text: In a 1998 study, tritium concentrations in surface seawater and atmospheric water vapor (10 meters above the surface) were sampled at the following locations: the Sulu Sea, the Fremantle Bay, the Bay of Bengal, the Penang Bay, and the Strait of Malacca. Results indicated that the tritium concentration in surface seawater was highest at the Fremantle Bay (approximately 0.40 Bq/liter), which could be accredited to the mixing of runoff of freshwater from nearby lands due to large amounts found in coastal waters. Typically, lower concentrations were found between 35 and 45 degrees south latitude and near the equator. Results also indicated that (in general) tritium has decreased over the years (up to 1997) due to the physical decay of bomb tritium in the Indian Ocean. As for water vapor, the tritium concentration was approximately one order of magnitude greater than surface seawater concentrations (ranging from 0.46 to 1.15 Bq/liter). Therefore, the water vapor tritium is not affected by the surface seawater concentration; thus, the high tritium concentrations in the vapor were concluded to be a direct consequence of the downward movement of natural tritium from the stratosphere to the troposphere (therefore, the ocean air showed a dependence on latitudinal change).

text: In a 1998 study, tritium concentrations in surface seawater and atmospheric water vapor (10 meters above the surface) were sampled at the following locations: the

entity_name: Sulu Sea

text: Sulu Sea

text: , the

text: Fremantle Bay

text: , the

entity_name: Bay of Bengal

text: Bay of Bengal

text: , the

text: Penang Bay

text: , and the

entity_name: Strait of Malacca

text: Strait of Malacca

text: . Results indicated that the tritium concentration in surface seawater was highest at the Fremantle Bay (approximately 0.40 Bq/liter), which could be accredited to the mixing of runoff of freshwater from nearby lands due to large amounts found in coastal waters. Typically, lower concentrations were found between

entity_name: 35th parallel south

text: and

entity_name: 45th parallel south

text: 45 degrees south

text: latitude and near the

entity_name: Equator

text: equator

text: . Results also indicated that (in general) tritium has decreased over the years (up to 1997) due to the physical decay of bomb tritium in the

entity_name: Indian Ocean

text: Indian Ocean

text: . As for water vapor, the tritium concentration was approximately one order of magnitude greater than surface seawater concentrations (ranging from 0.46 to 1.15 Bq/liter). Therefore, the water vapor tritium is not affected by the surface seawater concentration; thus, the high tritium concentrations in the vapor were concluded to be a direct consequence of the downward movement of natural tritium from the stratosphere to the troposphere (therefore, the ocean air showed a dependence on latitudinal change).

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Brackish water is the water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. Brackish water condition commonly occurs when fresh water meets seawater. Brackish water habitats worldwide are estuaries, where a river meets the sea and mangroves, brackish marshes and brackish lakes and seas.

text: Brackish water is the water that has more salinity than fresh water, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. Brackish water condition commonly occurs when fresh water meets seawater. Brackish water habitats worldwide are estuaries, where a river meets the sea and

entity_name: Mangrove swamp

text: mangroves

entity_name: Brackish marsh

text: brackish marshes

text: and brackish lakes and seas.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: The world's oceans are made up of many different water masses. Each have particular temperature and salinity characteristics as a result of the location in which they formed. Once formed at a particular source, a water mass will travel some distance via large-scale ocean circulation. Typically, the flow of water in the ocean is described as turbulent (i.e. it doesn't follow straight lines). Water masses can travel across the ocean as turbulent eddies, or parcels of water usually along constant density (isopycnic) surfaces where the expenditure of energy is smallest. When these turbulent eddies of different water masses interact, they will mix together. With enough mixing, some stable equilibrium is reached and a mixed layer is formed. Turbulent eddies can also be produced from wind stress by the atmosphere on the ocean. This kind of interaction and mixing through buoyancy at the surface of the ocean also plays a role in the formation of a surface mixed layer.

text: The world's oceans are made up of many different

entity_name: Water mass

text: water mass

text: es. Each have particular temperature and salinity characteristics as a result of the location in which they formed. Once formed at a particular source, a water mass will travel some distance via large-scale ocean circulation. Typically, the flow of water in the ocean is described as turbulent (i.e. it doesn't follow straight lines). Water masses can travel across the ocean as turbulent eddies, or parcels of water usually along constant density (isopycnic) surfaces where the expenditure of energy is smallest. When these turbulent eddies of different water masses interact, they will mix together. With enough mixing, some stable equilibrium is reached and a mixed layer is formed. Turbulent eddies can also be produced from wind stress by the atmosphere on the ocean. This kind of interaction and mixing through buoyancy at the surface of the ocean also plays a role in the formation of a surface mixed layer.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: Ocean acidification describes the decrease in ocean pH that is caused by anthropogenic carbon dioxide () emissions into the atmosphere. Seawater is slightly alkaline and had a preindustrial pH of about 8.2. More recently, anthropogenic activities have steadily increased the carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added CO is absorbed by the oceans, forming carbonic acid and lowering the pH (now below 8.1) through ocean acidification. The pH is expected to reach 7.7 by the year 2100.

text: Ocean acidification describes the decrease in ocean

entity_name: PH

entity_section: Seawater

text: pH

text: that is caused by

entity_name: Human impact on the environment

text: anthropogenic

entity_name: Carbon dioxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: () emissions into the

entity_name: Atmosphere of Earth

text: atmosphere

text: . Seawater is slightly

entity_name: Alkalinity

text: alkaline

text: and had a preindustrial

text: pH

text: of about 8.2. More recently, anthropogenic activities have steadily increased the

text: carbon dioxide

text: content of the atmosphere; about 30–40% of the added CO is absorbed by the oceans, forming

entity_name: Carbonic acid

text: carbonic acid

text: and lowering the pH (now below 8.1) through ocean acidification. The pH is expected to reach 7.7 by the year 2100.

text: As a result, the vast bulk of the water on Earth is regarded as saline or salt water, with an average salinity of 35‰ (or 3.5%, roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater), though this varies slightly according to the amount of runoff received from surrounding land. In all, water from oceans and marginal seas, saline groundwater and water from saline closed lakes amount to over 97% of the water on Earth, though no closed lake stores a globally significant amount of water. Saline groundwater is seldom considered except when evaluating water quality in arid regions.

text: As a result, the vast bulk of the water on Earth is regarded as saline or salt water, with an average

entity_name: Salinity

text: salinity

text: of 35‰ (or 3.5%, roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater), though this varies slightly according to the amount of

entity_name: Surface runoff

text: runoff

text: received from surrounding land. In all, water from oceans and marginal seas, saline

entity_name: Groundwater

text: groundwater

text: and water from saline

entity_name: Endorheic basin

text: closed lake

text: s amount to over 97% of the water on Earth, though no closed

entity_name: Lake

text: lake

text: stores a globally significant amount of water. Saline groundwater is seldom considered except when evaluating water quality in arid regions.

text: Tidal power uses generators to produce electricity from tidal flows, sometimes by using a dam to store and then release seawater. The Rance barrage,  long, near St Malo in Brittany opened in 1967; it generates about 0.5 GW, but it has been followed by few similar schemes.

text: Tidal power uses generators to produce electricity from tidal flows, sometimes by using a dam to store and then release seawater. The Rance barrage,  long, near

entity_name: Saint-Malo

text: St Malo

text: in

entity_name: Brittany

text: Brittany

text: opened in 1967; it generates about 0.5 GW, but it has been followed by few similar schemes.

text: Modern measurements of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water, which is pure distilled water with an isotopic composition representative of the average of the world's oceans, show it has a density of  at its point of maximum density (3.984 °C) under one standard atmosphere (101 325 Pa or 760 torr) of pressure. Thus, a cubic decimeter of water at its point of maximum density is only 25 parts per million less massive than the IPK; that is to say, the 25 milligram difference shows that the scientists over  years ago managed to make the mass of the Kilogram of the Archives equal that of a cubic decimeter of water at 4 °C, with a margin of error at most within the mass of a single excess grain of rice.

text: Modern measurements of

entity_name: Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water

text: Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water

text: , which is pure distilled water with an

entity_name: Isotope

text: isotopic

text: composition representative of the average of the world's oceans, show it has a density of  at its point of maximum density (3.984 °C) under one

entity_name: Atmosphere (unit)

text: standard atmosphere

text: (101 325

entity_name: Pascal (unit)

text: Pa

text: or 760

entity_name: Torr

text: torr

text: ) of pressure. Thus, a cubic decimeter of water at its point of maximum density is only 25

entity_name: Parts-per notation

text: parts per million

text: less massive than the IPK; that is to say, the 25 milligram difference shows that the scientists over  years ago managed to make the mass of the Kilogram of the Archives equal that of a cubic decimeter of water at 4 °C, with a margin of error at most within the mass of a single excess grain of rice.

text: Originally known as Stanley the Plaid, he started off as a piker unit under King Saline IV and eventually rose to the position of warlord. During his service, he came to possess the Arkenhammer, a mysterious tool of divine origin, setting himself apart as a warlord, and later, ruler. King Saline IV later paid to have Stanley promoted to Heir Designate.  Thus, when King Saline IV was killed in an attack while Stanley was away, Stanley and his side were not dissolved and retook the city.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: As the surface of salt water begins to freeze (at −1.9 °C for normal salinity seawater, 3.5%) the ice that forms is essentially salt-free, with about the same density as freshwater ice. This ice floats on the surface, and the salt that is "frozen out" adds to the salinity and density of the sea water just below it, in a process known as brine rejection. This denser salt water sinks by convection and the replacing seawater is subject to the same process. This produces essentially freshwater ice at −1.9 °C on the surface. The increased density of the sea water beneath the forming ice causes it to sink towards the bottom. On a large scale, the process of brine rejection and sinking cold salty water results in ocean currents forming to transport such water away from the Poles, leading to a global system of currents called the thermohaline circulation.

text: As the

entity_name: Surface science

text: surface

text: of salt water begins to freeze (at −1.9 °C for normal salinity

entity_name: Seawater

text: seawater

text: , 3.5%) the ice that forms is essentially salt-free, with about the same density as freshwater ice. This ice floats on the surface, and the salt that is "frozen out" adds to the

text: salinity

text: and density of the sea water just below it, in a process known as

entity_name: Brine rejection

text: brine rejection

text: . This denser salt water sinks by convection and the replacing seawater is subject to the same process. This produces essentially freshwater ice at −1.9 °C on the surface. The increased density of the sea water beneath the forming ice causes it to sink towards the bottom. On a large scale, the process of brine rejection and sinking cold salty water results in ocean currents forming to transport such water away from the Poles, leading to a global system of currents called the

entity_name: Thermohaline circulation

text: thermohaline circulation

text: In 1934, Rona was back in Paris studying with Joliot-Curie, who had discovered artificial radioactivity. Soon after, Curie died and Rona became ill, but she was able to return to Vienna late the following year to share what had been learned with a group of researchers made up of Pettersson, Elizabeth Kara-Michailova, and Ernst Føyn, who was serving as an assistant to Ellen Gleditsch at that time. Their studies centered on research of the effect caused by bombarding radionuclides with neutrons. In 1935 Rona consolidated some of these relationships, working on Stora Bornö, then visiting Gleditsch in Oslo, then traveling to Copenhagen to see Hevesy, and later to Kålhuvudet, Sweden to meet with Karlik and Pettersson. One of the projects the group had been working on for several years was to determine if there was any correlation between water depth and radium content, and their seawater research evaluated the concentration of elements in seawater collected from different locations.

text: In 1934, Rona was back in Paris studying with Joliot-Curie, who had discovered

entity_name: Induced radioactivity

text: artificial radioactivity

text: . Soon after, Curie died and Rona became ill, but she was able to return to Vienna late the following year to share what had been learned with a group of researchers made up of Pettersson,

entity_name: Elizaveta Karamihailova

text: Elizabeth Kara-Michailova

text: , and

entity_name: Ernst Føyn

text: Ernst Føyn

text: , who was serving as an assistant to

entity_name: Ellen Gleditsch

text: Ellen Gleditsch

text: at that time. Their studies centered on research of the effect caused by bombarding radionuclides with neutrons. In 1935 Rona consolidated some of these relationships, working on Stora Bornö, then visiting Gleditsch in

entity_name: Oslo

text: Oslo

text: , then traveling to

entity_name: Copenhagen

text: Copenhagen

text: to see Hevesy, and later to

entity_name: Kålhuvudet

text: Kålhuvudet

text: , Sweden to meet with Karlik and Pettersson. One of the projects the group had been working on for several years was to determine if there was any correlation between water depth and radium content, and their seawater research evaluated the concentration of elements in seawater collected from different locations.

text: The term includes both the circulation of the well-known, high-temperature vent waters near the ridge crests, and the much-lower-temperature, diffuse flow of water through sediments and buried basalts further from the ridge crests.  The former circulation type is sometimes termed "active", and the latter "passive".  In both cases, the principle is the same: Cold, dense seawater sinks into the basalt of the seafloor and is heated at depth whereupon it rises back to the rock-ocean water interface due to its lesser density.  The heat source for the active vents is the newly formed basalt, and, for the highest temperature vents, the underlying magma chamber.  The heat source for the passive vents is the still-cooling older basalts.  Heat flow studies of the seafloor suggest that basalts within the oceanic crust take millions of years to completely cool as they continue to support passive hydrothermal circulation systems.

text: The term includes both the circulation of the well-known, high-temperature vent waters near the ridge crests, and the much-lower-temperature,

entity_name: Diffusion

text: diffuse

text: flow of water through sediments and buried

entity_name: Basalt

text: basalt

text: s further from the ridge crests.  The former circulation type is sometimes termed "active", and the latter "passive".  In both cases, the principle is the same: Cold, dense seawater sinks into the basalt of the seafloor and is heated at depth whereupon it rises back to the rock-ocean water interface due to its lesser density.  The heat source for the active vents is the newly formed basalt, and, for the highest temperature vents, the underlying

entity_name: Magma

text: magma

text: chamber.  The heat source for the passive vents is the still-cooling older basalts.  Heat flow studies of the seafloor suggest that basalts within the oceanic crust take millions of years to completely cool as they continue to support passive hydrothermal circulation systems.

text: Variations in salinity are caused by many factors: currents flowing between the seas; incoming freshwater from rivers and glaciers; precipitation; the formation and melting of sea ice; and evaporation, which is in turn affected by temperature, winds, and waves. For example, the upper level of the Baltic Sea has a very low salinity (10 to 15‰) because the low temperatures of the surrounding climate produce minimal evaporation; it has many inflowing rivers; and its small connection to the North Sea tends to create a cold, dense under-layer that hardly mixes with the surface waters. By contrast, the Red Sea lies between the Sahara and Arabian Deserts; it has high evaporation but little precipitation; it has few (and mostly seasonal) inflowing rivers; and its connection to other seas—the Suez Canal in the north and the Bab-el-Mandeb in the south—are both very narrow. Its salinity averages 40‰. The Mediterranean is a little lower, at 37‰, while some landlocked lakes are much higher: The Dead Sea has  of dissolved solids per liter (300‰).

text: Variations in salinity are caused by many factors:

entity_name: Sea

entity_section: Currents

text: currents

text: flowing between the

entity_name: List of seas

text: seas

text: ; incoming

entity_name: Fresh water

text: freshwater

text: from

entity_name: River

text: river

text: s and

entity_name: Glacier

text: glacier

text: s;

entity_name: Precipitation

text: precipitation

text: ; the formation and melting of

entity_name: Sea ice

text: sea ice

text: ; and

entity_name: Evaporation

text: evaporation

text: , which is in turn affected by

entity_name: Temperature

text: temperature

entity_name: Wind

text: wind

text: s, and

entity_section: Waves

text: waves

text: . For example, the upper level of the

entity_name: Baltic Sea

text: Baltic Sea

text: has a very low salinity (10 to 15‰) because the low temperatures of the surrounding climate produce minimal evaporation; it has many inflowing rivers; and its small connection to the

entity_name: North Sea

text: North Sea

text: tends to create a cold, dense under-layer that hardly mixes with the surface waters. By contrast, the

entity_name: Red Sea

text: Red Sea

text: lies between the

entity_name: Sahara

text: Sahara

text: and

entity_name: Arabian Desert

text: Arabian Desert

text: s; it has high evaporation but little precipitation; it has few (and mostly seasonal) inflowing rivers; and its connection to other seas—the

entity_name: Suez Canal

text: Suez Canal

text: in the north and the

entity_name: Bab-el-Mandeb

text: Bab-el-Mandeb

text: in the south—are both very narrow. Its salinity averages 40‰. The

entity_name: Mediterranean Sea

text: Mediterranean

text: is a little lower, at 37‰, while

entity_name: Hypersaline lake

text: some landlocked lakes are much higher

text: : The

entity_name: Dead Sea

text: Dead Sea

text: has  of dissolved solids per liter (300‰).

text: Halotolerance is the adaptation of living organisms to conditions of high salinity. Halotolerant species tend to live in areas such as hypersaline lakes, coastal dunes, saline deserts, salt marshes, and inland salt seas and springs. Halophiles are organisms that live in highly saline environments, and require the salinity to survive, while halotolerant organisms (belonging to different domains of life) can grow under saline conditions, but do not require elevated concentrations of salt for growth. Halophytes are salt-tolerant higher plants. Halotolerant microorganisms are of considerable biotechnological interest.

text: Halotolerance is the

entity_name: Osmoregulation

text: adaptation

text: of living

entity_name: Organism

text: organism

text: s to conditions of high

text: salinity

text: . Halotolerant species tend to live in areas such as

text: hypersaline lake

text: s,

entity_name: Dune

text: coastal dunes

text: , saline

entity_name: Desert

text: desert

text: s, salt

entity_name: Marsh

text: marsh

text: es, and inland salt

text: sea

text: s and

entity_name: Spring (hydrology)

text: spring

text: s.

entity_name: Halophile

text: Halophile

text: s are organisms that live in highly saline environments, and require the

text: salinity

text: to survive, while halotolerant organisms (belonging to different

entity_name: Domain (biology)

text: domains

text: of life) can grow under saline conditions, but do not require elevated concentrations of salt for growth.

entity_name: Halophyte

text: Halophyte

text: s are salt-tolerant higher plants. Halotolerant microorganisms are of considerable biotechnological interest.

text: Disadvantages are the initial cost of the system, maintenance, and the cost of replacement cells.  Salt is corrosive and will damage some metals and some improperly-sealed stone. However, as the ideal saline concentration of a salt-chlorinated pool is very low (<3,500ppm, the threshold for human perception of salt by taste; seawater is about ten times this concentration), damage usually occurs due to improperly-maintained pool chemistry or improper maintenance of the electrolytic cell.  Pool equipment manufacturers will not warrant stainless steel products damaged by saline pools.

text: Disadvantages are the initial cost of the system, maintenance, and the cost of replacement cells.  Salt is corrosive and will damage some metals and some improperly-sealed stone. However, as the ideal saline concentration of a salt-chlorinated pool is very low (<3,500ppm, the threshold for human perception of salt by taste;

text: seawater

text: is about ten times this concentration), damage usually occurs due to improperly-maintained pool chemistry or improper maintenance of the electrolytic cell.  Pool equipment manufacturers will not warrant stainless steel products damaged by saline pools.

text: The formation of ice from salt water produces marked changes in the composition of the unfrozen water. When water freezes, most impurities are forced out of solution; even ice from seawater is relatively fresh compared with the seawater it is formed from. As a result of forcing the impurities out, sea ice is very porous and spongelike, quite different from the solid ice produced when fresh water freezes.

text: The formation of ice from

text: salt water

text: produces marked changes in the composition of the unfrozen water. When water freezes, most impurities are forced out of solution; even ice from seawater is relatively fresh compared with the seawater it is formed from. As a result of forcing the impurities out,

text: sea ice

text: is very

text: porous

text: and spongelike, quite different from the solid ice produced when

text: fresh water

text: freezes.

text: Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, or 0.600 M) This means that every kilogram (roughly one litre by volume) of seawater has approximately  of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium () and chloride () ions). Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/l. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/l at ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about . The coldest seawater ever recorded (in a liquid state) was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, and measured . Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.

text: Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a

text: salinity

text: of about 3.5% (35 g/L, or 0.600 M) This means that every kilogram (roughly one litre by volume) of seawater has approximately  of

text: dissolved salts

text: (predominantly

text: sodium

text: () and

text: chloride

text: ions

text: ). Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/l. Seawater is

text: denser

text: than both

text: fresh water

text: and pure water (density 1.0 kg/l at ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The

text: freezing point

text: of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about . The coldest seawater ever recorded (in a liquid state) was in 2010, in a stream under an

text: Antarctic

text: glacier

text: , and measured . Seawater

text: pH

text: is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.

text: SahysMod- Saline seep- Salinity in Australia- Salt marsh- Salting the earth- SaltMod- San Joaquin (soil)- Sand- Sand boil- Sandbag- Scobey (soil)- Seitz (soil)- Serpentine soil- Shear strength (soil)- Shear strength test- Shrub swamp- Silt- Slope stability- Slump- Sodium adsorption ratio- Soil- Soil alkalinity- Soil acidification- Soil amendment- Soil and water assessment tool- Soil Association- Soil biodiversity- Soil biology- Soil carbon- Soil cement- Soil chemistry- Soil classification- Soil compaction- Soil conditioner- Soil conservation- Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act- Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936- Soil contamination- Soil crust- Soil depletion- Soil ecology- Soil erosion- Soil fertility- Soil food web- Soil functions- Soil gradation- Soil guideline value- Soil health- Soil horizon- Soil inoculant- Soil life- Soil liquefaction- Soil management - Soil mechanics- Soil moisture- Soil moisture sensors- Soil nailing- Soil organic matter- Soil pH- Soil physics- Soil policy (Victoria, Australia)- Soil profile- Soil resilience- Soil respiration- Soil salination- Soil salinity- Soil salinity control- Soil science- Soil Science Society of America- Soil series- Soil solarization- Soil steam sterilization- Soil structure- Soil survey- Soil test- Soil texture- Soil type- Soil water (retention)- Soils retrogression and degradation- Solonchak- Solonetz- Specific storage- Specific weight- Spodic soils- Stagnosol- Strip farming- Stuttgart (soil)- Subaqueous soil- Subsidence- Subsoil- Suckiaug

text: SahysMod

text: Saline seep

text: Salinity in Australia

text: Salt marsh

text: Salting the earth

text: SaltMod

text: San Joaquin (soil)

text: Sand

text: Sand boil

text: Sandbag

text: Scobey (soil)

text: Seitz (soil)

text: Serpentine soil

text: Shear strength (soil)

text: Shear strength test

text: Shrub swamp

text: Silt

text: Slope stability

text: Slump

text: Sodium adsorption ratio

text: Soil

text: Soil alkalinity

text: Soil acidification

text: Soil amendment

text: Soil and water assessment tool

text: Soil Association

text: Soil biodiversity

text: Soil biology

text: Soil carbon

text: Soil cement

text: Soil chemistry

text: Soil classification

text: Soil compaction

text: Soil conditioner

text: Soil conservation

entity_name: Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936

text: Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act

text: Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936

text: Soil contamination

text: Soil crust

text: Soil depletion

text: Soil ecology

text: Soil erosion

text: Soil fertility

text: Soil food web

text: Soil functions

text: Soil gradation

text: Soil guideline value

text: Soil health

text: Soil horizon

text: Soil inoculant

text: Soil life

text: Soil liquefaction

text: Soil management

text: Soil mechanics

text: Soil moisture

text: Soil moisture sensors

text: Soil nailing

text: Soil organic matter

text: Soil pH

text: Soil physics

text: Soil policy (Victoria, Australia)

text: Soil profile

text: Soil resilience

text: Soil respiration

text: Soil salination

text: Soil salinity

text: Soil salinity control

text: Soil science

text: Soil Science Society of America

text: Soil series

text: Soil solarization

text: Soil steam sterilization

text: Soil structure

text: Soil survey

text: Soil test

text: Soil texture

text: Soil type

text: Soil water (retention)

text: Soils retrogression and degradation

text: Solonchak

text: Solonetz

text: Specific storage

text: Specific weight

text: Spodic soils

text: Stagnosol

text: Strip farming

text: Stuttgart (soil)

text: Subaqueous soil

text: Subsidence

text: Subsoil

text: Suckiaug

text: Studies have shown that measurements of seawater brightness temperature at the 1.413 GHz (L-band) are sufficient to make reasonably accurate measurements of seawater surface salinity. The emissivity of seawater can be described in terms of its polarized components of emissivity as:

text: Studies have shown that measurements of seawater

text: brightness temperature

text: at the 1.413 GHz (L-band) are sufficient to make reasonably accurate measurements of seawater surface salinity. The emissivity of seawater can be described in terms of its polarized components of

text: emissivity

text: as:

text: The 2GM20 series uses either a direct seawater cooling system, or an indirect freshwater cooling system (specified by the suffix letter F i.e. 2GM20F). Seawater is pumped into the engine through a seawater pump (impeller type). In the engines equipped with a direct seawater cooling system, seawater is used to cool the internals of the engine directly. The engines equipped with a freshwater cooling system have an additional heat exchanger, where heat transfer occurs between the seawater and internal freshwater.

text: The 2GM20 series uses either a

text: direct seawater

text: cooling system

text: , or an

text: indirect freshwater

text: cooling system (specified by the suffix letter F i.e. 2GM20F).

text: Seawater

text: is pumped into the engine through a seawater

text: pump

text: impeller

text: type). In the engines equipped with a direct seawater cooling system, seawater is used to cool the internals of the engine directly. The engines equipped with a freshwater cooling system have an additional

text: heat exchanger

text: , where heat transfer occurs between the seawater and internal

text: freshwater

text: The International Standard for making Artificial Seawater can be found at ASTM International. The current standard is named ASTM D1141-98 (the original standard was ASTM D1141-52) and describes the standard practice for the preparation of substitute ocean water. There are various applications for ASTM D1141-98 including corrosion studies, ocean instrument calibration and chemical processing.

text: The International Standard for making Artificial Seawater can be found at

text: ASTM International

text: . The current standard is named ASTM D1141-98 (the original standard was ASTM D1141-52) and describes the standard practice for the preparation of substitute ocean water. There are various applications for ASTM D1141-98 including

text: corrosion

text: studies, ocean

text: instrument calibration

text: and chemical processing.

text: With z being the thickness between the saltwater–freshwater interface and the sea level, hbeing the thickness between the top of the freshwater lens and the sea level, ρf being thedensity of freshwater and ρs being the density of saltwater. Including the densities offreshwater (ρf = 1.00 g •cm-3) and seawater (ρs = 1.025 g •cm-3) equation (2) simplifies to:

text: Molecular modeling software often provides graphical images of electron density. For example, in aniline (see image at right). Graphical models, including electron density are a commonly employed tool in chemistry education. Note in the left-most image of aniline, high electron densities are associated with the carbons and nitrogen, but the hydrogens with only one proton in their nuclei, are not visible. This is the reason that X-ray diffraction has a difficult time locating hydrogen positions.

entity_name: List of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software

text: Molecular modeling software

text: often provides graphical images of electron density. For example, in

text: aniline

text: (see image at right). Graphical models, including electron density are a commonly employed tool in chemistry education. Note in the left-most image of aniline, high electron densities are associated with the

text: carbon

text: s and

text: nitrogen

text: , but the

text: hydrogen

text: s with only one proton in their nuclei, are not visible. This is the reason that

text: X-ray diffraction

text: has a difficult time locating hydrogen positions.

text: Sulfate scale usually forms when formation water and injected seawater mix together. The relationship between these and the degree of supersaturation is crucial in estimating the amount of sulfate salts that will precipitate in the system. Seawater has a high concentration of sulfate ions and mixing with formation water with lots of Ca and other M ions in the formation water. Severe problems with sulfate scale are common in reservoirs where seawater has been injected to enhance oil recovery.

text: Incongruent transition, in chemistry, is a mass transition between two phases which involves a change in composition.  This is contrasted with congruent transition, for which the composition remains the same.

text: Incongruent transition, in

text: chemistry

text: , is a mass transition between two

text: phases

text: which involves a change in composition.  This is contrasted with congruent transition, for which the composition remains the same.

text: Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water (see also soil salinity).Salinity is an important factor in determining many aspects of the chemistryof natural waters and of biological processes within it, and is a thermodynamic state variable that, along with temperature and pressure, governs physical characteristics  like the density and heat capacity of the water.

text: Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved

text: salt

text: content of a body of

text: water

text: (see also

text: soil salinity

text: ).Salinity is an important factor in determining many aspects of the chemistryof natural waters and of

text: biological

text: processes within it, and is a

text: thermodynamic state variable

text: that, along with

text: temperature

text: and

text: pressure

text: , governs physical characteristics  like the

text: density

text: and

text: heat capacity

text: of the water.

text: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the earth's history. The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins. The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater, which affects density, and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers, aquifers, lakes, glaciers, polar ice caps and sea ice. Over geological timescales, changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level. In addition to eustatic changes, local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence.

text: Global or

text: eustatic sea level

text: has fluctuated significantly over the earth's history. The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins. The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater, which affects

text: density

text: , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers, aquifers,

text: lake

text: s, glaciers,

text: polar ice cap

text: s and

text: sea ice

text: . Over

text: geological timescale

text: s, changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level. In addition to eustatic changes, local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence.

text: For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration.Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity and packaging. Osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser.

text: For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its

text: mass concentration

text: .Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to

text: buoyancy

text: , purity and

text: packaging

text: Osmium

text: and

text: iridium

text: are the densest known elements at

entity_name: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: standard conditions for temperature and pressure

text: but certain chemical compounds may be denser.

text: Salinity has a strong influence on wetland water chemistry, particularly in wetlands along the coast. In non-riverine wetlands, natural salinity is regulated by interactions between ground and surface water, which may be influenced by human activity.

text: The discharges from seawater washing were still considered a problem and during the 1960s the load on top approach began to be adopted. The mixture of cleaning water and residue was pumped into a slop tank and allowed to separate by their different densities into oil and water during the journey. The water portion was then discharged, leaving only crude oil in the slop tank. This was pumped into the main tanks and the new cargo loaded on top of it, recovering as much as 800 tons of oil which was formerly discarded.

text: For practical reasons salinity is usually related to the sum of masses of a subset of these dissolved chemical constituents (so-called solution salinity), rather  than to the unknown mass of salts that gave rise to this composition (an exception is when artificial seawater is created).  For many purposes this sum can be limited to a set of eight major ions in natural waters, although for seawater at highest precision an additional seven minor ions are also included.  The major ions dominate the inorganic composition of most (but by no means all) natural waters. Exceptions include some pit lakes and waters from some hydrothermal springs.

text: For practical reasons salinity is usually related to the sum of masses of a subset of these dissolved chemical constituents (so-called solution salinity), rather  than to the unknown mass of salts that gave rise to this composition (an exception is when

text: artificial seawater

text: is created).  For many purposes this sum can be limited to a set of eight major ions in natural waters, although for seawater at highest precision an additional seven minor ions are also included.  The major ions dominate the inorganic composition of most (but by no means all) natural waters. Exceptions include some

text: pit lake

text: s and waters from some

text: hydrothermal spring

text: s.

text: Natural water consists mainly of the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but there is also a small quantity of heavier isotopes such as hydrogen-2 (deuterium). The amount of deuterium oxides or heavy water is very small, but it still affects the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes tends to contain less deuterium than seawater. Therefore, standard water is defined in the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water specification.

text: Natural water consists mainly of the isotopes hydrogen-1 and oxygen-16, but there is also a small quantity of heavier isotopes such as hydrogen-2 (

text: deuterium

text: ). The amount of deuterium oxides or

text: heavy water

text: is very small, but it still affects the properties of water. Water from rivers and lakes tends to contain less deuterium than seawater. Therefore, standard water is defined in the

text: Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water

text: specification.

text: When an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.8–2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm, respectively.

text: When an element has

text: allotrope

text: s with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of

text: carbon

text: amorphous carbon

text: graphite

text: , and

text: diamond

text: ) have densities of 1.8–2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm, respectively.

text: Salins-les-Thermes is a former commune in the Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Salins-Fontaine.

text: Salins-les-Thermes is a former

text: commune

text: in the

text: Savoie

text: department

text: in the

text: Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes

text: region

text: in south-eastern

text: France

text: . On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of

text: Salins-Fontaine

text: In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature generally decreases the density, but there are notable exceptions to this generalization. For example, the density of water increases between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C; similar behavior is observed in silicon at low temperatures.

text: In general, density can be changed by changing either the

text: pressure

text: or the

text: temperature

text: . Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature generally decreases the density, but there are notable exceptions to this generalization. For example, the density of

text: water

text: increases between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C; similar behavior is observed in

text: silicon

text: at low temperatures.

text: Saline is a village in southeastern Bienville Parish, Louisiana, United States. The population was 277 at the 2010 census. Saline is pronounced "Suh-LEEN".

text: Saline is a

text: village

text: in southeastern

text: Bienville Parish, Louisiana

text: United States

text: . The population was 277 at the

text: 2010 census

text: . Saline is pronounced "Suh-LEEN".

text: These estuaries are characterized by a sharp density interface between the upper layer of freshwater and the bottom layer of saline water.  River water dominates in this system, and tidal effects have a small role in the circulation patterns.  The freshwater floats on top of the seawater and gradually thins as it moves seaward.  The denser seawater moves along the bottom up the estuary forming a wedge shaped layer and becoming thinner as it moves landward.  As a velocity difference develops between the two layers, shear forces generate internal waves at the interface, mixing the seawater upward with the freshwater. An example is the Mississippi estuary.

text: These estuaries are characterized by a sharp density interface between the upper layer of

text: freshwater

text: and the bottom layer of

text: saline water

text: .  River water dominates in this system, and tidal effects have a small role in the circulation patterns.  The freshwater floats on top of the seawater and gradually thins as it moves seaward.  The denser seawater moves along the bottom up the estuary forming a wedge shaped layer and becoming thinner as it moves landward.  As a

text: velocity

text: difference develops between the two layers, shear forces generate

text: internal waves

text: at the interface, mixing the seawater upward with the freshwater. An example is the

text: Mississippi

text: estuary.

text: The estuary is transient and is quite shallow with a high rate of evaporation so that the estuary often dries out almost completely. The water is saline with salinity levels varying from slightly less than seawater to over four times as saline.

text: The estuary is transient and is quite shallow with a high rate of

text: evaporation

text: so that the estuary often dries out almost completely. The water is

text: saline

text: with salinity levels varying from slightly less than

text: seawater

text: to over four times as saline.

text: In 2012, Willauer estimated that jet fuel could be synthesized from seawater in quantities up to  per day, at a cost of three to six U.S. dollars per gallon. As well, the Navy is interested in using the technology to power its ships. In 2014, Willauer said that the catalyst could be changed to make various fuels such as methanol and natural gas, as well as the olefins that can be used as the building blocks for jet fuel. She said that about  of seawater must be driven through the process to result in one gallon of jet fuel. Seawater is the optimum choice because it contains 140 times more CO by volume than the atmosphere, and it yields usable amounts of H unlike the air. The equipment for processing seawater is much smaller than that for processing air. Willauer said seawater is the "best option" for a source of synthetic jet fuel. By April 2014, Willauer's team had not yet made fuel to the standard required by military jets, but they were able in September 2013 to use the fuel to fly a radio-controlled model airplane powered by a common two-stroke internal combustion engine. Because the process requires a large input of electrical energy, a plausible first step of implementation would be for American nuclear-powered aircraft carriers (the Nimitz-class and the Gerald R. Ford-class) to manufacture their own jet fuel. The U.S. Navy is expected to deploy the technology some time in the 2020s.

text: In 2012, Willauer estimated that jet fuel could be synthesized from seawater in quantities up to  per day, at a cost of three to six U.S. dollars per gallon. As well, the Navy is interested in using the technology to power its ships. In 2014, Willauer said that the catalyst could be changed to make various fuels such as

text: methanol

text: and

text: natural gas

text: , as well as the

text: olefins

text: that can be used as the building blocks for jet fuel. She said that about  of seawater must be driven through the process to result in one gallon of jet fuel. Seawater is the optimum choice because it contains 140 times more CO by volume than the atmosphere, and it yields usable amounts of H unlike the air. The equipment for processing seawater is much smaller than that for processing air. Willauer said seawater is the "best option" for a source of synthetic jet fuel. By April 2014, Willauer's team had not yet made fuel to the standard required by military jets, but they were able in September 2013 to use the fuel to fly a radio-controlled model airplane powered by a common two-stroke internal combustion engine. Because the process requires a large input of electrical energy, a plausible first step of implementation would be for American nuclear-powered

text: aircraft carrier

text: s (the

text: Nimitz-class

text: and the

text: Gerald R. Ford-class

text: ) to manufacture their own jet fuel. The U.S. Navy is expected to deploy the technology some time in the 2020s.

text: Only a part of the saline feed water pumped into the membrane assembly passes through the membrane with the salt removed. The remaining "concentrate" flow passes along the saline side of the membrane to flush away the concentrated salt solution. The percentage of desalinated water produced versus the saline water feed flow is known as the "recovery ratio". This varies with the salinity of the feed water and the system design parameters: typically 20% for small seawater systems, 40% – 50% for larger seawater systems, and 80% – 85% for brackish water. The concentrate flow is at typically only 3 bar / 50 psi less than the feed pressure, and thus still carries much of the high pressure pump input energy.

text: Microfossils, particularly from deep-sea sediments, also provide some of the most important records of global environmental change on long, medium or short timescales. Across vast areas of the ocean floor, the shells of planktonic micro-organisms sinking from surface waters provide the dominant source of sediment, and they continuously accumulate (typically at rates of 20-50 million per million years). Study of changes in assemblages of microfossils and of changes in their shell chemistry (e.g., oxygen isotope composition) are fundamental to research on climate change in the geological past.

text: Microcystin has been found in SF Bay area shellfish in seawater, apparently from freshwater runoff, exacerbated by drought.

text: Microcystin has been found in SF Bay area shellfish in seawater, apparently from freshwater runoff, exacerbated by

text: drought

text: The quantity of water released by the Amazon to the Atlantic Ocean is enormous: up to  in the rainy season, with an average of  from 1973 to 1990. The Amazon is responsible for about 20% of the Earth's fresh water entering the ocean. The river pushes a vast plume of fresh water into the ocean. The plume is about  long and between  wide. The fresh water, being lighter, flows on top of the seawater, diluting the salinity and altering the color of the ocean surface over an area up to  in extent. For centuries ships have reported fresh water near the Amazon's mouth yet well out of sight of land in what otherwise seemed to be the open ocean.

text: The quantity of water released by the Amazon to the Atlantic Ocean is enormous: up to  in the rainy season, with an average of  from 1973 to 1990. The Amazon is responsible for about 20% of the Earth's

text: fresh water

text: entering the ocean. The river pushes a vast plume of fresh water into the ocean. The plume is about  long and between  wide. The fresh water, being lighter, flows on top of the seawater, diluting the

text: salinity

text: and altering the color of the ocean surface over an area up to  in extent. For centuries ships have reported fresh water near the Amazon's mouth yet well out of sight of land in what otherwise seemed to be the open ocean.

text: Temperature shock involves cooling and heating of seawater by 3–5°C until spawning is induced. This is achieved by first reducing the temperature of the water by 3–5°C. The sea cucumbers are left for five minutes before they are exposed to ‘normal’ (depending on species and climate) temperature seawater, where the small rise in water temperature is sufficient to induce spawning. Males tend to spawn first which then induces females to release their eggs.

text: Temperature shock involves cooling and heating of seawater by 3–5°C until

text: spawning

text: is induced. This is achieved by first reducing the temperature of the water by 3–5°C. The sea cucumbers are left for five minutes before they are exposed to ‘normal’ (depending on species and climate) temperature seawater, where the small rise in water temperature is sufficient to induce spawning. Males tend to spawn first which then induces females to release their eggs.

text: Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater. However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water based on molarity, the percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of all dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions also constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% of all seawater ions. Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chlorine have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and calcium. Its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/l.

text: Seawater contains more dissolved

text: ion

text: s than all types of freshwater. However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more

text: bicarbonate

text: than river water based on

text: molarity

text: , the

text: percentage

text: of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of all dissolved

text: ion

text: s is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions also constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% of all seawater ions. Differences like these are due to the varying

text: residence time

text: s of seawater solutes;

text: sodium

text: and

text: chlorine

text: have very long residence times, while

text: calcium

text: (vital for

text: carbonate

text: formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride,

text: magnesium

text: sulfate

text: and calcium. Its

text: osmolarity

text: is about 1000 mOsm/l.

text: was a geochemist who made some of the first measurements of carbon dioxide (CO) levels in seawater and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the atmosphere of the dangers of radioactive fallout.

text: was a

text: geochemist

text: who made some of the first measurements of

text: carbon dioxide

text: (CO) levels in

text: seawater

text: and subsequently showed the evidence in seawater and the

text: atmosphere

text: of the dangers of

text: radioactive

text: fallout

text: Global warming can affect sea levels, coastlines, ocean acidification, ocean currents, seawater, sea surface temperatures, tides, the sea floor, weather, and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry; all of these affect the functioning of a society.

text: Global warming can affect

text: sea level

text: s,

text: coast

text: lines,

text: ocean acidification

text: ocean current

text: s,

text: seawater

text: sea surface temperature

text: s,

text: tide

text: s, the

text: sea floor

text: weather

text: , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry; all of these affect the functioning of a

text: society

text: Professor Naslain and his colleagues designed and experimentally validated the Chemical Vapor Infiltration (CVI) process, one of the very few techniques used in the world to manufacture large parts from C/SiC and SiC/SiC composites for aerospace applications. Both the Société Européenne de Propulsion (now Snecma Propulsion Solide) in Bordeaux and the DuPont Company in Wilmington, Delaware, are employing this pioneering approach. Dr. Naslain's other research interests include synthesis and crystal chemistry of alkali metal borides, crystal chemistry of boron-rich borides, and interfacial phenomena in metal-matrix or ceramic-matrix composites.

text: Professor Naslain and his colleagues designed and experimentally validated the

text: Chemical Vapor Infiltration

text: (CVI) process, one of the very few techniques used in the world to manufacture large parts from

text: C/SiC

text: and

text: SiC/SiC

text: composites

text: for

text: aerospace applications

text: . Both the Société Européenne de Propulsion (now

text: Snecma

text: Propulsion Solide) in Bordeaux and the

text: DuPont

text: Company in Wilmington, Delaware, are employing this pioneering approach. Dr. Naslain's other research interests include synthesis and crystal chemistry of alkali metal borides, crystal chemistry of boron-rich borides, and interfacial phenomena in metal-matrix or ceramic-matrix composites.

text: In 2012, researchers at Polyplus Corporation created a battery with an energy density more than triple that of traditional lithium-ion batteries using seawater. It's energy density is 1,300 W·h/kg, which is a lot more than the traditional 400 W·h/kg. It has a solid lithium positive electrode and a solid electrolyte. It could be used in underwater applications.

text: In 2012, researchers at Polyplus Corporation created a battery with an

text: energy density

text: more than triple that of traditional lithium-ion batteries using

text: seawater

text: . It's energy density is 1,300

text: W·h/kg

text: , which is a lot more than the traditional 400 W·h/kg. It has a solid lithium positive electrode and a solid electrolyte. It could be used in underwater applications.

text: kg/m. Because the compressibility of seawater varies with salinity and temperature, the reference pressure must chosen to be near the actual pressure to keep the definition of potential density dynamically meaningful.  Reference pressures are often chosen as a whole multiple of 100 bar; for water near a pressure of 400 bar (40 MPa), say, the reference pressure 400 bar would be used, and the potential density anomaly symbol would be written

text: kg

text: /m. Because the

text: compressibility

text: of

text: seawater

text: varies with

text: salinity

text: and

text: temperature

text: , the reference pressure must chosen to be near the actual pressure to keep the definition of potential density dynamically meaningful.  Reference pressures are often chosen as a whole multiple of 100 bar; for water near a pressure of 400 bar (40

text: MPa

text: ), say, the reference pressure 400 bar would be used, and the potential density anomaly symbol would be written

text: The average human body with a relaxed lungful of air is close to neutral buoyancy. If the air is exhaled, most people will sink in fresh water, and with full lungs, most will float in seawater. The amount of weight required to provide neutral buoyancy to the naked diver is usually trivial, though there are some people who require several kilograms of weight to become neutral in seawater due to low average density and large size. This is usually the case with people with a large proportion of body fat. As the diver is nearly neutral, most ballasting is needed to compensate for the buoyancy of the diver's equipment.

text: Saline Township took its name from Saline Creek.

text: Saline Township took its name from

text: Saline Creek

text: The concept of a "chemical substance" became firmly established in the late eighteenth century after work by the chemist Joseph Proust on the composition of some pure chemical compounds such as basic copper carbonate. He deduced that, "All samples of a compound have the same composition; that is, all samples have the same proportions, by mass, of the elements present in the compound." This is now known as the law of constant composition. Later with the advancement of methods for chemical synthesis particularly in the realm of organic chemistry; the discovery of many more chemical elements and new techniques in the realm of analytical chemistry used for isolation and purification of elements and compounds from chemicals that led to the establishment of modern chemistry, the concept was defined as is found in most chemistry textbooks. However, there are some controversies regarding this definition mainly because the large number of chemical substances reported in chemistry literature need to be indexed.

text: The

text: concept

text: of a "chemical substance" became firmly established in the late eighteenth century after work by the chemist

text: Joseph Proust

text: on the composition of some pure chemical compounds such as

text: basic copper carbonate

text: . He deduced that, "All samples of a compound have the same composition; that is, all samples have the same proportions, by mass, of the elements present in the compound." This is now known as the

text: law of constant composition

text: . Later with the advancement of methods for

text: chemical synthesis

text: particularly in the realm of

text: organic chemistry

text: ; the discovery of many more chemical elements and new techniques in the realm of

text: analytical chemistry

text: used for isolation and purification of elements and compounds from chemicals that led to the establishment of modern

text: chemistry

text: , the concept was defined as is found in most chemistry textbooks. However, there are some controversies regarding this definition mainly because the large number of chemical substances reported in chemistry literature need to be indexed.

text: Figure 1: Figure 1 illustrates the molar fraction of carbonate species present in seawater across pH, with salinity set at 5,000ppm, and temperature set to 25 degrees Celsius. Note temperature and salinity effect carbonate species present, and vary with location and season.

text: Grand Saline High School is a public high school located in Grand Saline, Texas (USA) and classified as a 3A school by the UIL.  It is part of the Grand Saline Independent School District located in northeast Van Zandt County.  In 2015, the school was rated "Met Standard" by the Texas Education Agency.

text: Grand Saline High School is a public high school located in

text: Grand Saline, Texas

text: USA

text: ) and classified as a 3A school by the

text: UIL

text: .  It is part of the

entity_name: Grand Saline Independent School District

text: Grand Saline Independent School District

text: located in northeast

text: Van Zandt County

text: .  In 2015, the school was rated "

entity_name: Texas Education Agency accountability ratings system

text: Met Standard

text: " by the

text: Texas Education Agency

text: Magnesium sulfate is highly soluble in water. The anhydrous form is strongly hygroscopic, and can be used as a desiccant.It is the primary substance that causes the absorption of sound in seawater (acoustic energy is converted to thermal energy). Absorption is strongly dependent on frequency: lower frequencies are less absorbed by the salt, so that the sound travels much farther in the ocean. Boric acid also contributes to absorption, but the most abundant salt in seawater, sodium chloride, has negligible sound absorption.

text: Magnesium sulfate is highly soluble in water. The anhydrous form is strongly

text: hygroscopic

text: , and can be used as a

text: desiccant

text: .It is the primary substance that causes the absorption of

text: sound

text: in

text: seawater

text: acoustic energy

text: is converted to

text: thermal energy

text: ). Absorption is strongly dependent on frequency: lower frequencies are less absorbed by the salt, so that the sound travels much farther in the ocean.

text: Boric acid

text: also contributes to absorption, but the most abundant salt in seawater,

text: sodium chloride

text: , has negligible sound absorption.

text: The tables below present an example of an artificial seawater (35.00‰ of salinity) preparation devised by Kester, Duedall, Connors and Pytkowicz (1967).  The recipe consists of two lists of mineral salts, the first of anhydrous salts that can be weighed out, the second of hydrous salts that should be added to the artificial seawater as a solution.

text: The tables below present an example of an artificial seawater (35.00

text: of salinity) preparation devised by Kester, Duedall, Connors and Pytkowicz (1967).  The recipe consists of two lists of mineral salts, the first of

text: anhydrous

text: salts that can be weighed out, the second of

text: hydrous

text: salts that should be added to the artificial seawater as a solution.

text: In terms of temperature, the ocean's layers are highly latitude-dependent; the thermocline is pronounced in the tropics, but nonexistent in polar waters (Marshak 2001). The halocline usually lies near the surface, where evaporation raises salinity in the tropics, or meltwater dilutes it in polar regions. These variations of salinity and temperature with depth change the density of the seawater, creating the pycnocline.

text: In terms of temperature, the ocean's layers are highly

text: latitude

text: -dependent; the

text: thermocline

text: is pronounced in the tropics, but nonexistent in polar waters (Marshak 2001). The

text: halocline

text: usually lies near the surface, where evaporation raises salinity in the tropics, or meltwater dilutes it in polar regions. These variations of salinity and temperature with depth change the density of the seawater, creating the

text: pycnocline

text: The saline breast implant—filled with saline solution (biological-concentration salt water 0.90% w/v of NaCl, ca. 300 mOsm/L.)—was first manufactured by the Laboratoires Arion company, in France, and was introduced for use as a prosthetic medical device in 1964. The contemporary models of saline breast implant are manufactured with thicker, room-temperature vulcanized (RTV) shells made of a silicone elastomer. The study In vitro Deflation of Pre-filled Saline Breast Implants (2006) reported that the rates of deflation (filler leakage) of the pre-filled saline breast implant made it a second-choice prosthesis for corrective breast surgery. Nonetheless, in the 1990s, the saline breast implant was the prosthesis most common device used for breast augmentation surgery in the United States, because of the U.S. FDA’s restriction against the implantation of silicone-filled breast implants outside of clinical studies. Saline breast implants have enjoyed little popularity in the rest of the world, possessing negligible market share.

text: The saline breast implant—filled with

text: saline solution

text: (biological-concentration salt water 0.90%

text: w/v

text: of

text: NaCl

text: , ca. 300

text: mOsm

text: /L.)—was first manufactured by the Laboratoires Arion company, in France, and was introduced for use as a prosthetic

text: medical device

text: in 1964. The contemporary models of saline breast implant are manufactured with thicker, room-temperature

text: vulcanized

text: (RTV) shells made of a

text: silicone

text: elastomer

text: . The study In vitro Deflation of Pre-filled Saline Breast Implants (2006) reported that the rates of deflation (filler leakage) of the pre-filled saline breast implant made it a second-choice prosthesis for corrective breast surgery. Nonetheless, in the 1990s, the saline breast implant was the

text: prosthesis

text: most common device used for breast augmentation surgery in the United States, because of the U.S. FDA’s restriction against the implantation of silicone-filled breast implants outside of clinical studies. Saline breast implants have enjoyed little popularity in the rest of the world, possessing negligible market share.

text: Population density is a measurement of the number of people in an area. It is an average number. Population density is calculated by dividing the number of people by area. Population density is usually shown as the number of people per square kilometer.

text: On occasion, companies will want to use seawater for this process due to its extreme low obtaining cost. The seawater used is usually brackish water or brine (i.e. a solution with >0.5% salinity). In these cases, random chemicals may be introduced into the system. These random chemicals pose no threat to the system however due to the simplicity of the process. The low voltage DC current that is applied will do only what it is intended to do, i.e. electrochlorination. The excess random chemicals are left untouched and can be easily discarded.

text: The pH of seawater is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. It plays an important role in the ocean's carbon cycle, and there is evidence of ongoing ocean acidification caused by carbon dioxide emissions. However, pH measurement is complicated by the chemical properties of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography.

text: The pH of

text: seawater

text: is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. It plays an important role in the ocean's

text: carbon cycle

text: , and there is evidence of ongoing

text: ocean acidification

text: caused by

text: carbon dioxide emissions

text: . However, pH measurement is complicated by the

text: chemical properties

text: of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in

text: chemical oceanography

text: In 2013, researchers reported their discovery of bacteria living in the rock of the oceanic crust below the thick layers of sediment, and apart from the hydrothermal vents that form along the edges of the tectonic plates.  Preliminary findings are that these bacteria subsist on the hydrogen produced by chemical reduction of olivine by seawater circulating in the small veins that permeate the basalt that comprises oceanic crust.  The bacteria synthesize methane by combining hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

text: In 2013, researchers reported their discovery of bacteria living in the rock of the

text: oceanic crust

text: below the thick layers of sediment, and apart from the hydrothermal vents that form along the edges of the

text: tectonic plate

text: s.  Preliminary findings are that these bacteria subsist on the hydrogen produced by chemical reduction of

text: olivine

text: by seawater circulating in the small veins that permeate the

text: basalt

text: that comprises oceanic crust.  The bacteria synthesize methane by combining hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

text: Found in intertidal rocks of saline and estuarine environments with various seawater salinities (35 to 24 PSU).

text: Seegert later became a teacher.  As of 2006, she was teaching physical education at the Heritage School in Saline, Michigan.  She also coached softball in Saline and Clinton, Michigan.

text: Seegert later became a teacher.  As of 2006, she was teaching physical education at the Heritage School in

text: Saline, Michigan

text: .  She also coached softball in Saline and

text: Clinton, Michigan

text: Electrode potential is measured with reference electrodes. Copper-copper sulphate electrodes are used for structures in contact with soil or fresh water.  Silver/silver chloride/seawater electrodes or pure zinc electrodes are used for seawater applications. The methods are described in EN 13509:2003 and NACE TM0497 along with the sources of error in the voltage that appears on the display of the meter. Interpretation of electrode potential measurements to determine the potential at the interface between the anode of the corrosion cell and the electrolyte requires training and cannot be expected to match the accuracy of measurements done in laboratory work.

text: Electrode potential

text: is measured with

text: reference electrode

text: s.

text: Copper-copper sulphate electrode

text: s are used for structures in contact with

text: soil

text: or fresh water.

text: Silver/silver chloride/seawater electrodes

text: or pure

text: zinc

text: electrodes are used for

text: seawater

text: applications. The methods are described in EN 13509:2003 and NACE TM0497 along with the sources of error in the voltage that appears on the display of the meter. Interpretation of electrode potential measurements to determine the potential at the interface between the anode of the corrosion cell and the electrolyte requires training and cannot be expected to match the accuracy of measurements done in laboratory work.

text: Because of these geographical characteristics, it is ideal for natural salt extraction. Grassmere has been divided into solar evaporation ponds. Seawater is pumped in, and moved between ponds over several months, increasing in salinity with each successive evaporation period. As salinity increases, crystallised salt forms and is extracted.

text: Because of these geographical characteristics, it is ideal for natural

text: salt

text: extraction. Grassmere has been divided into solar

text: evaporation

text: ponds. Seawater is pumped in, and moved between ponds over several months, increasing in salinity with each successive evaporation period. As salinity increases,

text: crystal

text: lised salt forms and is extracted.

text: Common water masses in the world ocean are: Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW), North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW), Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW), Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW), Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW), the central waters of various oceanic basins, and various ocean surface waters.

text: Common water masses in the world ocean are:

text: Antarctic Bottom Water

text: (AABW),

text: North Atlantic Deep Water

text: (NADW),

text: Circumpolar Deep Water

text: (CDW),

text: Antarctic Intermediate Water

text: (AAIW),

text: Subantarctic Mode Water

text: (SAMW),

text: Arctic Intermediate Water

text: (AIW), the central waters of various

text: oceanic basin

text: s, and various ocean surface waters.

text: Salin was born in Finland and played professional football with HIFK. Salin was the first-ever top goalscorer in the Mestaruussarja, scoring 9 goals, tied with Olof Strömsten of KIF Helsinki in 1930 and was the sole top goalscorer in 1931 with 11 goals. Salin earned 22 caps for the Finnish national team between 1931 and 1943, scoring 4 goals in the process. He also appeared in one FIFA World Cup qualifying match in August 1937.

text: Salin was born in Finland and played professional football with

text: HIFK

text: . Salin was the first-ever top goalscorer in the Mestaruussarja, scoring 9 goals, tied with

text: Olof Strömsten

text: of

text: KIF Helsinki

text: in

entity_name: 1930 Mestaruussarja – Finnish League Championship

text: and was the sole top goalscorer in

entity_name: 1931 Mestaruussarja – Finnish League Championship

text: with 11 goals. Salin earned 22 caps for the Finnish national team between 1931 and 1943, scoring 4 goals in the process. He also appeared in one FIFA World Cup qualifying match in August 1937.

text: The density of salt water depends on the dissolved salt content as well as the temperature. Ice still floats in the oceans, otherwise they would freeze from the bottom up. However, the salt content of oceans lowers the freezing point by about 1.9 °C (see here for explanation) and lowers the temperature of the density maximum of water to the freezing point. This is why, in ocean water, the downward convection of colder water is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point continues to sink. So creatures that live at the bottom of cold oceans like the Arctic Ocean generally live in water  4 °C colder than at the bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and rivers.

text: The density of salt water depends on the dissolved salt content as well as the temperature. Ice still floats in the oceans, otherwise they would freeze from the bottom up. However, the salt content of oceans lowers the freezing point by about 1.9 °C (see

entity_section: Freezing-point depression of a solvent and a solute

text: here

text: for explanation) and lowers the temperature of the density maximum of water to the freezing point. This is why, in ocean water, the downward convection of colder water is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point continues to sink. So creatures that live at the bottom of cold oceans like the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: generally live in water  4 °C colder than at the bottom of frozen-over

text: fresh water

text: lakes and rivers.

text: The basic design of the aquarium pumps  of seawater from the Monterey Bay per minute, day and night, through the more than 100 exhibit tanks. During the day the water is filtered for viewing clarity. During the night, raw (unfiltered) seawater is pumped through exhibits, bringing in food in the form of plankton. Waste ocean water from the aquarium is returned to the bay. This design makes the aquarium essentially part of the ocean ecologically, and allows the culture of organisms such as giant Kelp which are not suitable for ordinary saltwater aquariums.

text: The basic design of the aquarium pumps  of seawater from the

text: Monterey Bay

text: per minute, day and night, through the more than 100 exhibit tanks. During the day the water is filtered for viewing clarity. During the night, raw (unfiltered) seawater is pumped through exhibits, bringing in food in the form of plankton. Waste ocean water from the aquarium is returned to the bay. This design makes the aquarium essentially part of the ocean ecologically, and allows the culture of organisms such as

text: giant Kelp

text: which are not suitable for ordinary saltwater aquariums.

text: It is estimated an additional 1.5 to eleven times the amount of water in the oceans is contained in the Earth's interior, and some scientists have hypothesized that the water in the mantle is part of a "whole-Earth water cycle".The water in the mantle is dissolved in various minerals near the transition zone between Earth's upper and lower mantle. At  temperatures of  and extreme pressures found deep underground, water breaks down into hydroxyls and oxygen. The existence of water was experimentally predicted in 2002, and direct evidence of the water was found in 2014 based on tests on a sample of ringwoodite. Further evidence for large quantities of water in the mantle was found in observations of melting in the transition zone from the USArray project. Liquid water is not present within the ringwoodite, rather the components of water (hydrogen and oxygen) are held within as hydroxide ions.

text: It is estimated an additional 1.5 to eleven times the amount of water in the oceans is contained in the Earth's interior, and some scientists have hypothesized that the water in the mantle is part of a "whole-Earth water cycle".The water in the mantle is dissolved in various minerals near the

text: transition zone

text: between Earth's upper and lower mantle. At  temperatures of  and extreme pressures found deep underground, water breaks down into hydroxyls and oxygen. The existence of water was experimentally predicted in 2002, and direct evidence of the water was found in 2014 based on tests on a sample of

text: ringwoodite

text: . Further evidence for large quantities of water in the mantle was found in observations of melting in the transition zone from the

text: USArray

text: project. Liquid water is not present within the ringwoodite, rather the components of water (hydrogen and oxygen) are held within as

text: hydroxide

text: ions.

text: Salinity occurs on drylands from overirrigation and in areas with shallow saline water tables. Over-irrigation deposits salts in upper soil layers as a byproduct of soil infiltration; irrigation merely increases the rate of salt deposition. The best-known case of shallow saline water table capillary action occurred in Egypt after the 1970 construction of the Aswan Dam. The change in the groundwater level led to high salt concentrations in the water table. The continuous high level of the water table led to soil salination.

text: Salinity occurs on

text: drylands

text: from

text: overirrigation

text: and in areas with shallow saline water tables. Over-irrigation deposits salts in upper soil layers as a byproduct of soil

text: infiltration

text: ; irrigation merely increases the rate of salt deposition. The best-known case of shallow

text: saline water

text: table

text: capillary action

text: occurred in

text: Egypt

text: after the 1970 construction of the

text: Aswan Dam

text: . The change in the

text: groundwater

text: level led to high salt concentrations in the water table. The continuous high level of the

text: water table

text: led to

text: soil salination

text: One method of extracting uranium from seawater is using a uranium-specific nonwoven fabric as an absorbent. The total amount of uranium recovered in an experiment in 2003 from three collection boxes containing 350 kg of fabric was >1 kg of yellow cake after 240 days of submersion in the ocean.  According to the OECD, uranium may be extracted from seawater using this method for about US$300/kgU

text: , 7,000 tons of seawater from the tsunami remained in the plant.  The plant planned to release it all back into the ocean, as the tanks and structures holding the water were beginning to corrode.  Approximately 3,000 tons of the water was found to contain radioactive substances, and Japan's Fisheries Agency refused permission to release that water back into the ocean.

text: VLF waves can penetrate seawater to a depth of at least 10 to 40 meters (30 to 130 feet), depending on the frequency employed and the salinity of the water, so they are used to communicate with submarines.

text: VLF waves can penetrate

text: seawater

text: to a depth of at least 10 to 40 meters (30 to 130 feet), depending on the frequency employed and the salinity of the water, so they are used to communicate with submarines.

text: The salinity of the lake's main basin, Gilbert Bay, is highly variable and depends on the lake's level; it ranges from 5 to 27% (50 to 270 parts per thousand).  For comparison, the average salinity of the world ocean is 3.5% (35 parts per thousand) and 33.7% in the Dead Sea. The ionic composition is similar to seawater, much more so than the Dead Sea's water; compared to the ocean, Great Salt Lake's waters are slightly enriched in potassium and depleted in calcium.

text: The salinity of the lake's main basin, Gilbert Bay, is highly variable and depends on the lake's level; it ranges from 5 to 27% (50 to 270

text: parts per thousand

text: ).  For comparison, the average salinity of the world ocean is 3.5% (35 parts per thousand) and 33.7% in the Dead Sea. The

text: ion

text: ic composition is similar to seawater, much more so than the Dead Sea's water; compared to the ocean, Great Salt Lake's waters are slightly enriched in

text: potassium

text: and depleted in

text: calcium

text: In physical chemistry he carried out extensive research on the nature and process of solutions, investigating in particular the thermal effects produced by the dilution of saline solutions, the variation of the specific heat of saline solutions with temperature and concentration, and the phenomena of liquid diffusion.

text: In

text: physical chemistry

text: he carried out extensive research on the nature and process of

text: solution

text: s, investigating in particular the

text: thermal effects produced by the dilution

text: of

text: saline solutions

text: , the variation of the

text: specific heat

text: of saline solutions with temperature and

text: concentration

text: , and the phenomena of liquid

text: diffusion

text: Saline water (more commonly known as salt water) is water that contains a significant concentration of dissolved salts (mainly NaCl). The salt concentration is usually expressed in parts per thousand (permille, ‰) or parts per million (ppm). The United States Geological Survey classifies saline water in three salinity categories. Salt concentration in slightly saline water is around 1,000 to 3,000 ppm (0.1–0.3%), in moderately saline water 3,000 to 10,000 ppm (0.3–1%) and in highly saline water 10,000 to 35,000 ppm (1–3.5%). Seawater has a salinity of roughly 35,000 ppm, equivalent to 35 grams of salt per one liter (or kilogram) of water. The saturation level is dependent on the temperature of the water. At 20 °C one milliliter of water can dissolve about 0.357 grams of salt; a concentration of 26.3%. At boiling (100 °C) the amount that can be dissolved in one milliliter of water increases to about 0.391 grams or 28.1% saline solution.

text: Saline water (more commonly known as salt water) is

text: water

text: that contains a significant concentration of

text: dissolved

text: salt

text: s (mainly

text: NaCl

text: ). The salt concentration is usually expressed in

text: parts per thousand

text: (permille, ‰) or

text: parts per million

text: (ppm). The

text: United States Geological Survey

text: classifies saline water in three salinity categories. Salt concentration in slightly saline water is around 1,000 to 3,000 ppm (0.1–0.3%), in moderately saline water 3,000 to 10,000 ppm (0.3–1%) and in highly saline water 10,000 to 35,000 ppm (1–3.5%).

text: Seawater

text: has a

text: salinity

text: of roughly 35,000 ppm, equivalent to 35 grams of salt per one liter (or kilogram) of water. The saturation level is dependent on the temperature of the water. At 20 °C one milliliter of water can dissolve about 0.357 grams of salt; a concentration of 26.3%. At boiling (100 °C) the amount that can be dissolved in one milliliter of water increases to about 0.391 grams or 28.1% saline solution.

text: Salinity can be calculated using the chlorinity, which is a measure of the total mass of halogen ions (includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) in seawater. By international agreement, the following formula is used to determine salinity:

text: The implementation of OTEC offers the possibility of co-generating other sustainable products. First of all,the warm and cold seawater can be used for efficient production of clean drinking water. Through evaporation of the warm seawater, the salt is removed. Subsequent condensation of the desalinated warm seawater then provides fresh drinking water. System analysis indicates that a 2-megawatt OTEC plant could produce about  of desalinated water each day. Secondly, the cold seawater can be used in combination with Seawater District Cooling (SDC) for energy efficient air-conditioning of local buildings (also known as Sea Water Air Conditioning, or SWAC). SDC can provide around 90% savings of electricity when compared to traditional cooling systems. These are considerable savings, taking into account that an estimate of 40% of the energy consumed in developed tropical regions is cooling related. Furthermore, the cold seawater can be used in agriculture to cool soil or greenhouses and thereby enable the perfect climate for crops to grow faster and healthier. Moreover, the cold seawater from the deep ocean is rich in nutrients, such as phosphates and nitrates and is virtually free of pathogen. This makes it ideal for use in aquaculture. The cold water opens the possibilities of growing high value fishes that otherwise can not been grown locally. Similarly, technologies like algae, cosmetics and nutraceuticals production can benefit from the nutrients found in deep seawater.

text: The implementation of OTEC offers the possibility of co-generating other sustainable products. First of all,the warm and cold seawater can be used for efficient

text: production of clean drinking water

text: . Through evaporation of the warm seawater, the salt is removed. Subsequent condensation of the desalinated warm seawater then provides fresh drinking water. System analysis indicates that a 2-megawatt OTEC plant could produce about  of desalinated water each day. Secondly, the cold seawater can be used in combination with Seawater District Cooling (

text: SDC

text: ) for energy efficient air-conditioning of local buildings (also known as Sea Water Air Conditioning, or SWAC). SDC can provide around 90% savings of electricity when compared to traditional cooling systems. These are considerable savings, taking into account that an estimate of 40% of the energy consumed in developed tropical regions is cooling related. Furthermore, the cold seawater can be used in agriculture to cool soil or greenhouses and thereby enable the perfect climate for crops to grow faster and healthier. Moreover, the cold seawater from the deep ocean is rich in nutrients, such as phosphates and nitrates and is virtually free of pathogen. This makes it ideal for use in aquaculture. The cold water opens the possibilities of growing high value fishes that otherwise can not been grown locally. Similarly, technologies like algae, cosmetics and nutraceuticals production can benefit from the nutrients found in deep seawater.

text: A total of 145,000 square kilometers of shallow waters along China's vast coast failed to meet national quality standards for clean oceanic water, of which 29,000 square kilometers of seawater were seriously polluted. These severely polluted water areas included East Liaoning, Bohai and Hangzhou bays, and the estuaries of Yellow, Yangtze and Zhujiang rivers, as well as inshore areas of major coastal cities. Content of major pollutants, such as inorganic nitrogen and phosphate, remains high in contaminated seawater. During the past 50 years, the inshore ecosystem had seen 50 percent of coastal wetlands disappear in excessive reclamation and 80 percent of coral reefs and mangroves destroyed.

text: A total of 145,000 square kilometers of shallow waters along China's vast coast failed to meet national quality standards for clean oceanic water, of which 29,000 square kilometers of seawater were seriously polluted. These severely polluted water areas included East Liaoning, Bohai and Hangzhou bays, and the estuaries of Yellow, Yangtze and Zhujiang rivers, as well as inshore areas of major coastal cities. Content of major pollutants, such as inorganic nitrogen and phosphate, remains high in contaminated seawater. During the past 50 years, the inshore ecosystem had seen 50 percent of coastal wetlands disappear in excessive

text: reclamation

text: and 80 percent of coral reefs and mangroves destroyed.

text: Note that, unlike fresh water, seawater does not have a density maximum at 4 °C but gets denser as it cools all the way to its freezing point of approximately -1.8 °C.

text: Note that, unlike fresh water,

text: seawater

text: does not have a density maximum at 4 °C but gets denser as it cools all the way to its freezing point of approximately -1.8 °C.

text: Between the effect that temperature has on Mg:Ca ratios as well as on solubility and saturation state of calcite and aragonite, it is clear that short- or long-term temperature variations can influence the deposition of calcium carbonate by altering seawater chemistry. The impact that these temperature-induced chemical changes have on shell deposition has been repeatedly demonstrated for a wide array of organisms that inhabit estuarine and coastal systems, highlighting the cumulative effect of all temperature-influenced factors.

text: Gram per cubic centimetre is a unit of density in the CGS system, commonly used in chemistry, defined as mass in grams divided by volume in cubic centimetres. The official SI symbols are g/cm, g·cm, or g cm. It is equivalent to the units gram per millilitre (g/mL) and kilogram per litre (kg/L). The density of water is about 1 g/cm or 1000 kg/m, since the gram was originally defined as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at its maximum density at 4 °C.

text: Gram per cubic centimetre is a unit of

text: density

text: in the

text: CGS system

text: , commonly used in

text: chemistry

text: , defined as

text: mass

text: in

text: gram

text: s divided by

text: volume

text: in

text: cubic centimetre

text: s. The official

text: SI

text: symbols are g/cm, g·cm, or g cm. It is equivalent to the units

text: gram

text: per

text: millilitre

text: (g/mL) and

text: kilogram

text: per

text: litre

text: (kg/L). The density of

text: water

text: is about 1 g/cm or 1000 kg/m, since the

text: gram

text: was originally defined as the mass of one

text: cubic centimetre

text: of water at its maximum density at 4 °C.

text: At this point, only prompt flooding of the reactors with seawater could have cooled the reactors quickly enough to prevent meltdown.  Salt water flooding was delayed because it would ruin the costly reactors permanently.  Flooding with seawater was finally commenced only after the government ordered that seawater be used, and at this point it was already too late to prevent meltdown.

text: Sea ice arises as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (as does fresh water ice, which has an even lower density). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth’s surface and about 12% of the world’s oceans. Much of the world's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean. Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent, a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology, including the ocean's ecosystems. Due to the action of winds, currents and temperature fluctuations, sea ice is very dynamic, leading to a wide variety of ice types and features. Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs, which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean. Depending on location, sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs.

text: Sea ice arises as

text: seawater

text: freezes. Because

text: ice

text: is less

text: dense

text: than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (as does

text: fresh water

text: ice, which has an even lower density). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth’s surface and about 12% of the world’s oceans. Much of the world's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth's

text: polar region

text: s: the

text: Arctic ice pack

text: of the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: and the

text: Antarctic ice pack

text: of the

text: Southern Ocean

text: . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent, a natural process upon which depends the

text: Arctic ecology

text: , including the

text: ocean's ecosystems

text: . Due to the action of winds, currents and temperature fluctuations, sea ice is very dynamic, leading to a wide variety of ice types and features. Sea ice may be contrasted with

text: iceberg

text: s, which are chunks of

text: ice shelves

text: or

text: glacier

text: s that

text: calve

text: into the ocean. Depending on location, sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs.

text: Artificial seawater which is sometimes used for Salt Spray Testing can be found at ASTM International. The standard for Artificial Seawater is ASTM D1141-98 which is the standard practice for the preparation of substitute ocean water.

text: Artificial seawater

text: which is sometimes used for Salt Spray Testing can be found at

text: ASTM International

text: . The standard for Artificial Seawater is ASTM D1141-98 which is the standard practice for the preparation of substitute ocean water.

text: St. Joseph has a variety of educational opportunities for students. The school has six Advanced Placement classes, including European History, English Language and Composition, English Literature and composition, Chemistry, Calculus, and US Government and Politics.

text: St. Joseph has a variety of educational opportunities for students. The school has six

text: Advanced Placement

text: classes, including European History, English Language and Composition, English Literature and composition, Chemistry, Calculus, and US Government and Politics.

text: Freshwater inflow: Freshwater flows into an estuary and mixes with the marine water of the estuarine ecosystem. The mixing of freshwater inflow and the marine water of the estuarine ecosystem occurs spatially and temporally from climatic influences including tidal action, seasonal variability and storms. Mixing is affected by the amount of seawater in the estuarine system. The tides and the volume of the receiving estuary govern the volume of seawater. Tides are defined as the periodic rise and fall of the surface of the sea along the coast that are driven by the gravitational pull of the moon and of the sun. Although estuaries are influenced by the tides, they are often somewhat protected from storms and tidal action by buffers further offshore including barrier islands and peninsulas.

text: Freshwater inflow: Freshwater flows into an

text: estuary

text: and mixes with the marine water of the

text: estuarine ecosystem

text: . The mixing of freshwater inflow and the

text: marine water

text: of the

text: estuarine ecosystem

text: occurs spatially and temporally from climatic influences including tidal action, seasonal variability and storms. Mixing is affected by the amount of

text: seawater

text: in the

text: estuarine system

text: . The

text: tide

text: s and the volume of the receiving

text: estuary

text: govern the volume of seawater.

text: Tides

text: are defined as the periodic rise and fall of the surface of the sea along the coast that are driven by the gravitational pull of the moon and of the sun. Although estuaries are influenced by the

text: tide

text: s, they are often somewhat protected from storms and tidal action by buffers further offshore including

text: barrier island

text: s and

text: peninsula

text: s.

text: The basic technology of the pitometer log is similar to that of the pitot tube on an aircraft. Typically, the pitometer has a long tube that penetrates the ship's hull near the keel. The part of the pitometer protruding from the ship is sometimes called a pit sword or rodmeter. This tube usually has two openings: one facing the direction of seawater motion that is used to measure the dynamic pressure of the seawater and one at 90° to the direction of seawater motion that is used to measure the static seawater pressure. The dynamic pressure of the seawater is a function of the depth of the water and the speed of the vessel.

text: The basic technology of the pitometer log is similar to that of the

text: pitot tube

text: on an aircraft. Typically, the pitometer has a long tube that penetrates the ship's hull near the keel. The part of the pitometer protruding from the ship is sometimes called a

text: pit sword

text: or

text: rodmeter

text: . This tube usually has two openings: one facing the direction of seawater motion that is used to measure the dynamic pressure of the seawater and one at 90° to the direction of seawater motion that is used to measure the static seawater pressure. The dynamic pressure of the seawater is a function of the depth of the water and the speed of the vessel.

text: Salinity refers to the movement and concentration of salt in the landscape and its associated detriment to land and water resources; dryland salinity refers to salinity in unirrigated landscapes. Salinity processes extend from local to regional scales and are driven by imbalances in the water budget that result, primarily, from agriculturally driven landscape change. There are two types of salinity:

text: Salinity refers to the movement and concentration of

text: salt

text: in the

text: landscape

text: and its associated detriment to land and water resources;

text: dryland

text: salinity refers to salinity in unirrigated landscapes. Salinity processes extend from local to regional scales and are driven by imbalances in the water budget that result, primarily, from agriculturally driven landscape change. There are two types of salinity:

text: Warm seawater expands and is thus less dense than cooler seawater. Saltier water is denser than fresher water because the dissolved salts fill interstices between water molecules, resulting in more mass per unit volume. Lighter water masses float over denser ones (just as a piece of wood or ice will float on water, see buoyancy). This is known as "stable stratification". When dense water masses are first formed, they are not stably stratified. In order to take up their most stable positions, water masses of different densities must flow, providing a driving force for deep currents.

text: Warm seawater expands and is thus less dense than cooler seawater. Saltier water is denser than fresher water because the dissolved salts fill interstices between water molecules, resulting in more mass per unit volume. Lighter

text: water mass

text: es float over denser ones (just as a piece of wood or ice will float on water, see

text: buoyancy

text: ). This is known as "stable stratification". When dense water masses are first formed, they are not stably stratified. In order to take up their most stable positions, water masses of different densities must flow, providing a driving force for deep currents.

text: Craft's investigations were largely in the field of organic chemistry, but his name is connected also with many interesting achievements in physics and in physical chemistry.  He invented a new hydrogen thermometer; measured the densities of iodine at very high temperatures; demonstrated an interesting regularity in the variation of the boiling points of chemically allied substances with the external pressure; prepared a number of new compounds of the element silicon, which are interesting because of their chemical resemblance to the corresponding compounds of carbon; and also prepared new compounds of arsenic.  But his most important achievement was the discovery, jointly with Friedel, of one of the most fruitful synthetic methods in organic chemistry, the Friedel-Crafts reaction.

text: Craft's investigations were largely in the field of

text: organic chemistry

text: , but his name is connected also with many interesting achievements in

text: physics

text: and in

text: physical chemistry

text: .  He invented a new

text: hydrogen

text: thermometer

text: ; measured the

text: densities

text: of

text: iodine

text: at very high temperatures; demonstrated an interesting regularity in the variation of the

text: boiling point

text: s of chemically allied

text: substances

text: with the external pressure; prepared a number of new

text: compound

text: s of the

text: element

text: silicon

text: , which are interesting because of their chemical resemblance to the corresponding compounds of

text: carbon

text: ; and also prepared new compounds of

text: arsenic

text: .  But his most important achievement was the discovery, jointly with Friedel, of one of the most fruitful

text: synthetic method

text: s in organic chemistry, the

text: Friedel-Crafts reaction

text: Despite the obvious salinity of seawater, salt is not a problem for deposition until it reaches the saturation concentration. As this is around seven times that of seawater and evaporators are only operated to a concentration of two and a half times, this is not a problem in service.

text: Despite the obvious salinity of seawater,

text: salt

text: is not a problem for deposition until it reaches the

text: saturation concentration

text: . As this is around seven times that of seawater and evaporators are only operated to a concentration of two and a half times, this is not a problem in service.

text: There are broad general methodologies used to calculate the density of a liquid at specific conditions.  In order to discuss a specific methodology, one must choose a liquid that holds sufficient interest to warrant a calculation specific to it.  EOS 87.3 is a density calculation for seawater; API chapter 11 specifies calculations pertaining to oil, fuels and natural gas liquids.

text: There are broad general methodologies used to calculate the density of a liquid at specific conditions.  In order to discuss a specific methodology, one must choose a liquid that holds sufficient interest to warrant a calculation specific to it.  EOS 87.3 is a density calculation for seawater;

text: API

text: chapter 11

text: specifies calculations pertaining to oil, fuels and natural gas liquids.

text: Density refers to the amount of space available to a person – high density meaning there is less space per person – and number refers to the size of the group. Freedman (1975) put forth the intensification theory, which posits that high density makes the other people in a group more salient features of the environment, this magnifying the individual’s reaction to them. Research has shown that high density does in fact increase the likelihood of contagion (Freedman, 1975; Freedman, Birsky, & Cavoukian, 1980). Number also has an effect on contagion, but to a lesser degree than density.

text: Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline, but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli-like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA, enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Dr. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million."

text: Research in 1957 by the

text: Scripps Institution of Oceanography

text: sampled water in both

text: pelagic

text: and

text: neritic

text: locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the

text: thermocline

text: , but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of

text: spirilli

text: -like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of

text: DNA

text: , enabled researchers taking part in the

text: Census of Marine Life

text: to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Dr. Mitchell Sogin from the

text: Marine Biological Laboratory

text: feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million."

text: The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material.

text: The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in

text: convection

text: of the heat from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material.

text: These halophytic plants often occur in wet saline habitat types, and occasionally in dry saline soils. They can be found in habitats such as estuaries, salt marshes, tidal flats, seacliffs, salt pans, and saline sediment in seasonal desert waterways. An exception is Sarcocornia xerophila, growing in semidesert on quartz soils with low salinity.

text: These

text: halophytic

text: plants often occur in wet saline habitat types, and occasionally in dry saline soils. They can be found in habitats such as

text: estuaries

text: salt marsh

text: es, tidal flats, seacliffs,

text: salt pans

text: , and saline sediment in seasonal desert waterways. An exception is

text: Sarcocornia xerophila

text: , growing in semidesert on quartz soils with low salinity.

text: As the seawater freezes and salt is forced out of the pure ice crystal lattice, the surrounding water becomes more saline. This lowers its freezing temperature and increases its density. The lower freezing temperature means that the surrounding water does not freeze to the ice immediately, and the higher density means that it sinks. Thus tiny tunnels called brine channels are created all through the ice as this supersaline, supercooled water sinks away from the frozen pure water. The stage is now set for the creation of a brinicle.

text: As the seawater freezes and salt is forced out of the pure ice

text: crystal lattice

text: , the surrounding water becomes more saline. This lowers its

text: freezing temperature

text: and increases its

text: density

text: . The lower freezing temperature means that the surrounding water does not freeze to the ice immediately, and the higher density means that it sinks. Thus tiny tunnels called brine channels are created all through the ice as this supersaline, supercooled water sinks away from the frozen pure water. The stage is now set for the creation of a brinicle.

text: Overall, long-term environmental effects of the spill seemed to be minimal.  In a "no strings attached" study funded by the Western Oil and Gas Association, through the Allan Hancock Foundation at the University of Southern California, the authors suggested several hypotheses for the lack of environmental damage to biologic resources in the Channel aside from pelagic birds and intertidal organisms.  First, creatures there may have evolved a tolerance to oil in the water due to the presence of natural seeps in the vicinity for at least tens of thousands of years; the area around Coal Oil Point has one of the most active natural underwater oil seeps in the world.  Second, the abundance of oil-eating bacteria in the water may be greater because of that routine presence of oil in the water.  Third, the spill happened between two large Pacific storms; the storms broke up the oil, scattering it more quickly than happens in many other oil spills, and additionally the sediment load in the seawater from freshwater runoff would have been greater, and this assisted the oil in quickly sinking.  Fourth, Santa Barbara Channel crude oil is heavy, having API gravity between 10 and 13, and is both minimally soluble in water, and sinks relatively easily.  Therefore, fish and other organisms were exposed to the oil for a shorter time than was the case with other oil spills, such as the 1967 Torrey Canyon spill in which the crude was lighter, and emulsified during treatment with massive quantities of toxic dispersants and detergents, causing it to remain in place longer.

text: Overall, long-term environmental effects of the spill seemed to be minimal.  In a "no strings attached" study funded by the Western Oil and Gas Association, through the

text: Allan Hancock

text: Foundation at the

text: University of Southern California

text: , the authors suggested several hypotheses for the lack of environmental damage to biologic resources in the Channel aside from

text: pelagic

text: birds and intertidal organisms.  First, creatures there may have evolved a tolerance to oil in the water due to the presence of natural seeps in the vicinity for at least tens of thousands of years; the area around Coal Oil Point has one of the most active natural underwater oil seeps in the world.  Second, the abundance of oil-eating bacteria in the water may be greater because of that routine presence of oil in the water.  Third, the spill happened between two large Pacific storms; the storms broke up the oil, scattering it more quickly than happens in many other oil spills, and additionally the sediment load in the seawater from freshwater runoff would have been greater, and this assisted the oil in quickly sinking.  Fourth, Santa Barbara Channel crude oil is heavy, having

text: API gravity

text: between 10 and 13, and is both minimally soluble in water, and sinks relatively easily.  Therefore, fish and other organisms were exposed to the oil for a shorter time than was the case with other oil spills, such as the 1967

text: Torrey Canyon

text: spill in which the crude was lighter, and emulsified during treatment with massive quantities of toxic dispersants and detergents, causing it to remain in place longer.

text: As a halophyte, Limonium ramosissimum has the ability to tolerate a wide range of salt levels (salinity-tolerant) in the soil and also has the ability to actively lower the soil salinity by taking up and excreting salt through glands in the inflorescence, which are then free to break off and blow away. This could have the effect of changing the species composition of an area by reducing salinity in the soil.

text: As a

text: halophyte

text: , Limonium ramosissimum has the ability to tolerate a wide range of salt levels (

text: salinity-tolerant

text: ) in the soil and also has the ability to actively lower the soil salinity by taking up and excreting salt through glands in the

text: inflorescence

text: , which are then free to

text: break off

text: and blow away. This could have the effect of changing the

text: species composition

text: of an area by reducing salinity in the soil.

text: Brine pools are sometimes called seafloor "lakes" because the dense brine does not easily mix with overlying seawater. The high salinity raises the density of the brine, which creates a distinct surface and shoreline for the pool. When submarines dive into brine pools, they float on the brine surface due to the high density.  The motion of a submarine can create waves across the brine-seawater interface that wash over the surrounding "shoreline".

text: Brine pools are sometimes called seafloor "lakes" because the dense brine does not easily mix with overlying seawater. The high salinity raises the density of the brine, which creates a distinct surface and shoreline for the pool. When

text: submarine

text: s dive into brine pools, they float on the brine surface due to the high density.  The motion of a submarine can create waves across the brine-seawater interface that wash over the surrounding "shoreline".

text: New technologies, like reverse osmosis can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from humid air. Water makers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into potable water and brine. Atmospheric water generators extract moisture from dry desert air and filter it to pure water.

text: New technologies, like

text: reverse osmosis

text: can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from humid air. Water makers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into

text: potable water

text: and

text: brine

text: Atmospheric water generator

text: s extract moisture from dry desert air and filter it to pure water.

text: In operation, an electrical impulse from a transmitter is converted into a sound wave by an underwater transducer, called a hydrophone, and sent into the water. When the wave strikes something such as a fish, it is reflected back and displays size, composition, and shape of the object.  The exact extent of what can be discerned depends on the frequency and power of the pulse transmitted.  Knowing that the speed of the wave in the water is 4921 ft/s (1500 m/s) in seawater, 4800 ft/s (1463 m/s) in freshwater (typical values used by commercial fish finders), the distance to the object that reflected the wave can be determined. The process can be repeated up to 40 times per second and eventually results in the bottom of the ocean being displayed versus time (the fathometer function that eventually spawned the sporting use of fishfinding.)

text: In operation, an electrical impulse from a

text: transmitter

text: is converted into a

text: sound wave

text: by an underwater

text: transducer

text: , called a

text: hydrophone

text: , and sent into the water. When the wave strikes something such as a fish, it is reflected back and displays size, composition, and shape of the object.  The exact extent of what can be discerned depends on the frequency and power of the pulse transmitted.  Knowing that the speed of the wave in the water is 4921 ft/s (1500 m/s) in seawater, 4800 ft/s (1463 m/s) in

text: freshwater

text: (typical values used by commercial fish finders), the distance to the object that reflected the wave can be determined. The process can be repeated up to 40 times per second and eventually results in the bottom of the ocean being displayed versus time (the

text: fathometer

text: function that eventually spawned the sporting use of fishfinding.)

text: The depth of the CCD varies as a function of the chemical composition of the seawater and its temperature.  Specifically, it is the deep waters that are undersaturated with calcium carbonate primarily because its solubility increases strongly with increasing pressure and salinity and decreasing temperature.  Furthermore, it is not constant over time, having been globally much shallower in the Cretaceous through to Eocene. If the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide continues to increase, the CCD can be expected to rise, along with the ocean's acidity.

text: The depth of the CCD varies as a function of the chemical composition of the seawater and its temperature.  Specifically, it is the deep waters that are undersaturated with calcium carbonate primarily because its solubility increases strongly with increasing pressure and salinity and decreasing temperature.  Furthermore, it is not constant over time, having been globally much shallower in the

text: Cretaceous

text: through to

text: Eocene

text: . If the atmospheric concentration of

text: carbon dioxide

text: continues to increase, the CCD can be expected to rise, along with the ocean's acidity.

text: The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.

text: The

text: intertidal

text: existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater.

text: Oceans, seas, lakes and other bodies of liquids can be composed of liquids other than water, for example the hydrocarbon lakes on Titan. The possibility of seas of nitrogen on Triton was also considered but ruled out. There is evidence that the icy surfaces of the moons Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, Titan and Enceladus are shells floating on oceans of very dense liquid water or water–ammonia. Earth is often called the ocean planet because it is 70% covered in water. Extrasolar terrestrial planets that are extremely close to their parent star will be tidally locked and so one half of the planet will be a magma ocean. It is also possible that terrestrial planets had magma oceans at some point during their formation as a result of giant impacts. Hot Neptunes close to their star could lose their atmospheres via hydrodynamic escape, leaving behind their cores with various liquids on the surface. Where there are suitable temperatures and pressures, volatile chemicals that might exist as liquids in abundant quantities on planets include ammonia, argon, carbon disulfide, ethane, hydrazine, hydrogen, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, neon, nitrogen, nitric oxide, phosphine, silane, sulfuric acid, and water.

text: Oceans, seas, lakes and other bodies of liquids can be composed of liquids other than water, for example the

text: hydrocarbon

text: lakes on

text: Titan

text: . The possibility of seas of

text: nitrogen

text: on

text: Triton

text: was also considered but ruled out. There is evidence that the icy surfaces of the moons

text: Ganymede

text: Callisto

text: Europa

text: , Titan and

text: Enceladus

text: are shells floating on oceans of very dense liquid water or water–ammonia. Earth is often called the ocean planet because it is 70% covered in water. Extrasolar

text: terrestrial planet

text: s that are extremely close to their parent star will be tidally locked and so one half of the planet will be a magma ocean. It is also possible that terrestrial planets had magma oceans at some point during their formation as a result of giant impacts.

text: Hot Neptune

text: s close to their star could lose their atmospheres via

text: hydrodynamic escape

text: , leaving behind their cores with various liquids on the surface. Where there are suitable temperatures and pressures, volatile chemicals that might exist as liquids in abundant quantities on planets include

text: ammonia

text: argon

text: carbon disulfide

text: ethane

text: hydrazine

text: hydrogen

text: hydrogen cyanide

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: methane

text: neon

text: nitrogen

text: nitric oxide

text: phosphine

text: silane

text: sulfuric acid

text: , and

text: water

text: The composition of the human body, by contrast, more closely follows the composition of seawater—save that the human body has additional stores of carbon and nitrogen necessary to form the proteins and nucleic acids, together with phosphorus in the nucleic acids and energy transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that occurs in the cells of all living organisms. Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals' red blood cells.

text: The

text: composition of the human body

text: , by contrast, more closely follows the composition of

text: seawater

text: —save that the human body has additional stores of

text: carbon

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: necessary to form the

text: protein

text: s and

text: nucleic acid

text: s, together with

text: phosphorus

text: in the nucleic acids and energy transfer molecule

text: adenosine triphosphate

text: (ATP) that occurs in the cells of all living organisms. Certain kinds of

text: organism

text: s require particular additional elements, for example the

text: magnesium

text: in

text: chlorophyll

text: in green plants, the

text: calcium

text: in

text: mollusc shell

text: s, or the

text: iron

text: in the

text: hemoglobin

text: in

text: vertebrate animal

text: s'

text: red blood cell

text: s.

text: In response to the floods of the 1950s, the Woady Yaloak was diverted away from Lake Corangamite and into the Barwon River. The diversion is managed on the basis of a trigger level for the lake, above which the diversion is enacted. This has not occurred in recent years. Levels have been dropping for decades and it is possible that it will dry completely. In 1980 the salinity was approximately that of seawater and has since risen at least four times that of seawater.

text: Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater. A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed the negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated. (In contrast to humans, pelagic birds and other sea animals can (and must) drink sea water without ill effects.)

text: Survival manual

text: s consistently advise against drinking

text: seawater

text: . A summary of 163

text: life raft

text: voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed the negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated. (In contrast to humans,

text: pelagic

text: birds and other sea animals can (and must) drink sea water without ill effects.)

text: Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself.

text: Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via

text: urine

text: ) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself.

text: To calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater (1025 kg/m³) is more dense than fresh water (1000 kg/m³); so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water also varies with temperature.

text: If the water contains an appreciable amount of dissolved substances (as certainly would be the case when measuring TSS in seawater), these will add to the weight of the filter as it is dried.  Therefore it is necessary to "wash" the filter and sample with deionized water after filtering the sample and before drying the filter.  Failure to add this step is a fairly common mistake made by inexperienced laboratory technicians working with sea water samples, and will completely invalidate the results as the weight of salts left on the filter during drying can easily exceed that of the suspended particulate matter.

text: If the water contains an appreciable amount of dissolved substances (as certainly would be the case when measuring TSS in

text: seawater

text: ), these will add to the weight of the filter as it is dried.  Therefore it is necessary to "wash" the filter and sample with

text: deionized water

text: after filtering the sample and before drying the filter.  Failure to add this step is a fairly common mistake made by inexperienced laboratory technicians working with sea water samples, and will completely invalidate the results as the weight of salts left on the filter during drying can easily exceed that of the suspended particulate matter.

text: The use of electrical conductivity measurements to estimate the ionic content of seawater led to the development of the scale called the practical salinity scale 1978 (PSS-78). Salinities measured using PSS-78 do not have units. The suffix psu or PSU (denoting practical salinity unit) is sometimes added to PSS-78 measurement values, however this practice is officially discouraged.

text: The use of

text: electrical conductivity

text: measurements to estimate the ionic content of seawater led to the development of the scale called the practical salinity scale 1978 (PSS-78). Salinities measured using PSS-78 do not have units. The suffix psu or PSU (denoting practical salinity unit) is sometimes added to PSS-78 measurement values, however this practice is officially discouraged.

text: Typically, spiral-wound reverse osmosis systems will need an SDI less than 5, and hollow fiber reverse osmosis systems will need an SDI less than 3. In these kinds of systems, deep-well waters (with a typical SDI of 3) could be used straight from the source. If fed from surface waters (with a typical SDI greater than 6), the water will need to be filtered before use. Seawater desalination plants utilising reverse osmosis systems also need very efficient filtering due to the typically high but variable SDI of seawater.

text: PySCF is an ab initio computational chemistry program natively implemented in Python program language.  The package aims to provide a simple, light-weight and efficient platform for quantum chemistry code developing and calculation.  It provides various functions to do the Hartree-Fock, MP2, density functional theory, MCSCF, Coupled Cluster theory at non-relativistic level and 4-component relativistic Hartree-Fock theory.  Although most functions are written in Python, the computation critical modules are intensively optimized in C.  As a result, the package works as efficient as other C/Fortran based quantum chemistry program. PySCF is developed by Dr. Qiming Sun.

text: PySCF is an

text: ab initio

text: computational chemistry

text: program natively implemented in

text: Python

text: program language.  The package aims to provide a simple, light-weight and efficient platform for quantum chemistry code developing and calculation.  It provides various functions to do the

text: Hartree-Fock

text: , MP2,

text: density functional theory

text: , MCSCF, Coupled Cluster theory at non-relativistic level and 4-component relativistic Hartree-Fock theory.  Although most functions are written in Python, the computation critical modules are intensively optimized in C.  As a result, the package works as efficient as other C/Fortran based quantum chemistry program. PySCF is developed by Dr. Qiming Sun.

text: Advanced Placement classes offered include the following: Calculus, Statistics, Chemistry, Biology, Language and Composition, Literature and Composition, and U.S. History.

text: is the density of saltwater. Freshwater has a density of about 1.000 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm) at 20 °C, whereas that of seawater is about 1.025 g/cm. The equation can be simplified to

text: An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 361 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over  deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several 'separate' oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a global ocean as a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.

text: An ocean is a major body of

text: saline water

text: , and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 361 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a

text: continuous body of water

text: that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over  deep. Average oceanic

text: salinity

text: is around 35

text: parts per thousand

text: (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several 'separate' oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the

text: World Ocean

text: or global ocean. This concept of a global ocean as a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to

text: oceanography

text: The salinity averages between 34 to 35 grams of salt per litre of water. The salinity has the highest variability where there is fresh water inflow, such as at the Rhine and Elbe estuaries, the Baltic Sea exit and along the coast of Norway.

text: The

text: salinity

text: averages between 34 to 35 grams of salt per litre of water. The salinity has the highest variability where there is

text: fresh water

text: inflow, such as at the Rhine and Elbe estuaries, the Baltic Sea exit and along the coast of Norway.

text: On longer timescales Oceans may be both sources and sinks – during ice ages  levels decrease to ≈180 ppmv, and much of this is believed to be stored in the oceans. As ice ages end,  is released from the oceans and  levels during previous interglacials have been around ≈280 ppmv. This role as a sink for CO is driven by two processes, the solubility pump and the biological pump.  The former is primarily a function of differential CO solubility in seawater and the thermohaline circulation, while the latter is the sum of a series of biological processes that transport carbon (in organic and inorganic forms) from the surface euphotic zone to the ocean's interior.  A small fraction of the organic carbon transported by the biological pump to the seafloor is buried in anoxic conditions under sediments and ultimately forms fossil fuels such as oil and natural gas.

text: On longer timescales Oceans may be both sources and sinks – during

text: ice age

text: s  levels decrease to ≈180 ppmv, and much of this is believed to be stored in the oceans. As ice ages end,  is released from the oceans and  levels during previous interglacials have been around ≈280 ppmv. This role as a sink for CO is driven by two processes, the

text: solubility pump

text: and the

text: biological pump

text: .  The former is primarily a function of differential CO solubility in

text: seawater

text: and the

text: thermohaline circulation

text: , while the latter is the sum of a series of biological processes that transport carbon (in

text: organic

text: and

text: inorganic

text: forms) from the surface

text: euphotic zone

text: to the ocean's interior.  A small fraction of the organic carbon transported by the biological pump to the

text: seafloor

text: is buried in

text: anoxic

text: conditions under sediments and ultimately forms

text: fossil fuel

text: s such as

text: oil

text: and natural gas.

text: A sample of seawater from most locations with a chlorinity of 19.37 ppt will have a Knudsen salinity of 35.00 ppt, a PSS-78 practical salinity of about 35.0, and a TEOS-10 absolute salinity of about 35.2 g/kg. The electrical conductivity of this water at a temperature of 15 °C is 42.9 mS/cm.

text: Scientists working on the Hawaii Ocean Time-series (HOT) program have been making repeated observations of the hydrography, chemistry and biology of the water column at a station north of Oahu, Hawaii since October 1988. The objective of this research is to provide a comprehensive description of the ocean at a site representative of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. Cruises are made approximately once per month to the deep-water Station ALOHA (A Long-Term Oligotrophic Habitat Assessment; () located 100 km north of Oahu, Hawaii. Measurements of the thermohaline structure, water column chemistry, currents, optical properties, primary production, plankton community structure, and rates of particle export are made on each cruise. The HOT program also uses autonomous underwater vehicles, including floats and gliders, to collect data at Station ALOHA between cruises.

text: Scientists working on the Hawaii Ocean Time-series (HOT) program have been making repeated observations of the

text: hydrography

text: chemistry

text: and

text: biology

text: of the

text: water column

text: at a station north of Oahu, Hawaii since October 1988. The objective of this research is to provide a comprehensive description of the ocean at a site representative of the

text: North Pacific Subtropical Gyre

text: . Cruises are made approximately once per month to the deep-water Station ALOHA (A Long-Term Oligotrophic Habitat Assessment; () located 100 km north of Oahu, Hawaii. Measurements of the thermohaline structure,

text: water column

text: chemistry,

text: currents

text: , optical properties,

text: primary production

text: plankton

text: community structure, and rates of

text: particle export

text: are made on each cruise. The HOT program also uses

text: autonomous underwater vehicle

text: s, including

text: floats

text: and

text: gliders

text: , to collect data at Station ALOHA between cruises.

text: Whether or not density and gravity can be reasonably approximated as constant depends on the level of accuracy needed, but also on the length scale of height difference, as gravity and density also decrease with higher elevation. For density in particular, the fluid in question is also relevant; seawater, for example, is considered an incompressible fluid; its density can vary with height, but much less significantly than that of air.  Thus water's density can be more reasonably approximated as constant than that of air, and given the same height difference, the pressure differences in water are approximately equal at any height.

text: Whether or not density and gravity can be reasonably approximated as constant depends on the level of

text: accuracy

text: needed, but also on the

text: length scale

text: of height difference, as gravity and density also decrease with higher elevation. For density in particular, the fluid in question is also relevant;

text: seawater

text: , for example, is considered an

text: incompressible fluid

text: ; its density can vary with height, but much less significantly than that of air.  Thus water's density can be more reasonably approximated as constant than that of air, and given the same height difference, the pressure differences in water are approximately equal at any height.

text: Lavoisier also contributed to chemistry a method of understanding combustion and respiration and proof of the composition of water by decomposition into its constituent parts. He explained the theory of combustion, and challenged the phlogiston theory with his views on caloric.  The Traité incorporates notions of a "new chemistry" and describes the experiments and reasoning that led to his conclusions.  Like Newton's Principia, which was the high point of the Scientific Revolution, Lavoisier's Traité can be seen as the culmination of the Chemical Revolution.

text: Lavoisier also contributed to chemistry a method of understanding combustion and respiration and proof of the composition of water by decomposition into its constituent parts. He explained the theory of combustion, and challenged the

text: phlogiston theory

text: with his views on

text: caloric

text: .  The Traité incorporates notions of a "new chemistry" and describes the experiments and reasoning that led to his conclusions.  Like Newton's

entity_name: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica

text: Principia

text: , which was the high point of the Scientific Revolution, Lavoisier's Traité can be seen as the culmination of the Chemical Revolution.

text: Germanium makes up 2 parts per million of the earth's crust, making it the 52nd most abundant element there. On average, germanium makes up 1 part per million of soil. Germanium makes up 0.5 parts per trillion of seawater. Organogermanium compounds are also found in seawater. Germanium occurs in the human body at concentrations of 71.4 parts per billion. Germanium has been found to exist in some very faraway stars.

text: Germanium makes up 2 parts per million of the earth's crust, making it the 52nd most abundant element there. On average, germanium makes up 1 part per million of

text: soil

text: . Germanium makes up 0.5 parts per trillion of seawater.

text: Organogermanium compounds

text: are also found in seawater. Germanium occurs in the human body at concentrations of 71.4 parts per billion. Germanium has been found to exist in some very faraway stars.

text: Some species (excluding Planctoteuthis) are bioluminescent, with photophores (light-producing organs) variably present on the inner surface of the ventral arms, on the ventral surface of the eyes (one to three patches or bands), on the ink sac, and near the club terminus. A number of chambers containing ammonium chloride are contained within the arms, head, and mantle. With a lower density than the surrounding seawater, the ammonium chloride helps chiroteuthids to conserve energy reserved for swimming by maintaining the body's neutral buoyancy. The eyelid sinus is indistinct, occpital folds are absent, and long stalks support the olfactory papillae. The largest species reach a mantle length of about 78 cm. Body coloration is typically beige to sepia, but Asperoteuthis acanthoderma is noted for its deep violet color.

text: Some species (excluding Planctoteuthis) are

text: bioluminescent

text: , with

text: photophore

text: s (light-producing organs) variably present on the inner surface of the ventral arms, on the ventral surface of the eyes (one to three patches or bands), on the

text: ink sac

text: , and near the club terminus. A number of chambers containing

text: ammonium chloride

text: are contained within the arms, head, and mantle. With a lower

text: density

text: than the surrounding

text: seawater

text: , the ammonium chloride helps chiroteuthids to conserve energy reserved for swimming by maintaining the body's neutral

text: buoyancy

text: . The eyelid sinus is indistinct, occpital folds are absent, and long stalks support the

text: olfactory

text: papillae. The largest species reach a mantle length of about 78 cm. Body coloration is typically beige to sepia, but Asperoteuthis acanthoderma is noted for its deep violet color.

text: Former Second Judicial District Court Judge David T. Caldwell (1925–1993), based in Jonesboro, was born in Saline and graduated from Saline High School in 1942.

text: Former Second Judicial District Court Judge

text: David T. Caldwell

text: (1925–1993), based in

text: Jonesboro

text: , was born in Saline and graduated from Saline High School in 1942.

text: The kidneys are long and flattened. The salt concentration in cetacean blood is lower than that in seawater, requiring kidneys to excrete salt. This allows the animals to drink seawater.

text: The kidneys are long and flattened. The salt concentration in cetacean blood is lower than that in seawater, requiring kidneys to excrete salt. This allows the animals to drink

text: seawater

text: Laguna Madre has a salinity of 36 parts per thousand (ppt), which is above the seawater average of 35 ppt. Because of the high salinity, it holds the distinction as one of the Earth's six hypersaline lagoons/bays, the others being Sivash in Ukraine, Laguna Ojo de Liebre on the west coast of Baja California, Spencer Gulf and Shark Bay in Australia, and the Laguna Madre of Tamaulipas, which is sometimes grouped with the Laguna Madre of Texas as one system. The reasons for its hypersalinity include shallowness, the lack of a significant river source, dry climate, high evaporation and the isolation from other bodies of water. Its salinity was even greater before the Port Mansfield Gulf Channel was dredged on Padre Island, which allowed a larger amount of seawater exchange. However, very little water exchange occurs at all, every second only  of water flows into the lagoon. Rainwater from tropical storms and hurricanes is the only significant fresh water the bay receives. The salinity is greatest in the Lower Laguna Madre, where it averages around 45 ppt.

text: Laguna Madre has a salinity of 36

text: parts per thousand

text: (ppt), which is above the seawater average of 35 ppt. Because of the high salinity, it holds the distinction as one of the Earth's six

text: hypersaline

text: lagoons/bays, the others being

text: Sivash

text: in

text: Ukraine

text: Laguna Ojo de Liebre

text: on the west coast of

text: Baja California

text: Spencer Gulf

text: and

text: Shark Bay

text: in

text: Australia

text: , and the

text: Laguna Madre of Tamaulipas

text: , which is sometimes grouped with the Laguna Madre of Texas as one system. The reasons for its hypersalinity include shallowness, the lack of a significant river source, dry climate, high evaporation and the isolation from other bodies of water. Its salinity was even greater before the Port Mansfield Gulf Channel was dredged on Padre Island, which allowed a larger amount of seawater exchange. However, very little water exchange occurs at all, every second only  of water flows into the lagoon. Rainwater from tropical storms and hurricanes is the only significant fresh water the bay receives. The salinity is greatest in the Lower Laguna Madre, where it averages around 45 ppt.

text: Fjords are examples of highly stratified estuaries; they are silled basins that have freshwater inflow that greatly exceeds evaporation.  Oceanic water is imported in an intermediate layer and mixes with the freshwater.  The resulting brackish water is then exported into the surface layer.  A slow import of seawater may flow over the sill and sink to the bottom of the fjord (deep layer), where the water remains stagnant until flushed by an occasional storm.

text: Fjords

text: are examples of highly stratified estuaries; they are silled basins that have freshwater inflow that greatly exceeds evaporation.  Oceanic water is imported in an intermediate layer and mixes with the freshwater.  The resulting brackish water is then exported into the surface layer.  A slow import of seawater may flow over the sill and sink to the bottom of the fjord (deep layer), where the water remains stagnant until flushed by an occasional storm.

text: The Journal of Computational Chemistry is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published since 1980 by John Wiley & Sons. It covers research, contemporary developments in theory and methodology, and applications in all areas of computational chemistry, including ab initio quantum chemistry methods and semiempirical methods, density functional theory, molecular mechanics, molecular dynamics, statistical mechanics, cheminformatics, biomolecular structure prediction, molecular design, and bioinformatics.

text: The Journal of Computational Chemistry is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: scientific journal

text: published since 1980 by

text: John Wiley & Sons

text: . It covers research, contemporary developments in theory and methodology, and applications in all areas of

text: computational chemistry

text: , including

text: ab initio quantum chemistry methods

text: and

text: semiempirical method

text: s,

text: density functional theory

text: molecular mechanics

text: molecular dynamics

text: statistical mechanics

text: cheminformatics

text: biomolecular structure prediction

text: , molecular design, and

text: bioinformatics

text: Although humans cannot survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book, Kon-Tiki, Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.

text: Although humans cannot survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician

text: Alain Bombard

text: survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book,

text: Kon-Tiki

text: Thor Heyerdahl

text: reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer,

text: William Willis

text: , claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.

text: In oceanography, a halocline (from Greek hals, halo- ‘salt’ and klinein ‘to slope’) is a subtype of chemocline caused by a strong, vertical salinity gradient within a body of water.  Because salinity (in concert with temperature) affects the density of seawater, it can play a role in its vertical stratification.  Increasing salinity by one kg/m results in an increase of seawater density of around 0.7 kg/m.

text: In

text: oceanography

text: , a halocline (from Greek hals, halo- ‘salt’ and klinein ‘to slope’) is a subtype of

text: chemocline

text: caused by a strong, vertical

text: salinity

text: gradient

text: within a body of

text: water

text: .  Because salinity (in concert with

text: temperature

text: ) affects the

text: density

text: of

text: seawater

text: , it can play a role in its vertical

text: stratification

text: .  Increasing salinity by one kg/m results in an increase of seawater density of around 0.7 kg/m.

text: Bruce A. Manning is a Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry at San Francisco State University. He is an internationally recognized expert in environmental chemistry.  He earned a B.S. in environmental science at the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1985 and a Ph.D. in environmental chemistry from the University of California, Davis in 1993. Prior to joining SFSU he was a Postdocoral Scientist at the USDA U.S. Salinity Laboratory in Riverside CA and the University of California, Riverside. Professor Manning has been a pioneer in applying X-ray techniques such as X-ray diffraction, fluorescence, and absorption spectroscopy to environmental chemistry problems and materials chemical research.  Professor Manning's research interests include soil chemistry, surface analysis, mineralogy, remediation, inorganic chemical analysis, and computational chemistry.  His research has been funded by NSF, USDA, and DuPont and was a Research Corporation Cottrell College Science Award Fellow from 2001-2005.

text: Bruce A. Manning is a Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry at

text: San Francisco State University

text: . He is an internationally recognized expert in

text: environmental chemistry

text: .  He earned a

text: B.S.

text: in

text: environmental science

text: at the

text: University of Massachusetts Amherst

text: in 1985 and a

text: Ph.D.

text: in environmental chemistry from the

text: University of California, Davis

text: in 1993. Prior to joining SFSU he was a Postdocoral Scientist at the

text: USDA

text: U.S. Salinity Laboratory in Riverside CA and the University of California, Riverside. Professor Manning has been a pioneer in applying X-ray techniques such as X-ray diffraction, fluorescence, and absorption spectroscopy to environmental chemistry problems and materials chemical research.  Professor Manning's research interests include

text: soil chemistry

text: surface analysis

text: mineralogy

text: remediation

text: , inorganic

text: chemical analysis

text: , and

text: computational chemistry

text: .  His research has been funded by

text: NSF

text: , USDA, and

text: DuPont

text: and was a

text: Research Corporation

text: Cottrell College Science Award Fellow from 2001-2005.

text: The sea has a surface area of  (not including its detached lagoon of Garabogazköl) and a volume of . It has a salinity of approximately 1.2% (12 g/l), about a third of the salinity of most seawater.

text: The sea has a surface area of  (not including its detached lagoon of

text: Garabogazköl

text: ) and a volume of . It has a

text: salinity

text: of approximately 1.2% (12 g/l), about a third of the salinity of most

text: seawater

text: The solute content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as total dissolved solids and other constituents can dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms interact with their environment. Salt content, or salinity, is the most basic classification of water conditions. An aquarium may have freshwater (salinity below 0.5 PPT), simulating a lake or river environment; brackish water (a salt level of 0.5 to 30 PPT), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as estuaries; and salt water or seawater (a salt level of 30 to 40 PPT), simulating an ocean or sea environment. Even higher salt concentrations are maintained in specialized tanks for raising brine organisms.

text: The

text: solute

text: content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as

text: total dissolved solids

text: and other constituents can dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms interact with their environment. Salt content, or

text: salinity

text: , is the most basic classification of water conditions. An aquarium may have

text: freshwater

text: (salinity below 0.5 PPT), simulating a lake or river environment;

text: brackish water

text: (a salt level of 0.5 to 30 PPT), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as

text: estuaries

text: ; and salt water or

text: seawater

text: (a salt level of 30 to 40 PPT), simulating an ocean or sea environment. Even higher salt concentrations are maintained in specialized tanks for raising brine organisms.

text: The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt). Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks. The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.

text: The average

text: salinity

text: of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water (3.5% salt). Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks. The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large

text: heat reservoir

text: . Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the

text: El Niño-Southern Oscillation

text: Clause density refers to the degree to which utterances contain dependent clauses.  This density is calculated as a ratio of the total number of clauses across sentences, divide by the number of sentences in a discourse sample.  For example, if the clause density is 2.0, the ratio would indicate that the sentence being analyzed has 2 clauses on average: one main clause and one subordinate clause.

text: Clause density refers to the degree to which utterances contain dependent

text: clauses

text: .  This density is calculated as a ratio of the total number of clauses across sentences, divide by the number of sentences in a discourse sample.  For example, if the clause density is 2.0, the ratio would indicate that the sentence being analyzed has 2 clauses on average: one main clause and one subordinate clause.

text: Salinity refers to the water's "saltiness". In oceanography and marine biology, it has been traditional to express salinity not as a percent, but as permille (parts per thousand) (‰), which is approximately grams of salt per kilogram of solution. Salinity varies even more widely than temperature in estuaries, ranging from zero to 35, often over relatively short distances. Even organisms in the same location experience broad swings in salinity with the tides, exposing them to very different water masses with chemical properties that provide varying levels of support for calcification processes. Even within a single estuary, an individual species can be exposed to differing shell deposition conditions, resulting in varied growth patterns due to changes in water chemistry and resultant calcification rates.

text: Salinity

text: refers to the water's "saltiness". In oceanography and marine biology, it has been traditional to express salinity not as a percent, but as

text: permille

text: (parts per thousand) (

text: ), which is approximately

text: grams of salt per kilogram of solution

text: . Salinity varies even more widely than temperature in estuaries, ranging from zero to 35, often over relatively short distances. Even organisms in the same location experience broad swings in salinity with the

text: tide

text: s, exposing them to very different water masses with chemical properties that provide varying levels of support for calcification processes. Even within a single estuary, an individual species can be exposed to differing shell deposition conditions, resulting in varied growth patterns due to changes in water chemistry and resultant calcification rates.

text: Early in his career, Hardie conducted research and experimentation with evaporites, showing that the signal from evaporites provide evidence for seawater chemistry change. He observed that secular changes in the mineralogy of potash evaporites and ooids and cements in marine limestones are synchronous with greenhouse/hothouse climates and global sea level. Hardie's study of evaporites led to the hypothesis, since verified through study of seawater trapped inside crystals of marine halite, that seawater has undergone long-term variations in its major ion composition. He demonstrated that these variations are linked to plate tectonic processes at mid-ocean ridges. These studies improved the understanding of calcifying marine organisms and their role in the global carbon cycle, and also had implications for geochemistry, mineralogy, tectonics, biological evolution (biomineralization), oil/gas resources, and climate change. In recognition, he was awarded the Francis J. Pettijohn Medal for Excellence by the Society for Sedimentary Geology in 2003.

text: Society for Sedimentary Geology

text: in 2003.

text: Other technologies, such as those involved in the carbon-capture of flue gas from power plants are prominent. With this technology, carbon dioxide is injected into oil reservoirs "to increase the mobility of the oil, and, therefore, the productivity of the reservoir," while minimizing emissions (Herzog, et al. 1997). At the end of the twentieth century, capture plants utilized chemical absorption processes using the solvent monoethanolamine (MEA). Other processes include membrane separation, cryogenic fractionation, and adsorption using molecular sieves (Herzog). Another option for disposing of carbon dioxide is underground storage of carbon in geological formations (Herzog). For example, mined salt domes or rock caverns typically have a large storage capacity (Tek 1989).  The ocean may have the greatest potential for storage of carbon dioxide – injection may occur using dry ice, injecting liquid carbon dioxide, creating a dense carbon dioxide-seawater mixture, etc. (Herzog). Although, greater research is necessary, concerning the physical-chemical interactions between seawater and carbon dioxide, ocean circulation and mixing, biological impacts, and ocean engineering (Herzog).

text: Limnologists and chemists often define salinity in terms of mass of salt per unit volume, expressed in units of mg per litre or g per litre. It is implied, although often not stated, that this value applies accurately only at some reference temperature. Values presented in this way are typically accurate to of the order of 1%. Limnologists also use electrical conductivity, or "reference conductivity", as a proxy for salinity. This measurement may be corrected for temperature effects, and is usually expressed in units of μS/cm.

text: Limnologist

text: s and chemists often define salinity in terms of mass of salt per unit volume, expressed in units of mg per litre or g per litre. It is implied, although often not stated, that this value applies accurately only at some reference temperature. Values presented in this way are typically accurate to of the order of 1%. Limnologists also use

text: electrical conductivity

text: , or "reference conductivity", as a proxy for salinity. This measurement may be corrected for temperature effects, and is usually expressed in units of μS/cm.

text: A solar pond is simply a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy.  The saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient also known as a "halocline", in which low-salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water.  The layers of salt solutions increase in concentration (and therefore density) with depth.  Below a certain depth, the solution has a uniformly high salt concentration.

text: A solar pond is simply a pool of

text: saltwater

text: which collects and stores solar thermal energy.  The saltwater naturally forms a vertical

text: salinity

text: gradient

text: also known as a "

text: halocline

text: ", in which low-salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water.  The layers of salt solutions increase in concentration (and therefore density) with depth.  Below a certain depth, the solution has a uniformly high salt concentration.

text: When  dissolves, it reacts with water to form a balance of ionic and non-ionic chemical species: dissolved free carbon dioxide (), carbonic acid (), bicarbonate () and carbonate (). The ratio of these species depends on factors such as seawater temperature and alkalinity (as shown in a Bjerrum plot). These different forms of dissolved inorganic carbon are transferred from an ocean's surface to its interior by the ocean's solubility pump.

text: When  dissolves, it reacts with water to form a balance of ionic and non-ionic chemical species: dissolved free carbon dioxide (),

text: carbonic acid

text: bicarbonate

text: () and

text: carbonate

text: (). The ratio of these species depends on factors such as

text: seawater

text: temperature

text: and

text: alkalinity

text: (as shown in a

text: Bjerrum plot

text: ). These different forms of

text: dissolved inorganic carbon

text: are transferred from an ocean's surface to its interior by the ocean's

text: solubility pump

text: Although humans cannot survive on seawater alone — and, indeed, will sicken quickly if they try — some people have claimed that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. During the 18th century, British physician Richard Russell (1687–1759) advocated the practice as part of medical therapy in his country. (In the 20th century, René Quinton (1866–1925), in France, would also endorse the practice. Currently, the practice is widely used in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries.) In his 1948 book, Kon-Tiki, Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. The French physician Alain Bombard (1924-2005) survived an ocean crossing (1952-53) in a small Zodiac rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. A few years later, an American sailor and adventurer, William Willis (1893–1968), claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.

text: Although humans cannot survive on seawater alone — and, indeed, will sicken quickly if they try — some people have claimed that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. During the 18th century, British physician

text: Richard Russell

text: (1687–1759) advocated the practice as part of medical therapy in his country. (In the 20th century,

text: René Quinton

text: (1866–1925), in France, would also endorse the practice. Currently, the practice is widely used in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries.) In his 1948 book,

text: Kon-Tiki

text: Thor Heyerdahl

text: reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. The French physician

text: Alain Bombard

text: (1924-2005) survived an ocean crossing (1952-53) in a small

text: Zodiac rubber boat

text: using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40 percent water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. A few years later, an American sailor and adventurer,

text: William Willis

text: (1893–1968), claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.

text: is the density of seawater.

text: is the density of seawater.

text: Fresh water is considered to have a density of 1000 kg/m³ and sea water 1025 kg/m³. English (US) densities are 62.4 lb/cu ft for fresh water and 64 lb/cu ft for sea water.  Fresh water marks make allowance for the fact that the ship will float deeper in fresh water than salt water. A ship loaded to her fresh water mark in fresh water will float at her summer mark once she has passed into seawater. Similarly if loaded to her tropical fresh water mark she will float at her tropical mark once she passes into seawater.

text: This holding company operating in composite materials and technologies and technical chemistry was established in early 2011. The company brings together strategic enterprises and science centers. Its key businesses include science research and innovation developments related to new materials, unique structures and technologies and manufacturing hi-tech products for space, aviation, defense equipment, ground and water transport, energy, chemical production and many more industrial sectors.

text: Sigma-t is a quantity used in oceanography to measure the density of seawater at a given temperature. σ is defined as ρ(S,T)-1000 kg m, where ρ(S,T) is the density of a sample of seawater at temperature T and salinity S, measured in kg m, at standard atmospheric pressure. For example, a water sample with a density of 1.027 g/cm has a σ value of 27.

text: Sigma-t is a quantity used in

text: oceanography

text: to measure the

text: density

text: of

text: seawater

text: at a given temperature. σ is defined as ρ(S,T)-1000 kg m, where ρ(S,T) is the density of a sample of seawater at temperature T and salinity S, measured in

text: kg m

text: , at standard atmospheric pressure. For example, a water sample with a density of 1.027 g/cm has a σ value of 27.

text: Urban density is a term used in urban planning and urban design to refer to the number of people inhabiting a given urbanized area. As such it is to be distinguished from other measures of population density. Urban density is considered an important factor in understanding how cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse areas, including economics, health, innovation, psychology and geography as well as sustainability.

text: Urban density is a term used in

text: urban planning

text: and

text: urban design

text: to refer to the number of people inhabiting a given

text: urbanized area

text: . As such it is to be distinguished from other measures of

text: population density

text: . Urban density is considered an important factor in understanding how cities function. Research related to urban density occurs across diverse areas, including economics, health, innovation, psychology and geography as well as

text: sustainability

text: On seawater, congelation ice is ice that forms on the bottom of an established sea ice cover, usually in the form of platelets which coalesce to form solid ice.

text: On

text: seawater

text: , congelation ice is ice that forms on the bottom of an established

text: sea ice

text: cover, usually in the form of platelets which coalesce to form solid ice.

text: NWA 7034 is a volcanic breccia that has a porphyritic appearance, consisting of plagioclase (andesine) and pyroxene (pigeonite and augite) phenocrysts that are up to 5 mm in diameter set in a fine grained groundmass. Accessory minerals include chlorapatite, chromite, goethite, ilmenite, magnetite, maghemite, alkali feldspar and pyrite. There are even some clasts present that are made of quenched magma. The groundmass is made from fine grained plagioclase, pyroxene, different oxide minerals, and traces of iron sulfides. The whole rock chemistry revealed that NWA 7034 has the highest water content ever measured in a Martian meteorite. The water might be derived from oceans that used to exist on Mars, but were still present when the volcanic rock, that would eventually become the meteorite, was erupted.

text: NWA 7034 is a volcanic

text: breccia

text: that has a

text: porphyritic

text: appearance, consisting of

text: plagioclase

text: andesine

text: ) and

text: pyroxene

text: pigeonite

text: and

text: augite

text: ) phenocrysts that are up to 5 mm in diameter set in a fine grained

text: groundmass

text: . Accessory minerals include

text: chlorapatite

text: chromite

text: goethite

text: ilmenite

text: magnetite

text: maghemite

text: alkali feldspar

text: and

text: pyrite

text: . There are even some clasts present that are made of

text: quenched

text: magma

text: . The groundmass is made from fine grained plagioclase, pyroxene, different oxide minerals, and traces of iron sulfides. The whole rock chemistry revealed that NWA 7034 has the highest water content ever measured in a

text: Martian meteorite

text: . The water might be derived from oceans that used to exist on Mars, but were still present when the volcanic rock, that would eventually become the meteorite, was erupted.

text: The OTEC system is based on an organic Rankine cycle; a working fluid with a lower boiling point and a higher vapour pressure than water is used to power a turbine that generates electricity. First, warm water from the ocean surface is pumped through a heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger, the heat that is exchanged from the seawater to the working fluid causes the working fluid to vaporize. This vaporized working fluid is expanded in a turbine that is connected to a generator that generates electricity. Thereafter, cold seawater, pumped through a second heat exchanger, condenses the vapour into a liquid, so it can be reused. An electricity-generating cycle is therefore created.

text: The OTEC system is based on an organic

text: Rankine cycle

text: ; a working fluid with a lower boiling point and a higher vapour pressure than water is used to power a

text: turbine

text: that generates electricity. First, warm water from the ocean surface is pumped through a

text: heat exchanger

text: . In the heat exchanger, the heat that is exchanged from the seawater to the working fluid causes the working fluid to vaporize. This vaporized working fluid is expanded in a turbine that is connected to a generator that generates electricity. Thereafter, cold seawater, pumped through a second heat exchanger, condenses the vapour into a liquid, so it can be reused. An electricity-generating cycle is therefore created.

text: The mixed layer depth is in fact greater in winter than summer in each hemisphere. During the summer increased solar heating of the surface water leads to more stable density stratification, reducing the penetration of wind-driven mixing. Because seawater is most dense just before it freezes, wintertime cooling over the ocean always reduces stable stratification, allowing a deeper penetration of wind-driven turbulence but also generating turbulence that can penetrate to great depths.

text: The term 'salinity' is, for oceanographers, usually associated with one of a set of specific measurement techniques. As the dominant techniques evolve, so do different descriptions of salinity. The distinctions between these different descriptions are important to physical oceanographers but are obscure and confusing to nonspecialists.

text: Ocean water is mostly HO, with small amounts of HDO and HO, where D denotes deuterium, i.e. hydrogen with an extra neutron.  In Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) the ratio of D to H is 155.76x10 and O-18 to O-16 is 2005.2x10.  Isotope fractionation occurs during changes between condensed and vapour phases: the vapour pressure of heavier isotopes is lower, so vapour contains relatively more of the lighter isotopes and when the vapour condenses the precipitation preferentially contains heavier isotopes.  The difference from VSMOW is expressed as δO = 1000‰ \times \left( \frac{([{}^{18}O]/[{}^{16}O])}{([{}^{18}O]/[{}^{16}O])_{\mathrm{VSMOW}}} - 1\right); and a similar formula for δD. δ values for precipitation are always negative.  The major influence on δ is the difference between ocean temperatures where the moisture evaporated and the place where the final precipitation occurred; since ocean temperatures are relatively stable the δ value mostly reflects the temperature where precipitation occurs. Taking into account that the precipitation forms above the inversion layer, we are left with a linear relation:

text: Ocean water is mostly HO, with small amounts of HDO and HO, where D denotes

text: deuterium

text: , i.e. hydrogen with an extra neutron.  In

text: Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water

text: (VSMOW) the ratio of D to H is 155.76x10 and O-18 to O-16 is 2005.2x10.

text: Isotope fractionation

text: occurs during changes between condensed and vapour phases: the vapour pressure of heavier isotopes is lower, so vapour contains relatively more of the lighter isotopes and when the vapour condenses the precipitation preferentially contains heavier isotopes.  The difference from VSMOW is expressed as δO = 1000‰ \times \left( \frac{([{}^{18}O]/[{}^{16}O])}{([{}^{18}O]/[{}^{16}O])_{\mathrm{VSMOW}}} - 1\right); and a similar formula for δD. δ values for precipitation are always negative.  The major influence on δ is the difference between ocean temperatures where the moisture evaporated and the place where the final precipitation occurred; since ocean temperatures are relatively stable the δ value mostly reflects the temperature where precipitation occurs. Taking into account that the precipitation forms above the

text: inversion

text: layer, we are left with a linear relation:

text: The metre (or meter) sea water (msw) is a unit of pressure used in underwater diving.  It is defined as the pressure exerted by a one-metre column of standard seawater at normal Earth gravity.  For standard seawater, with mean density of 1.025 kg/l, 10.080 msw is approximately one standard atmosphere (atm).

text: The metre (or meter) sea water (msw) is a

text: unit

text: of

text: pressure

text: used in

text: underwater diving

text: .  It is defined as the pressure exerted by a one-metre column of standard

text: seawater

text: at normal

text: Earth gravity

text: .  For standard seawater, with mean

text: density

text: of 1.025

text: kg

text: l

text: , 10.080 msw is approximately one

text: standard atmosphere

text: (atm).

text: The ocean can be divided into three density zones: the surface zone, the pycnocline, and the deep zone. The surface zone, also called the mixed layer, refers to the uppermost density zone of the ocean. Temperature and salinity are relatively constant with depth in this zone due to currents and wave action. The surface zone contains ocean water that is in contact with the atmosphere and within the photic zone. The surface zone has the ocean's least dense water and represents approximately 2% of the total volume of ocean water. The surface zone usually ranges between depths of 500 feet to 3,300 feet below ocean surface, but this can vary a great deal. In some cases, the surface zone can be entirely non-existent. The surface zone is typically thicker in the tropics than in regions of higher latitude. The transition to colder, denser water is more abrupt in the tropics than in regions of higher latitudes. The pycnocline refers to a zone wherein density substantially increases with depth due primarily to decreases in temperature. The pycnocline effectively separates the lower-density surface zone above from the higher-density deep zone below. The pycnocline represents approximately 18% of the total volume of ocean water. The deep zone refers to the lowermost density zone of the ocean. The deep zone usually begins at depths below 3,300 feet in mid-latitudes. The deep zone undergoes negligible changes in water density with depth. The deep zone represents approximately 80% of the total volume of ocean water. The deep zone contains relatively colder and stable water.

text: The ocean can be divided into three density zones: the surface zone, the

text: pycnocline

text: , and the

text: deep zone

text: A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a halocline. The temperature of maximum density of seawater decreases as its salt content increases. Freezing temperature of water decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with salinity. Typical seawater freezes at around −1.9 °C at atmospheric pressure. If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is the case in polar and temperate regions, salinity will be lower. If evaporation exceeds precipitation, as is the case in tropical regions, salinity will be higher. Thus, oceanic waters in polar regions have lower salinity content than oceanic waters in temperate and tropical regions.

text: A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a

text: halocline

text: . The temperature of maximum density of

text: seawater

text: decreases as its salt content increases. Freezing temperature of water decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with

text: salinity

text: . Typical seawater freezes at around −1.9 °C at

text: atmospheric pressure

text: . If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is the case in polar and temperate regions, salinity will be lower. If evaporation exceeds precipitation, as is the case in tropical regions, salinity will be higher. Thus, oceanic waters in polar regions have lower salinity content than oceanic waters in temperate and tropical regions.

text: It is now known that density of water also depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample. Modern measurements of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water, which is pure distilled water with an isotopic composition representative of the average of the world’s oceans, show it has a density of  at its point of maximum density (3.984 °C) under one standard atmosphere (760 torr, 101.325 kPa) of pressure.

text: It is now known that density of water also depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample. Modern measurements of

text: Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water

text: , which is pure distilled water with an

text: isotopic

text: composition representative of the average of the world’s oceans, show it has a density of  at its point of maximum density (3.984 °C) under one standard atmosphere (760

text: torr

text: , 101.325

text: kPa

text: ) of pressure.

text: An ever-growing number of hobbyists experiencing the inconvenience of gathering natural sea water and the concurrent development of analytical chemistry techniques led to research into the chemical composition of sea water.  Synthetic salt mixes were developed to replicate the chemical environment of the tropical ocean, including trace elements and salts. This advance made marine fishkeeping popular in areas without access to clean sea water.

text: An ever-growing number of hobbyists experiencing the inconvenience of gathering natural sea water and the concurrent development of

text: analytical chemistry

text: techniques led to research into the

text: chemical composition

text: of sea water.  Synthetic salt mixes were developed to replicate the chemical environment of the tropical ocean, including

text: trace elements

text: and salts. This advance made marine fishkeeping popular in areas without access to clean sea water.

text: Electropositive metals (EPMs) are a new class of shark repellent materials that produce a measurable voltage when immersed in an electrolyte such as seawater. The voltages produced are as high as 1.75 VDC in seawater. It is hypothesized that this voltage overwhelms the ampullary organ in sharks, producing a repellent action. Since bony fish lack the ampullary organ, the repellent is selective to sharks and rays. The process is electrochemical, so no external power input is required. As chemical work is done, the metal is lost in the form of corrosion. Depending on the alloy or metal utilized and its thickness, the electropositive repellent effect lasts up to 48 hours. The reaction of the electropositive metal in seawater produces hydrogen gas bubbles and an insoluble nontoxic hydroxide as a precipitate which settles downward in the water column.

text: Electropositive metals (EPMs) are a new class of

text: shark repellent

text: materials that produce a measurable

text: voltage

text: when immersed in an

text: electrolyte

text: such as

text: seawater

text: . The voltages produced are as high as 1.75 VDC in seawater. It is hypothesized that this voltage overwhelms the

text: ampullary organ

text: in sharks, producing a repellent action. Since bony fish lack the ampullary organ, the repellent is selective to sharks and rays. The process is electrochemical, so no external power input is required. As chemical work is done, the metal is lost in the form of corrosion. Depending on the alloy or metal utilized and its thickness, the electropositive repellent effect lasts up to 48 hours. The reaction of the electropositive metal in seawater produces hydrogen gas bubbles and an insoluble nontoxic hydroxide as a precipitate which settles downward in the water column.

text: A Mangrove swamp is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat formed by mangrove trees. They are characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (3 to 4 %), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9 %).

text: A Mangrove swamp is a distinct saline

text: woodland

text: or

text: shrubland

text: habitat formed by

text: mangrove

text: trees. They are characterized by

text: depositional

text: coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from

text: brackish water

text: , through pure

text: seawater

text: (3 to 4 %), to water concentrated by

text: evaporation

text: to over twice the

text: salinity

text: of ocean seawater (up to 9 %).

text: The  cation is the second-most-abundant cation in seawater (about ⅛ the mass of sodium ions in a given sample), which makes seawater and sea salt attractive commercial sources for Mg. To extract the magnesium, calcium hydroxide is added to seawater to form magnesium hydroxide precipitate.

text: The

text: cation

text: is the second-most-abundant cation in seawater (about ⅛ the mass of sodium ions in a given sample), which makes seawater and sea salt attractive commercial sources for Mg. To extract the magnesium,

text: calcium hydroxide

text: is added to

text: seawater

text: to form

text: magnesium hydroxide

text: precipitate

text: Alkaline soils have a high saturation of base cations (K, Ca, Mg and Na).  This is due to an accumulation of soluble salts  which are classified as either saline soil, sodic soil, saline-sodic soil or alkaline soil.  All saline and sodic soils have high salt concentrations, with saline soils being dominated by calcium and magnesium salts and sodic soils being dominated by sodium.  Alkaline soils are characterized by the presence of carbonates. Soil in areas with limestone near the surface are alkaline from the calcium carbonate in limestone constantly mixing with the soil. Groundwater sources in these areas contain dissolved limestone.

text: Alkaline soils have a high saturation of base cations (K, Ca, Mg and Na).  This is due to an accumulation of soluble salts  which are classified as either

text: saline soil

text: sodic soil

text: , saline-sodic soil or

text: alkaline soil

text: .  All saline and sodic soils have high salt concentrations, with saline soils being dominated by calcium and magnesium salts and sodic soils being dominated by sodium.  Alkaline soils are characterized by the presence of

text: carbonate

text: s. Soil in areas with

text: limestone

text: near the surface are alkaline from the

text: calcium carbonate

text: in limestone constantly mixing with the soil. Groundwater sources in these areas contain dissolved limestone.

text: ELF waves can also travel considerable distances through "lossy" media like earth and seawater, which would absorb higher frequency radio waves.

text: In contrast to the approximately 2 °C ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 to as high as 464 °C. Due to the high hydrostatic pressure at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a supercritical fluid at such temperatures. The critical point of (pure) water is 375 °C at a pressure of 218 atmospheres. However, introducing salinity into the fluid raises the critical point to higher temperatures and pressures. The critical point of seawater (3.2 wt. % NaCl) is 407 °C and 298.5 bars, corresponding to a depth of ~2960 m below sea level. Accordingly, if a hydrothermal fluid with a salinity of 3.2 wt. % NaCl vents above 407 °C and 298.5 bars, it is supercritical. Furthermore, the salinity of vent fluids have been shown to vary widely due to phase separation in the crust.  The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater, but higher than that for pure water. For example, a vent fluid with a 2.24 wt. % NaCl salinity has the critical point at 400 °C and 280.5 bars. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a supercritical fluid, possessing physical properties between those of a gas and those of a liquid.

text: In contrast to the approximately 2 °C ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 to as high as 464 °C. Due to the high

text: hydrostatic pressure

text: at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a

text: supercritical fluid

text: at such temperatures. The

text: critical point

text: of (pure) water is 375 °C at a pressure of 218

text: atmospheres

text: . However, introducing salinity into the fluid raises the critical point to higher temperatures and pressures. The critical point of seawater (3.2 wt. % NaCl) is 407 °C and 298.5 bars, corresponding to a depth of ~2960 m below sea level. Accordingly, if a hydrothermal fluid with a salinity of 3.2 wt. % NaCl vents above 407 °C and 298.5 bars, it is supercritical. Furthermore, the salinity of vent fluids have been shown to vary widely due to phase separation in the crust.  The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater, but higher than that for pure water. For example, a vent fluid with a 2.24 wt. % NaCl salinity has the critical point at 400 °C and 280.5 bars. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a

text: supercritical fluid

text: , possessing physical properties between those of a

text: gas

text: and those of a

text: liquid

text: Some deep-sea anglerfish of the bathypelagic zone emit light from their esca to attract prey. This bioluminescence is a result of symbiosis with bacteria. The mechanism that ceratioids use to harness them is unknown, but researchers speculate that the bacteria  enter the esca through small pores from seawater. Once inside, they multiply until their density is sufficient to produce a bright collective glow.

text: Some deep-sea anglerfish of the

text: bathypelagic zone

text: emit light from their

text: esca

text: to attract prey. This

text: bioluminescence

text: is a result of

text: symbiosis

text: with

text: bacteria

text: . The mechanism that ceratioids use to harness them is unknown, but researchers speculate that the bacteria  enter the esca through small pores from seawater. Once inside, they multiply until their density is sufficient to produce a bright collective glow.

text: Carbon accumulates as the result of stellar fusion in most stars, even small ones. Carbon is present in the earth's crust in concentrations of 480 parts per million, and is present in seawater at concentrations of 28 parts per million. Carbon is present in the atmosphere in the form of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane. Carbon is a key constituent of carbonate minerals, and is in hydrogen carbonate, which is common in seawater. Carbon forms 22.8% of a typical human.

text: Carbon accumulates as the result of

text: stellar fusion

text: in most stars, even small ones. Carbon is present in the earth's crust in concentrations of 480 parts per million, and is present in

text: seawater

text: at concentrations of 28 parts per million. Carbon is present in the atmosphere in the form of

text: carbon monoxide

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and

text: methane

text: . Carbon is a key constituent of

text: carbonate minerals

text: , and is in

text: hydrogen carbonate

text: , which is common in seawater. Carbon forms 22.8% of a typical human.

text: BBAB.Com (Plain)B.Com (Computer Application)B.Com (Tax Procedure)B.Com (Honours)M.ComB.Sc. (Biotechnology + Life Sciences + Chemistray)B.Sc. (Biotechnology +  Chemistry + Computer Science)B.Sc. (Microbiology + Pharmacy Chemistry+ Chemistry)B.Sc. (Microbiology + Life Sciences + Chemistry)M.Sc. (Biotechnology)M.Sc. (Microbiology)M.Sc. (Chemistry)M.Sc. (Pharmaceutical Chemistry)BCAB.Sc. (Computer Science) (Hons.)B.Sc. (Computer Science) (Pass)B.Sc. (Electronics)B.Sc. (Information Technology)

text: One caveat to this calculation is that the original work was concerned with the hydrography of the East China Sea, where cooling plays the dominant role in the formation of dense shelf water, and that this mechanism may not apply in other regions.  However, it has been suggested that other processes may drive the pump under different climatic conditions.  For instance, in polar regions, the formation of sea-ice results in the extrusion of salt that may increase seawater density.  Similarly, in tropical regions, evaporation may increase local salinity and seawater density.

text: One caveat to this calculation is that the original work was concerned with the hydrography of the East China Sea, where cooling plays the dominant role in the formation of dense shelf water, and that this mechanism may not apply in other regions.  However, it has been suggested that other processes may drive the pump under different climatic conditions.  For instance, in polar regions, the formation of

text: sea-ice

text: results in the

text: extrusion

text: of salt that may increase seawater density.  Similarly, in tropical regions,

text: evaporation

text: may increase local salinity and seawater density.

text: Industrial cooling towers may use river water, coastal water (seawater), or well water as their source of fresh cooling water. The large mechanical induced-draft or forced-draft cooling towers in industrial plants continuously circulate cooling water through heat exchangers and other equipment where the water absorbs heat. That heat is then rejected to the atmosphere by the partial evaporation of the water in cooling towers where upflowing air is contacted with the circulating downflow of water. The loss of evaporated water into the air exhausted to the atmosphere is replaced by "make-up" fresh river water or fresh cooling water. Since the evaporation of pure water is replaced by make-up water containing carbonates and other dissolved salts, a portion of the circulating water is also continuously discarded as "blowdown" water to prevent the excessive build-up of salts in the circulating water.

text: Industrial cooling towers may use river water, coastal water (

text: seawater

text: ), or well water as their source of fresh cooling water. The large mechanical induced-draft or forced-draft cooling towers in industrial plants continuously circulate cooling water through heat exchangers and other equipment where the water absorbs heat. That heat is then rejected to the atmosphere by the partial evaporation of the water in cooling towers where upflowing air is contacted with the circulating downflow of water. The loss of evaporated water into the air exhausted to the atmosphere is replaced by "make-up" fresh river water or fresh cooling water. Since the evaporation of pure water is replaced by make-up water containing carbonates and other dissolved salts, a portion of the circulating water is also continuously discarded as "blowdown" water to prevent the excessive build-up of salts in the circulating water.

text: A Nansen bottle is a device for obtaining samples of seawater at a specific depth. It was designed in 1894 by the early 19th to 20th-century explorer and oceanographer Fridtjof Nansen and further developed by Shale Niskin in 1910.

text: A Nansen bottle is a device for obtaining samples of

text: seawater

text: at a specific depth. It was designed in 1894 by the early 19th to 20th-century explorer and

text: oceanographer

text: Fridtjof Nansen

text: and further developed by

text: Shale Niskin

text: in 1910.

text: On 3 December 1977 The Times reported that seawater had entered the reactor through a modification of the secondary cooling system. The secondary cooling system uses fresh water to cool various items including the bearings of the gas circulators, which circulate the carbon dioxide (CO) coolant through the reactor to the boilers. A small leak of  CO through a seal had developed, and a bypass pipe was installed to remove the water contaminated with CO to the seawater cooling ponds. When maintenance work was carried out on the reactor and the pressure in the gas cooling system was reduced, sea water was able to flow back up this bypass pipe and into the reactor. The residual heat of the reactor was such that the seawater evaporated rapidly, leaving deposits of salt in the reactor around the gas circuit. It was estimated at the time that the reactor could be out of operation for a year, that the repairs could cost £14 million, and that electricity tariffs would have to rise by between 1 and 2 per cent. Extensive modelling work was performed in the Nuclear Power Company's (NPC) Whetstone, Leicestershire, fluid flow laboratories to determine where the salt would have been deposited, and the salt was successfully removed by technicians using vacuum cleaners and the plant returned to operation.

text: On 3 December 1977

text: The Times

text: The unevaporated seawater in an evaporator gradually becomes a concentrated brine and, like the early steam boilers with seawater feed, this brine must be intermittently blown down every six to eight hours and dumped overboard. Early evaporators were simply mounted high-up and dumped their brine by gravity. As the increasing complexity of surface condensers demanded better feedwater quality, a pump became part of the evaporator equipment. This pump had three combined functions as a seawater feed pump, a fresh water delivery pump and a brine extraction pump, each of progressively smaller capacity. The brine salinity was an important factor in evaporator efficiency: too dense encouraged scale formation, but too little represented a waste of heated seawater. The optimum operating salinity was thus fixed at three times that of seawater, and so the brine pump had to remove at least one third of the total feedwater supply rate. These pumps resembled the steam-powered reciprocating feedwater pumps already in service. They were usually produced by the well-known makers, such as G & J Weir. Vertical and horizontal pumps were used, although horizontal pumps were favoured as they encouraged the de-aeration of feedwater. Electrically powered rotary centrifugal pumps were later adopted, as more efficient and more reliable. There were initial concerns whether these would be capable of pumping brine against the vacuum of the evaporator and so there was also a transitional type where a worm gear-driven plunger pump for brine was driven from the rotary shaft.

text: feedwater pump

text: s already in service. They were usually produced by the well-known makers, such as

text: G & J Weir

text: . Vertical and horizontal pumps were used, although horizontal pumps were favoured as they encouraged the de-aeration of feedwater. Electrically powered rotary centrifugal pumps were later adopted, as more efficient and more reliable. There were initial concerns whether these would be capable of pumping brine against the vacuum of the evaporator and so there was also a transitional type where a

text: worm gear

text: -driven

text: plunger pump

text: for brine was driven from the rotary shaft.

text: Salinity in rivers, lakes, and the ocean is conceptually simple, but technically challenging to define and measure precisely. Conceptually the salinity is the quantity of dissolved salt content of the water. Salts are compounds like sodium chloride, magnesium sulfate, potassium nitrate, and sodium bicarbonate which dissolve into ions. The concentration of dissolved chloride ions is sometimes referred to as chlorinity. Operationally, dissolved matter is defined as that which can pass through a very fine filter (historically a filter with a pore size of 0.45 μm, but nowadays usually 0.2 μm). Salinity can be expressed in the form of a mass fraction, i.e. the mass of the dissolved material in a unit mass of solution.

text: Salinity in rivers, lakes, and the ocean is conceptually simple, but technically challenging to define and measure precisely. Conceptually the salinity is the quantity of dissolved salt content of the water. Salts are compounds like

text: sodium chloride

text: magnesium sulfate

text: potassium nitrate

text: , and

text: sodium bicarbonate

text: which dissolve into ions. The concentration of dissolved chloride ions is sometimes referred to as chlorinity. Operationally, dissolved matter is defined as that which can pass through a very fine filter (historically a filter with a pore size of 0.45 μm, but nowadays usually 0.2 μm). Salinity can be expressed in the form of a

text: mass fraction

text: , i.e. the mass of the dissolved material in a unit mass of solution.

text: Salin is married to Riitta Salin, former world record holder in women's 400 metres.

text: Salin is married to

text: Riitta Salin

text: , former

entity_name: Women's 400 metres world record progression

text: world record holder

text: in women's 400 metres.

text: Other approaches have been used to manipulate the seawater carbonate chemistry in the field. In pelagic mesocosm experiments, the carbonate chemistry is generally altered at the beginning of the experiment and subsequently drifts as a function of biological processes and air-sea gas transfer. CO bubbling in open water has also been used. This approach does not enable precise control of the carbonate chemistry because it does not include a device to ensure full equilibration of added CO in seawater and its precise control. There are no experimental chambers to regulate water flow, and thus allows for natural near-bottom flow conditions, but it generates highly variable pH under variable current speed or direction. This approach is therefore more similar to natural CO vents than to FOCE systems.

text: The common raven lives in a wide variety of climates. Due to its habitat and food, the common raven has unique features that allow it to regulate osmotic challenges. Common ravens can be observed in oceans consuming water. However, when birds consume salt loaded prey or drink salt water, the body’s internal osmoregularity increases. The solution produced is considerably more concentrated than seawater. Birds are the only group of vertebrates that have the ability to produce hyposmotic urine. The ability to produce hyposmotic urine is from the medullary cones. Urine is mixed with digestive fluids rather than directly eliminated. Consequently, the avian gut plays an important role in water and salt regulation. In mammals, the osmotic gradient is urea, whereas in birds, sodium chloride is the major solute in the medullary cones. In birds, the kidneys are not solely responsible for osmoregulation. A unique feature in birds is the lower intestine, which absorbs fluids and electrolytes that were not absorbed by the small intestine or the kidneys. These osmoregulatory adaptations allow the common raven to thrive in diverse habitats.

text: The common raven lives in a wide variety of climates. Due to its habitat and food, the common raven has unique features that allow it to regulate osmotic challenges. Common ravens can be observed in oceans consuming water. However, when birds consume salt loaded prey or drink salt water, the body’s internal osmoregularity increases. The solution produced is considerably more concentrated than seawater. Birds are the only group of vertebrates that have the ability to produce hyposmotic urine. The ability to produce hyposmotic urine is from the medullary cones. Urine is mixed with digestive fluids rather than directly eliminated. Consequently, the avian gut plays an important role in water and salt regulation. In mammals, the osmotic gradient is urea, whereas in birds, sodium chloride is the major solute in the medullary cones. In birds, the kidneys are not solely responsible for

text: osmoregulation

text: . A unique feature in birds is the lower intestine, which absorbs fluids and electrolytes that were not absorbed by the small intestine or the kidneys. These osmoregulatory adaptations allow the common raven to thrive in diverse habitats.

text: Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed) is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon based); biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines).

text: Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed) is the

text: science

text: of

text: matter

text: and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by

text: physics

text: , but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of

text: matter

text: , as well as the changes it undergoes during

text: chemical reaction

text: s. It is a

text: physical science

text: which studies various

text: substance

text: s,

text: atom

text: s,

text: molecule

text: s, and matter (especially carbon based);

text: biochemistry

text: , the study of

text: substances

text: found in

text: biological organisms

text: physical chemistry

text: , the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as

text: thermodynamics

text: and

text: quantum mechanics

text: ; and

text: analytical chemistry

text: , the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their

text: chemical composition

text: and

text: structure

text: . Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g.

text: neurochemistry

text: the chemical study of the

text: nervous system

text: (see

text: subdisciplines

text: The critical capability of an Argo float is its ability to rise and descend in the ocean on a programmed schedule. The floats do this by changing their effective density. The density of any object is given by its mass divided by its volume. The Argo float keeps its mass constant, but by altering its volume, it changes its density. To do this, mineral oil is forced out of the float's pressure case and expands a rubber bladder at the bottom end of the float. As the bladder expands, the float becomes less dense than seawater and rises to the surface. Upon finishing its tasks at the surface, the float withdraws the oil and descends again.

text: In 2010 a new standard for the properties of seawater called the thermodynamic equation of seawater 2010 (TEOS-10) was introduced. This standard includes a new scale called the reference composition salinity scale. Absolute salinities on this scale are expressed as a mass fraction, in grams per kilogram of solution. Salinities on this scale are determined by combining electrical conductivity measurements with other information that can account for regional changes in the composition of seawater. They can also be determined by making direct density measurements.

text: Rana Ellen Munns FAA and ISI highly cited, is recognised as a world-leading authority on the mechanisms of salinity tolerance in crop plants. Her primary research has been on dissecting and demonstrating the relative importance of traits that underpin salinity tolerance.  She characterised the critical plant processes involved in tolerance of salinity, and showed what distinguishes salinity stress from drought stress. This work produced a highly sensitive technique for identifying salt-tolerant plants, and discovery of important genes for salt tolerance. Recently she discovered novel genes in an ancestral wheat that control the uptake of sodium and prevent it accumulating in leaves. These genes are being transferred to durum wheat and bread wheat cultivars, with the aim of improving grain yield in saline soil. The work resulted in developing a breeding line which yields 25% more than its parent on saline soils in farmers' fields.

text: Rana Ellen Munns FAA and ISI highly cited, is recognised as a world-leading authority on the mechanisms of

text: salinity tolerance

text: in crop plants. Her primary research has been on dissecting and demonstrating the relative importance of traits that underpin salinity tolerance.  She characterised the critical plant processes involved in tolerance of salinity, and showed what distinguishes salinity stress from drought stress. This work produced a highly sensitive technique for identifying

text: salt-tolerant plants

text: , and discovery of important genes for salt tolerance. Recently she discovered novel genes in an ancestral wheat that control the uptake of sodium and prevent it accumulating in leaves. These genes are being transferred to

text: durum wheat

text: and bread wheat cultivars, with the aim of improving grain yield in saline soil. The work resulted in developing a breeding line which yields 25% more than its parent on saline soils in farmers' fields.

text: Since its inception, the SWCP has initiated several educational activities to involve and inform the communities in and around Lincoln, NE about the unique saline wetlands and what’s being done to protect the rare resource.  The Partnership established an annual program with the Environmental Studies class of one Lincoln, NE public high school on saline wetlands in 2005.  Field trips to some of the saline wetland sites are held annually for these students. These field trips include presentations to the students by personnel of the LPSNRD, NGPC, and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.  Topics covered regarding the saline wetlands include vegetation, hydrology, entomology, restoration and mitigation, management, well monitoring and sampling, wildlife, and the relationship of urbanized development with natural areas.

text: Faced with encroaching Russians on one side and the Nazi involvement in Hungary during World War II on the other, in early 1941 Rona obtained a visitor's visa and fled to the United States. For three months she was unemployed and suspected of being a spy, though she sought help from scientists she had worked with in Europe to find employment. At a meeting of the American Physical Society, she met Austrian physicist Karl Herzfeld, who helped her secure a teaching post  at Trinity College in Washington, D.C. During this period, she was awarded a Carnegie Fellowship to research at the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute, working on analysis of seawater and sediments. Between 1941 and 1942, she conducted work at Carnegie in conjunction with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, measuring the amount of radium in seawater and river water. Her study, completed in 1942, showed that the ratio of radium to uranium was lower in seawater and higher in river water.

text: Faced with encroaching

text: Russians

text: on one side and the

text: Nazi

text: involvement in

text: Hungary during World War II

text: on the other, in early 1941 Rona obtained a visitor's visa and fled to the United States. For three months she was unemployed and suspected of being a spy, though she sought help from scientists she had worked with in Europe to find employment. At a meeting of the American Physical Society, she met Austrian physicist

text: Karl Herzfeld

text: , who helped her secure a teaching post  at

text: Trinity College

text: in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: During this period, she was awarded a

text: Carnegie Fellowship

text: to research at the

text: Geophysical Laboratory

text: of the Carnegie Institute, working on analysis of seawater and sediments. Between 1941 and 1942, she conducted work at Carnegie in conjunction with the

text: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

text: , measuring the amount of radium in seawater and river water. Her study, completed in 1942, showed that the ratio of radium to uranium was lower in seawater and higher in river water.

text: ORCA (Quantum Chemistry Program) is an ab initio quantum chemistry program package that contains modern electronic structure methods including density functional theory, many-body perturbation, coupled cluster, multireference methods, and semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods. Its main field of application is larger molecules, transition metal complexes, and their spectroscopic properties. ORCA is developed in the research group of Frank Neese and is free for academic use.

text: ORCA (Quantum Chemistry Program) is an

text: ab initio

text: quantum chemistry

text: program package that contains modern

text: electronic structure methods

text: including

text: density functional theory

text: many-body

text: perturbation

text: coupled cluster

text: multireference methods

text: , and

text: semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods

text: . Its main field of application is larger molecules, transition metal complexes, and their spectroscopic properties. ORCA is developed in the research group of

text: Frank Neese

text: and is free for academic use.

text: The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries. A major source of salt is seawater, which has a salinity of approximately 3.5%. This means that there are about  of dissolved salts, predominantly sodium () and chloride () ions, per kilogram (2.2 lbs) of water. The world's oceans are a virtually inexhaustible source of salt, and this abundance of supply means that reserves have not been calculated. The evaporation of seawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates. Salt evaporation ponds are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up. Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours, as some species of algae and other micro-organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity.

text: The manufacture of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries. A major source of salt is seawater, which has a

text: salinity

text: of approximately 3.5%. This means that there are about  of

text: dissolved salts

text: , predominantly

text: sodium

text: () and

text: chloride

text: ions

text: , per kilogram (2.2 lbs) of water. The world's oceans are a virtually inexhaustible source of salt, and this abundance of supply means that reserves have not been calculated. The evaporation of seawater is the production method of choice in marine countries with high evaporation and low precipitation rates.

text: Salt evaporation pond

text: s are filled from the ocean and salt crystals can be harvested as the water dries up. Sometimes these ponds have vivid colours, as some species of algae and other micro-organisms thrive in conditions of high salinity.

text: The seeds are the source of a high quality edible oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids. The plant is an obligate halophyte and can be used to reduce the salinity of soils, and in the remediation of soils contaminated with toxic metals. In a trial in Tunisia it has been found possible to grow both S. fruticosa and the cordgrass Spartina alterniflora using seawater to irrigate them and increase yields, but only when additional nitrogen and phosphorus are added. The high salt content of the plants will be likely to limit their use as stand alone forage crops, it being more likely they will be used as components of a feed mix.

text: The seeds are the source of a high quality edible oil rich in unsaturated fatty acids. The plant is an obligate

text: halophyte

text: and can be used to reduce the salinity of soils, and in the remediation of soils contaminated with toxic metals. In a trial in Tunisia it has been found possible to grow both S. fruticosa and the cordgrass

text: Spartina alterniflora

text: using seawater to irrigate them and increase yields, but only when additional nitrogen and phosphorus are added. The high salt content of the plants will be likely to limit their use as stand alone forage crops, it being more likely they will be used as components of a feed mix.

text: According to Blough & Zepp, superoxide is one of the hardest reactive oxygen species to quantify because it is present in low concentrations: 2×10 M in the open ocean and up to 2×10M in coastal areas.  The main sources of biological superoxide in the ocean come from the reduction of oxygen at the cell surface and metabolites released into the water. In marine systems, superoxide most often acts as a one-electron reductant, but it can also serve as an oxidant and may increase the normally slow oxidation rates of environmental compounds.   Superoxide is very unstable, with between 50 and 80% of its concentration of anions spontaneously disproportionating to hydrogen peroxide.  At its peak, this reaction occurs with a rate constant on the order of 2.2×10 – 4.5×10 L molsec in seawater.  The dismutation of superoxide to hydrogen peroxide can also be catalyzed by the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase with a rate constant on the order of 2×10 L molsec. As a result of these fast acting processes, the steady state concentration of superoxide is very small. Since superoxide is also moderately reactive towards trace metals and dissolved organic matter, any remaining superoxide is thought to be removed from the water column through reactions with these species. As a result, the presence of superoxide in surface waters has been known to result in an increase of reduced iron. This, in turn, serves to enhance the availability of iron to phytoplankton whose growth is often limited by this key nutrient.  As a charged radical species, superoxide is unlikely to significantly affect an organism's cellular function since it is not able to easily diffuse through the cell membrane.  Instead, its potential toxicity lies in its ability to react with extracellular surface proteins or carbohydrates to inactivate their functions.   Although its lifetime is fairly short (about 50 microseconds), superoxide has the potential to reach cell surfaces since it has a diffusion distance of about 320 nm.

text: According to Blough & Zepp, superoxide is one of the hardest reactive oxygen species to quantify because it is present in low concentrations: 2×10 M in the open ocean and up to 2×10M in coastal areas.  The main sources of biological superoxide in the ocean come from the reduction of oxygen at the cell surface and metabolites released into the water. In marine systems, superoxide most often acts as a one-electron reductant, but it can also serve as an oxidant and may increase the normally slow oxidation rates of environmental compounds.   Superoxide is very unstable, with between 50 and 80% of its concentration of anions spontaneously disproportionating to hydrogen peroxide.  At its peak, this reaction occurs with a rate constant on the order of 2.2×10 – 4.5×10 L molsec in seawater.  The dismutation of superoxide to hydrogen peroxide can also be catalyzed by the antioxidant enzyme

text: superoxide dismutase

text: CADPAC, the Cambridge Analytic Derivatives Package, is a suite of programs for ab initio computational chemistry calculations. It has been developed by R. D. Amos with contributions from I. L. Alberts, J. S. Andrews, S. M. Colwell, N. C. Handy, D. Jayatilaka, P. J. Knowles, R. Kobayashi, K. E. Laidig, G. Laming, A. M. Lee, P. E. Maslen, C. W. Murray, J. E. Rice, E. D. Simandiras, A. J. Stone, M.-D. Su and D. J. Tozer. at Cambridge University since 1981. It is capable of molecular Hartree–Fock calculations, Møller–Plesset calculations, various other correlated calculations and density functional theory calculations.

text: CADPAC, the Cambridge Analytic Derivatives Package, is a suite of programs for

text: ab initio

text: computational chemistry

text: calculations. It has been developed by R. D. Amos with contributions from I. L. Alberts, J. S. Andrews, S. M. Colwell,

text: N. C. Handy

text: , D. Jayatilaka, P. J. Knowles, R. Kobayashi, K. E. Laidig, G. Laming, A. M. Lee, P. E. Maslen, C. W. Murray, J. E. Rice, E. D. Simandiras, A. J. Stone, M.-D. Su and D. J. Tozer. at

text: Cambridge University

text: since 1981. It is capable of molecular

text: Hartree–Fock

text: calculations,

text: Møller–Plesset

text: calculations, various other

text: correlated

text: calculations and

text: density functional theory

text: calculations.

text: The concentrations of dissolved gases like oxygen and nitrogen are not usually included in descriptions of salinity. However, carbon dioxide gas, which when dissolved is partially converted into carbonates and bicarbonates, is often included. Silicon in the form of silicic acid, which usually appears as a neutral molecule in the pH range of most natural waters, may also be included for some purposes (e.g., when salinity/density relationships are being investigated).

text: The concentrations of dissolved gases like

text: oxygen

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: are not usually included in descriptions of salinity. However,

text: carbon dioxide

text: gas, which when dissolved is partially converted into

text: carbonates

text: and

text: bicarbonates

text: , is often included.

text: Silicon

text: in the form of

text: silicic acid

text: , which usually appears as a neutral molecule in the

text: pH

text: range of most natural waters, may also be included for some purposes (e.g., when salinity/density relationships are being investigated).

text: These snails normally live in saline water with salinity 30-50 ‰. Bathynerita naticoidea is a euryhaline species. They were also found near a brine pool seep in the Gulf of Mexico and they can survive salinity as high as 85 ‰, but they actively avoid brine with salinity over 60 ‰ and they usually move upward in natural conditions, where the concentration of salt is lower. Bathynerita naticoidea has no osmoregulatory ability when the salinity is too high, but it can survive high salinities, because it closes its operculum.

text: These snails normally live in

text: saline water

text: with

text: salinity

text: 30-50 ‰. Bathynerita naticoidea is a

text: euryhaline

text: species. They were also found near a

text: brine pool

text: seep in the Gulf of Mexico and they can survive salinity as high as 85 ‰, but they actively avoid

text: brine

text: with salinity over 60 ‰ and they usually move upward in natural conditions, where the concentration of salt is lower. Bathynerita naticoidea has no

text: osmoregulatory

text: ability when the salinity is too high, but it can survive high salinities, because it closes its

text: operculum

text: A density of more than 5 g/cm is sometimes mentioned as a common heavy metal defining factor and, in the absence of a unanimous definition, is used to populate this list and (unless otherwise stated) guide the remainder of the article. Metalloids meeting the applicable criteria–arsenic and antimony for example—are sometimes counted as heavy metals,  particularly in environmental chemistry, as is the case here. Selenium (density 4.8 g/cm) is also included in the list. It falls marginally short of the density criterion and is less commonly recognised as a metalloid but has a waterborne chemistry similar in some respects to that of arsenic and antimony. Other metals sometimes classified or treated as "heavy" metals, such as beryllium (density 1.8 gm/cm), aluminium (2.7 gm/cm), calcium (1.55 gm/cm), and barium (3.6 gm/cm) are here treated as light metals and, in general, are not further considered.

text: A density of more than 5 g/cm is sometimes mentioned as a common heavy metal defining factor and, in the absence of a unanimous definition, is used to populate this list and (unless otherwise stated) guide the remainder of the article. Metalloids meeting the applicable criteria–arsenic and antimony for example—are sometimes counted as heavy metals,  particularly in

text: environmental chemistry

text: , as is the case here.

text: Selenium

text: (density 4.8 g/cm) is also included in the list. It falls marginally short of the density criterion and is less commonly recognised as a metalloid but has a waterborne chemistry similar in some respects to that of arsenic and antimony. Other metals sometimes classified or treated as "heavy" metals, such as

text: beryllium

text: (density 1.8 gm/cm), aluminium (2.7 gm/cm), calcium (1.55 gm/cm), and barium (3.6 gm/cm) are here treated as

text: light metal

text: s and, in general, are not further considered.

text: Seawater Desalination Plant, Magtaa, Algeria

text: Salinity in soil is caused by irrigating with salty water. Water then evaporates from the soil leaving the salt behind. Salt breaks down the soil structure, causing infertility and reduced growth.

text: Salinity

text: in soil is caused by irrigating with salty water. Water then evaporates from the soil leaving the salt behind. Salt breaks down the soil structure, causing infertility and reduced growth.

text: The designation ocean water refers only to the evaporation of ocean waters in the hydrologic cycle as the original source of fresh surface and ground waters and precipitation, but VSMOW is not a standard for seawater. Fresh distilled VSMOW water is also used for making high accuracy measurement of water's physical properties and for defining laboratory standards since it is considered to be representative of average ocean water, in effect representing all water on Earth.

text: The designation ocean water refers only to the evaporation of ocean waters in the

text: hydrologic cycle

text: as the original source of fresh surface and ground waters and precipitation, but VSMOW is not a standard for

text: seawater

text: . Fresh distilled VSMOW water is also used for making high accuracy measurement of water's physical properties and for defining laboratory standards since it is considered to be representative of average ocean water, in effect representing all water on Earth.

text: The stretch of I-135 in Saline County from the Saline-McPherson county line to the highway's terminus at Interstate 70, is designated as the Ben E. Vidricksen Highway.

text: The stretch of I-135 in

text: Saline County

text: from the Saline-McPherson county line to the highway's terminus at

text: Interstate 70

text: , is designated as the Ben E. Vidricksen Highway.

text: The pool is  long, covering , containing some  of seawater, with a maximum depth of . The water is pumped from the Pacific Ocean, filtered, and treated.

text: The pool is  long, covering , containing some  of seawater, with a maximum depth of . The water is pumped from the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , filtered, and treated.

text: From the operational point of view, a density is a collection of functions on coordinate charts which become multiplied by the absolute value of the Jacobian determinant in the change of coordinates. Densities can be generalized into s-densities, whose coordinate representations become multiplied by the s-th power of the absolute value of the jacobian determinant. On an oriented manifold 1-densities can be canonically identified with the n-forms on M. On non-orientable manifolds this identification cannot be made, since the density bundle is the tensor product of the orientation bundle of M and the n-th exterior product bundle of T*M (see pseudotensor.)

text: From the operational point of view, a density is a collection of functions on

text: coordinate chart

text: s which become multiplied by the absolute value of the

text: Jacobian determinant

text: in the change of coordinates. Densities can be generalized into s-densities, whose coordinate representations become multiplied by the s-th power of the absolute value of the jacobian determinant. On an

text: oriented manifold

text: 1-densities can be canonically identified with the

text: n-forms

text: on M. On non-orientable manifolds this identification cannot be made, since the density bundle is the tensor product of the orientation bundle of M and the n-th exterior product bundle of T*M (see

text: pseudotensor

text: This metric requires further definition of a benign substance.  Hudlicky defines it as “those by-products, reagents or solvents that have no environmental risk associated with them, for example, water, low-concentration saline, dilute ethanol, autoclaved cell mass, etc.”.  This definition leaves the metric open to criticism, as nothing is non-benign (which is a subjective term) and the substances listed in the definition have some environmental impact associated with them.  The formula also fails to address the level of toxicity associated with a process.  Until all toxicology data is available for all chemicals and a term dealing with these levels of “non-benign” reagents is written into the formula the effective mass yield is not the best metric for chemistry.

text: A geostrophic current is an oceanic flow in which the pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis effect. The direction of geostrophic flow is parallel to the isobars, with the high pressure to the right of the flow in the Northern Hemisphere, and the high pressure to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This concept is familiar from weather maps, whose isobars show the direction of geostrophic flow in the atmosphere. Geostrophic flow may be either barotropic or baroclinic. A geostrophic current may also be thought of as a rotating shallow water wave with a frequency of zero. The principle of geostrophy is useful to oceanographers because it allows them to infer ocean currents from measurements of the sea surface height (by combined satellite altimetry and gravimetry) or from vertical profiles of seawater density taken by ships or autonomous buoys. The major currents of the world's oceans, such as the Gulf Stream, the Kuroshio Current, the Agulhas Current, and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, are all approximately in geostrophic balance and are examples of geostrophic currents.

text: A geostrophic current is an oceanic flow in which the

text: pressure gradient

text: force is balanced by the

text: Coriolis effect

text: . The direction of geostrophic flow is parallel to the

text: isobars

text: , with the high pressure to the right of the flow in the

text: Northern Hemisphere

text: , and the high pressure to the left in the

text: Southern Hemisphere

text: . This concept is familiar from weather maps, whose isobars show the direction of geostrophic flow in the atmosphere. Geostrophic flow may be either

text: barotropic

text: or

text: baroclinic

text: . A geostrophic current may also be thought of as a rotating shallow water wave with a frequency of zero. The principle of geostrophy is useful to oceanographers because it allows them to infer

text: ocean current

text: s from measurements of the

text: sea surface height

text: (by combined

text: satellite altimetry

text: and

text: gravimetry

text: ) or from vertical profiles of seawater density taken by ships or autonomous buoys. The major currents of the world's

text: ocean

text: s, such as the

text: Gulf Stream

text: , the

text: Kuroshio Current

text: , the

text: Agulhas Current

text: , and the

text: Antarctic Circumpolar Current

text: , are all approximately in geostrophic balance and are examples of geostrophic currents.

text: The Cameroon clawless otter (Aonyx capensis congicus) is a subspecies of the African clawless otter in the family Mustelidae. It is found in Cameroon, Republic of the Congo,  Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and possibly Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria, Rwanda, or Uganda. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical mangrove forests, subtropical or tropical swamps, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, subtropical or tropical moist shrubland, subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, rivers, intermittent rivers, shrub-dominated wetlands, swamps, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, freshwater spring, inland deltas, saline lakes, intermittent saline lakes, saline marshes, intermittent saline marshes, shallow seas, subtidal aquatic beds, rocky shores, sandy shores, estuarine waters, intertidal flats, intertidal marshes, coastal saline lagoons, coastal freshwater lagoons, water storage areas, ponds, aquaculture ponds, seasonally flooded agricultural land, and canals and ditches. It is threatened by habitat loss.

text: The Cameroon clawless otter (Aonyx capensis congicus) is a subspecies of the

text: African clawless otter

text: in the family

text: Mustelidae

text: . It is found in

text: Cameroon

text: Republic of the Congo

text: Democratic Republic of the Congo

text: Gabon

text: , and possibly

text: Angola

text: Burundi

text: Central African Republic

text: Equatorial Guinea

text: Nigeria

text: Rwanda

text: , or

text: Uganda

text: . Its natural

text: habitat

text: s are subtropical or tropical moist lowland

text: forest

text: s, subtropical or tropical mangrove forests, subtropical or tropical

text: swamp

text: s, subtropical or tropical moist

text: montane forest

text: s, subtropical or tropical moist

text: shrubland

text: , subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flooded lowland

text: grassland

text: river

text: s, intermittent rivers, shrub-dominated

text: wetland

text: s, swamps, freshwater

text: lake

text: s, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater

text: marsh

text: es, intermittent freshwater marshes, freshwater

text: spring

text: , inland deltas, saline lakes, intermittent saline lakes, saline marshes, intermittent saline marshes, shallow

text: sea

text: s, subtidal aquatic beds, rocky shores, sandy shores,

text: estuarine

text: waters, intertidal flats, intertidal marshes, coastal saline

text: lagoon

text: s, coastal freshwater

text: lagoon

text: s, water storage areas,

text: pond

text: s, aquaculture ponds, seasonally flooded agricultural land, and

text: canal

text: s and ditches. It is threatened by

text: habitat loss

text: Worldwide, the major factor in the development of saline soils is a lack of precipitation.  Most naturally saline soils are found in (semi)arid regions and climates of the earth.

text: Worldwide, the major factor in the development of saline soils is a lack of precipitation.  Most naturally saline soils are found in

text: (semi)arid regions

text: and

text: climates

text: of the earth.

text: The thermal conductivity of seawater (3.5% dissolved salt by weight) is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C. The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature; these graphs and online calculations plot thermal conductivity for varying salinity and temperature:

text: The thermal conductivity of

text: seawater

text: (3.5% dissolved salt by weight) is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C. The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature; these graphs and online calculations plot thermal conductivity for varying salinity and temperature:

text: The mangrove biome, or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (3 to 4%), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9%).

text: The mangrove biome, or mangal, is a distinct saline

text: woodland

text: or

text: shrubland

text: habitat characterized by

text: depositional

text: brackish water

text: , through pure

text: seawater

text: (3 to 4%), to water concentrated by

text: evaporation

text: to over twice the

text: salinity

text: of ocean seawater (up to 9%).

text: Ocean salinity has been constant at about 3.5% for a very long time. Salinity stability in oceanic environments is important as most cells require a rather constant salinity and do not generally tolerate values above 5%. The constant ocean salinity was a long-standing mystery, because no process counterbalancing the salt influx from rivers was known. Recently it was suggested that salinity may also be strongly influenced by seawater circulation through hot basaltic rocks, and emerging as hot water vents on mid-ocean ridges. However, the composition of seawater is far from equilibrium, and it is difficult to explain this fact without the influence of organic processes. One suggested explanation lies in the formation of salt plains throughout Earth's history. It is hypothesized that these are created by bacterial colonies that fix ions and heavy metals during their life processes.

text: Ocean

text: salinity

text: has been constant at about 3.5% for a very long time. Salinity stability in oceanic environments is important as most cells require a rather constant salinity and do not generally tolerate values above 5%. The constant ocean salinity was a long-standing mystery, because no process counterbalancing the salt influx from rivers was known. Recently it was suggested that salinity may also be strongly influenced by

text: seawater

text: circulation through hot

text: basalt

text: ic rocks, and emerging as hot water vents on

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: s. However, the composition of seawater is far from equilibrium, and it is difficult to explain this fact without the influence of organic processes. One suggested explanation lies in the formation of salt plains throughout Earth's history. It is hypothesized that these are created by bacterial colonies that fix ions and heavy metals during their life processes.

text: Since deep water (that is, seawater in the ocean's interior) is formed under the same surface conditions that promote carbon dioxide solubility, it contains a higher concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon than might be expected from average surface concentrations.  Consequently, these two processes act together to pump carbon from the atmosphere into the ocean's interior.

text: The total inventory of sulfur compounds on the surface of the Earth (nearly  S) represents the total outgassing of sulfur through geologic time. Rocks analyzed for sulfur content are generally organic-rich shales meaning they are likely controlled by biogenic sulfur reduction.  Average seawater curves are generated from evaporites deposited throughout geologic time because again, since they do not discriminate between the heavy and light sulfur isotopes, they should mimic the ocean composition at the time of deposition.  	4.6 billion years ago (Ga) the Earth formed and had a theoretical δS value of 0. Since there was no biologic activity on early Earth there would be no isotopic fractionation.  All sulfur in the atmosphere would be released during volcanic eruptions. When the oceans condensed on Earth, the atmosphere was essentially swept clean of sulfur gases, owing to their high solubility in water. Throughout the majority of the Archean (4.6–2.5 Ga) most systems appeared to be sulfate-limited. Some small Archean evaporite deposits require that at least locally elevated concentrations (possibly due to local volcanic activity) of sulfate existed in order for them to be supersaturated and precipitate out of solution.	3.8–3.6 Ga marks the beginning of the exposed geologic record because this is the age of the oldest rocks on Earth. Metasedimentary rocks from this time still have an isotopic value of 0 because the biosphere was not developed enough (possibly at all) to fractionate sulfur.	3.5 Ga anoxyogenic photosynthesis is established and provides a weak source of sulfate to the global ocean with sulfate concentrations incredibly low the δS is still basically 0. Shortly after, at 3.4 Ga the first evidence for minimal fractionation in evaporitic sulfate in association with magmatically derived sulfides can be seen in the rock record. This fractionation shows possible evidence for anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria.	2.8 Ga marks the first evidence for oxygen production through photosynthesis. This is important because there cannot be sulfur oxidation without oxygen in the atmosphere. This exemplifies the coevolution of the oxygen and sulfur cycles as well as the biosphere.	2.7–2.5 Ga is the age of the oldest sedimentary rocks to have a depleted δ S which provide the first compelling evidence for sulfate reduction. 	2.3 Ga sulfate increases to more than 1 mM; this increase in sulfate is coincident with the "Great Oxygenation Event", when redox conditions on Earth's surface are thought by most workers to have shifted fundamentally from reducing to oxidizing.  This shift would have led to an incredible increase in sulfate weathering which would have led to an increase in sulfate in the oceans. The large isotopic fractionations that would likely be associated with bacteria reduction are produced for the first time. Although there was a distinct rise in seawater sulfate at this time it was likely still only less than 5–15% of present-day levels. 	At 1.8 Ga, Banded iron formations (BIF) are common sedimentary rocks throughout the Archean and Paleoproterozoic; their disappearance marks a distinct shift in the chemistry of ocean water.  BIFs have alternating layers of iron oxides and chert. BIFs only form if the water is be allowed to supersaturate in dissolved iron (Fe) meaning there cannot be free oxygen or sulfur in the water column because it would form Fe (rust) or pyrite and precipitate out of solution. Following this supersaturation, the water must become oxygenated in order for the ferric rich bands to precipitate it must still be sulfur poor otherwise pyrite would form instead of Fe. It has been hypothesized that BIFs formed during to the initial evolution of photosynthetic organisms that had phases of population growth, causing over production of oxygen. Due to this over production they would poison themselves causing a mass die off, which would cut off the source of oxygen and produce a large amount of CO through the decomposition of their bodies, allowing for another bacterial bloom. After 1.8 Ga sulfate concentrations were sufficient to increase rates of sulfate reduction to greater than the delivery flux of iron to the oceans. 	Along with the disappearance of BIF, the end of the Paleoproterozoic also marks the first large scale sedimentary exhalative deposits showing a link between mineralization and a likely increase in the amount of sulfate in sea water.  In the Paleoproterozoic the sulfate in seawater had increased to an amount greater than in the Archean, but was still lower than present day values.  The sulfate levels in the Proterozoic also act as proxies for atmospheric oxygen because sulfate is produced mostly through weathering of the continents in the presence of oxygen.  The low levels in the Proterozoic simply imply that levels of atmospheric oxygen fell between the abundances of the Phanerozoic and the deficiencies of the Archean.	750 million years ago (Ma) there is a renewed deposition of BIF which marks a significant change in ocean chemistry.  This was likely due to snowball earth episodes where the entire globe including the oceans was covered in a layer of ice cutting off oxygenation.  In the late Neoproterozoic high carbon burial rates increased the atmospheric oxygen level to >10% of its present-day value.  In the Latest Neoproterozoic another major oxidizing event occurred on Earth's surface that resulted in an oxic deep ocean and possibly allowed for the appearance of multicellular life.	During the last 600 million years, seawater SO has varied between +10 and +30‰ in δS, with an average value close to that of today.  This coincides with atmospheric O levels reaching something close to modern values around the Precambrian–Cambrian boundary.

text: The total inventory of sulfur compounds on the surface of the Earth (nearly  S) represents the total outgassing of sulfur through geologic time. Rocks analyzed for sulfur content are generally organic-rich shales meaning they are likely controlled by biogenic sulfur reduction.  Average seawater curves are generated from evaporites deposited throughout geologic time because again, since they do not discriminate between the heavy and light sulfur isotopes, they should mimic the ocean composition at the time of deposition.  	4.6 billion years ago (Ga) the Earth formed and had a theoretical δS value of 0. Since there was no biologic activity on early Earth there would be no

text: isotopic fractionation

text: .  All sulfur in the atmosphere would be released during volcanic eruptions. When the oceans condensed on Earth, the atmosphere was essentially swept clean of sulfur gases, owing to their high solubility in water. Throughout the majority of the

text: Archean

text: (4.6–2.5 Ga) most systems appeared to be sulfate-limited. Some small Archean evaporite deposits require that at least locally elevated concentrations (possibly due to local volcanic activity) of sulfate existed in order for them to be supersaturated and precipitate out of solution.	3.8–3.6 Ga marks the beginning of the exposed geologic record because this is the age of the oldest rocks on Earth. Metasedimentary rocks from this time still have an isotopic value of 0 because the biosphere was not developed enough (possibly at all) to fractionate sulfur.	3.5 Ga anoxyogenic

text: photosynthesis

text: is established and provides a weak source of sulfate to the global ocean with sulfate concentrations incredibly low the δS is still basically 0. Shortly after, at 3.4 Ga the first evidence for minimal fractionation in evaporitic sulfate in association with

text: magma

text: tically derived sulfides can be seen in the rock record. This fractionation shows possible evidence for anoxygenic

text: phototroph

text: ic bacteria.	2.8 Ga marks the first evidence for oxygen production through photosynthesis. This is important because there cannot be sulfur oxidation without oxygen in the atmosphere. This exemplifies the coevolution of the oxygen and sulfur cycles as well as the biosphere.	2.7–2.5 Ga is the age of the oldest

text: sedimentary rock

text: s to have a depleted δ S which provide the first compelling evidence for sulfate reduction. 	2.3 Ga sulfate increases to more than 1 mM; this increase in sulfate is coincident with the "

text: Great Oxygenation Event

text: ", when redox conditions on Earth's surface are thought by most workers to have shifted fundamentally from reducing to oxidizing.  This shift would have led to an incredible increase in sulfate weathering which would have led to an increase in sulfate in the oceans. The large isotopic fractionations that would likely be associated with bacteria reduction are produced for the first time. Although there was a distinct rise in seawater sulfate at this time it was likely still only less than 5–15% of present-day levels. 	At 1.8 Ga,

text: Banded iron formations

text: (BIF) are common sedimentary rocks throughout the Archean and

text: Paleoproterozoic

text: ; their disappearance marks a distinct shift in the chemistry of ocean water.  BIFs have alternating layers of

text: iron oxide

text: s and

text: chert

text: Proterozoic

text: also act as proxies for atmospheric oxygen because sulfate is produced mostly through weathering of the continents in the presence of oxygen.  The low levels in the Proterozoic simply imply that levels of atmospheric oxygen fell between the abundances of the Phanerozoic and the deficiencies of the Archean.	750 million years ago (Ma) there is a renewed deposition of BIF which marks a significant change in ocean chemistry.  This was likely due to

text: snowball earth

text: episodes where the entire globe including the oceans was covered in a layer of ice cutting off oxygenation.  In the late

text: Neoproterozoic

text: high carbon burial rates increased the atmospheric oxygen level to >10% of its present-day value.  In the Latest Neoproterozoic another major oxidizing event occurred on Earth's surface that resulted in an oxic deep ocean and possibly allowed for the appearance of multicellular life.	During the last 600 million years, seawater SO has varied between +10 and +30‰ in δS, with an average value close to that of today.  This coincides with atmospheric O levels reaching something close to modern values around the

text: Precambrian

text: Cambrian

text: boundary.

text: Part of the young planet is theorized to have been disrupted by the impact which created the Moon, which should have caused melting of one or two large areas. Present composition does not match complete melting and it is hard to melt and mix huge rock masses completely. However, a fair fraction of material should have been vaporized by this impact, creating a rock-vapor atmosphere around the young planet. The rock-vapor would have condensed within two thousand years, leaving behind hot volatiles which probably resulted in a heavy carbon dioxide atmosphere with hydrogen and water vapor. Liquid water oceans existed despite the surface temperature of 230°C because of the atmospheric pressure of the heavy CO atmosphere. As cooling continued, subduction and dissolving in ocean water removed most CO from the atmosphere but levels oscillated wildly as new surface and mantle cycles appeared.

text: Part of the young planet is theorized to have been disrupted by the

text: impact which created the Moon

text: , which should have caused melting of one or two large areas. Present composition does not match complete melting and it is hard to melt and mix huge rock masses completely. However, a fair fraction of material should have been vaporized by this impact, creating a rock-vapor atmosphere around the young planet. The rock-vapor would have condensed within two thousand years, leaving behind hot volatiles which probably resulted in a heavy

text: carbon dioxide

text: atmosphere with hydrogen and

text: water vapor

text: . Liquid water oceans existed despite the surface temperature of 230°C because of the atmospheric pressure of the heavy CO atmosphere. As cooling continued,

text: subduction

text: and dissolving in ocean water removed most CO from the atmosphere but levels oscillated wildly as new surface and

text: mantle

text: cycles appeared.

text: The density of air is mainly determined by temperature and water vapor content, the density of sea water by temperature and salinity, and the density of lake water by temperature. Where stratification occurs, there may be thin layers in which temperature or some other property changes more rapidly with height or depth than the surrounding fluid. Depending on the main sources of buoyancy, this layer may be called a pycnocline (density), thermocline (temperature), halocline (salinity), or chemocline (chemistry, including oxygenation).

text: The density of air is mainly determined by temperature and

text: water vapor

text: content, the density of

text: sea water

text: by temperature and

text: salinity

text: , and the density of lake water by temperature. Where stratification occurs, there may be thin layers in which temperature or some other property changes more rapidly with height or depth than the surrounding fluid. Depending on the main sources of buoyancy, this layer may be called a

text: pycnocline

text: (density),

text: thermocline

text: (temperature),

text: halocline

text: (salinity), or

text: chemocline

text: (chemistry, including oxygenation).

text: High salinity represents an extreme environment to which relatively few organisms have been able to adapt and occupy. Most halophilic and all halotolerant organisms expend energy to exclude salt from their cytoplasm to avoid protein aggregation ('salting out'). To survive the high salinities, halophiles employ two differing strategies to prevent desiccation through osmotic movement of water out of their cytoplasm. Both strategies work by increasing the internal osmolarity of the cell. In the first (which is employed by the majority of halophilic bacteria, some archaea, yeasts, algae and fungi), organic compounds are accumulated in the cytoplasm — osmoprotectants which are known as compatible solutes. These can be either synthesised or accumulated from the environment. The most common compatible solutes are neutral or zwitterionic, and include amino acids, sugars, polyols, betaines, and ectoines, as well as derivatives of some of these compounds.

text: High salinity represents an extreme environment to which relatively few organisms have been able to adapt and occupy. Most halophilic and all

text: halotolerant

text: organisms expend energy to exclude salt from their

text: cytoplasm

text: to avoid protein aggregation ('

text: salting out

text: '). To survive the high salinities, halophiles employ two differing strategies to prevent

text: desiccation

text: through

text: osmotic

text: movement of water out of their cytoplasm. Both strategies work by increasing the internal

text: osmolarity

text: of the cell. In the first (which is employed by the majority of halophilic bacteria, some

text: archaea

text: yeast

text: s,

text: algae

text: and

text: fungi

text: organic compounds

text: are accumulated in the cytoplasm —

text: osmoprotectant

text: s which are known as compatible solutes. These can be either synthesised or accumulated from the environment. The most common compatible solutes are

text: neutral

text: or

text: zwitterionic

text: , and include

text: amino acid

text: s,

text: sugar

text: s,

text: polyol

text: s,

text: betaine

text: s, and

text: ectoine

text: s, as well as derivatives of some of these compounds.

text: The Earth has a limited though renewable supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Oceans are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from desalination. However, modern technologies, such as the Seawater Greenhouse, use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.

text: The

text: Earth

text: has a limited though renewable

text: supply of fresh water

text: , stored in

text: aquifer

text: s,

text: surface water

text: s and the

text: atmosphere

text: Ocean

text: s are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert

text: saline water

text: to

text: potable water

text: is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from

text: desalination

text: . However, modern technologies, such as the

text: Seawater Greenhouse

text: , use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.

text: Other fields include agrochemistry, astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemical biology, chemo-informatics, electrochemistry, environmental chemistry, femtochemistry, flavor chemistry, flow chemistry, geochemistry, green chemistry, histochemistry, history of chemistry, hydrogenation chemistry, immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials science, mathematical chemistry, mechanochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, molecular mechanics, nanotechnology, natural product chemistry, oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, pharmacology, photochemistry, physical organic chemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry, radiochemistry, solid-state chemistry, sonochemistry, supramolecular chemistry, surface chemistry, synthetic chemistry, thermochemistry, and many others.

text: Other fields include

text: agrochemistry

text: astrochemistry

text: (and

text: cosmochemistry

text: atmospheric chemistry

text: chemical engineering

text: chemical biology

text: chemo-informatics

text: electrochemistry

text: environmental chemistry

text: femtochemistry

text: flavor chemistry

text: flow chemistry

text: geochemistry

text: green chemistry

text: histochemistry

text: history of chemistry

text: hydrogenation chemistry

text: immunochemistry

text: marine chemistry

text: materials science

text: mathematical chemistry

text: mechanochemistry

text: medicinal chemistry

text: molecular biology

text: molecular mechanics

text: nanotechnology

text: natural product chemistry

text: oenology

text: organometallic chemistry

text: petrochemistry

text: pharmacology

text: photochemistry

text: physical organic chemistry

text: phytochemistry

text: polymer chemistry

text: radiochemistry

text: solid-state chemistry

text: sonochemistry

text: supramolecular chemistry

text: surface chemistry

text: synthetic chemistry

text: thermochemistry

text: , and many others.

text: In November 1999, the barrage was completed, with the sluice gates closed at high water, to retain the seawater from the Bristol Channel within the 500 ac bay.

text: A density meter, also known as a densometer, is a device that measures the density. Density is usually abbreviated as either

text: A density meter, also known as a densometer, is a device that measures the

text: density

text: . Density is usually abbreviated as either

text: World uranium resources are divided into two main categories by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, Nuclear Energy Agency and the International Atomic Energy Agency; reasonably assured resources and inferred resources. These categories are further split into categories by the cost of recovery and processing. Reasonably assured resources are those that occur in known mineral deposits that can be recovered with the current production cost associated with mining and production technology currently in use. Inferred resources refer to the uranium that is inferred to occur based on geological evidence. Of the reasonably assured resources in the world there is estimated to be 10,342,900 tons. Of the inferred resources that can be mined there is an estimated 5,840,300 ton bringing the total to 16,187,200 tons. In addition to these resources uranium can also be extracted from seawater. The concentration of uranium in seawater is about 3.2 parts per billion, adding up to about 4 billion tons of uranium. The energy content of seawater recovered uranium is very diluted. The cost of extracting uranium from seawater is considerably higher than that of land-based resources. Of all the world's identified uranium resources Australia tops all countries with 31% of the low cost uranium (<$130 per kg) and 25% of the high cost uranium (<$260 per kg). Kazakhstan comes in second with 12% in both categories and all other countries fall far behind.

text: World uranium resources are divided into two main categories by the

entity_name: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

text: Nuclear Energy Agency

text: and the

text: International Atomic Energy Agency

text: Saline Township most likely takes its name from Petite Saline Creek.

text: Saline Township most likely takes its name from

text: Petite Saline Creek

text: In 2012 research for the US Department of Energy, building on Japanese research from the 1990s, tested a method for extracting uranium from seawater, which, they concluded, could extract uranium at a cost of US$660/kg. While this was still five times the cost of uranium from ore, the amount of uranium dissolved in seawater would be enough to provide nuclear fuel for thousands of years at current rates of consumption.

text: In 2012 research for the US Department of Energy, building on Japanese research from the 1990s, tested a method for extracting

text: uranium

text: from seawater, which, they concluded, could extract uranium at a cost of US$660/kg. While this was still five times the cost of uranium from ore, the amount of uranium dissolved in seawater would be enough to provide nuclear fuel for thousands of years at current rates of consumption.

text: This rush is a perennial plant forming tufts of rough, rigid stems and leaves. It is gray-green in color. The plant may appear to be leafless at first glance, but what look like sharp-pointed stems are actually stiff leaves rolled tightly to form pointed cylinders. The true stems are tipped with inflorescences. It grows from a rhizome. This plant is variable in appearance. Its size and shape depend on environmental conditions in its salt marsh habitat. In areas with low soil salinity the plant can exceed two meters in height, whereas in high-salinity areas the rush is dwarfed, sometimes measuring under 30 centimeters (12 in.) tall. Both large and small plants generally occur in one marsh, with the large plants nearest the open water and the small plants occurring on higher ground in the salt flats and other areas of higher salinity. Plants of different sizes differ genetically, as well, with soil salinity being the selective force leading to the genetic variation. The dwarf plants have an adaptation to high soil salinity. Larger plants lack this adaptation, and do not survive when experimentally transplanted to high-salinity environments.

text: This rush is a perennial plant forming tufts of rough, rigid stems and leaves. It is gray-green in color. The plant may appear to be leafless at first glance, but what look like sharp-pointed stems are actually stiff leaves rolled tightly to form pointed cylinders. The true stems are tipped with

text: inflorescence

text: s. It grows from a

text: rhizome

text: . This plant is variable in appearance. Its size and shape depend on environmental conditions in its

text: salt marsh

text: habitat. In areas with low

text: soil salinity

text: the plant can exceed two meters in height, whereas in high-salinity areas the rush is dwarfed, sometimes measuring under 30 centimeters (12 in.) tall. Both large and small plants generally occur in one marsh, with the large plants nearest the open water and the small plants occurring on higher ground in the

text: salt flat

text: s and other areas of higher salinity. Plants of different sizes differ

text: genetically

text: , as well, with soil salinity being the

text: selective force

text: leading to the genetic variation. The dwarf plants have an

text: adaptation

text: to high soil salinity. Larger plants lack this adaptation, and do not survive when experimentally transplanted to high-salinity environments.

text: An example where a pressure exchange engine finds application is in the production of potable water using the reverse osmosis membrane process. In this process, a feed saline solution is pumped into a membrane array at high pressure. The input saline solution is then divided by the membrane array into super saline solution (brine) at high pressure and potable water at low pressure. While the high pressure brine is no longer useful in this process as a fluid, the pressure energy that it contains has high value. A pressure exchange engine is employed to recover the pressure energy in the brine and transfer it to feed saline solution. After transfer of the pressure energy in the brine flow, the brine is expelled at low pressure to drain.

text: The oceanic crust contains the largest aquifer on Earth. Thermal circulation and reactivity of seawater-derived fluids can modify the composition of oceanic plates, lead to the formation of hydrothermal vents that support unique micro- and macro-biological communities and concentrate methane to form massive methane gas and methane hydrate reservoirs.

text: The

text: oceanic crust

text: contains the largest

text: aquifer

text: on Earth. Thermal circulation and reactivity of seawater-derived fluids can modify the composition of oceanic plates, lead to the formation of

text: hydrothermal vents

text: that support unique micro- and macro-biological communities and concentrate

text: methane

text: to form massive methane gas and

text: methane hydrate

text: reservoirs.

text: Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 3.1% and 3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths or near melting glaciers, seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and river inflow, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water (for example, the Dead Sea) can be considerably greater still.

text: Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 3.1% and 3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths or near melting glaciers, seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the

text: Red Sea

text: , where high rates of

text: evaporation

text: , low

text: precipitation

text: and river inflow, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water (for example, the

text: Dead Sea

text: ) can be considerably greater still.

text: The density of ocean water is not globally homogeneous, but varies significantly and discretely. Sharply defined boundaries exist between water masses which form at the surface, and subsequently maintain their own identity within the ocean. They position themselves one above or below each other according to their density, which depends on both temperature and salinity.

text: The density of ocean water is not globally homogeneous, but varies significantly and discretely. Sharply defined boundaries exist between

text: water mass

text: es which form at the surface, and subsequently maintain their own identity within the ocean. They position themselves one above or below each other according to their

text: density

text: , which depends on both temperature and salinity.

text: Every second, approximately  of water flows into the bay. The exchange with the Gulf of Mexico occurs at Pass Cavallo, Matagorda Ship Channel, Greens Bayou, the Colorado River Delta Complex and Brown Cedar Cut. As a result of the seawater exchange, the bay's salinity is 19 parts per thousand (ppt), which is lower than the seawater average of 35 ppt. This difference is caused by the large number of creeks and rivers that flow into the system, largely from the drainage basins of the Colorado and Lavaca Rivers.

text: Every second, approximately  of water flows into the bay. The exchange with the Gulf of Mexico occurs at

text: Pass Cavallo

text: , Matagorda Ship Channel, Greens Bayou, the Colorado River Delta Complex and Brown Cedar Cut. As a result of the seawater exchange, the bay's salinity is 19 parts per thousand (ppt), which is lower than the seawater average of 35 ppt. This difference is caused by the large number of creeks and rivers that flow into the system, largely from the drainage basins of the Colorado and Lavaca Rivers.

text: The Solarlite 4600 parabolic trough is a newly developed highly efficient product that can generate temperatures of up to 400 °C. Each panel has an aperture width of 4.6 m and is made of composite materials combined with an efficient thinglass mirror. This mirror reflects up to 95% of the sun’s radiation onto the receiver pipe positioned at the ideal focus of the parabolic mirror. Water passing through the receiver pipe is heated up by the concentrated reflected sun radiation and is converted into steam within a controlled process. A turbine generator produces electricity. Residual heat can be used for other applications such as seawater desalination or absorption cooling.The basic element of the Solarlite 4600 collector is the Solarlite composite panel which has a dimension of 2.3 m width and 1 m length. These panels are combined together to form 1 segment with a dimension 4.6 m aperture width and 12 m length. It is possible to connect 10 of these segments to form one collector thus reaching up to 120 m. These collectors are combined together to form rows (collectors aligned in 1 axis in the North-South direction) and loops (collectors connected in series where the cold fluid enters in one end and the hot fluids leaves in the other end). The collector is moved from east to west to track the sun by means of a hydraulic drive system. The modular concept of Solarlite allows choosing the optimal length of the collector based on the specific locations’ wind data. The combination of the light weight composite and slender steel structure allows having a reduced specific weight compared to the competitors.

text: The Solarlite 4600 parabolic trough is a newly developed highly efficient product that can generate temperatures of up to 400 °C. Each panel has an aperture width of 4.6 m and is made of composite materials combined with an efficient thinglass mirror. This mirror reflects up to 95% of the sun’s radiation onto the receiver pipe positioned at the ideal focus of the parabolic mirror. Water passing through the receiver pipe is heated up by the concentrated reflected sun radiation and is converted into steam within a controlled process. A turbine

text: generator

text: produces electricity. Residual heat can be used for other applications such as seawater

text: desalination

text: or

text: absorption cooling

text: .The basic element of the Solarlite 4600 collector is the Solarlite composite panel which has a dimension of 2.3 m width and 1 m length. These panels are combined together to form 1 segment with a dimension 4.6 m aperture width and 12 m length. It is possible to connect 10 of these segments to form one collector thus reaching up to 120 m. These collectors are combined together to form rows (collectors aligned in 1 axis in the North-South direction) and loops (collectors connected in series where the cold fluid enters in one end and the hot fluids leaves in the other end). The collector is moved from east to west to track the sun by means of a

text: hydraulic drive

text: system. The modular concept of Solarlite allows choosing the optimal length of the collector based on the specific locations’ wind data. The combination of the light weight composite and slender steel structure allows having a reduced specific weight compared to the competitors.

text: At 25 °C K is equal to . Note that as with all equilibrium constants, the result is dimensionless because the concentration is in fact a concentration relative to the standard state, which for H and OH are both defined to be 1 molal (or molar). For most practical purposes, the molal and molar concentrations are equal near the ambient temperature and pressure. The molal concentration scale results in concentration values which account for density changes with temperature or pressure changes; therefore, it is the scale used in precise or nonambient applications, e.g., for seawater, or at elevated temperatures, like those in thermal power plants.

text: At 25 °C K is equal to . Note that as with all equilibrium constants, the result is dimensionless because the concentration is in fact a concentration relative to the

text: standard state

text: , which for H and OH are both defined to be 1 molal (or molar). For most practical purposes, the molal and molar concentrations are equal near the ambient temperature and pressure. The molal concentration scale results in concentration values which account for density changes with temperature or pressure changes; therefore, it is the scale used in precise or nonambient applications, e.g., for

text: seawater

text: , or at elevated temperatures, like those in thermal power plants.

text: The cartilaginous fish (e.g. sharks and rays) do not have swim bladders. Some of them can control their depth only by swimming (using dynamic lift); others store fats or oils with density less than that of seawater to produce a neutral or near neutral buoyancy, which does not change with depth.

text: The

text: cartilaginous fish

text: (e.g. sharks and rays) do not have swim bladders. Some of them can control their depth only by swimming (using

text: dynamic lift

text: ); others store fats or oils with density less than that of seawater to produce a neutral or near neutral buoyancy, which does not change with depth.

text: Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and contain approximately 97% of the planet's water. They generate 32% of the world's net primary production. They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially salts, in the water. Approximately 85% of the dissolved materials in seawater are sodium and chlorine. Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand (ppt) of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems.

text: Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71% of the

text: Earth's surface

text: and contain approximately 97% of the planet's water. They generate 32% of the world's net

text: primary production

text: . They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of dissolved

text: compounds

text: , especially

text: salt

text: s, in the water. Approximately 85% of the dissolved materials in

text: seawater

text: are

text: sodium

text: and

text: chlorine

text: . Seawater has an average salinity of 35

text: parts per thousand

text: (ppt) of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems.

text: The Botany department was started in 1993 by K. Vijayalakshmi Rao, with the introduction of the course Microbiology-Botany-Chemistry, followed by the Department of Genetics, with the introduction of the course Botany-Genetics-Chemistry. Further, growth to the department came in 1995, with the introduction of the course Microbiology-Genetics-Chemistry. In 1998, the Botany-Genetics-Chemistry course was discontinued.

text: The reduction product of superoxide is hydrogen peroxide, one of the most studied reactive oxygen species because it occurs in relatively high concentrations, is relatively stable, and is fairly easy to measure.  It is thought that algal photosynthesis is one of the major modes of hydrogen peroxide production, while the production of HO by stressed organisms is a secondary source. In marine systems, hydrogen peroxide (HO) exists at concentrations of 10-10 M in the photic zone, but has been found in double those concentrations in parts of the Atlantic Ocean. Its lifetime, ranging from hours to days in coastal waters, can be as long as 15 days in Antarctic seawater.  HO is important in aquatic environments because it can oxidize dissolved organic matter and affect the redox chemistry of iron, copper, and manganese.  Since hydrogen peroxide, as an uncharged molecule, diffuses easily across biological membranes it can directly damage cellular constituents (DNA and enzymes) by reacting with them and deactivating their functions.  In addition, hydrogen peroxide reduces to the hydroxyl radical, the most reactive radical and the one with the greatest possibility for damage.

text: The reduction product of superoxide is hydrogen peroxide, one of the most studied reactive oxygen species because it occurs in relatively high concentrations, is relatively stable, and is fairly easy to measure.  It is thought that algal

text: photosynthesis

text: is one of the major modes of hydrogen peroxide production, while the production of HO by stressed organisms is a secondary source. In marine systems, hydrogen peroxide (HO) exists at concentrations of 10-10 M in the photic zone, but has been found in double those concentrations in parts of the Atlantic Ocean. Its lifetime, ranging from hours to days in coastal waters, can be as long as 15 days in Antarctic seawater.  HO is important in aquatic environments because it can oxidize dissolved organic matter and affect the redox chemistry of iron, copper, and manganese.  Since hydrogen peroxide, as an uncharged molecule, diffuses easily across biological membranes it can directly damage cellular constituents (DNA and enzymes) by reacting with them and deactivating their functions.  In addition, hydrogen peroxide reduces to the hydroxyl radical, the most reactive radical and the one with the greatest possibility for damage.

text: There are two types of salinity. Primary salinity (natural salinity) and Secondary salinity (induced salinity). (Nrm.qld.gov.au, 2013) Primary salinity naturally occurs in arid and saline environments such as salt lakes, marshes, pans and salt flats. Natural accumulation of salt in soils is an outcome from previous cycles of drainage, desiccation and sea winds. High levels of salt are often found in dry soils, more so than wet soils as it is diluted and washed through the soil profile. (Barry and Holwell et al., 2012).

text: The density of an object is defined as the ratio of the mass to the volume. The inverse of density is specific volume which is defined as volume divided by mass. Specific volume is a concept important in thermodynamics where the volume of a working fluid is often an important parameter of a system being studied.

text: The

text: density

text: of an object is defined as the ratio of the mass to the volume. The inverse of density is

text: specific volume

text: which is defined as volume divided by mass. Specific volume is a concept important in

text: thermodynamics

text: where the

text: volume of a working fluid

text: is often an important parameter of a system being studied.

text: After his death, Paulze became bitter about what had happened to her husband.  She was thrown into bankruptcy following the new government's confiscation of her money and property (which were eventually returned).  In addition, the new government seized all of Lavoisier’s notebooks and laboratory equipment.  Despite these obstacles, Marie-Anne organized the publication of Lavoisier’s final memoirs, Mémoires de Chimie, a compilation of his papers and those of his colleagues demonstrating the principles of the new chemistry.  The first volume contained work on heat and the formation of liquids, while the second dealt with the ideas of combustion, air, calcination of metals, action of acids, and the composition of water.  In the original copy Paulze wrote the preface and attacked revolutionaries and Lavoisier’s contemporaries, whom she believed to be responsible for his death.  This preface, however, was not included in the final publication.  Nevertheless, her efforts secured her husband's legacy in the field of chemistry.

text: After his death, Paulze became bitter about what had happened to her husband.  She was thrown into bankruptcy following the new government's confiscation of her money and property (which were eventually returned).  In addition, the new government seized all of Lavoisier’s notebooks and laboratory equipment.  Despite these obstacles, Marie-Anne organized the publication of Lavoisier’s final memoirs, Mémoires de Chimie, a compilation of his papers and those of his colleagues demonstrating the principles of the new chemistry.  The first volume contained work on heat and the formation of liquids, while the second dealt with the ideas of combustion, air,

text: calcination

text: of metals, action of acids, and the composition of water.  In the original copy Paulze wrote the preface and attacked revolutionaries and Lavoisier’s contemporaries, whom she believed to be responsible for his death.  This preface, however, was not included in the final publication.  Nevertheless, her efforts secured her husband's legacy in the field of chemistry.

text: Textularia is a genus of textulariid foraminifera. It includes many vagile inbenthic species of normal salinity seawater.

text: Textularia is a genus of textulariid

text: foraminifera

text: . It includes many vagile

text: inbenthic

text: species of normal salinity seawater.

text: Because the density of pure ice is about 920 kg/m³, and that of seawater about 1025 kg/m³, typically only one-tenth of the volume of an iceberg is above water (due to Archimedes's Principle). The shape of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface. This has led to the expression "tip of the iceberg", for a problem or difficulty that is only a small manifestation of a larger problem.

text: Because the

text: density

text: of pure ice is about 920

text: , and that of

text: seawater

text: about 1025 kg/m³, typically only one-tenth of the volume of an iceberg is above water (due to

text: Archimedes's Principle

text: ). The shape of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface. This has led to the expression "

text: tip of the iceberg

text: ", for a problem or difficulty that is only a small manifestation of a larger problem.

text: After use, the steam was condensed back into water, by passing it through the condenser. Seawater from the Firth of Forth was used as a cooling medium. Over 500,000 litres per minute of water were used for cooling. The seawater was then discharged back into the Firth of Forth. Controls ensured the discharged seawater was kept close to the temperature of the sea, to avoid creating a 'tropical' environment and upsetting the local ecosystem.

text: After use, the steam was condensed back into water, by passing it through the

text: condenser

text: Seawater

text: from the Firth of Forth was used as a cooling medium. Over 500,000 litres per minute of water were used for cooling. The seawater was then discharged back into the Firth of Forth. Controls ensured the discharged seawater was kept close to the temperature of the sea, to avoid creating a 'tropical' environment and upsetting the local ecosystem.

text: is seawater density,

text: is

text: seawater

text: density,

text: Salinity displays a positive correlation with magnesium:calcium (Mg:Ca) ratios, though shows only about half as much influence as temperature. Salinity in some systems can account for about 25% of the variation in Mg:Ca ratios, with 32% explained by temperature, but these salinity induced changes in shell MgCO incorporation are not due to differences in available magnesium. Instead, in planktonic foraminiferans, changes in salinity could hinder the internal mechanisms of magnesium removal prior to calcification. Foraminiferans are thought to produce calcification vacuoles that transport pockets of seawater to the calcification site and alter the makeup of the seawater and remove magnesium, a process that may be interrupted by high levels of salinity. Salinity can also affect the solubility of CaCO, as shown by the following formulas relating temperature (T) and salinity (S) to K’, the apparent solubility product constant for CaCO.

text: Salinity displays a positive correlation with

text: magnesium

text: calcium

text: (Mg:Ca) ratios, though shows only about half as much influence as temperature. Salinity in some systems can account for about 25% of the variation in Mg:Ca ratios, with 32% explained by temperature, but these salinity induced changes in shell MgCO incorporation are not due to differences in available magnesium. Instead, in planktonic

text: foraminiferan

text: s, changes in salinity could hinder the internal mechanisms of magnesium removal prior to calcification. Foraminiferans are thought to produce calcification

text: vacuole

text: s that transport pockets of seawater to the calcification site and alter the makeup of the seawater and remove magnesium, a process that may be interrupted by high levels of salinity. Salinity can also affect the solubility of CaCO, as shown by the following formulas relating temperature (T) and salinity (S) to K’, the apparent solubility product constant for CaCO.

text: The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:

text: The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its

text: mass

text: per unit

text: volume

text: . The symbol most often used for density is ρ (the lower case Greek letter

text: rho

text: ), although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:

text: There are many saline lakes with salinity greater than seawater, making them attractive for mineral extraction. Examples are the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake. In addition, some saline lakes, such as Lake Natron in East Africa, have chemistry very different than seawater, making them potential sources of sodium carbonate.

text: There are many

text: saline lake

text: s with salinity greater than seawater, making them attractive for mineral extraction. Examples are the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake. In addition, some saline lakes, such as

text: Lake Natron

text: in East Africa, have chemistry very different than seawater, making them potential sources of sodium carbonate.

text: Salins is a commune in the Seine-et-Marne department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. The 18th-century French playwright Charles-Georges Fenouillot de Falbaire de Quingey (1727–1800) was born in Salins.

text: Salins is a

text: commune

text: in the

text: Seine-et-Marne

text: department

text: in the

text: Île-de-France

text: region

text: in north-central France. The 18th-century French playwright

entity_name: Charles-Georges Fenouillot de Falbaire de Quingey

text: Charles-Georges Fenouillot de Falbaire de Quingey

text: (1727–1800) was born in Salins.

text: Many arid and semi-arid areas actually do have sources of water, but the available water is usually brackish (0.5-5g/L salt) or saline (30-50g/L salt). The water may be present in underground aquifers or as seawater along coastal deserts. With traditional farming practices, saline water results in soil salinization, rendering it unfit for raising most crop plants. Indeed, many arid and semi-arid areas were simply considered unsuitable for agriculture, and agricultural development of these areas was not systematically attempted until the second half of the 20th century.

text: Many arid and semi-arid areas actually do have sources of water, but the available water is usually

text: brackish

text: (0.5-5g/L salt) or

text: saline

text: (30-50g/L salt). The water may be present in underground

text: aquifer

text: s or as

text: seawater

text: along coastal deserts. With traditional farming practices, saline water results in soil

text: salinization

text: , rendering it unfit for raising most crop plants. Indeed, many arid and semi-arid areas were simply considered unsuitable for agriculture, and

text: agricultural development

text: of these areas was not systematically attempted until the second half of the 20th century.

text: Density operators form a convex set.  The convex set of density operators has extreme points; these are the density operators given by a projection onto a one-dimensional space. To see that any extreme point is such a projection, note that by the spectral theorem S can be represented by a diagonal matrix; since S is non-negative all the entries are non-negative and since S has trace 1, the diagonal entries must add up to 1.  Now if it happens that the diagonal matrix has more than one non-zero entry it is clear that we can express it as a convex combination of other density operators.

text: Density operators form a convex set.  The convex set of density operators has

text: extreme point

text: s; these are the density operators given by a projection onto a one-dimensional space. To see that any extreme point is such a projection, note that by the spectral theorem S can be represented by a diagonal matrix; since S is non-negative all the entries are non-negative and since S has trace 1, the diagonal entries must add up to 1.  Now if it happens that the diagonal matrix has more than one non-zero entry it is clear that we can express it as a convex combination of other density operators.

text: Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for soil organisms, a recycling system for nutrients and organic wastes, a regulator of water quality, a modifier of atmospheric composition, and a medium for plant growth, in other terms one of the world's best providers of ecosystem services. Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains most of the Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial and  in the main still unexplored. Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 10 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 10 procaryotic organisms per milliliter (gram) of seawater. The carbon content of the soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the process of respiration carried out by heterotrophic organisms that feed upon the carbonaceous material in the soil, but a substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of humus, the ratio respired to fixed carbon decreasing with cultivation. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil. This ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake. Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water, but most regions receive sporadic rainfall, the water-holding capacity of soils is vital for plant survival.

text: Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for

text: soil organisms

text: , a recycling system for

text: nutrients

text: and

text: organic waste

text: s, a regulator of

text: water quality

text: , a modifier of

text: atmospheric composition

text: , and a medium for

text: plant growth

text: , in other terms one of the world's best providers of

text: ecosystem services

text: . Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains most of the Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial and  in the main still unexplored. Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 10 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 10 procaryotic organisms per milliliter (gram) of seawater. The carbon content of the soil is eventually returned to the atmosphere through the process of

text: respiration

text: carried out by

text: heterotrophic

text: organisms that feed upon the

text: carbonaceous

text: material in the soil, but a substantial part is retained in the soil in the form of

text: humus

text: , the ratio respired to fixed carbon decreasing with cultivation. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil. This ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected

text: soil pores

text: , which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake. Since plants require a nearly continuous supply of water, but most regions receive sporadic rainfall, the

text: water-holding capacity

text: of soils is vital for plant survival.

text: The amount of oxygen present in seawater depends primarily upon its temperature and the photosynthetic organisms living in it, particularly algae, phytoplankton, and plants such as seagrass. During the day, their photosynthetic activity produces oxygen, which dissolves into the seawater and is used by marine animals. The water's oxygen saturation is lower during the night and much lower in the deep sea. Below a depth of about , there is insufficient light for photosynthesis and consequently little dissolved oxygen. Below this, anaerobic bacteria break down falling organic material, producing hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). It is projected that global warming will reduce oxygen both in surface and deep waters, due to oxygen's decreased solubility as temperatures increase and increased oceanic stratification.

text: The

text: amount of oxygen

text: present in seawater depends primarily upon its

text: temperature

text: and the

text: photosynthetic

text: organisms

text: living in it, particularly

text: algae

text: phytoplankton

text: , and

text: plants

text: such as

text: seagrass

text: . During the day, their

text: photosynthetic activity

text: produces oxygen, which dissolves into the seawater and is used by

text: marine animals

text: . The water's oxygen saturation is lower during the night and much lower in the deep sea. Below a depth of about , there is insufficient light for photosynthesis and consequently

text: little dissolved oxygen

text: . Below this,

text: anaerobic bacteria

text: break down

text: falling organic material

text: , producing

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: (H₂S). It is projected that

text: global warming

text: will reduce oxygen both in surface and deep waters, due to oxygen's decreased solubility as temperatures increase and increased

text: oceanic stratification

text: The dense water masses that sink into the deep basins are formed in quite specific areas of the North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean. In the North Atlantic, seawater at the surface of the ocean is intensely cooled by the wind. Wind moving over the water also produces a great deal of evaporation, leading to a decrease in temperature, called evaporative cooling. Evaporation removes only water molecules, resulting in an increase in the salinity of the seawater left behind, and thus an increase in the density of the water mass.In the Norwegian Sea evaporative cooling is predominant, and the sinking water mass, the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), fills the basin and spills southwards through crevasses in the submarine sills that connect Greenland, Iceland and Great Britain. It then flows very slowly into the deep abyssal plains of the Atlantic, always in a southerly direction. Flow from the Arctic Ocean Basin into the Pacific, however, is blocked by the narrow shallows of the Bering Strait.

text: The dense water masses that sink into the deep basins are formed in quite specific areas of the

text: North Atlantic

text: and the

text: Southern Ocean

text: . In the North Atlantic, seawater at the surface of the ocean is intensely cooled by the wind. Wind moving over the water also produces a great deal of evaporation, leading to a decrease in temperature, called

text: evaporative cooling

text: . Evaporation removes only water molecules, resulting in an increase in the salinity of the seawater left behind, and thus an increase in the density of the water mass.In the

text: Norwegian Sea

text: evaporative cooling is predominant, and the sinking water mass, the

text: North Atlantic Deep Water

text: (NADW), fills the basin and spills southwards through crevasses in the

text: submarine sill

text: s that connect

text: Greenland

text: Iceland

text: and

text: Great Britain

text: . It then flows very slowly into the deep

text: abyssal plain

text: s of the Atlantic, always in a southerly direction. Flow from the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: Basin into the Pacific, however, is blocked by the narrow shallows of the

text: Bering Strait

text: Several models have been proposed to estimate the dielectric constant of sea water given its salinity and temperature. The “Klein and Swift” dielectric model function is a common and well-tested model used to compute the dielectric coefficient of seawater at a given salinity, temperature, and frequency.  The Klein and Swift model is based on the Debye equation and fitted with laboratory measurements of the dielectric coefficient. Using this model, if the temperature of the seawater is known from external sources, then measurements of the brightness temperature can be used to compute the salinity of surface seawater directly.  Figure 1 shows an example of the brightness temperature curves associated with sea surface salinity, as a function of sea surface temperature.

text: Several models have been proposed to estimate the dielectric constant of sea water given its salinity and temperature. The “Klein and Swift” dielectric model function is a common and well-tested model used to compute the dielectric coefficient of seawater at a given salinity, temperature, and frequency.  The Klein and Swift model is based on the

text: Debye equation

text: and fitted with laboratory measurements of the dielectric coefficient. Using this model, if the temperature of the seawater is known from external sources, then measurements of the brightness temperature can be used to compute the salinity of surface seawater directly.  Figure 1 shows an example of the brightness temperature curves associated with sea surface salinity, as a function of sea surface temperature.

text: Magmas produced in subduction zone regions have high volatile contents. This water is derived from the breakdown of hydrous minerals in the subducting slab, as well as water in the oceanic plate from percolation of seawater. This water rises from the subducting slab to the overriding mantle wedge. The water lowers the melting temperature of the wedge and leaves behind melt inclusions that can be measured in the associated arc volcanic rocks.

text: Magmas

text: produced in subduction zone regions have high

text: volatile

text: contents. This water is derived from the breakdown of hydrous minerals in the subducting slab, as well as water in the oceanic plate from percolation of seawater. This water rises from the subducting slab to the overriding mantle wedge. The water lowers the melting temperature of the wedge and leaves behind melt inclusions that can be measured in the associated arc volcanic rocks.

text: are other tracers that affect density (e.g. salinity of seawater).  The potential density would then be calculated as:

text: are other

text: tracer

text: s that affect density (e.g.

text: salinity

text: of

text: seawater

text: ).  The potential density would then be calculated as:

text: The Zn-world theory has been further filled out with experimental and theoretical evidence for the ionic constitution of the interior of the first proto-cells before archaea, bacteria and proto-eukaryotes evolved. Archibald Macallum noted the resemblance of organism fluids such as blood, and lymph to seawater; however, the inorganic composition of all cells differ from that of modern seawater, which led Mulkidjanian and colleagues to reconstruct the "hatcheries" of the first cells combining geochemical analysis with phylogenomic scrutiny of the inorganic ion requirements of universal components of modern cells. The authors conclude that ubiquitous, and by inference primordial, proteins and functional systems show affinity to and functional requirement for K, Zn, Mn, and phosphate. Geochemical reconstruction shows that the ionic composition conducive to the origin of cells could not have existed in what we today call marine settings but is compatible with emissions of vapour-dominated zones of what we today call inland geothermal systems. Under the oxygen depleted, CO-dominated primordial atmosphere, the chemistry of water condensates and exhalations near geothermal fields would resemble the internal milieu of modern cells. Therefore, the precellular stages of evolution may have taken place in shallow "Darwin ponds" lined with porous silicate minerals mixed with metal sulfides and enriched in K, Zn, and phosphorus compounds.

text: The Zn-world theory has been further filled out with experimental and theoretical evidence for the ionic constitution of the interior of the first proto-cells before archaea, bacteria and

text: proto-eukaryotes

text: evolved.

text: Archibald Macallum

text: noted the resemblance of organism fluids such as blood, and lymph to seawater; however, the inorganic composition of all cells differ from that of modern seawater, which led Mulkidjanian and colleagues to reconstruct the "hatcheries" of the first cells combining geochemical analysis with

text: phylogenomic

text: scrutiny of the inorganic ion requirements of universal components of modern cells. The authors conclude that ubiquitous, and by inference primordial, proteins and functional systems show affinity to and functional requirement for K, Zn, Mn, and phosphate. Geochemical reconstruction shows that the ionic composition conducive to the origin of cells could not have existed in what we today call marine settings but is compatible with emissions of vapour-dominated zones of what we today call inland geothermal systems. Under the oxygen depleted, CO-dominated primordial atmosphere, the chemistry of water condensates and exhalations near geothermal fields would resemble the internal milieu of modern cells. Therefore, the precellular stages of evolution may have taken place in shallow "Darwin ponds" lined with porous

text: silicate minerals

text: mixed with metal sulfides and enriched in K, Zn, and phosphorus compounds.

text: Data obtained from Lange's Handbook of Chemistry, 10th ed. and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th ed. The annotation, d a°C/b°C, indicates density of solution at temperature a divided by density of pure water at temperature b known as specific gravity. When temperature b is 4 °C, density of water is 0.999972 g/mL.

text: The water distribution on earth shows that most water in the Earth's atmosphere and crust comes from the world ocean's saline seawater, while freshwater accounts for only 2.5% of the total. Because the oceans that cover roughly 71% of the area of the Earth reflect blue light, the Earth appears blue from space, and is often referred to as the blue planet and the Pale Blue Dot. An estimated 1.5 to 11 times the amount of water in the oceans may be found hundreds of miles deep within the Earth's interior, although not in liquid form.

text: The water distribution on earth shows that most

text: water

text: in the Earth's atmosphere and crust comes from the

text: world ocean

text: 's saline

text: seawater

text: , while

text: freshwater

text: accounts for only 2.5% of the total. Because the oceans that cover roughly 71% of the area of the Earth reflect blue light, the

text: Earth

text: appears blue from space, and is often referred to as the blue

text: planet

text: and the

text: Pale Blue Dot

text: . An estimated 1.5 to 11 times the amount of water in the oceans may be found hundreds of miles deep within the Earth's interior, although not in liquid form.

text: Note that it is not possible to define a density with reference to an arbitrary measure (e.g. one can't choose the counting measure as a reference for a continuous random variable). Furthermore, when it does exist, the density is almost everywhere unique.

text: Note that it is not possible to define a density with reference to an arbitrary measure (e.g. one can't choose the counting measure as a reference for a continuous random variable). Furthermore, when it does exist, the density is

text: almost everywhere

text: unique.

text: Born on a farm near Slater, Missouri, Johnson was educated in the rural graded schools of his native county, and was graduated from the Portland (Indiana) High School in 1901.He attended the Missouri Valley College, Marshall, Missouri.He taught school in Saline Valley and Orearville, Missouri from 1901 to 1907.He served as clerk of the circuit court of Saline County in 1915–1923.While serving as clerk, he also studied law.He was admitted to the bar in 1917 and commenced practice in Marshall, Missouri, in 1923.He served as prosecuting attorney of Saline County in 1925–1928.

text: Born on a farm near

text: Slater, Missouri

text: , Johnson was educated in the rural graded schools of his native county, and was graduated from the Portland (Indiana) High School in 1901.He attended the Missouri Valley College,

text: Marshall, Missouri

text: .He taught school in Saline Valley and Orearville, Missouri from 1901 to 1907.He served as clerk of the circuit court of Saline County in 1915–1923.While serving as clerk, he also studied law.He was admitted to the bar in 1917 and commenced practice in

text: Marshall, Missouri

text: , in 1923.He served as prosecuting attorney of Saline County in 1925–1928.

text: The chemical composition of the lake water is 300 g/L NaCl which is assessed with varying potential reserves of 4 to 8 million tonnes. The hot spring, which is source of supply to the Lake Assal from the gulf, has the same salinity level as that of seawater. The salinity concentration in the lake is a result of wind and sun action, which results in an annual average evaporation rate of 460 million m. The lake water is stated to be maintaining an equilibrium.

text: The chemical composition of the lake water is 300 g/L NaCl which is assessed with varying potential reserves of 4 to 8 million

text: tonne

text: s. The hot spring, which is source of supply to the Lake Assal from the gulf, has the same salinity level as that of seawater. The salinity concentration in the lake is a result of wind and sun action, which results in an annual average evaporation rate of 460 million m. The lake water is stated to be maintaining an equilibrium.

text: The temperature of the seawater is maintained by 14 °C in January and August reaches 22 °C.

text: The SEADOG Pump rises and falls with ocean swells, effectively capturing the energy in the ocean waves, to pump seawater to a land-based elevated holding tank.  Once in the tank, the potential energy of the water can be used to drive hydroelectric generators to generate electricity or desalinated water.

text: The SEADOG Pump rises and falls with ocean swells, effectively capturing the energy in the ocean waves, to pump seawater to a land-based elevated holding tank.  Once in the tank, the potential energy of the water can be used to drive

text: hydroelectric

text: generators to generate electricity or desalinated water.

text: Much of the work done by the BNF during the 1939-45 period was of vital use for the defence industry.  This especially included solving many of the corrosion problems of seawater cooled condenser tubes and tube plates that had resulted in many ships being unserviceable and significant improvements in corrosion resistant alloys for seawater pumps and pipe fittings.  No work was ever carried out on active materials for nuclear weapons.  Some consultancy work was undertaken on paperwork for new designs.

text: Factors affecting coverage density include: number of impacts (shot flow), exposure time, shot properties (size, chemistry), and work piece properties. Coverage is monitored by visual examination to determine the percent coverage (0-100%). Coverage beyond 100% cannot be determined. The number of individual impacts is linearly proportional to shot flow, exposure area, and exposure time. Coverage is not linearly proportional because of the random nature of the process (chaos theory). When 100% coverage is achieved, with an exposure time of 1T, locations on the surface have been impacted multiple times. At 150% coverage (1.5T), 5 or more impacts occur at 52% of locations. At 200% coverage (2T), 5 or more impacts occur at 84% of locations.

text: Factors affecting coverage density include: number of impacts (shot flow), exposure time, shot properties (size, chemistry), and work piece properties. Coverage is monitored by visual examination to determine the percent coverage (0-100%). Coverage beyond 100% cannot be determined. The number of individual impacts is linearly proportional to shot flow, exposure area, and exposure time. Coverage is not linearly proportional because of the random nature of the process (

text: chaos theory

text: ). When 100% coverage is achieved, with an exposure time of 1T, locations on the surface have been impacted multiple times. At 150% coverage (1.5T), 5 or more impacts occur at 52% of locations. At 200% coverage (2T), 5 or more impacts occur at 84% of locations.

text: Approximate values for fresh water and seawater, respectively, at atmospheric pressure are 1450 and 1500 m/s for the sound speed, and 1000 and 1030 kg/m³ for the density.  The speed of sound in water increases with increasing pressure, temperature and salinity.  The maximum speed in pure water under atmospheric pressure is attained at about 74 °C; sound travels slower in hotter water after that point; the maximum increases with pressure. On-line calculators can be found at Technical Guides - Speed of Sound in Sea-Water and Technical Guides - Speed of Sound in Pure Water.

text: Approximate values for

text: fresh water

text: and

text: seawater

text: , respectively, at atmospheric pressure are 1450 and 1500 m/s for the sound speed, and 1000 and 1030 kg/m³ for the density.  The speed of sound in water increases with increasing

text: pressure

text: temperature

text: and

text: salinity

text: .  The maximum speed in pure water under atmospheric pressure is attained at about 74 °C; sound travels slower in hotter water after that point; the maximum increases with pressure. On-line calculators can be found at Technical Guides - Speed of Sound in Sea-Water and Technical Guides - Speed of Sound in Pure Water.

text: Except the thermal shock resistance test all further ISO 6425 testing should be conducted at 18 to 25 °C temperature. Regarding pressure ISO 6425 defines: 1 bar = 10 Pa = 10 N/m.The required 125% test pressure provides a safety margin against dynamic pressure increase events, water density variations (seawater is 2% to 5% denser than freshwater) and degradation of the seals.

text: Except the thermal shock resistance test all further ISO 6425 testing should be conducted at 18 to 25 °C temperature. Regarding pressure ISO 6425 defines: 1 bar = 10 Pa = 10 N/m.The required 125% test pressure provides a safety margin against dynamic pressure increase events, water density variations (

text: seawater

text: is 2% to 5% denser than

text: freshwater

text: ) and degradation of the seals.

text: Whatever pore size is used in the definition, the resulting salinity value of a given sample of natural water will not vary by more than a few percent (%). Physical oceanographers working in the abyssal ocean, however, are often concerned with precision and intercomparability of measurements by different researchers, at different times, to almost five significant digits. A bottled seawater product known as IAPSO Standard Seawater is used by oceanographers to standardize their measurements with enough precision to meet this requirement.

text: Whatever pore size is used in the definition, the resulting salinity value of a given sample of natural water will not vary by more than a few

text: percent

text: (%). Physical oceanographers working in the

text: abyssal ocean

text: , however, are often concerned with precision and intercomparability of measurements by different researchers, at different times, to almost five significant digits. A bottled seawater product known as IAPSO Standard Seawater is used by oceanographers to standardize their measurements with enough precision to meet this requirement.

text: The water vascular system of the sea star consists of a series of seawater-filled ducts that function in locomotion and feeding and respiration.  Its main parts are the madreporite, the stone canal, the ring canal, the radial canals, the lateral canals, and the tube feet.  The sieve-like madreporite allows entry of seawater into the stone canal, which connects to the ring canal around the mouth. Five or more radial canals extend from the ring canal, one in each arm above the ambulacral groove.  From the radial canals extend many lateral canals, each of which leads to a tube foot.  Each tube foot is a closed cylinder with muscular walls, having a sucker at the outer end and a bulb-like ampulla at its inner end within the body cavity.

text: The water vascular system of the sea star consists of a series of seawater-filled ducts that function in locomotion and feeding and respiration.  Its main parts are the madreporite, the stone canal, the ring canal, the radial canals, the lateral canals, and the

text: tube feet

text: .  The sieve-like madreporite allows entry of seawater into the stone canal, which connects to the ring canal around the mouth. Five or more radial canals extend from the ring canal, one in each arm above the ambulacral groove.  From the radial canals extend many lateral canals, each of which leads to a tube foot.  Each tube foot is a closed cylinder with muscular walls, having a sucker at the outer end and a bulb-like ampulla at its inner end within the body cavity.

text: Thalassotherapy (from the Greek word thalassa, meaning "sea") is the medical use of seawater as a form of therapy. It is based on the systematic use of seawater, sea products, and shore climate. The properties of seawater are believed to have beneficial effects upon the pores of the skin.

text: Thalassotherapy (from the

text: Greek

text: word thalassa, meaning "

text: sea

text: ") is the

text: medical

text: use of

text: seawater

text: as a form of therapy. It is based on the systematic use of seawater, sea products, and shore climate. The properties of seawater are believed to have beneficial effects upon the

text: pore

text: s of the

text: skin

text: Salinity gradient energy is called pressure-retarded osmosis. In this method, seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber that is at a pressure lower than the difference between the pressures of saline water and fresh water. Freshwater is also pumped into the pressure chamber through a membrane, which increases both the volume and pressure of the chamber. As the pressure differences are compensated, a turbine is spun creating energy. This method is being specifically studied by the Norwegian utility Statkraft, which has calculated that up to 25 TWh/yr would be available from this process in Norway. Statkraft has built the world's first prototype osmotic power plant on the Oslo fiord which was opened on November 24, 2009.

text: The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the hydrosphere. However, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 mi (1,386,000,000 km) of the world's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi (1,338,000,000 km) is stored in oceans, or about 97%. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.

text: The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the

text: hydrosphere

text: . However, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 mi (1,386,000,000 km) of the world's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi (1,338,000,000 km) is stored in oceans, or about 97%. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.

text: At 10:40, one of Lions  shells struck Seydlitz causing nearly catastrophic damage that knocked out both of the rear turrets and killed 159 men. Disaster was averted when the executive officer ordered the flooding of both magazines to avoid a flash fire that would have destroyed the ship. By this time, the German battlecruisers had zeroed in on Lion and began scoring repeated hits. At 11:01, an  shell from Seydlitz struck Lion and knocked out two of her dynamos. At 11:18, Lion was hit by two  shells from Derfflinger, one of which struck the waterline and penetrated the belt, allowing seawater to enter the port feed tank. This shell eventually crippled Lion by forcing the ship to turn off its engines because of seawater contamination.

text: Currently, osmotherapy is the only way to reduce cerebral edema, and hypertonic saline appears to be better than other osmotic agents.  According to some researchers, glycerol can be best administered as a basal treatment whereas mannitol can be administered to control sudden rises in ICP. Compared to mannitol, there's evidence that the improvement in ICP, cerebral blood flow, and CPP due to administration of hypertonic saline lasts longer. In addition, hypertonic saline also shows significant effect in improving blood rheology such as hematocrit and shear rate at the level of the internal carotid artery (ICA).

text: Currently, osmotherapy is the only way to reduce cerebral edema, and hypertonic saline appears to be better than other osmotic agents.  According to some researchers, glycerol can be best administered as a basal treatment whereas mannitol can be administered to control sudden rises in ICP. Compared to mannitol, there's evidence that the improvement in ICP, cerebral blood flow, and CPP due to administration of hypertonic saline lasts longer. In addition, hypertonic saline also shows significant effect in improving blood rheology such as

text: hematocrit

text: and

text: shear rate

text: at the level of the

text: internal carotid artery

text: (ICA).

text: Among some of these problems is the depletion of underground aquifers through overdrafting.  Soil can be over-irrigated because of poor distribution uniformity or management wastes water, chemicals, and may lead to water pollution. Over-irrigation can cause deep drainage from rising water tables that can lead to problems of irrigation  salinity requiring watertable control by some form of subsurface land drainage. However, if the soil is under irrigated, it gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil salinity with consequent buildup of toxic salts on soil surface in areas with high evaporation. This requires either leaching to remove these salts and a method of drainage to carry the salts away. Irrigation with saline or high-sodium water may damage soil structure owing to the formation of alkaline soil.

text: Among some of these problems is the depletion of underground

text: aquifers

text: through

text: overdrafting

text: .  Soil can be over-irrigated because of poor

text: distribution uniformity

text: or

text: management

text: waste

text: s water, chemicals, and may lead to

text: water pollution

text: . Over-irrigation can cause deep drainage from rising water tables that can lead to problems of irrigation

text: salinity

text: requiring

text: watertable control

text: by some form of

text: subsurface land drainage

text: . However, if the soil is under irrigated, it gives poor

text: soil salinity control

text: which leads to increased

text: soil salinity

text: with consequent buildup of toxic

text: salt

text: s on soil surface in areas with high

text: evaporation

text: . This requires either

text: leaching

text: to remove these salts and a method of

text: drainage

text: to carry the salts away. Irrigation with

text: saline

text: or

text: high-sodium

text: water may damage soil structure owing to the formation of

text: alkaline soil

text: Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean's surface. Seawater entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond.

text: Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean's surface.

text: Seawater

text: entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond.

text: It is possible that at one time these estuaries were positive, that is, ones in which the seawater component is diluted; therefore, the water is brackish, with salinity less than that of the ocean.

text: It is possible that at one time these estuaries were positive, that is, ones in which the

text: seawater

text: component is

text: diluted

text: ; therefore, the water is

text: brackish

text: , with salinity less than that of the ocean.

text: As part of its operational definition of the pH scale, the IUPAC defines a series of buffer solutions across a range of pH values (often denoted with NBS or NIST designation). These solutions have a relatively low ionic strength (~0.1) compared to that of seawater (~0.7), and, as a consequence, are not recommended for use in characterizing the pH of seawater, since the ionic strength differences cause changes in electrode potential. To resolve this problem, an alternative series of buffers based on artificial seawater was developed. This new series resolves the problem of ionic strength differences between samples and the buffers, and the new pH scale is referred to as the 'total scale', often denoted as pH. The total scale was defined using a medium containing sulfate ions. These ions experience protonation, H + SO  HSO, such that the total scale includes the effect of both protons (free hydrogen ions) and hydrogen sulfate ions:

text: As part of its

text: operational definition

text: of the pH scale, the

text: IUPAC

text: defines a series of

text: buffer solution

text: s across a range of pH values (often denoted with

entity_name: National Institute of Standards and Technology

text: NBS

text: or

text: NIST

text: designation). These solutions have a relatively low

text: ionic strength

text: (~0.1) compared to that of seawater (~0.7), and, as a consequence, are not recommended for use in characterizing the pH of seawater, since the ionic strength differences cause changes in

text: electrode potential

text: . To resolve this problem, an alternative series of buffers based on

text: artificial seawater

text: was developed. This new series resolves the problem of ionic strength differences between samples and the buffers, and the new pH scale is referred to as the 'total scale', often denoted as pH. The total scale was defined using a medium containing

text: sulfate

text: ions. These ions experience

text: protonation

text: , H + SO  HSO, such that the total scale includes the effect of both

text: proton

text: s (free hydrogen ions) and hydrogen sulfate ions:

text: Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's biomass, clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane, an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers.

text: Bacteria-like

text: Archaea

text: surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the

text: hydrothermal vents

text: on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as

text: Pseudomonas

text: and

text: Vibrio

text: spp. survive in a

text: pH

text: range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's

text: biomass

text: , clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down

text: methane

text: , an important

text: greenhouse

text: gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist

text: dinoflagellates

text: may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or

text: red tide

text: s, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce

text: metabolites

text: known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers.

text: Absorption of low frequency sound is weak.  (see Technical Guides - Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater for an on-line calculator).  The main cause of sound attenuation in fresh water, and at high frequency in sea water (above 100 kHz) is viscosity.  Important additional contributions at lower frequency in seawater are associated with the ionic relaxation of boric acid (up to c. 10 kHz) and magnesium sulfate (c. 10 kHz-100 kHz).

text: Absorption of low frequency sound is weak.  (see Technical Guides - Calculation of absorption of sound in seawater for an on-line calculator).  The main cause of sound attenuation in fresh water, and at high frequency in sea water (above 100 kHz) is

text: viscosity

text: .  Important additional contributions at lower frequency in seawater are associated with the ionic relaxation of

text: boric acid

text: (up to c. 10 kHz) and

text: magnesium sulfate

text: (c. 10 kHz-100 kHz).

text: At 10:40, one of Lions  shells struck Seydlitz causing nearly catastrophic damage that knocked out both of the rear turrets and killed 159 men. The executive officer ordered the flooding of both magazines to avoid a flash fire that would have destroyed the ship. By this time, the German battlecruisers had zeroed in on Lion, scoring repeated hits. At 11:01, an  shell from Seydlitz struck Lion and knocked out two of her dynamos. At 11:18, two of Derfflinger's  shells hit Lion, one of which struck the waterline and penetrated the belt, allowing seawater to enter the port feed tank. Lion had to turn off its engines due to seawater contamination and as a result fell out of the line.

text: During the early Paleozoic, Missouri was covered by a warm shallow sea that would come to be home to creatures like Archimedes, brachiopods, shelled cephalopods, conodonts, corals, crinoids, armored fishes, and trilobites. During the Carboniferous a rich flora developed on land. Primitive tetrapods left behind footprints that would later fossilize. By the end of that period the sea had disappeared from the state. The Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic are missing from the local rock record. At that time southeastern Missouri was covered in seawater. On land, the state was home to dinosaurs. Missouri remained partially covered by seawater into the early Cenozoic while a great diversity of trees grew on land.

text: During the early

text: Paleozoic

text: , Missouri was covered by a warm shallow

text: sea

text: that would come to be home to creatures like

text: Archimedes

text: , brachiopods, shelled

text: cephalopod

text: s,

text: conodont

text: s,

text: coral

text: s,

text: crinoid

text: s, armored

text: fish

text: es, and

text: trilobite

text: s. During the

text: Carboniferous

text: a rich

text: flora

text: developed on land. Primitive

text: tetrapods

text: left behind

text: footprints

text: that would later fossilize. By the end of that period the sea had disappeared from the state. The Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic are missing from the local

text: rock record

text: . At that time southeastern Missouri was covered in seawater. On land, the state was home to

text: dinosaurs

text: . Missouri remained partially covered by seawater into the early

text: Cenozoic

text: while a great diversity of trees grew on land.

text: Marine botany is the study of aquatic plants and algae that live in seawater of the open ocean and the littoral zone, along shorelines of the intertidal zone, and in brackish water of estuaries.

text: Marine botany is the study of

text: aquatic plants

text: and

text: algae

text: that live in

text: seawater

text: of the open

text: ocean

text: and the

text: littoral zone

text: , along

text: shoreline

text: s of the

text: intertidal zone

text: , and in

text: brackish water

text: of

text: estuaries

text: Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume or mass, though the latter is more accurately termed specific energy.  Often only the useful or extractable energy is measured, which is to say that chemically inaccessible energy such as rest mass energy is ignored. In cosmological and other general relativistic contexts, however, the energy densities considered are those that correspond to the elements of the stress–energy tensor and therefore do include mass energy as well as energy densities associated with the pressures described in the next paragraph.

text: Energy density is the amount of

text: energy

text: stored in a given system or region of space per unit

text: volume

text: or

text: mass

text: , though the latter is more accurately termed

text: specific energy

text: .  Often only the useful or extractable energy is measured, which is to say that chemically inaccessible energy such as

text: rest mass

text: energy is ignored. In

text: cosmological

text: and other

text: general relativistic

text: contexts, however, the energy densities considered are those that correspond to the elements of the

text: stress–energy tensor

text: and therefore do include mass energy as well as energy densities associated with the pressures described in the next paragraph.

text: The total energy is determined by approximate solutions of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation, usually with no relativistic terms included, and by making use of the Born–Oppenheimer approximation, which allows for the separation of electronic and nuclear motions, thereby simplifying the Schrödinger equation. This leads to the evaluation of the total energy as a sum of the electronic energy at fixed nuclei positions and the repulsion energy of the nuclei. A notable exception are certain approaches called direct quantum chemistry, which treat electrons and nuclei on a common footing. Density functional methods and semi-empirical methods are variants on the major theme. For very large systems, the relative total energies can be compared using molecular mechanics. The ways of determining the total energy to predict molecular structures are:

text: The total energy is determined by approximate solutions of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation, usually with no relativistic terms included, and by making use of the

text: Born–Oppenheimer approximation

text: , which allows for the separation of electronic and nuclear motions, thereby simplifying the Schrödinger equation. This leads to the evaluation of the total energy as a sum of the electronic energy at fixed nuclei positions and the repulsion energy of the nuclei. A notable exception are certain approaches called

text: direct quantum chemistry

text: , which treat electrons and nuclei on a common footing. Density functional methods and semi-empirical methods are variants on the major theme. For very large systems, the relative total energies can be compared using molecular mechanics. The ways of determining the total energy to predict molecular structures are:

text: The density at all points of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume. The mass is normally measured with a scale or balance; the volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid. To determine the density of a liquid or a gas, a hydrometer, a dasymeter or a Coriolis flow meter may be used, respectively. Similarly, hydrostatic weighing uses the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object.

text: The density at all points of a

text: homogeneous

text: object equals its total

text: mass

text: divided by its total volume. The mass is normally measured with a

text: scale or balance

text: ; the volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid. To determine the density of a liquid or a gas, a

text: hydrometer

text: , a

text: dasymeter

text: or a

text: Coriolis flow meter

text: may be used, respectively. Similarly,

text: hydrostatic weighing

text: uses the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object.

text: Several studies support the conclusion that ophiolites formed as oceanic lithosphere. Seismic velocity structure studies have provided most of the current knowledge of the oceanic crust’s composition. For this reason, researchers carried out a seismic study on an ophiolite complex (Bay of Islands, Newfoundland) in order to establish a comparison. The study concluded that oceanic and ophiolitic velocity structures were identical, pointing to the origin of ophiolite complexes as oceanic crust.  The observations that follow support this conclusion. Rocks originating on the seafloor show chemical composition comparable to unaltered ophiolite layers, from primary composition elements such as silicon and titanium to trace elements. Seafloor and ophiolitic rocks share a low occurrence of silica-rich rocks; those present have a high sodium and low potassium content. The temperature gradients of the metamorphosis of ophiolitic pillow lavas and dykes are similar to those found beneath ocean ridges today.  Evidence from the metal-ore deposits present in and near ophiolites and from oxygen and hydrogen isotopes suggests that the passage of seawater through hot basalt in the vicinity of ridges dissolved and carried elements that precipitated as sulfides when the heated seawater came into contact with cold seawater. The same phenomenon occurs near oceanic ridges in a formation known as hydrothermal vents.  The final line of evidence supporting the origin of ophiolites as seafloor is the region of formation of the sediments over the pillow lavas: they were deposited in water over 2 km deep, far removed from land-sourced sediments.Despite the above observations, there are inconsistencies in the theory of ophiolites as oceanic crust, which suggests that newly generated ocean crust follows the full Wilson cycle before emplacement as an ophiolite. This requires ophiolites to be much older than the orogenies on which they lie, and therefore old and cold. However, radiometric and stratigraphic dating has found ophiolites to have undergone emplacement when young and hot: most are less than 50 million years old.Ophiolites therefore cannot have followed the full Wilson cycle and are considered atypical ocean crust.

text: Several studies support the conclusion that ophiolites formed as oceanic

text: lithosphere

text: Seismic velocity structure studies

text: have provided most of the current knowledge of the oceanic crust’s composition. For this reason, researchers carried out a seismic study on an ophiolite complex (

entity_name: Bay of Islands, Newfoundland and Labrador

text: Bay of Islands, Newfoundland

text: ) in order to establish a comparison. The study concluded that oceanic and ophiolitic velocity structures were identical, pointing to the origin of ophiolite complexes as oceanic crust.  The observations that follow support this conclusion. Rocks originating on the seafloor show chemical composition comparable to unaltered ophiolite layers, from primary composition elements such as silicon and titanium to trace elements. Seafloor and ophiolitic rocks share a low occurrence of silica-rich rocks; those present have a high sodium and low potassium content. The temperature gradients of the metamorphosis of ophiolitic

text: pillow lava

text: s and

text: dykes

text: are similar to those found beneath ocean ridges today.  Evidence from the

text: metal-ore deposits

text: present in and near ophiolites and from oxygen and hydrogen isotopes suggests that the passage of seawater through hot basalt in the vicinity of ridges dissolved and carried elements that precipitated as sulfides when the heated seawater came into contact with cold seawater. The same phenomenon occurs near oceanic ridges in a formation known as

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s.  The final line of evidence supporting the origin of ophiolites as seafloor is the region of formation of the sediments over the pillow lavas: they were deposited in water over 2 km deep, far removed from land-sourced sediments.Despite the above observations, there are inconsistencies in the theory of ophiolites as oceanic crust, which suggests that newly generated ocean crust follows the full

text: Wilson cycle

text: before emplacement as an ophiolite. This requires ophiolites to be much older than the orogenies on which they lie, and therefore old and cold. However,

text: radiometric

text: and

text: stratigraphic

text: dating has found ophiolites to have undergone emplacement when young and hot: most are less than 50 million years old.Ophiolites therefore cannot have followed the full Wilson cycle and are considered atypical ocean crust.

text: In coastal areas the groundwater and seawater flows are driven by a variety of factors. Both types of water can circulate in marine sediments due to tidal pumping, waves, bottom currents or density driven transport processes. Meteoric freshwaters can discharge along confined and unconfined aquifers into the sea or the oppositional process of seawater intruding into groundwater charged aquifers can take place. The flow of both fresh and sea water is primarily controlled by the hydraulic gradients between land and sea and differences in the densities between both waters and the permeabilities of the sediments.

text: The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and a salinity of 35 g/kg.The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature.

text: In oceanography the term spice refers to spatial variations in the temperature and salinity of seawater whose effects on density cancel each other.  Such density compensated thermohaline variability is ubiquitous in the upper ocean. Warmer, saltier water is more spicy while cooler, less salty water is more minty.

text: In

text: oceanography

text: the term spice refers to spatial variations in the

text: temperature

text: and

text: salinity

text: of

text: seawater

text: whose effects on

text: density

text: cancel each other.  Such density compensated thermohaline variability is ubiquitous in the upper ocean. Warmer, saltier water is more spicy while cooler, less salty water is more minty.

text: It is uncertain how ctenophores control their buoyancy, but experiments have shown that some species rely on osmotic pressure to adapt to water of different densities. Their body fluids are normally as concentrated as seawater. If they enter less dense brackish water, the ciliary rosettes in the body cavity may pump this into the mesoglea to increase its bulk and decrease its density, to avoid sinking. Conversely if they move from brackish to full-strength seawater, the rosettes may pump water out of the mesoglea to reduce its volume and increase its density.

text: It is uncertain how ctenophores control their buoyancy, but experiments have shown that some species rely on

text: osmotic pressure

text: to adapt to water of different densities. Their body fluids are normally as

text: concentrated

text: as seawater. If they enter less dense brackish water, the ciliary rosettes in the body cavity may pump this into the

text: mesoglea

text: to increase its bulk and decrease its density, to avoid sinking. Conversely if they move from brackish to full-strength seawater, the rosettes may pump water out of the mesoglea to reduce its volume and increase its density.

text: Additionally, large amounts of Cl were produced by irradiation of seawater during atmospheric and underwater test detonations of nuclear weapons between 1952 and 1958. The residence time of Cl in the atmosphere is about 2 years. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in soil and ground water, Cl is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the present. Cl has seen use in other areas of the geological sciences, including dating ice and sediments.

text: Additionally, large amounts of Cl were produced by irradiation of

text: seawater

text: during atmospheric and

text: underwater

text: test detonations

text: of

text: nuclear weapon

text: s between 1952 and 1958. The residence time of Cl in the atmosphere is about 2 years. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in

text: soil

text: and

text: ground water

text: , Cl is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the present. Cl has seen use in other areas of the geological sciences, including dating ice and sediments.

text: The name is inspired by the Greek ocean goddess, Ceto.  the system distinguishes itself from other wave-energy devices in being fully submerged. Submerged buoys are moved by the ocean swell, driving pumps that pressurize seawater delivered ashore by a subsea pipeline. Once onshore, the high-pressure seawater is used to drive hydro-electric turbines, generating  electricity. The high-pressure seawater can also be used to supply a reverse osmosis desalination plant, producing freshwater. Some historic conventional seawater desalination plants are large emitters of greenhouse gases; this is due to the amount of energy required to drive the grid-connected pumps that deliver the high-pressure seawater to reverse osmosis membranes for the removal of the salt.<ref>Desalination, 2010. Available from

text: The name is inspired by the Greek ocean goddess,

text: Ceto

text: .  the system distinguishes itself from other

text: wave-energy

text: devices in being fully submerged. Submerged buoys are moved by the ocean swell, driving pumps that pressurize seawater delivered ashore by a subsea pipeline. Once onshore, the high-pressure seawater is used to drive hydro-electric turbines, generating  electricity. The high-pressure seawater can also be used to supply a

text: reverse osmosis

text: desalination plant, producing freshwater. Some historic conventional seawater desalination plants are large emitters of greenhouse gases; this is due to the amount of energy required to drive the grid-connected pumps that deliver the high-pressure seawater to reverse osmosis membranes for the removal of the salt.<ref>Desalination, 2010. Available from

text: NH is most often observed in dense molecular clouds, where it has proven useful as one of the last molecules to freeze out onto dust grains as the density of the cloud increases toward the center.  In 2002, Bergin et al. did a spatial survey of dense cores to see just how far toward the center NH could be observed and found that its abundance drops by at least two orders of magnitude when one moves from the outer edge of the core to the center.  This showed that even NH is not an ideal tracer for the chemistry of dense pre-stellar cores, and concluded that HD may be the only good molecular probe of the innermost regions of pre-stellar cores.

text: NH is most often observed in dense molecular clouds, where it has proven useful as one of the last molecules to freeze out onto dust grains as the density of the cloud increases toward the center.  In 2002, Bergin et al. did a spatial survey of dense cores to see just how far toward the center NH could be observed and found that its abundance drops by at least two orders of magnitude when one moves from the outer edge of the core to the center.  This showed that even NH is not an ideal tracer for the chemistry of dense

text: pre-stellar cores

text: , and concluded that HD may be the only good molecular probe of the innermost regions of pre-stellar cores.

text: Aside from the oscillatory motions associated with tidal flow, there are two primary causes of large scale flow in the ocean: (1) thermohaline processes, which induce motion by introducing changes at the surface in temperature and salinity, and therefore in seawater density, and (2) wind forcing.  In the 1940s, when Harald Sverdrup was thinking about calculating the gross features of ocean circulation, he chose to consider exclusively the wind stress component of the forcing.  As he says in his 1947 paper, in which he presented the Sverdrup relation, this is probably the more important of the two. After making the assumption that frictional dissipation is negligible, Sverdrup obtained the simple result that the meridional mass transport (the Sverdrup transport) is proportional to the curl of the wind stress.  This is known as the Sverdrup relation;

text: Aside from the oscillatory motions associated with

text: tidal

text: flow, there are two primary causes of large scale flow in the ocean: (1)

text: thermohaline

text: processes, which induce motion by introducing changes at the surface in

text: temperature

text: and

text: salinity

text: , and therefore in

text: seawater

text: density

text: , and (2) wind forcing.  In the 1940s, when

text: Harald Sverdrup

text: was thinking about calculating the gross features of ocean circulation, he chose to consider exclusively the wind stress component of the forcing.  As he says in his 1947 paper, in which he presented the Sverdrup relation, this is probably the more important of the two. After making the assumption that frictional dissipation is negligible, Sverdrup obtained the simple result that the meridional mass transport (the Sverdrup transport) is proportional to the

text: curl

text: of the wind stress.  This is known as the Sverdrup relation;

text: Robert Lamezan de Salins (1869–1930), also known as Robert Graf von Lamezan-Salins, was a Polish military officer and diplomat of aristocratic descent.

text: Robert Lamezan de Salins (1869–1930), also known as Robert Graf von Lamezan-Salins, was a

text: Polish

text: military officer and diplomat of aristocratic descent.

text: Seawater is invariably salty and, although its degree of saltiness (salinity) can vary, about 90% of the water in the ocean has 34– (1.2 oz.) of dissolved solids per liter, producing a salinity between 3.4 and 3.5%. To easily describe small differences, however, oceanographers usually express salinity as a millage (‰) or part per thousand (ppt) instead of using percents. The surface salinity of waters in the Northern Hemisphere are generally closer to the 34‰ mark, while those in the South are closer to 35‰. The solutes in ocean water come both from inflowing river water and from the ocean floor. The relative composition of the solutes is stable throughout the world's oceans: sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) make up about 85%. Other solutes include metal ions such as magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) and negative ions such as sulfate (SO₄), carbonate (CO₃), and bromides. In the absence of other pollution, seawater would not be harmful to drink except that it is much too saline; similarly, it cannot be used for irrigating most plants without being desalinated. For scientific and technical purposes, a standardized form of artificial seawater is often used.

text: Seawater is invariably salty and, although its degree of saltiness (salinity) can vary, about 90% of the water in the ocean has 34– (1.2

text: oz

text: .) of

text: dissolved solids

text: per

text: liter

text: , producing a salinity between 3.4 and 3.5%. To easily describe small differences, however, oceanographers usually express salinity as a

text: millage

text: (‰) or

text: part per thousand

text: (ppt) instead of using percents. The surface salinity of waters in the Northern Hemisphere are generally closer to the 34‰ mark, while those in the South are closer to 35‰. The solutes in ocean water come

text: both from inflowing river water and from the ocean floor

text: . The relative composition of the solutes is stable throughout the world's oceans:

text: sodium

text: (Na) and

text: chloride

text: (Cl) make up about 85%. Other solutes include

text: metal ions

text: such as

text: magnesium

text: (Mg) and

text: calcium

text: (Ca) and

text: negative ion

text: s such as

text: sulfate

text: carbonate

text: (CO₃), and

text: bromide

text: s. In the absence of

text: other pollution

text: , seawater would not be harmful to drink except that it is much too saline; similarly, it cannot be used for

text: irrigating

text: most

text: plant

text: s without being

text: desalinated

text: . For scientific and technical purposes, a standardized form of

text: artificial seawater

text: is often used.

text: Saline City had its start by the building of the railroad through that territory. A post office was established at Saline City in 1872, and remained in operation until it was discontinued in 1951. Saline likely refers to a mineral lick.

text: Saline City had its start by the building of the railroad through that territory. A post office was established at Saline City in 1872, and remained in operation until it was discontinued in 1951. Saline likely refers to a

text: mineral lick

text: Differing salinity gradient power generations exist but one of the most commonly discussed is pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO). Within PRO seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber where the pressure is lower than the difference between fresh and salt water pressure. Fresh water moves in a semipermeable membrane and increases its volume in the chamber. As the pressure in the chamber is compensated a turbine spins to generate electricity. In Braun's article he states that this process is easy to understand in a more broken down manner. Two solutions, A being salt water and B being fresh water are separated by a membrane. He states "only water molecules can pass the semipermeable membrane. As a result of the osmotic pressure difference between both solutions, the water from solution B thus will diffuse through the membrane in order to dilute solution A". The pressure drives the turbines and power the generator that produces the electrical energy. Osmosis might be used directly to "pump" fresh water out of The Netherlands into the sea. This is currently done using electric pumps.

text: Differing salinity gradient power generations exist but one of the most commonly discussed is

text: pressure-retarded osmosis

text: (PRO). Within PRO seawater is pumped into a pressure chamber where the pressure is lower than the difference between fresh and salt water pressure. Fresh water moves in a semipermeable membrane and increases its volume in the chamber. As the pressure in the chamber is compensated a turbine spins to generate electricity. In Braun's article he states that this process is easy to understand in a more broken down manner. Two solutions, A being salt water and B being fresh water are separated by a membrane. He states "only water molecules can pass the semipermeable membrane. As a result of the osmotic pressure difference between both solutions, the water from solution B thus will diffuse through the membrane in order to dilute solution A". The pressure drives the turbines and power the generator that produces the electrical energy. Osmosis might be used directly to "pump" fresh water out of The Netherlands into the sea. This is currently done using electric pumps.

text: The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and a salinity of 35 g/kg..The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature;these graphs and online calculations plot thermal conductivity for varying salinity and temperature: The salt content can be determined with a salinometer.

text: The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and a salinity of 35 g/kg..The

text: thermal conductivity

text: decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature;these graphs and online calculations plot thermal conductivity for varying salinity and temperature: The salt content can be determined with a

text: salinometer

text: Because metallic magnesium is extracted from brine by an electrolytic process, the economics are sensitive to the cost of electricity. Dow had located their facility on the Texas coast to take advantage of cheap natural gas for electrical generation. In 1951, Norsk Hydro started a magnesium-from-seawater plant at Heroya, Norway, supplied by inexpensive hydroelectricity. The two seawater magnesium plants, in Texas and Norway, provided more than half the world's primary magnesium through the 1950s and 1960s.

text: The 25 year record of ocean carbon measurements at Station ALOHA document that the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) in the mixed layer is increasing at a rate slightly greater than the trend observed in the atmosphere. This has been accompanied by progressive decreases in seawater pH.  Although the effect of anthropogenic CO2 is evidenced by long-term decreases in seawater pH throughout the upper 600 m, the rate of acidification at Station ALOHA varies with depth.  For example, in the upper mesopelagic waters (~160–310 m) pH is decreasing at nearly twice the rate observed in the surface waters. Such depth-dependent differences in acidification are due to a combination of regional differences in time-varying climate signatures, mixing, and changes in biological activity.

text: The 25 year record of ocean carbon measurements at Station ALOHA document that the partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) in the

text: mixed layer

text: is increasing at a rate slightly greater than the trend observed in the atmosphere. This has been accompanied by progressive decreases in seawater pH.  Although the effect of anthropogenic CO2 is evidenced by long-term decreases in seawater pH throughout the upper 600 m, the rate of acidification at Station ALOHA varies with depth.  For example, in the upper mesopelagic waters (~160–310 m) pH is decreasing at nearly twice the rate observed in the surface waters. Such depth-dependent differences in acidification are due to a combination of regional differences in time-varying climate signatures, mixing, and changes in biological activity.

text: The chlorophyll maps show milligrams of chlorophyll per cubic meter of seawater each month. Places where chlorophyll amounts were very low, indicating very low numbers of phytoplankton, are blue. Places where chlorophyll concentrations were high, meaning many phytoplankton were growing, are yellow. The observations come from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Aqua satellite. Land is dark gray, and places where MODIS could not collect data because of sea ice, polar darkness, or clouds are light gray.The highest chlorophyll concentrations, where tiny surface-dwelling ocean plants are thriving, are in cold polar waters or in places where ocean currents bring cold water to the surface, such as around the equator and along the shores of continents. It is not the cold water itself that stimulates the phytoplankton. Instead, the cool temperatures are often a sign that the water has welled up to the surface from deeper in the ocean, carrying nutrients that have built up over time. In polar waters, nutrients accumulate in surface waters during the dark winter months when plants cannot grow. When sunlight returns in the spring and summer, the plants flourish in high concentrations.

text: The chlorophyll maps show milligrams of chlorophyll per cubic meter of seawater each month. Places where chlorophyll amounts were very low, indicating very low numbers of phytoplankton, are blue. Places where chlorophyll concentrations were high, meaning many phytoplankton were growing, are yellow. The observations come from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Aqua satellite. Land is dark gray, and places where MODIS could not collect data because of sea ice, polar darkness, or clouds are light gray.The highest chlorophyll concentrations, where tiny surface-dwelling ocean plants are

text: thriving

text: , are in cold polar waters or in places where ocean currents bring cold water to the surface, such as around the equator and along the shores of continents. It is not the cold water itself that stimulates the phytoplankton. Instead, the cool temperatures are often a sign that the water has welled up to the surface from deeper in the ocean, carrying nutrients that have built up over time. In polar waters, nutrients accumulate in surface waters during the dark winter months when plants cannot grow. When sunlight returns in the spring and summer, the plants flourish in high concentrations.

text: The play opens with a traveling priest asking a local about a memorial he sees. The local explains that the memorial is to the two sisters. This is followed by a scene in which the sisters, ladling seawater into their brinecart at night, become fascinated by the sight of the moon in the water, and try to capture it.

text: The two major ice packs are the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice pack. The most important areas of pack ice are the polar ice packs formed from seawater in the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean. Polar packs significantly change their size during seasonal changes of the year. Because of vast amounts of water added to or removed from the oceans and atmosphere, the behavior of polar ice packs has a significant impact on global changes in climate.

text: The two major ice packs are the

text: Arctic ice pack

text: and the

text: Antarctic ice pack

text: . The most important areas of pack ice are the polar ice packs formed from

text: seawater

text: in the Earth's

text: polar region

text: s: the Arctic ice pack of the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: and the Antarctic ice pack of the

text: Southern Ocean

text: . Polar packs significantly change their size during seasonal changes of the year. Because of vast amounts of water added to or removed from the oceans and

text: atmosphere

text: , the behavior of polar ice packs has a significant impact on global changes in

text: climate

text: The primary sites of gas exchange in marine teleosts, the gills, are also responsible for osmoregulation. Because gills are designed to increase surface area and minimize diffusion distance for gas exchange between the blood and water, they may contribute to the problem of water loss by osmosis and passive salt gain. This is called the osmo-respiratory compromise. To overcome this, tunas constantly drink seawater to compensate for water loss. They excrete highly concentrated urine which is approximately isosmotic to blood plasma, i.e. urine solute to plasma solute ratio is close to 1 (U/P≅1). Because of this, solely excreting urine is not sufficient to resolve the osmoregulatory problem in tunas. In turn, they excrete only the minimum volume of urine necessary to rid of solutes that are not excreted by other routes, and the salt is mostly excreted via gills. This is why the composition of solutes in urine differs significantly from that of the blood plasma. Urine has a high concentration of divalent ions, such as Mg and SO (U/P>>1), as these ions are mostly excreted by the kidneys keeping their concentration in blood plasma from rising. Monovalent ions (Na, Cl, K) are excreted by the gills, so their U/P ratios in the urine are below 1. The excretion of inorganic ions by structures other than kidneys is called the extrarenal salt excretion.

text: The primary sites of gas exchange in marine teleosts, the

text: gills

text: , are also responsible for

text: osmoregulation

text: . Because gills are designed to increase surface area and minimize diffusion distance for gas exchange between the blood and water, they may contribute to the problem of water loss by

text: osmosis

text: and passive salt gain. This is called the osmo-respiratory compromise. To overcome this, tunas constantly drink seawater to compensate for water loss. They excrete highly concentrated urine which is approximately isosmotic to

text: blood plasma

text: , i.e. urine solute to plasma solute ratio is close to 1 (U/P≅1). Because of this, solely excreting urine is not sufficient to resolve the osmoregulatory problem in tunas. In turn, they excrete only the minimum volume of urine necessary to rid of solutes that are not excreted by other routes, and the salt is mostly excreted via gills. This is why the composition of solutes in urine differs significantly from that of the blood plasma. Urine has a high concentration of divalent ions, such as Mg and SO (U/P>>1), as these ions are mostly excreted by the kidneys keeping their concentration in blood plasma from rising. Monovalent ions (Na, Cl, K) are excreted by the gills, so their U/P ratios in the urine are below 1. The excretion of inorganic ions by structures other than kidneys is called the extrarenal salt excretion.

text: As the gauge only measures water pressure, there is an inherent inaccuracy in the depth displayed by gauges that are used in both fresh water and seawater due to the difference in the densities of fresh water and seawater.

text: As the gauge only measures water pressure, there is an inherent inaccuracy in the depth displayed by gauges that are used in both

text: fresh water

text: and

text: seawater

text: due to the difference in the

text: densities

text: of fresh water and seawater.

text: Tarballs may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea currents. The density of tarballs depends on the solids picked up in the weathering process. They can range in density with some being more dense than seawater, which, at 1.025 g/ml, is more dense than the density of fresh water. When the tarballs are less dense than seawater, they can travel over great distances.

text: Tarballs may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea

text: currents

text: . The density of tarballs depends on the solids picked up in the weathering process. They can range in

text: density

text: with some being more dense than

text: seawater

text: , which, at 1.025 g/ml, is more dense than the density of

text: fresh water

text: . When the tarballs are less dense than seawater, they can travel over great distances.

text: Iraq has associated gas that could be used, but it is currently being flared. Another option is to use water for re-injection, and locally available water is currently being used in the south of Iraq. However, fresh water is an important commodity in the Middle East, and large amounts of seawater will likely have to be pumped in via pipelines that have yet to be built. ExxonMobil has coordinated initial studies at water injection plans for many of the fields under development. According to their estimate, 10 -15 million bbl/d of seawater could be necessary for Iraq’s expansion plans, at a cost of over $10 billion.

text: Iraq has associated gas that could be used, but it is currently being flared. Another option is to use water for re-injection, and locally available water is currently being used in the south of Iraq. However, fresh water is an important commodity in the Middle East, and large amounts of seawater will likely have to be pumped in via pipelines that have yet to be built.

text: ExxonMobil

text: has coordinated initial studies at water injection plans for many of the fields under development. According to their estimate, 10 -15 million bbl/d of seawater could be necessary for Iraq’s expansion plans, at a cost of over $10 billion.

text: Voronoi deformation density (VDD) is a method employed in computational chemistry to compute the atomic charge distribution of a molecule in order to provide information about its chemical properties. The method is based on the partitioning of space into non-overlapping atomic areas modelled as Voronoi cells and then computing the deformation density within those cells (i.e. the extent to which electron density differs from that of an unbonded atom).

text: Voronoi deformation density (VDD) is a method employed in

text: computational chemistry

text: to compute the

text: atomic charge

text: distribution of a

text: molecule

text: in order to provide information about its chemical properties. The method is based on the partitioning of space into non-overlapping atomic areas modelled as

text: Voronoi cells

text: and then computing the deformation density within those cells (i.e. the extent to which

text: electron density

text: differs from that of an unbonded atom).

text: Hardie's research topics included evaporites, dolomitization, cyclical deposition of carbonate sediments, and plate tectonic driven changes in seawater chemistry.  In the latter, he proposed that changes in the seafloor spreading rates at mid-ocean ridges have altered the composition of seawater throughout earth history, producing oscillations in the mineralogy of carbonate and evaporite precipitates.  Specifically citing these scientific contributions, the Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM) awarded him the Francis J. Pettijohn Medal in 2003.

text: Hardie's research topics included evaporites, dolomitization, cyclical deposition of carbonate sediments, and plate tectonic driven changes in seawater chemistry.  In the latter, he proposed that changes in the seafloor spreading rates at mid-ocean ridges have altered the composition of seawater throughout earth history, producing oscillations in the mineralogy of carbonate and evaporite precipitates.  Specifically citing these scientific contributions, the

text: Society for Sedimentary Geology

text: (SEPM) awarded him the Francis J. Pettijohn Medal in 2003.

text: Except the thermal shock resistance test all further ISO 6425 testing should be conducted at 18 °C to 25 °C temperature.The required 125% test pressure provides a safety margin against dynamic pressure increase events, water density variations (seawater is 2 to 5% denser than freshwater) and degradation of the seals.

text: Except the thermal shock resistance test all further ISO 6425 testing should be conducted at 18 °C to 25 °C temperature.The required 125% test pressure provides a safety margin against dynamic pressure increase events, water density variations (seawater is 2 to 5% denser than

text: freshwater

text: ) and degradation of the seals.

text: The fluid in the internal compartments where corals grow their exoskeleton is also extremely important for calcification growth. When the saturation rate of aragonite in the external seawater is at ambient levels, the corals will grow their aragonite crystals rapidly in their internal compartments, hence their exoskeleton grows rapidly. If the level of aragonite in the external seawater is lower than the ambient level, the corals have to work harder to maintain the right balance in the internal compartment. When that happens, the process of growing the crystals slows down, and this slows down the rate of how much their exoskeleton is growing. Depending on how much aragonite is in the surrounding water, the corals may even stop growing because the levels of aragonite are too low to pump in to the internal compartment. They could even dissolve faster than they can make the crystals to their skeleton, depending on the aragonite levels in the surrounding water.

text: The fluid in the internal compartments where corals grow their

text: exoskeleton

text: is also extremely important for calcification growth. When the saturation rate of aragonite in the external seawater is at ambient levels, the corals will grow their aragonite crystals rapidly in their internal compartments, hence their exoskeleton grows rapidly. If the level of aragonite in the external seawater is lower than the ambient level, the corals have to work harder to maintain the right balance in the internal compartment. When that happens, the process of growing the crystals slows down, and this slows down the rate of how much their exoskeleton is growing. Depending on how much aragonite is in the surrounding water, the corals may even stop growing because the levels of aragonite are too low to pump in to the internal compartment. They could even dissolve faster than they can make the crystals to their skeleton, depending on the aragonite levels in the surrounding water.

text: Another more-general definition of a density is the  "linear-response density". This is the density that when contractedwith any spin-free, one-electron operator yields the associated property defined as the derivative of the energy.For example, a dipole moment is the derivative of the energy with respect to an external magnetic field andis not the expectation value of the operator over the wavefunction.   For some theories they are the same whenthe wavefunction is converged.  The occupation numbers are not limited to the range of zero to two, and thereforesometimes even the response density can be negative in certain regions of space.

text: Every second, approximately  of water flows into the bay. The exchange with the Gulf of Mexico occurs at Cedar Bayou and Pass Cavallo.  As a result of the seawater exchange, the bay's salinity is 13 parts per thousand (ppt), compared to the seawater average of 35 ppt. There is very little seawater exchange, with most of the bay's waters coming from the freshwater flows of the converged San Antonio and Guadalupe rivers.

text: Cedar Bayou

text: and

text: Pass Cavallo

text: .  As a result of the seawater exchange, the bay's salinity is 13 parts per thousand (ppt), compared to the seawater average of 35 ppt. There is very little seawater exchange, with most of the bay's waters coming from the freshwater flows of the converged

text: San Antonio

text: and

text: Guadalupe

text: rivers.

text: Davies Giddy met Davy in Penzance carelessly swinging on the half-gate of Dr Borlase's house, and interested by his talk invited him to his house at Tredrea and offered him the use of his library. This led to an introduction to Dr Edwards, who lived at Hayle Copper House. Edwards was a lecturer in chemistry in the school of St. Bartholomew's Hospital. He permitted Davy to use his laboratory and possibly directed his attention to the floodgates of the port of Hayle, which were rapidly decaying as a result of the contact between copper and iron under the influence of seawater. Galvanic corrosion was not understood at that time, but the phenomenon prepared Davy's mind for subsequent experiments on ship's copper sheathing. Gregory Watt, son of James Watt, visited Penzance for his health's sake, and while lodging at the Davy's house became a friend and gave him instructions in chemistry. Davy was acquainted with the Wedgwood family, who spent a winter at Penzance.

text: Davies Giddy

text: met Davy in

text: Penzance

text: carelessly swinging on the half-gate of Dr Borlase's house, and interested by his talk invited him to his house at Tredrea and offered him the use of his library. This led to an introduction to Dr Edwards, who lived at Hayle Copper House. Edwards was a lecturer in chemistry in the school of

text: St. Bartholomew's Hospital

text: . He permitted Davy to use his laboratory and possibly directed his attention to the floodgates of the port of

text: Hayle

text: , which were rapidly decaying as a result of the contact between copper and iron under the influence of

text: seawater

text: Galvanic corrosion

text: was not understood at that time, but the phenomenon prepared Davy's mind for subsequent experiments on ship's

text: copper sheathing

text: . Gregory Watt, son of

text: James Watt

text: , visited Penzance for his health's sake, and while lodging at the Davy's house became a friend and gave him instructions in chemistry. Davy was acquainted with the

text: Wedgwood

text: family, who spent a winter at Penzance.

text: The two parent water parcels may have the same density, but they have different properties; for instance, different salinities and temperatures. Seawater almost always gets more dense if it gets either slightly colder or slightly saltier. But medium-warm, medium-salty water can be denser than both fresher, colder water and saltier, warmer water; in other words, the equation of state for seawater is monotonic, but non-linear. See diagram.

text: The two parent water parcels may have the same

text: density

text: , but they have different properties; for instance, different

text: salinities

text: and

text: temperature

text: s. Seawater almost always gets more dense if it gets either slightly colder or slightly saltier. But medium-warm, medium-salty water can be denser than both fresher, colder water and saltier, warmer water; in other words, the equation of state for

text: seawater

text: is

text: monotonic

text: , but

text: non-linear

text: . See diagram.

text: North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is a deep water mass formed in the North Atlantic Ocean.  Thermohaline circulation of the world's oceans involves the flow of warm surface waters from the southern hemisphere into the North Atlantic.  Water flowing northward becomes modified through evaporation and mixing with other water masses, leading to increased salinity.  When this water reaches the North Atlantic it cools and sinks through convection, due to its decreased temperature and increased salinity resulting in increased density.  NADW is the outflow of this thick deep layer, which can be detected by its high salinity, high oxygen content, nutrient minima, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).  CFCs are anthropogenic substances that enter the surface of the ocean from gas exchange with the atmosphere.  This distinct composition allows its path to be traced as it mixes with Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW), which in turn fills the deep Indian Ocean and part of the South Pacific.  NADW and its formation is essential to the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which is responsible for transporting large amounts of water, heat, salt, carbon, nutrients and other substances around the globe.  In the conveyor belt model of thermohaline circulation of the world's oceans, the sinking of NADW pulls the waters of the North Atlantic drift northward; however, this is almost certainly an oversimplification of the actual relationship between NADW formation and the strength of the Gulf Stream/North Atlantic drift.

text: North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) is a deep

text: water mass

text: formed in the North

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: Thermohaline circulation

text: of the world's oceans involves the flow of warm surface waters from the southern hemisphere into the North Atlantic.  Water flowing northward becomes modified through evaporation and mixing with other water masses, leading to increased salinity.  When this water reaches the North Atlantic it cools and sinks through convection, due to its decreased temperature and increased salinity resulting in increased density.  NADW is the outflow of this thick deep layer, which can be detected by its high salinity, high oxygen content, nutrient minima, and

text: chlorofluorocarbon

text: s (CFCs).  CFCs are anthropogenic substances that enter the surface of the ocean from gas exchange with the atmosphere.  This distinct composition allows its path to be traced as it mixes with

text: Circumpolar Deep Water

text: (CDW), which in turn fills the deep

text: Indian Ocean

text: and part of the

text: South Pacific

text: .  NADW and its formation is essential to the

text: Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation

text: (AMOC), which is responsible for transporting large amounts of water, heat, salt, carbon, nutrients and other substances around the globe.  In the conveyor belt model of

text: thermohaline circulation

text: of the world's oceans, the sinking of NADW pulls the waters of the

text: North Atlantic drift

text: northward; however, this is almost certainly an oversimplification of the actual relationship between NADW formation and the strength of the

text: Gulf Stream

text: /North Atlantic drift.

text: The scientific study of water and Earth's water cycle is hydrology; hydrodynamics studies the physics of water in motion. The more recent study of the sea in particular is oceanography. This began as the study of the shape of the ocean's currents but has since expanded into a large and multidisciplinary field: it examines the properties of seawater; studies waves, tides, and currents; charts coastlines and maps the seabeds; and studies marine life. The subfield dealing with the sea's motion, its forces, and the forces acting upon it is known as physical oceanography. Marine biology (biological oceanography) studies the plants, animals, and other organisms inhabiting marine ecosystems. Both are informed by chemical oceanography, which studies the behavior of elements and molecules within the oceans: particularly, at the moment, the ocean's role in the carbon cycle and carbon dioxide's role in the increasing acidification of seawater. Marine and maritime geography charts the shape and shaping of the sea, while marine geology (geological oceanography) has provided evidence of continental drift and the composition and structure of the Earth, clarified the process of sedimentation, and assisted the study of volcanism and earthquakes.

text: The

text: scientific study

text: of

text: water

text: and Earth's

text: water cycle

text: is

text: hydrology

text: hydrodynamics

text: studies the

text: physics

text: of water in motion. The more recent study of the sea in particular is

text: oceanography

text: . This began as the study of the shape of the ocean's

text: currents

text: but has since expanded into a large and

text: multidisciplinary

text: field: it examines the properties of

text: seawater

text: ; studies

text: waves

text: tides

text: , and

text: currents

text: ; charts

text: coastlines

text: and maps the

text: seabeds

text: ; and studies

text: marine life

text: . The subfield dealing with the sea's motion, its forces, and the forces acting upon it is known as

text: physical oceanography

text: Marine biology

text: (biological oceanography) studies the

text: plants

text: animals

text: , and other organisms inhabiting

text: marine ecosystems

text: . Both are informed by

text: chemical oceanography

text: , which studies the behavior of

text: elements

text: and

text: molecules

text: within the oceans: particularly, at the moment, the ocean's role in the

text: carbon cycle

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: 's role in the

text: increasing acidification

text: of seawater. Marine and maritime

text: geography

text: charts the shape and shaping of the sea, while

text: marine geology

text: (geological oceanography) has provided evidence of

text: continental drift

text: and the

text: composition

text: and

text: structure of the Earth

text: , clarified the process of

text: sedimentation

text: , and assisted the study of

text: volcanism

text: and

text: earthquakes

text: The dagger falls into the hands of three rival crime lords - Mustafah Saleh (Uma Baron Khouny), an Arabian millionaire who wants to retrieve the dagger because it is a threat to his family's oil business; Leah (Cass Ponti), a Polynesian princess who wants to retrieve the dagger because they have the seawater resources but not the equipment to turn it into oil; and Purubutu-san (Epi Quizon), a Yakuza head who wants to retrieve the dagger because he has the seawater resources plus the machinery to market it all over the world.

text: An heir to a mighty Austro-Hungarian family of distant French roots (his ancestors came to Austria in 1709), Robert Franz Lamezan-Salins was born August 14, 1869, in Mödling near Vienna to Eduard Graf Lamezan-Salins, a notable statesman and lawyer, president of district court for Vienna and founder of Austrian Olympic Committee. His grandfather was another Austrian general, Anton Graf von Lamezan-Salins.

text: An heir to a mighty Austro-Hungarian family of distant French roots (his ancestors came to Austria in 1709), Robert Franz Lamezan-Salins was born August 14, 1869, in

text: Mödling

text: near Vienna to

text: Eduard Graf Lamezan-Salins

text: , a notable statesman and lawyer, president of district court for Vienna and founder of

text: Austrian Olympic Committee

text: . His grandfather was another Austrian general,

text: Anton Graf von Lamezan-Salins

text: In 1833 Mitscherlich made a series of careful determinations of the vapor densities of a large number of volatile substances, confirming the law of Gay-Lussac. In 1833-34, Mitscherlich investigated the synthesis of diethyl ether from ethanol and sulfuric acid.  Through his careful studies, he realized that the acid was not being consumed during the production of the ether, although the reaction would not proceed unless the acid was present.  After reviewing Mitscherlich's findings, Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius was led to coin the term "catalysis" for the acceleration or enablement of a chemical reaction by a substance that itself was not consumed in the reaction.  He obtained selenic acid in 1827 and showed that its salts are isomorphous with the sulphates, while a few years later he proved that the same thing is true of the manganates and the sulfates, and of the permanganates and the perchlorates. He investigated the relation of benzene to benzoic acid and to other derivatives. As related by Gustav Rose  Mitscherlich turned away from inorganic chemistry (crystallography) and devoted his attention to organic chemistry, starting out with an investigation of fuel and oil. Mitscherlich kept working on problems of organic chemistry until 1845. His interest in mineralogy led him to study the geology of volcanic regions, and he made frequent visits to the Eifel in an attempt to develop a theory on the cause of volcanism. He did not, however, publish any papers on the subject, though after his death his notes were arranged and published by J. L. A. Roth in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy (Ueber die vulkanischen Erscheinungen in der Eifel und über die Metamorphie der Gesteine durch erhöhte Temperatur, Berlin, 1865).

text: In 1833 Mitscherlich made a series of careful determinations of the vapor densities of a large number of volatile substances, confirming the law of

text: Gay-Lussac

text: . In 1833-34, Mitscherlich investigated the synthesis of

text: diethyl ether

text: from

text: ethanol

text: and sulfuric acid.  Through his careful studies, he realized that the acid was not being consumed during the production of the ether, although the reaction would not proceed unless the acid was present.  After reviewing Mitscherlich's findings, Swedish chemist

text: Jöns Jacob Berzelius

text: was led to coin the term "

text: catalysis

text: " for the acceleration or enablement of a chemical reaction by a substance that itself was not consumed in the reaction.  He obtained

text: selenic acid

text: in 1827 and showed that its

text: salt

text: s are isomorphous with the

text: sulphate

text: s, while a few years later he proved that the same thing is true of the

text: manganate

text: s and the sulfates, and of the

text: permanganate

text: s and the

text: perchlorate

text: s. He investigated the relation of

text: benzene

text: to

text: benzoic acid

text: and to other derivatives. As related by

text: Gustav Rose

text: Mitscherlich turned away from inorganic chemistry (crystallography) and devoted his attention to organic chemistry, starting out with an investigation of fuel and oil. Mitscherlich kept working on problems of organic chemistry until 1845. His interest in

text: mineralogy

text: led him to study the

text: geology

text: of

text: volcanic

text: regions, and he made frequent visits to the

text: Eifel

text: in an attempt to develop a theory on the cause of volcanism. He did not, however, publish any papers on the subject, though after his death his notes were arranged and published by J. L. A. Roth in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy (Ueber die vulkanischen Erscheinungen in der Eifel und über die Metamorphie der Gesteine durch erhöhte Temperatur, Berlin, 1865).

text: There is uncertainty attributed to the link between different soil conditions and sites of die-off for several reasons. First, measurements may not be taken in frequent enough intervals to capture brief fluctuations in soil conditions associated with die-off. Second, attributing causation with changing soil conditions and die-off is potentially dubious. Reverse causality is a potential explanation; that is, soil chemistry differences may be a result rather than an agent of die-off. For instance, one study noted higher salinity levels in die-off areas in some months, but this was possibly attributable to altered root or evaporation dynamics due to die-off (Marsh 2007).

text: There is uncertainty attributed to the link between different soil conditions and sites of die-off for several reasons. First, measurements may not be taken in frequent enough intervals to capture brief fluctuations in soil conditions associated with die-off. Second, attributing

text: causation

text: with changing soil conditions and die-off is potentially dubious.

text: Reverse causality

text: is a potential explanation; that is, soil chemistry differences may be a result rather than an agent of die-off. For instance, one study noted higher salinity levels in die-off areas in some months, but this was possibly attributable to altered

text: root

text: or

text: evaporation

text: dynamics due to die-off (Marsh 2007).

text: There may exist proxies for salinity, but to date the main way that salinity has been measured has been by directly measuring chlorinity in pore fluids. Adkins et al. (2002) used pore fluid chlorinity in ODP cores, with the paleo-depth estimated from nearby coral horizons. Chlorinity was measured rather than pure salinity because the major ions in seawater are not constant with depth in the sediment column; for example, sulfate reduction and cation-clay interactions can change overall salinity, whereas chlorinity is not heavily affected.

text: There may exist proxies for salinity, but to date the main way that salinity has been measured has been by directly measuring

text: chlorinity

text: in

text: pore fluid

text: s. Adkins et al. (2002) used pore fluid chlorinity in

text: ODP

text: cores, with the paleo-depth estimated from nearby coral horizons. Chlorinity was measured rather than pure salinity because the major ions in seawater are not constant with depth in the sediment column; for example, sulfate reduction and cation-clay interactions can change overall salinity, whereas chlorinity is not heavily affected.

text: In March 2015, scientists stated that evidence exists for an ancient volume of water that could comprise an ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's Arctic Ocean. This finding was derived from the ratio of water and deuterium in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth and derived from telescopic observations. Eight times as much deuterium was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. The representative atmospheric value obtained from the maps  (7 VSMOW) is not affected by climatological effects as those measured by localized rovers, although the telescopic measurements are within range to the enrichment measured by the Curiosity rover in Gale Crater of 5-7 VSMOW.

text: In March 2015, scientists stated that evidence exists for an ancient volume of water that could comprise an ocean, likely in the planet's northern hemisphere and about the size of Earth's

text: Arctic Ocean

text: . This finding was derived from the ratio of water and

text: deuterium

text: in the modern Martian atmosphere compared to the ratio found on Earth and derived from telescopic observations. Eight times as much

text: deuterium

text: was inferred at the polar deposits of Mars than exists on Earth (VSMOW), suggesting that ancient Mars had significantly higher levels of water. The representative atmospheric value obtained from the maps  (7 VSMOW) is not affected by climatological effects as those measured by localized rovers, although the telescopic measurements are within range to the enrichment measured by the

text: Curiosity

text: rover in

text: Gale Crater

text: of 5-7 VSMOW.

text: is seawater density, Vg is the geostrophic meridional mass transport and

text: Salmon eggs are laid in freshwater streams typically at high latitudes. The eggs hatch into alevin or sac fry. The fry quickly develop into parr with camouflaging vertical stripes. The parr stay for six months to three years in their natal stream before becoming smolts, which are distinguished by their bright, silvery colour with scales that are easily rubbed off. Only 10% of all salmon eggs are estimated to survive to this stage. The smolt body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. Smolts spend a portion of their out-migration time in brackish water, where their body chemistry becomes accustomed to osmoregulation in the ocean.

text: Salmon eggs are laid in freshwater streams typically at high latitudes. The

text: eggs

text: hatch into alevin or sac fry. The fry quickly develop into parr with camouflaging vertical stripes. The parr stay for six months to three years in their natal stream before becoming smolts, which are distinguished by their bright, silvery colour with

text: scales

text: that are easily rubbed off. Only 10% of all salmon eggs are estimated to survive to this stage. The smolt body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. Smolts spend a portion of their out-migration time in brackish water, where their body chemistry becomes accustomed to

text: osmoregulation

text: in the ocean.

text: The hydrodynamic impact of especially waves, tides, storm surges and tsunamis and (often) the harsh environment of salt seawater are typical challenges for the coastal engineer – as are the morphodynamic changes of the coastal topography, caused both by the autonomous development of the system and man-made changes. The areas of interest in coastal engineering include the coasts of the oceans, seas, marginal seas, estuaries and big lakes.

text: The

text: hydrodynamic

text: impact of especially

text: waves

text: tide

text: s,

text: storm surge

text: s and

text: tsunami

text: s and (often) the harsh environment of salt

text: seawater

text: are typical challenges for the coastal engineer – as are the

text: morphodynamic

text: changes of the coastal topography, caused both by the autonomous development of the system and man-made changes. The areas of interest in coastal engineering include the coasts of the

text: ocean

text: s,

text: sea

text: s,

text: marginal sea

text: s,

text: estuaries

text: and big lakes.

text: The level of salinity can also be quite variable. Low salinities can be caused by rainwater or river inputs of freshwater. Estuarine species must be especially euryhaline, or able to tolerate a wide range of salinities. High salinities occur in locations with high evaporation rates, such as in salt marshes and high intertidal pools. Shading by plants, especially in the salt marsh, can slow evaporation and thus ameliorate salinity stress. In addition, salt marsh plants tolerate high salinities by several physiological mechanisms, including excreting salt through salt glands and preventing salt uptake into the roots.

text: The level of

text: salinity

text: can also be quite variable. Low salinities can be caused by rainwater or river inputs of freshwater. Estuarine species must be especially

text: euryhaline

text: , or able to tolerate a wide range of salinities. High salinities occur in locations with high evaporation rates, such as in salt marshes and high intertidal pools. Shading by plants, especially in the salt marsh, can slow evaporation and thus ameliorate salinity stress. In addition, salt marsh plants tolerate high salinities by several physiological mechanisms, including excreting salt through salt glands and preventing salt uptake into the roots.

text: Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Gibraltar strait: that is, an outflow submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current  of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. Herman Sörgel's Atlantropa project proposal in the 1920s proposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Strait of Gibraltar, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was as well intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Marghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).

text: Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the

text: Gibraltar strait

text: : that is, an outflow

text: submarine current

text: of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current  of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. Herman Sörgel's

text: Atlantropa

text: project proposal in the 1920s proposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Strait of Gibraltar, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was as well intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Marghreb part of Africa (compare

text: Eurafrika

text: for the later impact and

text: Desertec

text: for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).

text: Ocean water is mostly HO, with small amounts of HDO and HO.  In Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW) the ratio of D to H is

text: Ocean water is mostly HO, with small amounts of HDO and HO.  In

text: Standard Mean Ocean Water

text: (SMOW) the ratio of D to H is

text: Salinity is an ecological factor of considerable importance, influencing the types of organisms that live in a body of water. As well, salinity influences the kinds of plants that will grow either in a water body, or on land fed by a water (or by a groundwater).  A plant adapted to saline conditions is called a halophyte. A halophyte which is tolerant to residual sodium carbonate salinity are called  glasswort or saltwort or barilla plants. Organisms (mostly bacteria) that can live in very salty conditions are classified as extremophiles, or halophiles specifically. An organism that can withstand a wide range of salinities is euryhaline.

text: Salinity is an ecological factor of considerable importance, influencing the types of organisms that live in a body of water. As well, salinity influences the kinds of

text: plant

text: s that will grow either in a water body, or on land fed by a water (or by a

text: groundwater

text: ).  A plant adapted to saline conditions is called a

text: halophyte

text: . A halophyte which is tolerant to

text: residual sodium carbonate

text: salinity are called

text: glasswort

text: or

text: saltwort

text: or

text: barilla

text: plants. Organisms (mostly bacteria) that can live in very salty conditions are classified as

text: extremophile

text: s, or

text: halophile

text: s specifically. An organism that can withstand a wide range of salinities is

text: euryhaline

text: The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density; rather it increases its mass.

text: The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its

text: specific volume

text: , a term sometimes used in

text: thermodynamics

text: . Density is an

text: intensive property

text: in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density; rather it increases its mass.

text: WateReuse focuses on taking water from sources such as seawater and wastewater and turning them into usable water. The Association part of WateReuse is one of the two branches of the organization that centralizes their efforts into supporting water projects that are finding ways to generate high-quality water from sources such as storm water and seawater. WateReuse Association is a nonprofit trade association that engages in advocacy through legislation and conducts education providing new opportunities for other water reuse communities. WateReuse also focuses on taking wastewater and transforming that into high-quality reclaimed water that can potentially be used for everyday uses such as landscaping and irrigation, as well as drinking water. WateReuse Association highly emphasizes their priorities on educating the public about why reclaimed water should be used, what their benefits are, and reassuring that problems with reclaimed water, such as contamination, will not occur.

text: A seawater greenhouse is a greenhouse structure that enables the growth of crops in arid regions, using  seawater and solar energy. The technique involves pumping seawater (or allowing it to gravitate if below sea level) to an arid location and then subjecting it to two processes: first, it is used to humidify and cool the air, and second, it is evaporated by solar heating and distilled to produce fresh water. Finally, the remaining humidified air is expelled from the greenhouse and used to improve growing conditions for outdoor plants. The technology was introduced by British inventor Charlie Paton in the early 1990s and is being developed by his UK company Seawater Greenhouse Ltd. The more concentrated salt water may either be further evaporated for the production of salt and other elements, or discharged back to the sea. The seawater greenhouse is a response to the global water crisis and peak water.

text: A seawater greenhouse is a

text: greenhouse

text: structure that enables the growth of crops in

text: arid

text: regions, using

text: seawater

text: and

text: solar energy

text: . The technique involves pumping seawater (or allowing it to gravitate if below sea level) to an arid location and then subjecting it to two processes: first, it is used to humidify and cool the air, and second, it is evaporated by solar heating and

text: distilled

text: to produce

text: fresh water

text: . Finally, the remaining humidified air is expelled from the greenhouse and used to improve growing conditions for outdoor plants. The technology was introduced by British inventor Charlie Paton in the early 1990s and is being developed by his

text: UK

text: company Seawater Greenhouse Ltd. The more concentrated salt water may either be further evaporated for the production of salt and other elements, or discharged back to the sea. The seawater greenhouse is a response to the global

text: water crisis

text: and

text: peak water

text: Sea water contains by weight 1.08 percent sodium and 0.129 percent magnesium. The chloride salts of these elements have during centuries been produced from sea water by drying. Dried sea water gel is a blend of oxides, hydroxides and salts of the main elements from sea water. These compounds are recovered by electric generated deposition. The deposit has a low solubility in sea water. In this way an elemental composition has been obtained that qualitatively differ from that found in sea water in the sense that magnesium is more enriched than sodium, and the total share of chloride salts is low [2]. The explanation seems to be that magnesium is enriched both as a hydroxide and as a chloride salt, whereas sodium only is present as the chloride salt. The overall main chemical reactions for the processing of the gel are:

text: Sea water

text: contains by weight 1.08 percent

text: sodium

text: and 0.129 percent

text: magnesium

text: . The

text: chloride

text: salts of these elements have during centuries been produced from sea water by drying. Dried sea water gel is a blend of

text: oxide

text: s,

text: hydroxide

text: s and

text: salts

text: of the main elements from sea water. These compounds are recovered by

text: electric generated deposition

text: . The deposit has a low

text: solubility

text: in sea water. In this way an

text: elemental

text: composition has been obtained that qualitatively differ from that found in sea water in the sense that magnesium is more enriched than sodium, and the total share of chloride salts is low [2]. The explanation seems to be that magnesium is enriched both as a hydroxide and as a chloride salt, whereas sodium only is present as the chloride salt. The overall main chemical reactions for the processing of the gel are:

text: An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several 'separate' oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean.  The deep seabeds are more than half the Earth's surface, and are among the least-modified natural environments.  The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria: these divisions are (in descending order of size) the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.

text: An

text: ocean

text: is a major body of

text: saline water

text: , and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's

text: surface

text: (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a

text: continuous body of water

text: that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller

text: sea

text: s. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic

text: salinity

text: is around 35

text: parts per thousand

text: World Ocean

text: or global ocean.  The deep

text: seabed

text: s are more than half the Earth's surface, and are among the least-modified natural environments.  The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the

text: continent

text: s, various

text: archipelago

text: s, and other criteria: these divisions are (in descending order of size) the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , the

text: Indian Ocean

text: , the

text: Southern Ocean

text: and the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: BRs have also been reported to have a variety of effects when applied to rice seeds (Oryza sativa L.).Seeds treated with BRs were shown to reduce the growth inhibitory effect of salt stress. When the developed plants fresh weight was analyzed the treated seeds outperformed plants grown on saline and non-saline medium however when the dry weight was analyzed BR treated seeds only outperformed untreated plants that were grown on saline medium. When dealing with tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) under salt stress the concentration of cholophyll a and cholophyll b were decreased and thus pigmentation was decreased as well. BR treated rice seeds considerably restored the pigment level in plants that were grown on saline medium when compared to non-treated plants under the same conditions.

text: The isotope composition of seawater (not just the surface water) is mostly in the range of 0-(-10) ‰. The estimates of the δD values for different parts of the oceans across the world are shown on the map.

text: This is a list of bodies of water by salinity that is limited to bodies of water that have a stable salinity above 0.5%, at or below which water is considered fresh. On average, seawater has a salinity of 3.5% (or 35 parts per thousand).

text: Endeavour (depth 2200–2400 m) is a northern segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge which, in turn, is part of the complex, 80,000 km long mid-ocean ridge system spanning the World Ocean. Juan de Fuca Ridge is a medium rate spreading centre (~6 cm/yr) forming the divergent boundary between the Pacific (to the west) and the Juan de Fuca (to the east) tectonic plates . At these divergent boundaries, convection currents in the mantle rise up as magma, emerge through the rifts as lava, and crystallise as new rock (basalts and gabbro). These processes continually create new ocean crust. Hydrothermal vents, which typically form along these mid-ocean ridges, are fissures from which geothermally heated water flows. The water flowing out of vents is dominantly seawater drawn into the system through the faults, porous sediments, and volcanic rocks. As the cool seawater moves through the sediment and rock towards the hot magma, the water becomes super heated (300-400 °C) and rich in dissolved mineral elements (such as sulphur, iron, zinc and copper) from the young ocean crust. When the hot effluent is expelled, it encounters the cold, ambient seawater (about 2 °C) minerals precipitate from the element-rich vent water. At the Endeavour segment, a notably vigorous venting area, black smokers form at the high temperature vents,where the effluent is precipitating iron sulphides.This gives the plumeits dark colour and deposits sulphide-minerals, creating chimneys up to 30 m in height. There are 6 known vent fields with distinct morphologies spaced about 2 km apart along the axial rift valley of the segment.

text: Endeavour (depth 2200–2400 m) is a northern segment of the

text: Juan de Fuca Ridge

text: It is followed by a performance by Dawn Kramer in a video projection environment. Body of Water explores the delicate relationship between human beings and the sea. The earth's surface is covered with about 71% water, with less than 1% of it available to support all living things. The human body is filled with 55%-78% water that is remarkably similar to seawater in its chemical composition. Humans and the sea are deeply connected, yet the negative human impact on our oceans has been vast. The work also continues exploring the mysteries of Buddhist philosophy, questioning the boundaries of "self."

text: At the age of 23 on Baeyer's recommendation, Meyer was engaged by Fehling as his assistant at Stuttgart Polytechnic, but within a year he left to succeed Johannes Wislicenus at Zurich. There he remained for thirteen years, and it was during this period that he devised his well-known method for determining vapour densities, and carried out his experiments on the dissociation of the halogens. In 1882, on the death of Wilhelm Weith (1844-1881), professor of chemistry at Zurich University, he undertook to continue the lectures on benzene derivatives, and this led him to the discovery of thiophen. In 1885 he was chosen to succeed Hans Hübner (1837-1884) in the professorship of chemistry at Göttingen University, where stereo-chemical questions especially engaged his attention; and in 1889, on the resignation of his old master, Bunsen, he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in Heidelberg University. He died on the 8th of August 1897.

text: At the age of 23 on Baeyer's recommendation, Meyer was engaged by

text: Fehling

text: as his assistant at

text: Stuttgart Polytechnic

text: , but within a year he left to succeed

text: Johannes Wislicenus

text: at Zurich. There he remained for thirteen years, and it was during this period that he devised his well-known method for determining vapour densities, and carried out his experiments on the dissociation of the halogens. In 1882, on the death of

text: Wilhelm Weith

text: (1844-1881), professor of chemistry at

text: Zurich University

text: , he undertook to continue the lectures on benzene derivatives, and this led him to the discovery of

text: thiophen

text: . In 1885 he was chosen to succeed

text: Hans Hübner

text: (1837-1884) in the professorship of chemistry at

text: Göttingen University

text: , where stereo-chemical questions especially engaged his attention; and in 1889, on the resignation of his old master, Bunsen, he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in

text: Heidelberg University

text: . He died on the 8th of August 1897.

text: The Bottsand-class oil recovery ships (Type 738) of the German Navy are intended for seawater pollution control. The twin hull ships feature a bow which can be opened by 65 degrees. This creates an area of more than  to collect oil-polluted seawater. The water is pumped into the ship's  tank, where it will be cleaned and the oil separated. Per hour one ship can clean up to  of ocean surface polluted with a  oil slick.

text: The Bottsand-class oil recovery ships (Type 738) of the

text: German Navy

text: are intended for seawater pollution control. The twin hull ships feature a bow which can be opened by 65 degrees. This creates an area of more than  to collect oil-polluted seawater. The water is pumped into the ship's  tank, where it will be cleaned and the oil separated. Per hour one ship can clean up to  of ocean surface polluted with a  oil slick.

text: It is found that the chemistry of a first-row (second period) element often has similarities to the chemistry of the second-row (third period) element being one column to the right of it in the periodic table. Thus, the chemistry of Li has similarities to that of Mg, the chemistry of Be has similarities to that of Al, and the chemistry of B has similarities to that of Si. These are called diagonal relationships. (NB: It is not as noticeable after B and Si)The reasons for the existence of diagonal relationships are not fully understood, but charge density is a factor. For example, Li is a small cation with a +1 charge and Mg is somewhat larger with a +2 charge, so the charge density on each ion is roughly the same.Using the Li–Mg pair:(under room temperature and pressure)

text: In practical terms, the three seawater pH scales differ in their values by up to 0.12 pH units, differences that are much larger than the accuracy of pH measurements typically required, in particular, in relation to the ocean's carbonate system. Since it omits consideration of sulfate and fluoride ions, the free scale is significantly different from both the total and seawater scales. Because of the relative unimportance of the fluoride ion, the total and seawater scales differ only very slightly.

text: In practical terms, the three seawater pH scales differ in their values by up to 0.12 pH units, differences that are much larger than the accuracy of pH measurements typically required, in particular, in relation to the ocean's

text: carbonate system

text: . Since it omits consideration of sulfate and fluoride ions, the free scale is significantly different from both the total and seawater scales. Because of the relative unimportance of the fluoride ion, the total and seawater scales differ only very slightly.

text: In the Kattegat, the salinity has a pronounced two-layer structure. The upper layer has a salinity between 18‰ and 26‰ and the lower layer – separated by a strong halocline at around  – has a salinity between 32‰ and 34‰. The lower layer consists of inflowing seawater from the Skagerrak, with a salinity on level with most other coastal seawaters, while the upper layer consists of inflowing seawater from the Baltic Sea and has a much lower salinity, comparable to brackish water, but still a great deal higher than the rest of the Baltic sea. These two opposing flows transport a net surplus of  seawater from the Baltic to the Skagerrak every year. During stronger winds, the layers in the Kattegat are completely mixed in some places, such as the Great Belt, so the overall salinity is very variable in this small sea. This sets some unique conditions for the sealife here.

text: In the Kattegat, the

text: salinity

text: has a pronounced two-layer structure. The upper layer has a salinity between 18‰ and 26‰ and the lower layer – separated by a strong

text: halocline

text: at around  – has a salinity between 32‰ and 34‰. The lower layer consists of inflowing seawater from the Skagerrak, with a salinity on level with most other coastal seawaters, while the upper layer consists of inflowing seawater from the Baltic Sea and has a much lower salinity, comparable to

text: brackish water

text: , but still a great deal higher than the rest of the

text: Baltic sea

text: . These two opposing flows transport a net surplus of  seawater from the Baltic to the Skagerrak every year. During stronger winds, the layers in the Kattegat are completely mixed in some places, such as the

text: Great Belt

text: , so the overall salinity is very variable in this small sea. This sets some unique conditions for the

text: sealife

text: here.

text: Seawater typically has a mass salinity of around 35 g/kg=35‰, although lower values are typical near coasts where rivers enter the ocean. Rivers and lakes can have a wide range of salinities, from less than 0.01 g/kg to a few g/kg, although there are many places where higher salinities are found. The Dead Sea has a salinity of more than 200 g/kg.

text: Seawater typically has a mass salinity of around 35 g/kg=35‰, although lower values are typical near coasts where rivers enter the ocean. Rivers and lakes can have a wide range of salinities, from less than 0.01 g/kg to a few g/kg, although there are many places where higher salinities are found. The

text: Dead Sea

text: has a salinity of more than 200 g/kg.

text: The Yucatán Peninsula contains a vast coastal aquifer system, which is typically density-stratified. The infiltrating meteoric water (i.e., rainwater) floats on top of higher-density saline water intruding from the coastal margins. The whole aquifer is therefore an anchialine system (one that is land-locked but connected to an ocean). Where a cenote, or the flooded cave to which it is an opening, provides deep enough access into the aquifer, the interface between the fresh and saline water may be reached. The density interface between the fresh and saline waters is a halocline, which means a sharp change in salt concentration over a small change in depth. Mixing of the fresh and saline water results in a blurry swirling effect caused by refraction between the different densities of fresh and saline waters.

text: The Yucatán Peninsula contains a vast coastal

text: aquifer

text: system, which is typically density-stratified. The infiltrating

text: meteoric water

text: (i.e., rainwater) floats on top of higher-

text: density

text: saline water

text: intruding from the coastal margins. The whole aquifer is therefore an

text: anchialine system

text: (one that is land-locked but connected to an ocean). Where a cenote, or the flooded cave to which it is an opening, provides deep enough access into the aquifer, the interface between the fresh and saline water may be reached. The density interface between the fresh and saline waters is a

text: halocline

text: , which means a sharp change in salt concentration over a small change in depth. Mixing of the fresh and saline water results in a blurry swirling effect caused by

text: refraction

text: between the different densities of fresh and saline waters.

text: The species is found in intertidal rocks of saline and estuarine environments with various seawater salinities (35 to 24 PSU).

text: When the journey started at Scarborough Beach, a bottle of seawater from the Indian Ocean was obtained. This water was carried across Australia, before finally being ceremoniously poured into the Pacific Ocean at Sydney.

text: When the journey started at Scarborough Beach, a bottle of seawater from the

text: Indian Ocean

text: was obtained. This water was carried across Australia, before finally being ceremoniously poured into the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: at Sydney.

text: The least expensive source of carbon for recycling into fuel is flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion, where it can be extracted for about US $7.50 per ton. Automobile exhaust gas capture has also been proposed to be economical but would require extensive design changes or retrofitting. Since carbonic acid in seawater is in chemical equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide, extraction of carbon from seawater has been studied. Researchers have estimated that carbon extraction from seawater would cost about $50 per ton. Carbon capture from ambient air is more costly, at between $600 and $1000 per ton and is considered impractical for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration.

text: The least expensive source of carbon for recycling into fuel is

entity_name: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

text: flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

text: , where it can be extracted for about US $7.50 per ton. Automobile exhaust gas capture has also been proposed to be economical but would require extensive design changes or retrofitting. Since carbonic acid in seawater is in

text: chemical equilibrium

text: with atmospheric carbon dioxide, extraction of carbon from seawater has been studied. Researchers have estimated that carbon extraction from seawater would cost about $50 per ton.

text: Carbon capture from ambient air

text: is more costly, at between $600 and $1000 per ton and is considered impractical for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration.

text: Salinity varies from negligible at the northern cusp west of Mandeville up to nearly half the salinity of seawater at its eastern bulge near Interstate 10. Lake Maurepas, a true freshwater lake, connects with Lake Pontchartrain on the west via Pass Manchac. The Industrial Canal connects the Mississippi River with the lake at New Orleans. Bonnet Carré Spillway diverts water from the Mississippi into the lake during times of river flooding.

text: Salinity

text: varies from negligible at the northern cusp west of Mandeville up to nearly half the salinity of

text: seawater

text: at its eastern bulge near

text: Interstate 10

text: Lake Maurepas

text: , a true freshwater lake, connects with Lake Pontchartrain on the west via

text: Pass Manchac

text: . The

text: Industrial Canal

text: connects the

text: Mississippi River

text: with the lake at

text: New Orleans

text: Bonnet Carré Spillway

text: diverts water from the Mississippi into the lake during times of river

text: flood

text: ing.

text: In quantum chemistry, a natural bond orbital or NBO is a calculated bonding orbital with maximum electron density. The NBOs are one of a sequence of natural localized orbital sets that include "natural atomic orbitals" (NAO), "natural hybrid orbitals" (NHO), "natural bonding orbitals" (NBO) and "natural (semi-)localized molecular orbitals" (NLMO). These natural localized sets are intermediate between basis atomic orbitals (AO) and molecular orbitals (MO):

text: In

text: quantum chemistry

text: , a natural bond orbital or NBO is a calculated bonding orbital with maximum electron density. The NBOs are one of a sequence of natural localized orbital sets that include "natural atomic orbitals" (NAO), "natural hybrid orbitals" (NHO), "natural bonding orbitals" (NBO) and "natural (semi-)localized molecular orbitals" (NLMO). These natural localized sets are intermediate between basis atomic orbitals (AO) and molecular orbitals (MO):

text: The Coastal Aquifer is the only source of water in the Gaza strip. It runs beneath the coast of Israel, with Gaza downstream at the end of the basin. With the water flows underground mainly east-west, however, Palestinian extractions from the aquifer have no effect on the Israeli side. Israel, on the contrary, has installed a cordon of  numerous deep wells along the Gaza border and in this way extracts much of the groundwater before it can reach Gaza. Israel sells a limited part of the water to the Palestinians in Gaza. While Israel transports water from the north of its territory to the south, the Palestinians are not allowed to move water from the West Bank to Gaza. This is a reason why this aquifer is heavily over-exploited, resulting in seawater intrusion. The aquifer is polluted by salt as well as nitrate from wastewater infiltration and fertilizers. Only 5-10% of the aquifer yields drinking water quality. By 2000, the water from the Coastal Aquifer in the Gaza region was considered no longer drinkable due to high salinity from the sea water intrusion and high nitrate pollution from agricultural activity.

text: The Coastal Aquifer is the only source of water in the Gaza strip. It runs beneath the coast of Israel, with Gaza downstream at the end of the basin. With the water flows underground mainly east-west, however, Palestinian extractions from the aquifer have no effect on the Israeli side. Israel, on the contrary, has installed a cordon of  numerous deep wells along the Gaza border and in this way extracts much of the groundwater before it can reach Gaza. Israel sells a limited part of the water to the Palestinians in Gaza. While Israel transports water from the north of its territory to the south, the Palestinians are not allowed to move water from the West Bank to Gaza. This is a reason why this aquifer is heavily over-exploited, resulting in seawater intrusion. The aquifer is polluted by salt as well as

text: nitrate

text: from wastewater infiltration and fertilizers. Only 5-10% of the aquifer yields drinking water quality. By 2000, the water from the Coastal Aquifer in the Gaza region was considered no longer drinkable due to high salinity from the sea water intrusion and high nitrate pollution from agricultural activity.

text: Large values of the BLT are typically found in the equatorial regions and can be as high as 50 m.  Above the barrier layer, the well mixed layer may be due to local precipitation exceeding evaporation (e.g. in the western Pacific), monsoon related river runoff (e.g. in the northern Indian Ocean), or advection of salty water subducted in the subtropics (found in all subtropical ocean gyres).  Barrier layer formation in the subtropics is associated with seasonal change in the mixed layer depth, a sharper gradient in sea surface salinity (SSS) than normal, and subduction across this SSS front.    In particular, the barrier layer is formed in winter season in the equatorward flank of subtropical salinity maxima.  During early winter, the atmosphere cools the surface and strong wind and negative buoyancy forcing mixes temperature to a deep layer.  At this same time, fresh surface salinity is advected from the rainy regions in the tropics.  The deep temperature layer along with strong stratification in the salinity gives the conditions for barrier layer formation.

text: Large values of the BLT are typically found in the equatorial regions and can be as high as 50 m.  Above the barrier layer, the well mixed layer may be due to local precipitation exceeding evaporation (e.g. in the western Pacific), monsoon related river runoff (e.g. in the northern Indian Ocean), or

text: advection

text: of salty water subducted in the subtropics (found in all subtropical

text: ocean gyre

text: s).  Barrier layer formation in the subtropics is associated with seasonal change in the mixed layer depth, a sharper gradient in sea surface salinity (SSS) than normal, and subduction across this SSS front.    In particular, the barrier layer is formed in winter season in the equatorward flank of subtropical salinity maxima.  During early winter, the atmosphere cools the surface and strong wind and negative buoyancy forcing mixes temperature to a deep layer.  At this same time, fresh surface salinity is advected from the rainy regions in the tropics.  The deep temperature layer along with strong stratification in the salinity gives the conditions for barrier layer formation.

text: With the exception of the molluscs, whose shells often comprise both forms, most lineages use just one form of the mineral. The form used appears to reflect the seawater chemistry – thus which form was more easily precipitated – at the time that the lineage first evolved a calcified skeleton, and does not change thereafter. However, the relative abundance of calcite- and aragonite-using lineages does not reflect subsequent seawater chemistry – the magnesium/calcium ratio of the oceans appears to have a negligible impact on organisms' success, which is instead controlled mainly by how well they recover from mass extinctions. A recently discovered modern gastropod Chrysomallon squamiferum that lives near deep-sea hydrothermal vents illustrates the influence of both ancient and modern local chemical environments: its shell is made of aragonite, which is found in some of the earliest fossil mollusks; but it also has armor plates on the sides of its foot, and these are mineralized with the iron sulfides pyrite and greigite, which had never previously been found in any metazoan but whose ingredients are emitted in large quantities by the vents.

text: With the exception of the molluscs, whose shells often comprise both forms, most lineages use just one form of the mineral. The form used appears to reflect the seawater chemistry – thus which form was more easily precipitated – at the time that the lineage first evolved a calcified skeleton, and does not change thereafter. However, the relative abundance of calcite- and aragonite-using lineages does not reflect subsequent seawater chemistry – the magnesium/calcium ratio of the oceans appears to have a negligible impact on organisms' success, which is instead controlled mainly by how well they recover from mass extinctions. A recently discovered modern

text: gastropod

text: Chrysomallon squamiferum

text: that lives near deep-sea

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s illustrates the influence of both ancient and modern local chemical environments: its shell is made of aragonite, which is found in some of the earliest fossil mollusks; but it also has armor plates on the sides of its foot, and these are mineralized with the iron sulfides

text: pyrite

text: and

text: greigite

text: , which had never previously been found in any

text: metazoan

text: but whose ingredients are emitted in large quantities by the vents.

text: The engine(s) get required cooling from liquid-to-liquid heat exchangers connected to fresh seawater or divertible to recirculate through tanks of seawater in the engine room. Both supplies draw heat from the engines via the coolant and oil lines. Heat exchangers are plumbed in so that oil is represented by a yellow mark on the flange of the pipes, and relies on paper type gaskets to seal the mating faces of the pipes. Sea water, or brine, is represented by a green mark on the flanges and internal coolant is represented by blue marks on the flanges.

text: However, recent technical advances allow the use of natural heat pump refrigerants that have very low global warming potential (GWP). CO2 refrigerant (R744, GWP=1) or ammonia (R717, GWP=0) also have the benefit, depending on operating conditions, of resulting in higher heat pump efficiency than conventional refrigerants. An example is a 14 MW(thermal) district heating network in Drammen, Norway which is supplied by seawater-source heatpumps that use R717 refrigerant, and has been operating since 2011. 90 °C water is delivered to the district loop (and returns at 65 °C). Heat is extracted from seawater (from  depth) that is 8 to 9 °C all year round, giving an average coefficient of performance (COP) of about 3.15. In the process the seawater is chilled to 4 °C; however, this resource is not utilized. In a district system where the chilled water could be utilized for air conditioning, the effective COP would be considerably higher.

text: However, recent technical advances allow the use of natural heat pump refrigerants that have very low global warming potential (GWP). CO2 refrigerant (R744, GWP=1) or ammonia (R717, GWP=0) also have the benefit, depending on operating conditions, of resulting in higher heat pump efficiency than conventional refrigerants. An example is a 14 MW(thermal) district heating network in

text: Drammen, Norway

text: which is supplied by seawater-source heatpumps that use R717 refrigerant, and has been operating since 2011. 90 °C water is delivered to the district loop (and returns at 65 °C). Heat is extracted from seawater (from  depth) that is 8 to 9 °C all year round, giving an average coefficient of performance (COP) of about 3.15. In the process the seawater is chilled to 4 °C; however, this resource is not utilized. In a district system where the chilled water could be utilized for air conditioning, the effective COP would be considerably higher.

text: The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m, depending on the temperature and salinity. Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m or higher. Seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s, and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure.

text: The

text: density

text: of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m, depending on the temperature and salinity. Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m or higher. Seawater

text: pH

text: is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The

text: speed of sound

text: in seawater is about 1,500 m/s, and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure.

text: The carbonate chemistry of seawater can be manipulated using different approaches to mimic future conditions. It is possible to directly inject gases (pure CO or CO-enriched air) but this is more difficult than delivering water to achieve precise pH control. Current FOCE systems lower pH using metered addition of CO-enriched seawater into the experimental chambers. pH is controlled as a constant pH offset relative to ambient values, maintaining natural variability, or as a constant value.

text: The deterioration of coral reefs is mainly linked to human activities – 88% of reefs are threatened through various reasons as listed above, including excessive amounts of  (carbon dioxide) emissions. Oceans absorb approximately 1/3 of the  produced by humans, which has detrimental effects on the marine environment. The increasing levels of  in oceans change the seawater chemistry by decreasing the pH.  This process is also known as ocean acidification. Acidification negatively affects the carbonate buffering system and drops the carbonate saturation by 30%, which results in a decrease in reef calcification. Reductions in calcification have negative implications on calcifiers, such as corals and shellfish. Some examples include diminishing coral resilience from bleaching, decreasing organisms' ability to fight off predators, inhibiting their potential to compete for food, and altering behavior patterns. When the bottom of the food web declines tremendously due to acidification, the food web and the whole marine conservation effort is jeopardized. Although humans cause the greatest threat to the marine environment, they also have the ability to create effective management plans that will be the key to successful marine conservation. Although the most widely known conservation tool is the MPA, one of the best marine conservation tools simply stems from smarter individual choices made in efforts to reduce  emissions on a daily basis.

text: The deterioration of coral reefs is mainly linked to human activities – 88% of reefs are threatened through various reasons as listed above, including excessive amounts of  (

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) emissions. Oceans absorb approximately 1/3 of the  produced by humans, which has detrimental effects on the marine environment. The increasing levels of  in oceans change the seawater chemistry by decreasing the

text: pH

text: .  This process is also known as

text: ocean acidification

text: . Acidification negatively affects the

text: carbonate

text: buffering system and drops the carbonate saturation by 30%, which results in a decrease in reef calcification. Reductions in calcification have negative implications on calcifiers, such as corals and shellfish. Some examples include diminishing coral resilience from bleaching, decreasing organisms' ability to fight off predators, inhibiting their potential to compete for food, and altering behavior patterns. When the bottom of the food web declines tremendously due to acidification, the food web and the whole marine conservation effort is jeopardized. Although humans cause the greatest threat to the marine environment, they also have the ability to create effective management plans that will be the key to successful marine conservation. Although the most widely known conservation tool is the MPA, one of the best marine conservation tools simply stems from smarter individual choices made in efforts to reduce  emissions on a daily basis.

text: Drinking water is provided by a combination of rainwater harvesting and seawater desalination. A reverse osmosis seawater desalination plant was commissioned in 1996 and can supply up to 1.3 million litres of potable water per day. The plant's seawater intake is driven by two vertical turbine pumps installed on a purpose made jetty. Waste brine is discharged to a pit where it gravitates to an ocean outfall away from the seawater intake.

text: Mulliken charges arise from the Mulliken population analysis and provide a means of estimating partial atomic charges from calculations carried out by the methods of computational chemistry, particularly those based on the linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method, and are routinely used as variables in linear regression (QSAR) procedures. The method was developed by Robert S. Mulliken, after whom the method is named. If the coefficients of the basis functions in the molecular orbital are C for the μ'th basis function in the i'th molecular orbital, the density matrix terms are:

text: Mulliken charges arise from the Mulliken population analysis and provide a means of estimating

text: partial atomic charges

text: from calculations carried out by the methods of

text: computational chemistry

text: , particularly those based on the

text: linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method

text: , and are routinely used as variables in linear regression (QSAR) procedures. The method was developed by

text: Robert S. Mulliken

text: , after whom the method is named. If the coefficients of the

text: basis functions

text: in the molecular orbital are C for the μ'th basis function in the i'th molecular orbital, the density matrix terms are:

text: Wind blowing over the surface of the sea causes friction at the interface between air and sea. Not only does this cause waves to form but it also makes the surface seawater move in the same direction as the wind. Although winds are variable, in any one place they predominantly blow from a single direction and thus a surface current can be formed. Westerly winds are most frequent in the mid-latitudes while easterlies dominate the tropics. When water moves in this way, other water flows in to fill the gap and a circular movement of surface currents known as a gyre is formed. There are five main gyres in the world's oceans: two in the Pacific, two in the Atlantic, and one in the Indian Ocean. The North Atlantic gyre that produces the Sargasso Sea accumulates salinity levels as high as 38‰. Other smaller gyres are found in lesser seas and a single gyre flows around Antarctica. These gyres have followed the same routes for millennia, guided by the topography of the land, the wind direction, and the Coriolis effect. The surface currents flow in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The water moving away from the equator is warm, while that flowing towards it has lost most of its heat. These currents tend to moderate the Earth's climate, cooling the equatorial region, and warming regions at higher latitudes. Global climate and weather forecasts are powerfully affected by the world ocean, so global climate modelling makes use of ocean circulation models as well as models of other major components such as the atmosphere, land surfaces, aerosols, and sea ice. Ocean models make use of a branch of physics, geophysical fluid dynamics, that describes the large-scale flow of fluids such as seawater.

text: Wind blowing over the surface of the sea causes

text: friction

text: at the interface between air and sea. Not only does this cause waves to form but it also makes the surface seawater move in the same direction as the wind. Although winds are variable, in any one place they predominantly blow from a single direction and thus a surface current can be formed. Westerly winds are most frequent in the mid-latitudes while easterlies dominate the tropics. When water moves in this way, other water flows in to fill the gap and a circular movement of surface currents known as a

text: gyre

text: is formed. There are five main gyres in the world's oceans: two in the Pacific, two in the Atlantic, and one in the Indian Ocean. The North Atlantic gyre that produces the

text: Sargasso Sea

text: accumulates salinity levels as high as 38‰. Other smaller gyres are found in lesser seas and a single gyre flows around

text: Antarctica

text: . These gyres have followed the same routes for millennia, guided by the

text: topography

text: of the land, the wind direction, and the

text: Coriolis effect

text: . The surface currents flow in a clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The water moving away from the equator is warm, while that flowing towards it has lost most of its heat. These currents tend to moderate the Earth's climate, cooling the equatorial region, and warming regions at higher latitudes. Global climate and

text: weather forecasts

text: are powerfully affected by the world ocean, so

text: global climate model

text: ling makes use of

text: ocean circulation models

text: as well as models of other major components such as the

text: atmosphere

text: , land surfaces, aerosols, and sea ice. Ocean models make use of a branch of physics,

text: geophysical fluid dynamics

text: , that describes the large-scale flow of fluids such as seawater.

text: Seawater desalination in Australia is the desalination of, or removal of salt from, seawater in Australia.

text: Seawater desalination in Australia is the

text: desalination

text: of, or removal of salt from, seawater in

text: Australia

text: ° S. The saline conditions tolerated by various species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (30 to 40 ppt), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 90 ppt). There are many mangrove species, not all closely related. The term "mangrove" is used generally to cover all of these species, and it can be used narrowly to cover just mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora.

text: ° S. The saline conditions tolerated by various species range from

text: brackish water

text: , through pure

text: seawater

text: (30 to 40

text: ppt

text: ), to water concentrated by

text: evaporation

text: to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 90 ppt). There are many mangrove species, not all closely related. The term "mangrove" is used generally to cover all of these species, and it can be used narrowly to cover just mangrove trees of the genus

text: Rhizophora

text: Approximately 450,000 metric tons of bromine are produced each year. Fifty percent of all bromine produced is produced in the United States, 35% in Israel, and most of the remainder in China. Historically, bromine was produced by adding sulfuric acid and bleaching powder to natural brine. However, in modern times, bromine is produced by electrolysis, a method invented by Herbert Dow. It is also possible to produce bromine by passing chlorine through seawater and then passing air through the seawater.

text: Approximately 450,000 metric tons of bromine are produced each year. Fifty percent of all bromine produced is produced in the

text: United States

text: , 35% in

text: Israel

text: , and most of the remainder in

text: China

text: . Historically, bromine was produced by adding

text: sulfuric acid

text: and bleaching powder to natural brine. However, in modern times, bromine is produced by electrolysis, a method invented by

text: Herbert Dow

text: . It is also possible to produce bromine by passing chlorine through seawater and then passing air through the seawater.

text: It was built by philanthropist and civic leader Herbert Fleishhacker in 1924, and opened April 22, 1925. The pool measured , held  of seawater, and accommodated 10,000 bathers. The pool was so large the lifeguards required rowboats for patrol, and was used by the military for drills and exercises. The pool water was pumped from the Pacific Ocean, filtered and heated.  The pool's heater could warm  of seawater from 60 degrees to 75 degrees Fahrenheit each minute. This resulted in a constant pool water temperature of 72 degrees for AAU swim meets.

text: It was built by

text: philanthropist

text: and

text: civic

text: leader

text: Herbert Fleishhacker

text: in 1924, and opened April 22, 1925. The pool measured , held  of

text: seawater

text: , and accommodated 10,000 bathers. The pool was so large the lifeguards required rowboats for patrol, and was used by the military for drills and exercises. The pool water was pumped from the Pacific Ocean, filtered and heated.  The pool's heater could warm  of seawater from 60 degrees to 75 degrees Fahrenheit each minute. This resulted in a constant pool water temperature of 72 degrees for AAU swim meets.

text: Oceanographers use the Practical Salinity Scale (PSS) to measure salinity based on measurements of temperature, pressure and seawater conductivity and create a ratio. The PSS compares the conductivity ratio of a sample of seawater to a standard KCl solution. The oceanic average sea surface salinity is about 35 PSS (or 3.5% salt) and varies globally from 32 to 37 PSS. The Aquarius mission goal is to measure changes in salinity of 0.2 PSS.

text: Oceanographers use the

text: Practical Salinity Scale

text: (PSS) to measure salinity based on measurements of temperature, pressure and seawater conductivity and create a ratio. The PSS compares the conductivity ratio of a sample of seawater to a standard KCl solution. The oceanic average sea surface salinity is about 35 PSS (or 3.5% salt) and varies globally from 32 to 37 PSS. The Aquarius mission goal is to measure changes in salinity of 0.2 PSS.

text: Although the parameter is notionally expressed using a complex number, the density is still a density over the real line. In particular the density can be written using the real-valued parameters μ and σ, which can each take positive or negative values, as

text: The lake water's salinity is approx. 0.6%— compared to 3.5% salinity of typical seawater— and, although the lake level is still currently some 8 metres (26 ft) higher than in medieval times, its level now drops by approximately 5 cm per year due to water diversion.

text: The lake water's

text: salinity

text: is approx. 0.6%— compared to 3.5% salinity of typical

text: seawater

text: — and, although the lake level is still currently some 8 metres (26 ft) higher than in medieval times, its level now drops by approximately 5 cm per year due to water diversion.

text: Anisakis species have complex life cycles which pass through a number of hosts through the course of their lives. Eggs hatch in seawater, and larvae are eaten by crustaceans, usually euphausids. The infected crustacean is subsequently eaten by a fish or squid, and the nematode burrows into the wall of the gut and encysts in a protective coat, usually on the outside of the visceral organs, but occasionally in the muscle or beneath the skin. The life cycle is completed when an infected fish is eaten by a marine mammal, such as a whale, seal, or dolphin. The nematode excysts in the intestine, feeds, grows, mates and releases eggs into the seawater in the host's feces. As the gut of a marine mammal is functionally very similar to that of a human, Anisakis species are able to infect humans who eat raw or undercooked fish.

text: Anisakis species have complex

text: life cycle

text: s which pass through a number of hosts through the course of their lives. Eggs hatch in seawater, and

text: larva

text: e are eaten by crustaceans, usually

text: euphausids

text: . The infected crustacean is subsequently eaten by a fish or squid, and the nematode burrows into the wall of the

text: gut

text: and

text: encysts

text: in a protective coat, usually on the outside of the

text: viscera

text: l organs, but occasionally in the

text: muscle

text: or beneath the

text: skin

text: . The life cycle is completed when an infected fish is eaten by a marine mammal, such as a

text: whale

text: seal

text: , or

text: dolphin

text: . The nematode excysts in the intestine, feeds, grows, mates and releases eggs into the seawater in the host's

text: feces

text: . As the gut of a marine mammal is functionally very similar to that of a human, Anisakis species are able to infect humans who eat raw or undercooked fish.

text: The following equations demonstrate the relative contributions of each component to the alkalinity of a typical seawater sample. Contributions are in μmolkg−soln and are obtained from A Handbook of Methods for the analysis of carbon dioxide parameters in seawater ","(Salinity = 35 g/kg, pH = 8.1, Temperature = 25 °C).

text: Artificial seawater (abbreviated ASW) is a mixture of dissolved mineral salts (and sometimes vitamins) that simulates seawater. Artificial seawater is primarily used in marine biology and in marine and reef aquaria, and allows the easy preparation of media appropriate for marine organisms (including algae, bacteria, plants and animals). From a scientific perspective, artificial seawater has the advantage of reproducibility over natural seawater.

text: Artificial seawater (

text: abbreviated

text: ASW) is a mixture of dissolved

text: mineral salts

text: (and sometimes

text: vitamin

text: s) that simulates

text: seawater

text: . Artificial seawater is primarily used in

text: marine biology

text: and in

text: marine

text: and

text: reef aquaria

text: , and allows the easy preparation of

text: media

text: appropriate for marine

text: organism

text: s (including

text: algae

text: bacteria

text: plant

text: s and

text: animal

text: s). From a

text: scientific perspective

text: , artificial seawater has the advantage of

text: reproducibility

text: over natural seawater.

text: Advancements at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the University of Alabama, as published in a 2012 issue of the American Chemical Society, towards the extraction of uranium from seawater have focused on increasing the biodegradability of the process and reducing the projected cost of the metal if it was extracted from the sea on an industrial scale. The researchers' improvements include using electrospun Shrimp shell Chitin mats that are more effective at absorbing uranium when compared to the prior record setting Japanese method of using plastic amidoxime nets. As of 2013 only a few kilograms (picture available) of uranium have been extracted from the ocean in pilot programs and it is also believed that the uranium extracted on an industrial scale from the seawater would constantly be replenished from uranium leached from the ocean floor, maintaining the seawater concentration at a stable level. In 2014, with the advances made in the efficiency of seawater uranium extraction, a paper in the journal of Marine Science & Engineering suggests that with, light water reactors as its target, the process would be economically competitive if implemented on a large scale. In 2016 the global effort in the field of research was the subject of a special issue in the journal of Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research.

text: Advancements at

text: Oak Ridge National Laboratory

text: and the

text: University of Alabama

text: , as published in a 2012 issue of the

text: American Chemical Society

text: , towards the extraction of uranium from seawater have focused on increasing the biodegradability of the process and reducing the projected cost of the metal if it was extracted from the sea on an industrial scale. The researchers' improvements include using electrospun

text: Shrimp

text: shell

text: Chitin

text: mats that are more effective at absorbing uranium when compared to the prior record setting Japanese method of using plastic

text: amidoxime

text: nets. As of 2013 only a few kilograms (picture available) of uranium have been extracted from the ocean in

text: pilot program

text: s and it is also believed that the uranium extracted on an industrial scale from the seawater would constantly be replenished from uranium

text: leached

text: from the ocean floor, maintaining the seawater concentration at a stable level. In 2014, with the advances made in the efficiency of seawater uranium extraction, a paper in the journal of Marine Science & Engineering suggests that with, light water reactors as its target, the process would be

text: economically competitive if implemented on a large scale

text: . In 2016 the global effort in the field of research was the subject of a special issue in the journal of Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research.

text: Meinrat O. Andreae studied chemistry, mineralogy, and geochemistry at the Universities of Karlsruhe and Göttingen. In his diploma thesis, he studied the chemical composition and isotope geochemistry of highly metamorphic rocks of southern Norway. In 1977, he completed his PhD in oceanography from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California at San Diego. In his doctoral thesis, he examined the chemical speciation of arsenic in the ocean. He discovered that planktonic algae regulate the oxidation state of arsenic in seawater and synthesize a variety of organoarsenic compounds. A secondary discovery of his work was that marine phytoplankton also manufactures the raw materials for the volatile sulfur compound dimethyl sulfide.

text: Meinrat O. Andreae studied

text: chemistry

text: mineralogy

text: , and

text: geochemistry

text: at the Universities of

text: Karlsruhe

text: and

text: Göttingen

text: . In his diploma thesis, he studied the chemical composition and isotope geochemistry of highly

text: metamorphic

text: rocks of southern

text: Norway

text: . In 1977, he completed his PhD in

text: oceanography

text: from the

text: Scripps Institution of Oceanography

text: at the

text: University of California at San Diego

text: . In his doctoral thesis, he examined the chemical

text: speciation

text: of arsenic in the ocean. He discovered that planktonic algae regulate the oxidation state of arsenic in seawater and synthesize a variety of organoarsenic compounds. A secondary discovery of his work was that marine

text: phytoplankton

text: also manufactures the raw materials for the volatile sulfur compound

text: dimethyl sulfide

text: Marina Barrage also acts as a tidal barrier to keep seawater out, helping to alleviate flooding in low-lying areas of the city such as Chinatown, Jalan Besar and Geylang.

text: Marina Barrage also acts as a tidal barrier to keep seawater out, helping to alleviate flooding in low-lying areas of the city such as

text: Chinatown

text: Jalan Besar

text: and

text: Geylang

text: Certain ships of the United States Navy adopted the use of the hydrometer in the 1850s. Readings taken of the density of seawater contributed to research into the dynamics of ocean currents.

text: Certain ships of the

text: United States Navy

text: adopted the use of the

text: hydrometer

text: in the 1850s. Readings taken of the

text: density

text: of

text: seawater

text: contributed to research into the dynamics of

text: ocean current

text: s.

text: The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense layer in the polymer matrix—either the skin of an asymmetric membrane or an interfacially polymerized layer within a thin-film-composite membrane—where the separation occurs. In most cases, the membrane is designed to allow only water to pass through this dense layer, while preventing the passage of solutes (such as salt ions). This process requires that a high pressure be exerted on the high concentration side of the membrane, usually 2–17 bar (30–250 psi) for fresh and brackish water, and 40–82 bar (600–1200 psi) for seawater, which has around 27 bar (390 psi) natural osmotic pressure that must be overcome. This process is best known for its use in desalination (removing the salt and other minerals from sea water to get fresh water), but since the early 1970s, it has also been used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial, and domestic applications.

text: The membranes used for reverse osmosis have a dense layer in the polymer matrix—either the skin of an asymmetric membrane or an interfacially polymerized layer within a thin-film-composite membrane—where the separation occurs. In most cases, the membrane is designed to allow only water to pass through this dense layer, while preventing the passage of solutes (such as salt ions). This process requires that a high pressure be exerted on the high concentration side of the membrane, usually 2–17

text: bar

text: psi

text: ) for fresh and brackish water, and 40–82 bar (600–1200 psi) for seawater, which has around 27 bar (390 psi) natural osmotic pressure that must be overcome. This process is best known for its use in

text: desalination

text: (removing the salt and other minerals from

text: sea water

text: to get

text: fresh water

text: ), but since the early 1970s, it has also been used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial, and domestic applications.

text: The Victorian Railways rail tractors are a small shunting unit used by the Victorian Railways of Australia for moving railway wagons in at country stations and private sidings. Varying in power output and size, they are agricultural tractors on top of a four wheeled steel rail wagon frame. Unit 54 is a one off unit acquired from the Portland Harbour Trust who used it on their private siding.

text: The Victorian Railways rail tractors are a small

text: shunting unit

text: used by the

text: Victorian Railways

text: of

text: Australia

text: for moving

text: railway wagons

text: in at country stations and private sidings. Varying in power output and size, they are

text: agricultural tractors

text: on top of a four wheeled steel

text: rail wagon

text: frame. Unit 54 is a one off unit acquired from the Portland Harbour Trust who used it on their private siding.

text: Including some of his famous students and colleagues: Ahmet Kanneci, Fazıl Say.

text: Including some of his famous students and colleagues: Ahmet Kanneci,

text: Fazıl Say

text: All games were played at the Mall of Asia Arena in Pasay, Philippines.

text: All games were played at the

text: Mall of Asia Arena

text: in

text: Pasay

text: Philippines

text: Nutrients that have accumulated on the canopy from dry deposition or animal feces are able to directly enter the soil through stemflow. When precipitation occurs, canopy nutrients are leached into the water because of the differences in nutrient concentration between the tree and the rainfall. Conversely, nutrients are taken up by the tree when concentration is lower in the canopy than the rainfall, the presence of epiphytes or lichens also contributes to uptake. The nutrients that enter the soil can also reflect the particular environmental conditions around them, for example, plants located in industrialized areas exhibit higher rates of sulfur and nitrogen (from air pollution), whereas those located near the oceans have higher rates of sodium (from seawater).

text: Nutrient

text: s that have accumulated on the canopy from dry

text: deposition

text: or animal

text: feces

text: are able to directly enter the

text: soil

text: through stemflow. When precipitation occurs, canopy nutrients are

text: leached

text: into the water because of the differences in nutrient

text: concentration

text: between the tree and the rainfall. Conversely, nutrients are taken up by the tree when concentration is lower in the canopy than the rainfall, the presence of

text: epiphyte

text: s or

text: lichen

text: s also contributes to uptake. The nutrients that enter the soil can also reflect the particular environmental conditions around them, for example, plants located in

text: industrialized

text: areas exhibit higher rates of

text: sulfur

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: (from

text: air pollution

text: ), whereas those located near the

text: ocean

text: s have higher rates of

text: sodium

text: (from

text: seawater

text: In mathematics, and specifically differential geometry, a density is a spatially varying quantity on a differentiable manifold which can be integrated in an intrinsic manner. Abstractly, a density is a section of a certain trivial line bundle, called the density bundle. An element of the density bundle at x is a function  that assigns a volume for the parallelotope spanned by the n given tangent vectors at x.

text: In

text: mathematics

text: , and specifically

text: differential geometry

text: , a density is a spatially varying quantity on a

text: differentiable manifold

text: which can be

text: integrated

text: in an intrinsic manner. Abstractly, a density is a

text: section

text: of a certain

text: trivial

text: line bundle

text: , called the density bundle. An element of the density bundle at x is a function  that assigns a volume for the

text: parallelotope

text: spanned by the n given tangent vectors at x.

text: The young Dharmapala helped Colonel Olcott in his work, particularly by acting as his translator. Dharmapala also became quite close to Madame Blavatsky, who advised him to study Pāli and to work for the good of humanity - which is what he did. It was at this time that he changed his name to Dharmapala (meaning "Guardian of the Dharma").

text: The young Dharmapala helped Colonel Olcott in his work, particularly by acting as his translator. Dharmapala also became quite close to

text: Madame Blavatsky

text: , who advised him to study

text: Pāli

text: and to work for the good of humanity - which is what he did. It was at this time that he changed his name to Dharmapala (meaning "Guardian of the

text: Dharma

text: The land was purchased by the National Trust for Scotland  in the 1930s using money donated by the Scottish Mountaineering Club. It was later found out that most of the money came from the SMC's then chair, Percy Unna. He laid out a number of conditions, known as the "Unna Principles" regarding how the NTS should manage the estate with regards to Access and maintaining the wild nature of the land. The building of a visitor centre caused some controversy, as some felt this to be a contravention of Unna's "Principles". The original centre was later closed, and a new one built further west, down the glen on land not part of the original purchase.

text: The land was purchased by the

text: National Trust for Scotland

text: in the 1930s using money donated by the Scottish Mountaineering Club. It was later found out that most of the money came from the SMC's then chair, Percy Unna. He laid out a number of conditions, known as the "Unna Principles" regarding how the NTS should manage the estate with regards to Access and maintaining the wild nature of the land. The building of a visitor centre caused some controversy, as some felt this to be a contravention of Unna's "Principles". The original centre was later closed, and a new one built further west, down the glen on land not part of the original purchase.

text: The Inflorescences are terminal, ca. 3  cm, the bracts small. The male flowers are usually many per bract, the bud globose, ca. 2  mm in diameter, the petals narrow and small. The female flowers are usually solitary, at the base of the inflorescence. Fl. Jun-Aug.

text: The

text: Inflorescence

text: s are terminal, ca. 3  cm, the bracts small. The male flowers are usually many per bract, the bud globose, ca. 2  mm in diameter, the petals narrow and small. The female flowers are usually solitary, at the base of the inflorescence. Fl. Jun-Aug.

text: Bellos is a regular guest on radio and television programmes, contributing to discussions on many topics including equality, human rights and feminism.

text: Short subjects

text: Short subjects

text: There are three distinctly different layers of ocean water - Surface Sea Water, Deep Ocean Water (DOW) and Very Deep Ocean Water.  Each layer remains separate and autonomous from the others, moving at different speeds and directions from different kinetic forces and having different temperatures, densities and life form status.

text: In the show Brienne is quite different in personality, being more ready to kill and even taking glee in it, while in the books she has only ever killed in self-defense and doesn't take pleasure in it.

text: It has been announced that Estelle is joining Gareth Evan's Berandal, the sequel of 2012 hit The Raid: Redemption as Hammer Girl, a female fighter proficient in silat harimau. Gareth Evans was impressed with her acting during the casting test and decided to choose her in spite of her lack of martial arts background. For the role of Hammer Girl, she trained in pencak silat under Yayan Ruhian who is also the co-choreographer of the film.

text: It has been announced that Estelle is joining

text: Gareth Evan

text: 's

text: Berandal

text: , the sequel of 2012 hit

text: The Raid: Redemption

text: as Hammer Girl, a female fighter proficient in silat harimau. Gareth Evans was impressed with her acting during the casting test and decided to choose her in spite of her lack of martial arts background. For the role of Hammer Girl, she trained in

text: pencak silat

text: under

text: Yayan Ruhian

text: who is also the co-choreographer of the film.

text: Since 1984, Niedzwiedz has worked as a journalist and television host in Germany, starting with moderation of Sat.1 magazine Treibstoff. Since 1997, he moderates n-tv Motor.

text: Since 1984, Niedzwiedz has worked as a journalist and television host in Germany, starting with moderation of

text: magazine Treibstoff. Since 1997, he moderates

text: n-tv

text: Motor.

text: His drawings of Persepolis, a city destroyed by Alexander the Great, caused a sensation. The mayor of Amsterdam Nicolaes Witsen and a member of the Royal Society probably asked him to draw the city famous for its 40 columns. For a century, they were the best prints available to western scholars. De Bruijn was accused of plagiarism and his second book, Reizen over Moskovie was not such a success. From Amsterdam he fled to Vianen.

text: His drawings of Persepolis, a city destroyed by

text: Alexander the Great

text: , caused a sensation. The mayor of Amsterdam

text: Nicolaes Witsen

text: and a member of the

text: Royal Society

text: probably asked him to draw the city famous for its 40 columns. For a century, they were the best prints available to western scholars. De Bruijn was accused of

text: plagiarism

text: and his second book, Reizen over Moskovie was not such a success. From Amsterdam he fled to

text: Vianen

text: Boselli and Mark Brunell helped found an Every Nation church in Jacksonville, Southpoint Community Church, and both are active in Champions for Christ.

text: Boselli and Mark Brunell helped found an

text: Every Nation

text: church in Jacksonville, Southpoint Community Church, and both are active in

text: Champions for Christ

text: Late in his career, he was President of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research.  When he retired from the latter position in 1978, the Board established the Colin Syme Fellowship Fund, to nurture the career development of a talented young investigator within the Institute.

text: is a Japanese shōjo manga artist. She debuted in 1964 with Pia no Shouzou in Shōjo Friend, for which she received Kodansha New Faces award. She has received multiple awards, including the 1982 Kodansha Manga Award for general manga for Karyūdo no Seiza (Constellation of the Hunter) and a Lifetime Works and Cultural Activities award from the Japan Ministry of Culture and Science in 2006.

text: is a

text: Japanese

text: shōjo

text: manga artist

text: . She debuted in 1964 with Pia no Shouzou in

text: Shōjo Friend

text: , for which she received Kodansha New Faces award. She has received multiple awards, including the 1982

text: Kodansha Manga Award

text: for general

text: manga

text: for

text: Karyūdo no Seiza

text: (Constellation of the Hunter) and a Lifetime Works and Cultural Activities award from the Japan Ministry of Culture and Science in 2006.

text: While the damage in Granite Falls was generally limited to that of F-2 and F-3 storms, the extent of the damage at the corner of 9th Avenue and 14th Street caused the National Weather Service to classify it as an F-4 storm.

text: While the damage in Granite Falls was generally limited to that of F-2 and F-3 storms, the extent of the damage at the corner of 9th Avenue and 14th Street caused the

text: National Weather Service

text: to classify it as an F-4 storm.

text: The agency is headed by its director Akim Badalov and it resides in the Government House in Baku.

text: The agency is headed by its director

text: Akim Badalov

text: and it resides in the

text: Government House

text: in

text: Baku

text: Granville Craig was a prominent Cherokee farmer living near Welch and Bluejacket, Indian Territory, in the late nineteenth century. Craig County, Oklahoma is named after him.

text: Granville Craig was a prominent

text: Cherokee

text: farmer living near

text: Welch

text: and

text: Bluejacket

text: Indian Territory

text: , in the late nineteenth century.

text: Craig County, Oklahoma

text: is named after him.

text: Co-curricular activities include fun fairs, picnics, camps, workshops, debates, scouts, guides and NCC.

text: Comets, trans-Neptunian objects or water-rich meteoroids (protoplanets) from the outer reaches of the asteroid belt colliding with Earth may have brought water to the world's oceans. Measurements of the ratio of the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and protium point to asteroids, since similar percentage impurities in carbon-rich chondrites were found in oceanic water, whereas previous measurement of the isotopes' concentrations in comets and trans-Neptunian objects correspond only slightly to water on Earth.

text: Comet

text: s,

text: trans-Neptunian object

text: s or water-rich

text: meteoroid

text: s (

text: protoplanet

text: s) from the outer reaches of the

text: asteroid belt

text: colliding with Earth may have brought water to the world's oceans. Measurements of the ratio of the

text: hydrogen

text: isotope

text: s

text: deuterium

text: and

text: protium

text: point to

text: asteroid

text: s, since similar percentage impurities in carbon-rich

text: chondrites

text: were found in oceanic water, whereas previous measurement of the isotopes' concentrations in comets and trans-Neptunian objects correspond only slightly to water on Earth.

text: W-CDMA has also been adapted for use in satellite communications on the U.S. Mobile User Objective System using geosynchronous satellites in place of cell towers.

text: W-CDMA has also been adapted for use in satellite communications on the U.S.

text: Mobile User Objective System

text: using geosynchronous satellites in place of cell towers.

text: Panstrongylus tupynambai Lent, 1942  (Tc)

text: Changes in ocean chemistry can have extensive direct and indirect effects on organisms and their habitats. One of the most important repercussions of increasing ocean acidity relates to the production of shells and plates out of calcium carbonate (). This process is called calcification and is important to the biology and survival of a wide range of marine organisms. Calcification involves the precipitation of dissolved ions into solid  structures, such as coccoliths. After they are formed, such structures are vulnerable to dissolution unless the surrounding seawater contains saturating concentrations of carbonate ions (CO).

text: Changes in ocean chemistry can have extensive direct and indirect effects on organisms and their habitats. One of the most important repercussions of increasing ocean acidity relates to the production of shells and plates out of

text: calcium carbonate

text: (). This process is called calcification and is important to the biology and survival of a wide range of marine organisms. Calcification involves the

text: precipitation

text: of dissolved ions into solid  structures, such as

text: coccolith

text: s. After they are formed, such structures are vulnerable to

text: dissolution

text: unless the surrounding seawater contains

text: saturating

text: concentrations of carbonate ions (CO).

text: On November 9, 2007, in the Central Broward Regional Park, the Main Event cricket field was opened, and on May 22, 2010, became the first ground to host an international between two full members of the ICC on U.S. soil. The park features many other sports venues as well.

text: On November 9, 2007, in the

text: Central Broward Regional Park

text: , the Main Event

text: cricket field

text: was opened, and on May 22, 2010, became the first ground to host an international between two full members of the

text: ICC

text: on U.S. soil. The park features many other sports venues as well.

text: A well-known English rhyme about the stinging nettle is:

text: Interdependent networks have markedly different percolation properties than single-networks.

text: Interdependent networks have markedly different

text: percolation

text: properties than single-networks.

text: The County Borough of Preston wards of Ashton, Avenham, Christ Church, Maudland, St John's, St Peter's, and Trinity, and the Urban District of Walton-le-Dale.

text: The Moss brothers arrive at a mill town near Pittsburgh, where they get work in the steel mill and live together in a bunkhouse with the other workers of the mill. On their time off Chinatown and Melody go to a Mexican madam named Sugar Mama where they meet Sugar Mama’s niece Anna, whom Melody becomes infatuated with.

text: Oxygen dissolves more readily in water than nitrogen, and in freshwater more readily than seawater. Water in equilibrium with air contains approximately 1 molecule of dissolved  for every 2 molecules of  (1:2), compared with an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. The solubility of oxygen in water is temperature-dependent, and about twice as much (14.6 mg·L) dissolves at 0 °C than at 20 °C (7.6 mg·L). At 25 °C and  of air, freshwater contains about 6.04 milliliters (mL) of oxygen per liter, and seawater contains about 4.95 mL per liter. At 5 °C the solubility increases to 9.0 mL (50% more than at 25 °C) per liter for water and 7.2 mL (45% more) per liter for sea water.

text: Oxygen

text: dissolves

text: more readily in water than nitrogen, and in freshwater more readily than seawater. Water in equilibrium with air contains approximately 1 molecule of dissolved  for every 2 molecules of  (1:2), compared with an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. The solubility of oxygen in water is temperature-dependent, and about twice as much (14.6 mg·L) dissolves at 0 °C than at 20 °C (7.6 mg·L). At 25 °C and  of air, freshwater contains about 6.04

text: milliliters

text: (mL) of oxygen per

text: liter

text: , and

text: seawater

text: contains about 4.95 mL per liter. At 5 °C the solubility increases to 9.0 mL (50% more than at 25 °C) per liter for water and 7.2 mL (45% more) per liter for sea water.

text: The solute content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as total dissolved solids and other constituents dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms interact with their environment. Salt content, or salinity, is the most basic measure of water conditions. An aquarium may have freshwater (salinity below 500 parts per million), simulating a lake or river environment; brackish water (a salt level of 500 to 30,000 PPM), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as estuaries; and salt water or seawater (a salt level of 30,000 to 40,000 PPM), simulating an ocean environment. Rarely, higher salt concentrations are maintained in specialized tanks for raising brine organisms.

text: The

text: solute

text: total dissolved solids

text: and other constituents dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms interact with their environment. Salt content, or

text: salinity

text: , is the most basic measure of water conditions. An aquarium may have

text: freshwater

text: (salinity below 500 parts per million), simulating a lake or river environment;

text: brackish water

text: (a salt level of 500 to 30,000 PPM), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as

text: estuaries

text: ; and salt water or

text: seawater

text: (a salt level of 30,000 to 40,000 PPM), simulating an ocean environment. Rarely, higher salt concentrations are maintained in specialized tanks for raising brine organisms.

text: Notothenioidei is one of 18 suborders from the order Perciformes and includes Antarctic fish and sub-Antarctic fish. Notothenioids are distributed mainly throughout the Southern Ocean around the coasts of New Zealand, South America, and Antarctica. The main seawater temperatures between −2 and 4 °C (28 and 39 °F), but some the subpolar species inhabit waters that may be as warm as 10 °C (50 °F) around New Zealand and South America. Seawater temperatures below the freezing point of fresh water (0 °C or 32 °F) are possible due to the dissolved salts.

text: Notothenioidei is one of 18 suborders from the order

text: Perciformes

text: and includes

text: Antarctic fish

text: and sub-Antarctic fish. Notothenioids are distributed mainly throughout the Southern Ocean around the coasts of

text: New Zealand

text: , South America, and

text: Antarctica

text: . The main seawater temperatures between −2 and 4 °C (28 and 39 °F), but some the subpolar species inhabit waters that may be as warm as 10 °C (50 °F) around

text: New Zealand

text: and South America. Seawater temperatures below the freezing point of fresh water (0 °C or 32 °F) are possible due to the dissolved salts.

text: In 1981, Amir Caldeira and Anthony J. Leggett proposed a simple model to study in detail the way dissipation arises from a quantum point of view. It describes a quantum particle in one dimension coupled to a bath. The Hamiltonian reads:

text: In 1981,

text: Amir Caldeira

text: and

text: Anthony J. Leggett

text: proposed a simple model to study in detail the way dissipation arises from a quantum point of view. It describes a quantum particle in one dimension coupled to a bath. The Hamiltonian reads:

text: Data obtained from Lange's Handbook of Chemistry, 10th ed. The annotation, d a °C/b °C, indicates density of solution at temperature a divided by density of pure water at temperature b.