text: Daniel "Danny" Ocean is a fictional character in the original Ocean's 11, its 2001 remake, and the two films that followed the remake (Ocean's Twelve in 2004 and Ocean's Thirteen in 2007). The character was portrayed by Frank Sinatra in the original film, and by George Clooney in the remake trilogy. Danny is the only character that appears in all four Ocean's films as he is the protagonist of the series.

text: Daniel "Danny" Ocean is a

entity_name: Character (arts)

text: fictional character

text: in the original

entity_name: Ocean's 11

text: Ocean's 11

text: , its

entity_name: Ocean's Eleven

text: 2001 remake

text: , and the

entity_name: Sequel

text: two films

text: that followed the remake (

entity_name: Ocean's Twelve

text: Ocean's Twelve

text: in 2004 and

entity_name: Ocean's Thirteen

text: Ocean's Thirteen

text: in 2007). The character was portrayed by

entity_name: Frank Sinatra

text: Frank Sinatra

text: in the original film, and by

entity_name: George Clooney

text: George Clooney

text: in

entity_name: Ocean's Trilogy

text: the remake trilogy

text: . Danny is the only character that appears in all four Ocean's films as he is the

entity_name: Protagonist

text: protagonist

text: of the series.

text: The black cardinal fish is a deepwater bentho-pelagic fish that is found on continental slopes, undersea ridges and seamounts in the northern Atlantic, ranging from Iceland to the Canary Islands and the Corner Rise Seamounts. It is also found in the southeastern Atlantic, including the Walvis Ridge off southwestern Africa, the Indian Ocean and the southwestern Pacific Ocean.

text: The black cardinal fish is a deepwater bentho-pelagic fish that is found on

text: continental slope

text: s, undersea ridges and

entity_name: Seamount

text: seamount

text: s in the northern Atlantic, ranging from Iceland to the Canary Islands and the

entity_name: Corner Rise Seamounts

text: Corner Rise Seamounts

text: . It is also found in the southeastern Atlantic, including the

entity_name: Walvis Ridge

text: Walvis Ridge

text: off southwestern Africa, the Indian Ocean and the southwestern Pacific Ocean.

text: Periods of intense cold have also been suggested as a barrier to the evolution of multicellular life.The earliest known embryos, from China's Doushantuo Formation, appear just a million years after the Earth emerged from a global glaciation, suggesting that ice cover and cold oceans may have prevented the emergence of multicellular life. Potentially, complex life may have evolved before these glaciations, and been wiped out. However, the diversity of life in modern Antarctica has sparked disagreement over whether cold temperatures increase or decrease the rate of evolution.

entity_name: Glacial period

text: Periods of intense cold

text: have also been suggested as a barrier to the evolution of multicellular life.The earliest known embryos, from China's

entity_name: Doushantuo Formation

text: Doushantuo Formation

text: , appear just a million years after the Earth emerged from a

entity_name: Snowball Earth

text: global glaciation

text: , suggesting that ice cover and cold oceans may have prevented the emergence of multicellular life. Potentially, complex life may have evolved before these glaciations, and been wiped out. However, the diversity of life in modern Antarctica has sparked disagreement over whether cold temperatures increase or decrease the rate of evolution.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: Aquarium Finisterrae (Aquarium of the end of the World) is an aquarium located in A Coruña, Galicia, Spain. It is an interactive centre of the sciences of marine biology, oceanography and the sea in general. It tries to promote learning about the ocean and to teach people to be more caring toward marine life.

text: Aquarium Finisterrae (Aquarium of the end of the World) is an aquarium located in

entity_name: A Coruña

text: A Coruña

entity_name: Galicia (Spain)

text: Galicia

entity_name: Spain

text: Spain

text: . It is an interactive centre of the sciences of

entity_name: Marine biology

text: marine biology

entity_name: Oceanography

text: oceanography

text: and the sea in general. It tries to promote learning about the ocean and to teach people to be more caring toward marine life.

text: Ocean biomass, in a reversal of terrestrial biomass, can increase at higher trophic levels. In the ocean, the food chain typically starts with phytoplankton, and follows the course:

text: This book has no words, but is told in pictures. A boy is at the beach and finds an old camera. He takes the film to get it developed, and sees photos of fantastical undersea cities and inventions.  The last picture is the most interesting, though: it's of a girl, who is holding a photo of a child, who is holding a photo of a child, who is holding a photo of a child, and so on.  The boy figures out that he is one in a long line of photographers who have found this camera.  He takes a picture of himself holding this photo and tosses the camera back into the ocean; it is carried across the ocean by a variety of fish and sea life, until it again washes ashore and another child finds it.

text: With the opening of new outlets in the US slowing and with overseas growth occurring at a slow pace (there were only 61 overseas locations in 15 countries by 2001), Blimpie launched a new diversification effort in the late 1990s. The first such initiative came late in 1997 when the company acquired a 75 percent stake in Maui Tacos, a fast-food chain with six units in Hawaii. This concept featured traditional quick-service Mexican food, such as burritos, tacos, and quesadillas, but with a Hawaiian twist, such as meat marinated in pineapple, lime, and other Hawaiian flavorings. Under Blimpie's majority ownership, Maui Tacos was soon introduced to the mainland, and by 2001 there were 15 such units in nine states and the District of Columbia.

text: Peracarid crustaceans, including isopods, are known to form a significant part of the macrobenthic community that is responsible for scavenging on large food falls onto the sea floor. In 2000, scientists of the Diversity of the deep Atlantic benthos (DIVA 1) expedition (cruise M48/1 of the German research vessel RV Meteor III) discovered and collected three new species of the Asellota suborder of benthic isopods from the abyssal plains of the Angola Basin in the South Atlantic Ocean. In 2003, De Broyer et al. collected some 68,000 peracarid crustaceans from 62 species from baited traps deployed in the Weddell Sea, Scotia Sea, and off the South Shetland Islands. They found that about 98% of the specimens belonged to the amphipod superfamily Lysianassoidea, and 2% to the isopod family Cirolanidae. Half of these species were collected from depths of greater than 1000 meters.

entity_name: Peracarida

text: Peracarid

text: crustaceans, including isopods, are known to form a significant part of the macrobenthic community that is responsible for scavenging on large food falls onto the sea floor. In 2000, scientists of the Diversity of the deep Atlantic benthos (DIVA 1) expedition (cruise M48/1 of the German research vessel RV Meteor III) discovered and collected three new species of the

entity_name: Asellota

text: Asellota

entity_name: Order (biology)

entity_section: Hierarchy of ranks

text: suborder

text: of

text: benthic

text: isopods from the abyssal plains of the

entity_name: Angola Basin

text: Angola Basin

text: in the South

entity_name: Atlantic Ocean

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: . In 2003, De Broyer et al. collected some 68,000 peracarid crustaceans from 62 species from baited traps deployed in the

entity_name: Weddell Sea

text: Weddell Sea

entity_name: Scotia Sea

text: Scotia Sea

text: , and off the

entity_name: South Shetland Islands

text: South Shetland Islands

text: . They found that about 98% of the specimens belonged to the

entity_name: Amphipoda

text: amphipod

entity_name: Taxonomic rank

text: superfamily

entity_name: Lysianassidae

text: Lysianassoidea

text: , and 2% to the isopod family

entity_name: Cirolanidae

text: Cirolanidae

text: . Half of these species were collected from depths of greater than 1000 meters.

text: Oceanic nekton comprised animals largely from three clades

text: Oceanic nekton comprised animals largely from three

entity_name: Clade

text: clade

text: s

text: The SCAR Southern Ocean Continuous Plankton Recorder (SO-CPR) Survey was established in 1991 by the Australian Antarctic Division,of Environment, Water Heritage and the Arts, to map the spatial-temporal patterns of zooplankton and then to use the sensitivity of plankton to environmental change as early warning indicators of the health of the Southern Ocean. It also serves as reference for other Southern Ocean and Antarctic monitoring programs.

text: The SCAR Southern Ocean Continuous Plankton Recorder (SO-CPR) Survey was established in 1991 by the Australian Antarctic Division,of Environment, Water Heritage and the Arts, to map the spatial-temporal patterns of

entity_name: Zooplankton

text: zooplankton

text: and then to use the sensitivity of

entity_name: Plankton

text: plankton

text: to environmental change as early warning indicators of the health of the

entity_name: Southern Ocean

text: Southern Ocean

text: . It also serves as reference for other Southern Ocean and Antarctic monitoring programs.

text: At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine life resources provide food (especially food fish), medicines, and raw materials. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in very fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such as Earth's respiration, and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean). Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen cycle, and are involved in the regulation of the Earth's climate. Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land.

text: At a fundamental level, marine life helps determine the very nature of our planet. Marine life resources provide food (especially

entity_name: Fishery

text: food fish

text: ), medicines, and raw materials. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in very fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the

entity_name: Carbon cycle

text: carbon cycle

text: ) and of air (such as

entity_name: General circulation model

text: Earth's respiration

text: , and movement of energy through

entity_name: Ecosystem

text: ecosystem

text: s including the ocean). Marine organisms contribute significantly to the

entity_name: Oxygen cycle

text: oxygen cycle

text: , and are involved in the regulation of the Earth's

entity_name: Climate

text: climate

entity_name: Shore

text: Shoreline

text: s are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new land.

text: The mollusc was a fast moving nektonic carnivore and had an average shell width of 8.5 mm and shell diameter of 18.8 mm.

text: The match/mismatch hypothesis was coined by Cushing as a result of noticeable variations in fish stock recruitment.  The hypothesis focused on the timing, as a function of climate, of the blooms of primary producers (i.e. phytoplankton). Blooms of phytoplankton directly influence the increased population sizes of zooplankton, as the phytoplankton are the primary food source for zooplankton.  Most pelagic fish, in their larval stages, feed directly upon the phytoplankton and zooplankton.  So as logic follows, large populations of phytoplankton will support large populations of zooplankton, and the presence of both will sustain larval fishes.  As Cushing noticed, however, there are climatic influences where temperature anomalies will inhibit phytoplankton blooms, or impact the range of the bloom.  When such events occur, they will have cascading effects that will influence the ability for larval fish to develop, thus reducing the number of fish that recruit into an existing population.  With the previously mentioned events, the "match" portion of the hypothesis occurs when plankton blooms occur just prior the hatching of the fish larvae.  In a "match" situation, the fish larvae are able to feed on large quantities of plankton, thus increasing their potential for successful recruitment.  The "mismatch" portion of the hypothesis occurs when plankton blooms occur either earlier than usual, later than usual, or simply in far lesser quantities than expected.  As a result, there are less prey for the fish larvae to feed upon, and the success of a recruitment event in severely diminished.

text: The

entity_name: Match/mismatch

text: match/mismatch hypothesis

text: was coined by Cushing as a result of noticeable variations in

entity_name: Fish stock

text: fish stock

text: recruitment.  The hypothesis focused on the timing, as a function of climate, of the

entity_name: Algal bloom

text: bloom

text: s of

entity_name: Primary producers

text: primary producer

text: s (i.e.

entity_name: Phytoplankton

text: phytoplankton

text: ). Blooms of phytoplankton directly influence the increased population sizes of

text: zooplankton

text: , as the phytoplankton are the primary food source for zooplankton.  Most

entity_name: Pelagic fish

text: pelagic fish

text: "Sweet Life" is a song by American singer Frank Ocean, released as the third single from his debut studio album Channel Orange (2012). The song was written and produced by Ocean and Pharrell Williams, member of the production duo The Neptunes. The track was released on July 6, 2012, when Ocean posted a download of the song onto his Tumblr account, and it debuted on iTunes on July 12. The song features a vocal loop, warm horn sections and lush, tropical production. The song explores a disillusionment and wealth within Ladera Heights and lyrically explores a narrative of people wasting their life away on the beach and Ocean's desire not to involve himself with such a life. The song draws inspiration from Ocean's own early life.

text: "Sweet Life" is a song by American singer

entity_name: Frank Ocean

text: Frank Ocean

text: , released as the third single from his debut studio album

entity_name: Channel Orange

text: Channel Orange

text: (2012). The song was written and produced by Ocean and

entity_name: Pharrell Williams

text: Pharrell Williams

text: , member of the production duo

entity_name: The Neptunes

text: The Neptunes

text: . The track was released on July 6, 2012, when Ocean posted a download of the song onto his

entity_name: Tumblr

text: Tumblr

text: account, and it debuted on

entity_name: ITunes

text: iTunes

text: on July 12. The song features a vocal loop, warm

entity_name: Horn section

text: horn section

text: s and lush, tropical production. The song explores a disillusionment and wealth within

entity_name: Ladera Heights, California

text: Ladera Heights

text: and lyrically explores a narrative of people wasting their life away on the beach and Ocean's desire not to involve himself with such a life. The song draws inspiration from Ocean's own early life.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: Ichthyoplankton (planktonic or drifting fish) are the eggs and larvae of fish. They are usually found in the sunlit zone of the water column, less than 200 metres deep, sometimes called the epipelagic or photic zone. Ichthyoplankton are planktonic, meaning they cannot swim effectively under their own power, but must drift with ocean currents. Fish eggs cannot swim at all, and are unambiguously planktonic. Early stage larvae swim poorly, but later stage larvae swim better and cease to be planktonic as they grow into juveniles. Fish larvae are part of the zooplankton that eat smaller plankton, while fish eggs carry their own food supply. Both eggs and larvae are themselves eaten by larger animals.

entity_name: Ichthyoplankton

text: Ichthyoplankton

text: (planktonic or drifting fish) are the

entity_name: Roe

text: eggs

text: and

entity_name: Larva

text: larvae

text: of fish. They are usually found in the sunlit zone of the

entity_name: Water column

text: water column

text: , less than 200 metres deep, sometimes called the

entity_name: Pelagic zone

entity_section: Epipelagic (sunlight)

text: epipelagic

text: or

entity_name: Photic zone

text: photic zone

text: . Ichthyoplankton are

text: planktonic

text: , meaning they cannot swim effectively under their own power, but must drift with ocean currents. Fish eggs cannot swim at all, and are unambiguously planktonic. Early stage larvae swim poorly, but later stage larvae swim better and cease to be planktonic as they grow into juveniles. Fish larvae are part of the

text: zooplankton

text: that eat smaller plankton, while fish eggs carry their own food supply. Both eggs and larvae are themselves eaten by larger animals.

text: Panthalassa (Greek πᾶν "all" and θάλασσα "sea"), also known as the Panthalassic Ocean, was the vast global ancestral Pacific ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea, during the late Paleozoic and the early Mesozoic eras. It included the Pacific Ocean to the west and north and the Tethys Ocean to the southeast. It became the Pacific Ocean, following the closing of the Tethys basin and the breakup of Pangaea, which created the Atlantic, Arctic, and Indian Ocean basins. The Panthalassic is often called the Paleo-Pacific ("old Pacific") because the Pacific Ocean developed from it in the Mesozoic to the present.

text: Panthalassa (

entity_name: Ancient Greek

text: Greek

text: πᾶν

text: "all" and

text: θάλασσα

text: "sea"), also known as the Panthalassic Ocean, was the vast global ancestral Pacific

entity_name: Ocean

text: ocean

text: that surrounded the

entity_name: Supercontinent

text: supercontinent

entity_name: Pangaea

text: Pangaea

text: , during the late

entity_name: Paleozoic

text: Paleozoic

text: and the early

entity_name: Mesozoic

text: Mesozoic

text: eras. It included the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: to the west and north and the

text: Tethys Ocean

text: to the southeast. It became the Pacific Ocean, following the closing of the Tethys basin and the breakup of Pangaea, which created the

text: Atlantic

text: Arctic

text: , and

text: Indian Ocean

text: basins. The Panthalassic is often called the Paleo-Pacific ("old Pacific") because the Pacific Ocean developed from it in the

text: Mesozoic

text: to the present.

text: Many species are economically important to humans, including both finfish and shellfish. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such as Earth's respiration, and movement of energy through ecosystems including the ocean). Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored.

text: Many species are economically important to humans, including both finfish and shellfish. It is also becoming understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in fundamental ways. The human body of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is rapidly growing, with new discoveries being made nearly every day. These cycles include those of matter (such as the

text: carbon cycle

text: ) and of air (such as

text: Earth's respiration

text: , and movement of energy through

text: ecosystem

text: s including the ocean). Large areas beneath the ocean surface still remain effectively unexplored.

text: Toxic chemicals are not the only human health concern to take into considerations; the others are cellulose acetate and carbon particles that are breathed in while smoking. These particles are suspected of causing lung damage. The next health concern is that of plants. Under certain growing conditions, plants on average grow taller and have longer roots than those exposed to cigarette filters in the soil.  A connection exists between cigarette filters introduced to soil and the depletion of some soil nutrients over a period time.Another health concern to the environment is not only the toxic carcinogens that are harmful to the wildlife, but also the filters themselves pose an ingestion risk to wildlife that may presume filter litter as food.The last major health concern to make note of for marine life is the toxicity that deep marine topsmelt and fathead minnow pose to their predators.  This could lead to toxin build-up (bioaccumulation) in the food chain and have long reaching negative effects.Smoldering cigarette filters have also been blamed for triggering fires from residential areas to major wildfires and bushfires which has caused major property damage and also death as well as disruption to services by triggering alarms and warning systems.

text: Toxic chemicals are not the only human health concern to take into considerations; the others are cellulose acetate and carbon particles that are breathed in while smoking. These particles are suspected of causing lung damage. The next health concern is that of plants. Under certain growing conditions, plants on average grow taller and have longer roots than those exposed to cigarette filters in the soil.  A connection exists between cigarette filters introduced to soil and the depletion of some soil nutrients over a period time.Another health concern to the environment is not only the toxic carcinogens that are harmful to the wildlife, but also the filters themselves pose an ingestion risk to wildlife that may presume filter litter as food.The last major health concern to make note of for marine life is the toxicity that deep marine topsmelt and fathead minnow pose to their predators.  This could lead to toxin build-up (

text: bioaccumulation

text: ) in the food chain and have long reaching negative effects.Smoldering cigarette filters have also been blamed for triggering fires from residential areas to major

text: wildfire

text: s and

text: bushfires

text: which has caused major property damage and also death as well as disruption to services by triggering alarms and warning systems.

text: Mode of life (or lifestyle, modus vivendi) is a concept related to habit, and it sometimes is referred to as the habit of an animal. It may refer to the locomotor capabilities, as in "(motile habit", sessile, errant, sedentary), feeding behaviour and mechanisms, nutrition mode (free-living, parasitic, holozoic, saprotrophic, trophic type), type of habitat (terrestrial, arboreal, aquatic, marine, freshwater, seawater, benthic, pelagic, nektonic, planktonic, etc.),  period of activity (diurnal, nocturnal), types of ecological interaction, etc.

text: Mode of life (or lifestyle, modus vivendi) is a concept related to habit, and it sometimes is referred to as the habit of an animal. It may refer to the

text: locomotor

text: capabilities, as in "(

text: motile

text: habit",

text: sessile

text: , errant, sedentary),

text: feeding behaviour

text: and mechanisms, nutrition mode (free-living,

text: parasitic

text: holozoic

text: saprotrophic

text: trophic type

text: ), type of

text: habitat

text: terrestrial

text: arboreal

text: aquatic

text: marine

text: , freshwater, seawater,

text: benthic

text: pelagic

text: nektonic

text: planktonic

text: , etc.),  period of activity (

text: diurnal

text: nocturnal

text: ), types of

text: ecological interaction

text: , etc.

text: The 20th century's industrialization leaves the world overcrowded, polluted and suffering global warming due to "the greenhouse effect". In 2022, with 40 million people in New York City, housing is dilapidated; homeless people fill the streets; many are unemployed, the few "lucky" ones with jobs are only barely scraping by, and food and working technology is scarce. Most of the population survives on rations produced by the Soylent Corporation, whose newest product is Soylent Green, a green wafer advertised to contain "high-energy plankton" from the World Ocean, more nutritious and palatable than its predecessors "Red" and "Yellow", but in short supply.

text: The 20th century's

text: industrialization

text: leaves the world

text: overcrowded

text: , polluted and suffering

text: global warming

text: due to "the

text: greenhouse effect

text: ". In 2022, with 40 million people in

text: New York City

text: , housing is dilapidated; homeless people fill the streets; many are unemployed, the few "lucky" ones with jobs are only barely scraping by, and food and working technology is scarce. Most of the population survives on

text: rations

text: produced by the Soylent Corporation, whose newest product is Soylent Green, a green wafer advertised to contain "high-energy

text: plankton

text: " from the

text: World Ocean

text: , more nutritious and palatable than its predecessors "Red" and "Yellow", but in short supply.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the Cretaceous period (89.3 to 84.9 Ma). Shells of Tissotia species can reach a diameter of .

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the

text: Cretaceous

text: period (89.3 to 84.9 Ma). Shells of Tissotia species can reach a diameter of .

text: - Department of Ocean Life Science

text: - Department of Ocean Life Science

text: The project name was proposed by oceanographer Dr. Robert S. Dietz in early 1958, as plans to modify the Trieste bathyscaphe to go to the deepest part of the oceans were being contemplated. It is in reference to ocean life that actively swims (nekton) as opposed to the plankton organisms that only drift. The bathyscaphe Trieste to be used for Project Nekton was able to move independently, in contrast to tethered bathyspheres. The Trieste featured two electric motors, each with a propeller, of two horsepower each. These allowed it to move forward, backward and to turn horizontally. A maximum speed of 1 knot was attainable over a few miles distance.

text: The project name was proposed by oceanographer Dr.

text: Robert S. Dietz

text: in early 1958, as plans to modify the Trieste bathyscaphe to go to the deepest part of the oceans were being contemplated. It is in reference to ocean life that actively swims (

text: nekton

text: ) as opposed to the

text: plankton

text: organisms that only drift. The bathyscaphe Trieste to be used for Project Nekton was able to move independently, in contrast to tethered

text: bathysphere

text: s. The Trieste featured two electric motors, each with a propeller, of two horsepower each. These allowed it to move forward, backward and to turn horizontally. A maximum speed of 1 knot was attainable over a few miles distance.

text: Aeroplankton (or aerial plankton) are tiny lifeforms that float and drift in the air, carried by the current of the wind; they are the atmospheric analogue to oceanic plankton.

text: Aeroplankton (or aerial plankton) are tiny lifeforms that float and drift in the air, carried by the

text: current

text: of the

text: wind

text: ; they are the

text: atmospheric

text: analogue

text: to oceanic

text: plankton

text: In contemporary times, marine life is a field of study both in marine biology and in biological oceanography. In biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land. Marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. For this reason marine biology encompasses not only organisms that live only in a marine environment, but also other organisms whose lives revolve around the sea. Biological oceanography is the study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system. Biological oceanography mostly focuses on the microorganisms within the ocean; looking at how they are affected by their environment and how that affects larger marine creatures and their ecosystem. Biological oceanography is similar to marine biology, but is different because of the perspective used to study the ocean. Biological oceanography takes a bottom up approach (in terms of the food web), while marine biology studies the ocean from a top down perspective. Biological oceanography mainly focuses on the ecosystem of the ocean with an emphasis on plankton: their diversity (morphology, nutritional sources, motility, and metabolism); their productivity and how that plays a role in the global carbon cycle; and their distribution (predation and life cycle). Biological oceanography also investigates the role of microbes in food webs, and how humans impact the ecosystems in the oceans.

text: In contemporary times, marine life is a field of study both in

text: marine biology

text: and in

text: biological oceanography

text: . In biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land. Marine biology classifies species based on the environment rather than on taxonomy. For this reason marine biology encompasses not only organisms that live only in a marine environment, but also other organisms whose lives revolve around the sea. Biological oceanography is the study of how organisms affect and are affected by the

text: physics

text: chemistry

text: , and

text: geology

text: of the

text: oceanographic system

text: . Biological oceanography mostly focuses on the

text: microorganism

text: s within the ocean; looking at how they are affected by their environment and how that affects larger marine creatures and their ecosystem. Biological oceanography is similar to

text: marine biology

text: , but is different because of the perspective used to study the ocean. Biological oceanography takes a bottom up approach (in terms of the food web), while marine biology studies the ocean from a top down perspective. Biological oceanography mainly focuses on the ecosystem of the ocean with an emphasis on plankton: their diversity (morphology, nutritional sources, motility, and metabolism); their productivity and how that plays a role in the global carbon cycle; and their distribution (predation and life cycle). Biological oceanography also investigates the role of microbes in food webs, and how humans impact the ecosystems in the oceans.

text: Additional risks posed by increased availability of inorganic nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems include water acidification; eutrophication of fresh and saltwater systems; and toxicity issues for animals, including humans. Eutrophication often leads to lower dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, including hypoxic and anoxic conditions, which can cause death of aquatic fauna. Relatively sessile benthos, or bottom-dwelling creatures, are particularly vulnerable because of their lack of mobility, though large fish kills are not uncommon. Oceanic dead zones near the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico are a well-known example of algal bloom-induced hypoxia. The New York Adirondack Lakes, Catskills, Hudson Highlands, Rensselaer Plateau and parts of Long Island display the impact of nitric acid rain deposition, resulting in the killing of fish and many other aquatic species.

text: Additional risks posed by increased availability of inorganic nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems include water acidification;

text: eutrophication

text: of fresh and saltwater systems; and toxicity issues for animals, including humans. Eutrophication often leads to lower dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, including hypoxic and anoxic conditions, which can cause death of aquatic fauna. Relatively sessile benthos, or bottom-dwelling creatures, are particularly vulnerable because of their lack of mobility, though large fish kills are not uncommon. Oceanic

text: dead zones

text: near the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico are a well-known example of algal bloom-induced

text: hypoxia

text: . The New York Adirondack Lakes,

text: Catskills

text: , Hudson Highlands, Rensselaer Plateau and parts of Long Island display the impact of nitric acid rain deposition, resulting in the killing of fish and many other aquatic species.

text: The trophic level of a fish is the position it occupies on the food chain. The article establishes the importance of the mean trophic level of fisheries as a tool for measuring the health of ocean ecosystems. In 2000, the Convention on Biological Diversity selected the mean trophic level of fisheries catch, renamed the "Marine Trophic Index" (MTI), as one of eight indicators of ecosystem health. However, many of the world's most lucrative fisheries are crustacean and mollusk fisheries, which are at low trophic levels and thus result in lower MTI values.

text: The trophic level of a fish is the position it occupies on the

text: food chain

text: . The article establishes the importance of the

text: mean trophic level

text: of fisheries as a tool for measuring the health of ocean ecosystems. In 2000, the

text: Convention on Biological Diversity

text: selected the mean trophic level of fisheries catch, renamed the "Marine Trophic Index" (MTI), as one of eight indicators of ecosystem health. However, many of the world's most lucrative fisheries are crustacean and mollusk fisheries, which are at low trophic levels and thus result in lower MTI values.

text: Sea cucumbers, considered a delicacy in Asia, play a crucial role in recycling nutrients from sediments on the ocean floor to form the bedrock of complex marine chains. Wild sea cucumber populations have dropped with many fishers now using SCUBA gear to access those that are left. This practice has been banned in Madagascar. A 2012 EU commissioned study of Madagascar’s sea cucumber trade showed an 85% drop in the population since the fishery’s peak. In the southeast Velondriake region of the island, Toliara’s marine institute uses new technology to produce young sea cucumbers to sell to fishers. Community farming groups then grow these animals in simple mesh farming pens close to their village. Because sea cucumbers feed off the ocean floor, the growing process requires no food, just pen maintenance. After nine months sea cucumbers reach their full adult size and are sold to exporters for around US $2.50 each. This system links isolated communities to global markets and has been proven to raise income of farmers who make less than one-dollar fifty per day, by US $30 per month, nearly doubling their monthly income. This system combines economic growth with environmental sustainability and supply and demand. Andavadoaka, a founding village of the Velondriake locally managed marine area (LMMA), won the Equator Prize, awarded by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), in 2007, for its innovative approach to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Andavadoaka is home to the administrative centre of the Velondriake Association, which was established in 2005 to manage the Velondriake LMMA.

text: While the sediment in transport is in suspension, it acts as a pollutant for those who require clean water. This includes uses such as for cooling or in industrial processes, and it includes aquatic life that are sensitive to suspended material in the water. While nekton have been found to avoid spill plumes in the water (e.g. the environmental monitoring project during the building of the Øresund Bridge), filtering benthic organisms have no way of escape. Among the most sensitive organisms are coral polyps. Generally speaking, hard bottom communities and mussel banks (including oysters) are more sensitive to siltation than sand and mud bottoms. Unlike in the sea, in a stream the plume will cover the entire channel, except possibly for backwaters, which is why fish will also be directly affected in most cases.

text: While the

text: sediment

text: in

text: transport

text: is in

text: suspension

text: , it acts as a pollutant for those who require clean water. This includes uses such as for cooling or in industrial processes, and it includes aquatic life that are sensitive to suspended material in the water. While

text: nekton

text: have been found to avoid spill plumes in the water (e.g. the environmental monitoring project during the building of the

text: Øresund Bridge

text: ), filtering

text: benthic

text: organisms have no way of escape. Among the most sensitive organisms are

text: coral

text: polyps. Generally speaking, hard bottom communities and mussel banks (including oysters) are more sensitive to siltation than sand and mud bottoms. Unlike in the sea, in a stream the plume will cover the entire channel, except possibly for backwaters, which is why fish will also be directly affected in most cases.

text: The concept of citizen science has been extended to the ocean environment for characterizing ocean dynamics and tracking marine debris. For example, the mobile app Marine Debris Tracker is a joint partnership of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the University of Georgia.  Long term sampling efforts such as the continuous plankton recorder has been fitted on ships of opportunity since 1931. Plankton collection by sailors and subsequent genetic analysis was pioneered in 2013 by Indigo V Expeditions as a way to better understand marine microbial structure and function.

text: The concept of citizen science has been extended to the ocean environment for characterizing ocean dynamics and tracking marine debris. For example, the mobile app Marine Debris Tracker is a joint partnership of

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: and the

text: University of Georgia

text: .  Long term sampling efforts such as the

text: continuous plankton recorder

text: has been fitted on ships of opportunity since 1931. Plankton collection by sailors and subsequent genetic analysis was pioneered in 2013 by Indigo V Expeditions as a way to better understand marine microbial structure and function.

text: Water and benthos pollution from industrial sources has been demonstrated to have varying  effects on biological diversity and survival potential of meroplankton. One study conducted in the Vostok Bay region in Russia, demonstrated that even in the presence of industrial pollutants, most species of meroplankton were able to proliferate almost unaffected. The authors of this study attribute these findings to the fact that meroplankton are transported by ocean currents generally from cleaner open waters inshore. Furthermore, the same study also concluded that even in heavily polluted areas, meroplankton populations were able to reestablish if pollution was brought under control and sufficient time was allowed to pass. However, the rate of recolonization was demonstrated to be notably slow, on average talking about 10 years before the abundance and diversity of meroplankton returned to its original levels. This is in part due to the slow nature of detoxification of benthic sediments, which retain much of the heavy metal pollution

text: Water and benthos pollution from industrial sources has been demonstrated to have varying  effects on biological diversity and survival potential of meroplankton. One study conducted in the

text: Vostok Bay

text: region in

text: Russia

text: , demonstrated that even in the presence of industrial pollutants, most species of meroplankton were able to proliferate almost unaffected. The authors of this study attribute these findings to the fact that meroplankton are transported by ocean currents generally from cleaner open waters inshore. Furthermore, the same study also concluded that even in heavily polluted areas, meroplankton populations were able to reestablish if pollution was brought under control and sufficient time was allowed to pass. However, the rate of recolonization was demonstrated to be notably slow, on average talking about 10 years before the abundance and diversity of meroplankton returned to its original levels. This is in part due to the slow nature of detoxification of benthic

text: sediment

text: s, which retain much of the heavy metal

text: pollution

text: "Wolves" is a song by American rapper Kanye West, featuring Sia and Vic Mensa from his seventh studio album The Life of Pablo (2016). It was produced by Cashmere Cat and Sinjin Hawke and was originally planned to be the opening track to his seventh studio album, The Life of Pablo, although it is the thirteenth track on the final version. West debuted the song on February 12, 2015 at a fashion show where he also premiered his new Adidas shoe. The presentation was broadcast live to more than 40 locations around the world. "Wolves" became the second confirmed track from the album and originally featured Sia and Vic Mensa. The initial album version introduced a new verse from West and an additional outro from Frank Ocean, omitting Sia and Vic Mensa's contributions. However, in March 2016, the album was updated with a new version of the song that reinstated Sia and Vic Mensa's verses. Frank Ocean's outro has been split into a separate track, titled "Frank's Track", which appears after "Wolves" on the track list.

text: "Wolves" is a song by American rapper

text: Kanye West

text: , featuring

text: Sia

text: and

text: Vic Mensa

text: from his seventh studio album

text: The Life of Pablo

text: (2016). It was produced by

text: Cashmere Cat

text: and

text: Sinjin Hawke

text: and was originally planned to be the opening track to his seventh studio album,

text: The Life of Pablo

text: , although it is the thirteenth track on the final version. West debuted the song on February 12, 2015 at a fashion show where he also premiered his new

text: Adidas

text: shoe. The presentation was broadcast live to more than 40 locations around the world. "Wolves" became the second confirmed track from the album and originally featured Sia and Vic Mensa. The initial album version introduced a new verse from West and an additional outro from

text: Frank Ocean

text: , omitting Sia and Vic Mensa's contributions. However, in March 2016, the album was updated with a new version of the song that reinstated Sia and Vic Mensa's verses. Frank Ocean's outro has been split into a separate track, titled "Frank's Track", which appears after "Wolves" on the track list.

text: Because the solubility of  in water increases with lower temperatures, glacial periods would have led to the faster absorption of atmospheric  by the oceans. In addition, any carbon stored in the glaciers would be depleted in  over the life of the glacier; when the glacier melted as the climate warmed, the depleted carbon would be released, reducing the global / ratio. The changes in climate would also cause changes in the biosphere, with warmer periods leading to more plant and animal life. The effect of these factors on radiocarbon dating is not known.

text: Based on the distribution of O. paradoxus, occupying a bathybenthic habitat, the species can be classified as benthos organism with reproductive migrations to the continental shelf in spring.

text: Based on the distribution of O. paradoxus, occupying a bathybenthic habitat, the species can be classified as

text: benthos

text: organism with reproductive migrations to the continental shelf in spring.

text: Sheldon James Plankton, or simply Plankton, is a fictional character in the Nickelodeon animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants. Although initially depicted as the show's antagonist, he has, in recent years, been frequently shown as a protagonist or an antihero. He is voiced by Mr. Lawrence and first appeared in the episode "Plankton!" on July 31, 1999. Plankton was created and designed by Stephen Hillenburg. The character has also appeared in video games and other merchandise based on the series.

text: Sheldon James Plankton, or simply Plankton, is a fictional character in the

text: Nickelodeon

text: animated television series

text: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: . Although initially depicted as the show's

text: antagonist

text: , he has, in recent years, been frequently shown as a

text: protagonist

text: or an

text: antihero

text: . He is voiced by

text: Mr. Lawrence

text: and first appeared in the episode "

text: Plankton!

text: " on July 31, 1999. Plankton was created and designed by

text: Stephen Hillenburg

text: . The character has also appeared in video games and other

entity_name: List of SpongeBob SquarePants merchandise

text: merchandise

text: based on the series.

text: This is a small species. It is almost colourless except for small chromatophores scarcely distributed. It has a long, thin, cylindrical mantle which grows to from 10 to 17 cm in length. The fin is approximately 35-50% of the length of the mantle. It has weak muscles, yet is nektonic.

text: This is a small species. It is almost colourless except for small chromatophores scarcely distributed. It has a long, thin, cylindrical mantle which grows to from 10 to 17 cm in length. The fin is approximately 35-50% of the length of the mantle. It has weak muscles, yet is

text: nekton

text: ic.

text: Species of this genus were widespread throughout the world. They were fast-moving nektonic carnivore shelled ammonoids.

text: Species of this genus were widespread throughout the world. They were fast-moving nektonic carnivore shelled

text: ammonoid

text: s.

text: Advocates of theistic evolution within Judaism follow two general approaches. Either the creation account in the Torah is not to be taken as a literal text, but rather as a symbolic work, or, alternatively, that the 'days' do not refer to 24-hour periods. The latter view, called day-age creationism, is justified by how the first day in the biblical account actually precedes the creation of the sun and earth by which 24 hour days are reckoned and by how the seventh day of rest has no evening and morning. In the day-age view, Jewish scholars point out how the order of creation in Genesis corresponds to the scientific description of the development of life on Earth—the sun, then earth, then oceans, then oceanic plant life, fish preceding land-based life, with mammals and finally humans last—and in no way specifies the method of creation in a manner prohibitive of evolution.

text: Advocates of theistic evolution within Judaism follow two general approaches. Either the

text: creation account

text: in the

text: Torah

text: is not to be taken as a literal text, but rather as a

text: symbol

text: ic work, or, alternatively, that the 'days' do not refer to 24-hour periods. The latter view, called

text: day-age creationism

text: , is justified by how the first day in the biblical account actually precedes the creation of the sun and earth by which 24 hour days are reckoned and by how the seventh day of rest has no evening and morning. In the day-age view, Jewish

text: scholars

text: point out how the order of creation in Genesis corresponds to the scientific description of the development of life on Earth—the sun, then earth, then oceans, then oceanic plant life, fish preceding land-based life, with mammals and finally humans last—and in no way specifies the method of creation in a manner prohibitive of evolution.

text: On the ocean bottom, sand dollars are frequently found together. This is due in part to their preference for soft bottom areas, which are convenient for their reproduction. The sexes are separate and, as with most echinoids, gametes are released into the water column and are conceived by external fertilization. The nektonic larvae metamorphose through several stages before the skeleton or test begins to form, at which point they become benthic.

text: On the

text: ocean

text: bottom, sand dollars are frequently found together. This is due in part to their preference for soft bottom areas, which are convenient for their

text: reproduction

text: . The sexes are separate and, as with most echinoids,

text: gametes

text: are released into the water column and are conceived by

text: external fertilization

text: . The

text: nekton

text: ic

text: larva

text: e metamorphose through several stages before the

text: skeleton

text: or test begins to form, at which point they become

text: benthic

text: They have a planktonic stage during the first six months of life, when they are between the lengths of 15.1-45.5 mm, in which they drift with other plankton in the water column.  As they grow their food preferences shift from smaller items such as Oithona davisae and Penilia avirostris to larger food species. After the planktonic stage, they prefer to settle in Zostera sea grass beds and estuaries.

text: They have a

text: plankton

text: ic stage during the first six months of life, when they are between the lengths of 15.1-45.5 mm, in which they drift with other plankton in the water column.  As they grow their food preferences shift from smaller items such as Oithona davisae and Penilia avirostris to larger food species. After the planktonic stage, they prefer to settle in Zostera sea grass beds and estuaries.

text: The common diving petrel feeds on the continental shelf during the breeding season, its movements during the non-breeding season are poorly known and whether it disperses more widely is not known. Like other members of their family they catch prey by wing-propelled diving, and are capable of diving to . The diet of this species is dominated by crustaceans. They are known to forage at night on vertically migrating plankton. Feeding is mostly done in the ocean near the shore, but sometimes in the deeper pelagic zone during non-breeding season, which is only 2 months of the year. The mating habits are not well documented, although pairs form monogamous relationships. Breeding colonies are large and there is about one nest per . The nest is a burrow around 50 cm long with a chamber at the bottom which may or may not be lined with dried grass. Females lay a single white egg, which measures 38 x 29 mm, and is incubated for 53–55 days. The young are brooded for 10–15 days and fledgling occurs at 45–59 days. Both parents take care of the young, which are grey-grown when hatched. The life expectancy is 6.5 years.

text: The common diving petrel feeds on the continental shelf during the breeding season, its movements during the non-breeding season are poorly known and whether it disperses more widely is not known. Like other members of their family they catch prey by wing-propelled diving, and are capable of diving to . The diet of this species is dominated by

text: crustacean

text: s. They are known to forage at night on vertically migrating plankton. Feeding is mostly done in the ocean near the shore, but sometimes in the deeper

text: pelagic zone

text: during non-breeding season, which is only 2 months of the year. The mating habits are not well documented, although pairs form

text: monogamous

text: relationships. Breeding colonies are large and there is about one nest per . The nest is a burrow around 50 cm long with a chamber at the bottom which may or may not be lined with dried grass. Females lay a single white egg, which measures 38 x 29 mm, and is incubated for 53–55 days. The young are brooded for 10–15 days and fledgling occurs at 45–59 days. Both parents take care of the young, which are grey-grown when hatched. The life expectancy is 6.5 years.

text: Trieste is a Swiss-designed, Italian-built deep-diving research bathyscaphe, which with its crew of two reached a record maximum depth of about , in the deepest known part of the Earth's oceans, the Challenger Deep, in the Mariana Trench near Guam in the Pacific. On 23 January 1960, Jacques Piccard (son of the boat's designer Auguste Piccard) and US Navy Lieutenant Don Walsh achieved the goal of Project Nekton.

text: Trieste is a

text: Swiss

text: -designed,

text: Italian

text: -built deep-diving research

text: bathyscaphe

text: , which with its crew of two reached a record maximum depth of about , in the deepest known part of the

text: Earth's oceans

text: , the

text: Challenger Deep

text: , in the

text: Mariana Trench

text: near

text: Guam

text: in the

text: Pacific

text: . On 23 January 1960,

text: Jacques Piccard

text: (son of the boat's designer

text: Auguste Piccard

text: ) and US Navy Lieutenant

text: Don Walsh

text: achieved the goal of

text: Project Nekton

text: The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem: the mixture of fresh water and salt water (brackish water) in estuaries provides many nutrients for marine life. Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain.

text: The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local

text: ecosystem

text: : the mixture of

text: fresh water

text: and

text: salt water

text: brackish water

text: ) in

text: estuaries

text: provides many nutrients for marine life.

text: Salt marsh

text: es and

text: beach

text: es also support a diversity of

text: plant

text: s,

text: animal

text: s and

text: insect

text: s crucial to the

text: food chain

text: Riley's oceanographic work focused on the influences affecting the population ecology of plankton systems in coastal and open ocean waters.  His early work correlated phytoplankton production with regulating factors such as nutrients, light and zooplankton abundance.  From this empirical base he went on to develop ecosystem models that explained the annual cycle of plankton ecosystems, most notably in his analysis of the Georges Bank region.

text: Riley's oceanographic work focused on the influences affecting the population ecology of plankton systems in

text: coastal

text: and

text: open ocean

text: waters.  His early work

text: correlated

text: phytoplankton

text: production

text: with regulating factors such as

text: nutrient

text: s,

text: light

text: and

text: zooplankton abundance

text: .  From this

text: empirical

text: base he went on to develop

text: ecosystem model

text: s that explained the

text: annual cycle

text: of plankton ecosystems, most notably in his analysis of the

text: Georges Bank

text: region.

text: Players have access to three playable characters during the game, SpongeBob SquarePants, Patrick Starfishman (Patrick Star in superhero form), and Sheldon J. Plankton, and must guide them through nine levels of play in a dreamworld. Four different types of gameplay have been incorporated into the game, known as flying, rampaging, racing, and platforming. During flying sections, the game sets obstacles, one in front of another, and the player must maneuver past them. In most cases, the game will tell the player which way to fly (up, down, left, and right). On the Wii, the player uses the controller like an actual plane control stick. The most common cases of this is when SpongeBob uses his plane to attack a giant-sized Plankton. In rampage levels, the player controls a giant sized Plankton and uses special powers and moves to destroy everything in their path. The player's laser power is indicated by a bar on the right side of the screen, which refills after use. The Wii version features controller movements that respectively activate moves. Racing gameplay is similar to most racing games; it is featured in both the air and the ground's gameplay, fuel must be collected in order to keep the player's vehicle running. The platforming gameplay is spread throughout the game, such as when Plankton must escape from a live Krabby Patty or when Patrick Starfishman saves Bikini Bottom from his evil form, Dreaded Patrick.

text: Players have access to three playable characters during the game,

text: SpongeBob SquarePants

text: , Patrick Starfishman (

text: Patrick Star

text: in superhero form), and

text: Sheldon J. Plankton

text: , and must guide them through nine levels of play in a

text: dreamworld

text: The amount of oxygen dissolved in the oceans may decline, with adverse consequences for ocean life.

text: As in Feeding Frenzy, players have to control several fast growing marine predators who are out to uncover a mystery which is lurking in the ocean. The aim of the game is to avoid predators and obstacles while eating other smaller fish and creatures, eventually reaching the top of the food chain.Feeding Frenzy 2 includes 60 new levels which feature scenery such as new underwater worlds, coral reefs, deep sea caves, and sunken ships, as well as above water challenges. The story mode has the player start (and end) as a small butterfly fish named Boris. The player has to eat and chomp his or her way to the top of the food chain. Along the way, the player meets new creatures, both friendly and unfriendly.

text: As in

text: Feeding Frenzy

text: , players have to control several fast growing marine predators who are out to uncover a mystery which is lurking in the ocean. The aim of the game is to avoid predators and obstacles while eating other smaller fish and creatures, eventually reaching the top of the food chain.Feeding Frenzy 2 includes 60 new levels which feature scenery such as new underwater worlds, coral reefs, deep sea caves, and sunken ships, as well as above water challenges. The story mode has the player start (and end) as a small

text: butterfly fish

text: named Boris. The player has to eat and chomp his or her way to the top of the food chain. Along the way, the player meets new creatures, both friendly and unfriendly.

text: The marine food chain is based on photosynthesis by marine phytoplankton that combine carbon with inorganic nutrients to produce organic matter. Production is limited by the availability of nutrients, most commonly nitrogen or iron. Numerous experiments have demonstrated how iron fertilization can increase phytoplankton productivity. Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient over much of the ocean and can be supplied from various sources, including fixation by cyanobacteria. Carbon-to-iron ratios in phytoplankton are much larger than carbon-to-nitrogen or carbon-to-phosphorus ratios, so iron has the highest potential for sequestration per unit mass added.

text: The marine food chain is based on photosynthesis by marine

text: phytoplankton

text: that combine carbon with inorganic nutrients to produce organic matter. Production is limited by the availability of nutrients, most commonly nitrogen or

text: iron

text: . Numerous experiments have demonstrated how

text: iron fertilization

text: can increase phytoplankton productivity. Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient over much of the ocean and can be supplied from various sources, including fixation by

text: cyanobacteria

text: . Carbon-to-iron ratios in phytoplankton are much larger than carbon-to-nitrogen or

text: carbon

text: -to-

text: phosphorus

text: ratios, so iron has the highest potential for sequestration per unit mass added.

text: is a whale Mutant able to emit sticky foam from his blowhole and use a sonic attack. Unlike the others members of Gorgom, the Kujira Mutant was concerned for the oceans after overhearing Baraom and Darom talking about Gorgom's rise to power and that they might pollute the oceans, so he rebelled as a result. Recruited by Baraom to defeat Black, the Kujira Mutant overpowered Black when Baraom arrived to take his King Stone. But learning the Mutant's intent, Baraom attempted to kill the Mutant along with Black. As a result, the Kujira Mutant became an ally of Kamen Rider Black before retreating into the sea. Upon learning of Black's defeat, the Kujira Mutant searched the ocean and found his body, using a revival ceremony of his clan within his cave home to bring him back to life. Darom and the Komori Mutant then went after the Kujira Mutant until Kohtaro revived and came to his aid. However, the Kujira Mutant was forced to turn himself in to Gorgom to save a child's life. Darom used him as bait for Black, only for the Kujira Mutant to help Black defeat Darom. Though still wounded from the Kōmori Mutant's attack, the Kujira Mutant guides Black to the cave that is Gorgom's Shrine before being attacked by the Togeuo Mutant. Kohtaro catches up as the Togeuo Mutant starts to overwhelm Kujira Mutant but is forced to the Creation King's palace with the Kujira Mutant telling Black to protect the oceans before he died. The Kujira Mutant's cave would later serve to give life to Rideron before it caved in as a result.

text: is a

text: whale

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the Jurassic period, from 155.7 to 150.8 Ma.

text: Jurassic

text: period, from 155.7 to 150.8 Ma.

text: Toothed whales can also be threatened by humans more indirectly. They are unintentionally caught in fishing nets by commercial fisheries as bycatch and accidentally swallow fishing hooks. Gillnetting and Seine netting are significant causes of mortality in cetaceans and other marine mammals. Porpoises are commonly entangled in fishing nets. Whales are also affected by marine pollution. High levels of organic chemicals accumulate in these animals since they are high in the food chain. They have large reserves of blubber, more so for toothed whales, as they are higher up the food chain than baleen whales. Lactating mothers can pass the toxins on to their young. These pollutants can cause gastrointestinal cancers and greater vulnerability to infectious diseases. They can also be poisoned by swallowing litter, such as plastic bags. Pollution of the Yangtze river has led to the extinction of the Baiji. Environmentalists speculate that advanced naval sonar endangers some whales. Some scientists suggest that sonar may trigger whale beachings, and they point to signs that such whales have experienced decompression sickness.

text: Toothed whales can also be threatened by humans more indirectly. They are unintentionally caught in fishing nets by commercial fisheries as

text: bycatch

text: and accidentally swallow fishing hooks.

text: Gillnetting

text: and

text: Seine netting

text: are significant causes of mortality in cetaceans and other

text: marine mammal

text: s. Porpoises are commonly entangled in fishing nets. Whales are also affected by

text: marine pollution

text: . High levels of

text: organic chemical

text: s accumulate in these animals since they are high in the food chain. They have large reserves of blubber, more so for toothed whales, as they are higher up the food chain than baleen whales. Lactating mothers can pass the toxins on to their young. These pollutants can cause

text: gastrointestinal cancer

text: s and greater vulnerability to infectious diseases. They can also be poisoned by swallowing litter, such as plastic bags. Pollution of the Yangtze river has led to the extinction of the

text: Baiji

text: . Environmentalists speculate that advanced naval

text: sonar

text: endangers some whales. Some scientists suggest that sonar may trigger

text: whale beaching

text: s, and they point to signs that such whales have experienced

text: decompression sickness

text: A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land.  More broadly, "the sea" is the interconnected system of Earth's salty, oceanic waters—considered as one global ocean or as several principal oceanic divisions. The sea moderates Earth's climate and has important roles in the water cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen cycle. Although the sea has been traveled and explored since prehistory, the modern scientific study of the sea—oceanography—dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s. The sea is conventionally divided into up to five large oceanic sections—including the International Hydrographic Organization's four named oceans (the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Arctic) and the Southern Ocean; smaller, second-order sections, such as the Mediterranean, are known as seas.

text: A sea is a large

text: body

text: of

text: salt water

text: that is surrounded in whole or in part by

text: land

text: .  More broadly, "the sea" is the interconnected system of

text: Earth

text: 's

text: salty

text: ocean

text: ic waters—considered as one

text: global ocean

text: or as several principal oceanic divisions. The sea moderates

text: Earth's climate

text: and has important roles in the

text: water cycle

text: carbon cycle

text: , and

text: nitrogen cycle

text: . Although the sea has been

text: traveled

text: and

text: explored

text: since

text: prehistory

text: , the modern scientific study of the sea—

text: oceanography

text: —dates broadly to the

text: British

text: Challenger expedition

text: of the 1870s. The sea is conventionally divided into

text: up to five large oceanic sections

text: —including the

text: International Hydrographic Organization

text: 's four named oceans (the

text: Atlantic

text: Pacific

text: Indian

text: , and

text: Arctic

text: ) and the

text: Southern Ocean

text: ; smaller, second-order sections, such as the

text: Mediterranean

text: , are known as

text: seas

text: The second USS Wandank (ATA-204), originally USS ATA-204, was a United States Navy auxiliary ocean tug in commission from 1945 to 1947 and again from 1952 to 1971. The ship is possibly best known for supporting scientific operations in the Marianas, in particular serving as communication relay and support ship for the bathyscaphe Trieste in Project Nekton; she towed the bathyscaphe some 260 nautical miles (482 kilometers) from Guam to the vicinity of the Challenger Deep, where, on 23 January 1960, Trieste descended to a record 37,000 feet (11,278 meters).

text: The second USS Wandank (ATA-204), originally USS ATA-204, was a

text: United States Navy

text: auxiliary

text: ocean

text: tug

text: in commission from 1945 to 1947 and again from 1952 to 1971. The ship is possibly best known for supporting scientific operations in the

text: Marianas

text: , in particular serving as communication relay and support ship for the

text: bathyscaphe

text: Trieste

text: in

text: Project Nekton

text: ; she towed the bathyscaphe some 260 nautical miles (482 kilometers) from Guam to the vicinity of the

text: Challenger Deep

text: , where, on 23 January 1960, Trieste descended to a record 37,000 feet (11,278 meters).

text: Continued global warming will significantly alter the food chain on Earth.  With nanophytoplankton and phytoplankton at the base of the food chain, their decreased productivity from increased UV-B radiation from ozone depletion will provide less food for krill and subsequent organisms in the food chain.  Antarctica has experienced up to 50% ozone depletion, harming nanophytoplankton located here the most.  Through carbon fixation, nanophytoplankton absorb carbon from the atmosphere, and with depleting populations, more carbon is left in the air, contributing to more global warming and ozone depletion.  The cycle then continues.  However, some scientists believe that existence of nanophytoplankton contributes to further progression of global warming, because they absorb the sun’s radiation that would otherwise be reflected back into space.  Despite the controversy, it is evident that nanophytoplankton, albeit their minimal size and apparent irrelevance because they are hardly visible, are an integral part of sustaining life on Earth.

text: Continued global warming will significantly alter the food chain on Earth.  With nanophytoplankton and phytoplankton at the base of the food chain, their decreased productivity from increased

text: UV-B

text: radiation from ozone depletion will provide less food for krill and subsequent organisms in the food chain.  Antarctica has experienced up to 50%

text: ozone depletion

text: , harming nanophytoplankton located here the most.  Through carbon fixation, nanophytoplankton absorb carbon from the atmosphere, and with depleting populations, more carbon is left in the air, contributing to more global warming and ozone depletion.  The cycle then continues.  However, some scientists believe that existence of nanophytoplankton contributes to further progression of global warming, because they absorb the sun’s radiation that would otherwise be reflected back into space.  Despite the controversy, it is evident that nanophytoplankton, albeit their minimal size and apparent irrelevance because they are hardly visible, are an integral part of sustaining life on Earth.

text: Though many planktonic species are microscopic in size, plankton includes organisms covering a wide range of sizes, including large organisms such as jellyfish.

text: Though many planktonic

text: species

text: are

text: microscopic

text: in size, plankton includes organisms covering a wide range of sizes, including large organisms such as

text: jellyfish

text: Phytoplankton are photosynthesizing microscopic organisms that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans and bodies of fresh water on Earth. They are agents for "primary production," the creation of organic compounds from carbon dioxide dissolved in the water, a process that sustains the aquatic food web. Phytoplankton obtain energy through the process of photosynthesis and must therefore live in the well-lit surface layer (termed the euphotic zone) of an ocean, sea, lake, or other body of water. Phytoplankton account for half of all photosynthetic activity on Earth. Their cumulative energy fixation in carbon compounds (primary production) is the basis for the vast majority of oceanic and also many freshwater food webs (chemosynthesis is a notable exception). The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research. Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important effects on future phytoplankton productivity. Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of zooplankton grazing may be significant. As a side note, one of the more remarkable food chains in the ocean – remarkable because of the small number of links – is that of phytoplankton-feeding krill (a crustacean similar to a tiny shrimp) feeding baleen whales.

text: Phytoplankton are

text: photosynthesizing

text: microscopic organisms that inhabit the upper sunlit layer of almost all oceans and bodies of fresh water on Earth. They are agents for "

text: primary production

text: ," the creation of

text: organic compounds

text: from

text: carbon dioxide

text: dissolved in the water, a process that sustains the aquatic food web. Phytoplankton obtain

text: energy

text: through the

text: process

text: of

text: photosynthesis

text: and must therefore live in the well-lit surface layer (termed the

text: euphotic zone

text: ) of an

text: ocean

text: sea

text: lake

text: , or other body of water. Phytoplankton account for half of all

text: photosynthetic activity

text: on Earth. Their cumulative energy fixation in carbon compounds (

text: primary production

text: ) is the basis for the vast majority of oceanic and also many

text: freshwater

text: food web

text: s (

text: chemosynthesis

text: is a notable exception). The effects of anthropogenic warming on the global population of phytoplankton is an area of active research. Changes in the vertical stratification of the water column, the rate of temperature-dependent biological reactions, and the atmospheric supply of nutrients are expected to have important effects on future phytoplankton productivity. Additionally, changes in the mortality of phytoplankton due to rates of

text: zooplankton

text: grazing may be significant. As a side note, one of the more remarkable

text: food chain

text: s in the ocean – remarkable because of the small number of links – is that of phytoplankton-feeding

text: krill

text: (a

text: crustacean

text: similar to a tiny shrimp) feeding

text: baleen whale

text: s.

text: However, some of these terms may be used with very different boundaries, especially on the larger end. The existence and importance of nano- and even smaller plankton was only discovered during the 1980s, but they are thought to make up the largest proportion of all plankton in number and diversity.

text: In addition, the feces of krill-eating whales is rich in iron. The release of iron from whale feces encourages the growth of phytoplankton in the sea, which not only benefits the marine food chain, but also sequesters carbon for long periods of time.  When phytoplankton, which is not consumed in its lifetime, perishes, it descends through the euphotic zone and settles down into the depths of sea. Phytoplankton sequesters an estimated 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the ocean each year, causing the ocean to become a sink of carbon dioxide which holds an estimated 90% of all sequestered carbon. The Southern Ocean is amongst the largest ranges for phytoplankton and has the characteristic of being nutrient-rich in terms of  phosphate, nitrate  and silicate, while it is iron-deficient at the same time. Increases of nutrient iron results in blooming of phytoplankton. Whale feces is up to 10 million times richer in iron than the surrounding sea water and plays a vital role in providing the iron required for maintaining phytoplankton biomass on the earth. The iron defecation of just the 12,000 strong sperm whale population  in the Southern Ocean results in the sequestration of 200,000 tonnes of atmospheric carbon per year.

text: In addition, the feces of krill-eating whales is rich in

text: iron

text: . The release of iron from whale feces encourages the growth of

text: phytoplankton

text: in the sea, which not only benefits the marine

text: food chain

text: , but also sequesters carbon for long periods of time.  When phytoplankton, which is not consumed in its lifetime, perishes, it descends through the

text: euphotic zone

text: and settles down into the depths of sea. Phytoplankton sequesters an estimated 2 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the ocean each year, causing the ocean to become a sink of carbon dioxide which holds an estimated 90% of all sequestered carbon. The Southern Ocean is amongst the largest ranges for phytoplankton and has the characteristic of being nutrient-rich in terms of  phosphate, nitrate  and silicate, while it is iron-deficient at the same time. Increases of nutrient iron results in blooming of phytoplankton. Whale feces is up to 10 million times richer in iron than the surrounding sea water and plays a vital role in providing the iron required for maintaining phytoplankton biomass on the earth. The iron defecation of just the 12,000 strong

text: sperm whale

text: population  in the Southern Ocean results in the sequestration of 200,000 tonnes of atmospheric carbon per year.

text: Other subfields study the physical effects of continual immersion in sea water and the ocean in general, adaptation to a salty environment, and the effects of changing various oceanic properties on marine life. A subfield of marine biology studies the relationships between oceans and ocean life, and global warming and environmental issues (such as carbon dioxide displacement).

text: Other subfields study the physical effects of continual immersion in

text: sea water

text: and the ocean in general, adaptation to a salty environment, and the effects of changing various oceanic properties on marine life. A subfield of marine biology studies the relationships between oceans and ocean life, and global warming and environmental issues (such as

text: carbon dioxide

text: displacement).

text: The common rudd Scardinius erythrophthalmus is a bentho-pelagic freshwater fish, widely spread in Europe and middle Asia, around the basins of the North, Baltic, Black, Caspian and Aral seas.

text: The common rudd Scardinius erythrophthalmus is a

text: bentho

text: pelagic

text: freshwater

text: fish, widely spread in

text: Europe

text: and middle

text: Asia

text: , around the basins of the

text: North

text: Baltic

text: Black

text: Caspian

text: and

text: Aral sea

text: s.

text: On the continental slope, demersal fishes are common. They are more diverse than coastal demersal fish, since there is more habitat diversity. Further out are the abyssal plains. These flat, featureless regions occupy about 40 percent of the ocean floor. They are covered with sediment but largely devoid of benthic life (benthos). Deep sea benthic fishes are more likely to associate with canyons or rock outcroppings among the plains, where invertebrate communities are established. Undersea mountains (seamounts) can intercept deep sea currents, and cause productive upwellings which support benthic fish. Undersea mountain ranges can separate underwater regions into different ecosystems.

text: On the

text: continental slope

text: , demersal fishes are common. They are more diverse than coastal demersal fish, since there is more habitat diversity. Further out are the

text: abyssal plain

text: s. These flat, featureless regions occupy about 40 percent of the ocean floor. They are covered with

text: sediment

text: but largely devoid of benthic life (

text: benthos

text: ). Deep sea benthic fishes are more likely to associate with canyons or rock outcroppings among the plains, where invertebrate communities are established. Undersea mountains (

text: seamount

text: s) can intercept deep sea currents, and cause productive upwellings which support benthic fish. Undersea mountain ranges can separate underwater regions into different ecosystems.

text: Among Linse’s contributions to Antarctic science is her work leading the team that designed the first georeferenced Antarctic benthos database, which resulted in new Antarctic provinces and an updated biogeography for the Southern Ocean. Her research on phylogenetic relationships of current Antarctic species and their evolutionary histories  contributed to the discovery of high biodiversity in the bathyal and abyssal Antarctic deep sea, and influenced the discovery of the first hydrothermal vents in the Southern Ocean.  She also has led or contributed to numerous teams that discovered new species, including a new family of deep-sea starfish living in the warm waters around a hydrothermal vent in the East Scotia Ridge in the Southern Ocean; a new species of bug (Jaera tyleri), similar in appearance to the common woodlouse, which was found plastered all over a whale carcass on the floor of the deep Southern Ocean; and more than thirty new species of marine life discovered during an expedition to the Amundsen Sea off Pine Island Bay in Antarctica. She also  was part of the BAS team that made the first comprehensive “inventory” of sea and land animals around a group of Antarctic islands, South Orkney Islands, near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula.

text: Phytoplankton form the beginning of the food chain for aquatic animals.  Zooplankton and krill feed on nanophytoplankton, which are then eaten by whales, seals, birds, fish, squid, and other organisms.

text: Phytoplankton form the beginning of the food chain for aquatic animals.

text: Zooplankton

text: and

text: krill

text: feed on nanophytoplankton, which are then eaten by whales, seals, birds, fish, squid, and other organisms.

text: In its different forms or stages of life, the three-spined stickleback can be a bottom-feeder (most commonly chironomid larvae) or a planktonic feeder in lakes or in the ocean; it can also consume terrestrial prey fallen to the surface. It can cannibalize eggs and fry.

text: Like the other gyres, it contains a garbage patch. A garbage patch is a suspended region of marine debris within the water column that circulate the gyre constantly. The Indian Ocean’s garbage patch covers a massive area: at least five million square kilometers (two million square miles).  As garbage patches such as these circulate for long periods of time, they cause inorganic toxins to enter the food chain due to solar breakdown of plastics in the water. In the Indian Ocean gyre, the garbage patch has been more of a mystery. Having just been discovered in 2010, it is still under research. It is known, however, that like most garbage patches, it is very fluid, and changes with the seasons, making its location difficult to pinpoint. It seems to circulate with the Indian Ocean gyre, from the Australian side to the African side, down the African coast, and then back to Australia. According to the team who discovered the garbage patch, the full rotation of the gyre’s garbage patch takes about six years, until it reaches the center of the gyre, where it may remain indefinitely.

text: Like the other gyres, it contains a

text: garbage patch

text: . A garbage patch is a suspended region of marine debris within the

text: water column

text: that circulate the gyre constantly. The Indian Ocean’s garbage patch covers a massive area: at least five million square kilometers (two million square miles).  As garbage patches such as these circulate for long periods of time, they cause inorganic toxins to enter the

text: food chain

text: due to solar breakdown of

text: plastics in the water

text: . In the Indian Ocean gyre, the

text: garbage patch

text: has been more of a mystery. Having just been discovered in 2010, it is still under research. It is known, however, that like most garbage patches, it is very fluid, and changes with the seasons, making its location difficult to pinpoint. It seems to circulate with the Indian Ocean gyre, from the Australian side to the African side, down the African coast, and then back to Australia. According to the team who discovered the garbage patch, the full rotation of the gyre’s garbage patch takes about six years, until it reaches the center of the gyre, where it may remain indefinitely.

text: HC&S currently maintains about 36.000 acres of cropland around Maui. In the rainy season, which typically lasts from October to February, these fields are susceptible to flooding and causing runoff into the ocean; murky waters created by this runoff affect beachgoers and marine life alike.

text: Project Nekton was the codename for a series of very shallow test dives (three of them in Apra Harbor) and also deep-submergence operations in the Pacific Ocean near Guam that ended with the United States Navy-owned research bathyscaphe Trieste entering the Challenger Deep, the deepest surveyed point in the world's oceans.

text: Project Nekton was the codename for a series of very shallow test dives (three of them in

text: Apra Harbor

text: ) and also

text: deep-submergence

text: operations in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: near

text: Guam

text: that ended with the

text: United States Navy

text: -owned research

text: bathyscaphe Trieste

text: entering the

text: Challenger Deep

text: , the deepest surveyed point in the world's oceans.

text: The colony grows by budding, during which process new feeding polyps are formed. Reproduction is by the budding of reproductive polyps known as gonophores, the medusa stage in the life cycle. Gonophores may remain attached to the parent colony, but usually become detached. Each colony produces gonophores of one sex. Male gonophores soon eject white sperm into the water and females emit up to six eggs. After fertilisation, each embryo develops within a day or so into a free-swimming planula larva. After drifting with the plankton for some time, this finds a suitable hard surface on which to settle and start a new colony.

text: The colony grows by

text: budding

text: , during which process new feeding polyps are formed. Reproduction is by the budding of reproductive polyps known as

text: gonophore

text: s, the

text: medusa

text: stage in the

text: life cycle

text: . Gonophores may remain attached to the parent colony, but usually become detached. Each colony produces gonophores of one sex. Male gonophores soon eject white sperm into the water and females emit up to six eggs. After fertilisation, each

text: embryo

text: develops within a day or so into a free-swimming

text: planula

text: larva. After drifting with the

text: plankton

text: for some time, this finds a suitable hard surface on which to settle and start a new colony.

text: The roach mostly inhabits waters that are somewhat vegetated, because larval and young fish are protected by the vegetation and the mature fish can use it for food. The common roach eats plant material, bottom-dwelling (benthic) invertebrates, and plankton. Young fish feed mainly on plankton, while the mature fish feed mainly on benthos. They can adapt to environments where invertebrates are scarce by slowing their growth, maintaining slender body shapes, and early maturation.

text: The roach mostly inhabits waters that are somewhat vegetated, because larval and young fish are protected by the vegetation and the mature fish can use it for food. The common roach eats plant material, bottom-dwelling (

text: benthic

text: ) invertebrates, and plankton. Young fish feed mainly on plankton, while the mature fish feed mainly on benthos. They can adapt to environments where invertebrates are scarce by slowing their growth, maintaining slender body shapes, and early

text: maturation

text: The first two test dives in the Nekton series were conducted at Guam in the Apra Harbor, then a third dive off the Western flank of Guam reached 4,900 ft.

text: The first two test dives in the Nekton series were conducted at Guam in the

text: Apra Harbor

text: , then a third dive off the Western flank of Guam reached 4,900 ft.

text: The major Ordovician–Silurian extinction events 450 million years ago may have been caused by a GRB. The late Ordovician species of trilobite that spent some of its life in the plankton layer near the ocean surface was much harder hit than deep-water dwellers, which tended to remain within quite restricted areas. This is in contrast to the usual effects of extinction events, when more widely spread species fared better. This unusual pattern could hypothetically be explained by a GRB, since it would probably devastate creatures living on land and near the ocean surface, but leave deep-sea creatures relatively unharmed.

text: The major

text: Ordovician–Silurian extinction events

text: 450 million years ago may have been caused by a GRB. The

text: late Ordovician

text: species of

text: trilobite

text: that spent some of its life in the plankton layer near the ocean surface was much harder hit than deep-water dwellers, which tended to remain within quite restricted areas. This is in contrast to the usual effects of extinction events, when more widely spread species fared better. This unusual pattern could

text: hypothetically

text: be explained by a GRB, since it would probably devastate creatures living on land and near the ocean surface, but leave deep-sea creatures relatively unharmed.

text: Swimming evolved a number of times in unrelated lineages, and the evolutionary pressures leading to its adoption are unknown.  Supposed jellyfish fossils occur in the Ediacaran, but the first free-swimming animals appear in the Early to Middle Cambrian.  These are mostly related to the arthropods, and include the Anomalocaridids, which swam by means of lateral lobes in a fashion reminiscent of today's cuttlefish.  Cephalopods joined the ranks of the nekton in the late Cambrian, and chordates were probably swimming from the Early Cambrian. Many terrestrial animals retain some capacity to swim, however some have returned to the water and developed the capacities for aquatic locomotion.

text: Swimming evolved a number of times in unrelated lineages, and the evolutionary pressures leading to its adoption are unknown.  Supposed jellyfish fossils occur in the

text: Ediacaran

text: , but the first free-swimming animals appear in the Early to Middle

text: Cambrian

text: .  These are mostly related to the

text: arthropod

text: s, and include the

text: Anomalocaridid

text: s, which swam by means of lateral lobes in a fashion reminiscent of today's

text: cuttlefish

text: .  Cephalopods joined the ranks of the

text: nekton

text: in the late Cambrian, and chordates were probably swimming from the Early Cambrian. Many terrestrial animals retain some capacity to swim, however some have returned to the water and developed the capacities for aquatic locomotion.

text: In 1973, along with his two sons and Frederick Hyman, he created the Cousteau Society for the Protection of Ocean Life, Frederick Hyman being its first President; it now has more than 300,000 members.

text: Acidification has multiple implications on marine life such as physiological sensitivities, reduced metabolism, decreased oxygen uptake and reproductive success.  Looking at it from a bottom up approach, the simpler organisms are considered first moving up the food chain culminating with the ultimate apex predator, man.

text: Acidification has multiple implications on marine life such as

text: physiological

text: sensitivities, reduced

text: metabolism

text: , decreased

text: oxygen

text: uptake and

text: reproductive

text: success.  Looking at it from a bottom up approach, the simpler organisms are considered first moving up the food chain culminating with the ultimate apex predator, man.

text: GEOTRACES focuses on the oceanic part of the cycles, with the ambition to map the distribution of trace elements and isotopes in the ocean and to understand the processes controlling this distribution. Some of these trace elements are directly linked to climate via, for example, their role as essential nutrients for life; others allow quantification of ocean processes (origin and dynamics of matter, age of water masses, etc.); some of them are pollutants (for example, lead or mercury). Modelling based on the data collected will thus achieve substantial progress in understanding the current and past of the ocean and improve projections of the ocean’s response to global change.

text: GEOTRACES focuses on the oceanic part of the cycles, with the ambition to map the distribution of

text: trace elements

text: and

text: isotopes

text: in the ocean and to understand the processes controlling this distribution. Some of these trace elements are directly linked to climate via, for example, their role as essential

text: nutrients

text: for life; others allow quantification of ocean processes (origin and dynamics of matter, age of water masses, etc.); some of them are

text: pollutants

text: (for example, lead or mercury). Modelling based on the data collected will thus achieve substantial progress in understanding the current and past of the ocean and improve projections of the ocean’s response to global change.

text: Biological oceanography  is the study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system. Biological oceanography mostly focuses on the microorganisms within the ocean; looking at how they are affected by their environment and how that affects larger marine creatures and their ecosystem. Biological oceanography is similar to marine biology, but is different because of the perspective used to study the ocean. Biological oceanography takes a bottom up approach (in terms of the food web), while marine biology studies the ocean from a top down perspective. Biological oceanography mainly focuses on the ecosystem of the ocean with an emphasis on plankton: their diversity (morphology, nutritional sources, motility, and metabolism); their productivity and how that plays a role in the global carbon cycle; and their distribution (predation and life cycle). Biological oceanography also investigates the role of microbes in food webs, and how humans impact the ecosystems in the oceans.

text: Biological oceanography  is the study of how organisms affect and are affected by the

text: physics

text: chemistry

text: , and

text: geology

text: of the

text: oceanographic system

text: microorganism

text: marine biology

text: Metabolism-like reactions could have occurred naturally in early oceans, before the first organisms evolved. Metabolism may predate the origin of life and life may have evolved from the chemical conditions that prevailed in the world's earliest oceans. Reconstructions in laboratories show that some of these reactions can produce RNA, and some others resemble two essential reaction cascades of metabolism: glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway, that provide essential precursors for nucleic acids, amino acids and lipids. A study at the University of Dusseldorf created phylogenic trees based upon 6 million genes from bacteria and archaea, and identified 355 protein families that were probably present in LUCA.  They were based upon an anaeobic metabolism fixing carbon dioxide and nitrogen.  It suggests that LUCA evolved in an environment rich in hydrogen, carbon dioxide and iron.  Following are some observed discoveries and related hypotheses.

text: Metabolism-like reactions could have occurred naturally in early oceans, before the first organisms evolved. Metabolism may predate the origin of life and life may have evolved from the chemical conditions that prevailed in the world's earliest oceans. Reconstructions in laboratories show that some of these reactions can produce RNA, and some others resemble two essential reaction cascades of metabolism:

text: glycolysis

text: and the

text: pentose phosphate pathway

text: , that provide essential precursors for nucleic acids, amino acids and lipids. A study at the University of Dusseldorf created

text: phylogenic trees

text: based upon 6 million genes from

text: bacteria

text: and

text: archaea

text: , and identified 355 protein families that were probably present in

text: LUCA

text: .  They were based upon an anaeobic metabolism fixing

text: carbon dioxide

text: and

text: nitrogen

text: .  It suggests that LUCA evolved in an environment rich in

text: hydrogen

text: , carbon dioxide and

text: iron

text: .  Following are some observed discoveries and related hypotheses.

text: R&B singer-songwriter Frank Ocean wrote the ballad "Scared of Beautiful" for the album. Ocean previously co-wrote "1st & Love" and "Locket (Locked in Love)" with Rich King for Norwood's Human (2008) album. "Scared of Beautiful" was originally conceived as a duet between Norwood and Ocean, and features the duo exchanging lyrics about looking forwards and not backwards, with lines such as "I wonder why there's no mirrors on these walls no more/ You can't tell me why you're so terrified of beautiful". However the final version features just Norwood. Speaking on how the song came about Norwood said, "Well, he had the song for a while and when I heard it, it really just spoke to me. Sometimes you get to a point in your life where you’re scared to be great, you’re scared to be beautiful, you’re scared to be the best version of you and you talk to yourself and you try to get yourself back on track. I just remember feeling like that at a point in my life. I know there are so many people out there that go through that dark time and I felt like it could speak to a lot of people."

text: R&B singer-songwriter

text: Frank Ocean

text: wrote the ballad "

text: Scared of Beautiful

text: " for the album. Ocean previously co-wrote "1st & Love" and "Locket (Locked in Love)" with Rich King for Norwood's

text: Human

text: (2008) album. "Scared of Beautiful" was originally conceived as a duet between Norwood and Ocean, and features the duo exchanging lyrics about looking forwards and not backwards, with lines such as "I wonder why there's no mirrors on these walls no more/ You can't tell me why you're so terrified of beautiful". However the final version features just Norwood. Speaking on how the song came about Norwood said, "Well, he had the song for a while and when I heard it, it really just spoke to me. Sometimes you get to a point in your life where you’re scared to be great, you’re scared to be beautiful, you’re scared to be the best version of you and you talk to yourself and you try to get yourself back on track. I just remember feeling like that at a point in my life. I know there are so many people out there that go through that dark time and I felt like it could speak to a lot of people."

text: On September 14, 2009, the New York Daily News exposed Vinny Ocean's new life in witness protection as a strip club operator in Houston, Texas.

text: On September 14, 2009, the

text: New York Daily News

text: exposed Vinny Ocean's new life in witness protection as a strip club operator in Houston, Texas.

text: Kosmoclymeniidae is a family in the ammonoid order Clymeniida. They were fast-moving nektonic carnivores.

text: Kosmoclymeniidae is a family in the

text: ammonoid

text: order

text: Clymeniida

text: . They were fast-moving nektonic carnivores.

text: musicOMHs Laurence Green praised "Sweet Life", commenting, "and sweet it is, a joyous affirmation to living life with eyes open wide, soaking up the experiences of youth." Consequence of Sounds Harley Brown felt that Ocean did an uncanny impression of Stevie Wonder, and placed the song amongst Channel Orange's essential tracks. Nathan Slavik of the DJBooth called the vocals "appropriately sweet, softly painting a picture of a life lived in the black Beverly Hills", and commented "just in time for the weekend, expect to hear this one played at pool side barbecues nationwide." The Huffington Posts Alan Pyke called it one of the album's standout tracks, writing that the "bubbling keys and bass" of the track "show how captivating beats elevate Frank Ocean to best-in-class status", praising the production by Williams. Aidin Vaziri of the San Francisco Chronicle listed the song as one of the "swoon worthy" tracks off the album, and felt that Ocean "managed to evoke the carefree feeling of Saturday mornings in front of the television watching Soul Train. The track charted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 124.

text: musicOMH

text: s Laurence Green praised "Sweet Life", commenting, "and sweet it is, a joyous affirmation to living life with eyes open wide, soaking up the experiences of youth."

text: Consequence of Sound

text: s Harley Brown felt that Ocean did an uncanny impression of Stevie Wonder, and placed the song amongst Channel Orange's essential tracks. Nathan Slavik of the DJBooth called the vocals "appropriately sweet, softly painting a picture of a life lived in the black Beverly Hills", and commented "just in time for the weekend, expect to hear this one played at pool side barbecues nationwide."

text: The Huffington Post

text: s Alan Pyke called it one of the album's standout tracks, writing that the "bubbling keys and bass" of the track "show how captivating beats elevate Frank Ocean to best-in-class status", praising the production by Williams. Aidin Vaziri of the

text: San Francisco Chronicle

text: listed the song as one of the "swoon worthy" tracks off the album, and felt that Ocean "managed to evoke the carefree feeling of Saturday mornings in front of the television watching

text: Soul Train

text: . The track charted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 124.

text: Arctic Council working groups document Arctic problems and challenges such as sea ice loss, glacier melting, tundra thawing, increase of mercury in food chains, and ocean acidification affecting the entire marine ecosystem. Arctic Council members agreed to action points on protecting the Arctic but most have never materialized.

text: Arctic Council working groups document Arctic problems and challenges such as

text: sea ice

text: loss,

text: glacier melting

text: tundra

text: thawing, increase of

text: mercury

text: in

text: food chain

text: s, and

text: ocean acidification

text: affecting the entire marine ecosystem. Arctic Council members agreed to action points on protecting the Arctic but most have never materialized.

text: Prior to the discovery of the microbial loop, the classic view of marine food webs was one of a linear chain from phytoplankton to nekton. Generally, marine bacteria were not thought to be significant consumers of organic matter (including carbon), although they were known to exist. However, the view of a marine pelagic food web was challenged during the 1970s and 1980s by Pomeroy and Azam, who suggested the alternative pathway of carbon flow from bacteria to protozoans to metazoans.

text: Prior to the discovery of the microbial loop, the classic view of marine food webs was one of a linear chain from phytoplankton to nekton. Generally, marine

text: bacteria

text: were not thought to be significant consumers of organic matter (including carbon), although they were known to exist. However, the view of a marine pelagic food web was challenged during the 1970s and 1980s by Pomeroy and Azam, who suggested the alternative pathway of carbon flow from bacteria to

text: protozoan

text: s to

text: metazoan

text: s.

text: The benthos recorded in the lake are: Insecta – Dicrotenipeds pulsus, Glyptotendipens spp., Polypedilum pullum, Chaoborus flavicans, Stictochironomus spp., Tanytarsus spp. and Oligochaeta – Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri.

text: The benthos recorded in the lake are:

text: Insecta

text: – Dicrotenipeds pulsus, Glyptotendipens spp., Polypedilum pullum, Chaoborus flavicans, Stictochironomus spp., Tanytarsus spp. and

text: Oligochaeta

text: – Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri.

text: Suncheon Bay is home to many marine resources.  Inhabitants include various groups of organisms, from a microbes to higher lifeforms, including a total of 43 species of benthos, a community of organisms which live on, in or near the seabed.  The density of inhabitation is about 300 individuals per 0.1 m.

text: Suncheon Bay is home to many marine resources.  Inhabitants include various groups of organisms, from a

text: microbes

text: to higher lifeforms, including a total of 43 species of

text: benthos

text: , a community of organisms which live on, in or near the seabed.  The density of inhabitation is about 300 individuals per 0.1 m.

text: Young forage fish, such as herring, mostly feed on phytoplankton and as they mature they start to consume larger organisms. Older herrings feed on zooplankton, tiny animals that are found in oceanic surface waters, and fish larvae and fry (recently hatched fish). Copepods and other tiny crustaceans are common zooplankton eaten by forage fish. During daylight, many forage fish stay in the safety of deep water, feeding at the surface only at night when there is less chance of predation. They swim with their mouths open, filtering plankton from the water as it passes through their gills.

text: Young forage fish, such as herring, mostly feed on

text: phytoplankton

text: and as they mature they start to consume larger organisms. Older herrings feed on

text: zooplankton

text: , tiny animals that are found in

text: ocean

text: ic

text: surface waters

text: , and

text: fish larvae

text: and

text: fry

text: (recently hatched fish).

text: Copepod

text: s and other tiny

text: crustacean

text: s are common zooplankton eaten by forage fish. During

text: daylight

text: , many forage fish stay in the safety of deep water, feeding at the surface only at night when there is less chance of predation. They swim with their mouths open, filtering plankton from the water as it passes through their gills.

text: The two primary factors influences in Japan's climate are a location near the Asian continent and the existence of major oceanic currents. Two major ocean currents affect Japan,: the warm Kuroshio Current (Black Current; also known as the Japan Current); and the cold Oyashio Current (Parent Current; also known as the Okhotsk Current). The Kuroshio Current flows northward on the Pacific side of Japan and warms areas as north as the South Kantō region; a small branch, the Tsushima Current, flows up the Sea of Japan side. The Oyashio Current, which abounds in plankton beneficial to coldwater fish, flows southward along the northern Pacific, cooling adjacent coastal areas. The intersection of these currents at 36 north latitude is a bountiful fishing ground.

text: The two primary factors influences in Japan's climate are a location near the

text: Asia

text: n continent and the existence of major

text: oceanic currents

text: . Two major ocean currents affect Japan,: the warm

text: Kuroshio Current

text: (Black Current; also known as the Japan Current); and the cold

text: Oyashio Current

text: (Parent Current; also known as the Okhotsk Current). The Kuroshio Current flows northward on the Pacific side of Japan and warms areas as north as the South

text: Kantō region

text: ; a small branch, the

text: Tsushima Current

text: , flows up the Sea of Japan side. The Oyashio Current, which abounds in

text: plankton

text: beneficial to coldwater fish, flows southward along the northern Pacific, cooling adjacent coastal areas. The intersection of these currents at 36 north latitude is a bountiful fishing ground.

text: The Insular Islands were a giant chain of active volcanic islands somewhere in the Pacific Ocean during the Cretaceous period that rode on top a microplate called the Insular Plate, beginning around 130 million years ago. The Insular Islands were surrounded by two prehistoric oceans, the Panthalassa Ocean to the west and the Bridge River Ocean to the east. About 115 million years ago, these islands collided with the North American continent, fusing onto the North American Plate and closing the Bridge River Ocean during the Mid-Cretaceous time.

text: The Insular Islands were a giant chain of active

text: volcanic island

text: s somewhere in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: during the

text: Cretaceous

text: period that rode on top a microplate called the

text: Insular Plate

text: , beginning around 130 million years ago. The Insular Islands were surrounded by two prehistoric

text: ocean

text: s, the

text: Panthalassa Ocean

text: to the west and the

text: Bridge River Ocean

text: to the east. About 115 million years ago, these islands collided with the North American continent, fusing onto the

text: North American Plate

text: and closing the Bridge River Ocean during the Mid-Cretaceous time.

text: Plankton, having been left on Pelican island, becomes a muscle-bound hero named Plank-Ton and comes to assist them. Plank-Ton and Invincibubble create one final attack to defeat Burger-Beard and retrieve the formula. After sending Burger-Beard flying to Bikini Atoll, Plankton, having learned the value of teamwork, returns the formula to Mr. Krabs, and the gang uses the final page's magic to return back home to Bikini Bottom. With the Krabby Patties back, Bikini Bottom returns to normal, and Plankton re-assumes his role as business rival, thus "putting things back the way they were".

text: Plankton, having been left on Pelican island, becomes a muscle-bound hero named Plank-Ton and comes to assist them. Plank-Ton and Invincibubble create one final attack to defeat Burger-Beard and retrieve the formula. After sending Burger-Beard flying to Bikini Atoll, Plankton, having learned the value of teamwork, returns the formula to Mr. Krabs, and the gang uses the final page's magic to return back home to Bikini Bottom. With the Krabby Patties back, Bikini Bottom returns to normal, and Plankton re-assumes his role as business rival, thus "

text: putting things back the way they were

text: Calanoida is an order of copepods, a kind of zooplankton. They include around 40 families with about 1800 species of both marine and freshwater copepods. Calanoid copepods are dominant in the plankton in many parts of the world's oceans, making up 55%–95% of plankton samples. They are therefore important in many food webs, taking in energy from phytoplankton and algae and 'repackaging' it for consumption by higher trophic level predators. Many commercial fish are dependent on calanoid copepods for diet in either their larval or adult forms. Baleen whales such as bowhead whales, sei whales, right whales and fin whales eat calanoid copepods.

text: Calanoida is an

text: order

text: of

text: copepod

text: s, a kind of

text: zooplankton

text: . They include around 40 families with about 1800 species of both marine and

text: freshwater

text: copepod

text: s. Calanoid copepods are dominant in the

text: plankton

text: in many parts of the world's oceans, making up 55%–95% of plankton samples. They are therefore important in many food webs, taking in energy from

text: phytoplankton

text: and

text: algae

text: and 'repackaging' it for consumption by higher

text: trophic level

text: predators. Many commercial fish are dependent on calanoid copepods for diet in either their

text: larva

text: l or adult forms.

text: Baleen whale

text: s such as

text: bowhead whale

text: s,

text: sei whale

text: s,

text: right whale

text: s and

text: fin whale

text: s eat calanoid copepods.

text: The above triggers would have been amplified by ecological escalation, whereby any new species would co-evolve with others, creating new niches through niche partitioning, trophic layering, or by providing a new habitat.  As with the Cambrian Explosion, it is likely that environmental changes drove the diversification of plankton, which permitted an increase in diversity and abundance of plankton-feeding lifeforms, including suspension feeders on the sea floor, and nektonic organisms in the water column. After the SPICE event about 500 million years ago, the extinction in the ocean would have opened up new niches for photosynthetic plankton, who would absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and release large amount of oxygen. More oxygen and a more diversified photosynthetic plankton as the bottom of the food chain, would have affected the diversity of higher marine organisms and their ecosystems.

text: The above triggers would have been amplified by ecological escalation, whereby any new species would co-evolve with others, creating new niches through niche partitioning, trophic layering, or by providing a new habitat.  As with the

text: Cambrian Explosion

text: , it is likely that environmental changes drove the diversification of

text: plankton

text: , which permitted an increase in diversity and abundance of plankton-feeding lifeforms, including suspension feeders on the sea floor, and

text: nektonic

text: organisms in the

text: water column

text: . After the

entity_name: Steptoean positive carbon isotope excursion

text: SPICE event

text: about 500 million years ago, the extinction in the ocean would have opened up new niches for photosynthetic plankton, who would absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and release large amount of oxygen. More oxygen and a more diversified photosynthetic plankton as the bottom of the food chain, would have affected the diversity of higher marine organisms and their ecosystems.

text: It is thought that they had a planktonic juvenile stage in their life cycle and that mature adults lived in the shallow waters of the open ocean.

text: Mariner 4 probe performed the first successful flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface in 1965. The photographs showed an arid Mars without rivers, oceans, or any signs of life. Further, it revealed that the surface (at least the parts that it photographed) was covered in craters, indicating a lack of plate tectonics and weathering of any kind for the last 4 billion years. The probe also found that Mars has no global magnetic field that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening cosmic rays. The probe was able to calculate the atmospheric pressure on the planet to be about 0.6 kPa (compared to Earth's 101.3 kPa), meaning that liquid water could not exist on the planet's surface. After Mariner 4, the search for life on Mars changed to a search for bacteria-like living organisms rather than for multicellular organisms, as the environment was clearly too harsh for these.

text: Mariner 4

text: probe performed the first successful

text: flyby

text: of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian surface in 1965. The photographs showed an arid Mars without rivers, oceans, or any signs of life. Further, it revealed that the surface (at least the parts that it photographed) was covered in craters, indicating a lack of plate tectonics and weathering of any kind for the last 4 billion years. The probe also found that Mars has no

text: global magnetic field

text: that would protect the planet from potentially life-threatening

text: cosmic rays

text: . The probe was able to calculate the

text: atmospheric pressure

text: on the planet to be about 0.6 kPa (compared to Earth's 101.3 kPa), meaning that liquid water could not exist on the planet's surface. After Mariner 4, the search for life on Mars changed to a search for bacteria-like living organisms rather than for multicellular organisms, as the environment was clearly too harsh for these.

text: Benthos is the community of organisms which live on, in, or near the seabed, the area known as the benthic zone. This community lives in or near marine sedimentary environments, from tidal pools along the foreshore, out to the continental shelf, and then down to the abyssal depths. The benthic zone is the ecological region on, in and immediately above the seabed, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. Benthos generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom, and many such organisms are permanently attached to the bottom. The superficial layer of the soil lining the given body of water, the benthic boundary layer, is an integral part of the benthic zone, and greatly influences the biological activity which takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers include sand bottoms, rocky outcrops, coral, and bay mud.

text: Benthos

text: is the community of organisms which live on, in, or near the seabed, the area known as the

text: benthic zone

text: . This community lives in or near marine

text: sedimentary environments

text: , from

text: tidal pool

text: s along the

text: foreshore

text: , out to the

text: continental shelf

text: , and then down to the

text: abyssal depths

text: . The benthic zone is the ecological region on, in and immediately above the seabed, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. Benthos generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom, and many such organisms are permanently attached to the bottom. The superficial layer of the soil lining the given body of water, the

text: benthic boundary layer

text: , is an integral part of the benthic zone, and greatly influences the biological activity which takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers include

text: sand

text: bottoms, rocky outcrops,

text: coral

text: , and

text: bay mud

text: The Indian Ocean garbage patch, discovered in 2010, is a gyre of marine litter suspended in the upper water column of the central Indian Ocean, specifically the Indian Ocean Gyre, one of the five major oceanic gyres. The patch does not appear as a continuous debris field. As with other patches in each of the five oceanic gyres, the plastics in it break down to ever smaller particles, and to constituent polymers. As with the other patches, the field constitutes an elevated level of pelagic plastics, chemical sludge, and other debris; primarily particles that are invisible to the naked eye.

text: The Indian Ocean garbage patch, discovered in 2010, is a

text: gyre

text: of

text: marine litter

text: suspended in the upper

text: water column

text: of the central Indian Ocean, specifically the

text: Indian Ocean Gyre

text: , one of the five major oceanic

text: gyre

text: s. The patch does not appear as a continuous debris field. As with other patches in each of the five oceanic gyres, the plastics in it break down to ever smaller particles, and to constituent

text: polymers

text: . As with the other patches, the field constitutes an elevated level of

text: pelagic

text: plastics,

text: chemical sludge

text: , and other

text: debris

text: ; primarily particles that are invisible to the naked eye.

text: The first larval stage is called a prism. After this stage the embryo will develop two arms transforming itself into an echinopluteus larva. This is followed by the development of arms, until it reaches 8 arms all together. After this the larva develops an echinus or juvenile rudiment, which will become the juvenile. The nektonic larvae are pelagic and travel away from the parent group with the current.  The developed larvae will receive a chemical cue from adults to settle down into a bed of sand dollars and begin to undergo metamorphosis to their adult sand dollar form. As adults they are benthos and stay on the sandy bottom.

text: The first larval stage is called a prism. After this stage the embryo will develop two arms transforming itself into an

text: echinopluteus

text: larva. This is followed by the development of arms, until it reaches 8 arms all together. After this the larva develops an

text: echinus

text: or juvenile rudiment, which will become the juvenile. The

text: nektonic

text: larvae are pelagic and travel away from the parent group with the current.  The developed larvae will receive a chemical cue from adults to settle down into a bed of sand dollars and begin to undergo metamorphosis to their adult sand dollar form. As adults they are

text: benthos

text: and stay on the sandy bottom.

text: The remediation of Homebush Bay is important because of its impact on the food chain which extends through benthos not only to local protected and threatened species of birds, but also to JAMBA and CAMBA protected species and species which use other Ramsar-protected wetlands. Ultimately human health is affected through the food chain. Homebush Bay has a complete fishing ban, there is a commercial fin fishing ban west of the Gladesville Bridge, and based on submissions of the remediator and NSW Waterways and EPA the complete fishing ban ought be extended to the whole of the Parramatta River west of Homebush Bay and at least as far east as the Ryde Traffic Bridge.

text: The remediation of Homebush Bay is important because of its impact on the

text: food chain

text: which extends through

text: benthos

text: not only to local protected and threatened species of birds, but also to

entity_name: Japan–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement

text: JAMBA

text: and

entity_name: China–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement

text: CAMBA

text: protected species and species which use other

text: Ramsar

text: -protected wetlands. Ultimately human health is affected through the food chain. Homebush Bay has a complete fishing ban, there is a commercial fin fishing ban west of the

text: Gladesville Bridge

text: , and based on submissions of the remediator and NSW Waterways and EPA the complete fishing ban ought be extended to the whole of the

text: Parramatta River

text: west of Homebush Bay and at least as far east as the Ryde Traffic Bridge.

text: The 33rd parallel south is a circle of latitude that is 33 degrees south of the Earth's equatorial plane. It crosses the Atlantic Ocean, Africa, the Indian Ocean, Australasia, the Pacific Ocean and South America.

text: The 33rd parallel south is a

text: circle of latitude

text: that is 33

text: degrees

text: south

text: of the

text: Earth's

text: equatorial plane

text: . It crosses the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: Africa

text: , the

text: Indian Ocean

text: Australasia

text: , the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: and

text: South America

text: "Sweet Life" was raved by music critics. John Calvert of The Quietus described the song as "really big. Like R. Kelly's "I Believe I Can Fly" big. Like Superman eating a super hotdog while fighting King Kong while...ok you get the picture. If you were looking around for a high concept pitch-style descriptor, with its synth brass and Philly soul strings you might call it 'Stevie Wonder meets N.E.R.D in space'. But then that would be too simplistic a definition for the multifaceted, resolutely accomplished 'Sweet Thing'." Pitchforks Larry Fitzmaurice labeled it a "Best New Track" and noted that "this was a week where Frank Ocean bravely invited us to learn more about his personal story; 'Sweet Life' is another reminder of how well he can structure a narrative in the musical realm." The Telegraphs Neil McCormick noted that Ocean took the R&B genre and pushed it out into strange new places, with tracks like the "blissful, jazzy jigsaw of 'Sweet Life', which seems to assemble itself from disconnected elements as it goes along." AllMusic's Andy Kellman mused that the track served as one of the album's lighter moments, and wrote that "the bright 'Sweet Life' and the relatively exuberant 'Monks,' both of which would be standouts on any N.E.R.D. album, offer more than bright coating, dealing in surrealism and sharp observations that are equally penetrating."

text: "Sweet Life" was raved by

text: music critics

text: . John Calvert of

text: The Quietus

text: described the song as "really big. Like

text: R. Kelly

text: 's "

text: I Believe I Can Fly

text: " big. Like

text: Superman

text: eating a super hotdog while fighting

text: King Kong

text: while...ok you get the picture. If you were looking around for a high concept pitch-style descriptor, with its synth brass and Philly soul strings you might call it 'Stevie Wonder meets N.E.R.D in space'. But then that would be too simplistic a definition for the multifaceted, resolutely accomplished 'Sweet Thing'."

text: Pitchfork

text: s Larry Fitzmaurice labeled it a "Best New Track" and noted that "this was a week where Frank Ocean bravely invited us to learn more about his personal story; 'Sweet Life' is another reminder of how well he can structure a narrative in the musical realm."

text: The Telegraph

text: s Neil McCormick noted that Ocean took the R&B genre and pushed it out into strange new places, with tracks like the "blissful, jazzy jigsaw of 'Sweet Life', which seems to assemble itself from disconnected elements as it goes along."

text: AllMusic

text: 's Andy Kellman mused that the track served as one of the album's lighter moments, and wrote that "the bright 'Sweet Life' and the relatively exuberant 'Monks,' both of which would be standouts on any N.E.R.D. album, offer more than bright coating, dealing in surrealism and sharp observations that are equally penetrating."

text: During the Permian, all the Earth's major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as ferns that disperse spores in a wetter environment. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.

text: During the Permian, all the

text: Earth

text: 's major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as

text: Pangaea

text: . Pangaea straddled the

text: equator

text: and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("

text: Panthalassa

text: ", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The

text: Cimmeria

text: continent

text: rift

text: ed away from

text: Gondwana

text: and drifted north to

text: Laurasia

text: , causing the

text: Paleo-Tethys

text: ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the

text: Tethys Ocean

text: , an ocean that would dominate much of the

text: Mesozoic

text: Era. Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("

text: continental climate

text: ") and

text: monsoon

text: conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns.

text: Desert

text: s seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored

text: gymnosperm

text: s, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as

text: fern

text: s that disperse

text: spore

text: s in a wetter environment. The first modern trees (

text: conifers

text: ginkgo

text: s and

text: cycad

text: s) appeared in the Permian.

text: The founding Senators of the caucus stressed the importance of the ocean and the crucial role it plays on all aspects of life: an importance that extends not only past state, but also political party, lines.

text: The compensation depth between photosynthesis and respiration of phytoplankton in the ocean must be dependent on some factors: the illumination at the surface, the transparency of the water, the biological character of the plankton present, and the temperature. The compensation point was found nearer to the surface as you move closer to the coast  It is also lower in the winter seasons in the Baltic Sea according to a study that examined the compensation point of multiple photosynthetic species. The blue portion of the visible spectrum, between 455-495 nanometers, dominates light at the compensation depth.

text: Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton and benthos animals, most of which are either deposit or filter feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing estuaries to become anoxic.

text: Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by

text: plankton

text: and

text: benthos

text: animals, most of which are either deposit or

text: filter feeder

text: s. In this way, the toxins are

text: concentrated upward

text: within ocean

text: food chain

text: s. Many particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of

text: oxygen

text: , causing

text: estuaries

text: to become

text: anoxic

text: The nymphs dwell in the hyporheic zone, the interface between stream water and groundwater. Only immediately before moulting into the adult form will the nymphs move out of the substrate and appear on the stream bed. Thus, although they may be plentiful in clean rivers and streams, they are seldom encountered in standard samples of benthos.

text: The nymphs dwell in the

text: hyporheic zone

text: , the interface between stream water and

text: groundwater

text: . Only immediately before

text: moulting

text: into the adult form will the nymphs move out of the substrate and appear on the

text: stream bed

text: . Thus, although they may be plentiful in clean rivers and streams, they are seldom encountered in standard samples of

text: benthos

text: If the Earth's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt–like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches – very deep, narrow canyons – are formed, e.g. along the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin. The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the Pacific Ocean was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed" in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as now understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled," with the creation of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.

text: If the Earth's crust was expanding along the oceanic ridges, Hess and Dietz reasoned like Holmes and others before them, it must be shrinking elsewhere. Hess followed Heezen, suggesting that new oceanic crust continuously spreads away from the ridges in a conveyor belt–like motion. And, using the mobilistic concepts developed before, he correctly concluded that many millions of years later, the oceanic crust eventually descends along the continental margins where oceanic trenches – very deep, narrow canyons – are formed, e.g. along

text: the rim of the Pacific Ocean basin

text: . The important step Hess made was that convection currents would be the driving force in this process, arriving at the same conclusions as Holmes had decades before with the only difference that the thinning of the ocean crust was performed using Heezen's mechanism of spreading along the ridges. Hess therefore concluded that the Atlantic Ocean was expanding while the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: was shrinking. As old oceanic crust is "consumed" in the trenches (like Holmes and others, he thought this was done by thickening of the continental lithosphere, not, as now understood, by underthrusting at a larger scale of the oceanic crust itself into the mantle), new magma rises and erupts along the spreading ridges to form new crust. In effect, the ocean basins are perpetually being "recycled," with the creation of new crust and the destruction of old oceanic lithosphere occurring simultaneously. Thus, the new mobilistic concepts neatly explained why the Earth does not get bigger with sea floor spreading, why there is so little sediment accumulation on the ocean floor, and why oceanic rocks are much younger than continental rocks.

text: Meanwhile, Jonas is nearly killed on a mission to find Angel. He attempts to find Angel in a Zodiac, but he is nearly murdered out of caution by the ship's mate, Harry Moon, and Angel after attempting to sedate her with seal carcasses filled with anesthetic.  Jonas, who had nightmares about dying in the Trench, was rushed to the hospital, where he nearly died.  He vows to stop his obsession with Megs and live a regular life. However, Celeste manages to use a drug to get the location of the Devil's Purgatory and heads to the Benthos where Terry has stumbled upon an undersea operation led by Benedict Singer to exploit rocks containing the rare gas Helium-3 to create fusion, located in the Devil's Purgatory. Jonas follows, along with Angel, who has made it to the Trench. Jonas goes into the Trench within an Abyss Glider submersible while Celeste paralyzes Singer, leaving him to die at the maw of a Kronosaurus as revenge for killing her mother.  However, he tells her her father couldn't impregnate women, so he impregnated Celeste's mother for him, thus revealing that Celeste is Singer's daughter.  This does not stop her, however, and Singer last words are, "I'll see you in Hell."  The walls of the room Singer is in are destroyed, killing him and the Kronosaurus.  However, this ends up destabilizing the Benthos in the process.

text: Most species of phytoplankton are harmless or beneficial, given that they constitute the base of the marine food chain. Fertilization increases phytoplankton only in the deep oceans (far from shore) where iron deficiency is the problem. Most coastal waters are replete with iron and adding more has no useful effect.

text: The development of new genomic techniques has now made it possible to explore life’s diversity in the sunless depths of the oceans and assess the metabolic potential of the life they conceal. Exploring biodiversity in the ocean’s depths could also yield important discoveries with applications in biotechnology.

text: The development of new genomic techniques has now made it possible to explore life’s diversity in the sunless depths of the oceans and assess the metabolic potential of the life they conceal. Exploring biodiversity in the ocean’s depths could also yield important discoveries with applications in

text: biotechnology

text: The Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre (ACE-CRC) notes that one third of humankind’s annual emissions of  are absorbed by the oceans. However, this also leads to ocean acidification, with potentially significant impacts on marine life. Acidification lowers the level of carbonate ions available for calcifying organisms to form their shells. These organisms include plankton species that contribute to the foundation of the Southern Ocean food web. However acidification may impact on a broad range of other physiological and ecological processes, such as fish respiration, larval development and changes in the solubility of both nutrients and toxins.

text: The Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre (ACE-CRC) notes that one third of humankind’s annual emissions of  are absorbed by the oceans. However, this also leads to

text: ocean acidification

text: , with potentially significant impacts on marine life. Acidification lowers the level of carbonate ions available for calcifying organisms to form their shells. These organisms include plankton species that contribute to the foundation of the Southern Ocean food web. However acidification may impact on a broad range of other physiological and ecological processes, such as fish respiration, larval development and changes in the solubility of both nutrients and toxins.

text: The fauna in the lake consists of eight types of benthos and ten types of fish species, out of which nine are economically important.

text: The fauna in the lake consists of eight types of

text: benthos

text: and ten types of fish species, out of which nine are economically important.

text: «Any fluvial civilisation - insists Torres Campos - unless it is to perish or to be absorbed into by a broader current, must evolve into a maritime civilisation, communicative and expansive. At first it makes contact with inland seas, the Mediterranean phase; then it reaches the wider context of a great ocean; finally comes the discovery and exploitation of new countries, their colonialization and the development of high speed communication with every important ocean, with which opens the universal period and commerce and a maritime way of life become general throughout the civilisation.» (Torres, 1904, p. 31.)

text: Benthic fishes are likely to be found, and are more diverse, on the continental slope, where there is habitat diversity and often food supplies. About 40% of the ocean floor consists of abyssal plains, but these flat, featureless regions are covered with sediment and largely devoid of benthic life (benthos). Deep sea benthic fishes are more likely to associate with canyons or rock outcroppings among the plains, where invertebrate communities are established. Undersea mountains (seamounts) can intercept deep sea currents, and cause productive upwellings which support benthic fish. Undersea mountain ranges can separate underwater regions into different ecosystems.

text: Benthic fishes are likely to be found, and are more diverse, on the

text: continental slope

text: , where there is habitat diversity and often food supplies. About 40% of the ocean floor consists of

text: abyssal plain

text: s, but these flat, featureless regions are covered with

text: sediment

text: and largely devoid of benthic life (

text: benthos

text: seamount

text: MOCNESS is the acronym for Multiple Opening/Closing Net and Environmental Sensing System and is a net system for plankton in the ocean. The system is towed behind a research vessel with a speed of 1.5 knots and consists of five to twenty nets with a mesh size from 64 µm to 3 mm and an area of 1 to 10 m which are opened and closed computer controlled at desired depth. The net enables biologists to catch zooplankton and nekton in various depth horizons typically anywhere in the upper 500 m of the oceans. All MOCNESS systems are capable of sampling to 6000 meters depth (10,000 psi). The system includes a SeaBird CTD-probe to measure salinity and temperature at sampling depths, as well as optional dissolved oxygen, PAR (photosynthetically available light), transmissometry and fluorescence sensors.

text: MOCNESS is the acronym for Multiple Opening/Closing Net and Environmental Sensing System and is a net system for

text: plankton

text: in the ocean. The system is towed behind a

text: research vessel

text: with a speed of 1.5 knots and consists of five to twenty nets with a mesh size from 64 µm to 3 mm and an area of 1 to 10 m which are opened and closed computer controlled at desired depth. The net enables biologists to catch

text: zooplankton

text: and

text: nekton

text: in various depth horizons typically anywhere in the upper 500 m of the oceans. All MOCNESS systems are capable of sampling to 6000 meters depth (10,000 psi). The system includes a SeaBird CTD-probe to measure salinity and temperature at sampling depths, as well as optional dissolved oxygen, PAR (photosynthetically available light), transmissometry and fluorescence sensors.

text: It is important to note that ocean currents provide the necessary nutrients for life to sustain itself in the lower latitudes. Should the currents slow down, fewer nutrients would be brought to sustain ocean life resulting in a crumbling of the food chain and irreparable damage to the marine ecosystem. Slower currents would also mean less carbon fixation. Naturally, the ocean is the largest sink within which carbon is stored. When waters become saturated with carbon, excess carbon has nowhere to go, because the currents are not bringing up enough fresh water to fix the excess. This causes a rise in atmospheric carbon which in turn causes positive feedback that can lead to a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: It is important to note that ocean currents provide the necessary nutrients for life to sustain itself in the lower latitudes. Should the currents slow down, fewer nutrients would be brought to sustain ocean life resulting in a crumbling of the food chain and irreparable damage to the marine ecosystem. Slower currents would also mean less

text: carbon fixation

text: . Naturally, the ocean is the largest sink within which carbon is stored. When waters become saturated with carbon, excess carbon has nowhere to go, because the currents are not bringing up enough fresh water to fix the excess. This causes a rise in atmospheric carbon which in turn causes positive feedback that can lead to a runaway greenhouse effect.

text: The demersal zone is the part of the sea or ocean (or deep lake) comprising the water column that is near to (and is significantly affected by) the seabed and the benthos. The demersal zone is just above the benthic zone and forms a layer of the larger profundal zone.

text: The demersal zone is the part of the

text: sea

text: or

text: ocean

text: (or deep

text: lake

text: ) comprising the

text: water column

text: that is near to (and is significantly affected by) the

text: seabed

text: and the

text: benthos

text: . The demersal zone is just above the

text: benthic zone

text: and forms a layer of the larger

text: profundal zone

text: Cimolichthys is an extinct genus of 1.5- to 2.0-meter-long nektonic predatory aulopiformid fish.

text: Cimolichthys is an

text: extinct

text: genus

text: of 1.5- to 2.0-meter-long

text: nektonic

text: predatory

text: aulopiformid

text: fish

text: The film, set in World War II, depicts the story of the real-life Japanese battleship, the Yamato, which is confronted in the Pacific Ocean by giant monsters, including the most fearsome of them all, Reigo.

text: The film, set in

text: World War II

text: , depicts the story of the real-life Japanese battleship, the

text: Yamato

text: , which is confronted in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: by giant monsters, including the most fearsome of them all, Reigo.

text: Globigerina is a genus of planktonic Foraminifera that have populated the world's oceans since the Middle Jurassic.

text: Globigerina is a genus of

text: plankton

text: ic

text: Foraminifera

text: that have populated the world's oceans since the Middle

text: Jurassic

text: Aside from the large numbers of organisms actually consumed by the walrus, its foraging has a large peripheral impact on benthic communities. It disturbs (bioturbates) the sea floor, releasing nutrients into the water column, encouraging mixing and movement of many organisms and increasing the patchiness of the benthos.

text: Aside from the large numbers of organisms actually consumed by the walrus, its foraging has a large peripheral impact on benthic communities. It disturbs (

text: bioturbates

text: ) the sea floor, releasing nutrients into the water column, encouraging mixing and movement of many organisms and increasing the patchiness of the

text: benthos

text: An animal's mode of locomotion may change considerably during its life-cycle.Barnacles are exclusively marine and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters.  They have two nektonic (active swimming) larval stages, but as adults, they are sessile (non-motile) suspension feeders.  Frequently, adults are found attached to moving objects such as whales and ships, and are thereby transported (passive locomotion) around the oceans.

text: An animal's mode of locomotion may change considerably during its life-cycle.

text: Barnacles

text: are exclusively marine and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters.  They have two

text: nekton

text: ic (active swimming) larval stages, but as adults, they are sessile (non-motile) suspension feeders.  Frequently, adults are found attached to moving objects such as whales and ships, and are thereby transported (passive locomotion) around the oceans.

text: The AusCPR survey will collaborate with sister surveys, the SCAR Southern Ocean Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey and the Continuous Plankton Recorder in the North Atlantic.

text: The AusCPR survey will collaborate with sister surveys, the

entity_name: SCAR Southern Ocean Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey

text: SCAR Southern Ocean Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey

text: and the

text: Continuous Plankton Recorder

text: in the North Atlantic.

text: The term benthos, coined by Haeckel in 1891, comes from the Greek noun βένθος "depth of the sea". Benthos is also used in freshwater biology to refer to organisms at the bottom of freshwater bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, and streams. There is also a redundant synonym, benthon.

text: The term benthos, coined by

text: Haeckel

text: in 1891, comes from the

text: Greek

text: noun βένθος "depth of the sea". Benthos is also used in

text: freshwater biology

text: to refer to organisms at the bottom of freshwater

text: bodies of water

text: , such as lakes, rivers, and streams. There is also a redundant synonym, benthon.

text: Another issue is that removing marine debris from our oceans can potentially cause more harm than good. Cleaning up micro-plastics could also accidentally take out plankton, which are the main lower level food group for the marine food chain and over half of the photosynthesis on earth.  One of the most efficient and cost effective ways to help reduce the amount of plastic entering our oceans is to not participate in using singe use plastics, avoid plastic bottled drinks such as water bottles, use reusable shopping bags, and to buy products with reusable packaging.

text: Ebbesmeyer has worked with marine scientist Charles Moore, who, in 1999, published findings that the ratio of plastic to zooplankton (in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre) is about six to one, with consequent harm to ocean life from the very start of the food chain.

text: Ebbesmeyer has worked with marine scientist Charles Moore, who, in 1999, published findings that the ratio of plastic to

text: zooplankton

text: (in the

text: North Pacific Subtropical Gyre

text: ) is about six to one, with consequent harm to ocean life from the very start of the food chain.

text: As could be expected, many species of agar-degraders are marine micro-organisms – an adaptation to their environment which would be wasted in the majority of micro-organisms existing on land (although there are such examples, including a species of Paenibacillus in the Rhizosphere of Spinach). From species within genus Vibrio to Alteromonas, the presence of agarase allows agar-degrading bacteria an abundant food source in the ocean. Research also demonstrates that glucose can inhibit extracellular agarase secretion (but not transcription), causing it to degrade within the cell and thus limit growth of the bacteria. In addition, a study of the effects of phosphate limitation on agarase shows that limiting phosphate increases both intracellular agarase production and extracellular secretion, whereas a magnesium limitation does not. This further highlights the niche which this class of bacteria usually occupies, as the concentration of glucose or phosphate in the ocean is very low while magnesium concentration is generally much higher, suiting the agar-degrading bacteria’s agarase production; there is simply no need to use glucose in the ocean, so many organisms don't.

text: Zooplankton comprise the second level in the food chain, and includes small crustaceans, such as copepods and krill, and the larva of fish, squid, lobsters and crabs.

text: Zooplankton

text: comprise the second level in the food chain, and includes small

text: crustacean

text: s, such as

text: copepod

text: s and

text: krill

text: , and the

text: larva

text: of fish, squid, lobsters and crabs.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the Jurassic period, in the Bajocian age.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the

text: Jurassic

text: period, in the

text: Bajocian

text: age.

text: As one of the first sea turtle species studied, much of what is known of sea turtle ecology comes from studies of green turtles. The ecology of C. mydas changes drastically with each stage of its life history. Newly emerged hatchlings are carnivorous, pelagic organisms, part of the open ocean mininekton. In contrast, immature juveniles and adults are commonly found in seagrass meadows closer inshore as herbivorous grazers.

text: As one of the first sea turtle species studied, much of what is known of sea turtle ecology comes from studies of green turtles. The ecology of C. mydas changes drastically with each stage of its life history. Newly emerged hatchlings are

text: carnivorous

text: pelagic

text: organisms, part of the open ocean mini

text: nekton

text: . In contrast, immature juveniles and adults are commonly found in

text: seagrass

text: meadows closer inshore as

text: herbivorous

text: grazers.

text: World Oceans Day 2010's theme was "Oceans of Life: Pick your favorite * Protect your favorite." It partnered with Dr. Seuss and the Census of Marine Life.

text: World Oceans Day 2010's theme was "Oceans of Life: Pick your favorite * Protect your favorite." It partnered with

text: Dr. Seuss

text: and the

text: Census of Marine Life

text: Mary has been raised on stories passed down from her great-great-great-grandmother about life before the coming of zombies. She is especially fascinated by the ocean and believes if she could reach it, she would be free.

text: Coloration in invertebrates varies based on the depth, water temperature, food source, currents, geographic location, light exposure, and sedimentation. For example, the amount of carotenoid a certain sea anemone decreases as we go deeper into the ocean. Thus, the marine life that resides on deeper waters is less brilliant than the organisms that live in well-lit areas due to the reduction of pigments. In the colonies of the colonial ascidian-cyanophyte symbiosis Trididemnum solidum, their colors are different depending on the light regime in which they live. The colonies that are exposed to full sunlight are heavily calcified, thicker, and are white. In contrast the colonies that live in shaded areas have more phycoerythrin (pigment that absorbs green) in comparison to phycocyanin (pigment that absorbs red), thinner, and are purple. The purple color in the shaded colonies are mainly due to the phycobilin pigment of the algae, meaning the variation of exposure in light changes the colors of these colonies.

text: Despite significant macronutrient concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called HNLC regions). The micronutrient iron is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of blooms of many kinds of phytoplankton. Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface.  Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive, arid land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e.g., the eastern Atlantic Ocean, where trade winds bring dust from the Sahara Desert in north Africa). While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column. At depths where no primary production occurs, zooplankton and bacterioplankton instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above. This flux of sinking material, so-called marine snow, can be especially high following the termination of spring blooms.

text: Despite significant

text: macronutrient

text: concentrations, some ocean regions are unproductive (so-called

text: HNLC regions

text: ). The

text: micronutrient

text: iron

text: is deficient in these regions, and adding it can lead to the formation of

text: blooms

text: of many kinds of phytoplankton. Iron primarily reaches the ocean through the deposition of dust on the sea surface.  Paradoxically, oceanic areas adjacent to unproductive,

text: arid

text: land thus typically have abundant phytoplankton (e.g., the eastern

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , where

text: trade winds

text: bring dust from the

text: Sahara Desert

text: in north

text: Africa

text: ). While plankton are most abundant in surface waters, they live throughout the water column. At depths where no primary production occurs,

text: zooplankton

text: and

text: bacterioplankton

text: instead consume organic material sinking from more productive surface waters above. This flux of sinking material, so-called

text: marine snow

text: , can be especially high following the termination of

text: spring bloom

text: s.

text: Crawford and his wife Susan founded the design and illustration studio Plankton Art Co. in 1996. Their studio’s most notable project to date is the collection of 400 species identification illustrations that are on permanent display at the American Museum of Natural History’s Milstein Hall of Ocean Life in New York.

text: Crawford and his wife Susan founded the design and illustration studio Plankton Art Co. in 1996. Their studio’s most notable project to date is the collection of 400 species identification illustrations that are on permanent display at the

text: American Museum of Natural History

text: ’s

text: Milstein Hall of Ocean Life

text: in New York.

text: When fleece goes through the laundry, it generates microplastics which become part of domestic waste water. Municipal waste water systems often discharge into rivers and oceans. PET does not biodegrade and suspended microplastics are easily ingested by marine life, thus entering the food chain.

text: When fleece goes through the

text: laundry

text: , it generates

text: microplastics

text: which become part of domestic

text: waste water

text: . Municipal waste water systems often discharge into rivers and oceans. PET does not biodegrade and suspended microplastics are easily ingested by marine life, thus entering the

text: food chain

text: The Australian Continuous Plankton Recorder (AusCPR) survey is a joint project of the CSIRO   and the Australian Antarctic Division, DEWHA, to monitor plankton communities as a guide to the health of Australia's oceans.

text: The Australian Continuous Plankton Recorder (AusCPR) survey is a joint project of the

entity_name: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation

text: CSIRO

text: and the Australian Antarctic Division,

entity_name: Department of the Environment (Australia, 2013–16)

text: DEWHA

text: , to monitor

text: plankton

text: communities as a guide to the health of Australia's oceans.

text: The fauna recorded in the lake are the Zooplankton, Benthos and Fish. The economically important fishes reported are:

text: The fauna recorded in the lake are the

text: Zooplankton

text: Benthos

text: and

text: Fish

text: . The economically important fishes reported are:

text: Richard Branson and Chris Welsh of Virgin Oceanic plan on using DeepFlight Challenger to reach the deepest point of each of the world's five oceans, the Mariana Trench of the Pacific Ocean (36,201 ft), the Puerto Rico Trench of the Atlantic Ocean (28,232 ft), the Diamantina Trench of the Indian Ocean (26,401 ft), South Sandwich Trench of the Southern Ocean (23,737 ft), and Molloy Deep of the Arctic Ocean (18,399 ft). The Cheyenne yacht will be used as the mothership for the dive efforts.

text: Richard Branson

text: and Chris Welsh of

text: Virgin Oceanic

text: plan on using DeepFlight Challenger to reach the deepest point of each of the world's five oceans, the

text: Mariana Trench

text: of the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: (36,201 ft), the

text: Puerto Rico Trench

text: of the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: (28,232 ft), the

text: Diamantina Trench

text: of the

text: Indian Ocean

text: (26,401 ft),

text: South Sandwich Trench

text: of the

text: Southern Ocean

text: (23,737 ft), and

text: Molloy Deep

text: of the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: (18,399 ft). The

text: Cheyenne

text: yacht will be used as the mothership for the dive efforts.

text: The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean or a lake, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. Organisms living in this zone are called benthos, e.g. the benthic invertebrate community, including crustaceans and polychaetes. The organisms generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom and many are permanently attached to the bottom. The superficial layer of the soil lining the given body of water, the benthic boundary layer, is an integral part of the benthic zone, as it greatly influences the biological activity that takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers include sand bottoms, rocky outcrops, coral, and bay mud.

text: The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a

text: body of water

text: such as an

text: ocean

text: or a

text: lake

text: , including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. Organisms living in this zone are called

text: benthos

text: , e.g. the benthic invertebrate community, including

text: crustaceans

text: and

text: polychaetes

text: . The organisms generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom and many are permanently attached to the bottom. The superficial layer of the soil lining the given body of water, the

text: benthic boundary layer

text: , is an integral part of the benthic zone, as it greatly influences the biological activity that takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers include

text: sand

text: bottoms, rocky outcrops,

text: coral

text: , and

text: bay mud

text: Marine mammals form a diverse group of 129 species that rely on the ocean for their existence. They do not represent a distinct taxon or systematic grouping, but instead have a paraphyletic relationship. They are also unified by their reliance on the marine environment for feeding. The level of dependence on the marine environment for existence varies considerably with species. For example, dolphins and whales are completely dependent on the marine environment for all stages of their life, seals feed in the ocean but breed on land, and polar bears must feed on land. Twenty three percent of marine mammal species are threatened.

text: Marine mammals form a diverse group of 129 species that rely on the ocean for their existence. They do not represent a distinct taxon or systematic grouping, but instead have a

text: paraphyletic

text: relationship. They are also unified by their reliance on the marine environment for feeding. The level of dependence on the marine environment for existence varies considerably with species. For example, dolphins and whales are completely dependent on the marine environment for all stages of their life,

text: seal

text: s feed in the ocean but breed on land, and polar bears must feed on land. Twenty three percent of marine mammal species are

text: threatened

text: Banded knifefish eat benthos, such as plants, arthropods, detritus, mollusks, worms, and small fish.

text: Banded knifefish eat

text: benthos

text: , such as

text: plant

text: s,

text: arthropod

text: s,

text: detritus

text: mollusks

text: worm

text: s, and small

text: fish

text: Discussion includes the life cycles of plankton, their role in the food web and the unique chemical and physical balance that helps maintain life in the sea. Students participate in a hands-on plankton tow and the specimen is taken back to the classroom for further examination. A water sample is also taken back to test its salinity using a refractometer. When the students return to the lab, the samples from the plankton tow gathered on the boat are viewed through a microscope that is connected to a large-screen monitor. Students participate in plankton identification and discuss the different types of phytoplankton and zooplankton collected.

text: The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean or the Austral Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica. As such, it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions: smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean. This ocean zone is where cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters.

text: The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean or the Austral Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the

text: World Ocean

text: , generally taken to be south of

text: 60° S latitude

text: and encircling

text: Antarctica

text: . As such, it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal

text: ocean

text: ic divisions: smaller than the

text: Pacific

text: Atlantic

text: , and

text: Indian Ocean

text: s but larger than the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: . This

text: ocean zone

text: is where cold, northward flowing waters from the

text: Antarctic

text: mix with warmer

text: subantarctic

text: waters.

text: As with others of its kind, Ananorites was probably a nektonic (swimming) stalking marine predator that spent its time hunting above the sea floor.

text: As with others of its kind, Ananorites was probably a

text: nekton

text: ic (swimming) stalking marine predator that spent its time hunting above the sea floor.

text: At the time of Project Nekton, Trieste was more than 15 m (50 ft) long. The majority of this was a series of floats filled with  of gasoline, and water ballast tanks were included at either end of the vessel, as well as releasable iron ballast in two conical hoppers along the bottom, fore and aft of the crew sphere. The crew occupied the 2.16 m (7.09 ft) pressure sphere, attached to the underside of the float and accessed from the deck of the vessel by a vertical shaft that penetrated the float and continued down to the sphere hatch.

text: At the time of

text: Project Nekton

text: , Trieste was more than 15 m (50 ft) long. The majority of this was a series of floats filled with  of gasoline, and water ballast tanks were included at either end of the vessel, as well as releasable iron ballast in two conical hoppers along the bottom, fore and aft of the crew sphere. The crew occupied the 2.16 m (7.09 ft) pressure sphere, attached to the underside of the float and accessed from the deck of the vessel by a vertical shaft that penetrated the float and continued down to the sphere hatch.

text: One way to increase the carbon sequestration efficiency of the oceans is to add micrometre-sized iron particles in the form of either hematite (iron oxide) or melanterite (iron sulfate) to certain regions of the ocean. This has the effect of stimulating growth of plankton.  Iron is an important nutrient for phytoplankton, usually made available via upwelling along the continental shelves, inflows from rivers and streams, as well as deposition of dust suspended in the atmosphere. Natural sources of ocean iron have been declining in recent decades, contributing to an overall decline in ocean productivity (NASA, 2003).  Yet in the presence of iron nutrients plankton populations quickly grow, or 'bloom', expanding the base of biomass productivity throughout the region and removing significant quantities of CO from the atmosphere via photosynthesis.  A test in 2002 in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica suggests that between 10,000 and 100,000 carbon atoms are sunk for each iron atom added to the water.  More recent work in Germany (2005) suggests that any biomass carbon in the oceans, whether exported to depth or recycled in the euphotic zone, represents long-term storage of carbon.  This means that application of iron nutrients in select parts of the oceans, at appropriate scales, could have the combined effect of restoring ocean productivity while at the same time mitigating the effects of human caused emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

text: One way to increase the carbon sequestration efficiency of the oceans is to add micrometre-sized iron particles in the form of either

text: hematite

text: (iron oxide) or

text: melanterite

text: (iron sulfate) to certain regions of the ocean. This has the effect of stimulating growth of

text: plankton

text: .  Iron is an important nutrient for

text: phytoplankton

text: , usually made available via upwelling along the

text: continental shelves

text: , inflows from rivers and streams, as well as deposition of dust suspended in the

text: atmosphere

text: . Natural sources of ocean iron have been declining in recent decades, contributing to an overall decline in ocean productivity (NASA, 2003).  Yet in the presence of iron nutrients plankton populations quickly grow, or 'bloom', expanding the base of

text: biomass

text: productivity throughout the region and removing significant quantities of CO from the atmosphere via

text: photosynthesis

text: .  A test in 2002 in the

text: Southern Ocean

text: around

text: Antarctica

text: suggests that between 10,000 and 100,000 carbon atoms are sunk for each iron atom added to the water.  More recent work in Germany (2005) suggests that any biomass carbon in the oceans, whether exported to depth or recycled in the

text: euphotic zone

text: , represents long-term storage of carbon.  This means that application of iron nutrients in select parts of the oceans, at appropriate scales, could have the combined effect of restoring ocean productivity while at the same time mitigating the effects of human caused emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

text: Occithrissops is an extinct genus of prehistoric ray-finned fish of the Jurassic, known for its fearsome yet small appearance. The genus name of Occithrissops derives from the Latin word "Occi" (killing) and the Greek words "thriss" (fish) and "ṓps" (“face”). Similar in relationship to the Thrissops, it was a slightly larger predatory teleost fish with serrated pelvic fins, a cleft tail, and a bony tongue similar to the Arapaima and formerly mentioned Thrissops, bearing small teeth for catching small slippery prey like squid, invertebrates and fish. The bony tongue assisted the fish in consuming hard shelled invertebrates which included small nektonic Jurassic ammonites, which despite the growing decline of ammonoids were still prevalent and plentiful for their time.

text: Occithrissops is an extinct genus of prehistoric

text: ray-finned fish

text: of the

text: Jurassic

text: , known for its fearsome yet small appearance. The genus name of Occithrissops derives from the Latin word "Occi" (killing) and the Greek words "thriss" (fish) and "ṓps" (“face”). Similar in relationship to the

text: Thrissops

text: , it was a slightly larger predatory

text: teleost

text: fish with serrated

text: pelvic fins

text: , a cleft tail, and a bony tongue similar to the

text: Arapaima

text: and formerly mentioned

text: Thrissops

text: , bearing small teeth for catching small slippery prey like squid, invertebrates and fish. The bony tongue assisted the fish in consuming hard shelled invertebrates which included small

text: nektonic

text: Jurassic

text: ammonites

text: , which despite the growing decline of

text: ammonoids

text: were still prevalent and plentiful for their time.

text: These nektonic carnivores lived during the Jurassic period, Kimmeridgian age.

text: These nektonic carnivores lived during the

text: Jurassic

text: period,

text: Kimmeridgian

text: age.

text: Over the last decade volunteer Kuwaiti divers were busy cleaning the benthos. We had extracted two cannons and seven shell partners with ministry of defining Walid Al-Shatti the leader of the Kuwaiti Divers Association said. In addition, it is common to find a turtle caught in fishing nets. What is more, Saudi Aramco was one of the largest contributors to the cleaning process. It provides support to other Oil-response teams. It distributes protection equipment and materials . Moreover, many Saudi Aramco employees are involved in volunteer teams to clean up marine life.

text: Over the last decade volunteer Kuwaiti divers were busy cleaning the

text: benthos

text: . We had extracted two

text: cannons

text: and seven shell partners with ministry of defining Walid Al-Shatti the leader of the Kuwaiti Divers Association said. In addition, it is common to find a

text: turtle

text: caught in

text: fishing nets

text: . What is more,

text: Saudi Aramco

text: was one of the largest contributors to the cleaning process. It provides support to other Oil-response

entity_name: Tests of Engineering Aptitude, Mathematics, and Science

text: teams

text: . It distributes protection equipment and materials . Moreover, many

text: Saudi Aramco

text: employees are involved in volunteer teams to clean up

text: marine life

text: Beyrichoceratoides has been described as a "fast-moving nektonic carnivore". However its somewhat globular discoidal  form suggest a small stalking or houvering nektonic or nekto-benthic ambush predator capable of  sudden swift movements to either grab prey or escape predation. As with all known cephalopods, Beyrichoceratoides was undoubtedly carnivorous.

text: This fish is native to the Johnston Atoll and the Hawaiian Islands in the central Pacific Ocean. Its depth range is . It is a bentho-pelagic species and its typical habitat is rock, coral and rubble areas of exposed reefs.

text: This fish is native to the Johnston Atoll and the

text: Hawaiian Islands

text: in the central Pacific Ocean. Its depth range is . It is a bentho-pelagic species and its typical habitat is rock, coral and rubble areas of exposed reefs.

text: Astrooceanography is closely related to Astrobiology, as oceans are expected to have higher chances to house simple forms of life.

text: The Monterey Bay’s marine science expertise includes oceanography, climate and weather forecasting, fisheries, remote sensing, marine ecosystems, environmental monitoring, cellular and molecular marine biology, instrument/sensor/mooring development, underwater vehicles technology, ocean currents and acoustics, marine policy and education. Other marine science sectors of leadership include abalone farming, marine aquaculture for food and energy, kelp farm production, climate change, sea level rise research and water quality analysis.

text: The Monterey Bay’s marine science expertise includes

text: oceanography

text: climate

text: and

text: weather forecasting

text: fisheries

text: remote sensing

text: marine ecosystems

text: environmental monitoring

text: , cellular and molecular

text: marine biology

text: , instrument/sensor/

text: mooring

text: development,

text: underwater vehicles

text: technology,

text: ocean currents

text: and

text: acoustics

text: , marine policy and education. Other marine science sectors of leadership include

text: abalone

text: farming, marine

text: aquaculture

text: for food and energy, kelp farm production,

text: climate change

text: , sea level rise research and

text: water quality

text: analysis.

text: Howe was married September, 1848, and moved to Cincinnati, where he wrote The Great West, Achievement of Americans, Life and Death on the Ocean and Travels and Adventures of Celebrated Travelers.

text: Howe was married September, 1848, and moved to

text: Cincinnati

text: , where he wrote The Great West, Achievement of Americans, Life and Death on the Ocean and Travels and Adventures of Celebrated Travelers.

text: Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and, in turn, the food supply of both humans and other organisms. Scientists have warned of the possibility, under the influence of climate change, of a sudden alteration in circulation patterns of ocean currents that could drastically alter the climate in some regions of the globe. Major human environmental impacts occur in the more habitable regions of the ocean fringes – the estuaries, coastline and bays. Ten per cent of the world's population – about 600 million people – live in low-lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise. Trends of concern that require management include: over-fishing (beyond sustainable levels); coral bleaching due to ocean warming and ocean acidification due to increasing levels of dissolved carbon dioxide; and sea level rise due to climate change. Because of their vastness oceans also act as a convenient dumping ground for human waste. Remedial strategies include: more careful waste management, statutory control of overfishing by adoption of sustainable fishing practices and the use of environmentally sensitive and sustainable aquaculture and fish farming, reduction of fossil fuel emissions and restoration of coastal and other marine habitat.

text: Ocean

text: circulation patterns have a strong influence on

text: climate

text: and

text: weather

text: and, in turn, the food supply of both humans and other organisms. Scientists have warned of the possibility, under the influence of climate change, of a sudden alteration in circulation patterns of

text: ocean current

text: s that could drastically alter the climate in some regions of the globe. Major human environmental impacts occur in the more habitable regions of the ocean fringes – the

text: estuaries

text: coastline

text: and

text: bay

text: s. Ten per cent of the world's population – about 600 million people – live in low-lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise. Trends of concern that require management include:

text: over-fishing

text: (beyond sustainable levels);

text: coral bleaching

text: due to ocean warming and

text: ocean acidification

text: due to increasing levels of dissolved carbon dioxide; and

text: sea level rise

text: due to climate change. Because of their vastness oceans also act as a convenient

text: dumping ground

text: for human waste. Remedial strategies include: more careful waste management, statutory control of overfishing by adoption of

text: sustainable fishing

text: practices and the use of environmentally sensitive and sustainable

text: aquaculture

text: and

text: fish farming

text: , reduction of fossil fuel emissions and restoration of coastal and other marine habitat.

text: The survey by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) reveals that radioactive cesium released from Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant reached the ocean 2000 kilometers from the plant and 5000 meters deep one month after the accident. It is considered that airborne cesium particles fell on the ocean surface, and sank as they were attached to the bodies of dead plankton. The survey result was announced in a symposium held on 20 November in Tokyo. From 18 to 30 April, JAMSTEC collected "marine snow", sub-millimeter particles made mostly of dead plankton and sand, off the coast of Kamchatka Peninsula, 2000 kilometers away from Fukushima, and off the coast of Ogasawara Islands, 1000 kilometers away, at 5000 meters below the ocean surface. The Agency detected radioactive cesium in both locations, and from the ratio of cesium-137 and cesium-134 and other observations it was determined that it was from Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant. The density of radioactive cesium is still being analyzed, according to the Agency. It has been thus confirmed that radioactive materials in the ocean are moving and spreading not just by ocean currents but by various other means.

text: At the base of food chains are the primary producers. In the ocean these primary producers are mainly a type of plankton, microscopic phytoplankton which drift in the water column. Phytoplankton need sunlight for photosynthesis to power carbon fixation, so they are mainly located in sunlit surface waters. Phytoplankton also need and rapidly use nutrients in the water column. The phytoplankton are eaten by zooplankton, which in turn are eaten by predatory zooplankton. Filter feeders then eat the plankton and larger predatory fish eat the filter feeders (see diagram at the right).

text: At the base of

text: food chain

text: s are the

text: primary producer

text: s. In the ocean these primary producers are mainly a type of

text: plankton

text: , microscopic

text: phytoplankton

text: which drift in the

text: water column

text: . Phytoplankton need sunlight for

text: photosynthesis

text: to power

text: carbon fixation

text: , so they are mainly located in sunlit surface waters. Phytoplankton also need and rapidly use nutrients in the water column. The phytoplankton are eaten by

text: zooplankton

text: , which in turn are eaten by predatory zooplankton.

text: Filter feeder

text: s then eat the plankton and larger

text: predatory fish

text: eat the filter feeders (see diagram at the right).

text: Many fans have observed Plankton becoming noticeably less evil and villain-like overtime, and many new episodes cast him in a sympathetic light.  This is in sharp contrast to Mr. Krabs; most of the newer episodes centering on him are either about making money at any cost (which has brought him to committing crime more than once) or spitefully trying to make life miserable for Plankton.  This is often done by bragging about his own success and reminding Plankton of his failures, even preventing Plankton from having any success of his own; episodes such as Plankton's Regular and One Coarse Meal are prime examples of this.

text: Ocean Conservancy was founded in 1972, as the Delta Corporation to promote healthy and diverse ocean ecosystems, and to oppose practices that threaten oceanic and human life.  Through several program areas, Ocean Conservancy advocates for protecting of special marine habitats, restoring sustainable fisheries, reducing the human impact on ocean ecosystems and managing U.S. ocean resources. Ocean Conservancy efforts are guided by a 17-member volunteer board of directors.  Ocean Conservancy is a tax-exempt not-for-profit organization. It meets the Better Business Bureau's 20 Standards for Charity Accountability.

text: Ocean Conservancy was founded in 1972, as the Delta Corporation to promote healthy and diverse ocean ecosystems, and to oppose practices that threaten oceanic and human life.  Through several program areas, Ocean Conservancy advocates for protecting of special marine habitats, restoring sustainable fisheries, reducing the human impact on ocean ecosystems and managing U.S. ocean resources. Ocean Conservancy efforts are guided by a 17-member volunteer board of directors.  Ocean Conservancy is a tax-exempt not-for-profit organization. It meets the

text: Better Business Bureau's

text: 20 Standards for Charity Accountability.

text: According to a report published in October 2011 by the French Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety, between 21 March and mid-July around 2.7 × 10 Bq of caesium-137 (about 8.4 kg) entered the ocean, about 82 percent having flowed into the sea before 8 April. This emission of radioactivity into the sea represents the most important individual emission of artificial radioactivity into the sea ever observed. However, the Fukushima coast has some of the world's strongest currents and these transported the contaminated waters far into the Pacific Ocean, thus causing great dispersion of the radioactive elements. The results of measurements of both the seawater and the coastal sediments led to the supposition that the consequences of the accident, in terms of radioactivity, would be minor for marine life as of autumn 2011 (weak concentration of radioactivity in the water and limited accumulation in sediments). On the other hand, significant pollution of sea water along the coast near the nuclear plant might persist, because of the continuing arrival of radioactive material transported towards the sea by surface water running over contaminated soil. Further, some coastal areas might have less-favorable dilution or sedimentation characteristics than those observed so far. Finally, the possible presence of other persistent radioactive substances, such as strontium-90 or plutonium, has not been sufficiently studied. Recent measurements show persistent contamination of some marine species (mostly fish) caught along the coast of Fukushima district. Organisms that filter water and fish at the top of the food chain are, over time, the most sensitive to caesium pollution. It is thus justified to maintain surveillance of marine life that is fished in the coastal waters off Fukushima. Despite caesium isotopic concentration in the waters off of Japan being 10 to 1000 times above concentration prior to the accident, radiation risks are below what is generally considered harmful to marine animals and human consumers.

text: According to a report published in October 2011 by the

entity_name: Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire

text: French Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety

text: Rotaliids are primarily oceanic benthos, although some are common in shallower estuarine waters.  They also include many important fossils, such as the nummulitids.

text: Rotaliids are primarily oceanic

text: benthos

text: , although some are common in shallower

text: estuarine

text: waters.  They also include many important fossils, such as the

text: nummulitids

text: The Deep: Here Be Dragons is an original graphic novel from Gestalt Publishing written by award-winning writer Tom Taylor (Injustice Gods Among Us, Superior Iron Man, Star Wars: Adventures, Star Wars: Invasion, The Authority, The Example) and illustrated by James Brouwer, which tells the tales of the Nekton family – A multiethnic family of Aquanauts who live on a submarine. The all-ages graphic novel won the Aurealis Award, Australia's premier speculative fiction literary award, for Best illustrated book/graphic novel in 2012 and was also nominated for Best children’s illustrated work/picture book.

text: The Deep: Here Be Dragons is an original

text: graphic novel

text: from

text: Gestalt Publishing

text: written by award-winning writer

text: Tom Taylor

text: Injustice Gods Among Us

text: , Superior Iron Man, Star Wars: Adventures,

text: Star Wars: Invasion

text: The Authority

text: The Example

text: ) and illustrated by James Brouwer, which tells the tales of the Nekton family – A multiethnic family of Aquanauts who live on a submarine. The all-ages graphic novel won the

text: Aurealis Award

text: , Australia's premier speculative fiction literary award, for

entity_name: Aurealis Award for best illustrated book or graphic novel

text: Best illustrated book/graphic novel

text: in 2012 and was also nominated for

entity_name: Aurealis Award for best children's fiction (told primarily through pictures)

text: Best children’s illustrated work/picture book

text: Benthopelagic fish inhabit the water just above the bottom, feeding on benthos and zooplankton. Most demersal fish are benthopelagic.

text: Benthopelagic fish inhabit the water just above the bottom, feeding on

text: benthos

text: and

text: zooplankton

text: . Most demersal fish are benthopelagic.

text: In the Cambrian period, the continent of Laurentia, which would later become North America, sat on the equator, with three bordering oceans: the Panthalassic Ocean to the north and west, the Iapetus Ocean to the south and the Khanty Ocean to the east. In the Earliest Ordovician, around 480 Ma, the microcontinent of Avalonia – a landmass incorporating fragments of what would become eastern Newfoundland, the southern British Isles, and parts of Belgium, northern France, Nova Scotia, New England, Iberia and northwest Africa – broke free from Gondwana and began its journey to Laurentia. Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of the Ordovician to form a minor supercontinent called Euramerica or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The collision also resulted in the formation of the northern Appalachians. Siberia sat near Euramerica, with the Khanty Ocean between the two continents. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the formation of Pangaea.

text: In the

text: Cambrian

text: period, the continent of

text: Laurentia

text: , which would later become

text: North America

text: , sat on the

text: equator

text: , with three bordering oceans: the

text: Panthalassic Ocean

text: to the north and west, the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: to the south and the

text: Khanty Ocean

text: to the east. In the Earliest

text: Ordovician

text: , around 480 Ma, the microcontinent of

text: Avalonia

text: – a landmass incorporating fragments of what would become eastern

text: Newfoundland

text: , the southern

text: British Isles

text: , and parts of

text: Belgium

text: , northern

text: France

text: Nova Scotia

text: New England

text: Iberia

text: and northwest Africa – broke free from Gondwana and began its journey to

text: Laurentia

text: . Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of the Ordovician to form a minor supercontinent called

text: Euramerica

text: or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The collision also resulted in the formation of the northern

text: Appalachians

text: Siberia

text: sat near Euramerica, with the

text: Khanty Ocean

text: between the two continents. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the formation of Pangaea.

text: Deep-sea smelts are marine fishes found in deep waters throughout the oceans, down to  in depth. They are small fishes, growing up to  long. They feed on plankton, especially krill.

text: Deep-sea smelts are marine fishes found in deep waters throughout the oceans, down to  in depth. They are small fishes, growing up to  long. They feed on

text: plankton

text: , especially

text: krill

text: The redirection of carbon by C. amurensis to the benthos has created a limited chain, leaving the pelagic web depauperate. Detrital production from clam excretion and death may fuel bacterial production, which may be circulated into the detrital food web, or microbial loop.

text: An ocean  (, the sea of classical antiquity) is a body of saline water that composes much of a planet's hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major conventional divisions of the World Ocean, which covers almost 71% of its surface. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans. The word sea is often used interchangeably with "ocean" in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land.

text: An ocean  (, the

text: sea

text: of

text: classical antiquity

text: ) is a body of

text: saline water

text: that composes much of a

text: planet

text: 's

text: hydrosphere

text: . On

text: Earth

text: , an ocean is one of the major conventional divisions of the

text: World Ocean

text: , which covers almost 71% of its surface. These are, in descending order by area, the

text: Pacific

text: Atlantic

text: Indian

text: Southern

text: (Antarctic), and

text: Arctic

text: Oceans. The word

text: sea

text: is often used interchangeably with "ocean" in

text: American English

text: but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land.

text: Biological oceanographyDrifters are frequently used to collect information on biological oceanography, such as environmental changes due to sea surface temperature warming and ocean acidification, the distribution of plankton, and plankton blooms.  As shipboard studies become less cost effective, Lagrangian floats (drifters) and seagliders allow for the study of plankton and plankton bloom dynamics over the entire bloom evolution.

text: Biological oceanographyDrifters are frequently used to collect information on biological oceanography, such as environmental changes due to sea surface temperature warming and ocean acidification, the distribution of plankton, and plankton blooms.  As shipboard studies become less cost effective,

text: Lagrangian

text: floats (drifters) and seagliders allow for the study of plankton and plankton bloom dynamics over the entire bloom evolution.

text: Plankton are primarily divided into broad functional (or trophic level) groups:

text: Plankton are primarily divided into broad functional (or

text: trophic level

text: ) groups:

text: However, there are several major problems with the methane hydrate dissociation hypothesis. The most parsimonious interpretation for surface-water forams to show the  excursion before their benthic counterparts (as in the Thomas et al. paper) is that the perturbation occurred from the top down, and not the bottom up.  If the anomalous  (in whatever form: CH4 or CO2) entered the atmospheric carbon reservoir first, and then diffused into the surface ocean waters, which mix with the deeper ocean waters over much longer time-scales, we would expect to observe the planktonics shifting toward lighter values before the benthics.  Moreover, careful examination of the Thomas et al. data set shows that there is not a single intermediate planktonic foram value, implying that the perturbation and attendant  anomaly happened over the lifespan of a single foram – much too fast for the nominal 10,000-year release needed for the methane hypothesis to work.

text: The complex life cycles of the myxobacteria make them very attractive models for the study of gene regulation as well as cell to cell interactions. The traits of M. xanthus make it very easy to study, and therefore important to research. Laboratory strains of M. xanthus are available that are capable of planktonic growth in shaker culture, so that they are easy to grow in large numbers. The tools of classical and molecular genetics are relatively well-developed in M. xanthus.

text: Algae communities are less diverse in acidic water containing high zinc concentration, and mine drainage stress decrease their primary production. Diatoms community is greatly modified by any chemical change. pH phytoplankton assemblage, and high metal concentration diminishes the abundance of planktonic species. Some diatom species may however grow in high-metal-concentration sediments. In sediments close to the surface, cysts suffer from corrosion and heavy coating. In very polluted conditions, total algae biomass is quite low, and the planktonic diatom community missing. In case of functional complementarity however, it is possible that phytoplankton and zooplankton mass remains stable.

text: Algae communities are less diverse in acidic water containing high

text: zinc

text: concentration, and mine drainage stress decrease their primary production.

text: Diatoms

text: community is greatly modified by any chemical change. pH

text: phytoplankton

text: assemblage, and high metal concentration diminishes the abundance of

text: planktonic

text: species. Some diatom species may however grow in high-metal-concentration sediments. In sediments close to the surface,

text: cysts

text: suffer from

text: corrosion

text: and heavy coating. In very polluted conditions, total algae biomass is quite low, and the planktonic diatom community missing. In case of functional complementarity however, it is possible that phytoplankton and

text: zooplankton

text: mass remains stable.

text: Benthos is the community of organisms that live on, in, or near the seabed, also known as the benthic zone. This community lives in or near marine sedimentary environments, from tidal pools along the foreshore, out to the continental shelf, and then down to the abyssal depths.

text: Benthos is the community of organisms that live on, in, or near the

text: seabed

text: , also known as the

text: benthic zone

text: sedimentary environments

text: , from

text: tidal pool

text: s along the

text: foreshore

text: , out to the

text: continental shelf

text: , and then down to the

text: abyssal depths

text: C and C are measured as the isotope ratio δC in benthic foraminifera and used as a proxy for nutrient cycling and the temperature dependent air-sea exchange of CO (ventilation) (Lynch-Stieglitz et al., 1995). Plants find it easier to use the lighter isotopes (C) when they convert sunlight and carbon dioxide into food. So, for example, large blooms of plankton (free-floating organisms) absorb large amounts of C from the oceans. Originally, the C was mostly incorporated into the seawater from the atmosphere. If the oceans that the plankton live in are stratified (meaning that there are layers of warm water near the top, and colder water deeper down), then the surface water does not mix very much with the deeper waters, so that when the plankton dies, it sinks and takes away C from the surface, leaving the surface layers relatively rich in C. Where cold waters well up from the depths (such as in the North Atlantic), the water carries C back up with it. So, when the ocean was less stratified than today, there was much more C in the skeletons of surface-dwelling species. Other indicators of past climate include the presence of tropical species, coral growths rings, etc.

text: C and C are measured as the

entity_section: Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems

text: isotope ratio

text: δC in

text: benthic

text: foraminifera

text: and used as a

text: proxy

text: for

text: nutrient cycling

text: and the temperature dependent air-sea exchange of CO (ventilation) (Lynch-Stieglitz et al., 1995). Plants find it easier to use the lighter isotopes (C) when they convert sunlight and carbon dioxide into food. So, for example, large blooms of

text: plankton

text: (free-floating organisms) absorb large amounts of C from the oceans. Originally, the C was mostly incorporated into the seawater from the atmosphere. If the oceans that the plankton live in are stratified (meaning that there are layers of warm water near the top, and colder water deeper down), then the surface water does not mix very much with the deeper waters, so that when the plankton dies, it sinks and takes away C from the surface, leaving the surface layers relatively rich in C. Where cold waters well up from the depths (such as in the North Atlantic), the water carries C back up with it. So, when the ocean was less stratified than today, there was much more C in the skeletons of surface-dwelling species. Other indicators of past climate include the presence of tropical species, coral growths rings, etc.

text: Following the discovery of hydrothermal vents, deposits similar to those of oceanic vents and fossilized vent life forms have been found in some SedEx deposits, which leads to a potential degree of overlap between Sedex and Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits.

text: Following the discovery of

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s, deposits similar to those of oceanic vents and fossilized vent life forms have been found in some SedEx deposits, which leads to a potential degree of overlap between Sedex and

entity_name: Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit

text: Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit

text: s.

text: Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms, such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms, and causing coral bleaching. By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions, each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions. This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms, such as coral and some plankton, to form biogenic calcium carbonate, and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution. Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans. As members of the InterAcademy Panel, 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050, global  emissions be reduced by at least 50% compared to the 1990 level.

text: Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms, such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms, and causing

text: coral bleaching

text: . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions, each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions. This net decrease in the amount of

text: carbonate

text: ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms, such as

text: coral

text: and some

text: plankton

text: , to form

text: biogenic

text: calcium carbonate

text: , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution. Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens

text: food chains

text: connected with the oceans. As members of the

text: InterAcademy Panel

text: , 105

text: science academies

text: have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050, global  emissions be reduced by at least 50% compared to the 1990 level.

text: The pelagic zone contains macro- and microfauna and myriad zooplankton which drift with the currents. Most of the smallest organisms are the larvae of fish and marine invertebrates which liberate eggs in vast numbers because the chance of any one embryo surviving to maturity is so minute. The zooplankton feed on phytoplankton and on each other and form a basic part of the complex food chain that extends through variously-sized fish and other nektonic organisms, which are in turn eaten by larger squids, sharks, porpoises, dolphins, and whales. Some marine creatures make large migrations, either to other regions of the ocean on a seasonal basis or up and down its vertical layers, often ascending to feed at night before descending to safety by day. Ships can introduce or spread invasive species through the discharge of ballast water or through the transport of organisms that have accumulated as part of the fouling community on the hulls of vessels.

text: The pelagic zone contains

text: macro

text: - and

text: microfauna

text: and myriad zooplankton which drift with the currents. Most of the smallest organisms are the larvae of fish and

text: marine invertebrate

text: s which liberate

text: eggs

text: in vast numbers because the chance of any one embryo surviving to maturity is so minute. The zooplankton feed on phytoplankton and on each other and form a basic part of the complex food chain that extends through variously-sized fish and other

text: nekton

text: ic organisms, which are in turn eaten by larger

text: squid

text: s,

text: shark

text: s,

text: porpoise

text: s,

text: dolphin

text: s, and

text: whale

text: s. Some marine creatures make large migrations, either to other regions of the ocean on a seasonal basis or up and down its vertical layers, often ascending to feed at night before descending to safety by day. Ships can introduce or spread

text: invasive species

text: through the discharge of

text: ballast

text: water or through the transport of organisms that have accumulated as part of the

text: fouling community

text: on the hulls of vessels.

text: Placenticeras whitfieldi is an ammonite species from the Late Cretaceous. These cephalopods were fast-moving nektonic carnivores.

text: Placenticeras whitfieldi is an

text: ammonite

text: species

text: from the

text: Late Cretaceous

text: . These cephalopods were fast-moving

text: nektonic

text: carnivores.

text: Under Radford, Greenpeace ran a campaign targeting supermarket chains – which sell 50% of all seafood in the U.S. – to convince them to stop selling threatened fish, adopt sustainable seafood policies, and lobby for policies such as marine reserves to protect the oceans. Some retailers simply moved from being scored in a report; others like Costco and Trader Joe's required public campaigns to change them. The result: major seafood retailers such as Whole Foods, Safeway Inc., Wegmans, Target Corporation, Harris Teeter, Meijer, and Kroger have implemented sustainable seafood purchasing policies; Trader Joe's, Aldi, Costco, Target Corporation, and A&P have dramatically cut the threatened fish that they sell; Whole Foods, Safeway Inc., Trader Joe’s, Walmart, and Hy-Vee introduced sustainably caught canned tuna;  and Wegmans, Whole Foods, Safeway Inc., Target, and Trader Joe's have lobbied for strong ocean policies, such as protecting the Ross Sea and Bering Sea Canyons as marine reserves.

text: Under Radford, Greenpeace ran a campaign targeting supermarket chains – which sell 50% of all seafood in the U.S. – to convince them to stop selling threatened fish, adopt sustainable seafood policies, and lobby for policies such as

text: marine reserve

text: s to protect the oceans. Some retailers simply moved from being scored in a report; others like

text: Costco

text: and

text: Trader Joe's

text: required public campaigns to change them. The result: major seafood retailers such as

text: Whole Foods

text: Safeway Inc.

text: Wegmans

text: Target Corporation

text: Harris Teeter

text: Meijer

text: , and

text: Kroger

text: have implemented sustainable seafood purchasing policies; Trader Joe's,

text: Aldi

text: , Costco,

text: Target Corporation

text: , and

entity_name: The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company

text: A&P

text: have dramatically cut the threatened fish that they sell; Whole Foods, Safeway Inc., Trader Joe’s,

text: Walmart

text: , and

text: Hy-Vee

text: introduced sustainably caught canned tuna;  and Wegmans, Whole Foods, Safeway Inc., Target, and Trader Joe's have lobbied for strong ocean policies, such as protecting the

text: Ross Sea

text: and

text: Bering Sea

text: Canyons as

text: marine reserve

text: s.

text: On July 17, 2015, a week before the album's release, a fifth song entitled "Embers" was released. The song features a guest vocal appearance from Chino Moreno of Deftones. Randy Blythe says the lyrics deal with how loss affects interpersonal relationships in terms of a family dynamic, and if a family member dies, that can really twist things up. Randy commented further, saying: "I used a sort of ‘oceanic’ vibe in the lyrics. I’m talking about I’ve been staring at her laying still for so long, and I’m talking about the ocean at that point. The ocean is a metaphor for life.” Blythe also said when the song was written there were two different endings. The first one was "‘Lamb of God,’ like, boring, we’ve done it a million times" said Blythe. Guitarist Mark Morton wrote the second ending and when Randy Blythe was down at the beach writing his book and listening to it he says he could hear Chino’s vocals on it and is a huge Deftones fan.

text: On July 17, 2015, a week before the album's release, a fifth song entitled "Embers" was released. The song features a guest vocal appearance from Chino Moreno of

text: Deftones

text: . Randy Blythe says the lyrics deal with how loss affects interpersonal relationships in terms of a family dynamic, and if a family member dies, that can really twist things up. Randy commented further, saying: "I used a sort of ‘oceanic’ vibe in the lyrics. I’m talking about I’ve been staring at her laying still for so long, and I’m talking about the ocean at that point. The ocean is a metaphor for life.” Blythe also said when the song was written there were two different endings. The first one was "‘Lamb of God,’ like, boring, we’ve done it a million times" said Blythe. Guitarist Mark Morton wrote the second ending and when Randy Blythe was down at the beach writing his book and listening to it he says he could hear Chino’s vocals on it and is a huge Deftones fan.

text: The Deep: Here be Dragons is an original Graphic Novel in which we meet the Nekton family, a family who have been exploring the seas for generations. Here Be Dragons sees the Nekton family aboard their state-of-the-art submarine, The Arronax, following strange reports of monster sightings all the way to Greenland. What they discover in those dark depths may change their perceptions of the ocean forever…

text: A large proportion of all life on Earth lives in the ocean. Exactly how large the proportion is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world covering approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the oceanic trenches, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. Specific habitats include coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, the surrounds of seamounts and thermal vents, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans (whales)  in length.

text: A large proportion of all

text: life on Earth

text: lives in the ocean. Exactly how large the proportion is unknown, since many ocean species are still to be discovered. The ocean is a complex three-dimensional world covering approximately 71% of the Earth's surface. The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may be trapped in

text: surface tension

text: between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the

text: oceanic trench

text: es, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. Specific habitats include

text: coral reef

text: s,

text: kelp forest

text: s,

text: seagrass meadows

text: , the surrounds of

text: seamount

text: s and

text: thermal vent

text: s,

text: tidepool

text: s, muddy, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open ocean (

text: pelagic

text: ) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic

text: phytoplankton

text: and

text: zooplankton

text: to huge

text: cetaceans

text: (whales)  in length.

text: The name of the family is derived from the Greek πλευρά (pleura), meaning "rib" or "side", and νηκτόν (nekton), meaning "swimming".

text: The name of the family is derived from the

text: Greek

text: πλευρά (pleura), meaning "rib" or "side", and νηκτόν (nekton), meaning "swimming".

text: Tuna farms are point sources of solid waste onto to the benthos and dissolved nutrients into the water column. Most farms are more than a kilometre off the coast, thus the deeper water and significant currents alleviate some of the impact on the benthos. Due to the high metabolic rates of SBT, low retention rates of nitrogen in tissue is seen, and there are high environmental leaching of nutrients (86-92%).

text: Tuna farms are point sources of solid waste onto to the

text: benthos

text: and dissolved nutrients into the

text: water column

text: . Most farms are more than a kilometre off the coast, thus the deeper water and significant currents alleviate some of the impact on the benthos. Due to the high metabolic rates of SBT, low retention rates of nitrogen in tissue is seen, and there are high environmental leaching of nutrients (86-92%).

text: The group was assembled by Jermaine Durpi. In an interview with the Boombox “As far as the name of the group it was something that we just accidentally [started] doing by hanging out and working together. Together Dupri and Michael-Cox were in Las Vegas working on the Here I Stand album for Usher and after they would record they would get dressed up often wearing Tom Ford and going to clubs. Dupri noticed restaurants began treating them differently because they were all dressed up. Dupri on his video blog Living The Life on Youtube he would record and release episodes of the group in the studio often going out on the town, being in the recording studio and other times talking about life topics. The group started as the Ocean's 5 eventually adding Nelly and Trey Songz to the group they became the Ocean's 7. A visiting member of the group included rapper Bow Wow.

text: The group was assembled by

text: Jermaine Durpi

text: . In an interview with the Boombox “As far as the name of the group it was something that we just accidentally [started] doing by hanging out and working together. Together Dupri and Michael-Cox were in Las Vegas working on the

text: Here I Stand

text: album for Usher and after they would record they would get dressed up often wearing Tom Ford and going to clubs. Dupri noticed restaurants began treating them differently because they were all dressed up. Dupri on his video blog Living The Life on Youtube he would record and release episodes of the group in the studio often going out on the town, being in the recording studio and other times talking about life topics. The group started as the Ocean's 5 eventually adding

text: Nelly

text: and

text: Trey Songz

text: to the group they became the Ocean's 7. A visiting member of the group included rapper

text: Bow Wow

text: Goldberg wrote more than 225 research papers and a number of books, largely concerning ocean geochemistry, marine life in coastal waters, and man's impact on the ocean.

text: Goldberg wrote more than 225 research papers and a number of books, largely concerning ocean

text: geochemistry

text: , marine life in coastal waters, and man's impact on the ocean.

text: The global initiative required a state-of-the-art data assimilation framework, and this effort, the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS), forms the fourth component program of the Census. The vision is that users will be able to click on maps of the oceans on their laptop or desktop anywhere in the world and bring up Census data on what is reported to live in the ocean zone of interest. At the end of 2010, OBIS contained more than 30 million records. OBIS is designed to make sharing data easy, helping to improve understanding of the patterns and processes that govern marine life.

text: The global initiative required a state-of-the-art data assimilation framework, and this effort, the

text: Ocean Biogeographic Information System

text: (OBIS), forms the fourth component program of the Census. The vision is that users will be able to click on maps of the oceans on their laptop or desktop anywhere in the world and bring up Census data on what is reported to live in the ocean zone of interest. At the end of 2010, OBIS contained more than 30 million records. OBIS is designed to make sharing data easy, helping to improve understanding of the patterns and processes that govern marine life.

text: Planktonic copepods are important to the carbon cycle. Some scientists say they form the largest animal biomass on earth. They compete for this title with Antarctic krill. Because of their smaller size and relatively faster growth rates, however, and because they are more evenly distributed throughout more of the world's oceans, copepods almost certainly contribute far more to the secondary productivity of the world's oceans, and to the global ocean carbon sink than krill, and perhaps more than all other groups of organisms together. The surface layers of the oceans are currently believed to be the world's largest carbon sink, absorbing about 2 billion tons of carbon a year, the equivalent to perhaps a third of human carbon emissions, thus reducing their impact. Many planktonic copepods feed near the surface at night, then sink into deeper water during the day to avoid visual predators. Their moulted exoskeletons, faecal pellets and respiration at depth all bring carbon to the deep sea.

text: Planktonic copepods are important to the

text: carbon cycle

text: . Some scientists say they form the largest animal

text: biomass

text: on earth. They compete for this title with

text: Antarctic krill

text: . Because of their smaller size and relatively faster growth rates, however, and because they are more evenly distributed throughout more of the world's oceans, copepods almost certainly contribute far more to the

text: secondary productivity

text: of the world's oceans, and to the global ocean

text: carbon sink

text: than

text: krill

text: , and perhaps more than all other groups of organisms together. The surface layers of the oceans are currently believed to be the world's largest carbon sink, absorbing about 2 billion tons of carbon a year, the equivalent to perhaps a third of

text: human carbon emissions

text: , thus reducing their impact. Many planktonic copepods feed near the surface at night, then sink into deeper water during the day to avoid visual predators. Their moulted exoskeletons, faecal pellets and respiration at depth all bring carbon to the deep sea.

text: Nardorex zorzini is an extinct nektonic predatory aulopiformid fish from Late Cretaceous Italy.

text: Nardorex zorzini is an

text: extinct

text: nektonic

text: predatory

text: aulopiformid

text: fish

text: from

text: Late Cretaceous

text: Italy.

text: The western part of the Tethys Ocean is called Tethys Sea, Western Tethys Ocean or Alpine Tethys Ocean. The Black, Caspian and Aral Seas are thought to be its crustal remains (though the Black Sea may in fact be a remnant of the older Paleo-Tethys Ocean). However, this "Western Tethys" was not simply a single open ocean. It covered many small plates, Cretaceous island arcs and microcontinents. Many small oceanic basins (Valais Ocean, Piemont-Liguria Ocean, Meliata Ocean) were separated from each other by continental terranes on the Alboran, Iberian, and Apulian plates. The high sea level in the Mesozoic era flooded most of these continental domains, forming shallow seas.

text: The western part of the Tethys Ocean is called Tethys Sea, Western Tethys Ocean or

text: Alpine Tethys Ocean

text: . The

text: Black

text: Caspian

text: and

text: Aral

text: Seas are thought to be its

text: crustal

text: remains (though the Black Sea may in fact be a remnant of the older

text: Paleo-Tethys Ocean

text: ). However, this "Western Tethys" was not simply a single open ocean. It covered many small plates,

text: Cretaceous

text: island arc

text: s and

text: microcontinent

text: s. Many small oceanic

text: basin

text: s (

text: Valais Ocean

text: Piemont-Liguria Ocean

text: Meliata Ocean

text: ) were separated from each other by continental

text: terrane

text: s on the

text: Alboran

text: Iberian

text: , and

text: Apulian

text: plates. The high

text: sea level

text: in the

text: Mesozoic

text: era flooded most of these continental domains, forming shallow seas.

text: A bottom feeder is usually an aquatic animal that feeds on or near the bottom of a body of water. The body of water could be the ocean, a lake, a river, or an aquarium. Bottom feeder is a general term which is used particularly in the context of aquariums. Biologists often use the term benthos, particularly for invertebrates such as shellfish, crabs, crayfish, sea anemones, starfish, snails, bristleworms and sea cucumbers. However the term benthos includes all aquatic life that lives on or near the bottom, which means it also includes non-animals, such as plants and algae.

text: A bottom feeder is usually an aquatic animal that feeds on or near the bottom of a body of water. The body of water could be the

text: ocean

text: , a

text: lake

text: , a

text: river

text: , or an

text: aquarium

text: . Bottom feeder is a general term which is used particularly in the context of

text: aquarium

text: s. Biologists often use the term

text: benthos

text: , particularly for invertebrates such as

text: shellfish

text: crab

text: s,

text: crayfish

text: sea anemone

text: s,

text: starfish

text: snail

text: s,

text: bristleworm

text: s and

text: sea cucumber

text: s. However the term benthos includes all aquatic life that lives on or near the bottom, which means it also includes non-animals, such as plants and algae.

text: "Swim Good" was written by Frank Ocean, Waynne Nugent and Kevin Risto of the duo Midi Mafia, who also produced the track. The song appears on his debut mixtape Nostalgia, Ultra, which was released on February 18, 2011. When asked by The Quietus about his own interpretation of the character in the song it was noted that Ocean "politely withdrew, saying he'd enjoy that discussion but he doesn't want to spoil his audience's experience of his songs". He further commented "but you have fun with the imagery, and for me the whole concept that everything has to be... Like, nobody gets upset with a director when a director's film isn't about his life. People think that with a recording artist that shit has to be like a fucking play by play of their whole life, but it's not. It's imagery, and a little bit of satire." The track was released as the second single from Nostalgia, Ultra digitally on October 18, 2011 by Def Jam Recordings.

text: "Swim Good" was written by

text: Frank Ocean

text: , Waynne Nugent and Kevin Risto of the duo

text: Midi Mafia

text: , who also produced the track. The song appears on his debut

text: mixtape

text: Nostalgia, Ultra

text: , which was released on February 18, 2011. When asked by

text: The Quietus

text: about his own interpretation of the character in the song it was noted that Ocean "politely withdrew, saying he'd enjoy that discussion but he doesn't want to spoil his audience's experience of his songs". He further commented "but you have fun with the imagery, and for me the whole concept that everything has to be... Like, nobody gets upset with a director when a director's film isn't about his life. People think that with a recording artist that shit has to be like a fucking play by play of their whole life, but it's not. It's imagery, and a little bit of satire." The track was released as the second single from Nostalgia, Ultra

text: digitally

text: on October 18, 2011 by

text: Def Jam Recordings

text: The Benthoscope was a deep sea submersible designed by Otis Barton after the Second World War. He hired the Watson-Stillman Company, who had earlier constructed his and William Beebe's bathysphere to produce the new design of deep diving vessel, which was named from the Greek benthos, meaning "bottom".

text: The Benthoscope was a deep sea

text: submersible

text: designed by

text: Otis Barton

text: after the

text: Second World War

text: . He hired the Watson-Stillman Company, who had earlier constructed his and

text: William Beebe

text: 's

text: bathysphere

text: to produce the new design of deep diving vessel, which was named from the Greek

text: benthos

text: , meaning "bottom".

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous (from 94.3 to 89.3 Ma).

text: Cenomanian

text: stage of the Late

text: Cretaceous

text: (from 94.3 to 89.3 Ma).

text: Lyngbya is a genus of cyanobacteria, unicellular autotrophs that form the basis of the oceanic food chain.

text: Lyngbya is a

text: genus

text: of

text: cyanobacteria

text: unicellular

text: autotroph

text: s that form the basis of the oceanic

text: food chain

text: In the deep sea (1800m depth or greater), the BBL is noted as having a near homogenous temperature and salinity with periodic fluxes of detrital or particulate organic matter (POM). This POM is strongly linked to seasonal variations in surface productivity and hydrodynamic conditions. Excluding hydrothermal vents, much of the deep sea benthos is allochthonous, and the importance of bacteria for substrate conversion is paramount.

text: In the deep sea (1800m depth or greater), the BBL is noted as having a near homogenous temperature and salinity with periodic fluxes of detrital or

text: particulate organic matter

text: (POM). This POM is strongly linked to seasonal variations in surface productivity and hydrodynamic conditions. Excluding

text: hydrothermal vents

text: , much of the deep sea benthos is

text: allochthonous

text: , and the importance of bacteria for substrate conversion is paramount.

text: Yeony and Suny, the official mascots of Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea, are personifications of plankton. Each of their names is derived from “Yeosu,” where Yeo means “beautiful” and Su means “water”.

text: Paninaro (; feminine: Paninara; plural: Paninari; feminine plural: Paninare) was a youth scene that took its name from a group of youngsters that would meet at the Panino cafè (Panino in Italian means Sandwich) in Milan, Italy in the early 1980s. The group's meeting place later moved to Piazza San Babila, where Burghy, a now-defunct Italian fast food chain, had just opened its first restaurant; it then became a full-fledged subculture, which spread across Milan and other Italian cities. The name of the social group underlines the fact that its members welcomed a consumeristic globalised way of life; the fast-food sandwich is a symbol of this, as opposed to traditional national slow food heritage.

text: Paninaro (; feminine: Paninara; plural: Paninari; feminine plural: Paninare) was a youth scene that took its name from a group of youngsters that would meet at the Panino cafè (Panino in Italian means Sandwich) in

text: Milan

text: Italy

text: in the early 1980s. The group's meeting place later moved to

text: Piazza San Babila

text: , where Burghy, a now-defunct Italian fast food chain, had just opened its first restaurant; it then became a full-fledged subculture, which spread across Milan and other Italian cities. The name of the social group underlines the fact that its members welcomed a

text: consumeristic

text: globalised

text: way of life; the

text: fast-food

text: sandwich is a symbol of this, as opposed to

text: traditional

text: national

text: slow food

text: heritage.

text: Bio-available nitrogen occurs in the ocean in several forms, including simple ionic forms such as nitrate (NO), nitrite (NO) and ammonium (NH), and more complex organic forms such as urea ((NH)CO).  These forms are utilised by autotrophic phytoplankton to synthesise organic molecules such as amino acids (the building blocks of proteins).  Grazing of phytoplankton by zooplankton and larger organisms transfers this organic nitrogen up the food chain and throughout the marine food-web.

text: Bio-available nitrogen occurs in the ocean in several forms, including simple ionic forms such as nitrate (NO),

text: nitrite

text: (NO) and ammonium (NH), and more complex organic forms such as

text: urea

text: ((NH)CO).  These forms are utilised by

text: autotroph

text: ic

text: phytoplankton

text: to synthesise organic molecules such as

text: amino acid

text: s (the building blocks of

text: protein

text: s).

text: Grazing

text: of phytoplankton by

text: zooplankton

text: and larger organisms transfers this organic nitrogen up the

text: food chain

text: and throughout the marine

text: food-web

text: Hoplophrys oatesi feeds on plankton.

text: Hoplophrys oatesi feeds on

text: plankton

text: Indicator species are also known as sentinel organisms, i.e. organisms which are ideal for biomonitoring. Organisms such as oysters, clams, and cockles have been extensively used as biomonitors in marine and estuarine environments. For example, the Mussel Watch Programme is a world-wide project using mussels to assess environmental impacts on coastal waters. Their well-documented feeding habits, stationary condition and their role as integral parts of the food chain are some of the main reasons why oysters and mussels are widely used biomonitors. A considerable amount of contaminant concentrations are found in the surficial sediments (i.e. the finer-grained particulate matter, usually muds, silts or clays) of marine and estuarine environments. A major physical process governing the transport of fine particulate material and associated particle-bound contaminants in estuarine environments is resuspe nsion. Strong winds create surface waves, which, in shallow water (<5m), project energy to the water-sediment interface resulting in resuspension of fine sediment from the upper layers of the estuary floor. Once in suspension, fine material may be transported by tidal currents to other parts of the estuary and possibly to the ocean during multiple reworking phases. Mussels and oysters are filter feeders and therefore uptake is by ingestion of particulates in the water column. Sediment resuspension is thus very important in the bioaccumulation process which aids the evaluation of possible adverse biological effects of sedimentary contaminants in marine and estuarine environments.

text: Indicator species are also known as sentinel organisms, i.e. organisms which are ideal for biomonitoring. Organisms such as oysters, clams, and cockles have been extensively used as biomonitors in marine and estuarine environments. For example, the

text: Mussel Watch Program

text: Other areas have had sediments covered with concrete to prevent the fish eating the benthos. Some of these companies claim that the contamination is best left alone, but environmentalists have argued that the contamination could be being passed up the food chain and claim that the companies are trying to avoid the costs incurred in pollution cleanup.

text: Other areas have had sediments covered with concrete to prevent the fish eating the

text: benthos

text: . Some of these companies claim that the contamination is best left alone, but environmentalists have argued that the contamination could be being passed up the food chain and claim that the companies are trying to avoid the costs incurred in pollution cleanup.

text: Nurdles that escape from the plastic production process into waterways or oceans have become a significant source of ocean and beach plastic pollution.  Marine life is severely threatened by these small pieces of plastic: the creatures that make up the base of the marine food chain, such as krill, are prematurely dying by choking on nurdles. Nurdles have frequently been found in the digestive tracts of various marine creatures, causing physiological damage by leaching plasticizers such as phthalates.  Nurdles can carry two types of micropollutants in the marine environment: native plastic additives and hydrophobic pollutants absorbed from seawater. For example, concentrations of PCBs and DDE on nurdles collected from Japanese coastal waters were found to be up to 1 million times higher than the levels detected in surrounding seawater.

text: Nurdles that escape from the plastic production process into waterways or oceans have become a significant source of ocean and beach

text: plastic pollution

text: .  Marine life is severely threatened by these small pieces of plastic: the creatures that make up the base of the marine

text: food chain

text: , such as

text: krill

text: , are prematurely dying by choking on nurdles. Nurdles have frequently been found in the

text: digestive tract

text: s of various marine creatures, causing physiological damage by

text: leaching

text: plasticizers such as

text: phthalates

text: .  Nurdles can carry two types of micropollutants in the marine environment: native plastic additives and

text: hydrophobic

text: pollutants absorbed from seawater. For example, concentrations of

text: PCB

text: s and

text: DDE

text: on nurdles collected from Japanese coastal waters were found to be up to 1 million times higher than the levels detected in surrounding seawater.

text: Unlike most trichomycterids which are bottom-dwelling and nocturnal, T. longipinnis is nektonic and active both during daytime and at night, with juvenile and small adults being more active at daytime than large adults.

text: Unlike most trichomycterids which are bottom-dwelling and nocturnal, T. longipinnis is

text: nekton

text: ic and active both during daytime and at night, with juvenile and small adults being more active at daytime than large adults.

text: These cephalopods were fast-moving nektonic carnivores. They lived in the early Cretaceous.

text: These cephalopods were fast-moving nektonic carnivores. They lived in the early

text: Cretaceous

text: Occithrissops was a small but violent nektonic carnivore, residing in an ecological niche similar to the barracuda and the piranha. It was distributed throughout the Jurassic Oceans, congregating frequently and preying upon smaller forage fish of the period. Larger adults would become solitary while younger members continued to congregate for protection. It is believed that they participated in Lepidophagy. Thrissops were believed to be their primary prey, or a competitor for prey. They were common prey to many predators of that area including Leedsichthys, many Ichthyosaur species and Plesiosaur members.

text: Occithrissops was a small but violent

text: nektonic

text: carnivore, residing in an ecological niche similar to the

text: barracuda

text: and the

text: piranha

text: . It was distributed throughout the Jurassic Oceans, congregating frequently and preying upon smaller forage fish of the period. Larger adults would become solitary while younger members continued to congregate for protection. It is believed that they participated in

text: Lepidophagy

text: Thrissops

text: were believed to be their primary prey, or a

text: competitor

text: for prey. They were common prey to many predators of that area including

text: Leedsichthys

text: , many

text: Ichthyosaur

text: species and

text: Plesiosaur

text: members.

text: This exhibit shows many species of jelly fish, plankton, and algae (ocean drifters) to help visitors understand the foundations of the ocean food web in the Salish Sea. Species in this exhibit include  Sea nettles and Moon Jellys.

text: This exhibit shows many species of

text: jelly fish

text: plankton

text: , and

text: algae

text: (ocean drifters) to help visitors understand the foundations of the ocean food web in the Salish Sea. Species in this exhibit include

text: Sea nettle

text: s and

text: Moon Jelly

text: s.

text: Oceanography (compound of the Greek words ὠκεανός meaning "ocean" and γράφω meaning "write"), also known as oceanology, is the branch of Geography that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within: astronomy, biology, chemistry, climatology, geography, geology, hydrology, meteorology and physics. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past.

text: Oceanography (compound of the

text: Greek

text: words ὠκεανός meaning "

text: ocean

text: " and γράφω meaning "write"), also known as oceanology, is the branch of

text: Geography

text: that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including

text: ecosystem

text: dynamics;

text: ocean current

text: s,

text: waves

text: , and

text: geophysical fluid dynamics

text: plate tectonics

text: and the geology of the sea floor; and

text: flux

text: es of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the

text: world ocean

text: and understanding of processes within:

text: astronomy

text: biology

text: chemistry

text: climatology

text: geography

text: geology

text: hydrology

text: meteorology

text: and

text: physics

text: Paleoceanography

text: studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past.

text: In another dream, Plankton zaps a piece of Krabby Patty with his Enlargatron Ray. However, the ray's coordinates are inaccurate, causing the Krabby Patty to overgrow and mutate into a vicious living patty. Plankton decides to fight back with size but the inaccurate ray only makes him the height of an average citizen, not enough to dwarf the patty. Plankton, carrying only his freeze ray, is pursued by the patty throughout Bikini Bottom. The patty ultimately loses Plankton when he hides. However, Plankton gloats about his victory and is spotted. The patty leaps forward and crushes Plankton.

text: Together, phytoplankton and zooplankton make up most of the plankton in the sea. Plankton is the term applied to any small drifting organisms that float in the sea (Greek planktos = wanderer or drifter). By definition, organisms classified as plankton are unable to swim against ocean currents; they cannot resist the ambient current and control their position. In ocean environments, the first two trophic levels are occupied mainly by plankton. Plankton are divided into producers and consumers. The producers are the phytoplankton (Greek phyton = plant) and the consumers, who eat the phytoplankton, are the zooplankton (Greek zoon = animal).

text: Together,

text: phytoplankton

text: and

text: zooplankton

text: make up most of the

text: plankton

text: in the sea. Plankton is the term applied to any small drifting

text: organism

text: s that float in the sea (

text: Greek

text: planktos = wanderer or drifter). By definition, organisms classified as plankton are unable to swim against ocean currents; they cannot resist the ambient current and control their position. In ocean environments, the first two trophic levels are occupied mainly by

text: plankton

text: . Plankton are divided into producers and consumers. The producers are the phytoplankton (Greek phyton = plant) and the consumers, who eat the phytoplankton, are the zooplankton (Greek zoon = animal).

text: The mollusc was a fast moving nektonic carnivore and had a typical shell width of 11mm and diameter of 17 mm.

text: It has often been suggested that biomineralization evolved as a response to an increase in the concentration of calcium in the seas, which happened around the Ediacaran–Cambrian boundary, and that biomineralization's main benefit was to store harmlessly minerals that might have disrupted organisms' internal processes. For example, Mikhail A. Fedonkin suggested that an increase in the length of food chains may have contributed, as animals higher up the food chain accumulate greater amounts of waste products and toxins relative to their size, and biomineralization may have been a way of isolating excess carbonates or silicates consumed with prey. However, biomineralizing a skeleton is a fairly expensive way to dispose safely of excess minerals, as the main construction cost is the organic matrix, mostly proteins and polysaccharides, with which minerals are combined to form composite materials. The idea that biomineralization was a response to changes in ocean chemistry is also undermined by the fact that small shelly fossils made of calcite, aragonite, calcium phosphate and silica appeared virtually simultaneously in a range of environments.

text: It has often been suggested that biomineralization evolved as a response to an increase in the concentration of

text: calcium

text: in the seas, which happened around the

text: Ediacaran

text: Cambrian

text: boundary, and that biomineralization's main benefit was to store harmlessly minerals that might have disrupted organisms' internal processes. For example,

text: Mikhail A. Fedonkin

text: suggested that an increase in the length of

text: food chain

text: s may have contributed, as animals higher up the food chain accumulate greater amounts of waste products and toxins relative to their size, and biomineralization may have been a way of isolating excess carbonates or silicates consumed with prey. However, biomineralizing a skeleton is a fairly expensive way to dispose safely of excess minerals, as the main construction cost is the organic matrix, mostly

text: protein

text: s and

text: polysaccharide

text: s, with which minerals are combined to form

text: composite material

text: s. The idea that biomineralization was a response to changes in ocean chemistry is also undermined by the fact that small shelly fossils made of

text: calcite

text: aragonite

text: calcium phosphate

text: and

text: silica

text: appeared virtually simultaneously in a range of environments.

text: It is one of the smoothest objects in the Solar System, with a layer of water surrounding the mantle of the planet, thought to be 100 kilometers thick. The smooth surface includes a layer of ice, while the bottom of the ice is theorized to be liquid water. The apparent youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it, which could conceivably serve as an abode for extraterrestrial life. Heat energy from tidal flexing ensures that the ocean remains liquid and drives geological activity. Life may exist in Europa's under-ice ocean, perhaps subsisting in an environment similar to Earth's deep-ocean hydrothermal vents or the Antarctic Lake Vostok. Life in such an ocean could possibly be similar to microbial life on Earth in the deep ocean. So far, there is no evidence that life exists on Europa, but the likely presence of liquid water has spurred calls to send a probe there.

text: It is one of the smoothest objects in the Solar System, with a layer of water surrounding the mantle of the planet, thought to be 100 kilometers thick. The smooth surface includes a layer of ice, while the bottom of the ice is theorized to be liquid water. The apparent youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it, which could conceivably serve as an abode for

text: extraterrestrial life

text: . Heat energy from

text: tidal flexing

text: ensures that the ocean remains liquid and drives geological activity. Life may exist in Europa's under-ice ocean, perhaps subsisting in an environment similar to Earth's deep-ocean

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s or the Antarctic

text: Lake Vostok

text: . Life in such an ocean could possibly be similar to

text: microbial

text: life on Earth in the

text: deep ocean

text: . So far, there is no evidence that life exists on Europa, but the likely presence of liquid water has spurred calls to send a probe there.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the Carboniferous from 345.3 to 326.4 Ma.

text: Carboniferous

text: from 345.3 to 326.4 Ma.

text: The surrounding Pacific Ocean, coral reefs and lagoons are rich in marine life and some are harvested as an important source of food in an economy that is mainly subsistence with locals reliant on the land and the ocean for survival. Dolphins, whales and porpoises migrate through Samoa's waters.The Palolo reef worm (Eunice viridis) is a Samoan cuisine delicacy which appear in the ocean only one day of the year. Palolo has cultural significance and entire villages flock to the sea for harvest.

text: The surrounding

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , coral reefs and lagoons are rich in marine life and some are harvested as an important source of food in an economy that is mainly subsistence with locals reliant on the land and the ocean for survival. Dolphins, whales and porpoises migrate through Samoa's waters.The

text: Palolo reef worm

text: (Eunice viridis) is a Samoan cuisine delicacy which appear in the ocean only one day of the year. Palolo has cultural significance and entire villages flock to the sea for harvest.

text: The microbial loop is a trophic pathway in the marine microbial food web. The term "microbial loop" was coined by Azam et al. (1983) to describe the role played by microbes in the marine ecosystem carbon and nutrient cycles where dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is returned to higher trophic levels via the incorporation into bacterial biomass, and also coupled with the classic food chain formed by phytoplankton-zooplankton-nekton.

text: The

text: microbial

text: loop is a trophic pathway in the marine microbial food web. The term "microbial loop" was coined by Azam et al. (1983) to describe the role played by microbes in the marine ecosystem

text: carbon

text: and nutrient cycles where dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is returned to higher trophic levels via the incorporation into bacterial biomass, and also coupled with the classic food chain formed by

text: phytoplankton

text: zooplankton

text: nekton

text: The Antarctica lanternfish or Electrona antarctica mainly inhabits the Antarctic deep, warm waters. It the dominant species in the Southern Ocean. Their life span is about 4–5 years and they mature after 2–3 years. Their maximum length is 12.5 cm. Their feeding depends upon area to area. Small fish primarily feed on copepods, euphausiid larvae, and hyperiids. This species is mainly the nektonic prey species of seabirds in open water. It is an important krill predator and serves as prey for a majority of seabirds.

text: The Antarctica lanternfish or Electrona antarctica mainly inhabits the Antarctic deep, warm waters. It the dominant species in the Southern Ocean. Their life span is about 4–5 years and they mature after 2–3 years. Their maximum length is 12.5 cm. Their feeding depends upon area to area. Small fish primarily feed on

text: copepod

text: s,

text: euphausiid

text: larvae, and

text: hyperiid

text: s. This species is mainly the nektonic prey species of seabirds in open water. It is an important krill predator and serves as prey for a majority of seabirds.

text: The Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) survey is one of the longest running marine biological monitoring programmes in the world. Started in 1931 by Sir Alister Hardy, the CPR has provided marine scientists with their only measure of plankton communities on a pan-oceanic scale. Today the CPR survey is operated by the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science (SAHFOS), located in Plymouth, UK. Uniquely, the CPR survey’s methods of sampling and plankton analysis remain unchanged since 1948, providing a spatio-temporally comprehensive > 60 year record of marine plankton dynamics.

text: The Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) survey is one of the longest running

text: marine biological

text: monitoring programmes in the world. Started in 1931 by

text: Sir Alister Hardy

text: , the CPR has provided marine scientists with their only measure of

text: plankton

text: communities on a pan-oceanic scale. Today the CPR survey is operated by the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science (SAHFOS), located in

text: Plymouth

text: , UK. Uniquely, the CPR survey’s methods of sampling and plankton analysis remain unchanged since 1948, providing a spatio-temporally comprehensive > 60 year record of marine plankton dynamics.

text: The majority of crustaceans are aquatic, living in either marine or freshwater environments, but a few groups have adapted to life on land, such as terrestrial crabs, terrestrial hermit crabs, and woodlice. Marine crustaceans are as ubiquitous in the oceans as insects are on land. The majority of crustaceans are also motile, moving about independently, although a few taxonomic units are parasitic and live attached to their hosts (including sea lice, fish lice, whale lice, tongue worms, and Cymothoa exigua, all of which may be referred to as "crustacean lice"), and adult barnacles live a sessile life – they are attached headfirst to the substrate and cannot move independently. Some branchiurans are able to withstand rapid changes of salinity and will also switch hosts from marine to non-marine species. Krill are the bottom layer and the most important part of the food chain in Antarctic animal communities. Some crustaceans are significant invasive species, such as the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis, and the Asian shore crab, Hemigrapsus sanguineus.

text: The majority of crustaceans are aquatic, living in either marine or

text: freshwater

text: environments, but a few groups have

text: adapted

text: to life on land, such as

text: terrestrial crab

text: s,

text: terrestrial hermit crabs

text: , and

text: woodlice

text: . Marine crustaceans are as ubiquitous in the oceans as insects are on land. The majority of crustaceans are also

text: motile

text: , moving about independently, although a few taxonomic units are

text: parasitic

text: and live attached to their hosts (including

text: sea lice

text: fish lice

text: whale lice

text: tongue worms

text: , and

text: Cymothoa exigua

text: , all of which may be referred to as "crustacean lice"), and adult barnacles live a

text: sessile

text: life – they are attached headfirst to the substrate and cannot move independently. Some branchiurans are able to withstand rapid changes of

text: salinity

text: and will also switch hosts from marine to non-marine species.

text: Krill

text: are the bottom layer and the most important part of the food chain in

text: Antarctic

text: animal communities. Some crustaceans are significant invasive species, such as the Chinese mitten crab,

text: Eriocheir sinensis

text: , and the Asian shore crab,

text: Hemigrapsus sanguineus

text: Marine populations of Bangia in the Atlantic Ocean are common food for the periwinkle Littorina littorea.

text: Marine populations of Bangia in the Atlantic Ocean are common food for the periwinkle

text: Littorina littorea

text: Food webs serve as a framework to help ecologists organize the complex network of interactions among species observed in nature and around the world. One of the earliest descriptions of a food chain was described by a medieval Afro-Arab scholar named Al-Jahiz: "All animals, in short, cannot exist without food, neither can the hunting animal escape being hunted in his turn." The earliest graphical depiction of a food web was by Lorenzo Camerano in 1880, followed independently by those of Pierce and colleagues in 1912 and Victor Shelford in 1913. Two food webs about herring were produced by Victor Summerhayes and Charles Elton and Alister Hardy in 1923 and 1924. Charles Elton subsequently pioneered the concept of food cycles, food chains, and food size in his classical 1927 book "Animal Ecology"; Elton's 'food cycle' was replaced by 'food web' in a subsequent ecological text. After Charles Elton's use of food webs in his 1927 synthesis, they became a central concept in the field of ecology. Elton organized species into functional groups, which formed the basis for the trophic system of classification in Raymond Lindeman's classic and landmark paper in 1942 on trophic dynamics. The notion of a food web has a historical foothold in the writings of Charles Darwin and his terminology, including an "entangled bank", "web of life", "web of complex relations", and in reference to the decomposition actions of earthworms he talked about "the continued movement of the particles of earth". Even earlier, in 1768 John Bruckner described nature as "one continued web of life".

text: Food webs serve as a framework to help ecologists organize the complex network of interactions among species observed in nature and around the world. One of the earliest descriptions of a food chain was described by a

text: medieval

text: Afro-Arab

text: scholar named

text: Al-Jahiz

text: : "All animals, in short, cannot exist without food, neither can the hunting animal escape being hunted in his turn." The earliest graphical depiction of a food web was by

text: Lorenzo Camerano

text: in 1880, followed independently by those of Pierce and colleagues in 1912 and

text: Victor Shelford

text: in 1913. Two food webs about

text: herring

text: were produced by Victor Summerhayes and

text: Charles Elton

text: and

text: Alister Hardy

text: in 1923 and 1924.

text: Charles Elton

text: subsequently pioneered the concept of food cycles, food chains, and food size in his classical 1927 book "Animal Ecology"; Elton's 'food cycle' was replaced by 'food web' in a subsequent ecological text. After Charles Elton's use of food webs in his 1927 synthesis, they became a central concept in the field of

text: ecology

text: . Elton organized species into

text: functional groups

text: , which formed the basis for the

text: trophic system of classification

text: in

text: Raymond Lindeman

text: 's classic and landmark paper in 1942 on trophic dynamics. The notion of a food web has a historical foothold in the writings of

text: Charles Darwin

text: and his terminology, including an "entangled bank", "web of life", "web of complex relations", and in reference to the decomposition actions of earthworms he talked about "the continued movement of the particles of earth". Even earlier, in 1768 John Bruckner described nature as "one continued web of life".

text: The NPSG is not often sampled because of its distance from the coast and its shortage of marine life. These vast and deep ocean waters, far from the influence of land, have historically been considered the oceanic equivalent of terrestrial deserts, with low standing stocks of biomass and low production rates. This perspective is derived from a dearth of comprehensive investigation of central gyre habitats. Over the past two decades these views have been challenged with a newfound understanding of the dynamics of the NPSG.

text: The NPSG is not often sampled because of its distance from the coast and its shortage of

text: marine life

text: . These vast and

text: deep ocean

text: waters, far from the influence of land, have historically been considered the oceanic equivalent of terrestrial deserts, with low standing stocks of biomass and low production rates. This perspective is derived from a dearth of comprehensive investigation of central gyre habitats. Over the past two decades these views have been challenged with a newfound understanding of the dynamics of the NPSG.

text: Phytoplankton is a key component in the base of the oceanic food chain and oceanographers have hypothesized a link between oceanic chlorophyll and fisheries production for some time. The degree to which phytoplankton relates to marine fish production depends on the number of trophic links in the food chain, and how efficient each link is. Estimates of the number of trophic links  and trophic efficiencies from phytoplankton to commercial fisheries have been widely debated, though they have been little substantiated.  More recent research suggests that positive relationships between chlorophyll a and fisheries production can be modeled  and can be very highly correlated when examined on the proper scale. For example, Ware and Thomson (2005) found an r of 0.87 between resident fish yield (metric tons km-2) and mean annual chlorophyll a concentrations (mg m-3). Others have found the Pacific's Transition Zone Chlorophyll Front (chlorophyll density of 0.2 mg m-3) to be defining feature in loggerhead turtle distribution.

text: Phytoplankton is a key component in the base of the oceanic

text: food chain

text: and oceanographers have hypothesized a link between oceanic chlorophyll and fisheries production for some time. The degree to which phytoplankton relates to marine fish production depends on the number of trophic links in the food chain, and how efficient each link is. Estimates of the number of trophic links  and trophic efficiencies from phytoplankton to commercial fisheries have been widely debated, though they have been little substantiated.  More recent research suggests that positive relationships between chlorophyll a and fisheries production can be modeled  and can be very highly correlated when examined on the proper scale. For example, Ware and Thomson (2005) found an r of 0.87 between resident fish yield (metric tons km-2) and mean annual chlorophyll a concentrations (mg m-3). Others have found the Pacific's Transition Zone Chlorophyll Front (chlorophyll density of 0.2 mg m-3) to be defining feature in loggerhead turtle distribution.

text: The diversity of marine benthos, i.e. the organisms living near the seabed, though interrupted by some collapses and plateaus has increased from the Cambrian to the Recent. Furthermore, there is no evidence to suggest that saturation has been reached (Jablonski 1999).

text: The diversity of marine

text: benthos

text: , i.e. the organisms living near the seabed, though interrupted by some collapses and plateaus has increased from the

text: Cambrian

text: to the

text: Recent

text: . Furthermore, there is no evidence to suggest that saturation has been reached (Jablonski 1999).

text: The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic, where they feed on nutrients from rivers and the currents of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. During summer, the sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to photosynthesize for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. However, the reverse is true in winter when they struggle to get enough light to survive.

text: The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for

text: phytoplankton

text: . Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean and there are massive amounts of them in the Arctic, where they feed on nutrients from rivers and the

text: currents

text: of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. During summer, the sun is out day and night, thus enabling the phytoplankton to

text: photosynthesize

text: for long periods of time and reproduce quickly. However, the reverse is true in winter when they struggle to get enough light to survive.

text: Plankton is the nemesis, but the former best friend, of Mr. Krabs. He operates the Chum Bucket, located directly across the street from Krabs' restaurant, the Krusty Krab. The restaurant primarily sells chum, considered mostly inedible by the residents of Bikini Bottom, and as a result, his restaurant is a total commercial failure. His primary goal in the series is to put Krabs out of business (thus gaining a monopoly on the restaurant business) by stealing the "Krabby Patty formula", a secret recipe used to make the Krusty Krab's flagship sandwich; however, every attempt to do so has ultimately failed. The only time he has successfully stolen it and made perfect Krabby Patties to expand his business was in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie, though this was short-lived. He is often stepped on while trying to leave the Krusty Krab with the formula. It has been stated that Mr. Krabs and Plankton were once best friends, but a dispute over the Krabby Patty recipe ended their friendship.

text: Plankton is the

text: nemesis

text: , but the former best friend, of

text: Mr. Krabs

text: . He operates the Chum Bucket, located directly across the street from Krabs' restaurant, the

text: Krusty Krab

text: . The restaurant primarily sells

text: chum

text: , considered mostly inedible by the residents of Bikini Bottom, and as a result, his restaurant is a total commercial failure. His primary goal in the series is to put Krabs out of business (thus gaining a

text: monopoly

text: on the restaurant business) by stealing the "Krabby Patty formula", a secret recipe used to make the Krusty Krab's flagship sandwich; however, every attempt to do so has ultimately failed. The only time he has successfully stolen it and made perfect Krabby Patties to expand his business was in

text: The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie

text: , though this was short-lived. He is often stepped on while trying to leave the Krusty Krab with the formula. It has been stated that Mr. Krabs and Plankton were once best friends, but a dispute over the Krabby Patty recipe ended their friendship.

text: Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their geologic histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, and a runaway greenhouse effect may have boiled away the global ocean of Venus. Compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point, so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many dwarf planets and natural satellites; notably, the ocean of Europa is estimated to have over twice the water volume of Earth. The Solar System's giant planets are also thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of liquid water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a hypothetical type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid.

text: Extraterrestrial oceans

text: may be composed of water or other

text: element

text: s and

text: compounds

text: . The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface

text: liquids

text: are the

text: lakes of Titan

text: , although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the

text: Solar System

text: . Early in their geologic histories,

text: Mars

text: and

text: Venus

text: are theorized to have had large water oceans. The

text: Mars ocean hypothesis

text: suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, and a

text: runaway greenhouse effect

text: may have boiled away the global ocean of Venus. Compounds such as

text: salts

text: and

text: ammonia

text: dissolved in water lower its freezing point, so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting

text: ice

text: . Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many

text: dwarf planets

text: and natural satellites; notably, the ocean of

text: Europa

text: is estimated to have over twice the water volume of Earth. The Solar System's

text: giant planet

text: s are also thought to have liquid

text: atmospheric

text: layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on

text: exoplanet

text: s and

text: exomoon

text: s, including surface oceans of liquid water within a

text: circumstellar habitable zone

text: Ocean planet

text: s are a hypothetical type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid.

text: The Globigerinida is an order of foraminiferans that are found as marine plankton.  They produce hyaline calcareous tests, and are known as fossils from the Jurassic period onwards.  The group has included more than 100 genera and over 400 species, of which about 30 species are extant.  One of the most important genera is Globigerina; vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with Globigerina ooze (named by Murray and Renard in 1873), dominated by the shells of planktonic forms.

text: The Globigerinida is an order of

text: foraminifera

text: ns that are found as marine

text: plankton

text: .  They produce

text: hyaline

text: calcareous

text: tests

text: , and are known as fossils from the

text: Jurassic

text: period onwards.  The group has included more than 100 genera and over 400 species, of which about 30 species are extant.  One of the most important genera is

text: Globigerina

text: ; vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with Globigerina

text: ooze

text: (named by Murray and Renard in 1873), dominated by the shells of planktonic forms.

text: During the 9th five-year plan (1998-2002), the Centre co-ordinated the first systematic study of marine life along the Indian shelf waters, along the  eastern and western coasts of India. The environmental characteristics of this region and the phytoplankton, zooplankton, marine benthos, fishery resources etc. of this region were systematically characterized for the first time. During the 10th five-year plan (2002-2007) the exploration was extended to the continental slope regions, particularly in the case of marine benthos and fisheries. Research thrust was also placed on studies of harmful algal blooms and marine mammals around the Indian subcontinent. The environmental and productivity patterns around the Indian EEZ continued to be monitored and research on the productivity and fishery resources of the Andaman and Nicobar regions was also carried out. In January 2005, after the devastating 2004 tsunami the institute along with National Institute of Oceanography and School of Marine Sciences, Cochin University of Science and Technology (CUSAT), Kochi carried out the one of the first scientific studies regarding the impact of the tsunami on marine life. In the 9th and 10th plan periods, the CMLRE served chiefly as a co-ordinating and fund granting agency, managing the projects that were granted to various other research institutes and universities.

text: During the 9th

text: five-year plan

text: (1998-2002), the Centre co-ordinated the first systematic study of

text: marine life

text: along the

text: India

text: n

text: shelf

text: waters, along the  eastern and western coasts of India. The environmental characteristics of this region and the

text: phytoplankton

text: zooplankton

text: , marine

text: benthos

text: fishery

text: resources etc. of this region were systematically characterized for the first time. During the 10th

text: five-year plan

text: (2002-2007) the exploration was extended to the

text: continental slope

text: regions, particularly in the case of marine

text: benthos

text: and

text: fisheries

text: . Research thrust was also placed on studies of

text: harmful algal blooms

text: and

text: marine mammals

text: around the Indian subcontinent. The environmental and productivity patterns around the Indian

text: EEZ

text: continued to be monitored and research on the productivity and

text: fishery

text: resources of the

text: Andaman and Nicobar regions

text: was also carried out. In January 2005, after the devastating

entity_name: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

text: 2004 tsunami

text: the institute along with

entity_name: National Institute of Oceanography, India

text: National Institute of Oceanography

text: and School of Marine Sciences,

entity_name: Cochin University of Science and Technology

text: Cochin University of Science and Technology

text: (CUSAT), Kochi carried out the one of the first scientific studies regarding the impact of the tsunami on marine life. In the 9th and 10th

text: plan periods

text: , the CMLRE served chiefly as a co-ordinating and fund granting agency, managing the projects that were granted to various other research institutes and universities.

text: Limnoithona tetraspina has become the numerically dominant cyclopoid copepod since its introduction in 1993. It feeds primarily upon ciliates and microflagellates, but unlike P. forbesi, it is relatively impervious to predation by clams or fish, hence its abundance. Energetically, L. tetraspina may be a dead end for the food web; these copepods are either advected out of the system by tides and currents, or die and fall down to the benthos, where they may be available to the microbial loop, or to detritivores.

text: Signs of an oil-and-dispersant mix were found under the shells of tiny blue crab larvae in the Gulf by researchers at Tulane University in 2010. This finding indicated that the use of dispersants had broken the oil into droplets small enough to easily enter the food chain. Marine biologists found "orange blobs" under the shells of crab larvae in "almost all" of the larvae collected from over  of coastline stretching from Grand Isle, Louisiana, to Pensacola, Florida.  According to a March 2012 study, spilled oil entered the ocean's food chain through zooplankton. Dr. Michael Roman of the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science stated "traces of oil in the zooplankton prove that they had contact with the oil and the likelihood that oil compounds may be working their way up the food chain".  Alabama researchers in July 2012 found that dispersants may have killed microscopic plankton and disrupted the food chain. Scientists commenting on the study, published in PLOS ONE, said it pointed toward "major future effects of the spill".  One scientist called its findings "scary, though limited because the experiments spanned only five days".

text: Signs of an oil-and-dispersant mix were found under the shells of tiny

text: blue crab

text: larvae in the Gulf by researchers at

text: Tulane University

text: in 2010. This finding indicated that the use of dispersants had broken the oil into droplets small enough to easily enter the

text: food chain

text: . Marine biologists found "orange blobs" under the shells of crab larvae in "almost all" of the larvae collected from over  of coastline stretching from Grand Isle, Louisiana, to Pensacola, Florida.  According to a March 2012 study, spilled oil entered the ocean's

text: food chain

text: through

text: zooplankton

text: . Dr. Michael Roman of the

entity_name: University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science

text: University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science

text: stated "traces of oil in the zooplankton prove that they had contact with the oil and the likelihood that oil compounds may be working their way up the food chain".  Alabama researchers in July 2012 found that dispersants may have killed microscopic

text: plankton

text: and disrupted the food chain. Scientists commenting on the study, published in

text: PLOS ONE

text: , said it pointed toward "major future effects of the spill".  One scientist called its findings "scary, though limited because the experiments spanned only five days".

text: Newcomb's snail probably shares life history similarities with other members of its family. Lymnaeid snails generally feed on algae and vegetation growing on submerged rocks. Snails attach eggs to submerged rocks or vegetation and larval stages do not disperse widely; the entire life cycle is tied to the stream system in which the adults live. Little is known about the biological or environmental factors affecting Newcomb's snail population size, however, important factors may include: annual, multi-year, or decadal changes in stream flows; severe weather, high flow, or channel-scouring events; and periods of prolonged drought. Snail dispersal both upstream and downstream within a stream system probably plays an important function in colonizing or recolonizing suitable habitat, particularly microhabitat protected from channel scour. Dispersal of Newcomb's snail between stream systems is likely infrequent because of their obligate freshwater habitat requirements; historic dispersal probably relied on long-term erosional events that captured adjacent stream systems. This life history differs greatly from the freshwater Hawaiian neritid snails (Neritina granosa, Neritina vespertina) that have marine larvae that migrate into and up streams following a period of oceanic dispersal. Most likely, the planktonic larvae of the neritid snails disperse across the oceanic expanses that separate the main Hawaiian Islands and can colonize streams on any or all of these islands. Newcomb's snail lacks this dispersal capacity.

text: Newcomb's snail probably shares life history similarities with other members of its family. Lymnaeid snails generally feed on

text: algae

text: and vegetation growing on submerged rocks. Snails attach eggs to submerged rocks or vegetation and larval stages do not disperse widely; the entire life cycle is tied to the stream system in which the adults live. Little is known about the biological or environmental factors affecting Newcomb's snail population size, however, important factors may include: annual, multi-year, or decadal changes in stream flows; severe weather, high flow, or channel-scouring events; and periods of prolonged drought. Snail

text: dispersal

text: both upstream and downstream within a stream system probably plays an important function in colonizing or recolonizing suitable habitat, particularly

text: microhabitat

text: protected from channel scour. Dispersal of Newcomb's snail between stream systems is likely infrequent because of their obligate freshwater habitat requirements; historic dispersal probably relied on long-term

text: erosional

text: events that captured adjacent stream systems. This life history differs greatly from the freshwater Hawaiian

text: neritid

text: snails (

text: Neritina granosa

text: Neritina vespertina

text: ) that have marine larvae that migrate into and up streams following a period of oceanic dispersal. Most likely, the planktonic larvae of the neritid snails disperse across the oceanic expanses that separate the main Hawaiian Islands and can colonize streams on any or all of these islands. Newcomb's snail lacks this dispersal capacity.

text: When asked by The Quietus if the songs from the album drew from his personal experiences, Frank commented "My kitchen is usually pretty clean, you know. But you have fun with the imagery, and for me the whole concept that everything has to be... Like, nobody gets upset with a director when a director's film isn't about his life. People think that with a recording artist that shit has to be like a fucking play by play of their whole life, but it's not. It's imagery, and a little bit of satire." When asked if he made R&B music, Ocean replied that he disliked how that in the United States, "if you're a singer and you're black, you're an R&B artist. Period." Ocean stated that the songs on the mixtape do contain R&B influences, but that it is not an R&B album entirely.

text: When asked by

text: The Quietus

text: if the songs from the album drew from his personal experiences, Frank commented "My kitchen is usually pretty clean, you know. But you have fun with the imagery, and for me the whole concept that everything has to be... Like, nobody gets upset with a director when a director's film isn't about his life. People think that with a recording artist that shit has to be like a fucking play by play of their whole life, but it's not. It's imagery, and a little bit of

text: satire

text: ." When asked if he made

text: R&B

text: music, Ocean replied that he disliked how that in the

text: United States

text: , "if you're a singer and you're black, you're an R&B artist. Period." Ocean stated that the songs on the mixtape do contain R&B influences, but that it is not an R&B album entirely.

text: Plankton includes bacteria, plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton) that drift in the sea. Most are microscopic, but some, such as the various species of jellyfish and sea gooseberry, can be much bigger.

text: Plankton includes bacteria, plants (

text: phytoplankton

text: ) and animals (

text: zooplankton

text: ) that drift in the sea. Most are microscopic, but some, such as the various species of

text: jellyfish

text: and

text: sea gooseberry

text: , can be much bigger.

text: Operated by NOAAs Office of Marine and Aviation Operations and with Pascagoula, Mississippi, as her home port, Pisces collects, monitors, and studies data on a wide range of sea life and ocean conditions, primarily in the waters of the United States exclusive economic zone in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Atlantic Ocean as far north as North Carolina. The ship collects data that scientists use to study variations in ocean conditions and sea life – including shrimp and other marine invertebrates, reef fish, and groundfish – to better understand the sustainability of fisheries, the structure and function of ecosystems, fish habitats and habitat restoration, coral reefs, and the status of protected species. She also makes weather and sea state observations, reports on other environmental conditions, conducts habitat assessments, and surveys marine mammal and seabird populations.

text: Operated by NOAAs Office of Marine and Aviation Operations and with

text: Pascagoula

text: , Mississippi, as her

text: home port

text: , Pisces collects, monitors, and studies data on a wide range of sea life and ocean conditions, primarily in the waters of the

text: United States

text: exclusive economic zone

text: in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: Caribbean Sea

text: , and

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: as far north as

text: North Carolina

text: . The ship collects data that scientists use to study variations in ocean conditions and sea life – including shrimp and other

text: marine invertebrate

text: s,

text: reef fish

text: , and

text: groundfish

text: – to better understand the sustainability of fisheries, the structure and function of

text: ecosystem

text: s, fish habitats and habitat restoration,

text: coral reef

text: s, and the status of

text: protected species

text: . She also makes weather and

text: sea state

text: observations, reports on other environmental conditions, conducts habitat assessments, and surveys

text: marine mammal

text: and

text: seabird

text: populations.

text: Toxic metals, on the ocean floor, may have dissolved into the water when the ocean's oxygen was depleted caused by an increase in nutrients in the oceans.  The toxic metals may have killed life forms in lower trophic levels of the food chain, causing a decline in population, and subsequently resulting in starvation for the dependent higher feeding life forms in the chain.

text: Toxic metals

text: , on the ocean floor, may have dissolved into the water when the ocean's oxygen was depleted caused by an increase in nutrients in the oceans.  The toxic metals may have killed life forms in lower trophic levels of the

text: food chain

text: , causing a decline in population, and subsequently resulting in starvation for the dependent higher feeding life forms in the chain.

text: Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in plankton may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet. Archaea are a major part of Earth's life and may play roles in both the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.

text: Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in

text: plankton

text: may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet. Archaea are a major part of Earth's life and may play roles in both the

text: carbon cycle

text: and the

text: nitrogen cycle

text: Pesticides often pose serious problems as they kill not only targeted organisms but also non-targeted organisms in the process. They are released into the natural environment intentionally by people who are often unaware that the chemicals will travel further than anticipated, Hatakeyama et al. as cited in. Thus the pesticides largely affect the natural communities in which they are used. They negatively effect multiple levels ranging from molecules to tisues to organs to individuals to populations and onto communities. In the natural environment, a combination of pesticide exposure and natural stressors such as fluctuating temperature, food shortage or decreased oxygen availability are worse than when presented alone. Pesticides can affect the feeding rates of zoo-plankton. In the presence of pesticides zoo-plankton display lower feeding rates which result in reduced growth and reproduction. Swimming may also be affected by pesticides which poses a life-threatening issue for zoo-plankton as they swim to obtain food and nutrients and avoid predators. Such changes may alter predator-prey relationships. A spinning behavior became apparent in Daphnia induced by carbaryl which increased the probability of the Daphnia being eaten by other fish, Dodson et al. as cited by. The toxicant pentachlorophenol increases swimming speed in the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus, in turn increasing the encounter rate of the prey with their predators, Preston et al. as cited by.

text: Pesticides

text: pentachlorophenol

text: increases swimming speed in the rotifer

text: Brachionus calyciflorus

text: , in turn increasing the encounter rate of the prey with their predators, Preston et al. as cited by.

text: Benthos, Inc. (Teledyne Benthos) acquired exclusive designs, trademarks, marketing and manufacturing rights for the Mini Rover ROV from DSSI in 1987. Benthos had been manufacturing and servicing the Mini Rover ROV for DSSI since 1984.

text: Benthos, Inc. (

text: Teledyne

text: Benthos) acquired exclusive designs, trademarks, marketing and manufacturing rights for the Mini Rover ROV from DSSI in 1987. Benthos had been manufacturing and servicing the Mini Rover ROV for DSSI since 1984.

text: Benthopelagic fish inhabit the water just above the bottom, feeding on benthos and benthopelagic zooplankton. Most dermersal fish are benthopelagic.

text: benthos

text: and benthopelagic

text: zooplankton

text: . Most dermersal fish are benthopelagic.

text: In November 2009 an article in Science by scientists at Canada's Department of Fisheries and Oceans reported they had found very low levels of the building blocks for the calcium chloride that forms plankton shells in the Beaufort Sea.Fiona McLaughlin, one of the DFO authors, asserted that the increasing acidification of the Arctic Ocean was close to the point it would start dissolving the walls of existing plankton: "[the] Arctic ecosystem may be risk. In actual fact, they'll dissolve the shells."Because cold water absorbs CO more readily than warmer water the acidification is more severe in the polar regions.  McLaughlin predicted the acidified water would travel to the North Atlantic within the next ten years.

text: In November 2009 an article in

text: Science

text: by scientists at

text: Canada

text: 's

text: Department of Fisheries and Oceans

text: reported they had found very low levels of the building blocks for the calcium chloride that forms

text: plankton

text: shells in the

text: Beaufort Sea

text: Fiona McLaughlin

text: , one of the DFO authors, asserted that the increasing acidification of the Arctic Ocean was close to the point it would start dissolving the walls of existing plankton: "[the] Arctic ecosystem may be risk. In actual fact, they'll dissolve the shells."Because cold water absorbs CO more readily than warmer water the acidification is more severe in the polar regions.  McLaughlin predicted the acidified water would travel to the North Atlantic within the next ten years.

text: CityMall, a subsidiary of Double Dragon Properties, Inc. (jointly owned by Mang Inasal founder Edgar “Injap” Sia II and Jollibee Foods Corp. chairman Tony Tan Caktiong) is a chain of community shopping malls in the Philippines, with branches across the Philippines. This community mall chain is envisioned to have 100 malls nationwide by the year 2020 to cater the needs of shoppers from all walks of life. Every CityMall branch has at least five stores owned by Jollibee Foods Corporation and has a known or locally owned supermarket as main anchor.

text: CityMall, a subsidiary of Double Dragon Properties, Inc. (jointly owned by

text: Mang Inasal

text: founder Edgar “Injap” Sia II and Jollibee Foods Corp. chairman Tony Tan Caktiong) is a chain of community shopping malls in the Philippines, with branches across the Philippines. This community mall chain is envisioned to have 100 malls nationwide by the year 2020 to cater the needs of shoppers from all walks of life. Every CityMall branch has at least five stores owned by Jollibee Foods Corporation and has a known or locally owned supermarket as main anchor.

text: Apex predators, such as orcas, which can consume seals, and shortfin mako sharks, which can consume swordfish, make up the fifth trophic level. Baleen whales can consume zooplankton and krill directly, leading to a food chain with only three or four trophic levels.

text: Apex predators, such as

text: orca

text: s, which can consume seals, and

text: shortfin mako shark

text: s, which can consume swordfish, make up the fifth trophic level.

text: Baleen whale

text: s can consume zooplankton and krill directly, leading to a food chain with only three or four trophic levels.

text: The god of preservation, Vishnu, is said to hold a special conch, Panchajanya, that represents life, as it has come out of life-giving waters.There is a n interesting story behind the origin of a "the shankha" or conch shell.According to Hindu mythology, Devas (Gods) and Asuras (Demons) once decided to churn the ocean in order to get a special divine nectar. This divine nectar also known as "Amrit" was known to give immortality to whoever drank it. All the Gods were on one side of it and the Demons were on the other end. The Samudra Manthan produced a number of things from the Ocean. One of the first things to come out of it was lethal poison called Halahala.Everyone was terrified as the poison was potent enough to destroy entire creation. So they went to Lord Shiva for protection and he consumed the poison to safeguard the universe. Lord Shiva took the poison in his mouth but did not swallow it. Later some additional objects came out of the ocean like Lakshmi (goddess of prosperity and beauty), Goddess of wine, Moon, divine Nymphs like Rambha- and Menakha, Uchhaishravas the divine seven headed White horse, Kaustubha a jewel, Parijata the celestial tree, Surabhi the cow of plenty, Airavata a white elephant, Dhanus a mighty bow and many more such things were produced. "Shankha" or conch shell also was one of divine objects that was obtained from Samudra manthan.

text: The god of preservation,

text: Vishnu

text: , is said to hold a special conch, Panchajanya, that represents life, as it has come out of life-giving waters.There is a n interesting story behind the origin of a "the shankha" or conch shell.According to Hindu mythology,

text: Deva

text: s (Gods) and

text: Asuras

text: (Demons) once decided to churn the ocean in order to get a special divine nectar. This divine nectar also known as "Amrit" was known to give immortality to whoever drank it. All the Gods were on one side of it and the Demons were on the other end. The Samudra Manthan produced a number of things from the Ocean. One of the first things to come out of it was lethal poison called

text: Halahala

text: .Everyone was terrified as the poison was potent enough to destroy entire creation. So they went to Lord Shiva for protection and he consumed the poison to safeguard the universe. Lord Shiva took the poison in his mouth but did not swallow it. Later some additional objects came out of the ocean like Lakshmi (goddess of prosperity and beauty), Goddess of wine, Moon, divine Nymphs like Rambha- and Menakha, Uchhaishravas the divine seven headed White horse, Kaustubha a jewel, Parijata the celestial tree, Surabhi the cow of plenty, Airavata a white elephant, Dhanus a mighty bow and many more such things were produced. "Shankha" or conch shell also was one of divine objects that was obtained from

text: Samudra manthan

text: Between 21 March and mid-July, around 2.7 × 10 Bq of caesium-137 (about 8.4 kg) entered the ocean, with about 82 percent having flowed into the sea before 8 April. However, the Fukushima coast has some of the world's strongest currents and these transported the contaminated waters far into the Pacific Ocean, thus causing great dispersion of the radioactive elements. The results of measurements of both the seawater and the coastal sediments led to the supposition that the consequences of the accident, in terms of radioactivity, would be minor for marine life as of autumn 2011 (weak concentration of radioactivity in the water and limited accumulation in sediments). On the other hand, significant pollution of sea water along the coast near the nuclear plant might persist, due to the continuing arrival of radioactive material transported towards the sea by surface water running over contaminated soil. Organisms that filter water and fish at the top of the food chain are, over time, the most sensitive to caesium pollution. It is thus justified to maintain surveillance of marine life that is fished in the coastal waters off Fukushima. Despite caesium isotopic concentration in the waters off of Japan being 10 to 1000 times above concentration prior to the accident, radiation risks are below what is generally considered harmful to marine animals and human consumers.

text: Ocean Conservancy was founded in 1972, with goals to promote healthy and diverse ocean ecosystems, and to oppose practices that threaten oceanic and human life. The Conservancy's list of priorities include "Restore Sustainable American Fisheries," "Protect Wildlife From Human Impacts," "Conserve Special Ocean Places," and "Reform Government for Better Ocean Stewardship." It started with goals to promote healthy and safe ocean ecosystems and to help prevent things that threaten oceanic and human life. The conservancy's main concern was to restore sustainable American fisheries and protect wildlife from human impact.

text: Ocean Conservancy was founded in 1972, with goals to promote healthy and diverse

text: ocean ecosystems

text: , and to oppose practices that threaten oceanic and human life. The Conservancy's list of priorities include "Restore Sustainable American Fisheries," "Protect Wildlife From Human Impacts," "Conserve Special Ocean Places," and "Reform Government for Better Ocean Stewardship." It started with goals to promote healthy and safe ocean ecosystems and to help prevent things that threaten oceanic and human life. The conservancy's main concern was to restore sustainable American fisheries and protect wildlife from human impact.

text: One of the concerns with inshore farms is that discarded nutrients and feces can settle on the seafloor and disturb the benthos. The "dilution of nutrients" that occurs in deeper water is a strong reason to move coastal aquaculture offshore into the open ocean. How much nutrient pollution and damage to the seafloor occurs depends on the feed conversion efficiency of the species, the flushing rate and the size of the operation.  However, dissolved and particulate nutrients are still released to the environment. Future offshore farms will probably be much larger than inshore farms today, and will therefore generate more waste. The point at which the capacity of offshore ecosystems to assimilate waste from offshore aquaculture operations will be exceeded is yet to be defined.

text: One of the concerns with inshore farms is that discarded nutrients and feces can settle on the seafloor and disturb the

text: benthos

text: . The "dilution of nutrients" that occurs in deeper water is a strong reason to move coastal aquaculture offshore into the open ocean. How much

text: nutrient pollution

text: and damage to the seafloor occurs depends on the feed conversion efficiency of the species, the flushing rate and the size of the operation.  However, dissolved and

text: particulate

text: nutrients are still released to the environment. Future offshore farms will probably be much larger than inshore farms today, and will therefore generate more waste. The point at which the capacity of offshore ecosystems to assimilate waste from offshore aquaculture operations will be exceeded is yet to be defined.

text: The ocean has a significant effect on the biosphere. Oceanic evaporation, as a phase of the water cycle, is the source of most rainfall, and ocean temperatures determine climate and wind patterns that affect life on land. Life within the ocean evolved 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from shore strongly influence the biodiversity of the plants and animals present in each region.

text: The ocean has a significant effect on the

text: biosphere

text: . Oceanic

text: evaporation

text: , as a phase of the

text: water cycle

text: , is the source of most rainfall, and ocean temperatures determine

text: climate

text: and

text: wind

text: patterns that affect life on land. Life within the ocean

text: evolved

text: 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from shore strongly influence the

text: biodiversity

text: of the plants and animals present in each region.

text: Trace metals with nutrient-type distributions are strongly associated with the internal cycles of particulate organic matter, especially the assimilation by plankton. The lowest dissolved concentrations of these metals are at the surface of the ocean, where they are assimilated by plankton. As dissolution and decomposition occur at greater depths, concentrations of these trace metals increase. Residence times of these metals, such as zinc, are several thousand to one hundred thousand years. Finally, an example of a scavenged-type trace metal is aluminium, which has strong interactions with particles as well as a short residence time in the ocean. The residence times of scavenged-type trace metals are around 100 to 1000 years. The concentrations of these metals are highest around bottom sediments, hydrothermal vents, and rivers. For aluminium, atmospheric dust provides the greatest source of external inputs into the ocean.

text: Trace metals with nutrient-type distributions are strongly associated with the internal cycles of particulate organic matter, especially the assimilation by plankton. The lowest dissolved concentrations of these metals are at the surface of the ocean, where they are assimilated by plankton. As dissolution and decomposition occur at greater depths, concentrations of these trace metals increase. Residence times of these metals, such as zinc, are several thousand to one hundred thousand years. Finally, an example of a scavenged-type trace metal is

text: aluminium

text: , which has strong interactions with particles as well as a short residence time in the ocean. The residence times of scavenged-type trace metals are around 100 to 1000 years. The concentrations of these metals are highest around bottom sediments,

text: hydrothermal vent

text: s, and rivers. For aluminium, atmospheric dust provides the greatest source of external inputs into the ocean.

text: Sea Horses's Surprise (Ocean Life Mini Book)  (2001)

text: Vascoceras is an extinct genus of Cretaceous ammonites included in the family Vascoceratidae. These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the Cretaceous period from the upper Cenomanian age to the lower Turonian age.  The type species of the genus is Vascoceras gamai

text: Vascoceras is an extinct genus of

text: Cretaceous

text: ammonites

text: included in the family

text: Vascoceratidae

text: . These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the

text: Cretaceous

text: period from the upper

text: Cenomanian

text: age to the lower

text: Turonian

text: age.  The type species of the genus is Vascoceras gamai

text: Saba Bank in the Caribbean Netherlands is the largest submarine atoll  in the Atlantic Ocean and has some of the richest diversity of marine life in the Caribbean Sea. In 2010 it was designated as the "Saba Bank National Park", one of the National Parks of the Netherlands and was officially recognized as such in 2012.

text: Saba Bank in the

text: Caribbean Netherlands

text: is the largest submarine

text: atoll

text: in the Atlantic Ocean and has some of the richest diversity of marine life in the

text: Caribbean Sea

text: . In 2010 it was designated as the "Saba Bank National Park", one of the National Parks of the

text: Netherlands

text: and was officially recognized as such in 2012.

text: As a rule of thumb, plankton are small and, if they swim at all, do so at biologically low Reynolds numbers (0.001 to 10), where the viscous behaviour of water dominates and reversible flows are the rule. Nekton, on the other hand, are larger and swim at biologically high Reynolds numbers (10 to 10), where inertial flows are the rule and eddies (vortices) are easily shed.  Many organisms, such as jellyfish and most fish, start life as larva and other tiny members of the plankton community, swimming at low Reynolds numbers, but become nekton as they grow large enough to swim at high Reynolds numbers.

text: The advantage of CTD casts is the acquisition of high resolution data. The limitation of CTD sampling is that only a point in space (the sampling site) can be sampled at one time, and many casts, which are costly and time-consuming, are needed to acquire a broad picture of the marine environment of interest.From the information gathered during CTD casts, however, scientists can investigate how physical parameters are related, for example, to the observed distribution and variation of organisms that live in the ocean, thus deepening our understanding of the processes that govern ocean life.

text: Contrast the terms plankton (the organisms that float or drift within the water), nekton (the organisms that swim, powerfully, in the water), and benthos (the organisms on the bottom of a body of water).

text: Contrast the terms

text: plankton

text: (the organisms that float or drift within the water),

text: nekton

text: (the organisms that swim, powerfully, in the water), and

text: benthos

text: (the organisms on the bottom of a body of water).

text: Plankton is the main antagonist in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie (2004). In the film, Plankton steals King Neptune's crown, sends it away to a store known as Shell City, and frames Mr. Krabs for the theft as part of his plan to steal the Krabby Patty formula. Plankton hires a hitman named Dennis to prevent SpongeBob and Patrick Star from retrieving the crown, although they manage to succeed and return to find that Plankton has turned Bikini Bottom into a dystopia and has slaved its citizens. SpongeBob frees everyone, and Plankton attempts to flee, but is trampled by a large amount of people and subsequently arrested while screaming that he will destroy everyone.

text: Plankton is the main antagonist in

text: The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie

text: (2004). In the film, Plankton steals King Neptune's crown, sends it away to a store known as Shell City, and frames Mr. Krabs for the theft as part of his plan to steal the Krabby Patty formula. Plankton hires a hitman named Dennis to prevent

text: SpongeBob

text: and

text: Patrick Star

text: from retrieving the crown, although they manage to succeed and return to find that Plankton has turned Bikini Bottom into a

text: dystopia

text: and has slaved its citizens. SpongeBob frees everyone, and Plankton attempts to flee, but is trampled by a large amount of people and subsequently arrested while screaming that he will destroy everyone.

text: Chlorobium species are thought to have played an important part in mass extinction events on Earth. If the oceans turn anoxic (due to the shutdown of ocean circulation) then Chlorobium would be able to out compete other photosynthetic life. They would produce huge quantities of methane and hydrogen sulfide which would cause global warming and acid rain. This would have huge consequences for other oceanic organisms and also for terrestrial organisms. Evidence for abundant Chlorobium populations is provided by chemical fossils found in sediments deposited at the Cretaceous mass extinction.

text: Chlorobium species are thought to have played an important part in

text: mass extinction

text: events on Earth. If the oceans turn anoxic (due to the shutdown of ocean circulation) then Chlorobium would be able to out compete other photosynthetic life. They would produce huge quantities of

text: methane

text: and

text: hydrogen sulfide

text: which would cause

text: global warming

text: and

text: acid rain

text: . This would have huge consequences for other oceanic organisms and also for terrestrial organisms. Evidence for abundant Chlorobium populations is provided by

text: chemical fossils

text: found in sediments deposited at the

text: Cretaceous mass extinction

text: Reef Check volunteer divers are trained to study a designated site annually or sometimes quarterly. Underwater surveyors focus chiefly on sessile invertebrates (benthos), along a  transect line.

text: Reef Check volunteer divers are trained to study a designated site annually or sometimes quarterly. Underwater surveyors focus chiefly on

text: sessile

text: invertebrates

text: benthos

text: ), along a

text: transect

text: line.

text: Ischanacanthiformes is an order of Acanthodii or spiny sharks found in the Ukraine and United Kingdom. Members of this order were nektonic carnivores, eating animals that swim rather than plankton. They had slender builds, light armor, deeply inserted spines, and two dorsal fins. It was described by Berg in 1940.

text: Ischanacanthiformes is an order of

text: Acanthodii

text: or spiny sharks found in the

text: Ukraine

text: and

text: United Kingdom

text: . Members of this order were

text: nektonic

text: carnivore

text: s, eating animals that swim rather than plankton. They had slender builds, light armor, deeply inserted spines, and two

text: dorsal fin

text: s. It was described by Berg in 1940.

text: Marine researchers note that mammals and birds get the most attention but smaller creatures at the base of the ocean food chain are also harmed by the oil. Life on the sea floor and near the shore such as mussels, barnacles, and other shellfish are unable to move out of the way. When exposed to oil, these organisms suffer 90%-plus mortality and recovery of the population can take decades.

text: Marine researchers note that mammals and birds get the most attention but smaller creatures at the base of the ocean

text: food chain

text: are also harmed by the oil. Life on the sea floor and near the shore such as

text: mussels

text: barnacles

text: , and other

text: shellfish

text: are unable to move out of the way. When exposed to oil, these organisms suffer 90%-plus mortality and recovery of the population can take decades.

text: The deep sea or deep layer is the lowest layer in the ocean, existing below the thermocline and above the seabed, at a depth of 1000 fathoms (1800 m) or more. Little or no light penetrates this part of the ocean, and most of the organisms that live there rely for subsistence on falling organic matter produced in the photic zone. For this reason, scientists once assumed that life would be sparse in the deep ocean, but virtually every probe has revealed that, on the contrary, life is abundant in the deep ocean.

text: The deep sea or deep layer is the lowest layer in the

text: ocean

text: , existing below the

text: thermocline

text: and above the

text: seabed

text: , at a depth of 1000

text: fathom

text: s (1800 m) or more. Little or no light penetrates this part of the ocean, and most of the

text: organism

text: s that live there rely for subsistence on falling

text: organic matter

text: produced in the

text: photic zone

text: . For this reason, scientists once assumed that

text: life

text: would be sparse in the deep ocean, but virtually every probe has revealed that, on the contrary, life is abundant in the deep ocean.

text: Like other heterostracan fishes, Pteraspis had a protective armored plating covering the front of its body. Though lacking fins other than its lobed tail, it is thought to have been a good swimmer thanks to stiff, wing-like protrusions derived from the armoured plates over its gills. This, along with the horn-like rostrum, made Pteraspis very streamlined in shape; a perfect quality for a good swimmer. Pteraspis also had some stiff spikes on its back, possibly an additional form of protection against predators. It is thought to have fed from shoals of plankton just under the ocean surface, and is found in association with marine fossils.

text: Like other heterostracan fishes, Pteraspis had a protective armored plating covering the front of its body. Though lacking fins other than its lobed tail, it is thought to have been a good swimmer thanks to stiff, wing-like protrusions derived from the armoured plates over its gills. This, along with the horn-like

text: rostrum

text: , made Pteraspis very streamlined in shape; a perfect quality for a good swimmer. Pteraspis also had some stiff spikes on its back, possibly an additional form of protection against predators. It is thought to have fed from shoals of

text: plankton

text: just under the ocean surface, and is found in association with marine fossils.

text: Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey. Bulky plastic debris may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection. Tiny floating plastic particles also resemble zooplankton, which can lead filter feeders to consume them and cause them to enter the ocean food chain. In samples taken from the North Pacific Gyre in 1999 by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton by a factor of six.

text: Many animals that live on or in the sea

text: consume

text: flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey. Bulky plastic debris may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection. Tiny floating plastic particles also resemble

text: zooplankton

text: , which can lead

text: filter feeder

text: s to consume them and cause them to enter the ocean

text: food chain

text: . In samples taken from the

text: North Pacific Gyre

text: in 1999 by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton by a factor of six.

text: Most of Antarctica is covered with a thick layer of ice, with few species permanently living in the ice-covered areas. There are many species of penguins in the south polar region. Almost all animals in Antarctica find their food in the Southern Ocean surrounding the continent, and there is abundant marine life in the Southern Ocean.

text: Most of

text: Antarctica

text: is covered with a thick layer of

text: ice

text: , with few species permanently living in the ice-covered areas. There are many species of

text: penguin

text: s in the south polar region. Almost all animals in Antarctica find their food in the Southern Ocean surrounding the continent, and there is abundant marine life in the Southern Ocean.

text: The ocean primary producers, mainly contained in plankton, produce food energy from the sun and are the raw fuel for the ocean food webs. Forage fish transfer this energy by eating the plankton and becoming food themselves for the top predators. In this way, forage fish occupy the central positions in ocean and lake food webs.

text: The ocean

text: primary producer

text: s, mainly contained in plankton, produce food energy from the sun and are the raw fuel for the ocean food webs. Forage fish transfer this energy by eating the plankton and becoming food themselves for the top predators. In this way, forage fish occupy the central positions in ocean and lake

text: food web

text: s.

text: The latitude of the north wall has been linked via the atmospheric circulation with a variety of changes at the other side of the North Atlantic Ocean [17], [19], [20], and. The Continuous Plankton Recorder Survey, now run by the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science in Plymouth, UK, has monitored the plankton in the surface waters of the North Sea and NE Atlantic for more than half a century. Over most of this time many of the zooplankton in these regions have gone up and down in abundance as the Gulf Stream has shifted north or south, and, a relationship that has been seen most clearly in the abundance of copepods. The link with the current has also been reported in the zooplankton off the Northumberland coast of the UK studied by the Dove Marine Laboratory of Newcastle University. Interactions between the individual constituents of the ecosystem appear to have been bringing out a signal weakly expressed throughout the meteorological variables. This process which has been reproduced using an ecosystem model. Further afield, the GSNW index has been used to forecast temperatures in the Barents Sea.

text: The latitude of the north wall has been linked via the atmospheric circulation with a variety of changes at the other side of the North Atlantic Ocean [17], [19], [20], and. The

text: Continuous Plankton Recorder

text: Survey, now run by the Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science in Plymouth, UK, has monitored the

text: plankton

text: in the surface waters of the North Sea and NE Atlantic for more than half a century. Over most of this time many of the

text: zooplankton

text: in these regions have gone up and down in abundance as the Gulf Stream has shifted north or south, and, a relationship that has been seen most clearly in the abundance of

text: copepods

text: . The link with the current has also been reported in the zooplankton off the Northumberland coast of the UK studied by the

text: Dove Marine Laboratory

text: of

text: Newcastle University

text: . Interactions between the individual constituents of the ecosystem appear to have been bringing out a signal weakly expressed throughout the meteorological variables. This process which has been reproduced using an

text: ecosystem model

text: . Further afield, the GSNW index has been used to forecast temperatures in the

text: Barents Sea

text: Krispy Kreme, an international chain of doughnut stores, was started in North Carolina; the company's headquarters are in Winston-Salem. Pepsi-Cola was first produced in 1898 in New Bern. A regional soft drink, Cheerwine, was created and is still based in the city of Salisbury. Despite its name, the hot sauce Texas Pete was created in North Carolina; its headquarters are also in Winston-Salem. The Hardee's fast-food chain was started in Rocky Mount. Another fast-food chain, Bojangles', was started in Charlotte, and has its corporate headquarters there. A popular North Carolina restaurant chain is Golden Corral. Started in 1973, the chain was founded in Fayetteville, with headquarters located in Raleigh. Popular pickle brand Mount Olive Pickle Company was founded in Mount Olive in 1926. Fast casual burger chain Hwy 55 Burgers, Shakes & Fries also makes its home in Mount Olive. Cook Out, a popular fast-food chain featuring burgers, hot dogs, and milkshakes in a wide variety of flavors, was founded in Greensboro in 1989 and has begun expanding outside of North Carolina. In 2013, Southern Living named Durham - Chapel Hill the South's "Tastiest City."

text: Krispy Kreme

text: , an international chain of doughnut stores, was started in North Carolina; the company's headquarters are in

text: Winston-Salem

text: Pepsi-Cola

text: was first produced in 1898 in

text: New Bern

text: . A regional

text: soft drink

text: Cheerwine

text: , was created and is still based in the city of Salisbury. Despite its name, the hot sauce

text: Texas Pete

text: was created in North Carolina; its headquarters are also in Winston-Salem. The

text: Hardee's

text: fast-food chain was started in

text: Rocky Mount

text: . Another fast-food chain,

text: Bojangles'

text: , was started in

text: Charlotte

text: , and has its corporate headquarters there. A popular North Carolina restaurant chain is

text: Golden Corral

text: . Started in 1973, the chain was founded in

text: Fayetteville

text: , with headquarters located in

text: Raleigh

text: . Popular

text: pickle

text: brand

text: Mount Olive Pickle Company

text: was founded in

text: Mount Olive

text: in 1926. Fast casual burger chain

text: Hwy 55 Burgers, Shakes & Fries

text: also makes its home in

text: Mount Olive

text: Cook Out

text: , a popular fast-food chain featuring burgers, hot dogs, and milkshakes in a wide variety of flavors, was founded in Greensboro in 1989 and has begun expanding outside of North Carolina. In 2013, Southern Living named Durham - Chapel Hill the South's "Tastiest City."

text: In 1949, he set a new world record with a 4,500 foot (1,372 m) dive in the Pacific Ocean, using his benthoscope (from the Greek benthos, meaning 'sea bottom', and scopein, 'to view'), which was designed by Barton and Maurice Nelles.

text: In 1949, he set a new world record with a 4,500 foot (1,372 m) dive in the Pacific Ocean, using his

text: benthoscope

text: (from the Greek benthos, meaning 'sea bottom', and scopein, 'to view'), which was designed by Barton and

text: Maurice Nelles

text: Moskvarium, Moscow’s ocean life aquarium at VDNKh expo area, co-owned and developed by Nisanov, was presented to Putin and Moscow Mayor Sobyanin in August, 2015.As of 2015, Nisanov’s key assets are concentrated in commercial property.

text: Moskvarium, Moscow’s ocean life aquarium at

text: VDNKh

text: expo area, co-owned and developed by Nisanov, was presented to Putin and Moscow Mayor Sobyanin in August, 2015.As of 2015, Nisanov’s key assets are concentrated in commercial property.

text: Smelt-whitings are a major link in the food chain of most systems, and frequently fall prey to a variety of aquatic and aerial predators. Their main aquatic predators are a wide variety of larger fish, including both teleosts and a variety of sharks and rays. Marine mammals including seals and dolphins have been reported to have taken sillaginids as a main food source. Seabirds are also another major predator of the family, with diving species such as Cormorants taking older fish in deeper waters while juvenile fish in shallow water fall prey to wading birds. Sillaginids are often called 'sandborers' due to their habit of burying themselves in the substrate to avoid predators, much in the same way as they forage, by ploughing their nose into the substrate. This defense is even used against human fishermen, who frequently wade barefoot to feel for buried fish. The Sillaginidae are also host to a variety of well studied internal and external parasites, which are represented prominently by the groups Digenea, Monogenea and Myxosporea, Copepoda and Nematoda.

text: Smelt-whitings are a major link in the

text: food chain

text: of most systems, and frequently fall prey to a variety of

text: aquatic

text: and

text: aerial

text: predator

text: s. Their main aquatic predators are a wide variety of larger fish, including both

text: teleost

text: s and a variety of

text: shark

text: s and

text: ray

text: s.

text: Marine mammal

text: s including

text: seals

text: and

text: dolphin

text: s have been reported to have taken sillaginids as a main food source.

text: Seabird

text: s are also another major predator of the family, with diving species such as

text: Cormorant

text: s taking older fish in deeper waters while juvenile fish in shallow water fall prey to

text: wading bird

text: s. Sillaginids are often called 'sandborers' due to their habit of burying themselves in the substrate to avoid predators, much in the same way as they forage, by ploughing their nose into the substrate. This defense is even used against

text: human

text: fishermen, who frequently wade barefoot to feel for buried fish. The Sillaginidae are also host to a variety of well studied internal and external

text: parasite

text: s, which are represented prominently by the groups

text: Digenea

text: Monogenea

text: and

text: Myxosporea

text: Copepoda

text: and

text: Nematoda

text: To engage the oceanic sports community in World Oceans Day and increase awareness about the importance of clean and healthy oceans. Surfers, sailors, swimmers, divers and paddlers can be ambassadors to the community about the health of the ocean and issues such as pollution.

text: To engage the oceanic sports community in

text: World Oceans Day

text: and increase awareness about the importance of clean and healthy oceans. Surfers, sailors, swimmers, divers and paddlers can be ambassadors to the community about the health of the ocean and issues such as pollution.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the Jurassic period, from 161.2 to 150.8 Ma.

text: Jurassic

text: period, from 161.2 to 150.8 Ma.

text: There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous—Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys, which was inside the "O" in the Carboniferous Pangaea. Other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed - Rheic Ocean (closed by the assembly of South and North America), the small, shallow Ural Ocean (which was closed by the collision of Baltica and Siberia continents, creating the Ural Mountains) and Proto-Tethys Ocean (closed by North China collision with Siberia/Kazakhstania).

text: There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous—

text: Panthalassa

text: and

text: Paleo-Tethys

text: , which was inside the "O" in the Carboniferous Pangaea. Other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed -

text: Rheic Ocean

text: (closed by the assembly of

text: South

text: and

text: North America

text: ), the small, shallow

text: Ural Ocean

text: (which was closed by the collision of

text: Baltica

text: and Siberia continents, creating the

text: Ural Mountains

text: ) and

text: Proto-Tethys Ocean

text: (closed by

text: North China

text: collision with

text: Siberia

text: Kazakhstania

text: Caesar is Louisa’s “veritable hermit of a dog.” For most of his life he resided in the small hut, which Louisa’s dead brother built for him, eating only corn-mush and cakes for food.  The dog is not crucial to the plot, but brings insight into the internal affairs of the Ellis home.  Just like the dog, Louisa has not permanently left the home in over 14 years, as he is chained up after biting a neighbor. Caesar is a foreshadowing for Louisa in his example of what will come of her if she should not marry. For example, there is no fear or sadness with the dog, but a simple acceptance of life as it passes before the front gate. The dog is also a warning for Joe, for the only reason he is allowed outside the limits of the land is to walk with his mistress as she leads him by a heavy chain.

text: Planktonic A. fischeri bacteria are found in very low quantities (almost undetectable) in almost all oceans of the world, preferentially in temperate and subtropical waters. These free-living bacteria subsist on organic matter in the water. They are found in higher concentrations in symbiosis with certain deep sea life within photophores (special light organs); or as part of the normal gut microbiota of marine animals.

text: Plankton

text: ic A. fischeri bacteria are found in very low quantities (almost undetectable) in almost all

text: ocean

text: s of the world, preferentially in

text: temperate

text: and

text: subtropical

text: waters. These free-living bacteria subsist on organic matter in the water. They are found in higher concentrations in symbiosis with certain deep sea life within

text: photophore

text: s (special light organs); or as part of the normal

text: gut

text: microbiota

text: of marine animals.

text: Bebo Norman's album, Ocean, released on September 28, 2010, is a personal album, according to Norman, that covers the discovery of his true identity and the battle between fear and faith. The singer/songwriter told CBN.com that he hopes Ocean causes listeners to "look internally… at where they draw their own identity from. It's worth wrestling with who we are, where we draw our value from, and where we draw our life from and .... refocusing on the source of whatever season of life we are in rather than focusing on the season itself."

text: Bebo Norman's album,

text: Ocean

text: , released on September 28, 2010, is a personal album, according to Norman, that covers the discovery of his true identity and the battle between fear and faith. The singer/songwriter told CBN.com that he hopes Ocean causes listeners to "look internally… at where they draw their own identity from. It's worth wrestling with who we are, where we draw our value from, and where we draw our life from and .... refocusing on the source of whatever season of life we are in rather than focusing on the season itself."

text: Research at CeSOS focuses on the creation of fundamental knowledge about the design and operation of future ships and ocean structures, using analytical, numerical and experimental studies. The centre has furthermore made it its responsibility to integrate marine hydrodynamics, structural mechanics and automatic control in its research. The knowledge that is being produced by this kind of research is vital, both now and in the future, for the design of safe, cost effective and environmentally friendly structures as well as in the planning and execution of marine operations. The importance of such work cannot be over-emphasised: In tonnage terms, 95 per cent of all international transport is by sea, and 20 per cent of the world’s oil and gas is produced from subsea reservoirs via offshore structures and pipelines. In the future, food production in aquacultural plants and the exploitation of renewable energy from the oceans is expected to play a growing role. The scientific and engineering research carried out in the centre takes account of such future needs, and extends current knowledge in relevant disciplines. The emphasis is on the synergy between hydrodynamics, structural mechanics and automatic control.

text: Research at CeSOS focuses on the creation of fundamental knowledge about the design and operation of future ships and ocean structures, using analytical, numerical and

text: experimental

text: studies. The centre has furthermore made it its responsibility to integrate

text: marine

text: hydrodynamics

text: structural mechanics

text: and

text: automatic control

text: in its research. The knowledge that is being produced by this kind of research is vital, both now and in the future, for the design of safe, cost effective and environmentally friendly structures as well as in the planning and execution of

text: marine

text: operations. The importance of such work cannot be over-emphasised: In tonnage terms, 95 per cent of all international transport is by sea, and 20 per cent of the world’s oil and gas is produced from

text: subsea

text: reservoirs via

text: offshore structures

text: and

text: pipelines

text: . In the future, food production in aquacultural plants and the exploitation of

text: renewable energy

text: from the

text: oceans

text: is expected to play a growing role. The scientific and engineering research carried out in the centre takes account of such future needs, and extends current knowledge in relevant disciplines. The emphasis is on the

text: synergy

text: between

text: hydrodynamics

text: structural mechanics

text: and

text: automatic control

text: Plankton net is an equipment used in sampling method for collecting plankton in standing water body, which includes zooplankton, phytoplankton and ichthyoplankton. This equipment consists of towing line and bridles, nylon mesh net, and cod end. A plankton net is considered as one of the oldest, simplest and inexpensive method for plankton sampling. The plankton net can be used in both vertical and horizontal sampling. The plankton net allows the researchers to observe both quantitative (cell density, cell colony or biomass) and qualitative ( e. g. Chlorophyll-a as a primary production of phytoplankton) analysis of planktons in the water sample from the environment.

text: Plankton net is an equipment used in

text: sampling method

text: for collecting

text: plankton

text: in standing

text: water body

text: , which includes

text: zooplankton

text: phytoplankton

text: and

text: ichthyoplankton

text: . This equipment consists of towing line and bridles,

text: nylon

text: mesh

text: net, and cod end. A plankton net is considered as one of the oldest, simplest and inexpensive method for plankton sampling. The plankton net can be used in both

text: vertical

text: and

text: horizontal

text: sampling. The plankton net allows the researchers to observe both

text: quantitative

text: (cell density, cell colony or biomass) and

text: qualitative

text: ( e. g. Chlorophyll-a as a primary production of phytoplankton) analysis of planktons in the water sample from the environment.

text: Martinez has appeared in over twenty features and independent films including Born in East L.A. with Cheech Marin, For Greater Glory with Andy Garcia and Oscar Isaac, Strike One with Danny Trejo and, most recently Cake with Jennifer Aniston and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Her voiceover work includes the award-winning documentaries The Panama Deception and Food Chains.

text: Martinez has appeared in over twenty features and

text: independent films

text: including

text: Born in East L.A.

text: with

text: Cheech Marin

text: For Greater Glory

text: with

text: Andy Garcia

text: and

text: Oscar Isaac

text: , Strike One with

text: Danny Trejo

text: and, most recently

text: Cake

text: with

text: Jennifer Aniston

text: and

text: Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice

text: . Her voiceover work includes the award-winning documentaries

text: The Panama Deception

text: and

text: Food Chains

text: The game consists of cooking mini-games, similar to Cooking Mama, and restaurant management. The player oversees the staff of Planktons as they work to fill the orders of the day. Occasionally, the player will be asked to help a Plankton complete a task by playing a mini-game representing a cooking activity. In all, there are 25 different mini-games that are used to represent tasks like slicing, stirring, whisking, and garnishing. The game also has a multiplayer mode, in which the player who prepares the dish in the least amount of time is the winner. While the Planktons do most of the work during the regular shifts, challenges where the player must prepare an entire recipe on their own are unlocked after a few shifts. The player can also buy new recipes, manage the menu, and decorate the restaurant.

text: The game consists of cooking mini-games, similar to

text: Cooking Mama

text: , and restaurant management. The player oversees the staff of Planktons as they work to fill the orders of the day. Occasionally, the player will be asked to help a Plankton complete a task by playing a mini-game representing a cooking activity. In all, there are 25 different mini-games that are used to represent tasks like slicing, stirring, whisking, and garnishing. The game also has a multiplayer mode, in which the player who prepares the dish in the least amount of time is the winner. While the Planktons do most of the work during the regular shifts, challenges where the player must prepare an entire recipe on their own are unlocked after a few shifts. The player can also buy new recipes, manage the menu, and decorate the restaurant.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the Jurassic period, in the upper Callovian age.

text: Jurassic

text: period, in the upper

text: Callovian

text: age.

text: Aquatic and semiaquatic mammals are a diverse group of mammals that dwell partly or entirely in bodies of water. They include the various marine mammals who dwell in oceans, as well as various freshwater species, such as the European otter. They are not a taxon and are not unified by any distinct biological grouping, but rather their dependence on and integral relation to aquatic ecosystems. The level of dependence on aquatic life are vastly different among species, with the Amazonian manatee and river dolphins being completely aquatic and fully dependent on aquatic ecosystems; whereas the Baikal seal feeds underwater but rests, molts, and breeds on land; and the capybara and hippopotamus are able to venture in and out of water in search of food.

text: Aquatic and semiaquatic mammals are a diverse group of

text: mammal

text: s that dwell partly or entirely in

text: bodies of water

text: . They include the various

text: marine mammal

text: s who dwell in

text: ocean

text: s, as well as various freshwater species, such as the

text: European otter

text: . They are not a

text: taxon

text: and are not unified by any distinct biological grouping, but rather their dependence on and integral relation to

text: aquatic ecosystem

text: s. The level of dependence on aquatic life are vastly different among species, with the

text: Amazonian manatee

text: and

text: river dolphin

text: s being completely aquatic and fully dependent on aquatic ecosystems; whereas the

text: Baikal seal

text: feeds underwater but rests, molts, and breeds on land; and the

text: capybara

text: and

text: hippopotamus

text: are able to venture in and out of water in search of food.

text: The ocean covers nearly two thirds of the Earth's surface, and is continuously threatened by human behaviors and practices. By taking so many fish from the seas, humans have managed to remove entire links from the aquatic food chain. This causes a chain effect, leading to an overall upset of the delicate balance of nature.

text: Microphytes or microalgae are microscopic algae, typically found in freshwater and marine systems living in both the water column and sediment. They are unicellular species which exist individually, or in chains or groups. Depending on the species, their sizes can range from a few micrometers (µm) to a few hundreds of micrometers. Unlike higher plants, microalgae do not have roots, stems, or leaves. They are specially adapted to an environment dominated by viscous forces. Microalgae, capable of performing photosynthesis, are important for life on earth; they produce approximately half of the atmospheric oxygen and use simultaneously the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide to grow photoautotrophically. Microalgae is the base of the food web and provide energy for all the trophic levels about it. Microalgae biomass is often measured with chlorophyll a concentrations and can provide a useful index of potential production. The standing stock of microphytes is closely related to that of its predators. Without grazing pressures the standing stock of microphytes dramatically decreases

text: Microphytes or microalgae are microscopic

text: algae

text: , typically found in

text: freshwater

text: and

text: marine

text: systems living in both the

text: water column

text: and

text: sediment

text: . They are unicellular species which exist individually, or in chains or groups. Depending on the species, their sizes can range from a few micrometers (µm) to a few hundreds of micrometers. Unlike higher plants, microalgae do not have roots, stems, or leaves. They are specially adapted to an environment dominated by viscous forces. Microalgae, capable of performing photosynthesis, are important for life on earth; they produce approximately half of the atmospheric oxygen and use simultaneously the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide to grow photoautotrophically. Microalgae is the base of the food web and provide energy for all the trophic levels about it. Microalgae biomass is often measured with chlorophyll a concentrations and can provide a useful index of potential production. The standing stock of microphytes is closely related to that of its predators. Without grazing pressures the standing stock of microphytes dramatically decreases

text: The rex sole's diet consists of benthos invertebrates such as crustaceans, worms, shrimps and crabs.

text: The rex sole's diet consists of

text: benthos

text: invertebrate

text: s such as

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: worm

text: s,

text: shrimp

text: s and

text: crab

text: s.

text: In general, plankton can be categorized on the basis of physiological, taxonomic, or dimensional characteristics. Subsequently, a generic classification of a plankton includes:

text: It is known that climate affects the ocean and the ocean affects the climate. Due to climate change, as the ocean gets warmer this too has an effect on the seafloor. Because of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, this warming will have an effect on the bicarbonate buffer of the ocean. The bicarbonate buffer is the concentration of bicarbonate ions that keeps the ocean's acidity balanced within a pH range of 7.5-8.4. Addition of carbon dioxide to the ocean water makes the oceans more acidic. Increased ocean acidity is not good for the planktonic organisms that depend on calcium to form their shells. Calcium dissolves with very weak acids and any increase in the ocean's acidity will be destructive for the calcareous organisms. Increased ocean acidity will lead to decreased Calcite Compensation Depth (CCD), causing calcite to dissolve in shallower waters. This will then have a great effect on the calcareous ooze in the ocean, because the sediment itself would begin to dissolve.

text: It is known that climate affects the ocean and the ocean affects the climate. Due to

text: climate change

text: , as the ocean gets warmer this too has an effect on the seafloor. Because of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, this warming will have an effect on the bicarbonate buffer of the ocean. The bicarbonate buffer is the concentration of bicarbonate ions that keeps the ocean's acidity balanced within a pH range of 7.5-8.4. Addition of carbon dioxide to the ocean water makes the oceans more acidic. Increased ocean acidity is not good for the planktonic organisms that depend on calcium to form their shells. Calcium dissolves with very weak acids and any increase in the ocean's acidity will be destructive for the calcareous organisms. Increased ocean acidity will lead to decreased

text: Calcite Compensation Depth

text: (CCD), causing calcite to dissolve in shallower waters. This will then have a great effect on the calcareous ooze in the ocean, because the sediment itself would begin to dissolve.

text: Many animals that live on or in the sea consume flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey.  Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection. Tiny floating particles also resemble zooplankton, which can lead filter feeders to consume them and cause them to enter the ocean food chain. In samples taken from the North Pacific Gyre in 1999 by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton by a factor of six. More recently, reports have surfaced that there may now be 30 times more plastic than plankton, the most abundant form of life in the ocean.

text: Many animals that live on or in the sea

text: consume

text: flotsam by mistake, as it often looks similar to their natural prey.  Plastic debris, when bulky or tangled, is difficult to pass, and may become permanently lodged in the digestive tracts of these animals, blocking the passage of food and causing death through starvation or infection. Tiny floating particles also resemble

text: zooplankton

text: , which can lead

text: filter feeders

text: to consume them and cause them to enter the ocean

text: food chain

text: . In samples taken from the

text: North Pacific Gyre

text: in 1999 by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation, the mass of plastic exceeded that of zooplankton by a factor of six. More recently, reports have surfaced that there may now be 30 times more plastic than plankton, the most abundant form of life in the ocean.

text: The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected global ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica). The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean at about 8°N.

text: The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between

text: Eurasia

text: and

text: Africa

text: to the east, and the

text: Americas

text: to the west. As one component of the interconnected

text: global ocean

text: , it is connected in the north to the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: , to the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: in the southwest, the

text: Indian Ocean

text: in the southeast, and the

text: Southern Ocean

text: in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to

text: Antarctica

text: ). The

text: Equatorial Counter Current

text: subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean at about

text: One Tennessee study of flame chub hatching found that hatching began in early May (and possibly earlier) and continued through late May.  Gravel is a very important factor in the breeding patterns of these fish, as it is necessary for filtration of extremely clean water as well as bottom stability for a species that spends a lot of its time in the benthos area of the stream. No data are available pertaining to the species' lifespan.

text: The basking shark is a cosmopolitan  migratory species, found in all the world's temperate oceans. A slow-moving filter feeder, its common name derives from its habit of feeding at the surface, appearing to be basking in the warmer water there. It has anatomical adaptations for filter feeding, such as a greatly enlarged mouth and highly developed gill rakers. Its snout is conical and the gill slits extend around the top and bottom of its head. The gill rakers, dark and bristle-like, are used to catch plankton as water filters through the mouth and over the gills. The teeth are very small and numerous, and often number one hundred per row. The teeth have a single conical cusp, are curved backwards, and are the same on both the upper and lower jaws. This species has the smallest weight-for-weight brain size of any shark, reflecting its relatively passive lifestyle.

text: The basking shark is a

text: cosmopolitan

text: migratory

text: species

text: , found in all the world's temperate oceans. A slow-moving

text: filter feeder

text: , its common name derives from its habit of feeding at the surface, appearing to be basking in the warmer water there. It has anatomical adaptations for filter feeding, such as a greatly enlarged mouth and highly developed

text: gill rakers

text: . Its snout is conical and the gill slits extend around the top and bottom of its head. The gill rakers, dark and bristle-like, are used to catch plankton as water filters through the mouth and over the gills. The teeth are very small and numerous, and often number one hundred per row. The teeth have a single conical cusp, are curved backwards, and are the same on both the upper and lower jaws. This species has the smallest weight-for-weight brain size of any shark, reflecting its relatively passive lifestyle.

text: However, biofilms are not always less susceptible to antibiotics. For instance, the biofilm form of Pseudomonas aeruginosa has no greater resistance to antimicrobials than do stationary-phase planktonic cells, although when the biofilm is compared to logarithmic-phase planktonic cells, the biofilm does have greater resistance to antimicrobials. This resistance to antibiotics in both stationary-phase cells and biofilms may be due to the presence of persister cells.

text: However, biofilms are not always less susceptible to antibiotics. For instance, the biofilm form of

text: Pseudomonas aeruginosa

text: has no greater resistance to antimicrobials than do stationary-phase planktonic cells, although when the biofilm is compared to logarithmic-phase planktonic cells, the biofilm does have greater resistance to antimicrobials. This resistance to antibiotics in both stationary-phase cells and biofilms may be due to the presence of

text: persister cell

text: s.

text: For example, the bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) has the choice of foraging on plankton in the safety of reeds or on benthic invertebrates which are a better quality food source. When a predator (the largemouth bass) is present, smaller sunfish spend the majority of their time foraging in the reeds despite this choice reducing their food intake and seasonal growth rate. Sunfish that are too large to be eaten by the bass forage almost entirely on benthos. Although staying in the reeds means a slower growth rate and a longer period of being a size vulnerable to predators, for maximum survival sunfish choose to remain in the reeds feeding on plankton until they reach a certain size and then leave to feed on benthos.

text: For example, the

text: bluegill sunfish

text: (Lepomis macrochirus) has the choice of foraging on

text: plankton

text: in the safety of

text: reeds

text: or on

text: benthic invertebrates

text: which are a better quality food source. When a predator (the

text: largemouth bass

text: ) is present, smaller sunfish spend the majority of their time foraging in the reeds despite this choice reducing their food intake and seasonal growth rate. Sunfish that are too large to be eaten by the bass forage almost entirely on benthos. Although staying in the reeds means a slower growth rate and a longer period of being a size vulnerable to predators, for maximum survival sunfish choose to remain in the reeds feeding on plankton until they reach a certain size and then leave to feed on benthos.

text: Biologically mediated habitats are defined as being the habitats that living marine structures offer to other organisms. These need not to be designed for the sole purpose of serving as a habitat, but happen to become living quarters whilst growing naturally. For example, coral reefs and mangrove forests are home to numerous species of fish, seaweed and shellfish… The importance of these habitats is that they allow for interactions between different species, aiding the provisioning of marine goods and services. They are also very important for the growth at the early life stages of marine species (breeding and bursary spaces), as they serve as a food source and as a shelter from predators.

text: The rising ocean acidity makes it more difficult for marine organisms such as shrimps, oysters, or corals to form their shells – a process known as calcification. Many important animals, such as  zooplankton, that forms the base of the marine food chain have calcium shells. Thus the entire marine food web is being altered – there are ‘cracks in the food chain’.  As a result, the distribution, productivity, and species composition of global fish production is changing, generating complex and inter-related impacts on oceans, estuaries, coral reefs, mangroves and sea grass beds that provide habitats and nursery areas for fish. Changing rainfall patterns and water scarcity is impacting on river and lake fisheries and aquaculture production. After the ice age about 200,000 years ago, the global air temperature has risen 3 degrees, leading to an increase in sea temperatures.

text: The rising

text: ocean acidity

text: makes it more difficult for marine organisms such as shrimps, oysters, or corals to form their shells – a process known as

text: calcification

text: . Many important animals, such as

text: zooplankton

text: , that forms the base of the marine food chain have calcium shells. Thus the entire marine food web is being altered – there are ‘cracks in the food chain’.  As a result, the distribution, productivity, and species composition of global

text: fish production

text: is changing, generating complex and inter-related impacts on oceans,

text: estuaries

text: coral reefs

text: mangroves

text: and sea grass beds that provide habitats and nursery areas for fish. Changing rainfall patterns and

text: water scarcity

text: is impacting on river and lake fisheries and

text: aquaculture

text: production. After the ice age about 200,000 years ago, the global air temperature has risen 3 degrees, leading to an increase in sea temperatures.

text: There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×10 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants and animals. Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients, with many of the stages in nutrient cycles dependent on these organisms, such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and putrefaction. In the biological communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds, such as hydrogen sulphide and methane, to energy. On 17 March 2013, researchers reported data that suggested bacterial life forms thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest part of the Earth's oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."

text: There are typically 40 million bacterial

text: cells

text: in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of

text: fresh water

text: . There are approximately 5×10 bacteria on Earth, forming a

text: biomass

text: which exceeds that of all plants and animals. Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients, with many of the stages in

text: nutrient cycle

text: s dependent on these organisms, such as the

text: fixation of nitrogen

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: and

text: putrefaction

text: . In the biological communities surrounding

text: hydrothermal vents

text: and

text: cold seeps

text: , bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds, such as

text: hydrogen sulphide

text: and

text: methane

text: , to energy. On 17 March 2013, researchers reported data that suggested bacterial life forms thrive in the

text: Mariana Trench

text: , which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest part of the Earth's oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are."

text: Spawning occurs between late May and early November, but primarily in July and August when surface water temperatures are above 20°C.  The ovaries stretch below the heart from the gastric region to the end of the back.  As they mature they grow and change colour from yellow to milky blue and finally bluish-green at the time of spawning.  The Sakura shrimp spawns an average of 1700–2300 eggs overnight far out in the bays.  Distribution concentrates at a depth of about 20–50m.  The eggs average 2.6mm in circumference.  They are not sticky and as they have a similar density to seawater they to float at about the place they were laid and spend life as a plankton.

text: Spawning occurs between late May and early November, but primarily in July and August when surface water temperatures are above 20°C.  The ovaries stretch below the heart from the gastric region to the end of the back.  As they mature they grow and change colour from yellow to milky blue and finally bluish-green at the time of spawning.  The Sakura shrimp spawns an average of 1700–2300 eggs overnight far out in the bays.  Distribution concentrates at a depth of about 20–50m.  The eggs average 2.6mm in circumference.  They are not sticky and as they have a similar density to seawater they to float at about the place they were laid and spend life as a

text: plankton

text: Some polynyas, such as the North Water Polynya between Canada and Greenland occur seasonally at the same time and place each year. Because animals can adapt their life strategies to this regularity, these types of polynyas are of special ecological research significance. In winter, marine mammals such as walruses, narwhals and belugas that do not migrate south, remain there. In spring, the thin or absent ice cover allows light in, through the surface layer as soon as the winter night ends, which triggers the early blooming of microalgae that are at the basis of the marine food chain. So, polynyas are suspected to be places where intense and early production of the planktonic herbivores ensure the transfer of solar energy (food chain) fixed by planktonic microalgae to Arctic cod, seals, whales, and polar bears. Polar bears are known to be able to swim as far as 65 kilometres across open waters of a polynya.

text: Some polynyas, such as the

text: North Water Polynya

text: between

text: Canada

text: and

text: Greenland

text: occur seasonally at the same time and place each year. Because animals can adapt their life strategies to this regularity, these types of polynyas are of special ecological research significance. In winter,

text: marine mammal

text: s such as

text: walrus

text: es,

text: narwhal

text: s and

text: belugas

text: that do not migrate south, remain there. In spring, the thin or absent ice cover allows light in, through the surface layer as soon as the winter night ends, which triggers the early blooming of

text: microalgae

text: that are at the basis of the marine food chain. So, polynyas are suspected to be places where intense and early production of the

text: planktonic herbivore

text: s ensure the transfer of solar energy (

text: food chain

text: ) fixed by planktonic microalgae to

text: Arctic cod

text: seals

text: whale

text: s, and

text: polar bear

text: s. Polar bears are known to be able to swim as far as 65 kilometres across open waters of a polynya.

text: Laqueoceras is an extinct genus of cephalopod belonging to the Ammonite subclass. They were fast-moving nektonic carnivores.

text: Laqueoceras is an extinct genus of cephalopod belonging to the

text: Ammonite

text: subclass. They were fast-moving

text: nektonic

text: carnivores.

text: During the 1980s, Fasham began to direct his research toward quantitative treatments of the flows of energy and material through ocean food webs.  This work led to the development by Fasham and colleagues of a seminal open ocean plankton ecosystem model.  This model, sometimes known by the initials of its authors, "FDM", divides the plankton ecosystem into seven components including phytoplankton and zooplankton, and includes a microbial loop to represent remineralisation.  The study is one of the most highly cited papers in the field, and won the American Society of Limnology and Oceanography John Martin Award in recognition of this in 2010.  Subsequent joint work with colleagues in Princeton University led to the ecosystem model being one of the first to be applied within a general circulation model of the North Atlantic.  In later work, Fasham continued to advance ecosystem models by considering aspects such as parameter optimisation, the balance of autotrophic and heterotrophic plankton, diel vertical migration, and the role of the micronutrient iron in oceanic primary production.

text: During the 1980s, Fasham began to direct his research toward quantitative treatments of the flows of

text: energy

text: and

text: material

text: through ocean

text: food web

text: s.  This work led to the development by Fasham and colleagues of a seminal open ocean plankton

text: ecosystem

text: model.  This model, sometimes known by the initials of its authors, "FDM", divides the plankton ecosystem into seven components including phytoplankton and

text: zooplankton

text: , and includes a

text: microbial loop

text: to represent

text: remineralisation

text: .  The study is one of the most highly cited papers in the field, and won the

entity_name: Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography

text: American Society of Limnology and Oceanography

text: John Martin Award in recognition of this in 2010.  Subsequent joint work with colleagues in

text: Princeton University

text: led to the ecosystem model being one of the first to be applied within a

text: general circulation model

text: of the

text: North Atlantic

text: .  In later work, Fasham continued to advance ecosystem models by considering aspects such as parameter optimisation, the balance of

text: autotroph

text: ic and

text: heterotroph

text: ic plankton,

text: diel vertical migration

text: , and the role of the

text: micronutrient

text: iron

text: in oceanic

text: primary production

text: Pyotr Shirshov authored numerous works dealing with his research on plankton in polar regions. He is known to have proven the fallacy of the hypothesis that there is no life in high latitudes of the Arctic Ocean. Pyotr Shirshov was awarded three Orders of Lenin, four other orders, and several medals.

text: Pyotr Shirshov authored numerous works dealing with his research on

text: plankton

text: in polar regions. He is known to have proven the fallacy of the hypothesis that there is no life in high latitudes of the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: . Pyotr Shirshov was awarded three

text: Orders of Lenin

text: , four other orders, and several medals.

text: Plankton are a diverse group of organisms that live in the water column of large bodies of water and that cannot swim against a current. They provide a crucial source of food to many large aquatic organisms, such as fish and whales.

text: Plankton

text: are a diverse group of organisms that live in the

text: water column

text: of large bodies of water and that cannot swim against a current. They provide a crucial source of food to many large aquatic organisms, such as

text: fish

text: and

text: whale

text: s.

text: With a northern limit at 60°S, the Southern Ocean differs from the other oceans in that its largest boundary, the northern boundary, does not abut a landmass (as it did with the first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas). Instead, the northern limit is with the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

text: With a northern limit at

text: , the Southern Ocean differs from the other oceans in that its largest boundary, the northern boundary, does not abut a landmass (as it did with the first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas). Instead, the northern limit is with the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

text: The neritic zone is the relatively shallow part of the ocean above the drop-off of the continental shelf, approximately  in depth.From the point of view of marine biology it forms a relatively stable and well-illuminated environment for marine life, from plankton up to large fish and corals, while physical oceanography sees it as where the oceanic system interacts with the coast.

text: The neritic zone is the relatively shallow part of the ocean above the drop-off of the

text: continental shelf

text: , approximately  in depth.From the point of view of

text: marine biology

text: it forms a relatively stable and well-illuminated environment for marine life, from

text: plankton

text: up to large

text: fish

text: and

text: coral

text: s, while

text: physical oceanography

text: sees it as where the oceanic system interacts with the coast.

text: One reason given for their demise is the Cretaceous ammonites, being closely related to coleoids, had a similar reproductive strategy in which huge numbers of eggs were laid in a single batch at the end of the lifespan. These, along with juvenile ammonites, are thought to have been part of the plankton at the surface of the ocean, where they were killed off by the effects of an impact. Nautiloids, exemplified by modern nautiluses, are conversely thought to have had a reproductive strategy in which eggs were laid in smaller batches many times during the lifespan, and on the sea floor well away from any direct effects of such a bolide strike, and thus survived.

text: One reason given for their demise is the Cretaceous ammonites, being closely related to

text: coleoid

text: s, had a similar reproductive strategy in which huge numbers of eggs were laid in a single batch at the end of the lifespan. These, along with juvenile ammonites, are thought to have been part of the

text: plankton

text: at the surface of the ocean, where they were killed off by the effects of an impact.

text: Nautiloid

text: s, exemplified by modern

text: nautilus

text: es, are conversely thought to have had a reproductive strategy in which eggs were laid in smaller batches many times during the lifespan, and on the sea floor well away from any direct effects of such a bolide strike, and thus survived.

text: Tadpoles are small, exotrophic and nektonic. They are oval, depressed and dark pigmented from the snout to the tip of the tail, including their fins. The ventral side is pale pink and less pigmented. Eyes are reddish and of moderate size. The musculus interhyoideus and intestine are visible through the ventrum. Its naris is equidistant from its snout and eye. Its tail fin is moderate and rounded at the end. The lower jaw sheath is V-shaped.

text: Tadpoles are small,

text: exotrophic

text: and

text: nektonic

text: . They are oval, depressed and dark pigmented from the

text: snout

text: to the tip of the tail, including their fins. The ventral side is pale pink and less pigmented. Eyes are reddish and of moderate size. The musculus

text: interhyoideus

text: and intestine are visible through the ventrum. Its

text: naris

text: is equidistant from its snout and eye. Its

text: tail fin

text: is moderate and rounded at the end. The lower jaw sheath is V-shaped.

text: In 2007, she wrote Ocean Life From A to Z, which was accompanied by a DVD, both of which are intended to teach children about both life in the ocean and scuba diving.

text: The phyllopod bed preserves a range of organisms from both a rich benthic community (organisms living on and in the sediment) and representatives of the nekton.  Many feeding modes are present and a complex food web can be inferred.Whilst some shelly fossils are present (and seem to be typical of any Cambrian shelly fossil assemblage), the majority of fossils - probably 98% of what was alive at the time of burial - do not have biomineralized components.

text: The phyllopod bed preserves a range of organisms from both a rich benthic community (organisms living on and in the sediment) and representatives of the

text: nekton

text: .  Many feeding modes are present and a complex food web can be inferred.Whilst some shelly fossils are present (and seem to be typical of any Cambrian shelly fossil assemblage), the majority of fossils - probably 98% of what was alive at the time of burial - do not have

text: biomineralized

text: components.

text: Dive 62 (eighth in the Nekton series) was another Apra Harbor dive. The next dive (sixth in the series, dive 63 for Piccard) was another checkout dive December 18, west of Guam. It reached 5,700 feet.

text: A major source of food for many marine animals, lanternfish are an important link in the food chain of many local ecosystems, being heavily preyed upon by whales and dolphins, large pelagic fish such as salmon, tuna and sharks, grenadiers and other deep-sea fish (including other lanternfish), pinnipeds, sea birds, notably penguins, and large squid such as the jumbo squid, Dosidicus gigas. Lanternfish themselves have been found to feed on bits of plastic debris accumulating in the oceans. At least one lantern fish was found with over 80 pieces of plastic chips in its gut, according to scientists monitoring ocean plastic in the Pacific Ocean's eastern garbage patch.

text: A major source of food for many marine animals, lanternfish are an important link in the

text: food chain

text: of many local

text: ecosystem

text: s, being heavily preyed upon by

text: whale

text: s and

text: dolphin

text: s, large

text: pelagic fish

text: such as salmon,

text: tuna

text: and

text: shark

text: s,

text: grenadier

text: s and other deep-sea fish (including other lanternfish),

text: pinniped

text: s,

text: sea bird

text: s, notably

text: penguin

text: s, and large

text: squid

text: such as the

text: jumbo squid

text: , Dosidicus gigas. Lanternfish themselves have been found to feed on bits of plastic debris accumulating in the oceans. At least one lantern fish was found with over 80 pieces of plastic chips in its gut, according to scientists monitoring ocean plastic in the Pacific Ocean's eastern

text: garbage patch

text: Plankton is a Copepod. Copepods are a microscopic species of crustaceans that lives in the ocean floor, open ocean, freshwater habitats, sinkholes, etc. It was mentioned in one episode that Plankton is a protozoa but that is obviously false. Protozoans are single-celled organisms that usually don't have appendages, or antenna. Copepods, like Plankton, can have a singular (compound) eye. In the times that Plankton has gone into SpongeBob, he took SpongeBob's natural benefits for his own use without giving anything to SpongeBob. This is an allusion to reality because Copepods have been known to have parasitic behavior towards other sea creatures larger than itself.

text: Plankton is a

text: Copepod

text: . Copepods are a microscopic species of crustaceans that lives in the ocean floor, open ocean, freshwater habitats,

text: sinkholes

text: , etc. It was mentioned in one episode that Plankton is a

text: protozoa

text: but that is obviously false. Protozoans are

text: single-celled organisms

text: that usually don't have appendages, or

text: antenna

text: . Copepods, like Plankton, can have a singular (compound)

text: eye

text: . In the times that Plankton has gone into

text: SpongeBob

text: , he took SpongeBob's natural benefits for his own use without giving anything to SpongeBob. This is an

text: allusion

text: to reality because Copepods have been known to have

text: parasitic behavior

text: towards other sea creatures larger than itself.

text: Another path in which the water can circulate is by flowing directly to the ocean. Pollutants are prevalent in coastal and open-ocean waters as contaminated water flows from point sources to the sea. These pollutants are then distributed globally due to the circulation of the ocean currents and migration of exposed marine life. This becomes an explanation of how the chemicals, once again, find their way to a human consumer. Marine wildlife in a polluted area exists in and consumes contaminated water daily. When it is harvested, it has accumulated an amount of harmful chemicals/EDCs relatively high to that compared to ambient ocean levels. This is then passed on to consumers of the seafood: humans, whereas the chemicals bioaccumulate in their bodies eventually causing sex-related health problems.

text: Another path in which the water can circulate is by flowing directly to the ocean. Pollutants are prevalent in coastal and open-ocean waters as contaminated water flows from point sources to the sea. These pollutants are then distributed globally due to the circulation of the ocean currents and

text: migration

text: of exposed marine life. This becomes an explanation of how the chemicals, once again, find their way to a human consumer. Marine wildlife in a polluted area exists in and consumes contaminated water daily. When it is harvested, it has accumulated an amount of harmful chemicals/EDCs relatively high to that compared to ambient ocean levels. This is then passed on to consumers of the seafood: humans, whereas the chemicals bioaccumulate in their bodies eventually causing sex-related health problems.

text: Many species are protogynous hermaphrodites, meaning they start out as females and change sex to male later in life. They produce large quantities of eggs and their larvae are planktonic, generally at the mercy of ocean currents until they are ready to settle into adult populations.

text: Many species are

text: protogynous

text: hermaphrodite

text: s, meaning they start out as females and change sex to male later in life. They produce large quantities of eggs and their larvae are

text: planktonic

text: , generally at the mercy of ocean currents until they are ready to settle into adult populations.

text: The Kaikoura Peninsula extends into the sea south of the town, and the resulting upwelling currents bring an abundance of marine life from the depths of the nearby Hikurangi Trench. The town owes its origin to this effect, since it developed as a centre for the whaling industry.  The name Kaikoura means 'meal of crayfish' (kai - food/meal, kōura - crayfish) and the crayfish industry still plays a role in the economy of the region. However Kaikoura has now become a popular tourist destination, mainly for whale watching (the sperm whale watching is perhaps the best and most developed in the world) and swimming with or near dolphins.  There is also a large and readily observed colony of southern fur seals at the eastern edge of the town.  At low tide, better viewing of the seals can be had as the ocean gives way to a rocky base which is easily navigable by foot for quite some distance.

text: The

text: Kaikoura Peninsula

text: extends into the sea south of the town, and the resulting upwelling currents bring an abundance of marine life from the depths of the nearby

text: Hikurangi Trench

text: . The town owes its origin to this effect, since it developed as a centre for the

text: whaling

text: industry.  The name Kaikoura means 'meal of

text: crayfish

text: ' (kai - food/meal, kōura - crayfish) and the crayfish industry still plays a role in the economy of the region. However Kaikoura has now become a popular

text: tourist

text: destination, mainly for

text: whale watching

text: (the

text: sperm whale

text: watching is perhaps the best and most developed in the world) and swimming with or near

text: dolphin

text: s.  There is also a large and readily observed colony of

text: southern fur seal

text: s at the eastern edge of the town.  At low tide, better viewing of the seals can be had as the ocean gives way to a rocky base which is easily navigable by foot for quite some distance.

text: As a guideline, nekton were larger and tend to swim largely at biologically high Reynolds numbers (>10³ and up beyond 10⁹), where inertial flows are the rule, and eddies (vortices) are easily shed. Plankton, on the other hand, are small and, if they swim at all, do so at biologically low Reynolds numbers (0.001 to 10), where the viscous behavior of water dominates, and reversible flows are the rule. Organisms such as jellyfish and others were considered plankton when they are very small and swim at low Reynolds numbers, and considered nekton as they grew large enough to swim at high Reynolds numbers.  Many animals considered classic examples of nekton (e.g., Mola mola, squid, marlin) start out life as tiny members of the plankton and then, it was argued, gradually transitioned to nekton as they grew.

text: As a guideline, nekton were larger and tend to swim largely at biologically high

text: Reynolds number

text: s (>10³ and up beyond 10⁹), where inertial flows are the rule, and eddies (vortices) are easily shed. Plankton, on the other hand, are small and, if they swim at all, do so at biologically low Reynolds numbers (0.001 to 10), where the viscous behavior of water dominates, and reversible flows are the rule. Organisms such as

text: jellyfish

text: and others were considered plankton when they are very small and swim at low Reynolds numbers, and considered nekton as they grew large enough to swim at high Reynolds numbers.  Many animals considered classic examples of nekton (e.g.,

text: Mola mola

text: squid

text: marlin

text: ) start out life as tiny members of the plankton and then, it was argued, gradually transitioned to nekton as they grew.

text: After Rachata created all the life in the universe, he went back to his seat in the ocean of the universe. Khan Sroy is another evil god who came to finish part of universe. He created minds to put it in every creature.

text: Ocean currents are important in the study of marine debris, and vice versa. These currents also affect temperatures throughout the world. For example, the ocean current that brings warm water up the north Atlantic to northwest Europe also cumulatively and slowly blocks ice from forming along the seashores, which would also block ships from entering and exiting inland waterways and seaports, hence ocean currents play a decisive role in influencing the climates of regions through which they flow. Cold ocean water currents flowing from polar and sub-polar regions bring in a lot of plankton that are crucial to the continued survival of several key sea creature species in marine ecosystems. Since plankton are the food of fish, abundant fish populations often live where these currents prevail.

text: Ocean currents are important in the study of

text: marine debris

text: , and vice versa. These currents also affect temperatures throughout the world. For example, the ocean current that brings warm water up the north Atlantic to northwest Europe also cumulatively and slowly blocks ice from forming along the seashores, which would also block ships from entering and exiting inland waterways and seaports, hence ocean currents play a decisive role in influencing the climates of regions through which they flow. Cold ocean water currents flowing from polar and sub-polar regions bring in a lot of

text: plankton

text: that are crucial to the continued survival of several key sea creature species in

text: marine ecosystem

text: s. Since plankton are the food of fish, abundant fish populations often live where these currents prevail.

text: This can include not only microorganisms and plants, but animals as well.  These interactions are very important factors in the development of certain environments like salt marsh, mangrove and other types of coastal wetlands as well as influencing coastal and shoreline stability (Reed, D.J. 2000).There are three main processes related to biogeomorphology; bioerosion, bioprotection, and bioconstruction (Naylor, Larissa A. 2005). Bioerosion is the erosion of ocean substrates by living organisms.  Bioprotection refers to the protection of substrate from various forms erosion by the presence of organisms, and the structures they create (i.e. coral reefs). Finally bioconstruction refers to the physical construction of biological structures on ocean substrate (Naylor, Larissa A. 2005).  Marine biota interact with landform processes by building structures, accumulating carbonate sediments, accelerating erosion by boring or bioturbation, and marine plant life contribute to shoreline stability, especially in marsh and wetland environments (Bernal P., and P.M. Holligan 1992).

text: This can include not only microorganisms and plants, but animals as well.  These interactions are very important factors in the development of certain environments like

text: salt marsh

text: mangrove

text: and other types of coastal wetlands as well as influencing coastal and shoreline stability (Reed, D.J. 2000).There are three main processes related to biogeomorphology;

text: bioerosion

text: bioprotection

text: , and

text: bioconstruction

text: (Naylor, Larissa A. 2005).

text: Bioerosion

text: is the erosion of ocean substrates by living organisms.

text: Bioprotection

text: refers to the protection of substrate from various forms erosion by the presence of organisms, and the structures they create (i.e. coral reefs). Finally

text: bioconstruction

text: refers to the physical construction of biological structures on ocean substrate (Naylor, Larissa A. 2005).  Marine biota interact with landform processes by building structures, accumulating carbonate sediments, accelerating erosion by boring or

text: bioturbation

text: , and marine plant life contribute to shoreline stability, especially in marsh and wetland environments (Bernal P., and P.M. Holligan 1992).

text: In 2013 Kreek set off with three other rowers, Markus Pukonen, Jordan Hanssen and Pat Fleming to attempt the first ever row from mainland Africa to North America, recording it for classroom lessons in schools across the United States and Canada. 73 days into the 6,700-kilometre transatlantic rowing expedition the boat capsized in the Bermuda Triangle. The crew called for help through a personal locator beacon attached to a life-jacket and were successfully located and rescued. The expedition was sponsored by the Canadian Wildlife Federation and Ocean Adventure, Rowing and Education (OAR Northwest). A computer program developed at the University of Victoria monitored the crew’s activities and ensured they followed a strict schedule that maximized their energy and mental sharpness. There was also scientific equipment on board to monitor the ocean conditions and marine life.

text: In 2013 Kreek set off with three other rowers,

text: Markus Pukonen

text: Jordan Hanssen

text: and

text: Pat Fleming

text: to attempt the first ever row from mainland Africa to North America, recording it for classroom lessons in schools across the United States and Canada. 73 days into the 6,700-kilometre transatlantic rowing expedition the boat capsized in the Bermuda Triangle. The crew called for help through a personal locator beacon attached to a life-jacket and were successfully located and rescued. The expedition was sponsored by the Canadian Wildlife Federation and Ocean Adventure, Rowing and Education (OAR Northwest). A computer program developed at the University of Victoria monitored the crew’s activities and ensured they followed a strict schedule that maximized their energy and mental sharpness. There was also scientific equipment on board to monitor the ocean conditions and marine life.

text: The oceans are home to a diverse collection of life forms that use it as a habitat. Since sunlight illuminates only the upper layers, the major part of the ocean exists in permanent darkness. As the different depth and temperature zones each provide habitat for a unique set of species, the marine environment as a whole encompasses an immense diversity of life. Marine habitats range from surface water to the deepest oceanic trenches, including coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, tidepools, muddy, sandy and rocky seabeds, and the open pelagic zone. The organisms living in the sea range from whales 30 meters (100 ft) long to microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton, fungi, bacteria and viruses, including recently discovered marine bacteriophages which live parasitically inside bacteria. Marine life plays an important part in the carbon cycle as photosynthetic organisms convert dissolved carbon dioxide into organic carbon and it is economically important to humans for providing fish for use as food.

text: The oceans are home to a diverse collection of life forms that use it as a habitat. Since sunlight illuminates only the upper layers, the major part of the ocean exists in permanent darkness. As the different depth and temperature zones each provide habitat for a unique set of species, the marine environment as a whole encompasses an immense diversity of life. Marine habitats range from surface water to the deepest

text: oceanic trench

text: es, including coral reefs,

text: kelp forest

text: s,

text: seagrass meadow

text: s,

text: tidepool

text: s, muddy, sandy and rocky seabeds, and the open

text: pelagic

text: zone. The organisms living in the sea range from

text: whales

text: 30 meters (100 ft) long to microscopic phytoplankton and

text: zooplankton

text: , fungi, bacteria and viruses, including recently discovered

text: marine bacteriophage

text: s which live parasitically inside bacteria. Marine life plays an important part in the

text: carbon cycle

text: as photosynthetic organisms convert dissolved carbon dioxide into organic carbon and it is economically important to humans for providing

text: fish

text: for use as food.

text: Krill normally swim at a pace of 5–10 cm/s (2–3 body lengths per second), using their swimmerets for propulsion. Their larger migrations are subject to ocean currents. When in danger, they show an escape reaction called lobstering – flicking their caudal structures, the telson and the uropods, they move backwards through the water relatively quickly, achieving speeds in the range of 10 to 27 body lengths per second, which for large krill such as E. superba means around . Their swimming performance has led many researchers to classify adult krill as micro-nektonic life-forms, i.e., small animals capable of individual motion against (weak) currents. Larval forms of krill are generally considered zooplankton.

text: Krill normally swim at a pace of 5–10 cm/s (2–3 body lengths per second), using their swimmerets for propulsion. Their larger migrations are subject to ocean currents. When in danger, they show an

text: escape reaction

text: called

text: lobstering

text: – flicking their

text: caudal

text: structures, the

text: telson

text: and the

text: uropod

text: s, they move backwards through the water relatively quickly, achieving speeds in the range of 10 to 27 body lengths per second, which for large krill such as E. superba means around . Their swimming performance has led many researchers to classify adult krill as

text: micro-nektonic

text: life-forms, i.e., small animals capable of individual motion against (weak) currents. Larval forms of krill are generally considered zooplankton.

text: In contrast, the natural marine ecosystems, a major supplier of food to human societies, are less vulnerable to sudden temperature fall. However, they are highly sensitive to reduced incident sunlight and increased level of UV-B radiation. In the event of a large-scale nuclear war, a mere 25% reduction in ozone is predicted to cause an enhanced UV-B radiation that reduce net photosynthesis in the surface euphotic zone by 35%, and in the whole euphotic zone by 10% (euphotic zone refers to depths in the ocean with light levels sufficient for active photosynthesis). With a corresponding reduction in light available for photosynthesis, phytoplankton populations are expected to plummet, and scientists have even speculated that most of the phytoplankton and herbivorous zooplanktons (that feed on phytoplanktons) in more than half of the Northern Hemisphere oceans would die. According to The World Bank, the ocean supplies the world's population with 16% of their animal protein intake; given that the marine food chains are built upon the photosynthesis of phytoplanktons, large-scale nuclear wars will inadvertently devastate fisheries and affect millions, if not billions of people who rely on the ocean for food.

text: The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), or the West Wind Drift, is an ocean current that flows from west to east around Antarctica.  The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean and, at approximately 125 Sverdrups, the largest ocean current.  In the northern hemisphere, the Gulf Stream, part of the North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre, has led to the development of strong cyclones of all types at the base of the Westerlies, both within the atmosphere and within the ocean.  The Kuroshio (Japanese for "Black Tide") is a strong western boundary current in the western north Pacific Ocean, similar to the Gulf Stream, which has also contributed to the depth of ocean storms in that region.

text: The

text: Antarctic Circumpolar Current

text: (ACC), or the West Wind Drift, is an

text: ocean current

text: that flows from west to east around

text: Antarctica

text: .  The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the

text: Southern Ocean

text: and, at approximately 125

text: Sverdrup

text: s, the largest ocean current.  In the northern hemisphere, the

text: Gulf Stream

text: , part of the North Atlantic Subtropical

text: Gyre

text: , has led to the development of strong

text: cyclone

text: s of all types at the base of the Westerlies, both within the

text: atmosphere

text: and within the

text: ocean

text: .  The Kuroshio (

text: Japanese

text: for "Black Tide") is a strong

text: western boundary current

text: in the western north

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , similar to the Gulf Stream, which has also contributed to the depth of ocean storms in that region.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the Late Devonian period, from 379.5 to 376.1 Ma.

text: Notably, the high clearance rate of the introduced Amur River clam Potamocorbula amurensis population has produced a ten-fold decline in plankton density, resulting in a carbon trap in the benthos and an assumed increase in waste detrital production. This waste is hypothesized to fuel the microbial loop, resulting in an increase in microzooplankton such as the copepod Limnoithona tetraspina, which utilize rotifers and ciliates.

text: Notably, the high clearance rate of the introduced

text: Amur River clam Potamocorbula amurensis

text: population has produced a ten-fold decline in plankton density, resulting in a carbon trap in the

text: benthos

text: and an assumed increase in waste detrital production. This waste is hypothesized to fuel the microbial loop, resulting in an increase in microzooplankton such as the copepod Limnoithona tetraspina, which utilize

text: rotifers

text: and

text: ciliates

text: Her studies focused on krill in the Antarctic. She studied krill’s physiology, distribution, habits, and a role as a food source contributes to the current study of climate change and pollution and how these affect marine life food chain.

text: Her studies focused on krill in the Antarctic. She studied krill’s physiology, distribution, habits, and a role as a food source contributes to the current study of climate change and pollution and how these affect marine life

text: food chain

text: Monoplacophora are a geographically widespread component of the benthos. Most are known from deep water (1800 – 6500 meters), although several species are found in shallower waters ranging up to 200 meters.

text: Monoplacophora are a geographically widespread component of the

text: benthos

text: . Most are known from deep water (1800 – 6500 meters), although several species are found in shallower waters ranging up to 200 meters.

text: The Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project, or GODAR Project was established to increase the volume of historical oceanographic data available to climate change and other researchers. The project attempts to locate ocean profile and plankton data sets not yet in digital form, digitizes these data, and ensures their submission to national data centers and the World Data Center system (WDC). In addition, data on electronic media that are at risk of loss due to media degradation are also candidates for rescue.

text: The Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project, or GODAR Project was established to increase the volume of historical oceanographic data available to climate change and other researchers. The project attempts to locate

text: ocean

text: profile and

text: plankton

text: data sets not yet in

text: digital

text: form,

text: digitize

text: s these

text: data

text: , and ensures their submission to national

text: data center

text: s and the

text: World Data Center

text: system (WDC). In addition, data on electronic media that are at risk of loss due to media degradation are also candidates for rescue.

text: The southern Iapetus Ocean opened between Laurentia and southwestern Gondwana (now South America) about 550 Ma in the Ediacaran–Cambrian transition. At the time it did so the Adamastor Ocean further east closed. The opening of the Iapetus Ocean probably postdates the opening of the Puncoviscana Ocean with the Iapetus Ocean being separated from the Puncoviscana Ocean by the ribbon-shaped Arequipa-Antofalla terrane. However, the formation of both oceans seems unrelated.

text: The southern Iapetus Ocean opened between Laurentia and southwestern

text: Gondwana

text: (now South America) about 550 Ma in the

text: Ediacaran

text: Cambrian

text: transition. At the time it did so the

text: Adamastor Ocean

text: further east

text: closed

text: . The opening of the Iapetus Ocean probably postdates the opening of the

text: Puncoviscana Ocean

text: with the Iapetus Ocean being separated from the Puncoviscana Ocean by the ribbon-shaped

text: Arequipa-Antofalla

text: terrane

text: . However, the formation of both oceans seems unrelated.

text: Feeding or non-feeding veligers are possible, depending on which species that produced them. In a feeding veliger, the larval stage is, in most cases, relatively "undeveloped" and must feed on phytoplankton for a period of weeks to months in order to develop to the point where it is able to metamorphose. During the larval period, the veliger grows and develops the organ systems needed for the benthic life of a juvenile. "Non-feeding" veligers use yolk stored in the egg as an energy source for development. In such cases, the organ systems necessary for juvenile life develop either during the embryonic period and/or during a usually brief larval stage. Non-feeding veliger larvae are generally thought to metamorphose to the juvenile stage relatively quickly; however, in some cases such larvae can feed secondarily and persist in the plankton for long periods.

text: Eats mainly plankton, small fish, some crustaceans, and small particles in the ocean water.

text: The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms.

text: The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (

text: phytoplankton

text: ) provide the food base for most marine

text: food chain

text: s. In very high densities (

text: algal bloom

text: s), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or

text: asphyxiate

text: other life forms.

text: Plastics accumulate because they don't biodegrade in the way many other substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun, but they do so properly only under dry conditions, and water inhibits this process. In marine environments, photodegraded plastic disintegrates into ever smaller pieces while remaining polymers, even down to the molecular level. When floating plastic particles photodegrade down to zooplankton sizes, jellyfish attempt to consume them, and in this way the plastic enters the ocean food chain. Many of these long-lasting pieces end up in the stomachs of marinebirds and animals, including sea turtles, and black-footed albatross.

text: Plastics accumulate because they don't

text: biodegrade

text: in the way many other substances do. They will

text: photodegrade

text: on exposure to the sun, but they do so properly only under dry conditions, and

text: water

text: inhibits this process. In marine environments, photodegraded plastic disintegrates into ever smaller pieces while remaining

text: polymer

text: s, even down to the

text: molecular level

text: . When floating plastic particles photodegrade down to

text: zooplankton

text: sizes,

text: jellyfish

text: attempt to consume them, and in this way the plastic enters the ocean

text: food chain

text: . Many of these long-lasting pieces end up in the stomachs of marinebirds and animals, including

text: sea turtle

text: s, and

text: black-footed albatross

text: Huw J Griffiths, David KA Barnes, Katrin Linse (2009) Towards a generalized biogeography of the Southern Ocean benthos Journal of Biogeography 36(1): 162-177

text: Interactions between phytoplankton and bacteria in the phycosphere could be potentially important in low-nutrient regions of the ocean and an example of mutualism.  In marine ecosystems that are low in nutrients (i.e. oligotrophic regions of the oceans), it could be potentially beneficial for the phytoplankton to have remineralizing bacteria in the phycosphere for nutrient recycling.  It has been suggested that while the bacterial activity may be low, the taxonomic diversity and nutritional diversity is high.  This can possibly suggest that the phytoplankton species may rely on a diverse array of bacterial interactions for recycled nutrients in these oligotrophic regions and the bacteria rely on organic matter surrounding the phycosphere for a source of food.

text: Interactions between phytoplankton and bacteria in the phycosphere could be potentially important in low-nutrient regions of the ocean and an example of mutualism.  In marine

text: ecosystems

text: that are low in nutrients (i.e.

text: oligotrophic

text: regions of the oceans), it could be potentially beneficial for the phytoplankton to have remineralizing

text: bacteria

text: in the phycosphere for

text: nutrient

text: recycling

text: .  It has been suggested that while the bacterial activity may be low, the

text: taxonomic

text: diversity

text: and nutritional

text: diversity

text: is high.  This can possibly suggest that the phytoplankton species may rely on a diverse array of bacterial interactions for recycled

text: nutrients

text: in these

text: oligotrophic

text: regions and the bacteria rely on organic matter surrounding the phycosphere for a source of food.

text: With improvements in Internet infrastructure it will be possible to observe and evaluate plankton (like copepods) or juvenile fish (like Atlantic herring) online with a quantitative in situ microscope, known as the ecoSCOPE, in order to get more insight into some of the enigmatic life histories of ocean organisms, like predator–prey interaction between herring and copepods, the Eel story, or oxygen depletion.

text: With improvements in Internet infrastructure it will be possible to observe and evaluate

text: plankton

text: (like

text: copepod

text: s) or

text: juvenile fish

text: (like

text: Atlantic herring

text: ) online with a quantitative in situ microscope, known as the

text: ecoSCOPE

text: , in order to get more insight into some of the enigmatic life histories of ocean organisms, like

text: predator–prey interaction

text: between

text: herring

text: and

text: copepod

text: s, the

text: Eel story

text: , or

text: oxygen depletion

text: Hofmann told The Times of India that as marine invertebrates deal with increasing acidity, the larvae have to "re-tune" their metabolism in order to still make a shell. "But this is done at a cost. The physiological changes that are a response to the acidity make the animals less able to withstand warmer waters, and they are smaller," which causes "catastrophic" problems on up the food chain as larger organisms fail to get enough food to survive.

text: Oceans occupy 71 percent of the Earth's surface. They are divided into five major oceans, which in decreasing order of size are: the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. Over 70 percent of the world catch from the sea comes from the Pacific Ocean.

text: Oceans occupy 71 percent of the Earth's surface. They are divided into five major oceans, which in decreasing order of size are: the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: Indian Ocean

text: Southern Ocean

text: , and

text: Arctic Ocean

text: . Over 70 percent of the world catch from the sea comes from the Pacific Ocean.

text: Aplysina archeri (also known as stove-pipe sponge because of its shape) is a species of tube sponge that has long tube-like structures of cylindrical shape. Although they can grow in a single tube, they often grow in large groups of up to 22 tubes. A single tube can grow up to  high and  thick. These sponges mostly live in the Western Atlantic Ocean: the Caribbean, The Bahamas, Florida, and Bonaire. Like most sponges, they are filter feeders; they eat food such as plankton or suspended detritus as it passes them. Very little is known about their behavioral patterns except for their feeding ecology and reproductive biology. Tubes occur in varying colors including lavender, gray, and brown. They reproduce both by asexual and sexual reproduction. These sponges take hundreds of years to grow and never stop growing until they die. Snails are among their natural predators. The population density of these sponges is going down because of oil spills and other pollution.

text: Aplysina archeri (also known as stove-pipe sponge because of its shape) is a species of tube

text: sponge

text: that has long tube-like structures of cylindrical shape. Although they can grow in a single tube, they often grow in large groups of up to 22 tubes. A single tube can grow up to  high and  thick. These sponges mostly live in the Western Atlantic Ocean: the Caribbean,

text: The Bahamas

text: Florida

text: , and

text: Bonaire

text: . Like most sponges, they are

text: filter feeder

text: s; they eat food such as

text: plankton

text: or suspended

text: detritus

text: as it passes them. Very little is known about their behavioral patterns except for their feeding ecology and

text: reproductive biology

text: . Tubes occur in varying colors including lavender, gray, and brown. They reproduce both by

text: asexual

text: and

text: sexual

text: reproduction. These sponges take hundreds of years to grow and never stop growing until they die.

text: Snail

text: s are among their natural predators. The population density of these sponges is going down because of

text: oil spill

text: s and other pollution.

text: Marine mammals have evolved to live in the ocean, but the effects of climate change are rapidly altering their habitat. The climate change for arctic marine mammals by studying the difference in their habitat, distribution, abundance, movement and migration, body conditions, behavior, and their sensitivity. The climate change is drastically changing, so it is hard for some arctic marine mammals to adapt to the new conditions as quickly as needed, so the arctic marine mammals are being studied to see what happens to them due to the high stress they are put in due to the rapidly changing climate change. These climate changes put the arctic marine mammals in immense pressure and stress, due to this many species who cannot adapt begin to slowly die off due to the extra stress. As levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increase they trap heat which causes an overall warming of the planet. During the last century, the global average land and sea surface temperature has increased dramatically. Warming has reached down to about 700 meters and more (per a study which finds that 30% of the ocean warming, over the past decade, has occurred in the deeper oceans below 700 meters). Many marine mammal species require specific temperature ranges in which they must live. The warming of the ocean will cause changes in the species migration or area that they inhibit. The species that cannot relocate due to some type of barrier will be forced to adapt to the increasingly warming sea waters or they will face extinction. Many of the species ranges are being pushed further and further north as water temperatures increase and they will soon have nowhere else to go.

text: Marine mammals have evolved to live in the ocean, but the effects of climate change are rapidly altering their habitat. The climate change for arctic marine mammals by studying the difference in their habitat, distribution, abundance, movement and migration, body conditions, behavior, and their sensitivity. The climate change is drastically changing, so it is hard for some arctic marine mammals to adapt to the new conditions as quickly as needed, so the arctic marine mammals are being studied to see what happens to them due to the high stress they are put in due to the rapidly changing climate change. These climate changes put the arctic marine mammals in immense pressure and stress, due to this many species who cannot adapt begin to slowly die off due to the extra stress. As levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere increase they trap heat which causes an overall warming of the planet. During the last century, the global average land and

text: sea surface temperature

text: has increased dramatically. Warming has reached down to about 700 meters and more (per a study which finds that 30% of the ocean warming, over the past decade, has occurred in the deeper oceans below 700 meters). Many

text: marine mammal

text: species require specific temperature ranges in which they must live. The warming of the ocean will cause changes in the species migration or area that they inhibit. The species that cannot relocate due to some type of barrier will be forced to adapt to the increasingly warming sea waters or they will face extinction. Many of the species ranges are being pushed further and further north as water temperatures increase and they will soon have nowhere else to go.

text: The World Ocean Database represents the world’s largest collection of ocean profile-plankton data available internationally without restriction. Data comes from the: (a) Sixty-five National Oceanographic Data Centers and nine Designated National Agencies (DNAs) (in Croatia, Finland, Georgia, Malaysia, Romania, Senegal, Sweden, Tanzania, and Ukraine), (b) International Ocean Observing Projects such as the completed World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) and Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS), as well as currently active programs such as CLIVAR and Argo, (c) International Ocean Data Management Projects such as the IOC/IODE Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project (GODAR), and (d) Real-time Ocean Observing Systems such as the IOC/IODE Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Project (GTSPP). All ocean data acquired by WDC Silver Spring – USA are considered as part of the WDC archive and are freely available as public domain data.

text: The World Ocean Database represents the world’s largest collection of ocean profile-plankton data available internationally without restriction. Data comes from the: (a) Sixty-five National Oceanographic Data Centers and nine Designated National Agencies (DNAs) (in Croatia, Finland, Georgia, Malaysia, Romania, Senegal, Sweden, Tanzania, and Ukraine), (b) International Ocean Observing Projects such as the completed

text: World Ocean Circulation Experiment

text: (WOCE) and Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS), as well as currently active programs such as

text: CLIVAR

text: and Argo, (c) International Ocean Data Management Projects such as the IOC/IODE Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project (GODAR), and (d) Real-time Ocean Observing Systems such as the IOC/IODE

entity_name: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program

text: Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Project

text: (GTSPP). All ocean data acquired by WDC Silver Spring – USA are considered as part of the WDC archive and are freely available as public domain data.

text: Plastic waste has reached all the world's oceans. This plastic pollution harms an estimated 100,000 sea turtles and marine mammals and 1,000,000 sea creatures each year. Larger plastics (called "macroplastics") such as plastic shopping bags can clog the digestive tracts of these larger animals when consumed by them and can cause starvation through restricting the movement of food, or by filling the stomach and tricking the animal into thinking it is full. Microplastics on the other hand harm smaller marine life. Pelagic plastic pieces in the center of our ocean’s gyres for example outnumber live marine plankton, and are passed up the food chain to reach all marine life. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets in the North-Western Mediterranean around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported mean concentrations of debris of 1,935 items per square kilometre. Plastic debris accounted for 77%, of which 93% was plastic bags.

text: Plastic waste has reached all the world's oceans. This

text: plastic pollution

text: harms an estimated 100,000 sea turtles and marine mammals and 1,000,000 sea creatures each year. Larger plastics (called "macroplastics") such as

text: plastic shopping bag

text: s can clog the digestive tracts of these larger animals when consumed by them and can cause starvation through restricting the movement of food, or by filling the stomach and tricking the animal into thinking it is full.

text: Microplastics

text: on the other hand harm smaller marine life. Pelagic plastic pieces in the center of our ocean’s gyres for example outnumber live marine plankton, and are passed up the food chain to reach all marine life. A 1994 study of the

text: seabed

text: using

text: trawl net

text: s in the North-Western

text: Mediterranean

text: around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported mean concentrations of debris of 1,935 items per square kilometre. Plastic debris accounted for 77%, of which 93% was plastic bags.

text: Sources of food for benthic communities can derive from the water column above these habitats in the form of aggregations of detritus, inorganic matter, and living organisms. These aggregations are commonly referred to as marine snow, and are important for the deposition of organic matter, and bacterial communities.  The amount of material sinking to the ocean floor can average 307,000 aggregates per m per day. This amount will vary on the depth of the benthos, and the degree of benthic-pelagic coupling. The benthos in a shallow region will have more available food than the benthos in the deep sea. Because of their reliance on it, microbes may become spatially dependent on detritus in the benthic zone. The microbes found in the benthic zone, specifically dinoflagellates and foraminifera, colonize quite rapidly on detritus matter while forming a symbiotic relationship with each other.

text: Sources of food for benthic communities can derive from the water column above these habitats in the form of aggregations of

text: detritus

text: , inorganic matter, and living organisms. These aggregations are commonly referred to as

text: marine snow

text: , and are important for the deposition of organic matter, and bacterial communities.  The amount of material sinking to the ocean floor can average 307,000 aggregates per m per day. This amount will vary on the depth of the benthos, and the degree of benthic-pelagic coupling. The benthos in a shallow region will have more available food than the benthos in the deep sea. Because of their reliance on it, microbes may become spatially dependent on detritus in the benthic zone. The microbes found in the benthic zone, specifically

text: dinoflagellates

text: and

text: foraminifera

text: , colonize quite rapidly on detritus matter while forming a symbiotic relationship with each other.

text: These sediments accumulate on the ocean floor within areas characterized by little planktonic production. The clays which comprise them were transported into the deep ocean in suspension, either in the air over the oceans or in surface waters. Both wind and ocean currents transported these sediments in suspension thousands of kilometers from their terrestrial source. As they were transported, the finer clays may have stayed in suspension for a hundred years or more within the water column before they settled to the ocean bottom. The settling of this clay-size sediment occurred primarily by the formation of clay aggregates by flocculation and by their incorporation into fecal pellets by pelagic organisms.

text: These sediments accumulate on the ocean floor within areas characterized by little planktonic production. The clays which comprise them were transported into the deep ocean in suspension, either in the air over the oceans or in surface waters. Both wind and ocean currents transported these sediments in suspension thousands of kilometers from their terrestrial source. As they were transported, the finer clays may have stayed in suspension for a hundred years or more within the water column before they settled to the ocean bottom. The settling of this clay-size sediment occurred primarily by the formation of clay aggregates by

text: flocculation

text: and by their incorporation into

text: fecal pellet

text: s by pelagic organisms.

text: The microbial loop describes a trophic pathway in the marine microbial food web where dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is returned to higher trophic levels via its incorporation into bacterial biomass, and then coupled with the classic food chain formed by phytoplankton-zooplankton-nekton. The term microbial loop was coined by Farooq Azam and Tom Fenchel et al to include the role played by bacteria in the carbon and nutrient cycles of the marine environment.

text: The microbial loop describes a trophic pathway in the marine microbial food web where

text: dissolved organic carbon

text: (DOC) is returned to higher trophic levels via its incorporation into bacterial biomass, and then coupled with the classic food chain formed by

text: phytoplankton

text: zooplankton

text: nekton

text: . The term microbial loop was coined by

text: Farooq Azam

text: and

text: Tom Fenchel

text: et al to include the role played by bacteria in the carbon and nutrient cycles of the marine environment.

text: Two changes to the global atmosphere due to anthropogenic activity threaten marine mammals. The first is increases in ultraviolet radiation due to ozone depletion, and this mainly affects the Antarctic and other areas of the southern hemisphere. An increase in ultraviolet radiation has the capacity to decrease phytoplankton abundance, which forms the basis of the food chain in the ocean. The second effect of global climate change is global warming due to increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.  Raised sea levels, sea temperature and changed currents are expected to affect marine mammals by altering the distribution of important prey species, and changing the suitability of breeding sites and migratory routes. The Arctic food chain would be disrupted by the near extinction or migration of polar bears. Arctic sea ice is the polar bear's habitat. It has been declining at a rate of 13% per decade because the temperature is rising at twice the rate of the rest of the world. By the year 2050, up to two-thirds of the world's polar bears may vanish if the sea ice continues to melt at its current rate.

text: Two changes to the global

text: atmosphere

text: due to

text: anthropogenic activity

text: threaten marine mammals. The first is increases in

text: ultraviolet radiation

text: due to

text: ozone depletion

text: , and this mainly affects the

text: Antarctic

text: and other areas of the

text: southern hemisphere

text: . An increase in ultraviolet radiation has the capacity to decrease phytoplankton abundance, which forms the basis of the food chain in the ocean. The second effect of

text: global climate change

text: is

text: global warming

text: due to increased

text: carbon dioxide

text: levels in the atmosphere.  Raised sea levels, sea temperature and changed currents are expected to affect marine mammals by altering the distribution of important prey species, and changing the suitability of breeding sites and migratory routes. The Arctic food chain would be disrupted by the near extinction or migration of polar bears. Arctic sea ice is the polar bear's habitat. It has been declining at a rate of 13% per decade because the temperature is rising at twice the rate of the rest of the world. By the year 2050, up to two-thirds of the world's polar bears may vanish if the sea ice continues to melt at its current rate.

text: It purchased the Hand in Hand Fire & Life Insurance Society, the world's oldest fire insurance company, in 1905 and The Ocean Accident and Guarantee Corporation Ltd. in 1910 and it continued to grow by further acquisitions.

text: It purchased the

entity_name: Hand in Hand Fire & Life Insurance Society

text: Hand in Hand Fire & Life Insurance Society

text: , the world's oldest fire insurance company, in 1905 and The Ocean Accident and Guarantee Corporation Ltd. in 1910 and it continued to grow by further acquisitions.

text: Most oil pollution in the sea comes from cities and industry. Oil is dangerous for marine animals. It can clog the feathers of sea birds, reducing their insulating effect and the birds' buoyancy, or be ingested when they preen themselves in an attempt to remove the contaminant. Marine mammals are less seriously affected but may be chilled through the removal of their insulation, blinded, dehydrated, or poisoned. Benthic invertebrates are swamped when the oil sinks, fish are poisoned, and the food chain is disrupted. In the short term, oil spills result in wildlife populations being decreased and unbalanced, leisure activities being affected, and the livelihoods of people dependent on the sea being devastated. The marine environment has self-cleansing properties and naturally occurring bacteria will act over time to remove oil from the sea. In the Gulf of Mexico, where oil-eating bacteria are already present, they take only a few days to consume spilt oil.

text: Most oil pollution in the sea comes from cities and industry. Oil is dangerous for marine animals. It can clog the feathers of sea birds, reducing their insulating effect and the birds' buoyancy, or be ingested when they preen themselves in an attempt to remove the contaminant.

text: Marine mammals

text: are less seriously affected but may be chilled through the removal of their insulation, blinded, dehydrated, or poisoned.

text: Benthic

text: invertebrates are swamped when the oil sinks, fish are poisoned, and the food chain is disrupted. In the short term, oil spills result in wildlife populations being decreased and unbalanced, leisure activities being affected, and the livelihoods of people dependent on the sea being devastated. The marine environment has self-cleansing properties and naturally occurring bacteria will act over time to remove oil from the sea. In the Gulf of Mexico, where oil-eating bacteria are already present, they take only a few days to consume spilt oil.

text: Amphionides reynaudii has a cosmopolitan distribution in the world's tropical oceans. It is planktonic, inhabiting waters less than  deep as a larva, but more often at depths of  as an adult.

text: Amphionides reynaudii has a

text: cosmopolitan distribution

text: in the world's tropical oceans. It is

text: plankton

text: ic, inhabiting waters less than  deep as a larva, but more often at depths of  as an adult.

text: Cory Lopez World Travel Blog: http://www.gulfster.com/corylopez/ Official Lopez Website: http://www.lopezbrothers.com/ Cory Lopez Bio/Profile: http://www.lopezbrothers.com/cory/ Cory Lopez Nekton Surf Shop: http://www.nektonsurf.com/

text: The almost-flat shells of the capiz can grow to over  in diameter, reaching maturity between ; securing the shells is a V-shaped ligament. Males and females are distinguished by the color of the gonads. Fertilization is external and larvae are free-swimming like plankton for 14 days or attached to surfaces via byssal thread during metamorphosis, eventually settling on the bottom. They consume plankton filtered from the water passing through their slightly opened shell; the shell closes if the bivalve is above water during low tide.

text: The almost-flat shells of the capiz can grow to over  in diameter, reaching maturity between ; securing the shells is a V-shaped

text: ligament

text: . Males and females are distinguished by the color of the

text: gonad

text: s.

text: Fertilization

text: is external and

text: larvae

text: are free-swimming like plankton for 14 days or attached to surfaces via

text: byssal thread

text: during

text: metamorphosis

text: , eventually settling on the bottom. They consume

text: plankton

text: filtered from the water passing through their slightly opened shell; the shell closes if the bivalve is above water during low tide.

text: It was established in large part to concerns that an increase in krill catches in the Southern Ocean could have a serious impact on populations of other marine life which are dependent upon krill for food. It was signed by 14 states and has been ratified by 35 states and the European Community. As of May 2013, the states that have ratified the convention are: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Cook Islands, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Mauritius, Namibia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Poland, Russia (ratified as the Soviet Union), South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay, and Vanuatu. East Germany is a former state party.

text: It was established in large part to concerns that an increase in

text: krill

text: catches in the

text: Southern Ocean

text: could have a serious impact on populations of other marine life which are dependent upon krill for food. It was signed by 14 states and has been ratified by 35 states and the

text: European Community

text: . As of May 2013, the states that have ratified the convention are:

text: Argentina

text: Australia

text: Belgium

text: Brazil

text: Bulgaria

text: Canada

text: Chile

text: China

text: Cook Islands

text: Finland

text: France

text: Germany

text: Greece

text: India

text: Italy

text: Japan

text: South Korea

text: Mauritius

text: Namibia

text: Netherlands

text: New Zealand

text: Norway

text: Pakistan

text: Panama

text: Peru

text: Poland

text: Russia

text: (ratified as the

text: Soviet Union

text: South Africa

text: Spain

text: Sweden

text: Ukraine

text: United Kingdom

text: United States

text: Uruguay

text: , and

text: Vanuatu

text: East Germany

text: is a former state party.

text: Arriving in Aztlán, Matt comes across a group of orphans called the "Lost Boys," who he is sent to live with by the "Keepers," fervent followers of Marxism. The Keepers operate plankton farms, forcing the orphans to do manual labor and subsist on plankton while they enjoy luxurious quarters and food. At first, Matt is an outcast because the other boys think he is a spoiled aristocrat. However, he becomes a hero when he defies the Keepers and leads the boys in a rebellion. He flees to the nearest city, San Luis, with three friends to find María and her mother, the politically powerful Esperanza Mendoza.

text: Arriving in Aztlán, Matt comes across a group of orphans called the "Lost Boys," who he is sent to live with by the "Keepers," fervent followers of

text: Marxism

text: . The Keepers operate plankton farms, forcing the orphans to do manual labor and subsist on plankton while they enjoy luxurious quarters and food. At first, Matt is an outcast because the other boys think he is a spoiled

text: aristocrat

text: . However, he becomes a hero when he defies the Keepers and leads the boys in a rebellion. He flees to the nearest city, San Luis, with three friends to find María and her mother, the politically powerful Esperanza Mendoza.

text: Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's biomass, clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane, an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers.

text: Bacteria-like

text: Archaea

text: surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the

text: hydrothermal vents

text: on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as

text: Pseudomonas

text: and

text: Vibrio

text: spp. survive in a

text: pH

text: range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's

text: biomass

text: , clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down

text: methane

text: , an important

text: greenhouse

text: gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist

text: dinoflagellates

text: may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or

text: red tide

text: s, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce

text: metabolites

text: known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers.

text: Twisties have been advertised since its last brand overhaul in the late 90's with the well-known slogan "Life's pretty straight without..." In the English-speaking Oceanic countries where Western vernacular isn't as well understood, its slogan is "Life is fun with..." Typical television advertisements play on the slogan by showing people in mundane situations being transported to surreal and exciting environments when they eat Twisties. Twisties are claimed to be the "number one extruded snack brand" by Smith's.

text: Twisties have been advertised since its last brand overhaul in the late 90's with the well-known

text: slogan

text: "Life's pretty straight without..." In the English-speaking Oceanic countries where Western vernacular isn't as well understood, its slogan is "Life is fun with..." Typical television advertisements play on the slogan by showing people in mundane situations being transported to surreal and exciting environments when they eat Twisties. Twisties are claimed to be the "number one extruded snack brand" by Smith's.

text: Most life forms evolved initially in marine habitats. Oceans provide about 99 percent of the living space on the planet. The earliest vertebrates appeared in the form of fish, which live exclusively in water. Some of these evolved into amphibians which spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land. Other fish evolved into land mammals and subsequently returned to the ocean as seals, dolphins or whales. Plant forms such as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems. Plankton is generally the foundation of the ocean food chain.

text: Most life forms evolved initially in

text: marine habitats

text: . Oceans provide about 99 percent of the living space on the planet. The earliest

text: vertebrate

text: s appeared in the form of

text: fish

text: , which live exclusively in water. Some of these evolved into

text: amphibian

text: s which spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land. Other fish evolved into land mammals and subsequently returned to the ocean as

text: seals

text: dolphin

text: s or

text: whale

text: s. Plant forms such as

text: kelp

text: and

text: algae

text: grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems.

text: Plankton

text: is generally the foundation of the ocean

text: food chain

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the Silurian period, from 443.4 to 419.2 million years ago.

text: Silurian

text: period, from 443.4 to 419.2 million years ago.

text: The research area Greenhouse Oceans (A) focused on the causes and effects of climate change in regards to the modern ocean. Interactions between the atmosphere, ocean surface, deep water regions and its organisms were closely studied. It was divided into seven research teams. Their members mostly focused on environmental research ranging from topics such as ocean acidification and its impact on marine life to global warming and its influence on the ocean floor to ocean circulation regarding climate modelling and even ocean surface chemistry, studying the exchange of gases between the water column and the atmosphere.

text: The research area Greenhouse Oceans (A) focused on the causes and effects of

text: climate change

text: in regards to the modern ocean. Interactions between the

text: atmosphere

text: , ocean surface, deep water regions and its organisms were closely studied. It was divided into seven research teams. Their members mostly focused on environmental research ranging from topics such as

text: ocean acidification

text: and its impact on marine life to

text: global warming

text: and its influence on the ocean floor to

text: ocean circulation

text: regarding climate modelling and even ocean surface chemistry, studying the exchange of gases between the

text: water column

text: and the atmosphere.

text: A full exposition of this organisational scheme into a rational partition of the global ocean was a landmark in many respects.  In essence, this ecological geography addresses the fundamental issues of pelagic ecology and biogeography, which distill to whether, at some level of probability, a deduction may be made about the characteristic features of any region.  Here, the definition of region is crucial since it determines the scale of the biological seascape.  By placing the typology of seasonal plankton cycles into the context of regional oceanography, characteristic features of ecology can be discerned at two hierarchical scales.  The higher level comprises a small number of large compartments (biomes), and the lower level comprises a large number of smaller compartments (provinces), each designated with a unique four-letter code.

text: A full exposition of this organisational scheme into a rational partition of the global ocean was a landmark in many respects.  In essence, this ecological geography addresses the fundamental issues of pelagic ecology and biogeography, which distill to whether, at some level of probability, a deduction may be made about the characteristic features of any region.  Here, the definition of region is crucial since it determines the scale of the biological seascape.  By placing the typology of seasonal plankton cycles into the context of regional oceanography, characteristic features of ecology can be discerned at two hierarchical scales.  The higher level comprises a small number of large compartments (biomes), and the lower level comprises a large number of smaller compartments (provinces), each designated with a unique

text: four-letter code

text: Towing line and bridles are the upper part of the plankton net, which are responsible for holding the plankton net. The towing lines that are connected to the triangle bridles are made of nylon rope, It can be adjust to the appropriate level that is suitable for the user.

text: Towing line and bridles are the upper part of the plankton net, which are responsible for holding the plankton net. The towing lines that are connected to the triangle bridles are made of

text: nylon

text: rope

text: , It can be adjust to the appropriate level that is suitable for the user.

text: Like Amphipoda, cumaceans are an important food source for many fishes. Therefore, they are an important part of the marine food chain. They can be found on all continents.

text: Like

text: Amphipoda

text: , cumaceans are an important food source for many fishes. Therefore, they are an important part of the marine

text: food chain

text: . They can be found on all continents.

text: In the 1990s, Gérard Lopez cofounded Mangrove Capital Partners, one of the top three Tech investor in Europe. Alongside Éric Lux, he created The Genii Group. From 2009 to 2015, Gérard Lopez was President of the Formula 1 Lotus F1 Team and is still one of its minority shareholder and administrator. He is chairman of Genii Capital and is also CEO of Nekton, an investment company in the energy sector, where he spends most of his time. Gérard Lopez has been the President of Luxemburg CS Fola Esch football club since 2007.

text: In the 1990s, Gérard Lopez cofounded Mangrove Capital Partners, one of the top three Tech investor in Europe. Alongside

text: Éric Lux

text: , he created The Genii Group. From 2009 to 2015, Gérard Lopez was President of the Formula 1

text: Lotus F1 Team

text: and is still one of its minority shareholder and administrator. He is chairman of

text: Genii Capital

text: and is also CEO of Nekton, an investment company in the energy sector, where he spends most of his time. Gérard Lopez has been the President of Luxemburg

text: CS Fola Esch

text: football club since 2007.

text: National Life Chain Sunday '91 saw 373 chains across the United States, with an overall participation of 771,000 people. Each year, these number grew larger; National Life Chain Sunday '92 attracted more than 800 cities and towns across the nation with 975,000 participants. That same year, Canada had its own series of Life Chains, which included 97 Chains and 80,000 participants. National Life Chain  Sunday '93 saw over 900 Chains in the United States and Canada, but attendance taking was discontinued "due to the excessive preoccupation with numbers and a lack of emphasis on prayer."

text: Philippe Bouchet is co-editor of several volumes in the Tropical Deep-Sea Benthos series.

text: s "White Pearl, Black Oceans [Part I]" Tommy said he considers it at the moment his "all time favorite song". According to Elias, the song has sad and happy moments, like life itself. The lyrics tell the story of an actor at young age that gets a role that makes him very famous, and life eventually provides him with everything an artist could wish. However, he didn't make a life for himself, and he decides to give that role to someone else and start a new life.

text: The Tremp Formation dates to the late Cretaceous. It has been dated by means of planktonic foraminifers and magnetostratigraphy. The formation includes the planktonic Abathomphalus mayaroensis Biozone, which was dated in 2011 from 68.4 to 65.5 Ma. This gives the formation a late Campanian to early Danian age. The bottom of the Elias site is about 67 million years old, so the site dates from 67.6 to 65.5 Ma.

text: The Tremp Formation dates to the late

text: Cretaceous

text: . It has been dated by means of planktonic foraminifers and magnetostratigraphy. The formation includes the planktonic

text: Abathomphalus mayaroensis

text: Biozone, which was dated in 2011 from 68.4 to 65.5 Ma. This gives the formation a late

text: Campanian

text: to early

text: Danian

text: age. The bottom of the Elias site is about 67 million years old, so the site dates from 67.6 to 65.5 Ma.

text: Most minerals are inorganic in nature. Mineral nutrients refers to the smaller class of minerals that are metabolized for growth, development, and vitality of living organisms. Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria that are freely suspended in the vast water columns of the worlds oceans. They absorb dissolved organic matter containing mineral nutrients as they scavenge through the dying individuals that fall out of large phytoplankton blooms. Flagellates are effective bacteriovores and are also commonly found in the marine water column. The flagellates are preyed upon by zooplankton while the phytoplankton concentrates on the larger particulate matter that is suspended in the water column as they are consumed by larger zooplankton, with fish as the top predator. Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton which are then eaten by fish. The bacteria are important in this chain because only they have the physiological ability to absorb the dissolved mineral nutrients from the sea. These recycling principals from marine environments apply to many soil and freshwater ecosystems as well. In terrestrial ecosystems, fungi play similar roles as bacteria: they mobilize nutritional elements composing matter that is inaccessible for other organisms and transport acquired nutrients to nutritionally scarce patches of ecosystem.

text: Most minerals are inorganic in nature. Mineral nutrients refers to the smaller class of

text: minerals

text: that are

text: metabolized

text: for growth, development, and vitality of living organisms. Mineral nutrients are

text: recycled

text: by

text: bacteria

text: that are freely suspended in the vast water columns of the worlds oceans. They absorb dissolved organic matter containing mineral nutrients as they scavenge through the dying individuals that fall out of large phytoplankton blooms.

text: Flagellates

text: are effective

text: bacteriovores

text: and are also commonly found in the marine water column. The flagellates are preyed upon by

text: zooplankton

text: while the

text: phytoplankton

text: concentrates on the larger

text: particulate matter

text: that is suspended in the water column as they are

text: consumed

text: by larger zooplankton, with fish as the

text: top predator

text: . Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine

text: food chain

text: , from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton which are then eaten by fish. The bacteria are important in this chain because only they have the physiological ability to absorb the dissolved mineral nutrients from the sea. These recycling principals from marine environments apply to many soil and freshwater ecosystems as well. In

text: terrestrial ecosystems

text: fungi

text: play similar roles as

text: bacteria

text: : they mobilize nutritional elements composing matter that is inaccessible for other organisms and transport acquired nutrients to nutritionally scarce patches of

text: ecosystem

text: The next dive, the fourth in the Nekton series, was a very deep dive (dive 61 in a long series of bathyscaphe dives supervised by Jacques Piccard). It reached 18,600 ft (later recalibrated to 18,150 feet) depth, to the sea floor, on November 15, 1959. On returning from this dive, some water leakage was noted along the seals between the three sections of the sphere, but since these were held together with pressure at depth, it was not considered serious after re-epoxying.

text: 1983 saw the release of their first and self-titled album, The Jon Butcher Axis, featuring "Life Takes A Life". Other notable tracks included "Ocean in Motion" and "Walk Like This". This album reached No. 91 in the Billboard Pop Albums chart and Jon Butcher Axis' video "Life Takes a Life" became one of the first videos by a black artist to receive airtime on MTV. At that time, the only two black artists enjoying MTV coverage were The Jon Butcher Axis and Michael Jackson. The band's second album, Stare at the Sun (1984), reached No. 160 on the Billboard album chart. The result of these two albums' successes afforded further growing popularity for the band, which added the opportunity to tour with Rush ('Signals' tour '83),Def Leppard ('Pyromania' tour '83) and The Scorpions ('Hurricane' tour  '84). among others.

text: 1983 saw the release of their first and self-titled album, The Jon Butcher Axis, featuring "Life Takes A Life". Other notable tracks included "Ocean in Motion" and "Walk Like This". This album reached No. 91 in the

text: Billboard Pop Albums chart

text: and Jon Butcher Axis' video "Life Takes a Life" became one of the first videos by a black artist to receive airtime on MTV. At that time, the only two black artists enjoying MTV coverage were The Jon Butcher Axis and Michael Jackson. The band's second album, Stare at the Sun (1984), reached No. 160 on the Billboard album chart. The result of these two albums' successes afforded further growing popularity for the band, which added the opportunity to tour with Rush ('Signals' tour '83),Def Leppard ('Pyromania' tour '83) and The Scorpions ('Hurricane' tour  '84). among others.

text: The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies on the food chain. Fisheries have been systematically overfishing high trophic predatory fish. This can result in a process called fishing down the food web, whereby the mean trophic level of available marine organisms decreases and the fishing effort must shift towards lower trophic organisms, such as jellyfish. According to the fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly, if fishing down the food web continues it will in time reduce people to a diet of jellyfish sandwiches and plankton soup.

text: The

text: trophic level

text: of an organism is the position it occupies on the

text: food chain

text: . Fisheries have been systematically

text: overfishing

text: high trophic

text: predatory fish

text: . This can result in a process called

text: fishing down the food web

text: , whereby the mean

text: trophic level

text: of available marine organisms decreases and the

text: fishing effort

text: must shift towards lower trophic organisms, such as jellyfish. According to the fisheries scientist

text: Daniel Pauly

text: , if fishing down the food web continues it will in time reduce people to a diet of jellyfish sandwiches and plankton soup.

text: Plankton has created a robot replica of Mr. Krabs to break into the Krusty Krab and steal the Krabby Patty recipe.

text: Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, we have seen increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere at an alarming rate. Studies show we have added approximately 365 billion tons by burning fossil fuels, and an additional 180 billion tons as a result of deforestation. We add another 9 billion tons or so a year, an amount that has been increasing 6% annually. Essentially, we have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air to higher than it has been in the last several million years.  Some of this carbon dioxide is being absorbed by our oceans to create carbonic acid. This is lowering the pH of our ocean and killing much of our marine life. Kolbert uses the drastic decline in life forms around the Castello Aragonese as a warning sign of what is to come if we continue to increase carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.

text: Since the beginning of the

text: Industrial Revolution

text: , we have seen increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere at an alarming rate. Studies show we have added approximately 365 billion tons by burning fossil fuels, and an additional 180 billion tons as a result of deforestation. We add another 9 billion tons or so a year, an amount that has been increasing 6% annually. Essentially, we have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air to higher than it has been in the last several million years.  Some of this carbon dioxide is being absorbed by our oceans to create

text: carbonic acid

text: . This is lowering the

text: pH

text: of our ocean and killing much of our marine life. Kolbert uses the drastic decline in life forms around the

text: Castello Aragonese

text: as a warning sign of what is to come if we continue to increase carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.

text: Plankton are also often described in terms of size. Usually the following divisions are used:

text: The majority of all animals are motile. Although motile animals can, in theory, disperse themselves by their spontaneous and independent locomotive powers, a great many species utilize the existing kinetic energies in the environment, resulting in passive movement. Dispersal by water currents is especially associated with the physically small inhabitants of marine waters known as zooplankton. The term plankton comes from the Greek, πλαγκτον, meaning "wanderer" or "drifter".

text: The majority of all animals are

text: motile

text: . Although motile animals can, in theory, disperse themselves by their spontaneous and independent locomotive powers, a great many species utilize the existing kinetic energies in the environment, resulting in passive movement. Dispersal by water currents is especially associated with the physically small inhabitants of marine waters known as

text: zooplankton

text: . The term plankton comes from the

text: Greek

text: , πλαγκτον, meaning "wanderer" or "drifter".

text: The series follows the Nekton family, a family of daring underwater explorers who live aboard a state-of-the-art submarine, The Aronnax, and explore uncharted areas of the earth’s oceans to unravel the mysteries of the deep.

text: The hydrothermal vents and seamounts of the Azores () are a series of Atlantic seamounts and hydrothermal vents that are part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system, giving rise to the archipelago and bathymetric region of the Azores. These geological structures, formed from masses of basalt (typical of mid-ocean regions), are of a geomorphological interest due to their rich deposits of ore. In addition it fosters a rich ecosystem of diverse subaquatic plant and animal life. There are food chains within this environment, for example, that are purely chemosynthetic, and do not need sunlight for photosynthesis.

text: The hydrothermal vents and seamounts of the Azores () are a series of

text: Atlantic

text: seamount

text: s and

text: hydrothermal vents

text: that are part of the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: system, giving rise to the archipelago and bathymetric region of the

text: Azores

text: . These geological structures, formed from masses of

text: basalt

text: (typical of mid-ocean regions), are of a geomorphological interest due to their rich deposits of

text: ore

text: . In addition it fosters a rich ecosystem of diverse subaquatic plant and animal life. There are

text: food chain

text: s within this environment, for example, that are purely

text: chemosynthetic

text: , and do not need sunlight for

text: photosynthesis

text: The fish eat plankton for their first year of life and then become predators of smaller fish.  They live in lakes and rivers and in the brackish water at the outlets of rivers into the ocean, and may migrate  to spawn.

text: The fish eat

text: plankton

text: for their first year of life and then become

text: predator

text: s of smaller fish.  They live in

text: lake

text: s and

text: river

text: s and in the

text: brackish water

text: at the outlets of rivers into the ocean, and may

text: migrate

text: to spawn.

text: The name "Proto-Tethys" have been used inconsistently for several concepts for a supposed predecessor of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a palaeocean that separated the margins of Gondwana, often referred to as peri-Gondwana, from various continents and Gondwana-derived continental fragments from Precambrian times and onwards.According to , after the Cadomian orogenic events 550 Ma, the Proto-Tethys Ocean formed the eastern part of an oceanic domain (of which the Iapetus and Tornquist oceans formed the western parts) which subducted under the northern margins of Gondwana.  In this model the Proto-Tethys separated the North China and Baltica continents from Gondwana. In the Early Ordovician 500-480 Ma, the Proto-Tethys was subducted under Cadomia as a result of the Chamrousse back-arc basin. used the name 'Ran Ocean' for a similar concept, the Cambrian-Ordovician ocean that separated Baltica from Gondwana.

text: The name "Proto-Tethys" have been used inconsistently for several concepts for a supposed predecessor of the

text: Paleo-Tethys Ocean

text: , a palaeocean that separated the margins of

text: Gondwana

text: , often referred to as peri-Gondwana, from various continents and Gondwana-derived continental fragments from Precambrian times and onwards.According to , after the

text: Cadomian orogenic events

text: 550 Ma, the Proto-Tethys Ocean formed the eastern part of an oceanic domain (of which the

text: Iapetus

text: and

text: Tornquist

text: oceans formed the western parts) which subducted under the northern margins of

text: Gondwana

text: .  In this model the Proto-Tethys separated the

text: North China

text: and

text: Baltica

text: continents from Gondwana. In the Early Ordovician 500-480 Ma, the Proto-Tethys was subducted under Cadomia as a result of the

text: Chamrousse

text: back-arc basin

text: . used the name 'Ran Ocean' for a similar concept, the Cambrian-Ordovician ocean that separated Baltica from Gondwana.

text: Nekton or necton refers to the aggregate of actively swimming aquatic organisms in a body of water. The term was proposed by German biologist Ernst Haeckel to differentiate between the active swimmers in a body of water, and the passive organisms that were carried along by the current, the plankton. As a guideline, nektonic organisms have a high Reynolds number (greater than 1000) and planktonic organisms a low one (less than 10). However, some organisms can begin life as plankton and transition to nekton later on in life, sometimes making distinction difficult when attempting to classify certain plankton-to-nekton species as one or the other. For this reason, some biologists choose not to use this term.

text: Nekton or necton refers to the aggregate of actively swimming

text: aquatic organisms

text: in a body of water. The term was proposed by German biologist

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: to differentiate between the active swimmers in a body of water, and the passive organisms that were carried along by the current, the

text: plankton

text: . As a guideline, nektonic organisms have a high

text: Reynolds number

text: (greater than 1000) and planktonic organisms a low one (less than 10). However, some organisms can begin life as plankton and transition to nekton later on in life, sometimes making distinction difficult when attempting to classify certain plankton-to-nekton species as one or the other. For this reason, some biologists choose not to use this term.

text: A second strategy to deal with estuarine predators is to avoid them on small or large spatial scales. Some larvae do this at a small scale by simply sinking when approached by a predator. However, a more common avoidance strategy is to become active at night and remain hidden during the day, since most fishes are visual predators and need light to hunt. This strategy is not only evident in estuaries, but is also the main predator-avoidance strategy in the open ocean, since the water column lacks topography and thus hiding places. Most pelagic larvae and other planktonic species undertake diel vertical migrations between deeper waters with less light and fewer predators during the day and shallow waters in the photic zone at night, where their microalgal food source lives. By retreating to areas of low light during the day, marine larvae (and other zooplankton) can significantly decrease their risk of predation.On a larger scale, most estuarine invertebrate larvae avoid predators by leaving the estuary and developing in the open ocean, which has fewer planktivorous fishes. The most common strategy for leaving an estuary is reverse tidal vertical migrations. In this strategy, larvae use the tidal cycle and estuarine flow regimes to aid their departure to the ocean, a process that is well-studied in many estuarine crab species.

text: A second strategy to deal with estuarine predators is to avoid them on small or large spatial scales. Some larvae do this at a small scale by simply sinking when approached by a predator. However, a more common avoidance strategy is to become active at night and remain hidden during the day, since most fishes are visual predators and need light to hunt. This strategy is not only evident in estuaries, but is also the main predator-avoidance strategy in the open ocean, since the water column lacks topography and thus hiding places. Most pelagic larvae and other planktonic species undertake

text: diel vertical migration

text: s between deeper waters with less light and fewer predators during the day and shallow waters in the

text: photic zone

text: at night, where their microalgal food source lives. By retreating to areas of low light during the day, marine larvae (and other zooplankton) can significantly decrease their risk of predation.On a larger scale, most estuarine invertebrate larvae avoid predators by leaving the estuary and developing in the open ocean, which has fewer planktivorous fishes. The most common strategy for leaving an estuary is reverse tidal vertical migrations. In this strategy, larvae use the tidal cycle and estuarine flow regimes to aid their departure to the ocean, a process that is well-studied in many estuarine crab species.

text: Species in the family Pleurotomariidae live at depths of 2000–3000 m as benthos on the bottom in the bathyal zone.

text: Species in the family Pleurotomariidae live at depths of 2000–3000 m as

text: benthos

text: on the bottom in the

text: bathyal zone

text: Ranger was initially developed by Nekton Research, Inc. in Durham, North Carolina. iRobot acquired Nekton Research in September, 2009.

text: Ranger was initially developed by Nekton Research, Inc. in

text: Durham

text: North Carolina

text: . iRobot acquired Nekton Research in September, 2009.

text: Phytoplankton are the main primary producers at the bottom of the marine food chain. Phytoplankton use photosynthesis to convert inorganic carbon into protoplasm. They are then consumed by microscopic animals called zooplankton.

text: Phytoplankton

text: are the main

text: primary producer

text: s at the bottom of the marine

text: food chain

text: . Phytoplankton use

text: photosynthesis

text: to convert inorganic carbon into

text: protoplasm

text: . They are then consumed by microscopic animals called zooplankton.

text: Khanty Ocean was an ancient, small ocean that existed near the end of the Precambrian time to the Silurian. It was between Baltica and the Siberian continent, with the bordering oceans of Panthalassa to the north, Proto-Tethys to the northeast, and Paleo-Tethys to the south and east. The ocean formed when a minor supercontinent of Proto-Laurasia (shortly after the break-up of Pannotia, about 600 mya) rifted and created three separated continents - Laurentia, Baltica, and Siberia, the ocean was between Siberia and Baltica. Khanty's sister ocean, Iapetus Ocean also formed, between Laurentia and Baltica. The ocean closed when an island arc called the Sakmarian Arc collided with Baltica. At the northeastern end of the arc was a new ocean, the Ural Ocean.

text: Khanty Ocean was an ancient, small ocean that existed near the end of the

text: Precambrian

text: time to the

text: Silurian

text: . It was between

text: Baltica

text: and the

text: Siberian continent

text: , with the bordering oceans of

text: Panthalassa

text: to the north,

text: Proto-Tethys

text: to the northeast, and

text: Paleo-Tethys

text: to the south and east. The ocean formed when a minor supercontinent of

text: Proto-Laurasia

text: (shortly after the break-up of

text: Pannotia

text: , about 600 mya) rifted and created three separated continents -

text: Laurentia

text: Baltica

text: , and

text: Siberia

text: , the ocean was between Siberia and Baltica. Khanty's sister ocean,

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: also formed, between Laurentia and Baltica. The ocean closed when an

text: island arc

text: called the

text: Sakmarian Arc

text: collided with Baltica. At the northeastern end of the

text: arc

text: was a new

text: ocean

text: , the

text: Ural Ocean

text: Marine habitats can be divided into coastal and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from the shoreline to the edge of the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf

text: Marine habitats can be divided into

text: coastal

text: and

text: open ocean

text: habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from the

text: shoreline

text: to the edge of the

text: continental shelf

text: . Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf area occupies only seven percent of the total ocean area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf

text: During the 1930s, he discovered that the ratios between phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon of marine plankton are indistinguishable with their proportions in the open ocean. This idea was used to explain some characteristics of the carbon life cycle in the sea. This was one source of his famous aphorism, “Life in the sea cannot be understood without understanding the sea itself.”[4]

text: The bathyal zone or bathypelagic – from Greek βαθύς (bathýs), deep – (also known as midnight zone) is the part of the pelagic zone that extends from a depth of 1000 to 4000 meters (3300 to 13000 feet)  below the ocean surface. It lies between the mesopelagic above, and the abyssopelagic below. The average temperature hovers at about 4 °C (39 °F). Although larger by volume than the euphotic zone, the bathyal zone is less densely populated. Sunlight does not reach this zone, meaning primary production, if any, is almost nonexistent. It is known as the midnight zone because of this feature. Because of the lack of light, some species do not have eyes, however those possessing eyes in this zone include the viperfish and the frill shark. Many forms of nekton live in the bathyal zone, such as squid, large whales, and octopuses, but this zone is difficult for fish to live in. Sponges, brachiopods, sea stars, and echinoids are also common in the bathyal zone. The fish in this zone have become very energy efficient, since it is especially hard to find nutrients. Many have slow metabolic rates to conserve energy. The fish here have weak muscles, soft skin and slimy bodies. Animals in the bathyal zone are not threatened by predators that can see them, so they do not have powerful muscles. Animals need to have the right adaptations to survive in this lethal area. There are no known plants because of the lack of sunlight necessary for photosynthesis. In the bathyal some of the world's largest whales feed. The adaptations of some of the fish that live there include small eyes and transparent skin.

text: The bathyal zone or bathypelagic – from Greek

text: βαθύς

text: (bathýs), deep – (also known as midnight zone) is the part of the

text: pelagic zone

text: that extends from a depth of 1000 to 4000 meters (3300 to 13000 feet)  below the

text: ocean surface

text: . It lies between the

text: mesopelagic

text: above, and the

text: abyssopelagic

text: below. The average temperature hovers at about 4 °C (39 °F). Although larger by volume than the

text: euphotic zone

text: , the bathyal zone is less densely populated. Sunlight does not reach this zone, meaning

text: primary production

text: , if any, is almost nonexistent. It is known as the midnight zone because of this feature. Because of the lack of light, some species do not have eyes, however those possessing eyes in this zone include the

text: viperfish

text: and the

text: frill shark

text: . Many forms of

text: nekton

text: live in the bathyal zone, such as

text: squid

text: , large

text: whale

text: s, and

text: octopuses

text: , but this zone is difficult for fish to live in. Sponges, brachiopods, sea stars, and echinoids are also common in the bathyal zone. The fish in this zone have become very energy efficient, since it is especially hard to find nutrients. Many have slow metabolic rates to conserve energy. The fish here have weak muscles, soft skin and slimy bodies. Animals in the bathyal zone are not threatened by

text: predator

text: s that can see them, so they do not have powerful muscles. Animals need to have the right adaptations to survive in this lethal area. There are no known plants because of the lack of sunlight necessary for photosynthesis. In the bathyal some of the world's largest whales feed. The adaptations of some of the fish that live there include small eyes and transparent skin.

text: As of 2011, Acker formed Benthos Studio, an animation production company with partners Greg Little, Jack Mitchell and Brown Bag Films.

text: As of 2011, Acker formed Benthos Studio, an animation production company with partners Greg Little, Jack Mitchell and

text: Brown Bag Films

text: The Nekton family are notable for their multicultural makeup, a rarity in western comic books. The family is composed of a black father, an Asian mother, and their two children. When asked about the make-up of the protagonists in an interview for MTV Geek, writer Tom Taylor had this to say, "The world is a diverse place and not every family of heroes looks like The Incredibles. We haven't made a big deal of this in The Deep. We simply wanted a unique cast of heroes who aren't from anywhere. Their ethnicity and countries of origin aren't talked about or pointed out in the book at all. The sea is huge and covers the globe, and so do the Nekton family."

text: The Nekton family are notable for their multicultural makeup, a rarity in western comic books. The family is composed of a black father, an Asian mother, and their two children. When asked about the make-up of the protagonists in an interview for

text: MTV

text: Geek, writer Tom Taylor had this to say, "The world is a diverse place and not every family of heroes looks like The Incredibles. We haven't made a big deal of this in The Deep. We simply wanted a unique cast of heroes who aren't from anywhere. Their ethnicity and countries of origin aren't talked about or pointed out in the book at all. The sea is huge and covers the globe, and so do the Nekton family."

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the Jurassic period, from the Callovian to the Oxfordian.

text: Jurassic

text: period, from the

text: Callovian

text: to the

text: Oxfordian

text: In marine systems, ocean currents have a key role determining which areas are effective as habitats, since ocean currents transport the basic nutrients needed to support marine life. Plankton are the life forms that inhabit the ocean that are so small (less than 2 mm) that they cannot effectively propel themselves through the water, but must drift instead with the currents. If the current carries the right nutrients, and if it also flows at a suitably shallow depth where there is plenty of sunlight, then such a current itself can become a suitable habitat for photosynthesizing tiny algae called phytoplankton. These tiny plants are the primary producers in the ocean, at the start of the food chain. In turn, as the population of drifting phytoplankton grows, the water becomes a suitable habitat for zooplankton, which feed on the phytoplankton. While phytoplankton are tiny drifting plants, zooplankton are tiny drifting animals, such as the larvae of fish and marine invertebrates. If sufficient zooplankton establish themselves, the current becomes a candidate habitat for the forage fish that feed on them. And then if sufficient forage fish move to the area, it becomes a candidate habitat for larger predatory fish and other marine animals that feed on the forage fish. In this dynamic way, the current itself can, over time, become a moving habitat for multiple types of marine life.

text: In marine systems,

text: ocean current

text: s have a key role determining which areas are effective as habitats, since ocean currents transport the basic nutrients needed to support marine life.

text: Plankton

text: are the life forms that inhabit the ocean that are so small (less than 2 mm) that they cannot effectively propel themselves through the water, but must drift instead with the currents. If the current carries the right nutrients, and if it also flows at a suitably shallow depth where there is plenty of sunlight, then such a current itself can become a suitable habitat for photosynthesizing tiny algae called

text: phytoplankton

text: . These tiny plants are the

text: primary producers

text: in the ocean, at the start of the

text: food chain

text: . In turn, as the population of drifting phytoplankton grows, the water becomes a suitable habitat for

text: zooplankton

text: , which feed on the phytoplankton. While phytoplankton are tiny drifting plants, zooplankton are tiny drifting animals, such as the

text: larvae

text: of

text: fish

text: and

text: marine invertebrate

text: s. If sufficient zooplankton establish themselves, the current becomes a candidate habitat for the

text: forage fish

text: that feed on them. And then if sufficient forage fish move to the area, it becomes a candidate habitat for larger

text: predatory fish

text: and other marine animals that feed on the forage fish. In this dynamic way, the current itself can, over time, become a moving habitat for multiple types of marine life.

text: The microbial loop is of particular importance in increasing the efficiency of the marine food web via the utilization of dissolved organic matter (DOM), which is typically unavailable to most marine organisms. In this sense, the process aids in recycling of organic matter and nutrients and mediates the transfer of energy above the thermocline. More than 30% of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) incorporated into bacteria is respired and released as carbon dioxide. The other main effect of the microbial loop in the water column is that it accelerates mineralization through regenerating production in nutrient-limited environments (e.g. oligotrophic waters). In general, the entire microbial loop is to some extent typically five to ten times the mass of all multicellular marine organisms in the marine ecosystem. Marine bacteria are the base of the food web in most oceanic environments, and they improve the trophic efficiency of both marine food webs and important aquatic processes (such as the productivity of fisheries and the amount of carbon exported to the ocean floor). Therefore, the microbial loop, together with primary production, controls the productivity of marine systems in the ocean.

text: The microbial loop is of particular importance in increasing the efficiency of the marine food web via the utilization of dissolved organic matter (DOM), which is typically unavailable to most marine organisms. In this sense, the process aids in recycling of organic matter and nutrients and mediates the transfer of energy above the

text: thermocline

text: . More than 30% of

text: dissolved organic carbon

text: (DOC) incorporated into bacteria is respired and released as

text: carbon dioxide

text: . The other main effect of the microbial loop in the water column is that it accelerates

text: mineralization

text: through regenerating production in nutrient-limited environments (e.g. oligotrophic waters). In general, the entire microbial loop is to some extent typically five to ten times the mass of all multicellular marine organisms in the marine ecosystem. Marine bacteria are the base of the food web in most oceanic environments, and they improve the trophic efficiency of both marine food webs and important aquatic processes (such as the productivity of fisheries and the amount of carbon exported to the ocean floor). Therefore, the microbial loop, together with primary production, controls the productivity of marine systems in the ocean.

text: Pelagibacter, with the single species P. ubique, was isolated in 2002 and given a specific name, although it has not yet been validly published according to the bacteriological code. It is an abundant member of the SAR11 clade in the phylum Alphaproteobacteria. SAR11 members are highly dominant organisms found in both salt and fresh water worldwide — possibly the most numerous bacterium in the world, and were originally known only from their rRNA genes, which were first identified in environmental samples from the Sargasso Sea in 1990 by Stephen Giovannoni's laboratory in the Department of Microbiology at Oregon State University and later found in oceans worldwide. P. ubique and its relatives may be the most abundant organisms in the ocean, and quite possibly the most abundant bacteria in the entire world. It can make up about 25% of all microbial plankton cells, and in the summer they may account for approximately half the cells present in temperate ocean surface water. The total abundance of P. ubique and relatives is estimated to be about 2 × 10 microbes.

text: Pelagibacter, with the single species P. ubique, was isolated in 2002 and given a specific name, although it has not yet been validly published according to the

entity_name: International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria

text: bacteriological code

text: . It is an abundant member of the

text: SAR11 clade

text: in the phylum

text: Alphaproteobacteria

text: . SAR11 members are highly dominant organisms found in both salt and fresh water worldwide — possibly the most numerous

text: bacterium

text: in the world, and were originally known only from their

text: rRNA

text: genes, which were first identified in environmental samples from the

text: Sargasso Sea

text: in 1990 by Stephen Giovannoni's laboratory in the Department of Microbiology at

text: Oregon State University

text: and later found in oceans worldwide. P. ubique and its relatives may be the most abundant organisms in the ocean, and quite possibly the most abundant

text: bacteria

text: in the entire world. It can make up about 25% of all microbial

text: plankton

text: cells, and in the summer they may account for approximately half the cells present in temperate ocean surface water. The total abundance of P. ubique and relatives is estimated to be about 2 × 10 microbes.

text: Mesosaurus had a small skull with long jaws. The nostrils were located at the top, allowing the creature to breathe with only the upper side of its head breaking the surface, in a similar manner to a modern crocodile. The teeth were originally thought to have been straining devices for the filter feeding of planktonic organisms. However, this idea was based on the assumption that the teeth of Mesosaurus were numerous and close together in the jaws. Newly examined remains of Mesosaurus show that it had fewer teeth, and that the dentition was suitable for catching small nektonic prey such as crustaceans.

text: Mesosaurus had a small

text: skull

text: with long

text: jaw

text: s. The

text: nostril

text: s were located at the top, allowing the creature to breathe with only the upper side of its head breaking the surface, in a similar manner to a modern

text: crocodile

text: . The teeth were originally thought to have been straining devices for the

text: filter feeding

text: of

text: plankton

text: ic organisms. However, this idea was based on the assumption that the teeth of Mesosaurus were numerous and close together in the jaws. Newly examined remains of Mesosaurus show that it had fewer teeth, and that the dentition was suitable for catching small

text: nekton

text: ic prey such as crustaceans.

text: The Banggai cardinalfish is a paternal mouthbrooder. The female plays an active role in courtship and pair formation, which occurs a few hours to a few days before spawning. Mating pairs establish spawning territories several meters away from the main group and vigorously defend them. The eggs are about 2.5 millimeters in diameter. The young remain in the male's mouth cavity for an undetermined period after hatching. Unlike many other species of marine fish, the Banggai cardinalfish lacks a planktonic stage in its life history. The species has a short life span, reaching around four years in optimal conditions in captivity, and perhaps 1 to 2 years in the wild.

text: The Banggai cardinalfish is a paternal

text: mouthbrooder

text: . The female plays an active role in

text: courtship

text: and pair formation, which occurs a few hours to a few days before spawning. Mating pairs establish spawning territories several meters away from the main group and vigorously defend them. The eggs are about 2.5 millimeters in diameter. The young remain in the male's mouth cavity for an undetermined period after hatching. Unlike many other species of marine fish, the Banggai cardinalfish lacks a

text: plankton

text: ic stage in its

text: life history

text: . The species has a short life span, reaching around four years in optimal conditions in captivity, and perhaps 1 to 2 years in the wild.

text: Jellyfish have not been prevalent in the estuary until recently. In East Coast estuaries such as Chesapeake Bay, they are often top-level predators, feeding indiscriminately on both fish and zooplankton. Several small invasive taxa have been identified in the LSZ and freshwater regions. These species strobilate in summer, but maintain polyps in the benthos year round.

text: Jellyfish

text: have not been prevalent in the estuary until recently. In East Coast estuaries such as

text: Chesapeake Bay

text: , they are often

text: top-level predator

text: s, feeding indiscriminately on both fish and zooplankton. Several small invasive taxa have been identified in the LSZ and freshwater regions. These species strobilate in summer, but maintain

text: polyps

text: in the

text: benthos

text: year round.

text: Oceanographers divide the ocean into different zones by physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone includes all open ocean regions, and can be divided into further regions categorized by depth and light abundance. The photic zone includes the oceans from the surface to a depth of 200 m; it is the region where photosynthesis can occur and is, therefore, the most biodiverse. Because plants require photosynthesis, life found deeper than the photic zone must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source. Hydrothermal vents are the primary source of energy in what is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 200 m). The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the epipelagic.

text: Oceanographers divide the ocean into different

text: zones

text: by physical and biological conditions. The

text: pelagic zone

text: includes all open ocean regions, and can be divided into further regions categorized by depth and light abundance. The

text: photic zone

text: includes the oceans from the surface to a depth of 200 m; it is the region where photosynthesis can occur and is, therefore, the most

text: biodiverse

text: . Because plants require

text: photosynthesis

text: , life found deeper than the photic zone must either rely on material sinking from above (see

text: marine snow

text: ) or find another energy source.

text: Hydrothermal vents

text: are the primary source of energy in what is known as the

text: aphotic zone

text: (depths exceeding 200 m). The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the

text: epipelagic

text: Ocean profile, plankton data, and metadata are available in the World Ocean Database for29 depth-dependent variables (physical and biochemical) and 11 instruments types: Ocean Station Data (OSD), Mechanical Bathythermograph (MBT), Expendable Bathythermograph (XBT), Conductivity, Temperature, Depth (CTD), Undulating Oceanographic Recorder (UOR), Profiling Float (PFL), Moored Buoy (MRB), Drifting Buoy (DRB), Gliders (GLD), Autonomous Pinniped Bathythermograph (APB).

text: Ocean profile, plankton data, and metadata are available in the World Ocean Database for29 depth-dependent variables (physical and biochemical) and 11 instruments types: Ocean Station Data (OSD), Mechanical Bathythermograph (MBT), Expendable Bathythermograph (XBT),

text: Conductivity, Temperature, Depth

text: (CTD), Undulating Oceanographic Recorder (UOR), Profiling Float (PFL), Moored Buoy (MRB), Drifting Buoy (DRB), Gliders (GLD), Autonomous Pinniped Bathythermograph (APB).

text: In September 1981, Dr. MacInnis, working on the Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker CCGS Pierre Radisson, led a six-man team that used a remotely operated vehicle to record video and 35mm. color photographs. Chris Nicholson (Benthos) managed the remotely operated vehicle in tandem with Emory Kristoff (National Geographic). More than one thousand images revealed a debris field with the fallen mast, the ship’s copper-sheathed lower hull, and a flat-roofed deckhouse. A small cabinet on the aft end of the deckhouse held a compass and signal light. Below the cabinet was the wooden steering wheel. The ship was wrapped in soft, pink coral. This expedition was documented by the CBC’s Fifth Estate in a segment hosted by Bob McKeown.

text: In September 1981, Dr. MacInnis, working on the Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker

text: CCGS Pierre Radisson

text: , led a six-man team that used a remotely operated vehicle to record video and 35mm. color photographs. Chris Nicholson (Benthos) managed the remotely operated vehicle in tandem with Emory Kristoff (National Geographic). More than one thousand images revealed a debris field with the fallen mast, the ship’s copper-sheathed lower hull, and a flat-roofed deckhouse. A small cabinet on the aft end of the deckhouse held a compass and signal light. Below the cabinet was the wooden steering wheel. The ship was wrapped in soft, pink coral. This expedition was documented by the CBC’s Fifth Estate in a segment hosted by Bob McKeown.

text: Psammon (from Greek "psammos", "sand") is a group of organisms inhabiting coastal sand moist — biota buried in sediments. Psammon is a part of water fauna, along with periphyton, plankton, nekton, and benthos. Psammon is also sometimes considered a part of benthos due to its near-bottom distribution. Psammon term is commonly used to refer to freshwater reservoirs such as lakes.

text: Psammon (from

text: Greek

text: "psammos", "sand") is a group of organisms inhabiting coastal sand moist — biota buried in sediments. Psammon is a part of water fauna, along with

text: periphyton

text: plankton

text: nekton

text: , and

text: benthos

text: . Psammon is also sometimes considered a part of benthos due to its near-bottom distribution. Psammon term is commonly used to refer to freshwater reservoirs such as lakes.

text: In sites without adequate currents there can be an accumulation of heavy metals on the benthos (seafloor) near the salmon farms, particularly copper and zinc.

text: In sites without adequate currents there can be an accumulation of

text: heavy metals

text: on the

text: benthos

text: (seafloor) near the salmon farms, particularly copper and zinc.

text: Little is known about the behaviour of sea butterflies, but they are known to have a peculiar way of feeding. At times, they just float along, ventral-side up, with the currents. They are mostly passive plankton feeders, but at times they can be active feeders. They are generally herbivorous, entangling planktonic food through a mucous web that can be up to 5 cm wide, many times larger than themselves. If disturbed, they abandon the net and flap slowly away. When descending to deeper water, they hold their wings up. Sometimes, they swarm in large numbers and can be found washed up in flotsam, especially along the coast of eastern Australia.

text: Little is known about the behaviour of sea butterflies, but they are known to have a peculiar way of feeding. At times, they just float along,

text: ventral

text: -side up, with the currents. They are mostly passive

text: plankton

text: feeders, but at times they can be active feeders. They are generally herbivorous, entangling planktonic food through a

text: mucous

text: web that can be up to 5 cm wide, many times larger than themselves. If disturbed, they abandon the net and flap slowly away. When descending to deeper water, they hold their wings up. Sometimes, they swarm in large numbers and can be found washed up in

text: flotsam

text: , especially along the coast of

text: eastern Australia

text: It is necessary to develop an internal documentation system as well as multi-party communication standards and protocols to transfer or create a central repository or hub to track information across the supply chain. These systems would monitor equipment status, product temperature history, and custody chain, etc. These help ensure that a food, pharmaceutical, or vaccine is safe and effective when reaching its intended consumer.  It is also important to have a complete chain of custody for the entire life cycle of a product, so there is documented evidence as to whom had control of the product throughout the lifecycle of the product, up to the final users consumption of the product.

text: It is necessary to develop an internal documentation system as well as multi-party communication standards and protocols to transfer or create a central repository or hub to track information across the supply chain. These systems would monitor equipment status, product temperature history, and custody chain, etc. These help ensure that a food, pharmaceutical, or vaccine is safe and effective when reaching its intended consumer.  It is also important to have a complete

text: chain of custody

text: for the entire life cycle of a product, so there is documented evidence as to whom had control of the product throughout the lifecycle of the product, up to the final users consumption of the product.

text: The orange-spotted trevally is a strong-swimming predator that takes a variety of prey, including fish, crustaceans, and nekton. They reach sexual maturity at 24.7 cm on average, with studies in the Persian Gulf indicating the species' main spawning periods occur between June and September. Whether this differs throughout their range is currently unknown. The same study also showed the species has a strong seasonal oscillation in the growth rate, which was fastest during November–April and slowest during May–September.

text: The orange-spotted trevally is a strong-swimming

text: predator

text: that takes a variety of prey, including fish,

text: crustaceans

text: , and

text: nekton

text: . They reach

text: sexual maturity

text: at 24.7 cm on average, with studies in the Persian Gulf indicating the species' main

text: spawning

text: periods occur between June and September. Whether this differs throughout their range is currently unknown. The same study also showed the species has a strong seasonal

text: oscillation

text: in the growth rate, which was fastest during November–April and slowest during May–September.

text: It is found in the warm waters of the Indo-Pacific Ocean and is a holoplanktonic species that spends it entire life as part of the plankton. It has also been found off New Zealand and the Galapagos Islands.

text: It is found in the warm waters of the Indo-Pacific Ocean and is a

text: holoplankton

text: ic species that spends it entire life as part of the

text: plankton

text: . It has also been found off

text: New Zealand

text: and the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: Phytobenthos comprises the plants belonging to the benthos, mainly benthic diatoms and macroalgae (seaweed).

text: Phytobenthos comprises the plants belonging to the benthos, mainly benthic

text: diatom

text: s and

text: macroalgae

text: seaweed

text: Marie is increasingly enthralled by Dante ("When You Look At a Man"), who arrogantly tells of his gifts on the sea ("The Storm"). His ship has been taken off course during a storm while delivering fruit, which has spoiled due to the lost time. He is trying to get the money he and his crew are owed, which Marie offers to get for him. She reveals her magic and how, like her mother, she helps those who ask her for her services ("C'est L'Amour" / "To Find a Lover"). Dante is skeptical of magic, and tells her of his travels ("Nothing Beats Chicago"). Marie has never left New Orleans and wishes to explore the world. In a rare moment of vulnerability, Dante reveals the loneliness of life at sea, although when he is on land, he hears the ocean calling to him ("Ocean Is Different"). To cover up his inner feelings, Dante tells Marie of his sexual exploits, and as they dance, he seduces her and they make love in the park ("Danced With a Girl").  Lisette attempts to find Marie ("Tout Mi Mi") and Marie realizes Dante is her way out of her confining life. Her mother appears to warn her of the dangers of giving into her passions ("Miracles and Mysteries"). Lisette discovers Marie and Dante together ("Tout Mi Mi (Reprise)") and Marie sharply orders her away. Marie invites Dante to live in her guest house while her brothers are away and Dante reveals that he can no longer hear the ocean calling to him as he has fallen in love with Marie ("I Don't Hear the Ocean").

text: A planktivore is an aquatic organism that feeds on planktonic food, including zooplankton or phytoplankton.

text: A planktivore is an aquatic organism that feeds on

text: plankton

text: ic food, including

text: zooplankton

text: or

text: phytoplankton

text: Plankton are algae which are microscopic, free-floating algae. This algae is so tiny that on average, if 50 of these microscopic algae were lined up end-to-end, it would only measure one millimetre. Plankton are the basis of the food web and are responsible for primary production in the ocean using photosynthesis to make food.Filamentous algae are long strands of algae cells that form floating mats.Chara and Nitella algae are upright algae that look like a submerged plant with roots.

text: Plankton

text: are algae which are

text: microscopic

text: , free-floating algae. This algae is so tiny that on average, if 50 of these microscopic algae were lined up end-to-end, it would only measure one millimetre. Plankton are the basis of the food web and are responsible for

text: primary production

text: in the ocean using photosynthesis to make food.

text: Filamentous algae

text: are long strands of algae cells that form floating mats.

text: Chara

text: and

text: Nitella

text: algae are upright algae that look like a submerged plant with roots.

text: Fesch's father was a wealthy banker of Belgian origin, an artist and atheist, distant from his son and who get along with his wife. Jacques was a young dreamer aimlessly in life; brought up a Roman Catholic, he abandoned religion by the age of 17. At 21, he married his pregnant girlfriend Pierrette in a civil ceremony. He gave up a position at his father's bank, lived the life of a playboy, left his wife and their daughter, and fathered an illegitimate son with another woman. Disillusioned with his life, he dreamed of escaping to sail around the South Pacific Ocean, but his parents refused to pay for a boat.

text: Fesch's father was a wealthy banker of

text: Belgian

text: origin, an artist and

text: atheist

text: , distant from his son and who get along with his wife. Jacques was a young dreamer aimlessly in life; brought up a Roman Catholic, he abandoned religion by the age of 17. At 21, he married his pregnant girlfriend Pierrette in a

text: civil ceremony

text: . He gave up a position at his father's bank, lived the life of a playboy, left his wife and their daughter, and fathered an

text: illegitimate

text: son with another woman. Disillusioned with his life, he dreamed of escaping to sail around the

text: South Pacific Ocean

text: , but his parents refused to pay for a boat.

text: Intertidal zones, those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean's tides. A huge array of life lives within this zone.

text: Intertidal zone

text: s, those areas close to shore, are constantly being exposed and covered by the ocean's

text: tides

text: . A huge array of life lives within this zone.

text: Scientific American August 2010 ocean acidification article Threatening Oceans from the Inside Out: How Acidification Affects Marine Life Blue Ocean Institute authors Marah J. Hardt and Carl Safina support 350 ppm as the maximum upper limit of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere for marine life health, see page 72 in print.

text: Scientific American

text: August 2010

text: ocean acidification

text: article Threatening Oceans from the Inside Out: How Acidification Affects Marine Life

text: Blue Ocean Institute

text: authors Marah J. Hardt and

text: Carl Safina

text: support 350 ppm as the maximum upper limit of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere for

text: marine life

text: health

text: , see page 72 in print.

text: One of the most recognizable features of Ocean games on the Commodore 64 was the Ocean Loader. Since this computer used cassettes as storage, loading a game could take several minutes. Ocean used a special loading system that displayed a picture based on the game and played music while the game was loading. The Ocean loader music is still popular by fans of chiptunes. Five versions of the tune exist; 1 and 2 were composed by Martin Galway, 3 by Peter Clarke, 4 and 5 by Jonathan Dunn. The Ocean Loader was first used in the game Hyper Sports. Up to 1987 the Ocean Loader was written by the in house Ocean programmer Bill Barna, from 1987 to the end of the Commodore 64's commercial life the loader was replaced by "Freeload" written by in house programmer Paul Hughes. Freeload served also as a copyright protection mechanism.

text: One of the most recognizable features of Ocean games on the

text: Commodore 64

text: was the Ocean Loader. Since this computer used

text: cassette

text: s as storage, loading a game could take several minutes. Ocean used a special loading system that displayed a picture based on the game and played music while the game was loading. The Ocean loader music is still popular by fans of

text: chiptunes

text: . Five versions of the tune exist; 1 and 2 were composed by

text: Martin Galway

text: , 3 by Peter Clarke, 4 and 5 by

text: Jonathan Dunn

text: . The Ocean Loader was first used in the game

text: Hyper Sports

text: . Up to 1987 the Ocean Loader was written by the in house Ocean programmer Bill Barna, from 1987 to the end of the Commodore 64's commercial life the loader was replaced by "Freeload" written by in house programmer Paul Hughes. Freeload served also as a

text: copyright protection

text: mechanism.

text: Claire and Hailey read books that contain information pertaining to marine life-forms, trying to find an answer to Aquamarine's troubling conditions. They learn that mermaids cannot survive on land for more than a week. The necessity of returning Aquamarine to the ocean is thus made more urgent. In order to persuade Aquamarine to return to her home, Hailey and Claire arrange that she will spend one evening with Raymond, after which she must leave. To compensate for her nudity and lack of legs, they plan to dress her in a long blue gown and place her in a wheelchair. Before the meeting, the two girls confide their story in Claire's grandfather, Maury. He believes their story because of his own encounter with a mermaid once. He takes them to the Capri Beach Club, where they organize the table and food for Aquamarine and Raymond. They then lift Aquamarine out of the pool – an operation wherein Claire must overcome a hesitation to enter water – and introduce her to Raymond. To explain her acquaintance with them, they present her as a distant cousin.

text: The Globigerinacea is a superfamily of free-living, calcareous, planktonic foraminiferal protists that have lived in the open ocean since the Eocene.

text: The Globigerinacea is a superfamily of free-living, calcareous,

text: plankton

text: ic

text: foraminifera

text: l protists that have lived in the open ocean since the

text: Eocene

text: The game offers two game modes — Performance and Audience. The Performance mode allows the user to interact with the plankton through use of the stylus, touchscreen, and microphone. Audience mode simply allows the user to put down the system and enjoy a continuous musical show put on by all of the plankton, although the user can interact with the plankton just like in Performance mode. Audience mode is like a demo mode in some other games.

text: The game offers two game modes — Performance and Audience. The Performance mode allows the user to interact with the plankton through use of the

text: stylus

text: touchscreen

text: , and

text: microphone

text: . Audience mode simply allows the user to put down the system and enjoy a continuous musical show put on by all of the plankton, although the user can interact with the plankton just like in Performance mode. Audience mode is like a demo mode in some other games.

text: In 2009, Tara started on a new expedition, dubbed Tara Oceans. It travelled around the world until 2013 to study CO captured by marine microorganisms such as plankton. The costs for the expedition are 3 million euros per year, all from private funds. The expedition was primarily funded by the French fashion designer agnès b.. The expedition was able to collect more than 35,000 planktonic samples from 210 stations in every major oceanic region, which through analyses revealed more than 40 million genes, most of which are new to science.

text: In 2009, Tara started on a new expedition, dubbed Tara Oceans. It travelled around the world until 2013 to study CO captured by marine microorganisms such as plankton. The costs for the expedition are 3 million euros per year, all from private funds. The expedition was primarily funded by the French fashion designer

text: agnès b.

text: . The expedition was able to collect more than 35,000 planktonic samples from 210 stations in every major oceanic region, which through analyses revealed more than 40 million genes, most of which are new to science.

text: Custom OBS are beginning to be developed, as the need for expansion on coverage in the field of seismology increases  and permanent deployments are necessary.  One customizations to improve the data quality of the seismometers is to borehole the seismometer in an aluminum casing into the surface (~1 m) to create stability in the soft sediment of the ocean floor.  Another customization that is possible is to add a differential pressure gauge (DPG) and/or current meter, in order to understand how the pressure is changing around the seismometer.  It can also be practical to store the datalogger and battery in a glass Benthos sphere in order to be able to connect to the ship through the use of a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), which is a necessary advancement in order to have and maintain permanent OBS deployments.

text: Custom OBS are beginning to be developed, as the need for expansion on coverage in the field of seismology increases  and permanent deployments are necessary.  One customizations to improve the data quality of the seismometers is to

text: borehole

text: the seismometer in an aluminum casing into the surface (~1 m) to create stability in the soft sediment of the ocean floor.  Another customization that is possible is to add a differential pressure gauge (DPG) and/or

text: current meter

text: , in order to understand how the pressure is changing around the seismometer.  It can also be practical to store the datalogger and battery in a glass Benthos sphere in order to be able to connect to the ship through the use of a

text: remotely operated vehicle (ROV)

text: , which is a necessary advancement in order to have and maintain permanent OBS deployments.

text: The scientific study of water and Earth's water cycle is hydrology; hydrodynamics studies the physics of water in motion. The more recent study of the sea in particular is oceanography. This began as the study of the shape of the ocean's currents but has since expanded into a large and multidisciplinary field: it examines the properties of seawater; studies waves, tides, and currents; charts coastlines and maps the seabeds; and studies marine life. The subfield dealing with the sea's motion, its forces, and the forces acting upon it is known as physical oceanography. Marine biology (biological oceanography) studies the plants, animals, and other organisms inhabiting marine ecosystems. Both are informed by chemical oceanography, which studies the behavior of elements and molecules within the oceans: particularly, at the moment, the ocean's role in the carbon cycle and carbon dioxide's role in the increasing acidification of seawater. Marine and maritime geography charts the shape and shaping of the sea, while marine geology (geological oceanography) has provided evidence of continental drift and the composition and structure of the Earth, clarified the process of sedimentation, and assisted the study of volcanism and earthquakes.

text: The

text: scientific study

text: of

text: water

text: and Earth's

text: water cycle

text: is

text: hydrology

text: hydrodynamics

text: studies the

text: physics

text: of water in motion. The more recent study of the sea in particular is

text: oceanography

text: . This began as the study of the shape of the ocean's

text: currents

text: but has since expanded into a large and

text: multidisciplinary

text: field: it examines the properties of

text: seawater

text: ; studies

text: waves

text: tides

text: , and

text: currents

text: ; charts

text: coastlines

text: and maps the

text: seabeds

text: ; and studies

text: marine life

text: . The subfield dealing with the sea's motion, its forces, and the forces acting upon it is known as

text: physical oceanography

text: Marine biology

text: (biological oceanography) studies the

text: plants

text: animals

text: , and other organisms inhabiting

text: marine ecosystems

text: . Both are informed by

text: chemical oceanography

text: , which studies the behavior of

text: elements

text: and

text: molecules

text: within the oceans: particularly, at the moment, the ocean's role in the

text: carbon cycle

text: and

text: carbon dioxide

text: 's role in the

text: increasing acidification

text: of seawater. Marine and maritime

text: geography

text: charts the shape and shaping of the sea, while

text: marine geology

text: (geological oceanography) has provided evidence of

text: continental drift

text: and the

text: composition

text: and

text: structure of the Earth

text: , clarified the process of

text: sedimentation

text: , and assisted the study of

text: volcanism

text: and

text: earthquakes

text: Benthos species reside mostly at the sea bottom and include worms, crustaceans, bottom protists, coelenterata and mollusks. Mollusks account for 60–98% of the invertebrate biomass at the Sea of Azov bottom.

text: Benthos

text: species reside mostly at the sea bottom and include worms,

text: crustacean

text: s, bottom

text: protist

text: s,

text: coelenterata

text: and

text: mollusks

text: . Mollusks account for 60–98% of the invertebrate biomass at the Sea of Azov bottom.

text: The strategic position of the Cape of Good Hope between two major ocean currents, ensures a rich diversity of marine life. There is a difference between the sea life west of Cape Point and that to the east due to the markedly differing sea temperatures.

text: Due to lack of strong evidence for any particular life mode (e.g., benthic nektonic, planktonic), it remains unclear what resources goniatites were capitalizing on in these offshore environments. Only a few goniatites' full trophic apparatuses have ever been described, and reports of stomach contents in these creatures' fossils remain questionable at best. However, goniatites clearly lacked the calcified jaw apparatuses developed in later ammonites; this has been cited as evidence against their having a durophagous (shell-crushing) diet.

text: Due to lack of strong evidence for any particular life mode (e.g.,

text: benthic

text: nekton

text: ic,

text: plankton

text: ic), it remains unclear what resources goniatites were capitalizing on in these offshore environments. Only a few goniatites' full

text: trophic

text: apparatuses have ever been described, and reports of stomach contents in these creatures' fossils remain questionable at best. However, goniatites clearly lacked the calcified jaw apparatuses developed in later

text: ammonites

text: ; this has been cited as evidence against their having a

text: durophagous

text: (shell-crushing) diet.

text: Spun off from Men's Health in 2004,  Best Life was published ten times a year and had a circulation of more than 500,000. Best Life covered health and fitness, finance, fatherhood, relationship issues and fashion and grooming for men 35 and over, with an emphasis on literary writing, humor, and in-depth research. Under the guidance of editorial director David Zinczenko and editor-in-chief Stephen Perrine, Best Life was named to Adweek's Hot List in both 2007 and 2008, and was nominated for a US National Magazine Award for its investigative feature "Our Oceans Are Turning to Plastic...Are We?"

text: Spun off from

text: Men's Health

text: in 2004,  Best Life was published ten times a year and had a circulation of more than 500,000. Best Life covered health and fitness, finance, fatherhood, relationship issues and fashion and grooming for men 35 and over, with an emphasis on literary writing, humor, and in-depth research. Under the guidance of editorial director

text: David Zinczenko

text: and editor-in-chief Stephen Perrine, Best Life was named to

text: Adweek

text: 's Hot List in both 2007 and 2008, and was nominated for a US

text: National Magazine Award

text: for its investigative feature "Our Oceans Are Turning to Plastic...Are We?"

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived in the Ordovician and Cambrian periods.

text: Ordovician

text: and

text: Cambrian

text: periods.

text: Benthos are the organisms that live in the benthic zone, and are different from those elsewhere in the water column. Many are adapted to live on the substrate (bottom). In their habitats they can be considered as dominant creatures, but they are often a source of prey for Carcharhinidae such as the lemon shark. Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the water column. The pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one atmosphere for each 10 meters of water depth).

text: Benthos are the organisms that live in the benthic zone, and are different from those elsewhere in the

text: water column

text: . Many are adapted to live on the substrate (bottom). In their habitats they can be considered as dominant creatures, but they are often a source of prey for

text: Carcharhinidae

text: such as the

text: lemon shark

text: . Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the water column. The pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one

text: atmosphere

text: for each 10 meters of water depth).

text: Hedenstroemiidae is an extinct family of cephalopods in the ammonoid order Ceratitida. They were nektonic carnivores.

text: Hedenstroemiidae is an extinct family of cephalopods in the

text: ammonoid

text: order

text: Ceratitida

text: . They were nektonic carnivores.

text: Stone Ocean follows the adventures of Jolyne Cujoh, estranged daughter of Jotaro, after she is framed for murder and placed into Florida's high security Green Dolphin Street Prison in 2012. Her father warns her that it is all a plan to kill her, as Dio's disciple Enrico Pucci plans on killing all of the Joestar line to create a world in Dio's image, before he is subject to Pucci's powers. Jolyne is given her Stand Stone Free and joins forces with fellow prisoners Ermes Costello, Weather Report, and Narciso Anasui, prison resident Emporio Alnino, and sentient Stand-using plankton Foo Fighters, to fight Pucci and his subordinates to save Jotaro and the world from Pucci's reality warping powers.

text: Stone Ocean follows the adventures of

text: Jolyne Cujoh

text: , estranged daughter of Jotaro, after she is framed for murder and placed into Florida's high security Green Dolphin Street Prison in 2012. Her father warns her that it is all a plan to kill her, as Dio's disciple

text: Enrico Pucci

text: plans on killing all of the Joestar line to create a world in Dio's image, before he is subject to Pucci's powers. Jolyne is given her Stand Stone Free and joins forces with fellow prisoners Ermes Costello, Weather Report, and Narciso Anasui, prison resident Emporio Alnino, and sentient Stand-using plankton Foo Fighters, to fight Pucci and his subordinates to save Jotaro and the world from Pucci's reality warping powers.

text: The bar is where the river's current dissipates into the Pacific Ocean, often as large standing waves.  The waves are partially caused by the deposition of sediment as the river slows, as well as mixing with ocean waves.  The waves, wind, and current are hazardous for vessels of all sizes. The Columbia current varies from 4 to 7 knots westward, and therefore into the predominantly westerly winds and ocean swells, creating significant surface conditions.Unlike other major rivers, the current is focused "like a fire hose" without the benefit of a river delta.Conditions can change from calm to life-threatening in as little as five minutes due to changes of direction of wind and ocean swell.Since 1792, approximately 2,000 large ships have sunk in and around the Columbia Bar, and because of the danger and the numerous shipwrecks the mouth of the Columbia River acquired a reputation worldwide as the Graveyard of the Pacific.

text: The bar is where the river's current dissipates into the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , often as large standing waves.  The waves are partially caused by the deposition of sediment as the river slows, as well as mixing with ocean waves.  The waves, wind, and current are hazardous for vessels of all sizes. The Columbia current varies from 4 to 7

text: knots

text: westward, and therefore into the predominantly westerly winds and ocean swells, creating significant surface conditions.Unlike other major rivers, the current is focused "like a fire hose" without the benefit of a

text: river delta

text: .Conditions can change from calm to life-threatening in as little as five minutes due to changes of direction of wind and ocean swell.Since 1792, approximately 2,000 large ships have sunk in and around the Columbia Bar, and because of the danger and the numerous shipwrecks the mouth of the Columbia River acquired a reputation worldwide as the

text: Graveyard of the Pacific

text: These cephalopods were fast-moving nektonic carnivores. They lived in the Cretaceous period (109.0 to 94.3 Ma).

text: The deepest deep-submergence vehicle (DSV) to date is Trieste. On 5 October 1959, Trieste departed San Diego for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton, a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On 23 January 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant Don Walsh, USN. This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of , although this was later revised to  and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep slightly shallower, at .

text: The deepest

text: deep-submergence vehicle

text: (DSV) to date is

text: Trieste

text: . On 5 October 1959, Trieste departed San Diego for

text: Guam

text: aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in

text: Project Nekton

text: , a series of very deep dives in the

text: Mariana Trench

text: . On 23 January 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying

text: Jacques Piccard

text: (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant

text: Don Walsh

text: , USN. This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of , although this was later revised to  and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep slightly shallower, at .

text: Phycotoxins (from Greek, phykos, "seaweed"; and toxikon, "toxin") are complex allelopathic chemicals produced by eukaryotic and prokaryotic algal secondary metabolic pathways. More simply, these are toxic chemicals synthesized by photosynthetic organisms. These metabolites are (in most cases) not harmful to the producer but may be toxic to either one or many members of the marine food web. This page focuses on phycotoxins produced by marine microalgae; however, freshwater algae and macroalgae are known phycotoxin producers and may exhibit analogous ecological dynamics.In the pelagic marine food web, phytoplankton are subjected to grazing by macro- and micro-zooplankton as well as competition for nutrients with other phytoplankton species. Marine bacteria try to obtain a share of organic carbon by maintaining symbiotic, parasitic, commensal, or predatory interactions with phytoplankton. Other bacteria will degrade dead phytoplankton or consume organic carbon released by viral lysis. The production of toxins is one strategy that phytoplankton use to deal with this broad range of predators, competitors, and parasites. Smetacek suggested that "planktonic evolution is ruled by protection and not competition. The many shapes of plankton reflect defense responses to specific attack systems". Indeed, phytoplankton retain an abundance of mechanical and chemical defense mechanisms including cell walls, spines, chain/colony formation, and toxic chemical production. These morphological and physiological features have been cited as evidence for strong predatory pressure in the marine environment. However, the importance of competition is also demonstrated by the production of phycotoxins that negatively impact other phytoplankton species.Flagellates (especially dinoflagellates) are the principle producers of phycotoxins; however, there are known toxigenic diatoms, cyanobacteria, prymnesiophytes, and raphidophytes. Because many of these allelochemicals are large and energetically expensive to produce, they are synthesized in small quantities. However, phycotoxins are known to accumulate in other organisms and can reach high concentrations during algal blooms. Additionally, as biologically active metabolites, phycotoxins may produce ecological effects at low concentrations. These effects may be subtle, but have the potential to impact the biogeographic distributions of phytoplankton and bloom dynamics.

text: Phycotoxins (from Greek, phykos, "seaweed"; and toxikon, "toxin") are complex

text: allelopathic

text: chemicals produced by

text: eukaryotic

text: and

text: prokaryotic

text: algal

text: secondary metabolic pathways

text: . More simply, these are toxic chemicals synthesized by

text: photosynthetic

text: organisms. These

text: metabolites

text: are (in most cases) not harmful to the producer but may be toxic to either one or many members of the marine food web. This page focuses on phycotoxins produced by marine

text: microalgae

text: ; however, freshwater algae and

text: macroalgae

text: are known phycotoxin producers and may exhibit analogous ecological dynamics.In the pelagic marine food web,

text: phytoplankton

text: are subjected to grazing by macro- and micro-

text: zooplankton

text: as well as competition for nutrients with other phytoplankton species. Marine

text: bacteria

text: try to obtain a share of organic carbon by maintaining

text: symbiotic

text: parasitic

text: commensal

text: , or

text: predatory

text: interactions with phytoplankton. Other bacteria will degrade dead phytoplankton or consume organic carbon released by

text: viral lysis

text: . The production of toxins is one strategy that phytoplankton use to deal with this broad range of predators, competitors, and parasites. Smetacek suggested that "planktonic evolution is ruled by protection and not

text: competition

text: . The many shapes of plankton reflect defense responses to specific attack systems". Indeed, phytoplankton retain an abundance of mechanical and chemical defense mechanisms including

text: cell walls

text: , spines, chain/

text: colony

text: formation, and toxic chemical production. These

text: morphological

text: and

text: physiological

text: features have been cited as evidence for strong predatory pressure in the marine environment. However, the importance of competition is also demonstrated by the production of phycotoxins that negatively impact other phytoplankton species.

text: Flagellate

text: s (especially

text: dinoflagellate

text: s) are the principle producers of phycotoxins; however, there are known toxigenic

text: diatoms

text: cyanobacteria

text: prymnesiophytes

text: , and

text: raphidophyte

text: s. Because many of these allelochemicals are large and energetically expensive to produce, they are synthesized in small quantities. However, phycotoxins are known to

text: accumulate

text: in other organisms and can reach high concentrations during

text: algal blooms

text: . Additionally, as biologically active

text: metabolite

text: s, phycotoxins may produce ecological effects at low concentrations. These effects may be subtle, but have the potential to impact the biogeographic distributions of phytoplankton and bloom dynamics.

text: Nutrients that do not get used up on the surface will eventually sink down and nourish the seafloor habitat. The deep benthic habitats of the ocean gyres have been thought to typically consist of some of the most food-poor regions on the planet. One of the sources of nutrients to this deep ocean habitat is marine snow. Marine snow consists of detritus, dead organic matter, which falls from the surface waters where productivity is highest and exports carbon and nitrogen from the surface mixed layer to the deep ocean. Data on the abundance of marine snow to the deep ocean floor is lacking in this large ecosystem. However, Pilskaln et al. found that in the NPSG, marine snow was at a higher abundance than expected and were surprisingly comparable to a deep coastal upwelling system.

text: Nutrients that do not get used up on the surface will eventually sink down and nourish the seafloor habitat. The deep

text: benthic habitats

text: of the ocean gyres have been thought to typically consist of some of the most food-poor regions on the planet. One of the sources of nutrients to this deep ocean habitat is

text: marine snow

text: . Marine snow consists of detritus, dead organic matter, which falls from the surface waters where productivity is highest and exports carbon and nitrogen from the surface mixed layer to the deep ocean. Data on the abundance of marine snow to the deep

text: ocean floor

text: is lacking in this large ecosystem. However, Pilskaln et al. found that in the NPSG, marine snow was at a higher abundance than expected and were surprisingly comparable to a deep coastal upwelling system.

text: These bodies of water have shaped life on Digby Neck in several ways. Their tides are among the highest in the world, spanning 50 feet (16 metres) in places. The rich and varied flora and fauna of the bays are a result of this tidal action. Regularly exposed swaths of wet ocean floor create a special environment for the species that inhabit these regions. Tidal action also causes a stirring up of the water, allowing whales to feed easily on agitated plankton. This is one reason why the Bay of Fundy is world-renowned for its whale watching trips.

text: These bodies of water have shaped life on Digby Neck in several ways. Their tides are among the highest in the world, spanning 50 feet (16 metres) in places. The rich and varied flora and fauna of the bays are a result of this tidal action. Regularly exposed swaths of wet ocean floor create a special environment for the species that inhabit these regions. Tidal action also causes a stirring up of the water, allowing whales to feed easily on agitated plankton. This is one reason why the

text: Bay of Fundy

text: is world-renowned for its whale watching trips.

text: T. tenuis burrows in clean sand and has a large foot and two long siphons which it extends to the surface of the sediment. Water and food particles are drawn down to the mollusc through one siphon while water is expelled through the other. It is both a deposit and a filter feeder. The mollusc usually lies on its left side when feeding. When the tide is out it descends to a depth of about ten centimetres but ascends to nearer the sediment surface when feeding. At the low tide level it may be the most abundant macro-organism in the benthos  and may reach a density of 3000 individuals per square metre.

text: T. tenuis burrows in clean sand and has a large foot and two long siphons which it extends to the surface of the sediment. Water and food particles are drawn down to the mollusc through one siphon while water is expelled through the other. It is both a

text: deposit

text: and a

text: filter feeder

text: . The mollusc usually lies on its left side when feeding. When the tide is out it descends to a depth of about ten centimetres but ascends to nearer the sediment surface when feeding. At the low tide level it may be the most abundant macro-organism in the

text: benthos

text: and may reach a density of 3000 individuals per square metre.

text: The National Ocean Service (NOS), an office within the U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), is responsible for preserving and enhancing the nation’s coastal resources and ecosystems along  of shoreline bordering  of coastal, Great Lakes, and ocean waters. Its mission is to "provide science-based solutions through collaborative partnerships to address evolving economic, environmental, and social pressures on our oceans and coasts." NOS works closely with many partner agencies to ensure that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, and productive. National Ocean Service scientists, natural resource managers, and specialists ensure safe and efficient marine transportation, promote innovative solutions to protect coastal communities, and conserve marine and coastal places. NOS is a scientific and technical organization of 1,700 scientists, natural resource managers, and specialists in many different fields. NOS delivers a dynamic range of nationwide coastal and Great Lakes scientific, technical, and resource management services in support of safe, healthy, and productive oceans and coasts. NOS develops partnerships to integrate expertise and efforts across all levels of government and with other interests to protect, maintain, and sustain the viability of coastal communities, economies and ecosystems.

text: The National Ocean Service (NOS), an office within the

text: U.S. Department of Commerce

text: (NOAA), is responsible for preserving and enhancing the nation’s coastal resources and

text: ecosystems

text: along  of shoreline bordering  of coastal,

text: Great Lakes

text: , and ocean waters. Its mission is to "provide science-based solutions through

text: collaborative partnerships

text: to address evolving economic, environmental, and social pressures on our oceans and coasts." NOS works closely with many partner agencies to ensure that

text: ocean

text: and

text: coastal

text: areas are safe, healthy, and productive. National Ocean Service scientists, natural resource managers, and specialists ensure safe and efficient marine transportation, promote innovative solutions to protect coastal communities, and conserve marine and coastal places. NOS is a scientific and technical organization of 1,700

text: scientists

text: , natural resource managers, and specialists in many different fields. NOS delivers a dynamic range of nationwide coastal and Great Lakes scientific, technical, and resource management services in support of safe, healthy, and productive oceans and coasts. NOS develops partnerships to integrate expertise and efforts across all levels of government and with other interests to protect, maintain, and sustain the viability of coastal communities, economies and ecosystems.

text: Texas A&M University at Galveston is an ocean-oriented branch campus of Texas A&M University offering undergraduate degrees in marine biology, marine fisheries, marine engineering technology, marine sciences, marine transportation, maritime administration, maritime studies, maritime systems engineering, oceans and coastal resources, and university studies such as marine environmental law and policy. In addition, the graduate programs include: a masters of marine resources management and a masters or Ph.D. (thesis and non-thesis) in marine biology.

text: Texas A&M University at Galveston

text: is an ocean-oriented branch campus of

text: Texas A&M University

text: offering undergraduate degrees in

text: marine biology

text: marine fisheries

text: marine engineering

text: technology,

text: marine sciences

text: marine transportation

text: , maritime administration, maritime studies, maritime systems engineering,

text: oceans

text: and

text: coastal

text: resources, and university studies such as marine

text: environmental law

text: and policy. In addition, the graduate programs include: a masters of marine resources management and a masters or Ph.D. (thesis and non-thesis) in marine biology.

text: Most of the DHA in fish and multi-cellular organisms with access to cold-water oceanic foods originates from photosynthetic and heterotrophic microalgae, and becomes increasingly concentrated in organisms the further they are up the food chain. DHA is also commercially manufactured from microalgae: Crypthecodinium cohnii and another of the genus Schizochytrium.  DHA manufactured using microalgae is vegetarian.

text: Most of the DHA in fish and multi-cellular organisms with access to cold-water oceanic foods originates from photosynthetic and heterotrophic

text: microalgae

text: , and becomes increasingly concentrated in organisms the further they are up the food chain. DHA is also commercially manufactured from microalgae:

text: Crypthecodinium cohnii

text: and another of the genus

text: Schizochytrium

text: .  DHA manufactured using microalgae is

text: vegetarian

text: Before 1978, scientists hypothesized that diatoms dominated plankton populations in the NPSG. The primary consumers were expected to be relatively large mesozooplankton. It is now well known that most of the algae in the NPSG are actually bacteria (unicellular organisms), dominated by cyanobacteria, or blue-green algae. These simple organisms make up the majority of the standing stock of photosynthesizing marine life in this ecosystem. Scientists have also recently discovered Archaea (also a single-celled microorganism, but more similar to a eukaryote than bacteria) genes in the NPSG, suggesting that additional diversity exists in this habitat. Many microorganisms may exist in this gyre because small body size has a competitive advantage in the ocean for resource (light and nutrients) acquisition. In the contemporary view of the NPSG, the microbial food web is always present, whereas the larger eukaryote-grazer food chain is seasonal and ephemeral.

text: Before 1978, scientists hypothesized that diatoms dominated plankton populations in the NPSG. The primary consumers were expected to be relatively large mesozooplankton. It is now well known that most of the algae in the NPSG are actually bacteria (unicellular organisms), dominated by cyanobacteria, or

text: blue-green algae

text: . These simple organisms make up the majority of the standing stock of photosynthesizing marine life in this ecosystem. Scientists have also recently discovered Archaea (also a single-celled

text: microorganism

text: , but more similar to a eukaryote than bacteria) genes in the NPSG, suggesting that additional diversity exists in this habitat. Many microorganisms may exist in this gyre because small body size has a

text: competitive advantage

text: in the ocean for resource (light and nutrients) acquisition. In the contemporary view of the NPSG, the microbial food web is always present, whereas the larger eukaryote-grazer food chain is seasonal and ephemeral.

text: Holoplankton are organisms that are planktonic (they live in the water column and cannot swim against a current) for their entire life cycle. Examples of holoplankton include some diatoms, radiolarians, some dinoflagellates, foraminifera, amphipods, krill, copepods, and salps, as well as some gastropod mollusk species. Holoplankton dwell in the pelagic zone as opposed to the benthic zone. Holoplankton include both phytoplankton and zooplankton and vary in size. The most common plankton are protists.

text: Holoplankton are organisms that are

text: plankton

text: ic (they live in the water column and cannot swim against a current) for their entire life cycle. Examples of holoplankton include some

text: diatom

text: s,

text: radiolarian

text: s, some

text: dinoflagellate

text: s,

text: foraminifera

text: amphipod

text: s,

text: krill

text: copepod

text: s, and

text: salp

text: s, as well as some

text: gastropod

text: mollusk species. Holoplankton dwell in the

text: pelagic zone

text: as opposed to the

text: benthic zone

text: . Holoplankton include both

text: phytoplankton

text: and

text: zooplankton

text: and vary in size. The most common plankton are

text: protist

text: s.

text: The sexes are separate in Anasterias rupicola and the females brood their young. Reproduction probably does not take place annually as, in a study in the summer of 1980, only 30 brooding individuals were collected out of a total of 1400 females. Up to 350 well-yolked eggs measuring  are found in an egg mass contained in a membrane held by the parent's tube feet near the centre of the oral surface. The eggs, and the juveniles when they hatch, are attached to the membrane by a thread. The eggs are laid in the summer and some of the juveniles are still being brooded nine months later. This parental care may be of particular benefit to this species rather than having planktonic larvae. This is because the island groups in which it lives are very isolated and the brooded young will not be dissipated in an inhospitable ocean but will end up in a location already inhabited by starfish and therefore suitable for their development into adults. In contrast to some other species of starfish, the parent continues to feed while brooding the young.

text: The sexes are separate in Anasterias rupicola and the females brood their young. Reproduction probably does not take place annually as, in a study in the summer of 1980, only 30 brooding individuals were collected out of a total of 1400 females. Up to 350 well-yolked

text: eggs

text: measuring  are found in an egg mass contained in a membrane held by the parent's tube feet near the centre of the oral surface. The eggs, and the juveniles when they hatch, are attached to the membrane by a thread. The eggs are laid in the summer and some of the juveniles are still being brooded nine months later. This parental care may be of particular benefit to this species rather than having

text: plankton

text: ic larvae. This is because the island groups in which it lives are very isolated and the brooded young will not be dissipated in an inhospitable ocean but will end up in a location already inhabited by starfish and therefore suitable for their development into adults. In contrast to some other species of starfish, the parent continues to feed while brooding the young.

text: The Transphibian was initially developed by the Nekton Corporation in Durham, North Carolina. iRobot acquired Nekton in September, 2008.

text: The Transphibian was initially developed by the Nekton Corporation in Durham, North Carolina.

text: iRobot

text: acquired Nekton in September, 2008.

text: The study of plankton is termed planktology and a planktonic individual is referred to as a plankter.

text: The study of plankton is termed

text: planktology

text: and a planktonic individual is referred to as a plankter.

text: Whale feces,  the excrement of whales, has a significant role in the ecology of the oceans, and whales have been referred to as "marine ecosystem engineers". Nitrogen released by cetacean species and iron chelate are a significant benefit to the marine food chain in addition to sequestering carbon for long periods of time. Whale feces can give information on a number of aspects of the health, natural history and ecology of an animal or group as it contains DNA, hormones, toxins and other chemicals.

text: Whale feces,  the

text: excrement

text: of

text: whale

text: s, has a significant role in the

text: ecology

text: of the

text: ocean

text: s, and whales have been referred to as "marine ecosystem engineers". Nitrogen released by cetacean species and

text: iron chelate

text: are a significant benefit to the marine

text: food chain

text: in addition to sequestering carbon for long periods of time. Whale feces can give information on a number of aspects of the health, natural history and ecology of an animal or group as it contains DNA, hormones, toxins and other chemicals.

text: In the ocean a large portion of the biomass is found to be nitrogen-rich plankton.  Many of these plankton are consumed by other plankton biomass which have similar chemical compositions. This results in a similar nitrogen to phosphorus ratio, on average, for all the plankton throughout the world’s ocean, empirically found to be averaging approximately 16:1.  When these organisms sink into the ocean interior, their energy-rich bodies are consumed by bacteria that, in aerobic conditions, oxidize the organic matter to form dissolved inorganic nutrients, mainly carbon dioxide, nitrate, and phosphate.

text: In the ocean a large portion of the biomass is found to be nitrogen-rich plankton.  Many of these plankton are consumed by other plankton biomass which have similar chemical compositions. This results in a similar nitrogen to phosphorus ratio, on average, for all the plankton throughout the world’s ocean, empirically found to be averaging approximately 16:1.  When these organisms sink into the ocean interior, their energy-rich bodies are consumed by bacteria that, in

text: aerobic

text: conditions,

text: oxidize

text: the organic matter to form dissolved inorganic nutrients, mainly

text: carbon dioxide

text: , nitrate, and phosphate.

text: Pteropods and brittle stars both form the base of the Arctic food webs and are both seriously damaged from acidification. Pteropods shells dissolve with increasing acidification and the brittle stars lose muscle mass when re-growing appendages. For pteropods to create shells they require aragonite which is produced through carbonate ions and dissolved calcium. Pteropods are severely affected because increasing acidification levels have steadily decreased the amount of water supersaturated with carbonate which is needed for aragonite creation. Arctic waters are changing so rapidly that they will become undersaturated with aragonite as early as 2016. Additionally the brittle star's eggs die within a few days when exposed to expected conditions resulting from Arctic acidification. Acidification threatens to destroy Arctic food webs from the base up. Arctic food webs are considered simple, meaning there are few steps in the food chain from small organisms to larger predators. For example, pteropods are “a key prey item of a number of higher predators - larger plankton, fish, seabirds, whales" Both pteropods and sea stars serve as a substantial food source and their removal from the simple food web would pose a serious threat to the whole ecosystem. The effects on the calcifying organisms at the base of the food webs could potentially destroy fisheries. The value of fish caught from US commercial fisheries in 2007 was valued at $3.8 billion and of that 73% was derived from calcifiers and their direct predators. Other organisms are directly harmed as a result of acidification. For example, decrease in the growth of marine calcifiers such as the American Lobster, Ocean Quahog, and scallops means there is less shellfish meat available for sale and consumption. Red king crab fisheries are also at a serious threat because crabs are calcifiers and rely on carbonate ions for shell development. Baby red king crab when exposed to increased acidification levels experienced 100% mortality after 95 days. In 2006 Red King Cab accounted for 23% of the total guideline harvest levels and a serious decline in red crab population would threaten the crab harvesting industry.  Several ocean goods and services are likely to be undermined by future ocean acidification potentially affecting the livelihoods of some 400 to 800 million people depending upon the emission scenario.

text: Pteropods

text: and

text: brittle star

text: s both form the base of the Arctic

text: food web

text: American Lobster

text: Ocean Quahog

text: , and

text: scallop

text: s means there is less shellfish meat available for sale and consumption. Red king crab fisheries are also at a serious threat because crabs are calcifiers and rely on carbonate ions for shell development. Baby red king crab when exposed to increased acidification levels experienced 100% mortality after 95 days. In 2006 Red King Cab accounted for 23% of the total guideline harvest levels and a serious decline in red crab population would threaten the crab harvesting industry.  Several ocean goods and services are likely to be undermined by future ocean acidification potentially affecting the livelihoods of some 400 to 800 million people depending upon the emission scenario.

text: The documentary shows Cameron's passion for exploring the oceans, as well as his interest in extraterrestrial life. It also showcases the technology employed to reach such depths.

text: Perhaps one of the most recent adverse effects of climate change to be explored is that of ocean acidification. Our oceans cover approximately 71 percent of the Earth's surface and support a diverse range of ecosystems, which are home to over 50 percent of all the species on the planet. Oceans regulate climate and weather as well as providing nutrition for a vast variety of species, humans included. Covering such an extensive part of the planet has allowed the oceans to absorb a large portion of the carbon dioxide () from the atmosphere. This process is part of the carbon cycle in which the fluxes of carbon dioxide () in Earth's atmosphere, biosphere and lithosphere are described. Humans have drastically added to the amount of carbon dioxide () in the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels and the process of deforestation. Oceans work as a sink absorbing excess anthropogenic carbon dioxide (). As the oceans absorb anthropogenic carbon dioxide () it breaks down into carbonic acid, a mild acid, this neutralizes the normally alkaline ocean water. As a result, the pH in the oceans is declining. In the research surrounding global climate change we are only just beginning to realize that our oceans can sequester a finite amount of  before we start seeing impacts on marine life that could lead to devastating losses. Acidification of our oceans has the potential to drastically alter life as we know it - from extreme weather patterns and food scarcity to a loss of millions of species from the planet - all of these consequences hold the potential to directly affect human health.

text: Perhaps one of the most recent adverse

text: effects of climate change

text: to be explored is that of

text: ocean acidification

text: . Our

text: oceans

text: cover approximately 71 percent of the

text: Earth

text: 's surface and support a diverse range of

text: ecosystems

text: , which are home to over 50 percent of all the

text: species

text: on the planet. Oceans regulate

text: climate

text: and

text: weather

text: as well as providing

text: nutrition

text: for a vast variety of species, humans included. Covering such an extensive part of the planet has allowed the oceans to absorb a large portion of the

text: carbon dioxide ()

text: from the

text: atmosphere

text: . This process is part of the

text: carbon cycle

text: in which the fluxes of

text: carbon dioxide ()

text: in Earth's

text: atmosphere

text: biosphere

text: and

text: lithosphere

text: are described. Humans have drastically added to the amount of

text: carbon dioxide ()

text: in the atmosphere through the burning of

text: fossil fuels

text: and the process of

text: deforestation

text: . Oceans work as a sink absorbing excess

text: anthropogenic

text: carbon dioxide

text: (). As the oceans absorb

text: anthropogenic

text: carbon dioxide

text: () it breaks down into

text: carbonic acid

text: , a mild acid, this neutralizes the normally

text: alkaline

text: ocean water. As a result, the pH in the oceans is declining. In the research surrounding global climate change we are only just beginning to realize that our oceans can sequester a finite amount of  before we start seeing impacts on marine life that could lead to devastating losses. Acidification of our oceans has the potential to drastically alter life as we know it - from

text: extreme weather

text: patterns and

text: food scarcity

text: to a loss of millions of species from the planet - all of these consequences hold the potential to directly affect

text: human health

text: Beyrichoceras has been described as a "fast-moving nektonic carnivore". Its small, involutely coiled form nevertheless suggest a floating nektonic or nekto-benthic stalker capable to sudden swift maneuvering. As with all known cephalopods, Beyrichoceras was undoubtedly carnivorous.

text: The regimental quick march of the Corps is "A Life on the Ocean Wave", while the slow march is the march of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, awarded to the Corps by Admiral of the Fleet Earl Mountbatten of Burma on the occasion of the Corps's tercentenary in 1964. Lord Mountbatten was Life Colonel Commandant of the Royal Marines until his murder by the IRA in 1979.

text: The regimental quick march of the Corps is "

text: A Life on the Ocean Wave

text: ", while the slow march is the

text: march

text: of the

text: Preobrazhensky Regiment

text: , awarded to the Corps by Admiral of the Fleet

text: Earl Mountbatten

text: of Burma on the occasion of the Corps's tercentenary in 1964. Lord Mountbatten was Life Colonel Commandant of the Royal Marines until his murder by the IRA in 1979.

text: An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic salinity is around 35 parts per thousand (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several 'separate' oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean.  The deep seabeds are more than half the Earth's surface, and are among the least-modified natural environments.  The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria: these divisions are (in descending order of size) the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.

text: An

text: ocean

text: is a major body of

text: saline water

text: , and a component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's

text: surface

text: (an area of some 362 million square kilometers) is covered by ocean, a

text: continuous body of water

text: that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller

text: sea

text: s. More than half of this area is over 3,000 meters (9,800 ft) deep. Average oceanic

text: salinity

text: is around 35

text: parts per thousand

text: (ppt) (3.5%), and nearly all seawater has a salinity in the range of 30 to 38 ppt. Though generally recognized as several 'separate' oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water often referred to as the

text: World Ocean

text: or global ocean.  The deep

text: seabed

text: s are more than half the Earth's surface, and are among the least-modified natural environments.  The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the

text: continent

text: s, various

text: archipelago

text: s, and other criteria: these divisions are (in descending order of size) the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , the

text: Indian Ocean

text: , the

text: Southern Ocean

text: and the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: Deep waters are rich in nutrients, including nitrate, phosphate and silicic acid, themselves the result of decomposition of sinking organic matter (dead/detrital plankton) from surface waters. When brought to the surface, these nutrients are utilized by phytoplankton, along with dissolved CO (carbon dioxide) and light energy from the sun, to produce organic compounds, through the process of photosynthesis.  Upwelling regions therefore result in very high levels of primary production (the amount of carbon fixed by phytoplankton) in comparison to other areas of the ocean. They account for about 50% of global marine productivity.  High primary production propagates up the food chain because phytoplankton are at the base of the oceanic food chain.

text: Deep waters are rich in nutrients, including

text: nitrate

text: phosphate

text: and

text: silicic acid

text: , themselves the result of

text: decomposition

text: of sinking

text: organic matter

text: (dead/detrital plankton) from surface waters. When brought to the surface, these nutrients are utilized by

text: phytoplankton

text: , along with dissolved CO (

text: carbon dioxide

text: ) and light energy from the

text: sun

text: , to produce

text: organic compound

text: s, through the process of

text: photosynthesis

text: .  Upwelling regions therefore result in very high levels of primary production (the amount of carbon fixed by

text: phytoplankton

text: ) in comparison to other areas of the ocean. They account for about 50% of global marine productivity.  High primary production propagates up the

text: food chain

text: because

text: phytoplankton

text: are at the base of the oceanic food chain.

text: The deepest recorded oceanic trenches measure to date is the Mariana Trench, near the Philippines, in the Pacific Ocean at 10,924 m (35,838 ft). At such depths, water pressure is extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists. A white flatfish, a shrimp and a jellyfish were seen by the American crew of the bathyscaphe Trieste when it dove to the bottom in 1960.

text: The deepest recorded

text: oceanic trench

text: es measure to date is the

text: Mariana Trench

text: , near the

text: Philippines

text: , in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: at 10,924 m (35,838 ft). At such depths,

text: water pressure

text: is extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists. A white

text: flatfish

text: , a shrimp and a jellyfish were seen by the American crew of the

text: bathyscaphe

text: Trieste

text: when it dove to the bottom in 1960.

text: There is significant evidence that lava flow rates have been increasing. Over the last six million years they have been far higher than ever before, at over  per year. The average for the last million years is even higher, at about . In comparison, the average production rate at a mid-ocean ridge is about  for every  of ridge. The rate along the Emperor seamount chain averaged about  per year. The rate was almost zero for the initial five million or so years in the hotspot's life. The average lava production rate along the Hawaiian chain has been greater, at   per year. In total, the hotspot has produced an estimated  of lava, enough to cover California with a layer about  thick.

text: There is significant evidence that lava flow rates have been increasing. Over the last six million years they have been far higher than ever before, at over  per year. The average for the last million years is even higher, at about . In comparison, the average production rate at a

text: mid-ocean ridge

text: is about  for every  of ridge. The rate along the Emperor seamount chain averaged about  per year. The rate was almost zero for the initial five million or so years in the hotspot's life. The average lava production rate along the Hawaiian chain has been greater, at   per year. In total, the hotspot has produced an estimated  of lava, enough to cover

text: California

text: with a layer about  thick.

text: They carried enough water for a few weeks and after that they had to rely on rain water, collected in buckets. Clearing the logs of seaweed and slime became one of the essential daily tasks. The rafts were stocked with rice, beans and some preserves, but the main food source was seafood caught on the way - tuna, mahi-mahi and small pilot fish. Fish was abundant in the water surrounding the rafts, once a localised marine food chain had been established, with barnacles attached to the raft at the bottom of the chain. Twice the crew had to kill sharks, as they were scaring food away, while on another occasion one raft was pulled around as an unnoticed hammerhead shark took some bait on a line. The subject of food became a fixation for the crew. In the hot weather each man had to drink a pint of sea water each day to compensate for the lack of salt from dehydration. Each raft had a short range radio for use in emergency and enabled them to contact land every third day.

text: They carried enough water for a few weeks and after that they had to rely on rain water, collected in buckets. Clearing the logs of seaweed and slime became one of the essential daily tasks. The rafts were stocked with rice, beans and some preserves, but the main food source was seafood caught on the way - tuna,

text: mahi-mahi

text: and small pilot fish. Fish was abundant in the water surrounding the rafts, once a localised marine food chain had been established, with barnacles attached to the raft at the bottom of the chain. Twice the crew had to kill sharks, as they were scaring food away, while on another occasion one raft was pulled around as an unnoticed hammerhead shark took some bait on a line. The subject of food became a fixation for the crew. In the hot weather each man had to drink a pint of sea water each day to compensate for the lack of salt from

text: dehydration

text: . Each raft had a short range radio for use in emergency and enabled them to contact land every third day.

text: The lake contains both phytoplankton and zooplankton, such as Copepoda and Cladocera. The benthos species include Crustacea, Oligochaeta, Diptera and Bivalvia. In addition are several species of fish, including Salvelinus salvelinus, Coregonus lavaretus and Salmo salar. The lake is known for its Vättern char, as it is called, Salvelinus alpinus.

text: The lake contains both

text: phytoplankton

text: and

text: zooplankton

text: , such as

text: Copepoda

text: and

text: Cladocera

text: . The

text: benthos

text: species include

text: Crustacea

text: Oligochaeta

text: Diptera

text: and

text: Bivalvia

text: . In addition are several species of fish, including

text: Salvelinus salvelinus

text: Coregonus lavaretus

text: and

text: Salmo salar

text: . The lake is known for its Vättern char, as it is called,

text: Salvelinus alpinus

text: Because ocean color data is related to the presence of phytoplankton and particulates, it can be used to calculate the concentrations of material in surface waters and the level of biological activity; as phytoplankton concentration increases, ocean color shifts from blue to green (note that most CZCS images are false colored, so that high levels of phytoplankton appear as red or orange).  Satellite-based ocean color observations provide a global picture of life in the world's oceans, because phytoplankton is the basis for the vast majority of oceanic food chains.  By recording images over a period of years, scientists also gained a better understanding of how the phytoplankton biomass changed over time; for instance, red tide blooms could be observed when they grew.  Ocean color measurements are also of interest because phytoplankton removes carbon dioxide from the sea water during photosynthesis, and so forms an important part of the global carbon cycle.

text: Because ocean color data is related to the presence of phytoplankton and particulates, it can be used to calculate the concentrations of material in surface waters and the level of biological activity; as phytoplankton concentration increases, ocean color shifts from blue to green (note that most CZCS images are

text: false color

text: ed, so that high levels of phytoplankton appear as red or orange).  Satellite-based ocean color observations provide a global picture of life in the world's oceans, because phytoplankton is the basis for the vast majority of oceanic

text: food chain

text: s.  By recording images over a period of years, scientists also gained a better understanding of how the phytoplankton biomass changed over time; for instance,

text: red tide

text: bloom

text: s could be observed when they grew.  Ocean color measurements are also of interest because phytoplankton removes carbon dioxide from the sea water during photosynthesis, and so forms an important part of the global carbon cycle.

text: It range in the western Pacific Ocean ranges from the Gulf of Thailand north to the Yellow Sea and Japan. The range in the Pacific Ocean extends to the Philippines, Indonesia, and all the way to Polynesia and Hawaii. In the eastern Pacific Ocean, They are found from Mexico and around the Gulf of California down to Peru and the Galapagos Islands. Around the Indian Ocean, it ranges from the Red Sea and eastern Africa to Seychelles, the Maldives, the Persian Gulf, India, Sri Lanka, the Andaman Sea, Australia, and Indonesia. Populations in the Atlantic Ocean range from New York down to the Gulf of Mexico, the Bahamas, the Caribbean Sea and down to Brazil in the western side. Around the eastern Atlantic Ocean, it ranges from the British Isles and the Bay of Biscay to Azores, the Canary Islands and western Africa. Some populations are also found in South Africa. This species of fish is found in open seas. It occurs at depth of .

text: It range in the western

text: Pacific Ocean

text: ranges from the

text: Gulf of Thailand

text: north to the

text: Yellow Sea

text: and

text: Japan

text: . The range in the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: extends to the

text: Philippines

text: Indonesia

text: , and all the way to

text: Polynesia

text: and

text: Hawaii

text: . In the eastern

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , They are found from

text: Mexico

text: and around the

text: Gulf of California

text: down to

text: Peru

text: and the

text: Galapagos Islands

text: . Around the

text: Indian Ocean

text: , it ranges from the

text: Red Sea

text: and eastern

text: Africa

text: to

text: Seychelles

text: , the

text: Maldives

text: , the

text: Persian Gulf

text: India

text: Sri Lanka

text: , the

text: Andaman Sea

text: Australia

text: , and

text: Indonesia

text: . Populations in the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: range from

text: New York

text: down to the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: , the

text: Bahamas

text: , the

text: Caribbean Sea

text: and down to

text: Brazil

text: in the western side. Around the eastern

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , it ranges from the

text: British Isles

text: and the

text: Bay of Biscay

text: to

text: Azores

text: , the

text: Canary Islands

text: and western

text: Africa

text: . Some populations are also found in

text: South Africa

text: . This species of fish is found in open seas. It occurs at depth of .

text: Squidward's voice is provided by actor Rodger Bumpass, who voices several other SpongeBob SquarePants characters, including Squidward's mother. While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997, Hillenburg and the show's then-creative director Derek Drymon were also conducting voice auditions. Mr. Lawrence, who had worked with Hillenburg and Drymon on Rocko's Modern Life, was Hillenburg's first choice for the role. Hillenburg had invited Lawrence to audition for all the show's characters. Instead of Squidward, Hillenburg decided to give Lawrence the part of Plankton, the series' villain.

text: Squidward's voice is provided by actor Rodger Bumpass, who voices several other SpongeBob SquarePants characters, including Squidward's mother. While creating the show and writing

text: its pilot episode

text: in 1997, Hillenburg and the show's then-creative director

text: Derek Drymon

text: were also conducting voice auditions.

text: Mr. Lawrence

text: , who had worked with Hillenburg and Drymon on Rocko's Modern Life, was Hillenburg's first choice for the role. Hillenburg had invited Lawrence to audition for all the show's characters. Instead of Squidward, Hillenburg decided to give Lawrence the part of

text: Plankton

text: , the series' villain.

text: Earth surface waters are filled with life. The earliest life forms appeared in water; nearly all fish live exclusively in water, and there are many types of marine mammals, such as dolphins and whales. Some kinds of animals, such as amphibians, spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land. Plants such as kelp and algae grow in the water and are the basis for some underwater ecosystems. Plankton is generally the foundation of the ocean food chain.

text: Earth surface waters are filled with life. The earliest life forms appeared in water; nearly all

text: fish

text: live exclusively in water, and there are many types of marine mammals, such as

text: dolphin

text: s and

text: whale

text: s. Some kinds of animals, such as

text: amphibian

text: s, spend portions of their lives in water and portions on land. Plants such as

text: kelp

text: and

text: algae

text: Plankton

text: food chain

text: Global Census of Marine Life on Seamounts (commonly CenSeam) is a global scientific initiative, launched in 2005, that is designed to expand the knowledge base of marine life at seamounts. Seamounts are underwater mountains, not necessarily volcanic in origin, which often form subsurface archipelagoes and are found throughout the world's ocean basins, with almost half in the Pacific. There are estimated to be as many as 100,000 seamounts at least one kilometer in height, and more if lower rises are included. However, they have not been explored very much—in fact, only about half of one percent have been sampled—and almost every expedition to a seamount discovers new species and new information. There is evidence that seamounts can host concentrations of biologic diversity, each with its own unique local ecosystem; they seem to affect oceanic currents, resulting among other things in local concentration of plankton which in turn attracts species that graze on it, and indeed are probably a significant overall factor in biogeography of the oceans. They also may serve as way stations in the migration of whales and other pelagic species. Despite being poorly studied, they are heavily targeted by commercial fishing, including dredging. In addition they are of interest to potential seabed mining.

text: Global Census of Marine Life on Seamounts (commonly CenSeam) is a global scientific initiative, launched in 2005, that is designed to expand the knowledge base of marine life at

text: seamount

text: s. Seamounts are underwater mountains, not necessarily volcanic in origin, which often form subsurface archipelagoes and are found throughout the world's ocean basins, with almost half in the Pacific. There are estimated to be as many as 100,000 seamounts at least one kilometer in height, and more if lower rises are included. However, they have not been explored very much—in fact, only about half of one percent have been sampled—and almost every expedition to a seamount discovers new species and new information. There is evidence that seamounts can host concentrations of biologic diversity, each with its own unique local ecosystem; they seem to affect

text: oceanic currents

text: , resulting among other things in local concentration of

text: plankton

text: which in turn attracts species that graze on it, and indeed are probably a significant overall factor in

text: biogeography

text: of the oceans. They also may serve as way stations in the migration of whales and other pelagic species. Despite being poorly studied, they are heavily targeted by

text: commercial fishing

text: , including

text: dredging

text: . In addition they are of interest to potential seabed mining.

text: The modern hamburger was developed in the United States, but by the end of World War II, around the middle of the 20th century, it began to spread to other countries as fast food became globalized. The main cause of this gradual globalization was the successes of the large restaurant chains. Their desires to expand their businesses and increase their profits resulted in them creating franchises around the world. McDonald's was among the very first of the burger chains to take the global establishment of its brand seriously, but it was not the only one. Wimpy began operating in the United Kingdom in 1954, 20 years before McDonald's began operation in the country, and by 1970 it had expanded to over a thousand restaurants in 23 countries. On August 21, 1971, in Zaandam, near Amsterdam in the Netherlands, Ahold opened its first European franchise. In the 1970s, McDonald's began to expand into Europe and Australia. In Asia, Japan saw the establishment of its own fast food chain in 1972: , an abbreviation of "Mountain, Ocean, Sun", which eventually became a direct competitor to McDonald's. All of its products, however, were variations on the burger adapted to the Asian world, including the teriyaki burger, takumi burger, and riceburger. In Hong Kong, Aji Ichiban competed with large chains before it spread quickly throughout Asia. One of the first hamburger vending machines debuted in Amsterdam in 1941 under the brand FEBO, its name derived from its original place of creation, the Ferdinand Bolstraat.

text: The modern hamburger was developed in the United States, but by the end of World War II, around the middle of the 20th century, it began to spread to other countries as fast food became

text: globalized

text: . The main cause of this gradual globalization was the successes of the large

text: restaurant chain

text: s. Their desires to expand their businesses and increase their profits resulted in them creating

text: franchises

text: around the world.

text: McDonald's

text: was among the very first of the burger chains to take the global establishment of its brand seriously, but it was not the only one.

text: Wimpy

text: began operating in the United Kingdom in 1954, 20 years before McDonald's began operation in the country, and by 1970 it had expanded to over a thousand restaurants in 23 countries. On August 21, 1971, in

text: Zaandam

text: , near

text: Amsterdam

text: in the Netherlands,

text: Ahold

text: opened its first European franchise. In the 1970s, McDonald's began to expand into Europe and Australia. In Asia, Japan saw the establishment of its own fast food chain in 1972: , an abbreviation of "Mountain, Ocean, Sun", which eventually became a direct competitor to McDonald's. All of its products, however, were variations on the burger adapted to the Asian world, including the teriyaki burger, takumi burger, and

text: riceburger

text: . In Hong Kong,

text: Aji Ichiban

text: competed with large chains before it spread quickly throughout Asia. One of the first hamburger

text: vending machine

text: s debuted in Amsterdam in 1941 under the brand

text: FEBO

text: , its name derived from its original place of creation, the

text: Ferdinand Bolstraat

text: Starting in 2008, Dre Knight began to pursue a solo career. Dre's first solo project was producing and composing for Sizzla. This led to the production of his entire album entitled "Welcome to The Good Life".  Dre and Sizzla became good friends and travel to various countries to promote the album, these including Canada and Barbados. While in Barbados, Dre began producing many of the local artists. In 2010, Dre relocated to Los Angeles where he would work with a number of artists including Ginuwine, Omarion, Dizzee Rascal, K. Michelle, and Frank Ocean.  He went on to produce Frank Oceans single "Acura Intergirl" which landed the number one spot on Billboard's "Frank Oceans 10 Best Pre-"Channel Orange" Tracks".

text: Starting in 2008, Dre Knight began to pursue a solo career. Dre's first solo project was producing and composing for

text: Sizzla

text: . This led to the production of his entire album entitled "Welcome to The Good Life".  Dre and

text: Sizzla

text: became good friends and travel to various countries to promote the album, these including Canada and Barbados. While in Barbados, Dre began producing many of the local artists. In 2010, Dre relocated to Los Angeles where he would work with a number of artists including

text: Ginuwine

text: Omarion

text: Dizzee Rascal

text: K. Michelle

text: , and

text: Frank Ocean

text: .  He went on to produce

text: Frank Ocean

text: s single "Acura Intergirl" which landed the number one spot on

text: Billboard

text: 's "Frank Oceans 10 Best Pre-"Channel Orange" Tracks".

text: The mollusc was a fast moving nektonic carnivore and had an average shell width of 6.23 mm and shell diameter of 9.54 mm.

text: The traditional approach to fisheries management has been to focus on a single species - determining how many can be caught before the breeding population is affected to the point of harming the species fishery. There is a current trend towards ecosystem based fisheries. Removing any fish affects other marine life up and down the food chain, such as marine life that eat the fish, and the marine life eating the marine life that eat the fish. Scientists from NIWA are examining over 40,000 fish stomachs to see what different species are eating across the Chatham Rise. These studies, combined with other studies on marine mammals and sea birds and with relevant ocean and climate studies, will show how the different parts fit together in the Chatham Rise ecosystem.

text: The traditional approach to

text: fisheries management

text: has been to focus on a single species - determining how many can be caught before the breeding population is affected to the point of harming the species fishery. There is a current trend towards

text: ecosystem based fisheries

text: . Removing any fish affects other marine life up and down the

text: food chain

text: , such as marine life that eat the fish, and the marine life eating the marine life that eat the fish. Scientists from

entity_name: National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research

text: NIWA

text: are examining over 40,000 fish stomachs to see what different species are eating across the Chatham Rise. These studies, combined with other studies on marine mammals and sea birds and with relevant ocean and climate studies, will show how the different parts fit together in the Chatham Rise ecosystem.

text: It is thought that plankton blooms dictate where whales migrate. This usually occurs in the polar regions during the sunny spring and summer months, bringing along other plankton such as euphausiids which whales feed on. They also migrate to calving grounds in tropical waters during the winter months when plankton populations are low. As well as this, newborns, with underdeveloped blubber, would likely die of frostbite in the winter temperatures. It is also postulated by a 2008 study that these take place to avoid calves being predated on by killer whales. The migration cycle is repeated annually. The gray whale has the longest recorded migration of any mammal, with one traveling  from the Sea of Okhotsk to the Baja Peninsula.

text: It is thought that plankton blooms dictate where whales migrate. This usually occurs in the polar regions during the sunny spring and summer months, bringing along other plankton such as

text: euphausiid

text: s which whales feed on. They also migrate to calving grounds in tropical waters during the winter months when plankton populations are low. As well as this, newborns, with underdeveloped blubber, would likely die of frostbite in the winter temperatures. It is also postulated by a 2008 study that these take place to avoid calves being predated on by

text: killer whale

text: s. The migration cycle is repeated annually. The gray whale has the longest recorded migration of any mammal, with one traveling  from the Sea of Okhotsk to the

text: Baja Peninsula

text: Microfossils are especially noteworthy for their importance in biostratigraphy.  Since microfossils are often extremely abundant, widespread, and quick to appear and disappear from the stratigraphic record, they constitute ideal index fossils from a biostratigraphic perspective.  In addition, the planktonic and nektonic habits of some microfossils gives them the added bonus of appearing across a wide range of facies or paleoenvironments, as well as having near-global distribution, making biostratigraphic correlation even more powerful and effective.

text: Microfossils are especially noteworthy for their importance in

text: biostratigraphy

text: .  Since microfossils are often extremely abundant, widespread, and quick to appear and disappear from the stratigraphic record, they constitute ideal

text: index fossils

text: from a biostratigraphic perspective.  In addition, the

text: planktonic

text: and

text: nektonic

text: habits of some microfossils gives them the added bonus of appearing across a wide range of

text: facies

text: or paleoenvironments, as well as having near-global distribution, making biostratigraphic correlation even more powerful and effective.

text: Zooplankton is a categorization spanning a range of organism sizes including small protozoans and large metazoans.  It includes holoplanktonic organisms whose complete life cycle lies within the plankton, as well as meroplanktonic organisms that spend part of their lives in the plankton before graduating to either the nekton or a sessile, benthic existence.  Although zooplankton are primarily transported by ambient water currents, many have locomotion, used to avoid predators (as in diel vertical migration) or to increase prey encounter rate.

text: Zooplankton is a categorization spanning a range of

text: organism

text: sizes including small

text: protozoa

text: ns and large

text: metazoa

text: ns.  It includes

text: holoplankton

text: ic organisms whose complete

text: life cycle

text: lies within the plankton, as well as

text: meroplankton

text: ic organisms that spend part of their lives in the plankton before graduating to either the

text: nekton

text: or a

text: sessile

text: benthic

text: existence.  Although zooplankton are primarily transported by ambient water currents, many have

text: locomotion

text: , used to avoid predators (as in

text: diel vertical migration

text: ) or to increase prey encounter rate.

text: The main food sources for the benthos are algae and organic runoff from land. The depth of water, temperature and salinity, and type of local substrate all affect what benthos is present. In coastal waters and other places where light reaches the bottom, benthic photosynthesizing diatoms can proliferate. Filter feeders, such as sponges and bivalves, dominate hard, sandy bottoms. Deposit feeders, such as polychaetes, populate softer bottoms. Fish, such as dragonets, as well as sea stars, snails, cephalopods, and crustaceans are important predators and scavengers.

text: The main food sources for the benthos are

text: algae

text: and organic runoff from land. The depth of water, temperature and salinity, and type of local substrate all affect what benthos is present. In coastal waters and other places where light reaches the bottom, benthic

text: photosynthesizing

text: diatoms

text: can proliferate.

text: Filter feeder

text: s, such as

text: sponge

text: s and

text: bivalve

text: s, dominate hard, sandy bottoms. Deposit feeders, such as

text: polychaete

text: s, populate softer bottoms. Fish, such as

text: dragonets

text: , as well as

text: sea star

text: s,

text: snail

text: s,

text: cephalopod

text: s, and

text: crustacean

text: s are important predators and scavengers.

text: M. pacifica was described in 1998 by Michael Vecchione and Richard E. Young based on three specimens. The holotype is a juvenile specimen of 51 mm mantle length (ML), taken off the Californian coast at a depth of 0-200 m in a Bongo plankton net. The paratype (USNM 885787), a juvenile specimen of 49 mm ML, was found in the stomach of a lancetfish (Alepisaurus ferox). It had initially dried out and was later reconstituted.  The third individual, a 19.1 mm ML paralarva, was taken off Hawaii at a depth of 0-300 m in a 4 m plankton net.

text: M. pacifica was described in 1998 by Michael Vecchione and Richard E. Young based on three specimens. The

text: holotype

text: is a juvenile specimen of 51 mm

text: mantle

text: length (ML), taken off the

text: California

text: n coast at a depth of 0-200 m in a Bongo

text: plankton net

text: . The

text: paratype

text: (USNM 885787), a juvenile specimen of 49 mm ML, was found in the stomach of a

text: lancetfish

text: Alepisaurus ferox

text: ). It had initially dried out and was later reconstituted.  The third individual, a 19.1 mm ML paralarva, was taken off

text: Hawaii

text: at a depth of 0-300 m in a 4 m plankton net.

text: In situ, controlled perturbation experiments, often conducted over weeks to months, can provide inference concerning the response of natural communities to ocean acidification that is difficult or impossible to derive from laboratory experiments. Studies conducted in situ can include the effects of potentially important factors such as natural variation in planktonic food resources, larval abundance, changes in predators or competitors, as well as oceanographic conditions (e.g. changes in upwelling intensity). Drawing on the experience of Free Air CO Enrichment (FACE) experiments used to investigate the response of terrestrial plant communities to rising atmospheric CO levels, the scientific community has developed an analogous approach, Free Ocean CO Enrichment (FOCE) experiments, for studying marine communities, and to complement a range of experimental methods and technologies for ocean acidification studies research. FOCE was first proposed and implemented by researchers at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI).

text: In situ, controlled perturbation experiments, often conducted over weeks to months, can provide inference concerning the response of natural communities to ocean acidification that is difficult or impossible to derive from laboratory experiments. Studies conducted in situ can include the effects of potentially important factors such as natural variation in planktonic food resources, larval abundance, changes in predators or competitors, as well as oceanographic conditions (e.g. changes in upwelling intensity). Drawing on the experience of

text: Free Air CO Enrichment

text: (FACE) experiments used to investigate the response of terrestrial plant communities to rising atmospheric CO levels, the scientific community has developed an analogous approach, Free Ocean CO Enrichment (FOCE) experiments, for studying marine communities, and to complement a range of experimental methods and technologies for ocean acidification studies research. FOCE was first proposed and implemented by researchers at the

text: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute

text: MBARI

text: Cyanobacteria have the most complete biochemical "toolkits" of all the mat-forming organisms. Hence they are the most self-sufficient of the mat organisms and were well-adapted to strike out on their own both as floating mats and as the first of the phytoplankton, providing the basis of most marine food chains.

text: Cyanobacteria have the most complete biochemical "toolkits" of all the mat-forming organisms. Hence they are the most self-sufficient of the mat organisms and were well-adapted to strike out on their own both as floating mats and as the first of the

text: phytoplankton

text: , providing the basis of most marine food chains.

text: Unlike the vast multidirectional Ocean currents in open Oceans within their respective Oceanic zones; biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of currents which affects favorably, even the smallest macroscopic type of Volcanic Life Form. The stable Marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced Aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external deep oceanic factors.

text: Unlike the vast multidirectional

text: Ocean current

text: s in open

text: Ocean

text: s within their respective

text: Oceanic zone

text: s;

text: biodiversity

text: in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of

text: currents

text: which affects favorably, even the smallest macroscopic type of

text: Volcanic Life Form

text: . The stable

text: Marine ecosystem

text: of the Mediterranean Sea and

text: sea temperature

text: provides a nourishing environment for

text: life in the deep sea

text: to flourish while assuring a balanced

text: Aquatic ecosystem

text: excluded from any external

text: deep

text: oceanic factors

text: Without strong shells, surviving and growing becomes more of a challenge for marine life that depend on calcified shells. The populations of these animals becomes smaller and individual members of the species turn weaker. The fish that rely on these smaller shell constructing animals for food now have a decreased supply, and animals that need coral reefs for shelter now have less protection. The effects of ocean acidification decrease population sizes of marine life and may cause an economic disruption if enough fish die off, which can seriously harm the global economy as the fishing industry makes a lot of money worldwide.

text: The son of an artist, he devoted much of his energy late in his life to his own painting and the operation of an art gallery. Lauter died in 1990 in Ojai in Ventura County, California. His ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean.

text: The son of an

text: artist

text: , he devoted much of his energy late in his life to his own painting and the operation of an art gallery. Lauter died in 1990 in

text: Ojai

text: in

text: Ventura County

text: California

text: . His ashes were scattered into the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: Boxer has introduced the National Oceans Protection Act (NOPA) of 2005. Some of the provisions of this act are: strengthen ocean governance; protect and restore marine wildlife and habitats; address ocean pollution; improve fisheries management. The bill also addresses needs regarding marine science, research and technology, marine mammals, coastal development, and invasive species.

text: Boxer has introduced the National Oceans Protection Act (NOPA) of 2005. Some of the provisions of this act are: strengthen ocean governance; protect and restore marine wildlife and habitats; address ocean pollution; improve fisheries management. The bill also addresses needs regarding marine science, research and technology,

text: marine mammals

text: , coastal development, and

text: invasive species

text: The  Ocean City Life-Saving Station is located on the Boardwalk at the Inlet, Ocean City, Maryland, United States.  The Ocean City Life-Saving Station now serves as the Ocean City Life-Saving Station Museum.

text: The  Ocean City Life-Saving Station is located on the Boardwalk at the Inlet,

text: Ocean City

text: Maryland

text: United States

text: .  The Ocean City Life-Saving Station now serves as the Ocean City Life-Saving Station Museum.

text: In 2015, he founded Nekton, an investment company and brokerage in energy field, active in South America, Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe

text: Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an "A–", calling the installment a "visual feast with a bizarre storyline". Comparing the episode to David OReilly's fifth season episode "A Glitch is a Glitch", Sava argued that "Food Chain" was simpler, storywise, but equally as bizarre in terms of style. Sava applauded Yuasa's unique take on the series, specifically highlighting his idiosyncratic use of sound effects and music. Sava also pointed out that "Food Chain" would be an excellent episode to use in a classroom setting in order to teach about the actual food chain. The site later selected "Food Chain" as a stand-out episode from the sixth season.

text: Oliver Sava of

text: The A.V. Club

text: awarded the episode an "A–", calling the installment a "visual feast with a bizarre storyline". Comparing the episode to David OReilly's fifth season episode "A Glitch is a Glitch", Sava argued that "Food Chain" was simpler, storywise, but equally as bizarre in terms of style. Sava applauded Yuasa's unique take on the series, specifically highlighting his idiosyncratic use of sound effects and music. Sava also pointed out that "Food Chain" would be an excellent episode to use in a classroom setting in order to teach about the actual food chain. The site later selected "Food Chain" as a stand-out episode from the sixth season.

text: There are organisms whose initial part of their lives were identified as being planktonic but when they grew and increased in body size they become nektonic. A typical example was the medusa of the jellyfish.

text: There are organisms whose initial part of their lives were identified as being planktonic but when they grew and increased in body size they become nektonic. A typical example was the

text: medusa

text: of the jellyfish.

text: Hypophthalmus are unusual among neotropical fishes in their habit of specialized plankton-feeding, collecting plankton by straining water over the fine sieve created by numerous long, thin gill rakers. H. edentatus feeds primarily on cladocerans, copepods, and ostracods. It also feeds on debris and other plankton. H. fimbriatus has a diet consisting primarily of zooplankton, especially cladocerans and copepods. On the other hand, H. marginatus feeds primarily on phytoplankton. H. edentatus appears to follow the vertical movement of plankton throughout the day.

text: Hypophthalmus are unusual among

text: neotropical

text: fishes in their habit of specialized

text: plankton

text: -feeding, collecting plankton by straining water over the fine sieve created by numerous long, thin

text: gill raker

text: s. H. edentatus feeds primarily on

text: cladocera

text: ns,

text: copepod

text: s, and

text: ostracod

text: s. It also feeds on debris and other plankton. H. fimbriatus has a diet consisting primarily of

text: zooplankton

text: , especially cladocerans and copepods. On the other hand, H. marginatus feeds primarily on

text: phytoplankton

text: . H. edentatus appears to follow the vertical movement of plankton throughout the day.

text: The blackfin flounder's diet consists of benthos invertebrates such as crustaceans, molluscs and worms.

text: The blackfin flounder's diet consists of

text: benthos

text: invertebrate

text: s such as

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: mollusc

text: s and

text: worms

text: Thor has two encounters with the creature that reflect the Norse myths. The first a visit to the castle of the Storm Giant Utgard-Loki, who excels in the use of illusions. Challenging Thor to lift his pet "cat"  - actually the Midgard Serpent - the Thunder God lifts all but one of the cat's feet off the ground, a feat which terrifies the Storm Giant. The second encounter occurs when Thor decides to cheat fate and kill the creature. Taking a fishing boat with the giant Hymir, Thor uses the head of an ox on a chain to draw the Midgard Serpent to the surface of the ocean. Although the creature takes the bait, the character is unable to deal the killing blow as Hymir, fearing for his life, cuts the chain.

text: Thor has two encounters with the creature that reflect the Norse myths. The first a visit to the castle of the Storm Giant

text: Utgard-Loki

text: , who excels in the use of

text: illusion

text: s. Challenging Thor to lift his pet "cat"  - actually the Midgard Serpent - the Thunder God lifts all but one of the cat's feet off the ground, a feat which terrifies the Storm Giant. The second encounter occurs when Thor decides to cheat fate and kill the creature. Taking a fishing boat with the giant Hymir, Thor uses the head of an

text: ox

text: on a chain to draw the Midgard Serpent to the surface of the ocean. Although the creature takes the bait, the character is unable to deal the killing blow as Hymir, fearing for his life, cuts the chain.

text: Young herring feed on phytoplankton and as they mature they start to consume larger organisms. Adult herring feed on zooplankton, tiny animals that are found in oceanic surface waters, and small fish and fish larvae. Copepods and other tiny crustaceans are the most common zooplankton eaten by herring. During daylight herring stay in the safety of deep water, feeding at the surface only at night when there is less chance of being seen by predators. They swim along with their mouths open, filtering the plankton from the water as it passes through their gills.

text: Young herring feed on

text: phytoplankton

text: and as they mature they start to consume larger organisms. Adult herring feed on

text: zooplankton

text: , tiny animals that are found in

text: ocean

text: ic

text: surface waters

text: , and small fish and fish larvae.

text: Copepod

text: s and other tiny

text: crustacean

text: s are the most common zooplankton eaten by herring. During daylight herring stay in the safety of deep water, feeding at the surface only at night when there is less chance of being seen by predators. They swim along with their mouths open, filtering the

text: plankton

text: from the water as it passes through their gills.

text: As it is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, the world ocean is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle, and influences climate and weather patterns.  It is the habitat of 230,000 known species, although much of the oceans depths remain unexplored, and over two million marine species are estimated to exist. The origin of Earth's oceans remains unknown; oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life.

text: As it is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, the world ocean is integral to

text: all known life

text: , forms part of the

text: carbon cycle

text: , and influences

text: climate

text: and

text: weather

text: patterns.  It is the

text: habitat

text: of 230,000 known

text: species

text: , although much of the oceans depths remain unexplored, and over two million

text: marine

text: species are estimated to exist. The

text: origin of Earth's oceans

text: remains unknown; oceans are thought to have formed in the

text: Hadean

text: period and may have been the impetus for the

text: emergence of life

text: The vast ocean of Panthalassa covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans, include two phases of the Tethys, the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys, the Rheic Ocean, the Iapetus Ocean (a narrow seaway between Avalonia and Laurentia), and the newly formed Ural Ocean.

text: The vast ocean of

text: Panthalassa

text: covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans, include two phases of the Tethys, the

text: Proto-Tethys

text: and

text: Paleo-Tethys

text: , the

text: Rheic Ocean

text: , the

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: (a narrow seaway between

text: Avalonia

text: and

text: Laurentia

text: ), and the newly formed

text: Ural Ocean

text: Biologically there is an important distinction between plankton and nekton. Plankton are the aggregate of relatively passive organisms which float or drift with the currents, such as tiny algae and bacteria, small eggs and larvae of marine organisms, and protozoa and other minute predators. Nekton are the aggregate of actively swimming organisms which are able to move independently of water currents, such as shrimps, forage fish and sharks.

text: Biologically there is an important distinction between plankton and nekton.

text: Plankton

text: are the aggregate of relatively passive organisms which float or drift with the currents, such as tiny algae and bacteria, small eggs and larvae of marine organisms, and protozoa and other minute predators.

text: Nekton

text: are the aggregate of actively swimming organisms which are able to move independently of water currents, such as shrimps, forage fish and sharks.

text: The knifetooth sawfish is distributed across a broad swathe of the Indo-Pacific Ocean. At its westernmost extreme, it is present in the Gulf of Arabia and may extend as far as Somalia. It is present in the waters off Iran, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Burma, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Its northernmost limit is the Gulf of Chihli, China, South Korea and the most southerly parts of Japan and its southern limit is the northern Australian states of Western Australia, Northern Territory and Queensland. This is a bentho-pelagic fish which is found at depths down to about . It tolerates low salinity levels and is found in inshore waters including bays and estuaries.

text: The knifetooth sawfish is distributed across a broad swathe of the Indo-Pacific Ocean. At its westernmost extreme, it is present in the

text: Gulf of Arabia

text: and may extend as far as Somalia. It is present in the waters off Iran, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Burma, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Its northernmost limit is the Gulf of Chihli, China, South Korea and the most southerly parts of Japan and its southern limit is the northern Australian states of Western Australia, Northern Territory and Queensland. This is a bentho-pelagic fish which is found at depths down to about . It tolerates low salinity levels and is found in inshore waters including bays and estuaries.

text: Plankton (singular plankter) are a diverse group of organisms that live in the water column of large bodies of water and that cannot swim against a current. They provide a crucial source of food to many large aquatic organisms, such as fish and whales.

text: Plankton (singular plankter) are a diverse group of

text: organism

text: s that live in the

text: water column

text: fish

text: and

text: whale

text: s.

text: Herring feed on phytoplankton and as they mature they start to consume larger organisms.Herring also feed on zooplankton, tiny animals that are found in oceanic surface waters, and small fish and fish larvae. Copepods and other tiny crustaceans are the most common zooplankton eaten by herring. During daylight herring stay in the safety of deep water, feeding at the surface only at night when there is less chance of being seen by predators. They swim along with their mouths open, filtering the plankton from the water as it passes through their gills.Young herring mostly hunt copepods individually, by means of "particulate feeding" or "raptorial feeding", a feeding method also used by adult herring on larger prey items like krill. If prey concentrations reach very high levels, as in microlayers, at fronts or directly below the surface, herring become filter feeders, driving several meters forward with wide open mouth and far expanded opercula, then closing and cleaning the gill rakers for a few milliseconds.

text: Herring feed on

text: phytoplankton

text: and as they mature they start to consume larger organisms.Herring also feed on

text: zooplankton

text: , tiny animals that are found in

text: ocean

text: ic

text: surface waters

text: , and small fish and fish larvae.

text: Copepod

text: s and other tiny

text: crustacean

text: plankton

text: from the water as it passes through their gills.Young herring mostly hunt copepods individually, by means of "particulate feeding" or "raptorial feeding", a feeding method also used by adult herring on larger prey items like krill. If prey concentrations reach very high levels, as in microlayers, at fronts or directly below the surface, herring become

text: filter feeder

text: s, driving several meters forward with wide open mouth and far expanded

text: opercula

text: , then closing and cleaning the

text: gill raker

text: s for a few milliseconds.

text: Although some researchers thought that the damage from the spill would rapidly resolve, three years into the recovery  dolphins continue to die, fish are showing strange lesions, corals in the gulf have died and oil still remains in some marsh areas. Due to both its size and the way it was handled, there is little previous research to predict long-term effects.  At the 2013 "Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and Ecosystem Science Conference", oceanographer David Hollander presented data that showed as much as one-third of the oil released during the spill may still be in the gulf. Researchers described a phenomenon called "dirty blizzard": oil caused deep ocean sediments to clumped together, falling to the ocean floor at ten times the normal rate in an "underwater rain of oily particles". The result could have long-term effects on both humans and marine life. Commercially fished species feed on sediment creatures, meaning oil could remain in the food chain for generations. Concern was expressed for commercially fished species such as tilefish which burrow in the sediment and feed on sediment dwelling creatures.  In 2013 researchers found that a tiny amoeba-like creatures, foraminifera, that live in sediment and form the bottom of the gulf food chain, have died off in the areas that were affected by the underwater plumes that stretched out miles beyond the spill site. The foraminifera have returned in some areas but in other areas they have burrowed into the sediments, stirring them up all over again. Noting that it took several years for the herring population to crash following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the researchers expressed concerns that it may also take years for long-terms effects to become apparent in the gulf.

text: Although some researchers thought that the damage from the spill would rapidly resolve, three years into the recovery  dolphins continue to die, fish are showing strange lesions, corals in the gulf have died and oil still remains in some marsh areas. Due to both its size and the way it was handled, there is little previous research to predict long-term effects.  At the 2013 "Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and Ecosystem Science Conference", oceanographer David Hollander presented data that showed as much as one-third of the oil released during the spill may still be in the gulf. Researchers described a phenomenon called "dirty blizzard": oil caused deep ocean sediments to clumped together, falling to the ocean floor at ten times the normal rate in an "underwater rain of oily particles". The result could have long-term effects on both humans and marine life. Commercially fished species feed on

text: sediment

text: creatures, meaning oil could remain in the food chain for generations. Concern was expressed for commercially fished species such as

text: tilefish

text: which burrow in the sediment and feed on sediment dwelling creatures.  In 2013 researchers found that a tiny amoeba-like creatures,

text: foraminifera

text: , that live in sediment and form the bottom of the gulf

text: food chain

text: , have died off in the areas that were affected by the underwater plumes that stretched out miles beyond the spill site. The foraminifera have returned in some areas but in other areas they have burrowed into the sediments, stirring them up all over again. Noting that it took several years for the herring population to crash following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, the researchers expressed concerns that it may also take years for long-terms effects to become apparent in the gulf.

text: The research programme Census of Marine Life seriously addresses this situation and challenges marine biologists to utilize the most advanced technology to achieve true new information in areas of the ocean that were poorly studied previously. The project MAR-ECO, an element of the Census of Marine Life, rises to the challenge and investigates the diverse animal life along the vast underwater mountain chains of the open ocean.

text: The research programme

text: Census of Marine Life

text: seriously addresses this situation and challenges marine biologists to utilize the most advanced technology to achieve true new information in areas of the ocean that were poorly studied previously. The project MAR-ECO, an element of the

text: Census of Marine Life

text: , rises to the challenge and investigates the diverse animal life along the vast underwater mountain chains of the open ocean.

text: A running gag throughout the series is the fact that Plankton is much smaller than the other main characters; he is easily stepped on and/or sent flying back to the Chum Bucket with a mere flick of the finger. Usually right after trying to steal the Krabby Patty Formula is another gag. His small size has led to him developing a Napoleon complex, which is occasionally manifested as a desire for global domination (the most prominent illustration of this is in The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie). In his earliest appearances, his catchphrase was "I went to college!", uttered when Mr. Krabs was escorting him from the Krusty Krab, though it has only appeared occasionally since then.

text: A

text: running gag

text: throughout the series is the fact that Plankton is much smaller than the other main characters; he is easily stepped on and/or sent flying back to the Chum Bucket with a mere flick of the finger. Usually right after trying to steal the Krabby Patty Formula is another gag. His small size has led to him developing a

text: Napoleon complex

text: , which is occasionally manifested as a desire for global domination (the most prominent illustration of this is in

text: The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie

text: ). In his earliest appearances, his catchphrase was "I went to college!", uttered when Mr. Krabs was escorting him from the Krusty Krab, though it has only appeared occasionally since then.

text: The main diet of deep sea benthic fish is invertebrates of the deep sea benthos and carrion. Smell, touch and lateral line sensitivities seem to be the main sensory devices for locating these.

text: The main diet of deep sea benthic fish is invertebrates of the deep sea

text: benthos

text: and

text: carrion

text: . Smell, touch and lateral line sensitivities seem to be the main sensory devices for locating these.

text: In addition, many land animals have adapted to living a major part of their life on the oceans. For instance, seabirds are a diverse group of birds that have adapted to a life mainly on the oceans.  They feed on marine animals and spend most of their lifetime on water, many only going on land for breeding.  Other birds that have adapted to oceans as their living space are penguins, seagulls and pelicans.  Seven species of turtles, the sea turtles, also spend most of their time in the oceans.

text: In addition, many land animals have adapted to living a major part of their life on the oceans. For instance,

text: seabirds

text: are a diverse group of birds that have adapted to a life mainly on the oceans.  They feed on marine animals and spend most of their lifetime on water, many only going on land for breeding.  Other birds that have adapted to oceans as their living space are

text: penguin

text: s,

text: seagulls

text: and

text: pelicans

text: .  Seven species of turtles, the

text: sea turtle

text: s, also spend most of their time in the oceans.

text: There are numerous animal forms that are non—motile, such as sponges, bryozoans, tunicates, sea anemones, corals, and oysters. In common, they are all either marine or aquatic. It may seem curious that plants have been so successful at stationary life on land, while animals have not, but the answer lies in the food supply. Plants produce their own food from sunlight and carbon dioxide—both generally more abundant on land than in water. Animals fixed in place must rely on the surrounding medium to bring food at least close enough to grab, and this occurs in the three-dimensional water environment, but with much less abundance in the atmosphere.

text: There are numerous animal forms that are non—motile, such as

text: sponges

text: bryozoan

text: s,

text: tunicate

text: s,

text: sea anemone

text: s,

text: coral

text: s, and

text: oyster

text: s. In common, they are all either

text: marine

text: or aquatic. It may seem curious that plants have been so successful at stationary life on land, while animals have not, but the answer lies in the food supply. Plants produce their own food from sunlight and

text: carbon dioxide

text: —both generally more abundant on land than in water. Animals fixed in place must rely on the surrounding medium to bring food at least close enough to grab, and this occurs in the three-dimensional water environment, but with much less abundance in the atmosphere.

text: Attainment of higher states of concentration according to Ashtanga Yoga (classical yoga of Patanjali) is rooted in development of the physical body (Hatha Yoga). "The body is a boat which carries the soul in the ocean of the world. If it is not strong, or if has a hole, then it can't cross the ocean. So the first duty is to fix the boat." With the physical body gaining in strength and guided by a disciplined life, an adept can receive more refined instructions and teachings, called sadhana. Regular sadhana, according to Baba Hari Dass, is a key element of practice of yoga, and no matter what method is adopted sadhana becomes an anchor that can always be relied on.

text: Attainment of higher states of concentration according to

text: Ashtanga Yoga

text: (classical yoga of Patanjali) is rooted in development of the physical body (

text: Hatha Yoga

text: ). "The body is a boat which carries the soul in the ocean of the world. If it is not strong, or if has a hole, then it can't cross the ocean. So the first duty is to fix the boat." With the physical body gaining in strength and guided by a disciplined life, an adept can receive more refined instructions and teachings, called

text: sadhana

text: . Regular sadhana, according to Baba Hari Dass, is a key element of practice of yoga, and no matter what method is adopted sadhana becomes an anchor that can always be relied on.

text: Lotic systems typically connect to each other, forming a path to the ocean (spring → stream → river → ocean), and many fishes have life cycles that require stages in both fresh and salt water.  Salmon, for example, are anadromous species that are born in freshwater but spend most of their adult life in the ocean, returning to fresh water only to spawn. Eels are catadromous species that do the opposite, living in freshwater as adults but migrating to the ocean to spawn.

text: Lotic systems typically connect to each other, forming a path to the ocean (spring → stream → river → ocean), and many fishes have life cycles that require stages in both fresh and salt water.

text: Salmon

text: , for example, are

text: anadromous

text: species that are born in freshwater but spend most of their adult life in the ocean, returning to fresh water only to spawn.

text: Eel

text: s are

text: catadromous

text: species that

text: do the opposite

text: , living in freshwater as adults but migrating to the ocean to spawn.

text: The oceans have removed 50% of the anthropogenic CO, so the oceans have absorbed much of the impact of climate change. The famous White Cliffs of Dover illustrate how the ocean captures and buries carbon. These limestone cliffs are formed from the skeletons of marine plankton called coccoliths. Similarly, petroleum formation is attributed largely to marine and aquatic plankton further illustrating the key role of the oceans in carbon sequestration.

text: The oceans have removed 50% of the anthropogenic CO, so the oceans have absorbed much of the impact of climate change. The famous

text: White Cliffs of Dover

text: illustrate how the ocean captures and buries carbon. These limestone cliffs are formed from the skeletons of marine plankton called

text: coccoliths

text: . Similarly, petroleum formation is attributed largely to marine and aquatic plankton further illustrating the key role of the oceans in

text: carbon sequestration

text: Rutherford published a book on the topic of the creation of life. The United Kingdom printing has been called "two books in one", since Creation: The Origin of Life and Creation: The Future of Life are printed back-to-back so that one can read the book from either end. Among its topics, the first part of the book argues in support of the theory, first proposed by Thomas Gold, that life emerged not in primordial warm ponds, but in extremophile conditions in the deep ocean, while the second part discusses "synthetic biology" – the use of genetic modification to create new organisms. In the United States this book is published in a more conventional format with the title, Creation: How Science Is Reinventing Life Itself.  He was also one of the authors whose works are included in the compilation The Atheist's Guide to Christmas.

text: Rutherford published a book on the topic of the creation of life. The United Kingdom printing has been called "two books in one", since Creation: The Origin of Life and Creation: The Future of Life are printed back-to-back so that one can read the book from either end. Among its topics, the first part of the book argues in support of the theory, first proposed by

text: Thomas Gold

text: , that life emerged not in primordial warm ponds, but in

text: extremophile

text: conditions in the deep ocean, while the second part discusses "

text: synthetic biology

text: " – the use of

text: genetic modification

text: to create

text: new organisms

text: . In the United States this book is published in a more conventional format with the title, Creation: How Science Is Reinventing Life Itself.  He was also one of the authors whose works are included in the compilation

text: The Atheist's Guide to Christmas

text: In 1987, Carr discovered that the young of green and loggerhead seaturtles spent a great deal of their pelagic lives in floating sargassum mats. Within these mats, they found ample shelter and food. In the absence of sargassum, sea turtle young feed in the vicinity of upwelling "fronts". In 2007, Reich determined that green sea turtle hatchlings spend the first three to five years of their lives in pelagic waters. In the open ocean, pre-juveniles of this particular species were found to feed on zooplankton and smaller nekton before they are recruited into inshore seagrass meadows as obligate herbivores.

text: In 1987, Carr discovered that the young of green and loggerhead seaturtles spent a great deal of their

text: pelagic

text: lives in floating

text: sargassum

text: mats. Within these mats, they found ample shelter and food. In the absence of sargassum, sea turtle young feed in the vicinity of

text: upwelling

text: "fronts". In 2007, Reich determined that green sea turtle hatchlings spend the first three to five years of their lives in

text: pelagic

text: waters. In the open ocean, pre-juveniles of this particular species were found to feed on

text: zooplankton

text: and smaller

text: nekton

text: before they are recruited into inshore seagrass meadows as obligate herbivores.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the lower Jurassic period, around 196.5 to 189.6 million years ago.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the lower

text: Jurassic

text: period, around 196.5 to 189.6 million years ago.

text: Neritina granosa lives in streams. This species has marine larvae that migrate into and up streams after a period of oceanic dispersal. Most likely, the planktonic larvae of this neritid snail disperse across the oceanic expanses that separate the main Hawaiian Islands, and thus it can colonize streams on any or all of these islands.

text: Bowie Seamount supports a biologically rich area with a vigorous ecosystem. Studies have recorded high densities of crab, sea stars, sea anemones, sponges, squid, octopus, rockfish, halibut and sablefish. Eight species of marine mammal have been found in the Bowie Seamount area, including Steller sea lions, orca, humpback and sperm whales, along with 16 varieties of seabirds. This has made Bowie Seamount a rare habitat in the northeast Pacific Ocean and one of the most biologically rich submarine volcanoes on Earth. The rich marine life is due to the intense food supply of microscopic animals and plants, including phytoplankton and zooplankton.

text: Bowie Seamount supports a biologically rich area with a vigorous ecosystem. Studies have recorded high densities of

text: crab

text: sea star

text: s,

text: sea anemone

text: s,

text: sponge

text: s,

text: squid

text: octopus

text: rockfish

text: halibut

text: and

text: sablefish

text: . Eight species of

text: marine mammal

text: have been found in the Bowie Seamount area, including

text: Steller sea lion

text: s,

text: orca

text: humpback

text: and

text: sperm whale

text: s, along with 16 varieties of

text: seabird

text: s. This has made Bowie Seamount a rare habitat in the northeast Pacific Ocean and one of the most biologically rich submarine volcanoes on Earth. The rich marine life is due to the intense food supply of microscopic animals and plants, including

text: phytoplankton

text: and

text: zooplankton

text: Night To Life is an EP released by Lost Ocean, and was used as a teaser for their self-titled debut, Lost Ocean

text: Night To Life is an

text: EP

text: released by

text: Lost Ocean

text: , and was used as a teaser for their self-titled debut,

text: Lost Ocean

text: 'Abzû' is the first game under development by video game studio "Giant Squid", founded by Flower and Journey art director Matt Nava, to be released   After completing work on Journey, which Naya describes as "A Very lonely game" he wanted to make a game that "was full of life".  To do so Naya used his love of scuba diving as a basis, calling the hobby "An extremely magical experience". Its name derives from the ancient words "ab" (ocean) and "zu" (to know), intended to be interpreted as "ocean of wisdom". This is analogous to Abzu, the ancient Mesopotamian name for the religious concept of a primeval sea.

text: 'Abzû' is the first game under development by

text: video game studio

text: "Giant Squid", founded by

text: Flower

text: and

text: Journey

text: art director Matt Nava, to be released   After completing work on Journey, which Naya describes as "A Very lonely game" he wanted to make a game that "was full of life".  To do so Naya used his love of scuba diving as a basis, calling the hobby "An extremely magical experience". Its name derives from the ancient words "ab" (ocean) and "zu" (to know), intended to be interpreted as "ocean of wisdom". This is analogous to

text: Abzu

text: , the ancient Mesopotamian name for the religious concept of a primeval sea.

text: Hedenstroemia is an extinct genus of cephalopods in the ammonoid order Ceratitida. They were nektonic carnivores.

text: Hedenstroemia is an extinct genus of cephalopods in the

text: ammonoid

text: order

text: Ceratitida

text: . They were nektonic carnivores.

text: Food webs provide a framework within which a complex network of predator–prey interactions can be organised. A food web model is a network of food chains. Each food chain starts with a primary producer or autotroph, an organism, such as a plant, which is able to manufacture its own food. Next in the chain is an organism that feeds on the primary producer, and the chain continues in this way as a string of successive predators. The organisms in each chain are grouped into trophic levels, based on how many links they are removed from the primary producers. The length of the chain, or trophic level, is a measure of the number of species encountered as energy or nutrients move from plants to top predators. Food energy flows from one organism to the next and to the next and so on, with some energy being lost at each level.  At a given trophic level there may be one species or a group of species with the same predators and prey.

text: Food web

text: s provide a framework within which a complex network of predator–prey interactions can be organised. A food web model is a network of

text: food chain

text: s. Each food chain starts with a

text: primary producer

text: or

text: autotroph

text: , an organism, such as a plant, which is able to manufacture its own food. Next in the chain is an organism that feeds on the primary producer, and the chain continues in this way as a string of successive predators. The organisms in each chain are grouped into

text: trophic level

text: s, based on how many links they are removed from the primary producers. The length of the chain, or trophic level, is a measure of the number of species encountered as energy or nutrients move from plants to top predators.

text: Food energy

text: flows from one organism to the next and to the next and so on, with some energy being lost at each level.  At a given trophic level there may be one species or a group of species with the same predators and prey.

text: Estimates of oceanic phytoplankton change are highly variable. One global ocean primary productivity study found a net increase in phytoplankton, as judged from measured chlorophyll, when comparing observations in 1998–2002 to those conducted during a prior mission in 1979–1986. However, using the same database of measurements, other studies concluded that both chlorophyll and primary production had declined over this same time interval. The airborne fraction of CO from human emissions, the percentage neither sequestered by photosynthetic life on land and sea nor absorbed in the oceans abiotically, has been almost constant over the past century, and that suggests a moderate upper limit on how much a component of the carbon cycle as large as phytoplankton have declined. In the northeast Atlantic, where a relatively long chlorophyll data series is available, and the site of the Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR) survey, a net increase was found from 1948 to 2002. During 1998–2005, global ocean net primary productivity rose in 1998, followed by a decline during the rest of that period, yielding a small net increase. Using six climate model simulations, a large multi-university study of ocean ecosystems predicted that "a global increase in primary production of 0.7% at the low end to 8.1% at the high end," by 2050 although with "very large regional differences" including "a contraction of the highly productive marginal sea ice biome by 42% in the Northern Hemisphere and 17% in the Southern Hemisphere." A more recent multi-model study estimated that primary production would decline by 2-20% by 2100 A.D. Despite substantial variation in both the magnitude and spatial pattern of change, the majority of published studies predict that phytoplankton biomass and/or primary production will decline over the next century.

text: Estimates of oceanic phytoplankton change are highly variable. One global ocean primary productivity study found a net increase in phytoplankton, as judged from measured

text: chlorophyll

text: , when comparing observations in 1998–2002 to those conducted during a prior mission in 1979–1986. However, using the same database of measurements, other studies concluded that both chlorophyll and primary production had declined over this same time interval. The airborne fraction of CO from human emissions, the percentage neither sequestered by photosynthetic life on land and sea nor absorbed in the oceans abiotically, has been almost constant over the past century, and that suggests a moderate upper limit on how much a component of the carbon cycle as large as phytoplankton have declined. In the northeast Atlantic, where a relatively long chlorophyll data series is available, and the site of the

text: Continuous Plankton Recorder

text: (CPR) survey, a net increase was found from 1948 to 2002. During 1998–2005, global ocean net primary productivity rose in 1998, followed by a decline during the rest of that period, yielding a small net increase. Using six climate model simulations, a large multi-university study of ocean ecosystems predicted that "a global increase in primary production of 0.7% at the low end to 8.1% at the high end," by 2050 although with "very large regional differences" including "a contraction of the highly productive marginal sea ice biome by 42% in the Northern Hemisphere and 17% in the Southern Hemisphere." A more recent multi-model study estimated that primary production would decline by 2-20% by 2100 A.D. Despite substantial variation in both the magnitude and spatial pattern of change, the majority of published studies predict that phytoplankton biomass and/or primary production will decline over the next century.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the Jurassic period, Oxfordian age.

text: Jurassic

text: period,

text: Oxfordian

text: age.

text: These fast-moving nektonic carnivores lived during the Middle Jurassic, upper Callovian stage.

text: Middle Jurassic

text: , upper

text: Callovian

text: stage.

text: The natural world has several ways of preserving or increasing genetic diversity. Among oceanic plankton, viruses aid in the genetic shifting process. Ocean viruses, which infect the plankton, carry genes of other organisms in addition to their own. When a virus containing the genes of one cell infects another, the genetic makeup of the latter changes. This constant shift of genetic makeup helps to maintain a healthy population of plankton despite complex and unpredictable environmental changes.

text: The natural world has several ways of preserving or increasing genetic diversity. Among oceanic

text: plankton

text: virus

text: es aid in the genetic shifting process. Ocean viruses, which infect the plankton, carry genes of other organisms in addition to their own. When a virus containing the genes of one cell infects another, the genetic makeup of the latter changes. This constant shift of genetic makeup helps to maintain a healthy population of plankton despite complex and unpredictable environmental changes.

text: Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the sea floor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on primary production from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the ocean floor feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding. Coccolithophorids and mollusks (including ammonites, rudists, freshwater snails and mussels), and those organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, it is thought that ammonites were the principal food of mosasaurs, a group of giant marine reptiles that became extinct at the boundary.<ref name="Kauffman">{{cite journal |author=Kauffman E |title=Mosasaur Predation on Upper Cretaceous Nautiloids and Ammonites from the United States Pacific Coast |journal=PALAIOS |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=96–100 |publisher=Society for Sedimentary Geology |url=http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/reprint/19/1/96 |doi=10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019

text: Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans. Extinction was more severe among animals living in the

text: water column

text: than among animals living on or in the sea floor. Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on

text: primary production

text: from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the

text: ocean floor

text: feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding.

text: Coccolithophorids

text: and

text: mollusk

text: s (including

text: ammonite

text: s,

text: rudist

text: s, freshwater

text: snail

text: s and

text: mussel

text: s), and those organisms whose

text: food chain

text: included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses. For example, it is thought that ammonites were the principal food of

text: mosasaur

text: s, a group of giant marine

text: reptiles

text: that became extinct at the boundary.<ref name="Kauffman">{{cite journal |author=Kauffman E |title=Mosasaur Predation on Upper Cretaceous Nautiloids and Ammonites from the United States Pacific Coast |journal=PALAIOS |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=96–100 |publisher=Society for Sedimentary Geology |url=http://palaios.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/reprint/19/1/96 |doi=10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019

text: On dive 65 (8th in the Nekton series), on January 23, 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard (son of the boat's designer Auguste Piccard) and Lieutenant Don Walsh, USN. This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of , although this was later revised to  and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be slightly shallower, at .

text: On dive 65 (8th in the Nekton series), on January 23, 1960, Trieste reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying

text: Jacques Piccard

text: (son of the boat's designer

text: Auguste Piccard

text: ) and Lieutenant

text: Don Walsh

text: , USN. This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of , although this was later revised to  and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be slightly shallower, at .

text: The Gulf teems with crustacea and polychaeta, as well as various species of sea squirts and sea urchins.  The benthos is a soft sediment shelf, with species of zosteraceae around the mouth of the Port River.

text: The Gulf teems with

text: crustacea

text: and

text: polychaeta

text: , as well as various species of

text: sea squirt

text: s and

text: sea urchin

text: s.  The

text: benthos

text: is a soft sediment shelf, with species of

text: zosteraceae

text: around the mouth of the

text: Port River

text: The name plankton is derived from the Greek adjective πλαγκτός (planktos), meaning errant, and by extension "wanderer" or drifter. It was coined by Victor Hensen (1887). Plankton typically flow with ocean currents. While some forms are capable of independent movement and can swim hundreds of meters vertically in a single day (a behavior called diel vertical migration), their horizontal position is primarily determined by the surrounding currents. This is in contrast to nekton organisms that can swim against the ambient flow and control their position (e.g. squid, fish, and marine mammals).

text: The name plankton is derived from the

text: Greek

text: adjective πλαγκτός (planktos), meaning

text: errant

text: , and by extension "wanderer" or drifter. It was coined by

text: Victor Hensen

text: (1887). Plankton typically flow with ocean currents. While some forms are capable of independent movement and can swim hundreds of meters vertically in a single day (a behavior called

text: diel vertical migration

text: ), their horizontal position is primarily determined by the surrounding

text: currents

text: . This is in contrast to

text: nekton

text: organisms that can swim against the ambient flow and control their position (e.g.

text: squid

text: fish

text: , and

text: marine mammal

text: s).

text: The most abundant species of coccolithophore, Emiliania huxleyi, belongs to the order Isochrysidales and family Noëlaerhabdaceae. It is found in temperate, subtropical, and tropical oceans. This makes E. huxleyi an important part of the planktonic base of a large proportion of marine food webs. It is also the fastest growing coccolithophore in laboratory cultures. It is studied for the extensive blooms it forms in nutrient depleted waters after the reformation of the summer thermocline. and for its production of molecules known as alkenones that are commonly used by earth scientists as a means to estimate past sea surface temperatures. Coccolithophores are of particular interest to those studying global climate change because as ocean acidity increases, their coccoliths may become even more important as a carbon sink. Furthermore, management strategies are being employed to prevent eutrophication-related coccolithophore blooms, as these blooms lead to a decrease in nutrient flow to lower levels of the ocean.

text: The most abundant species of coccolithophore,

text: Emiliania huxleyi

text: , belongs to the order

text: Isochrysidales

text: and family

text: Noëlaerhabdaceae

text: . It is found in

text: temperate

text: subtropical

text: , and

text: tropical

text: oceans. This makes E. huxleyi an important part of the

text: planktonic

text: base of a large proportion of marine

text: food webs

text: . It is also the fastest growing coccolithophore in laboratory cultures. It is studied for the extensive

text: blooms

text: it forms in nutrient depleted waters after the reformation of the summer

text: thermocline

text: . and for its production of molecules known as

text: alkenone

text: s that are commonly used by

text: earth scientists

text: as a means to estimate past

text: sea surface temperature

text: s. Coccolithophores are of particular interest to those studying global

text: climate change

text: because as

text: ocean acidity

text: increases, their coccoliths may become even more important as a

text: carbon sink

text: . Furthermore, management strategies are being employed to prevent eutrophication-related coccolithophore blooms, as these blooms lead to a decrease in nutrient flow to lower levels of the ocean.

text: Harriotta species can be found in the deep waters of continental slopes around 380 to 2,600 m deep in the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. It is also known to be found in the Indian Ocean off of southern Australia. They are also common in the northern Atlantic, northwest Pacific, and southwest Pacific Oceans.

text: Female crabs carry the fertilized eggs attached to their abdominal appendages until they hatch into tiny planktonic larvae. Development of the planktonic larvae is temperature-dependent and takes between 54 and 72 days at . During the larval stage the young crab looks nothing like its parents. It is small and transparent with a round, legless body and usually drifts as plankton at the surface of the ocean. The Japanese spider crab is an omnivore, consuming both plant matter and animals. It also sometimes acts as a scavenger consuming dead animals. Some have been known to scrape the ocean floor for plants and algae while others pry open the shells of mollusks. They live at depths of  or more.  The giant spider crabs migrate up to a depth of around  during breeding season.

text: Female crabs carry the fertilized eggs attached to their abdominal appendages until they hatch into tiny planktonic larvae. Development of the

text: plankton

text: ic larvae is temperature-dependent and takes between 54 and 72 days at . During the larval stage the young crab looks nothing like its parents. It is small and transparent with a round, legless body and usually drifts as plankton at the surface of the ocean. The Japanese spider crab is an omnivore, consuming both plant matter and animals. It also sometimes acts as a scavenger consuming

text: dead animals

text: . Some have been known to scrape the ocean floor for plants and algae while others pry open the shells of mollusks. They live at depths of  or more.  The giant spider crabs migrate up to a depth of around  during breeding season.

text: As temperatures continue to rise, the last animal life will be driven back toward the poles, and possibly underground. They would become primarily active during the polar night, aestivating during the polar day due to the intense heat. Much of the surface would become a barren desert and life would primarily be found in the oceans. However, due to a decrease of the amount or organic matter coming to the oceans from the land as well as oxygen in the water, life would disappear there too following a similar path to that on Earth's surface. This process would start with the loss of freshwater species and conclude with invertebrates, particularly those that do not depend on living plants such as termites or those near hydrothermal vents such as worms of the genus Riftia. As a result of these processes, multi-cellular lifeforms may be extinct in about 800 million years, and eukaryotes in 1.3 billion years, leaving only the prokaryotes.

text: As temperatures continue to rise, the last animal life will be driven back toward the poles, and possibly underground. They would become primarily active during the

text: polar night

text: aestivating

text: during the

text: polar day

text: due to the intense heat. Much of the surface would become a barren desert and life would primarily be found in the oceans. However, due to a decrease of the amount or organic matter coming to the oceans from the land as well as oxygen in the water, life would disappear there too following a similar path to that on Earth's surface. This process would start with the loss of freshwater species and conclude with invertebrates, particularly those that do not depend on living plants such as

text: termite

text: s or those near

text: hydrothermal vents

text: such as

text: worm

text: s of the genus

text: Riftia

text: . As a result of these processes, multi-cellular lifeforms may be extinct in about 800 million years, and

text: eukaryote

text: s in 1.3 billion years, leaving only the

text: prokaryote

text: s.

text: COMARGE was a field project of the Census of Marine Life launched in 2005. The project described biodiversity patterns of benthic and bentho-demersal communities on continental margins, with a focus on multiple habitats and spatial scales, and identifying the contribution of environmental heterogeneities to these patterns. The project is led by Myriam Sibuet and managed by Lenaick Menot, both of France.

text: COMARGE was a field project of the Census of Marine Life launched in 2005. The project described biodiversity patterns of

text: benthic

text: and bentho-

text: demersal

text: communities on continental margins, with a focus on multiple habitats and spatial scales, and identifying the contribution of environmental heterogeneities to these patterns. The project is led by Myriam Sibuet and managed by Lenaick Menot, both of France.

text: Macassan contact with Australia -Macclesfield Bank -Mackerel -Mackinaw boat -Madison River -Mahimahi -Maine Avenue Fish Market -Maja squinado -Mantis shrimp -Maori cod -Mariculture -Marine and Fisheries Agency -Marine conservation -Marine conservation activism -Marine debris -Marine Fisheries Department -Marine Harvest -Marine Institute Ireland -Marine pollution -Marine Protected Area -Marine reserve -Marine snow -Marine Stewardship Council -Marlin -Marlin fishing -Maszoperia -Matthew Hayes -Maximum sustainable yield in fisheries -Mazara del Vallo -McKenzie River dory -Medieval European maritime culture -Merchant Shipping (Scottish Fishing Boats) Act 1920 -Merlangius merlangus -Mevagissey -Michael Iaconelli -Mick Brown (angler) -Midwater trawling -Migratory Fishery of Labrador -Minister for Agriculture, Food and the Marine -Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (United Kingdom) -Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan) -Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (Netherlands) -Ministry of Fisheries (New Zealand) -Miramichi River -Misgurnus anguillicaudatus -Mogaveeras -Monitoring control and surveillance -Monterey clipper -Mora National Fish Hatchery and Technology Center -Moray Firth fishing disaster -Mormyshka -Mossom Creek Hatchery -Muddler Minnow -Multifilament fishing line -Munster pilchard fishery 1570-1750 -Mussel -Mytilidae

text: Macassan contact with Australia

text: Macclesfield Bank

text: Mackerel

text: Mackinaw boat

text: Madison River

text: Mahimahi

text: Maine Avenue Fish Market

text: Maja squinado

text: Mantis shrimp

text: Maori cod

text: Mariculture

text: Marine and Fisheries Agency

text: Marine conservation

text: Marine conservation activism

text: Marine debris

text: Marine Fisheries Department

text: Marine Harvest

text: Marine Institute Ireland

text: Marine pollution

text: Marine Protected Area

text: Marine reserve

text: Marine snow

text: Marine Stewardship Council

text: Marlin

text: Marlin fishing

text: Maszoperia

text: Matthew Hayes

text: Maximum sustainable yield in fisheries

text: Mazara del Vallo

text: McKenzie River dory

text: Medieval European maritime culture

entity_name: Merchant Shipping (Scottish Fishing Boats) Act 1920

text: Merchant Shipping (Scottish Fishing Boats) Act 1920

text: Merlangius merlangus

text: Mevagissey

text: Michael Iaconelli

text: Mick Brown (angler)

text: Midwater trawling

text: Migratory Fishery of Labrador

entity_name: Minister for Agriculture, Food and the Marine

text: Minister for Agriculture, Food and the Marine

entity_name: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (United Kingdom)

text: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (United Kingdom)

entity_name: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan)

text: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (Japan)

entity_name: Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (Netherlands)

text: Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (Netherlands)

text: Ministry of Fisheries (New Zealand)

text: Miramichi River

text: Misgurnus anguillicaudatus

text: Mogaveeras

text: Monitoring control and surveillance

text: Monterey clipper

entity_name: Mora National Fish Hatchery and Technology Center

text: Mora National Fish Hatchery and Technology Center

text: Moray Firth fishing disaster

text: Mormyshka

text: Mossom Creek Hatchery

text: Muddler Minnow

text: Multifilament fishing line

text: Munster pilchard fishery 1570-1750

text: Mussel

text: Mytilidae

text: Plankton inhabit oceans, seas, lakes, ponds. Local abundance varies horizontally, vertically and seasonally. The primary cause of this variability is the availability of light. All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy (but see chemosynthesis), confining primary production to surface waters, and to geographical regions and seasons having abundant light.

text: Plankton inhabit oceans, seas, lakes, ponds. Local abundance varies horizontally, vertically and seasonally. The primary cause of this variability is the availability of light. All plankton ecosystems are driven by the input of solar energy (but see

text: chemosynthesis

text: ), confining primary production to surface waters, and to geographical regions and seasons having abundant light.

text: The Oceans and Fisheries Directorate has two offices dedicated to international oceans issues. The Office of Marine Conservation focuses on international fisheries matters and related problems and the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs has primary responsibility for international ocean law and policy, marine pollution, marine mammals, polar affairs, maritime boundaries, and marine science.  It is headed by  Deputy Assistant Secretary David A. Balton.

text: The Oceans and Fisheries Directorate has two offices dedicated to international oceans issues. The Office of Marine Conservation focuses on international

text: fisheries

text: matters and related problems and the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs has primary responsibility for

text: international ocean law

text: and policy,

text: marine pollution

text: marine mammals

text: , polar affairs,

text: maritime boundaries

text: , and

text: marine science

text: .  It is headed by  Deputy Assistant Secretary David A. Balton.

text: As with North America and Europe, Gondwana was largely covered with shallow seas during the Ordovician. Shallow clear waters over continental shelves encouraged the growth of organisms that deposit calcium carbonates in their shells and hard parts. The Panthalassic Ocean covered much of the northern hemisphere, and other minor oceans included Proto-Tethys, Paleo-Tethys, Khanty Ocean, which was closed off by the Late Ordovician, Iapetus Ocean, and the new Rheic Ocean.

text: As with

text: North America

text: and

text: Europe

text: Gondwana

text: was largely covered with shallow seas during the Ordovician. Shallow clear waters over continental shelves encouraged the growth of organisms that deposit calcium carbonates in their shells and hard parts. The

text: Panthalassic Ocean

text: covered much of the northern hemisphere, and other minor oceans included

text: Proto-Tethys

text: Paleo-Tethys

text: Khanty Ocean

text: , which was closed off by the Late Ordovician,

text: Iapetus Ocean

text: , and the new

text: Rheic Ocean

text: Taking place sometime after the events of Sponge Out of Water, SpongeBob walks to the Krusty Krab and thinks he's going to have a "normal" day at work. Later, SpongeBob opens the front door of Krusty Krab and then notices that Sandy and Patrick are coming along, too. When Patrick, SpongeBob, and Sandy enter the Krusty Krab, Mr. Krabs, Plankton, and Squidward are getting chased around by random objects and SpongeBob states things are going not normal at all. SpongeBob thinks it's Plankton causing this, but suddenly, Bubbles the Talking Dolphin comes out of a space triangle and tells SpongeBob and his friends that Plankton isn't responsible and explains that someone is using the last page of the magic book to make weird things happen (while the book was destroyed in the movie, the final page wasn't) as well making duplicates of the page. He then holds up a feather and writes in one of the clone pages he found, which suddenly gives SpongeBob and his friends temporary superhero powers that can save Bikini Bottom from a mysterious group of enemies someone created and recover the other clone pages.

text: The improvements of imaging system to observe, calculate and measure plankton in the ocean enable the detail observation on the specific plankton community. This early development was conducted by enumerating and counting the silhouette photography of plankton, the result then is processed with software package such as Matlab.

text: The improvements of imaging system to observe, calculate and measure

text: plankton

text: in the ocean enable the detail observation on the specific plankton community. This early development was conducted by enumerating and counting the

text: silhouette

text: photography of plankton, the result then is processed with software package such as

text: Matlab

text: Rising oxygen concentrations have been cited as a driver for evolutionary diversification, although the physiological arguments behind such arguments are questionable, and a consistent pattern between oxygen concentrations and the rate of evolution is not clearly evident. The most celebrated link between oxygen and evolution occurs at the end of the last of the Snowball glaciations, where complex multicellular life is first found in the fossil record. Under low oxygen concentrations and before the evolution of nitrogen fixation, biologically-available nitrogen compounds were in limited supply  and periodic "nitrogen crises" could render the ocean inhospitable to life. Significant concentrations of oxygen were just one of the prerequisites for the evolution of complex life. Models based on uniformitarian principles (i.e. extrapolating present-day ocean dynamics into deep time) suggest that such a concentration was only reached immediately before metazoa first appeared in the fossil record. Further, anoxic or otherwise chemically "nasty" oceanic conditions that resemble those supposed to inhibit macroscopic life re-occur at intervals through the early Cambrian, and also in the late Cretaceous – with no apparent effect on lifeforms at these times. This might suggest that the geochemical signatures found in ocean sediments reflect the atmosphere in a different way before the Cambrian - perhaps as a result of the fundamentally different mode of nutrient cycling in the absence of planktivory.

text: Rising oxygen concentrations have been cited as a driver for evolutionary diversification, although the physiological arguments behind such arguments are questionable, and a consistent pattern between oxygen concentrations and the rate of evolution is not clearly evident. The most celebrated link between oxygen and evolution occurs at the end of the last of the

text: Snowball

text: glaciations, where complex multicellular life is first found in the fossil record. Under low oxygen concentrations and before the evolution of

text: nitrogen fixation

text: , biologically-available nitrogen compounds were in limited supply  and periodic "nitrogen crises" could render the ocean inhospitable to life. Significant concentrations of oxygen were just one of the prerequisites for the evolution of complex life. Models based on uniformitarian principles (i.e. extrapolating present-day ocean dynamics into deep time) suggest that such a concentration was only reached immediately before

text: metazoa

text: first appeared in the fossil record. Further, anoxic or otherwise chemically "nasty" oceanic conditions that resemble those supposed to inhibit macroscopic life re-occur at intervals through the early Cambrian, and also in the late Cretaceous – with no apparent effect on lifeforms at these times. This might suggest that the geochemical signatures found in ocean sediments reflect the atmosphere in a different way before the Cambrian - perhaps as a result of the fundamentally different mode of nutrient cycling in the absence of planktivory.

text: Ocean waters that are exceptionally clear contain little food. Areas of high productivity tend to be somewhat turbid from plankton blooms. These attract the filter feeding plankton eaters, which in turn attract the higher predators. Tuna fishing tends to be optimum when water turbidity, measured by the maximum depth a secchi disc can be seen during a sunny day, is 15 to 35 metres.

text: Ocean waters that are exceptionally clear contain little food. Areas of high productivity tend to be somewhat turbid from

text: plankton blooms

text: . These attract the filter feeding plankton eaters, which in turn attract the higher predators. Tuna fishing tends to be optimum when water turbidity, measured by the maximum depth a

text: secchi disc

text: can be seen during a sunny day, is 15 to 35 metres.

text: Resistive chain level sensors are similar to magnetic float level sensors in that a permanent magnet sealed inside a float moves up and down a stem in which closely spaced switches and resistors are sealed.  When the switches are closed, the resistance is summed and converted to current or voltage signals that are proportional to the level of the liquid.	The choice of float and stem materials depends on the liquid in terms of chemical compatibility as well as specific gravity and other factors that affect buoyancy.  These sensors work well for liquid level measurements in marine, chemical processing, pharmaceuticals, food processing, waste treatment, and other applications.  With the proper choice of two floats, resistive chain level sensors can also be used to monitor for the presence of an interface between two immiscible liquids whose specific gravities are more than 0.6, but differ by as little as 0.1 unit.

text: For comparison, the pelagic zone is the descriptive term for the ecological region above the benthos, including the water-column up to the surface. Depending on the water-body, the benthic zone may include areas that are only a few inches below water, such as a stream or shallow pond; at the other end of the spectrum, benthos of the deep ocean includes the bottom levels of the oceanic abyssal zone.

text: For comparison, the

text: pelagic zone

text: is the descriptive term for the ecological region above the benthos, including the water-column up to the surface. Depending on the water-body, the benthic zone may include areas that are only a few inches below water, such as a stream or shallow pond; at the other end of the spectrum, benthos of the deep ocean includes the bottom levels of the oceanic

text: abyssal zone

text: Species of the genus Titanites can reach large sizes, with a diameter of about 1.37 m for Titanites occidentalis. They were fast-moving nektonic carnivores.

text: Species of the genus Titanites can reach large sizes, with a diameter of about 1.37 m for Titanites occidentalis. They were fast-moving

text: nektonic

text: carnivores.

text: Zoobenthos comprises the animals belonging to the benthos.

text: This programme concentrates on the marine environment. Attenborough goes underwater himself to observe the ocean's life forms and comment on them at first hand. He states that those that live on the sea bed are even more varied than land inhabitants. Much sea life is microscopic, and such creatures make up part of the marine plankton. Some animals are filter feeders and examples include the manta ray, the basking shark and the largest, the whale shark. Bony fish with their swim bladders and manoeuvrable fins dominate the seas, and the tuna is hailed as the fastest hunter, but the superiority of these types of fish did not go unchallenged: mammals are also an important component of ocean life. Killer whales, dolphins, narwhals and humpback whales are shown, as well as a school of beluga whales, which congregate annually in a bay in the Canadian Arctic — for reasons unknown. Marine habitats can be just as diverse as those on dry land. Attenborough surmises that the coral reef, with its richness of life, is the water equivalent of the jungle. Where the breezes of the Gulf Stream meet those of the Arctic, the resulting currents churn up nutrients, which lead to vegetation, the fish that eat it, and others that eat them. Attenborough remarks that it is man who has been most responsible for changing ocean environments by fishing relentlessly, but in doing so has also created new ones for himself — and this leads to the final episode.

text: This programme concentrates on the marine environment. Attenborough goes underwater himself to observe the ocean's life forms and comment on them at first hand. He states that those that live on the sea bed are even more varied than land inhabitants. Much sea life is microscopic, and such creatures make up part of the marine

text: plankton

text: . Some animals are

text: filter feeder

text: s and examples include the

text: manta ray

text: , the

text: basking shark

text: and the largest, the

text: whale shark

text: . Bony fish with their

text: swim bladder

text: s and manoeuvrable

text: fin

text: s dominate the seas, and the

text: tuna

text: is hailed as the fastest hunter, but the superiority of these types of fish did not go unchallenged:

text: mammal

text: s are also an important component of ocean life.

text: Killer whale

text: s,

text: dolphin

text: s,

text: narwhal

text: s and

text: humpback whale

text: s are shown, as well as a school of

text: beluga whales

text: , which congregate annually in a bay in the Canadian Arctic — for reasons unknown. Marine habitats can be just as diverse as those on dry land. Attenborough surmises that the

text: coral reef

text: , with its richness of life, is the water equivalent of the jungle. Where the breezes of the

text: Gulf Stream

text: meet those of the Arctic, the resulting currents churn up nutrients, which lead to vegetation, the fish that eat it, and others that eat them. Attenborough remarks that it is man who has been most responsible for changing ocean environments by

text: fishing relentlessly

text: , but in doing so has also created new ones for himself — and this leads to the final episode.

text: The third floor contain the Sea Life Museum and the Ocean Information Plaza. Hands-on exhibits in these areas let visitors learn about the anatomy and behavior of fish and other sea life. The exhibit contains sections on seaweed, plankton, and sharks, as well as a display where visitors can hear the calls of all 18 penguin species.

text: The larvae of Toxorhynchites prey on the larvae of other mosquitoes and similar nektonic prey. In this respect, they contrast with blood-sucking species of mosquitoes. Toxorhynchites larvae live on a protein- and fat-rich diet of aquatic animals such as mosquito larvae. They have no need to risk their lives sucking blood in adulthood, having already accumulated the necessary materials for oogenesis and vitellogenesis.

text: The

text: larva

text: e of Toxorhynchites prey on the larvae of other mosquitoes and similar

text: nekton

text: ic prey. In this respect, they contrast with blood-sucking species of mosquitoes. Toxorhynchites larvae live on a protein- and fat-rich diet of aquatic animals such as mosquito larvae. They have no need to risk their lives sucking blood in adulthood, having already accumulated the necessary materials for

text: oogenesis

text: and

text: vitellogenesis

text: Marine ecosystems are among the largest  of Earth's aquatic ecosystems, salt marshes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs, the deep sea, and the sea floor. They can be contrasted with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice versa.  See food chains.

text: Marine ecosystems are among the largest  of

text: Earth

text: 's

text: aquatic ecosystem

text: s,

text: salt marsh

text: es,

text: intertidal zone

text: s,

text: estuaries

text: lagoon

text: s,

text: mangrove

text: s,

text: coral reefs

text: , the

text: deep sea

text: , and the

text: sea floor

text: . They can be contrasted with

text: freshwater ecosystem

text: s, which have a lower

text: salt

text: content. Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice versa.  See

text: food chain

text: s.

text: Marine mammals were first hunted by aboriginal peoples for food and other resources. They were also the target for commercial industry, leading to a sharp decline in all populations of exploited species, such as whales and seals. Commercial hunting lead to the extinction of Steller's sea cow and the Caribbean monk seal. After commercial hunting ended, some species, such as the gray whale and northern elephant seal, have rebounded in numbers, however the northern elephant seal has a genetic bottleneck; conversely, other species, such as the North Atlantic right whale, are critically endangered. Other then hunting, marine mammals, dolphins especially, can be killed as bycatch from fisheries, where they become entangled in fixed netting and drown or starve. Increased ocean traffic causes collisions between fast ocean vessels and large marine mammals. Habitat degradation also threatens marine mammals and their ability to find and catch food. Noise pollution, for example, may adversely affect echolocating mammals,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Harwood, J. |year=2001|title=Marine Mammals and their Environment in the Twenty-First Century|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=82|issue=3|pages= 630–640|jstor=1383602|doi=10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082

text: Marine mammals were first hunted by aboriginal peoples

text: for food

text: and other resources. They were also the target for commercial industry, leading to a sharp decline in all populations of exploited species, such as whales and seals. Commercial hunting lead to the extinction of Steller's sea cow and the Caribbean monk seal. After commercial hunting ended, some species, such as the gray whale and northern elephant seal, have rebounded in numbers, however the northern elephant seal has a

text: genetic bottleneck

text: ; conversely, other species, such as the North Atlantic right whale, are critically endangered. Other then hunting, marine mammals, dolphins especially, can be killed as

text: bycatch

text: from fisheries, where they become entangled in fixed netting and drown or starve. Increased ocean traffic causes collisions between fast ocean vessels and large marine mammals. Habitat degradation also threatens marine mammals and their ability to find and catch food.

text: Noise pollution

text: , for example, may adversely affect echolocating mammals,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Harwood, J. |year=2001|title=Marine Mammals and their Environment in the Twenty-First Century|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|volume=82|issue=3|pages= 630–640|jstor=1383602|doi=10.1644/1545-1542(2001)082

text: It is an ocean-going species and spends most of its life far from land, travelling with the currents and migrating to areas where upwellings of nutrient-rich water increase the availability of zooplankton. The oceanic manta ray is often in association with offshore oceanic islands.

text: It is an ocean-going species and spends most of its life far from land, travelling with the currents and migrating to areas where upwellings of nutrient-rich water increase the availability of

text: zooplankton

text: . The oceanic manta ray is often in association with offshore oceanic islands.

text: American Chai is a 2001 film written and directed by Indian American director Anurag Mehta. His brother, Aalok Mehta, played the starring role opposite Sheetal Sheth, who had previously starred in the similar genre film ABCD. The film also had a minor role played by Paresh Rawal.

text: American Chai is a 2001 film written and directed by Indian American director

text: Anurag Mehta

text: . His brother,

text: Aalok Mehta

text: , played the starring role opposite

text: Sheetal Sheth

text: , who had previously starred in the similar genre film

text: ABCD

text: . The film also had a minor role played by

text: Paresh Rawal

text: where, τ, is space-like-time and is related to real time, t, by

text: Kai-Uwe Hinrichs is a German biogeochemist and organic geochemist known for his research of microbial life below the ocean bed - the deep biosphere.

text: The life of Kshetragna is depicted in the novel Bliss Of Life by M. V. Rama Sarma, professor of English and former vice chancellor, S.V. University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India. It is translated into Telugu with the title Kshetrayya.

text: There are three distinctly different layers of ocean water - Surface Sea Water, Deep Ocean Water (DOW) and Very Deep Ocean Water.  Each layer remains separate and autonomous from the others, moving at different speeds and directions from different kinetic forces and having different temperatures, densities and life form status.

text: In 2004, Puppet Master vs. Demonic Toys aired on the Scifi channel and was released on DVD in 2006, a concept which had been planned as far back as 1994. Only four puppets appeared in the actual movie: Blade, Jester, Pinhead and Six-Shooter. The idea was also to re-use the old look of the toys, but the inclusion of characters was limited to Jack Attack, Baby Oopsy Daisy and Grizzly Teddy. However, the end result was a change in design for the toys, notably utilizing designs for Six-Shooter that incorporated a 'Terminator'- influenced exoskeleton, and robotic hands for Pinhead. The fight scenes between the Toys and the Puppets are limited to the climactic end battles. It has been revealed by head executive of Full Moon Features, Charles Band, that the film was considered to be non-canon.

text: In 2004,

text: Puppet Master vs. Demonic Toys

text: aired on the Scifi channel and was released on DVD in 2006, a concept which had been planned as far back as 1994. Only four puppets appeared in the actual movie:

text: Blade

text: Jester

text: Pinhead

text: and

text: Six-Shooter

text: . The idea was also to re-use the old look of the toys, but the inclusion of characters was limited to

text: Jack Attack

text: Baby Oopsy Daisy

text: and

text: Grizzly Teddy

text: . However, the end result was a change in design for the toys, notably utilizing designs for Six-Shooter that incorporated a 'Terminator'- influenced exoskeleton, and robotic hands for Pinhead. The fight scenes between the Toys and the Puppets are limited to the climactic end battles. It has been revealed by head executive of

text: Full Moon Features

text: Charles Band

text: , that the film was considered to be non-canon.

text: Maintenance Platoon (motorized) 215

text: Maintenance Platoon (motorized) 215

text: Gameplay is overseen by an "Absolute Judge" (the gamemaster).

text: Gameplay is overseen by an "Absolute Judge" (the

text: gamemaster

text: Some complications from wood deterioration can be solved through tight fitting seals around windows and doors, gutter systems, caulking of seams and joints, and sloping away of decking from the structure.  Regular cleaning of the surface may also help reduce accumulated residues on the wood thereby prolonging its usable life.  The most common treatment for replacing degraded wood is to use a splicing technique where new pieces of wood are joined with original wood features.  For severe cases, large in-kind replacements may be necessary.

text: "Come On" was covered by British singer-songwriter and actor Will Young.  It was released on 21 November 2011 as the second single from his fifth studio album, Echoes (2011).

text: "Come On" was covered by British singer-songwriter and actor

text: Will Young

text: .  It was released on 21 November 2011 as the second single from his fifth studio album,

text: Echoes

text: In order to assure that the rankings best reflected a team's current form, the most recent results were of greatest importance; however attention was also paid to the results of previous years. The results from the preceding year were given full weighting, with the results from one to two years before given seven eighths of their value, those from two to three years before given six eighths, and so on until after eight years the results are dropped from calculation completely.

text: While N is transported deeper by this mechanism, the surface waters are potentially cut off from this source. Nitrogen must be available for life at the surface. In order to account for this lack of nitrogen to the surface, there are organisms that are capable of nitrogen fixation in the NPSG. Trichodesmium is one species capable of nitrogen fixation that is found in many surface plankton blooms. Nitrogen fixation is the process where inert N is taken from the atmosphere and converted into a nitrogen compound that is available to organisms for use. In many oligotrophic marine ecosystems, nitrogen fixation is a common source of nitrogen.

text: While N is transported deeper by this mechanism, the surface waters are potentially cut off from this source. Nitrogen must be available for life at the surface. In order to account for this lack of nitrogen to the surface, there are organisms that are capable of

text: nitrogen fixation

text: in the NPSG. Trichodesmium is one species capable of nitrogen fixation that is found in many surface plankton blooms. Nitrogen fixation is the process where inert N is taken from the atmosphere and converted into a nitrogen compound that is available to organisms for use. In many oligotrophic

text: marine ecosystem

text: s, nitrogen fixation is a

text: common source

text: of nitrogen.

text: Hudson Bay is part of the North Atlantic Ocean. Sometimes the Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait basins are considered part of the Arctic Ocean even though their waters flow predominantly to the Atlantic. Some sources describe Hudson Bay as a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, or the Arctic Ocean.

text: Hudson Bay is part of the

text: North Atlantic Ocean

text: . Sometimes the Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait basins are considered part of the Arctic Ocean even though their waters flow predominantly to the Atlantic. Some sources describe Hudson Bay as a

text: marginal sea

text: of the Atlantic Ocean, or the Arctic Ocean.

text: The passenger pigeon had a very elastic mouth and throat, allowing for increased capacity, and a joint in the lower bill enabled it to swallow acorns whole. The bird was also able to store large quantities of food in its crop, which was capable of expanding to about the size of an orange, causing the neck to bulge. This allowed a bird to quickly grab any food it discovered in the highly competitive flock. The crop was described as being capable of holding at least 17 acorns or 28 beechnuts, 11 grains of corn, 100 maple seeds, plus other material; it was estimated that a passenger pigeon needed to eat about  of food a day in order to survive. If shot, a pigeon with a crop full of nuts would fall to the ground with a sound described as like the rattle of a bag of marbles. After feeding, the pigeons perched on branches and digested the food stored in their crop overnight. The pigeon could eat and digest  of acorns per day. At the historic population of three billion passenger pigeons, this amounted to  of food a day. The pigeon was also able to regurgitate food from its crop when more desirable food became available.

text: The passenger pigeon had a very elastic mouth and throat, allowing for increased capacity, and a joint in the lower bill enabled it to swallow acorns whole. The bird was also able to store large quantities of food in its

text: crop

text: , which was capable of expanding to about the size of an orange, causing the neck to bulge. This allowed a bird to quickly grab any food it discovered in the highly competitive flock. The crop was described as being capable of holding at least 17 acorns or 28 beechnuts, 11 grains of corn, 100 maple seeds, plus other material; it was estimated that a passenger pigeon needed to eat about  of food a day in order to survive. If shot, a pigeon with a crop full of nuts would fall to the ground with a sound described as like the rattle of a bag of marbles. After feeding, the pigeons perched on branches and digested the food stored in their crop overnight. The pigeon could eat and digest  of acorns per day. At the historic population of three billion passenger pigeons, this amounted to  of food a day. The pigeon was also able to regurgitate food from its crop when more desirable food became available.

text: On December 24, 2014, Bernadina signed a minor-league contract with the Colorado Rockies.

text: On December 24, 2014, Bernadina signed a minor-league contract with the

text: Colorado Rockies

text: The origin of carried interest can be traced to the 16th century, when European ships were crossing to Asia and the Americas. The captain of the ship would take a 20% share of the profit from the carried goods, to pay for the transport and the risk of sailing over oceans.

text: Collector's edition

text: Collector's edition

text: Conjectures regarding extraterrestrial life have ensured a high profile for Europa and have led to steady lobbying for future missions. The aims of these missions have ranged from examining Europa's chemical composition to searching for extraterrestrial life in its hypothesized subsurface oceans. Robotic missions to Europa need to endure the high radiation environment around itself and Jupiter. Europa receives about 5.40 Sv of radiation per day.

text: Conjectures regarding

text: extraterrestrial life

text: have ensured a high profile for Europa and have led to steady lobbying for future missions. The aims of these missions have ranged from examining Europa's chemical composition to searching for extraterrestrial life in its hypothesized subsurface oceans. Robotic missions to Europa need to endure the high radiation environment around itself and Jupiter. Europa receives about 5.40

text: Sv

text: of radiation per day.

text: Spread across the base of the key are five wavy blue lines, significant of the five great bodies of water which have carried man out from Europe to the lands of the earth, -the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the Arctic Ocean, and the Antarctic Ocean or Great Southern Ocean.

text: Spread across the base of the key are five wavy blue lines, significant of the five great bodies of water which have carried man out from Europe to the lands of the earth, -the

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: , the

text: Indian Ocean

text: , the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: , the

text: Arctic Ocean

text: , and the

text: Antarctic Ocean

text: or Great Southern Ocean.

text: The diet of the marbled flounder consists primarily of benthic organisms such as amphipods, polychaetes, shrimps, crabs and other benthos crustaceans.

text: The diet of the marbled flounder consists primarily of

text: benthic

text: organisms such as

text: amphipod

text: s,

text: polychaete

text: s,

text: shrimp

text: s,

text: crab

text: s and other benthos

text: crustacean

text: s.

text: Forage fish are small fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Typical ocean forage fish are small, filter-feeding fish such as herring, anchovies and menhaden. Forage fish compensate for their small size by forming schools. Some swim in synchronised grids with their mouths open so they can efficiently filter feed on plankton. These schools can become huge, moving along coastlines and migrating across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated food resources for the great marine predators.

text: Forage fish

text: are small fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish,

text: seabird

text: s and

text: marine mammal

text: s. Typical ocean forage fish are small,

text: filter-feeding

text: fish such as

text: herring

text: anchovies

text: and

text: menhaden

text: . Forage fish compensate for their small size by forming schools. Some swim in synchronised grids with their mouths open so they can efficiently filter feed on

text: plankton

text: . These schools can become huge, moving along coastlines and

text: migrating

text: across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated food resources for the great marine predators.