a lack of one or more of the micronutrients required for plant or animal health. In humans and other animals they include both vitamin deficiencies and mineral deficiencies, whereas in plants the term refers to deficiencies of essential trace minerals.

text: Micronutrient deficiency or dietary deficiency is a lack of one or more of the

text: micronutrient

text: s required for plant or animal health. In humans and other animals they include both

text: vitamin deficiencies

text: and

text: mineral deficiencies

text: , whereas in plants the term refers to deficiencies of essential

text: trace mineral

text: s.

text: These proteins are found in hepatocytes, adipocytes, hematopoietic cells, spleen, kidney, brain, and many other organs. C/EBP proteins are involved in different cellular responses, such as in the control of cellular proliferation, growth and differentiation, in metabolism, and in immunity. Nearly all the members of the C/EBP family can induce transcription through their activation domains by interacting with components of the basal transcription apparatus. (C/EBPγ is an exception that lacks a functional transcriptional activation domain.) Their expression is regulated at multiple levels, including through hormones, mitogens, cytokines, nutrients, and other factors.

text: These proteins are found in

text: hepatocyte

text: s,

text: adipocyte

text: s,

text: hematopoietic cell

text: s,

text: spleen

text: kidney

text: brain

text: , and many other organs. C/EBP proteins are involved in different cellular responses, such as in the control of cellular proliferation, growth and differentiation, in

text: metabolism

text: , and in

text: immunity

text: . Nearly all the members of the C/EBP family can induce transcription through their activation domains by interacting with components of the basal transcription apparatus. (C/EBPγ is an exception that lacks a functional transcriptional activation domain.) Their expression is regulated at multiple levels, including through

text: hormone

text: s,

text: mitogen

text: s,

text: cytokine

text: s,

text: nutrient

text: s, and other factors.

text: The irradiation process is not directly related to nuclear energy, but does use radioactive isotopes produced in nuclear reactors.  Cobalt-60, for example does not occur naturally and can only be produced through neutron bombardment of cobalt-59.  Ionizing radiation at high energy levels is hazardous to life (hence its usefulness in sterilisation); for this reason, irradiation facilities have a heavily shielded irradiation room where the process takes place. Radiation safety procedures are used to ensure that neither the workers in such facilities nor the environment receives any radiation dose above administrative limits. Irradiated food does not and cannot become radioactive, and national and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as wholesome. However, the wholesomeness of consuming such food is disputed by opponents and consumer organizations. National and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as "wholesome"; organizations of the United Nations, such as the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization, endorse food irradiation. International legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to full banning. Irradiation may allow lower-quality or contaminated foods to be rendered marketable.

text: The irradiation process is not directly related to

text: nuclear energy

text: , but does use radioactive isotopes produced in

text: nuclear reactor

text: s.  Cobalt-60, for example does not occur naturally and can only be produced through neutron bombardment of

text: .  Ionizing radiation at high energy levels is hazardous to life (hence its usefulness in sterilisation); for this reason, irradiation facilities have a heavily shielded irradiation room where the process takes place. Radiation safety procedures are used to ensure that neither the workers in such facilities nor the environment receives any radiation dose above administrative limits. Irradiated food does not and cannot become radioactive, and national and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as wholesome. However, the wholesomeness of consuming such food is disputed by opponents and consumer organizations. National and international expert bodies have declared food irradiation as "wholesome"; organizations of the

text: United Nations

text: , such as the

text: World Health Organization

text: and

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: , endorse food irradiation. International legislation on whether food may be irradiated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to full banning. Irradiation may allow lower-quality or contaminated foods to be rendered marketable.

text: The basic raison d'etre for all the cures was the "assimilation of needed properties through the digestive system, from food taken into the body… [All treatments, including all schools and types of treatment, were given in order to establish] the proper equilibrium of the assimilating system." Therapies as divergent as salt packs, poultices, hot compresses, colour healing, magnetism, vibrator treatment, massage, osteopathic manipulation, dental therapy, colonics, enemas, antiseptics, inhalants, homeopathics, essential oils, mud baths were prescribed.  Substances used included oils, salts, herbs, iodine, witch hazel, magnesia, bismuth, alcohol, castoria, lactated pepsin, turpentine, charcoal, animated ash, soda, cream of tartar, aconite, laudanum, camphor, and gold solution.  These were prescribed to overcome conditions that prevented proper digestion and assimilation of needed nutrients from the prescribed diet. The aim of the readings was to produce a healthy body, removing the cause of the specific ailment.  Readings would indicate if the patient's recovery was problematic.

text: Even though cats are obligate carnivores, there are vegetarian and vegan cat foods available. Vegetarian cat food must be fortified with nutrients such as taurine and arachidonic acid that cats cannot synthesize from plant materials. Some vegetarian cat food brands in the USA are labeled by their manufacturers as meeting AAFCO's Cat Food Nutrient Profile.

text: Even though cats are

text: obligate carnivore

text: s, there are

text: vegetarian

text: and

text: vegan

text: cat foods available. Vegetarian cat food must be fortified with nutrients such as

text: taurine

text: and

text: arachidonic acid

text: that cats cannot synthesize from plant materials. Some vegetarian cat food brands in the USA are labeled by their manufacturers as meeting

text: AAFCO

text: 's Cat Food Nutrient Profile.

text: Abstract: The purpose of the research conducted was to identify and demonstrate technologies for high-performance plant growth in a variety of gravitational environments.  A low-gravity environment, for example, poses the problems of effectively bringing water and other nutrients to the plants and effecting recovery of effluents.  Food production in the low-gravity environment of space provides further challenges, such as minimization of water use, water handling, and system weight.  Food production on planetary bodies such as the Moon or Mars also requires dealing with a hypogravity environment.  Because of the impacts to fluid dynamics in these various gravity environments, the nutrient delivery system has been a major focus in plant growth system optimization.

text: The main micronutrients are molybdenum, zinc, and copper. These elements are provided as water-soluble salts.  Iron presents special problems because it converts to insoluble (bio-unavailable) compounds at moderate soil pH and phosphate concentrations. For this reason, iron is often administered as a chelate complex, e.g., the EDTA derivative.  The micronutrient needs depend on the plant.  For example, sugar beets appear to require boron, and legumes require cobalt.

text: The main micronutrients are molybdenum, zinc, and copper. These elements are provided as water-soluble salts.  Iron presents special problems because it converts to insoluble (bio-unavailable) compounds at moderate soil pH and phosphate concentrations. For this reason, iron is often administered as a

text: chelate complex

text: , e.g., the

text: EDTA

text: derivative.  The micronutrient needs depend on the plant.  For example,

text: sugar beet

text: s appear to require

text: boron

text: , and

text: legume

text: s require

text: cobalt

text: Sardines are rich in vitamins and minerals. A small serving of sardines once a day can provide up to 13% of the RDA (recommended daily allowance) value of vitamin B; roughly one-quarter of the  RDA of  niacin, and about 150% of the RDA of vitamin B. All B vitamins help to support proper nervous system function and are used for energy metabolism, or converting food into energy. Also, sardines are high in the major minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and some trace minerals such as iron and selenium. Sardines are also a natural source of marine omega-3 fatty acids, which reduce the occurrence of cardiovascular disease. Recent studies suggest the regular consumption of omega-3 fatty acids reduces the likelihood of developing Alzheimer's disease and can even boost brain function. These fatty acids may also help lower blood sugar levels a small amount. They are also a good source of vitamin D, calcium, and protein.

text: Sardines are rich in

text: vitamin

text: s and

text: minerals

text: . A small serving of sardines once a day can provide up to 13% of the

text: RDA

text: (recommended daily allowance) value of

text: vitamin B

text: ; roughly one-quarter of the  RDA of  niacin, and about 150% of the RDA of

text: vitamin B

text: . All B vitamins help to support proper

text: nervous system

text: function and are used for energy metabolism, or converting food into energy. Also, sardines are high in the major minerals such as

text: phosphorus

text: , calcium,

text: potassium

text: , and some trace minerals such as

text: iron

text: and

text: selenium

text: . Sardines are also a natural source of marine

text: omega-3 fatty acid

text: s, which reduce the occurrence of cardiovascular disease. Recent studies suggest the regular consumption of omega-3 fatty acids reduces the likelihood of developing

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: and can even boost brain function. These fatty acids may also help lower blood sugar levels a small amount. They are also a good source of

text: vitamin D

text: calcium

text: , and

text: protein

text: As most nutrient supplements feed all living microorganism in the must (whether desirable or not), winemakers will often wait to add the nutrients until they are ready to inoculate the must with their desired S. cerevisiae strain. Producers who are using wild ferments may also wait until after sulfur dioxide additions have killed off unwanted microbes or feed early because they would like the potential complexity that other microbes could add to the wine. When added, the nitrogen is usually in the form of amino acids, combined with vitamins and minerals to help kick start the fermentation.

text: As most nutrient supplements feed all living microorganism in the must (whether desirable or not), winemakers will often wait to add the nutrients until they are ready to inoculate the must with their desired S. cerevisiae strain. Producers who are using wild ferments may also wait until after

text: sulfur dioxide

text: additions have killed off unwanted microbes or feed early because they would like the potential complexity that other microbes could add to the wine. When added, the nitrogen is usually in the form of amino acids, combined with vitamins and minerals to help kick start the fermentation.

text: Chlorella is a  potential food source because it is high in protein and other essential nutrients; when dried, it is about 45% protein, 20% fat, 20% carbohydrate, 5% fiber, and 10% minerals and vitamins. Mass-production methods are now being used to cultivate it in large artificial circular ponds. It is also abundant in calories and vitamins.

text: Chlorella is a  potential food source because it is high in

text: protein

text: and other essential nutrients; when dried, it is about 45%

text: protein

text: , 20%

text: fat

text: , 20%

text: carbohydrate

text: , 5% fiber, and 10% minerals and

text: vitamin

text: s. Mass-production methods are now being used to cultivate it in large artificial circular ponds. It is also abundant in calories and vitamins.

text: Vitamin A can be found in two principal forms in foods:

text: Vitamin A can be found in two principal forms in

text: food

text: s:

text: Most countries also release overall nutrition guides for general educational purposes. In some cases, the guides are based on different dietary targets for various nutrients than the labels on specific foods.

text: Most countries also release overall

text: nutrition guides

text: for general educational purposes. In some cases, the guides are based on different dietary targets for various nutrients than the labels on specific foods.

text: Around 3000 BC the Vedic texts made mention of scientific research on nutrition. The Bible's Book of Daniel recounts first recorded nutritional experiment. During an invasion of Judah, King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon captured Daniel and his friends. Selected as court servants, they were to share in the king's fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables (pulses) and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions. The king's chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for 10 days. On comparison with the king's men, they appeared healthier, and were allowed to continue with their diet. Around 475 BC, Anaxagoras stated that food is absorbed by the human body and therefore contained "homeomerics" (generative components), suggesting the existence of nutrients.  Around 400 BC, Hippocrates said: "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food."

text: Around 3000 BC the

text: Vedic texts

text: made mention of scientific research on nutrition. The Bible's

text: Book of Daniel

text: recounts first recorded nutritional experiment. During an invasion of Judah, King

text: Nebuchadnezzar

text: of

text: Babylon

text: captured Daniel and his friends. Selected as court servants, they were to share in the king's fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables (

text: pulses

text: ) and water in accordance with their

text: Jewish

text: dietary restrictions. The king's chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for 10 days. On comparison with the king's men, they appeared healthier, and were allowed to continue with their diet. Around 475 BC,

text: Anaxagoras

text: stated that food is absorbed by the human body and therefore contained "homeomerics" (generative components), suggesting the existence of nutrients.  Around 400 BC,

text: Hippocrates

text: said: "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food."

text: These dwellings are very helpful in giving a better look into the lives of the Chacoan people and how they had to adapt to the changing environment around them. As avid farmers who depended on their fields for food, they needed to move when the soil could no longer provide the nutrients for their crops. Nowadays, there are techniques of rotating crops, but back then there was no such strategy. These people would travel, find new places to plant their crops, and build new houses.

text: The slaughtering process changed over time. An analysis of the deep piles of bone at the site revealed that the earliest hunters probably just stripped the hides and meat off the dead animals. But around 500 CE, Native Americans began using fire pits to cook or dry the meat, then pulverize it and mix it with dried berries and fat to create pemmican. Tribespeople also built shallow bowls in the earth and lined them with rock to create primitive cooking pots. These cooking devices (known as "blood kettles") were used to boil bison blood so that it would coagulate and to lessen its susceptibility to spoilage. Other foods would be mixed with the coagulated blood to form a sort of gelatinous food source high in protein and nutrients, or the cooked blood could be used with ground grain to make biscuits.

text: The slaughtering process changed over time. An analysis of the deep piles of bone at the site revealed that the earliest hunters probably just stripped the hides and meat off the dead animals. But around 500 CE, Native Americans began using

text: fire pit

text: s to cook or dry the meat, then pulverize it and mix it with dried berries and fat to create

text: pemmican

text: . Tribespeople also built shallow bowls in the earth and lined them with rock to create primitive cooking pots. These cooking devices (known as "blood kettles") were used to boil bison blood so that it would coagulate and to lessen its susceptibility to spoilage. Other foods would be mixed with the coagulated blood to form a sort of gelatinous food source high in protein and nutrients, or the cooked blood could be used with ground grain to make

text: biscuits

text: Mylossoma duriventre is native to the Amazon basin, where it is found in the Amazon River and many of its tributaries, and to the Tocantins River and its western tributary, the Araguaia River. It prefers nutrient-rich waters but also occurs in the lower stretches of nutrient-poor rivers.

text: Mylossoma duriventre is native to the

text: Amazon basin

text: , where it is found in the

text: Amazon River

text: and many of its tributaries, and to the

text: Tocantins River

text: and its western tributary, the

text: Araguaia River

text: . It prefers nutrient-rich waters but also occurs in the lower stretches of nutrient-poor rivers.

text: Most common rock-forming minerals are anisotropic, including quartz and feldspar. Anisotropy in minerals is most reliably seen in their optical properties. An example of an isotropic mineral is garnet.

text: Most common rock-forming

text: mineral

text: s are anisotropic, including

text: quartz

text: and

text: feldspar

text: . Anisotropy in minerals is most reliably seen in their

text: optical properties

text: . An example of an isotropic mineral is

text: garnet

text: Algae are found in almost all ponds. There are hundreds of species of algae that can grow in garden ponds, but they are usually noticed only when they become abundant. Algae often grow in very high densities in ponds because of the high nutrient levels that are typical of garden ponds. Generally, algae attaches itself to the sides of the pond and remains innocuous. Some species of algae, such as "blanket weed", can grow up to a foot a day under ideal conditions and can rapidly clog a garden pond. On the other hand, free floating algae are microscopic and are what cause pond water to appear green. Blanket weed, although unsightly, is actually a sign that the water is clean and well-balanced. Green water (free floating algae) means there are too many nutrients in the water, usually from rotting vegetation or too many fish for the space. Killing the free floating algae with chemicals will often cause it to die, rot, and then make the problem even worse as more nutrients enter the water. Adding more floating or submerged (unpotted) plants can help with the green water, as they can take the nutrients out of the water. There are also filters that can be installed to remove the nutrients and all types of algae from the water. Many ponds naturally go green early in the spring and then clear up.

text: Algae

text: are found in almost all ponds. There are hundreds of species of algae that can grow in garden ponds, but they are usually noticed only when they become abundant. Algae often grow in very high densities in ponds because of the high nutrient levels that are typical of garden ponds. Generally, algae attaches itself to the sides of the pond and remains innocuous. Some species of algae, such as "blanket weed", can grow up to a foot a day under ideal conditions and can rapidly clog a garden pond. On the other hand, free floating algae are microscopic and are what cause pond water to appear green. Blanket weed, although unsightly, is actually a sign that the water is clean and well-balanced. Green water (free floating algae) means there are too many nutrients in the water, usually from rotting vegetation or too many fish for the space. Killing the free floating algae with chemicals will often cause it to die, rot, and then make the problem even worse as more nutrients enter the water. Adding more floating or submerged (unpotted) plants can help with the green water, as they can take the nutrients out of the water. There are also filters that can be installed to remove the nutrients and all types of algae from the water. Many ponds naturally go green early in the spring and then clear up.

text: An important way to maintain your personal health is to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet includes a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods that provide nutrients to your body. Such nutrients give you energy and keep your body running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also regulate body processes (i.e. blood pressure). The food guide pyramid is a pyramid-shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the recommended intake for each food group (i.e. Protein, Fat, Carbohydrates, and Sugars). Making healthy food choices is important because it can lower your risk of heart disease, developing some types of cancer, and it will contribute to maintaining a healthy weight.

text: An important way to maintain your personal health is to have a healthy diet. A healthy diet includes a variety of plant-based and animal-based foods that provide

text: nutrients

text: to your body. Such nutrients give you energy and keep your body running. Nutrients help build and strengthen bones, muscles, and tendons and also regulate body processes (i.e.

text: blood pressure

text: ). The

text: food guide pyramid

text: is a pyramid-shaped guide of healthy foods divided into sections. Each section shows the recommended intake for each food group (i.e. Protein, Fat, Carbohydrates, and Sugars). Making healthy food choices is important because it can lower your risk of heart disease, developing some types of

text: cancer

text: , and it will contribute to maintaining a healthy weight.

text: In 2016 it was determined that the world's largest coral reef, The Great Barrier Reef, is so badly affected by bleaching that only ten percent remained unspoiled and the remaining ninety percent has varying degrees of degradation A recently discovered issue in the Pacific Northwest caused by acidification, is the decreased survival of pteropods, a key source of food for salmon.  These microscopic invertebrates known as sea butterflies are unable to form their outer shells and die. These tiny creatures make up a significant portion of the salmon diet. Without this nutrition available to the salmon, they may not grow to maturity, and return to their spawning grounds to reproduce and provide food for the bears. Bears cycle nutrients through the forest, where tourist come to view (or hunt) the bears.  Thus the food web is disturbed. Anthropogenic climate change has both a direct and indirect impact on tourism.

text: In 2016 it was determined that the world's largest coral reef, The

text: Great Barrier Reef

text: , is so badly affected by bleaching that only ten percent remained unspoiled and the remaining ninety percent has varying degrees of degradation A recently discovered issue in the

text: Pacific Northwest

text: caused by acidification, is the decreased survival of

text: pteropod

text: s, a key source of food for

text: salmon

text: .  These microscopic invertebrates known as sea butterflies are unable to form their outer shells and die. These tiny creatures make up a significant portion of the

text: salmon

text: diet. Without this nutrition available to the salmon, they may not grow to maturity, and return to their spawning grounds to reproduce and provide food for the

text: bears

text: Bears

text: cycle nutrients through the forest, where tourist come to view (or hunt) the bears.  Thus the food web is disturbed.

text: Anthropogenic climate change

text: has both a direct and indirect impact on tourism.

text: Thanks to short cooking times and the presence of steam inside the cooking chamber, combi steamers preserve vitamins and nutrients significantly more effectively than conventional cooking methods. Users can also prepare different dishes in different containers without transfer of flavor.Combi steamers typically offer the following modes of operation:

text: Thanks to short cooking times and the presence of steam inside the cooking chamber, combi steamers preserve

text: vitamins

text: and

text: nutrients

text: significantly more effectively than conventional cooking methods. Users can also prepare different dishes in different containers without transfer of flavor.Combi steamers typically offer the following modes of operation:

text: A Nutraceutical is a pharmaceutical-grade and standardized nutrient. Nutraceuticals are regulated by FDA under the authority of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.

text: Myrmecochory ( (sometimes myrmechory); from  and χορεία khoreíā "circular dance") is seed dispersal by ants, an ecologically significant ant-plant interaction with worldwide distribution. Most myrmecochorous plants produce seeds with elaiosomes, a term encompassing various external appendages or "food bodies" rich in lipids, amino acid, or other nutrients that are attractive to ants. The seed with its attached elaiosome is collectively known as a diaspore. Seed dispersal by ants is typically accomplished when foraging workers carry diaspores back to the ant colony after which the elaiosome is removed or fed directly to ant larvae. Once the elaiosome is consumed the seed is usually discarded in underground middens or ejected from the nest. Although diaspores are seldom distributed far from the parent plant, myrmecochores also benefit from this predominantly mutualistic interaction through dispersal to favourable locations for germination as well as escape from seed predation.

text: Myrmecochory ( (sometimes myrmechory); from  and χορεία khoreíā "circular dance") is

text: seed dispersal

text: by

text: ant

text: s, an ecologically significant

text: ant-plant

text: interaction

text: with worldwide distribution. Most myrmecochorous plants produce seeds with

text: elaiosome

text: s, a term encompassing various external appendages or "food bodies" rich in

text: lipid

text: s,

text: amino acid

text: , or other

text: nutrient

text: s that are attractive to ants. The seed with its attached elaiosome is collectively known as a

text: diaspore

text: . Seed dispersal by ants is typically accomplished when

text: foraging

text: workers carry diaspores back to the

text: ant colony

text: after which the

text: elaiosome

text: is removed or fed directly to ant

text: larva

text: e. Once the elaiosome is consumed the seed is usually discarded in underground

text: midden

text: s or ejected from the nest. Although diaspores are seldom distributed far from the parent plant, myrmecochores also benefit from this predominantly

text: mutualistic interaction

text: through dispersal to favourable locations for

text: germination

text: as well as escape from

text: seed predation

text: N. undulata typically inhabit ponds and lakes but have been known to occupy small streams or rivers when resources become limited or competition in lentic environments is too high. Backswimmers will maximize conditions by flying and seeking out areas to settle. It is has also been tested that the Grousewinged backswimmer will have a higher dispersal rate when predation levels increase in the environment. Ponds have a greater surface area to volume ratio of vegetation than lakes which increases the amount of hiding places and food for the insect. This makes ponds one of the best locations for the backswimmer. These insects may prefer ponds because the distribution of N. undualata depends on food supply. It has been found that ponds and wetlands have a higher diversity of organisms which is often related to nutrient and food resources. Temperature can also affect the distribution of Grousewinged backswimmers. Scientific study has shown that N. undulata is capable of surviving over a wide range of temperatures and conditions. They have been known to withstand temperatures ranging from 4 to 32 °C and water hardness between 28 and 220 ppm. In nature, they will avoid temperatures higher than 32 °C by flying and searching out new locations; however, they can withstand them for short periods of time through the use of their cuticular lipid monolayer. This physiological adaptation allows them to uptake water and avoid dehydration when temperatures get too high. The pH level of water can also affect the backswimmer's choice of habitat or niche. N. undulata has been documented to prefer pH levels between 6.0 and 7.1, a relatively normal water acidity. Environmental factors such as pH, temperature and trophic interactions affect the ecology of the Grousewinged backswimmer.

text: N. undulata typically inhabit ponds and lakes but have been known to occupy small streams or rivers when resources become limited or competition in lentic environments is too high. Backswimmers will maximize conditions by flying and seeking out areas to settle. It is has also been tested that the Grousewinged backswimmer will have a higher dispersal rate when predation levels increase in the environment. Ponds have a greater surface area to volume ratio of vegetation than lakes which increases the amount of hiding places and food for the insect. This makes ponds one of the best locations for the backswimmer. These insects may prefer ponds because the distribution of N. undualata depends on food supply. It has been found that ponds and

text: wetlands

text: have a higher diversity of organisms which is often related to nutrient and food resources. Temperature can also affect the distribution of Grousewinged backswimmers. Scientific study has shown that N. undulata is capable of surviving over a wide range of temperatures and conditions. They have been known to withstand temperatures ranging from 4 to 32 °C and water hardness between 28 and 220 ppm. In nature, they will avoid temperatures higher than 32 °C by flying and searching out new locations; however, they can withstand them for short periods of time through the use of their cuticular

text: lipid

text: monolayer

text: . This physiological adaptation allows them to uptake water and avoid dehydration when temperatures get too high. The pH level of water can also affect the backswimmer's choice of habitat or

text: niche

text: . N. undulata has been documented to prefer pH levels between 6.0 and 7.1, a relatively normal water acidity. Environmental factors such as pH, temperature and trophic interactions affect the ecology of the Grousewinged backswimmer.

text: Ready-to-use therapeutic foods, which possibly mimic the Citadel Spread recipe, are manufactured for treatment of severe acute malnutrition, as shown in one clinical report. Such formulations support rapid weight gain, supply multiple essential nutrients and are easy for children to eat because they can feed themselves the soft paste from a tear-open individual package. The fortified peanut butter-like paste contains fats, carbohydrates, proteins (macronutrients), vitamins and minerals (micronutrients). Peanut butter is relatively high in calories and an excellent source of vitamin E, B vitamins, dietary fiber and numerous dietary minerals.

text: Ready-to-use therapeutic foods, which possibly mimic the Citadel Spread recipe, are manufactured for treatment of

text: severe acute malnutrition

text: , as shown in one clinical report. Such formulations support rapid weight gain, supply multiple

text: essential nutrient

text: s and are easy for children to eat because they can feed themselves the soft paste from a tear-open individual package. The fortified peanut butter-like paste contains fats, carbohydrates, proteins (

text: macronutrients

text: ), vitamins and minerals (

text: micronutrient

text: s). Peanut butter is relatively high in calories and an excellent source of

text: vitamin E

text: B vitamins

text: dietary fiber

text: and numerous

text: dietary mineral

text: s.

text: Another pitfall trap form unrelated to the Sarraceniaceae family are the urns of bromeliad leaves that are formed when leaves are tightly packed together in a rosette, collecting water and trapping insects. Unlike Brocchinia reducta, which has been proven to produce at least one digestive enzyme and can therefore be considered carnivorous, the epiphytic Catopsis berteroniana has little evidence supporting the claims that it is carnivorous. It is able to attract and kill prey and the trichomes on the surface of the leaves can absorb nutrients, but so far no enzyme activity has been detected. It may be that this plant also relies on an internal food web for soft tissue digestion. The same could be said for Paepalanthus bromelioides, though it is a member of Eriocaulaceae and not a bromeliad. It also forms a central water reservoir that has adaptations to attract insects. It, like C. berteroniana, produces no digestive enzymes.

text: Another pitfall trap form unrelated to the

text: Sarraceniaceae

text: family are the urns of

text: bromeliad

text: leaves that are formed when leaves are tightly packed together in a rosette, collecting water and trapping insects. Unlike

text: Brocchinia reducta

text: , which has been proven to produce at least one digestive enzyme and can therefore be considered carnivorous, the

text: epiphytic

text: Catopsis berteroniana

text: has little evidence supporting the claims that it is carnivorous. It is able to attract and kill prey and the trichomes on the surface of the leaves can absorb nutrients, but so far no enzyme activity has been detected. It may be that this plant also relies on an internal food web for soft tissue digestion. The same could be said for

text: Paepalanthus bromelioides

text: , though it is a member of

text: Eriocaulaceae

text: and not a bromeliad. It also forms a central water reservoir that has adaptations to attract insects. It, like C. berteroniana, produces no digestive enzymes.

text: Energy density measures the energy released when the food is metabolized by a healthy organism when it ingests the food (see food energy for calculation) and the food is metabolized with oxygen, into waste products such as carbon dioxide and water. Besides alcohol the only sources of food energy are carbohydrates, fats and proteins, which make up ninety percent of the dry weight of food.  Therefore, water content is the most important factor in energy density.  Carbohydrates provide four calories per gram (17 kJ/g), and proteins offer slightly less at 16kJ/g whereas fat provides nine calories per gram (38 kJ/g),  times as much energy.  Fats contain more carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds than carbohydrates or proteins and are therefore richer in energy.  Foods that derive most of their energy from fat have a much higher energy density than those that derive most of their energy from carbohydrates or proteins, even if the water content is the same.  Nutrients with a lower absorption, such as fiber or sugar alcohols, lower the energy density of foods as well.  A moderate energy density would be 1.6 to 3 calories per gram (7–13 kJ/g); salmon, lean meat, and bread would fall in this category. High-energy foods would have more than three calories per gram and include crackers, cheese, dark chocolate, and peanuts.

text: Energy density measures the energy released when the food is

text: metabolized

text: by a healthy organism when it ingests the food (see

text: food energy

text: for calculation) and the food is metabolized with oxygen, into waste products such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: and water. Besides

text: alcohol

text: the only sources of food energy are

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: fat

text: s and

text: protein

text: s, which make up ninety percent of the dry weight of food.  Therefore,

text: water

text: content is the most important factor in energy density.  Carbohydrates provide four calories per gram (17 kJ/g), and proteins offer slightly less at 16kJ/g whereas fat provides nine calories per gram (38 kJ/g),  times as much energy.  Fats contain more carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds than carbohydrates or proteins and are therefore richer in energy.  Foods that derive most of their energy from fat have a much higher energy density than those that derive most of their energy from carbohydrates or proteins, even if the water content is the same.  Nutrients with a lower absorption, such as

text: fiber

text: or

text: sugar alcohol

text: s, lower the energy density of foods as well.  A moderate energy density would be 1.6 to 3 calories per gram (7–13 kJ/g); salmon, lean meat, and bread would fall in this category. High-energy foods would have more than three calories per gram and include crackers, cheese, dark chocolate, and peanuts.

text: When earthworms are introduced into areas where they previously did not reside, the earthworms break up the organic layer. They often mix the nutrients into the soil, out of the reach of all but the deeper tree roots. Nutrients may then be leached and lost from the ecosystem entirely. Overall effects include a decrease in the thickness of the organic layer, increased mineralization, increased bulk density, spreading of the organic matter and humus, and increased rate of decomposition.  These environmental alterations (drier, brighter, less nutrient-rich soil) create changes to the ecosystem.

text: When earthworms are introduced into areas where they previously did not reside, the earthworms break up the organic layer. They often mix the nutrients into the soil, out of the reach of all but the deeper tree roots. Nutrients may then be

text: leached

text: and lost from the ecosystem entirely. Overall effects include a decrease in the thickness of the organic layer, increased

text: mineralization

text: , increased

text: bulk density

text: , spreading of the organic matter and

text: humus

text: , and increased rate of

text: decomposition

text: .  These environmental alterations (drier, brighter, less nutrient-rich soil) create changes to the ecosystem.

text: Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient types, together with other substances, such as toxins of various sorts. Some nutrients can be stored internally (e.g., the fat-soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much of a required nutrient. For example, both salt and water (both absolutely required) will cause illness or even death in excessive amounts.

text: Nutrient-dense foods such as fruits and vegetables are the opposite of energy-dense food (also called "empty calorie" food), such as alcohol and foods high in added sugar or processed cereals. Beyond its use to distinguish different types of food from each other, nutrient density allows comparison to be made for different examples or samples of the same kind of food. Nutrient density is correlated with soil quality and mineralization levels of the soil, although the relationship is complex and incorporates other dimensions.

text: Nutrient-dense foods such as

text: fruit

text: s and

text: vegetable

text: s are the opposite of

text: energy-dense

text: food (also called "

text: empty calorie

text: " food), such as

text: alcohol

text: and foods high in added

text: sugar

text: or processed

text: cereals

text: . Beyond its use to distinguish different types of food from each other, nutrient density allows comparison to be made for different examples or samples of the same kind of food. Nutrient density is correlated with soil quality and mineralization levels of the soil, although the relationship is complex and incorporates other dimensions.

text: Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers, lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation, however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.

text: Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the

text: ocean

text: s and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the

text: Antarctic ice sheet

text: . The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers, lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation, however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for

text: ecosystem services

text: has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s

text: wetlands

text: have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Increasing

text: urbanization

text: pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.

text: Rice fortification presents numerous technical problems. Micronutrients cannot be simply added to the kernels, because they do not stay where they are needed and the traditional soaking and rinsing of rice with water prior to cooking removes most of the added nutrients.

text: Rice fortification presents numerous technical problems.

text: Micronutrient

text: s cannot be simply added to the kernels, because they do not stay where they are needed and the traditional soaking and rinsing of rice with water prior to cooking removes most of the added nutrients.

text: POM's labeling as a food is also criticized in the letter due to a product claim of being "full of antioxidants called phytochemicals" and having "uniquely high levels of powerful antioxidants". Such nutrient content claims on food must have a scientifically validated Dietary Reference Intake value and the names of such nutrients included. Simply using the terms "antioxidants" and "phytochemicals" is not specific enough for food nutrient labeling requirements because phytochemicals in pomegranate juice have not yet been defined with actual physiological properties in humans.

text: POM's labeling as a food is also criticized in the letter due to a product claim of being "full of antioxidants called phytochemicals" and having "uniquely high levels of powerful antioxidants". Such nutrient content claims on food must have a scientifically validated

text: Dietary Reference Intake

text: value and the names of such nutrients included. Simply using the terms "antioxidants" and "phytochemicals" is not specific enough for food nutrient labeling requirements because

text: phytochemical

text: s in pomegranate juice have not yet been defined with actual physiological properties in humans.

text: Volume values listed are the most recent found, mostly after 2000, but water outflows have diminished significantly since the 1990s with drought conditions and increased pumping from the Floridan aquifer.  Water flow diminished and stopped completely at several locations, including White Springs and Worthington Springs, where tourists flocked to drink and soak in the mineral water beginning in the late 1800s. The public water plant at Boulware Springs provided water for the city of Gainesville, Florida and the University of Florida until 1913, when reduced outflow required a new water source.

text: Volume values listed are the most recent found, mostly after 2000, but water outflows have diminished significantly since the 1990s with drought conditions and increased pumping from the

text: Floridan aquifer

text: .  Water flow diminished and stopped completely at several locations, including

text: White Springs

text: and

text: Worthington Springs

text: , where tourists flocked to drink and soak in the mineral water beginning in the late 1800s. The public water plant at

text: Boulware Springs

text: provided water for the city of

text: Gainesville, Florida

text: and the

text: University of Florida

text: until 1913, when reduced outflow required a new water source.

text: Fish provides vitamin B in a macrobiotic diet, as bioavailable B analogues have not been established in any natural plant food, including sea vegetables, soya, fermented products, and algae. Although plant-derived foods do not naturally contain B, some are fortified during processing with added B and other nutrients. Vitamin A, in the form of beta-carotene, is available from plants such as carrots and spinach. Adequate protein is available from grains, nuts, seeds, beans, and bean products. Sources of Omega-3 fatty acids are discussed in the relevant article, and include soy products, walnuts, flax seeds, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, and fatty fish. Riboflavin along with most other B vitamins are abundant in whole grains. Iron in the form of non-heme iron in beans, sea vegetables and leafy greens is sufficient for good health; detailed information is in the USDA database.

text: Fish provides

text: vitamin B

text: in a macrobiotic diet, as bioavailable B analogues have not been established in any natural plant food, including sea vegetables, soya, fermented products, and algae. Although plant-derived foods do not naturally contain B, some are

text: fortified

text: during processing with added B and other nutrients.

text: Vitamin A

text: , in the form of beta-carotene, is available from plants such as carrots and spinach. Adequate

text: protein

text: is available from grains, nuts, seeds, beans, and bean products. Sources of Omega-3 fatty acids are discussed in the

text: relevant article

text: , and include soy products, walnuts, flax seeds, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, and fatty fish.

text: Riboflavin

text: along with most other

text: B vitamins

text: are abundant in whole grains.

text: Iron

text: in the form of

text: non-heme iron

text: in beans, sea vegetables and leafy greens is sufficient for good health; detailed information is in the USDA database.

text: In addition to his publisher-offered print, electronic, and audio products, Weil has founded several commercial enterprises (e.g., DrWeill.com and drweilproducts.com) to offer information, consulting services, and various products; in this regard, the "Dr. Andrew Weil" name represents both the individual, and a clear commercial brand. Services though Weil's businesses include vitamin advice and subscription websites paralleling his popular books. Products offered include vitamins, personal hygiene and skin care items, orthotics and foot-ware, medical devices, food preparation equipment, and a food product line. Registered trademarks of the brand include the Dr. Andrew Weil for Origins skin care/cosmetic and Dr. Andrew Weil Integrative Footwear lines.

text: Water, however, is not a finite resource, but rather re-circulated as potable water in precipitation in quantities many degrees of magnitude higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantity of water in reserve in the earth (about 1% of our drinking water supply, which is replenished in aquifers around every 1 to 10 years), that is a non-renewable resource, and it is, rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation water which is scarce, rather than the actual amount of it that exists on the earth. Water-poor countries use importation of goods as the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human consumption), since the manufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times products' masses in water.

text: Water, however, is not a finite resource, but rather re-circulated as potable water in precipitation in quantities many degrees of magnitude higher than human consumption. Therefore, it is the relatively small quantity of water in reserve in the earth (about 1% of our drinking

text: water supply

text: , which is replenished in aquifers around every 1 to 10 years), that is a

text: non-renewable resource

text: , and it is, rather, the distribution of potable and irrigation water which is scarce, rather than the actual amount of it that exists on the earth. Water-poor countries use importation of goods as the primary method of importing water (to leave enough for local human consumption), since the manufacturing process uses around 10 to 100 times products' masses in water.

text: In 1913, Elmer McCollum and Marguerite Davis discovered the first vitamin, fat-soluble vitamin A, then water-soluble vitamin B (in 1915; now known to be a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named vitamin C as the then-unknown substance preventing scurvy. Lafayette Mendel and Thomas Osborne also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919, Sir Edward Mellanby incorrectly identified rickets as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil. In 1922, McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets.  Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover vitamin E as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925.

text: In 1913,

text: Elmer McCollum

text: and

text: Marguerite Davis

text: discovered the first vitamin, fat-soluble

text: vitamin A

text: , then water-soluble

text: vitamin B

text: (in 1915; now known to be a complex of several water-soluble vitamins) and named

text: vitamin C

text: Lafayette Mendel

text: and

text: Thomas Osborne

text: also performed pioneering work on vitamins A and B. In 1919, Sir

text: Edward Mellanby

text: incorrectly identified

text: rickets

text: as a vitamin A deficiency because he could cure it in dogs with cod liver oil. In 1922, McCollum destroyed the vitamin A in cod liver oil, but found that it still cured rickets.  Also in 1922, H.M. Evans and L.S. Bishop discover

text: vitamin E

text: as essential for rat pregnancy, originally calling it "food factor X" until 1925.

text: Lipids are a broad category of mid-sized molecules that are hydrophobic or amphipathic.  In surfactant, two subcategories of lipids are relevant: phospholipids and sterols.  Sterols are represented by cholesterol, which has an important role in the overall structure and motion of the lipids as a whole, but is vastly outnumbered by the phospholipids in surfactant.

text: Lipids

text: are a broad category of mid-sized molecules that are

text: hydrophobic

text: or

text: amphipathic

text: .  In surfactant, two subcategories of lipids are relevant: phospholipids and sterols.  Sterols are represented by cholesterol, which has an important role in the overall structure and motion of the lipids as a whole, but is vastly outnumbered by the phospholipids in surfactant.

text: Lakes can be also categorized on the basis of their richness in nutrients, which typically affect plant growth. Nutrient-poor lakes are said to be oligotrophic and are generally clear, having a low concentration of plant life. Mesotrophic lakes have good clarity and an average level of nutrients. Eutrophic lakes are enriched with nutrients, resulting in good plant growth and possible algal blooms. Hypertrophic lakes are bodies of water that have been excessively enriched with nutrients. These lakes typically have poor clarity and are subject to devastating algal blooms. Lakes typically reach this condition due to human activities, such as heavy use of fertilizers in the lake catchment area. Such lakes are of little use to humans and have a poor ecosystem due to decreased dissolved oxygen.

text: Lakes can be also

text: categorized

text: on the basis of their richness in nutrients, which typically affect plant growth. Nutrient-poor lakes are said to be

text: oligotroph

text: ic and are generally clear, having a low concentration of plant life.

text: Mesotrophic lake

text: s have good clarity and an average level of nutrients.

text: Eutrophic

text: lakes are enriched with nutrients, resulting in good plant growth and possible

text: algal blooms

text: Hypertrophic

text: lakes are bodies of water that have been excessively enriched with nutrients. These lakes typically have poor clarity and are subject to devastating algal blooms. Lakes typically reach this condition due to human activities, such as heavy use of fertilizers in the lake catchment area. Such lakes are of little use to humans and have a poor ecosystem due to decreased dissolved oxygen.

text: Some research has suggested that a lack of sufficient high-quality forage caused the extinction of the elk. According to an article written by researchers Silvia Gonzalez, Andrew Kitcheneri, and Adrian Lister, in 2000, a reduction in forest density into the Late Pleistocene decreased nutritional selection and is believed to have led to a conflict between sexual selection and ultimately a decrease in antler and body size, which can explain what may have caused their demise. High amounts of calcium and phosphate compounds are required to form antlers, and therefore large quantities of these minerals are required for the massive structures of the Irish elk. The males (and male deer in general) met this requirement partly from their bones, replenishing them from food plants after the antlers were grown or reclaiming the nutrients from discarded antlers (as has been observed in extant deer). Thus, in the antler growth phase, giant deer suffered from a condition similar to osteoporosis. When the climate changed at the end of the last glacial period, the vegetation in the animal's habitat also changed towards species that presumably could not deliver sufficient amounts of the required minerals, at least in the western part of its range.

text: Some research has suggested that a lack of sufficient high-quality

text: forage

text: caused the extinction of the elk. According to an article written by researchers Silvia Gonzalez, Andrew Kitcheneri, and Adrian Lister, in 2000, a reduction in forest density into the Late Pleistocene decreased nutritional selection and is believed to have led to a conflict between sexual selection and ultimately a decrease in antler and body size, which can explain what may have caused their demise. High amounts of

text: calcium

text: and

text: phosphate

text: compounds are required to form antlers, and therefore large quantities of these minerals are required for the massive structures of the Irish elk. The males (and male deer in general) met this requirement partly from their bones, replenishing them from food plants after the antlers were grown or reclaiming the nutrients from discarded antlers (as has been observed in extant deer). Thus, in the antler growth phase, giant deer suffered from a condition similar to

text: osteoporosis

text: . When the climate changed at the end of the

text: last glacial period

text: , the vegetation in the animal's habitat also changed towards species that presumably could not deliver sufficient amounts of the required minerals, at least in the western part of its range.

text: Decomposition of food stores appears to be a constant challenge. Woodrats seem to exhibit physiological adaptions that allow them to consume food inhabited by fungi. Fungi can increase nutritional value of some foods by making nutrients within food more accessible by breaking down complex carbohydrates, which woodrats may exploit.

text: As insectivores, hedgehogs need a diet that is high in protein and low in fat. They also require chitin, which comes from the exoskeleton of insects; fiber in the diet may substitute for the chitin component. There are prepared foods specifically for pet hedgehogs and insectivores, including foods made from insect components. Also available are alimentary powders to sprinkle on other food which provide chitin and other nutrients. Hedgehog caretakers should read labels on packaged food to ensure a basis of protein, rather than a basis of carbohydrate.

text: As

text: insectivore

text: s, hedgehogs need a diet that is high in

text: protein

text: and low in

text: fat

text: . They also require

text: chitin

text: , which comes from the

text: exoskeleton

text: of insects;

text: fiber

text: in the diet may substitute for the chitin component. There are prepared foods specifically for pet hedgehogs and insectivores, including foods made from insect components. Also available are alimentary powders to sprinkle on other food which provide

text: chitin

text: and other nutrients. Hedgehog caretakers should read labels on packaged food to ensure a basis of protein, rather than a basis of

text: carbohydrate

text: The discovery and utilization of fire, a simple energy source with many profound uses, was a turning point in the technological evolution of humankind. The exact date of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the Cradle of Humankind suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before 1 Ma; scholarly consensus indicates that Homo erectus had controlled fire by between 500 and 400 ka. Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.

text: The discovery and utilization of

text: fire

text: , a simple

text: energy

text: source with many profound uses, was a turning point in the technological evolution of humankind. The exact date of its discovery is not known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the

text: Cradle of Humankind

text: suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before 1 Ma; scholarly consensus indicates that

text: Homo erectus

text: had controlled fire by between 500 and 400 ka. Fire, fueled with

text: wood

text: and

text: charcoal

text: , allowed early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility, improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.

text: Loam is soil composed mostly of sand (particle size > 63 µm), silt (particle size > 2 µm), and a smaller amount of clay (particle size < 2 µm). Its composition is about 40%-40%-20% concentration of sand-silt-clay, respectively. These proportions can vary to a degree, however, and result in different types of loam soils: sandy loam, silty loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, and loam. In the USDA textural classification triangle, the only soil that is not predominantly sand, silt, or clay is called "loam". Loam soils generally contain more nutrients, moisture, and humus than sandy soils, have better drainage and infiltration of water and air than silty soils, and are easier to till than clay soils. The different types of loam soils each have slightly different characteristics, with some draining liquids more efficiently than others. For food production, a loam soil containing a small amount of organic material is considered ideal. The mineral in a loam soil ideally is about 40% sand, 40% silt and 20% clay by weight. The soil's texture, especially its ability to retain nutrients and water are crucial.

text: Loam is

text: soil

text: composed mostly of

text: sand

text: particle size

text: > 63

text: µm

text: silt

text: (particle size > 2 µm), and a smaller amount of

text: clay

text: (particle size < 2 µm). Its composition is about 40%-40%-20% concentration of sand-silt-clay, respectively. These proportions can vary to a degree, however, and result in different types of loam soils: sandy loam, silty loam, clay loam, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, and loam. In the

text: USDA

text: textural classification triangle, the only soil that is not predominantly sand, silt, or clay is called "loam". Loam soils generally contain more nutrients, moisture, and

text: humus

text: than sandy soils, have better drainage and infiltration of water and air than silty soils, and are easier to

text: till

text: than clay soils. The different types of loam soils each have slightly different characteristics, with some draining liquids more efficiently than others. For food production, a loam soil containing a small amount of organic material is considered ideal. The mineral in a loam soil ideally is about 40% sand, 40% silt and 20% clay by weight. The soil's texture, especially its ability to retain nutrients and

text: water

text: are crucial.

text: By the time the chyme has reached this tube, most nutrients and 90% of the water have been absorbed by the body. At this point some electrolytes like sodium, magnesium, and chloride are left as well as indigestible parts of ingested food (e.g., a large part of ingested amylose, starch which has been shielded from digestion heretofore, and dietary fiber, which is largely indigestible carbohydrate in either soluble or insoluble form). As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining water is removed, while the chyme is mixed with mucus and bacteria (known as gut flora), and becomes feces. The ascending colon receives fecal material as a liquid. The muscles of the colon then move the watery waste material forward and slowly absorb all the excess water, causing the stools to gradually solidify as they move along into the descending colon.

text: By the time the

text: chyme

text: has reached this tube, most

text: nutrient

text: s and 90% of the water have been absorbed by the body. At this point some

text: electrolyte

text: s like

text: sodium

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: chloride

text: are left as well as indigestible parts of ingested food (e.g., a large part of ingested

text: amylose

text: , starch which has been shielded from digestion heretofore, and

text: dietary fiber

text: , which is largely indigestible

text: carbohydrate

text: in either soluble or insoluble form). As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining

text: water

text: is removed, while the chyme is mixed with

text: mucus

text: and

text: bacteria

text: (known as

text: gut flora

text: ), and becomes feces. The

text: ascending colon

text: receives fecal material as a liquid. The muscles of the colon then move the watery waste material forward and slowly absorb all the excess water, causing the stools to gradually solidify as they move along into the

text: descending colon

text: Assay of TBARS measures malondialdehyde (MDA) present in the sample, as well as malondialdehyde generated from lipid hydroperoxides by the hydrolytic conditions of the reaction. MDA is one of several low-molecular-weight end products formed via the decomposition of certain primary and secondary lipid peroxidation products. However, only certain lipid peroxidation products generate MDA, and MDA is neither the sole end product of fatty peroxide formation and decomposition, nor a substance generated exclusively through lipid peroxidation. These and other considerations from the extensive literature on MDA, TBA reactivity, and oxidative lipid degradation support the conclusion that MDA determination and the TBA test can offer, at best, a narrow and somewhat empirical window on the complex process of lipid peroxidation. Use of MDA analysis and/or the TBA test and interpretation of sample MDA content and TBA test response in studies of lipid peroxidation require caution, discretion, and (especially in biological systems) correlative data from other indices of fatty peroxide formation and decomposition.

text: Assay of TBARS measures

text: malondialdehyde

text: (MDA) present in the sample, as well as malondialdehyde generated from lipid hydroperoxides by the hydrolytic conditions of the reaction. MDA is one of several low-molecular-weight end products formed via the decomposition of certain primary and secondary lipid peroxidation products. However, only certain lipid peroxidation products generate MDA, and MDA is neither the sole end product of fatty peroxide formation and decomposition, nor a substance generated exclusively through lipid peroxidation. These and other considerations from the extensive literature on MDA, TBA reactivity, and oxidative lipid degradation support the conclusion that MDA determination and the TBA test can offer, at best, a narrow and somewhat empirical window on the complex process of lipid peroxidation. Use of MDA analysis and/or the TBA test and interpretation of sample MDA content and TBA test response in studies of lipid peroxidation require caution, discretion, and (especially in biological systems) correlative data from other indices of fatty peroxide formation and decomposition.

text: A subset of food additives, micronutrients added in food fortification processes preserve nutrient value by providing vitamins and minerals to  foods such as flour, cereal, margarine and milk which normally would not retain such high levels. Preservatives also reduce spoilage from sources such as air, bacteria, fungi, and yeast.

text: A subset of food additives,

text: micronutrient

text: s added in

text: food fortification

text: processes preserve

text: nutrient value

text: by providing

text: vitamins

text: and

text: minerals

text: to  foods such as flour, cereal, margarine and milk which normally would not retain such high levels.

text: Preservative

text: s also reduce spoilage from sources such as air, bacteria, fungi, and yeast.

text: Fish foods normally contain macronutrients, trace elements and vitamins necessary to keep captive fish in good health. Approximately 80% of fishkeeping hobbyists feed their fish exclusively prepared foods that most commonly are produced in flake, pellet or tablet form. Pelleted forms, some of which sink rapidly, are often used for larger fish or bottom-feeding species such as loaches or catfish. Some fish foods also contain additives, such as beta carotene or sex hormones, to artificially enhance the color of ornamental fish.

text: Fish foods normally contain

text: macronutrients

text: , trace

text: elements

text: and

text: vitamins

text: necessary to keep captive fish in good health. Approximately 80% of

text: fishkeeping

text: hobbyists feed their fish exclusively prepared foods that most commonly are produced in flake, pellet or tablet form. Pelleted forms, some of which sink rapidly, are often used for larger fish or bottom-feeding species such as

text: loaches

text: or

text: catfish

text: . Some fish foods also contain additives, such as

text: beta carotene

text: or

text: sex hormones

text: , to artificially enhance the color of ornamental fish.

text: In recent years the Berlin Method is often supplemented with a refugium. A refugium provides many benefits, which include nitrate reduction, as well as providing a natural food source. It typically houses two main species of macroalgae, including Caulerpa prolifera or chaetomorphae or both (because these two strains are known to not spore but grow by rooting to propagate). Macroalgae is used for two reasons: to remove from the water excess nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, and iron, and to support beneficial microflora and fauna (zooplankton). Small invertebrates (copepods and amphipods) are provided a space free of predation to grow and, when returned to the display tank, serve as food for corals and fish. Conventional combined mechanical/biological filtration used in fish only systems is avoided because those filters trap detritus and produce nitrate which may stunt or even kill many delicate corals. Chemical filtration in the form of activated carbon is used when needed to remove discoloration of the water, or to remove dissolved matter (organic or otherwise) to help purify the water in the reef system.

text: In recent years the Berlin Method is often supplemented with a

text: refugium

text: . A refugium provides many benefits, which include nitrate reduction, as well as providing a natural food source. It typically houses two main species of

text: macroalgae

text: , including

text: Caulerpa

text: prolifera or chaetomorphae or both (because these two strains are known to not spore but grow by rooting to propagate). Macroalgae is used for two reasons: to remove from the water excess nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, and iron, and to support beneficial microflora and fauna (

text: zooplankton

text: ). Small invertebrates (

text: copepod

text: s and

text: amphipod

text: s) are provided a space free of predation to grow and, when returned to the display tank, serve as food for corals and fish. Conventional combined mechanical/biological filtration used in fish only systems is avoided because those filters trap

text: detritus

text: and produce nitrate which may stunt or even kill many delicate corals. Chemical filtration in the form of activated carbon is used when needed to remove discoloration of the water, or to remove dissolved matter (organic or otherwise) to help purify the water in the reef system.

text: Lamellar phase refers generally to packing of polar-headed long chain nonpolar-tail molecules in an environment of bulk polar liquid, as sheets of bilayers separated by bulk liquid. In biophysics, polar lipids (mostly, phospholipids, and rarely, glycolipids) pack as a liquid crystalline bilayer, with hydrophobic fatty acyl long chains directed inwardly and polar headgroups of lipids aligned on the outside in contact with water, as a 2-dimensional flat sheet surface.  Under transmission electron microscope (TEM), after staining with polar headgroup reactive chemical osmium tetroxide, lamellar lipid phase appears as two thin parallel dark staining lines/sheets, constituted by aligned polar headgroups  of lipids. 'Sandwiched' between these two parallel lines, there exists one thicker line/sheet of non-staining closely packed layer of long lipid fatty acyl chains. This TEM-appearance became famous as Robertson's unit membrane - the basis of all biological membranes, and structure of lipid bilayer in  unilamellar liposomes. In multilamellar liposomes, many such lipid bilayer sheets are layered concentrically with water layers in between.

text: Lamellar phase refers generally to packing of

text: polar

text: -headed long chain nonpolar-tail

text: molecule

text: s in an environment of bulk polar liquid, as sheets of bilayers separated by bulk liquid. In

text: biophysics

text: , polar lipids (mostly,

text: phospholipids

text: , and rarely,

text: glycolipids

text: ) pack as a

text: liquid crystal

text: line

text: bilayer

text: , with

text: hydrophobic

text: fatty

text: acyl

text: long chains directed inwardly and polar headgroups of

text: lipid

text: s aligned on the outside in contact with water, as a 2-dimensional flat sheet surface.  Under

text: transmission electron microscope

text: (TEM), after staining with polar headgroup reactive chemical

text: osmium tetroxide

text: , lamellar lipid phase appears as two thin parallel dark staining lines/sheets, constituted by aligned polar headgroups  of lipids. 'Sandwiched' between these two parallel lines, there exists one thicker line/sheet of non-staining closely packed layer of long lipid fatty acyl chains. This TEM-appearance became famous as Robertson's unit membrane - the basis of all

text: biological membranes

text: , and structure of

text: lipid bilayer

text: in

text: unilamellar liposome

text: s. In multilamellar

text: liposomes

text: , many such lipid bilayer sheets are layered concentrically with water layers in between.

text: In the following discussion, the term "antioxidant" refers mainly to non-nutrient compounds in foods, such as polyphenols, which have antioxidant capacity in vitro and so provide an artificial index of antioxidant strength – the ORAC measurement. Other than for dietary antioxidant vitamins – vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E – no food compounds have been proved with antioxidant efficacy in vivo. Accordingly, regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration of the United States and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) have published guidance disallowing food product labels to claim an inferred antioxidant benefit when no such physiological evidence exists.

text: In the following discussion, the term "antioxidant" refers mainly to non-nutrient compounds in foods, such as polyphenols, which have antioxidant capacity

text: in vitro

text: and so provide an artificial index of antioxidant strength – the ORAC measurement. Other than for dietary antioxidant vitamins –

text: vitamin A

text: vitamin C

text: and

text: vitamin E

text: – no food compounds have been proved with antioxidant efficacy

text: in vivo

text: . Accordingly, regulatory agencies like the

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: of the United States and the

text: European Food Safety Authority

text: (EFSA) have published guidance disallowing food product labels to claim an inferred antioxidant benefit when no such physiological evidence exists.

text: Refined sugar is 99.9% sucrose, therefore providing only carbohydrate value as a major dietary nutrient  and 387 kilocalories per 100 g serving (USDA data, right table). There are no micronutrients having significant content (right table).

text: Refined sugar is 99.9% sucrose, therefore providing only

text: carbohydrate

text: value as a major dietary

text: nutrient

text: and 387

text: kilocalories

text: per 100 g serving (

text: USDA

text: data, right table). There are no

text: micronutrients

text: having significant content (right table).

text: Movement into and out of refuge creates predictable fluxes of biomass and nutrients.  This is important in food webs and the ecosystem.  A dense amount of nutrients in one location during a disturbance means increased competition and predation.  Rates of mortality, birth, migration, and interactions among components of the biota that have retreated to refugia are affected by the nature of the refuge. The spatial extent, the rate of drying, and the ambient physical and chemical conditions are all contributors.

text: Movement into and out of refuge creates predictable fluxes of

text: biomass

text: and

text: nutrients

text: .  This is important in

text: food web

text: s and the

text: ecosystem

text: .  A dense amount of nutrients in one location during a disturbance means increased

text: competition

text: and

text: predation

text: .  Rates of mortality,

text: birth

text: , migration, and interactions among components of the biota that have retreated to refugia are affected by the nature of the refuge. The spatial extent, the rate of drying, and the ambient

text: physical

text: and

text: chemical

text: conditions are all contributors.

text: With age, some people tend to avoid food and are unwilling to modify their diets due to oral health problems. These oral health problems, like dentures (false teeth) not fitting properly or gum disease, are associated with significant differences in dietary quality, which is the a measure of the quality of the diet using a total of eight recommendations regarding the consumption of foods and nutrients from the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). Approaches to minimize food avoidance and promote changes to the diets of people that have eating difficulties due to oral health conditions are needed desperately because without being able to chew or take in food properly, their health is effected drastically and their food preferences are limited greatly (to soft or liquids only).

text: With age, some people tend to avoid food and are unwilling to modify their diets due to oral health problems. These oral health problems, like dentures (false teeth) not fitting properly or gum disease, are associated with significant differences in dietary quality, which is the a measure of the quality of the diet using a total of eight recommendations regarding the consumption of foods and nutrients from the

text: National Academy of Sciences

text: (NAS). Approaches to minimize food avoidance and promote changes to the diets of people that have eating difficulties due to oral health conditions are needed desperately because without being able to chew or take in food properly, their health is effected drastically and their food preferences are limited greatly (to soft or liquids only).

text: Nutrient density identifies the proportion of nutrients in foods, with terms such as nutrient rich and  micronutrient dense referring to similar properties. Several different national and international standards have been developed and are in use (see Nutritional rating systems).

text: Nutrient density identifies the proportion of

text: nutrients

text: in foods, with terms such as nutrient rich and  micronutrient dense referring to similar properties. Several different national and international standards have been developed and are in use (see

text: Nutritional rating systems

text: The olm swims by eel-like twisting of its body, assisted only slightly by its poorly developed legs. It is a predatory animal, feeding on small crabs, snails and occasionally insects. It does not chew its food, instead swallowing it whole. The olm is resistant to long-term starvation, an adaptation to its underground habitat. It can consume large amounts of food at once, and store nutrients as large deposits of lipids and glycogen in the liver. When food is scarce, it reduces its activity and metabolic rate, and can also reabsorb its own tissues in severe cases. Controlled experiments have shown that an olm can survive up to 10 years without food.

text: The olm swims by eel-like twisting of its body, assisted only slightly by its poorly developed legs. It is a

text: predator

text: y animal, feeding on small

text: crab

text: s,

text: snail

text: s and occasionally

text: insect

text: s. It does not chew its food, instead swallowing it whole. The olm is resistant to long-term starvation, an adaptation to its underground habitat. It can consume large amounts of food at once, and store nutrients as large deposits of

text: lipid

text: s and

text: glycogen

text: in the

text: liver

text: . When food is scarce, it reduces its activity and

text: metabolic rate

text: , and can also reabsorb its own tissues in severe cases. Controlled experiments have shown that an olm can survive up to 10 years without food.

text: Nutritional food labels typically report serving sizes in both systems but only list metric values (g or mg) for the breakdown of individual nutrients.

text: Nutritional food labels

text: typically report serving sizes in both systems but only list metric values (g or mg) for the breakdown of individual nutrients.

text: Proteins can bind to other proteins as well as to small-molecule substrates. When proteins bind specifically to other copies of the same molecule, they can oligomerize to form fibrils; this process occurs often in structural proteins that consist of globular monomers that self-associate to form rigid fibers. Protein–protein interactions also regulate enzymatic activity, control progression through the cell cycle, and allow the assembly of large protein complexes that carry out many closely related reactions with a common biological function. Proteins can also bind to, or even be integrated into, cell membranes. The ability of binding partners to induce conformational changes in proteins allows the construction of enormously complex signaling networks.As interactions between proteins are reversible, and depend heavily on the availability of different groups of partner proteins to form aggregates that are capable to carry out discrete sets of function, study of the interactions between specific proteins is a key to understand important aspects of cellular function, and ultimately the properties that distinguish particular cell types.

text: Proteins can bind to other proteins as well as to

text: small-molecule

text: substrates. When proteins bind specifically to other copies of the same molecule, they can

text: oligomer

text: ize to form fibrils; this process occurs often in structural proteins that consist of globular monomers that self-associate to form rigid fibers.

text: Protein–protein interaction

text: s also regulate enzymatic activity, control progression through the

text: cell cycle

text: , and allow the assembly of large

text: protein complex

text: es that carry out many closely related reactions with a common biological function. Proteins can also bind to, or even be integrated into, cell membranes. The ability of binding partners to induce conformational changes in proteins allows the construction of enormously complex

text: signaling

text: networks.As interactions between proteins are reversible, and depend heavily on the availability of different groups of partner proteins to form aggregates that are capable to carry out discrete sets of function, study of the interactions between specific proteins is a key to understand important aspects of cellular function, and ultimately the properties that distinguish particular cell types.

text: The favorite food of marmosets is carbohydrate-rich tree sap, which they reach by gnawing holes in trunks. Their territories are centered on the trees that they regularly exploit in this way. The smaller marmosets venture into the very top of forest canopies to hunt insects that are abundant there.

text: Lipids have been drawing considerable attention as a substrate for biodiesel production owing to its sustainability, non-toxicity and energy efficient properties. However, due to cost reasons, attention must be focused on the non-edible sources of lipids, in particular oleaginous microorganisms. Such microbes have the ability to assimilate the carbon sources from a medium and convert the carbon into lipid storage materials. The lipids accumulated by these oleaginous cells can then be transesterified to form biodiesel.

text: Nonessential nutrients are those nutrients that can be made by the body; they may often also be absorbed from consumed food. The majority of animals ultimately derive their essential nutrients from plants, though some animals may consume mineral-based soils to supplement their diet.

text: Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents; the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification. The silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a base unit of a [SiO] silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions, which gives the shape of a tetrahedron. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses: orthosilicates (no polymerization, thus single tetrahedra), disilicates (two tetrahedra bonded together), cyclosilicates (rings of tetrahedra), inosilicates (chains of tetrahedra), phyllosilicates (sheets of tetrahedra), and tectosilicates (three-dimensional network of tetrahedra). Other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates.

text: Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents; the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification. The silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of

text: polymerization

text: in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a base unit of a [SiO] silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions, which gives the shape of a

text: tetrahedron

text: . These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses: orthosilicates (no polymerization, thus single tetrahedra), disilicates (two tetrahedra bonded together), cyclosilicates (rings of tetrahedra), inosilicates (chains of tetrahedra), phyllosilicates (sheets of tetrahedra), and tectosilicates (three-dimensional network of tetrahedra). Other important mineral groups include the

text: native elements

text: sulfides

text: oxides

text: halides

text: carbonates

text: sulfates

text: , and

text: phosphates

text: Proteins are an essential component to many biological functions and participate in virtually all processes within biological cells. They often act as enzymes, performing biochemical reactions including cell signaling, molecular transportation, and cellular regulation. As structural elements, some proteins act as a type of skeleton for cells, and as antibodies, while other proteins participate in the immune system. Before a protein can take on these roles, it must fold into a functional three-dimensional structure, a process that often occurs spontaneously and is dependent on interactions within its amino acid sequence and interactions of the amino acids with their surroundings. Protein folding is driven by the search to find the most energetically favorable conformation of the protein, i.e., its native state. Thus, understanding protein folding is critical to understanding what a protein does and how it works, and is considered a holy grail of computational biology. Despite folding occurring within a crowded cellular environment, it typically proceeds smoothly. However, due to a protein's chemical properties or other factors, proteins may misfold, that is, fold down the wrong pathway and end up misshapen. Unless cellular mechanisms can destroy or refold misfolded proteins, they can subsequently aggregate and cause a variety of debilitating diseases. Laboratory experiments studying these processes can be limited in scope and atomic detail, leading scientists to use physics-based computing models that, when complementing experiments, seek to provide a more complete picture of protein folding, misfolding, and aggregation.

text: Protein

text: s are an essential component to many biological functions and participate in virtually all processes within

text: biological cell

text: s. They often act as

text: enzyme

text: s, performing biochemical reactions including

text: cell signaling

text: , molecular transportation, and

text: cellular regulation

text: . As structural elements, some proteins act as a type of

text: skeleton for cells

text: , and as

text: antibodies

text: , while other proteins participate in the

text: immune system

text: . Before a protein can take on these roles, it must fold into a functional

text: three-dimensional structure

text: , a process that often occurs spontaneously and is dependent on interactions within its

text: amino acid

text: sequence and interactions of the amino acids with their surroundings. Protein folding is driven by the search to find the most energetically favorable conformation of the protein, i.e., its

text: native state

text: . Thus, understanding protein folding is critical to understanding what a protein does and how it works, and is considered a holy grail of

text: computational biology

text: . Despite folding occurring within a

text: crowded cellular environment

text: , it typically proceeds smoothly. However, due to a protein's chemical properties or other factors, proteins may

text: misfold

text: , that is, fold down the wrong pathway and end up misshapen. Unless cellular mechanisms can destroy or refold misfolded proteins, they can subsequently

text: aggregate

text: and cause a variety of debilitating diseases. Laboratory experiments studying these processes can be limited in scope and atomic detail, leading scientists to use physics-based computing models that, when complementing experiments, seek to provide a more complete picture of protein folding, misfolding, and aggregation.

text: Trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) ion is an essential nutrient in trace amounts in humans for insulin, sugar and lipid metabolism, although the issue is debated.

text: Trivalent

text: chromium (Cr(III))

text: ion

text: is an

text: essential nutrient

text: in trace amounts in humans for

text: insulin

text: sugar

text: and

text: lipid

text: metabolism

text: , although the issue is debated.

text: Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts-per-million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.  These elements are often present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plant's metabolism.  Because these elements enable catalysts (enzymes) their impact far exceeds their weight percentage.

text: Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of

text: parts-per-million

text: (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.  These elements are often present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plant's metabolism.  Because these elements enable catalysts (enzymes) their impact far exceeds their weight percentage.

text: Food intolerances can be classified according to their mechanism. Intolerance can result from the absence of specific chemicals or enzymes needed to digest a food substance, as in hereditary fructose intolerance. It may be a result of an abnormality in the body's ability to absorb nutrients, as occurs in fructose malabsorption. Food intolerance reactions can occur to naturally occurring chemicals in foods, as in salicylate sensitivity. Drugs sourced from plants, such as aspirin, can also cause these kinds of reactions.

text: Food intolerances can be classified according to their mechanism. Intolerance can result from the absence of specific

text: chemical

text: s or

text: enzyme

text: s needed to

text: digest

text: a food substance, as in

text: hereditary fructose intolerance

text: . It may be a result of an abnormality in the body's ability to absorb nutrients, as occurs in

text: fructose malabsorption

text: . Food intolerance reactions can occur to naturally occurring chemicals in foods, as in

text: salicylate sensitivity

text: . Drugs sourced from plants, such as aspirin, can also cause these kinds of reactions.

text: Grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) alter their behaviour according to the relative costs and benefits when foraging in the open. Small food items are consumed immediately to maximise energy intake, as they require little handling time so the cost of predation risk is low. Large items that require a long handling time, and hence time exposed to predators, are carried back to the safety of a tree to minimise predation risk. Although there is an energetic cost to transporting food, large food items have a high contribution to nutrient intake so the cost outweighs the benefits.

text: Grey squirrels

text: (Sciurus carolinensis) alter their behaviour according to the relative costs and benefits when foraging in the open. Small food items are consumed immediately to maximise energy intake, as they require little handling time so the cost of predation risk is low. Large items that require a long handling time, and hence time exposed to predators, are carried back to the safety of a tree to minimise predation risk. Although there is an energetic cost to transporting food, large food items have a high contribution to

text: nutrient intake

text: so the cost outweighs the benefits.

text: Although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability of water. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some of these nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, land suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes either unusable or suffers from reduced yields. Sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as natural gas (used in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizer), or mineral ores (e.g., phosphate). Possible sources of nitrogen that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include:

text: Although air and sunlight are available everywhere on Earth, crops also depend on soil nutrients and the availability of water. When farmers grow and harvest crops, they remove some of these nutrients from the soil. Without replenishment, land suffers from nutrient depletion and becomes either unusable or suffers from reduced

text: yields

text: . Sustainable agriculture depends on replenishing the soil while minimizing the use or need of non-renewable resources, such as

text: natural gas

text: (used in converting atmospheric nitrogen into synthetic fertilizer), or mineral ores (e.g., phosphate). Possible sources of nitrogen that would, in principle, be available indefinitely, include:

text: 5 A Day - acceptable daily intake - aggregate nutrient density index - ageusia - animal source foods - additives - aeroponics - agriculture - alcohol - alcoholic beverage control state - algaculture - Androphagi - antibiotic - antioxidant - appellation - Appellation d'origine contrôlée - apiculture - aphagia - appetite - aquaculture - asado

text: 5 A Day

text: acceptable daily intake

text: aggregate nutrient density index

text: ageusia

text: animal source foods

text: additives

text: aeroponics

text: agriculture

text: alcohol

text: alcoholic beverage control state

text: algaculture

text: Androphagi

text: antibiotic

text: antioxidant

text: appellation

text: Appellation d'origine contrôlée

text: apiculture

text: aphagia

text: appetite

text: aquaculture

text: asado

text: Vitamins can be divided into two groups: water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B vitamins (folate, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12). Most dialysis patients will need to supplement vitamin C and B vitamins to replace what is lost in the dialysis solution. Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K. Excessive amounts of these vitamins can be harmful for people with kidney failure because they can build up in the body and become toxic so they are not generally supplemented in dialysis patients. However, vitamin D is sometimes an exception to this generalization. A doctor will prescribe vitamin D if it is necessary.

text: Vitamins can be divided into two groups:

text: water-soluble vitamin

text: s and

text: fat-soluble vitamin

text: s. Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B vitamins (

text: folate

text: thiamine

text: riboflavin

text: niacin

text: pantothenic acid

text: biotin

text: vitamin B6

text: vitamin B12

text: ). Most dialysis patients will need to supplement vitamin C and B vitamins to replace what is lost in the dialysis solution. Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins

text: A

text: D

text: E

text: , and

text: K

text: . Excessive amounts of these vitamins can be harmful for people with kidney failure because they can build up in the body and become toxic so they are not generally supplemented in dialysis patients. However, vitamin D is sometimes an exception to this generalization. A doctor will prescribe vitamin D if it is necessary.

text: Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, and milk as examples.It is similar to biochemistry in its main components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, but it also includes areas such as water, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors, and colors. This discipline also encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening.

text: Food chemistry is the study of

text: chemical

text: meat

text: poultry

text: lettuce

text: beer

text: , and

text: milk

text: as examples.It is similar to

text: biochemistry

text: in its main components such as

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: lipid

text: s, and

text: protein

text: vitamin

text: s,

text: minerals

text: enzyme

text: s,

text: food additive

text: s,

text: flavor

text: s, and

text: colors

text: food processing

text: techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening.

text: Drainage tile sometimes decreases soil erosion and runoff of some nutrients, including phosphorus. Phosphorus is an important nutrient to control because it is the limiting nutrient in most aquatic ecosystems. Thus phosphorus is the main culprit in eutrophication of surface water; however, the other limiting nutrient, nitrogen, causes substantial damage to waters. For example, nitrogen has been implicated in the gulf hypoxia. Drainage tile sometimes increases water quality because the water flows into the ground then the tile, instead of running off the field into a ditch, carrying soil and nutrients with it. The soil has a chance to filter the water before it enters the streams and rivers. However, by bypassing surface improvements like conservation tillage or riparian buffers, tile drainage can also create problems with water quality  and outflow from tile drainage tends to be extremely high in nitrogen. Furthermore, some tile drainage sometime contains very high levels of other chemicals. Since surface forms of conservation agriculture are less effective in tile-drained systems, other practices such as controlled drainage or constructed wetlands may be more effective. In very flat areas, where the natural topography does not provide the gradient necessary for water flow, "agricultural wells" can be dug to provide tile lines sufficient outlet. In these cases, it is the groundwater that stands to be polluted by unfiltered tile output.

text: A 2012 survey of the scientific literature did not find significant differences in the vitamin content of organic and conventional plant or animal products, and found that results varied from study to study. Produce studies reported on ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) (31 studies), beta-carotene (a precursor for Vitamin A) (12 studies), and alpha-tocopherol (a form of Vitamin E) (5 studies) content;  milk studies reported on beta-carotene (4 studies) and alpha-tocopherol levels (4 studies).  Few studies examined vitamin content in meats, but these found no difference in beta-carotene in beef, alpha-tocopherol in pork or beef, or vitamin A (retinol) in beef. The authors analyzed 11 other nutrients reported in studies of produce. Only two nutrients were significantly higher in organic than conventional produce: phosphorus and total polyphenols). A 2011 literature review found that organic foods had a higher micronutrient content overall than conventionally produced foods.

text: A 2012 survey of the scientific literature did not find significant differences in the vitamin content of organic and conventional plant or animal products, and found that results varied from study to study. Produce studies reported on

text: ascorbic acid

text: Vitamin C

text: ) (31 studies),

text: beta-carotene

text: (a precursor for

text: Vitamin A

text: ) (12 studies), and

text: alpha-tocopherol

text: (a form of

text: Vitamin E

text: ) (5 studies) content;  milk studies reported on beta-carotene (4 studies) and alpha-tocopherol levels (4 studies).  Few studies examined vitamin content in meats, but these found no difference in beta-carotene in beef, alpha-tocopherol in pork or beef, or vitamin A (retinol) in beef. The authors analyzed 11 other nutrients reported in studies of produce. Only two nutrients were significantly higher in organic than conventional produce:

text: phosphorus

text: and total

text: polyphenols

text: ). A 2011 literature review found that organic foods had a higher micronutrient content overall than conventionally produced foods.

text: Chemical materials developed to assist in the production of food, feed, and fiber include scores of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and other pesticides, plant growth regulators, fertilizers, and animal feed supplements. Chief among these groups from the commercial point of view are manufactured fertilizers, synthetic pesticides (including herbicides), and supplements for feeds. The latter include both nutritional supplements (for example, mineral nutrients) and medicinal compounds for the prevention or control of disease.

text: Chemical materials developed to assist in the production of food, feed, and fiber include scores of

text: herbicide

text: s,

text: insecticide

text: s,

text: fungicide

text: s, and other

text: pesticide

text: s, plant growth regulators,

text: fertilizer

text: s, and animal feed supplements. Chief among these groups from the commercial point of view are manufactured fertilizers, synthetic pesticides (including herbicides), and supplements for feeds. The latter include both nutritional supplements (for example,

text: mineral nutrients

text: ) and medicinal compounds for the prevention or control of disease.

text: Water is an essential resource for all life on the planet. Of the water resources on Earth only three percent of it is fresh and two-thirds of the freshwater is locked up in ice caps and glaciers. Of the remaining one percent, a fifth is in remote, inaccessible areas and much seasonal rainfall in monsoonal deluges and floods cannot easily be used. As time advances, water is becoming scarcer and having access to clean, safe, drinking water is limited among countries. At present only about 0.08 percent of all the world’s fresh water  is exploited by mankind  in ever increasing demand  for sanitation, drinking, manufacturing, leisure and agriculture. Due to the small percentage of water remaining, optimizing the fresh water we have left from natural resources has been a continuous difficulty in several locations worldwide.

text: Water is an essential resource for all life on the planet. Of the water resources on

text: Earth

text: only three percent of it is fresh and two-thirds of the

text: freshwater

text: is locked up in

text: ice cap

text: s and

text: glacier

text: s. Of the remaining one percent, a fifth is in remote, inaccessible areas and much seasonal rainfall in

text: monsoon

text: al deluges and floods cannot easily be used. As time advances, water is becoming scarcer and having access to clean, safe,

text: drinking water

text: is limited among countries. At present only about 0.08 percent of all the world’s fresh water  is exploited by mankind  in ever increasing demand  for

text: sanitation

text: drinking

text: manufacturing

text: leisure

text: and

text: agriculture

text: . Due to the small percentage of water remaining, optimizing the fresh water we have left from

text: natural resources

text: has been a continuous difficulty in several locations worldwide.

text: Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for respiration.

text: The first method, stand hunting is  the most common method in wooded terrain. This is done by waiting where deer are likely to travel. Stand hunting is commonly done in an elevated tree stand, but it can be done in a blind on the ground. Hunting blinds allow more cover for the hunter thereby masking the hunter's movement and blocking the hunter's scent from contaminating the air and alerting the deer. Tree stands are usually placed 8 to 30 feet above the ground.  The stands are made of metal or wood.   Stands are often placed at the edge of fields of crops such as corn, wheat, buckwheat, alfalfa, clover, soybeans, cotton and many others. Often, hunters plant crops in strategic locations solely for the purpose of attracting deer. Food plots are very effective while hunting deer because deer spend the majority of their time eating getting the nutrients and the fats that they need to survive the winter. Without good feeding ground the deer will travel for miles if needed to find good feeding sources, this is why planting food plots is effective. Food plots keep the deer close by and improves the chances of harvesting quality deer. Some states allow bait to be placed near these stands to attract deer. Bait stands are legally distinct from planting food crops. The most common bait is corn.  Another method of drawing deer within range of a stand is to use scents and decoys to draw bucks into range for a successful shot. This can be very effective during the rut, which is the deer breading season. Hunters use doe in estrus scent to pique a buck's interest and decoys to fix the visual interest of the buck away from the hunter, who is often concealed in a blind or tree stand. Bow hunters often rely heavily on scent's to draw deer into the close ranges required for a successful hunt.

text: The first method, stand hunting is  the most common method in wooded terrain. This is done by waiting where deer are likely to travel. Stand hunting is commonly done in an elevated

text: tree stand

text: , but it can be done in a

text: blind

text: One of the primary uses of cover crops is to increase soil fertility. These types of cover crops are referred to as "green manure."  They are used to manage a range of soil macronutrients and micronutrients.  Of the various nutrients, the impact that cover crops have on nitrogen management has received the most attention from researchers and farmers, because nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient in crop production.

text: One of the primary uses of cover crops is to increase soil fertility. These types of cover crops are referred to as "green manure."  They are used to manage a range of soil

text: macronutrients

text: and

text: micronutrients

text: .  Of the various nutrients, the impact that cover crops have on nitrogen management has received the most attention from researchers and farmers, because nitrogen is often the most limiting nutrient in crop production.

text: Wolf Trax DDP Nutrients have been recognized by fertilizer retailers and growers around the world as doing a better job of delivering important micronutrients and secondary nutrients to crops than traditional granular fertilizers.

text: The kernel of the egusi-itoo seed is 44% oil, 30% protein, 10% carbohydrate, 4% ash and 3% fiber. The oil of this seed is 64.9% linoleic acid, 12.4% oleic acid, 11.8% stearic acid and 10.9% palmitic acid. Vitamins Thiamin, Niacin, B1 and B2 are also prevalent in the seed, as well as many micronutrients. Notable minerals include phosphorus, as the largest mineral component, with potassium, magnesium, manganese, sulfur, calcium, iron and zinc to follow. The bulk of carbohydrates are starch and soluble sugars. Egusi-itoo is the perfect complement to the largely starch-rich grain diet of Africa, providing a high-protein and high-energy concentrate. The seed contains every important macro and micro-nutrient in quantities ideal for nutrition. The amino acid content of egusi-itoo proteins makes it a sufficient vegetable protein. This composition is ideal for sick and growing bodies, providing essential amino acids and calories. Just 100 g of seed daily provides essential fatty acid, amino acid and Vitamin E requirements. There is potential for these seeds as a critical tool for interventions in diseases such as marasmus and kwashiorkor.

text: The kernel of the egusi-itoo seed is 44%

text: oil

text: , 30%

text: protein

text: , 10%

text: carbohydrate

text: , 4%

text: ash

text: and 3%

text: fiber

text: . The oil of this seed is 64.9%

text: linoleic acid

text: , 12.4%

text: oleic acid

text: , 11.8%

text: stearic acid

text: and 10.9%

text: palmitic acid

text: . Vitamins

text: Thiamin

text: Niacin

text: and

text: are also prevalent in the seed, as well as many micronutrients. Notable minerals include

text: phosphorus

text: , as the largest mineral component, with

text: potassium

text: magnesium

text: manganese

text: sulfur

text: calcium

text: iron

text: and

text: zinc

text: to follow. The bulk of carbohydrates are starch and soluble sugars. Egusi-itoo is the perfect complement to the largely starch-rich grain diet of Africa, providing a high-protein and high-energy concentrate. The seed contains every important macro and micro-nutrient in quantities ideal for nutrition. The

text: amino acid

text: content of egusi-itoo proteins makes it a sufficient vegetable protein. This composition is ideal for sick and growing bodies, providing essential amino acids and calories. Just 100 g of seed daily provides essential

text: fatty acid

text: amino acid

text: and

text: Vitamin E

text: requirements. There is potential for these seeds as a critical tool for interventions in diseases such as

text: marasmus

text: and

text: kwashiorkor

text: Jordan Lake was declared as nutrient-sensitive waters (NSW) by the North Carolina Environmental Management Commission from 1983, the year it was impounded.  The lake is eutrophic or hyper-eutrophic owing to excessive nutrient levels.

text: Jordan Lake was declared as nutrient-sensitive waters (NSW) by the

text: North Carolina Environmental Management Commission

text: from 1983, the year it was impounded.  The lake is

text: eutrophic

text: or hyper-eutrophic owing to excessive nutrient levels.

text: Many proteins are involved in the process of cell signaling and signal transduction. Some proteins, such as insulin, are extracellular proteins that transmit a signal from the cell in which they were synthesized to other cells in distant tissues. Others are membrane proteins that act as receptors whose main function is to bind a signaling molecule and induce a biochemical response in the cell. Many receptors have a binding site exposed on the cell surface and an effector domain within the cell, which may have enzymatic activity or may undergo a conformational change detected by other proteins within the cell.

text: Many proteins are involved in the process of

text: cell signaling

text: and

text: signal transduction

text: . Some proteins, such as

text: insulin

text: , are extracellular proteins that transmit a signal from the cell in which they were synthesized to other cells in distant

text: tissues

text: . Others are

text: membrane protein

text: s that act as

text: receptors

text: whose main function is to bind a signaling molecule and induce a biochemical response in the cell. Many receptors have a binding site exposed on the cell surface and an effector domain within the cell, which may have enzymatic activity or may undergo a

text: conformational change

text: detected by other proteins within the cell.

text: The Webmineral.com lists 2,722 published and approved (IMA/CNMNC) minerals, 1,627 pre-IMA minerals, 81 discredited minerals (IMA/CNMNC status), 2,691 synonyms, 149 approved minerals but  without a published description yet and 123 "not approved" names.

text: However, bacterial-phytoplankton interactions in the phycosphere could be parasitic.  In the same low nutrient oligotrophic regions of the ocean, phytoplankton that are nutrient stressed may not be able to produce this protective mucus layer or its associated antibiotics.  The bacteria, who are also food stressed, could kill the phytoplankton and use it as a food substrate.

text: However, bacterial-phytoplankton interactions in the phycosphere could be

text: parasitic

text: .  In the same low nutrient oligotrophic regions of the ocean,

text: phytoplankton

text: that are

text: nutrient

text: stressed may not be able to produce this protective mucus layer or its associated

text: antibiotics

text: .  The

text: bacteria

text: , who are also food stressed, could kill the

text: phytoplankton

text: and use it as a food substrate.

text: The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers.  Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilisers.  The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen.  Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA and other components (e.g., chlorophyll).  To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a "fixed" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably legumes) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N) by converting it to ammonia.  Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids.

text: The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers.  Instead

text: compounds

text: containing these elements are the basis of fertilisers.  The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a

text: dry matter

text: (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen.  Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in

text: protein

text: s,

text: DNA

text: and other components (e.g.,

text: chlorophyll

text: ).  To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a "fixed" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably

text: legume

text: s) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N) by converting it to

text: ammonia

text: .  Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and

text: ATP

text: , the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids.

text: Vitamin D, also coined as the sunshine vitamin, is necessary within a child’s diet as it allows body tissues and in particular bone to be properly nourished and mineralized. Vitamin D3, which is gained from dietary nutrients, is also essential for calcium absorption and homeostasis, which ensures standard muscle contraction and the transport of blood throughout the body. Without adequate consumption of vitamin D, children can become predisposed to conditions such as rickets, which is the “softening or weakening of bones”.  which can only be treated with vitamin Dsupplements, sunlight and surgery. Vitamin D is made available to children through exposure to sunlight as well as through food products such as egg yolks, fish, beef liver as well as fortified milk and margarine. It necessary that the average 1-13 year-old child allows for 600 IU of Vitamin D a day. Children, who are dark skinned, vegans or are limited in their sun exposure, are more susceptible to this deficiency.

text: Vitamin D

text: , also coined as the sunshine vitamin, is necessary within a child’s diet as it allows body tissues and in particular bone to be properly nourished and mineralized. Vitamin D3, which is gained from dietary nutrients, is also essential for calcium absorption and

text: homeostasis

text: , which ensures standard muscle contraction and the transport of blood throughout the body. Without adequate consumption of vitamin D, children can become predisposed to conditions such as rickets, which is the “softening or weakening of bones”.  which can only be treated with vitamin Dsupplements, sunlight and surgery. Vitamin D is made available to children through exposure to sunlight as well as through food products such as egg yolks, fish, beef liver as well as fortified milk and margarine. It necessary that the average 1-13 year-old child allows for 600 IU of Vitamin D a day. Children, who are dark skinned,

text: vegans

text: or are limited in their sun exposure, are more susceptible to this deficiency.

text: Communities In Schools seeks to understand and address the underlying reasons why young people drop out. Whether kids need eyeglasses, tutoring, nutritious food or just a safe place to be, CIS works to find the resources and deliver them to young people right inside schools where kids spend their days. The need could be something as simple as getting kids vaccinated to meet school attendance requirements. Or the need could be something more complex. Like helping young people find positive alternatives to joining gangs.

text: Proteins are composed of repeating nitrogen-containing subunits called amino acids that in nature do not exist as straight chains called primary structure, but as folded whorls with complex loops. The latter is known as the tertiary structure of a protein. So, whenever a receptor interacts with an undigested antigen, the surface amino acids that come in contact may not be continuous with each other if the protein is unwound. Such discontinuous amino acids that come together in three-dimensional conformation and interact with the receptor's paratope are called conformational epitopes. In contrast, if the antigen is digested, small segments called peptides are formed, which bind with major histocompatibility complex molecules, and then later with T cell receptors through amino acids that are continuous in a line. These are known as linear epitopes.

text: Protein

text: s are composed of repeating

text: nitrogen

text: -containing subunits called

text: amino acid

text: s that in nature do not exist as straight chains called

text: primary structure

text: , but as folded whorls with complex loops. The latter is known as the

text: tertiary structure

text: of a protein. So, whenever a receptor interacts with an undigested antigen, the surface amino acids that come in contact may not be continuous with each other if the protein is unwound. Such discontinuous amino acids that come together in three-dimensional conformation and interact with the receptor's paratope are called conformational epitopes. In contrast, if the antigen is digested, small segments called

text: peptide

text: s are formed, which bind with

text: major histocompatibility complex

text: molecules, and then later with

text: T cell receptor

text: s through amino acids that are continuous in a line. These are known as

text: linear epitope

text: s.

text: Gizzard shad were introduced into many lake and river systems as a source of food for game fish, such as walleye, bass, and trout, because of their small size and relatively high abundance. It was thought they would be easy food for game fish and would help increase the numbers of fish available, as well as decrease the pressures on prey species (like the bluegill). However, due to their rapid growth they can quickly grow beyond the size available to many predators. In addition, they spawn in large numbers and can reach densities high enough to ensure that many of them survive past the first year, making them essentially invulnerable to predation. They are also harmful  exploitative competitors to other species, leading to declines in other fish species populations.They can increase productivity in an ecosystem through redistribution of nutrients (bringing the nutrients up from detritus deposits and making it available to other predator species).

text: Gizzard shad were introduced into many lake and river systems as a source of food for game fish, such as

text: walleye

text: bass

text: , and

text: trout

text: , because of their small size and relatively high abundance. It was thought they would be easy food for game fish and would help increase the numbers of fish available, as well as decrease the pressures on prey species (like the

text: bluegill

text: ). However, due to their rapid growth they can quickly grow beyond the size available to many predators. In addition, they spawn in large numbers and can reach densities high enough to ensure that many of them survive past the first year, making them essentially invulnerable to predation. They are also harmful

text: exploitative competitors

text: to other species, leading to declines in other fish species populations.They can increase productivity in an ecosystem through redistribution of nutrients (bringing the nutrients up from detritus deposits and making it available to other predator species).

text: Second Salok states:Marḏānā 1:The human body is the vat, self-conceit is the wine, and desire is the company of drinking buddies. The cup of the mind's longing is overflowing with falsehood, and the Messenger of Death is the cup-bearer. Drinking in this wine, O Nanak, one takes on countless sins and corruptions. So make spiritual wisdom your molasses, the Praise of God your bread, and the Fear of God the meat you eat. O Nanak, this is the true food; let the True Name be your only Support. ||2||

text: The law gives the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authority to require nutrition labeling of most foods regulated by the Agency; and to require that all nutrient content claims (for example, 'high fiber', 'low fat', etc.) and health claims meet FDA regulations.  The act did not require restaurants to comply with the same standards.

text: The law gives the

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA) authority to require nutrition labeling of most foods regulated by the Agency; and to require that all nutrient content claims (for example, 'high fiber', 'low fat', etc.) and health claims meet FDA regulations.  The act did not require

text: restaurant

text: s to comply with the same standards.

text: Macronutrient– Male infertility– Malnutrition– Manipulative therapy– Manual therapy– Maternal health– Maximum life span– Medical cannabis– Medical case management– Medical devices– Medical herbalism– Medical history– Medical imaging– Medical model– Medical physics– Medical privacy– Medical school– Medical sociology– Medical technology– Medical tourism– Medication– Medicine– Megadose– Megavitamin therapy– Men's health– Mental disorder– Mental health– Mental hygiene– Mental retardation– Metabolism– Meteoropathy– Microbiology– Micronutrient– Midwifery– Mind-body intervention– Miscarriage– Mortality rate– Multivitamin– Mutation

text: Macronutrient

text: Male infertility

text: Malnutrition

text: Manipulative therapy

text: Manual therapy

text: Maternal health

text: Maximum life span

text: Medical cannabis

text: Medical case management

text: Medical devices

text: Medical herbalism

text: Medical history

text: Medical imaging

text: Medical model

text: Medical physics

text: Medical privacy

text: Medical school

text: Medical sociology

text: Medical technology

text: Medical tourism

text: Medication

text: Medicine

text: Megadose

text: Megavitamin therapy

text: Men's health

text: Mental disorder

text: Mental health

text: Mental hygiene

text: Mental retardation

text: Metabolism

text: Meteoropathy

text: Microbiology

text: Micronutrient

text: Midwifery

text: Mind-body intervention

text: Miscarriage

text: Mortality rate

text: Multivitamin

text: Mutation

text: Species within the Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, and pikas) produce two types of fecal pellets: hard ones, and soft ones called cecotropes. Animals in these species reingest their cecotropes, to extract further nutrients. Cecotropes derive from chewed plant material that collects in the cecum, a chamber between the large and small intestine, containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the animal and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables these animals to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within these animals as rumination (cud-chewing) does in cattle and sheep.

text: Species within the

text: Lagomorpha

text: rabbit

text: s,

text: hare

text: s, and

text: pika

text: s) produce two types of fecal pellets: hard ones, and soft ones called

text: cecotrope

text: s. Animals in these species reingest their cecotropes, to extract further nutrients. Cecotropes derive from chewed plant material that collects in the

text: cecum

text: , a chamber between the large and small intestine, containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the animal and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables these animals to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. This process serves the same purpose within these animals as

text: rumination

text: (cud-chewing) does in cattle and sheep.

text: Ecological recycling is common in organic farming, where nutrient management is fundamentally different compared to agri-business styles of soil management. Organic farms that employ ecosystem recycling to a greater extent support more species (increased levels of biodiversity) and have a different food web structure.  Organic agricultural ecosystems rely on the services of biodiversity for the recycling of nutrients through soils instead of relying on the supplementation of synthetic fertilizers. The model for ecological recycling agriculture adheres to the following principals:

text: Ecological recycling is common in organic farming, where nutrient management is fundamentally different compared to agri-business styles of soil management. Organic farms that employ ecosystem recycling to a greater extent support more species (increased levels of biodiversity) and have a different

text: food web

text: structure.  Organic agricultural ecosystems rely on the services of biodiversity for the recycling of nutrients through soils instead of relying on the supplementation of

text: synthetic fertilizers

text: . The model for ecological recycling agriculture adheres to the following principals:

text: Soil makes up the outermost layer of our planet and is formed from rocks and decaying plants and Animals.Soil has varying amounts of organic matter (living and dead organisms), minerals, and nutrients.•	An average soil sample is 45 percent minerals, 25 percent water, 25 percent air, and five percent organic matter. Different-sized mineral particles, such as sand, silt, and clay, give soil its texture.•	Topsoil is the most productive soil layer.•	Ten tonnes of topsoil spread evenly over a hectare is only as thick as a one Euro coin.•	Natural processes can take more than 500 years to form 2 centimeters of topsoil.•	In some cases, 5 tonnes of animal life can live in one hectare of soil.•	Fungi and bacteria help break down organic matter in the soil.•	Earthworms digest organic matter, recycle nutrients, and make the surface soil richer.•	Roots loosen the soil, allowing oxygen to penetrate. This benefits animals living in the soil. They also benefit roots which require oxygen themselves. They further hold soil together and help prevent erosion.•	A fully functioning soil reduces the risk of floods and protects underground water supplies by neutralizing or filtering out potential pollutants and storing as much as 3750 tonnes of water per hectare.•	Scientists have found 10,000 types of soil in Europe and about 70,000 types of soil in the United States.•	Soil stores 10% of the world's carbon dioxide emissions.

text: Soil makes up the outermost layer of our planet and is formed from rocks and decaying plants and Animals.Soil has varying amounts of organic matter (living and dead organisms), minerals, and nutrients.•	An average soil sample is 45 percent minerals, 25 percent water, 25 percent air, and five percent organic matter. Different-sized mineral particles, such as sand, silt, and clay, give soil its texture.•	Topsoil is the most productive soil layer.•	Ten tonnes of topsoil spread evenly over a hectare is only as thick as a one Euro coin.•	Natural processes can take more than 500 years to form 2 centimeters of topsoil.•	In some cases, 5 tonnes of animal life can live in one hectare of soil.•	Fungi and bacteria help break down organic matter in the soil.•	Earthworms digest organic matter, recycle nutrients, and make the surface soil richer.•	Roots loosen the soil, allowing oxygen to penetrate. This benefits animals living in the soil. They also benefit roots which require

text: oxygen

text: themselves. They further hold soil together and help prevent erosion.•	A fully functioning soil reduces the risk of floods and protects underground water supplies by neutralizing or filtering out potential pollutants and storing as much as 3750 tonnes of water per hectare.•	Scientists have found 10,000 types of soil in Europe and about 70,000 types of soil in the United States.•	Soil stores 10% of the world's carbon dioxide emissions.

text: Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at the high temperatures and pressures associated with the process of metamorphism. These minerals, known as index minerals, include sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite, and some garnet.

text: Metamorphic minerals are those that form only at the high temperatures and pressures associated with the process of metamorphism. These minerals, known as

text: index mineral

text: s, include

text: sillimanite

text: kyanite

text: staurolite

text: andalusite

text: , and some

text: garnet

text: Possibly the most frequently mentioned superfood group, berries remain only under preliminary research and are not yet certain of providing health benefits. Specifically, blueberries, as a popular superfood example, are not especially nutrient-dense (considered to be a superfood characteristic), having moderate content of only three essential nutrients: vitamin C (an antioxidant), vitamin K and manganese. Blueberries are commonly branded as having a high dose of antioxidants, particularly anthocyanins for which antioxidant properties have been demonstrated only in vitro. However, this antioxidant effect is not conserved after anthocyanin-rich plant foods are consumed. As interpreted by the Linus Pauling Institute and European Food Safety Authority, dietary anthocyanins and other flavonoids have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion.

text: Possibly the most frequently mentioned superfood group, berries remain only under preliminary research and are not yet certain of providing health benefits. Specifically,

text: blueberries

text: , as a popular superfood example, are not especially nutrient-dense (considered to be a superfood characteristic), having moderate content of only three

text: essential nutrients

text: vitamin C

text: (an antioxidant),

text: vitamin K

text: and

text: manganese

text: . Blueberries are commonly branded as having a high dose of antioxidants, particularly

text: anthocyanins

text: for which antioxidant properties have been demonstrated only

text: in vitro

text: . However, this antioxidant effect is not conserved after anthocyanin-rich plant foods are consumed. As interpreted by the

text: Linus Pauling Institute

text: and

text: European Food Safety Authority

text: , dietary anthocyanins and other flavonoids have little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion.

text: Arbuscular mycorrhizas are characterized by the formation of unique structures, arbuscules and vesicles by fungi of the phylum Glomeromycota. AM fungi help plants to capture nutrients such as phosphorus, sulfur, nitrogen and micronutrients from the soil. It is believed that the development of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis played a crucial role in the initial colonisation of land by plants and in the evolution of the vascular plants.

text: Arbuscular mycorrhizas are characterized by the formation of unique structures, arbuscules and

text: vesicle

text: s by fungi of the phylum

text: Glomeromycota

text: . AM fungi help plants to capture

text: nutrient

text: s such as

text: phosphorus

text: sulfur

text: nitrogen

text: and micronutrients from the soil. It is believed that the development of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis played a crucial role in the initial colonisation of land by plants and in the evolution of the vascular plants.

text: Scenedesmus is known to have high biomass productivity among green algae, and has been actively researched for its use for bio-diesel production. Its heterotrophic production of biomass and lipid in optimized conditions is reported to have higher efficiency than its autotrophic production. Optimization of biomass productivity as well as lipid content through varying concentration of supplemental nutrients has been done in numerous studies; currently, Scenedesmus lipid yield after optimization has reached ~60% dry cell weight, lower than some other algae. However, Scenedesmus is more efficient at capturing CO than other algae. Like many algae species, Scenedesmus required nitrate-deficient condition to profoundly increase its lipid yield. A significant improvement (up to six-fold) of feedstock yields was achieved by adding varying concentrations of ethanol under a 12-hr photoperiod and in the dark. The most significant improvement in lipid production was obtained when stationary phase cultures were transferred to media deficient in nitrate for 7 days and phosphate for 3 days, respectively. Extraction of oils with methanol or ethanol from the Scenedesmus remains a challenge and its lower lipid content adds to the cost of production. In a recent study, Scenedesmus abundans was isolated from Dal Lake, Kashmir and proved to be a suitable raw material for biodiesel production. The alga increased significantly in biomass and lipid content with the nitrogen concentration of 0.32g/L of nitrogen. A two-step transesterification was found to be best suited for transesterification, while Folch extraction was best for lipid extraction.

text: transesterification

text: , while Folch extraction was best for lipid extraction.

text: Parasites require nutrients to carry out essential functions including reproduction and growth. Essentially, the nutrients required from the host are carbohydrates, amino acids and lipids.  Carbohydrates are utilised to generate energy, whilst amino acids and fatty acids are involved in the synthesis of macromolecules and the production of eggs. Most parasites are heterotrophs, so they therefore are unable to synthesise their own 'food' i.e. organic compounds and must acquire these from their host.

text: Parasites require nutrients to carry out essential functions including reproduction and growth. Essentially, the nutrients required from the host are

text: carbohydrates

text: amino acids

text: and

text: lipids

text: .  Carbohydrates are utilised to generate energy, whilst amino acids and fatty acids are involved in the synthesis of macromolecules and the production of eggs. Most parasites are heterotrophs, so they therefore are unable to synthesise their own 'food' i.e. organic compounds and must acquire these from their host.

text: Most nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, originate from minerals. Some nitrogen originates from rain (as dilute nitric acid), but most of the nitrogen is available in soils as a result of nitrogen fixation by bacteria. The action of microbes on organic matter and minerals may be to free nutrients for use, sequester them, or cause their loss from the soil by their volatilisation to gases or their leaching from the soil. The nutrients may be stored on soil colloids, or within live or dead organic matter, but they may not be accessible to plants due to extremes of pH.

text: Most nutrients, with the exception of nitrogen, originate from minerals. Some nitrogen originates from rain (as dilute nitric acid), but most of the nitrogen is available in soils as a result of

text: nitrogen fixation

text: by bacteria. The action of microbes on organic matter and minerals may be to free nutrients for use, sequester them, or cause their loss from the soil by their volatilisation to gases or their leaching from the soil. The nutrients may be stored on soil colloids, or within live or dead organic matter, but they may not be accessible to plants due to extremes of pH.

text: Glycerol  (also called glycerine or glycerin; see spelling differences) is a simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and non-toxic. The glycerol backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides. It is widely used in the food industry as a sweetener and humectant and in pharmaceutical formulations. Glycerol has three hydroxyl groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature.

text: Glycerol  (also called glycerine or glycerin; see

entity_name: American and British English spelling differences

text: spelling differences

text: ) is a simple

text: polyol

text: compound. It is a colorless, odorless,

text: viscous

text: liquid that is sweet-tasting and non-toxic. The glycerol backbone is found in all

text: lipid

text: s known as

text: triglycerides

text: . It is widely used in the food industry as a sweetener and

text: humectant

text: and in

text: pharmaceutical formulation

text: s. Glycerol has three

text: hydroxyl group

text: s that are responsible for its

text: solubility

text: in

text: water

text: and its

text: hygroscopic

text: nature.

text: The important role of nutrition in building muscle and losing fat means bodybuilders may consume a wide variety of dietary supplements. Various products are used in an attempt to augment muscle size, increase the rate of fat loss, improve joint health, increase natural testosterone production, enhance training performance and prevent potential nutrient deficiencies.  There are three major macronutrients that the human body needs in order for muscle building. The major nutrients – protein, carbohydrate, and fat – provide the body with energy.

text: The important role of nutrition in building muscle and losing fat means bodybuilders may consume a wide variety of

text: dietary supplements

text: . Various products are used in an attempt to augment muscle size, increase the rate of fat loss, improve joint health, increase natural testosterone production, enhance training performance and prevent potential nutrient deficiencies.  There are three major macronutrients that the human body needs in order for muscle building. The major nutrients – protein, carbohydrate, and fat – provide the body with energy.

text: Lipids comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, and terpenoids (e.g., retinoids and steroids). Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid.

text: Lipid

text: s comprises a diverse range of

text: molecules

text: and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or

text: nonpolar

text: wax

text: es,

text: fatty acid

text: s, fatty-acid derived

text: phospholipid

text: s,

text: sphingolipid

text: s,

text: glycolipid

text: s, and

text: terpenoid

text: s (e.g.,

text: retinoid

text: s and

text: steroid

text: s). Some lipids are linear

text: aliphatic

text: aromatic

text: sorting of any therapy as effective treatment for any condition is heavily restricted by law in many jurisdictions unless all such claims are scientifically validated. In the United States, for example, U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulations prohibit marketing any lipid therapy using medical claims, as such claims are unfounded.

text: sorting of any therapy as effective treatment for any condition is heavily restricted by law in many jurisdictions unless all such claims are scientifically validated. In the United States, for example,

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: regulations prohibit marketing any lipid therapy using medical claims, as such claims are unfounded.

text: Depending on the type of pinole and the quality of its ingredients, pinole can be high in key vitamins and nutrients, including protein, amino acids, fiber, and antioxidants.  Due to the large amount of fiber and the slow digestion of the maize, pinole also has a very high satiety effect, leaving those who consume it feeling full for a longer period of time.  For many indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America, it is relied upon as a key source of nutrition and sustenance.

text: Maine Coons require ample protein and nutrients in their diets. Since they are a large cat breed with high levels of energy, it is best to feed them quality food. Their dietary needs are fulfilled with both dry food and wet food. However, the wet food should be mixed in with the dry food only 2–3 times a week. Feeding the cat with quality dry food can reduce tartar build-up on the teeth. Avoid grain-based foods. A cat's natural diet does not contain grain and grain can also lead to both obesity and diabetes. Maine Coons should not eat food that lists soy or some grains as the first ingredient on the label. Food that lists meat as the first ingredient is best for the Maine Coon. Cats can develop allergies from plastic bowls, so it is best if they eat out of a glass or stainless steel bowl.

text: Aeroponic systems are more cost effective than other systems.  Because of the reduced volume of solution throughput (discussed above), less water and less nutrients are needed in the system at any given time compared to other nutrient delivery systems.  The need for substrates is also eliminated, as is the need for many moving parts .

text: Any study done to determine nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all the materials excreted and eliminated from the body (including urine and feces). Comparing food to waste material can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized by the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period of time, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of human nutrition is still slowly evolving.

text: Any study done to determine nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the

text: chemical

text: composition of the whole diet and of all the materials

text: excreted

text: and eliminated from the body (including

text: urine

text: and feces). Comparing food to waste material can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized by the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period of time, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of

text: variables

text: involved in such

text: experiment

text: s is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of human nutrition is still slowly evolving.

text: Macronutrient nourishment can give 0.38W/m of globally averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of current levels of around a quarter of anthropogenic  emissions.

text: Macronutrient nourishment can give 0.38W/m of globally averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of current levels of around a quarter of

text: anthropogenic

text: emissions.

text: Proteins can be informally divided into three main classes, which correlate with typical tertiary structures: globular proteins, fibrous proteins, and membrane proteins. Almost all globular proteins are soluble and many are enzymes. Fibrous proteins are often structural, such as collagen, the major component of connective tissue, or keratin, the protein component of hair and nails. Membrane proteins often serve as receptors or provide channels for polar or charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane.

text: Proteins can be informally divided into three main classes, which correlate with typical tertiary structures:

text: globular protein

text: s,

text: fibrous protein

text: s, and

text: membrane protein

text: s. Almost all globular proteins are

text: soluble

text: and many are enzymes. Fibrous proteins are often structural, such as

text: collagen

text: , the major component of connective tissue, or

text: keratin

text: , the protein component of hair and nails. Membrane proteins often serve as

text: receptors

text: or provide channels for polar or charged molecules to pass through the

text: cell membrane

text: Low-carbohydrate diets or low-carb diets are dietary programs that restrict carbohydrate consumption, often for the treatment of obesity or diabetes. Foods high in easily digestible carbohydrates (e.g., sugar, bread, pasta) are limited or replaced with foods containing a higher percentage of  fats and moderate protein (e.g., meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs, cheese, nuts, and seeds) and other foods low in carbohydrates (e.g., most salad vegetables such as spinach, kale, chard and collards), although other vegetables and fruits (especially berries) are often allowed. The amount of carbohydrate  allowed varies with different low-carbohydrate diets.

text: Low-carbohydrate diets or low-carb diets are dietary programs that restrict

text: carbohydrate

text: consumption, often for the

text: treatment

text: of

text: obesity

text: or

text: diabetes

text: . Foods high in easily digestible carbohydrates (e.g.,

text: sugar

text: bread

text: pasta

text: ) are limited or replaced with foods containing a higher percentage of

text: fat

text: s and moderate

text: protein

text: (e.g.,

text: meat

text: poultry

text: fish

text: shellfish

text: eggs

text: cheese

text: nuts

text: , and

text: seeds

text: ) and other foods low in carbohydrates (e.g., most

text: salad vegetables

text: such as

text: spinach

text: kale

text: chard

text: and

text: collards

text: ), although other

text: vegetable

text: s and

text: fruit

text: s (especially

text: berries

text: ) are often allowed. The amount of carbohydrate  allowed varies with different low-carbohydrate diets.

text: Lipids are a diverse and ubiquitous group of compounds which have many key biological functions, such as acting as structural components of cell membranes, serving as energy storage sources and participating in signaling pathways. Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic small molecules that  originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or "building blocks": ketoacyl and isoprene groups. Thehuge structural diversity found in lipids arises from the biosynthesis of various combinations of these building blocks. For example, glycerophospholipids are composed of a glycerol backbone linked to one of approximately 10 possible headgroups and also to 2 fatty acyl/alkyl chains, which in turn may have 30 or more different molecular structures. In practice, not all possible permutations are detected experimentally, due to chain preferences depending on the cell type and also to detection limits - nevertheless several hundred distinct glycerophospholipid molecular species have been detected in mammalian cells.

text: Lipids

text: are a diverse and ubiquitous group of compounds which have many key biological functions, such as acting as structural components of

text: cell membrane

text: s, serving as energy storage sources and participating in signaling pathways. Lipids may be broadly defined as

text: hydrophobic

text: or

text: amphipathic

text: small molecules that  originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or "building blocks":

text: ketoacyl

text: and

text: isoprene

text: groups. Thehuge structural diversity found in lipids arises from the

text: biosynthesis

text: of various combinations of these building blocks. For example, glycerophospholipids are composed of a

text: glycerol

text: backbone linked to one of approximately 10 possible headgroups and also to 2 fatty

text: acyl

text: alkyl

text: chains, which in turn may have 30 or more different molecular structures. In practice, not all possible permutations are detected experimentally, due to chain preferences depending on the cell type and also to detection limits - nevertheless several hundred distinct glycerophospholipid molecular species have been detected in

text: mammalian

text: cells.

text: Lay's WOW Chips were fat free potato chips produced by Frito-Lay containing Olestra. They were first introduced in 1998, and were marketed using the Lay's, Ruffles, Doritos, and Tostitos brands.  Although initially popular, charting sales of $400 million in their first year, they subsequently dropped to $200 million by 2000. As Olestra caused "abdominal cramping, diarrhea, fecal incontinence ["anal leakage"], and other gastrointestinal symptoms" in some customers,  warnings were required to be included on the packaging, with the WOW bag bearing a warning that read, "This Product Contains Olestra. Olestra may cause abdominal cramping and loose stools. Olestra inhibits the absorption of some vitamins and other nutrients. Vitamins A, D, E, and K have been added."

text: Lay's WOW Chips were

text: fat free

text: potato chips

text: produced by

text: Frito-Lay

text: containing

text: Olestra

text: . They were first introduced in 1998, and were marketed using the

text: Lay's

text: Ruffles

text: Doritos

text: , and

text: Tostitos

text: brands.  Although initially popular, charting sales of $400 million in their first year, they subsequently dropped to $200 million by 2000. As Olestra caused "abdominal cramping,

text: diarrhea

text: fecal incontinence

text: ["anal leakage"], and other gastrointestinal symptoms" in some customers,  warnings were required to be included on the packaging, with the WOW bag bearing a warning that read, "This Product Contains Olestra. Olestra may cause abdominal cramping and loose stools. Olestra inhibits the absorption of some vitamins and other nutrients. Vitamins A, D, E, and K have been added."

text: In both cases, the end point is a polymer of reduced carbohydrate, (CHO), typically molecules such as glucose or other sugars.  These relatively simple molecules may be then used to further synthesise more complicated molecules, including proteins, complex carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, or be respired to perform work. Consumption of primary producers by heterotrophic organisms, such as animals, then transfers these organic molecules (and the energy stored within them) up the food web, fueling all of the Earth's living systems.

text: In both cases, the end point is a

text: polymer

text: of

text: reduced

text: carbohydrate

text: , (CHO), typically molecules such as

text: glucose

text: or other

text: sugar

text: s.  These relatively simple molecules may be then used to further synthesise more complicated molecules, including

text: protein

text: s,

text: complex carbohydrates

text: lipids

text: , and

text: nucleic acids

text: , or be

text: respired

text: to perform

text: work

text: . Consumption of primary producers by

text: heterotroph

text: ic organisms, such as

text: animal

text: s, then transfers these organic molecules (and the energy stored within them) up the

text: food web

text: , fueling all of the

text: Earth

text: 's living systems.

text: Despite the WHO recommendations, recent reviews have highlighted the absence of a simple consensus regarding the effects of multivitamins or micronutrient and nutrient supplementation on HIV positive individuals. This is partly due to a lack of strong scientific evidence.

text: Despite the WHO recommendations, recent reviews have highlighted the absence of a simple consensus regarding the effects of

text: multivitamins

text: or

text: micronutrient

text: and nutrient supplementation on

text: HIV positive

text: individuals. This is partly due to a lack of strong scientific evidence.

text: Food composition datasets (FCDBs) or food composition tables are resources that provide detailed food composition data (FCD) on the nutritionally important components of foods. FCDBs provide values for energy and nutrients including protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins and minerals and for other important food components such as fibre.

text: Food composition datasets (FCDBs) or food composition tables are resources that provide detailed food composition data (FCD) on the nutritionally important components of foods. FCDBs provide values for

text: energy

text: and

text: nutrient

text: s including

text: protein

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: fat

text: vitamin

text: s and

text: mineral

text: s and for other important food components such as

text: fibre

text: Macronutrient fertilizers are generally labeled with an NPK analysis, based on the relative content of the chemical elements nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) that are commonly used in fertilizers.   However, numbers used in this labeling scheme do not directly represent the source composition or absolute nutrient content of the fertilizer.  The N value is the percentage of elemental nitrogen by weight in the fertilizer.  The value for Pis the fraction by weight of PO in a fertilizer with the same amount of phosphorus that gets all of its phosphorus from PO.  The value for K is analogous, based on a fertilizer with KO.

text: Macronutrient fertilizers are generally labeled with an NPK analysis, based on the relative content of the chemical elements

text: nitrogen

text: (N),

text: phosphorus

text: (P), and

text: potassium

text: (K) that are commonly used in

text: fertilizer

text: s.   However, numbers used in this labeling scheme do not directly represent the source composition or absolute nutrient content of the fertilizer.  The N value is the percentage of elemental nitrogen by weight in the fertilizer.  The value for Pis the fraction by weight of PO in a fertilizer with the same amount of phosphorus that gets all of its phosphorus from PO.  The value for K is analogous, based on a fertilizer with KO.

text: Autophagy has roles in various cellular functions. One particular example is in yeasts, where the nutrient starvation induces a high level of autophagy. This allows unneeded proteins to be degraded and the amino acids recycled for the synthesis of proteins that are essential for survival. In higher eukaryotes, autophagy is induced in response to the nutrient depletion that occurs in animals at birth after severing off the trans-placental food supply, as well as that of nutrient starved cultured cells and tissues. Mutant yeast cells that have a reduced autophagic capability rapidly perish in nutrition-deficient conditions. Studies on the apg mutants suggest that autophagy via autophagic bodies is indispensable for protein degradation in the vacuoles under starvation conditions, and that at least 15 APG genes are involved in autophagy in yeast. A gene known as ATG7 has been implicated in nutrient-mediated autophagy, as mice studies have shown that starvation-induced autophagy was impaired in atg7-deficient mice.

text: Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important. Many types of water-soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to hypervitaminosis than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.

text: Vitamins are classified as either

text: water

text: -soluble or

text: fat-soluble

text: . In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important. Many types of water-soluble vitamins are synthesized by bacteria.

text: Fat

text: -soluble vitamins are absorbed through the

text: intestinal tract

text: with the help of

text: lipid

text: s (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to

text: hypervitaminosis

text: than are water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in

text: cystic fibrosis

text: Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium and potassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor, although to eat pure salt is regarded as highly unpleasant. There are many different types of salt, with each having a different degree of saltiness, including sea salt, fleur de sel, kosher salt, mined salt, and grey salt. Other than enhancing flavor, its significance is that the body needs and maintains a delicate electrolyte balance, which is the kidney's function. Salt may be iodized, meaning iodine has been added to it, a necessary nutrient that promotes thyroid function. Some canned foods, notably soups or packaged broths, tend to be high in salt as a means of preserving the food longer. Historically salt has long been used as a meat preservative as salt promotes water excretion. Similarly, dried foods also promote food safety.

text: Saltiness

text: is the taste of

text: alkali metal

text: ions

text: such as

text: sodium

text: and

text: potassium

text: . It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor, although to eat pure salt is regarded as highly unpleasant. There are many different types of salt, with each having a different degree of saltiness, including

text: sea salt

text: fleur de sel

text: kosher salt

text: , mined salt, and grey salt. Other than enhancing flavor, its significance is that the body needs and maintains a delicate

text: electrolyte

text: balance, which is the

text: kidney

text: 's function. Salt may be iodized, meaning

text: iodine

text: has been added to it, a necessary nutrient that promotes

text: thyroid

text: function. Some canned foods, notably

text: soup

text: s or packaged

text: broth

text: s, tend to be high in salt as a means of preserving the food longer. Historically salt has long been used as a meat preservative as salt promotes water excretion. Similarly, dried foods also promote food safety.

text: In aquatic environments, microbes constitute the base of the food web. Single celled photosynthetic organisms such as diatoms and cyanobacteria are generally the most important primary producers in the open ocean. Many of these cells, especially cyanobacteria, are too small to be captured and consumed by small crustaceans and planktonic larvae. Instead, these cells are consumed by phagotrophic protists which are readily consumed by larger organisms. Viruses can infect and break open bacterial cells and (to a lesser extent), planktonic algae (a.k.a. phytoplankton). Therefore, viruses in the microbial food web act to reduce the population of bacteria and, by lysing bacterial cells, release particulate and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). DOC may also be released into the environment by algal cells. One of the reasons phytoplankton release DOC termed "unbalanced growth" is when essential nutrients (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus) are limiting. Therefore, carbon produced during photosynthesis is not used for the synthesis of proteins (and subsequent cell growth), but is limited due of a lack of the nutrients necessary for macromolecules. Excess photosynthate, or DOC is then released, or exuded.

text: In aquatic environments, microbes constitute the base of the

text: food web

text: . Single celled photosynthetic organisms such as

text: diatoms

text: and

text: cyanobacteria

text: are generally the most important primary producers in the open ocean. Many of these cells, especially cyanobacteria, are too small to be captured and consumed by small

text: crustaceans

text: and

text: planktonic

text: larva

text: e. Instead, these cells are consumed by

text: phagotrophic

text: protists

text: which are readily consumed by larger organisms.

text: Viruses

text: can infect and break open bacterial cells and (to a lesser extent), planktonic algae (a.k.a.

text: phytoplankton

text: ). Therefore, viruses in the microbial food web act to reduce the population of bacteria and, by lysing bacterial cells, release particulate and

text: dissolved organic carbon

text: (DOC). DOC may also be released into the environment by algal cells. One of the reasons phytoplankton release DOC termed "unbalanced growth" is when essential

text: nutrients

text: (e.g.

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: ) are limiting. Therefore, carbon produced during photosynthesis is not used for the synthesis of proteins (and subsequent cell growth), but is limited due of a lack of the nutrients necessary for

text: macromolecules

text: . Excess photosynthate, or DOC is then released, or exuded.

text: The World Health Organization, in conjunction with the Food and Agriculture Organization, published guidelines that can effectively be represented in a food pyramid relating to objectives to prevent obesity, chronic diseases and dental caries based on meta-analysis  though they represent it as a table rather than a "pyramid".  The structure is similar in some respects to the USDA food pyramid, but there are clear distinctions between types of fats, and a more dramatic distinction where carbohydrates are split on the basis of free sugars versus sugars in their natural form.  Some food substances are singled out due to the impact on the target issues the "pyramid" is meant to address, while in a later revision, some recommendations are omitted since they follow automatically from other recommendations while other sub-categories are added.  The reports quoted here explain that where there is no stated lower limit in the table below, there is no requirement for that nutrient in the diet.

text: The World Health Organization, in conjunction with the Food and Agriculture Organization, published guidelines that can effectively be represented in a food pyramid relating to objectives to prevent obesity, chronic diseases and dental caries based on meta-analysis  though they represent it as a table rather than a "pyramid".  The structure is similar in some respects to the USDA food pyramid, but there are clear distinctions between types of fats, and a more dramatic distinction where carbohydrates are split on the basis of

text: free sugar

text: s versus sugars in their natural form.  Some food substances are singled out due to the impact on the target issues the "pyramid" is meant to address, while in a later revision, some recommendations are omitted since they follow automatically from other recommendations while other sub-categories are added.  The reports quoted here explain that where there is no stated lower limit in the table below, there is no requirement for that nutrient in the diet.

text: Most humans eat an omnivorous diet (comprising animal source foods and plant source foods) though some civilisations have eaten only animal foods. Although a healthy diet containing all essential macro and micronutrients may be possible by only consuming a plant based diet (with vitamin B obtained from supplements if no animal sourced foods are consumed), some populations are unable to consume an adequate quantity or variety of these plant based items to obtain appropriate amounts of nutrients, particularly those that are found in high concentrations in ASF.  Frequently, the most vulnerable populations to these micronutrient deficiencies are pregnant women, infants, and children in developing countries. In the 1980s the Nutrition Collaborative Research Support Program (NCRSP) found that six micronutrients were low in the mostly vegetarian diets of children in malnourished areas of Egypt, Mexico, and Kenya. These six micronutrients are vitamin A, vitamin B, riboflavin, calcium, iron and zinc. ASF are the only food source of Vitamin B. ASF also provide high biological value protein, energy, fat compared with plant food sources.

text: Most humans eat an omnivorous diet (comprising animal source foods and plant source foods) though some civilisations have eaten only animal foods. Although a healthy diet containing all essential macro and micronutrients may be possible by only consuming a plant based diet (with vitamin B obtained from supplements if no animal sourced foods are consumed), some populations are unable to consume an adequate quantity or variety of these plant based items to obtain appropriate amounts of nutrients, particularly those that are found in high concentrations in ASF.  Frequently, the most vulnerable populations to these micronutrient deficiencies are pregnant women, infants, and children in developing countries. In the 1980s the Nutrition Collaborative Research Support Program (NCRSP) found that six micronutrients were low in the mostly vegetarian diets of children in malnourished areas of Egypt, Mexico, and Kenya. These six micronutrients are

text: vitamin A

text: vitamin B

text: riboflavin

text: calcium

text: iron

text: and

text: zinc

text: . ASF are the only food source of Vitamin B. ASF also provide high biological value protein, energy, fat compared with plant food sources.

text: The introduction of refrigeration allowed for the hygienic handling and storage of perishables, and as such, promoted output growth, consumption, and nutrition. The change in our method of food preservation moved us away from salts to a more manageable sodium level.  The ability to move and store perishables such as meat and dairy led to a 1.7% increase in dairy consumption and overall protein intake by 1.25% annually in the US after the 1890s.   People were not only consuming these perishables because it became easier for they themselves to store them, but because the innovations in refrigerated transportation and storage led to less spoilage and waste, and drove the prices of these products down. Refrigeration accounts for at least 5.1% of the increase in adult stature (in the US) through improved nutrition including the indirect effects associated with improvements in the quality of nutrients and the reduction in illness, the overall impact was considerably larger. Recent studies have also shown a negative relationship between the number of refrigerators in a household and the rate of gastric cancer mortality.

text: Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council describes discretionary foods as “foods and drinks not necessary to provide the nutrients the body needs, but that may add variety. However, many of these are high in saturated fats, sugars, salt and/or alcohol, and are therefore described as energy dense. They can be included sometimes in small amounts by those who are physically active, but are not a necessary part of the diet.”

text: Australia

text: 's

entity_name: National Health and Medical Research Council

text: National Health and Medical Research Council

text: describes discretionary foods as “foods and drinks not necessary to provide the nutrients the body needs, but that may add variety. However, many of these are high in saturated fats, sugars, salt and/or alcohol, and are therefore described as energy dense. They can be included sometimes in small amounts by those who are physically active, but are not a necessary part of the diet.”

text: Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor", such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin. People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases.

text: Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor", such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin. People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly

text: disease

text: s.

text: Most recently, MREs have been developed using the Dietary Reference Intake, created by the Institute of Medicine (IOM). The IOM indicated servicemembers (who were classified as highly active men between the ages of 18 and 30) typically burn about 4,200 Calories (kcal) a day, but tended to only consume about 2,400 Calories a day during combat, entering a negative energy balance. This imbalance occurs when servicemembers fail to consume full portions of their rations. Although manipulations to the food items and distribution of macronutrients to help boost the amount of kilocalories per MRE have been made, more studies are showing many servicemembers still do not meet today's standards of daily consumption, often trading and discarding portions of the ration. Researchers continue to study the habits and eating preferences of servicemembers, making constant changes that encourage servicemembers to eat the entire meal and thus get full nutritional value.

text: Most recently, MREs have been developed using the

text: Dietary Reference Intake

text: , created by the

text: Institute of Medicine

text: (IOM). The IOM indicated servicemembers (who were classified as highly active men between the ages of 18 and 30) typically burn about 4,200

text: Calorie

text: s (kcal) a day, but tended to only consume about 2,400 Calories a day during combat, entering a negative energy balance. This imbalance occurs when servicemembers fail to consume full portions of their rations. Although manipulations to the food items and distribution of

text: macronutrients

text: to help boost the amount of kilocalories per MRE have been made, more studies are showing many servicemembers still do not meet today's standards of daily consumption, often trading and discarding portions of the ration. Researchers continue to study the habits and eating preferences of servicemembers, making constant changes that encourage servicemembers to eat the entire meal and thus get full nutritional value.

text: There are numerous factors affecting post-harvest losses, from the soil in which the crop is grown to the handling of produce when it reaches the shop. Pre-harvest production practices may seriously affect post-harvest returns. Plants need a continuous supply of water for photosynthesis and transpiration. Damage can be caused by too much rain or irrigation, which can lead to decay; by too little water; and by irregular water supply, which can, for example, lead to growth cracks. Lack of plant food can affect the quality of fresh produce, causing stunted growth or discoloration of leaves, abnormal ripening and a range of other factors. Too much fertilizer can harm the development and post-harvest condition of produce. Good crop husbandry is important for reducing losses. Weeds compete with crops for nutrients and soil moisture. Decaying plant residues in the field are also a major loss factor.

text: There are numerous factors affecting post-harvest losses, from the soil in which the crop is grown to the handling of produce when it reaches the shop. Pre-harvest production practices may seriously affect post-harvest returns. Plants need a continuous supply of water for

text: photosynthesis

text: and

text: transpiration

text: . Damage can be caused by too much rain or

text: irrigation

text: , which can lead to decay; by too little water; and by irregular water supply, which can, for example, lead to growth cracks. Lack of plant food can affect the quality of fresh produce, causing stunted growth or discoloration of leaves, abnormal

text: ripening

text: and a range of other factors. Too much

text: fertilizer

text: can harm the development and post-harvest condition of produce. Good crop husbandry is important for reducing losses.

text: Weed

text: s compete with crops for

text: nutrients

text: and soil moisture. Decaying plant residues in the field are also a major loss factor.

text: Deep ocean minerals (DOM) are mineral nutrients (chemical elements) extracted from deep ocean water (DOW) found at ocean depths of between 250 and 1500 meters.  DOW contains over 70 mineral nutrients and trace elements including magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and potassium (K) in their bio ionic form. To extract these products, DOW is treated with micro filtration and reverse osmosis to desalinate and concentrate magnesium, other minerals and trace elements whilst eliminating the salt (sodium chloride).

text: Deep ocean minerals (DOM) are

text: mineral nutrient

text: s (

text: chemical element

text: s) extracted from

text: deep ocean water

text: (DOW) found at ocean depths of between 250 and 1500 meters.  DOW contains over 70 mineral nutrients and trace elements including

text: magnesium

text: (Mg),

text: calcium

text: (Ca) and

text: potassium

text: (K) in their bio ionic form. To extract these products, DOW is treated with

text: micro filtration

text: and

text: reverse osmosis

text: to

text: desalinate

text: and concentrate magnesium, other minerals and trace elements whilst eliminating the salt (

text: sodium chloride

text: The fruit body is the visible part of the growing fungus. It is supported by and develops from an extensive network of thread-like filaments called hyphae. Hyphae are often collectively termed the mycelium; the food-absorbing part of the fungus—as opposed to the spore-producing fruit body of the fungus—is called the vegetative mycelium. The individual hyphae that compose the mycelium absorb nutrients and water from the substratum in which they are growing. When the nutrient supply is adequate and environmental conditions are favorable, some fungi may grow in the same location for several years. Fungi cannot make their own food, namely carbohydrates, as can green plants. Some species are saprobic, obtaining nutrients from dead organic material, whereas others are parasitic on living plants or animals or even on other fungi. Many fungi, especially gilled mushroomes and boletes, have an extensive mycelium that lives in association with the roots of woody plants. This association, which is beneficial to both the fungus and host plant, is termed a mycorrhiza.

text: The fruit body is the visible part of the growing fungus. It is supported by and develops from an extensive network of thread-like filaments called

text: hypha

text: e. Hyphae are often collectively termed the

text: mycelium

text: ; the food-absorbing part of the fungus—as opposed to the spore-producing fruit body of the fungus—is called the vegetative mycelium. The individual hyphae that compose the mycelium absorb nutrients and water from the substratum in which they are growing. When the nutrient supply is adequate and environmental conditions are favorable, some fungi may grow in the same location for several years. Fungi cannot make their own food, namely

text: carbohydrate

text: s, as can green plants. Some species are

text: saprobic

text: , obtaining nutrients from dead

text: organic material

text: , whereas others are

text: parasitic

text: on living plants or animals or even on other fungi. Many fungi, especially gilled mushroomes and boletes, have an extensive mycelium that lives in association with the roots of woody plants. This association, which is beneficial to both the fungus and host plant, is termed a

text: mycorrhiza

text: Violence is a constant problem in the artisanal mining sector.  This is often caused by conflict between miners and police and private security personnel, and between different groups of miners competing for resources.  However, there is also a remarkable degree of mutual respect among the miners, especially in the face of the dangers presented by conflict above ground, and the danger of work underground. Typically, artisanal miners are young males, but there are occasional female underground workers.  Women and children are often involved in sorting and pulverising the ore above ground, and in transporting food, materials, and other logistic support.

text: Standard Yakult contains 14g of sugar for every 100g, but comes in 65 ml bottles. This concentration is higher than the level defined as "HIGH" by the UK Food Standards Agency (described for concentrations of sugar above 15g per 100g). As a comparison Coca-Cola and orange juice are around 10g of sugar per 100g, but with a serving size usually greater than 250 ml, while Yakult is served in much smaller doses. Based on the existence of many products like Yakult in the world market and the content of milk protein (1.4 g per 100 ml),it was classified as a fermented milk named "Fermented Milk Drinks" of the Codex Standard. Through nutrient profiling guidelines, current health claim regulation in European Union may forbid the use of health claim on food products that are nutritionally unbalanced, but dairy products and probiotic drinks are likely to be considered as favourable carrier because their health benefits outweigh the fact they might be high in one of the designated 'unhealthy' ingredients.

text: Standard Yakult contains 14g of sugar for every 100g, but comes in 65 ml bottles. This

text: concentration

text: is higher than the level defined as "HIGH" by the UK Food Standards Agency (described for concentrations of sugar above 15g per 100g). As a comparison

text: Coca-Cola

text: and

text: orange juice

text: are around 10g of sugar per 100g, but with a serving size usually greater than 250 ml, while Yakult is served in much smaller doses. Based on the existence of many products like Yakult in the world market and the content of milk protein (1.4 g per 100 ml),it was classified as a fermented milk named "Fermented Milk Drinks" of the Codex Standard. Through nutrient profiling guidelines, current health claim regulation in

text: European Union

text: may forbid the use of health claim on food products that are nutritionally unbalanced, but dairy products and probiotic drinks are likely to be considered as favourable carrier because their health benefits outweigh the fact they might be high in one of the designated 'unhealthy' ingredients.

text: Nutrigenomics is a branch of nutritional genomics and is the study of the effects of foods and food constituents on gene expression. This means that nutrigenomics is research focusing on identifying and understanding molecular-level interaction between nutrients and other dietary bioactives with the genome. Nutrigenomics has also been described by the influence of genetic variation on nutrition, by correlating gene expression or SNPs with a nutrient's absorption, metabolism, elimination or biological effects. By doing so, nutrigenomics aims to develop rational means to optimise nutrition with respect to the subject's genotype.

text: Nutrigenomics is a branch of

text: nutritional genomics

text: and is the study of the effects of

text: food

text: s and food constituents on

text: gene expression

text: . This means that nutrigenomics is research focusing on identifying and understanding molecular-level interaction between

text: nutrient

text: s and other dietary

text: bioactive

text: s with the

text: genome

text: . Nutrigenomics has also been described by the influence of genetic variation on

text: nutrition

text: , by correlating

text: gene

text: expression or

text: SNPs

text: with a nutrient's

text: absorption

text: metabolism

text: , elimination or biological effects. By doing so, nutrigenomics aims to develop rational means to optimise nutrition with respect to the subject's

text: genotype

text: Several organizations such as the WHO, FAO, Health Canada, and the Nestlé Research Center acknowledge that there are limitations to food fortification. Within the discussion of nutrient deficiencies the topic of nutrient toxicities can also be immediately questioned. Fortification of nutrients in foods may deliver toxic amounts of nutrients to an individual and also cause its associated side effects. As seen with the case of excessive fluoride intakes below, the result can be irreversible staining to the teeth. Although this may be a minor toxic effect to health, there are several that are more severe.

text: Several organizations such as the WHO, FAO,

text: Health Canada

text: , and the

text: Nestlé Research Center

text: acknowledge that there are limitations to food fortification. Within the discussion of nutrient deficiencies the topic of nutrient toxicities can also be immediately questioned. Fortification of nutrients in foods may deliver toxic amounts of nutrients to an individual and also cause its associated side effects. As seen with the case of excessive

text: fluoride

text: intakes below, the result can be irreversible staining to the teeth. Although this may be a minor toxic effect to health, there are several that are more severe.

text: The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure. Sugars are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications.

text: The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure.

text: Sugar

text: s are carbohydrates, but not all carbohydrates are sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule; they are used to store energy and

text: genetic information

text: , as well as play important roles in cell to

text: cell interactions

text: and

text: communications

text: Deficiencies of various micronutrients, including vitamin A, zinc, and iron are common in the developing world and affect billions of people. These can lead to, amongst other symptoms, a higher incidence of blindness, a weaker immune system, stunted growth and impaired cognitive development. The poor, particularly the rural poor, tend to subsist on a diet of staple crops such as rice, wheat and maize, which are low in these micronutrients, and most cannot afford or efficiently cultivate enough fruits, vegetables or meat products that are necessary to obtain healthy levels of these nutrients. As such, increasing the micronutrient levels in staple crops can help prevent and reduce the micronutrient deficiencies – in one trial in Mozambique, eating sweet potatoes biofortified with beta-carotene reduced the incidence of vitamin A deficiency in children by 24%.

text: Deficiencies of various micronutrients, including

text: vitamin A

text: zinc

text: , and

text: iron

text: are common in the developing world and affect billions of people. These can lead to, amongst other symptoms, a higher incidence of blindness, a weaker immune system, stunted growth and impaired cognitive development. The poor, particularly the rural poor, tend to subsist on a diet of staple crops such as

text: rice

text: wheat

text: and

text: maize

text: , which are low in these micronutrients, and most cannot afford or efficiently cultivate enough fruits, vegetables or meat products that are necessary to obtain healthy levels of these nutrients. As such, increasing the micronutrient levels in staple crops can help prevent and reduce the micronutrient deficiencies – in one trial in Mozambique, eating

text: sweet potato

text: es biofortified with beta-carotene reduced the incidence of vitamin A deficiency in children by 24%.

text: Often in lists of nutritional information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, lactic acid will be included under the term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") because this includes everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This means a value of 4 calories per gram will be used for any lactic acid in calculating the food energy.

text: Often in lists of

text: nutritional information

text: , such as the

text: USDA National Nutrient Database

text: , lactic acid will be included under the term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") because this includes everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This means a value of 4 calories per gram will be used for any lactic acid in calculating the

text: food energy

text: Because of the configuration of their glycosidic bonds, galacto-oligosaccharides largely resist hydrolysis by salivary and intestinal digestive enzymes. Therefore, they reach the end of the intestine virtually intact. The human intestine contains about 300-500 different species of bacteria that can be divided into health-promoting ones, like Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli and into harmful ones such as some types of Clostridia.  Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) are classified as prebiotics, defined as non-digestible food ingredients that beneficially affect the host by stimulating the growth and/or activity of beneficial bacteria in the colon. The increased activity of these health-promoting bacteria results in a number of health-related benefits both directly by the bacteria themselves or indirectly by the organic acids they produce via fermentation. Examples of potential health-promoting benefits are inhibition of the growth of harmful bacteria, stimulation of immune functions, absorption of essential nutrients and syntheses of certain vitamins.

text: Because of the configuration of their glycosidic bonds, galacto-oligosaccharides largely resist hydrolysis by salivary and intestinal

text: digestive enzyme

text: s. Therefore, they reach the end of the intestine virtually intact. The human intestine contains about 300-500 different species of bacteria that can be divided into health-promoting ones, like

text: Bifidobacteria

text: and

text: Lactobacilli

text: and into harmful ones such as some types of

text: Clostridia

text: .  Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) are classified as prebiotics, defined as non-digestible food ingredients that beneficially affect the host by stimulating the growth and/or activity of beneficial bacteria in the colon. The increased activity of these health-promoting bacteria results in a number of health-related benefits both directly by the bacteria themselves or indirectly by the

text: organic acid

text: s they produce via fermentation. Examples of potential health-promoting benefits are inhibition of the growth of harmful bacteria, stimulation of immune functions, absorption of

text: essential nutrient

text: s and syntheses of certain vitamins.

text: Solid lipid nanoparticles have recently materialized as a novel approach to oral and parenteral drug delivery systems. SLNs combine the advantages of lipid emulsion and polymeric nanoparticle systems while overcoming the temporal and in vivo stability issues that troubles the conventional as well as polymeric nanoparticles drug delivery approaches (Mehnert et al., 2001). It has been proposed that SLNs combine numerous advantages over the other colloidal carriers i.e. incorporation of lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs feasible, no biotoxicity of the carrier, avoidance of organic solvents, possibility of controlled drug release and drug targeting, increased drug stability and no problems with respect to large scale production. A recent study has demonstrated the use of solid lipid nanoparticles as a platform for oral delivery of the nutrient mineral iron, by incorporating the hydrophilic molecule ferrous sulphate (FeSO) in a lipid matrix composed of stearic acid. Carvedilol-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles were prepared using hot-homogenization technique for oral delivery using compritol and poloxamer 188 as a lipid and surfactant, respectively.

text: Solid lipid nanoparticles have recently materialized as a novel approach to oral and parenteral

text: drug delivery systems

text: . SLNs combine the advantages of lipid emulsion and polymeric nanoparticle systems while overcoming the temporal and in vivo stability issues that troubles the conventional as well as polymeric nanoparticles drug delivery approaches (Mehnert et al., 2001). It has been proposed that SLNs combine numerous advantages over the other colloidal carriers i.e. incorporation of lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs feasible, no biotoxicity of the carrier, avoidance of organic solvents, possibility of controlled drug release and drug targeting, increased drug stability and no problems with respect to large scale production. A recent study has demonstrated the use of solid lipid nanoparticles as a platform for oral delivery of the nutrient mineral iron, by incorporating the hydrophilic molecule ferrous sulphate (FeSO) in a lipid matrix composed of stearic acid. Carvedilol-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles were prepared using hot-homogenization technique for oral delivery using compritol and poloxamer 188 as a lipid and surfactant, respectively.

text: In static solution culture, plants are grown in containers of nutrient solution, such as glass Mason jars (typically, in-home applications), plastic buckets, tubs, or tanks. The solution is usually gently aerated but may be un-aerated. If un-aerated, the solution level is kept low enough that enough roots are above the solution so they get adequate oxygen. A hole is cut in the lid of the reservoir for each plant. There can be one to many plants per reservoir. Reservoir size can be increased as plant− size increases. A home made system can be constructed from plastic food containers or glass canning jars with aeration provided by an aquarium pump, aquarium airline tubing and aquarium valves. Clear containers are covered with aluminium foil, butcher paper, black plastic, or other material to exclude light, thus helping to eliminate the formation of algae. The nutrient solution is changed either on a schedule, such as once per week, or when the concentration drops below a certain level as determined with an electrical conductivity meter. Whenever the solution is depleted below a certain level, either water or fresh nutrient solution is added. A Mariotte's bottle, or a float valve, can be used to automatically maintain the solution level. In raft solution culture, plants are placed in a sheet of buoyant plastic that is floated on the surface of the nutrient solution. That way, the solution level never drops below the roots.

text: In static solution culture, plants are grown in containers of nutrient solution, such as glass

text: Mason jar

text: s (typically, in-home applications), plastic buckets, tubs, or tanks. The solution is usually gently aerated but may be un-aerated. If un-aerated, the solution level is kept low enough that enough roots are above the solution so they get adequate oxygen. A hole is cut in the lid of the reservoir for each plant. There can be one to many plants per reservoir. Reservoir size can be increased as plant− size increases. A home made system can be constructed from plastic food containers or glass canning jars with

text: aeration

text: provided by an aquarium pump, aquarium airline tubing and aquarium valves. Clear containers are covered with aluminium foil, butcher paper, black plastic, or other material to exclude light, thus helping to eliminate the formation of algae. The nutrient solution is changed either on a schedule, such as once per week, or when the concentration drops below a certain level as determined with an

text: electrical conductivity meter

text: . Whenever the solution is depleted below a certain level, either water or fresh nutrient solution is added. A

text: Mariotte's bottle

text: , or a float valve, can be used to automatically maintain the solution level. In raft solution culture, plants are placed in a sheet of buoyant plastic that is floated on the surface of the nutrient solution. That way, the solution level never drops below the roots.

text: Joisher's 45-day Everest expedition culminated in his climbing the summit on On 19 May 2016. Everest ascent is a multi-staged climb. First stage is getting to the base camp, then there are camps 1 to 4, from camp 4 is the final ascent to the summit. At the base camp, Joisher ate pohe, puri bhaji, dal rice, pav bhaji and vegan breads, pastas and burgers and vegan cakes were baked to celebrate birthdays and for the summit party. From base camp to Camp 4, climbers retain appetite for solid food, non-vegan climbers eat high protein products made from meat, dairy and eggs, which according to Joisher is wrong as what is needed is carbohydrates and electrolytes. However for four days that Joisher took for climbing from camp 3 to the summit and back to camp 2, including the Death Zone (height above 7925 m), Joisher only ate two Oreo biscuits which are vegan, he subsisted on a vegan gel manufactured by Unived, which according to Joisher, on ingestion releases carbohydrates and electrolytes instantly, unlike other foods that could take up to 10 hours. On successfully reaching the base camp, the first food that Joisher had was paper masala dosa, “It’s twice the size of a normal dosa.”  he is quoted saying.

text: Joisher's 45-day Everest expedition culminated in his climbing the summit on On 19 May 2016. Everest ascent is a multi-staged climb. First stage is getting to the base camp, then there are camps 1 to 4, from camp 4 is the final ascent to the summit. At the base camp, Joisher ate

text: pohe

text: puri bhaji

text: dal rice

text: pav bhaji

text: and vegan breads, pastas and burgers and vegan cakes were baked to celebrate birthdays and for the summit party. From base camp to Camp 4, climbers retain appetite for solid food, non-vegan climbers eat high protein products made from meat, dairy and eggs, which according to Joisher is wrong as what is needed is carbohydrates and electrolytes. However for four days that Joisher took for climbing from camp 3 to the summit and back to camp 2, including the

text: Death Zone

text: (height above 7925 m), Joisher only ate two

text: Oreo biscuits

text: which are vegan, he subsisted on a vegan gel manufactured by Unived, which according to Joisher, on ingestion releases carbohydrates and electrolytes instantly, unlike other foods that could take up to 10 hours. On successfully reaching the base camp, the first food that Joisher had was

text: paper masala dosa

text: , “It’s twice the size of a normal dosa.”  he is quoted saying.

text: Food enters in the mouth. The pharynx acts as a suction pump; its muscular walls draw in food. In the pharynx, the pharyngeal glands secrete mucus. Food moves into the esophagus, where calcium (from the blood and ingested from previous meals) is pumped in to maintain proper blood calcium levels in the blood and food pH. From there the food passes into the crop and gizzard. In the gizzard, strong muscular contractions grind the food with the help of mineral particles ingested along with the food. Once through the gizzard, food continues through the intestine for digestion. The intestine secretes Pepsin to digest proteins, Amylase to digest polysaccharides, Cellulase to digest cellulose, and lipase to digest fats. Earthworms use in addition to the digestive proteins a class of surface active compounds called drilodefensins, which help digest plant material. Instead of being coiled like a mammalian intestine, an earthworm's intestine increases surface area to increase nutrient absorption by having many folds running along its length. The intestine has its own pair of muscle layers like the body, but in reverse order—an inner circular layer within an outer longitudinal layer. The gizzard is a somewhat of a unique organ to the worm as it is found in very few animals.

text: Food enters in the mouth. The pharynx acts as a suction pump; its muscular walls draw in food. In the pharynx, the pharyngeal glands secrete mucus. Food moves into the esophagus, where calcium (from the blood and ingested from previous meals) is pumped in to maintain proper blood calcium levels in the blood and food pH. From there the food passes into the crop and gizzard. In the gizzard, strong muscular contractions grind the food with the help of mineral particles ingested along with the food. Once through the gizzard, food continues through the intestine for digestion. The intestine secretes

text: Pepsin

text: to digest proteins,

text: Amylase

text: to digest polysaccharides,

text: Cellulase

text: to digest cellulose, and lipase to digest fats. Earthworms use in addition to the digestive proteins a class of surface active compounds called

text: drilodefensins

text: , which help digest plant material. Instead of being coiled like a mammalian intestine, an earthworm's intestine increases surface area to increase nutrient absorption by having many folds running along its length. The intestine has its own pair of muscle layers like the body, but in reverse order—an inner circular layer within an outer longitudinal layer. The gizzard is a somewhat of a unique organ to the worm as it is found in very few animals.

text: The pumping of water is a basic and practical technique, far more practical than scooping it up with one's hands or lifting it in a hand-held bucket. This is true whether the water is drawn from a fresh source, moved to a needed location, purified, or used for irrigation, washing, or sewage treatment, or for evacuating water from an undesirable location. Regardless of the outcome, the energy required to pump water is an extremely demanding component of water consumption. All other processes depend or benefit either from water descending from a higher elevation or some pressurized plumbing system.

text: The pumping of

text: water

text: is a basic and practical technique, far more practical than scooping it up with one's hands or lifting it in a hand-held bucket. This is true whether the water is drawn from a

text: fresh source

text: , moved to a needed location,

text: purified

text: , or used for

text: irrigation

text: , washing, or

text: sewage treatment

text: , or for evacuating water from an undesirable location. Regardless of the outcome, the

text: energy

text: required to

text: pump

text: water is an extremely demanding component of water consumption. All other processes depend or benefit either from water descending from a higher elevation or some pressurized plumbing system.

text: C. marshalli features the biggest horn, where it stands straight up about 1 cm. There are several probable functions for this horn: according to a study by Rick C. West in 1986, it provides an increased surface for the attachment of the dorsal dilator muscle, which aids in drawing in liquefied food into the sucking stomach at a faster rate; this way, the spider can retreat to a safe place faster. It also increases the area for the midgut diverticula to expand during times of nutrient and water availability, analogous to a camel's hump, helping it to survive in its arid habitat during droughts.

text: Lactitol is used in a variety of low food energy or low fat foods.  High stability makes it popular for baking. It is used in sugar-free candies, cookies (biscuits), chocolate, and ice cream.  Lactitol also promotes colon health as a prebiotic.  Because of poor absorption, lactitol only has 2.4 Calories (9 kilojoules) per gram, compared to 4 Calories (17 kJ) per gram for typical carbohydrates.

text: Lactitol is used in a variety of low

text: food energy

text: or

text: low fat

text: foods.  High stability makes it popular for

text: baking

text: . It is used in

text: sugar-free

text: candies

text: cookies (biscuits)

text: chocolate

text: , and

text: ice cream

text: .  Lactitol also promotes

text: colon

text: health as a

text: prebiotic

text: .  Because of poor absorption, lactitol only has 2.4

text: Calorie

text: s (9

text: kilojoule

text: s) per

text: gram

text: , compared to 4 Calories (17 kJ) per gram for typical

text: carbohydrate

text: s.

text: Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals which are said to influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.

text: Other micronutrients include

text: antioxidants

text: and

text: phytochemicals

text: which are said to influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.

text: Blueberries consist of 14% carbohydrates, 0.7% protein, 0.3% fat and 84% water (table). They contain only negligible amounts of micronutrients, with moderate levels (relative to respective Daily Values) (DV) of the essential dietary mineral manganese, vitamin C, vitamin K and dietary fiber (table). Generally, nutrient contents of blueberries are a low percentage of the DV (table). One serving provides a relatively low caloric value of 57 kcal per 100 g serving and glycemic load score of 6 out of 100 per day.

text: Blueberries consist of 14%

text: carbohydrates

text: , 0.7%

text: protein

text: , 0.3%

text: fat

text: and 84%

text: water

text: (table). They contain only negligible amounts of

text: micronutrients

text: , with moderate levels (relative to respective

text: Daily Value

text: s) (DV) of the essential

text: dietary mineral

text: manganese

text: vitamin C

text: vitamin K

text: and

text: dietary fiber

text: (table). Generally, nutrient contents of blueberries are a low percentage of the DV (table). One serving provides a relatively low

text: caloric value

text: of 57

text: kcal

text: per 100 g serving and

text: glycemic load

text: score of 6 out of 100 per day.

text: When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "Vitamine" (a portmanteau of "vital amine") in 1912.

text: When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. Polish biochemist

text: Kazimierz Funk

text: isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "

text: Vitamin

text: e" (a

text: portmanteau

text: of "vital amine") in 1912.

text: The southern grass skink has become a model species for reproductive biology in reptiles because it gives birth to live young and exhibits non-invasive epitheliochorial placentation. Unlike other live bearing reptiles, Pseudemoia develop complex placentae, which provide a substantial amount of nutrients to the embryo through pregnancy.  The amount of nutrients provided is dependent on the amount of food females consume during pregnancy, and, unlike other live-bearing reptiles, scarcity of food during pregnancy can cause developmental failure.  When food is limiting, females will also cannibalize their offspring.  Together, these results suggest that placental nutrient transport may only be a successful mode of reproduction if food is abundant throughout pregnancy, which may limit its opportunities to evolve in some reptiles. Lipid transport in this species most likely occurs through the yolk sac placenta and is facilitated in part by the production of the protein lipoprotein lipase. The first observation of an  extra-uterine pregnancy in a reptile was found in this species. The extra-uterine embryo did not invade maternal tissue, suggesting fundamental differences between the nature and  evolution of placentation in southern grass skinks and eutherian mammals.

text: The southern grass skink has become a model species for reproductive biology in reptiles because it gives birth to

text: live young

text: and exhibits non-invasive

text: epitheliochorial

text: placentation

text: . Unlike other live bearing reptiles, Pseudemoia develop complex placentae, which provide a substantial amount of nutrients to the embryo through pregnancy.  The amount of nutrients provided is dependent on the amount of food females consume during pregnancy, and, unlike other live-bearing reptiles, scarcity of food during pregnancy can cause developmental failure.  When food is limiting, females will also

text: cannibalize

text: their offspring.  Together, these results suggest that placental nutrient transport may only be a successful mode of reproduction if food is abundant throughout pregnancy, which may limit its opportunities to evolve in some reptiles. Lipid transport in this species most likely occurs through the yolk sac placenta and is facilitated in part by the production of the protein

text: lipoprotein lipase

text: . The first observation of an

text: extra-uterine pregnancy

text: in a

text: reptile

text: was found in this species. The extra-uterine

text: embryo

text: did not invade maternal tissue, suggesting fundamental differences between the nature and

text: evolution

text: of placentation in southern grass skinks and

text: eutherian

text: mammals

text: The diet is based on Diamond's exploration of Herbert M. Shelton theories of  food combining. Both authors claimed to be able to bring about weight loss without the need to count calories or undertake anything more than a reasonable exercise program. In the first version of the program, Diamond claimed that if one eats the foods in the wrong combination they "cause fermentation" in the stomach. This in turns gives rise to the destruction of valuable enzymes & nutrients. Diamond categorized foods into two groups : "dead foods" that "clog" the body, and "living foods" that "cleanse" it. According to Fit for Life principles, dead foods are those that have highly refined or highly processed origins; while living foods are raw fruits and vegetables. The basic points of Fit for Life are as follows:

text: The diet is based on Diamond's exploration of

text: Herbert M. Shelton

text: theories of

text: food combining

text: . Both authors claimed to be able to bring about weight loss without the need to count calories or undertake anything more than a reasonable exercise program. In the first version of the program, Diamond claimed that if one eats the foods in the wrong combination they "cause fermentation" in the stomach. This in turns gives rise to the destruction of valuable enzymes & nutrients. Diamond categorized foods into two groups : "dead foods" that "clog" the body, and "living foods" that "cleanse" it. According to Fit for Life principles, dead foods are those that have highly refined or highly processed origins; while living foods are raw fruits and vegetables. The basic points of Fit for Life are as follows:

text: Like most other Proteaceae, B. spinulosa has proteoid roots, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation of nutrients, allowing nutrient uptake in low-nutrient soils such as the phosphorus-deficient native soils of Australia.

text: Like most other

text: Proteaceae

text: , B. spinulosa has

text: proteoid root

text: s, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance

text: solubilisation

text: of

text: nutrient

text: s, allowing nutrient

text: uptake

text: in low-nutrient soils such as the

text: phosphorus

text: -deficient native soils of

text: Australia

text: In 2008 the public interest law firm Earthjustice sued the EPA on behalf of five environmental groups, claiming that delays by both state and federal governments in establishing quantitaive (rather than qualitative) limits for nutrient pollution of Florida's waters were unacceptable. In August 2009 the Obama administration settled the lawsuit by agreeing to begin the process of imposing enforceable EPA standards for nutrient levels in the public waters of Florida.

text: In 2008 the public interest law firm

text: Earthjustice

text: sued the

text: EPA

text: on behalf of five environmental groups, claiming that delays by both state and federal governments in establishing quantitaive (rather than qualitative) limits for

text: nutrient pollution

text: of Florida's waters were unacceptable. In August 2009 the Obama administration settled the lawsuit by agreeing to begin the process of imposing enforceable EPA standards for nutrient levels in the public waters of Florida.

text: Some health experts say that Bamba should not be promoted as a "healthy" children's snack. They say this claim is deceptive, and the added vitamins in Bamba could result in over-consumption of nutrients.

text: A major challenge for lipidomics, in particular for MS-based approaches, lies in the computational and bioinformatic demands of handling the large amount of data that arise at various stages along the chain of information acquisition and processing. Chromatographic and MS data collection requires substantial efforts in spectral alignment and statistical evaluation of fluctuations in signal intensities. Such variations have a multitude of origins, including biological variations, sample handling and analytical accuracy. As a consequence several replicates are normally required for reliable determination of lipid levels in complex mixtures. Within the last few years, a number of software packages have been developed by various companies and research groups to analyze data generated by MS profiling of metabolites, including lipids. The data processing for differential profiling usually proceed through several stages, including input file manipulation, spectral filtering, peak detection, chromatographic alignment, normalization, visualization, and data export. An example of metabolic profiling software is the freely-available Java-based Mzmine application. Some software packages such as Markerview include multivariate statistical analysis (for example, principal component analysis) and these will be helpful for the identification of correlations in lipid metabolites that are associated with a physiological phenotype, in particular for the development of lipid-based biomarkers.Another objective of the information technology side of lipidomics involves the construction of metabolic maps from data on lipid structures and lipid-related protein and genes. Some of these lipid pathways are extremely complex, for example the mammalian glycosphingolipid pathway. The establishment of searchable and interactive databases of lipids and lipid-related genes/proteins is also an extremely important resource as a reference for the lipidomics community. Integration of these databases with MS and other experimental data, as well as with metabolic networks offers an opportunity to devise therapeutic strategies to prevent or reverse these pathological states involving dysfunction of lipid-related processes.

text: One of Phat Beets Produce’s prized programs is Decolonize your diet. This program strives to liberate community members and helps people claim back their culture through food. Decolonize your diet was first started on what they call, indigenous day, which is an alternative to Columbus Day as it counters the narrative of Christopher Colombus discovering the new world and bringing civilization to it. Phat Beets tries to encourage people in the community to go back to their roots and learn about what has happened throughout the history of colonization and how it has been manifested in their diets. Decolonizing your diet addresses the issue of food justice in how poor people and people of color are poisoned by the foods that are accessible to them. In addition, Phat Beets calls for a further analysis of food justice overall that in order to understand such phenomena as “food deserts,” and unequal health outcomes in low income communities of color their needs to be a focus and understanding of how and why this came to be. Phat Beets stresses that this can be achieved through studying histories of institutionalized racism and disinvestment from low income communities of color.

text: One of Phat Beets Produce’s prized programs is

text: Decolonize your diet

text: . This program strives to liberate community members and helps people claim back their culture through food. Decolonize your diet was first started on what they call, indigenous day, which is an alternative to

text: Columbus Day

text: as it counters the narrative of

text: Christopher Colombus

text: discovering the new world and bringing civilization to it. Phat Beets tries to encourage people in the community to go back to their roots and learn about what has happened throughout the history of

text: colonization

text: and how it has been manifested in their diets.

text: Decolonizing

text: your diet addresses the issue of

text: food justice

text: in how poor people and people of color are poisoned by the foods that are accessible to them. In addition, Phat Beets calls for a further analysis of

text: food justice

text: overall that in order to understand such phenomena as

text: “food deserts,”

text: and unequal health outcomes in low income communities of color their needs to be a focus and understanding of how and why this came to be. Phat Beets stresses that this can be achieved through studying histories of

text: institutionalized racism

text: and

text: disinvestment

text: from low income communities of color.

text: As people get older, their bodies change. This includes their taste buds, their needs of certain vitamins and nutrients, and their desire for different types of food. In a study by the Monell Chemical Senses Center, fifty young-adults and forty-eight elderly subjects participated in the study. Young subjects ranged from eighteen to thirty-five years of age and elderly subjects were sixty-five years of age or older. There were more females than males in the study, but there were approximately equal proportions of males and females in the two age groups.

text: As people get older, their bodies change. This includes their

text: taste bud

text: s, their needs of certain

text: vitamin

text: s and

text: nutrient

text: s, and their desire for different types of food. In a study by the

text: Monell Chemical Senses Center

text: , fifty young-adults and forty-eight elderly subjects participated in the study. Young subjects ranged from eighteen to thirty-five years of age and elderly subjects were sixty-five years of age or older. There were more females than males in the study, but there were approximately equal proportions of males and females in the two age groups.

text: Contemporary investigations have found that there is a prevailing social framework in place during gatherings of gaming enthusiasts or 'gamers'. Mäyrä (2008, p. 25) suggests that gamers who gather together to play possess a shared language, engage in collective rituals and are often interested in cultural artifacts such as gaming paraphernalia. Cronin and McCarthy (2011) have also explored a liminal, hedonic food culture to be present among these socially connected actors. The commensal consumption of energy dense low nutrient foods is considered to be appropriated during long stretches of gameplay to contribute to the community and hedonistic aspects of social gaming.In response to the central importance that food plays in the collective enjoyment of social gaming, various websites have been created which allow gamers to rate their favourite foods to accompany play.

text: The effect of a nutrient deficiency can vary from a subtle depression of growth rate to obvious stunting, deformity, discoloration, distress, and even death. Visual symptoms distinctive enough to be useful in identifying a deficiency are rare. Most deficiencies are multiple and moderate. However, while a deficiency is seldom that of a single nutrient, nitrogen is commonly the nutrient in shortest supply.

text: Because of increasing global temperature there is a direct correlation to lower productivity in Lake Tanganyika  Southern winds create upwells of deep nutrient-rich water on the southern end of the lake. This happens during the cooler months (May to September). These nutrients that are in deep water are vital in maintaining the aquatic food web. The southernly winds are slowing down which limits the ability for the mixing of nutrients. This is correlating with less productivity in the lake.

text: Because of increasing global temperature there is a direct correlation to lower productivity in Lake Tanganyika  Southern winds create upwells of deep nutrient-rich water on the southern end of the lake. This happens during the cooler months (May to September). These nutrients that are in deep water are vital in maintaining the aquatic

text: food web

text: . The southernly winds are slowing down which limits the ability for the mixing of nutrients. This is correlating with less productivity in the lake.

text: The World's Healthiest Foods is a nutrition guide by George Mateljan. The book provides recipes and promotes methods of food selection and preparation that help retain the maximum nutritional value found in the elaborated health-promoting foods. The book is a source for selected whole foods that are the richest sources of many essential nutrients needed for optimal health and vitality. The book promotes fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains, nuts and seeds, lean meat, fish, and olive oil as the main components of a healthy diet, supporting claims with recent scientific research references.

text: The World's Healthiest Foods is a nutrition guide by

text: George Mateljan

text: . The book provides recipes and promotes methods of food selection and preparation that help retain the maximum nutritional value found in the elaborated health-promoting foods. The book is a source for selected

text: whole foods

text: that are the richest sources of many

text: essential nutrients

text: needed for optimal health and vitality. The book promotes fresh fruits and vegetables,

text: whole grains

text: , nuts and seeds, lean meat, fish, and

text: olive oil

text: as the main components of a

text: healthy diet

text: , supporting claims with recent scientific research references.

text: The minerals that form are directly controlled by the bulk chemistry of the parent body. For example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form mafic minerals, such as olivine and the pyroxenes; in contrast, a more silica-rich magma will crystallize to form minerals that incorporate more SiO, such as the feldspars and quartz. In a limestone, calcite or aragonite (both CaCO) form because the rock is rich in calcium and carbonate.  A corollary is that a mineral will not be found in a rock whose bulk chemistry does not resemble the bulk chemistry of a given mineral with the exception of trace minerals. For example, kyanite, AlSiO forms from the metamorphism of aluminium-rich shales; it would not likely occur in aluminium-poor rock, such quartzite.

text: The minerals that form are directly controlled by the bulk chemistry of the parent body. For example, a

text: magma

text: rich in iron and magnesium will form

text: mafic

text: minerals, such as olivine and the pyroxenes; in contrast, a more silica-rich magma will crystallize to form minerals that incorporate more SiO, such as the feldspars and quartz. In a

text: limestone

text: calcite

text: or

text: aragonite

text: (both CaCO) form because the rock is rich in calcium and carbonate.  A corollary is that a mineral will not be found in a rock whose bulk chemistry does not resemble the bulk chemistry of a given mineral with the exception of trace minerals. For example,

text: kyanite

text: , AlSiO forms from the

text: metamorphism

text: of aluminium-rich

text: shale

text: s; it would not likely occur in aluminium-poor rock, such

text: quartzite

text: Lipids, also known as fats, also serve to store energy, but in the long term. Due to their unique structure, lipids provide more than twice the amount of energy that carbohydrates do. Lipids can be used as insulation, as it is present below the layer of skin in living organisms. Moreover, lipids can be used in hormone production to maintain a healthy hormonal balance and provide structure to your cell walls.

text: Generally the Lundehund is a very healthy breed with very few health problems. The major issue with the Lundehund is gastroenteropathy which is a set of digestive disorders, and a loss of ability to absorb nutrients from food. In extreme cases the dog can starve due to its inability  to derive nutrients and protein from food, regardless of food intake. It is uncertain or not if all Lundehunds have the genetics to have this illness, since not every Lundehund is severely afflicted and some are symptom free. There is no cure, though the disease can be managed. There are indications that for the Lundehund to go on a low fat and higher protein diet has very positive effects on the health with respect to digestive problems.

text: Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is leaching, where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C does not leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows broccoli seems to retain more than any other. Research has also shown that freshly cut fruits do not lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.

text: Another cause of vitamin C being lost from food is

text: leaching

text: , where the water-soluble vitamin dissolves into the cooking water, which is later poured away and not consumed. However, vitamin C does not leach in all vegetables at the same rate; research shows

text: broccoli

text: seems to retain more than any other. Research has also shown that freshly cut fruits do not lose significant nutrients when stored in the refrigerator for a few days.

text: Whole-grain whole wheat flour is a full-flavored flour containing vitamins, minerals and protein. Whole-grain whole wheat flour is more nutritious than refined white flour, although white flour may, in a process called food fortification, have some micronutrients lost in processing added back to the white flour (required by law in some jurisdictions). Fortified white flour does not, however, contain the macronutrients of the wheat's bran and germ (especially fiber and protein) like whole-grain flour does, and is notably lacking in fiber. Whole grain is a good source of calcium, iron, fiber, and other minerals like selenium.

text: Whole-grain whole wheat flour is a full-flavored flour containing vitamins,

text: minerals

text: and protein. Whole-grain whole wheat flour is more

text: nutritious

text: than refined white flour, although white flour may, in a process called

text: food fortification

text: , have some

text: micronutrient

text: s lost in processing added back to the white flour (required by law in some jurisdictions). Fortified white flour does not, however, contain the

text: macronutrient

text: s of the wheat's bran and germ (especially

text: fiber

text: and

text: protein

text: ) like whole-grain flour does, and is notably lacking in fiber. Whole grain is a good source of

text: calcium

text: iron

text: fiber

text: , and other minerals like

text: selenium

text: Sex discrimination in Gerridae is determined through communication of ripple frequency produced on the water surface. Males predominantly produce these ripples in the water. There are three main frequencies found in ripple communication: 25 Hz as a repel signal, 10 Hz as a threat signal, and 3 Hz as a courtship signal. An approaching gerrid will first give out a repel signal to let the other water strider know they are in its area. If the other gerrid does not return the repel signal, then the bug knows it is a female and will switch to the courtship signal. A receptive female will lower her abdomen and allow the male to mount her and mate. A non-receptive female will raise her abdomen and emit a repel signal. Males that are allowed to mate stay attached to the same female for the entire reproductive season. This is to ensure that the female's young belong to the mounting male and thus guarantee the spread of his genes. Females oviposit, or lay their eggs, by submerging and attaching the eggs to stable surfaces such as plants or stones. Some water strider species will lay the eggs at the water edge if the body of water is calm enough. The amount of eggs laid depends on the amount of food available to the mother during the reproductive season. The availability of food and dominance among other gerrids in the area both play crucial roles in the amount of food obtained and thus, resulting fecundity. Water striders will reproduce all year long in tropical regions where it remains warm, but only during the warm months in seasonal habitats. Gerrids that live in environments with winters will overwinter in the adult stage. This is due to the large energy cost which would need to be spent to maintain their body temperature at functional levels. These water striders have been found in leaf litter or under stationary shelters such as logs and rocks during the winter in seasonal areas. This reproductive diapause is a result of shortening day lengths during larval development and seasonal variation in lipid levels. Shorter day length signals the water strider of the coming temperature drops, also acting as a physical signal the body uses to store lipids throughout the body as food sources. Water striders use these lipids to metabolize during their hibernation. The length of the hibernation depends when the environment warms and the days become longer again.

text: Sex discrimination in Gerridae is determined through communication of ripple

text: frequency

text: produced on the water surface. Males predominantly produce these ripples in the water. There are three main frequencies found in ripple communication: 25 Hz as a repel signal, 10 Hz as a threat signal, and 3 Hz as a courtship signal. An approaching gerrid will first give out a repel signal to let the other water strider know they are in its area. If the other gerrid does not return the repel signal, then the bug knows it is a female and will switch to the courtship signal. A receptive female will lower her abdomen and allow the male to mount her and mate. A non-receptive female will raise her abdomen and emit a repel signal. Males that are allowed to mate stay attached to the same female for the entire reproductive season. This is to ensure that the female's young belong to the mounting male and thus guarantee the spread of his genes. Females oviposit, or lay their eggs, by submerging and attaching the eggs to stable surfaces such as plants or stones. Some water strider species will lay the eggs at the water edge if the body of water is calm enough. The amount of eggs laid depends on the amount of food available to the mother during the reproductive season. The availability of food and dominance among other gerrids in the area both play crucial roles in the amount of food obtained and thus, resulting

text: fecundity

text: . Water striders will reproduce all year long in

text: tropical

text: regions where it remains warm, but only during the warm months in seasonal habitats. Gerrids that live in environments with winters will overwinter in the adult stage. This is due to the large energy cost which would need to be spent to maintain their body temperature at functional levels. These water striders have been found in leaf litter or under stationary shelters such as logs and rocks during the winter in seasonal areas. This reproductive

text: diapause

text: is a result of shortening day lengths during larval development and seasonal variation in

text: lipid

text: levels. Shorter day length signals the water strider of the coming temperature drops, also acting as a physical signal the body uses to store lipids throughout the body as food sources. Water striders use these lipids to metabolize during their

text: hibernation

text: . The length of the hibernation depends when the environment warms and the days become longer again.

text: Because commercial pet foods are assumed to be the primary or exclusive element of a pet's diet, manufacturers enrich their product by supplementing the food with vitamins and minerals.  As the heat used to process commercial pet foods may reduce the level of naturally occurring nutrients, critics question the actual nutritional value of commercial foods. Critics argue that there may be elements to pet nutrition yet to be discovered or that are not understood well enough to be supplemented.  There is skepticism over the efficacy of supplements vs the natural absorption of naturally occurring nutrients.  The same rationale is used by some to reject supplemented home cooked pet food. A study involving rats has suggested that the digestibility of the amino acids in cat food is altered during heat processing.

text: Because commercial pet foods are assumed to be the primary or exclusive element of a pet's diet, manufacturers enrich their product by supplementing the food with vitamins and minerals.  As the heat used to process commercial pet foods may reduce the level of naturally occurring nutrients, critics question the actual nutritional value of commercial foods. Critics argue that there may be elements to pet nutrition yet to be discovered or that are not understood well enough to be supplemented.  There is skepticism over the efficacy of supplements vs the natural absorption of naturally occurring nutrients.  The same rationale is used by some to reject supplemented home cooked pet food. A study involving rats has suggested that the digestibility of the

text: amino acid

text: s in cat food is altered during heat processing.

text: The value of eating a certain food to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a person may help with night blindness, an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency. The advancement of ocean voyages during the Renaissance resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews.

text: The value of eating a certain food to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient

text: Egypt

text: ians knew that feeding

text: liver

text: to a person may help with

text: night blindness

text: , an illness now known to be caused by a

text: vitamin A

text: deficiency. The advancement of ocean voyages during the

text: Renaissance

text: resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships' crews.

text: This is because while wealthy urban residents have access to better education and food, their rural, chronically poor counterparts are less educated, have lower literacy levels, and have limited food access. In 1997, 900,000 households that were located in formal reserves had no arable land access, 1.4 million had no access to any livestock besides chickens, and 770,000 households had access to neither arable land or other livestock. Unfortunately, many of the rural households that did have access to livestock had to sell the livestock in order to alleviate poverty. All this results in a severe shortage of food among the rural poor, thereby leading to a shortage of nutrients.

text: Essential Foods manufactures and supplies dog and cat food across Europe. Its products are prepared in the United Kingdom, and ninety-five percent of the pet food ingredients are products of rural England, Wales, and Scotland. Red fallow deer, trout, and Gressingham Duck—heritage products of the United Kingdom—are among the ingredients. Essential Foods also contain vegetables, berries, linseed, fruit, and herbs. The company offers nine different types of food, none of which include grains. Pet food that contains a high proportion of meant, fruit, and vegetables and low carbohydrate content is widely believed to be better for pet health. Essential Foods are sold through online boutiques, retail distributors including Fressnapf in Denmark, Fifty Sheep in the UK, Amazon.co.uk, and several independent retailers in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Poland, Norway, Sweden & Denmark.

text: Essential Foods manufactures and supplies dog and cat food across Europe. Its products are prepared in the United Kingdom, and ninety-five percent of the pet food ingredients are products of rural England, Wales, and Scotland. Red

text: fallow deer

text: , trout, and Gressingham Duck—heritage products of the United Kingdom—are among the ingredients. Essential Foods also contain vegetables, berries,

text: linseed

text: , fruit, and herbs. The company offers nine different types of food, none of which include grains. Pet food that contains a high proportion of meant, fruit, and vegetables and low carbohydrate content is widely believed to be better for pet health. Essential Foods are sold through

text: online boutiques

text: , retail distributors including

text: Fressnapf

text: in Denmark, Fifty Sheep in the UK, Amazon.co.uk, and several independent retailers in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Poland, Norway, Sweden & Denmark.

text: WFP food aid is also directed to fight micronutrient deficiencies, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, and combat disease, including HIV and AIDS.  Food-for-work programmes help promote environmental and economic stability and agricultural production.

text: WFP food aid is also directed to fight

text: micronutrient

text: deficiencies, reduce

text: child mortality

text: , improve maternal health, and combat disease, including

text: HIV

text: and

text: AIDS

text: .  Food-for-work programmes help promote environmental and economic stability and agricultural production.

text: Previous applications: Knowing what’s been applied to the field in years past will offer insight into what may already be in the ground or what nutrients may no longer be present.

text: Pure water has a pH close to 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic). Sea water can have  pH values that range from 7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can have widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of the drainage basin or aquifer and the influence of contaminant inputs (acid rain). If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide can be added to raise the pH during water purification processes. Lime addition increases the calcium ion concentration, thus raising the water hardness. For highly acidic waters, forced draft degasifiers can be an effective way to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved carbon dioxide from the water. Making the water alkaline helps coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimize the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and from lead solder in pipe fittings.  Sufficient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of water to iron pipes. Acid (carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid) may be added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water (above pH 7.0) does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the water.  The ability of water to precipitate calcium carbonate to protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood of toxic metals being dissolved in water is a function of pH, mineral content, temperature, alkalinity and calcium concentration.

text: Pure water has a

text: pH

text: close to 7 (neither

text: alkaline

text: nor

text: acidic

text: Sea water

text: can have  pH values that range from 7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can have widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of the

text: drainage basin

text: or

text: aquifer

text: and the influence of contaminant inputs (

text: acid rain

text: ). If the water is acidic (lower than 7),

text: lime

text: soda ash

text: , or

text: sodium hydroxide

text: can be added to raise the pH during water purification processes. Lime addition increases the calcium ion concentration, thus raising the water hardness. For highly acidic waters, forced draft

text: degasifiers

text: can be an effective way to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved carbon dioxide from the water. Making the water alkaline helps

text: coagulation

text: and

text: flocculation

text: processes work effectively and also helps to minimize the risk of

text: lead

text: being dissolved from lead pipes and from lead

text: solder

text: in pipe fittings.  Sufficient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of water to iron pipes. Acid (

text: carbonic acid

text: hydrochloric acid

text: or

text: sulfuric acid

text: ) may be added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water (above pH 7.0) does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the water.  The ability of water to precipitate calcium carbonate to protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood of toxic metals being dissolved in water is a function of pH, mineral content, temperature, alkalinity and calcium concentration.

text: Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C). The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as enzyme cofactors (coenzymes) or the precursors for them; coenzymes help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism. In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.

text: Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some, such as

text: vitamin D

text: , have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others function as

text: antioxidants

text: (e.g.,

text: vitamin E

text: and sometimes

text: vitamin C

text: ). The largest number of vitamins, the

text: B complex

text: vitamins, function as enzyme

text: cofactor

text: s (

text: coenzymes

text: ) or the

text: precursors

text: for them; coenzymes help

text: enzyme

text: s in their work as

text: catalyst

text: s in

text: metabolism

text: . In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of

text: prosthetic group

text: s: For example,

text: biotin

text: is part of enzymes involved in making

text: fatty acid

text: s. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable molecules that function to carry

text: chemical groups

text: or electrons between molecules. For example,

text: folic acid

text: may carry

text: methyl

text: formyl

text: , and

text: methylene

text: groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.

text: As aforementioned, another major factor that influences OSR is potential rate of reproduction (PRR). Any sexual differences in the PRR will also change the OSR, so it is important to look at factors that change PRR as well. These include constraints to environmental factors such as food or nesting sites. For example, if males are required to provide a nutrient high gift before mating (most likely food) then when nutrients available is high, the OSR will be male biased because there is plenty of nutrients available to provide gifts. However, if nutrients is low, less males will be ready to reproduce, causing the population to have a female biased OSR. Another example would be if, in a certain species, males provided care for offspring and a nest. If the availability of nesting sites decreased, we would see the population trend towards a more female biased OSR because only a small amount of males actually have a nest while all the females, regardless of a nest or not, are still producing eggs.

text: The spa also offers IV drips. The saline solutions available offer visitors a bespoke mixture of vitamins, minerals and micro-nutrients. These are designed specifically for each client depending on their needs. The saline drips are said to rejuvenate, hydrate and offer immunity support. They are also said to help patients with dieting and detoxing, to soothe aches and pains, assist athletic performance and brain health, and boost libido.

text: Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption.Although there are more people in the world who are malnourished due to excessive consumption, according to the United Nations World Health Organization, the greatest challenge in developing nations today is not starvation, but insufficient nutrition – the lack of nutrients necessary for the growth and maintenance of vital functions. The causes of malnutrition are directly linked to inadequate macronutrient consumption and disease, and are indirectly linked to factors like “household food security, maternal and child care, health services, and the environment.”

text: Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients. In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption.Although there are more people in the world who are malnourished due to excessive consumption, according to the United Nations

text: World Health Organization

text: , the greatest challenge in developing nations today is not starvation, but insufficient nutrition – the lack of nutrients necessary for the growth and maintenance of vital functions. The causes of malnutrition are directly linked to inadequate macronutrient consumption and disease, and are indirectly linked to factors like “household food security, maternal and child care, health services, and the environment.”

text: It is also found that the rate of trophallactic feeding depends on the number of ants per nest, and the quality of food available. When the number of donors is kept constant, but the number of total individuals in increased, more individuals test positive for the food marker. This indicates that more individuals are eating, but the amount they eat is less. If the number of donors was doubled, and the size of the overall population increased, the number of individuals receiving food more than doubled, again indicating that the number of individuals fed increased, but that the per capita amount of food consumed decreased. The ants prefer sugar and protein food sources over lipids, and this preference did not change seasonally. When specific sugar sources were studied the ants preferred sucrose over other sugars, such as fructose and glucose.

text: It is also found that the rate of

text: trophallactic

text: feeding depends on the number of ants per nest, and the quality of food available. When the number of donors is kept constant, but the number of total individuals in increased, more individuals test positive for the food marker. This indicates that more individuals are eating, but the amount they eat is less. If the number of donors was doubled, and the size of the overall population increased, the number of individuals receiving food more than doubled, again indicating that the number of individuals fed increased, but that the per capita amount of food consumed decreased. The ants prefer sugar and protein food sources over lipids, and this preference did not change seasonally. When specific sugar sources were studied the ants preferred sucrose over other sugars, such as fructose and glucose.

text: Those fungi that are able to live symbiotically with living plants, creating a relationship that is beneficial to both, are known as Mycorrhizae (from myco meaning fungal and rhiza meaning root).  Plant root hairs are invaded by the mycelia of the mycorrhiza, which lives partly in the soil and partly in the root, and may either cover the length of the root hair as a sheath or be concentrated around its tip. The mycorrhiza obtains the carbohydrates that it requires from the root, in return providingthe plant with nutrients including nitrogen and moisture. Later the plant roots will also absorb the mycelium into its own tissues.

text: Those fungi that are able to live symbiotically with living plants, creating a relationship that is beneficial to both, are known as

text: Mycorrhiza

text: e (from myco meaning fungal and rhiza meaning root).  Plant root hairs are invaded by the mycelia of the mycorrhiza, which lives partly in the soil and partly in the root, and may either cover the length of the root hair as a sheath or be concentrated around its tip. The mycorrhiza obtains the carbohydrates that it requires from the root, in return providingthe plant with nutrients including nitrogen and moisture. Later the plant roots will also absorb the mycelium into its own tissues.

text: Calculations for nutrient intake can be estimated via computerized software programs that multiply the reported frequency of each food by the amount of nutrient in a serving of that food. References databases commonly used for this purpose are listed below. Note that to estimate total nutrient intake, it is necessary to include dietary supplements in the FFQ and add the nutrient intake from these, particularly when dealing with populations where the consumption of dietary supplements is common.

text: Calculations for nutrient intake can be estimated via computerized

text: software

text: programs that multiply the reported frequency of each food by the amount of nutrient in a serving of that food. References databases commonly used for this purpose are listed below. Note that to estimate total nutrient intake, it is necessary to include dietary supplements in the FFQ and add the nutrient intake from these, particularly when dealing with populations where the consumption of dietary supplements is common.

text: Although it is toxic in large doses, selenium is an essential micronutrient for animals. In plants, it sometimes occurs in amounts toxic as forage, e.g. locoweed. Selenium is a component of the amino acids selenocysteine and selenomethionine. In humans, selenium is a trace element nutrient that functions as cofactor for glutathione peroxidases and certain forms of thioredoxin reductase. Selenium-containing proteins are produced from inorganic selenium via the intermediacy of selenophosphate (PSeO).

text: Although it is toxic in large doses,

text: selenium

text: is an essential

text: micronutrient

text: for animals. In plants, it sometimes occurs in amounts toxic as

text: forage

text: , e.g.

text: locoweed

text: . Selenium is a component of the

text: amino acid

text: s

text: selenocysteine

text: and

text: selenomethionine

text: . In humans, selenium is a

text: trace element

text: nutrient that functions as

text: cofactor

text: for

text: glutathione peroxidase

text: s and certain forms of

text: thioredoxin reductase

text: . Selenium-containing proteins are produced from inorganic selenium via the intermediacy of

text: selenophosphate

text: (PSeO).

text: The sample is spread across one quadrant of a petri dish containing a growth medium. Bacteria need different nutrients to grow. This includes water, a source of energy, sources of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, certain minerals, and other vitamins and growth factors. A very common type of media used in microbiology labs is known as agar, a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed. The nutrient agar  has a lot of ingredients with unknown amounts of nutrients in them. On one hand, this can be a very selective media to use because as mentioned bacteria are particular. If there is a certain nutrient in the media the bacteria could most certainly not grow and could die. On the other hand, this media is very complex. Complex media is important because it allows for a wide range of microbial growth. The bacteria growth can be supported by this media greatly due in part to the numerous amounts of nutrients.   Choice of which growth medium is used depends on which microorganism is being cultured, or selected for.

text: The sample is spread across one quadrant of a

text: petri dish

text: containing a

text: growth medium

text: . Bacteria need different nutrients to grow. This includes water, a source of energy, sources of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, certain minerals, and other vitamins and growth factors. A very common type of media used in microbiology labs is known as

text: agar

text: , a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed. The

text: nutrient agar

text: has a lot of ingredients with unknown amounts of nutrients in them. On one hand, this can be a very selective media to use because as mentioned bacteria are particular. If there is a certain nutrient in the media the bacteria could most certainly not grow and could

text: die

text: . On the other hand, this media is very complex. Complex media is important because it allows for a wide range of microbial growth. The bacteria growth can be supported by this media greatly due in part to the numerous amounts of nutrients.   Choice of which growth medium is used depends on which microorganism is being cultured, or selected for.

text: Dana Carpender (born October 18, 1958) is an American food writer, best known for writing about low carbohydrate dieting. Carpender lives with her husband in Bloomington, Indiana. She is also the great-niece of Arthur S. Carpender.

text: Dana Carpender (born October 18, 1958) is an

text: American

text: food

text: writer

text: , best known for writing about

text: low carbohydrate dieting

text: . Carpender lives with her husband in

text: Bloomington, Indiana

text: . She is also the great-niece of

text: Arthur S. Carpender

text: Legumes in general are nutrient dense.  Pinto beans are no exception containing many essential nutrients.  This food is very low in saturated fat. It is also a good source of protein, phosphorus and manganese, and a very good source of dietary fiber and folate.

text: A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form and abiogenic in origin. A  mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids. The study of minerals is called mineralogy.

text: A mineral is a naturally occurring

text: chemical compound

text: , usually of

text: crystalline

text: form and

text: abiogenic

text: in origin. A  mineral has one specific

text: chemical composition

text: , whereas a

text: rock

text: can be an aggregate of different minerals or

text: mineraloid

text: s. The study of minerals is called

text: mineralogy

text: The practice of irrigation has a long history in wine production. Archaeologists describe it as one of the oldest practices in viticulture, with irrigation canals discovered near vineyard sites in Armenia and Egypt dating back more than 2600 years. Irrigation was already widely practiced for other agricultural crops since around 5000 BC. It is possible that the knowledge of irrigation helped viticulture spread from these areas to other regions, due to the potential for the grapevine to grow in soils too infertile to support other food crops. A somewhat robust plant, the grapevine's largest need is for sufficient sunshine, and it is able to flourish with minimum needs of water and nutrients. In areas where its water needs are unfulfilled, the availability of irrigation meant that viticulture could still be supported.

text: The practice of irrigation has a long

text: history in wine

text: production.

text: Archaeologist

text: s describe it as one of the oldest practices in viticulture, with irrigation canals discovered near vineyard sites in

text: Armenia

text: and

text: Egypt

text: dating back more than 2600 years. Irrigation was already widely practiced for other

text: agricultural

text: crops since around 5000 BC. It is possible that the knowledge of irrigation helped viticulture spread from these areas to other regions, due to the potential for the grapevine to grow in soils too infertile to support other food crops. A somewhat robust plant, the grapevine's largest need is for sufficient sunshine, and it is able to flourish with minimum needs of water and nutrients. In areas where its water needs are unfulfilled, the availability of irrigation meant that viticulture could still be supported.

text: RUTFs are a “homogeneous mixture of lipid-rich and water-soluble foods.” The lipids used in formulating RUTFs are in a viscous liquid form. The other ingredients are in small particles and are mixed through the lipid. The other ingredients are protein, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals. The mixture needs to be homogeneous for it to be effectively consumed. To do this, a specific mixing process is needed. The fat/lipid component of the RUTF is heated and stirred first. The heat should be maintained for the lipid to remain in the optimum form for mixing in the other ingredients. The powdered protein, carbohydrate, and vitamins and minerals are then slowly and gradually added to the lipid, while the lipid is being vigorously stirred. After all the ingredients are added and vigorous stirring is maintained, the mixture is then stirred with more speed and for several minutes. If the powdered ingredients have a particle size that is larger than 200 µm, the mixture starts to separate; the particle size needs to be maintained at less than 200 µm.

text: RUTFs are a “homogeneous mixture of lipid-rich and water-soluble foods.” The

text: lipids

text: used in formulating RUTFs are in a viscous liquid form. The other ingredients are in small particles and are mixed through the lipid. The other ingredients are protein, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals. The mixture needs to be homogeneous for it to be effectively consumed. To do this, a specific mixing process is needed. The fat/lipid component of the RUTF is heated and stirred first. The heat should be maintained for the lipid to remain in the optimum form for mixing in the other ingredients. The powdered protein, carbohydrate, and vitamins and minerals are then slowly and gradually added to the lipid, while the lipid is being vigorously stirred. After all the ingredients are added and vigorous stirring is maintained, the mixture is then stirred with more speed and for several minutes. If the powdered ingredients have a particle size that is larger than 200 µm, the mixture starts to separate; the particle size needs to be maintained at less than 200 µm.

text: The GI was invented in 1981 by Dr Thomas Wolever and Dr David Jenkins at the University of Toronto and is a measure of how quickly a food containing 25 or 50 grams of carbohydrate raises blood-glucose levels. Because some foods typically have a low carbohydrate content, Harvard researchers created the GL, which takes into account the amount of carbohydrates in a given serving of a food and so provides a more useful measure.

text: Manufacturers are trying to fortify everyday foods with micronutrients that can be sold to consumers such as wheat flour for Beladi bread in Egypt or fish sauce in Vietnam and the iodization of salt.

text: A recent threat, first reported in 1978, is forest dieback. In some areas, especially in the peripheral region, this has been severe with nearly a 50% in vegetation. Water deficiency has been attributed as the main cause of dieback as droughts are becoming more frequent. Regrowth of forest is hindered by frost which is increasingly severe. The forest dieback has affected 22 species of plants with Calophyllum walkeri being the most affected. A study has suggested that low calcium causes soil acidification and increased toxicity caused by metallic elements such as aluminium may be causing the dieback. Leaching of nutrients and the resulting imbalance in soil micronutrients may also be contributing to the dieback.

text: A recent threat, first reported in 1978, is

text: forest dieback

text: . In some areas, especially in the peripheral region, this has been severe with nearly a 50% in vegetation. Water deficiency has been attributed as the main cause of dieback as

text: drought

text: s are becoming more frequent. Regrowth of forest is hindered by frost which is increasingly severe. The forest dieback has affected 22 species of plants with

text: Calophyllum walkeri

text: being the most affected. A study has suggested that low calcium causes

text: soil acidification

text: and increased toxicity caused by metallic elements such as aluminium may be causing the dieback.

text: Leaching

text: of nutrients and the resulting imbalance in soil

text: micronutrient

text: s may also be contributing to the dieback.

text: Depending on the literature, different yields of L. minor are registered. Grown under ideal conditions, yields up to 73 tonnes dry matter per hectar and year were recorded. Common duckweed has a high protein content varying from 20 to 40% depending on the season, the nutrient content of the water and environmental conditions. It doesn’t build up very complex tissue structures and therefore has a low fiber content less than 5%. Basically all of its tissues can be used as fodder for fish and poultry and make duckweed an interesting food supplement.

text: Depending on the literature, different yields of L. minor are registered. Grown under ideal conditions, yields up to 73 tonnes dry matter per hectar and year were recorded. Common duckweed has a high protein content varying from 20 to 40% depending on the season, the nutrient content of the water and environmental conditions. It doesn’t build up very complex tissue structures and therefore has a low

text: fiber

text: content less than 5%. Basically all of its tissues can be used as fodder for fish and poultry and make duckweed an interesting food supplement.

text: 11. Your body is God's. Do not misuse it in any way. Do not drink or eat anything that is not food. Use nothing to harm the body, either inside or out. Wear nothing on the body that harms it or is of no use.

text: Carbohydrates, made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are energy storing molecules. The simplest one of carbohydrates is glucose, CHO, is used in cellular respiration to produce ATP, adenosine triphosphate, which supplies cells with energy.

text: Nutrition (nutrient content) claims characterizes the energy value of the food or the amount of a nutrient contained in a food. It provides a quick and easy way to identify foods with specific nutritional features of interest. Examples of nutrition claims are "low in sodium" sodium free" and "100 Calories per serving."

text: Nutrition (nutrient content) claims characterizes the energy value of the food or the amount of a

text: nutrient

text: contained in a food. It provides a quick and easy way to identify foods with specific nutritional features of interest. Examples of nutrition claims are "low in sodium" sodium free" and "100 Calories per serving."

text: The most abundant compound in all plants, as in all cellular organisms, is water which serves an important structural role and a vital role in plant metabolism.  Transpiration is the main process of water movement within plant tissues. Water is constantly transpired from the plant through its stomata to the atmosphere and replaced by soil water taken up by the roots. The movement of water out of the leaf stomata creates  a transpiration pull or tension in the water column in the xylem vessels or tracheids. The pull is the result of water surface tension within the cell walls of the mesophyll cells, from the surfaces of which evaporation takes place when the stomata are open. Hydrogen bonds exist between water molecules, causing them to line up; as the molecules at the top of the plant evaporate, each pulls the next one up to replace it, which in turn pulls on the next one in line. The draw of water upwards may be entirely passive and can be assisted by the movement of water into the roots via osmosis. Consequently, transpiration requires very little energy to be used by the plant. Transpiration assists the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil as soluble salts.

text: The most abundant

text: compound

text: in all plants, as in all cellular organisms, is

text: water

text: which serves an important structural role and a vital role in plant metabolism.

text: Transpiration

text: is the main process of water movement within plant tissues. Water is constantly transpired from the plant through its

text: stomata

text: to the atmosphere and replaced by soil water taken up by the roots. The movement of water out of the leaf stomata creates  a transpiration pull or tension in the water column in the xylem vessels or tracheids. The pull is the result of water

text: surface tension

text: within the cell walls of the mesophyll cells, from the surfaces of which evaporation takes place when the stomata are open.

text: Hydrogen bonds

text: exist between

text: water

text: molecule

text: s, causing them to line up; as the molecules at the top of the plant evaporate, each pulls the next one up to replace it, which in turn pulls on the next one in line. The draw of water upwards may be entirely passive and can be assisted by the movement of water into the roots via

text: osmosis

text: . Consequently, transpiration requires very little energy to be used by the plant. Transpiration assists the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil as soluble

text: salts

text: Carbon isotopes enter the food chain as herbivores consume plants, and oxygen isotopes enter the food chain from consuming meteoric water and water from the diet. Examining the C/C isotope ratio, it is possible to determine whether animals ate predominantly C3 or C4 plants. Potential C3 food sources include rice, tubers, fruits, nuts and many vegetables, while C4 food sources include millet and sugar cane. This process ends with the organism's death, from this point on isotopes no longer accumulate in the body, but do undergo degradation. For best result the researcher would need to know the original levels, or an estimation thereof, of isotopes in the organism at the time of its death.

text: Carbon isotopes enter the food chain as herbivores consume plants, and oxygen isotopes enter the food chain from consuming meteoric water and water from the diet. Examining the

text: C

text: C

text: isotope ratio, it is possible to determine whether animals ate predominantly

text: or

text: plants. Potential C3 food sources include

text: rice

text: tuber

text: s,

text: fruit

text: s,

text: nut

text: s and many

text: vegetable

text: s, while C4 food sources include millet and sugar cane. This process ends with the organism's death, from this point on isotopes no longer accumulate in the body, but do undergo degradation. For best result the researcher would need to know the original levels, or an estimation thereof, of isotopes in the organism at the time of its death.

text: Umetaro Suzuki had in 1910 succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and had named it "aberic acid", but the German translation, unlike the Japanese original, had failed to note that it was a newly discovered nutrient.

text: Umetaro Suzuki

text: had in 1910 succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and had named it "aberic acid", but the German translation, unlike the Japanese original, had failed to note that it was a newly discovered nutrient.

text: The Skinner (2005) definition of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral can be crystalline or amorphous, the latter group including liquid crystals. Although biominerals and liquid mineral crystals, are not the most common form of minerals, they help to define the limits of what constitutes a mineral proper. The formal Nickel (1995) definition explicitly mentioned crystallinity as a key to defining a substance as a mineral. A 2011 article defined icosahedrite, an aluminium-iron-copper alloy as mineral; named for its unique natural icosahedral symmetry, it is a quasicrystal. Unlike a true crystal, quasicrystals are ordered but not periodic.

text: The Skinner (2005) definition of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral can be crystalline or amorphous, the latter group including liquid crystals. Although biominerals and liquid mineral crystals, are not the most common form of minerals, they help to define the limits of what constitutes a mineral proper. The formal Nickel (1995) definition explicitly mentioned crystallinity as a key to defining a substance as a mineral. A 2011 article defined

text: icosahedrite

text: , an aluminium-iron-copper alloy as mineral; named for its unique natural

text: icosahedral symmetry

text: , it is a

text: quasicrystal

text: . Unlike a true crystal, quasicrystals are ordered but not periodic.

text: Nutrient timing will enhance performance of exercise, competition, and daily life expectations.  Timing of when to eat your macro nutrients (carbs, fats, and protein) will enable you to use food as your fuel.  The amount of each nutrient plays a role in performance & recovery.  Recovery is essential to keep going in daily routines, competitions, and fitness in general.  Fueling recovery & fitness will be done by using the timing of nutrients around a performance aspect of life.  This timing is not essential to good performance, but it is a small detail that should not be looked over if you are looking to gain strength & become leaner.

text: Nationwide data showed that WIC participants had inadequate intake of vitamin E, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and fiber while using the original food packages. Participants also had an excessive intake of saturated fats, sodium, zinc, and preformed vitamin A. Despite the huge expenditures each month to supplement millions of diets in the country, the program was not delivering the necessary nutrients to this important population made up of women, infants, and children during the most critical time in their lives, drastically affecting future health.

text: Another practical application of Crotalaria juncea includes fuel.  Crotalaria juncea holds a relatively high fuel value.  In fact, a process optimization method for the extraction of oil from Crotalaria juncea is being researched in order to utilize the fuel value in Crotalaria juncea.  The current method of oil extraction is known as the soxhlet based extraction which has an oil yield of 13% in four hours at 37 degrees Celsius.  However, a novel three-phase partitioning based extraction shows an oil yield of 37% in two hours at 37 degrees Celsius.  Furthermore, the optimization factors that were identified include ammonium sulphate and butanol, pH, and temperature, and these factors impact the oil yield.	Furthermore, Crotalaria juncea has applications in the agricultural field since it impacts common food production.  Crotalaria juncea is identified as a plant that is an important summer cover crop in southeastern United States.  The allelopathic effects of Crotalaria juncea on weeds, vegetable crops, and cover crops were observed via greenhouse and growth chamber experiments. Crotalaria juncea, reduced both the germination and seedlings of various crop species (bell pepper, tomato, onion, and others).  The allelochemical activity in Crotalaria juncea was in the leaves and remained active for 16 days after harvest.  Furthermore, Crotalaria juncea’s allelochemical effect may have practical applications for weed management.	Similarly, Crotalaria juncea can be used to improve nutrient patterns in agricultural plants.  For instance, soil fertility in Paraiba, Brazil is generally low. To rectify this, animal manure is often used to supply agricultural crops with nutrients. However, researchers in Brazil hypothesized that planting and incorporating Crotalaria juncea with animal manure could enhance the nutrient mineralization pattern for agricultural crops.  Field and greenhouse experiments were used to test this hypothesis.  After measuring the amounts of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium in the soils, it was discovered that Crotalaria juncea along with only half the usual dose of goat manure produced the best results.  This is because soils that consisted of this composition avoided immobilization of nitrogen while increasing the levels of phosphorus and potassium within the soil.  In other words, Crotalaria juncea was able to improve the overall nutrient mineralization pattern for agricultural crops.

text: Biofortification is the idea of breeding crops to increase their nutritional value. This can be done either through conventional selective breeding, or through genetic engineering. Biofortification differs from ordinary fortification because it focuses on making plant foods more nutritious as the plants are growing, rather than having nutrients added to the foods when they are being processed. This is an improvement on ordinary fortification when it comes to providing nutrients for the rural poor, who rarely have access to commercially fortified foods. As such, biofortification is seen as an upcoming strategy for dealing with deficiencies of micronutrients in the developing world. In the case of iron, WHO estimated that biofortification could help curing the 2 billion people suffering from iron deficiency-induced anemia.

text: Biofortification is the idea of

text: breeding

text: crops to increase their nutritional value. This can be done either through

text: conventional selective breeding

text: , or through

text: genetic engineering

text: . Biofortification differs from

text: ordinary fortification

text: because it focuses on making plant foods more nutritious as the plants are growing, rather than having nutrients added to the foods when they are being processed. This is an improvement on ordinary fortification when it comes to providing nutrients for the rural poor, who rarely have access to commercially fortified foods. As such, biofortification is seen as an upcoming strategy for dealing with

text: deficiencies of micronutrients

text: in the developing world. In the case of iron, WHO estimated that biofortification could help curing the 2 billion people suffering from iron deficiency-induced anemia.

text: When first returning home after surgery, a nutritional diet is necessary in order to keep the body operating correctly. Junk food is not a good idea, as the grease and sugar can irregulate the bowels. Fruit, vegetables, and juices will be a vital part in the diet. Food and drink will be limited for the patient after surgery. Because the bowels are not fully active because of anesthetic, clear water and ice may be the only acceptable thing to ingest. After the digestive tract is back up to speed, soft food and drink like pudding, soup broth, and orange juice are acceptable. Very dark urine with a strong odor means that the person is most likely dehydrated and needs more fluids. In order for the urine to become a pale or clear color, the patient will need to drink a lot of water. Juices such as prune juice are a healthy option and prune juice also helps with constipation, a common factor after surgery. When it comes to food, whole grains should be added into the diet. Whole grains can be broken down easily by the body whereas processed grains and flour cannot be broken down easily. Processed grains and flour also add to constipation.

text: When first returning home after surgery, a nutritional diet is necessary in order to keep the body operating correctly. Junk food is not a good idea, as the grease and sugar can irregulate the bowels. Fruit, vegetables, and juices will be a vital part in the diet. Food and drink will be limited for the patient after surgery. Because the bowels are not fully active because of anesthetic, clear water and ice may be the only acceptable thing to ingest. After the digestive tract is back up to speed, soft food and drink like pudding, soup broth, and orange juice are acceptable. Very dark urine with a strong odor means that the person is most likely dehydrated and needs more fluids. In order for the urine to become a pale or clear color, the patient will need to drink a lot of water. Juices such as prune juice are a healthy option and prune juice also helps with constipation, a common factor after surgery. When it comes to food, whole grains should be added into the diet. Whole grains can be broken down easily by the body whereas processed grains and flour cannot be broken down easily. Processed grains and flour also add to

text: constipation

text: This is a list of minerals for which there are articles. Mineral variety names and mineraloids are to be listed after the valid minerals for each letter.

text: This is a list of minerals for which there are articles.

text: Mineral

text: variety names and

text: mineraloid

text: s are to be listed after the valid minerals for each letter.

text: A set of chemicals may be (but is not always) grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A". Other examples of vitamers include cyanocobalamin, hydroxocobalamin, methylcobalamin, and 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin (adenosylcobalamin—AdoB-12), which are all vitamers of B, and thus all possess "B activity". Another example is that both niacinamide and nicotinic acid (niacin) have vitamin B activity.__NOTOC__

text: A set of chemicals may be (but is not always) grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A". Other examples of vitamers include

text: cyanocobalamin

text: hydroxocobalamin

text: methylcobalamin

text: , and 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin (

text: adenosylcobalamin

text: —AdoB-12), which are all vitamers of B, and thus all possess "B activity". Another example is that both

text: niacinamide

text: and

text: nicotinic acid

text: (niacin) have

text: vitamin B

text: Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science. Recent changes have included the addition of an organic class, in both the new Dana and the Strunz classification schemes. The organic class includes a very rare group of minerals with hydrocarbons. The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names adopted in 2009 a hierarchical scheme for the naming and classification of mineral groups and group names and established seven commissions and four working groups to review and classify minerals into an official listing of their published names.  According to these new rules, "mineral species can be grouped in a number of different ways, on the basis of chemistry, crystal structure, occurrence, association, genetic history, or resource, for example, depending on the purpose to be served by the classification."

text: Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science. Recent changes have included the addition of an organic class, in both the new Dana and the

text: Strunz classification

text: schemes. The organic class includes a very rare group of minerals with

text: hydrocarbons

text: . The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names adopted in 2009 a hierarchical scheme for the naming and classification of mineral groups and group names and established seven commissions and four working groups to review and classify minerals into an official listing of their published names.  According to these new rules, "mineral species can be grouped in a number of different ways, on the basis of chemistry, crystal structure, occurrence, association, genetic history, or resource, for example, depending on the purpose to be served by the classification."

text: Iodine is a micronutrient the body needs to properly produce thyroid hormones. The human body is not able to produce it, and iodine is an essential nutrient. Iodine is not readily available in many foods, thus making it difficult for many people to obtain it. One particular source, found in great supply, is ocean water although it is not an effective dietary source. Iodine deficiency diseases (IDDs) are able to develop before birth, so it is crucial for all populations to have sufficient levels of the micronutrient and prevent such diseases from developing early on.

text: Iodine

text: is a

text: micronutrient

text: the body needs to properly produce

text: thyroid

text: hormones. The human body is not able to produce it, and iodine is an essential nutrient. Iodine is not readily available in many foods, thus making it difficult for many people to obtain it. One particular source, found in great supply, is ocean water although it is not an effective dietary source. Iodine deficiency diseases (IDDs) are able to develop before birth, so it is crucial for all populations to have sufficient levels of the micronutrient and prevent such diseases from developing early on.

text: The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fiber, fats, protein, and water.The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.

text: The macronutrients are

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: fiber

text: fat

text: s,

text: protein

text: , and

text: water

text: .The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and

text: lipid

text: s from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and

text: energy

text: . Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in

text: Joule

text: s or

text: kilocalories

text: (often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.

text: The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates:

text: The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are

text: protein

text: s,

text: lipid

text: s (fats) and

text: carbohydrate

text: s:

text: La Guaira Bank () is an underwater ridge that is approximately 12 miles off the coast from the city of La Guaira. The bank is approximately  long from east to west and  wide from north to south, and it rises from  in the surrounding area to .  The area provides the structure to deep-sea animals, and other organisms such as gorgonians, sponges, and coral, that require ocean currents to bring their food to them. Westerly currents flow off the coast of Venezuela, and the bank acts as a barrier to the current, creating an upwelling of nutrients to the ocean surface from deep-water stockpiles. These nutrients fuel an explosion of planktonic plant and animal growth, and attract larger animals such as whales, porpoises, seabirds, and large pelagics such as tuna, sharks, wahoo, dolphin fish, and four different types of marlin. It is considered one of the top sport fishing destinations in the world due to the unusually high numbers of Atlantic blue marlin, white marlin, sailfish, and spearfish that congregate at different seasons, and are available year round.

text: La Guaira Bank () is an

text: underwater ridge

text: that is approximately 12 miles off the coast from the city of La Guaira. The

text: bank

text: is approximately  long from east to west and  wide from north to south, and it rises from  in the surrounding area to .  The area provides the structure to deep-sea animals, and other organisms such as

text: gorgonian

text: s,

text: sponge

text: s, and

text: coral

text: , that require ocean currents to bring their food to them. Westerly currents flow off the coast of Venezuela, and the bank acts as a barrier to the current, creating an

text: upwelling

text: of nutrients to the ocean surface from deep-water stockpiles. These nutrients fuel an explosion of

text: plankton

text: ic plant and animal growth, and attract larger animals such as

text: whale

text: s,

text: porpoise

text: s,

text: seabird

text: s, and large

text: pelagic

text: s such as

text: tuna

text: shark

text: s,

text: wahoo

text: dolphin fish

text: , and four different types of

text: marlin

text: . It is considered one of the top

text: sport fishing

text: destinations in the world due to the unusually high numbers of

text: Atlantic blue marlin

text: white marlin

text: sailfish

text: , and

text: spearfish

text: that congregate at different seasons, and are available year round.

text: While it is true that both fortification and enrichment refer to the addition of nutrients to food, the true definitions do slightly vary. As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), fortification refers to "the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, ie. vitamins and minerals (including trace elements) in a food irrespective of whether the nutrients were originally in the food before processing or not, so as to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to health," whereas enrichment is defined as "synonymous with fortification and refers to the addition of micronutrients to a food which are lost during processing."

text: While it is true that both fortification and enrichment refer to the addition of nutrients to food, the true definitions do slightly vary. As defined by the

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) and the

text: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

text: (FAO), fortification refers to "the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, ie. vitamins and minerals (including trace elements) in a food irrespective of whether the nutrients were originally in the food before processing or not, so as to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to health," whereas enrichment is defined as "synonymous with fortification and refers to the addition of micronutrients to a food which are lost during processing."

text: Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the whole diet and of all material excreted and eliminated from the body (in urine and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of animal nutrition is still slowly evolving.

text: Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the

text: chemical

text: composition of the whole diet and of all material

text: excreted

text: and eliminated from the body (in

text: urine

text: and feces). Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed and metabolized in the body. The effects of nutrients may only be discernible over an extended period, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of

text: variables

text: involved in such

text: experiment

text: s is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of animal nutrition is still slowly evolving.

text: If a food source has an identifiable flavor, an animal can learn to associate the positive effects of alleviation of a certain nutrient deficiency with consumption of that food. This has been demonstrated in a variety of species: lambs offered free choice of various foods will compensate for phosphorus, sodium, and calcium deficiencies. Domestic fowl have demonstrated specific appetites for calcium, zinc, and phosphorus, thiamine, protein in general, and methionine and lysine. Heat-stressed fowls seek out vitamin C, which alleviates the consequences of heat stress  Learned specific appetites are not necessarily a result of an animal's ability to detect the presence of a nutrient. Because nutrient deficiencies of various types can have stressful effects which vary depending on the missing nutrient, subsequent ingestion of that nutrient is associated with relief of certain signs. An animal may therefore associate the flavor of a food that is high in a certain nutrient with relief of the signs of that nutrient deficiency, while not seeking out other foods rich in the same nutrient.

text: If a food source has an identifiable flavor, an animal can learn to associate the positive effects of alleviation of a certain nutrient deficiency with consumption of that food. This has been demonstrated in a variety of species: lambs offered free choice of various foods will compensate for phosphorus, sodium, and calcium deficiencies. Domestic fowl have demonstrated specific appetites for calcium, zinc, and phosphorus, thiamine, protein in general, and methionine and lysine. Heat-stressed fowls seek out

text: vitamin C

text: , which alleviates the consequences of heat stress  Learned specific appetites are not necessarily a result of an animal's ability to detect the presence of a nutrient. Because nutrient deficiencies of various types can have stressful effects which vary depending on the missing nutrient, subsequent ingestion of that nutrient is associated with relief of certain signs. An animal may therefore associate the flavor of a food that is high in a certain nutrient with relief of the signs of that nutrient deficiency, while not seeking out other foods rich in the same nutrient.

text: The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.

text: The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and

text: energy

text: Joule

text: s or

text: kilocalories

text: (often called "Calories" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.

text: In the harsh atoll environments of the Central Pacific, especially Tuvalu and Kiribati, swamp taro is an important source of carbohydrates in a diet dominated by fish and coconut.  Its cultivation is difficult and time-consuming, and the plant has deep cultural as well as practical significance.  The roots need to be cooked for hours to reduce toxicity in the corms, but are rich in nutrients, especially calcium. The cultivation of Pulaka in Tuvalu, and babai in Kiribati, is an  important cultural and culinary tradition, now under threat from rising sea level and displacement from the growing use of imported food products.

text: In the harsh atoll environments of the Central Pacific, especially

text: Tuvalu

text: and

text: Kiribati

text: , swamp taro is an important source of

text: carbohydrate

text: s in a diet dominated by fish and coconut.  Its cultivation is difficult and time-consuming, and the plant has deep cultural as well as practical significance.  The roots need to be cooked for hours to reduce toxicity in the

text: corm

text: s, but are rich in nutrients, especially

text: calcium

text: . The cultivation of

text: Pulaka

text: in Tuvalu, and

text: babai

text: in Kiribati, is an  important cultural and culinary tradition, now under threat from rising

text: sea level

text: and displacement from the growing use of imported food products.

text: Organisms, and all other metabolic systems, require some input of nutrients. Typically the rate of uptake of nutrients is dictated by their availability (a nutrient that is not present cannot be absorbed), their concentration and diffusion constants (higher concentrations of quickly-diffusing metabolites are absorbed more quickly) and the method of absorption (such as active transport or facilitated diffusion versus simple diffusion).

text: Organisms, and all other metabolic systems, require some input of nutrients. Typically the rate of uptake of nutrients is dictated by their availability (a nutrient that is not present cannot be absorbed), their concentration and diffusion constants (higher concentrations of quickly-diffusing metabolites are absorbed more quickly) and the method of absorption (such as

text: active transport

text: or

text: facilitated diffusion

text: versus simple diffusion).

text: Water-meadow irrigation did not aim to flood the ground, but to keep it continuously damp – a working water-meadow has no standing water.  Irrigation in early spring kept frosts off the ground and so allowed grass to grow several weeks earlier than otherwise, and in dry summer weather irrigation kept the grass growing.  It also allowed the ground to absorb any plant nutrients or silt carried by the river water – this fertilised the grassland, and incidentally also reduced eutrophication of the river water by nutrient pollution.  The grass was used both for making hay and for grazing by livestock (usually cattle or sheep).

text: Water-meadow irrigation did not aim to flood the ground, but to keep it continuously damp – a working water-meadow has no standing water.  Irrigation in early spring kept

text: frost

text: s off the ground and so allowed

text: grass

text: to grow several weeks earlier than otherwise, and in dry summer weather irrigation kept the grass growing.  It also allowed the ground to absorb any plant

text: nutrient

text: s or

text: silt

text: carried by the river water – this fertilised the grassland, and incidentally also reduced

text: eutrophication

text: of the river water by

text: nutrient pollution

text: .  The grass was used both for making

text: hay

text: and for

text: grazing

text: by

text: livestock

text: (usually

text: cattle

text: or

text: sheep

text: All plants require sufficient supplies of macronutrients for healthy growth, and nitrogen (N) is a nutrient that is commonly in limited supply. Nitrogen deficiency in plants can occur when organic matter with high carbon content, such as sawdust, is added to soil. Soil organisms use any nitrogen to break down carbon sources, making N unavailable to plants. This is known as "robbing" the soil of nitrogen. All vegetables apart from nitrogen fixing legumes are prone to this disorder.

text: All plants require sufficient supplies of macronutrients for healthy growth, and

text: nitrogen

text: (N) is a nutrient that is commonly in limited supply. Nitrogen deficiency in

text: plant

text: s can occur when organic matter with high carbon content, such as

text: sawdust

text: , is added to

text: soil

text: . Soil organisms use any nitrogen to break down carbon sources, making N unavailable to plants. This is known as "robbing" the soil of nitrogen. All vegetables apart from

text: nitrogen fixing

text: legume

text: s are prone to this disorder.

text: Co-Founder Annie Lawless had been juicing her entire life and from a young age had been aware that what you put in your body affects how you look and more importantly, how you feel. Her friend Eric Ethans had a background as a raw food chef and spent his entire life researching and pairing ingredients to create healthy, delicious meals. The two met in San Diego and bonded over their mutual love of delivering convenient nutrition through foods and beverages that also tasted good. They were frustrated by the lack of pure, organic products on grocery store shelves and decided to create their own juices at home.

text: WFP receives DSM’s technical and scientific knowledge in the field of high nutrient products as well as financial assistance. The partnership focuses on developing new and improved nutritious products, such as micronutrient powders and fortified rice, that help WFP deliver not just more food, but also provide the nutrients necessary to fight hunger and prevent micronutrient deficiencies in vulnerable communities.

text: WFP receives DSM’s technical and scientific knowledge in the field of high nutrient products as well as financial assistance. The partnership focuses on developing new and improved nutritious products, such as

text: micronutrient

text: powders and

text: fortified

text: rice, that help WFP deliver not just more food, but also provide the nutrients necessary to fight hunger and prevent

text: micronutrient deficiencies

text: in vulnerable communities.

text: Mycena galopus is a saprobic fungus, and plays an important role in forest ecosystems as a decomposer of leaf litter. It has been estimated in the UK to account for a large portion of the decomposition of the autumn leaf litter in British woodlands. It is able to break down the lignin and cellulose components of leaf litter. Grown in axenic culture in the laboratory, the fungus mycelium has been shown to degrade (in addition to lignin and cellulose) hemicelluloses, protein, soluble carbohydrates, and purified xylan and pectin using enzymes such as polyphenol oxidases, cellulases, and catalase. It is particularly adept at breaking down lignin, which is the second most abundant renewable organic compound in the biosphere, after cellulose. Research also suggests that the fungus weathers soil minerals, making them more available to mycorrhizal plants. Phosphorus, an important macronutrient influencing plant growth, typically occurs in primary minerals like apatite, or other organic complexes, and its low solubility often results in low phosphorus availability in soil. The biological activity of M. galopus mycelium can increase the availability of phosphorus and other nutrients, both as a result of soil acidification due to cation uptake and via the release of weathering agents such low molecular mass organic acids. Studies have shown that the fungus is sensitive to low concentrations of sulphite (SO), a byproduct of sulphur dioxide pollution, suggesting that this pollution can be toxic to the growth of the fungus (and the subsequent decomposition of leaf litter) at environmentally relevant concentrations.

text: Mycena galopus is a

text: saprobic

text: fungus, and plays an important role in

text: forest ecosystems

text: as a decomposer of

text: leaf litter

text: . It has been estimated in the UK to account for a large portion of the decomposition of the autumn leaf litter in British woodlands. It is able to break down the

text: lignin

text: and

text: cellulose

text: components of leaf litter. Grown in

text: axenic

text: culture in the laboratory, the fungus mycelium has been shown to degrade (in addition to lignin and cellulose)

text: hemicellulose

text: s, protein, soluble carbohydrates, and purified

text: xylan

text: and

text: pectin

text: using enzymes such as

text: polyphenol oxidase

text: s,

text: cellulase

text: s, and

text: catalase

text: . It is particularly adept at breaking down lignin, which is the second most abundant

text: renewable

text: organic compound in the

text: biosphere

text: , after cellulose. Research also suggests that the fungus weathers soil minerals, making them more available to mycorrhizal plants.

text: Phosphorus

text: , an important

text: macronutrient

text: influencing plant growth, typically occurs in primary minerals like

text: apatite

text: , or other organic

text: complexes

text: , and its low

text: solubility

text: often results in low phosphorus availability in soil. The biological activity of M. galopus mycelium can increase the availability of phosphorus and other nutrients, both as a result of soil acidification due to

text: cation

text: uptake and via the release of weathering agents such low molecular mass

text: organic acid

text: s. Studies have shown that the fungus is sensitive to low concentrations of

text: sulphite

text: (SO), a byproduct of

text: sulphur dioxide

text: pollution, suggesting that this pollution can be toxic to the growth of the fungus (and the subsequent decomposition of leaf litter) at environmentally relevant concentrations.

text: Differing conditions and objectives suggest the need for athletes to ensure that their sports nutritional approach is appropriate for their situation. Factors that may affect an athlete's nutritional needs include type of activity (aerobic vs. anaerobic), gender, weight, height, body mass index, workout or activity stage (pre-workout, intro-workout, recovery), and time of day (e.g. some nutrients are utilized by the body more effectively during sleep than while awake).Most culprits that get in the way of performance are fatigue, injury and soreness. A proper diet will reduce these disturbances in performance. The key to a proper diet is to get a variety of food, and to consume all the macro-nutrients, vitamins, and minerals needed. According to Eblere's article (2008), it is ideal to choose raw foods, for example unprocessed foods such as oranges instead of orange juice. Eating foods that are natural means the athlete is getting the most nutritional value out of the food. When foods are processed, the nutritional value is normally reduced.

text: Due to a lack of septate hyphae, a coenocytic, transfer cell-like structure characterizes the Hartig net of many ectomycorrhizas, which facilitates interhyphal transport. Wall ingrowths in Pisonia, for example, resemble those found in other plant species where transfer cells yield high rates of nutrient transport between apoplast and symplast. Overall, ectomycorrhizal fungi receive approximately 15% of the net primary production and can provide up to 86% of a host’s nitrogen needs. Carbon allocation has been shown to be correlated with growth rates and nutrient availability. Belowground allocation is highest when nutrient availability is low and when growth rates are reduced. Phosphorus is another typically limiting nutrient in many terrestrial ecosystems. Evidence suggests that phosphorus is transferred largely as inorganic orthophosphate. Some mat-forming ectomycorrhizas contain ribonucleases capable of rapidly hydrolyzing DNA in order to obtain phosphorus from nuclei.

text: Due to a lack of

text: septate hyphae

text: , a

text: coenocytic

text: transfer cell

text: -like structure characterizes the Hartig net of many ectomycorrhizas, which facilitates interhyphal transport. Wall ingrowths in

text: Pisonia

text: , for example, resemble those found in other plant species where

text: transfer cells

text: yield high rates of nutrient transport between

text: apoplast

text: and

text: symplast

text: . Overall, ectomycorrhizal fungi receive approximately 15% of the net

text: primary production

text: and can provide up to 86% of a host’s nitrogen needs. Carbon allocation has been shown to be correlated with growth rates and nutrient availability. Belowground allocation is highest when nutrient availability is low and when growth rates are reduced.

text: Phosphorus

text: is another typically limiting nutrient in many terrestrial ecosystems. Evidence suggests that phosphorus is transferred largely as inorganic

text: orthophosphate

text: . Some mat-forming ectomycorrhizas contain

text: ribonucleases

text: capable of rapidly

text: hydrolyzing

text: DNA in order to obtain phosphorus from

text: nuclei

text: The Stigler diet question is a linear programming problem.  Lacking any sophisticated method of solving such a problem, Stigler was forced to utilize heuristic methods in order to find a solution.  The diet question originally asked in which quantities a 154-pound male would have to consume 77 different foods in order to fulfill the recommended intake of 9 different nutrients while keeping expense at a minimum.  Through "trial and error, mathematical insight and agility," Stigler was able to eliminate 62 of the foods from the original 77 (these foods were removed because they lacked nutrients in comparison to the remaining 15).  From the reduced list, Stigler calculated the required amounts of each of the remaining 15 foods to arrive at a cost-minimizing solution to his question.    According to Stigler's calculations, the annual cost of his solution was $39.93 in 1939 dollars.  When corrected for inflation using the consumer price index, the cost of the diet in 2016 dollars is about $690.12 .  The specific combination of foods and quantities is as follows:

text: The Stigler diet question is a

text: linear programming

text: problem.  Lacking any sophisticated method of solving such a problem, Stigler was forced to utilize heuristic methods in order to find a solution.  The diet question originally asked in which quantities a 154-pound male would have to consume 77 different foods in order to fulfill the recommended intake of 9 different nutrients while keeping expense at a minimum.  Through "trial and error, mathematical insight and agility," Stigler was able to eliminate 62 of the foods from the original 77 (these foods were removed because they lacked nutrients in comparison to the remaining 15).  From the reduced list, Stigler calculated the required amounts of each of the remaining 15 foods to arrive at a cost-minimizing solution to his question.    According to Stigler's calculations, the annual cost of his solution was $39.93 in 1939 dollars.  When corrected for inflation using the

text: consumer price index

text: , the cost of the diet in 2016 dollars is about $690.12 .  The specific combination of foods and quantities is as follows:

text: Nutritionally, bread is known as an ample source for the grains category of nutrition. Serving size of bread is standard through ounces, counting one slice of bread (white processed bread) as 1 oz. Also, bread is considered a good source of carbohydrates through the whole grains, nutrients such as magnesium, iron, selenium, B vitamins, and dietary fiber.

text: Relatively speaking, the brain consumes an immense amount of energy in comparison to the rest of the body. The mechanisms involved in the transfer of energy from foods to neurons are likely to be fundamental to the control of brain function. Human bodily processes, including the brain, all require both macronutrients, as well as micronutrients.

text: Relatively speaking, the

text: brain

text: consumes an immense amount of energy in comparison to the rest of the body. The mechanisms involved in the transfer of energy from foods to neurons are likely to be fundamental to the control of brain function. Human bodily processes, including the brain, all require both

text: macronutrients

text: , as well as

text: micronutrients

text: Chinese cabbage was ranked #2 for nutrient density out of 41 nutrient-rich plant foods.

text: Chinese cabbage was ranked #2 for

text: nutrient density

text: out of 41 nutrient-rich

text: plant food

text: s.

text: The moss bioreactor is used to cultivate moss in a suspension culture in agitated, and aerated liquid medium. The culture is kept under lighting with temperature and pH value held constant. The culture medium—often a minimal medium—contains all nutrients and minerals needed for growth of the moss.

text: The moss bioreactor is used to cultivate moss in a suspension culture in agitated, and aerated liquid medium. The culture is kept under lighting with temperature and

text: pH

text: value held constant. The

text: culture medium

text: —often a

text: minimal medium

text: —contains all

text: nutrient

text: s and

text: mineral

text: s needed for growth of the moss.

text: The thermic effect of food is increased by both aerobic training of sufficient duration and intensity and by anaerobic weight training. However, the increase is marginal, amounting to 7-8 calories per hour. The primary determinants of daily TEF are the total caloric content of the meals and the macronutrient composition of the meals ingested. Meal frequency has little to no effect on TEF; assuming total calorie intake for the days are equivalent.

text: The thermic effect of food is increased by both

text: aerobic

text: training of sufficient duration and intensity and by

text: anaerobic

text: weight training

text: . However, the increase is marginal, amounting to 7-8 calories per hour. The primary determinants of daily TEF are the total caloric content of the meals and the macronutrient composition of the meals ingested. Meal frequency has little to no effect on TEF; assuming total calorie intake for the days are equivalent.

text: With certain exceptions, such as foods meant for babies, the following Daily Values are used. These are called Reference Daily Intake (RDI) values and were originally based on the highest 1968 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for each nutrient in order to assure that the needs of all age and sex combinations were met.These are older than the current Recommended Dietary Allowances of the Dietary Reference Intake. For vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese, the current maximum RDAs (over age and sex) are up to 50% higher than the Daily Values used in labeling, whereas for other nutrients the estimated maximal needs have gone down. As of October 2010, the only micronutrients that are required to be included on all labels are vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron. To determine the nutrient levels in the foods, companies may develop or use databases, and these may be submitted voluntarily to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for review.

text: With certain exceptions, such as foods meant for babies, the following Daily Values are used. These are called

text: Reference Daily Intake

text: (RDI) values and were originally based on the highest 1968

text: Recommended Dietary Allowance

text: s (RDA) for each nutrient in order to assure that the needs of all age and sex combinations were met.These are older than the current

text: Recommended Dietary Allowance

text: s of the

text: Dietary Reference Intake

text: . For

text: vitamin C

text: vitamin D

text: vitamin E

text: vitamin K

text: calcium

text: phosphorus

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: manganese

text: , the current maximum RDAs (over age and sex) are up to 50% higher than the Daily Values used in labeling, whereas for other nutrients the estimated maximal needs have gone down. As of October 2010, the only micronutrients that are required to be included on all labels are

text: vitamin A

text: vitamin C

text: calcium

text: , and

text: iron

text: . To determine the nutrient levels in the foods, companies may develop or use databases, and these may be submitted voluntarily to the U.S.

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: for review.

text: In some parts of the world, young chickpea leaves are consumed as cooked green vegetables. Especially in malnourished populations, it can supplement important dietary nutrients, because regions where chickpeas are consumed have been sometimes found to have populations lacking micronutrients. Chickpea leaves have a significantly higher mineral content than cabbage and spinach.  In natural settings, environmental factors and nutrient availability could influence mineral concentrations.  Nevertheless, consumption of chickpea leaves is recommended for areas where chickpeas are produced as food for humans.

text: Most methods of lipid extraction and isolation from biological samples exploit the high solubility of hydrocarbon chains in organic solvents. Given the diversity in lipid classes, it is not possible to accommodate all classes with a common extraction method. The traditional Bligh/Dyer procedure uses chloroform/methanol-based protocols that include phase partitioning into the organic layer. These protocols work relatively well for a wide variety of physiologically relevant lipids but they have to be adapted for complex lipid chemistries and low-abundance and labile lipid metabolites.When organic soil was used, citrate buffer in the extraction mixture gave higher amounts of lipid phosphate than acetate buffer, Tris, HO or phosphate buffer.

text: Most methods of lipid extraction and isolation from biological samples exploit the high solubility of

text: hydrocarbon chains

text: in

text: organic solvents

text: . Given the diversity in lipid classes, it is not possible to accommodate all classes with a common extraction method. The traditional Bligh/Dyer procedure uses

text: chloroform

text: methanol

text: -based protocols that include phase partitioning into the organic layer. These protocols work relatively well for a wide variety of physiologically relevant lipids but they have to be adapted for complex lipid chemistries and low-abundance and labile lipid

text: metabolites

text: .When organic soil was used,

text: citrate

text: buffer

text: in the extraction mixture gave higher amounts of lipid

text: phosphate

text: than

text: acetate

text: buffer,

text: Tris

text: HO

text: or phosphate buffer.

text: In Nunavut the average life span is approximately 12 years lower than the average Canadian. This is for a number of reasons such as access to healthcare, lower average of socioeconomic standing, poor quality of housing, and the quality of basic services such as drinking water and affordable food. The studies done in this area are very limited but there has been some information collected. The project Climate Change and Health in Nunavik and Labrador looked at the impacts on health in these communities due to changing climates and access to land-based food sources such as fish, geese and seals. There is concern for the senior citizens in these communities because they cannot go and hunt for themselves but still rely on land-based sources of food. Food security in for more urban Aboriginals is also important to look at. Not having proper access to food can lead to a number of health issues such as low birth weights, developmental delays, depression, anxiety and suicide. These issues are already pressing in Aboriginal communities and a lot could be done to help with more equal access to food. High rates of diabetes are a large indicator of the food that Aboriginal people are ingesting. There has been a change in diet from traditional foods to European foods and medicine. The members of this northern Ontario Aboriginal community stated their preference for wild meat and berries because they believe it is healthier than store-bought foods. The cost of food is also high unless the person is purchasing processed "junk foods". These types of foods can lead to a decline in physical health and this is not the preferred diet of a traditional Aboriginal person.  There are certain essential nutrients that are especially of concern in Aboriginal diets: protein, zinc, vitamin D, iron, omega 3 fatty acids, and selenium. These influence a person’s physical health as well as their mental and emotional health. The caribou and other traditional foods are excellent sources of these nutrients.

text: In

text: Nunavut

text: the average life span is approximately 12 years lower than the average Canadian. This is for a number of reasons such as access to healthcare, lower average of socioeconomic standing, poor quality of housing, and the quality of basic services such as

text: drinking water

text: and affordable food. The studies done in this area are very limited but there has been some information collected. The project Climate Change and Health in Nunavik and

text: Labrador

text: looked at the impacts on health in these communities due to changing climates and access to land-based food sources such as fish, geese and seals. There is concern for the senior citizens in these communities because they cannot go and hunt for themselves but still rely on land-based sources of food. Food security in for more urban Aboriginals is also important to look at. Not having proper access to food can lead to a number of health issues such as

text: low birth weight

text: s,

text: developmental delay

text: s,

text: depression

text: anxiety

text: and

text: suicide

text: . These issues are already pressing in Aboriginal communities and a lot could be done to help with more equal access to food. High rates of diabetes are a large indicator of the food that Aboriginal people are ingesting. There has been a change in diet from traditional foods to European foods and medicine. The members of this northern Ontario Aboriginal community stated their preference for wild meat and berries because they believe it is healthier than store-bought foods. The cost of food is also high unless the person is purchasing processed "

text: junk foods

text: ". These types of foods can lead to a decline in physical health and this is not the preferred diet of a traditional Aboriginal person.  There are certain essential nutrients that are especially of concern in Aboriginal diets:

text: protein

text: zinc

text: vitamin D

text: iron

text: omega 3 fatty acids

text: , and

text: selenium

text: . These influence a person’s physical health as well as their mental and emotional health. The

text: caribou

text: and other traditional foods are excellent sources of these nutrients.

text: Feed blocks are cost-effective food supplements that are used in preserving high moisture agro-industrial by-products. The general formula of feed blocks includes binders, a preservative, a mixture of ingredients that contain the desired nutrients (nitrogen, minerals, vitamins) and one of many energy rich agro-industrial by-products, such as molasses. The levels of these substances may vary, as well as the main component of the block, in different regions or countries. The main ingredient may vary from date pulp, rice bran and poultry waste in Iraq, tomato pulp and olive cake in Tunisia, brewery grains and olive cake in Jordan or molasses in Morocco.  Feed blocks aid small scale farmers as conventional feed, such as barley grain or bran, are often expensive.

text: The Storm's stork is possibly not strongly directly affected by habitat fragmentation through deforestation. It may actually be somewhat tolerant of fragmentation because it could fly great distances in search of new habitat and be relatively unaffected by the open land matrix which it overflies. However, this is probably not a favourable situation for the species, and the exact maximum distances it will travel to reach new habitat are currently unknown. A larger impact of deforestation on the Storm's stork is more likely to be the decrease in freshwater faunal prey abundance and diversity resulting from increased sedimentation, nutrient loads and water temperatures after logging. This loss of freshwater taxa would in turn decrease food availability for this stork at its foraging sites. Road building through the forests to access logging areas creates similar problems by contributing to soil erosion, thereby also decreasing freshwater prey diversity. The large canopy gaps created through logging also lead to drier abiotic conditions in the cleared areas than under dense canopy, which would render these areas unsuitable for food taxa of the Storm's stork such as amphibians and invertebrates that require wet substrates to live on. This is another likely contributor to the decrease in food taxa abundance after forest clearing.

text: A simple lipid is a fatty acid ester of different alcohols and carries no other substance. These lipids belong to a heterogeneous class of predominantly nonpolar compounds, mostly insoluble in water, but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents such as chloroform and benzene.

text: In biology, lipids comprise a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food  industries as well as in nanotechnology.

text: In

text: biology

text: , lipids comprise a group of naturally occurring

text: molecule

text: s that include

text: fat

text: s,

text: wax

text: es,

text: sterol

text: s, fat-soluble

text: vitamin

text: s (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K),

text: monoglyceride

text: s,

text: diglyceride

text: s,

text: triglyceride

text: s,

text: phospholipid

text: s, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy,

text: signaling

text: , and acting as structural components of

text: cell membrane

text: s. Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food

text: industries

text: as well as in

text: nanotechnology

text: Nutrient profiling, also nutritional profiling, is the science of classifying or ranking foods by their nutritional composition in order to promote health and prevent disease. A common use of nutrient profiling is in the creation of nutritional rating systems to help consumers identify nutritious food.

text: Nutrient profiling, also nutritional profiling, is the science of classifying or ranking foods by their nutritional composition in order to promote health and prevent disease. A common use of nutrient profiling is in the creation of

text: nutritional rating systems

text: to help consumers identify nutritious food.

text: To decide if a modified product is substantially equivalent, the product is tested by the manufacturer for unexpected changes in a limited set of components such as toxins, nutrients, or allergens that are present in the unmodified food.  The manufacturer's data is then assessed by a regulatory agency, such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. That data, along with data on the genetic modification itself and resulting proteins (or lack of protein), is submitted to regulators.  If regulators determine that the submitted data show no significant difference between the modified and unmodified products, then the regulators will generally not require further food safety testing.  However, if the product has no natural equivalent, or shows significant differences from the unmodified food, or for other reasons that regulators may have (for instance, if a gene produces a protein that had not been a food component before), the regulators may require that further safety testing be carried out.

text: To decide if a modified product is substantially equivalent, the product is tested by the manufacturer for unexpected changes in a limited set of components such as toxins, nutrients, or allergens that are present in the unmodified food.  The manufacturer's data is then assessed by a regulatory agency, such as the U.S.

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: . That data, along with data on the genetic modification itself and resulting proteins (or lack of protein), is submitted to regulators.  If regulators determine that the submitted data show no significant difference between the modified and unmodified products, then the regulators will generally not require further food safety testing.  However, if the product has no natural equivalent, or shows significant differences from the unmodified food, or for other reasons that regulators may have (for instance, if a gene produces a protein that had not been a food component before), the regulators may require that further safety testing be carried out.

text: Food fortification or enrichment is the process of adding micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) to food. It may be a purely commercial choice to provide extra nutrients in a food, while other times it is a public health policy which aims to reduce the number of people with dietary deficiencies within a population.

text: Food fortification or enrichment is the process of adding

text: micronutrient

text: s (essential trace elements and vitamins) to

text: food

text: . It may be a purely commercial choice to provide extra nutrients in a food, while other times it is a

text: public health

text: policy which aims to reduce the number of people with dietary deficiencies within a population.

text: Do not be afraid of carbs, they are vital to your metabolism. The majority of energy produced and used by our bodies comes from carbohydrates. Just be smart in the kinds you consume, and don't fill up on carbs if you plan on lounging around all day. The main point of consuming such energy-providing foods is to fuel you through a day full of activity. The same can be said for protein. It is vital, but should be utilized when you perform moderate to heavy exercise. You must consume some sort of carbohydrate and protein every day, but dial it back when you know you'll be sitting in class or doing homework at your desk for the majority of the day.

text: PATH develops nutrition-focused innovations such as Ultra Rice, a manufactured, micronutrient-fortified "grain" that can be mixed with rice to fight malnutrition in countries where rice is a staple food.  Made of rice flour, micronutrients, and nutrient-protecting ingredients, Ultra Rice can mimic the look and taste of local rice and deliver the specific micronutrients a population needs. Ultra Rice has been produced and tested in several countries, including Brazil, Burundi, and India, where it has been served in school-lunch programs. PATH is working with partners in Cambodia to distribute Ultra Rice through food assistance programs and deepen the evidence base for rice fortification. In Brazil, PATH has partnered with a commercial rice producer to sell Ultra Rice on supermarket shelves and reach 10 million low-income consumers in three years.

text: PATH develops nutrition-focused innovations such as

text: Ultra Rice

text: , a manufactured, micronutrient-fortified "grain" that can be mixed with rice to fight malnutrition in countries where rice is a staple food.  Made of rice flour, micronutrients, and nutrient-protecting ingredients, Ultra Rice can mimic the look and taste of local rice and deliver the specific micronutrients a population needs. Ultra Rice has been produced and tested in several countries, including Brazil, Burundi, and India, where it has been served in school-lunch programs. PATH is working with partners in Cambodia to distribute Ultra Rice through food assistance programs and deepen the evidence base for rice fortification. In Brazil, PATH has partnered with a commercial rice producer to sell Ultra Rice on supermarket shelves and reach 10 million low-income consumers in three years.

text: Nearly all foods contain all twenty amino acids in some quantity, and nearly all animal foods contain the essential amino acids in sufficient quantity. Proportions vary, however, and most plant foods are deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids. Though some vegetable sources of protein contain sufficient values of all essential amino acids, many are lower in one or more essential amino acids than animal sources, especially lysine, and to a lesser extent methionine and threonine.Consuming a mixture of plant-based protein sources can increase the biological value of food.  For example, to obtain 25 grams of complete protein from canned pinto beans requires consuming 492 grams (423 kcal); however, only 364 g of pinto beans (391 kcal) are required if they are combined with 12 grams of Brazil nuts (79 kcal).  Complementary proteins need not be eaten at the same meal for your body to use them together. Studies now show that your body can combine complementary proteins that are eaten over the course of the day.

text: Nearly all foods contain all twenty amino acids in some quantity, and nearly all animal foods contain the essential amino acids in sufficient quantity. Proportions vary, however, and most plant foods are deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids. Though some vegetable sources of protein contain sufficient values of all essential amino acids, many are lower in one or more essential amino acids than animal sources, especially

text: lysine

text: , and to a lesser extent

text: methionine

text: and

text: threonine

text: .Consuming a mixture of plant-based protein sources can increase the

text: biological value

text: of food.  For example, to obtain 25 grams of complete protein from canned pinto beans requires consuming 492 grams (423 kcal); however, only 364 g of pinto beans (391 kcal) are required if they are combined with 12 grams of Brazil nuts (79 kcal).  Complementary proteins need not be eaten at the same meal for your body to use them together. Studies now show that your body can combine complementary proteins that are eaten over the course of the day.

text: Products that qualify for a Health Check symbol must meet category-specific nutrient criteria: The amount of nutrients required is determined from the Canada Food Guide.

text: The Nutrition cluster is made up of DSM Nutritional Products and DSM Food Specialties. DSM Nutritional Products produces essential nutrients such as synthetic vitamins, carotenoids, nutritional lipids and other ingredients for the feed, food, pharmaceutical and personal care industries. DSM Food Specialties manufactures food enzymes, cultures, yeast extracts, savory flavors, hydrocolloids and other specialty ingredients for the dairy, baking, beverage and savory segments.

text: The Nutrition cluster is made up of DSM Nutritional Products and DSM Food Specialties. DSM Nutritional Products produces essential nutrients such as synthetic

text: vitamin

text: s,

text: carotenoid

text: s, nutritional

text: lipid

text: s and other ingredients for the feed, food, pharmaceutical and

text: personal care

text: industries. DSM Food Specialties manufactures food

text: enzyme

text: s,

text: cultures

text: yeast extract

text: s,

text: savory flavor

text: s,

text: hydrocolloids

text: and other specialty ingredients for the

text: dairy

text: baking

text: beverage

text: and savory segments.

text: The forest dormouse (Dryomys nitedula) is a species of rodent in the family Gliridae found in eastern Europe, the Balkans and parts of western Central Asia. It is categorized as being of least concern in the IUCN List of Threatened Species due to its wide range and stable population trend. Forest dormice have a diploid count (2n) of 48 chromosomes. Even though this species lives in a variety of geographic locations, its greatest population density is in the forests of central Moldova, in Transcaucasia, in the mountains of Central Asia. In most other locations, population density of this species is rather low. Population density is dependent on many factors. But the main features that this species depends on for choosing a location are the presence of the appropriate food sources as well as good foliage that can be used for a habitat. The reason why the forests in central Moldova have the highest population density is they provide the largest diversity of food sources which are available throughout the year. This location also provides the best type of foliage for the forest dormice to build their nests as well as swing from branches. The combination of both of these aspects allows for this species to have its highest needs met. Therefore, during mating season they produce offspring who also stay in the same general area when they mature. It makes sense not to move from an area if it is providing for your most basic needs.

text: The forest dormouse (Dryomys nitedula) is a species of

text: rodent

text: in the family

text: Gliridae

text: found in eastern Europe, the

text: Balkans

text: and parts of western

text: Central Asia

text: . It is categorized as being of least concern in the IUCN List of Threatened Species due to its wide range and stable population trend. Forest dormice have a diploid count (2n) of 48 chromosomes. Even though this species lives in a variety of geographic locations, its greatest population density is in the forests of central Moldova, in Transcaucasia, in the mountains of Central Asia. In most other locations, population density of this species is rather low. Population density is dependent on many factors. But the main features that this species depends on for choosing a location are the presence of the appropriate food sources as well as good foliage that can be used for a habitat. The reason why the forests in central Moldova have the highest population density is they provide the largest diversity of food sources which are available throughout the year. This location also provides the best type of foliage for the forest dormice to build their nests as well as swing from branches. The combination of both of these aspects allows for this species to have its highest needs met. Therefore, during mating season they produce offspring who also stay in the same general area when they mature. It makes sense not to move from an area if it is providing for your most basic needs.

text: Those patients that also have thyroid cancer may be able to digest food properly, but may not be able to use the nutrients properly.

text: Those patients that also have

text: thyroid cancer

text: may be able to digest food properly, but may not be able to use the nutrients properly.

text: The "Family Rule" allows a manufacturer to have a product that is "nutritionally similar" to another product in the same "family" to adopt the latter's "complete and balanced" statement without itself undergoing any feeding tests. The "similar" food must be of the same processing type; contain the same moisture content; bear a statement of nutritional adequacy for the same or less demanding life stage as the lead product; contain a dry matter, metabolizable energy (ME) content within 7.5% of the lead product's dry matter; meet the same levels of crude protein, calcium, phosphorus, zinc, lysine, thiamine (and for cat foods, potassium and taurine) as the lead food; and meet or exceed the nutrient levels and ratios of the lead family product or the AAFCO nutrient profiles, whichever is lower. The label statement on the similar food can be the same as the lead product if the ME is substantiated by the 10-day ME feeding study.

text: The tables below include tabular lists for selected basic foods, compiled from United States Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) sources. Included for each food is its weight in grams, its calories, and (also in grams,) the amount of protein, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, fat, and saturated fat. As foods vary by brands and stores, the figures should only be considered estimates, with more exact figures often included on product labels. For precise details about vitamins and mineral contents, the USDA source can be used.

text: The tables below include tabular lists for selected basic foods, compiled from United States Dept. of Agriculture (

text: USDA

text: ) sources. Included for each food is its weight in grams, its

text: calories

text: , and (also in grams,) the amount of

text: protein

text: carbohydrates

text: dietary fiber

text: fat

text: , and

text: saturated fat

text: . As foods vary by brands and stores, the figures should only be considered estimates, with more exact figures often included on product labels. For precise details about vitamins and mineral contents, the USDA source can be used.

text: Recent studies have shown A possible connection between macronutrient intake and development of MCI

text: Due to the increased digestibility cooked foods conferred, less digestion was needed to procure the necessary nutrients. As a result, the gastrointestinal tract and organs in the digestive system decreased in size. This is in contrast to other primates, where a larger digestive tract is needed for fermentation of long carbohydrate chains. Thus, humans evolved from the large colons and tracts that are seen in other primates to smaller ones.

text: Due to the increased digestibility cooked foods conferred, less digestion was needed to procure the necessary nutrients. As a result, the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: and organs in the

text: digestive system

text: decreased in size. This is in contrast to other primates, where a larger digestive tract is needed for fermentation of long carbohydrate chains. Thus, humans evolved from the large colons and tracts that are seen in other primates to smaller ones.

text: A fragment of the greetings of Moctezuma says: "My lord, you have become fatigued, you have become tired: to the land you have arrived. You have come to your city: Mexico, here you have come to sit on your place, on your throne. Oh, it has been reserved to you for a small time, it was conserved by those who have gone, your substitutes... This is what has been told by our rulers, those of whom governed this city, ruled this city. That you would come to ask for your throne, your place, that you would come here. Come to the land, come and rest: take possession of your royal houses, give food to your body."

text: The next pillar of food security is food utilization, which refers to the metabolism of food by individuals. Once food is obtained by a household, a variety of factors affect the quantity and quality of food that reaches members of the household. In order to achieve food security, the food ingested must be safe and must be enough to meet the physiological requirements of each individual. Food safety affects food utilization, and can be affected by the preparation, processing, and cooking of food in the community and household. Nutritional values of the household determine food choice, and whether food meets cultural preferences is important to utilization in terms of psychological and social well-being. Access to healthcare is another determinant of food utilization, since the health of individuals controls how the food is metabolized. For example, intestinal parasites can take nutrients from the body and decrease food utilization. Sanitation can also decrease the occurrence and spread of diseases that can affect food utilization. Education about nutrition and food preparation can affect food utilization and improve this pillar of food security. education bring accountability among people,create awareness,which foster them for food security

text: The next pillar of food security is food utilization, which refers to the metabolism of food by individuals. Once food is obtained by a household, a variety of factors affect the quantity and quality of food that reaches members of the household. In order to achieve food security, the food ingested must be safe and must be enough to meet the physiological requirements of each individual.

text: Food safety

text: affects food utilization, and can be affected by the preparation, processing, and cooking of food in the community and household. Nutritional values of the household determine

text: food choice

text: , and whether food meets cultural preferences is important to utilization in terms of psychological and social

text: well-being

text: . Access to healthcare is another determinant of food utilization, since the health of individuals controls how the food is metabolized. For example, intestinal parasites can take nutrients from the body and decrease food utilization. Sanitation can also decrease the occurrence and spread of diseases that can affect food utilization. Education about nutrition and food preparation can affect food utilization and improve this pillar of food security. education bring accountability among people,create awareness,which foster them for food security

text: Horst & Friends (horstandfriends.com), an Intelligent Nutrients Certified Organic Salon, opened in June 2010 in the Intelligent Nutrients headquarters in Minneapolis.

text:
Japanese researchers say that around 4 g of dried purple nori, an edible seaweed, supplies the adult RDA of 2.4 micrograms (µg) of B. Tempeh, a fermented soybean food, is cited as another source, perhaps because of contamination during production.<ref name=Watanabe2014>Fumio Watanabe, et al., "Vitamin B12-Containing Plant Food Sources for Vegetarians", Nutrients, 6(5), 5 May 2014, pp. 1861–1873.  PMID 24803097
Fumio Watanabe, et al., "Biologically active vitamin B compounds in foods for preventing deficiency among vegetarians and elderly subjects," Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 61(280), 17 July 2013, pp. 6769–6775.  PMID 23782218

text: Japanese researchers say that around 4 g of dried purple

text: nori

text: , an

text: edible seaweed

text: , supplies the adult

text: RDA

text: of 2.4

text: microgram

text: s (µg) of B.

text: Tempeh

text:
, a fermented soybean food, is cited as another source, perhaps because of contamination during production.<ref name=Watanabe2014>Fumio Watanabe, et al., "Vitamin B12-Containing Plant Food Sources for Vegetarians", Nutrients, 6(5), 5 May 2014, pp. 1861–1873.  PMID 24803097
Fumio Watanabe, et al., "Biologically active vitamin B compounds in foods for preventing deficiency among vegetarians and elderly subjects," Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 61(280), 17 July 2013, pp. 6769–6775.  PMID 23782218

text: The soft pellets contain a sufficiently large portion of nutrients that are critical to the rabbit's health.  This soft fecal matter is rich in vitamin B and other nutrients.  The process of coprophagy is important to the stability of a rabbit's digestive health because it is one important way that which a rabbit receives vitamin B in a form that is useful to its digestive wellness. Occasionally, the rabbit may leave these pellets lying about its cage; this behavior is harmless and usually related to an ample food supply.

text: The soft pellets contain a sufficiently large portion of nutrients that are critical to the rabbit's health.  This soft fecal matter is rich in

text: vitamin B

text: and other nutrients.  The process of coprophagy is important to the stability of a rabbit's digestive health because it is one important way that which a rabbit receives vitamin B in a form that is useful to its digestive wellness. Occasionally, the rabbit may leave these pellets lying about its cage; this behavior is harmless and usually related to an ample food supply.

text: Herald Shoal has relatively colder, saltier, and more nutrient rich water compared to more easterly water, and during the spring ice retreat this region experiences high primary productivity from phytoplankton blooms. This leads to the region’s rich seafloor, making it a significant food resource for many marine species.

text: Herald Shoal has relatively colder, saltier, and more nutrient rich water compared to more easterly water, and during the spring ice retreat this region experiences high primary productivity from

text: phytoplankton

text: blooms. This leads to the region’s rich seafloor, making it a significant food resource for many marine species.

text: HEBs have the following micronutrients at a minimum per 100 g:

text: As a result, the analytical method that is universally recognized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Health Organization (WHO), the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), United Nations University (UNU) and the United States National Academy of Sciences when judging the quality of protein in the human is not PER or BV but the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (PDCAAS), as it is viewed as accurately measuring the correct relative nutritional value of animal and vegetable sources of protein in the diet.

text: As a result, the analytical method that is universally recognized by the

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: (FAO),

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO), the

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA), the

text: United States Department of Agriculture

text: (USDA),

text: United Nations University

text: (UNU) and the

text: United States National Academy of Sciences

text: when judging the quality of protein in the human is not PER or BV but the Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (

entity_name: Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score

text: PDCAAS

text: ), as it is viewed as accurately measuring the correct relative nutritional value of animal and vegetable sources of protein in the diet.

text: When cooked, the nutrient composition is comparable to common cereals, supplying a moderate amount of dietary fiber and minerals.   The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations declared 2013 to be the International Year of Quinoa.

text: When cooked, the nutrient composition is comparable to common cereals, supplying a moderate amount of

text: dietary fiber

text: and

text: minerals

text: .   The

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: of the

text: United Nations

text: declared 2013 to be the International Year of Quinoa.

text: The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada state that well-planned vegan diets can meet all nutrient requirements and are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (formerly known as the American Dietetic Association), adds that well-planned vegan diets are also appropriate for older adults and athletes, and that vegan diets can reduce the risk of certain health conditions, including ischemic heart disease (coronary artery disease), type 2 diabetes, hypertension, certain types of cancer, obesity, and chronic disease.<br>Special attention may be necessary to ensure that an all-plant (vegan) diet will provide adequate amounts of vitamin B, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, iron, zinc, and iodine. These nutrients are available in plant foods, with the exception of vitamin B, which can to be obtained from B fortified vegan foods or supplements. Iodine may also require supplements (iodized salt).

text: The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada state that well-planned vegan diets can meet all nutrient requirements and are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including during

text: pregnancy

text: lactation

text: infancy

text: childhood

text: , and

text: adolescence

text: . The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (formerly known as the American Dietetic Association), adds that well-planned vegan diets are also appropriate for older adults and athletes, and that vegan diets can reduce the risk of certain health conditions, including ischemic heart disease (coronary artery disease), type 2 diabetes, hypertension, certain types of cancer, obesity, and chronic disease.<br>Special attention may be necessary to ensure that an all-plant (vegan) diet will provide adequate amounts of vitamin B, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, iron, zinc, and iodine. These nutrients are available in plant foods, with the exception of vitamin B, which can to be obtained from B fortified vegan foods or supplements. Iodine may also require supplements (iodized salt).

text: Food fortification was identified as the second strategy of four by the WHO and FAO to begin decreasing the incidence of nutrient deficiencies at the global level.

text: The seven major classes of nutrients are: carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water. These nutrient classes are categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts) or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins, and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

text: The seven major classes of nutrients are:

text: carbohydrates

text: fat

text: s,

text: fiber

text: minerals

text: protein

text: s,

text: vitamin

text: s, and

text: water

text: . These nutrient classes are categorized as either

text: macronutrients

text: (needed in relatively large amounts) or

text: micronutrients

text: (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins, and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

text: Immediately after bariatric surgery, the patient is restricted to a clear liquid diet, which includes foods such as clear broth, diluted fruit juices or sugar-free drinks and gelatin desserts.  This diet is continued until the gastrointestinal tract has recovered somewhat from the surgery.  The next stage provides a blended or pureed sugar-free diet for at least two weeks. This may consist of high protein, liquid or soft foods such as protein shakes, soft meats, and dairy products. Foods high in carbohydrates are usually avoided when possible during the initial weight loss period.

text: Protein is a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body. Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin. Proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to nucleic acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair, and other molecules essential for life. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells.

text: Protein is a nutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body. Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin. Proteins are also used in membranes, such as

text: glycoprotein

text: s. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to

text: nucleic acid

text: , co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair, and other molecules essential for life. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells.

text: Nutrient premixes, or "nutrient systems" are custom-designed premixed blends containing any of a wide variety of nutrients associated with health and wellness – used in the fortification of food, drinks, and pharmaceutical products.

text: Nutrient premixes, or "nutrient systems" are custom-designed premixed blends containing any of a wide variety of

text: nutrients

text: associated with

text: health

text: and wellness – used in the

text: fortification

text: of food, drinks, and

text: pharmaceutical

text: products.

text: While there are methods to engineer natural proteins such as by directed evolution, there are also projects to design novel protein structures that match or improve on the functionality of existing proteins. One group generated a helix bundle that was capable of binding oxygen with similar properties as hemoglobin, yet did not bind carbon monoxide. A similar protein structure was generated to support a variety of oxidoreductase activities.  Another group generated a family of G-protein coupled receptors which could be activated by the inert small molecule clozapine-N-oxide but insensitive to the native ligand, acetylcholine.

text: While there are methods to engineer natural proteins such as by

text: directed evolution

text: , there are also projects to design novel protein structures that match or improve on the functionality of existing proteins. One group generated a

text: helix bundle

text: that was capable of binding

text: oxygen

text: with similar properties as

text: hemoglobin

text: , yet did not bind

text: carbon monoxide

text: . A similar protein structure was generated to support a variety of

text: oxidoreductase

text: activities.  Another group generated a family of G-protein coupled receptors which could be activated by the inert small molecule clozapine-N-oxide but insensitive to the native ligand, acetylcholine.

text: Potash is the common name for various potassium-bearing materials and compounds and it improves the water retention, yield, nutrient value, taste, colour and texture of crops and is commonly applied to a wide range of fruits and vegetables, as well as rice, wheat, corn and other grains, sugar, soybeans, palm oil and cotton, all of which benefit from the nutrient's quality enhancing properties. Higher demand for food is having to be satisfied by obtaining higher yields from existing acreage, which in turn requires the increased use of fertilisers to maintain the balance of nutrients found in soil. Crucially, there is currently no commercially viable alternative to potash as a source of potassium fertiliser and potassium's role cannot be replicated by other nutrients.

text: Potash

text: is the common name for various potassium-bearing materials and compounds and it improves the water retention, yield, nutrient value, taste, colour and texture of crops and is commonly applied to a wide range of

text: fruits

text: and

text: vegetables

text: , as well as

text: rice

text: wheat

text: corn

text: and other

text: grain

text: s,

text: sugar

text: soybeans

text: palm oil

text: and cotton, all of which benefit from the nutrient's quality enhancing properties. Higher demand for food is having to be satisfied by obtaining higher yields from existing acreage, which in turn requires the increased use of fertilisers to maintain the balance of nutrients found in soil. Crucially, there is currently no commercially viable alternative to potash as a source of potassium fertiliser and potassium's role cannot be replicated by other nutrients.

text: The dynamic stoichiometry shown in unicellular algae reflects their capability to stockpile nutrients in internal pool, shift between enzymes with various nutrient requirements and alter osmolyte composition. Different cellular components have their own unique stoichiometry characteristics, for instance, resource (light or nutrients) acquisition machinery such as proteins and chlorophyll contain high concentration of nitrogen but low in phosphorus. Meanwhile, growth machinery such as ribosomal RNA contains high nitrogen and phosphorus concentration.

text: The food inside the pot loses little to no moisture because it is surrounded by steam, creating a tender, flavorful dish. The evaporation of the water prevents burning so long as the pot is not allowed to heat until it is completely dry. Because no oil needs to be added with this cooking technique, food cooked in clay many times is lower in fat compared with food prepared by other utensils. Pots also seal all the nutrients inside the pot by locking steam in. The unglazed pottery utensil made from clay is inert or non-reactive and does not leach into food.

text: The food inside the pot loses little to no

text: moisture

text: because it is surrounded by steam, creating a tender, flavorful

text: dish

text: . The evaporation of the water prevents burning so long as the pot is not allowed to heat until it is completely dry. Because no oil needs to be added with this cooking technique, food cooked in clay many times is lower in fat compared with food prepared by other utensils. Pots also seal all the nutrients inside the pot by locking steam in. The unglazed pottery utensil made from clay is inert or non-reactive and does not leach into food.

text: and  Then Jesus said to his disciples: "Therefore I tell you, do not worry about your life, what you will eat or drink; or about your body, what you will wear. Is not life more important than food, and the body more important than clothes?"

text: Energy: 179 Kcal Kj/42, lipids: 0.1 g of which saturated fatty acids 0g, carbohydrates: 10.5 g, of which sugars: 10.5 g fiber: 0.1 g protein: 0.1 g salt: 0.0008 g, vitamin C (15% VRN *) (*) reference value of the nutrient.

text: Foods with carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion and release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream tend to have a high GI; foods with carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, tend to have a low GI. The concept was developed by Dr. David J. Jenkins and colleagues in 1980–1981 at the University of Toronto in their research to find out which foods were best for people with diabetes.A lower glycemic index suggests slower rates of digestion and absorption of the foods' carbohydrates and may also indicate greater extraction from the liver and periphery of the products of carbohydrate digestion. A lower glycemic response usually equates to a lower insulin demand but not always, and may improve long-term blood glucose control and blood lipids. The insulin index is also useful for providing a direct measure of the insulin response to a food.

text: Foods with carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion and release glucose rapidly into the

text: bloodstream

text: tend to have a high GI; foods with carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, tend to have a low GI. The concept was developed by Dr.

text: David J. Jenkins

text: and colleagues in 1980–1981 at the

text: University of Toronto

text: in their research to find out which foods were best for people with

text: diabetes

text: .A lower glycemic index suggests slower rates of digestion and absorption of the foods' carbohydrates and may also indicate greater extraction from the liver and periphery of the products of carbohydrate digestion. A lower glycemic response usually equates to a lower insulin demand but not always, and may improve long-term blood glucose control and

text: blood lipids

text: . The

text: insulin index

text: is also useful for providing a direct measure of the insulin response to a food.

text: Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals. For example, muscovite, a white mica, can be used for windows (sometimes referred to as isinglass), as a filler, or as an insulator. Ores are minerals that have a high concentration of a certain element, typically a metal. Examples are cinnabar (HgS), an ore of mercury, sphalerite (ZnS), an ore of zinc, or cassiterite (SnO), an ore of tin. Gems are minerals with an ornamental value, and are distinguished from non-gems by their beauty, durability, and usually, rarity. There are about 20 mineral species that qualify as gem minerals, which constitute about 35 of the most common gemstones. Gem minerals are often present in several varieties, and so one mineral can account for several different gemstones; for example, ruby and sapphire are both corundum, AlO.

text: Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as

text: industrial minerals

text: . For example,

text: muscovite

text: , a white mica, can be used for windows (sometimes referred to as isinglass), as a filler, or as an insulator.

text: Ore

text: s are minerals that have a high concentration of a certain element, typically a metal. Examples are

text: cinnabar

text: (HgS), an ore of mercury,

text: sphalerite

text: (ZnS), an ore of zinc, or

text: cassiterite

text: (SnO), an ore of tin.

text: Gem

text: s are minerals with an ornamental value, and are distinguished from non-gems by their beauty, durability, and usually, rarity. There are about 20 mineral species that qualify as gem minerals, which constitute about 35 of the most common gemstones. Gem minerals are often present in several varieties, and so one mineral can account for several different gemstones; for example,

text: ruby

text: and

text: sapphire

text: are both

text: corundum

text: , AlO.

text: Like other herbivores, lagomorphs have to deal with a bulky diet in which the cell walls are composed of cellulose, a substance which mammalian digestive enzymes are unable to break down. Despite this, lagomorphs have developed a way of extracting maximum nourishment from their diet. First they bite off and shred plant tissues with their incisors and then they grind the material with their molars. Digestion continues in the stomach and small intestine where nutrients are absorbed. After that, certain food remains get diverted into the caecum, a blind-ended pouch. Here, they are mixed with bacteria, yeasts and other micro-organisms that are able to digest cellulose and turn it into sugar, a process known as hindgut fermentation. Other faecal matter passes along the colon and is excreted in the normal way as small, dry pellets. About four to eight hours after the meal, the contents of the caecum pass into the colon and are eliminated as soft, moist pellets known as cecotropes. These are immediately eaten by the lagomorph, which can thus extract all the remaining nutrients in the food.

text: Like other herbivores, lagomorphs have to deal with a bulky diet in which the cell walls are composed of

text: cellulose

text: , a substance which mammalian digestive enzymes are unable to break down. Despite this, lagomorphs have developed a way of extracting maximum nourishment from their diet. First they bite off and shred plant tissues with their incisors and then they grind the material with their molars. Digestion continues in the stomach and small intestine where nutrients are absorbed. After that, certain food remains get diverted into the

text: caecum

text: , a blind-ended pouch. Here, they are mixed with bacteria, yeasts and other micro-organisms that are able to digest cellulose and turn it into sugar, a process known as

text: hindgut fermentation

text: . Other faecal matter passes along the colon and is excreted in the normal way as small, dry pellets. About four to eight hours after the meal, the contents of the caecum pass into the colon and are eliminated as soft, moist pellets known as

text: cecotrope

text: s. These are immediately eaten by the lagomorph, which can thus extract all the remaining nutrients in the food.

text: Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids (most notably beta-carotene). Vitamin A has multiple functions: it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, the light-absorbing molecule necessary for both low-light (scotopic vision) and color vision.  Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid (an irreversibly oxidized form of retinol), which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells.

text: Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional

text: organic compounds

text: that includes

text: retinol

text: retinal

text: retinoic acid

text: , and several

text: provitamin

text: A

text: carotenoids

text: (most notably

text: beta-carotene

text: ). Vitamin A has multiple functions: it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the

text: immune system

text: and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the

text: retina

text: of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein

text: opsin

text: to form

text: rhodopsin

text: , the light-absorbing molecule necessary for both low-light (

text: scotopic

text: vision) and

text: color vision

text: .  Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid (an irreversibly oxidized form of retinol), which is an important

text: hormone

text: -like

text: growth factor

text: for

text: epithelial

text: and other cells.

text: Homemade food requires more preparation time than opening a jar or box of ready-to-eat commercial baby food, as food may need to be minced or pureed for young babies, or cooked separately without the salt, intense spices, or sugar that the family chooses to eat. Avocados and bananas are foods that can be easily mashed and are high in vitamins and nutrients, making them perfect starter foods for an infant 6 months in age or older.

text: Homemade food requires more preparation time than opening a jar or box of ready-to-eat commercial baby food, as food may need to be

text: minced

text: or

text: puree

text: d for young babies, or cooked separately without the salt, intense spices, or sugar that the family chooses to eat. Avocados and bananas are foods that can be easily mashed and are high in vitamins and nutrients, making them perfect starter foods for an infant 6 months in age or older.

text: Studies show that food insecurity leads to many health effects for elderly adults including lower BMI, limited activity and malnutrition. The elderly are more sensitive to their diets and can’t handle the amount of sugar and sodium found in processed foods. They also need more nutrients because over time, digestive tracts become less efficient in nutrient absorption. Also, the elderly tend to have existing diseases and/or take medications that interfere with nutrient absorption. Therefore, any nutrients present in the cheaper, highly processed food are less likely to be absorbed. If an elderly person doesn’t have consistent access to enough fruits and vegetables and the proper variety of nutrients, as is the case in rural food deserts, it makes them more at risk for health problems and future ailments.

text: In 2004 a study published in the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association evaluated two commercial vegetarian pet foods for nutritional adequacy, which included Vegecat KibbleMix supplement.  The study concluded that both Vegecat KibbleMix and the other vegetarian pet food had multiple nutritional inadequacies, particularly taurine, when compared against the AAFCO minimal nutrient profile for cat diets. Vitamin A level leaned high but was still within the AAFCO maximum safeintake. In an apologetic reply, the manufacturer of Vegecat attributed the test results to a manufacturing error during the mixing process and an inaccurate nutrient profile of a food yeast, and asserted they were taking steps to correct the problems.

text: In 2004 a study published in the Journal of the

text: American Veterinary Medical Association

text: evaluated two commercial vegetarian pet foods for nutritional adequacy, which included Vegecat KibbleMix supplement.  The study concluded that both Vegecat KibbleMix and the other vegetarian pet food had multiple nutritional inadequacies, particularly taurine, when compared against the

text: AAFCO

text: minimal nutrient profile for cat diets. Vitamin A level leaned high but was still within the AAFCO maximum safeintake. In an apologetic reply, the manufacturer of Vegecat attributed the test results to a manufacturing error during the mixing process and an inaccurate nutrient profile of a food yeast, and asserted they were taking steps to correct the problems.

text: In plants a micronutrient deficiency (or trace mineral deficiency) is a physiological plant disorder which occurs when a micronutrient is deficient in the soil in which a plant grows. Micronutrients are distinguished from macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium and magnesium) by the relatively low quantities needed by the plant.

text: In plants a micronutrient deficiency (or trace mineral deficiency) is a

text: physiological plant disorder

text: which occurs when a

text: micronutrient

text: is deficient in the

text: soil

text: in which a

text: plant

text: grows. Micronutrients are distinguished from

text: macronutrient

text: s (

text: nitrogen

text: phosphorus

text: sulfur

text: potassium

text: calcium

text: and

text: magnesium

text: ) by the relatively low quantities needed by the plant.

text: The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CHD comes from the Nurses' Health Study — a cohort study that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's population during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CHD risk roughly doubled (relative risk of 1.93, CI: 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (relative risk of 1.17, CI: 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates." Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of food energy from trans fat with non-trans unsaturated fats more than halves the risk of CHD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans unsaturated fats reduces the risk of CHD by 43%.

text: The major evidence for the effect of trans fat on CHD comes from the

text: Nurses' Health Study

text: — a

text: cohort study

text: that has been following 120,000 female nurses since its inception in 1976. In this study, Hu and colleagues analyzed data from 900 coronary events from the study's

text: population

text: during 14 years of followup. He determined that a nurse's CHD risk roughly doubled (

text: relative risk

text: of 1.93,

text: CI

text: : 1.43 to 2.61) for each 2% increase in trans fat calories consumed (instead of carbohydrate calories). By contrast, for each 5% increase in saturated fat calories (instead of carbohydrate calories) there was a 17% increase in risk (

text: relative risk

text: of 1.17,

text: CI

text: : 0.97 to 1.41). "The replacement of saturated fat or trans unsaturated fat by cis (unhydrogenated) unsaturated fats was associated with larger reductions in risk than an isocaloric replacement by carbohydrates." Hu also reports on the benefits of reducing trans fat consumption. Replacing 2% of

text: food energy

text: from trans fat with non-trans

text: unsaturated fats

text: more than halves the risk of CHD (53%). By comparison, replacing a larger 5% of food energy from saturated fat with non-trans

text: unsaturated fats

text: reduces the risk of CHD by 43%.

text: Nutrient (or mineral) deficiencies include:

text: Another example widely studied in aquatic and marine systems is trophic level decline in food webs. It usually implies the shift from ecosystems dominated by high numbers of predatory fish to a regime dominated by lower trophic groups like pelagic planktivores (i.e. jellyfish). Affected food webs often have impacts on fisheries productivity, a major risk of eutrophication, hypoxia, invasion of non-native species and impacts on recreational values. Hypoxia, or the development of so-called death zones, is another regime shift in aquatic and marine-coastal environments. Hypoxia, similarly to eutrophication, is driven by nutrient inputs of anthropogenic origin but also from natural origin in the form of upwellings. In high nutrient concentrations the levels of dissolved oxygen decrease, making life impossible for the majority of aquatic organisms. Impacts on ecosystem services include collapse of fisheries and the production of toxic gases for humans.

text: Another example widely studied in aquatic and marine systems is

text: trophic level

text: decline in

text: food web

text: s. It usually implies the shift from ecosystems dominated by high numbers of

text: predatory fish

text: to a regime dominated by lower trophic groups like pelagic

text: planktivore

text: s (i.e. jellyfish). Affected food webs often have impacts on fisheries productivity, a major risk of

text: eutrophication

text: hypoxia

text: , invasion of non-native species and impacts on recreational values. Hypoxia, or the development of so-called death zones, is another regime shift in aquatic and marine-coastal environments. Hypoxia, similarly to eutrophication, is driven by nutrient inputs of anthropogenic origin but also from natural origin in the form of

text: upwelling

text: s. In high nutrient concentrations the levels of dissolved oxygen decrease, making life impossible for the majority of aquatic organisms. Impacts on ecosystem services include collapse of fisheries and the production of toxic gases for humans.

text: The milling and polishing processes both remove nutrients. A diet based on unenriched white rice leaves many people vulnerable to the neurological disease beriberi, due to a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B). White rice is often enriched with some of the nutrients stripped from it during its processing.  Enrichment of white rice with B, B, and iron is required by law in the United States. As with all natural foods, the precise nutritional composition of rice varies slightly depending on the variety, soil conditions, environmental conditions and types of fertilizers.

text: The milling and polishing processes both remove nutrients. A diet based on unenriched white rice leaves many people vulnerable to the neurological disease

text: beriberi

text: , due to a deficiency of

text: thiamine

text: (vitamin B). White rice is often enriched with some of the nutrients stripped from it during its processing.  Enrichment of white rice with

text: B

text: B

text: , and

text: iron

text: is required by law in the United States. As with all natural foods, the precise nutritional composition of rice varies slightly depending on the variety, soil conditions, environmental conditions and types of fertilizers.

text: The Macmillan Dictionary defines 'superfood' as "a food that is considered to be very good for your health and that may even help some medical conditions." The Oxford Dictionary definition states a superfood is “a nutrient-rich food considered to be especially beneficial for health and well-being."

text: Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition. Most are low in fat and calories but are bulky and filling. They supply dietary fiber and are important sources of essential vitamins, minerals, and trace elements. Particularly important are the antioxidant vitamins A, C, and E. When vegetables are included in the diet, there is found to be a reduction in the incidence of cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease, and other chronic ailments. Research has shown that, compared with individuals who eat less than three servings of fruits and vegetables each day, those that eat more than five servings have an approximately twenty percent lower risk of developing coronary heart disease or stroke.The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably; some contain useful amounts of protein though generally they contain little fat, and varying proportions of vitamins such as vitamin A, vitamin K, and vitamin B; provitamins; dietary minerals; and carbohydrates. Vegetables contain a great variety of other phytochemicals (bioactive non-nutrient plant compounds), some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and anticarcinogenic properties.

text: Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition. Most are low in fat and calories but are bulky and filling. They supply dietary fiber and are important sources of essential vitamins, minerals, and trace elements. Particularly important are the antioxidant vitamins

text: A

text: C

text: , and

text: E

text: . When vegetables are included in the diet, there is found to be a reduction in the incidence of cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease, and other chronic ailments. Research has shown that, compared with individuals who eat less than three servings of fruits and vegetables each day, those that eat more than five servings have an approximately twenty percent lower risk of developing coronary heart disease or stroke.The

text: nutrition

text: al content of vegetables varies considerably; some contain useful amounts of

text: protein

text: though generally they contain little

text: fat

text: , and varying proportions of

text: vitamin

text: s such as

text: vitamin A

text: vitamin K

text: , and

text: vitamin B

text: provitamin

text: s;

text: dietary mineral

text: s; and

text: carbohydrate

text: s. Vegetables contain a great variety of other

text: phytochemical

text: s (bioactive non-nutrient plant compounds), some of which have been claimed to have

text: antioxidant

text: antibacterial

text: antifungal

text: antiviral

text: , and

text: anticarcinogenic

text: properties.

text: gemi ginani[POSS:2PL food]'your food'

text: gemi ginani[POSS:2PL food]'your food'

text: In rocks, some mineral species and groups are much more abundant than others; these are termed the rock-forming minerals. The major examples of these are quartz, the feldspars, the micas, the amphiboles, the pyroxenes, the olivines, and calcite; except the last one, all of the minerals are silicates. Overall, around 150 minerals are considered particularly important, whether in terms of their abundance or aesthetic value in terms of collecting.

text: In rocks, some mineral species and groups are much more abundant than others; these are termed the rock-forming minerals. The major examples of these are quartz, the

text: feldspar

text: s, the

text: mica

text: s, the

text: amphibole

text: s, the

text: pyroxene

text: s, the

text: olivine

text: s, and calcite; except the last one, all of the minerals are silicates. Overall, around 150 minerals are considered particularly important, whether in terms of their abundance or aesthetic value in terms of collecting.

text: Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.

text: Dietary supplement

text: s often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.

text: Carbohydrate content of foods is listed on the Nutrition Facts panel as “total carbohydrate”. Some food labels will list specific types of carbohydrate, such as “fiber, sugar, or other carbohydrate”. With carbohydrate counting, the “total carbohydrate” is used as the carbohydrate amount. Carbohydrate counting can be done by either adding up grams of total carbohydrate or adding "carbohydrate units". A carbohydrate unit is simply 15 g of carbohydrate.

text: The lipid groups plays a role in protein interaction and can contribute to the function of the protein to which it is attached. Furthermore, the lipid serves as a mediator of membrane associations or as a determinant for specific protein-protein interactions. For example, lipid groups can play an important role in increasing molecular hydrophobicity. This allows for the interaction of proteins with cellular membranes and protein domains.

text: The lipid groups plays a role in protein interaction and can contribute to the function of the protein to which it is attached. Furthermore, the lipid serves as a mediator of membrane associations or as a determinant for specific protein-protein interactions. For example, lipid groups can play an important role in increasing molecular

text: hydrophobicity

text: . This allows for the interaction of proteins with cellular membranes and protein domains.

text: Malnutrition disproportionately affect those in sub-Saharan Africa. Over 35 percent of children under the age of 5 in sub-Saharan Africa show physical signs of malnutrition. Malnutrition, the immune system, and infectious diseases operate in a cyclical manner: infectious diseases have deleterious effects on nutritional status, and nutritional deficiencies can lower the strength of the immune system which affects the body’s ability to resist infections. Similarly, malnutrition of both macronutrients (such as protein and energy) and micronutrients (such as iron, zinc, and vitamins) increase susceptibility to HIV infections by interfering with the immune system and through other biological mechanisms. Depletion of macronutrients and micronutrients promotes viral replication that contributes to greater risks of HIV transmission from mother-to-child as well as those through sexual transmission. Increased mother-to-child transmission is related to specific deficiencies in micronutrients such as vitamin A. Further, anemia, a decrease in the number of red blood cells, increases viral shedding in the birth canal, which also increases risk of mother-to-child transmission. Without these vital nutrients, the body lacks the defense mechanisms to resist infections. At the same time, HIV lowers the body’s ability to intake essential nutrients. HIV infection can affect the production of hormones that interfere with the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

text: Malnutrition disproportionately affect those in sub-Saharan Africa. Over 35 percent of children under the age of 5 in sub-Saharan Africa show physical signs of malnutrition. Malnutrition, the immune system, and infectious diseases operate in a cyclical manner: infectious diseases have deleterious effects on nutritional status, and nutritional deficiencies can lower the strength of the immune system which affects the body’s ability to resist infections. Similarly, malnutrition of both

text: macronutrients

text: (such as

text: protein

text: and

text: energy

text: ) and

text: micronutrients

text: (such as

text: iron

text: zinc

text: , and

text: vitamins

text: ) increase susceptibility to HIV infections by interfering with the immune system and through other biological mechanisms. Depletion of macronutrients and micronutrients promotes

text: viral replication

text: that contributes to greater risks of HIV transmission from mother-to-child as well as those through sexual transmission. Increased mother-to-child transmission is related to specific deficiencies in micronutrients such as vitamin A. Further,

text: anemia

text: , a decrease in the number of

text: red blood cells

text: , increases

text: viral shedding

text: in the birth canal, which also increases risk of mother-to-child transmission. Without these vital nutrients, the body lacks the defense mechanisms to resist infections. At the same time, HIV lowers the body’s ability to intake essential nutrients. HIV infection can affect the production of hormones that interfere with the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

text: Several nutrient cycles are important in the aquarium. Dissolved oxygen enters the system at the surface water-air interface. Similarly, carbon dioxide escapes the system into the air. The phosphate cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle. Sulfur, iron, and micronutrients also cycle through the system, entering as food and exiting as waste. Appropriate handling of the nitrogen cycle, along with supplying an adequately balanced food supply and considered biological loading, is enough to keep these other nutrient cycles in approximate equilibrium.

text: Several

text: nutrient cycle

text: s are important in the aquarium. Dissolved oxygen enters the system at the surface water-air interface. Similarly, carbon dioxide escapes the system into the air. The phosphate cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle. Sulfur, iron, and micronutrients also cycle through the system, entering as food and exiting as waste. Appropriate handling of the

text: nitrogen cycle

text: , along with supplying an adequately balanced food supply and considered biological loading, is enough to keep these other nutrient cycles in approximate equilibrium.

text: In fall 1903, the flood of miners leaving the Tanana Valley ended when major gold strikes were made north of Fairbanks. The gold was deeper than in the Klondike, and it had taken time to dig to it. At Cleary Creek, miner Jesse Noble discovered what became the richest vein of gold in Alaska. Gold extraction was slow, because almost no heavy machinery was available to remove the overburden above the layers of gold. The gold discoveries of 1903 reversed the trend of people away from the Tanana Valley. By Christmas 1903, there were between 1,500 and 1,800 miners in the valley. Another food shortage arose during the winter of 1903, alleviated only by the food Barnette had brought in after his trip to the Lower 48.

text: In fall 1903, the flood of miners leaving the Tanana Valley ended when major gold strikes were made north of Fairbanks. The gold was deeper than in the Klondike, and it had taken time to dig to it. At Cleary Creek, miner Jesse Noble discovered what became the richest vein of gold in Alaska. Gold extraction was slow, because almost no heavy machinery was available to remove the

text: overburden

text: above the layers of gold. The gold discoveries of 1903 reversed the trend of people away from the Tanana Valley. By Christmas 1903, there were between 1,500 and 1,800 miners in the valley. Another food shortage arose during the winter of 1903, alleviated only by the food Barnette had brought in after his trip to the Lower 48.

text: The following table shows the nutrient content of major staple vegetable foods in raw form, with the caveat that raw grains are not edible and cannot be digested. Raw grains must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains (reported in this table). Potatoes must also be cooked and should not be sprouted.Note: The highlighted value is the highest nutrient density amongst these staples. Other foods of the world, consumed in smaller quantities, may have nutrient densities higher than these values.

text: The IYP 2016 aims to heighten public awareness of the nutritional benefits of pulses as part of sustainable food production aimed towards food security and nutrition. The Year will create a unique opportunity to encourage connections throughout the food chain that would better utilize pulse-based proteins, further global production of pulses, better utilize crop rotations and address the challenges in the trade of pulses.Diet is an important contributor to health, and to disease. Most countries face nutritional problems, from undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies to obesity and diet-related diseases (such as type II diabetes and certain types of cancer), or a mix of these. Pulses are a nutrient-rich food that as part of a healthy diet can help fight malnutrition in both developed and developing countries.

text: Potassium and phosphorus are important macronutrients for crops but are often deficient in the field. Very little is known about how plants sense fluctuations in K and P and how information about K and P availability is integrated at the whole plant level into physiological and metabolic adaptations.

text: Depletion of the body's store of nutrients is a more likely cause of hunger. The primary fuels for the cells of our body are glucose (a simple sugar) and fatty acids (compounds produced by the breakdown of fats). If the digestive system contains food, these nutrients are absorbed in the blood and nourish our cells. But the digestive tract is sometimes empty; in fact, it is empty when we wake up every morning. There must be a reservoir that stores nutrients to keep the cells of the body nourished when the gut is empty. Indeed, there are two reservoirs: a short-term reservoir and a long-term reservoir. The short-term reservoir stores carbohydrates, and the long-term reservoir stores fat.

text: The results show that infant monkeys spent significantly more time with the terry cloth mother whether she provided nutrients or not. This demonstrates that infants not only need their mothers to provide food and protection, but they need to provide some sort of comfort as well.

text: The most common staple food provided to captive sharks in home aquaria is frozen fish. The freezing process used to store foods for sharks often results in the food items losing nutrient value. Lost nutrients are replaced by vitamin supplements, which are marketed commercially, sometimes by companies generally associated with more typical pet foods (such as Purina Mills). Uncorrected nutrient deficiencies inherent in the frozen food diet can cause considerable detriment to the health of captive specimens. Conditions such as popeye, ascites, and anemia are known to occur in captive sharks that are deficient in some essential vitamin. Vitamin B deficiency results in a treatable condition where the shark's back arches and it swims in a circular motion.

text: The most common staple food provided to captive sharks in home aquaria is frozen fish. The freezing process used to store foods for sharks often results in the food items losing nutrient value. Lost nutrients are replaced by vitamin supplements, which are marketed commercially, sometimes by companies generally associated with more typical pet foods (such as

text: Purina Mills

text: ). Uncorrected nutrient deficiencies inherent in the frozen food diet can cause considerable detriment to the health of captive specimens. Conditions such as popeye, ascites, and anemia are known to occur in captive sharks that are deficient in some essential vitamin. Vitamin B deficiency results in a treatable condition where the shark's back arches and it swims in a circular motion.

text: Stephen S. Chang (15 August 1918 – 16 December 1996)  was a Chinese-born, American food scientist who was involved in the research of lipid and flavors in food, including the development of technology transfer between the United States and Taiwan.

text: Stephen S. Chang (15 August 1918 – 16 December 1996)  was a

text: Chinese

text: -born,

text: American

text: food scientist

text: who was involved in the research of

text: lipid

text: and

text: flavor

text: s in food, including the development of technology transfer between the

text: United States

text: and

text: Taiwan

text: The purpose of the Association is the development, management, publication and exploitation of food composition data, and the promotion of international cooperation and harmonization through improved data quality, food composition database searchability and standards, for example, with the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) on the standard for food data. Other work includes that on ethnic  and traditional foods  and critical evaluation of data on nutrients

text: The purpose of the Association is the development, management, publication and exploitation of

text: food composition data

text: , and the promotion of international cooperation and harmonization through improved data quality,

text: food composition database

text: searchability and standards, for example, with the

text: European Committee for Standardization

text: (CEN) on the standard for food data. Other work includes that on ethnic  and traditional foods  and critical evaluation of data on nutrients

text: At the same time, runoff from storms carried increasingly nutrient-rich waters into the lake. In colder months when the lake surface was not frozen over, the city dumped plowed snow into the lake, adding even more nutrients. Sewage dumped into nearby Niven Lake, heavily used for that purpose for almost 35 years of Yellowknife's postwar growth, may also have flowed into Frame, offering more nutrients.

text: At the same time,

text: runoff

text: from storms carried increasingly nutrient-rich waters into the lake. In colder months when the lake surface was not frozen over, the city dumped plowed snow into the lake, adding even more nutrients. Sewage dumped into nearby Niven Lake, heavily used for that purpose for almost 35 years of Yellowknife's postwar growth, may also have flowed into Frame, offering more nutrients.

text: When formulating a diet or mixed animal feed, nutrient or mineral concentrations are generally given on a dry matter basis; it is therefore important to consider the moisture content of each constituent when calculating total quantities of the different nutrients supplied.

text: POM is readily decomposable and serves many soil functions. It is a source of food or energy for soil organisms and nutrients for plants. POM also enhances soil structure leading to increased water infiltration, aeration and resistance to erosion  Soil management practices, such as tillage and compost/manure application, alter the POM content of soil and water.

text: POM is readily decomposable and serves many

text: soil functions

text: . It is a source of food or energy for

text: soil organisms

text: and

text: nutrients

text: for plants. POM also enhances

text: soil structure

text: leading to increased

text: water infiltration

text: , aeration and resistance to

text: erosion

text: Soil management practices, such as

text: tillage

text: and

text: compost

text: manure

text: application, alter the POM content of soil and water.

text: The glycemic load (GL) of food is a number that estimates how much the food will raise a person's blood glucose level after eating it. One unit of glycemic load approximates the effect of consuming one gram of glucose. Glycemic load accounts for how much carbohydrate is in the food and how much each gram of carbohydrate in the food raises blood glucose levels. Glycemic load is based on the glycemic index (GI), and is calculated by multiplying the grams of available carbohydrate in the food times the food's GI and then dividing by 100.

text: The glycemic load (GL) of food is a number that estimates how much the food will raise a person's

text: blood glucose level

text: after eating it. One unit of glycemic load approximates the effect of consuming one gram of glucose. Glycemic load accounts for how much

text: carbohydrate

text: is in the food and how much each gram of carbohydrate in the food raises blood glucose levels. Glycemic load is based on the

text: glycemic index

text: (GI), and is calculated by multiplying the grams of available carbohydrate in the food times the food's GI and then dividing by 100.

text: Carbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as glucose (from the digestion of table sugar) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot and potato. The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex.

text: Carbohydrates include the common sugar,

text: sucrose

text: (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as

text: glucose

text: (from the digestion of table sugar) and

text: fructose

text: (from fruit), and

text: starch

text: es from sources such as cereal flour, rice,

text: arrowroot

text: and potato. The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex.

text: However, not only were there physical symptoms, as she describes, but also social consequences, such as the pillaging of food stores after the war. During the conflict, the German people felt helpless because they were not getting the nutrients they were used to having; once the war was over, this feeling drove them to criminal behavior.

text: Cellobiose lipids are known as biosurfactants and natural detergents. They can be used in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food applications and are known for their strong fungicidal activity on many species.

text: Cellobiose

text: lipids are known as

text: biosurfactant

text: s and natural detergents. They can be used in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food applications and are known for their strong fungicidal activity on many species.

text: There is not sufficient evidence in medical literature to support claims that organic food is safer or healthier than conventionally grown food. While there may be some differences in the nutrient and antinutrient contents of organically- and conventionally-produced food, the variable nature of food production and handling makes it difficult to generalize results. Claims that organic food tastes better are generally not supported by evidence.

text: There is not sufficient evidence in

text: medical literature

text: to support claims that organic food is

text: safer

text: or healthier than conventionally grown food. While there may be some differences in the nutrient and

text: antinutrient

text: contents of organically- and conventionally-produced food, the variable nature of

text: food production

text: and handling makes it difficult to generalize results. Claims that organic food tastes better are generally not supported by evidence.

text: Proper nutrition is as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of macronutrients while providing ample micronutrients, in order to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise.

text: Proper

text: nutrition

text: is as important to health as exercise. When exercising, it becomes even more important to have a good diet to ensure that the body has the correct ratio of

text: macronutrients

text: while providing ample

text: micronutrient

text: s, in order to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise.

text: The roots of this grass are also known to have notable physiological responses to enriched soil patches that are treated with varying solutions of nutrients, most notably nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. This exploitation of nutrient-rich soil can affect the nutrient status of the overall plant. In phosphorus enriched environments, the mean root uptake of phosphorus was 5 - 26% higher compared to roots from control soil patches. Results regarding the nutrient uptake capacities of P. spicata potassium enriched environments indicate no apparent difference between enriched and controlled soil. This is in contrast to the nitrogen enrichment experiment, where mean rates of ammonium uptake increased between 22 - 88% and mean rates of potassium root uptake were 17 - 71% higher in soil enriched with 50 μm of nitrogen, the lowest concentration tested in a particular study.

text: Discretion should be used to determine whether one snack is a better choice than another based on nutrient density. The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) establishes the amount of nutrients required daily to avoid deficiencies and allow the body to function properly.  Knowing that one snack has more nutrients than another per calorie can help provide required nutrients without exceeding the discretionary calorie allowance.  When analyzing the ratio of nutrients to calories in foods, the caloric level must be lower than the nutrient level in order for it to be nutrient dense.  Otherwise, it could potentially cause a deficiency in an essential nutrient.

text: Discretion should be used to determine whether one snack is a better choice than another based on

text: nutrient density

text: . The

text: Dietary Reference Intake

text: (DRI) establishes the amount of nutrients required daily to avoid deficiencies and allow the body to function properly.  Knowing that one snack has more nutrients than another per calorie can help provide required nutrients without exceeding the discretionary calorie allowance.  When analyzing the ratio of nutrients to calories in foods, the caloric level must be lower than the nutrient level in order for it to be nutrient dense.  Otherwise, it could potentially cause a deficiency in an essential nutrient.

text: After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called chyme.  When the pyloric sphincter valve opens, chyme enters the duodenum where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile juice from the liver and then passes through the small intestine, in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine.  Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the colon (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9.  Some vitamins, such as biotin and vitamin K (KMK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the rectum during defecation.

text: After some time (typically 1–2 hours in humans, 4–6 hours in dogs, 3–4 hours in house cats), the resulting thick liquid is called

text: chyme

text: .  When the

text: pyloric sphincter valve

text: opens, chyme enters the

text: duodenum

text: where it mixes with digestive enzymes from the

text: pancreas

text: and bile juice from the

text: liver

text: and then passes through the

text: small intestine

text: , in which digestion continues. When the chyme is fully digested, it is absorbed into the blood. 95% of absorption of nutrients occurs in the small intestine.  Water and minerals are reabsorbed back into the blood in the

text: colon

text: (large intestine) where the pH is slightly acidic about 5.6 ~ 6.9.  Some vitamins, such as

text: biotin

text: and

text: vitamin K

text: (KMK7) produced by bacteria in the colon are also absorbed into the blood in the colon. Waste material is eliminated from the

text: rectum

text: during

text: defecation

text: B vitamins, also known as the B-complex, are an interrelated group of nutrients which often co-occur in food. The complex consists of: thiamine (B), riboflavin (B), niacin (B), pantothenic acid (B), pyridoxin (B), folic acid (B), cobalamin (B), and biotin. B vitamins are not synthesized in the body, and thus need to be obtained from food. B-complex vitamins are water-soluble vitamins, which means that they are not stored within the body. In consequence, the B vitamins need ongoing replenishment.

text: B vitamins

text: , also known as the B-complex, are an interrelated group of nutrients which often co-occur in food. The complex consists of:

text: thiamine

text: (B),

text: riboflavin

text: (B),

text: niacin

text: (B),

text: pantothenic acid

text: (B),

text: pyridoxin

text: (B),

text: folic acid

text: (B),

text: cobalamin

text: (B), and

text: biotin

text: . B vitamins are not

text: synthesized

text: in the body, and thus need to be obtained from food. B-complex vitamins are water-soluble vitamins, which means that they are not stored within the body. In consequence, the B vitamins need ongoing replenishment.

text: It is not unusual for college students, especially freshmen, to experience abnormal levels of stress. This is more prevalent for freshmen because they are still transitioning from high school. College students can hold jobs while taking classes and may feel they have no time for studying, while freshmen might be stressed just trying to adjust to the college work load. There are hundreds of reasons for why college students get stressed, but, whatever the reason, it also can lead to weight gain. This is because when the body is stressed, it releases hormones such as adrenaline or more importantly cortisol. Cortisol has been tested to slow down the body's metabolism. Other studies have shown that when people are stressed, they have cravings for foods that are high in calories such as sweet, salty, and processed foods.  Not only do people crave bad food when they are nervous or stressed, but they eat large quantities of it through continuous snacking even though they might not be hungry.<ref |ref name=Stress may add bite to appetite in women: a laboratory study of stress-induced cortisol and eating behavior></ref>  Therefore, an increase in weight can be seen in freshmen students even though they are eating normally.

text: It is not unusual for college students, especially freshmen, to experience abnormal levels of stress. This is more prevalent for freshmen because they are still transitioning from high school. College students can hold jobs while taking classes and may feel they have no time for studying, while freshmen might be stressed just trying to adjust to the college work load. There are hundreds of reasons for why college students get stressed, but, whatever the reason, it also can lead to weight gain. This is because when the body is stressed, it releases hormones such as

text: adrenaline

text: or more importantly

text: cortisol

text: . Cortisol has been tested to slow down the body's

text: metabolism

text: . Other studies have shown that when people are stressed, they have cravings for foods that are high in calories such as sweet, salty, and processed foods.  Not only do people crave bad food when they are nervous or stressed, but they eat large quantities of it through continuous snacking even though they might not be hungry.<ref |ref name=Stress may add bite to appetite in women: a laboratory study of stress-induced cortisol and eating behavior></ref>  Therefore, an increase in weight can be seen in freshmen students even though they are eating normally.

text: Polymeric nano-particles are a competing technology to lipidic (based mainly on Phospholipids) nano-particles. There is an additional risk of toxicity associated with polymers not widely studied or understood. The major advantages of polymers is stability, lower cost and predictable characterisation. However, in the patient's body this very stability (slow degradation) is a negative factor. Phospholipids on the other hand are membrane lipids (already present in the body and surrounding each cell), have a GRAS (Generally Recognised As Safe) status from FDA and are derived from natural sources without any complex chemistry involved. They are not metabolised but rather absorbed by the body and the degradation products are themselves nutrients (fats or micronutrients).

text: Polymeric nano-particles are a competing technology to lipidic (based mainly on

text: Phospholipid

text: s) nano-particles. There is an additional risk of toxicity associated with polymers not widely studied or understood. The major advantages of polymers is stability, lower cost and predictable characterisation. However, in the patient's body this very stability (slow degradation) is a negative factor. Phospholipids on the other hand are membrane lipids (already present in the body and surrounding each cell), have a GRAS (Generally Recognised As Safe) status from FDA and are derived from natural sources without any complex chemistry involved. They are not metabolised but rather absorbed by the body and the degradation products are themselves nutrients (fats or micronutrients).

text: •	Nutrient Content of the U.S. Food Supply

text: The daily requirement for humans to remain in nitrogen balance is relatively small. The median human adult requirement for good quality protein is approximately 0.65 gram per kilogram body weight per day and the 97.5 percentile is 0.83 grams per kilogram body weight per day. Children require more protein, depending on the growth phase. A 70 kg adult human who was in the middle of the range would require approximately 45 grams of protein per day to be in nitrogen balance. This would represent less than 10% of kilocalories in a notional 2,200 kilocalorie ration. William Cumming Rose and his team studied the essential amino acids, helping to define minimum amounts needed for normal health. For adults, the recommended minimum amounts of each essential amino acid varies from 4 to 39 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day. To be of good quality, protein only needs to come from a wide variety of foods; there is neither a need to mix animal and plant food together nor a need to complement specific plant foods, such as rice and beans. The notion that such specific combinations of plant protein need to be made to give good quality protein stems from the book Diet for a Small Planet. Plant protein is often described as incomplete, suggesting that they lack one or more of the essential amino acids. Apart from rare examples, such as Taro, each plant provides an amount of all the essential amino acids. However, the relative abundance of the essential amino acids is more variable in plants than that found in animals, which tend to be very similar in essential amino acid abundance, and this has led to the misconception that plant proteins are deficient in some way. However, many plants have low concentrations of protein and so growing individuals may not be able to consume enough plant material to get all the protein that they need.

text: The daily requirement for humans to remain in nitrogen balance is relatively small. The median human adult requirement for good quality protein is approximately 0.65 gram per kilogram body weight per day and the 97.5 percentile is 0.83 grams per kilogram body weight per day. Children require more protein, depending on the growth phase. A 70 kg adult human who was in the middle of the range would require approximately 45 grams of protein per day to be in nitrogen balance. This would represent less than 10% of kilocalories in a notional 2,200 kilocalorie ration.

text: William Cumming Rose

text: and his team studied the

text: essential amino acids

text: , helping to define minimum amounts needed for normal health. For adults, the recommended minimum amounts of each

text: essential amino acid

text: varies from 4 to 39 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day. To be of good quality, protein only needs to come from a wide variety of foods; there is neither a need to mix animal and plant food together nor a need to complement specific plant foods, such as rice and beans. The notion that such specific combinations of plant protein need to be made to give good quality protein stems from the book

text: Diet for a Small Planet

text: . Plant protein is often described as incomplete, suggesting that they lack one or more of the

text: essential amino acids

text: . Apart from rare examples, such as Taro, each plant provides an amount of all the essential amino acids. However, the relative abundance of the

text: essential amino acids

text: is more variable in plants than that found in animals, which tend to be very similar in

text: essential amino acid

text: abundance, and this has led to the misconception that plant proteins are deficient in some way. However, many plants have low concentrations of protein and so growing individuals may not be able to consume enough plant material to get all the protein that they need.

text: While there may be some differences in the amounts of nutrients and anti-nutrients when organically produced food and conventionally produced food are compared, the variable nature of food production and handling makes it difficult to generalize results, and there is insufficient evidence to make claims that organic food is safer or healthier than conventional food. Claims that organic food tastes better are not supported by evidence.

text: Lipid emulsion or fat emulsion refers to an emulsion of lipid for human intravenous use. It is often referred to by the brand name of the most commonly used version, Intralipid, which is an emulsion of soy bean oil, egg phospholipids and glycerin, and is available in 10%, 20% and 30% concentrations.  The 30% concentration is not approved for direct intravenous infusion, but should be mixed with amino acids and dextrose as part of a total nutrient admixture.

text: Lipid emulsion or fat emulsion refers to an emulsion of

text: lipid

text: for human

text: intravenous

text: use. It is often referred to by the brand name of the most commonly used version, Intralipid, which is an emulsion of

text: soy bean

text: oil,

text: egg

text: phospholipid

text: s and

text: glycerin

text: , and is available in 10%, 20% and 30% concentrations.  The 30% concentration is not approved for direct intravenous infusion, but should be mixed with amino acids and dextrose as part of a total nutrient admixture.

text: As in other pulses, an important problem is that ricebean contains various antinutrients, notably phytic acid or phytate, polyphenols and fibres that reduce micronutrient uptake, in particular iron and zinc. Breeding for low phytate seeds is possible, but there are conflicting opinions about its desirability because phytate is also a human nutrient, and also plays various roles in the life cycle of the plant.

text: As in other pulses, an important problem is that ricebean contains various

text: antinutrient

text: s, notably

text: phytic acid

text: or

text: phytate

text: polyphenol

text: s and

text: fibre

text: s that reduce

text: micronutrient

text: uptake, in particular iron and zinc. Breeding for low phytate seeds is possible, but there are conflicting opinions about its desirability because phytate is also a human nutrient, and also plays various roles in the life cycle of the plant.

text: The nutritional component of rice is one of the most important indicators of quality; rice is predominantly a starchy food though it also contributes useful quantities of proteins and vitamins, mineral, pentosans and fiber. The chemical composition (nutrients) of rice grain varies considerably depends on factors like plant variety (breeds), environmental condition (i.e. location and season in which grown), fertilizer treatment, degree of milling, and condition of storage. The degree of milling and cooking methods loss significant quantities of nutrients, hence most of the vitamins and minerals are in the surface layers.

text: In a study of women experiencing Premenstrual Syndrome, they were either given a placebo beverage or a carbohydrate-rich one. The patients were tested at home; their moods, cognitive performance, and food craving were measured before the consumption of the beverage and 30, 90, and 180 minutes after consumption. The results showed that the carbohydrate-rich beverage significantly decreased self-reported depression, anger, confusion, and carbohydrate craving 90 to 180 minutes after consumption. Memory word recognition also improved significantly.

text: Eggs are among the few foods that can be classified as a “superfood.”They are loaded with nutrients, some of which are rare in the modern diet.Here are 10 health benefits of eggs that have been confirmed in human studies.

text: This species primarily mates via the lek system, in which there are aggregations of males on small mating territories.  When the female reaches the lek, she changes her behavior so that she helps the males to detect her by performing a long and obvious circular flight. The species operates on a polygynous system in which one male has the ability to mate with several females in one breeding season. In Papilio glaucus, that which is of the same genus of this species, the lack of male-male competition, strong rapid flight, dispersed abundant food, and oviposition sights helped to support the idea of mating system based on polygyny.  The females are prevented from mating with other males when the male emits a sphragis,which prevents other males from mating with the female, ensuring that only the sperm from this male fertilizes the eggs. The physical act of copulation takes between one half hour to two hours.  During this time, the male spermatophore is transferred to the female's bursa.  The spermatophore is then absorbed and its nutrient (protein) contents are given to the female's eggs as a food source.  For this reason, the male makes an indirect investment to his offspring, given that he offers them a food source, being beneficial to the female given that she risks less of her own well-being to bear her offspring.  Therefore, a male is considered more fit with a larger ejaculation, given that he allows his offspring to feed so that his own genes may be passed on efficiently.

text: This species primarily mates via the

text: lek

text: system, in which there are aggregations of males on small mating territories.  When the female reaches the lek, she changes her behavior so that she helps the males to detect her by performing a long and obvious circular flight. The species operates on a

text: polygynous

text: system in which one male has the ability to mate with several females in one breeding season. In

text: Papilio glaucus

text: , that which is of the same genus of this species, the lack of male-male competition, strong rapid flight, dispersed abundant food, and

text: oviposition

text: sights helped to support the idea of mating system based on polygyny.  The females are prevented from mating with other males when the male emits a

text: sphragis

text: ,which prevents other males from mating with the female, ensuring that only the sperm from this male fertilizes the eggs. The physical act of copulation takes between one half hour to two hours.  During this time, the male

text: spermatophore

text: is transferred to the female's bursa.  The spermatophore is then absorbed and its nutrient (protein) contents are given to the female's eggs as a food source.  For this reason, the male makes an indirect investment to his offspring, given that he offers them a food source, being beneficial to the female given that she risks less of her own well-being to bear her offspring.  Therefore, a male is considered more fit with a larger ejaculation, given that he allows his offspring to feed so that his own genes may be passed on efficiently.

text: At Blue Base, Caboose shows off Freckles to Tucker and Wash, who argue about why it's called a Mantis due to the similarities of the insect. Caboose tells them he found Freckles under debris and was able to free it. Soon, Wash mentions that they need to continue training until they're rescued and to be prepared for anything, despite Tucker seeing no point in it. He changes his mind when threatened by Freckles for disobeying a direct order from a commanding officer. Wash leaves for the crashed ship to do an inventory check on the Reds and Blues' food supply, but once inside the ship, he passes the food storage to do something else.

text: The gut is U-shaped, running from the mouth, in the center of the lophophore, down into the animal's interior and then back to the anus, which is located on the invert, outside and usually below the lophophore. A network of strands of mesothelium called "funiculi" ("little ropes") connects the mesothelium covering the gut with that lining the body wall. The wall of each strand is made of mesothelium, and surrounds a space filled with fluid, thought to be blood. A colony's zooids are connected, enabling autozooids to share food with each other and with any non-feeding heterozooids. The method of connection varies between the different classes of bryozoans, ranging from quite large gaps in the body walls to small pores through which nutrients are passed by funiculi.

text: The gut is U-shaped, running from the mouth, in the center of the lophophore, down into the animal's interior and then back to the

text: anus

text: , which is located on the invert, outside and usually below the lophophore. A network of strands of

text: mesothelium

text: called "funiculi" ("little ropes") connects the mesothelium covering the gut with that lining the body wall. The wall of each strand is made of mesothelium, and surrounds a space filled with fluid, thought to be blood. A colony's zooids are connected, enabling autozooids to share food with each other and with any non-feeding heterozooids. The method of connection varies between the different classes of bryozoans, ranging from quite large gaps in the body walls to small pores through which nutrients are passed by funiculi.

text: Enzymotec is an Israeli speciality chemicals company founded in 1998 at the Naiot Venture Accelerator that markets products created from lipids from raw sources like fish and plants as food ingredients, dietary supplements, and medical food products for adults, children, and infants.  As of 2013 it was the second biggest company in the global krill oil market with a 30% market share, and was emphasizing its potential for growth in the Chinese market for infant nutrition with its lipid-based InFat food ingredient.

text: Enzymotec is an Israeli speciality chemicals company founded in 1998 at the

text: Naiot Venture Accelerator

text: that markets products created from

text: lipids

text: from raw sources like fish and plants as

text: food ingredient

text: s,

text: dietary supplements

text: , and

text: medical food

text: products for adults, children, and infants.  As of 2013 it was the second biggest company in the global

text: krill oil

text: market with a 30% market share, and was emphasizing its potential for growth in the Chinese market for infant nutrition with its lipid-based InFat food ingredient.

text: During the 1980s, Fasham began to direct his research toward quantitative treatments of the flows of energy and material through ocean food webs.  This work led to the development by Fasham and colleagues of a seminal open ocean plankton ecosystem model.  This model, sometimes known by the initials of its authors, "FDM", divides the plankton ecosystem into seven components including phytoplankton and zooplankton, and includes a microbial loop to represent remineralisation.  The study is one of the most highly cited papers in the field, and won the American Society of Limnology and Oceanography John Martin Award in recognition of this in 2010.  Subsequent joint work with colleagues in Princeton University led to the ecosystem model being one of the first to be applied within a general circulation model of the North Atlantic.  In later work, Fasham continued to advance ecosystem models by considering aspects such as parameter optimisation, the balance of autotrophic and heterotrophic plankton, diel vertical migration, and the role of the micronutrient iron in oceanic primary production.

text: During the 1980s, Fasham began to direct his research toward quantitative treatments of the flows of

text: energy

text: and

text: material

text: through ocean

text: food web

text: s.  This work led to the development by Fasham and colleagues of a seminal open ocean plankton

text: ecosystem

text: model.  This model, sometimes known by the initials of its authors, "FDM", divides the plankton ecosystem into seven components including phytoplankton and

text: zooplankton

text: , and includes a

text: microbial loop

text: to represent

text: remineralisation

text: .  The study is one of the most highly cited papers in the field, and won the

entity_name: Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography

text: American Society of Limnology and Oceanography

text: John Martin Award in recognition of this in 2010.  Subsequent joint work with colleagues in

text: Princeton University

text: led to the ecosystem model being one of the first to be applied within a

text: general circulation model

text: of the

text: North Atlantic

text: .  In later work, Fasham continued to advance ecosystem models by considering aspects such as parameter optimisation, the balance of

text: autotroph

text: ic and

text: heterotroph

text: ic plankton,

text: diel vertical migration

text: , and the role of the

text: micronutrient

text: iron

text: in oceanic

text: primary production

text: Modern separation techniques such as milling, centrifugation, and pressing have enabled concentration of particular components of food, yielding flour, oils, juices, and so on, and even separate fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Inevitably, such large-scale concentration changes the nutritional content of food, saving certain nutrients while removing others. Heating techniques may also reduce food's content of many heat-labile nutrients such as certain vitamins and phytochemicals, and possibly other yet-to-be-discovered substances. Because of reduced nutritional value, processed foods are often 'enriched' or 'fortified' with some of the most critical nutrients (usually certain vitamins) that were lost during processing. Nonetheless, processed foods tend to have an inferior nutritional profile compared to whole, fresh foods, regarding content of both sugar and high GI starches, potassium/sodium, vitamins, fiber, and of intact, unoxidized (essential) fatty acids. In addition,processed foods often contain potentially harmful substances such as oxidized fats and trans fatty acids.

text: Modern separation techniques such as

text: milling

text: centrifugation

text: , and

text: pressing

text: have enabled concentration of particular components of food, yielding flour, oils, juices, and so on, and even separate fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Inevitably, such large-scale concentration changes the nutritional content of food, saving certain nutrients while removing others. Heating techniques may also reduce food's content of many heat-labile nutrients such as certain vitamins and phytochemicals, and possibly other yet-to-be-discovered substances. Because of reduced nutritional value, processed foods are often 'enriched' or 'fortified' with some of the most critical nutrients (usually certain vitamins) that were lost during processing. Nonetheless, processed foods tend to have an inferior nutritional profile compared to whole, fresh foods, regarding content of both sugar and high GI starches,

text: potassium

text: sodium

text: , vitamins, fiber, and of intact, unoxidized (essential) fatty acids. In addition,processed foods often contain potentially harmful substances such as oxidized fats and trans fatty acids.

text: Blood viscosity is the thickness of the blood and its resistance to flow as a result of the different components of the blood. Blood is 92% water by weight and the rest of blood is composed of protein, nutrients, electrolytes, wastes, and dissolved gases. Depending on the health of an individual, the blood viscosity can vary (i.e. anemia causing relatively lower concentrations of protein, high blood pressure an increase in dissolved salts or lipids, etc.).

text: P. plurivora can be found in the soil and in plant tissues, can take different shapes and can move in water, since it has motile zoospores. During periods of harsh environmental conditions, the organisms become dormant chlamydospores. When environmental conditions are suitable, the chlamydospores germinate, producing mycelia (or hyphae) and sporangia. The sporangia ripen and release zoospores, which infect plant roots by entering the root behind the root tip. Zoospores need water to swim through the soil, therefore infection is most likely in moist soils. Mycelia grow throughout the root absorbing carbohydrates and nutrients, destroying the structure of the root tissues, "rotting" the root, and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients, in some cases, leading the plants to death. Since it is a hemibiotrophic organism it parasites in living tissues for a period and can continues its life cycle on dead tissues. Sporangia and chlamydospores form on the mycelia of the infected root, and the cycle of infection continues to the next plant.

text: P. plurivora can be found in the soil and in plant tissues, can take different shapes and can move in water, since it has motile zoospores. During periods of harsh environmental conditions, the organisms become dormant chlamydospores. When environmental conditions are suitable, the chlamydospores germinate, producing

text: mycelia

text: (or hyphae) and

text: sporangia

text: . The sporangia ripen and release

text: zoospore

text: s, which infect plant

text: root

text: s by entering the

text: root

text: behind the root tip. Zoospores need water to swim through the soil, therefore infection is most likely in moist soils. Mycelia grow throughout the root absorbing

text: carbohydrate

text: s and nutrients, destroying the structure of the root tissues, "rotting" the root, and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients, in some cases, leading the plants to death. Since it is a hemibiotrophic organism it parasites in living tissues for a period and can continues its life cycle on dead tissues. Sporangia and chlamydospores form on the mycelia of the infected root, and the cycle of infection continues to the next plant.

text: Due to the poor level of photosynthetic light reaching deep-sea environments, most fish need to rely on organic matter sinking from higher levels, or, in rare cases, hydrothermal vents for nutrients. This makes the deep-sea much poorer in productivity than shallower regions. Also, animals in the pelagic environment are sparse and food doesn’t come along frequently. Because of this, organisms need adaptations that allow them to survive. Some have long feelers to help them locate prey or attract mates in the pitch black of the deep ocean. The deep-sea angler fish in particular has a long fishing-rod-like adaptation protruding from its face, on the end of which is a bioluminescent piece of skin that wriggles like a worm to lure its prey. Some must consume other fish that are the same size or larger than them and they need adaptations to help digest them efficiently. Great sharp teeth, hinged jaws, disproportionately large mouths, and expandable bodies are a few of the characteristics that deep-sea fishes have for this purpose. The gulper eel is one example of an organism that displays these characteristics.

text: Due to the poor level of

text: photosynthetic

text: light reaching deep-sea environments, most fish need to rely on

text: organic

text: matter sinking from higher levels, or, in rare cases,

text: hydrothermal vents

text: for nutrients. This makes the deep-sea much poorer in

text: productivity

text: than shallower regions. Also, animals in the pelagic environment are sparse and food doesn’t come along frequently. Because of this, organisms need adaptations that allow them to survive. Some have long feelers to help them locate prey or attract mates in the pitch black of the deep ocean. The deep-sea angler fish in particular has a long fishing-rod-like adaptation protruding from its face, on the end of which is a bioluminescent piece of skin that wriggles like a worm to lure its prey. Some must consume other fish that are the same size or larger than them and they need adaptations to help digest them efficiently. Great sharp teeth, hinged jaws, disproportionately large mouths, and expandable bodies are a few of the characteristics that deep-sea fishes have for this purpose. The

text: gulper eel

text: is one example of an organism that displays these characteristics.

text: sera is a company that was founded in 1970 by Josef Ravnak, a seller of live pet food. Headquarters of the company are in Heinsberg (North-Rhine Westphalia), Germany.  At this time, a new process called lyophilization was being introduced and was already highly acclaimed for preserving food animals with optimal retention of their nutrients and vitamins.

text: sera is a company that was founded in 1970 by Josef Ravnak, a seller of live pet food. Headquarters of the company are in

text: Heinsberg

text: (North-Rhine Westphalia), Germany.  At this time, a new process called

text: lyophilization

text: was being introduced and was already highly acclaimed for preserving food animals with optimal retention of their

text: nutrients

text: and

text: vitamins

text: With trade and expansion, food and fiber were shipped longer distances. The nutrients of the soil were sent to cities in the form of agricultural produce, but these same nutrients, in the form of human and animal waste, were not returned to the land. Thus there was a one-way movement, a "robbing of the soil" in order to maintain the socio-economic reproduction of society.

text: There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fibre, minerals, protein, vitamin, and water.

text: There are seven major classes of

text: nutrient

text: s:

text: carbohydrates

text: fat

text: s,

text: fibre

text: minerals

text: protein

text: vitamin

text: , and

text: water

text: Typical of milk, several dietary minerals are found in kefir, such as calcium, iron, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, copper, molybdenum, manganese, and zinc in amounts that have not been standardized to a reputable nutrient database. Also similar to milk, kefir contains vitamins in variable amounts, including vitamin A, vitamin B (thiamine), vitamin B (riboflavin), vitamin B (niacin), vitamin B (pyridoxine), vitamin B (folic acid), vitamin B (cyanocobalamin), vitamin C, vitamin D, and vitamin E. Essential amino acids found in kefir include methionine, cysteine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, tyrosine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, lysine, and valine, as for any milk product.

text: Typical of milk, several dietary minerals are found in kefir, such as

text: calcium

text: iron

text: phosphorus

text: magnesium

text: potassium

text: sodium

text: copper

text: molybdenum

text: manganese

text: , and

text: zinc

text: in amounts that have not been standardized to a reputable nutrient database. Also similar to milk, kefir contains vitamins in variable amounts, including

text: vitamin A

text: vitamin B

text: (thiamine),

text: vitamin B

text: (riboflavin),

text: vitamin B

text: (niacin),

text: vitamin B

text: (pyridoxine),

text: vitamin B

text: (folic acid),

text: vitamin B

text: (cyanocobalamin),

text: vitamin C

text: vitamin D

text: , and

text: vitamin E

text: . Essential amino acids found in kefir include

text: methionine

text: cysteine

text: tryptophan

text: phenylalanine

text: tyrosine

text: leucine

text: isoleucine

text: threonine

text: lysine

text: , and

text: valine

text: , as for any milk product.

text: The micronutrients are minerals, vitamins, and others.

text: The micronutrients are

text: minerals

text: vitamin

text: s, and others.

text: These individuals study End Times prophecy and believe that one of various scenarios might occur in their lifetime. While some Christians (and even people of other religions) believe that the Rapture will follow a period of Tribulation, others believe that the Rapture is imminent and will precede the Tribulation ("Pre-Trib Rapture"). There is a wide range of beliefs and attitudes in this group. They run the gamut from pacifist to armed camp, and from having no food stockpiles (leaving their sustenance up to God's providence) to storing decades' worth of food. In the context of Christianity, in Luke 12:22-31, Jesus, speaking of the future tribulation, unequivocally commands, "Therefore I say unto you, Take no thought for your life, what ye shall eat, or what ye shall drink; nor yet for your body, what ye shall put on. ... 31...for your heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of all these things. 33 But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and His righteousness; and all these things shall be added unto you." The principle of faithful trust in God's providence is denied by such Christians who, by storing up food and drink and other stores, appear to believe in the apocalyptic scenario but deny the faithfulness of the God behind it and teach others to do likewise. Yet another Biblical interpretation is having sought God, He is giving them the wisdom and means to prepare. This is exemplified in the story of Joseph, where God gave Joseph the insight and means to save up when times were good, seven years of bounty, so that he could be a blessing to his country (Egypt) and its neighbors, as well as his own family when times got bad, seven years of drought, as recounted in Genesis 41-48.

text: These individuals study

text: End Times

text: prophecy and believe that one of various scenarios might occur in their lifetime. While some Christians (and even people of other religions) believe that the

text: Rapture

text: will follow a period of

text: Tribulation

text: These nutrients result in an excessive growth of plant life known as an algal bloom. This can change a lake's natural food web, and also reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water for organisms to breathe. Both these things cause animal and plant death rates to increase as the plants take in poisonous water while the animals drink the poisoned water. This contaminates water, making it undrinkable, and sediment quickly fills the lake. Cultural eutrophication is a form of water pollution.

text: These nutrients result in an excessive growth of plant life known as an

text: algal bloom

text: . This can change a lake's natural food web, and also reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water for organisms to breathe. Both these things cause animal and plant death rates to increase as the plants take in poisonous water while the animals drink the poisoned water. This contaminates water, making it undrinkable, and sediment quickly fills the lake. Cultural eutrophication is a form of

text: water pollution

text: According to the FDA, a pound of enriched flour must have the following quantities of nutrients to qualify: 2.9 milligrams of thiamin, 1.8 milligrams of riboflavin, 24 milligrams of niacin, 0.7 milligrams of folic acid, and 20 milligrams of iron. The first four nutrients are B vitamins. Calcium also may be added; this must be to a minimum level of 960 milligrams per pound if calcium is mentioned in the labeling.

text: According to the FDA, a pound of enriched flour must have the following quantities of nutrients to qualify: 2.9 milligrams of

text: thiamin

text: , 1.8 milligrams of

text: riboflavin

text: , 24 milligrams of

text: niacin

text: , 0.7 milligrams of

text: folic acid

text: , and 20 milligrams of

text: iron

text: . The first four nutrients are

text: B vitamin

text: s.

text: Calcium

text: also may be added; this must be to a minimum level of 960 milligrams per pound if calcium is mentioned in the labeling.

text: Species such as shellfish that occupy intermediate trophic levels often play a dual role, both filtering organic bottom-level organisms from the water and generating some ammonia. Waste feed may also provide additional nutrients; either by direct consumption or via decomposition into individual nutrients. In some projects, the waste nutrients are also gathered and reused in the food given to the fish in cultivation. This can happen by processing the seaweed grown into food.

text: Species such as shellfish that occupy intermediate trophic levels often play a dual role, both filtering organic bottom-level organisms from the water and generating some ammonia. Waste feed may also provide additional nutrients; either by direct consumption or via

text: decomposition

text: into individual nutrients. In some projects, the waste nutrients are also gathered and reused in the food given to the fish in cultivation. This can happen by processing the seaweed grown into food.

text: Minerals are naturally occurring solids formed through various geological processes under high pressures. To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must have a crystal structure with uniform physical properties throughout. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms. In contrast, a rock sample is a random aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids, and has no specific chemical composition. The vast majority of the rocks of the Earth's crust consist of quartz (crystalline SiO), feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and a few other minerals. Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have been found in only a few locations worldwide. The largest group of minerals by far is the silicates (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions of aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium and other metals.

text: Mineral

text: s are naturally occurring solids formed through various

text: geological

text: processes under high pressures. To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must have a

text: crystal structure

text: with uniform physical properties throughout. Minerals range in composition from pure

text: elements

text: and simple

text: salt

text: s to very complex

text: silicate

text: s with thousands of known forms. In contrast, a

text: rock

text: sample is a random aggregate of minerals and/or

text: mineraloid

text: s, and has no specific chemical composition. The vast majority of the rocks of the

text: Earth's crust

text: consist of quartz (crystalline SiO), feldspar, mica,

text: chlorite

text: kaolin

text: , calcite,

text: epidote

text: olivine

text: augite

text: hornblende

text: magnetite

text: hematite

text: limonite

text: and a few other minerals. Some minerals, like

text: quartz

text: mica

text: or

text: feldspar

text: are common, while others have been found in only a few locations worldwide. The largest group of minerals by far is the

text: silicates

text: (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are composed largely of

text: silicon

text: and

text: oxygen

text: , with the addition of ions of

text: aluminium

text: magnesium

text: iron

text: calcium

text: and other metals.

text: For instance, vitamin A has at least six vitamer chemicals that all qualify as "vitamin A", each with slightly different properties. In such a system, "vitamin A" is termed the "generic descriptor" of the vitamin, which is defined by its biological properties in a vitamin-deficient organism, not by its chemical structure. In the "vitamin A" system, four of those found naturally in plant origin foods are chemically carotenoids (three carotenes and one is a xanthophyll). However, the retinol and retinal forms, which occur in animal-based foods, are several times as effective in humans, per microgram, than are the plant-based forms. In some cases these differences are extreme: for example the carotenoid forms of vitamin A cannot be absorbed by cats or ferrets at all, and therefore do not have vitamin A activity in these species. The retinoids are pharmaceutical forms of vitamin A.

text: For instance,

text: vitamin A

text: has at least six vitamer chemicals that all qualify as "vitamin A", each with slightly different properties. In such a system, "vitamin A" is termed the "generic descriptor" of the vitamin, which is defined by its biological properties in a vitamin-deficient organism, not by its chemical structure. In the "vitamin A" system, four of those found naturally in plant origin foods are chemically

text: carotenoid

text: s (three

text: carotene

text: s and one is a

text: xanthophyll

text: ). However, the

text: retinol

text: and

text: retinal

text: forms, which occur in animal-based foods, are several times as effective in humans, per microgram, than are the plant-based forms. In some cases these differences are extreme: for example the carotenoid forms of vitamin A cannot be absorbed by cats or ferrets at all, and therefore do not have vitamin A activity in these species. The

text: retinoid

text: s are pharmaceutical forms of vitamin A.

text: Water resources  are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities.  The majority of  human uses require fresh water.

text: Water resources  are sources of

text: water

text: that are potentially useful. Uses of water include

text: agricultural

text: industrial

text: household

text: recreational

text: and

text: environmental

text: activities.  The majority of  human uses require

text: fresh water

text: Niacin, also known as vitamin B and nicotinic acid, is an organic compound with the formula  and, depending on the definition used, one of the 20 to 80 essential human nutrients.  Pharmaceutical and supplemental niacin are primarily used to treat hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol) and pellagra (niacin deficiency). Insufficient niacin in the diet can cause nausea, skin and mouth lesions, anemia, headaches, and tiredness. The lack of niacin may also be observed in pandemic deficiency disease, which is caused by a lack of five crucial vitamins (niacin, vitamin C, thiamin, vitamin D, and vitamin A) and is usually found in areas of widespread poverty and malnutrition. Niacin has not been found to be useful in decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease in those already on a statin but appears to be effective in those not taking a statin.

text: Niacin, also known as vitamin B and nicotinic acid, is an

text: organic compound

text: with the

text: formula

text: and, depending on the definition used, one of the 20 to 80

text: essential human nutrients

text: Pharmaceutical

text: and

text: supplemental

text: niacin are primarily used to treat

text: hypercholesterolemia

text: (high cholesterol) and

text: pellagra

text: (niacin deficiency). Insufficient niacin in the diet can cause nausea, skin and mouth lesions, anemia, headaches, and tiredness. The lack of niacin may also be observed in

text: pandemic

text: deficiency disease

text: , which is caused by a lack of five crucial vitamins (niacin,

text: vitamin C

text: thiamin

text: vitamin D

text: , and

text: vitamin A

text: ) and is usually found in areas of widespread poverty and malnutrition. Niacin has not been found to be useful in decreasing the risk of

text: cardiovascular disease

text: in those already on a

text: statin

text: but appears to be effective in those not taking a statin.

text: Water’s viability as a commercial resource, which includes fishing, agriculture, manufacturing, recreation and tourism, among other possibilities, can create dispute even when access to potable water is not necessarily an issue. As a resource, some consider water to be as valuable as oil, needed by nearly every industry, and needed nearly every day. Water shortages can completely cripple an industry just as it can cripple a population, and affect developed countries just as they affect countries with less-developed water infrastructure. Water-based industries are more visible in water disputes, but commerce at all levels can be damaged by a lack of water.

text: Water’s viability as a commercial resource, which includes

text: fishing

text: agriculture

text: , manufacturing, recreation and

text: tourism

text: , among other possibilities, can create dispute even when access to potable water is not necessarily an issue. As a resource, some consider water to be

text: as valuable as oil

text: , needed by nearly every industry, and needed nearly every day. Water shortages can completely cripple an industry just as it can cripple a population, and affect developed countries just as they affect countries with less-developed water infrastructure. Water-based industries are more visible in water disputes, but commerce at all levels can be damaged by a lack of water.

text: Cats cannot synthesize some essential nutrients required for survival, including the amino acids taurine and arginine, so these nutrients must be sourced from fresh meat in the natural diet. Cats lack the specific physiology to extract nutrients efficiently from plant-based materials, and require a high protein diet, which is why high energy meats from freshly-killed prey are optimal foods.

text: Cats cannot synthesize some essential nutrients required for survival, including the amino acids

text: taurine

text: and

text: arginine

text: , so these nutrients must be sourced from fresh meat in the natural diet. Cats lack the specific physiology to extract nutrients efficiently from plant-based materials, and require a high protein diet, which is why high energy meats from freshly-killed prey are optimal foods.

text: Modern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with allergies, diabetics, and other people who cannot consume some common food elements. Food processing can also add extra nutrients such as vitamins.

text: Modern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with allergies,

text: diabetics

text: , and other people who cannot consume some common food elements. Food processing can also add extra nutrients such as

text: vitamin

text: s.

text: Isolated ingredients of a soul food diet do have pronounced health benefits. Collard and other greens are rich sources of several vitamins (including vitamin A, B, folic acid or vitamin B, and C), minerals (manganese, iron, and calcium), fiber, and small amounts of omega-3 fatty acids. They also contain a number of phytonutrients, which are thought to play a role in the prevention of ovarian and breast cancers. However, since traditional-style cooking of soul food vegetables requires high temperatures or long time periods, the water-soluble vitamins (e.g., Vitamin C and the B complex vitamins) are either destroyed or leached out into the water in which it is cooked. Additionally, the high quantity of oils used in preparing such ingredients means the final product might contain only a small amount of vegetable relative to the total amount of calories per serving. Peas, rice, and legumes are excellent, inexpensive sources of protein; they also contain important vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Sweet potatoes are a tremendous source of beta carotene and trace minerals, and have come to be classified as an "anti-diabetic" food. Recent animal studies have shown that sweet potatoes, if consumed plain and in modest amounts, can stabilize blood sugar levels and lower insulin resistance.

text: Isolated ingredients of a soul food diet do have pronounced health benefits. Collard and other greens are rich sources of several

text: vitamin

text: s (including

text: vitamin A

text: B

text: folic acid

text: or vitamin B, and

text: C

text: ), minerals (

text: manganese

text: iron

text: , and

text: calcium

text: fiber

text: , and small amounts of

text: omega-3 fatty acid

text: s. They also contain a number of

text: phytonutrient

text: s, which are thought to play a role in the prevention of

text: ovarian

text: and

text: breast cancer

text: s. However, since traditional-style cooking of soul food vegetables requires high temperatures or long time periods, the water-soluble vitamins (e.g., Vitamin C and the B complex vitamins) are either destroyed or leached out into the water in which it is cooked. Additionally, the high quantity of oils used in preparing such ingredients means the final product might contain only a small amount of vegetable relative to the total amount of calories per serving.

text: Pea

text: s,

text: rice

text: , and

text: legume

text: s are excellent, inexpensive sources of

text: protein

text: ; they also contain important vitamins, minerals, and fiber.

text: Sweet potato

text: es are a tremendous source of

text: beta carotene

text: and trace minerals, and have come to be classified as an "anti-

text: diabetic

text: " food. Recent animal studies have shown that sweet potatoes, if consumed plain and in modest amounts, can stabilize blood sugar levels and lower

text: insulin resistance

text: Carbohydrates can be chemically divided into two types: complex and simple.  Simple carbohydrates consist of single or double sugar units (monosaccharides and disaccharides, respectively). Sucrose or table sugar (a disaccharide) is a common example of a simple carbohydrate. Complex carbohydrates contain three or more sugar units linked in a chain, with most containing hundreds to thousands of sugar units. They are digested by enzymes to release the simple sugars. Starch, for example, is a polymer of glucose units and is typically broken down to glucose.  Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose but it cannot be digested by most organisms. Bacteria that produce enzymes to digest cellulose live inside the gut of some mammals, such as cows, and when these mammals eat plants, the cellulose is broken down by the bacteria and some of it is released into the gut.

text: Carbohydrates can be chemically divided into two types: complex and simple.  Simple carbohydrates consist of single or double sugar units (monosaccharides and disaccharides, respectively). Sucrose or table sugar (a disaccharide) is a common example of a simple carbohydrate. Complex carbohydrates contain three or more sugar units linked in a chain, with most containing hundreds to thousands of sugar units. They are digested by enzymes to release the simple sugars. Starch, for example, is a

text: polymer

text: of glucose units and is typically broken down to glucose.  Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose but it cannot be digested by most organisms. Bacteria that produce enzymes to digest cellulose live inside the gut of some mammals, such as cows, and when these mammals eat plants, the cellulose is broken down by the bacteria and some of it is released into the gut.

text: Nitrogen is essential for algal growth. Within a cell, nitrogen is involved in synthesizing amino acids, nucleic acids, chlorophyll, and other nitrogen-containing organic compounds. In a study in which 30 different microalgal strains were screened, one Nannochloropsis strain was shown to obtain 60% lipid content after nitrogen deprivation, up from 30% under normal growth conditions. This strain was selected for further scale-up experiments in a photobioreactor under natural sunlight. Lipid productivity increased to 204 milligram per liter per day(mg/L/day) under nitrogen starvation conditions, almost twice as much as the 117 mg/L/day under sufficient nutrition conditions. Based on these results, a two-phase cultivation process, with a nutrient sufficient phase to rapidly increase number of cells prior to a nitrogen deprived phase to boost lipid content, was found to produce more than 90 kg of lipid per hectare per day in outdoor cultures. I, depending on sun light conditions.

text: Nitrogen

text: is essential for algal growth. Within a cell, nitrogen is involved in synthesizing amino acids, nucleic acids,

text: chlorophyll

text: , and other nitrogen-containing organic compounds. In a study in which 30 different microalgal strains were screened, one Nannochloropsis strain was shown to obtain 60% lipid content after nitrogen deprivation, up from 30% under normal growth conditions. This strain was selected for further scale-up experiments in a photobioreactor under natural sunlight. Lipid productivity increased to 204 milligram per liter per day(mg/L/day) under nitrogen starvation conditions, almost twice as much as the 117 mg/L/day under sufficient nutrition conditions. Based on these results, a two-phase cultivation process, with a nutrient sufficient phase to rapidly increase number of cells prior to a nitrogen deprived phase to boost lipid content, was found to produce more than 90 kg of lipid per hectare per day in outdoor cultures. I, depending on sun light conditions.

text: Root pressure can transport water and dissolved mineral nutrients from roots through the xylem to the tops of relatively short plants when transpiration is low or zero. The maximum root pressure measured is about 0.6 megapascals but some species never generate any root pressure. The main contributor to the movement of water and mineral nutrients upward in vascular plants is considered to be the transpirational pull. However, sunflower plants grown in 100% relative humidity grew normally and accumulated the same amount of mineral nutrients as plants in normal humidity, which had a transpiration rate 10 to 15 times the plants in 100% humidity. Thus, transpiration may not be as important in upward mineral nutrient transport in relatively short plants as often assumed.

text: Root pressure can transport water and dissolved mineral nutrients from roots through the xylem to the tops of relatively short plants when transpiration is low or zero. The maximum root pressure measured is about 0.6

text: megapascals

text: but some species never generate any root pressure. The main contributor to the movement of water and mineral nutrients upward in vascular plants is considered to be the

text: transpirational pull

text: . However, sunflower plants grown in 100% relative humidity grew normally and accumulated the same amount of mineral nutrients as plants in normal humidity, which had a transpiration rate 10 to 15 times the plants in 100% humidity. Thus, transpiration may not be as important in upward mineral nutrient transport in relatively short plants as often assumed.

text: There is no stomach, with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless intestine that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further enzymes, and also absorbs nutrients through its single cell thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a rectum, which expels waste through the anus just below and in front of the tip of the tail. Movement of food through the digestive system is the result of body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or sphincters at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.

text: There is no

text: stomach

text: , with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless

text: intestine

text: that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further

text: enzyme

text: s, and also absorbs nutrients through its single cell thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a

text: rectum

text: , which expels waste through the

text: anus

text: just below and in front of the tip of the tail. Movement of food through the digestive system is the result of body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or

text: sphincter

text: s at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.

text: The list of nutrients that people are known to require is, in the words of Marion Nestle, "almost certainly incomplete". As of 2014, nutrients are thought to be of two types: macro-nutrients which are needed in relatively large amounts, and micronutrients which are needed in smaller quantities. A type of carbohydrate, dietary fiber, i.e. non-digestible material such as cellulose, is required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals, which are said to influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.

text: The list of nutrients that people are known to require is, in the words of

text: Marion Nestle

text: , "almost certainly incomplete". As of 2014, nutrients are thought to be of two types:

text: macro-nutrient

text: s which are needed in relatively large amounts, and

text: micronutrient

text: s which are needed in smaller quantities. A type of carbohydrate,

text: dietary fiber

text: , i.e. non-digestible material such as cellulose, is required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Other micronutrients include

text: antioxidant

text: s and

text: phytochemical

text: s, which are said to influence (or protect) some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.

text: Aside from MMM due to under-nutrition or micro-nutrient deficiency, over-nutrition, defined as the consumption of too many calories for one’s body size and physical activity level, is also becoming an increasingly significant problem for much of the World.  Overnutrition has been associated with obesity, which the USDA and McEwen and Seeman correlate with increased risk of type II diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and stroke. Overnutrition is also often associated with the co-occurrence of caloric sufficiency (or over-sufficiency) and micronutrient deficiency, as is often the case where processed foods that are high in calories, but low in most nutrients, increase in dietary prominence.   Leatherman and Goodman and Guest and Jones discuss the growing coincidence of stunting and other symptoms of MMM and obesity within developing nations, sometimes within the same community. This trend can be linked to changing economies and food practices in much of the World under contemporary economic globalization.

text: Aside from MMM due to under-nutrition or micro-nutrient deficiency, over-nutrition, defined as the consumption of too many calories for one’s body size and physical activity level, is also becoming an increasingly significant problem for much of the World.

text: Overnutrition

text: has been associated with obesity, which the USDA and McEwen and Seeman correlate with increased risk of type II

text: diabetes

text: cardiovascular disease

text: , and stroke. Overnutrition is also often associated with the co-occurrence of caloric sufficiency (or over-sufficiency) and micronutrient deficiency, as is often the case where processed foods that are high in calories, but low in most nutrients, increase in dietary prominence.   Leatherman and Goodman and Guest and Jones discuss the growing coincidence of stunting and other symptoms of MMM and obesity within developing nations, sometimes within the same community. This trend can be linked to changing economies and food practices in much of the World under contemporary economic globalization.

text: Body weight regulation requires a balance between food intake and energy expenditure. Two mechanisms are required to maintain a relatively constant body weight: one must increase motivation to eat if long-term reservoirs are being depleted, and the other must restrain food intake if more calories than needed are being consumed.

text: Body weight regulation requires a balance between

text: food intake

text: and energy expenditure. Two mechanisms are required to maintain a relatively constant body weight: one must increase motivation to eat if long-term reservoirs are being depleted, and the other must restrain food intake if more calories than needed are being consumed.

text: It is not feasible to determine FCD using chemical analysis for every nutrient in every food type due to insufficient resources. Therefore, compilers of FCDB use other approaches to determine the required FCD within a FCDB. For example, to estimate values for a cooked food values for a raw food or dish can often be used, together with information on likely weight (or yield) gain/loss and nutrient changes (e.g. vitamin losses) due to cooking.

text: Insectivorous plants are plants that derive some of their nutrients from  trapping and consuming animals or protozoan. The benefit they derive from their catch varies considerably; in some species it might include a small part of their nutrient intake and in others it might be an indispensable source of nutrients. As a rule, however, such animal food, however valuable it might be as a source of certain critically important minerals, is not the plants' major source of energy, which they generally derive mainly from photosynthesis.

text: Insectivorous plants

text: are

text: plant

text: s that derive some of their

text: nutrient

text: s from  trapping and consuming

text: animal

text: s or

text: protozoan

text: . The benefit they derive from their catch varies considerably; in some species it might include a small part of their nutrient intake and in others it might be an indispensable source of nutrients. As a rule, however, such animal food, however valuable it might be as a source of certain critically important minerals, is not the plants' major source of

text: energy

text: , which they generally derive mainly from photosynthesis.

text: Junk food is a pejorative term for cheap food containing high levels of calories from sugar or fat with little fiber, protein, vitamins or minerals. Junk food can also refer to high protein food like meat prepared with saturated fat - which some believe may be unhealthy, although some studies have shown no correlation between saturated fat and cardiovascular diseases; many hamburger outlets, fried chicken outlets and the like supply food considered as junk food.

text: Junk food is a pejorative term for cheap

text: food

text: containing high levels of

text: calories

text: from

text: sugar

text: or

text: fat

text: with little

text: fiber

text: protein

text: vitamin

text: s or

text: minerals

text: . Junk food can also refer to high protein food like meat prepared with

text: saturated fat

text: - which some believe may be unhealthy, although some studies have shown no correlation between saturated fat and cardiovascular diseases; many hamburger outlets, fried chicken outlets and the like supply food considered as junk food.

text: Results: As snacking frequency increased in the adolescents, the amount of carbohydrates consumed increased along with sugar consumption.  The consumption of fats and energy-adjusted proteins decreased.   Increased snacking frequency positively affected the intake of vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin C, and magnesium in boys and vitamin C in girls.  Fruit intake increased as snacking frequency increased for both boys and girls.  The three cup daily milk recommendation was met for boys snacking at the highest level, but girls did not meet the milk recommendation.  Milk is one of the highest contributors in adolescents’ calcium consumption.  Although, during the past 25 years, people have moved toward dietary habits of snacking rather than daily meals, meals generally contribute more nutrient-dense foods to a diet than snacks.  In order to make up for this loss of nutrients, snack choices need to consist of nutrient-dense foods.  Snacking frequency improved the chance of meeting fruit recommendations for boys and girls, milk and oil recommendations for boys, and affected the intake of all macronutrients and some micronutrients.

text: Results: As snacking frequency increased in the adolescents, the amount of carbohydrates consumed increased along with

text: sugar

text: consumption.  The consumption of fats and energy-adjusted proteins decreased.   Increased snacking frequency positively affected the intake of

text: vitamin A

text: vitamin E

text: vitamin C

text: , and

text: magnesium

text: in boys and vitamin C in girls.  Fruit intake increased as snacking frequency increased for both boys and girls.  The three cup daily milk recommendation was met for boys snacking at the highest level, but girls did not meet the milk recommendation.  Milk is one of the highest contributors in adolescents’ calcium consumption.  Although, during the past 25 years, people have moved toward dietary habits of snacking rather than daily meals, meals generally contribute more nutrient-dense foods to a diet than snacks.  In order to make up for this loss of nutrients, snack choices need to consist of nutrient-dense foods.  Snacking frequency improved the chance of meeting fruit recommendations for boys and girls, milk and oil recommendations for boys, and affected the intake of all

text: macronutrients

text: and some

text: micronutrients

text: The pollution often comes from non point sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris and dust. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algae growth.

text: The pollution often comes from

text: non point source

text: s such as agricultural

text: runoff

text: , wind-blown debris and dust.

text: Nutrient pollution

text: , a form of

text: water pollution

text: , refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of

text: eutrophication

text: of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually

text: nitrogen

text: or

text: phosphorus

text: , stimulate algae growth.

text: Some theorists believe the metabolic window begins to close within minutes of the end of a workout. The same nutrients taken two hours later result in significantly reduced protein synthesis and muscle glycogen storage. Further research is needed into the effects of food and exercise timing, but methodology has to be considered in these experiments.

text: Some theorists believe the metabolic window begins to close within minutes of the end of a workout. The same nutrients taken two hours later result in significantly reduced

text: protein synthesis

text: and muscle

text: glycogen

text: storage. Further research is needed into the effects of food and exercise timing, but methodology has to be considered in these experiments.

text: The simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula CHO, where n is at least 3). Glucose  (CHO) is one of the most important carbohydrates, others include fructose (CHO), the sugar commonly associated with the sweet taste of fruits, and deoxyribose (CHO).

text: The simplest type of carbohydrate is a

text: monosaccharide

text: , which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 (generalized formula CHO, where n is at least 3).

text: Glucose

text: (CHO) is one of the most important carbohydrates, others include

text: fructose

text: (CHO), the sugar commonly associated with the

text: sweet taste

text: of

text: fruit

text: s, and

text: deoxyribose

text: (CHO).

text: There are different kinds of carbohydrates: simple (for example from fruits) and complex (for example from grains such as wheat). Simple sugars can be from an unrefined natural source, or may be refined and added to processed food. A typical American consumes about 50% of their carbohydrates as refined sugars. Over the course of a year, the average American consumes 204 litres (54 US gallons @ 3.78l per gallon) of soft drinks, which contain the highest amount of added sugars. Even though carbohydrates are necessary for humans to function, they are not all equally healthful.  When machinery has been used to remove bits of high fiber, the carbohydrates are refined.  These are the carbohydrates found in white bread and fast food.

text: There are different kinds of carbohydrates: simple (for example from fruits) and complex (for example from grains such as wheat). Simple sugars can be from an unrefined natural source, or may be refined and added to processed food. A typical American consumes about 50% of their carbohydrates as refined sugars. Over the course of a year, the average American consumes 204

text: litres

text: (54 US gallons @ 3.78l per gallon) of soft drinks, which contain the highest amount of added sugars. Even though carbohydrates are necessary for humans to function, they are not all equally healthful.  When machinery has been used to remove bits of high fiber, the carbohydrates are refined.  These are the carbohydrates found in white bread and fast food.

text: With respect to chemical differences in the composition of organically grown food compared with conventionally grown food, studies have examined differences in nutrients, antinutrients, and pesticide residues. These studies generally suffer from confounding variables, and are difficult to generalize due to differences in the tests that were done, the methods of testing, and because the vagaries of agriculture affect the chemical composition of food; these variables include variations in weather (season to season as well as place to place); crop treatments (fertilizer, pesticide, etc.); soil composition; the cultivar used, and in the case of meat and dairy products, the parallel variables in animal production.  Treatment of the foodstuffs after initial gathering (whether milk is pasteurized or raw), the length of time between harvest and analysis, as well as conditions of transport and storage, also affect the chemical composition of a given item of food. Additionally, there is evidence that organic produce is drier than conventionally grown produce; a higher content in any chemical category may be explained by higher concentration rather than in absolute amounts.

text: With respect to chemical differences in the composition of organically grown food compared with conventionally grown food, studies have examined differences in

text: nutrients

text: antinutrients

text: , and

text: pesticide

text: residues. These studies generally suffer from

text: confounding

text: variables, and are difficult to generalize due to differences in the tests that were done, the methods of testing, and because the vagaries of agriculture affect the chemical composition of food; these variables include variations in weather (season to season as well as place to place); crop treatments (fertilizer, pesticide, etc.); soil composition; the cultivar used, and in the case of meat and dairy products, the parallel variables in animal production.  Treatment of the foodstuffs after initial gathering (whether milk is pasteurized or raw), the length of time between harvest and analysis, as well as conditions of transport and storage, also affect the chemical composition of a given item of food. Additionally, there is evidence that organic produce is drier than conventionally grown produce; a higher content in any chemical category may be explained by higher concentration rather than in absolute amounts.

text: - factory ship- famine- FARMA- farmers' market- fast food- fasting- fat- fat acceptance movement- fiber- finger bowl- fishing- food allergy- food bank- food chain- food consumption by class- food consumption by gender- food consumption by race- food consumption by socioeconomic status- food contaminants- food energy- Food for Peace- food fortification- food guide pyramid- food irradiation- food labeling regulations (U.K., E.U.)- food microbiology- food policy- food porn- food price crisis- food processing- food safety- food security- food sovereignty- food vs fuel- FreeRice- Free The Hops- fresherized- from scratch- fruitarianism- functional food

text: factory ship

text: famine

text: FARMA

text: farmers' market

text: fast food

text: fasting

text: fat

text: fat acceptance movement

text: fiber

text: finger bowl

text: fishing

text: food allergy

text: food bank

text: food chain

entity_name: Social class differences in food consumption

text: food consumption by class

text: food consumption by gender

text: food consumption by race

text: food consumption by socioeconomic status

text: food contaminants

text: food energy

text: Food for Peace

text: food fortification

text: food guide pyramid

text: food irradiation

text: food labeling regulations

text: (U.K., E.U.)-

text: food microbiology

text: food policy

text: food porn

text: food price crisis

text: food processing

text: food safety

text: food security

text: food sovereignty

text: food vs fuel

text: FreeRice

text: Free The Hops

text: fresherized

text: - from scratch-

text: fruitarianism

text: functional food

text: In 2008, the Australian consumer organisation Choice gave one of its annual 'Shonky' awards to VitaminWater, saying that, despite the claim that the drinks were healthy, "one bottle contains about a third of the recommended daily sugar intake for an average adult woman ... and none contains more than 1% fruit juice".  Choice also noted that the label on one flavour blatantly mocked food regulations designed to protect consumers by stating, "We are prohibited from making exaggerated claims about the potency of the nutrients in this bottle", before making exaggerated claims about the potency of the nutrients in the bottle.

text: In 2008, the Australian consumer organisation

entity_name: Choice (Australian consumer organisation)

text: Choice

text: gave one of its annual '

text: Shonky

text: ' awards to VitaminWater, saying that, despite the claim that the drinks were healthy, "one bottle contains about a third of the recommended daily sugar intake for an average adult woman ... and none contains more than 1% fruit juice".  Choice also noted that the label on one flavour blatantly mocked food regulations designed to protect consumers by stating, "We are prohibited from making exaggerated claims about the potency of the nutrients in this bottle", before making exaggerated claims about the potency of the nutrients in the bottle.

text: The use of the chopping tool varied from place to place just like any other archaeological artifact. Depending on what the maker of the chopping tool made or ate depended on what the chopping tool was used for. Most commonly the chopping tool was used for food purposes. They could be used for cutting down tree branches to get to fruits or to cut large plants that could be used for food. Anything that requires a knife today could have been replaced with a chopping tool. They were also used to help assist the maker in cutting the meat of the animals. Just like butchers today, skinning and cleaning of all the meat that we eat is needed. The chopping tool helped assist hunters gather the meat, especially from large animals that were hard to carry back to the location they were staying at, and make it edible for them to consume. Another use for the chopping tool was to smash bones. Bone marrow is a good source of nutrients to help your body function. For hunters and gatherers this was important since the next source of food could have been days to weeks away. When they would hunt animals they would use the sharp edge to cut the meat off the bones and then the back edge was hard enough to smash and crush bones. Once the bones were crushed the marrow could be collected.

text: The use of the chopping tool varied from place to place just like any other archaeological

text: artifact

text: . Depending on what the maker of the chopping tool made or ate depended on what the chopping tool was used for. Most commonly the chopping tool was used for food purposes. They could be used for cutting down tree branches to get to fruits or to cut large plants that could be used for food. Anything that requires a knife today could have been replaced with a chopping tool. They were also used to help assist the maker in cutting the meat of the animals. Just like butchers today, skinning and cleaning of all the meat that we eat is needed. The chopping tool helped assist hunters gather the meat, especially from large animals that were hard to carry back to the location they were staying at, and make it edible for them to consume. Another use for the chopping tool was to smash bones. Bone marrow is a good source of nutrients to help your body function. For hunters and gatherers this was important since the next source of food could have been days to weeks away. When they would hunt animals they would use the sharp edge to cut the meat off the bones and then the back edge was hard enough to smash and crush bones. Once the bones were crushed the marrow could be collected.

text: Choanocytes (also known as "collar cells") are cells that line the interior of asconoid, syconoid and leuconoid body type sponges that contain a central flagellum, or undulipodia, surrounded by a collar of microvilli which are connected by a thin membrane. They make up Choanoderm, a type of cell layer found in sponges. The cell has the closest resemblance to the choanoflagellates which are the closest related single celled protists to the animal kingdom (metazoans).  The flagellae beat regularly, creating a water flow across the microvilli which can then filter nutrients from the water taken from the collar of the sponge. Food particles are then phagocytosed by the cell.

text: Choanocytes (also known as "collar cells") are

text: cell

text: s that line the interior of

text: asconoid

text: , syconoid and leuconoid body type

text: sponges

text: that contain a central

text: flagellum

text: , or

text: undulipodia

text: , surrounded by a collar of

text: microvilli

text: which are connected by a thin membrane. They make up

text: Choanoderm

text: , a type of cell layer found in

text: sponges

text: . The cell has the closest resemblance to the

text: choanoflagellates

text: which are the closest related single celled protists to the animal kingdom (metazoans).  The flagellae beat regularly, creating a water flow across the microvilli which can then

text: filter

text: nutrients from the water taken from the collar of the sponge. Food particles are then

text: phagocytosed

text: by the cell.

text: Cycles in cicada populations are significant enough to affect other animal and plant populations. For example, tree growth has been observed to decline the year before the emergence of a brood, because of the increased feeding on roots by nymphs. Moles, which feed on nymphs, have been observed to do well during the year before an emergence, but suffer population declines the following year, because of the reduced food source. Wild turkey populations respond favorably to increased nutrition in their food supply from gorging on cicada adults on the ground at the end of their lifecycles. Uneaten carcasses of periodic cicadas decompose on the ground, providing a resource pulse of nutrients to the forest community.

text: Cycles in cicada populations are significant enough to affect other animal and plant populations. For example, tree growth has been observed to decline the year before the emergence of a brood, because of the increased feeding on roots by nymphs.

text: Moles

text: , which feed on nymphs, have been observed to do well during the year before an emergence, but suffer population declines the following year, because of the reduced food source.

text: Wild turkey

text: populations respond favorably to increased nutrition in their food supply from gorging on cicada adults on the ground at the end of their lifecycles. Uneaten carcasses of periodic cicadas decompose on the ground, providing a resource pulse of nutrients to the forest community.

text: After telling her love interest to "sit back and watch", Beyoncé sings the chorus, where she states the things she will do to show her appreciation to her love interest, "Tonight I'm gonna dance for you / Tonight I'm gonna dance for you / Tonight I'm gonna put my body on your body / Boy, I like it when you watch me / Tonight it's going down." In the second verse, she sings: "You'll never need two, because I will be your number one / Them other chicks are superficial / But I know you know I'm the one / That's why I'm all into you /Cuz I can recognize that you know that / That's why I’m backin' this thing back / Pop poppin' this thing back". Before the song ends, Beyoncé repeatedly chants "yes" in the background as the electric guitar crescendos into a piercing subliminal sound.

text: After telling her love interest to "sit back and watch", Beyoncé sings the

text: chorus

text: , where she states the things she will do to show her appreciation to her love interest, "Tonight I'm gonna dance for you / Tonight I'm gonna dance for you / Tonight I'm gonna put my body on your body / Boy, I like it when you watch me / Tonight it's going down." In the second verse, she sings: "You'll never need two, because I will be your number one / Them other chicks are superficial / But I know you know I'm the one / That's why I'm all into you /Cuz I can recognize that you know that / That's why I’m backin' this thing back / Pop poppin' this thing back". Before the song ends, Beyoncé repeatedly chants "yes" in the background as the electric guitar

text: crescendos

text: into a piercing subliminal sound.

text: Mattress model was proposed as a phenomenological theory approach in 1984 by Mouritsen and Bloom.  It is a two-component real solution theory based on the theory of nonideal solutions and hence allows for phase separation. In their model, they relate the energy stored in the undulations of the membrane surface caused by the mismatch to the elastic properties of the lipids and proteins. They do not include microscopic detail of the lipids, but use as input the known thermodynamic properties of the pure lipid system. They also include indirect lipid-protein interactions induced by the mismatch as well as direct lipid-protein van der Waals-like interactions between the hydrophobic parts of the lipid bilayer and the proteins. The excess "hydrophobic effect" associated with the lipid-protein hydrophobic mismatch, and the elastic deformation free energy of the lipid chains near the protein. The interaction potentials are estimated based on experimental data derived from thermodynamic and mechanical measurements of membrane properties.

text: It absorbs water and any remaining absorbable nutrients from the food before sending the indigestible matter to the rectum. The colon absorbs vitamins that are created by the colonic bacteria, such as vitamin K (especially important as the daily ingestion of vitamin K is not normally enough to maintain adequate blood coagulation), vitamin B12, thiamine and riboflavin. It also compacts feces, and stores fecal matter in the rectum until it can be discharged via the anus in defecation.The large intestine also secretes K+ and Cl-. Chloride secretion increases in cystic fibrosis.Recycling of various nutrients takes place in colon. Examples include fermentation of carbohydrates, short chain fatty acids, and urea cycling.

text: It absorbs water and any remaining absorbable nutrients from the food before sending the indigestible matter to the rectum. The colon absorbs vitamins that are created by the colonic bacteria, such as

text: vitamin K

text: (especially important as the daily ingestion of vitamin K is not normally enough to maintain adequate

text: blood coagulation

text: vitamin B12

text: thiamine

text: and

text: riboflavin

text: . It also compacts feces, and stores fecal matter in the rectum until it can be discharged via the

text: anus

text: in

text: defecation

text: .The large intestine also secretes K+ and Cl-. Chloride secretion increases in cystic fibrosis.Recycling of various nutrients takes place in colon. Examples include fermentation of carbohydrates, short chain fatty acids, and urea cycling.

text: Since its founding, Sight and Life has supported over 3,200 research and project activities in over 80 countries in Africa, Asia Pacific and Latin America. These activities are conducted in collaboration with universities, UN agencies, and non-government and government organizations. Organizational partners include Johns Hopkins University, ETH Zürich (the Swiss Federal Research Institute), the North-West University (South Africa), the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP), World Health Organization (WHO), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Micronutrient Forum, the Micronutrient Initiative, Groupe de Recherches et d'Echanges Technologiques (GRET), the Swiss Red Cross, and the Christian Blind Mission.

text: Since its founding, Sight and Life has supported over 3,200 research and project activities in over 80 countries in Africa, Asia Pacific and Latin America. These activities are conducted in collaboration with universities, UN agencies, and non-government and government organizations. Organizational partners include

text: Johns Hopkins University

text: ETH Zürich

text: (the Swiss Federal Research Institute), the

text: North-West University (South Africa)

text: , the

text: United Nations World Food Programme (WFP)

text: World Health Organization (WHO)

text: , the

text: United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

text: , the Micronutrient Forum, the

text: Micronutrient Initiative

entity_name: Groupe de Recherches et d'Echanges Technologiques

text: Groupe de Recherches et d'Echanges Technologiques (GRET)

text: , the

text: Swiss Red Cross

text: , and the

text: Christian Blind Mission

text: The three macronutrients are fats (lipids), carbohydrates (sugars and starches), and protein. Fats are calorie dense and nutritionally important, nuts are a good example. Carbohydrates (starches and sugars) that release energy slowly (as measure by glycemic index and glycemic load or the insulin index) give sustained energy, such as legumes and whole grains. Some sources of protein are meats, dairy products, fish, eggs, whole grains, pulses, legumes, and nuts. These are the reasons that "trail" mix usually has dried fruit and a variety of nuts. Nuts and dried fruit can last a long time based on their expiration date. The USDA's page on expiration dates is available online.

text: The three

text: macronutrient

text: s are fats (lipids), carbohydrates (sugars and starches), and protein.

text: Fat

text: s are calorie dense and nutritionally important,

text: nuts

text: are a good example. Carbohydrates (starches and sugars) that release energy slowly (as measure by

text: glycemic index

text: and

text: glycemic load

text: or the

text: insulin index

text: ) give sustained energy, such as

text: legume

text: s and

text: whole grain

text: s. Some sources of

text: protein

text: are meats, dairy products, fish, eggs, whole grains, pulses, legumes, and nuts. These are the reasons that "trail" mix usually has dried fruit and a variety of nuts. Nuts and dried fruit can last a long time based on their expiration date. The USDA's page on expiration dates is available online.

text: Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes). Their body cavity has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular pharynx leads to an extensively branched digestive system that facilitates direct diffusion of nutrients to all cells. The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism. Oxygen can diffuse from the surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.

text: Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including

text: flatworms

text: (phylum

text: Platyhelminthes

text: ). Their

text: body cavity

text: has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular

text: pharynx

text: leads to an extensively branched

text: digestive system

text: that facilitates direct

text: diffusion

text: of nutrients to all cells. The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism.

text: Oxygen

text: can diffuse from the surrounding

text: water

text: into the cells, and

text: carbon dioxide

text: can diffuse out. Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.

text: Enriched flour is flour with specific nutrients returned to it that have been lost while being prepared. These restored nutrients include iron and B vitamins (folic acid, riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine). Calcium may also be supplemented. The purpose of enriching flour is to replenish the nutrients in the flour to match the nutritional status of the unrefined product. This differentiates enrichment from fortification, which is the process of introducing new nutrients to a food.

text: Enriched flour is

text: flour

text: with specific

text: nutrient

text: s returned to it that have been lost while being prepared. These restored nutrients include

text: iron

text: and

text: B vitamins

text: (folic acid, riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine). Calcium may also be supplemented. The purpose of enriching flour is to replenish the nutrients in the flour to match the nutritional status of the unrefined product. This differentiates enrichment from

text: fortification

text: , which is the process of introducing new nutrients to a food.

text: In tomatoes, increases in fruit yield are typically the results of increased fruit size.  Research has shown that possible mechanisms for increased yield are likely due to increased water and nutrient uptake among vigorous rootstock genotypes. Conductance through the stoma was improved in tomato plants when grafted onto vigorous rootstock.  Nutrient uptake for the macronutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, were enhanced by grafting.

text: In tomatoes, increases in fruit yield are typically the results of increased fruit size.  Research has shown that possible mechanisms for increased yield are likely due to increased water and nutrient uptake among vigorous rootstock genotypes. Conductance through the

text: stoma

text: was improved in tomato plants when grafted onto vigorous rootstock.  Nutrient uptake for the

text: macronutrients

text: , such as

text: phosphorus

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: , were enhanced by grafting.

text: Unfortunately, cutting weight is often done in an unhealthy way which can cause negative conditions both in the short and the long term. Dehydration can result when a wrestler severely reduces intake of fluids while maintaining rigorous daily workouts. This may result in cramps or rarely, in extreme cases, heatstroke and swelling of the brain which causes seizures and hypovolemic shock.  Malnutrition can also result if cutting weight over long periods of time.  Long term weight cutting can mean that a wrestler does not intake essential nutrients like protein, calories, vitamin B, vitamin B, iron, and zinc; this can result in depression, muscular atrophy, and fevers.

text: Unfortunately, cutting weight is often done in an unhealthy way which can cause negative conditions both in the short and the long term.

text: Dehydration

text: can result when a wrestler severely reduces intake of fluids while maintaining rigorous daily workouts. This may result in

text: cramps

text: or rarely, in extreme cases,

text: heatstroke

text: and swelling of the brain which causes

text: seizures

text: and

text: hypovolemic shock

text: .  Malnutrition can also result if cutting weight over long periods of time.  Long term weight cutting can mean that a wrestler does not intake essential nutrients like protein, calories, vitamin B, vitamin B, iron, and zinc; this can result in

text: depression

text: muscular atrophy

text: , and

text: fevers

text: It is recognised that the amount of energy consumption increases as one spends more time viewing television. According to a study conducted by Crespo, C. J. from 1988 to 1994, young females who watched more than 5 hours of television intake an additional 175kcal per day, compared to others who only watch less than an hour per day. It is thus deduced that, in general, viewing television influences food choice decision and calorie consumption. For instance, children tend to consume low nutritional value, high calorie foods such as French fries, ice cream, soft drinks, and salty snacks while in front of television. Television influences children depending on how long they watch television for and depending on which country to study. Focusing on America of how television influences food consumption, children in America watch television for nearly four and a half hours each day.  Whilst they are watching TV during their time, they are exposed to at least 38 minutes of advertising each day. Half of the advertisements during children programs are of food advertisements, and they display many varieties of food, and eventually will get them into thinking what they prefer to eat just by looking at how tasty the food looks as children tend to be very visual about what they learn.  Children between the age of 2 to 7 will see about 12 food ads and those who are 8 to 12 years will see 21 food ads each day or 7,609 ads each year. Taste is a major influence on food factors. Eating habits and taste preference develop early in life will remain relatively the same throughout adulthood. The taste preference developed at the early stage with the repetitive exposure of messages on different varieties of food can make a lifelong influence in the eating habits. The food and beverage marketing is a major influence on children as they are exposed to seeing the messages of those products in the advertisement and with technology growing, the marketing strategies for food and beverage will expand to phones, tablets via Internet. Children are exposed to many devices nowadays and they are more exposed to marketing messages from the palm of their hand. The food and beverage industry spends $1.23 billion on marketing food and beverages to children under the age of 12. In America, their diets consist of inadequate in nutrient-dense foods, and are mainly high in energy-dense foods and beverages. The amount of unhealthy products available in America, children would be exposed to the marketing messages for unhealthy foods i.e. the sugary breakfast cereals, fast food franchises, and candy. Children tend to develop their food preferences during their early stages of life therefore they are at a risk of a lifelong preferences of food that have high calories, fat, and added sugars, which will increase the risk for obesity because of the TV food marketing practices. There was a recent experiment where elementary school aged children who saw unhealthy food advertising while watching a cartoon program consumed 45% more snacks than the group of children who watch the program with non food related advertising. Exposing children to healthy food advertisements had a positive impact on their attitude towards healthy food whereas when unhealthy food advertisements were shown alongside healthy food advertisements had a negative impact on their attitude towards healthy food.

text: A Nutrition scale is a weighing instrument that output precise nutritional information for foods or liquids. Most scales calculate calories, carbohydrates, and fats, with more sophisticated scales calculating additional nutrients such as Vitamin K, potassium, magnesium, and sodium.

text: A Nutrition scale is a weighing instrument that output precise nutritional information for foods or liquids. Most scales calculate

text: calories

text: carbohydrates

text: , and

text: fat

text: s, with more sophisticated scales calculating additional nutrients such as

text: Vitamin K

text: potassium

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: sodium

text: Eating foods high in Vitamin A or taking dietary supplements, Retinol or Retinal will prevent a deficiency. The foods highest in Vitamin A are any pigmented fruits and vegetables and leafy green vegetables also provide beta-Carotene.There can be symptoms of fat loss and a reduction of any weight gain that would be considered normal for an individual, especially developmental weight gains such as in infants which would occur if the infant was deprived of Vitamin A while In utero and/or if it was deprived postnatal for an extensive period of time. The deficiency can also cause conditions such as blindness or night blindness, also known as Nyctalopia. Night blindness is due to the inability to regenerate Rhodopsin in the rods which is needed in dim light in order to see properly.A treatment of supplements of Retinoic acid which is a part of Vitamin A can help replenish levels and help bring learning to normal, but after 39 weeks this is ineffective even if the treatment is daily because it will not bring the retinoid hypo-signalling back to normal.

text: Eating foods high in

text: Vitamin A

text: or taking

text: dietary supplements

text: Retinol

text: or

text: Retinal

text: will prevent a deficiency. The foods highest in Vitamin A are any pigmented fruits and vegetables and leafy green vegetables also provide

text: beta-Carotene

text: .There can be symptoms of fat loss and a reduction of any weight gain that would be considered normal for an individual, especially developmental weight gains such as in infants which would occur if the infant was deprived of Vitamin A while

text: In utero

text: and/or if it was deprived

text: postnatal

text: for an extensive period of time. The deficiency can also cause conditions such as

text: blindness

text: or night blindness, also known as

text: Nyctalopia

text: . Night blindness is due to the inability to regenerate

text: Rhodopsin

text: in the

text: rods

text: which is needed in dim light in order to see properly.A treatment of supplements of

text: Retinoic acid

text: which is a part of Vitamin A can help replenish levels and help bring learning to normal, but after 39 weeks this is ineffective even if the treatment is daily because it will not bring the

text: retinoid

text: hypo-signalling back to normal.

text: enderoparasite is parasites which live inside the body of the host. This group includes helminths, trematodes and cestodes. Endoparasites are two groups of parasites: intercellular and intracellular parasites. Intercellular parasites live in spaces within the host e.g. the alimentary canal, whereas intracellular parasites live in cells within the host e.g. erythrocytes. Intracellular parasites typically rely on a third organism, a vector, to transmit the parasite between hosts. Rather than requiring adaptations to penetrate the host, as ectoparasites do, endoparasites are in a nutrient-rich location so they instead have adaptations to maximise nutrient absorption. Endoparasites have a readily available and renewable supply of nutrients inside the host, which in some cases is pre-digested by the host, so mechanisms of nutrient absorption across their body surface is a common feature. As part of their life cycle strategy, endoparasites must also be able to transmit from within the host body and survive the hostile environment within the host. Only by achieving this can they benefit from acquiring nutrition in this way.

text: enderoparasite is parasites which live inside the body of the host. This group includes

text: helminths

text: trematodes

text: and

text: cestodes

text: . Endoparasites are two groups of parasites: intercellular and

text: intracellular parasite

text: s. Intercellular parasites live in spaces within the host e.g. the alimentary canal, whereas intracellular parasites live in cells within the host e.g. erythrocytes. Intracellular parasites typically rely on a third organism, a vector, to transmit the parasite between hosts. Rather than requiring adaptations to penetrate the host, as ectoparasites do, endoparasites are in a nutrient-rich location so they instead have adaptations to maximise nutrient absorption. Endoparasites have a readily available and renewable supply of nutrients inside the host, which in some cases is pre-digested by the host, so mechanisms of nutrient absorption across their body surface is a common feature. As part of their life cycle strategy, endoparasites must also be able to transmit from within the host body and survive the hostile environment within the host. Only by achieving this can they benefit from acquiring nutrition in this way.

text: Deep-water corals grow slowly, so recovery takes much longer than in shallow waters where nutrients and food-providing zooxanthellae are far more abundant.

text: This technique recognizes that micro- and macro-biotic organisms constitute a "food web" community in the soil, necessary for the healthy cycling of nutrients and prevention of problematic organisms and diseases. The plants transfer a portion of the carbon energy they produce to the soil, and microbes that benefit from this energy in turn convert available organic substances in the soil to the mineral elements the plants need to thrive.

text: This technique recognizes that micro- and macro-biotic organisms constitute a "

text: food web

text: " community in the soil, necessary for the healthy cycling of nutrients and prevention of problematic organisms and diseases. The plants transfer a portion of the carbon energy they produce to the soil, and microbes that benefit from this energy in turn convert available organic substances in the soil to the mineral elements the plants need to thrive.

text: This list is a categorization of the most common food components based on their macronutrients. Macronutrients can refer to the chemical elements that humans consume in the largest quantities (See Nutrient)

text: This list is a categorization of the most common food components based on their macronutrients. Macronutrients can refer to the

text: chemical elements

text: that humans consume in the largest quantities (See

text: Nutrient

text: MSF uses foods designed specifically for treatment of severe malnutrition. During phase 1, a type of therapeutic milk called F-75 is fed to patients. F-75 is a relatively low energy, low fat/protein milk powder that must be mixed with water and given to patients to prepare their bodies for phase 2. During phase 2, therapeutic milk called F-100, which is higher in energy/fat/protein content than F-75, is given to patients, usually along with a peanut butter mixture called Plumpy'nut. F-100 and Plumpy'nut are designed to quickly provide large amounts of nutrients so that patients can be treated efficiently. Other special food fed to populations in danger of starvation includes enriched flour and porridge, as well as a high protein biscuit called BP5. BP5 is a popular food for treating populations because it can be distributed easily and sent home with individuals, or it can be crushed and mixed with therapeutic milk for specific treatments.

text: MSF uses foods designed specifically for treatment of severe malnutrition. During phase 1, a type of therapeutic milk called

text: is fed to patients. F-75 is a relatively low energy, low fat/protein milk powder that must be mixed with water and given to patients to prepare their bodies for phase 2. During phase 2, therapeutic milk called

text: , which is higher in energy/fat/protein content than F-75, is given to patients, usually along with a peanut butter mixture called

text: Plumpy'nut

text: . F-100 and Plumpy'nut are designed to quickly provide large amounts of nutrients so that patients can be treated efficiently. Other special food fed to populations in danger of starvation includes

text: enriched flour

text: and

text: porridge

text: , as well as a high protein biscuit called

text: . BP5 is a popular food for treating populations because it can be distributed easily and sent home with individuals, or it can be crushed and mixed with therapeutic milk for specific treatments.

text: Plants form the base of the food chain, and need sunlight and nutrients to grow. In the ocean, these plants are mainly microscopic phytoplankton which drift in the water column. They need sunlight for photosynthesis, which powers carbon fixation, so they are found only relatively near the surface. But they also need nutrients. Phytoplankton rapidly use nutrients in the surface waters, and in the tropics, these nutrients are not usually replaced because of the thermocline.

text: Plants form the base of the food chain, and need sunlight and nutrients to grow. In the ocean, these plants are mainly microscopic

text: phytoplankton

text: which drift in the

text: water column

text: . They need sunlight for

text: photosynthesis

text: , which powers

text: carbon fixation

text: , so they are found only relatively near the surface. But they also need nutrients. Phytoplankton rapidly use nutrients in the surface waters, and in the tropics, these nutrients are not usually replaced because of the

text: thermocline

text: Within the kidney, blood first passes through the afferent artery to the capillary formation called a glomerulus and is collected in the Bowman's capsule, which filters the blood from its contents—primarily food and wastes. After the filtration process, the blood then returns to collect the food nutrients it needs, while the wastes pass into the collecting duct, to the renal pelvis, and to the ureter, and are then secreted out of the body via the urinary bladder.

text: Within the kidney, blood first passes through the afferent artery to the capillary formation called a

text: glomerulus

text: and is collected in the

text: Bowman's capsule

text: , which filters the blood from its contents—primarily food and wastes. After the filtration process, the blood then returns to collect the food nutrients it needs, while the wastes pass into the collecting duct, to the renal pelvis, and to the ureter, and are then secreted out of the body via the urinary bladder.

text: Later Biesalski focused on questions of capture and treatment of hidden hunger (micronutrient deficiency) and food security. He also dealt with the therapy of micronutrient deficiency, mainly vitamin C at intensive care patients. A further experimental field is nutritargeting, which was described by him first. Nutritarging is the development of galenical formulations, allowing a targeted  supply of organs with nutrients.

text: Later Biesalski focused on questions of capture and treatment of

text: hidden hunger

text: (micronutrient deficiency) and food security. He also dealt with the therapy of micronutrient deficiency, mainly vitamin C at intensive care patients. A further experimental field is nutritargeting, which was described by him first. Nutritarging is the development of galenical formulations, allowing a targeted  supply of organs with nutrients.

text: In 2005, Health Canada evaluated the effect of fortification of foods with ascorbate in the guidance document, Addition of Vitamins and Minerals to Food. Ascorbate was categorized as a 'Risk Category A nutrient', meaning it is a nutrient for which an upper limit for intake is set but allows a wide margin of intake that has a narrow margin of safety but non-serious critical adverse effects.

text: In 2005,

text: Health Canada

text: evaluated the effect of fortification of foods with ascorbate in the guidance document, Addition of Vitamins and Minerals to Food. Ascorbate was categorized as a 'Risk Category A nutrient', meaning it is a nutrient for which an upper limit for intake is set but allows a wide margin of intake that has a narrow margin of safety but non-serious critical adverse effects.

text: In Ireland two factors led to the formation of such extensive peatlands. High rainfall- there are 175 rain-days each year in the west, southwest and northwest of Ireland and poor drainage The bogs formed at the end of the last ice age, about 10,000 years ago in the central lowlands of Ireland in basins of calcareous boulder clay. These became lakes overgrown with fen vegetation and infilled with fen peat which cut off the surface plants from mineral-rich water below. Nutrient-demanding fen plants were then replaced by bog mosses and plants which could survive on low levels of nutrients. The fen peat below prevented the rainwater draining away and the sponge-like bog moss and plants soaked it up.

text: I thought there is a connection between my need to add salt to my food and thirst. My body has found itself a pretext - salty food - to make me drink more water. I have a lot of thoughts about the manifestations of my body, which seem logical and aim at inner balance. Everybody has in fact got an inner physician in oneself. What need is there of an outside doctor then? If you allow yourself lie at the will of your free inclinations, with no assumptions whatsoever, you will have the intuition of making things that may surprise you, nevertheless useful to your body and securing your health and high spirits.I read somewhere that one can be one's own doctor... Everybody can be one's own doctor."

text: First things first, you should eliminate huge sources of trans fats, unnatural sugars, and processed foods. However, the amount you cut down on depends on how much you previously consumed daily and how unnatural those foods were. A general rule to live by: If you can't pronounce most of the ingredients listed on the package, it probably isn't natural enough to be in your body. That said, checking the ingredients list is a very important step in making the transition away from processed foods. Avoid artificial flavors and colors, as some are made from insects or could cause cancer. How many ingredients are listed for the product? Chances are the more you read, the less healthy it will be. Our bodies are meant to consume certain foods, and if the ingredients list runs long, you should find an alternative food item that either has simpler and fewer ingredients, or try to make the item on your own. There shouldn't be more than ten ingredients for a granola bar, for instance, because it really only needs five (granola, oats, some sort of nut, some sort of dried berry, and maybe maple syrup or honey as a glue for the previous ingredients).

text: Because of the extent of the chemical reactions, changes to the food's quality after irradiation are inevitable. The nutritional contents, as well as the sensory qualities (taste, appearance, and texture) are impacted by irradiation. Irradiation changes the sensory qualities and reduces the content of some nutrients in foods. Irradiation also improves the shelf stability of some sensory qualities and nutrients. For these components more of the original taste, texture, appearance, and nutrients get to the final consumer. The changes in quality and nutrition vary greatly from food to food.

text: In Bangladesh taro is a very popular vegetable known as kochu (কচু) or mukhi (মুখি). It is usually cooked with small prawns or the ilish fish into a curry, but some dishes are cooked with dried fish. Its green leaves, kochu pata (কচু পাতা), and stem, kochu (কচু), are also eaten as a favourite dish and usually ground to a paste or finely chopped to make shak - but it must be boiled well beforehand. Taro stolons or stems, kochur loti (কচুর লতি), are also favoured by Bangladeshis and cooked with shrimps, dried fish or the head of the ilish fish. Taro is available, either fresh or frozen, in the UK and US in most Asian stores and supermarkets specialising in Bangladeshi or South Asian food. Also, another variety called maan kochu is consumed and is a rich source of vitamins and nutrients. Maan Kochu is pasted and fried to prepare a delicious food known as Kochu Bata.

text: In

text: Bangladesh

text: taro is a very popular vegetable known as kochu (কচু) or mukhi (মুখি). It is usually cooked with small

text: prawn

text: s or the

text: ilish

text: fish into a

text: curry

text: , but some dishes are cooked with

text: dried fish

text: . Its green leaves, kochu pata (কচু পাতা), and stem, kochu (কচু), are also eaten as a favourite dish and usually ground to a paste or finely chopped to make shak - but it must be boiled well beforehand. Taro stolons or stems, kochur loti (কচুর লতি), are also favoured by Bangladeshis and cooked with

text: shrimp

text: s, dried fish or the head of the ilish fish. Taro is available, either fresh or frozen, in the UK and US in most Asian stores and supermarkets specialising in

text: Bangladeshi

text: or

text: South Asian

text: food. Also, another variety called maan kochu is consumed and is a rich source of vitamins and nutrients. Maan Kochu is pasted and fried to prepare a delicious food known as Kochu Bata.

text: There are numerous measures of water use, including total water use, drinking water consumption, non-consumptive use, withdrawn water use (from surface and groundwater sources), instream use, water footprint, etc.  Each of these (and other) measures of water use is appropriate for some purposes and inappropriate for others.  Water “footprints” have become popular measures of use, e.g. in relation to personal consumption. The term "water footprint" is often used to refer to the amount of water used by an individual, community, business, or nation, or the amount of water use associated with (although  not necessarily assignable to) a product.

text: There are numerous measures of water use, including total water use,

text: drinking water

text: consumption, non-consumptive use, withdrawn water use (from surface and groundwater sources), instream use, water footprint, etc.  Each of these (and other) measures of water use is appropriate for some purposes and inappropriate for others.  Water “footprints” have become popular measures of use, e.g. in relation to personal consumption. The term "water footprint" is often used to refer to the amount of water used by an individual, community, business, or nation, or the amount of water use associated with (although  not necessarily assignable to) a product.

text: Some studies have suggested that adding vinegar to food may help to prevent carbohydrates putting up blood sugar too dramatically.

text: The bilayer formed by membrane lipids serves as a containment unit of a living cell.  Membrane lipids also form a matrix in which membrane proteins reside.  Historically lipids were thought to merely serve a structural role.  Functional roles of lipids are in fact many: They serve as regulatory agents in cell growth and adhesion.  They participate in the biosynthesis of other biomolecules.  They can serve to increase enzymatic activities of enzymes.

text: Carnivore and herbivore diets are contrasting, with basic nitrogen and carbon proportions vary for their particular foods. "The nitrogen content of plant tissues averages about 2%, while in fungi, animals, and bacteria it averages about 5% to 10%." Many herbivores rely on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from indigestible plant cellulose, while obligate carnivores must eat animal meats to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients their bodies cannot otherwise synthesize.  All animals' diets must provide sufficient amounts of the basic building blocks they need, up to the point where their particular biology can synthesize the rest.Animal tissue contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite).

text: Carnivore

text: and

text: herbivore

text: diets are contrasting, with basic

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: carbon

text: proportions vary for their particular foods. "The nitrogen content of plant tissues averages about 2%, while in fungi, animals, and bacteria it averages about 5% to 10%." Many herbivores rely on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from indigestible plant cellulose, while obligate carnivores must eat animal meats to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients their bodies cannot otherwise synthesize.  All animals' diets must provide sufficient amounts of the basic building blocks they need, up to the point where their particular biology can synthesize the rest.Animal tissue contains

text: chemical compound

text: s, such as

text: water

text: carbohydrate

text: s (sugar, starch, and fiber),

text: amino acid

text: s (in

text: protein

text: s),

text: fatty acid

text: s (in

text: lipid

text: s), and

text: nucleic acid

text: s (

text: DNA

text: and

text: RNA

text: ). These compounds in turn consist of

text: elements

text: such as

text: carbon

text: hydrogen

text: oxygen

text: nitrogen

text: phosphorus

text: calcium

text: iron

text: zinc

text: magnesium

text: manganese

text: , and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g.

text: hormone

text: s,

text: vitamin

text: s,

text: phospholipid

text: s,

text: hydroxyapatite

text: Sardines are rich in vitamins and minerals. A small serving of sardines once a day can provide 13 percent of vitamin B2; roughly one-quarter of niacin; and about 150 percent of the recommended daily value of vitamin B12. All B vitamins help to support proper nervous system function and are used for energy metabolism, or converting food into energy. Also, sardines are high in the major minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and some trace minerals including iron and selenium. Sardines are also a natural source of marine omega-3 fatty acids, which may reduce the occurrence of cardiovascular disease. Recent studies suggest that regular consumption of omega-3 fatty acids reduces the likelihood of developing Alzheimer's disease. These fatty acids can also lower blood sugar levels. They are also a good source of vitamin D, calcium, vitamin B12, and protein.

text: Sardines are rich in

text: vitamins

text: and

text: minerals

text: . A small serving of sardines once a day can provide 13 percent of

text: vitamin B2

text: ; roughly one-quarter of niacin; and about 150 percent of the recommended daily value of

text: vitamin B12

text: . All B vitamins help to support proper

text: nervous system

text: phosphorus

text: calcium

text: potassium

text: , and some trace minerals including iron and

text: selenium

text: omega-3 fatty acid

text: s, which may reduce the occurrence of cardiovascular disease. Recent studies suggest that regular consumption of omega-3 fatty acids reduces the likelihood of developing

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: . These fatty acids can also lower blood sugar levels. They are also a good source of

text: vitamin D

text: calcium

text: , vitamin B12, and

text: protein

text: Interactions between phytoplankton and bacteria in the phycosphere could be potentially important in low-nutrient regions of the ocean and an example of mutualism.  In marine ecosystems that are low in nutrients (i.e. oligotrophic regions of the oceans), it could be potentially beneficial for the phytoplankton to have remineralizing bacteria in the phycosphere for nutrient recycling.  It has been suggested that while the bacterial activity may be low, the taxonomic diversity and nutritional diversity is high.  This can possibly suggest that the phytoplankton species may rely on a diverse array of bacterial interactions for recycled nutrients in these oligotrophic regions and the bacteria rely on organic matter surrounding the phycosphere for a source of food.

text: Interactions between phytoplankton and bacteria in the phycosphere could be potentially important in low-nutrient regions of the ocean and an example of mutualism.  In marine

text: ecosystems

text: that are low in nutrients (i.e.

text: oligotrophic

text: regions of the oceans), it could be potentially beneficial for the phytoplankton to have remineralizing

text: bacteria

text: in the phycosphere for

text: nutrient

text: recycling

text: .  It has been suggested that while the bacterial activity may be low, the

text: taxonomic

text: diversity

text: and nutritional

text: diversity

text: is high.  This can possibly suggest that the phytoplankton species may rely on a diverse array of bacterial interactions for recycled

text: nutrients

text: in these

text: oligotrophic

text: regions and the bacteria rely on organic matter surrounding the phycosphere for a source of food.

text: Liebig reaffirmed the importance of De Saussures' findings, and used them to critique humus theories, while regretting the limitations of De Saussure's experimental techniques. Using more precise methods of measurement as a basis for estimation, he pointed out contradictions such as the inability of existing soil humus to provide enough carbon to support the plants growing in it. By the late 1830s, researchers like Karl Sprengel were using Liebig's methods of combustion analysis to assess manures, concluding that their value could be attributed to their constituent minerals. Liebig synthesized ideas about the mineral theory of plant nutrition and added his own conviction that inorganic materials could provide nutrients as effectively as organic sources.

text: Liebig reaffirmed the importance of De Saussures' findings, and used them to critique humus theories, while regretting the limitations of De Saussure's experimental techniques. Using more precise methods of measurement as a basis for estimation, he pointed out contradictions such as the inability of existing soil humus to provide enough carbon to support the plants growing in it. By the late 1830s, researchers like

text: Karl Sprengel

text: were using Liebig's methods of combustion analysis to assess manures, concluding that their value could be attributed to their constituent minerals. Liebig synthesized ideas about the mineral theory of plant nutrition and added his own conviction that inorganic materials could provide nutrients as effectively as organic sources.

text: For freshwater aquaria, gravel is the most common substrate. To prevent damage to fish, gravel should not be sharp. Aquarium gravel can be as coarse as pea-sized or as fine as 1–2 mm. It is available in a number of colors, and may be naturally colored or dyed, and may have a polymer seal to ensure it does not affect water chemistry. Gravel sold specifically for use in aquaria is chemically inert. It is commonly composed of quartz or other lime-free minerals. If the gravel is rough or sharp, it is not suitable for bottom-dwelling fish that like to sift the substrate or dig.When growing aquatic plants, the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is also an important thing to consider when choosing a substrate. CEC is the ability to absorb positively charged nutrient ions (so high CEC is good). This means the substrate will hold nutrients and make them available for the plant roots. It doesn’t indicate the amount of nutrients the substrate contains.

text: For

text: freshwater

text: aquaria,

text: gravel

text: is the most common substrate. To prevent damage to fish, gravel should not be sharp. Aquarium gravel can be as coarse as pea-sized or as fine as 1–2 mm. It is available in a number of colors, and may be naturally colored or dyed, and may have a polymer seal to ensure it does not affect water chemistry. Gravel sold specifically for use in aquaria is chemically inert. It is commonly composed of quartz or other

text: lime

text: -free minerals. If the gravel is rough or sharp, it is not suitable for bottom-dwelling fish that like to sift the substrate or dig.When growing aquatic plants, the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is also an important thing to consider when choosing a substrate. CEC is the ability to absorb positively charged nutrient ions (so high CEC is good). This means the substrate will hold nutrients and make them available for the plant roots. It doesn’t indicate the amount of nutrients the substrate contains.

text: The organization advocates for, and provides funding and technical assistance for salt iodisation, the distribution of multi-micronutrient powders, the fortification of staple foods such as wheat flour with vitamin A, iron and folic acid, and dietary supplementation with vitamin A, iron, zinc and folic acid. Since 1997, with funding support from the Government of Canada, the Micronutrient Initiative has provided more than eight billion doses of vitamin A for use by UNICEF and national governments.

text: The organization advocates for, and provides funding and technical assistance for

text: salt iodisation

text: , the distribution of multi-micronutrient powders, the fortification of staple foods such as wheat flour with

text: vitamin A

text: iron

text: and

text: folic acid

text: , and dietary supplementation with vitamin A, iron,

text: zinc

text: and folic acid. Since 1997, with funding support from the Government of Canada, the Micronutrient Initiative has provided more than eight billion doses of vitamin A for use by UNICEF and national governments.

text: In addition to the important structural functions of complex sphingolipids (inositol phosphorylceramide and its mannosylated derivatives), the sphingoid bases phytosphingosine and dihydrosphingosine (sphinganine) play vital signaling roles in S. cerevisiae. These effects include regulation of endocytosis, ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis (and, thus, regulation of nutrient uptake ), cytoskeletal dynamics, the cell cycle, translation, posttranslational protein modification, and the heat stress response. Additionally, modulation of sphingolipid metabolism by  phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate signaling via Slm1p and Slm2p and calcineurin has recently been described. Additionally, a substrate-level interaction has been shown between complex sphingolipid synthesis and cycling of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate by the phosphatidylinositol kinase Stt4p and the lipid phosphatase Sac1p.

text: In addition to the important structural functions of complex sphingolipids (inositol phosphorylceramide and its mannosylated derivatives), the sphingoid bases

text: phytosphingosine

text: and dihydrosphingosine (sphinganine) play vital signaling roles in S. cerevisiae. These effects include regulation of

text: endocytosis

text: , ubiquitin-dependent

text: proteolysis

text: (and, thus, regulation of nutrient uptake ),

text: cytoskeletal

text: dynamics, the

text: cell cycle

text: translation

text: , posttranslational protein modification, and the heat stress response. Additionally, modulation of sphingolipid metabolism by

text: phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate

text: signaling via Slm1p and Slm2p and

text: calcineurin

text: has recently been described. Additionally, a substrate-level interaction has been shown between complex sphingolipid synthesis and cycling of

text: phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate

text: by the phosphatidylinositol kinase Stt4p and the lipid phosphatase Sac1p.

text: The single-stranded nature of protein molecules, together with their composition of 20 or more different amino acid building blocks, allows them to fold in to a vast number of different three-dimensional shapes, while providing binding pockets through which they can specifically interact with all manner of molecules. In addition, the chemical diversity of the different amino acids, together with different chemical environments afforded by local 3D structure, enables many proteins to act as Enzymes, catalyzing a wide range of specific biochemical transformations within cells. In addition, proteins have evolved the ability to bind a wide range of cofactors and Coenzymes, smaller molecules that can endow the protein with specific activities beyond those associated with the polypeptide chain alone.

text: The single-stranded nature of protein molecules, together with their composition of 20 or more different amino acid building blocks, allows them to fold in to a vast number of different three-dimensional shapes, while providing binding pockets through which they can specifically interact with all manner of molecules. In addition, the chemical diversity of the different amino acids, together with different chemical environments afforded by local 3D structure, enables many proteins to act as

text: Enzymes

text: , catalyzing a wide range of specific biochemical transformations within cells. In addition, proteins have evolved the ability to bind a wide range of

text: cofactors

text: and

text: Coenzymes

text: , smaller molecules that can endow the protein with specific activities beyond those associated with the polypeptide chain alone.

text: Nutrients from human activities tend to travel from land to either surface or ground water. Nitrogen in particular is removed through storm drains, sewage pipes, and other forms of surface runoff.Nutrient losses in runoff and leachate are often associated with agriculture. Modern agriculture often involves the application of nutrients onto fields in order to maximise production. However, farmers frequently apply more nutrients than are taken up by crops or pastures. Regulations aimed at minimising nutrient exports from agriculture are typically far less stringent than those placed on sewage treatment plants and other point source polluters. It should be also noted that lakes within forested land are also under surface runoff influences. Runoff can wash out the mineral nitrogen and phosphorus from detritus and in consequence supply the water bodies leading to slow, natural eutrophication.

text: Nutrients from human activities tend to travel from land to either surface or ground water. Nitrogen in particular is removed through

text: storm drains

text: , sewage pipes, and other forms of

text: surface runoff

text: .Nutrient losses in runoff and

text: leachate

text: are often associated with

text: agriculture

text: . Modern agriculture often involves the application of nutrients onto fields in order to maximise production. However, farmers frequently apply more nutrients than are taken up by crops or pastures. Regulations aimed at minimising nutrient exports from agriculture are typically far less stringent than those placed on sewage treatment plants and other point source polluters. It should be also noted that lakes within forested land are also under surface runoff influences. Runoff can wash out the mineral nitrogen and phosphorus from detritus and in consequence supply the water bodies leading to slow, natural eutrophication.

text: Some foods are considered good sources of the nutrients:

text: As obligate carnivores, cats require nutrients (including arginine, taurine, arachidonic acid, vitamin A, vitamin B12 and niacin) found in meat sources that cannot be obtained in sufficient amount in plant sources. Vegetarian pet food companies attempt to correct these deficiencies by supplementing their products with synthetically produced nutrients. According to the United States National Research Council, "Cats require specific nutrients, not specific feedstuffs."

text: As obligate carnivores, cats require nutrients (including arginine, taurine, arachidonic acid, vitamin A, vitamin B12 and niacin) found in meat sources that cannot be obtained in sufficient amount in plant sources. Vegetarian pet food companies attempt to correct these deficiencies by supplementing their products with synthetically produced nutrients. According to the

entity_name: National Research Council (United States)

text: United States National Research Council

text: , "Cats require specific nutrients, not specific feedstuffs."

text: According to US Food and Drug Administration reports, Fruits are known to be rich in nutrients such as Vitamin A, C and Calcium. This is why in addition to its communication as containing No Added Sugar, No Preservative, No Artificial Colours, Chivita 100% Fruit Juice also considers its 100% juice a Nutrient density beverage, poised to address the nutritional needs of its consumers at every stage of their lives.

text: According to US Food and Drug Administration reports, Fruits are known to be rich in nutrients such as Vitamin A, C and Calcium. This is why in addition to its communication as containing No Added Sugar, No Preservative, No Artificial Colours, Chivita 100% Fruit Juice also considers its 100% juice a

text: Nutrient density

text: beverage, poised to address the nutritional needs of its consumers at every stage of their lives.

text: Several micronutrients are important for the health of the developing fetus, especially in areas of the world where insufficient nutrition is common. Whereas micronutrient supplementation for the mother has been found to reduce the risk of low birth weight, several studies reported variable effects on mortality in the newborn in developing countries. In developed areas, such as Western Europe and the United States, certain nutrients such as Vitamin D and calcium, required for bone development, may require supplementation. Vitamin E supplementation has not been shown to improve birth outcomes. Zinc supplementation has been associated with a decrease in preterm birth, but it is unclear whether it is causative. Daily iron supplementation reduces the risk of maternal anemia. Studies of routine daily iron supplementation for all pregnant women in developed countries found improvement in blood iron levels, without a clear clinical benefit.

text: Several

text: micronutrients

text: are important for the health of the developing fetus, especially in areas of the world where insufficient nutrition is common. Whereas micronutrient supplementation for the mother has been found to reduce the risk of low birth weight, several studies reported variable effects on mortality in the newborn in developing countries. In developed areas, such as Western Europe and the United States, certain nutrients such as

text: Vitamin D

text: and

text: calcium

text: , required for bone development, may require supplementation. Vitamin E supplementation has not been shown to improve birth outcomes. Zinc supplementation has been associated with a decrease in preterm birth, but it is unclear whether it is causative. Daily iron supplementation reduces the risk of maternal anemia. Studies of routine daily iron supplementation for all pregnant women in developed countries found improvement in blood iron levels, without a clear clinical benefit.

text: As a nutrient-dense food, walnuts are an excellent source of protein, dietary fiber, B vitamins, and several dietary minerals, particularly manganese.

text: As a

text: nutrient

text: -dense food,

text: walnut

text: s are an excellent source of

text: protein

text: dietary fiber

text: B vitamins

text: , and several

text: dietary minerals

text: , particularly

text: manganese

text: "At the start of this sensible book about the "weight and fitness crisis" in America, Harvard psychologist Deirdre Barrett says the answer lies in the study of evolution. As animals, we are genetically almost identical to our Stone Age ancestors. We live in advanced societies, with supermarkets and cars and lifts, but we are built to be hunter-gatherers. We are programmed to seek out fat, sugar, starch and salt, because, in the Stone Age, these things were hard to come by. When they turn up in abundance, our bodies, for the most part, can't say no. . . . to put it simply, human beings are evolving much more slowly than the food we eat. And the food is tricking us. We think it's what we need, but it's just what we want. What can we do? Eat sensibly and exercise, of course. One thing we have to do, though, is not to “listen to your body" – because it craves food that, in abundance, is bad for it. . . This is a clear, well-written and thoughtful guide to the fat crisis." - The Telegraph (UK)<ref>Evolution makes us fat

text: Due to the sealed nature of the bag all this waste begins to decompose anaerobically releasing methane gas, water and sludge waste whilst also killing harmful pathogens such as E-Coli.  The methane gas is released and captured using the valve at the top of the outlet end of the bag, this gas can be used for cooking, lighting and heating  (although CART currently intend to use the gas solely for cooking.)  The water is released through the outlet pipe, this water is known as ‘High nutrient’ or ‘Black’ water.  Less than 10% of the products are solids and therefore only need removing from the bag every few years, these solids can be used as a high nutrient fertiliser for fruit trees or for plants where the fertiliser does not come into direct contact with the crop.  The black water is mixed with grey waters, such as shower or washing water (N.B CART only uses organic, Bio-degradable washing products to ensure no toxins are introduced to the cycle.)  This water is filtered through sand and charcoal and used to irrigate the food gardens.  Excess water, together with runoff from the gardens is collected in the Dam, from which it can be used to water gardens in the dry season or filtered further making it safe for drinking (See water cycle)

text: Due to the sealed nature of the bag all this waste begins to decompose anaerobically releasing

text: methane

text: gas, water and sludge waste whilst also killing harmful

text: pathogens

text: such as

text: E-Coli

text: .  The methane gas is released and captured using the valve at the top of the outlet end of the bag, this gas can be used for cooking, lighting and heating  (although CART currently intend to use the gas solely for cooking.)  The water is released through the outlet pipe, this water is known as ‘High nutrient’ or ‘Black’ water.  Less than 10% of the products are solids and therefore only need removing from the bag every few years, these solids can be used as a high nutrient fertiliser for fruit trees or for plants where the fertiliser does not come into direct contact with the crop.  The black water is mixed with grey waters, such as shower or washing water (N.B CART only uses organic, Bio-degradable washing products to ensure no toxins are introduced to the cycle.)  This water is filtered through sand and charcoal and used to irrigate the food gardens.  Excess water, together with runoff from the gardens is collected in the Dam, from which it can be used to water gardens in the dry season or filtered further making it safe for drinking (See water cycle)

text: Glycoside hydrolases are found in essentially all domains of life. In prokaryotes, they are found both as intracellular and extracellular enzymes that are largely involved in nutrient acquisition. One of the important occurrences of glycoside hydrolases in bacteria is the enzyme beta-galactosidase (LacZ), which is involved in regulation of expression of the lac operon in E. coli. In higher organisms glycoside hydrolases are found within the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus where they are involved in processing of N-linked glycoproteins, and in the lysosome as enzymes involved in the degradation of carbohydrate structures. Deficiency in specific lysosomal glycoside hydrolases can lead to a range of lysosomal storage disorders that result in developmental problems or death. Glycoside hydrolases are found in the intestinal tract and in saliva where they degrade complex carbohydrates such as lactose, starch, sucrose and trehalose. In the gut they are found as glycosylphosphatidyl anchored enzymes on endothelial cells. The enzyme lactase is required for degradation of the milk sugar lactose and is present at high levels in infants, but in most populations will decrease after weaning or during infancy, potentially leading to lactose intolerance in adulthood. The enzyme O-GlcNAcase is involved in removal of N-acetylglucosamine groups from serine and threonine residues in the cytoplasm and nucleus of the cell. The glycoside hydrolases are involved in the biosynthesis and degradation of glycogen in the body.

text: Glycoside hydrolases are found in essentially all domains of life. In

text: prokaryotes

text: , they are found both as intracellular and extracellular enzymes that are largely involved in nutrient acquisition. One of the important occurrences of glycoside hydrolases in bacteria is the enzyme

text: beta-galactosidase

text: (LacZ), which is involved in regulation of expression of the

text: lac operon

text: in

text: E. coli

text: . In higher organisms glycoside hydrolases are found within the

text: endoplasmic reticulum

text: and

text: Golgi apparatus

text: where they are involved in processing of N-linked

text: glycoproteins

text: , and in the

text: lysosome

text: as enzymes involved in the degradation of carbohydrate structures. Deficiency in specific lysosomal glycoside hydrolases can lead to a range of lysosomal storage disorders that result in developmental problems or death. Glycoside hydrolases are found in the

text: intestinal tract

text: and in

text: saliva

text: where they degrade complex carbohydrates such as

text: lactose

text: starch

text: sucrose

text: and

text: trehalose

text: . In the gut they are found as glycosylphosphatidyl anchored enzymes on

text: endothelial cell

text: s. The enzyme

text: lactase

text: is required for degradation of the milk sugar lactose and is present at high levels in infants, but in most populations will decrease after weaning or during infancy, potentially leading to

text: lactose intolerance

text: in adulthood. The enzyme O-GlcNAcase is involved in removal of N-acetylglucosamine groups from serine and threonine residues in the cytoplasm and nucleus of the cell. The glycoside hydrolases are involved in the

text: biosynthesis

text: and degradation of

text: glycogen

text: in the body.

text: Derry Township School District offers a free school breakfast and free or reduced-price lunch to children in low income families. All students attending the school can eat breakfast and lunch. Children from families with incomes at or below 130 percent of the federal poverty level are provided a breakfast and lunch at no cost to the family. Children from families with incomes between 130 and 185 percent of the federal poverty level can be charged no more than 30 cents per breakfast. A foster child whose care and placement is the responsibility of the State or who is placed by a court with a caretaker household is eligible for both a free breakfast and a free lunch. Runaway, homeless and Migrant Youth are also automatically eligible for free meals. The meals are partially funded with federal dollars through the United States Department of Agriculture. In June 2003, the USDA issued new restrictions to foods in public schools. We're Gonna Go to Burger King! The rules apply to foods and beverages sold on all public school district campuses during the day. They limit vending machine snacks to a maximum of 800 calories per item. Additionally, all snack foods sold at school must meet competitive nutrient standards, meaning they must have fruits, vegetables, dairy or VHS tapes in them or contain at least 10 percent of the daily value of fiber, calcium, potassium, and Vitamin D.

text: Derry Township School District offers a free school breakfast and free or reduced-price lunch to children in low income families. All students attending the school can eat breakfast and lunch. Children from families with incomes at or below 130 percent of the federal poverty level are provided a breakfast and lunch at no cost to the family. Children from families with incomes between 130 and 185 percent of the federal poverty level can be charged no more than 30 cents per breakfast. A foster child whose care and placement is the responsibility of the State or who is placed by a court with a caretaker household is eligible for both a free breakfast and a free lunch. Runaway, homeless and Migrant Youth are also automatically eligible for free meals. The meals are partially funded with federal dollars through the

text: United States Department of Agriculture

text: . In June 2003, the USDA issued new restrictions to foods in public schools. We're Gonna Go to

text: Burger King

text: ! The rules apply to foods and beverages sold on all public school district campuses during the day. They limit vending machine snacks to a maximum of 800 calories per item. Additionally, all snack foods sold at school must meet competitive nutrient standards, meaning they must have fruits, vegetables, dairy or

text: VHS tapes

text: in them or contain at least 10 percent of the daily value of fiber, calcium, potassium, and

text: Vitamin D

text: In 1907 a laboratory animal model which would help to isolate and identify the antiscorbutic factor was discovered: Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich, two Norwegian physicians studying shipboard beriberi in the Norwegian fishing fleet, wanted a small test mammal to substitute for the pigeons then used in beriberi research. They fed guinea pigs their test diet of grains and flour, which had earlier produced beriberi in their pigeons, and were surprised when classic scurvy resulted instead. This was a serendipitous choice of animal, as mice and rats make their own vitamin C. Until that time, scurvy had not been observed in any organism apart from humans, and had been considered an exclusively human disease. (Some birds cannot make vitamin C, but pigeons and other seed-eating birds DO make their own vitamin C.) Holst and Frølich found they could cure the disease in guinea pigs with the addition of various fresh foods and extracts. This discovery of an animal experimental model for scurvy, made even before the essential idea of vitamins in foods had even been put forward, has been called the single most important piece of vitamin C research.

text: In 1907 a laboratory animal model which would help to isolate and identify the antiscorbutic factor was discovered:

text: Axel Holst

text: and

text: Theodor Frølich

text: , two

text: Norwegian

text: physicians studying shipboard

text: beriberi

text: in the Norwegian fishing fleet, wanted a small test mammal to substitute for the

text: pigeon

text: s then used in beriberi research. They fed

text: guinea pig

text: s their test diet of grains and flour, which had earlier produced beriberi in their pigeons, and were surprised when classic scurvy resulted instead. This was a serendipitous choice of animal, as mice and rats make their own vitamin C. Until that time, scurvy had not been observed in any organism apart from humans, and had been considered an exclusively human disease. (Some birds cannot make vitamin C, but pigeons and other seed-eating birds DO make their own vitamin C.) Holst and Frølich found they could cure the disease in guinea pigs with the addition of various fresh foods and extracts. This discovery of an animal experimental model for scurvy, made even before the essential idea of vitamins in foods had even been put forward, has been called the single most important piece of vitamin C research.

text: Evert Gorter and François Grendel (Dutch physiologists) approached the discovery of our present model of the plasma membrane structure as a lipid bi-layer. They simply hypothesized that if the plasma membrane is a bi-layer, then the surface area of the mono-layer of lipids measured would be double the surface area of the plasma membrane. To examine their hypothesis, they performed an experiment in which they extracted lipids from a known number of red blood cells (erythrocytes) of different mammalian sources, such as humans, goats, sheep, etc. and then spreading the lipids as a mono-layer in a Langmuir-Blodgett trough. They measured the total surface area of the plasma membrane of red blood cells, and using Langmuir's method, they measured the area of the mono-layer of lipids. In comparing the two, they calculated an estimated ratio of 2:1 . This supported their hypothesis, which led to the conclusion that cell membranes are composed of two apposing molecular layers. The two scientists proposed a structure for this bi-layer, with the polar hydrophilic heads facing outwards towards the aqueous environment and the hydrophobic tails facing inwards away from the aqueous surroundings on both sides of the membrane. Although they arrived at the right conclusions, some of the experimental data were incorrect such as the miscalculation of the area and pressure of the lipid mono-layer and the incompleteness of lipid extraction. They also failed to describe membrane function, and had false assumptions such as that of plasma membranes consisting of mostly lipids. However, on the whole, this envisioning of the lipid bi-layer structure became the basic underlying assumption for each successive refinement in modern understanding of membrane function.

text: Evert Gorter and François Grendel (Dutch physiologists) approached the discovery of our present model of the

text: plasma membrane

text: structure as a

text: lipid bi-layer

text: . They simply hypothesized that if the plasma membrane is a bi-layer, then the

text: surface area

text: of the mono-layer of lipids measured would be double the surface area of the plasma membrane. To examine their hypothesis, they performed an experiment in which they extracted

text: lipids

text: from a known number of red blood cells (

text: erythrocytes

text: ) of different mammalian sources, such as humans, goats, sheep, etc. and then spreading the lipids as a mono-layer in a

text: Langmuir-Blodgett trough

text: . They measured the total surface area of the plasma membrane of red blood cells, and using Langmuir's method, they measured the area of the mono-layer of lipids. In comparing the two, they calculated an estimated ratio of 2:1 . This supported their hypothesis, which led to the conclusion that cell membranes are composed of two apposing molecular layers. The two scientists proposed a structure for this bi-layer, with the

text: polar

text: hydrophilic

text: heads facing outwards towards the aqueous environment and the

text: hydrophobic

text: tails facing inwards away from the aqueous surroundings on both sides of the membrane. Although they arrived at the right conclusions, some of the experimental data were incorrect such as the miscalculation of the area and pressure of the lipid mono-layer and the incompleteness of lipid extraction. They also failed to describe membrane function, and had false assumptions such as that of plasma membranes consisting of mostly lipids. However, on the whole, this envisioning of the lipid bi-layer structure became the basic underlying assumption for each successive refinement in modern understanding of membrane function.

text: Carbohydrate is one of three major macronutrients found in food. The other major macronutrients are protein and fat. Carbohydrate in its simplest form is known as glucose and can contribute to a rise in blood sugar. In people with diabetes, the body’s ability to keep blood sugar at a normal level is impaired. Dietary management of carbohydrate consumed is one tool used to help optimize blood sugar levels.

text: Carbohydrate is one of three major

text: macronutrient

text: s found in food. The other major macronutrients are protein and fat. Carbohydrate in its simplest form is known as

text: glucose

text: and can contribute to a rise in blood sugar. In people with

text: diabetes

text: , the body’s ability to keep blood sugar at a normal level is impaired. Dietary management of carbohydrate consumed is one tool used to help optimize blood sugar levels.

text: The main focus of the program was the production of biodiesel from high lipid-content algae grown in ponds, utilizing waste  from coal-fired power plants. The lipids that they are referring to are another name for Triglycerides or TAGs, which are the primary storage form of natural oils. The program looked at nutrient deficiency in algae, because they wanted to study the lipid trigger. The hypothesis was that because when the algae is nutrient starved, oil production in the cells increases, so this might affect overall productivity. However, the study found that during nutrient deficiency, rates of oil production are lower. Higher levels of oil in the cells are more than offset by lower rates of cell growth.

text: The main focus of the program was the production of biodiesel from high

text: lipid

text: -content algae grown in ponds, utilizing waste  from

text: coal

text: -fired power plants. The lipids that they are referring to are another name for

text: Triglycerides

text: or TAGs, which are the primary storage form of natural oils. The program looked at nutrient deficiency in algae, because they wanted to study the lipid trigger. The hypothesis was that because when the algae is nutrient starved, oil production in the cells increases, so this might affect overall productivity. However, the study found that during nutrient deficiency, rates of oil production are lower. Higher levels of oil in the cells are more than offset by lower rates of cell growth.

text: Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing season) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitamins ingested. However, vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive semisynthetic and synthetic-source multivitamin dietary and food supplements and additives, since the middle of the 20th century. Study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology.

text: Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast-extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing season) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitamins ingested. However, vitamins have been produced as commodity

text: chemicals

text: and made widely available as inexpensive semisynthetic and synthetic-source

text: multivitamin

text: dietary and food supplements and additives, since the middle of the 20th century. Study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology.

text: Where surface waters are poor in nutrients, nitrogen in the form of amino acids is translocated up the stipe through sieve elements that very much resemble the phloem of vascular plants. Translocation of nutrients along the stipe may be as rapid as  per hour. Most translocation occurs to move carbon-rich photosynthate, and typically transfers material from mature regions to actively growing regions where the machinery of photosynthesis is not yet fully in place. Translocation also moves nutrients downward from light-exposed surface fronds to sporophylls (reproductive fronds) at the base of the kelp, where there is little light and thus little photosynthesis to produce food.

text: Where surface waters are poor in nutrients,

text: nitrogen

text: in the form of

text: amino acid

text: s is translocated up the stipe through sieve elements that very much resemble the

text: phloem

text: of

text: vascular plant

text: s. Translocation of nutrients along the stipe may be as rapid as  per hour. Most translocation occurs to move

text: carbon

text: -rich photosynthate, and typically transfers material from mature regions to actively growing regions where the machinery of

text: photosynthesis

text: is not yet fully in place. Translocation also moves nutrients downward from light-exposed surface fronds to

text: sporophyll

text: s (reproductive fronds) at the base of the kelp, where there is little light and thus little photosynthesis to produce food.

text: The bliss point for salt, sugar, or fat is a range within which perception is that there is neither too much nor too little, but the "just right" amount of saltiness, sweetness, or richness. The human body has evolved to favor foods delivering these tastes: the brain responds with a "reward" in the form of a jolt of endorphins, remembers what we did to get that reward, and makes us want to do it again, an effect run by the neurotransmitter, dopamine. Combinations of sugar, fat, and salt act synergistically, and are more rewarding than any one alone. In food product optimization, the goal is to include two or three of these nutrients at their bliss point.

text: The bliss point for salt, sugar, or fat is a range within which perception is that there is neither too much nor too little, but the "just right" amount of saltiness, sweetness, or richness. The human body has evolved to favor foods delivering these tastes: the brain responds with a "reward" in the form of a jolt of

text: endorphin

text: s, remembers what we did to get that reward, and makes us want to do it again, an effect run by the

text: neurotransmitter

text: dopamine

text: . Combinations of sugar, fat, and salt act

text: synergistic

text: ally, and are more rewarding than any one alone. In food product optimization, the goal is to include two or three of these nutrients at their bliss point.

text: Manufacturers of foods containing wheat as a whole grain in specified amounts are allowed a health claim for marketing purposes in the United States, stating: "low fat diets rich in fiber-containing grain products, fruits, and vegetables may reduce the risk of some types of cancer, a disease associated with many factors" and "diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain some types of dietary fiber, particularly soluble fiber, may reduce the risk of heart disease, a disease associated with many factors". Dietary fiber may also help people feel full and therefore help with a healthy weight. Further, wheat is a major source for natural and biofortified nutrient supplementation, including dietary fiber, protein and dietary minerals.

text: Manufacturers of foods containing wheat as a whole grain in specified amounts are allowed a

text: health claim

text: for marketing purposes in the United States, stating: "low fat diets rich in fiber-containing grain products, fruits, and vegetables may reduce the risk of some types of

text: cancer

text: , a disease associated with many factors" and "diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain some types of dietary fiber, particularly

text: soluble fiber

text: , may reduce the risk of heart disease, a disease associated with many factors". Dietary fiber may also help people feel full and therefore help with a healthy weight. Further, wheat is a major source for natural and

text: biofortified

text: nutrient supplementation, including dietary fiber,

text: protein

text: and dietary

text: mineral

text: s.

text: The phrase is derived from nutrient density (proportion of nutrients in a food relative to its energy content), and calorie density (amount of energy relative to weight of the food). Thus empty calories are accompanied by no or few nutrients. Foods containing empty calories typically contain processed carbohydrates and ethanol (alcohol), and to some extent fats.  Also known as a discretionary calorie, an empty calorie has the same energy content as any other calorie but lacks many accompanying nutrients such as vitamins, dietary minerals, antioxidants, amino acids, or dietary fiber. Although carbohydrates and fats are nutrients, they are typically ignored for this analysis, with the exception of essential fatty acids.

text: The phrase is derived from

text: nutrient density

text: (proportion of nutrients in a food relative to its energy content), and calorie density (amount of energy relative to weight of the food). Thus empty calories are accompanied by no or few nutrients. Foods containing empty calories typically contain processed

text: carbohydrate

text: s and

text: ethanol

text: (alcohol), and to some extent

text: fat

text: s.  Also known as a discretionary calorie, an empty calorie has the same energy content as any other calorie but lacks many accompanying

text: nutrient

text: s such as

text: vitamin

text: s,

text: dietary mineral

text: s,

text: antioxidant

text: s,

text: amino acid

text: s, or

text: dietary fiber

text: . Although

text: carbohydrates

text: and fats are nutrients, they are typically ignored for this analysis, with the exception of

text: essential fatty acid

text: s.

text: The body normally gets the iron it requires from foods. If a person consumes too little iron, or iron that is poorly absorbed (non-heme iron), they can become iron deficient over time. Examples of iron-rich foods include meat, eggs, leafy green vegetables and iron-fortified foods. For proper growth and development, infants and children need iron from their diet, too.A high intake of cow’s milk is associated with an increased risk of iron deficiency anemia. Other risk factors for iron deficiency include low meat intake and low intake of iron-fortified products.

text: During the process of making flour nutrients are lost. Some of these nutrients may be replaced during refining – the result is enriched flour.

text: During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A". Thus, the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A"; however, the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D. In 1881, Russian surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy at the University of Tartu in present-day Estonia. He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life." However, his conclusions were rejected by his advisor, Gustav von Bunge, even after other students reproduced his results. A similar result by Cornelius Pekelharing appeared in a Dutch medical journal  in 1905, but it was not widely reported.

text: During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Lipid from

text: fish oil

text: was used to cure

text: rickets

text: in

text: rat

text: s, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A". Thus, the first "vitamin" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A"; however, the bioactivity of this compound is now called

text: vitamin D

text: . In 1881,

text: Russia

text: n surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy at the

text: University of Tartu

text: in present-day Estonia. He fed

text: mice

text: an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of

text: milk

text: known at that time, namely the

text: protein

text: s,

text: fat

text: s,

text: carbohydrate

text: s, and

text: salt

text: s. The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life." However, his conclusions were rejected by his advisor,

text: Gustav von Bunge

text: , even after other students reproduced his results. A similar result by

text: Cornelius Pekelharing

text: appeared in a Dutch medical journal  in 1905, but it was not widely reported.

text: Once the beetle emerges as an adult, it may take 24 to 36 hours to mature completely. The lifespan is 10 to 14 days. However, in colder climates lifespans typically range from three to four weeks. The adult requires neither food nor water, but if offered water, sugared water, or yeast, it may consume it. A female given nutrients may lay more eggs.

text: According to the World Health Organization, nutrient profiling classifies and/or ranks foods by their nutritional composition in order to promote human (and/or animal) health and to prevent disease.  Ranking by nutrient density is one such nutrient profiling strategy.  Ordering foods by nutrient density is a statistical method of comparing foods by the proportion of nutrients in foods.  Some such comparisons can be the glycemic index and the Overall Nutritional Quality Index.

text: According to the

text: World Health Organization

text: nutrient profiling

text: classifies and/or ranks foods by their nutritional composition in order to promote human (and/or animal) health and to prevent disease.  Ranking by nutrient density is one such nutrient profiling strategy.  Ordering foods by nutrient density is a statistical method of comparing foods by the proportion of nutrients in foods.  Some such comparisons can be the

text: glycemic index

text: and the

text: Overall Nutritional Quality Index

text: M. citrifolia fruit powder contains carbohydrates and dietary fibre in moderate amounts. These macronutrients evidently reside in the fruit pulp, as M. citrifolia juice has sparse nutrient content. The main micronutrients of M. citrifolia pulp powder include vitamin C, niacin (vitamin B), iron and  potassium. Vitamin A, calcium and sodium are present in moderate amounts. When M. citrifolia juice alone is analyzed and compared to pulp powder, only vitamin C is retained in an amount (34 mg per 100 gram juice) that is 64% of the content of a raw navel orange (53 mg per 100 g or 89% of the Daily Value). Sodium levels in M. citrifolia juice (about 3% of Dietary Reference Intake, DRI) are high compared to an orange, and potassium content is moderate.

text: M. citrifolia fruit powder contains

text: carbohydrates

text: and

text: dietary fibre

text: in moderate amounts. These macronutrients evidently reside in the fruit pulp, as

text: M. citrifolia juice

text: has sparse nutrient content. The main micronutrients of M. citrifolia pulp powder include

text: vitamin C

text: niacin

text: (vitamin B),

text: iron

text: and

text: potassium

text: Vitamin A

text: calcium

text: and

text: sodium

text: are present in moderate amounts. When M. citrifolia juice alone is analyzed and compared to pulp powder, only vitamin C is retained in an amount (34 mg per 100 gram juice) that is 64% of the content of a raw

text: navel orange

text: (53 mg per 100 g or 89% of the

text: Daily Value

text: ). Sodium levels in M. citrifolia juice (about 3% of

text: Dietary Reference Intake

text: , DRI) are high compared to an orange, and potassium content is moderate.

text: Normally, individuals obtain the necessary nutrients their bodies require through normal daily diets that process the foods accordingly within the body. Nevertheless, there are circumstances such as disease, distress, stress, and so on that may prevent the body from obtaining sufficient nutrients through diets alone. In such conditions, a dietary supplementation specifically formulated for their individual condition may be required to fill the void created by the specific condition. This can come in form of Medical Nutrition.

text: Generally, nutrients have more bioavailability in naturally occurring food sources. However, ascorbic acid’s bioavailability is equal in both food and supplemental sources. Therefore, while it is better to consume natural foods such as red peppers, oranges, strawberries and grapefruit, because they offer other nutrients that are likely to have a higher bioavailability, it is acceptable to consume vitamin C from a supplement and still maintain adequate intake levels.

text: Ehret believed that by using his transition diet system, any serious practitioner could move away from mucus-forming foods to non-mucus forming foods, especially using mineral-rich organic produce. However, he recommended caution and rationality during the transition program, since too rapid detoxification could lead to various illness symptoms depending on the individual's constitutional weaknesses and approach to the system. When toxemia or mucus entered the blood circulation system too quickly or where food combining was not followed, elimination of toxins and assimilation of nutrients, could be hindered. This was later affirmed by Jethro Kloss and Henry Bieler.

text: Ehret believed that by using his transition diet system, any serious practitioner could move away from mucus-forming foods to non-mucus forming foods, especially using mineral-rich organic produce. However, he recommended caution and rationality during the transition program, since too rapid detoxification could lead to various illness symptoms depending on the individual's constitutional weaknesses and approach to the system. When toxemia or mucus entered the blood circulation system too quickly or where

text: food combining

text: was not followed, elimination of toxins and assimilation of nutrients, could be hindered. This was later affirmed by Jethro Kloss and

text: Henry Bieler

text: In 2008 the Economic Research Service of the USDA issued a report entitled “The National School Lunch Program: Backgrounds, Trends, and Issues.” Authors Ralston, Newman, Clauson, Guthrie, and Buzby reaffirm one of the main goals of the NSLP as identified by Congress is to “Promote the health and well-being of the Nation’s children” (2008). However, according to their research, new challenges for meeting this goal have emerged with the increased scrutiny on USDA donated commodities high in fat such as meat, cheese, and milk as well as the emergence of “competitive foods.” The NSLP provides federal nutritional guidelines and participating schools receive USDA commodities in return. The authors of this research argue that providing USDA food subsidies high in fat contribute to childhood obesity.  While NSLP participants have higher intakes of calcium and fiber—nutrients often under consumed by children—they also have higher fat intakes (Ralston, Newman, Clauson, Guthrie, and Buzby, 2008).  Notwithstanding the higher fat intakes, study results comparing weight gain of NSLP participants with their nonparticipating counterparts are inconclusive.The authors of this research assert that another factor challenging school administrators is the emergence of “competitive foods.” Competitive foods are not included in the NSLP reimbursement plan and therefore, not required to meet USDA nutrient standards.  Competitive foods may include: food purchased off campus; a la carte items purchased on campus; food purchased in vending machines; food purchased for school fundraising; food available at school parties; treats given to students by teachers. Generally speaking, competitive foods are lower in key nutrients and higher in fat than the NSLP reimbursable meals. The availability of competitive foods in schools often undermines the nutritional goals and disrupts the effectiveness of the NSLP.

text: Nutripoints is a system for rating foods on a numerical scale for their overall nutritional value. The method is based on an analysis of 26 positive (such as vitamins, minerals, protein, fiber) and negative factors (such as cholesterol, saturated fat, sugar, sodium) compared to the calories in the food. The overall Nutripoint score of the food is the result. The higher the value, the more nutrition per calorie (nutrient density) and the least negative factors in the food. Thus, the higher the Nutripoint score, the better the food for overall health. The system rates 3600+ foods including basic foods like apples and oranges, fast-foods, and brand-name foods.

text: Fortifying basic meals with necessary nutrients can allow the foods to solve both starvation and malnutrition at the same time. The filler foods mentioned earlier are generally given to people in underdeveloped nations. Through genetic engineering, the seeds can contain certain nutrients that are also present when it grows. Although the finished product looks the same, the fortified food can give a malnourished person all the nutrients they need to get healthy.

text: Fortifying basic meals with necessary nutrients can allow the foods to solve both starvation and malnutrition at the same time. The filler foods mentioned earlier are generally given to people in underdeveloped nations. Through

text: genetic engineering

text: , the seeds can contain certain nutrients that are also present when it grows. Although the finished product looks the same, the fortified food can give a malnourished person all the nutrients they need to get healthy.

text: In 2013, the USDA issued new restrictions to foods in public schools. The rules apply to foods and beverages sold on all public school district campuses during the school day. They limit vending machine snacks to a maximum of 200 calories per item. Additionally, all snack foods sold at school must meet competitive nutrient standards, meaning they must have fruits, vegetables, dairy or protein in them or contain at least 10 percent of the daily value of fiber, calcium, potassium, and Vitamin D. The rules do not apply to fundraisers or foods sold to the public at school events.

text: In 2013, the USDA issued new restrictions to foods in public schools. The rules apply to foods and beverages sold on all public school district campuses during the school day. They limit vending machine snacks to a maximum of 200 calories per item. Additionally, all snack foods sold at school must meet competitive nutrient standards, meaning they must have fruits, vegetables, dairy or protein in them or contain at least 10 percent of the daily value of fiber, calcium, potassium, and

text: Vitamin D

text: . The rules do not apply to fundraisers or foods sold to the public at school events.

text: Like most other Proteaceae, B. epica has proteoid roots, roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation of nutrients, allowing nutrient uptake in low-nutrient soils such as the phosphorus-deficient native soils of Australia. The species lacks a lignotuber, so is thought to be killed by fire. Like most Banksia species, however, it is adapted to release its aerial seed bank following a bushfire, so populations regenerate rapidly. It is highly susceptible to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback.

text: Like most other

text: Proteaceae

text: , B. epica has

text: proteoid root

text: solubilisation

text: of

text: nutrient

text: s, allowing nutrient

text: uptake

text: in low-nutrient soils such as the

text: phosphorus

text: -deficient native soils of

text: Australia

text: . The species lacks a

text: lignotuber

text: , so is thought to be killed by fire. Like most Banksia species, however, it is adapted to release its

text: aerial seed bank

text: following a bushfire, so populations regenerate rapidly. It is highly susceptible to

text: Phytophthora cinnamomi

text: dieback.

text: Adding these foods provides additional nutrients and can prevent obesity and lipomas, as can substituting millet, which is relatively low in fat, for higher-fat seed mixes. Adult cockatiels often do not always adapt readily to dietary additions, so care must be taken to introduce healthy diets as young as possible (ideally weaned onto fresh foods before introducing chicks to seeds). Cockatiels like any other parrots learn mainly by mimicry and thus most adult cockatiels will be easily encouraged to try new foods by observing another bird eating the food, or by placing the new food on a mirror.

text: Adding these foods provides additional

text: nutrients

text: and can prevent

text: obesity

text: and

text: lipoma

text: s, as can substituting

text: millet

text: , which is relatively low in

text: fat

text: , for higher-fat seed mixes. Adult cockatiels often do not always adapt readily to dietary additions, so care must be taken to introduce healthy diets as young as possible (ideally weaned onto fresh foods before introducing chicks to seeds). Cockatiels like any other parrots learn mainly by mimicry and thus most adult cockatiels will be easily encouraged to try new foods by observing another bird eating the food, or by placing the new food on a mirror.

text: Rodents generally have well-developed senses of smell, hearing, and vision. Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to ultraviolet light. Many species have long, sensitive whiskers or vibrissae for touch or "whisking". Some rodents have cheek pouches, which may be lined with fur. These can be turned inside out for cleaning. In many species, the tongue cannot reach past the incisors. Rodents have efficient digestive systems, absorbing nearly 80% of ingested energy. When eating cellulose, the food is softened in the stomach and passed to the cecum, where bacteria reduce it to its carbohydrate elements. The rodent then practices coprophagy, eating its own fecal pellets, so the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut. Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet. In many species, the penis contains a bone, the baculum; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin.

text: Rodents generally have well-developed senses of

text: smell

text: , hearing, and vision. Nocturnal species often have enlarged eyes and some are sensitive to

text: ultraviolet

text: light. Many species have long, sensitive

text: whiskers

text: or vibrissae for touch or

text: "whisking"

text: . Some rodents have

text: cheek pouches

text: , which may be lined with fur. These can be turned inside out for cleaning. In many species, the tongue cannot reach past the incisors. Rodents have efficient digestive systems, absorbing nearly 80% of ingested energy. When eating

text: cellulose

text: , the food is softened in the stomach and passed to the

text: cecum

text: , where bacteria reduce it to its

text: carbohydrate

text: elements. The rodent then practices

text: coprophagy

text: , eating its own fecal pellets, so the nutrients can be absorbed by the gut. Rodents therefore often produce a hard and dry fecal pellet. In many species, the penis contains a bone, the

text: baculum

text: ; the testes can be located either abdominally or at the groin.

text: Proteins are not entirely rigid molecules. In addition to these levels of structure, proteins may shift between several related structures while they perform their functions. In the context of these functional rearrangements, these tertiary or quaternary structures are usually referred to as "conformations", and transitions between them are called conformational changes. Such changes are often induced by the binding of a substrate molecule to an enzyme's active site, or the physical region of the protein that participates in chemical catalysis. In solution proteins also undergo variation in structure through thermal vibration and the collision with other molecules.

text: Proteins are not entirely rigid molecules. In addition to these levels of structure, proteins may shift between several related structures while they perform their functions. In the context of these functional rearrangements, these tertiary or quaternary structures are usually referred to as "

text: conformation

text: s", and transitions between them are called conformational changes. Such changes are often induced by the binding of a

text: substrate

text: molecule to an enzyme's

text: active site

text: , or the physical region of the protein that participates in chemical catalysis. In solution proteins also undergo variation in structure through thermal vibration and the collision with other molecules.

text: Since P. camemberti is responsible for the main flavor and odor of popular cheeses, the fungus can be utilized for the flavoring of other foods, such as dry, fermented sausages. José M. Bruna and his team saw that the flavor comes from compounds produced by the fungus, such as ammonia, methyl ketones, primary and secondary alcohols, esters, and aldehydes, and decided to superficially inoculate P. camemberti on dry, fermented sausages to improve its sensory properties. P. camemberti undergoes proteolysis and lipolysis, which is the breakdown of proteins and lipids, resulting in free amino acids, free fatty acids, and volatile compounds that allow for the ripened flavor. The fungus created a mycelium, protecting the lipids within, allowing for better flavor and odor of sausages. This is the potential starter culture for dry, fermented sausages.

text: Since P. camemberti is responsible for the main flavor and odor of popular cheeses, the fungus can be utilized for the flavoring of other foods, such as dry,

text: fermented sausages

text: . José M. Bruna and his team saw that the flavor comes from compounds produced by the fungus, such as

text: ammonia

text: methyl ketone

text: s,

text: primary

text: and

text: secondary alcohol

text: s,

text: esters

text: , and

text: aldehydes

text: , and decided to superficially inoculate P. camemberti on dry, fermented sausages to improve its sensory properties. P. camemberti undergoes

text: proteolysis

text: and

text: lipolysis

text: , which is the breakdown of proteins and lipids, resulting in free

text: amino acid

text: s, free

text: fatty acid

text: s, and volatile compounds that allow for the ripened flavor. The fungus created a

text: mycelium

text: , protecting the lipids within, allowing for better flavor and odor of sausages. This is the potential starter culture for dry, fermented sausages.

text: Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes both internal and external, such as the cell membrane, or as a source of energy. Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules but will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform. The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is called a triacylglyceride. Several variations on this basic structure exist, including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate as in phospholipids. Steroids such as cholesterol are another major class of lipids.

text: Lipid

text: s are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of

text: biological membrane

text: s both internal and external, such as the

text: cell membrane

text: , or as a source of energy. Lipids are usually defined as

text: hydrophobic

text: or

text: amphipathic

text: biological molecules but will dissolve in

text: organic solvent

text: s such as

text: benzene

text: or

text: chloroform

text: . The

text: fat

text: s are a large group of compounds that contain

text: fatty acid

text: s and

text: glycerol

text: ; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid

text: ester

text: s is called a

text: triacylglyceride

text: . Several variations on this basic structure exist, including alternate backbones such as

text: sphingosine

text: in the

text: sphingolipid

text: s, and

text: hydrophilic

text: groups such as

text: phosphate

text: as in

text: phospholipid

text: s.

text: Steroid

text: s such as

text: cholesterol

text: are another major class of lipids.

text: P. polycephalum have also been shown to dynamically re-allocate to apparently maintain constant levels of different nutrients simultaneously. In particular, specimen placed at the center of a petri dish spatially re-allocated over combinations of food sources that each had different protein–carbohydrate ratios. After 60 hours, the slime mould area over each food source was measured. For each specimen, the results were consistent with the hypothesis that the amoeba would balance total protein and carbohydrate intake to reach particular levels that were invariant to the actual ratios presented to the slime mould.

text: P. polycephalum have also been shown to dynamically re-allocate to apparently maintain constant levels of different nutrients simultaneously. In particular, specimen placed at the center of a

text: petri dish

text: spatially re-allocated over combinations of food sources that each had different

text: protein

text: carbohydrate

text: ratios. After 60 hours, the slime mould area over each food source was measured. For each specimen, the results were consistent with the hypothesis that the amoeba would balance total protein and carbohydrate intake to reach particular levels that were invariant to the actual ratios presented to the slime mould.

text: Yet another example is the community of micro-organisms in soil that live off leaf litter. Leaves typically last one year and are then replaced by new ones. These micro-organisms mineralize the discarded leaves and release nutrients that are taken up by the plant. Such relationships are called reciprocal syntrophy because the plant lives off the products of micro-organisms. Many symbiotic relationships are based on syntrophy.

text: Yet another example is the community of micro-organisms in soil that live off leaf litter. Leaves typically last one year and are then replaced by new ones. These micro-organisms mineralize the discarded leaves and release nutrients that are taken up by the plant. Such relationships are called reciprocal syntrophy because the plant lives off the products of micro-organisms. Many

text: symbiotic

text: relationships are based on syntrophy.

text: Chickpeas are a nutrient-dense food, providing rich content (20% or higher of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fibre, folate, and certain dietary minerals such as iron and phosphorus. Thiamin, vitamin B, magnesium, and zinc contents are moderate, providing 10-16% of the DV. Chickpeas have a Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score of about 0.76, which is higher than many other legumes and cereals.

text: Chickpeas are a nutrient-dense food, providing rich content (20% or higher of the

text: Daily Value

text: , DV) of

text: protein

text: dietary fibre

text: folate

text: , and certain

text: dietary minerals

text: such as

text: iron

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: Thiamin

text: vitamin B

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: zinc

text: contents are moderate, providing 10-16% of the DV. Chickpeas have a

text: Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score

text: of about 0.76, which is higher than many other legumes and cereals.

text: "Carbohydrate", "glycan", "saccharide", and "sugar" are generic terms used interchangeably in this context and includes monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and derivatives of these compounds. Carbohydrates consist of “hydrated carbon”, i.e. [CHO]n. Monosaccharides are a carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler carbohydrate and are the building blocks of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Oligosaccharides are linear or branched chains of monosaccharides attached to one another via glycosidic linkages. The number of monosaccharide units can vary. Polysaccharides are glycans composed of repeating monosaccharides, generally greater than ten monosaccharide units in length.

text: Carbohydrate

text: glycan

text: saccharide

text: ", and "

text: sugar

text: " are generic terms used interchangeably in this context and includes

text: monosaccharide

text: s,

text: oligosaccharide

text: s,

text: polysaccharide

text: s, and derivatives of these compounds. Carbohydrates consist of “hydrated carbon”, i.e. [CHO]n. Monosaccharides are a carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler carbohydrate and are the building blocks of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Oligosaccharides are linear or branched chains of monosaccharides attached to one another via glycosidic linkages. The number of monosaccharide units can vary. Polysaccharides are glycans composed of repeating monosaccharides, generally greater than ten monosaccharide units in length.

text: Digestion begins in the mouth with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a bolus by the mechanical mastication and swallowed into the esophagus from where it enters the stomach through the action of peristalsis. Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin which would damage the walls of the stomach and mucus is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the duodenum as a thick semi-liquid chyme. In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.  The intestinal walls are lined with villi, and their epithelial cells is covered with numerous microvilli to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the surface area of the intestine.

text: Digestion begins in the

text: mouth

text: with the secretion of saliva and its digestive enzymes. Food is formed into a

text: bolus

text: by the mechanical

text: mastication

text: and

text: swallowed

text: into the

text: esophagus

text: from where it enters the

text: stomach

text: through the action of

text: peristalsis

text: Gastric juice

text: contains

text: hydrochloric acid

text: and

text: pepsin

text: which would damage the walls of the stomach and

text: mucus

text: is secreted for protection. In the stomach further release of enzymes break down the food further and this is combined with the churning action of the stomach. The partially digested food enters the

text: duodenum

text: as a thick semi-liquid

text: chyme

text: . In the small intestine, the larger part of digestion takes place and this is helped by the secretions of

text: bile

text: pancreatic juice

text: and

text: intestinal juice

text: .  The intestinal walls are lined with

text: villi

text: , and their

text: epithelial cells

text: is covered with numerous

text: microvilli

text: to improve the absorption of nutrients by increasing the

text: surface area

text: of the intestine.

text: Spada's research on endurance sports nutrition (2000) and where the types of carbohydrates come from will be explained. He advises for carbohydrates to be unprocessed and/or whole grains for optimal performance while training. These carbohydrates offer the most fuel, nutritional value, and satiety. Fruits and vegetables contribute important carbohydrate foundation for an athlete's diet. They provide vitamins and minerals that are lost through exercise and later needed to be replenished. Both fruits and vegetables improve healing, aid in recovery, and reduce risks of cancer, high blood pressure, and constipation. Vegetables offer a little more nutritional value than fruits for the amount of calories, therefore an athlete should strive to eat more vegetables than fruits. Dark-colored vegetables usually have more nutritional value than pale colored ones.(add info) A general rule is the darker the color the more nutrient dense it is. Like all foods, it is very important to have a variety. To get the most nutritional value out of fruits and vegetables it is important to eat them in their natural, unprocessed form with no other nutrient (sugar) added.

text: Vitamins are materials required for normal metabolism but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium and sulfur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking. The bioavailability of some vitamins such as thiamin, vitamin B6, niacin, folate, and carotenoids are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure.  Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.

text: Vitamins are materials required for normal

text: metabolism

text: but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (

text: Vitamin C

text: ), carrots,

text: liver

text: Vitamin A

text: ), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (

text: Vitamin D

text: ) and fresh green vegetables (

text: Vitamin K

text: ). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron,

text: calcium

text: magnesium

text: and

text: sulfur

text: ; and in very small quantities copper,

text: zinc

text: and

text: selenium

text: . The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking. The bioavailability of some vitamins such as

text: thiamin

text: vitamin B6

text: niacin

text: folate

text: , and

text: carotenoid

text: s are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure.  Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.

text: The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water.  For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter.  To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.  Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling.  To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

text: The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water.  For example, many

text: farm

text: s require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter.  To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time.  Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a

text: power plant

text: that requires water for cooling.  To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

text: Malnutrition or malnourishment is a condition that results from eating a diet in which nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems. It may involve calories, protein, carbohydrates, vitamins or minerals. Not enough nutrients is called undernutrition or undernourishment while too much is called overnutrition. Malnutrition is often used specifically to refer to undernutrition where there is not enough calories, protein, or micronutrients. If undernutrition occurs during pregnancy, or before two years of age, it may result in permanent problems with physical and mental development. Extreme undernourishment, known as starvation, may have symptoms that include: a short height, thin body, very poor energy levels, and swollen legs and abdomen. People also often get infections and are frequently cold. The symptoms of micronutrient deficiencies depend on the micronutrient that is lacking.

text: Malnutrition or malnourishment is a condition that results from eating a

text: diet

text: in which

text: nutrient

text: s are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems. It may involve

text: calories

text: protein

text: carbohydrates

text: vitamin

text: s or

text: mineral

text: s. Not enough nutrients is called undernutrition or undernourishment while too much is called

text: overnutrition

text: . Malnutrition is often used specifically to refer to undernutrition where there is not enough calories, protein, or

text: micronutrients

text: . If undernutrition occurs during

text: pregnancy

text: , or before two years of age, it may result in permanent problems with physical and mental development. Extreme undernourishment, known as

text: starvation

text: , may have symptoms that include: a short height, thin body, very poor energy levels, and swollen legs and

text: abdomen

text: . People also often get infections and are frequently

text: cold

text: . The symptoms of

text: micronutrient deficiencies

text: depend on the micronutrient that is lacking.

text: Urine contains most (94% according to Wolgast) of the NPK nutrients excreted by the human body. The more general limitations to using urine as fertiliser depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen (due to the high ratio of that macronutrient), and inorganic salts such as sodium chloride, which are also part of the wastes excreted by the renal system. The degree to which these factors impact the effectiveness depends on the term of use, salinity tolerance of the plant, soil composition, addition of other fertilising compounds, and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation.

text: Urine contains most (94% according to Wolgast) of the

text: NPK

text: nutrients excreted by the human body. The more general limitations to using urine as fertiliser depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen (due to the high ratio of that macronutrient), and inorganic

text: salt

text: s such as

text: sodium chloride

text: , which are also part of the wastes excreted by the

text: renal system

text: . The degree to which these factors impact the effectiveness depends on the term of use, salinity tolerance of the plant, soil composition, addition of other fertilising compounds, and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation.

text: In his testimony before the Subcommittee on Elementary, Secondary, and Vocational Education of the Committee on Education and Labor of the U.S. House of Representatives, G. William Hoagland, administrator of the Food and Nutrition Service, defended these changes and contended that despite reduced quantities, such meals would "continue to be excellent nutrient sources". Hoagland explained that caloric intake would be reduced by four percent (from 21 percent to 17 percent), but certain meal components surpassed existing RDA requirements: protein and niacin met half of RDA; vitamin A, riboflavin, vitamin B-12 exceed one third of RDA; and calcium and vitamin C met the one third requirement.

text: There are many types of hydroponic systems. If the nutrient solution floods the loose growing medium and recedes for aeration, this is an ebb and flow or flood and drain system. Systems that gradually drip solution onto the medium are drip systems. Systems that intermittently spray roots floating in air are called aeroponic systems. If aerated water runs down a channel lined with a film of rooting medium, this is a nutrient film technique system. A series of tubes intermittently running high flow nutrient solution into the tops of growing containers use a top feed system. Aquaponics, another growing method that is gaining popularity, employs the use of fish water and recirculates that water from the fish holding tank to the growing bed.

text: There are many types of hydroponic systems. If the nutrient solution floods the loose growing medium and recedes for aeration, this is an ebb and flow or flood and drain system. Systems that gradually drip solution onto the medium are drip systems. Systems that intermittently spray roots floating in air are called

text: aeroponic

text: systems. If

text: aerated

text: water runs down a channel lined with a film of rooting medium, this is a nutrient film technique system. A series of tubes intermittently running high flow nutrient solution into the tops of growing containers use a top feed system. Aquaponics, another growing method that is gaining popularity, employs the use of fish water and recirculates that water from the fish holding tank to the growing bed.

text: Glycemic load of a serving of food can be calculated as its carbohydrate content measured in grams (g), multiplied by the food's GI, and divided by 100. For example, watermelon has a GI of 72. A 100 g serving of watermelon has 5 g of available carbohydrates (it contains a lot of water), making the calculation 5 × 72/100=3.6, so the GL is 3.6. A food with a GI of 100 and 10 g of available carbohydrates has a GL of 10 (10 × 100/100=10), while a food with 100 g of carbohydrate and a GI of just 10 also has a GL of 10 (100 × 10/100=10).

text: In any case, the simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g. fructose) raise blood glucose slowly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), especially if processed, raise blood sugar rapidly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate.

text: In any case, the simple vs. complex chemical distinction has little value for determining the nutritional quality of carbohydrates. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g.

text: fructose

text: ) raise blood glucose slowly, while some complex carbohydrates (starches), especially if processed, raise blood sugar rapidly. The speed of digestion is determined by a variety of factors including which other nutrients are consumed with the carbohydrate, how the food is prepared, individual differences in metabolism, and the chemistry of the carbohydrate.

text: Macronutrient Distribution of the TLC Diet

text: Typical Maximum Nutrient Losses (as compared to raw food)

text: Nutritionists often refer to carbohydrates as either simple or complex. However, the exact distinction between these groups can be ambiguous. The term complex carbohydrate was first used in the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior). However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. This confusion persists as today some nutritionists use the term complex carbohydrate to refer to any sort of digestible saccharide present in a whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients). The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and complex if they are polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides).

text: Nutritionists often refer to carbohydrates as either simple or complex. However, the exact distinction between these groups can be ambiguous. The term complex carbohydrate was first used in the

entity_name: United States Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs

text: U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs

text: publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977) where it was intended to distinguish sugars from other carbohydrates (which were perceived to be nutritionally superior). However, the report put "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains" in the complex carbohydrate column, despite the fact that these may contain sugars as well as polysaccharides. This confusion persists as today some nutritionists use the term complex carbohydrate to refer to any sort of digestible saccharide present in a whole food, where fiber, vitamins and minerals are also found (as opposed to processed carbohydrates, which provide energy but few other nutrients). The standard usage, however, is to classify carbohydrates chemically: simple if they are sugars (

text: monosaccharide

text: s and

text: disaccharide

text: s) and complex if they are

text: polysaccharide

text: s (or

text: oligosaccharide

text: s).

text: In 2002 Lonsdale caused controversy when he linked child violence (children killing other children) to dietary deficiencies rather than the accepted social causes. Lonsdale put this down to 'high calorie malnutrition' where children overeat high calories foods that lack vital nutrients resulting in an upset to 'brain balance'. He pointed the finger at a range of 'normal' foods as well as generally accepted junk foods.

text: To establish substantial equivalence, the modified product is tested by the manufacturer for unexpected changes to a targeted set of components such as toxins, nutrients, or allergens, that are present in a similar unmodified food.  The manufacturer's data is then assessed by a regulatory agency. If regulators determine that there is no significant difference between the modified and unmodified products, then there will generally be no further requirement for food safety testing. However, if the product has no natural equivalent, or shows significant differences from the unmodified food, or for other reasons that regulators may have (for instance, if a gene produces a protein that has not been a food component before), further safety testing may be required.

text: To establish substantial equivalence, the modified product is tested by the manufacturer for unexpected changes to a targeted set of components such as

text: toxin

text: s,

text: nutrient

text: s, or

text: allergen

text: s, that are present in a similar unmodified food.  The manufacturer's data is then assessed by a regulatory agency. If regulators determine that there is no significant difference between the modified and unmodified products, then there will generally be no further requirement for food safety testing. However, if the product has no natural equivalent, or shows significant differences from the unmodified food, or for other reasons that regulators may have (for instance, if a

text: gene

text: produces a protein that has not been a food component before), further safety testing may be required.

text: Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. Green plants obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of photosynthesis. Each of these nutrients is used in a different place for a different essential function.

text: Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil.

text: Green plants

text: obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of

text: photosynthesis

text: . Each of these nutrients is used in a different place for a different essential function.

text: In addition to the basic soil testing, micro nutrient analysis is also becoming increasingly important, especially since many soils in India are found to be deficient in one or more of the micro nutrients. Availability of micronutrients in the right proportion in the soil ensures higher productivity of farming. RCF’s Trombay laboratory is engaged in the analysis of micronutrients. This analysis is done at a nominal rate of Rs. 80/- per sample.

text: A variety of nutrient cycles are important in the aquarium. Dissolved oxygen enters at the surface water-air interface through agitation or what would be observed as waves in a natural environment, and Carbon dioxide escapes into the air. The phosphate cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle. Sulfur, iron, and micronutrients enter the system as food and exit as waste. Appropriate handling of the nitrogen cycle, along with a balanced food supply and consideration of biological loading, is usually enough to keep these nutrient cycles in adequate equilibrium.

text: A variety of

text: nutrient cycles

text: are important in the aquarium.

text: Dissolved oxygen

text: enters at the surface water-air interface through agitation or what would be observed as

text: waves

text: in a natural environment, and

text: Carbon dioxide

text: escapes into the air. The

text: phosphate

text: cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle.

text: Sulfur

text: iron

text: , and

text: micronutrient

text: s enter the system as food and exit as waste. Appropriate handling of the

text: nitrogen cycle

text: , along with a balanced food supply and consideration of biological loading, is usually enough to keep these nutrient cycles in adequate equilibrium.

text: Myrmecochory, literally translated as "ant-dispersal," is the collection and dispersal of seeds by ants.  Ants disperse more than 30% of the spring-flowering herbaceous plants in eastern North America.  Both the plant and the ant benefit in this scenario.  The ants are provided with an elaiosome, a detachable food body found on the surface of the seed.  Elaiosomes have diverse compositions, usually high in lipids and fatty acids, but also containing amino acids, sugars, and protein.  The ants remove the elaiosome once the seed has been transported to the colony.  As a result, the seeds are safely placed in nutrient-rich substrate protected from predators, benefiting the plant with optimum establishment conditions for its seed.

text: Myrmecochory

text: , literally translated as "ant-dispersal," is the collection and dispersal of

text: seeds

text: by ants.  Ants disperse more than 30% of the spring-flowering

text: herbaceous plants

text: in eastern

text: North America

text: .  Both the plant and the ant benefit in this scenario.  The ants are provided with an

text: elaiosome

text: , a detachable food body found on the surface of the seed.  Elaiosomes have diverse compositions, usually high in

text: lipids

text: and

text: fatty acids

text: , but also containing

text: amino acids

text: sugars

text: , and

text: protein

text: .  The ants remove the elaiosome once the seed has been transported to the

text: colony

text: .  As a result, the seeds are safely placed in nutrient-rich substrate protected from

text: predator

text: s, benefiting the plant with optimum establishment conditions for its seed.

text: Orthomolecular therapies have been criticized as lacking a sufficient evidence base for clinical use: their scientific foundations are too weak, the studies that have been performed are too few and too open to interpretation, and reported positive findings in observational studies are contradicted by the results of more rigorous clinical trials. Accordingly, "there is no evidence that orthomolecular medicine is effective". Proponents of orthomolecular medicine strongly dispute this statement by citing studies demonstrating the effectiveness of treatments involving vitamins, though this ignores the belief that a normal diet will provide adequate nutrients to avoid deficiencies, and that orthomolecular treatments are not actually related to vitamin deficiency. The lack of scientifically rigorous testing of orthomolecular medicine has led to its practices being classed with other forms of alternative medicine and regarded as unscientific. It has been described as food faddism and quackery, with critics arguing that it is based upon an "exaggerated belief in the effects of nutrition upon health and disease." Orthomolecular practitioners will often use dubious diagnostic methods to define what substances are "correct"; one example is hair analysis, which produces spurious results when used in this fashion.

text: Orthomolecular therapies have been criticized as lacking a sufficient evidence base for clinical use: their scientific foundations are too weak, the studies that have been performed are too few and too open to interpretation, and reported positive findings in observational studies are contradicted by the results of more rigorous clinical trials. Accordingly, "there is no evidence that orthomolecular medicine is effective". Proponents of orthomolecular medicine strongly dispute this statement by citing studies demonstrating the effectiveness of treatments involving vitamins, though this ignores the belief that a normal diet will provide adequate nutrients to avoid deficiencies, and that orthomolecular treatments are not actually related to

text: vitamin deficiency

text: . The lack of scientifically rigorous testing of orthomolecular medicine has led to its practices being classed with other forms of alternative medicine and regarded as unscientific. It has been described as

text: food faddism

text: and

text: quackery

text: , with critics arguing that it is based upon an "exaggerated belief in the effects of nutrition upon health and disease." Orthomolecular practitioners will often use dubious diagnostic methods to define what substances are "correct"; one example is

text: hair analysis

text: , which produces spurious results when used in this fashion.

text: The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, Plathelminthes, or platyhelminths (from the Greek πλατύ, platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meaning "worm") are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmented, soft-bodied invertebrates. Unlike other bilaterians, they are acoelomates (having no body cavity), and have no specialized circulatory and respiratory organs, which restricts them to having flattened shapes that allow oxygen and nutrients to pass through their bodies by diffusion. The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion (intake of nutrients) and egestion (removal of undigested wastes); as a result, the food cannot be processed continuously.

text: The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, Plathelminthes, or platyhelminths (from the

text: Greek

text: πλατύ, platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meaning "worm") are a

text: phylum

text: of relatively simple

text: bilaterian

text: unsegmented

text: , soft-bodied

text: invertebrate

text: s. Unlike other bilaterians, they are

text: acoelomate

text: s (having no

text: body cavity

text: ), and have no specialized

text: circulatory

text: and

text: respiratory

text: organ

text: s, which restricts them to having flattened shapes that allow

text: oxygen

text: and nutrients to pass through their bodies by

text: diffusion

text: . The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion (intake of nutrients) and egestion (removal of undigested wastes); as a result, the food cannot be processed continuously.

text: Dozens of people from Copiapó, Chile, work in the San José mine. The owner ignores the warnings of the failing stability of the mine, which collapses a short time later. The only path inside the mine is completely blocked, and the thirty-three miners manage to get to the rescue chamber. They discover that the radio is useless, the medical kit is empty, the ventilation shafts lack the required ladders, and there is very little stored food. Mario Sepúlveda becomes the leader of the miners, dividing the foods rations and stopping the outbursts of violence and despair. The mine company does not attempt any rescue, and the relatives of the miners gather around the gates.

text: Dozens of people from

text: Copiapó

text: Chile

text: , work in the

text: San José mine

text: . The owner ignores the warnings of the failing stability of the mine, which collapses a short time later. The only path inside the mine is completely blocked, and the thirty-three miners manage to get to the rescue chamber. They discover that the radio is useless, the medical kit is empty, the ventilation shafts lack the required ladders, and there is very little stored food. Mario Sepúlveda becomes the leader of the miners, dividing the foods rations and stopping the outbursts of violence and despair. The mine company does not attempt any rescue, and the relatives of the miners gather around the gates.

text: Autotrophs are fundamental to the food chains of all ecosystems in the world. They take energy from the environment in the form of sunlight or inorganic chemicals and use it to create energy-rich molecules such as carbohydrates. This mechanism is called primary production. Other organisms, called heterotrophs, take in autotrophs as food to carry out functions necessary for their life. Thus, heterotrophs — all animals, almost all fungi, as well as most bacteria and protozoa — depend on autotrophs, or primary producers, for the energy and raw materials they need. Heterotrophs obtain energy by breaking down organic molecules (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) obtained in food. Carnivorous organisms rely on autotrophs indirectly, as the nutrients obtained from their heterotroph prey come from autotrophs they have consumed.

text: Autotrophs are fundamental to the food chains of all

text: ecosystem

text: s in the world. They take energy from the environment in the form of sunlight or inorganic chemicals and use it to create energy-rich molecules such as carbohydrates. This mechanism is called

text: primary production

text: . Other organisms, called

text: heterotroph

text: s, take in autotrophs as

text: food

text: to carry out functions necessary for their life. Thus, heterotrophs — all

text: animal

text: s, almost all

text: fungi

text: , as well as most

text: bacteria

text: and

text: protozoa

text: — depend on autotrophs, or

text: primary producer

text: s, for the energy and raw materials they need.

text: Heterotrophs

text: obtain energy by breaking down organic molecules (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) obtained in food.

text: Carnivorous

text: organisms rely on autotrophs indirectly, as the

text: nutrient

text: s obtained from their heterotroph prey come from autotrophs they have consumed.

text: There are 5 milligrams of caffeine in each mini carton of chocolate milk. Chocolate has oxalic acid, which reacts with the calcium in the milk producing calcium oxalate, thus preventing the calcium from being absorbed in the intestine.  However, it is present in small enough amounts that the effect on calcium absorption is negligible. As chocolate contains relatively small amounts of oxalate, it is unclear to what extent chocolate consumption affects healthy people with calcium-rich diets. Chocolate milk contains 9 essential nutrients, B vitamins for energy to get you going, and the combination of five bone building nutrients-calcium, Vitamin D, phosphorus, protein and potassium. Without these nutrients your body cannot replace necessary electrolytes, which are commonly lost during exercise, repair muscles, refuel the body, nor rehydrate the body.

text: There are 5 milligrams of

text: caffeine

text: in each mini carton of chocolate milk. Chocolate has

text: oxalic acid

text: , which reacts with the

text: calcium

text: in the milk producing

text: calcium oxalate

text: , thus preventing the calcium from being absorbed in the intestine.  However, it is present in small enough amounts that the effect on calcium absorption is negligible. As chocolate contains relatively small amounts of oxalate, it is unclear to what extent chocolate consumption affects healthy people with calcium-rich diets. Chocolate milk contains 9 essential nutrients, B vitamins for energy to get you going, and the combination of five bone building nutrients-calcium, Vitamin D, phosphorus, protein and potassium. Without these nutrients your body cannot replace necessary electrolytes, which are commonly lost during exercise, repair muscles, refuel the body, nor rehydrate the body.

text: Most minerals are inorganic in nature. Mineral nutrients refers to the smaller class of minerals that are metabolized for growth, development, and vitality of living organisms. Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria that are freely suspended in the vast water columns of the worlds oceans. They absorb dissolved organic matter containing mineral nutrients as they scavenge through the dying individuals that fall out of large phytoplankton blooms. Flagellates are effective bacteriovores and are also commonly found in the marine water column. The flagellates are preyed upon by zooplankton while the phytoplankton concentrates on the larger particulate matter that is suspended in the water column as they are consumed by larger zooplankton, with fish as the top predator. Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton which are then eaten by fish. The bacteria are important in this chain because only they have the physiological ability to absorb the dissolved mineral nutrients from the sea. These recycling principals from marine environments apply to many soil and freshwater ecosystems as well. In terrestrial ecosystems, fungi play similar roles as bacteria: they mobilize nutritional elements composing matter that is inaccessible for other organisms and transport acquired nutrients to nutritionally scarce patches of ecosystem.

text: Most minerals are inorganic in nature. Mineral nutrients refers to the smaller class of

text: minerals

text: that are

text: metabolized

text: for growth, development, and vitality of living organisms. Mineral nutrients are

text: recycled

text: by

text: bacteria

text: that are freely suspended in the vast water columns of the worlds oceans. They absorb dissolved organic matter containing mineral nutrients as they scavenge through the dying individuals that fall out of large phytoplankton blooms.

text: Flagellates

text: are effective

text: bacteriovores

text: and are also commonly found in the marine water column. The flagellates are preyed upon by

text: zooplankton

text: while the

text: phytoplankton

text: concentrates on the larger

text: particulate matter

text: that is suspended in the water column as they are

text: consumed

text: by larger zooplankton, with fish as the

text: top predator

text: . Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine

text: food chain

text: , from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton which are then eaten by fish. The bacteria are important in this chain because only they have the physiological ability to absorb the dissolved mineral nutrients from the sea. These recycling principals from marine environments apply to many soil and freshwater ecosystems as well. In

text: terrestrial ecosystems

text: fungi

text: play similar roles as

text: bacteria

text: : they mobilize nutritional elements composing matter that is inaccessible for other organisms and transport acquired nutrients to nutritionally scarce patches of

text: ecosystem

text: Nadkarni's interest was first drawn to rain forest ecology due to the contradiction offered by its plant life.  There was a great abundance and variety of plant life within the rain forest despite its nutrient poor soil, and her goal was to discover how the plant life was sustained.  Her studies within the canopy revealed that the epiphytes, which are non-parasitic plants such as orchids and ferns that live on the branches and trunks of other plants, were trapping organic material beneath their root system.  This organic material eventually formed a nutrient rich mat, and trees in the rain forest had developed aerial roots, stemming from their trunks and branches, in order to absorb these nutrients as well. The aerial roots growing into the mats aided the rain forest trees by providing the nourishment that they did not receive from the nutrient poor soil.

text: Nadkarni's interest was first drawn to

text: rain forest ecology

text: due to the contradiction offered by its plant life.  There was a great abundance and variety of plant life within the rain forest despite its nutrient poor soil, and her goal was to discover how the plant life was sustained.  Her studies within the canopy revealed that the

text: epiphyte

text: s, which are non-parasitic plants such as

text: orchid

text: s and

text: fern

text: s that live on the branches and trunks of other plants, were trapping organic material beneath their root system.  This organic material eventually formed a nutrient rich mat, and trees in the rain forest had developed aerial roots, stemming from their trunks and branches, in order to absorb these nutrients as well. The aerial roots growing into the mats aided the rain forest trees by providing the nourishment that they did not receive from the nutrient poor soil.

text: Polyunsaturated aldehydes are oxylipins that are formed from lipids (specifically the fatty acid portion of lipids) when diatoms are exposed to environmental stresses. Stresses can include nutrient limitations, grazing by predators, and wounding.

text: Polyunsaturated

text: aldehydes are

text: oxylipins

text: that are formed from

text: lipids

text: (specifically the

text: fatty acid

text: portion of lipids) when diatoms are exposed to

text: environmental stresses

text: . Stresses can include

text: nutrient

text: limitations,

text: grazing

text: by predators, and

text: wounding

text: Variations in primary production in the NPSG can significantly affect nutrient cycling, food-web dynamics, and global elemental fluxes. The size distribution of pelagic primary producers determines both the composition and magnitude of the exported nutrients to the deeper waters. This in turn affects the communities that live in the deeper waters of this system.

text: Variations in primary production in the NPSG can significantly affect nutrient cycling,

text: food-web

text: dynamics, and global elemental fluxes. The size distribution of pelagic primary producers determines both the composition and magnitude of the exported nutrients to the deeper waters. This in turn affects the communities that live in the deeper waters of this system.

text: The resulting knowledge base will hopefully lead to the development of improved hybrids of rice strains with higher yield, greater disease and pest resistance, and a full range of bioavailable nutrients. This knowledge can also be extended to other food crops such as wheat and maize.

text: The resulting knowledge base will hopefully lead to the development of improved

text: hybrids

text: of rice strains with higher yield, greater disease and pest resistance, and a full range of bioavailable nutrients. This knowledge can also be extended to other food crops such as

text: wheat

text: and

text: maize

text: Agronomists study sustainable ways to make soils more productive and profitable. They classify soils and analyze them to determine whether they contain nutrients vital to plant growth. Common macronutrients analyzed include compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Soil is also assessed for several micronutrients, like zinc and boron. The percentage of organic matter, soil pH, and nutrient holding capacity (cation exchange capacity) are tested in a regional laboratory. Agronomists will interpret these lab reports and make recommendations to balance soil nutrients for optimal plant growth.

text: Agronomists study sustainable ways to make

text: soil

text: s more productive and profitable. They classify soils and analyze them to determine whether they contain nutrients vital to plant growth. Common macronutrients analyzed include compounds of

text: nitrogen

text: phosphorus

text: potassium

text: calcium

text: magnesium

text: , and

text: sulfur

text: . Soil is also assessed for several micronutrients, like

text: zinc

text: and

text: boron

text: . The percentage of organic matter, soil

text: pH

text: , and nutrient holding capacity (

text: cation exchange capacity

text: ) are tested in a regional laboratory. Agronomists will interpret these lab reports and make recommendations to balance soil nutrients for optimal plant growth.

text: In underdeveloped countries where clean water and formula are not available, breastfeeding is encouraged to provide the child with adequate food and nutrients. The benefit of nourishment outweighs the risk of HIV transmission, malnutrition, and other infections and so breastfeeding is acceptable.

text: A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of living matter. The process is regulated by food web pathways that decompose matter into mineral nutrients. Nutrient cycles occur within ecosystems. Ecosystems are interconnected systems where matter and energy flows and is exchanged as organisms feed, digest, and migrate about. Minerals and nutrients accumulate in varied densities and uneven configurations across the planet. Ecosystems recycle locally, converting mineral nutrients into the production of biomass, and on a larger scale they participate in a global system of inputs and outputs where matter is exchanged and transported through a larger system of biogeochemical cycles.

text: A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange of

text: organic

text: and

text: inorganic

text: matter back into the

text: production

text: of living matter. The process is regulated by

text: food web

text: pathways that

text: decompose

text: matter into

text: mineral nutrients

text: . Nutrient cycles occur within ecosystems. Ecosystems are interconnected systems where matter and energy flows and is exchanged as organisms feed, digest, and migrate about. Minerals and nutrients accumulate in varied densities and uneven configurations across the planet. Ecosystems recycle locally, converting mineral nutrients into the production of

text: biomass

text: , and on a larger scale they participate in a global system of inputs and outputs where matter is exchanged and transported through a larger system of

text: biogeochemical cycles

text: Other possible solutions are the industrial enrichment of food or biofortification of feedplants (e.g. vitamin A rich sweet potatoes).In the case of acute nutrient deficiency and in specific life phases, food supplements can be used. In particular, the addition of vitamin A leads to a better child survival rate.

text: Other possible solutions are the

text: industrial enrichment

text: of food or

text: biofortification

text: of feedplants (e.g. vitamin A rich sweet potatoes).In the case of acute nutrient deficiency and in specific life phases, food supplements can be used. In particular, the addition of vitamin A leads to a better child survival rate.

text: In 2013, the USDA issued new restrictions to foods in public schools. The rules apply to foods and beverages sold on all public school district campuses during the day. They limit vending machine snacks to a maximum of 200 calories per item. Additionally, all snack foods sold at school must meet competitive nutrient standards, meaning they must have fruits, vegetables, dairy or protein in them or contain at least 10 percent of the daily value of fiber, calcium, potassium, and Vitamin D. In order to comply with the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 all US public school districts are required to raise the price of their school lunches to $2.60 regardless of the actual cost of providing the lunch. The Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 mandates that Districts raise their full pay lunch prices every year until the price of non-subsidized lunches equals the amount the federal government reimburses schools for free meals. That subsidy in 2013-2014 was $2.93. In 2015, federal reimbursement rates were: $3.07 per meal for students who are income-eligible for free lunches and $2.67 for those who qualify for a reduced price. School lunch participation nationally dropped from 31.6 million students in 2012 to 30.4 million in 2014, according to the federal Department of Agriculture. Pennsylvania statistics show school lunch participation dropped by 86,950 students in the same two years, from 1,127,444 in 2012 to 1,040,494 in 2014.

text: In 2013, the USDA issued new restrictions to foods in public schools. The rules apply to foods and beverages sold on all public school district campuses during the day. They limit vending machine snacks to a maximum of 200 calories per item. Additionally, all snack foods sold at school must meet competitive nutrient standards, meaning they must have fruits, vegetables, dairy or protein in them or contain at least 10 percent of the daily value of fiber, calcium, potassium, and

text: Vitamin D

text: . In order to comply with the

text: Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010

text: all US public school districts are required to raise the price of their school lunches to $2.60 regardless of the actual cost of providing the lunch. The Healthy Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 mandates that Districts raise their full pay lunch prices every year until the price of non-subsidized lunches equals the amount the federal government reimburses schools for free meals. That subsidy in 2013-2014 was $2.93. In 2015, federal reimbursement rates were: $3.07 per meal for students who are income-eligible for free lunches and $2.67 for those who qualify for a reduced price. School lunch participation nationally dropped from 31.6 million students in 2012 to 30.4 million in 2014, according to the federal Department of Agriculture. Pennsylvania statistics show school lunch participation dropped by 86,950 students in the same two years, from 1,127,444 in 2012 to 1,040,494 in 2014.

text: Some bacteria produce intracellular nutrient storage granules for later use, such as glycogen, polyphosphate, sulfur or polyhydroxyalkanoates. Certain bacterial species, such as the photosynthetic Cyanobacteria, produce internal gas vesicles, which they use to regulate their buoyancy – allowing them to move up or down into water layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels. Intracellular membranes called chromatophores are also found in membranes of phototrophic bacteria. Used primarily for photosynthesis, they contain bacteriochlorophyll pigments and carotenoids. An early idea was that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed mesosomes, but these were later shown to be artefacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy. Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes. The most common inclusions are glycogen, lipid droplets, crystals, and pigments. Volutin granules are cytoplasmic inclusions of complexed inorganic polyphosphate. These granules are called metachromatic granules due to their displaying the metachromatic effect; they appear red or blue when stained with the blue dyes methylene blue or toluidine blue. Gas vacuoles, which are freely permeable to gas, are membrane-bound vesicles present in some species of Cyanobacteria. They allow the bacteria to control their buoyancy. Microcompartments are widespread, membrane-bound organelles that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes. Carboxysomes are bacterial microcompartments that contain enzymes involved in carbon fixation. Magnetosomes are bacterial microcompartments, present in magnetotactic bacteria, that contain magnetic crystals.

text: Some bacteria produce intracellular nutrient storage granules for later use, such as

text: glycogen

text: polyphosphate

text: sulfur

text: or

text: polyhydroxyalkanoates

text: . Certain bacterial species, such as the

text: photosynthetic

text: Cyanobacteria

text: , produce internal gas vesicles, which they use to regulate their buoyancy – allowing them to move up or down into water layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels.

text: Intracellular membranes

text: called

text: chromatophore

text: s are also found in membranes of

text: phototroph

text: ic bacteria. Used primarily for photosynthesis, they contain

text: bacteriochlorophyll

text: pigments and carotenoids. An early idea was that bacteria might contain membrane folds termed

text: mesosome

text: s, but these were later shown to be artefacts produced by the chemicals used to prepare the cells for electron microscopy.

text: Inclusions

text: are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes. The most common inclusions are glycogen, lipid droplets, crystals, and pigments.

text: Volutin granules

text: are cytoplasmic inclusions of complexed inorganic polyphosphate. These granules are called

text: metachromatic granules

text: due to their displaying the metachromatic effect; they appear red or blue when stained with the blue dyes methylene blue or toluidine blue.

text: Gas vacuoles

text: , which are freely permeable to gas, are membrane-bound

text: vesicle

text: s present in some species of

text: Cyanobacteria

text: . They allow the bacteria to control their buoyancy.

text: Microcompartments

text: are widespread, membrane-bound organelles that are made of a protein shell that surrounds and encloses various enzymes.

text: Carboxysome

text: s are bacterial microcompartments that contain enzymes involved in carbon fixation.

text: Magnetosome

text: s are bacterial microcompartments, present in

text: magnetotactic bacteria

text: , that contain magnetic crystals.

text: Particulate matter is recycled by biodiversity inhabiting the detritus in soils, water columns, and along particle surfaces (including 'aeolian dust'). Ecologists may refer to ecological recycling, organic recycling, biocycling, cycling, biogeochemical recycling, natural recycling, or just recycling in reference to the work of nature.  Whereas the  global biogeochemical cycles describe the natural movement and exchange of every kind of particulate matter through the living and non-living components of the Earth, nutrient cycling refers to the biodiversity within community food web systems that loop organic nutrients or water supplies back into production. The difference is a matter of scale and compartmentalization with nutrient cycles feeding into global biogeochemical cycles. Solar energy flows through ecosystems along unidirectional and noncyclic pathways, whereas the movement of mineral nutrients is cyclic. Mineral cycles include carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into productive ecological nutrition. Global biogeochemical cycles are the sum product of localized ecological recycling regulated by the action of food webs moving particulate matter from one living generation onto the next. Earths ecosystems have recycled mineral nutrients sustainably for billions of years.

text: Particulate matter

text: is recycled by

text: biodiversity

text: inhabiting the

text: detritus

text: in

text: soils

text: , water columns, and along

text: particle surfaces

text: (including '

text: aeolian

text: dust

text: '). Ecologists may refer to ecological recycling, organic recycling, biocycling, cycling, biogeochemical recycling, natural recycling, or just recycling in reference to the work of nature.  Whereas the

text: global biogeochemical cycles

text: describe the natural movement and exchange of every kind of particulate matter through the living and non-living components of the Earth, nutrient cycling refers to the biodiversity within community food web systems that loop organic nutrients or water supplies back into

text: production

text: . The difference is a matter of scale and compartmentalization with nutrient cycles feeding into global biogeochemical cycles.

text: Solar energy

text: flows

text: through ecosystems along unidirectional and noncyclic pathways, whereas the movement of

text: mineral nutrients

text: is cyclic. Mineral cycles include

text: carbon cycle

text: sulfur cycle

text: nitrogen cycle

text: water cycle

text: phosphorus cycle

text: oxygen cycle

text: , among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into

text: productive

text: ecological nutrition. Global biogeochemical cycles are the sum product of localized ecological recycling regulated by the action of food webs moving particulate matter from one living generation onto the next. Earths ecosystems have recycled mineral nutrients sustainably for billions of years.

text: Plants absorb nutrients from the soil or the atmosphere, or from water (mainly aquatic plants). An exception are the carnivorous plants, which externally digest nutrients from animals before ingesting them.

text: Plants absorb nutrients from the soil or the atmosphere, or from water (mainly aquatic plants). An exception are the

text: carnivorous plant

text: s, which externally digest nutrients from animals before ingesting them.

text: Since it contains fatty acid functional groups, olestra is able to dissolve lipid-soluble vitamins, such as vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K, and vitamin A, along with carotenoids. Fat-soluble nutrients consumed with olestra products are excreted with the undigested olestra molecules. To counteract this loss of nutrients, products made with olestra are fortified with oil-soluble vitamins.

text: Since it contains fatty acid

text: functional group

text: s, olestra is able to dissolve lipid-soluble

text: vitamin

text: s, such as

text: vitamin D

text: vitamin E

text: vitamin K

text: , and

text: vitamin A

text: , along with

text: carotenoid

text: s. Fat-soluble nutrients consumed with olestra products are excreted with the undigested olestra molecules. To counteract this loss of nutrients, products made with olestra are fortified with oil-soluble vitamins.

text: Plant seeds are important sources of nutrition for animals across most ecosystems. Seeds contain food storage organs (e.g., endosperm) that provide nutrients to the developing plant embryo (cotyledon). This makes seeds an attractive food source for animals because they are a highly concentrated and localized nutrient source in relation to other plant parts.

text: Plant seeds are important sources of nutrition for animals across most ecosystems. Seeds contain food storage organs (e.g.,

text: endosperm

text: ) that provide nutrients to the developing plant embryo (cotyledon). This makes seeds an attractive food source for animals because they are a highly concentrated and localized nutrient source in relation to other plant parts.

text: There are several methods for investigating the level of hygiene in a sample of food, drinking water, equipment, etc.  Water samples can be filtrated through an extremely fine filter. This filter is then placed in a nutrient medium. Microorganisms on the filter then grow to form a visible colony. Harmful microorganisms can be detected in food by placing a sample in a nutrient broth designed to enrich the organisms in question. Various methods, such as selective media or polymerase chain reaction, can then be used for detection. The hygiene of hard surfaces, such as cooking pots, can be tested by touching them with a solid piece of nutrient medium and then allowing the microorganisms to grow on it.

text: There are several methods for investigating the level of hygiene in a sample of food, drinking water, equipment, etc.  Water samples can be filtrated through an extremely fine filter. This filter is then placed in a

text: nutrient medium

text: . Microorganisms on the filter then grow to form a visible colony. Harmful microorganisms can be detected in food by placing a sample in a

text: nutrient broth

text: designed to enrich the organisms in question. Various methods, such as

text: selective media

text: or

text: polymerase chain reaction

text: , can then be used for detection. The hygiene of hard surfaces, such as cooking pots, can be tested by touching them with a solid piece of

text: nutrient medium

text: and then allowing the microorganisms to grow on it.

text: Some dog food products differentiate themselves as grain- or carbohydrate-free to offer the consumer an alternative, claiming carbohydrates in pet foods to be fillers with little or no nutritional value.  Carbohydrates in dog food contribute to approximately 3.5 cals of energy per gram, the same as protein per the modified Atwater method of calculating metabolizable energy.  The grain-free diets have created a trend toward avoiding commercial pet food. However, a recent study published in Nature suggests that domestic dogs are able to metabolize carbohydrates.

text: Some dog food products differentiate themselves as grain- or carbohydrate-free to offer the consumer an alternative, claiming carbohydrates in pet foods to be fillers with little or no nutritional value.  Carbohydrates in dog food contribute to approximately 3.5 cals of energy per gram, the same as protein per the modified Atwater method of calculating metabolizable energy.  The grain-free diets have created a trend toward avoiding commercial pet food. However, a recent study published in

text: Nature

text: suggests that domestic dogs are able to metabolize carbohydrates.

text: FooDB (The Food Database) is a freely available, open-access database containing chemical (micronutrient and macronutrient) composition data on common, unprocessed foods. It also contains extensive data on flavour and aroma constituents, food additives as well as positive and negative health effects associated with food constituents. The database contains information on more than 28,000 chemicals found in more than 1000 raw or unprocessed food products. The data in FooDB was collected from many sources including textbooks, scientific journals, on-line food composition or nutrient databases, flavour and aroma databases and various on-line metabolomic databases.  This literature-derived information has been combined with experimentally derived data measured on thousands of compounds from more than 40 very common food products through the Alberta Food Metabolome Project which is led by Dr. David Wishart of the University of Alberta. Users are able to browse through the FooDB data by food source, name, descriptors or function. Chemical structures and molecular weights for compounds in FooDB may be searched via a specialized chemical structure search utility.  Users are able to view the content of FooDB using two different “Viewing” options: FoodView, which lists foods by their chemical compounds, or ChemView, which lists chemicals by their food sources. Knowledge about the precise chemical composition of foods can be used to guide public health policies, assist food companies with improved food labelling, help dieticians prepare better dietary plans, support nutraceutical companies with their submissions of health claims and guide consumer choices with regard to food purchases.

text: FooDB (The Food Database) is a freely available, open-access database containing chemical (

text: micronutrient

text: and macronutrient) composition data on common, unprocessed foods. It also contains extensive data on

text: flavour

text: and aroma constituents,

text: food additives

text: as well as positive and negative health effects associated with food constituents. The database contains information on more than 28,000 chemicals found in more than 1000 raw or unprocessed food products. The data in FooDB was collected from many sources including textbooks, scientific journals, on-line food composition or nutrient databases,

text: flavour

text: and aroma databases and various on-line metabolomic databases.  This literature-derived information has been combined with experimentally derived data measured on thousands of compounds from more than 40 very common food products through the Alberta Food Metabolome Project which is led by Dr. David Wishart of the

text: University of Alberta

text: . Users are able to browse through the FooDB data by food source, name, descriptors or function. Chemical structures and molecular weights for compounds in FooDB may be searched via a specialized chemical structure search utility.  Users are able to view the content of FooDB using two different “Viewing” options: FoodView, which lists foods by their chemical compounds, or ChemView, which lists chemicals by their food sources. Knowledge about the precise chemical composition of foods can be used to guide public health policies, assist food companies with improved food labelling, help dieticians prepare better dietary plans, support nutraceutical companies with their submissions of health claims and guide consumer choices with regard to food purchases.

text: Because magnesium readily dissolves in water, refined foods, which are often processed or cooked in water and dried, in general, are poor sources of the nutrient. For example, whole-wheat bread has twice as much magnesium as white bread because the magnesium-rich germ and bran are removed when white flour is processed. The table of food sources of magnesium suggests many dietary sources of magnesium.

text: Because magnesium readily dissolves in water, refined foods, which are often processed or cooked in water and dried, in general, are poor sources of the nutrient. For example,

text: whole-wheat bread

text: has twice as much magnesium as white bread because the magnesium-rich germ and bran are removed when white flour is processed. The table of food sources of magnesium suggests many dietary sources of magnesium.

text: Leaf vegetables contain many typical plant nutrients, but since they are photosynthetic tissues, their vitamin K levels in relation to those of other fruits and vegetables, as well as other types of foods, is particularly notable. The reason is that phylloquinone, the most common form of the vitamin, is directly involved in photosynthesis. This causes leaf vegetables to be the primary food class that interacts significantly with the anticoagulant pharmaceutical warfarin.

text: Leaf vegetables contain many typical plant nutrients, but since they are photosynthetic tissues, their

text: vitamin K

text: levels in relation to those of other fruits and vegetables, as well as other types of foods, is particularly notable. The reason is that

text: phylloquinone

text: , the most common form of the vitamin, is directly involved in

text: photosynthesis

text: . This causes leaf vegetables to be the primary food class that interacts significantly with the anticoagulant pharmaceutical

text: warfarin

text: In 1926, he found work again, this time as a paid union official. His wage of £5 a week was paid by the members of the local Miners' Lodge. His new job arrived in time for him to head the local miners against the colliery companies in what would become the General Strike. When the strike started on 3 May 1926, Bevan soon emerged as one of the leaders of the South Wales miners. The miners remained on strike for six months. Bevan was largely responsible for the distribution of strike pay in Tredegar and the formation of the Council of Action, an organisation that helped to raise money and provided food for the miners.

text: In 1926, he found work again, this time as a paid union official. His wage of £5 a week was paid by the members of the local Miners' Lodge. His new job arrived in time for him to head the local miners against the colliery companies in what would become the

text: General Strike

text: . When the strike started on 3 May 1926, Bevan soon emerged as one of the leaders of the South Wales miners. The miners remained on strike for six months. Bevan was largely responsible for the distribution of strike pay in Tredegar and the formation of the Council of Action, an organisation that helped to raise money and provided food for the miners.

text: While a typical grocery store may carry 50,000 items, Trader Joe's stocks about 4,000 items, 80% of which bear one of its own brand names. Trader Joe's describes itself as "your neighborhood grocery store. Products include gourmet foods, organic foods, vegetarian foods, unusual frozen foods, imported foods, domestic and imported wine and beer (where local law permits), "alternative" food items, and staples such as bread, cereal, eggs, dairy, coffee and produce. Non-food items include personal hygiene products, household cleaners, vitamins, pet food, plants and flowers.

text: While a typical grocery store may carry 50,000 items, Trader Joe's stocks about 4,000 items, 80% of which bear one of its own brand names. Trader Joe's describes itself as "your neighborhood grocery store. Products include

text: gourmet

text: foods,

text: organic food

text: s,

text: vegetarian foods

text: , unusual

text: frozen food

text: s, imported foods, domestic and imported wine and beer (where local law permits), "alternative" food items, and

text: staples

text: such as bread, cereal, eggs, dairy, coffee and produce. Non-food items include personal

text: hygiene

text: products, household cleaners, vitamins, pet food, plants and flowers.

text: From the earliest Christian documents, such as the Didache, the understanding follows this pattern: that the bread and wine that is blessed and consumed at the end of the (transformed) Passover meal literally is the body and blood of Jesus, and was treated accordingly: "Let no one eat or drink of the Eucharist with you except those who have been baptized in the name of the Lord; for it was in reference to this that the Lord said: 'Do not give that which is holy to dogs'" (Jurgens §6). The Didache also enjoins "confessing your transgressions so that your sacrifice may be pure" (Jurgens §8). Others state explicitly that the consecrated bread and wine is indeed the body and blood of Christ. St. Ignatius of Antioch, who was martyred in ca. 107, wrote: "I have no taste for corruptible food nor for the pleasures of this life. I desire the Bread of God, which is the Flesh of Jesus Christ, who was of the seed of David; and for drink I desire His Blood, which is love incorruptible" (Jurgens §54a). He recommended Christians to stay aloof from heretics who "confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again" (Letter to the Smyrnaeans, 8). (Note the use of "which", referring to "the flesh", not "who", which would refer to "our Saviour Jesus Christ".) St. Justin Martyr, ca. 150: "We call this food Eucharist; and no one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true.... For not as common bread nor common drink do we receive these; but since Jesus Christ our Savior was made incarnate by the word of God and had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so too, as we have been taught, the food which has been made into the Eucharist by the Eucharistic prayer set down by Him, and by the change of which our blood and flesh is nourished, is both the flesh and the blood of that incarnated Jesus" (Jurgens §128). From St. Clement of Alexandria, ca. 202: "'Eat My Flesh.' He says, 'and drink My Blood.' The Lord supplies us with these intimate nutriments. He delivers over His Flesh, and pours out His Blood; and nothing is lacking for the growth of His children. O incredible mystery!" (Jurgens §408).

text: From the earliest Christian documents, such as the

text: Didache

text: , the understanding follows this pattern: that the bread and wine that is blessed and consumed at the end of the (transformed) Passover meal literally is the body and blood of Jesus, and was treated accordingly: "Let no one eat or drink of the Eucharist with you except those who have been baptized in the name of the Lord; for it was in reference to this that the Lord said: 'Do not give that which is holy to dogs'" (Jurgens §6). The Didache also enjoins "confessing your transgressions so that your sacrifice may be pure" (Jurgens §8). Others state explicitly that the consecrated bread and wine is indeed the body and blood of Christ.

text: St. Ignatius of Antioch

text: , who was martyred in ca. 107, wrote: "I have no taste for corruptible food nor for the pleasures of this life. I desire the Bread of God, which is the Flesh of Jesus Christ, who was of the seed of David; and for drink I desire His Blood, which is love incorruptible" (Jurgens §54a). He recommended Christians to stay aloof from

text: heretics

text: who "confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again" (

text: Letter to the Smyrnaeans

text: , 8). (Note the use of "which", referring to "the flesh", not "who", which would refer to "our Saviour Jesus Christ".)

text: St. Justin Martyr

text: , ca. 150: "We call this food Eucharist; and no one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true.... For not as common bread nor common drink do we receive these; but since Jesus Christ our Savior was made incarnate by the word of God and had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so too, as we have been taught, the food which has been made into the Eucharist by the Eucharistic prayer set down by Him, and by the change of which our blood and flesh is nourished, is both the flesh and the blood of that incarnated Jesus" (Jurgens §128). From St. Clement of Alexandria, ca. 202: "'Eat My Flesh.' He says, 'and drink My Blood.' The Lord supplies us with these intimate nutriments. He delivers over His Flesh, and pours out His Blood; and nothing is lacking for the growth of His children. O incredible mystery!" (Jurgens §408).

text: Carbohydrates are a superior short-term fuel for organisms because they are simpler to metabolize than fats or those amino acids (components of proteins) that can be used for fuel. In animals, the most important carbohydrate is glucose. The concentration of glucose in the blood is used as the main control for the central metabolic hormone, insulin. Starch, and cellulose in a few organisms (e.g., some animals (such as termites) and some microorganisms (such as protists and bacteria)), both being glucose polymers, are disassembled during digestion and absorbed as glucose. Some simple carbohydrates have their own enzymatic oxidation pathways, as do only a few of the more complex carbohydrates. The disaccharide lactose, for instance, requires the enzyme lactase to be broken into its monosaccharide components; many animals lack this enzyme in adulthood.

text: Carbohydrates are a superior short-term fuel for organisms because they are simpler to metabolize than

text: fat

text: s or those amino acids (components of

text: proteins

text: ) that can be used for fuel. In animals, the most important carbohydrate is glucose. The concentration of glucose in the blood is used as the main control for the central metabolic hormone,

text: insulin

text: . Starch, and cellulose in a few organisms (e.g., some animals (such as

text: termite

text: s) and some microorganisms (such as

text: protist

text: s and

text: bacteria

text: )), both being glucose polymers, are disassembled during digestion and absorbed as glucose. Some simple carbohydrates have their own

text: enzymatic oxidation

text: pathways, as do only a few of the more complex carbohydrates. The disaccharide lactose, for instance, requires the enzyme

text: lactase

text: to be broken into its monosaccharide components; many animals lack this enzyme in adulthood.

text: The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties, heavy grazing that removes the understory, fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of edge habitat, and urban landscaping practices that increase open eucalypt environments. It has been described as a 'reverse keystone' species, as it is colonizing an ever-increasing range of human-dominated habitats, and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments. This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas. A field study across the South West Slopes of New South Wales, showed that the noisy miner's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds such as fantails, whistlers, the restless flycatcher (Myiagra inquieta), and other honeyeater species, and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients. While it has been hypothesized that the proliferation of large-flowering grevillea cultivars has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners, recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed open areas, and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase. Large-flowered grevillea hybrids such as Grevillea 'Robyn Gordon' can benefit the noisy miner, in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger aggressive honeyeaters, and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non-migratory species. A field study in box-ironbark country in central Victoria found miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum (Eucalyptus leucoxylon), which reliably produces flowers (and nectar) each year. The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure.

text: The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties, heavy grazing that removes the understory, fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of

text: edge habitat

text: , and urban landscaping practices that increase open eucalypt environments. It has been described as a '

text: reverse keystone

text: ' species, as it is colonizing an ever-increasing range of human-dominated habitats, and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments. This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas. A field study across the

text: South West Slopes

text: of New South Wales, showed that the noisy miner's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds such as

text: fantail

text: s,

text: whistlers

text: , the

text: restless flycatcher

text: (Myiagra inquieta), and other honeyeater species, and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients. While it has been hypothesized that the proliferation of large-flowering

text: grevillea cultivars

text: has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners, recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed open areas, and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase. Large-flowered

text: grevillea

text: hybrids such as

text: Grevillea 'Robyn Gordon'

text: can benefit the noisy miner, in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger aggressive honeyeaters, and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non-migratory species. A field study in

text: box-ironbark

text: country in central Victoria found miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum (

text: Eucalyptus leucoxylon

text: ), which reliably produces flowers (and nectar) each year. The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure.

text: Developed by Adam Drewnowski, University of Washington, NNR "is based on mean percentage daily values (DVs) for 14 nutrients in 2000 kcal food, can be used to assign nutrient density values to foods within and across food groups. Use of the NNR score allows consumers to identify and select nutrient-dense foods while permitting some flexibility where the discretionary calories are concerned."

text: Developed by

text: Adam Drewnowski

text: , University of Washington, NNR "is based on mean percentage daily values (DVs) for 14 nutrients in 2000 kcal food, can be used to assign nutrient density values to foods within and across food groups. Use of the NNR score allows consumers to identify and select nutrient-dense foods while permitting some flexibility where the discretionary calories are concerned."

text: Because sediment contains nutrients that fuel food webs, the Tonlé sap is actually benefitting from the influx. Sediment-bound phosphorus serves as food for phytoplankton through higher plants, and research has shown that the metabolizing of the chemical contributes to food abundance and quality. Internal nutrient cycling, therefore, plays an essential role in productivity of a floodplain. The nutrients bound to suspended sediments are important for the Tonle sap system, particularly to maintain its long-term sustainability.

text: Foods that are claimed to be negative in calories are mostly low-calorie fruits and vegetables such as celery, grapefruit, lemon, lime, apple, lettuce, broccoli, and cabbage. These foods are not negative-calorie foods. There is no scientific evidence to show that any of these foods have a negative calorific impact. Celery has a thermic effect of around 8%, much less than the 100% or more required for a food to have "negative calories". A stalk of celery provides 6 calories to the body, but the body expends only half of a single calorie digesting it. Even proteins, which require the most energy to digest, have a thermic energy of only 20%–30%. Diets based on negative-calorie food do not work as advertised but can lead to weight loss because they satisfy hunger by filling the stomach with food that is not calorically dense. A 2005 study based on a low-fat plant-based diet found that the average participant lost  over fourteen weeks, and attributed the weight loss to the reduced energy density of the foods resulting from their low fat content and high fiber content, and the increased thermic effect. A study on chewing gum reports mastication burns roughly  per hour.

text: Foods that are claimed to be negative in calories are mostly low-calorie fruits and vegetables such as celery, grapefruit, lemon, lime, apple, lettuce, broccoli, and cabbage. These foods are not negative-calorie foods. There is no scientific evidence to show that any of these foods have a negative calorific impact. Celery has a

text: thermic effect

text: of around 8%, much less than the 100% or more required for a food to have "negative calories". A stalk of celery provides 6 calories to the body, but the body expends only half of a single calorie digesting it. Even proteins, which require the most energy to digest, have a thermic energy of only 20%–30%. Diets based on negative-calorie food do not work as advertised but can lead to weight loss because they satisfy hunger by filling the stomach with food that is not calorically dense. A 2005 study based on a low-fat plant-based diet found that the average participant lost  over fourteen weeks, and attributed the weight loss to the reduced energy density of the foods resulting from their low fat content and high fiber content, and the increased thermic effect. A study on chewing gum reports mastication burns roughly  per hour.

text: All perissodactyls are hindgut fermenters. In contrast to ruminants, hindgut fermenters store digested food that has left the stomach in an enlarged cecum, where the food is digested by bacteria. No gallbladder is present. The stomach of perissodactyls is simply built, while the cecum accommodates up to  in horses. The intestine is very long, reaching up to  in horses. Extraction of nutrients from food is relatively inefficient, which probably explains why there are no small odd-toed ungulates; for large animals nutritional requirements per kilogram of body weight are lower and the surface-to-volume ratio is smaller.

text: All perissodactyls are hindgut fermenters. In contrast to ruminants, hindgut fermenters store digested food that has left the stomach in an enlarged

text: cecum

text: , where the food is digested by bacteria. No

text: gallbladder

text: is present. The stomach of perissodactyls is simply built, while the cecum accommodates up to  in horses. The intestine is very long, reaching up to  in horses. Extraction of nutrients from food is relatively inefficient, which probably explains why there are no small odd-toed ungulates; for large animals nutritional requirements per kilogram of body weight are lower and the surface-to-volume ratio is smaller.

text: Justus Freiherr von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and was considered the founder of organic chemistry. As a professor at the University of Giessen, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method, and for such innovations, he is regarded one of the greatest chemistry teachers of all time. He has been described as the "father of the fertilizer industry" for his emphasis on nitrogen and trace minerals as essential plant nutrients, and his formulation of the Law of the Minimum which described how plant growth relied on the scarcest nutrient resource (limiting factor), rather than the total amount of resources available. He also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube.

text: Justus Freiherr von Liebig (12 May 1803 – 18 April 1873) was a German

text: chemist

text: who made major contributions to agricultural and

text: biological

text: chemistry

text: , and was considered the founder of

text: organic chemistry

text: . As a professor at the

text: University of Giessen

text: , he devised the modern

text: laboratory

text: -oriented teaching method, and for such innovations, he is regarded one of the greatest chemistry teachers of all time. He has been described as the "father of the

text: fertilizer

text: industry" for his emphasis on

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: trace mineral

text: s as essential plant

text: nutrient

text: s, and his formulation of the

text: Law of the Minimum

text: which described how plant growth relied on the scarcest nutrient resource (limiting factor), rather than the total amount of resources available. He also developed a manufacturing process for

text: beef extract

text: s, and founded a company,

text: Liebig Extract of Meat Company

text: , that later

text: trademark

text: ed the

text: Oxo

text: brand beef

text: bouillon cube

text: The island's largest spring forms Shirataki (white falls) waterfall that drops 80m into the Pacific Ocean below. The island has an underground mineral lake, which is said to have remarkable healing and cleansing powers and waters around the island has an abundance of nutrient-rich plant life.

text: The island's largest spring forms Shirataki (white falls) waterfall that drops 80m into the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: below. The island has an underground mineral lake, which is said to have remarkable healing and cleansing powers and waters around the island has an abundance of nutrient-rich plant life.

text: In marine systems, ocean currents have a key role determining which areas are effective as habitats, since ocean currents transport the basic nutrients needed to support marine life. Plankton are the life forms that inhabit the ocean that are so small (less than 2 mm) that they cannot effectively propel themselves through the water, but must drift instead with the currents. If the current carries the right nutrients, and if it also flows at a suitably shallow depth where there is plenty of sunlight, then such a current itself can become a suitable habitat for photosynthesizing tiny algae called phytoplankton. These tiny plants are the primary producers in the ocean, at the start of the food chain. In turn, as the population of drifting phytoplankton grows, the water becomes a suitable habitat for zooplankton, which feed on the phytoplankton. While phytoplankton are tiny drifting plants, zooplankton are tiny drifting animals, such as the larvae of fish and marine invertebrates. If sufficient zooplankton establish themselves, the current becomes a candidate habitat for the forage fish that feed on them. And then if sufficient forage fish move to the area, it becomes a candidate habitat for larger predatory fish and other marine animals that feed on the forage fish. In this dynamic way, the current itself can, over time, become a moving habitat for multiple types of marine life.

text: In marine systems,

text: ocean current

text: s have a key role determining which areas are effective as habitats, since ocean currents transport the basic nutrients needed to support marine life.

text: Plankton

text: are the life forms that inhabit the ocean that are so small (less than 2 mm) that they cannot effectively propel themselves through the water, but must drift instead with the currents. If the current carries the right nutrients, and if it also flows at a suitably shallow depth where there is plenty of sunlight, then such a current itself can become a suitable habitat for photosynthesizing tiny algae called

text: phytoplankton

text: . These tiny plants are the

text: primary producers

text: in the ocean, at the start of the

text: food chain

text: . In turn, as the population of drifting phytoplankton grows, the water becomes a suitable habitat for

text: zooplankton

text: , which feed on the phytoplankton. While phytoplankton are tiny drifting plants, zooplankton are tiny drifting animals, such as the

text: larvae

text: of

text: fish

text: and

text: marine invertebrate

text: s. If sufficient zooplankton establish themselves, the current becomes a candidate habitat for the

text: forage fish

text: that feed on them. And then if sufficient forage fish move to the area, it becomes a candidate habitat for larger

text: predatory fish

text: and other marine animals that feed on the forage fish. In this dynamic way, the current itself can, over time, become a moving habitat for multiple types of marine life.

text: In his 2008 book In Defense of Food, Michael Pollan suggests the explanation is not any single nutrient, but the combination of nutrients found in unprocessed food; not any one nutrient, nor the amount of carbohydrates or fats or proteins, but the whole length and breadth of nutrients found in "natural" foods as opposed to "processed" foods.

text: In his 2008 book

text: In Defense of Food

text: Michael Pollan

text: suggests the explanation is not any single nutrient, but the combination of nutrients found in unprocessed food; not any one nutrient, nor the amount of carbohydrates or fats or proteins, but the whole length and breadth of nutrients found in "natural" foods as opposed to "processed" foods.

text: Nutrients needed in large amounts by plants are referred to as macronutrients and include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur (S). Elements that plants need in trace amounts are called trace nutrients or micronutrients. Trace nutrients are not major components of plant tissue but are essential for growth.  They include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), molybdenum (Mo), and boron (B). Both macronutrient and micronutrient availability are affected by soil pH. In slightly to moderately alkaline soils, molybdenum and macronutrient (except for phosphorus) availability is increased, but P, Fe, Mn, Zn Cu, and Co levels are reduced and may adversely affect plant growth.  In acidic soils, micronutrient availability (except for Mo and Bo) is increased.  Nitrogen is supplied as ammonium () or nitrate () by nitrogen fixation or fertilizer amendments, and dissolved N will have the highest concentrations in soil with pH 6–8. Concentrations of available N are less sensitive to pH than concentration of available P. In order for P to be available for plants, soil pH needs to be in the range 6.0 and 7.5. If pH is lower than 6, P starts forming insoluble compounds with iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) and if pH is higher than 7.5 P starts forming insoluble compounds with calcium (Ca). Most nutrient deficiencies can be avoided between a pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, provided that soil minerals and organic matter contain the essential nutrients to begin with.

text: Nutrients needed in large amounts by plants are referred to as macronutrients and include

text: nitrogen

text: (N),

text: phosphorus

text: (P),

text: potassium

text: (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and

text: sulfur

text: (S). Elements that plants need in trace amounts are called trace nutrients or micronutrients. Trace nutrients are not major components of plant tissue but are essential for growth.  They include

text: iron

text: (Fe), manganese (Mn),

text: zinc

text: (Zn),

text: copper

text: (Cu),

text: cobalt

text: (Co),

text: molybdenum

text: (Mo), and

text: boron

text: (B). Both macronutrient and micronutrient availability are affected by soil pH. In slightly to moderately alkaline soils, molybdenum and macronutrient (except for phosphorus) availability is increased, but P, Fe, Mn, Zn Cu, and Co levels are reduced and may adversely affect plant growth.  In acidic soils, micronutrient availability (except for Mo and Bo) is increased.  Nitrogen is supplied as ammonium () or nitrate () by nitrogen fixation or fertilizer amendments, and dissolved N will have the highest concentrations in soil with pH 6–8. Concentrations of available N are less sensitive to pH than concentration of available P. In order for P to be available for plants, soil pH needs to be in the range 6.0 and 7.5. If pH is lower than 6, P starts forming insoluble compounds with iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al) and if pH is higher than 7.5 P starts forming insoluble compounds with calcium (Ca). Most nutrient deficiencies can be avoided between a pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, provided that soil minerals and organic matter contain the essential nutrients to begin with.

text: Pica is the craving and consumption of non-nutrient substances that can cause health risks. Osteophagy in humans would be considered a form of pica. Unlike calcium and phosphorus in most animals, pica is associated with iron deficiencies in humans. Humans are unlikely to suffer from calcium and phosphorus deficiencies because the minerals are widely abundant in the foods they consume.

text: Pica

text: is the craving and consumption of non-nutrient substances that can cause health risks. Osteophagy in humans would be considered a form of pica. Unlike calcium and phosphorus in most animals, pica is associated with

text: iron deficiencies

text: in humans. Humans are unlikely to suffer from calcium and phosphorus deficiencies because the minerals are widely abundant in the foods they consume.

text: These explanations are complementary rather than mutually exclusive—all instances of behaviour require an explanation at each of these four levels. For example, the function of eating is to acquire nutrients (which ultimately aids survival and reproduction), but the immediate cause of eating is hunger (causation). Hunger and eating are evolutionarily ancient and are found in many species (evolutionary history), and develop early within an organism's lifespan (development). It is easy to confuse such questions—for example, to argue that people eat because they're hungry and not to acquire nutrients—without realizing that the reason people experience hunger is because it causes them to acquire nutrients.

text: Some minerals are colorless and transparent (quartz, calcite, feldspar, muscovite, etc.), others are yellow or brown (rutile, tourmaline, biotite), green (diopside, hornblende, chlorite), blue (glaucophane), pink (garnet), etc.  The same mineral may present a variety of colors, in the same or different rocks, and these colors may be arranged in zones parallel to the surfaces of the crystals.  Thus tourmaline may be brown, yellow, pink, blue, green, violet, grey, or colorless, but every mineral has one or more characteristic, most common tints.  The shapes of the crystals determine in a general way the outlines of the sections of them presented on the slides.  If the mineral has one or more good cleavages they will be indicated by systems of cracks.  The refractive index is also clearly shown by the appearance of the section, which are rough, with well-defined borders if they have a much stronger refraction than the medium in which they are mounted.  Some minerals decompose readily and become turbid and semi-transparent (e.g. feldspar); others remain always perfectly fresh and clear (e.g. quartz), others yield characteristic secondary products (such as green chlorite after biotite).  The inclusions in the crystals (both solid and fluid) are of great interest; one mineral may enclose another, or may contain spaces occupied by glass, by fluids or by gases.

text: Some minerals are colorless and transparent (

text: quartz

text: calcite

text: feldspar

text: muscovite

text: , etc.), others are yellow or brown (

text: rutile

text: tourmaline

text: biotite

text: ), green (

text: diopside

text: hornblende

text: chlorite

text: ), blue (

text: glaucophane

text: ), pink (

text: garnet

text: ), etc.  The same mineral may present a variety of colors, in the same or different rocks, and these colors may be arranged in zones parallel to the surfaces of the crystals.  Thus tourmaline may be brown, yellow, pink, blue, green, violet, grey, or colorless, but every mineral has one or more characteristic, most common tints.  The shapes of the crystals determine in a general way the outlines of the sections of them presented on the slides.  If the mineral has one or more good cleavages they will be indicated by systems of cracks.  The

text: refractive index

text: is also clearly shown by the appearance of the section, which are rough, with well-defined borders if they have a much stronger refraction than the medium in which they are mounted.  Some minerals decompose readily and become turbid and semi-transparent (e.g. feldspar); others remain always perfectly fresh and clear (e.g. quartz), others yield characteristic secondary products (such as green chlorite after biotite).  The inclusions in the crystals (both solid and

text: fluid

text: ) are of great interest; one mineral may enclose another, or may contain spaces occupied by glass, by fluids or by gases.

text: Lipids, lignin, minerals, and vitamins play a less prominent role in digestion than carbohydrates and protein, but they are still critical in many ways. Lipids are partly hydrolysed and hydrogenated, and glycerol, if present in the lipid, is fermented. Lipids are otherwise inert in the rumen.  Some carbon from carbohydrate or protein may be used for de novo synthesis of microbial lipid.  High levels of lipid, particularly unsaturated lipid, in the rumen are thought to poison microbes and suppress fermentation activity. Lignin, a phenolic compound, is recalcitrant to digestion, through it can be solubilized by fungi. Lignin is thought to shield associated nutrients from digestion and hence limits degradation. Minerals are absorbed by microbes and are necessary to their growth.  Microbes in turn synthesize many vitamins, such as cyanocobalamin, in great quantities—often great enough to sustain the ruminant even when vitamins are highly deficient in the diet.

text: Lipid

text: s,

text: lignin

text: minerals

text: , and

text: vitamin

text: s play a less prominent role in digestion than carbohydrates and protein, but they are still critical in many ways.

text: Lipid

text: s are partly hydrolysed and hydrogenated, and

text: glycerol

text: , if present in the lipid, is fermented. Lipids are otherwise inert in the rumen.  Some carbon from carbohydrate or protein may be used for de novo synthesis of microbial lipid.  High levels of lipid, particularly unsaturated lipid, in the rumen are thought to poison microbes and suppress fermentation activity.

text: Lignin

text: , a phenolic compound, is recalcitrant to digestion, through it can be solubilized by fungi. Lignin is thought to shield associated nutrients from digestion and hence limits degradation. Minerals are absorbed by microbes and are necessary to their growth.  Microbes in turn synthesize many vitamins, such as

text: cyanocobalamin

text: , in great quantities—often great enough to sustain the ruminant even when vitamins are highly deficient in the diet.

text: Food composition data (FCD) are detailed sets of information on the nutritionally important components of foods and provide values for energy and nutrients including protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins and minerals and for other important food components such as fibre. The data are presented in food composition databases (FCDBs).

text: Food composition data (FCD) are detailed sets of information on the nutritionally important components of foods and provide values for energy and nutrients including protein, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins and minerals and for other important food components such as fibre. The data are presented in

text: food composition database

text: s (FCDBs).

text: One side benefit was the sequestration of waste  from coal-fired power plants. The researchers were concerned with finding algae species which had a large lipid content, collecting over 3,000 North American species in their search. Work then focused on increasing their lipid content by reducing the supply of key nutrients, such as nitrogen and silicon.

text: One side benefit was the sequestration of waste  from coal-fired power plants. The researchers were concerned with finding algae species which had a large lipid content, collecting over 3,000 North American species in their search. Work then focused on increasing their

text: lipid

text: content by reducing the supply of key

text: nutrients

text: , such as

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: silicon

text: The conclusion that can be drawn from the newer research is that fruits and vegetables are not as useful for obtaining vitamin A as was thought; in other words, the IUs that these foods were reported to contain were worth much less than the same number of IUs of fat-dissolved oils and (to some extent) supplements. This is important for vegetarians, as night blindness is prevalent in countries where little meat or vitamin A-fortified foods are available.

text: The conclusion that can be drawn from the newer research is that fruits and vegetables are not as useful for obtaining vitamin A as was thought; in other words, the IUs that these foods were reported to contain were worth much less than the same number of IUs of fat-dissolved oils and (to some extent) supplements. This is important for

text: vegetarian

text: s, as

text: night blindness

text: is prevalent in countries where little meat or vitamin A-fortified foods are available.

text: Food webs can be controlled by bottom-up or top-down forces, which dictate whether a food web’s structure and population dynamics are regulated by nutrients (a supply of fixed carbon) and primary production or by top predators, respectively.

text: Food web

text: s can be controlled by bottom-up or top-down forces, which dictate whether a food web’s structure and population dynamics are regulated by

text: nutrient

text: s (a supply of fixed

text: carbon

text: ) and

text: primary production

text: or by

text: top predators

text: , respectively.

text: Water's essential nature makes it a strategic natural resource globally, and in its absence, an important element of political conflicts in many areas, historically. With decreasing availability and increasing demand for water, some have predicted that clean water will become the "next oil";  making countries like Canada, Chile, Norway, Colombia and Peru, with this resource in abundance, the water-rich countries in the world. The UN World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from the World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. Currently, 40% of the world's inhabitants have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from diseases related to the consumption of contaminated water or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases; often this means lack of sewage disposal; see toilet. The United Nations Development Programme sums up world water distribution in the 2006 development report: "One part of the world sustains a designer bottled water market that generates no tangible health benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers." Fresh water — now more precious than ever in our history for its extensive use in agriculture, high-tech manufacturing, and energy production — is increasingly receiving attention as a resource requiring better management and sustainable use.

text: Water's essential nature makes it a strategic

text: natural resource

text: globally, and in its absence, an important element of political conflicts in many areas, historically. With decreasing availability and increasing demand for water, some have predicted that clean water will become the "next oil";  making countries like

text: Canada

text: Chile

text: Norway

text: Colombia

text: and

text: Peru

text: , with this resource in abundance, the water-rich countries in the world. The

text: UN World Water Development Report

text: (WWDR, 2003) from the

text: World Water Assessment Program

text: indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. Currently, 40% of the world's inhabitants have insufficient fresh water for minimal

text: hygiene

text: . More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from

text: disease

text: s related to the consumption of contaminated water or

text: drought

text: . In 2004, the

text: UK

text: charity

text: WaterAid

text: reported that a child dies every 15 seconds from easily preventable water-related diseases; often this means lack of

text: sewage

text: disposal; see

text: toilet

text: . The

text: United Nations Development Programme

text: sums up world water distribution in the 2006 development report: "One part of the world sustains a designer

text: bottled water

text: market that generates no tangible

text: health

text: benefits, another part suffers acute public health risks because people have to drink water from drains or from lakes and rivers." Fresh water — now more precious than ever in our history for its extensive use in

text: agriculture

text: , high-tech

text: manufacturing

text: , and

text: energy production

text: — is increasingly receiving attention as a resource requiring better management and

text: sustainable

text: use.

text: Nutrients mainly refers to inorganic matter from runoff, landfills, livestock operations and crop lands. The two primary nutrients of concern are phosphorus and nitrogen.

text: Nutrients mainly refers to inorganic matter from runoff,

text: landfill

text: s,

text: livestock

text: operations and crop lands. The two primary nutrients of concern are phosphorus and nitrogen.

text: Myrmecochory is usually classified as a mutualism but this is contingent on the degree to which participating species benefit from the interaction. It is likely that several different factors combine to create mutualistic conditions. Myrmecochorous plants may derive benefit from increased dispersal distance, directed dispersal to nutrient-enriched or protected microsites, and/or seed predator avoidance. Costs incurred by myrmecochorous plants include the energy required to provision diaspores, particularly when there is a disproportionate investment of growth-limiting mineral nutrients. For instance, some Australian Acacias invest a significant portion of their yearly phosphorus uptake in producing diaspores. Diaspores must also be protected from outright predation by ants. This is typically accomplished by the production of a hard, smooth testa, or seed coat.

text: Myrmecochory is usually classified as a

text: mutualism

text: but this is contingent on the degree to which participating species benefit from the

text: interaction

text: . It is likely that several different factors combine to create mutualistic conditions. Myrmecochorous plants may derive benefit from increased dispersal distance, directed dispersal to

text: nutrient

text: -enriched or protected

text: microsites

text: , and/or

text: seed predator

text: avoidance. Costs incurred by myrmecochorous plants include the energy required to

text: provision

text: diaspores, particularly when there is a disproportionate investment of growth-limiting mineral nutrients. For instance, some Australian

text: Acacia

text: s invest a significant portion of their yearly

text: phosphorus

text: uptake in producing diaspores. Diaspores must also be protected from outright predation by ants. This is typically accomplished by the production of a hard, smooth testa, or

text: seed coat

text: Compounds containing nitrogen, potassium or phosphorus may encourage growth of aquatic plants and thus increase the available energy in the local food-web. this can lead to increased concentrations of suspended organic material. In some cases specific micro-nutrients may be required to allow the available nutrients to be fully utilised by living organisms. In other cases, the presence of specific chemical species may produce toxic effects limiting growth and abundance of living matter.

text: Compounds containing

text: nitrogen

text: potassium

text: or

text: phosphorus

text: may encourage growth of aquatic plants and thus increase the available energy in the local food-web. this can lead to increased concentrations of suspended organic material. In some cases specific micro-nutrients may be required to allow the available nutrients to be fully utilised by living organisms. In other cases, the presence of specific chemical species may produce toxic effects limiting growth and abundance of living matter.

text: A lichen is a composite organism that emerges from algae or cyanobacteria living among the filaments (hyphae) of a fungus in a mutually beneficial (symbiotic) relationship. The fungus benefits from the algae or cyanobacteria because they produce food by photosynthesis. The algae or cyanobacteria benefit by being protected from the environment by the filaments of the fungus, which also gather moisture and nutrients from the environment, and (usually) provide an anchor to it. Although some photosynthetic partners in a lichen can survive outside the lichen, the lichen symbiotic association extends the ecological range of both partners, whereby most descriptions of lichen associations describe them as symbiotic. Both partners gain water and mineral nutrients mainly from the atmosphere, through rain and dust. The fungal partner protects the alga by retaining water, serving as a larger capture area for mineral nutrients and, in some cases, provides minerals obtained from the substrate. If a cyanobacterium is present, as a primary partner or another symbiont in addition to a green alga as in certain tripartite lichens, they can fix atmospheric nitrogen, complementing the activities of the green alga.

text: A lichen is a composite organism that emerges from

text: algae

text: or

text: cyanobacteria

text: living among the filaments (

text: hyphae

text: ) of a

text: fungus

text: in a mutually beneficial (

text: symbiotic

text: ) relationship. The fungus benefits from the algae or cyanobacteria because they produce food by

text: photosynthesis

text: . The algae or cyanobacteria benefit by being protected from the environment by the filaments of the fungus, which also gather moisture and nutrients from the environment, and (usually) provide an anchor to it. Although some photosynthetic partners in a lichen can survive outside the lichen, the lichen symbiotic association extends the ecological range of both partners, whereby most descriptions of lichen associations describe them as symbiotic. Both partners gain water and mineral nutrients mainly from the atmosphere, through rain and dust. The fungal partner protects the alga by retaining water, serving as a larger capture area for mineral nutrients and, in some cases, provides minerals obtained from the

text: substrate

text: . If a

text: cyanobacterium

text: is present, as a primary partner or another symbiont in addition to a green alga as in certain tripartite lichens, they can

text: fix atmospheric nitrogen

text: , complementing the activities of the green alga.

text: Other than its influence on the muscles, WBV can also have a positive effect on bone mineral density. Vibrations cause compression and remodeling of the bone tissue Mechanostat, activating the osteoblasts (bone building cells), while reducing the activity of the osteoclasts (cells that break bone down). Repeated stimulation of this system, combined with the increased pull on the bones by the muscles, will increase bone mineral density over time.It is also likely that improved circulation and the related bone perfusion due to a better supply of nutrients, which are also more able to penetrate the bone tissue, are contributing factors (Verschueren 2004, Jordan 2005, Olof Johnell & John Eisman, 2004, Rubin et al. 2004).

text: Other than its influence on the muscles, WBV can also have a positive effect on

text: bone mineral density

text: . Vibrations cause compression and remodeling of the bone tissue

text: Mechanostat

text: , activating the

text: osteoblasts

text: (bone building cells), while reducing the activity of the

text: osteoclasts

text: (cells that break bone down). Repeated stimulation of this system, combined with the increased pull on the bones by the muscles, will increase bone mineral density over time.It is also likely that improved circulation and the related bone perfusion due to a better supply of nutrients, which are also more able to penetrate the bone tissue, are contributing factors (Verschueren 2004, Jordan 2005, Olof Johnell & John Eisman, 2004, Rubin et al. 2004).

text: Inspired by master chefs, Urban Produce's "superfood" microgreen blends add a colorful, nutritional boosts to any dish. The delicate texture and subtle flavor of the microgreen blends make them a great addition to salads, soups, sandwiches, and smoothies. These microgreens pack four to six times more vitamin C, E, K, and beta-carotene than their mature counterparts of the same varieties. Because the microgreens are packaged live, with their roots intact, they maintain their nutrients and freshness through transport until they are ready to be cut and used. Delivered in a closed clamshell, these microgreens will stay fresh for 30 days in the refrigerator. The High Density Vertical Growing System (HDVGS) unique to Urban Produce is a sustainable food production system that grows produce at high density using specialized LED lighting. The HDVGS uses hydroponic technologies in a controlled greenhouse environment that balances light and air distribution. On a 1/8 acre of land, their patented HDVGS can yield up to 16 acres of produce while using 90% less water, 80% less nutrients, and absolutely no herbicides or pesticides.

text: Inspired by master chefs, Urban Produce's "superfood" microgreen blends add a colorful, nutritional boosts to any dish. The delicate texture and subtle flavor of the microgreen blends make them a great addition to salads, soups, sandwiches, and smoothies. These microgreens pack four to six times more vitamin C, E, K, and beta-carotene than their mature counterparts of the same varieties. Because the microgreens are packaged live, with their roots intact, they maintain their nutrients and freshness through transport until they are ready to be cut and used. Delivered in a closed clamshell, these microgreens will stay fresh for 30 days in the refrigerator. The High Density Vertical Growing System (HDVGS) unique to Urban Produce is a sustainable food production system that grows produce at high density using specialized

text: LED lighting

text: . The HDVGS uses

text: hydroponic

text: technologies in a controlled

text: greenhouse

text: environment that balances light and air distribution. On a 1/8 acre of land, their patented HDVGS can yield up to 16 acres of produce while using 90% less water, 80% less nutrients, and absolutely no herbicides or pesticides.

text: Minerals are not equivalent to rocks. A rock is either an aggregate of one or more minerals, or not composed of minerals at all. Rocks like limestone or quartzite are composed primarily of one mineral—calcite or aragonite in the case of limestone, and quartz in the latter case. Other rocks can be defined by relative abundances of key (essential) minerals; a granite is defined by proportions of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar. The other minerals in the rock are termed accessory, and do not greatly affect the bulk composition of the rock. Rocks can also be composed entirely of non-mineral material; coal is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of organically derived carbon.

text: Minerals are not equivalent to rocks. A

text: rock

text: is either an aggregate of one or more minerals, or not composed of minerals at all. Rocks like

text: limestone

text: or

text: quartzite

text: are composed primarily of one mineral—

text: calcite

text: or

text: aragonite

text: in the case of limestone, and

text: quartz

text: in the latter case. Other rocks can be defined by relative abundances of key (essential) minerals; a

text: granite

text: is defined by proportions of quartz,

text: alkali feldspar

text: , and

text: plagioclase feldspar

text: . The other minerals in the rock are termed accessory, and do not greatly affect the bulk composition of the rock. Rocks can also be composed entirely of non-mineral material;

text: coal

text: is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of organically derived carbon.

text: Water, in absolute terms, is not in short supply planet-wide. But, according to the United Nations water organization, UN-Water, the total usable freshwater supply for ecosystems and humans is only about 200,000 km3 of water – less than one percent (<1%) of all freshwater resources. Usable fresh water includes water not contaminated or degraded by water-altering chemicals, such as sewage or any other harmful chemicals from continuous previous use. And, water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of the population increase in the last century. Specifically, water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50 percent by 2025 in developing countries, and 18 per cent in developed countries. One continent, for example, Africa, has been predicted to have 75 to 250 million lacking access to fresh water. By 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity, and two-thirds of the world population could be under stress conditions.

text: By law, nearly all products have a nutrition label in Canada. The nutrition label gives you information about the product including, its serving size, calories, and its percentage of the 13 core nutrients that Canada deems necessary. These nutrients include fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrate, fibre, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron. All of these nutrients, except for the vitamins and minerals, are recorded based on an reasonable daily intake percentage. While the vitamins and minerals are based on a recommended daily intake (RDI)  These differ in that one is based on what one is expected to eat in a day, while the other is based on what the government recommends one consume in a day. However, all nutrients are recorded onto the same label with the same guidelines that is prescribed by the Food and Drug Regulations. These guidelines determine that the nutrition label must be clearly and predominantly displayed on the package to the manufacturer as well as clearly visible to the consumer at the time of purchase.

text: By law, nearly all products have a nutrition label in Canada. The

text: nutrition label

text: gives you information about the product including, its serving size, calories, and its percentage of the 13 core nutrients that Canada deems necessary. These nutrients include

text: fat

text: saturated fat

text: trans fat

text: cholesterol

text: sodium

text: carbohydrate

text: fibre

text: sugars

text: protein

text: vitamin A

text: vitamin C

text: calcium

text: , and

text: iron

text: . All of these nutrients, except for the vitamins and minerals, are recorded based on an reasonable daily intake percentage. While the vitamins and minerals are based on a recommended daily intake (RDI)  These differ in that one is based on what one is expected to eat in a day, while the other is based on what the government recommends one consume in a day. However, all nutrients are recorded onto the same label with the same guidelines that is prescribed by the Food and Drug Regulations. These guidelines determine that the nutrition label must be clearly and predominantly displayed on the package to the manufacturer as well as clearly visible to the consumer at the time of purchase.

text: This variant is the most commonly employed gastric bypass technique, and is by far the most commonly performed bariatric procedure in the United States. The small intestine is divided approximately  below the lower stomach outlet and is re-arranged into a Y-configuration, enabling outflow of food from the small upper stomach pouch via a "Roux limb". In the proximal version, the Y-intersection is formed near the upper (proximal) end of the small intestine. The Roux limb is constructed using  of the small intestine, preserving the rest (and the majority) of it from absorbing nutrients. The patient will experience very rapid onset of the stomach feeling full, followed by a growing satiety (or "indifference" to food) shortly after the start of a meal.

text: Products formulated with ingredients to meet the established nutrient profile would include the following statement, "(Name of product) is formulated to meet the nutritional levels established by the AAFCO Cat/Dog Food Nutrient Profiles." There are two separate nutrient profiles - one for "growth and reproduction" and one for "adult maintenance". The nutritional adequacy statement would include information on the life stage(s) for which the product is suitable. A product labeled as "for all life stages" must meet the more stringent nutrient profile for "growth and reproduction". Products labeled as "intended for intermittent or supplemental feeding" do not need to meet either profile.

text: A different type of Chloris gayana are tetraploid types. Tetraploid types of Chloris gayana have a major characteristic in which they flower late in the season which means the feed quality is maintained longer It has also been determined that tetraploid varieties of Chloris gayana have "higher concentrations of nutrients". It is important to note however that both tetraploid and diploid varieties at the pre-flowering stage of growth have "adequate concentrations of nutrients". Understanding the different genetic varieties of Chloris gayana is beneficial to farmers. Knowing the different types will allow a farmer to choose what is best for their situation.

text: The table below presents the relative performance of sweet potato to other food staples. While sweet potato provides less edible energy and protein per unit weight than cereals, it has higher nutrient density than cereals.

text: The table below presents the relative performance of sweet potato to other

text: food staple

text: s. While sweet potato provides less edible energy and protein per unit weight than cereals, it has higher nutrient density than cereals.

text: The typical American diet is about 50% carbohydrate, 15% protein, and 35% fat. These macronutrient intakes fall within the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (ADMR) for adults identified by the Food and Nutrition Board of the United States Institute of Medicine as "associated with reduced risk of chronic diseases while providing adequate intakes of essential nutrients," which are 45-65% carbohydrate, 10-35% protein, and 20-35% fat as a percentage of total energy. However, the nutritional quality of the specific foods comprising those macronutrients is often poor, as with the "Western" pattern discussed above. Complex carbohydrates such as starch are believed to be more healthy than the sugar so frequently consumed in the Standard American Diet.

text: The typical American diet is about 50% carbohydrate, 15% protein, and 35% fat. These macronutrient intakes fall within the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (ADMR) for adults identified by the Food and Nutrition Board of the United States

text: Institute of Medicine

text: as "associated with reduced risk of chronic diseases while providing adequate intakes of essential nutrients," which are 45-65% carbohydrate, 10-35% protein, and 20-35% fat as a percentage of total energy. However, the nutritional quality of the specific foods comprising those macronutrients is often poor, as with the "Western" pattern discussed above.

text: Complex carbohydrates

text: such as

text: starch

text: are believed to be more healthy than the

text: sugar

text: so frequently consumed in the Standard American Diet.

text: Discretionary food is a term for foods and drinks not necessary to provide the nutrients the human body's needs, but that may add variety to a person's diet.

text: Some plants produce food bodies for use by other organisms.  These small epidermal structures contain a variety of nutrients that are removed and consumed by foragers. Food bodies are identified by the main nutrient they contain and by the genus of plant producing them.  Beltian bodies are found on the leaflet tips of Acacia plants and have relatively high protein content.  Beccarian bodies are found on young leaves of the Macaranga genus and are especially rich in lipids.  Lipids are also the main nutrient found in Pearl bodies, found on the leaves and stems of Ochroma plants.  Most ant inhabitants of Cecropia plants harvest the last type of food body, as their primary food source.  Remarkably these Müllerian bodies, found on the stalk of the leaf, are primarily glycogen.  Glycogen is the principal storage carbohydrate found in animals and is extremely rare in plants.

text: Some plants produce food bodies for use by other organisms.  These small

text: epidermal

text: structures contain a variety of nutrients that are removed and consumed by foragers. Food bodies are identified by the main

text: nutrient

text: they contain and by the genus of plant producing them.

text: Beltian bodies

text: are found on the leaflet tips of

text: Acacia

text: plants and have relatively high

text: protein

text: content.  Beccarian bodies are found on young leaves of the

text: Macaranga

text: genus and are especially rich in

text: lipids

text: .  Lipids are also the main nutrient found in

text: Pearl bodies

text: , found on the leaves and stems of Ochroma plants.  Most ant inhabitants of

text: Cecropia

text: plants harvest the last type of food body, as their primary food source.  Remarkably these

text: Müllerian bodies

text: , found on the stalk of the leaf, are primarily

text: glycogen

text: .  Glycogen is the principal storage

text: carbohydrate

text: found in

text: animal

text: s and is extremely rare in plants.

text: The life-cycle of the phumdi involves floating on the water surface during season of high water as in the monsoons. In the lean season, when the water level reduces, the biomass come into contact with the lake bed and they secure the required nutrient from there. When the rains come again and they become afloat, the biomass have enough 'food'—the nutrients—stored in their roots and their life continues. What is happening now, according to local scientists who are studying the phenomena, is that with continuous high water in the lake throughout the year much of this process of 'feeding' on the nutrient in the lakebed had discontinued. The result—the biomass are losing weight and getting thinner by the year. Around January last week in 1999, it was reported that a large chunk of the biomass in the northern part of National Park had broken up into pieces and had drifted freely from the park area. This was a bad sign for the sangai habitat. It spelled out very clearly that the beginning of the end of the sangai habitat had begun. There are reports of local people cutting up the phumdi into sizable pieces and then towing away these with dugout canoe for 'selling' to fish culture owners. This is another potential danger to the sangai habitat. It meant humans are now aiding the process of annihilating the habitat area, supplementing to the rapid degeneration of the habitat.

text: The micronutrients essential for plant life, in their order of importance, include iron, manganese, zinc, copper, boron, chlorine and molybdenum. The term refers to plants' needs, not to their abundance in soil. They are required in very small amounts but are essential to plant health in that most are required parts of some enzyme system which speeds up plants' metabolisms. They are generally available in the mineral component of the soil, but the heavy application of phosphates can cause a deficiency in zinc and iron by the formation of insoluble zinc and iron phosphates. Iron deficiency may also result from excessive amounts of heavy metals or calcium minerals (lime) in the soil. Excess amounts of soluble boron, molybdenum and chloride are toxic.

text: The micronutrients essential for plant life, in their order of importance, include

text: iron

text: manganese

text: zinc

text: copper

text: boron

text: chlorine

text: and

text: molybdenum

text: . The term refers to plants' needs, not to their abundance in soil. They are required in very small amounts but are essential to plant health in that most are required parts of some enzyme system which speeds up plants' metabolisms. They are generally available in the mineral component of the soil, but the heavy application of phosphates can cause a deficiency in zinc and iron by the formation of insoluble zinc and iron phosphates. Iron deficiency may also result from excessive amounts of heavy metals or calcium minerals (lime) in the soil. Excess amounts of soluble boron, molybdenum and chloride are toxic.

text: However, the problem of malnutrition isn't simply solved by a mother choosing to breastfeed her child. Many infants who are breastfed have mothers who are severely undernourished themselves. If a mother doesn't have sufficient nutrients for herself, she is much less likely to have sufficient nutrients in her breast milk. Thus, breast milk from undernourished women is often lacking sufficient quantities of several vital vitamins and minerals like vitamin B6 and folic acid. This lack of nutrients can lead to a nutritional deficiency in the child being breastfed as well.

text: However, the problem of malnutrition isn't simply solved by a mother choosing to breastfeed her child. Many infants who are breastfed have mothers who are severely undernourished themselves. If a mother doesn't have sufficient nutrients for herself, she is much less likely to have sufficient nutrients in her breast milk. Thus, breast milk from undernourished women is often lacking sufficient quantities of several vital

text: vitamins

text: and minerals like

text: vitamin B6

text: and

text: folic acid

text: . This lack of nutrients can lead to a

text: nutritional deficiency

text: in the child being breastfed as well.

text: The largest grouping of minerals by far are the silicates; most rocks are composed of greater than 95% silicate minerals, and over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of these minerals. The two main constituents of silicates are silicon and oxygen, which are the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust. Other common elements in silicate minerals correspond to other common elements in the Earth's crust, such aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium. Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas.

text: The largest grouping of minerals by far are the

text: silicates

text: ; most rocks are composed of greater than 95% silicate minerals, and over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of these minerals. The two main constituents of silicates are silicon and oxygen, which are the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust. Other common elements in silicate minerals correspond to other common elements in the Earth's crust, such aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium. Some important rock-forming silicates include the

text: feldspar

text: s, quartz,

text: olivine

text: s,

text: pyroxene

text: s,

text: amphibole

text: s,

text: garnet

text: s, and

text: mica

text: s.

text: Micronutrient deficiencies affect more than two billion people of all ages in both developing and industrialized countries. They are the cause of some diseases, exacerbate others and are recognized as having an important impact on worldwide health. Important micronutrients include iodine, iron, zinc, calcium, selenium, fluorine, and vitamins A, B, B, B, B, B, and C.

text: Micronutrient deficiencies affect more than two billion people of all ages in both developing and industrialized countries. They are the cause of some diseases, exacerbate others and are recognized as having an important impact on worldwide health. Important micronutrients include

text: iodine

text: iron

text: zinc

text: calcium

text: selenium

text: fluorine

text: , and vitamins

text: A

text: B

text: B

text: B

text: B

text: B

text: , and

text: C

text: A. occidentalis establishes a new type of plant-fungus symbiosis with jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata), which has been described recently. The presence of A. occidentalis is associated with increased growth and nutrient uptake in jarrah seedlings, despite the fact that mycorrhizal structures were not recovered from the roots of the eucalypt (no root colonization). Chemical and genetic analysis of the soil and plants showed that fungal hyphae were nearby the roots and that plants had increased levels of nutrients including phosphorus, nitrogen, sulphur, magnesium, and several trace elements. Furthermore, the 33P uptake study revealed that fungal hyphae do not transfer nutrient directly to plants. Mobilization and solubilization of nutrients from minerals and soil particles could be one of the underlying mechanisms as the concentration of carboxylates in the rhizosphere soil is higher in plants involved in this symbiosis. However, there might be other unknown mechanisms behind the remarkable improvements in plant growth and nutrition.

text: The situation with respect to nutrients is often different in shade and sun. Most shade is due to the presence of a canopy of other plants, and this is usually associated with a completely different environment—richer in soil nutrients—than sunny areas.

text: The situation with respect to nutrients is often different in shade and sun. Most shade is due to the presence of a canopy of other plants, and this is usually associated with a completely different environment—richer in

text: soil

text: nutrient

text: s—than sunny areas.

text: Outside of its use in dating K has been used extensively as tracers in studies of weathering. Various potassium isotopes also been used for nutrient cycling studies because potassium is a macronutrient required for life.

text: Outside of its use in dating K has been used extensively as

text: tracer

text: s in studies of

text: weathering

text: . Various potassium isotopes also been used for

text: nutrient cycling

text: studies because potassium is a

text: macronutrient

text: required for

text: life

text: The fatty-acid-binding proteins (FABPs) are a family of transport proteins for fatty acids and other lipophilic substances such as eicosanoids and retinoids.  These proteins are thought to facilitate the transfer of fatty acids between extra- and intracellular membranes.  Some family members are also believed to transport lipophilic molecules from outer cell membrane to certain intracellular receptors such as PPAR. Levels of fatty-acid-binding protein have been shown to decline with ageing in the mouse brain, possibly contributing to age-associated decline in synaptic activity.

text: The fatty-acid-binding proteins (FABPs) are a family of

text: transport protein

text: s for

text: fatty acids

text: and other

text: lipophilic

text: substances such as

text: eicosanoid

text: s and

text: retinoid

text: s.  These proteins are thought to facilitate the transfer of fatty acids between extra- and intracellular

text: membranes

text: .  Some family members are also believed to transport lipophilic molecules from outer cell membrane to certain

text: intracellular receptor

text: s such as

text: PPAR

text: . Levels of fatty-acid-binding protein have been shown to decline with

text: ageing

text: in the mouse brain, possibly contributing to age-associated decline in

text: synaptic

text: activity.

text: Zock et al. compared the effects of an IE (interesterfied) test fat with 40% C16:0 on the 2-position with a noninteresterified test fat with only 6.5% C16:0 on the 2-position in a 3-week diet study. Despite the very high intakes and the marked difference in positional distribution, no statistically significant effects on fasting blood lipids were observed in the group as a whole. Nestel et al. examined the effects of an IE fat blend with 25% C16:0 on the 2-position with a native fat blend with only 9% C16:0 on the 2-position. Again, despite a high intake level and the clear difference in positional distribution of the fats fed, no effects were observed on fasting blood lipids. Meijer and Weststrate examined the effects of interesterification, using a ‘real’ hardstock as applied in foods. The control was the same fat blend with a similar fatty acid composition, but not interesterified. The IE fat blend contained more C16:0 on the 2-position (18%) than the control blend (7%). None of the fasting levels of blood lipids measured after 3 weeks showed any change related to treatment of the fat blend. Fasting glucose level was also not affected.

text: During World War II, due to the shortage of food in Southeast Asia, many refugees survived on tapioca. The cassava plant is easily propagated by stem-cutting, grows well in low-nutrient soils, and can be harvested every two months, although it takes ten months to grow to full maturity. The plant provided much needed carbohydrates and other nutrients.

text: During

text: World War II

text: , due to the shortage of food in Southeast Asia, many refugees survived on tapioca. The cassava plant is easily propagated by stem-cutting, grows well in low-nutrient soils, and can be harvested every two months, although it takes ten months to grow to full maturity. The plant provided much needed carbohydrates and other nutrients.

text: In addition, the quality of calories matters because the energy absorption rate of different foods with equal amounts of calories may vary. Some nutrients have regulatory roles affected by cell signaling, in addition to providing energy for the body. For example, leucine plays an important role in the regulation of protein metabolism and suppresses an individual's appetite.

text: In addition, the quality of calories matters because the energy absorption rate of different foods with equal amounts of calories may vary. Some nutrients have regulatory roles affected by

text: cell signaling

text: , in addition to providing energy for the body. For example,

text: leucine

text: plays an important role in the regulation of protein metabolism and suppresses an individual's appetite.

text: The inflammatory process, mediated by T cells, leads to disruption of the structure and function of the small bowel's mucosal lining and causes malabsorption as it impairs the body's ability to absorb nutrients, minerals, and fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K from food. Lactose intolerance may be present due to the decreased bowel surface and reduced production of lactase but typically resolves once the condition is treated.

text: The inflammatory process, mediated by

text: T cell

text: s, leads to disruption of the structure and function of the small bowel's mucosal lining and causes

text: malabsorption

text: as it impairs the body's ability to absorb

text: nutrient

text: s, minerals, and fat-soluble

text: vitamin

text: s A, D, E, and K from food.

text: Lactose intolerance

text: may be present due to the decreased bowel surface and reduced production of

text: lactase

text: but typically resolves once the condition is treated.

text: Cold pressing (also referred to as masticating) utilises a single gear driven by a motor; slower operation; kneads and grinds items placed in a chute. Because of this technique no heat is added to the production process, leaving the end product higher in nutrients and vitamins.

text: Cold pressing

text: (also referred to as masticating) utilises a single gear driven by a motor; slower operation; kneads and grinds items placed in a chute. Because of this technique no heat is added to the production process, leaving the end product higher in

text: nutrients

text: and

text: vitamins

text: The chief characteristic of proteins that also allows their diverse set of functions is their ability to bind other molecules specifically and tightly. The region of the protein responsible for binding another molecule is known as the binding site and is often a depression or "pocket" on the molecular surface. This binding ability is mediated by the tertiary structure of the protein, which defines the binding site pocket, and by the chemical properties of the surrounding amino acids' side chains. Protein binding can be extraordinarily tight and specific; for example, the ribonuclease inhibitor protein binds to human angiogenin with a sub-femtomolar dissociation constant (

text: The chief characteristic of proteins that also allows their diverse set of functions is their ability to bind other molecules specifically and tightly. The region of the protein responsible for binding another molecule is known as the

text: binding site

text: and is often a depression or "pocket" on the molecular surface. This binding ability is mediated by the tertiary structure of the protein, which defines the binding site pocket, and by the chemical properties of the surrounding amino acids' side chains. Protein binding can be extraordinarily tight and specific; for example, the

text: ribonuclease inhibitor

text: protein binds to human

text: angiogenin

text: with a sub-femtomolar

text: dissociation constant

text: Scholars Michael Harner and Marvin Harris have argued that the motivation behind human sacrifice among the Aztecs was actually the cannibalization of the sacrificial victims. While there is universal agreement that the Aztecs practiced sacrifice, there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism was widespread. At one extreme, anthropologist Marvin Harris, author of Cannibals and Kings, has propagated the claim, originally proposed by Harner, that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins. This claim has been refuted by Bernard Ortíz Montellano who, in his studies of Aztec health, diet, and medicine, demonstrates that while the Aztec diet was low in animal proteins, it was rich in vegetable proteins. Ortiz also points to the preponderance of human sacrifice during periods of food abundance following harvests compared to periods of food scarcity, the insignificant quantity of human protein available from sacrifices and the fact that aristocrats already had easy access to animal protein.

text: Scholars Michael Harner and

text: Marvin Harris

text: have argued that the motivation behind human sacrifice among the Aztecs was actually the cannibalization of the sacrificial victims. While there is universal agreement that the Aztecs practiced sacrifice, there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism was widespread. At one extreme, anthropologist Marvin Harris, author of

text: Cannibals and Kings

text: , has propagated the claim, originally proposed by Harner, that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins. This claim has been refuted by Bernard Ortíz Montellano who, in his studies of Aztec health, diet, and medicine, demonstrates that while the Aztec diet was low in animal proteins, it was rich in vegetable proteins. Ortiz also points to the preponderance of human sacrifice during periods of food abundance following harvests compared to periods of food scarcity, the insignificant quantity of human protein available from sacrifices and the fact that aristocrats already had easy access to animal protein.

text: Due to the abundance of insects and a worldwide concern of food shortages, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations considers that the world may have to, in the future, regard the prospects of eating insects as a food staple. Insects are noted for their nutrients, having a high content of protein, minerals and fats and are eaten by one-third of the global population.

text: Due to the abundance of insects and a worldwide concern of food shortages, the

text: Food and Agriculture Organisation

text: of the

text: United Nations

text: considers that the world may have to, in the future, regard the prospects of eating insects as a food staple. Insects are noted for their nutrients, having a high content of protein, minerals and fats and are eaten by one-third of the global population.

text: Lipids: Lipids are triglycerides in storage form is the common form of inclusions, not only are stored in specialized cells (adipocytes) but also are located as individuals droplets in various cell type especially hepatocytes. These are fluid at body temperature and appear in living cells as refractile spherical droplets. Lipid yields more than twice as many calories per gram as does carbohydrate. On demand, they serve as a local store of energy and a potential source of short carbon chains that are used by the cell in its synthesis of membranes and other lipid containing structural components or secretory products.

text: Lipid

text: s: Lipids are triglycerides in storage form is the common form of inclusions, not only are stored in specialized cells (adipocytes) but also are located as individuals droplets in various cell type especially hepatocytes. These are fluid at body temperature and appear in living cells as

text: refractile

text: spherical droplets. Lipid yields more than twice as many calories per gram as does carbohydrate. On demand, they serve as a local store of energy and a potential source of short carbon chains that are used by the cell in its synthesis of membranes and other lipid containing structural components or secretory products.

text: Morchella rufobrunnea is the morel that is cultivated commercially per US patents 4594809 and 4757640. This process was developed in 1982 by Ronald Ower with what he thought was Morchella esculenta; M. rufobrunnea had not yet been described. The cultivation protocol consists of preparing a spawn culture that is mixed with nutrient-poor soil. This mixture is laid on nutrient-rich soil and kept sufficiently moist until fruiting. In the nutrient-poor substrate, the fungus forms sclerotia—hardened masses of mycelia that serve as food reserves. Under appropriate environmental conditions, these sclerotia grow into morels.

text: Morchella rufobrunnea is the morel that is

text: cultivated

text: commercially per

text: US patent

text: s 4594809 and 4757640. This process was developed in 1982 by Ronald Ower with what he thought was

text: Morchella esculenta

text: ; M. rufobrunnea had not yet been described. The cultivation protocol consists of preparing a

text: spawn

text: culture that is mixed with nutrient-poor soil. This mixture is laid on nutrient-rich soil and kept sufficiently moist until fruiting. In the nutrient-poor substrate, the fungus forms

text: sclerotia

text: —hardened masses of mycelia that serve as food reserves. Under appropriate environmental conditions, these sclerotia grow into morels.

text: Zinc oxide is added to many food products, including breakfast cereals, as a source of zinc, a necessary nutrient. (Zinc sulfate is also used for the same purpose.) Some prepackaged foods also include trace amounts of ZnO even if it is not intended as a nutrient.

text: Zinc oxide is added to many food products, including

text: breakfast cereal

text: s, as a source of zinc, a necessary

text: nutrient

text: Zinc sulfate

text: is also used for the same purpose.) Some prepackaged foods also include trace amounts of ZnO even if it is not intended as a nutrient.

text: The lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds which are relatively insoluble in water and soluble in non-polar solvents. Triglycerides (TGs), cholesterol, and phospholipids are the major lipids in the body. They are transported as complexes of lipid and proteins known as lipoproteins.

text: Protein structure is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a protein molecule. Proteins are polymers — specifically polypeptides — formed from sequences of amino acids, the monomers of the polymer.  A single amino acid monomer may also be called a residue (chemistry) indicating a repeating unit of a polymer. Proteins form by amino acids undergoing condensation reactions, in which the amino acids lose one water molecule per reaction in order to attach to one another with a peptide bond. By convention, a chain under 30 amino acids is often identified as a peptide, rather than a protein. To be able to perform their biological function, proteins fold into one or more specific spatial conformations driven by a number of non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions, Van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic packing. To understand the functions of proteins at a molecular level, it is often necessary to determine their three-dimensional structure. This is the topic of the scientific field of structural biology, which employs techniques such as X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and dual polarisation interferometry to determine the structure of proteins.

text: Protein structure is the

text: three-dimensional arrangement of atom

text: s in a

text: protein

text: molecule

text: . Proteins are

text: polymer

text: s — specifically

text: polypeptide

text: s — formed from sequences of

text: amino acid

text: s, the

text: monomer

text: s of the polymer.  A single amino acid monomer may also be called a

text: residue (chemistry)

text: indicating a repeating unit of a polymer. Proteins form by amino acids undergoing

text: condensation reaction

text: s, in which the amino acids lose one

text: water molecule

text: per

text: reaction

text: in order to attach to one another with a

text: peptide bond

text: . By convention, a chain under 30 amino acids is often identified as a

text: peptide

text: , rather than a protein. To be able to perform their biological function, proteins fold into one or more specific spatial conformations driven by a number of

text: non-covalent interaction

text: s such as

text: hydrogen bonding

text: ionic interaction

text: s,

text: Van der Waals forces

text: , and

text: hydrophobic

text: packing. To understand the functions of proteins at a molecular level, it is often necessary to determine their three-dimensional structure. This is the topic of the scientific field of

text: structural biology

text: , which employs techniques such as

text: X-ray crystallography

text: NMR spectroscopy

text: , and

text: dual polarisation interferometry

text: to determine the structure of proteins.

text: Any form of cooking will destroy some nutrients in food, but the key variables are how much water is used in the cooking, how long the food is cooked, and at what temperature. Nutrients are primarily lost by leaching into cooking water, which tends to make microwave cooking healthier, given the shorter cooking times it requires.  Like other heating methods, microwaving converts vitamin B from an active to inactive form; the amount of inactivation depends on the temperature reached, as well as the cooking time. Boiled food reaches a maximum of  (the boiling point of water), whereas microwaved food can get locally hotter than this, leading to faster breakdown of vitamin B. The higher rate of loss is partially offset by the shorter cooking times required. A single study indicated that microwaving broccoli loses 74% or more of phenolic compounds (97% of flavonoids), while boiling loses 66% of flavonoids, and high-pressure boiling loses 47%, though the study has been contradicted by other studies. To minimize phenolic losses in potatoes, microwaving should be done at 500W.

text: Any form of cooking will destroy some nutrients in food, but the key variables are how much water is used in the cooking, how long the food is cooked, and at what temperature. Nutrients are primarily lost by leaching into cooking water, which tends to make microwave cooking healthier, given the shorter cooking times it requires.  Like other heating methods, microwaving converts

text: vitamin B

text: from an active to inactive form; the amount of inactivation depends on the temperature reached, as well as the cooking time. Boiled food reaches a maximum of  (the boiling point of water), whereas microwaved food can get locally hotter than this, leading to faster breakdown of vitamin B. The higher rate of loss is partially offset by the shorter cooking times required. A single study indicated that microwaving broccoli loses 74% or more of

text: phenolic compounds

text: (97% of

text: flavonoid

text: s), while boiling loses 66% of flavonoids, and high-pressure boiling loses 47%, though the study has been contradicted by other studies. To minimize phenolic losses in potatoes, microwaving should be done at 500W.

text: Ch. = Choline; Ca = Calcium;  Fe = Iron;  Mg = Magnesium;  P = Phosphorus;  K = Potassium;  Na = Sodium;  Zn = Zinc;  Cu = Copper;  Mn = Manganese;  Se = Selenium;%DV = %Daily value i.e. % of DRI ( Dietary reference intake )Note : All nutrient values including protein are in %DV per 100 grams of the food item. Significant values are highlighted in light Gray color and bold letters.Cooking reduction = % Maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without draining for Ovo-lacto-vegetables group

text: Ch. = Choline; Ca = Calcium;  Fe = Iron;  Mg = Magnesium;  P = Phosphorus;  K = Potassium;  Na = Sodium;  Zn = Zinc;  Cu = Copper;  Mn = Manganese;  Se = Selenium;%DV = %Daily value i.e. % of DRI (

text: Dietary reference intake

text: )Note : All nutrient values including protein are in %DV per 100 grams of the food item. Significant values are highlighted in light Gray color and bold letters.Cooking reduction = % Maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without draining for Ovo-lacto-vegetables group

text: "The colourings, flavourings, additives, preservatives, artificial fruit acids and so on that are contained in the packaged and canned foods on sale in supermarkets and shops greatly add to the amount of chemicals regularly consumed, plus the drugs taken for illnesses, by the average Westerner. Added to all this, a great many things that are eaten contain residues of pesticides, detergents, and so forth. The strain of the human body trying to cope with such toxic matter that you consume every day of your life is considerable and in addition, there are the natural toxins and acids that the body produces during its own daily work which weaken the metabolism and make it a prey to ill health when it need not be."

text: Dr. Wilbur O. Atwater, who developed the first database of food composition in the United States, recognized that the response to excessive or insufficient nutrient intake included an adjustment in efficiency that would result in a plateau.  He observed: "It has been found by numerous experiments that when the nutrients are fed in large excess, the body may continue for a time to store away part of the extra material, but after it has accumulated a certain amount, it refuses to take on more, and the daily consumption equals the supply even when this involves great waste."

text: Dr.

text: Wilbur O. Atwater

text: , who developed the first database of food composition in the United States, recognized that the response to excessive or insufficient nutrient intake included an adjustment in efficiency that would result in a plateau.  He observed: "It has been found by numerous experiments that when the nutrients are fed in large excess, the body may continue for a time to store away part of the extra material, but after it has accumulated a certain amount, it refuses to take on more, and the daily consumption equals the supply even when this involves great waste."

text: where X represents the isotope of interest (e.g., C) and R represents the ratio of the isotope of interest and its natural form (e.g., C/C). Higher (less negative) delta values indicate increases in a sample's isotope of interest, relative to the standard, and lower (or more negative) values indicate decreases. The standard reference materials for carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur are Pee Dee Belamnite limestone, nitrogen gas in the atmosphere, and Cañon Diablo meteorite respectively. Analysis is usually done using a mass spectrometer, detecting small differences between gaseous elements. Analysis of a sample can cost anywhere from $30 to $100. Stable isotopes assist scientists in analyzing animal diets and food webs by examining the animal tissues that bear a fixed isotopic enrichment or depletion vs. the diet. Muscle or protein fractions have become the most common animal tissue used to examine the isotopes because they represent the assimilated nutrients in their diet. The main advantage to using stable isotope analysis as opposed to stomach content observations is that no matter what the status is of the animal's stomach (empty or not), the isotope tracers in the tissues will give us an understanding of its trophic position and food source. The three major isotopes used in aquatic ecosystem food web analysis are C, N and S. While all three indicate information on trophic dynamics, it is common to perform analysis on at least two of the previously mentioned 3 isotopes for better understanding of marine trophic interactions and for stronger results.

text: where X represents the isotope of interest (e.g., C) and R represents the ratio of the isotope of interest and its natural form (e.g., C/C). Higher (less negative) delta values indicate increases in a sample's isotope of interest, relative to the standard, and lower (or more negative) values indicate decreases. The standard reference materials for carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur are

text: Pee Dee Belamnite

text: limestone, nitrogen gas in the atmosphere, and Cañon Diablo meteorite respectively. Analysis is usually done using a mass spectrometer, detecting small differences between gaseous elements. Analysis of a sample can cost anywhere from $30 to $100. Stable isotopes assist scientists in analyzing animal diets and food webs by examining the animal tissues that bear a fixed isotopic enrichment or depletion vs. the diet. Muscle or protein fractions have become the most common animal tissue used to examine the isotopes because they represent the assimilated nutrients in their diet. The main advantage to using stable isotope analysis as opposed to stomach content observations is that no matter what the status is of the animal's stomach (empty or not), the isotope tracers in the tissues will give us an understanding of its trophic position and food source. The three major isotopes used in aquatic ecosystem food web analysis are C, N and S. While all three indicate information on

text: trophic dynamics

text: , it is common to perform analysis on at least two of the previously mentioned 3 isotopes for better understanding of marine trophic interactions and for stronger results.

text: The rate at which a soil can absorb water depends on the soil and its other conditions. As a plant grows, its roots remove water from the largest pores first. Soon the larger pores hold only air, and the remaining water is found only in the intermediate- and smallest-sized pores. The water in the smallest pores is so strongly held to particle surfaces that plant roots cannot pull it away. Consequently, not all soil water is available to plants. When saturated, the soil may lose nutrients as the water drains. Water moves in a draining field under the influence of pressure where the soil is locally saturated and by capillarity pull to dryer parts of the soil. Most plant water needs are supplied from the suction caused by evaporation from plant leaves and 10% is supplied by "suction" created by osmotic pressure differences between the plant interior and the soil water. Plant roots must seek out water. Insufficient water will damage the yield of a crop. Most of the available water is used in transpiration to pull nutrients into the plant.

text: Abstract: Aeroponics International’s (AI’s) innovation is a self-contained, self-supporting, inflatable aeroponic crop production unit with integral environmental systems for the control and delivery of a nutrient/mist to the roots. This inflatable aeroponic system addresses the needs of subtopic 08.03 Spacecraft Life Support Infrastructure and, in particular, water and nutrient delivery systems technologies for food production. The inflatable nature of our innovation makes it lightweight, allowing it to be deflated so it takes up less volume during transportation and storage. It improves on AI’s current aeroponic system design that uses rigid structures, which use more expensive materials, manufacture processes, and transportation. As a stationary aeroponic system, these existing high-mass units perform very well, but transporting and storing them can be problematic.

text: Although many foods contain magnesium, it is usually found in low levels. As with most nutrients, daily needs for magnesium are unlikely to be met by one serving of any single food. Eating a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains will help ensure adequate intake of magnesium.

text: A vitamin is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in  cells. In human nutrition, most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), a derivative of vitamin B (niacin), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of dehydrogenases remove electrons from their substrates and reduce NAD into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the reductases in the cell that need to reduce their substrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.

text: A

text: vitamin

text: is an organic compound needed in small quantities that cannot be made in  cells. In human

text: nutrition

text: , most vitamins function as coenzymes after modification; for example, all water-soluble vitamins are phosphorylated or are coupled to nucleotides when they are used in cells.

text: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: (NAD), a derivative of vitamin B (

text: niacin

text: ), is an important coenzyme that acts as a hydrogen acceptor. Hundreds of separate types of

text: dehydrogenase

text: s remove electrons from their substrates and

text: reduce

text: NAD into NADH. This reduced form of the coenzyme is then a substrate for any of the

text: reductase

text: s in the cell that need to reduce their substrates. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two related forms in the cell, NADH and NADPH. The NAD/NADH form is more important in catabolic reactions, while NADP/NADPH is used in anabolic reactions.

text: The leading cause of death for men in Oakland is heart disease and for African American men like Ken Shandy, they are 20 times more likely to suffer from heart disease than white males.  This accounts for the largest proportion of inequality in life expectancy between whites and blacks.  That is because African American men are more vulnerable to social conditions that lead to heart disease such as lack of access to healthy food, lack of safe green space to exercise, and hypertension, among other environmental factors. This lack access to healthy food, is one of the main causes for diet-related diseases in low income communities of color, some of these conditions include type II diabetes, heart disease, various forms of cancers and other preventable diseases. In low income areas diets that are affordable and accessible are generally high in refined grains, added grains, and added fats which might fill up someone’s stomach for a short time but are extremely nutrient poor, often leading to higher risk of disease and higher mortality. These nutrient poor diets have also been an independent predictor in many studies of obesity and metabolic syndrome.

text: The leading cause of death for men in

text: Oakland

text: is

text: heart disease

text: and for African American men like Ken Shandy, they are 20 times more likely to suffer from

text: heart disease

text: than white males.  This accounts for the largest proportion of inequality in life expectancy between whites and blacks.  That is because African American men are more vulnerable to social conditions that lead to heart disease such as lack of access to healthy food, lack of safe green space to exercise, and

text: hypertension

text: , among other environmental factors. This lack access to healthy food, is one of the main causes for diet-related diseases in low income communities of color, some of these conditions include

text: type II diabetes

text: heart disease

text: , various forms of

text: cancers

text: and other preventable diseases. In low income areas diets that are affordable and accessible are generally high in

text: refined grains

text: , added grains, and added fats which might fill up someone’s stomach for a short time but are extremely nutrient poor, often leading to higher risk of disease and higher mortality. These nutrient poor diets have also been an independent predictor in many studies of obesity and metabolic syndrome.

text: There are regulations in most countries that limit the claims on the treatment of disease that can be placed on food, drug, and nutrient product labels. Regulations include:

text: Without knowing it, PDs had incorporated foods already found in their community that provided important nutrients: protein, iron, and calcium. A nutrition program based on these insights was created. Instead of simply telling participants what to do differently, they designed the program to help them act their way into a new way of thinking. To attend a feeding session, parents were required to bring one of the newly identified foods. They brought their children and while sharing nutritious meals, learned to cook the new foods.

text: Without knowing it, PDs had incorporated foods already found in their community that provided important nutrients:

text: protein

text: iron

text: , and

text: calcium

text: . A nutrition program based on these insights was created. Instead of simply telling participants what to do differently, they designed the program to help them act their way into a new way of thinking. To attend a feeding session, parents were required to bring one of the newly identified foods. They brought their children and while sharing nutritious meals, learned to cook the new foods.

text: It is important for food programs such as these in schools because some students may receive all their meals from school. According to the CDC, a poor diet can lead to energy imbalance (e.g., eating more calories than one expends through physical activity) and can increase one’s risk for overweight and obesity. Without a well balanced diet it could cause a child's brain to not develop normally (Berger, 172). Children may be malnourished and could possibly suffer from Protein-calorie malnutrition (Berger 172). In the long run if children do suffer from lack of nutrients it will not only impede brain growth but effect their ability to learn as well (Berger, 172).

text: It is important for food programs such as these in schools because some students may receive all their meals from school. According to the

entity_name: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: CDC

text: , a poor diet can lead to energy imbalance (e.g., eating more calories than one expends through physical activity) and can increase one’s risk for overweight and obesity. Without a well balanced diet it could cause a child's brain to not develop normally (Berger, 172). Children may be malnourished and could possibly suffer from

text: Protein-calorie malnutrition

text: (Berger 172). In the long run if children do suffer from lack of nutrients it will not only impede brain growth but effect their ability to learn as well (Berger, 172).

text: The climate in the far north of Europe made cultivation of cereals even more difficult, and the wheat so popular in the south was a luxury in northern Europe.  Wheat could cost at least twice as much as the most common grains, barley and rye. Barley was the most widely grown, but a great percentage of the harvest went into the extensive beer production, while rye was the principal bread grain. Like in the rest of Europe, oats was considered only fit as animal fodder and was only eaten when no other choice was available, and then usually as porridge or gruel. Though grains were in the highest regard among medieval Scandinavians and were among the most frequently mentioned foods, other vegetable foods were an indispensable part of the diet: peas, turnips, beans, carrots, onions, leeks and various greens and herbs all provided essential nutrients and vitamins. Kale, a form of cabbage, was especially important in Denmark and Sweden and was a valuable source of fresh food in the winter months, since it kept well and could be harvested (and even tasted better) after the first frost had set in.

text: The climate in the far north of Europe made cultivation of cereals even more difficult, and the wheat so popular in the south was a luxury in northern Europe.  Wheat could cost at least twice as much as the most common grains,

text: barley

text: and

text: rye

text: . Barley was the most widely grown, but a great percentage of the harvest went into the extensive

text: beer

text: production, while rye was the principal bread grain. Like in the rest of Europe,

text: oats

text: was considered only fit as animal fodder and was only eaten when no other choice was available, and then usually as porridge or gruel. Though grains were in the highest regard among medieval Scandinavians and were among the most frequently mentioned foods, other vegetable foods were an indispensable part of the diet: peas, turnips, beans, carrots, onions, leeks and various greens and herbs all provided essential nutrients and vitamins.

text: Kale

text: , a form of

text: cabbage

text: , was especially important in Denmark and Sweden and was a valuable source of fresh food in the winter months, since it kept well and could be harvested (and even tasted better) after the first frost had set in.

text: Often in lists of nutritional information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, which are not normally considered carbohydrates. It also includes "dietary fiber" which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute much in the way of food energy (calories), even though it is often included in the calculation of total food energy just as though it were a sugar.

text: Often in lists of

text: nutritional information

text: , such as the

text: USDA National Nutrient Database

text: , the term "carbohydrate" (or "carbohydrate by difference") is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash, and ethanol. This will include chemical compounds such as

text: acetic

text: or

text: lactic acid

text: , which are not normally considered carbohydrates. It also includes "

text: dietary fiber

text: " which is a carbohydrate but which does not contribute much in the way of

text: food energy

text: (calories), even though it is often included in the calculation of total food energy just as though it were a sugar.

text: Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of food energy to sustain their metabolism and to drive their muscles.  Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals.  Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight.  (Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins comprise ninety percent of the dry weight of foods.)  Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as from organic acids, polyols, and ethanol present in the diet.  Some diet components that provide little or no food energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol, and fiber, may still be necessary to health and survival for other reasons.  Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down (they are used by the body in the form in which they are absorbed) and so cannot be used for energy.  Fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body.  Ruminants can extract food energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens.

text: Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of food energy to sustain their

text: metabolism

text: and to drive their muscles.  Foods are composed chiefly of

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: fat

text: s,

text: proteins

text: water

text: vitamin

text: s, and

text: minerals

text: .  Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight.  (Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins comprise ninety percent of the dry weight of foods.)  Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as from

text: organic acid

text: s,

text: polyol

text: s, and

text: ethanol

text: present in the diet.  Some

text: diet

text: components that provide little or no food energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol, and fiber, may still be necessary to health and survival for other reasons.  Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down (they are used by the body in the form in which they are absorbed) and so cannot be used for energy.  Fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body.

text: Ruminant

text: s can extract food energy from the respiration of

text: cellulose

text: because of

text: bacteria

text: in their

text: rumen

text: s.

text: STORC aquaponic's project focuses on the Urban Agriculture Method   studying how to reduce water use and space needed to grow food in an urban setting. The goal of the aquaponic system at the facility is to gather detailed quantitative and operational parameters creating an example for other aquaponic systems to reference. Nutrient, reproductive, feeding, and environmental factors required by traditional aquaponic systems are addressed as well as pest and disease control strategies. The STORC is developing renewable systems to monitor operational controls such as water and air temperature, air circulation, and data collection. Other objectives of these systems include addressing problems in urban, industrial, and agriculture settings to ascertain knowledge needed to scale-up aquaponic systems that are both cost effective and efficient.

text: STORC

text: aquaponic

text: 's project focuses on the

text: Urban Agriculture Method

text: studying how to reduce water use and space needed to grow food in an urban setting. The goal of the aquaponic system at the facility is to gather detailed quantitative and operational parameters creating an example for other aquaponic systems to reference. Nutrient, reproductive, feeding, and environmental factors required by traditional aquaponic systems are addressed as well as pest and disease control strategies. The STORC is developing renewable systems to monitor operational controls such as water and air temperature, air circulation, and data collection. Other objectives of these systems include addressing problems in urban, industrial, and agriculture settings to ascertain knowledge needed to scale-up aquaponic systems that are both cost effective and efficient.

text: There are 24 known isotopes of potassium, three of which occur naturally:  (93.3%),  (0.0117%), and  (6.7%). Naturally occurring  has a half-life of 1.250×10 years. It decays to stable  by electron capture or positron emission (11.2%) or to stable  by beta decay (88.8%). The decay of  to  is the basis of a common method for dating rocks. The conventional K-Ar dating method depends on the assumption that the rocks contained no argon at the time of formation and that all the subsequent radiogenic argon () was quantitatively retained. Minerals are dated by measurement of the concentration of potassium and the amount of radiogenic  that has accumulated. The minerals best suited for dating include biotite, muscovite, metamorphic hornblende, and volcanic feldspar; whole rock samples from volcanic flows and shallow instrusives can also be dated if they are unaltered. Apart from dating, potassium isotopes have been used as tracers in studies of weathering and for nutrient cycling studies because potassium is a macronutrient required for life.

text: There are 24 known

text: isotope

text: s of potassium, three of which occur naturally:  (93.3%),  (0.0117%), and  (6.7%). Naturally occurring  has a

text: half-life

text: of 1.250×10 years. It decays to stable  by

text: electron capture

text: or

text: positron emission

text: (11.2%) or to stable  by

text: beta decay

text: (88.8%). The decay of  to  is the basis of a common method for dating rocks. The conventional

text: K-Ar dating method

text: depends on the assumption that the rocks contained no argon at the time of formation and that all the subsequent radiogenic argon () was quantitatively retained.

text: Mineral

text: s are dated by measurement of the concentration of potassium and the amount of radiogenic  that has accumulated. The minerals best suited for dating include

text: biotite

text: muscovite

text: , metamorphic

text: hornblende

text: , and volcanic

text: feldspar

text: whole rock

text: samples from volcanic flows and shallow

text: instrusives

text: can also be dated if they are unaltered. Apart from dating, potassium isotopes have been used as

text: tracers

text: in studies of

text: weathering

text: and for

text: nutrient cycling

text: studies because potassium is a

text: macronutrient

text: required for

text: life

text: After a rabbit ingests food, the food travels down the esophagus and through a small valve called the cardia.  In rabbits, this valve is very well pronounced and makes the rabbit incapable of vomiting.  The food enters the stomach after passing through the cardia.   Food then moves to the stomach and small intestine where a majority of nutrient extraction and absorption takes place.  Food then passes into the colon and eventually into the cecum.  Peristaltic muscle contractions (waves of motion) help to separate fibrous and non-fibrous particles.  The non-fibrous particles are then moved backwards up the colon, through the illeo-cecal valve, and into the cecum. Symbiotic bacteria in the cecum help to further digest the non-fibrous particles into a more metabolically manageable substance.  After as little as three hours, a soft, fecal "pellet", called a cecotrope, is expelled from the rabbit's anus.  The rabbit instinctively eats these grape-like pellets, without chewing, in exchange keeping the mucous coating intact. This coating protects the vitamin- and nutrient-rich bacteria from stomach acid, until it reaches the small intestine, where the nutrients from the cecotrope can be absorbed.

text: After a rabbit ingests food, the food travels down the esophagus and through a small valve called the

text: cardia

text: .  In rabbits, this valve is very well pronounced and makes the rabbit incapable of vomiting.  The food enters the stomach after passing through the cardia.   Food then moves to the stomach and small intestine where a majority of nutrient extraction and absorption takes place.  Food then passes into the colon and eventually into the cecum.

text: Peristaltic

text: muscle contractions (waves of motion) help to separate fibrous and non-fibrous particles.  The non-fibrous particles are then moved backwards up the colon, through the illeo-cecal valve, and into the cecum. Symbiotic bacteria in the cecum help to further digest the non-fibrous particles into a more metabolically manageable substance.  After as little as three hours, a soft, fecal "pellet", called a

text: cecotrope

text: , is expelled from the rabbit's anus.  The rabbit instinctively eats these grape-like pellets, without chewing, in exchange keeping the mucous coating intact. This coating protects the vitamin- and nutrient-rich bacteria from stomach acid, until it reaches the small intestine, where the nutrients from the

text: cecotrope

text: can be absorbed.

text: Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87 calories of energy per gram for simple sugars, and 3.57 to 4.12 calories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods. Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Lower amounts of carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit.  Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of lactose.

text: Carbohydrate consumed in food yields 3.87

text: calories

text: of energy per

text: gram

text: for simple sugars, and 3.57 to 4.12 calories per gram for complex carbohydrate in most other foods. Relatively high levels of carbohydrate are associated with processed foods or refined foods made from plants, including sweets, cookies and candy, table sugar, honey, soft drinks, breads and crackers, jams and fruit products, pastas and breakfast cereals. Lower amounts of carbohydrate are usually associated with unrefined foods, including beans, tubers, rice, and unrefined fruit.  Animal-based foods generally have the lowest carbohydrate levels, although milk does contain a high proportion of

text: lactose

text: Yellow cassava is a new, yellow-fleshed breed of one of the most popular root crops in the tropics. Regular cassava is a staple crop in tropical countries which 300 million people rely upon for at least 10% of their daily caloric intake, in 15 African countries “In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, cassava is estimated to provide more than 1000 kcal/day to over 40 million people”. Three yellow root cassava varieties, UMUCASS 36, UMUCASS 37, and UMUCASS 38, are being grown (under the Harvest Plus Project) in Nigeria for their high concentrations of β-carotene. β-carotene is a precursor to Vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency is a major issue, especially in Africa. Nigeria in particular sees a prevalence of Vitamin A deficiency in nearly one third of children under five years old. Since cassava is a major food staple, yellow cassava shows great potential to alleviate Vitamin A deficiency in Africa.

text: Yellow

text: cassava

text: is a new, yellow-fleshed breed of one of the most popular root crops in the tropics. Regular cassava is a staple crop in tropical countries which 300 million people rely upon for at least 10% of their daily caloric intake, in 15 African countries “In the

text: Democratic Republic of the Congo

text: , cassava is estimated to provide more than 1000 kcal/day to over 40 million people”. Three yellow root cassava varieties, UMUCASS 36, UMUCASS 37, and UMUCASS 38, are being grown (under the Harvest Plus Project) in Nigeria for their high concentrations of β-carotene. β-carotene is a precursor to Vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency is a major issue, especially in Africa.

text: Nigeria

text: in particular sees a prevalence of Vitamin A deficiency in nearly one third of children under five years old. Since cassava is a major food staple, yellow cassava shows great potential to alleviate Vitamin A deficiency in Africa.

text: Despite historical consumer preference for refined white flour, whole wheat flour products are ascendant largely due to changing consumer attitudes. The Whole Grains Council industry association reports an approximate doubling of the whole wheat flour production from 2003 to 2007. In another visible example, whole wheat bread has reached approximate parity with white bread as measured by slice volume in the United States; as of 2010, whole wheat bread narrowly surpasses white bread as measured by dollar volume.Fortification of white flour whole grains are more nutritious than refined products and wheat is no exception. Whole wheat flour is more nutritious than refined white flour, although through food fortification, some micronutrients are added back to the white flour (required by law in some jurisdictions). Fortified white wheat flour does not, however, contain all of the macronutrients, fiber, antioxidants, phytonutrients, and much of the protein of the wheat's bran and germ. Whole wheat is a good source of calcium, iron, fiber, and other minerals like selenium.

text: Despite historical consumer preference for

text: refined white flour

text: , whole wheat flour products are ascendant largely due to changing consumer attitudes. The

text: Whole Grains Council

text: industry association reports an approximate doubling of the whole wheat flour production from 2003 to 2007. In another visible example,

text: whole wheat bread

text: has reached approximate parity with

text: white bread

text: as measured by slice volume in the United States; as of 2010, whole wheat bread narrowly surpasses white bread as measured by dollar volume.Fortification of white flour whole grains are more

text: nutritious

text: than refined products and wheat is no exception. Whole wheat flour is more nutritious than refined white flour, although through

text: food fortification

text: , some

text: micronutrients

text: are added back to the white flour (required by law in some jurisdictions). Fortified white wheat flour does not, however, contain all of the

text: macronutrients

text: , fiber,

text: antioxidants

text: , phytonutrients, and much of the

text: protein

text: of the wheat's bran and germ. Whole wheat is a good source of

text: calcium

text: iron

text: , fiber, and other

text: minerals

text: like

text: selenium

text: In stratified, eutrophic lakes an oxygen deficit in deep water is created during summer stagnation. As a result of elevated nutrient inputs the trophic level of many lakes increases continuously. Elevated phosphorus concentrations may lead to stronger algae growth and a corresponding increase in oxygen consumption in the deep zones. In the anaerobic environment of deep water sludge accumulates, while concentrations of ammonium, iron, manganese and toxic hydrogen sulfide increase in the water body.The hypolimnion is now not only hostile, but the anaerobic conditions also cause increased phosphate dissolutions from the sediments into the deep water. These additional nutrient loads create further problems after the next full circulation. Particularly in terms of drinking water production in reservoirs and dams with respect to the existing regulations of the Drinking Water Ordinance, these deteriorations in water status are a serious problem. The deep water aeration can prevent this process.

text: In stratified, eutrophic lakes an oxygen deficit in deep water is created during summer stagnation. As a result of elevated nutrient inputs the trophic level of many lakes increases continuously. Elevated phosphorus concentrations may lead to stronger algae growth and a corresponding increase in oxygen consumption in the deep zones. In the anaerobic environment of deep water sludge accumulates, while concentrations of

text: ammonium

text: iron

text: manganese

text: and toxic

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: increase in the

text: water body

text: .The

text: hypolimnion

text: is now not only hostile, but the

text: anaerobic conditions

text: also cause increased phosphate dissolutions from the sediments into the deep water. These additional nutrient loads create further problems after the next full circulation. Particularly in terms of drinking water production in reservoirs and dams with respect to the existing regulations of the Drinking Water Ordinance, these deteriorations in water status are a serious problem. The deep water aeration can prevent this process.

text: All the other nutrients in food are noncaloric and are thus not counted.

text: Nutrient level of certain macro and micronutrients varies throughout the life history of the organism. There are few large differences in nutrient levels between workers and gynes; however, gynes process lipids differently by retaining them. On the other hand, the differences in nutrient levels in reproductive larvae and non-reproductive larvae are strong. Additionally, nutrient levels does not change throughout the lifetime of both male and females Polistes metricus. Based on these observations, the nutrient level at the larval stage tends to correlate with the reproductive ability of the larvae as it develops.

text: Nutrient

text: level of certain macro and micronutrients varies throughout the life history of the organism. There are few large differences in nutrient levels between workers and gynes; however,

text: gynes

text: process

text: lipid

text: s differently by retaining them. On the other hand, the differences in nutrient levels in reproductive larvae and non-reproductive larvae are strong. Additionally, nutrient levels does not change throughout the lifetime of both male and females Polistes metricus. Based on these observations, the nutrient level at the larval stage tends to correlate with the reproductive ability of the larvae as it develops.

text: Adsorbed proteins are among the most difficult food soils to remove from food contact surfaces.  In particular, heat-denatured proteins (such as those found in dairy industry applications) adhere tightly to surfaces and require strong alkaline cleaners for removal.  It is important that cleaning methods are capable of removing both visible and non-visible protein soils.  Nutrients for bacterial growth must be removed as well as biofilms that may have built up on the food contact surface.  Proteins are water-insoluble, slightly soluble in acidic solutions and soluble in alkaline solutions, which limits the type of cleaner that can be used to remove protein from the surface.  Generally speaking, highly alkaline cleaners with peptizing and wetting agents are most effective in protein removal on food contact surfaces.  Cleaning temperature is also a concern for effective protein removal.  As temperature increases, the activity of the cleaning compound increases, making soil removal easier.  However, at higher temperatures (> 55°C) proteins denature and cleaning efficacy is reduced.

text: Phytic acid is also known to bond with many different minerals, and by doing so prevents those minerals from being absorbed; making phytic acid an anti-nutrient. There is a lot of concern with phytic acids in nuts and seeds because of its anti-nutrient characteristics.  In preparing foods with high phytic acid concentrations, it is recommended they be soaked in after being ground to increase the surface area.  Soaking allows the seed to undergo germination which increases the availability of vitamins and nutrient, while reducing phytic acid and protease inhibitors, ultimately increasing the nutritional value.  Cooking can also reduce the amount of phytic acid in food but soaking is much more effective.

text: Phytic acid is also known to bond with many different minerals, and by doing so prevents those minerals from being absorbed; making phytic acid an anti-nutrient. There is a lot of concern with phytic acids in nuts and seeds because of its anti-nutrient characteristics.  In preparing foods with high phytic acid concentrations, it is recommended they be soaked in after being ground to increase the surface area.  Soaking allows the seed to undergo

text: germination

text: which increases the availability of vitamins and nutrient, while reducing phytic acid and

text: protease inhibitors

text: , ultimately increasing the nutritional value.  Cooking can also reduce the amount of phytic acid in food but soaking is much more effective.

text: Carbohydrate counting or “carb” counting is a meal planning tool used in diabetes management to help optimize blood sugar control. It can be used with or without the use of insulin therapy. Carbohydrate counting involves determining whether a food item has carbohydrate followed by the subsequent determination of how much carbohydrate the food item has in it.

text: Carbohydrate

text: counting or “carb” counting is a meal planning tool used in diabetes management to help optimize blood sugar control. It can be used with or without the use of insulin therapy. Carbohydrate counting involves determining whether a food item has carbohydrate followed by the subsequent determination of how much carbohydrate the food item has in it.

text: Before 1978, scientists hypothesized that diatoms dominated plankton populations in the NPSG. The primary consumers were expected to be relatively large mesozooplankton. It is now well known that most of the algae in the NPSG are actually bacteria (unicellular organisms), dominated by cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae. These simple organisms make up the majority of the standing stock of photosynthesizing marine life in this ecosystem. Scientists have also recently discovered Archaea (also a single-celled microorganism, but more similar to a eukaryote than bacteria) genes in the NPSG, suggesting that additional diversity exists in this habitat. Many microorganisms may exist in this gyre because small body size has a competitive advantage in the ocean for resource (light and nutrients) acquisition. In the contemporary view of the NPSG, the microbial food web is always present, whereas the larger eukaryote-grazer food chain is seasonal and ephemeral.

text: Before 1978, scientists hypothesized that diatoms dominated plankton populations in the NPSG. The primary consumers were expected to be relatively large mesozooplankton. It is now well known that most of the algae in the NPSG are actually bacteria (unicellular organisms), dominated by cyanobacteria, or

text: blue-green algae

text: . These simple organisms make up the majority of the standing stock of photosynthesizing marine life in this ecosystem. Scientists have also recently discovered Archaea (also a single-celled

text: microorganism

text: , but more similar to a eukaryote than bacteria) genes in the NPSG, suggesting that additional diversity exists in this habitat. Many microorganisms may exist in this gyre because small body size has a

text: competitive advantage

text: in the ocean for resource (light and nutrients) acquisition. In the contemporary view of the NPSG, the microbial food web is always present, whereas the larger eukaryote-grazer food chain is seasonal and ephemeral.

text: One implication of the finding that carbohydrate restriction in obese patients causes them to lose weight is that excessive carbohydrate consumption is likely to be a cause of obesity in the first place. An obvious possible culprit is sugar, which provides calories but no nutrients whatever. Given the dramatic increase in sugar consumption during the first half of the century, Yudkin started to suspect that excessive sugar in the diet might contribute not only to obesity but also to coronary heart disease. Studying historical data from many different countries, he found that increasing prosperity leads to an increase in sugar consumption, particularly in manufactured foods, and also that the ready availability of sugar-containing manufactured foods even in the poorer countries may lead to their being bought in preference to more nutritious food. In 1964 he wrote 'In the wealthier countries, there is evidence that sugar and sugar-containing foods contribute to several diseases, including obesity, dental caries, diabetes mellitus and myocardial infarction [heart attack]'. Investigating whether any link between sugar consumption and disease could be shown in individual patients, he and his associates in the Department of Nutrition found that patients with atherosclerotic disease (a frequent precursor of coronary heart disease) consumed significantly more sucrose than control patients. An obstacle to the acceptance of these ideas was the belief at the time that sugar and starch were metabolised in the same way, so that one would expect no difference in their effects.  Yudkin and his associates, however, fed both experimental animals and human volunteers with differing quantities of sugar and starch, and found major differences between the two carbohydrates in their metabolic effects. As early as 1967 Yudkin suggested that the excessive consumption of sugar might result in a disturbance in the secretion of insulin, and that this in turn might contribute to atherosclerosis and diabetes.

text: One implication of the finding that carbohydrate restriction in obese patients causes them to lose weight is that excessive carbohydrate consumption is likely to be a cause of obesity in the first place. An obvious possible culprit is sugar, which provides

text: calories

text: but no

text: nutrients

text: whatever. Given the dramatic increase in sugar consumption during the first half of the century, Yudkin started to suspect that excessive sugar in the diet might contribute not only to obesity but also to

text: coronary heart disease.

text: Studying historical data from many different countries, he found that increasing prosperity leads to an increase in sugar consumption, particularly in manufactured foods, and also that the ready availability of sugar-containing manufactured foods even in the poorer countries may lead to their being bought in preference to more nutritious food. In 1964 he wrote 'In the wealthier countries, there is evidence that sugar and sugar-containing foods contribute to several diseases, including

text: obesity

text: dental caries

text: diabetes mellitus

text: and

text: myocardial infarction

text: [heart attack]'. Investigating whether any link between sugar consumption and disease could be shown in individual patients, he and his associates in the Department of Nutrition found that patients with

text: atherosclerotic disease

text: (a frequent precursor of coronary heart disease) consumed significantly more sucrose than control patients. An obstacle to the acceptance of these ideas was the belief at the time that sugar and starch were metabolised in the same way, so that one would expect no difference in their effects.  Yudkin and his associates, however, fed both experimental animals and human volunteers with differing quantities of sugar and starch, and found major differences between the two carbohydrates in their metabolic effects. As early as 1967 Yudkin suggested that the excessive consumption of sugar might result in a disturbance in the secretion of insulin, and that this in turn might contribute to atherosclerosis and diabetes.

text: Urine contains large quantities of nitrogen (mostly as urea), as well as significant quantities of dissolved phosphates and potassium, the main macronutrients required by plants. The nutrient concentrations in urine vary with diet.

text: Urine

text: contains large quantities of nitrogen (mostly as

text: urea

text: macronutrients

text: required by plants. The nutrient concentrations in urine vary with diet.

text: Several types of stakeholders are recognized as potential participants in a water market, including agricultural users, industrial, and urban, as well as those who value in stream uses for recreation, habitat preservation, or other environmental benefits. Water rights holders—particularly agricultural users—can make water available for trade by employing water conservation technology,  through permanent fallowing, seasonal fallowing, shifts in crop choice, or voluntary water conservation (for example, residential water conservation practices). Trades can then be long-term leases, permanent transfers, short-term leases, or a callable transfer, which is the ability of a city to lease water under specified drought conditions. There are other flexible trade tools used by urban areas, such as water leasebacks, wherein the municipality purchases the water right from agricultural users and then can lease it back to those users in non-drought years, as a way to ensure the urban water supply. Banking water is a related tool, wherein water is stored underground in non-drought years to be used in drought years, though this is not to be confused with water banks, which are brokering institutions. Water ranching is a method of accessing unclaimed water rights that are legally bound to land rights. While many areas have detached these two types of rights from one another, some still prohibit the severing of rights and thus continue to promote water ranching. In the event of water ranching, the groundwater removed from the property is often much greater than that which would be used for average agricultural use, which can be harmful to the ecosystems which rely on it. This practice also creates inefficiency in the dispersal of land and water access ownership, as non-agricultural parties, such as municipalities, may purchase a plot of land simply for its water.Water credits: The idea is to have a tradable certificate which notifies the quantity of water saved by an institution, organization or an individual this would help in maximum utilization of every available drop of water. It may be defined as a permit that allows the holder to trade the conserved water in the international market at their current market price.

text: Several types of stakeholders are recognized as potential participants in a water market, including agricultural users, industrial, and urban, as well as those who value in stream uses for recreation, habitat preservation, or other environmental benefits. Water rights holders—particularly agricultural users—can make water available for trade by employing water conservation technology,  through permanent fallowing,

text: seasonal fallowing

text: , shifts in crop choice, or voluntary water conservation (for example, residential water conservation practices). Trades can then be long-term leases, permanent transfers, short-term leases, or a callable transfer, which is the ability of a city to lease water under specified drought conditions. There are other flexible trade tools used by urban areas, such as water leasebacks, wherein the municipality purchases the water right from agricultural users and then can lease it back to those users in non-drought years, as a way to ensure the urban water supply. Banking water is a related tool, wherein water is stored underground in non-drought years to be used in drought years, though this is not to be confused with water banks, which are brokering institutions. Water ranching is a method of accessing unclaimed water rights that are legally bound to land rights. While many areas have detached these two types of rights from one another, some still prohibit the severing of rights and thus continue to promote water ranching. In the event of water ranching, the

text: groundwater

text: removed from the property is often much greater than that which would be used for average agricultural use, which can be harmful to the ecosystems which rely on it. This practice also creates inefficiency in the dispersal of land and water access ownership, as non-agricultural parties, such as municipalities, may purchase a plot of land simply for its water.Water credits: The idea is to have a tradable certificate which notifies the quantity of water saved by an institution, organization or an individual this would help in maximum utilization of every available drop of water. It may be defined as a permit that allows the holder to trade the conserved water in the international market at their current market price.

text: There are two varieites of Afrikaner sheep; The Namaqua Afrikaner and the Ronderib Afrikaner. Their long, fat tail is an energy store which helps them survive long dry seasons, when fat or lipid breaks down it provides energy and water at the same time; hydrogen is present in all lipids, although hydrogen is not water when not combined to another molecule it automatically grabs two oxygen molecules and becomes H0 water, the rest of the molecules associated with the lipid become energy and combine to form other nutrients.

text: There are two varieites of Afrikaner sheep; The Namaqua Afrikaner and the Ronderib Afrikaner. Their long, fat tail is an energy store which helps them survive long dry seasons, when fat or

text: lipid

text: breaks down it provides energy and water at the same time; hydrogen is present in all lipids, although hydrogen is not water when not combined to another molecule it automatically grabs two oxygen molecules and becomes

text: water, the rest of the molecules associated with the lipid become energy and combine to form other nutrients.

text: Water treatment is any process that makes water more acceptable for a specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the environment.  Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.

text: Water treatment is any process that makes

text: water

text: more acceptable for a specific end-use. The end use may be

text: drinking

text: , industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the environment.  Water treatment removes

text: contaminant

text: s and undesirable components, or reduces their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use.

text: Cnidarians feed in several ways: predation, absorbing dissolved organic chemicals, filtering food particles out of the water, and obtaining nutrients from symbiotic algae within their cells. Most obtain the majority of their food from predation but some, including the corals Hetroxenia and Leptogorgia, depend almost completely on their endosymbionts and on absorbing dissolved nutrients. Cnidaria give their symbiotic algae carbon dioxide, some nutrients, a place in the sun and protection against predators.

text: Cnidarians feed in several ways:

text: predation

text: , absorbing dissolved

text: organic

text: chemicals,

text: filtering

text: food particles out of the water, and obtaining

text: nutrients

text: from

text: symbiotic

text: algae

text: within their cells. Most obtain the majority of their food from predation but some, including the

text: coral

text: s

text: Hetroxenia

text: and

text: Leptogorgia

text: , depend almost completely on their

text: endosymbiont

text: s and on absorbing dissolved nutrients. Cnidaria give their symbiotic algae

text: carbon dioxide

text: , some nutrients, a place in the sun and protection against predators.

text: Protein contact dermatitis is a cutaneous condition, and was a term originally used to describe an eczematous reaction to protein-containing material in food handlers.

text: Protein contact dermatitis is a

text: cutaneous

text: condition, and was a term originally used to describe an eczematous reaction to protein-containing material in food handlers.

text: Simple carbohydrates are absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-sugar levels more rapidly than other nutrients. However, the most important plant carbohydrate nutrient, starch, varies in its absorption. Gelatinized starch (starch heated for a few minutes in the presence of water) is far more digestible than plain starch, and starch which has been divided into fine particles is also more absorbable during digestion. The increased effort and decreased availability reduces the available energy from starchy foods substantially and can be seen experimentally in rats and anecdotally in humans. Additionally, up to a third of dietary starch may be unavailable due to mechanical or chemical difficulty.

text: Benthic macroinvertebrates have many important ecological functions, such as regulating the flow of materials and energy in river ecosystems through their food web linkages. Because of this correlation between flow of energy and nutrients, benthic macroinvertebrates have the ability to influence food resources on fish and other organisms in aquatic ecosystems. For example, the addition of a moderate amount of nutrients to a river over the course of several years resulted in increases in invertebrate richness, abundance, and biomass. These in turn resulted in increased food resources for native species of fish with insignificant alteration of the macroinvertebrate community structure and trophic pathways. The presence of macroinvertebrates such as Amphipoda also affect the dominance of certain types of algae in Benthic ecosystems as well. In addition, because benthic zones are influenced by the flow of dead organic material, there have been studies conducted on the relationship between stream and river water flows and the resulting effects on the benthic zone. Low flow events show a restriction in nutrient transport from benthic substrates to food webs, and caused a decrease in benthic macroinvertebrate biomass, which lead to the disappearance of food sources into the substrate.

text: Benthic

text: macroinvertebrate

text: s have many important ecological functions, such as regulating the flow of materials and energy in

text: river ecosystem

text: s through their

text: food web

text: linkages. Because of this correlation between flow of energy and nutrients, benthic macroinvertebrates have the ability to influence food resources on fish and other organisms in

text: aquatic ecosystems

text: . For example, the addition of a moderate amount of

text: nutrients

text: to a river over the course of several years resulted in increases in invertebrate richness, abundance, and

text: biomass

text: . These in turn resulted in increased food resources for native species of fish with insignificant alteration of the macroinvertebrate community structure and

text: trophic

text: pathways. The presence of macroinvertebrates such as

text: Amphipoda

text: also affect the dominance of certain types of algae in Benthic ecosystems as well. In addition, because benthic zones are influenced by the flow of dead

text: organic material

text: , there have been studies conducted on the relationship between stream and river water flows and the resulting effects on the benthic zone. Low flow events show a restriction in nutrient transport from benthic

text: substrates

text: to food webs, and caused a decrease in benthic macroinvertebrate biomass, which lead to the disappearance of food sources into the substrate.

text: Foods that are an "excellent source" of a particular nutrient provide 20% or more of the recommended daily value. Foods that are a "good source" of a particular nutrient provide between 10 and 20% of the recommended daily value.

text: Foods that are an "excellent source" of a particular nutrient provide 20% or more of the

text: recommended daily value

text: . Foods that are a "good source" of a particular nutrient provide between 10 and 20% of the recommended daily value.

text: A variety of different nutrient solutions can be administered to the root zone using aeroponics without needing to flush out any solution or matrix in which the roots had previously been immersed. This elevated level of control would be useful when researching the effect of a varied regimen of nutrient application to the roots of a plant species of interest.In a similar manner, aeroponics allows a greater range of growth conditions than other nutrient delivery systems. The interval and duration of the nutrient spray, for example, can be very finely attuned to the needs of a specific plant species.The aerial tissue can be subjected to a completely different environment from that of the roots.

text: Food is extremely important when it comes to rituals or festivals. Food offerings in ritual are important in Kerala and throughout South India. Food offerings are often related to the gods of religions. In India, there are numerous offerings for Hindu gods and there are many differences between food offerings in North and South India. Most offerings contain more than one type of food. There are many reasons why people use the practice of food offerings. Some are to express love, or negotiate or thank gods. It can also be used to "stress certain structural features of Hinduism". Of course, not every ritual’s gods require food offerings. Most have a liking for certain foods. For example, butter is one of the preferred foods by the god Krishna. Also, wild orange and a sugarcane stalk are related to Ganapati.

text: Fruits and vegetables tend to have a low glycemic index. The glycemic index can be applied only to foods where the test relies on subjects consuming an amount of food containing 50 g of available carbohydrate.  But many fruits and vegetables (not potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn) contain less than 50 g of available carbohydrate per typical serving. Carrots were originally and incorrectly reported as having a high GI. Alcoholic beverages have been reported to have low GI values; however, beer was initially reported to have a moderate GI due to the presence of maltose. This has been refuted by brewing industry professionals, who say that all maltose sugar is consumed in the brewing process and that packaged beer has little to no maltose present. Recent studies have shown that the consumption of an alcoholic drink prior to a meal reduces the GI of the meal by approximately 15%. Moderate alcohol consumption more than 12 hours prior to a test does not affect the GI.

text: Deep waters are rich in nutrients, including nitrate, phosphate and silicic acid, themselves the result of decomposition of sinking organic matter (dead/detrital plankton) from surface waters. When brought to the surface, these nutrients are utilized by phytoplankton, along with dissolved CO (carbon dioxide) and light energy from the sun, to produce organic compounds, through the process of photosynthesis.  Upwelling regions therefore result in very high levels of primary production (the amount of carbon fixed by phytoplankton) in comparison to other areas of the ocean. They account for about 50% of global marine productivity.  High primary production propagates up the food chain because phytoplankton are at the base of the oceanic food chain.

text: Deep waters are rich in nutrients, including

text: nitrate

text: phosphate

text: and

text: silicic acid

text: , themselves the result of

text: decomposition

text: of sinking

text: organic matter

text: (dead/detrital plankton) from surface waters. When brought to the surface, these nutrients are utilized by

text: phytoplankton

text: , along with dissolved CO (

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) and light energy from the

text: sun

text: , to produce

text: organic compound

text: s, through the process of

text: photosynthesis

text: .  Upwelling regions therefore result in very high levels of primary production (the amount of carbon fixed by

text: phytoplankton

text: ) in comparison to other areas of the ocean. They account for about 50% of global marine productivity.  High primary production propagates up the

text: food chain

text: because

text: phytoplankton

text: are at the base of the oceanic food chain.

text: The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F–J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin B, which became a complex of vitamins.

text: CoQ is a crystalline powder insoluble in water. Absorption follows the same process as that of lipids; the uptake mechanism appears to be similar to that of vitamin E, another lipid-soluble nutrient. This process in the human body involves secretion into the small intestines of pancreatic enzymes and bile, which facilitates emulsification and micelle formation required for absorption of lipophilic substances. Food intake (and the presence of lipids) stimulates bodily biliary excretion of bile acids and greatly enhances absorption of CoQ. Exogenous CoQ is absorbed from the small intestine and is best absorbed if taken with a meal. Serum concentration of CoQ in fed condition is higher than in fasting conditions.

text: CoQ is a crystalline powder insoluble in water. Absorption follows the same process as that of lipids; the uptake mechanism appears to be similar to that of

text: vitamin E

text: , another lipid-soluble nutrient. This process in the human body involves secretion into the small intestines of pancreatic enzymes and bile, which facilitates emulsification and

text: micelle

text: formation required for absorption of lipophilic substances. Food intake (and the presence of lipids) stimulates bodily biliary excretion of bile acids and greatly enhances absorption of CoQ. Exogenous CoQ is absorbed from the small intestine and is best absorbed if taken with a meal. Serum concentration of CoQ in fed condition is higher than in fasting conditions.

text: Common accompaniments to Madras curry include raita and fresh coriander. The food of southern India is more likely to have rice as the main carbohydrate than any breads e.g. naan. Individual households will express their own traditions.

text: Common accompaniments to Madras curry include

text: raita

text: and fresh coriander. The food of southern India is more likely to have

text: rice

text: as the main carbohydrate than any breads e.g.

text: naan

text: . Individual households will express their own traditions.

text: The United Kingdom Ofcom nutrient profiling model provides "a single score for any given food product, based on calculating the number of points for ‘negative’ nutrients which can be offset by points for ‘positive’ nutrients."  A 2007 UK-commissioned review of nutrient profiling models commissioned by the UK Food Standards Agency identified over 40 different schemes.

text: According to Vegepet, their recipes meet nutrient levels established by the Association of American Feed Control Officials' Nutrient Profiles.

text: According to Vegepet, their recipes meet nutrient levels established by the

text: Association of American Feed Control Officials

text: ' Nutrient Profiles.

text: When organisms die, their remains fall to the forest floor, where they begin decomposing into their constituent nutrients. In the absence of efficient detritovores such as earthworms, a thick layer of such organic matter accumulates. And most northern forests in North America do indeed lack native earthworms, which were largely wiped out when the ice sheets of the Wisconsin glaciation scoured much of the continent down to the bedrock. A deep detritus layer is thus characteristic of the native ecosystem of the region, and many native plants have evolved to rely on it.  As it slowly decomposes, it supplies nutrients, particularly potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, that are necessary for the production of cellular components such as carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins; these nutrients are often a limiting factor in growth and maturation. This provides for the growth of the trees, ferns, and smaller ground plants.

text: When organisms die, their remains fall to the

text: forest floor

text: , where they begin decomposing into their constituent nutrients. In the absence of efficient detritovores such as earthworms, a thick layer of such

text: organic matter

text: accumulates. And most northern forests in North America do indeed lack native earthworms, which were largely wiped out when the

text: ice sheet

text: s of the

text: Wisconsin glaciation

text: scoured much of the continent down to the bedrock. A deep detritus layer is thus characteristic of the native ecosystem of the region, and many native plants have evolved to rely on it.  As it slowly decomposes, it supplies

text: nutrients

text: , particularly

text: potassium

text: phosphorus

text: , and

text: nitrogen

text: , that are necessary for the production of cellular components such as

text: carbohydrates

text: nucleic acids

text: , and

text: proteins

text: ; these nutrients are often a limiting factor in growth and maturation. This provides for the growth of the trees, ferns, and smaller ground plants.

text: Upon receipt of a Pfizer Biomedical Research Award in 1985, Lands developed an empirical mathematical relationship showing how metabolism of dietary omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids leads to predictable proportions of their elongated highly unsaturated derivatives (HUFA) accumulated in tissue lipids. After retirement, he changed from publishing as William E.M. Lands to Bill Lands as he put increased attention to primary prevention of health disorders related to excessive actions of omega-6 mediators  and describing consequences of imbalanced dietary intakes of omega-3 and omega-6 nutrients. More recently, Lands described an Omega 3-6 Balance Score that indicates the likely impact of individual food items on the balance of HUFA accumulated in tissues. Lands emphasized that efficient conversion of linoleic acid (18:2n-6) to the n-6 highly unsaturated fatty acid (n-6HUFA), arachidonic acid (20:4n-6), competitively displaces n-3 HUFA from tissue phospholipids and creates a narrow therapeutic window for dietary linoleic in the absence of n-3 nutrients. The HUFA balance seen with a finger-tip blood-spot assay  monitors dietary intakes of essential fatty acids and predicts the likely intensity of n-6 eicosanoid-mediated pathophysiology.	Many chronic inflammatory conditions made worse by actions of n-6 eicosanoid mediators (see ref.10) might be lessened by eating “functional foods”   that have more positive omega 3-6 balance scores (see ref.7) and shift the HUFA balance toward lower values of % n-6 in HUFA.  The current balance of n-3 and n-6 nutrients in the average American diet maintains a HUFA balance near 80% n-6 in HUFA rather than 60% for traditional Mediterranean diets or 35% for traditional Japanese diets (see ref.7).  The benefits and risks for these different HUFA balances help interpret the lack of success of many large expensive clinical trials intended to reduce cardiovascular deaths.

text: There is a concern that micronutrients are legally defined in such a way that does not distinguish between different forms, and that fortified foods often have nutrients in a balance that would not occur naturally. For example, in the U.S., food is fortified with folic acid, which is one of the many naturally-occurring forms of folate, and which only contributes a minor amount to the folates occurring in natural foods.  In many cases, such as with folate, it is an open question of whether or not there are any benefits or risks to consuming folic acid in this form.

text: 2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules diffuse passively through protein channels such as aquaporins (in the case of water (HO)) in facilitated diffusion or are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. Protein channel proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, recognizing and transporting only a limited food group of chemical substances, often even only a single substance.

text: Transmembrane protein channels

text: and

text: transporters

text: : Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules diffuse passively through protein channels such as

text: aquaporins

text: (in the case of water (HO)) in

text: facilitated diffusion

text: or are pumped across the membrane by

text: transmembrane transporters

text: . Protein channel proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, recognizing and transporting only a limited food group of chemical substances, often even only a single substance.

text: Only the female Lutzomyia sand flies are blood-feeding, requiring the bloodmeal to provide the nutrients for the maturation of eggs. Therefore, it is only the females who have medical importance as vectors of disease. Both males and females require carbohydrate food as adults, the source of which remains unclear.

text: Only the female Lutzomyia sand flies are blood-feeding, requiring the bloodmeal to provide the nutrients for the maturation of eggs. Therefore, it is only the females who have medical importance as vectors of disease. Both males and females require

text: carbohydrate

text: food as adults, the source of which remains unclear.

text: The diet of an organism is what it eats,  which is largely determined by the availability, the processing and palatability of foods. A healthy diet includes preparation of food and storage methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and that reduce risk of foodborne illness.

text: The

text: diet

text: of an organism is what it eats,  which is largely determined by the availability, the processing and

text: palatability

text: of foods. A

text: healthy diet

text: includes

text: preparation of food

text: and storage methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and that reduce risk of

text: foodborne illness

text: Bivalve shellfish recycle nutrients that enter waterways from human and agricultural sources. Nutrient bioextraction is “an environmental management strategy by which nutrients are removed from an aquatic ecosystem through the harvest of enhanced biological production, including the aquaculture of suspension-feeding shellfish or algae.” Nutrient removal by shellfish, which are then harvested from the system, has the potential to help address environmental issues including excess inputs of nutrients (eutrophication), low dissolved oxygen, reduced light availability and impacts on eelgrass, harmful algal blooms, and increases in incidence of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).  For example, the average harvested mussel contains: 0.8–1.2 % nitrogen and 0.06–0.08 % phosphorus Removal of enhanced biomass can not only combat eutrophication and also support the local economy by providing product for animal feed or compost. In Sweden, environmental agencies utilize mussel farming as a management tool in improving water quality conditions, where mussel bioextraction efforts have been evaluated and shown to be a highly effective source of fertilizer and animal feed In the U.S., researchers are investigating potential to model the use of shellfish and seaweed for nutrient mitigation in certain areas of Long Island Sound.

text: Bivalve shellfish recycle nutrients that enter waterways from human and agricultural sources.

text: Nutrient bioextraction

text: is “an environmental management strategy by which nutrients are removed from an aquatic ecosystem through the harvest of enhanced biological production, including the aquaculture of suspension-feeding shellfish or algae.” Nutrient removal by shellfish, which are then harvested from the system, has the potential to help address environmental issues including excess inputs of nutrients (

text: eutrophication

text: ), low dissolved oxygen, reduced light availability and impacts on eelgrass, harmful algal blooms, and increases in incidence of

text: paralytic shellfish poisoning

text: (PSP).  For example, the average harvested mussel contains: 0.8–1.2 % nitrogen and 0.06–0.08 % phosphorus Removal of enhanced biomass can not only combat eutrophication and also support the local economy by providing product for animal feed or compost. In Sweden, environmental agencies utilize mussel farming as a management tool in improving water quality conditions, where

text: mussel bioextraction

text: efforts have been evaluated and shown to be a highly effective source of fertilizer and animal feed In the U.S., researchers are investigating potential to model the use of shellfish and seaweed for nutrient mitigation in certain areas of Long Island Sound.

text: A water footprint is the amount of water that each of us use in our daily lives. Most of the world's water is salt water which we cannot use in our food or water supplies. Therefore, the freshwater sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much fresh water is needed for each consumer’s needs. According to J. Allan, "there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and groundwater and on flows to which water is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the water deficits of the other 190 economies. Consumers enjoy the delusion of food and water security provided by virtual water trade.

text: A

text: water footprint

text: is the amount of water that each of us use in our daily lives. Most of the world's water is salt water which we cannot use in our food or water supplies. Therefore, the freshwater sources that were once plentiful are now being diminished due to anthropogenic metabolism of the growing population. The water footprint encompasses how much

text: fresh water

text: is needed for each consumer’s needs. According to J. Allan, "there is a huge impact of water use on stores of surface and

text: groundwater

text: and on flows to which

text: water

text: is returned after use. These impacts are shown to be particularly high for manufacturing industries. For example, that there are less than 10 economies worldwide that have a significant water surplus, but that these economies have successfully met, or have the potential to meet, the water deficits of the other 190 economies. Consumers enjoy the delusion of food and water security provided by

text: virtual water

text: trade.

text: The current nutrition transition seen in the emerging markets of Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, North Africa, and urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa is largely a product of globalization. International food trade, investment, commercialization and marketing are drastically impacting the availability of and access to energy-dense, but nutrient-deficient foods causing the aforementioned shift from traditional diet. Another byproduct of globalization has been a marked demographic transition in these countries from rural areas to urban ones. Urban populations are more susceptible to current trends in nutrition transition because of the improved transportation, commercial food distribution and marketing, less labor-intensive-occupations, and changes in household eating habits and structure.The liberalization of food markets has had a drastic effect on consumption patterns across the globe. Liberalization and commercialization of domestic agricultural markets are opening up food trading since this is needed to compete in the world market. This had led to changes in the types of food produced, and increases in amounts of food imported into developing countries, which affects the relative availability and prices of different foods. Food demand is being shaped by increases in income and urbanization. As these rapidly developing nations continue to accrue high incomes per capita, their food spending is increasing as well. They elect to use these higher incomes on more calorically-dense foods that are sweeter and higher in fats. For example, in China, for the same extra dollar of income, an average Chinese person is purchasing higher calorie food today than that person would have done for the same extra yuan in 1990. Rapid urbanization has also shaped food demand globally. The demographic transition from rural areas to urban populations is a well documented byproduct of globalization and technological advancements. This is because agro-food systems have replaced local subsistence farming in many rural areas. The supply of food is directly sculpted by increasing demand in these areas with growing income. Urbanization is increasing access to new foods and therefore altering the supply chain. This is why transnational food companies have grown so rapidly over the past few decades. These companies are making processed and fast foods much cheaper and more widely available through the growth of transnational supermarkets and chain restaurants. Food is not only easier to obtain in urban areas; it is also cheaper and less time-consuming to acquire which creates an imbalance between energy intake and output. Their advertising and promotional strategies have a strong effect on consumer choices and desire. Foreign direct investment is also stimulating processed food sales in these supermarkets by lowering prices and creating incentives for advertising and promotion. A large proportion of this advertising is for energy-dense processed foods and is being directed at children and youth.Technological and transportation advancements are reducing the barriers that once limited global food trade. These techniques are critical to facilitating the production and distribution needed in a global market.  Better preservation techniques are helping to reduce waste which contributes to lower prices for consumers. Technology is creating higher yields which also reduce prices.

text: The current nutrition transition seen in the

text: emerging market

text: s of Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, North Africa, and urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa is largely a product of globalization. International

text: food trade

text: , investment,

text: commercialization

text: and

text: marketing

text: are drastically impacting the availability of and access to energy-dense, but nutrient-deficient foods causing the aforementioned shift from traditional diet. Another byproduct of globalization has been a marked demographic transition in these countries from rural areas to urban ones. Urban populations are more susceptible to current trends in nutrition transition because of the improved transportation, commercial food distribution and marketing, less labor-intensive-occupations, and changes in household eating habits and structure.The

text: liberalization

text: of food markets has had a drastic effect on

text: consumption pattern

text: s across the globe. Liberalization and commercialization of domestic agricultural markets are opening up food trading since this is needed to compete in the world market. This had led to changes in the types of food produced, and increases in amounts of food imported into developing countries, which affects the relative availability and

text: prices of different foods

text: . Food demand is being shaped by increases in income and

text: urbanization

text: . As these rapidly developing nations continue to accrue high incomes per capita, their food spending is increasing as well. They elect to use these higher incomes on more calorically-dense foods that are sweeter and higher in fats. For example, in China, for the same extra dollar of income, an average Chinese person is purchasing higher calorie food today than that person would have done for the same extra yuan in 1990. Rapid

text: urbanization

text: has also shaped food demand globally. The

text: demographic transition

text: The digestive system can respond to external stimuli, such as the sight or smell of food, and cause physiological changes before the food ever enters the body. This reflex is known as the cephalic phase of digestion. The sight and smell of food are strong enough stimuli to cause salivation, gastric and pancreatic enzyme secretion, and endocrine secretion in preparation for the incoming nutrients; by starting the digestive process before food reaches the stomach, the body is able to more effectively and efficiently metabolize food into necessary nutrients. Once food hits the mouth, taste and information from receptors in the mouth add to the digestive response. Chemoreceptors and mechanorceptors, activated by chewing and swallowing, further increase the enzyme release in the stomach and intestine.

text: The

text: digestive system

text: can respond to external stimuli, such as the sight or smell of food, and cause physiological changes before the food ever enters the body. This reflex is known as the

text: cephalic phase

text: of

text: digestion

text: . The sight and smell of food are strong enough stimuli to cause salivation, gastric and pancreatic enzyme secretion, and endocrine secretion in preparation for the incoming nutrients; by starting the digestive process before food reaches the stomach, the body is able to more effectively and efficiently metabolize food into necessary nutrients. Once food hits the mouth, taste and information from receptors in the mouth add to the digestive response.

text: Chemoreceptors

text: and

text: mechanorceptors

text: , activated by chewing and swallowing, further increase the enzyme release in the stomach and intestine.

text: By utilizing grazing systems, livestock production has the potential to be maximized.  “Approximately 85 percent of U.S. grazing lands are unsuitable for producing crops. Grazing animals on this land more than doubles the area that can be used to produce food. Cattle serve a valuable role in the ecosystem by converting the forages humans cannot consume into a nutrient-dense food”.

text: Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats, such as omega fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods. Edible seeds include cereals (corn, wheat, rice, et cetera), legumes (beans, peas, lentils, et cetera), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil), sesame, et cetera.

text: Seed

text: s of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats, such as

text: omega fats

text: . In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods. Edible seeds include

text: cereal

text: s (

text: corn

text: wheat

text: rice

text: et cetera

text: legume

text: s (

text: bean

text: s,

text: pea

text: s,

text: lentil

text: s,

text: et cetera

text: ), and

text: nuts

text: Oilseed

text: s are often pressed to produce rich oils -

text: sunflower

text: flaxseed

text: rapeseed

text: (including

text: canola oil

text: sesame

text: et cetera

text: Most high intensity agricultural production is highly reliant on non-renewable resources. Agricultural machinery and transport, as well as the production of pesticides and nitrates all depend on fossil fuels. Moreover, the essential mineral nutrient phosphorus is often a limiting factor in crop cultivation, while phosphorus mines are rapidly being depleted worldwide. The failure to depart from these non-sustainable agricultural production methods could potentially lead to a large scale collapse of the current system of intensive food production within this century.

text: Macronutrients are defined in several different ways.

text: Using several technologies developed by various research institutes, neera is processed and preserved in its natural form to retain the vitamins, sugar, and other nutrients beneficial for health. To extend the shelf life of neera, heat preservation techniques such as pasteurization are used.

text: Using several technologies developed by various research institutes, neera is processed and preserved in its natural form to retain the vitamins, sugar, and other nutrients beneficial for health. To extend the shelf life of neera, heat preservation techniques such as

text: pasteurization

text: are used.

text: Aside from performed vitamin A, vitamin B and vitamin D, all vitamins found in animal source foods may also be found in plant-derived foods. Examples are tofu to replace meat (both contain protein in sufficient amounts), and certain seaweeds and vegetables as respectively kombu and kale to replace dairy foods as milk (both contain calcium in sufficient amounts). There are some nutrients which are rare to find in sufficient density in plant based foods. One example would be zinc, the exception would be pumpkin seeds that have been soaked for improved digestion. The increased fiber in these foods can also make absorption difficult. Deficiencies are very possible in these nutrients if vegetarians are not very careful and willing to eat sufficient quantities of these exceptional plant based foods. A good way to find these foods would be to search for them on one of the online, nutrient analyzing databases. An example would be nutritiondata.com.

text: Aside from performed vitamin A, vitamin B and vitamin D, all vitamins found in animal source foods may also be found in plant-derived foods. Examples are

text: tofu

text: to replace meat (both contain

text: protein

text: in sufficient amounts), and certain

text: seaweed

text: s and vegetables as respectively

text: kombu

text: and

text: kale

text: to replace dairy foods as

text: milk

text: (both contain calcium in sufficient amounts). There are some nutrients which are rare to find in sufficient density in plant based foods. One example would be zinc, the exception would be pumpkin seeds that have been soaked for improved digestion. The increased fiber in these foods can also make absorption difficult. Deficiencies are very possible in these nutrients if vegetarians are not very careful and willing to eat sufficient quantities of these exceptional plant based foods. A good way to find these foods would be to search for them on one of the online, nutrient analyzing databases. An example would be nutritiondata.com.

text: A bolus (a small rounded mass of chewed up food) enters the stomach through the esophagus via the lower esophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of two for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called peristalsis – reducing the volume of the fundus, before looping around the fundus and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum of the small intestine, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme anywhere between forty minutes and a few hours. The average human stomach can comfortably hold about a litre of food.

text: A

text: bolus

text: (a small rounded mass of

text: chewed up

text: food) enters the stomach through the

text: esophagus

text: via the

text: lower esophageal sphincter

text: . The stomach releases

text: proteases

text: (protein-digesting enzymes such as

text: pepsin

text: ) and

text: hydrochloric acid

text: , which kills or inhibits

text: bacteria

text: and provides the acidic

text: pH

text: of two for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called

text: peristalsis

text: – reducing the volume of the

text: fundus

text: , before looping around the fundus and the

text: body of stomach

text: as the boluses are converted into

text: chyme

text: (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the

text: pyloric sphincter

text: and into the

text: duodenum

text: of the

text: small intestine

text: , where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into

text: chyme

text: anywhere between forty minutes and a few hours. The average human stomach can comfortably hold about a litre of food.

text: Income and level of education influence food choice via the availability of the resources to purchase a higher quality food and awareness of nutritious alternatives. Diet may vary depending on the availability of income to purchase more healthier, nutrient-rich foods. For a low-income family, pricing plays a larger role than taste and quality in whether the food will be purchased. This may partly explain the lower life expectancy of lower-income groups. Similarly, higher levels of education equate to higher expectations from functional foods and avoidance of food additives. Compared to conventional foods, organic foods have a higher cost and people may have limited access if generating a low income.  The variety of foods carried in neighborhood stores may also influence diet ("food deserts").

text: Income and level of education influence food choice via the availability of the resources to purchase a higher quality food and awareness of nutritious alternatives.

text: Diet

text: may vary depending on the availability of income to purchase more healthier, nutrient-rich foods. For a low-income family, pricing plays a larger role than taste and quality in whether the food will be purchased. This may partly explain the lower

text: life expectancy

text: of lower-income groups. Similarly, higher levels of education equate to higher expectations from functional foods and avoidance of food additives. Compared to conventional foods, organic foods have a higher cost and people may have limited access if generating a low income.  The variety of foods carried in neighborhood stores may also influence diet ("

text: food desert

text: s").

text: Marasmus is caused by a severe deficiency of nearly all nutrients, especially protein, carbohydrates, and lipids.

text: Although alcohol provides energy, and can thus be compared to macronutrients, it is not a substance that is essential for normal function. The acetic acid in vinegar also provides a similar amount of energy per gram, but again, it is not a nutrient because it is not essential for normal function.

text: Although

text: alcohol

text: provides energy, and can thus be compared to macronutrients, it is not a substance that is essential for normal function. The acetic acid in vinegar also provides a similar amount of energy per gram, but again, it is not a nutrient because it is not essential for normal function.

text: The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) has reported that the water quality of rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the Tha Chin estuary contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from phosphates, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD rated water quality in the river in 2015 as "poor". The PCD findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.

text: The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) has reported that the water quality of rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the Tha Chin estuary contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from

text: phosphate

text: s,

text: phosphorus

text: , and

text: nitrogen

text: . Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD rated water quality in the river in 2015 as "poor". The PCD findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.

text: The indications or uses for this product provided by the manufacturer were: "Food tonic. A concentrated nutrient with tonic properties. It is very easily digested and absorbed and is recommended as an effective means of reinforcing the daily diet of aneamic and convalescent patients, including children, and in cases of weakness and exhaustion from overwork or illness."

text: As social worker and Philanthropist he is a Global Ambassador of a Social initiative from Geneva "OriginUnite" which is responsible for providing nutrients and food supplements to many malnutrition affected countries in Africa. He is also one of the founders of NGO in India under the name of "StrongerIndiaOrgnisation" which works for poor children to help them to study further by providing them resources and finance.

text: In food science and in many informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams, and desserts).

text: In

text: food science

text: and in many informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy,

text: jam

text: s, and desserts).

text: Before frozen foods, refrigeration, and cheap transport from warmer areas became readily available in northern, central and eastern Europe, sauerkraut, like other preserved foods, provided a source of nutrients during the winter. James Cook always took a store of sauerkraut on his sea voyages, since experience had taught him it prevented scurvy.

text: Before

text: frozen food

text: s, refrigeration, and cheap transport from warmer areas became readily available in

text: northern

text: central

text: and

text: eastern Europe

text: , sauerkraut, like other preserved foods, provided a source of nutrients during the winter.

text: James Cook

text: always took a store of sauerkraut on his sea voyages, since experience had taught him it prevented

text: scurvy

text: Nearly all important molecules in the body are proteins. Proteins work by each having a specific sequence of amino acids and a specific shape. Determining the order of amino acids is relatively simple. Finding the shape requires the use of x-ray crystallography and is anything but easy. It took a team of three researchers at Harvard, Don Wiley, Jack Strominger, and Pamela Bjorkman, eight years to ferret out the structure of the HLA protein. They worked specifically with HLA-A*02. Bjorkman did the majority of the leg work and in the seven years managed to piece together the structure of 90% of the protein. That last 10% was elusive though. It took another year of work to finally unveil the complete structure of HLA-A*02. They completed their work in the spring of 1987, discovering that the final 10% made a "cup" (of sorts) located on top of the molecule. It was the perfect size to hold peptides. Other researchers had previously determined that T-Cells can recognize cells infected with a virus, cells injected with a single protein from a virus, and even cells injected with pieces of protein from a virus. The discovery of the HLA protein structure made it starkly clear that the HLA proteins hold viral peptides in their binding groove. But the research team from Harvard wasn't done. They also observed that there was clearly a peptide in the binding groove of the HLA molecules they used to determine the shape. However, the cells they had extracted the protein from were definitely not infected by any disease causing viruses. The conclusion they made and the conclusion that has stuck to this day, is that HLA molecules can bind both self, and non-self peptides.

text: Nearly all important molecules in the body are

text: proteins

text: . Proteins work by each having a specific sequence of

text: amino acids

text: and a specific shape. Determining the order of amino acids is relatively simple. Finding the shape requires the use of

text: x-ray crystallography

text: and is anything but easy. It took a team of three researchers at Harvard,

text: Don Wiley

text: Jack Strominger

text: , and

text: Pamela Bjorkman

text: , eight years to ferret out the structure of the HLA protein. They worked specifically with HLA-A*02. Bjorkman did the majority of the leg work and in the seven years managed to piece together the structure of 90% of the protein. That last 10% was elusive though. It took another year of work to finally unveil the complete structure of HLA-A*02. They completed their work in the spring of 1987, discovering that the final 10% made a "cup" (of sorts) located on top of the molecule. It was the perfect size to hold peptides. Other researchers had previously determined that T-Cells can recognize cells infected with a virus, cells injected with a single protein from a virus, and even cells injected with pieces of protein from a virus. The discovery of the HLA protein structure made it starkly clear that the HLA proteins hold viral peptides in their binding groove. But the research team from Harvard wasn't done. They also observed that there was clearly a peptide in the binding groove of the HLA molecules they used to determine the shape. However, the cells they had extracted the protein from were definitely not infected by any disease causing viruses. The conclusion they made and the conclusion that has stuck to this day, is that HLA molecules can bind both self, and non-self peptides.

text: They may also eat insects from time to time. The common food item within fibers are the herbaceous stems. Important food species have been divided into three categories. Staple foods which are eaten on a daily/weekly basis throughout the year, seasonal foods which are present in the majority of resources when available and fallback foods which are always available, but eaten only or mainly during fruit-scarce months. The adult will eat around  of food per day. Gorillas will climb trees up to 15 meters in height in search of food. They never completely strip vegetation from a single area since the rapid regrowth of the vegetation allows them to stay within a reasonably confined home range for extended periods of time. The western lowland gorilla eats a combination of fruits and foliage, providing a balance of nutrients, depending on the time of year. However, when ripe fruit is available, they tend to eat more fruit as opposed to foliage. When ripe fruit is in scarce supply, they eat leaves, herbs, and bark. During the rainy months of July and August, fruit is ripe; however, in the dry seasons, ripe fruit is scarce. Gorillas choose fruit that is high in sugar for energy, as well as fiber.

text: Arnon was born on November 14, 1910, in Warsaw. Summers spent on the family's farm helped foster Arnon's interest in agriculture. His father had lost the family's food wholesale business after World War I and Arnon's readings of the works of Jack London led him to save up his money to head to California. He enrolled in the University of California, Berkeley from Poland, and would spend his entire professional career at the school, until his retirement in 1978. He ultimately earned his Ph.D. in plant physiology at UC Berkeley under Dennis R. Hoagland and some of his earliest research focused on growing plants in nutrient-enriched water rather than in the soil. During World War II, Arnon served in the United States Army in the Pacific Theater of Operations, where he used his prior experience with plant nutrition on Ponape Island, where there was no arable land available and he was able to grow food to feed the troops stationed there using gravel and nutrient-enriched water.

text: Arnon was born on November 14, 1910, in

text: Warsaw

text: . Summers spent on the family's farm helped foster Arnon's interest in agriculture. His father had lost the family's food wholesale business after

text: World War I

text: and Arnon's readings of the works of

text: Jack London

text: led him to save up his money to head to

text: California

text: . He enrolled in the

text: University of California, Berkeley

text: from Poland, and would spend his entire professional career at the school, until his retirement in 1978. He ultimately earned his Ph.D. in plant physiology at UC Berkeley under

text: Dennis R. Hoagland

text: and some of his earliest research focused on growing plants in nutrient-enriched water rather than in the soil. During

text: World War II

text: , Arnon served in the

text: United States Army

text: in the

text: Pacific Theater of Operations

text: , where he used his prior experience with plant nutrition on Ponape Island, where there was no

text: arable land

text: available and he was able to grow food to feed the troops stationed there using gravel and nutrient-enriched water.

text: Next to steamed rice, the side dishes of vegetables, fish, or meat are added to provide variety of taste as well as for protein, mineral and nutrient intake. These side dishes are grilled, fried, steamed or boiled and spiced with any combination of garlic, galangal (a plant of the ginger family), turmeric, coriander, ginger, and lemon grass. The herb rich food wrapped and cooked inside banana leaf called pepes (Sundanese:pais) is popular among Sundanese people. Pepes are available in many varieties according to its ingredients; carp fish, anchovies, minced meat with eggs, mushroom, tofu or oncom. Oncom is a popular foodstuff within Sundanese cuisine, just like its counterpart, tempe, is popular among Javanese people. Usually the food itself is not too spicy, but it is served with a very hot sauce made by grinding chili peppers and garlic together. On the coast, saltwater fish are common; in the mountains, fish tend to be either pond-raised carp or goldfish. A well-known Sundanese dish is lalapan, which consists only of raw vegetables, such as papaya leaves, cucumber, eggplant, and bitter melon.

text: Next to

text: steamed rice

text: , the side dishes of

text: vegetables

text: fish

text: , or

text: meat

text: are added to provide variety of taste as well as for protein, mineral and nutrient intake. These side dishes are grilled, fried, steamed or boiled and spiced with any combination of garlic,

text: galangal

text: (a plant of the ginger family), turmeric, coriander, ginger, and lemon grass. The herb rich food wrapped and cooked inside banana leaf called

text: pepes

text: (Sundanese:pais) is popular among Sundanese people. Pepes are available in many varieties according to its ingredients; carp fish, anchovies, minced meat with eggs, mushroom, tofu or oncom.

text: Oncom

text: is a popular foodstuff within Sundanese cuisine, just like its counterpart, tempe, is popular among Javanese people. Usually the food itself is not too spicy, but it is served with a very hot sauce made by grinding chili peppers and garlic together. On the coast, saltwater fish are common; in the mountains, fish tend to be either pond-raised carp or goldfish. A well-known Sundanese dish is lalapan, which consists only of raw vegetables, such as

text: papaya

text: leaves,

text: cucumber

text: eggplant

text: , and

text: bitter melon

text: An unlearned appetite is one that an animal possesses at birth, without conditioning through prior stress followed by alleviation with specific foods. An unlearned appetite suggests a physiological mechanism for detecting the absence of a nutrient as well as a signalling component that directs the animal to seek out the missing nutrient. An example of an unlearned appetite might be caloric appetite, as seen in all domestic animals. Other unlearned appetites are more difficult to demonstrate. In one study, protein-deficient rats that had not previously experienced protein deficiency demonstrated strong preferences for high-protein foods such as soybean, gluten, and ovalbumin within thirty minutes of food presentation. This preference was not seen in controls, and was also exhibited by pregnant females with higher protein needs who were not experimentally protein-deficient. Rats also seem to have an unlearned appetite for calcium and sodium. In addition, zinc-depleted chicks show preferences for zinc-rich feeds.

text: An unlearned appetite is one that an animal possesses at birth, without conditioning through prior stress followed by alleviation with specific foods. An unlearned appetite suggests a physiological mechanism for detecting the absence of a nutrient as well as a signalling component that directs the animal to seek out the missing nutrient. An example of an unlearned appetite might be caloric appetite, as seen in all

text: domestic animals

text: . Other unlearned appetites are more difficult to demonstrate. In one study, protein-deficient rats that had not previously experienced protein deficiency demonstrated strong preferences for high-protein foods such as soybean, gluten, and ovalbumin within thirty minutes of food presentation. This preference was not seen in controls, and was also exhibited by pregnant females with higher protein needs who were not experimentally protein-deficient. Rats also seem to have an unlearned appetite for calcium and sodium. In addition, zinc-depleted chicks show preferences for zinc-rich feeds.

text: In the process of recovery, a fitness professional suggests ‘its important to ensure that a diet high in Carbohydrates, lean proteins and healthy fats such as omega 3 oils. Carbohydrates will provide the brain with fuel, the oils help relieve depression and proteins will rebuild overtrained muscles.’  Protein is the main muscle building nutrient required to repair the small micro-tears inflicted on the muscle with every challenging workout. There are a lot more nutrient-dense fruits and vegetables that can be added to the diet, all of this healthy intake can or should be the same to someone who isn’t training. It's important for every adult to eat at least 2 serves of fruit and 5 serves of veggies each day.

text: A mineral lick (also known as a salt lick) is a place where animals can go to lick essential mineral nutrients from a deposit of salts and other minerals. Mineral licks  can be naturally occurring (natural licks) or artificial (such as blocks of salt that farmers place in pastures for livestock to lick). Natural licks are common, and they provide the biometals (sodium, calcium, iron, phosphorus, zinc, and trace elements) required in the springtime for bone, muscle and other growth in deer and other wildlife, such as moose, elephants, tapirs, cattle, woodchucks, domestic sheep, fox squirrels, mountain goats and porcupines. Such licks are especially important in ecosystems with poor general availability of nutrients. Harsh weather exposes salty mineral deposits that draw animals from miles away for a taste of needed nutrients. It is thought that certain fauna can detect calcium in salt licks.

text: A mineral lick (also known as a salt lick) is a place where

text: animal

text: s can go to

text: lick

text: essential

text: mineral nutrients

text: from a deposit of

text: salts

text: and other

text: mineral

text: s. Mineral licks  can be naturally occurring (natural licks) or artificial (such as blocks of

text: salt

text: that farmers place in

text: pasture

text: s for

text: livestock

text: to lick). Natural licks are common, and they provide the

text: biometals

text: sodium

text: calcium

text: iron

text: phosphorus

text: zinc

text: , and

text: trace element

text: s) required in the springtime for

text: bone

text: muscle

text: and other growth in

text: deer

text: and other wildlife, such as

text: moose

text: elephant

text: s,

text: tapir

text: s,

text: cattle

text: woodchuck

text: s,

text: domestic sheep

text: fox squirrel

text: s,

text: mountain goat

text: s and

text: porcupine

text: s. Such licks are especially important in

text: ecosystem

text: s with poor general availability of nutrients. Harsh weather exposes salty

text: mineral

text: deposits that draw animals from miles away for a taste of needed nutrients. It is thought that certain fauna can detect

text: calcium

text: in salt licks.

text: Lipids are usually made from one molecule of glycerol combined with other molecules.  In triglycerides, the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids. Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may be saturated (no double bonds in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in the carbon chain).

text: Lipids are usually made from one molecule of

text: glycerol

text: combined with other molecules.  In

text: triglyceride

text: s, the main group of bulk lipids, there is one molecule of glycerol and three

text: fatty acid

text: s. Fatty acids are considered the monomer in that case, and may be

text: saturated

text: (no

text: double bond

text: s in the carbon chain) or unsaturated (one or more double bonds in the carbon chain).

text: By convention the term vitamin includes neither other essential nutrients, such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids (which are needed in greater amounts than vitamins) nor the great number of other nutrients that promote health, and are required less often to maintain the health of the organism. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" refers to a number of vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A", which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body, and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well.

text: By convention the term vitamin includes neither other

text: essential nutrient

text: s, such as

text: dietary minerals

text: essential fatty acid

text: s, or

text: essential amino acid

text: s (which are needed in greater amounts than vitamins) nor the great number of other nutrients that promote health, and are required less often to maintain the health of the organism. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each "vitamin" refers to a number of

text: vitamer

text: compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "

text: vitamin A

text: ", which includes the compounds

text: retinal

text: retinol

text: , and four known

text: carotenoid

text: s. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body, and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well.

text: Carbohydrates are classified according to their glycemic index, a system for measuring how quickly a food that is eaten raises blood sugar levels, and glycemic load, which takes into account both the glycemic index and the amount of carbohydrate in the food. This has led to carbohydrate counting, a method used by diabetics for planning their meals.

text: Carbohydrates are classified according to their

text: glycemic index

text: , a system for measuring how quickly a food that is eaten raises blood sugar levels, and

text: glycemic load

text: , which takes into account both the glycemic index and the amount of carbohydrate in the food. This has led to carbohydrate counting, a method used by diabetics for planning their meals.

text: The Iberian ibex is generally a mixed feeder between a browser and a grazer, depending on the plant availability in their home range. Thus, the percentage of each type of resource that is consumed will vary altitudinally, geographically, and seasonally. The ibex also has a special mechanism in the kidney that stores fat in order to be used as energy during the cold winter times. The highest body storage of kidney fat can be found during the productive warm seasons and the lowest during the cold period. The body storage is characterized by limited the food resources. Foraging in ibexes is also different depending on the season. When food resources are low during the winter, ibexes would reduce their rates of movement when foraging. However, during the spring season, when food is more available, they would increase their rate of movement and become more mobile in finding food. This would be the ideal trend of movement since the spring season is more abundant in food resources meaning that there is more competition for food resources forcing some to trek farther in order to obtain food.

text: The Iberian ibex is generally a mixed feeder between a

text: browser

text: and a

text: grazer

text: , depending on the plant availability in their home range. Thus, the percentage of each type of resource that is consumed will vary altitudinally, geographically, and seasonally. The ibex also has a special mechanism in the kidney that stores fat in order to be used as energy during the cold winter times. The highest body storage of kidney fat can be found during the productive warm seasons and the lowest during the cold period. The body storage is characterized by limited the food resources.

text: Foraging

text: in ibexes is also different depending on the season. When food resources are low during the winter, ibexes would reduce their rates of movement when foraging. However, during the spring season, when food is more available, they would increase their rate of movement and become more mobile in finding food. This would be the ideal trend of movement since the spring season is more abundant in food resources meaning that there is more competition for food resources forcing some to trek farther in order to obtain food.

text: Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply.  Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems making them the world's most vulnerable habitats.  Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. In the industrial world demand management has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry desalination is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.

text: ocean

text: Antarctic ice sheet

text: . The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply.  Awareness of the global importance of preserving

text: water

text: for

text: ecosystem services

text: wetlands

text: have been lost along with their valuable environmental services.

text: Biodiversity

text: -rich

text: freshwater

text: ecosystems are currently declining faster than

text: marine

text: or land

text: ecosystem

text: s making them the world's most vulnerable habitats.  Increasing

text: urbanization

text: pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe

text: water

text: . In the industrial world

text: demand management

text: has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry

text: desalination

text: is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.

text: Very little research has been done on classifying and identifying carbohydrates within insect adhesive secretions.  So far, glucose, trehalose and (muco-)polysaccharides that contain glucose, galactose, mannose, beta-glucopyranose, and/or (N-acetyl-beta-) glucosamine have been identified as components of insect adhesives. Carbohydrates have been found in defense secretions as well as for sticking eggs together.

text: Carbohydrates are a common source of energy in living organisms; however, no carbohydrate is an essential nutrient in humans. Humans are able to obtain all of their energy requirement from protein and fats, though the potential for some negative health effects of extreme carbohydrate restriction remains, as the issue has not been studied extensively yet. However, in the case of dietary fiber – indigestible carbohydrates which are not a source of energy – inadequate intake can lead to significant increases in mortality.

text: Carbohydrates are a common source of energy in living organisms; however, no carbohydrate is an

text: essential nutrient

text: in humans. Humans are able to obtain all of their energy requirement from protein and fats, though the potential for some negative health effects of extreme carbohydrate restriction remains, as the issue has not been studied extensively yet. However, in the case of

text: dietary fiber

text: – indigestible carbohydrates which are not a source of energy – inadequate intake can lead to significant increases in mortality.

text: Weight loss diets that manipulate the proportion of macronutrients (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.) have been shown to be more effective than diets that maintain a typical mix of foods with smaller portions and perhaps some substitutions (e.g. low-fat milk, or less salad dressing). Extreme diets may, in some cases, lead to malnutrition.

text: The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the gastrointestinal tract between the stomach and the large intestine, and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi.  The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food.

text: The small intestine or small bowel is the part of the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: between the

text: stomach

text: and the

text: large intestine

text: , and is where most of the end absorption of food takes place. The small intestine has three distinct regions – the

text: duodenum

text: jejunum

text: , and

text: ileum

text: . The duodenum receives

text: bile

text: and

text: pancreatic juice

text: through the

text: pancreatic duct

text: , controlled by the

text: sphincter of Oddi

text: .  The primary function of the small intestine is the absorption of

text: nutrient

text: s and

text: mineral

text: s from food.

text: There is no one food or nutrient capable of providing adequate bone health on its own. Instead, a balanced diet sufficient in fruits and vegetables for their vitamins, minerals, and alkalinizing substrates is thought to be most beneficial. High protein diets supply larger amounts of amino acids that could be degraded to acidic compounds. Protein consumption above the Recommended Dietary Allowance is also known to be beneficial to calcium utilization. Overall it is understood that high-protein diets have a net benefit for bone health because changes in IGF-I and PTH concentrations outweigh the negative effects of metabolic acid production. The source of protein, plant or animal, does not matter in terms of acid produced from amino acid metabolism. Any differences in Methionine and Cysteine content is not significant to affect the overall potential renal acid load (PRAL) of the food. In addition to their acid precursor protein content, plants also contain significant amounts of base precursors. Potassium bicarbonate, a basic salt, is produced via the metabolism of other organic potassium salts: citrate, malate, and gluconate, which are substantial in plants. The discrepancy observed in PRAL is accounted for by differences in base precursor content.

text: There is no one food or nutrient capable of providing adequate bone health on its own. Instead, a balanced diet sufficient in fruits and vegetables for their vitamins, minerals, and alkalinizing substrates is thought to be most beneficial. High protein diets supply larger amounts of amino acids that could be degraded to acidic compounds. Protein consumption above the Recommended Dietary Allowance is also known to be beneficial to calcium utilization. Overall it is understood that high-protein diets have a net benefit for bone health because changes in IGF-I and PTH concentrations outweigh the negative effects of metabolic acid production. The source of protein, plant or animal, does not matter in terms of acid produced from amino acid metabolism. Any differences in

text: Methionine

text: and

text: Cysteine

text: content is not significant to affect the overall potential renal acid load (PRAL) of the food. In addition to their acid precursor protein content, plants also contain significant amounts of base precursors.

text: Potassium bicarbonate

text: , a basic salt, is produced via the metabolism of other organic potassium salts:

text: citrate

text: malate

text: , and

text: gluconate

text: , which are substantial in plants. The discrepancy observed in PRAL is accounted for by differences in base precursor content.

text: Yolks, being mainly stored food, tend to be very concentrated, and in particular tend to be rich in nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, lipids and proteins. The proteins function partly as food in their own right, and partly in controlling the storage and supply of the other nutrients. For example, in some species the amount of yolk in an egg cell affects the developmental processes that follow fertilization.Yolk is not living cell material like protoplasm, but largely passive material, that is to say deutoplasm, in this case functioning mainly as food for the embryo. The food material, plus associated control structures, is supplied by the maternal body during the process called oogenesis. Some of the material is stored more or less in the form in which the maternal body supplied it, partly as processed by dedicated non-germ tissues in the egg, while part of the biosynthetic processing into its final form happens in the oocyte itself.

text: Yolks, being mainly stored food, tend to be very concentrated, and in particular tend to be rich in

text: nutrient

text: s such as vitamins, minerals,

text: lipid

text: s and proteins. The proteins function partly as food in their own right, and partly in controlling the storage and supply of the other nutrients. For example, in some species the amount of yolk in an egg cell affects the developmental processes that follow fertilization.Yolk is not living cell material like

text: protoplasm

text: , but largely passive material, that is to say

text: deutoplasm

text: , in this case functioning mainly as food for the embryo. The food material, plus associated control structures, is supplied by the maternal body during the process called

text: oogenesis

text: . Some of the material is stored more or less in the form in which the maternal body supplied it, partly as processed by dedicated

text: non-germ tissues in the egg

text: , while part of the

text: biosynthetic

text: processing into its final form happens in the

text: oocyte

text: itself.

text: Most vitamins are added as food fortification

text: Most vitamins are added as

text: food fortification

text: Phytoplankton are also crucially dependent on minerals. These are primarily macronutrients such as nitrate, phosphate or silicic acid, whose availability is governed by the balance between the so-called biological pump and upwelling of deep, nutrient-rich waters. However, across large regions of the World Ocean such as the Southern Ocean, phytoplankton are also limited by the lack of the micronutrient iron. This has led to some scientists advocating iron fertilization as a means to counteract the accumulation of human-produced carbon dioxide (CO) in the atmosphere. Large-scale experiments have added iron (usually as salts such as iron sulphate) to the oceans to promote phytoplankton growth and draw atmospheric CO into the ocean. However, controversy about manipulating the ecosystem and the efficiency of iron fertilization has slowed such experiments.

text: Phytoplankton are also crucially dependent on

text: minerals

text: . These are primarily

text: macronutrients

text: such as

text: nitrate

text: phosphate

text: or

text: silicic acid

text: , whose availability is governed by the balance between the so-called

text: biological pump

text: and

text: upwelling

text: of deep, nutrient-rich waters. However, across large regions of the

text: World Ocean

text: such as the

text: Southern Ocean

text: , phytoplankton are also limited by the lack of the

text: micronutrient

text: iron

text: . This has led to some scientists advocating

text: iron fertilization

text: as a means to counteract the accumulation of

text: human-produced

text: carbon dioxide (CO) in the

text: atmosphere

text: . Large-scale experiments have added iron (usually as salts such as

text: iron sulphate

text: ) to the oceans to promote phytoplankton growth and draw

text: atmospheric CO

text: into the ocean. However, controversy about manipulating the ecosystem and the efficiency of iron fertilization has slowed such experiments.

text: An insect uses its digestive system to extract nutrients and other substances from the food it consumes. Most of this food is ingested in the form of macromolecules and other complex substances like proteins, polysaccharides, fats and nucleic acids. These macromolecules must be broken down by catabolic reactions into smaller molecules like amino acids and simple sugars before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion.

text: macromolecule

text: s and other complex substances like

text: protein

text: s,

text: polysaccharide

text: s,

text: fat

text: s and

text: nucleic acid

text: catabolic reactions

text: into smaller molecules like

text: amino acid

text: s and

text: simple sugar

text: s before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion.

text: Growing algae as a source of biofuel has also been shown to have numerous environmental benefits, and has presented itself as a much more environmentally friendly alternative to current biofuels. For one, it is able to utilize run-off, water contaminated with fertilizers and other nutrients that are a by-product of farming, as its primary source of water and nutrients. Because of this, it prevents this contaminated water from mixing with the lakes and rivers that currently supply our drinking water. In addition to this, the ammonia, nitrates, and phosphates that would normally render the water unsafe actually serve as excellent nutrients for the algae, meaning that fewer resources are needed to grow the algae. Many algae species used in biodiesel production are excellent bio-fixers, meaning they are able to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to use as a form of energy for themselves. Because of this, they have found use in industry as a way to treat flue gases and reduce GHG emissions.

text: Food waste can be biodegraded by composting, and reused to fertilize soil. By redistributing nutrients and high microbial populations, compost reduces water runoff and soil erosion by enhancing rainfall penetration, which has been shown to reduce the loss of sediment, nutrients, and pesticide losses to streams by 75-95%.

text: Food waste can be

text: biodegraded

text: by

text: composting

text: , and reused to fertilize

text: soil

text: . By redistributing nutrients and high microbial populations, compost reduces water runoff and soil erosion by enhancing rainfall penetration, which has been shown to reduce the loss of sediment, nutrients, and pesticide losses to streams by 75-95%.

text: Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain joined together by peptide bonds. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape. Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes, and the cell cycle. Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle), especially when a primary source of energy, such as glucose, is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress.

text: Protein

text: s are made of

text: amino acid

text: s arranged in a linear chain joined together by

text: peptide bond

text: s. Many proteins are

text: enzyme

text: s that

text: catalyze

text: the chemical reactions in metabolism. Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as those that form the

text: cytoskeleton

text: , a system of

text: scaffolding

text: that maintains the cell shape. Proteins are also important in

text: cell signaling

text: immune responses

text: cell adhesion

text: active transport

text: across membranes, and the

text: cell cycle

text: . Amino acids also contribute to cellular energy metabolism by providing a carbon source for entry into the citric acid cycle (

text: tricarboxylic acid cycle

text: ), especially when a primary source of energy, such as

text: glucose

text: , is scarce, or when cells undergo metabolic stress.

text: Common components of different food groups can each be represented as a continuum of spokes on a wheel. These spokes can then be sized to roughly the same proportions as the food group servings on the food pyramid. Rather than list foods eaten at every meal, as is the case with the food pyramid, food groups are marked in  slots provided around the periphery of the wheel. With this arrangement, choosing foods equally spaced from all around the wheel will automatically provide a balanced mix of nutrients equivalent to that recommended by the food pyramid. In addition, ‘balancing’ the wheel by continually choosing foods from the blank slots will help ensure a diversity of nutrients.

text: When consumed raw, cress is a high-nutrient food containing substantial content of vitamins A, C and K and several dietary minerals.

text: When consumed raw, cress is a high-

text: nutrient

text: food containing substantial content of vitamins A, C and K and several

text: dietary minerals

text: Plumpy’Nut is used as a treatment for emergency malnutrition cases. It supports rapid weight gain derived from broad nutrient intake which can alleviate a starving child from impending illness or death. The product is easy for children to eat because it dispenses readily from a durable, tear-open package. The fortified peanut butter-like paste contains fats, dietary fiber, carbohydrates, proteins (as essential macronutrients), vitamins and minerals (as essential micronutrients). Peanut butter is also an excellent source of vitamin E and B vitamins.

text: Plumpy’Nut is used as a treatment for emergency malnutrition cases. It supports rapid weight gain derived from broad nutrient intake which can alleviate a starving child from impending illness or death. The product is easy for children to eat because it dispenses readily from a durable, tear-open package. The fortified peanut butter-like paste contains

text: fat

text: s,

text: dietary fiber

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: protein

text: s (as essential

text: macronutrients

text: ), vitamins and minerals (as essential

text: micronutrient

text: s). Peanut butter is also an excellent source of

text: vitamin E

text: and

text: B vitamins

text: Most opponents of pregnancy vegetarianism are concerned about the pregnant woman's protein intake because vegetarians do not eat chicken, fish, or beef. It is recommended, for example, that a pregnant woman should aim to have something from the four main food groups everyday. These include fruit and vegetables, carbohydrates, protein-rich foods and dairy foods. There are several vegetarian sources of protein: soy, cooked dried beans or peas, tofu, nuts or seeds, peanut butter, and eggs. Vegetarians focus on foods that are normally left out of most non-meat pregnancy diets such as include beans, fresh dark green vegetables, and whole grains which are good sources of protein. The risks associated with vegetarianism, that is to say the problems vegetarians face, can generally be lessened by a careful diet. These problems that many associate with vegetarianism, such as anaemia, are in fact not due to the vegetarian diet alone, but more so to the fact that the subject in question has failed to supplement their body with the nutrition they require. When cutting out meats, some vegetarians fail to intake any other kinds of protein. To intake protein is very important during pregnancy as one of the cause of the anaemia is iron deficiency and it varies by region. The iron-deficiency anaemia increases the risk of low weight in birth and transmits the iron-deficiency to infants.

text: Most opponents of

text: pregnancy

text: vegetarianism are concerned about the pregnant woman's

text: protein

text: intake because vegetarians do not eat

text: chicken

text: , fish, or beef. It is recommended, for example, that a pregnant woman should aim to have something from the four main food groups everyday. These include fruit and vegetables,

text: carbohydrates

text: , protein-rich foods and dairy foods. There are several vegetarian sources of protein: soy, cooked dried beans or peas, tofu, nuts or seeds, peanut butter, and eggs. Vegetarians focus on foods that are normally left out of most non-meat pregnancy diets such as include beans, fresh dark green vegetables, and whole grains which are good sources of protein. The risks associated with vegetarianism, that is to say the problems vegetarians face, can generally be lessened by a careful diet. These problems that many associate with vegetarianism, such as

text: anaemia

text: , are in fact not due to the vegetarian diet alone, but more so to the fact that the subject in question has failed to supplement their body with the nutrition they require. When cutting out meats, some vegetarians fail to intake any other kinds of protein. To intake protein is very important during pregnancy as one of the cause of the anaemia is iron deficiency and it varies by region. The iron-deficiency anaemia increases the risk of low weight in birth and transmits the iron-deficiency to infants.

text: Data on global and regional food supply shows that consumption rose from 2011-2012 in all regions. Diets became more diverse, with a decrease in consumption of cereals and roots and an increase in fruits, vegetables, and meat products. However, this increase masks the discrepancies between nations, where Africa, in particular, saw a decrease in food consumption over the same years. This information is derived from food balance sheets that reflect national food supplies, however, this does not necessarily reflect the distribution of micro and macronutrients. Often inequality in food access leaves distribution which uneven, resulting in undernourishment for some and obesity for others.

text: The purpose of a mineralizer is to facilitate the transport of insoluble “nutrient” to a seed crystal by means of a reversible chemical reaction. Overtime, the seed crystal accumulates the material that was once in the nutrient and grows. Mineralizers are additives that aid the solubilization of the nutrient solid. When used in small quantities, mineralizers function as catalysts. Typically, a more stable solid is crystallized from a solution that consists of a less stable solid and a solvent. The process is done by dissolution-precipitation or crystallization process.

text: The purpose of a mineralizer is to facilitate the transport of insoluble “nutrient” to a

text: seed crystal

text: by means of a reversible

text: chemical reaction

text: . Overtime, the seed crystal accumulates the material that was once in the nutrient and grows. Mineralizers are additives that aid the solubilization of the nutrient solid. When used in small quantities, mineralizers function as catalysts. Typically, a more stable solid is crystallized from a solution that consists of a less stable solid and a solvent. The process is done by dissolution-precipitation or crystallization process.

text: Water purification: Many wetland systems possess biofilters, hydrophytes, and organisms that in addition to  nutrient up-take abilities have the capacity to remove toxic substances that have come from pesticides, industrial discharges, and mining activities. The up-take occurs through most parts of the plant including the stems, roots, and leaves . Floating plants can absorb and filter heavy metals. Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth), Lemna (duckweed) and Azolla (water fern) store iron and copper commonly found in wastewater. Many fast-growing plants rooted in the soils of wetlands such as Typha (cattail) and Phragmites (reed) also aid in the role of heavy metal up-take. Animals such as the oyster can filter more than  of water per day while grazing for food, removing nutrients, suspended sediments, and chemical contaminants in the process.

text: Water purification: Many wetland systems possess biofilters, hydrophytes, and organisms that in addition to  nutrient up-take abilities have the capacity to remove toxic substances that have come from pesticides, industrial discharges, and mining activities. The up-take occurs through most parts of the plant including the stems, roots, and leaves . Floating plants can absorb and filter heavy metals. Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth), Lemna (duckweed) and Azolla (water fern) store iron and copper commonly found in

text: wastewater

text: . Many fast-growing plants rooted in the soils of wetlands such as Typha (cattail) and Phragmites (reed) also aid in the role of heavy metal up-take. Animals such as the oyster can filter more than  of water per day while grazing for food, removing nutrients, suspended sediments, and chemical contaminants in the process.

text: All people require certain essential nutrients, but food energy intake must be balanced with activity to maintain a proper body weight. People who engage in heavy physical activity need food energy as fuel, which can be supplied by empty calories in addition to foods with essential nutrients. Sedentary individuals and those eating less to lose weight may suffer malnutrition if they eat food supplying empty calories but not enough nutrients. Dietitians and nutritionists prevent or treat illnesses by designing eating programs and recommending dietary modifications according to patient's needs. Eating a variety of nutritious foods every day protects against chronic illness and helps to maintain a healthy immune system.

text: All people require certain essential nutrients, but food energy intake must be balanced with activity to maintain a proper

text: body weight

text: . People who engage in heavy physical activity need food energy as fuel, which can be supplied by empty calories in addition to foods with essential nutrients.

text: Sedentary

text: individuals and those

text: eating less to lose weight

text: may suffer malnutrition if they eat food supplying empty calories but not enough nutrients.

text: Dietitian

text: s and nutritionists prevent or treat illnesses by designing eating programs and recommending dietary modifications according to patient's needs. Eating a variety of nutritious foods every day protects against chronic illness and helps to maintain a healthy

text: immune system

text: In 2004, there was a food scandal involving fake infant formula being sold in Fuyang. Chinese state media reported that 50–60 children in Fuyang died from the formula, with the children belonging mostly to poor rural families. Fuyang's mayor Liu Qingqiang was reprimanded by the Chinese Communist Party for failing to supervise food safety, while Vice Mayor Ma Mingyue was forced to resign. Subsequently, 55 brands of cheap infant formula were banned after it was discovered they had only traces of the required nutrients.

text: In 2004, there was a food scandal involving fake

text: infant formula

text: being sold in Fuyang. Chinese state media reported that 50–60 children in Fuyang died from the formula, with the children belonging mostly to poor rural families. Fuyang's mayor Liu Qingqiang was reprimanded by the

text: Chinese Communist Party

text: for failing to supervise food safety, while Vice Mayor Ma Mingyue was forced to resign. Subsequently, 55 brands of cheap infant formula were banned after it was discovered they had only traces of the required nutrients.

text: The dry matter of plant and animal material would be its solids, i.e. all its constituents excluding water. The dry matter of food would include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants (e.g., thiocyanate, anthocyanin, and quercetin). Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which provide the energy in foods (measured in kilocalories or kilojoules), make up ninety percent of the dry weight of a diet. Water content in foods varies widely. A large number of foods are more than half water by weight, including boiled oatmeal (84.5%), cooked macaroni (78.4%), boiled eggs (73.2%), boiled rice (72.5%), white meat chicken (70.3%) and sirloin steak (61.9%).  Fruits and vegetables are 70 to 95% water.  Most meats are on average about 70% water.  Breads are approximately 36% water.  Some foods have a water content of less than 5%, e.g., peanut butter, crackers, and chocolate cake.Water content of dairy products is quite variable.  Butter is 15% water.  Cow's milk ranges between 88-86% water.  Swiss cheese is 37% percent water.  The water content of milk and dairy products varies with the percentage of butterfat so that whole milk has the lowest percentage of water and skimmed milk has the highest.

text: The dry matter of plant and animal material would be its solids, i.e. all its constituents excluding water. The dry matter of food would include

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: fat

text: s,

text: protein

text: s,

text: vitamin

text: s,

text: minerals

text: , and

text: antioxidant

text: s (e.g.,

text: thiocyanate

text: anthocyanin

text: , and

text: quercetin

text: ). Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, which provide the energy in foods (measured in kilocalories or kilojoules), make up ninety percent of the dry weight of a diet. Water content in foods varies widely. A large number of foods are more than half water by weight, including boiled oatmeal (84.5%), cooked macaroni (78.4%), boiled eggs (73.2%), boiled rice (72.5%), white meat chicken (70.3%) and sirloin steak (61.9%).  Fruits and vegetables are 70 to 95% water.  Most meats are on average about 70% water.  Breads are approximately 36% water.  Some foods have a water content of less than 5%, e.g., peanut butter, crackers, and chocolate cake.Water content of dairy products is quite variable.  Butter is 15% water.  Cow's milk ranges between 88-86% water.  Swiss cheese is 37% percent water.  The water content of milk and dairy products varies with the percentage of

text: butterfat

text: so that whole milk has the lowest percentage of water and skimmed milk has the highest.

text: Water is "consumed" in plants by the processes of photosynthesis (see above) and transpiration.  The latter process (which is responsible for about 90% of water use) is driven by the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants.  Transpiration allows plants to transport water and mineral nutrients from the soil to growth regions, and also cools the plant. Diffusion of water vapour out of a leaf, the force that drives transpiration, is regulated by structures known as stomata. These structure also regulate the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the leaf, such that decreasing water loss (by partially closing stomata) also decreases carbon dioxide gain.  Certain plants use alternative forms of photosynthesis, called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) and C4. These employ physiological and anatomical adaptations to increase water-use efficiency and allow increased primary production to take place under conditions that would normally limit carbon fixation by C3 plants (the majority of plant species).

text: Water is "consumed" in plants by the processes of photosynthesis (see above) and

text: transpiration

text: .  The latter process (which is responsible for about 90% of water use) is driven by the

text: evaporation

text: of water from the

text: leaves

text: of plants.  Transpiration allows plants to transport water and

text: mineral

text: nutrient

text: s from the

text: soil

text: to growth regions, and also cools the plant. Diffusion of water vapour out of a leaf, the force that drives transpiration, is regulated by structures known as

text: stoma

text: ta. These structure also regulate the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the leaf, such that decreasing water loss (by partially closing stomata) also decreases carbon dioxide gain.  Certain plants use alternative forms of photosynthesis, called

text: Crassulacean acid metabolism

text: (CAM) and

text: . These employ

text: physiological

text: and

text: anatomical

text: adaptations to increase water-use efficiency and allow increased primary production to take place under conditions that would normally limit carbon fixation by

text: plants (the majority of plant species).

text: Cooking could also kill parasites, reduce the amount of energy required for chewing and digestion, and release more nutrients from plants and meat. Due to the difficulty of chewing raw meat and digesting tough proteins (e.g. collagen) and carbohydrates, the development of cooking served as an effective mechanism to efficiently process meat and allow for its consumption in larger quantities. With its high caloric density and store of important nutrients, meat thus became a staple in the diet of early humans. By increasing digestibility, cooking allowed hominids to maximize the energy gained from consuming foods. Studies show that caloric intake from cooking starches improves 12-35% and 45-78% for protein. As a result of the increases in net energy gain from food consumption, survival and reproductive rates in hominids increased.

text: Cooking could also kill

text: parasites

text: , reduce the amount of energy required for chewing and digestion, and release more nutrients from plants and meat. Due to the difficulty of chewing raw meat and digesting tough proteins (e.g.

text: collagen

text: ) and carbohydrates, the development of cooking served as an effective mechanism to efficiently process meat and allow for its consumption in larger quantities. With its high caloric density and store of important nutrients, meat thus became a staple in the diet of early humans. By increasing digestibility, cooking allowed

text: hominids

text: to maximize the energy gained from consuming foods. Studies show that caloric intake from cooking starches improves 12-35% and 45-78% for protein. As a result of the increases in net energy gain from food consumption, survival and reproductive rates in hominids increased.

text: Pachypodium trunks and branches are thickened with water-storing tissue. Plants must rely on the food and water stored in their thickened trunks during seasonal or intermittent drought when leaves have been shed and no water is available from the substrate. In addition to the lower surface-to-volume ratio which aides in water retention, the thickened trunks and branches can also possess photosynthetic surface tissue to allow nutrient synthesis even when leaves are not present.

text: The ONQI for a food is the ratio of a "numerator" value representing beneficial nutrients such as iron, dietary fibre and vitamins, and a "denominator" value representing detrimental nutrients such as cholesterol and saturated fat.

text: The ONQI for a food is the ratio of a "numerator" value representing beneficial nutrients such as

text: iron

text: dietary fibre

text: and

text: vitamins

text: , and a "denominator" value representing detrimental nutrients such as

text: cholesterol

text: and

text: saturated fat

text: Once the food is in the digestive cavity, gland cells in the gastroderm release enzymes that reduce the prey to slurry, usually within a few hours. This circulates through the digestive cavity and, in colonial cnidarians, through the connecting tunnels, so that gastroderm cells can absorb the nutrients. Absorption may take a few hours, and digestion within the cells may take a few days. The circulation of nutrients is driven by water currents produced by cilia in the gastroderm or by muscular movements or both, so that nutrients reach all parts of the digestive cavity. Nutrients reach the outer cell layer by diffusion or, for animals or zooids such as medusae which have thick mesogleas, are transported by mobile cells in the mesoglea.

text: Once the food is in the digestive cavity,

text: gland

text: cells in the

text: gastroderm

text: release enzymes that reduce the prey to slurry, usually within a few hours. This circulates through the digestive cavity and, in colonial cnidarians, through the connecting tunnels, so that gastroderm cells can absorb the nutrients. Absorption may take a few hours, and digestion within the cells may take a few days. The circulation of nutrients is driven by water currents produced by cilia in the gastroderm or by muscular movements or both, so that nutrients reach all parts of the digestive cavity. Nutrients reach the outer cell layer by

text: diffusion

text: or, for animals or zooids such as medusae which have thick

text: mesoglea

text: s, are transported by mobile cells in the mesoglea.

text: Eustrongylidosis is a parasitic disease that mainly affects wading birds worldwide; however, the parasite’s complex, indirect life cycle involves other species such as aquatic worms and fish. Moreover, this disease is zoonotic which means the parasite can transmit disease from animals to humans. Eustrongylidosis is named after the causative agent Eustrongylides and typically occurs in eutrophicated waters where concentrations of nutrients and minerals are high enough to provide ideal conditions for the parasite to thrive and persist. Because eutrophication has become a common issue due to agricultural runoff and urban development, cases of Eustrongylidosis are becoming prevalent and hard to control. Eustrongylidosis can be diagnosed before or after death by observing behavior, clinical signs and performing fecal flotations and necropsies. Methods to control Eustrongylidosis include preventing eutrophication and providing hosts with uninfected food sources in aquaculture farms. Parasites are known to be indicators of environmental health and stability and should therefore be studied further to better understand the parasite’s life cycle and how it affects predator-prey interactions and improve conservation efforts.

text: Eustrongylidosis is a

text: parasitic disease

text: that mainly affects

text: wading bird

text: s worldwide; however, the parasite’s complex, indirect life cycle involves other species such as aquatic worms and fish. Moreover, this disease is

text: zoonotic

text: which means the parasite can transmit disease from animals to humans. Eustrongylidosis is named after the causative agent

text: Eustrongylides

text: and typically occurs in

text: eutrophicated

text: waters where concentrations of nutrients and minerals are high enough to provide ideal conditions for the parasite to thrive and persist. Because eutrophication has become a common issue due to agricultural runoff and urban development, cases of Eustrongylidosis are becoming prevalent and hard to control. Eustrongylidosis can be diagnosed before or after death by observing behavior, clinical signs and performing fecal flotations and necropsies. Methods to control Eustrongylidosis include preventing eutrophication and providing hosts with uninfected food sources in aquaculture farms. Parasites are known to be indicators of environmental health and stability and should therefore be studied further to better understand the parasite’s life cycle and how it affects predator-prey interactions and improve conservation efforts.

text: The returns of applying micronutrient-enriched fertilizers could be huge for human health, social and economic development. Research has shown that enriching fertilizers with micronutrients had not only an impact on plant deficiencies but also on humans and animals, through the food chain. A 1994 report by the World Bank estimated that micronutrient malnutrition costs developing economies at least 5 percent of gross domestic product. The Asian Development Bank has summarized the benefits of eliminating micronutrient deficiencies as follows:

text: While the original oilseed was high in linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated ω-6 fatty acid, a premium high oleic acid strain was developed in the late twentieth century. Early in the 21 century, a mid-oleic strain marketed as Nu-Sun was introduced as an improved frying oil that would have a low level of saturated fat, but would not require hydrogenation.  These three major strains have been purposely bred to differ  in their levels of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, saturated fat and tocopherols. All seed hybrids and the resulting different sunflower oils are mostly devoid of essential nutrients, with the notable exception of vitamin E which is high in content in all varieties (nutrient tables).

text: While the original oilseed was high in linoleic acid, a polyunsaturated ω-6 fatty acid, a premium high oleic acid strain was developed in the late twentieth century. Early in the 21 century, a mid-oleic strain marketed as

text: Nu-Sun

text: was introduced as an improved frying oil that would have a low level of saturated fat, but would not require hydrogenation.  These three major strains have been purposely bred to differ  in their levels of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats,

text: saturated fat

text: and

text: tocopherol

text: s. All seed

text: hybrids

text: and the resulting different sunflower oils are mostly devoid of

text: essential nutrients

text: , with the notable exception of

text: vitamin E

text: which is high in content in all varieties (nutrient tables).

text: The need to feed on blood before laying eggs is less remarkable in animals whose ordinary diets consist largely or entirely of blood, such as ticks; in these taxa it is autogeny, or the ability to lay eggs without a blood meal, that is more remarked upon. Many insects are able to produce eggs without ingesting proteinaceous food as adults, relying upon stores of nutrients they acquired as larvae. Most, however, can lay relatively few eggs without feeding on protein, and almost all require a high-protein meal to lay additional eggs after a first batch.

text: The need to feed on blood before laying eggs is less remarkable in animals whose ordinary diets consist largely or entirely of blood, such as

text: tick

text: s; in these taxa it is autogeny, or the ability to lay eggs without a blood meal, that is more remarked upon. Many insects are able to produce eggs without ingesting proteinaceous food as adults, relying upon stores of nutrients they acquired as larvae. Most, however, can lay relatively few eggs without feeding on protein, and almost all require a high-protein meal to lay additional eggs after a first batch.

text: The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in joules or calories (sometimes called "kilocalories" and on other rare occasions written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram., though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear.

text: The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and

text: energy

text: joule

text: s or

text: calorie

text: s (sometimes called "kilocalories" and on other rare occasions written with a capital C to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram., though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear.

text: Nutrients such as nitrate are necessary for phytoplankton to thrive. Since the ocean’s availability of nutrients varies, diatoms must have ways to adapt under different nutrient levels to maintain healthy populations. When these nutrients are scarce, C. pseudocurvisetus can form alternative dormant life cycles to wait out the unfavorable conditions.  These forms are resting spores and resting cells. The cells not in a dormant state are vegetative cells. Resting spores use excessive amounts of silica to create a heavily silicified cell wall. They then sink to the sediment until conditions are favorable and cause them to germinate into a diatom bloom. If excess silican acid is not available, C. pseudocurvisetus will form resting cells.  Silicic acid is limiting to diatoms. In a single population of C. pseudocurvisetus both resting spores and resting cells may be formed, depending on the concentrations of silica. Resting cells resemble vegetative cells, except they have weakly pigmented, shrunken and fragmented chloroplasts. Resting cells and resting spores both have a lower respiratory rate and photosynthetic activity than vegetative cells. Their metabolisms slow down since they are dormant. Both forms accumulate excess neutral lipids to use as stored material to maintain basic metabolic activity and to use for growth once they begin to germinate. Additionally, resting spores also accumulate glucose to store and use as energy while dormant. Both dormant forms have smaller amounts of chlorophyll a than vegetative cells, since neither are actively photosynthesizing. The reduction in chlorophyll a is also necessary because dormant cells in the euphotic zone may accumulate excess photosynthetic energy, causing lethal photochemical damages. Once high enough levels of nitrogen as well as other essential nutrients are available, the dormant forms can germinate into a bloom of vegetative cells. Other environmental factors such as light intensity and temperature must also be at the right levels for germination to occur.

text: Nutrients such as

text: nitrate

text: are necessary for phytoplankton to thrive. Since the ocean’s availability of nutrients varies, diatoms must have ways to adapt under different nutrient levels to maintain healthy populations. When these nutrients are scarce, C. pseudocurvisetus can form alternative dormant life cycles to wait out the unfavorable conditions.  These forms are resting spores and resting cells. The cells not in a dormant state are vegetative cells. Resting spores use excessive amounts of silica to create a heavily silicified cell wall. They then sink to the sediment until conditions are favorable and cause them to germinate into a diatom bloom. If excess silican acid is not available, C. pseudocurvisetus will form resting cells.  Silicic acid is limiting to diatoms. In a single population of C. pseudocurvisetus both resting spores and resting cells may be formed, depending on the concentrations of silica. Resting cells resemble vegetative cells, except they have weakly pigmented, shrunken and fragmented

text: chloroplasts

text: . Resting cells and resting spores both have a lower respiratory rate and photosynthetic activity than vegetative cells. Their metabolisms slow down since they are dormant. Both forms accumulate excess neutral

text: lipids

text: to use as stored material to maintain basic metabolic activity and to use for growth once they begin to germinate. Additionally, resting spores also accumulate glucose to store and use as energy while dormant. Both dormant forms have smaller amounts of chlorophyll a than vegetative cells, since neither are actively photosynthesizing. The reduction in chlorophyll a is also necessary because dormant cells in the

text: euphotic

text: zone may accumulate excess photosynthetic energy, causing lethal photochemical damages. Once high enough levels of nitrogen as well as other essential nutrients are available, the dormant forms can germinate into a bloom of vegetative cells. Other environmental factors such as light intensity and temperature must also be at the right levels for germination to occur.

text: Food webs provide a framework within which a complex network of predator–prey interactions can be organised. A food web model is a network of food chains. Each food chain starts with a primary producer or autotroph, an organism, such as a plant, which is able to manufacture its own food. Next in the chain is an organism that feeds on the primary producer, and the chain continues in this way as a string of successive predators. The organisms in each chain are grouped into trophic levels, based on how many links they are removed from the primary producers. The length of the chain, or trophic level, is a measure of the number of species encountered as energy or nutrients move from plants to top predators. Food energy flows from one organism to the next and to the next and so on, with some energy being lost at each level.  At a given trophic level there may be one species or a group of species with the same predators and prey.

text: Food web

text: s provide a framework within which a complex network of predator–prey interactions can be organised. A food web model is a network of

text: food chain

text: s. Each food chain starts with a

text: primary producer

text: or

text: autotroph

text: , an organism, such as a plant, which is able to manufacture its own food. Next in the chain is an organism that feeds on the primary producer, and the chain continues in this way as a string of successive predators. The organisms in each chain are grouped into

text: trophic level

text: s, based on how many links they are removed from the primary producers. The length of the chain, or trophic level, is a measure of the number of species encountered as energy or nutrients move from plants to top predators.

text: Food energy

text: flows from one organism to the next and to the next and so on, with some energy being lost at each level.  At a given trophic level there may be one species or a group of species with the same predators and prey.

text: Because the nutrient holding capacity is low, soil tests are crucial for sand-based athletic fields.  Soil tests should be taken frequently to measure what nutrients are lacking.  Fertility programs should then be based on the soil tests. Unlike a native soil field, where most nutrients that are applied stay in the soil, sand-based fields nutrient status fluctuates.  That is why a yearly fertilizer program can not be followed. It is more important to obtain soil tests during the establishment of a new field because organic matter will be low and amounts of nutrients will fluctuate even more.

text: The following is a list of micronutrients.  Micronutrients are nutrients for humans required in small quantities throughout life.

text: The following is a list of micronutrients.

text: Micronutrient

text: s are

text: nutrient

text: s for humans required in small quantities throughout life.

text: The process of dehydration removes only the moisture from its ingredients. Because its foods are never cooked, canned or extruded, much more of the natural nutrition is maintained keeping them packed with vitamins, minerals and valuable phytonutrients – as well as natural color and flavor.  Some dehydrated foods are even raw. This process helps to preserves the food’s nutrients so that less artificial supplements have to be added back to the food to ensure it is nutritious. Dehydration also stops spoilage. Most dehydrated foods are designed to be rehydrated simply by adding water at feeding time.

text: Like most other Proteaceae, B. ericifolia has proteoid roots—roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance solubilisation of nutrients, allowing nutrient uptake in low-nutrient soils such as the phosphorus-deficient native soils of Australia. The species lacks a lignotuber, and so is killed by fire and regenerates from seed.

text: Like most other

text: Proteaceae

text: , B. ericifolia has

text: proteoid root

text: s—roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter. These enhance

text: solubilisation

text: of

text: nutrient

text: s, allowing

text: nutrient uptake

text: in low-nutrient soils such as the

text: phosphorus

text: -deficient native soils of Australia. The species lacks a

text: lignotuber

text: , and so is killed by fire and regenerates from seed.

text: For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. For example, microorganisms in the intestine — commonly known as "gut flora" — produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in the skin with the help of the natural ultraviolet wavelength of sunlight. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan.

text: For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. For example, microorganisms in the intestine — commonly known as "

text: gut flora

text: " — produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in the

text: skin

text: with the help of the natural

text: ultraviolet

text: wavelength of

text: sunlight

text: . Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include

text: vitamin A

text: , produced from

text: beta carotene

text: , and

text: niacin

text: , from the

text: amino acid

text: tryptophan

text: Also, while a bog is always acidic and nutrient-poor, a fen may be either slightly acidic, neutral or alkaline and either nutrient-poor or nutrient-rich.  A mire is distinguished from a swamp by its lack of a forest canopy (though some bogs may support limited tree or bush growth, mires are dominated by grass and mosses), and from a marsh by its water nutrients and distribution (marshes are characterized by nutrient-rich stagnant or slow-moving waters; mire waters are located mostly below the soil surface level) as well as its plant life (marsh plants are generally submerged or floating-leaved; those in a mire are not).

text: Also, while a bog is always acidic and nutrient-poor, a fen may be either slightly acidic, neutral or alkaline and either nutrient-poor or nutrient-rich.  A mire is distinguished from a

text: swamp

text: by its lack of a forest canopy (though some bogs may support limited tree or bush growth, mires are dominated by grass and mosses), and from a

text: marsh

text: by its water nutrients and distribution (marshes are characterized by nutrient-rich stagnant or slow-moving waters; mire waters are located mostly below the soil surface level) as well as its plant life (marsh plants are generally submerged or floating-leaved; those in a mire are not).

text: The nutrient RDAs required to be met in Stigler’s experiment were calories, protein, calcium, iron, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and ascorbic acid.  The result was an annual budget allocated to foods such as evaporated milk, cabbage, dried navy beans, and beef liver at a cost of approximately $0.11 a day in 1939 U.S. dollars.

text: The nutrient RDAs required to be met in Stigler’s experiment were calories,

text: protein

text: calcium

text: iron

text: vitamin A

text: thiamine

text: riboflavin

text: niacin

text: , and

text: ascorbic acid

text: .  The result was an annual budget allocated to foods such as

text: evaporated milk

text: , cabbage, dried navy beans, and beef liver at a cost of approximately $0.11 a day in 1939 U.S. dollars.

text: Another key point of Edward's focus was on the amino acid composition of foods, especially vegetables, with the goal of finding low-cost foods that were optimal for protein production.  Based on a study performed in India, where school children who consumed dietary supplements of the aforementioned nature had favorable gains in height, weight and hemoglobin, Edwards oversaw a similar experiment in Alabama. School children received low-cost dietary supplements within their school lunches, and over a six-month period, their heights, weights and scholastic scores were recorded. In order to calculate the nutritive value of the meals the children were eating, nutrients such as protein, calcium, vitamin A and vitamin D were measured. Children who received dietary supplements showed a considerable increase in the majority of these nutrients, and also received higher academic evaluations from their teachers; they were more alert and paid better attention, for example.

text: Wheatgrass is a source of potassium, dietary fiber, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E (alpha tocopherol), vitamin K, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, pantothenic acid, iron, zinc, copper, manganese and selenium. Wheatgrass is also a source of protein (less than one gram per 28 grams). Adding other foods with complementary amino acid profiles to this food may yield a more complete protein source and improve the quality of some types of restrictive diets.

text: Wheatgrass is a source of

text: potassium

text: dietary fiber

text: vitamin A

text: vitamin C

text: vitamin E

text: (alpha tocopherol),

text: vitamin K

text: thiamin

text: riboflavin

text: niacin

text: vitamin B6

text: pantothenic acid

text: iron

text: zinc

text: copper

text: manganese

text: and

text: selenium

text: . Wheatgrass is also a source of protein (less than one gram per 28 grams). Adding other foods with complementary amino acid profiles to this food may yield a more complete protein source and improve the quality of some types of restrictive diets.

text: Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.

text: Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of

text: plant

text: or

text: animal

text: origin, and contains essential

text: nutrient

text: s, such as

text: carbohydrate

text: s,

text: fat

text: s,

text: proteins

text: vitamin

text: s, or

text: mineral

text: s. The substance is

text: ingested

text: by an

text: organism

text: and assimilated by the organism's

text: cells

text: to provide

text: energy

text: , maintain life, or stimulate growth.

text: Upwelling and primary production follow the onset of a strong wind within a few days (Mann & Lazier, 1996).  Zooplankton, such as copepods, take longer to respond to the abundance of food available because they have life cycles of weeks rather than days.  Zooplankton in the Canary Current reach their peak density in autumn when upwelling intensity decreases.  The decrease in upwelling allows the zooplankton to stay over the shelf where their food supply exists.  Due to the rapid response of phytoplankton to upwelled nutrients, zooplankton are seldom food-limited.

text: Upwelling and primary production follow the onset of a strong wind within a few days (Mann & Lazier, 1996).

text: Zooplankton

text: , such as

text: copepod

text: s, take longer to respond to the abundance of food available because they have life cycles of weeks rather than days.  Zooplankton in the Canary Current reach their peak density in autumn when upwelling intensity decreases.  The decrease in upwelling allows the zooplankton to stay over the shelf where their food supply exists.  Due to the rapid response of phytoplankton to upwelled nutrients, zooplankton are seldom food-limited.

text: Women in some societies are traditionally given less food than men since men are perceived to have heavier workloads.  Household chores and agricultural tasks can in fact be very arduous and require additional energy and nutrients; however, physical activity, which largely determines energy requirements, is difficult to estimate.

text: The distribution of the open-ocean oxygen minimum zones is controlled by the large-scale ocean circulation as well as local physical as well as biological processes. For example, wind blowing parallel to the coast causes Ekman Transport that upwells nutrients from deep water.  The increased nutrients support phytoplankton blooms, zooplankton grazing, and an overall productive food web at the surface.  The byproducts of these blooms and the subsequent grazing sink in the form of particulate and dissolved nutrients (from phytodetritus, dead organisms, fecal pellets, excretions, shed shells, scales, and other parts).  This “rain” of organic matter (see the Biological Pump) feeds the Microbial Loop and may lead to bacterial blooms in water below the euphotic zone due to the influx of nutrients.  Since oxygen is not being produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis below the euphotic zone, these microbes use up what oxygen is in the water as they break down the falling organic matter thus creating the lower oxygen conditions.

text: The distribution of the open-ocean oxygen minimum zones is controlled by the large-scale ocean circulation as well as local physical as well as biological processes. For example, wind blowing parallel to the coast causes

text: Ekman Transport

text: that upwells nutrients from deep water.  The increased nutrients support phytoplankton blooms, zooplankton grazing, and an overall productive

text: food web

text: at the surface.  The byproducts of these blooms and the subsequent grazing sink in the form of

text: particulate

text: and

text: dissolved

text: nutrients (from phytodetritus, dead organisms, fecal pellets, excretions, shed shells, scales, and other parts).  This “rain” of organic matter (see the

text: Biological Pump

text: ) feeds the

text: Microbial Loop

text: and may lead to bacterial blooms in water below the

text: euphotic zone

text: due to the influx of nutrients.  Since oxygen is not being produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis below the euphotic zone, these microbes use up what oxygen is in the water as they break down the falling organic matter thus creating the lower oxygen conditions.

text: Unnatural amino acids incorporated into proteins include heavy atom containing amino acids to facilitate x-ray crystallographic studies; amino acids with novel steric/packing and electronic properties; photocrosslinking amino acids which can be used to probe protein-protein interactions in vitro or in vivo; keto, acetylene, azide, and boronate containing amino acids which can be used to selectively introduce a large number of biophysical probes, tags, and novel chemical functional groups into proteins in vitro or in vivo; redox active amino acids to probe and modulate electron transfer; photocaged and photoisomerizable amino acids to photoregulate biological processes; metal binding amino acids for catalysis and metal ion sensing; amino acids that contain fluorescent or infra-red active side chains to probe protein structure and dynamics; α-hydroxy acids and

text: Micronutrients  are nutrients required by  organisms throughout life in small quantities to orchestrate a range of physiological functions. For people, they include dietary trace minerals in amounts generally less than 100 milligrams per day, as opposed to macrominerals, which are required in larger quantities. The microminerals or trace elements include at least iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, manganese, selenium, zinc and molybdenum. Micronutrients also include vitamins, which are organic compounds required as nutrients in trace amounts.

text: Micronutrients  are

text: nutrient

text: s required by

text: organism

text: s throughout life in small quantities to orchestrate a range of physiological functions. For people, they include dietary

text: trace mineral

text: s in amounts generally less than 100 milligrams per day, as opposed to

text: macromineral

text: s, which are required in larger quantities. The microminerals or trace elements include at least

text: iron

text: cobalt

text: chromium

text: copper

text: iodine

text: manganese

text: selenium

text: zinc

text: and

text: molybdenum

text: . Micronutrients also include

text: vitamin

text: s, which are

text: organic compound

text: s required as nutrients in trace amounts.

text: Sensitivity to a macronutrient would indicate that its reduction in the diet may have conferred increased metabolic and health benefits. Further refinements to personalising diet included tests for genes associated with gluten sensitivity, lactose intolerance, salt palatability, appetite control, folate and Vitamin D metabolism.

text: Sensitivity to a

text: macronutrient

text: would indicate that its reduction in the diet may have conferred increased metabolic and health benefits. Further refinements to personalising diet included tests for genes associated with

text: gluten sensitivity

text: lactose intolerance

text: salt

text: palatability,

text: appetite

text: control,

text: folate

text: and

text: Vitamin D

text: metabolism.

text: Using high-density urban farming, as for instance with vertical farms or stacked greenhouses, many environmental benefits can be achieved on a city-wide scale that would be impossible otherwise. These systems do not only provide food, but also produce potable water from waste water, and can recycle organic waste back to energy and nutrients. At the same time, they can reduce food-related transportation to a minimum while providing fresh food for large communities in almost any climate.

text: Using high-density urban farming, as for instance with

text: vertical farms

text: or stacked greenhouses, many environmental benefits can be achieved on a city-wide scale that would be impossible otherwise. These systems do not only provide food, but also produce potable water from waste water, and can

text: recycle

text: organic waste back to energy and nutrients. At the same time, they can reduce food-related transportation to a minimum while providing fresh food for large communities in almost any climate.

text: Protein degradation may take place intracellularly or extracellularly. In digestion of food, digestive enzymes may be released into the environment for extracellular digestion whereby proteolytic cleavage breaks down proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids so that they may be absorbed and used by an organism. In animals the food may be processed extracellularly in specialized digestive organs or guts, but in many bacteria the food may be internalized into the cell via phagocytosis. Microbial degradation of protein in the environment can be regulated by nutrient availability. For example, limitation for major elements in proteins (carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur) has been shown to induce proteolytic activity in the fungus Neurospora crassa as well as in whole communities of soil organisms.

text: Protein degradation may take place intracellularly or extracellularly. In digestion of food, digestive enzymes may be released into the environment for

text: extracellular digestion

text: whereby proteolytic cleavage breaks down proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids so that they may be absorbed and used by an organism. In animals the food may be processed extracellularly in specialized

text: digestive organs

text: or

text: gut

text: s, but in many bacteria the food may be internalized into the cell via

text: phagocytosis

text: . Microbial degradation of protein in the environment can be regulated by nutrient availability. For example, limitation for major elements in proteins (carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur) has been shown to induce proteolytic activity in the fungus Neurospora crassa as well as in whole communities of soil organisms.

text: One of the most important things to take into consideration when either trying to lose or put on weight is output versus input. It is important to know the amount of energy your body is using every day, so that your intake fits the needs of one's personal weight goal. Someone wanting to lose weight would want a smaller energy intake than what they put out. There is increasing research-based evidence that low-fat vegetarian diets consistently lead to healthy weight loss and management, a decrease in diabetic symptoms as well as improved cardiac health.

text: A 2008 study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine showed that dieters who kept a daily food diary (or diet journal), lost twice as much weight as those who did not keep a food log, suggesting that if you record your eating, you wouldn't eat as many calories.

text: A 2008 study published in the

text: American Journal of Preventive Medicine

text: showed that dieters who kept a daily food

text: diary

text: (or diet journal), lost twice as much weight as those who did not keep a food log, suggesting that if you record your eating, you wouldn't eat as many calories.

text: Rabbits are hindgut digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their large intestine and cecum. In rabbits, the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach and it along with the large intestine makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit's digestive tract. The unique musculature of the cecum allows the intestinal tract of the rabbit to separate fibrous material from more digestible material; the fibrous material is passed as feces, while the more nutritious material is encased in a mucous lining as a cecotrope. Cecotropes, sometimes called "night feces", are high in minerals, vitamins and proteins that are necessary to the rabbit's health. Rabbits eat these to meet their nutritional requirements; the mucous coating allows the nutrients to pass through the acidic stomach for digestion in the intestines. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.

text: Rabbits are

text: hindgut

text: digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their

text: large intestine

text: and

text: cecum

text: . In rabbits, the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach and it along with the large intestine makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit's digestive tract. The unique musculature of the cecum allows the intestinal tract of the rabbit to separate fibrous material from more digestible material; the fibrous material is passed as feces, while the more nutritious material is encased in a mucous lining as a

text: cecotrope

text: . Cecotropes, sometimes called "night feces", are high in

text: mineral

text: s,

text: vitamin

text: s and

text: protein

text: s that are necessary to the rabbit's health. Rabbits eat these to meet their nutritional requirements; the mucous coating allows the nutrients to pass through the acidic stomach for digestion in the intestines. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.

text: Micronutrients can be sourced from organic fertilizers as well. For example, composted pine bark is high in manganese and is sometimes used to fulfill that mineral requirement in hydroponic solutions. To satisfy requirements for National Organic Programs, pulverized, unrefined minerals (e.g. Gypsum, Calcite, and glauconite) can also be added to satisfy a plant's nutritional needs.

text: Micronutrients can be sourced from organic fertilizers as well. For example,

text: compost

text: ed

text: pine

text: bark is high in

text: manganese

text: and is sometimes used to fulfill that mineral requirement in hydroponic solutions. To satisfy requirements for

text: National Organic Program

text: s, pulverized, unrefined

text: mineral

text: s (e.g.

text: Gypsum

text: Calcite

text: , and

text: glauconite

text: ) can also be added to satisfy a plant's nutritional needs.

text: The nutrient or mineral content of foods, animal feeds or plant tissues are often expressed on a dry matter basis, i.e. as a proportion of the total dry matter in the material. For example a 138-gram apple contains 84% water (116 g water and 22 g dry matter per apple). The potassium content is 0.72% on a dry matter basis, i.e. 0.72% of the dry matter is potassium. The apple, therefore, contains 158 mg potassium (0.72/100 X 22 g). Dried apple contains the same concentration of potassium on a dry matter basis (0.72%), but is only 32% water (68% dry matter). So 138 g of dried apple contains 93.8 g dry matter and 675 mg potassium (0.72/100 x 93.8 g).

text: Although fluoride was once considered an essential nutrient, the U.S. National Research Council has since removed this designation due to the lack of studies showing it is essential for human growth, though still considering fluoride a "beneficial element" due to its positive impact on oral health. The European Food Safety Authority's Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) considers fluoride not to be an essential nutrient, yet, due to the beneficial effects of dietary fluoride on prevention of dental caries they have defined an Adequate Intake (AI) value for it. The AI of fluoride from all sources (including non-dietary sources) is 0.05 mg/kg body weight per day for both children and adults, including pregnant and lactating women.

text: Although fluoride was once considered an

text: essential nutrient

text: , the

text: U.S. National Research Council

text: has since removed this designation due to the lack of studies showing it is essential for human growth, though still considering fluoride a "beneficial element" due to its positive impact on oral health. The

text: European Food Safety Authority

text: 's Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) considers fluoride not to be an essential nutrient, yet, due to the beneficial effects of dietary fluoride on prevention of dental caries they have defined an

text: Adequate Intake

text: (AI) value for it. The AI of fluoride from all sources (including non-dietary sources) is 0.05 mg/kg body weight per day for both children and adults, including pregnant and lactating women.

text: The Papagayo jet is an important meteorological phenomenon when considering ocean biodiversity in the eastern tropical Pacific. The jet plays a key role in lowering sea surface temperatures, through the influence on the Costa Rica Dome. The movement and growth of the dome is caused by the seasonal variability of the jet where the annual upwelling and mixing caused by the Papagayo jet during dome extension allows for the transport of nutrient-rich cold waters to the surface. If the jet was a permanent feature (and by extension, the dome was also permanent) there would be no seasonal transport of nutrients via cold water upwelling. Indirect evidence of this nutrient transport can be seen in satellite imagery showing increased chlorophyll production in the surface waters directly under the path of the jet. The dome has also shown to be an area with increased zooplankton biomass as well as an area inhabited by blue whales who seem to follow the dome as it migrates in the eastern tropical Pacific waters.

text: The Papagayo jet is an important meteorological phenomenon when considering ocean

text: biodiversity

text: in the

text: eastern tropical Pacific

text: . The jet plays a key role in lowering sea surface temperatures, through the influence on the Costa Rica Dome. The movement and growth of the dome is caused by the seasonal variability of the jet where the annual

text: upwelling

text: and mixing caused by the Papagayo jet during dome extension allows for the transport of

text: nutrient

text: -rich cold waters to the surface. If the jet was a permanent feature (and by extension, the dome was also permanent) there would be no seasonal transport of nutrients via cold water

text: upwelling

text: . Indirect evidence of this nutrient transport can be seen in satellite imagery showing increased

text: chlorophyll

text: production in the surface waters directly under the path of the jet. The dome has also shown to be an area with increased

text: zooplankton

text: biomass

text: as well as an area inhabited by

text: blue whales

text: who seem to follow the dome as it migrates in the eastern tropical Pacific waters.

text: The core of these points of view is to attach a mental state of mind with the sources of proper agricultural food sources in a balance of harmony in part because the sources have freshness and purity. Modern assertions are that the fresh foods contain vital micronutrients generally lost in most food processing.

text: The core of these points of view is to attach a mental state of mind with the sources of proper agricultural food sources in a balance of harmony in part because the sources have freshness and purity. Modern assertions are that the fresh foods contain vital

text: micronutrients

text: generally lost in most food processing.

text: Most food that is eaten in day-to-day life in Nigeria fall in food taboos and superstitions thereby causing malnutrition for children as people consume low nutrients. Eating habit has long been controlled by belief about what is good to eat.

text: Most food that is eaten in day-to-day life in Nigeria fall in

text: food taboos

text: and superstitions thereby causing malnutrition for children as people consume low nutrients. Eating habit has long been controlled by belief about what is good to eat.

text: A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula  (where m could be different from n). Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula CHO. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.

text: A carbohydrate is a

text: biological molecule

text: consisting of

text: carbon

text: (C),

text: hydrogen

text: (H) and

text: oxygen

text: (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen

text: atom

text: ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the

text: empirical formula

text: (where m could be different from n). Some exceptions exist; for example,

text: deoxyribose

text: , a sugar component of

text: DNA

text: , has the

text: empirical formula

text: CHO. Carbohydrates are technically

text: hydrate

text: s of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as

text: polyhydroxy aldehydes

text: and

text: ketone

text: s.

text: In many cases, the micronutrients added to foods in fortification are synthetic.

text: The presence or absence of certain minerals is indicative  of physical and chemical processes. Impacts on the parent body are recorded by impact-breccias and high-pressure mineral phases (e.g. coesite, akimotoite, majorite, ringwoodite, stishovite, wadsleyite).  Water bearing minerals are an indicator for hydrothermal activity on the parent body (e.g. clay minerals).

text: The presence or absence of certain minerals is indicative  of physical and chemical processes. Impacts on the parent body are recorded by impact-breccias and high-pressure mineral phases (e.g.

text: coesite

text: akimotoite

text: majorite

text: ringwoodite

text: stishovite

text: wadsleyite

text: ).  Water bearing minerals are an indicator for hydrothermal activity on the parent body (e.g.

text: clay mineral

text: s).

text: The astringency associated with wine is usually derived from a wine's tannins. Tannins add a gritty texture and chalky, astringent taste. It can enhance the perception of "body" or weight in the wine. Tannins are normally derived from the skins, seeds, and stems of the grapes themselves (leeched out during the maceration process) or from contact with oak during barrel aging. Tannins react with proteins. When paired with dishes that are high in proteins and fats (such as red meat and hard cheeses), the tannins will bind to the proteins and come across as softer. In the absence of protein from the food, such as some vegetarian dishes, the tannins will react with the proteins on the tongue and sides of the mouth—accentuating the astringency and having a drying effect on the palate. Various cooking methods, such as grilling and blackening can add a bitter "char" component to the dish that will allow it to play well with a tannic wine. While fish oils can make tannic wines taste metallic or off. Astringent tannic wines like Barolo and Cabernet Sauvignon can overwhelm a lot of foods but can be soften by fatty foods with a lot of proteins such as hard cheeses or meats. The dry tannins also serve as a cleansing agent on the palate by binding to the grease and oils left over in the mouth. Spicy and sweet foods can accentuate the dry, bitterness of tannins and make the wine seem to have off flavors.

text: The astringency associated with wine is usually derived from a wine's tannins. Tannins add a gritty texture and chalky, astringent taste. It can enhance the perception of "body" or weight in the wine. Tannins are normally derived from the skins, seeds, and stems of the grapes themselves (leeched out during the maceration process) or from contact with oak during barrel aging. Tannins react with

text: proteins

text: . When paired with dishes that are high in proteins and fats (such as red meat and hard cheeses), the tannins will bind to the proteins and come across as softer. In the absence of protein from the food, such as some

text: vegetarian

text: dishes, the tannins will react with the proteins on the tongue and sides of the mouth—accentuating the astringency and having a drying effect on the palate. Various cooking methods, such as

text: grilling

text: and

text: blackening

text: can add a bitter "char" component to the dish that will allow it to play well with a tannic wine. While

text: fish oils

text: can make tannic wines taste metallic or off. Astringent tannic wines like Barolo and Cabernet Sauvignon can overwhelm a lot of foods but can be soften by fatty foods with a lot of proteins such as hard cheeses or meats. The dry tannins also serve as a cleansing agent on the palate by binding to the grease and oils left over in the mouth. Spicy and sweet foods can accentuate the dry, bitterness of tannins and make the wine seem to have off flavors.

text: Micronutrient deficiency - Micronutrient deficiency is when a child is lacking essential vitamins or minerals such as Vitamin A, iron, and zinc. These deficiencies are caused by a long-term lack of nutritious food or they can be caused by infections such as worms.

text: Micronutrient deficiency

text: - Micronutrient deficiency is when a child is lacking essential vitamins or minerals such as Vitamin A, iron, and zinc. These deficiencies are caused by a long-term lack of nutritious food or they can be caused by infections such as worms.

text: As Mishna spends more and more time with her white friends, she becomes more and more envious of their home lives full of endless presents and infinite amounts of alone time with their many possessions.Mishna just can't seem to understand why they are so unhappy with their lives. Mishna learns, slowly but surely, that materials aren't everything and there are different kind of problems other than being hungry and being poor. Being rich has its issues as well and you need love from your family just as much as you need food in your belly or a shelter over your head. She also has to accept that happiness is harder to achieve than it seems.

text: Being herbivores, blackbuck graze on low grasses, occasionally browsing as well. They prefer sedges, fall witchgrass, mesquite, and live oak. They have occasionally been observed browsing on acacia trees in the Cholistan Desert. Oats and berseem were found to be palatable and nutritious to captive populations in a study. A study in the Velavadar Black Buck Sanctuary (Gujarat, India) showed that Dichanthium annulatum comprised 35 percent of their diet. Digestion of nutrients, especially crude proteins, was poor in summer, but more efficient in the rainy and winter seasons. Consequently crude protein intake in summer was very low, even below the recommended value. Blackbuck had a lower food consumption in summer. The fruits of Prosopis juliflora are often eaten, and blackbuck may play a role in their dispersal. Prosopis becomes a significant food item if grasses are scarce. Water is a daily requirement of the blackbuck.

text: Being herbivores, blackbuck graze on low grasses, occasionally

text: browsing

text: as well. They prefer

text: sedge

text: s,

text: fall witchgrass

text: mesquite

text: , and

text: live oak

text: . They have occasionally been observed browsing on

text: acacia

text: trees in the

text: Cholistan Desert

text: . Oats and berseem were found to be palatable and nutritious to captive populations in a study. A study in the

text: Velavadar Black Buck Sanctuary

text: Gujarat

text: , India) showed that

text: Dichanthium annulatum

text: comprised 35 percent of their diet. Digestion of nutrients, especially

text: crude protein

text: s, was poor in summer, but more efficient in the rainy and winter seasons. Consequently crude protein intake in summer was very low, even below the recommended value. Blackbuck had a lower food consumption in summer. The fruits of

text: Prosopis juliflora

text: are often eaten, and blackbuck may play a role in their dispersal. Prosopis becomes a significant food item if grasses are scarce. Water is a daily requirement of the blackbuck.

text: In the United States, the Institute of Medicine publishes a system of Dietary Reference Intakes, which includes Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for individual nutrients, and Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) for certain groups of nutrients, such as fats.  When there is insufficient evidence to determine an RDA, the institute may publish an Adequate Intake (AI) instead, which has a similar meaning, but is less certain.  The AI for α-linolenic acid is 1.6 grams/day for men and 1.1 grams/day for women, while the AMDR is 0.6% to 1.2% of total energy.

text: In the United States, the

text: Institute of Medicine

text: publishes a system of

text: Dietary Reference Intake

text: s, which includes Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for individual nutrients, and Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) for certain groups of nutrients, such as fats.  When there is insufficient evidence to determine an RDA, the institute may publish an Adequate Intake (AI) instead, which has a similar meaning, but is less certain.  The AI for

text: α-linolenic acid

text: is 1.6 grams/day for men and 1.1 grams/day for women, while the AMDR is 0.6% to 1.2% of total energy.

text: Lipids are biomolecules that are made up of glycerol derivatives bonded with fatty acid chains.  Glycerol is a simple polyol that has a formula of C3H5(OH)3.  Fatty acids are long carbon chains that have a carboxylic acid group at the end.  The carbon chains can be either saturated with hydrogen; every carbon bond is occupied by a hydrogen atom or a single bond to another carbon in the carbon chain, or they can be unsaturated; namely, there are double bonds between the carbon atoms in the chain.  Common fatty acids include lauric acid, stearic acid, and oleic acid.  The study and engineering of lipids typically focuses on the manipulation of lipid membranes and encapsulation.  Cellular membranes and other biological membranes typically consist of a phospholipid bilayer membrane, or a derivative thereof. Along with the study of cellular membranes, lipids are also important molecules for energy storage.  By utilizing encapsulation properties and thermodynamic characteristics, lipids become significant assets in structure and energy control when engineering molecules.

text: Lipids

text: are biomolecules that are made up of

text: glycerol

text: derivatives bonded with

text: fatty acid

text: chains.

text: Glycerol

text: is a simple

text: polyol

text: that has a formula of C3H5(OH)3.  Fatty acids are long carbon chains that have a

text: carboxylic acid

text: group at the end.  The

text: carbon

text: chains can be either saturated with hydrogen; every carbon bond is occupied by a hydrogen atom or a single bond to another carbon in the carbon chain, or they can be unsaturated; namely, there are double bonds between the carbon atoms in the chain.  Common fatty acids include

text: lauric acid

text: stearic acid

text: , and

text: oleic acid

text: .  The study and engineering of lipids typically focuses on the manipulation of lipid membranes and encapsulation.  Cellular membranes and other biological membranes typically consist of a

text: phospholipid bilayer

text: membrane, or a derivative thereof. Along with the study of cellular membranes, lipids are also important molecules for energy storage.  By utilizing encapsulation properties and

text: thermodynamic

text: characteristics, lipids become significant assets in structure and

text: energy

text: control when engineering molecules.

text: An ISO 22000 certified company, CHI Limited’s manufacturing facility deploys an advanced processing and packaging technology. The company also dedicates resources to research and development to ensure that CHI products provide the essential vitamins and nutrients that the consumer requires for healthy living.

text: An important step for both new analytical FCD and for values borrowed from other sources is for the compiler to evaluate the quality of the data before it can be added into FCDBs. Basic evaluation, where feasible, should be considered such as comparing the values to similar foods from other sources and checking whether the sums of the values equate to ~100% e.g. sum of water, protein, fat, carbohydrate and dietary fibre. In addition, a range of data quality measures need to be undertaken relating to the food identity and sampling and analytical aspects. For example, the USA has developed a multi-nutrient data quality evaluation system for which five evaluation categories are used including: sampling plan, number of samples, sample handling, analytical method and analytical quality control. Ratings for each category are combined to give a ‘Quality Index’ and a confidence code indicating to users the level of confidence for each value. In Europe, EuroFIR is currently developing a data quality evaluation system for European data based on the USA’s version.

text: An important step for both new analytical FCD and for values borrowed from other sources is for the compiler to evaluate the quality of the data before it can be added into FCDBs. Basic evaluation, where feasible, should be considered such as comparing the values to similar foods from other sources and checking whether the sums of the values equate to ~100% e.g. sum of water, protein, fat, carbohydrate and dietary fibre. In addition, a range of data quality measures need to be undertaken relating to the food identity and sampling and analytical aspects. For example, the USA has developed a multi-nutrient data quality evaluation system for which five evaluation categories are used including: sampling plan, number of samples, sample handling, analytical method and analytical quality control. Ratings for each category are combined to give a ‘Quality Index’ and a confidence code indicating to users the level of confidence for each value. In Europe,

entity_name: European Food Information Resource Network

text: EuroFIR

text: is currently developing a data quality evaluation system for European data based on the USA’s version.

text: Nutritionism is the view that excessive reliance on food science and the study of nutrition can lead to poor nutrition and to ill health. It was originally credited to Gyorgy Scrinis, and was popularized by Michael Pollan.  Since nutrients are invisible, policy makers rely on nutrition experts to advise on food choices. Because science has an incomplete understanding of how food affects the human body, Pollan argues, nutritionism can be blamed for many of the health problems relating to diet in the Western World today.

text: Nutritionism

text: is the view that excessive reliance on food science and the study of nutrition can lead to poor nutrition and to ill health. It was originally credited to

text: Gyorgy Scrinis

text: , and was popularized by

text: Michael Pollan

text: .  Since nutrients are invisible, policy makers rely on nutrition experts to advise on food choices. Because science has an incomplete understanding of how food affects the human body, Pollan argues, nutritionism can be blamed for many of the health problems relating to diet in the Western World today.

text: | <small> UL1 || <small> Glycoprotein L  || <small>Surface and membrane| |<small> UL38 || <small> UL38; VP19C  || <small>Capsid assembly and DNA maturation|-| <small> UL2 || <small>UL2  || <small>Uracil-DNA glycosylase| |<small> UL39 || <small>UL39; RR-1; ICP6   || <small>Ribonucleotide reductase (Large subunit)|-| <small> UL3 || <small>UL3  || <small>unknown| |<small> UL40 || <small>UL40; RR-2  || <small>Ribonucleotide reductase (Small subunit)|-| <small> UL4 || <small>UL4  || <small>unknown| |<small> UL41 || <small>UL41; VHS  || <small>Tegument protein; Virion host shutoff|-| <small>UL5 || <small>UL5  || <small> DNA replication| |<small> UL42 || <small>UL42  || <small>DNA polymerase processivity factor|-| <small> UL6 || <small>Portal protein U-6 || <small>Twelve of these proteins constitute the capsid portal ring through which DNA enters and exits the capsid.| |<small> UL43 || <small>UL43  || <small>Membrane protein|-| <small> UL7 || <small>UL7  || <small>Virion maturation| |<small> UL44 || <small>Glycoprotein C  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small>UL8 || <small>UL8  || <small>DNA virus helicase-primase complex-associated protein| |<small> UL45 || <small>UL45  || <small>Membrane protein; C-type lectin|-| <small>UL9 || <small>UL9  || <small>Replication origin-binding protein| |<small> UL46 ||VP11/12 <small>  || <small>Tegument proteins|-| <small> UL10 || <small>Glycoprotein M  || <small>Surface and membrane| |<small> UL47 || <small>UL47; VP13/14  || <small>Tegument protein|-| <small> UL11 || <small>UL11  || <small>virion exit and secondary envelopment| <small> UL48 || <small>VP16 (Alpha-TIF)  || <small>Virion maturation; activate IE genes by interacting with the cellular transcription factors Oct-1 and HCF. Binds to the sequence TAATGARAT.|-| <small> UL12 || <small>UL12  || <small>Alkaline exonuclease| |<small> UL49 || <small>UL49A  || <small>Envelope protein|-| <small> UL13 || <small>UL13  || <small>Serine-threonine protein kinase| |<small>UL50 || <small>UL50  || <small>dUTP diphosphatase|-| <small> UL14 || <small>UL14  || <small>Tegument protein| |<small> UL51 || <small>UL51  || <small>Tegument protein|-| <small> UL15 || <small>Terminase  || <small>Processing and packaging of DNA| |<small>UL52 || <small>UL52  || <small>DNA helicase/primase complex protein|-| <small> UL16 || <small>UL16  || <small>Tegument protein| |<small>UL53 || <small>Glycoprotein K  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small> UL17 || <small>UL17  || <small>Processing and packaging DNA| |<small>UL54 || <small>IE63; ICP27  || <small>Transcriptional regulation|-| <small> UL18 || <small>VP23  || <small>Capsid protein| |<small>UL55 || <small>UL55  || <small>Unknown|-| <small> UL19 || <small>VP5  || <small>Major capsid protein| |<small>UL56 || <small>UL56  || <small>Unknown|-| <small> UL20 || <small>UL20  || <small>Membrane protein| |<small>US1 || <small>ICP22; IE68  || <small>Viral replication|-| <small> UL21 || <small>UL21  || <small>Tegument protein| |<small>US2 || <small>US2  || <small>Unknown|-| <small> UL22 || <small>Glycoprotein H  || <small>Surface and membrane| |<small>US3 || <small>US3  || <small>Serine/threonine-protein kinase|-| <small>UL23 || <small>Thymidine kinase  || <small>Peripheral to DNA replication| |<small>US4 || <small>Glycoprotein G  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small>UL24 || <small>UL24  || <small>unknown| |<small>US5 || <small>Glycoprotein J  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small> UL25 || <small>UL25  || <small>Processing and packaging DNA| |<small>US6 || <small>Glycoprotein D  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small> UL26 || <small>P40; VP24; VP22A  || <small>Capsid protein| |<small>US7 || <small>Glycoprotein I  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small> UL27 || <small>Glycoprotein B  || <small>Surface and membrane| |<small>US8 || <small>Glycoprotein E  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small> UL28 || <small>ICP18.5  || <small>Processing and packaging DNA| |<small>US9 || <small>US9  || <small>Tegument protein|-| <small> UL29 || <small>UL29; ICP8  || <small>Major DNA-binding protein| |<small>US10 || <small>US10  || <small>Capsid/Tegument protein|-| <small> UL30 || <small>DNA polymerase  || <small>DNA replication| |<small>US11 || <small>US11; Vmw21  || <small>Binds DNA and RNA|-| <small> UL31 || <small>UL31  || <small>Nuclear matrix protein| |<small>US12 || <small>ICP47; IE12  || <small>Inhibits MHC class I pathway by preventing binding of antigen to TAP|-| <small> UL32 || <small>UL32  || <small>Envelope glycoprotein| |<small>RS1 || <small>ICP4; IE175  || <small>Major transcriptional activator. Essential for progression beyond the immediate-early phase of infection. IEG transcription repressor.|-| <small> UL33 || <small>UL33  || <small>Processing and packaging DNA| |<small>ICP0 || <small>ICP0; IE110; α0  || <small>E3 ubiquitin ligase that activates viral gene transcription by opposing chromatinization of the viral genome and counteracts intrinsic- and interferon-based antiviral responses.|-| <small> UL34 || <small>UL34  || <small>Inner nuclear membrane protein| |<small>LRP1 || <small>LRP1  || <small>Latency-related protein|-| <small> UL35 || <small>VP26  || <small>Capsid protein| |<small>LRP2 || <small>LRP2  || <small>Latency-related protein|-| <small> UL36 || <small>UL36  || <small>Large tegument protein| |<small>RL1 || <small>RL1; ICP34.5  || <small>Neurovirulence factor. Antagonizes PKR by de-phosphorylating eIF4a. Binds to BECN1 and inactivates autophagy.|-| |<small>UL37 || <small>UL37  || <small>Capsid assembly| | <small>LAT || <small>none  || <small>Latency-associated transcript|}

text: | <small>

text: || <small>

text: Glycoprotein

text: L  || <small>Surface and membrane| |<small>

text: || <small> UL38; VP19C  || <small>Capsid assembly and DNA maturation|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL2  || <small>

text: Uracil-DNA glycosylase

text: | |<small>

text: || <small>UL39; RR-1; ICP6   || <small>

text: Ribonucleotide reductase

text: (Large subunit)|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL3  || <small>unknown| |<small>

text: || <small>UL40; RR-2  || <small>Ribonucleotide reductase (Small subunit)|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL4  || <small>unknown| |<small>

text: || <small>UL41; VHS  || <small>Tegument protein; Virion host shutoff|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL5  || <small>

text: DNA replication

text: | |<small>

text: || <small>UL42  || <small>

text: DNA polymerase

text: processivity factor|-| <small> UL6 || <small>

text: Portal protein U-6

text: || <small>Twelve of these proteins constitute the capsid portal ring through which DNA enters and exits the capsid.| |<small>

text: || <small>UL43  || <small>Membrane protein|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL7  || <small>Virion maturation| |<small>

text: || <small>Glycoprotein C  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL8  || <small>

text: DNA virus

text: helicase-primase complex

text: -associated protein| |<small>

text: || <small>UL45  || <small>Membrane protein; C-type lectin|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL9  || <small>

text: Replication origin

text: -binding protein| |<small>

text: ||VP11/12 <small>  || <small>Tegument proteins|-| <small>

text: || <small>Glycoprotein M  || <small>Surface and membrane| |<small>

text: || <small>UL47; VP13/14  || <small>Tegument protein|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL11  || <small>virion exit and secondary envelopment| <small>

text: || <small>VP16 (Alpha-TIF)  || <small>Virion maturation; activate

text: IE genes

text: by interacting with the cellular transcription factors Oct-1 and HCF. Binds to the sequence TAATGARAT.|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL12  || <small>

text: Alkaline

text: exonuclease

text: | |<small>

text: || <small>UL49A  || <small>Envelope protein|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL13  || <small>

text: Serine

text: threonine

text: protein kinase

text: | |<small>

text: || <small>UL50  || <small>

text: dUTP diphosphatase

text: |-| <small>

text: || <small>UL14  || <small>

text: Tegument

text: protein| |<small>

text: || <small>UL51  || <small>Tegument protein|-| <small>

text: || <small>

text: Terminase

text: || <small>Processing and packaging of DNA| |<small>

text: || <small>UL52  || <small>DNA helicase/primase complex protein|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL16  || <small>Tegument protein| |<small>

text: || <small>Glycoprotein K  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL17  || <small>Processing and packaging DNA| |<small>

text: || <small>IE63; ICP27  || <small>Transcriptional regulation|-| <small>

text: || <small>VP23  || <small>

text: Capsid

text: protein| |<small>

text: || <small>UL55  || <small>Unknown|-| <small>

text: || <small>VP5  || <small>Major capsid protein| |<small>

text: || <small>UL56  || <small>Unknown|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL20  || <small>Membrane protein| |<small>

text: || <small>ICP22; IE68  || <small>Viral replication|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL21  || <small>Tegument protein| |<small>

text: || <small>US2  || <small>Unknown|-| <small>

text: || <small>Glycoprotein H  || <small>Surface and membrane| |<small>

text: || <small>US3  || <small>Serine/threonine-protein kinase|-| <small>

text: || <small>

text: Thymidine kinase

text: || <small>Peripheral to DNA replication| |<small>

text: || <small>Glycoprotein G  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL24  || <small>unknown| |<small>

text: || <small>Glycoprotein J  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL25  || <small>Processing and packaging DNA| |<small>

text: || <small>Glycoprotein D  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small>

text: || <small>P40; VP24; VP22A  || <small>Capsid protein| |<small>

text: || <small>Glycoprotein I  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small>

text: || <small>

text: Glycoprotein B

text: || <small>Surface and membrane| |<small>

text: || <small>Glycoprotein E  || <small>Surface and membrane|-| <small>

text: || <small>ICP18.5  || <small>Processing and packaging DNA| |<small>

text: || <small>US9  || <small>Tegument protein|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL29; ICP8  || <small>Major DNA-binding protein| |<small>

text: || <small>US10  || <small>Capsid/Tegument protein|-| <small>

text: || <small>

text: DNA polymerase

text: || <small>DNA replication| |<small>

text: || <small>US11; Vmw21  || <small>Binds DNA and RNA|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL31  || <small>Nuclear matrix protein| |<small>

text: || <small>ICP47; IE12  || <small>Inhibits

text: MHC class I

text: pathway by preventing binding of antigen to

entity_name: Transporter associated with antigen processing

text: TAP

text: |-| <small>

text: || <small>UL32  || <small>

text: Envelope

text: glycoprotein

text: | |<small>RS1 || <small>

text: ; IE175  || <small>Major transcriptional activator. Essential for progression beyond the immediate-early phase of infection.

text: IEG

text: transcription repressor.|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL33  || <small>Processing and packaging DNA| |<small>

text: || <small>ICP0; IE110; α0  || <small>E3

text: ubiquitin

text: ligase that activates viral gene transcription by opposing chromatinization of the viral genome and counteracts intrinsic- and

text: interferon

text: -based antiviral responses.|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL34  || <small>Inner nuclear membrane protein| |<small>

text: || <small>LRP1  || <small>Latency-related protein|-| <small>

text: || <small>VP26  || <small>Capsid protein| |<small>

text: || <small>LRP2  || <small>Latency-related protein|-| <small>

text: || <small>UL36  || <small>Large tegument protein| |<small>

text: || <small>RL1; ICP34.5  || <small>Neurovirulence factor. Antagonizes

text: PKR

text: by de-phosphorylating eIF4a. Binds to

text: and inactivates

text: autophagy

text: .|-| |<small>

text: || <small>UL37  || <small>Capsid assembly| | <small>

text: LAT

text: || <small>none  || <small>Latency-associated transcript|}

text: The decomposition of POM provides energy and nutrients. Nutrients not taken up by soil organisms may be available for plant uptake. The amount of nutrients released (mineralized) during decomposition depends on the biological and chemical characteristics of the POM, such as the C:N ratio. In addition to nutrient release, decomposers colonizing POM play a role in improving soil structure. Fungal mycelium entangle soil particles and release sticky, cement-like, polysaccharides into the soil; ultimately forming soil aggregates

text: The

text: decomposition

text: of POM provides energy and nutrients. Nutrients not taken up by soil organisms may be available for plant uptake. The amount of nutrients released (

text: mineralized

text: ) during decomposition depends on the biological and chemical characteristics of the POM, such as the

text: C:N ratio

text: . In addition to nutrient release, decomposers colonizing POM play a role in improving soil structure. Fungal

text: mycelium

text: entangle soil particles and release sticky, cement-like, polysaccharides into the soil; ultimately forming soil aggregates

text: According to the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, healthful diets contain the amounts of essential nutrients and energy needed to prevent nutritional deficiencies and excesses. Healthful diets also provide the right balance of carbohydrates, fat, and protein to reduce risks for chronic diseases, and they are obtained from a variety of foods that are available, affordable, and enjoyable.

text: A wide range of biologically diverse populations in natural ecosystems and in near agricultural ecosystems maintain essential ecological functions which are necessary for the production of food. For example, nutrient cycling, decomposition of organic matter, crusted or degraded soil rehabilitation, pest and disease regulation, maintaining water quality, and pollination.Maintaining this diversity of species and building on and enhancing ecosystem functions reduces external input requirements by increased nutrient availability, improved water use and soil structure, and natural control of pests.

text: A wide range of biologically diverse populations in natural ecosystems and in near agricultural ecosystems maintain essential ecological functions which are necessary for the production of food. For example,

text: nutrient cycling

text: decomposition

text: of organic matter, crusted or degraded

text: soil rehabilitation

text: , pest and disease regulation, maintaining

text: water quality

text: , and

text: pollination

text: .Maintaining this diversity of species and building on and enhancing ecosystem functions reduces external input requirements by increased

text: nutrient availability

text: , improved water use and

text: soil structure

text: , and natural

text: control of pests

text: Moves 2011-International Festival of Movement on Screen, 27 April – 1 May 2011

text: The positive impacts of SOM result from a number of complex, interactive edaphic factors; a non-exhaustive list of SOM's effects on soil functioning includes improvements related to soil structure, aggregation, water retention, soil biodiversity, absorption and retention of pollutants, buffering capacity, and the cycling and storage of plant nutrients. SOM increases soil fertility by providing cation exchange sites and acting as reserve of plant nutrients, especially nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), along with micronutrients, which are slowly released upon SOM mineralization.  As such, there is a significant correlation between SOM content and soil fertility.

text: The positive impacts of SOM result from a number of complex, interactive

text: edaphic

text: factors; a non-exhaustive list of SOM's effects on soil functioning includes improvements related to

text: soil structure

text: , aggregation, water retention, soil

text: biodiversity

text: , absorption and retention of

text: pollutants

text: , buffering capacity, and the

text: cycling

text: and storage of

text: plant nutrients

text: . SOM increases

text: soil fertility

text: by providing

text: cation exchange

text: sites and acting as reserve of

text: plant nutrients

text: , especially

text: nitrogen

text: (N),

text: phosphorus

text: (P), and

text: sulfur

text: (S), along with

text: micronutrients

text: , which are slowly released upon SOM

text: mineralization

text: .  As such, there is a significant correlation between SOM content and soil fertility.

text: A major component of soil respiration is from the decomposition of litter which releases CO to the environment while simultaneously immobilizing or mineralizing nutrients. During decomposition, nutrients, such as nitrogen, are immobilized by microbes for their own growth. As these microbes are ingested or die, nitrogen is added to the soil. Nitrogen is also mineralized from the degradation of proteins and nucleic acids in litter. This mineralized nitrogen is also added to the soil. Due to these processes, the rate of nitrogen added to the soil is coupled with rates of microbial respiration. Studies have shown that rates of soil respiration were associated with rates of microbial turnover and nitrogen mineralization. Alterations of the global cycles can further act to change the climate of the planet.

text: A major component of soil respiration is from the decomposition of litter which releases CO to the environment while simultaneously immobilizing or

text: mineralizing

text: nutrients. During decomposition, nutrients, such as nitrogen, are immobilized by microbes for their own growth. As these microbes are ingested or die, nitrogen is added to the soil. Nitrogen is also mineralized from the degradation of proteins and nucleic acids in litter. This mineralized nitrogen is also added to the soil. Due to these processes, the rate of nitrogen added to the soil is coupled with rates of microbial respiration. Studies have shown that rates of soil respiration were associated with rates of microbial turnover and nitrogen mineralization. Alterations of the global cycles can further act to change the climate of the planet.

text: After living in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Italy, France and Switzerland, Zambrano finally returned to Madrid in 1984.

text: After living in

text: Cuba

text: Puerto Rico

text: Italy

text: France

text: and

text: Switzerland

text: , Zambrano finally returned to Madrid in 1984.

text: Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air or mist environment without the use of soil or an aggregate medium (known as geoponics). The word "aeroponic" is derived from the Greek meanings of aero- (air) and ponos (labour).  Aeroponic culture differs from both conventional hydroponics, aquaponics, and in-vitro (plant tissue culture) growing. Unlike hydroponics, which uses a liquid nutrient solution as a growing medium and essential minerals to sustain plant growth; or aquaponics which uses water and fish waste, aeroponics is conducted without a growing medium.  It is sometimes considered a type of hydroponics, since water is used in aeroponics to transmit nutrients.

text: Aeroponics is the process of growing

text: plants

text: in an

text: air

text: or

text: mist

text: environment without the use of

text: soil

text: or an

text: aggregate

text: medium (known as

text: geoponic

text: s). The word "aeroponic" is derived from the

text: Greek

text: meanings of aero- (air) and ponos (labour).  Aeroponic culture differs from both conventional

text: hydroponics

text: aquaponics

text: , and

text: in-vitro

text: plant tissue culture

text: ) growing. Unlike hydroponics, which uses a liquid nutrient solution as a growing medium and essential minerals to sustain plant growth; or aquaponics which uses water and fish waste, aeroponics is conducted without a growing medium.  It is sometimes considered a type of hydroponics, since water is used in aeroponics to transmit nutrients.

text: Due to his problems first with Turkic nobles and then with the Mongols, Iltutmish had also ignored the Rajputs, who had regained territory lost earlier to the Turks, for the first fifteen years of his reign. Starting in 1226, however, Iltutmish began a series of campaigns against the Rajputs. Ranthambore, considered impregnable, was taken in 1226; Mandsaur in 1227. Bayana, Ajmer and Sambhar were also captured. Ranthambore was returned to its Chauhan rulers, who served as feudatories, while Ajmer remained part of the Delhi Sultanate. Nagaur was captured in 1230 and Gwalior was captured in 1231 after a one-year siege. Iltutmish's army was forced to retreat with heavy losses from Gujarat by the ruling Chalukyas. In 1235, Iltutmish sacked Ujjain.

text: Due to his problems first with Turkic nobles and then with the Mongols, Iltutmish had also ignored the Rajputs, who had regained territory lost earlier to the Turks, for the first fifteen years of his reign. Starting in 1226, however, Iltutmish began a series of campaigns against the Rajputs.

text: Ranthambore

text: , considered impregnable, was taken in 1226;

text: Mandsaur

text: in 1227.

text: Bayana

text: Ajmer

text: and

text: Sambhar

text: were also captured. Ranthambore was returned to its Chauhan rulers, who served as feudatories, while Ajmer remained part of the Delhi Sultanate.

text: Nagaur

text: was captured in 1230 and

text: Gwalior

text: was captured in 1231 after a one-year siege. Iltutmish's army was forced to retreat with heavy losses from Gujarat by the ruling

text: Chalukyas

text: . In 1235, Iltutmish sacked Ujjain.

text: He toured Jamaica in February and March 1927 in a team captained by the Hon. L. H. Tennyson that played three first-class matches against Jamaica.

text: He toured

text: Jamaica

text: in February and March 1927 in a team captained by

text: the Hon. L. H. Tennyson

text: that played three

text: first-class

text: matches against

text: Jamaica

text: The United Kingdom has been a heavy user of revenue stamps. The first revenues were issued before postage stamps were introduced, starting in the mid-eighteenth century. The last British revenues were Television Licence stamps issued in 1997.

text: The

text: United Kingdom

text: has been a heavy user of

text: revenue stamp

text: s. The first revenues were issued before postage stamps were introduced, starting in the mid-eighteenth century. The last British revenues were Television Licence stamps issued in 1997.

text: More specifically the criteria is based on nutrients Canadians should incorporate into their diet such as fibre and vitamins, and also those they should eat less of such as sodium, fat and sugar. The grocery items are divided into categories related to the Canadian Food Guide food groups which include: Vegetable and Fruit, Grain Products, Milk and Alternatives, Meat and Alternatives plus Oil and Fat.  There is also a category for food that incorporate more than one of these called Combination Foods.

text: Alternatively the player may also find the rare mineral Bombastium, which Gyro can use to create a matter transfer unit. This eliminates the need to travel by plane, and therefore the risk of crashing and losing time and money; the downside is that the matter transfer unit malfunctions sometimes and sends the player to the wrong destination.

text: Important ordinances enacted by the Central African Republic concern protection of wild life and regulation of hunting, under the guideline that wild life forms an integral part of the national heritage. The law defines various categories of protected areas and prescribed rules for their establishment, apart from the management aspects of fully and partially protected species and ordinary game species; regulation hunting procedures have also been listed for ordinary game species. Taking of fully protected species is banned. Partially protected species can be taken with specific permission. The capturing and transport of wild animals by and under the control of the Wildlife Department, enforcement measures and penalties are also defined.

text: “Nutrient cycling refers to the storage, cycling, and maintenance of nutrients by organisms and their associated processes”. The ocean is a vast storage pool for these nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus. The nutrients are absorbed by the basic organisms of the marine food web and are thus transferred from one organism to the other and from one ecosystem to the other. Nutrients are recycled through the life cycle of organisms as they die and decompose, releasing the nutrients into the neighboring environment. “The service of nutrient cycling eventually impacts all other ecosystem services as all living things require a constant supply of nutrients to survive”.

text: The person may, during catabolysis, have large amounts of lipids, proteins, and amino acids in the bloodstream, due to the muscle fibers and adipose tissues being broken down and sent to the nervous system and brain.  One may also exhibit a fever, since the body is working hard to transfer the nutrients in the muscles and fat to the blood.

text: The person may, during catabolysis, have large amounts of

text: lipid

text: s,

text: protein

text: s, and

text: amino acid

text: s in the bloodstream, due to the

text: muscle fiber

text: s and adipose tissues being broken down and sent to the nervous system and

text: brain

text: .  One may also exhibit a

text: fever

text: , since the body is working hard to transfer the nutrients in the muscles and fat to the blood.

text: The Suriname Athletics Federation (SAB; Surinaamse Atletiek Bond) is the governing body for the sport of athletics in Suriname.  Current president is Letitia Vriesde.

text: The Suriname Athletics Federation (SAB; Surinaamse Atletiek Bond) is the governing body for the sport of athletics in

text: Suriname

text: .  Current president is

text: Letitia Vriesde

text: Cassava chips are a common food in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana and other countries of Africa such as Malawi. In Ghana, cassava chips are called konkonte. Dried cassava chips are also used to supplement the carbohydrate content of livestock feed in Ghana. In Malawi, cassava chips are prepared by soaking cassava, slicing it, and then letting it dry. This is the primary means by which cassava is transported to markets from production areas.

text: Cassava

text: chips are a common food in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana and other countries of Africa such as

text: Malawi

text: . In Ghana, cassava chips are called konkonte. Dried cassava chips are also used to supplement the carbohydrate content of livestock

text: feed

text: in Ghana. In Malawi, cassava chips are prepared by soaking cassava, slicing it, and then letting it dry. This is the primary means by which cassava is transported to markets from production areas.