text: Following her residency in pediatrics and a fellowship in pediatric infectious disease at Johns Hopkins, O'Brien joined the bacterial Respiratory Diseases Branch at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as an Epidemic Intelligence Officer.  She returned to Johns Hopkins in 1998 to join the Center for American Indian Health where she leads the Center’s Infectious Disease group conducting clinical trials of vaccines for diseases of importance to American Indian tribes; she also serves as the Deputy Director of Research for PneumoADIP which aims to accelerate the development and introduction of pneumococcal vaccines for children globally.  She has also worked on rotavirus disease, conducting a large phase III trial of rotavirus vaccine among American Indian children.  Most recently she has completed a 6-year trial of a monoclonal antibody, motavizumab, against RSV lower and upper respiratory infections among otherwise healthy American Indian infants who are known to be a significantly increased risk of RSV hospitalization than children in the general US population.  During the PneumoADIP from 2004 to 2009, she focused on strategic issues of the pneumococcal research agenda and providing leadership to special studies such as the Pneumococcal Global Serotype Project (GSP) and the Hib and Pneumococcal Global Disease Burden Project (Hib/SP GDB). The GSP elucidates the role that different serotypes of S.pneumoniae play in causing pneumococcal disease in different regions around the world.  This research is critical to understanding pneumococcal vaccine needs and potential efficacy in different regions.  The Hib/SP GDP established far more reliable estimates of the burden of disease of both S.pneumoniae and H.influenzae on a country level globally.  This research is essential to understanding the scope of these diseases which are the leading causes of pneumonia, an illness that kills approximately 2 million children under five each and every year. Since 2009, she has served as the Deputy Director of IVAC, providing strategic direction and a leading role in projects such as the PERCH study which aims to establish pneumonia etiology among children less than 5 years of age in seven countries around the world, the PCV Dosing Landscape Project which aims to evaluate the relative impact of various PCV dosing regimens on disease, immunogenicity and colonization and to thereby provide guidance to WHO for vaccine schedule decisions, and the PCV Serotype Replacement Project aiming to more fully understand the evidence on serotype replacement following PCV implementation.

text: Following her residency in pediatrics and a fellowship in pediatric infectious disease at Johns Hopkins, O'Brien joined the bacterial Respiratory Diseases Branch at the

entity_name: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

text: as an Epidemic Intelligence Officer.  She returned to Johns Hopkins in 1998 to join the Center for American Indian Health where she leads the Center’s Infectious Disease group conducting clinical trials of vaccines for diseases of importance to American Indian tribes; she also serves as the Deputy Director of Research for PneumoADIP which aims to accelerate the development and introduction of pneumococcal vaccines for children globally.  She has also worked on

entity_name: Rotavirus

text: rotavirus

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Since opportunistic infections can cause severe disease, much emphasis is placed on measures to prevent infection. Such a strategy usually includes restoration of the immune system as soon as possible, avoiding exposures to infectious agents, and using antimicrobial medications ("prophylactic medications") directed against specific infections.

text: Some diseases are hereditary and run in families; others, such as infectious diseases, are caused by the environment. Other diseases come from a combination of genes and the environment. Genetic disorders are diseases that are caused by a single allele of a gene and are inherited in families. These include Huntington's disease, Cystic fibrosis or Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Cystic fibrosis, for example, is caused by mutations in a single gene called CFTR and is inherited as a recessive trait.

text: Some diseases are hereditary and run in families; others, such as

entity_name: Infection

text: infectious disease

text: s, are caused by the environment. Other diseases come from a combination of genes and the environment.

entity_name: Genetic disorder

text: Genetic disorder

text: s are diseases that are caused by a single allele of a gene and are inherited in families. These include

entity_name: Huntington's disease

text: Huntington's disease

entity_name: Cystic fibrosis

text: Cystic fibrosis

text: or

entity_name: Duchenne muscular dystrophy

text: Duchenne muscular dystrophy

text: . Cystic fibrosis, for example, is caused by mutations in a single gene called

entity_name: Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator

text: CFTR

text: and is inherited as a recessive trait.

method: Bert-ConvKNRM

text: The success of vaccines and anti-virus software in preventing major outbreaks relies on the mechanism of herd immunity, also known as community immunity, where the immunization of individuals provides protection for not only the individuals, but also the community at large. In cases of biological contagions such as influenza, measles, and chicken pox, immunizing a critical community size can provide protection against the disease for members who cannot be vaccinated themselves (infants, pregnant women, and immunocompromised individuals). Often however these vaccine programmes require the immunization of a large majority of the population to provide herd immunity. A few successful vaccine programmes have led to the eradication of infectious diseases like small pox and rinderpest, and the near eradication of polio, which plagued the world before the second half of the 20th century.

text: The success of

entity_name: Vaccine

text: vaccines

text: and

entity_name: Antivirus software

text: anti-virus software

text: in preventing major outbreaks relies on the mechanism of

entity_name: Herd immunity

text: herd immunity

text: , also known as community immunity, where the immunization of individuals provides protection for not only the individuals, but also the community at large. In cases of biological contagions such as

entity_name: Influenza

text: influenza

entity_name: Measles

text: measles

text: , and

entity_name: Chickenpox

text: chicken pox

text: , immunizing a

entity_name: Critical community size

text: critical community size

text: can provide protection against the disease for members who cannot be vaccinated themselves (infants, pregnant women, and

entity_name: Immunodeficiency

text: immunocompromised

text: individuals). Often however these vaccine programmes require the immunization of a large majority of the population to provide herd immunity. A few successful vaccine programmes have led to the

entity_name: Eradication of infectious diseases

text: eradication of infectious diseases

text: like

entity_name: Smallpox

text: small pox

text: and

entity_name: Rinderpest

text: rinderpest

text: , and the near eradication of

entity_name: Poliomyelitis

text: polio

text: , which plagued the world before the second half of the 20th century.

text: The main concern addressed by this rule is the spread of infectious diseases like Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Hepatitis, and other diseases that can be spread through the contact of blood.

text: The main concern addressed by this rule is the spread of

text: infectious diseases

text: like

entity_name: HIV

text: Human immunodeficiency virus

text: (HIV),

entity_name: Hepatitis

text: Hepatitis

text: , and other diseases that can be spread through the contact of blood.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: The word infection can denote any presence of a particular pathogen at all (no matter how little) but also is often used in a sense implying a clinically apparent infection (in other words, a case of infectious disease). This fact occasionally creates some ambiguity or prompts some usage discussion. To get around the usage annoyance, it is common for health professionals to speak of colonization (rather than infection) when they mean that some of the pathogens are present but that no clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present.

text: The word infection can

entity_name: Denotation

text: denote

text: any presence of a particular pathogen at all (no matter how little) but also is often used in a

entity_name: Word sense

text: sense

text: implying a clinically apparent infection (in other words, a case of infectious disease). This fact occasionally creates some

entity_name: Ambiguity

text: ambiguity

text: or prompts some

entity_name: Usage

text: usage

text: discussion. To get around the usage annoyance, it is common for

entity_name: Health professional

text: health professional

text: s to speak of

entity_section: Colonization

text: colonization

text: (rather than infection) when they mean that some of the pathogens are present but that no clinically apparent infection (no disease) is present.

text: Formerly rare infectious diseases have spread in rebel-held areas brought on by poor sanitation and deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include measles, typhoid, hepatitis, dysentery, tuberculosis, diphtheria, whooping cough and the disfiguring skin disease leishmaniasis. Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling Poliomyelitis. As of late 2013 doctors and international public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before the uprising, it contributed the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to vaccination, sanitation and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic".

text: Formerly rare

text: infectious disease

text: s have spread in rebel-held areas brought on by poor

entity_name: Sanitation

text: sanitation

text: and deteriorating living conditions. The diseases have primarily affected children. These include

text: measles

entity_name: Typhoid fever

text: typhoid

text: hepatitis

entity_name: Dysentery

text: dysentery

entity_name: Tuberculosis

text: tuberculosis

entity_name: Diphtheria

text: diphtheria

entity_name: Pertussis

text: whooping cough

text: and the disfiguring

entity_name: Cutaneous condition

text: skin disease

entity_name: Leishmaniasis

text: leishmaniasis

text: . Of particular concern is the contagious and crippling

text: Poliomyelitis

text: . As of late 2013 doctors and international public health agencies have reported more than 90 cases. Critics of the government complain that, even before the uprising, it contributed the spread of disease by purposefully restricting access to

entity_name: Vaccination

text: vaccination

text: , sanitation and access to hygienic water in "areas considered politically unsympathetic".

text: Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV)  is a coronavirus which infects chickens, causing the associated disease, infectious bronchitis (IB). It is a highly infectious avian pathogen which affects the respiratory tract, gut, kidney and reproductive systems of chickens.

text: Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV)  is a

entity_name: Coronavirus

text: coronavirus

text: which infects

entity_name: Chicken

text: chicken

text: s, causing the associated disease,

entity_name: Avian infectious bronchitis

text: infectious bronchitis

text: (IB). It is a highly infectious avian pathogen which affects the

entity_name: Respiratory tract

text: respiratory tract

entity_name: Gastrointestinal tract

text: gut

entity_name: Kidney

text: kidney

text: and

entity_name: Reproductive system

text: reproductive system

text: s of

text: chicken

text: s.

text: Medical anthropologist, epidemiologists, and clinical researchers are just beginning to understand the nature of syndemics.  There is a critical need for new research in this area. Important arenas of inquiry include the following: First, there is a need for studies that examine the processes by which syndemics emerge, including the specific sets of health and social conditions that foster the occurrence of multiple epidemics in a population and how syndemics function to produce specific kinds of health outcomes in populations.  Second, there is a need to better understand processes of interaction between specific diseases with each other and with health-related factors like malnutrition, structural violence, discrimination, stigmatization, and toxic environmental exposure that reflect oppressive social relationships.  Specifically, there is a need to identify all of the ways, directly and indirectly, that diseases can interact and have, as a result, enhanced impact on human health. Third there is a need for the development of an eco-syndemic understanding of the ways in which global warming is contributing to the spread of diseases to new areas and to the potential for new disease interactions. Already it is clear that as a result of global warming infectious diseases such as West Nile Virus are spreading to new places.  Similarly malaria is now found in new places because it is spread by particular mosquito species that are migrating to new locations as a result of changing climates.  As a consequence, diseases that did not often interact in the past---through co-infection of the same individuals within a population---may begin interacting more regularly. Finally, there is a need for a better understanding of how the public health systems and communities can best respond to and limit the health consequences of syndemics. Systems are needed to monitor the emergence of syndemics and to allow early-bird medical and public health responses designed to lessen their impact. Systematic ethno-epidemiological surveillance with populations subject to multiple social stressors must be one component of such a monitoring system. Current efforts by researchers at the CDC to expand the discussion of syndemics in public health discourse is an important step in the development of a funded research agenda that addresses these research needs. Given the nature of syndemics, this research requires a bio-cultural/social approach that attends to both clinical and social processes.

text: Medical anthropologist, epidemiologists, and clinical researchers are just beginning to understand the nature of syndemics.  There is a critical need for new research in this area. Important arenas of inquiry include the following: First, there is a need for studies that examine the processes by which syndemics emerge, including the specific sets of health and social conditions that foster the occurrence of multiple epidemics in a population and how syndemics function to produce specific kinds of health outcomes in populations.  Second, there is a need to better understand processes of interaction between specific diseases with each other and with health-related factors like malnutrition, structural violence, discrimination, stigmatization, and toxic environmental exposure that reflect oppressive social relationships.  Specifically, there is a need to identify all of the ways, directly and indirectly, that diseases can interact and have, as a result, enhanced impact on human health. Third there is a need for the development of an eco-syndemic understanding of the ways in which

entity_name: Global warming

text: global warming

text: is contributing to the spread of diseases to new areas and to the potential for new disease interactions. Already it is clear that as a result of global warming infectious diseases such as

entity_name: West Nile fever

text: West Nile Virus

text: Stringent requirements of 1 in a million may not be technologically feasible or may be so prohibitively expensive as to render the risk-causing activity unsustainable, resulting in the optimal degree of intervention being a balance between risks vs. benefit. For example, emissions from hospital incinerators result in a certain number of deaths per year. However, this risk must be balanced against the alternatives.  There are public health risks, as well as economic costs, associated with all options. The risk associated with no incineration is potential spread of infectious diseases, or even no hospitals. Further investigation identifies options such as separating noninfectious from infectious wastes, or air pollution controls on a medical incinerator.

text: Stringent requirements of 1 in a million may not be technologically feasible or may be so prohibitively expensive as to render the risk-causing activity unsustainable, resulting in the optimal degree of intervention being a balance between risks vs. benefit. For example, emissions from hospital incinerators result in a certain number of deaths per year. However, this risk must be balanced against the alternatives.  There are public health risks, as well as economic costs, associated with all options. The risk associated with no

entity_name: Incineration

text: incineration

text: is potential spread of infectious diseases, or even no hospitals. Further investigation identifies options such as separating noninfectious from infectious wastes, or air pollution controls on a medical incinerator.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: Kalaupapa, a small Hawaiian Island was a legally mandated place of banishment for citizens with leprosy. “It became so after 1865, when the Kingdom of Hawaii passed “An Act to Prevent the Spread of Leprosy” and effectively defined people diagnosed with leprosy as criminals. The State of Hawaii did not repeal the law until 1969.”*2 The historian Carolyn Strange argues that the history of this island with its forced segregation, stigma and death contrasted with its present state as a tourist destination and as a sacred place for Christian pilgrimages which makes this island a symbol for human rights struggles and integration.*2  By recognizing the issues and the rights of those who were cast as criminals for simply being ill with an infectious disease and segregated against their will, it can aid present society with the future handling of people with infectious diseases; a main theme when discussing the stigmas attached to Leprosy colonies.

text: Kalaupapa

text: , a small Hawaiian Island was a legally mandated place of banishment for citizens with leprosy. “It became so after 1865, when the Kingdom of Hawaii passed “An Act to Prevent the Spread of Leprosy” and effectively defined people diagnosed with leprosy as criminals. The State of Hawaii did not repeal the law until 1969.”*2 The historian Carolyn Strange argues that the history of this island with its forced segregation, stigma and death contrasted with its present state as a tourist destination and as a sacred place for Christian pilgrimages which makes this island a symbol for human rights struggles and integration.*2  By recognizing the issues and the rights of those who were cast as criminals for simply being ill with an infectious disease and segregated against their will, it can aid present society with the future handling of people with infectious diseases; a main theme when discussing the stigmas attached to Leprosy colonies.

text: FI’s Drug Project (initiated in 1998) is one of the only holistic approaches for drug using youth in Cambodia. It provides a set of prevention and harm reduction services to drug using street children and youth as well as high quality services to help them recover from addictions and return to normal life through rehabilitation with family/school reintegration, and training and job placement. The Drug Project was the first established in Cambodia  to respond to the growing need for drug programs specifically targeting street youth. Currently FI is one of only three organizations in Cambodia licensed by the government to implement needle and syringe exchange programs. In 2013, 150 children/youth went through voluntary detoxification and 100,000 clean syringes were provided to drug users to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.

text: At present, these components of hygiene tend to be regarded as separate issues, although all are based on the same underlying microbiological principles. Preventing the spread of infectious diseases means breaking the chain of infection transmission. The simple principle is that, if the chain of infection is broken, infection cannot spread. In response to the need for effective codes of hygiene in home and everyday life settings the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a risk-based approach  based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), which has come to be known as "targeted hygiene". Targeted hygiene is based on identifying the  routes of spread of pathogens in the home, and applying hygiene procedures at critical points at appropriate times to break the chain of infection.

text: At present, these components of hygiene tend to be regarded as separate issues, although all are based on the same underlying microbiological principles. Preventing the spread of infectious diseases means breaking the chain of infection transmission. The simple principle is that, if the chain of infection is broken, infection cannot spread. In response to the need for effective codes of hygiene in home and everyday life settings the International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has developed a

entity_name: Probabilistic risk assessment

text: risk-based approach

text: based on Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (

entity_name: Hazard analysis and critical control points

text: HACCP

text: ), which has come to be known as "targeted hygiene". Targeted hygiene is based on identifying the  routes of spread of pathogens in the home, and applying hygiene procedures at critical points at appropriate times to break the chain of infection.

text: Biological invasions and the spread of pathogens and diseases are two mechanisms that spread both inadvertently and purposefully. Biological invasions begin with introductions of foreign species or biota into an already existing environment. They can be spread by stowaways on ships or even as weapons in warfare. In some cases a new species may wreak havoc on a landscape, causing the loss of native species and destruction of the landscape. In other cases, the new species may fill a previously empty niche, and play a positive role. The spread of new pathogens, viruses, and diseases rarely have any positive effects; new pathogens and viruses sometimes destroy populations lacking immunities to those diseases. Some pathogens have the ability to transfer from one species to another, and may be spread as a secondary effect of a biological invasion.

entity_name: Invasive species

text: Biological invasions

text: and the spread of

entity_name: Pathogen

text: pathogen

text: s and

entity_name: Disease

text: disease

text: s are two mechanisms that spread both inadvertently and purposefully. Biological invasions begin with introductions of foreign species or biota into an already existing environment. They can be spread by stowaways on ships or even as weapons in warfare. In some cases a new species may wreak havoc on a landscape, causing the loss of native species and destruction of the landscape. In other cases, the new species may fill a previously empty niche, and play a positive role. The spread of new pathogens, viruses, and diseases rarely have any positive effects; new pathogens and viruses sometimes destroy populations lacking immunities to those diseases. Some pathogens have the ability to transfer from one species to another, and may be spread as a secondary effect of a biological invasion.

text: It has been suggested that poor water quality due to excess nutrients encourages the spread of infectious diseases among corals. In general, the Great Barrier Reef is considered to have low incidences of coral diseases. Skeletal Eroding Band, a disease of bony corals caused by the protozoan Halofolliculina corallasia, affects 31 species of corals from six families on the reef. The long-term monitoring program has found an increase in incidences of coral disease in the period 1999-2002, although they dispute the claim that on the Great Barrier Reef, coral diseases are caused by anthropogenic pollution.

text: It has been suggested that poor water quality due to excess nutrients encourages the spread of

text: infectious disease

text: s among corals. In general, the Great Barrier Reef is considered to have low

text: incidences

text: of coral diseases.

entity_name: Skeletal eroding band

text: Skeletal Eroding Band

text: , a disease of bony corals caused by the

entity_name: Protozoa

text: protozoan

entity_name: Halofolliculina corallasia

text: Halofolliculina corallasia

text: , affects 31 species of corals from six families on the reef. The long-term monitoring program has found an increase in incidences of coral disease in the period 1999-2002, although they dispute the claim that on the Great Barrier Reef, coral diseases are caused by

entity_name: Human impact on the environment

text: anthropogenic

text: pollution.

text: The CDC also works on non-infectious diseases, including chronic diseases caused by obesity, physical inactivity and tobacco-use.

text: Merle Sande(September 2, 1939 – November 4, 2007) was a leading American infectious-diseases expert whose early recognition of the looming public health crisis posed by AIDS led to the development of basic protocols for how to handle infected patients. He graduated from Washington State University and received his MD degree from the University of Washington, School of Medicine in Seattle.Sande was a professor of Internal Medicine from 1971–1980 at the University of Virginia, where he performed research in mice on bacterial meningitis therapies such as novel antibiotics and corticosteroids. Dr Sande was Chief of Medical Services at San Francisco General Hospital in 1981 when he recognized a pattern of gay men being admitted with the rare pneumocystis pneumonia. His efforts on behalf of these patients resulted in the formation of an AIDS ward at San Francisco General Hospital and later an AIDS outpatient clinic. Teaming with such experts as Julie Gerberding and Paul Volberding he helped to craft what became known as the San Francisco model of AIDS therapy, a comprehensive, rational approach to care that avoided the fear and paranoia surrounding the disease at that time. The model addressed a need for infection-control guidelines, clinical studies and research financing and became a template for AIDS centers nationwide. Sande helped found to the Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, which performed trials on some of the first anti-retrovirals such as zidovudine. He also helped to found the Infectious Diseases Institute at the Makerere University College of Health Sciences in Kampala, Uganda a major center for HIV education and research in Africa. Sande was a professor of Medicine at University of California, San Francisco from 1980–1996, chairman of the department internal medicine at University of Utah from 1996–2005 and Professor of medicine at University of Washington from 2005 until his death and president of the Infectious Diseases Society of America from 1993–4. He was also the editor of two highly regarded medical references "The Medical Management of AIDS." and "The Sanford Guide to Antimicrobial Therapy". He also gave the always popular and well attended annual update in Infectious Diseases at the American College of Physicians annual meeting as well as the clinical case presentations at the Infectious Diseases Society of America annual meeting.Sande died from complications of Multiple Myeloma in 2007.

text: Merle Sande(September 2, 1939 – November 4, 2007) was a leading American infectious-diseases expert whose early recognition of the looming public health crisis posed by

text: AIDS

text: led to the development of basic protocols for how to handle infected patients. He graduated from

entity_name: Washington State University

text: Washington State University

text: and received his MD degree from the

entity_name: University of Washington

text: University of Washington

text: , School of Medicine in Seattle.Sande was a professor of Internal Medicine from 1971–1980 at the

entity_name: University of Virginia

text: University of Virginia

text: , where he performed research in mice on bacterial

entity_name: Meningitis

text: meningitis

text: therapies such as novel antibiotics and corticosteroids. Dr Sande was Chief of Medical Services at

entity_name: San Francisco General Hospital

text: San Francisco General Hospital

text: in 1981 when he recognized a pattern of gay men being admitted with the rare

entity_name: Pneumocystidomycetes

text: pneumocystis

text: pneumonia. His efforts on behalf of these patients resulted in the formation of an AIDS ward at

text: San Francisco General Hospital

text: and later an AIDS outpatient clinic. Teaming with such experts as

entity_name: Julie Gerberding

text: Julie Gerberding

text: and

entity_name: Paul Volberding

text: Paul Volberding

text: he helped to craft what became known as the San Francisco model of AIDS therapy, a comprehensive, rational approach to care that avoided the fear and paranoia surrounding the disease at that time. The model addressed a need for infection-control guidelines, clinical studies and research financing and became a template for AIDS centers nationwide. Sande helped found to the Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, which performed trials on some of the first anti-retrovirals such as

entity_name: Zidovudine

text: zidovudine

text: . He also helped to found the

entity_name: Infectious Diseases Institute

text: Infectious Diseases Institute

text: at the

entity_name: Makerere University

text: Makerere University

text: College of Health Sciences in

entity_name: Kampala

text: Kampala

text: , Uganda a major center for HIV education and research in Africa. Sande was a professor of Medicine at

entity_name: University of California, San Francisco

text: University of California, San Francisco

text: from 1980–1996, chairman of the department internal medicine at

entity_name: University of Utah

text: University of Utah

text: from 1996–2005 and Professor of medicine at

text: University of Washington

text: from 2005 until his death and president of the

entity_name: Infectious Diseases Society of America

text: Infectious Diseases Society of America

text: from 1993–4. He was also the editor of two highly regarded medical references "The Medical Management of AIDS." and "The Sanford Guide to Antimicrobial Therapy". He also gave the always popular and well attended annual update in Infectious Diseases at the

entity_name: American College of Physicians

text: American College of Physicians

text: annual meeting as well as the clinical case presentations at the

text: Infectious Diseases Society of America

text: annual meeting.Sande died from complications of

text: Multiple Myeloma

text: in 2007.

text: Airborne transmission of disease depends on several physical variables endemic to the infectious particle. Environmental factors influence the efficacy of airborne disease transmission; the most evident environmental conditions are temperature and relative humidity. The sum of all the factors that influence temperature and humidity, either meteorological (outdoor) or human (indoor), as well as other circumstances influencing the spread of the droplets containing the infectious particles, as winds, or human behavior, sum up the factors influencing the transmission of airborne diseases.

text: The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) publishes a journal Emerging Infectious Diseases that identifies the following factors contributing to disease emergence:

text: The U.S.

text: (CDC) publishes a journal

text: Emerging Infectious Diseases

text: that identifies the following factors contributing to disease emergence:

text: Infectious diseases continue to be a leading cause of illness and death in the Greator Mekong Subregion (GMS-Thailand, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Vietnam, Burma and Southern China) countries, threatening sustainable development. The recent emergence of infectious diseases such as highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and multi-drug resistant malaria require innovative measures to strengthen public health systems while providing the general public with the necessary tools to proactively protect their health and the health of their communities. Kenan’s public health activities emphasizes health diplomacy for cross-border collaboration on surveillance of, and response to, significant and emerging human and zoonotic infectious diseases, preparedness for pandemic influenza, control and elimination of multidrug resistant malaria, life skills-based behavior change communication and healthy tourism initiatives.

text: Levofloxacin is recommended by the Pediatric Infectious Disease Society and the Infectious Disease Society of America as a first-line treatment for pediatric pneumonia caused by penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae, and as a second-line agent for the treatment of penicillin-sensitive cases.

text: Globalization, the flow of information, goods, capital and people across political and geographic boundaries, has helped spread some of the deadliest infectious diseases known to humans. The spread of diseases across wide geographic scales has increased through history.  Early diseases that spread from Asia to Europe were bubonic plague, influenza of various types, and similar infectious diseases.

text: Globalization

text: , the flow of information, goods, capital and people across political and geographic boundaries, has helped spread some of the deadliest infectious diseases known to humans. The spread of diseases across wide geographic scales has increased through history.  Early diseases that spread from Asia to Europe were bubonic plague, influenza of various types, and similar infectious diseases.

text: On the morning of 7 October 2000, Lukwiya received a phone call from Opira informing him that a mysterious illness had killed two of the hospital's student nurses, all of whom had begun bleeding or vomiting blood.  Opira asked Lukwiya for help and he arrived that evening, in time to witness the death of a third nursing student, Daniel Ayella.   He had head nurse Sister Maria Di Santo bring him the charts of all unusual deaths in the past two weeks and identified 17 cases with similar symptoms.  Lukwiya and Sr. Maria spent most of that night reading reports from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) on infectious diseases that caused bleeding.  By the end of their review, they suspected Ebola.  The literature on Ebola, largely based on a 1995 outbreak in Kikwit, Congo that had killed four (4) out of five (5) patients, stated that the sicker a patient, the more infectious they became.  Dead bodies themselves were highly contagious. Lukwiya immediately recognised this as a particular problem in Acholiland, where the traditional practice was for the bereaved family to wash the body of the deceased before burial.

text: On the morning of 7 October 2000, Lukwiya received a phone call from Opira informing him that a mysterious illness had killed two of the hospital's student nurses, all of whom had begun bleeding or vomiting blood.  Opira asked Lukwiya for help and he arrived that evening, in time to witness the death of a third nursing student, Daniel Ayella.   He had head nurse Sister Maria Di Santo bring him the charts of all unusual deaths in the past two weeks and identified 17 cases with similar symptoms.  Lukwiya and Sr. Maria spent most of that night reading reports from the US

text: (CDC) and the

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) on

text: infectious disease

text: s that caused bleeding.  By the end of their review, they suspected

text: Ebola

text: .  The literature on Ebola, largely based on a 1995 outbreak in

text: Kikwit

text: Congo

text: that had killed four (4) out of five (5) patients, stated that the sicker a patient, the more infectious they became.  Dead bodies themselves were highly contagious. Lukwiya immediately recognised this as a particular problem in Acholiland, where the traditional practice was for the bereaved family to wash the body of the deceased before burial.

text: In 1959, a system for reporting infectious diseases was established. Data collected at the village level are reported to prevention units in township hospitals. From the prevention units, data are transmitted through county health and epidemic-prevention stations to provincial centers and then on to the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine. Since 1977, the Ministry of Public Health has convened annual meetings to analyze these data on the morbidity and mortality associated with infectious diseases.

text: In 1959, a system for reporting infectious diseases was established. Data collected at the village level are reported to prevention units in township hospitals. From the prevention units, data are transmitted through county health and epidemic-prevention stations to provincial centers and then on to the

text: Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine

text: . Since 1977, the

entity_name: Ministry of Health of the People's Republic of China

text: Ministry of Public Health

text: has convened annual meetings to analyze these data on the morbidity and mortality associated with infectious diseases.

text: The disease theory is also a contender as a factor in the Classic Maya Collapse. Widespread disease could explain some rapid depopulation, both directly through the spread of infection itself and indirectly as an inhibition to recovery over the long run. According to Dunn (1968) and Shimkin (1973), infectious diseases spread by parasites are common in tropical rainforest regions, such as the Maya lowlands. Shimkin specifically suggests that the Maya may have encountered endemic infections related to American trypanosomiasis, Ascaris, and some enteropathogens that cause acute diarrheal illness. Furthermore, some experts believe that, through development of their civilization (that is, development of agriculture and settlements), the Maya could have created a "disturbed environment," in which parasitic and pathogen-carrying insects often thrive. Among the pathogens listed above, it is thought that those that cause the acute diarrheal illnesses would have been the most devastating to the Maya population. This is because such illness would have struck a victim at an early age, thereby hampering nutritional health and the natural growth and development of a child. This would have made them more susceptible to other diseases later in life.  Such ideas as this could explain the role of disease as at least a possible partial reason for the Classic Maya Collapse.

text: The

text: disease

text: theory is also a contender as a factor in the Classic Maya Collapse. Widespread disease could explain some rapid depopulation, both directly through the spread of infection itself and indirectly as an inhibition to recovery over the long run. According to Dunn (1968) and Shimkin (1973), infectious diseases spread by parasites are common in tropical rainforest regions, such as the Maya lowlands. Shimkin specifically suggests that the Maya may have encountered endemic infections related to American

text: trypanosomiasis

text: Ascaris

text: , and some

text: enteropathogen

text: s that cause acute diarrheal illness. Furthermore, some experts believe that, through development of their civilization (that is, development of agriculture and settlements), the Maya could have created a "disturbed environment," in which parasitic and pathogen-carrying insects often thrive. Among the pathogens listed above, it is thought that those that cause the acute diarrheal illnesses would have been the most devastating to the Maya population. This is because such illness would have struck a victim at an early age, thereby hampering nutritional health and the natural growth and development of a child. This would have made them more susceptible to other diseases later in life.  Such ideas as this could explain the role of disease as at least a possible partial reason for the Classic Maya Collapse.

text: Although the program was discontinued in 1973, human use research for biodefense purposes is still conducted at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) at Fort Detrick and at other government and civilian research institutes. However, these post-Whitecoat studies are rarely, if ever, human use challenge studies, in which a person is inoculated with a known pathogen to determine how effective an investigational treatment will be.

text: Although the program was discontinued in 1973,

text: human use research

text: for biodefense purposes is still conducted at the

entity_name: United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

text: U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

text: (USAMRIID) at Fort Detrick and at other government and civilian research institutes. However, these post-Whitecoat studies are rarely, if ever,

text: human use

text: challenge studies, in which a person is inoculated with a known

text: pathogen

text: to determine how effective an investigational treatment will be.

text: Biosecurity has multiple meanings and is defined differently according to various disciplines. The original definition of biosecurity started out as a set of preventive measures designed to reduce the risk of transmission of infectious diseases in crops and livestock, quarantined pests, invasive alien species, and living modified organisms (Koblentz, 2010). The term was first used by the agricultural and environmental communities. Starting from the late 1990s in response to the threat of biological terrorism, biosecurity encompasses the prevention of the intentional removal (theft) of biological materials from research laboratories. These preventative measures are a combination of systems and practices put into its place at bioscience laboratories to prevent the use of dangerous pathogens and toxins for malicious use, as well as by customs agents and agricultural and natural resource managers to prevent the spread of these biological agents.

text: Biosecurity has multiple meanings and is defined differently according to various disciplines. The original definition of biosecurity started out as a set of preventive measures designed to reduce the risk of transmission of

text: infectious disease

text: s in crops and livestock, quarantined pests,

text: invasive alien species

text: , and living modified organisms (Koblentz, 2010). The term was first used by the agricultural and environmental communities. Starting from the late 1990s in response to the threat of

text: biological terrorism

text: , biosecurity encompasses the prevention of the intentional removal (theft) of biological materials from research laboratories. These preventative measures are a combination of systems and practices put into its place at bioscience laboratories to prevent the use of dangerous pathogens and toxins for malicious use, as well as by customs agents and agricultural and natural resource managers to prevent the spread of these

text: biological agent

text: s.

text: Its main goal is to protect public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on infectious disease, food borne pathogens, environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention and educational activities designed to improve the health of United States citizens. In addition, the CDC researches and provides information on non-infectious diseases such as obesity and diabetes and is a founding member of the International Association of National Public Health Institutes.

text: Its main goal is to protect

text: public health

text: and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability. The CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on

text: infectious disease

text: food borne pathogens

text: environmental health

text: occupational safety and health

text: health promotion

text: injury prevention

text: and educational activities designed to improve the health of

text: United States citizens

text: . In addition, the CDC researches and provides information on

text: non-infectious diseases

text: such as

text: obesity

text: and

text: diabetes

text: and is a founding member of the

entity_name: International Association of National Public Health Institutes

text: International Association of National Public Health Institutes

text: The UK statutory notification system for infectious diseases (also called Notifications of Infectious Diseases or NOIDS) is a system whereby doctors are required to notify a "Proper Officer" of the local authority (such as a Consultant in Communicable Disease Control) if they are presented with a case of a serious infectious disease such as diphtheria or measles. The Proper Officer then sends a report to the Centre for Infections of the Health Protection Agency (HPA) in Colindale, north London.

text: The UK statutory notification system for infectious diseases (also called Notifications of Infectious Diseases or NOIDS) is a system whereby doctors are required to notify a "Proper Officer" of the local authority (such as a

text: Consultant in Communicable Disease Control

text: ) if they are presented with a case of a serious infectious disease such as

text: diphtheria

text: or

text: measles

text: . The Proper Officer then sends a report to the Centre for Infections of the

text: Health Protection Agency

text: (HPA) in

text: Colindale

text: , north

text: London

text: On April 9, 1 cow was confirmed with having oral inflammation in Tsuno town. Junichi Aoki, a private veterinarian, asked Miyazaki Livestock Hygiene Service Center for authentication of symptoms. When a veterinarian and health officials from the Infectious Disease Prevention Dept. examined the animals, there was only one cow found with symptoms. For fast-spreading infectious diseases such as FMD, there was not enough evidence to confirm the disease. Consequently, this case was treated as a "wait-and-see" case. No public report was made. Details on what diagnosis was made are unknown.  In this case, the cattle had slight dribbling saliva, an ulcerous scab, and fever. Poor appetite and fever were present only for a day. In addition, four days had already passed since the recovery from one-day fever. FMD cattle usually have blisters or heavy saliva dribbling. The incubation period for FMD is about 1 week in cattle. The vet had checked the farm daily until April 12, but no cattle with symptoms were reported.　  On April 16, there was another case reported to be found on the same farm.  On April 17, after inspecting the farm, 2 more cases with the same symptoms were found. Authentication was started. According to the Prevention of Epidemics Guideline, Miyazaki Livestock Hygiene Service Center must be notified immediately when more than 2 cases are present. For that reason, Metro medias criticized the farm's delay for neglect. Some reports say 4 cattle appeared to be infected and were showing symptoms by May 31 - but this has never been confirmed.  On April 19, after the elimination of possible diagnosis for Ibaraki Disease and other disease, the samples were sent to NIAH(National Institute of Animal Health, Epidemiological Research Team ) in Kodaira City, Tokyo to confirm for FMD. It is possible the AFF was notified at this point.

text: On April 9, 1 cow was confirmed with having oral inflammation in

text: Tsuno town

text: Kodaira City

text: , Tokyo to confirm for FMD. It is possible the AFF was notified at this point.

text: Acute diarrheal disease, intestinal infectious diseases, perinatal infections, malnutrition and acute respiratory infections are among the leading causes of infant death in Haiti. Infectious diseases and parasitic diseases are the most common causes of death in young children. Adolescent death is often a result of HIV/AIDS, violence, tuberculosis, typhoid and maternal death. AIDS, intestinal infections and complications during pregnancy are responsible for most maternal deaths.

text: Three hypotheses of how the chytrid fungus could have caused the extinction of the golden toad were reviewed by Rohr et al. They include the spatiotemporal-spread hypothesis, the climate-linked-epidemic hypothesis, and the chytrid-thermal-optimum hypothesis. The spatiotemporal-spread hypothesis claims that B. dendrobatidis related decreases in population are a result of the introduction and spread of B. dendrobatidis, independent of climate changes. The climate-linked-epidemic hypothesis says the decline was a result of a climate change interacting with a pathogen. This hypothesis leads to a paradox because B. dendrobatidis is a cold-tolerant pathogen. The chytrid-thermal-optimum hypothesis proposes that global warming increased cloud cover in warm years, resulting in the concurrence of daytime cooling and nighttime warming, temperatures that are the optimal thermal temperature for B. dendrobatidis growth. This theory is controversial.

text: Today, Its main goal is to protect public health and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability. The Agency (FMBA) focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on infectious disease, food borne pathogens, environmental health, occupational safety and health, health promotion, injury prevention and educational activities designed to improve the health of Russian citizens. In addition, the FMBA researches and provides information on non-infectious diseases. The Agency is also responsible for the Russian blood bank.

text: Today, Its main goal is to protect

text: public health

text: and safety through the control and prevention of disease, injury, and disability. The Agency (FMBA) focuses national attention on developing and applying disease control and prevention. It especially focuses its attention on

text: infectious disease

text: food borne pathogens

text: environmental health

text: occupational safety and health

text: health promotion

text: injury prevention

text: Russian citizens

text: . In addition, the FMBA researches and provides information on

text: non-infectious diseases

text: . The Agency is also responsible for the Russian

text: blood bank

text: Koch accepted a position as government advisor with the Imperial Department of Health in 1880. During his time as government advisor, he published a report in which he stated the importance of pure cultures in isolating disease-causing organisms and explained the necessary steps to obtain these cultures, methods which are summarized in Koch’s four postulates. Koch’s discovery of the causative agent of anthrax led to the formation of a generic set of postulates which can be used in the determination of the cause of most infectious diseases. These postulates, which not only outlined a method for linking cause and effect of an infectious disease but also established the significance of laboratory culture of infectious agents, are listed here:

text: Koch accepted a position as government advisor with the Imperial Department of Health in 1880. During his time as government advisor, he published a report in which he stated the importance of pure cultures in isolating disease-causing organisms and explained the necessary steps to obtain these cultures, methods which are summarized in

text: Koch’s four postulates

text: . Koch’s discovery of the causative agent of anthrax led to the formation of a generic set of postulates which can be used in the determination of the cause of most infectious diseases. These postulates, which not only outlined a method for linking cause and effect of an infectious disease but also established the significance of laboratory culture of infectious agents, are listed here:

text: While referred to as a therapeutic vaccine rather than a preventive vaccine that prevents infectious disease, sipuleucel-T is instead an immunostimulant.

text: While referred to as a

text: therapeutic vaccine

text: rather than a preventive vaccine that prevents infectious disease, sipuleucel-T is instead an

text: immunostimulant

text: Like most Verticillium spp., Verticillium longisporum is a fungus that primarily lives in the soil. The life cycle of V. longisporum is very similar to that of V. dahliae. V. longisporum is able to survive using overwintering structures that can survive in the soil, called microsclerotia. Microsclerotia are masses of hyphae that are produced in the dying part of the plant and are used to infect healthy plants. When a canola root is near the microsclerotia, the fungi will grow towards it. Root exudates cause the microsclerotia to germinate. Once the fungus has entered the root, it will produce hyphae to move through the plant. The fungi also use conidia to transport. Once the fungi reaches the xylem, it can quickly colonize the plant. This causes the plant to start slowly dying. This is due to fungal growth and plant defenses clogging the xylem, so the plant cannot take up nutrients in this area. Once there is enough dead plant tissue, the fungus will produce more microsclerotia. The process will then continue to repeat. This is the only known life cycle of V. longisporum. The pathogen is only known to cause asexual disease. The fungus is primarily spread via soil cultivation, harvesting, or any action that causes movement of the soil.Verticillium spp. do a spectacular job of being able to germinate, spread within the plant, and reproduce in most weather types. With this, water is usually necessary for the germination of the resting spore to first affect plants. This causes the disease to be most infectious during the spring when there is a lot of water in the ground and new, young plants are present.

text: Like most Verticillium spp., Verticillium longisporum is a fungus that primarily lives in the soil. The life cycle of V. longisporum is very similar to that of

text: V. dahliae

text: . V. longisporum is able to survive using overwintering structures that can survive in the soil, called

text: microsclerotia

text: Infectious diseases arranged by name.

text: Infectious disease

text: s arranged by name.

text: The polycyclic disease cycle of L. taurica is similar to that of other powdery mildew species. It overwinters (as chasmothecia) in crop residues above the soil surface. Under favorable climatic conditions, the chasmothecia open and release ascospores, which are wind-dispersed. The ascospores enter the host through its stomata, germinate, and colonize the host’s tissues with its mycelia. The pathogen then begins to produce its asexual conidia, either singly or on branched conidiophores. The conidia exit through the host’s stomata and serve as a secondary inoculum to spread disease after initial infection. In the fall, the pathogen undergoes sexual reproduction and again produces chasmothecia, its dormant, overwintering structure.

text: The polycyclic disease cycle of L. taurica is similar to that of other

text: powdery mildew

text: species. It overwinters (as

text: chasmothecia

text: ) in crop residues above the soil surface. Under favorable climatic conditions, the chasmothecia open and release

text: ascospores

text: , which are wind-dispersed. The ascospores enter the host through its stomata, germinate, and colonize the host’s tissues with its mycelia. The pathogen then begins to produce its asexual

text: conidia

text: , either singly or on branched conidiophores. The conidia exit through the host’s stomata and serve as a secondary inoculum to spread disease after initial infection. In the fall, the pathogen undergoes sexual reproduction and again produces chasmothecia, its dormant, overwintering structure.

text: Feline infectious anemia (FIA) is an infectious disease found in felines, causing anemia and other symptoms. The disease is caused by a variety of infectious agents, most commonly Mycoplasma haemofelis (which used to be called haemobartonella). Haemobartonella and eperythrozoon species were reclassified as mycoplasmas. Coinfection often occurs with other infectious agents, including: feline leukemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), ehrlichia species, anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum.

text: Feline infectious anemia (FIA) is an

text: infectious disease

text: found in

text: felines

text: , causing

text: anemia

text: and other symptoms. The disease is caused by a variety of

text: infectious agent

text: s, most commonly

text: Mycoplasma haemofelis

text: (which used to be called haemobartonella). Haemobartonella and

text: eperythrozoon

text: species were reclassified as

text: mycoplasma

text: s.

text: Coinfection

text: often occurs with other infectious agents, including:

text: feline leukemia virus

text: (FeLV),

text: feline immunodeficiency virus

text: (FIV),

text: ehrlichia

text: species,

text: anaplasma phagocytophilum

text: , and

text: Candidatus

text: Mycoplasma haemominutum.

text: Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, but many plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant. Individual plant cells respond to molecules associated with pathogens known as Pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPs. When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response, whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid apoptosis to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant resistant to a particular infectious agent. RNA silencing mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block virus replication.

text: Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, but many plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant. Individual plant cells respond to molecules associated with pathogens known as

text: Pathogen-associated molecular patterns

text: or PAMPs. When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized

text: hypersensitive response

text: , whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid

text: apoptosis

text: to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant.

text: Systemic acquired resistance

text: (SAR) is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant

entity_name: Disease resistance in fruit and vegetables

text: resistant

text: to a particular infectious agent.

text: RNA silencing

text: mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block virus replication.

text: In medicine, public health, and biology, transmission is the passing of a pathogen causing communicable disease from an infected host individual or group to a particular individual or group, regardless of whether the other individual was previously infected.

text: In

text: medicine

text: public health

text: , and

text: biology

text: , transmission is the passing of a pathogen causing

text: communicable disease

text: from an infected

text: host

text: individual or group to a particular individual or group, regardless of whether the other individual was previously infected.

text: Finlay’s lab is based in Vancouver, Canada in the Michael Smith Laboratories at the University of British Columbia, and involves a multidisciplinary research program exploring how microbes contribute to both human health and disease. The lab specifically focuses on type III secreted virulence factors from Salmonella and pathogenic E. coli, how microbiota influence infectious diarrhea outcomes, and the role of the microbiota in asthma, malnutrition, and environmental enteropathy.

text: Finlay’s lab is based in Vancouver, Canada in the Michael Smith Laboratories at the

text: University of British Columbia

text: , and involves a multidisciplinary research program exploring how microbes contribute to both human health and disease. The lab specifically focuses on type III secreted virulence factors from Salmonella and pathogenic E. coli, how microbiota influence infectious diarrhea outcomes, and the role of the microbiota in asthma, malnutrition, and environmental enteropathy.

text: Eppig, Fincher, and Thornhill (2010) state that the distance from Africa, temperature, and most importantly by a large margin, the prevalence of infectious disease predict national IQs. Education, literacy, GDP, and nutrition were not important as independent factors (although the prevalence of infectious diseases is likely greatly affected by these factors). The authors argue that "from an energetics standpoint, a developing human will have difficulty building a brain and fighting off infectious diseases at the same time, as both are very metabolically costly tasks" and that "the Flynn effect may be caused in part by the decrease in the intensity of infectious diseases as nations develop."

text: Eppig, Fincher, and Thornhill (2010) state that the distance from Africa, temperature, and most importantly by a large margin, the prevalence of

text: infectious disease

text: predict national IQs. Education, literacy, GDP, and nutrition were not important as independent factors (although the prevalence of infectious diseases is likely greatly affected by these factors). The authors argue that "from an energetics standpoint, a developing human will have difficulty building a brain and fighting off infectious diseases at the same time, as both are very metabolically costly tasks" and that "the Flynn effect may be caused in part by the decrease in the intensity of infectious diseases as nations develop."

text: Initially established in 1958 with 60 beds to provide basic health facilities to the government employees, the hospital has expanded considerably and has been totally transformed over the years. This change started when it was declared as a teaching hospital attached to AIMC in 1977. Today its 1196 beds are located in 31 departments, with 27 major operation theaters and 8 minor OTs and an out patient attendance of 700 patients (on an average) per day. Fiscal constraints have led to seeking out alternative avenues of funding including philanthropic support. Changing the emphasis to preventive work is encouraged notably in the Paediatrics department to avert unnecessary infant and child deaths due to pneumonia, malnutrition, diarrhea or vaccine-preventable illnesses. Major effort is made to control major communicable diseases such as Tuberculosis, Malaria, viral Hepatitis B & C, HIV/AIDS and Dengue with the help of department of infectious diseases headed by Prof. Sobia Qazi (Diplomat American Board of Infectious diseases). Attempts are being made to keep the services of this tertiary care institution in line with the latest technological advances while keeping the demands within the tight fiscal resources. If financial autonomy is given in the true sense, service delivery is likely to improve further. Sophisticated laboratory and radiographical procedures, investigations and examinations are performed totally free for all the patients admitted in the hospital and in A&E department.

text: The PPPS is a sophisticated variety of personal protective equipment (PPE), a type of  hazmat suit, which is air-tight and designed for positive pressure to prevent contamination to the wearer even if the suit becomes damaged. BSL-4 cabinets and "Suit Laboratories" have special engineering and design features to prevent hazardous microorganisms from being disseminated into the outside environment.  These biosafety suites, where PPPSs are used, are suites of laboratory rooms which are essentially equivalent to large Class III biosafety cabinets in which the interiors of the PPPSs serve as the "outside" environment for workers. Examples include the biocontainment suites at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) at Fort Detrick, Maryland and the Maximum Containment Facility (MCF) of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia.

text: The PPPS is a sophisticated variety of

text: personal protective equipment

text: (PPE), a type of

text: hazmat suit

text: , which is air-tight and designed for

text: positive pressure

text: to prevent contamination to the wearer even if the suit becomes damaged. BSL-4 cabinets and "Suit Laboratories" have special engineering and design features to prevent hazardous microorganisms from being disseminated into the outside environment.  These

text: biosafety suites

text: , where PPPSs are used, are suites of laboratory rooms which are essentially equivalent to large Class III

text: biosafety cabinet

text: s in which the interiors of the PPPSs serve as the "outside" environment for workers. Examples include the biocontainment suites at the

text: (USAMRIID) at

text: Fort Detrick, Maryland

text: and the

text: Maximum Containment Facility

text: (MCF) of the

text: (CDC) in

text: Atlanta, Georgia

text: For higher classes with greater amount of wealth, it is naturally assumed that they will have less of a chance of acquiring infectious diseases because they have the money to stop the spread of such diseases. Meanwhile, lower classes with less wealth will not be able to afford treatments to stop the spread of diseases and might even not be knowledgeable about dangerous diseases that they might be catching, so they are at a higher likelihood of catching and spreading various diseases.

text: Longini studies stochastic processes applied to epidemiological problems. He has specialized in the mathematical and statistical theory of epidemics, which involves constructing and analyzing mathematical models of disease transmission, disease progression and the analysis of infectious disease data based on these models.  He designs and analyses vaccine and infectious disease prevention trials and observational studies.  He has worked on the analysis of epidemics of influenza, HIV, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria, rhinovirus, rotavirus, measles and other infectious agents.

text: Longini studies

text: stochastic process

text: es applied to epidemiological problems. He has specialized in the mathematical and statistical theory of epidemics, which involves constructing and analyzing mathematical models of disease transmission, disease progression and the analysis of infectious disease data based on these models.  He designs and analyses vaccine and infectious disease prevention trials and observational studies.  He has worked on the analysis of epidemics of influenza, HIV, tuberculosis, cholera, dengue fever, malaria, rhinovirus, rotavirus, measles and other infectious agents.

text: Furthermore, the central government revised the law on the control of infectious diseases in March 2004. The revision provides instructions to tackle infectious-disease outbreaks, improve the reporting of infectious diseases, implement interventions to control the spread of such diseases, provide clinical services, and fund the control of infectious diseases. This law directly benefited tuberculosis control by addressing the under-reporting of tuberculosis by health facilities. Tuberculosis now has to be reported to local public-health authorities within 24 hours. Because failure to report is now a crime, hospitals have begun to take the reporting of tuberculosis very seriously.

text: Furthermore, the central government revised the law on the control of infectious diseases in March 2004. The revision provides instructions to tackle infectious-disease outbreaks, improve the reporting of infectious diseases, implement interventions to control the spread of such diseases, provide clinical services, and fund the control of infectious diseases. This law directly benefited tuberculosis control by addressing the under-reporting of tuberculosis by health facilities. Tuberculosis now has to be reported to local public-health authorities within 24 hours. Because failure to report is now a

text: crime

text: , hospitals have begun to take the reporting of tuberculosis very seriously.

text: Although most bacteria are harmless or often beneficial, several are pathogenic. One of the bacterial diseases with the highest disease burden is tuberculosis, caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which kills about 2 million people a year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. Pathogenic bacteria contribute to other globally important diseases, such as pneumonia, which can be caused by bacteria such as Streptococcus and Pseudomonas, and foodborne illnesses, which can be caused by bacteria such as Shigella, Campylobacter, and Salmonella. Pathogenic bacteria also cause infections such as tetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis, and leprosy. Pathogenic bacteria are also the cause of high infant mortality rates in developing countries.

text: Although most bacteria are harmless or often beneficial, several are

text: pathogenic

text: . One of the bacterial

text: disease

text: s with the highest

text: disease burden

text: is

text: tuberculosis

text: , caused by the bacterium

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: , which kills about 2 million people a year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. Pathogenic bacteria contribute to other globally important diseases, such as

text: pneumonia

text: , which can be caused by bacteria such as

text: Streptococcus

text: and

text: Pseudomonas

text: , and

text: foodborne illness

text: es, which can be caused by bacteria such as

text: Shigella

text: Campylobacter

text: , and

text: Salmonella

text: . Pathogenic bacteria also cause infections such as

text: tetanus

text: typhoid fever

text: diphtheria

text: syphilis

text: , and

text: leprosy

text: . Pathogenic bacteria are also the cause of high

text: infant mortality

text: rates in developing countries.

text: – Infectious diseases

text: – Infectious diseases

text: In March 2013, James Vaughan, the developer of Plague Inc., was invited to talk at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) about Plague Inc. He spoke about how he had modeled the spread of infectious disease inside the game as well as how games like Plague Inc. can be used to inform and educate the public.

text: In March 2013, James Vaughan, the developer of Plague Inc., was invited to talk at the

text: (CDC) about Plague Inc. He spoke about how he had modeled the spread of infectious disease inside the game as well as how games like Plague Inc. can be used to inform and educate the public.

text: The conformationally altered form of PrP is PrP. Some groups believe PrP is the infectious agent (prion agent) in TSEs, while other groups do not. PrP could be a neuropathological product of the disease process, a component of the infectious agent, the infectious agent itself, or something else altogether. Regardless of what its actual function in the disease state is, PrP is clearly specifically associated with the disease process, and detection of it indicates infection with the agent causing prion diseases.

text: The conformationally altered form of PrP is PrP. Some groups believe PrP is the infectious agent (prion agent) in TSEs, while other groups do not. PrP could be a

text: neuropathological

text: product of the disease process, a component of the infectious agent, the infectious agent itself, or something else altogether. Regardless of what its actual function in the disease state is, PrP is clearly specifically associated with the disease process, and detection of it indicates infection with the agent causing prion diseases.

text: There is some debate among the WHO, CDC, and infectious disease experts over which diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases.  Feasey, a researcher in neglected tropical diseases, notes 13 neglected tropical diseases: ascariasis, Buruli ulcer, Chagas disease, dracunculiasis, hookworm infection, human African trypanosomiasis, Leishmaniasis, leprosy, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, trachoma, and trichuriasis.   Fenwick recognizes 12 "core" neglected tropical diseases: ascariasis, Buruli ulcer, Chagas disease, dracunculiasis, human African trypanosomiasis, Leishmaniasis, leprosy, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, trachoma, and trichuriasis.

text: There is some debate among the

text: WHO

text: CDC

text: , and infectious disease experts over which diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases.  Feasey, a researcher in neglected tropical diseases, notes 13 neglected tropical diseases:

text: ascariasis

text: Buruli ulcer

text: Chagas disease

text: dracunculiasis

text: hookworm

text: infection, human

text: African trypanosomiasis

text: Leishmaniasis

text: leprosy

text: lymphatic filariasis

text: onchocerciasis

text: schistosomiasis

text: trachoma

text: , and

text: trichuriasis

text: .   Fenwick recognizes 12 "core" neglected tropical diseases:

text: ascariasis

text: Buruli ulcer

text: Chagas disease

text: dracunculiasis

text: , human

text: African trypanosomiasis

text: Leishmaniasis

text: leprosy

text: lymphatic filariasis

text: onchocerciasis

text: schistosomiasis

text: trachoma

text: , and

text: trichuriasis

text: Only some diseases such as influenza are contagious and commonly believed infectious. The micro-organisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi. Infectious diseases can be transmitted, e.g. by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via fecal contamination), etc.  In addition, there are sexually transmitted diseases. In some cases, microorganisms that are not readily spread from person to person play a role, while other diseases can be prevented or ameliorated with appropriate nutrition or other lifestyle changes.

text: Only some diseases such as

text: influenza

text: are contagious and commonly believed infectious. The micro-organisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa and fungi.

text: Infectious disease

text: s can be transmitted, e.g. by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of

text: insects or other carriers

text: of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via

text: fecal

text: contamination), etc.  In addition, there are

text: sexually transmitted disease

text: s. In some cases,

text: microorganism

text: s that are not readily spread from person to person play a role, while other diseases can be prevented or ameliorated with appropriate

text: nutrition

text: or other lifestyle changes.

text: The family and CDC Filoviridae (members are called Filovirus) is the taxonomic home of several related viruses that form filamentous infectious viral particles (virions), and encode their genome in the form of single-stranded negative-sense RNA. Two members of the family that are commonly known are Ebola virus and Marburg virus. Both viruses, and some of their lesser known relatives, cause severe disease in humans and nonhuman primates in the form of viral hemorrhagic fevers. All ebolaviruses and marburgviruses are Select Agents, World Health Organization Risk Group 4 Pathogens (requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment), National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Category A Priority Pathogens, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Category A Bioterrorism Agents, and listed as Biological Agents for Export Control by the Australia Group. It is expected that cuevaviruses  will be classified in a similar way in the near future.

text: The

entity_name: International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses

text: family

text: and CDC Filoviridae (members are called Filovirus) is the

text: taxonomic

text: home of several related

text: virus

text: es that form filamentous infectious viral particles (

text: virion

text: s), and encode their genome in the form of

entity_section: Group V.E2.80.94negative-sense ssRNA viruses

text: single-stranded negative-sense RNA

text: . Two members of the family that are commonly known are

text: Ebola virus

text: and

text: Marburg virus

text: . Both viruses, and some of their lesser known relatives, cause severe

text: disease

text: in

text: human

text: s and nonhuman

text: primates

text: in the form of

text: viral hemorrhagic fever

text: s. All

text: ebolavirus

text: es and

text: marburgvirus

text: es are

text: Select Agent

text: s,

text: World Health Organization

text: Risk Group 4 Pathogens (requiring

text: Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment

text: National Institutes of Health

entity_name: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

text: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

text: Category A Priority Pathogens,

text: Category A Bioterrorism Agents

text: , and listed as Biological Agents for Export Control by the

text: Australia Group

text: . It is expected that

text: cuevavirus

text: es  will be classified in a similar way in the near future.

text: Pathogens are often spread from wastewater reused for irrigation, from live animals in close proximity to dense human populations, and the disposal or sale of manure. Crops are an opportunity to reuse urban waste productively, and wastewater as an irrigation source in particular has been explored by some cities to conserve water. If not treated properly before application, this wastewater can contaminate crops or surrounding vegetation with pathogens that make them unsafe for human consumption.  This is a food safety concern especially in markets with unlicensed vendors and missing enforcement of safety regulations, which are common venues for small urban and peri-urban farmers.

text: Pathogens

text: are often spread from wastewater reused for

text: irrigation

text: , from live animals in close proximity to dense human populations, and the disposal or sale of manure. Crops are an opportunity to reuse urban waste productively, and

text: wastewater

text: as an

text: irrigation

text: source in particular has been explored by some cities to conserve water. If not treated properly before application, this wastewater can contaminate crops or surrounding vegetation with pathogens that make them unsafe for human consumption.  This is a food safety concern especially in markets with unlicensed vendors and missing enforcement of safety regulations, which are common venues for small urban and peri-urban farmers.

text: There has also been a recent push by the PDES community into the realm of continuous simulation.  For example, Fujimoto and Perumalla, working with Tang et al. have implemented an RC model of particle-in-cell and demonstrated excellent speedup over continuous simulation for models of light as a particle.  Bauer and Page demonstrated excellent speedup for an RC Transmission Line Matrix model (P.B. Johns, 1971), modeling light as a wave at microwave frequencies.  Bauer also created an RC variant of SEIR that generates enormous improvement over continuous models in the area of infectious disease spread.  In addition, the RC SEIR model is capable of modeling multiple diseases efficiently, whereas the continuous model explodes exponentially with respect to the number of combinations of diseases possible throughout the population.

text: There has also been a recent push by the PDES community into the realm of continuous simulation.  For example, Fujimoto and Perumalla, working with Tang et al. have implemented an RC model of particle-in-cell and demonstrated excellent speedup over continuous simulation for models of light as a particle.  Bauer and Page demonstrated excellent speedup for an RC Transmission Line Matrix model (P.B. Johns, 1971), modeling light as a wave at microwave frequencies.  Bauer also created an RC variant of

text: SEIR

text: that generates enormous improvement over continuous models in the area of infectious disease spread.  In addition, the RC SEIR model is capable of modeling multiple diseases efficiently, whereas the continuous model explodes exponentially with respect to the number of combinations of diseases possible throughout the population.

text: PulseNet is a network run by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) which brings together public health and food regulatory agency laboratories around the United States. Through the network, cooperating groups can share pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) results which act as fingerprints to distinguish strains of organisms such as E. coli (O157:H7 and non O157), Salmonella, Shigella, Listeria, Campylobacter, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Yersinia pestis. In this way, efforts to combat infectious disease outbreaks are strengthened. Specifically, by sharing results, it is easier to identify large scale outbreaks. For example, if an outbreak of E. coli occurred in two distant parts of the country, PulseNet might help prove a link between the two. In such a case, the pathogen would have the same genetic fingerprint at both locations.

text: PulseNet is a network run by the

text: (CDC) which brings together

text: public health

text: and food regulatory agency laboratories around the

text: United States

text: . Through the network, cooperating groups can share

text: pulsed field gel electrophoresis

text: (PFGE) results which act as

text: fingerprints

text: to distinguish strains of organisms such as

text: E. coli

text: (O157:H7 and non O157),

text: Salmonella

text: Shigella

text: Listeria

text: Campylobacter

text: Vibrio cholerae

text: Vibrio parahaemolyticus

text: and

text: Yersinia pestis

text: . In this way, efforts to combat

text: infectious disease

text: outbreak

text: s are strengthened. Specifically, by sharing results, it is easier to identify large scale outbreaks. For example, if an outbreak of E. coli occurred in two distant parts of the country, PulseNet might help prove a link between the two. In such a case, the

text: pathogen

text: would have the same genetic fingerprint at both locations.

text: From 1983 to 1994 Nash served as Vice President for infectious disease and oncology at Schering Plough Research Institute. During that time, he was involved in the discovery and development of numerous biological agents, antibiotics, and antifungals. Previously, he was Head of Biological Research at Sterling Drug, Head of Infectious Disease at SmithKline Beecham, and Head of Fermentation Technology Group at Eli Lilly.

text: From 1983 to 1994 Nash served as Vice President for infectious disease and oncology at

text: Schering Plough

text: Research Institute. During that time, he was involved in the discovery and development of numerous biological agents, antibiotics, and antifungals. Previously, he was Head of Biological Research at

text: Sterling Drug

text: , Head of Infectious Disease at

text: SmithKline Beecham

text: , and Head of Fermentation Technology Group at

text: Eli Lilly

text: A natural reservoir or nidus (the latter from the Latin word for "nest") is the long-term host of a pathogen of an infectious disease. Hosts often do not get the disease carried by the pathogen, or it is carried as a subclinical infection and so is asymptomatic and non-lethal. Once discovered, natural reservoirs elucidate the complete life cycle of infectious diseases, providing effective prevention and control.

text: A natural reservoir or nidus (the latter from the Latin word for "nest") is the long-term

text: host

text: of a

text: pathogen

text: of an

text: infectious disease

text: . Hosts often do not get the disease carried by the pathogen, or it is carried as a

text: subclinical infection

text: and so is

text: asymptomatic

text: and non-lethal. Once discovered, natural reservoirs elucidate the complete life cycle of infectious diseases, providing effective

text: prevention

text: and control.

text: In disease biology, pathogens are said to generate infectious propagules, the units that transmit a disease. These can refer to bacteria, viruses, fungi, or protists, and can be contained within host material. For instance, for influenza, the infectious propagules are carried in droplets of host saliva or mucus that are expelled during coughing or sneezing.

text: In disease biology,

text: pathogen

text: s are said to generate infectious propagules, the units that transmit a

text: disease

text: . These can refer to

text: bacteria

text: viruses

text: fungi

text: , or

text: protists

text: , and can be contained within host material. For instance, for

text: influenza

text: , the infectious propagules are carried in droplets of host

text: saliva

text: or

text: mucus

text: that are expelled during coughing or sneezing.

text: Humans have inhabited what is now Upshur county since at least 10,000 years ago.  The Caddoan people lived in this area, but were driven out about 1750, probably due to losses from new infectious diseases.

text: Humans have inhabited what is now Upshur county since at least 10,000 years ago.  The

text: Caddoan

text: people lived in this area, but were driven out about 1750, probably due to losses from new infectious diseases.

text: Infectious Disease

text: Infectious Disease

text: The virulence of the pathogen implies the production of polysaccharide capsular layer, and extracellular products, and is also depending on iron availability (Lopez-Doriga et al., 2000). The bacteria spreads via infected phagocytes, mainly macrophages. This spread can be rapid, and lethal effects may occur within a few days of challenge, affecting tissues containing large numbers of the pathogens (Evelyn, 1996).

text: Infection in childcare is the spread of infection during childcare, typically because of contact among children in daycare or school. This happens when groups of children meet in a childcare environment, and there any individual with an infectious disease may spread it to the entire group. Commonly spread diseases include influenza-like illness and enteric illnesses, such as diarrhea among babies using diapers. It is uncertain how these diseases spread, but hand washing reduces some risk of transmission and increasing hygiene in other ways also reduces risk of infection.

text: Infection in childcare is the spread of

text: infection

text: during

text: childcare

text: , typically because of contact among children in

text: daycare

text: or

text: school

text: . This happens when groups of children meet in a childcare environment, and there any individual with an infectious disease may spread it to the entire group. Commonly spread diseases include

text: influenza-like illness

text: and enteric illnesses, such as diarrhea among babies using diapers. It is uncertain how these diseases spread, but

text: hand washing

text: reduces some risk of transmission and increasing hygiene in other ways also reduces risk of infection.

text: The statutory requirement for the notification of certain infectious diseases first came into being with the Infectious Diseases (Notification) Act in 1899, which was compulsory in London and optional in the provinces. Cases of smallpox, cholera, diphtheria, membranous croup. erysipelas, scarlatina or scarlet fever, typhus fever, typhoid fever, enteric fever, relapsing fever, continued fever and puerperal fever had to be reported by the household head or attending doctor to the local authority. The system spread to the rest of England and Wales in 1899 with the Infectious Diseases (Extension) Act. Householders or general practitioners who failed to notify a case of one of these diseases was liable to a fine of up to forty shillings. Following receipt of a notification certificate, the local sanitary authority could pursue existing public health laws, such as the Public Health Act 1875, to isolate patients in hospital, disinfect property and belongings, suspend schooling, and temporarily close businesses.

text: The statutory requirement for the notification of certain infectious diseases first came into being with the Infectious Diseases (Notification) Act in 1899, which was compulsory in

text: London

text: and optional in the provinces. Cases of

text: smallpox

text: cholera

text: diphtheria

text: , membranous croup.

text: erysipelas

text: scarlatina

text: or

text: scarlet fever

text: typhus fever

text: typhoid fever

text: enteric fever

text: relapsing fever

text: , continued fever and

text: puerperal fever

text: had to be reported by the household head or attending doctor to the local authority. The system spread to the rest of England and Wales in 1899 with the Infectious Diseases (Extension) Act. Householders or general practitioners who failed to notify a case of one of these diseases was liable to a fine of up to forty shillings. Following receipt of a notification certificate, the local sanitary authority could pursue existing public health laws, such as the

text: Public Health Act 1875

text: , to isolate patients in hospital, disinfect property and belongings, suspend schooling, and temporarily close businesses.

text: Partner services are important because in some cases a person's health problems are partially caused or sustained by other people.  A common example would be that a person visits a doctor because he has an infectious disease.  If that disease is also contagious, then that person's close associates may also have the disease.  If a physician were to only treat the person who initially requests treatment, then the disease may remain in the community.  Instead, principles of partner services dictate that health care should treat all members of a group which transmits infection.

text: Partner services are important because in some cases a person's health problems are partially caused or sustained by other people.  A common example would be that a person visits a doctor because he has an

text: infectious disease

text: .  If that disease is also contagious, then that person's close associates may also have the disease.  If a

text: physician

text: were to only treat the person who initially requests treatment, then the disease may remain in the community.  Instead, principles of partner services dictate that health care should treat all members of a group which transmits infection.

text: People with neglected tropical diseases reside almost entirely in developing countries, resulting in limited profit incentives for private developed-country drug companies to invest in treatment candidates.  Some infectious diseases are only sporadic threats, providing little opportunity for profit in advances of an outbreak, but necessitating immediate response when one occurs.  Pointing out these market failures and access problems created by patent monopolies, some critics have proposed patent reforms or replacement funding mechanisms such as prizes as an alternative to patents.  A similar funding mechanism is a guaranteed-purchase announcement, or stockpiling as with the U.S. Strategic National Stockpile.  Infectious diseases that pose an international threat as natural epidemics or bioweapons, such as Ebola or anthrax receive government funding to develop vaccines and respond to outbreaks, either through grants to independent labs or through agencies like the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.  Neglected diseases and others of concern to developing countries receive direct research and production funding through international aid programs like the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, donations from pharmaceutical companies, and non-profits like the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the Carter Center, the Schistosomiasis Control Initiative, and the International Trachoma Initiative.

text: People with

text: neglected tropical diseases

text: reside almost entirely in developing countries, resulting in limited profit incentives for private developed-country drug companies to invest in treatment candidates.  Some infectious diseases are only sporadic threats, providing little opportunity for profit in advances of an outbreak, but necessitating immediate response when one occurs.  Pointing out these market failures and access problems created by patent monopolies, some critics have proposed patent reforms or replacement funding mechanisms such as

text: prizes as an alternative to patents

text: .  A similar funding mechanism is a guaranteed-purchase announcement, or stockpiling as with the U.S.

text: Strategic National Stockpile

text: .  Infectious diseases that pose an international threat as natural epidemics or bioweapons, such as

text: Ebola

text: or

text: anthrax

text: receive government funding to develop vaccines and respond to outbreaks, either through grants to independent labs or through agencies like the U.S.

text: .  Neglected diseases and others of concern to developing countries receive direct research and production funding through international aid programs like the U.S.

entity_name: President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief

text: President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief

text: , donations from pharmaceutical companies, and non-profits like the

text: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation

text: , the

text: Carter Center

text: , the

text: Schistosomiasis Control Initiative

text: , and the

text: International Trachoma Initiative

text: Chytridiomycosis is an infectious disease in amphibians, caused by the chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, a nonhyphal zoosporic fungus.  Chytridiomycosis has been linked to dramatic population declines or even extinctions of amphibian species in western North America, Central America, South America, eastern Australia, and Dominica and Montserrat in the Caribbean. Much of the New World is also at risk of the disease arriving within the coming years. The fungus is capable of causing sporadic deaths in some amphibian populations and 100% mortality in others.  No effective measure is known for control of the disease in wild populations.  Various  clinical signs are seen by individuals affected by the disease.  A number of options are possible for controlling this disease-causing fungus, though none has proved to be feasible on a large scale.  The disease has been proposed as a contributing factor to a global decline in amphibian populations that apparently has affected about 30% of the amphibian species of the world.

text: Chytridiomycosis is an

text: infectious disease

text: in

text: amphibians

text: , caused by the

text: chytrid

text: Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis

text: , a nonhyphal zoosporic

text: fungus

text: .  Chytridiomycosis has been linked to dramatic population

text: declines

text: or even extinctions of amphibian species in western

text: North America

text: Central America

text: South America

text: , eastern

text: Australia

text: , and

text: Dominica

text: and

text: Montserrat

text: in the

text: Caribbean

text: . Much of the New World is also at risk of the disease arriving within the coming years. The fungus is capable of causing sporadic deaths in some amphibian populations and 100% mortality in others.  No effective measure is known for control of the disease in wild populations.  Various  clinical signs are seen by individuals affected by the disease.  A number of options are possible for controlling this disease-causing fungus, though none has proved to be feasible on a large scale.  The disease has been proposed as a contributing factor to a global

text: decline in amphibian populations

text: that apparently has affected about 30% of the amphibian species of the world.

text: The Infectious Diseases Programs leads APHL’s efforts on HIV, tuberculosis, sexually transmitted diseases, and influenza.  When new infectious diseases emerge, like the 2009 spread of H1N1, APHL supports crisis response by facilitating rapid transfer of credible information, and technical guidance from federal agencies to state and local laboratories.

text: The Infectious Diseases Programs leads APHL’s efforts on

text: HIV

text: tuberculosis

text: sexually transmitted diseases

text: , and

text: influenza

text: .  When new infectious diseases emerge, like the 2009 spread of

text: , APHL supports crisis response by facilitating rapid transfer of credible information, and technical guidance from federal agencies to state and local laboratories.

text: The Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP) is a center within the University of Minnesota that focuses on addressing public health preparedness and emerging infectious disease response. It was founded in 2001 by Michael Osterholm, PhD, MPH, in order to "prevent illness and death from infectious diseases through epidemiological research and rapid translation of scientific information into real-world practical applications and solutions".

text: The Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP) is a center within the

text: University of Minnesota

text: that focuses on addressing public health preparedness and emerging infectious disease response. It was founded in 2001 by

text: Michael Osterholm

text: , PhD, MPH, in order to "prevent illness and death from infectious diseases through epidemiological research and rapid translation of scientific information into real-world practical applications and solutions".

text: St Vincent's Institute of Medical Research (SVI) is an independent Australian medical research institute located in , Melbourne, Victoria. The Institute conducts medical research into the cause, prevention and treatment of diseases that are common and have serious effects on health. These include type 1 diabetes, obesity, heart disease and type 2 diabetes, arthritis and osteoporosis, cancer and the spread of cancer, infectious diseases such as hepatitis and AIDS and Alzheimer's disease and other neurological disorders.

text: St Vincent's Institute of Medical Research (SVI) is an independent Australian

text: medical research

text: institute

text: located in ,

text: Melbourne

text: Victoria

text: . The Institute conducts medical research into the cause, prevention and treatment of diseases that are common and have serious effects on health. These include

text: type 1 diabetes

text: obesity

text: heart disease

text: and

text: type 2 diabetes

text: arthritis

text: and

text: osteoporosis

text: cancer

text: and the spread of cancer, infectious diseases such as

text: hepatitis

text: and

text: AIDS

text: and

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: and other neurological disorders.

text: The gut is home to an extremely complex microbiome of healthy and unhealthy bacteria. The immune system’s primary home is in the gut; so gastrointestinal microbiota has a direct effect on the body’s immune responses. Without a regular microbiota, the body is more susceptible to infectious and non-infectious diseases. A great diversity of symbiotic bacteria is necessary for animals to have fundamental nutrients, digest certain compounds, protect against outside pathogens, and create a healthy intestinal structure. An equilibrium of symbionts and pathobionts is critical to fight off outside pathogens and avoid inflammatory bowel disease. As we understand more about the roles of microbes in the gut, researchers will be able to discover more treatments like probiotics that can fill in niches of good bacteria to increase intestinal health and improve the immune system. Heightening the robustness and diversity of bacteria flora in the gut aids in averting allergies, autoimmune disease, and cancer. There is still much to learn about the details of interactions between microbes and hosts in the gastrointestinal tract, but research on symbionts like Lactobacillus reuteri help us understand how changes in the gastrointestinal microbiome can promote health.

text: The gut is home to an extremely complex

text: microbiome

text: of healthy and unhealthy

text: bacteria

text: . The immune system’s primary home is in the gut; so gastrointestinal

text: microbiota

text: has a direct effect on the body’s immune responses. Without a regular microbiota, the body is more susceptible to infectious and non-infectious

text: diseases

text: . A great diversity of symbiotic bacteria is necessary for animals to have fundamental

text: nutrients

text: , digest certain compounds, protect against outside

text: pathogens

text: , and create a healthy intestinal structure. An equilibrium of

text: symbionts

text: and

text: pathobionts

text: is critical to fight off outside pathogens and avoid

text: inflammatory bowel disease

text: . As we understand more about the roles of

text: microbes

text: in the gut, researchers will be able to discover more treatments like

text: probiotics

text: that can fill in niches of good bacteria to increase intestinal health and improve the

text: immune system

text: . Heightening the robustness and diversity of bacteria flora in the gut aids in averting

text: allergies

text: autoimmune disease

text: , and

text: cancer

text: . There is still much to learn about the details of interactions between microbes and hosts in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: , but research on symbionts like

text: Lactobacillus reuteri

text: help us understand how changes in the gastrointestinal

text: microbiome

text: can promote health.

text: P. acidilactici can function as an immune modulator. Animals fed with P. acidilactici have shown enhanced immune responses against infectious coccidioidal diseases.

text: Transmission-based precautions are additional infection control precautions in health care, and the latest routine infection prevention and control practices applied for patients who are known or suspected to be infected or colonized with infectious agents, including certain epidemiologically important pathogens. The latter require additional control measures to effectively prevent transmission.

text: Transmission-based precautions are additional

text: infection control

text: precautions in health care, and the latest routine infection prevention and control practices applied for patients who are known or suspected to be infected or colonized with infectious agents, including certain

text: epidemiologically

text: important

text: pathogen

text: s. The latter require additional control measures to effectively prevent transmission.

text: Sphaceloma perseae is a plant-pathogenic fungus in the Ascomycota phylum. It infects the avocado plant (Persea americana), a tree native to Central America and Mexico. Currently there are three cultivars of avocados in large-scale agricultural production: Guatemalan, Mexican, and West Indian. The pathogen is currently limited to the P. Americana species but is able to infect all three cultivars. The resulting disease is known as avocado scab for the symptoms which are present on the fruit of the avocado tree. It is believed that the disease developed in Florida in the early twentieth century and is related to citrus scab, Elsinoe fawcetti. Since then, S.perseae has spread to many regions worldwide that support cultivation of the avocado tree. This pathogen threatens the global avocado market, including both importers and exporters of the crop. Countries which import avocados, including the United States, have experienced a rising demand over the past decade which is projected to continue for years to come. An understanding of avocado scab characteristics and feasible prevention methods is essential to maintenance of cultures and economies influenced by the avocado fruit.

text: Sphaceloma perseae is a plant-pathogenic

text: fungus

text: in the

text: Ascomycota

text: phylum. It infects the

text: avocado

text: plant (Persea americana), a tree native to Central America and Mexico. Currently there are three

text: cultivar

text: s of avocados in large-scale agricultural production: Guatemalan, Mexican, and West Indian. The pathogen is currently limited to the P. Americana species but is able to infect all three cultivars. The resulting disease is known as avocado scab for the symptoms which are present on the fruit of the avocado tree. It is believed that the disease developed in Florida in the early twentieth century and is related to citrus scab,

text: Elsinoe fawcetti

text: . Since then, S.perseae has spread to many regions worldwide that support cultivation of the avocado tree. This pathogen threatens the global avocado market, including both importers and exporters of the crop. Countries which import avocados, including the United States, have experienced a rising demand over the past decade which is projected to continue for years to come. An understanding of avocado scab characteristics and feasible prevention methods is essential to maintenance of cultures and economies influenced by the avocado fruit.

text: Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of small-world networks. In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump to and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method.  Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus in 2001.

text: Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of

text: small-world networks

text: . In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump to and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method.  Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the

text: foot-and-mouth

text: virus in 2001.

text: The island was the site of an infectious diseases hospital until the end of the twentieth century.

text: 9. Infectious Diseases

text: 9. Infectious Diseases

text: Since allergies and other chronic inflammatory diseases are largely diseases of the last 100 years or so, the "hygiene" revolution of the last 200 years came under scrutiny as a possible cause. During the 1800s radical improvements to sanitation and water quality occurred in Europe and North America. The introduction of toilets and sewer systems and the cleanup of city streets, and cleaner food were part of this program. This in turn led to a rapid decline in infectious diseases, particularly during the period 1900-1950, through reduced exposure to infectious agents.

text: Hygiene in home and everyday life settings plays an important part in preventing spread of infectious diseases. It includes procedures used in a variety of domestic situations such as hand hygiene, respiratory hygiene, food and water hygiene, general home hygiene (hygiene of environmental sites and surfaces), care of domestic animals, and home healthcare (the care of those who are at greater risk of infection).

text: CODE 23		Infectious disease.

text: CODE 23		Infectious disease.

text: Copenhagen disease, sometimes known as Copenhagen Syndrome, refers to progressive non-infectious anterior vertebral fusion, a rare childhood disease of unknown aetiology.

text: Copenhagen disease, sometimes known as Copenhagen Syndrome, refers to progressive non-infectious anterior

text: vertebra

text: l fusion, a rare childhood disease of unknown

text: aetiology

text: The migratory nature of birds poses a distinct danger for the spreading of diseases. Without being affected by the infectious agent, birds can act as vectors in spreading psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, mycobacteriosis, avian influenza, giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. These zoonotic diseases can be transmitted to humans.In the case of avian influenza (H5N1 strain), water birds can be infected with the low pathogenic form or the high pathogenic form. The former induces mild symptoms such as a drop in egg production, ruffled feathers and mild effects on the avian respiratory tract. The highly pathogenic form spreads much more rapidly and can infect multiple tissues and organs. Massive internal bleeding and hemorrhaging follow and this has earned the H5N1 virus the moniker “chicken ebola.”

text: The migratory nature of birds poses a distinct danger for the spreading of diseases. Without being affected by the infectious agent, birds can act as vectors in spreading

text: psittacosis

text: salmonellosis

text: campylobacteriosis

text: mycobacteriosis

text: avian influenza

text: giardiasis

text: and

text: cryptosporidiosis

text: . These

text: zoonotic diseases

text: can be transmitted to humans.In the case of

text: avian influenza

text: strain), water birds can be infected with the low pathogenic form or the high pathogenic form. The former induces mild symptoms such as a drop in egg production, ruffled feathers and mild effects on the avian respiratory tract. The highly pathogenic form spreads much more rapidly and can infect multiple tissues and organs. Massive internal bleeding and

text: hemorrhaging

text: follow and this has earned the H5N1 virus the moniker “chicken ebola.”

text: ) is the rate at which susceptible individuals acquire an infectious disease. Because it takes account of susceptibility it can be used to compare the rate of transmission between different groups of the population for the same infectious disease, or even between different infectious diseases. That is to say,

text: ) is the rate at which

text: susceptible

text: individuals acquire an

text: infectious disease

text: . Because it takes account of susceptibility it can be used to compare the

text: rate of transmission

text: between different

text: groups

text: of the

text: population

text: for the same infectious disease, or even between different infectious diseases. That is to say,

text: Each branch of the U.S. military is represented among Fort Detrick’s 7,800 military, federal and contractor employees.  Four cabinet-level agencies are represented by activities on the garrison: The U.S. Department of Homeland Security, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and the U.S. Department of Defense.  The offices and laboratories include the Agriculture Department's Foreign Disease and Weed Science Research Institute, the National Cancer Institute, the Naval Medical Logistics Command and the Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center.  Currently under construction is a biotechnology campus that will house civilian and military research centers including units of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), as well as USAMRIID.

text: Each branch of the U.S. military is represented among Fort Detrick’s 7,800 military, federal and contractor employees.  Four cabinet-level agencies are represented by activities on the garrison: The

entity_name: United States Department of Homeland Security

text: U.S. Department of Homeland Security

text: , the

text: U.S. Department of Agriculture

text: , the

entity_name: United States Department of Health and Human Services

text: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

text: , and the

text: U.S. Department of Defense

text: .  The offices and laboratories include the Agriculture Department's Foreign Disease and Weed Science Research Institute, the National Cancer Institute, the

text: Naval Medical Logistics Command

text: and the

entity_name: Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center (United States Army)

text: Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center

text: .  Currently under construction is a biotechnology campus that will house civilian and military research centers including units of the

text: (CDC), the

text: (NIAID), as well as USAMRIID.

text: In Guatemala, communicable diseases for which treatment exists are still one of the major causes of death. Wealthy, more industrialized developed nations have been able to eliminate communicable diseases due to an epidemiological transition, in which death rates due to degenerative diseases have surpassed those of communicable and infectious diseases. The opposite is apparent in Guatemala. The high mortality rate for infants is a direct result of communicable and infectious diseases. Similarly, the epidemiological profile of Guatemala shows that some of the most prevalent infectious diseases, like diarrhea and acute respiratory infections, are a direct result of poverty. In Guatemala, 56 percent of the population lives below the poverty line. Poverty levels are greatest in the indigenous communities of Guatemala, which account for about 81 percent of those living in poverty, and make up about 43 percent of Guatemala's total population. High levels of poverty make the population more vulnerable to communicable diseases, which is why government funding of health care is necessary for the rural areas of Guatemala.

text: In Guatemala, communicable diseases for which treatment exists are still one of the major causes of death. Wealthy, more industrialized developed nations have been able to eliminate communicable diseases due to an

text: epidemiological transition

text: , in which death rates due to degenerative diseases have surpassed those of communicable and infectious diseases. The opposite is apparent in Guatemala. The high mortality rate for infants is a direct result of communicable and infectious diseases. Similarly, the epidemiological profile of Guatemala shows that some of the most prevalent infectious diseases, like

text: diarrhea

text: and

text: acute respiratory infections

text: , are a direct result of poverty. In Guatemala, 56 percent of the population lives below the poverty line. Poverty levels are greatest in the indigenous communities of Guatemala, which account for about 81 percent of those living in poverty, and make up about 43 percent of Guatemala's total population. High levels of poverty make the population more vulnerable to communicable diseases, which is why government funding of health care is necessary for the rural areas of Guatemala.

text: In a document written in 833, leprosy was described as "caused by a parasite that eats five organs of the body. The eyebrows and eyelashes come off, and the nose is deformed. The disease brings hoarseness, and necessitates amputations of the fingers and toes. Do not sleep with the patients, as the disease is transmittable to those nearby." This was the first document concerning believed infectious aspect of the disease.  Japan passed leprosy prevention laws in 1907, 1931, and 1953 that were based on segregation of persons with the disease; this approach intensified leprosy stigma. Lepers were seen as being incurable and infectious. Males admitted to leprosaria in Japan were sterilized, and females found to be pregnant were forced to have abortions. These extreme actions were done to prevent children of diseased parents from being born lest they carry the disease. Doctors during this time still mistakenly believed that leprosy was a hereditary disease. The 1953 law was abrogated in 1996. More than a decade later, in 2008 there were 2717 ex-patients in 13 national sanatoria and two private hospitals.

text: In a document written in 833, leprosy was described as "caused by a parasite that eats five organs of the body. The eyebrows and eyelashes come off, and the nose is deformed. The disease brings hoarseness, and necessitates amputations of the fingers and toes. Do not sleep with the patients, as the disease is transmittable to those nearby." This was the first document concerning believed infectious aspect of the disease.  Japan passed leprosy prevention laws in 1907,

entity_name: No Leprosy Patients in Our Prefecture Movement

text: , and 1953 that were based on segregation of persons with the disease; this approach intensified

text: leprosy stigma

text: . Lepers were seen as being incurable and infectious. Males admitted to leprosaria in Japan were sterilized, and females found to be pregnant were forced to have abortions. These extreme actions were done to prevent children of diseased parents from being born lest they carry the disease. Doctors during this time still mistakenly believed that leprosy was a hereditary disease. The 1953 law was abrogated in 1996. More than a decade later, in 2008 there were 2717 ex-patients in 13 national sanatoria and two private hospitals.

text: Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus. In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be endemic.

text: Some viruses can cause lifelong or

text: chronic

text: infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus. In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be

text: endemic

text: The mechanisms for infection, proliferation, and persistence of a virus in cells of the host are crucial for its survival. For example, some diseases such as measles employ a strategy whereby it must spread to a series of hosts. In these forms of viral infection, the illness is often treated by the body's own immune response, and therefore the virus is required to disperse to new hosts before it is destroyed by immunological resistance or host death.  In contrast, some infectious agents such as the Feline leukemia virus, are able to withstand immune responses and are capable of achieving long-term residence within an individual host, whilst also retaining the ability to spread into successive hosts.

text: The mechanisms for infection, proliferation, and persistence of a virus in cells of the host are crucial for its survival. For example, some diseases such as

text: measles

text: employ a strategy whereby it must spread to a series of hosts. In these forms of viral infection, the illness is often treated by the

text: body's own immune response

text: , and therefore the virus is required to disperse to new hosts before it is destroyed by

text: immunological resistance

text: or host death.  In contrast, some infectious agents such as the

text: Feline leukemia virus

text: , are able to withstand immune responses and are capable of achieving long-term residence within an individual host, whilst also retaining the ability to spread into successive hosts.

text: In addition to the natural factors that make measuring true pathogen risk and prevalence difficult (mentioned above) are behaviors like mate selection, stress-hormone levels, degree of promiscuity in a group, and diet ,.Consideration of the effects humans have had on animal populations, both directly and indirectly, are paramount to understanding the spread of pathogens. Altizer et al. (2003) mention habitat fragmentation, crowding of animals onto wildlife reserves, and encroachment upon formerly wild lands that leads to increases in contact between wildlife and domesticated species as well as humans. More generally, Daszak et al. (2000) would include climate change as a tremendous confounding factor. We might furthermore speculate that certainly tourism and poaching have contributed their own to the contagion paradigm.

text: Although resistant pathogens (such as HA-MRSA) are most commonly traced to health care environments, the new community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) strains are now being found in schools, universities, athletic settings, and elsewhere. Hospitals, ambulances, nursing homes, public waiting areas, and food processing plants are just a few of the places that disease-causing bacteria and viruses are known to colonize. Carbon dioxide is a viable alternative to oxidizing sanitizers, such as bleach and other commercial products. Because CO is gas at room temperature, liquid alcohol evaporates from any surfaces within minutes of application. Therefore, the surfaces do not require wiping. This reduces the spread of pathogens on cloth and other cleaning materials. Also, alcohol and CO are inexpensive and supplies are readily available.

text: Although resistant pathogens (such as HA-MRSA) are most commonly traced to health care environments, the new community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) strains are now being found in schools, universities, athletic settings, and elsewhere. Hospitals, ambulances, nursing homes, public waiting areas, and food processing plants are just a few of the places that disease-causing bacteria and viruses are known to colonize. Carbon dioxide is a viable alternative to

text: oxidizing sanitizers

text: , such as

text: bleach

text: and other commercial products. Because CO is gas at room temperature, liquid alcohol evaporates from any surfaces within minutes of application. Therefore, the surfaces do not require wiping. This reduces the spread of pathogens on cloth and other cleaning materials. Also, alcohol and CO are inexpensive and supplies are readily available.

text: The discovery of disease-causing pathogens is an important activity in the field of medical science, as many viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, helminthes and prions are identified as a confirmed or potential pathogen. A Centers for Disease Control program begun in 1995 identified over a hundred patients, with life-threatening illnesses which were considered to be of an infectious cause, but could not be linked to a known pathogen.  The association of pathogens with disease can be a complex and controversial process, in some cases requiring decades or even centuries to achieve.

text: The discovery of

text: disease

text: -causing

text: pathogen

text: s is an important activity in the field of medical science, as many

text: virus

text: es,

text: bacteria

text: protozoa

text: fungi

text: helminthes

text: and

text: prion

text: s are identified as a confirmed or potential pathogen. A

text: Centers for Disease Control

text: program begun in 1995 identified over a hundred patients, with life-threatening illnesses which were considered to be of an

text: infectious

text: cause, but could not be linked to a known pathogen.  The association of pathogens with disease can be a complex and controversial process, in some cases requiring decades or even centuries to achieve.

text: PKIDs’ mission is to educate the public about infectious diseases, the methods of prevention and transmission, and the latest advances in medicine; to eliminate the social stigma borne by the infected; and to assist the families of children living with HIV/AIDS, hepatitis, or other chronic, viral infectious diseases with emotional, financial, and informational support.

text: PKIDs’ mission is to educate the public about infectious diseases, the methods of prevention and transmission, and the latest advances in medicine; to eliminate the social stigma borne by the infected; and to assist the families of children living with

text: HIV/AIDS

text: hepatitis

text: , or other chronic, viral

text: infectious diseases

text: with emotional, financial, and informational support.

text: The focus of a public health intervention is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors, communities and environments. Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods. For example, research has shown that the simple act of hand washing with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. In other cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing its spread to others, such as during an outbreak of infectious disease, or contamination of food or water supplies. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs, and distribution of condoms are examples of common public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations and increases in life expectancy.

text: The focus of a public health intervention is to prevent and manage diseases, injuries and other health conditions through surveillance of cases and the

text: promotion of healthy behaviors

text: communities

text: and

text: environments

text: . Many diseases are preventable through simple, non-medical methods. For example, research has shown that the simple act of

text: hand washing

text: with soap can prevent many contagious diseases. In other cases, treating a disease or controlling a

text: pathogen

text: can be vital to preventing its spread to others, such as during an outbreak of

text: infectious disease

text: , or

text: contamination of food

text: or

text: water

text: supplies.

text: Public health communications programs

text: vaccination

text: programs, and distribution of

text: condom

text: s are examples of common public health measures. Measures such as these have contributed greatly to the health of populations and increases in life expectancy.

text: She was awarded a fellowship by the Infectious Disease Society of America, "an advocacy group of infectious disease specialists based in Arlington, Virginia". She became a member of the Western Association of Physicians in 1990, and in 1995 she became a member of the Association of American Physicians. She was named a fellow of the American Academy of Microbiology in 1997, "the world's oldest and largest group devoted to a single life science". In 1998 she was named a fellow of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology in America (SHEA), whose "mission is to prevent and control infections in healthcare settings". In 2001, she was chosen to be a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). The fellowship is "an honor bestowed upon members of the association by their peers" and only select persons are chosen each year.

text: She was awarded a fellowship by the

text: Infectious Disease Society of America

text: , "an advocacy group of infectious disease specialists based in Arlington, Virginia". She became a member of the

text: Western Association of Physicians

text: in 1990, and in 1995 she became a member of the

text: Association of American Physicians

text: . She was named a fellow of the

text: American Academy of Microbiology

text: in 1997, "the world's oldest and largest group devoted to a single life science". In 1998 she was named a fellow of the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology in America (SHEA), whose "mission is to prevent and control infections in healthcare settings". In 2001, she was chosen to be a fellow of the

text: American Association for the Advancement of Science

text: (AAAS). The fellowship is "an honor bestowed upon members of the association by their peers" and only select persons are chosen each year.

text: Citrus Black Spot was first found in Sydney, Australia in 1879 and then appeared in South Africa along the coast of Natal in 1929. It can be found in many countries around the world. These countries include: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Ghana, Mozambique, Philippines, South Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Taiwan, The United States and Uruguay. Whether or not Citrus Black Spot is present in Japan and New Zealand is controversial. In both countries the fungus was thought to have been found, but after further testing it was identified as the non-pathogenic strain, Guignardia mangiferae, rather than the pathogenic strain Guignardia citricarpa which causes Citrus Black Spot. This disease is relatively new to North America; it was first seen in Southern Florida March, 2010. Though Florida has taken measures to try to control this disease it is expected to rapidly spread to other areas over the next few years.

text: Citrus Black Spot was first found in

text: Sydney, Australia

text: in 1879 and then appeared in South Africa along the coast of

text: Natal

text: in 1929. It can be found in many countries around the world. These countries include: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Ghana, Mozambique, Philippines, South Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Taiwan, The United States and Uruguay. Whether or not Citrus Black Spot is present in Japan and New Zealand is controversial. In both countries the fungus was thought to have been found, but after further testing it was identified as the

text: non-pathogenic strain

text: , Guignardia mangiferae, rather than the pathogenic strain Guignardia citricarpa which causes Citrus Black Spot. This disease is relatively new to North America; it was first seen in Southern Florida March, 2010. Though Florida has taken measures to try to control this disease it is expected to rapidly spread to other areas over the next few years.

text: Hypoxylon canker of shade trees has three primary species, through which the pathogen can infect a variety of hardwood shade trees. Hypoxylon atropunctatum is most commonly found on oak, Hypoxylon mammatum is a significant pathogen on aspen trees, and Hypoxylon tinctor infects sycamore trees (2,3,16). In order to tell if the pathogen is affecting the tree, the bark must be closely examined, but the symptoms are distinct. Early stages of the disease show a light brown and tan color that looks dry and dusty. Later on, as the pathogen goes through the sexual stage, the bark will turn to a dark grey color. The bark becomes brittle and flakes off (2) and black and grey cankers will appear (3). Because these changes are indications of a disease, these are symptoms. They demonstrate that the pathogen is present and infecting or has already infested the host. Hypoxylon also produces characteristic signs, which are either going to be direct products of the pathogen or the appearance of the pathogen itself. The signs we can see from Hypoxylon are conidia and ascospores. Conidia are produced during the asexual stage, while ascospores are produced during the sexual stage (4,7). You can sometimes see the conidia with the naked eye if they are structuralized, but it is much easier to see them under a dissecting microscope. When looking underneath a compound microscope, you will be able to see the ascospores. They will be located on perithecia. The microscopic signs of the perithecium are the flask-shaped sexual fruiting body that contains ascospores. Lastly, the pathogen is going to be found primarily just beneath the bark of the trees, located throughout the tree and if the pathogen spreads. The pathogen can also spread to the bark of surrounding trees (3). If you start to see symptoms on the main trunk, the tree is likely too diseased to save, since the trunk is the spot where the nutrients and water are transported. Once Hypoxylon is active on the main trunk, there is no other way for the water and nutrients to get to the rest of the tree and thus it dies. Fortunately, if Hypoxylon is found on the branches or limbs there is a good chance the tree will live if the fungus does not spread. Pruning out the limbs and branches that look like they have the disease on it or are dying will solve the problem (2).

text: A number of infectious diseases can be transmitted either congenitally or in early childhood, and can cause serious neurodevelopmental disorders, such as schizophrenia. Congenital toxoplasmosis may result in formation of cysts in the brain and other organs, causing a variety of neurological deficits. Congenital syphilis may progress to neurosyphilis if it remains untreated. Measles can progress to subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. Congenital rubella syndrome can produce schizophrenia in addition to multiple other symptoms.

text: A number of infectious diseases can be transmitted either congenitally or in early childhood, and can cause serious neurodevelopmental disorders, such as schizophrenia. Congenital

text: toxoplasmosis

text: may result in formation of cysts in the brain and other organs, causing a variety of neurological deficits.

text: Congenital syphilis

text: may progress to

text: neurosyphilis

text: if it remains untreated.

text: Measles

text: can progress to

text: subacute sclerosing panencephalitis

text: Congenital rubella syndrome

text: can produce

text: schizophrenia

text: in addition to multiple other symptoms.

text: In September 1991 the Report of the Review of Infectious Diseases in Victoria recommended the relocation of HIV/AIDS services to The Alfred Hospital. Other infectious disease patients were to be cared for by the Royal Melbourne Hospital.  In the 1990s, the Victorian Liberal Government of Jeff Kennett pursued the rationalisation of hospital services. Despite strong protests, the specialised functions of the hospital were transferred to other hospitals and on 30 June 1996 Fairfield Infectious Diseases Hospital closed down.

text: In September 1991 the Report of the Review of Infectious Diseases in Victoria recommended the relocation of HIV/AIDS services to

text: The Alfred Hospital

text: . Other infectious disease patients were to be cared for by the

text: Royal Melbourne Hospital

text: .  In the 1990s, the Victorian Liberal Government of

text: Jeff Kennett

text: pursued the rationalisation of hospital services. Despite strong protests, the specialised functions of the hospital were transferred to other hospitals and on 30 June 1996 Fairfield Infectious Diseases Hospital closed down.

text: MRC (visions and missions) are to transform the treatment of expensive epidemic diseases, including Rapid Test for Infectious Diseases, Chemicals (Solution and Powder), and antimicrobial susceptibility testing system (Antibiotic Discs) … others.It is to provide the affordable high quality products to help fighting diseases and illicit substance abuse. And also it is a uniquely positioned to achieve goals by providing innovative solutions that reduce the economic burden of costly diseases on health care system in Sudan and provide improved outcomes for medical institutions with good price.

text: MRC (visions and missions) are to transform the treatment of expensive epidemic

text: diseases

text: , including Rapid Test for

text: Infectious Diseases

text: Chemical

text: s (

text: Solution

text: and

text: Powder

text: ), and

text: antimicrobial

text: susceptibility

text: testing system (

text: Antibiotic

text: Discs) … others.It is to provide the affordable high

text: quality

text: products to help fighting

text: diseases

text: and illicit substance abuse. And also it is a uniquely positioned to achieve

text: goal

text: s by providing innovative solutions that reduce the economic burden of costly

text: diseases

text: on

text: health care system

text: in

text: Sudan

text: and provide improved outcomes for medical institutions with good price.

text: Some people who have had an infectious disease such as tuberculosis never completely recover and continue to carry the infection, whilst not suffering the disease themselves. They may then move back into the infectious compartment and suffer symptoms (as in tuberculosis) or they may continue to infect others in their carrier state, while not suffering symptoms. The most famous example of this is probably Mary Mallon, who infected 22 people with typhoid fever. The carrier compartment is labelled C.

text: Some people who have had an infectious disease such as

text: tuberculosis

text: never completely recover and continue to

text: carry

text: the infection, whilst not suffering the disease themselves. They may then move back into the infectious compartment and suffer symptoms (as in tuberculosis) or they may continue to infect others in their carrier state, while not suffering symptoms. The most famous example of this is probably

text: Mary Mallon

text: , who infected 22 people with

text: typhoid fever

text: . The carrier compartment is labelled C.

text: In certain cases, infectious diseases may be asymptomatic for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host.

text: In certain cases, infectious diseases may be

text: asymptomatic

text: for much or even all of their course in a given host. In the latter case, the disease may only be defined as a "disease" (which by definition means an illness) in hosts who secondarily become ill after contact with an asymptomatic carrier. An infection is not synonymous with an infectious disease, as some infections do not cause illness in a host.

text: The Conference is aimed at junior and senior experts from in all fields of communicable disease surveillance, prevention and control. This includes epidemiologists, microbiologists, clinicians, public health experts, and veterinary and environmental health experts with a professional and scientific interest in applied infectious disease epidemiology.The Conference brings together several groups of people involved in these areas including representatives from EU/EEA National Public Health Institutes, members of disease-specific surveillance networks, and EPIET/FETP/EUPHEM fellows and alumni. The audience also includes governmental, NGO and academic researchers from across Europe and the globe with an interest in infectious disease prevention and control.The Conference aims to expand its audience and include policy and decision makers but also experts from related disciplines, such as bioinformatics and modelling.

text: The Conference is aimed at junior and senior experts from in all fields of communicable disease surveillance, prevention and control. This includes epidemiologists, microbiologists, clinicians, public health experts, and veterinary and environmental health experts with a professional and scientific interest in applied infectious disease epidemiology.The Conference brings together several groups of people involved in these areas including representatives from EU/EEA National Public Health Institutes, members of disease-specific surveillance networks, and EPIET/

text: FETP

text: /EUPHEM fellows and alumni. The audience also includes governmental, NGO and academic researchers from across Europe and the globe with an interest in infectious disease prevention and control.The Conference aims to expand its audience and include policy and decision makers but also experts from related disciplines, such as bioinformatics and modelling.

text: The Department of Parasitology conducts internationally rated basic research on tropical parasites such as malaria, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, soil transmitted helminths, schistosomiasis, trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis as well as research into snakebite and neglected tropical diseases.  Housed in LSTM’s Centre for Tropical and Infectious Disease the Department is a global leader in drug and diagnostics discovery and disease pathogenesis.

text: The Department of Parasitology conducts internationally rated basic research on tropical parasites such as malaria,

text: lymphatic filariasis

text: , onchocerciasis, soil transmitted

text: helminths

text: schistosomiasis

text: trypanosomiasis

text: and

text: leishmaniasis

text: as well as research into

text: snakebite

text: and

text: neglected tropical diseases

text: .  Housed in LSTM’s Centre for Tropical and Infectious Disease the Department is a global leader in drug and diagnostics discovery and disease pathogenesis.

text: There are various ways to manage the disease Uromyces viciae-fabae var. viciae-fabae, however because the spores of the fungus can travel long distances to infect a new crop prevention can be difficult. First, using clean seed to plant the beans is best to prevent the spread of the pathogen. Using contaminated seeds from plots where the disease was is a easy way to spread the disease to other locations. Secondly, spores that land on volunteer plants, which are plants that grow on their own from seeds floating by wind or birds, can be spread long distances by wind increasing the spread of the disease. These volunteer plants should be controlled early in the season often by the use of herbicides to kill the faba bean plant completely. Another way to control disease is to rotate crops; crops should be rotated about 500 meters from where the faba beans were last planted as a preventative measure. Since they are host specific if there are still spores present in that area they will not be able to infect the new crop planted.  Resistance is another control method. Resistance is the most desired means of rust control. Planting a variety that is resistant to rust is helpful in preventing disease. Foliar fungicides are another way of control; recommended fungicides need to be applied before severe symptoms are seen.

text: Plant pathogens can spread rapidly over great distances, vectored by water, wind, insects, and humans. Across large regions and many crop species, it is estimated that diseases typically reduce plant yields by 10% every year in more developed nations or agricultural systems, but yield loss to diseases often exceeds 20% in less developed settings, an estimated 15% of global crop production.

text: A non-communicable disease (NCD) is a medical condition or disease that is not caused by infectious agents (non-infectious or non-transmissible). NCDs can refer to chronic diseases which last for long periods of time and progress slowly. Sometimes, NCDs result in rapid deaths such as seen in certain diseases such as autoimmune diseases, heart diseases, stroke, cancers, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, osteoporosis, Alzheimer's disease, cataracts, and others. While sometimes referred to as synonymous with "chronic diseases", NCDs are distinguished only by their non-infectious cause, not necessarily by their duration, though Some chronic diseases of long duration, such as HIV/AIDS, may caused by infections. Chronic diseases require chronic care management as do all diseases that are slow to develop and of long duration.

text: A non-communicable disease (NCD) is a medical condition or disease that is not caused by infectious agents (non-infectious or non-

text: transmissible

text: ). NCDs can refer to chronic diseases which last for long periods of time and progress slowly. Sometimes, NCDs result in rapid deaths such as seen in certain diseases such as

text: autoimmune disease

text: s,

text: heart disease

text: s,

text: stroke

text: cancer

text: s,

text: diabetes

text: chronic kidney disease

text: osteoporosis

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: cataract

text: s, and others. While sometimes referred to as synonymous with "

text: chronic diseases

text: ", NCDs are distinguished only by their non-infectious cause, not necessarily by their duration, though Some chronic diseases of long duration, such as

text: HIV/AIDS

text: , may caused by

text: infection

text: s. Chronic diseases require

text: chronic care management

text: as do all diseases that are slow to develop and of long duration.

text: Climate change may lead to dramatic increases in prevalence of a variety of infectious diseases. Beginning in the mid-'70s, there has been an “emergence, resurgence and redistribution of infectious diseases”. Reasons for this are likely multicausal, dependent on a variety of social, environmental and climatic factors, however, many argue that the “volatility of infectious disease may be one of the earliest biological expressions of climate instability”. Though many infectious diseases are affected by changes in climate, vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever and leishmaniasis, present the strongest causal relationship. Observation and research detect a shift of pests and pathogens in the distribution away from the equator and towards Earth's poles.

text: Climate change may lead to dramatic increases in prevalence of a variety of infectious diseases. Beginning in the mid-'70s, there has been an “emergence, resurgence and redistribution of infectious diseases”. Reasons for this are likely multicausal, dependent on a variety of social, environmental and climatic factors, however, many argue that the “volatility of infectious disease may be one of the earliest biological expressions of climate instability”. Though many infectious diseases are affected by changes in climate, vector-borne diseases, such as malaria,

text: dengue fever

text: and leishmaniasis, present the strongest

text: causal relationship

text: . Observation and research detect a shift of pests and pathogens in the distribution away from the equator and towards Earth's poles.

text: Li Shizhen quotes Chen Cangqi's explanation (tr. Luo 2003: 4180) that when a piece of skull is cleaned, simmered in a young boy's urine, and then buried in a pit, "This will infuse the drug with a soul". Li also quotes Yang Shiying that the shizhu disease "is caused by a ghost that hides within a person's body and does not come out. So the disease is a prolonged one. When treated with human skull top, the ghost's soul will be dispelled from the person's body and the syndrome may subside." Cooper & Sivin (1973: 251) note that the guzheng "bone-steaming disease" or chuanshi "cadaver vector disease", "passes from one member of a family to another, sapping their strength and killing them in turn. The name comes from the patient's feeling of feverishness ("steaming") in the marrow of his bones. The syndrome as described in classic medical works corresponds on the whole to that of pulmonary tuberculosis." However, they also (1973: 257) say that whether this demon disease really meant pulmonary tuberculosis or some other debilitating infectious disease is really not pertinent "because bone would be ineffective in the treatment of any infectious process."

text: Li Shizhen quotes Chen Cangqi's explanation (tr. Luo 2003: 4180) that when a piece of skull is cleaned, simmered in a young boy's urine, and then buried in a pit, "This will infuse the drug with a soul". Li also quotes Yang Shiying that the shizhu disease "is caused by a ghost that hides within a person's body and does not come out. So the disease is a prolonged one. When treated with human skull top, the ghost's soul will be dispelled from the person's body and the syndrome may subside." Cooper & Sivin (1973: 251) note that the guzheng "bone-steaming disease" or chuanshi "cadaver vector disease", "passes from one member of a family to another, sapping their strength and killing them in turn. The name comes from the patient's feeling of feverishness ("steaming") in the marrow of his bones. The syndrome as described in classic medical works corresponds on the whole to that of pulmonary tuberculosis." However, they also (1973: 257) say that whether this demon disease really meant

text: pulmonary tuberculosis

text: or some other debilitating infectious disease is really not pertinent "because bone would be ineffective in the treatment of any infectious process."

text: Globalization has increased the spread of infectious diseases from South to North, but also the risk of non-communicable diseases by transmission of culture and behavior from North to South. It is important to target and reduce the spread of infectious diseases in developing countries.  However, addressing the risk factors of non-comunicable diseases and lifestyle risks in the South that cause disease, such as use or consumption of tobacco, alcohol, and unhealthy foods, is important as well.

text: Questions often range from being very broad to being very focused. For example; What is honour? What is beauty? What are the elements of successful habitat restoration? How can we manage infectious disease outbreaks?

text: Bundibugyo virus (BDBV) is a close relative of the much more commonly known Ebola virus (EBOV). BDBV causes severe disease in humans and (experimentally) in nonhuman primates, the Ebola hemorrhagic fever. BDBV is a Select Agent, World Health Organization Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment), National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Category A Priority Pathogen, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Category A Bioterrorism Agent, and is listed as a Biological Agent for Export Control by the Australia Group.

text: Bundibugyo virus (BDBV) is a close relative of the much more commonly known

text: Ebola virus

text: (EBOV). BDBV causes severe

text: disease

text: in

text: human

text: s and (experimentally) in nonhuman

text: primates

text: , the

text: Ebola

text: hemorrhagic fever

text: . BDBV is a

text: Select Agent

text: World Health Organization

text: Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring

text: National Institutes of Health

text: Category A Priority Pathogen,

text: Category A Bioterrorism Agent

text: , and is listed as a Biological Agent for Export Control by the

text: Australia Group

text: Etiology, the modern branch of science that deals with the causes of infectious disease, recognizes five major modes of disease transmission: airborne, waterborne, bloodborne, by direct contact, and through vector (insects or other creatures that carry germs from one species to another). As humans began traveling over seas and across lands which were previously isolated, research suggests that diseases have been spread by all five transmission modes.

text: Etiology

text: , the modern branch of

text: science

text: that deals with the causes of

text: infectious disease

text: , recognizes five major modes of disease transmission: airborne, waterborne, bloodborne, by direct contact, and through

text: vector

text: insect

text: s or other creatures that carry germs from one species to another). As humans began traveling over seas and across lands which were previously isolated, research suggests that diseases have been spread by all five transmission modes.

text: Globalization increases the likelihood that an infectious disease appearing in one area of the world will spread rapidly to another. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a recent example of this. Within weeks in the beginning of 2003, SARS had quickly spread from the Guangdong province of China to infect people in over 20 countries around the world. Approximately 15% of patients affected required artificial ventilation. There was also a relatively high death rate. By late March, hundreds of people were infected, with cases reported in China, Singapore, Canada, United States and Thailand. The WHO (World Health Organization) then took the rare step of issuing a worldwide alert. SARS was first reported in the United Kingdom newspapers early March of that year. Reviewing the many reports of the new infectious diseases in the newspapers, highlighted larger public anxieties, in particular anxieties about the insufficiency of technology and medicine that does not have the capacity for new threats as well as moral panic over globalization. Globalization has many definitions: It can be the spread of information, trends, technologies, culture and lifestyles but primarily it is an economic force. One of many consequences of an economic globalization is the quick, cheap access for the mobility of people of all walks of life. Another consequence is larger awareness of global threats and in particular the threat of global epidemics.

text: Globalization increases the likelihood that an infectious disease appearing in one area of the world will spread rapidly to another. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a recent example of this. Within weeks in the beginning of 2003, SARS had quickly spread from the

text: Guangdong province

text: of China to infect people in over 20 countries around the world. Approximately 15% of patients affected required artificial ventilation. There was also a relatively high death rate. By late March, hundreds of people were infected, with cases reported in China, Singapore, Canada, United States and Thailand. The WHO (World Health Organization) then took the rare step of issuing a worldwide alert. SARS was first reported in the United Kingdom newspapers early March of that year. Reviewing the many reports of the new infectious diseases in the newspapers, highlighted larger public anxieties, in particular anxieties about the insufficiency of technology and medicine that does not have the capacity for new threats as well as moral panic over globalization. Globalization has many definitions: It can be the spread of information, trends, technologies, culture and lifestyles but primarily it is an economic force. One of many consequences of an economic globalization is the quick, cheap access for the mobility of people of all walks of life. Another consequence is larger awareness of global threats and in particular the threat of global epidemics.

text: An infectious disease agent can be transmitted in two ways: as  disease agent transmission from one individual to another in the same generation (peers in the same age group).  by either direct contact (licking, touching, biting), or indirect contact air – cough or sneeze (vectors or fomites that allow the transmission of the agent causing the disease without physical contact).or by vertical disease transmission, passing the agent causing the disease from parent to offspring, such as in prenatal or perinatal transmission.

text: An

text: infectious disease

text: agent can be transmitted in two ways: as  disease agent transmission from one individual to another in the same generation (peers in the same age group).  by either direct contact (licking, touching, biting), or indirect contact air – cough or sneeze (

text: vectors

text: or

text: fomites

text: that allow the transmission of the agent causing the disease without physical contact).or by

text: vertical disease transmission

text: , passing the agent causing the disease from parent to offspring, such as in prenatal or

text: perinatal transmission

text: Even though Guatemala has improved its health care system substantially since the end of the Guatemalan Civil War, mortality rates for communicable diseases still show that considerable progress needs to be made  to remove the burden of infectious diseases on the population. In a country like Guatemala, water is poor and frequently contaminated. In order to decrease common communicable diseases like diarrhea, tuberculosis, pneumonia, and respiratory disease, clean water and sanitation are necessary. With the health care system's provision of both clean water and food, the incidence of infectious and communicable diseases will decrease.

text: Even though Guatemala has improved its health care system substantially since the end of the Guatemalan Civil War, mortality rates for communicable diseases still show that considerable progress needs to be made  to remove the burden of infectious diseases on the population. In a country like Guatemala, water is poor and frequently contaminated. In order to decrease common communicable diseases like diarrhea,

text: tuberculosis

text: pneumonia

text: , and respiratory disease, clean water and sanitation are necessary. With the health care system's provision of both clean water and food, the incidence of infectious and communicable diseases will decrease.

text: Communicable diseases are increased due to many pathogens and bacteria that are being transported by the water. In floods where there are many fatalities in the water there is a hygienic problem with the handling of bodies, due to the panic stricken mode that comes over a town in distress.  There are many water contaminated diseases such as cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and diarrheal diseases, to mention a few. There are certain diseases that are directly correlated with floods they include any dermatitis and any wound, nose, throat or ear infection. Gastrointestinal disease and diarrheal diseases are very common due to a lack of clean water during a flood. Most of clean water supplies are contaminated when flooding occurs. Hepatitis A and E are common because of the lack of sanitation in the water and in living quarters depending on where the flood is and how prepared the community is for a flood.

text: Communicable diseases

text: are increased due to many

text: pathogens

text: and

text: bacteria

text: that are being transported by the

text: water

text: . In floods where there are many fatalities in the water there is a

text: hygienic

text: problem with the handling of bodies, due to the

text: panic

text: stricken mode that comes over a town in distress.  There are many water

text: contaminated

text: diseases such as

text: cholera

text: hepatitis A

text: hepatitis E

text: and

text: diarrheal diseases

text: , to mention a few. There are certain diseases that are directly correlated with floods they include any

text: dermatitis

text: and any

text: wound

text: nose

text: throat

text: or

text: ear infection

text: Gastrointestinal disease

text: and diarrheal diseases are very common due to a lack of clean water during a flood. Most of clean water supplies are contaminated when flooding occurs. Hepatitis A and E are common because of the lack of

text: sanitation

text: in the water and in living quarters depending on where the flood is and how prepared the

text: community

text: is for a flood.

text: Global Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology Online Network (GIDEON) is a web-based program for decision support and informatics in the fields of Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine.  As of 2005, more than 300 generic infectious diseases occur haphazardly in time and space and are challenged by over 250 drugs and vaccines. 1,500 species of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi have been described. Printed media can no longer follow the dynamics of diseases, outbreaks and epidemics in "real time."

text: Global Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology Online Network (GIDEON) is a web-based program for decision support and

text: informatics

text: in the fields of

text: Infectious Diseases

text: and

text: Geographic Medicine

text: .  As of 2005, more than 300 generic infectious diseases occur haphazardly in time and space and are challenged by over 250 drugs and vaccines. 1,500 species of pathogenic

text: bacteria

text: virus

text: es,

text: parasites

text: and

text: fungi

text: have been described. Printed media can no longer follow the dynamics of diseases, outbreaks and epidemics in "real time."

text: The European Society for Paediatric Infectious Diseases (ESPID) is a non-profit medical association registered in Germany that focuses on paediatric infectious diseases. Since its founding in 1983, it has grown to include over 1000 members, from all over Europe and beyond. ESPID forms the basis for European clinicians and scientists interested in all aspects of infectious diseases in children and their prevention. The society is engaged in a number of activities including the organization of multicentre trials, international exchange of paediatric infectious disease fellows, educational activities, and an annual scientific conference.

text: The European Society for Paediatric Infectious Diseases (ESPID) is a

text: non-profit

text: medical association

text: registered in

text: Germany

text: that focuses on

text: paediatric

text: infectious disease

text: s. Since its founding in 1983, it has grown to include over 1000 members, from all over

text: Europe

text: and beyond. ESPID forms the basis for European

text: clinic

text: ians and scientists interested in all aspects of infectious diseases in children and their prevention. The society is engaged in a number of activities including the organization of multicentre trials, international exchange of paediatric infectious disease fellows, educational activities, and an annual scientific conference.

text: Since 1995, SOD has been confirmed from southern Mendocino County to Big Sur, and is particularly severe in Marin, Santa Cruz, and Monterey Counties.  Dying trees have been observed in urban and rural forests and woodlands.  The main species of affected overstory plants are coast live oak, California black, and tanoak.  The disease has also spread to Shreve's oak, California laurel, California buckeye, bigleaf maple, toyon, huckleberry, honeysuckle, rhododendrons, and arrowroot.  Concern now exists that the pathogen may spread throughout California oak forests, be transported to the forests of other western states and even to the eastern United States.  In fact SOD was discovered in Southern Oregon through aerial survey work in 2001.  With the discovery of the pathogen on rhododendrons, there exists a much greater risk of human transport of the disease via ornamental plants.  The actual current geographic range of SOD Phytophthera is unknown.<ref>Agricultural Research Initiative. Rep. Jan. & feb. 1993. California Polytechnic State University. 9 Feb. 2009

text: The 100K Pathogen Genome Project was launched in July 2012 by Bart Weimer (UC Davis) as an academic, public, and private partnership. It aims to sequence the genomes of 100,000 infectious microorganisms to create a database of bacterial genome sequences for use in public health, outbreak detection, and bacterial pathogen detection. This will speed up the diagnosis of foodborne illnesses and shorten infectious disease outbreaks.

text: The 100K Pathogen Genome Project was launched in July 2012 by Bart Weimer (UC Davis) as an academic, public, and private partnership. It aims to sequence the genomes of 100,000 infectious microorganisms to create a database of bacterial genome sequences for use in public health, outbreak detection, and bacterial pathogen detection. This will speed up the diagnosis of

text: foodborne illness

text: es and shorten infectious disease outbreaks.

text: In epidemiology, an outbreak is a sudden increase in occurrences of a disease in a particular time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or impact upon thousands of people across an entire continent.  Two linked cases of a rare infectious disease may be sufficient to constitute an outbreak. Outbreaks include epidemics, which term is normally only used for infectious diseases, as well as diseases with an environmental origin, such as a water or foodborne disease.  They may affect a region in a country or a group of countries. Pandemics are near-global disease outbreaks.

text: In

text: epidemiology

text: , an outbreak is a sudden increase in occurrences of a

text: disease

text: in a particular time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or impact upon thousands of people across an entire continent.  Two linked cases of a rare

text: infectious disease

text: may be sufficient to constitute an outbreak. Outbreaks include

text: epidemic

text: s, which term is normally only used for

text: infectious disease

text: s, as well as diseases with an environmental origin, such as a water or

text: foodborne disease

text: .  They may affect a region in a country or a group of countries.

text: Pandemic

text: s are near-global disease outbreaks.

text: Exposure to respiratory infectious diseases like tuberculosis (caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and influenza can be reduced with the use of respirators; this exposure is a significant occupational hazard for health care professionals. Exposure to dangerous chemicals, including chemotherapy drugs, is another potential occupational risk. These drugs can cause cancer and other health conditions. Healthcare workers are also at risk for diseases that are contracted through extended contact with a patient, including scabies. Health professionals are also at risk for contracting blood-borne diseases like hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV/AIDS through needlestick injuries or through contact with bodily fluids. This risk can be mitigated with vaccination when there is a vaccine available, like with hepatitis B. In epidemic situations, such as the 2014-2016 West African Ebola virus epidemic or the 2003 SARS outbreak, healthcare workers are at even greater risk, and were disproportionately affected in both the Ebola and SARS outbreaks. In general, appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) is the first-line mode of protection for healthcare workers from infectious diseases. For it to be effective against highly contagious diseases, personal protective equipment must be watertight and prevent the skin and mucous membranes from contacting infectious material. Different levels of personal protective equipment created to unique standards are used in situations where the risk of infection is different. Practices such as triple gloving and multiple respirators do not provide a higher level of protection and present a burden to the worker, who is additionally at increased risk of exposure when removing the PPE. Compliance with appropriate personal protective equipment rules may be difficult in certain situations, such as tropical environment or low-resource settings. A 2016 Cochrane systematic review found low quality evidence that using more breathable fabric in PPE, double gloving, and active training reduce the risk of contamination.

text: Exposure to respiratory infectious diseases like

text: tuberculosis

text: (caused by

text: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

text: ) and

text: influenza

text: can be reduced with the use of

text: respirator

text: s; this exposure is a significant occupational hazard for health care professionals. Exposure to dangerous chemicals, including

text: chemotherapy

text: drugs, is another potential occupational risk. These drugs can cause cancer and other health conditions. Healthcare workers are also at risk for diseases that are contracted through extended contact with a patient, including

text: scabies

text: . Health professionals are also at risk for contracting blood-borne diseases like

text: hepatitis B

text: hepatitis C

text: , and

text: HIV/AIDS

text: through

text: needlestick injuries

text: or through contact with bodily fluids. This risk can be mitigated with vaccination when there is a vaccine available, like with hepatitis B. In epidemic situations, such as the 2014-2016

text: West African Ebola virus epidemic

text: or the

text: 2003 SARS outbreak

text: , healthcare workers are at even greater risk, and were disproportionately affected in both the Ebola and SARS outbreaks. In general, appropriate

text: personal protective equipment

text: (PPE) is the first-line mode of protection for healthcare workers from infectious diseases. For it to be effective against highly contagious diseases, personal protective equipment must be watertight and prevent the skin and mucous membranes from contacting infectious material. Different levels of personal protective equipment created to unique standards are used in situations where the risk of infection is different. Practices such as triple gloving and multiple respirators do not provide a higher level of protection and present a burden to the worker, who is additionally at increased risk of exposure when removing the PPE. Compliance with appropriate personal protective equipment rules may be difficult in certain situations, such as tropical environment or low-resource settings. A 2016 Cochrane systematic review found low quality evidence that using more breathable fabric in PPE, double gloving, and active training reduce the risk of contamination.

text: The infectious isoform of PrP, known as PrP, is able to convert normal PrP proteins into the infectious isoform by changing their conformation, or shape; this, in turn, alters the way the proteins interconnect. PrP always causes prion disease. Although the exact 3D structure of PrP is not known, it has a higher proportion of β-sheet structure in place of the normal α-helix structure. Aggregations of these abnormal isoforms form highly structured amyloid fibers, which accumulate to form plaques. It is unclear as to whether these aggregates are the cause of cell damage or are simply a side-effect of the underlying disease process. The end of each fiber acts as a template onto which free protein molecules may attach, allowing the fiber to grow. Under most circumstances, only PrP molecules with an identical amino acid sequence to the infectious PrP are incorporated into the growing fiber. However, rare cross-species transmission is also possible.

text: The infectious

text: isoform

text: of PrP, known as PrP, is able to convert normal PrP proteins into the infectious isoform by changing their

text: conformation

text: , or shape; this, in turn, alters the way the proteins interconnect. PrP always causes prion disease. Although the exact 3D structure of PrP is not known, it has a higher proportion of

text: β-sheet

text: structure in place of the normal

text: α-helix

text: structure. Aggregations of these abnormal isoforms form highly structured

text: amyloid

text: fibers, which accumulate to form plaques. It is unclear as to whether these aggregates are the cause of cell damage or are simply a side-effect of the underlying disease process. The end of each fiber acts as a template onto which free protein molecules may attach, allowing the fiber to grow. Under most circumstances, only PrP molecules with an identical amino acid sequence to the infectious PrP are incorporated into the growing fiber. However, rare cross-species transmission is also possible.

text: Diagnosis codes track diseases and other health conditions, inclusive of chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus and heart disease, and infectious diseases such as norovirus, the flu, and athlete's foot. Procedure codes track interventions performed. These diagnosis and procedure codes are used by health care providers, government health programs, private health insurance companies, workers' compensation carriers, software developers, and others for a variety of applications in medicine, public health and medical informatics, including:

text: Diagnosis code

text: s track

text: disease

text: s and other health conditions, inclusive of chronic diseases such as

text: diabetes mellitus

text: and

text: heart disease

text: , and infectious diseases such as

text: norovirus

text: , the

text: flu

text: , and

text: athlete's foot

text: Procedure code

text: s track interventions performed. These diagnosis and procedure codes are used by health care providers, government health programs, private health insurance companies, workers' compensation carriers, software developers, and others for a variety of applications in

text: medicine

text: public health

text: and

text: medical informatics

text: , including:

text: The best way to control the virus is to plant with clean seed, since the virus is spread though infected seed.  BMSV is also spread through mechanical transfer of the virus; reducing handling and movement through infected areas will help contain the disease. Sterilization of all tools and machinery, specifically irrigation systems,  used in fields will reduce the spread of BMSV. Quaternary ammonium salts and hydrogen dioxides are two common commercial products used for sterilization of horticulture tools and machinery.   Removal of infected plants can help reduce the spread of the virus.  In fields where the disease has gone unnoticed, allowing the virus to spread, it is important to prevent spread to other fields and prevent seeds from infected plants from being planted the next year, as they too are likely infected with virus.

text: In the 5th century BCE, Hippocrates described a disease like TSE in cattle and sheep, which he believed also occurred in man. Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus records cases of a disease with similar characteristics in the 4th and 5th centuries AD. In 1755, an outbreak of scrapie was discussed in the British House of Commons and may have been present in Britain for some time before that. Although there were unsupported claims in 1759 that the disease was contagious, in general it was thought to be due to inbreeding and countermeasures appeared to be successful. Early-20th-century experiments failed to show transmission of scrapie between animals, until extraordinary measures were taken such as the intra-ocular injection of infected nervous tissue. No direct link between scrapie and disease in man was suspected then or has been found since. TSE was first described in man by Alfons Maria Jakob in the 1921. Daniel Carleton Gajdusek's discovery that Kuru was transmitted by cannibalism accompanied by the finding of scrapie-like lesions in the brains of Kuru victims strongly suggested an infectious basis to TSE.  The priority given the search for a viral infectious agent almost cost Stanley Prusiner tenure when his research showed that a protein transferred the disease. A paradigm shift to a non-nucleic infectious entity was required when the results were validated with an explanation of how a prion protein might transmit spongiform encephalopathy. It wasn't until 1988 that the neuropathology of spongiform encephalopathy was properly described in cows. The alarming amplification of BSE in the British cattle herd heightened fear of transmission to humans and reinforced the belief in the infectious nature of TSE. This was confirmed with the identification of a Kuru-like disease, called new variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, in humans exposed to BSE. Although the infectious disease model of TSE has been questioned in favour of a prion transplantation model that explains why cannibalism favours transmission, the search for a viral agent is being continued in some laboratories.

text: In the 5th century

text: BCE

text: Hippocrates

text: described a disease like TSE in cattle and sheep, which he believed also occurred in man.

text: Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus

text: records cases of a disease with similar characteristics in the 4th and 5th centuries AD. In 1755, an outbreak of

text: scrapie

text: was discussed in the British House of Commons and may have been present in Britain for some time before that. Although there were unsupported claims in 1759 that the disease was contagious, in general it was thought to be due to inbreeding and countermeasures appeared to be successful. Early-20th-century experiments failed to show transmission of

text: scrapie

text: between animals, until extraordinary measures were taken such as the intra-ocular injection of infected nervous tissue. No direct link between

text: scrapie

text: and disease in man was suspected then or has been found since. TSE was first described in man by

text: Alfons Maria Jakob

text: in the 1921.

text: Daniel Carleton Gajdusek

text: 's discovery that Kuru was transmitted by cannibalism accompanied by the finding of scrapie-like lesions in the brains of Kuru victims strongly suggested an infectious basis to TSE.  The priority given the search for a viral infectious agent almost cost

text: Stanley Prusiner

text: tenure when his research showed that a protein transferred the disease. A paradigm shift to a non-nucleic infectious entity was required when the results were validated with an explanation of how a

text: prion

text: protein might transmit spongiform encephalopathy. It wasn't until 1988 that the neuropathology of spongiform encephalopathy was properly described in cows. The alarming amplification of

text: BSE

text: in the British cattle herd heightened fear of transmission to humans and reinforced the belief in the infectious nature of TSE. This was confirmed with the identification of a Kuru-like disease, called new variant

text: Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

text: , in humans exposed to

text: BSE

text: . Although the infectious disease model of TSE has been questioned in favour of a

text: prion

text: transplantation model that explains why cannibalism favours transmission, the search for a viral agent is being continued in some laboratories.

text: The main diseases that cause an increased excretion of faecal calprotectin are  inflammatory bowel diseases, coeliac disease, infectious colitis, necrotizing enterocolitis, intestinal cystic fibrosis and colorectal cancer.

text: The main diseases that cause an increased excretion of faecal calprotectin are

text: inflammatory bowel diseases

text: coeliac disease

text: infectious colitis

text: necrotizing enterocolitis

text: , intestinal

text: cystic fibrosis

text: and

text: colorectal cancer

text: Yellow fever causes 200,000 infections and 30,000 deaths every year, with nearly 90% of these occurring in Africa. Nearly a billion people live in an area of the world where the disease is common. It is common in tropical areas of South America and Africa, but not in Asia. Since the 1980s, the number of cases of yellow fever has been increasing. This is believed to be due to fewer people being immune, more people living in cities, people moving frequently, and changing climate. The disease originated in Africa, from where it spread to South America through the slave trade in the 17th century. Since the 17th century, several major outbreaks of the disease have occurred in the Americas, Africa, and Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, yellow fever was seen as one of the most dangerous infectious diseases. In 1927 yellow fever virus became the first human virus to be isolated.

text: Yellow fever causes 200,000 infections and 30,000 deaths every year, with nearly 90% of these occurring in Africa. Nearly a billion people live in an area of the world where the disease is common. It is common in

text: tropical

text: areas of

text: South America

text: and

text: Africa

text: , but not in

text: Asia

text: . Since the 1980s, the number of cases of yellow fever has been increasing. This is believed to be due to fewer people being immune, more people living in cities, people moving frequently, and

text: changing climate

text: . The disease originated in Africa, from where it spread to South America through the

text: slave trade

text: in the 17th century. Since the 17th century, several major

text: outbreaks

text: of the disease have occurred in the Americas, Africa, and Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, yellow fever was seen as one of the most dangerous

text: infectious disease

text: s. In 1927 yellow fever virus became the first human virus to be isolated.

text: Transmission-based precautions remain in effect for limited periods of time (i.e., while the risk for transmission of the infectious agent persists or for the duration of the illness (Appendix A). For most infectious diseases, this duration reflects known patterns of persistence and shedding of infectious agents associated with the natural history of the infectious process and its treatment. For some diseases (e.g., pharyngeal or cutaneous diphtheria, RSV), transmission-based precautions remain in effect until culture or antigen-detection test results document eradication of the pathogen and, for RSV, symptomatic disease is resolved. For other diseases, (e.g., M. tuberculosis) state laws and regulations, and healthcare facility policies, may dictate the duration of precautions12). In immunocompromised patients, viral shedding can persist for prolonged periods of time (many weeks to months) and transmission to others may occur during that time; therefore, the duration of contact and/or droplet precautions may be prolonged for many weeks. The duration of contact precautions for patients who are colonized or infected with MDROs remains undefined. MRSA is the only MDRO for which effective decolonization regimens are available. However, carriers of MRSA who have negative nasal cultures after a course of systemic or topical therapy may resume shedding MRSA in the weeks that follow therapy. Although early guidelines for VRE suggested discontinuation of contact precautions after three stool cultures obtained at weekly intervals proved negative, subsequent experiences have indicated that such screening may fail to detect colonization that can persist for >1 year. Likewise, available data indicate that colonization with VRE, MRSA, and possibly MDR-GNB, can persist for many months, especially in the presence of severe underlying disease, invasive devices, and recurrent courses of antimicrobial agents. It may be prudent to assume that MDRO carriers are colonized permanently and manage them accordingly. Alternatively, an interval free of hospitalizations, antimicrobial therapy, and invasive devices (e.g., 6 or 12 months) before reculturing patients to document clearance of carriage may be used. Determination of the best strategy awaits the results of additional studies. See the 2006 HICPAC/CDC MDRO guideline  for discussion of possible criteria to discontinue contact precautions for patients colonized or infected with MDROs.

text: Vaccines have historically been the most effective means to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist. Sometimes, protection fails because the host's immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all. Lack of response commonly results from clinical factors such as diabetes, steroid use, HIV infection or age. It also might fail for genetic reasons if the host's immune system includes no strains of B cells that can generate antibodies suited to reacting effectively and binding to the antigens associated with the pathogen.

text: Vaccines have historically been the most effective means to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist. Sometimes, protection fails because the host's immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all. Lack of response commonly results from clinical factors such as

text: diabetes

text: , steroid use,

text: HIV infection

text: or age. It also might fail for genetic reasons if the host's immune system includes no strains of

text: B cell

text: s that can generate

text: antibodies

text: suited to reacting effectively and binding to the

text: antigen

text: s associated with the

text: pathogen

text: Halloran studies causal inference and the biostatistics of infectious diseases. She is a long-term collaborator with University of Florida researcher Ira Longini, with whom she studies the spread of influenza. She has also been quoted as an expert on the mortality rates of other diseases such as ebola and cholera, and the factors influencing those rates.

text: Halloran studies

text: causal inference

text: and the biostatistics of

text: infectious disease

text: s. She is a long-term collaborator with

text: University of Florida

text: researcher

text: Ira Longini

text: , with whom she studies the spread of

text: influenza

text: . She has also been quoted as an expert on the mortality rates of other diseases such as

text: ebola

text: and

text: cholera

text: , and the factors influencing those rates.

text: Emerging Infectious Diseases (EID) is an open-access, peer-reviewed journal published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). EID is a public domain journal and covers global instances of new and reemerging infectious diseases, putting greater emphasis on disease emergence, prevention, control, and elimination. According to Journal Citation Reports, the journal’s 2016 impact factor is 6.99, ranking it 4th out of 82 journals in the infectious disease category. The journal also has a 2016 Google Scholar h5-index score of 79, ranking it 2nd in both the epidemiology category  and among open-access epidemiological journals, as well as 4th in the communicable diseases category and 1st among open-access communicable disease journals.

text: Emerging Infectious Diseases (EID) is an

text: open-access

text: peer-reviewed journal

text: published by the

text: (CDC). EID is a

text: public domain

text: journal and covers global instances of new and reemerging

text: infectious diseases

text: , putting greater emphasis on disease emergence,

text: prevention

text: , control, and elimination. According to

text: Journal Citation Reports

text: , the journal’s 2016

text: impact factor

text: is 6.99, ranking it 4th out of 82 journals in the infectious disease category. The journal also has a 2016

text: Google Scholar

text: score of 79, ranking it 2nd in both the

text: epidemiology

text: category  and among open-access epidemiological journals, as well as 4th in the

text: communicable diseases

text: category and 1st among open-access communicable disease journals.

text: Dissemination of the pathogen is restricted to the movements of infected leaf debris via equipment, people, animals, wind, or water. When environmental conditions become favorable for pathogen activity (warm, humid, high moisture in canopy), the dormant mycelia and stromata on the infected debris resume growing on the plant tissues. If moisture is sufficient in the turf canopy, mycelium can begin to penetrate new leaves and new host, causing infection.

text: An infectious disease is caused by the presence of organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites (either animalian or protozoan).  Most of these diseases are spread directly from dog to dog, while others require a vector such as a tick or mosquito.  Certain infectious diseases are a concern from a public health standpoint because they are zoonoses (transmittable to humans).

text: An infectious disease is caused by the presence of organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites (either animalian or

text: protozoa

text: n).  Most of these diseases are spread directly from dog to dog, while others require a

text: vector

text: such as a

text: tick

text: or

text: mosquito

text: .  Certain infectious diseases are a concern from a public health standpoint because they are

text: zoonoses

text: (transmittable to humans).

text: The genus Marburgvirus is the taxonomic home of one species, Marburg marburgvirus, whose members are the two known marburgviruses, Marburg virus (MARV) and Ravn virus (RAVV). Both viruses cause Marburg virus disease in humans and nonhuman primates, a form of viral hemorrhagic fever, and both are Select Agents, World Health Organization Risk Group 4 Pathogens (requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment), National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Category A Priority Pathogens, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Category A Bioterrorism Agents, and are listed as a Biological Agents for Export Control by the Australia Group.

text: The

text: genus

text: Marburgvirus is the

text: taxonomic

text: home of one

text: species

text: Marburg marburgvirus

text: , whose members are the two known marburgviruses,

text: Marburg virus (MARV)

text: and

text: Ravn virus (RAVV)

text: . Both viruses cause

text: Marburg virus disease

text: in

text: human

text: s and nonhuman

text: primates

text: , a form of

text: viral hemorrhagic fever

text: , and both are

text: Select Agent

text: s,

text: World Health Organization

text: Risk Group 4 Pathogens (requiring

text: National Institutes of Health

text: Category A Priority Pathogens,

text: Category A Bioterrorism Agents

text: , and are listed as a Biological Agents for Export Control by the

text: Australia Group

text: There have been cases of independent groups being diagnosed with infectious, contagious, rare, and in cases deadly diseases. When the happens there has to be immediate action taken from the government or approved medical personnel. When one person is sick, what usually happens is that a family member or friend might try taking care of their loved one, and slowly that is how the disease starts spreading to other people within the same community. Death rates increase and the cure to the illness is non existent. That is when the enclosure of all indisposed people occurs, they put all the sick people in a contained area to further examine the symptoms and to prevent outspread. The people residing in this closed community are revised constantly and given vacciens, treatments, remedies, some natural and some made in laboratories. Usually the awareness of such communities come through the word "quarantine" being said on the news, or fictional horror movies and shows.

text: There have been cases of independent groups being diagnosed with infectious, contagious, rare, and in cases deadly diseases. When the happens there has to be immediate action taken from the government or approved medical personnel. When one person is sick, what usually happens is that a family member or friend might try taking care of their loved one, and slowly that is how the disease starts spreading to other people within the same community. Death rates increase and the cure to the illness is non existent. That is when the enclosure of all indisposed people occurs, they put all the sick people in a contained area to further examine the symptoms and to prevent outspread. The people residing in this closed community are revised constantly and given vacciens, treatments, remedies, some natural and some made in laboratories. Usually the awareness of such communities come through the word "

text: quarantine

text: " being said on the news, or fictional horror movies and shows.

text: To those in close contact with the dead, such as rescue workers, there is a health risk from chronic infectious diseases which those killed may have been suffering from and which spread by direct contact, including hepatitis B and hepatitis C, HIV, enteric intestinal pathogens, tuberculosis, cholera and others.

text: A pit latrine or pit toilet is a type of toilet that collects human feces in a hole in the ground. They use either no water or one to three liters per flush with pour-flush pit latrines. When properly built and maintained they can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the amount of human feces in the environment from open defecation. This decreases the transfer of pathogens between feces and food by flies. These pathogens are major causes of infectious diarrhea and intestinal worm infections. Infectious diarrhea resulted in about 700,000 deaths in children under five years old in 2011 and 250 million lost school days. Pit latrines are the lowest cost method of separating feces from people.

text: A pit latrine or pit toilet is a type of

text: toilet

text: that collects

text: human feces

text: in a hole in the ground. They use either no

text: water

text: or one to three liters per flush with pour-flush pit latrines. When properly built and maintained they can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the amount of human feces in the environment from

text: open defecation

text: . This decreases the transfer of

text: pathogens

text: between feces and food by

text: flies

text: . These pathogens are major causes of

text: infectious diarrhea

text: and

text: intestinal worm infections

text: . Infectious diarrhea resulted in about 700,000 deaths in children under five years old in 2011 and 250 million lost school days. Pit latrines are the lowest cost method of separating feces from people.

text: Thus both infectious diseases and populations tend to evolve towards an equilibrium in which the common diseases are non-symptomatic, mild or manageably chronic.  When a population that has been relatively isolated is exposed to new diseases, it has no resistance to the new diseases (the population is "biologically naive").  These people die at a much higher rate, resulting in what is known as a "virgin soil" epidemic.  Before the European arrival, the Americas had been isolated from the Eurasian-African landmass.  The peoples of the Old World had had thousands of years for their populations to accommodate to their common diseases.

text: Thus both infectious diseases and populations tend to evolve towards an equilibrium in which the common diseases are non-symptomatic, mild or manageably chronic.  When a population that has been relatively isolated is exposed to new diseases, it has no resistance to the new diseases (the population is "biologically naive").  These people die at a much higher rate, resulting in what is known as a

text: "virgin soil" epidemic

text: .  Before the European arrival, the Americas had been isolated from the Eurasian-African landmass.  The peoples of the Old World had had thousands of years for their populations to accommodate to their common diseases.

text: The International Journal of Infectious Diseases (IJID) is an open-access, peer-reviewed monthly journal that serves to convey information on the epidemiology, clinical evaluation, diagnosis, treatment, and control of infections. The journal’s primary audience includes infectious disease researchers and clinicians throughout the world. The Journal seeks to enhance the reader's understanding of the medical and cultural factors that affect infectious diseases in different regions, particularly those of under-resourced countries. This approach provides insight into outbreak characteristics with the opportunity to prevent morbidity and mortality associated with infectious diseases.

text: The International Journal of Infectious Diseases (IJID) is an open-access, peer-reviewed monthly journal that serves to convey information on the

text: epidemiology

text: , clinical evaluation, diagnosis, treatment, and control of infections. The journal’s primary audience includes infectious disease researchers and clinicians throughout the world. The Journal seeks to enhance the reader's understanding of the medical and cultural factors that affect infectious diseases in different regions, particularly those of under-resourced countries. This approach provides insight into outbreak characteristics with the opportunity to prevent morbidity and mortality associated with infectious diseases.

text: The establishment and spread of infectious diseases is a complex phenomenon with many interacting factors, e.g., the environment in which the pathogen and hosts are situated, the population(s) it is exposed to, and the intra- and inter-dynamics of the population it is exposed to. The role of mathematical epidemiology is to model the establishment and spread of pathogens. A predominant method of doing so, is to use the notion of abstracting the population into compartments under certain assumptions, which represent their health status with respect to the pathogen in the system. One of the cornerstone works to achieve success in this method was done by Kermack and McKendrick in the early 1900s.

text: The establishment and spread of infectious diseases is a complex phenomenon with many interacting factors, e.g., the environment in which the pathogen and hosts are situated, the population(s) it is exposed to, and the intra- and inter-dynamics of the population it is exposed to. The role of mathematical epidemiology is to model the establishment and spread of pathogens. A predominant method of doing so, is to use the notion of abstracting the population into compartments under certain

entity_name: Mathematical modelling of infectious disease

text: assumptions

text: , which represent their health status with respect to the pathogen in the system. One of the cornerstone works to achieve success in this method was done by Kermack and McKendrick in the early 1900s.

text: Unlike other kinds of infectious disease, which are spread by microbes, the infectious agent in TSEs is believed to be a type of protein, called the prion protein. Misshapen prion proteins carry the disease between individuals and cause deterioration of the brain. TSEs are unique diseases in that their aetiology may be genetic, sporadic, or infectious via ingestion of infected foodstuffs and via iatrogenic means (e.g., blood transfusion). Most TSEs are sporadic and occur in an animal with no prion protein mutation. Inherited TSE occurs in animals carrying a rare mutant prion allele, which expresses prion proteins that contort by themselves into the disease-causing conformation. Transmission occurs when healthy animals consume tainted tissues from others with the disease. In recent times, a type of TSE called bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) spread in cattle in an epidemic fashion. This occurred because cattle were fed the processed remains of other cattle, a practice now banned in many countries.

text: Unlike other kinds of infectious disease, which are spread by

text: microbe

text: s, the infectious agent in TSEs is believed to be a type of

text: protein

text: , called the

text: prion

text: protein. Misshapen prion proteins carry the disease between individuals and cause deterioration of the

text: brain

text: . TSEs are unique diseases in that their

text: aetiology

text: may be genetic, sporadic, or infectious via ingestion of infected foodstuffs and via

text: iatrogenic

text: means (e.g., blood transfusion). Most TSEs are sporadic and occur in an animal with no prion protein mutation. Inherited TSE occurs in animals carrying a rare

text: mutant

text: prion

text: allele

text: , which expresses prion proteins that contort by themselves into the disease-causing

text: conformation

text: . Transmission occurs when healthy animals consume tainted tissues from others with the disease. In recent times, a type of TSE called

text: bovine spongiform encephalopathy

text: (BSE) spread in

text: cattle

text: in an epidemic fashion. This occurred because cattle were fed the processed remains of other cattle, a practice now banned in many countries.

text: An infectious disease is said to be endemic when it can be sustained in a population without the need for external inputs. This means that, on average, each infected person is infecting exactly one other person (any more and the number of people infected will grow exponentially and there will be an epidemic, any less and the disease will die out). In mathematical terms, that is:

text: An infectious disease is said to be

text: endemic

text: when it can be sustained in a population without the need for external inputs. This means that, on average, each infected person is infecting exactly one other person (any more and the number of people infected will

text: grow exponentially

text: and there will be an

text: epidemic

text: , any less and the disease will die out). In mathematical terms, that is:

text: A gene for the normal protein has been identified: the PRNP gene. In all inherited cases of prion disease, there is a mutation in the PRNP gene.  Many different PRNP mutations have been identified and these proteins are more likely to fold into abnormal prion. Although this discovery puts a hole in the general prion hypothesis, that prions can aggregate only proteins of identical amino acid make-up.  These mutations can occur throughout the gene. Some mutations involve expansion of the octapeptide repeat region at the N-terminal of PrP. Other mutations that have been identified as a cause of inherited prion disease occur at positions 102, 117 & 198 (GSS), 178, 200, 210 & 232 (CJD) and 178 (Fatal Familial Insomnia, FFI).  The cause of prion disease can be sporadic, genetic, or infectious, or a combination of these factors. For example, to have scrapie, both an infectious agent and a susceptible genotype must be present.

text: A

text: gene

text: for the normal protein has been identified: the

text: PRNP

text: gene. In all inherited cases of prion disease, there is a

text: mutation

text: in the PRNP gene.  Many different PRNP mutations have been identified and these proteins are more likely to fold into abnormal prion. Although this discovery puts a hole in the general prion hypothesis, that prions can aggregate only proteins of identical amino acid make-up.  These mutations can occur throughout the gene. Some mutations involve expansion of the octapeptide repeat region at the N-terminal of PrP. Other mutations that have been identified as a cause of inherited prion disease occur at positions 102, 117 & 198 (GSS), 178, 200, 210 & 232 (CJD) and 178 (

text: Fatal Familial Insomnia

text: , FFI).  The cause of prion disease can be

text: sporadic

text: genetic

text: , or

text: infectious

text: , or a combination of these factors. For example, to have scrapie, both an infectious agent and a susceptible genotype must be present.

text: On April 10, Dr. Jim Hughes, the head of infectious disease at the CDC, confirming the warnings of Hong Kong health officials, claimed that he believed that SARS could no longer be eradicated in the Far East.  However, he remained hopeful that it could be prevented from spreading widely in North America.

text: On April 10, Dr. Jim Hughes, the head of infectious disease at the

text: CDC

text: , confirming the warnings of Hong Kong health officials, claimed that he believed that SARS could no longer be eradicated in the Far East.  However, he remained hopeful that it could be prevented from spreading widely in North America.

text: Jonathan Juliano has led research efforts in infectious diseases and genetics, with the goal of improving our understanding of how infections cause disease, how infectious agents evolve, and how the genetic diversity impacts our understanding of drug resistance. His work has focused on malaria; however he has worked with other agents as well. In particular, he is interested in understanding within host genetic diversity of malaria infections, as each infection may contain multiple genetically different parasite strains, and the impact of this diversity on drug and vaccine efficacy. His work in this area has called into question some of the current practices of how clinical trials for malaria are conducted. He has been the recipient of several awards including the Merle A. Sande/Pfizer Fellowship Award in International Diseases and the Terry Lee Award from the North Carolina Infectious Disease Society. He has also authored articles and a book chapter concerning the clinical care of malaria.Dr. Jonathan Juliano collaborates with Dr. Carla Cerami at the University of North Carolina and with Dr. Steve M. Taylor at Duke University School of Medicine.

text: Jonathan Juliano has led research efforts in infectious diseases and genetics, with the goal of improving our understanding of how infections cause disease, how infectious agents evolve, and how the genetic diversity impacts our understanding of drug resistance. His work has focused on malaria; however he has worked with other agents as well. In particular, he is interested in understanding within host genetic diversity of malaria infections, as each infection may contain multiple genetically different parasite strains, and the impact of this diversity on drug and vaccine efficacy. His work in this area has called into question some of the current practices of how clinical trials for malaria are conducted. He has been the recipient of several awards including the Merle A. Sande/Pfizer Fellowship Award in International Diseases and the Terry Lee Award from the North Carolina Infectious Disease Society. He has also authored articles and a book chapter concerning the clinical care of malaria.Dr. Jonathan Juliano collaborates with Dr.

text: Carla Cerami

text: at the

text: University of North Carolina

text: and with Dr.

text: Steve M. Taylor

text: at

text: Duke University School of Medicine

text: Dr. Eugene "Gene" Johnson is an American virologist who specializes in filoviruses like Ebola, and Marburg. Formerly of USAMRIID, the United States Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Disease, he is currently on staff at the Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center. While at USAMRIID, Johnson coordinated the first efforts to identify the vector for Marburg virus in Kitum cave, Kenya. He also participated in the joint Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/USAMRIID containment of the 1989 Reston Ebola outbreak near Washington DC.

text: Dr. Eugene "Gene" Johnson is an American

text: virologist

text: who specializes in

text: filoviruses

text: like

text: Ebola

text: , and

text: Marburg

text: . Formerly of

text: USAMRIID

text: , the United States Army Medical Research Institute for Infectious Disease, he is currently on staff at the

entity_name: National Center for Medical Intelligence

text: Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center

text: . While at USAMRIID, Johnson coordinated the first efforts to identify the vector for Marburg virus in

text: Kitum cave

text: Kenya

text: . He also participated in the joint

text: /USAMRIID containment of the 1989

text: Reston Ebola outbreak

text: near

text: Washington DC

text: Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Proteins (NRAMPs) are members of the Metal Ion (Mn-iron) Transporter (NRAMP) Family (TC# 2.A.55). The NRAMP family is a member of the large APC Superfamily of secondary carriers. Homologues of this family are found in various yeasts, plants, animals, archaea, and Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria termed "natural resistance-associated" macrophage proteins because one of the animal homologues plays a role in resistance to intracellular bacterial pathogens such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Leishmania donovani and Mycobacterium bovis. The natural history of SLC11 genes in vertebrates has been discussed by Neves et al. (2011). Proposed to be a distant member of the APC Superfamily, several human pathologies may result from defects in NRAMP-dependent Fe or Mn transport, including iron overload, neurodegenerative diseases and innate susceptibility to infectious diseases.

text: Natural Resistance-Associated Macrophage Proteins (NRAMPs) are members of the Metal Ion (Mn-iron) Transporter (NRAMP) Family (TC# 2.A.55). The NRAMP family is a member of the large

text: APC Superfamily

text: of secondary carriers. Homologues of this family are found in various

text: yeast

text: s,

text: plant

text: s,

text: animal

text: s,

text: archaea

text: , and

text: Gram-negative

text: and

text: Gram-positive bacteria

text: termed "natural resistance-associated"

text: macrophage

text: proteins because one of the animal homologues plays a role in resistance to intracellular bacterial

text: pathogen

text: s such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium,

text: Leishmania donovani

text: and

text: Mycobacterium bovis

text: . The natural history of SLC11 genes in vertebrates has been discussed by Neves et al. (2011). Proposed to be a distant member of the

text: APC Superfamily

text: , several human pathologies may result from defects in NRAMP-dependent Fe or Mn transport, including iron overload, neurodegenerative diseases and innate susceptibility to infectious diseases.

text: An important question in the field of immunology is how the immunosuppressive activity of regulatory T cells is modulated during the course of an ongoing immune response.  While the immunosuppressive function of regulatory T cells prevents the development of autoimmune disease, it is not desirable during immune responses to infectious microorganisms. Current hypotheses suggest that, upon encounter with infectious microorganisms, the activity of regulatory T cells may be downregulated, either directly or indirectly, by other cells to facilitate elimination of the infection. Experimental evidence from mouse models suggests that some pathogens may have evolved to manipulate regulatory T cells to immunosuppress the host and so potentiate their own survival. For example, regulatory T cell activity has been reported to increase in several infectious contexts, such as retroviral infections (the most well-known of which is HIV), mycobacterial infections (like tuberculosis), and various parasitic infections including Leishmania and malaria.

text: An important question in the field of immunology is how the immunosuppressive activity of regulatory T cells is modulated during the course of an ongoing immune response.  While the immunosuppressive function of regulatory T cells prevents the development of autoimmune disease, it is not desirable during immune responses to infectious microorganisms. Current hypotheses suggest that, upon encounter with infectious microorganisms, the activity of regulatory T cells may be downregulated, either directly or indirectly, by other cells to facilitate elimination of the infection. Experimental evidence from mouse models suggests that some pathogens may have evolved to manipulate regulatory T cells to immunosuppress the host and so potentiate their own survival. For example, regulatory T cell activity has been reported to increase in several infectious contexts, such as

text: retroviral

text: infections (the most well-known of which is

text: HIV

text: ), mycobacterial infections (like

text: tuberculosis

text: ), and various parasitic infections including

text: Leishmania

text: and

text: malaria

text: Foot-and-mouth disease or hoof-and-mouth disease (Aphthae epizooticae) is an infectious and sometimes fatal viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, including domestic and wild bovids. The virus causes a high fever for approximately two to six days, followed by  blisters inside the mouth and on the feet that may rupture and cause lameness.

text: Foot-and-mouth disease or hoof-and-mouth disease (Aphthae epizooticae) is an

text: infectious

text: and sometimes fatal

text: viral

text: disease

text: that affects

text: cloven-hoof

text: ed

text: animals

text: , including domestic and wild

text: bovid

text: s. The virus causes a high fever for approximately two to six days, followed by

text: blisters

text: inside the mouth and on the feet that may rupture and cause

text: lameness

text: Foodborne and infectious diseases can result in malnutrition, and malnutrition exacerbates infectious disease. Poor nutrition leaves children and adults more susceptible to contracting life-threatening diseases such as diarrheal infections and respiratory infections. According to the WHO, in 2011, 6.9 million children died of infectious diseases like pneumonia, diarrhea, malaria, and neonatal conditions, of which at least one third were associated with undernutrition.

text: An individual may only develop signs of an infection after a period of subclinical infection, a duration that  is called the incubation period. This is the case, for example, for subclinical sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS and genital warts.  Individuals with such subclinical infections, and those that never develop overt illness, creates a reserve of individuals that can transmit an infectious agent to infect other individuals. Because such cases of infections do not come to clinical attention, health statistics can often fail to measure the true prevalence of an infection in a population, and this prevents the accurate modeling of its infectious transmission.

text: An individual may only develop signs of an infection after a period of subclinical infection, a duration that  is called the

text: incubation period

text: . This is the case, for example, for subclinical

text: sexually transmitted disease

text: s such as

text: AIDS

text: and

text: genital warts

text: .  Individuals with such subclinical infections, and those that never develop overt illness, creates a reserve of individuals that can

text: transmit

text: an

text: infectious agent

text: to

text: infect

text: other individuals. Because such cases of infections do not come to clinical attention,

text: health statistics

text: can often fail to measure the true

text: prevalence

text: of an infection in a

text: population

text: , and this prevents the accurate

text: modeling of its infectious transmission

text: There would be billions of disease carrying vectors, in the form of city residents, lying deceased in cities caused by the direct nuclear weapons effects alone, with the surviving few billion people spread out in rural communities living agrarian lifestyles, with the survivors therefore posing a way of living far less prone to creating the crowded slum living conditions required for infectious diseases to spread. Moreover, as reported in a paper published in the journal Public Health Reports, it is also one of a number of prevalent myths that infectious diseases always occur after a disaster in cities.

text: There would be billions of disease carrying

text: vectors

text: , in the form of city residents, lying deceased in cities caused by the direct nuclear weapons effects alone, with the surviving few billion people spread out in rural communities living agrarian lifestyles, with the survivors therefore posing a way of living far less prone to creating the crowded

text: slum

text: living conditions required for infectious diseases to spread. Moreover, as reported in a paper published in the journal Public Health Reports, it is also one of a number of prevalent myths that infectious diseases always occur after a disaster in cities.

text: Xenodiagnosis is a diagnostic method used to document the presence of infectious disease microorganisms or pathogens by exposing possibly infected tissue to a vector and then examining the vector for the presence of the microorganisms or pathogens it may have ingested.

text: Xenodiagnosis is a

text: diagnostic method

text: used to document the presence of

text: infectious disease

text: microorganisms or

text: pathogen

text: s by exposing possibly infected

text: tissue

text: to a

text: vector

text: and then examining the vector for the presence of the microorganisms or pathogens it may have ingested.

text: Louis Pasteur was unable to find a causative agent for rabies and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected using a microscope. In 1884, the French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented a filter (known today as the Chamberland filter or the Pasteur-Chamberland filter) with pores smaller than bacteria. Thus, he could pass a solution containing bacteria through the filter and completely remove them from the solution. In 1892, the Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used this filter to study what is now known as the tobacco mosaic virus. His experiments showed that crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remain infectious after filtration. Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a toxin produced by bacteria, but did not pursue the idea. At the time it was thought that all infectious agents could be retained by filters and grown on a nutrient medium – this was part of the germ theory of disease. In 1898, the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck repeated the experiments and became convinced that the filtered solution contained a new form of infectious agent. He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing, but as his experiments did not show that it was made of particles, he called it a contagium vivum fluidum (soluble living germ) and re-introduced the word virus. Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature, a theory later discredited by Wendell Stanley, who proved they were particulate. In the same year Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch passed the first animal virus – agent of foot-and-mouth disease (aphthovirus) – through a similar filter.

text: Louis Pasteur

text: was unable to find a causative agent for

text: rabies

text: and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected using a microscope. In 1884, the French

text: microbiologist

text: Charles Chamberland

text: invented a filter (known today as the

text: Chamberland filter

text: or the Pasteur-Chamberland filter) with pores smaller than bacteria. Thus, he could pass a solution containing bacteria through the filter and completely remove them from the solution. In 1892, the Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used this filter to study what is now known as the

text: tobacco mosaic virus

text: . His experiments showed that crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remain infectious after filtration. Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a

text: toxin

text: produced by bacteria, but did not pursue the idea. At the time it was thought that all infectious agents could be retained by filters and grown on a nutrient medium – this was part of the

text: germ theory of disease

text: . In 1898, the Dutch microbiologist

text: Martinus Beijerinck

text: repeated the experiments and became convinced that the filtered solution contained a new form of infectious agent. He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing, but as his experiments did not show that it was made of particles, he called it a

text: contagium vivum fluidum

text: (soluble living germ) and re-introduced the word virus. Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature, a theory later discredited by

text: Wendell Stanley

text: , who proved they were particulate. In the same year

text: Friedrich Loeffler

text: and Paul Frosch passed the first animal virus – agent of

text: foot-and-mouth disease

text: aphthovirus

text: ) – through a similar filter.

text: The rites of all religious faiths were claimed to be linked with spreading diseases. Jewish and Muslim circumcision was claimed to cause gangrene, leading to fatalities. The Orthodox tradition of mass kissing of icons, crucifixes and relics was treated with long discourses on how this spread infectious diseases. Communion using a shared chalice was also given such treatment. The same was true with regard to the sacrament of baptism. Full immersion baptism was alleged to lead to colds, influenzas and pneumonias, especially in infants and especially in the winter months, which sometimes led to fatalities. The overcrowding of churches was also alleged to result in spreading infectious diseases (never, however, did the propaganda also admit in the same context that the mass Soviet closure of churches or other institutions had resulted in the overcrowding).

text: The rites of all religious faiths were claimed to be linked with spreading diseases. Jewish and Muslim

text: circumcision

text: was claimed to cause

text: gangrene

text: , leading to fatalities. The Orthodox tradition of mass kissing of icons, crucifixes and relics was treated with long discourses on how this spread infectious diseases. Communion using a shared

text: chalice

text: was also given such treatment. The same was true with regard to the sacrament of baptism. Full immersion baptism was alleged to lead to colds,

text: influenza

text: s and

text: pneumonia

text: s, especially in infants and especially in the winter months, which sometimes led to fatalities. The overcrowding of churches was also alleged to result in spreading infectious diseases (never, however, did the propaganda also admit in the same context that the mass Soviet closure of churches or other institutions had resulted in the overcrowding).

text: In contrast, the diseases of poverty tend to be largely infectious diseases,  or the result of poor living conditions.  These include tuberculosis, asthma, and intestinal diseases.  Increasingly, research is finding that diseases thought to be diseases of affluence also appear in large part in the poor.  These diseases include obesity and cardiovascular disease and, coupled with infectious diseases, these further increase global health inequalities.

text: In contrast, the diseases of poverty tend to be largely

text: infectious disease

text: s,  or the result of poor living conditions.  These include tuberculosis, asthma, and intestinal diseases.  Increasingly, research is finding that diseases thought to be diseases of affluence also appear in large part in the poor.  These diseases include obesity and cardiovascular disease and, coupled with infectious diseases, these further increase global

text: health inequalities

text: An analysis of the official data from the late 1980s showed that after worsening in the late 1970s and the early 1980s, the situation for adult mortality began to improve again.  Referring to data for the two decades ending in 1989-1990, while noting some abatement in adult mortality rates in the Soviet republics in the 1980s, Ward Kingkade and Eduardo Arriaga characterized this situation as follows:  "All of the former Soviet countries have followed the universal tendency for mortality to decline as infectious diseases are brought under control while death rates from degenerative diseases rise. What is exceptional in the former Soviet countries and some of their East European neighbors is that a subsequent increase in mortality from causes other than infectious disease has brought about overall rises in mortality from all causes combined. Another distinctive characteristic of the former Soviet case is the presence of unusually high levels of mortality from accidents and other external causes, which are typically associated with alcoholism."

text: Several human activities have led to the emergence of zoonotic human pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and rickettsia, and spread of vector-borne diseases, see also Globalization and Disease and Wildlife disease:

text: Several human activities have led to the emergence of

text: zoonotic

text: human pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and rickettsia, and spread of

text: vector-borne

text: diseases, see also

text: Globalization and Disease

text: and

text: Wildlife disease

text: Additionally, malnutrition and infectious disease have a synergistic relationship that can lead to spiraling health deterioration. According to Allen, the incidence of infectious disease does not vary significantly between MMM and adequately nourished populations, but the duration and severity of disease episodes is greater for MMM populations.  A key reason for this disparity is that infectious disease often results in poor food intake and nutrient absorption. Not only do sick people generally eat little, but what they do eat is often of minimal benefit due to nausea and diarrhea.

text: Additionally, malnutrition and

text: infectious disease

text: have a synergistic relationship that can lead to spiraling health deterioration. According to Allen, the incidence of infectious disease does not vary significantly between MMM and adequately nourished populations, but the duration and severity of disease episodes is greater for MMM populations.  A key reason for this disparity is that infectious disease often results in poor food intake and nutrient absorption. Not only do sick people generally eat little, but what they do eat is often of minimal benefit due to nausea and diarrhea.

text: Although the final result of ultrasonic scalers can be produced by using hand scalers, ultrasonic scalers are sometimes faster and less irritating to the client. Ultrasonic scalers do create aerosols which can spread pathogens when a client carries an infectious disease. Research shows no difference in effectiveness between ultrasonic scalers and hand instruments. Of particular importance to dentists themselves is that the use of an ultrasonic scaler may reduce the risk of repetitive stress injury, because ultrasonic scalers require less pressure and repetition compared to hand scalers.

text: Prions are infectious forms of proteins. In general, proteins fold into discrete units that perform distinct cellular functions, but some proteins are also capable of forming an infectious conformational state known as a prion. Although often viewed in the context of infectious disease, prions are more loosely defined by their ability to catalytically convert other native state versions of the same protein to an infectious conformational state. It is in this latter sense that they can be viewed as epigenetic agents capable of inducing a phenotypic change without a modification of the genome.

text: Prion

text: s are

text: infectious

text: forms of

text: protein

text: s. In general, proteins fold into discrete units that perform distinct cellular functions, but some proteins are also capable of forming an infectious conformational state known as a prion. Although often viewed in the context of

text: infectious disease

text: , prions are more loosely defined by their ability to catalytically convert other native state versions of the same protein to an infectious conformational state. It is in this latter sense that they can be viewed as epigenetic agents capable of inducing a phenotypic change without a modification of the genome.

text: Burnet Institute has particular expertise in infectious diseases (especially HIV, hepatitis viruses, influenza and malaria) and in understanding the immune responses to these infections. Their work also focuses on sexual health, drug and alcohol use, both in risky behaviours associated with infectious diseases and as major health problems in their own right. Translating new knowledge into tangible and practical health outcomes is also a major focus of the Institute.

text: It is capable of causing infectious disease in humans

text: There are several conditions that favor disease development and spread.  Heart rot fungi, including P. pini, enter trees as mycelium or basidiospores through branch stubs, tree stumps, damaged roots, dead branches, and wounds in general and go on to infect the heartwood of the tree.  Fire and cutting operations cause the most common points of entry for the fungus.  Moist environments also facilitate fungal growth. Spores blown by the wind land and germinate on wounds, so in managed forests, care should be taken to prevent any injury to trees during harvest or other activities.  This disease is most common in the Pacific Northwest, where cool wet weather greatly facilitates the pathogen.

text: There are several conditions that favor disease development and spread.

text: Heart rot

text: fungi, including P. pini, enter trees as mycelium or basidiospores through branch stubs, tree stumps, damaged roots, dead branches, and wounds in general and go on to infect the heartwood of the tree.  Fire and cutting operations cause the most common points of entry for the fungus.  Moist environments also facilitate fungal growth. Spores blown by the wind land and germinate on wounds, so in managed forests, care should be taken to prevent any injury to trees during harvest or other activities.  This disease is most common in the Pacific Northwest, where cool wet weather greatly facilitates the pathogen.

text: Throughout history, disease has been proven to cause  panic in societies when individuals are faced with something they cannot explain. This fear of disease and spread of panic dates back to many centuries ago, and continues into the 21st century with diseases such as AIDS, Ebola, H1N1, Zika and SARS.  Comparing Cohan’s idea of the ‘folk devils’ with disease as an epidemic plays the same role of spreading mass panic and fear concerning the spread of an infectious illness. This intense concentration on hygiene emerged, before the 20th century, with a medical belief referred to as miasma. The miasma theory, states that disease was the direct result of the polluting emanations of filth: sewer gas, garbage fumes, and stenches that polluted air and water, which results in an epidemic. The idea of cleanliness was a socially constructed belief that linked race, gender, and sexuality with ideas that made people feel uncomfortable.  It is argued that a moral panic is constructed when “patterns of behaviour, whether private or public, come to be selected by the mass media as a threat to the fabric of society.”

text: Throughout history, disease has been proven to cause  panic in societies when individuals are faced with something they cannot explain. This fear of disease and spread of panic dates back to many centuries ago, and continues into the 21st century with diseases such as

text: AIDS

text: Ebola

text: Zika

text: and

text: SARS

text: .  Comparing Cohan’s idea of the ‘folk devils’ with disease as an epidemic plays the same role of spreading mass panic and fear concerning the spread of an infectious illness. This intense concentration on hygiene emerged, before the 20th century, with a medical belief referred to as

text: miasma

text: . The

text: miasma theory

text: , states that disease was the direct result of the polluting emanations of filth: sewer gas, garbage fumes, and stenches that polluted air and water, which results in an epidemic. The idea of cleanliness was a socially constructed belief that linked race, gender, and sexuality with ideas that made people feel uncomfortable.  It is argued that a moral panic is constructed when “patterns of behaviour, whether private or public, come to be selected by the mass media as a threat to the fabric of society.”

text: An emerging infectious disease (EID) is an infectious disease whose incidence has increased in the past 20 years and could increase in the near future. Emerging infections account for at least 12% of all human pathogens. EIDs are caused by newly identified species or strains (e.g. Severe acute respiratory syndrome, HIV/AIDS) that may have evolved from a known infection (e.g. influenza) or spread to a new population (e.g. West Nile fever) or to an area undergoing ecologic transformation (e.g. Lyme disease), or be reemerging infections, like drug resistant tuberculosis. Nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections, such as Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are emerging in hospitals, and extremely problematic in that they are resistant to many antibiotics. Of growing concern are adverse synergistic interactions between emerging diseases and other infectious and non-infectious conditions leading to the development of novel syndemics.  Many emerging diseases are zoonotic - an animal reservoir incubates the organism, with only occasional transmission into human populations.

text: An emerging infectious disease (EID) is an

text: infectious disease

text: whose incidence has increased in the past 20 years and could increase in the near future. Emerging infections account for at least 12% of all human

text: pathogen

text: s. EIDs are caused by newly identified species or strains (e.g.

text: Severe acute respiratory syndrome

text: HIV/AIDS

text: ) that may have

text: evolved

text: from a known infection (e.g.

text: influenza

text: ) or spread to a new population (e.g.

text: West Nile fever

text: ) or to an area undergoing ecologic transformation (e.g.

text: Lyme disease

text: ), or be reemerging infections, like

text: drug resistant

text: tuberculosis

text: . Nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections, such as

text: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

text: are emerging in hospitals, and extremely problematic in that they are resistant to many antibiotics. Of growing concern are adverse synergistic interactions between emerging diseases and other infectious and

text: non-infectious conditions

text: leading to the development of novel

text: syndemic

text: s.  Many emerging diseases are

text: zoonotic

text: - an animal reservoir incubates the organism, with only occasional transmission into human populations.

text: This disease is considered to be a zoonosis (an infectious disease that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans), with the exception of Leishmania tropica — which is often an anthroponotic disease (an infectious disease that is naturally transmissible from humans to vertebrate animals).

text: This disease is considered to be a

text: zoonosis

text: (an infectious disease that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans), with the exception of

text: Leishmania tropica

text: — which is often an

text: anthroponotic disease

text: (an infectious disease that is naturally transmissible from humans to vertebrate animals).

text: Increasing bacterial antibiotic resistance to other commonly used agents, such as fluoroquinolones and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, has led to increased interest in using nitrofurantoin. Several trials comparing nitrofurantoin to other commonly used agents have shown this drug results in similar cure rates for uncomplicated UTIs. The efficacy of nitrofurantoin in treating UTIs combined with a low rate of bacterial resistance to this agent makes it one of the first-line agents for treating uncomplicated UTIs as recommended by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

text: Increasing bacterial antibiotic resistance to other commonly used agents, such as

text: fluoroquinolones

text: and

text: trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole

text: , has led to increased interest in using nitrofurantoin. Several trials comparing nitrofurantoin to other commonly used agents have shown this drug results in similar cure rates for uncomplicated UTIs. The efficacy of nitrofurantoin in treating UTIs combined with a low rate of bacterial resistance to this agent makes it one of the first-line agents for treating uncomplicated UTIs as recommended by the

text: Infectious Diseases Society of America

text: and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

text: The germ theory of disease states that some diseases are caused by microorganisms. These small organisms, too small to see without magnification,  invade humans, animals, and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause a disease. "Germ" may refer to not just a bacterium but to any type of microorganisms, especially one which causes disease, such as protist, fungus, virus, prion, or viroid. Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens, and the diseases they cause are called infectious diseases. Even when a pathogen is the principal cause of a disease, environmental and hereditary factors often influence the severity of the disease, and whether a particular host individual becomes infected when exposed to the pathogen.

text: The germ theory of disease states that some

text: disease

text: s are caused by

text: microorganism

text: s. These small organisms, too small to see without magnification,  invade humans, animals, and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause a disease. "Germ" may refer to not just a

text: bacterium

text: but to any type of microorganisms, especially one which causes disease, such as

text: protist

text: fungus

text: virus

text: prion

text: , or

text: viroid

text: . Microorganisms that cause disease are called

text: pathogen

text: s, and the diseases they cause are called

text: infectious disease

text: s. Even when a pathogen is the principal cause of a disease, environmental and hereditary factors often influence the severity of the disease, and whether a particular host individual becomes infected when exposed to the pathogen.

text: An infectious disease is caused by the presence of organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites (either animalian or protozoan).  Most of these diseases can spread from cat to cat via airborne pathogens or through direct or indirect contact, while others require a vector such as a tick or mosquito. Certain infectious diseases are a concern from a public health standpoint because they are zoonoses (transmittable to humans). Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a genetic relative of HIV.

text: An

text: infectious disease

text: is caused by the presence of organisms such as

text: virus

text: es,

text: bacteria

text: fungi

text: , or

text: parasite

text: s (either

text: animal

text: ian or

text: protozoa

text: n).  Most of these diseases can spread from cat to cat via airborne pathogens or through direct or indirect contact, while others require a

text: vector

text: such as a tick or mosquito. Certain infectious diseases are a concern from a

text: public health

text: standpoint because they are

text: zoonoses

text: (transmittable to humans).

text: Feline immunodeficiency virus

text: (FIV) is a genetic relative of

text: HIV

text: With the move to the ithree institute, Harry shifted some of her fundamental research focus on bacterial cell division toward bacteria that cause infectious disease, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Acinetobacter baumannii, and antibacterial discovery. Professor Harry has worked with industry in antibacterial discovery research for the development of novel antibiotics that target this process in pathogens, and to examine how natural products function as effective therapeutics for infectious disease.

text: With the move to the ithree institute, Harry shifted some of her fundamental research focus on bacterial cell division toward bacteria that cause

text: infectious disease

text: , such as

text: Staphylococcus aureus

text: and

text: Acinetobacter baumannii

text: , and antibacterial discovery. Professor Harry has worked with industry in antibacterial discovery research for the development of novel

text: antibiotics

text: that target this process in pathogens, and to examine how natural products function as effective therapeutics for infectious disease.

text: Hygiene is a concept related to cleanliness, health and medicine, as well as to personal and professional care practices related to most aspects of living. In medicine and in home (domestic) and everyday life settings, hygiene practices are employed as preventative measures to reduce the incidence and spreading of disease. In the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and other products, good hygiene is a key part of quality assurance i.e.  ensuring that the product complies with microbial specifications appropriate to its use.  The terms cleanliness (or cleaning) and hygiene are often used interchangeably, which can cause confusion. In general, hygiene mostly means practices that prevent spread of disease-causing organisms. Since cleaning processes (e.g., hand washing) remove infectious microbes as well as dirt and soil, they are often the means to achieve hygiene. Other uses of the term appear in phrases including: body hygiene, personal hygiene, sleep hygiene, mental hygiene, dental hygiene, and occupational hygiene, used in connection with public health. Hygiene is also the name of a branch of science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health, also called hygienic. Hygiene practices vary widely, and what is considered acceptable in one culture might not be acceptable in another.

text: Hygiene is a concept related to cleanliness, health and medicine, as well as to personal and professional care practices related to most aspects of living. In medicine and in home (domestic) and everyday life settings, hygiene practices are employed as preventative measures to reduce the incidence and spreading of disease. In the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and other products, good hygiene is a key part of

text: quality assurance

text: i.e.  ensuring that the product complies with microbial specifications appropriate to its use.  The terms

text: cleanliness

text: (or cleaning) and hygiene are often used interchangeably, which can cause confusion. In general, hygiene mostly means practices that prevent spread of disease-causing organisms. Since cleaning processes (e.g., hand washing) remove infectious microbes as well as dirt and soil, they are often the means to achieve hygiene. Other uses of the term appear in phrases including: body hygiene, personal hygiene,

text: sleep hygiene

text: mental hygiene

text: dental hygiene

text: , and

text: occupational hygiene

text: , used in connection with

text: public health

text: . Hygiene is also the name of a branch of science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health, also called hygienic. Hygiene practices vary widely, and what is considered acceptable in one

text: culture

text: might not be acceptable in another.

text: For SPF eggs the specific pathogens are: Avian Adenovirus Group I,Avian Adenovirus Group II (HEV), Avian Adenovirus Group III (EDS), Avian Encephalomyelitis, Avian Influenza (Type A), Avian Nephritis Virus, Avian Paramyxovirus Type 2, Avian Reovirus S 1133,Avian Rhinotracheitis Virus; Avian Rotavirus; Avian Tuberculosis M. avium; Chicken Anemia Virus; Endogenous GS Antigen; Fowl Pox; Hemophilus paragallinarum Serovars A,B,C; Infectious Bronchitis - Ark; Infectious Bronchitis - Conn; Infectious Bronchitis - JMK;Infectious Bronchitis - Mass; Infectious Bursal Disease Type 1; Infectious Bursal Disease Type 2; Infectious Laryngotracheitis;  Lymphoid Leukosis A, B; Avian Lymphoid Leukosis Virus; Lymphoid Leukosis Viruses A,B,C,D,E,J; Marek's Disease (Serotypes 1,2, 3); Mycoplasma gallisepticum; Mycoplasma synoviae;  Newcastle Disease LaSota; Reticuloendotheliosis Virus; Salmonella pullorum-gallinarum ;Salmonella species;

text: The spread of Aedes mosquito-borne Zika virus has been implicated in increasing levels of congenital microcephaly by the International Society for Infectious Diseases and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Zika can spread from a pregnant woman to her fetus. This can result in other severe brain malformations and birth defects. A study published in The New England Journal of Medicine has documented a case in which they found evidence of the Zika virus in the brain of a fetus that displayed the morphology of microcephaly.

text: The spread of

text: Aedes

text: mosquito

text: -borne

text: Zika virus

text: has been implicated in increasing levels of congenital microcephaly by the

entity_name: International Society for Infectious Diseases

text: International Society for Infectious Diseases

text: and the US

text: . Zika can spread from a pregnant woman to her fetus. This can result in other severe brain malformations and birth defects. A study published in The New England Journal of Medicine has documented a case in which they found evidence of the Zika virus in the brain of a fetus that displayed the morphology of microcephaly.

text: Vectors may be mechanical or biological. A mechanical vector picks up an infectious agent on the outside of its body and transmits it in a passive manner. An example of a mechanical vector is a housefly, which lands on cow dung, contaminating its appendages with bacteria from the feces, and then lands on food prior to consumption. The pathogen never enters the body of the fly. In contrast, biological vectors harbor pathogens within their bodies and deliver pathogens to new hosts in an active manner, usually a bite. Biological vectors are often responsible for serious blood-borne diseases, such as malaria, viral encephalitis, Chagas disease, Lyme disease and African sleeping sickness. Biological vectors are usually, though not exclusively, arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and lice. Vectors are often required in the life cycle of a pathogen. A common strategy used to control vector borne infectious diseases is to interrupt the life cycle of a pathogen by killing the vector.

text: Vectors may be mechanical or biological. A mechanical vector picks up an infectious agent on the outside of its body and transmits it in a passive manner. An example of a mechanical vector is a

text: housefly

text: , which lands on cow dung, contaminating its appendages with bacteria from the feces, and then lands on food prior to consumption. The pathogen never enters the body of the fly. In contrast, biological vectors harbor pathogens within their bodies and deliver pathogens to new hosts in an active manner, usually a bite. Biological vectors are often responsible for serious

text: blood-borne disease

text: s, such as

text: malaria

text: viral encephalitis

text: Chagas disease

text: Lyme disease

text: and

text: African sleeping sickness

text: . Biological vectors are usually, though not exclusively,

text: arthropod

text: s, such as

text: mosquito

text: es,

text: tick

text: s,

text: flea

text: s and

text: lice

text: . Vectors are often required in the life cycle of a pathogen. A common strategy used to control vector borne infectious diseases is to interrupt the life cycle of a pathogen by killing the vector.

text: Emory University is a global leader in Ebola research and treatment. The university was one of three institutions that successfully treated medical evacuees during the 2014 Ebola Outbreak. In 2015, the United States Department of Health and Human Services named Emory University the lead coordinating center for the National Ebola Training and Education Center (NETEC). The university will collaborate with the University of Nebraska Medical Center, the New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response on the program, which will receive $12 million in funding over the next five years.The program will support training of health care providers and facilities to manage Ebola and other emerging infectious diseases. Its objectives are to develop metrics to measure facility and health care worker readiness to care for Ebola patients, conduct assessments of state and regional Ebola Treatment Centers, create education materials related to care of patients with possible Ebola and other special pathogens and offer technical and training assistance to public health departments and health facilities. The university also received a $10.8 million grant over three years from the U.S. Department of Defense's Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to lead a 10-institution national team developing improved therapeutics and vaccines for multiple strains of Ebola virus. In 2015, Emory received a three-year, $2.2 million grant from the CDC to prevent the spread of infectious diseases, including Ebola, in health-care facilities.

text: Emory University is a global leader in

text: Ebola

text: research and treatment. The university was one of three institutions that successfully treated

text: medical evacuees

text: during the

text: 2014 Ebola Outbreak

text: . In 2015, the

text: United States Department of Health and Human Services

text: named Emory University the lead coordinating center for the National Ebola Training and Education Center (NETEC). The university will collaborate with the

text: University of Nebraska Medical Center

text: , the

text: New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation

text: , the

text: and the

entity_name: Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response

text: Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response

text: on the program, which will receive $12 million in funding over the next five years.The program will support training of health care providers and facilities to manage Ebola and other emerging infectious diseases. Its objectives are to develop metrics to measure facility and health care worker readiness to care for Ebola patients, conduct assessments of state and regional Ebola Treatment Centers, create education materials related to care of patients with possible Ebola and other special pathogens and offer technical and training assistance to public health departments and health facilities. The university also received a $10.8 million grant over three years from the

text: U.S. Department of Defense

text: 's

text: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

text: (DARPA) to lead a 10-institution national team developing improved therapeutics and vaccines for multiple strains of Ebola virus. In 2015, Emory received a three-year, $2.2 million grant from the

text: CDC

text: to prevent the spread of

text: infectious diseases

text: , including

text: Ebola

text: , in health-care facilities.

text: One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy Koch's postulates (first proposed by Robert Koch), which demands that the infectious agent be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that Mycobacteria species cause tuberculosis. Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Often, even clearly infectious diseases do not meet the infectious criteria. For example, Treponema pallidum, the causative spirochete of syphilis, cannot be cultured in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes. It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture.Epidemiology is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease outbreak is sporadic (occasional occurrence), endemic (regular cases often occurring in a region), epidemic (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or pandemic (a global epidemic).

text: One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy

text: Koch's postulates

text: (first proposed by

text: Robert Koch

text: ), which demands that the

text: infectious agent

text: be identified only in patients and not in healthy controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were first used in the discovery that

text: Mycobacteria

text: species cause

text: tuberculosis

text: . Koch's postulates can not be applied ethically for many human diseases because they require experimental infection of a healthy individual with a pathogen produced as a pure culture. Often, even clearly infectious diseases do not meet the infectious criteria. For example,

text: Treponema pallidum

text: , the causative

text: spirochete

text: of

text: syphilis

text: , cannot be

text: cultured

text: in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit

text: testes

text: . It is less clear that a pure culture comes from an animal source serving as host than it is when derived from microbes derived from plate culture.

text: Epidemiology

text: is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease

text: outbreak

text: is sporadic (occasional occurrence),

text: endemic

text: (regular cases often occurring in a region),

text: epidemic

text: (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or

text: pandemic

text: (a global epidemic).

text: Any inflammatory or infectious disease that reaches the brain can result in inducing seizures. the most common inflammatory or infectious diseases which cause seizures in cats include, Feline Infectious Peritonitis, Toxoplasmosis and Cryptococcus.

text: Any inflammatory or infectious disease that reaches the brain can result in inducing seizures. the most common inflammatory or infectious diseases which cause seizures in cats include,

text: Feline Infectious Peritonitis

text: Toxoplasmosis

text: and

text: Cryptococcus

text: Although the prison was surrounded by forest, very little wood was allowed to the prisoners for warmth or cooking. This and the lack of utensils made it almost impossible for the prisoners to cook the main food they received, poorly milled corn flour. During the summer of 1864, Union prisoners suffered greatly from hunger, exposure and disease. Within seven months, about a third died from what was diagnosed as dysentery and scurvy; they were buried in mass graves, the standard practice by Confederate prison authorities at Andersonville. In 1864 the Confederate Surgeon General asked Joseph Jones, an expert on infectious disease, to investigate the high mortality rate at the camp. He concluded that it was due to "scorbutic dysentery" (bloody diarrhea caused by vitamin C deficiency). In 2010 the historian Drisdelle said that hookworm disease, a condition not recognized or known during the Civil War, was the major cause of much of the mortality.

text: Although the prison was surrounded by forest, very little wood was allowed to the prisoners for warmth or cooking. This and the lack of utensils made it almost impossible for the prisoners to cook the main food they received, poorly milled corn flour. During the summer of 1864, Union prisoners suffered greatly from hunger, exposure and disease. Within seven months, about a third died from what was diagnosed as

text: dysentery

text: and

text: scurvy

text: ; they were buried in mass graves, the standard practice by Confederate prison authorities at Andersonville. In 1864 the Confederate Surgeon General asked Joseph Jones, an expert on infectious disease, to investigate the high mortality rate at the camp. He concluded that it was due to "scorbutic dysentery" (bloody diarrhea caused by vitamin C deficiency). In 2010 the historian Drisdelle said that

text: hookworm

text: disease, a condition not recognized or known during the Civil War, was the major cause of much of the mortality.

text: The National Microbiology Laboratory (NML) is part of the Infectious Disease Prevention and Control Branch of the Public Health Agency of Canada(PHAC), the agency of the Government of Canada that is responsible for public health, health emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and chronic disease control and prevention.

text: The National Microbiology Laboratory (NML) is part of the Infectious Disease Prevention and Control Branch of the

text: Public Health Agency of Canada

text: (PHAC), the agency of the Government of Canada that is responsible for public health, health emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and chronic disease control and prevention.

text: It is possible to model the progress of most infectious diseases mathematically to discover the likely outcome of an epidemic or to help manage them by vaccination. This field tries to find parameters for various infectious diseases and to use those parameters to make useful calculations about the effects of a mass vaccination programme.

text: It is possible to model the progress of most infectious diseases mathematically to discover the likely outcome of an

text: epidemic

text: or to help manage them by

text: vaccination

text: . This field tries to find

text: parameter

text: s for various

text: infectious disease

text: s and to use those parameters to make useful calculations about the effects of a mass

text: vaccination

text: programme.

text: The first large human social activities, trailed by major disease outbreaks that have been documented occurred by fecal-oral route . Contaminated food or water by fecal matter can cause devastating effects and spread with extreme rapidity. They are, of course, not the only types of infection that threaten large gatherings of people. Respiratory infections, sexually transmitted infections, and measles have all been measured as potential infections resulting from mass gatherings. Social gatherings that have been linked to outbreaks include the 1918 Great Pandemic, the Asian Flu Pandemic of 1957, a 1987 outbreak of multi-drug resistant shigellosis in North Carolina that infected over 50% of event attendees, a 1992 outbreak of Campylobacter in the UK, a 1993 Hepatitis A outbreak at a youth camp in Australia, two separate outbreaks  of meningococcal meningitis at the 2000 and 2001 Hajj, a 2008 influenza outbreak in Sydney, the 2009 H1N1 pandemic (which followed a large Easter gathering in Mexico) , . Rainey et al. (2016) identified a total of 72 mass-gathering related respiratory outbreaks between 2005 and 2014. Many of these outbreaks led to further outbreaks within the cities that infected individuals returned home to after the events. Particularly the epidemiological consequences of the Hajj are notable because of the range of dissemination that attendees have when they return from the pilgrimage. Infected individuals may return to their homes far from the source of the outbreak, and into communities that are especially vulnerable to a disease not characteristic of that community. Health response teams may be less equipped to manage the spread of the foreign pathogen, and the people may be less knowledgeable about risks and symptoms. Diseases such a tuberculosis have long incubation periods, which creates another obstacle since it separates the point of infection from the start of illness and therefore obscures the connection.Intervention and mitigation are possible for such large events, but involve very expensive and complex measures. Vaccinations are highly effective, but it is extremely costly to attempt to vaccinate large hordes of individuals. In a study of livestock populations, Hu et al., 2013 observed important patterns for vaccination efforts. When deaths from infection occur, or a method of culling is used, social networks will alter and individuals will spread out. Because of this, carefully designed vaccination efforts are significantly more effective and cheaper and must be implemented as fast as possible in order to contain the pathogen. Relatively new methods, such as tracking mobile phone data, have been used to glean information on effective strategies for containment in the situation of mass gatherings.Finger et al. (2016) state “human mobility is undisputedly one of the main spreading mechanisms of infectious disease”. In their study, cell phone data was used to track the migration of people for the Grand Magal de Touba, a religious pilgrimage event that occurs in Senegal. Figure 6 illustrates the findings of this study and identifies areas that are paramount for targeting in an epidemiological prevention effort.

text: Hajj

text: are notable because of the range of dissemination that attendees have when they return from the pilgrimage. Infected individuals may return to their homes far from the source of the outbreak, and into communities that are especially vulnerable to a disease not characteristic of that community. Health response teams may be less equipped to manage the spread of the foreign pathogen, and the people may be less knowledgeable about risks and symptoms. Diseases such a

text: tuberculosis

text: Research can be broken into two key areas: inherited disease and infectious disease. Inherited disease research includes genetics, oncology and stem cell. Infectious disease includes bacteriology, virology, immunology and equine epidemiology and disease surveillance.

text: Among the many varieties of microorganisms, relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few pathogens and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen, depends upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians therefore classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as primary pathogens or as opportunistic pathogens:

text: Among the many varieties of

text: microorganisms

text: , relatively few cause disease in otherwise healthy individuals. Infectious disease results from the interplay between those few

text: pathogen

text: s and the defenses of the hosts they infect. The appearance and severity of disease resulting from any pathogen, depends upon the ability of that pathogen to damage the host as well as the ability of the host to resist the pathogen. However a host's immune system can also cause damage to the host itself in an attempt to control the infection. Clinicians therefore classify infectious microorganisms or microbes according to the status of host defenses - either as primary pathogens or as

text: opportunistic pathogens

text: In addition to eHealth, his current interests include preventable infectious diseases (particularly HIV/AIDS), diseases of an ageing population, and pandemics. Behbehani has worked with the Japanese government to develop Japan’s initiative in the fight against infectious and parasitic diseases, which was brought to the Kyushu-Okinawa G8 Summit in July 2000 by the then Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto.

text: In addition to

text: eHealth

text: , his current interests include preventable infectious diseases (particularly

text: HIV/AIDS

text: ), diseases of an ageing population, and

text: pandemics

text: . Behbehani has worked with the Japanese government to develop Japan’s initiative in the fight against

text: infectious

text: and

text: parasitic diseases

text: , which was brought to the Kyushu-Okinawa

text: G8 Summit

text: in July 2000 by the then Prime Minister

text: Ryutaro Hashimoto

text: No prize was awarded in 1921. Carlos Chagas, who had already been nominated in 1913 and was the recipient of several international awards at the time, was among the nominees. His failure in receiving the award has generated controversy, especially in his homeland, Brazil, proved that Chagas is responsible for one of the most important achievements in the history of parasitology: Chagas alone discovered a new infectious disease, Chagas disease, its pathogen, vector, host, clinical manifestation and epidemology, first describing it in 1909. According to historian Sierra Iglesias, the Nobel Assembly retrieved for Brazilian health authorities’ advice as to Chagas's being worthy the award and received unfavorable answers. It is known that Chagas had several adversaries inside Brazilian governmental health organizations, mainly due to intellectual rivalries; however, Iglesias offers no proof to her claims. It seems substantially more likely that Chagas's not receiving the award was due to the Nobel Committee inability in recognizing the value of Chagas’s findings.

text: No prize was awarded in

text: Carlos Chagas

text: , who had already been nominated in

text: and was the recipient of several international awards at the time, was among the nominees. His failure in receiving the award has generated controversy, especially in his homeland,

text: Brazil

text: , proved that Chagas is responsible for one of the most important achievements in the history of

text: parasitology

text: : Chagas alone discovered a new

text: infectious disease

text: Chagas disease

text: , its

text: pathogen

text: vector

text: host

text: , clinical manifestation and

text: epidemology

text: , first describing it in

text: . According to historian Sierra Iglesias, the

text: Nobel Assembly

text: retrieved for Brazilian health authorities’ advice as to Chagas's being worthy the award and received unfavorable answers. It is known that Chagas had several adversaries inside Brazilian governmental health organizations, mainly due to intellectual rivalries; however, Iglesias offers no proof to her claims. It seems substantially more likely that Chagas's not receiving the award was due to the Nobel Committee inability in recognizing the value of Chagas’s findings.

text: M. gallisepticum causes respiratory disease and weakens the immune system which makes the bird vulnerable to any disease that they come into contact with. Small bubbles will appear in the corners of the eyes and sinuses will swell up. Once infected, they are carriers for the disease for life. Some birds have good resistance to the disease while others may die; some become ill and recover and others may not show any symptoms at all. There is currently no risk to humans.  For domestic animals, there is a high concern and there should be a prevention of any interaction between wild birds and domestic poultry. Wild bird species affected by the disease are infectious and are often found in close contact with domestic species.

text: Clinical Infectious Diseases is a peer-reviewed medical journal published by Oxford University Press covering research on the pathogenesis, clinical investigation, medical microbiology, diagnosis, immune mechanisms, and treatment of diseases caused by infectious agents. It includes articles on antimicrobial resistance, bioterrorism, emerging infections, food safety, hospital epidemiology, and HIV/AIDS. It also features highly focused brief reports, review articles, editorials, commentaries, and supplements. The journal is published on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

text: Clinical Infectious Diseases is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: medical journal

text: published by

text: Oxford University Press

text: covering research on the

text: pathogenesis

text: , clinical investigation, medical

text: microbiology

text: diagnosis

text: immune

text: mechanisms, and treatment of diseases caused by infectious agents. It includes articles on

text: antimicrobial resistance

text: bioterrorism

text: , emerging

text: infections

text: food safety

text: , hospital

text: epidemiology

text: , and

text: HIV/AIDS

text: . It also features highly focused brief reports, review articles, editorials, commentaries, and supplements. The journal is published on behalf of the

text: Infectious Diseases Society of America

text: Once one is able to model an infectious pathogen with compartmental models, one can predict the various properties of the pathogen spread, for example the prevalence (total number of infected from the epidemic) and the duration of the epidemic. Also, one can understand how different situations may affect the outcome of the epidemic, e.g., what is the best technique for issuing a limited number of vaccines in a given population?

text: Stopping the spread of infectious disease was of utmost importance for maintaining a healthy society. The outbreak of disease during the Peloponnesian War was recorded by Thucydides who survived the epidemic. From his account it is shown how factors outside the disease itself can affect society. The Athenians were under siege and concentrated within the city. Major city centers were the hardest hit. This made the outbreak even more deadly and with probable food shortages the fate of Athens was inevitable. Approximately 25% of the population died of the disease. Thucydides stated that the epidemic "carried away all alike". The disease attacked people of different ages, sexes and nationalities.

text: Stopping the spread of infectious disease was of utmost importance for maintaining a healthy society. The outbreak of

text: disease

text: during the

text: Peloponnesian War

text: was recorded by

text: Thucydides

text: who survived the

text: epidemic

text: . From his account it is shown how factors outside the disease itself can affect society. The Athenians were under siege and concentrated within the city. Major city centers were the hardest hit. This made the outbreak even more deadly and with probable food shortages the fate of

text: Athens

text: was inevitable. Approximately 25% of the population died of the

text: disease

text: . Thucydides stated that the

text: epidemic

text: "carried away all alike". The

text: disease

text: attacked people of different ages, sexes and nationalities.

text: Scientists are still trying to understand the microorganisms within PM particles and how they are spread through pollutants. Research indicated that many kinds of pathogens and bacteria can be spread through PM smog and cause diseases. For example, smog in Beijing contains significant amounts of inhalable microbial allergens and pathogenic species, which increase the risk of respiratory diseases. The study also reported that among all the microorganisms within PM particles, 86.1% is bacteria, 13% eukaryota, 0.8% archaea, and 0.1% viruses. The smog contains a variety of bacteria such as Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Euryarchaeota. Many of these are not harmful to humans, but some pathogenic microorganisms are carried through smog, and their numbers increase as the pollutant level increases.

text: Scientists are still trying to understand the microorganisms within PM particles and how they are spread through pollutants. Research indicated that many kinds of pathogens and bacteria can be spread through PM smog and cause diseases. For example, smog in Beijing contains significant amounts of inhalable microbial allergens and pathogenic species, which increase the risk of respiratory diseases. The study also reported that among all the microorganisms within PM particles, 86.1% is bacteria, 13%

text: eukaryota

text: , 0.8%

text: archaea

text: , and 0.1% viruses. The smog contains a variety of bacteria such as Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Euryarchaeota. Many of these are not harmful to humans, but some pathogenic microorganisms are carried through smog, and their numbers increase as the pollutant level increases.

text: MVD is clinically indistinguishable from Ebola virus disease (EVD), and it can also easily be confused with many other diseases prevalent in Equatorial Africa, such as other viral hemorrhagic fevers, falciparum malaria, typhoid fever, shigellosis, rickettsial diseases such as typhus, cholera, gram-negative septicemia, borreliosis such as relapsing fever or EHEC enteritis. Other infectious diseases that ought to be included in the differential diagnosis include leptospirosis, scrub typhus, plague, Q fever, candidiasis, histoplasmosis, trypanosomiasis, visceral leishmaniasis, hemorrhagic smallpox, measles, and fulminant viral hepatitis. Non-infectious diseases that can be confused with MVD are acute promyelocytic leukemia, hemolytic uremic syndrome, snake envenomation, clotting factor deficiencies/platelet disorders, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, Kawasaki disease, and even warfarin intoxication. The most important indicator that may lead to the suspicion of MVD at clinical examination is the medical history of the patient, in particular the travel and occupational history (which countries and caves were visited?) and the patient's exposure to wildlife (exposure to bats or bat excrements?). MVD can be confirmed by isolation of marburgviruses from or by detection of marburgvirus antigen or genomic or subgenomic RNAs in patient blood or serum samples during the acute phase of MVD. Marburgvirus isolation is usually performed by inoculation of grivet kidney epithelial Vero E6 or MA-104 cell cultures or by inoculation of human adrenal carcinoma SW-13 cells, all of which react to infection with characteristic cytopathic effects. Filovirions can easily be visualized and identified in cell culture by electron microscopy due to their unique filamentous shapes, but electron microscopy cannot differentiate the various filoviruses alone despite some overall length differences. Immunofluorescence assays are used to confirm marburgvirus presence in cell cultures. During an outbreak, virus isolation and electron microscopy are most often not feasible options. The most common diagnostic methods are therefore RT-PCR in conjunction with antigen-capture ELISA, which can be performed in field or mobile hospitals and laboratories. Indirect immunofluorescence assays (IFAs) are not used for diagnosis of MVD in the field anymore.

text: MVD is clinically indistinguishable from

text: Ebola virus disease (EVD)

text: , and it can also easily be confused with many other diseases prevalent in

text: Equatorial Africa

text: , such as other

text: viral hemorrhagic fever

text: s,

text: falciparum malaria

text: typhoid fever

text: shigellosis

text: rickettsial diseases

text: such as

text: typhus

text: cholera

text: gram-negative

text: septicemia

text: borreliosis

text: such as

text: relapsing fever

text: or

entity_name: Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli

text: EHEC enteritis

text: . Other infectious diseases that ought to be included in the

text: differential diagnosis

text: include

text: leptospirosis

text: scrub typhus

text: plague

text: Q fever

text: candidiasis

text: histoplasmosis

text: trypanosomiasis

text: visceral

text: leishmaniasis

text: , hemorrhagic

text: smallpox

text: measles

text: , and fulminant

text: viral hepatitis

text: . Non-infectious diseases that can be confused with MVD are

text: acute promyelocytic leukemia

text: hemolytic uremic syndrome

text: snake

text: envenomation

text: clotting factor

text: deficiencies/platelet disorders,

text: thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura

text: hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia

text: Kawasaki disease

text: , and even

text: warfarin

text: intoxication. The most important indicator that may lead to the suspicion of MVD at clinical examination is the

text: medical history

text: of the patient, in particular the travel and occupational history (which countries and caves were visited?) and the patient's exposure to wildlife (exposure to bats or bat excrements?). MVD can be confirmed by isolation of marburgviruses from or by detection of marburgvirus antigen or genomic or subgenomic RNAs in patient

text: blood

text: or

text: serum

text: samples during the acute phase of MVD. Marburgvirus isolation is usually performed by

text: inoculation

text: of

text: grivet

text: kidney epithelial

text: Vero E6

text: or MA-104

text: cell culture

text: s or by inoculation of human adrenal carcinoma SW-13 cells, all of which react to infection with characteristic

text: cytopathic effect

text: s. Filovirions can easily be visualized and identified in cell culture by

text: electron microscopy

text: due to their unique filamentous shapes, but electron microscopy cannot differentiate the various filoviruses alone despite some overall length differences.

text: Immunofluorescence assays

text: are used to confirm marburgvirus presence in cell cultures. During an outbreak, virus isolation and electron microscopy are most often not feasible options. The most common diagnostic methods are therefore

entity_name: Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction

text: RT-PCR

text: in conjunction with

text: antigen-capture ELISA

text: , which can be performed in field or mobile hospitals and laboratories.

text: Indirect immunofluorescence assays (IFAs)

text: are not used for diagnosis of MVD in the field anymore.

text: Eight attempts have been made to date to eradicate infectious diseases: two successful programs targeting smallpox and rinderpest; four ongoing programs targeting poliomyelitis, yaws, dracunculiasis and malaria; and two former programs targeting hookworm and yellow fever. Five more infectious diseases have been identified as of April 2008 as potentially eradicable with current technology by the Carter Center International Task Force for Disease Eradication—measles, mumps, rubella, lymphatic filariasis and cysticercosis.

text: Eight attempts have been made to date to eradicate infectious diseases: two successful programs targeting

text: smallpox

text: and

text: rinderpest

text: ; four ongoing programs targeting

text: poliomyelitis

text: yaws

text: dracunculiasis

text: and

text: malaria

text: ; and two former programs targeting

text: hookworm

text: and

text: yellow fever

text: . Five more infectious diseases have been identified as of April 2008 as potentially eradicable with current technology by the

text: Carter Center

text: International Task Force for Disease Eradication—

text: measles

text: mumps

text: rubella

text: lymphatic filariasis

text: and

text: cysticercosis

text: Infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to these organisms and the toxins they produce. Infectious disease, also known as transmissible disease or communicable disease, killing more people worldwide than any other single cause. It caused by germs, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi; Germs are tiny living things that are found everywhere in air, soil and water. You can get infected by touching, eating, drinking or breathing something that contains a germ. Infectious diseases, such as SARS and Ebola, have traveled across the world due to increased world trade and tourism.

text: The disease overwinters as sclerotia or as mycelium on dead plant tissue. Once spring to early summer arrives, germination phase with hyphae growth continues. Following this, root colonization occurs. In Mid and late summer you begin to see the disease at its infectious stage, which is when you start to observe associated symptoms. The pathogen will penetrate the host, and colonize plant root tissue causing root rot. This initially causes the first symptoms of chlorotic leaves and eventually wilting. The pathogen will then eventually disseminate infecting neighboring plants, with infected plant tissue serving as a secondary inoculum fueling the disease. In situation of high moisture, conidia are produced on spore mats but its role in dispersal is currently unknown since very rarely conidia were found to germinate and facilitate the spread of disease.

text: A field of recent importance for the application of ecological fitting is that of emerging infectious disease: infectious diseases that have emerged or increased incidence in the last 20 years, as a result of evolution, range expansion, or ecological changes.  Climate change represents an ecological perturbation that induces range and phenological shifts in many species, which can encourage parasite transmission and host switching without any evolutionary change occurring. When species begin to infect host species with which they were not previously associated, it may be the result of ecological fitting. Even organisms with complex life histories can switch hosts as long as the resource required by each life stage is phylogenetically conserved and geographically widespread, meaning that it is difficult to predict based on life history complexity or other external factors. This has been used to explain the mysterious appearance of the bullfrog lung trematode Haematoloechus floedae in Costa Rican leopard frogs, even though bullfrogs do not and have never occurred in this area.  When emerging infectious disease is the result of ecological fitting and host specificity is loose, then recurrent host shifts are likely to occur and the difficult task of building a predictive framework for management is necessary.

text: A field of recent importance for the application of ecological fitting is that of

text: emerging infectious disease

text: : infectious diseases that have emerged or increased incidence in the last 20 years, as a result of evolution, range expansion, or ecological changes.  Climate change represents an ecological perturbation that induces range and phenological shifts in many species, which can encourage parasite transmission and host switching without any evolutionary change occurring. When species begin to infect host species with which they were not previously associated, it may be the result of ecological fitting. Even organisms with complex life histories can switch hosts as long as the resource required by each life stage is phylogenetically conserved and geographically widespread, meaning that it is difficult to predict based on life history complexity or other external factors. This has been used to explain the mysterious appearance of the

text: bullfrog

text: lung

text: trematode

text: Haematoloechus floedae in Costa Rican

text: leopard frogs

text: , even though bullfrogs do not and have never occurred in this area.  When

text: emerging infectious disease

text: is the result of ecological fitting and host specificity is loose, then recurrent host shifts are likely to occur and the difficult task of building a predictive framework for management is necessary.

text: Throughout his career, Lipkin has been recognized for his service and ingenuity. He was awarded a NARSAD Young Investigator Award by National Alliance for Research in Schizophrenia and Depression. Lipkin's work has since been recognized with the following honors: NIH Clinical Investigator Development Award; Pew Scholar in the Biomedical Sciences; Japanese Human Science Foundation Visiting Professor; Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons Visiting Bruenn Professor; University of California (UC) Irvine Louise Turner Arnold Chair in the Neurosciences; American Society of Microbiology Foundation Lecturer; UC Irvine Distinguished Lecturer; Ellison Medical Foundation Senior Scholar in Global Infectious Disease; Millennium Commencement Speaker, Sarah Lawrence College; Dalldorf Research Physician NY State Department of Health; Fellow of the NY Academy of Sciences; Distinguished Lecturer of the National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control; Honorary and Founding Director, Beijing Center for Infectious Diseases; Fellow, American Society for Microbiology; Columbia University Jerome L. and Dawn Greene Professor of Epidemiology; Columbia University John Snow Professor of Epidemiology; Scientific American, Top 25 Science Stories of 2007. He was the Founding Chair, Scientific Advisory Board, Cure Autism Now (merged with Autism Speaks, 2007);  Featured Investigator, NIAID Discovery News, 2008  A Microbe Hunter to the World; Distinguished Lecturer, Pennsylvania State University; Distinguished Lecturer, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey; Distinguished Lecturer, Pennsylvania State University; Distinguished Speaker, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research; Kinyoun Lecturer, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD; Distinguished Lecturer, Center for Autism Research, Philadelphia, PA; The Courage Fund Visiting Professorship, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore; Fellow, Wildlife Conservation Society, 2009; Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science; Member, Association of American Physicians; Member, National Institutes of Health Advisory Committee to the Director; 2014 Oxford Simonyi Lecturer; 2014 Mendel Medal recipient.

text: Throughout his career, Lipkin has been recognized for his service and ingenuity. He was awarded a NARSAD Young Investigator Award by

text: National Alliance for Research in Schizophrenia and Depression

text: . Lipkin's work has since been recognized with the following honors:

text: NIH Clinical Investigator Development Award

text: ; Pew Scholar in the Biomedical Sciences; Japanese Human Science Foundation Visiting Professor;

entity_name: Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons

text: Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons

text: Visiting Bruenn Professor;

text: University of California

text: (UC)

text: Irvine Louise Turner Arnold Chair in the Neurosciences

text: ; American Society of Microbiology Foundation Lecturer; UC Irvine Distinguished Lecturer;

text: Ellison Medical Foundation

text: Senior Scholar in Global Infectious Disease; Millennium Commencement Speaker,

text: Sarah Lawrence College

text: ; Dalldorf Research Physician NY State Department of Health; Fellow of the NY Academy of Sciences; Distinguished Lecturer of the National Center for Infectious Diseases,

text: Centers for Disease Control

text: ; Honorary and Founding Director,

text: Beijing Center for Infectious Diseases

text: ; Fellow,

text: American Society for Microbiology

text: ; Columbia University Jerome L. and Dawn Greene Professor of Epidemiology; Columbia University John Snow Professor of Epidemiology; Scientific American,

text: Top 25 Science Stories of 2007

text: . He was the Founding Chair, Scientific Advisory Board,

text: Cure Autism Now

text: (merged with

text: Autism Speaks

text: , 2007);  Featured Investigator,

text: NIAID Discovery News

text: , 2008  A Microbe Hunter to the World; Distinguished Lecturer,

text: Pennsylvania State University

text: ; Distinguished Lecturer,

entity_name: University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey

text: University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey

text: ; Distinguished Lecturer, Pennsylvania State University; Distinguished Speaker, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research; Kinyoun Lecturer, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD; Distinguished Lecturer, Center for Autism Research, Philadelphia, PA; The Courage Fund Visiting Professorship, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore; Fellow, Wildlife Conservation Society, 2009; Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science; Member, Association of American Physicians; Member, National Institutes of Health Advisory Committee to the Director; 2014 Oxford Simonyi Lecturer; 2014 Mendel Medal recipient.

text: Strict isolation is used for diseases spread through the air and in some cases by contact Patients must be placed in isolation to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Those who are kept in strict isolation are often kept in a special room at the facility designed for that purpose. Such rooms are equipped with a special lavatory and caregiving equipment, and a sink and waste disposal are provided for workers upon leaving the area.

text: Strict isolation is used for diseases spread through the air and in some cases by contact Patients must be placed in isolation to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Those who are kept in strict isolation are often kept in a special room at the facility designed for that purpose. Such rooms are equipped with a special

text: lavatory

text: and caregiving equipment, and a sink and waste disposal are provided for workers upon leaving the area.

text: The pathogen is known to prefer warm wet weather, and outbreaks typically occur in the early summer months. Most symptoms of the pathogen do not occur until late summer and thus most farmers do not become aware of the diseased crop until harvest.  A combination of environmental factors have been linked to the prevalence of the pathogen such as: presence of host plant, frequent rainfall/irrigation and increased temperatures in spring and summer.  In addition, a reduction of drainage of the soil due to various techniques such as soil compaction are also known to create favorable environments for the pathogen.<ref>["Rhizoctonia Diseases." Michigan Potato Diseases. P.S. Wharton, Michigan State University, 2 May 2011. Web. 04 Oct. 2011.

text: Taï Forest virus (TAFV) is a close relative of the much more commonly known Ebola virus (EBOV). TAFV causes severe disease in primates, the Ebola hemorrhagic fever. TAFV is a Select Agent, World Health Organization Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment), National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Category A Priority Pathogen, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Category A Bioterrorism Agent, and listed as a Biological Agent for Export Control by the Australia Group.

text: Taï Forest virus (TAFV) is a close relative of the much more commonly known

text: Ebola virus

text: (EBOV). TAFV causes severe

text: disease

text: in

text: primates

text: , the

text: Ebola

text: hemorrhagic fever

text: . TAFV is a

text: Select Agent

text: World Health Organization

text: Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring

text: National Institutes of Health

text: Category A Priority Pathogen,

text: Category A Bioterrorism Agent

text: , and listed as a Biological Agent for Export Control by the

text: Australia Group

text: Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate an individual's immune system to develop adaptive immunity to a pathogen. Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate morbidity from infection. When a sufficiently large percentage of a population has been vaccinated, this results in herd immunity. The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified; for example, the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine, and the chicken pox vaccine. Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases;<ref>

text: Vaccination is the administration of

text: antigen

text: ic material (a

text: vaccine

text: ) to stimulate an individual's immune system to develop

text: adaptive

text: immunity

text: to a

text: pathogen

text: . Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate

text: morbidity

text: from

text: infection

text: . When a sufficiently large percentage of a population has been vaccinated, this results in

text: herd immunity

text: . The effectiveness of vaccination has been widely studied and verified; for example, the

text: influenza vaccine

text: , the

text: HPV vaccine

text: , and the

text: chicken pox vaccine

text: . Vaccination is the most effective method of preventing infectious diseases;<ref>

text: The bacterium overwinters in diseased plants and thatch and is disseminated by water through rain splash, or mechanically by mowers, hoses, other gardening equipment, and golf shoes. The pathogen can also be present in the host at planting in infected sprigs, sod, or plugs. Unlike fungi, bacterial plant pathogens are unable to wound or mechanically probe plant hosts on their own. Instead, these pathogens enter through wounds inflicted on plants through verticutting, cultivation, sand, or through natural openings such as stomates and hydathodes. Once they have successfully entered and colonized the plant host, bacterial plant pathogens commandeer the nutrient and water supplies of plant cells to aid their own reproduction. In a study conducted by Zhou et al. (2013), the time between inoculation and wilt of host plants was found to depend heavily on temperature, with higher temperatures resulting in more rapid host decline. The researchers report the time between inoculation and wilting of host plants to be between 9–42 days. Bacteria can also spread to the roots of nearby plants underground. Within the plant host itself, bacteria spread by multiplying through binary fission and taking over more and more of the host by simply increasing their numbers.

text: The bacterium overwinters in diseased plants and

text: thatch

text: Some habitats are better suited to increase survival probability making relocation a popular and promising method. Although no direct links between infectious diseases and seal mortality rates have been found, unidentified infectious diseases could prove detrimental to relocation strategies.Identification and mitigation of these and other possible factors (e.g., disease) limiting population growth represent ongoing challenges and are the primary objectives of the Hawaiian monk seal conservation and recovery effort.

text: EAST declares its intentions to improve sanitary conditions in rural areas, prevent the spread of infectious diseases, ensure access to safe drinking water. It cooperates with local authorities and services.

text: EAST declares its intentions to improve

text: sanitary

text: conditions in

text: rural

text: areas, prevent the spread of

text: infectious disease

text: s, ensure access to safe drinking water. It cooperates with local authorities and services.

text: A British inquiry into BSE concluded that the epidemic was caused by feeding cattle, who are normally herbivores, the remains of other cattle in the form of meat and bone meal (MBM), which caused the infectious agent to spread. The origin of the disease itself remains unknown. The current scientific view is that infectious proteins called prions developed through spontaneous mutation, probably in the 1970s, and there is a possibility that the use of organophosphorus pesticides increased the susceptibility of cattle to the disease. The infectious agent is distinctive for the high temperatures it is able to survive; this contributed to the spread of the disease in Britain, which had reduced the temperatures used during its rendering process. Another contributory factor was the feeding of infected protein supplements to very young calves instead of milk from their mothers.

text: A British inquiry into BSE concluded that the epidemic was caused by feeding cattle, who are normally

text: herbivore

text: s, the remains of other cattle in the form of meat and bone meal (MBM), which caused the infectious agent to spread. The origin of the disease itself remains unknown. The current scientific view is that infectious proteins called

text: prion

text: s developed through spontaneous mutation, probably in the 1970s, and there is a possibility that the use of

text: organophosphorus pesticides

text: increased the susceptibility of cattle to the disease. The infectious agent is distinctive for the high temperatures it is able to survive; this contributed to the spread of the disease in Britain, which had reduced the temperatures used during its

text: rendering

text: process. Another contributory factor was the feeding of infected protein supplements to very young calves instead of milk from their mothers.

text: In the second half of the 1800s Louis Pasteur perfected experiments which disproved the then-popular theory of spontaneous generation and from which he derived the modern theory of (infectious) disease. Using experiments based on this theory, which posited that specific microorganisms cause specific diseases, Pasteur isolated the infectious agent from anthrax. He then derived a vaccine by altering the infectious agent so as to make it harmless and then introducing this inactivated form of the infectious agents into farm animals, which then proved to be immune to the disease.<ref>Principles of microbiology

text: In the second half of the 1800s

text: Louis Pasteur

text: perfected experiments which disproved the then-popular theory of

text: spontaneous generation

text: and from which he derived the modern

text: theory

text: of (infectious) disease. Using experiments based on this theory, which posited that specific microorganisms cause specific diseases, Pasteur isolated the infectious agent from

text: anthrax

text: . He then derived a vaccine by altering the infectious agent so as to make it harmless and then introducing this inactivated form of the infectious agents into farm animals, which then proved to be immune to the disease.<ref>Principles of microbiology

text: A vaccine-preventable disease is an infectious disease for which an effective preventive vaccine exists.  If a person acquires a vaccine-preventable disease and dies from it, the death is considered a vaccine-preventable death.

text: A vaccine-preventable disease is an

text: infectious disease

text: for which an effective preventive

text: vaccine

text: exists.  If a person acquires a vaccine-preventable disease and dies from it, the death is considered a vaccine-preventable death.

text: Some SNPs are associated with the metabolism of different drugs. The association of a wide range of human diseases like cancer, infectious diseases (AIDS, leprosy, hepatitis, etc.) autoimmune, neuropsychiatric and many other diseases with different SNPs can be made as relevant pharmacogenomic targets for drug therapy.

text: Some SNPs are associated with the metabolism of different drugs. The association of a wide range of human diseases like

text: cancer

text: infectious diseases

text: AIDS

text: leprosy

text: hepatitis

text: , etc.)

text: autoimmune

text: neuropsychiatric

text: and many other diseases with different SNPs can be made as relevant

text: pharmacogenomic

text: targets for drug therapy.

text: The Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource (ViPR)  is an integrative and comprehensive publicly available database and analysis resource to search, analyze, visualize, save and share data for viral pathogens in the U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Category A-C Priority Pathogen lists for biodefense research, and other viral pathogens causing emerging/reemerging infectious diseases. ViPR is one of the five Bioinformatics Resource Centers (BRC) funded by NIAID, a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services.

text: The Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource (ViPR)  is an integrative and comprehensive publicly available database and analysis resource to search, analyze, visualize, save and share data for viral pathogens in the U.S.

text: (NIAID) Category A-C Priority Pathogen lists for biodefense research, and other viral pathogens causing emerging/reemerging infectious diseases. ViPR is one of the five

text: Bioinformatics Resource Centers

text: (BRC) funded by

text: NIAID

text: , a component of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: (NIH), which is an agency of the

text: Sociality, although a very successful way of life, is thought to increase the per-individual risk of acquiring disease, simply because close contact with conspecifics is a key transmission route for infectious diseases. As social organisms are often densely aggregated and exhibit high levels of interaction, pathogens can more easily spread from infectious to susceptible individuals. The intimate interactions often found in social insects, such as the sharing of food through regurgitation, are further possible routes of pathogen transmission. As the members of social groups are typically closely related, they are more likely to be susceptible to the same pathogens. This effect is compounded when overlapping generations are present (such as in social insect colonies and primate groups), which facilitates the horizontal transmission of pathogens from the older generation to the next. In the case of species that live in nests/burrows, stable, homeostatic temperatures and humidity may create ideal conditions for pathogen growth.

text: Sociality, although a very successful way of life, is thought to increase the per-individual risk of acquiring disease, simply because close contact with

text: conspecifics

text: is a key transmission route for

text: infectious diseases

text: . As social organisms are often densely aggregated and exhibit high levels of interaction, pathogens can more easily spread from infectious to susceptible individuals. The intimate interactions often found in social insects, such as the sharing of food through regurgitation, are further possible routes of pathogen transmission. As the members of social groups are typically closely related, they are more likely to be susceptible to the same pathogens. This effect is compounded when overlapping generations are present (such as in social insect colonies and primate groups), which facilitates the

text: horizontal transmission

text: of pathogens from the older generation to the next. In the case of species that live in nests/burrows, stable, homeostatic temperatures and humidity may create ideal conditions for pathogen growth.

text: Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and non-governmental organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO) is the international agency that coordinates and acts on global public health issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, to respond to domestic health issues. For example, in the United States, the front line of public health initiatives are state and local health departments. The United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, headquartered in Atlanta, are involved with several international health activities, in addition to their national duties. In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the national agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and chronic disease control and prevention. The Public health system in India is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state owned health care facilities.

text: Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries, through local health systems and

text: non-governmental organization

text: s. The

text: World Health Organization

text: (WHO) is the international agency that coordinates and acts on

text: global public health

text: issues. Most countries have their own government public health agencies, sometimes known as ministries of health, to respond to domestic health issues. For example, in the

text: United States

text: , the front line of public health initiatives are state and local

text: health department

text: s. The

text: United States Public Health Service

text: (PHS), led by the

text: Surgeon General of the United States

text: , and the

text: , headquartered in

text: Atlanta

text: , are involved with several international health activities, in addition to their national duties. In Canada, the

text: Public Health Agency of Canada

text: is the national agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and

text: chronic disease

text: control and prevention. The

text: Public health system in India

text: is managed by the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare of the government of India with state owned health care facilities.

text: Native Americans had lived along the waterways for several thousand years. Siouan-speaking tribes were the ones encountered by English colonists. Their numbers were sharply reduced by European infectious diseases to which they had no immunity, which caused widespread social disruption.

text: Native Americans

text: had lived along the waterways for several thousand years.

text: Siouan

text: -speaking tribes were the ones encountered by

text: English colonists

text: . Their numbers were sharply reduced by European

text: infectious diseases

text: to which they had no immunity, which caused widespread social disruption.

text: The film focuses on an outbreak of a fictional Ebola-like virus, Motaba, in Zaire and later in a small town in the United States. It is primarily set in the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the fictional town of Cedar Creek, California. Outbreak plot speculates how far military and civilian agencies might go to contain the spread of a deadly, contagious disease.

text: The film focuses on an outbreak of a fictional

text: Ebola-like virus

text: , Motaba, in

text: Zaire

text: and later in a small town in the United States. It is primarily set in the

text: United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

text: and the

text: and the fictional town of Cedar Creek, California. Outbreak plot speculates how far military and civilian agencies might go to contain the spread of a deadly, contagious disease.

text: There are 35 notifiable infectious diseases, which are divided into Classes A, B, and C. The functions of the surveillance include explaining the natural history of infectious diseases, describing the distribution of case occurrence, triggering disease-control effort, monitoring epidemic of infectious diseases during natural disasters, predicting and controlling epidemics and providing the base of policy adjustment.

text: There are 35 notifiable infectious diseases, which are divided into Classes A, B, and C. The functions of the surveillance include explaining the natural history of infectious diseases, describing the distribution of case occurrence, triggering disease-control effort, monitoring epidemic of infectious diseases during

text: natural disasters

text: , predicting and controlling epidemics and providing the base of policy adjustment.

text: Infectious disease, also known as Infectious diseases, infectious medicine, infectious disease medicine or infectiology, is a medical specialty dealing with the diagnosis, control and treatment of infections. An infectious disease (ID) specialist's practice may consist largely of managing nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections, or it may be out-patient based, in which case it focuses more on community-acquired infections.

text: Some cultural controls include pruning out infectious plant material, planting in pathogen-free fields, and practicing proper sanitation techniques. In the Philippines, pruning and cutting out patches of infected tissue have prevented the spread of the pathogen in the plant during disease outbreaks. General sanitation practices have also reduced the spread of inoculum. When planters failed to maintain sanitary equipment, seeds, and soil, they witnessed severe fruit infections. The more freckles seen on the leaves of the plant, the more the fruit develops symptoms of the disease. Inversely, less freckles corresponded to less disease.

text: Some cultural controls include pruning out infectious plant material, planting in

text: pathogen-free

text: fields, and practicing proper sanitation techniques. In the Philippines, pruning and cutting out patches of infected tissue have prevented the spread of the pathogen in the plant during disease outbreaks. General sanitation practices have also reduced the spread of inoculum. When planters failed to maintain sanitary equipment, seeds, and soil, they witnessed severe fruit infections. The more freckles seen on the leaves of the plant, the more the fruit develops symptoms of the disease. Inversely, less freckles corresponded to less disease.

text: The Journal of Infectious Diseases is a peer-reviewed biweekly medical journal published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. It covers research on the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of infectious diseases, on the microbes that cause them, and on immune system disorders. The editor-in-chief is Martin Hirsch, who succeeded Marvin Turck. The journal was established in 1904 and was a quarterly until 1969 when it became a monthly then in 2001, it began biweekly publication. From 1904 to 2011, the journal was published by the University of Chicago Press.

text: The Journal of Infectious Diseases is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: biweekly

text: medical journal

text: published by

text: Oxford University Press

text: on behalf of the

text: Infectious Diseases Society of America

text: . It covers research on the

text: pathogenesis

text: diagnosis

text: , and

text: treatment

text: of

text: infectious disease

text: s, on the

text: microbes

text: that cause them, and on

text: immune system

text: disorders. The

text: editor-in-chief

text: is Martin Hirsch, who succeeded

text: Marvin Turck

text: . The journal was established in 1904 and was a quarterly until 1969 when it became a monthly then in 2001, it began biweekly publication. From 1904 to 2011, the journal was published by the

text: University of Chicago Press

text: Tuberculosis is the leading cause of death around the world for an infectious disease. This disease is especially prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, and the Latin American and Caribbean region.  While the tuberculosis rate is decreasing in the rest of the world, it is increasing by rate of 6 percent per year in Sub-Saharan Africa.  It is the leading cause of death for people with HIV in Africa. Tuberculosis (TB) is closely related to lifestyles of poverty, overcrowded conditions, alcoholism, stress, drug addiction and malnutrition.   This disease spreads quickly among people who are undernourished. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, in the United States, tuberculosis is more prevalent among foreign born persons, and ethnic minorities.  The rates are especially high among Hispanics, Blacks and Asians.HIV infection and TB are also closely tied.  Being infected with HIV increases the rate of activation of latent TB infections, and having TB, increases the rate of HIV replication, therefore accelerating the progression of AIDS.

text: Tuberculosis

text: is the leading cause of death around the world for an infectious disease. This disease is especially prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, and the Latin American and Caribbean region.  While the tuberculosis rate is decreasing in the rest of the world, it is increasing by rate of 6 percent per year in Sub-Saharan Africa.  It is the leading cause of death for people with HIV in Africa. Tuberculosis (TB) is closely related to lifestyles of poverty, overcrowded conditions, alcoholism, stress, drug addiction and malnutrition.   This disease spreads quickly among people who are undernourished. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, in the United States, tuberculosis is more prevalent among foreign born persons, and ethnic minorities.  The rates are especially high among Hispanics, Blacks and Asians.HIV infection and TB are also closely tied.  Being infected with HIV increases the rate of activation of latent TB infections, and having TB, increases the rate of HIV replication, therefore accelerating the progression of AIDS.

text: During the 1960s, two London-based researchers, radiation biologist Tikvah Alper and biophysicist John Stanley Griffith, developed the hypothesis that some transmissible spongiform encephalopathies are caused by an infectious agent consisting solely of proteins. Earlier investigations by E. J. Field into scrapie and kuru had identified the transfer of pathologically inert polysaccharides that only become infectious in the host. Alper and Griffith wanted to account for the discovery that the mysterious infectious agent causing the diseases scrapie and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease resisted ionizing radiation.  (A single ionizing "hit" normally destroys an entire infectious particle, and the dose needed to hit half the particles depends on the size of the particles. The data suggested that the infectious agent was too small to be a virus.)

text: During the 1960s, two London-based researchers, radiation biologist

text: Tikvah Alper

text: and biophysicist

text: John Stanley Griffith

text: , developed the hypothesis that some

text: transmissible spongiform encephalopathies

text: are caused by an infectious agent consisting solely of proteins. Earlier investigations by

text: E. J. Field

text: into

text: scrapie

text: and

text: kuru

text: had identified the transfer of pathologically inert polysaccharides that only become infectious in the host. Alper and Griffith wanted to account for the discovery that the mysterious infectious agent causing the diseases scrapie and

text: Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

text: resisted

text: ionizing radiation

text: .  (A single ionizing "hit" normally destroys an entire infectious particle, and the dose needed to hit half the particles depends on the size of the particles. The data suggested that the infectious agent was too small to be a virus.)

text: Prescribing by an infectious disease specialist compared with prescribing by a non-infectious disease specialist decreases antibiotic consumption and reduces costs.

text: Viral hemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola Virus Disease, Lassa fever virus, Rift Valley fever, Marburg Virus and Bolivian hemorrhagic fever are highly contagious and deadly diseases, with the theoretical potential to become pandemics. Their ability to spread efficiently enough to cause a pandemic is limited, however, as transmission of these viruses requires close contact with the infected vector, and the vector only has a short time before death or serious illness. Furthermore, the short time between a vector becoming infectious and the onset of symptoms allows medical professionals to quickly quarantine vectors, and prevent them from carrying the pathogen elsewhere. Genetic mutations could occur, which could elevate their potential for causing widespread harm; thus close observation by contagious disease specialists is merited.

text: Viral hemorrhagic fevers such as

text: Ebola Virus Disease

text: Lassa fever virus

text: Rift Valley fever

text: Marburg Virus

text: and

text: Bolivian hemorrhagic fever

text: are highly contagious and deadly diseases, with the theoretical potential to become pandemics. Their ability to spread efficiently enough to cause a pandemic is limited, however, as transmission of these viruses requires close contact with the infected

text: vector

text: , and the vector only has a short time before death or serious illness. Furthermore, the short time between a vector becoming infectious and the onset of symptoms allows medical professionals to quickly

text: quarantine

text: vectors, and prevent them from carrying the pathogen elsewhere. Genetic mutations could occur, which could elevate their potential for causing widespread harm; thus close observation by contagious disease specialists is merited.

text: The Association of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Disease Canada (AMMI Canada) is a Canadian national medical specialty association composed of specialists in infectious diseases and medical microbiology, clinical microbiologists and researchers specializing in preventing, diagnosing, and treating infections. The association is a national specialty society recognized by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada.The association promotes the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human infectious diseases through our involvement in education, research, clinical practice and patient advocacy. Position papers and guidelines in support of this mission are published in the official Journal of the Association of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases - JAMMI (an open access journal) and/or posted on the organization's website.  Prior to January 1 2016, these were published in the Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology The annual meeting of the association occurs in the spring at which members present information of mutual interest.

text: The Association of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Disease Canada (AMMI Canada) is a Canadian national medical specialty association composed of specialists in infectious diseases and medical microbiology, clinical microbiologists and researchers specializing in preventing, diagnosing, and treating infections. The association is a national specialty society recognized by the

entity_name: Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada

text: Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada

text: .The association promotes the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human infectious diseases through our involvement in education, research, clinical practice and patient advocacy. Position papers and guidelines in support of this mission are published in the official Journal of the Association of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases - JAMMI (an

text: open access journal

text: ) and/or posted on the organization's website.  Prior to January 1 2016, these were published in the Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases and Medical Microbiology The annual meeting of the association occurs in the spring at which members present information of mutual interest.

text: Another important societal variable for mating strategies is the threat of infectious disease or pathogen prevalence. Since physical attractiveness is thought to signal health and disease resistance, evolutionary psychologists have predicted that, in societies high in pathogen prevalence, people will value attractiveness more in a mate. Indeed, research has confirmed that pathogen prevalence is associated with preferences for attractiveness across nations. Women in nations with high pathogen prevalence also show greater preferences for facial masculinity. Researchers have also reasoned that sexual contact with multiple individuals increases the risk of disease transmission, thereby increasing the costs of pursuing a short-term mating strategy. Consistent with this reasoning, higher pathogen prevalence is associated with lower national SOI scores. Finally, several studies have found that experimentally manipulating disease salience has a causal influence on attractiveness preferences and SOI scores in predicted directions.

text: Island biogeography theory also led to the development of wildlife corridors as a conservation tool to increase connectivity between habitat islands. Wildlife corridors can increase the movement of species between parks and reserves and therefore increase the number of species that can be supported, but they can also allow for the spread of disease and pathogens between populations, complicating the simple proscription of connectivity being good for biodiversity.

text: Island biogeography theory also led to the development of

text: wildlife corridor

text: s as a conservation tool to increase connectivity between habitat islands. Wildlife corridors can increase the movement of species between parks and reserves and therefore increase the number of species that can be supported, but they can also allow for the spread of disease and pathogens between populations, complicating the simple proscription of connectivity being good for biodiversity.

text: Plant breeders emphasize selection and development of disease-resistant plant lines. Plant diseases can also be partially controlled by use of pesticides and by cultivation practices such as crop rotation, tillage, planting density, disease-free seeds and cleaning of equipment, but plant varieties with inherent (genetically determined) disease resistance are generally preferred. Breeding for disease resistance began when plants were first domesticated. Breeding efforts continue because pathogen populations are under selection pressure for increased virulence, new pathogens appear, evolving cultivation practices and changing climate can reduce resistance and/or strengthen pathogens, and plant breeding for other traits can disrupt prior resistance. A plant line with acceptable resistance against one pathogen may lack resistance against others.

text: Plant breeders emphasize selection and development of disease-resistant plant lines. Plant diseases can also be partially controlled by use of

text: pesticides

text: and by cultivation practices such as

text: crop rotation

text: , tillage, planting density, disease-free seeds and cleaning of equipment, but plant varieties with inherent (genetically determined) disease resistance are generally preferred. Breeding for disease resistance began when plants were first domesticated. Breeding efforts continue because pathogen populations are under

text: selection pressure

text: for increased virulence, new pathogens appear, evolving cultivation practices and changing climate can reduce resistance and/or strengthen pathogens, and plant breeding for other traits can disrupt prior resistance. A plant line with acceptable resistance against one pathogen may lack resistance against others.

text: Non-traumatic causes are less common. These include infectious diseases, medical procedures such as colonoscopy, haematological diseases, medications, and pregnancy.

text: This development would lead to the development of an algorithm which would help to identify the conserved regions of pathogen sequences and in turn would be useful for vaccine development. This would be helpful in limiting the spread of infectious disease. These examples illustrate the power of immunoinformatics' application to complex problems in public health. Immunoinformatics could accelerate the discovery process dramatically and potentially shorten the time required for vaccine development.

text: “It is important to note that dead whales that have been washed ashore in Ghana were in a decomposed state and, therefore, samples could not be taken for laboratory analysis to ascertain the cause of death,” the Ministry of Fisheries and the Fisheries Commission said in a joint statement signed by the sector Minister, Mr Nayon Bilijo. The Fisheries Commission said: “The cause of death of the whales is not due to negligence or inaction on the part of competent authorities responsible for the regulation and management of the Ghanaian marine waters”. It explained that the death of a whale could be due to ageing, infectious disease related to bacterial, fungal, viral and parasitic infection or non-infectious diseases related to failure of internal organs.

text: “It is important to note that dead whales that have been washed ashore in Ghana were in a decomposed state and, therefore, samples could not be taken for laboratory analysis to ascertain the cause of death,” the Ministry of Fisheries and the Fisheries Commission said in a joint statement signed by the sector Minister, Mr

text: Nayon Bilijo

text: . The Fisheries Commission said: “The cause of death of the whales is not due to negligence or inaction on the part of competent authorities responsible for the regulation and management of the Ghanaian marine waters”. It explained that the death of a whale could be due to ageing, infectious disease related to bacterial, fungal, viral and parasitic infection or non-infectious diseases related to failure of internal organs.

text: A mathematical model is a simplified representation using mathematical language to describe natural, mechanical or social system dynamics.  In the early 20th century, epidemiologists became increasingly interested in the use of mathematical modelling procedures to project possible patterns in the spread of infectious diseases, including potential outcomes of an epidemic.  To achieve these goals, epidemiological modelers unite several types of information and analytic capacity, including: 1) mathematical equations and computational algorithms; 2) computer technology; 3) epidemiological knowledge about infectious disease dynamics, including information about specific pathogens and disease vectors; and 4) research data on social conditions and human behavior.  Mathematical modelling in epidemiology is now being applied to syndemics.  Abu-Raddad, Patnaik, and Kublin (2006), for example, used modelling to quantify the syndemic effects of malaria and HIV in sub-Saharan Africa based on research in Kisumu, Kenya.  These researchers point out that infection with HIV facilitates disease progression in individuals exposed to malaria.  At the same time, immune reaction to malaria doubles the infectious level of HIV infected individual.  In short, in typical syndemic fashion, each of these diseases amplifies the effects of the other.  Using mathematical modelling, Abu-Raddad and co-workers found that 5% of HIV infections (or 8,500 cases of HIV since 1980) in Kisumu are the result of the higher HIV infectiousness of malaria-infected HIV patients.  Additionally, their model attributed 10% of adult malaria episodes (or almost one million excess malaria infections since 1980) to the greater susceptibility of HIV infected individuals to malaria.  Their model also suggests that HIV has contributed to the wider geographic spread of malaria in Africa, a process previously thought to be the consequence primarily of global warming.  Other researchers (e.g., Herring and Sattenspiel 2007) also have begun to apply mathematical modelling to syndemics.  Modelling offers an enormously useful tool for anticipating future syndemics, including eco-syndemic, based on information about the spread of various diseases across the planet and the consequent co-infections and disease interactions that will result.

text: A

text: mathematical model

text: is a simplified representation using mathematical language to describe natural, mechanical or social system dynamics.  In the early 20th century, epidemiologists became increasingly interested in the use of mathematical modelling procedures to project possible patterns in the spread of

text: infectious diseases

text: , including potential outcomes of an epidemic.  To achieve these goals, epidemiological modelers unite several types of information and analytic capacity, including: 1) mathematical equations and computational algorithms; 2) computer technology; 3) epidemiological knowledge about

text: infectious disease dynamics

text: , including information about specific pathogens and disease

text: vectors

text: ; and 4) research data on social conditions and human behavior.

text: Mathematical modelling in epidemiology

text: There are many communicable diseases and conditions that threaten the livelihood of the Guatemalan people on a day-to-day basis. Infectious diseases are still the number one cause of death for people in developing countries, whereas in the developed world, infectious diseases are no longer a significant problem. Furthermore, in Guatemala, parasites, diabetes, and malnutrition are huge health problems. Diabetes threatens development in many rural Mayan communities within Guatemala. In order to attack this problem head-on, “health service efforts must be culturally appropriate and emphasize awareness, prevention, early detection, and universal treatment”. Also, malnutrition remains a huge problem among children and adults in Guatemala. Given the prevalence of poverty, many residents have limited access to quality nutrition, limited education, and higher rates of disease. Even though there have been improvements, Guatemala is still characterized by high infant and maternal morbidity and mortality rates, pervasive malnutrition, and high incidences of infectious diseases. Also, in Guatemala, the prevalence of Type 2 diabetes and obesity has risen.

text: There are many

text: communicable diseases

text: and conditions that threaten the livelihood of the Guatemalan people on a day-to-day basis.

text: Infectious diseases

text: are still the number one cause of death for people in

text: developing countries

text: , whereas in the developed world, infectious diseases are no longer a significant problem. Furthermore, in Guatemala, parasites,

text: diabetes

text: , and

text: malnutrition

text: are huge health problems. Diabetes threatens development in many rural Mayan communities within Guatemala. In order to attack this problem head-on, “health service efforts must be culturally appropriate and emphasize awareness, prevention, early detection, and universal treatment”. Also, malnutrition remains a huge problem among children and adults in Guatemala. Given the prevalence of poverty, many residents have limited access to quality nutrition, limited education, and higher rates of disease. Even though there have been improvements, Guatemala is still characterized by high infant and maternal

text: morbidity

text: and

text: mortality rate

text: s, pervasive malnutrition, and high

text: incidences

text: of infectious diseases. Also, in Guatemala, the

text: prevalence

text: of Type 2 diabetes and obesity has risen.

text: Originally fever patients had been treated in ordinary wards at DRI, but as awareness of the need for isolation to prevent the spread of contagious disease grew during the nineteenth century, this practice ceased. In the 1860s and 1870s smallpox and typhus patients were treated in wooden pavilions at other sites and this ultimately led to the opening of a separate hospital for infectious diseases at King's Cross in 1889.

text: Originally fever patients had been treated in ordinary wards at DRI, but as awareness of the need for isolation to prevent the spread of contagious disease grew during the nineteenth century, this practice ceased. In the 1860s and 1870s smallpox and typhus patients were treated in wooden pavilions at other sites and this ultimately led to the opening of a separate hospital for infectious diseases at

text: King's Cross

text: in 1889.

text: In the study of infectious diseases and host responses, the mathematical and computer models are a great help. These models were very useful in characterizing the behavior and spread of infectious disease, by understanding the dynamics of the pathogen in the host and the mechanisms of host factors which aid pathogen persistence. Examples include Plasmodium falciparum and nematode infection in ruminants.

text: Results of carried out research projects managed by this center includes reports on plague in rodents and dogs in the western part of the country, reports on tularemia seropositivity in human high-risk groups in Kurdistan and Sistan and Baluchestan provinces  and the first report of endocarditis case of Q fever in Tehran. In addition, this research center has a close scientific relationship with the national reference laboratory of Arboviruses and viral haemorrhagic fever in Pasteur Institute of Iran to monitor other emerging and reemerging infectious diseases such as Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever, dengue fever, West Nile fever, Rift Valley fever, etc. To monitor other emerging and reemerging infectious diseases, studies have been done on diseases such as recurrent fever, HIV, tuberculosis and hepatitis.

text: Plant pathogens follow infectious disease dynamics. The basic reproductive rate

text: Plant pathogens follow

text: infectious disease dynamics

text: . The

text: basic reproductive rate

text: Starting in 1915, he worked at the George Williams Hooper Foundation Institute for Medical Research, University of California, devoted to medical research (whose first director was George H. Whipple, the Nobelist). At first, Meyer was acting director, and soon succeeded Whipple as director of the Hooper.Meyer’s personality, his enormous knowledge combined with his energy and extraordinary drive were just what was needed to tackle the many pioneering tasks. He contributed significantly to the understanding, treatment, and prevention of many infectious (and other) diseases. His contributions and achievements were founded on his holistic, ecological approach. He was a generalist, meaning that he always concurrently concentrated on the interactions and interdependence of the factors involved, as they are: (i) the disease agents (biology, habitat, hosts, transmission to man, infectiousness, etc.); (ii) disease in man and animals (diagnosis, therapies, pathology, epidemiology); (iii) public health; and (iv) education. His 1930s Public Health curriculum at the University of California played a large role in the creation of the UC Berkeley School of Public Health.

text: Starting in 1915, he worked at the George Williams Hooper Foundation Institute for Medical Research, University of California, devoted to medical research (whose first director was

text: George H. Whipple

text: , the Nobelist). At first, Meyer was acting director, and soon succeeded Whipple as director of the Hooper.Meyer’s personality, his enormous knowledge combined with his energy and extraordinary drive were just what was needed to tackle the many pioneering tasks. He contributed significantly to the understanding, treatment, and prevention of many infectious (and other) diseases. His contributions and achievements were founded on his holistic, ecological approach. He was a generalist, meaning that he always concurrently concentrated on the interactions and interdependence of the factors involved, as they are: (i) the disease agents (biology, habitat, hosts, transmission to man, infectiousness, etc.); (ii) disease in man and animals (diagnosis, therapies, pathology, epidemiology); (iii) public health; and (iv) education. His 1930s Public Health curriculum at the

text: University of California

text: played a large role in the creation of the

text: UC Berkeley School of Public Health

text: VectorBase is one of the five Bioinformatics Resource Centers (BRC) funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. VectorBase is  focused on invertebrate vectors of human pathogens working with the sequencing centers and the research community to curate vector genomes (mainly genome annotation).

text: VectorBase is one of the five

text: Bioinformatics Resource Centers

text: (BRC) funded by the

text: (NIAID), a component of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: (NIH), which is an agency of the

text: . VectorBase is  focused on invertebrate vectors of

text: human pathogen

text: s working with the sequencing centers and the research community to curate vector genomes (mainly

text: genome annotation

text: He is also the author of a medical app for Android and iPhone called Infectious Disease Compendium: A Guide to Infectious Diseases.

text: He is also the author of a medical app for

text: Android

text: and

text: iPhone

text: called Infectious Disease Compendium: A Guide to Infectious Diseases.

text: Prevalent in the northern areas of the Jarrah Forest, dieback disease, caused by the introduced soil-borne pathogen Phythopthora cinnamomi, is a serious threat to many plant species. The disease involves the formation of lesions  (decaying tissue) starting in the roots and moving up the stem of a plant, and, in the case of many species, killing them. It negatively affects more than 22% of the plant species in the forest. P. cinnamomi has been found in suberized and partially suberized roots that are perennial and it is these roots that form the specialised feeder root system of the jarrah. The spread of dieback is exacerbated by altered drainage caused by mining and timber harvesting. The soil population of P. cinnamomi is generally highest during spring, the time of year when soil temperature and moisture levels are high. An increase in summer rainfall is likely to increase the harm that this pathogen causes in the northern and southern jarrah forests, with high mortality rates of jarrah expected.

text: Prevalent in the northern areas of the Jarrah Forest, dieback disease, caused by the introduced soil-borne pathogen

text: Phythopthora cinnamomi

text: , is a serious threat to many plant species. The disease involves the formation of lesions  (decaying tissue) starting in the roots and moving up the stem of a plant, and, in the case of many species, killing them. It negatively affects more than 22% of the plant species in the forest.

text: P. cinnamomi

text: has been found in suberized and partially suberized roots that are perennial and it is these roots that form the specialised feeder root system of the jarrah. The spread of dieback is exacerbated by altered drainage caused by mining and timber harvesting. The soil population of

text: P. cinnamomi

text: is generally highest during spring, the time of year when soil temperature and moisture levels are high. An increase in summer rainfall is likely to increase the harm that this pathogen causes in the northern and southern jarrah forests, with high mortality rates of jarrah expected.

text: The fungus is an Ascomycete and can use conidia or ascospores to infect. There are three races of B. maydis: Race O, Race C, and Race T; SCLB symptoms vary depending on the infectious pathogen's race.  Race T is infectious to corn plants with the Texas male sterile cytoplasm (cms-T cytoplasm maize) and this vulnerability was the cause of the United States SCLB epidemic of 1969-1970  For this reason, Race T is of particular interest.  While SCLB thrives in warm, damp climates, the disease can be found in many of the world's maize-growing areas.  Typical management practices include breeding for host resistance, cultural controls and fungicide use.

text: The fungus is an

text: Ascomycete

text: and can use conidia or ascospores to infect. There are three races of B. maydis: Race O, Race C, and Race T; SCLB symptoms vary depending on the infectious pathogen's race.  Race T is infectious to corn plants with the Texas male sterile cytoplasm (cms-T cytoplasm maize) and this vulnerability was the cause of the United States SCLB epidemic of 1969-1970  For this reason, Race T is of particular interest.  While SCLB thrives in warm, damp climates, the disease can be found in many of the world's maize-growing areas.  Typical management practices include breeding for host resistance, cultural controls and

text: fungicide

text: use.

text: Testing for a disease can be expensive, and distinguishing between two diseases can be prohibitively difficult in many countries. One standard means of determining if a person has had a particular disease is to test for the presence of antibodies that are particular to this disease. In the case of H5N1, for example, there is a low pathogenic H5N1 strain in wild birds in North America that a human could conceivably have antibodies against. It would be extremely difficult to distinguish between antibodies produced by this strain, and antibodies produced by Asian lineage HPAI A(H5N1). Similar difficulties are common, and make it difficult to determine how widely a disease may have spread.

text: Testing for a disease can be expensive, and distinguishing between two diseases can be prohibitively difficult in many countries. One standard means of determining if a person has had a particular disease is to test for the presence of

text: antibodies

text: that are particular to this disease. In the case of H5N1, for example, there is a low pathogenic H5N1 strain in wild birds in North America that a human could conceivably have antibodies against. It would be extremely difficult to distinguish between antibodies produced by this strain, and antibodies produced by

text: Asian lineage HPAI A(H5N1)

text: . Similar difficulties are common, and make it difficult to determine how widely a disease may have spread.

text: The association collaborates with the Canadian Foundation for Infectious Diseases in raising money to support infectious diseases research in support of its mission.

text: Because the bacteria readily enter the plant through wounds, management practices that decrease injury to the plants are important to control the spread of the disease. Cultivation is not recommended, as the machinery can become contaminated and physically spread the bacteria around the soil. Accidental leaf tearing or root scarring can also occur depending on the size of the crop, allowing the bacteria to enter more individual plants. If hilling the beets, great care must be taken to avoid getting soil into the crown, because the pathogen is soil-borne and this could expose the plant to more bacteria, thus increasing the risk of infection.

text: Because the bacteria readily enter the plant through wounds, management practices that decrease injury to the plants are important to control the spread of the disease. Cultivation is not recommended, as the machinery can become contaminated and physically spread the bacteria around the soil. Accidental leaf tearing or root scarring can also occur depending on the size of the crop, allowing the bacteria to enter more individual plants. If

text: hilling

text: the beets, great care must be taken to avoid getting soil into the crown, because the pathogen is soil-borne and this could expose the plant to more bacteria, thus increasing the risk of infection.

text: The diffusion of infectious disease tends to occur in a ‘wave’ fashion, spreading from a central source.  Pyle mentions barriers that pose a resistance towards a wave of diffusion, which include but are not limited to:  physiographic features (i.e. mountains, water bodies), political boundaries, linguistic barriers, and with diseases, a barrier could be differing control programs.  The diffusion of disease can be identified as a normal distribution over time and translated into an S-shaped curve to show the phases of disease diffusion.  The phases are: Infusion (25th percentile), Inflection (50th percentile), Saturation (75th percentile), and Waning to the upper limits.

text: The diffusion of

text: infectious disease

text: tends to occur in a ‘wave’ fashion, spreading from a central source.  Pyle mentions barriers that pose a resistance towards a wave of diffusion, which include but are not limited to:  physiographic features (i.e. mountains, water bodies), political boundaries,

text: linguistic barriers

text: , and with diseases, a barrier could be differing control programs.  The diffusion of disease can be identified as a

text: normal distribution

text: over time and translated into an S-shaped curve to show the phases of disease diffusion.  The phases are: Infusion (25th percentile), Inflection (50th percentile), Saturation (75th percentile), and Waning to the upper limits.

text: Some countries, such as South Africa, or Thailand have very different infectious disease-related epidemiology to Europe and North America. Exposure to diseases without having built up natural immunity can be a hazard for weakened individuals, specifically with respect to gastrointestinal diseases (e.g. Hepatitis A, amoebic dysentery, paratyphoid) which could weaken progress and expose the patient to mosquito-transmitted diseases, influenza, and tuberculosis. However, because in poor tropical nations diseases run the gamut, doctors seem to be more open to the possibility of considering any infectious disease, including HIV, TB, and typhoid, while there are cases in the West where patients were consistently misdiagnosed for years because such diseases are perceived to be "rare" in the West.

text: Some countries, such as South Africa, or Thailand have very different infectious disease-related epidemiology to Europe and North America. Exposure to diseases without having built up natural immunity can be a hazard for weakened individuals, specifically with respect to gastrointestinal diseases (e.g.

text: Hepatitis A

text: amoebic dysentery

text: paratyphoid

text: ) which could weaken progress and expose the patient to

text: mosquito-transmitted diseases

text: influenza

text: , and

text: tuberculosis

text: . However, because in poor tropical nations diseases run the gamut, doctors seem to be more open to the possibility of considering any infectious disease, including

text: HIV

text: , TB, and

text: typhoid

text: , while there are cases in the West where patients were consistently misdiagnosed for years because such diseases are perceived to be "rare" in the West.

text: This pathogen is important because it affects homeowners lawns and also golf courses. It also affects parks and recreational areas. It is important because it can impede people and their ability to enjoy their landscapes. The dead patches are also unsightly, so it is important to control the disease, and keep it from spreading.

text: Tropical diseases are diseases that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions. The diseases are less prevalent in temperate climates, due in part to the occurrence of a cold season, which controls the insect population by forcing hibernation. However, many were present in northern Europe and northern America in the 17th and 18th centuries before modern understanding of disease causation. The initial impetus for tropical medicine was to protect the health of colonialists, notably in India under the British Raj. Insects such as mosquitoes and flies are by far the most common disease carrier, or vector. These insects may carry a parasite, bacterium or virus that is infectious to humans and animals. Most often disease is transmitted by an insect "bite", which causes transmission of the infectious agent through subcutaneous blood exchange. Vaccines are not available for most of the diseases listed here, and many do not have cures.

text: Tropical diseases are

text: disease

text: s that are prevalent in or unique to

text: tropical

text: and

text: subtropical

text: regions. The diseases are less prevalent in

text: temperate climate

text: s, due in part to the occurrence of a cold

text: season

text: , which controls the insect population by forcing hibernation. However, many were present in northern Europe and northern America in the 17th and 18th centuries before modern understanding of disease causation. The initial impetus for tropical medicine was to protect the health of colonialists, notably in India under the

text: British Raj

text: . Insects such as mosquitoes and flies are by far the most common disease carrier, or

text: vector

text: . These insects may carry a parasite, bacterium or virus that is infectious to humans and animals. Most often disease is transmitted by an insect "bite", which causes transmission of the infectious agent through subcutaneous blood exchange. Vaccines are not available for most of the diseases listed here, and many do not have cures.

text: The disease is named for the genus of the causative organism, which was named after the Romanian bacteriologist Victor Babeş. In 1888, Victor Babeş identified the microorganisms in red blood cells as the cause of febrile hemoglobinuria in cattle. In 1893, Theobald Smith and Frederick Kilborne discovered that a tick was the vector for transmission in Texas cattle. The agent was B. bigemina. This was the first demonstration that an arthropod could act as a disease vector to transmit an infectious agent to a vertebrate host.

text: The disease is named for the genus of the causative organism, which was named after the

text: Romanian

text: bacteriologist

text: Victor Babeş

text: . In 1888, Victor Babeş identified the microorganisms in red blood cells as the cause of febrile

text: hemoglobinuria

text: in cattle. In 1893,

text: Theobald Smith

text: and Frederick Kilborne discovered that a tick was the vector for transmission in Texas cattle. The agent was B. bigemina. This was the first demonstration that an

text: arthropod

text: could act as a

text: disease vector

text: to transmit an infectious agent to a vertebrate host.

text: Infectious diseases are often public health concerns because they can spread quickly and easily, affecting large numbers of members. The World Health Organization has an acute interest in combatting infectious disease outbreaks by minimizing their geographic and numerical spread and treating the affected. Other conditions for which there is not yet a cure or even effective treatment, such as dementia, can be viewed as public health concerns in the long run.

text: Infectious disease

text: s are often public health concerns because they can spread quickly and easily, affecting large numbers of members. The

text: World Health Organization

text: has an acute interest in combatting infectious disease outbreaks by minimizing their geographic and numerical spread and treating the affected. Other conditions for which there is not yet a cure or even effective treatment, such as

text: dementia

text: , can be viewed as public health concerns in the long run.

text: A clear relationship between nature and people is expressed through human disease. Infectious disease can thus be seen as another example of human-mediated disturbance as humans are hosts for infectious diseases. Historically, evidence of epidemic diseases is associated with the beginnings of agriculture and sedentary communities. Previously, human populations were too small and mobile for most infections to become established as chronic diseases. Permanent settlements, due to agriculture, allowed for more inter-community interaction, enabling infections to develop as specifically human pathogens.

text: A clear relationship between nature and people is expressed through human disease. Infectious disease can thus be seen as another example of human-mediated disturbance as humans are

text: hosts

text: for infectious diseases. Historically, evidence of epidemic diseases is associated with the beginnings of agriculture and sedentary communities. Previously, human populations were too small and mobile for most infections to become established as

text: chronic diseases

text: . Permanent settlements, due to agriculture, allowed for more inter-community interaction, enabling infections to develop as specifically human pathogens.

text: The infectious disease epidemiology cluster encompasses domestic and global work on the epidemiology of emerging and re-emerging infections, global infectious disease threats, disease surveillance, disease detection, development of vaccines and other prevention methods, clinical trials, and the role of infectious pathogens in the pathogenesis of chronic non-communicable diseases (such as cancer and cardiovascular disease).

text: The infectious disease epidemiology cluster encompasses domestic and global work on the epidemiology of emerging and re-emerging infections, global infectious disease threats, disease surveillance, disease detection, development of

text: vaccines

text: and other prevention methods,

text: clinical trials

text: , and the role of infectious pathogens in the pathogenesis of chronic non-communicable diseases (such as cancer and cardiovascular disease).

text: Hand hygiene is central to preventing spread of infectious diseases in home and everyday life settings.

text: In contrast to both the chytrid-thermal-optimum hypothesis and the climate-linked-epidemic hypothesis, the spatiotemporal-spread hypothesis suggests that population decline due to B. dendrobatidis was caused by the introduction and spread of B. dendrobatidis from a finite amount of introduction sites in a way unaffected by climate change. Mantel tests of all the possible origins of B. dendrobatidis were used to see if their hypothesis was correct. They did see positive correlations between spatial distance and distance in timing of declass and the lat year observed. "Coincident mass extirpation of neotropical amphibians with the emergence of the infectious fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis" by Tina L. Cheng et al., also parallels with the spatiotemporal-spread hypothesis by tracking the origins of B. dendrobatidis and tracking it from Mexico to Costa Rica. Furthermore, this study also shows that local amphibian species could have extreme susceptibility to B. dendrobatidis which could result in population decline.

text: The pathogenic tendency of Sporisorium reilianum as illustrated above is to carry out its life cycle in congruence with the growth of either maize or sorghum as the host plant. For example, In place of ears of corn; plant-like sorus develop. The onset of this smut is sporadic and slowly progressive however disease severity is high. For example,  a field of corn can have 10% infected with yield loss that has an 80% apparent infection rate. Post infection treatment to eliminate or reduce the disease are marginally effective or ineffective. The massive crop loss that this pathogen can create is devastating to producers who are unaware of the teliospores overwintering in the soil; which, can survive for many years. Treatment of seeds with a fungicide during planting or prior to harvest is important to limit the spread of spores especially if high risk field areas known by the producer. It is important to limit transmission of spores to disease free areas via harvesting equipment or planting tools. The incidence of  Sporisorium reilianum occurs in occurs in Africa, Europe, U.S., and China. Fungicide use in the market today indicates that there are about 52 million acres of cereals lost worldwide a year.

text: Since insects play a large role in spreading infectious blood borne diseases between humans, understanding how they locate their human hosts with their olfactory systems could lead to inhibiting their method of locating hosts. The potential strategy involved would be to create small molecules that mimic the Or83b mutation and inhibit the receptor and disperse them, since it would be impractical to mutate the gene for the receptor in an entire population of disease-spreading insects [3].

text: Childcare infection is the spread of infection during childcare, typically because of contact among children in daycare or school. This happens when groups of children meet in a childcare environment, and there any individual with an infectious disease may spread it to the entire group. Commonly spread diseases include influenza-like illness and enteric illnesses, such as diarrhea among babies using diapers. Illnesses and diseases may also include ring-worm, head lice, and hand, feet, mouth disease. It is uncertain how these diseases spread, but hand washing reduces some risk of transmission and increasing hygiene in other ways also reduces risk of infection.<ref>

text: Childcare infection is the spread of

text: infection

text: during

text: childcare

text: daycare

text: or

text: school

text: influenza-like illness

text: and enteric illnesses, such as diarrhea among babies using diapers. Illnesses and diseases may also include ring-worm, head lice, and hand, feet, mouth disease. It is uncertain how these diseases spread, but

text: hand washing

text: reduces some risk of transmission and increasing hygiene in other ways also reduces risk of infection.<ref>

text: Macrophage polarization is a process when macrophage expresses different functional programs in response to microenvironmental signals. There are lots of functional states of macrophage polarization and they can be fully polarized and acquire specific phenotype like M1 (classically activated macrophages)  or M2 (alternatively activated macrophages). These specific phenotypes depend on the tissue and specific microenvironment where macrophages are. On one hand macrophage polarization is very important for host defense against pathogen, but on the other hand it is essential for maintenance of homeostasis. Prolonged M1 type of macrophages is harmful for the organism and that is why tissue repair and restoration is necessary. M2 macrophages are responsible for that tissue repair, although they are also connected with chronic infectious diseases.

text: Macrophage polarization is a process when

text: macrophage

text: expresses different functional programs in response to microenvironmental signals. There are lots of functional states of macrophage polarization and they can be fully polarized and acquire specific phenotype like M1 (classically activated macrophages)  or M2 (alternatively activated macrophages). These specific phenotypes depend on the tissue and specific microenvironment where macrophages are. On one hand macrophage polarization is very important for host defense against

text: pathogen

text: , but on the other hand it is essential for maintenance of

text: homeostasis

text: . Prolonged M1 type of macrophages is harmful for the organism and that is why tissue repair and restoration is necessary. M2 macrophages are responsible for that tissue repair, although they are also connected with chronic

text: infectious diseases

text: It has previously been known as the Joint Hospital, County Hospital, and Inverurie Infectious Diseases Hospital. It was founded in 1897. The Infectious diseases hospital opened in December 1940 as an 80-bedded fever hospital, admitting patients with infectious diseases from across Aberdeenshire.

text: It has previously been known as the Joint Hospital, County Hospital, and Inverurie Infectious Diseases Hospital. It was founded in 1897. The Infectious diseases hospital opened in December 1940 as an 80-bedded fever hospital, admitting patients with

text: infectious diseases

text: from across Aberdeenshire.

text: It is now also known that animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, these include species such as Bacteroides, L. acidophilus and E. coli, among many others. They are essential to digestion, and are also affected by the food we eat.  Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing vitamin B12, and defending against some infectious diseases.

text: It is now also known that animal

text: intestine

text: s contain a large population of

text: gut flora

text: . In humans, these include species such as

text: Bacteroides

text: L. acidophilus

text: and

text: E. coli

text: , among many others. They are essential to

text: digestion

text: , and are also affected by the food we eat.  Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing

text: vitamin B12

text: , and defending against some infectious diseases.

text: Syrian hamsters are used to model the human medical conditions including various cancers, metabolic diseases, non-cancer respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, infectious diseases, and general health concerns. In 2006-07, Syrian hamsters accounted for 19% of the total animal research participants in the United States.

text: Syrian hamsters

text: are used to model the human medical conditions including various cancers, metabolic diseases, non-cancer respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, infectious diseases, and general health concerns. In 2006-07, Syrian hamsters accounted for 19% of the total animal research participants in the United States.

text: Their medical and marketing teams collaborate with international organizations such as World society for Pediatric Infectious Diseases (WSPID), European Society for Paediatric Infectious Diseases (ESPID), EAPS, Asian society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases (ASPID), Excellence In Pediatrics (EiP), etc. for participation in international conference.

text: Their medical and marketing teams collaborate with international organizations such as

text: World society for Pediatric Infectious Diseases

text: (WSPID),

entity_name: European Society for Paediatric Infectious Diseases

text: European Society for Paediatric Infectious Diseases

text: (ESPID), EAPS,

text: Asian society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases

text: (ASPID),

text: Excellence In Pediatrics

text: (EiP), etc. for participation in international conference.

text: Plant pathology (also phytopathology) is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused by pathogens (infectious organisms) and environmental conditions (physiological factors). Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by consumption of plant tissues. Plant pathology also involves the study of pathogen identification, disease etiology, disease cycles, economic impact, plant disease epidemiology, plant disease resistance, how plant diseases affect humans and animals, pathosystem genetics, and management of plant diseases.

text: Plant pathology (also phytopathology) is the scientific study of

text: disease

text: s in

text: plant

text: s caused by

text: pathogen

text: s (infectious organisms) and environmental conditions (physiological factors). Organisms that cause infectious disease include

text: fungi

text: oomycetes

text: bacteria

text: viruses

text: viroid

text: s,

text: virus

text: -like organisms,

text: phytoplasmas

text: protozoa

text: nematode

text: s and

text: parasitic plant

text: s. Not included are ectoparasites like

text: insects

text: mites

text: vertebrate

text: , or other

text: pests that affect plant health

text: by consumption of plant tissues. Plant pathology also involves the study of pathogen identification, disease etiology, disease cycles, economic impact,

text: plant disease epidemiology

text: plant disease resistance

text: , how plant diseases affect humans and animals, pathosystem genetics, and management of plant diseases.

text: The spread of an infectious disease is a population-level phenomenon, but decisions to prevent or treat a disease are typically made by individuals who may change their behavior over the course of an epidemic, especially if their perception of risk changes depending on the available information on the epidemics  – their decisions will then have population-level consequences. For example, an individual may choose to have unsafe sex or a doctor may prescribe antibiotics to someone without a confirmed bacterial infection. In both cases, the choice may be rational from the individual’s point of view but undesirable from a societal perspective.

text: The spread of an

text: infectious disease

text: is a population-level phenomenon, but decisions to prevent or treat a disease are typically made by individuals who may change their behavior over the course of an epidemic, especially if their

text: perception of risk

text: changes depending on the available information on the epidemics  – their decisions will then have population-level consequences. For example, an individual may choose to have

text: unsafe sex

text: or a doctor may prescribe antibiotics to someone without a confirmed

text: bacterial infection

text: . In both cases, the choice may be rational from the individual’s point of view but undesirable from a societal perspective.

text: Major infectious diseases

text: Major infectious diseases

text: At the same time that concerns about allergies and other chronic inflammatory diseases have been increasing, so also have concerns about infectious disease. Infectious diseases continue to exert a heavy health toll. Preventing pandemics and reducing antibiotic resistance are global priorities. Hygiene is a cornerstone of containing these threats.

text: At the same time that concerns about allergies and other chronic inflammatory diseases have been increasing, so also have concerns about infectious disease. Infectious diseases continue to exert a heavy health toll. Preventing

text: pandemics

text: and reducing

text: antibiotic resistance

text: are global priorities. Hygiene is a cornerstone of containing these threats.

text: Not much is known about the disease cycle of ash yellows. It is unknown how exactly the phytoplasma enters the tree and how it spreads but insect vectors are suspected. This is due to the fact that phytoplasmas are often spread in the salivary secretions of insects during feeding. One likely candidate for spreading these phytoplasmas, also known as mycoplasmalike organisms (MLOs), is leafhoppers because data shows they are the most common insect vector for MLOs. Once inside the host, the phytoplasma attacks the tree's vascular system, specifically targeting the phloem sieve tubes. Additionally, the severity of the disease symptoms caused by the phytoplasma varies. In one study that was conducted, 12 different strains of phytoplasmas belonging to the ash yellows group were tested and it was found that these strains varied significantly in aggressiveness and the impact they had on growth of the host.

text: Not much is known about the disease cycle of ash yellows. It is unknown how exactly the phytoplasma enters the tree and how it spreads but insect vectors are suspected. This is due to the fact that phytoplasmas are often spread in the salivary secretions of insects during feeding. One likely candidate for spreading these phytoplasmas, also known as mycoplasmalike organisms (MLOs), is

text: leafhopper

text: s because data shows they are the most common insect vector for MLOs. Once inside the host, the phytoplasma attacks the tree's vascular system, specifically targeting the

text: phloem

text: sieve tubes. Additionally, the severity of the disease symptoms caused by the phytoplasma varies. In one study that was conducted, 12 different strains of phytoplasmas belonging to the ash yellows group were tested and it was found that these strains varied significantly in aggressiveness and the impact they had on growth of the host.

text: The institute's primary function is to conduct researches to prevent and to control occurring tropical and other infectious diseases in the country. This includes researches involving the advancement of vaccines and medications used by medical professionals, such as physicians, nurses and medical technologists, that they utilize whenever patients they handle are under the diagnosis and treatment of infectious and treatable and curable diseases. The institute also trains medical and health workers in order to be further educated in their fields in relation to the management of tropical infectious diseases. Formulation of plans and research projects involving biological products proposed and currently utilized by the Philippine Department of Health are also covered by the functions of the Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, including the manufacture of biologic products and vaccines.

text: The institute's primary function is to conduct researches to prevent and to control occurring tropical and other infectious diseases in the country. This includes researches involving the advancement of vaccines and medications used by medical professionals, such as physicians, nurses and medical technologists, that they utilize whenever patients they handle are under the diagnosis and treatment of infectious and treatable and curable diseases. The institute also trains medical and health workers in order to be further educated in their fields in relation to the management of tropical infectious diseases. Formulation of plans and research projects involving biological products proposed and currently utilized by the Philippine

text: Department of Health

text: are also covered by the functions of the Research Institute for Tropical Medicine, including the manufacture of biologic products and vaccines.

text: Diseases transmitted from human to human indirectly, i.e. malaria spread by way of mosquitoes, are transmitted through a vector.  In these cases, the infection transfers from human to insect and an epidemic model must include both species, generally requiring many more compartments than a model for direct transmission.  For more information on this type of model see the reference Population Dynamics of Infectious Diseases:  Theory and Applications, by R. M. Anderson (Brauer & Castillo-Chavez, 2001).

text: One of the essential global health priorities is the timely recognition and reporting of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. Early recognition can enable coordinated and rapid responses to an outbreak, preventing catastrophic morbidity and mortality. Additionally, early detection can alleviate grave economic hardship brought upon by pandemics and emerging diseases. Burgeoning globalization of commerce, finance, manufacturing, and services has fostered ever-increasing movement of people, animals, plants, food, and feed. Other contributing factors to the risk of new pathogens emerging and known pathogens re-emerging include climate change, urbanization, land use changes, and political instability. Outbreaks that begin in the most remote parts of the world now spread swiftly to urban centers in countries far away. The epidemiological data in ProMED posts has been used to estimate mortality rates and demographic parameters for specific diseases.

text: One of the essential global health priorities is the timely recognition and reporting of emerging and re-emerging

text: infectious diseases

text: . Early recognition can enable coordinated and rapid responses to an outbreak, preventing catastrophic morbidity and mortality. Additionally, early detection can alleviate grave economic hardship brought upon by pandemics and emerging diseases. Burgeoning globalization of commerce, finance, manufacturing, and services has fostered ever-increasing movement of people, animals, plants, food, and feed. Other contributing factors to the risk of new pathogens emerging and known pathogens re-emerging include climate change, urbanization, land use changes, and political instability. Outbreaks that begin in the most remote parts of the world now spread swiftly to urban centers in countries far away. The epidemiological data in ProMED posts has been used to estimate mortality rates and demographic parameters for specific diseases.

text: A summary of reports to the World Organisation for Animal Health in 2005 and 2010 suggest that surveillance and under-reporting in developed and developing countries is still a challenge. Often, donor support can focus on HPAI control alone, while similar diseases such as Newcastle disease, acute fowl cholera, infectious laryngotracheitis, and infectious bursal disease still affect poultry populations. When HPAI tests come back negative, a lack of funded testing for differential diagnoses can leave farmers wondering what killed their birds.

text: A summary of reports to the

text: World Organisation for Animal Health

text: in 2005 and 2010 suggest that surveillance and under-reporting in developed and developing countries is still a challenge. Often, donor support can focus on HPAI control alone, while similar diseases such as

text: Newcastle disease

text: , acute

text: fowl cholera

text: , infectious laryngotracheitis, and

text: infectious bursal disease

text: still affect poultry populations. When HPAI tests come back negative, a lack of funded testing for

text: differential diagnoses

text: can leave farmers wondering what killed their birds.

text: Once the pathogen enters the host, it makes its way to the vascular system, and specifically the xylem.  The fungi can spread as hyphae through the plant, but can also spread as spores.  Verticillium produce conidia on conidiophores and once conidia are released in the xylem, they can quickly colonize the plant.  Conidia have been observed traveling to the top of cotton plants, 115 cm, 24 hours after initial conidia inoculation, so the spread throughout the plant can occur very quickly.  Sometimes the flow of conidia will be stopped by cross sections of the xylem, and here the conidia will spawn, and the fungal hyphae can overcome the barrier, and then produce more conidia on the other side.

text: Once the pathogen enters the host, it makes its way to the vascular system, and specifically the xylem.  The fungi can spread as hyphae through the plant, but can also spread as spores.  Verticillium produce

text: conidia

text: on conidiophores and once conidia are released in the xylem, they can quickly colonize the plant.  Conidia have been observed traveling to the top of cotton plants, 115 cm, 24 hours after initial conidia inoculation, so the spread throughout the plant can occur very quickly.  Sometimes the flow of conidia will be stopped by cross sections of the xylem, and here the conidia will spawn, and the fungal hyphae can overcome the barrier, and then produce more conidia on the other side.

text: Infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to these organisms and the toxins they produce. Infectious disease, also known as transmissible disease or communicable disease, is illness resulting from an infection.

text: Infection is the invasion of an organism's body

text: tissue

text: s by

text: disease

text: -causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to these organisms and the

text: toxin

text: s they produce. Infectious disease, also known as

text: transmissible disease

text: or communicable disease, is

text: illness

text: resulting from an infection.

text: A census taken by the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo, the census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Inca. Historian David N. Cook estimates that their population decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases. While the attrition was not an organized attempt at genocide, the results were similar. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease such as smallpox (unlike the Spanish, the Amerindians had no immunity to the disease) was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives. Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns centered around a plaza with a church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca cities like Cuzco retained native masonry for the foundations of their walls. Other Inca sites, like Huanuco Viejo, were abandoned for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish.

text: A census taken by the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there were 12 million inhabitants of Inca Peru; 45 years later, under viceroy Toledo, the census figures amounted to only 1,100,000 Inca. Historian David N. Cook estimates that their population decreased from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of

text: infectious disease

text: s. While the attrition was not an organized attempt at

text: genocide

text: , the results were similar. Scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors,

text: epidemic

text: disease

text: such as

text: smallpox

text: (unlike the Spanish, the

text: Amerindians

text: had no immunity to the disease) was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives. Inca cities were given Spanish Christian names and rebuilt as Spanish towns centered around a

text: plaza

text: with a church or cathedral facing an official residence. A few Inca cities like Cuzco retained native masonry for the foundations of their walls. Other Inca sites, like

text: Huanuco Viejo

text: , were abandoned for cities at lower altitudes more hospitable to the Spanish.

text: Dr. Hull is a physician epidemiologist with more than 35 years of experience in infectious disease control.  He is an expert in food borne diseases, vaccine preventable diseases and the epidemiology of infectious diseases. He has served as an expert witness for 6 years, having worked for both plaintiff and defense on more than 80 cases.  He has been retained as an expert in cases related to: Listeriosis from Colorado cantaloupe; Salmonella outbreaks from peanut butter, peanut paste, white pepper and fast food restaurant chains; E. coli O157:H7 from 2 different restaurant chains; Yersinia from pasteurized milk; Campylobacter from contaminated peas; hepatitis C transmitted in medical settings.  He has been deposed on 15 times and testified at trial on 3 occasions.  Dr.  Hull consults with YUM! Brands on food safety issues and has recently served as a medical advisor to 4 vaccine companies. He also serves as a consultant to the World Health Organization on global polio eradication.

text: SIV pathogenesis encompasses both pathogenic and non-pathogenic SIV infections. SIV infection of non-human primates (NHPs) invariably results in persistent infection, but rarely acute disease. Pathogenic infection is typified by Rhesus macaques infected with SIV strains derived from sooty mangabeys. Disease progression to AIDS occurs within a period of months to years, depending upon the SIV strain used. Non-pathogenic infection is typified by African NHPs naturally infected with SIV. These animals rarely progress to AIDS despite maintaining viral loads that are equivalent to SIV viral loads in pathogenic infections. It is postulated that AIDS-like disease in African NHPs represents horizontal transmission of the virus from one or more homologous species in the recent evolutionary past, before equilibrium of co-adaptation has occurred.

text: may be read as the average number of infections caused by a single infectious subject in a wholly susceptible population, the above relationship biologically means that if this number is less or equal than one the disease goes extinct, whereas if this number is greater than one the disease will remain permanently endemic in the population.

text: One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, the victims of this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic.

text: One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include

text: virulence

text: , distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of

text: Ebola

text: virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, the victims of this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of

text: Ebola

text: is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the

text: Human Immunodeficiency Virus

text: HIV

text: ) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an

text: epidemic

text: The ICEID or International Conference on Emerging Infectious Diseases is a conference for public health professionals on the subject of emerging infectious diseases.

text: Schistosoma japonicum is the only human blood fluke that occurs in China and Philippines. It is the cause of schistosomiasis japonica, a disease that still remains a significant health problem especially in lake and marshland regions.  Schistosomiasis is an infection caused mainly by three schistosome species; Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma japonicum and Schistosoma haematobium. S. japonicum being the most infectious of the three species.  Infection by schistosomes is followed by an acute Katayama fever.  Historical accounts of Katayama disease dates back to the discovery of S. Japonicum in Japan in 1904.  The disease was named after an area it was endemic to, Katayama district, Hiroshima, Japan. If left untreated, it will develop into a chronic condition characterized by hepatosplenic disease and impaired physical and cognitive development. The severity of S. japonicum arises in 60% of all neurological diseases in schistosomes due to the migration of schistosome eggs to the brain.

text: Fairfield Infectious Diseases Hospital, originally known as Queens Memorial Infectious Diseases Hospital, operated from 1904 to its closure in 1996. Perched high on the banks of the Yarra River at Yarra Bend in the inner Melbourne suburb of Fairfield, it developed an international reputation for the research and treatment of infectious diseases. When it closed, it was the last specific infectious diseases hospital in Australia.

text: Fairfield Infectious Diseases Hospital, originally known as Queens Memorial Infectious Diseases Hospital, operated from 1904 to its closure in 1996. Perched high on the banks of the

text: Yarra River

text: at Yarra Bend in the inner

text: Melbourne

text: suburb of

text: Fairfield

text: , it developed an international reputation for the research and treatment of infectious diseases. When it closed, it was the last specific

text: infectious disease

text: s

text: hospital

text: in

text: Australia

text: The U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) also participates in the identification and prevention of biowarfare and first released a strategy for biodefense in 2002, periodically releasing updates as new pathogens are becoming topics of discussion. Within this list of strategies, responses for specific infectious agents are provided, along with the classification of these agents. NIAID provides countermeasures after the U.S. Department of Homeland Security details which pathogens hold the most threat.

text: The U.S.

text: (NIAID) also participates in the identification and prevention of biowarfare and first released a strategy for biodefense in 2002, periodically releasing updates as new pathogens are becoming topics of discussion. Within this list of strategies, responses for specific infectious agents are provided, along with the classification of these agents. NIAID provides countermeasures after the U.S. Department of Homeland Security details which pathogens hold the most threat.

text: Kuru was shown to have remarkable similarity to scrapie, a disease of sheep and goats caused by an unconventional infectious agent. Subsequently, additional human agents belonging to the same group were discovered. They include sporadic, familial, and variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. Gajdusek recognized that diseases like Kuru and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease were caused by a new infectious agent that had not yet been identified. Further research on the scrapie agent by Stanley Prusiner and others led to the identification of endogenous proteins called prions as the cause of these diseases.

text: Kuru was shown to have remarkable similarity to

text: scrapie

text: , a disease of sheep and goats caused by an unconventional infectious agent. Subsequently, additional human agents belonging to the same group were discovered. They include sporadic, familial, and variant

text: Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

text: . Gajdusek recognized that diseases like Kuru and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease were caused by a new infectious agent that had not yet been identified. Further research on the scrapie agent by

text: Stanley Prusiner

text: and others led to the identification of endogenous proteins called

text: prion

text: s as the cause of these diseases.

text: McMichael et al argue (2004) that the epidemiological transition has not taken place homogeneously in all countries. Countries have varied in the speed with which they go through the transition as well as what stage of the transition they are in. The global burden of disease website provides visual comparisons of the disease burdens of countries and the changes over time. The epidemiological transition correlates with changes in life expectancy. Worldwide, mortality rates have decreased as both technological and medical advancements have led to a tremendous decrease in infectious diseases. With fewer people dying from infectious diseases, there is a rising prevalence of chronic and/or degenerative diseases in the older surviving population.

text: Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases (tetanus and botulism). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.

text: Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the

text: clostridia

text: l diseases (

text: tetanus

text: and

text: botulism

text: ). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent

text: neurotoxin

text: s. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.

text: Mukherjee has also served as an Executive Board Member for Physicians for Human Rights, Health Action AIDS Campaign; a consultant for the Harvard Medical School Vietnam-CDC-Harvard AIDS Partnership; and as a member of the Board of Directors of Village Health Works, Tiyatien Health, and Project Muso.  Mukherjee served on several local, national, and international committees, such as the World Health Organization Green Light Committee on the Treatment of Multidrug Resistant Tuberculosis, the Infectious Disease Society of America Committee on International Infectious Diseases, and the World Health Organization Technical Reference Group (TRG) on Pediatric HIV Care and Treatment].  In addition to holding membership in the Infectious Disease Society of America, the American Public Health Association, and the International AIDS Society, Dr. Mukherjee is a Fellow of the American Academy of Pediatrics.

text: Mukherjee has also served as an Executive Board Member for

text: Physicians for Human Rights

text: , Health Action AIDS Campaign; a consultant for the Harvard Medical School Vietnam-CDC-Harvard AIDS Partnership; and as a member of the Board of Directors of Village Health Works, Tiyatien Health, and

text: Project Muso

text: .  Mukherjee served on several local, national, and international committees, such as the World Health Organization Green Light Committee on the Treatment of Multidrug Resistant Tuberculosis, the Infectious Disease Society of America Committee on International Infectious Diseases, and the

text: World Health Organization

text: Technical Reference Group (TRG) on Pediatric HIV Care and Treatment].  In addition to holding membership in the Infectious Disease Society of America, the

text: American Public Health Association

text: , and the

text: International AIDS Society

text: , Dr. Mukherjee is a Fellow of the

text: American Academy of Pediatrics

text: The driving notion behind POCT is to bring the test conveniently and immediately to the patient.  This increases the likelihood that the patient, physician, and care team will receive the results quicker, which allows for immediate clinical management decisions to be made. POCT includes: blood glucose testing, blood gas and electrolytes analysis, rapid coagulation testing (PT/INR, Alere, Microvisk Ltd), rapid cardiac markers diagnostics (TRIAGE, Alere), drugs of abuse screening, urine strips testing, pregnancy testing, fecal occult blood analysis, food pathogens screening, hemoglobin diagnostics (HemoCue), infectious disease testing and cholesterol screening.

text: Infectious diseases within American correctional settings are a concern within the public health sector. The corrections population is susceptible to infectious diseases through exposure to blood and other bodily fluids, drug injection, poor health care, prison overcrowding, demographics, security issues, lack of community support for rehabilitation programs, and high-risk behaviors. The spread of infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases, hepatitis C (HCV), hepatitis B (HBV), and tuberculosis result largely from needle-sharing, drug use, and consensual and nonconsensual sex among prisoners. HIV/AIDS and hepatitis C need specific attention because of the specific public health concerns and issues they raise.

text: Infectious diseases within American correctional settings are a concern within the public health sector. The corrections population is susceptible to infectious diseases through exposure to blood and other bodily fluids, drug injection, poor health care,

text: prison overcrowding

text: , demographics, security issues, lack of community support for rehabilitation programs, and high-risk behaviors. The spread of

text: infectious disease

text: s, such as

text: HIV

text: AIDS

text: and other sexually transmitted diseases,

text: hepatitis C

text: (HCV),

text: hepatitis B

text: (HBV), and

text: tuberculosis

text: result largely from needle-sharing, drug use, and consensual and

text: nonconsensual sex among prisoners

text: . HIV/AIDS and hepatitis C need specific attention because of the specific public health concerns and issues they raise.

text: Each episode has dramatizations that show illnesses caused by an infectious disease or medical affliction. Once the agent has been identified, their life cycles and general behaviors are illustrated. Justin Peed is the narrator, and biologist Dan Riskin explains how and why each infectious agent works inside its host.  Most shows start as a common diagnosed disease but then transform into a different life threatening or serious disease, which will be cured most time at the end. Out of the 183 cases documented on the show, only 11 of those ended in the victim dying, usually from a disease with an extremely low survival rate.

text: Each episode has dramatizations that show illnesses caused by an infectious disease or medical affliction. Once the agent has been identified, their life cycles and general behaviors are illustrated. Justin Peed is the narrator, and

text: biologist

text: Dan Riskin

text: explains how and why each infectious agent works inside its host.  Most shows start as a common diagnosed disease but then transform into a different life threatening or serious disease, which will be cured most time at the end. Out of the 183 cases documented on the show, only 11 of those ended in the victim dying, usually from a disease with an extremely low survival rate.

text: These areas will see a substantial increase in infectious disease incidence and deaths. In the FSU especially, the steep deterioration in health care and other services owing to economic decline has led to a sharp rise in diphtheria, dysentery, cholera, and hepatitis B and C. TB has reached epidemic proportions throughout the FSU, while the HIV-infected population in Russia alone could exceed 1 million by the end of 2000 and double yet again by 2002.The sharp decline in health care infrastructure in Russia and elsewhere in the former Soviet Union (FSU) and, to a lesser extent, in Eastern Europe—owing to economic difficulties—are causing a dramatic rise in infectious disease incidence. Death rates attributed to infectious diseases in the FSU increased 50% from 1990 to 1996, with TB accounting for a substantial number of such deaths. Access to health care ranges from 50–70% in most European FSU states, including Russia and Ukraine, and from 40–50% in FSU states located in Central Asia. WHO estimates are consistent, that only 50–80% of FSU citizens had regular access to essential drugs in 1997, as compared to more than 95% a decade earlier as health care budgets and government-provided health services were slashed. Health care access is better in Eastern Europe, particularly in more developed states such as Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary, where it ranges from 70 to 90%, while only 50-70% have access in countries such as Bulgaria and Romania. More than 95 percent of the population throughout the East European region had such access in 1987, according to WHO.

text: The SIR model discussed above takes into account only those diseases which cause an individual to be able to infect others immediately upon their infection.  Many diseases have what is termed a latent or exposed phase, during which the individual is said to be infected but not infectious.

text: Infectious diseases are worldwide a major cause of death, especially in developing countries. Next to inexpensive drugs, there is an urgent need for affordable diagnostic methods. Recent progress in biomedical research led to new techniques highly appropriate for the diagnosis of infectious diseases. These new methods are advantageous not only because they lead to results in short time, but also because they are affordable and applicable under conditions of poverty. Major objective of GEFEK is the transfer of this knowledge to scientists in low-income countries and to establish the new technology in a way that it can be performed without help from abroad. The transfer includes information on the theoretical background, the performance of molecular diagnostic methods and the knowledge for the production of the necessary test substances. The self-contained operation of this technology by the affected population is the best guarantee for their sustainable application.

text: Infectious diseases

text: are worldwide a major cause of death, especially in

text: developing countries

text: . Next to inexpensive drugs, there is an urgent need for affordable diagnostic methods. Recent progress in biomedical research led to new techniques highly appropriate for the diagnosis of infectious diseases. These new methods are advantageous not only because they lead to results in short time, but also because they are affordable and applicable under conditions of poverty. Major objective of GEFEK is the transfer of this knowledge to scientists in low-income countries and to establish the new technology in a way that it can be performed without help from abroad. The transfer includes information on the theoretical background, the performance of molecular diagnostic methods and the knowledge for the production of the necessary test substances. The self-contained operation of this technology by the affected population is the best guarantee for their sustainable application.

text: Reduced food intake, while hunger is held on to, may also be responsible for significant weight loss. Restrictive diets can lead to significant weight loss, as can psychological problems, depression and social problems and issues; Anorexia nervosa, in the case where a denial of weight loss and thinness and were maintaining the same physical activity; Certain digestive diseases or ENT (discomfort food) can induce weight loss. Weight loss can also occur with a normal or even sometimes reduced food intake. An infectious disease that is accompanied by fever, tuberculosis, HIV infection, endocarditis or chronic inflammatory disease with febrile vasculitis, Behcet’s disease, connective, Still’s disease, sarcoidosis, certain cancers or blood diseases; A chronic disease without fever, cancer, metabolic diseases, respiratory insufficiency, hepatic or digestive diseases associated with signs of deficiency. Some neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s disease  may also be the cause of weight loss significantly. Poisoning like chronic alcoholism, drug addiction or taking drugs by mistake are also common causes. Taking too much medication is a major cause of weight loss in the elderly and weak people where the single dose capsules or tablets is able to suppress appetite.

text: Reduced food intake, while hunger is held on to, may also be responsible for significant weight loss. Restrictive diets can lead to significant weight loss, as can psychological problems, depression and social problems and issues; Anorexia nervosa, in the case where a denial of weight loss and thinness and were maintaining the same physical activity; Certain digestive diseases or ENT (discomfort food) can induce weight loss. Weight loss can also occur with a normal or even sometimes reduced food intake. An infectious disease that is accompanied by fever, tuberculosis, HIV infection, endocarditis or chronic inflammatory disease with

text: febrile vasculitis

text: Behcet’s disease

text: , connective,

text: Still’s disease

text: sarcoidosis

text: , certain cancers or blood diseases; A chronic disease without fever, cancer, metabolic diseases, respiratory insufficiency, hepatic or digestive diseases associated with signs of deficiency. Some neurological diseases such as Parkinson’s disease  may also be the cause of weight loss significantly. Poisoning like chronic alcoholism, drug addiction or taking drugs by mistake are also common causes. Taking too much medication is a major cause of weight loss in the elderly and weak people where the single dose capsules or tablets is able to suppress appetite.

text: The living conditions of Belem were notorious for enabling the spread of infectious diseases. Many of the outbreaks consisted of Typhus. Belem was a source of many communications between Mexico and the U.S. during its time of operation due to its prevalence of infectious diseases.

text: The living conditions of Belem were notorious for enabling the spread of infectious diseases. Many of the outbreaks consisted of

text: Typhus

text: . Belem was a source of many communications between Mexico and the U.S. during its time of operation due to its prevalence of

text: infectious diseases

text: It stated that infectious diseases were a leading cause of death, accounting for a quarter to a third of the estimated 54 million deaths worldwide in 1998, and that the spread of infectious diseases results as much from changes in human behavior—including lifestyles and land use patterns, increased trade and travel, and inappropriate use of antibiotic drugs—as from mutations in pathogens.

text: NDPH as an inflammatory, post-infectious manifestation indicates a potential meningoencephalitis event in NDPH patients. Tissue specificity is a general feature of post-infectious, immune-mediated conditions, and the meninges are a type of connective tissue membrane. Inflammation of the meninges was first proposed as a possible pathophysiology for migraine in the 1960s and has recently been explored again.  This hypothesis is based on meningeal mast cell activation. Reactive arthritis (ReA) is a post-infectious disease entity of synovium/joints with connective tissue membrane (synovial membrane of the joints) which provides a corollary.

text: NDPH as an inflammatory, post-infectious manifestation indicates a potential

text: meningoencephalitis

text: event in NDPH patients. Tissue specificity is a general feature of post-infectious, immune-mediated conditions, and the

text: meninges

text: are a type of

text: connective tissue

text: membrane. Inflammation of the meninges was first proposed as a possible pathophysiology for migraine in the 1960s and has recently been explored again.  This hypothesis is based on meningeal

text: mast cell

text: activation.

text: Reactive arthritis

text: (ReA) is a post-infectious disease entity of synovium/joints with connective tissue membrane (synovial membrane of the joints) which provides a corollary.

text: Pathogens include bacteria, fungi and viruses.  Each of these different types of organisms can then be further classified as a pathogen based on its mode of transmission.  This includes the following: food borne, airborne, waterborne, blood borne, and vector-borne.  Many pathogenic bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium botulinum are food borne pathogens that secrete toxins into the host to cause symptoms.  HIV and hepatitis B are viral infections caused by blood borne pathogens, and Aspergillis is the most common pathogenic fungi that secretes aflatoxin which acts as a carcinogen and contaminates many foods, especially those grown underground (nuts, potatoes, etc.).

text: Infectious diseases are transmitted in several ways. Some of these infections may affect the brain or spinal cord directly. Generally, an infection is a disease that is caused by the invasion of a microorganism or virus.

text: Infectious diseases are transmitted in several ways. Some of these infections may affect the brain or spinal cord directly. Generally, an

text: infection

text: is a disease that is caused by the invasion of a microorganism or virus.

text: Medical microbiology is a branch of medical science concerned with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases.  In addition, this field of science studies various clinical applications of microbes for the improvement of health.  There are four kinds of microorganisms that cause infectious disease: bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses, and one type of infectious protein called  prion.

text: Medical microbiology is a branch of

text: medical science

text: concerned with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of

text: infectious disease

text: s.  In addition, this field of science studies various clinical applications of microbes for the improvement of health.  There are four kinds of

text: microorganisms

text: that cause infectious disease:

text: bacteria

text: fungi

text: parasites

text: and

text: viruses

text: , and one type of infectious protein called

text: prion

text: Alveolar macrophages are phagocytes that play a critical role in homeostasis, host defense, the response to foreign substances, and tissue remodeling. Since alveolar macrophages are pivotal regulators of local immunological homeostasis, their population density is decisive for the many processes of immunity in the lungs. They are highly adaptive components of the innate immune system and can be specifically modified to whatever functions needed depending on their state of differentiation and micro-environmental factors encountered. Alveolar macrophages release numerous secretory products and interact with other cells and molecules through the expression of several surface receptors.   Alveolar macrophages are also involved in the phagocytosis of apoptotic and necrotic cells that have undergone cell-death. They must be selective of the material that is phagocytized because normal cells and structures of the body must not be compromised. To combat infection, the phagocytes of the innate immune system facilitates many pattern recognition receptors (PRR) to help recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the surface of pathogenic microorganisms. PAMPs all have the common features of being unique to a group of pathogens but invariant in their basic structure; and are essential for pathogenicity(ability of an organism to produce an infectious disease in another organism). Proteins involved in microbial pattern recognition include mannose receptor, complement receptors, DC-SIGN,Toll-like receptors(TLRs), the scavenger receptor, CD14,  and Mac-1. PRRs can be divided into three classes:

text: Silverbrook is Founder and Chairman of Australian company Geneasys (Genetic Analysis Systems), which is developing "KeyLab" a new class of medical diagnostic device which analyses multiple diseases from DNA using a standard smartphone. The stated goal of Geneasys is "to equip medical professionals, primary care workers, aid workers, veterinarians, military personnel and private citizens with a simple to use, low cost, and highly accurate diagnostic devices". Geneasys hopes that "through the proliferation of the KeyLab device, the spread of infectious diseases and deaths caused by preventable diseases will be reduced as the scope and reach of healthcare is universally increased". KeyLab is a low cost disposable device that plugs directly into the USB port of a smartphone or personal computer, and simultaneously detects up to 48 infectious or hereditary diseases from the genetic material in a sample. It has 12 channels of independent RNA or DNA amplification, each capable of amplifying 4 DNA or RNA sequences, and has 1080 DNA hybridization probes, sensed by a disposable CMOS image sensor included in the KeyLab. It uses ECL (Electrochemiluminescence) detection to eliminate the need for a laser or other light source, and has SNP (Single-nucleotide polymorphism) level discrimination between DNA sequences, which would allow it to, for example, determine which strain of influenza was present. It is fully self-contained, and requires no sample preparation or reading machine (other than a standard smartphone). It is intended to be sufficiently cheap, reliable and easy to use that it can transform medicine in developing, as well as developed, nations.The research project is conducted in Australia by Australian researchers and with Australian funding.

text: Silverbrook is Founder and Chairman of Australian company Geneasys (Genetic Analysis Systems), which is developing "KeyLab" a new class of medical diagnostic device which analyses multiple diseases from

text: DNA

text: using a standard

text: smartphone

text: . The stated goal of Geneasys is "to equip medical professionals, primary care workers, aid workers, veterinarians, military personnel and private citizens with a simple to use, low cost, and highly accurate diagnostic devices". Geneasys hopes that "through the proliferation of the KeyLab device, the spread of infectious diseases and deaths caused by preventable diseases will be reduced as the scope and reach of healthcare is universally increased". KeyLab is a low cost disposable device that plugs directly into the

text: USB port

text: of a

text: smartphone

text: or

text: personal computer

text: , and simultaneously detects up to 48

text: infectious

text: or

text: hereditary

text: diseases from the genetic material in a sample. It has 12 channels of independent

text: RNA

text: or

text: DNA amplification

text: , each capable of amplifying 4 DNA or RNA sequences, and has 1080 DNA

text: hybridization probe

text: s, sensed by a disposable

text: CMOS image sensor

text: included in the KeyLab. It uses ECL (

text: Electrochemiluminescence

text: ) detection to eliminate the need for a laser or other light source, and has SNP (

text: Single-nucleotide polymorphism

text: ) level discrimination between DNA sequences, which would allow it to, for example, determine which strain of

text: influenza

text: was present. It is fully self-contained, and requires no sample preparation or reading machine (other than a standard smartphone). It is intended to be sufficiently cheap, reliable and easy to use that it can transform medicine in

text: developing

text: , as well as

text: developed

text: , nations.The research project is conducted in Australia by Australian researchers and with Australian funding.

text: Risk of infectious disease transmission related to use of a common communion cup is low, to the point of being undetectable. No case of transmission of an infectious disease related to a common communion cup has ever been documented. The most likely diseases to be transmitted would be common viral illnesses such as the common cold, but a study of 681 individuals found that taking communion up to daily from a common cup did not increase the risk of infection beyond that of those who did not attend services at all.

text: Risk of infectious disease transmission related to use of a common communion cup is low, to the point of being undetectable. No case of transmission of an infectious disease related to a common communion cup has ever been documented. The most likely diseases to be transmitted would be common viral illnesses such as the

text: common cold

text: , but a study of 681 individuals found that taking communion up to daily from a common cup did not increase the risk of infection beyond that of those who did not attend services at all.

text: Variations within the human genome can be and are studied to determine susceptibility to infectious diseases.  The study of variations within microbial genomes will also need to be evaluated to use genomics of infectious disease within public health.  The ability to determine if a person has greater susceptibility to an infectious disease will be valuable to determine how to treat the disease if it is present or prevent the person from getting the disease.  Several infectious diseases have shown a link between genetics and susceptibility in that families tend to have heritability traits of a disease.

text: Diseases which can be transmitted from one organism to another are known as infectious diseases, and the causative biological agent involved is known as a pathogen. The process by which the pathogen is introduced into the body is known as inoculation, and the organism it affects is known as a biological host. When the pathogen establishes itself in a step known as colonization, it can result in an infection, consequently harming the host directly or through the harmful substances called toxins it can produce. This results in the various symptoms and signs characteristic of an infectious disease like pneumonia or diphtheria.

text: Diseases which can be transmitted from one organism to another are known as

text: infectious disease

text: s, and the causative biological agent involved is known as a

text: pathogen

text: . The process by which the pathogen is introduced into the body is known as

text: inoculation

text: , and the organism it affects is known as a

text: biological host

text: . When the pathogen establishes itself in a step known as

text: colonization

text: , it can result in an

text: infection

text: , consequently harming the host directly or through the harmful substances called

text: toxin

text: s it can produce. This results in the various

text: symptom

text: s and

text: signs

text: characteristic of an infectious disease like

text: pneumonia

text: or

text: diphtheria

text: The binding abilities of different soil types have been shown to enhance disease penetrance into a population. Soil containing the common clay mineral montmorillonite (Mte) and kaolinite (Kte) binds more effectively with the prions than soil containing quartz. Enhanced transmissibility of soil-bound prions may explain the environmental spread of scrapie despite low levels shed into the environment. The mechanism by which Mte or other soil components enhances the transmissibility of particle bound prions remains to be clarified. Prion binding to Mte or other soil components may partially protect PrP from denaturation or proteolysis in the digestive tract, allowing more disease agent to be taken up from the gut. Adsorption of PrP soil may alter the aggregation state of the protein, shifting the size distribution toward more infectious prion protein particles, thereby increasing the infectious units. For prion disease to be transmitted via ingestion of prion contaminated soil, prions must also remain infectious by the oral route of exposure. Researchers at the University of Wisconsin investigated the oral infectivity of Mte-bound and soil-bound prions. The effects of prion source (via infected brain homogenate and purified PrP) and dose on penetrance (proportion of animals eventually exhibiting clinical signs of scrapie) and incubation period (time to onset of clinical symptoms) was evaluated. About 38% of animals receiving orally 200 ng of unbound, clarified PrP derived from soil exhibited clinical symptoms, with an incubation period for infected animals of 203 to 633 days. All animals orally dosed with an equivalent amount of Mte-bound PrP manifested disease symptoms in 195 to 637 days. By contrast, animals orally receiving Mte soil alone or one-tenth as much unbound clarified PrP (20 ng) remained asymptomatic throughout the course of the experiment.  These data established that Mte-bound prions remain infectious via the oral route of exposure, and that the binding agent Mte increases disease penetrance, enhancing the efficiency of oral transmission.

text: The binding abilities of different soil types have been shown to enhance disease penetrance into a population. Soil containing the common clay mineral

text: montmorillonite

text: (Mte) and

text: kaolinite

text: (Kte) binds more effectively with the prions than soil containing

text: quartz

text: . Enhanced transmissibility of soil-bound prions may explain the environmental spread of scrapie despite low levels shed into the environment. The mechanism by which Mte or other soil components enhances the transmissibility of particle bound prions remains to be clarified. Prion binding to Mte or other soil components may partially protect PrP from

text: denaturation

text: or

text: proteolysis

text: Disease risk is further affected by the ecology. For example, many social insects nest and forage in habitats that are rich in pathogens, such as soil or rotting wood, exposing them to a plethora of microparasites, e.g. fungi, bacteria, viruses and macroparasites, e.g. mites and nematodes. In addition, shared food resources, such as flowers, can act as disease hubs for social insect pollinators, promoting both interspecific and intraspecific pathogen transmission. This may be a contributing factor in the spread of emergent infectious diseases in bees.

text: Disease risk is further affected by the

text: ecology

text: . For example, many social insects nest and forage in habitats that are rich in pathogens, such as soil or rotting wood, exposing them to a plethora of

text: microparasites

text: , e.g.

text: fungi

text: bacteria

text: viruses

text: and

text: macroparasites

text: , e.g.

text: mites

text: and

text: nematodes

text: . In addition, shared food resources, such as flowers, can act as disease hubs for social insect

text: pollinators

text: , promoting both

text: interspecific

text: and

text: intraspecific

text: pathogen transmission. This may be a contributing factor in the spread of emergent infectious diseases in bees.

text: Microorganisms are the causative agents (pathogens) in many infectious diseases. The organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoa, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, which are not usually classified as living organisms and are not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict definition. No clear examples of archaean pathogens are known, although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some archaean methanogens and human periodontal disease.

text: Microorganisms are the causative agents (

text: pathogen

text: s) in many infectious diseases. The organisms involved include

text: pathogenic bacteria

text: , causing diseases such as

text: plague

text: tuberculosis

text: and

text: anthrax

text: ; protozoa, causing diseases such as

text: malaria

text: sleeping sickness

text: dysentery

text: and

text: toxoplasmosis

text: ; and also fungi causing diseases such as

text: ringworm

text: candidiasis

text: or

text: histoplasmosis

text: . However, other diseases such as

text: influenza

text: yellow fever

text: or

text: AIDS

text: are caused by

text: pathogenic viruses

text: , which are not usually classified as living organisms and are not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict definition. No clear examples of archaean pathogens are known, although a relationship has been proposed between the presence of some archaean methanogens and human

text: periodontal disease

text: About 430 (97%) of the species cultured as of 2007 were domesticated during the 20th and 21st centuries, of which an estimated 106 came in the decade to 2007. Given the long-term importance of agriculture,  to date, only 0.08% of known land plant species and 0.0002% of known land animal species have been domesticated, compared with 0.17% of known marine plant species and 0.13% of known marine animal species. Domestication typically involves about a decade of scientific research. Domesticating aquatic species involves fewer risks to humans than do land animals, which took a large toll in human lives. Most major human diseases originated in domesticated animals, including diseases such as smallpox and diphtheria, that like most infectious diseases, move to humans from animals. No human pathogens of comparable virulence have yet emerged from marine species.

text: About 430 (97%) of the species cultured as of 2007 were domesticated during the 20th and 21st centuries, of which an estimated 106 came in the decade to 2007. Given the long-term importance of agriculture,  to date, only 0.08% of known land plant species and 0.0002% of known land animal species have been domesticated, compared with 0.17% of known marine plant species and 0.13% of known marine animal species. Domestication typically involves about a decade of scientific research. Domesticating aquatic species involves fewer risks to humans than do land animals, which took a large toll in human lives. Most major human diseases originated in domesticated animals, including diseases such as

text: smallpox

text: and

text: diphtheria

text: , that like most infectious diseases, move to humans from animals. No human

text: pathogen

text: s of comparable virulence have yet emerged from marine species.

text: The emergence of SARS illustrates the challenge of battling infectious diseases in anincreasingly globalized world. Global links have sped the geographic spread of the disease andamplified the economic and political impact.

text: This article is a list of epidemics of infectious disease.  Widespread and chronic complaints such as heart disease and allergy are not included if they are not thought to be infectious.

text: This article is a list of

text: epidemic

text: s of

text: infectious disease

text: .  Widespread and chronic complaints such as

text: heart disease

text: and

text: allergy

text: are not included if they are not thought to be infectious.

text: 7. Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases Act 1988 [Act 342]

text: Upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) is a chronic, infectious disease responsible for population declines across the entire range of the desert tortoise. It was identified in the early 1970s in captive desert tortoise populations, and later identified in the wild population. URTD is caused by the infectious agents Mycoplasma agassizii and Mycoplasma testudineum, which are bacteria in the class Mollicutes and characterized by having no cell wall and a small genome. Mycoplasmae appear to be highly virulent (infectious) in some populations, while chronic, or even dormant in others. The mechanism (whether environmental or genetic) responsible for this diversity is not understood. Infection is characterized by both physiological and behavioral changes: nasal and ocular discharge, palpebral edema (swelling of the upper and/or lower palpebra, or eyelid, the fleshy portion that is in contact with the tortoises eye globe) and conjunctivitis, weight loss, changes in color and elasticity of the integument, and lethargic or erratic behavior. These pathogens are likely transmitted by contact with an infected individual. Epidemiological studies of wild desert tortoises in the western Mojave Desert from 1992 to 1995 showed a 37% increase in M. agassizii. Tests were conducted on blood samples, and a positive test was determined by the presence of antibodies in the blood, defined as being seropositive.

text: Upper respiratory tract disease (URTD) is a chronic, infectious disease responsible for population declines across the entire range of the desert tortoise. It was identified in the early 1970s in captive desert tortoise populations, and later identified in the wild population. URTD is caused by the infectious agents Mycoplasma agassizii and Mycoplasma testudineum, which are bacteria in the class Mollicutes and characterized by having no cell wall and a small

text: genome

text: . Mycoplasmae appear to be highly virulent (infectious) in some populations, while chronic, or even dormant in others. The mechanism (whether environmental or genetic) responsible for this diversity is not understood. Infection is characterized by both physiological and behavioral changes: nasal and ocular discharge, palpebral edema (swelling of the upper and/or lower

text: palpebra

text: , or eyelid, the fleshy portion that is in contact with the tortoises eye globe) and

text: conjunctivitis

text: , weight loss, changes in color and elasticity of the integument, and lethargic or erratic behavior. These pathogens are likely transmitted by contact with an infected individual. Epidemiological studies of wild desert tortoises in the western Mojave Desert from 1992 to 1995 showed a 37% increase in M. agassizii. Tests were conducted on blood samples, and a positive test was determined by the presence of antibodies in the blood, defined as being

text: seropositive

text: Microorganisms are the causative agents (pathogens) in many infectious diseases of humans and animals. Pathogenic bacteria cause diseases such as plague, tuberculosis and anthrax. Protozoa cause diseases including malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery and toxoplasmosis. Microscopic fungi cause diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis and histoplasmosis. Pathogenic viruses cause diseases such as influenza, yellow fever and AIDS.

text: pathogen

text: s) in many infectious diseases of humans and animals.

text: Pathogenic bacteria

text: cause diseases such as

text: plague

text: tuberculosis

text: and

text: anthrax

text: . Protozoa cause diseases including

text: malaria

text: sleeping sickness

text: dysentery

text: and

text: toxoplasmosis

text: . Microscopic fungi cause diseases such as

text: ringworm

text: candidiasis

text: and

text: histoplasmosis

text: Pathogenic viruses

text: cause diseases such as

text: influenza

text: yellow fever

text: and

text: AIDS

text: There are a wide variety of possible causes of vocal fold (VF) paresis, including congenital (i.e. present at birth) causes, infectious causes, malignancies and tumors, traumatic causes, endocrinologic diseases, and systemic neurologic diseases.

text: Along with Paul W. Ewald, Cochran believes an evolutionary perspective suggests that common diseases are caused by pathogens. In a paper they point to a history of common diseases, once thought to be due to noninfectious environmental factors, being found to have an infectious origin; for example, peptic ulcers, once thought to occur because of stress, are now believed to often be caused by the pathogenic bacteria Helicobacter pylori. The association of human papilloma virus with cervical cancer is another example. Cochran and Ewald propose that  Koch's postulates are difficult to fulfill for the still unproven cases of infectious causation because of the focus on identifying the infectious agent which is often highly cryptic.

text: Along with

text: Paul W. Ewald

text: , Cochran believes an evolutionary perspective suggests that common diseases are caused by

text: pathogen

text: s. In a paper they point to a history of common diseases, once thought to be due to noninfectious environmental factors, being found to have an infectious origin; for example,

text: peptic ulcers

text: , once thought to occur because of

text: stress

text: , are now believed to often be caused by the pathogenic

text: bacteria

text: Helicobacter pylori

text: . The association of

text: human papilloma virus

text: with cervical cancer is another example. Cochran and Ewald propose that

text: Koch's postulates

text: are difficult to fulfill for the still unproven cases of infectious causation because of the focus on identifying the infectious agent which is often highly cryptic.

text: Martinus Beijerinck is considered one of the founders of virology. In 1898, he published results on his filtration experiments, demonstrating that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by an infectious agent smaller than a bacterium. His results were in accordance with similar observations made by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. Like Ivanovsky and Adolf Mayer, predecessor at Wageningen, Beijerinck could not culture the filterable infectious agent. He concluded that the agent can replicate and multiply in living plants. He named the new pathogen virus to indicate its non-bacterial nature. This discovery is considered to be the beginning of virology.

text: Martinus Beijerinck

text: is considered one of the founders of

text: virology

text: . In 1898, he published results on his filtration experiments, demonstrating that

text: tobacco mosaic disease

text: is caused by an infectious agent smaller than a bacterium. His results were in accordance with similar observations made by

text: Dmitri Ivanovsky

text: in 1892. Like Ivanovsky and

text: Adolf Mayer

text: , predecessor at

text: Wageningen

text: , Beijerinck could not culture the filterable infectious agent. He concluded that the agent can replicate and multiply in living plants. He named the new

text: pathogen

text: virus

text: to indicate its non-bacterial nature. This discovery is considered to be the beginning of

text: virology

text: The College faculty runs interdisciplinary research programs on brain disease and repair, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Stroke; aging studies; Cardiovascular disease; children's health; Patient safety; Cell therapy; and Infectious disease & Biodefense.

text: The College faculty runs interdisciplinary research programs on brain disease and repair, such as

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: Parkinson's disease

text: , and

text: Stroke

text: ; aging studies;

text: Cardiovascular disease

text: ; children's health;

text: Patient safety

text: Cell therapy

text: ; and

text: Infectious disease

text: Biodefense

text: Archaeological research in Northern Vietnam indicates an increase in rates of infectious disease following the advent of metallurgy; skeletal fragments in sites dating to the early and mid-Bronze Age evidence a greater proportion of lesions than in sites of earlier periods. There are a few possible implications of this. One is the increase contact with bacterial and/or fungal pathogens due to increased population density and land clearing/ cultivation. The other one is decreased levels of immunocompetence in the Metal age due to changes in diet caused by agriculture. The last is that there may have been an emergence of infectious disease in the Da But period that evolved into a more virulent form in the metal period. Archaeology also suggests that Bronze Age metallurgy may not have been as significant a catalyst in social stratification and warfare in Southeast Asia as in other regions, social distribution shifting away from chiefdom-states to a heterarchical network. Data analyses of sites such as Ban Lum Khao, Ban Na Di, Non Nok Tha, Khok Phanom Di, and Nong Nor have consistently led researchers to conclude that there was no forentrenched hierarchy.

text: Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as warts, cutaneous abscesses, respiratory system infections and diarrheal diseases are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is benign.

text: Diagnosis of infectious disease sometimes involves identifying an infectious agent either directly or indirectly. In practice most minor infectious diseases such as

text: wart

text: s,

text: cutaneous

text: abscesses

text: respiratory system

text: infections and

text: diarrheal diseases

text: are diagnosed by their clinical presentation and treated without knowledge of the specific causative agent. Conclusions about the cause of the disease are based upon the likelihood that a patient came in contact with a particular agent, the presence of a microbe in a community, and other epidemiological considerations. Given sufficient effort, all known infectious agents can be specifically identified. The benefits of identification, however, are often greatly outweighed by the cost, as often there is no specific treatment, the cause is obvious, or the outcome of an infection is

text: benign

text: Techniques in Microbiology: mainly used to determine infectious diseases the causative agent of the disease, regardless of whether it is caused by a bacterium, virus, fungi or parasites, bacteriologist through various coloration's, microscopic observation, specific crops for growth of each organism, biochemical tests whether manual, semi-automated or automated used to determine the genus and species of the organism causing the disease. a bacteriologist should be able to identify and name any parasitic observe microscopic structure, recently antimicrobial susceptibility tests have become very important for the emergence of multi-resistant bacterial strains in clinical microbiology section of the laboratory tests performed bacteriologists antimicrobial susceptibility to determine which antibiotics should treat various infectious diseases.

text: ) is a fundamental number in the study of how infectious diseases spread. If one infectious person is put into a population of completely susceptible people, then

text: The species Bundibugyo ebolavirus is the taxonomic home of one virus, Bundibugyo virus (BDBV), that forms filamentous virions and is closely related to the infamous Ebola virus (EBOV). The virus causes severe disease in humans in the form of viral hemorrhagic fever and is a Select Agent, World Health Organization Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment), National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Category A Priority Pathogen, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Category A Bioterrorism Agent, and is listed as a Biological Agent for Export Control by the Australia Group.

text: The

text: species

text: Bundibugyo ebolavirus is the

text: taxonomic

text: home of one virus,

text: Bundibugyo virus (BDBV)

text: , that forms filamentous virions and is closely related to the infamous

text: Ebola virus

text: (EBOV). The virus causes severe

text: disease

text: in

text: human

text: s in the form of

text: viral hemorrhagic fever

text: and is a

text: Select Agent

text: World Health Organization

text: Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring

text: National Institutes of Health

text: Category A Priority Pathogen,

text: Category A Bioterrorism Agent

text: Australia Group

text: Diseases that can be transmitted by direct contact are called contagious (contagious is not the same as infectious; although all contagious diseases are infectious, not all infectious diseases are contagious). These diseases can also be transmitted by sharing a towel (where the towel is rubbed vigorously on both bodies) or items of clothing in close contact with the body (socks, for example) if they are not washed thoroughly between uses. For this reason, contagious diseases often break out in schools, where towels are shared and personal items of clothing accidentally swapped in the changing rooms.

text: Diseases that can be transmitted by direct contact are called contagious (contagious is not the same as infectious; although all

text: contagious diseases

text: are infectious, not all infectious diseases are contagious). These diseases can also be transmitted by sharing a towel (where the towel is rubbed vigorously on both bodies) or items of clothing in close contact with the body (socks, for example) if they are not washed thoroughly between uses. For this reason, contagious diseases often break out in schools, where towels are shared and personal items of clothing accidentally swapped in the changing rooms.

text: Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is not exposed to as many different donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a cancer patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets will receive repeated donations from a specific donor to further minimize the risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example, riboflavin and UV light treatments can also be carried out to reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of transfusion transmitted diseases. Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes that can contaminate blood components intended for transfusion. In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than “soft spin” centrifugation at isolating the desired blood component.

text: Apheresis platelets are collected using a mechanical device that draws blood from the donor and centrifuges the collected blood to separate out the platelets and other components to be collected. The remaining blood is returned to the donor. The advantage to this method is that a single donation provides at least one therapeutic dose, as opposed to the multiple donations for whole-blood platelets. This means that a recipient is not exposed to as many different donors and has less risk of transfusion-transmitted disease and other complications. Sometimes a person such as a

text: cancer

text: patient who requires routine transfusions of platelets will receive repeated donations from a specific donor to further minimize the risk. Pathogen reduction of platelets using for example,

entity_name: Pathogen reduction using riboflavin and UV light

text: riboflavin and UV light treatments

text: can also be carried out to reduce the infectious load of pathogens contained in donated blood products, thereby reducing the risk of transmission of transfusion transmitted diseases. Another photochemical treatment process utilizing amotosalen and UVA light has been developed for the inactivation of viruses, bacteria, parasites, and leukocytes that can contaminate blood components intended for transfusion. In addition, apheresis platelets tend to contain fewer contaminating red blood cells because the collection method is more efficient than “soft spin” centrifugation at isolating the desired blood component.

text: Center for Infectious Disease

text: Center for

text: Infectious Disease

text: While other H5N1 influenza strains are known, they are significantly different from a current, highly pathogenic H5N1 strain on a genetic level, making the global spread of this new strain unprecedented. The H5N1 strain is a fast-mutating, highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAI) found in multiple bird species. It is both epizootic (an epidemic in non-humans) and panzootic (a disease affecting animals of many species especially over a wide area). Unless otherwise indicated, "H5N1" in this timeline refers to the recent highly pathogenic strain of H5N1.

text: While other

text: influenza strains are known, they are significantly different from a current, highly pathogenic H5N1 strain on a genetic level, making the global spread of this new strain unprecedented. The H5N1 strain is a

text: fast-mutating

text: , highly

text: pathogen

text: ic

text: avian influenza

text: virus (HPAI) found in multiple bird species. It is both epizootic (an epidemic in non-humans) and panzootic (a disease affecting animals of many species especially over a wide area). Unless otherwise indicated, "H5N1" in this

text: timeline

text: refers to the recent highly pathogenic strain of H5N1.

text: The Center for Disease Control (CDC) would monitor the spread of possible infections and diseases arising after the explosion. In doing so, they would help to contain the spread of infectious disease in what would be massive casualties from victims with now weakened immune systems and working hand in hand with the DHHS would help to bring in stock piles of medical supplies located around the country. DHHS would also rely upon the Interagency Modeling and Atmospheric Assessment Center to help determine how weather fill affect the fail out from the radiation.

text: The

text: Center for Disease Control

text: (CDC) would monitor the spread of possible infections and diseases arising after the explosion. In doing so, they would help to contain the spread of infectious disease in what would be massive casualties from victims with now weakened immune systems and working hand in hand with the DHHS would help to bring in stock piles of medical supplies located around the country. DHHS would also rely upon the Interagency Modeling and Atmospheric Assessment Center to help determine how weather fill affect the fail out from the radiation.

text: The International Centre for Infectious Disease (ICID) is a Canadian organisation set up in 2004 to collaborate resources worldwide in the fight against infectious diseases.

text: The International Centre for Infectious Disease (ICID) is a

text: Canadian

text: organisation set up in 2004 to collaborate resources worldwide in the fight against

text: infectious diseases

text: A 2005 study of Japanese patients at Bangkok Hospital (11,200 patients, about one-eight of all non-Thai patients at the hospital that year) found that most patients were men in their 30s, 40s, and 50s; women and patients in their 20s were notably fewer. Focusing just on the patients who were actually resident in Thailand, as opposed to travellers, their health complaints showed a number of dissimilarities with local Thai patients. Again according to ICD-10 coding, "certain infectious and parasitic diseases" were uncommon among Japanese patients and common among Thai patients, while "diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue" showed the reverse trend. Comparing Japanese expatriate patients in Thailand to patients in Japan found that "endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases" and "mental and behavioral disorders" were diagnosed less frequently among the former group, while "diseases of the respiratory system" and "certain infectious and parasitic diseases" were more frequent among the former group.

text: A 2005 study of Japanese patients at

text: Bangkok Hospital

text: (11,200 patients, about one-eight of all non-Thai patients at the hospital that year) found that most patients were men in their 30s, 40s, and 50s; women and patients in their 20s were notably fewer. Focusing just on the patients who were actually resident in Thailand, as opposed to travellers, their health complaints showed a number of dissimilarities with local Thai patients. Again according to ICD-10 coding, "certain infectious and parasitic diseases" were uncommon among Japanese patients and common among Thai patients, while "diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue" showed the reverse trend. Comparing Japanese expatriate patients in Thailand to patients in Japan found that "endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases" and "mental and behavioral disorders" were diagnosed less frequently among the former group, while "diseases of the respiratory system" and "certain infectious and parasitic diseases" were more frequent among the former group.

text: The Journal of World History is a peer-reviewed academic journal that presents historical analysis from a global point of view, focusing especially on forces that cross the boundaries of cultures and civilizations, including large-scale population movements, economic fluctuations, transfers of technology, the spread of infectious diseases, long-distance trade, and the spread of religious faiths, ideas, and values.

text: The Journal of World History is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: academic journal

text: that presents historical analysis from a global point of view, focusing especially on forces that cross the boundaries of

text: culture

text: s and

text: civilization

text: s, including large-scale population movements, economic fluctuations, transfers of

text: technology

text: , the spread of

text: infectious disease

text: s, long-distance trade, and the spread of

text: religious faith

text: s, ideas, and values.

text: The African Journal of Infectious Diseases covers research on the pathogenesis, diagnosis, epidemiology, and treatment of infectious diseases, the impact of infectious agents on the environment, and related disciplines.

text: The African Journal of Infectious Diseases covers research on the

text: pathogenesis

text: diagnosis

text: epidemiology

text: , and treatment of

text: infectious disease

text: s, the impact of infectious agents on the environment, and related disciplines.

text: The Division of Infectious Disease Control conducts surveillance of infectious diseases and infectious agents and provides advice on infectious disease control and prevention of infectious diseases to the authorities, health professionals and the public. Other tasks include microbiological special investigations and vaccine supply. Research in a public health perspective is also one of the main tasks. The Division of Infectious Disease Control also administers the Childhood Immunisation Programme.

text: Infectious bursal disease virus and chicken anemia are ubiquitous and have increased interest in combatting avian pathogens. Parasites of birds are another emerging concern since the crowded nature of poultry farms facilitates easy spreading.

text: Infectious bursal disease virus

text: and chicken anemia are ubiquitous and have increased interest in combatting avian pathogens.

text: Parasites

text: of birds are another emerging concern since the crowded nature of poultry farms facilitates easy spreading.

text: Currently the mechanism of spread and infection is unknown despite the tedious epidemiological, clinical, and neurological studies that have been conducted. Recent Studies show Horizontal Disease Transmission, or the transmission of a disease from one individual to another of the same generation. It appears that VE is an infectious disease; however, the incubation period would have to be very extensive (in excess of 5 years). Many infected individuals attribute the initial symptoms as a result of a plunge in frigid waters. So far, no causative agent has been found in blood, spinal fluid, or brain tissue.

text: Currently the mechanism of spread and infection is unknown despite the tedious

text: epidemiological

text: clinical

text: , and

text: neurological

text: studies that have been conducted. Recent Studies show

text: Horizontal Disease Transmission

text: , or the transmission of a disease from one individual to another of the same generation. It appears that VE is an

text: infectious disease

text: ; however, the

text: incubation period

text: would have to be very extensive (in excess of 5 years). Many infected individuals attribute the initial symptoms as a result of a plunge in frigid waters. So far, no causative agent has been found in blood,

text: spinal fluid

text: , or brain

text: tissue

text: Children with Kawasaki disease should be hospitalized and cared for by a physician who has experience with this disease. When in an academic medical center, care is often shared between pediatric cardiology, pediatric rheumatology, and pediatric infectious disease specialists (although no specific infectious agent has been identified as yet). Treatment should be started as soon as the diagnosis is made to prevent damage to the coronary arteries.

text: Children with Kawasaki disease should be hospitalized and cared for by a physician who has experience with this disease. When in an academic medical center, care is often shared between pediatric

text: cardiology

text: , pediatric rheumatology, and pediatric

text: infectious disease

text: specialists (although no specific

text: infectious agent

text: has been identified as yet). Treatment should be started as soon as the diagnosis is made to prevent damage to the coronary arteries.

text: Kuru is a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) caused by prion that is found in humans. Human prion diseases come in sporadic, genetic and infectious forms. Kuru was the first infectious human prion disease discovered.  It spread through the Fore people of Papua New Guinea, in which relatives consumed the bodies of the deceased to return the "life force" of the deceased to the hamlet. Kuru was 8 to 9 times more prevalent in women and children than in men at its peak because, while the men of the village took the choice cuts, the women and children would eat the rest of the body, including the brain, where the prion particles were particularly concentrated. The Kuru epidemic, which is recorded to have begun in the 1920s, is believed to have been started by the consumption of a single individual with Kuru, which then spread through the population. Oral history records that cannibalism began within the Fore in the late 19th century. Recent research at University College London identified a gene that protects against prion diseases, by studying the Fore people.

text: Kuru

text: is a type of

text: transmissible spongiform encephalopathy

text: (TSE) caused by

text: prion

text: that is found in humans. Human prion diseases come in sporadic, genetic and infectious forms. Kuru was the first infectious human prion disease discovered.  It spread through the

text: Fore people

text: of

text: Papua New Guinea

text: , in which relatives consumed the bodies of the deceased to return the "life force" of the deceased to the hamlet. Kuru was 8 to 9 times more prevalent in women and children than in men at its peak because, while the men of the village took the choice cuts, the women and children would eat the rest of the body, including the brain, where the

text: prion

text: particles were particularly concentrated. The Kuru epidemic, which is recorded to have begun in the 1920s, is believed to have been started by the consumption of a single individual with Kuru, which then spread through the population. Oral history records that cannibalism began within the Fore in the late 19th century. Recent research at University College London identified a gene that protects against prion diseases, by studying the Fore people.

text: SNOMED CT "Concepts" are representational units that categorize all the things that characterize health care processes and need to be recorded therein. In 2011, SNOMED CT included more than 311,000 concepts, which are uniquely identified by a concept ID, i.e. the concept 22298006 refers to Myocardial infarction. All SNOMED CT concepts are organized into acyclic taxonomic (is-a) hierarchies; for example, Viral pneumonia IS-A Infectious pneumonia IS-A Pneumonia IS-A Lung disease.  Concepts may have multiple parents, for example Infectious pneumonia is also a child of Infectious disease. The taxonomic structure allows data to be recorded and later accessed at different levels of aggregation.SNOMED CT concepts are linked by approximately 1,360,000 links, called relationships.

text: SNOMED CT "Concepts" are representational units that categorize all the things that characterize health care processes and need to be recorded therein. In 2011, SNOMED CT included more than 311,000 concepts, which are uniquely identified by a concept ID, i.e. the concept 22298006 refers to Myocardial infarction. All SNOMED CT concepts are organized into acyclic taxonomic (is-a) hierarchies; for example, Viral pneumonia IS-A Infectious pneumonia IS-A Pneumonia IS-A Lung disease.  Concepts may have multiple parents, for example Infectious pneumonia is also a

text: child

text: of Infectious disease. The taxonomic structure allows data to be recorded and later accessed at different levels of aggregation.SNOMED CT concepts are linked by approximately 1,360,000 links, called relationships.

text: During high turbidity peaks, pathogens are more commonly found in raw water. This can contribute to the spread of illnesses. When turbidity increases, reported hospital visits for the elderly (65+) with gastrointestinal illnesses also increase. Even places with water filtration systems that meet standards can have an endemic of gastrointestinal illness, or waterborne infectious diseases. Those hospitalized represent a small percentage of total morbidity caused by these illnesses.

text: During high turbidity peaks,

text: pathogen

text: s are more commonly found in raw water. This can contribute to the spread of

text: illness

text: es. When turbidity increases, reported hospital visits for the elderly (65+) with gastrointestinal illnesses also increase. Even places with water filtration systems that meet standards can have an

text: endemic

text: of

text: gastrointestinal illness

text: , or

text: waterborne

text: infectious disease

text: s. Those hospitalized represent a small percentage of total

text: morbidity

text: caused by these illnesses.

text: A study also published in the Journal of Infectious Diseases found that immunocompetent subjects exposed to VZV resulting in an increased level of VZV antibodies suggests that subclinical reinfection occurs.

text: A study also published in the Journal of Infectious Diseases found that immunocompetent subjects exposed to VZV resulting in an increased level of VZV antibodies suggests that

text: subclinical reinfection

text: occurs.

text: Pathogenicity depends on many different factors such as the production of the siderophore desferrioxamine, metalloproteases, plasmids, and histone-like proteins. However, some essential factors of pathogenicity are variations in the synthesis of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) and the mechanism of type III secretion system and its associated proteins. EPS helps bacterial pathogens avoid plant defenses, “clog” the host’s vascular system, protect bacteria against desiccation and attach to both surfaces and one another. One EPS is amylovoran, a polymer of pentasaccharide repeating units. If a strain of E. amylovora can not produce amylovoran it is not pathogenic and can not spread in plants. Levan is another EPS, and a lack of it will slow development of symptoms. Type III secretion systems are used for exporting and delivering effector proteins into the cytosol of host plants. This system mainly consists of Hrc proteins. Motility is another major virulence factor. Since E. amylovora is not an obligate biotroph, it is able to survive outside the host which allows it to spread in many ways such as rain.

text: Scrapie is a fatal infectious disease of the neural system of sheep; one of a class of brain diseases that can affect cattle (BSE) and humans (Kuru, nCJD). Scrapie had been thought to be caused by a 'slow virus' – one that could take years to show as a change in behaviour or movement. By the mid 1960s, it was established that cells could only replicate via DNA. Radioactivity stops cell replication by 'killing' DNA. Alper found that radiation did not kill the infective agent in scrapie, suggesting that a virus was unlikely to be the infective agent. The infective agent had to be smaller and simpler than (viral) DNA. Alper also found that the agent remained active under ultraviolet light. DNA is inactive under UV light. Instead, the agent was killed by light at 237 nm, a wavelength specific to polysaccharide inactivation. Alper and colleagues reported these properties of the scrapie agent – a finding that was greeted with astonishment in many quarters, for it appeared to contravene the central dogma that holds that replication (and hence the growth of the disease and its infectious properties) can only proceed via DNA. However, once these empirical findings were accepted, several theories developed to accommodate the peculiar properties of the scrapie agent. The most widely accepted theory today is the prion theory, which posits a 'rogue' protein as the infectious source. However, Alper could not accept that a protein 'mutation' was the agent. Firstly, her UV radiation studies did not indicate a protein agent and, secondly, isolated prions did not induce scrapie. Her own theories concerning the agent were developed in the last years of her life and suggested a more dynamic and complex story.

text: Scrapie

text: is a fatal infectious disease of the neural system of sheep; one of a class of

text: brain diseases

text: that can affect

text: cattle (BSE) and humans (Kuru, nCJD)

text: . Scrapie had been thought to be caused by a 'slow virus' – one that could take years to show as a change in behaviour or movement. By the mid 1960s, it was established that cells could only replicate via

text: DNA

text: . Radioactivity stops cell replication by 'killing' DNA. Alper found that radiation did not kill the infective agent in scrapie, suggesting that a virus was unlikely to be the infective agent. The infective agent had to be smaller and simpler than (viral) DNA. Alper also found that the agent remained active under ultraviolet light. DNA is inactive under UV light. Instead, the agent was killed by light at 237 nm, a wavelength specific to polysaccharide inactivation. Alper and colleagues reported these properties of the scrapie agent – a finding that was greeted with astonishment in many quarters, for it appeared to contravene the

text: central dogma

text: that holds that replication (and hence the growth of the disease and its infectious properties) can only proceed via DNA. However, once these empirical findings were accepted, several theories developed to accommodate the peculiar properties of the scrapie agent. The most widely accepted theory today is the

text: prion

text: theory, which posits a 'rogue' protein as the infectious source. However, Alper could not accept that a protein 'mutation' was the agent. Firstly, her UV radiation studies did not indicate a protein agent and, secondly, isolated prions did not induce scrapie. Her own theories concerning the agent were developed in the last years of her life and suggested a more dynamic and complex story.

text: Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards veterinary practice,  varies considerably by species.  Nonetheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically zoonotic in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of epidemiology and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as livestock and companion animals, mammals generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease.  As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology.

text: Veterinary pathology covers a vast array of species, but with a significantly smaller number of practitioners, so understanding of disease in non-human animals, especially as regards

text: veterinary practice

text: ,  varies considerably by species.  Nonetheless, significant amounts of pathology research are conducted on animals, for two primary reasons: 1) The origins of diseases are typically

text: zoonotic

text: in nature, and many infectious pathogens have animal vectors and, as such, understanding the mechanisms of action for these pathogens in non-human hosts is essential to the understanding and application of

text: epidemiology

text: and 2) those animals that share physiological and genetic traits with humans can be used as surrogates for the study of the disease and potential treatments as well as the effects of various synthetic products. For this reason, as well as their roles as

text: livestock

text: and

text: companion animals

text: mammals

text: generally have the largest body of research in veterinary pathology. Animal testing remains a controversial practice, even in cases where it is used to research treatment for human disease.  As in human medical pathology, the practice of veterinary pathology is customarily divided into the two main fields of anatomical and clinical pathology.

text: Betsy Foxman (born 1955) is an epidemiologist at the University of Michigan since 1984, where she is director of the Center for Molecular and Clinical Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases, and of the Interdisciplinary Training Program in Infectious Diseases. She also served as Editor-in-Chief of the journal Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases, is a member of the Infectious Disease Society of America and of the American College of Epidemiology.

text: Betsy Foxman (born 1955) is an epidemiologist at the

text: University of Michigan

text: since 1984, where she is director of the Center for Molecular and Clinical Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases, and of the Interdisciplinary Training Program in Infectious Diseases. She also served as Editor-in-Chief of the journal Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases, is a member of the

text: Infectious Disease Society of America

text: and of the

text: American College of Epidemiology

text: Many infectious diseases spread through populations via the networks formed by physical contacts among individuals. SARS is no different. One of the striking features of the SARS epidemic was the manner in which airline networks acted as corridors for the spread of the disease. From its onset it became clear that the role of air transport in the diffusion of the disease was key.  This is why, despite its relatively low level of contagion, the SARS Network still managed to become a large diameter network. It is true that the origin of the virus being connected with such an important node, like Hong Kong, made it especially prone to diffusion by air travel. Moreover, had a similar disease originated in a less connected node, like Central Africa, one would not expect the virus to infect such an extended part of the network. Nevertheless, it is apparent that the world was ill-prepared to mitigate the diffusion of SARS via international air transport, and should another virus both come to infect an important node in the global transportation network, and be relatively contagious, epidemic or even pandemic may ensue.

text: Cooties, is an interactive, collaborative simulation designed for wireless handheld devices.  Originally designed for middle-school students, Cooties enables students to study the spread of infectious diseases.  In Cooties, a teacher can select which student(s) to infect and which students to give "degrees of 'immunity'".  The device displays icons for all students, and differentiates those with and without infection.  As students move about, they "spread" disease.  As the simulation progresses, students can then form a scientific hypothesis about how the disease is spread.

text: The spores can still infect and cause disease in daughter tubers in the soil for about two years. It is also possible for the pathogen to spread by growing through the roots of a potato plant to the developing tubers and cause infection. H. solani condia are found on the outside of potato tubers, and the hyphae enter the tuber to cause disease. The pathogen can enter the tissue through wounds or natural openings, as well as being able to directly penetrate the periderm with the use of an appressorium and penetration peg. The fungus is contained in the outer layers of the potato and cannot infect very deep into the tuber. The discoloration on the periderm of the potato is formed from the loss of pigmentation caused by extreme dryness of the cell and suberin deposition. Not much is currently known about the molecular aspects of the mechanism for spread and infection of the disease, but there is currently ongoing research on this pathogen to gain a better understanding.

text: The spores can still infect and cause disease in daughter tubers in the soil for about two years. It is also possible for the pathogen to spread by growing through the roots of a potato plant to the developing tubers and cause infection. H. solani condia are found on the outside of potato tubers, and the hyphae enter the tuber to cause disease. The pathogen can enter the tissue through wounds or natural openings, as well as being able to directly penetrate the periderm with the use of an appressorium and penetration peg. The fungus is contained in the outer layers of the potato and cannot infect very deep into the tuber. The discoloration on the periderm of the potato is formed from the loss of pigmentation caused by extreme dryness of the cell and

text: suberin

text: deposition. Not much is currently known about the molecular aspects of the mechanism for spread and infection of the disease, but there is currently ongoing research on this pathogen to gain a better understanding.

text: This growth of population and the development of Australia as a sea trading nation made it obvious that there was a need to control the introduction and spread of infectious diseases. The first Queensland Health Act was drafted in 1884; the other Australian colonies had drawn up laws by the late 1890s. In general, legislation established Central Boards of Health to enforce notification of infectious diseases and to provide guidelines for quarantining suspected cases.

text: A granuloma is the body's way of dealing with a substance it cannot remove or sterilize. Infectious causes of granulomas (infections are typically the most common cause of granulomas) include tuberculosis, leprosy, histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, coccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis, and cat scratch disease. Examples of non-infectious granulomatous diseases are sarcoidosis, Crohn's disease, berylliosis, giant-cell arteritis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, pulmonary rheumatoid nodules, and aspiration of food and other particulate material into the lung. The infectious pathophysiology of granulomas is discussed primarily here.

text: A

text: granuloma

text: is the body's way of dealing with a substance it cannot remove or sterilize. Infectious causes of granulomas (infections are typically the most common cause of granulomas) include

text: tuberculosis

text: leprosy

text: histoplasmosis

text: cryptococcosis

text: coccidioidomycosis

text: blastomycosis

text: , and

text: cat scratch disease

text: . Examples of non-infectious granulomatous diseases are

text: sarcoidosis

text: Crohn's disease

text: berylliosis

text: giant-cell arteritis

text: granulomatosis with polyangiitis

entity_name: Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis

text: eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis

text: , pulmonary

text: rheumatoid nodule

text: s, and aspiration of food and other particulate material into the lung. The infectious pathophysiology of granulomas is discussed primarily here.

text: The combination of direct and indirect deaths from malnutrition caused by unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices is estimated by the World Health Organisation to lead to 860,000 deaths per year in children under five years of age. The multiple interdependencies between malnutrition and infectious diseases make it very difficult to quantify the portion of malnutrition that is caused by infectious diseases which are in turn caused by unsafe WASH practices. Based on expert opinions and a literature survey, researchers at WHO arrived at the conclusion that approximately half of all cases of malnutrition (which often leads to stunting) in children under five is associated with repeated diarrhoea or intestinal worm infections as a result of unsafe water, inadequate sanitation or insufficient hygiene.

text: The combination of direct and indirect deaths from

text: malnutrition

text: caused by unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices is estimated by the World Health Organisation to lead to 860,000 deaths per year in children under five years of age. The multiple interdependencies between malnutrition and infectious diseases make it very difficult to quantify the portion of malnutrition that is caused by infectious diseases which are in turn caused by unsafe WASH practices. Based on expert opinions and a literature survey, researchers at WHO arrived at the conclusion that approximately half of all cases of malnutrition (which often leads to stunting) in children under five is associated with repeated diarrhoea or intestinal worm infections as a result of unsafe water, inadequate sanitation or insufficient hygiene.

text: Tick-borne illnesses are caused by infection with a variety of pathogens, including Rickettsia and other types of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Because ticks can harbor more than one disease-causing agent, patients can be infected with more than one pathogen at the same time, compounding the difficulty in diagnosis and treatment. Major tick-borne diseases include Lyme disease, Q fever (rare; more commonly transmitted by infected excreta), Colorado tick fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, African tick bite fever, Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever, tularemia, tick-borne relapsing fever, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, and tick-borne meningoencephalitis, as well as bovine anaplasmosis and probably the Heartland virus. Some species, notably the Australian paralysis tick, are also intrinsically venomous and can cause tick paralysis.Eggs can become infected with pathogens inside a female tick's ovaries, in which case the larval ticks are infectious immediately at hatching, before feeding on their first host.

text: Tick-borne illnesses are caused by infection with a variety of

text: pathogen

text: s, including

text: Rickettsia

text: and other types of

text: bacteria

text: virus

text: es, and

text: protozoa

text: . Because ticks can harbor more than one disease-causing agent, patients can be infected with more than one pathogen at the same time, compounding the difficulty in diagnosis and treatment. Major tick-borne diseases include

text: Lyme disease

text: Q fever

text: (rare; more commonly transmitted by infected excreta),

text: Colorado tick fever

text: Rocky Mountain spotted fever

text: African tick bite fever

text: Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever

text: tularemia

text: , tick-borne

text: relapsing fever

text: babesiosis

text: ehrlichiosis

text: , and

text: tick-borne meningoencephalitis

text: , as well as bovine

text: anaplasmosis

text: and probably the

text: Heartland virus

text: . Some species, notably the

text: Australian paralysis tick

text: , are also intrinsically

text: venom

text: ous and can cause

text: tick paralysis

text: .Eggs can become infected with pathogens inside a female tick's

text: ovaries

text: , in which case the larval ticks are infectious immediately at hatching, before feeding on their first host.

text: Mountain leafhopper (Colladonus montanus) overwinters on winter annual weeds, particularly near streams and canals.  Adults can be plentiful on sugarbeet during late winter/spring and migrate to favored weed hosts such as curly dock or burclovers in orchards.  The Mountain leafhopper is most abundant vector found on cherry but does not reproduce on cherry. The mountain leafhopper (Colladonus montanus) spreads the disease from wild herbaceous hosts to woody hosts. It is believed that it is more responsible for the introduction of the disease into cherry trees, then in transferring them from cherry tree to cherry tree in an orchard. The cherry leafhopper (Fieberiella florii) reproduces on a broad range of woody hosts. The cherry leafhopper is more important in vectoring the disease from tree to tree within an orchard, since cherry is a favored host.  After a leafhopper feeds on an infected host the pathogen has to undergo a latent period.  During the latent period the pathogen spreads and multiplies inside the vector.  Depending on temperature and the vector, the average latent period for the cherry x disease is about a month or longer.  The phytoplasma is then transmitted from the leafhopper to the tree when the leafhopper is feeding on the trees phloem.  It's then spread throughout the tree becoming systemic.  July through October is when the highest concentrations of pathogen are present in leaves of infected trees.

text: A number of studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher fertility rates and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with polygyny which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygny may also be due to a lower male:female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.

text: A number of studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher

text: fertility rate

text: s and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with

text: polygyny

text: which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygny may also be due to a lower male:female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.

text: NCDs include many environmental diseases covering a broad category of avoidable and unavoidable human health conditions caused by external factors, such as sunlight, nutrition, pollution, and lifestyle choices.  The diseases of affluence are non-infectious diseases with environmental causes.  Examples include:

text: NCDs include many environmental diseases covering a broad category of avoidable and unavoidable

text: human health

text: conditions caused by external factors, such as sunlight, nutrition, pollution, and lifestyle choices.  The

text: diseases of affluence

text: are non-infectious diseases with environmental causes.  Examples include:

text: Marburg virus  is a hemorrhagic fever virus of the Filoviridae family of viruses and a member of the species Marburg marburgvirus, genus Marburgvirus. Marburg virus (MARV) causes Marburg virus disease in humans and nonhuman primates, a form of viral hemorrhagic fever. The virus is considered to be extremely dangerous. The WHO rates it as a Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring biosafety level 4-equivalent containment). In the United States, the NIH/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases ranks it as a Category A Priority Pathogen and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists it as a Category A Bioterrorism Agent. It is also listed as a biological agent for export control by the Australia Group.

text: Marburg virus  is a

text: hemorrhagic fever virus

text: of the

text: Filoviridae

text: family of viruses and a member of the species

text: Marburg marburgvirus

text: , genus

text: Marburgvirus

text: . Marburg virus (MARV) causes

text: Marburg virus disease

text: in

text: human

text: s and nonhuman

text: primates

text: , a form of

text: viral hemorrhagic fever

text: . The virus is considered to be extremely dangerous. The

text: WHO

text: rates it as a Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring

text: biosafety level 4-equivalent containment

text: ). In the United States, the

text: NIH

text: ranks it as a Category A Priority Pathogen and the

text: lists it as a

text: Category A Bioterrorism Agent

text: . It is also listed as a biological agent for export control by the

text: Australia Group

text: Infectious diseases are sometimes called contagious disease when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called quarantine) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use.

text: Infectious diseases are sometimes called

text: contagious disease

text: when they are easily transmitted by contact with an ill person or their secretions (e.g., influenza). Thus, a contagious disease is a subset of infectious disease that is especially infective or easily transmitted. Other types of infectious/transmissible/communicable diseases with more specialized routes of infection, such as vector transmission or sexual transmission, are usually not regarded as "contagious", and often do not require medical isolation (sometimes loosely called

text: quarantine

text: ) of victims. However, this specialized connotation of the word "contagious" and "contagious disease" (easy transmissibility) is not always respected in popular use.

text: The Emerging Infectious Diseases (EID) Laboratory Fellowship program prepares laboratory scientists for careers in public health.  The two-track program (for bachelor’s-/master’s-level and postdoctoral-level scientists) emphasizes the practical application of technologies, methodologies and practices related to emerging infectious diseases.  Qualified candidates learn to support public health initiatives and conduct high priority infectious disease research in local, state and federal (CDC) public health laboratories.  Fellows receive a stipend, individual medical insurance and a professional development allowance.  This program is co-sponsored by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

text: The Emerging Infectious Diseases (EID) Laboratory Fellowship program prepares laboratory scientists for careers in public health.  The two-track program (for bachelor’s-/master’s-level and postdoctoral-level scientists) emphasizes the practical application of technologies, methodologies and practices related to

text: emerging infectious diseases

text: .  Qualified candidates learn to support public health initiatives and conduct high priority infectious disease research in local, state and federal (CDC) public health laboratories.  Fellows receive a stipend, individual medical insurance and a professional development allowance.  This program is co-sponsored by the

text: The ascomycetes are a monophyletic group, i.e. it contains all descendants of one common ancestor. This group is of particular relevance to humans as sources for medicinally important compounds, such as antibiotics and for making bread, alcoholic beverages, and cheese, but also as pathogens of humans and plants. Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewer's yeast and baker's yeast, dead man's fingers, and cup fungi. The fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens (loosely termed "ascolichens") such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota. There are many plant-pathogenic ascomycetes, including apple scab, rice blast, the ergot fungi, black knot, and the powdery mildews. Several species of ascomycetes are biological model organisms in laboratory research. Most famously, Neurospora crassa, several species of yeasts, and Aspergillus species are used in many genetics and cell biology studies. Penicillium species on cheeses and those producing antibiotics for treating bacterial infectious diseases are examples of taxa that belong to the Ascomycota.

text: The ascomycetes are a

text: monophyletic

text: group, i.e. it contains all descendants of one common ancestor. This group is of particular relevance to humans as sources for medicinally important compounds, such as

text: antibiotics

text: and for making bread, alcoholic beverages, and cheese, but also as

text: pathogen

text: s of humans and plants. Familiar examples of sac fungi include

text: morel

text: s,

text: truffle

text: s,

text: brewer's yeast

text: and

text: baker's yeast

text: dead man's fingers

text: , and

text: cup fungi

text: . The fungal

text: symbiont

text: s in the majority of

text: lichen

text: s (loosely termed "ascolichens") such as

text: Cladonia

text: belong to the Ascomycota. There are many

text: plant-pathogenic

text: ascomycetes, including

text: apple scab

text: rice blast

text: , the

text: ergot fungi

text: black knot

text: , and the

text: powdery mildew

text: s. Several species of ascomycetes are biological

text: model organism

text: s in laboratory research. Most famously,

text: Neurospora crassa

text: , several species of

text: yeast

text: s, and

text: Aspergillus

text: species are used in many

text: genetics

text: and

text: cell biology

text: studies.

text: Penicillium

text: species on cheeses and those producing antibiotics for treating bacterial

text: infectious disease

text: s are examples of taxa that belong to the Ascomycota.

text: Although STDs are logical targets for examining the role of human behavior in a modeling framework, personal actions are important for other infectious diseases as well. The rapidity with which individuals reduce their contact rate with others during an outbreak of a highly transmissible disease can significantly affect the spread of the disease. Even small reductions in the contact rate can be important, especially for diseases like influenza or  severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). However, this may also affect policy planning for a biological attack with a disease such as smallpox.

text: Although

text: STDs

text: are logical targets for examining the role of

text: human behavior

text: in a modeling framework, personal actions are important for other infectious diseases as well. The rapidity with which individuals reduce their contact rate with others during an outbreak of a highly transmissible disease can significantly affect the spread of the disease. Even small reductions in the contact rate can be important, especially for diseases like

text: influenza

text: or

text: severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

text: . However, this may also affect policy planning for a biological attack with a disease such as

text: smallpox

text: Membertou was very eager to become a proper Christian as soon as he was baptized. He wanted the missionaries to learn the Algonquian Mi'kmaq language so that he could be properly educated. Biard relates how, when Membertou's son Actaudin became gravely ill, he was prepared to sacrifice two or three dogs to precede him as messengers into the spirit world, but when Biard told him this was wrong, he did not, and Actaudin then recovered. However, in 1611, he contracted dysentery, one of the many infectious diseases spread in the New World by Europeans. By September 1611, he was very ill. Membertou insisted on being buried with his ancestors, something that bothered the missionaries. However; Membertou soon changed his mind and requested to be buried among the French. He died on 18 September 1611. In his final words, he charged his children to remain devout Christians.

text: There are a number of non-infectious causes of inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. Some of the more common include medications (like NSAIDs), certain foods such as lactose (in those who are intolerant), and gluten (in those with celiac disease). Crohn's disease is also a non-infectious source of (often severe) gastroenteritis. Disease secondary to toxins may also occur. Some food-related conditions associated with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea include: ciguatera poisoning due to consumption of contaminated predatory fish, scombroid associated with the consumption of certain types of spoiled fish, tetrodotoxin poisoning from the consumption of puffer fish among others, and botulism typically due to improperly preserved food.

text: There are a number of non-infectious causes of inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. Some of the more common include medications (like

text: NSAIDs

text: ), certain foods such as

text: lactose

text: (in those who are intolerant), and

text: gluten

text: (in those with

text: celiac disease

text: Crohn's disease

text: is also a non-infectious source of (often severe) gastroenteritis. Disease secondary to

text: toxin

text: s may also occur. Some food-related conditions associated with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea include:

text: ciguatera poisoning

text: due to consumption of contaminated predatory fish,

text: scombroid

text: associated with the consumption of certain types of spoiled fish,

text: tetrodotoxin poisoning

text: from the consumption of

text: puffer fish

text: among others, and

text: botulism

text: typically due to improperly preserved food.

text: Disease can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host. Microorganisms can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example, Clostridium tetani releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and staphylococcus releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with polio develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The prion causing mad cow disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.

text: Disease

text: can arise if the host's protective immune mechanisms are compromised and the organism inflicts damage on the host.

text: Microorganism

text: s can cause tissue damage by releasing a variety of toxins or destructive enzymes. For example,

text: Clostridium tetani

text: releases a toxin that paralyzes muscles, and

text: staphylococcus

text: releases toxins that produce shock and sepsis. Not all infectious agents cause disease in all hosts. For example, less than 5% of individuals infected with

text: polio

text: develop disease. On the other hand, some infectious agents are highly virulent. The

text: prion

text: causing

text: mad cow disease

text: and

text: Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

text: invariably kills all animals and people that are infected.

text: The Infectious Disease Research Institute (IDRI) is a non-profit organization based in Seattle, in the United States, and which conducts global health research on infectious diseases.

text: The Infectious Disease Research Institute (IDRI) is a

text: non-profit organization

text: based in

text: Seattle

text: , in the United States, and which conducts

text: global health

text: research on

text: infectious diseases

text: The first edition, published in 1917 by the US Public Health Service, titled Control of Communicable Diseases. The first edition was a 30-page booklet with 38 diseases (Public Health Reports 32:41:1706-1733), adopted from a pamphlet written by Dr. Francis Curtis, health officer for Newton, Massachusetts, and sold for 5¢.  Changes over the years reflect the new discoveries of infectious agents over the past century. The second edition in 1926 included 42 diseases, but only two arthropod (usually mosquito) - borne diseases, yellow and dengue fever and one protozoan disease, malaria.  The causative organism of smallpox, dengue and chickenpox was listed as 'unknown.' The third edition in 1932 included two new arthropod infestations and a new disease, coccidioidal granuloma, with a note that it was 100% fatal. Eight diseases were listed as "reportable": diphtheria, epidemic influenza, measles, meningococcal meningitis, polio, scarlet fever, smallpox, and typhoid fever. The fourth edition in 1935 included 13 new infections. The fifth edition erroneously listed pemphigus as being infectious. In the sixth edition the rickettsioses were reorganized. In the seventh edition (1950) leprosy became Hansen's disease and cat-scratch disease was added as a probable viral disease (now known to be caused by the bacterium, Bartonella henselae. The eight edition (1955) erroneously listed actinomycosis as a fungal disease. In the ninth edition, arthropod-borne viral diseases were reclassified, with 49 additional diseases, resulting in substantially more viral entries. By the twelfth edition (1975) there were 118 arboviral illnesses. The 16th edition "neoplastic, malignant viral-associated diseases" for the first time. In 2004 (18th edition) there were six "tick-borne" diseases, which was later corrected to include a "mite-borne" disease, rickettsialpox. The title was changed to "Control of Communicable Disease Manual" in 1995 (16th edition) to remove any perception of gender bias.

text: The first edition, published in 1917 by the

text: US Public Health Service

text: , titled Control of Communicable Diseases. The first edition was a 30-page booklet with 38 diseases (Public Health Reports 32:41:1706-1733), adopted from a pamphlet written by Dr. Francis Curtis, health officer for Newton, Massachusetts, and sold for 5¢.  Changes over the years reflect the new discoveries of infectious agents over the past century. The second edition in 1926 included 42 diseases, but only two

text: arthropod

text: (usually mosquito) - borne diseases, yellow and dengue fever and one protozoan disease, malaria.  The causative organism of smallpox, dengue and chickenpox was listed as 'unknown.' The third edition in 1932 included two new arthropod infestations and a new disease, coccidioidal granuloma, with a note that it was 100% fatal. Eight diseases were listed as

text: "reportable"

text: : diphtheria, epidemic influenza, measles, meningococcal meningitis, polio, scarlet fever, smallpox, and typhoid fever. The fourth edition in 1935 included 13 new infections. The fifth edition erroneously listed

text: pemphigus

text: as being infectious. In the sixth edition the

text: rickettsioses

text: were reorganized. In the seventh edition (1950)

text: leprosy

text: became Hansen's disease and cat-scratch disease was added as a probable viral disease (now known to be caused by the bacterium,

text: Bartonella henselae

text: . The eight edition (1955) erroneously listed

text: actinomycosis

text: as a fungal disease. In the ninth edition, arthropod-borne viral diseases were reclassified, with 49 additional diseases, resulting in substantially more viral entries. By the twelfth edition (1975) there were 118 arboviral illnesses. The 16th edition "neoplastic, malignant viral-associated diseases" for the first time. In 2004 (18th edition) there were six "tick-borne" diseases, which was later corrected to include a "mite-borne" disease,

text: rickettsialpox

text: . The title was changed to "Control of Communicable Disease Manual" in 1995 (16th edition) to remove any perception of gender bias.

text: A main purpose of the CRL is to ensure the quality of diagnostics of fish diseases in EU Member States and to harmonise the procedures and methodologies applied. The work is mainly concerned with the exotic (Epizootic Haematopoietic Necrosis Virus and Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome) and non-exotic (Viral hemorrhagic septicemia, Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus, Koi herpes virus, and Infectious salmon anemia virus) diseases mentioned in Council Directive 2006/88/EC. The CRL co-ordinates those activities of the National Reference Laboratories (NRLs) for Fish diseases in EU that aim to harmonise diagnostic techniques and disseminate information of mutual interest. The work of the CRL also includes development of a database (Fishpathogens.eu) that aims to collect information on fish disease isolates and their sequences. Details of the work programme is decided at the Annual Meeting of the NRLs for Fish Diseases.

text: A main purpose of the CRL is to ensure the quality of

text: diagnostics

text: of

text: fish diseases

text: in

text: EU

text: Member States and to harmonise the procedures and methodologies applied. The work is mainly concerned with the exotic (Epizootic Haematopoietic Necrosis Virus and Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome) and non-exotic (

text: Viral hemorrhagic septicemia

text: Infectious hematopoietic necrosis virus

text: Koi herpes virus

text: , and

text: Infectious salmon anemia virus

text: ) diseases mentioned in Council Directive 2006/88/EC. The CRL co-ordinates those activities of the National Reference Laboratories (NRLs) for

text: Fish diseases

text: in

text: EU

text: that aim to harmonise diagnostic techniques and disseminate information of mutual interest. The work of the CRL also includes development of a database (

text: Fishpathogens.eu

text: ) that aims to collect information on fish disease isolates and their sequences. Details of the work programme is decided at the Annual Meeting of the NRLs for Fish Diseases.

text: The Cyberinfrastructure Division (CID) develops methods, infrastructure, and resources primarily for  infectious disease research. The  “Pathosystems Resource Integration Center - Bioinformatics Resource Center for Bacterial Diseases”  aims to  integrate information on pathogens, provide resources and tools to  analyzize genomic, proteomic and other data arising from infectious disease research. It is part  of the Middle-Atlantic Regional Center of Excellence for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases Research (MARCE), which focuses on research to enable rapid defense against bioterror and emerging infectious diseases. Specific diseases and disease-causing agents under investigation include anthrax, West Nile Virus, smallpox, and cryptosporidiosis The division collaborates  with Georgetown University and Social and Scientific Systems, Inc (SSS) on the Administrative Center of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases-funded Proteomics Research Resource Center (PRC) for Biodefense Proteomics Research project. The team helps design, develop, and maintain a publicly accessible Web site containing data and technology protocols generated by each PRC, as well as a catalog that lists reagents and products  available for public distribution.

text: The Cyberinfrastructure Division (CID) develops methods, infrastructure, and resources primarily for  infectious disease research. The  “Pathosystems Resource Integration Center - Bioinformatics Resource Center for Bacterial Diseases”  aims to  integrate information on pathogens, provide resources and tools to  analyzize genomic, proteomic and other data arising from infectious disease research. It is part  of the Middle-Atlantic Regional Center of Excellence for Biodefense and Emerging Infectious Diseases Research (MARCE), which focuses on research to enable rapid defense against bioterror and emerging

text: infectious diseases

text: . Specific diseases and disease-causing agents under investigation include

text: anthrax

text: West Nile Virus

text: smallpox

text: , and

text: cryptosporidiosis

text: The division collaborates  with

text: Georgetown University

text: and Social and Scientific Systems, Inc (SSS) on the Administrative Center of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases-funded Proteomics Research Resource Center (PRC) for Biodefense Proteomics Research project. The team helps design, develop, and maintain a publicly accessible Web site containing data and technology protocols generated by each PRC, as well as a catalog that lists reagents and products  available for public distribution.

text: High isolation is used to prevent the spread of unusually highly contagious, or high consequence, infectious diseases (e.g., smallpox, Ebola virus). It stipulates mandatory use of: (1) gloves (or double gloves if appropriate), (2) protective eyewear (goggles or face shield), (3) a waterproof gown (or total body Tyvek suite, if appropriate), and (4) a respirator (at least FFP2 or N95 NIOSH equivalent), not simply a surgical mask. Sometimes negative pressure rooms or powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs) are also used.

text: High isolation is used to prevent the spread of unusually highly contagious, or high consequence, infectious diseases (e.g., smallpox, Ebola virus). It stipulates mandatory use of: (1) gloves (or double gloves if appropriate), (2) protective eyewear (goggles or face shield), (3) a waterproof gown (or total body Tyvek suite, if appropriate), and (4) a

text: respirator

text: (at least FFP2 or N95 NIOSH equivalent), not simply a surgical mask. Sometimes

text: negative pressure room

text: s or

entity_section: Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs)

text: powered air-purifying respirator

text: s (PAPRs) are also used.

text: Rafael Radi is an Uruguayan biochemist and biomedical scientist that has extensively worked to elucidate molecular mechanisms by which free radicals, oxidants and nitric oxide participate in human pathologies. In particular, he has made relevant contributions to unravel how the signal transducing free radical nitric oxide can evolve into toxic species via the formation of secondary nitric oxide-derived oxidants. His work has characterized reactions of oxidizing species with biological targets, the role of mitochondrial dysfunction is the alterations of cellular redox homeostasis and the impact of these biochemical processes in disease states.  He has studied the actions of synthetic compounds in redox-based therapeutics, including in cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. His work has also contributed to understand the redox biology of host cell interactions with intracellular pathogens and the impact in the control of infectious diseases. His seminal paper related to the biochemical actions of peroxynitrite, a potent oxidant and nucleophile formed secondary to the diffusion-controlled reaction of nitric oxide with superoxide radicals together with Joe S. Beckman, Kent Bush and Bruce A. Freeman in 1991 has been selected as a  due to its influence in the field. Radi is currently Professor and Chairman at the Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina and Director of Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CEINBIO) at Universidad de la República , Montevideo, Uruguay. He is categorized at the highest level of the National Research System of Uruguay ().

text: Rafael Radi is an Uruguayan

text: biochemist

text: and

text: biomedical

text: Before Weil's characterization in 1886, the disease known as infectious jaundice was very likely the same as Weil's disease or severe icteric leptospirosis. During the Egyptian campaign, Napoleon's army suffered from what was probably infectious jaundice. Infectious jaundice occurred among troops during the American Civil War.

text: Before Weil's characterization in 1886, the disease known as infectious jaundice was very likely the same as Weil's disease or severe icteric leptospirosis. During the Egyptian campaign, Napoleon's army suffered from what was probably infectious jaundice. Infectious jaundice occurred among troops during the

text: American Civil War

text: Phytopathology is the study of plant diseases.  It is a multi-disciplinary science since prerequisites for disease development are the presence of a susceptible host species, a pathogen and the appropriate environmental conditions.  This is known as the disease triangle.  Because of this interaction, the terminology used in phytopathology often comes from other disciplines including those dealing with the host species ( botany / plant science, plant physiology), the pathogen (bacteriology, mycology, nematology, virology), the environment and disease management practices (agronomy, soil science, meteorology, environmental science, ecology, plant breeding, pesticides, entomology), and areas of study that apply to both the host and pathogen (molecular biology, genetics, molecular genetics).  The result is that most phytopathological glossary include terms from these other disciplines in addition to terms (disease incidence, horizontal resistance, gene-for-gene relationship, blast, scab and so on) that are specific to, or which have a unique meaning in phytopathology. This glossary is no exception. However, for the sake of brevity, it has, for the most part, restricted terms from other disciplines to those that pertain to the pathogen.  At some point, these terms should be moved to other glossaries (e.g. glossary of mycology, glossary of nematology, and so on).

text: Phytopathology is the study of plant diseases.  It is a multi-disciplinary science since prerequisites for disease development are the presence of a susceptible host species, a pathogen and the appropriate environmental conditions.  This is known as the

text: disease triangle

text: .  Because of this interaction, the terminology used in phytopathology often comes from other disciplines including those dealing with the host species (

text: botany / plant science

text: plant physiology

text: ), the pathogen (

text: bacteriology

text: mycology

text: nematology

text: virology

text: ), the environment and disease management practices (

text: agronomy

text: soil science

text: meteorology

text: environmental science

text: ecology

text: plant breeding

text: pesticides

text: entomology

text: ), and areas of study that apply to both the host and pathogen (

text: molecular biology

text: genetics

text: molecular genetics

text: ).  The result is that most phytopathological glossary include terms from these other disciplines in addition to terms (

text: disease incidence

text: horizontal resistance

text: gene-for-gene relationship

text: blast

text: scab

text: and so on) that are specific to, or which have a unique meaning in phytopathology. This glossary is no exception. However, for the sake of brevity, it has, for the most part, restricted terms from other disciplines to those that pertain to the pathogen.  At some point, these terms should be moved to other glossaries (e.g.

text: glossary of mycology

text: glossary of nematology

text: , and so on).

text: Sudan virus (SUDV) is one of five known viruses within the genus Ebolavirus and causes Ebola virus disease (EVD) in humans and other primates; it is the sole member of the species Sudan ebolavirus. SUDV is a Select Agent, World Health Organization Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment), National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Category A Priority Pathogen, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Category A Bioterrorism Agent, and listed as a Biological Agent for Export Control by the Australia Group.

text: Sudan virus (SUDV) is one of five known viruses within the

text: genus

text: Ebolavirus

text: and causes

text: Ebola virus disease

text: (EVD) in

text: human

text: s and other

text: primate

text: s; it is the sole member of the species

text: Sudan ebolavirus

text: . SUDV is a

text: Select Agent

text: World Health Organization

text: Risk Group 4 Pathogen (requiring

text: National Institutes of Health

text: Category A Priority Pathogen,

text: Category A Bioterrorism Agent

text: Australia Group

text: Some fish species serve as vectors for the disease and have subsequently spread the pathogen to other parts of the world.  An example is the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) which is responsible for the spread of redmouth disease to trout in Europe.  Other vectors include the goldfish (Carassius auratus), Atlantic and Pacific salmon (Salmo salar), the emerald shiner (Notropis atherinoides), and farmed whitefish (Coregonus spp.).  Infections have also occurred in farmed turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax), and seabream (Sparus auratus). It can now be found in North and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia, as well as Europe.

text: Some fish species serve as

text: vectors

text: for the disease and have subsequently spread the pathogen to other parts of the world.  An example is the

text: fathead minnow

text: (Pimephales promelas) which is responsible for the spread of redmouth disease to trout in Europe.  Other vectors include the

text: goldfish

text: (Carassius auratus), Atlantic and Pacific

text: salmon

text: (Salmo salar), the

text: emerald shiner

text: (Notropis atherinoides), and farmed

text: whitefish

text: (Coregonus spp.).  Infections have also occurred in farmed

text: turbot

text: (Scophthalmus maximus),

text: seabass

text: (Dicentrarchus labrax), and

text: seabream

text: (Sparus auratus). It can now be found in North and South America, Africa, Asia, and Australia, as well as Europe.

text: The degree of cultural collectivism is strongly associated with the burden of infectious disease. It has been argued that this is due to collectivism and associated characteristics such as out-group avoidance limiting the spread of infectious diseases. Other characteristics such as strong in-group–out-group bias and willingness to defend the ingroup's honor may promote violence. A study found strong associations between several forms of violent criminal behavior and both infectious disease rates across U.S states and degree of cultural collectivism across U.S. states. The associations remained strong after controlling for income inequality.

text: The degree of cultural

text: collectivism

text: is strongly associated with the burden of

text: infectious disease

text: . It has been argued that this is due to collectivism and associated characteristics such as

text: out-group

text: avoidance limiting the spread of infectious diseases. Other characteristics such as strong

text: in-group–out-group bias

text: and willingness to defend the

text: ingroup

text: 's honor may promote violence. A study found strong associations between several forms of violent criminal behavior and both infectious disease rates across U.S states and degree of cultural collectivism across U.S. states. The associations remained strong after controlling for income inequality.

text: Astellas' franchise areas are urology, immunology (transplantation), dermatology, cardiology, and infectious disease.  Priority areas for R&D are infectious diseases, diabetes, gastrointestinal diseases, oncology, and diseases of the central nervous system.

text: Astellas' franchise areas are

text: urology

text: immunology

text: transplantation

text: dermatology

text: cardiology

text: , and

text: infectious disease

text: .  Priority areas for R&D are

text: infectious disease

text: s,

text: diabetes

text: gastrointestinal disease

text: s,

text: oncology

text: , and diseases of the

text: central nervous system

text: Chicken respiratory diseases are difficult to differentiate and may not be diagnosed based on respiratory signs and lesions. Other diseases such as mycoplasmosis by Mycoplasma gallisepticum (chronic respiratory disease), Newcastle disease by mesogenic strains of Newcastle diseases virus (APMV-1), avian metapneumovirus, infectious laryngotracheitis, avian infectious coryza in some stages may clinically resemble IB. Similar kidney lesions may be caused by different etiologies, including other viruses, such as infectious bursal disease virus (the cause of Gumboro disease) and toxins (for instance ochratoxins of Aspergillus ochraceus), and dehydration.

text: Chicken respiratory diseases are difficult to differentiate and may not be diagnosed based on respiratory signs and lesions. Other diseases such as mycoplasmosis by

text: Mycoplasma gallisepticum

text: (chronic respiratory disease),

text: Newcastle disease

text: by mesogenic strains of Newcastle diseases virus (

text: ), avian

text: metapneumovirus

text: , infectious laryngotracheitis, avian infectious coryza in some stages may clinically resemble IB. Similar kidney lesions may be caused by different etiologies, including other viruses, such as

text: infectious bursal disease

text: virus (the cause of Gumboro disease) and toxins (for instance

text: ochratoxin

text: s of

text: Aspergillus

text: ochraceus), and

text: dehydration

text: When a pathogen requires a vector to be spread then for an epidemic to occur the vector must be plentiful and active.

text: Tracking the transmission of infectious diseases is called disease surveillance. Surveillance of infectious diseases in the public realm traditionally has been the responsibility of public health agencies, either on the (inter)national or a local level. Public health staff rely on health care workers and microbiology laboratories to report cases of reportable diseases to them. The analysis of aggregate data can show the spread of a disease and is at the core of the specialty of epidemiology.To understand the spread of the vast majority of non-notifiable diseases, data either need to be collected in a particular study, or existing data collections can be mined, such as insurance company data or antimicrobial drug sales for example.

text: Tracking the transmission of infectious diseases is called

text: disease surveillance

text: . Surveillance of infectious diseases in the public realm traditionally has been the responsibility of

text: public health

text: agencies, either on the (inter)national or a local level. Public health staff rely on health care workers and microbiology laboratories to report cases of

text: reportable disease

text: s to them. The analysis of

text: aggregate data

text: can show the spread of a disease and is at the core of the specialty of

text: epidemiology

text: .To understand the spread of the vast majority of non-notifiable diseases, data either need to be collected in a particular study, or existing data collections can be mined, such as insurance company data or antimicrobial drug sales for example.

text: The non-communicable diseases are also usually lasting medical conditions but are separated by their non-infectious causes. In contrast, some chronic diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, are caused by transmissible infections.

text: The

text: non-communicable disease

text: s are also usually lasting medical conditions but are separated by their

text: non-infectious

text: causes. In contrast, some chronic diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, are caused by transmissible infections.

text: Downard has served on the Editorial Board of the European Journal of Mass Spectrometry (EJMS) and has acted as Guest Editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews and other journals. He is frequently invited to speak at mass spectrometry conferences and those related to its application in proteomics, protein analysis, virology and vaccines, and infectious disease control. He has presented recent invited keynote lectures at the 18th International Mass Spectrometry Conference (IMSC) (Bremen, Germany 2009) of the International Mass Spectrometry Foundation, Vaccines Europe (Brussels, Belgium 2008), and the Fourth Annual Infectious Disease and Control (Sydney 2009).

text: Downard has served on the Editorial Board of the

text: European Journal of Mass Spectrometry

text: (EJMS) and has acted as Guest Editor of

text: Mass Spectrometry Reviews

text: and other journals. He is frequently invited to speak at mass spectrometry conferences and those related to its application in

text: proteomics

text: , protein analysis,

text: virology

text: and

text: vaccines

text: , and infectious disease control. He has presented recent invited keynote lectures at the 18th International Mass Spectrometry Conference (IMSC) (

text: Bremen

text: , Germany 2009) of the

entity_name: International Mass Spectrometry Foundation

text: International Mass Spectrometry Foundation

text: , Vaccines Europe (

text: Brussels

text: , Belgium 2008), and the Fourth Annual Infectious Disease and Control (Sydney 2009).

text: Infants are more susceptible to infectious diseases and conditions like malaria, which can cause severe morbidity, and even death. For infants, physical growth is critical to proper and successful development. Therefore, if there are insufficient nutrients being provided to the infant during this period of growth and cell proliferation, the number of neurons will be permanently reduced. In Guatemala, this issue is particularly prominent. Nutrition and proper health care is crucial in early infant development in order to insure that these infants will thrive and grow into strong children. Therefore, the nutritional deficiencies, infectious diseases, and parasitic diseases directly lead to higher mortality rates for children under the age of 5 in Guatemala. These higher mortality rates are prominent in both rural and urban areas of Guatemala when diseases are present. However, these rates are significantly higher in rural areas where limited access to health care, high levels of illiteracy, poor sanitation, and nutritional deficiencies are factored into the rate.

text: Infants are more susceptible to infectious diseases and conditions like

text: malaria

text: , which can cause severe morbidity, and even death. For infants, physical growth is critical to proper and successful development. Therefore, if there are insufficient nutrients being provided to the infant during this period of growth and

text: cell proliferation

text: , the number of neurons will be permanently reduced. In Guatemala, this issue is particularly prominent. Nutrition and proper health care is crucial in early infant development in order to insure that these infants will thrive and grow into strong children. Therefore, the nutritional deficiencies, infectious diseases, and parasitic diseases directly lead to higher mortality rates for children under the age of 5 in Guatemala. These higher mortality rates are prominent in both rural and urban areas of Guatemala when diseases are present. However, these rates are significantly higher in rural areas where limited access to health care, high levels of

text: illiteracy

text: , poor sanitation, and nutritional deficiencies are factored into the rate.

text: The Public Health Agency of Sweden runs the only biosafety level 4 laboratory in the Nordic region — one of only six in Europe. The laboratory is located at the headquarters in Solna, and has been in operation since 2001. It is built of wholly encased steel, totally isolated from the rest of the premises. The entire building is kept at negative air pressure, to prevent any contagion spreading outdoors, and laboratory access is limited to approximately 20 employees, pre-screened by the Swedish Security Service. Patients with highly infectious diseases are usually treated at high-containment medical facilities in Linköping University Hospital or at Karolinska University Hospital.

text: The Public Health Agency of Sweden runs the only

text: biosafety level 4

text: laboratory in the

text: Nordic region

text: — one of only six in Europe. The laboratory is located at the headquarters in

text: Solna

text: , and has been in operation since 2001. It is built of wholly encased steel, totally isolated from the rest of the premises. The entire building is kept at

text: negative air pressure

text: , to prevent any

text: contagion

text: spreading outdoors, and laboratory access is limited to approximately 20 employees, pre-screened by the

text: Swedish Security Service

text: . Patients with highly infectious diseases are usually treated at high-containment medical facilities in

text: Linköping University Hospital

text: or at

text: Karolinska University Hospital

text: Infectious diseases can be caused by pathogens and microorganisms such as viruses, prions, bacteria, parasites, and fungi.

text: Infectious disease

text: s can be caused by

text: pathogen

text: s and

text: microorganism

text: s such as

text: virus

text: es,

text: prion

text: s,

text: bacteria

text: parasite

text: s, and

text: fungi

text: The Porter School of Environmental Studies regards regional cooperation as a necessity to maintaining environmental sustainability and in helping to prevent the spread of infectious disease, limiting the damaging effects of climate change and protecting the region’s scarce water supplies. Many of the programmes and projects run by the school include international cooperation.

text: The Porter School of Environmental Studies regards regional cooperation as a necessity to maintaining environmental sustainability and in helping to prevent the spread of

text: infectious

text: disease

text: , limiting the damaging effects of climate change and protecting the region’s scarce

text: water supplies

text: . Many of the programmes and projects run by the school include international cooperation.

text: In the three weeks preceding their first semester, first-year students attend the Language and Thinking (L&T) program, an intensive, writing-centered introduction to the liberal arts. The interdisciplinary program, established in 1981, aims to "cultivate habits of thoughtful reading and discussion, clear articulation, accurate self-critique, and productive collaboration." The program covers philosophy, history, science, poetry, fiction, and religion. In 2011, the core readings included works by Hannah Arendt, Franz Kafka, Frans de Waal, Stephen Jay Gould, Clifford Geertz, M. NourbeSe Philip, and Sophocles. During their winter intercession, first-year students must also participate in the Citizen Science program, a three-week program that began in 2011.  The Citizen Science program introduces students to science and the ideas of the scientific method. The program is designed to promote science literacy and utilizes the theme of infectious disease: the importance of infectious disease in a community, and the impact that infectious disease outbreaks and subsequent management can have on our global society. The curriculum ranges from conducting laboratory experiments and analyzing a scientific problem, to modeling potential solutions to that problem. The program merges three distinct, yet thematically interwoven, rotations, each designed to address a large question: How can we reduce the global burden of infectious disease?

text: In the three weeks preceding their first semester, first-year students attend the Language and Thinking (L&T) program, an intensive, writing-centered introduction to the liberal arts. The interdisciplinary program, established in 1981, aims to "cultivate habits of thoughtful reading and discussion, clear articulation, accurate self-critique, and productive collaboration." The program covers

text: philosophy

text: history

text: science

text: poetry

text: fiction

text: , and

text: religion

text: . In 2011, the core readings included works by

text: Hannah Arendt

text: Franz Kafka

text: Frans de Waal

text: Stephen Jay Gould

text: Clifford Geertz

text: M. NourbeSe Philip

text: , and

text: Sophocles

text: . During their winter intercession, first-year students must also participate in the Citizen Science program, a three-week program that began in 2011.  The Citizen Science program introduces students to science and the ideas of the scientific method. The program is designed to promote science literacy and utilizes the theme of infectious disease: the importance of infectious disease in a community, and the impact that infectious disease outbreaks and subsequent management can have on our global society. The curriculum ranges from conducting laboratory experiments and analyzing a scientific problem, to modeling potential solutions to that problem. The program merges three distinct, yet thematically interwoven, rotations, each designed to address a large question: How can we reduce the global burden of infectious disease?

text: Although the infectious disease threat in the United States remains relatively modest as compared to that of noninfectious diseases, the trend is up. Annual infectious disease-related death rates in the United States have nearly doubled to some 170,000 annually after reaching an historic low in 1980. Many infectious diseases—most recently, the West Nile virus—originate outside U.S. borders and are introduced by international travelers, immigrants, returning U.S. military personnel, or imported animals and foodstuffs. In the opinion of the U.S. Institute of Medicine, the next major infectious disease threat to the United States may be, like HIV, a previously unrecognized pathogen. Barring that, the most dangerous known infectious diseases likely to threaten the United States over the next two decades will be HIV/AIDS, hepatitis C, tuberculosis, and new, more lethal variants of influenza. Hospital-acquired infectionsand foodborne illnesses also will pose a threat.

text: Although the infectious disease threat in the United States remains relatively modest as compared to that of noninfectious diseases, the trend is up. Annual infectious disease-related death rates in the United States have nearly doubled to some 170,000 annually after reaching an historic low in 1980. Many infectious diseases—most recently, the

text: West Nile virus

text: —originate outside U.S. borders and are introduced by international travelers, immigrants, returning U.S. military personnel, or imported animals and foodstuffs. In the opinion of the U.S. Institute of Medicine, the next major infectious disease threat to the United States may be, like HIV, a previously unrecognized pathogen. Barring that, the most dangerous known infectious diseases likely to threaten the United States over the next two decades will be

text: HIV

text: AIDS

text: hepatitis C

text: tuberculosis

text: , and new, more lethal variants of

text: influenza

text: . Hospital-acquired infectionsand

text: foodborne illness

text: es also will pose a threat.

text: Diseases related to the human gastrointestinal tract, like diarrhea or other enteric illness, often spread through the fecal-oral route and are especially common in places where children have not completed toilet training. Diapers, confined spaces for changing diapers, and the unhygienic habits of children contribute to the spread of these infections. Bacterial infections most often spread through person to person contact, while eating food, or through the presence of animals. It is difficult to determine how viral agents causing enteric illness spread. Reviews of Helicobacter pylori have been unable to determine how it spreads during childcare, but have confirmed that it does easily spread in childcare environments, and that it is difficult to make recommendations for preventing it.

text: Diseases related to the

text: human gastrointestinal tract

text: , like diarrhea or other enteric illness, often spread through the

text: fecal-oral route

text: and are especially common in places where children have not completed

text: toilet training

text: . Diapers, confined spaces for changing diapers, and the unhygienic habits of children contribute to the spread of these infections. Bacterial infections most often spread through person to person contact, while eating food, or through the presence of animals. It is difficult to determine how viral agents causing enteric illness spread. Reviews of

text: Helicobacter pylori

text: have been unable to determine how it spreads during childcare, but have confirmed that it does easily spread in childcare environments, and that it is difficult to make recommendations for preventing it.

text: The RITM is tasked by the Philippine Department of Health and the Philippine Government to supervise, plan, and successfully implement research programs to prevent and to control prevailing infectious and tropical diseases in the Philippines.

text: The RITM is tasked by the Philippine

text: Department of Health

text: and the

text: Philippine Government

text: to supervise, plan, and successfully implement research programs to prevent and to control prevailing infectious and tropical diseases in the Philippines.

text: The pathogen spreads through the tree from the point of infection via the plant's vascular system, eventually reaching the roots and/or graft junction of the plant. Once the plant's roots are affected, the death of the plant often results. Over pruning and over fertilization (especially with nitrogen) can lead to watersprout and other midsummer growth that leave the tree more susceptible.

text: The pathogen spreads through the tree from the point of infection via the plant's

text: vascular

text: system, eventually reaching the

text: root

text: s and/or

text: graft

text: junction of the plant. Once the plant's roots are affected, the death of the plant often results. Over pruning and over fertilization (especially with

text: nitrogen

text: ) can lead to

text: watersprout

text: and other midsummer growth that leave the tree more susceptible.

text: Others have a more nuanced position. According to the CDC article H5N1 Outbreaks and Enzootic Influenza by Robert G. Webster et al.:"Transmission of highly pathogenic H5N1 from domestic poultry back to migratory waterfowl in western China has increased the geographic spread. The spread of H5N1 and its likely reintroduction to domestic poultry increase the need for good agricultural vaccines. In fact, the root cause of the continuing H5N1 pandemic threat may be the way the pathogenicity of H5N1 viruses is masked by cocirculating influenza viruses or bad agricultural vaccines." Dr. Robert Webster explains: "If you use a good vaccine you can prevent the transmission within poultry and to humans. But if they have been using vaccines now [in China] for several years, why is there so much bird flu? There is bad vaccine that stops the disease in the bird but the bird goes on pooping out virus and maintaining it and changing it. And I think this is what is going on in China. It has to be. Either there is not enough vaccine being used or there is substandard vaccine being used. Probably both. It's not just China. We can't blame China for substandard vaccines. I think there are substandard vaccines for influenza in poultry all over the world." In response to the same concerns, Reuters reports Hong Kong infectious disease expert Lo Wing-lok saying that "The issue of vaccines has to take top priority", and Julie Hall, in charge of the WHO's outbreak response in China, saying that China's vaccinations could be "masking" the virus. The BBC reported that Dr Wendy Barclay, a virologist at the University of Reading, UK said: "The Chinese have made a vaccine based on reverse genetics made with H5N1 antigens, and they have been using it. There has been a lot of criticism of what they have done, because they have protected their chickens against death from this virus but the chickens still get infected; and then you get drift - the virus mutates in response to the antibodies - and now we have a situation where we have five or six 'flavours' of H5N1 out there."

text: Others have a more nuanced position. According to the

text: CDC

text: article H5N1 Outbreaks and Enzootic Influenza by

text: Robert G. Webster

text: Animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. They are essential to digestion and are also affected by food that is consumed.  Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing vitamin B; and defending against some infectious diseases.

text: Animal

text: intestine

text: s contain a large population of

text: gut flora

text: . In humans, the four dominant

text: phyla

text: are

text: Firmicutes

text: Bacteroidetes

text: Actinobacteria

text: , and

text: Proteobacteria

text: . They are essential to

text: digestion

text: and are also affected by food that is consumed.  Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing

text: vitamin B

text: ; and defending against some infectious diseases.

text: In the advent of new technology, it is easy to forget some of the basic things that prevent pathogen infections from starting and spreading. While there exist more deadly and difficult-to-handle pathogen infections, there also exist less dangerous ones. Historically, human health greatly improved with more emphasis on healthy life styles including better hygiene practices and access to clean recourses of water and nutrition.

text: In the advent of new technology, it is easy to forget some of the basic things that prevent pathogen infections from starting and spreading. While there exist more deadly and difficult-to-handle pathogen infections, there also exist less dangerous ones. Historically, human health greatly improved with more emphasis on healthy life styles including better

text: hygiene

text: practices and access to clean recourses of water and nutrition.

text: A viral disease (or viral infection) occurs when an organism's body is invaded by pathogenic viruses, and infectious virus particles (virions)attach to and enter susceptible cells.

text: A viral disease (or viral

text: infection

text: ) occurs when an organism's body is invaded by

text: pathogen

text: ic

text: virus

text: es, and infectious virus particles (virions)attach to and enter susceptible cells.

text: Pathogenicity is the potential disease-causing capacity of pathogens.  Pathogenicity is related to virulence in meaning, but some authorities have come to distinguish it as a qualitative term, whereas the latter is quantitative.  By this standard, an organism may be said to be pathogenic or non-pathogenic in a particular context, but not "more pathogenic" than another.  Such comparisons are described instead in terms of relative virulence.  Pathogenicity is also distinct from the transmissibility of the virus, which quantifies the risk of infection.

text: Pathogenicity is the potential

text: disease

text: -causing capacity of pathogens.  Pathogenicity is related to

text: virulence

text: in meaning, but some authorities have come to distinguish it as a qualitative term, whereas the latter is quantitative.  By this standard, an organism may be said to be pathogenic or non-pathogenic in a particular context, but not "more pathogenic" than another.  Such comparisons are described instead in terms of relative virulence.  Pathogenicity is also distinct from the

text: transmissibility

text: of the virus, which quantifies the risk of infection.

text: Rare diseases can vary in prevalence between populations, so a disease that is rare in some populations may be common in others.  This is especially true of genetic diseases and infectious diseases.  An example is cystic fibrosis, a genetic disease:  it is rare in most parts of Asia but relatively common in Europe and in populations of European descent.  In smaller communities, the founder effect can result in a disease that is very rare worldwide being prevalent within the smaller community.  Many infectious diseases are prevalent in a given geographic area but rare everywhere else.  Other diseases, such as many rare forms of cancer, have no apparent pattern of distribution but are simply rare.  The classification of other conditions depends in part on the population being studied:  All forms of cancer in children are generally considered rare, because so few children develop cancer, but the same cancer in adults may be more common.

text: Rare diseases can vary in prevalence between populations, so a disease that is rare in some populations may be common in others.  This is especially true of

text: genetic disease

text: s and

text: infectious disease

text: s.  An example is

text: cystic fibrosis

text: , a genetic disease:  it is rare in most parts of

text: Asia

text: but relatively common in Europe and in populations of European descent.  In smaller communities, the

text: founder effect

text: can result in a disease that is very rare worldwide being prevalent within the smaller community.  Many infectious diseases are prevalent in a given geographic area but rare everywhere else.  Other diseases, such as many rare forms of

text: cancer

text: , have no apparent pattern of distribution but are simply rare.  The classification of other conditions depends in part on the population being studied:  All forms of cancer in children are generally considered rare, because so few children develop cancer, but the same cancer in adults may be more common.

text: In order to mitigate the effects of education on IQ,  repeated their analysis across the United States where standardized and compulsory education exists. The correlation between infectious disease and average IQ was confirmed, and they concluded that the "evidence suggests that infectious disease is a primary cause of the global variation in human intelligence".

text: "Dr. Beasley has saved countless lives from cirrhosis and liver cancer through his work on the epidemiology and prevention of hepatitis B," according to Herbert L. DuPont, Director of the Center for Infectious Diseases at UTSPH. "He is a giant in the field of infectious diseases.".

text: "Dr. Beasley has saved countless lives from

text: cirrhosis

text: and

text: liver cancer

text: through his work on the

text: epidemiology

text: and prevention of

text: hepatitis B

text: ," according to Herbert L. DuPont, Director of the Center for Infectious Diseases at UTSPH. "He is a giant in the field of infectious diseases.".

text: Suspicion of modern medicine due to beliefs about illness being due to witchcraft also continues in many countries to this day, with tragic healthcare consequences. HIV/AIDS  and Ebola virus disease  are two examples of often-lethal infectious disease epidemics whose medical care and containment has been severely hampered by regional beliefs in witchcraft. Other severe medical conditions whose treatment is hampered in this way include tuberculosis, leprosy, epilepsy and the common severe bacterial Buruli ulcer. Public healthcare often requires considerable education work related to epidemology and modern health knowledge in many parts of the world where belief in witchcraft prevails, to encourage effective preventive health measures and treatments, to reduce victim blaming, shunning and stigmatization, and to prevent the killing of people and endangering of animal species for body parts believed to convey magical abilities.

text: Suspicion of modern medicine due to beliefs about illness being due to witchcraft also continues in many countries to this day, with tragic

text: healthcare

text: consequences.

text: HIV/AIDS

text: and

text: Ebola virus disease

text: are two examples of often-lethal

text: infectious disease

text: epidemic

text: s whose medical care and

text: containment

text: has been severely hampered by regional beliefs in witchcraft. Other severe medical conditions whose treatment is hampered in this way include

text: tuberculosis

text: leprosy

text: epilepsy

text: and the common severe

text: bacterial

text: Buruli ulcer

text: Public healthcare

text: often requires considerable education work related to

text: epidemology

text: and modern health knowledge in many parts of the world where belief in witchcraft prevails, to encourage effective

text: preventive health measures

text: and treatments, to reduce

text: victim blaming

text: shunning

text: and

text: stigmatization

text: , and to prevent the

text: killing of people

text: and

text: endangering of animal species

text: for body parts believed to convey magical abilities.

text: When considering pathogens, host adaptation can have varying descriptions. For example, in the case of Salmonella, host adaptation is used to describe the "ability of a pathogen to circulate and cause disease in a particular host population." Another usage of host adaptation, still considering the case of Salmonella, refers to the evolution of a pathogen such that it can infect, cause disease, and circulate in another host species. While there might be pathogens that can infect other hosts and cause disease, the inability to pervade, or spread, throughout the infected host species indicates that the pathogen is not adapted to that host species. In this case, the ability or lack thereof of a pathogen to adapt to its host environment is an indicator of the pathogen's fitness or virulence. If a pathogen has high fitness in the host environment, or is virulent, it will be able to grow and spread quickly within its host. Conversely, if the pathogen is not well adapted to its host environment, then it will not spread or infect the way a well adapted pathogen would.

text: When considering

text: pathogens

text: , host adaptation can have varying descriptions. For example, in the case of

text: Salmonella

text: , host adaptation is used to describe the "ability of a pathogen to circulate and cause disease in a particular host population." Another usage of host adaptation, still considering the case of Salmonella, refers to the evolution of a pathogen such that it can infect, cause disease, and circulate in another host species. While there might be pathogens that can infect other hosts and cause disease, the inability to pervade, or spread, throughout the infected host species indicates that the pathogen is not adapted to that host species. In this case, the ability or lack thereof of a pathogen to adapt to its host environment is an indicator of the pathogen's fitness or

text: virulence

text: . If a pathogen has high fitness in the host environment, or is virulent, it will be able to grow and spread quickly within its host. Conversely, if the pathogen is not well adapted to its host environment, then it will not spread or infect the way a well adapted pathogen would.

text: Due to the spread of infectious diseases, during the period of World War I, 3760 prisoners died in the camp. Of these 2471 were Romanians (most of these deaths occurred in 1917) and 1289 were Russians (the majority of deaths occurred in 1915 although these were more spread out than those of the Romanians). At the beginning of 1918 Polish prisoners were also held in the camp.

text: Transmission-based precautions are additional infection control precautions — over and above universal/standard precautions — and the latest routine infection prevention and control practices applied for patients who are known or suspected to be infected or colonized with infectious agents, including certain epidemiologically important pathogens. The latter require additional control measures to effectively prevent transmission.

text: infection control

text: precautions — over and above universal/standard precautions — and the latest routine infection prevention and control practices applied for patients who are known or suspected to be infected or colonized with infectious agents, including certain

text: epidemiologically

text: important

text: pathogen

text: When six provinces around the Yangtze River were heavily flooded in 1991, the central government expressed serious concern about disease-prevention activities in these provinces. In response, experts were dispatched to the flooded area, and prevention guidelines were developed and distributed to the affected provinces. Simultaneously, a system for collecting daily reports of disease activity was established. Every 3 days, DSP data on infectious disease morbidity were compared with data from previous years to identify potential outbreaks. For example, rates of hepatitis during the flood were compared with rates for the comparable time periods from the preceding 2 years. Data collected from June to October 1991 indicated that infectious diseases had been controlled effectively during the flood.

text: When six provinces around the

text: Yangtze River

text: were heavily flooded in 1991, the central government expressed serious concern about disease-prevention activities in these provinces. In response, experts were dispatched to the flooded area, and prevention guidelines were developed and distributed to the affected provinces. Simultaneously, a system for collecting daily reports of disease activity was established. Every 3 days, DSP data on infectious disease morbidity were compared with data from previous years to identify potential outbreaks. For example, rates of hepatitis during the flood were compared with rates for the comparable time periods from the preceding 2 years. Data collected from June to October 1991 indicated that infectious diseases had been controlled effectively during the flood.

text: For example, in most of the developed world, heart disease and cancer are the leading causes of death, as measured by the number (or rate) of deaths. For this reason, heart disease and cancer tend to get a lot of attention (and research funding). However, one might argue that everyone has to die of something eventually, and so public health efforts should be more explicitly directed at preventing premature death. When PYLL is used as an explicit measure of premature death, then injuries and infectious diseases, become more important. While the most common cause of death of young people aged 5 to 40 is injury and poisoning in the developed world, because relatively few young people die, the principal causes of lost years remain cardiovascular disease and cancer.

text: Computer simulations of infectious disease spread have been used.Human aggregation can drive transmission, seasonal variation and outbreaks of infectious diseases, such as the annual start of school, bootcamp, the annual Hajj etc. Most recently, data from cell phones have been shown to be able to capture population movements well enough to predict the transmission of certain infectious diseases, like rubella.

text: Computer simulation

text: s of infectious disease spread have been used.Human aggregation can drive transmission,

text: seasonal variation

text: and

text: outbreaks

text: of infectious diseases, such as the annual start of school, bootcamp, the annual

text: Hajj

text: etc. Most recently, data from cell phones have been shown to be able to capture population movements well enough to predict the transmission of certain infectious diseases, like rubella.

text: Infectious bursal disease (also known as IBD, Gumboro Disease, Infectious Bursitis and Infectious Avian Nephrosis) is a highly contagious disease of young chickens caused by infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV),  characterized by immunosuppression and mortality generally at 3 to 6 weeks of age. The disease was first discovered in Gumboro, Delaware in 1962. It is economically important to the poultry industry worldwide due to increased susceptibility to other diseases and negative interference with effective vaccination. In recent years, very virulent strains of IBDV (vvIBDV), causing severe mortality in chicken, have emerged in Europe, Latin America, South-East Asia, Africa and the Middle East. Infection is via the oro-fecal route, with affected bird excreting high levels of the virus for approximately 2 weeks after infection.

text: Infectious bursal disease (also known as IBD, Gumboro Disease, Infectious Bursitis and Infectious Avian Nephrosis) is a highly contagious disease of young

text: chicken

text: s caused by infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV),  characterized by

text: immunosuppression

text: and mortality generally at 3 to 6 weeks of age. The disease was first discovered in

text: Gumboro, Delaware

text: in 1962. It is economically important to the poultry industry worldwide due to increased susceptibility to other diseases and negative interference with effective

text: vaccination

text: . In recent years, very virulent strains of IBDV (vvIBDV), causing severe mortality in chicken, have emerged in

text: Europe

text: Latin America

text: South-East Asia

text: Africa

text: and the

text: Middle East

text: . Infection is via the oro-fecal route, with affected bird excreting high levels of the virus for approximately 2 weeks after infection.

text: An interesting inverse relationship exists between infectious diseases and autoimmune diseases. In areas where multiple infectious diseases are endemic, autoimmune diseases are quite rarely seen. The reverse, to some extent, seems to hold true. The hygiene hypothesis attributes these correlations to the immune manipulating strategies of pathogens. Whilst such an observation has been variously termed as spurious and ineffective, according to some studies, parasite infection is associated with reduced activity of autoimmune disease.

text: An interesting inverse relationship exists between infectious diseases and autoimmune diseases. In areas where multiple infectious diseases are endemic, autoimmune diseases are quite rarely seen. The reverse, to some extent, seems to hold true. The

text: hygiene hypothesis

text: attributes these correlations to the immune manipulating strategies of pathogens. Whilst such an observation has been variously termed as spurious and ineffective, according to some studies, parasite infection is associated with reduced activity of autoimmune disease.

text: In the case of the Mkomazi Game Reserve, more intense results attributed because of conservation efforts. In 1988, the Department of Wildlife was responsible for the evictions of thousands of people from the Mkomazi Game Reserve. The result of the evictions and restrictions to land use, as Dowie put it, "is a gradual community and cultural meltdown." Many neighboring communities have become violent and hostile as the result of animosity and tension between indigenous people and the parks. Due to overgrazing and restrictions on land use, many of the traditional pastoralists "were forced to reduce or completely sell off their herds and learn to cultivate grains and legumes on small plots of arid land. Some turned to poaching for a living, others prostitution… young men who sold their herds turned to profligate lives, and when their money ran out they became low-wage farm workers and small-time hustlers. Young women facing a shrinking pool of potential husbands sell community essentials such as charcoal, traditional medicines, milk from borrowed goats, or, saddest of all, themselves". Because of the decline of resources and the displacement to unfertile lands, many pastoralists have resorted to bush meat as a way of subsistence and trade. This is a direct threat to the declining population of apes and the spread of infectious diseases like AIDS. This is a sensitive and difficult situation for not only cultural anthropologists but for biological anthropologists and primatologists. How does one protect an endangered species while limiting the spread of the most infectious disease to mankind when conservationists limit land use for the natives? To an anthropologist, the very thing that conservationists are trying to protect is the very thing they are destroying.

text: In the case of the

text: Mkomazi Game Reserve

text: AIDS

text: . This is a sensitive and difficult situation for not only cultural anthropologists but for biological

text: anthropologists

text: and

text: primatologists

text: . How does one protect an

text: endangered species

text: while limiting the spread of the most infectious disease to mankind when conservationists limit land use for the natives? To an anthropologist, the very thing that conservationists are trying to protect is the very thing they are destroying.

text: Cherry X disease also known as Cherry Buckskin disease is caused by a plant pathogenic phytoplasma. Phytoplasma's are obligate parasites of plants and insects. They are specialized bacteria, characterized by their lack of a cell wall, often transmitted through insects, and are responsible for large losses in crops, fruit trees, and ornamentals.  The phytoplasma causing Cherry X disease has a fairly limited host range mostly of stone fruit trees. Hosts of the pathogen include sweet/sour cherries, choke cherry, peaches, nectarines, almonds, clover, and dandelion. Most commonly the pathogen is introduced into economical fruit orchards from wild choke cherry and herbaceous weed hosts. The pathogen is vectored by mountain and cherry leafhoppers. The mountain leafhopper vectors the pathogen from wild hosts to cherry orchards but does not feed on the other hosts. The cherry leafhopper which feeds on the infected cherry trees then becomes the next vector that transmits from cherry orchards to peach, nectarine, and other economic crops. Control of Cherry X disease is limited to controlling the spread, vectors, and weed hosts of the pathogen. Once the pathogen has infected a tree it is fatal and removal is necessary to stop it from becoming a reservoir for vectors.

text: Cherry X disease also known as Cherry Buckskin disease is caused by a

text: plant pathogenic

text: phytoplasma

text: . Phytoplasma's are

text: obligate parasite

text: s of plants and insects. They are specialized

text: bacteria

text: , characterized by their lack of a

text: cell wall

text: , often transmitted through insects, and are responsible for large losses in crops, fruit trees, and ornamentals.  The phytoplasma causing Cherry X disease has a fairly limited host range mostly of

text: stone fruit

text: trees. Hosts of the pathogen include sweet/sour cherries,

text: choke cherry

text: peach

text: es,

text: nectarine

text: s,

text: almond

text: s,

text: clover

text: , and

text: dandelion

text: . Most commonly the

text: pathogen

text: is introduced into economical fruit orchards from wild choke cherry and herbaceous weed hosts. The pathogen is

text: vectored

text: by mountain and cherry

text: leafhopper

text: s. The

text: mountain leafhopper

text: vectors the pathogen from wild hosts to cherry orchards but does not feed on the other hosts. The

text: cherry leafhopper

text: which feeds on the infected cherry trees then becomes the next vector that transmits from cherry orchards to peach, nectarine, and other economic crops. Control of Cherry X disease is limited to controlling the spread, vectors, and weed hosts of the pathogen. Once the pathogen has infected a tree it is fatal and removal is necessary to stop it from becoming a

text: reservoir

text: for vectors.

text: “Joseph Brodsky’s ‘Verses on the Death of T.S. Eliot’” (with introductory note), Russian Review, Vol. 27 (1968): 195-98.

text: As a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses four components of disease: cause/etiology, mechanisms of development (pathogenesis), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and the consequences of changes (clinical manifestations). In common medical practice, general pathology is mostly concerned with analyzing known clinical abnormalities that are markers or precursors for both infectious and non-infectious disease and is conducted by experts in one of two major specialties, anatomical pathology and clinical pathology.  Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types (comparing, for example, cytopathology, hematopathology, and histopathology), organs (as in renal pathology), and physiological systems (oral pathology), as well as on the basis of the focus of the examination (as with forensic pathology).

text: As a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses four components of disease: cause/

text: etiology

text: , mechanisms of development (

text: pathogenesis

text: ), structural alterations of cells (morphologic changes), and the consequences of changes (clinical manifestations). In common medical practice, general pathology is mostly concerned with analyzing known clinical abnormalities that are markers or precursors for both

text: infectious

text: and

text: non-infectious

text: disease and is conducted by experts in one of two major specialties,

text: anatomical pathology

text: and

text: clinical pathology

text: .  Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types (comparing, for example,

text: cytopathology

text: hematopathology

text: , and

text: histopathology

text: ), organs (as in

text: renal pathology

text: ), and physiological systems (

text: oral pathology

text: ), as well as on the basis of the focus of the examination (as with

text: forensic pathology

text: Mortality under captivity is generally high; reasons include stillbirths, birth defects, cannibalism, hypothermia, neglect of cubs by mothers, and infectious diseases. A study comparing the health of captive and wild cheetahs noted that despite having similar genetic make-up, wild cheetahs are far healthier than their captive counterparts. The study identified possible stress factors such as restricted habitat and interaction with human beings and other carnivores, and recommended private and spacious areas for captive cheetahs. A study of diseases suffered by captive cheetahs in the period 1989–92 in several North American zoos showed that hepatic veno-occlusive disease, a disease of the liver, had affected 82% of the deceased cheetahs, caused nine deaths, and occurred in 51% of living females. Chronic gastritis was detected in 91% of the population. Glomerulosclerosis, a disease of the kidneys, emerged as another significant disease, affecting 84% of the cheetahs; another renal disease, nephrosclerosis, affected 39% of the cheetahs. Feline infectious peritonitis caused two deaths. Pneumonia was a major cause for juvenile deaths. Another study concluded that excess of vitaminA in their diets could result in veno-occlusive disease in their livers.

text: Mortality under captivity is generally high; reasons include stillbirths, birth defects, cannibalism,

text: hypothermia

text: , neglect of cubs by mothers, and infectious diseases. A study comparing the health of captive and wild cheetahs noted that despite having similar genetic make-up, wild cheetahs are far healthier than their captive counterparts. The study identified possible stress factors such as restricted habitat and interaction with human beings and other carnivores, and recommended private and spacious areas for captive cheetahs. A study of diseases suffered by captive cheetahs in the period 1989–92 in several North American zoos showed that

text: hepatic veno-occlusive disease

text: , a disease of the

text: liver

text: , had affected 82% of the deceased cheetahs, caused nine deaths, and occurred in 51% of living females. Chronic gastritis was detected in 91% of the population.

text: Glomerulosclerosis

text: , a disease of the

text: kidney

text: s, emerged as another significant disease, affecting 84% of the cheetahs; another renal disease,

text: nephrosclerosis

text: , affected 39% of the cheetahs. Feline infectious peritonitis caused two deaths. Pneumonia was a major cause for juvenile deaths. Another study concluded that excess of vitaminA in their diets could result in veno-occlusive disease in their livers.