text: In April 2008, commercial fisheries in both Oregon and California were closed due to the extremely low population of Chinook salmon present. The low population is being blamed on the collapse of the Sacramento River run, one of the biggest south of the Columbia. In April 2009 California again canceled the season. The Pacific Fishery Management Council’s goal for the Sacramento River run is an escapement total (fish that return to freshwater spawn areas and hatcheries) of 122,000–180,000 fish. The 2007 escapement was estimated at 88,000, and the 2008 estimate was 66,000 fish. Scientists from universities and federal, state, and tribal agencies concluded the 2004 and 2005 broods were harmed by poor ocean conditions in 2005 and 2006, in addition to “a long-term, steady degradation of the freshwater and estuarine environment.” Such conditions included weak upwelling, warm sea surface temperatures, and low densities of food.

method: UNH-qee

text: Trawlers can be classified by their architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, or geographical origin. The classification used below follows the FAO, who classify trawlers by the gear they use.

text: Trawlers can be classified by their architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, or geographical origin. The classification used below follows the

entity_name: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: FAO

text: , who classify trawlers by the gear they use.

text: In coastal areas, the heavy metal contamination has also had an effect in marine life and the local ecology. This, in turn, affects the economic output of the region that relies partly on aquaculture. For instance, high levels of metals may affect the reproductive capabilities of the native ecology or contaminate the fish. If the fish have too high levels of metals, a fisher may not be able to sell it for consumption. If a consumer eats fish with high levels of metal contamination, he is at risk for health issues, such as cancer, kidney failure, or various metal poisoning. There is also a possibility that fish will move further away from these areas, in order to avoid the toxic areas, which would also affect the livelihood of the fishermen in the area.

text: Round whitefish have regular migrations to and from freshwater tributaries, where spawning takes place. Spawning sites are layered with various-sized pebbles and are below shoreline currents, roughly 1-1.5 meters (m) deep. Even at this depth, there is an underwater current, with a velocity of 0.5-1.0 m/s (meters per second), that disperses some of the deposited eggs downstream in the tributary system. Fertilized eggs are 3.10-3.25 mm in diameter and are held in spaces between rocks as well as in the ice crystals of the slushy, tributary floor. The sexual dimorphism is subtle in round whitefish in comparison to other species in the salmon family. Males develop defined pearl organs along the side of its body and have altered coloration during spawning. Its pelvic, pectoral, and anal fins, as well as its belly, become anywhere from yellow-orange to red in color. Round-fish are fall spawners, laying their eggs between early October and late November, when the water temperature is at or below 2.5°C. The spawning migration begins in August, although first maturation fish tend to start migrating as early as June. The round-fish experience their first spawning normally at age seven. These species do not spawn annually, but it is common for first year spawners to spawn the following year. After sexually mature round-fish reach the tributary system, overall growth slows down and annual growth increments decrease from 55-65 mm to 40-45 mm due to a decrease in food intake.

text: Round whitefish have regular

text: migrations

text: to and from

entity_name: Fresh water

text: freshwater

entity_name: Tributary

text: tributaries

text: , where

text: spawning

text: takes place. Spawning sites are layered with various-sized pebbles and are below shoreline

entity_name: Ocean current

text: currents

text: , roughly 1-1.5 meters (m) deep. Even at this depth, there is an underwater current, with a

entity_name: Velocity

text: velocity

text: of 0.5-1.0 m/s (meters per second), that disperses some of the deposited

entity_name: Egg

text: eggs

text: downstream in the tributary system.

entity_name: Zygote

text: Fertilized eggs

text: are 3.10-3.25 mm in diameter and are held in spaces between rocks as well as in the ice crystals of the slushy, tributary floor. The

entity_name: Sexual dimorphism

text: sexual dimorphism

text: is subtle in round whitefish in comparison to other species in the salmon family. Males develop defined pearl organs along the side of its body and have altered coloration during spawning. Its

entity_name: Fish fin

entity_section: AnchVentral

text: pelvic

entity_section: AnchPectoral

text: pectoral

text: , and

entity_section: AnchAnal

text: anal

text: fins, as well as its belly, become anywhere from yellow-orange to red in color. Round-fish are fall spawners, laying their eggs between early October and late November, when the water temperature is at or below 2.5°C. The spawning migration begins in August, although first

entity_name: Sexual maturity

text: maturation

text: fish tend to start migrating as early as June. The round-fish experience their first spawning normally at age seven. These species do not spawn annually, but it is common for first year spawners to spawn the following year. After sexually mature round-fish reach the tributary system, overall growth slows down and annual growth increments decrease from 55-65 mm to 40-45 mm due to a decrease in food intake.

text: Dippers forage for small animal prey in and along the margins of fast-flowing freshwater streams and rivers.  They perch on rocks and feed at the edge of the water, but they often also grip the rocks firmly and walk down them beneath the water until partly or wholly submerged.  They then search underwater for prey between and beneath stones and debris; they can also swim with their wings.  The two South American species swim and dive less often than the three northern ones.  Their prey consists primarily of invertebrates such as the nymphs or larvae of mayflies, blackflies, stoneflies and caddisflies, as well as small fish and fish eggs.  Molluscs and crustaceans are also consumed, especially in winter when insect larvae are less available.

text: Dippers

entity_name: Forage

text: forage

text: for small animal prey in and along the margins of fast-flowing freshwater streams and rivers.  They perch on rocks and feed at the edge of the water, but they often also grip the rocks firmly and walk down them beneath the water until partly or wholly submerged.  They then search underwater for prey between and beneath stones and debris; they can also swim with their wings.  The two South American species swim and dive less often than the three northern ones.  Their prey consists primarily of

entity_name: Invertebrate

text: invertebrate

text: s such as the

entity_name: Nymph (biology)

text: nymph

text: s or

entity_name: Larva

text: larva

text: e of

entity_name: Mayfly

text: mayflies

entity_name: Black fly

text: blackflies

entity_name: Plecoptera

text: stoneflies

text: and

entity_name: Caddisfly

text: caddisflies

text: , as well as small fish and fish eggs.

entity_name: Mollusca

text: Mollusc

text: s and

entity_name: Crustacean

text: crustacean

text: s are also consumed, especially in winter when insect larvae are less available.

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: Many fishing mechanisms can be used including fishing lures and live fishing bait. Lures can consist of either spoons or floating minnows. Mackerel, sardines, or other fish can be used for fishing bait.

text: Many fishing mechanisms can be used including

entity_name: Fishing lure

text: fishing lure

text: s and

entity_name: Fishing bait

text: live fishing bait

text: . Lures can consist of either spoons or floating minnows. Mackerel, sardines, or other fish can be used for fishing bait.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: This area of study seeks to understand the details of the interactions of humans with fish, including both cognitive and behavioural aspects. A knowledge of fish and their life strategies is extremely important to fishermen. In order to conserve fish species, it is also important to be aware of other cultures' knowledge of fish. Ignorance of the effects of human activity on fish populations may endanger fish species. Knowledge of fish can be gained through experience, scientific research, or information passed down through generations. Some factors that affect the amount of knowledge acquired include the value and abundance of the various types of fish, their usefulness in fisheries, and the amount of time one spends observing the fishes' life history patterns.

text: In less developed countries, some traditional fishing villages persist in ways that have changed little from earlier times. In more developed countries, traditional fishing villages are changing due to socioeconomic factors like industrial fishing and urbanization. Over time, some fishing villages outgrow their original function as artisanal fishing villages. Seven hundred years ago, Shanghai, beside the Yangtze River delta, was a small fishing village. In recent times, fishing villages have been increasingly targeted for tourist and leisure enterprises. Recreational fishing and leisure boat pursuits can be big business these days, and traditional fishing villages are often well positioned to take advantage of this. For example, Destin on the coast of Florida, has evolved from an artisanal fishing village into a seaside resort dedicated to tourism with a large fishing fleet of recreational charter boats. The tourist appeal of fishing villages has become so big that the Korean government is purpose-building 48 fishing villages for their tourist drawing power. In 2004 China reported it had 8,048 fishing villages.

text: In less developed countries, some traditional fishing villages persist in ways that have changed little from earlier times. In more developed countries, traditional fishing villages are changing due to

entity_name: Socioeconomics

text: socioeconomic

text: factors like

entity_name: Fishing industry

text: industrial fishing

text: and

entity_name: Urbanization

text: urbanization

text: . Over time, some fishing villages outgrow their original function as

entity_name: Artisanal fishing

text: artisanal fishing

text: villages. Seven hundred years ago,

entity_name: Shanghai

text: Shanghai

text: , beside the

entity_name: Yangtze

text: Yangtze River

text: delta, was a small fishing village. In recent times, fishing villages have been increasingly targeted for tourist and leisure enterprises.

entity_name: Recreational fishing

text: Recreational fishing

text: and leisure boat pursuits can be big business these days, and traditional fishing villages are often well positioned to take advantage of this. For example,

entity_name: Destin, Florida

text: Destin

text: on the coast of Florida, has evolved from an artisanal fishing village into a

entity_name: Seaside resort

text: seaside resort

text: dedicated to tourism with a large fishing fleet of recreational charter boats. The tourist appeal of fishing villages has become so big that the Korean government is purpose-building 48 fishing villages for their tourist drawing power. In 2004 China reported it had 8,048 fishing villages.

text: Spawning takes place in the summer with a peak in May and June. The eggs are large and are believed to be unique among fish in being attached to a floating mucus veil. The number of eggs in a veil can range from 1 to 3 million and the veil drifts on the surface of the sea. The eggs hatch after 6 to 100 days, depending on the sea temperature, and remain protected within the veil for a few days, absorbing nutrients from their yolk sacs. They then become pelagic and join other fish larvae in the "ichthyoplankton community". The larvae feed on zooplankton and look quite different from the adult fish, being laterally compressed and having long dorsal and pectoral fin rays. When about  long they become juveniles, changing their appearance over a period of several weeks into the adult shape and starting to live on the seabed. They grow fast in their first year and more slowly thereafter.

text: Spawning takes place in the summer with a peak in May and June. The

text: eggs

text: are large and are believed to be unique among fish in being attached to a floating

entity_name: Mucus

text: mucus

text: veil. The number of eggs in a veil can range from 1 to 3 million and the veil drifts on the surface of the sea. The eggs hatch after 6 to 100 days, depending on the sea temperature, and remain protected within the veil for a few days, absorbing nutrients from their yolk sacs. They then become pelagic and join other fish larvae in the "ichthyoplankton community". The larvae feed on

entity_name: Zooplankton

text: zooplankton

text: and look quite different from the adult fish, being laterally compressed and having long dorsal and pectoral fin rays. When about  long they become juveniles, changing their appearance over a period of several weeks into the adult shape and starting to live on the seabed. They grow fast in their first year and more slowly thereafter.

text: WDFW monitors contaminant bioaccumulation and effects in Puget Sound fish that are abundant or ecologically valuable. Bioaccumulation of contaminants for each species is dependent on several factors. Fish that live longer, that do not migrate to other regions, and that live near sediments are more likely to be exposed to toxicants. In addition, fish at higher trophic levels and fish with high fat content accumulate more contaminants. The following species have been studied by WDFW in Puget Sound:

text: The bay's physical and biological characteristics make it one of the most significant estuarine areas in the Hudson River.  The bay is deeper on its western side with a shipping channel of minimum 32 feet in depth and 300 feet in width. The bay's eastern side is shallower with most of that section of bay not more than 10 feet deep. Shallow depths with ample sunlight lead to robust aquatic vegetation. Inflows of brackish Atlantic Ocean water overlaid with fresh stream water promote a nutrient rich environment for myriad invertebrate, fish, and bird species. The bay's ecology plays a central role in the health of fish populations in the Hudson River, including the endangered shortnose sturgeon and the larger, more abundant atlantic sturgeon. New York State has designated Haverstraw Bay a "Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat". Up to the mid-1950s, Haverstraw Bay was once a productive oyster habitat. As with the rest of the Hudson, at the microbial level the bay's health is by oxygen concentrations. The bay's water chemistry is affected rain fall, tidal variations, and human induced waste and runoff, as well as seasonal changes in temperature and light.

text: The bay's physical and biological characteristics make it one of the most significant

entity_name: Estuary

text: estuarine

text: areas in the

entity_name: Hudson River

text: Hudson River

text: .  The bay is deeper on its western side with a shipping channel of minimum 32 feet in depth and 300 feet in width. The bay's eastern side is shallower with most of that section of bay not more than 10 feet deep. Shallow depths with ample sunlight lead to robust aquatic vegetation. Inflows of brackish Atlantic Ocean water overlaid with fresh stream water promote a nutrient rich environment for myriad invertebrate, fish, and bird species. The bay's ecology plays a central role in the health of fish populations in the Hudson River, including the endangered

entity_name: Shortnose sturgeon

text: shortnose sturgeon

text: and the larger, more abundant

entity_name: Atlantic sturgeon

text: atlantic sturgeon

text: . New York State has designated Haverstraw Bay a "Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat". Up to the mid-1950s, Haverstraw Bay was once a productive

entity_name: Oyster

text: oyster

text: habitat. As with the rest of the Hudson, at the microbial level the bay's health is by oxygen concentrations. The bay's water chemistry is affected rain fall, tidal variations, and human induced waste and runoff, as well as seasonal changes in temperature and light.

text: Fishing is probably oldest and one of the important activity of humankind. Ancient remains of spears, hooks and fishnet have been found in ruins of the Stone Age. The people of the early civilisation drew pictures of nets and fishing lines in their arts (Parker 2002). Early hooks were made from the upper bills of eagles and from bones, shells, horns and thorns of plant. Spears were tipped with the same materials, or some times with flints. Lines and nets were made from leaves, plant stalk and cocoon silk. Ancient fishing nets were rough in design and material but they were amazingly, as if some now use (Parker 2002). Literature on the indigenous fishing practices is very scanty. Baines (1992) documented traditional fisheries in the Solomon Island. Use of the herbal fish poisons in catching fishes from fresh water and sea documented from New Caledonia (Dahl 1985). John (1998) documented fishing techniques and overall life style of the Mukkuvar fishing Community of Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu, India. Tribal people using various plants for medicinal and various purposes (Rai et al. 2000; Singh et al. 1997; Lin 2005) extends the use notion for herbal fish stupefying plants. Use of the fish poisons is very old practice in the history of human kind. In 1212 AD King Frederick II prohibited the use of certain plant piscicides, and by the fifteenth century similar laws had been decreed in other European countries as well (Wilhelm 1974). All over the globe, indigenous people use various fish poisons to kill the fishes, documented in America (Jeremy 2002) and among Tarahumara Indian (Gajdusek 1954).An ecological niche refers to the way in which a species utilises the resources of its environment and its relation to other species in the biological community. In biological community, no two coexisting species share the same niche. Similarly, no two coexisting castes have the same traditional niche in rural India; their niches are so differentiated as to preempt excessive competition for the same resources (Gadgil 2001a). The concept of the ecological niche has been used in a number of ways in anthropology: as a specialized part of human society, as synonymous with culture, and as a segment of the habitat (Donald 1972). Indian society is an agglomeration of several thousand endogamous groups or castes each with a restricted geographical range and a hereditarily determine mode of subsistence. These reproductively isolated castes may be compared to biological species, and the society thought of as a biological community with each caste having its specific ecological niche (Gadgil and Malhotra 1983).

text: V. moorii shows social but not genetic monogamy. Breeding adults spawn according to the lunar cycle and thus spawn synchronously (see Lunar synchronicity in spawning). This allows males to spawn on eggs that do not belong to the female he is mated to (also known as parasitic spawning). All offspring within a single brood share the same mother but not the same father. A study found that broods are almost always sired by multiple males (at least two but sometimes more than ten), a rate which is exceptionally high compared to other multiply mating fish. The male mated to the mother of the brood will invest significant resources to protect the territory and brood even though he did not sire the majority of the fry. The female is related to the entire brood and the male is related only to a fraction of the brood, so the female would be expected to provide more care than the male. However, there is no great difference in male parental care and female parental care.

text: V. moorii shows

entity_name: Animal sexual behaviour

entity_section: Mating systems

text: social but not genetic monogamy

text: . Breeding adults spawn according to the

entity_name: Lunar phase

text: lunar cycle

text: and thus

entity_name: Reproductive synchrony

text: spawn synchronously

text: (see Lunar synchronicity in spawning). This allows males to spawn on eggs that do not belong to the female he is mated to (also known as parasitic spawning). All offspring within a single brood share the same mother but not the same father. A study found that broods are almost always sired by multiple males (at least two but sometimes more than ten), a rate which is exceptionally high compared to other multiply mating fish. The male mated to the mother of the brood will invest significant resources to protect the territory and brood even though he did not sire the majority of the fry. The female is related to the entire brood and the male is related only to a fraction of the brood, so the female would be expected to provide more care than the male. However, there is no great difference in male parental care and female parental care.

text: Bait fish can also be contrasted with feeder fish. Feeder fish is a term used particularly in the context of fish aquariums. It refers essentially the same concept, small fish that are eaten by larger fish, but adapted for use in a different context.

text: Bait fish can also be contrasted with

entity_name: Feeder fish

text: feeder fish

text: . Feeder fish is a term used particularly in the context of fish

entity_name: Aquarium

text: aquarium

text: s. It refers essentially the same concept, small fish that are eaten by larger fish, but adapted for use in a different context.

text: The structure and spacing of gill rakers in fish determines the size of food particles trapped, and correlates with feeding behavior. Fish with densely spaced, elongated, comb-like gill rakers are efficient at filtering tiny prey, whereas carnivores and omnivores often have more widely spaced gill rakers with secondary projections. Because gill raker characters often vary between closely related taxa, they are commonly used in the classification and identification of fish species. Much of the variation in gill raker morphology is thought to be due to adaptation to optimize the consumption of different diets.

text: L. sylvaticus primarily breeds in ephemeral pools rather than permanent water bodies such as ponds or lakes. This is believed to provide some protection of the adult frogs and their offspring (eggs and tadpoles) from predation by fish and other predators of permanent water bodies. Adult wood frogs emerge from hibernation in early spring and migrate to nearby pools. There, males chorus, emitting duck-like quacking sounds. A male approaches a female and clasps her behind her fore arms before hooking his thumbs together around her in a hold called “amplexus” which is continued until the female deposits the eggs. Females deposit eggs attached to submerged substrate, typically vegetation or downed branches. Most commonly, females deposit eggs adjacent to other egg masses, creating large aggregations of masses. Some advantage is conferred to pairs first to breed, as clutches closer to the center of the raft absorb heat and develop faster than those on the periphery, and have more protection from predators. If pools dry before tadpoles metamorphose into froglets, they die.  This constitutes the risk counterbalancing the antipredator protection of ephemeral pools. By breeding in early spring, however, wood frogs increase their offspring's chances of metamorphosing before pools dry. The larvae undergo two stages of development: fertilization to free-living tadpoles, and free-living tadpoles to juvenile frogs. During the first stage, the larvae are adapted for rapid development, and their growth depends on the temperature of the water and has a higher mortality rate. The second stage of development features rapid development and growth, and depends on environmental factors including food availability, temperature, and population density. Following metamorphosis, a small percentage (less than 20%) of juveniles will disperse, permanently leaving the vicinity of their natal pools. The majority of offspring are philopatric, returning to their natal pool to breed. Most frogs breed only once in their lives, although some will breed two or three times, generally with differences according to age. The success of the larvae and tadpoles is important in populations of wood frogs because they affect the gene flow and genetic variation of the following generations.

text: In the last chapter of the first season of the series, Fish and her people get back to healthy and safe Gotham and she begins to recruit more people, including the young Selina Kyle, to regain her lost power. With the city involved in a gang war, Fish manages to capture both Falcone, the Penguin, James Gordon and Harvey Bullock. Knowing the value of the first two, Fish tries to give them to Salvatore Maroni in exchange for an agreement to divide the city between them. That idea completely displeases Maroni because did not want his position equated with a simple lieutenant. Given the stress of the situation, Maroni taunts  Fish  calling her "babe" (which she hated). When their taunts reach the limit of what is tolerable, Maroni comes to draw his weapon and is shot in the head.

text: Viga is a biodiversity hotspot. Its lush rainforest is home to Philippine brown deer (Rusa marianna), flying foxes, and other endemic bat species, warty pigs, civets, cobras, giant pythons, monitor lizards, sailfin lizards and other endemic animals. Exotic bird species such as Philippine hornbill, rail, parrot, bittern, egret, pheasant, coot, lapwing, plover, Philippine duck, quail, owl, oriole, kingfisher, swiftlets and many more are also found. In fact, a record of "Philippines Birding Trip Reports" has found out massive bird species in several portions such as the watershed and timberland forests reserve where scattered deer populations are also usually reported.Unfortunately, one bird subspecies, the Catanduanes Bleeding-heart (Gallicolumba luzonica rubiventris) had experienced over-exploitation in the late 20th century. Although most forests are still intact, this species has suffered over-hunting. It is very rare and believed to be near extinction or already extinct as its last reported specimen was collected in 1971.The Southern giant slender-tailed cloud rat (budkon/bugkon) which is found only in Catanduanes and the southern half of Luzon Island, is still widely reported. It is critically endangered as humans hunt them for food and for some extent, as pets. In mainland Luzon, sightings of this wonderful creature is already rare while in Marinduque, it is generally considered extinct.The Catanduanes narrow-mouthed frog (Kaloula kokacii), an arboreal amphibian which is found only in Catanduanes and some parts of Bicol, enjoys its diversity but being carefully monitored. Clearing of some forests may possess threat to amphibian species. An amphibian Hylarana similis is found only in Catanduanes and Luzon islands. One of the very recent species found in Catanduanes and portions of Bicol region is the new loam-swimming skink, a legless reptile with its assigned scientific name Brachymelesmakusog. The rich dipterocarp forest also harbor numerous tropical plant species including the threatened species of pitcher plants and rafflesia as well as endemic banana varieties. Many highly economical hardwood tress such as yakal, apitong, palosapis, and molave are still found in the forests though local reports indicate that these species are already threatened. Mangrove forests exist in several coastal areas but the largest locations are in Banquerohan (Viga-Panganiban).The marine environment of Viga is also ecologically rich as its terrestrial zones. Coastal reefs harbor many endangered and threatened types of mollusks such as giant Triton, cowries, abalone, cone snails, conches, octopuses, squids, and nautiluses. Marine mammals are also reported to frequent on its coasts such as species of dolphins and whales which appear in March–June. Many edible marine algae such as caulerpa, valonia, and turbellaria also grow abundantly on its rough coasts. Viga is nestled in the very beginning of the Kuroshio Current; a sea current that runs through Eastern Philippines, Taiwan and Japan. This current performs an array of physical and biological functions in countless marine life like migration and breeding. This explains why migratory fish tracks are usually encountered in its waters. Tuna migration can be seen on its peak in the months of April and May. Dugongs were once known to swim on coasts but this event is already becoming extremely rare.Viga coast is one of the best spots for flying fish population; a flying fish can attain its fullest size which may weigh 300 grams (11 oz). Rabbitfish, a kind of reef fish is one of the most heavily exploited marine tropical fish in the locality. Its fry that comes out in shallow coasts during the breeding season (March–May) are fished in large volumes. Approximately 10 million rabbitfish fries are caught annually. That natural event supplies food for many people but its ecological impact can be devastating. Nature advocates started to strengthen their campaign for an eco-dialogue for this matter. Sea cucumbers are also known to be abundant in many islets of the eastern coasts facing the Pacific Ocean.

text: Convict cichlids are a biparental species, so the parents will usually cooperate by carrying out tasks specific to their individual parental roles when raising their offspring. This is common in cichlid fish, and studies have shown coordination between the female and male.  The female tends to remain with the brood and perform activities involving the brood, whether it be fanning the eggs or mouth-brooding the larvae, whereas the male tends to patrol the area to chase intruders and defend from predators.  Both parents are able to carry out all of the parental care tasks to a certain extent. However, because they are biparentally custodial, each sex will still focus on a specific set of behaviors in particular, which is susceptible to change during the brood cycle.  In fact, it is observed that when one of the mates is removed, either parent is still able to raise the offspring independently by having the capacity for all the parental behaviors. As the young offspring grow and become free-swimming fry, the parental activities are distributed more equally between the parents, which appears to be typical behavior in other types of cichlids as well.

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: Many reef fish are toxic. Toxic fish are fish which contain strong toxins in their bodies. There is a distinction between poisonous fish and venomous fish. Both types of fish contain strong toxins, but the difference is in the way the toxin is delivered. Venomous fish deliver their toxins (called venom) by biting, stinging, or stabbing, causing an envenomation. Venomous fish don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the venom is often destroyed in the digestive system. By contrast, poisonous fish contain strong toxins which are not destroyed by the digestive system. This makes them poisonous to eat.

text: Many reef fish are toxic. Toxic fish are fish which contain strong

entity_name: Toxin

text: toxin

text: s in their bodies. There is a distinction between

entity_name: Venom

entity_section: Venomous vs. poisonous

text: poisonous fish

text: and

entity_name: Venomous fish

text: venomous fish

text: . Both types of fish contain strong toxins, but the difference is in the way the toxin is delivered. Venomous fish deliver their toxins (called

text: venom

text: ) by biting, stinging, or stabbing, causing an

entity_name: Envenomation

text: envenomation

text: . Venomous fish don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the venom is often destroyed in the digestive system. By contrast, poisonous fish contain strong toxins which are not destroyed by the digestive system. This makes them poisonous to eat.

text: Many conservation methods have been put in place to help the grouper, including closed seasons, when fishing is not allowed. These seasons take place during the spawning season. Regulations allow only fish over 3 lb to be harvested to give the younger fish a chance to spawn. Some areas are protected, a complete ban on fishing the grouper in US waters has been instituted. Also,  protection of the spawning sites at all times is in effect in certain places.

text: A spawning bed is an underwater solid surface on which fish spawn to reproduce themselves.

text: A spawning bed is an underwater solid surface on which

entity_name: Fish

text: fish

entity_name: Spawn (biology)

text: spawn

text: to reproduce themselves.

text: Critics have objected to GM fish on several grounds, including ecological concerns, animal welfare concerns and with respect to whether using them as food is safe and whether GM fish are needed to help address the world's food needs.

text: Critics have objected to GM fish on several grounds, including ecological concerns, animal welfare concerns and with respect to whether using them as

entity_name: Genetically modified food

text: food

text: is safe and whether GM fish are needed to help address the world's food needs.

text: Recently fish-infecting microsporidia have been grouped into five classes depending on their molecular traits, a higher level of classification using SSU (small subunit) rDNA analysis. However molecular data is still lacking for several genera of microsporidia.

text: Recently fish-infecting

entity_name: Microsporidia

text: microsporidia

text: have been grouped into five classes depending on their molecular traits, a higher level of classification using SSU (small subunit)

entity_name: Ribosomal DNA

text: rDNA

text: analysis. However molecular data is still lacking for several

entity_name: Genus

text: genera

text: of

text: microsporidia

text: If there was a specific amount of fish that people were allowed to catch then this could very well solve the problem of over fishing. This type of limit system is in place in a few countries including New Zealand, Norway, Canada, and the United States. In these countries the limit system has successfully helped in fishing industries. These types of limit systems are called Individual fishing quota. This means that the areas where this quota exist, the government has legal entity over it and in these boundaries they are entitled to utilize their ocean resources as they wish.

text: If there was a specific amount of fish that people were allowed to catch then this could very well solve the problem of over fishing. This type of limit system is in place in a few countries including

text: New Zealand

text: Norway

text: Canada

text: , and the

text: United States

text: . In these countries the limit system has successfully helped in fishing industries. These types of limit systems are called

text: Individual fishing quota

text: . This means that the areas where this quota exist, the government has legal entity over it and in these boundaries they are entitled to utilize their ocean resources as they wish.

text: Having liked the chemistry between Charlie Midnight, Recke and Duff on Santa Claus Lane, Landers asked Midnight to provide material for Metamorphosis. He submitted "quite a few songs" for the album because he loved working with Duff. He concentrated on trying to "bounce things" off Recke, Landers and Duff about "what topics they thought would be right" for the album. Midnight was "pretty much ground zero" for a lot of people involved with Metamorphosis, according to Charlton Pettus; he was the lyricist who "seemed to get the tone of it all".

text: Having liked the chemistry between

text: Charlie Midnight

text: , Recke and Duff on Santa Claus Lane, Landers asked Midnight to provide material for Metamorphosis. He submitted "quite a few songs" for the album because he loved working with Duff. He concentrated on trying to "bounce things" off Recke, Landers and Duff about "what topics they thought would be right" for the album. Midnight was "pretty much ground zero" for a lot of people involved with Metamorphosis, according to Charlton Pettus; he was the lyricist who "seemed to get the tone of it all".

text: The bacterium is pathogenic for fish, and causes the disease known as furunculosis. The symptoms the fish show are external and internal hemorrhaging, swelling of the vents and kidneys, boils, ulcers, liquefaction, and gastroenteritis. Furunculosis is commonly known as tail rot in fish and is common in goldfish and koi. Infected fish with open sores are able to spread the disease to other fish.

text: The bacterium is

text: pathogenic

text: for fish, and causes the disease known as furunculosis. The symptoms the fish show are external and internal

text: hemorrhaging

text: , swelling of the vents and

text: kidneys

text: boils

text: ulcers

text: liquefaction

text: , and

text: gastroenteritis

text: . Furunculosis is commonly known as tail rot in fish and is common in

text: goldfish

text: and

text: koi

text: . Infected fish with open sores are able to spread the disease to other fish.

text: According to the recollection of his son Risto, Lauri fished for trout with a homemade fishing rod. When a fish hit, he would trow his pole in the water, and row behind it, to tire the fish. With so much time on the water, Lauri had much time to think, to watch, and to learn how the fish behaved, how the minnows swam, and how the injured minnows were more likely to be eaten by the larger fish. "Our father really understood fishing," says Risto. "He recognized the relationship between bottom structure and where fish are located. He learned how fish fed, and how they moved from one location to another. And Lauri understood the effects of weather on fishing."

text: The bluefin trevally reaches sexual maturity at between 30 and 40 cm in length and around 2 years in age,with one study Hawaii suggesting maturation occurs at a length of around 35 cm on average.  There is also a difference in the length at maturation between the two sexes, with females on average reaching maturity at 32.5 cm length, while males attain maturity at 35 cm on average. Sex ratios in the species vary by location with population off east Africa being skewed towards males (M:F = 1.68:1), while in Hawaii the opposite is true with the M:F ratio being 1:1.48. The period of the year over which spawning occurs is also variable by location, with African fish reproducing between September and March while in Hawaii this occurs between April and November, with a peak in May to July. Natural spawning behaviour in the species has never been observed, although large aggregations of bluefin trevally observed in Palau consisting of over 1000 fish are believed to be for the purpose of spawning. Extensive studies on the species in captivity has revealed the species to be a multiple spawner, capable of spawning at least 8 times a year, and up to twice in 5 days. Spawning events are often clustered in a few consecutive or alternate days, usually in the third or fourth lunar phases. Spawning apparently occurs at night to minimise predation on eggs. Fecundity in the natural environment has been reported to range from around 50 000 to  4 270 000, with larger individuals releasing more eggs. Studies in captive fish show females may produce over 6 000 000 eggs per year. These eggs are pelagic and spherical, with diameters between 0.72 and 0.79 mm.

text: The bluefin trevally reaches

text: sexual maturity

text: at between 30 and 40 cm in length and around 2 years in age,with one study Hawaii suggesting maturation occurs at a length of around 35 cm on average.  There is also a difference in the length at maturation between the two

text: sexes

text: , with females on average reaching maturity at 32.5 cm length, while males attain maturity at 35 cm on average.

text: Sex ratio

text: s in the species vary by location with population off east Africa being skewed towards males (M:F = 1.68:1), while in Hawaii the opposite is true with the M:F ratio being 1:1.48. The period of the year over which

text: spawning

text: occurs is also variable by location, with African fish reproducing between September and March while in Hawaii this occurs between April and November, with a peak in May to July. Natural spawning behaviour in the species has never been observed, although large aggregations of bluefin trevally observed in

text: Palau

text: consisting of over 1000 fish are believed to be for the purpose of spawning. Extensive studies on the species in captivity has revealed the species to be a multiple spawner, capable of spawning at least 8 times a year, and up to twice in 5 days. Spawning events are often clustered in a few consecutive or alternate days, usually in the third or fourth

text: lunar phase

text: s. Spawning apparently occurs at night to minimise predation on

text: egg

text: s.

text: Fecundity

text: in the natural environment has been reported to range from around 50 000 to  4 270 000, with larger individuals releasing more eggs. Studies in captive fish show females may produce over 6 000 000 eggs per year. These eggs are

text: pelagic

text: and spherical, with

text: diameter

text: s between 0.72 and 0.79 mm.

text: Redhump eartheaters are immediate maternal mouthbrooders.  These fish grow relatively quickly, and can be sexed as subadults. Sexual dimorphism is clear - males have a large, red nuptial hump on their heads and grow larger than the females.  Mature males develop an iridescence on the scales on their sides and very large humps.  Males will display to females by opening their mouths and flaring their gills.  Nonreceptive females may be driven from the spawning area.  Spawning takes place on a smooth rock or clean sand bed.  The female lays one or two eggs, then the male fertilizes them.  The female immediately takes the fertilized eggs into her mouth and proceeds to lay more eggs.  This  continues until spawning is completed.  The female  carries the eggs until they are free-swimming and have absorbed their yolk sacs, about 2–3 weeks.  She eats little to no food during this period.  Eventually, she releases them and allows them to search for food, taking them back into her mouth when she feels threatened.  The brooding female  often signals to her fry when danger is present, and shuts her fry out of her mouth when encouraging then to forage.

text: Redhump eartheaters are immediate maternal

text: mouthbrooder

text: s.  These fish grow relatively quickly, and can be sexed as subadults.

text: Sexual dimorphism

text: is clear - males have a large, red nuptial hump on their heads and grow larger than the females.  Mature males develop an iridescence on the scales on their sides and very large humps.  Males will display to females by opening their mouths and flaring their gills.  Nonreceptive females may be driven from the spawning area.  Spawning takes place on a smooth rock or clean sand bed.  The female lays one or two eggs, then the male fertilizes them.  The female immediately takes the fertilized eggs into her mouth and proceeds to lay more eggs.  This  continues until spawning is completed.  The female  carries the eggs until they are free-swimming and have absorbed their yolk sacs, about 2–3 weeks.  She eats little to no food during this period.  Eventually, she releases them and allows them to search for food, taking them back into her mouth when she feels threatened.  The brooding female  often signals to her fry when danger is present, and shuts her fry out of her mouth when encouraging then to forage.

text: Fish are probably the best-known inhabitants of lotic systems.  The ability of a fish species to live in flowing waters depends upon the speed at which it can swim and the duration that its speed can be maintained.  This ability can vary greatly between species and is tied to the habitat in which it can survive.  Continuous swimming expends a tremendous amount of energy and, therefore, fishes spend only short periods in full current.  Instead, individuals remain close to the bottom or the banks, behind obstacles, and sheltered from the current, swimming in the current only to feed or change locations. Some species have adapted to living only on the system bottom, never venturing into the open water flow.  These fishes are dorso-ventrally flattened to reduce flow resistance and often have eyes on top of their heads to observe what is happening above them.  Some also have sensory barrels positioned under the head to assist in the testing of substratum (Brown 1987).

text: Fish are probably the best-known inhabitants of lotic systems.  The ability of a fish species to live in flowing waters depends upon the speed at which it can swim and the duration that its speed can be maintained.  This ability can vary greatly between species and is tied to the habitat in which it can survive.  Continuous swimming expends a tremendous amount of energy and, therefore, fishes spend only short periods in full current.  Instead, individuals remain close to the bottom or the banks, behind obstacles, and sheltered from the current, swimming in the current only to feed or change locations. Some species have adapted to living only on the system bottom, never venturing into the open water flow.  These fishes are

text: dorso-ventrally

text: flattened to reduce flow resistance and often have eyes on top of their heads to observe what is happening above them.  Some also have sensory barrels positioned under the head to assist in the testing of substratum (Brown 1987).

text: Currently, the system comprises 70 national fish hatcheries, 9 fish health centers, 7 fish technology centers, and a historic national fish hatchery. National fish hatcheries are located in 35 states and produce more than 60 different species of fish.

text: Currently, the system comprises

entity_name: List of National Fish Hatcheries in the United States

text: 70 national fish hatcheries

text: , 9 fish health centers, 7 fish technology centers, and a historic national fish hatchery. National fish hatcheries are located in 35 states and produce more than 60 different species of fish.

text: Aquatic plants are more buoyant than their terrestrial counterparts because freshwater has a higher density than air.  This makes structural rigidity unimportant in lakes and ponds  (except in the aerial stems and leaves).  Thus, the leaves and stems of most aquatic plants use less energy to construct and maintain woody tissue, investing that energy into fast growth instead. In order to contend with stresses induced by wind and waves, plants must be both flexible and tough.  Light, water depth and substrate types are the most important factors controlling the distribution of submerged aquatic plants.  Macrophytes are sources of food, oxygen, and habitat structure in the benthic zone, but cannot penetrate the depths of the euphotic zone and hence are not found there.

text: Aquatic plants

text: are more buoyant than their terrestrial counterparts because freshwater has a higher density than air.  This makes structural rigidity unimportant in lakes and ponds  (except in the aerial stems and leaves).  Thus, the leaves and stems of most aquatic plants use less energy to construct and maintain woody tissue, investing that energy into fast growth instead. In order to contend with stresses induced by wind and waves, plants must be both flexible and tough.  Light, water depth and substrate types are the most important factors controlling the distribution of submerged aquatic plants.  Macrophytes are sources of food, oxygen, and habitat structure in the benthic zone, but cannot penetrate the depths of the euphotic zone and hence are not found there.

text: 's, rudiments of the adult body are not apparent in young larvae.  After substantial growth, an internal sac of undifferentiated tissue forms between the stomach and the wall of the exhalant chamber.  In competent larvae the internal sac is the largest single organ in the body, and becomes quite convoluted.  Once the cyphonautes selects a settlement site, metamorphosis begins with the rapid collapse of the triangle: the valves are pulled flat against the substrate and the internal sac spreads out beneath them.  The corona and other larval organs are resorbed.  In Membranipora, two zoids develop initially from the internal sac of a single settled cyphonautes.

text: The reservoir is public and is a fishing spot. A fishing license is required to fish on the reservoir.

text: Fish kills can also result from a dramatic or prolonged drop in air (and thus, water) temperature. This kind of fish kill is selective – usually the dead fish are species that cannot tolerate cold. This has been observed in cases where a fish native to a more tropical region has been introduced to cooler waters, such as the introduction of the tilapia to bodies of water in Florida. Native to Africa’s Nile River, the tilapia stop feeding when water temperatures drop below  and die when it reaches . Thus, tilapia that have survived and successfully reproduced in Florida are occasionally killed by a winter cold front.

text: Fish kills can also result from a dramatic or prolonged drop in air (and thus, water) temperature. This kind of fish kill is selective – usually the dead fish are species that cannot tolerate cold. This has been observed in cases where a fish native to a more tropical region has been introduced to cooler waters, such as the introduction of the

text: tilapia

text: to bodies of water in Florida. Native to Africa’s Nile River, the tilapia stop feeding when water temperatures drop below  and die when it reaches . Thus, tilapia that have survived and successfully reproduced in Florida are occasionally killed by a winter cold front.

text: Dragonflies are hemimetabolous insects; they do not have a pupal stage and undergo an incomplete metamorphosis with a series of nymphal stages from which the adult emerges. Eggs laid inside plant tissues are usually shaped like grains of rice, while other eggs are the size of a pinhead, ellipsoidal, or nearly spherical. A clutch may have as many as 1500 eggs, and they take about a week to hatch into aquatic nymphs or naiads which moult between six and 15 times (depending on species) as they grow. Most of a dragonfly's life is spent as a nymph, beneath the water's surface. The nymph extends its hinged labium (a toothed mouthpart similar to a lower mandible which is sometimes termed as a "mask" as it is normally folded and held before the face) which can extend forward and retract rapidly to capture prey such as mosquito larvae, tadpoles, and small fish. They breathe through gills in their rectum, and can rapidly propel themselves by suddenly expelling water through the anus. Some naiads, such as the later stages of Antipodophlebia asthenes, hunt on land.

text: Dragonflies are

text: hemimetabolous

text: insects; they do not have a

text: pupa

text: l stage and undergo an incomplete

text: metamorphosis

text: with a series of nymphal stages from which the adult emerges. Eggs laid inside plant tissues are usually shaped like grains of rice, while other eggs are the size of a pinhead, ellipsoidal, or nearly spherical. A clutch may have as many as 1500 eggs, and they take about a week to hatch into aquatic

text: nymphs

text: or naiads which moult between six and 15 times (depending on species) as they grow. Most of a dragonfly's life is spent as a nymph, beneath the water's surface. The nymph extends its hinged labium (a toothed mouthpart similar to a lower mandible which is sometimes termed as a "mask" as it is normally folded and held before the face) which can extend forward and retract rapidly to capture prey such as

text: mosquito

text: larvae,

text: tadpole

text: s, and small fish. They breathe through gills in their

text: rectum

text: , and can rapidly propel themselves by suddenly expelling water through the anus. Some naiads, such as the later stages of

text: Antipodophlebia asthenes

text: , hunt on land.

text: Despite the large size alligator gar can attain, they are kept as aquarium fish, though many fish labeled as "alligator gar" in the aquarium trade are actually smaller species. Alligator gar require a very large aquarium or pond, and ample resources in order for them to thrive in captivity. They are also a popular fish for public aquaria, and zoos. It is illegal in many areas to keep alligator gar as pets, but they will occasionally show up in fish stores.  Alligator gar are highly prized and sought after for private aquaria, particularly in Japan.  According to some reports, large alligator gar could fetch as much as US$40,000 in what some consider the "Japanese black market". In June 2011, three men from Florida and Louisiana were indicted on charges of illegally removing wild alligator gar from the Trinity River in Texas, and attempting to ship them to Japan for private collectors.  The indictments resulted from an undercover sting operation by special agents with the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, and the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. The charges included violations of three separate provisions of the Lacey Act, specifically conspiracy to submit a false label for fish transported in interstate commerce; conspiracy to transport fish in interstate commerce in violation of state law or regulation; and conspiracy to transport and sell fish in interstate commerce in violation of state law or regulation.  Two of the conspirators entered guilty pleas to one count, and the government dropped the other two charges against them.  A third conspirator went to trial on all three counts, was acquitted on one count, and found guilty on two.  The district court sentenced him to serve nine months in prison followed by one year of supervised release.  The case was appealed, and on April 15, 2014, the appellate court affirmed the judgment of the district court.

text: Despite the large size alligator gar can attain, they are kept as aquarium fish, though many fish labeled as "alligator gar" in the aquarium trade are actually smaller species. Alligator gar require a very large aquarium or pond, and ample resources in order for them to thrive in captivity. They are also a popular fish for public aquaria, and zoos. It is illegal in many areas to keep alligator gar as pets, but they will occasionally show up in fish stores.  Alligator gar are highly prized and sought after for private aquaria, particularly in Japan.  According to some reports, large alligator gar could fetch as much as US$40,000 in what some consider the "Japanese black market". In June 2011, three men from Florida and Louisiana were indicted on charges of illegally removing wild alligator gar from the

text: Trinity River

text: in Texas, and attempting to ship them to Japan for private collectors.  The

text: indictment

text: s resulted from an undercover sting operation by

text: special agent

text: s with the

text: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service

text: , the

text: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department

text: , and the

entity_name: Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

text: Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

text: . The charges included violations of three separate provisions of the Lacey Act, specifically conspiracy to submit a false label for fish transported in interstate commerce; conspiracy to transport fish in interstate commerce in violation of state law or regulation; and conspiracy to transport and sell fish in interstate commerce in violation of state law or regulation.  Two of the conspirators entered guilty pleas to one count, and the government dropped the other two charges against them.  A third conspirator went to trial on all three counts, was acquitted on one count, and found guilty on two.  The

text: district court

text: sentenced him to serve nine months in prison followed by one year of

text: supervised release

text: .  The case was appealed, and on April 15, 2014, the appellate court affirmed the judgment of the district court.

text: Overfished refers to the number of fish in the stock.  Typically a stock is described as being overfished when current biomass of a stock is lower than what is required to support the maximum sustainable yield.  Overfishing describes the rate of removal from a stock and can be categorized as two different types:  recruitment and economic.  Recruitment overfishing is when fishing pressure is too heavy to allow a fish population to replace itself.  Economic overfishing occurs when the level of fish harvesting is higher than that of economic efficiency and more fish are harvested than necessary to have maximum profits for the fishery.

text: Overfished refers to the number of fish in the stock.  Typically a stock is described as being overfished when current

text: biomass

text: of a stock is lower than what is required to support the

text: maximum sustainable yield

text: Overfishing

text: describes the rate of removal from a stock and can be categorized as two different types:  recruitment and economic.  Recruitment overfishing is when fishing pressure is too heavy to allow a fish population to replace itself.  Economic overfishing occurs when the level of fish harvesting is higher than that of economic efficiency and more fish are harvested than necessary to have maximum profits for the fishery.

text: A similar process is used in the salmon-farming section of this industry; juveniles are taken from hatcheries and a variety of methods are used to aid them in their maturation. For example, as stated above, some of the most important fish species in the industry, salmon, can be grown using a cage system. This is done by having netted cages, preferably in open water that has a strong flow, and feeding the salmon a special food mixture that aids their growth. This process allows for year-round growth of the fish, thus a higher harvest during the correct seasons. An additional method, known sometimes as sea ranching, has also been used within the industry. Sea ranching involves raising fish in a hatchery for a brief time and then releasing them into marine waters for further development, whereupon the fish are recaptured when they have matured.

text: A similar process is used in the salmon-farming section of this industry; juveniles are taken from hatcheries and a variety of methods are used to aid them in their maturation. For example, as stated above, some of the most important fish species in the industry, salmon, can be grown using a cage system. This is done by having netted cages, preferably in open water that has a strong flow, and feeding the salmon a special food mixture that aids their growth. This process allows for year-round growth of the fish, thus a higher harvest during the correct seasons. An additional method, known sometimes as sea ranching, has also been used within the industry. Sea ranching involves raising fish in a

text: hatchery

text: for a brief time and then releasing them into marine waters for further development, whereupon the fish are recaptured when they have matured.

text: Bait fish are small fish caught for use as bait to attract large predatory fish, particularly game fish. Species used are typically those that are common and breed rapidly, making them easy to catch and in regular supply. Examples of marine bait fish are anchovies, gudgeon, halfbeaks such as ballyhoo, and scad. Some larger fish such as menhaden, flying fish, or ladyfish may be considered bait fish in some circles, depending on the size of the gamefish being pursued.Freshwater bait fish include any fish of the minnow or carp family (Cyprinidae), sucker family (Catostomidae), top minnows or killifish family (Cyprinodontidae), shad family (Clupeidae), sculpin of the order Osteichthyes or sunfish family (Centrarchidae), excluding black basses and crappie.

text: Bait fish are small fish caught for use as

text: bait

text: to attract large

text: predatory fish

text: , particularly

text: game fish

text: . Species used are typically those that are common and breed rapidly, making them easy to catch and in regular supply. Examples of marine bait fish are

text: anchovies

text: gudgeon

text: halfbeak

text: s such as

text: ballyhoo

text: , and

text: scad

text: . Some larger fish such as menhaden, flying fish, or ladyfish may be considered bait fish in some circles, depending on the size of the gamefish being pursued.Freshwater bait fish include any

text: fish

text: of the

text: minnow

text: or

text: carp

text: family (Cyprinidae), sucker family (

text: Catostomidae

text: ), top minnows or

text: killifish

text: family (Cyprinodontidae),

text: shad

text: family (

text: Clupeidae

text: sculpin

text: of the order

text: Osteichthyes

text: or sunfish family (

text: Centrarchidae

text: ), excluding

text: black bass

text: es and

text: crappie

text: What the Fish (stylized as What the F!$#), produced by Viacom 18 Motion Pictures, is a comedy film starring Dimple Kapadia and directed by Gurmeet Singh. It released on 13 December 2013.

text: What the Fish (stylized as What the F!$#), produced by

text: Viacom 18 Motion Pictures

text: , is a comedy film starring

text: Dimple Kapadia

text: and directed by

text: Gurmeet Singh

text: . It released on 13 December 2013.

text: Such lures are often designed to resemble smaller creatures that would normally be considered as food for the target fish species. (They are painted to look like the prey of the target species; usually smaller fish, frogs, or insects.) One of the key features of the topwater lure is the "action" that it imparts as it travels along the water's surface. The more effective lures have an action that closely resembles that of the actual living creature. The lure is typically fitted with one of more fish hooks (usually treble hooks) to hook the target fish as it strikes the lure. Variations exist that include internal rattles to generate sound that might be similar to the sounds created by the actual, live creature being emulated. some also include small light sources such as LEDs that might be battery powered. There are also jointed bodies, moving eyes, holographic finishes, etc. all of which are incorporated to encourage the target species to strike the lure. The lure is normally attached to the end of a fishing line that is attached to a fishing rod and reel and is cast into areas where the target species might be found and "worked" skillfully within that are to encourage strikes. This type of fishing is considered by many to one of the more exciting methods used to catch fish. A frequent mistake when fishing topwater lures is to initiate the hookset immediately upon seeing the fish strike the lure. In many species, especially bass, it is important to wait a few seconds before initiating the hookset to ensure that the lure is in the best position in the fish's mouth to optimize the chances of a successful hooking. Black bass, spotted seatrout, ladyfish, redfish, bluefish, tarpon, bonefish, barracuda, & pickerel are examples of fish that might be taken by the topwater approach.

text: Such lures are often designed to resemble smaller creatures that would normally be considered as food for the target fish species. (They are painted to look like the prey of the target species; usually smaller fish,

text: frog

text: s, or

text: insect

text: s.) One of the key features of the topwater lure is the "action" that it imparts as it travels along the water's surface. The more effective lures have an action that closely resembles that of the actual living creature. The lure is typically fitted with one of more

text: fish hook

text: s (usually treble hooks) to hook the target fish as it strikes the lure. Variations exist that include internal rattles to generate sound that might be similar to the sounds created by the actual, live creature being emulated. some also include small light sources such as

text: LEDs

text: that might be battery powered. There are also jointed bodies, moving eyes,

text: holographic

text: finishes, etc. all of which are incorporated to encourage the target species to strike the lure. The lure is normally attached to the end of a

text: fishing line

text: that is attached to a

text: fishing rod

text: and

text: reel

text: and is cast into areas where the target species might be found and "worked" skillfully within that are to encourage strikes. This type of fishing is considered by many to one of the more exciting methods used to catch fish. A frequent mistake when fishing topwater lures is to initiate the

text: hookset

text: immediately upon seeing the fish strike the lure. In many species, especially bass, it is important to wait a few seconds before initiating the hookset to ensure that the lure is in the best position in the fish's mouth to optimize the chances of a successful hooking.

text: Black bass

text: spotted seatrout

text: ladyfish

text: redfish

text: bluefish

text: tarpon

text: bonefish

text: barracuda

text: pickerel

text: are examples of fish that might be taken by the topwater approach.

text: Spawning is preceded by significant upstream migrations if high spring flows or floods allow. Radio-tracked Murray cod in the Murray River have migrated up to  upstream to spawn, before returning to exactly the same snag from where they departed, an unusual homing behaviour in a freshwater fish. Decades of observations by recreational and commercial fishermen suggest such spring spawning migrations are common across the Murray cod's geographical range. Spawning is initiated by pairing up and courtship rituals. During the courtship ritual a spawning site is selected and cleaned — hard surfaces such as rocks in upland rivers and impoundments, and logs and occasionally clay banks in lowland rivers, at a depth of , are selected. The female lays the large adhesive eggs as a mat on the spawning surface, which the male fertilises. The female then leaves the spawning site. The male remains to guard the eggs during incubation, which takes six to 10 days (depending on water temperature), and to guard the hatched larvae for a further week or so until they disperse. Larvae disperse from the nest site by drifting in river currents at night, and continue this behaviour around four to seven days. During this dispersal process, larvae simultaneously absorb the remainder of their yolk sac and begin to feed on pelagic zooplankton, small, early life-stage macroinvertebrates and epibenthic/epiphytic (bottom dwelling/edge clinging) microinvertebrates.

text: Spawning is preceded by significant upstream migrations if high spring flows or floods allow. Radio-tracked Murray cod in the Murray River have migrated up to  upstream to spawn, before returning to exactly the same snag from where they departed, an unusual homing behaviour in a freshwater fish. Decades of observations by recreational and commercial fishermen suggest such spring spawning migrations are common across the Murray cod's geographical range. Spawning is initiated by pairing up and courtship rituals. During the courtship ritual a spawning site is selected and cleaned — hard surfaces such as rocks in upland rivers and impoundments, and logs and occasionally clay banks in lowland rivers, at a depth of , are selected. The female lays the large adhesive eggs as a mat on the spawning surface, which the male fertilises. The female then leaves the spawning site. The male remains to guard the eggs during incubation, which takes six to 10 days (depending on water temperature), and to guard the hatched larvae for a further week or so until they disperse. Larvae disperse from the nest site by drifting in river currents at night, and continue this behaviour around four to seven days. During this dispersal process, larvae simultaneously absorb the remainder of their yolk sac and begin to feed on pelagic

text: zooplankton

text: , small, early life-stage

text: macroinvertebrates

text: and epibenthic/epiphytic (bottom dwelling/edge clinging) microinvertebrates.

text: Overfishing has depleted some fish populations to the point that large scale commercial fishing, on average around the world, is not economically viable without government assistance. Many states offer subsidies to their fishing fleets, which is unsustainable in the long term. According to Oceana, the global fishing fleet is currently up to 250 percent larger than it needs to be to catch what the oceans can sustainably produce.

text: Overfishing has depleted some fish populations to the point that large scale commercial fishing, on average around the world, is not economically viable without

text: government assistance

text: . Many states offer subsidies to their fishing fleets, which is unsustainable in the long term. According to Oceana, the global fishing fleet is currently up to 250 percent larger than it needs to be to catch what the oceans can sustainably produce.

text: Feeding presents relatively few problems, as the fishes will eagerly devour a range of prepared as well as live fish foods. In common with numerous other tetras, these fishes are particularly fond of live bloodworms (these are the aquatic larvae of a midge belonging to the genus Chironomus) and will also devour live Daphnia avidly. Unlike those tetra species which adapt to surface feeding in the aquarium, rummy-nose tetras are not considered likely to add live mosquito larvae to their diet in the aquarium, though instances where these fishes discover and enjoy this food are possible: usually, rummy-nose tetras prefer to take their foods in the middle and lower regions of the aquarium.

text: Feeding presents relatively few problems, as the fishes will eagerly devour a range of prepared as well as live fish foods. In common with numerous other tetras, these fishes are particularly fond of live

text: bloodworm

text: s (these are the aquatic larvae of a midge belonging to the genus Chironomus) and will also devour live

text: Daphnia

text: avidly. Unlike those tetra species which adapt to surface feeding in the aquarium, rummy-nose tetras are not considered likely to add live mosquito larvae to their diet in the aquarium, though instances where these fishes discover and enjoy this food are possible: usually, rummy-nose tetras prefer to take their foods in the middle and lower regions of the aquarium.

text: Of the tailless amphibians (the frogs and toads of the sub-class Anura) the majority are aquatic to an insignificant extent in adult life, but in that considerable minority that are mainly aquatic we encounter for the first time the problem of adapting the tailless-tetrapod structure for aquatic propulsion. The mode that they use is unrelated to any used by fish. With their flexible back legs and webbed feet they execute something close to the leg movements of a human 'breast stroke,' rather more efficiently because the legs are better streamlined.

text: Of the tailless

text: amphibians

text: (the

text: frogs

text: and

text: toads

text: of the sub-class

text: Anura

text: ) the majority are aquatic to an insignificant extent in adult life, but in that considerable minority that are mainly aquatic we encounter for the first time the problem of adapting the tailless-tetrapod structure for aquatic propulsion. The mode that they use is unrelated to any used by fish. With their flexible back legs and webbed feet they execute something close to the leg movements of a human 'breast stroke,' rather more efficiently because the legs are better streamlined.

text: Characteristic fish species are:

text: Characteristic fish species are:

text: Abantiades marcidus is a moth of the Hepialidae family. It is endemic to Australia, where it is found in New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Victoria. The larvae are a favoured bait for fishing.

text: Abantiades marcidus is a

text: moth

text: of the

text: Hepialidae

text: family. It is endemic to

text: Australia

text: , where it is found in

text: New South Wales

text: Queensland

text: South Australia

text: and

text: Victoria

text: . The larvae are a favoured bait for fishing.

text: Proponents of free-market environmentalism use the example of the recent destruction of the once prosperous Grand Banks fishery off Newfoundland.  Once one of the world's most abundant fisheries, it has been almost completely depleted of fish. Those primarily responsible were large "factory-fishing" enterprises driven by the imperative to realize profits in a competitive global market. It is contended that if the fishery had been owned by a single entity, the owner would have had an interest in keeping a renewable supply of fish to maintain profits over the long term.  The owner would thus have charged high fees to fish in the area, sharply reducing how many fish were caught.  The owner also would have closely enforced rules on not catching young fish. Instead commercial ships from around the world raced to get the fish out of the water before competitors could, including catching fish that had not yet reproduced.

text: Proponents of free-market environmentalism use the example of the recent destruction of the once prosperous

text: Grand Banks

text: fishery off

text: Newfoundland

text: .  Once one of the world's most abundant fisheries, it has been almost completely depleted of fish. Those primarily responsible were large "factory-fishing" enterprises driven by the imperative to realize profits in a competitive global market. It is contended that if the fishery had been owned by a single entity, the owner would have had an interest in keeping a renewable supply of fish to maintain profits over the long term.  The owner would thus have charged high fees to fish in the area, sharply reducing how many fish were caught.  The owner also would have closely enforced rules on not catching young fish. Instead commercial ships from around the world raced to get the fish out of the water before competitors could, including catching fish that had not yet reproduced.

text: Despite the speculation of aquarium enthusiasts that the eggs are pressure treated to make them infertile, it has been found some GloFish are indeed fertile and will reproduce in a captive environment. However, the GloFish Fluorescent Fish License states "Intentional breeding and/or any sale, barter, or trade, of any offspring of GloFish fluorescent ornamental fish is strictly prohibited."

text: Portions of the remaining books have made it into print, however. Gerrold released to fans a cliffhanger teaser chapter from Method for Madness. In his collection The Involuntary Human (ISBN 978-1-886-77869-6), he included "It Needs Salt" (as a portion of the planned but not formally scheduled Time for Treason). Finally, he also published the story "Enterprise Fish" in a volume of Thrilling Wonder Stories, (ISBN 978-0-9796718-1-4; Ed. by Winston Engle). "Enterprise Fish" is described as an excerpt from Time For Treason. The Chtorr series and its central character have moved through stages of development with each book in the series, with another layer of the Chtorran ecology explained and understanding of it unveiled with each successive book. Since "It Needs Salt" and "Enterprise Fish" are short stories from planned future layers of plot and character development, fans of the series are forewarned that they contain "spoilers".

text: Portions of the remaining books have made it into print, however. Gerrold released to fans a cliffhanger teaser chapter from Method for Madness. In his collection

text: The Involuntary Human

text: (ISBN 978-1-886-77869-6), he included "It Needs Salt" (as a portion of the planned but not formally scheduled Time for Treason). Finally, he also published the story "Enterprise Fish" in a volume of

text: Thrilling Wonder Stories

text: , (ISBN 978-0-9796718-1-4; Ed. by Winston Engle). "Enterprise Fish" is described as an excerpt from Time For Treason. The Chtorr series and its central character have moved through stages of development with each book in the series, with another layer of the Chtorran ecology explained and understanding of it unveiled with each successive book. Since "It Needs Salt" and "Enterprise Fish" are short stories from planned future layers of plot and character development, fans of the series are forewarned that they contain "spoilers".

text: After another failed attempt at settling his son in to a school, Teasdale’s father, Benjamin, decided to keep him at home to with the intention of training him for the cutlery trade. However, on several occasions he claims to have shirked his errands. His family moved from Sheffield to Walkley Hall and it was here that Teasdale declared ‘it was prophesised by one of the Walkley Belles that Harvey would become an actor!’ He began attending plays at Sheffield's Theatre Royal and his interest in acting was ignited. However, he still made time for mischief, like stealing fish at Crookes Moor Dam: ‘The fish that I had caught were in my hat on my head. When asked what I had done with the fish I said that I had caught none. The fish… at that moment jumped on my head and appeared to my guilty conscience to say “Harvey, what a liar you are”’.’In 1832 the Cholera epidemic swept Sheffield and Teasdale was one of its victims. He claimed he was very ill, but nevertheless managed to survive. Soon after his recovery Teasdale and a friend named Charles Black decided they wanted to leave Sheffield and head to London, but with no transport they had barely reached Chesterfield before they chose to give up.

text: Most fish possess highly developed sense organs. Nearly all daylight fish have color vision that is at least as good as a human's (see vision in fishes). Many fish also have chemoreceptors that are responsible for extraordinary senses of taste and smell. Although they have ears, many fish may not hear very well. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Sharks can sense frequencies in the range of 25 to 50 Hz through their lateral line.

text: Most fish possess highly developed sense organs. Nearly all daylight fish have color vision that is at least as good as a human's (see

text: vision in fishes

text: ). Many fish also have chemoreceptors that are responsible for extraordinary senses of taste and smell. Although they have ears, many fish may not hear very well. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the

text: lateral line system

text: , which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Sharks can sense frequencies in the range of 25 to 50

text: Hz

text: through their lateral line.

text: The fish feeds on aquatic insects, invertebrates, small fish, zooplankton, phytoplankton and plant detritus.

text: The fish feeds on aquatic insects,

text: invertebrates

text: , small fish,

text: zooplankton

text: phytoplankton

text: and plant detritus.

text: The southern myotis (Myotis macropus), also known as large-footed myotis,  is a species of vesper bat (Vespertilionidae) in genus Myotis. The southern myotis is one of only two Australian "fishing" bats and feeds by trawling its specially adapted feet along the water's surface for aquatic invertebrates and fish.

text: The southern myotis (Myotis macropus), also known as large-footed myotis,  is a species of

text: vesper bat

text: (Vespertilionidae) in genus

text: Myotis

text: . The southern myotis is one of only two

text: Australia

text: n "fishing" bats and feeds by trawling its specially adapted feet along the water's surface for aquatic invertebrates and fish.

text: Springer's research interests include the classification, evolution, and biogeography of fishes, especially marine fishes and notably Blennioid fishes. He is also interested in late 19th and 20th Century scientific illustrators of fishes such as Charles Bradford Hudson

text: Springer's research interests include the classification, evolution, and biogeography of fishes, especially marine fishes and notably

text: Blennioid fishes

text: . He is also interested in late 19th and 20th Century scientific illustrators of fishes such as

text: Charles Bradford Hudson

text: The conditions in the El'gygytgyn lake are extremely severe for fish life. Even so, there are three species permanently inhabiting the lake's harsh aquatic environment. These are three types of char: Salvelinus boganidae, S. elgyticus (Small-mouth char) and Salvethymus svetovidovi (long-finned char). The two latter species are endemic to the El'gygytgyn lake. The golets (Salvelinus alpinus, ) has been introduced recently. Fish species in the lake are adapted to its very cold waters, which are generally just above the freezing point, and spend most of the year in total darkness. The surface is frozen for about 10 months of the year. It may start to melt in the summer, but some years it never fully thaws.

text: The conditions in the El'gygytgyn lake are extremely severe for fish life. Even so, there are three species permanently inhabiting the lake's harsh aquatic environment. These are three types of

text: char

text: Salvelinus boganidae

text: S. elgyticus

text: (Small-mouth char) and

text: Salvethymus svetovidovi

text: (long-finned char). The two latter species are endemic to the El'gygytgyn lake. The

text: golets

text: (Salvelinus alpinus, ) has been introduced recently. Fish species in the lake are adapted to its very cold waters, which are generally just above the freezing point, and spend most of the year in total darkness. The surface is frozen for about 10 months of the year. It may start to melt in the summer, but some years it never fully thaws.

text: Coastal marshes, bays, tidal creeks, and rivers support diverse shellfish and finfish populations. Sunfish (Lepomis species), creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), cunner (Tautogolabrus adspersus), golden shiner (Notemigonus crysoleucas), common mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus), American eel (Anguilla rostrata), and white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) abound. Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and brown trout (Salmo trutta) are stocked in rivers and estuaries each year. The Ogunquit River sustains alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis), pollock (Pollachius virens), bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), longhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus), and winter flounder (Pleuronectes americanus). The Webhannet River has native species such as winter flounder, northern pipefish (Syngnathus fuscus), Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus), common mummichog, Atlantic silversides (Menidia menidia) and Atlantic mackerel. The Merriland River sustains populations of American eel, brown trout, and brook trout. The Mousam River attracts little skate (Raja erinacea), American shad (Alosa sapidissima), striped bass (Morone saxatilis), bluefish, cunner, Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus), pollock, and rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax). The Spurwink River supports blueback herring, Atlantic menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), American shad, pollock, cunner, winter flounder, and little skate. Striped bass and brown trout are popular recreational fishing resources in the area. The National Marine Fisheries Service has designated as “essential fish habitat” areas that provide substrate necessary for fish spawning, breeding, feeding, or growth to maturity. Estuaries within the refuge boundaries are part of that essential fish habitat.

text: Coastal

text: marsh

text: es, bays,

text: tidal creeks

text: , and rivers support diverse shellfish and finfish populations. Sunfish (

text: Lepomis

text: species),

text: creek chub

text: (Semotilus atromaculatus),

text: cunner

text: (Tautogolabrus adspersus),

text: golden shiner

text: (Notemigonus crysoleucas), common

text: mummichog

text: (Fundulus heteroclitus),

text: American eel

text: (Anguilla rostrata), and

text: white sucker

text: (Catostomus commersoni) abound.

text: Brook trout

text: (Salvelinus fontinalis) and

text: brown trout

text: (Salmo trutta) are stocked in rivers and estuaries each year. The

text: Ogunquit River

text: sustains

text: alewife

text: (Alosa pseudoharengus),

text: blueback herring

text: (Alosa aestivalis),

text: pollock

text: (Pollachius virens),

text: bluefish

text: (Pomatomus saltatrix),

text: longhorn sculpin

text: (Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus), and

text: winter flounder

text: (Pleuronectes americanus). The

text: Webhannet River

text: has native species such as winter flounder,

text: northern pipefish

text: (Syngnathus fuscus),

text: Atlantic herring

text: (Clupea harengus), common mummichog,

text: Atlantic silverside

text: s (Menidia menidia) and

text: Atlantic mackerel

text: . The

text: Merriland River

text: sustains populations of American eel, brown trout, and brook trout. The Mousam River attracts

text: little skate

text: (Raja erinacea),

text: American shad

text: (Alosa sapidissima),

text: striped bass

text: (Morone saxatilis), bluefish, cunner, Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus), pollock, and

text: rainbow smelt

text: (Osmerus mordax). The

text: Spurwink River

text: supports blueback herring,

text: Atlantic menhaden

text: (Brevoortia tyrannus), American shad, pollock, cunner, winter flounder, and little skate. Striped bass and brown trout are popular recreational fishing resources in the area. The

text: National Marine Fisheries Service

text: has designated as “

text: essential fish habitat

text: ” areas that provide substrate necessary for fish

text: spawning

text: , breeding, feeding, or growth to maturity. Estuaries within the refuge boundaries are part of that essential fish habitat.

text: Some aquatic animals also regularly use gliding, for example, flying fish, octopus and squid.  The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 meters (160 ft), though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to .  To glide upward out of the water, a flying fish moves its tail up to 70 times per second.Several oceanic squid, such as the Pacific flying squid, leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of flying fish. Smaller squids fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as 50 m. Small fins towards the back of the mantle help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion. The neon flying squid has been observed to glide for distances over 30 m, at speeds of up to 11.2 m/s.

text: Some aquatic animals also regularly use gliding, for example,

text: flying fish

text: , octopus and squid.  The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 meters (160 ft), though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances of up to .  To glide upward out of the water, a flying fish moves its tail up to 70 times per second.Several oceanic

text: squid

text: , such as the

text: Pacific flying squid

text: , leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of flying fish. Smaller squids fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as 50 m. Small fins towards the back of the mantle help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion. The

text: neon flying squid

text: has been observed to glide for distances over 30 m, at speeds of up to 11.2 m/s.

text: Although Zoneait is the oldest metriorhynchoid, phylogenetic analysis indicates that the slightly younger taxa Eoneustes and Teleidosaurus are more basal than it. Wilberg found that Zoneait is the sister taxon of Metriorhynchidae, which suggests that it should have been more extensively adapted to marine life than Teleidosaurus and Eoneustes were, but less adapted than true metriorhynchids like Metriorhynchus and Cricosaurus, which were fully marine. Zoneait has a streamlined skull with eyes that faced laterally like those of metriorhychids, unlike the more upward-facing eyes of Teleidosaurus and other non-marine aquatic crocodylomorphs. The shift in eye orientation is thought to reflect changes in feeding ecology; upward-facing eyes would have been adaptive for aquatic crocodylomorphs ambushing land-living prey from beneath the surface of the water, whereas side-facing eyes would have been adaptive for marine crocodylomorphs hunting in open marine environments. The skull of Zoneait also shows evidence of salt glands in the form of enlarged passageways for the carotid artery, which would have increased bloodflow to the glands. The forelimbs are not flattened into paddles as in metriorhynchids, but the ulna (lower arm bone) is reduced in length, indicating that forelimb reduction began at the lower limb and progressed upward (the humerus or upper arm bone of Zoneait not reduced). Taken together, the transitional features of Zoneait indicate that metriorhynchoids' adaptation of a marine lifestyle began with a shift in feeding ecology and only later involved changes in swimming locomotion.

text: Although Zoneait is the oldest metriorhynchoid,

text: phylogenetic analysis

text: indicates that the slightly younger taxa

text: Eoneustes

text: and

text: Teleidosaurus

text: are more

text: basal

text: than it. Wilberg found that Zoneait is the

text: sister taxon

text: of Metriorhynchidae, which suggests that it should have been more extensively adapted to marine life than Teleidosaurus and Eoneustes were, but less adapted than true metriorhynchids like

text: Metriorhynchus

text: and

text: Cricosaurus

text: , which were fully marine. Zoneait has a streamlined skull with eyes that faced laterally like those of metriorhychids, unlike the more upward-facing eyes of Teleidosaurus and other non-marine aquatic crocodylomorphs. The shift in eye orientation is thought to reflect changes in feeding ecology; upward-facing eyes would have been adaptive for aquatic crocodylomorphs ambushing land-living prey from beneath the surface of the water, whereas side-facing eyes would have been adaptive for marine crocodylomorphs hunting in open marine environments. The skull of Zoneait also shows evidence of

text: salt gland

text: s in the form of enlarged passageways for the

text: carotid artery

text: , which would have increased bloodflow to the glands. The forelimbs are not flattened into paddles as in metriorhynchids, but the

text: ulna

text: (lower arm bone) is reduced in length, indicating that forelimb reduction began at the lower limb and progressed upward (the

text: humerus

text: or upper arm bone of Zoneait not reduced). Taken together, the transitional features of Zoneait indicate that metriorhynchoids' adaptation of a marine lifestyle began with a shift in feeding ecology and only later involved changes in swimming locomotion.

text: Though the number of species is limited, epipelagic fishes are abundant. What they lack in diversity they make up in numbers. Forage fish occur in huge numbers, and large fish that prey on them are often sought after as premier food fish. As a group, epipelagic fishes form the most valuable fisheries in the world.

text: Though the number of species is limited, epipelagic fishes are abundant. What they lack in diversity they make up in numbers. Forage fish occur in huge numbers, and large fish that prey on them are often sought after as premier

text: food fish

text: . As a group, epipelagic fishes form the most valuable

text: fisheries

text: in the world.

text: This fish is a relatively new addition to the fish keeping hobby. The Denison's barb is a schooling fish that is usually kept in groups. It tends to be peaceful but some have been known to be slightly aggressive around food, especially if kept in less space than they require. They eat bloodworms, shrimp, meat, fish flake and some vegetation. A similar fish, Sahyadria chalakkudiensis is sometimes confused with this fish, but it is a larger, less colourful and a more aggressive species.

text: This fish is a relatively new addition to the fish keeping hobby. The Denison's barb is a schooling fish that is usually kept in groups. It tends to be peaceful but some have been known to be slightly aggressive around food, especially if kept in less space than they require. They eat bloodworms, shrimp, meat, fish flake and some vegetation. A similar fish,

text: Sahyadria chalakkudiensis

text: is sometimes confused with this fish, but it is a larger, less colourful and a more aggressive species.

text: Montezuma Well due to a high carbon dioxide level in the water is unable to support a population of fish, leaving an ecological niche of open-water predator free. Although there are a number of species of invertebrates living in the well, the diet of M. montezuma consists almost entirely of the endemic amphipod Hyalella montezuma.

text: Montezuma Well due to a high carbon dioxide level in the water is unable to support a population of

text: fish

text: , leaving an

text: ecological niche

text: of open-water predator free. Although there are a number of species of

text: invertebrate

text: s living in the well, the diet of M. montezuma consists almost entirely of the

text: endemic

text: amphipod

text: Hyalella montezuma

text: Despite the existence of a fossil record, full classification and phylogeny of the sturgeon species has been difficult to determine, in part due to the high individual and ontogenic variation, including geographical clines in certain features, such as rostrum shape, number of scutes and body length. A further confounding factor is the peculiar ability of sturgeons to produce reproductively viable hybrids, even between species assigned to different genera. While ray-finned fishes have a long evolutionary history culminating in our most familiar fishes, past adaptive radiations have left only a few survivors, like sturgeons and garfish.

text: Despite the existence of a

text: fossil

text: record, full classification and

text: phylogeny

text: of the sturgeon species has been difficult to determine, in part due to the high individual and

text: ontogenic

text: variation, including geographical

text: clines

text: in certain features, such as rostrum shape, number of

text: scutes

text: and body length. A further confounding factor is the peculiar ability of sturgeons to produce reproductively viable

text: hybrids

text: , even between species assigned to different

text: genera

text: . While ray-finned fishes have a long evolutionary history culminating in our most familiar fishes, past adaptive radiations have left only a few survivors, like sturgeons and

text: garfish

text: Because flying fish are primarily aquatic animals, their body density must be close to that of water for buoyancy stability. This primary requirement for swimming, however, means that flying fish are heavier than other habitual fliers, resulting in higher wing loading and lift to drag ratios for flying fish compared to a comparably sized bird. Differences in wing area, wing span, wing loading, and aspect ratio have been used to classify flying fish into two distinct classifications based on these different aerodynamic designs.

text: The Barrier Reef anemonefish is a nesting fish. A few days before mating, aggression from the dominant male towards the female increases, and at the same time he begins clearing a nest site, usually on a rock close to the host anemone. The rock is cleaned of algae, sometimes with the assistance of the female. When spawning takes place the female zig-zags over the nest site and the male follows fertilizing the eggs which have been deposited. Between 100 and 1000 elliptical eggs of between 3 and 4 mm in length may be laid. They are attached to the nest site by a mass of short filaments. The male guards and aerates the eggs for 6 to 7 days until they hatch. The larvae are then dispersed by currents and swimming.  Larvae mortality is high, with most of the surviving larvae settling on the original reef.

text: The Barrier Reef anemonefish is a nesting fish. A few days before mating, aggression from the dominant male towards the female increases, and at the same time he begins clearing a nest site, usually on a rock close to the host anemone. The rock is cleaned of

text: algae

text: , sometimes with the assistance of the female. When spawning takes place the female zig-zags over the nest site and the male follows fertilizing the eggs which have been deposited. Between 100 and 1000 elliptical eggs of between 3 and 4 mm in length may be laid. They are attached to the nest site by a mass of short filaments. The male guards and aerates the eggs for 6 to 7 days until they hatch. The larvae are then dispersed by currents and swimming.  Larvae mortality is high, with most of the surviving larvae settling on the original reef.

text: Larval cave salamanders appear similar to other larval Eurycea. Larvae have been found in both surface streams, and in cave streams and pools. It is thought that larvae found in surface streams may have been washed out of caves and crevices by heavy rains. Cave salamander larvae are predators, and feed primarily on benthic invertebrates, such as snails, ostracods, copepods, isopods, mayflies, stoneflies, beetles and flies, of which ostracods, snails and fly larvae are the most common dietary item. Prey is captured by slowly crawling over the substrate and grasping the invertebrate by the mouth and swallowing it whole, thus prey is limited by the gape of the salamanders mouth. From hatching to metamorphosis to a terrestrial adult takes between 6 and 18 months, although this period is variable by region. Larvae may attain sizes of 70 mm (33 mm snout-to-vent-length) by the time of metamorphosis.

text: The eyes of most salamanders are adapted primarily for vision at night. In some permanently aquatic species, they are reduced in size and have a simplified retinal structure, and in cave dwellers such as the Georgia blind salamander, they are absent or covered with a layer of skin. In amphibious species, the eyes are a compromise and are nearsighted in air and farsighted in water. Fully terrestrial species such as the fire salamander have a flatter lens which can focus over a much wider range of distances.To find their prey, salamanders use trichromatic color vision extending into the ultraviolet range, based on three photoreceptor types that are maximally sensitive around 450, 500, and 570 nm. The larvae, and the adults of some highly aquatic species, also have a lateral line organ, similar to that of fish, which can detect changes in water pressure.

text: The eyes of most salamanders are adapted primarily for vision at night. In some permanently aquatic species, they are reduced in size and have a simplified

text: retina

text: l structure, and in cave dwellers such as the

text: Georgia blind salamander

text: , they are absent or covered with a layer of skin. In amphibious species, the eyes are a compromise and are

text: nearsighted

text: in air and

text: farsighted

text: in water. Fully terrestrial species such as the

text: fire salamander

text: have a flatter lens which can focus over a much wider range of distances.To find their prey, salamanders use

text: trichromatic

text: color vision

text: extending into the

text: ultraviolet

text: range, based on three

text: photoreceptor

text: types that are maximally sensitive around 450, 500, and 570 nm. The larvae, and the adults of some highly aquatic species, also have a

text: lateral line

text: organ, similar to that of fish, which can detect changes in water pressure.

text: Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) is a general term to describe systems that are used in commercial fishing to allow environmental and fisheries regulatory organizations to track and monitor the activities of fishing vessels. They are a key part of monitoring control and surveillance (MCS) programs at national and international levels. VMS may be used to monitor vessels in the territorial waters of a country or a subdivision of a country, or in the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) that extend 200 nautical miles (370.4 km) from the coasts of many countries. VMS systems are used to improve the management and sustainability of the marine environment, through ensuring proper fishing practices and the prevention of illegal fishing, and thus protect and enhance the livelihoods of fishermen.

text: Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) is a general term to describe systems that are used in

text: commercial fishing

text: to allow environmental and fisheries regulatory organizations to track and monitor the activities of fishing vessels. They are a key part of

text: monitoring control and surveillance

text: (MCS) programs at national and international levels. VMS may be used to monitor vessels in the territorial waters of a country or a subdivision of a country, or in the

text: Exclusive Economic Zone

text: s (EEZ) that extend 200

text: nautical mile

text: s (370.4 km) from the coasts of many countries. VMS systems are used to improve the management and sustainability of the marine environment, through ensuring proper fishing practices and the prevention of illegal fishing, and thus protect and enhance the livelihoods of fishermen.

text: As with many species of fish, the timing of spawning varies over the range of the species, with gonad development indicating that spawning in the southern New South Wales region occurs from December to April, while spawning in southern Queensland occurs from September to February. Spawning takes place twice a year, evident by the two classes of egg size found in the ovaries and by the two recruitment pulses observed each year as young fish enter their juvenile habitats. The spawning takes place at the mouths of estuaries or in surf zones, with the larvae occurring in fully marine waters. Juveniles reach 16.5 cm in length after their first year of life, 26.7 cm after their second year and 30.5 cm after their third year. After the beginning of the spawning season young whiting of 10 mm and over can be observed swimming actively in small droves of from 10 to 20 on the sand flats and beaches to which they are recruited, moving up and down with the tide, swimming in very shallow water to depths of 1 m. Unlike closely related sillaginids, the juveniles usually prefer unprotected sand substrates, while other species tend to use seagrass and mangroves as protection. As they grow older they keep further from the shore.

text: As with many species of fish, the timing of

text: spawning

text: varies over the range of the species, with

text: gonad

text: development indicating that spawning in the southern New South Wales region occurs from December to April, while spawning in southern Queensland occurs from September to February. Spawning takes place twice a year, evident by the two classes of

text: egg

text: size found in the

text: ovaries

text: and by the two recruitment pulses observed each year as young fish enter their juvenile

text: habitat

text: s. The spawning takes place at the mouths of estuaries or in

text: surf zone

text: s, with the

text: larva

text: e occurring in fully marine waters. Juveniles reach 16.5 cm in length after their first year of life, 26.7 cm after their second year and 30.5 cm after their third year. After the beginning of the spawning season young whiting of 10 mm and over can be observed swimming actively in small droves of from 10 to 20 on the

text: sand flat

text: s and

text: beach

text: es to which they are recruited, moving up and down with the

text: tide

text: , swimming in very shallow water to depths of 1 m. Unlike closely related sillaginids, the juveniles usually prefer unprotected sand substrates, while other species tend to use

text: seagrass

text: and

text: mangrove

text: s as protection. As they grow older they keep further from the shore.

text: Breeding can be achieved with very little effort and no specific requirements are needed for breeding purposes. As long as water conditions are maintained at a desirable high quality, a breeding pair of such fish will readily spawn. To enhance the likelihood of acquiring a breeding pair, purchase several healthy and active juveniles at a young age (between 6 -10) and grow these specimens until sexual maturity. Generally, you should be left with a breeding pair or two. These fish will noticeably become more aggressive and territorial, Remove all other fish at this point and keep the newly formed breeding pair separate. When a breeding pair had been successfully established, the male will begin to court the female by displaying his erect finnage to the female as he tries to impress her in an attempt for her to accept his mating invitation. The pair will begin to clean a flat surface if the female is responsive of the male's previous courting behavior. The female will then lay approximately 500 - 1000 orange coloured eggs which will then be fertilized by the male. The eggs will be ferociously guarded by both parents and a high degree of parental care is show to the eggs and fry. When the eggs 'hatch' after approximately 2 –3 days, the offspring (known as wrigglers at this stage in development) are defenseless and are unable to swim. They are often transported to pre dug pits by both parents, and are guarded. The fry will begin to swim in approximately 3–4 days and should be fed with baby brine shrimp or alike. If you choose to remove the fry from the parents, feed them baby brine shrimp until the stage where they are large enough to consume blood worm, daphnia and other live foods. However, removing the fry can interrupt the breeding cycle and cause the male to want to spawn again with the female before she is ready, and the male may injure or kill the female while attempting to force her to spawn. Since P. friedrichsthallii is not yet widely established in the aquarium hobby, it can be important not to mix fish from different localities when breeding. For example, there is a race endemic to Cenote Escondido near Tulum, Mexico that should not be breed with fish from other areas. Consequences from inbreeding fish are not as severe as those that occur when other animals are inbreed and are usually not noticeable until after many generations of inbreeding.

text: Breeding can be achieved with very little effort and no specific requirements are needed for breeding purposes. As long as water conditions are maintained at a desirable high quality, a breeding pair of such fish will readily

text: spawn

text: According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the world harvest in 2005 consisted of 93.3 million tonnes captured by commercial fishing in wild fisheries, plus 48.1 million tonnes produced by fish farms. In addition, 1.3 million tons of aquatic plants (seaweed etc.) were captured in wild fisheries and 14.8 million tons were produced by aquaculture. The number of individual fish caught in the wild has been estimated at 0.97-2.7 trillion per year (not counting fish farms or marine invertebrates).

text: According to the

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: (FAO), the

text: world harvest

text: in 2005 consisted of 93.3 million

text: tonne

text: s captured by

text: commercial fishing

text: in

text: wild fisheries

text: , plus 48.1 million tonnes produced by

text: fish farm

text: s. In addition, 1.3 million tons of

text: aquatic plants

text: seaweed

text: etc.) were captured in wild fisheries and 14.8 million tons were produced by

text: aquaculture

text: . The number of individual fish caught in the wild has been estimated at 0.97-2.7 trillion per year (not counting fish farms or marine invertebrates).

text: The bluefin trevally is a strong predatory fish, with a diet dominated by fish and supplemented by cephalopods and crustaceans as an adult. Juveniles consume a higher amount of small crustaceans, but transfer to a more fish based diet as they grow. The species displays a wide array of hunting techniques ranging from aggressive midwater attacks, reef ambushes and foraging interactions with other larger species, snapping up any prey items missed by the larger animal. The bluefin trevally reproduces at different periods throughout its range, and reaches sexual maturity at 30–40 cm in length and around 2 years of age. It is a multiple spawner, capable of reproducing up to 8 times per year, releasing up to 6 million eggs per year in captivity. Growth is well studied, with the fish reaching 194 mm in its first year, 340 mm in the second and 456 mm in the third year. The bluefin trevally is a popular target for both commercial and recreational fishermen. Commercial fisheries record up to 50 tonnes of the species taken per year in the west Indian Ocean, and around 700 lbs per year in Hawaii. The rapid decimation of the Hawaiian population due to overfishing has led to increased research in the aquaculture potential of the species, with spawning achieved in captivity. Despite its popularity as a table fish, many cases of ciguatera poisoning have been reported from the species.

text: The bluefin trevally is a strong

text: predator

text: y fish, with a diet dominated by fish and supplemented by

text: cephalopod

text: s and

text: crustacean

text: s as an adult. Juveniles consume a higher amount of small crustaceans, but transfer to a more fish based diet as they grow. The species displays a wide array of hunting techniques ranging from aggressive midwater attacks, reef

text: ambush

text: es and

text: foraging

text: interactions with other larger species, snapping up any prey items missed by the larger animal. The bluefin trevally reproduces at different periods throughout its range, and reaches

text: sexual maturity

text: at 30–40 cm in length and around 2 years of age. It is a multiple

text: spawner

text: , capable of reproducing up to 8 times per year, releasing up to 6 million eggs per year in captivity. Growth is well studied, with the fish reaching 194 mm in its first year, 340 mm in the second and 456 mm in the third year. The bluefin trevally is a popular target for both

text: commercial

text: and

text: recreational fishermen

text: . Commercial fisheries record up to 50

text: tonne

text: s of the species taken per year in the west Indian Ocean, and around 700

text: lbs

text: per year in

text: Hawaii

text: . The rapid decimation of the Hawaiian population due to

text: overfishing

text: has led to increased research in the

text: aquaculture

text: potential of the species, with spawning achieved in captivity. Despite its popularity as a

text: table fish

text: , many cases of

text: ciguatera

text: poisoning have been reported from the species.

text: Fish School Search (FSS), proposed by Bastos Filho and Lima Neto in 2007 is, in its basic version, an unimodal optimization algorithm inspired on the collective behavior of fish schools. The mechanisms of feeding and coordinated movement were used as inspiration to create the search operators. The core idea is to make the fishes “swim” toward the positive gradient in order to “eat” and “gain weight”. Collectively, the heavier fishes are more influent in the search process as a whole, what makes the barycenter of the fish school moves toward better places in the search space over the iterations.

text: According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the world harvest by commercial fisheries in 2010 consisted of 88.6 million tonnes of aquatic animals captured in wild fisheries, plus another 0.9 million tons of aquatic plants (seaweed etc.). This can be contrasted with 59.9 million tonnes produced in fish farms, plus another 19.0 million tons of aquatic plants harvested in aquaculture.

text: According to the

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: (FAO), the

text: world harvest

text: by

text: commercial fisheries

text: in 2010 consisted of 88.6 million

text: tonne

text: s of

text: aquatic animal

text: s captured in wild fisheries, plus another 0.9 million tons of

text: aquatic plants

text: seaweed

text: etc.). This can be contrasted with 59.9 million tonnes produced in

text: fish farm

text: s, plus another 19.0 million tons of aquatic plants harvested in

text: aquaculture

text: Sockeye salmon exhibit many different life histories with the majority being anadromous where the juvenile salmon migrate from freshwater lakes and streams to the ocean before returning as adults to their natal freshwater to spawn. Similar to most Pacific salmon, sockeye salmon are semelparous, meaning they die after spawning once.  Some sockeye, called kokanee, do not migrate to the ocean and live their entire lives in freshwater lakes. The majority of sockeye spawn in rivers near lakes and juveniles will spend one to two years in the lake before migrating to the ocean, although some populations will migrate to saltwater in their first year.  Adult sockeye will spend two to three years in the ocean before returning to freshwater. Females will spawn in 3-5 [[Spawn (biology)#substrate spawners#brood hiders|redds]] over a period of a several days. The eggs usually hatch within six to nine weeks and the fry typically rear in lakes before migrating to the ocean.

text: Sockeye salmon exhibit many different life histories with the majority being

text: anadromous

text: where the juvenile salmon migrate from freshwater lakes and streams to the ocean before returning as adults to their natal freshwater to

text: spawn

text: . Similar to most

text: Pacific salmon

text: , sockeye salmon are

text: semelparous

text: , meaning they die after spawning once.  Some sockeye, called kokanee, do not migrate to the ocean and live their entire lives in freshwater lakes. The majority of sockeye spawn in rivers near lakes and juveniles will spend one to two years in the lake before migrating to the ocean, although some populations will migrate to saltwater in their first year.  Adult sockeye will spend two to three years in the ocean before returning to freshwater. Females will spawn in 3-5 [[Spawn (biology)#substrate spawners#brood hiders|redds]] over a period of a several days. The eggs usually hatch within six to nine weeks and the fry typically rear in lakes before migrating to the ocean.

text: The FISH business, which consists of FISH imaging analyzer and FISH probes, is a molecular diagnostic system based on FISH technology. FISH probes are molecular diagnostic reagents used with FISH imaging analyzer for the prenatal and postnatal diagnosis of various genetic diseases and for the early detection and prognosis of various cancers.

text: Their best known song is his "The "Fish" Cheer/I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag" (1965), a black comedy novelty song about the Vietnam War, whose familiar chorus ("One, two, three, what are we fighting for?") is well known to the Woodstock generation and Vietnam veterans of the 1960s and '70s. McDonald wrote the song in about 20 minutes for an anti-Vietnam War play. The "Fish Cheer" was the band performing a call-and-response with the audience, spelling the word "fish", followed by Country Joe yelling, "What's that spell?" twice, with the audience responding, and then, the third time, "What's that spell?", followed immediately by the song. The "Fish Cheer" evolved into the "Fuck Cheer" after the Berkeley free speech movement. The cheer was on the original recording of "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-To-Die Rag", being played right before the song on the LP of the same name. The cheer became popular and the crowd would spell out F-I-S-H when the band performed live. During the summer of 1968 the band played on the Schaefer Music Festival tour. Gary "Chicken" Hirsh suggested before one of the shows to spell the word "fuck" instead of "fish." Although the crowd loved it, the management of the Schaefer Beer Festival did not and kicked the band off the tour for life. The Ed Sullivan Show then canceled a previously scheduled appearance by the band, telling them to keep the money they had already been paid in exchange for never playing on the show. The modified cheer continued at most of the band's live shows throughout the years, including Woodstock and elsewhere. In Massachusetts, McDonald was fined $500 for uttering "fuck" in public.

text: Their best known song is his "

entity_name: The "Fish" Cheer/I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag

text: The "Fish" Cheer/I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag

text: " (1965), a

text: black comedy

text: novelty song

text: about the

text: Vietnam War

text: , whose familiar chorus ("One, two, three, what are we fighting for?") is well known to the

text: Woodstock

text: generation and

text: Vietnam veteran

text: s of the 1960s and '70s. McDonald wrote the song in about 20 minutes for an anti-Vietnam War play. The "Fish Cheer" was the band performing a

text: call-and-response

text: with the audience, spelling the word "fish", followed by Country Joe yelling, "What's that spell?" twice, with the audience responding, and then, the third time, "What's that spell?", followed immediately by the song. The "Fish Cheer" evolved into the "Fuck Cheer" after the Berkeley

text: free speech movement

text: . The cheer was on the original recording of "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-To-Die Rag", being played right before the song on the

text: LP

text: of the same name. The cheer became popular and the crowd would spell out F-I-S-H when the band performed live. During the summer of 1968 the band played on the

text: Schaefer Music Festival

text: tour.

text: Gary "Chicken" Hirsh

text: suggested before one of the shows to spell the word "

text: fuck

text: " instead of "fish." Although the crowd loved it, the management of the

text: Schaefer Beer

text: Festival did not and kicked the band off the tour for life.

text: The Ed Sullivan Show

text: then canceled a previously scheduled appearance by the band, telling them to keep the money they had already been paid in exchange for never playing on the show. The modified cheer continued at most of the band's live shows throughout the years, including Woodstock and elsewhere. In Massachusetts, McDonald was fined $500 for uttering "fuck" in public.

text: The size at sexual maturity is only confidently known for the female of the species, being around 600 mm in fork length, although the male has been estimated to reach maturity at between 600 and 650 mm.In the Atlantic, the species is known to spawn from spring through to early autumn,although fish living in waters greater than 27 degrees Celsius spawn year round. However, even when year-round spawning occurs, there are seasonal peaks, with fish in the Western Pacific Ocean showing these peaks in May and in December – January.The fish is oviparous, producing pelagic eggs and larvae. The larval stages have been studied in detail by Richards (2006), with the diagnostic features of the larvae include a supraoccupital crest and distinctive patterns of pigment and melanophores.  The growth of the fish has also been studied, with the size of fish at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years ages are estimated to be 30, 46, 59, 69 and 77 cm in length respectively. The migration pattern of juveniles is poorly known, with only a migration from equatorial spawning grounds to the coasts of Japan recorded, often floating in the currents under large mats of Sargassum.

text: The size at

text: sexual maturity

text: is only confidently known for the female of the species, being around 600 mm in

text: fork length

text: , although the male has been estimated to reach maturity at between 600 and 650 mm.In the Atlantic, the species is known to spawn from spring through to early autumn,although fish living in waters greater than 27 degrees Celsius spawn year round. However, even when year-round spawning occurs, there are seasonal peaks, with fish in the Western Pacific Ocean showing these peaks in May and in December – January.The fish is

text: oviparous

text: , producing pelagic eggs and

text: larva

text: e. The larval stages have been studied in detail by Richards (2006), with the diagnostic features of the larvae include a supraoccupital crest and distinctive patterns of

text: pigment

text: and melanophores.  The growth of the fish has also been studied, with the size of fish at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years ages are estimated to be 30, 46, 59, 69 and 77 cm in length respectively. The migration pattern of juveniles is poorly known, with only a migration from equatorial spawning grounds to the coasts of

text: Japan

text: recorded, often floating in the currents under large mats of

text: Sargassum

text: Unlike many other lampsilines, the Neosho mucket is a short-term breeder in that it spawns and broods from May until August. Brooded larvae are released from the females’ marsupial gills within a few weeks after egg fertilization. This stands in contrast to other lampsilines which begin producing eggs in fall, brood them over winter after fertilization, and release larvae the following spring or summer. Reduction in breeding duration in this mussel to last for only one season is probably adaptive due to minimizing potential risk of exposure of eggs and larvae on the gills during brooding to microbial predators and bacteria. Alternatively, the Neosho mucket may benefit from the greater availability of energy reserves in spring than in winter.

text: A fish is any member of a group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a sister group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups. Tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods (i.e., the amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals which all descended from within the same ancestry). Because in this manner the term "fish" is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces (also ichthyes) is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification.

text: A fish is any member of a group of organisms that consist of all

text: gill

text: -bearing

text: aquatic

text: craniate

text: animals that lack

text: limbs

text: with

text: digits

text: . They form a sister group to the

text: tunicate

text: s, together forming the

text: olfactores

text: . Included in this definition are the living

text: hagfish

text: lamprey

text: s, and

text: cartilaginous

text: and

text: bony fish

text: , as well as various extinct related groups.

text: Tetrapods

text: emerged within

text: lobe-finned fishes

text: , so

text: cladistically

text: they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or

text: paraphyletic

text: by excluding the tetrapods (i.e., the

text: amphibian

text: s,

text: reptile

text: s,

text: bird

text: s and

text: mammal

text: s which all descended from within the same ancestry). Because in this manner the term "fish" is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in

text: systematic biology

text: . The traditional term pisces (also ichthyes) is considered a

text: typological

text: , but not a

text: phylogenetic

text: classification.

text: While sea fish production in Lebanon is compared to that of neighboring countries on a km of coastline basis, freshwater fish production continues to lag behind. Absence of sea fish breeding along the coast due to strong coastal currents have been substituted by offshore fishing of pelagic fish (such as Tuna, Blue fish, etc.) using draglines. This type of fishing has become trendy in the past decade, mostly among sports amateurs equipped with motor speedboats.

text: While sea fish production in Lebanon is compared to that of neighboring countries on a km of coastline basis, freshwater fish production continues to lag behind. Absence of sea fish breeding along the coast due to strong coastal currents have been substituted by offshore fishing of

text: pelagic fish

text: (such as

text: Tuna

text: Blue fish

text: , etc.) using

text: dragline

text: s. This type of fishing has become trendy in the past decade, mostly among sports amateurs equipped with motor speedboats.

text: This method of fishing leaves coral reefs virtually unsalvagable, yet has become increasingly popular as the demand for fish increases but the supply steadily decreases. The explosives used to catch dead fish destroys coral reefs from the inside leaving them no room for regrowth. This effect in turn hurts Filipino fisherman because it leaves no place for fish to reproduce and thus decreases the fish population. Blast fishing became popular among Filipino fisherman in the mid-1980s, but did not gain global attention until the 1990s. Laws created to prevent blast fishing are poorly enforced by officials of this area, and fisherman are highly motivated to continue this practice for survival and profit. "These are not poor Third World guys trying to put food on the table, go to the villages and find the people who head the dynamite fishing cooperatives are the people with new Jeeps and new satellite dishes in their houses. This is about greed,". Indonesia and the Philippines contain about 77% of the regions coral reef systems, and with 98% of the Philippine coral reefs seriously threatened by human activities, it is obvious that there needs to be serious changes to the marine practices of the communities.

text: Limnarchia is a clade of temnospondyls. It includes the mostly Carboniferous-Permian age Dvinosauria and the mostly Permian-Triassic age Stereospondylomorpha. The clade was named in a 2000 phylogenetic analysis of stereospondyls and their relatives. Limnarchia means "lake rulers" in Greek, in reference to their aquatic lifestyles and long existence over a span of approximately 200 million years from the Late Carboniferous to the Early Cretaceous. In phylogenetic terms, Limnarchia is a stem-based taxon including all temnospondyls more closely related to Parotosuchus than to Eryops. It is the sister group of the clade Euskelia, which is all temnospondyls more closely related to Eryops than to Parotosuchus. Limnarchians represent an evolutionary radiation of temnospondyls into aquatic environments, while euskelians represent a radiation into terrestrial environments. While many euskelians were adapted to life on land with strong limbs and bony scutes, most limnarchians were better adapted for the water with poorly developed limbs and lateral line sensory systems in their skulls.

text: Limnarchia is a

text: clade

text: of

text: temnospondyl

text: s. It includes the mostly

text: Carboniferous

text: Permian

text: age

text: Dvinosauria

text: and the mostly

text: Permian

text: Triassic

text: age

text: Stereospondylomorpha

text: . The clade was named in a 2000

text: phylogenetic

text: analysis of

text: stereospondyl

text: s and their relatives. Limnarchia means "lake rulers" in

text: Greek

text: , in reference to their aquatic lifestyles and long existence over a span of approximately 200 million years from the

text: Late Carboniferous

text: to the

text: Early Cretaceous

text: . In phylogenetic terms, Limnarchia is a

text: stem-based taxon

text: including all temnospondyls more closely related to

text: Parotosuchus

text: than to

text: Eryops

text: . It is the

text: sister group

text: of the clade

text: Euskelia

text: , which is all temnospondyls more closely related to Eryops than to Parotosuchus. Limnarchians represent an

text: evolutionary radiation

text: of temnospondyls into aquatic environments, while euskelians represent a radiation into terrestrial environments. While many euskelians were adapted to life on land with strong limbs and bony scutes, most limnarchians were better adapted for the water with poorly developed limbs and

text: lateral line

text: sensory systems in their skulls.

text: Marine mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle vary considerably between species. Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate water dwellers. Seals and sea-lions are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as mating, breeding and molting. In contrast, both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living. Their diet varies considerably as well; some may eat zooplankton, others may eat fish, squid, shellfish, sea-grass and a few may eat other mammals. While the number of marine mammals is small compared to those found on land, their roles in various ecosystems are large, especially concerning the maintenance of marine ecosystems, through processes including the regulation of prey populations. This role in maintaining ecosystems makes them of particular concern as 23% of marine mammal species are currently threatened.

text: Marine mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle vary considerably between species. Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate water dwellers. Seals and sea-lions are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as

text: mating

text: breeding

text: and

text: molting

text: . In contrast, both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living. Their diet varies considerably as well; some may eat

text: zooplankton

text: , others may eat fish, squid, shellfish, sea-grass and a few may eat other mammals. While the number of marine mammals is small compared to those found on land, their roles in various ecosystems are large, especially concerning the maintenance of marine ecosystems, through processes including the regulation of prey populations. This role in maintaining ecosystems makes them of particular concern as 23% of marine mammal species are currently threatened.

text: The sexes can generally be differentiated by the number of bands on the body. Males have a larger number of colored bands than females do. During mating, the fish intertwine as part of a courtship dance. The female transfers the eggs to the male's brooding pouch through her long ovipositor. The brooding pouch is located near the anus of the pipefish. The eggs stay in the male's brooding pouch until the young are developed enough to be independent. At this point, the young exit the pouch with the help of muscular contractions of the male's body. If the young sense danger or feel threatened, they are able to re-enter the brooding pouch.

text: The

text: sex

text: es can generally be differentiated by the number of bands on the body. Males have a larger number of colored bands than females do. During

text: mating

text: , the fish intertwine as part of a

text: courtship

text: dance. The female transfers the

text: eggs

text: to the male's

text: brooding

text: pouch through her long

text: ovipositor

text: . The brooding pouch is located near the

text: anus

text: of the pipefish. The eggs stay in the male's brooding pouch until the young are developed enough to be independent. At this point, the young exit the pouch with the help of muscular

text: contractions

text: of the male's body. If the young sense

text: danger

text: or feel threatened, they are able to re-enter the brooding pouch.

text: The fishing village is well known for its aquaculture. Tourists visit the oyster pits, harbors and museum of the town and fishing industry, as well as the annual celebration of the mussel harvest (Mosseldag) in August. The village furthermore plays host to the Dutch Institute for Ecology (NIOO).

text: The fishing village is well known for its

text: aquaculture

text: Tourists

text: visit the

text: oyster

text: pits, harbors and museum of the town and

text: fishing industry

text: , as well as the annual celebration of the

text: mussel

text: harvest (

text: Mosseldag

text: ) in August. The village furthermore plays host to the

entity_name: Royal Netherlands Institute of Sea Research

text: Dutch Institute for Ecology (NIOO)

text: With an elongated and tapered snout, numerous sharp teeth, long body, short legs, and a tail adapted for swimming, its general appearance was very similar to a modern crocodile, particularly to the gharial, and it probably had a similar lifestyle as an ambush aquatic predator feeding on fish and other aquatic animals.

text: With an elongated and tapered snout, numerous sharp teeth, long body, short legs, and a tail adapted for swimming, its general appearance was very similar to a modern crocodile, particularly to the

text: gharial

text: , and it probably had a similar lifestyle as an ambush aquatic predator feeding on fish and other aquatic animals.

text: The Antarctic scallop is monitored in connection with the Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems (VME) classification set up by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). As such, notification is required to be made by vessels that land the scallop as by-catch during their fishing activities.

text: The Antarctic scallop is monitored in connection with the Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems (VME) classification set up by the

entity_name: Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

text: Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

text: (CCAMLR). As such, notification is required to be made by vessels that land the scallop as by-catch during their fishing activities.

text: Demersal fish are white fish. Unlike oily fish, white fish contain oils only in their liver, rather than in the gut, and can therefore be gutted as soon as they are caught, on board the ship. White fish has dry and white flesh. They can be divided into benthopelagic fish (mostly "round" fish) which live near the sea bed, such as cod, and  benthic fish (flatfish) such as plaice which live on the sea bed. Benthic fish tend to be "flat", so they can lie on the bottom.

text: Demersal fish are

text: white fish

text: . Unlike

text: oily fish

text: , white fish contain

text: oils

text: only in their

text: liver

text: , rather than in the

text: gut

text: , and can therefore be gutted as soon as they are caught, on board the ship. White fish has dry and white flesh. They can be divided into

text: benthopelagic fish

text: (mostly "round" fish) which live near the sea bed, such as

text: cod

text: , and

text: benthic fish

text: flatfish

text: ) such as

text: plaice

text: which live on the sea bed. Benthic fish tend to be "flat", so they can lie on the bottom.

text: Fish nets have different sizes. The small sized nets are used for fishing small fish while the big sized nets are used for fishing large fish. For instance half inch up to one inch grade nets are used for fishing Nkejje, one inch up to 6 inch grade for fishing tilapia, and above 6 inch for Nile perch. The fishermen use boats to haul the nest. The bigger the boat, the larger the volume of fish. One net can weigh up to 10 kg, without fish. A small boat may nott be able to handle such a load.

text: is a Super Nintendo Entertainment System fishing video game that features fishing in rural lakes.

text: is a

text: Super Nintendo Entertainment System

text: fishing video game

text: that features

text: fishing

text: in

text: rural

text: lake

text: s.

text: These fishes reproduce by scattering spherical, sticky eggs in shallow, heavily vegetated waters. The eggs hatch in 11–15 days; the adults guard neither the eggs nor the young.

text: These fishes reproduce by scattering spherical, sticky

text: eggs

text: in shallow, heavily vegetated waters. The eggs hatch in 11–15 days; the adults guard neither the eggs nor the young.

text: Most other bony fish undergo metamorphosis from embryo to larva (fry) and then to the juvenile stage during absorption of the yolk sac, because after that phase the individual needs to be able to feed for itself.

text: Most other bony fish undergo metamorphosis from embryo to larva (

text: fry

text: ) and then to the juvenile stage during absorption of the yolk sac, because after that phase the individual needs to be able to feed for itself.

text: The term coarse fish originated in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century. Prior to that time, recreational fishing was the sport of the gentry, who angled for trout and salmon which they called "game fish". Fish other than game fish were disdained as "coarse fish". These days, "game fish" refers to Salmonids (other than grayling) — that is, salmon, trout and char. Coarse fish are made up mostly of the larger species of Cyprinids (carp, roach, bream) as well as pike, catfish, gar and lamprey. Coarse fish are no longer disdained; indeed, fishing for coarse fish has become a popular pastime.

text: The term coarse fish originated in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century. Prior to that time, recreational fishing was the sport of the

text: gentry

text: , who angled for

text: trout

text: and

text: salmon

text: which they called "game fish". Fish other than game fish were disdained as "coarse fish". These days, "game fish" refers to

text: Salmonid

text: s (other than

text: grayling

text: ) — that is,

text: salmon

text: trout

text: and

text: char

text: . Coarse fish are made up mostly of the larger species of

text: Cyprinid

text: s (

text: carp

text: roach

text: bream

text: ) as well as

text: pike

text: catfish

text: gar

text: and

text: lamprey

text: . Coarse fish are no longer disdained; indeed,

text: fishing for coarse fish

text: has become a popular pastime.

text: The fish's introduction to Lake Victoria was ecologically disruptive, and led to the establishment of large fishing companies. In 2003, Nile perch sales to the EU reached 169 million euros. Sport-fishing in the region of Uganda and Tanzania provided additional income from tourism. The long-term outlook is unclear, as overfishing is reducing L. niloticus populations.

text: As electric fish mature, some taxa develop differences in EOD between males and females (i.e. sexual dimorphism). Typically, male electric fish have lower EOD frequency and longer EOD duration than females; among males, the dominant and largest fish generally possesses the lowest frequency. For example, measurements made in Sternopygus marucus (Hagedorn, 1986) showed that males usually generate EOD at about 80 Hz, while females generate EOD at around 150 Hz. Such differences in EOD between the sexes can be traced back to changes in the action potential in electrocytes. As electric fish mature from the juvenile stage, male fish grow larger with longer and thicker tails, which might result in larger electric organs that generate lower frequency EODs. One of the physiological factors that have been proven to contribute to the sexual dimorphism of EODs is the level of teleost hormone- androgen 11-keto-testosterone (11-KT) and estrogen. Experiments shown that by injecting 11-KT into female electric fishes, not only did their EOD waveforms and frequencies become closer to that of the males, but their tuberous electroreceptors were also modified to be able to detect signals according to the newly transformed EOD properties. However, when estrogen was applied, the EODs of male electric fish gradually became closer to the female EODs.

text: As electric fish mature, some taxa develop differences in EOD between males and females (i.e.

text: sexual dimorphism

text: ). Typically, male electric fish have lower EOD frequency and longer EOD duration than females; among males, the dominant and largest fish generally possesses the lowest frequency. For example, measurements made in Sternopygus marucus (Hagedorn, 1986) showed that males usually generate EOD at about 80 Hz, while females generate EOD at around 150 Hz. Such differences in EOD between the sexes can be traced back to changes in the action potential in electrocytes. As electric fish mature from the juvenile stage, male fish grow larger with longer and thicker tails, which might result in larger electric organs that generate lower frequency EODs. One of the physiological factors that have been proven to contribute to the sexual dimorphism of EODs is the level of teleost hormone-

text: androgen

text: 11-keto-testosterone (11-KT) and

text: estrogen

text: . Experiments shown that by injecting 11-KT into female electric fishes, not only did their EOD waveforms and frequencies become closer to that of the males, but their tuberous electroreceptors were also modified to be able to detect signals according to the newly transformed EOD properties. However, when estrogen was applied, the EODs of male electric fish gradually became closer to the female EODs.

text: Black Manta's battle-suit is adapted to an oceanic environment, giving him complete resistance to the cold and pressures of deep sea conditions and thus grants him the ability to breathe underwater (whether this is due to a hidden oxygen supply or its ability to extract oxygen from the water like the gills of a fish is unknown), a jet pack which functions in or out of water, a telepathic scrambler (used to temporarily strip Aquaman of his aquatic telepathy), and a varying array of weapons, including twin blades, a hand-held trident, energy beams that he can fire from his right wrist gauntlet, miniaturized torpedoes, and optic blasts emitted from the eye lenses in his helmet. It is also not known how his suit is powered or how long it can function before needing recharging (or if it even needs to be). Black Manta often utilizes unique vehicles such as a modified, manta ray-shaped submarine for traveling.

text: Black Manta's battle-suit is

text: adapted

text: to an oceanic environment, giving him complete resistance to the cold and pressures of deep sea conditions and thus grants him the ability to breathe underwater (whether this is due to a hidden oxygen supply or its ability to extract oxygen from the water like the

text: gill

text: s of a fish is unknown), a jet pack which functions in or out of water, a

text: telepathic

text: scrambler (used to temporarily strip

text: Aquaman

text: of his aquatic telepathy), and a varying array of weapons, including twin blades, a hand-held trident, energy beams that he can fire from his right wrist gauntlet, miniaturized

text: torpedo

text: es, and optic blasts emitted from the eye lenses in his helmet. It is also not known how his suit is powered or how long it can function before needing recharging (or if it even needs to be). Black Manta often utilizes unique vehicles such as a modified, manta ray-shaped

text: submarine

text: for traveling.

text: Beetles are members of the superorder Endopterygota, and accordingly most of them undergo complete metamorphosis. The typical form of metamorphosis in beetles passes through four main stages: the egg, the larva, the pupa, and the imago or adult. The larvae are commonly called grubs and the pupa sometimes is called the chrysalis. In some species, the pupa may be enclosed in a cocoon constructed by the larva towards the end of its final instar. Going beyond "complete metamorphosis", however, some beetles, such as typical members of the families Meloidae and Rhipiphoridae, undergo hypermetamorphosis in which the first instar takes the form of a triungulin.

text: Beetles are members of the

text: superorder

text: Endopterygota

text: , and accordingly most of them undergo complete

text: metamorphosis

text: . The typical form of metamorphosis in beetles passes through four main stages: the

text: egg

text: , the

text: larva

text: , the

text: pupa

text: , and the

text: imago

text: or adult. The larvae are commonly called

text: grubs

text: and the pupa sometimes is called the chrysalis. In some species, the pupa may be enclosed in a cocoon constructed by the larva towards the end of its final

text: instar

text: . Going beyond "complete metamorphosis", however, some beetles, such as typical members of the families

text: Meloidae

text: and

text: Rhipiphoridae

text: , undergo

text: hypermetamorphosis

text: in which the first instar takes the form of a

text: triungulin

text: The reef urchin conceals itself in crevices or under boulders. It emerges at night to feed by grazing on algae with its five teeth, part of the Aristotle's lantern organ that surrounds its mouth. It is not believed to bore holes, but its grazing still causes bioerosion in reefs. In Panama, breeding takes place during the period April to December. It does not seem to be correlated with the phases of the moon as in some other sea urchin species. Fertilisation is external and the echinopluteus larvae are planktonic. When these settle, they undergo a rapid metamorphosis into juvenile sea urchins.

text: The reef urchin conceals itself in crevices or under boulders. It emerges at night to feed by grazing on algae with its five teeth, part of the

text: Aristotle's lantern

text: organ that surrounds its mouth. It is not believed to bore holes, but its grazing still causes

text: bioerosion

text: in reefs. In Panama, breeding takes place during the period April to December. It does not seem to be correlated with the phases of the moon as in some other sea urchin species. Fertilisation is external and the echinopluteus

text: larva

text: e are

text: plankton

text: ic. When these settle, they undergo a rapid

text: metamorphosis

text: into juvenile sea urchins.

text: You are catching fish one by one with a fishing rod as in example 1. You need a particular amount of fish in order to feed your family. You are stopping when the total weight of the fish you have caught exceeds a predetermined limit. The resulting distribution will be close to Wallenius’ distribution, but not exactly because the decision to stop depends on the weight of the fish you havecaught so far. n is therefore not known exactly before the fishing trip.

text: In the mid-1960s, several annual conferences on fish ecology were initiated in Liverpool in the United Kingdom, by Dr Jack W. Jones, a member of the Department of Zoology at the University of Liverpool. In March 1967 at one of these meetings informal discussion took place about the formation of a British society for fish and fisheries biology. Participants in the discussion were Jack Jones, David LeCren, a biologist at the Freshwater Biological Association Laboratory at Windermere, Peter Tombleson, an angling journalist and administrator, Lionel Mawdesley-Thomas, a fish pathologist at the Huntingdon Research Centre, and Alwynne Wheeler a taxonomist at the Natural History Museum, London. The discussions led to an inaugural meeting of the Fisheries Society of the British Isles on 21 October 1967 at the meeting rooms of the Zoological Society of London. James Chubb, also from the Department of Zoology, University of Liverpool, was appointed as the first editor of its journal, the Journal of Fish Biology.

text: In the mid-1960s, several annual conferences on fish ecology were initiated in Liverpool in the United Kingdom, by Dr Jack W. Jones, a member of the Department of Zoology at the

text: University of Liverpool

text: . In March 1967 at one of these meetings informal discussion took place about the formation of a British society for fish and fisheries biology. Participants in the discussion were Jack Jones, David LeCren, a biologist at the

text: Freshwater Biological Association

text: Laboratory at

text: Windermere

text: , Peter Tombleson, an angling journalist and administrator, Lionel Mawdesley-Thomas, a fish pathologist at the Huntingdon Research Centre, and Alwynne Wheeler a taxonomist at the

text: Natural History Museum

text: , London. The discussions led to an inaugural meeting of the Fisheries Society of the British Isles on 21 October 1967 at the meeting rooms of the

text: Zoological Society of London

text: . James Chubb, also from the Department of Zoology,

text: University of Liverpool

text: , was appointed as the first editor of its journal, the

text: Journal of Fish Biology

text: The term water bird, waterbird or aquatic bird (not to be confused with wading birds) is used to refer to birds that live on or around water. Some definitions apply the term especially to birds in freshwater habitats, though others make no distinction from birds that inhabit marine environments. In addition, some water birds are more terrestrial or aquatic than others, and their adaptations will vary depending on their environment. These adaptations include webbed feet, bills and legs adapted to feed in water, and the ability to dive from the surface or the air to catch prey in water.

text: The term water bird, waterbird or aquatic bird (not to be confused with

text: wading bird

text: s) is used to refer to birds that live on or around water. Some definitions apply the term especially to birds in freshwater habitats, though others make no distinction from birds that inhabit marine environments. In addition, some water birds are more terrestrial or aquatic than others, and their adaptations will vary depending on their environment. These adaptations include

text: webbed feet

text: bills

text: and legs adapted to feed in water, and the ability to dive from the surface or the air to catch prey in water.

text: The yapok of Central and South America is superbly adapted to a life in water.  It has long webbed toes on its hindfeet, water-repellent fur, and a pouch that closes during dives.  It hunts its aquatic prey of fish, frogs, crustaceans, and rests in a riverbank den by day.

text: While Q-FISH supplies accurate information about telomere length, its relevance can be extended by combining Q-FISH with other FISH related techniques, such as flow-FISH. In flow-FISH, flow cytometry is utilized to measure fluorescence intensity (and thus telomere length) in a large population of cells rather than just a handful of cells in Q-FISH. Conversely, unlike Q-FISH, flow-FISH is unable to determine telomere length in a particular chromosome within an individual cell. However, it should be noted that although Q-FISH is generally considered low-throughput and not suitable for population studies, groups have developed high-throughput (HT) Q-FISH protocols that use automated machinery to perform  Q-FISH on interphase nuclei in 96well plates.

text: While Q-FISH supplies accurate information about telomere length, its relevance can be extended by combining Q-FISH with other FISH related techniques, such as

text: flow-FISH

text: . In flow-FISH,

text: flow cytometry

text: is utilized to measure fluorescence intensity (and thus telomere length) in a large population of cells rather than just a handful of cells in Q-FISH. Conversely, unlike Q-FISH, flow-FISH is unable to determine telomere length in a particular chromosome within an individual cell. However, it should be noted that although Q-FISH is generally considered low-throughput and not suitable for population studies, groups have developed high-throughput (HT) Q-FISH protocols that use automated machinery to perform  Q-FISH on interphase nuclei in 96well plates.

text: These fish possess electric organs that allow them to produce electricity. In most gymnotiforms, the electric organs are derived from muscle cells. However, adult apteronotids are one exception, as theirs are derived from nerve cells (spinal electromotor neurons). In gymnotiforms, the electric organ discharge may be continuous or pulsed. If continuous, it is generated day and night throughout the entire life of the individual. Certain aspects of the electric signal are unique to each species, especially a combination of the pulse waveform, duration, amplitude, phase and frequency.

text: These fish possess

text: electric organ

text: s that allow them to produce electricity. In most gymnotiforms, the electric organs are derived from muscle cells. However, adult apteronotids are one exception, as theirs are derived from nerve cells (spinal electromotor neurons). In gymnotiforms, the electric organ discharge may be continuous or pulsed. If continuous, it is generated day and night throughout the entire life of the individual. Certain aspects of the electric signal are unique to each species, especially a combination of the pulse waveform, duration, amplitude, phase and frequency.

text: The brown tang is monogamous, though spawning has been observed both between pairs and among small groups. The male tends to be larger than the female. The fish rush up to the surface to spawn, fertilisation is external and the eggs are scattered in the water column. The larvae are planktonic for several weeks before settling and undergoing metamorphosis into juveniles.

text: The brown tang is

text: monogamous

text: , though

text: spawning

text: has been observed both between pairs and among small groups. The male tends to be larger than the female. The fish rush up to the surface to spawn, fertilisation is external and the eggs are scattered in the

text: water column

text: . The

text: larva

text: e are

text: plankton

text: ic for several weeks before settling and undergoing

text: metamorphosis

text: into juveniles.

text: These fish prefer to feed on aquatic insects, algae, diatoms, aquatic insect larvae, and small crustaceans called entomostracans. Occasionally they will eat fish eggs or small fish.

text: These fish prefer to feed on aquatic insects, algae,

text: diatoms

text: , aquatic insect larvae, and small crustaceans called

text: entomostracans

text: . Occasionally they will eat fish eggs or small fish.

text: Commercial fishing vessels can be classified by architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, or geographical origin. The following classification follows the FAO, who classify commercial fishing vessels by the gear they use.

text: Commercial fishing vessels can be classified by architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, or geographical origin. The following classification follows the

text: FAO

text: , who classify commercial fishing vessels by the gear they use.

text: Aquaculture is the cultivation of the natural produce of water (fish, shellfish, algae and other aquatic organisms). The term is distinguished from fishing by the idea of active human effort in maintaining or increasing the number of organisms involved, as opposed to simply taking them from the wild. Subsets of aquaculture include Mariculture (aquaculture in the ocean); Algaculture (the production of kelp/seaweed and other algae); Fish farming (the raising of catfish, tilapia and milkfish in freshwater and brackish ponds or salmon in marine ponds); and the growing of cultured pearls. Extensive aquaculture is based on local photosynthetical production while intensive aquaculture is based on fish fed with an external food supply.

text: Aquaculture is the cultivation of the natural produce of water (fish,

text: shellfish

text: algae

text: and other aquatic organisms). The term is distinguished from fishing by the idea of active human effort in maintaining or increasing the number of organisms involved, as opposed to simply taking them from the wild. Subsets of aquaculture include

text: Mariculture

text: (aquaculture in the ocean);

text: Algaculture

text: (the production of

text: kelp

text: seaweed

text: and other

text: algae

text: Fish farming

text: (the raising of

text: catfish

text: tilapia

text: and

text: milkfish

text: in freshwater and brackish ponds or

text: salmon

text: in marine ponds); and the growing of

text: cultured pearls

text: . Extensive aquaculture is based on local photosynthetical production while intensive aquaculture is based on fish fed with an external food supply.

text: Some recreational fishing groups are also promoting a catch and release practice for the giant trevally, with this becoming an increasingly popular option for charter boat operators, who have also begun to tag giant trevally for scientific purposes. At large sizes, the species is more likely to be ciguatoxic, so if the fish is kept, it must be disposed of or sent to a taxidermist if it is a trophy fish. A catch and release approach has also been adopted by operators outside of Hawaii, with Australian operators who target the species by popping and jigging rarely keeping any fish. Careful fish handling techniques have also been implemented by anglers so as not to damage the fish; such techniques include supporting the fish's weight, using barbless single, rather than treble, hooks and restricting the time the fish spends out the water to a minimum.

text: Some recreational fishing groups are also promoting a

text: catch and release

text: practice for the giant trevally, with this becoming an increasingly popular option for

text: charter boat

text: operators, who have also begun to tag giant trevally for scientific purposes. At large sizes, the species is more likely to be ciguatoxic, so if the fish is kept, it must be disposed of or sent to a

text: taxidermist

text: if it is a trophy fish. A catch and release approach has also been adopted by operators outside of Hawaii, with Australian operators who target the species by popping and jigging rarely keeping any fish. Careful fish handling techniques have also been implemented by anglers so as not to damage the fish; such techniques include supporting the fish's weight, using barbless single, rather than treble, hooks and restricting the time the fish spends out the water to a minimum.

text: Produced in hatcheries, the most common hybridization is the female striped bass Morone saxatilis and the male white bass M. chrysops.  This is due to the high number of eggs produced by the female striped bass.  This hybrid cross, palmetto bass, typically produces a faster-growing offspring which attains larger size than the sunshine bass.  The female striped bass is injected with human gonadotropin which stimulates her to lay.  Usually, around a dozen male white bass are in the tank when the spawn occurs.  Once the eggs are fertilized, the brood fish are removed and the eggs must stay adrift in artificial current for about 48 hours to hatch.  Natural hybridization occurs between the species, but it is usually the reverse cross which would be male M. saxatilis x female M. chrysops, since the white bass eggs do not require the same degree of flotation to hatch.

text: Some species of fish exhibit mass simultaneous mortality as part of their natural life cycle.Fish kill due to spawning fatalities can occur when fish are exhausted from spawning activities such as courtship, nest building, and the release of eggs or milt (sperm). Fish are generally weaker after spawning and are less resilient than usual to smaller changes in the environment.  Examples include the Atlantic salmon and the Sockeye salmon where many of the females routinely die immediately after spawning.

text: Some species of fish exhibit mass simultaneous mortality as part of their natural life cycle.Fish kill due to spawning fatalities can occur when fish are exhausted from

text: spawning activities

text: such as courtship, nest building, and the release of eggs or

text: milt

text: (sperm). Fish are generally weaker after spawning and are less resilient than usual to smaller changes in the environment.  Examples include the

text: Atlantic salmon

text: and the

text: Sockeye salmon

text: where many of the females routinely die immediately after spawning.

text: Brood parasites are organisms that rely on others to raise their young. The strategy appears among birds, insects and some fish. The brood parasite manipulates a host, either of the same or of another species, to raise its young as if it were its own.

text: Brood parasites are

text: organism

text: s that rely on others to raise their young. The strategy appears among

text: bird

text: s,

text: insect

text: s and some

text: fish

text: . The brood parasite manipulates a

text: host

text: , either of the same or of another species, to raise its young as if it were its own.

text: Two main strategies are employed to reduce mosquito populations. One approach is to kill the developing larvae. Measures are taken to reduce the water accumulations in which the larva develops. Larvicides are used, as well as larvae-eating fish and copepods, which reduce the number of larvae. For many years, copepods of the genus Mesocyclops have been used in Vietnam for preventing dengue fever. It eradicated the mosquito vector in several areas. Similar efforts may be effective against yellow fever. Pyriproxyfen is recommended as a chemical larvicide, mainly because it is safe for humans and effective even in small doses.

text: Two main strategies are employed to reduce mosquito populations. One approach is to kill the developing larvae. Measures are taken to reduce the water accumulations in which the larva develops.

text: Larvicide

text: s are used, as well as larvae-eating fish and

text: copepod

text: s, which reduce the number of larvae. For many years, copepods of the genus

text: Mesocyclops

text: have been used in

text: Vietnam

text: for preventing dengue fever. It eradicated the mosquito vector in several areas. Similar efforts may be effective against yellow fever.

text: Pyriproxyfen

text: is recommended as a chemical larvicide, mainly because it is safe for humans and effective even in small doses.

text: The common ancestor of all present gnathostomes lived in freshwater, and later migrated back to the sea. To deal with the much higher salinity in sea water, they evolved the ability to turn the nitrogen waste product ammonia into harmless urea, storing it in the body to give the blood the same osmolarity as the sea water without poisoning the organism. This is the system currently found in cartilaginous fishes. Ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii) later returned to freshwater and lost this ability, while the fleshy-finned fishes (Sarcopterygii) retained it. Since the blood of ray-finned fishes contains more salt than freshwater, they could simply get rid of ammonia through their gills. When they finally returned to the sea again, they did not recover their old trick of turning ammonia to urea, and they had to evolve salt excreting glands instead. Lungfishes do the same when they are living in water, making ammonia and no urea, but when the water dries up and they are forced to burrow down in the mud, they switch to urea production. Like cartilaginous fishes, the coelacanth can store urea in its blood, as can the only known amphibians that can live for long periods of time in salt water (the toad Bufo marinus and the frog Rana cancrivora). These are traits they have inherited from their ancestors.

text: The common ancestor of all present

text: gnathostomes

text: lived in freshwater, and later migrated back to the sea. To deal with the much higher salinity in sea water, they evolved the ability to turn the

text: nitrogen

text: waste product

text: ammonia

text: into harmless

text: urea

text: , storing it in the body to give the blood the same

text: osmolarity

text: as the sea water without poisoning the organism. This is the system currently found in

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: Ray-finned fishes

text: (Actinopterygii) later returned to freshwater and lost this ability, while the

text: fleshy-finned fishes

text: (Sarcopterygii) retained it. Since the blood of ray-finned fishes contains more salt than freshwater, they could simply get rid of ammonia through their gills. When they finally returned to the sea again, they did not recover their old trick of turning ammonia to urea, and they had to evolve salt excreting glands instead.

text: Lungfish

text: es do the same when they are living in water, making ammonia and no urea, but when the water dries up and they are forced to burrow down in the mud, they switch to urea production. Like cartilaginous fishes, the

text: coelacanth

text: can store urea in its blood, as can the only known amphibians that can live for long periods of time in salt water (the

text: toad

text: Bufo marinus

text: and the

text: frog

text: Rana cancrivora

text: ). These are traits they have inherited from their ancestors.

text: It is unknown whether male Thaumatichthys are parasitic. The structure of the jaws in mature males suggests that feeding is impaired after metamorphosis. The larvae are epipelagic like those of other deep-sea anglerfishes, and are found at depths of no more than 100 m. As the larvae grow and approach metamorphosis, they descend deeper until they reach the bottom. The larvae can be identified by their divided operculum and a subdermal pigment layer that covers the entire head and body.

text: It is unknown whether male Thaumatichthys are

text: parasitic

text: . The structure of the jaws in mature males suggests that feeding is impaired after metamorphosis. The

text: larva

text: e are

text: epipelagic

text: like those of other deep-sea anglerfishes, and are found at depths of no more than 100 m. As the larvae grow and approach

text: metamorphosis

text: , they descend deeper until they reach the bottom. The larvae can be identified by their divided operculum and a

text: subdermal

text: pigment

text: layer that covers the entire head and body.

text: He maintained an aquarium and made Sunday-morning expeditions to the ravines at the back of Malabar Hill to search for mosquito larvae to feed its inmates. Mr. Aitken investigated the capabilities for the destruction of larvae, of a small surface-feeding fish with an ivory-white spot on the top of its head, which he had found at Vihar in the stream below the bund. It took him some time to identify these particular fishes (Haplochilus lineatus) which he called  "Scooties" for their lightning rapidity of their movements. With these he stocked the ornamental fountains of Bombay to keep them from becoming breeding-grounds for mosquitoes, and they are now largely used throughout India for this very purpose.

text: He maintained an

text: aquarium

text: and made Sunday-morning expeditions to the ravines at the back of

text: Malabar Hill

text: to search for mosquito larvae to feed its inmates. Mr. Aitken investigated the capabilities for the destruction of larvae, of a small surface-feeding fish with an ivory-white spot on the top of its head, which he had found at Vihar in the stream below the bund. It took him some time to identify these particular fishes (

text: Haplochilus lineatus

text: ) which he called  "Scooties" for their lightning rapidity of their movements. With these he stocked the ornamental fountains of Bombay to keep them from becoming breeding-grounds for mosquitoes, and they are now largely used throughout India for this very purpose.

text: Some fishes don't fit into the above classification. For example, the family of nearly blind spiderfishes, common and widely distributed, feed on benthopelagic zooplankton. Yet they are strictly benthic fish, since they stay in contact with the bottom. Their fins have long rays they use to "stand" on the bottom while they face the current and grab zooplankton as it passes by.

text: Some fishes don't fit into the above classification. For example, the family of nearly blind

text: spiderfish

text: es, common and widely distributed, feed on benthopelagic zooplankton. Yet they are strictly benthic fish, since they stay in contact with the bottom. Their fins have long rays they use to "stand" on the bottom while they face the current and grab zooplankton as it passes by.

text: February 2011 saw several community projects launched to clean up the River Brent to reduce the risk of damage to local fish spawning grounds.

text: The stadium of the veliger larva of Fiona pinnata lasts five days. Then it undergoes a metamorphosis into a slug. The New Zealand malacologist Richard Cardeu Willan (1979) published a theory that the veliger can delay its metamorphosis if it does not find suitable floating habitat to attach itself to.

text: The stadium of the

text: veliger

text: larva of Fiona pinnata lasts five days. Then it undergoes a

text: metamorphosis

text: into a slug. The New Zealand malacologist

text: Richard Cardeu Willan

text: (1979) published a theory that the veliger can delay its metamorphosis if it does not find suitable floating habitat to attach itself to.

text: The transition from an aquatic, lobe-finned fish to an air-breathing amphibian was a significant and fundamental one in the evolutionary history of the vertebrates. For an organism to live in a gravity-neutral aqueous environment, then colonize one that requires an organism to support its entire weight and possess a mechanism to mitigate dehydration, required significant adaptations or exaptations within the overall body plan, both in form and in function. Eryops, an example of an animal that made such adaptations, refined many of the traits found in its fish ancestors. Sturdy limbs supported and transported its body while out of water. A thicker, stronger backbone prevented its body from sagging under its own weight. Also, through the reshaping of vestigial fish jaw bones, a rudimentary middle ear began developing to connect to the piscine inner ear, allowing Eryops to amplify, and so better sense, airborne sound.

text: The transition from an aquatic, lobe-finned fish to an air-breathing amphibian was a significant and fundamental one in the evolutionary history of the

text: vertebrate

text: s. For an organism to live in a

text: gravity

text: -neutral aqueous environment, then colonize one that requires an organism to support its entire weight and possess a mechanism to mitigate dehydration, required significant adaptations or exaptations within the overall

text: body plan

text: , both in form and in function.

text: Eryops

text: , an example of an animal that made such adaptations, refined many of the traits found in its fish ancestors. Sturdy

text: limb

text: s supported and transported its body while out of water. A thicker, stronger

text: backbone

text: prevented its body from sagging under its own weight. Also, through the reshaping of vestigial fish jaw bones, a rudimentary middle ear began developing to connect to the

text: piscine inner ear

text: , allowing Eryops to amplify, and so better sense, airborne

text: sound

text: Teleostomes have two major adaptations that relate to aquatic respiration. First, the early teleostomes probably had some type of operculum; however, it was not the one-piece affair of living fish. The development of a single respiratory opening seems to have been an important step. The second adaptation, the teleostomes also developed a primitive lung with the ability to use some atmospheric oxygen.  This developed, in later species, into the lung and (later) the swim bladder, used to keep the fish at neutral buoyancy.

text: Teleostomes have two major adaptations that relate to

text: aquatic respiration

text: . First, the early teleostomes probably had some type of

text: operculum

text: ; however, it was not the one-piece affair of living

text: fish

text: . The development of a single respiratory opening seems to have been an important step. The second adaptation, the teleostomes also developed a primitive lung with the ability to use some atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: .  This developed, in later species, into the lung and (later) the swim bladder, used to keep the fish at neutral buoyancy.

text: Imaginal cells are tissue-specific progenitors allocated in embryogenesis that remain quiescent during embryonic and larval life. During Drosophila metamorphosis, most larval cells die. Pupal and adult tissues form from imaginal cells. Clonal analysis and fate mapping of single, identified cells show that tracheal system remodeling at metamorphosis involves a classical imaginal cell population and a population of differentiated, functional larval tracheal cells that reenter the cell cycle and regain developmental potency. In late larvae, both populations are activated and proliferate, spread over and replace old branches, and diversify into various stalk and coiled tracheolar cells under control of fibroblast growth factor signaling. Thus, Drosophila pupal/adult tissue progenitors can arise both by early allocation of multipotent cells and late return of differentiated cells to a multipotent state, even within a single tissue.

text: Imaginal cells are tissue-specific progenitors allocated in

text: embryogenesis

text: that remain quiescent during embryonic and larval life. During Drosophila metamorphosis, most larval cells die. Pupal and adult tissues form from imaginal cells. Clonal analysis and fate mapping of single, identified cells show that tracheal system remodeling at metamorphosis involves a classical imaginal cell population and a population of differentiated, functional larval tracheal cells that reenter the cell cycle and regain developmental potency. In late larvae, both populations are activated and proliferate, spread over and replace old branches, and diversify into various stalk and coiled tracheolar cells under control of fibroblast growth factor signaling. Thus, Drosophila pupal/adult tissue progenitors can arise both by early allocation of multipotent cells and late return of differentiated cells to a multipotent state, even within a single tissue.

text: Below Lake Bangweulu the Luapula is a broad, swamplike system flowing southward that turns west and descends the steep Mambatuta Falls before meandering north to the Mambilima falls,The lush and densely populated Luapula valley opens out beyond the Mambilima falls into a huge area of marshes, floodpains and lagoons at the southern end of Lake Mweru.There is an almost continuous stretch of villages from the falls to the lake.Traditionally, the fishermen near the falls used dams, weirs and traps to catch as many fish as possible before the flood water receded.The fish of Lake Mweru do not spawn south of the waterfalls and rapids, where Lake Bangweulu has a distinct ecology.

text: Below Lake Bangweulu the Luapula is a broad, swamplike system flowing southward that turns west and descends the steep

text: Mambatuta Falls

text: before meandering north to the Mambilima falls,The lush and densely populated Luapula valley opens out beyond the Mambilima falls into a huge area of marshes, floodpains and lagoons at the southern end of

text: Lake Mweru

text: .There is an almost continuous stretch of villages from the falls to the lake.Traditionally, the fishermen near the falls used dams, weirs and traps to catch as many fish as possible before the flood water receded.The fish of Lake Mweru do not spawn south of the waterfalls and rapids, where Lake Bangweulu has a distinct ecology.

text: Fisheries production in the Bay of Bengal is six million tonnes per year, more than seven percent of the world's catch. The major transboundary issues relating to shared fisheries are: a decline in the overall availability of fish resources; changes in species composition of catches; the high proportion of juvenile fish in the catch; and changes in marine biodiversity, especially through loss of vulnerable and endangered species. The transboundary nature of these issues are:  that many fish stocks are shared between BOBLME countries through the transboundary migration of fish, or larvae. Fishing overlaps national jurisdictions, both legally and illegally – overcapacity and overfishing in one location forces a migration of fishers and vessels to other locations.  All countries (to a greater or lesser degree) are experiencing difficulties in implementing fisheries management, especially the ecosystem approach to fisheries.  Bay of Bengal countries contribute significantly to the global problem of loss of vulnerable and endangered species.The main causes of the issues are: open access to fishing grounds; Government emphasis on increasing fish catches; inappropriate government subsidies provided to fishers; increasing fishing effort, especially from trawlers and purse seiners; high consumer demand for fish, including for seed and fishmeal for aquaculture; ineffective fisheries management; and illegal and destructive fishing.

text: Fisheries

text: production in the Bay of Bengal is six million tonnes per year, more than seven percent of the world's catch. The major transboundary issues relating to shared fisheries are: a decline in the overall availability of fish resources; changes in species composition of catches; the high proportion of juvenile fish in the catch; and changes in

text: marine biodiversity

text: , especially through loss of vulnerable and

text: endangered species

text: . The transboundary nature of these issues are:  that many

text: fish stocks

text: are shared between BOBLME countries through the transboundary migration of

text: fish

text: , or

text: larvae

text: Fishing

text: overlaps national jurisdictions, both legally and illegally – overcapacity and

text: overfishing

text: in one location forces a migration of fishers and vessels to other locations.  All countries (to a greater or lesser degree) are experiencing difficulties in implementing

text: fisheries management

text: , especially the

text: ecosystem approach to fisheries

text: .  Bay of Bengal countries contribute significantly to the global problem of loss of

text: vulnerable

text: and

text: endangered species

text: .The main causes of the issues are: open access to fishing grounds; Government emphasis on increasing fish catches; inappropriate government subsidies provided to fishers; increasing fishing effort, especially from

text: trawlers

text: and

text: purse seiners

text: ; high consumer demand for fish, including for seed and

text: fishmeal

text: for

text: aquaculture

text: ; ineffective fisheries management; and illegal and destructive fishing.

text: The black ghost knifefish is a weakly electric fish as a result of the electromotor and electrosensory systems it possesses. While some fish can only receive electric signals, the black ghost knifefish can both produce and sense the electrical impulses. Electrogenesis occurs when a specialized electric organ found in the tail of the fish generates electrical signals, which are thus called electric organ discharges (EODs). Then, for these EODs to be sensed by the fish, electroreception occurs when groups of sensory cells embedded in the skin, known as electroreceptor organs, detect the electrical change. The EODs are used for two major purposes: electrolocation and communication.

text: The black ghost knifefish is a weakly electric fish as a result of the electromotor and

text: electrosensory systems

text: it possesses. While some fish can only receive electric signals, the black ghost knifefish can both produce and sense the electrical impulses.

text: Electrogenesis

text: occurs when a specialized electric organ found in the tail of the fish generates electrical signals, which are thus called

text: electric organ discharges

text: (EODs). Then, for these EODs to be sensed by the fish,

text: electroreception

text: occurs when groups of sensory cells embedded in the skin, known as electroreceptor organs, detect the electrical change. The EODs are used for two major purposes:

text: electrolocation

text: and communication.

text: Zander, carp, catfish, mullet, and bass fishing is excellent in the river which has good easy access and low banks. There are fishing guides who specialise in fishing this area. The area is little fished and catches can be excellent. Local fishermen may act as guides. The fishing is not free and night fishing is banned. A fishing licence for Catalonia is required. Carp fishing is best in winter when the carp form huge shoals. Catfishing is best in summer when the catfish go on huge feeding frenzies. Local catfishing guides at Ascó usually stock bait and tackle.

text: Zander

text: carp

text: catfish

text: mullet

text: , and

text: bass

text: fishing is excellent in the river which has good easy access and low banks. There are fishing guides who specialise in fishing this area. The area is little fished and catches can be excellent. Local fishermen may act as guides. The fishing is not free and night fishing is banned. A fishing licence for Catalonia is required. Carp fishing is best in winter when the carp form huge shoals. Catfishing is best in summer when the catfish go on huge feeding frenzies. Local catfishing guides at Ascó usually stock bait and tackle.

text: Laboratory culturing studies resulted in successful metamorphosis of 33% of larvae (n=10) from weeks 5.5 through 9 in the presence of live rock dominated by Petaloconchus montereyensis (a prey species of Kelletia kelletii), as well as 100% of larvae exposed to high concentrations of KCl in weeks 8 and 9; these pilot results suggest a planktonic duration of at least 5.5–9.0 weeks. Larvae are becoming more demersal as they are approaching competency.

text: Laboratory culturing studies resulted in successful metamorphosis of 33% of larvae (n=10) from weeks 5.5 through 9 in the presence of live rock dominated by

text: Petaloconchus montereyensis

text: (a prey species of Kelletia kelletii), as well as 100% of larvae exposed to high concentrations of

text: KCl

text: in weeks 8 and 9; these pilot results suggest a planktonic duration of at least 5.5–9.0 weeks. Larvae are becoming more demersal as they are approaching competency.

text: Unlike many members of this genus, the larva of Astropecten latespinosus is not a brachiolaria larva but is barrel-shaped and undergoes metamorphosis at a very early stage of development.

text: Unlike many members of this genus, the larva of Astropecten latespinosus is not a

text: brachiolaria

text: larva but is barrel-shaped and undergoes

text: metamorphosis

text: at a very early stage of development.

text: The diet consists mainly of small fish such as tilapia and barbus, amphibians, crustaceans, aquatic insects and other aquatic invertebrates.

text: The diet consists mainly of small fish such as

text: tilapia

text: and

text: barbus

text: amphibians

text: crustacean

text: s, aquatic

text: insects

text: and other aquatic invertebrates.

text: In Tai O, a vertical marination method (插鹽) is the most popular way to prepare Cantonese salted fish. In this method, fish such as Ilisha elongata and mayau will first be gutted and then washed. The cleaned fish are inserted head down vertically into a heap of salt. Under gravity, the juice of the fish can flow out from the mouth of the salted fish. Through this method, the salted fish can be kept as dry as possible.

text: In

text: Tai O

text: , a vertical marination method (插鹽) is the most popular way to prepare Cantonese salted fish. In this method, fish such as Ilisha elongata and mayau will first be gutted and then washed. The cleaned fish are inserted head down vertically into a heap of salt. Under

text: gravity

text: , the juice of the fish can flow out from the mouth of the salted fish. Through this method, the salted fish can be kept as dry as possible.

text: In November 2002, under pressure from environmental organisations, the government agreed to protect 11 of these sites from commercial fishing during the spawning season. The most significant of these are at Glover's Reef and Sandbore Caye, which have been identified as the only two viable sites remaining for the species, of nine historically known locations. At Glover's Reef, scientists documented an 80% decrease in grouper populations since the 1970s. In 2002, the both sites were declared special marine reserves, permanently closed to fishing. These and five other sites are regularly monitored by a taskforce of the Wildlife Conservation Society. Its report of the 2009 spawning season at Glover's Reef concluded that numbers were still in decline, and that the majority of the individuals recorded were immature and less than the legal minimum landing size.

text: In November 2002, under pressure from environmental organisations, the government agreed to protect 11 of these sites from commercial fishing during the spawning season. The most significant of these are at

text: Glover's Reef

text: and

text: Sandbore Caye

text: , which have been identified as the only two viable sites remaining for the species, of nine historically known locations. At Glover's Reef, scientists documented an 80% decrease in grouper populations since the 1970s. In 2002, the both sites were declared special marine reserves, permanently closed to fishing. These and five other sites are regularly monitored by a taskforce of the

text: Wildlife Conservation Society

text: . Its report of the 2009 spawning season at Glover's Reef concluded that numbers were still in decline, and that the majority of the individuals recorded were immature and less than the legal

text: minimum landing size

text: The university takes the nationwide lead in such academic fields as Ichthyology, Aquatic Animal Proliferation and Breeding, Fish Diseases Prevention, Fish Nutrition and Feeds, Fish Species and Quality Resources, Seaweed Cells Engineering, Fishing Gear and Methodology, Fishery Machinery, Preservation and Management of Fishery Resources, Fishery Regulations and Policy, Fishery Economics, Biological Technology, Marine Ecology, Food Science and Engineering, Refrigeration and Cryogenics.

text: Because of the early extinction of the harelip sucker there are no detailed life history studies, but there is at least some biological information that was taken from the approximately 30 preserved specimens. Very little information exists on its precise habitat and life history, though Klippart (1878) relates that these fish were called May suckers because they spawned in May. The only other thing known about the life history of this fish is that adult harelip sucker reached 18 inches in length and weighed several pounds. Despite the wide range this fish once had it became the first recently extinct fish with the last specimen being retrieved in 1893.

text: Fishing is an important activity in the Pasaleng Bay. The three coastal barangays where fishing is carried out are the Balao-i, Pancian and Pasaleng. It is a municipal fishing ground where 169 fishing boats operate in the bay under 91 fishing units. Most of the boats are in the capacity range of below 3 GT. There are 457 fishing gears (operated by 482 fishermen) under 16 types which operate in the bay and which are of hook and line type to the extent of 75%. From 2000 to 2006 under the National Stock Assessment Project (NSAP), 319 fish species were caught including marine organisms. They belonged to 59 families. Species of Demersal species dominated the catch with 64% of the total catch; the pelagic species contributed the rest. It consisted of 30 families of fish, 3 families of shark/rays, and 6 families of invertebrates. Specific species caught were squids, lobsters, crabs and Ranina ranina, the red frog crab. The dominant families in the order of the species that they represent are Carangidae (32 species), Serranidae (28 species), Lutjanidae (26 species), Nemipteridae (18 species), Scombridae (17 species fol owed by other families each having 15 species. The pelagic species were the most dominant in terms of catch and these in the order of their importance are Katsuwonus pelamis (skipjack), Selar crumenopthalmus and Auxis thazard. Among the various gears used for fishing the maximum yield was from Baby ring net, while the maximum number of species caught is credited to speargun.

text: Fishing is an important activity in the Pasaleng Bay. The three coastal barangays where fishing is carried out are the Balao-i, Pancian and Pasaleng. It is a municipal fishing ground where 169 fishing boats operate in the bay under 91 fishing units. Most of the boats are in the capacity range of below 3 GT. There are 457 fishing gears (operated by 482 fishermen) under 16 types which operate in the bay and which are of hook and line type to the extent of 75%. From 2000 to 2006 under the National Stock Assessment Project (NSAP), 319 fish species were caught including marine organisms. They belonged to 59 families. Species of

text: Demersal

text: species dominated the catch with 64% of the total catch; the pelagic species contributed the rest. It consisted of 30 families of fish, 3 families of shark/rays, and 6 families of invertebrates. Specific species caught were

text: squids

text: lobsters

text: crabs

text: and

text: Ranina ranina

text: , the red frog crab. The dominant families in the order of the species that they represent are

text: Carangidae

text: (32 species),

text: Serranidae

text: (28 species),

text: Lutjanidae

text: (26 species),

text: Nemipteridae

text: (18 species),

text: Scombridae

text: (17 species fol owed by other families each having 15 species. The pelagic species were the most dominant in terms of catch and these in the order of their importance are

text: Katsuwonus pelamis

text: (skipjack), Selar crumenopthalmus and Auxis thazard. Among the various gears used for fishing the maximum yield was from Baby ring net, while the maximum number of species caught is credited to

text: speargun

text: Small pelagic fish live in the open water, so unlike demersal or reef fish, they cannot hide among kelp, or in crevices in coral, or under rocks on the bottom. This leaves them vulnerable to attack by large predatory fish, as well as other predators, such as marine mammals and seabirds. As a result, small pelagic fish usually aggregate together in schools for protection. Schooling fish have evolved sophisticated evasion techniques. When they school they have many eyes, which makes ambush difficult, and their silvery bodies dazzle, which makes it difficult for predators to pick out individual fish. They react to movements from a predator with lightning reflexes, rhythmically streaming up and down with rapid direction changes. When a predator approaches, they can split and reform behind the predator. During the final stages of an attack, they can explosively disband in all directions and then just as rapidly reform. Defensive manoeuvres like these appear to be choreographed, though they are not. Within the school itself, there is no centralized intelligence aware of how the school has configured itself. Rather, the schooling behaviour is the emergent consequence of relatively simple rules followed by each individual fish in the school, such as remaining close together, moving in the same direction, and avoiding collisions with each other.

text: Small

text: pelagic fish

text: live in the open water, so unlike

text: demersal

text: or

text: reef fish

text: , they cannot hide among kelp, or in crevices in coral, or under rocks on the bottom. This leaves them vulnerable to attack by

text: large predatory fish

text: , as well as other predators, such as

text: marine mammal

text: s and

text: seabird

text: s. As a result, small pelagic fish usually aggregate together in

text: schools

text: for protection. Schooling fish have evolved sophisticated evasion techniques. When they school they have many eyes, which makes ambush difficult, and their silvery bodies dazzle, which makes it difficult for predators to pick out individual fish. They react to movements from a predator with lightning reflexes, rhythmically streaming up and down with rapid direction changes. When a predator approaches, they can split and reform behind the predator. During the final stages of an attack, they can explosively disband in all directions and then just as rapidly reform. Defensive manoeuvres like these appear to be choreographed, though they are not. Within the school itself, there is no centralized intelligence aware of how the school has configured itself. Rather, the schooling behaviour is the

text: emergent

text: consequence of relatively simple rules followed by each individual fish in the school, such as remaining close together, moving in the same direction, and avoiding collisions with each other.

text: Two examples using the term "fishing" help clarify the distinction. The phrase "to fish pearls" uses metonymy, drawing from "fishing" the idea of taking things from the ocean. What is carried across from "fishing fish" to "fishing pearls" is the domain of metonymy. In contrast, the metaphorical phrase "fishing for information" transfers the concept of fishing into a new domain. If someone is "fishing" for information, we do not imagine that the person is anywhere near the ocean; rather, we transpose elements of the action of fishing (waiting, hoping to catch something that cannot be seen, probing) into a new domain (a conversation). Thus, metaphor works by presenting a target set of meanings and using them to suggest a similarity between items, actions, or events in two domains, whereas metonymy calls up or references a specific domain (here, removing items from the sea).

text: Colouration in wild specimens is variable and while most specimens are grey to greyish green some pink, red or white specimens do occur. Black pigmentation in spots or bands is also common. Some specimens have enlarged lips, though this condition is thought to be related to specific food choice preferences in their natural habitat as this trait disappears in captivity. Like most cichlids, A. labiatus has advanced brood care. The species forms monogamous pairs which spawn on flattened rocks or logs.

text: Colouration in wild specimens is variable and while most specimens are grey to greyish green some pink, red or white specimens do occur. Black pigmentation in spots or bands is also common. Some specimens have enlarged lips, though this condition is thought to be related to specific food choice preferences in their natural

text: habitat

text: as this trait disappears in captivity. Like most cichlids, A. labiatus has advanced

text: brood

text: care. The species forms

text: monogamous

text: pairs which spawn on flattened rocks or logs.

text: The idea has been very influential in reader-response criticism, though it has also been very controversial. It is often interpreted as a relativistic standpoint that "words have no meaning," though this is not what Fish means. Quite the contrary, Fish is a staunch advocate of his own readings of various texts. Rather, he means to point out that readings of a text are culturally constructed.

text: The bull shark is a fish that is diadromous, meaning they can swim between saltwater and freshwater with ease. These fish also fall under the category of euryhaline fish. Euryhaline refers to an organism that is able to adapt to a wide range of salinities. The bull shark is one of the few cartilaginous fishes that have been reported in freshwater systems. Many of the euryhaline fish are bony fish such as salmon and tilapia and are not closely related to bull sharks. Evolutionary assumptions can be made to help explain this sort of evolutionary disconnect; one being that the Bull shark encountered a population bottleneck that occurred during the last ice age. This bottleneck may have separated the Bull shark from the rest of the elasmobranchii subclass and favored the genes for an osmoregulatory system.

text: The bull shark is a fish that is

text: diadromous

text: , meaning they can swim between saltwater and freshwater with ease. These fish also fall under the category of

text: euryhaline

text: fish. Euryhaline refers to an organism that is able to adapt to a wide range of salinities. The bull shark is one of the few cartilaginous fishes that have been reported in freshwater systems. Many of the euryhaline fish are bony fish such as

text: salmon

text: and

text: tilapia

text: and are not closely related to bull sharks. Evolutionary assumptions can be made to help explain this sort of evolutionary disconnect; one being that the Bull shark encountered a

text: population bottleneck

text: that occurred during the

text: last ice age

text: . This bottleneck may have separated the Bull shark from the rest of the elasmobranchii subclass and favored the genes for an osmoregulatory system.

text: The length of the veliger stage in the natural environment is unknown and undoubtedly variable; however, in the lab, veligers of some species become competent to metamorphose in anywhere from a few days (lecithotrophic larvae) to a month or more after hatching (planktotrophic larvae). The feeding larvae of some species have been cultured for over a year and have still retained the ability to metamorphose. As the veliger stage reaches metamorphic competence, the foot becomes sufficiently developed to allow crawling on the substratum and internal development has established the organ systems necessary for juvenile life. In many species, induction of metamorphosis occurs as a sensory response to a chemical cue indicative of the juvenile and/or adult habitat. Often this cue (the inducer) is a water-soluble chemical secreted by the adult food. Induction of metamorphosis results in the larva settling to the substratum. This settlement may be followed by a "searching" phase as the larva apparently looks for an appropriate place to metamorphose. When metamorphosis occurs, the velum is lost, and the newly metamorphosed juvenile adopts its slug-like adult form.

text: Eutrophication, excessive nutrients in aquatic ecosystems resulting in algal blooms and anoxia, leads to fish kills, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems.

text: Eutrophication

text: , excessive nutrients in

text: aquatic ecosystem

text: s resulting in

text: algal bloom

text: s and

text: anoxia

text: , leads to

text: fish kill

text: s, loss of biodiversity, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly

text: nitrogen

text: and

text: phosphorus

text: runoff

text: and

text: leaching

text: from agricultural land. These nutrients are major

text: nonpoint pollutants

text: contributing to eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems.

text: Corydoras panda inhabits clear river waters that are relatively fast-flowing, well-oxygenated, and flowing over substrates that may comprise soft sand or fine gravel. These rivers are usually well vegetated with assorted species of aquatic plants. The proximity of the home rivers of the fish to the Andes mountain range, and the replenishment of those rivers with meltwaters from Andean snows at higher altitudes, has led the fish to be adaptable to cooler temperatures than the norm for 'tropical' fishes—the temperature range of the fish is 16°C to 28°C, though the fish exhibits a marked preference for the cooler regions of this temperature spectrum, particularly in captivity. Indeed, the fish can, for limited periods, survive temperatures as low as 12°C, though captive rearing at such low temperatures is ill-advised. The native waters of Corydoras panda are consequently mineral-deficient, with a neutral to slightly acid pH, and replication of such conditions in captivity are recommended for successful maintenance.

text: Corydoras panda inhabits clear river waters that are relatively fast-flowing, well-oxygenated, and flowing over substrates that may comprise soft sand or fine gravel. These rivers are usually well vegetated with assorted species of aquatic plants. The proximity of the home rivers of the fish to the

text: Andes

text: mountain range, and the replenishment of those rivers with meltwaters from Andean snows at higher altitudes, has led the fish to be adaptable to cooler temperatures than the norm for 'tropical' fishes—the temperature range of the fish is 16°C to 28°C, though the fish exhibits a marked preference for the cooler regions of this temperature spectrum, particularly in captivity. Indeed, the fish can, for limited periods, survive temperatures as low as 12°C, though captive rearing at such low temperatures is ill-advised. The native waters of Corydoras panda are consequently mineral-deficient, with a neutral to slightly acid pH, and replication of such conditions in captivity are recommended for successful maintenance.

text: Maine Guides can be licensed in just one or any combination of specialized classifications including white water rafting, hunting, inland fishing, recreational, sea-kayaking, and tide water fishing. Being licensed in a specialized classification means that a person has met the qualifications to guide specific activities:

text: In addition to the easily discernible ecological effects, there are serious economic impacts on local communities when fish stock are depleted. A study in January 2001 estimated that the value of the largest spawning aggregation sites, if fished, would be realised and exhausted within a decade, since the species would disappear with low chances of recovery. Attempts in the past to close the sites to fishing failed because some denied that the species was in decline, arguing that it simply relocates its aggregations from year to year. Following the Green Reef surveys, however, the closure and monitoring of remaining known aggregation sites was seen as essential to ensure their long-term viability, and subsequently the survival of both the species and the fishing industry that depends on it.

text: In addition to the easily discernible

text: ecological effects

text: , there are serious economic impacts on local communities when

text: fish stock

text: are depleted. A study in January 2001 estimated that the value of the largest spawning aggregation sites, if fished, would be realised and exhausted within a decade, since the species would disappear with low chances of recovery. Attempts in the past to close the sites to fishing failed because some denied that the species was in decline, arguing that it simply relocates its aggregations from year to year. Following the Green Reef surveys, however, the closure and

text: monitoring

text: of remaining known aggregation sites was seen as essential to ensure their

text: long-term viability

text: , and subsequently the survival of both the species and the fishing industry that depends on it.

text: The listing below follows Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes  with notes when this differs from Nelson,  ITIS  and FishBase.

text: The listing below follows

text: Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes

text: with notes when this differs from Nelson,

text: ITIS

text: and

text: FishBase

text: The climate of Pleshcheyovo is moderate continental (Köppen climate classification Dfb), characterized by four distinct seasons, high variance between winter and summer temperatures, long winters, and short, warm and rainy summers.  Average temperatures range from 10 F in January to 64 F in July. Annual precipitation averages 23 inches.  Annual snowcover is 13-=140 cm, and typical depth is 30–40 cm.  Soil in mid-winter freezes to a depth of 1 meter.   The ecoregion of Pleshcheyovo is "Sarmatic Mixed Forests" (WWF ID#436). This ecoregion is a strip of low forests, lakes and wetlands, running from the Baltic Sea east to the Urals.  Forest cover is typically mixed conifer and deciduous trees, with large unbroken tracts under pressure from agriculture.  For aquatic habitat, the park is in the "Volga-Ural" freshwater ecoregion (WWF ID#410), a region that is characterized in general by a high number fish species but relatively few endemics.  Of the 65 species of fish in the overall ecoregion, 19 are found in Lake Pleshcheyevo.  The development of dams, reservoirs and catchments along the Volga have disrupted spawning sites and favored species adapted to slower moving waters.

text: The climate of Pleshcheyovo is

text: moderate continental

text: Köppen climate classification

text: Dfb), characterized by four distinct seasons, high variance between winter and summer temperatures, long winters, and short, warm and rainy summers.  Average temperatures range from 10 F in January to 64 F in July. Annual precipitation averages 23 inches.  Annual snowcover is 13-=140 cm, and typical depth is 30–40 cm.  Soil in mid-winter freezes to a depth of 1 meter.   The ecoregion of Pleshcheyovo is "Sarmatic Mixed Forests" (WWF ID#436). This ecoregion is a strip of low forests, lakes and wetlands, running from the Baltic Sea east to the Urals.  Forest cover is typically mixed conifer and deciduous trees, with large unbroken tracts under pressure from agriculture.  For aquatic habitat, the park is in the "Volga-Ural" freshwater ecoregion (WWF ID#410), a region that is characterized in general by a high number fish species but relatively few endemics.  Of the 65 species of fish in the overall ecoregion, 19 are found in Lake Pleshcheyevo.  The development of dams, reservoirs and catchments along the Volga have disrupted spawning sites and favored species adapted to slower moving waters.

text: Fish have what is often described as a two-chambered heart, consisting of one atrium to receive blood and one ventricle to pump it,  However, the fish heart has entry and exit compartments that may be called chambers, so it is also sometimes described as three-chambered or four-chambered, depending on what is counted as a chamber. The atrium and ventricle are sometimes considered "true chambers", while the others are considered "accessory chambers".

text: Water beetles can be either herbivores, predators, or scavengers. Herbivorous beetles eat only aquatic vegetation, such as algae or leaves. They might also suck juices out the stem of a plant nearby. Scavenger beetles will feed on decomposing organic material that has been deposited. The scavenged material can come from aquatic vegetation, feces, or other small organisms that have died. The great diving beetle, a predator, feeds on things like worms, tadpoles, and even sometimes small fish.

text: Water beetles can be either

text: herbivore

text: s,

text: predator

text: s, or

text: scavenger

text: s. Herbivorous beetles eat only aquatic vegetation, such as

text: algae

text: or leaves. They might also suck juices out the stem of a plant nearby. Scavenger beetles will feed on decomposing organic material that has been deposited. The scavenged material can come from aquatic vegetation, feces, or other small organisms that have died. The

text: great diving beetle

text: , a predator, feeds on things like worms, tadpoles, and even sometimes small fish.

text: Special morphological adaptations are observed in larvae adapted to live in an aquatic environment or as endoparasitoids : for example, sapropagous aquatic larvae of  Eristalis which have a long respiratory siphon, which allows them to live immersed in slushy or in putrid waters, while those of Tachinidae have breathing tubes that lead into tracheae of the host or outside of the host's body.

text: Special morphological adaptations are observed in larvae adapted to live in an aquatic environment or as endoparasitoids : for example, sapropagous aquatic larvae of

text: Eristalis

text: which have a long respiratory siphon, which allows them to live immersed in slushy or in putrid waters, while those of Tachinidae have breathing tubes that lead into tracheae of the host or outside of the host's body.

text: Handline fishing, or handlining, is a fishing technique where a single fishing line is held in the hands. It is not be confused with handfishing. One or more fishing lures or baited hooks are attached to the line. A hook, fishing lure, or a fishing jig and many times a weight and/or a fishing float can be attached to the line. Handlining is among the oldest forms of fishing and is commonly practiced throughout the world today.

text: Handline fishing, or handlining, is a fishing technique where a single

text: fishing line

text: is held in the hands. It is not be confused with

text: handfishing

text: . One or more

text: fishing lures

text: or

text: baited

text: hooks

text: are attached to the line. A hook,

text: fishing lure

text: , or a

text: fishing jig

text: and many times a

text: weight

text: and/or a

text: fishing float

text: can be attached to the line. Handlining is among the oldest forms of fishing and is commonly practiced throughout the world today.

text: The male fishes of seahorses, pipefishes, weedy and leafy sea dragons (Syngnathidae) are unusual as the male, rather than the female, incubates the eggs before releasing live fry into the surrounding water.  To achieve this, male seahorses protect eggs in a specialized brood pouch, male sea dragons attach their eggs to their legs, and male pipefish may do either.

text: The male fishes of

text: seahorse

text: s,

text: pipefish

text: es,

text: weedy

text: and

text: leafy sea dragon

text: s (

text: Syngnathidae

text: ) are unusual as the male, rather than the female, incubates the eggs before releasing live fry into the surrounding water.  To achieve this, male seahorses protect eggs in a specialized brood pouch, male sea dragons attach their eggs to their legs, and male pipefish may do either.

text: Fish are consumed fresh, or may be preserved by traditional methods, which include combinations of drying, smoking, and salting, or fermentation. Modern methods of preservation include freezing, freeze drying, and heat processing (as in canning). Frozen fish products include breaded or battered fillets, fish fingers and fishcakes. Fish meal is used as a food supplement for farmed fish and for livestock. Fish oils are made either from fish liver, especially rich in vitamins A and D, or from the bodies of oily fish such as sardine and herring, and used as food supplements and to treat vitamin deficiencies.

text: Fish are consumed fresh, or may be preserved by traditional methods, which include combinations of drying, smoking, and salting, or fermentation. Modern methods of preservation include freezing, freeze drying, and heat processing (as in canning). Frozen fish products include breaded or

text: batter

text: ed fillets,

text: fish finger

text: s and

text: fishcake

text: s. Fish meal is used as a food supplement for farmed fish and for livestock. Fish oils are made either from fish liver, especially rich in vitamins A and D, or from the bodies of oily fish such as sardine and herring, and used as food supplements and to treat vitamin deficiencies.

text: Basilosaurids, which had tiny hindlimbs and flipper-shaped forelimbs, were obligatory aquatic and came to dominate the oceans. They still lacked the echolocation and baleen tooth of modern odontocetes and mysticeti. Basilosaurids and dorudontids are the oldest obligate aquatic cetaceans for which the entire skeleton is known. They display a number of aquatic adaptations not present in earlier archaeocetes: In the vertebral column, the neck vertebrae are short, the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of similar length, the sacral vertebrae are unfused, the sacroiliac joints are absent, and the short tail has a ball vertebra (indicating the presence of a fluke). The scapulae are broad and fan-shaped with anterior acromions and small supraspinous fossae. The ulnae are large and have transversely flat olecranons, the wrists and distal forearms are flattened in the plane of the hands, and the hind limbs are tiny.

text: Basilosaurids

text: , which had tiny hindlimbs and flipper-shaped forelimbs, were obligatory aquatic and came to dominate the oceans. They still lacked the echolocation and

text: baleen

text: tooth of modern odontocetes and mysticeti. Basilosaurids and dorudontids are the oldest obligate aquatic cetaceans for which the entire skeleton is known. They display a number of

text: aquatic adaptation

text: s not present in earlier archaeocetes: In the vertebral column, the neck vertebrae are short, the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae of similar length, the sacral vertebrae are unfused, the sacroiliac joints are absent, and the short tail has a

text: ball vertebra

text: (indicating the presence of a fluke). The scapulae are broad and fan-shaped with anterior acromions and small supraspinous fossae. The ulnae are large and have transversely flat olecranons, the wrists and distal forearms are flattened in the plane of the hands, and the hind limbs are tiny.

text: The modern stream classification system of the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission, including Class A Wild Trout Waters, was developed with Operation Future, which marked a transition from recreation-based management to resource-based management, in 1983. Following statewide stream surveys in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission created a set of biomass standards for trout streams in the state.

text: The modern stream classification system of the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission, including Class A Wild Trout Waters, was developed with

text: Operation Future

text: , which marked a transition from recreation-based management to resource-based management, in 1983. Following statewide stream surveys in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission created a set of biomass standards for trout streams in the state.

text: In the wild they feed almost exclusively on aquatic macrophytes and algae. Aquatic plants seem to make up almost 95% of their diets.  Younger ones tend to seek a more protein enriched diet such as aquatic invertebrates, crustaceans, and fish. Older turtles may occasionally seek prey as well, but mostly partake of a herbivorous diet.

text: In the wild they feed almost exclusively on aquatic

text: macrophytes

text: and

text: algae

text: . Aquatic plants seem to make up almost 95% of their diets.  Younger ones tend to seek a more protein enriched diet such as aquatic invertebrates,

text: crustaceans

text: , and

text: fish

text: . Older turtles may occasionally seek prey as well, but mostly partake of a herbivorous diet.

text: In the ocean, pink salmon are bright silver fish. After returning to their spawning streams, their coloring changes to pale grey on the back with yellowish-white belly (although some turn an overall dull green color). As with all salmon, in addition to the dorsal fin, they also have an adipose fin. The fish is characterized by a white mouth with black gums, no teeth on the tongue, large oval-shaped black spots on the back, a v-shaped tail, and an anal fin with 13-17 soft rays. During their spawning migration, males develop a pronounced humped back, hence their nickname "humpies". Pink salmon average 4.8 pounds (2.2 kg) in weight. The maximum recorded size was 30 inches (76 cm) and 15 pounds (6.8 kg).

text: In the ocean, pink salmon are bright silver fish. After returning to their spawning streams, their coloring changes to pale grey on the back with yellowish-white belly (although some turn an overall dull green color). As with all salmon, in addition to the

text: dorsal fin

text: , they also have an

text: adipose

text: fin. The fish is characterized by a white mouth with black gums, no teeth on the tongue, large oval-shaped black spots on the back, a v-shaped tail, and an anal fin with 13-17 soft rays. During their

text: spawning

text: migration

text: , males develop a pronounced humped back, hence their nickname "humpies". Pink salmon average 4.8 pounds (2.2 kg) in weight. The maximum recorded size was 30 inches (76 cm) and 15 pounds (6.8 kg).

text: Several apple snail genera (Pomacea, Pila and Asolene/Pomella) deposit eggs above the waterline in calcareous clutches. This remarkable strategy of aquatic snails protects the eggs against predation by fish and other aquatic inhabitants. Another anti-predator adaptation in the apple snail genera Pomacea and Pila, is the tubular siphon, used to breathe air while submerged, reducing vulnerability to attacking birds.The apple snail's usual enemies are the birds limpkin and snail kite.

text: Several apple snail genera (Pomacea, Pila and Asolene/Pomella) deposit

text: eggs

text: above the waterline in calcareous clutches. This remarkable strategy of aquatic snails protects the eggs against

text: predation

text: by fish and other aquatic inhabitants. Another anti-predator adaptation in the apple snail genera Pomacea and Pila, is the tubular

text: siphon

text: , used to breathe air while submerged, reducing vulnerability to attacking birds.The apple snail's usual enemies are the birds

text: limpkin

text: and

text: snail kite

text: Queen conch embryos hatch 3–5 days after spawning. At the moment of hatching, the  protoconch (embryonic shell) is translucent and has a creamy, off-white background color with small, pustulate  markings. This coloration is different from other Caribbean Lobatus, such as Lobatus raninus and Lobatus costatus, which have unpigmented embryonic shells. Afterwards, the emerging two-lobed veliger (a larval form common to various marine and fresh-water gastropod and bivalve mollusks) spend several days developing in the plankton, feeding primarily on phytoplankton. Metamorphosis occurs some 16–40 days from the hatching, when the fully grown protoconch is about 1.2 mm high. After the metamorphosis, L. gigas individuals spend the rest of their lives in the benthic zone (on or in the sediment surface), usually remaining buried during their first year of life.The queen conch reaches sexual maturity at approximately 3 to 4 years of age, reaching a shell length of nearly 180 mm and weighing up to 5 pounds. Individuals may usually live up to 7 years, though in deeper waters their lifespan may reach 20–30 years and maximum lifetime estimates reach 40 years. It is believed that the mortality rate tends to be lower in matured conchs due to their thickened shell, but it could be substantially higher for juveniles. Estimates have demonstrated that its mortality rate decreases as its size increases and can also vary due to habitat, season and other factors.

text: Queen conch

text: embryos

text: hatch 3–5 days after spawning. At the moment of hatching, the

text: protoconch

text: embryonic

text: shell) is translucent and has a creamy, off-white background color with small, pustulate  markings. This coloration is different from other Caribbean Lobatus, such as

text: Lobatus raninus

text: and

text: Lobatus costatus

text: , which have unpigmented embryonic shells. Afterwards, the emerging two-lobed

text: veliger

text: (a

text: larval

text: form common to various marine and fresh-water gastropod and

text: bivalve

text: mollusks) spend several days developing in the

text: plankton

text: , feeding primarily on

text: phytoplankton

text: Metamorphosis

text: occurs some 16–40 days from the hatching, when the fully grown protoconch is about 1.2 mm high. After the metamorphosis, L. gigas individuals spend the rest of their lives in the

text: benthic zone

text: (on or in the sediment surface), usually remaining buried during their first year of life.The queen conch reaches sexual maturity at approximately 3 to 4 years of age, reaching a shell length of nearly 180 mm and weighing up to 5 pounds. Individuals may usually live up to 7 years, though in deeper waters their lifespan may reach 20–30 years and maximum lifetime estimates reach 40 years. It is believed that the

text: mortality rate

text: tends to be lower in matured conchs due to their thickened shell, but it could be substantially higher for juveniles. Estimates have demonstrated that its mortality rate decreases as its size increases and can also vary due to habitat, season and other factors.

text: Fish from multiple groups can live out of the water for extended time periods. Amphibious fish such as the mudskipper can live and move about on land for up to several days, or live in stagnant or otherwise oxygen depleted water. Many such fish can breathe air via a variety of mechanisms. The skin of anguillid eels may absorb oxygen directly. The buccal cavity of the electric eel may breathe air. Catfish of the families Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts. Lungfish, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills. Gar and bowfin have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way. Loaches, trahiras, and many catfish breathe by passing air through the gut. Mudskippers breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin (similar to frogs). A number of fish have evolved so-called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air. Labyrinth fish (such as gouramis and bettas) have a labyrinth organ above the gills that performs this function. A few other fish have structures resembling labyrinth organs in form and function, most notably snakeheads, pikeheads, and the Clariidae catfish family.

text: Fish from multiple groups can live out of the water for extended time periods.

text: Amphibious fish

text: such as the

text: mudskipper

text: can live and move about on land for up to several days, or live in stagnant or otherwise oxygen depleted water. Many such fish can breathe air via a variety of mechanisms. The skin of

text: anguillid eel

text: s may absorb oxygen directly. The

text: buccal cavity

text: of the

text: electric eel

text: may breathe air. Catfish of the families

text: Loricariidae

text: Callichthyidae

text: , and

text: Scoloplacidae

text: absorb air through their digestive tracts.

text: Lungfish

text: , with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and

text: bichir

text: s have paired lungs similar to those of

text: tetrapod

text: s and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills.

text: Gar

text: and

text: bowfin

text: have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way.

text: Loaches

text: trahiras

text: , and many

text: catfish

text: breathe by passing air through the gut. Mudskippers breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin (similar to frogs). A number of fish have evolved so-called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air. Labyrinth fish (such as

text: gourami

text: s and

text: betta

text: s) have a

text: labyrinth organ

text: above the gills that performs this function. A few other fish have structures resembling labyrinth organs in form and function, most notably

text: snakeheads

text: pikeheads

text: , and the

text: Clariidae

text: catfish family.

text: Reproduction takes place in underground chambers or other hidden places, where the female lays strings of about 30 white, jelly-coated eggs. She then coils her body around the eggs and broods them until they hatch into larvae about  long. The larvae move out of the burrow and wriggle to pools or water courses that form in the wet season. They have three pairs of external feathery gills, a lateral line system, and a tail fin which enables them to swim. The gills persist, but they have lost their lateral lines by the time they undergo a relatively slow metamorphosis at about nine months old.<ref name=Dunker>{{cite journal |author1=Dunker, Nicole |author2=Wake, Marvalee H. |author3=Olson, Wendy M. |year=2000 |title=Embryonic and Larval Development in the Caecilian Ichthyophis kohtaoensis (Amphibia, Gymnophiona): A Staging Table |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=243 |pages=3–34 |url=http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/mwake/papers/156.pdf |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-4687(200001)243:1

text: Reproduction takes place in underground chambers or other hidden places, where the female lays strings of about 30 white, jelly-coated eggs. She then coils her body around the eggs and broods them until they hatch into larvae about  long. The larvae move out of the burrow and wriggle to pools or water courses that form in the wet season. They have three pairs of external feathery

text: gill

text: s, a

text: lateral line

text: system, and a tail fin which enables them to swim. The gills persist, but they have lost their lateral lines by the time they undergo a relatively slow

text: metamorphosis

text: at about nine months old.<ref name=Dunker>{{cite journal |author1=Dunker, Nicole |author2=Wake, Marvalee H. |author3=Olson, Wendy M. |year=2000 |title=Embryonic and Larval Development in the Caecilian Ichthyophis kohtaoensis (Amphibia, Gymnophiona): A Staging Table |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=243 |pages=3–34 |url=http://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/mwake/papers/156.pdf |doi=10.1002/(sici)1097-4687(200001)243:1

text: Macroscopic lesions in affected fish are typical of an acute systemic disease with strong congestion in the internal organs and different levels of hemorrhages in the swim bladder, intestine, liver, peritoneum, spleen and kidney. Also, enlargement of the spleen, focal areas of necrosis in the liver and spleen, pericarditis, hemorrhagic fluid in the intestine, and yellowish exudate covering the brain surface are typically observed.

text: An OR gene radiation co-existed during the time of reptile dominance approximately 200 million years ago. This occurrence would have likely signaled a major speciation event or adaptive shift in the prevalent organisms. The earliest tetrapods thrived in aquatic environments prior to making their initial transition to land. Correspondingly, modern amphibians too began in water before emerging on land as adults. This dual adaptation was selected for since early tetrapods and modern amphibians could reap the resources of both environments. As a result, modern amphibians possess olfactory organs that are specialized in detecting both volatile and water-soluble odors. Odorants in water are detected in a manner that is akin to fish, in which a respiratory pump is responsible for filling their nasal cavity with water.

text: An OR gene

text: radiation

text: co-existed during the time of reptile dominance approximately 200 million years ago. This occurrence would have likely signaled a major

text: speciation

text: event or adaptive shift in the prevalent organisms. The earliest

text: tetrapod

text: s thrived in aquatic environments prior to making their initial transition to land. Correspondingly, modern amphibians too began in water before emerging on land as adults. This dual adaptation was selected for since early tetrapods and modern amphibians could reap the resources of both environments. As a result, modern amphibians possess olfactory organs that are specialized in detecting both volatile and water-soluble odors. Odorants in water are detected in a manner that is akin to fish, in which a respiratory pump is responsible for filling their nasal cavity with water.

text: Recreational fishermen usually fish either from a boat or from a shoreline or river bank. When fishing from a boat, or fishing vessel, most fishing technique can be used, from nets to fish traps, but some form of angling is by far the most common. Compared to fishing from the land, fishing from a boat allows more access to different fishing grounds and different species of fish.

text: Recreational fishermen usually

text: fish

text: either from a

text: boat

text: or from a

text: shoreline

text: or

text: river bank

text: . When fishing from a boat, or

text: fishing vessel

text: , most

text: fishing technique

text: can be used, from

text: nets

text: to

text: fish trap

text: s, but some form of

text: angling

text: is by far the most common. Compared to fishing from the land, fishing from a boat allows more access to different fishing grounds and different species of fish.

text: All fish carry pathogens and parasites. Usually this is at some cost to the fish. If the cost is sufficiently high, then the impacts can be characterised as a disease. However disease in fish is not understood well. What is known about fish disease often relates to aquaria fish, and more recently, to farmed fish.

text: All fish carry

text: pathogen

text: s and

text: parasite

text: s. Usually this is at some cost to the fish. If the cost is sufficiently high, then the impacts can be characterised as a

text: disease

text: . However disease in fish is not understood well. What is known about fish disease often relates to

text: aquaria

text: fish, and more recently, to

text: farmed fish

text: Unless the structure is designed to maintain them, existing fish spawning pools will be impacted or lost.

text: BPA affects growth, reproduction, and development in aquatic organisms. Among freshwater organisms, fish appear to be the most sensitive species. Evidence of endocrine-related effects in fish, aquatic invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles has been reported at environmentally relevant exposure levels lower than those required for acute toxicity. There is a widespread variation in reported values for endocrine-related effects, but many fall in the range of 1μg/L to 1 mg/L.

text: Fish and other aquatic organisms are also processed into various food and non-food products, such as sharkskin leather, pigments made from the inky secretions of cuttlefish, isinglass used for the clarification of wine and beer, fish emulsion used as a fertilizer, fish glue, fish oil and fish meal.

text: Fish and other aquatic organisms are also processed into various food and non-food products, such as sharkskin leather, pigments made from the inky secretions of

text: cuttlefish

text: isinglass

text: used for the

text: clarification

text: of

text: wine

text: and

text: beer

text: fish emulsion

text: used as a

text: fertilizer

text: fish glue

text: fish oil

text: and

text: fish meal

text: During the free-spawning courtship ritual, the male swims beside and somewhat behind the female, nudges her with his mouth, then remains near her cloaca. Just before the spawning, the female begins to swim above the ocean floor toward the surface. At the highest point of their swim, they release the eggs and sperm before descending. Sometimes, the male pulls the eggs out of the female with his mouth. After mating, the partners depart quickly as otherwise the smaller male would likely be eaten. A few species are substrate-spawners, notably the genera Lophiocharon, Phyllophryne, and Rhycherus, which lay their eggs on a solid surface, such as a plant or rock. Some species guard their eggs, a duty assigned to the male in almost all species, while most others do not. Several species practice brood carrying, for example the three-spot frogfish, whose eggs are attached to the male, and those in the genus Histiophryne, whose brood are carried in the pectoral fins.

text: During the free-spawning courtship ritual, the male swims beside and somewhat behind the female, nudges her with his mouth, then remains near her

text: cloaca

text: . Just before the spawning, the female begins to swim above the ocean floor toward the surface. At the highest point of their swim, they release the eggs and sperm before descending. Sometimes, the male pulls the eggs out of the female with his mouth. After mating, the partners depart quickly as otherwise the smaller male would likely be eaten. A few species are substrate-spawners, notably the

text: genera

text: Lophiocharon

text: Phyllophryne

text: , and

text: Rhycherus

text: , which lay their eggs on a solid surface, such as a plant or rock. Some species guard their eggs, a duty assigned to the male in almost all species, while most others do not. Several species practice brood carrying, for example the

text: three-spot frogfish

text: , whose eggs are attached to the male, and those in the genus

text: Histiophryne

text: , whose brood are carried in the pectoral fins.

text: Since the Ergasilus females attack the gills of fish, a heavy infestation can cause severe damage and secondary infections, interfere with respiration, and sometimes kill the host. In some fisheries and aquacultural enterprises the mortality and morbidity among fish stocks can present serious economic and ecological problems.

text: Since the Ergasilus females attack the gills of fish, a heavy infestation can cause severe damage and secondary infections, interfere with respiration, and sometimes kill the host. In some fisheries and aquacultural enterprises the

text: mortality

text: and

text: morbidity

text: among fish stocks can present serious economic and ecological problems.

text: Longear sunfish, like additional members of the family Centrarchidae, are freshwater fish. They prefer streams with a firm clay bottom or gravel with clear waters and they typically stay nearby aquatic vegetation. Although more abundant near the sources of streams, sunfish can be found in water sources of all sizes and are also found in lakes. Longear sunfish usually reside in shallower, warmer headwaters of streams with a steady flow. They spend most of their time near aquatic vegetation, or other forms of cover such as roots, brush piles, and undercut banks. This allows for them to hide from potential predators. Sunfish species are especially intolerant to turbid waters. Human-induced changes to stream ecosystems could potentially disrupt the sunfish distribution. Destruction of aquatic vegetation from human runoff could destroy aquatic plants that are essential for the protection and cover of this species against predators. Chemical runoff into large rivers could also disturb the pH of the longear’s natural ecosystem.

text: Longear sunfish, like additional members of the family Centrarchidae, are

text: freshwater fish

text: . They prefer streams with a firm clay bottom or gravel with clear waters and they typically stay nearby

text: aquatic vegetation

text: . Although more abundant near the sources of streams, sunfish can be found in water sources of all sizes and are also found in lakes. Longear sunfish usually reside in shallower, warmer headwaters of streams with a steady flow. They spend most of their time near aquatic vegetation, or other forms of cover such as roots,

text: brush

text: piles, and

text: undercut bank

text: s. This allows for them to hide from potential predators. Sunfish species are especially intolerant to

text: turbid waters

text: . Human-induced changes to

text: stream ecosystem

text: s could potentially disrupt the sunfish distribution. Destruction of aquatic vegetation from human

text: runoff

text: could destroy aquatic plants that are essential for the protection and cover of this species against predators. Chemical runoff into large rivers could also disturb the

text: pH

text: of the longear’s natural ecosystem.

text: Dimidiochromis compressiceps may be a non-territorial open-water predator, but also an ambush predator.  Their laterally-compressed bodies are an adaptation that permits them to hide amongst aquatic plants and dart out to grasp prey as it passes. These cichlids are mainly piscivorous, especially on small fish  and are nearly unique among fish species in that they that swallow their prey tail-first instead of flipping it around head-first.

text: Dimidiochromis compressiceps may be a non-territorial open-water predator, but also an ambush predator.  Their laterally-compressed bodies are an adaptation that permits them to hide amongst aquatic plants and dart out to grasp prey as it passes. These cichlids are mainly

text: piscivorous

text: , especially on small fish  and are nearly unique among fish species in that they that swallow their prey tail-first instead of flipping it around head-first.

text: No management plan is in place for this species, as it not listed as threatened or endangered in Tennessee or federally. Because population statistics of this fish are unknown, it is hard to know the state of current populations and if they are in threat or could become so. As with any aquatic species it is important to mitigate human effects on river dynamics to reduce damage to populations. To ensure the sustainability of E. bison and other fish like it, the effects of erosion due to urbanization and agriculture and the construction of dams need to be controlled. Siltation is a huge issue for small benthic fish such as these darters' it can cause physical ailments and behavioral changes.

text: In the parable, a graduate student is sent to noted biologist Louis Agassiz to complete his education, and Agassiz asks the student three times to describe a sunfish specimen. The student replies with, in turn, the common name of the fish, a brief summary of the species, and a four-page essay on the species. Agassiz finally tells the student to "look at the fish" and "[a]t the end of three weeks the fish was in an advanced state of decomposition, but the student knew something about it." The text of the parable itself spans 131 words over sixteen lines and is often reproduced in full when cited.

text: In the parable, a graduate student is sent to noted biologist

text: Louis Agassiz

text: to complete his education, and Agassiz asks the student three times to describe a sunfish specimen. The student replies with, in turn, the common name of the fish, a brief summary of the species, and a four-page essay on the species. Agassiz finally tells the student to "look at the fish" and "[a]t the end of three weeks the fish was in an advanced state of decomposition, but the student knew something about it." The text of the parable itself spans 131 words over sixteen lines and is often reproduced in full when cited.

text: Spawning is always initialised by females. They either move into the territory of a male and begin to spawn by themselves or are attracted by a male performing courtship behaviour: When a male is ready to spawn but no female is close, it swims loops from the ground upwards; these loops are directed horizontally in absence of a female and towards an attracted female when the attraction behaviour is successful .If undisturbed, a female spawns all mature eggs in one spawning session (thus, with the same male), and a male may fertilize up to 490 eggs a day . One complete spawning session lasts for 45-105 min and each egg is laid individually. Spawning consists of two phases per egg: In the first phase, the female wriggles its whole body while slowly swimming over the substrate, scanning it for suitable nesting sites with its genital papilla. Once it found a suitable place to spawn the wriggling movements increase in frequency and decrease in amplitude and the first dorsal fin is spread. The male, which has either been sitting on the substrate near the female or swimming circles around her during the first phase, then moves closer and both tremble when releasing their gametes. Once the egg is laid and fertilized, the male jumps away from the female, which repeats phase 1. To further stimulate the female, the male frequently swims in the shape of an 8 in front of the female. Spawning finishes when the female leaves the territory of the male or stops wriggling for more than 20 seconds, after which it is driven off by the male .

text: Fish that are ready for spawning are usually lean and have to eat a lot of food in order to increase their energy levels as quickly as possible. After completion of the spawning process, the fish return to the sea. Mass mortality after spawning, as is common in some species of salmon, is not usual. Once back in the sea, the fish regain their weight and lose their brown spawning colouring.

text: A jigging motion can be used to attract fish which are normally caught while trying to strike the lure but they can also be snagged by the hooks as they investigate the jigged lure. The lure can also be fished motionless and the angler feels for the bait to be picked up by a fish and then sets the hook after waiting for the fish to fully take the bait. After a strike occurs the hook is set and then the fish is hauled in and the caught fish is removed.

text: A

text: jigging

text: motion can be used to attract fish which are normally caught while trying to strike the lure but they can also be snagged by the hooks as they investigate the jigged lure. The lure can also be fished motionless and the angler feels for the bait to be picked up by a fish and then sets the hook after waiting for the fish to fully take the bait. After a strike occurs the hook is set and then the fish is hauled in and the caught fish is removed.

text: Stretham is in output area classification zones (CGM) one through five; mainly classified as type three-C, accessible countryside, though about one third of the area is classed as three-A, village life. In both these classifications, most residents work from home employed in agriculture of fishing. The areas in this classification are less densely populated than other areas of the country. The usually detached households generally have two or more cars. Varied ethnic backgrounds are less likely in such areas.

text: Fishing tackle can be contrasted with fishing techniques. Fishing tackle refers to the physical equipment that is used when fishing, whereas fishing techniques refers to the manner in which the tackle is used when fishing.

text: Fishing tackle can be contrasted with

text: fishing techniques

text: . Fishing tackle refers to the physical equipment that is used when fishing, whereas fishing techniques refers to the manner in which the tackle is used when fishing.

text: The plant's development included a high-tech fish ladder intended to promote fish migration, especially salmon. Fish numbers in the river are higher than before, but time has shown that although the presence of a ladder is better than not having one, the dam—as do all unnatural river obstructions—has had a detrimental impact on natural resources. Although hydroelectric power has often been billed as a sustainable green energy source, continued sustainability relies on developing better ways of supporting nature, fish habitat and fundamental ecological services.

text: The plant's development included a high-tech

text: fish ladder

text: intended to promote fish migration, especially

text: salmon

text: . Fish numbers in the river are higher than before, but time has shown that although the presence of a ladder is better than not having one, the dam—as do all unnatural river obstructions—has had a detrimental impact on natural resources. Although hydroelectric power has often been billed as a sustainable

text: green energy

text: source, continued sustainability relies on developing better ways of supporting nature, fish habitat and fundamental ecological services.

text: The dissenting opinion suggests that the plurality opinion acknowledges that a tangible object is "a discrete thing that possesses physical form." Kagan continues this line of argument by holding that a fish "is, of course, a discrete thing that possesses physical form," citing Dr. Seuss's book One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish (1960) as general evidence. Kagan's view is that under the "ordinary meaning of the term," a tangible object in §1519 covers fish (including undersized red grouper).

text: The dissenting opinion suggests that the plurality opinion acknowledges that a tangible object is "a discrete thing that possesses physical form." Kagan continues this line of argument by holding that a fish "is, of course, a discrete thing that possesses physical form," citing

text: Dr. Seuss

text: 's book

text: One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish

text: (1960) as general evidence. Kagan's view is that under the "ordinary meaning of the term," a tangible object in §1519 covers fish (including undersized red grouper).

text: Fishing bait is any substance used to attract and catch fish, e.g. on the end of a fishing hook, or inside a fish trap. Traditionally, nightcrawlers, insects, and smaller bait fish have been used for this purpose. Fishermen have also begun using plastic bait and more recently, electronic lures, to attract fish.

text: Fishing bait is any substance used to attract and catch

text: fish

text: , e.g. on the end of a

text: fishing hook

text: , or inside a

text: fish trap

text: . Traditionally,

text: nightcrawlers

text: insect

text: s, and smaller

text: bait fish

text: have been used for this purpose. Fishermen have also begun using

text: plastic bait

text: and more recently, electronic

text: lure

text: s, to attract fish.

text: Recruitment of fish is regulated by larval fish survival. Survival is regulated by prey abundance, predation, and hydrology. Fish eggs and larvae are eaten by many marine organisms. For example, they may be fed upon by marine invertebrates, such as copepods, arrow worms, jellyfish, amphipods, marine snails and  krill. Because they are so abundant, marine invertebrates inflict high overall mortality rates. Adult fish also prey on fish eggs and larvae. For example, haddock were observed satiating themselves with herring eggs back in 1922. Another study found cod in a herring spawning area with 20,000 herring eggs in their stomachs, and concluded that they could prey on half of the total egg production. Fish also cannibalise their own eggs. For example, separate studies found northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) were responsible for 28% of the mortality in their own egg population, while Peruvian anchoveta were responsible for 10% and South African anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) 70%.

text: Recruitment

text: of fish is regulated by larval fish survival. Survival is regulated by prey abundance, predation, and

text: hydrology

text: . Fish eggs and larvae are eaten by many marine organisms. For example, they may be fed upon by

text: marine invertebrate

text: s, such as

text: copepod

text: s,

text: arrow worm

text: s,

text: jellyfish

text: amphipod

text: s,

text: marine snail

text: s and

text: krill

text: . Because they are so abundant, marine invertebrates inflict high overall mortality rates. Adult fish also prey on fish eggs and larvae. For example,

text: haddock

text: were observed satiating themselves with

text: herring

text: eggs back in 1922. Another study found

text: cod

text: in a herring spawning area with 20,000 herring eggs in their stomachs, and concluded that they could prey on half of the total egg production. Fish also cannibalise their own eggs. For example, separate studies found northern anchovy (

text: Engraulis mordax

text: ) were responsible for 28% of the mortality in their own egg population, while

text: Peruvian anchoveta

text: were responsible for 10% and South African anchovy (

text: Engraulis encrasicolus

text: ) 70%.

text: One of the most important aspects of hatchery rearing is obtaining and maintaining broodstock. Broodstock must be conditioned so to stimulate gonad development leading up to spawning and much research has been devoted to identifying the best diets and water quality requirements for broodstock. Once broodstock have been conditioned, spawning can be induced. This is most commonly achieved by varying water temperature, increasing water circulation, or by an injection of serotonin (a neurotransmitter). Following spawning, scallop eggs will develop into the “D” larval (shelled) stage in 2 to 4 days post-fertilization. As larvae, they continue to grow and can be fed a variety of microalgal diets with mixed algal diets being reported as giving higher growth rates than single species diets. Settlement of larvae in hatcheries typically occurs between 35 and 45 days after fertilization of the scallop eggs when larvae are approximately 250 μm in size. Following settlement, the larvae undergo metamorphosis where they rearrange their body form to begin their life as a seafloor dwelling juvenile scallop. Mortality rates are often highest during metamorphosis as larvae go through a series of behavioral and anatomical changes such as loss of the velum (the larval feeding structure) and development of new filter-feeding mechanisms and gills. Post-settlement spat may be further grown in nursery tanks before being transferred to an on-growing system such as pearl nets.

text: One of the most important aspects of hatchery rearing is obtaining and maintaining broodstock.

text: Broodstock

text: must be conditioned so to stimulate gonad development leading up to spawning and much research has been devoted to identifying the best diets and water quality requirements for broodstock. Once broodstock have been conditioned, spawning can be induced. This is most commonly achieved by varying water temperature, increasing water circulation, or by an injection of

text: serotonin

text: (a

text: neurotransmitter

text: ). Following spawning, scallop eggs will develop into the “D” larval (shelled) stage in 2 to 4 days post-

text: fertilization

text: . As larvae, they continue to grow and can be fed a variety of microalgal diets with mixed algal diets being reported as giving higher growth rates than single species diets. Settlement of larvae in hatcheries typically occurs between 35 and 45 days after fertilization of the scallop eggs when

text: larvae

text: are approximately 250 μm in size. Following settlement, the larvae undergo metamorphosis where they rearrange their body form to begin their life as a seafloor dwelling juvenile scallop. Mortality rates are often highest during metamorphosis as larvae go through a series of behavioral and anatomical changes such as loss of the velum (the larval feeding structure) and development of new filter-feeding mechanisms and

text: gills

text: . Post-settlement spat may be further grown in nursery tanks before being transferred to an on-growing system such as pearl nets.

text: Atlantic salmon fishing is restricted to fly fishing only and all large salmon caught must be released alive to protect the spawning population.  Since this fishery is highly regulated, all anglers should contact the New Brunswick Dept. of Natural Resources to obtain the specific rules and regulations for each river and tributary in the Province of New Brunswick prior to fishing, as special licences, salmon "tags" and permits are required, and certain sections of tributaries and the main river are closed to fishing from time to time to protect salmon brood stocks.

text: Leftvents are presumed not to be guarders (that is, they do not care for eggs after release), with females releasing buoyant eggs into the water, which become part of the zooplankton; these may be contained within gelatinous rafts. The larvae remain near the shallower limits of the mesopelagic zone where they presumably feed on plankton and marine snow. The larval epidermis is greatly inflated; this may help the larvae maintain neutral buoyancy. Upon metamorphosis, the fish descend to deeper water. Males likely outnumber females by a wide margin, and physically mature more quickly, though as noted above they do not mature sexually until they attach to a female.

text: Leftvents are presumed not to be guarders (that is, they do not care for eggs after release), with females releasing buoyant

text: eggs

text: into the water, which become part of the

text: zooplankton

text: ; these may be contained within gelatinous rafts. The larvae remain near the shallower limits of the mesopelagic zone where they presumably feed on plankton and

text: marine snow

text: . The larval

text: epidermis

text: is greatly inflated; this may help the larvae maintain neutral

text: buoyancy

text: . Upon metamorphosis, the fish descend to deeper water. Males likely outnumber females by a wide margin, and physically mature more quickly, though as noted above they do not mature sexually until they attach to a female.

text: Aquatic plants are plants that have adapted to living in aquatic environments (saltwater or freshwater). They are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes. These plants require special adaptations for living submerged in water, or at the water's surface. The most common adaptation is aerenchyma, but floating leaves and finely dissected leaves are also common. Aquatic plants can only grow in water or in soil that is permanently saturated with water. They are therefore a common component of wetlands.

text: Aquatic plants are

text: plant

text: s that have adapted to living in aquatic environments (

text: saltwater

text: or

text: freshwater

text: ). They are also referred to as hydrophytes or

text: macrophytes

text: . These plants require special adaptations for living submerged in

text: water

text: , or at the water's surface. The most common adaptation is

text: aerenchyma

text: , but floating leaves and finely dissected leaves are also common. Aquatic plants can only grow in water or in

text: soil

text: that is permanently saturated with water. They are therefore a common component of wetlands.

text: In the cichlid species Tropheus moorii, a male and female will form a temporary monogamous pair bond and spawn, after which the female leaves to mouthbrood the eggs on her own. T. moorii broods exhibit genetic monogamy (all eggs in a brood are fertilized by a single male).

text: In the cichlid species

text: Tropheus moorii

text: , a male and female will form a temporary monogamous pair bond and spawn, after which the female leaves to

text: mouthbrood

text: the eggs on her own. T. moorii broods exhibit

text: genetic monogamy

text: (all eggs in a brood are fertilized by a single male).

text: Carriger Creek is studied by the Sonoma Ecology Center and the Southern Sonoma County Resource Conservation District.  Steelhead migration and spawning occur in Carriger Creek.  Ongoing stream bank stabilization and riparian revegetation is being conducted in the creek to prevent erosion and enhance fish and wildlife habitat.  The major correction required was compensation for a poorly conceived concrete ford historically constructed for access to the Van Hoosear Wildflower Preserve; this concrete structure led to severe downstream downcutting and resultant denial of fish passage.  According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Carriger Creek was a "renowned steelhead fishery" prior to the ecological damage of human modification of the streambed.  Besides eliminating the downcutting by creating a fish ladder, restoration work will also result in use of rip-rap for certain streambank stabilization.

text: Carriger Creek is studied by the Sonoma Ecology Center and the Southern Sonoma County Resource Conservation District.

text: Steelhead

text: migration and

text: spawning

text: occur in Carriger Creek.  Ongoing stream bank stabilization and riparian revegetation is being conducted in the creek to prevent erosion and enhance fish and wildlife

text: habitat

text: .  The major correction required was compensation for a poorly conceived concrete ford historically constructed for access to the

text: Van Hoosear Wildflower Preserve

text: ; this concrete structure led to severe downstream downcutting and resultant denial of fish passage.  According to the

entity_name: United States Environmental Protection Agency

text: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

text: , Carriger Creek was a "renowned steelhead fishery" prior to the ecological damage of human modification of the streambed.  Besides eliminating the downcutting by creating a

text: fish ladder

text: , restoration work will also result in use of

text: rip-rap

text: for certain streambank stabilization.

text: Fishing vessels are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in size and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized by several criteria: architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging. As of 2004, the world's fishing fleet consisted of some 4 million vessels.  Of these, 1.3 million were decked vessels with enclosed areas and the rest were open vessels.  Most decked vessels were mechanized, but two-thirds of the open vessels were traditional craft propelled by sails and oars.  More than 60% of all existing large fishing vessels were built in Japan, Peru, the Russian Federation, Spain or the United States of America.

text: Fishing vessel

text: s are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in size and often subject to different regulations and classification. They can be categorized by several criteria: architecture, the type of fish they catch, the fishing method used, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging. As of 2004, the world's fishing fleet consisted of some 4 million vessels.  Of these, 1.3 million were decked vessels with enclosed areas and the rest were open vessels.  Most decked vessels were mechanized, but two-thirds of the open vessels were traditional craft propelled by sails and oars.  More than 60% of all existing large fishing vessels were built in Japan, Peru, the Russian Federation, Spain or the United States of America.

text: In fishery management, a spawning bed is an artificial bed constructed by wildlife professionals in order to improve the ability of desired game fish to reproduce.  Increasing the spawning ability of a fish population may reduce pressure on a fishery and improve the productivity of supplemental stocking from fish hatcheries.

text: In

text: fishery management

text: , a spawning bed is an artificial bed constructed by wildlife professionals in order to improve the ability of desired game fish to reproduce.  Increasing the spawning ability of a fish population may reduce pressure on a fishery and improve the productivity of supplemental stocking from

text: fish hatcheries

text: Throughout "A Fish Called Selma", it is hinted that McClure engages in strange sexual behavior. The writers did not initially know what the "unsavory" sexual preference would be, but eventually decided on a fish fetish, using a suggestion from executive producer James L. Brooks. Josh Weinstein described the fish fetish concept as "so perverted and strange, it was over the top".

text: Throughout "A Fish Called Selma", it is hinted that McClure engages in strange sexual behavior. The writers did not initially know what the "unsavory" sexual preference would be, but eventually decided on a fish fetish, using a suggestion from executive producer

text: James L. Brooks

text: . Josh Weinstein described the fish fetish concept as "so perverted and strange, it was over the top".

text: Both sexes guard territories, some maintaining a territory for eight years or longer (males holding territories for significantly longer than females). A typical male territory may overlap with one to five female territories, and their mating system is described as haremic, although not much is known about this (similar mating systems are seen in other Balistidae species). If a male or female is removed or disappears their territories are soon taken over by a new fish. They reproduce repeatedly over their lifetimes.

text: Both sexes guard territories, some maintaining a territory for eight years or longer (males holding territories for significantly longer than females). A typical male territory may overlap with one to five female territories, and their mating system is described as haremic, although not much is known about this (similar mating systems are seen in other

text: Balistidae

text: species). If a male or female is removed or disappears their territories are soon taken over by a new fish. They reproduce repeatedly over their lifetimes.

text: Most fish possess highly developed sense organs. Nearly all daylight fish have color vision that is at least as good as a human's (see vision in fishes). Many fish also have chemoreceptors that are responsible for extraordinary senses of taste and smell. Although they have ears, many fish may not hear very well. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Some fish, such as catfish and sharks, have organs that detect weak electric currents on the order of  millivolt. Other fish, like the South American electric fishes Gymnotiformes, can produce weak electric currents, which they use in navigation and social communication.

text: vision in fishes

text: lateral line system

text: , which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Some fish, such as catfish and sharks, have organs that detect weak electric currents on the order of  millivolt. Other fish, like the South American electric fishes

text: Gymnotiformes

text: , can produce weak electric currents, which they use in navigation and social communication.

text: The season lasts from October to March, during which the fish swim upstream to lay their eggs and reproduce. Thus the season is critical for the maintenance of fish populations in the waters of the local rivers and lakes. Both of the Brazilian states prohibit fishing during this period.

text: The season lasts from October to March, during which the fish swim upstream to lay their

text: eggs

text: and reproduce. Thus the season is critical for the maintenance of fish populations in the waters of the local

text: river

text: s and

text: lake

text: s. Both of the Brazilian states prohibit

text: fishing

text: during this period.

text: Fishing allowed statehood new area - the Gulf of Aqaba. Eilat fishermen began working groups have been since 1949. Gradually increased the number of groups tuna fishermen fished Plimda also increased gradually seized. The peak was in 1959 in which 540 tons of fish caught, but from 1960 began to decline in the amount of fish caught. In 1963, the fishing pier was built in Eilat by a Turkish fisherman named Mehmet Şevki Alev, but processes such as growth in tourism, shipping and trading bands have gone the fish from the shores of Eilat. Six Day War has expanded the area while fishing the Gulf of Eilat and the seats "Dee gold" and "hypocrisy" have achieved a variety of fine fish, but the agreement with Egypt in 1980 reduced the fishing area off again only to Eilat. Today the fishing industry is edging Eilat fish market in the country.

text: While governments can create regulations to control people's behaviours this can be undermined by illegal fishing activity. Estimates of the size of the illegal catch range from 11 to 26 million tonnes, which represents 14-33% of the world's reported catch. Illegal fishing can take many forms. In some developing countries, large numbers of poor people are dependent on fishing. It can prove difficult to regulate this kind of overfishing, especially for weak governments. Even in regulated environments, illegal fishing may occur. While industrial fishing is often effectively controlled, smaller scale and recreational fishermen can often break regulations such as bag limits and seasonal closures. Fisherman can also easily fish illegally by doing things such as underreporting the amount of fish they caught or reporting that they caught one type of fish while actually catching another. There is also a large problem with surveillance of illegal fishing activity. In 2001, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), passed the International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (IPOA-IUU). This is an agreement with the intention to stop port states from allowing boats to dock that participated in illegal, unreported or unregulated fishing. It also gives details for port states on effective measures of inspecting and reporting illegal fishing. Some illegal fishing takes place on an industrial scale with financed commercial operations.

text: While governments can create regulations to control people's behaviours this can be undermined by

entity_name: Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

text: illegal fishing activity

text: . Estimates of the size of the illegal catch range from 11 to 26 million tonnes, which represents 14-33% of the world's reported catch. Illegal fishing can take many forms. In some developing countries, large numbers of poor people are dependent on fishing. It can prove difficult to regulate this kind of overfishing, especially for weak governments. Even in regulated environments, illegal fishing may occur. While industrial fishing is often effectively controlled, smaller scale and recreational fishermen can often break regulations such as

text: bag limit

text: s and seasonal closures. Fisherman can also easily fish illegally by doing things such as underreporting the amount of fish they caught or reporting that they caught one type of fish while actually catching another. There is also a large problem with surveillance of illegal fishing activity. In 2001, the UN

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: (FAO), passed the International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (IPOA-IUU). This is an agreement with the intention to stop port states from allowing boats to dock that participated in illegal, unreported or unregulated fishing. It also gives details for port states on effective measures of inspecting and reporting illegal fishing. Some illegal fishing takes place on an industrial scale with financed commercial operations.

text: Common in the aquarium trade, the coral catshark is regarded as well-suited to home aquariums because of its small size, hardiness, and attractive appearance. It requires a tank at least 2 metres long, with sufficiently deep hiding places. This shark tends to be more aggressive than other small sharks, often attacking tankmates larger than it can consume. Captive individuals have been known to live up to 20 years, and the species has reproduced in the aquarium. Small numbers of coral catsharks are caught incidentally by artisanal reef fishers in eastern Indonesia and likely elsewhere; it may be sold for meat or processed for fishmeal and liver oil, but its size limits its economic importance. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed this species as Near Threatened, and notes that with more data it may meet the criteria for Vulnerable. It is likely threatened by the rising fishing pressure throughout its range, as well as by widespread habitat degradation from blast fishing, pollution, and the mining of coral for use as building material.

text: Common in the

text: aquarium trade

text: , the coral catshark is regarded as well-suited to home aquariums because of its small size, hardiness, and attractive appearance. It requires a tank at least 2 metres long, with sufficiently deep hiding places. This shark tends to be more aggressive than other small sharks, often attacking tankmates larger than it can consume. Captive individuals have been known to live up to 20 years, and the species has reproduced in the aquarium. Small numbers of coral catsharks are

text: caught incidentally

text: by

text: artisanal

text: reef fishers in eastern

text: Indonesia

text: and likely elsewhere; it may be sold for meat or processed for

text: fishmeal

text: and

text: liver oil

text: , but its size limits its economic importance. The

entity_name: International Union for Conservation of Nature

text: International Union for Conservation of Nature

text: (IUCN) has assessed this species as

text: Near Threatened

text: , and notes that with more data it may meet the criteria for

text: Vulnerable

text: . It is likely threatened by the rising fishing pressure throughout its range, as well as by widespread

text: habitat degradation

text: from

text: blast fishing

text: pollution

text: , and the mining of coral for use as building material.

text: Ethnoichthyology can be very useful to the study and investigation of environmental changes caused by anthropogenic factors, such as the decline of fish stocks, the disappearance of fish species, and the introduction of non-native species of fish in certain environments. Ethnoichthyological knowledge can be used to create environmental conservation strategies. With a sound knowledge of fish ecology, informed decisions with respect to fishing practices can be made, and destructive environmental practices can be avoided. Ethnoichthyological knowledge can be the difference between conserving a species of fish, or placing a moratorium on fishing.

text: Ethnoichthyology can be very useful to the study and investigation of environmental changes caused by anthropogenic factors, such as the decline of fish stocks, the disappearance of fish species, and the introduction of non-native species of fish in certain environments. Ethnoichthyological knowledge can be used to create environmental conservation strategies. With a sound knowledge of fish ecology, informed decisions with respect to fishing practices can be made, and destructive environmental practices can be avoided. Ethnoichthyological knowledge can be the difference between conserving a species of fish, or placing a

text: moratorium

text: on fishing.

text: Endrin is very toxic to aquatic organisms, namely fish, aquatic invertebrates, and phytoplankton. It was found to remain in the tissues of infected fish for up to one month.

text: Endrin is very toxic to aquatic organisms, namely

text: fish

text: , aquatic

text: invertebrate

text: s, and

text: phytoplankton

text: . It was found to

text: remain in the tissues

text: of infected fish for up to one month.

text: Jug fishing is an unlimited class tackle method of fishing that uses lines suspended from floating jugs to catch fish in lakes or rivers.  Often, a large number of jugs are used when jug fishing.  In many states a fisherman could use up to twenty, and jug sets of around twenty are common in practice.  Jug fishing is most common in southern states where many different kinds of people jug fish. Jugs are often put out at sunset and picked up at sunrise by the whole family. Jug fishing consists of a simple setup where lines are tied onto jugs and weights can be added to the line to keep the jug's location fixed.  Jug fishing is also subjected to numerous Department of Natural Resources and local water regulations that could include: the number of jugs, dates and times when jug fishing is allowed, and if jug fishing is even allowed.  Many fish can be caught on jugs, but the main target of jug fishing is often catfish.

text: Jug fishing is an unlimited class tackle method of fishing that uses lines suspended from floating jugs to catch fish in lakes or rivers.  Often, a large number of jugs are used when jug fishing.  In many states a fisherman could use up to twenty, and jug sets of around twenty are common in practice.  Jug fishing is most common in southern states where many different kinds of people jug fish. Jugs are often put out at sunset and picked up at sunrise by the whole family. Jug fishing consists of a simple setup where lines are tied onto jugs and weights can be added to the line to keep the jug's location fixed.  Jug fishing is also subjected to numerous

entity_name: List of environmental agencies in the United States

text: Department of Natural Resources

text: and local water regulations that could include: the number of jugs, dates and times when jug fishing is allowed, and if jug fishing is even allowed.  Many fish can be caught on jugs, but the main target of jug fishing is often

text: catfish

text: This species is caught and sold as a food fish. Because of its market value it is studied for its potential as a farmed fish in the aquaculture industry. It is easy to rear in captivity, it can be raised on fish food rather than live prey, and it has a good feed conversion ratio, efficiently turning feed into meat. So far researchers have achieved "massive production of juveniles" in the laboratory, and viable methods for commercial production are being studied. In one successful trial, fat snook were grown from eggs placed in a substrate of Nannochloropsis algae, and the larvae that hatched were reared on a diet of rotifers and brine shrimp larvae. They were then "weaned" to a high-protein dry diet.

text: This species is caught and sold as a

text: food fish

text: . Because of its market value it is studied for its potential as a

text: farmed fish

text: in the

text: aquaculture

text: industry. It is easy to rear in captivity, it can be raised on fish food rather than live prey, and it has a good

text: feed conversion ratio

text: , efficiently turning feed into meat. So far researchers have achieved "massive production of juveniles" in the laboratory, and viable methods for commercial production are being studied. In one successful trial, fat snook were grown from eggs placed in a substrate of

text: Nannochloropsis

text: algae, and the larvae that hatched were reared on a diet of

text: rotifer

text: s and

text: brine shrimp

text: larvae. They were then "weaned" to a high-protein dry diet.

text: Fertilization rates were high for all gamete combinations, thus no evidence of gamete incompatibility between the species was noted. The larvae were reared according to the methods employed for A. planci and developed through the typical larval stages of bipinnaria and brachiolaria. Numbers of late-stage larvae were  10-29% of the original numbers of eggs, except for the A. brevispinus batch in which only a few normal late brachiolaria were seen. The subsequent development of the A planci batch and reciprocal hybrid batches followed the typical pattern of A. planci. There was settlement and metamorphosis into a five-armed starfish, 0.4–1  mm in diameter. They fed on encrusting algae. Many failed to develop normally, and six weeks after metamorphosis, 60 A. planci, 30 A. planci hybrids, six A. brevispinus hybrids, and no A. brevispinus starfish remained. It was impossible to distinguish the hybrids from A. planci during the early months of development, but when the hybrids were 200 mm in diameter, they were conspicuously different from this species. Hybrids showed intermediate features between the parent species. Spines were the immediately obvious feature, being intermediate in length between the species. In other features that distinguish A. planci and A. brevispinus, the hybrids were intermediate. The hybrids were variable, but no consistent differences were found between the two hybrids. Juvenile A. planci animals tended to have a 'bull's-eye' pattern on their aboral disks and this persisted in some adults. One of three adult A. brevispinus hybrids showed this pattern. None of the 12 adult A. planci hybrids showed it. None of the hybrids showed the pale marks between the bases of the arms that are characteristic of A. brevispinus.

text: The variation in standards, as well as the unknown level of actual compliance and the closeness of investigations when certifying are major problems in consistent organic certification. In 2010, new rules were proposed in the European Union to consistently define the organic aquaculture industry. Canada's General Standards Board’s (CGSB) proposed updates to their standards were strongly opposed in 2010 because they allowed antibiotic and chemical treatments of fish, up to 30 percent non-organic feed, deadly and uncontrolled impacts on wild species and unrestrained disposal of fish feces into the ocean. These standards would have certified net pen systems as organic. At the other end of the scale, the extremely strict national legislation in Denmark has made it difficult for the existing organic trout industry to develop.

text: The Port Noarlunga Reef Aquatic Reserve is one of six aquatic reserves proclaimed in South Australia in 1971 with it being established specifically to protect the reef life and the adjacent river estuary.  The boundaries of the reserve were extended to the north in 1993 to include an adjacent limestone reef known as Horseshoe Reef at Christies Beach.  As of 2007, it extends along the coastline from Onkaparinga Head at Port Noarlunga South in the south to Gulfview Road at Christies Beach in the north and includes the Onkaparinga River up until the Main South Road at Old Noarlunga.  The reserve covers an area of .  Fishing activity is limited to the use of rod and handline while the use of ‘hand nets for the taking of shrimps for bait only’ is permitted in estuary and the Onkaparinga River.  No fishing is permitted within  of Horseshoe and Port Noarlunga Reefs and can only be carried out from the jetty and the beach at Port Noarlunga.

text: The Port Noarlunga Reef Aquatic Reserve is one of six

text: aquatic reserves

text: proclaimed in South Australia in 1971 with it being established specifically to protect the reef life and the adjacent river estuary.  The boundaries of the reserve were extended to the north in 1993 to include an adjacent limestone reef known as Horseshoe Reef at

text: Christies Beach

text: .  As of 2007, it extends along the coastline from Onkaparinga Head at

text: Port Noarlunga South

text: in the south to Gulfview Road at Christies Beach in the north and includes the

text: Onkaparinga River

text: up until the

text: Main South Road

text: at

text: Old Noarlunga

text: .  The reserve covers an area of .  Fishing activity is limited to the use of

text: rod and handline

text: while the use of ‘hand nets for the taking of shrimps for bait only’ is permitted in estuary and the Onkaparinga River.  No fishing is permitted within  of Horseshoe and Port Noarlunga Reefs and can only be carried out from the jetty and the beach at Port Noarlunga.

text: A macrophyte is an aquatic plant that grows in or near water and is either emergent, submergent, or floating, and includes helophytes (a plant that grows in marsh, partly submerged in water, so that it regrows from buds below the water surface). In lakes and rivers macrophytes provide cover for fish and substrate for aquatic invertebrates, produce oxygen, and act as food for some fish and wildlife.

text: A macrophyte is an

text: aquatic plant

text: that grows in or near water and is either emergent, submergent, or floating, and includes helophytes (a plant that grows in

text: marsh

text: , partly submerged in water, so that it regrows from

text: bud

text: s below the water surface). In lakes and rivers macrophytes provide cover for

text: fish

text: and

text: substrate

text: for

text: aquatic

text: invertebrate

text: s, produce

text: oxygen

text: , and act as food for some fish and wildlife.

text: Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen of water. This can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and other aquatic organisms. Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not changed. An increased metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result, food chains of the old and new environments may be compromised. Some fish species will avoid stream segments or coastal areas adjacent to a thermal discharge. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result.

text: Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of

text: dissolved oxygen

text: of water. This can harm aquatic animals such as fish,

text: amphibians

text: and other aquatic organisms. Thermal pollution may also increase the

text: metabolic

text: rate of aquatic animals, as

text: enzyme

text: activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not changed. An increased metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result,

text: food chain

text: s of the old and new environments may be compromised. Some fish species will avoid stream segments or coastal areas adjacent to a thermal discharge.

text: Biodiversity

text: can be decreased as a result.

text: A fishing lure is a type of artificial fishing bait which is designed to attract a fish's attention. The lure uses movement, vibration, flash and color to bait fish. Many lures are equipped with one or more hooks that are used to catch fish when they strike the lure. Some lures are placed to attract fish so a spear can be impaled into the fish or so the fish can be captured by hand. Most lures are attached to the end of a fishing line and have various styles of hooks attached to the body and are designed to elicit a strike resulting in a hookset. Many lures are commercially made but some are hand made such as fishing flies. Hand tying fly lures to match the hatch is considered a challenge by many amateur entomologists.

text: A fishing lure is a type of artificial

text: fishing bait

text: which is designed to attract a

text: fish

text: 's attention. The lure uses movement, vibration, flash and color to

text: bait

text: fish. Many lures are equipped with one or more

text: hooks

text: that are used to catch fish when they strike the lure. Some lures are placed to attract fish so a spear can be impaled into the fish or so the fish can be captured by

text: hand

text: . Most lures are attached to the end of a

text: fishing line

text: and have various styles of hooks attached to the body and are designed to elicit a strike resulting in a hookset. Many lures are commercially made but some are hand made such as

text: fishing flies

text: . Hand tying fly lures to match the hatch is considered a challenge by many amateur

text: entomologists

text: Many water beetles carry an air bubble, called the elytra cavity, underneath their abdomens, which provides an air supply, and prevents water from getting into the spiracles. Others have the surface of their exoskeleton modified to form a plastron, or "physical gill", which permits direct gas exchange with the water. Some families of water beetles have fringed hind legs adapted for swimming, but most do not. Most families of water beetles have larvae that are also aquatic; many have aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults.

text: Many water beetles carry an air bubble, called the elytra cavity, underneath their abdomens, which provides an air supply, and prevents water from getting into the

text: spiracle

text: s. Others have the surface of their

text: exoskeleton

text: modified to form a

text: plastron

text: , or "physical gill", which permits direct gas exchange with the water. Some families of water beetles have fringed hind legs adapted for swimming, but most do not. Most families of water beetles have larvae that are also aquatic; many have aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults.

text: created by the damwhich has become very popular for water sports and fishing. Ecologically the varying depth of inundated islands on the bottom of the lake create a succession of valuable varied habitats that support numerous fresh water feeder fish, pan fish, and large predatory game fish species and so loss in bird-small animal habitat was replaced by and large, in freshwater marine habitats.

text: created by the damwhich has become very popular for water sports and fishing. Ecologically the varying depth of inundated islands on the bottom of the lake create a succession of valuable varied habitats that support numerous fresh water feeder fish, pan fish, and large predatory

text: game fish

text: species and so loss in bird-small animal habitat was replaced by and large, in freshwater marine habitats.

text: When he was barely an adult, his stepmother threw him out of the house. Shun was forced to live on his own. Yet, because of his compassionate nature and his natural leadership skills, everywhere he went, people followed him, and he was able to organize the people to be kind to each other and do the best they could. When Shun first went to a village that produced pottery, after less than one year, the pottery became more beautiful than they had ever been. When Shun went to a fishing village, the people there were at first fighting amongst themselves over the fishing grounds, and many people were injured or killed in the fights. Shun taught them how to share and allocate the fishing resources, and soon the village was prospering and all hostilities ceased.

text: When the larvae have reached a suitable site for settlement, the metamorphosis to the asymmetric body shape takes place. This can take up to 10 days.

text: The works of Michal Na'aman from the 1970s used photography to create collages. In these works Naaman put together various expressions emphasizing the limitations of the language of description and of vision, as well as the possibilities of imagination and the difference in visual expression. The practice of combining conflicting axioms indicated the failure or distortion of the language of description. Against the background of the visual dimension that reflected the aesthetic principles of “Want of Matter,” there appeared various representations and texts written in letterset printing or in handwriting that reflected the semiotic bankruptcy of the representation of images.  Examples of this can be found in works such as “The Fish is the End of the Bird” (1977) and “The Gospel According to the Bird” (1977) in which Na'aman joined reproduced images of a fish and a bird into a kind of hybrid monster. In “Vanya (Vajezath)" (1975) a conflict is created between the textual contents  of the work with the visual contents, along with an emphasis on sexual motifs.

text: The works of

text: Michal Na'aman

text: from the 1970s used photography to create collages. In these works Naaman put together various expressions emphasizing the limitations of the language of description and of vision, as well as the possibilities of imagination and the difference in visual expression. The practice of combining conflicting axioms indicated the failure or distortion of the language of description. Against the background of the visual dimension that reflected the aesthetic principles of “Want of Matter,” there appeared various representations and texts written in letterset printing or in handwriting that reflected the semiotic bankruptcy of the representation of images.  Examples of this can be found in works such as “The Fish is the End of the Bird” (1977) and “The Gospel According to the Bird” (1977) in which Na'aman joined reproduced images of a fish and a bird into a kind of hybrid monster. In “Vanya (Vajezath)" (1975) a conflict is created between the textual contents  of the work with the visual contents, along with an emphasis on sexual motifs.

text: The term fishing may be applied to catching other aquatic animals such as shellfish, cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. The term is not usually applied to catching aquatic mammals, such as whales, where the term whaling is more appropriate, or to farmed fish. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational sport.

text: The term fishing may be applied to catching other

text: aquatic animal

text: s such as

text: shellfish

text: cephalopod

text: s,

text: crustacean

text: s, and

text: echinoderm

text: s. The term is not usually applied to catching

text: aquatic mammal

text: s, such as

text: whales

text: , where the term

text: whaling

text: is more appropriate, or to

text: farmed fish

text: . In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a

text: recreational sport

text: Once sexually mature, the fish form monogamous pairs prior to spawning, and the males do not tolerate other males. The species is known to lay its small 0.9 - 1.5 mm, adhesive eggs on flattened stones or directly into small depressions dug in the gravel. Like many cichlids, M. ramirezi practices biparental brood care, with both the male and the female playing roles in egg-tending and territorial defense. Typical clutch size for the species is 150-300 eggs, though  clutches up to 500 have been reported. Parental ram cichlids have been observed to fan water over their eggs, which hatch in 40 hours at 29 °C (84 °F).

text: Once sexually mature, the fish form

text: monogamous

text: pairs prior to spawning, and the males do not tolerate other males. The species is known to lay its small 0.9 - 1.5 mm, adhesive eggs on flattened stones or directly into small depressions dug in the gravel. Like many cichlids, M. ramirezi practices biparental brood care, with both the male and the female playing roles in egg-tending and territorial defense. Typical clutch size for the species is 150-300 eggs, though  clutches up to 500 have been reported. Parental ram cichlids have been observed to fan water over their eggs, which hatch in 40 hours at 29 °C (84 °F).

text: Metamorphosis is the third compilation album of The Rolling Stones music released by former manager Allen Klein's ABKCO Records (who usurped control of the band's Decca/London material in 1970) after the band's departure from Decca and Klein. Released in 1975, Metamorphosis centres on outtakes and alternate versions of well-known songs recorded from 1964 to 1970.

text: Metamorphosis is the third

text: compilation album

text: of

text: The Rolling Stones

text: music released by former manager

text: Allen Klein

text: 's

text: ABKCO Records

text: (who usurped control of the band's

text: Decca

text: London

text: material in 1970) after the band's departure from Decca and Klein. Released in 1975, Metamorphosis centres on outtakes and alternate versions of well-known songs recorded from 1964 to 1970.

text: Walmart struggled to export its brand elsewhere as it rigidly tried to reproduce its model overseas. In China, Walmart hopes to succeed by adapting and doing things preferable to Chinese citizens. For example, it found that Chinese consumers preferred to select their own live fish and seafood; stores began displaying the meat uncovered and installed fish tanks, leading to higher sales.

text: Also, fish farming in the Mediterranean is a net fish consumer. Large amounts of animal feed are needed to feed a high trophic fish like the bluefin tuna. This feed consists of fishmeal processed from forage fishes like sardines and anchovies that humans would otherwise consume directly. In addition to ecological issues, this raises ethical issues. Much of the fish suitable for direct human consumption is being used to grow higher trophic level fish to indulge a relatively small group of affluent consumers.

text: Also, fish farming in the Mediterranean is a net fish consumer. Large amounts of animal feed are needed to feed a high trophic fish like the bluefin tuna. This feed consists of

text: fishmeal

text: processed from

text: forage fish

text: es like

text: sardine

text: s and

text: anchovies

text: that humans would otherwise consume directly. In addition to ecological issues, this raises ethical issues. Much of the fish suitable for direct human consumption is being used to grow higher trophic level fish to indulge a relatively small group of affluent consumers.

text: Both rainbow and brown trout throughout the river system with fish in the upper reaches reaching trophy size (i.e. over 4.5 kg) with the average through the rest of the system being around 1.5 to 2 kg. Fish numbers are good throughout the system though there are fewer fish per kilometre in the upper reaches. This is made up for by the quality and size of the fish being larger in this section.

text: The place name comes from a word in the Tupi language that means "place where the fish stops". The name arises from the fact that the waterfalls of the Piracicaba River, which bisects the city, is a point at which "piracema"—fish swimming upstream to reproduce. Larger fish species such as the dourados can still be observed.

text: The place name comes from a word in the

text: Tupi language

text: that means "place where the fish stops". The name arises from the fact that the waterfalls of the

text: Piracicaba River

text: , which bisects the city, is a point at which "piracema"—fish swimming upstream to reproduce. Larger fish species such as the

text: dourados

text: can still be observed.

text: One of the main tourism draws for the municipality are its festivals, especially that for Our Lady of Candlemas.  All of the traditional celebrations of the municipality include traditional music such as the fandango and son jarocho, “mojigangas” (large puppet-like figures made from cartonería), traditional dishes such as those made from “jolote” (a local catfish),  duck, tismiche (fish larvae), turtle and other fish as well as the “torito” an alcoholic beverage in flavors such as peanut, guava and coconut.

text: One of the main tourism draws for the municipality are its festivals, especially that for Our Lady of Candlemas.  All of the traditional celebrations of the municipality include traditional music such as the

text: fandango

text: and

text: son jarocho

text: , “mojigangas” (large puppet-like figures made from cartonería), traditional dishes such as those made from “jolote” (a local

text: catfish

text: ),  duck, tismiche (fish larvae), turtle and other fish as well as the “torito” an alcoholic beverage in flavors such as peanut, guava and coconut.

text: Similar to Q-FISH, Flow-FISH is an adaptation of Q-FISH that combines the use of PNAs with flow cytometry. In this method, Flow-FISH uses interphase cells rather than metaphase chromosomes and hybridizes the PNA probes in suspension. Following hybridization, thousands of cells can be analyzed on a flow cytometer in a relatively short time. However, Flow-FISH only provides an average telomeric length for each cell whereas Q-FISH is able to analyze the telomere length of an individual chromosome.

text: Similar to Q-FISH,

text: Flow-FISH

text: is an adaptation of Q-FISH that combines the use of PNAs with flow cytometry. In this method, Flow-FISH uses

text: interphase

text: cells rather than

text: metaphase

text: chromosomes and hybridizes the PNA probes in suspension. Following hybridization, thousands of cells can be analyzed on a flow cytometer in a relatively short time. However, Flow-FISH only provides an average telomeric length for each cell whereas Q-FISH is able to analyze the telomere length of an individual chromosome.

text: In a member of the Ametabola or Hemimetabola, in which metamorphosis is "incomplete", the final ecdysis follows the last immature or nymphal stage.In members of the Holometabola, in which there is a pupal stage, the final ecdysis follows emergence from the pupa, after which the metamorphosis is complete, although there is a prolonged period of maturation in some species.

text: In a member of the

text: Ametabola

text: or

text: Hemimetabola

text: , in which metamorphosis is "incomplete", the final ecdysis follows the last immature or

text: nymphal

text: stage.In members of the

text: Holometabola

text: , in which there is a pupal stage, the final ecdysis follows emergence from the

text: pupa

text: , after which the metamorphosis is complete, although there is a prolonged period of maturation in some species.

text: Most of the time, the fishing line used for sport fishing has a breaking strain less than the maximum force the fish can apply to the line.  The fishing reels therefore have sophisticated drag mechanisms which allow the line to escape if the fish pulls on it, but keep the specified tension on the line.  When hooked, most fish will circulate in different directions, and when they are not pulling away from the boat the fisherman can take the opportunity to reel in some of the line.  Eventually, if the fish tires and has not broken the line, they will be reeled in; however, the challenge does not end there.  Hauling a heavy, powerful, and still very much alive fish on board the boat represents a considerable challenge, unless the fish is tagged and released. Strategies include: gaffing, pulling it in with ones hands, and if it is a smallish game fish, a net.

text: Most of the time, the

text: fishing line

text: used for sport fishing has a breaking strain less than the maximum

text: force

text: the fish can apply to the line.  The

text: fishing reel

text: s therefore have sophisticated drag mechanisms which allow the line to escape if the fish pulls on it, but keep the specified tension on the line.  When hooked, most fish will circulate in different directions, and when they are not pulling away from the boat the fisherman can take the opportunity to reel in some of the line.  Eventually, if the fish tires and has not broken the line, they will be reeled in; however, the challenge does not end there.  Hauling a heavy, powerful, and still very much alive fish on board the boat represents a considerable challenge, unless the fish is tagged and released. Strategies include:

text: gaffing

text: , pulling it in with ones hands, and if it is a smallish game fish, a net.

text: Freshwater fish are the most common aquatic animal raised using aquaponics, although freshwater crayfish and prawns are also sometimes used. There is a branch of aquaponics using saltwater fish, called saltwater aquaponics. There are many species of warmwater and coldwater fish that adapt well to aquaculture systems.

text: Freshwater fish are the most common aquatic animal raised using aquaponics, although freshwater crayfish and prawns are also sometimes used. There is a branch of aquaponics using saltwater fish, called

text: saltwater aquaponics

text: . There are many species of warmwater and coldwater fish that adapt well to aquaculture systems.

text: M. citrina is a hermaphrodite and is viviparous. Sperm is shed into the water column and enters another individual through its buccal siphon. A batch of eggs is liberated from the oviduct and these are fertilised within the body cavity. The eggs are opaque and have red or yellow yolks. They are about  in diameter. The developing embryos are brooded in the body cavity. Hatching is initiated by the release of enzymes which cause the egg membranes to rupture. The larvae have notochords (stiffening rods) and resemble salamander tadpoles. They have fluid-filled sensory organs known as otocysts. The larvae continue to be brooded for a while but are later liberated into the sea. In European waters about 80% undergo metamorphosis while still in the body cavity but in North America only about 2% are retained internally to metamorphosis. When released, the larvae have a very short free-swimming period, ranging from a few minutes to an hour or two, before undergoing metamorphosis. The juveniles soon become sticky and attach to any hard surfaces with which they come in contact. This often includes the tunic of the parent individual and this may form a small cluster of individuals.

text: M. citrina is a

text: hermaphrodite

text: and is

text: viviparous

text: . Sperm is shed into the

text: water column

text: and enters another individual through its buccal siphon. A batch of eggs is liberated from the

text: oviduct

text: and these are fertilised within the body cavity. The eggs are opaque and have red or yellow yolks. They are about  in diameter. The developing

text: embryo

text: s are

text: brooded

text: in the body cavity. Hatching is initiated by the release of enzymes which cause the egg membranes to rupture. The larvae have notochords (stiffening rods) and resemble salamander

text: tadpole

text: s. They have fluid-filled sensory organs known as

text: otocyst

text: s. The larvae continue to be brooded for a while but are later liberated into the sea. In European waters about 80% undergo metamorphosis while still in the body cavity but in North America only about 2% are retained internally to metamorphosis. When released, the larvae have a very short free-swimming period, ranging from a few minutes to an hour or two, before undergoing metamorphosis. The juveniles soon become sticky and attach to any hard

text: surface

text: s with which they come in contact. This often includes the tunic of the parent individual and this may form a small cluster of individuals.

text: V. moorii parents have a total defended territory that is several times larger than the core area (which is the area where the parents spend most of their time and where the brood is located). The male and female divide the total territory into roughly equal subterritories without much overlap, with the brood located in-between these two subterritories. The subterritory borders are not fixed and will shift throughout the day, depending on the presence of intruders. Upon seeing an intruder, a parent will quickly dart out of the core territory to chase the intruder away. The parents will attack conspecifics as well as other fish species that enter the territory. Heterospecifics are attacked far more often than conspecifics, and include both predators (such as L. elongatus and N. fasciatus) and non-predators (such as O. ventralis and T. moorii which compete with V. moorii for food).  V. moorii attack fry-eating fish entering their territory more often if their brood is larger. This is reasonable because the parents have a higher rate of return on parental investment in a large brood compared to a small one. V. moorii parents attack fry-eating fish more often than other types of fish, meaning they can concentrate their defensive efforts on the fish most dangerous to their fry. Rates of attack do not decrease significantly even as fry get older and larger because the environment has high predation pressure and even older fry will be quickly eaten without defense from the parents.

text: V. moorii parents have a total defended territory that is several times larger than the core area (which is the area where the parents spend most of their time and where the brood is located). The male and female divide the total territory into roughly equal subterritories without much overlap, with the brood located in-between these two subterritories. The subterritory borders are not fixed and will shift throughout the day, depending on the presence of intruders. Upon seeing an intruder, a parent will quickly dart out of the core territory to chase the intruder away. The parents will attack conspecifics as well as other fish species that enter the territory.

text: Heterospecific

text: s are attacked far more often than conspecifics, and include both predators (such as

text: L. elongatus

text: and

text: N. fasciatus

text: ) and non-predators (such as

text: O. ventralis

text: and

text: T. moorii

text: which compete with V. moorii for food).  V. moorii attack fry-eating fish entering their territory more often if their brood is larger. This is reasonable because the parents have a higher rate of return on

text: parental investment

text: in a large brood compared to a small one. V. moorii parents attack fry-eating fish more often than other types of fish, meaning they can concentrate their defensive efforts on the fish most dangerous to their fry. Rates of attack do not decrease significantly even as fry get older and larger because the environment has high predation pressure and even older fry will be quickly eaten without defense from the parents.

text: Gameplay, like other games in the fishing simulator genre consists of casting a line from a fishing pole to reel in fish. In the game, the player casts the line and reels in fish with the touch screen. Whether or not a player can catch a fish usually depends on timing and the placement of the tackle. The game includes multiple fishing techniques, including bait fishing as well as fly fishing. The game also includes 15 stages, 40 fish, and over 100 pieces of tackle. Players can also keep caught fish in a fish tank for display.

text: Gameplay, like other games in the fishing simulator genre consists of casting a line from a

text: fishing pole

text: to reel in fish. In the game, the player casts the line and reels in fish with the touch screen. Whether or not a player can catch a fish usually depends on timing and the placement of the

text: tackle

text: . The game includes multiple fishing techniques, including bait fishing as well as fly fishing. The game also includes 15 stages, 40 fish, and over 100 pieces of tackle. Players can also keep caught fish in a fish tank for display.

text: A great threat to Pacific salmon conservation is commercial fishing. There are many methods of harvest for the commercial salmon fishing industry, such as trolling, seining, and gillnetting. Gillnets are an extremely size-selective method of harvest, where a long net is placed in the path of the salmon’s migration to their natal stream in hopes of entangling the salmon for commercial harvest. Fish too small to be caught pass through the net, fish too large cannot be entangled, only catching fish that fall somewhere in between. By selectively harvesting certain sizes of fish, governed by the mesh-size of the gillnet, some age-class and length-class fish are selectively removed from the population, progressively leaving phenotypically smaller spawners. Fecundity generally decreases with length. So, smaller fish produce fewer eggs than larger fish. There is also concern regarding the genetic information passed down from the fish. If the majority of spawning fish in a particular salmon run has gotten smaller due to the size-selective fishing methods, the run could eventually evolve to become smaller.

text: A great threat to Pacific salmon conservation is commercial fishing. There are many methods of harvest for the commercial salmon fishing industry, such as trolling, seining, and gillnetting.

text: Gillnets

text: are an extremely size-selective method of harvest, where a long net is placed in the path of the

text: salmon’s migration

text: to their natal stream in hopes of entangling the salmon for commercial harvest. Fish too small to be caught pass through the net, fish too large cannot be entangled, only catching fish that fall somewhere in between. By selectively harvesting certain sizes of fish, governed by the mesh-size of the gillnet, some age-class and length-class fish are selectively removed from the population, progressively leaving phenotypically smaller spawners. Fecundity generally decreases with length. So, smaller fish produce fewer eggs than larger fish. There is also concern regarding the genetic information passed down from the fish. If the majority of spawning fish in a particular salmon run has gotten smaller due to the size-selective fishing methods, the run could eventually evolve to become smaller.

text: There are several factors contributing to the decline in the population of the sand tigers. Sand tigers reproduce at an unusually low rate, due to the fact that they do not have more than two pups at a time and because they breed only every second or third year. This shark is a highly prized food item in the western northern Pacific, off Ghana and off India and Pakistan where they are caught by fishing trawlers, although they are more commonly caught with a fishing line. Sand tigers' fins are a popular trade item in Japan. Off North America, it is fished for its hide and fins. Shark liver oil is a popular product in beauty products such as lipstick. It is sought by anglers in fishing competitions in South Africa and some other countries. In Australia it has been reduced in numbers by spear fishers using poison and where it is now protected. It is also prized as an aquarium exhibit in the United States, Europe, Australia and South Africa because of its docile and hardy nature. Thus, overfishing is a major contributor to the population decline. All indications show that the world population in sand tigers has been reduced significantly in size since 1980. Many sand tigers are caught in shark nets, and then either strangled or taken by fishermen. Estuaries along the United States of America's eastern Atlantic coast houses many of the young sand tiger sharks. These estuaries are susceptible to non-point source pollution that is harmful to the pups.

text: There are several factors contributing to the decline in the population of the sand tigers. Sand tigers reproduce at an unusually low rate, due to the fact that they do not have more than two pups at a time and because they breed only every second or third year. This shark is a highly prized food item in the western northern Pacific, off Ghana and off India and Pakistan where they are caught by fishing trawlers, although they are more commonly caught with a

text: fishing line

text: . Sand tigers' fins are a popular trade item in Japan. Off North America, it is fished for its hide and fins.

text: Shark liver oil

text: is a popular product in beauty products such as lipstick. It is sought by anglers in fishing competitions in South Africa and some other countries. In Australia it has been reduced in numbers by spear fishers using poison and where it is now protected. It is also prized as an aquarium exhibit in the United States, Europe, Australia and South Africa because of its docile and hardy nature. Thus,

text: overfishing

text: is a major contributor to the population decline. All indications show that the world population in sand tigers has been reduced significantly in size since 1980. Many sand tigers are caught in shark nets, and then either strangled or taken by fishermen.

text: Estuaries

text: along the United States of America's eastern Atlantic coast houses many of the young sand tiger sharks. These estuaries are susceptible to

text: non-point source pollution

text: that is harmful to the pups.

text: The deepwater redfish (Sebastes mentella), also known as the beaked redfish, ocean perch, Atlantic redfish, Norway haddock, red perch, golden redfish, or hemdurgan, may reach a size of , but is usually less than . It lives in comparatively high concentrations in the North Atlantic, for example in the Irminger Sea where considerable numbers are fished. It occupies depths between  and is often pelagic, i.e. far off the bottom. The deep-sea redfish feeds on a variety of food organisms, for example small fishes. In contrast to most fishes that spawn unfertilised eggs, the deepwater redfish has internal fertilisation and spawns free-living larvae.

text: The deepwater redfish (Sebastes mentella), also known as the beaked redfish, ocean perch, Atlantic redfish, Norway haddock, red perch, golden redfish, or hemdurgan, may reach a size of , but is usually less than . It lives in comparatively high concentrations in the

text: North Atlantic

text: , for example in the

text: Irminger Sea

text: where considerable numbers are fished. It occupies depths between  and is often pelagic, i.e. far off the bottom. The deep-sea redfish feeds on a variety of food organisms, for example small fishes. In contrast to most fishes that spawn unfertilised eggs, the deepwater redfish has internal fertilisation and spawns free-living larvae.

text: Along with the chordates and hemichordates, echinoderms are deuterostomes, one of the two major divisions of the bilaterians, the other being the protostomes. During the early development of the embryo, in deuterostomes, the blastopore (the first opening to form) becomes the anus whereas in the protostomes, it becomes the mouth. In deuterostomes, the mouth develops at a later stage, at the opposite end of the blastula from the blastopore, and a gut forms connecting the two. The larvae of echinoderms have bilateral symmetry but this is lost during metamorphosis when their bodies are reorganised and develop the characteristic radial symmetry of the echinoderm, typically pentamerism.  The characteristics of adult echinoderms are the possession of a water vascular system with external tube feet and a calcareous endoskeleton consisting of ossicles connected by a mesh of collagen fibres.

text: Along with the

text: chordates

text: and

text: hemichordates

text: , echinoderms are

text: deuterostome

text: s, one of the two major divisions of the

text: bilateria

text: ns, the other being the

text: protostome

text: s. During the early development of the embryo, in deuterostomes, the

text: blastopore

text: (the first opening to form) becomes the

text: anus

text: whereas in the protostomes, it becomes the mouth. In deuterostomes, the mouth develops at a later stage, at the opposite end of the

text: blastula

text: from the blastopore, and a gut forms connecting the two. The larvae of echinoderms have bilateral symmetry but this is lost during

text: metamorphosis

text: when their bodies are reorganised and develop the characteristic

text: radial symmetry

text: of the echinoderm, typically

text: pentamerism

text: .  The characteristics of adult echinoderms are the possession of a

text: water vascular system

text: with external

text: tube feet

text: and a

text: calcareous

text: endoskeleton consisting of

text: ossicles

text: connected by a mesh of

text: collagen

text: fibres.

text: The teleosts were first recognised as a distinct group by the German ichthyologist Johannes Peter Müller in 1844. The name is from Greek teleios, "complete" + osteon, "bone".  Müller based this classification on certain soft tissue characteristics which would prove to be problematic as it did not take into account the distinguishing features of fossil teleosts. In 1966, Greenwood et al. provided a more solid classification. The oldest teleost fossils date back to the late Triassic, evolving from fish related to the bowfins in the clade Holostei. During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic they diversified, and as a result, 96 percent of all known fish species are teleosts. The cladogram shows the relationship of the teleosts to other bony fish, and to the terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods) that evolved from a related group of fish. Approximate dates are from Near et al., 2012.

text: The teleosts were first recognised as a distinct group by the German ichthyologist

text: Johannes Peter Müller

text: in 1844. The name is from

text: Greek

text: teleios, "complete" + osteon, "bone".  Müller based this classification on certain soft tissue characteristics which would prove to be problematic as it did not take into account the distinguishing features of fossil teleosts. In 1966, Greenwood et al. provided a more solid classification. The oldest teleost fossils date back to the late

text: Triassic

text: , evolving from fish related to the

text: bowfin

text: s in the

text: clade

text: Holostei. During the

text: Mesozoic

text: and

text: Cenozoic

text: they diversified, and as a result, 96 percent of all known fish species are teleosts. The

text: cladogram

text: shows the relationship of the teleosts to other bony fish, and to the terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods) that evolved from a related group of fish. Approximate dates are from Near et al., 2012.

text: This strategy, however, involves a certain degree of risk. While some larvae have been shown to be able to delay their final metamorphosis for a few days or weeks, few if any species are able to delay metamorphosis indefinitely, and most species cannot delay it at all. If these larvae metamorphose too far from a suitable settlement site, they perish. Due to the imperative of finding a suitable settlement site within a certain timeframe, many invertebrate larvae have evolved complex behaviors and endogenous rhythms to ensure their successful and timely settlement, which will be explained below.

text: This strategy, however, involves a certain degree of risk. While some larvae have been shown to be able to delay their final

text: metamorphosis

text: for a few days or weeks, few if any species are able to delay metamorphosis indefinitely, and most species cannot delay it at all. If these larvae metamorphose too far from a suitable settlement site, they perish. Due to the imperative of finding a suitable settlement site within a certain timeframe, many invertebrate larvae have evolved complex behaviors and endogenous rhythms to ensure their successful and timely settlement, which will be explained below.

text: Tilapia farmers sometimes keep peacock bass to eat any spawn that occur among their fish, in addition to eating any invasive fish that pose a threat to young tilapia (e.g. sunfish, piranha).  Spawning and brood-raising reduce the growth rate of the tilapia, so introduction of Cichla is thought to maintain a high growth rate in the Tilapia.

text: Forage fish also inhabit freshwater habitats, such as lakes and rivers, where they serve as food for larger freshwater predators. Usually smaller than 15 centimetres (6 in) in length, these small bait fish make up most of the fish found in lakes and rivers. The minnow family alone, consisting of minnows, chubs, shiners and daces, consists of more than fifty species. Other freshwater forage fish include suckers, killifish, shad, bony fish as well as fish of the sunfish family, excluding black basses and crappie, and smaller species of the carp family. There are also anadromous forage fish, such as eulachon.

text: Forage fish also inhabit freshwater habitats, such as lakes and rivers, where they serve as food for larger freshwater predators. Usually smaller than 15 centimetres (6 in) in length, these small

text: bait fish

text: make up most of the fish found in lakes and rivers. The

text: minnow

text: family alone, consisting of

text: minnow

text: s,

text: chub

text: s,

text: shiner

text: s and

text: dace

text: s, consists of more than fifty species. Other freshwater forage fish include

text: suckers

text: killifish

text: shad

text: bony fish

text: as well as fish of the

text: sunfish family

text: , excluding

text: black bass

text: es and

text: crappie

text: , and smaller species of the

text: carp

text: family. There are also

text: anadromous

text: forage fish, such as

text: eulachon

text: During breeding the male releases sperm and the female siphons it from the water. The fertilized eggs remain in the gills of the female. The glochidia, the larvae of the mussel, are released into the water and attach to a host, which is a fish. The flap of the adult's mantle resembles a small fish and apparently attracts larger fish close enough for the glochidia to reach them. In a cyst on the fish they undergo metamorphosis to become juvenile mussels and then drop to the substrate to develop further.

text: During breeding the male releases sperm and the female siphons it from the water. The fertilized eggs remain in the gills of the female. The

text: glochidia

text: , the larvae of the mussel, are released into the water and attach to a host, which is a fish. The flap of the adult's mantle resembles a small fish and apparently attracts larger fish close enough for the glochidia to reach them. In a cyst on the fish they undergo metamorphosis to become juvenile mussels and then drop to the substrate to develop further.

text: Aravaipa Canyon is protected from disturbance in part by the Aravaipa Canyon Wilderness Area (managed by the Bureau of Land Management) and the Aravaipa Canyon Preserve (managed by The Nature Conservancy). However, non-native invasive species such as those listed above have become an increasing concern in Aravaipa Canyon. Non-native species are only termed "invasive" when they have a negative impact on the ecosystem into which they are introduced. It is believed that these invasives are contributing to the decline in the number of native fishes found from year to year in the canyon. They are credited with outcompeting the native fish for resources such as food and habitat. They are a generalist species, meaning they are adapted to suit a variety of ecological niches. They therefore have the potential to exploit the general location more than any one of the native fish species can, being as specialized as they are to a single niche. The Nature Conservancy in particular is actively managing the native fish populations and working towards restoring them to their previous abundance by conducting projects such as fish monitoring and removal of non-native species. Initiatives have also been put in place to attempt to slow the progress of invasive species up Aravaipa Creek. One such endeavor is the construction of fish barriers, which are low concrete walls spanning the water, creating an artificial series of waterfalls that the invasives cannot pass.

text: Aravaipa Canyon is protected from disturbance in part by the

text: Aravaipa Canyon Wilderness

text: Area (managed by the

text: Bureau of Land Management

text: ) and the Aravaipa Canyon Preserve (managed by

text: The Nature Conservancy

text: ). However, non-native invasive species such as those listed above have become an increasing concern in Aravaipa Canyon. Non-native species are only termed "invasive" when they have a negative impact on the ecosystem into which they are introduced. It is believed that these invasives are contributing to the decline in the number of native fishes found from year to year in the canyon. They are credited with outcompeting the native fish for resources such as food and habitat. They are a generalist species, meaning they are adapted to suit a variety of ecological niches. They therefore have the potential to exploit the general location more than any one of the native fish species can, being as specialized as they are to a single niche. The Nature Conservancy in particular is actively managing the native fish populations and working towards restoring them to their previous abundance by conducting projects such as fish monitoring and removal of non-native species. Initiatives have also been put in place to attempt to slow the progress of invasive species up Aravaipa Creek. One such endeavor is the construction of fish barriers, which are low concrete walls spanning the water, creating an artificial series of waterfalls that the invasives cannot pass.

text: There are no reliable statistics of the pastimes of Chileans, but it is believed that fishing is the third or fourth most popular hobby.  Simple and low-cost fishing gear is the most popular. The most popular bait used includes earthworms, fresh-water crab, shrimp, snails, small fish, and white beans. The more complex fishing gear has gained in popularity with imported rods and reels running less than 5,000 Chilean pesos, and fly fishing gear selling for less than 50,000 Chilean pesos. Fly fishing is the fastest growing sector in sport fishing in Chile. Tourists have come to know Chile as the destination for salmon fishing. The increase in tour guides for tourist fishing has been explosive — from only a few fishing lodges in the 1990s, to over a dozen new lodges in the new century. Lawmakers and participants in sport fishing are working together to make new laws to help regulate the fishing tourism industry and ensure its longevity.

text: There are no reliable statistics of the pastimes of Chileans, but it is believed that fishing is the third or fourth most popular hobby.  Simple and low-cost fishing gear is the most popular. The most popular bait used includes earthworms, fresh-water crab, shrimp, snails, small fish, and white beans. The more complex fishing gear has gained in popularity with imported rods and reels running less than 5,000 Chilean pesos, and fly fishing gear selling for less than 50,000 Chilean pesos.

text: Fly fishing

text: is the fastest growing sector in sport fishing in Chile. Tourists have come to know Chile as the destination for salmon fishing. The increase in tour guides for tourist fishing has been explosive — from only a few fishing lodges in the 1990s, to over a dozen new lodges in the new century. Lawmakers and participants in sport fishing are working together to make new laws to help regulate the fishing tourism industry and ensure its longevity.

text: A lineatus uses the shape of the waveform to determine distance by analyzing how much the waveform has changed since it was generated; this amount of change is extremely predictable and regular. The surface waveform has high frequencies near source, and lower frequencies farther away due to the dampening effect of the water surface; the amount of decrease diminishes with distance. A lineatus’ possible use of the wavefront’s curvature can be excluded since fish are still able to judge the distance of a wave’s source with only a single functioning neuromast when all others have been ablated. When presented with single-frequency or upward frequency-modulated waves, fish underestimate the distance of the wave source; this suggests the normal downward FM of capillary waves, which arises almost immediately in wave dispersion, is necessary for A lineatus to judge distance.  This was confirmed in 1982 by presenting fish with waves  with an artificially generated waveform so that at 7 cm the wave had the downward FM sweep of a wave 15 cm away, and fish responded to these by swimming 15 cm.

text: In creating economic and social benefits, fishermen are then able to become stewards of marine ecosystem health, by utilizing practices that better support the fish populations they target. Specifically, many fishermen are able to alter their target species based on what is abundant, not what is in high demand by the larger supply chain. This allows fishermen to get a price that is closer to the cost of harvesting, gives more exploited fish a break, and provides members with more diversity in product. Often the fishermen know what the least destructive method of fishing is, but in the past have been pressured by market demands to go after only the highest priced fish (which are generally those most at risk for exploitation).Besides being able to focus on more abundant fish species, CSF fisheries can also supply all fish species that are caught to their consumers, as they can select a range of fish. This effectively eliminates by-catch.

text: In creating economic and social benefits, fishermen are then able to become stewards of marine ecosystem health, by utilizing practices that better support the fish populations they target. Specifically, many fishermen are able to alter their target species based on what is abundant, not what is in high demand by the larger supply chain. This allows fishermen to get a price that is closer to the cost of harvesting, gives more exploited fish a break, and provides members with more diversity in product. Often the fishermen know what the least destructive method of fishing is, but in the past have been pressured by market demands to go after only the highest priced fish (which are generally those most at risk for exploitation).Besides being able to focus on more abundant fish species, CSF fisheries can also supply all fish species that are caught to their consumers, as they can select a range of fish. This effectively eliminates

text: by-catch

text: Most species of fish and amphibians possess a lateral line system that senses pressure waves in water. One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ, the medial octavolateral nucleus, has a cerebellum-like structure, with granule cells and parallel fibers. In electrosensitive fish, the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus, which also has a cerebellum-like structure. In ray-finned fishes (by far the largest group), the optic tectum has a layer—the marginal layer—that is cerebellum-like.

text: Most species of fish and amphibians possess a

text: lateral line

text: system that senses pressure waves in water. One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ, the medial octavolateral nucleus, has a cerebellum-like structure, with granule cells and parallel fibers. In electrosensitive fish, the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus, which also has a cerebellum-like structure. In

text: ray-finned fishes

text: (by far the largest group), the

text: optic tectum

text: has a layer—the marginal layer—that is cerebellum-like.

text: Littoraria angulifera is ovoviviparous. Fertilized eggs are brooded inside the periwinkle and the veliger larvae are then released and become planktonic. After about 9 weeks these develop into pediveliger larvae which undergo metamorphosis and settle.

text: Littoraria angulifera is

text: ovoviviparous

text: . Fertilized eggs are brooded inside the periwinkle and the

text: veliger

text: larva

text: e are then released and become

text: plankton

text: ic. After about 9 weeks these develop into pediveliger larvae which undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: and settle.

text: Many power plants and other industries in the U.S. continue to use screens that impinge fish. For example, the cooling system at the Indian Point Energy Center in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually. At the Bay Shore Power Plant in Ohio, 46 million fish were killed over an 18-month period. Organisms that pass through the screens are killed or stressed (depending on the species) as they become entrained in the cooling system. 208 million fish eggs and over 2 billion small and larval fish were entrained at the Bay Shore plant over the same 18 months. EPA estimates that billions of fish and other organisms are killed each year in cooling water intakes.

text: Many power plants and other industries in the U.S. continue to use screens that impinge fish. For example, the cooling system at the

text: Indian Point Energy Center

text: in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually. At the Bay Shore Power Plant in

text: Ohio

text: , 46 million fish were killed over an 18-month period. Organisms that pass through the screens are killed or stressed (depending on the species) as they become entrained in the cooling system. 208 million fish eggs and over 2 billion small and larval fish were entrained at the Bay Shore plant over the same 18 months. EPA estimates that billions of fish and other organisms are killed each year in cooling water intakes.

text: Cutting the branch affected by Loranthus before it spreads to other branches of the tree may be a method of control. For some Asian species using larvae of the Common Jezebel butterfly would be a method of natural control. The leaves of these loranths are food for the larvae. The larvae grow in scores and hence can quickly eat away the leaves of the mistletoe. Moreover, the larvae undergo metamorphosis later into beautiful butterflies called Common Jezebel which are very good pollinators and hence useful for trees.

text: Cutting the branch affected by Loranthus before it spreads to other branches of the tree may be a method of control. For some Asian species using larvae of the

text: Common Jezebel

text: butterfly would be a method of natural control. The leaves of these loranths are food for the larvae. The larvae grow in scores and hence can quickly eat away the leaves of the mistletoe. Moreover, the larvae undergo metamorphosis later into beautiful butterflies called Common Jezebel which are very good

text: pollinators

text: and hence useful for trees.

text: After the moth-laid egg on the plant hatches, the larva eats away the inside of the bean (until it becomes hollow) and attaches itself to the inside of the bean with silk-like thread. The larva may live for months inside the bean with varying periods of dormancy. If the larva has adequate conditions of moisture and temperature, it will live long enough to go into a pupal stage. In the spring, the moth forces itself out of the bean through a round "trap door", leaving behind the pupal casing. After its metamorphosis, the small, silver and gray-colored moth lives for no more than a few days.

text: After the moth-laid egg on the plant hatches, the larva eats away the inside of the bean (until it becomes hollow) and attaches itself to the inside of the bean with silk-like thread. The larva may live for months inside the bean with varying periods of dormancy. If the larva has adequate conditions of moisture and temperature, it will live long enough to go into a

text: pupal

text: stage. In the spring, the moth forces itself out of the bean through a round "trap door", leaving behind the pupal casing. After its

text: metamorphosis

text: , the small, silver and gray-colored moth lives for no more than a few days.

text: In addition to adapting locomotor behavior, controlling buoyancy effects is critical for aquatic survival since aquatic ecosystems vary greatly by depth. Fish generally control their depth by regulating the amount of gas in specialized organs that are much like balloons. By changing the amount of gas in these swim bladders, fish actively control their density. If they increase the amount of air in their swim bladder, their overall density will become less than the surrounding water, and increased upward buoyancy pressures will cause the fish to rise until they reach a depth at which they are again at equilibrium with the surrounding water. In this way, fish behave essentially as a hot air balloon does in air.

text: In addition to adapting locomotor behavior, controlling buoyancy effects is critical for aquatic survival since

text: aquatic ecosystem

text: s vary greatly by depth. Fish generally control their depth by regulating the amount of gas in specialized organs that are much like balloons. By changing the amount of gas in these

text: swim bladder

text: s, fish actively control their density. If they increase the amount of air in their swim bladder, their overall density will become less than the surrounding water, and increased upward buoyancy pressures will cause the fish to rise until they reach a depth at which they are again at equilibrium with the surrounding water. In this way, fish behave essentially as a

text: hot air balloon

text: does in air.

text: The reproductive habits of tilefish are not well studied. Spawning occurs throughout the spring and summer; all species are presumed not to guard their broods. Eggs are small (<2 mm) and made buoyant by oil. The larvae are pelagic and drift until the fish have reached the juvenile stage.

text: The reproductive habits of tilefish are not well studied. Spawning occurs throughout the spring and summer; all species are presumed not to guard their broods. Eggs are small (<2 mm) and made buoyant by oil. The

text: larva

text: e are

text: pelagic

text: and drift until the fish have reached the juvenile stage.

text: Ecologically the species often is quite important, as it is a detritus shredder, a predator of small fish and amphibians, and a major prey item for large fish, otters, aquatic reptiles, and various other animals. It also is an intermediate host to various parasites.

text: Many of the representatives of science and commerce present had different views to Huxley. Their views were put forward by E. Ray Lankester, who summed up the scientific contributions in an essay on what we would now call ecology. He pointed out that "it is a mistake to suppose that the place of fish removed from a particular fishing ground is immediately taken by some of the grand total of fish, which are so numerous in comparison with man's depredations as to make his operations in this respect insignificant...there is on the contrary evidence that shoal fish, like herrings, mackerel and pilchard (Sardina pilchardus), and ground-fish, such as soles and other flat-fishes, are really localised. If man removes a large proportion of these fish from the areas which they inhabit, the natural balance is upset and chiefly in so far as the production of young fish is concerned." During this masterly address he went on to develop this theme and concluded with an appeal for the formation of a society to foster the study of marine life, both for its scientific interest and because of the need to know more about the life histories and habitats of food fishes. Professor Lankester envisaged that such a society would construct a laboratory close to the coast, with the building containing aquaria and apparatus for the circulation of seawater and, most importantly, laboratory accommodation for scientists. The appeal was answered by a group of eminent scientists, who resolved to form a society and build a laboratory on the British coast.

text: Many of the representatives of science and commerce present had different views to Huxley. Their views were put forward by

text: E. Ray Lankester

text: , who summed up the scientific contributions in an essay on what we would now call ecology. He pointed out that "it is a mistake to suppose that the place of fish removed from a particular fishing ground is immediately taken by some of the grand total of fish, which are so numerous in comparison with man's depredations as to make his operations in this respect insignificant...there is on the contrary evidence that shoal fish, like herrings, mackerel and pilchard (

text: Sardina pilchardus

text: ), and ground-fish, such as soles and other flat-fishes, are really localised. If man removes a large proportion of these fish from the areas which they inhabit, the natural balance is upset and chiefly in so far as the production of young fish is concerned." During this masterly address he went on to develop this theme and concluded with an appeal for the formation of a society to foster the study of marine life, both for its scientific interest and because of the need to know more about the life histories and habitats of food fishes. Professor Lankester envisaged that such a society would construct a laboratory close to the coast, with the building containing aquaria and apparatus for the circulation of seawater and, most importantly, laboratory accommodation for scientists. The appeal was answered by a group of eminent scientists, who resolved to form a society and build a laboratory on the British coast.

text: The drainage basin of Clarks Creek is designated as Exceptional Value waters and a Migratory Fishery. Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its headwaters downstream to its mouth. In the 1997 survey of Clarks Creek by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission, seven fish species were observed in the creek. These included naturally reproducing brook trout and brown trout, through the former were far more common than the latter. The total wild trout biomass was  per . The creek is one of the few remaining native trout streams in the Lackawanna Valley. Other fish species observed in the creek in the 1997 survey included blacknose dace, creek chub, longnose dace, sunfish, and white sucker.

text: The drainage basin of Clarks Creek is designated as Exceptional Value waters and a Migratory Fishery. Wild

text: trout

text: naturally reproduce in the creek from its headwaters downstream to its mouth. In the 1997 survey of Clarks Creek by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission, seven

text: fish

text: species were observed in the creek. These included naturally reproducing

text: brook trout

text: and

text: brown trout

text: , through the former were far more common than the latter. The total wild trout

text: biomass

text: was  per . The creek is one of the few remaining native trout streams in the Lackawanna Valley. Other fish species observed in the creek in the 1997 survey included

text: blacknose dace

text: creek chub

text: longnose dace

text: sunfish

text: , and

text: white sucker

text: The state of a declining species can sometimes be reversed by augmenting reproduction through behavior. By manipulating auditory, olfactory, and visual cues of animals, biologists can attract animals to breeding grounds or increase the number of breeding individuals. This method has been applied most successfully to bird populations. For example, acoustic playbacks have attracted seabirds to historic and new breeding grounds. Similarly, adding eggs to nests of some male fish species may promote increased spawning by females who prefer to spawn with males already possessing eggs.

text: The state of a declining species can sometimes be reversed by augmenting reproduction through behavior. By manipulating

text: auditory

text: olfactory

text: , and

text: visual

text: cues of animals, biologists can attract animals to breeding grounds or increase the number of breeding individuals. This method has been applied most successfully to bird populations. For example, acoustic playbacks have attracted

text: seabird

text: s to historic and new breeding grounds. Similarly, adding eggs to nests of some male fish species may promote increased spawning by females who prefer to spawn with males already possessing eggs.

text: Because of its diverse wildlife, the lake provides an important source of food and economic activity for these towns. Fishing is best when water is low between November and June. Fishing is typically of 30 species of fish, with fish from the Cichlid, Clupeidae and Penaeidae families making 85% of the catch. The fishery became more stressed during the 90s, as more people began fishing on the lake. Fishing is typically artisanal, with small crew dugout canoes catching small batches of fish. The estimated fish production of the lake is 2 tonnes per Hectare per year.

text: Because of its diverse wildlife, the lake provides an important source of food and economic activity for these towns. Fishing is best when water is low between November and June. Fishing is typically of 30 species of fish, with fish from the

text: Cichlid

text: Clupeidae

text: and

text: Penaeidae

text: families making 85% of the catch. The

text: fishery

text: became more stressed during the 90s, as more people began fishing on the lake. Fishing is typically

text: artisanal

text: , with small crew dugout canoes catching small batches of fish. The estimated fish production of the lake is 2 tonnes per

text: Hectare

text: per year.

text: Upon displaying specific symptoms (below), mortality of the coho salmon can be expected within a few hours. Mortality usually occurs before these fish have had a chance to spawn. In fact, in observing the female coho salmon carcasses, most of the fish have retained greater than 90 percent of their eggs. Pre-spawn mortality occurs in both male and female salmon, however, it is difficult to determine if male salmon have spawned, thus, pre-spawn mortality is usually signified by egg retention of female salmon. Pre-spawn mortality has also been observed in both wild and hatchery fish alike.

text: The order Lepidoptera contains moths and butterflies characterized by having a complete metamorphosis; larvae transform to pupae and then metamorphose into adult moths or butterflies. The family is Lymantriidae. Lymantriid larvae are commonly called tussock moths because of the tufts of hair on the larvae.

text: The order Lepidoptera contains moths and butterflies characterized by having a complete metamorphosis; larvae transform to pupae and then metamorphose into adult moths or butterflies. The family is Lymantriidae. Lymantriid larvae are commonly called

text: tussock moth

text: s because of the tufts of hair on the larvae.

text: In the wild, the species has been found throughout southern Africa.  In central Africa, it occurs in the southern tributaries of the Congo River basin.  In eastern Africa, it is present in Lake Tanganyika.  In southern Africa, it is found in the upper Zambezi River and Okavango River systems, as well as the Kasai River and the Limpopo River systems.  It is found in rocks or vegetation occurring at the edge of rivers to lagoons or backwaters.  The reproductive habits of most of the species of Synodontis are not known, beyond some instances of obtaining egg counts from gravid females. Spawning likely occurs during the flooding season between July and October, and pairs swim in unison during spawning.   The fish feeds on detritus, algae and plant matter such as seeds, small fish, and small invertebrates like insects and snails.  The growth rate is rapid in the first year, then slows down as the fish age.

text: In the wild, the species has been found throughout southern Africa.  In central Africa, it occurs in the southern tributaries of the

text: Congo River

text: basin.  In eastern Africa, it is present in

text: Lake Tanganyika

text: .  In southern Africa, it is found in the upper

text: Zambezi River

text: and

text: Okavango River

text: systems, as well as the

text: Kasai River

text: and the

text: Limpopo River

text: systems.  It is found in rocks or vegetation occurring at the edge of rivers to lagoons or backwaters.  The reproductive habits of most of the species of Synodontis are not known, beyond some instances of obtaining egg counts from gravid females. Spawning likely occurs during the flooding season between July and October, and pairs swim in unison during spawning.   The fish feeds on detritus, algae and plant matter such as seeds, small fish, and small invertebrates like insects and snails.  The growth rate is rapid in the first year, then slows down as the fish age.

text: It is unclear to what extent fish played a role in the cuisine, but it is apparent that fish became steadily more available during the Israelite and Judean monarchies. Fish products were salted and dried and sent great distances. However, even in the later Persian, Greek and Roman periods, the cost of preserving and transporting fish must have meant that only wealthier inhabitants of the highland towns and cities could afford it, or those who lived close to the sources, where it was less expensive. In the Galilee, small-scale fishing was a fundamental component of the agrarian economy.

text: It is unclear to what extent fish played a role in the cuisine, but it is apparent that fish became steadily more available during the Israelite and Judean monarchies. Fish products were salted and dried and sent great distances. However, even in the later Persian, Greek and Roman periods, the cost of preserving and transporting fish must have meant that only wealthier inhabitants of the highland towns and cities could afford it, or those who lived close to the sources, where it was less expensive. In the Galilee, small-scale fishing was a fundamental component of the

text: agrarian

text: economy.

text: Acanthostega is seen as part of widespread evolutionary radiation in the late Devonian period, starting with purely aquatic finned tetrapodomorphs, with their successors showing increased air-breathing capability and related adaptions to the jaws and gills, as well as more muscular neck allowing freer movement of the head than fish have, and use of the fins to raise the body of the fish. These features are displayed by the earlier Tiktaalik, which like Ichthyostega showed signs of greater abilities to move around on land, but is thought to have been primarily aquatic.

text: Acanthostega is seen as part of widespread evolutionary radiation in the late Devonian period, starting with purely aquatic finned tetrapodomorphs, with their successors showing increased air-breathing capability and related adaptions to the jaws and gills, as well as more muscular neck allowing freer movement of the head than fish have, and use of the fins to raise the body of the fish. These features are displayed by the earlier

text: Tiktaalik

text: , which like

text: Ichthyostega

text: showed signs of greater abilities to move around on land, but is thought to have been primarily aquatic.

text: Let's assume that there is another commodity that Crusoe can produce apart from coconuts, for example, fish. Now, Robinson has to decide how much time to spare for both activities, i.e. how many coconuts to gather and how many fish to hunt. The locus of the various combinations of fish and coconuts that he can produce from devoting different amounts of time to each activity is known as the production possibilities set. This is depicted in the figure 6:

text: Oil spills, as well daily oil runoff from urbanized areas can lead to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) entering marine ecosystems. Once PAHs  enter the marine environment, fish can be exposed to them via ingestion, ventilation of the gills, and dermal uptake. The major route of uptake will depend on the behavior of the species of fish and the physicochemical properties of the PAH of concern. Habitat can be a major deciding factor for the route of exposure. For example, demersal fish or fish that consume demersal fish are highly likely to ingest PAHs that have sorbed to the sediment, whereas fish that swim at the surface are at a higher risk for dermal exposure. Upon coming in contact with a PAH, bioavailability will effect how readily the PAH is taken up. The EPA identifies 16 major PAHs of concern and each of these PAHs has a different degree of bioavailability. For instance, PAHs with lower molecular weight are more bioavailable because they dissolve more readily in water and are therefore more bioavailable for fish within the water column. Similarly, hydrophilic PAHs are more bioavailable for uptake by fish. For this reason, usage of oil dispersants, like Corexit, to treat oil spills can increase the uptake of PAHs by increasing their solubility in water and making them more available for uptake via the gills. Once a PAH is taken up, the fish's metabolism can affect the duration and intensity of the exposure to target tissues. Fish are able to readily metabolize 99% of PAHs to a more hydrophilic metabolite through their hepato-bilary system. This allows for the excretion of PAHs. The rate of metabolism of PAHs will depend on the sex and size of the species. The ability to metabolize PAHs into a more hydrophillic form can prevent bioaccumulation and halt PAHs from being passed on to organisms further up the food web. Because oil can persist in the environment long after oil spills via sedimentation, demersal fish are likely to be continually exposed to PAHs many years after oil spills. This has been proven by looking at the biliary PAH metabolites of bottom dwelling fish. For instance, bottom dwelling fish still showed elevated levels of low molecular weight PAH metabolites 10 years after Exxon Valdez oil spill.

text: Oil spills, as well daily oil runoff from urbanized areas can lead to

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

text: (PAHs) entering marine ecosystems. Once PAHs  enter the marine environment, fish can be exposed to them via ingestion, ventilation of the gills, and dermal uptake. The major route of uptake will depend on the behavior of the species of fish and the physicochemical properties of the PAH of concern. Habitat can be a major deciding factor for the route of exposure. For example, demersal fish or fish that consume demersal fish are highly likely to ingest PAHs that have sorbed to the sediment, whereas fish that swim at the surface are at a higher risk for dermal exposure. Upon coming in contact with a PAH,

text: bioavailability

text: will effect how readily the PAH is taken up. The EPA identifies 16 major PAHs of concern and each of these PAHs has a different degree of bioavailability. For instance, PAHs with lower molecular weight are more bioavailable because they dissolve more readily in water and are therefore more bioavailable for fish within the water column. Similarly,

text: hydrophilic

text: PAHs are more bioavailable for uptake by fish. For this reason, usage of

text: oil dispersants

text: , like

text: Corexit

text: , to treat oil spills can increase the uptake of PAHs by increasing their solubility in water and making them more available for uptake via the gills. Once a PAH is taken up, the fish's metabolism can affect the duration and intensity of the exposure to target tissues. Fish are able to readily metabolize 99% of PAHs to a more hydrophilic

text: metabolite

text: through their hepato-bilary system. This allows for the excretion of PAHs. The rate of metabolism of PAHs will depend on the sex and size of the species. The ability to metabolize PAHs into a more hydrophillic form can prevent

text: bioaccumulation

text: and halt PAHs from being passed on to organisms further up the food web. Because oil can persist in the environment long after oil spills via sedimentation, demersal fish are likely to be continually exposed to PAHs many years after oil spills. This has been proven by looking at the biliary PAH metabolites of bottom dwelling fish. For instance, bottom dwelling fish still showed elevated levels of low molecular weight PAH metabolites 10 years after Exxon Valdez oil spill.

text: Weakly electric fish generates Electric Organ Discharge (EOD) with specialized compartments called electric organ. Almost all the weakly electric fishes have electric organs derived from muscle cells (myogenic) ; the only exception is the Apteronotidae, a family under Gymnotiforms that has electric organs derived from nerve cells (neurogenic). Myogenic electrocytes are arranged into columns of small, disks-like cells called electroplate. The exceptional family, Apteronotidae, also carries myogenic electric organs in larval stages. However, as the fish matures, electrogenic organs derived from central spinal cord gradually replace the muscle cell-derived electric cells.

text: Weakly electric fish generates Electric Organ Discharge (EOD) with specialized compartments called

text: electric organ

text: . Almost all the weakly electric fishes have electric organs derived from muscle cells (myogenic) ; the only exception is the Apteronotidae, a family under Gymnotiforms that has electric organs derived from nerve cells (neurogenic). Myogenic electrocytes are arranged into columns of small, disks-like cells called electroplate. The exceptional family, Apteronotidae, also carries myogenic electric organs in larval stages. However, as the fish matures, electrogenic organs derived from central spinal cord gradually replace the muscle cell-derived electric cells.

text: Pyrethroids, including lambda-cyhalothrin, disrupt the functioning of the nervous system in an organism.  By disrupting the nervous system of insects, lambdacyhalothrin may cause paralysis or death. Temperature influences its effectiveness.  It is highly toxic to many fish and aquatic invertebrate species.  Bioconcentration is possible in aquatic species, but bioaccumulation is not likely.  Binding of lambda-cyhalothrin to soil and sediment reduces exposure and may lessen the risk to fish. Field studies found no significant adverse effects to fish.  Lambda-cyhalothrin is also highly toxic to bees, although again field studies found few effects. In laboratory studies, alkaline water degraded lambda-cyhalothrin with an approximate half-life of 7 days, although at neutral and acidic pH's degradation did not occur. Sunlight accelerates degradation in water and soil.  The half-life of lambda-cyhalothrin on plant surfaces is 5 days.  Lambda-cyhalothrin has a low potential to contaminate ground water due to its low water solubility and high potential to bind to soil.

text: The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fins, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk. The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.

text: The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in

text: cartilaginous fish

text: , or bone in

text: bony fish

text: . The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating

text: vertebra

text: e which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no

text: limbs

text: or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the

text: fins

text: , are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the

text: caudal fin

text: s, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk. The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the

text: gill

text: s and on round the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or

text: middle ear

text: . Low frequency vibrations are detected by the

text: lateral line

text: system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.

text: V. attenuata is found in the warmer parts of the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean Sea, and also the Indian Ocean and much of the Pacific Ocean, between about 48°N and 57°S. It is mainly a mesopelagic fish, making short diel vertical migrations, remaining at depths of between about  during the day and rising to between  at night. Both adults and juveniles are commonly caught between . The pre-metamorphic larvae are found at a similar depth, but during metamorphosis, the larvae descend to between .

text: V. attenuata is found in the warmer parts of the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean Sea, and also the Indian Ocean and much of the Pacific Ocean, between about 48°N and 57°S. It is mainly a

text: mesopelagic

text: fish, making short

text: diel vertical migration

text: s, remaining at depths of between about  during the day and rising to between  at night. Both adults and juveniles are commonly caught between . The pre-metamorphic larvae are found at a similar depth, but during

text: metamorphosis

text: , the larvae descend to between .

text: An integrated aquaculture system consists of a number of species at different trophic levels of the food chain. Thus waste generating (fed organisms) such as fish and shrimp are coupled with extractive organisms such as abalone, sponges or sea urchins, as a mechanism of removing excess nutrient matter from the water column. Sea sponges have a distinct advantage as an extractive organism in an integrated multi-trophic aquaculture system, as they have the potential of acting as a bioremediator to remove both pathogenic bacteria and organic matter. The sponge Hymeniacidon perlevis has exhibited an excellent ability to remove total organic carbon (TOC) from seawater under integrated aquaculture conditions, and could be a potentially useful bioremediation tool for aquaculture systems in regions where water pollution is high. Furthermore, the organic enrichment originating from fish farmed in the vicinity may stimulate sponge growth, resulting in more efficient sea sponge aquaculture.

text: An

text: integrated aquaculture

text: system consists of a number of species at different

text: trophic levels

text: of the

text: food chain

text: . Thus waste generating (fed organisms) such as fish and shrimp are coupled with extractive organisms such as abalone, sponges or sea urchins, as a mechanism of removing excess nutrient matter from the water column. Sea sponges have a distinct advantage as an extractive organism in an integrated multi-trophic aquaculture system, as they have the potential of acting as a

text: bioremediator

text: to remove both

text: pathogenic bacteria

text: and organic matter. The sponge

text: Hymeniacidon perlevis

text: has exhibited an excellent ability to remove

text: total organic carbon

text: (TOC) from seawater under integrated aquaculture conditions, and could be a potentially useful bioremediation tool for aquaculture systems in regions where water pollution is high. Furthermore, the organic enrichment originating from fish farmed in the vicinity may stimulate sponge growth, resulting in more efficient sea sponge aquaculture.

text: Overfishing occurs because fish are captured at a faster rate than they can reproduce. Both advanced fishing technologies and increased demand for fish have resulted in overfishing. The Food and Agricultural Organization has reported that "about 25 percent of the world's captured fish end up thrown overboard because they are caught unintentionally, are illegal market species, or are of inferior quality and size"  It should not go unnoticed that overfishing has caused more ecological extinction than any other human influence on coastal ecosystems.

text: Fishing is a popular activity at this lagoon, however limitations are also implemented. There are designated fishing areas in the lower east end of the lagoon due to algae preventing quality fishing in other parts of the lagoon. Those who are fishing on a boat are not allowed to anchor, because doing so would disrupt the lagoon’s natural environment as well as endanger the species that live in the waters.  In addition, all California Fish and Game Laws are highly enforced during this activity. There is a fishing license requirement for those that are 16 years and older. Shoreline fishing is allowed from all public access shorelines in all parts of the lagoon, fishing from a vessel is only allowed in the passive recreation areas.

text: Fishing is a popular activity at this lagoon, however limitations are also implemented. There are designated fishing areas in the lower east end of the lagoon due to algae preventing quality fishing in other parts of the lagoon. Those who are fishing on a boat are not allowed to anchor, because doing so would disrupt the lagoon’s natural environment as well as endanger the species that live in the waters.  In addition, all

entity_name: California Department of Fish and Wildlife

text: California Fish and Game Laws

text: are highly enforced during this activity. There is a fishing license requirement for those that are 16 years and older. Shoreline fishing is allowed from all public access shorelines in all parts of the lagoon, fishing from a vessel is only allowed in the passive recreation areas.

text: The mangroves are especially important as a sheltered haven where fish, crustaceans and invertebrates can reproduce and fish fry can shelter among the pneumatophores, the tangle of aerial roots that help the mangroves survive in a saline environment. They are also home to large numbers of seabirds. Mammals of the delta include fishing cats. The delta is home to large quantities of waterbirds including greater flamingos and Dalmatian pelicans, and as many as 60,000 migratory birds arrive each year.

text: The mangroves are especially important as a sheltered haven where fish, crustaceans and

text: invertebrate

text: s can reproduce and

text: fish fry

text: can shelter among the

text: pneumatophore

text: s, the tangle of aerial roots that help the mangroves survive in a saline environment. They are also home to large numbers of seabirds. Mammals of the delta include

text: fishing cat

text: s. The delta is home to large quantities of waterbirds including

text: greater flamingo

text: s and

text: Dalmatian pelican

text: s, and as many as 60,000 migratory birds arrive each year.

text: With the construction of a large tank, flooded from the nearby New River, an Aquatic Theatre was used to stage extravagant naval melodramas, such as The Siege of Gibraltar. The theatre also presented successful adaptations of popular novels of the time, such as A Christmas Carol, The Old Curiosity Shop, which ran during January 1841.

text: With the construction of a large tank, flooded from the nearby

text: New River

text: , an

text: Aquatic Theatre

text: was used to stage extravagant naval melodramas, such as The Siege of Gibraltar. The theatre also presented successful adaptations of popular novels of the time, such as

text: A Christmas Carol

text: The Old Curiosity Shop

text: , which ran during January 1841.

text: Agassiz found that his palaeontological labors made necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The fossils rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of fish. They consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, with the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He therefore adopted a classification which divided fish into four groups: Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales and other dermal appendages. While Agassiz did much to improve fish taxonomy, his classification has been superseded by later work.

text: Agassiz found that his palaeontological labors made necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The fossils rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of fish. They consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, with the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He therefore adopted a classification which divided fish into four groups: Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales and other dermal appendages. While Agassiz did much to improve fish

text: taxonomy

text: , his classification has been superseded by later work.

text: The low pH of Heberly Run makes it difficult for fish to reproduce in the stream.

text: The low pH of Heberly Run makes it difficult for

text: fish

text: to reproduce in the stream.

text: The Brood had cuts demanded for its theatrical release in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom. Actress Samantha Eggar conceived of the idea of licking the new fetuses that her character Nola Carveth has spawned. "I just thought that when cats have their kittens or dogs have puppies (and I think at that time I had about 8 dogs), they lick them as soon as they’re born. Lick, lick, lick, lick, lick…," Eggar said.

text: The Brood had cuts demanded for its theatrical release in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom. Actress

text: Samantha Eggar

text: conceived of the idea of licking the new fetuses that her character Nola Carveth has spawned. "I just thought that when cats have their kittens or dogs have puppies (and I think at that time I had about 8 dogs), they lick them as soon as they’re born. Lick, lick, lick, lick, lick…," Eggar said.

text: Problems that can arise from selective harvesting are smaller reproducing adult fish, as well as the unexpected mortality of the fish which sustain injuries from the gillnet but are not retained in the fishery. Most salmon populations include several age classes, allowing for fish of different ages, and sizes, to reproduce with each other. A recent 2009 study looked at 59 years of catch and escapement data of Bristol Bay sockeye salmon to determine age and size at maturity trends attributable to the selectivity of commercial gillnet harvests. The study found that the larger females (>550 mm) of all age classes were most susceptible to harvest. The study suggests that smaller, younger fish were more likely to successfully traverse the gillnet fishery and reproduce than the larger fish. The study also found that the average length of sockeye harvested from 1946–2005 was 8 mm larger than the sockeye who escaped the gillnet fishery to spawn, reducing the fecundity of the average female by 5%, or 104 eggs. If a salmon enters a gillnet, but manages to escape, it can sustain injuries. These injuries can lead to a lower degree of reproductive success. A study aimed at quantifying mortality of Bristol Bay sockeye salmon due to gillnet-related injuries found that 11–29% of sockeye sustained fishery-related injuries attributable to gillnets, and 51% of those fish were expected to not reproduce.

text: Problems that can arise from selective harvesting are smaller reproducing adult fish, as well as the unexpected mortality of the fish which sustain injuries from the gillnet but are not retained in the fishery. Most salmon populations include several

text: age classes

text: , allowing for fish of different ages, and sizes, to reproduce with each other. A recent 2009 study looked at 59 years of catch and escapement data of

text: Bristol Bay

text: sockeye salmon

text: to determine age and size at maturity trends attributable to the selectivity of commercial gillnet harvests. The study found that the larger females (>550 mm) of all age classes were most susceptible to harvest. The study suggests that smaller, younger fish were more likely to successfully traverse the gillnet fishery and reproduce than the larger fish. The study also found that the average length of sockeye harvested from 1946–2005 was 8 mm larger than the sockeye who escaped the gillnet fishery to spawn, reducing the fecundity of the average female by 5%, or 104 eggs. If a salmon enters a gillnet, but manages to escape, it can sustain injuries. These injuries can lead to a lower degree of reproductive success. A study aimed at quantifying mortality of Bristol Bay sockeye salmon due to gillnet-related injuries found that 11–29% of sockeye sustained fishery-related injuries attributable to gillnets, and 51% of those fish were expected to not reproduce.

text: The Bachelor of Fisheries Science (B.F.Sc) is a bachelor's degree for studies in fisheries science in India. "Fisheries science" is the academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries. It is a multidisciplinary science, which draws on the disciplines of aquaculture including breeding, genetics, biotechnology, nutrition, farming, diagnosis of diseases in fishes, other aquatic resources, medical treatment of aquatic animals; fish processing including curing, canning, freezing, value addition, byproducts and waste utilization, quality assurance and certification, fisheries microbiology, fisheries biochemistry; fisheries resource management including biology, anatomy, taxonomy, physiology, population dynamics; fisheries environment including oceanography, limnology, ecology, biodiversity, aquatic pollution; fishing technology including gear and craft engineering, navigation and seamanship, marine engines; fisheries economics and management and fisheries extension. Fisheries science is generally a 4-year course typically taught in a university setting, and can be the focus of an undergraduate, postgraduate or Ph.D. program. Bachelor level fisheries courses (B.F.Sc) were started by the state agricultural universities to make available the much needed technically competent personnel for teaching, research and development and transfer of technology in the field of fisheries science.

text: The Bachelor of Fisheries Science (

text: B.F.Sc

text: ) is a bachelor's degree for studies in fisheries science in India. "Fisheries science" is the academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries. It is a multidisciplinary science, which draws on the disciplines of aquaculture including breeding, genetics, biotechnology, nutrition, farming, diagnosis of diseases in fishes, other aquatic resources, medical treatment of aquatic animals; fish processing including curing, canning, freezing, value addition, byproducts and waste utilization, quality assurance and certification, fisheries microbiology, fisheries biochemistry; fisheries resource management including biology, anatomy, taxonomy, physiology, population dynamics; fisheries environment including oceanography, limnology, ecology, biodiversity, aquatic pollution; fishing technology including gear and craft engineering, navigation and seamanship, marine engines; fisheries economics and management and fisheries extension. Fisheries science is generally a 4-year course typically taught in a university setting, and can be the focus of an undergraduate, postgraduate or Ph.D. program. Bachelor level fisheries courses (

text: B.F.Sc

text: ) were started by the state agricultural universities to make available the much needed technically competent personnel for teaching, research and development and transfer of technology in the field of fisheries science.

text: What Pet Should I Get? is a Dr. Seuss children's book, posthumously published in 2015. Believed to have been written between 1958 and 1962, the book chronicles the adventures of Jay and Kay from Seuss' One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish in their attempts to buy a pet.

text: What Pet Should I Get? is a

text: Dr. Seuss

text: children's book, posthumously published in 2015. Believed to have been written between 1958 and 1962, the book chronicles the adventures of Jay and Kay from Seuss'

text: One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish

text: in their attempts to buy a pet.

text: In species which have a veliger or swimming larval stage which hatches out of egg capsules (uncommon in bivalves), there are two parts to the prodissoconch. The first part of the prodissoconch (which is formed when the larva is still within the embryonic egg capsule) is called prodissoconch I, while the part that is formed after the larva has hatched is called prodissoconch II. There is often different sculpture or ornamentation on prodissoconch I compared with prodissoconch II, and this can be distinguished under the microscope.  The prodissoconch I valves of the larval bivalve mollusc are thin, smooth and translucent, and generally appear during the first 24 hours of life.  Smooth valves continue to grow symmetrically and a gently sloping umbo projects from the middle of the hinge line.  The prodissoconch II valves are secreted onto the prodissoconch I valves by the edge of the mantle and are still smooth but have faint microsculpture.  Following metamorphosis the bivalve larvae (known as a veliger) develop a foot and the velum (or cilia) is reabsorbed and lost.  After metamorphosis there is a distinct line where the prodissoconch II stage ends and the part of the valves known as the dissoconch begins and the bivalve mollusk begins its adult sessile existence.  During metamorphosis, the veliger, depending on species, may secrete an attachment structure called a byssus that anchors it to the substratum.  Some species spend considerable time searching for an ideal habitat before metamorphosing, but others may settle on the nearest suitable substrate.

text: In species which have a

text: veliger

text: or swimming larval stage which hatches out of

text: egg capsule

text: s (uncommon in bivalves), there are two parts to the prodissoconch. The first part of the prodissoconch (which is formed when the larva is still within the embryonic egg capsule) is called prodissoconch I, while the part that is formed after the larva has hatched is called prodissoconch II. There is often different sculpture or ornamentation on prodissoconch I compared with prodissoconch II, and this can be distinguished under the

text: microscope

text: .  The prodissoconch I valves of the larval bivalve mollusc are thin, smooth and translucent, and generally appear during the first 24 hours of life.  Smooth valves continue to grow symmetrically and a gently sloping umbo projects from the middle of the hinge line.  The prodissoconch II valves are secreted onto the prodissoconch I valves by the edge of the mantle and are still smooth but have faint microsculpture.  Following metamorphosis the bivalve larvae (known as a

text: veliger

text: ) develop a foot and the velum (or cilia) is reabsorbed and lost.  After metamorphosis there is a distinct line where the prodissoconch II stage ends and the part of the valves known as the dissoconch begins and the bivalve mollusk begins its adult sessile existence.  During metamorphosis, the veliger, depending on species, may secrete an attachment structure called a

text: byssus

text: that anchors it to the substratum.  Some species spend considerable time searching for an ideal habitat before metamorphosing, but others may settle on the nearest suitable substrate.

text: While most bird species use their feathers, tools, or feet to produce sounds and attract mates, many fish species use specialized internal organs to sonate. In Gadoid fish, special muscles attached to the swimbladder assist in the production of knocking or grunting sounds to attract mates.

text: While most bird species use their feathers, tools, or feet to produce sounds and attract mates, many fish species use specialized internal organs to sonate. In

text: Gadoid fish

text: , special muscles attached to the swimbladder assist in the production of knocking or grunting sounds to attract mates.

text: For fish, it is rare for an individual to reproduce randomly with all other individuals of that species within its biological range. There is a tendency to form a structured series of discrete populations which have a degree of reproductive isolation from each other in space, in time, or in both. This isolation is reflected in the development between sub-populations of genetic differences, morphological variations and exposure to different chemical regimes and parasitic species. Sub-populations also respond to fishing in such a way that fishing on one population appears to have no effect on the population dynamics of a neighbouring population.

text: For fish, it is rare for an individual to reproduce randomly with all other individuals of that species within its biological range. There is a tendency to form a structured series of discrete populations which have a degree of reproductive isolation from each other in space, in time, or in both. This isolation is reflected in the development between sub-populations of

text: gene

text: tic differences,

text: morphological

text: variations and exposure to different

text: chemical

text: regimes and

text: parasitic

text: species. Sub-populations also respond to fishing in such a way that fishing on one population appears to have no effect on the population dynamics of a neighbouring population.

text: On 14 May 2008, the Beaver Lake Cree released the "Kétuskéno Declaration,"" "Kawîkiskeyihtâkwan ôma kîyânaw ohci Amiskosâkahikanihkekanawâpamikoyahk ôhi askiya kâtâpasinahikâteki ôta askîwasinahikanink âhâniskâc ekîpepimâcihowâkehk." asserting their role as caretakers of their traditional territories and started a legal action to: a) enforce recognition of their Constitutionally protected rights to hunt, trap and fish, and b) protect the ecological integrity of their territories." They alleged that development from the oil sands, forestry and the local municipal government infringes upon the First Nation's 1876 treaty rights to hunt, trap and fish Among other resources they foregrounded a native map as evidence.

text: Daggernose sharks are predators of small schooling fishes. Its reproduction is viviparous, with females give birth to 2–8 pups every other year during the rainy season; this species is capable of shifting the timing of its reproductive cycle by several months in response to the environment. Harmless to humans, the daggernose shark is caught for food and as bycatch in artisanal and commercial fisheries. Limited in range and slow-reproducing, it has been assessed as Critically Endangered by International Union for Conservation of Nature in light of a steep population decline in recent years. Indeed, it may even be in reproductive collapse, in which case it will likely become extinct in the near future.

text: Daggernose sharks are

text: predator

text: s of small

text: schooling fish

text: es. Its reproduction is

text: viviparous

text: , with females give birth to 2–8 pups every other year during the

text: rainy season

text: ; this species is capable of shifting the timing of its reproductive cycle by several months in response to the environment. Harmless to humans, the daggernose shark is caught for food and as

text: bycatch

text: in

text: artisanal

text: and

text: commercial fisheries

text: . Limited in range and slow-reproducing, it has been assessed as

text: Critically Endangered

text: by

text: in light of a steep population decline in recent years. Indeed, it may even be in reproductive collapse, in which case it will likely become extinct in the near future.

text: The yellow eel is essentially a nocturnal benthic omnivore. Prey includes fishes, molluscs, bivalves, crustaceans, insect larvae, surface-dwelling insects, worms, frogs and plants. The eel prefers small prey animals which can easily be attacked. Food type varies with body size. Stomachs of eels less than 40 cm and captured in streams contained mainly aquatic insect larvae, whereas larger eels fed predominantly on fishes and crayfishes. Insect abundance decreased in larger eels. The eel diet adapts to seasonal changes and the immediate environment. Feeding activity decreases or stops during the winter, and food intake ceases as eels physiologically prepare for the spawning migration.

text: The Wave-dancers are a tribe of elves who took refuge in the oceans of the World of Two Moons.  Thanks to elfin flesh-shaping magic, the Wave-dancers have in some cases undergone physical alterations such as fins and fish-like tails to help them adapt to an aquatic life.

text: The Rahway River is home to four anadromous fish species (fish that spawn in freshwater and live in saltwater) and one species of catadromous fish species (fish that spawn in salt water and live in freshwater).

text: The Rahway River is home to four

text: anadromous

text: fish species (fish that spawn in freshwater and live in saltwater) and one species of

text: catadromous

text: fish species (fish that spawn in salt water and live in freshwater).

text: At least four types of larvae have been described: the typical protonymphon larva, the encysted larva, the atypical protonymphon larva, and the attaching larva. The typical protonymphon larva is most common, is free living and gradually turns into an adult. The encysted larva is a parasite that hatches from the egg and finds a host in the shape of a polyp colony where it burrows into and turns into a cyst, and will not leave the host before it has turned into a young juvenile.

text: Some aquatic plant species produce overwintering turions, especially in the genera Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, Aldrovanda and Utricularia. These plants produce turions in response to unfavourable conditions such as decreasing day-length or reducing temperature.  They are derived from modified shoot apices and are often rich in starch and sugars enabling them to act as storage organs.  Although they are hardy (frost resistant), it is probable that their principal adaptation is their ability to sink to the bottom of a pond or lake when the water freezes. Because water expands anomalously at lower temperatures, water at  is denser than colder water and stays at the bottom, and in this water turions over-winter before rising again in the spring.  Some turions or aquatic plants also exhibit drought resistance allowing them to survive in temporary pools.

text: Some

text: aquatic plant

text: species produce overwintering turions, especially in the genera

text: Potamogeton

text: Myriophyllum

text: Aldrovanda

text: and

text: Utricularia

text: . These plants produce turions in response to unfavourable conditions such as decreasing day-length or reducing temperature.  They are derived from modified shoot

text: apices

text: and are often rich in

text: starch

text: and

text: sugar

text: s enabling them to act as storage organs.  Although they are hardy (

text: frost

text: resistant), it is probable that their principal adaptation is their ability to sink to the bottom of a pond or lake when the water freezes. Because water expands anomalously at lower temperatures, water at  is denser than colder water and stays at the bottom, and in this water turions over-winter before rising again in the spring.  Some turions or aquatic plants also exhibit

text: drought

text: resistance allowing them to survive in

text: temporary pools

text: S. gibbosa have unique eggs because they do not possess a wide perivitelline space (an important aspect to sardinella eggs and most pelagic fish). Some scientists do not consider this species a true member of the Sardinella genus for this reason. The spawning season for these fish ranges from April to October. In this species there is a trend of smaller fish spawning earlier in the spawning season. Peak spawning occurs in June and July and this is followed by the older larger specimens which tend to move into the spawning areas later in the season

text: S. gibbosa have unique eggs because they do not possess a wide

text: perivitelline space

text: (an important aspect to sardinella eggs and most pelagic fish). Some scientists do not consider this species a true member of the Sardinella genus for this reason. The spawning season for these fish ranges from April to October. In this species there is a trend of smaller fish spawning earlier in the spawning season. Peak spawning occurs in June and July and this is followed by the older larger specimens which tend to move into the spawning areas later in the season

text: Large hyaenodontid creodonts—Akenatenavus cf. leptognathus and possibly Metapterodon—shared the habitat with E. eocaenus, and these pack-hunting carnivores, larger than the average dog, could well have included it among their prey. Flightless or at least not quick in taking off, and not well-adapted to running away from threats either, retreating into the swamplands or reed belt would have provided a means of escape for the large birds. Here too, the highly mobile toes would have proven useful. While near the water, Eremopezus would have had to watch out for the basal crocodile "Crocodylus" megarhinus, the aquatic apex predator of Late Eocene Faiyum. On the other hand, the long-snouted gavialid Eogavialis africanum makes a rather unlikely predator of the giant bird, but feeding on large fish and other mid-sized vertebrates (like the false gharial Tomistoma schlegelii of the present time), it would probably have competed with E. eocaenus for food to some extent if the bird indeed was a carnivorous semi-aquatic species.

text: Large

text: hyaenodontid

text: creodonts—

text: Akenatenavus cf. leptognathus

text: and possibly

text: Metapterodon

text: —shared the habitat with E. eocaenus, and these pack-hunting

text: carnivore

text: s, larger than the average dog, could well have included it among their prey. Flightless or at least not quick in taking off, and not well-adapted to running away from threats either, retreating into the swamplands or reed belt would have provided a means of escape for the large birds. Here too, the highly mobile toes would have proven useful. While near the water, Eremopezus would have had to watch out for the

text: basal

text: crocodile

text: "Crocodylus" megarhinus

text: , the aquatic apex predator of Late Eocene Faiyum. On the other hand, the long-snouted

text: gavialid

text: Eogavialis africanum

text: makes a rather unlikely predator of the giant bird, but feeding on large fish and other mid-sized vertebrates (like the

text: false gharial

text: Tomistoma schlegelii of the present time), it would probably have competed with E. eocaenus for food to some extent if the bird indeed was a carnivorous semi-aquatic species.

text: The species of heavy-bodied cyprinid fishes are collectively known in the United States as Asian carp. Cyprinids from the Indian subcontinent, for example, catla (Catla catla) and mrigal (Cirrhinus cirrhosus) are not included in this classification, and are known collectively as "Indian carp".

text: The

text: species

text: of heavy-bodied

text: cyprinid

text: fish

text: es are collectively known in the

text: United States

text: as Asian carp. Cyprinids from the Indian subcontinent, for example, catla (

text: Catla catla

text: ) and mrigal (

text: Cirrhinus cirrhosus

text: ) are not included in this classification, and are known collectively as "Indian carp".

text: Little is known about the ecology of these fishes. X. xiurenensis is benthic and inhabits streams in the Nanling mountain range. The stomach contents have been studied to contain parts of arthropods.

text: Little is known about the ecology of these fishes. X. xiurenensis is benthic and inhabits streams in the

text: Nanling

text: mountain range. The stomach contents have been studied to contain parts of

text: arthropod

text: s.

text: Some fish species use internal fertilization and then disperse the developing eggs or give birth to live offspring. Fish that have live-bearing offspring include the guppy and mollies or Poecilia. Fishes that give birth to live young can be ovoviviparous, where the eggs are fertilized within the female and the eggs simply hatch within the female body, or in seahorses, the male carries the developing young within a pouch, and gives birth to live young. Fishes can also be viviparous, where the female supplies nourishment to the internally growing offspring.  Some fish are hermaphrodites, where a single fish is both male and female and can produce eggs and sperm. In hermaphroditic fish, some are male and female at the same time while in other fish they are serially hermaphroditic; starting as one sex and changing to the other. In at least one hermaphroditic species, self-fertilization occurs when the eggs and sperm are released together. Internal self-fertilization may occur in some other species. One fish species does not reproduce by sexual reproduction but uses sex to produce offspring; Poecilia formosa is a unisex species that uses a form of parthenogenesis called gynogenesis, where unfertilized eggs develop into embryos that produce female offspring. Poecilia formosa mate with males of other fish species that use internal fertilization, the sperm does not fertilize the eggs but stimulates the growth of the eggs which develops into embryos.

text: Some fish species use internal fertilization and then disperse the developing eggs or give birth to live offspring. Fish that have live-bearing offspring include the

text: guppy

text: and mollies or

text: Poecilia

text: . Fishes that give birth to live young can be

text: ovoviviparous

text: , where the eggs are fertilized within the female and the eggs simply hatch within the female body, or in

text: seahorse

text: s, the male carries the developing young within a pouch, and gives birth to live young. Fishes can also be

text: viviparous

text: , where the female supplies nourishment to the internally growing offspring.  Some fish are

text: hermaphrodite

text: s, where a single fish is both male and female and can produce eggs and sperm. In hermaphroditic fish, some are male and female at the same time while in other fish they are serially hermaphroditic; starting as one sex and changing to the other. In at least one hermaphroditic species, self-fertilization occurs when the eggs and sperm are released together. Internal self-fertilization may occur in some other species. One fish species does not reproduce by sexual reproduction but uses sex to produce offspring;

text: Poecilia formosa

text: is a unisex species that uses a form of

text: parthenogenesis

text: called

text: gynogenesis

text: , where unfertilized eggs develop into embryos that produce female offspring. Poecilia formosa mate with males of other fish species that use internal fertilization, the sperm does not fertilize the eggs but stimulates the growth of the eggs which develops into embryos.

text: The coin in the fish's mouth is generally seen as a symbolic act or sign, but there is little agreement concerning what it signifies.

text: Section 2 - Prohibits the taking of salmon or trout roe (fish eggs) or young fish. It is also an offence to purposely disturb spawn or spawning fish, unless permission is obtained previously in writing from the water authority for a private fishery to do so for the purpose of artificial propagation.

text: Section 2 - Prohibits the taking of salmon or trout

text: roe

text: (fish eggs) or young fish. It is also an offence to purposely disturb

text: spawn

text: or

text: spawning

text: fish, unless permission is obtained previously in writing from the water authority for a private fishery to do so for the purpose of

text: artificial propagation

text: Another account states that al-Ma'mun's first meeting with al-Jawad was coincidental. According to this account, al-Ma'mun was hunting when he happened upon a group of boys including al-Jawad, who were playing. When al-Ma'mun's horsemen approached, the boys ran away, except al-Jawad. This prompted al-Ma'mun to stop his carriage and ask, "Boy, what kept you from running away with the others?" Al-Jawad replied, "The road was not so narrow that I should fear there would not be room for you to pass and I have not been guilty of any offence that I should be afraid and I considered that you were the sort of man who would not injure one who had done no wrong." Shia traditions say that the Caliph was delighted and after he traveling a short distance, one of his hunting birds brought him a small fish. Al-Ma'mun hid the fish in his fist, returned and asked al-Jawad: "What have I in my hand?" Al-Jawad responded: "The creator of living things has created in the sea a small fish that is fished by the falcons of the kings and caliphs to try with it the progeny of al-Mustafa. Shiite tradition says that Al-Ma'mun was pleased with this answer and asked the child about his lineage. Soon after, the Caliph called a large gathering, during which al-Jawad was asked many questions and astonished everyone with his judgment and learning. After this, al-Ma'mun formally gave al-Jawad his daughter in marriage.

text: Another account states that al-Ma'mun's first meeting with al-Jawad was coincidental. According to this account, al-Ma'mun was hunting when he happened upon a group of boys including al-Jawad, who were playing. When al-Ma'mun's horsemen approached, the boys ran away, except al-Jawad. This prompted al-Ma'mun to stop his carriage and ask, "Boy, what kept you from running away with the others?" Al-Jawad replied, "The road was not so narrow that I should fear there would not be room for you to pass and I have not been guilty of any offence that I should be afraid and I considered that you were the sort of man who would not injure one who had done no wrong." Shia traditions say that the Caliph was delighted and after he traveling a short distance, one of his hunting birds brought him a small fish. Al-Ma'mun hid the fish in his fist, returned and asked al-Jawad: "What have I in my hand?" Al-Jawad responded: "The creator of living things has created in the sea a small fish that is fished by the falcons of the kings and caliphs to try with it the

text: progeny

text: of

text: al-Mustafa

text: . Shiite tradition says that Al-Ma'mun was pleased with this answer and asked the child about his lineage. Soon after, the Caliph called a large gathering, during which al-Jawad was asked many questions and astonished everyone with his judgment and learning. After this, al-Ma'mun formally gave al-Jawad his daughter in marriage.

text: Fish argued in January 2008 on his New York Times-syndicated blog that the humanities are of no instrumental value, but have only intrinsic worth. Fish explains, "To the question 'of what use are the humanities?', the only honest answer is none whatsoever. And it is an answer that brings honor to its subject. Justification, after all, confers value on an activity from a perspective outside its performance. An activity that cannot be justified is an activity that refuses to regard itself as instrumental to some larger good. The humanities are their own good. There is nothing more to say, and anything that is said diminishes the object of its supposed praise."

text: Fish argued in January 2008 on his New York Times-syndicated blog that the

text: humanities

text: are of no

text: instrumental value

text: , but have only

text: intrinsic worth

text: . Fish explains, "To the question 'of what use are the humanities?', the only honest answer is none whatsoever. And it is an answer that brings honor to its subject. Justification, after all, confers value on an activity from a perspective outside its performance. An activity that cannot be justified is an activity that refuses to regard itself as instrumental to some larger good. The humanities are their own good. There is nothing more to say, and anything that is said diminishes the object of its supposed praise."

text: Fishing is another key activity with ecological and economic impacts on the lakes.

text: Fishing

text: is another key activity with ecological and economic impacts on the lakes.

text: Internally, the sexes of most marine animals can be determined by looking at the gonads. For example, male testes of spawning fish are smooth and white and account for up to 12% of the mass of the fish, while female ovaries are granular and orange or yellow, accounting for up to 70% of the fish's mass. Male lampreys, hagfish and salmon discharge their sperm into the body cavity where it is expelled through pores in the abdomen. Male sharks and rays can pass sperm along a duct into a seminal vesicle, where they store it for a while before it is expelled, while teleosts usually employ separate sperm ducts.

text: Internally, the sexes of most marine animals can be determined by looking at the

text: gonad

text: s. For example, male

text: testes

text: of spawning fish are smooth and white and account for up to 12% of the mass of the fish, while female

text: ovaries

text: are granular and orange or yellow, accounting for up to 70% of the fish's mass. Male lampreys, hagfish and salmon discharge their sperm into the body cavity where it is expelled through pores in the abdomen. Male

text: shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: can pass sperm along a duct into a

text: seminal vesicle

text: , where they store it for a while before it is expelled, while

text: teleost

text: s usually employ separate sperm ducts.

text: Cavefish or cave fish, also known as hypogean fish, is a generic term for freshwater fish adapted to life in caves. Being aquatic, they are a part of the troglobite group known as stygofauna. The approximately 170 species of cavefish are found in all continents, except Antarctica and Europe. Although widespread as a group, many cavefish species have very small ranges and are seriously threatened. Cavefish are members of a wide range of families and do not form a monophyletic group. Typical adaptions found in cavefish are reduced eyes and pigmentation.__TOC__

text: Cavefish or cave fish, also known as hypogean fish, is a generic term for freshwater fish

text: adapted

text: to life in

text: cave

text: s. Being aquatic, they are a part of the

text: troglobite

text: group known as

text: stygofauna

text: . The approximately 170 species of cavefish are found in all continents, except Antarctica and Europe. Although widespread as a group, many cavefish species have very small ranges and are seriously

text: threatened

text: . Cavefish are members of a wide range of

text: families

text: and do not form a

text: monophyletic

text: group. Typical adaptions found in cavefish are

text: reduced eyes

text: and

text: pigmentation

text: Since 1986, elevated levels of chlordane in the flesh of the lake's fish have resulted in the issuance of a fish consumption advisory and the classification of the lake as a water-quality impaired segment.

text: Since 1986, elevated levels of

text: chlordane

text: in the flesh of the lake's fish have resulted in the issuance of a fish consumption advisory and the classification of the lake as a water-quality impaired segment.

text: Cumaceans are epimorphic, which means that the number of body segments does not change during development. This is a form of incomplete metamorphosis. Females carry the embryos in their marsupium for some time. The larvae leave the marsupium in the manca stage, in which they are almost fully grown and are only missing their last pair of pereiopods.

text: Cumaceans are

text: epimorphic

text: , which means that the number of body segments does not change during development. This is a form of incomplete

text: metamorphosis

text: . Females carry the embryos in their marsupium for some time. The

text: larvae

text: leave the marsupium in the manca stage, in which they are almost fully grown and are only missing their last pair of pereiopods.

text: Line fishing is fishing with a fishing line. A fishing line is any cord made for fishing. Important parameters of a fishing line are its length, material, and weight (thicker, sturdier lines are more visible to fish). Factors that may determine what line an angler chooses for a given fishing environment include breaking strength, knot strength, UV resistance, castability, limpness, stretch, abrasion resistance, and visibility.

text: Line fishing is fishing with a

text: fishing line

text: . A fishing line is any cord made for fishing. Important parameters of a fishing line are its length, material, and weight (thicker, sturdier lines are more visible to fish). Factors that may determine what line an angler chooses for a given fishing environment include breaking

text: strength

text: , knot strength, UV resistance, castability, limpness, stretch, abrasion resistance, and visibility.

text: The precise staging of spawning is not understood, although some researchers suggest the male initiates the process by release of milt, which has a pheromone that stimulates the female to begin oviposition. The behavior seems to be collective so that an entire school may spawn in the period of a few hours, producing an egg density of up to 6,000,000 eggs per square meter. The fertilized spherical eggs, measuring 1.2 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter, incubate for approximately ten days in estuarine waters that are about 10 degrees Celsius. Eggs and juveniles are subject to heavy predation.

text: The precise staging of spawning is not understood, although some researchers suggest the male initiates the process by release of

text: milt

text: , which has a

text: pheromone

text: that stimulates the female to begin oviposition. The behavior seems to be collective so that an entire school may spawn in the period of a few hours, producing an egg density of up to 6,000,000 eggs per square meter. The fertilized

text: spherical

text: eggs, measuring 1.2 to 1.5 millimeters in diameter, incubate for approximately ten days in estuarine waters that are about 10 degrees Celsius. Eggs and juveniles are subject to heavy predation.

text: Peter B. Moyle (born 1942 in Minnesota) is Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology and associate director of the Center for Watershed Sciences at the University of California-Davis.  He has studied the ecology and conservation of fishes in freshwater and estuarine habitats in California (US) for over forty years.  He has taken a special interest in salmon and various other anadromous fishes.  Moyle has authored or co-authored more than 220 publications covering topics such as watersheds, inland fishes, biological invasions, and biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems.  His primary areas of research include ecosystems, conservation of aquatic species, habitats, and various ecological impacts.

text: Peter B. Moyle (born 1942 in Minnesota) is

text: Distinguished Professor Emeritus

text: in the Department of Wildlife, Fish and Conservation Biology and associate director of the Center for Watershed Sciences at the

text: University of California-Davis

text: .  He has studied the

text: ecology

text: and

text: conservation

text: of fishes in

text: freshwater

text: and

text: estuarine

text: habitats

text: in California (US) for over forty years.  He has taken a special interest in

text: salmon

text: and various other

text: anadromous fish

text: es.  Moyle has authored or co-authored more than 220 publications covering topics such as watersheds, inland fishes, biological invasions, and biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems.  His primary areas of research include ecosystems, conservation of aquatic species, habitats, and various ecological impacts.

text: The gulf is home to 480 fish species, and annual fishery production in 2004 amounted to some 20,000 MT, making Lagonoy Gulf a major fishing ground in the Philippines. Coral reefs, seaweed/seagrass beds, and mangroves form the critical habitats for gulf's ecology.

text: The gulf is home to 480 fish species, and annual fishery production in 2004 amounted to some 20,000

text: MT

text: , making Lagonoy Gulf a major fishing ground in the Philippines. Coral reefs, seaweed/seagrass beds, and mangroves form the critical habitats for gulf's ecology.

text: While meat is not a favorite indulgence in Madhesh, inhabitants of both inner and outer Madhesh have a special affinity for fish. They eat a lot of fresh fish curries in the Madhesh.The topic of fish cannot be completed without the mention of Tharus, one of the indigenous ethnic groups of inner Madhesh, whose main food is fish and rice. Considering that most Tharu settlements are close to the river, this tribe has a special connection with fish. In Tharu culture, fish is quintessential – it is a must for weddings, ceremonies, festivals and other special occasions. Tharus live very close to nature and our food items are also derived from nature; it keeps an ecological balance. This eco-friendly tribe has a fascinating food culture. Most of Madheshi-Tharu dishes are rice based. Rice is molded into various shapes and steamed to make dhikari, an essential festival treat. Moreover, a special kind of sticky rice called anadi is steamed and served. Tharu food can be divided into two categories – ordinary everyday food consisting of rice, lentils, vegetables and fish, and special food items that are mostly prepared and consumed during feasts, festivals and other special occasions. Furthermore, some other special Tharu food items on the menu include pakuwa (barbecued meat), gughi (dried shrimp) and an assortment of tina (vegetables).But it is unfortunate that they are gradually disappearing from the diet of the original inhabitants. The younger generation are more inclined towards industrial food – primarily due to advertisements and the need for fast\convenient food. On the brighter side, the older generation still seems to be attached to their traditional cuisines. People has an emotional attachment with her traditional food – even when they are living abroad, they cook the same dishes that they would eat in the Madhesh. Madhesh cuisine has its own charm – the food is interesting, colorful and simply delicious.

text: The spawning behavior of these fish has not been observed.

text: The

text: spawning

text: behavior of these fish has not been observed.

text: Zern also spoke out for equality in hunting and fishing. He said that he once had to explain to a visitor what "restricted" meant on the signs for hunting and fishing lodges. "'It means,' I told him, 'that if you are a game-hog and a spoil-sport and a discourteous scoundrel and a Gentile, you are welcome to stay there, and if you are a true sportsman and a conservationist and a gentleman and a Jew, you are not welcome.'" Zern continued, editorially: "Personally, I believe wholeheartedly in “discrimination”— against game-hogs, fish-hogs, violators of the written and the unwritten laws of sportsmanship, conservation, decency, and courtesy. But I don’t want to be welcomed to a hunting or fishing camp or hotel simply because I am a Pennsylvania Dutchman, and I don’t want some of the finest sportsmen I know to be turned away because they are Jews."

text: Many of the evil or harmful things in the world were the work of the foolish brother. One day To-Kabinana carved a Thum-fish out of wood and let it float on the sea and made it alive so that it might always be a fish; and the Thum-fish drove the Malivaran-fish ashore in great numbers so that they could be caught. Now To-Karvuvu saw them, and asked his brother where were the fish that forced the Malivaran-fish ashore, sa}ring that he also wished to make some. Accordingly, To-Kabinana told him to make the figure of a Thum-fish, but instead the stupid fellow carved the effigy of a shark and put it in the water. The shark, however, did not drive the other fish ashore, but ate them all up, so that To-Karvuvu went crying to his brother and said, "I wish I had not made my fish, for he eats all the others"; whereupon To-Kabinana asked, "What kind of a fish did you make?" and he replied, "A shark." Then To-Kabinana said, "You are indeed a stupid fellow. You have brought it about that our descendants shall suffer. That fish will eat all the others, and he will also eat people as well."

text: Actual spawning occurs when a collection of males gather around gravid females, and begin writhing, twisting, bumping into and slithering over the tops of females, an activity which triggers the release of eggs.  Males release clouds of milt to fertilize the eggs as they are released into the water column.  The sticky eggs then attach to submerged vegetation, and development begins.  It takes only a few days for the eggs to hatch into larval fish, and another ten days or so for the larval fish to detach from the vegetation and start moving about as young fry. Egg production is variable, and believed to be dependent on the size of the female.  A common formula used for predicting the volume of eggs a female can produce is 4.1 eggs/gram of body weight which gives an average of about 150,000 eggs per spawn.  The eggs of alligator gar are bright red and poisonous to humans if ingested.

text: Actual spawning occurs when a collection of males gather around

text: gravid

text: females, and begin writhing, twisting, bumping into and slithering over the tops of females, an activity which triggers the release of eggs.  Males release clouds of

text: milt

text: to fertilize the eggs as they are released into the water column.  The sticky eggs then attach to submerged vegetation, and development begins.  It takes only a few days for the eggs to hatch into larval fish, and another ten days or so for the larval fish to detach from the vegetation and start moving about as young fry. Egg production is variable, and believed to be dependent on the size of the female.  A common formula used for predicting the volume of eggs a female can produce is 4.1 eggs/gram of body weight which gives an average of about 150,000 eggs per spawn.  The eggs of alligator gar are bright red and poisonous to humans if ingested.

text: What makes a bouillabaisse different from other fish soups is the selection of Provençal herbs and spices in the broth; the use of bony local Mediterranean fish; the way the fish are added one at a time, and brought to a boil; and the method of serving. In Marseille, the broth is served first in a soup plate with slices of bread and rouille, then the fish is served separately on a large platter  (see image at right);  or, more simply,  as Julia Child suggests, the fish and broth are brought to the table separately and served together in large soup plates.

text: Since reefs have been damaged by human caused environmental and ecological changes such as overfishing, people have started creating artificial reefs. Artificial reefs can show quick increases in local fish population rehabilitation, coral reef, and algae growth. Though the quick positive response that artificial reefs tend to show is often interpreted wrongly and the overall impact on the ecosystem is overlooked. Increased fish populations have not been thoroughly examined and it is so far proven that artificial reefs attract far more fish to be caught by fishermen than the amount of biomass that is actually produced by the artificial reef. James Bohnsack, a biologist with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) concluded artificial reefs don't actually increase fish populations, they simply concentrate fish and make them easier for fishermen to locate and catch. Artificial reefs generally serve merely as FAD’s (Fish Aggregating Devices) bringing in fish from natural reefs, to be caught on the man made landmark. It is proven that artificial reefs attract fish, though it is still uncertain whether or not they make up for the losses, and further research must be done.

text: Since reefs have been damaged by human caused environmental and ecological changes such as

text: overfishing

text: , people have started creating artificial reefs. Artificial reefs can show quick increases in local fish

text: population rehabilitation

text: coral reef

text: , and

text: algae

text: growth. Though the quick positive response that artificial reefs tend to show is often interpreted wrongly and the overall impact on the ecosystem is overlooked. Increased fish populations have not been thoroughly examined and it is so far proven that artificial reefs attract far more fish to be caught by fishermen than the amount of biomass that is actually produced by the artificial reef. James Bohnsack, a biologist with the

text: National Marine Fisheries Service

text: (NMFS) concluded artificial reefs don't actually increase fish populations, they simply concentrate fish and make them easier for fishermen to locate and catch. Artificial reefs generally serve merely as

text: FAD

text: ’s (Fish Aggregating Devices) bringing in fish from natural reefs, to be caught on the man made landmark. It is proven that artificial reefs attract fish, though it is still uncertain whether or not they make up for the losses, and further research must be done.

text: Although a variety of methods are used to fish for tarpons (bait, lure, and fly on spinning, conventional, or fly rod), the method that has garnered the most acclaim is flats-fishing with a fly rod.  It is a sport akin to hunting, combining the best elements of hunting with fishing.  A normal tarpon fly rod outfit uses 10–12 weight rods and reels, spooled with appropriate line and using a class leader tippet of ; truly light tackle fishing where the fish may weigh 10 times or more than the breaking strength of the leader.  Typically, an angler stations himself on the bow of a shallow-water boat known as a 'flats skiff', and with the aid of a guide, searches for incoming tarpon on the flats (inshore shallow areas of the ocean, typically no more than  deep).  When a school of tarpons are sighted, the guide positions the boat to intercept the fish.  The angler usually has no more than six to 10 seconds to false cast out enough flyline and make an accurate cast to these fast-moving fish. Accuracy and speed are paramount, but the task is compounded by the inevitable excitement and nervousness of seeing a school of fish that may top  bearing down on the angler.  Once the cast is made, the fly is retrieved and hopefully a tarpon inhales the fly.  The hookset is difficult due to the hard mouth of the fish, which has been likened to the hardness of concrete, so many tarpons throw the hook on the first few jumps; many times an angler is asked, "how many tarpons did you jump?" rather than how many they caught.  If the hook stays secure, then the fight is on.  Tarpons  have tremendous endurance and are one of the most exciting gamefish to fight—frequent spectacular jumps, long runs, and stubborn bulldogging are all part of the game.  Although an experienced and skillful tarpon angler can usually land a tarpon in less than an hour, the average angler usually takes longer, from one to more than three hours.

text: Although a variety of methods are used to fish for tarpons (bait, lure, and fly on spinning, conventional, or fly rod), the method that has garnered the most acclaim is flats-fishing with a fly rod.  It is a sport akin to hunting, combining the best elements of hunting with fishing.  A normal tarpon fly rod outfit uses 10–12 weight rods and reels, spooled with appropriate line and using a class leader tippet of ; truly light tackle fishing where the fish may weigh 10 times or more than the breaking strength of the leader.  Typically, an angler stations himself on the bow of a shallow-water boat known as a 'flats skiff', and with the aid of a guide, searches for incoming tarpon on the flats (inshore shallow areas of the ocean, typically no more than  deep).  When a school of tarpons are sighted, the guide positions the boat to intercept the fish.  The angler usually has no more than six to 10 seconds to false cast out enough flyline and make an accurate cast to these fast-moving fish. Accuracy and speed are paramount, but the task is compounded by the inevitable excitement and nervousness of seeing a school of fish that may top  bearing down on the angler.  Once the cast is made, the fly is retrieved and hopefully a tarpon inhales the fly.  The

text: hookset

text: is difficult due to the hard mouth of the fish, which has been likened to the hardness of concrete, so many tarpons throw the hook on the first few jumps; many times an angler is asked, "how many tarpons did you jump?" rather than how many they caught.  If the hook stays secure, then the fight is on.  Tarpons  have tremendous endurance and are one of the most exciting gamefish to fight—frequent spectacular jumps, long runs, and stubborn bulldogging are all part of the game.  Although an experienced and skillful tarpon angler can usually land a tarpon in less than an hour, the average angler usually takes longer, from one to more than three hours.

text: Fish systematics is the formal description and organisation of fish taxa into systems. It is complex and still evolving. Controversies over "arcane, but important, details of classification are still quietly raging."

text: Fish

text: systematics

text: is the formal description and organisation of fish

text: taxa

text: into systems. It is complex and still evolving. Controversies over "arcane, but important, details of classification are still quietly raging."

text: The fish they chose to investigate was the yellow tang, because when a larva of this fish find a suitable reef it stays in the general area for the rest of its life. Thus, it is only as drifting larvae that the fish can migrate significant distances from where they are born. The tropical yellow tang is much sought after by the aquarium trade. By the late 1990s, their stocks were collapsing, so in an attempt to save them nine marine protected areas (MPAs) were established off the coast of Hawaii. Now, through the process of larval drift, fish from the MPAs are establishing themselves in different locations, and the fishery is recovering. "We've clearly shown that fish larvae that were spawned inside marine reserves can drift with currents and replenish fished areas long distances away," said one of the authors, the marine biologist Mark Hixon. "This is a direct observation, not just a model, that successful marine reserves can sustain fisheries beyond their borders."

text: The fish they chose to investigate was the

text: yellow tang

text: , because when a larva of this fish find a suitable reef it stays in the general area for the rest of its life. Thus, it is only as drifting larvae that the fish can migrate significant distances from where they are born. The tropical yellow tang is much sought after by the

text: aquarium

text: trade. By the late 1990s, their stocks were collapsing, so in an attempt to save them nine

text: marine protected areas

text: (MPAs) were established off the coast of Hawaii. Now, through the process of larval drift, fish from the MPAs are establishing themselves in different locations, and the fishery is recovering. "We've clearly shown that fish larvae that were spawned inside marine reserves can drift with currents and replenish fished areas long distances away," said one of the authors, the

text: marine biologist

text: Mark Hixon. "This is a direct observation, not just a model, that successful marine reserves can sustain fisheries beyond their borders."

text: Ichthyology (from Greek: ἰχθύς, ikhthus, "fish"; and λόγος, logos, "study"), also known as fish science, is the branch of biology devoted to the study of fish.  This includes bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha). While a large number of species have been discovered, approximately 250 new species are officially described by science each  year. According to FishBase, 33,400 species of fish had been described by October 2016.

text: Ichthyology (from Greek:

text: ἰχθύς

text: , ikhthus, "fish"; and λόγος, logos, "study"), also known as fish science, is the branch of

text: biology

text: devoted to the study of

text: fish

text: .  This includes bony fishes (

text: Osteichthyes

text: ), cartilaginous fish (

text: Chondrichthyes

text: ), and jawless fish (

text: Agnatha

text: ). While a large number of species have been discovered, approximately 250 new species are officially described by science each  year. According to

text: FishBase

text: , 33,400 species of fish had been described by October 2016.

text: As with other livebearing fish, fresh and brackish water halfbeaks produce small broods of large offspring compared with egg-laying species of similar size, with broods of around ten to twenty, typically  long.

text: The museum is the home of the famous Cretaceous fossil Gillicus in Xiphactinus, better known as the "fish within a fish," which shows a small fossil fish inside the stomach of a larger fossil fish.

text: The museum is the home of the famous

text: Cretaceous

text: fossil Gillicus in Xiphactinus, better known as the "fish within a fish," which shows a small fossil fish inside the stomach of a larger fossil fish.

text: The hardhead, Mylopharodon conocephalus, is a cyprinid fish native to California, it is the sole member of its genus. Hardhead are found in both small to large streams in low to mid-elevations. Hardhead may also inhabit reservoirs and lakes.  Hardhead are omnivores at all ages although the juvenile and adult fish have a different diet and tooth structures. These fish will eat aquatic plants, benthic invertebrates, algae and insects. As adults, hardheads may live up to 9 or 10 years.

text: The hardhead, Mylopharodon conocephalus, is a

text: cyprinid

text: fish

text: native to

text: California

text: , it is the sole member of its genus. Hardhead are found in both small to large streams in low to mid-elevations. Hardhead may also inhabit reservoirs and lakes.  Hardhead are omnivores at all ages although the juvenile and adult fish have a different diet and tooth structures. These fish will eat aquatic plants, benthic invertebrates, algae and insects. As adults, hardheads may live up to 9 or 10 years.

text: There are many hiking trails and several campgrounds inside the park. Unlicensed fishing is allowed without any limitation of size, species, or number. The lake is believed to have no indigenous fish, but several species of fish were introduced beginning in 1888 until all fish stocking ended in 1941. Kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) now thrive and reproduce here naturally.<ref>

text: There are many

text: hiking

text: trails and several campgrounds inside the park. Unlicensed fishing is allowed without any limitation of size, species, or number. The lake is believed to have no indigenous fish, but several species of fish were introduced beginning in 1888 until all fish stocking ended in 1941.

text: Kokanee salmon

text: (Oncorhynchus nerka) and

text: rainbow trout

text: (Oncorhynchus mykiss) now thrive and reproduce here naturally.<ref>

text: Some aquarists view the use of feeder fish as cruel and unnecessary, arguing that once the feeder             fish is introduced into a small tank it has no chance to escape, and such a contrived situation cannot be considered “natural” in any meaningful sense. Most predatory species that eat live fish can also be weaned onto dead alternatives. Some of the species used as feeder fish (goldfish and rosy red minnows) contain high quantities of thiaminase, an enzyme that destroys vitamin B and when fed in large quantities cause nutritional imbalances. When bred and held in an overcrowded or otherwise sub-optimal environment, they may also carry bacterial infections and parasites, which can be passed along to fish that eat them. A major disadvantage of using feeder fish, particularly goldfish, is that they do not actually simulate what tropical fish eat in the wild.

text: Some aquarists view the use of feeder fish as cruel and unnecessary, arguing that once the feeder             fish is introduced into a small tank it has no chance to escape, and such a contrived situation cannot be considered “natural” in any meaningful sense. Most predatory species that eat live fish can also be weaned onto dead alternatives. Some of the species used as feeder fish (

text: goldfish

text: and

text: rosy red minnow

text: s) contain high quantities of

text: thiaminase

text: , an enzyme that destroys

text: vitamin B

text: and when fed in large quantities cause nutritional imbalances. When bred and held in an overcrowded or otherwise sub-optimal environment, they may also carry bacterial infections and parasites, which can be passed along to fish that eat them. A major disadvantage of using feeder fish, particularly goldfish, is that they do not actually simulate what tropical fish eat in the wild.

text: Not much is known of how this organ is used in other species. Research has shown, like songbirds, females in some species of fish show seasonal variation inauditory processing and the sensitivity of the saccule of females peaks during the breeding season. This is due to an increase in thedensity of saccular hair cells, partly resulting from reduced apoptosis. The increase the hair cells make also increase the sensitivity to male mating calls. An example of this is seen in Porichthys notatus,or plainfin midshipman fish.

text: Not much is known of how this organ is used in other species. Research has shown, like songbirds, females in some species of fish show seasonal variation inauditory processing and the sensitivity of the saccule of females peaks during the breeding season. This is due to an increase in thedensity of saccular hair cells, partly resulting from reduced

text: apoptosis

text: . The increase the hair cells make also increase the sensitivity to male mating calls. An example of this is seen in Porichthys notatus,or plainfin midshipman fish.

text: The species, as it is currently accepted, was first described and classified by the Australian ichthyologist Gilbert Percy Whitley in 1934 based upon a sample taken from Port Hedland in Western Australia, which was designated to be the holotype. Whitley named the species Olistus hedlandensis, placing the fish in what was at the time a valid genus of jacks. When Olistus was synonymised with Carangoides, the fish was placed either in Caranx or Carangoides, and is currently accepted as belonging in the latter. The specific epithet refers to the type location of the species, Port Hedland. This was not the first time the fish had been described though, with Georges Cuvier applying the name Olistus malabaricus to the species in 1833, which would give it priority over Whitley's name. However, when Olistus was merged into Carangoides, a taxonomic homonym was created with Carangoides malabaricus, thus Whitley's name has been accepted to overcome this problem. The bumpnose trevally is very similar to Carangoides armatus, and appears to have been misidentified as such many times, with 1980 review of the two species finding many misidentified fish in museum collections.

text: The species, as it is currently accepted, was first described and

text: classified

text: by the

text: Australia

text: n

text: ichthyologist

text: Gilbert Percy Whitley

text: in 1934 based upon a sample taken from

text: Port Hedland

text: in

text: Western Australia

text: , which was designated to be the

text: holotype

text: . Whitley named the species Olistus hedlandensis, placing the fish in what was at the time a valid genus of jacks. When Olistus was

text: synonymised

text: with Carangoides, the fish was placed either in

text: Caranx

text: or Carangoides, and is currently accepted as belonging in the latter. The specific

text: epithet

text: refers to the type location of the species, Port Hedland. This was not the first time the fish had been described though, with

text: Georges Cuvier

text: applying the name Olistus malabaricus to the species in 1833, which would give it priority over Whitley's name. However, when Olistus was merged into Carangoides, a taxonomic

text: homonym

text: was created with

text: Carangoides malabaricus

text: , thus Whitley's name has been accepted to overcome this problem. The bumpnose trevally is very similar to

text: Carangoides armatus

text: , and appears to have been misidentified as such many times, with 1980 review of the two species finding many misidentified fish in museum collections.

text: Youthful men do the fishing while the women are involved in fish drying (sardines), traditional processing of fish and cooking. People who do not go fishing themselves but hire to catch fish, own most fishing units. The involvement of family is less. The othergroups involved in fishing include fish traders, boat owners and fish smokers.

text: The maximum lifespan of the olive darter is around four years with an average lifespan of three years. This darter reaches sexual maturity halfway through its life at two years. Reproductive condition of adults and the timing of young-of-year recruitment indicate a May–July spawning season. They spawn in rock-gravel shoals where the female will drop her eggs and the males fertilize the eggs. This reproductive strategy allows for protection of the brood without the use of a brood guarder. Nearly 1,500 eggs are in a single brood allowing for a higher chance of survival. This is a common reproductive strategy for many darters. At full maturity the male will reach about 5 cm and the female will only be slightly smaller.

text: An artificial fly or fly lure is a type of fishing lure, usually used in the sport of fly fishing (although they may also be used in other forms of angling). In general, artificial flies are an imitation of natural food sources which fly fishers present to their target species of fish while fly fishing. Artificial flies are constructed by fly tying, in which furs, feathers, thread or any of very many other materials are tied onto a fish hook. Artificial flies may be constructed to represent all manner of potential freshwater and saltwater fish prey to include aquatic and terrestrial insects, crustaceans, worms, baitfish, vegetation, flesh, spawn, small reptiles, amphibians, mammals and birds, etc. Effective artificial fly patterns are said to be killing flies because of their ability to put fish in the creel for the fly fisher. There are thousands of artificial fly patterns, many of them with descriptive and often idiosyncratic names.

text: An artificial fly or fly lure is a type of

text: fishing lure

text: , usually used in the sport of

text: fly fishing

text: (although they may also be used in other forms of angling). In general, artificial flies are an imitation of natural food sources which fly fishers present to their

text: target species

text: of fish while fly fishing. Artificial flies are constructed by

text: fly tying

text: , in which

text: fur

text: s,

text: feather

text: s,

text: thread

text: or any of very many other materials are tied onto a

text: fish hook

text: . Artificial flies may be constructed to represent all manner of potential

text: freshwater

text: and

text: saltwater

text: fish

text: prey

text: to include

text: aquatic

text: and

text: terrestrial

text: insects

text: crustaceans

text: worm

text: s,

text: baitfish

text: vegetation

text: flesh

text: spawn

text: , small

text: reptiles

text: amphibians

text: mammals

text: and

text: birds

text: , etc. Effective artificial fly patterns are said to be killing flies because of their ability to put fish in the

text: creel

text: for the fly fisher. There are thousands of artificial fly patterns, many of them with descriptive and often idiosyncratic names.

text: Additionally, the use of explosives may be used as a fishing technique in the live food fish trade.  While the majority of these fish do not survive the blast of such explosions, the remaining fish that are only stunned are collected for the live food fish trade.  The use of cyanide makes a stronger argument in that the more coral reef fish captured alive, the more lucrative the catch is for the fisherman.  Live fish, according to the [WWF], fetch five times more than a dead fish. This is why banning the live-fish trade would similarly harm the reefs.  Fisherman would resort to the "dead fish trade", be forced to deal in a larger quantity of fish, and the process of dangerous fishing techniques continues.  To illustrate the effects of repeated explosions in the proximity of a coral reef system, roughly one half of the coral reefs in Komodo National Park in Indonesia have been destroyed. The use of cyanide and explosives in fishing proves to be an effective technique in catching fish, but its powers are indiscriminating and as a result the coral reefs are being held hostage to such practices.  The future of the reefs are in question just as are the futures of those who subsist from them because "from a long term perspective, the question of ethics of using the ocean...contains a commitment for future generations".

text: Lilioceris species are holometabolous, having a complete metamorphosis. The larvae proceed to a pupation stage to develop into adults.

text: Lilioceris species are

text: holometabolous

text: , having a complete

text: metamorphosis

text: . The larvae proceed to a

text: pupa

text: tion stage to develop into adults.

text: The most challenging aspect of this problem is discovering how to eliminate these compounds from the environment and where to focus remediation efforts. Even pollutants no longer in production persist in the environment, and bio-accumulate in the food chain. An understanding of how these chemicals, once in the environment, move through ecosystems, is essential to designing ways to isolate and remove them. Working backwards through the food chain may help to identify areas to prioritize for remediation efforts. This may be extremely challenging for contaminated fish and marine mammals that have a large habitat and who consume fish from many different areas throughout their lives.

text: It has been pointed out that A lineatus and other surface feeding fish are able to locate prey even if the waveform is only in click form (just touching the surface once, as when surfacing for air or when a mosquito larva is hatching), which takes less time to complete than the fish will take to swim over. This indicates that the fish are simply performing a form of sensory taxis, that they are getting all the information they need to locate the prey in the initial stimulus reception and are retaining the location while orienting and swimming. Fish also can begin orienting and swimming after receiving only the first few waves in a wavetrain or click stimulus.

text: Mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle vary considerably between species. River dolphins and manatees are both fully aquatic and therefore are completely tethered to a life in the water. Seals are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as mating, breeding and molting. In contrast, many other aquatic mammals, such as rhinoceroses, capybara, and water shrews, are much less adapted to aquatic living. Likewise, their diet ranges considerably as well, anywhere from aquatic plants and leaves to small fish and crustaceans. They play major roles in maintaining aquatic ecosystems, beavers especially.

text: He continued to work on his fishes in Cambridge but yearned to make another attempt on Polypterus despite the health and safety risks. Dr Ansorge had brought back Polypterus larvae from the Niger delta and Budgett thought that if he went there he might finally be able to observe the development of these larvae.

text: He continued to work on his fishes in Cambridge but yearned to make another attempt on Polypterus despite the health and safety risks. Dr Ansorge had brought back Polypterus larvae from the

text: Niger

text: delta and Budgett thought that if he went there he might finally be able to observe the development of these larvae.

text: FISH is widely used in the field of microbial ecology, to identify microorganisms. Biofilms, for example, are composed of complex (often) multi-species bacterial organizations. Preparing DNA probes for one species and performing FISH with this probe allows one to visualize the distribution of this specific species within the biofilm. Preparing probes (in two different colors) for two species allows to visualize/study co-localization of these two species in the biofilm, and can be useful in determining the fine architecture of the biofilm.

text: FISH is widely used in the field of

text: microbial ecology

text: , to identify

text: microorganisms

text: Biofilms

text: , for example, are composed of complex (often) multi-species bacterial organizations. Preparing DNA probes for one species and performing FISH with this probe allows one to visualize the distribution of this specific species within the biofilm. Preparing probes (in two different colors) for two species allows to visualize/study co-localization of these two species in the biofilm, and can be useful in determining the fine architecture of the biofilm.

text: Rock Angling as the name suggests usually entails the angler fishing from a rock ledge or outcrop on the shore. This will usually allow the angler access to deeper water than from the beach, which usually means more fish. Fishing from rock ledges and outcrops can be very dangerous and should never be done alone, as anglers each year are swept off rocks by the power of the sea and some of these are swept to their deaths. An angler rock fishing will usually use a rod of between 10 and 11 feet when fishing from rocks although the full Beach Casters of 12 to 14 feet may be used when distance casting is required or a stiff rod is required due to rough ground. It is usual that only short casting is required from rocks to catch fish as they tend to be close in trying to feed of crabs and other animals. Again the angler may use a fixed spool reel or a multiplier reel loaded with line from as little as 8 pound (float fishing) to 30 pounds over rough ground. When fishing from rocks several different methods can be used such as bait fishing, spinning/plugging and float fishing. Bait fishing will be much the same as from the beach but the most common bait would now be peeler crab and hard back crab. Spinning/plugging involves casting an artificial lure or plug and retrieving it to induce a fish to 'take' attack the lure or plug. Whilst float fishing is simply suspending a bait usually a rag worm, sand eel of prawn below a float. The species of fish targeted will be the same as from the beach but will include species such as Ballan Wrasse.Species varie from coast to coast, but the main species from rock marks are conger eels, various species of ray, tope, cod, bass and bullhuss.A rotten bottom system is commonly used among professional anglers looking to cut down on tackle losses due to rocky snags.

text: Somewhat less than 10% of orally administered fluoxetine is excreted from humans unchanged or as glucuronide. Because most antidepressants function by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and norepinepherine these drugs can interfere with natural neurotransmitter levels in other organisms impacted by indirect exposure. Antidepressants fluoxetine and sertraline have been detected in aquatic organisms residing in effluent dominated streams. The presence of antidepressants in surface waters and aquatic organisms has caused concern because ecotoxicological effects to aquatic organisms due to fluoxetine exposure have been demonstrated. Coral reef fish have been demonstrated to modulate aggressive behavior through serotonin.

text: Somewhat less than 10% of orally administered fluoxetine is excreted from humans unchanged or as

text: glucuronide

text: . Because most antidepressants function by inhibiting the reuptake of neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine, and norepinepherine these drugs can interfere with natural neurotransmitter levels in other organisms impacted by indirect exposure. Antidepressants fluoxetine and sertraline have been detected in aquatic organisms residing in effluent dominated streams. The presence of antidepressants in surface waters and aquatic organisms has caused concern because ecotoxicological effects to aquatic organisms due to fluoxetine exposure have been demonstrated. Coral reef fish have been demonstrated to modulate aggressive behavior through serotonin.

text: When ready to mate N.viridula sound 100Hz vibration with a "tymbal" composed of a fused first and second terga (not to be confused with tymbal of cicadas) that allow bi-directional communication to any Nezara standing on the same plant so they could find each other. The female lays 30 to 130 eggs at a time, in the form of an egg mass glued firmly to the bottom of a leaf. The eggs are barrel-shaped, with an opening on the top. The eggs take between 5 and 21 days to develop, depending on the temperature. The newborn larvae gather near the empty eggs and do not feed until three days later, after the first moult. They moult five times before reaching maturity, increasing in size each time. Each instar stage lasts about a week, except for the last one before the metamorphosis, which is a day longer. Up to four generations can develop in one year, with eggs developing into adults in as few as 35 days in mid-summer. Up until their third moult the larvae aggregate together on the host plant, the purpose of this aggregation is probably pooling of chemical defenses against predators, for example ants.

text: When ready to mate N.viridula sound 100Hz vibration with a "tymbal" composed of a fused first and second

text: terga

text: (not to be confused with

text: tymbal

text: of cicadas) that allow bi-directional communication to any Nezara standing on the same plant so they could find each other. The female lays 30 to 130 eggs at a time, in the form of an egg mass glued firmly to the bottom of a

text: leaf

text: . The eggs are barrel-shaped, with an opening on the top. The eggs take between 5 and 21 days to develop, depending on the temperature. The newborn larvae gather near the empty eggs and do not feed until three days later, after the first

text: moult

text: . They moult five times before reaching maturity, increasing in size each time. Each

text: instar

text: stage lasts about a week, except for the last one before the

text: metamorphosis

text: , which is a day longer. Up to four generations can develop in one year, with eggs developing into adults in as few as 35 days in mid-summer. Up until their third moult the larvae aggregate together on the host plant, the purpose of this aggregation is probably pooling of chemical defenses against

text: predator

text: s, for example

text: ant

text: s.

text: The Hippocampinae are a subfamily of small marine fishes in the family Syngnathidae. Depending on the classification system used, it comprises either seahorses and pygmy pipehorses, or only seahorses.

text: The Hippocampinae are a subfamily of small

text: marine

text: fish

text: es in the family

text: Syngnathidae

text: . Depending on the classification system used, it comprises either

text: seahorse

text: s and

text: pygmy pipehorses

text: , or only seahorses.

text: There is fish-spawning at the mouths of two creeks. One kekuli pit can be found in the park, butthis feature is only considered as locally significant.

text: The aqua fauna found in the Chilkoot Lake moves down the Chilkoot River. These are mostly Sockeye Salmon or red salmon found in profusion. The lake proliferates in red fish in large numbers and are easily caught. In 1896, the fish run was so large that the cannery, which processed this fish variety had to put a ceiling on the number of fishes that they would accept from Indian fishermen at 100 per day. It has been reported that the Indians fish in the lake indiscriminately even in the spawning areas of the streams flowing into the lake and place traps (gill-net) under expert guidance for the purpose without observing the specified weekly norm for closing. While scouting the lake area for locating hatcheries, it was observed that spawning beds were located at the head of the lake. Some were sighted on the shores and two streams, where gravity flow could be created and could be used for locating hatcheries. At the head of the lake, there were springs which formed a pool of about  diameter, considered a good location for spawning of red salmons. The clear water from the springs was found to be colder than the lake water but these did not provide good conditions for locating a hatchery. According to the studies carried out by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 25% spawn of sockeye is from the sensitive habitat of the upper watershed above the Chilkoot Lake. These studies also indicated that anadromous fish, coho, Dolly Varden, and an occasional chum salmon were found above the Chilkoot Lake in the spawning and rearing grounds.

text: The aqua fauna found in the Chilkoot Lake moves down the Chilkoot River. These are mostly

text: Sockeye Salmon

text: or red salmon found in profusion. The lake proliferates in red fish in large numbers and are easily caught. In 1896, the fish run was so large that the cannery, which processed this fish variety had to put a ceiling on the number of fishes that they would accept from Indian fishermen at 100 per day. It has been reported that the Indians fish in the lake indiscriminately even in the spawning areas of the streams flowing into the lake and place traps (gill-net) under expert guidance for the purpose without observing the specified weekly norm for closing. While scouting the lake area for locating hatcheries, it was observed that spawning beds were located at the head of the lake. Some were sighted on the shores and two streams, where gravity flow could be created and could be used for locating hatcheries. At the head of the lake, there were springs which formed a pool of about  diameter, considered a good location for spawning of red salmons. The clear water from the springs was found to be colder than the lake water but these did not provide good conditions for locating a hatchery. According to the studies carried out by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 25% spawn of sockeye is from the sensitive habitat of the upper watershed above the Chilkoot Lake. These studies also indicated that anadromous fish, coho, Dolly Varden, and an occasional chum salmon were found above the Chilkoot Lake in the spawning and rearing grounds.

text: The Devonian tetrapods went through two major bottlenecks during what is known as the Late Devonian extinction; one at the end of the Frasnian stage, and one twice as large at the end of the following Famennian stage. These events of extinctions led to the disappearance of primitive tetrapods with fish-like features like Ichthyostega and their primary more aquatic relatives. When tetrapods reappear in the fossil record again after the Devonian extinctions, the adult forms are all fully adapted to a terrestrial existence, with later species secondary adapted to an aquatic lifestyle.

text: The Devonian tetrapods went through two major bottlenecks during what is known as the

text: Late Devonian extinction

text: ; one at the end of the

text: Frasnian

text: stage, and one twice as large at the end of the following

text: Famennian

text: stage. These events of extinctions led to the disappearance of primitive tetrapods with fish-like features like Ichthyostega and their primary more aquatic relatives. When tetrapods reappear in the fossil record again after the Devonian extinctions, the adult forms are all fully adapted to a terrestrial existence, with later species secondary adapted to an aquatic lifestyle.

text: John Brownlee is the editor-in-chief of the magazine. Topics covered in Salt Water Sportsman include fishing techniques, knots, rods and reels, fishing line, lures, rigs, boats and marine and outboard motors. The magazine has also covered fishing spots throughout Florida, the Gulf Coast, Southeast, Northeast and West Coast of the United States, Alaska and Hawaii, as well as the Bahamas, Mexico, South America, Australia and Africa. The magazine has published articles on how to catch specific kinds of fish, including dolphin (otherwise known as "dorado" or mahi-mahi), yellowfin tuna, snapper and flounder.

text: John Brownlee is the editor-in-chief of the magazine. Topics covered in Salt Water Sportsman include fishing techniques, knots,

text: rod

text: s and

text: reel

text: s,

text: fishing line

text: lures

text: , rigs, boats and marine and

text: outboard motor

text: s. The magazine has also covered fishing spots throughout

text: Florida

text: , the

text: Gulf Coast

text: Southeast

text: Northeast

text: and

text: West Coast of the United States

text: Alaska

text: and

text: Hawaii

text: , as well as

text: the Bahamas

text: Mexico

text: South America

text: Australia

text: and

text: Africa

text: . The magazine has published articles on how to catch specific kinds of fish, including

text: dolphin

text: (otherwise known as "dorado" or

text: mahi-mahi

text: yellowfin tuna

text: snapper

text: and

text: flounder

text: John McManus, a professor of marine biology and ecology at the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, said: "The worst thing anyone can do to a coral reef is to bury it under tons of sand and gravel... There are global security concerns associated with the damage. It is likely broad enough to reduce fish stocks in the world's most fish-dependent region." He explained that, "the world has heard little about the damage inflicted by the People's Republic of China to the reefs is that the experts can't get to them." and noted "I have colleagues from the Philippines, Taiwan, PRC, Vietnam and Malaysia who have worked in the Spratly area. Most would not be able to get near the artificial islands except possibly some from PRC, and those would not be able to release their findings."

text: John McManus, a professor of marine biology and ecology at the Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, said: "The worst thing anyone can do to a coral reef is to bury it under tons of sand and gravel... There are global security concerns associated with the damage. It is likely broad enough to reduce fish stocks in the world's most fish-dependent region." He explained that, "the world has heard little about the damage inflicted by the

text: People's Republic of China

text: to the reefs is that the experts can't get to them." and noted "I have colleagues from the Philippines, Taiwan, PRC, Vietnam and Malaysia who have worked in the Spratly area. Most would not be able to get near the artificial islands except possibly some from PRC, and those would not be able to release their findings."

text: The number and order in which these operations are undertaken varies with the fish species and the type of fishing gear used to catch it, as well as how large the fishing vessel is and how long it is at sea, and the nature of the market it is supplying. Catch processing operations can be manual or automated. The equipment and procedures in modern industrial fisheries are designed to reduce the rough handling of fish, heavy manual lifting and unsuitable working positions which might result in injuries.

text: The number and order in which these operations are undertaken varies with the fish species and the type of fishing gear used to catch it, as well as how large the fishing vessel is and how long it is at sea, and the nature of the market it is supplying. Catch processing operations can be manual or automated. The equipment and procedures in modern

text: industrial fisheries

text: are designed to reduce the rough handling of fish, heavy manual lifting and unsuitable working positions which might result in injuries.

text: Mayfly nymphs must have adapted to water while they still had the "gliders" on their abdomen intact. So far there is no concrete evidence to support this theory either, but it is one that offers an explanation for the problems of why presumably aquatic animals evolved in the direction they did.

text: Mayfly

text: nymphs

text: must have adapted to water while they still had the "gliders" on their abdomen intact. So far there is no concrete evidence to support this theory either, but it is one that offers an explanation for the problems of why presumably aquatic animals evolved in the direction they did.

text: Some species are considered air-breathing fishes because of their ability to breathe by highly vascularized buccopharyngeal pouches (pharynx modified for breathing air). They usually are active only at night.

text: Fish reproduction

text: Fish reproduction

text: Arachnocampa species have holometabolous metamorphosis with eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults.  Individuals spend most of their lives as larvae.

text: Arachnocampa species have holometabolous metamorphosis with eggs,

text: larva

text: e,

text: pupa

text: e, and adults.  Individuals spend most of their lives as larvae.

text: However, in environments where change occurs within an animal's lifetime but is not constant, learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal can adapt to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing. An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change. In these environments, learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific spatial cues where they live.

text: However, in environments where change occurs within an animal's lifetime but is not constant, learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal can

text: adapt

text: to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing. An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change. In these environments, learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific spatial cues where they live.

text: He invented the level-winding fishing reel.  Shakespeare also founded and was one of the key people of Shakespeare Fishing Tackle. which he founded in 1897, as a fisherman aiming to improve the fishing-reel mechanism.

text: He invented the level-winding

text: fishing reel

text: .  Shakespeare also founded and was one of the key people of

text: Shakespeare Fishing Tackle

text: . which he founded in 1897, as a fisherman aiming to improve the fishing-reel mechanism.

text: Flows in the river are swelled by discharges from several sewage treatment works. The three largest are at Princes Marsh, Petersfield and Ambersham, all of which have outflows between  per day, with another three discharging between  per day at Rogate, Coultershaw and Fittleworth. The entire river, including parts of some of its tributaries, is designated as a Site of Nature Conservation Importance by the local authorities through which it flows, in recognition of its value for wildlife. The upper reaches of the Rother are important for their fish populations of brown trout, grayling, juvenile sea trout, and the spawning and early development of salmonids. There are also populations of bullhead, eel, lamprey, minnow and stone loach. There has been some concern about declining fish stocks, thought to be partly caused by soil erosion, leading to silt and sediments being deposited on the river bed, which has been exacerbated by low flows in the river. Parts of the lower river support the same types of fish, but there are areas, particularly immediately upstream of weirs, where the major species are bream, pike and roach, with chubb, dace and perch on the lowest reaches. In order to assist the movement of fish along the river, particularly those that migrate to the headwaters to spawn, fish passes have been constructed around the gauging stations. The only known population of native white clawed crayfish in Sussex is located in the upper reaches of the Rother.

text: Flows in the river are swelled by discharges from several sewage treatment works. The three largest are at Princes Marsh, Petersfield and Ambersham, all of which have outflows between  per day, with another three discharging between  per day at Rogate, Coultershaw and Fittleworth. The entire river, including parts of some of its tributaries, is designated as a

text: Site of Nature Conservation Importance

text: by the local authorities through which it flows, in recognition of its value for wildlife. The upper reaches of the Rother are important for their fish populations of

text: brown trout

text: grayling

text: , juvenile sea trout, and the spawning and early development of

text: salmonids

text: . There are also populations of

text: bullhead

text: eel

text: lamprey

text: minnow

text: and

text: stone loach

text: . There has been some concern about declining fish stocks, thought to be partly caused by soil erosion, leading to silt and sediments being deposited on the river bed, which has been exacerbated by low flows in the river. Parts of the lower river support the same types of fish, but there are areas, particularly immediately upstream of weirs, where the major species are

text: bream

text: pike

text: and

text: roach

text: , with

text: chubb

text: dace

text: and

text: perch

text: on the lowest reaches. In order to assist the movement of fish along the river, particularly those that migrate to the headwaters to spawn,

text: fish pass

text: es have been constructed around the gauging stations. The only known population of native

text: white clawed crayfish

text: in Sussex is located in the upper reaches of the Rother.

text: The spawning fish select sandy or pebbly shallows and deposit their eggs primarily between sundown and midnight.  Females release eggs in batches of about 30,000 eggs, though it has been estimated that as many as 156,000 eggs are deposited by very large fish.  Total annual egg production is 200,000–600,000 eggs per female with larger fish producing more.  In rivers north of Cape Fear the spent fish, now very emaciated, return to the sea immediately after spawning.  In southern rivers, most shad die after spawning.

text: Too much copper in water may damage marine and freshwater organisms such as fish and molluscs. Fish species vary in their sensitivity to copper, with the LD50 for 96-h exposure to copper sulphate reported to be in the order of 58 mg per litre for Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and 70 mg per litre for catfish (Clarias gariepinus)  The chronic effect of sublethal concentrations of copper on fish and other creatures is damage to gills, liver, kidneys and the nervous system. It also interferes with the sense of smell in fish, thus preventing them from choosing good mates or finding their way to mating areas.

text: Too much copper in water may damage marine and freshwater organisms such as fish and molluscs. Fish species vary in their sensitivity to copper, with the LD50 for 96-h exposure to copper sulphate reported to be in the order of 58 mg per litre for Tilapia (

text: Oreochromis niloticus

text: ) and 70 mg per litre for catfish (

text: Clarias gariepinus

text: )  The chronic effect of sublethal concentrations of copper on fish and other creatures is damage to gills, liver, kidneys and the nervous system. It also interferes with the sense of smell in fish, thus preventing them from choosing good mates or finding their way to mating areas.

text: As in most aquaculture based systems, stock feed often consists of fish meal derived from lower-value species. Ongoing depletion of wild fish stocks makes this practice unsustainable. Organic fish feeds may prove to be a viable alternative that relieves this concern. Other alternatives include growing duckweed with an aquaponics system that feeds the same fish grown on the system, excess worms grown from vermiculture composting, using prepared kitchen scraps, as well as growing black soldier fly larvae to feed to the fish using composting grub growers.

text: As in most aquaculture based systems, stock feed often consists of fish meal derived from lower-value species. Ongoing depletion of wild fish stocks makes this practice unsustainable. Organic fish feeds may prove to be a viable alternative that relieves this concern. Other alternatives include growing

text: duckweed

text: with an aquaponics system that feeds the same fish grown on the system, excess worms grown from

text: vermiculture

text: composting, using prepared kitchen scraps, as well as growing

text: black soldier fly

text: larvae to feed to the fish using composting grub growers.

text: Since the Siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens) was first successfully bred  in France in 1893, captive spawning and brooding techniques used in aquaculture have slowly improved. Captive breeding for aquaria is concentrated in southern Florida, Singapore, Hong Kong and Bangkok, with smaller industries in Hawaii and Sri Lanka. Captive breeding of marine organisms has been in development since the mid-1990s. Breeding for freshwater species is more advanced than for saltwater species. Currently, only a few captive-bred marine species are in the trade, including clownfish, damselfish, and dwarf angelfish.

text: Since the

text: Siamese fighting fish

text: (Betta splendens) was first successfully bred  in France in 1893, captive spawning and brooding techniques used in

text: aquaculture

text: have slowly improved. Captive breeding for aquaria is concentrated in southern Florida, Singapore, Hong Kong and Bangkok, with smaller industries in Hawaii and Sri Lanka. Captive breeding of marine organisms has been in development since the mid-1990s. Breeding for freshwater species is more advanced than for

text: saltwater

text: species. Currently, only a few captive-bred marine species are in the trade, including

text: clownfish

text: damselfish

text: , and

text: dwarf angelfish

text: Fishing tackle is a general term that refers to the equipment used by fishers. Almost any equipment or gear used for fishing can be called fishing tackle. Some examples are  hooks, lines, sinkers, floats, rods, reels, baits, lures, spears, nets, gaffs, traps, waders and tackle boxes.

text: Fishing tackle is a general term that refers to the equipment used by fishers. Almost any equipment or gear used for fishing can be called fishing tackle. Some examples are

text: hooks

text: lines

text: sinkers

text: floats

text: rods

text: reels

text: baits

text: lures

text: spears

text: nets

text: gaffs

text: traps

text: waders

text: and tackle boxes.

text: John McManus, a professor of marine biology and ecology at the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, said: “The worst thing anyone can do to a coral reef is to bury it under tons of sand and gravel.” “There are global security concerns associated with the damage. It is likely broad enough to reduce fish stocks in the world’s most fish-dependent region,” He explained that “[the reason] the world has heard little about the damage inflicted by the People's Republic of China to the reefs is that the experts can’t get to them.” and noted “I have colleagues from the Philippines, Taiwan, PRC, Vietnam and Malaysia who have worked in the Spratly area. Most would not be able to get near the artificial islands except possibly some from PRC, and those would not be able to release their findings.”

text: John McManus, a professor of marine biology and ecology at the

text: University of Miami

text: ’s

entity_name: Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science

text: Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science

text: , said: “The worst thing anyone can do to a coral reef is to bury it under tons of sand and gravel.” “There are global security concerns associated with the damage. It is likely broad enough to reduce fish stocks in the world’s most fish-dependent region,” He explained that “[the reason] the world has heard little about the damage inflicted by the

text: People's Republic of China

text: to the reefs is that the experts can’t get to them.” and noted “I have colleagues from the Philippines, Taiwan, PRC, Vietnam and Malaysia who have worked in the Spratly area. Most would not be able to get near the artificial islands except possibly some from PRC, and those would not be able to release their findings.”

text: Human impacts on skipjack shad populations seem to be minimal in the southern parts of their distribution. Dams have limited the natural distribution of the species. Skipjacks are no longer found in high numbers in the northern reaches of their distribution because of their inability to migrate over large impoundments. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (DNR) webpage tells us that "Further research into the species' life history and ecological requirements is needed. It is known that lock and dam structures hinder migration of skipjack shads during the early spring. If the skipjack shad is to be reestablished in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where they are nearly extirpated, fish passage features such as ladders or lifts will be required on Mississippi River lock and dams." In Minnesota, the construction of a fish passage facility is being considered at U.S. Lock and Dam 3 near Red Wing and could help skipjack shad migration in the Mississippi River drainage. The Minnesota DNR Division of Ecological Services received a State Wildlife Grant to conduct surveys for rare fish species in the Mississippi River from the Twin Cities to the Iowa border. These surveys were conducted from 2006-2008, and while the skipjack shad was a targeted species, none were found. In addition to the extirpation of the skipjack shad from Minnesota and Wisconsin, the ebony shell (Fusconaia ebena) and elephant ear (Elliptio crassidens), both state endangered mussels for which the skipjack is the sole host during their larval stages, are threatened to be extirpated as well.

text: Human impacts on skipjack shad populations seem to be minimal in the southern parts of their distribution. Dams have limited the natural distribution of the species. Skipjacks are no longer found in high numbers in the northern reaches of their distribution because of their inability to migrate over large impoundments. The

entity_name: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources

text: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources

text: (DNR) webpage tells us that "Further research into the species' life history and ecological requirements is needed. It is known that lock and dam structures hinder migration of skipjack shads during the early spring. If the skipjack shad is to be reestablished in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where they are nearly extirpated, fish passage features such as ladders or lifts will be required on Mississippi River lock and dams." In Minnesota, the construction of a fish passage facility is being considered at

text: U.S. Lock and Dam 3

text: near

text: Red Wing

text: and could help skipjack shad migration in the Mississippi River drainage. The Minnesota DNR Division of Ecological Services received a State Wildlife Grant to conduct surveys for rare fish species in the Mississippi River from the Twin Cities to the Iowa border. These surveys were conducted from 2006-2008, and while the skipjack shad was a targeted species, none were found. In addition to the extirpation of the skipjack shad from Minnesota and Wisconsin, the ebony shell (Fusconaia ebena) and elephant ear (Elliptio crassidens), both state endangered mussels for which the skipjack is the sole host during their larval stages, are threatened to be extirpated as well.

text: Catastrophic injuries in fishing may be related to equipment, fish, alcohol, or the environment. Equipment issues generally involve penetrative injuries from the use of hooks and harpoons, but may also be caused by the fishing rod, lure, sinker, or bait. Fish-related injuries result from mishandling, poisoning, and contamination from consumption. Environmental causes may include overexposure to solar radiation, lightning strikes, hypothermia during ice fishing, snakebites, and viral infection spread by mosquitoes.

text: Catastrophic injuries in fishing may be related to equipment, fish, alcohol, or the environment. Equipment issues generally involve penetrative injuries from the use of

text: hooks

text: and

text: harpoon

text: s, but may also be caused by the

text: fishing rod

text: lure

text: sinker

text: , or

text: bait

text: . Fish-related injuries result from mishandling, poisoning, and contamination from consumption. Environmental causes may include

text: overexposure to solar radiation

text: , lightning strikes,

text: hypothermia

text: during

text: ice fishing

text: snakebite

text: s, and viral

text: infection

text: spread by

text: mosquito

text: es.

text: Flatfish are demersal fish (bottom-feeding fish) that show a greater degree of asymmetry than any other vertebrates. The larvae are at first bilaterally symmetrical but they undergo metamorphosis during the course of their development, with one eye migrating to the other side of the head, and they simultaneously start swimming on their side. This has the advantage that, when they lie on the seabed, both eyes are on top, giving them a broad field of view. The upper side is usually speckled and mottled for camouflage, while the underside is pale.

text: Flatfish are

text: demersal fish

text: (bottom-feeding fish) that show a greater degree of asymmetry than any other vertebrates. The larvae are at first

text: bilaterally symmetrical

text: but they undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: during the course of their development, with one eye migrating to the other side of the head, and they simultaneously start swimming on their side. This has the advantage that, when they lie on the seabed, both eyes are on top, giving them a broad field of view. The upper side is usually

text: speckled and mottled

text: for camouflage, while the underside is pale.

text: Tuberous organs, the type of receptive organ used for electrocommunication, can be divided into two types, depending on the way information is encoded: time coders and amplitude coders. There are multiple forms of tuberous organs in each time and amplitude coders, and all weakly electric fish species possess at least one form of the two coders. Time coder fires phase-locked action potential (meaning, the waveform of the action potential is always the same) at a fixed delay time after each outside transient is formed. Therefore, time coders neglect information about waveform and amplitude but focus on frequency of the signal and fire action potentials on a 1:1 basis to the outside transient. Amplitude coders, on the contrary, fire according to the EOD amplitude. While both wave-type and pulse-type fishes have amplitude coders, they fire in different ways: Receptors of wave-type fishes continuously fire at a rate according to their own EOD amplitude; on the other hand, receptors of pulse-type fishes fire burst of spikes to each EOD detected, and the number of spikes in each burst is correlated to the amplitude of the EOD. Tuberous electroreceptors show a V-shaped threshold tuning curve (similar to auditory system), which means that they are tuned to a particular frequency. This particular tuned-in frequency is usually closely matched to their own EOD frequency.

text: Of these animals, the troglobites are perhaps the most unusual organisms. Troglobitic species often show a number of characteristics, termed troglomorphic, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life. These characteristics may include a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), a loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), an elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as the ability to sense vibrations in water). Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered Alabama cave shrimp, live in bodies of water found in caves and get nutrients from detritus washed into their caves and from the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants. Other aquatic troglobites include cave fish, and cave salamanders such as the olm and the Texas blind salamander.

text: Of these animals, the troglobites are perhaps the most unusual organisms. Troglobitic species often show a number of characteristics, termed troglomorphic, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life. These characteristics may include a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), a loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), an elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as the ability to sense vibrations in water). Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered

text: Alabama cave shrimp

text: , live in bodies of water found in caves and get nutrients from detritus washed into their caves and from the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants. Other aquatic troglobites include cave fish, and

text: cave salamander

text: s such as the

text: olm

text: and the

text: Texas blind salamander

text: The sexes are usually separate in bivalves but some hermaphroditism is known. The gonads are located close to the intestines, and either open into the nephridia, or through a separate pore into the mantle cavity. The ripe gonads of male and females release sperm and eggs into the water column. Spawning may take place continually or be triggered by environmental factors such as day length, water temperature, or the presence of sperm in the water. Some species are "dribble spawners", but others release their gametes in batches or all at once. Mass spawning events sometimes take place when all the bivalves in an area synchronise their release of spawn.

text: The sexes are usually separate in bivalves but some

text: hermaphroditism

text: is known. The

text: gonad

text: s are located close to the intestines, and either open into the nephridia, or through a separate pore into the mantle cavity. The ripe gonads of male and females release sperm and eggs into the

text: water column

text: Spawning

text: may take place continually or be triggered by environmental factors such as day length, water temperature, or the presence of sperm in the water. Some species are "dribble spawners", but others release their gametes in batches or all at once. Mass spawning events sometimes take place when all the bivalves in an area synchronise their release of spawn.

text: Aging data indicate Antarctic toothfish are relatively fast-growing when young, but then growth slows later in life. They reach about one-third of maximum size after five years, and half maximum by 10 years, after which growth slows considerably. To grow fast when small is an adaptation of most predatory fish, e.g., sharks, so as not to be small for very long. The maximum age recorded so far has been 48 years. Antarctic toothfish take a long time to mature (13 years for males, 17 years for females) and once mature may not spawn every year, though the actual spawning interval is unknown. Only a few Antarctic toothfish with mature eggs have ever been caught, meaning knowledge is sparse about fecundity. They spawn sometime during winter. Large, mature, older fish have been caught among the seamounts of the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge, a location thus thought to be important for spawning. Smaller, subadult Antarctic toothfish tend to concentrate in shallower waters on the continental shelf, while a large portion of the older fish are found on  in the continental slope. This sequestering by size and age could be another adaptation for small fish to avoid being eaten by large ones. The recruitment potential of Antarctic toothfish, a measure of both fecundity and survival to spawning age, is not known.

text: Aging data indicate Antarctic toothfish are relatively fast-growing when young, but then growth slows later in life. They reach about one-third of maximum size after five years, and half maximum by 10 years, after which growth slows considerably. To grow fast when small is an adaptation of most

text: predatory fish

text: , e.g., sharks, so as not to be small for very long. The maximum age recorded so far has been 48 years. Antarctic toothfish take a long time to mature (13 years for males, 17 years for females) and once mature may not

text: spawn

text: every year, though the actual spawning interval is unknown. Only a few Antarctic toothfish with mature eggs have ever been caught, meaning knowledge is sparse about fecundity. They spawn sometime during winter. Large, mature, older fish have been caught among the

text: seamount

text: s of the

text: Pacific-Antarctic Ridge

text: , a location thus thought to be important for spawning. Smaller, subadult Antarctic toothfish tend to concentrate in shallower waters on the continental shelf, while a large portion of the older fish are found on  in the continental slope. This sequestering by size and age could be another adaptation for small fish to avoid being eaten by large ones. The recruitment potential of Antarctic toothfish, a measure of both fecundity and survival to spawning age, is not known.

text: The Olympia oyster spawns between the months of May and August, when the water reaches temperatures above 14 degrees Celsius. During the oyster's first spawning cycle they will act as a male and then switch between sexes during their following spawning cycles. The males release their spermatozoa from their mantle cavity in the form of sperm balls. These balls dissolve in the water into free floating sperm. The female's eggs are fertilized in the mantle cavity (brooding chamber) when spermatozoa are filtered into her gill slits from the surrounding water. The fertilized eggs will then move into the branchial chamber (mantle cavity). The fertilized eggs will develop into veliger larvae and will stay in the females mantle cavity for 10–12 days for further development. On the first day the larvae develop into a blastulae (mass of cells with a center cavity), on day two they develop into a gastrulae (hollow two layered sac), on the third day they develop into trochophore (free-swimming, conciliated larvae), on the fourth day the valves on the dorsal surface become defined. During the rest of development in the brooding chamber the valves complete and a straight-hinged veliger larva grows.

text: Due to the renewal of soil nutrients caused by the annual white water flooding, várzea forests are some of the most productive areas of Amazonia and serve as important breeding grounds for fish, birds, mammals, and reptiles. In order to grow and survive in this environment, both plant and animals must have a large range of morphological, anatomical, physiological and ethological adaptations. For example, during the flooding season, fish and other aquatic organisms take advantage of the lower density of predators, which have migrated or are confined to smaller, dryer areas, and use this time to reproduce.

text: Due to the renewal of soil nutrients caused by the annual white water flooding, várzea forests are some of the most productive areas of

text: Amazonia

text: and serve as important breeding grounds for fish, birds, mammals, and reptiles. In order to grow and survive in this environment, both plant and animals must have a large range of morphological, anatomical, physiological and ethological adaptations. For example, during the flooding season, fish and other aquatic organisms take advantage of the lower density of predators, which have migrated or are confined to smaller, dryer areas, and use this time to reproduce.

text: In their natural environment, cherry shrimp are primarily prey animals.  When kept in an aquarium, they are easily targeted by fish as potential food. Even fish too small to eat them may harass them and stress them to death, sometimes biting off limbs. For best results, breeding should take place in isolation. Small, non-aggressive fish such as the harlequin rasbora, neon tetra, cardinal tetra, dwarf corydoras, otocinclus catfish, dwarf gouramis though these may predate if aggressive, platy, and some species of killifish can be kept with adult cherry shrimp. However baby shrimp are likely to be eaten by any fish other than the otocinclus and some other herbivorous fish.  Most cichlids, including angel fish, will harass and readily eat adults as well. These dwarf shrimp will also be consumed by Australian rainbowfish and other large specimens of fish. With enough cover and hiding places (live plants such as Java moss work well), one can have a colony of cherry shrimp survive in a tank with larger fish preying on them. It is commonly suggested that one lets the shrimp reproduce a few generations/build up numbers before fish are added.

text: In their natural environment, cherry shrimp are primarily prey animals.  When kept in an aquarium, they are easily targeted by fish as potential food. Even fish too small to eat them may harass them and stress them to death, sometimes biting off limbs. For best results, breeding should take place in isolation. Small, non-aggressive fish such as the

text: harlequin rasbora

text: neon tetra

text: cardinal tetra

text: dwarf corydoras

text: otocinclus catfish

text: dwarf gouramis

text: though these may predate if aggressive,

text: platy

text: , and some species of

text: killifish

text: can be kept with adult cherry shrimp. However baby shrimp are likely to be eaten by any fish other than the otocinclus and some other herbivorous fish.  Most

text: cichlids

text: , including

text: angel fish

text: , will harass and readily eat adults as well. These dwarf shrimp will also be consumed by Australian rainbowfish and other large specimens of fish. With enough cover and hiding places (live plants such as

text: Java moss

text: work well), one can have a colony of cherry shrimp survive in a tank with larger fish

text: prey

text: ing on them. It is commonly suggested that one lets the shrimp reproduce a few generations/build up numbers before fish are added.

text: All organisms respond to sufficiently strong electric shocks, but only some aquatic vertebrates can detect and utilize weak electric fields  such as those that occur naturally. These aquatic organisms are therefore called electroreceptive. (For an example, human-beings react to strong electric currents with a sense of pain and sometimes a mixture of other senses; however, we cannot detect weakly electric fields and therefore are not electroreceptive.) The ability to sense and utilize electric fields was found almost solely in lower, aquatic vertebrates (fishes and some amphibians). Terrestrial animals, with very few exceptions, lack this electric sensing channel due to low conductivity of air, soil, or media other than aqueous environment. Exceptions include the Australian monotremes, i.e. the echidna which eats mainly ants and termites, and the semi-aquatic platypus that hunts by utilizing electric fields generated by invertebrate prey.

text: All organisms respond to sufficiently strong electric shocks, but only some aquatic vertebrates can detect and utilize weak electric fields  such as those that occur naturally. These aquatic organisms are therefore called electroreceptive. (For an example, human-beings react to strong electric currents with a sense of pain and sometimes a mixture of other senses; however, we cannot detect weakly electric fields and therefore are not electroreceptive.) The ability to sense and utilize electric fields was found almost solely in lower, aquatic vertebrates (fishes and some amphibians). Terrestrial animals, with very few exceptions, lack this electric sensing channel due to low conductivity of air, soil, or media other than aqueous environment. Exceptions include the Australian

text: monotremes

text: , i.e. the

text: echidna

text: which eats mainly ants and termites, and the semi-aquatic

text: platypus

text: that hunts by utilizing electric fields generated by invertebrate prey.

text: Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean, a lake, or a river, or a cooling pond, instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or once-through cooling system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping cooling water through the plant's heat exchangers. However, the waste heat can cause thermal pollution as the water is discharged. Power plants using natural bodies of water for cooling are designed with mechanisms such as fish screens, to limit intake of organisms into the cooling machinery. These screens are only partially effective and as a result billions of fish and other aquatic organisms are killed by power plants each year. For example, the cooling system at the Indian Point Energy Center in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually.

text: Electric companies often prefer to use cooling water from the ocean, a lake, or a river, or a cooling pond, instead of a cooling tower. This single pass or

text: once-through cooling

text: system can save the cost of a cooling tower and may have lower energy costs for pumping cooling water through the plant's

text: heat exchanger

text: s. However, the waste heat can cause

text: thermal pollution

text: as the water is discharged. Power plants using natural bodies of water for cooling are designed with mechanisms such as

text: fish screen

text: s, to limit intake of organisms into the cooling machinery. These screens are only partially effective and as a result billions of fish and other aquatic organisms are killed by power plants each year. For example, the cooling system at the

text: Indian Point Energy Center

text: in New York kills over a billion fish eggs and larvae annually.

text: In some classifications, the chimaeras are included (as subclass Holocephali) in the class Chondrichthyes of cartilaginous fishes; in other systems, this distinction may be raised to the level of class. Chimaeras also have some characteristics of bony fishes.

text: In some classifications, the chimaeras are included (as subclass Holocephali) in the class

text: Chondrichthyes

text: of cartilaginous fishes; in other systems, this distinction may be raised to the level of class. Chimaeras also have some characteristics of

text: bony fishes

text: Factory ship -Farley Boats -Farm-Raised Catfish -Fécamp -Felucca -Feskekôrka -Fibras Industriales S.A. -Field & Stream -Fifie -Firehole River -Fish -Fish (food) -Fish aggregating device -Fish and Game New Zealand -Fish emulsion -Fish farming -Fish flake -Fish hatchery -Fish hook -Fish hydrolysate -Fish in Australia -Fish market -Fish meal -Fish measurement -Fish migration -Fish oil -Fish preservation -Fish processing -Fish processing facility -Fish product sales -Fish products -Fish research institutions in the Maharashtra -Fish sauce -Fish stock -Fish stocking -Fish trap -Fish wheel -Fisheries and Oceans Canada -Fisheries Centre -Fisheries management -Fisheries Research Services -Fisheries Research Services Marine Laboratory -Fisheries science -Fisherman -Fishermen's Union Trading Co. -Fishery -Fishery Resources Monitoring System -Fishfinder -Fishing -Fishing bait -Fishing by country -Fishing communities in Maharashtra -Fishing fleet -Fishing in Alabama -Fishing in Angola -Fishing in Bangladesh -Fishing in Chad -Fishing in Chile -Fishing in Ethiopia -Fishing in Ghana -Fishing in India -Fishing in Ohio -Fishing in the North Sea -Fishing in Uganda -Fishing in Wyoming -Fishing industry -Fishing industry in Canada -Fishing industry in China -Fishing industry in New Zealand -Fishing industry in Russia -Fishing industry in Scotland -Fishing industry in the United States -Fishing light attractor -Fishing line -Fishing lure -Fishing net -Fishing reel -Fishing rod -Fishing rod tapers -Fishing sinker -Fishing swivel -Fishing tackle -Fishing techniques -Fishing tournament -Fishing vessel -Fishing weir -Fishingkaki -Flatfish -Fleetwood -Flemish Cap -Flesh Fly (Fly-Fishing) -Float (fishing) -Florida stone crab -Flosser -Flounder -Flounder boat -Flounder tramping -Fly fishing -Fly lure -Fly rod building -Fly Tyer -Fly tying -Food and Agriculture Organization -Food of the Tlingit -Forage fish -Fort Frances Canadian Bass Championship -Frank Mundus -Freshwater prawn farm -Fulton Fish Market -Fur-Fish-Game -FV Cornelia Marie -FV Northwestern -FV Wizard

text: Factory ship

text: Farley Boats

text: Farm-Raised Catfish

text: Fécamp

text: Felucca

text: Feskekôrka

text: Fibras Industriales S.A.

text: Field & Stream

text: Fifie

text: Firehole River

text: Fish

text: Fish (food)

text: Fish aggregating device

text: Fish and Game New Zealand

text: Fish emulsion

text: Fish farming

text: Fish flake

text: Fish hatchery

text: Fish hook

text: Fish hydrolysate

text: Fish in Australia

text: Fish market

text: Fish meal

text: Fish measurement

text: Fish migration

text: Fish oil

text: Fish preservation

text: Fish processing

text: Fish processing facility

text: Fish product sales

text: Fish products

entity_name: Fish research institutions in the Maharashtra

text: Fish research institutions in the Maharashtra

text: Fish sauce

text: Fish stock

text: Fish stocking

text: Fish trap

text: Fish wheel

text: Fisheries and Oceans Canada

text: Fisheries Centre

text: Fisheries management

text: Fisheries Research Services

entity_name: Fisheries Research Services Marine Laboratory

text: Fisheries Research Services Marine Laboratory

text: Fisheries science

text: Fisherman

text: Fishermen's Union Trading Co.

text: Fishery

text: Fishery Resources Monitoring System

text: Fishfinder

text: Fishing

text: Fishing bait

text: Fishing by country

text: Fishing communities in Maharashtra

text: Fishing fleet

text: Fishing in Alabama

text: Fishing in Angola

text: Fishing in Bangladesh

text: Fishing in Chad

text: Fishing in Chile

text: Fishing in Ethiopia

text: Fishing in Ghana

text: Fishing in India

text: Fishing in Ohio

text: Fishing in the North Sea

text: Fishing in Uganda

text: Fishing in Wyoming

text: Fishing industry

text: Fishing industry in Canada

text: Fishing industry in China

text: Fishing industry in New Zealand

text: Fishing industry in Russia

text: Fishing industry in Scotland

text: Fishing industry in the United States

text: Fishing light attractor

text: Fishing line

text: Fishing lure

text: Fishing net

text: Fishing reel

text: Fishing rod

text: Fishing rod tapers

text: Fishing sinker

text: Fishing swivel

text: Fishing tackle

text: Fishing techniques

text: Fishing tournament

text: Fishing vessel

text: Fishing weir

text: Fishingkaki

text: Flatfish

text: Fleetwood

text: Flemish Cap

text: Flesh Fly (Fly-Fishing)

text: Float (fishing)

text: Florida stone crab

text: Flosser

text: Flounder

text: Flounder boat

text: Flounder tramping

text: Fly fishing

text: Fly lure

text: Fly rod building

text: Fly Tyer

text: Fly tying

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: Food of the Tlingit

text: Forage fish

text: Fort Frances Canadian Bass Championship

text: Frank Mundus

text: Freshwater prawn farm

text: Fulton Fish Market

text: Fur-Fish-Game

text: FV Cornelia Marie

text: FV Northwestern

text: FV Wizard

text: Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. Fishing may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, and echinoderms. The term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate.

text: Fishing is the activity of trying to catch

text: fish

text: . Fish are normally caught

text: in the wild

text: Techniques

text: for catching fish include

text: hand gathering

text: spearing

text: netting

text: angling

text: and

text: trapping

text: . Fishing may include catching

text: aquatic animal

text: s other than fish, such as

text: mollusc

text: s,

text: cephalopod

text: s,

text: crustacean

text: s, and

text: echinoderm

text: s. The term is not normally applied to catching

text: farmed fish

text: , or to

text: aquatic mammal

text: s, such as whales where the term

text: whaling

text: is more appropriate.

text: Charles Tate Regan FRS (1 February 1878 – 12 January 1943) was a British ichthyologist, working mainly around the beginning of the 20th century. He did extensive work on fish classification schemes.

text: Charles Tate Regan

text: FRS

text: (1 February 1878 – 12 January 1943) was a

text: British

text: ichthyologist

text: , working mainly around the beginning of the 20th century. He did extensive work on fish classification schemes.

text: Although quite seldom, Artemis is sometimes portrayed with a hunting spear. Her cult in Aetolia, the Artemis Aetolian, showed her with a hunting spear. The description about Artemis' spear can be found in Ovid's Metamorphosis, while Artemis with a fishing spear connected with her cult as a patron goddess of fishing.

text: An alternative method to hatching in freshwater tanks is to use spawning channels.  These are artificial streams, usually parallel to an existing stream with concrete or rip-rap sides and gravel bottoms.  Water from the adjacent stream is piped into the top of the channel, sometimes via a header pond to settle out sediment.  Spawning success is often much better in channels than in adjacent streams due to the control of floods which in some years can wash out the natural redds (pronounced same as the color 'red') .  Because of the lack of floods, spawning channels must sometimes be cleaned out to remove accumulated sediment.  The same floods which destroy natural redds also clean them out.  Spawning channels preserve the natural selection of natural streams as there is no temptation, as in hatcheries, to use prophylactic chemicals to control diseases. However, exposing fish to wild parasites and pathogens using uncontrolled water supplies, combined with the high cost of spawning channels, makes this technology unsuitable for salmon aquaculture businesses. This type of technology is only useful for stock enhancement programs.

text: An alternative method to hatching in freshwater tanks is to use spawning channels.  These are artificial streams, usually parallel to an existing stream with concrete or rip-rap sides and gravel bottoms.  Water from the adjacent stream is piped into the top of the channel, sometimes via a header pond to settle out sediment.  Spawning success is often much better in channels than in adjacent streams due to the control of floods which in some years can wash out the natural

text: redds

text: (pronounced same as the color 'red') .  Because of the lack of floods, spawning channels must sometimes be cleaned out to remove accumulated sediment.  The same floods which destroy natural redds also clean them out.  Spawning channels preserve the natural selection of natural streams as there is no temptation, as in hatcheries, to use prophylactic chemicals to control diseases. However, exposing fish to wild parasites and pathogens using uncontrolled water supplies, combined with the high cost of spawning channels, makes this technology unsuitable for salmon aquaculture businesses. This type of technology is only useful for stock enhancement programs.

text: Threats to Wyoming game fish include the New Zealand mud snail, the common carp, and whirling disease. In addition, the introduction of brook sticklebacks (Culaea incontans), walleyes, ling suckers, and white suckers have impacted the ecology of native game fish. Conservation efforts to protect Wyoming game fish include licensing, creel limits, and issuing conservation stamps.

text: Threats to Wyoming game fish include the

text: New Zealand mud snail

text: , the

text: common carp

text: , and

text: whirling disease

text: . In addition, the introduction of brook

text: stickleback

text: s (Culaea incontans),

text: walleye

text: s,

text: ling sucker

text: s, and

text: white sucker

text: s have impacted the

text: ecology

text: of native game fish. Conservation efforts to protect Wyoming game fish include licensing,

text: creel limit

text: s, and issuing conservation stamps.

text: The rate of growth of the Antarctic scallop is very slow compared to that of scallops living in warmer seas. It matures at 5 to 7 years old and spawning takes place in late summer. Little is known about the development of the veliger larvae but they may be planktonic for 4 or 5 months. Besides feeding on phytoplankton and small zooplankton, they may absorb dissolved organic matter and consume bacterioplankton. When they settle, metamorphosis takes place and the juveniles attach themselves with byssus threads, often attaching these to the upper valves of scallops, and remain attached for 3 to 5 years. While attached to the adult shell, the juveniles benefit from food particles in the fine detritus thrown up into the water column by movements of the adult. While studying the sizes and growth rates of adults, researchers came to realize that there were gaps in their records which were due to the fact that, in some years, no juveniles had survived.

text: The rate of growth of the Antarctic scallop is very slow compared to that of scallops living in warmer seas. It matures at 5 to 7 years old and spawning takes place in late summer. Little is known about the development of the

text: veliger

text: larva

text: e but they may be planktonic for 4 or 5 months. Besides feeding on

text: phytoplankton

text: and small

text: zooplankton

text: , they may absorb dissolved organic matter and consume

text: bacterioplankton

text: . When they settle,

text: metamorphosis

text: takes place and the juveniles attach themselves with byssus threads, often attaching these to the upper valves of scallops, and remain attached for 3 to 5 years. While attached to the adult shell, the juveniles benefit from food particles in the fine

text: detritus

text: thrown up into the water column by movements of the adult. While studying the sizes and growth rates of adults, researchers came to realize that there were gaps in their records which were due to the fact that, in some years, no juveniles had survived.

text: The terms "sardine" and "pilchard" are not precise, and what is meant depends on the region. The United Kingdom's Sea Fish Industry Authority, for example, classifies sardines as young pilchards. One criterion suggests fish shorter in length than  are sardines, and larger fish are pilchards. The FAO/WHO Codex standard for canned sardines cites 21 species that may be classed as sardines; FishBase, a comprehensive database of information about fish, calls at least six species "pilchard", over a dozen just "sardine", and many more with the two basic names qualified by various adjectives.

text: The terms "sardine" and "pilchard" are not precise, and what is meant depends on the region. The United Kingdom's

text: Sea Fish Industry Authority

text: , for example, classifies sardines as young pilchards. One criterion suggests fish shorter in length than  are sardines, and larger fish are pilchards. The

text: FAO

text: WHO

text: Codex standard for

text: canned sardines

text: cites 21 species that may be classed as sardines;

text: FishBase

text: , a comprehensive database of information about fish, calls at least six species "pilchard", over a dozen just "sardine", and many more with the two basic names qualified by various adjectives.

text: The gap in the tetrapod record has been progressively closed with the discoveries of such early Carboniferous tetrapods as Pederpes and Crassigyrinus. There are a few sites where vertebrate fossils have been found to help fill in the gap, such as the East Kirkton Quarry, in Bathgate, Scotland, a long-known fossil site that was revisited by Stanley P. Wood in 1984 and has since been revealing a number of early tetrapods in the mid Carboniferous; "literally dozens of tetrapods came rolling out: Balanerpeton (a temnospondyl), Silvanerpeton and Eldeceeon (basal anthracosaurs), all in multiple copies, and one spectacular proto-amniote, Westlothiana", Paleos Project reports. However, tetrapod material in the earliest stage of the Carboniferous, the Tournaisian, is typically scarce relative to fishes in the same habitats, which can appear in large death assemblages, and is unknown until late in the stage. Fish faunas from Tournaisian sites around the world are very alike in composition, containing common and ecologically similar species of ray-finned fishes, rhizodont lobe-finned fishes, acanthodians, sharks, and holocephalans.

text: The gap in the tetrapod record has been progressively closed with the discoveries of such early Carboniferous tetrapods as

text: Pederpes

text: and

text: Crassigyrinus

text: . There are a few sites where vertebrate fossils have been found to help fill in the gap, such as the

text: East Kirkton Quarry

text: , in

text: Bathgate

text: , Scotland, a long-known fossil site that was revisited by Stanley P. Wood in 1984 and has since been revealing a number of early tetrapods in the mid Carboniferous; "literally dozens of tetrapods came rolling out:

text: Balanerpeton

text: (a

text: temnospondyl

text: Silvanerpeton

text: and

text: Eldeceeon

text: (basal

text: anthracosaur

text: s), all in multiple copies, and one spectacular proto-amniote,

text: Westlothiana

text: ", Paleos Project reports. However, tetrapod material in the earliest stage of the Carboniferous, the

text: Tournaisian

text: , is typically scarce relative to fishes in the same habitats, which can appear in large death assemblages, and is unknown until late in the stage. Fish faunas from Tournaisian sites around the world are very alike in composition, containing common and ecologically similar species of ray-finned fishes,

text: rhizodont

text: lobe-finned fishes,

text: acanthodian

text: s,

text: sharks

text: , and

text: holocephalans

text: In parts of New Zealand this species spawning habitat has become degraded due to activities related to agriculture, urbanisation and land use change. This creates 'sink' populations in rivers as adult fish have nowhere suitable to lay their eggs and the majority of eggs will die. Because these 'sink' rivers produce no eggs or larvae, a gap is created during marine dispersal. There are no opportunities for the exchange of larvae from these 'sink' populations with other populations. However, these 'sink' populations can receive larvae that were born in different rivers. However, they will not be able to successfully reproduce and the 'sink' cycle continues.

text: In 1999, Harvey founded the Guy Harvey Research Institute at Nova's Oceanographic Center in co-operation with Nova Southeastern University in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The institute, which is funded in part by contributions from the Guy Harvey Ocean Foundation, conducts research on the ecology, genetics, behaviour, physiology, and evolution of fishes. Research areas include shark ecology and conservation, stingray ecology and conservation, and artificial reef design and monitoring. Harvey continues to speak on ocean conservation and other topics at universities, symposia, and other venues. His work in the field of game fish conservation led to him being included in the International Game Fish Association Hall of Fame.

text: In 1999, Harvey founded the Guy Harvey Research Institute at Nova's Oceanographic Center in co-operation with

text: Nova Southeastern University

text: in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. The institute, which is funded in part by contributions from the Guy Harvey Ocean Foundation, conducts research on the ecology, genetics, behaviour, physiology, and evolution of fishes. Research areas include shark ecology and conservation, stingray ecology and conservation, and artificial reef design and monitoring. Harvey continues to speak on ocean conservation and other topics at universities, symposia, and other venues. His work in the field of game fish conservation led to him being included in the

text: International Game Fish Association

text: Hall of Fame.

text: Marine animals, and particularly bony fish, commonly reproduce by broadcast spawning. This is an external method of reproduction where the female releases many unfertilised eggs into the water. At the same time, a male or many males release a lot of sperm into the water which fertilises some of these eggs. The eggs contain a drop of nutrient oil to sustain the  embryo as it develops inside the egg case. The oil also provides buoyancy, so the eggs float and drift with the current. The strategy for survival of broadcast spawning is to disperse the fertilised eggs, preferably away from the coast into the relative safety of the open ocean.  There the larvae develop as they consume their fat stores, and eventually hatch from the egg capsule into miniature versions of their parents.To survive, they must then become miniature predators themselves, feeding on plankton. Fish eventually encounter others of their own kind (conspecifics), where they form aggregations and learn to school.

text: Marine animals, and particularly

text: bony fish

text: , commonly reproduce by broadcast spawning. This is an external method of reproduction where the female releases many unfertilised eggs into the water. At the same time, a male or many males release a lot of sperm into the water which fertilises some of these eggs. The eggs contain a drop of nutrient oil to sustain the  embryo as it develops inside the egg case. The oil also provides buoyancy, so the eggs float and drift with the current. The strategy for survival of broadcast spawning is to disperse the fertilised eggs, preferably away from the coast into the relative safety of the open ocean.  There the

text: larvae

text: develop as they consume their fat stores, and eventually hatch from the egg capsule into miniature versions of their parents.To survive, they must then become miniature predators themselves, feeding on plankton. Fish eventually encounter others of their own kind (

text: conspecific

text: s), where they form aggregations and learn to school.

text: Recreational fishing is fishing for pleasure or competition; it can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is fishing for profit. The most common form of recreational fishing is done with a rod, reel, line, hooks and any one of a wide range of baits. Angling is a method of fishing, specifically the practice of catching fish by means of an "angle" (hook). Anglers must select the right hook, cast accurately, and retrieve at the right speed while considering water and weather conditions, species, fish response, time of the day, and other factors.

text: Recreational fishing is fishing for pleasure or competition; it can be contrasted with

text: commercial fishing

text: , which is fishing for profit. The most common form of recreational fishing is done with a

text: rod

text: reel

text: line

text: hook

text: s and any one of a wide range of

text: baits

text: . Angling is a method of fishing, specifically the practice of catching fish by means of an "angle" (hook). Anglers must select the right hook,

text: cast

text: accurately, and retrieve at the right speed while considering water and weather conditions, species, fish response, time of the day, and other factors.

text: Larvae hatch after two to five weeks, depending largely on temperature. In the first days after hatching, they live on their remaining embryonic yolk supply and are not able to swim, but attach to plants or the egg capsule with two balancers, adhesive organs on their head. After this period, they begin to ingest small invertebrates, and actively forage about ten days after hatching. As in all salamanders and newts, forelimbs—already present as stumps at hatching—develop first, followed later by the backlegs. Unlike smaller newts, Triturus larvae are mostly nektonic, swimming freely in the water column. Just before the transition to land, the larvae resorb their external gills; they can at this stage reach a size of  in the larger species. Metamorphosis takes place two to four months after hatching, but the duration of all stages of larval development varies with temperature. Survival of larvae from hatching to metamorphosis has been estimated at a mean of roughly 4% for the northern crested newt, which is comparable to other newts. In unfavourable conditions, larvae may delay their development and overwinter in water, although this seems to be less common than in the small-bodied newts. Paedomophic adults, retaining their gills and staying aquatic, have occasionally been observed in several crested newt species.

text: Larvae hatch after two to five weeks, depending largely on temperature. In the first days after hatching, they live on their remaining embryonic yolk supply and are not able to swim, but attach to plants or the egg capsule with two balancers, adhesive organs on their head. After this period, they begin to ingest small invertebrates, and actively forage about ten days after hatching. As in all salamanders and newts, forelimbs—already present as stumps at hatching—develop first, followed later by the backlegs. Unlike smaller newts, Triturus larvae are mostly

text: nektonic

text: , swimming freely in the water column. Just before the transition to land, the larvae

text: resorb

text: their external gills; they can at this stage reach a size of  in the larger species.

text: Metamorphosis

text: takes place two to four months after hatching, but the duration of all stages of larval development varies with temperature. Survival of larvae from hatching to metamorphosis has been estimated at a mean of roughly 4% for the northern crested newt, which is comparable to other newts. In unfavourable conditions, larvae may delay their development and overwinter in water, although this seems to be less common than in the small-bodied newts.

text: Paedomophic

text: adults, retaining their gills and staying aquatic, have occasionally been observed in several crested newt species.

text: Waxworms may be store-bought or raised by anglers. Anglers and fishing bait shops often refer to the larvae as "waxies". They are used for catching some varieties of panfish, members of the sunfish family (Centrarchidae), Green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus) and can be used for shallow water fishing with the use of a lighter weight. They are also used for fishing some members of the Salmonidae family, Masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou), white-spotted char (Salvelinus leucomaenis) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

text: Waxworms may be store-bought or raised by anglers.

text: Anglers

text: and

text: fishing bait

text: shops often refer to the larvae as "waxies". They are used for catching some varieties of

text: panfish

text: , members of the

text: sunfish family

text: (Centrarchidae),

text: Green sunfish

text: (Lepomis cyanellus) and can be used for

text: shallow water fishing

text: with the use of a lighter weight. They are also used for fishing some members of the

text: Salmonidae

text: family,

text: Masu salmon

text: Oncorhynchus masou

text: white-spotted char

text: Salvelinus leucomaenis

text: ) and

text: rainbow trout

text: (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

text: Large aquatic animals have developed gills for respiration which are specifically adapted to their function, for example, they have:

text: Large aquatic animals have developed

text: gill

text: s for

text: respiration

text: which are specifically adapted to their function, for example, they have:

text: In recent years the Berlin Method is often supplemented with a refugium. A refugium provides many benefits, which include nitrate reduction, as well as providing a natural food source. It typically houses two main species of macroalgae, including Caulerpa prolifera or chaetomorphae or both (because these two strains are known to not spore but grow by rooting to propagate). Macroalgae is used for two reasons: to remove from the water excess nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, and iron, and to support beneficial microflora and fauna (zooplankton). Small invertebrates (copepods and amphipods) are provided a space free of predation to grow and, when returned to the display tank, serve as food for corals and fish. Conventional combined mechanical/biological filtration used in fish only systems is avoided because those filters trap detritus and produce nitrate which may stunt or even kill many delicate corals. Chemical filtration in the form of activated carbon is used when needed to remove discoloration of the water, or to remove dissolved matter (organic or otherwise) to help purify the water in the reef system.

text: In recent years the Berlin Method is often supplemented with a

text: refugium

text: . A refugium provides many benefits, which include nitrate reduction, as well as providing a natural food source. It typically houses two main species of

text: macroalgae

text: , including

text: Caulerpa

text: prolifera or chaetomorphae or both (because these two strains are known to not spore but grow by rooting to propagate). Macroalgae is used for two reasons: to remove from the water excess nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate, and iron, and to support beneficial microflora and fauna (

text: zooplankton

text: ). Small invertebrates (

text: copepod

text: s and

text: amphipod

text: s) are provided a space free of predation to grow and, when returned to the display tank, serve as food for corals and fish. Conventional combined mechanical/biological filtration used in fish only systems is avoided because those filters trap

text: detritus

text: and produce nitrate which may stunt or even kill many delicate corals. Chemical filtration in the form of activated carbon is used when needed to remove discoloration of the water, or to remove dissolved matter (organic or otherwise) to help purify the water in the reef system.

text: Since the recession of the last glaciation, isolated bodies of water high in mountain crevasses have been topographically separated from fish. Within Washington state a number of lakes in the Olympic and Cascade Mountains have been stocked since the early 20th century. Prior to the existence of a state wildlife management agency, the U.S. Forest Service stocked mountain lakes with rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), cutthroat trout (Oncohynchus clarki) and eastern brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). High lake management of this era largely focused on improving sport fishing opportunities and secondarily establishing ecological balance. Natural reproduction of fish species, especially eastern brook trout, has led to overpopulation and  “stunting” from starvation in low nutrient environments. The result has been decreased interest from fishermen, while causing large, negative impacts on natural lake biota. Addressing concerns for biodiversity can positively impact agendas for the conservation of species, as well as high lakes fishery management.

text: Since the recession of the last glaciation, isolated bodies of water high in mountain crevasses have been topographically separated from fish. Within Washington state a number of lakes in the Olympic and Cascade Mountains have been stocked since the early 20th century. Prior to the existence of a state wildlife management agency, the U.S. Forest Service stocked mountain lakes with rainbow trout

text: (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

text: , cutthroat trout

text: (Oncohynchus clarki)

text: and eastern brook trout

text: (Salvelinus fontinalis)

text: . High lake management of this era largely focused on improving sport fishing opportunities and secondarily establishing ecological balance. Natural reproduction of fish species, especially eastern brook trout, has led to overpopulation and  “stunting” from starvation in low nutrient environments. The result has been decreased interest from fishermen, while causing large, negative impacts on natural lake biota. Addressing concerns for biodiversity can positively impact agendas for the conservation of species, as well as high lakes fishery management.

text: Ellis Lake is the location of the annual Marysville fishing derby, when the lake is stocked with fish and local children can fish and win prizes for the size of fish they catch.

text: Ungulates are in high diversity in response to sexual selection and ecological events; the majority of ungulates lack a collar bone. Terrestrial ungulates are for the most part herbivores, with some of them being grazers. However, there are exceptions to this as pigs, peccaries, hippos and duikers are known to have an omnivorous diet. Some cetaceans are the only modern ungulates that are carnivores; baleen whales consume significantly smaller animals in relation to their body size, such as small species of fish and krill; toothed whales, depending on the species, can consume a wide range of species: squid, fish, sharks, and other species of mammals such as seals and other whales. In terms of ecosystem ungulates have colonized all corners of the planets, from mountains to the ocean depths; grasslands to deserts and have been domesticated by humans.

text: Ungulates are in high diversity in response to

text: sexual selection

text: and

text: ecological

text: events; the majority of ungulates lack a

text: collar bone

text: . Terrestrial ungulates are for the most part herbivores, with some of them being

text: grazers

text: . However, there are exceptions to this as pigs, peccaries, hippos and

text: duiker

text: s are known to have an omnivorous diet. Some cetaceans are the only modern ungulates that are carnivores; baleen whales consume significantly smaller animals in relation to their body size, such as small species of fish and

text: krill

text: ; toothed whales, depending on the species, can consume a wide range of species:

text: squid

text: , fish,

text: shark

text: s, and other species of mammals such as

text: seals

text: and other whales. In terms of ecosystem ungulates have colonized all corners of the planets, from

text: mountain

text: s to the

text: ocean depths

text: grassland

text: s to

text: desert

text: s and have been domesticated by

text: human

text: s.

text: research surrounding their vocalizations could be beneficial to humans. Midshipman fish are model organisms for studying both human speech and hearing. Recently, it was found that midshipman fish can decrease their own hearing sensitivity by stiffening their inner ear hair cells while they are vibrating their calling muscles. This behavior is also found in bats, and may lead to an understanding a similar mechanism humans use to turn down their ear sensitivity to retain their hearing longer. There are conserved patterns of vocal, auditory, and neuroendocrine mechanisms between teleosts and tetrapods, which include midshipman fish and humans, respectively. This model organisms’ simple system could lead to a deeper understanding of human speech and auditory pathways,. This evolutionary connection could be important in modern medicine because these fish have homologous brain structures to humans. An example of which is for patients with lesions in the brain that become mute after having a stroke.August 9, 1974 composer Charlie Morrow performed a concert for fish using what he understood to be decoded toadfish language, similar to his decoded field peeper language. Morrow's observed that choruses of multiple toadfish are have shifting leadership for call and response by strong individuals. He notated the patterns for human performance, in one version numbering each individual for identification and spatial location.  The night before, Richard Nixon resigned as U.S. president. Major media covered the concert. New York Times music critic, John Rockwell, wrote a review with the headline, "Fish Silent".

text: research surrounding their vocalizations could be beneficial to humans. Midshipman fish are model organisms for studying both human speech and hearing. Recently, it was found that midshipman fish can decrease their own hearing sensitivity by stiffening their inner ear hair cells while they are vibrating their calling muscles. This behavior is also found in bats, and may lead to an understanding a similar mechanism humans use to turn down their ear sensitivity to retain their hearing longer. There are conserved patterns of vocal, auditory, and neuroendocrine mechanisms between teleosts and

text: tetrapod

text: s, which include midshipman fish and humans, respectively. This model organisms’ simple system could lead to a deeper understanding of human speech and auditory pathways,. This evolutionary connection could be important in modern medicine because these fish have homologous brain structures to humans. An example of which is for patients with lesions in the brain that become mute after having a stroke.August 9, 1974 composer

text: Charlie Morrow

text: performed a concert for fish using what he understood to be decoded toadfish language, similar to his decoded field peeper language. Morrow's observed that choruses of multiple toadfish are have shifting leadership for call and response by strong individuals. He notated the patterns for human performance, in one version numbering each individual for identification and spatial location.  The night before, Richard Nixon resigned as U.S. president. Major media covered the concert. New York Times music critic, John Rockwell, wrote a review with the headline, "Fish Silent".

text: The most popular place for tourism is Shimonoseki, for example Karato Fish Market. You can eat meals made of fresh fish such as raw blow fish and sushi. They are very delicious and inexpensive. What's more, you can have some rare fish parts, such as the top of the head and the crown of a tuna. There is also a large fireworks festival in summer. You can watch beautiful traditional fireworks there.

text: The most popular place for tourism is

text: Shimonoseki

text: , for example

text: Karato

text: Fish Market. You can eat meals made of fresh fish such as raw

text: blow fish

text: and sushi. They are very delicious and inexpensive. What's more, you can have some rare fish parts, such as the top of the head and the crown of a tuna. There is also a large fireworks festival in summer. You can watch beautiful traditional fireworks there.

text: These turtles have many characteristics pertaining to their aquatic lifestyle.  Many must be submerged in order to swallow their food. Most are strict carnivores, with diets consisting mainly of fish, aquatic crustaceans, snails, amphibians, and sometimes birds and small mammals. They have elongated, soft, snorkel-like nostrils.  Their necks are disproportionately long in comparison to their body sizes, enabling them to breathe surface air while their bodies remain submerged in the substrate (mud or sand) a foot or more below the surface.

text: These turtles have many characteristics pertaining to their aquatic lifestyle.  Many must be submerged in order to swallow their food. Most are strict carnivores, with diets consisting mainly of fish, aquatic crustaceans, snails, amphibians, and sometimes birds and small mammals. They have elongated, soft,

text: snorkel

text: -like nostrils.  Their necks are disproportionately long in comparison to their body sizes, enabling them to breathe surface air while their bodies remain submerged in the substrate (mud or sand) a foot or more below the surface.

text: As with various other aspects of fish life, zoologists have developed empirical classifications for fish migrations. Two terms in particular have been in long-standing wide usage:

text: Eventually the growths inhibit the fish's ability to swim, breathe or eat, and secondary bacterial infections usually kills the fish.

text: Eventually the growths inhibit the fish's ability to swim, breathe or eat, and secondary

text: bacteria

text: l infections usually kills the fish.

text: This fish is not related to any of the families found in its range (Ariidae, Ictaluridae, or Heptapteridae). It is most similar to Ictaluridae, but lacks some important characteristics to classify this fish into this family or the other two families. Initial study has placed this fish above Diplomystidae, Cetopsidae, and Hypsidoridae, but further classification is unknown. This family probably represents a basal group in which intermediates have disappeared.

text: This fish is not related to any of the families found in its range (

text: Ariidae

text: Ictaluridae

text: , or

text: Heptapteridae

text: ). It is most similar to Ictaluridae, but lacks some important characteristics to classify this fish into this family or the other two families. Initial study has placed this fish above

text: Diplomystidae

text: Cetopsidae

text: , and

text: Hypsidoridae

text: , but further classification is unknown. This family probably represents a

text: basal

text: group in which intermediates have disappeared.

text: In aquatic animals, such as seacows (manatees and dugongs), Thalassocnus, and plesiosaurs, it provides (or provided) ballast as an adaptation for an aquatic existence.

text: In aquatic animals, such as seacows (

text: manatee

text: s and

text: dugong

text: s),

text: Thalassocnus

text: , and

text: plesiosaurs

text: , it provides (or provided) ballast as an adaptation for an aquatic existence.

text: With its very long but relatively stiff neck, Tanystropheus has been often proposed and reconstructed as an aquatic or semi-aquatic reptile, a theory supported by the fact that the creature is most commonly found in semiaquatic fossil sites wherein known terrestrial reptile remains are scarce. Tanystropheus is most often considered to have been piscivorous (fish-eating), due to the presence of a long, narrow snout sporting sharp interlocking teeth.  In several young specimens, three-cusped cheek teeth are present in the jaw, which might indicate an insectivorous diet; however, similar teeth patterns have been found in Eudimorphodon and Langobardisaurus, both of whom are considered piscivores. Additionally, hooklets from cephalopod tentacles and what may be fish scales have been found near the belly regions of some specimens.

text: With its very long but relatively stiff neck, Tanystropheus has been often proposed and reconstructed as an aquatic or semi-aquatic reptile, a theory supported by the fact that the creature is most commonly found in semiaquatic fossil sites wherein known terrestrial reptile remains are scarce. Tanystropheus is most often considered to have been piscivorous (fish-eating), due to the presence of a long, narrow snout sporting sharp interlocking teeth.  In several young specimens, three-cusped cheek teeth are present in the jaw, which might indicate an insectivorous diet; however, similar teeth patterns have been found in

text: Eudimorphodon

text: and

text: Langobardisaurus

text: , both of whom are considered piscivores. Additionally, hooklets from

text: cephalopod

text: tentacles and what may be fish scales have been found near the belly regions of some specimens.

text: Kaziranga hosts a large number of raptors, considered a sign of a healthy ecosystem. This includes the rare eastern imperial eagle, greater spotted eagle, white-tailed fishing eagle, Pallas's fish eagle, grey-headed fish eagle and the lesser kestrel. Kaziranga was once home to seven species of vultures. About 99% of the stable vulture population was killed by kidney failure caused by consuming the veterinary drug diclofenac in domestic animal carcasses. Of these, the red-headed vulture, and Eurasian black vulture are still near threatened due to their large range, but the Indian vulture, slender-billed vulture and the Indian white-rumped vulture have suffered cataclysmic loss of numbers and are virtually extinct in the wild, including Kaziranga. The Indian populations of the other two vultures have similar losses — the griffon vulture and the Himalayan griffon, but they are still well represented outside India. The loss of this many vultures creates a critical void in the scavengers' ecological niche in Kaziranga.

text: Kaziranga hosts a large number of

text: raptor

text: s, considered a sign of a healthy

text: ecosystem

text: . This includes the rare

text: eastern imperial eagle

text: greater spotted eagle

text: white-tailed fishing eagle

text: Pallas's fish eagle

text: grey-headed fish eagle

text: and the

text: lesser kestrel

text: . Kaziranga was once home to seven species of vultures. About 99% of the stable vulture population was killed by

text: kidney failure

text: caused by consuming the

text: veterinary

text: drug

text: diclofenac

text: in

text: domestic animal

text: carcasses. Of these, the

text: red-headed vulture

text: , and

text: Eurasian black vulture

text: are still near threatened due to their large range, but the

text: Indian vulture

text: slender-billed vulture

text: and the

text: Indian white-rumped vulture

text: have suffered cataclysmic loss of numbers and are virtually extinct in the wild, including Kaziranga. The Indian populations of the other two vultures have similar losses — the

text: griffon vulture

text: and the

text: Himalayan griffon

text: , but they are still well represented outside India. The loss of this many vultures creates a critical void in the

text: scavenger

text: s'

text: ecological niche

text: in Kaziranga.

text: Mammals evolved on land, so all aquatic and semiaquatic mammals have brought many terrestrial adaptations into the waters.  They do not breathe underwater as fish do, so their respiratory systems had to protect the body from the surrounding water; valvular nostrils and an intranarial larynx exclude water while breathing and swallowing. To navigate and detect prey in murky and turbid waters, aquatic mammals have developed a variety of sensory organs: for example, manatees have elongated and highly sensitive whiskers which are used to detect food and other vegetation directly front of them, and toothed whales have evolved echolocation.

text: Mammals evolved on land, so all aquatic and semiaquatic mammals have brought many terrestrial adaptations into the waters.  They do not breathe underwater as fish do, so their respiratory systems had to protect the body from the surrounding water;

text: valvular

text: nostril

text: s and an

text: intranarial

text: larynx

text: exclude water while breathing and swallowing. To navigate and detect prey in murky and turbid waters, aquatic mammals have developed a variety of sensory organs: for example, manatees have elongated and highly sensitive

text: whiskers

text: which are used to detect food and other vegetation directly front of them, and toothed whales have evolved

text: echolocation

text: Although serious aquascapers often use a considerable amount of equipment to provide lighting, filtration, and CO supplementation to the tank, some hobbyists choose instead to maintain plants with a minimum of technology, and some have reported success in producing lush plant growth this way.  This approach, sometimes called the "natural planted tank" and popularized by Diana Walstad, can include the use of soil in place of aquarium gravel, the elimination of CO apparatus and most filtration, and limited lighting. Instead, only a few fish are kept, to limit the quantity of fish waste, and the plants themselves are used to perform the water-cleansing role typically played by aquarium filters, by utilizing what fish waste there is as fertilizer.

text: In a research study, embryos were removed from the gonads of Cryptasterina hystera and reared in the laboratory. It was found that the larvae developed normally and exhibited similar behaviour to that of the larvae of free-spawning starfish. After about sixteen days they sank to the bottom and underwent metamorphosis into juveniles in a normal manner.

text: Males establish a territory on a rock or coral surface and start clean it. Then, the male will court a female to the territory. Females then lay their eggs and the males fertilize them. After that, the male will constantly guard the eggs until they hatch. The eggs also get aerated and tended for by the male. Eggs that failed to hatch are removed out of the spawning site. The reproduction process usually lasts for about 20 minutes. Females can lay up to 20,000 eggs each. On average, eggs take about 3 days to a week to hatch. Males sometimes spawn with more than 1 female.

text: Bank fishing is fishing from places where the land meets the waters edge. Fishing from rocks is usually called rock fishing. Like rock fishing, bank fishing is typically done by casting fishing bait or lures into the water in an attempt to catch fish. Bank fishing is usually performed with a rod and reel but nets, traps, and spears, and fishing lines used without rods can also be used. People who fish from a boat can sometimes access more areas in prime locations with greater ease than bank fishermen. However many people don’t use boats find fishing from a bank has its own advantages. Many things contribute to success in bank fishing, such as local knowledge, water depth, bank structure, location, time of day, and the type of bait and lures.

text: Bank fishing is

text: fishing

text: from places where the land meets the waters edge. Fishing from rocks is usually called

text: rock fishing

text: . Like rock fishing, bank fishing is typically done by

text: casting

text: fishing bait

text: or

text: lure

text: s into the water in an attempt to catch fish. Bank fishing is usually performed with a

text: rod

text: and

text: reel

text: but

text: nets

text: traps

text: , and

text: spear

text: s, and fishing lines used without rods can also be used. People who fish from a boat can sometimes access more areas in prime locations with greater ease than bank fishermen. However many people don’t use boats find fishing from a bank has its own advantages. Many things contribute to success in bank fishing, such as local knowledge, water depth, bank structure, location, time of day, and the type of bait and lures.

text: This sector employs about 20% of the labour force and contributes 10% of GDP. All fishing is done by line as the use of nets is illegal. Production in the fishing sector, was approximately 119,000 metric tons in 2000, most of which were skipjack tuna. About 50% of fish is exported, especially to Sri Lanka, Germany, UK, Thailand, Japan, and Singapore. Almost 42% of fish exports consist of dried or canned fish, and another 31% is frozen and the remaining 10% is exported as fresh fish. Total exports of fish reached about $40 million in 2000. The fishing fleet consists of some 1,140 small, flat-bottomed boats (dhonis). Since the dhonis have shifted from sailing boats to outboard motors, the annual tuna catch per fisherman has risen from 1.4 metric tons in 1983 to 15.2 in 2002.

text: This sector employs about 20% of the labour force and contributes 10% of GDP. All fishing is done by line as the use of nets is illegal. Production in the fishing sector, was approximately 119,000 metric tons in 2000, most of which were skipjack tuna. About 50% of fish is exported, especially to Sri Lanka, Germany, UK, Thailand, Japan, and Singapore. Almost 42% of fish exports consist of dried or canned fish, and another 31% is frozen and the remaining 10% is exported as fresh fish. Total exports of fish reached about $40 million in 2000. The fishing fleet consists of some 1,140 small, flat-bottomed boats (

text: dhoni

text: s). Since the

text: dhoni

text: s have shifted from sailing boats to outboard motors, the annual tuna catch per fisherman has risen from 1.4 metric tons in 1983 to 15.2 in 2002.

text: The original version of the expression derives from the fishing industry, in which fishermen must literally decide who is to fish, and who is to cut the bait used for fishing. Both the task of fishing, and that of cutting the bait, were considered equally important to the goal of catching fish.

text: Salmonid fish from the Neretva basin show considerable variation in morphology, ecology and behaviour.

text: Salmonid

text: fish from the Neretva basin show considerable variation in

text: morphology

text: ecology

text: and behaviour.

text: Most fish are completely cold-blooded. Some, such as tuna and lamnid sharks (particularly the salmon shark), have evolved regional endothermy, in which parts of the body core are kept at a warmer temperature. These fish have retia arranged to warm muscles used for propulsion, and some visceral organs, while other organs, such as the heart, remain cooler. Only L. guttatus is known to have retia within its gill arches (which are also insulated by fat), an arrangement that warms the entire body core including the heart.

text: Most fish are completely

text: cold-blooded

text: . Some, such as tuna and lamnid sharks (particularly the

text: salmon shark

text: ), have evolved regional endothermy, in which parts of the body core are kept at a warmer temperature. These fish have retia arranged to warm muscles used for propulsion, and some visceral organs, while other organs, such as the heart, remain cooler. Only L. guttatus is known to have retia within its

text: gill arch

text: es (which are also insulated by fat), an arrangement that warms the entire body core including the heart.

text: A fish ladder near Thornbury allows fish to reach spawning areas up river.

text: A

text: fish ladder

text: near Thornbury allows fish to reach

text: spawning

text: areas up river.

text: A decade of large-scale studio sculptures, shown at the National Museum of Art in Tokyo and in Kyoto, as well as a decade of five outdoor concept-based performative site-works, culminated in the grand-scale Ocean Landmark (1978–80), which also dealt with the issues of reclamation and the future, working through the one toward the viability of the other. This art-and-science collaboration is a trans-disciplinary environmental artwork that recycles waste, establishes a habitat for fish, is fished and continues to feed people, is a model for new industry that considers industrial ecology, and is a vision of how to revitalize the coastal fishing industry.

text: Hinchinbrook Island was inhabited by the Bandjin people, along a western coastal strip.  Shell middens and fish traps are evidence of their activities.  Fish were an important source of food for Aboriginal people living in the area.  The Bandjin fish trap rock formations exploited the cyclic tidal regime, not only capturing fish, but also holding their catch alive for days.  At times, many fish would be caught in the traps. These fish would not be killed nor eaten, instead they were left for the birds.  To this day fish are still captured by these traps feeding the local birds.

text: Hinchinbrook Island was inhabited by the

text: Bandjin

text: people, along a western coastal strip.

text: Shell midden

text: s and

text: fish traps

text: are evidence of their activities.  Fish were an important source of food for Aboriginal people living in the area.  The Bandjin fish trap rock formations exploited the cyclic tidal regime, not only capturing fish, but also holding their catch alive for days.  At times, many fish would be caught in the traps. These fish would not be killed nor eaten, instead they were left for the birds.  To this day fish are still captured by these traps feeding the local birds.

text: In commercial aquaculture there are two main areas of farming: the onshore facility and the offshore sea cages. In the onshore facility there are a number of storage tanks that are key to the early development of Cod and many other cold water fish. These livestock storage include: the incubators (where eggs are fertilized and allowed to hatch), the larval tanks (slightly larger tanks where the larvae is grown), the circular tanks (last stage before fish leave the onshore facility, where metamorphosis occurs) and finally storage tanks where the fish can be temporarily stored as they are transported from truck, to boat, to sea site. Before the fish are taken to sea cage sites, some companies insert microchips into the fish to monitor population and patterns in the fish to improve the raising for future generations. The microchips are removed once fish are ready for market. After being transported to the ocean via private company or government ships, the fish are gently poured into a sea cage. There are many different types of sea cages depending on the location and style of aquaculture. Some common sea containers include: aqua pod (completely sealed bubble), open water (with the hope that the fish will naturally return), sea cages (simple netting tied to the ocean floor), and raceways (often in rivers or ponds). Some facilities (non-coastal regions) contain land based re circulation where all fish are in an indoor water circulated facility. The most common of these however is the sea cages, due to its inexpensive and ability to hold lots of fish. Finally with any of these sites a vacuum system must be present at the bottom of the water facility to absorb fish feces and to circulate the water. This prevents any chance of disease and improves water quality.

text: Infestation with T. polycolpus can cause blisters on the fins of fish, and the loss of rays on pelvic, anal, pectoral, dorsal and caudal fins. By removing the rays of the fishes' fins, they prevent the fish from swimming which means that they are unable to feed, reproduce, migration and avoiding predators.

text: Many biologists studying these fairly unknown creatures consider their reproduction one of the most important concepts of the species to understand, because most of the fish's behavior is based off its reproduction habits.  Bayou killifish reproduce sexually and are oviparous, meaning that they give birth via laying eggs.  This is a characteristic that most of the fish in the order Cyprinodontiformes share, though some may be viviparous. Little is known about the spawning seasons of the bayou killifish, however biologists do know that this species of killifish spawns mainly during the Spring, more specifically during the Spring Tides—periods of 3 to 6 days biweekly, that occur in a period known as the semilunar phase. Biologists conclude that this tide-associated spawning may be a common component in the reproductive strategies and behaviors of most, if not all, Cyprinodontids of North America.  Although many studies have been conducted involving the reproduction of these killifish, few findings have been made referring to the full reproductive habits of the Bayou Killifish.  Future studies and research is crucial to understanding these creatures, and more importantly their well-being in future generations.  Entire populations of F. pulvereus rely on its reproductive habits and behaviors.

text: Many biologists studying these fairly unknown creatures consider their reproduction one of the most important concepts of the species to understand, because most of the fish's behavior is based off its reproduction habits.  Bayou killifish reproduce sexually and are

text: oviparous

text: , meaning that they give birth via laying eggs.  This is a characteristic that most of the fish in the order Cyprinodontiformes share, though some may be

text: viviparous

text: . Little is known about the spawning seasons of the bayou killifish, however biologists do know that this species of killifish spawns mainly during the Spring, more specifically during the

text: Spring Tide

text: s—periods of 3 to 6 days biweekly, that occur in a period known as the

text: semilunar phase

text: . Biologists conclude that this tide-associated spawning may be a common component in the reproductive strategies and behaviors of most, if not all,

text: Cyprinodontid

text: s of North America.  Although many studies have been conducted involving the reproduction of these killifish, few findings have been made referring to the full reproductive habits of the Bayou Killifish.  Future studies and research is crucial to understanding these creatures, and more importantly their well-being in future generations.  Entire populations of F. pulvereus rely on its reproductive habits and behaviors.

text: The saddleback darter typically inhabits large creeks and rivers, but is occasionally found in small streams as well.  These fish are closely associated with shoal habitats where they prefer sand or gravel substrates.  The saddleback darter is a lowland area darter occurring in temperate areas, thus the water temperature generally ranges from a low of 40 °F to a high of around 80 °F.  The saddleback darter also co-occurs with the Snail Darter in the Lower Paint Rock River in Alabama.  The saddleback darter feeds on invertebrates including river snails, hydropsychid caddisfly larvae, midge larvae, and small mayfly nymphs such as baetids.  This fish is likely a prey item for almost any piscivorous fish that occur within the darter's range.  Likely predators include Largemouth Bass, Smallmouth Bass, and other large piscivores.  Human induced changes to the waterways they occur in could cause their decline in the future.  Since they have an affinity for swift water such as that found in shoals, the creation of impoundments causes the loss of their particular microhabitat.

text: Pressure detection uses the organ of Weber, a system consisting of three appendages of vertebrae transferring changes in shape of the gas bladder to the middle ear. It can be used to regulate the buoyancy of the fish. Fish like the weather fish and other loaches are also known to respond to low pressure areas but they lack a swim bladder.

text: Pressure detection uses the

text: organ of Weber

text: , a system consisting of three appendages of vertebrae transferring changes in shape of the

text: gas bladder

text: to the middle ear. It can be used to regulate the

text: buoyancy

text: of the fish. Fish like the

text: weather fish

text: and other loaches are also known to respond to low pressure areas but they lack a swim bladder.

text: A conceptual model of early behavior and migration of green sturgeon early life intervals based on the Kynard et al. 2005 study follows:  Females deposit eggs at sites with large rocks and moderate or eddy water flow that keeps the large, dense, poorly adhesive eggs from drifting, so eggs sink deep within the rocks.  CH2M Hill (2002) assumed that hatchling green sturgeon embryos drift downstream like hatchling white sturgeon embryos.  This was incorrect.  Hatchling green sturgeon embryos seek nearby cover, and remain under rocks, unlike white sturgeon which drift downstream as embryos (i.e. newly hatched green sturgeon do not exhibit pelagic behavior like newly hatched white sturgeon) (Deng et al. 2002).  After about 9 days fish develop into larvae and initiate exogenous foraging up- and downstream on the bottom (they do not swim up into the water column, unlike white sturgeon).  After a day or so, larvae initiate a downstream dispersion migration that lasts about 12 days (peak, 5 days).  At the age of ten days, when exogenous foraging begins, green sturgeons are 19 to 29 mm in length (mean 24 mm) (Deng et al. 2002).  At the age of 15 to 21 days, green sturgeon are 30 mm or greater in length (Deng et al. 2002).  At the age of 45 days, metamorphosis is complete and green sturgeon are 70 to 80 mm in length (Deng et al. 2002).  All migration and foraging during the migration period is nocturnal, unlike white sturgeon.  During the first 10 months of life, green sturgeon are the most nocturnal of any North American sturgeon yet studied, and this was the case for all life intervals during any activity (migration, foraging, or wintering).  Post-migrant larvae are benthic, foraging up- and downstream diurnally with a nocturnal activity peak.  Foraging larvae select open habitat, not structure habitat, but continue to use cover in the day.  When larvae develop into juveniles, there is no change in response to bright habitat, and no preference or avoidance of bright habitat.  In the fall, juveniles migrate downstream mostly at night to wintering sites, ceasing migration at 7–8 °C.  During winter, juveniles select low light habitat, likely deep pools with some rock structure.  Wintering juveniles forage actively at night between dusk and dawn and are inactive during the day, seeking the darkest available habitat.

text: Fishing at Lake Berryessa can be successful year-round as the lake is home to both warm-water and cold-water fish species.  Lake Berryessa offers a variety of fish from Sunfish to landlocked Salmon.  Because fish species are plentiful, fishing can be done in a variety of ways; from finesse techniques, bait fishing, and to trolling in the deep.  Fish species at Lake Berryessa include; Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides), Smallmouth Bass (Micropterus dolomeiu), Spotted Bass, Channel Catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), Bullhead Catfish (Ictalurus dolomeiu), White Catfish (Ameiurus catus), Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Sacramento Pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus grandis), Crappie, Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), Rainbow Trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss), Brown and Brook Trout, Kokanee, and also Chinook Salmon (Onchorhynchus tschawytscha).  The Rainbow Trout specie is native to the region while many other species were introduced.  Largemouth Bass and Smallmouth Bass were both introduced into the lake in the late 1950s and Spotted Bass followed in the 1980s. Bass and Salmon are mostly noted as sport fishing species, Bluegill, Black and White Crappie, and Catfish are more of a recreational and beginners type of fish and Carp and Pikeminnow are usually not favored among anglers.  The introduced species of carp, is also present and feeds on organic matter, water snails, bloodworm, fresh water mussels as well as their own eggs.  Besides the Sacramento Pikeminnow, Lake Berryessa also has the Golden Shiner and Threadfin Shad which are usually baitfish to the other species of fish.  Aside from the fish Lake Berryessa also supports other aquatic organisms such as Crawfish, Clams, and Otters.  The Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) has published guidelines for the amount of fish from Lake Berryessa that should be eaten. A copy of these guidelines can also be found at Lake Berryessa’s Visitor Center.  Mercury levels at Lake Berryessa are on the rise and there are no fish that OEHHA recommend to eat more than three times a week.  In context of Mercury Trouts are the best option for Berryessa at this time.  Fishing regulations accord with standard California Department of Fish and Wildlife regulations.  There are tournaments scheduled throughout nine of the twelve months out of the year for Bass.

text: Fishing at Lake Berryessa can be successful year-round as the lake is home to both warm-water and cold-water fish species.  Lake Berryessa offers a variety of fish from Sunfish to landlocked Salmon.  Because fish species are plentiful, fishing can be done in a variety of ways; from finesse techniques, bait fishing, and to trolling in the deep.  Fish species at Lake Berryessa include;

text: Largemouth Bass

text: (Micropterus salmoides),

text: Smallmouth Bass

text: (Micropterus dolomeiu),

text: Spotted Bass

text: Channel Catfish

text: (Ictalurus punctatus), Bullhead Catfish (Ictalurus dolomeiu), White Catfish (Ameiurus catus),

text: Carp

text: (Cyprinus carpio),

text: Sacramento Pikeminnow

text: (Ptychocheilus grandis),

text: Crappie

text: Bluegill

text: (Lepomis macrochirus),

text: Rainbow Trout

text: (Onchorhynchus mykiss), Brown and

text: Brook Trout

text: , Kokanee, and also

text: Chinook Salmon

text: (Onchorhynchus tschawytscha).  The

text: Rainbow Trout

text: specie is native to the region while many other species were introduced.

text: Largemouth Bass

text: and

text: Smallmouth Bass

text: were both introduced into the lake in the late 1950s and Spotted Bass followed in the 1980s. Bass and Salmon are mostly noted as sport fishing species, Bluegill, Black and White Crappie, and Catfish are more of a recreational and beginners type of fish and Carp and Pikeminnow are usually not favored among anglers.  The introduced species of

text: carp

text: , is also present and feeds on organic matter, water snails, bloodworm, fresh water mussels as well as their own eggs.  Besides the Sacramento Pikeminnow, Lake Berryessa also has the Golden Shiner and

text: Threadfin Shad

text: which are usually baitfish to the other species of fish.  Aside from the fish Lake Berryessa also supports other aquatic organisms such as

text: Crawfish

text: , Clams, and

text: Otters

text: .  The Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) has published guidelines for the amount of fish from Lake Berryessa that should be eaten. A copy of these guidelines can also be found at Lake Berryessa’s Visitor Center.  Mercury levels at Lake Berryessa are on the rise and there are no fish that OEHHA recommend to eat more than three times a week.  In context of Mercury Trouts are the best option for Berryessa at this time.  Fishing regulations accord with standard California Department of Fish and Wildlife regulations.  There are tournaments scheduled throughout nine of the twelve months out of the year for Bass.

text: Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries. Reefs are an important food source for low-technology fishing, both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas. However, despite their great productivity, reefs are vulnerable to over-fishing, because much of the organic carbon they produce is exhaled as carbon dioxide by organisms at the middle levels of the food chain and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen. Tourism centered on reefs provides much of the income of some tropical islands, attracting photographers, divers and sports fishermen. However, human activities damage reefs in several ways: mining for construction materials; pollution, including large influxes of fresh water from storm drains; commercial fishing, including the use of dynamite to stun fish and the capture of young fish for aquariums; and tourist damage caused by boat anchors and the cumulative effect of walking on the reefs. Coral, mainly from the Pacific Ocean has long been used in jewellery, and demand rose sharply in the 1980s.

text: Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries. Reefs are an important food source for low-technology fishing, both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas. However, despite their great

text: productivity

text: , reefs are vulnerable to over-fishing, because much of the

text: organic carbon

text: they produce is exhaled as

text: carbon dioxide

text: by organisms at the middle levels of the

text: food chain

text: and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen. Tourism centered on reefs provides much of the income of some tropical islands, attracting photographers, divers and sports fishermen. However, human activities damage reefs in several ways: mining for construction materials;

text: pollution

text: , including large influxes of fresh water from

text: storm drain

text: s; commercial fishing, including the use of

text: dynamite

text: to stun fish and the capture of young fish for

text: aquarium

text: s; and tourist damage caused by boat anchors and the cumulative effect of walking on the reefs. Coral, mainly from the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: has long been used in

text: jewellery

text: , and demand rose sharply in the 1980s.

text: Recreational fishing, also called sport fishing, is fishing for pleasure or competition. It can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is fishing for profit, or subsistence fishing, which is fishing for survival.

text: Recreational fishing, also called sport fishing, is

text: fishing

text: for pleasure or competition. It can be contrasted with

text: commercial fishing

text: , which is fishing for profit, or

text: subsistence fishing

text: , which is fishing for survival.

text: The fish reproduces through spawning in fast-moving waters. They tend to stay in these waters until winter. The fish lays eggs during the same time and often the same nest as the longear sunfish. The two fish species work together to defend the nest from predators.

text: The fish reproduces through

text: spawning

text: in fast-moving waters. They tend to stay in these waters until

text: winter

text: . The fish lays eggs during the same time and often the same nest as the

text: longear sunfish

text: . The two fish species

text: work together

text: to defend the nest from predators.

text: Fishing techniques can be contrasted with fishing tackle. Fishing tackle refers to the physical equipment that is used when fishing, whereas fishing techniques refers to the manner in which the tackle is used when fishing.

text: Fishing techniques can be contrasted with

text: fishing tackle

text: Brown trout can live 20 years, but as with the Atlantic salmon, a high proportion of males die after spawning, and probably fewer than 20% of anadromous female kelts recover from spawning. The migratory forms grow to significantly larger sizes for their age due to abundant forage fish in the waters where they spend most of their lives. Sea trout are more commonly female in less nutrient-rich rivers. Brown trout are active both by day and by night and are opportunistic feeders. While in fresh water, their diets frequently include invertebrates from the streambed, other fish, frogs, mice, birds, and insects flying near the water's surface. The high dietary reliance upon insect larvae, pupae, nymphs, and adults allows trout to be a favoured target for fly fishing. Sea trout are fished for especially at night using wet flies. Brown trout can be caught with lures such as spoons, spinners, jigs, plugs, plastic worm imitations, and live or dead baitfish.Freshwater brown trout range in colour from largely silver with relatively few spots and a white belly, to the more well-known brassy brown cast fading to creamy white on the fish's belly, with medium-sized spots surrounded by lighter halos. The more silver forms can be mistaken for rainbow trout. Regional variants include the so-called "Loch Leven" trout, distinguished by larger fins, a slimmer body, and heavy black spotting, but lacking red spots. The continental European strain features a lighter golden cast with some red spotting and fewer dark spots. Notably, both strains can show considerable individual variation from this general description. Early stocking efforts in the United States used fish taken from Scotland and Germany.

text: Brown trout can live 20 years, but as with the Atlantic salmon, a high proportion of males die after spawning, and probably fewer than 20% of anadromous female kelts recover from spawning. The migratory forms grow to significantly larger sizes for their age due to abundant forage fish in the waters where they spend most of their lives. Sea trout are more commonly female in less nutrient-rich rivers. Brown trout are active both by day and by night and are opportunistic feeders. While in fresh water, their diets frequently include invertebrates from the

text: streambed

text: , other fish,

text: frog

text: s, mice, birds, and insects flying near the water's surface. The high dietary reliance upon insect larvae, pupae, nymphs, and adults allows trout to be a favoured target for

text: fly fishing

text: . Sea trout are fished for especially at night using

text: wet flies

text: . Brown trout can be caught with

text: lures

text: such as spoons, spinners, jigs, plugs, plastic worm imitations, and live or dead

text: baitfish

text: .Freshwater brown trout range in colour from largely silver with relatively few spots and a white belly, to the more well-known brassy brown cast fading to creamy white on the fish's belly, with medium-sized spots surrounded by lighter halos. The more silver forms can be mistaken for rainbow trout. Regional variants include the so-called "Loch Leven" trout, distinguished by larger fins, a slimmer body, and heavy black spotting, but lacking red spots. The continental European strain features a lighter golden cast with some red spotting and fewer dark spots. Notably, both strains can show considerable individual variation from this general description. Early stocking efforts in the United States used fish taken from

text: Scotland

text: and

text: Germany

text: Choo Thomas’ book stated: “What are all the fish for?” I asked. “This is food for the kingdom,” the Lord replied. The Lord simply pushed a button on the side of one oven and a fire began. He then assumed the role of a cook, right in front of me. He grilled the fish until both sides of it were brown. The Lord gave me that half of the fish. He ate the other half while I devoured the portion He gave me. It was delicious. "and there shall be no more death, neither sorrow, nor crying, neither shall there be any more pain: for the former things are passed away" (Rev 21:4)

text: Cooke's research has contributed to multiple aspects of the biology, conservation and management of fish and aquatic ecosystems. One area of focus includes reproduction and fitness physiology primarily using centrarchid fish. For example, his research revealed that parental care of centrarchid fishes is energetically and physiologically demanding. Often, Cooke uses novel technology, like EMG transmitters and telemetry techniques to understand the behavior of and physiology of free-living animals. Recently he provided a framework for the application of telemetry techniques to enable IUCN Red List ranking.  Cooke uses interdisciplinary approaches (ranging from behaviour to genomics) to study complex conservation and management problems.  In particular, he has conducted basic research in support of applied problems for Pacific salmon in British Columbia. For example, his research has revealed that unsuccessful upriver adult migrants tend to be characterized by advanced reproductive development, disease, and stress, relative to those salmon that reach spawning grounds and reproduce. This type of information has been used to influence fisheries policy in Canada  including the refinement of a management adjustment models  for harvest levels of salmon. Cooke has also been a leader in defining the emerging discipline of “conservation physiology” by developing physiological techniques that enable rapid assessment of causes of conservation problems and consequences of conservation actions. He has recently extended these ideas to the field of ecological restoration. Understanding physiology can help conservation biologists provide legislators, courts and conservation managers with the mechanisms underlying conservation problems. Cooke’s research in the domain of fisheries science focuses on sustainable fisheries which includes quantifying the consequences of fishing on fish and fisheries and developing and promoting strategies that reduce stress and increase survival through refinement of catch-and-release fishing practices.  His expertise were used to co-authored the UN FAO technical guidelines for recreational fisheries in 2012.  Cooke’s research has illuminated problems in recreational fishing and possible development of effective countermeasures to conserve fisheries and his work has helped to refine management strategies in Canada and the USA.

text: Cooke's research has contributed to multiple aspects of the biology, conservation and management of fish and aquatic ecosystems. One area of focus includes reproduction and fitness physiology primarily using

text: centrarchid

text: fish. For example, his research revealed that parental care of

text: centrarchid

text: fishes is energetically and physiologically demanding. Often, Cooke uses novel technology, like EMG transmitters and telemetry techniques to understand the behavior of and physiology of free-living animals. Recently he provided a framework for the application of telemetry techniques to enable

text: IUCN Red List

text: ranking.  Cooke uses interdisciplinary approaches (ranging from behaviour to genomics) to study complex conservation and management problems.  In particular, he has conducted basic research in support of applied problems for Pacific salmon in British Columbia. For example, his research has revealed that unsuccessful upriver adult migrants tend to be characterized by advanced reproductive development, disease, and stress, relative to those salmon that reach spawning grounds and reproduce. This type of information has been used to influence fisheries policy in Canada  including the refinement of a management adjustment models  for harvest levels of salmon. Cooke has also been a leader in defining the emerging discipline of “conservation physiology” by developing physiological techniques that enable rapid assessment of causes of conservation problems and consequences of conservation actions. He has recently extended these ideas to the field of

text: ecological restoration

text: . Understanding physiology can help conservation biologists provide legislators, courts and conservation managers with the mechanisms underlying conservation problems. Cooke’s research in the domain of

text: fisheries science

text: focuses on sustainable fisheries which includes quantifying the consequences of fishing on fish and fisheries and developing and promoting strategies that reduce stress and increase survival through refinement of

text: catch-and-release

text: fishing practices.  His expertise were used to co-authored the UN

text: FAO

text: technical guidelines for recreational fisheries in 2012.  Cooke’s research has illuminated problems in recreational fishing and possible development of effective countermeasures to conserve fisheries and his work has helped to refine management strategies in Canada and the USA.

text: The Tanka were regarded as Yueh and not Chinese, they were divided into three classifications, "the fish-Tan, the oyster-Tan, and the wood-Tan" the 1100s, based on what they did for a living.

text: The WFF currently represents 48 national organizations of traditional small-scale fishing communities in 42 nations located all over the world, whose livelihoods depend directly on the sustainable management of fisheries resources. Such organizations must be democratically constituted and represent one of the following groups: Fish harvesters, crewmembers of fishing units, organizations of women engaged in work in support of the fishery, and fish workers who are engaged in activities related to the processing, sale (excluding merchants) or transport of fish. The Coordination Committee is the one in charge of admitting active members to the organization.

text: The WFF currently represents 48 national organizations of

text: traditional small-scale

text: fishing communities

text: in 42 nations located all over the world, whose livelihoods depend directly on the sustainable management of fisheries resources. Such organizations must be

text: democratically

text: constituted and represent one of the following groups: Fish harvesters, crewmembers of fishing units, organizations of women engaged in work in support of the fishery, and fish workers who are engaged in activities related to the

text: processing

text: , sale (excluding merchants) or transport of fish. The Coordination Committee is the one in charge of admitting active members to the organization.

text: Ophiacodon most likely lived on land, but paleontologists have sometimes thought that it was semi-aquatic. An aquatic habitat for Ophiacodon was first proposed by paleontologist E. C. Case in 1907, although he later dismissed the idea. Anatomical features suggesting that it spent much of its time in the water include broad claws that seemed to be adaptations for paddling, thin jaws and numerous small teeth that seemed to be adapted for eating fish, and weakly developed bones, which are seen in many other secondarily aquatic tetrapods. In 1940, paleontologists Alfred Romer and Llewellyn Ivor Price proposed that hindlimbs with a greater length than forelimbs was another aquatic adaptation of Ophiacodon, supposedly because the hindlimbs would have been used to propel it through water. Several of these features are no longer thought to be evidence of an aquatic lifestyle; for example, broad claws are seen in most early tetrapods, even those that are known to have been almost exclusively terrestrial, and the long hindlimbs of Ophiacodon would not have been an effective means of propulsion because the feet were still relatively small and had little surface area over which to form a paddle. Analysis of the vertebrae of Ophiacodon indicate that it was most likely terrestrial and spent little time in water. A paleobiological inference model for the femur likewise suggests a terrestrial lifestyle for Ophiacodon, even though the rather thick cortex might also suggest amphibious, rather than truly terrestrial habits.

text: Ophiacodon most likely lived on land, but paleontologists have sometimes thought that it was semi-aquatic. An aquatic habitat for Ophiacodon was first proposed by paleontologist

text: E. C. Case

text: in 1907, although he later dismissed the idea. Anatomical features suggesting that it spent much of its time in the water include broad claws that seemed to be adaptations for paddling, thin jaws and numerous small teeth that seemed to be adapted for eating fish, and weakly developed bones, which are seen in many other secondarily aquatic tetrapods. In 1940, paleontologists

text: Alfred Romer

text: and

text: Llewellyn Ivor Price

text: proposed that hindlimbs with a greater length than forelimbs was another aquatic adaptation of Ophiacodon, supposedly because the hindlimbs would have been used to propel it through water. Several of these features are no longer thought to be evidence of an aquatic lifestyle; for example, broad claws are seen in most early tetrapods, even those that are known to have been almost exclusively terrestrial, and the long hindlimbs of Ophiacodon would not have been an effective means of propulsion because the feet were still relatively small and had little surface area over which to form a paddle. Analysis of the vertebrae of Ophiacodon indicate that it was most likely terrestrial and spent little time in water. A paleobiological inference model for the femur likewise suggests a terrestrial lifestyle for Ophiacodon, even though the rather thick cortex might also suggest amphibious, rather than truly terrestrial habits.

text: Caldeirada (, ) is a Portuguese fish stew consisting of a wide variety of fish and potatoes, along with other ingredients. A fishermen's stew, the dish has been described as "a grand and glorious fish muddle that varies from town to town and depends on what the fisherman have managed to catch."

text: Caldeirada (, ) is a

text: Portuguese

text: fish stew consisting of a wide variety of fish and

text: potato

text: es, along with other ingredients. A fishermen's

text: stew

text: , the dish has been described as "a grand and glorious fish muddle that varies from town to town and depends on what the fisherman have managed to catch."

text: Many fish have a swimbladder. By filling the swimbladder with gas, fish can float and swim in the water. However, redlip blennies never develop a swimbladder. The lack of a swimbladder does not affect adult redlip blennies, since they have already adjusted to the benthic life, as they matured. However, unlike the adults, redlip blenny larvae are not comfortable living at the sea bottom. Until they adjust to the bottom-dwelling life style, the larvae use a means of floating for survival: redlip blenny larvae have a huge storage of lipids in their liver, and this high lipid concentration provides buoyancy. The larvae keeps its high lipid concentration until maturation. Later, as the larvae go through metamorphosis, it burns down all the stored lipids to support the high metabolism of metamorphosis. After losing its lipids through metamorphosis, the now-grown-up redlip blenny does not restore lipids, which provides a permanent high density body to the adult fish.

text: Many fish have a

text: swimbladder

text: . By filling the swimbladder with gas, fish can float and swim in the water. However, redlip blennies never develop a swimbladder. The lack of a swimbladder does not affect adult redlip blennies, since they have already adjusted to the benthic life, as they matured. However, unlike the adults, redlip blenny

text: larvae

text: are not comfortable living at the sea bottom. Until they adjust to the bottom-dwelling life style, the larvae use a means of floating for survival: redlip blenny larvae have a huge storage of

text: lipids

text: in their

text: liver

text: , and this high lipid concentration provides

text: buoyancy

text: . The larvae keeps its high lipid concentration until maturation. Later, as the larvae go through

text: metamorphosis

text: , it burns down all the stored lipids to support the high

text: metabolism

text: of metamorphosis. After losing its lipids through metamorphosis, the now-grown-up redlip blenny does not restore lipids, which provides a permanent high density body to the adult fish.

text: 1) Eggs require pure salt water to mature. 2) Larvae hatch from the eggs in brackish waters. 3) The larvae gradually move from brackish water to fresh water. 4) The final stage of the larvae is the megalopa, which is 3-4mm in length. 5) The megalopa then develop into small mitten crabs in the freshwater.

text: The National Fish Hatchery System (NFHS) was established by the U.S. Congress in 1871 through the creation of a U.S. Commissioner for Fish and Fisheries. This system of fish hatcheries is now administered by the Fisheries Program of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), an agency within the United States Department of the Interior.

text: The National Fish Hatchery System (NFHS) was established by the

text: U.S. Congress

text: in 1871 through the creation of a U.S. Commissioner for Fish and Fisheries. This system of fish hatcheries is now administered by the Fisheries Program of the

text: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

text: (Service), an agency within the

entity_name: United States Department of the Interior

text: United States Department of the Interior

text: The global demand for fish from consumers around the world is increasing. Reasons include the growing population, rising average incomes and greater awareness of fish as part of a healthy diet. The yield from the wild catch cannot be increased sustainably, therefore, in the opinion of observers such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, aquaculture must fill the gap. Currently the supply of fish from aquaculture approximately matches that from the wild catch, according to FAO figures.

text: The global demand for fish from consumers around the world is increasing. Reasons include the growing population, rising average incomes and greater awareness of fish as part of a healthy diet. The yield from the wild catch cannot be increased sustainably, therefore, in the opinion of observers such as the

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: (FAO) of the United Nations, aquaculture must fill the gap. Currently the supply of fish from aquaculture approximately matches that from the wild catch, according to FAO figures.

text: The high concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide gas in the water of the Well (which amounts to more than 80 times the typical freshwater concentration), and to a lesser extent its alkalinity, has prevented the development of any kind of fish population, so the Well remains a fishless spring. However, other types of aquatic life have managed to adapt: the Well supports at least five endemic freshwater species. Many different bird species feed on these organisms and the plant life found in the water.

text: Bait fish can be contrasted with forage fish. Bait fish is a term used particularly by recreational fishermen, although commercial fisherman also catch fish to bait longlines and traps. Forage fish is a fisheries term, and is used in the context of fisheries. Forage fish are the small fish that are preyed on in the wild by larger predators for food. The predators can be other larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Bait fish, by contrast, are fish that are caught by humans to use as bait for other fish. The terms also overlap in the sense that most bait fish are also forage fish, and most forage fish can also be used as bait fish.

text: Bait fish can be contrasted with

text: forage fish

text: . Bait fish is a term used particularly by recreational fishermen, although commercial fisherman also catch fish to bait

text: longlines

text: and

text: traps

text: . Forage fish is a

text: fisheries

text: term, and is used in the context of fisheries. Forage fish are the small fish that are preyed on in the

text: wild

text: by larger predators for food. The predators can be other larger fish,

text: seabird

text: s and

text: marine mammal

text: s. Bait fish, by contrast, are fish that are caught by humans to use as bait for other fish. The terms also overlap in the sense that most bait fish are also forage fish, and most forage fish can also be used as bait fish.

text: Also known as "power value" or "rod weight". Rods may be classified as Ultra-Light, Light, Medium-Light, Medium, Medium-Heavy, Heavy, Ultra-Heavy, or other similar combinations. Power is often an indicator of what types of fishing, species of fish, or size of fish a particular pole may be best used for. Ultra-light rods are suitable for catching small bait fish and also panfish, or situations where rod responsiveness is critical. Ultra-Heavy rods are used in deep sea fishing, surf fishing, or for heavy fish by weight. While manufacturers use various designations for a rod's power, there is no fixed standard, hence application of a particular power tag by a manufacturer is somewhat subjective. Any fish can theoretically be caught with any rod, of course, but catching panfish on a heavy rod offers no sport whatsoever, and successfully landing a large fish on an ultralight rod requires supreme rod handling skills at best, and more frequently ends in broken tackle and a lost fish. Rods are best suited to the type of fishing they are intended for.

text: Also known as "power value" or "rod weight". Rods may be classified as Ultra-Light, Light, Medium-Light, Medium, Medium-Heavy, Heavy, Ultra-Heavy, or other similar combinations. Power is often an indicator of what types of fishing, species of fish, or size of fish a particular pole may be best used for. Ultra-light rods are suitable for catching small

text: bait fish

text: and also

text: panfish

text: , or situations where rod responsiveness is critical. Ultra-Heavy rods are used in deep sea fishing, surf fishing, or for heavy fish by weight. While manufacturers use various designations for a rod's power, there is no fixed standard, hence application of a particular power tag by a manufacturer is somewhat subjective. Any fish can theoretically be caught with any rod, of course, but catching panfish on a heavy rod offers no sport whatsoever, and successfully landing a large fish on an ultralight rod requires supreme rod handling skills at best, and more frequently ends in broken tackle and a lost fish. Rods are best suited to the type of fishing they are intended for.

text: The earliest insect forms showed direct development (ametabolism), and the evolution of metamorphosis in insects is thought to have fuelled their dramatic radiation (1,2). Some early ametabolous "true insects" are still present today, such as bristletails and silverfish. Hemimetabolous insects include cockroaches, grasshoppers, dragonflies, and true bugs. Phylogenetically, all insects in the Pterygota undergo a marked change in form, texture and physical appearance from immature stage to adult. These insects either have hemimetabolous development, and undergo an incomplete or partial metamorphosis, or holometabolous development, which undergo a complete metamorphosis, including a pupal or resting stage between the larval and adult forms.

text: The earliest insect forms showed direct development (

text: ametabolism

text: ), and the evolution of metamorphosis in insects is thought to have fuelled their dramatic radiation (1,2). Some early ametabolous "true insects" are still present today, such as

text: bristletails

text: and

text: silverfish

text: Hemimetabolous

text: insects include cockroaches, grasshoppers, dragonflies, and true bugs. Phylogenetically, all insects in the

text: Pterygota

text: undergo a marked change in form, texture and physical appearance from immature stage to adult. These insects either have

text: hemimetabolous

text: development, and undergo an incomplete or partial metamorphosis, or

text: holometabolous

text: development, which undergo a complete metamorphosis, including a

text: pupa

text: l or resting stage between the

text: larval

text: and adult forms.

text: The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic invertebrates and fish.

text: The mata mata is carnivorous, feeding exclusively upon aquatic

text: invertebrates

text: and

text: fish

text: The fish spawn during the early spring to the late fall, from March to November. Peak spawning occurs during May to September in Mid-Atlantic Bight regions, differences in temperatures affect the breeding time. In U.S waters further south the spawning season occurs from April to June. Males grow faster and reach larger size than females. Fishing pressure may cause males to spawn at smaller sizes, and at a younger age.

text: The fish spawn during the early spring to the late fall, from March to November. Peak spawning occurs during May to September in

text: Mid-Atlantic Bight

text: regions, differences in temperatures affect the breeding time. In U.S waters further south the spawning season occurs from April to June. Males grow faster and reach larger size than females. Fishing pressure may cause males to spawn at smaller sizes, and at a younger age.

text: It has been inferred that Acanthostega probably lived in shallow, weed-choked swamps, its legs being not an adaptation to walking on land. Jennifer A. Clack interprets this as showing that Acanthostega was primarily an aquatic animal descended from fish that never left the sea, and that the specializations in the tetrapod lineage developed features which would later be useful for terrestrial life. At that period, deciduous plants were flourishing and annually shedding leaves into the water, attracting small prey into warm oxygen-poor shallows that were difficult for larger fish to swim in; Clack remarks on how the lower jaw of Acanthostega shows a change from those of fish that have two rows of teeth, with a large number of small teeth in the outer row, and two large fangs and some smaller teeth in the inner row. This difference likely corresponds to a shift in stem-tetrapods from feeding exclusively in the water to feeding with the head above water or on land.

text: It has been inferred that Acanthostega probably lived in shallow, weed-choked swamps, its legs being not an adaptation to walking on land.

text: Jennifer A. Clack

text: interprets this as showing that Acanthostega was primarily an aquatic animal descended from fish that never left the sea, and that the specializations in the tetrapod lineage developed features which would later be useful for terrestrial life. At that period,

text: deciduous

text: plants were flourishing and annually shedding leaves into the water, attracting small prey into warm oxygen-poor shallows that were difficult for larger

text: fish

text: to swim in; Clack remarks on how the lower jaw of Acanthostega shows a change from those of fish that have two rows of teeth, with a large number of small teeth in the outer row, and two large fangs and some smaller teeth in the inner row. This difference likely corresponds to a shift in stem-tetrapods from feeding exclusively in the water to feeding with the head above water or on land.

text: Terrestrial locomotion poses new obstacles such as gravity and new media, including sand, mudd, twigs, logs, debris, grass and many more. Fins and flippers are aquatically adapted appendages and typically aren't very useful in such an environment. It could be hypothesized that fish would try to "swim" on land, but studies have shown that some fish evolved to cope with the terrestrial environment. Mudskippers, for example demonstrate a 'crutching' gait which enables them to 'walk' over muddy surfaces as well as dig burrows to hide in. Mudskippers are also able to jump up to 3 cm distances. This behavior is described as starting with a J-curvature of the body at about 2/3 of its body length (with its tail wrapped towards the head), followed by a straightening of their body which propulses them like a projectile through the air. This behavior enables them to cope with the new environment and opens their habitat to new food sources as well as new predators.

text: Terrestrial locomotion poses new obstacles such as

text: gravity

text: and new media, including sand, mudd, twigs, logs, debris, grass and many more. Fins and flippers are aquatically adapted appendages and typically aren't very useful in such an environment. It could be hypothesized that fish would try to "swim" on land, but studies have shown that some fish evolved to cope with the terrestrial environment. Mudskippers, for example demonstrate a 'crutching' gait which enables them to 'walk' over muddy surfaces as well as dig burrows to hide in. Mudskippers are also able to jump up to 3 cm distances. This behavior is described as starting with a J-curvature of the body at about 2/3 of its body length (with its tail wrapped towards the head), followed by a straightening of their body which propulses them like a projectile through the air. This behavior enables them to cope with the new environment and opens their habitat to new food sources as well as new predators.

text: Maribojoc is a [[ of the Philippines#Income classification| ]] in the province of , Philippines. According to the , it has a population of .  The town has a land area of . The first language spoken is Cebuano, with a Boholano dialect, however English and Filipino are often also spoken and understood. Fishing and agriculture are the two main sources of livelihood.

text: Maribojoc is a [[ of the Philippines#Income classification| ]] in the province of ,

text: Philippines

text: . According to the , it has a population of .  The town has a land area of . The first language spoken is Cebuano, with a

text: Boholano dialect

text: , however

text: English

text: and

text: Filipino

text: are often also spoken and understood. Fishing and agriculture are the two main sources of livelihood.

text: Kate the maid asks boldly how the sisters want their fish cooked for dinner, for which they could not give a straight answer, so that Kate had to decide how the fish has to be cooked, which eventually leads them to decide about firing Kate. They wonder whether she snoops inside their dresser drawers. They hear a barrel organ and realize they need not stop it, because it no longer disturbs their father. They wonder how things would be, if their mother, who died in Ceylon, were still alive. They've never met men, except perhaps in Eastbourne. Finally, the sisters talk about their future, but cannot remember what they wanted to say.

text: Kate the maid asks boldly how the sisters want their fish cooked for dinner, for which they could not give a straight answer, so that Kate had to decide how the fish has to be cooked, which eventually leads them to decide about firing Kate. They wonder whether she snoops inside their dresser drawers. They hear a

text: barrel organ

text: and realize they need not stop it, because it no longer disturbs their father. They wonder how things would be, if their mother, who died in

text: Ceylon

text: , were still alive. They've never met men, except perhaps in

text: Eastbourne

text: . Finally, the sisters talk about their future, but cannot remember what they wanted to say.

text: Immune organs vary by type of fish.In the jawless fish (lampreys and hagfish), true lymphoid organs are absent. These fish rely on regions of lymphoid tissue within other organs to produce immune cells. For example, erythrocytes, macrophages and plasma cells are produced in the anterior kidney (or pronephros) and some areas of the gut (where granulocytes mature.) They resemble primitive bone marrow in hagfish.Cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) have a more advanced immune system. They have three specialized organs that are unique to Chondrichthyes; the epigonal organs (lymphoid tissue similar to mammalian bone) that surround the gonads, the Leydig's organ within the walls of their esophagus, and a spiral valve in their intestine. These organs house typical immune cells (granulocytes, lymphocytes and plasma cells). They also possess an identifiable thymus and a well-developed spleen (their most important immune organ) where various lymphocytes, plasma cells and macrophages develop and are stored.Chondrostean fish (sturgeons, paddlefish, and bichirs) possess a major site for the production of granulocytes within a mass that is associated with the meninges (membranes surrounding the central nervous system.) Their heart is frequently covered with tissue that contains lymphocytes, reticular cells and a small number of macrophages. The chondrostean kidney is an important hemopoietic organ; where erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes and macrophages develop.

text: Immune organs vary by type of fish.In the

text: jawless fish

text: (lampreys and hagfish), true

text: lymph

text: oid organs are absent. These fish rely on regions of

text: lymphoid tissue

text: within other organs to produce immune cells. For example,

text: erythrocytes

text: macrophages

text: and

text: plasma cells

text: are produced in the anterior kidney (or

text: pronephros

text: ) and some areas of the gut (where

text: granulocytes

text: mature.) They resemble primitive

text: bone marrow

text: in hagfish.

text: Cartilaginous fish

text: (sharks and rays) have a more advanced immune system. They have three specialized organs that are unique to

text: Chondrichthyes

text: ; the epigonal organs (lymphoid tissue similar to mammalian bone) that surround the gonads, the

text: Leydig's organ

text: within the walls of their esophagus, and a

text: spiral valve

text: in their intestine. These organs house typical immune cells (granulocytes, lymphocytes and plasma cells). They also possess an identifiable

text: thymus

text: and a well-developed

text: spleen

text: (their most important immune organ) where various

text: lymphocyte

text: s, plasma cells and macrophages develop and are stored.

text: Chondrostean

text: fish (sturgeons, paddlefish, and bichirs) possess a major site for the production of granulocytes within a mass that is associated with the

text: meninges

text: (membranes surrounding the central nervous system.) Their heart is frequently covered with tissue that contains lymphocytes,

text: reticular cell

text: s and a small number of

text: macrophage

text: s. The chondrostean kidney is an important

text: hemopoietic

text: organ; where erythrocytes, granulocytes, lymphocytes and macrophages develop.

text: Some fishers do not accept that Marine Protected Areas (MPA) benefit fish stocks and provide insurance against stock collapse. MPAs can cause a short-term loss in fisheries production.  However, the concept of spillover, where fish within a Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) move into fished areas, thus benefiting fisheries, has been misunderstood by some fishers. The term is a simplification of numerous ecological benefits that are derived from removing fishing from nursery, breeding grounds and essential fish habitats.

text: Given that UK and imported whitebait still consists of immature herring, sprat, sardines, mackerel, bass and many others, it is not an ecologically viable foodstuff.  Removing these fish at such a juvenile stage, before they have had a chance to grow and reproduce, might severely reduce future fish stocks.  The Marine Conservation Society (MCS) is a non-government organisation that provides independent information on the sustainability of fish stocks and species around the world, and has a rating system for fish sustainability, in order to safeguard future stocks .  The MCS suggests avoiding eating and purchasing the juvenile whitebait as it is detrimental to sustainable fish populations.

text: Fishes can be iteroparous, and spawn more than once, but there are some who only spawn once before death, known as semelparous.  Within iteroparous fish, they usually give no parental care with external fertilization. The sperm present in male fish are immotile while in testes and in seminal fluid, and the fertilization environment determines when the sperm become motile.  In salmon, a decrease of potassium in fresh water will initiate the motility of the sperm.  A decrease in osmolality after spawning in fresh water makes a cyprinid fish’s sperm motile.

text: Fishes can be

text: iteroparous

text: , and spawn more than once, but there are some who only spawn once before death, known as

text: semelparous

text: .  Within iteroparous fish, they usually give no parental care with external fertilization. The sperm present in male fish are immotile while in testes and in seminal fluid, and the fertilization environment determines when the sperm become motile.  In salmon, a decrease of potassium in fresh water will initiate the motility of the sperm.  A decrease in

text: osmolality

text: after spawning in fresh water makes a cyprinid fish’s sperm motile.

text: Not only do the fish have to be organically reared, organic fish feeds need to be developed. Research into ways of decreasing the amount on non-sustainable fishmeal in feed is currently focussing on replacement by organic vegetable proteins. Some organic fish feeds becoming available, and/or the option of integrated multi-species systems (e.g. growing plants using aquaponics, as well as larvae or other fish). For example, locating a shellfish bed next to a finfish farm to dispose of the waste and provide the shellfish with controlled nutrients.

text: In 2013 researchers announced that they had found fish scales in the abdominal cavity of a Microraptor specimen. This new finding corrects the previous position that Microraptor hunted only in an arboreal environment. They also argued that the specimen showed a probable adaptation to a fish-eating diet: the good preservation of the mandible shows that the first three teeth were inclined anterodorsally, a character often associated with piscivory. Microraptor was an opportunistic feeder, hunting the most common prey in both arboreal and aquatic habitats.

text: Cleaner fish are fish that provide a service to other fish species by removing dead skin and ectoparasites. This cleaning symbiosis is an example of mutualism, an ecological interaction that benefits both parties involved. However, the cleaner fish may sometimes cheat and consume mucus or tissue, thus creating a form of parasitism. A wide variety of fish including wrasse, cichlids, catfish, pipefish, and gobies display cleaning behaviors. Similar behavior is found in other groups of animals, such as cleaner shrimps.

text: Cleaner fish are

text: fish

text: that provide a service to other fish species by removing dead

text: skin

text: and

text: ectoparasite

text: s. This

text: cleaning symbiosis

text: is an example of

text: mutualism

text: , an ecological interaction that benefits both parties involved. However, the cleaner fish may sometimes cheat and consume mucus or tissue, thus creating a form of parasitism. A wide variety of fish including

text: wrasse

text: cichlid

text: s,

text: catfish

text: pipefish

text: , and

text: gobies

text: display cleaning behaviors. Similar behavior is found in other groups of animals, such as

text: cleaner shrimp

text: s.

text: Spawn consists of the reproductive cells (gametes) of many aquatic animals, some of which will become fertilized and produce offspring. The process of spawning typically involves females releasing ova (unfertilized eggs) into the water, often in large quantities, while males simultaneously or sequentially release spermatozoa (milt) to fertilize the eggs.

text: Spawn consists of the reproductive cells (

text: gamete

text: s) of many aquatic animals, some of which will become

text: fertilize

text: d and produce offspring. The process of spawning typically involves females releasing

text: ova

text: (unfertilized eggs) into the water, often in large quantities, while males simultaneously or sequentially release

text: spermatozoa

text: milt

text: ) to fertilize the eggs.

text: The osprey is notable as the best example of the predator-prey relationship within the Mount Henry Peninsula region. It is an ecological specialist (it depends on particular types of diet or habitat). The osprey's main diet is fish, and its opposable back claws let it grasp fish as it dives. It is believed to be the only bird in the area to fully submerge itself in a dive. The osprey feeds on nearly any fish which it can digest - fish species identified in the Mount Henry-Canning River area are black bream, Swan River goby and Perth herring.

text: It is difficult to estimate how many recreational fishing boats there are, although the number is high. The term is fluid, since most recreational boats are also used for fishing from time to time. Unlike most commercial fishing vessels, recreational fishing boats are often not dedicated just to fishing.

text: Within the Notostraca, and even within species, there is variation in the mode of reproduction, with some populations reproducing sexually, some showing self-fertilisation of females, and some showing a mix of the two. The frequency of males in populations is therefore highly variable. In sexual populations, the sperm leave the male's body through simple pores, there being no penis. The eggs are released by the female and then held in the cup-like brood pouch. The eggs are retained by the female only for a short time before being laid, and the larvae develop directly, without passing through a metamorphosis.

text: Within the Notostraca, and even within species, there is variation in the mode of reproduction, with some populations

text: reproducing sexually

text: , some showing

text: self-fertilisation

text: of females, and some showing a mix of the two. The frequency of males in populations is therefore highly variable. In sexual populations, the

text: sperm

text: leave the male's body through simple pores, there being no

text: penis

text: . The eggs are released by the female and then held in the cup-like brood pouch. The eggs are retained by the female only for a short time before being laid, and the

text: larvae

text: develop directly, without passing through a

text: metamorphosis

text: Once the larvae have grown to sufficient size, they undergo metamorphosis to a pupa. During this stage, reorganization takes place in which they develop into a primitive version of their adult form.

text: Caerorhachis is thought to have had a primarily terrestrial lifestyle. It lacks the lateral lines across the skull that served as an adaptation for earlier aquatic tetrapods and their ancestors. The large, well developed limbs suggest it was able to move on land better than other early tetrapods like colosteids and baphetids. Robert Holmes and Robert L. Carroll, the first to describe Caerorhachis, interpreted it as "[an] animal spending much of its life in the damp mud on the margins of ponds or streams, feeding on stranded fish, or occasionally venturing into the water to catch aquatic larvae of other amphibians."

text: Caerorhachis is thought to have had a primarily terrestrial lifestyle. It lacks the

text: lateral line

text: s across the skull that served as an adaptation for earlier aquatic tetrapods and their ancestors. The large, well developed limbs suggest it was able to move on land better than other early tetrapods like

text: colosteids

text: and

text: baphetids

text: . Robert Holmes and

text: Robert L. Carroll

text: , the first to describe Caerorhachis, interpreted it as "[an] animal spending much of its life in the damp mud on the margins of ponds or streams, feeding on stranded fish, or occasionally venturing into the water to catch aquatic larvae of other amphibians."

text: The life cycle is likely to be similar to other shipworms where the males release their gametes into the water and some of the sperm gets drawn into the burrows of females. The fertilised eggs are retained in the mothers' gill chambers where they begin their development. Later they are released into the sea as veliger larvae. These eat phytoplankton and drift with the currents. When they are ready to undergo metamorphosis they try to find suitable timber on which to settle. There they begin to bore into the wood and spend the rest of their lives as tunnellers.

text: The life cycle is likely to be similar to other shipworms where the males release their gametes into the water and some of the sperm gets drawn into the burrows of females. The fertilised eggs are retained in the mothers' gill chambers where they begin their development. Later they are released into the sea as

text: veliger

text: larvae. These eat

text: phytoplankton

text: and drift with the currents. When they are ready to undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: they try to find suitable timber on which to settle. There they begin to bore into the wood and spend the rest of their lives as tunnellers.

text: Mike Shingleton of the Division of Natural Resources explained the Centennial Golden Trout evolution. At the small rainbow trout hatchery in 1955, a yellow-mottled fingerling was noticed by Petersburg manager Vincent Evans. From that small batch of hatchlings he named it "Little Camouflage". Months later upon his arrival, the new Petersburg manager, Chester Mace, was shown the curious novelty. In limited facilities of late 1956, "Goldy" had spawn with a few Rainbow trout. A few months later in 1957, the Petersburg hatchery moved these yellow-mottles to the larger Spring Run hatchery. By the spring stocking of 1963, the West Virginia Centennial year, Evans and Mace had supervised the spawning of good color and quality brood stock of the Mountain State's Centennial Golden Trout.(more )

text: Another famous example is the cichlid fishes in lakes of the East African Rift.  The lakes in this area are believed to support and sustain about 2,000 different species of these fish, each with different ecological and morphological characteristics such as body size.  Like the Galápagos Islands, these lakes form a fragmented landscape that isolates the cichlid fish from one another, allowing them, and many of the organisms they live with, to evolve separately.  The diversity of the lakes is in fact quite extraordinary because the adaptive radiations here are sometimes so young.  One thing that has interested scientists about the cichlid fish case is the possibility of convergent evolution, or the evolution of analogous structures independently, driven by similar environmental selection pressures.  However, quantitative studies on the convergent evolution of the cichlid fish are limited.

text: Another famous example is the

text: cichlid

text: fishes in lakes of the

text: East African Rift

text: .  The lakes in this area are believed to support and sustain about 2,000 different species of these fish, each with different ecological and morphological characteristics such as body size.  Like the Galápagos Islands, these lakes form a fragmented landscape that isolates the cichlid fish from one another, allowing them, and many of the organisms they live with, to evolve separately.  The diversity of the lakes is in fact quite extraordinary because the adaptive radiations here are sometimes so young.  One thing that has interested scientists about the cichlid fish case is the possibility of convergent evolution, or the evolution of analogous structures independently, driven by similar environmental selection pressures.  However, quantitative studies on the convergent evolution of the cichlid fish are limited.

text: The performance of the game itself in the play mode varies depending how fast/slow the CPU is. The game in the Maxis version measures the speed of the CPU, so on a slow 386 it will only display 1-3 fish at once, but on a 486 it will show 10+ fish. This speed measurement will not work on modern PCs where the CPU speed went over the programs maximum and miscalculates the actual speed. For example, the CPU is 3600 MHz, but the program thinks your CPU is too slow and only will display 1-3 fish. This can be solved with several speed limitation software. It does not have to be slowed down to a 486's speed, but it has to fit the programs measurement calculation for displaying the maximum amount of fishes. This varies on the CPU speed. The first Mindscape version of the game does not have this mistake calculation.

text: Epulopiscium means "banquet of fish" in scientific Latin, from epulum ("feast" or "banquet") and piscium ("of fish"), as the organism was found inside the gut of fish.

text: Epulopiscium means "banquet of fish" in

text: scientific Latin

text: , from epulum ("feast" or "banquet") and piscium ("of fish"), as the organism was found inside the gut of fish.

text: P. suvatti is among the most aggressive of puffers in captivity. When confronted by an intruder the P. suvatti will first react by staring intently, if the fish refuses to back down P. suvatti will then lower its head and charge the other fish. The Suvatti will then open its mouth and slowly move toward the other fish, if the other fish is still not threatened enough by this, the Suvatti will turn and position its broadside toward the invading fish and inflate its body, it then will swim in front of the fish in a zigzag pattern, it will lower i's head and open its mouth to show its teeth, if the warning of inflation does not scare away the invading fish, the Suvatti will attack the fish and inflict serious wounds or it will kill the fish. Just Like their saltwater cousins,P. suvatti contains tetrodotoxin within their skin, organs and teeth. Normally when P. suvatti are kept as pets they must be kept in an aquarium by themselves as they have a tendency to always be aggressive and hungry, unless they are well-fed, and thus they will nibble on the other fish's tails, and occasionally will make a meal of the other fish. Because of the Suvatti's eating habits, it should normally only be fed every other day. During a feeding the Suvatti will shoot up to the surface and guzzle down large amounts of food causing it to double in size. The Arrowhead Puffer can be purchased at most pet stores that carry exotic fishes for around 20-30 USD. Basic care would include the feeding of live fish, gut-loaded ghost shrimp, crayfish, and perhaps raw shrimp or mussels.  Never overfeed the fish or give it red meat or chicken as this can lead to fatty liver disease, which is usually fatal. For a single species aquarium this fish would make a great pet, and they have been known to live up to 10 years in a well-maintained aquarium - which, as with all puffers, means water changes of 50% each week, with good water movement and absolutely no ammonia or nitrites, and minimal nitrates. this puffer species can also be aggressive towards humans. It's a dangerous pufferfish which has a tendency to bite humans with its sharp four teeth, fused together like a beak. They may attack humans by biting them when threatened. So in the wild and in aquarium, it's a dangerous fish which are both aggressive against both humans and other aquarium fishes. However, it's not as aggressive and dangerous towards humans as Feroxodon Multistriatus aka the Ferocious Puffer and Fang's Puffer (Pao Cochinchinensis)

text: P. suvatti is among the most aggressive of puffers in captivity. When confronted by an intruder the P. suvatti will first react by staring intently, if the fish refuses to back down P. suvatti will then lower its head and charge the other fish. The Suvatti will then open its mouth and slowly move toward the other fish, if the other fish is still not threatened enough by this, the Suvatti will turn and position its broadside toward the invading fish and inflate its body, it then will swim in front of the fish in a zigzag pattern, it will lower i's head and open its mouth to show its teeth, if the warning of inflation does not scare away the invading fish, the Suvatti will attack the fish and inflict serious wounds or it will kill the fish. Just Like their saltwater cousins,P. suvatti contains

text: tetrodotoxin

text: within their skin, organs and teeth. Normally when P. suvatti are kept as pets they must be kept in an

text: aquarium

text: by themselves as they have a tendency to always be aggressive and hungry, unless they are well-fed, and thus they will nibble on the other fish's tails, and occasionally will make a meal of the other fish. Because of the Suvatti's eating habits, it should normally only be fed every other day. During a feeding the Suvatti will shoot up to the surface and guzzle down large amounts of food causing it to double in size. The Arrowhead Puffer can be purchased at most pet stores that carry exotic fishes for around 20-30 USD. Basic care would include the feeding of live fish, gut-loaded ghost shrimp, crayfish, and perhaps raw shrimp or

text: mussel

text: s.  Never overfeed the fish or give it red meat or chicken as this can lead to fatty liver disease, which is usually fatal. For a single species aquarium this fish would make a great pet, and they have been known to live up to 10 years in a well-maintained aquarium - which, as with all puffers, means water changes of 50% each week, with good water movement and absolutely no

text: ammonia

text: or

text: nitrite

text: s, and minimal nitrates. this puffer species can also be aggressive towards humans. It's a dangerous pufferfish which has a tendency to bite humans with its sharp four teeth, fused together like a beak. They may attack humans by biting them when threatened. So in the wild and in aquarium, it's a dangerous fish which are both aggressive against both humans and other aquarium fishes. However, it's not as aggressive and dangerous towards humans as Feroxodon Multistriatus aka the Ferocious Puffer and Fang's Puffer (Pao Cochinchinensis)

text: These fish spawn as often as weekly throughout the year.

text: The main prey of Pel's fishing owl is, of course, fish. They can take fish weighing at least  but a majority of fish caught are much smaller, regularly weighing . They are not picky eaters among fish species and any fish that is in a reasonable size range and found close to the water's surface is ready caught and consumed. Compared with the fish owls, the three fishing owls are more completely piscivorous and rarely vary their prey selection from fish. However, seldom, they will also take other aquatic animals such as frogs, crabs, mussels and large insects. In one case, a Pel's fishing owl was observed to predate a baby Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). While perched over the water, these owls detect the movement of fish from ripples in the water and swoop down to seize their prey with their powerful talons and then swoop back to their perch for consumption. Unlike many other fish-eating birds, Pel's fishing owl rarely submerge themselves or get particularly wet while hunting. More uncommonly, this species will forage by wading into shallow water along sandbanks.

text: The main prey of Pel's fishing owl is, of course, fish. They can take fish weighing at least  but a majority of fish caught are much smaller, regularly weighing . They are not picky eaters among fish species and any fish that is in a reasonable size range and found close to the water's surface is ready caught and consumed. Compared with the

text: fish owl

text: s, the three

text: fishing owl

text: s are more completely piscivorous and rarely vary their prey selection from fish. However, seldom, they will also take other aquatic animals such as

text: frog

text: s,

text: crab

text: s,

text: mussel

text: s and large

text: insect

text: s. In one case, a Pel's fishing owl was observed to predate a baby

text: Nile crocodile

text: (Crocodylus niloticus). While perched over the water, these owls detect the movement of fish from ripples in the water and swoop down to seize their prey with their powerful talons and then swoop back to their perch for consumption. Unlike many other fish-eating birds, Pel's fishing owl rarely submerge themselves or get particularly wet while hunting. More uncommonly, this species will forage by wading into shallow water along sandbanks.

text: Compared to other aquaculture technology, IFCAS showed several benefits to the adopting farmers. Like traditional aquaponics, fish and plants also rely on each other in aquageoponics. Here a mutual relationship exists between fish and plants. Unused fish feed and excrements result in nitrogenous wastes in the pond water and mud what are used as nutrients (nitrate) by the plants in IFCAS. Here some substrates such as, fallen leaves from horticulture plants, mud and materials in IFCAS (such as drums, iron plates etc.) harbor the nitrifying bacteria what convert toxic ammonia to less harmful nitrate. Plant roots hanging from IFCAS pits, absorb nutrients more effectively from water than plants do in traditional soil based agriculture as roots are longer and healthier in IFCAS. Like in aquaponics, plants grow faster in IFCAS also. Moreover, symbiotically plants facilitate by providing fish with ammonia free water in return. Harvesting fish and vegetables from IFCAS is very easy for both men and women. Apart from consumption of fish and vegetables at the household level, farmers earned money by selling fish from IFCAS. IFCAS is not only useful in the small shaded ponds but also in multi-ownership ponds, state-owned ponds, natural water bodies (beel), rivers, canals, and the waterlogged areas affected by climate change. Along with dissemination of this technology in Bangladesh, IFCAS has been trialed in ponds in Nepal which was found encouraging for nursing fish fingerlings and vegetables during dry season.

text: Compared to other

text: aquaculture

text: technology, IFCAS showed several benefits to the adopting farmers. Like traditional

text: aquaponics

text: fish

text: and

text: plants

text: also rely on each other in aquageoponics. Here a mutual relationship exists between fish and plants. Unused fish feed and excrements result in nitrogenous wastes in the

text: pond

text: water

text: and mud what are used as nutrients (nitrate) by the plants in IFCAS. Here some substrates such as, fallen leaves from

text: horticulture

text: plants

text: , mud and materials in IFCAS (such as drums, iron plates etc.) harbor the nitrifying

text: bacteria

text: what convert toxic

text: ammonia

text: to less harmful

text: nitrate

text: . Plant roots hanging from IFCAS pits, absorb

text: nutrients

text: more effectively from water than plants do in traditional

text: soil

text: based

text: agriculture

text: as roots are longer and healthier in IFCAS. Like in aquaponics, plants grow faster in IFCAS also. Moreover, symbiotically plants facilitate by providing fish with ammonia free

text: water

text: in return. Harvesting fish and vegetables from IFCAS is very easy for both men and women. Apart from consumption of fish and vegetables at the household level, farmers earned money by selling fish from IFCAS. IFCAS is not only useful in the small shaded ponds but also in multi-ownership ponds, state-owned ponds, natural water bodies (beel), rivers, canals, and the waterlogged areas affected by climate change. Along with dissemination of this technology in

text: Bangladesh

text: , IFCAS has been trialed in ponds in

text: Nepal

text: which was found encouraging for nursing

text: fish fingerlings

text: and

text: vegetables

text: during

text: dry season

text: The End of the Line: How Overfishing Is Changing the World and What We Eat is a book by journalist Charles Clover about overfishing. Clover, a former environment editor of the Daily Telegraph (London) and now a columnist on the Sunday Times (London), describes how modern fishing is destroying ocean ecosystems. He concludes that current worldwide fish consumption is unsustainable. The book provides details about overfishing in many of the world's critical ocean habitats, such as the New England fishing grounds, west African coastlines, the European North Atlantic fishing grounds, and the ocean around Japan. The book concludes with suggestions on how the nations of the world could engage in sustainable ocean fishing.

text: The End of the Line: How Overfishing Is Changing the World and What We Eat is a book by journalist

text: Charles Clover

text: about

text: overfishing

text: . Clover, a former environment editor of the

text: Daily Telegraph

text: (London) and now a columnist on the

text: Sunday Times

text: (London), describes how modern fishing is destroying ocean ecosystems. He concludes that current worldwide fish consumption is unsustainable. The book provides details about overfishing in many of the world's critical ocean habitats, such as the

text: New England

text: fishing grounds, west African coastlines, the European North Atlantic fishing grounds, and the ocean around Japan. The book concludes with suggestions on how the nations of the world could engage in sustainable ocean fishing.

text: Once fertilized, the gamete grows via mitosis and eventually becomes a larva capable of simple swimming called an echinoplutes. The metamorphosis from larva to a radially symmetrical adult is hugely complex, and only some of the more basic details are included here. The larva swims to the appropriate substratum where it attaches, usually with the “left and right” sides of the larva, becoming the “mouth and anus” sides. The embryonic openings for the mouth and the anus disappear completely, and new openings are created in the proper position. The ring canal grows radial extensions becoming the lateral canals. At this point in development, the sea urchin settles down to a benthic life.

text: Once fertilized, the gamete grows via

text: mitosis

text: and eventually becomes a larva capable of simple swimming called an echinoplutes. The

text: metamorphosis

text: from larva to a radially symmetrical adult is hugely complex, and only some of the more basic details are included here. The larva swims to the appropriate substratum where it attaches, usually with the “left and right” sides of the larva, becoming the “mouth and anus” sides. The embryonic openings for the mouth and the anus disappear completely, and new openings are created in the proper position. The ring canal grows radial extensions becoming the lateral canals. At this point in development, the sea urchin settles down to a benthic life.

text: The giant trevally's early larval stages and their behaviour have been extensively described, with all fins having formed by at least 8 mm in length, with larvae and subjuveniles being silver with six dark vertical bars. Laboratory populations of fish show a significant variability in the length at a certain age, with the average range being around 6.5 mm. Growth rates in larvae between 8.0 and 16.5 mm are on average 0.36 mm per day. The speed at which larvae swim increases with age from 12 cm/s at 8 mm in length to 40 cm/s at 16.5 mm, with size rather than age a better predictor of this parameter. Size is also a better predictor of endurance in larvae than age. These observations suggest the species becomes an effective swimmer (is able to swim against a current) around 7–14 mm. No obvious relationships with age and either swimming depth or trajectory have been found. Larvae appear to also opportunistically feed on small zooplankton while swimming. The larvae actively avoid other large fish, and jellyfish are occasionally used as temporary cover. Larvae have no association with reefs, and appear to prefer to live pelagically. Daily growth is estimated at between 3.82 and 20.87 g/day, with larger fish growing at a more rapid rate. Length at the age of one year is 18 cm, at two years is 35 cm and by three years, the fish is around 50 to 60 cm. The use of von Bertalanffy growth curves fitted to observed otolith data show an individual of around 1 m in length is about eight years old, while a 1.7 m fish would be around 24 years old. The maximum theoretical length of the species predicted by the growth curves is 1.84 m, but the largest reported individual was 1.7 m long. As previously mentioned, as the giant trevally grows, it shifts from turbid inshore waters or estuaries to reefs and lagoons in bays, moving finally to outer reefs and atolls. A hybrid of C. ignobilis and C. melampygus (bluefin trevally) has been recorded from Hawaii. The specimen was initially thought to be a bluefin trevally of world-record size, but was later rejected when it was discovered to be a hybrid. Initial evidence of hybridisation was morphological characteristics intermediate to the two species; later genetic tests confirmed it was indeed a hybrid. The two species are known to school together, including at spawning time, which was considered to be the reason for hybridisation.

text: The giant trevally's early

text: larval

text: stages and their behaviour have been extensively described, with all fins having formed by at least 8 mm in length, with larvae and subjuveniles being silver with six dark vertical bars. Laboratory populations of fish show a significant variability in the length at a certain age, with the average range being around 6.5 mm. Growth rates in larvae between 8.0 and 16.5 mm are on average 0.36 mm per day. The speed at which larvae swim increases with age from 12 cm/s at 8 mm in length to 40 cm/s at 16.5 mm, with size rather than age a better predictor of this parameter. Size is also a better predictor of endurance in larvae than age. These observations suggest the species becomes an effective swimmer (is able to swim against a current) around 7–14 mm. No obvious relationships with age and either swimming depth or trajectory have been found. Larvae appear to also opportunistically feed on small

text: zooplankton

text: while swimming. The larvae actively avoid other large fish, and

text: jellyfish

text: are occasionally used as temporary cover. Larvae have no association with reefs, and appear to prefer to live

text: pelagic

text: ally. Daily growth is estimated at between 3.82 and 20.87 g/day, with larger fish growing at a more rapid rate. Length at the age of one year is 18 cm, at two years is 35 cm and by three years, the fish is around 50 to 60 cm. The use of

text: von Bertalanffy

text: growth curves fitted to observed

text: otolith

text: data show an individual of around 1 m in length is about eight years old, while a 1.7 m fish would be around 24 years old. The maximum theoretical length of the species predicted by the growth curves is 1.84 m, but the largest reported individual was 1.7 m long. As previously mentioned, as the giant trevally grows, it shifts from turbid inshore waters or estuaries to reefs and lagoons in bays, moving finally to outer reefs and atolls. A

text: hybrid

text: of C. ignobilis and C. melampygus (

text: bluefin trevally

text: ) has been recorded from Hawaii. The specimen was initially thought to be a bluefin trevally of world-record size, but was later rejected when it was discovered to be a hybrid. Initial evidence of hybridisation was morphological characteristics intermediate to the two species; later genetic tests confirmed it was indeed a hybrid. The two species are known to school together, including at spawning time, which was considered to be the reason for hybridisation.

text: In addition to water breathing animals, e.g., fishes, mollusks etc., the term "aquatic animal" can be applied to air-breathing aquatic or sea mammals such as those in the orders Cetacea (whales) and Sirenia (sea cows), which cannot survive on land, as well as to the pinnipeds (true seals, eared seals, and the walrus). The term "aquatic mammal" is also applied to four-footed mammals like the river otter (Lontra canadensis) and beavers (family Castoridae), although these are technically amphibious.

text: In addition to water breathing animals, e.g., fishes, mollusks etc., the term "aquatic animal" can be applied to air-breathing

text: aquatic or sea mammals

text: such as those in the orders

text: Cetacea

text: whale

text: s) and

text: Sirenia

text: (sea cows), which cannot survive on land, as well as to the

text: pinnipeds

text: (true seals, eared seals, and the walrus). The term "aquatic mammal" is also applied to four-footed

text: mammal

text: s like the

text: river otter

text: (Lontra canadensis) and beavers (family

text: Castoridae

text: ), although these are technically amphibious.

text: Bass Fishing is an arcade fishing game where players attempt to hook and reel in fish with different lures. Consisting of four stages at different times of the day, the game requires the player to catch a certain weight of fish within a time limit in order to move onto the next stage. The final stage allows only for one fish to be captured, but are among the largest in the game and most difficult to catch. Fish are measured under four weight classes: Small One, Average, Big One, and Huge.

text: Poisonous fish are fish that are poisonous to eat. They contain toxins in their body that the digestive system does not destroy if the fish are eaten. Venomous fish also contain toxins, but differ from poisonous fish in the way they deliver the toxin. Venomous fish bite, sting, or stab and don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the digestive system often destroys their venom.

text: Poisonous fish are fish that are poisonous to eat. They contain

text: toxin

text: s in their body that the digestive system does not destroy if the fish are eaten.

text: Venomous fish

text: also contain toxins, but differ from poisonous fish in the way they deliver the toxin. Venomous fish bite, sting, or stab and don't necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, since the digestive system often destroys their venom.

text: Certain species of Pseudorhabdosynochus parasitize groupers which show spawning aggregations, i.e. the adult fish gather annually at a precise location and meet other fish of their own species only once per year. It has been suggested that transmission of Pseudorhabdosynochus species occurs preferentially during these spawning aggregations, from older infected fish to younger, uninfected, fish.

text: Certain species of Pseudorhabdosynochus parasitize groupers which show

text: spawning

text: aggregations, i.e. the adult fish gather annually at a precise location and meet other fish of their own species only once per year. It has been suggested that transmission of Pseudorhabdosynochus species occurs preferentially during these spawning aggregations, from older infected fish to younger, uninfected, fish.

text: Traditional classification divide fish into three extant classes, and with extinct forms sometimes classified within the tree, sometimes as their own classes:

text: Traditional classification divide fish into three

text: extant

text: classes

text: , and with extinct forms sometimes classified within the tree, sometimes as their own classes:

text: s can be added to dams to increase the connectivity of a river and allow fish to reach their spawning grounds. There’s debate about the effectiveness of fish ladders, but generally some fish will make it through as opposed to zero fish spawning in their traditional location.

text: Contaminants monitored in fish include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), poly-chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), certain chlorinated pesticides, mercury, and lead. PAHs are commonly produced by burning organic matter, and can be carcinogenic. PCBs are highly toxic to aquatic life, persisting for long periods of time in the environment and bioaccumulating in organisms. PCBs are the class of contaminant most often identified in high enough concentrations to cause harm to Puget Sound fish. Chlorinated pesticides like DDT are toxic to fish and persist for decades in the environment. Metals such as mercury can damage the central nervous system of fish.

text: Contaminants monitored in fish include

text: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

text: (PAHs), poly-chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), certain chlorinated pesticides, mercury, and lead. PAHs are commonly produced by burning organic matter, and can be carcinogenic. PCBs are highly toxic to aquatic life, persisting for long periods of time in the environment and bioaccumulating in organisms. PCBs are the class of contaminant most often identified in high enough concentrations to cause harm to Puget Sound fish. Chlorinated pesticides like

text: DDT

text: are toxic to fish and persist for decades in the environment. Metals such as mercury can damage the central nervous system of fish.

text: Balcombe's 2016 book, "What A Fish Knows," combines science and story-telling to examine the inner lives of the world's most diverse group of vertebrates.  "What A Fish Knows" has a release date of June 7, 2016, from Scientific American/Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

text: This species up to 19.5 centimeters in length. It exhibits neoteny rarely undergoing metamorphosis to the adult form, and it resembles the larvae of similar salamander species. It usually becomes sexually, but not physically, mature. It is gold and brown in color. The costal grooves are inconspicuous. It has a rounded snout and the laterally compressed, finlike tail of a typical larva. It retains its gills.

text: This species up to 19.5 centimeters in length. It exhibits

text: neoteny

text: rarely undergoing metamorphosis to the adult form, and it resembles the larvae of similar salamander species. It usually becomes sexually, but not physically, mature. It is gold and brown in color. The

text: costal groove

text: s are inconspicuous. It has a rounded snout and the laterally compressed, finlike tail of a typical larva. It retains its gills.

text: Fishing is the activity of catching fish. It is an ancient practice dating back at least 40,000 years. Since the 16th century fishing vessels have been able to cross oceans in pursuit of fish and since the 19th century it has been possible to use larger vessels and in some cases process the fish on board. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping.

text: Fishing is the activity of catching

text: fish

text: . It is an ancient practice dating back at least 40,000 years. Since the 16th century fishing vessels have been able to cross oceans in pursuit of fish and since the 19th century it has been possible to use larger vessels and in some cases process the fish on board. Fish are normally caught

text: in the wild

text: Techniques for catching fish

text: include

text: hand gathering

text: spearing

text: netting

text: angling

text: and

text: trapping

text: Centropyge colini, the Cocos-Keeling angelfish, or Colin's angelfish is a small marine angelfish measuring up to 9cm, it is predominantly yellow with the upper quarter of its body being bright blue in colour. It inhabits reefs up to a depth of 100m in the Indo-west Pacific ocean, including around the Cocos (Keeling) Islands for which it is named. It is a rare and elusive species which spends much of its time hiding amongst rocks and rubble on reef top-offs. The fish move in harems of between 3 and 7 individuals, with one male and several females. If the male disappears the dominant female will change sex.  Little is known about their ecology, and their natural diet is unknown. The fish is very rarely exported as part of the aquarium trade.

text: Centropyge colini, the Cocos-Keeling angelfish, or Colin's angelfish is a small

text: marine angelfish

text: measuring up to 9cm, it is predominantly yellow with the upper quarter of its body being bright blue in colour. It inhabits reefs up to a depth of 100m in the Indo-west

text: Pacific ocean

text: , including around the

text: Cocos (Keeling) Islands

text: for which it is named. It is a rare and elusive species which spends much of its time hiding amongst rocks and rubble on reef top-offs. The fish move in harems of between 3 and 7 individuals, with one male and several females. If the male disappears the dominant female will change sex.  Little is known about their ecology, and their natural diet is unknown. The fish is very rarely exported as part of the aquarium trade.

text: Some diseases result in mass die offs. One of the more bizarre and recently discovered diseases produces huge fish kills in shallow marine waters. It is caused by the ambush predator dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida. When large numbers of fish, like shoaling forage fish,  are in confined situations such as shallow bays, the excretions from the fish encourage this dinoflagellate, which is not normally toxic, to produce free-swimming zoospores. If the fish remain in the area, continuing to provide nourishment, then the zoospores start secreting a neurotoxin. This toxin results in the fish developing bleeding lesions, and their skin flakes off in the water. The dinoflagellates then eat the blood and flakes of tissue while the affected fish die. Fish kills by this dinoflagellate are common, and they may also have been responsible for kills in the past which were thought to have had other causes. Kills like these can be viewed as natural mechanisms for regulating the population of exceptionally abundant fish. The rate at which the kills occur increases as organically polluted land runoff increases.

text: Some diseases result in mass die offs. One of the more bizarre and recently discovered diseases produces huge fish kills in shallow marine waters. It is caused by the

text: ambush predator

text: dinoflagellate

text: Pfiesteria piscicida

text: . When large numbers of fish, like

text: shoaling

text: forage fish

text: ,  are in confined situations such as shallow bays, the excretions from the fish encourage this dinoflagellate, which is not normally toxic, to produce free-swimming

text: zoospores

text: . If the fish remain in the area, continuing to provide nourishment, then the zoospores start secreting a

text: neurotoxin

text: . This toxin results in the fish developing bleeding lesions, and their skin flakes off in the water. The dinoflagellates then eat the blood and flakes of tissue while the affected fish die. Fish kills by this dinoflagellate are common, and they may also have been responsible for kills in the past which were thought to have had other causes. Kills like these can be viewed as natural mechanisms for regulating the population of exceptionally abundant fish. The rate at which the kills occur increases as organically polluted

text: land runoff

text: increases.

text: Titanosaurus shares its name with a real dinosaur taxa, though they do not share much beyond nomenclature; Titanosaurus' design is more reminiscent of spinosaurs, such as Spinosaurus or Suchomimus, as it shares the same aquatic adaptations, crocodile-like snout and sports a sail-like fin emerging from the dorsal side of his back, like the humps or spines of spinosaur except for a fish-like tail. Originally, Titanosaurus was going to be two separate monsters that would eventually merge into the final design, but due to budgetary restraints only the final form of the Titanosaurus suit was made. The roars of Titanosaurus are a combination of modified elephant trumpets and horse snorts.

text: Titanosaurus shares its name with a

text: real dinosaur taxa

text: , though they do not share much beyond nomenclature; Titanosaurus' design is more reminiscent of spinosaurs, such as

text: Spinosaurus

text: or

text: Suchomimus

text: , as it shares the same aquatic adaptations, crocodile-like snout and sports a sail-like fin emerging from the dorsal side of his back, like the humps or spines of spinosaur except for a fish-like tail. Originally, Titanosaurus was going to be two separate monsters that would eventually merge into the final design, but due to budgetary restraints only the final form of the Titanosaurus suit was made. The roars of Titanosaurus are a combination of modified elephant trumpets and horse snorts.

text: The sexes are separate in the white rock shell. The eggs that develop in the female gonoduct are wrapped in a number of membranes to form an egg capsule. Several of these are joined together in an egg mass and attached to the substrate. Different precursors of the pigment Tyrian purple have been found in the male and female gonoducts and in the egg capsule. Early development of the larvae takes place inside the capsule which contains yolk granules on which they feed. When they have developed to the veliger stage, the larvae emerge from the capsule and become planktonic. After drifting with the currents for a while, these settle on the seabed, undergo metamorphosis and become juvenile snails.

text: The sexes are separate in the white rock shell. The eggs that develop in the female gonoduct are wrapped in a number of membranes to form an egg capsule. Several of these are joined together in an egg mass and attached to the substrate. Different precursors of the pigment

text: Tyrian purple

text: have been found in the male and female gonoducts and in the egg capsule. Early development of the larvae takes place inside the capsule which contains yolk granules on which they feed. When they have developed to the

text: veliger

text: stage, the larvae emerge from the capsule and become

text: plankton

text: ic. After drifting with the currents for a while, these settle on the seabed, undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: and become juvenile snails.

text: Fish fauna of the park comprises 43 species, of which 37 enter the park along with the water from Ajan Bund, and six species are breeding residents. During a good rainy season the park receives around 65 million fish fry and fingerlings. The fish population and diversity are of high ecological importance as they form the food source of many birds.

text: A dearth of literature exists on the ecology of these species explicitly, but based on similar darter ecology, as well as the slightly subterminal present mouth on the fish, they probably rest near the bottom on the creeks and rivers they inhabit. In the areas where they have been found, these darters are generally small in size and occupy the benthic zone of various freshwater habitats, including the riffles, pools, and runs of small to large streams. These fish most likely eat a diet similar to other darters, which is made up of insects and their larvae, copepods, and other small aquatic organisms.   Because these fish live and hunt on the beds of smaller streams and tributaries, destruction/ defilement of these habitats could reduce populations of these species.

text: Most of these fish spawn during their second summer, with only a few surviving to spawn the following season.  Egg diameter frequencies suggest that individuals spawn more than one clutch per season. Several variables play a role in when the spawing season occurs for N.boops. Temperature and rainfall are both the major contributing factors to their reproductive cycles. They spawn from June into August in Kansas and Missouri. Some males with breeding tubercles and females with mature eggs have been present from April into August. This occurrence is more popular in southern populations of Notropis boops. Increased sediment from agricultural runoff or the installation of dams has affected their ability to successfully reproduce.

text: College bass fishing is competitive bass fishing that is played by teams from universities and colleges. The NCAA is not involved in college bass fishing, allowing teams to use sponsorships to their advantage and keep their winnings. College bass fishing consists of mostly club teams, but there are a select few varsity bass fishing programs. There are an estimated 610 college bass fishing teams in the United States. The major college bass fishing tournament series are the FLW Outdoors College Series, Carhartt Bassmaster College Bass Fishing Series,[Cabela's]] Collegiate Bass Fishing Series, and The Fishlife Collegiate Tour

text: College bass fishing is competitive bass fishing that is played by teams from universities and colleges. The

text: NCAA

text: is not involved in college bass fishing, allowing teams to use sponsorships to their advantage and keep their winnings. College bass fishing consists of mostly club teams, but there are a select few varsity bass fishing programs. There are an estimated 610 college bass fishing teams in the United States. The major college bass fishing tournament series are the

text: FLW Outdoors

text: College Series,

text: Carhartt

text: Bassmaster College Bass Fishing Series,[Cabela's]] Collegiate Bass Fishing Series, and The Fishlife Collegiate Tour

text: Caiyuan is situated southeast of Magong, close to the inner bay northeast of the inland sea; the rich oceanic resources housed here enables a diversified ecology park, including wetland ecology and shallow coral grounds. Like all fishing ports, Caiyuan Fishing Port also has fresh fishes from the sea, and oyster and near-sea net cage activities can also be seen. There is a "Caiyuan Life Memorial Park" nearby.

text: Caiyuan is situated southeast of

text: Magong

text: , close to the inner bay northeast of the inland sea; the rich oceanic resources housed here enables a diversified ecology park, including wetland ecology and shallow coral grounds. Like all fishing ports, Caiyuan Fishing Port also has fresh fishes from the sea, and oyster and near-sea net cage activities can also be seen. There is a "Caiyuan Life Memorial Park" nearby.

text: The eggs and young are similar to those of frogs, but the offspring differ from both frogs and other lungfishes by the absence of external gills during early development. Within the egg, head structures and pigmentation start to appear by day 17. They hatch after three to four weeks and resemble tadpoles. The young fish are slow-growing, reportedly reaching  after 110 days, and about after 8 months. During the first week, it lies on its side, hiding in the weeds, and moving only when stimulated by touch. It will swim spontaneously, and often retreat back into the gelatinous envelope when disturbed. Newly hatched larvae develop a ciliary current over their skin and gill surfaces. This is believed to either provide respiratory exchange across the skin and gills without necessitating any movements of the jaw or brachial apparatus, or to keep the skin of the unprotected larvae free of debris, parasites, and predatory protozoans. Larvae are reported not to feed for two to three weeks while the yolk is still present. By the time the yolk is fully used, a spiral valve has developed in the intestine and the fish starts to feed. The young can grow about 2 inches per month under optimal conditions.

text: The eggs and young are similar to those of frogs, but the offspring differ from both frogs and other lungfishes by the absence of external gills during early development. Within the egg, head structures and pigmentation start to appear by day 17. They hatch after three to four weeks and resemble

text: tadpole

text: s. The young fish are slow-growing, reportedly reaching  after 110 days, and about after 8 months. During the first week, it lies on its side, hiding in the weeds, and moving only when stimulated by touch. It will swim spontaneously, and often retreat back into the gelatinous envelope when disturbed. Newly hatched larvae develop a

text: cilia

text: ry current over their skin and gill surfaces. This is believed to either provide respiratory exchange across the skin and gills without necessitating any movements of the jaw or brachial apparatus, or to keep the skin of the unprotected larvae free of debris, parasites, and predatory protozoans. Larvae are reported not to feed for two to three weeks while the yolk is still present. By the time the yolk is fully used, a spiral valve has developed in the intestine and the fish starts to feed. The young can grow about 2 inches per month under optimal conditions.

text: The spawning stock of North-East Arctic cod was more than a million tons following World War II, but declined to a historic minimum of 118,000 tons in 1987. The North-East Arctic cod catch reached a historic maximum of 1,343,000 tons in 1956, and bottomed out at 212,000 tons in 1990. Since 2000, the spawning stock has increased quite quickly, helped by low fishing pressure. However, there are worries about a decreased age at first spawning (often an early sign of stock collapse), combined with the level of discards and unreported catches. The total catch in 2003 was 521,949 tons, the major fishers being Norway (191,976 tons) and Russia (182,160 tons).

text: The spawning stock of North-East Arctic cod was more than a million tons following

text: World War II

text: , but declined to a historic minimum of 118,000 tons in 1987. The North-East Arctic cod catch reached a historic maximum of 1,343,000 tons in 1956, and bottomed out at 212,000 tons in 1990. Since 2000, the spawning stock has increased quite quickly, helped by low fishing pressure. However, there are worries about a decreased age at first spawning (often an early sign of stock collapse), combined with the level of discards and unreported catches. The total catch in 2003 was 521,949 tons, the major fishers being Norway (191,976 tons) and Russia (182,160 tons).

text: The smallmouth yellowfish is a hardy and adaptable species that is widespread across its natural distribution range.  It has the ability to inhabit smaller streams owing to its smaller size.  Attaining a mass of around 9 kg it is an opportunistic feeder, eating a variety of food types ranging from plant material to aquatic insects, crabs, shrimps and small fish.

text: Researchers at the Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology have found that genes concerned in the formation of the head in higher animals are also present in Nematostella vectensis. The larva swims with the end with its main sense organ in front, and at metamorphosis this end becomes the lower end of the column. The "head" gene is concerned in the development of this lower end rather than the oral crown and tentacles.

text: Researchers at the

text: Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology

text: have found that genes concerned in the formation of the head in higher animals are also present in Nematostella vectensis. The larva swims with the end with its main sense organ in front, and at metamorphosis this end becomes the lower end of the column. The "head" gene is concerned in the development of this lower end rather than the oral crown and tentacles.

text: Fish from multiple groups can live out of the water for extended periods. Amphibious fish such as the mudskipper can live and move about on land for up to several days, or live in stagnant or otherwise oxygen depleted water. Many such fish can breathe air via a variety of mechanisms. The skin of anguillid eels may absorb oxygen directly. The buccal cavity of the electric eel may breathe air. Catfish of the families Loricariidae, Callichthyidae, and Scoloplacidae absorb air through their digestive tracts. Lungfish, with the exception of the Australian lungfish, and bichirs have paired lungs similar to those of tetrapods and must surface to gulp fresh air through the mouth and pass spent air out through the gills. Gar and bowfin have a vascularized swim bladder that functions in the same way. Loaches, trahiras, and many catfish breathe by passing air through the gut. Mudskippers breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin (similar to frogs). A number of fish have evolved so-called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air. Labyrinth fish (such as gouramis and bettas) have a labyrinth organ above the gills that performs this function. A few other fish have structures resembling labyrinth organs in form and function, most notably snakeheads, pikeheads, and the Clariidae catfish family.

text: Fish from multiple groups can live out of the water for extended periods.

text: Amphibious fish

text: such as the

text: mudskipper

text: anguillid eels

text: may absorb oxygen directly. The

text: buccal cavity

text: of the

text: electric eel

text: Loricariidae

text: Callichthyidae

text: , and

text: Scoloplacidae

text: Lungfish

text: , with the exception of the

text: Australian lungfish

text: , and

text: bichir

text: s have paired lungs similar to those of

text: tetrapod

text: Gar

text: and

text: bowfin

text: Loaches

text: trahiras

text: , and many

text: catfish

text: gourami

text: s and

text: betta

text: s) have a

text: labyrinth organ

text: snakeheads

text: pikeheads

text: , and the

text: Clariidae

text: catfish family.

text: During World War II Oreochromis mossambicus was introduced to Singapore by the Japanese, who had brought the fish from the island of Java. Hence the fishes'  local names, Japanese fish and Java fish. Tilapia were once abundant in the fresh and brackish waters off the north coast of Singapore. Since the late 1980s however, populations of feral tilapia have declined. Recently introduced cichlid hybrids (red tilapia O. mossambicus x O. niloticus, possibly also O. honorum and O. aureus) have crossbred with populations of Oreochromis mossambicus, possibly contributing to the decline. Inter-species hybrids tend to produce fewer fry per brood than spawning by fishes of the same species. In addition,  hybrids classified as O. niloticus may have inherited a diminished tolerance for saline conditions, thus restricting the environments in which tilapia can be found.

text: During World War II

text: Oreochromis mossambicus

text: was introduced to Singapore by the Japanese, who had brought the fish from the island of Java. Hence the fishes'  local names, Japanese fish and Java fish. Tilapia were once abundant in the fresh and brackish waters off the north coast of Singapore. Since the late 1980s however, populations of feral tilapia have declined. Recently introduced cichlid hybrids (red tilapia O. mossambicus x O. niloticus, possibly also O. honorum and O. aureus) have crossbred with populations of Oreochromis mossambicus, possibly contributing to the decline. Inter-species hybrids tend to produce fewer fry per brood than spawning by fishes of the same species. In addition,  hybrids classified as O. niloticus may have inherited a diminished tolerance for saline conditions, thus restricting the environments in which tilapia can be found.

text: Fish and river ecological riches and itself a source of work for some families and in fishing or in the gardens of watermelon, with a resource that can get more out. The maguey that crowns the shield is a plant characteristic of the region.

text: A larva (plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many  animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle.

text: A larva (plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many

text: animal

text: s undergo before

text: metamorphosis

text: into

text: adult

text: s. Animals with indirect

text: development

text: such as

text: insect

text: s,

text: amphibians

text: , or

text: cnidarians

text: typically have a larval phase of their

text: life cycle

text: Palla fish Tenualosa ilisha of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fish in the river is moderately high, with Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri being the major fishing centres – all in the lower Sindh course. But damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity. Located southeast of Karachi, the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions. Here the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Here marine fishes are found in abundance, including pomfret and prawns.

text: Palla fish

text: Tenualosa ilisha

text: of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fish in the river is moderately high, with

text: Sukkur

text: Thatta

text: and

text: Kotri

text: being the major fishing centres – all in the lower Sindh course. But damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity. Located southeast of Karachi, the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions. Here the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Here marine fishes are found in abundance, including

text: pomfret

text: and

text: prawns

text: The islands are a breeding ground for huge flocks of seabirds and are home to a number of endemic birds, some of which are seabirds and others which live on the islands. The best known species are the magenta petrel (IUCN classification CR]) and the black robin (IUCN classification EN), both of which came perilously close to extinction before drawing the attention of conservation efforts. Other endemic species are the Chatham oystercatcher, the Chatham gerygone, Chatham pigeon, Forbes' parakeet, the Chatham snipe and the shore plover. The endemic Chatham shag (IUCN classification CR), Pitt shag (IUCN classification EN) and the Chatham albatross (IUCN classification VU) are at risk of capture by a variety of fishing gear, including fishing lines, trawls, gillnets, and pots.

text: The islands are a breeding ground for huge flocks of seabirds and are home to a number of endemic birds, some of which are seabirds and others which live on the islands. The best known species are the

text: magenta petrel

text: (IUCN classification CR]) and the

text: black robin

text: (IUCN classification EN), both of which came perilously close to

text: extinction

text: before drawing the attention of

text: conservation

text: efforts. Other endemic species are the

text: Chatham oystercatcher

text: , the

text: Chatham gerygone

text: Chatham pigeon

text: Forbes' parakeet

text: , the

text: Chatham snipe

text: and the

text: shore plover

text: . The endemic

text: Chatham shag

text: (IUCN classification CR),

text: Pitt shag

text: (IUCN classification EN) and the

text: Chatham albatross

text: (IUCN classification VU) are at risk of capture by a variety of fishing gear, including fishing lines,

text: trawl

text: s,

text: gillnets

text: , and pots.

text: Commercial fishing today uses a variety of techniques for fishing. Fishing rods with baited hooks and fishing lines used in various ways are used for fishing for some particular types of fish. Fishing using nets like cast nets, hand nets, drift nets, gillnets, seine nets, trawl nets, surrounding nets etc. of various sizes and construction as well as longline fishing with hundreds of hooks on a line fishing both for bottom and pelagic fish (near surface fish) are the most common devices used to catch high yields of fish. The crab fisheries uses crab pots baited with dead fish to catch crabs.

text: Commercial fishing today uses a variety of techniques for fishing.

text: Fishing rod

text: s with baited hooks and

text: fishing line

text: s used in various ways are used for fishing for some particular types of fish. Fishing using nets like

text: cast net

text: s,

text: hand net

text: s,

text: drift net

text: s,

text: gillnet

text: s,

text: seine net

text: s,

text: trawl net

text: s,

text: surrounding net

text: s etc. of various sizes and construction as well as

text: longline fishing

text: with hundreds of hooks on a line fishing both for bottom and

text: pelagic fish

text: (near surface fish) are the most common devices used to catch high yields of fish. The

text: crab fisheries

text: uses crab pots baited with dead fish to catch crabs.

text: Aristotle incorporated ichthyology into formal scientific study. Between 335 BC–322 BC, he provided the earliest taxonomic classification of fish, accurately describing 117 species of Mediterranean fish. Furthermore, Aristotle documented anatomical and behavioral differences between fish and marine mammals. After his death, some of his pupils continued his ichthyological research. Theophrastus, for example, composed a treatise on amphibious fish. The Romans, although less devoted to science, wrote extensively about fish. Pliny the Elder, a notable Roman naturalist, compiled the ichthyological works of indigenous Greeks, including verifiable and ambiguous peculiarities such as the sawfish and mermaid respectively. Pliny's documentation was the last significant contribution to ichthyology until the European Renaissance.

text: Aristotle

text: incorporated ichthyology into formal scientific study. Between 335 BC–322 BC, he provided the earliest

text: taxonomic

text: classification of fish, accurately describing 117 species of

text: Mediterranean

text: fish. Furthermore, Aristotle documented

text: anatomical

text: and behavioral differences between

text: fish

text: and

text: marine mammal

text: s. After his death, some of his pupils continued his ichthyological research.

text: Theophrastus

text: , for example, composed a

text: treatise

text: on amphibious fish. The Romans, although less devoted to science, wrote extensively about fish.

text: Pliny the Elder

text: , a notable Roman

text: naturalist

text: , compiled the ichthyological works of indigenous

text: Greek

text: s, including verifiable and ambiguous peculiarities such as the

text: sawfish

text: and

text: mermaid

text: respectively. Pliny's documentation was the last significant contribution to ichthyology until the

text: European Renaissance

text: Together with his colleague Dr. Heinrich Mendelssohn, then at the Biological-Pedagogical Institute and later Professor at the Department of Zoology at Tel Aviv University, he explored the fauna of Lake Hula and its surrounding swamps. In 1940, the two researchers discovered the rare Hula painted frog (Latonia nigriventer), the only living member of the genus Latonia, an amphibian endemic to the Hula marshes. Lake Hula and its marshland were drained in the 1950s. The frog, considered to be extinct for about half a century due to the destruction of its habitat, was rediscovered in 2011. It is considered a living fossil, and it is included in the list of endangered species. Steinitz also explored fish species living in the unique ecological niche of Ein Feshkha. This site — the deepest continental point on Earth — is a saline wetland in the desert, on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, nourished by a spring of brackish water. Fish in this special habitat evolved isolated from fish populating other habitats.

text: Together with his colleague Dr. Heinrich Mendelssohn, then at the Biological-Pedagogical Institute and later Professor at the Department of Zoology at Tel Aviv University, he explored the fauna of Lake Hula and its surrounding swamps. In 1940, the two researchers discovered the rare

text: Hula painted frog

text: (Latonia nigriventer), the only living member of the genus Latonia, an amphibian

text: endemic

text: to the Hula marshes. Lake Hula and its marshland were drained in the 1950s. The frog, considered to be extinct for about half a century due to the destruction of its habitat, was rediscovered in 2011. It is considered a

text: living fossil

text: , and it is included in the list of endangered species. Steinitz also explored fish species living in the unique

text: ecological niche

text: of

text: Ein Feshkha

text: . This site — the deepest continental point on Earth — is a saline wetland in the desert, on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, nourished by a spring of brackish water. Fish in this special habitat evolved isolated from fish populating other habitats.

text: A study on ecological impact on native fish, fish habitat and riverine fisheries carried out by the Department of Studies in Environmental Science, University of Mysore in the downstream reaches of the Bhadra River indicate adverse changes in the hydrological regime and water quality which have affected fish catches (and livelihood of people dependent on fisheries), particularly, large fishes are affected. Thus, from ecological considerations maintaining a minimum river flow by releasing minimum water from the reservoir to the downstream of the river became essential.

text: A study on ecological impact on native fish, fish habitat and riverine fisheries carried out by the Department of Studies in Environmental Science,

text: University of Mysore

text: in the downstream reaches of the Bhadra River indicate adverse changes in the hydrological regime and water quality which have affected fish catches (and livelihood of people dependent on fisheries), particularly, large fishes are affected. Thus, from ecological considerations maintaining a minimum river flow by releasing minimum water from the reservoir to the downstream of the river became essential.

text: A fish hook or fishhook is a device for catching fish either by impaling them in the mouth or, more rarely, by snagging the body of the fish. Fish hooks have been employed for centuries by fishermen to catch fresh and saltwater fish. In 2005, the fish hook was chosen by Forbes as one of the top twenty tools in the history of man. Fish hooks are normally attached to some form of line or lure device which connects the caught fish to the fisherman. There is an enormous variety of fish hooks in the world of fishing. Sizes, designs, shapes, and materials are all variable depending on the intended purpose of the fish hook. Fish hooks are manufactured for a range of purposes from general fishing to extremely limited and specialized applications. Fish hooks are designed to hold various types of artificial, processed, dead or live baits (bait fishing); to act as the foundation for artificial representations of fish prey (fly fishing); or to be attached to or integrated into other devices that represent fish prey (lure fishing).

text: A fish hook or fishhook is a device for catching

text: fish

text: either by impaling them in the mouth or, more rarely, by snagging the body of the fish. Fish hooks have been employed for centuries by

text: fishermen

text: to catch fresh and saltwater fish. In 2005, the fish hook was chosen by Forbes as one of the top twenty tools in the history of man. Fish hooks are normally attached to some form of

text: line

text: or

text: lure

text: device which connects the caught fish to the fisherman. There is an enormous variety of fish hooks in the world of

text: fishing

text: . Sizes, designs, shapes, and materials are all variable depending on the intended purpose of the fish hook. Fish hooks are manufactured for a range of purposes from general fishing to extremely limited and specialized applications. Fish hooks are designed to hold various types of artificial, processed, dead or live

text: baits

text: bait fishing

text: ); to act as the foundation for artificial representations of fish prey (

text: fly fishing

text: ); or to be attached to or integrated into other devices that represent fish prey (

text: lure fishing

text: Fish may move through sluices safely, but when these are closed, fish will seek out turbines and attempt to swim through them. Also, some fish will be unable to escape the water speed near a turbine and will be sucked through. Even with the most fish-friendly turbine design, fish mortality per pass is approximately 15% (from pressure drop, contact with blades, cavitation, etc.). Alternative passage technologies (fish ladders, fish lifts, fish escalators etc.) have so far failed to solve this problem for tidal barrages, either offering extremely expensive solutions, or ones which are used by a small fraction of fish only. Research in sonic guidance of fish is ongoing.The Open-Centre turbine reduces this problem allowing fish to pass through the open centre of the turbine.

text: Fish may move through sluices safely, but when these are closed, fish will seek out turbines and attempt to swim through them. Also, some fish will be unable to escape the water speed near a turbine and will be sucked through. Even with the most fish-friendly turbine design, fish mortality per pass is approximately 15% (from pressure drop, contact with blades,

text: cavitation

text: , etc.). Alternative passage technologies (

text: fish ladder

text: s, fish lifts, fish escalators etc.) have so far failed to solve this problem for tidal barrages, either offering extremely expensive solutions, or ones which are used by a small fraction of fish only. Research in sonic guidance of fish is ongoing.The Open-Centre turbine reduces this problem allowing fish to pass through the open centre of the turbine.

text: Dragonet spawning occurs during late afternoons, right before the sun sets. The fish’s spawning behavior is divided into four distinctive stages: courtship display, pairing, ascending, and the release of eggs and milt. Both male and female dragonets have been observed displaying and courting each other, although the practice is much more frequent in the males. Females only do so when they are ready to spawn and are in need of a mate. Both sexes display by spreading their pectoral and caudal fins, and moving around or by the side of the other sex. Males will sometimes also spread their dorsal fins, repeatedly open and close their mouths, and position themselves on top of the females and rub their abdomens with their bodies. If a female accepts a male for spawning, they form a pair. Occasionally, another male might intrude upon the pair as they are mating and attempt to sneak fertilizations with the female. Such an act would result in aggression by the original male.

text: Dragonet

text: spawning

text: occurs during late afternoons, right before the sun sets. The fish’s spawning behavior is divided into four distinctive stages:

text: courtship display

text: , pairing, ascending, and the release of eggs and

text: milt

text: . Both male and female dragonets have been observed displaying and courting each other, although the practice is much more frequent in the males. Females only do so when they are ready to spawn and are in need of a mate. Both sexes display by spreading their

text: pectoral

text: and

text: caudal

text: fins, and moving around or by the side of the other sex. Males will sometimes also spread their

text: dorsal

text: fins, repeatedly open and close their mouths, and position themselves on top of the females and rub their abdomens with their bodies. If a female accepts a male for spawning, they form a pair. Occasionally, another male might intrude upon the pair as they are mating and attempt to sneak fertilizations with the female. Such an act would result in aggression by the original male.

text: Ostracoderms (shell-skinned) are armoured jawless fishes of the Paleozoic. The term does not often appear in classifications today because it is paraphyletic or polyphyletic, and has no phylogenetic meaning. However, the term is still used informally to group together the armoured jawless fishes.

text: Ostracoderms

text: (shell-skinned) are

text: armoured

text: jawless fish

text: es of the

text: Paleozoic

text: . The term does not often appear in classifications today because it is

text: paraphyletic

text: or

text: polyphyletic

text: , and has no phylogenetic meaning. However, the term is still used informally to group together the armoured jawless fishes.

text: The process of pulling water into a facility from a natural body of water for use in industrial cooling can have a significant effect on living organisms in that body of water. Estimates for 2004 show that in just one day industry can pull as much as  of water into facilities for cooling purposes. The pressure and flow of this large volume of water can impinge large organisms like fish against intake points or entrain small organisms like plankton, eggs and larvae into the cooling system killing or injuring them. A single power plant can impinge a million adult fish in just three weeks. One plant can entrain some 3 - 4 billion smaller fish and shellfish in a year. This can have a destabilizing effect on local ecosystems. Nationwide, "the impingement and entrainment reduction benefits range from $73 million to $83 million per year. These benefits are primarily from improvements to commercial and recreational fishing."  There are likely other benefits externalized in this equation such as higher functioning ecosystems, intrinsic value of non-fisheries species to name two.  In light of these findings, when congress amended the Clean Water Act in 1972, it directed the EPA to regulate these systems so as to "minimize adverse environmental impact". Currently there are 1260 existing facilities in the US that draw at least  a day. It is estimated that 590 are manufacturing facilities and 670 are power plants.

text: The process of pulling water into a facility from a natural body of water for use in industrial cooling can have a significant effect on living organisms in that body of water. Estimates for 2004 show that in just one day industry can pull as much as  of water into facilities for cooling purposes. The pressure and flow of this large volume of water can impinge large organisms like fish against intake points or entrain small organisms like plankton, eggs and larvae into the cooling system killing or injuring them. A single power plant can impinge a million adult fish in just three weeks. One plant can entrain some 3 - 4 billion smaller fish and shellfish in a year. This can have a destabilizing effect on local ecosystems. Nationwide, "the impingement and entrainment reduction benefits range from $73 million to $83 million per year. These benefits are primarily from improvements to commercial and recreational fishing."  There are likely other benefits externalized in this equation such as higher functioning ecosystems, intrinsic value of non-fisheries species to name two.  In light of these findings, when congress amended the

text: Clean Water Act

text: in 1972, it directed the EPA to regulate these systems so as to "minimize adverse environmental impact". Currently there are 1260 existing facilities in the US that draw at least  a day. It is estimated that 590 are manufacturing facilities and 670 are power plants.

text: Spin fishing is an angling technique where a spinning lure is used to entice the fish to bite. Spin fishing is used in both freshwater and marine environments. Spin fishing is distinguished between fly fishing and bait cast fishing by the type of rod and reel used. There are two types of reels used when spin fishing, the open faced reel and the closed faced reel. The spin fishing rod has no trigger attached to the base of the fishing rod. This is what differentiates the spin fishing rod from the bait casting fishing rod.

text: Spin fishing is an

text: angling

text: technique where a

text: spinning lure

text: is used to entice the

text: fish

text: to bite. Spin fishing is used in both

text: freshwater

text: and

text: marine

text: environments. Spin fishing is distinguished between fly fishing and bait cast fishing by the type of rod and reel used. There are two types of reels used when spin fishing, the open faced reel and the closed faced reel. The spin fishing rod has no trigger attached to the base of the fishing rod. This is what differentiates the spin fishing rod from the bait casting fishing rod.

text: Reproduction usually takes place in the spring in small brooks and streams. The adults afterwards die. The larvae are called ammocoetes and at first develop among the sand and gravel on the bed of the stream. They feed on detritus, insect larvae and small crustaceans that they filter out of the sediment. They undergo metamorphosis when about four years old. As adults, they feed on living or dead fish, gripping them with their small rasping teeth and swallowing smaller food items whole.

text: Reproduction usually takes place in the spring in small brooks and streams. The adults afterwards die. The larvae are called

text: ammocoetes

text: and at first develop among the sand and gravel on the bed of the stream. They feed on

text: detritus

text: , insect larvae and small

text: crustacean

text: s that they filter out of the sediment. They undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: when about four years old. As adults, they feed on living or dead fish, gripping them with their small rasping teeth and swallowing smaller food items whole.

text: In the wild, the species has been found in the coastal drainages of the Bay of Guinea from Ghana to Gabon.  The fish has an electric organ that is able to emit a weak electric current for location and protection.  It is able to breathe air, which enables it to live in environments with low dissolved oxygen.   The species is commercially used as an aquarium species.   The reproductive habits of most of the species of Synodontis are not known, beyond some instances of obtaining egg counts from gravid females. Spawning likely occurs during the flooding season between July and October, and pairs swim in unison during spawning.   As a whole, species of Synodontis are omnivores, consuming insect larvae, algae, gastropods, bivalves, sponges, crustaceans, and the eggs of other fishes.  The growth rate is rapid in the first year, then slows down as the fish age.

text: The song "I Love Fish But Fish Hate Me" has special meaning for Morimoto as a former competition angler. Amongst the reasons given as what inspired the song was "Fish don't want to get the hook in their mouth. I love fish but... yeah... I think they totally hate me."

text: The rules establishing what is allowed and what is forbidden varies from one reserve to another and are set individually when creating each reserve. Among the rules of the Vindelfjällen reserve, it is forbidden to build infrastructure or exploit the forest. It is forbidden to visit the Marsivagge valley between May 15 and August 1 so as to not disturb the birds. It is also forbidden to drive a motor vehicle outside the areas designated for this purpose, with the exception of activities related to reindeer husbandry by Sami. In particular, snowmobiling is allowed on the snowmobile paths, as well as several areas around Ammarnäs and Hemavan, south of Lake Tärnasjön and Kirkjesålandet and Giertsbäcksdalen. Hunting small animals (small mammals or birds, especially ptarmigans) is allowed in the reserve. ve. Hunting is permitted only when the reindeer are not present, to avoid disturbing their breeding. Hunting season is regulated according to the population of the species, especially ptarmigan, which is continuously monitored: if the population drops to a certain level, hunting is temporarily prohibited. Hunting elk is only allowed in the mountains and only to residents of the mountain. Fishing is also permitted. Sport fishing is regulated by the granting of fishing licenses, the number is calculated based on the capacity of the river or lake. The mountain residents and the Sami have the right to fish with nets for personal consumption, but only in large productive lakes.

text: The rules establishing what is allowed and what is forbidden varies from one reserve to another and are set individually when creating each reserve. Among the rules of the Vindelfjällen reserve, it is forbidden to build infrastructure or exploit the forest. It is forbidden to visit the Marsivagge valley between May 15 and August 1 so as to not disturb the birds. It is also forbidden to drive a motor vehicle outside the areas designated for this purpose, with the exception of activities related to reindeer husbandry by Sami. In particular,

text: snowmobiling

text: is allowed on the snowmobile paths, as well as several areas around Ammarnäs and Hemavan, south of Lake Tärnasjön and Kirkjesålandet and Giertsbäcksdalen. Hunting small animals (small mammals or birds, especially ptarmigans) is allowed in the reserve. ve. Hunting is permitted only when the reindeer are not present, to avoid disturbing their breeding. Hunting season is regulated according to the population of the species, especially

text: ptarmigan

text: , which is continuously monitored: if the population drops to a certain level, hunting is temporarily prohibited. Hunting elk is only allowed in the mountains and only to residents of the mountain. Fishing is also permitted. Sport fishing is regulated by the granting of fishing licenses, the number is calculated based on the capacity of the river or lake. The mountain residents and the Sami have the right to fish with nets for personal consumption, but only in large productive lakes.

text: The adaptive immune system, which has been best-studied in mammals, originated in jawed fish approximately 500 million years ago.  Most of the molecules, cells, tissues, and associated mechanisms of this system of defense are found in cartilaginous fishes. Lymphocyte receptors, Ig and TCR, are found in all jawed vertebrates.  The most ancient Ig class, IgM, is membrane-bound and then secreted upon stimulation of cartilaginous fish B cells.  Another isotype, shark IgW, is related to mammalian IgD.  TCRs, both α/β and γ/δ, are found in all animals from gnathostomes to mammals.  The organization of gene segments that undergo gene rearrangement differs in cartilaginous fishes, which have a cluster form as compared to the translocon form in bony fish to mammals. Like TCR and Ig, the MHC is found only in jawed vertebrates.  Genes involved in antigen processing and presentation, as well as the class I  and class II genes, are closely linked within the MHC of almost all studied species.

text: The adaptive immune system, which has been best-studied in mammals, originated in jawed fish approximately 500 million years ago.  Most of the molecules, cells, tissues, and associated mechanisms of this system of defense are found in

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: Lymphocyte

text: receptors, Ig and TCR, are found in all jawed vertebrates.  The most ancient Ig class, IgM, is membrane-bound and then secreted upon stimulation of cartilaginous fish B cells.  Another isotype, shark IgW, is related to mammalian IgD.  TCRs, both α/β and γ/δ, are found in all animals from

text: gnathostomes

text: to mammals.  The organization of gene segments that undergo

text: gene rearrangement

text: differs in cartilaginous fishes, which have a cluster form as compared to the translocon form in bony fish to mammals. Like TCR and Ig, the MHC is found only in jawed vertebrates.  Genes involved in

text: antigen processing

text: and

text: presentation

text: , as well as the

text: class I

text: and

text: class II

text: genes, are closely linked within the MHC of almost all studied species.

text: Key adaptations are adaptations that allow a group of organisms to diversify. Daphnia lumholtzi is a water flea that is able to form rigid head spines in response to chemicals released when fish are present. These phenotypically plastic traits serve as an induced defense against these predators. A study showed that Daphnia pulicaria is competitively superior to D. lumholtzi in the absence of predators. However, in the presence of fish predation the invasive species formed its defenses and became the dominant water flea in the region. This switch in dominance suggests that the induced defense against fish predation could represent a key adaptation for the invasion success of D. lumholtzi. A defensive trait that qualifies as a key adaptation is most likely an example of escape and radiate coevolution.

text: It is unclear how much of a concurrent increase in fishing for great white sharks has caused the decline of great white shark populations from the 1970s to the present. No accurate global population numbers are available, but the great white shark is now considered vulnerable. Sharks taken during the long interval between birth and sexual maturity never reproduce, making population recovery and growth difficult.

text: When born, the larvae weigh about  and already have two pairs of legs and two sets of external gills. They use their finned tails for swimming and grow rapidly. They soon encounter others of their kind, and if food is scarce, may become cannibalistic. This may be an adaptive feature related to the decreasing quantity of water in their temporary pools and may be sparked by the presence of dead tadpoles or a change in the quality of the water. Under these circumstances, cannibalism may be an important behaviour that allows some of the tadpoles to survive. Tadpoles grow in size to about  before undergoing metamorphosis which takes place after two to four months.

text: When born, the larvae weigh about  and already have two pairs of legs and two sets of external

text: gill

text: s. They use their finned tails for swimming and grow rapidly. They soon encounter others of their kind, and if food is scarce, may become cannibalistic. This may be an adaptive feature related to the decreasing quantity of water in their temporary pools and may be sparked by the presence of dead tadpoles or a change in the quality of the water. Under these circumstances, cannibalism may be an important behaviour that allows some of the tadpoles to survive. Tadpoles grow in size to about  before undergoing

text: metamorphosis

text: which takes place after two to four months.

text: Males become mature after three to four years, females after five to eight years. Spawning occurs between May and late June on most rivers, when groups of males assemble in shallow water in pursuit of mates. Like many fish species, male barbel develop distinctive tubercles on their heads prior to spawning. Females produce between 8,000 and 12,000 eggs per kilogram of bodyweight, which are fertilised by males as they are released and deposited in shallow excavations in the gravel of the riverbed.

text: Males become mature after three to four years, females after five to eight years. Spawning occurs between May and late June on most rivers, when groups of males assemble in shallow water in pursuit of mates. Like many fish species, male barbel develop distinctive

text: tubercles

text: on their heads prior to spawning. Females produce between 8,000 and 12,000 eggs per kilogram of bodyweight, which are fertilised by males as they are released and deposited in shallow excavations in the gravel of the riverbed.

text: P. damicornis is a reef-building coral, grows fast, and is a strong competitor. The polyps extend their tentacles at night to feed on plankton. When colonies are broken apart, chunks can become lodged on the seabed and grow into new individuals, a form of asexual reproduction by fragmentation. This coral also reproduces by sexual means. It is a simultaneous hermaphrodite, and eggs and sperm are retained inside the coral and batches of planular larvae are released into the sea around the time of the new moon. These have a lipid-rich yolk and great dispersal abilities, as they remain viable for as much as 100 days. Although brooding of larvae occurs over most of its range, in Western Australia P. damicornis both broods planular larvae and releases gametes by broadcast spawning, while in the Eastern Pacific, only broadcast spawning takes place.

text: P. damicornis is a reef-building coral, grows fast, and is a strong competitor. The

text: polyp

text: s extend their tentacles at night to feed on

text: plankton

text: . When colonies are broken apart, chunks can become lodged on the seabed and grow into new individuals, a form of

text: asexual reproduction

text: by

text: fragmentation

text: . This coral also reproduces by sexual means. It is a simultaneous

text: hermaphrodite

text: , and eggs and sperm are retained inside the coral and batches of

text: planula

text: r

text: larva

text: e are released into the sea around the time of the new moon. These have a lipid-rich yolk and great dispersal abilities, as they remain viable for as much as 100 days. Although brooding of larvae occurs over most of its range, in Western Australia P. damicornis both broods planular larvae and releases gametes by broadcast

text: spawning

text: , while in the Eastern Pacific, only broadcast spawning takes place.

text: Three of Fish's direct descendants, all named Hamilton, served in the U.S. House of Representatives for the state of New York. Hamilton Fish II, Fish's son, served one term as U.S. Representative  from 1909 to 1911. Fish II also served as assistant to Secretary of State Hamilton Fish. Hamilton Fish III, Fish's grandson, served as U.S. Representative from 1920 to 1945. Hamilton Fish IV, Fish's great-grandson, served as U.S. Representative from 1969 to 1995. Another son Stuyvesant Fish was an important railroad executive. Another son, Nicholas Fish II, was a U.S. diplomat, who was appointed second secretary of legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in 1874, and was chargé d'affaires at Berne in 1877–1881, and minister to Belgium in 1882–1886, after which he engaged in banking in New York City. Hamilton Fish, Fish's grandson by Nicholas, was an 1895 graduate of Columbia College of Columbia University, saw service in the Spanish–American War as one of the storied Rough Riders. He was the first member of that regiment to be killed in action, at the Battle of Las Guasimas, Cuba.

text: Three of Fish's direct descendants, all named Hamilton, served in the U.S. House of Representatives for the state of New York.

text: Hamilton Fish II

text: , Fish's son, served one term as U.S. Representative  from 1909 to 1911. Fish II also served as assistant to Secretary of State Hamilton Fish.

text: Hamilton Fish III

text: , Fish's grandson, served as U.S. Representative from 1920 to 1945.

text: Hamilton Fish IV

text: , Fish's great-grandson, served as U.S. Representative from 1969 to 1995. Another son

text: Stuyvesant Fish

text: was an important railroad executive. Another son,

text: Nicholas Fish II

text: , was a U.S. diplomat, who was appointed second secretary of legation at Berlin in 1871, became secretary in 1874, and was chargé d'affaires at

text: Berne

text: in 1877–1881, and minister to

text: Belgium

text: in 1882–1886, after which he engaged in banking in New York City.

text: Hamilton Fish

text: , Fish's grandson by Nicholas, was an 1895 graduate of

text: Columbia College of Columbia University

text: , saw service in the

text: Spanish–American War

text: as one of the storied

text: Rough Riders

text: . He was the first member of that regiment to be killed in action, at the

text: Battle of Las Guasimas

text: , Cuba.

text: Many types of fish migrate on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annually or longer, and over distances ranging from a few metres to thousands of kilometres.  Fish usually migrate to feed or to reproduce, but in other cases the reasons are unclear.

text: Many types of fish migrate on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annually or longer, and over distances ranging from a few metres to thousands of kilometres.

text: Fish

text: usually

text: migrate

text: to feed or to reproduce, but in other cases the reasons are unclear.

text: Pocillopora verrucosa can reproduce by fragmentation, a form of asexual reproduction. It is also a simultaneous hermaphrodite but its reproductive method varies across its range. Each polyp usually contains twelve gonads, the six nearest the mouth being ovaries and the other six spermaries. In South Africa the gametes are released simultaneously from both of these and spawning takes place at new moon in January (mid-summer) with the gametes being liberated into the water column. However, at Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands, this species has been shown to fertilise the eggs internally and brood the developing planula larvae.

text: Pocillopora verrucosa can reproduce by

text: fragmentation

text: , a form of

text: asexual reproduction

text: . It is also a simultaneous

text: hermaphrodite

text: but its reproductive method varies across its range. Each polyp usually contains twelve

text: gonad

text: s, the six nearest the mouth being

text: ovaries

text: and the other six spermaries. In South Africa the

text: gamete

text: s are released simultaneously from both of these and spawning takes place at new moon in January (mid-summer) with the gametes being liberated into the

text: water column

text: . However, at

text: Enewetak Atoll

text: in the

text: Marshall Islands

text: , this species has been shown to fertilise the eggs internally and

text: brood

text: the developing

text: planula

text: larvae.

text: Even though Tissø is steadily polluted by excessive nutrients from the surrounding farmlands and inflows, the environmental standard of the lake is usually considered good, because of the high level of water exchange and the effective natural oxygenation of the surface waters. Therefore, the lake supports a rich fish and plant life, with around 20 species of fish living here. Most of the fish are spending their entire life in the lake, but a few like the ide and the brown trout are migrating from the sea through the stream of Nedre Halleby Å. Surprisingly the lake also houses European flounder. The flounder can live in the fresh waters of the lake, but they cannot spawn here. Tissø formerly supported professional fishing, but is now exclusively fished by anglers. Fishing is strongly regulated nowadays, requiring a fishing licence and restricted to the daylight hours more than 100 m from the shores. Two larger areas of the western part of the lake, is also to be protected from both fishing and sailing, and rules apply to what size and kind of fish can be caught. According to the angling association 'Lystfiskeriforeningen Anno 1886', the lake is dominated by European perch, but a good sized population of northern pike is here as well. Other common fish includes tench, various carps and European eel. There is a small and fragile population of zander.

text: Even though Tissø is steadily polluted by excessive nutrients from the surrounding farmlands and inflows, the environmental standard of the lake is usually considered good, because of the high level of water exchange and the effective

text: natural oxygenation

text: of the surface waters. Therefore, the lake supports a rich fish and plant life, with around 20 species of fish living here. Most of the fish are spending their entire life in the lake, but a few like the

text: ide

text: and the

text: brown trout

text: are migrating from the sea through the stream of Nedre Halleby Å. Surprisingly the lake also houses

text: European flounder

text: . The flounder can live in the fresh waters of the lake, but they cannot spawn here. Tissø formerly supported professional fishing, but is now exclusively fished by

text: anglers

text: . Fishing is strongly regulated nowadays, requiring a fishing licence and restricted to the daylight hours more than 100 m from the shores. Two larger areas of the western part of the lake, is also to be protected from both fishing and sailing, and rules apply to what size and kind of fish can be caught. According to the angling association 'Lystfiskeriforeningen Anno 1886', the lake is dominated by

text: European perch

text: , but a good sized population of

text: northern pike

text: is here as well. Other common fish includes

text: tench

text: , various

text: carp

text: s and

text: European eel

text: . There is a small and fragile population of

text: zander

text: Like other members of its family, this species is a paternal mouthbrooder, the male tending the eggs by storing them in his mouth. Within seconds of the female's spawning, the male scoops the egg mass into his mouth. The female departs and the male is solitary while brooding. He may incubate several broods during one breeding season, which is a few months long, depending on location. One mass contains about 10,000 eggs. One brood is incubated for 5 to 17 days. The length of time depends on water temperature.

text: Like other members of its family, this species is a

text: paternal mouthbrooder

text: , the male tending the eggs by storing them in his mouth. Within seconds of the female's spawning, the male scoops the egg mass into his mouth. The female departs and the male is solitary while brooding. He may incubate several broods during one breeding season, which is a few months long, depending on location. One mass contains about 10,000 eggs. One brood is incubated for 5 to 17 days. The length of time depends on water temperature.

text: The physostome fish encompass the bichirs, gars, a number of carps, trouts, herrings, catfish, eels and the lungfish. While the gas bladder in fish mainly serves as a buoyancy organ, some physostomes (though not all) can use their gas bladder as a lung, allowing them to live from atmospheric oxygen in conditions where aquatic oxygen levels have dropped to a point which would kill other fish.

text: The physostome fish encompass the

text: bichir

text: s,

text: gar

text: s, a number of

text: carp

text: s,

text: trout

text: s,

text: herring

text: s,

text: catfish

text: eel

text: s and the

text: lungfish

text: . While the gas bladder in fish mainly serves as a

text: buoyancy

text: organ, some physostomes (though not all) can use their gas bladder as a

text: lung

text: , allowing them to live from atmospheric oxygen in conditions where aquatic oxygen levels have dropped to a point which would kill other fish.

text: The tawny fish owl (Bubo flavipes) is a species of owl. It used to be placed in Ketupa with the other fish owls, but that group is tentatively included with the eagle-owls in Bubo, until the affiliations of the fish owls and fishing owls can be resolved more precisely. It is clear from several shared characteristics that the more typical Bubo and fish owls are indeed related, including the structure of the talons, prominent ear tufts and plumage characteristics, unlike the superficially dissimilar fishing owls of Africa.

text: The tawny fish owl (Bubo flavipes) is a species of

text: owl

text: . It used to be placed in Ketupa with the other fish owls, but that group is tentatively included with the

text: eagle-owl

text: s in Bubo, until the affiliations of the fish owls and fishing owls can be resolved more precisely. It is clear from several shared characteristics that the more typical Bubo and fish owls are indeed related, including the structure of the talons, prominent ear tufts and plumage characteristics, unlike the superficially dissimilar

text: fishing owl

text: s of

text: Africa

text: Contrary to many frogs, which lay their eggs in water, coquís lay their eggs on palm tree leaves or other terrestrial plants. Abandoned bird nests are also used as nests by E. coqui. The bananaquit, Puerto Rican bullfinch and Puerto Rican tody share nests with the coquí. This method of reproduction allows the coquí to live in forests, mountains and other habitats without direct dependency on water. Since eggs are laid on land, coquís bypass the tadpole stage, proceeding to develop limbs within their eggs, rather than going through a metamorphosis as a larva in water. Thus, a fully independent froglet emerges from the egg, with a small tail that is lost shortly after.  This stage of direct development has allowed the coqui to become a successful terrestrial colonizer in tropical areas.

text: Contrary to many frogs, which lay their eggs in water, coquís lay their eggs on palm tree leaves or other terrestrial plants. Abandoned bird nests are also used as nests by E. coqui. The

text: bananaquit

text: Puerto Rican bullfinch

text: and

text: Puerto Rican tody

text: share nests with the coquí. This method of reproduction allows the coquí to live in forests, mountains and other

text: habitat

text: s without direct dependency on water. Since eggs are laid on land, coquís bypass the

text: tadpole

text: stage, proceeding to develop limbs within their eggs, rather than going through a

text: metamorphosis

text: as a larva in water. Thus, a fully independent froglet emerges from the egg, with a small tail that is lost shortly after.  This stage of direct development has allowed the coqui to become a successful terrestrial colonizer in tropical areas.

text: There are no obvious distinguishing characteristics used to determine the sex of the fish. They reproduce by egg scattering of several thousand eggs per spawning. They are not often bred in captivity for the aquarium trade due to their large size.

text: There are no obvious distinguishing characteristics used to determine the sex of the fish. They reproduce by egg scattering of several thousand eggs per

text: spawning

text: . They are not often bred in captivity for the aquarium trade due to their large size.

text: Traditionally rods are made from bamboo, while contemporary rods are usually made from fibreglass or carbon fibre. In contrast with nets, which are usually used in subsistence and commercial fishing, fishing rods are more often used in recreational fishing and competitive casting. Fishing rods come in many sizes, actions, lengths and configurations depending on whether they are to be used for small, medium or large fish or in different fresh or salt water situations. Various types of fishing rods are designed for specific types of fishing. Fly rods are used to cast artificial flies, spinning rods and bait casting rods are designed to cast baits or lures. Ice fishing rods are designed to fish through small holes in ice covered lakes. Trolling rods are designed to drag bait or lures behind moving boats.

text: Traditionally rods are made from

text: bamboo

text: , while contemporary rods are usually made from

text: fibreglass

text: or

text: carbon fibre

text: . In contrast with

text: nets

text: , which are usually used in

text: subsistence

text: and

text: commercial fishing

text: , fishing rods are more often used in

text: recreational fishing

text: and competitive

text: casting

text: . Fishing rods come in many sizes, actions, lengths and configurations depending on whether they are to be used for small, medium or large fish or in different fresh or salt water situations. Various types of fishing rods are designed for specific types of fishing.

text: Fly rods

text: are used to cast

text: artificial flies

text: spinning rods

text: and bait casting rods are designed to cast baits or lures.

text: Ice fishing rods

text: are designed to fish through small holes in ice covered lakes.

text: Trolling

text: rods are designed to drag bait or lures behind moving boats.

text: Since Jiajing was a devout Taoist, motifs popular in that tradition became widespread during his reign. While fish came with many associations, including pleasure, abundance, success, and royalty, one of the best-known associations comes from the fourth-century BC Taoist philosophers Zhuangzi and Huizi. Zhuangzi said, “See how the fish swim as they please. That’s what fish really enjoy.” When Huizi asked, “How do you know what fish enjoy?” Zhuangzi replied, “You’re not I, so how do you know I don’t know what fish enjoy?”

text: Since Jiajing was a devout

text: Taoist

text: , motifs popular in that tradition became widespread during his reign. While fish came with many associations, including pleasure, abundance, success, and royalty, one of the best-known associations comes from the fourth-century BC Taoist philosophers

text: Zhuangzi

text: and

text: Huizi

text: . Zhuangzi said, “See how the fish swim as they please. That’s what fish really enjoy.” When Huizi asked, “How do you know what fish enjoy?” Zhuangzi replied, “You’re not I, so how do you know I don’t know what fish enjoy?”

text: The Nile perch fishery has proved controversial, not least between conservationists keen to see the preservation of the lake's unique ecology; and others who recognise the fish's importance to regional economies and poverty alleviation. In the 1990s, one group of thinkers argued that the export of this fish represented a net loss of fish proteins to riparian fishing communities, hence explaining high incidences of malnutrition amongst them. 'Empirical evidence ... vividly show that the growing export of the Nile perch and the commercialisation of the dagaa are undermining the survival of households'. Malnutrition amongst these communities are indeed high; one study estimates that 40.2% of children in fishing communities are stunted. Rates of childhood malnutrition are, however, lower around the lake than they were in the agricultural hinterland. At fish landing sites, 5.7% of mothers were found to be chronically malnourished.

text: The Nile perch fishery has proved controversial, not least between conservationists keen to see the preservation of the lake's unique ecology; and others who recognise the fish's importance to regional economies and poverty alleviation. In the 1990s, one group of thinkers argued that the export of this fish represented a net loss of fish proteins to riparian fishing communities, hence explaining high incidences of

text: malnutrition

text: amongst them. 'Empirical evidence ... vividly show that the growing export of the Nile perch and the commercialisation of the dagaa are undermining the survival of households'. Malnutrition amongst these communities are indeed high; one study estimates that 40.2% of children in fishing communities are stunted. Rates of childhood malnutrition are, however, lower around the lake than they were in the agricultural hinterland. At fish landing sites, 5.7% of mothers were found to be chronically malnourished.

text: Fish reproductive organs include testes and ovaries. In most species, gonads are paired organs of similar size, which can be partially or totally fused. There may also be a range of secondary organs that increase reproductive fitness. The genital papilla is a small, fleshy tube behind the anus in some fishes, from which the sperm or eggs are released; the sex of a fish often can be determined by the shape of its papilla.

text: Fish reproductive organs include

text: testes

text: and

text: ovaries

text: . In most species, gonads are paired organs of similar size, which can be partially or totally fused. There may also be a range of secondary organs that increase reproductive fitness. The

text: genital papilla

text: is a small, fleshy tube behind the anus in some fishes, from which the sperm or eggs are released; the sex of a fish often can be determined by the shape of its papilla.

text: Spinosaurids appear to have been widespread from the Barremian to the Cenomanian ages of the Cretaceous, about 130 to 95 million years ago. They shared features such as long, narrow, crocodile-like skulls; sub-circular teeth, with fine to no serrations; the snout rosette, and a secondary palate which made them more resistant to torsion. In contrast, the primitive and typical condition for theropods was a tall, narrow snout with blade-like teeth serrated front and back. The skull adaptations of spinosaurids converged with those of crocodilians; early members of the latter group had skulls similar to typical theropods, later developing elongated snouts, conical teeth, and secondary palates. These adaptations may have been the result of a dietary change from terrestrial prey to fish. Unlike crocodiles, the post-cranial skeletons of most spinosaurids (except Spinosaurus) do not appear to have aquatic adaptations. Sereno and colleagues proposed that the large thumb-claw and robust forelimbs of spinosaurids evolved in the Middle Jurassic, before the elongation of the skull and other adaptations related to fish-eating, since the former features are shared with their megalosaurid relatives. They also suggested that the spinosaurines and baryonychines diverged before the Barremian age of the Early Cretaceous.

text: Spinosaurids appear to have been widespread from the

text: Barremian

text: to the

text: Cenomanian

text: ages of the Cretaceous, about 130 to 95 million years ago. They shared features such as long, narrow, crocodile-like skulls; sub-circular teeth, with fine to no serrations; the snout rosette, and a secondary palate which made them more resistant to torsion. In contrast, the primitive and typical condition for theropods was a tall, narrow snout with blade-like teeth serrated front and back. The skull adaptations of spinosaurids

text: converged

text: with those of

text: crocodilian

text: s; early members of the latter group had skulls similar to typical theropods, later developing elongated snouts, conical teeth, and secondary palates. These adaptations may have been the result of a dietary change from terrestrial prey to fish. Unlike crocodiles, the post-cranial skeletons of most spinosaurids (except Spinosaurus) do not appear to have aquatic adaptations. Sereno and colleagues proposed that the large thumb-claw and robust forelimbs of spinosaurids evolved in the

text: Middle Jurassic

text: , before the elongation of the skull and other adaptations related to fish-eating, since the former features are shared with their

text: megalosaurid

text: relatives. They also suggested that the spinosaurines and baryonychines diverged before the Barremian age of the Early Cretaceous.

text: Error messages in fish are designed to actually tell the user what went wrong and what can be done about it.

text: In response to concerns about the dam's likely impact on fisheries on the Mun River, a fish ladder was incorporated into the scheme to allow fish into the Mun River to spawn.   However, the ladder appears to have been unsuccessful. A report from the World Commission on Dams found that of 265 fish species previously found in the Mun River, at least 50 had disappeared and numbers of others had declined significantly. The fish catch decreased by 60–80 percent.  It is uncertain what proportion of this decrease is attributable to the dam, and what proportion to other factors.

text: In response to concerns about the dam's likely impact on fisheries on the Mun River, a

text: fish ladder

text: was incorporated into the scheme to allow

text: fish

text: into the Mun River to spawn.   However, the ladder appears to have been unsuccessful. A report from the

text: World Commission on Dams

text: found that of 265 fish species previously found in the Mun River, at least 50 had disappeared and numbers of others had declined significantly. The fish catch decreased by 60–80 percent.  It is uncertain what proportion of this decrease is attributable to the dam, and what proportion to other factors.

text: Sabiki -Salmon -Salt Water Sportsman -San Juan River (Colorado River) -Sand whiting -Sandsinker -Sardine -Sardine run -Sardinella tawilis -Saya de Malha Bank -Scallop -Scallop dredge -Scottish east coast fishery -Scottish Fisheries Museum -Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency -Scrod -Scylla paramamosain -Scylla serrata -Sea Around Us Project -Sea cucumber -Sea Fish Industry Authority -Sea louse -Sea Shepherd Conservation Society -Sea urchin -Seabed -Seafood -Seamount -Seine fishing -Shad -Shanghai Fisheries University -Shark Alliance -Shark fin soup -Shark liver oil -Sheridan Anderson -Sheringham -Shetland bus -Shifting baseline -Shoal bass -Shortfloating -Shrimp -Shrimp farm -Shrimp marketing -Shrimp paste -Silver carp -Sites of International Whaling Commission annual meetings -Sixareen -Skeet Reese -Skipjack tuna -Slender rainbow sardine -Slurry ice -Smack (ship) -Smallmouth bass -Smelts -Snakeskin gourami -Snapper -Sockeye salmon -Soft plastic -Soft-shell clam -Soft-shell crab -Sole (fish) -Solway Harvester -Sørvágur -Soudan Banks -South East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation -Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center -Southern rock lobster -Spearfishing -Speargun -Spin fishing -Spinnerbait -Spiny lobster -Spoon lure -Spoonplug -Sport Fishing and Boating Partnership Council -Sports Afield -Spotted bass -Spotted seatrout -Squat lobster -Squid -Squilla mantis -ST Leukos -St. Abbs -St. Abbs and Eyemouth Voluntary Marine Reserve -Stanley (boat) -Stephen Bowen (biologist) -Steven C. Hackett -Steveston, British Columbia -Stockfish -Stotfield fishing disaster -Streaked Spanish mackerel -Striped bass -Striped bass fishing -Sturgeon -Surf fishing -Surface lure -Surrounding net -Sustainable yield in fisheries -Swarm -Sydney rock oyster

text: Sabiki

text: Salmon

text: Salt Water Sportsman

text: San Juan River (Colorado River)

text: Sand whiting

text: Sandsinker

text: Sardine

text: Sardine run

text: Sardinella tawilis

text: Saya de Malha Bank

text: Scallop

text: Scallop dredge

text: Scottish east coast fishery

text: Scottish Fisheries Museum

text: Scottish Fisheries Protection Agency

text: Scrod

text: Scylla paramamosain

text: Scylla serrata

text: Sea Around Us Project

text: Sea cucumber

text: Sea Fish Industry Authority

text: Sea louse

text: Sea Shepherd Conservation Society

text: Sea urchin

text: Seabed

text: Seafood

text: Seamount

text: Seine fishing

text: Shad

text: Shanghai Fisheries University

text: Shark Alliance

text: Shark fin soup

text: Shark liver oil

text: Sheridan Anderson

text: Sheringham

text: Shetland bus

text: Shifting baseline

text: Shoal bass

text: Shortfloating

text: Shrimp

text: Shrimp farm

text: Shrimp marketing

text: Shrimp paste

text: Silver carp

text: Sites of International Whaling Commission annual meetings

text: Sixareen

text: Skeet Reese

text: Skipjack tuna

text: Slender rainbow sardine

text: Slurry ice

text: Smack (ship)

text: Smallmouth bass

text: Smelts

text: Snakeskin gourami

text: Snapper

text: Sockeye salmon

text: Soft plastic

text: Soft-shell clam

text: Soft-shell crab

text: Sole (fish)

text: Solway Harvester

text: Sørvágur

text: Soudan Banks

entity_name: South East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation

text: South East Atlantic Fisheries Organisation

entity_name: Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

text: Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center

text: Southern rock lobster

text: Spearfishing

text: Speargun

text: Spin fishing

text: Spinnerbait

text: Spiny lobster

text: Spoon lure

text: Spoonplug

entity_name: Sport Fishing and Boating Partnership Council

text: Sport Fishing and Boating Partnership Council

text: Sports Afield

text: Spotted bass

text: Spotted seatrout

text: Squat lobster

text: Squid

text: Squilla mantis

text: ST Leukos

text: St. Abbs

entity_name: St. Abbs and Eyemouth Voluntary Marine Reserve

text: St. Abbs and Eyemouth Voluntary Marine Reserve

text: Stanley (boat)

text: Stephen Bowen (biologist)

text: Steven C. Hackett

text: Steveston, British Columbia

text: Stockfish

text: Stotfield fishing disaster

text: Streaked Spanish mackerel

text: Striped bass

text: Striped bass fishing

text: Sturgeon

text: Surf fishing

text: Surface lure

text: Surrounding net

text: Sustainable yield in fisheries

text: Swarm

text: Sydney rock oyster

text: Alburnoides bipunctatus, known vernacularly as the schneider, spirlin, bleak, riffle minnow, and others, is a species of small (9-cm average length) freshwater fish in the Cyprinidae family. It is found in Afghanistan, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Croatia, Estonia, France, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Iran, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Moldova, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. This fish inhabits rivers with very calm waters, and it eats dead insects and insect larvae, diatoms, and crustaceans. It reproduces during April to June.

text: Alburnoides bipunctatus, known vernacularly as the schneider, spirlin, bleak, riffle minnow, and others, is a species of small (9-cm average length) freshwater fish in the

text: Cyprinidae

text: family. It is found in

text: Afghanistan

text: Armenia

text: Austria

text: Azerbaijan

text: Belarus

text: Belgium

text: Bulgaria

text: Czech Republic

text: Croatia

text: Estonia

text: France

text: Georgia

text: Germany

text: Hungary

text: Iran

text: Latvia

text: Lithuania

text: Macedonia

text: Moldova

text: , the

text: Netherlands

text: Poland

text: Romania

text: Russia

text: Serbia

text: Slovakia

text: Switzerland

text: Turkey

text: Ukraine

text: , and

text: Uzbekistan

text: . This fish inhabits rivers with very calm waters, and it eats dead insects and insect larvae, diatoms, and crustaceans. It reproduces during April to June.

text: Transmission of C fasciculata primarily occurs when amastigotes, washed into standing water, are ingested by mosquito larvae. The amastigotes are typically found in the rectum of a larva. Each molt of the larva results in loss of infection, but it is generally quickly re-acquired from the environment by ingestion of more amastigotes. When the fourth instar larva pupates the amastigote infection is maintained in the gut through metamorphosis giving rise to an infected adult mosquito.

text: Transmission of C fasciculata primarily occurs when amastigotes, washed into standing water, are ingested by mosquito

text: larvae

text: . The amastigotes are typically found in the rectum of a larva. Each molt of the larva results in loss of infection, but it is generally quickly re-acquired from the environment by ingestion of more amastigotes. When the fourth instar larva

text: pupa

text: tes the amastigote infection is maintained in the gut through

text: metamorphosis

text: giving rise to an infected adult mosquito.

text: Diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is approximately 10,000 times slower in water than in air. When soils are flooded, they quickly lose oxygen, becoming hypoxic (an environment with O concentration below 2 mg/liter) and eventually completely anoxic where anaerobic bacteria thrive among the roots. Water also influences the intensity and spectral composition of light as it reflects off the water surface and submerged particles. Aquatic plants exhibit a wide variety of morphological and physiological adaptations that allow them to survive, compete, and diversify in these environments. For example, their roots and stems contain large air spaces (aerenchyma) that regulate the efficient transportation of gases (for example, CO and O) used in respiration and photosynthesis. Salt water plants (halophytes) have additional specialized adaptations, such as the development of special organs for shedding salt and osmoregulating their internal salt (NaCl) concentrations, to live in estuarine, brackish, or oceanic environments. Anaerobic soil microorganisms in aquatic environments use nitrate, manganese ions, ferric ions, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and some organic compounds; other microorganisms are facultative anaerobes and use oxygen during respiration when the soil becomes drier. The activity of soil microorganisms and the chemistry of the water reduces the oxidation-reduction potentials of the water. Carbon dioxide, for example, is reduced to methane (CH) by methanogenic bacteria. The physiology of fish is also specially adapted to compensate for environmental salt levels through osmoregulation. Their gills form electrochemical gradients that mediate salt excretion in salt water and uptake in fresh water.

text: Diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is approximately 10,000 times slower in water than in air. When soils are flooded, they quickly lose oxygen, becoming

text: hypoxic

text: (an environment with O concentration below 2 mg/liter) and eventually completely

text: anoxic

text: where

text: anaerobic bacteria

text: thrive among the roots. Water also influences the intensity and

text: spectral composition

text: of light as it reflects off the water surface and submerged particles. Aquatic plants exhibit a wide variety of morphological and physiological adaptations that allow them to survive, compete, and diversify in these environments. For example, their roots and stems contain large air spaces (

text: aerenchyma

text: ) that regulate the efficient transportation of gases (for example, CO and O) used in respiration and photosynthesis. Salt water plants (

text: halophytes

text: ) have additional specialized adaptations, such as the development of special organs for shedding salt and

text: osmoregulating

text: their internal salt (NaCl) concentrations, to live in

text: estuarine

text: brackish

text: , or

text: ocean

text: ic environments. Anaerobic soil microorganisms in aquatic environments use

text: nitrate

text: manganese ions

text: ferric ions

text: sulfate

text: carbon dioxide

text: , and some

text: organic compounds

text: ; other microorganisms are

text: facultative anaerobes

text: and use oxygen during respiration when the soil becomes drier. The activity of soil microorganisms and the chemistry of the water reduces the

text: oxidation-reduction

text: potentials of the water. Carbon dioxide, for example, is reduced to methane (CH) by methanogenic bacteria. The physiology of fish is also specially adapted to compensate for environmental salt levels through osmoregulation. Their gills form

text: electrochemical gradient

text: s that mediate salt excretion in salt water and uptake in fresh water.

text: The fish usually reaches sexual maturity at the end of its second year, with some larger fish maturing after only one year. The fish spawn in estuaries. The population of the Swan River in Western Australia spawns in the upper reaches of the estuary between November and January, producing an average of 310,000 eggs in a season. The spawning period is associated with a lull in the freshwater influx of the river, resulting in fairly stable salinity and temperature regimes.

text: The fish usually reaches

text: sexual maturity

text: at the end of its second year, with some larger fish maturing after only one year. The fish

text: spawn

text: in estuaries. The

text: population

text: of the

text: Swan River

text: in Western Australia spawns in the upper reaches of the estuary between November and January, producing an average of 310,000

text: egg

text: s in a season. The spawning period is associated with a lull in the

text: freshwater

text: influx of the river, resulting in fairly stable

text: salinity

text: and

text: temperature

text: regimes.

text: Many fish species congregate to facilitate spawning. Such congregations are spatially and temporally predictable and increase the species' vulnerability to overfishing. Species such as groupers and rabbitfishes travel long distances to congregate for days or weeks. Such gatherings are their only opportunities to reproduce and are crucial to population maintenance. Species such as snappers and parrotfishes congregate in feeding or resting areas. Juveniles may congregate in nursery areas without adults. Such special areas may require only seasonal protections if at other times no vital activities are taking place. Such reserves must be spaced to allow focal species to journey among them. If the location of such special areas is unknown, or is too large to include in a reserve, management approaches such as seasonal capture and sales restrictions may provide some protection. Sea turtle nesting areas, dugong feeding areas, cetacean migratory corridors and calving grounds are examples of other special areas that can be protected seasonally. Other types of special areas include isolated habitats that have unique assemblages and populations, habitats that are important for endemic species and highly diverse areas.

text: Many fish species congregate to facilitate spawning. Such congregations are spatially and temporally predictable and increase the species' vulnerability to overfishing. Species such as groupers and rabbitfishes travel long distances to congregate for days or weeks. Such gatherings are their only opportunities to reproduce and are crucial to population maintenance. Species such as snappers and parrotfishes congregate in feeding or resting areas. Juveniles may congregate in nursery areas without adults. Such special areas may require only seasonal protections if at other times no vital activities are taking place. Such reserves must be spaced to allow focal species to journey among them. If the location of such special areas is unknown, or is too large to include in a reserve, management approaches such as seasonal capture and sales restrictions may provide some protection.

text: Sea turtle

text: nesting areas,

text: dugong

text: feeding areas,

text: cetacean

text: migratory corridors and calving grounds are examples of other special areas that can be protected seasonally. Other types of special areas include isolated habitats that have unique assemblages and populations, habitats that are important for

text: endemic species

text: and highly diverse areas.

text: Phreatobius cisternarum is a species of catfish in the genus Phreatobius. This Brazilian fish is one of the few fish species that live underground in phreatic habitats. It has proved problematic in its classification, which remains uncertain.

text: Phreatobius cisternarum is a

text: species

text: of

text: catfish

text: in the

text: genus

text: Phreatobius. This

text: Brazil

text: ian fish is one of the few fish species that live underground in

text: phreatic

text: habitats. It has proved problematic in its classification, which remains uncertain.

text: The swim bladder, gas bladder, fish maw or air bladder is an internal gas-filled organ that contributes to the ability of many bony fish (but not cartilaginous fish) to control their buoyancy, and thus to stay at their current water depth without having to waste energy in swimming.  Also, the dorsal position of the swim bladder means the center of mass is below the center of volume, allowing it to act as a stabilizing agent. Additionally, the swim bladder functions as a resonating chamber, to produce or receive sound.

text: The swim bladder, gas bladder, fish maw or air bladder is an internal gas-filled

text: organ

text: that contributes to the ability of many

text: bony fish

text: (but not

text: cartilaginous fish

text: ) to control their

text: buoyancy

text: , and thus to stay at their current water depth without having to waste energy in swimming.  Also, the

text: dorsal

text: position of the swim bladder means the center of mass is below the center of volume, allowing it to act as a stabilizing agent. Additionally, the swim bladder functions as a

text: resonating chamber

text: , to produce or receive sound.

text: As the player fights fish, there may be several events that occur that the player must respond to, such as a smoking reel or a marlin attempting to cut the line on the propeller. Other events are static, such as the fish biting off the line or the fish becoming exhausted. Each of these events changes the dynamics of the fight, such as changing how much line the fish has or how tired the fish is.

text: Fish scales have growth rings and are used to age fish, in the same way that tree rings can be used to age trees. Fishery scientists try and understand the fish populations by modelling. They need to know how old and how big the fish are and how each ‘cohort’ of the population will grow as it matures. Each catch of fish has fish of different ages, i.e. fish that were born in different years. The size and growth of these fish can be linked to environmental variables. Predicting future stock of fish is necessary for good management and to do this accurate estimates of growth rates and 'length at age' are required. By measuring the rings of a fish its possible to say how long it was for every year of its life.

text: Wa-Tor is usually implemented as a two-dimensional grid with three colours, one for fish, one for sharks and one for empty water. If a creature moves past the edge of the grid, it reappears on the opposite side. The sharks are predatory and eat the fish. Both sharks and fish live, move, reproduce and die in Wa-Tor according to the simple rules defined below. From these simple rules, complex emergent behavior can be seen to arise.

text: Wa-Tor is usually implemented as a two-dimensional grid with three colours, one for fish, one for sharks and one for empty water. If a creature moves past the edge of the grid, it reappears on the opposite side. The sharks are

text: predatory

text: and eat the fish. Both sharks and fish live, move, reproduce and die in Wa-Tor according to the simple rules defined below. From these simple rules, complex

text: emergent

text: behavior can be seen to arise.

text: In spring 2014 a new search for reproduction of the fish at Grand Canyon National Park resulted in the first finding of larvae for several decades. On nine of 47 sites, spawning Razorbacks were found.

text: You are catching fish as in example 1, but you are using a big net. You are setting up the net one day and coming back the next day to remove the net. You count how many fish you have caught and then you go home regardless of how many fish you have caught. Each fish has a probability of getting into the net that is proportional to its weight but independent of what happens to the other fish.

text: Most amphibians go through metamorphosis, a process of significant morphological change after birth. In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by thyroxine concentration in the blood, which stimulates metamorphosis, and prolactin, which counteracts thyroxine's effect. Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues. Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body, it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins. They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called apoptosis. The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made.

text: Most amphibians go through

text: metamorphosis

text: , a process of significant morphological change after birth. In typical amphibian development, eggs are laid in water and larvae are adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. Frogs, toads and salamanders all hatch from the egg as larvae with external gills. Metamorphosis in amphibians is regulated by

text: thyroxine

text: concentration in the blood, which stimulates metamorphosis, and

text: prolactin

text: , which counteracts thyroxine's effect. Specific events are dependent on threshold values for different tissues. Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body, it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins. They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called

text: apoptosis

text: . The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made.

text: The composite fish culture system is a technology developed in India by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in the 1970s. In this system, of both local and imported fish, a combination of five or six fish species is used in a single fish pond. These species are selected so that they do not compete for food among them by having different types of food habitats. As a result, the food available in all the parts of the pond is used. Fish used in this system include catla and silver carp which are surface feeders, rohu, a column feeder, and mrigal and common carp, which are bottom feeders. Other fish also feed on the excreta of the common carp, and this helps contribute to the efficiency of the system which in optimal conditions produces 3000–6000 kg of fish per hectare per year.

text: The composite fish culture system is a technology developed in India by the

text: Indian Council of Agricultural Research

text: in the 1970s. In this system, of both local and imported fish, a combination of five or six fish species is used in a single fish pond. These species are selected so that they do not compete for food among them by having different types of food habitats. As a result, the food available in all the parts of the pond is used. Fish used in this system include

text: catla

text: and

text: silver carp

text: which are surface feeders,

text: rohu

text: , a column feeder, and

text: mrigal

text: and

text: common carp

text: , which are bottom feeders. Other fish also feed on the excreta of the common carp, and this helps contribute to the efficiency of the system which in optimal conditions produces 3000–6000 kg of fish per hectare per year.

text: The Innu call it "Mishtashipu", "Great River". As they have done for thousands of years, they continue to use the river to reach their northern hunting and fishing grounds. Large parts of the river were also protected by private fishing clubs. There were recent attempts to develop hydroelectric projects on the Moisie. However, in 2003, the Quebec government protected a large part of the river's watershed as an aquatic reserve. This prevents activities such as logging, mining and power projects, but permits traditional uses such as hunting and fly-fishing.

text: The

text: Innu

text: call it "Mishtashipu", "Great River". As they have done for thousands of years, they continue to use the river to reach their northern hunting and fishing grounds. Large parts of the river were also protected by private

text: fishing

text: clubs. There were recent attempts to develop

text: hydroelectric

text: projects on the Moisie. However, in 2003, the

text: Quebec government

text: protected a large part of the river's watershed as an aquatic reserve. This prevents activities such as logging,

text: mining

text: and power projects, but permits traditional uses such as hunting and fly-fishing.

text: In a kitchen levelled with the main deck, an Oriental chef was trying to fry fish on skillets but notices that fish is in short supply. The chef comes outside and orders Krazy to do some fishing. Krazy takes a pole and casts a line. Moments later, something is caught, and Krazy starts to reel in. It turns out what is pulled in is the captain. The chef, who isn't very happy with the result, tries to punch Krazy but misses as the cat ducks. Instead the captain is the one struck. The captain then hits back in a similar fashion. For the rest of the film, the captain and the chef punch each other repeatedly, and Krazy is enjoying the sight.

text: In a kitchen levelled with the main deck, an

text: Oriental

text: chef was trying to fry fish on skillets but notices that fish is in short supply. The chef comes outside and orders Krazy to do some fishing. Krazy takes a pole and casts a line. Moments later, something is caught, and Krazy starts to reel in. It turns out what is pulled in is the captain. The chef, who isn't very happy with the result, tries to punch Krazy but misses as the cat ducks. Instead the captain is the one struck. The captain then hits back in a similar fashion. For the rest of the film, the captain and the chef punch each other repeatedly, and Krazy is enjoying the sight.

text: The Cat brings in a big red box from outside, from which he releases two identical creatures with blue hair and red suits called Thing One and Thing Two. The Things cause more trouble, such as flying kites in the house, knocking pictures off the wall and picking up the children's mother's new polka-dotted gown. All this comes to an end when the fish spots the children's mother out the window. In response, Sally's brother catches the Things in a net, and the Cat, apparently ashamed, stores them back in the big red box. He takes it out the front door as the fish and the children survey the mess he has made. But the Cat soon returns, riding a machine that picks everything up and cleans the house, delighting the fish and the children. The Cat leaves just before their mother arrives, and the fish and the children are back where they started at the beginning of the story. As she steps in, the mother asks the children what they did while she was out, but the children are hesitant and do not answer. The story ends with the question, "What would you do if your mother asked you?"

text: Tanjong Pagar (Jawi: تنجوڠ ڤاڬر) in Malay means "cape of stakes", a name which reflects its origins as a fishing village situated on a former promontory. It has been surmised that the name was inspired by the presence of kelongs (offshore palisade fishing traps constructed using wooden stakes and cross pieces) set up along the stretch of coast from the village of Tanjong Malang to what is now Tanjong Pagar. It is possibly a corruption of the earlier name Tanjong Passar, a road which led from South Bridge Road to the fishing village and which appeared in George Drumgoole Coleman's 1836 Map of the Town.

text: Tanjong Pagar (

text: Jawi

text: : تنجوڠ ڤاڬر) in

text: Malay

text: means "

text: cape

text: of stakes", a name which reflects its origins as a fishing village situated on a former

text: promontory

text: . It has been surmised that the name was inspired by the presence of

text: kelong

text: s (offshore

text: palisade

text: fishing trap

text: s constructed using wooden stakes and cross pieces) set up along the stretch of coast from the village of Tanjong Malang to what is now Tanjong Pagar. It is possibly a corruption of the earlier name Tanjong Passar, a road which led from

text: South Bridge Road

text: to the fishing village and which appeared in

text: George Drumgoole Coleman

text: 's 1836 Map of the Town.

text: Many of the reports of fish preying on Acanthaster are single observations or presumed predation from the nature of the fish. For example, the humphead wrasse may prey on the starfish amongst its more usual diet. Individual puffer fish and trigger-fish have been observed to feed crown-of-thorns starfish in the Red Sea, but there is no evidence that they are a significant factor in population control. A study, however, based on the stomach contents of large carnivorous fish that are potential predators of the starfish found no evidence of the starfish in the fish's guts. These carnivorous fish were caught commercially on the coral reefs on the Gulf of Oman and examined at local fish markets.

text: Many of the reports of fish preying on Acanthaster are single observations or presumed predation from the nature of the fish. For example, the

text: humphead wrasse

text: may prey on the starfish amongst its more usual diet. Individual puffer fish and trigger-fish have been observed to feed crown-of-thorns starfish in the Red Sea, but there is no evidence that they are a significant factor in population control. A study, however, based on the stomach contents of large carnivorous fish that are potential predators of the starfish found no evidence of the starfish in the fish's guts. These carnivorous fish were caught commercially on the coral reefs on the Gulf of Oman and examined at local fish markets.

text: The northern pike is a largely solitary predator. It migrates during a spawning season, and it follows prey fish like common roaches to their deeper winter quarters. Sometimes, divers observe groups of similar-sized pike that cooperate some to start hunting at the same time, so "wolfpack" theories are given. Large pike can be caught on dead immobile fish, so these pike are thought to move about in a rather large territory to find food. Large pike are also known to cruise large water bodies at a few meters deep, probably pursuing schools of prey fish. Smaller pike are more of ambush predators, probably because of their vulnerability to cannibalism. Pike are often found near the exit of culverts, which can be attributed to the presence of schools of prey fish and the opportunity for ambush. Being potamodromous, all esocids tend to display limited migration, although some local movement may be of key significance for population dynamics. In the Baltic, they are known to follow herring schools, so have some seasonal migration.

text: The northern pike is a largely solitary

text: predator

text: . It

text: migrates

text: during a spawning season, and it follows

text: prey fish

text: like

text: common roach

text: es to their deeper winter quarters. Sometimes, divers observe groups of similar-sized pike that cooperate some to start hunting at the same time, so "wolfpack" theories are given. Large pike can be caught on dead immobile fish, so these pike are thought to move about in a rather large territory to find food. Large pike are also known to cruise large water bodies at a few meters deep, probably pursuing schools of prey fish. Smaller pike are more of ambush predators, probably because of their vulnerability to cannibalism. Pike are often found near the exit of

text: culvert

text: s, which can be attributed to the presence of schools of prey fish and the opportunity for ambush. Being

text: potamodromous

text: , all

text: esocid

text: s tend to display limited migration, although some local movement may be of key significance for population dynamics. In the Baltic, they are known to follow

text: herring

text: schools

text: , so have some seasonal migration.

text: In blatant defiance to the Winans ruling of 1905, Washington state courts closed the Nisqually River to Indian fisherman in 1964. That same year, in attempt to preserve off-reservation fishing rights dubbed "reserved" in the Winans case, Native Americans formed the protest organization known as Survival of American Indians Association (SAIA). The SAIA organized protests, known as fish-ins, in which Native Americans as well as non-Indian activists illegally fished Washington waters, particularly at Frank's Landing on the Nisqually River. Johnson, Nagel and Champagne write in American Indian Activism: Alcatraz to the Longest Walk, that "A large number of state and local law enforcement officers raided Frank's Landing in 1965, smashing boats and fishing gear, slashing nets, and attacking Indian people, including women and children." Celebrities such as Marlon Brando, Jane Fonda, and Dick Gregory contributed acts of civil disobedience and traveled to "Frank's Landing and other sites of protest in Washington State to lend their presence to the struggle."

text: In blatant defiance to the Winans ruling of 1905, Washington state courts closed the

text: Nisqually River

text: to Indian fisherman in 1964. That same year, in attempt to preserve off-reservation fishing rights dubbed "reserved" in the Winans case, Native Americans formed the protest organization known as Survival of American Indians Association (SAIA). The SAIA organized protests, known as

text: fish-in

text: s, in which Native Americans as well as non-Indian activists illegally fished Washington waters, particularly at Frank's Landing on the Nisqually River. Johnson, Nagel and Champagne write in American Indian Activism: Alcatraz to the Longest Walk, that "A large number of state and local law enforcement officers raided Frank's Landing in 1965, smashing boats and fishing gear, slashing nets, and attacking Indian people, including women and children." Celebrities such as

text: Marlon Brando

text: Jane Fonda

text: , and

text: Dick Gregory

text: contributed acts of

text: civil disobedience

text: and traveled to "Frank's Landing and other sites of protest in Washington State to lend their presence to the struggle."

text: The African lungfish is an example of how the evolutionary transition from breathing water to breathing air can happen. Lungfish are periodically exposed to water with low oxygen content or situations in which their aquatic environment dries up. Their adaptation for dealing with these conditions is an outpocketing of the gut, related to the swim bladder of other fishes, that serves as a lung. The lung contains many thin-walled blood vessels, so blood flowing through those vessels can pick up oxygen from air gulped into the lung.

text: The African lungfish is an example of how the evolutionary transition from breathing water to breathing air can happen. Lungfish are periodically exposed to water with low oxygen content or situations in which their aquatic environment dries up. Their adaptation for dealing with these conditions is an outpocketing of the gut, related to the

text: swim bladder

text: of other fishes, that serves as a lung. The lung contains many thin-walled blood vessels, so blood flowing through those vessels can pick up oxygen from air gulped into the lung.

text: The following data regarding fisheries activities is collected:  the kinds of fisherman in the fishery, commercial versus recreational, and the gear that is used (longline, rod and reel, nets, etc.),   pounds of fish caught by each type of fisherman, the fishing effort each kind of fisherman expends, the age structure of the fish harvested by each group of fisherman, the ratio of males to females that are captured, how the fish are marketed, the value of the fish to the different fisherman groups, and the time and geographic location of the best catches.  Also in the assessment, geographical boundaries of different stocks or populations are defined.  From the combined biological and fisheries data, the current status and condition of the stock is defined and managers use this assessment to predict how in the future, stocks will respond to varying levels of fishing pressure.  Ultimately managers want to reduce the level of overfishing that occurs and restore stocks that have been overfished.

text: The following data regarding fisheries activities is collected:  the kinds of

text: fisherman

text: in the fishery,

text: commercial

text: versus

text: recreational

text: , and the

text: gear

text: that is used (

text: longline

text: rod

text: and

text: reel

text: nets

text: , etc.),   pounds of fish caught by each type of fisherman, the fishing effort each kind of fisherman expends, the age structure of the fish harvested by each group of fisherman, the ratio of males to females that are captured, how the fish are

text: marketed

text: , the value of the fish to the different fisherman groups, and the time and geographic location of the best catches.  Also in the assessment, geographical boundaries of different stocks or populations are defined.  From the combined biological and fisheries data, the current status and condition of the stock is defined and managers use this assessment to predict how in the future, stocks will respond to varying levels of fishing pressure.  Ultimately managers want to reduce the level of

text: overfishing

text: that occurs and restore stocks that have been overfished.

text: Parallel speciation occurs for example in mosquito fish in the Bahamas, where Gambusia fish inhabit "blue holes"—carbonate caves and depressions flooded with water throughout the islands. Some of the holes contain the piscivorous predator fish Gobiomorus dormitor, while others have no major predators (excluding birds). The authors of the study tested for ecological speciation by measuring three different data sets:  morphological data (to test for divergent natural selection), molecular data (to test for "replicated trait evolution in independent populations" with similar phenotypes), and mate-choice trials (to test for reproductive isolation between "ecologically divergent pairs of populations than ecologically similar ones": a by-product resulting from divergent traits). The study allowed for a natural experiment to test the effects of predator-mediated natural selection and it's by-product: ecological speciation. The results suggested a "strong confirmation of the ecological speciation hypothesis" and amply supported parallel speciation taking place within the different blue holes.

text: Parallel speciation occurs for example in mosquito fish in the Bahamas, where

text: Gambusia

text: fish inhabit "blue holes"—carbonate caves and depressions flooded with water throughout the islands. Some of the holes contain the piscivorous predator fish

text: Gobiomorus dormitor

text: , while others have no major predators (excluding birds). The authors of the study tested for ecological speciation by measuring three different data sets:  morphological data (to test for divergent natural selection), molecular data (to test for "replicated trait evolution in independent populations" with similar phenotypes), and mate-choice trials (to test for reproductive isolation between "ecologically divergent pairs of populations than ecologically similar ones": a by-product resulting from divergent traits). The study allowed for a natural experiment to test the effects of predator-mediated natural selection and it's by-product: ecological speciation. The results suggested a "strong confirmation of the ecological speciation hypothesis" and amply supported parallel speciation taking place within the different blue holes.

text: Andersson is interested in ecology affecting fish and seeks to preserve the species of fish in the Baltic Sea.

text: Andersson is interested in ecology affecting fish and seeks to preserve the species of fish in the

text: Baltic Sea

text: The farming of aquatic organisms, known as aquaculture, often involves fish feed that contains mercury. A study by Jardine has found no reliable connection between mercury in fish food affecting aquaculture organisms or aquatic organisms in the wild. Even so, mercury from other sources may still affect organisms grown through aquaculture. In China, farmed fish species, such as bighead carp, mud carp, and mandarin fish, carried 90% of total mercury content in all of the measured fish in a study by Cheng. This study also concluded that mercury bioaccumulates through food chains even in controlled aquaculture environments. Both total mercury and methyl mercury absorption was found to be derived from sediments containing mercury, not mainly from fish feed.

text: The farming of

text: aquatic organisms

text: , known as

text: aquaculture

text: , often involves

text: fish feed

text: that contains mercury. A study by Jardine has found no reliable connection between mercury in fish food affecting aquaculture organisms or aquatic organisms in the wild. Even so, mercury from other sources may still affect organisms grown through aquaculture. In

text: China

text: , farmed fish species, such as

text: bighead carp

text: mud carp

text: , and

text: mandarin fish

text: , carried 90% of total mercury content in all of the measured fish in a study by Cheng. This study also concluded that mercury bioaccumulates through food chains even in controlled aquaculture environments. Both total mercury and methyl mercury absorption was found to be derived from sediments containing mercury, not mainly from fish feed.

text: Cyphotilapia is a small genus of cichlids endemic to Lake Tanganyika, with C. frontosa being roughly confined to the northern half of the lake and C. gibberosa being roughly confined to the southern half of the lake. These are a mouth-brooding cichlid with a rather small batch of fry each spawn. The mother will hold the fry in her mouth for about 3-4 weeks before finally releasing about 30-70 fry. These are slow-growing fish, which take up to 6 years to reach sexual maturity. The female will most likely eat her first 2-4 spawns of fry. The best ratio for breeding these cichlids is one male to four females. The male can grow to 16 inches and females about 10 inches. They can live up to 25 years.

text: Cyphotilapia is a small

text: genus

text: of

text: cichlid

text: s

text: endemic

text: to

text: Lake Tanganyika

text: , with C. frontosa being roughly confined to the northern half of the lake and C. gibberosa being roughly confined to the southern half of the lake. These are a mouth-brooding cichlid with a rather small batch of fry each spawn. The mother will hold the fry in her mouth for about 3-4 weeks before finally releasing about 30-70 fry. These are slow-growing fish, which take up to 6 years to reach sexual maturity. The female will most likely eat her first 2-4 spawns of fry. The best ratio for breeding these cichlids is one male to four females. The male can grow to 16 inches and females about 10 inches. They can live up to 25 years.

text: True loaches are mostly scavengers and are omnivorous, usually not very picky about their food. They may eat aquatic crustaceans, insects, and other small invertebrates, as well as scraps of organic detritus. Many live in eutrophic waters of generally poor quality and feed on tubifex worms and similar benthos associated with such habitat. Some of these loaches have adapted to low oxygen levels in warm, muddy rivers or dirty ponds by being able to gulp up atmospheric oxygen. Some species, particularly from the genera Cobitis and especially Misgurnus, are sensitive to changing air pressure. They change their behavior accordingly, and as these changes in activity are usually followed by a change in weather, they are commonly known as "weather fishes" or "weather loaches".

text: True loaches are mostly

text: scavenger

text: s and are omnivorous, usually not very picky about their food. They may eat aquatic

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: insect

text: s, and other small

text: invertebrate

text: s, as well as scraps of organic

text: detritus

text: . Many live in

text: eutrophic

text: waters of generally poor quality and feed on

text: tubifex worms

text: and similar

text: benthos

text: associated with such habitat. Some of these loaches have adapted to low oxygen levels in warm, muddy rivers or dirty ponds by being able to gulp up

text: atmospheric

text: oxygen

text: . Some species, particularly from the

text: genera

text: Cobitis

text: and especially

text: Misgurnus

text: , are sensitive to changing

text: air pressure

text: . They change their behavior accordingly, and as these changes in activity are usually followed by a change in weather, they are commonly known as "weather fishes" or "weather loaches".

text: Synchronized spawning takes place in early spring, usually at the time of the new or full moon when the water has warmed up after the winter and attained a temperature above . The timing of this event varies throughout the worm's range and more southern populations mature at a year of age while more northerly ones may be three years old before they breed. The male seems to be attracted to a burrow occupied by a female by the release of a pheromone into the water. He crawls across the seabed and liberates sperm into the water just outside the entrance of the female's burrow. The sperm is drawn into the tube by the water current that the female creates by undulating her body. Here fertilisation takes place and the larvae are brooded for ten to fourteen days. Both males and females die after spawning.

text: Synchronized spawning takes place in early spring, usually at the time of the new or

text: full moon

text: when the water has warmed up after the winter and attained a temperature above . The timing of this event varies throughout the worm's range and more southern populations mature at a year of age while more northerly ones may be three years old before they breed. The male seems to be attracted to a burrow occupied by a female by the release of a

text: pheromone

text: into the water. He crawls across the seabed and liberates

text: sperm

text: into the water just outside the entrance of the female's burrow. The sperm is drawn into the tube by the water current that the female creates by undulating her body. Here fertilisation takes place and the

text: larva

text: e are brooded for ten to fourteen days. Both males and females die after spawning.

text: A fish trap is a trap used for fishing. Fish traps can have the form of a fishing weir or a lobster trap. Some fishing nets are also called fish traps, for example fyke nets.

text: A fish trap is a

text: trap

text: used for fishing. Fish traps can have the form of a

text: fishing weir

text: or a

text: lobster trap

text: . Some

text: fishing net

text: s are also called fish traps, for example fyke nets.

text: This type of ecological succession from a freshwater to marine ecosystem is typical of river estuaries. River estuaries form important staging points during the migration of anadromous and catadromous fish species, such as salmon, shad, and eels, giving them time to form social groups and to adjust to the changes in salinity. Salmon are anadromous, meaning they live in the sea but ascend rivers to spawn; eels are catadromous, living in rivers and streams, but returning to the sea to breed. Besides the species that migrate through estuaries, there are many other fish that use them as "nursery grounds" for spawning or as places young fish can feed and grow before moving elsewhere. Herring and plaice are two commercially important species that use the Thames Estuary for this purpose.

text: This type of

text: ecological succession

text: from a freshwater to marine

text: ecosystem

text: is typical of river estuaries. River estuaries form important staging points during the migration of

text: anadromous and catadromous

text: fish species, such as

text: salmon

text: shad

text: , and

text: eel

text: s, giving them time to form social groups and to adjust to the changes in salinity. Salmon are anadromous, meaning they live in the sea but ascend rivers to spawn; eels are catadromous, living in rivers and streams, but returning to the sea to breed. Besides the species that migrate through estuaries, there are many other fish that use them as "nursery grounds" for spawning or as places young fish can feed and grow before moving elsewhere.

text: Herring

text: and

text: plaice

text: are two commercially important species that use the Thames Estuary for this purpose.

text: In 2001, it was concluded by Thiwissen et al. that "pakicetids were terrestrial mammals, no more amphibious than a tapir." According to them, none of the aquatic adaptations found in the oldest obligate aquatic cetaceans, basilosaurids and dorundontids, are present in pakicetids. Pakicetid cervical vertebrae are longer than in late Eocene whales, the thoracic vertebrae increase in size from the neck backwards, and the lumbar and caudal vertebrae are longer than in modern cetaceans (but still shorter than in some extinct cetaceans with undulating spines.) Motion in the spine of pakicetids was further reduced by the revolute zygapophyses (processes between the vertebrae) like in stiff-backed runners such as mesonychians. The sacral vertebrae are fused and the sacroiliac joints present like in land mammals and amphibious cetaceans.

text: In 2001, it was concluded by Thiwissen et al. that "pakicetids were terrestrial mammals, no more amphibious than a tapir." According to them, none of the

text: aquatic adaptation

text: s found in the oldest obligate aquatic cetaceans,

text: basilosaurids

text: and

text: dorundontids

text: , are present in pakicetids. Pakicetid cervical vertebrae are longer than in late Eocene whales, the thoracic vertebrae increase in size from the neck backwards, and the lumbar and caudal vertebrae are longer than in modern cetaceans (but still shorter than in some extinct cetaceans with undulating spines.) Motion in the spine of pakicetids was further reduced by the

text: revolute

text: zygapophyses

text: (processes between the vertebrae) like in stiff-backed runners such as

text: mesonychians

text: . The sacral vertebrae are fused and the sacroiliac joints present like in land mammals and amphibious cetaceans.

text: Many of these interactions and effects cause stress in the fish, which can be a major factor in facilitating fish disease. For many parasites, infestation depends on the host's degree of mobility, the density of the host population and vulnerability of the host's defence system. Sea lice are the primary parasitic problem for finfish in aquaculture, high numbers causing widespread skin erosion and haemorrhaging, gill congestion, and increased mucus production. There are also a number of prominent viral and bacterial pathogens that can have severe effects on internal organs and nervous systems.

text: Many of these interactions and effects cause stress in the fish, which can be a major factor in facilitating fish disease. For many parasites, infestation depends on the host's degree of mobility, the density of the host population and vulnerability of the host's defence system. Sea lice are the primary parasitic problem for finfish in aquaculture, high numbers causing widespread skin erosion and haemorrhaging, gill congestion, and increased mucus production. There are also a number of prominent viral and bacterial

text: pathogens

text: that can have severe effects on internal organs and nervous systems.

text: Brooding species are most often ahermatypic (not reef-building) in areas of high current or wave action. Brooders release only sperm, which is negatively buoyant, sinking on to the waiting egg carriers who harbor unfertilized eggs for weeks. Synchronous spawning events sometimes occurs even with these species. After fertilization, the corals release planula that are ready to settle.

text: The complete larvae stage takes approximately 21 days. After fertilization there are seven stages of  larva metamorphosis: cleavage, blastocyst, gastrulation, auricularia (subdivided in early, mid, late), doliolaria (mid metamorphic stage pre settlement), penttactula and the last settled sea cucumber larva, visible to the naked human eye, which develops into the final organism.

text: The complete

text: larvae

text: stage takes approximately 21 days. After

text: fertilization

text: there are seven stages of

text: larva metamorphosis

text: : cleavage, blastocyst, gastrulation, auricularia (subdivided in early, mid, late), doliolaria (mid metamorphic stage pre settlement), penttactula and the last settled sea cucumber larva, visible to the naked human eye, which develops into the final organism.

text: Spawning occurs at water temperatures of 21˚ C to 23˚ C.  The male chooses a site in the shallow part of the water and protects it from other males. When a female appears, the male will court the female and fight with the other prospecting males.  The female will emit one egg while the male pursues her.  Once together, the female emits 10 eggs that falls onto the bottom or gets attached to aquatic plants in the chosen spawn area.  The male will continue to pursue the female until the female have laid 50 to 100 eggs.

text: Cuatro Ciénegas is an official Mexican biological reserve.  The biological reserves are small ecosystems with unique fauna and flora that are highly protected by government authorities. Recently, NASA stated that the biological reserve of Cuatrociénegas could have strong links to discovering life on Mars, since the adaptability of bioforms in the region was unique in the world. There are some 150 different plants and animals endemic to the valley and its surrounding mountains (e.g., Fouquieria shrevei and Terrapene coahuila), including some 30 aquatic species in the Reserve, eight of which are fish (e.g., Herichthys minckleyi).

text: Cuatro Ciénegas is an official

text: Mexican biological reserve

text: .  The biological reserves are small ecosystems with unique fauna and flora that are highly protected by government authorities. Recently, NASA stated that the biological reserve of Cuatrociénegas could have strong links to discovering life on

text: Mars

text: , since the adaptability of bioforms in the region was unique in the world. There are some 150 different plants and animals

text: endemic

text: to the valley and its surrounding mountains (e.g.,

text: Fouquieria shrevei

text: and

text: Terrapene coahuila

text: ), including some 30 aquatic species in the Reserve, eight of which are fish (e.g.,

text: Herichthys minckleyi

text: Marshall McDonald (October 18, 1835 – September 1, 1895) was an American engineer, geologist, mineralogist, pisciculturist, and fisheries scientist. McDonald served as the commissioner of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries from 1888 until his death in 1895. He is best known for his inventions of a number of fish hatching apparatuses and a fish ladder that enabled salmon and other migrating fish species to ascend the rapids of watercourses resulting in an increased spawning ground. McDonald's administration of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries was notably free of scandal and furthered the "protection and culture" of fish species throughout the United States.

text: Marshall McDonald (October 18, 1835 – September 1, 1895) was an

text: American

text: engineer

text: geologist

text: mineralogist

text: pisciculturist

text: , and

text: fisheries scientist

text: . McDonald served as the

text: commissioner

text: of the

text: United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries

text: from 1888 until his death in 1895. He is best known for his inventions of a number of

text: fish hatching

text: apparatuses and a

text: fish ladder

text: that enabled

text: salmon

text: and other migrating

text: fish

text: species to ascend the

text: rapid

text: s of

text: watercourse

text: s resulting in an increased

text: spawning

text: ground. McDonald's administration of the U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries was notably free of scandal and furthered the "protection and culture" of fish species throughout the United States.

text: Spawning grounds are the areas of water where aquatic animals spawn, or produce their eggs. After spawning, the spawn may or may not drift to new grounds which become their nursery grounds. Many species undertake migrations each year, and sometimes great migrations, to reach their spawning grounds. For example, lakes and river watersheds can be major spawning grounds for anadromous fish such as salmon. These days, it is often necessary to construct fish ladders and other bypass systems so salmon can navigate their way past hydroelectric dams or other obstructions such as weirs on their way to spawning grounds. Coastal fish often use mangroves and estuaries as spawning grounds, while reef fish can find adjacent seagrass meadows that make good spawning grounds. Short-finned eels can travel anything up to three or four thousand kilometres to their spawning ground in deep water somewhere in the Coral Sea.

text: Spawning grounds are the areas of water where aquatic animals spawn, or produce their eggs. After spawning, the spawn may or may not drift to new grounds which become their nursery grounds. Many species undertake

text: migrations

text: each year, and sometimes great migrations, to reach their spawning grounds. For example, lakes and river watersheds can be major spawning grounds for

text: anadromous

text: fish such as

text: salmon

text: . These days, it is often necessary to construct

text: fish ladder

text: s and other bypass systems so salmon can navigate their way past hydroelectric dams or other obstructions such as weirs on their way to spawning grounds.

text: Coastal fish

text: often use

text: mangrove

text: s and

text: estuaries

text: as spawning grounds, while

text: reef fish

text: can find adjacent

text: seagrass meadow

text: s that make good spawning grounds.

text: Short-finned eel

text: s can travel anything up to three or four thousand kilometres to their spawning ground in deep water somewhere in the

text: Coral Sea

text: When the male accepts female courting, the female expels eggs from the urogenitial papilla. Female Banggai cardinalfish produce a relatively small clutch, consisting of no more than ninety eggs that are two to three millimeters in diameter. Once approximately three-fourths of the egg mass protrudes from the female, the male takes the eggs from her. This process is immediate, taking no more than two seconds. Eggs may be lost in the process if the male drops them, as it is usually immediately consumed by other fish in the area. Males also have the ability to detect dead eggs and expel them from his mouth. The male broods the eggs in his mouth for up to 30 days, during which it does not feed. After spawning, the female stays with the brooding male for at least few days. Females aggressively defend its territory by immediately chasing any intruders that approach the brooding male. They also exhibit relaxed form of ‘side by side trembling’, and confine the male to a small space.

text: When the male accepts female courting, the female expels eggs from the urogenitial

text: papilla

text: . Female Banggai cardinalfish produce a relatively small clutch, consisting of no more than ninety eggs that are two to three millimeters in diameter. Once approximately three-fourths of the egg mass protrudes from the female, the male takes the eggs from her. This process is immediate, taking no more than two seconds. Eggs may be lost in the process if the male drops them, as it is usually immediately consumed by other fish in the area. Males also have the ability to detect dead eggs and expel them from his mouth. The male broods the eggs in his mouth for up to 30 days, during which it does not feed. After spawning, the female stays with the brooding male for at least few days. Females aggressively defend its territory by immediately chasing any intruders that approach the brooding male. They also exhibit relaxed form of ‘side by side trembling’, and confine the male to a small space.

text: A fish factory, also called a fish plant, fish processing facility, is a facility where fish processing is performed. Fish factories range in the size and range of species of fish they process. Some species of fish, such as mackerel and herring, and can be caught at sea by large pelagic trawlers and offloaded to the factory within a few days of being caught. Or the fish can be caught by freezer trawlers that freeze the fish before providing it to factories, or by factory ships which can do the processing themselves on board. Some fish factories have fishing vessels catching fish for them at a given times of the year. This is to do with quotas and seasons conflicting how much and when the fish can be landed.

text: A fish factory, also called a fish plant, fish processing facility, is a facility where

text: fish processing

text: is performed. Fish factories range in the size and range of species of fish they process. Some species of fish, such as

text: mackerel

text: and

text: herring

text: , and can be caught at sea by large pelagic

text: trawlers

text: and offloaded to the factory within a few days of being caught. Or the fish can be caught by freezer trawlers that freeze the fish before providing it to factories, or by

text: factory ship

text: s which can do the processing themselves on board. Some fish factories have

text: fishing vessel

text: s catching fish for them at a given times of the year. This is to do with quotas and seasons conflicting how much and when the fish can be landed.

text: Technology can play a role in the dynamics of carrying capacity and while this can sometimes be positive, in other cases its influence can be problematic. For example, it has been suggested that in the past that the Neolithic revolution increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans through the invention of agriculture.  In a similar way, viewed from the perspective of foods, the use of fossil fuels has been alleged to artificially increase the carrying capacity of the world by the use of stored sunlight, even though that food production does not guarantee the capacity of the Earth's climatic and biospheric life-support systems to withstand the damage and wastes arising from such fossil fuels.  Again, however, such interpretations presume the continued and uninterrupted functioning of all other critical components of the global system.  It has also been suggested that other technological advances that have increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans are: polders, fertilizer, composting, greenhouses, land reclamation, and fish farming. In an adverse way, however, many technologies enable economic entities and individual humans to inflict far more damage and eradication, far more quickly, efficiently, and on a wider-scale than ever. (Machine guns, chain saws, earth-movers, and the capacity of industrialized fishing fleets to capture and harvest targeted fish species faster than the fish themselves can reproduce are examples of such problematic outcomes of technology.)

text: Technology can play a role in the dynamics of carrying capacity and while this can sometimes be positive, in other cases its influence can be problematic. For example, it has been suggested that in the past that the

text: Neolithic

text: revolution increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans through the invention of agriculture.  In a similar way, viewed from the perspective of foods, the use of

text: fossil fuel

text: s has been alleged to artificially increase the carrying capacity of the world by the use of stored sunlight, even though that food production does not guarantee the capacity of the Earth's climatic and biospheric life-support systems to withstand the damage and wastes arising from such fossil fuels.  Again, however, such interpretations presume the continued and uninterrupted functioning of all other critical components of the global system.  It has also been suggested that other technological advances that have increased the carrying capacity of the world relative to humans are:

text: polder

text: s,

text: fertilizer

text: composting

text: greenhouse

text: s,

text: land reclamation

text: , and

text: fish farming

text: . In an adverse way, however, many technologies enable economic entities and individual humans to inflict far more damage and eradication, far more quickly, efficiently, and on a wider-scale than ever. (Machine guns, chain saws, earth-movers, and the capacity of industrialized fishing fleets to capture and harvest targeted fish species faster than the fish themselves can reproduce are examples of such problematic outcomes of technology.)

text: The project has acted as a case study for other, similar projects. Areas such as the Western Ghats in India and areas of Bali are beginning to use similar practices in order to make money from the fish trade and sustain the environment of the fish. Project Piaba is often used to show how groups can support the environment while providing economic stimulus to a poor region of the world. In addition, the sustainable sourcing of fish is also a stimulus to the idea of "beneficial home fishkeeping" which emphasizes proper fish care, which, in turn supports those who catch the fish in the wild. When there is no incentive to fish, individuals in the Rio Negro area turn to less-environmentally friendly means of support, such as logging or cattle ranching. In fact, Project Piaba aims to actively discourage domestic farming of fish which are also sustainable resources, like the cardinal tetra, because it will take the financial incentive away from protecting the rain forest of the Rio Negro area.

text: The project has acted as a case study for other, similar projects. Areas such as the

text: Western Ghats

text: in

text: India

text: and areas of

text: Bali

text: are beginning to use similar practices in order to make money from the fish trade and sustain the environment of the fish. Project Piaba is often used to show how groups can support the environment while providing economic stimulus to a poor region of the world. In addition, the sustainable sourcing of fish is also a stimulus to the idea of "beneficial home fishkeeping" which emphasizes proper fish care, which, in turn supports those who catch the fish in the wild. When there is no incentive to fish, individuals in the Rio Negro area turn to less-environmentally friendly means of support, such as

text: logging

text: or

text: cattle ranching

text: . In fact, Project Piaba aims to actively discourage domestic farming of fish which are also sustainable resources, like the cardinal tetra, because it will take the financial incentive away from protecting the rain forest of the Rio Negro area.

text: The bar jack (Caranx ruber) (also known as the carbonero, red jack, blue-striped cavalla and passing jack) is a common species of inshore marine fish classified in the jack family, Carangidae. The bar jack is distributed through the western Atlantic Ocean from New Jersey and Bermuda in the north to Venezuela and possibly Brazil in the south, with the largest population in the Gulf of Mexico and West Indies. The bar jack is most simply distinguished from similar jacks by its dark horizontal bar which runs along the back and down the caudal fin, often accompanied by an electric blue stripe immediately below it. Other more detailed differences include dentition and soft ray counts. The bar jack is a moderately large species, growing to a recorded maximum of 65 cm and a weight of 6.8 kg. The species inhabits clear shallow waters, often over coral reefs where it lives either solitarily or in large schools, taking various fishes, crustaceans and cephalopods as prey. Studies in Cuba indicate spawning occurs between March and August, with sexual maturity reached at 26 cm. It is a relatively popular sport fish and can be caught on light tackle with a variety of lures and baits. It is considered to be a good food fish, however many recorded ciguatera cases are attributed to the species, with most cases reported on the island of St. Thomas traced to this single species.

text: The bar jack (Caranx ruber) (also known as the carbonero, red jack, blue-striped cavalla and passing jack) is a common

text: species

text: of inshore

text: marine

text: fish

text: classified in the jack family,

text: Carangidae

text: . The bar jack is distributed through the western

text: Atlantic Ocean

text: from

text: New Jersey

text: and

text: Bermuda

text: in the north to

text: Venezuela

text: and possibly

text: Brazil

text: in the south, with the largest population in the

text: Gulf of Mexico

text: and

text: West Indies

text: . The bar jack is most simply distinguished from similar jacks by its dark horizontal bar which runs along the back and down the

text: caudal fin

text: , often accompanied by an

text: electric blue

text: stripe immediately below it. Other more detailed differences include dentition and soft ray counts. The bar jack is a moderately large species, growing to a recorded maximum of 65 cm and a weight of 6.8 kg. The species inhabits clear shallow waters, often over

text: coral reef

text: s where it lives either solitarily or in large

text: schools

text: , taking various fishes,

text: crustacean

text: s and

text: cephalopod

text: s as prey. Studies in

text: Cuba

text: indicate

text: spawning

text: occurs between March and August, with

text: sexual maturity

text: reached at 26 cm. It is a relatively popular

text: sport fish

text: and can be caught on light

text: tackle

text: with a variety of lures and baits. It is considered to be a good food fish, however many recorded

text: ciguatera

text: cases are attributed to the species, with most cases reported on the

text: island

text: of

text: St. Thomas

text: traced to this single species.

text: Three broad categories of fishing in Denmark are industrial fishery, fishery for human consumption (also known as pelagic fishing), and demersal fishery. Industrial fishing is for industrial use of producing fish oil and fish meal. Initially, Industrial fishing using trawlers began in the 1940s with herring fishing in the North Sea. Over time, other fish species included sand eel, Norway pout, blue whiting and sprat (sprat in Skagerrak/Kattegat and in the Baltic Sea). By 1993, the percentage of sand eel was about 70%, when the total industrial fish catch was 1.2 million tons. However, in terms of cash value, cod fish was a better catch. This type of fishing is also found to be overall remunerative as it contributes to 27% in financial value from 77%  of catch.

text: Three broad categories of fishing in Denmark are industrial fishery, fishery for human consumption (also known as pelagic fishing), and

text: demersal

text: fishery. Industrial fishing is for industrial use of producing fish oil and fish meal. Initially, Industrial fishing using trawlers began in the 1940s with

text: herring

text: fishing in the

text: North Sea

text: . Over time, other fish species included

text: sand eel

text: Norway pout

text: blue whiting

text: and

text: sprat

text: (sprat in

text: Skagerrak

text: Kattegat

text: and in the

text: Baltic Sea

text: ). By 1993, the percentage of

text: sand eel

text: was about 70%, when the total industrial fish catch was 1.2 million tons. However, in terms of cash value,

text: cod

text: fish was a better catch. This type of fishing is also found to be overall remunerative as it contributes to 27% in financial value from 77%  of catch.

text: Wave was a fishing trawler built by the Fore River Shipbuilding Company at Quincy, Massachusetts in 1912 or 1913. Owned by the Bay State Fishing Company, she was inspected by representatives of the Commandant, 1st Naval District, during the spring of 1917. The Navy ordered her delivered for World War I service in June 1917 and again in June 1918, and went so far as to assign her the classification SP-1706 and make plans for her conversion to a minesweeper and assignment to the 1st Naval District. However, the Navy did not actually take her over, and she remained in the hands of her owner and never saw naval service.

text: Wave was a fishing trawler built by the

text: Fore River Shipbuilding Company

text: at

text: Quincy

text: Massachusetts

text: in 1912 or 1913. Owned by the

text: Bay State Fishing Company

text: , she was inspected by representatives of the

text: Commandant

text: 1st Naval District

text: , during the spring of 1917. The Navy ordered her delivered for World War I service in June 1917 and again in June 1918, and went so far as to assign her the classification SP-1706 and make plans for her conversion to a minesweeper and assignment to the

text: 1st Naval District

text: . However, the Navy did not actually take her over, and she remained in the hands of her owner and never saw naval service.

text: This species is of commercial significance. It is collected and traded for aquaria, typically when young, but it must be remembered that this is only a fish for the largest of tanks if it shall thrive. The spawning adults are fished for local food and for trade. Although L. johnstonii is widespread and not considered a threatened species by the IUCN, catching the fishes when they migrate to spawn and not when they return as well as the use of fish poisons (which is illegal but still practiced in places) is probably depleting its numbers faster than they can recover.

text: This species is of commercial significance. It is collected and traded for

text: aquaria

text: , typically when young, but it must be remembered that this is only a fish for the largest of tanks if it shall thrive. The spawning adults are fished for local food and for trade. Although L. johnstonii is widespread and not considered a

text: threatened species

text: by the IUCN, catching the fishes when they migrate to spawn and not when they return as well as the use of

text: fish poison

text: s (which is illegal but still practiced in places) is probably depleting its numbers faster than they can recover.

text: In a study done by Keane et al., 2004, one major threat to Tasmanian fauna could be to native galaxiids, as suggested by the fact that mosquitofish are known to attack and kill adult Galaxias gracilis in New Zealand. If Gambusia became native in certain areas by eradicating other fish populations, it could put a great deal of stress on the remaining flora and fauna. Decreasing the number of native species would also benefit mosquitoes by decreasing the competitive pressure from other fish. Because of their high reproductive rate (an average of 50 young per brood, with up to nine broods per year), fast maturation (sexual maturity is reached in two months), and aggressive behaviour, mosquitofish can outcompete almost any native fish.

text: In a study done by Keane et al., 2004, one major threat to Tasmanian fauna could be to native galaxiids, as suggested by the fact that mosquitofish are known to attack and kill adult

text: Galaxias gracilis

text: in New Zealand. If Gambusia became native in certain areas by eradicating other fish populations, it could put a great deal of stress on the remaining flora and fauna. Decreasing the number of native species would also benefit mosquitoes by decreasing the competitive pressure from other fish. Because of their high reproductive rate (an average of 50 young per brood, with up to nine broods per year), fast maturation (sexual maturity is reached in two months), and aggressive behaviour, mosquitofish can outcompete almost any native fish.

text: Countercurrent exchange is used extensively in biological systems for a wide variety of purposes. For example, fish use it in their gills to transfer oxygen from the surrounding water into their blood, and birds use a countercurrent heat exchanger between blood vessels in their legs to keep heat concentrated within their bodies. In vertebrates, this type of organ is referred to as a rete mirabile (originally the name of the organ in the fish gills). Mammalian kidneys use countercurrent exchange to remove water from urine so the body can retain water used to move the nitrogenous waste products (see Countercurrent multiplier).

text: Countercurrent exchange is used extensively in biological systems for a wide variety of purposes. For example,

text: fish

text: use it in their

text: gill

text: s to transfer oxygen from the surrounding water into their blood, and

text: bird

text: s use a countercurrent

text: heat exchanger

text: between blood vessels in their legs to keep heat concentrated within their bodies. In vertebrates, this type of organ is referred to as a

text: rete mirabile

text: (originally the name of the organ in the fish gills). Mammalian

text: kidney

text: s use countercurrent exchange to remove water from urine so the body can retain water used to move the nitrogenous waste products (see

text: Countercurrent multiplier

text: The UPLB Limnological Research Station traces its root from the Department of Entomology, of the then UP College of Agriculture. Since its conception, the station contributed immensely to the understanding of the bounties of Laguna de Bay and helped establish the duck farming industry on Los Baňos foreshores and pioneered in aquarium fish production in the country. It serves as the base for studies on limnology and biology of aquatic organisms aimed at developing strategies for the optimum utilization and sustained production of aquatic resources; developing, adapting or improving conventional technologies used to increase fish production; and promoting environment friendly approaches for effective water management.

text: The

text: UPLB

text: Limnological Research Station traces its root from the Department of Entomology, of the then UP College of Agriculture. Since its conception, the station contributed immensely to the understanding of the bounties of

text: Laguna de Bay

text: and helped establish the

text: duck

text: farming industry on Los Baňos foreshores and pioneered in aquarium fish production in the country. It serves as the base for studies on

text: limnology

text: and

text: biology

text: of aquatic organisms aimed at developing strategies for the optimum utilization and sustained production of aquatic resources; developing, adapting or improving conventional technologies used to increase fish production; and promoting environment friendly approaches for effective water management.

text: The biology and ecology of the shadow trevally is poorly known. It is known to live either in small schools or individually, and is a predatory fish, taking small fish and benthic crustaceans. Nothing is known of its movements or reproduction.

text: The biology and

text: ecology

text: of the shadow trevally is poorly known. It is known to live either in small schools or individually, and is a

text: predator

text: y fish, taking small fish and benthic

text: crustacean

text: s. Nothing is known of its movements or

text: reproduction

text: The movement of the fish was determined to be less seasonal than dependent on water conditions directly before and after the monsoon season. This affects the spawning season and means that it may vary from any period between June and December. These fish only spawn once during the spawning season. The distribution of the fish throughout the spawning season is determined by the size and age of the fish. Early in the spawning season, many of the oldest, most mature adults between 17 and 19 cm, while the juveniles of S. longiceps arrive to spawn later in the season. The peak period for commercial catch is June and July, when the juvenile fish have fattened themselves to prepare for their first spawning season. Rarely does S. longiceps survive a second spawn, but this is much more common in females. Ovary development is classified in stages I-VI. Stages IV, V, and VI are able to spawn. Fish at stage IV have ovaries that fill two-thirds of their available body cavity. By stage VI, these ovaries fill the body cavity and are made up of large transparent ripe eggs. These fish only spawn once in a spawning season and produce around 75,000 eggs. The development of the egg requires only 24 hours. These eggs are spherical and range from 1 to 4 mm in diameter. These fish are called oil sardines because an oil globule makes up a major part of the egg yolk. These fish have 53 myotomes in the larval stage, but adults have only 46-48 vertebrae. The first day of development includes minimal movement, but it travels by serpentine swimming. By the end of this first day, the oil globule in the yolk disappears or is used up. On the second day of development, the pigmentation of the larva is stable and the eye coloration stabilizes to a silvery white sheen. During the third day, the yolk is completely used up.

text: Dioxins and PCBs may be carcinogenic at low levels of exposure over time. These substances are identified and measured in one of two categories, dioxin-like PCBs and total PCBs. While the U.S. FDA has not set a limit for PCBs in supplements, the Global Organization for EPA and DHA (GOED) has established a guideline allowing for no more than 3 picograms of dioxin-like PCBs per gram of fish oil. In 2012, samples from 35 fish oil supplements were tested for PCBs. Trace amounts of PCBs were found in all samples, and two samples exceeded the GOED‘s limit. Although trace amounts of PCBs contribute to overall PCB exposure, Consumerlab.com claims the amounts reported by tests it ordered on fish oil supplements are far below those found in a single typical serving of fish.

text: Fruit was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The recipe for Tart de brymlent, a fish pie from the recipe collection Forme of Cury, includes a mix of figs, raisins, apples and pears with fish (salmon, codling or haddock) and pitted damson plums under the top crust. It was considered important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of medicine and dietetics. This meant that food had to be "tempered" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients, condiments and spices; fish was seen as being cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as frying or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be boiled; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be roasted. In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the humoral nature than what a modern cook would consider to be similarity in taste. In a recipe for quince pie, cabbage is said to work equally well, and in another turnips could be replaced by pears.

text: Fruit

text: was readily combined with meat, fish and

text: eggs

text: . The recipe for Tart de brymlent, a fish pie from the recipe collection

text: Forme of Cury

text: , includes a mix of

text: fig

text: s,

text: raisin

text: s,

text: apple

text: s and

text: pear

text: s with fish (

text: salmon

text: , codling or

text: haddock

text: ) and pitted damson

text: plum

text: s under the top crust. It was considered important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of

text: medicine

text: and

text: dietetics

text: . This meant that food had to be "tempered" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients,

text: condiment

text: s and spices; fish was seen as being cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as

text: frying

text: or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices;

text: beef

text: was dry and hot and should therefore be

text: boiled

text: ; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be

text: roasted

text: . In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the

text: humoral

text: nature than what a modern cook would consider to be similarity in taste. In a recipe for

text: quince

text: pie,

text: cabbage

text: is said to work equally well, and in another

text: turnip

text: s could be replaced by pears.

text: The black scabbardfish is an iteroparious species, meaning it can spawn multiple times throughout its life. It is also a total spawner, meaning that it releases all of its eggs in one single event per breeding season. It also exhibits determinate fecundity, meaning that all of the eggs are oocytes in the ovary before spawning.  The females are expected to be able to spawn for a period of 8 years., however, skip spawning may occur. If non-reproductive males are mixed with spawning adults, the females will choose to allocate their energy towards large scale migration and growth and participate in skip spawning. The mature and spawning adult fish have only been observed in the last quarter of year in certain set of locations including Madeira, the Canaries, and the northwest coast of Africa. The gonadosomatic index is higher for the same body length in the black scabbardfish located around Madeira as opposed to off Mainland Portugal or to the west of the British Isles. This occurrence may be due to the areas lacking intrinsic and extrinsic factors that condition the maturity process in these areas. According to recent studies, developing females are dominant from April to August, and the reproduction period lasts from September to December with a prevalent number of pre-spawning and spawning females during this period. From December to March the majority of females are post-spawning. As for developing males their presence in seen throughout the year, however, mainly from March to August. Pre-spawning males are more abundant from July to November. Similar to the females, post-spawning males are prevalent from December to April. Generally, developing females are prevalent in Madeiran waters around spring and their reproductive cycles continue in this area, whereas mainland Portugal females begin to suffer from a generalized atresia from July on.

text: Two populations of a species can begin speciation by adapting to ecological niches that differ spatially, temporally, or in the amount or type of resources, predators, parasites, etc. This is known as ecological speciation. An example is the fish Gobiomorphus cotidianus of New Zealand. Within the same rivers live migratory and non-migratory populations, and these populations, although of the same species, are genetically distinct and spawn in different seasons.

text: Two

text: population

text: s of a species can begin speciation by adapting to

text: ecological niche

text: s that differ spatially, temporally, or in the amount or type of resources, predators, parasites, etc. This is known as

text: ecological speciation

text: . An example is the fish

text: Gobiomorphus cotidianus

text: of

text: New Zealand

text: . Within the same rivers live migratory and non-migratory populations, and these populations, although of the same species, are genetically distinct and spawn in different seasons.

text: Marine mammal adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle vary considerably between species. Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate ocean dwellers. Pinnipeds are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as mating, breeding and molting. In contrast, both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living. Likewise, their diet ranges considerably as well; some may eat zooplankton, others may eat small fish, and a few may eat other mammals. While the number of marine mammals is small compared to those found on land, their roles in various ecosystems are large. They, namely sea otters and polar bears, play important roles in maintaining marine ecosystems, especially through regulation of prey populations. Their role in maintaining ecosystems makes them of particular concern considering 23% of marine mammal species are currently threatened.

text: The caught fish in a boat’s net belonged to its owner, regardless of what position he held within the Lanchão or Sardinheiro castes. The fish caught was thus marked with the sigla and delivered to the fishing net owner. These fish marks are usually blows made in sigla form in different parts of the fish.

text: For example, fish derive mainly passive benefits from forming social groups, including physical protection from predators and better detection of food and danger from the combined awareness of many group members; these ecological benefits increase with the size of the group. Dr. Burgess’ measurements showed how fish simultaneously monitor the position and activity of many speciesmates simultaneously to create large, geometric group patterns. Bird flocks and territories are similarly organized.

text: For example, fish derive mainly passive benefits from forming social groups, including physical protection from predators and better detection of food and danger from the combined awareness of many group members; these ecological benefits increase with the size of the group. Dr. Burgess’ measurements showed how fish simultaneously monitor the position and activity of many speciesmates simultaneously to create large, geometric group

text: patterns

text: . Bird

text: flocks

text: and

text: territories

text: are similarly organized.

text: Salmon, Dungeness crab, steelhead and many other fish that are used economically will be negatively affected by the increase in temperatures. Southern species, including Hake and Mackerel are predators of baby salmon. Scientists say these species have been feeding on salmon migrating out of the Columbia river.  These fish need cold and clean water to reproduce successfully. The high and low flows of the rivers will be shifted in the seasons, negatively affecting salmon rearing. Increases in water temperatures could affect the food for fish in rivers, lakes, Puget Sound and coastal ocean regions. Fishing is big business in the Pacific Northwest and many local economies depend on fishing. There is a current debate on how to allocate the run of salmon. The local Native American tribes get a modest percentage of the statewide income from salmon fishing, with the majority going to commercial fishermen. The ones left out are the sport fishermen, those who participate in recreational fishing. The economic problem with this is that sport fishermen spend much more money per fish caught, and since they are less efficient, they drive the economy through the Spending multiplier throughout the local economy. The salmon allocation is hotly contested and when salmon populations are low, local economies suffer the majority of the impact. During 2007, the commercial fishermen caught 43% and the sport fishermen caught 57% of the total fish. Native Americans' treaties guarantee them a maximum of 50% of the total run before the commercial and sport fishers take their share, under the Boldt Decision of 1974.

text: Salmon,

text: Dungeness crab

text: , steelhead and many other fish that are used economically will be negatively affected by the increase in temperatures. Southern species, including Hake and Mackerel are predators of baby salmon. Scientists say these species have been feeding on salmon migrating out of the Columbia river.  These fish need cold and clean water to reproduce successfully. The high and low flows of the rivers will be shifted in the seasons, negatively affecting salmon rearing. Increases in water temperatures could affect the food for fish in rivers, lakes, Puget Sound and coastal ocean regions. Fishing is big business in the Pacific Northwest and many local economies depend on fishing. There is a current debate on how to allocate the run of salmon. The local

text: Native American

text: tribes get a modest percentage of the statewide income from salmon fishing, with the majority going to

text: commercial fishermen

text: . The ones left out are the

text: sport fishermen

text: , those who participate in

text: recreational fishing

text: . The economic problem with this is that sport fishermen spend much more money per fish caught, and since they are less efficient, they drive the economy through the

text: Spending multiplier

text: throughout the local economy. The salmon allocation is hotly contested and when salmon populations are low, local economies suffer the majority of the impact. During 2007, the commercial fishermen caught 43% and the sport fishermen caught 57% of the total fish.

text: Native American

text: s' treaties guarantee them a maximum of 50% of the total run before the commercial and sport fishers take their share, under the

text: Boldt Decision

text: of 1974.

text: Aquatic Biomonitoring is important in monitoring marine life and their ecosystems. Monitoring aquatic life can also be beneficial in understanding land ecosystems as well. Before there were tetrapods, there were fish. These fish then evolved into tetrapods that we see today. Because of this, aquatic life still has a major impact on life on land. Aquatic biomonitoring can represent the overall health and status of the environment, detect different environmental trends and how different stressors will affect those trends, and interpret the affect of different environmental activity will have on the overall health of the environment. Pollution and general stresses to aquatic life can have a huge impact on the environment in general. The main sources of pollution to oceans, rivers, and lakes are sewage, oil spills, land runoff, littering, ocean mining, and nuclear waste. These types of pollution cause a huge upset to marine life and can endanger any species in the water or that live close to the water. When aquatic species are affected, it causes a ripple effect. Many aquatic animals are a main food source for many land animals. For example: if a specific species of fish ingest toxins and become sick, the birds that ingest that species of fish will also become sick. Then the animal that ingest that bird will also become sick. This is a problem that can be avoided by monitoring all life and conditions in different bodies of water, including fresh and salt water.

text: A common rig for fishing on the bottom is a weight tied to the end of the line, and a hook about an inch up line from the weight. The method can be used both with hand lines and rod fishing. The weight can also be used to cast or throw the line to an appropriate distance. Bottom fishing can be done both from boats and from the land. Bottom fishing targets groundfish such as sucker fish, bream, catfish, and crappie. Specialized fishing rods called "donkas" are also commonly used for bottom fishing.

text: A common rig for fishing on the bottom is a

text: weight

text: tied to the end of the

text: line

text: , and a

text: hook

text: about an inch up line from the weight. The method can be used both with

text: hand lines

text: and

text: rod fishing

text: . The weight can also be used to

text: cast

text: or throw the line to an appropriate distance. Bottom fishing can be done both

text: from boats

text: and

text: from the land

text: . Bottom fishing targets

text: groundfish

text: such as

text: sucker fish

text: bream

text: catfish

text: , and

text: crappie

text: . Specialized

text: fishing rod

text: s called "donkas" are also commonly used for bottom fishing.

text: Mites have a lifecycle in which larvae hatch from the eggs, then feed and molt into nymphs. Several stages of nymphs may follow (another term for stages in this context is instar). The final molt produces an adult female or male. The early form of the female is described as pubescent (ready for mating) and may be equipped with protuberances that couple with matching sockets on the male during fertilization. Such coupled mites are a natural occurrence in skin-scrape samples of mites for diagnosis. Once mated, the female continues to develop and lay eggs; in the typical case of Psoroptes, females produce one large egg at a time. In most parasitic mites, the entire lifecycle takes place on the host, with all stages present simultaneously (an exception is the trombiculid mites where the nymphs and adults are free-living). This type of lifecycle, with all active stages resembling each other in structure and feeding mechanism, is called incomplete metamorphosis (or hemimetabolism). A metamorphosis is a distinct change of body shape. When the larval stages of an invertebrate animal are completely different from the adult stage, as with caterpillars changing into butterflies, a complete metamorphosis occurs (holometabolism).

text: Mites have a lifecycle in which larvae hatch from the eggs, then feed and molt into nymphs. Several stages of nymphs may follow (another term for stages in this context is

text: instar

text: ). The final molt produces an adult female or male. The early form of the female is described as pubescent (ready for mating) and may be equipped with protuberances that couple with matching sockets on the male during fertilization. Such coupled mites are a natural occurrence in skin-scrape samples of mites for diagnosis. Once mated, the female continues to develop and lay eggs; in the typical case of Psoroptes, females produce one large egg at a time. In most parasitic mites, the entire lifecycle takes place on the host, with all stages present simultaneously (an exception is the trombiculid mites where the nymphs and adults are free-living). This type of lifecycle, with all active stages resembling each other in structure and feeding mechanism, is called

text: incomplete metamorphosis

text: (or

text: hemimetabolism

text: ). A metamorphosis is a distinct change of body shape. When the larval stages of an invertebrate animal are completely different from the adult stage, as with caterpillars changing into butterflies, a complete metamorphosis occurs (

text: holometabolism

text: In Vespa crabro, the nest is founded in spring by a fertilized female known as the queen. She generally selects sheltered places like dark hollow tree trunks. She first builds a series of cells (up to 50) out of chewed tree bark. The cells are arranged in horizontal layers named combs, each cell being vertical and closed at the top. An egg is then laid in each cell. After 5–8 days, the egg hatches, and in the next two weeks, the larva undergoes its five stages. During this time, the queen feeds it a protein-rich diet of insects. Then, the larva spins a silk cap over the cell's opening and, during the next two weeks, transforms into an adult, a process called metamorphosis. The adult then eats its way through the silk cap. This first generation of workers, invariably females, will now gradually undertake all the tasks formerly carried out by the queen (foraging, nest building, taking care of the brood, etc.) with one exception: egg-laying, which remains exclusive to the queen.

text: In

text: Vespa crabro

text: , the nest is founded in spring by a fertilized female known as the queen. She generally selects sheltered places like dark hollow tree trunks. She first builds a series of cells (up to 50) out of chewed tree bark. The cells are arranged in horizontal layers named combs, each cell being vertical and closed at the top. An egg is then laid in each cell. After 5–8 days, the egg hatches, and in the next two weeks, the larva undergoes its five stages. During this time, the queen feeds it a protein-rich diet of insects. Then, the larva spins a silk cap over the cell's opening and, during the next two weeks, transforms into an adult, a process called

text: metamorphosis

text: . The adult then eats its way through the silk cap. This first generation of workers, invariably females, will now gradually undertake all the tasks formerly carried out by the queen (

text: foraging

text: , nest building, taking care of the

text: brood

text: , etc.) with one exception:

text: egg-laying

text: , which remains exclusive to the queen.

text: The grayling species, typically for salmonids, spawn in rivers and do not guard their brood, although they do conceal their eggs in silt. The spawning behavior of the Arctic grayling may be typical for the Thymallus genus.

text: The grayling species, typically for

text: salmonids

text: , spawn in rivers and do not guard their brood, although they do conceal their eggs in silt. The spawning behavior of the Arctic grayling may be typical for the Thymallus genus.

text: 30% of the Philippine's coral reefs are dead while 39% are dying.  The news isn't all bad: Establishment of the Sumilon Island marine reserve has resulted in a marked comeback of fish in adjacent areas. Along with the establishment of the Sumilon Island marine reserve, there is hope for the Philippines via boosts in ecotourism. In recent years, local Filipino governments have discovered that fishing is not the only economic benefit the reefs can provide.  They are confident that with a spread of ecotourism, even local fishermen will reap the financial benefits of this economic sector. A surge in coral reef conservation education is helping the tourism sector provide information to tourists on how to preserve the coral reefs while they enjoy the beauty and serenity of the reefs. The Philippines ecotourism sector is unfortunately stifled at this time due to a limited budget and there are approximately 7,000 islands to patrol for destructive fishing techniques.  Destructive fishing techniques are thought to be the largest contributor to reef degradation in the Philippines.

text: 30% of the Philippine's coral reefs are dead while 39% are dying.  The news isn't all bad: Establishment of the

text: Sumilon Island

text: marine reserve has resulted in a marked comeback of fish in adjacent areas. Along with the establishment of the Sumilon Island marine reserve, there is hope for the Philippines via boosts in

text: ecotourism

text: . In recent years, local Filipino governments have discovered that fishing is not the only economic benefit the reefs can provide.  They are confident that with a spread of ecotourism, even local fishermen will reap the financial benefits of this economic sector. A surge in coral reef conservation education is helping the tourism sector provide information to tourists on how to preserve the coral reefs while they enjoy the beauty and serenity of the reefs. The Philippines ecotourism sector is unfortunately stifled at this time due to a limited budget and there are approximately 7,000 islands to patrol for destructive fishing techniques.  Destructive fishing techniques are thought to be the largest contributor to reef degradation in the Philippines.

text: Additionally, every fish is also required to know the answers to a wide number of questions including, "What's for chow?", "How many days until Final Review?", and a long list of university history, or "Campusology," questions. Each morning and most evenings, a fish in each outfit will run "Whistle Jock," blowing a police whistle and announcing impending formations or activities to the unit. The Whistle Jock's announcement may be as simple as naming the upcoming event and the uniform to be worn, or as complex as including the weather, the menu for chow, the Sergeant and/or Officer of the Day, and special announcements requested by upperclassmen. For evening chow, several fish from each outfit run "fish of the Day," setting up their outfit's table(s) at Duncan Dining Hall prior to formation, then returning to the dorms immediately after chow to assist seniors in removing their boots.

text: Sexes are dioecious and females are not known to brood young. This statement is in conflict with other sources that state that smaller females brood their young and larger females discharge eggs directly in the water and do not brood them.  This is one reason that is leading biologists to believe this is a species complex.Embryonic stages do not adhere to one another but float freely. Post-hatching larvae are ciliated and swim.  Spawned eggs have been measured at 1342 μm diameter.

text: Sexes are

text: dioecious

text: and females are not known to brood young. This statement is in conflict with other sources that state that smaller females brood their young and larger females discharge eggs directly in the water and do not brood them.  This is one reason that is leading biologists to believe this is a

text: species complex

text: Embryonic

text: stages do not adhere to one another but float freely. Post-hatching larvae are

text: ciliated

text: and swim.  Spawned eggs have been measured at 1342 μm diameter.

text: The order Cetacea includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises. They are the mammals most fully adapted to aquatic life with a spindle-shaped nearly hairless body, protected by a thick layer of blubber, and forelimbs and tail modified to provide propulsion underwater.

text: The order Cetacea includes

text: whale

text: s,

text: dolphin

text: s, and

text: porpoise

text: s. They are the mammals most fully

text: adapted to aquatic

text: life with a spindle-shaped nearly hairless body, protected by a thick layer of

text: blubber

text: , and forelimbs and tail modified to provide propulsion underwater.

text: Mahi mahi are also known as dorado or dolphin fish. However, they are not at all related to dolphins. Dolphins are air-breathing mammals, where as mahi mahi are water-breathing fish,  distantly related to perch. They are similar in taste to flounder and other whitefish.

text: Mahi mahi are also known as dorado or

text: dolphin fish

text: . However, they are not at all related to

text: dolphin

text: s. Dolphins are air-breathing

text: mammal

text: s, where as mahi mahi are water-breathing

text: fish

text: ,  distantly related to

text: perch

text: . They are similar in taste to

text: flounder

text: and other

text: whitefish

text: Many early suggestions focused on adaptations for an aquatic lifestyle, following the hypothesis that hadrosaurids were amphibious, a common line of thought until the 1960s. Thus, Alfred Sherwood Romer proposed it served as a snorkel, Martin Wilfarth that it was an attachment for a mobile proboscis used as a breathing tube or for food gathering, Charles M. Sternberg that it served as an airtrap to keep water out of the lungs, and Ned Colbert that it served as an air reservoir for prolonged stays underwater.

text: Many early suggestions focused on adaptations for an aquatic lifestyle, following the hypothesis that hadrosaurids were amphibious, a common line of thought until the 1960s. Thus,

text: Alfred Sherwood Romer

text: proposed it served as a

text: snorkel

text: , Martin Wilfarth that it was an attachment for a mobile

text: proboscis

text: used as a breathing tube or for food gathering,

text: Charles M. Sternberg

text: that it served as an airtrap to keep water out of the

text: lung

text: s, and

text: Ned Colbert

text: that it served as an air reservoir for prolonged stays underwater.

text: Spawning patterns in forage fish are highly predictable. Some fisheries use knowledge of these patterns to harvest the forage species as they come together to spawn, removing the fish before they have actually spawned. Fishing during spawning periods or at other times when forage fish amass in large numbers can also be a blow to predators. Many predators, such as whales, tuna and sharks, have evolved to migrate long distances to specific sites for feeding and breeding. Their survival hinges on their finding these forage schools at their feeding grounds. The great ocean predators find that, no matter how they are adapted for speed, size, endurance or stealth, they are on the losing side when faced with the machinery of contemporary industrial fishing.

text: The lake also supports a strong sport fishery. While commercial fishing declined, sport fishing has remained. The deep cool waters that spawn the best fishing is in the Canadian side of the lake. As a result, a fishing boat that crosses the international border triggers the security concerns of border crossings and fishermen are advised to have their passport. If their boat crosses the invisible border line in the lake, upon returning to the American shore, passengers will have to "drive to a local government reporting station and pose for pictures" to Customs officers by videophone. There are cumbersome rules for fishing boat operators as well, who will have to fax passenger personal information to a government agency an hour before leaving; officers will be watching and doing spot checks from patrol boats and government aircraft". Authorities in 2008 from the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission have tried stocking the lake with brown trout in an effort to build what's called a put-grow-and-take fishery. There was a report that charter boat fishing increased substantially on the American side, from 46 to 638 charter boats in operation in Ohio alone, during a period from 1975 to 1985 as pollution levels declined, and after populations of walleye increased substantially in the lake. In 1984, Ohio sold 27,000 nonresident fishing permits, and sport fishing was described as big business. In 1992, there were accounts of fishermen catching 8, 10, and 12 pound walleyes, and that the "runt of a five-man daily limit of 25 walleye might be a nuisance of 5 pounds." It is possible to fish off piers in winter for a fish called the burbot, also known by pseudonyms such as eelpout, mudblow, lawyer fish, cusk, or freshwater cod which looks "ugly" but tastes great; the burbot make a midwinter spawning run and is reportedly one of "Erie's glacial relics."

text: The lake also supports a strong sport fishery. While commercial fishing declined, sport fishing has remained. The deep cool waters that spawn the best fishing is in the Canadian side of the lake. As a result, a fishing boat that crosses the international border triggers the security concerns of border crossings and fishermen are advised to have their passport. If their boat crosses the invisible border line in the lake, upon returning to the American shore, passengers will have to "drive to a local government reporting station and pose for pictures" to Customs officers by videophone. There are cumbersome rules for fishing boat operators as well, who will have to fax passenger personal information to a government agency an hour before leaving; officers will be watching and doing spot checks from patrol boats and government aircraft". Authorities in 2008 from the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission have tried stocking the lake with

text: brown trout

text: in an effort to build what's called a put-grow-and-take fishery. There was a report that charter boat fishing increased substantially on the American side, from 46 to 638 charter boats in operation in Ohio alone, during a period from 1975 to 1985 as pollution levels declined, and after populations of walleye increased substantially in the lake. In 1984, Ohio sold 27,000 nonresident fishing permits, and sport fishing was described as big business. In 1992, there were accounts of fishermen catching 8, 10, and 12 pound walleyes, and that the "runt of a five-man daily limit of 25 walleye might be a nuisance of 5 pounds." It is possible to fish off piers in winter for a fish called the

text: burbot

text: , also known by pseudonyms such as eelpout, mudblow, lawyer fish, cusk, or freshwater cod which looks "ugly" but tastes great; the burbot make a midwinter spawning run and is reportedly one of "Erie's glacial relics."

text: Lungfish appeared approximately 400 million years ago. It is a species that endured rapid evolution during the Devonian era, which became known as the dipnoan renaissance. The Acanthostega species, known as the fish with legs, is considered a tetrapod by structural findings but is postulated to have perhaps never left the aquatic environment. Its legs are not well-suited to support its weight. The bones of its forearm, the radius and ulna, are very thin at the wrist and also unable to support it on land. It also lacks a sacrum and strong ligaments at the hip, which would be integral to supporting the animal against gravity. In this sense, the species is considered a tetrapod but not one that has adapted well enough to walk on land. Furthermore, its gill bars have a supportive brace characterized for use as an underwater ear because it can pick up noise vibrations through the water. Tetrapods that adapted to terrestrial living adapted these gill bones to pick up sounds through air, and they later became the middle ear bones seen in mammalian tetrapods. Ichthyostega, on the other hand, is considered to be a fully terrestrial tetrapod that perhaps depended on water for its aquatic young. Comparisons between the skeletal features of Acanthostega and Ichthyostega reveal that they had different habits. Acanthostega is likely exclusive to an aquatic environment, while Ichthyostega is progressed in the aquatic to terrestrial transition by living dominantly on the shores.

text: Lungfish

text: appeared approximately 400 million years ago. It is a species that endured rapid evolution during the Devonian era, which became known as the dipnoan renaissance. The

text: Acanthostega

text: species, known as the fish with legs, is considered a

text: tetrapod

text: by structural findings but is postulated to have perhaps never left the aquatic environment. Its legs are not well-suited to support its weight. The bones of its forearm, the radius and ulna, are very thin at the wrist and also unable to support it on land. It also lacks a

text: sacrum

text: and strong ligaments at the hip, which would be integral to supporting the animal against gravity. In this sense, the species is considered a tetrapod but not one that has adapted well enough to walk on land. Furthermore, its gill bars have a supportive brace characterized for use as an underwater ear because it can pick up noise vibrations through the water. Tetrapods that adapted to terrestrial living adapted these gill bones to pick up sounds through air, and they later became the middle ear bones seen in mammalian tetrapods.

text: Ichthyostega

text: , on the other hand, is considered to be a fully terrestrial tetrapod that perhaps depended on water for its aquatic young. Comparisons between the skeletal features of Acanthostega and Ichthyostega reveal that they had different habits. Acanthostega is likely exclusive to an aquatic environment, while Ichthyostega is progressed in the aquatic to terrestrial transition by living dominantly on the shores.

text: However, the ongoing classification of these fish is difficult and often contentious, with ichthyologists basing ranks according to characteristics that may overlap irregularly (see Cladistics). DNA research sometimes confounds rather than clarifies species ranking. Ultimately, classifications can be rather arbitrary.

text: However, the ongoing classification of these fish is difficult and often contentious, with

text: ichthyologists

text: basing ranks according to characteristics that may overlap irregularly (see

text: Cladistics

text: DNA

text: research sometimes confounds rather than clarifies species ranking. Ultimately, classifications can be rather arbitrary.

text: The aquatic systems of Shipstern also consist in a mosaic of many habitats, differentiated by their permanent or temporary status, as well as salinity. Many species of fish seem to show high degrees of adaptability to either fresh or saline water. In forest pools, species typical of flowing streams are found, which suggest a vast underground aquifer connectivity. The critically endangered sawfish, of which several unconfirmed sightings have been reported, is most certainly extinct in the Shipstern Lagoon.

text: The tiger barb, an active shoaling fish, is usually kept in groups of six or more. They are often aggressive in numbers less than five, and are known fin nippers. Semi aggressive fish form a pecking order in the pack which they may extend to other fish, giving them a reputation for nipping at the fins of other fish, especially if they are wounded or injured. They are thus not recommended for tanks with slower, more peaceful fishes such as bettas, gouramis, angelfish and others with long, flowing fins. They do, however, work well with many fast-moving fish such as danios, platys and most catfish. When in large enough groups, however, they tend to spend most of their time chasing each other and leave other species of fish alone. They dwell primarily at the water's mid-level. One of the best tankmates for the tiger barb provided there is considerable space is the clown loach, which will school with the tiger barbs and act as they do, and the tigers act as the loaches do.Tiger barbs do best in soft, slightly acidic water. The tank should be well lit with ample vegetation, about two-thirds of the tank space. These barbs are omnivorous, and will consume processed foods such as flakes and crisps, as well as live foods. They are relatively greedy with their food consumption and can become aggressive during feeding time. Tiger barbs seem more susceptible than other species to cottonmouth (columnaris), a bacterial infection.

text: The tiger barb, an active

text: shoaling

text: fish, is usually kept in groups of six or more. They are often aggressive in numbers less than five, and are known fin nippers. Semi aggressive fish form a

text: pecking order

text: in the pack which they may extend to other fish, giving them a reputation for nipping at the fins of other fish, especially if they are wounded or injured. They are thus not recommended for tanks with slower, more peaceful fishes such as

text: betta

text: s,

text: gourami

text: s, angelfish and others with long, flowing fins. They do, however, work well with many fast-moving fish such as

text: danio

text: s,

text: platy

text: s and most catfish. When in large enough groups, however, they tend to spend most of their time chasing each other and leave other species of fish alone. They dwell primarily at the water's mid-level. One of the best tankmates for the tiger barb provided there is considerable space is the

text: clown loach

text: , which will school with the tiger barbs and act as they do, and the tigers act as the loaches do.Tiger barbs do best in soft, slightly acidic water. The tank should be well lit with ample vegetation, about two-thirds of the tank space. These barbs are omnivorous, and will consume processed foods such as flakes and crisps, as well as live foods. They are relatively greedy with their food consumption and can become aggressive during feeding time. Tiger barbs seem more susceptible than other species to cottonmouth (

text: columnaris

text: ), a bacterial infection.

text: Not all fish fit comfortably in the above groups. Ocean sunfish, for example, have a completely different system, and many small fish use their pectoral fins for swimming as well as for steering and dynamic lift. Fish with electric organs, such as those in Gymnotiformes, swim by undulating their fins while keeping the body still, presumably so as not to disturb the electric field that they generate.

text: Not all fish fit comfortably in the above groups.

text: Ocean sunfish

text: , for example, have a completely different system, and many small fish use their

text: pectoral fin

text: s for swimming as well as for steering and

text: dynamic lift

text: . Fish with electric organs, such as those in

text: Gymnotiformes

text: , swim by undulating their fins while keeping the body still, presumably so as not to disturb the electric field that they generate.

text: Rhytisma fulvum is a dioecious species of soft coral, colonies being either male or female. In the Red Sea, breeding takes place from late June to early August. By this time, the oocytes have been maturing for about ten months and the sperm sacs for seven months. Male colonies liberate sperm into the water column in a spawning event synchronised with the phase of the moon, with shallow-water colonies spawning earlier in the year than deep-water ones. Fertilisation takes place inside the cavities of the polyps in female colonies. The embryos are then brooded on the surface of the colony, entangled in a sticky mucus. After about six days, the planula larvae have completed their development and are liberated and soon settle on the seabed.  Each polyp in a female colony produces about twenty eggs, which is a relatively low number, but this is compensated for by the brooding process which maximises the chances of the developing larvae avoiding predation.

text: Rhytisma fulvum is a

text: dioecious

text: species of soft coral, colonies being either male or female. In the Red Sea, breeding takes place from late June to early August. By this time, the

text: oocyte

text: s have been maturing for about ten months and the

text: sperm sac

text: s for seven months. Male colonies liberate sperm into the

text: water column

text: in a

text: spawning event

text: synchronised with the phase of the moon, with shallow-water colonies spawning earlier in the year than deep-water ones. Fertilisation takes place inside the cavities of the polyps in female colonies. The

text: embryo

text: s are then brooded on the surface of the colony, entangled in a sticky mucus. After about six days, the

text: planula

text: larvae have completed their development and are liberated and soon settle on the seabed.  Each polyp in a female colony produces about twenty eggs, which is a relatively low number, but this is compensated for by the brooding process which maximises the chances of the developing larvae avoiding

text: predation

text: The minimum landing size (MLS) is the smallest fish measurement at which it is legal to keep or sell a fish. What the MLS is depends on the species of fish. Sizes also vary around the world, as they are legal definitions which are defined by the local regulatory authority. Commercial trawl and seine fisheries can control the size of their catch by adjusting the mesh size of their nets.

text: The minimum landing size (MLS) is the smallest

text: fish measurement

text: at which it is legal to keep or sell a

text: fish

text: . What the MLS is depends on the species of fish. Sizes also vary around the world, as they are legal definitions which are defined by the local regulatory authority. Commercial

text: trawl

text: and

text: seine

text: fisheries can control the size of their catch by adjusting the mesh size of their nets.

text: Little is known of their habits, but they are believed to feed on crustaceans. The larvae metamorphose into the adult form at about 7 mm standard length. Larvae and immatures inhabit the upper water layers, down to some dozen metres; larvae before notochord flexion/metamorphosis in particular can sometimes be found right at the surface. As opposed to adults, they still have a small swim bladder.

text: Little is known of their habits, but they are believed to feed on

text: crustacean

text: s. The larvae metamorphose into the adult form at about 7 mm

text: standard length

text: . Larvae and immatures inhabit the upper water layers, down to some dozen metres; larvae before

text: notochord

text: flexion/metamorphosis in particular can sometimes be found right at the surface. As opposed to adults, they still have a small

text: swim bladder

text: Although the skull of Junggarsuchus shares many characteristics with those of modern crocodilians, it is morphologically intermediate between sphenosuchians and mesoeucrocodylians. As in other sphenosuchians, the limbs of Junggarsuchus were adapted to terrestrial locomotion (movement on land), rather than semi-aquatic locomotion seen in living crocodilians. These adaptations include: a vertically orientated upper arm bone, ball-and-socket shoulder joint, and a functionally tridactyl (three-fingered) hand.

text: Although the skull of Junggarsuchus shares many characteristics with those of modern crocodilians, it is morphologically intermediate between sphenosuchians and

text: mesoeucrocodylia

text: ns. As in other sphenosuchians, the limbs of Junggarsuchus were adapted to terrestrial locomotion (movement on land), rather than semi-aquatic locomotion seen in living crocodilians. These adaptations include: a vertically orientated

text: upper arm bone

text: , ball-and-socket shoulder joint, and a functionally tridactyl (three-fingered) hand.

text: Near the island of Bonaire, reproduction takes place during the winter. A male eyed flounder defends a territory in which are up to six females, each with its own individual area. Courtship starts about an hour before sunset, and around the time the sun sets culminates in the female swimming a short way off the bottom with the male immediately below her. Both release their spawn simultaneously into the water. The male tries to mate with each of the females on a daily basis. When the larvae hatch from the fertilised eggs, they are pelagic and form part of the plankton in the open water, and their eyes are at first orientated in a normal, symmetrical manner. During their growth and development the eyes migrate to their adult position on the left side of the head. The larvae and juvenile fish form part of the diet of many fish and invertebrates, and the adults are preyed on by predatory fishes, gulls, egrets, herons, seals and sea lions.

text: Near the island of

text: Bonaire

text: , reproduction takes place during the winter. A male eyed flounder defends a

text: territory

text: in which are up to six females, each with its own individual area. Courtship starts about an hour before sunset, and around the time the sun sets culminates in the female swimming a short way off the bottom with the male immediately below her. Both release their spawn simultaneously into the water. The male tries to mate with each of the females on a daily basis. When the

text: larva

text: e hatch from the fertilised eggs, they are

text: pelagic

text: and form part of the

text: plankton

text: in the open water, and their eyes are at first orientated in a normal, symmetrical manner. During their growth and development the eyes migrate to their adult position on the left side of the head. The larvae and juvenile fish form part of the diet of many fish and invertebrates, and the adults are

text: preyed

text: on by predatory fishes,

text: gull

text: s,

text: egret

text: s,

text: heron

text: s,

text: seals

text: and

text: sea lion

text: s.

text: Projects organizing timed releases of water through Terzaghi Dam to enable fish-spawning ecology in the nearly-dry Bridge River below the dam are underway.

text: They exhibit strong seasonal variation in their reproductive activity. Unlike most parasites that produce gametes all year, paradoxum gametes are produced primarily during the spring, with the highest production from May to June and continuing through the rest of the summer. The eggs of Diplozoon paradoxum are laid in a freshwater fish's gills. There it hatches into a larva stage (oncomiracidium, diporpa). It remains in that stage unless two larvae come together. Then the two larvae undergo metamorphosis and become fused.

text: The larvae of some species (especially those in the south, and tiger salamanders) can reach their adult size before undergoing metamorphosis. During metamorphosis, the gills of the larvae disappear, as do the fins. Their tails, skin, and limbs become thicker, and the eyes develop lids. Their lungs become fully developed, allowing for a fully terrestrial existence.

text: The larvae of some species (especially those in the south, and tiger salamanders) can reach their adult size before undergoing

text: metamorphosis

text: . During metamorphosis, the gills of the larvae disappear, as do the fins. Their tails, skin, and limbs become thicker, and the eyes develop lids. Their lungs become fully developed, allowing for a fully terrestrial existence.

text: The quota management system in place in New Zealand makes the discarding of most species of fish illegal. The ITQ system in New Zealand is complex system, and where fish are landed by a fisherman without quota for a particular species, they have the option to buy quota from another fisherman, or the value of the overrun catch be surrendered to the state. In many cases the fishermen find it easier to discard the fish at sea than go through the complex system of landing the fish and then making it legal.There was a measurable increase in discarding immediately following the introduction of the ITQ system, despite the fact that fishermen were offered 10% of the market price for fish landed outside quota. In an attempt to address this change, the New Zealand Government increased the percentage of market price paid to 50%. The balance between offering an incentive to land discarded fish and the disincentive to catch fish over or outside quota limits is clearly a fine one, and dependent on the financial reward or penalty attached.

text: The quota management system in place in

text: New Zealand

text: makes the discarding of most species of fish illegal. The ITQ system in New Zealand is complex system, and where fish are landed by a fisherman without quota for a particular species, they have the option to buy quota from another fisherman, or the value of the overrun catch be surrendered to the state. In many cases the fishermen find it easier to discard the fish at sea than go through the complex system of landing the fish and then making it legal.There was a measurable increase in discarding immediately following the introduction of the ITQ system, despite the fact that fishermen were offered 10% of the market price for fish landed outside quota. In an attempt to address this change, the

text: New Zealand Government

text: increased the percentage of market price paid to 50%. The balance between offering an incentive to land discarded fish and the disincentive to catch fish over or outside quota limits is clearly a fine one, and dependent on the financial reward or penalty attached.

text: Adult lampreys spawn in rivers and then die. The young larvae, ammocoetes, spend several years in the rivers, where they live burrowed in fine sediment, filter feeding on detritus and microorganisms. Then, ammocoetes undergo a metamorphosis lasting several months. Some species do not feed after metamorphosis, while others migrate to the sea or lakes, where they feed on different species of fish and even on marine mammals. Species whose adults migrate to the sea begin preying on other fish soon after metamorphosis, even as they begin swimming downstream.

text: It is difficult to estimate how many recreational fishing boats there are, although the number is high. The term is fluid, since most recreational boats are also used for fishing from time to time. Unlike most commercial fishing vessels, recreational fishing boats are often not dedicated just to fishing. Just about anything that will stay afloat can be called a recreational fishing boat, so long as a fisher periodically climbs aboard with the intent to catch a fish. Fish are caught for recreational purposes from boats which range from dugout canoes, kayaks, rafts, pontoon boats and small dinghies to runabouts, cabin cruisers and cruising yachts to large, hi-tech and luxurious big game rigs. Larger boats, purpose-built with recreational fishing in mind, usually have large, open cockpits at the stern, designed for convenient fishing.

text: It is difficult to estimate how many

text: recreational fishing boats

text: there are, although the number is high. The term is fluid, since most recreational boats are also used for fishing from time to time. Unlike most commercial fishing vessels, recreational fishing boats are often not dedicated just to fishing. Just about anything that will stay afloat can be called a recreational fishing boat, so long as a

text: fisher

text: periodically climbs aboard with the intent to catch a fish. Fish are caught for recreational purposes from boats which range from

text: dugout canoe

text: s,

text: kayaks

text: raft

text: s,

text: pontoon boat

text: s and small

text: dinghies

text: to

text: runabouts

text: cabin cruiser

text: s and cruising yachts to large, hi-tech and luxurious

text: big game

text: rigs. Larger boats, purpose-built with recreational fishing in mind, usually have large, open

text: cockpits

text: at the

text: stern

text: , designed for convenient fishing.

text: This gallery represents the development of local fisheries with several featured themes, including traditional fishing outfits, life in a fishing village, the development of fishing vessels, types of Penghu's fisheries, the distribution and harvest methods of the economic aquatic products in the waters around Penghu, and what it is like under the sea.

text: This gallery represents the development of local

text: fisheries

text: with several featured themes, including traditional fishing outfits, life in a fishing village, the development of fishing vessels, types of Penghu's fisheries, the distribution and harvest methods of the economic aquatic products in the waters around Penghu, and what it is like under the sea.

text: Each starfish arm contains two gonads that release gametes through openings called gonoducts, located on the central disc between the arms. Fertilization is generally external but in a few species, internal fertilization takes place. In most species, the buoyant eggs and sperm are simply released into the water (free spawning) and the resulting embryos and larvae live as part of the plankton. In others, the eggs may be stuck to the undersides of rocks. In certain species of starfish, the females brood their eggs – either by simply enveloping them or by holding them in specialised structures. Brooding may be done in pockets on the starfish's aboral surface, inside the pyloric stomach (Leptasterias tenera) or even in the interior of the gonads themselves. Those starfish that brood their eggs by "sitting" on them usually assume a humped posture with their discs raised off the substrate. Pteraster militaris broods a few of its young and disperses the remaining eggs, that are too numerous to fit into its pouch. In these brooding species, the eggs are relatively large, and supplied with yolk, and they generally develop directly into miniature starfish without an intervening larval stage. The developing young are called lecithotrophic because they obtain their nutrition from the yolk as opposed to "planktotrophic" larvae that feed in the water column. In Parvulastra parvivipara, an intragonadal brooder, the young starfish obtain nutrients by eating other eggs and embryos in the brood pouch. Brooding is especially common in polar and deep-sea species that live in environments unfavourable for larval development and in smaller species that produce just a few eggs.

text: Each starfish arm contains two gonads that release

text: gametes

text: through openings called gonoducts, located on the central disc between the arms.

text: Fertilization

text: is generally external but in a few species, internal fertilization takes place. In most species, the buoyant eggs and sperm are simply released into the water (free spawning) and the resulting

text: embryo

text: s and

text: larva

text: e live as part of the

text: plankton

text: . In others, the eggs may be stuck to the undersides of rocks. In certain species of starfish, the females

text: brood

text: their eggs – either by simply enveloping them or by holding them in specialised structures. Brooding may be done in pockets on the starfish's aboral surface, inside the pyloric stomach (

text: Leptasterias tenera

text: ) or even in the interior of the gonads themselves. Those starfish that brood their eggs by "sitting" on them usually assume a humped posture with their discs raised off the substrate.

text: Pteraster militaris

text: broods a few of its young and disperses the remaining eggs, that are too numerous to fit into its pouch. In these brooding species, the eggs are relatively large, and supplied with

text: yolk

text: , and they generally develop directly into miniature starfish without an intervening larval stage. The developing young are called lecithotrophic because they obtain their nutrition from the yolk as opposed to "planktotrophic" larvae that feed in the

text: water column

text: . In

text: Parvulastra parvivipara

text: , an

text: intragonadal

text: brooder, the young starfish obtain nutrients by eating other eggs and embryos in the brood pouch. Brooding is especially common in polar and deep-sea species that live in environments unfavourable for larval development and in smaller species that produce just a few eggs.

text: Most fish reproduce by spawning, as do most other aquatic animals, including crustaceans such as crabs and shrimps, molluscs such as oysters and squid, echinoderms such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers, amphibians such as frogs and newts, aquatic insects such as mayflies and mosquitoes and corals, which are actually small aquatic animals—not plants. Fungi, such as mushrooms, are also said to "spawn" a white, fibrous matter that forms the matrix from which they grow.

text: Most fish reproduce by spawning, as do most other aquatic animals, including

text: crustacean

text: s such as crabs and shrimps,

text: mollusc

text: s such as oysters and squid,

text: echinoderm

text: s such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers,

text: amphibian

text: s such as frogs and newts,

text: aquatic insect

text: s such as mayflies and mosquitoes and

text: coral

text: s, which are actually small aquatic animals—not plants.

text: Fungi

text: , such as mushrooms, are also said to "spawn" a white, fibrous matter that forms the matrix from which they grow.

text: These combined factors are warming the Earth's land as well as the oceans. Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable. The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range. Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological, economic, and fishery management problems.

text: All salmonids spawn in fresh water, but in many cases, the fish spend most of their lives at sea, returning to the rivers only to reproduce. This lifecycle is described as anadromous. They are predators, feeding on small crustaceans, aquatic insects, and smaller fish.

text: All salmonids spawn in fresh water, but in many cases, the fish spend most of their lives at sea, returning to the rivers only to reproduce. This lifecycle is described as

text: anadromous

text: . They are

text: predators

text: , feeding on small crustaceans, aquatic insects, and smaller fish.

text: This game was developed by SIMS, the developer of several fishing games including Sega Marine Fishing, the Dreamcast version of Sega Bass Fishing, and Top Angler: Real Bass Fishing.

text: This game was developed by

text: SIMS

text: , the developer of several fishing games including

text: Sega Marine Fishing

text: , the

text: Dreamcast

text: version of

text: Sega Bass Fishing

text: , and

text: Top Angler: Real Bass Fishing

text: A Pobra do Caramiñal -A River Somewhere -Abalone -ABU Garcia -Age class structure -Agriculture in Libya -Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department -Agulhas Bank -Akebono Maru -Alaskan king crab fishing -Alexander Neil McLean -Algaculture -Algal bloom -Allan Marcus Atkinson McLean -Ama divers -Amadou -American Angler -American Angler -American lobster -List of American fishers -American Museum of Fly Fishing -American plaice -Amwell Magna Fishery -Anchovy -Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture -Andrea Gail -Androscoggin River -Angling -Angling in Yellowstone National Park -Angling records in the UK -Angling records of Europe -Anguillidae -Animas River -Aquaculture -Aquaculture engineering -Aquaponics -Aquatic ecosystem -Arctic char -Arctic Corsair -Arctic grayling -Argungu Fishing Festival -Arizona Game and Fish Department -Arkansas River -Arlesey Bomb -Artificial fly -Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC) -Astacus astacus -Atlantic cod -Atlantic cod -Atlantic herring -Atlantic salmon -Atlantic salmon -Atlantic Spanish mackerel -Atlantic surf clam -Atlantic tarpon -Atlantic white shrimp -Austevoll -Australian salmon

text: A Pobra do Caramiñal

text: A River Somewhere

text: Abalone

text: ABU Garcia

text: Age class structure

text: Agriculture in Libya

entity_name: Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department

text: Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department

text: Agulhas Bank

text: Akebono Maru

text: Alaskan king crab fishing

text: Alexander Neil McLean

text: Algaculture

text: Algal bloom

text: Allan Marcus Atkinson McLean

text: Ama divers

text: Amadou

text: American Angler

text: American Angler

text: American lobster

text: List of American fishers

text: American Museum of Fly Fishing

text: American plaice

text: Amwell Magna Fishery

text: Anchovy

text: Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture

text: Andrea Gail

text: Androscoggin River

text: Angling

text: Angling in Yellowstone National Park

text: Angling records in the UK

text: Angling records of Europe

text: Anguillidae

text: Animas River

text: Aquaculture

text: Aquaculture engineering

text: Aquaponics

text: Aquatic ecosystem

text: Arctic char

text: Arctic Corsair

text: Arctic grayling

text: Argungu Fishing Festival

text: Arizona Game and Fish Department

text: Arkansas River

text: Arlesey Bomb

text: Artificial fly

text: Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC)

text: Astacus astacus

text: Atlantic cod

text: Atlantic cod

text: Atlantic herring

text: Atlantic salmon

text: Atlantic salmon

text: Atlantic Spanish mackerel

text: Atlantic surf clam

text: Atlantic tarpon

text: Atlantic white shrimp

text: Austevoll

text: Australian salmon

text: The suitability of paratenic hosts in facilitating transmission differs according to species, with phylostome (open swimbladder) fish being less suitable than physoclist (closed swimbladder) fish. The latter allow further development of A. crassus larvae into the fourth stage and have lower rates of encapsulation, thereby permitting longer rates of survival.

text: The suitability of paratenic hosts in facilitating transmission differs according to species, with phylostome (open swimbladder) fish being less suitable than

text: physoclist

text: (closed swimbladder) fish. The latter allow further development of A. crassus larvae into the fourth stage and have lower rates of encapsulation, thereby permitting longer rates of survival.

text: Most fish that are sold as tropical fish are freshwater species. Most species available are generally bred from fish farms in the far east and Florida where tropical temperatures make the commercial production more viable. Mass production of tropical fish from farms has led to many inexpensive fish available to aquarists. Tropical freshwater fish are the most popular group of fish because of the low price and ease of keeping in aquaria. for Some species are difficult to breed in captivity and so are still sourced from the wild. These species are generally more expensive. Among the bred in captivity species most expensive species are arowanas and flowerhorns. Some male flowerhorns are sterile due to many cross breeding

text: Oyster reefs provide essential habitats for many ecological and economically important fish as well as invertebrate species. Healthy oyster populations improve the quality of water, which in turn improves commercial and recreational fishing, recreational boating, and ecotourism. Not only does oyster restoration create additional jobs through the duration of projects, but it also safeguards many other jobs ranging from marine construction to scientific research jobs. Dr. Paul Zimba, Director of the Center for Coastal Studies at Texas A&M-Corpus Christi said, "Oysters are an important ecological and economic resource. They create habitats for fish and shellfish, filter and clean bay waters, protect shorelines from erosion, and are a valued commercial fishery element."

text: Oyster reefs provide essential habitats for many ecological and economically important fish as well as invertebrate species. Healthy oyster populations improve the quality of water, which in turn improves commercial and recreational fishing, recreational boating, and

text: ecotourism

text: . Not only does oyster restoration create additional jobs through the duration of projects, but it also safeguards many other jobs ranging from marine construction to scientific research jobs. Dr. Paul Zimba, Director of the Center for Coastal Studies at

text: Texas A&M-Corpus Christi

text: said, "Oysters are an important ecological and economic resource. They create habitats for fish and shellfish, filter and clean bay waters, protect shorelines from erosion, and are a valued commercial fishery element."

text: Lake Parrish is privately owned, so it has no public boat ramps and swimming is not allowed in the lake. However, the public is allowed by FPL to fish the lake.  GORP says the lake has excellent fishing, but nowhere does this website or any other say what types of fish are in the lake.

text: In the wild, the species is only known from its type locality in the Sangha River, but it may be more widespread than is currently known.  The fish is harvested for human consumption.  As a whole, species of Synodontis are omnivores, consuming insect larvae, algae, gastropods, bivalves, sponges, crustaceans, and the eggs of other fishes.  The reproductive habits of most of the species of Synodontis are not known, beyond some instances of obtaining egg counts from gravid females. Spawning likely occurs during the flooding season between July and October, and pairs swim in unison during spawning.   The growth rate is rapid in the first year, then slows down as the fish age.

text: Wavy-rayed lampmussels are historically distributed throughout Southern Ontario as well as 13 U.S. States including the Ohio watershed.   In Ontario the mussel has been confirmed in at least four watersheds: the Ausable, Grand, Maitland and Thames river.  Mussels live in gravel and sand bottoms in medium-sized streams but are particularly sensitive to changes in their environment.  Typically the mussels are found in streams with good currents, and near to riffles, and are rarely found in medium-sized rivers.Like many mussels, the larvae of this species are parasitic and affix themselves to fish hosts.  At this stage the larvae consume nutrients from the fish body until they develop into juvenile mussels, and drop off.  Fish hosts used by the Wavy Rayed Lampmussel include the Largemouth Bass and the Smallmouth Bass.  These fish hosts are especially important to ensure healthy mussel populations.

text: Wavy-rayed lampmussels are historically distributed throughout Southern Ontario as well as 13 U.S. States including the Ohio watershed.   In Ontario the mussel has been confirmed in at least four watersheds: the Ausable, Grand, Maitland and Thames river.  Mussels live in gravel and sand bottoms in medium-sized streams but are particularly sensitive to changes in their environment.  Typically the mussels are found in streams with good currents, and near to riffles, and are rarely found in medium-sized rivers.Like many mussels, the

text: larvae

text: of this species are parasitic and affix themselves to fish hosts.  At this stage the larvae consume nutrients from the fish body until they develop into juvenile mussels, and drop off.  Fish hosts used by the Wavy Rayed Lampmussel include the

text: Largemouth Bass

text: and the

text: Smallmouth Bass

text: .  These fish hosts are especially important to ensure healthy mussel populations.

text: Females arrive after the nests are completed, coming in from deeper waters. The male then releases milt and the female releases eggs. Females may spawn in more than one nest, and more than one female may use the same nest. Also, more than one female will spawn with a male in one nest simultaneously. Females are able produce 1,500 to 1,700 eggs, depending on their size and age.

text: Females arrive after the nests are completed, coming in from deeper waters. The male then releases

text: milt

text: and the female releases eggs. Females may spawn in more than one nest, and more than one female may use the same nest. Also, more than one female will spawn with a male in one nest simultaneously. Females are able produce 1,500 to 1,700 eggs, depending on their size and age.

text: Betta pallifina are a mouthbrooding species of betta. The male is the caretaker, holding the fry in his mouth for up to three weeks. In captivity, these fish are very easy to breed. During spawning, which can take several hours, the male embraces the female. Fertilized eggs are gathered into the male's mouth and he retreats to brood the fry when spawning is complete. Parents do not predate the fry when they are released.

text: Betta pallifina are a

text: mouthbrooding

text: species of betta. The male is the caretaker, holding the fry in his mouth for up to three weeks. In captivity, these fish are very easy to breed. During spawning, which can take several hours, the male embraces the female. Fertilized eggs are gathered into the male's mouth and he retreats to brood the fry when spawning is complete. Parents do not predate the fry when they are released.

text: While newts are developing, they go through a stage of metamorphosis. Larvae that are in the metamorphosizing stage tend to prefer warmer temperatures than those in the stage following metamorphosis. Therefore, the larvae in this stage will undergo a much more precise thermoregulation process than those in the intermediate stage.

text: While newts are developing, they go through a stage of

text: metamorphosis

text: . Larvae that are in the metamorphosizing stage tend to prefer warmer temperatures than those in the stage following metamorphosis. Therefore, the larvae in this stage will undergo a much more precise thermoregulation process than those in the intermediate stage.

text: These fish prefer to live in and around aquatic vegetation so they can get adequate coverage from predators such as bass. They also prefer slow moving water such as lakes, or slow moving rivers. They are also social fish, as they prefer to live and travel in schools. They generally feed off of the bottom, but will rise to the surface to feed on insects. Their diet consists of plants and animals that are in the water in their habitat.

text: The classification of Fully Protected (often abbreviated as CFP) was the State's initial effort in the 1960s to identify and provide additional protection to those animals that were rare or faced possible extinction. Lists were created for fish, mammals, amphibians & reptiles,  and birds.

text: The classification of Fully Protected (often abbreviated as CFP) was the State's initial effort in the 1960s to identify and provide additional protection to those animals that were rare or faced possible extinction. Lists were created for

text: fish

text: mammals

text: amphibians

text: reptiles

text: ,  and

text: birds

text: Most filter-feeding pelagic fish found in coastal waters are small, silvery forage fish. Forage fish include fishes of the family Clupeidae (herrings, shad, sardines and pilchards, hilsa, menhaden and sprats), as well as anchovies, capelin and halfbeaks. They use schooling strategies to avoid predators, and different schools of forage fish often associate with each other in open coastal waters. Forage fish feed near the base of the food chain on plankton and fry (recently hatched fish), often by filter feeding. In turn, they are preyed on by larger predatory fish, seabirds and marine mammals.

text: Most filter-feeding pelagic fish found in coastal waters are small, silvery

text: forage fish

text: . Forage fish include fishes of the family

text: Clupeidae

text: herring

text: s,

text: shad

text: sardine

text: s and

text: pilchard

text: s,

text: hilsa

text: menhaden

text: and

text: sprat

text: s), as well as

text: anchovies

text: capelin

text: and

text: halfbeak

text: s. They use

text: schooling

text: strategies to avoid predators, and different schools of forage fish often associate with each other in open coastal waters. Forage fish feed near the base of the food chain on

text: plankton

text: and

text: fry

text: (recently hatched fish), often by

text: filter feeding

text: . In turn, they are preyed on by larger predatory fish,

text: seabird

text: s and

text: marine mammal

text: s.

text: C. membranaceus feeds on small fish and planktonic organisms which it catches with its tentacles. It is a protandrous hermaphrodite, starting life as a male and becoming a female later. The gametes are liberated into the sea and after fertilisation, the developing larvae drift with the plankton for a long time before settling on the seabed and undergoing metamorphosis into juvenile polyps.

text: C. membranaceus feeds on small fish and

text: plankton

text: ic organisms which it catches with its tentacles. It is a

text: protandrous hermaphrodite

text: , starting life as a male and becoming a female later. The gametes are liberated into the sea and after fertilisation, the developing

text: larva

text: e drift with the plankton for a long time before settling on the seabed and undergoing

text: metamorphosis

text: into juvenile polyps.

text: José Luis Castro Aguirre (24 June 1943 – 20 January 2011) was a Mexican ichthyologist. He was a founding member of the Mexican Ichthyological Society and a member of the National System of Investigators who produced around 150 publications, focusing chiefly on the taxonomy, ecology, and biogeography of the fishes of Mexico. His 1978 book Catálogo sistemático de los peces marinos que penetran en aguas continentales de México, con aspectos zoogeográficos y ecológicos ("Systematic catalog of marine fish entering inland waters of Mexico, with zoogeographical and ecological aspects") was the first catalog of estuarine fishes of Mexico. Born in Mexico City, he attended the National School of Biological Sciences at the National Polytechnic Institute (ENCB-IPN) earning a master's degree in 1974 and a PhD in 1986. He worked at the National Fisheries Institute and the Food and Agriculture Organization in the 1960s, and later was professor and researcher at the ENCB-IPN, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM; 1979–1987), the Interdisciplinary Center of Marine Science (CICIMAR; 1976–1979, 1994–2011) and Northeast Center of Biological Research (CIBNOR; 1987–1994). He described around a dozen fish species, including several species of shark. A book of research papers in his honor was produced in 2012, and he was posthumously commemorated in the names of the fish species Hypoplectrus castroaguirrei (a hamlet)  and  Eugerres castroaguirrei (a mojarra).

text: José Luis Castro Aguirre (24 June 1943 – 20 January 2011) was a Mexican

text: ichthyologist

text: . He was a founding member of the Mexican Ichthyological Society and a member of the

text: National System of Investigators

text: who produced around 150 publications, focusing chiefly on the taxonomy, ecology, and

text: biogeography

text: of the fishes of Mexico. His 1978 book Catálogo sistemático de los peces marinos que penetran en aguas continentales de México, con aspectos zoogeográficos y ecológicos ("Systematic catalog of marine fish entering inland waters of Mexico, with zoogeographical and ecological aspects") was the first catalog of

text: estuarine

text: fishes of Mexico. Born in

text: Mexico City

text: , he attended the

text: National School of Biological Sciences

text: at the

text: National Polytechnic Institute

text: (ENCB-IPN) earning a master's degree in 1974 and a PhD in 1986. He worked at the National Fisheries Institute and the

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: in the 1960s, and later was professor and researcher at the ENCB-IPN,

text: Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana

text: (UAM; 1979–1987), the Interdisciplinary Center of Marine Science (CICIMAR; 1976–1979, 1994–2011) and Northeast Center of Biological Research (CIBNOR; 1987–1994). He described around a dozen fish species, including several species of shark. A book of research papers in his honor was produced in 2012, and he was posthumously commemorated in the names of the fish species

text: Hypoplectrus castroaguirrei

text: (a

text: hamlet

text: )  and

text: Eugerres castroaguirrei

text: (a

text: mojarra

text: Fishing here is open to the public but a Vermont fishing license is required. The type of license depends on what kind of fishing you are doing.

text: Males turn more bluish during spawning. They build nests on rocks or coral ledges. Then, females lay their eggs in the nests and the male fertilizes them. Males guard and aerate the eggs until they hatch.

text: Members of individualist or collectivist cultures may make different attributions of the origins and motivations of movement on a small scale among animated objects, or what would cause movement within a group of animated objects. Participants from the UK, China and Hong Kong were shown videos of animated fish on a computer screen. The videos depicted a central fish moving toward or away from a group of fish, and participants were asked to determine the relationship among the fish: internally motivated  (the central fish was looking for food) or externally motivated (the central fish wanted to join the others). Another set of videos suggested that the group of fish was the predominant agent, with the individual fish being acted upon. These different videos provided an opportunity to determine whether group or individual action is the preferred motivating force among different cultures.

text: Members of

text: individual

text: ist or

text: collectivist

text: cultures may make different attributions of the origins and motivations of movement on a small scale among animated objects, or what would cause movement within a group of animated objects. Participants from the UK, China and Hong Kong were shown videos of animated fish on a computer screen. The videos depicted a central fish moving toward or away from a group of fish, and participants were asked to determine the relationship among the fish: internally motivated  (the central fish was looking for food) or externally motivated (the central fish wanted to join the others). Another set of videos suggested that the group of fish was the predominant agent, with the individual fish being acted upon. These different videos provided an opportunity to determine whether group or individual action is the preferred motivating force among different cultures.

text: Coral reefs found in the South Pacific are regarded as the "rainforest of the sea" harboring countless fish species large and small.  However, recently the live fish trade has threatened the sanctity of these endangered areas.  The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network has issued a recent report that estimates that 25% of the world's reefs are severely damaged and another third are in grave danger. The live fish trade is part of this alarming ecological trend caused by the popular use of cyanide which is injected into the coral reefs to stun inhabiting fish so they can be easily caught by nets.  It is estimated that since the 1960s, more than one million kilograms of cyanide has been squirted into Philippine reefs alone, and since then the practice has spread throughout the South Pacific. The live fish trade is only growing, in 1994 the Philippines exported 200,000 kg of live fish; by 2004 the Philippines were annually exporting 800,000 kg annually. Although Asian markets are the primary buyers of live reef fish for food, the recently created U.S. Coral Reef Task Force has concluded that the U.S. is the primary purchaser of live reef fish for aquariums as well as eclectic jewelry. Even though the use of cyanide in the live fish trade is severely detrimental, one must realize that this issue is multidimensional. Small-scale native fishermen of the small South Pacific coastal communities are the backbone of the live fish trade, and are forced to resort to the illegal use of sodium cyanide due to demand and high prices offered by the industry.

text: The fish-man of Liérganes (), is a cryptid which belongs to the mythology of Cantabria, located in the north of Spain. The fish-man of Liérganes would be an amphibian human-looking being, that looked a lot like a metamorphosis of a real human being who was lost at sea. His story was examined by the Enlightenment writer Benito Jerónimo Feijoo, who claimed that the story of the fish-man of Liérganes was true.

text: The fish-man of

text: Liérganes

text: (), is a

text: cryptid

text: which belongs to the

text: mythology of Cantabria

text: , located in the north of

text: Spain

text: . The fish-man of Liérganes would be an amphibian human-looking being, that looked a lot like a metamorphosis of a real human being who was lost at sea. His story was examined by the

text: Enlightenment

text: writer

text: Benito Jerónimo Feijoo

text: , who claimed that the story of the fish-man of Liérganes was true.

text: Compared with fully aquatic gobies, these fish present a range of peculiar behavioural and physiological adaptations to an amphibious lifestyle. Anatomical and behavioural adaptations that allow them to move effectively on land as well as in the water. As their name implies, these fish use their fins to move around in a series of skips.

text: Compared with fully aquatic gobies, these fish present a range of peculiar behavioural and physiological

text: adaptation

text: s to an amphibious lifestyle.

text: Anatomical

text: and

text: behavioural

text: adaptations that allow them to move effectively on land as well as in the water. As their name implies, these fish use their fins to move around in a series of skips.

text: Still on hard times and plagued by guilt over his recent shady dealings, Kyle has a heart to heart with Roxy at the Beunos Dias Café. Roxy later bumps into Fish and tells him that Kyle is crazy about him. Fish drags Kyle into the alley behind the café and demands to know what he's being telling Roxy. Kyle tries to remind him of what they had together, how much they loved each other, and tells him that he still loves him and kisses him. When they are interrupted by Cristian Vega, Fish pushes Kyle away and tells Cristian that Kyle was attacking him. Cristian doesn't believe him and tells Fish that there's nothing wrong with being gay, but he has to tell Layla the truth. Fish leaves and Cristian consoles Kyle. Humiliated, Kyle tells Cristian that he's done with Fish.

text: Still on hard times and plagued by guilt over his recent shady dealings, Kyle has a heart to heart with Roxy at the Beunos Dias Café. Roxy later bumps into Fish and tells him that Kyle is crazy about him. Fish drags Kyle into the alley behind the café and demands to know what he's being telling Roxy. Kyle tries to remind him of what they had together, how much they loved each other, and tells him that he still loves him and kisses him. When they are interrupted by

text: Cristian Vega

text: , Fish pushes Kyle away and tells Cristian that Kyle was attacking him. Cristian doesn't believe him and tells Fish that there's nothing wrong with being gay, but he has to tell Layla the truth. Fish leaves and Cristian consoles Kyle. Humiliated, Kyle tells Cristian that he's done with Fish.

text: These sensory organs help fish to sense electric fields in the water. Each ampulla consists of a jelly-filled canal opening to the surface by a pore in the skin and ending blindly in a cluster of small pockets full of special jelly. The ampullae are mostly clustered into groups inside the body, each cluster having ampullae connecting with different parts of the skin, but preserving a left-right symmetry. The canal lengths vary from animal to animal, but the distribution of the pores is generally specific to each species. The ampullae pores are plainly visible as dark spots in the skin. They provide fish with an additional sense capable of detecting electric and magnetic fields as well as temperature gradients.

text: These sensory organs help fish to sense electric fields in the water. Each ampulla consists of a jelly-filled canal opening to the surface by a

text: pore

text: in the skin and ending blindly in a cluster of small pockets full of special jelly. The ampullae are mostly clustered into groups inside the body, each cluster having ampullae connecting with different parts of the skin, but preserving a left-right

text: symmetry

text: . The canal lengths vary from animal to animal, but the distribution of the pores is generally specific to each species. The ampullae pores are plainly visible as dark spots in the skin. They provide fish with an additional

text: sense

text: capable of detecting

text: electric

text: and

text: magnetic field

text: s as well as temperature gradients.

text: Spawning occurs throughout the year but principally in spring and autumn. It is initiated by males performing various displays to attract potential females. During copulation, a male grasps the female and inserts the hectocotylus into the female's mantle cavity where fertilization usually occurs. Adult males usually then die shortly after spawning, whilst females survive for a short while until after brooding.

text: Spawning occurs throughout the year but principally in spring and autumn. It is initiated by males performing various displays to attract potential females. During copulation, a male grasps the female and inserts the

text: hectocotylus

text: into the female's mantle cavity where fertilization usually occurs. Adult males usually then die shortly after spawning, whilst females survive for a short while until after brooding.

text: Many practices in fish management that took place in the early 20th century serve as lessons and reminders that careful attention must be paid to fragile lake ecosystems. As debate continues over biodiversity in mountain lakes there will likely be a compromise required for success. One approach is low-density fish stocking. This requires baseline surveys that assess a lake’s abiotic and biotic factors before stocking any trout species. Likewise, with reduced numbers of trout going into lakes there is less environmental impact and greater opportunity for recreational fishing. Fish grow to greater sizes due to lack of competition for food and there are not enough fish present to negatively impact biota. Additional efforts are being made to avoid easily reproducing species of trout, as well as stocking sterile triploid fish. By introducing species that do not reproduce the fish are of the same age class and will eventually die, therefore allowing biota to recover. Reproducing fish put continual pressure on the biota of the lake. Overall the debate continues as lake management plans vary on a case to case basis and require reevaluation as species populations fluctuate.

text: As is typical worldwide of public owned resources, unlimited fishing has led to severe overfishing for some fisheries. In response to this quotas, catch limits, closed and open seasons and other regulations had to be set in place to control the who, when, how and where questions of fishing. In 1851—California enacted a law concerning oysters and oyster beds. In 1852 the first regulation of salmon fishing occurred when fishing weirs or stream fish obstructions were prohibited and closed seasons established. In 1870 California Board of Fish Commissioners, predecessor to the California Department of Fish and Game was established. In 1870 the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) was introduced, in 1871 shad, in 1874 Catfish and in 1879 striped bass were all introduced to California waters. California has about 4,000 lakes and  of streams and canals suitable for game fish. To help fish get around dams fish ladders are constructed to allow them to pass on upstream for spawning etc. To preserve, protect and enhance existing fishing the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) tries to keep all fishing laws enforced. The 720 properties managed by the DFG are: 110 wildlife areas, 130 ecological reserves, 11 marine reserves, 159 public access areas, 21 fish hatcheries and 289 other types of properties. To help keep California waters stocked with fish in 1870 the first California fish hatcheries were built—mostly trout hatcheries. Today (2011) there are eight salmon and steelhead hatcheries and 13 trout hatcheries. Though hatcheries may help some fishing stocks they are no panacea to counteract overfishing, habitat destruction, stream restrictions, water diversions, etc.

text: As is typical worldwide of public owned resources, unlimited fishing has led to severe

text: overfishing

text: for some fisheries. In response to this quotas, catch limits, closed and open seasons and other regulations had to be set in place to control the who, when, how and where questions of fishing. In 1851—California enacted a law concerning oysters and oyster beds. In 1852 the first regulation of salmon fishing occurred when fishing weirs or stream fish obstructions were prohibited and closed seasons established. In 1870 California Board of Fish Commissioners, predecessor to the

text: California Department of Fish and Game

text: was established. In 1870 the

text: eastern oyster

text: (Crassostrea virginica) was introduced, in 1871

text: shad

text: , in 1874

text: Catfish

text: and in 1879

text: striped bass

text: were all introduced to California waters. California has about 4,000 lakes and  of streams and canals suitable for game fish. To help fish get around dams

text: fish ladder

text: s are constructed to allow them to pass on upstream for

text: spawning

text: etc. To preserve, protect and enhance existing fishing the

text: California Department of Fish and Game

text: (DFG) tries to keep all fishing laws enforced. The 720 properties managed by the DFG are: 110 wildlife areas, 130 ecological reserves, 11 marine reserves, 159 public access areas, 21 fish hatcheries and 289 other types of properties. To help keep California waters stocked with fish in 1870 the first California fish hatcheries were built—mostly

text: trout

text: hatcheries. Today (2011) there are eight

text: salmon

text: and

text: steelhead

text: hatcheries and 13

text: trout

text: hatcheries. Though hatcheries may help some fishing stocks they are no panacea to counteract

text: overfishing

text: , habitat destruction, stream restrictions, water diversions, etc.

text: Recovery efforts are focused on operating dams to create more of a natural flow pattern, improving fish passage up- and downstream, and restricting stocking of nonnative fish to reduce ecological interactions.  Thus far, progress in recovering the pikeminnow has been limited.

text: Teleosts possess highly developed sensory organs. Nearly all daylight fish have colour vision at least as good as a normal human's. Many fish also have chemoreceptors responsible for acute senses of taste and smell. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system, which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Fish sense sounds in a variety of ways, using the lateral line, the swim bladder, and in some species the Weberian apparatus. Fish orient themselves using landmarks, and may use mental maps based on multiple landmarks or symbols. Experiments with mazes show that fish possess the spatial memory needed to make such a mental map.

text: Teleosts possess highly developed sensory organs. Nearly all daylight

text: fish have colour vision

text: at least as good as a normal human's. Many fish also have

text: chemoreceptor

text: s responsible for acute senses of taste and smell. Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the

text: lateral line system

text: , which detects gentle currents and vibrations, and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey. Fish sense sounds in a variety of ways, using the lateral line, the swim bladder, and in some species the Weberian apparatus. Fish orient themselves using landmarks, and may use

text: mental map

text: s based on multiple landmarks or symbols. Experiments with mazes show that fish possess the

text: spatial memory

text: needed to make such a mental map.

text: Fish supply is more than what the city currently needs. Being rich in natural resources and considered as one of the few fishing centers of Negros Occidental, Cadiz, rich in marine resources, is envisioned to be the seafood center of Negros and an alternative tourist destination. In Barangays Daga and Tiglawigan, for instance, dried fish processing and boat building are the major economic activities.

text: Comparison studies between sub-Antarctic and Antarctic notothenioids have revealed different ecological processes and genetic differences between the two groups of fish, like loss of hemoglobin and changes in buoyancy.

text: Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish. Mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats.

text: Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of

text: fish

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: mollusc

text: s,

text: aquatic plants,

text: algae

text: , and other aquatic organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with

text: commercial fishing

text: , which is the harvesting of

text: wild fish

text: Mariculture

text: refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats.

text: Some fish have evolved to exploit the mouthbrooding behaviour of other species. Synodontis multipunctatus, also known as the cuckoo catfish, combines mouthbrooding with the behavior of a brood parasite: it eats the host mouthbrooder's eggs, while spawning and simultaneously laying and fertilizing its own eggs. The mouthbrooder (typically a cichlid) incubates the cuckoo catfish young, the catfish eggs hatch earlier than the cichlid's eggs, and eat the as-yet unhatched cichlid eggs before being set free.

text: Some fish have evolved to exploit the mouthbrooding behaviour of other species.

text: Synodontis multipunctatus

text: , also known as the cuckoo catfish, combines mouthbrooding with the behavior of a

text: brood parasite

text: : it eats the host mouthbrooder's eggs, while spawning and simultaneously laying and fertilizing its own eggs. The mouthbrooder (typically a cichlid) incubates the cuckoo catfish young, the catfish eggs hatch earlier than the cichlid's eggs, and eat the as-yet unhatched cichlid eggs before being set free.

text: Redwood Creek provides a critical spawning and rearing habitat for coho or silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  Steelhead  are listed as threatened species (2011) in the Central California Coast distinct population segment.  Coho salmon are listed as endangered in their evolutionary significant unit (2011). The creek is near the southernmost limit of coho habitat and the fish have never been stocked, so they have a distinctive DNA. The Redwood Creek salmon are Central Coast coho salmon which have been listed as federally threatened species since October 2006 and as federally endangered species in June 2005. Coho migrate from the ocean back to freshwater for a single chance at reproduction, generally after two years in the ocean. The spawning migrations begin after heavy late fall or winter rains breach the sandbar at Muir Beach allowing the fish to move upstream (usually in December and January). No salmon were seen in the 2007–2008 winter run, nor the 2008–2009 winter run. Evidence points to exhaustion of smolt oversummering in the creek due to a loss of large woody debris and deep pools where young salmon can rest. Starting in 2009, the National Park Service began restoring Muir Beach to create a functional, self-sustaining ecosystem and improve visitor access. The intervention was almost too late, since the coho only has a three-year life span. But, as of January 2010, and for the first time in three years, an estimated 45 coho swam up Redwood Creek to spawn, creating 23 redds or clusters of eggs. In 2011, 11 live adult coho and 1 coho carcass was observed, along with three redds, a modest increase over the 2007-2008 spawning season. Statewide the coho population is 1% of its levels in the 1940s and the fish have vanished from 90% of the streams they formerly visited.  The Watershed Alliance of Marin reported that no salmon returned to spawn in 2014, prompting concerns that the fish may now be extirpated from the creek.

text: Redwood Creek provides a critical spawning and rearing habitat for

text: coho

text: or silver salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and

text: steelhead

text: (Oncorhynchus mykiss).  Steelhead  are listed as

text: threatened species

text: (2011) in the Central California Coast

text: distinct population segment

text: .  Coho salmon are listed as endangered in their

text: evolutionary significant unit

text: (2011). The creek is near the southernmost limit of coho habitat and the fish have never been stocked, so they have a distinctive DNA. The Redwood Creek salmon are Central Coast coho salmon which have been listed as federally threatened species since October 2006 and as federally

text: endangered species

text: in June 2005. Coho migrate from the ocean back to freshwater for a single chance at reproduction, generally after two years in the ocean. The spawning migrations begin after heavy late fall or winter rains breach the sandbar at

text: Muir Beach

text: allowing the fish to move upstream (usually in December and January). No salmon were seen in the 2007–2008 winter run, nor the 2008–2009 winter run. Evidence points to exhaustion of smolt oversummering in the creek due to a loss of large woody debris and deep pools where young salmon can rest. Starting in 2009, the

text: National Park Service

text: began restoring Muir Beach to create a functional, self-sustaining ecosystem and improve visitor access. The intervention was almost too late, since the coho only has a three-year life span. But, as of January 2010, and for the first time in three years, an estimated 45 coho swam up Redwood Creek to spawn, creating 23 redds or clusters of eggs. In 2011, 11 live adult coho and 1 coho carcass was observed, along with three redds, a modest increase over the 2007-2008 spawning season. Statewide the coho population is 1% of its levels in the 1940s and the fish have vanished from 90% of the streams they formerly visited.  The

text: Watershed Alliance of Marin

text: reported that no salmon returned to spawn in 2014, prompting concerns that the fish may now be

text: extirpated

text: from the creek.

text: These flatworms typically occur in teleost fishes as sexually reproducing adults. In their intermediate hosts, which include mollusks and at least one amphibian, they occur as asexually reproducing stages.

text: These flatworms typically occur in

text: teleost

text: fishes as sexually reproducing adults. In their intermediate hosts, which include

text: mollusks

text: and at least one

text: amphibian

text: , they occur as asexually reproducing stages.

text: Particularly among fishes, hermaphroditism can pay off in situations where one sex is more likely to survive and reproduce, perhaps because it is larger. Anemone fishes are sequential hermaphrodites which are born as males, and become females only when they are mature. Anemone fishes live together monogamously in a anemone, protected by the anemone stings. The males do not have to compete with other males, and female anemone fish are typically larger. When a female dies a juvenile (male) anemone fish moves in, and "the resident male then turns into a female and reproductive advantages of the large female–small male combination continue". In other fishes sex changes are reversible. For example, if some gobies are grouped by sex (male or female), some will switch sex.

text: Particularly among fishes, hermaphroditism can pay off in situations where one sex is more likely to survive and reproduce, perhaps because it is larger.

text: Anemone fish

text: es are sequential hermaphrodites which are born as males, and become females only when they are mature. Anemone fishes live together monogamously in a

text: anemone

text: , protected by the anemone stings. The males do not have to compete with other males, and female anemone fish are typically larger. When a female dies a juvenile (male) anemone fish moves in, and "the resident male then turns into a female and reproductive advantages of the large female–small male combination continue". In other fishes sex changes are reversible. For example, if some

text: gobies

text: are grouped by sex (male or female), some will switch sex.

text: Orange roughy are oceanodromous,  pelagic spawners: that is, they migrate several hundred kilometers between localized spawning and feeding areas each year and form large spawning aggregations (possibly segregated according to sex) wherein the fish release large, spherical eggs  in diameter, made buoyant by an orange-red oil globule) and sperm en masse directly into the water. The fertilized eggs, which are said to be , (and later larvae) are planktonic, rising to around  to develop, with the young fish eventually descending to deeper waters as they mature. Orange roughy are also synchronous, shedding sperm and eggs at the same time. The time between fertilization and hatching is thought to be 10 to 20 days; fecundity is low, with each female producing only 22,000 eggs per kg of body weight which is less than 10% of the average for other species of fish. Also, spawning can last up to three weeks and starts around June or July. Orange roughy are very slow-growing and do not begin to breed until they are at least 20 years old, when they are around  in length.

text: Orange roughy are

text: oceanodromous

text: pelagic

text: spawner

text: s: that is, they

text: migrate

text: several hundred kilometers between localized spawning and feeding areas each year and form large spawning aggregations (possibly segregated according to sex) wherein the fish release large, spherical

text: eggs

text: in diameter, made buoyant by an orange-red

text: oil

text: globule) and

text: sperm

text: en masse directly into the water. The fertilized eggs, which are said to be , (and later

text: larva

text: e) are

text: plankton

text: ic, rising to around  to develop, with the young fish eventually descending to deeper waters as they mature. Orange roughy are also synchronous, shedding sperm and eggs at the same time. The time between fertilization and hatching is thought to be 10 to 20 days;

text: fecundity

text: is low, with each female producing only 22,000 eggs per kg of body weight which is less than 10% of the average for other species of fish. Also, spawning can last up to three weeks and starts around June or July. Orange roughy are very slow-growing and do not begin to breed until they are at least 20 years old, when they are around  in length.

text: Larvae are liberated by Ophlitaspongia papilla over a period of about a month in late summer. These initially swim upwards, rotating as they swim, and remain at the surface. Most later swim downwards and descend to the substrate where they can creep about before metamorphosis takes place some 24 to 36 hours after liberation, but some metamorphose on the surface. Mortality is high in widely-separated individuals but lower when several undergo metamorphosis close together as these individuals subsequently coalesce into fused masses. It is possible that these masses could be formed by larvae from different sponge populations. The result may be equivalent to cross-fertilisation within a common envelope and result in an enlarged gene pool and the efficient production of genetic diversity.

text: Larva

text: e are liberated by Ophlitaspongia papilla over a period of about a month in late summer. These initially swim upwards, rotating as they swim, and remain at the surface. Most later swim downwards and descend to the substrate where they can creep about before

text: metamorphosis

text: takes place some 24 to 36 hours after liberation, but some metamorphose on the surface. Mortality is high in widely-separated individuals but lower when several undergo metamorphosis close together as these individuals subsequently coalesce into fused masses. It is possible that these masses could be formed by larvae from different sponge populations. The result may be equivalent to cross-fertilisation within a common envelope and result in an enlarged

text: gene pool

text: and the efficient production of

text: genetic diversity

text: Research faculty in the Center have diverse capabilities including molecular genetics, aquatic toxicology, aquatic ecology, bioenergetics, fish nutrition, fish physiology, fisheries policy and management, and aquaculture technology.

text: Research faculty in the Center have diverse capabilities including molecular genetics, aquatic toxicology, aquatic ecology,

text: bioenergetics

text: , fish

text: nutrition

text: , fish physiology,

text: fisheries

text: policy and management, and

text: aquaculture

text: technology.

text: The banded darter prefers to live around swift riffles of moderately large to large cobble or gravel, rock slabs, and small boulders in moderate-sized streams and rivers. The banded darter prefers water deeper than 25 cm in the riffles around the midchannel of the river or creek. The diet of the banded darter consists of midge, mayfly larva, black flies and trichopeteran larvae. Ten specimens of the banded darter were captured and monitored in a tank. Chironomids (larvae of non-biting flies called midges), ephemeropterans (mayflies), and trichopterans (caddisflies) were supplied for the darters to eat. The study found the banded darter prefers chironomids over the mayflies (ephemeropterans) or caddisflies (trichopterans), and the fish fed more during the day than they did at night. The banded darter has a diverse range of temperatures it can tolerate; it can survive in water between 32 and 80 °F, but its preferred temperature range is between 72 and 76 °F. As a small fish, banded darters have numerous predators including larger fish such as smallmouth bass and largemouth bass, as well as fish-eating birds like herons and egrets. This darter will compete with other darters for habitat. For example, in the Susquehanna River drainage, the tessellated darter competes with the banded darter. Humans may affect their distribution. For example, dams slow the flow of a river or a creek and could cause loss of habitat. By contrast, climate change / global warming could increase the range of distribution of the banded darter by resulting in warmer water closer to their preferred temperature.

text: The banded darter prefers to live around swift riffles of moderately large to large

text: cobble

text: or gravel, rock slabs, and small boulders in moderate-sized streams and rivers. The banded darter prefers water deeper than 25 cm in the riffles around the midchannel of the river or creek. The diet of the banded darter consists of midge, mayfly larva, black flies and trichopeteran larvae. Ten specimens of the banded darter were captured and monitored in a tank. Chironomids (larvae of non-biting flies called midges), ephemeropterans (mayflies), and trichopterans (caddisflies) were supplied for the darters to eat. The study found the banded darter prefers

text: chironomid

text: s over the mayflies (

text: ephemeropterans

text: ) or caddisflies (

text: trichopterans

text: ), and the fish fed more during the day than they did at night. The banded darter has a diverse range of temperatures it can tolerate; it can survive in water between 32 and 80 °F, but its preferred temperature range is between 72 and 76 °F. As a small fish, banded darters have numerous predators including larger fish such as

text: smallmouth bass

text: and

text: largemouth bass

text: , as well as fish-eating birds like

text: heron

text: s and

text: egret

text: s. This darter will compete with other darters for habitat. For example, in the Susquehanna River drainage, the tessellated darter competes with the banded darter. Humans may affect their distribution. For example, dams slow the flow of a river or a creek and could cause loss of habitat. By contrast, climate change / global warming could increase the range of distribution of the banded darter by resulting in warmer water closer to their preferred temperature.

text: Some of the oldest and most successful insect groups, such Endopterygota, use a system of complete metamorphosis. Complete metamorphosis is unique to a group of certain insect orders including Diptera, Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera. This form of development is exclusive and not seen in any other arthropods.

text: Some of the oldest and most successful insect groups, such

text: Endopterygota

text: , use a system of complete metamorphosis. Complete metamorphosis is unique to a group of certain insect orders including

text: Diptera

text: Lepidoptera

text: and

text: Hymenoptera

text: . This form of development is exclusive and not seen in any other arthropods.

text: In 1875, McDonald developed an interest in fish farming and became administrator of the Virginia state fish hatchery at Wytheville. He was appointed as the sole Fish Commissioner of Virginia shortly thereafter. It was during his tenure as the Fish Commissioner of Virginia that McDonald invented the fish ladder that was named for him. In 1877, McDonald was commissioned by Virginia to conduct a survey of mineral resources within the James River basin, the findings of which he reported to the Virginia General Assembly in 1879. McDonald continued to instruct at the Virginia Military Institute until 1879, when he was invited by his former professor Spencer Fullerton Baird to a position at the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. McDonald accepted the position with the Fish Commission and submitted his resignation from the Virginia Fish Commission to Governor of Virginia, Fitzhugh Lee.

text: In 1875, McDonald developed an interest in

text: fish farming

text: and became administrator of the Virginia state fish hatchery at

text: Wytheville

text: . He was appointed as the sole Fish Commissioner of Virginia shortly thereafter. It was during his tenure as the Fish Commissioner of Virginia that McDonald invented the

text: fish ladder

text: that was named for him. In 1877, McDonald was commissioned by Virginia to conduct a survey of

text: mineral resource

text: s within the

text: James River

text: basin, the findings of which he reported to the

text: Virginia General Assembly

text: in 1879. McDonald continued to instruct at the Virginia Military Institute until 1879, when he was invited by his former professor Spencer Fullerton Baird to a position at the

text: . McDonald accepted the position with the Fish Commission and submitted his resignation from the Virginia Fish Commission to

text: Governor of Virginia

text: Fitzhugh Lee

text: In newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems. Their lungs are functional early, but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do tadpoles. Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water. Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins, the closure of gill slits, thickening of the skin, the development of eyelids, and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure. Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land. Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer, and a land phase in winter. For adaptation to a water phase, prolactin is the required hormone, and for adaptation to the land phase, thyroxine. External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time.

text: The giant trevally reaches sexual maturity at 54 to 61 cm in length and three to four years of age, although many authors narrow this down to 60 cm and three years of age. Sex ratio estimates from the Hawaiian Islands suggest the population is slightly skewed toward females, with the male:female ratio being 1:1.39. Spawning occurs during the warmer months in most locations, although the exact dates differ by location. In southern Africa, this occurs between July and March, with a peak between November and March; in the Philippines between December and January, with a lesser peak during June; and in Hawaii between April and November, with a major peak during May to August. Lunar cycles are also known to control the spawning events, with large schools forming in certain locations at specific phases of the moon in Hawaii and the Solomon Islands. Locations for spawning include reefs, the reef channels and offshore banks. Sampling of schools prior to spawning suggests the fish segregate into schools of only one sex, although the details are still unclear. Observations in the natural habitat found spawning occurred during the day immediately after and just before the change of tide when there were no currents. Giant trevally gathered in schools of over 100 individuals, although ripe individuals occurred slightly deeper; around 2–3 m above the seabed in groups of three or four, with one silver female being chased by several black males. Eventually, a pair would sink down to a sandy bottom, where eggs and sperm were released. The fish then diverged and swam away. Each individual appears to spawn more than once in each period, with only part of the gonads ripe in spawners. Fecundity is not known, although females are known to release several thousand eggs on capture during the spawning process. Eggs are described as pelagic and transparent in nature.

text: The giant trevally reaches

text: sexual maturity

text: at 54 to 61 cm in length and three to four years of age, although many authors narrow this down to 60 cm and three years of age.

text: Sex ratio

text: estimates from the Hawaiian Islands suggest the population is slightly skewed toward females, with the male:female ratio being 1:1.39.

text: Spawning

text: occurs during the warmer months in most locations, although the exact dates differ by location. In southern Africa, this occurs between July and March, with a peak between November and March; in the Philippines between December and January, with a lesser peak during June; and in Hawaii between April and November, with a major peak during May to August. Lunar cycles are also known to control the spawning events, with large schools forming in certain locations at specific phases of the moon in Hawaii and the Solomon Islands. Locations for spawning include reefs, the reef channels and offshore banks. Sampling of schools prior to spawning suggests the fish segregate into schools of only one sex, although the details are still unclear. Observations in the natural habitat found spawning occurred during the day immediately after and just before the change of

text: tide

text: when there were no

text: currents

text: . Giant trevally gathered in schools of over 100 individuals, although ripe individuals occurred slightly deeper; around 2–3 m above the seabed in groups of three or four, with one silver female being chased by several black males. Eventually, a pair would sink down to a sandy bottom, where

text: egg

text: s and

text: sperm

text: were released. The fish then diverged and swam away. Each individual appears to spawn more than once in each period, with only part of the

text: gonad

text: s ripe in spawners.

text: Fecundity

text: is not known, although females are known to release several thousand eggs on capture during the spawning process. Eggs are described as

text: pelagic

text: and transparent in nature.

text: Many states in the US are beginning to ban certain types of waders, specifically those with porous, felt soles. These kinds of soles easily host various types of invasive species that could be carried from one water source to another. The invasive organisms and plants pose a threat to fish stocks and important fish habitats. For example, effective March 1, 2012, most counties in Missouri ban these kinds of waders while sport fishing in fresh water. And in all of Alaska, as of January 1, 2012, the same law applies. In New Zealand, the use of felt-soled waders and boots for sports fishing was banned in 2008 as part of the containment measures put in place following the discovery of the invasive alga, didymo, in South Island rivers in 2004.

text: Many states in the US are beginning to ban certain types of waders, specifically those with porous, felt soles. These kinds of soles easily host various types of invasive species that could be carried from one water source to another. The invasive organisms and plants pose a threat to fish stocks and important fish habitats. For example, effective March 1, 2012, most counties in Missouri ban these kinds of waders while sport fishing in fresh water. And in all of Alaska, as of January 1, 2012, the same law applies. In New Zealand, the use of felt-soled waders and boots for sports fishing was banned in 2008 as part of the containment measures put in place following the discovery of the invasive alga,

text: didymo

text: , in South Island rivers in 2004.

text: The vast diversity of olfactory organs is largely attributed to the long evolutionary lifespan of fish. Representing an evolutionarily older class of vertebrates, fish carry several ancestral OR genes on their chromosome, yet they express wide variation in these genes among individuals and species. Fish have reduced olfactory systems in comparison to mammals since they only contain approximately 100 OR, whereas most mammals can possess 500 to 1000.

text: The vast diversity of olfactory organs is largely attributed to the long evolutionary lifespan of fish. Representing an evolutionarily older class of vertebrates, fish carry several ancestral OR genes on their

text: chromosome

text: , yet they express wide variation in these genes among individuals and species. Fish have reduced olfactory systems in comparison to mammals since they only contain approximately 100 OR, whereas most mammals can possess 500 to 1000.

text: There are many advantages to mouthbrooding as opposed to other forms of parental care, such as bubblenesting.  Mouthbreeders are able to freely move with the eggs in their mouth, and thus, can move as necessary to protect both himself and the brood.  Even though mouthbrooding requires more energy by the male, there is also a greater chance of his young surviving to adulthood, and therefore, reproducing and continuing his genes; the eggs are not defenseless while in their father’s mouth.  Mouthbrooding by males counters the relatively low fecundity of females, who only have 20-65 eggs per spawning episode.  Finally, through breathing, the male is able to keep the brood well oxygenated, which also increases brood survival.

text: There are many advantages to mouthbrooding as opposed to other forms of parental care, such as

text: bubblenesting

text: .  Mouthbreeders are able to freely move with the eggs in their mouth, and thus, can move as necessary to protect both himself and the brood.  Even though mouthbrooding requires more energy by the male, there is also a greater chance of his young surviving to adulthood, and therefore, reproducing and continuing his genes; the eggs are not defenseless while in their father’s mouth.  Mouthbrooding by males counters the relatively low

text: fecundity

text: of females, who only have 20-65 eggs per spawning episode.  Finally, through breathing, the male is able to keep the brood well oxygenated, which also increases brood survival.

text: The orangespotted sunfish (Lepomis humilis) is a North American species of freshwater fish in the sunfish family (Centrarchidae) of order Perciformes. These fish are widely distributed across the middle and eastern United States, from the Rocky Mountains to the east, from the Great Lakes south into the Gulf Coast. The orangespotted sunfish is ecologically unique and thrives in turbid, shallow systems that have few predators and low oxygen contents. The species prefers vegetated areas in sluggish backwaters or lakes, and can also be found in turbid rivers. The orangespotted sunfish can extend its range in lower-quality waters, which is not characteristic to other sunfish. Orangespotted sunfish vary in total length and age for different river basin originations, but can be found to live four to seven years, and recorded lengths are up to .

text: The orangespotted sunfish (Lepomis humilis) is a North American

text: species

text: of

text: freshwater

text: fish

text: in the sunfish

text: family

text: Centrarchidae

text: ) of

text: order

text: Perciformes

text: . These fish are widely distributed across the middle and eastern United States, from the

text: Rocky Mountains

text: to the east, from the

text: Great Lakes

text: south into the

text: Gulf Coast

text: . The orangespotted sunfish is ecologically unique and thrives in turbid, shallow systems that have few predators and low oxygen contents. The species prefers vegetated areas in sluggish backwaters or lakes, and can also be found in turbid rivers. The orangespotted sunfish can extend its range in lower-quality waters, which is not characteristic to other sunfish. Orangespotted sunfish vary in total length and age for different river basin originations, but can be found to live four to seven years, and recorded lengths are up to .

text: Some mussels in the Unionidae, such as Ptychobranchus fasciolaris and P. greenii, release their glochidia in mucilaginous packets called conglutinates. The conglutinate has a sticky filament that allows it to adhere to the substrate so it is not washed away. There is also an even more specialized way of dispersal known as a super-conglutinate.  The super-conglutinate resembles an aquatic fly larva or a fish egg, complete with a dark area that looks like an eyespot, and it is appetizing to fish. When a fish consumes it, it breaks up, releasing the glochidia. Mussels that produce conglutinates and super-conglutinates are often gill parasites, the glochidia attaching to the fish gills to continue their development into juveniles.

text: Some mussels in the Unionidae, such as

text: Ptychobranchus fasciolaris

text: and

text: P. greenii

text: , release their glochidia in mucilaginous packets called conglutinates. The conglutinate has a sticky filament that allows it to adhere to the substrate so it is not washed away. There is also an even more specialized way of dispersal known as a super-conglutinate.  The super-conglutinate resembles an aquatic fly larva or a fish egg, complete with a dark area that looks like an eyespot, and it is appetizing to fish. When a fish consumes it, it breaks up, releasing the glochidia. Mussels that produce conglutinates and super-conglutinates are often gill parasites, the glochidia attaching to the fish gills to continue their development into juveniles.

text: The tiger barb usually attains sexual maturity at a body length of 2 to 3 centimeters (0.8 to 1.2 inches) in total length, or at approximately six to seven weeks of age. The females are larger with a rounder belly and a mainly black dorsal fin, while the males have a bright, red nose with a distinct red line above the black on their dorsal fins. The egg-layers tend to spawn several hundred eggs in the early morning in clumps of plants. On average, 300 eggs can be expected from each spawn in a mature broodstock population, although the number of eggs released will increase with the maturity and size of the fish. Spawned eggs are adhesive, negatively buoyant in freshwater and average 1.18 ± 0.05 mm in diameter.

text: Marikina River is on the verge of an ecological imbalance as a strange species of fish has dominated its ecosystem. Since the late 1990s, the Marikina River has been infestated by janitor fish. Before, the river was thriving with local species martiniko, ayungin and biya.

text: Marikina River is on the verge of an ecological imbalance as a strange species of fish has dominated its ecosystem. Since the late 1990s, the Marikina River has been infestated by

text: janitor fish

text: . Before, the river was thriving with local species

text: martiniko

text: ayungin

text: and

text: biya

text: Fish breeding is a challenge that attracts many aquarists. While some species reproduce freely in community tanks, most require special conditions, known as spawning triggers before they will breed. The majority of fish lay eggs, known as spawning, and the juvenile fish that emerge are very small and need tiny live food or substitutes to survive. A fair number of popular aquarium fish are livebearers which produce a small number of relatively large offspring. These usually take ground flake food straight away.

text: Fish breeding is a challenge that attracts many aquarists. While some species reproduce freely in community tanks, most require special conditions, known as

text: spawning triggers

text: before they will breed. The majority of fish lay eggs, known as

text: spawning

text: , and the juvenile fish that emerge are very small and need tiny live food or substitutes to survive. A fair number of popular aquarium fish are

text: livebearers

text: which produce a small number of relatively large offspring. These usually take ground flake food straight away.

text: Although some marine aquarium fish species can reproduce in aquaria (such as Pomacentridae), most (95%) are collected from coral reefs. Intense harvesting, especially in maritime Southeast Asia (including Indonesia and the Philippines), damages the reefs. This is aggravated by destructive fishing practices, such as cyanide and blast fishing. Most (80–90%) aquarium fish from the Philippines are captured with sodium cyanide. This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released into areas where fish shelter. It narcotizes the fish, which are then easily captured. However, most fish collected with cyanide die a few months later from liver damage. Moreover, many non-marketable specimens die in the process. It is estimated that 4,000 or more Filipino fish collectors have used over   of cyanide on Philippine reefs alone, about 150,000 kg per year. A major catalyst of cyanide fishing is poverty within fishing communities. In countries like the Philippines that regularly employ cyanide, more than thirty percent of the population lives below the poverty line.

text: Although some

text: marine aquarium

text: fish species can reproduce in aquaria (such as

text: Pomacentridae

text: ), most (95%) are collected from coral reefs. Intense harvesting, especially in

text: maritime Southeast Asia

text: (including

text: Indonesia

text: and the

text: Philippines

text: ), damages the reefs. This is aggravated by

text: destructive fishing practices

text: , such as

text: cyanide

text: and

text: blast fishing

text: . Most (80–90%) aquarium fish from the Philippines are captured with

text: sodium cyanide

text: . This toxic chemical is dissolved in sea water and released into areas where fish shelter. It narcotizes the fish, which are then easily captured. However, most fish collected with cyanide die a few months later from

text: liver

text: damage. Moreover, many non-marketable specimens die in the process. It is estimated that 4,000 or more Filipino fish collectors have used over   of cyanide on Philippine reefs alone, about 150,000 kg per year. A major catalyst of

text: cyanide fishing

text: is poverty within fishing communities. In countries like the Philippines that regularly employ cyanide, more than thirty percent of the population lives below the poverty line.

text: Forage fish occupy central positions in the ocean food webs. The position that a fish occupies in a food web is called its trophic level (Greek trophē = food). The organisms it eats are at a lower trophic level, and the organisms that eat it are at a higher trophic level. Forage fish occupy middle levels in the food web, serving as a dominant prey to higher level fish, seabirds and mammals.

text: Forage fish occupy central positions in the ocean

text: food web

text: s. The position that a fish occupies in a food web is called its

text: trophic level

text: Greek

text: trophē = food). The organisms it eats are at a lower trophic level, and the organisms that eat it are at a higher trophic level. Forage fish occupy middle levels in the food web, serving as a dominant prey to higher level fish, seabirds and mammals.

text: This section is patterned after a classification of the spawning behaviours of fish by Balon (1975, 1984) into reproductive guilds. This classification is based on how the eggs are fertilized (internal or external spawners), where the eggs are deposited (pelagic or benthic spawners), and whether and how the parents look after the eggs after spawning (bearers, guarders and nonguarders).<ref name="Balon">Adapted from

text: This section is patterned after a classification of the spawning behaviours of fish by Balon (1975, 1984) into reproductive

text: guilds

text: . This classification is based on how the eggs are fertilized (internal or external spawners), where the eggs are deposited (

text: pelagic

text: or

text: benthic

text: spawners), and whether and how the parents look after the eggs after spawning (bearers, guarders and nonguarders).<ref name="Balon">Adapted from

text: A fish hook is a device for catching fish either by impaling them in the mouth or, more rarely, by snagging the body of the fish.  Fish hooks have been employed for millennia by fishermen to catch fresh and saltwater fish. Early hooks were made from the upper bills of eagles and from bones, shells, horns and thorns of plants (Parker 2002). In 2005, the fish hook was chosen by Forbes as one of the top twenty tools in the history of man. Fish hooks are normally attached to some form of line or lure device which connects the caught fish to the fisherman. There is an enormous variety of fish hooks.  Sizes, designs, shapes, and materials are all variable depending on the intended purpose of the hook. They are manufactured for a range of purposes from general fishing to extremely limited and specialized applications.  Fish hooks are designed to hold various types of artificial, processed, dead or live baits (bait fishing); to act as the foundation for artificial representations of fish prey (fly fishing); or to be attached to or integrated into other devices that represent fish prey (lure fishing).

text: A fish hook is a device for catching fish either by impaling them in the mouth or, more rarely, by snagging the body of the fish.  Fish hooks have been employed for millennia by

text: fishermen

text: to catch fresh and saltwater fish. Early hooks were made from the upper bills of eagles and from bones, shells, horns and thorns of plants (Parker 2002). In 2005, the fish hook was chosen by Forbes as one of the top twenty tools in the history of man. Fish hooks are normally attached to some form of

text: line

text: or

text: lure

text: device which connects the caught fish to the fisherman. There is an enormous variety of fish hooks.  Sizes, designs, shapes, and materials are all variable depending on the intended purpose of the hook. They are manufactured for a range of purposes from general fishing to extremely limited and specialized applications.  Fish hooks are designed to hold various types of artificial, processed, dead or live

text: bait

text: s (

text: bait fishing

text: fly fishing

text: lure fishing

text: In this town there is an ecological club called "Isla Valle" where besides enjoying a beautiful nature you can also go fishing using the practice "pesque y pague" (fish and pay).

text: Adult snake mackerels conduct a diel vertical migration, staying in deeper water during the day and rising to the surface at night to feed. The young and juveniles also migrate vertically but in the opposite direction, staying near the surface during the day and moving deeper at night. This species feeds on squid, pelagic crustaceans, and bony fishes such as lanternfishes, flying fishes, sauries, and mackerel. It is in turn preyed upon by tuna and marlin. Reproduction is oviparous, with females producing 300,000 to 1,000,000 eggs. Spawning occurs year-round; spawning areas are known to exist in the Caribbean Sea and off the coast of Florida. Males reach sexual maturity at  long and females at  long. As the fish mature and move into deeper water where there is less available light, they lose the cone cells in their eyes in favor of rod cells.

text: Adult snake mackerels conduct a

text: diel vertical migration

text: , staying in deeper water during the day and rising to the surface at night to feed. The young and juveniles also migrate vertically but in the opposite direction, staying near the surface during the day and moving deeper at night. This species feeds on

text: squid

text: , pelagic

text: crustacean

text: s, and

text: bony fish

text: es such as

text: lanternfish

text: es,

text: flying fish

text: es,

text: sauries

text: , and

text: mackerel

text: . It is in turn preyed upon by

text: tuna

text: and

text: marlin

text: . Reproduction is

text: oviparous

text: , with females producing 300,000 to 1,000,000

text: eggs

text: Spawning

text: occurs year-round; spawning areas are known to exist in the

text: Caribbean Sea

text: and off the coast of

text: Florida

text: . Males reach

text: sexual maturity

text: at  long and females at  long. As the fish mature and move into deeper water where there is less available light, they lose the

text: cone cell

text: s in their eyes in favor of

text: rod cell

text: s.

text: The next day, they go down to the fishing hole and spot a flying fish that is literally flying out of the pond.  The cat knocks out the fish with a swipe of his claws and picks it up;  Porky says, "Well, Pussy, it looks like we're having fish for di-di-di-supper!"  The fish regains consciousness and says "That's what you think, chum!", while laughing hysterically and honking the cat's nose.  The flying fish skids through the water, laughing all the way, and dives back into the lake.  The cat looks for the fish while sticking his face underwater;  the fish punches the cat's nose like a punching bag and, climbing on the cat's back and playing his tail like a cello, he taunts the cat and knocks him into the water.

text: The bludger, Carangoides gymnostethus (also known as the bludger trevally, nakedbreast trevally and Bleeker’s jackfish), is a widespread species of large marine fish in the jack family, Carangidae. The bludger inhabits the tropical and subtropical regions of the Indo-west Pacific Ocean, distributed from South Africa in the west to Japan and New Caledonia in the east. It is a large fish, growing to a maximum recorded length of 90 cm, and is very similar to the yellowspotted trevally, Carangoides fulvoguttatus, but can be separated by the complete absence of breast scales and a number of other anatomical features. The species inhabits moderately deep offshore coral and rocky reefs, where it preys on small crustaceans and fish. The reproductive biology of the species is poorly known, but it appears to move to more tropical waters to spawn. The bludger is of intermediate importance to fisheries throughout its range, taken by hook and line and various netting methods. It is of some value to anglers also, considered a good gamefish, but generally regarded as poor eating due to its soft oily flesh, which is used as bait by many anglers. The name ‘bludger’ is said to either refer to the blunt head of the species, or the destination of the fish when caught by professional fishermen who treat the fish as discard.

text: The bludger, Carangoides gymnostethus (also known as the bludger trevally, nakedbreast trevally and Bleeker’s jackfish), is a widespread

text: species

text: of large

text: marine

text: fish

text: in the jack family,

text: Carangidae

text: . The bludger inhabits the

text: tropical

text: and subtropical regions of the

text: Indo-west Pacific Ocean

text: , distributed from

text: South Africa

text: in the west to

text: Japan

text: and

text: New Caledonia

text: in the east. It is a large fish, growing to a maximum recorded length of 90 cm, and is very similar to the

text: yellowspotted trevally

text: , Carangoides fulvoguttatus, but can be separated by the complete absence of breast scales and a number of other anatomical features. The species inhabits moderately deep

text: offshore

text: coral

text: and rocky

text: reef

text: s, where it preys on small

text: crustacean

text: s and fish. The reproductive biology of the species is poorly known, but it appears to move to more tropical waters to

text: spawn

text: . The bludger is of intermediate importance to

text: fisheries

text: throughout its range, taken by hook and line and various

text: netting

text: methods. It is of some value to

text: anglers

text: also, considered a good

text: gamefish

text: , but generally regarded as poor eating due to its soft oily flesh, which is used as bait by many anglers. The name ‘bludger’ is said to either refer to the blunt head of the species, or the destination of the fish when caught by professional fishermen who treat the fish as discard.

text: How does the fish know which way to turn? The directionality of the tuberous receptors seems to be controlled by the current flow through the fish’s skin. The burst duration coders encode the amplitude by the number of spikes while the Pulse marker receptors encode timing. When the electric field is lined up at the best axis to the receptor, it will produce the strongest signal. This is the case if the electric field is lined up perpendicularly with the receptor. If the fish is lined up with the field, both sides of the fish are stimulated equally in amplitude and the direction of the signals. When the electric field turns to the fish’s left, receptors on the left side will be more strongly stimulated with perpendicular signals on the fish’s left side while the receptors on the right side would receive a weaker stimulus. The fish will turn to the side of the stronger stimulus. Using the receptors, the fish can detect field and orient itself to the electric field to follow the electric field and locate its source.

text: The armoured sticklebacks (Indostomidae) and the dragonfishes and sea moths (Pegasidae) are variously placed with the pipefish or the stickleback lineage. While the Pegasidae are almost certainly Syngnathiformes, the placement of the monotypic former family is essentially unresolved, as it has always been.  Following the practice of the major fish classification organizations, it is included here.

text: The armoured sticklebacks (Indostomidae) and the dragonfishes and sea moths (

text: Pegasidae

text: ) are variously placed with the pipefish or the stickleback lineage. While the Pegasidae are almost certainly Syngnathiformes, the placement of the

text: monotypic

text: former family is essentially unresolved, as it has always been.  Following the practice of the major fish classification organizations, it is included here.

text: In 1988 Fish described the slow process by which most of her work evolved. She said, "It's very unusual that I'll see something, go to the studio, draw it and paint it. That rarely happens. I'll see it and it will stay in my head for a while, and maybe later I'll try to figure out through drawing what I saw. But sometimes it's a delay of two months, or four or six. That's part of the distilling, getting a sense of what's literal there, what's tangible and intangible, what's abstract and some other kind of order."

text: Fishing techniques may be altered to minimize bycatch and reduce impacts on marine habitats. These techniques include using varied gear types depending on target species and habitat type. For example, a net with larger holes will allow undersized fish to avoid capture. A turtle excluder device (TED) allows sea turtles and other megafauna to escape from shrimp trawls. Avoiding fishing in spawning grounds may allow fish stocks to rebuild by giving adults a chance to reproduce.

text: Fishing techniques may be altered to minimize bycatch and reduce impacts on marine habitats. These techniques include using varied gear types depending on target species and habitat type. For example, a net with larger holes will allow undersized fish to avoid capture. A

text: turtle excluder device

text: (TED) allows sea turtles and other megafauna to escape from shrimp trawls. Avoiding fishing in spawning grounds may allow fish stocks to rebuild by giving adults a chance to reproduce.

text: Saratoga National Fish Hatchery is part of the National Fish Hatchery System operated by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is located northeast of Saratoga, Wyoming and, along with the Jackson National Fish Hatchery, is one of two National fish hatcheries operating in Wyoming. Saratoga NHF is primarily a broodstock hatchery; it maintains several healthy adults to produce sperm and eggs and distributes fertilized eggs to production hatcheries throughout the country to be hatched and grown to stockable sizes. It is also one of several organizations to establish a program for breeding Wyoming toads.

text: Saratoga National Fish Hatchery is part of the

text: National Fish Hatchery System

text: operated by the

text: United States Fish and Wildlife Service

text: . It is located northeast of

text: Saratoga, Wyoming

text: and, along with the

text: Jackson National Fish Hatchery

text: , is one of two National fish hatcheries operating in Wyoming. Saratoga NHF is primarily a

text: broodstock

text: hatchery; it maintains several healthy adults to produce

text: sperm

text: and

text: eggs

text: and distributes fertilized eggs to production hatcheries throughout the country to be hatched and grown to stockable sizes. It is also one of several organizations to establish a program for breeding

text: Wyoming toad

text: s.

text: ELS tests were adapted from full life-cycle toxicity tests, chronic tests that expose an organism to a contaminant for its entire life-cycle. These are widely considered to be the best tests for estimating long-term "safe" concentrations of toxicants in aquatic organisms. The first full life-cycle tests on fish were developed for the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), and later for bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), flagfish (Jordanella floridae), and sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus). While useful, full life-cycle tests require a high number of test organisms and extensive exposure time in the lab, especially for vertebrates. Typically, life-cycle tests take 6-12 months for fathead minnow and 30 months for brook trout.

text: ELS tests were adapted from full life-cycle toxicity tests, chronic tests that expose an organism to a contaminant for its entire life-cycle. These are widely considered to be the best tests for estimating long-term "safe" concentrations of toxicants in aquatic organisms. The first full life-cycle tests on fish were developed for the

text: fathead minnow

text: (Pimephales promelas), and later for

text: bluegill

text: (Lepomis macrochirus),

text: brook trout

text: (Salvelinus fontinalis),

text: flagfish

text: (Jordanella floridae), and

text: sheepshead minnow

text: (Cyprinodon variegatus). While useful, full life-cycle tests require a high number of test organisms and extensive exposure time in the lab, especially for vertebrates. Typically, life-cycle tests take 6-12 months for

text: fathead minnow

text: and 30 months for

text: brook trout

text: In particular, to ensure continued, healthy, fish stocks, measurements of the Spawning Stock Biomass (the stock population capable of reproducing) allows sensible conservation strategies to be developed and maintained through the application of sustainable fishing quotas.

text: In particular, to ensure continued, healthy, fish stocks, measurements of the

text: Spawning

text: Stock

text: Biomass

text: (the stock population capable of reproducing) allows sensible

text: conservation

text: strategies to be developed and maintained through the application of sustainable

text: fishing quotas

text: Sonora’s major tourist attraction is its beaches, especially San Carlos, Puerto Peñasco, Bahía Kino and the Gulf of Santa Clara in San Luis Río Colorado. San Carlos has a large variety of sea life off its shores, making it popular for sports fishing and scuba diving. One of its main attractions is the Playa de los Algodones, called such because its sand dunes look like cotton balls. On one of hills behind it, there is a lookout point which allows for views of the area. A number of Yaquis, Seris and Guaimas on and around the Tetakawi Hill, making a living from fishing. Puerto Peñasco has recently experienced large scale development along its  of beaches, which have calm seas. It is located extreme northwest of the state. Some of the available activities include jet skiing, boating, sailing, sports fishing, scuba diving and snorkeling. It is located near El Pinacate biosphere reserve. There is also an aquarium called the Acuario de Cer-Mar, which is a research center open to the public. The aquarium has a number of species such as marine turtles, octopus, seahorses and many varieties of fish. Bahía Kino is named after the Jesuit missionary, who visited the area in the 17th century. In the 1930s, a group of fishermen established a village in what is now known as Kino Viejo. This bay’s beaches have white sand, with warm calm waters off of them. For this reason, Kino Viejo calls itself la perla del Mar de Cortés (the pearl of the Gulf of California). Available activities include horseback riding, scuba diving and sports fishing. The Isla Tiburón is  from Bahia Kino in the Gulf of California. It is the largest island of Mexico, measuring . It has been declared an ecological reserve to protect its flora and fauna, such as the wild rams and deer that live here.

text: Sonora’s major tourist attraction is its beaches, especially San Carlos, Puerto Peñasco, Bahía Kino and the Gulf of Santa Clara in San Luis Río Colorado. San Carlos has a large variety of sea life off its shores, making it popular for sports fishing and scuba diving. One of its main attractions is the Playa de los Algodones, called such because its sand dunes look like cotton balls. On one of hills behind it, there is a lookout point which allows for views of the area. A number of Yaquis, Seris and Guaimas on and around the Tetakawi Hill, making a living from fishing. Puerto Peñasco has recently experienced large scale development along its  of beaches, which have calm seas. It is located extreme northwest of the state. Some of the available activities include jet skiing, boating, sailing, sports fishing, scuba diving and snorkeling. It is located near

text: El Pinacate biosphere reserve

text: . There is also an aquarium called the

text: Acuario de Cer-Mar

text: , which is a research center open to the public. The aquarium has a number of species such as marine turtles, octopus,

text: seahorse

text: s and many varieties of fish. Bahía Kino is named after the Jesuit missionary, who visited the area in the 17th century. In the 1930s, a group of fishermen established a village in what is now known as Kino Viejo. This bay’s beaches have white sand, with warm calm waters off of them. For this reason, Kino Viejo calls itself la perla del Mar de Cortés (the pearl of the Gulf of California). Available activities include horseback riding, scuba diving and sports fishing. The

text: Isla Tiburón

text: is  from Bahia Kino in the Gulf of California. It is the largest island of Mexico, measuring . It has been declared an ecological reserve to protect its flora and fauna, such as the wild rams and deer that live here.

text: Polymixia nobilis, the stout beardfish, is a species of beardfish. This species can grow up to  TL. P. nobilis lives on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean on gravel and sandy bottoms. Scientists do not know how they behave or reproduce. The species's dorsal fin has five spines and 34-27 soft rays. The habitat of the fish is in the benthic zone.

text: Polymixia nobilis, the stout beardfish, is a

text: species

text: of

text: beardfish

text: . This species can grow up to

text: TL

text: . P. nobilis lives on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean on gravel and sandy bottoms. Scientists do not know how they behave or reproduce. The species's

text: dorsal fin

text: has five spines and 34-27 soft rays. The habitat of the fish is in the

text: benthic zone

text: Fish physiology is the scientific study of how the component parts of fish function together in the living fish. It can be contrasted with fish anatomy, which is the study of the form or morphology of fishes. In practice, fish anatomy and physiology complement each other, the former dealing with the structure of a fish, its organs or component parts and how they are put together, such as might be observed on the dissecting table or under the microscope, and the later dealing with how those components function together in the living fish.

text: Fish physiology is the scientific study of how the component parts of

text: fish

text: function together in the living fish. It can be contrasted with

text: fish anatomy

text: , which is the study of the form or

text: morphology

text: of fishes. In practice, fish anatomy and physiology complement each other, the former dealing with the structure of a fish, its organs or component parts and how they are put together, such as might be observed on the dissecting table or under the microscope, and the later dealing with how those components function together in the living fish.

text: Another classification is by temperature range. Many aquarists choose a tropical aquarium because tropical fish tend to be more colorful. However, the coldwater aquarium is also popular, which is mainly restricted to goldfish, but can include fish from temperate areas worldwide and native fish keeping.

text: Another classification is by

text: temperature

text: range. Many aquarists choose a

text: tropical aquarium

text: because tropical fish tend to be more colorful. However, the

text: coldwater aquarium

text: is also popular, which is mainly restricted to

text: goldfish

text: , but can include fish from temperate areas worldwide and native fish keeping.

text: In terms of aquatic life, the Congo River Basin has a very high species richness, and among the highest known concentrations of endemics. Until now, almost 700 fish species have been recorded from the Congo River Basin, and large sections remain virtually unstudied. Due to this and the great ecological differences between the regions in the basin, it is often divided into multiple ecoregions (instead of treating it as a single ecoregion). Among these ecoregions, the Lower Congo Rapids alone has more than 300 fish species, including approximately 80 endemics while the southwestern part (Kasai Basin) alone has more than 200 fish species, of which about a quarter are endemic. The dominant fish families – at least in parts of the river – are Cyprinidae (carp/cyprinids, such as Labeo simpsoni), Mormyridae (elephantfishes), Alestidae (African tetras), Mochokidae (squeaker catfishes), and Cichlidae (cichlids). Among the natives in the river is the huge, highly carnivorous giant tigerfish. Two of the more unusual endemic cichlids are the whitish (non-pigmented) and blind Lamprologus lethops, which is believed to live as deep as  below the surface, and Heterochromis multidens, which appears to be more closely related to cichlids of the Americas than other Africa cichlid. There are also numerous endemic frogs and snails. Several hydroelectric dams are planned on the river, and these may lead to the extinction of many of the endemics.

text: In terms of aquatic life, the Congo River Basin has a very high

text: species richness

text: , and among the highest known concentrations of endemics. Until now, almost 700 fish species have been recorded from the Congo River Basin, and large sections remain virtually unstudied. Due to this and the great

text: ecological

text: differences between the regions in the basin, it is often divided into multiple

text: ecoregion

text: s (instead of treating it as a single ecoregion). Among these ecoregions, the

text: Lower Congo Rapids

text: alone has more than 300 fish species, including approximately 80 endemics while the southwestern part (

text: Kasai Basin

text: ) alone has more than 200 fish species, of which about a quarter are endemic. The dominant fish families – at least in parts of the river – are

text: Cyprinidae

text: (carp/cyprinids, such as

text: Labeo simpsoni

text: Mormyridae

text: (elephantfishes),

text: Alestidae

text: (African tetras),

text: Mochokidae

text: (squeaker catfishes), and

text: Cichlidae

text: (cichlids). Among the natives in the river is the huge, highly carnivorous

text: giant tigerfish

text: . Two of the more unusual endemic cichlids are the whitish (non-

text: pigmented

text: ) and blind

text: Lamprologus lethops

text: , which is believed to live as deep as  below the surface, and

text: Heterochromis multidens

text: , which appears to be more closely related to cichlids of the

text: Americas

text: than other Africa cichlid. There are also numerous endemic frogs and snails. Several

text: hydroelectric dam

text: s are planned on the river, and these may lead to the

text: extinction

text: of many of the endemics.

text: The increase in water pollution coupled with the increased presence of water hyacinth has had devastating effects on the ecology of the lake. Fish stock has decreased dramatically and some endemic species (e.g. a fish colloquially known as 'white fish') are on the verge of extinction. Contaminated fish stock has also posed a serious threat to the health and livelihoods of people who depend on the fish for food and their livelihoods.

text: Some other aquatic Diptera, such as Simuliidae, do survive in Iceland, but their habits and adaptations differ from those of mosquitoes; Simuliidae for example, though they, like mosquitoes, are bloodsuckers, generally inhabit stones under running water that does not readily freeze and which is totally unsuited to mosquitoes; mosquitoes are generally not adapted to running water.

text: Some other aquatic Diptera, such as

text: Simuliidae

text: , do survive in Iceland, but their habits and adaptations differ from those of mosquitoes; Simuliidae for example, though they, like mosquitoes, are bloodsuckers, generally inhabit stones under running water that does not readily freeze and which is totally unsuited to mosquitoes; mosquitoes are generally not adapted to running water.

text: This is a substrate-brooding, benthopelagic fish. Its maximum length is about 15 centimeters.

text: This is a substrate-brooding,

text: benthopelagic fish

text: . Its maximum length is about 15 centimeters.

text: Porky Pig goes out for fishing when suddenly, a couple of two worms comes out of the hole toward straight to Porky at the boat. Porky started that the worms wants to go in the can. After the first worms in the can, the second worm who portrayed as the woman with gloves and high heels come toward the can and grabbed it inside. After Porky  starts the engine, his boat gone crazy, letting it go off the rope and releasing towards the ocean. When Porky's boat running straight to the battleship, he began to shut his eyes and goes down and up from the ocean through the ship. Then, he began closed his eyes again towards crashing inside the battleship filled with Navy sailors and splitting the dinner table into half with the boat, escaping the ship and now it sinks forever.  After Porky steps the brake to stop the boat, he feel dizzy toward his head on the water and suddenly a fish gone into Porky's nose and gets sneezing out of his mouth. Porky gets out of his fishing rod and he accidentally flipped his boat because of the fish hook got on back of the boat. Then Porky starts fishing and he accidentally caught a fish head trophy and he threw it out. He caught all of the fishes, then he put it in bucket, and he feels tired because he yawn. He's grabbing his rope as a pillow and began sleeping and it's daydream. When suddenly, an anthropomorphic fish portrays as a hunter getting a fishing rod gun and firing towards Porky on the boat. Then he wakes up in dream, he found a ring that shape like a donut and began sagging onto his nose and he gone into the water towards the hunting fish and grabbed him as a matched fish. Then he carries Porky to the house that lives underwater when suddenly, a couple of two fish kids and a fish wife that the kids told the her husband's home. After the fish wife and kids saw Porky upside down, the kids began laughing and gets scared (when he touched Porky acts like a fish), and they're running towards the laundry basket. When a hunter carries Porky to the kitchen, he use a knife to cut his shirt into naked, putting Porky into the pan and he adds pepper and he began sneezing (that the fish says "Gezunheiht." to Porky), then he adds carrots and potatoes and an apple to put on Porky's mouth, and he puts Porky into the oven. Inside the oven, a couple of flames dancing around in circle, and Porky feels sufficate while coughing and he cried "let me outta here!" After Porky escapes the oven, he began running away from the house. Porky saw an eel, swimming away, punching it into twisted, and gone into a giant fish and gone away. Then he saw a swordfish toward a pole and hitting the point with a hammer. Suddenly, Porky got caught by an octopus and began hitting him and caught trapped forever. After he woke up in rope tangled, he began throwing everything towards the water, starting up the boat, and drives away until it ends.

text: Porky Pig

text: Research has been undertaken into the reproduction and life cycle of Holothuria spinifera with a view to breeding it commercially for aquaculture or for sea ranching. In a study in India, several adults were caught by hand and placed in a tank. Spawning took place spontaneously with a male liberating sperm in a white strand. A female responded by producing a spurt of eggs that were fertilized in the water column. The larvae were pelagic and developed rapidly, being fed on microalgae for the first ten days. For the next four days they passed through the non-feeding, barrel-shaped, doliolaria stage and moved about in the tank. They then settled on the bottom and underwent metamorphosis into pentactula larvae with five short tentacles at the front and two tube feet at the back. By day twenty, the tentacles and feet were more distinct and the first thorny protuberances were visible on the body. In the study, mortality of the larvae was about 95%, but this high rate was partly due to predation by copepods which the researchers were unable to eliminate from the tank. Other studies have investigated how best to stimulate spawning and the optimum conditions of temperature, pH and salinity for rearing the larvae, the best diet to feed and how to stimulate them to settle.

text: Research has been undertaken into the reproduction and life cycle of Holothuria spinifera with a view to breeding it commercially for

text: aquaculture

text: or for

text: sea ranching

text: . In a study in India, several adults were caught by hand and placed in a tank. Spawning took place spontaneously with a male liberating sperm in a white strand. A female responded by producing a spurt of eggs that were fertilized in the water column. The larvae were pelagic and developed rapidly, being fed on

text: microalgae

text: for the first ten days. For the next four days they passed through the non-feeding, barrel-shaped, doliolaria stage and moved about in the tank. They then settled on the bottom and underwent

text: metamorphosis

text: into pentactula larvae with five short tentacles at the front and two tube feet at the back. By day twenty, the tentacles and feet were more distinct and the first thorny protuberances were visible on the body. In the study, mortality of the larvae was about 95%, but this high rate was partly due to

text: predation

text: by

text: copepod

text: s which the researchers were unable to eliminate from the tank. Other studies have investigated how best to stimulate spawning and the optimum conditions of temperature,

text: pH

text: and

text: salinity

text: for rearing the larvae, the best diet to feed and how to stimulate them to settle.

text: Mako fishing is a predominate activity around the world.  As one of the fastest species in the water they offer acrobatic flips, fast runs, and heavy fights that entertain anglers.  Traditionally the sharks are hooked through the use of chum and baitcasters however fly fishing for them has become more popular, particularly in San Diego.  There one of 3 known worldwide mako rookeries is located.  A cottage industry of fishing in this rookery has emerged, specifically catch and release with charter operations out of Mission Bay  For many years the mass commercial boats hunted them for restaurant catch but through the efforts of many local fishing companies and national organizations like Orvis this has been deterred

text: Mako fishing is a predominate activity around the world.  As one of the fastest species in the water they offer acrobatic flips, fast runs, and heavy fights that entertain anglers.  Traditionally the sharks are hooked through the use of

text: chum

text: and baitcasters however fly fishing for them has become more popular, particularly in

text: San Diego

text: .  There one of 3 known worldwide mako rookeries is located.  A cottage industry of fishing in this rookery has emerged, specifically catch and release with charter operations out of Mission Bay  For many years the mass commercial boats hunted them for restaurant catch but through the efforts of many local fishing companies and national organizations like Orvis this has been deterred

text: In the wild this fish eats mainly aquatic insect larvae and crustaceans.In an aquarium they will readily adapt to a diet of commercial dry fish foods, but benefit from a variety of food including both live and frozen foods such as daphnia and bloodworms.

text: In the wild this fish eats mainly aquatic insect

text: larva

text: e and

text: crustaceans

text: .In an aquarium they will readily adapt to a diet of commercial dry fish foods, but benefit from a variety of food including both live and frozen foods such as daphnia and bloodworms.

text: There are several rankings with lower biomass requirements in the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission's classification system: Class B Wild Trout Waters, Class C Wild Trout Waters, Class D Wild Trout Waters, and Class E Wild Trout Waters.

text: There are several rankings with lower biomass requirements in the

text: Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission

text: 's classification system:

text: Class B Wild Trout Waters

text: Class C Wild Trout Waters

text: Class D Wild Trout Waters

text: , and

text: Class E Wild Trout Waters

text: In the Branchiopoda, the most basal group of crustaceans, there is no metamorphosis; instead, the animal grows through a series of moults, with each moult adding segments to the body, but without any dramatic changes in form. Every other crustacean group with free larvae shows a metamorphosis, and this difference in the larvae is thought to reflect "a fundamental cleavage" of the crustaceans.

text: In the

text: Branchiopoda

text: , the most basal group of crustaceans, there is no metamorphosis; instead, the animal grows through a series of moults, with each moult adding segments to the body, but without any dramatic changes in form. Every other crustacean group with free larvae shows a

text: metamorphosis

text: , and this difference in the larvae is thought to reflect "a fundamental cleavage" of the crustaceans.

text: This classification follows FishBase in dividing the eels into 20 families. Additional families included in other classifications (notably ITIS and Systema Naturae 2000) are noted below the family with which they are synomized in the Fish Base system.

text: This classification follows

text: FishBase

text: in dividing the eels into 20 families. Additional families included in other classifications (notably

text: ITIS

text: and

text: Systema Naturae 2000

text: ) are noted below the family with which they are synomized in the Fish Base system.

text: Until the mid-1990s New Bedford was home to a thriving commercial fishing community that fished Georges Bank, but in 1996 action was taken to reduce over-fishing, which devastated commercial fishing in the area.

text: Until the mid-1990s New Bedford was home to a thriving commercial fishing community that fished

text: Georges Bank

text: , but in 1996 action was taken to reduce over-fishing, which devastated commercial fishing in the area.

text: A location on West Branch Fishing Creek downstream of the community of Elk Grove is one of two places in the watershed of upper Fishing Creek where the stream bed is more than 60% covered by benthic algae. The high population of algae here is possibly due to leaking septic tanks in the area. In Elk Grove, there are between 100 and 200 aquatic macroinvertebrates per square meter in the creek. Further upstream, there are nearly 300 aquatic macroinvertebrates per square meter. At the headwaters of the creek, approximately 25% of the macroinvertebrate taxa belong to the order Plecoptera, about 25% belong to the order Ephemeroptera, approximately 25% belong to the order Trichoptera, about 20% belong to the order Chironomidae, and roughly 5% belong to other orders. At the creek's mouth, approximately 20% of the macroinvertebrate taxa are in the order Plecoptera, approximately 55% belong to the order Ephemeroptera, roughly 20%  are in the orders Trichoptera and Chironomidae. Approximately 5% are in other orders.

text: A location on West Branch Fishing Creek downstream of the community of Elk Grove is one of two places in the watershed of upper Fishing Creek where the stream bed is more than 60% covered by benthic algae. The high population of algae here is possibly due to leaking

text: septic tank

text: s in the area. In Elk Grove, there are between 100 and 200 aquatic

text: macroinvertebrate

text: s per square meter in the creek. Further upstream, there are nearly 300 aquatic macroinvertebrates per square meter. At the headwaters of the creek, approximately 25% of the macroinvertebrate taxa belong to the order

text: Plecoptera

text: , about 25% belong to the order

text: Ephemeroptera

text: , approximately 25% belong to the order

text: Trichoptera

text: , about 20% belong to the order

text: Chironomidae

text: , and roughly 5% belong to other orders. At the creek's mouth, approximately 20% of the macroinvertebrate taxa are in the order Plecoptera, approximately 55% belong to the order Ephemeroptera, roughly 20%  are in the orders Trichoptera and Chironomidae. Approximately 5% are in other orders.

text: At Koblenz Locks the Mosellum offers exhibitions about the migration of fish in the Moselle as well as water ecology, navigation and power generation. With the construction of the visitor and information centre the most modern fish ladder along the Moselle was opened.

text: At

text: Koblenz Locks

text: the

text: Mosellum

text: offers exhibitions about the migration of fish in the Moselle as well as water ecology, navigation and power generation. With the construction of the visitor and information centre the most modern

text: fish ladder

text: along the Moselle was opened.

text: Between 1881 and 1961, the village population density remained static at around . In contrast, the England and Wales figures for the same period almost doubled, rising from around  to around . Little Thetford is in output area classification zones (CGM) six and seven. The area is classified as type three-C, accessible countryside. In this classification, most residents work from home employed in agriculture or fishing. The areas in this classification are less densely populated than other areas of the country. The usually detached households generally have two or more cars. Varied ethnic backgrounds are less likely in such areas.

text: As the Chinook and coho runs begin to fade, some steelhead and brown trout will begin to enter the river to feed on salmon eggs. Some of these fish will remain in the river throughout the winter before spawning between mid-March and early April, at which time greater numbers of fish will enter the river. Fishing activity on the Salmon River once again peaks during this spring spawning season. Both brown trout and steelhead are capable of spawning multiple times during their lifespan, and many "drop back" to Lake Ontario after spawning; these fish are aggressive feeders and popular targets of anglers.

text: In the late historic and early modern eras, the Yucatán Peninsula was largely a cattle ranching, logging, chicle and henequen production area. Since the 1970s (and the fall of the world henequen and chicle markets due to the advent of synthetic substitutes), the Yucatán Peninsula has reoriented its economy towards tourism, especially in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. Once a small fishing village, Cancún in the northeast of the peninsula has grown into a thriving city. The Riviera Maya, which stretches along the east coast of the peninsula between Cancún and Tulum, houses over 50,000 beds. The best-known locations are the former fishing town of Playa del Carmen, the ecological parks Xcaret and Xel-Há and the Maya ruins of Tulum and Coba.

text: In the late historic and early modern eras, the Yucatán Peninsula was largely a cattle ranching, logging,

text: chicle

text: and

text: henequen

text: production area. Since the 1970s (and the fall of the world henequen and chicle markets due to the advent of synthetic substitutes), the Yucatán Peninsula has reoriented its economy towards

text: tourism

text: , especially in the Mexican state of

text: Quintana Roo

text: . Once a small fishing village,

text: Cancún

text: in the northeast of the peninsula has grown into a thriving city. The

text: Riviera Maya

text: , which stretches along the east coast of the peninsula between

text: Cancún

text: and

text: Tulum

text: , houses over 50,000 beds. The best-known locations are the former fishing town of

text: Playa del Carmen

text: , the ecological parks

text: Xcaret

text: and

text: Xel-Há

text: and the Maya ruins of

text: Tulum

text: and

text: Coba

text: Jug fishing is a source of controversy.  Many people think that people who jug fish are over-harvesting the fish and not promoting a successful fishing environment for the future.  However, each water has its own regulations concerning how many fish can be caught and how the fish can be caught.  These regulations are designed to protect fish and provide a sustainable environment for the fish.

text: This fish is also an important food fish in Africa.

text: An egg-scattering fish, they spawn early in the morning on plants that are the center of the male's territory.  Once the spawning is completed, the pair will attempt to eat the eggs that they can find.

text: An egg-scattering fish, they

text: spawn

text: early in the morning on plants that are the center of the male's territory.  Once the

text: spawning

text: is completed, the pair will attempt to eat the eggs that they can find.

text: The giant trevally is a powerful predatory fish, from the estuaries it inhabits as a juvenile to the outer reefs and atolls it patrols as an adult. Hunting appears to occur at different times of the day in different areas of its range; off South Africa it is most active during the day, especially at dawn and dusk, while off Zanzibar and Hong Kong, it is nocturnal in its habits. The species' diets have been determined in several countries and habitats; their diets generally vary slightly by locations and age. In all but one study (which was of juveniles), the giant trevally dominantly takes other fishes, with various crustaceans, cephalopods and occasionally molluscs making the remainder of the diet. In Hawaii, the species has a predominantly fish-based diet consisting of Scaridae and Labridae, with crustaceans, including lobsters, and cephalopods (squid and octopus) making up the remaining portion. The large number of reef fishes suggests it spends much of its time foraging over shallow-water reef habitats, but the presence of squid and the schooling carangid Decapterus macarellus indicates exploitation of more open-water habitats, as well. Off Africa, the diet is similar, consisting mostly of fish including eels, with minor squid, octopus, mantis shrimp, lobsters and other crustaceans. Younger fish inside Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii showed the only instance where crustaceans were preferred over fish; stomatopods, shrimp and crabs were the most common prey taken at 89% of stomach content by volume, with fish, mostly of the family Blennidae, making up only 7% of the stomach contents. Estuarine fish in both Hawaii and Australia have mostly fish-based diets, with crustaceans such as prawns and amphipods also of importance, and they are known to take more novel prey, such as spiders and insects, in these habitats. Juvenile turtles and dolphins were reported being found within the stomach contents of larger giant trevally. Studies of different size classes of fish have found their diets change with age in some locations, with the changes relating to an increased volume of fish taken.

text: The giant trevally is a powerful

text: predatory fish

text: , from the estuaries it inhabits as a juvenile to the outer reefs and atolls it patrols as an adult. Hunting appears to occur at different times of the day in different areas of its range; off South Africa it is most active during the day, especially at dawn and dusk, while off

text: Zanzibar

text: and Hong Kong, it is nocturnal in its habits. The species' diets have been determined in several countries and habitats; their diets generally vary slightly by locations and age. In all but one study (which was of juveniles), the giant trevally dominantly takes other fishes, with various

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: cephalopod

text: s and occasionally

text: mollusc

text: s making the remainder of the diet. In Hawaii, the species has a predominantly fish-based diet consisting of

text: Scaridae

text: and

text: Labridae

text: , with crustaceans, including

text: lobster

text: s, and cephalopods (squid and octopus) making up the remaining portion. The large number of

text: reef fish

text: es suggests it spends much of its time foraging over shallow-water reef habitats, but the presence of squid and the schooling carangid

text: Decapterus macarellus

text: indicates exploitation of more open-water habitats, as well. Off Africa, the diet is similar, consisting mostly of fish including

text: eel

text: s, with minor squid, octopus,

text: mantis shrimp

text: , lobsters and other crustaceans. Younger fish inside

text: Kaneohe Bay

text: , Hawaii showed the only instance where crustaceans were preferred over fish;

text: stomatopod

text: s,

text: shrimp

text: and

text: crab

text: s were the most common prey taken at 89% of stomach content by volume, with fish, mostly of the family Blennidae, making up only 7% of the stomach contents.

text: Estuarine fish

text: in both Hawaii and Australia have mostly fish-based diets, with crustaceans such as prawns and

text: amphipod

text: s also of importance, and they are known to take more novel prey, such as spiders and insects, in these habitats. Juvenile

text: turtle

text: s and

text: dolphin

text: s were reported being found within the stomach contents of larger giant trevally. Studies of different size classes of fish have found their diets change with age in some locations, with the changes relating to an increased volume of fish taken.

text: The  Acanthostega had eight digits on each hand (the number of digits on the feet is unclear) linked by webbing, it lacked wrists, and was generally poorly adapted for walking on land. It also had a remarkably fish-like shoulder and forelimb. The front foot of Acanthostega could not bend forward at the elbow, and thus could not be brought into a weight bearing position, appearing to be more suitable for paddling or for holding on to aquatic plants. Acanthostega is the earliest stem-tetrapod to show the shift in locomotory dominance from the pectoral girdle to the pelvic girdle. There are many morphological changes that allowed the pelvic girdle of Acanthostega to become a weight-bearing structure. In more ancestral states the two sides of the girdle were not attached. In Acanthostega there is contact between the two sides and fusion of the girdle with the sacral rib of the vertebral column. These fusions would have made the pelvic region more powerful and equipped to counter the force of gravity when not supported by the buoyancy of an aquatic environment. It also had lungs, but its ribs were too short to support its chest cavity out of water, and it also had internal gills that were covered like those of fish, as opposed to some modern amphibians that are fully aquatic.

text: The  Acanthostega

text: had eight digits

text: on each hand (the number of digits on the feet is unclear) linked by webbing, it lacked wrists, and was generally poorly adapted for walking on land. It also had a remarkably fish-like shoulder and forelimb. The front foot of Acanthostega could not bend forward at the elbow, and thus could not be brought into a

text: weight bearing

text: position, appearing to be more suitable for paddling or for holding on to aquatic plants. Acanthostega is the earliest stem-tetrapod to show the shift in locomotory dominance from the pectoral girdle to the pelvic girdle. There are many morphological changes that allowed the pelvic girdle of Acanthostega to become a weight-bearing structure. In more ancestral states the two sides of the girdle were not attached. In Acanthostega there is contact between the two sides and fusion of the girdle with the sacral rib of the vertebral column. These fusions would have made the pelvic region more powerful and equipped to counter the force of gravity when not supported by the buoyancy of an aquatic environment. It also had lungs, but its ribs were too short to support its chest cavity out of water, and it also had internal gills that were covered like those of fish, as opposed to some modern amphibians that are fully aquatic.

text: These fish swim at the middle and lower levels of the tank, and will take most small live and frozen foods. In general, they tend not to eat dried foods (such as flake).The fish reproduce by laying the eggs (females) and then the males fertilise the eggs

text: Throughout history, artificial flies constructed of furs, feathers, and threads bound on a hook have been created by anglers to imitate fish prey. The first known mention of an artificial fly was in 200AD in Macedonia. Most early examples of artificial flies imitated common aquatic insects and baitfish. Today, artificial flies are tied with a wide variety of natural and synthetic materials (like mylar and rubber) to represent all manner of potential freshwater and saltwater fish prey to include aquatic and terrestrial insects, crustaceans, worms, baitfish, vegetation, flesh, spawn, small reptiles, amphibians, mammals and birds, etc.

text: Throughout history,

text: artificial flies

text: constructed of furs, feathers, and threads bound on a hook have been created by anglers to imitate fish prey. The first known mention of an artificial fly was in 200AD in Macedonia. Most early examples of artificial flies imitated common aquatic insects and baitfish. Today, artificial flies are

text: tied

text: with a wide variety of natural and synthetic materials (like

text: mylar

text: and

text: rubber

text: ) to represent all manner of potential

text: freshwater

text: and saltwater fish

text: prey

text: to include aquatic and terrestrial

text: insects

text: crustaceans

text: worm

text: s,

text: baitfish

text: vegetation

text: flesh

text: spawn

text: , small

text: reptiles

text: amphibians

text: mammals

text: and

text: birds

text: , etc.

text: Metamorphosis of feeding and non-feeding competent larvae is usually induced by a chemical cue characteristic of the proper habitat for the juvenile. In gastropods, this chemical cue is often a substance produced by the juvenile or adult food source. In bivalves, the chemical cue may be produced by bacteria specific to the type of biofilm growing in the adult habitat. As a result of this inductive response the veliger will metamorphose in a habitat where it can successfully feed and grow to adulthood.

text: Primarily nocturnal, the mole salamander is found in habitats of moist forest debris, usually near a permanent source of water. The adult range is up to about  and the animals migrate to near bodies of water on rainy nights in winter when the breeding season approaches. The eggs are laid in the spring, during heavy rains. Some larvae undergo metamorphosis while others are neotenic and retain their gills. In larger bodies of water where predatory fish like the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) are present, metamorphosis is more common. When attacked, adults and juveniles lower their heads to expose their parotoid glands which exude a noxious secretion. This salamander is an opportunistic feeder, eating almost anything smaller than itself which it can overpower, including various arthropods and tadpoles.

text: Primarily

text: nocturnal

text: , the mole salamander is found in habitats of moist forest debris, usually near a permanent source of water. The adult range is up to about  and the animals migrate to near bodies of water on rainy nights in winter when the breeding season approaches. The

text: eggs

text: are laid in the spring, during heavy rains. Some larvae undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: while others are

text: neotenic

text: and retain their gills. In larger bodies of water where

text: predatory

text: fish like the

text: bluegill

text: (Lepomis macrochirus) are present, metamorphosis is more common. When attacked, adults and juveniles lower their heads to expose their

text: parotoid gland

text: s which exude a noxious secretion. This salamander is an opportunistic feeder, eating almost anything smaller than itself which it can overpower, including various

text: arthropod

text: s and tadpoles.

text: Pomme De Terre is very popular among anglers and the lake is well known for several different species of fish. The fish that the lake is most popular for, however, is the muskie. Muskies don't reproduce naturally in Pomme de Terre, so the Conservation Department nets fish each spring and milks them for eggs. After the eggs are fertilized at the lake, the fish are released. The eggs are then taken to the Lost Valley Fish Hatchery near Warsaw to be hatched. By October, when they are released into Pomme de Terre and several other lakes in Missouri.

text: Pomme De Terre is very popular among anglers and the lake is well known for several different species of fish. The fish that the lake is most popular for, however, is the

text: muskie

text: . Muskies don't reproduce naturally in Pomme de Terre, so the Conservation Department nets fish each spring and milks them for eggs. After the eggs are fertilized at the lake, the fish are released. The eggs are then taken to the

text: Lost Valley Fish Hatchery

text: near Warsaw to be hatched. By October, when they are released into Pomme de Terre and several other lakes in Missouri.

text: Helveticosaurus is known from a nearly complete holotype which includes the premaxilla, maxilla, prefrontal, postfrontal, postorbital, squamosal, dentary and a poscranial skeleton. Several disarticulated elements are also known including teeth, portions of the snout and poscranial elements. Helveticosaurus is about 2 meters long from snout to tail. It possessed many features that were adaptations to a marine lifestyle in the shallow-sea environment that existed in Europe at the time when much of the continent was part of the Tethys Ocean. The long, flexible tail is similar to what can be seen in other extinct marine reptiles such as thalattosaurs, and it probably propelled itself through the water by means of lateral undulation. However, Helveticosaurus also possessed a robust pectoral girdle and forelimbs that were well adapted for paddle like propulsion as a supplementary method of locomotion, as seen in secondarily aquatic tetrapods. This unique combination of undulation and paddling is highly unusual for an aquatic reptile.

text: Helveticosaurus is known from a nearly complete

text: holotype

text: which includes the

text: premaxilla

text: maxilla

text: , prefrontal, postfrontal, postorbital, squamosal, dentary and a

text: poscrania

text: l skeleton. Several disarticulated elements are also known including

text: teeth

text: , portions of the snout and poscranial elements. Helveticosaurus is about 2 meters long from snout to tail. It possessed many features that were adaptations to a marine lifestyle in the shallow-sea environment that existed in

text: Europe

text: at the time when much of the continent was part of the

text: Tethys Ocean

text: . The long, flexible tail is similar to what can be seen in other extinct marine reptiles such as

text: thalattosaur

text: s, and it probably propelled itself through the water by means of lateral undulation. However, Helveticosaurus also possessed a robust pectoral girdle and forelimbs that were well adapted for paddle like propulsion as a supplementary method of locomotion, as seen in

text: secondarily aquatic tetrapod

text: s. This unique combination of undulation and paddling is highly unusual for an aquatic reptile.

text: This classification applies to a limited number of DEC-owned lands that are managed for other than Forest Preserve purposes. It covers a number of facilities devoted to research, some prisons, and state fish hatcheries in both parks.

text: This classification applies to a limited number of DEC-owned lands that are managed for other than Forest Preserve purposes. It covers a number of facilities devoted to

text: research

text: , some

text: prison

text: s, and state fish

text: hatcheries

text: in both parks.

text: The classification of European rivers comes from the fish fauna found in them. Changes in taxonomic composition relate to physical and chemical changes that occur longitudinally.

text: The classification of

text: European rivers

text: comes from the fish

text: fauna

text: found in them. Changes in

text: taxonomic

text: composition relate to physical and chemical changes that occur longitudinally.

text: Witless Bay is a fishing community, first established because of its closeness to the rich fishing grounds on the Grand Banks. Tourism is an important part of the community as well, since the community is home to the Witless Bay Ecological Reserve, which contains North America´s largest Atlantic Puffin colony and the world's second-largest colony of Leach's Storm-petrels. The presence of these bird colonies has given birth to the Witless Bay Puffin and Petrel Patrol, a volunteer organization aiming to save stranded chick and return them safely to the ocean.  Bed-and-breakfast establishments, coffee shops, a whale and puffin tour operator, several craftspeople, and the Witless Bay and Area Puffin and Petrel Patrol attract visitors from all over the world.

text: Witless Bay is a fishing community, first established because of its closeness to the rich fishing grounds on the

text: Grand Banks

text: . Tourism is an important part of the community as well, since the community is home to the

text: Witless Bay Ecological Reserve

text: , which contains North America´s largest Atlantic Puffin colony and the world's second-largest colony of Leach's Storm-petrels. The presence of these bird colonies has given birth to the Witless Bay Puffin and Petrel Patrol, a volunteer organization aiming to save stranded chick and return them safely to the ocean.  Bed-and-breakfast establishments, coffee shops, a whale and puffin tour operator, several craftspeople, and the Witless Bay and Area Puffin and Petrel Patrol attract visitors from all over the world.

text: Breeding can be achieved with very little effort and no specific requirements are needed for breeding purposes.As long as water conditions are maintained at a desirable high quality, a breeding pair of such fish will readily spawn. To enhance the likelihood of acquiring a breeding pair, purchase several healthy and active juveniles at a young age (between 6 -10) and grow these specimens until sexual maturity. Generally, you should be left with a breeding pair or two. These fish will noticeably become more aggressive and territorial, Remove all other fish at this point and keep the newly formed breeding pair separate.When a breeding pair had been successfully established,The male will begin to court the female by displaying his erect finnage to the female as he tries to impress her in an attempt for her to accept his mating invitation.The pair will begin to clean a flat surface if the female is responsive of the male's previous courting behavior.The female will then lay approximately 1000 - 2000 orange coloured eggs which will then be fertilized by the male. The eggs will be ferociously guarded by both parents and a high degree of parental care is show to the eggs and fry.When the eggs 'hatch' after approximately 5 -7 days, the  offspring (known as wrigglers at this stage in development) are defenseless and are unable to swim. They are often transported to pre dug pits by both parents, and are guarded. The fry will begin to swim in approximately 7 days and should be fed with baby brine shrimp or alike. If you would like to rear these fry, they should be removed at this point as they will later be consumed by both parents as the female becomes due to spawn once more. Feed the fry baby brine shrimp until the stage where they are large enough to consume blood worm, daphnia and other live foods.When purchasing fish in an attempt to acquire a breeding pair, try to buy fish from different sources. There is a high probability that when buying fish from the same source, Fish will be from the same parents (Siblings). This should be avoided, as breeding fish in this manner may form offspring with genetic disease usually associated with interbreeding.Also, buy fish of a similar size, the chances of acquiring a breeding pair with fish of a similar size is significant to that of attempting to breed fish of different age and size.

text: The Cha Cha, residents of St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, have a strong connection with the fish species in their waters. They are proficient in catching fish through three methods. Traps made of wood, metal, and mesh are used by professional fishermen as well as subsistence fishermen. Subsistence fishermen typically set a few traps in shallow water near their homes, whereas professional fishermen set a large number of traps in deep water. Seining is one of the least common fishing techniques in the Cha Cha culture due to time restraints and yielding an impractically large catch. It is time consuming because it requires a great deal of precision as the technique varies with the size and shape of the fish. It is often considered of lesser importance as the yields are usually so great that the fish cannot all be sold before they spoil. Seining involves using a vertical net that can be drawn up to encircle a school of fish. Handlining, in combination with chumming, is the last of the three methods used by the Cha-Cha. Ten or fifteen pounds of small fish called "fry" are ground up in a mixture of sand and then tossed into the water. This mixture called chum will attract fish. At this point, hand lines are baited with whole fry. This method results in large harvests of fish.

text: The Cha Cha, residents of

text: St. Thomas, Virgin Islands

text: , have a strong connection with the fish species in their waters. They are proficient in catching fish through three methods. Traps made of wood, metal, and mesh are used by professional fishermen as well as subsistence fishermen. Subsistence fishermen typically set a few traps in shallow water near their homes, whereas professional fishermen set a large number of traps in deep water.

text: Seining

text: is one of the least common fishing techniques in the Cha Cha culture due to time restraints and yielding an impractically large catch. It is time consuming because it requires a great deal of precision as the technique varies with the size and shape of the fish. It is often considered of lesser importance as the yields are usually so great that the fish cannot all be sold before they spoil. Seining involves using a vertical net that can be drawn up to encircle a school of fish.

text: Handlining

text: , in combination with

text: chumming

text: , is the last of the three methods used by the Cha-Cha. Ten or fifteen pounds of small fish called "fry" are ground up in a mixture of sand and then tossed into the water. This mixture called chum will attract fish. At this point, hand lines are baited with whole fry. This method results in large harvests of fish.

text: While kin selection is nonheritable and a direct result of the environment, sexual selection is a heritable adaptive behavior, and can therefore be characterized as a form of natural selection. Sexual selection refers specifically to competition for mates. Many traits or features that are characteristic of a certain species can be explained by sexual selection as an adaptive behavior; this is because competition for mates results in specific traits being inherited. Only the species that are able to successfully compete and obtain a mate will reproduce and pass their genes on to the next generation. Therefore, species-specific genetic traits must be inherited, allowing individuals to be successful in their designated environments.There are many environmental examples of sexual selection as an adaptive behavior; one popular example is sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphism is a morphological, phenotypic difference between males and females same species.  A common example of sexual dimorphism is difference in body size. Sexual dimorphism can specifically be seen in the fish species, Lamprologus callipterus. These male fish are substantially larger (sometimes up to 60 times) than their female counterparts. The male's increased size is advantageous because the larger individual's are able to compete for female mates, and subsequently defend their offspring, which grow inside empty snail shells until birth. Basically, the larger the male fish, the bigger the adaptive benefit. The advantage of being larger and more powerful is demonstrated in the male's ability to compete and protect. In contrast to the males, the female fish must remain small in order to lay eggs inside the snail shells. It is evident that size plays a significant role in the reproductive success of this particular fish species. Large size is a common adaptive behavioral trait that is inherited through sexual selection and reproduction, as demonstrated in Lamprologus callipterus and other sexually dimorphic species.

text: While kin selection is nonheritable and a direct result of the environment, sexual selection is a heritable adaptive behavior, and can therefore be characterized as a form of natural selection. Sexual selection refers specifically to competition for mates. Many traits or features that are characteristic of a certain species can be explained by sexual selection as an adaptive behavior; this is because competition for mates results in specific traits being inherited. Only the species that are able to successfully compete and obtain a mate will reproduce and pass their genes on to the next generation. Therefore, species-specific genetic traits must be inherited, allowing individuals to be successful in their designated environments.There are many environmental examples of sexual selection as an adaptive behavior; one popular example is sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphism is a morphological, phenotypic difference between males and females same species.  A common example of sexual dimorphism is difference in body size. Sexual dimorphism can specifically be seen in the fish species,

text: Lamprologus callipterus

text: . These male fish are substantially larger (sometimes up to 60 times) than their female counterparts. The male's increased size is advantageous because the larger individual's are able to compete for female mates, and subsequently defend their offspring, which grow inside empty snail shells until birth. Basically, the larger the male fish, the bigger the adaptive benefit. The advantage of being larger and more powerful is demonstrated in the male's ability to compete and protect. In contrast to the males, the female fish must remain small in order to lay eggs inside the snail shells. It is evident that size plays a significant role in the reproductive success of this particular fish species. Large size is a common adaptive behavioral trait that is inherited through sexual selection and reproduction, as demonstrated in Lamprologus callipterus and other sexually dimorphic species.

text: The circulatory systems of all vertebrates are closed, just as in humans. Still, the systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds show various stages of the evolution of the circulatory system. In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the body tissues. This is known as single cycle circulation. The heart of fish is therefore only a single pump (consisting of two chambers). Fish have a closed-loop circulatory system. The heart pumps the blood in a single loop throughout the body. In most fish, the heart consists of four parts, including two chambers and an entrance and exit. The first part is the sinus venosus, a thin-walled sac that collects blood from the fish's veins before allowing it to flow to the second part, the atrium, which is a large muscular chamber. The atrium serves as a one-way antechamber, sends blood to the third part, ventricle. The ventricle is another thick-walled, muscular chamber and it pumps the blood, first to the  fourth part, bulbus arteriosus, a large tube, and then out of the heart. The bulbus arteriosus connects to the aorta, through which blood flows to the gills for oxygenation.

text: The circulatory systems of all

text: vertebrate

text: s are closed, just as in humans. Still, the systems of

text: fish

text: amphibian

text: s,

text: reptile

text: s, and

text: bird

text: s show various stages of the

text: evolution

text: of the

text: circulatory system

text: . In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the

text: gill

text: s and on to the capillaries of the body tissues. This is known as single cycle circulation. The heart of fish is therefore only a single pump (consisting of two chambers). Fish have a

text: closed-loop circulatory system

text: . The

text: heart

text: pumps the blood in a single loop throughout the body. In most fish, the heart consists of four parts, including two chambers and an entrance and exit. The first part is the

text: sinus venosus

text: , a thin-walled sac that collects blood from the fish's

text: vein

text: s before allowing it to flow to the second part, the

text: atrium

text: , which is a large muscular chamber. The atrium serves as a one-way antechamber, sends blood to the third part,

text: ventricle

text: . The ventricle is another thick-walled, muscular chamber and it pumps the blood, first to the  fourth part,

text: bulbus arteriosus

text: , a large tube, and then out of the heart. The bulbus arteriosus connects to the

text: aorta

text: , through which blood flows to the gills for oxygenation.

text: Few specifics are recorded regarding ronquil spawning, but the males are known to guard the brood.

text: This List of National Fish Hatcheries in the United States includes the 70 National Fish Hatcheries, seven Fish Technology Centers and nine Fish Health Centers that are administered as components of the National Fish Hatchery System by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

text: This List of National Fish Hatcheries in the United States includes the 70

text: National Fish Hatcheries

text: , seven Fish Technology Centers and nine Fish Health Centers that are administered as components of the

text: National Fish Hatchery System

text: by the

text: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

text: OKOSA FISHING FESTIVALOkosa fishing festival is an annually event observed in the month of February in a lake called OKOSA. This lake harbours different varieties of fishes ranging from Tilapia, catfish, scarfish, prawn, crab etc. This fishes are allowed to grow and reproduce (that is from the end of the festival to the beginning of another). During this festival, great fishermen from the community compete with each other in all day and night fishing thereby making available excess fresh fishes for consumption at a token price. This festival lasts up to 1-2months. Like Argungu fishing festival in Kebbi State, if this festival is developed it has the ability to attract tourists and will not only promote the host community but will also make Ebonyi state one of the tourist home.

text: Synodontis species are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a wide spectrum of different foods and are largely unspecialized. Insects, crustaceans, mollusks, annelids, seeds, and algae have been found in the stomachs of different species of Synodontis. They are bottom-feeders and may be detritivores, some species may also be able to adapt to filter feeding. This allows them to cope with seasonal and habitat changes and gives them a better ability to colonize different habitats. The different Synodontis species have somewhat different growth rates but most of them are fairly similar. In regards to the Synodontis genus for the different sexes, females are generally larger than the males. There is a great increase in growth the first year in both male and female and then the growth slows down as they become older. The form and structure of these fish are very different compared to other fish. The size and shape of the mouth are distinct because of its ventral mouth and these fish usually are triangular or cylindrical when looking at it from the side. Not much is known about the reproduction in these fish. It has been determined that July to October is when they spawn and that they swim in pairs during this spawning time. Species of Synodontis have been noted to reproduce with the flooding period of the rainy season.

text: Synodontis species are

text: omnivorous

text: generalists, feeding on a wide spectrum of different foods and are largely unspecialized. Insects,

text: crustacean

text: s, mollusks,

text: annelid

text: s, seeds, and algae have been found in the stomachs of different species of Synodontis. They are bottom-feeders and may be

text: detritivore

text: s, some species may also be able to adapt to

text: filter feeding

text: . This allows them to cope with seasonal and habitat changes and gives them a better ability to colonize different habitats. The different Synodontis species have somewhat different growth rates but most of them are fairly similar. In regards to the Synodontis genus for the different sexes, females are generally larger than the males. There is a great increase in growth the first year in both male and female and then the growth slows down as they become older. The form and structure of these fish are very different compared to other fish. The size and shape of the mouth are distinct because of its

text: ventral

text: mouth and these fish usually are triangular or

text: cylindrical

text: when looking at it from the side. Not much is known about the

text: reproduction

text: in these fish. It has been determined that July to October is when they

text: spawn

text: and that they swim in pairs during this spawning time. Species of Synodontis have been noted to reproduce with the flooding period of the

text: rainy season

text: Pel's fishing owl is one of the largest owl species in the world. Among the world's owls, it ranks as the fifth heaviest on average, the seventh longest in length and measured wing chord and fourth longest in mean wingspan, although not all large species have had measured wingspans. It measures  in length, spans around  across the wings and weighs . Under current classification, it is the heaviest extant owl outside of the Bubo genus, although some authors may also include the fishing owls in Bubo. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is  and the tail is  long. They are well adapted to their aquatic lifestyle. Unlike most owls, they have minimal feathering on the toes and the tarsus, thus minimizing the amount of plumage that gets wet while fishing. Like diurnal raptors that specialize in fish, they have spiky scales on the bottoms of their feet that help them grip slippery fish. Since hearing and auditory stealth is not important to its hunting techniques, this owl does not have strong hearing and does not have the soft edges to its flight feathers that most owls share, which makes them almost impossible to hear in flight.

text: Pel's fishing owl is one of the largest owl species in the world. Among the world's owls, it ranks as the fifth heaviest on average, the seventh longest in length and measured

text: wing chord

text: and fourth longest in mean wingspan, although not all large species have had measured wingspans. It measures  in length, spans around  across the wings and weighs . Under current classification, it is the heaviest extant owl outside of the

text: Bubo

text: genus, although some authors may also include the fishing owls in Bubo. Among standard measurements, the

text: wing chord

text: is  and the tail is  long. They are well adapted to their aquatic lifestyle. Unlike most owls, they have minimal feathering on the toes and the tarsus, thus minimizing the amount of plumage that gets wet while fishing. Like diurnal raptors that specialize in fish, they have spiky scales on the bottoms of their feet that help them grip slippery fish. Since hearing and auditory stealth is not important to its hunting techniques, this owl does not have strong hearing and does not have the soft edges to its flight feathers that most owls share, which makes them almost impossible to hear in flight.

text: The Xayaburi Dam in Lao PDR is another hydropower threat. Since the Jullien’s golden carp has a relatively large population in the Mekong River, the consequences of this dam could be disastrous. The Mekong River Commission estimates that this dam could disastrously impact the movements of migratory fish and reduce the amount of fish caught by 270,000 to 600,000 metric tons.  What makes these numbers problematic is the fact that they would mainly affect the local people. What happens with dams is that migratory fish are unable to move upstream and thus are caught in artificial lakes created by the dams. This would create a new fish supply for the state, while decreasing the fish supply for the local people.

text: The

text: Xayaburi Dam

text: in Lao PDR is another hydropower threat. Since the Jullien’s golden carp has a relatively large population in the Mekong River, the consequences of this

text: dam

text: could be disastrous. The Mekong River Commission estimates that this dam could disastrously impact the movements of

text: migratory fish

text: and reduce the amount of fish caught by 270,000 to 600,000 metric tons.  What makes these numbers problematic is the fact that they would mainly affect the local people. What happens with dams is that migratory fish are unable to move upstream and thus are caught in

text: artificial lakes

text: created by the dams. This would create a new fish supply for the

text: state

text: , while decreasing the fish supply for the local people.

text: Construction on the dam began in May 1957 with a goal to stabilize the river's flow, improve navigation and to produce hydroelectric power. 10,000 people worked on the project and Brazilian President Juscelino Kubitschek was influential in the dam's construction pace. The majority of the dam works were completed in January 1961 and its first generator was operational in 1962. The other five generators went online by 1969. The dam does not have a fish ladder and effectively halted fish migration in the upper São Francisco River while also splitting it into two zones.When the reservoir was filled it formed an island that became the Pirapitinga Ecological Station, with an area of about .

text: Construction on the dam began in May 1957 with a goal to stabilize the river's flow, improve navigation and to produce hydroelectric power. 10,000 people worked on the project and Brazilian President

text: Juscelino Kubitschek

text: was influential in the dam's construction pace. The majority of the dam works were completed in January 1961 and its first generator was operational in 1962. The other five generators went online by 1969. The dam does not have a

text: fish ladder

text: and effectively halted fish migration in the upper São Francisco River while also splitting it into two zones.When the reservoir was filled it formed an island that became the

text: Pirapitinga Ecological Station

text: , with an area of about .

text: Salmon need other salmon to survive so they can reproduce and pass on their genes in the wild. With some populations endangered, precautions are necessary to prevent overfishing and habitat destruction, including appropriate management of hydroelectric and irrigation projects. If too few fish remain because of fishing and land management practices, salmon have more difficulty reproducing.

text: Salmon need other salmon to survive so they can reproduce and pass on their genes in the wild. With some populations endangered, precautions are necessary to prevent

text: overfishing

text: and habitat destruction, including appropriate management of

text: hydroelectric

text: and

text: irrigation

text: projects. If too few fish remain because of fishing and land management practices, salmon have more difficulty reproducing.

text: In biological systems phenotype can be said to supervene on genotype. This is because any genotype encodes a finite set of unique phenotypes, but any given phenotype is not produced by a finite set of genotypes. Innumerable examples of convergent evolution can be used to support this claim. Throughout nature, convergent evolution produces incredibly similar phenotypes from a diverse set of taxa with fundamentally different genotypes underpinning the phenotypes. One example is evolution on islands which is a remarkably predictable example of convergent evolution where the same phenotypes consistently evolve for the same reasons. Organisms released from predation tend to become larger, while organisms limited by food tend to become smaller. Yet there are almost infinite numbers of genetic changes that might lead to changes in body size. Another example of convergent evolution is the loss of sight that almost universally occurs in cave fish living in lightless pools. Eyes are expensive, and in lightless cave pools there is little reason for fish to have eyes. Yet, despite the remarkably consistent convergent evolution producing sightless cave fish, the genetics that produce the loss of type phenotype is different nearly every time. This is because phenotype supervenes on genotype.

text: In biological systems

text: phenotype

text: can be said to supervene on

text: genotype

text: . This is because any genotype encodes a finite set of unique phenotypes, but any given phenotype is not produced by a finite set of genotypes. Innumerable examples of

text: convergent evolution

text: can be used to support this claim. Throughout nature, convergent evolution produces incredibly similar phenotypes from a diverse set of taxa with fundamentally different genotypes underpinning the phenotypes. One example is

text: evolution on islands

text: which is a remarkably predictable example of convergent evolution where the same phenotypes consistently evolve for the same reasons. Organisms released from predation tend to become larger, while organisms limited by food tend to become smaller. Yet there are almost infinite numbers of genetic changes that might lead to changes in body size. Another example of convergent evolution is the loss of sight that almost universally occurs in

text: cave fish

text: living in lightless pools. Eyes are expensive, and in lightless cave pools there is little reason for fish to have eyes. Yet, despite the remarkably consistent convergent evolution producing sightless cave fish, the genetics that produce the loss of type phenotype is different nearly every time. This is because phenotype supervenes on genotype.

text: In the wild, the species has been found in the middle and lower Zambezi River south to the Phongolo River system in South Africa.  It is possibly extinct in Swaziland.   It is found in pools and slow-flowing reaches of rivers.  It shelters, frequently upside-down, in holes, crevices, or on the underside of logs.   The reproductive habits of most of the species of Synodontis are not known, beyond some instances of obtaining egg counts from gravid females. Spawning likely occurs during the flooding season between July and October, and pairs swim in unison during spawning.   The fish feeds on detritus and plant matter such as seeds, as well as small invertebrates like insects and snails.  The growth rate is rapid in the first year, then slows down as the fish age.

text: In the wild, the species has been found in the middle and lower Zambezi River south to the

text: Phongolo River

text: system in South Africa.  It is possibly extinct in Swaziland.   It is found in pools and slow-flowing reaches of rivers.  It shelters, frequently upside-down, in holes, crevices, or on the underside of logs.   The reproductive habits of most of the species of Synodontis are not known, beyond some instances of obtaining egg counts from gravid females. Spawning likely occurs during the flooding season between July and October, and pairs swim in unison during spawning.   The fish feeds on detritus and plant matter such as seeds, as well as small invertebrates like insects and snails.  The growth rate is rapid in the first year, then slows down as the fish age.

text: Ice fishing -Ike jime -Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing -Incidental mortality -Indian prawn -Individual fishing quota -Individual Transferable Quota -Industries in Maldives -Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis -Inkfish -Inland saline aquaculture -Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture -International Collective in Support of Fishworkers -International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas -International Council for the Exploration of the Sea -International Game Fish Association -International Land-Based Shark Fishing Association -International Whaling Commission -Intertidal ecology -Iridescent shark -Irish Conservation Box -Isinglass

text: Ice fishing

text: Ike jime

text: Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing

text: Incidental mortality

text: Indian prawn

text: Individual fishing quota

text: Individual Transferable Quota

text: Industries in Maldives

entity_name: Infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis

text: Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis

text: Inkfish

text: Inland saline aquaculture

text: Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture

entity_name: International Collective in Support of Fishworkers

text: International Collective in Support of Fishworkers

entity_name: International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas

text: International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas

entity_name: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

text: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea

text: International Game Fish Association

entity_name: International Land-Based Shark Fishing Association

text: International Land-Based Shark Fishing Association

text: International Whaling Commission

text: Intertidal ecology

text: Iridescent shark

text: Irish Conservation Box

text: Isinglass

text: Fish are a paraphyletic group: that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods, which are not fish. For this reason, groups such as the "Class Pisces" seen in older reference works are no longer used in formal classifications.

text: Fish are a

text: paraphyletic

text: group: that is, any

text: clade

text: containing all fish also contains the

text: tetrapod

text: s, which are not fish. For this reason, groups such as the "Class Pisces" seen in older reference works are no longer used in formal classifications.

text: Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further. This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing. Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us. In this sense, concepts' structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory. This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as a fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is). When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don't in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. In this sense, the Theory-Theory of concepts is responding to some of the issues of prototype theory and classic theory.

text: Centrally governed enforcement of blast fishing sometimes has limited success, due to resistance of local populations and mistrust of central governments. Bottom up systems based around clearly defined public benefits and education are more beneficial. Effective MPAs have the backing of local leadership and populations due to clearly defined benefits of conservation/ecosystem services.   It has also been shown that effective MPAs have local stakeholders that have accurate perceptions of the environmental health of the region. When coastal residents believe that the ecosystem is healthier than indicators such as species diversity, population, and habitat distribution, they may be less likely to support the MPA. Due to this, effective blast fishing community control rely on education campaigns that bring awareness to the relationship between fish stock and fishing rates.

text: Almost all fish are cold-blooded (ectothermic).However, tuna and mackerel sharks are warm-blooded: they can regulate their body temperature. Warm-blooded fish possess organs near their muscles called retia mirabilia that consist of a series of minute parallel veins and arteries that supply and drain the muscles. As the warmer blood in the veins returns to the gills for fresh oxygen it comes into close contact with cold, newly oxygenated blood in the arteries. The system acts as a counter-current heat exchanger and the heat from the blood in the veins is given up to the colder arterial blood rather than being lost at the gills. The net effect is less heat loss through the gills. Fish from warmer water elevate their temperature a few degrees whereas those from cold water may raise it as much as  warmer than the surrounding sea.

text: Almost all fish are cold-blooded (

text: ectothermic

text: ).However, tuna and

text: mackerel sharks

text: are

text: warm-blooded

text: : they can regulate their body temperature. Warm-blooded fish possess organs near their

text: muscles

text: called

text: retia mirabilia

text: that consist of a series of minute parallel veins and arteries that supply and drain the muscles. As the warmer blood in the veins returns to the

text: gill

text: s for fresh oxygen it comes into close contact with cold, newly oxygenated blood in the arteries. The system acts as a counter-current heat exchanger and the heat from the blood in the veins is given up to the colder arterial blood rather than being lost at the gills. The net effect is less heat loss through the gills. Fish from warmer water elevate their temperature a few degrees whereas those from cold water may raise it as much as  warmer than the surrounding sea.

text: In 2009 George Mason University professor Peter T. Leeson has suggested that ocean privatization could help combat Somalian piracy.  Ršgnvaldur Hannesson's book The Privatization of the Oceans argues that privatization will help alleviate the tragedy of the commons. Donald R. Leal's Let's Homestead the Oceans argues that regulation has failed and that individual transferable quotas, which guarantee each fisher a specific share of the total allowable catch before the season begins, should be established, or preferably, fullfledged property rights either to fishing areas or to the fish themselves should be created. The article argues that the more secure the property rights, the healthier fish populations and fishing communities will be. Some questions that arise in reference to water privatization are what areas are to be privatized exactly; how it can be ensured that the general public interest is not corrupted by private corporations acting alone or with government collusion to destroy these once-public resources; what would be a fair price to privatize oceanic tracts; how to hand over title to private firms to manage water resources; and how to manage any future transfers from one private institution to another.

text: In 2009 George Mason University professor Peter T. Leeson has suggested that ocean privatization could help combat

text: Somalian piracy

text: .  Ršgnvaldur Hannesson's book The Privatization of the Oceans argues that privatization will help alleviate

text: the tragedy of the commons

text: . Donald R. Leal's Let's Homestead the Oceans argues that regulation has failed and that

text: individual transferable quota

text: s, which guarantee each fisher a specific share of the total allowable catch before the season begins, should be established, or preferably, fullfledged property rights either to fishing areas or to the fish themselves should be created. The article argues that the more secure the property rights, the healthier fish populations and fishing communities will be. Some questions that arise in reference to water privatization are what areas are to be privatized exactly; how it can be ensured that the general public interest is not corrupted by private corporations acting alone or with government collusion to destroy these once-public resources; what would be a fair price to privatize oceanic tracts; how to hand over title to private firms to manage water resources; and how to manage any future transfers from one private institution to another.

text: The study of fish receives its origins from human's desire to feed, clothe, and equip themselves with useful implements. According to Michael Barton, a prominent ichthyologist and professor at Centre College, "the earliest ichthyologists were hunters and gatherers who had learned how to obtain the most useful fish, where to obtain them in abundance, and at what times they might be the most available". Early cultures manifested these insights in abstract and identifiable artistic expressions.

text: The study of fish receives its origins from human's desire to feed, clothe, and equip themselves with useful implements. According to

text: Michael Barton

text: , a prominent ichthyologist and professor at

text: Centre College

text: , "the earliest ichthyologists were hunters and gatherers who had learned how to obtain the most useful fish, where to obtain them in abundance, and at what times they might be the most available". Early cultures manifested these insights in abstract and identifiable artistic expressions.

text: Pacu, along with their piranha cousins, are a characin fish, meaning a kind of tetra, belonging to the Characiformes order. The ongoing classification of these fish is difficult and often contentious, with ichthyologists basing ranks according to characteristics that may overlap irregularly (see Cladistics). DNA research sometimes confounds rather than clarifies species ranking. Ultimately, classifications can be rather arbitrary.

text: Pacu, along with their piranha cousins, are a characin fish, meaning a kind of

text: tetra

text: , belonging to the

text: Characiformes

text: order. The ongoing classification of these fish is difficult and often contentious, with

text: ichthyologist

text: s basing ranks according to characteristics that may overlap irregularly (see

text: Cladistics

text: ). DNA research sometimes confounds rather than clarifies species ranking. Ultimately, classifications can be rather arbitrary.

text: The Incan People worship the elements because the elements are what give them food, if the water does not feel like giving them fish then they don't get fish. If the dark coloured people steal the fish they would beat them with large clubs until the elements made them return the fish to the white skinned people.

text: The Incan People worship the elements because the elements are what give them food, if the water does not feel like giving them

text: fish

text: then they don't get fish. If the dark coloured people steal the fish they would beat them with large clubs until the elements made them return the fish to the white skinned people.

text: Genetically modified fish (GM fish) are organisms from the taxonomic clade which includes the classes Agnatha (jawless fish), Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) and Osteichthyes (bony fish) whose genetic material (DNA) has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.  In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the fish which does not occur naturally in the species, i.e. transgenesis.

text: Genetically modified fish (GM fish) are

text: organisms

text: from the taxonomic clade which includes the classes

text: Agnatha

text: (jawless fish),

text: Chondrichthyes

text: (cartilaginous fish) and

text: Osteichthyes

text: (bony fish) whose genetic material (

text: DNA

text: ) has been altered using

text: genetic engineering

text: techniques.  In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new

text: trait

text: to the fish which does not occur naturally in the species, i.e.

text: transgenesis

text: The kind of EOD produced can be used to distinguish between two types of weakly electric fish: the pulse-type and the wave-type. The black ghost knifefish are considered to be the latter type, because they can continuously generate EODs in small intervals. Wave-type EODs have a narrow power spectra, and can be heard as a tonal sound, where the discharge rate establishes the fundamental frequency. By emitting its own continuous sinusoidal train of EODs, the fish can determine the presence of nearby objects by sensing perturbations in timing and amplitude of electric fields, an ability known as active electrolocation. The particular organs used to sense the self-generated high-frequency EODs are tuberous electroreceptor organs. On the other hand, when low-frequency electric fields are generated by external sources instead of the fish itself, a different class of electroreceptor organs is used for this passive electrolocation, called ampullary organs. Therefore, the black ghost knifefish uses an active and a passive electrosystem, each with its own corresponding receptor organs. The fish can also use a mechanosensory lateral line system, which detects water disturbances created by the motion of the fish's body. As nocturnal hunters, the fish can rely on all three systems to navigate through dark environments and detect their prey.

text: The kind of EOD produced can be used to distinguish between two types of weakly electric fish: the pulse-type and the wave-type. The black ghost knifefish are considered to be the latter type, because they can continuously generate EODs in small intervals. Wave-type EODs have a narrow power spectra, and can be heard as a tonal sound, where the discharge rate establishes the fundamental frequency. By emitting its own continuous sinusoidal train of EODs, the fish can determine the presence of nearby objects by sensing perturbations in timing and amplitude of electric fields, an ability known as

text: active electrolocation

text: . The particular organs used to sense the self-generated high-frequency EODs are tuberous

text: electroreceptor organs

text: . On the other hand, when low-frequency electric fields are generated by external sources instead of the fish itself, a different class of electroreceptor organs is used for this

text: passive electrolocation

text: , called

text: ampullary organs

text: . Therefore, the black ghost knifefish uses an active and a passive electrosystem, each with its own corresponding receptor organs. The fish can also use a mechanosensory

text: lateral line

text: system, which detects water disturbances created by the motion of the fish's body. As

text: nocturnal

text: hunters, the fish can rely on all three systems to navigate through dark environments and detect their prey.

text: The three mile stretch of Stockport Creek holds important spawning ground for the Hudson River's anadromous fish such as Blueback Herring, Alewives, Striped Bass, American Shad, White Perch, Smelt, Atlantic Sturgeon and Shortnose Sturgeon. Some spawning fish travel as far up to spawn as Claverack and Kinderhook creek. The tidal mudflats and littoral zones at the mouth of the river also host feeding grounds for Striped bass. They also act as a nursery area for juvenile migratory fishes. There is a large concentration of smallmouth bass in Stockport creek.

text: Changing the fish population of bodies of water as a part of watershed management can facilitate desirable changes in aquatic ecosystems suffering from eutrophication characterized by domination by phytoplankton aiding ecosystem restoration, an application of restoration ecology. In ponds or lakes alternative stable conditions, one with high algae populations, little other plant life, and turbid water, another with low algae populations, a diverse plant population, and clear water, may exist. In addition to prevention of excess nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrates, removal of certain fish species adapted to turbid water may facilitate change from one steady state to the other, an application of dynamical systems theory. Fish species may be removed by means of poison, harvesting, or introduction of predatory species. As a different fish community will result from the process it will affect recreational and commercial fishermen whose cooperation or opposition is important.

text: Changing the fish population of bodies of water as a part of

text: watershed management

text: can facilitate desirable changes in

text: aquatic ecosystems

text: suffering from

text: eutrophication

text: characterized by domination by

text: phytoplankton

text: aiding

text: ecosystem restoration

text: , an application of

text: restoration ecology

text: . In ponds or lakes alternative stable conditions, one with high algae populations, little other plant life, and turbid water, another with low algae populations, a diverse plant population, and clear water, may exist. In addition to prevention of excess nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrates, removal of certain fish species adapted to turbid water may facilitate change from one steady state to the other, an application of

text: dynamical systems theory

text: . Fish species may be removed by means of poison, harvesting, or introduction of predatory species. As a different fish community will result from the process it will affect recreational and commercial fishermen whose cooperation or opposition is important.

text: Trout cod reach sexual maturity at 3 to 5 years (which corresponds to about 35 cm in males and 43 cm in females).  Trout cod reach sexual maturity at a smaller size than Murray cod, which is an adaptation to the rocky, low nutrient and often quite small upland habitats trout cod were found in.  Spawning of trout cod has never been observed in the wild and is not well understood.  It is believed to be essentially the same as Murray cod but occurs about three weeks earlier and at significantly lower temperatures in waters shared by the two species.  Trout cod are believed to spawn at temperatures as low as 15 degrees in upland rivers, using rocks as a spawning substrate; these are also clear adaptations to cool, rocky upland river habitats.  Significantly, and unlike Murray cod, trout cod will not breed in earthen dam brood ponds; another indication that trout cod are a more specialised upland species than Murray cod.  Artificial breeding programs being conducted for the species recovery use hormone injections to induce ovulation in naturally ripe fish in spring. Trout cod will hybridise with Murray cod and so for recovery projects it is important that Murray cod are not stocked into sites where Trout Cod and Murray cod are not already coexisting sympatrically.

text: Female midshipman fish undergo stimulus filtering when it comes time to mate with a male. Midshipman fish use stimulus filtering when listening to sounds produced by underwater species. Dominant signals underwater range between 60–120 Hz, which is the most normally the most sensitive to the fish’s auditory receptor. However, the female auditory system changes seasonally to acoustical stimuli in the songs of male midshipman fish. In the summer when female midshipman fish are reproducing they listen to a male humming song that can be produce a frequency level of 400 Hz. The summer is reproducing season for the females so their hearing is more sensitive to the high frequency of the male humming.

text: Female

text: midshipman fish

text: undergo stimulus filtering when it comes time to mate with a male. Midshipman fish use stimulus filtering when listening to sounds produced by underwater species. Dominant signals underwater range between 60–120 Hz, which is the most normally the most sensitive to the fish’s auditory receptor. However, the female auditory system changes seasonally to acoustical stimuli in the songs of male midshipman fish. In the summer when female midshipman fish are reproducing they listen to a male humming song that can be produce a frequency level of 400 Hz. The summer is reproducing season for the females so their hearing is more sensitive to the high frequency of the male humming.

text: As part of his company Fish Navy Films, Ted Caplow has written, produced, edited, narrated and appeared in a series of documentary films on sustainable seafood.  Films produced by Fish Navy Films include Two Fish (2012), Fish Meat (2012), Raising Shrimp (2013), and What We Fish For (2015). Caplow’s primary scientific collaborator in all three films has been fish ecologist Andy J. Danylchuk.

text: F. julisia is not only found in one state, Tennessee, but also in only one region, the Cumberland Plateau. In that specific region it is currently only found in the Elk River and a drainage creek of the Cumberland River, West Hickory Creek. However, that has not always been the only thought of location for F. julisia's habitat. They are often associated with springs, but drought conditions made them adapt to survive in springs where permanent water was near by. They prefer heavily vegetated areas of aquatic vegetation or algae in shallow, slow moving water. Given the above habitat, it is observed that F. julisia can tolerate warm temperatures of water and turbidity, the presence of competitors, and the presence of predators. This, along with spawning, make aquatic vegetation a limiting factor for the fish.

text: F. julisia is not only found in one state,

text: Tennessee

text: , but also in only one region, the Cumberland Plateau. In that specific region it is currently only found in the Elk River and a drainage creek of the Cumberland River, West Hickory Creek. However, that has not always been the only thought of location for F. julisia's habitat. They are often associated with springs, but drought conditions made them adapt to survive in springs where permanent water was near by. They prefer heavily vegetated areas of aquatic vegetation or algae in shallow, slow moving water. Given the above habitat, it is observed that F. julisia can tolerate warm temperatures of water and turbidity, the presence of competitors, and the presence of predators. This, along with spawning, make aquatic vegetation a limiting factor for the fish.

text: Some of these benchmarks are combined in the form of ratios in order to better understand the status of the stock.  A Fcurr/Fmsy ratio greater than one indicates that overfishing is occurring.  When SSBcurr/SSBmsy is greater than one, the MSY will be produced, but if it is less than one it means that the stock is overfished.  MFMT and MSST are used as limit reference points.  When MFMT is exceeded or the spawning stock size dips below MSST the fishery is shut down.  A benchmark that is currently gaining in popularity is SPR, spawning potential ratio.  The SPR is the average fecundity of a recruit over its lifetime when the stock is fished divided by the average fecundity of a recruit over its lifetime when the stock is unfished.  The SPR is based on the principle that certain levels of fish have to survive in order to spawn and replenish the stock at a sustainable level.

text: Raymond's friends were also disappointed at him because of his low grades. Raymond is later mocked by classmates for his science project. But accidentally, Raymond leaves his backpack behind and could not deliver the science project, which furthered angered his friends. So Raymond goes back to his home distraught and upset. At that time his grandmother was telling Sofy about The Secret of the Magic Gourd. But upset Raymond scoffs at his grandmother and says that he does not care about that story, and finds it annoying. But his grandmother keeps narrating the story to Sofy while in his room, when soon enough Raymond falls asleep. Soon he starts dreaming, that he went fishing in a bamboo forest where the fish had pumpkin, Raymond found that frightening at the beginning, until the gourd told him that it was calledBailey, and it wants to help him. It offered him a deal that, if he does not tell anyone about him, he will put fish in his bucket as food. Raymond tells Bailey that he wants to show the fish to his friends, in the park of the school, a friend of Raymond John had frightened him, and Raymond teach them the fish, they wonder how can the goldfish be in a lake, so the teacher suggests to them that should go to the library. Raymond came home, telling the pumpkin to be with the fish, then came Sofy and saw something strange and was chasing him, until he reached his grandmother and told her to bathe and Raymond to do his homework.

text: Industry is heavy along the bay, with an abundance of natural gas and oil wells at all corners. Natural gas was discovered at the site in 1934, and oil was discovered the next year. Point Comfort is home to several industrial plants along the shore, including Alcoa, Union Carbide, Du Pont, and Formosa Plastics Corp, which contribute to the local economies. Despite the restrictions on the bay that prevent the production of fish and shellfish along the superfund site, seafood harvesting is a major industry. However, it is not as prominent as it was in the 1920s, when Port Lavaca led the nation in shrimp production, leading to the construction of a quick-freezing plant. Today, shrimping is only allowed south of the Port Lavaca Causeway, due to the north's classification as a nursery location. Shellfish production is allowed in Keller Bay and Lavaca Bay south of Point Comfort, but is restricted along the eastern and northern coast and Chocolate Bay, and is conditionally approved in the remaining locations, including along the shore of Port Lavaca. A small tourism industry also fuels economic growth, spurred by the Port Lavaca State Fishing Pier found alongside the Port Lavaca Causeway. The pier once served as the causeway across the bay but was replaced in the 1960s and converted into a fishing pier of , billed as the longest in the world.

text: Industry is heavy along the bay, with an abundance of natural gas and oil wells at all corners. Natural gas was discovered at the site in 1934, and oil was discovered the next year. Point Comfort is home to several industrial plants along the shore, including Alcoa,

text: Union Carbide

text: Du Pont

text: , and

text: Formosa Plastics Corp

text: , which contribute to the local economies. Despite the restrictions on the bay that prevent the production of fish and shellfish along the superfund site, seafood harvesting is a major industry. However, it is not as prominent as it was in the 1920s, when Port Lavaca led the nation in shrimp production, leading to the construction of a quick-freezing plant. Today,

text: shrimping

text: is only allowed south of the Port Lavaca Causeway, due to the north's classification as a nursery location. Shellfish production is allowed in Keller Bay and Lavaca Bay south of Point Comfort, but is restricted along the eastern and northern coast and Chocolate Bay, and is conditionally approved in the remaining locations, including along the shore of Port Lavaca. A small tourism industry also fuels economic growth, spurred by the Port Lavaca State Fishing Pier found alongside the Port Lavaca Causeway. The pier once served as the causeway across the bay but was replaced in the 1960s and converted into a fishing pier of , billed as the longest in the world.

text: Freshwater fish are physiologically differ from marine and brackish water forms. The low salinity and high osmotic pressure makes them so different. Few fish can be found in all three ecological systems.

text: Salmon spawned in most rivers and streams in California sometime during the year and were a welcome addition to the diet of the hunter-gatherer California people living near almost all the streams. Many tribes migrated to a given area along the streams during spawning runs to harvest the fish. Fish were caught with spears, harpoons, fish nets, fish traps (fishing weirs), hooks and fishing lines, gathering seafood by hand and using specific plant toxins (soaproot, buckeye nuts, and wild cucumber root) to temporarily paralyze the fish so they would float to the surface where could easily be captured. About the only early competitors for fish was the California grizzly bears who lived in California then and who also liked salmon. Salmon and other fish were usually eaten almost immediately, smoked or sun dried and stored in woven baskets so they could not spoil and were available to eat nearly year-round. Acorns gathered each fall were the other staple of most California Indian's diet,

text: Salmon spawned in most rivers and streams in California sometime during the year and were a welcome addition to the diet of the

text: hunter-gatherer

text: California people living near almost all the streams. Many tribes migrated to a given area along the streams during spawning runs to harvest the fish. Fish were caught with

text: spear

text: s,

text: harpoon

text: s,

text: fish net

text: s,

text: fish trap

text: s (

text: fishing weir

text: s),

text: hook

text: s and

text: fishing line

text: s,

text: gathering seafood by hand

text: and using specific plant

text: toxin

text: s (

text: soaproot

text: buckeye

text: nuts, and wild

text: cucumber

text: root) to temporarily paralyze the fish so they would float to the surface where could easily be captured. About the only early competitors for fish was the California

text: grizzly bear

text: s who lived in California then and who also liked salmon.

text: Salmon

text: and other fish were usually eaten almost immediately,

text: smoked

text: or sun dried and stored in woven baskets so they could not spoil and were available to eat nearly year-round.

text: Acorn

text: s gathered each fall were the other staple of most California Indian's diet,

text: It was founded 36 years ago and now organizes more than 10 fishing tournaments each year, ranking as the association that makes more sport fishing events in Latin America.

text: Hydromys chrysogaster, commonly known as rakali, rabe or water-rat, is an Australian native rodent first described in 1804. The change to the aboriginal name Rakali was intended to foster a positive public attitude by Environment Australia. It is the only member of the genus Hydromys with a range extending beyond Papua New Guinea and Indonesian  West Papua. Having effectively adapted and colonised a unique niche of semi-aquatic and nocturnal lifestyle. This species lives in burrows on the banks of rivers, lakes and estuaries and feeds on aquatic insects, fish, crustaceans, mussels, snails, frogs, birds' eggs and water birds. Rakali have a body  in length, weigh,  and have a thick tail measuring around . Females are generally smaller than males but tail lengths are normally the same.They have partially webbed hind legs, waterproof fur, a flattened head, a long blunt nose, many whiskers and small ears and eyes. The body is streamlined with a skull that is large, flat and elongated, with two molars on the upper and lower jaw, similar to the False water rat Xeromys meroides. They are black to brown in colour with an orange to white belly, and dark tail with a white tip.

text: Hydromys chrysogaster, commonly known as rakali, rabe or water-rat, is an

text: Australian native

text: rodent

text: first described in 1804. The change to the aboriginal name Rakali was intended to foster a positive public attitude by

text: Environment Australia

text: . It is the only member of the genus

text: Hydromys

text: with a range extending beyond

text: Papua New Guinea

text: and Indonesian

text: West Papua

text: . Having effectively adapted and colonised a unique niche of semi-aquatic and nocturnal lifestyle. This species lives in burrows on the banks of rivers, lakes and

text: estuaries

text: and feeds on aquatic insects,

text: fish

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: mussel

text: s,

text: snail

text: s,

text: frog

text: s, birds' eggs and water birds. Rakali have a body  in length, weigh,  and have a thick tail measuring around . Females are generally smaller than males but tail lengths are normally the same.They have partially webbed hind legs, waterproof fur, a flattened head, a long blunt nose, many whiskers and small ears and eyes. The body is streamlined with a skull that is large, flat and elongated, with two molars on the upper and lower jaw, similar to the False water rat Xeromys meroides. They are black to brown in colour with an orange to white belly, and dark tail with a white tip.

text: Many species of fish do reproduce in freshwater, but spend most of their adult lives in the sea. These are known as anadromous fish, and include, for instance, salmon, trout and three-spined stickleback. Some other kinds of fish are, on the contrary, born in salt water, but live most of or parts of their adult lives in fresh water; for instance the eels. These are known as catadromous fish.

text: Many species of fish do reproduce in freshwater, but spend most of their adult lives in the sea. These are known as

text: anadromous

text: fish, and include, for instance,

text: salmon

text: trout

text: and

text: three-spined stickleback

text: . Some other kinds of fish are, on the contrary, born in salt water, but live most of or parts of their adult lives in fresh water; for instance the

text: eels

text: . These are known as catadromous fish.

text: The water activity, a, in a fish is defined as the ratio of the water vapour pressure in the flesh of the fish to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature and pressure. It ranges between 0 and 1, and is a parameter that measures how available the water is in the flesh of the fish. Available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic reactions involved in spoilage. There are a number of techniques that have been or are used to tie up the available water or remove it by reducing the a. Traditionally, techniques such as drying, salting and smoking have been used, and have been used for thousands of years. In more recent times, freeze-drying, water binding humectants, and fully automated equipment with temperature and humidity control have been added. Often a combination of these techniques is used.

text: The

text: water activity

text: , a, in a fish is defined as the ratio of the

text: water vapour

text: pressure in the flesh of the fish to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature and pressure. It ranges between 0 and 1, and is a parameter that measures how available the water is in the flesh of the fish. Available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic reactions involved in spoilage. There are a number of techniques that have been or are used to tie up the available water or remove it by reducing the a. Traditionally, techniques such as

text: drying

text: salting

text: and

text: smoking

text: have been used, and have been used for thousands of years. In more recent times,

text: freeze-drying

text: , water binding

text: humectant

text: s, and fully automated equipment with temperature and humidity control have been added. Often a combination of these techniques is used.

text: An old fisherman who usually earns a living by fishing at the river risk of his own life to find this white jade fish-jar. On the fish-jar is engraved a tiny fisher boy. The fisher boy can become alive and grow and, with his fishing-rod, can hook the fish which are engraved on the bottom part of the fish-globe and which also can become alive and grow. The oldman is later accused of stealing the fish jar from the pastor.

text: Where mosquito nets are freely or cheaply distributed, local residents sometimes opportunistically use them inappropriately, for example as fishing nets. When used for fishing, mosquito nets have harmful ecological consequences because the fine mesh of a mosquito net retains almost all fishes, including bycatch such as immature or small fish and fish species that are not suitable for consumption. In addition, insecticides with which the mesh has been treated, such as permethrin, may be harmful to the fish and other aquatic fauna.

text: Where mosquito nets are freely or cheaply distributed, local residents sometimes

text: opportunistically

text: use them inappropriately, for example as

text: fishing net

text: s. When used for fishing, mosquito nets have harmful ecological consequences because the fine mesh of a mosquito net retains almost all fishes, including

text: bycatch

text: such as immature or small fish and fish species that are not suitable for consumption. In addition, insecticides with which the mesh has been treated, such as

text: permethrin

text: , may be harmful to the fish and other aquatic fauna.

text: Fishing in Chile is a major industry with a total catch of 4,442,877 tons of fish in 2006. As of 2010, Chile has the seventh largest commercial catch in the world. With over 4,000 km (2,500 miles) of viable coastline, fishing has been a vital resource for small-scale business and family development for hundreds of years. Due to the Humboldt Current, the Chilean Sea is considered among the most productive marine ecosystems in the world as well as the largest upwelling system. Artisan fishing is practised all over Chile's 6,435 km long coastline and combines industrial techniques with pre-Hispanic traditions. Recreational fishing tourism in southern Chile's rivers has recently gained worldwide fame attracting actors such as Harrison Ford, Michael Douglas, and Kevin Costner.

text: Fishing in Chile is a major

text: industry

text: with a total catch of 4,442,877 tons of fish in 2006. As of 2010, Chile has the seventh largest commercial catch in the world. With over 4,000 km (2,500 miles) of viable coastline, fishing has been a vital resource for small-scale business and family development for hundreds of years. Due to the

text: Humboldt Current

text: , the

text: Chilean Sea

text: is considered among the most productive marine ecosystems in the world as well as the largest

text: upwelling

text: system.

text: Artisan fishing

text: is practised all over Chile's 6,435 km long coastline and combines industrial techniques with

text: pre-Hispanic

text: traditions.

text: Recreational fishing

text: tourism in southern

text: Chile's rivers

text: has recently gained worldwide fame attracting actors such as

text: Harrison Ford

text: Michael Douglas

text: , and

text: Kevin Costner

text: Meyer is best known for his work on the evolution and adaptive radiation of African cichlid fishes, fish-specific genome duplications, molecular phylogenetics of vertebrates, and the role of ecological and sexual selection in speciation.

text: Meyer is best known for his work on the

text: evolution

text: and

text: adaptive radiation

text: of African

text: cichlid

text: fishes, fish-specific genome duplications,

text: molecular phylogenetics

text: of vertebrates, and the role of ecological and

text: sexual selection

text: in

text: speciation

text: Some aquatic mammals have retained four weight-bearing limbs (e.g. hippopotamuses, beavers, otters, muskrats) and can walk on land like fully terrestrial mammals. The long and thin legs of a moose limit exposure to and friction from water in contrast to hippopotamuses who keep most of their body submerged and have short and thick legs.  The semiaquatic pygmy hippopotamus can walk quickly on a muddy underwater surface thanks to robust muscles and because all toes are weight-bearing.  Some aquatic mammals with flippers (e.g. seals) are amphibious and regularly leave the water, sometimes for extended periods, and maneuver on land by undulating their bodies to move on land, similar to the up-and-down body motion used underwater by fully aquatic mammals (e.g. dolphins and manatees).

text: Some aquatic mammals have retained four weight-bearing limbs (e.g. hippopotamuses, beavers, otters, muskrats) and can walk on land like fully terrestrial mammals. The long and thin legs of a moose limit exposure to and friction from water in contrast to hippopotamuses who keep most of their body submerged and have short and thick legs.  The semiaquatic

text: pygmy hippopotamus

text: can walk quickly on a muddy underwater surface thanks to robust muscles and because all toes are weight-bearing.  Some aquatic mammals with flippers (e.g. seals) are amphibious and regularly leave the water, sometimes for extended periods, and maneuver on land by undulating their bodies to move on land, similar to the up-and-down body motion used underwater by fully aquatic mammals (e.g. dolphins and manatees).

text: Fishing boats from the nearby fishing port of Eyemouth were the first on the scene and encountered a field of debris, fuel oil, clothing and body parts. Additionally, the British destroyers HMS Stag and Express had spotted the smoke and headed for the pall of smoke, only to find that what few survivors there were had already been rescued. (There was an anecdotal story that one of the destroyers had an engine problem when a water inlet was blocked by a leg in a seaboot.)

text: The term fish processing refers to the processes associated with fish and fish products between the time fish are caught or harvested, and the time the final product is delivered to the customer. Although the term refers specifically to fish, in practice it is extended to cover any aquatic organisms harvested for commercial purposes, whether caught in wild fisheries or harvested from aquaculture or fish farming.

text: The term fish processing refers to the processes associated with fish and fish products between the time fish are caught or harvested, and the time the final product is delivered to the customer. Although the term refers specifically to fish, in practice it is extended to cover any

text: aquatic organisms

text: harvested for commercial purposes, whether caught in

text: wild fisheries

text: or harvested from

text: aquaculture

text: or

text: fish farming

text: All fish perceive odors though nostril-like structures called nares. Most fish lack vomeronasal structures, yet they are still able to detect pheromones through vomeronasal-related genes. In lieu of the organ, fish possess sensory epithelium that contains three types of sensory cells, two of which are responsible for sex pheromones and social cures. Considering the slow diffusion of odor molecules through water, it is evolutionarily reasonable to possess only one type of cell dedicated to odorants and two cells dedicated to chemical communication.

text: All fish perceive odors though nostril-like structures called nares. Most fish lack

text: vomeronasal

text: structures, yet they are still able to detect

text: pheromone

text: s through vomeronasal-related genes. In lieu of the organ, fish possess sensory

text: epithelium

text: that contains three types of sensory cells, two of which are responsible for sex pheromones and social cures. Considering the slow diffusion of odor molecules through water, it is evolutionarily reasonable to possess only one type of cell dedicated to odorants and two cells dedicated to chemical communication.

text: This challenge was an early start for the 4 remaining finalists Bill, Sophie, Fenton and David. It began at the fish markets in Sydney's Chinatown where Ben explained the art of finding a fresh fish. Each finalist asked around to find out as much information as they could about a fish they had never cooked before. Fenton was so impressed with the filleting of the salmon that he wanted to meet the man responsible. Turned out it was the No. 1 salmon filleter in NSW. At the docks, 4 BBQ's were set up and each contestant was given 60 seconds to look down the barrel of the camera and talk about how they would prepare this fish, as though they were hosting a show. This was a test to see how much of the information they could retain and deliver to an audience in a simple to understand language. A Teppanyaki Chef came out and gave the finalists a crash course in the ancient Japanese technique. For the final challenge the remaining 4 were taken to a Teppanyaki restaurant and asked to cook a meal for the judges using the technique. Each contestant was judged on the ability to talk and cook at the same time while using techniques that they were all unfamiliar with. The judges then decided they would send one home who they thought was 'throwing' the contest.

text: This challenge was an early start for the 4 remaining finalists Bill, Sophie, Fenton and David. It began at the

text: fish market

text: s in

text: Sydney

text: 's Chinatown where Ben explained the art of finding a fresh

text: fish

text: . Each finalist asked around to find out as much information as they could about a fish they had never cooked before. Fenton was so impressed with the filleting of the

text: salmon

text: that he wanted to meet the man responsible. Turned out it was the No. 1 salmon filleter in NSW. At the docks, 4 BBQ's were set up and each contestant was given 60 seconds to look down the barrel of the camera and talk about how they would prepare this fish, as though they were hosting a show. This was a test to see how much of the information they could retain and deliver to an audience in a simple to understand language. A

text: Teppanyaki

text: Chef came out and gave the finalists a crash course in the ancient Japanese technique. For the final challenge the remaining 4 were taken to a Teppanyaki restaurant and asked to cook a meal for the judges using the technique. Each contestant was judged on the ability to talk and cook at the same time while using techniques that they were all unfamiliar with. The judges then decided they would send one home who they thought was 'throwing' the contest.

text: The characteristics of the fish habitats are indicators of the size of the labyrinth organ, as the organ size is negatively correlated with the level of oxygen in the waters. Species native to low-oxygen waters are more likely to have larger and more complex labyrinth organs than species found in fast-flowing, oxygen-rich waters.

text: It is not commonly found outside its native range. However, it was introduced to Glendale Lake, Cambria County, Pennsylvania, by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission (PFBC) in 1968. The lake is just south of the native range of the northern pike. Pure Amur pike were last spawned in 1971. All of the Pennsylvania Fish Commission's brood stock was lost in the summer of 1976. That same year the world record Amur pike was caught from the lake. The year after, the PFBC also stocked 168 northern pike x Amur pike hybrids into the lake. With a lack of success, the Amur pike program was cancelled. Glendale Lake was chosen because its outflow leads into heavily polluted waters in which fish cannot survive. Pure northern pike are found in the lake today, however it is likely no pure or hybrid Amur pike remain.

text: It is not commonly found outside its native range. However, it was introduced to

text: Glendale Lake

text: Cambria County

text: Pennsylvania

text: , by the

text: Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission

text: (PFBC) in 1968. The lake is just south of the native range of the northern pike. Pure Amur pike were last spawned in 1971. All of the Pennsylvania Fish Commission's brood stock was lost in the summer of 1976. That same year the world record Amur pike was caught from the lake. The year after, the PFBC also stocked 168 northern pike x Amur pike hybrids into the lake. With a lack of success, the Amur pike program was cancelled. Glendale Lake was chosen because its outflow leads into heavily polluted waters in which fish cannot survive. Pure northern pike are found in the lake today, however it is likely no pure or hybrid Amur pike remain.

text: However, an even more extensive and sustainable coastal resource is forage fish, such as anchovies and herring. This fishery is an integral part of the pole and line tuna fishery, since tuna feed on the forage fish. Future development of the traditional pole and line tuna fishery depends on the availability of this bait fishery. Catch rate for forage fish have increased greatly in recent years, but there is not enough data to really know what the current status of the forage fish stocks are.

text: However, an even more extensive and sustainable coastal resource is

text: forage fish

text: , such as

text: anchovies

text: and

text: herring

text: . This fishery is an integral part of the pole and line tuna fishery, since tuna feed on the forage fish. Future development of the traditional pole and line tuna fishery depends on the availability of this bait fishery. Catch rate for forage fish have increased greatly in recent years, but there is not enough data to really know what the current status of the forage

text: fish stock

text: s are.

text: To use physical habitat models to analyze and predict ecosystem potential, compositions must also be determined of the native fish community and a subset of species must be selected for model development. The development of a Reference Fish Community (RFC) is based on the Target Fish Community approach, described by Bain and Meixler (2000). A comprehensive list of species is generated from literature sources and available regional data collected on relatively intact river reaches. The species are ranked on the basis of abundance in long-term fish collection data from multiple rivers of similar character. Securing habitat for naturally occurring dominant species (ecology) should preserve the most profound characteristics of the ecosystem, providing survival conditions for the majority of the aquatic community and therefore a reference for restoration efforts. The simplest way to create a river habitat model is therefore to select the five to ten highest ranking species for model development. It can then be assumed that community structure reflects habitat structure; therefore, the most common species should indicate the most common habitat. Since habitat availability forms the structure of aquatic fauna, the affinity between the structure of the river habitat and the structure of the fish community can be used as a measure of habitat quality.

text: To use physical habitat models to analyze and predict ecosystem potential, compositions must also be determined of the native fish community and a subset of species must be selected for model development. The development of a Reference Fish Community (RFC) is based on the Target Fish Community approach, described by Bain and Meixler (2000). A comprehensive list of species is generated from literature sources and available regional data collected on relatively intact river reaches. The species are ranked on the basis of abundance in long-term fish collection data from multiple rivers of similar character. Securing habitat for naturally occurring

text: dominant species (ecology)

text: should preserve the most profound characteristics of the ecosystem, providing survival conditions for the majority of the aquatic community and therefore a reference for restoration efforts. The simplest way to create a river habitat model is therefore to select the five to ten highest ranking species for model development. It can then be assumed that community structure reflects habitat structure; therefore, the most common species should indicate the most common habitat. Since habitat availability forms the structure of aquatic fauna, the affinity between the structure of the river habitat and the structure of the fish community can be used as a measure of habitat quality.

text: East African cichlids in general are especially known for their vibrantly colored bodies and the role that coloration plays in courting and mating, but the A. burtoni is known to be phenotypically distinct in its use of a completely different form of sensory communication: acoustic communication. Sounds and the corresponding behaviors of the male sex of these particular African cichlids have been studied while observing the female mate preference, and behavioral experiments demonstrated that acoustic information does indeed play a significant role in sexual reproduction. This reliance on non-visual sensory information in order to coordinate complex social behaviors indicates that acoustic signaling is important for the A. burtoni. This suggests that there are internal cues in these cichlid fish that can significantly change the way in which the fish respond to auditory signals because the physiological state of the fish can directly affect the perception of the auditory signals. Thus, more efforts have been made to understand how the females perform sexual selection by closely examining the signaling systems and how they relate to the neural processing in the fish to result in such behaviors.

text: Climate change is expected to have impacts on water temperatures, coral reefs and rainfall patterns which will in turn impact on local ecologies and habitat, breeding cycles and range of fish populations. Opportunities may be created as fish populations shift southward.

text: Although the adult and juvenile stages are more noticeable, lamprey spend the majority of their lives as larvae (ammocoetes). Ammocoetes live in fresh water for many years (usually 3–7 years, but at least one species has been recorded for +17 years).  Ammocoetes are filter feeders who draw overlying water into burrows they dig into soft bottom substrates.  After the larval period the ammocoetes undergo metamorphosis and take on the juvenile/adult body morphology.  Juveniles/adults have a jawless sucker-like mouth that allows them to become parasitic on other fish and sperm whales, attaching themselves with their suckers and feeding on blood and body fluids.  The adults live at least one to two years in the ocean and then return to fresh water to spawn.  It is not well understood if Pacific lamprey return to their natal streams or seek spawning areas based on other cues. They typically spawn in similar habitat to Pacific salmon and trout.  Lamprey construct a nest (redd) in small gravel and females can lay over 100,000 eggs, which are fertilized externally by the male.  After spawning the adults usually die within four days. Also, like salmon, the Pacific lamprey does not feed while migrating to spawn.

text: Although the adult and juvenile stages are more noticeable, lamprey spend the majority of their lives as larvae (ammocoetes).

text: Ammocoetes

text: live in fresh water for many years (usually 3–7 years, but at least one species has been recorded for +17 years).  Ammocoetes are filter feeders who draw overlying water into burrows they dig into soft bottom substrates.  After the larval period the ammocoetes undergo metamorphosis and take on the juvenile/adult body morphology.  Juveniles/adults have a jawless sucker-like mouth that allows them to become

text: parasitic

text: on other fish and

text: sperm whale

text: s, attaching themselves with their suckers and feeding on blood and body fluids.  The adults live at least one to two years in the ocean and then return to fresh water to

text: spawn

text: .  It is not well understood if Pacific lamprey return to their natal streams or seek spawning areas based on other cues. They typically spawn in similar habitat to Pacific

text: salmon

text: and

text: trout

text: .  Lamprey construct a nest (redd) in small gravel and females can lay over 100,000

text: eggs

text: , which are

text: fertilized

text: externally by the male.  After spawning the adults usually die within four days. Also, like salmon, the Pacific lamprey does not feed while

text: migrating

text: to spawn.

text: Although fishing vessels are not formally organized as if they were a naval fleet, very often the constraints of time and weather are such that they must all leave or return together, thus creating at least the appearance of an organized body (some countries, such as the former Soviet Union, did however organise their fishing fleets partially along naval lines and used the ships to also gather naval intelligence).

text: Although fishing vessels are not formally organized as if they were a

text: naval fleet

text: , very often the constraints of time and weather are such that they must all leave or return together, thus creating at least the appearance of an organized body (some countries, such as the former

text: Soviet Union

text: , did however organise their fishing fleets partially along naval lines and used the ships to also gather

text: naval intelligence)

text: The work deals with fly fishing for trout, sea trout and salmon. Grey places presents fishing for sea trout as the pinnacle of fly fishing and describes the challenge of fly fishing for Atlantic salmon. On trout, he was the first writer of importance on the dry-fly who really knew what the wet-fly meant. Grey was an expert angler and he detailed much that is useful and instructive in prose that is clear and vigorous.

text: The work deals with fly fishing for trout, sea trout and salmon. Grey places presents fishing for sea trout as the pinnacle of fly fishing and describes the challenge of fly fishing for

text: Atlantic salmon

text: . On trout, he was the first writer of importance on the dry-fly who really knew what the wet-fly meant. Grey was an expert angler and he detailed much that is useful and instructive in prose that is clear and vigorous.

text: Larvae develop through four stages, or instars, after which they metamorphose into pupae. At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their exoskeletons, or skin, to allow for further growth.  First-stage larvae are about 1 mm in length; fourth-stage larvae are normally 5–8 mm in length.

text: Larvae develop through four stages, or

text: instar

text: s, after which they

text: metamorphose

text: into

text: pupae

text: . At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their exoskeletons, or skin, to allow for further growth.  First-stage larvae are about 1 mm in length; fourth-stage larvae are normally 5–8 mm in length.

text: Parasites in fish are a common natural occurrence. Parasites can provide information about host population ecology. In fisheries biology, for example, parasite communities can be used to distinguish distinct populations of the same fish species co-inhabiting a region. Additionally, parasites possess a variety of specialized traits and life-history strategies that enable them to colonize hosts. Understanding these aspects of parasite ecology, of interest in their own right, can illuminate parasite-avoidance strategies employed by hosts.

text: Parasite

text: s in fish are a common natural occurrence. Parasites can provide information about host population ecology. In

text: fisheries biology

text: , for example, parasite communities can be used to distinguish distinct populations of the same fish species co-inhabiting a region. Additionally, parasites possess a variety of specialized traits and life-history strategies that enable them to colonize hosts. Understanding these aspects of parasite ecology, of interest in their own right, can illuminate parasite-avoidance strategies employed by hosts.

text: Most species of fish and amphibians possess a lateral line system that senses pressure waves in water.  One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ, the medial octavolateral nucleus, has a cerebellum-like structure, with granule cells and parallel fibers.  In electrosensitive fish, the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus, which also has a cerebellum-like structure.  In ray-finned fishes (by far the largest group), the optic tectum has a layer — the marginal layer — that is cerebellum-like.

text: lateral line

text: system that senses pressure waves in water.  One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ, the medial octavolateral nucleus, has a cerebellum-like structure, with granule cells and parallel fibers.  In electrosensitive fish, the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus, which also has a cerebellum-like structure.  In

text: ray-finned fishes

text: (by far the largest group), the

text: optic tectum

text: has a layer — the marginal layer — that is cerebellum-like.

text: The population is not believed to be threatened by human activities. A small number of individuals have been harpooned by Japanese whalers. Others have been caught in seine nets by trawlers fishing for tuna. They adapt well to captivity and have proven to be intelligent and creative. Less than a dozen rough-toothed dolphins live in dolphinaria around the world. The Rough-toothed dolphin is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS) and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The species is further included in the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia (Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MoU)

text: The population is not believed to be threatened by human activities. A small number of individuals have been

text: harpoon

text: ed by Japanese

text: whalers

text: . Others have been caught in

text: seine nets

text: by trawlers fishing for

text: tuna

text: . They adapt well to captivity and have proven to be intelligent and creative. Less than a dozen rough-toothed dolphins live in

text: dolphinaria

text: around the world. The Rough-toothed dolphin is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (

text: ASCOBANS

text: ) and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (

text: ACCOBAMS

text: ). The species is further included in the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia (

entity_name: West African Aquatic Mammals Memorandum of Understanding

text: Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU

text: ) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (

entity_name: Pacific Islands Cetaceans Memorandum of Understanding

text: Pacific Cetaceans MoU

text: The Pakistan Game Fishing Association organizes angling and fishing in Pakistan.

text: The

text: Pakistan Game Fishing Association

text: organizes

text: angling

text: and

text: fishing

text: in

text: Pakistan

text: In 1990 the Department of Fish and Game (DFG) of California, based on significant decline in population numbers documented in the 1980s, added the tricolored blackbird to the published list of "Bird Species of Special Concern".  This classification is an "administrative designation intended to alert biologists, land managers and others to a species declining status and encourages them to provide additional management considerations".  At this time the tricolored was added to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) list of Birds of Conservation Concern.

text: In 1990 the

text: Department of Fish and Game

text: (DFG) of California, based on significant decline in population numbers documented in the 1980s, added the tricolored blackbird to the published list of "Bird Species of Special Concern".  This classification is an "administrative designation intended to alert biologists, land managers and others to a species declining status and encourages them to provide additional management considerations".  At this time the tricolored was added to the

text: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

text: (USFWS) list of Birds of Conservation Concern.

text: Not all species that are extinct in the wild are rare. For example, Ameca splendens, though extinct in the wild, was a popular fish among aquarists for some time, but hobbyist stocks have declined quite a lot more recently, placing its survival in jeopardy. However, the ultimate purpose of preserving biodiversity is to maintain ecological function.  When a species exists only in captivity, it is ecologically extinct.

text: Not all species that are extinct in the wild are rare. For example,

text: Ameca splendens

text: , though extinct in the wild, was a popular fish among

text: aquarist

text: s for some time, but hobbyist stocks have declined quite a lot more recently, placing its survival in jeopardy. However, the ultimate purpose of preserving biodiversity is to maintain ecological function.  When a species exists only in captivity, it is

text: ecologically extinct

text: In fish models, all clinical forms of lactococcosis show an absence of clinical symptoms and mortalities in fish weighing under 80 grams. Smaller fish can be infected experimentally. In a follow-up study of the pathogenicity of L. garvieae, younger fish at 50 grams underwent a higher mortality than older fish at about 100 grams and the acute period of the disease was reported to be longer in young fish.

text: In fish models, all clinical forms of

text: lactococcosis

text: show an absence of clinical symptoms and mortalities in fish weighing under 80 grams. Smaller fish can be infected experimentally. In a follow-up study of the

text: pathogenicity

text: of L. garvieae, younger fish at 50 grams underwent a higher mortality than older fish at about 100 grams and the acute period of the disease was reported to be longer in young fish.

text: Humans introduced fish into the lake in the 1930s for sport fishing, including rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), and golden shiner (Notemigonus crysoliecas).  Trout were last released into Castle Lake in 2008 by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife but recreational fish stocking has since ceased due to concern for other species  (i.e., threatened or endangered). The brook char was also originally stocked but now has become self-sustaining, and reproduces naturally in springs found on the eastern side of the lake. Golden shiner is a bait fish minnow that was likely placed in the lake by anglers who left their remaining bait behind in the lake. The fish feed on zooplankton and insects; the fish are then eaten by predators around the lake, especially osprey (Pandion haliaetus). Other birds in the area include bald eagle (Haliaectus leucoephalus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), wood duck (Aix sponsa), belted kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon), Steller's jay (Cyanocitta stellere), and sooty grouse (Dendragapus fuliginosus).

text: Humans introduced

text: fish

text: into the lake in the 1930s for

text: sport fishing

text: , including

text: rainbow trout

text: (Oncorhynchus mykiss),

text: brook trout

text: (Salvelinus fontinalis), and golden shiner (Notemigonus crysoliecas).  Trout were last released into Castle Lake in 2008 by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife but recreational fish stocking has since ceased due to concern for other species  (i.e., threatened or endangered). The brook char was also originally stocked but now has become self-sustaining, and reproduces naturally in springs found on the eastern side of the lake. Golden shiner is a bait fish

text: minnow

text: that was likely placed in the lake by anglers who left their remaining bait behind in the lake. The fish feed on

text: zooplankton

text: and

text: insects

text: ; the fish are then eaten by

text: predators

text: around the lake, especially

text: osprey

text: (Pandion haliaetus). Other birds in the area include

text: bald eagle

text: (Haliaectus leucoephalus),

text: golden eagle

text: (Aquila chrysaetos),

text: peregrine falcon

text: (Falco peregrinus),

text: wood duck

text: (Aix sponsa),

text: belted kingfisher

text: (Megaceryle alcyon),

text: Steller's jay

text: (Cyanocitta stellere), and

text: sooty grouse

text: (Dendragapus fuliginosus).

text: Groundbait is fishing bait that is cast into the water in order to attract fish to the fishing area. It is often used in coarse fishing.

text: Groundbait is

text: fishing bait

text: that is cast into the water in order to attract fish to the fishing area. It is often used in

text: coarse fishing

text: Since then, the construction of fish cages has long been a problem for the river's natural ecology. The fish cages, often spanning the width of the entire river, physically block the natural migratory paths of fish species that move between the lake and the sea. The presence of the wooden structures also impede and disrupt the river's natural currents, slowing down the flow of water and creating stagnant spots in the river. By 2002, a high of 623 fish cages were recorded by a census group. Over the years, numerous measures have been attempted to curb the growing number of illegal fish cages in the river. In 1996, fish cages and other aquaculture elements in the river (and the adjoining lake) were ordered removed through an official executive order. Some of the reasons cited referred to pollution of the river caused by effluent waste from the fish pens. The structures were also said to physically impede the progress of native fish migrating up and down the river. Protected area status was granted to the river with the enactment of the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act in 1996. Another attempt to clear the river was pursued in 2002. A record 623 cages were dismantled during that effort. Less than a decade after, in 2007 cages were found to have been reconstructed in significant amounts throughout the length of the river. This culminated in the latest river-clearing effort in mid-2008 by a special task force appointed for the job. A total of 96 illegal fish cages were removed in June 2008, the number of which had already dropped from the previous year's tally of more than 150 cages. As of July 2008, no fish pens remain within the river's waters.

text: Since then, the construction of

text: fish cages

text: has long been a problem for the river's natural ecology. The fish cages, often spanning the width of the entire river, physically block the natural migratory paths of fish species that move between the lake and the sea. The presence of the wooden structures also impede and disrupt the river's natural

text: currents

text: , slowing down the flow of water and creating stagnant spots in the river. By 2002, a high of 623 fish cages were recorded by a census group. Over the years, numerous measures have been attempted to curb the growing number of illegal fish cages in the river. In 1996, fish cages and other aquaculture elements in the river (and the adjoining lake) were ordered removed through an official executive order. Some of the reasons cited referred to pollution of the river caused by effluent waste from the fish pens. The structures were also said to physically impede the progress of native fish migrating up and down the river.

text: Protected area

text: status was granted to the river with the enactment of the

entity_name: List of protected areas of the Philippines

text: National Integrated Protected Areas System

text: (NIPAS) Act in 1996. Another attempt to clear the river was pursued in 2002. A record 623 cages were dismantled during that effort. Less than a decade after, in 2007 cages were found to have been reconstructed in significant amounts throughout the length of the river. This culminated in the latest river-clearing effort in mid-2008 by a special task force appointed for the job. A total of 96 illegal fish cages were removed in June 2008, the number of which had already dropped from the previous year's tally of more than 150 cages. As of July 2008, no fish pens remain within the river's waters.

text: Laevistrombus canarium is gonochoristic, which means that each individual animal is distinctly male or female. The breeding season starts in late November and continues until early March. After internal fertilization the female produces and spawns a long, gelatinous tubular structure containing multiple eggs. This structure then coils itself and compacts, forming a creamy-white egg mass. Each egg mass may contain 50,000–70,000 eggs; the females usually lay them on seagrass, where they remain attached. In about 110–130 hours the embryo of L. canarium grows from a single cell to a veliger (a larval form common to marine and fresh-water gastropod and bivalve mollusks) and then hatches. The hatching process takes 12–15 hours. After hatching, the larvae can be assigned to four distinct developmental stages throughout their short planktonic life (based on morphological features and other characteristics). Usually, larvae up to 3 days old are Stage I veligers; 4–8-day-old larvae are Stage II; 9–16-day-old larvae are Stage III, and larvae from 17 days to metamorphosis are Stage IV. L. canarium larvae develop faster compared to other species in the same family, including the West Indian fighting conch (Strombus pugilis) and the milk conch (Lobatus costatus). Larval development may be highly influenced by environmental conditions, such as temperature and the quality and availability of food. Metamorphosis in L. canarium can be recognised by loss of the larval velar lobes and the development of the typical leaping motion of juvenile true conches.

text: Laevistrombus canarium is

text: gonochoristic

text: , which means that each individual animal is distinctly male or female. The breeding season starts in late November and continues until early March. After

text: internal fertilization

text: the female produces and

text: spawns

text: a long, gelatinous tubular structure containing multiple

text: egg

text: s. This structure then coils itself and compacts, forming a creamy-white egg mass. Each egg mass may contain 50,000–70,000 eggs; the females usually lay them on seagrass, where they remain attached. In about 110–130 hours the

text: embryo

text: of L. canarium grows from a single

text: cell

text: to a

text: veliger

text: (a larval form common to marine and fresh-water gastropod and

text: bivalve

text: mollusks) and then hatches. The hatching process takes 12–15 hours. After hatching, the

text: larvae

text: can be assigned to four distinct developmental stages throughout their short

text: planktonic

text: life (based on morphological features and other characteristics). Usually, larvae up to 3 days old are Stage I veligers; 4–8-day-old larvae are Stage II; 9–16-day-old larvae are Stage III, and larvae from 17 days to

text: metamorphosis

text: are Stage IV. L. canarium larvae develop faster compared to other species in the same family, including the West Indian fighting conch (

text: Strombus pugilis

text: ) and the milk conch (

text: Lobatus costatus

text: ). Larval development may be highly influenced by environmental conditions, such as temperature and the quality and availability of food. Metamorphosis in L. canarium can be recognised by loss of the larval

text: velar lobes

text: and the development of the typical leaping motion of

text: juvenile

text: true conch

text: es.

text: The exact classification of the species was a debate in recent times, where some major fish websites (ex. Fish Base) classified the species under the name A. nebulosa. But according to the IUCN Red List 2015 version, the fish species should be classified as A. bengalensis with some subspecies.

text: The exact classification of the species was a debate in recent times, where some major fish websites (ex. Fish Base) classified the species under the name

text: A. nebulosa

text: . But according to the IUCN Red List 2015 version, the fish species should be classified as A. bengalensis with some subspecies.

text: Various species, including 230 species of fish, 193 species of crab, 74 species of shrimp and 58 species of shellfish live in the beach habitat.  The variety of creatures inhabiting this area is due to the rich nutrient salt, which provides high productivity.  According to Nature, a science magazine published in England, the ecological value of the beach is US$9,990 per 1§µ(0.01§´).  It shows a higher value than farmland, which has an ecological value of US$92.  It is an ecologic value of centuple.

text: Various species, including 230 species of fish, 193 species of

text: crab

text: , 74 species of

text: shrimp

text: and 58 species of shellfish live in the beach habitat.  The variety of creatures inhabiting this area is due to the rich nutrient salt, which provides high productivity.  According to Nature, a science magazine published in England, the ecological value of the beach is US$9,990 per 1§µ(0.01§´).  It shows a higher value than

text: farmland

text: , which has an ecological value of US$92.  It is an ecologic value of centuple.

text: Some markets can fail due to the nature of the goods being exchanged. For instance, goods can display the attributes of public goods or common goods, wherein sellers are unable to exclude non-buyers from using a product, as in the development of inventions that may spread freely once revealed.  This can cause underinvestment because developers cannot capture enough of the benefits from success to make the development effort worthwhile. This can also lead to resource depletion in the case of common-pool resources, where, because use of the resource is rival but non-excludable, there is no incentive for users to conserve the resource. An example of this is a lake with a natural supply of fish: if people catch the fish faster than they can reproduce, then the fish population will dwindle until there are no fish left for future generations.

text: Some markets can fail due to the nature of the goods being exchanged. For instance, goods can display the attributes of

text: public goods

text: or

text: common good

text: s, wherein sellers are unable to

text: exclude

text: non-buyers from using a product, as in the development of inventions that may spread freely once revealed.  This can cause underinvestment because developers cannot capture enough of the benefits from success to make the development effort worthwhile. This can also lead to resource depletion in the case of

text: common-pool resource

text: s, where, because use of the resource is

text: rival

text: but

text: non-excludable

text: , there is no incentive for users to conserve the resource. An example of this is a lake with a natural supply of fish: if people catch the fish faster than they can reproduce, then the fish population will dwindle until there are no fish left for future generations.

text: Once there was a little island in the ocean. That little island changes as the seasons comes and go. The storm and the day and night change it.The island stood out up north. It was a popular place to be. Lots of gulls, lobsters, seals and many more animals come to this beautiful place. One day a black dark kitten with blue eyes come to the island with his owners. This kitten is very insensitive; he does not care about others. In this story, the island and the kitten talk and fight, because the cat does not think the island is a part of the world but it really is. So the island says “Ask the underworld”. The underworld is the sea. The cat walks to the dark green underworld to see if he will get his answer. When the kitten doubts the island about this point, the island suggests asking a fish. The cat catches a fish and demands to know how the island is part of the bigger land. “Come with me” says the fish. 'I cannot swim', says the cat. 'Then you will have to take it on faith', says the fish. 'What is that - faith?' asks the cat. "Faith is to believe what I tell you about what you don't know", says the fish. "All lands are one land under the sea", says the fish. The cat realizes he has learned a great truth, and his eyes "were shining with the secret of it, and because he loved secrets, he let the fish go". Then the cat leaves the island, and the island settles back into the timeless cycle of the seasons. The kitten learns from the island that the island is connected to all of the other land.

text: When the pair is ready to spawn, they choose an appropriate medium upon which to lay the eggs, and spend one to two days picking off detritus and algae from the surface. This medium may be a broad-leaf plant in the aquarium, a flat surface such as a piece of slate placed vertically in the aquarium, a length of pipe, or even the glass sides of the aquarium. The female deposits a line of eggs on the spawning substrate, followed by the male, which fertilizes the eggs. This process is repeated until a total of 100 to more than 1,200 eggs are laid, depending on the size and health of the female fish. As both parents care for the offspring throughout development, the pair takes turns maintaining a high rate of water circulation around the eggs by swimming very close to the eggs and fanning them with their pectoral fins. In a few days, the eggs hatch and the fry remain attached to the spawning substrate.   During this period, the fry survive by consuming the remains of their yolk sacs. At one week, the fry  detach and become free-swimming. Successful parents keep close watch on the eggs until then. At the free-swimming stage, the fry can be fed suitably sized live food.

text: When the pair is ready to spawn, they choose an appropriate medium upon which to lay the eggs, and spend one to two days picking off

text: detritus

text: and

text: algae

text: from the surface. This medium may be a broad-leaf plant in the aquarium, a flat surface such as a piece of slate placed vertically in the aquarium, a length of pipe, or even the glass sides of the aquarium. The female deposits a line of eggs on the spawning substrate, followed by the male, which fertilizes the eggs. This process is repeated until a total of 100 to more than 1,200 eggs are laid, depending on the size and health of the female fish. As both parents care for the offspring throughout development, the pair takes turns maintaining a high rate of water circulation around the eggs by swimming very close to the eggs and fanning them with their pectoral fins. In a few days, the eggs hatch and the fry remain attached to the spawning substrate.   During this period, the fry survive by consuming the remains of their yolk sacs. At one week, the fry  detach and become free-swimming. Successful parents keep close watch on the eggs until then. At the free-swimming stage, the fry can be fed suitably sized live food.

text: Fish kills may result from a variety of causes. Of known causes, fish kills are most frequently caused by pollution from agricultural runoff or biotoxins. Ecological hypoxia (oxygen depletion) is one of the most common natural causes of fish kills. The hypoxic event may be brought on by factors such as algae blooms, droughts, high temperatures and thermal pollution. Fish kills may also occur due to the presence of disease, agricultural and sewage runoff, oil or hazardous waste spills, hydraulic fracturing wastewater, sea-quakes, inappropriate re-stocking of fish, poaching with chemicals, underwater explosions, and other catastrophic events that upset a normally stable aquatic population. Because of the difficulty and lack of standard protocol to investigate fish kills, many fish kill cases are designated as having an 'unknown' cause.

text: Fish kills may result from a variety of causes. Of known causes, fish kills are most frequently caused by pollution from agricultural runoff or biotoxins.

text: Ecological hypoxia

text: (oxygen depletion) is one of the most common natural causes of fish kills. The hypoxic event may be brought on by factors such as

text: algae bloom

text: s, droughts, high temperatures and

text: thermal pollution

text: . Fish kills may also occur due to the presence of disease,

text: agricultural

text: and

text: sewage

text: runoff

text: , oil or

text: hazardous waste

text: spills,

text: hydraulic fracturing

text: wastewater,

text: sea-quake

text: s, inappropriate re-stocking of fish,

text: poaching

text: with chemicals, underwater

text: explosion

text: s, and other catastrophic events that upset a normally stable aquatic population. Because of the difficulty and lack of standard protocol to investigate fish kills, many fish kill cases are designated as having an 'unknown' cause.

text: Depending on how fast the winds from a waterspout are whipping, anything that is within about one yard of the surface of the water, including fish of different sizes, frogs, and even turtles, can be lifted into the air. A waterspout can sometimes suck small animals such as fish out of the water and all the way up into the cloud. Even if the waterspout stops spinning, the fish in the cloud can be carried over land, buffeted up and down and around with the cloud’s winds until its currents no longer keep the flying fish in the atmosphere. Depending on how far they travel and how high they are taken into the atmosphere, the fish are sometimes dead by the time they rain down. People as far as 100 miles inland have experienced raining fish. Fish can also be sucked up from rivers, but raining fish is not a common weather phenomenon

text: Depending on how fast the winds from a waterspout are whipping, anything that is within about one yard of the surface of the water, including fish of different sizes, frogs, and even turtles, can be lifted into the air. A waterspout can sometimes suck small animals such as fish out of the water and all the way up into the cloud. Even if the waterspout stops spinning, the fish in the cloud can be carried over land, buffeted up and down and around with the cloud’s winds until its currents no longer keep the flying fish in the atmosphere. Depending on how far they travel and how high they are taken into the atmosphere, the fish are sometimes dead by the time they rain down. People as far as 100 miles inland have experienced raining fish. Fish can also be sucked up from rivers, but

text: raining fish

text: is not a common weather phenomenon

text: The small eggs produce typical planktotrophic veliger larvae with a smooth, almost planspiral shell at hatching. There are usually at least 100 eggs/capsule, but the number of eggs increases with female size. Average shell length at hatching is 255 µm. The larvae take 3-4 weeks to grow to metamorphosis.

text: The small eggs produce typical planktotrophic veliger larvae with a smooth, almost planspiral shell at hatching. There are usually at least 100 eggs/capsule, but the number of eggs increases with female size. Average shell length at hatching is 255

text: µm

text: . The larvae take 3-4 weeks to grow to metamorphosis.

text: The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic Era, spanning 60 million years from the end of the Silurian Period,  million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Carboniferous Period,  Mya. It is named after Devon, England, where rocks from this period were first studied.The first significant adaptive radiation of life on dry land occurred during the Devonian. Free-sporing vascular plants began to spread across dry land, forming extensive forests which covered the continents. By the middle of the Devonian, several groups of plants had evolved leaves and true roots, and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants appeared. Various terrestrial arthropods also became well-established. Fish reached substantial diversity during this time, leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the "Age of Fish". The first ray-finned and lobe-finned bony fish appeared, while the placoderms began dominating almost every known aquatic environment.

text: The Devonian is a

text: geologic period and system

text: of the

text: Paleozoic

text: Era, spanning 60 million years from the end of the

text: Silurian

text: Period,  million years ago (

text: Mya

text: ), to the beginning of the

text: Carboniferous

text: Period,  Mya. It is named after

text: Devon

text: England

text: , where rocks from this period were first studied.The first significant

text: adaptive radiation

text: of life on dry land occurred during the Devonian.

text: Free-sporing

text: vascular plant

text: s began to spread across

text: dry land

text: , forming extensive

text: forest

text: s which covered the

text: continents

text: . By the middle of the Devonian, several groups of

text: plants

text: had evolved leaves and true roots, and by the end of the

text: period

text: the first

text: seed-bearing plants

text: appeared. Various terrestrial

text: arthropod

text: s also became well-established.

text: Fish

text: reached substantial diversity during this time, leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the "Age of Fish". The first

text: ray-finned

text: and

text: lobe-finned

text: bony fish

text: appeared, while the

text: placoderms

text: began dominating almost every known aquatic environment.

text: Photobacterium are primarily marine organisms (hence the use of sodium for growth).  They may be free-living or found as colonies associated with certain species of fish.  These organisms do not contain any pigmentation and therefore will appear white or colorless.  When there is a high density of cells forming a colony, they will exhibit fluorescence.  However, the fluorescence is based on the accumulation of autoinducers which is proportional to cell density and therefore free-living photobacterium will not fluoresce.  Their association with fish may be: symbiotic growth within fish for the formation of light organs, as a neutral entity on the surface or within the intestines of fish, as decomposers of dead fish, or as an agent of disease.

text: Photobacterium are primarily marine organisms (hence the use of sodium for growth).  They may be free-living or found as colonies associated with certain species of fish.  These organisms do not contain any pigmentation and therefore will appear white or colorless.  When there is a high density of cells forming a colony, they will exhibit fluorescence.  However, the fluorescence is based on the accumulation of

text: autoinducer

text: s which is proportional to cell density and therefore free-living photobacterium will not fluoresce.  Their association with fish may be: symbiotic growth within fish for the formation of

text: light organs

text: , as a neutral entity on the surface or within the intestines of fish, as decomposers of dead fish, or as an agent of disease.

text: Originally, temperatures close to 24°C were considered necessary for golden perch to spawn,  but as with all Murray-Darling fish species, multiple field studies have shown that their "required" spawning temperature is flexible and that they can and do spawn at lower temperatures. In the Barmah Forests region of the Murray River, for instance, fertilised drifting golden perch eggs have been netted in water temperatures as low as 16.9 degrees Celcius (full range 16.9 to 24.7 degrees). Golden perch have a flexible breeding strategy but generally need a spring or summer flood or "fresh" (temporary, within-channel increase in flow) to stimulate spawning.  Like some other primarily lowland native fish species of the Murray–Darling river system, these floods or freshes appear to be necessary for good survival and recruitment of spawned fish. Very small freshes appear to be sufficient for some spawning and recruitment, however.

text: Ecologically, the decline in the mean trophic level is explained by the relationship between the size of the fish captured and their trophic level. The trophic level of fishes usually increases with their size, and fishing tends to selectively capture the larger fishes. This applies both between species as well as within species. When the fishing is intense, the relative abundance of the larger fish positioned high in the food chain is reduced. Consequently, over time, small fishes start to dominate the fisheries catches, and the mean trophic level of the catches declines. Recently the market value of small forage fishes and invertebrates, which have low trophic levels, has sharply increased to the point where they can be considered to be subsidizing fishing down.

text: Ecologically, the decline in the

text: mean trophic level

text: is explained by the relationship between the size of the fish captured and their

text: trophic level

text: . The trophic level of fishes usually increases with their size, and fishing tends to selectively capture the larger fishes. This applies both between species as well as within species. When the fishing is intense, the relative abundance of the larger fish positioned high in the

text: food chain

text: is reduced. Consequently, over time, small fishes start to dominate the fisheries catches, and the mean trophic level of the catches declines. Recently the market value of small forage fishes and invertebrates, which have low trophic levels, has sharply increased to the point where they can be considered to be subsidizing fishing down.

text: Thalassocnine possessed adaptations to aquatic life, analogues of which can be found in many vertebrates that adapted to a return to living in the sea. One such adaptation is increased bone density. Heavier bones help lower buoyancy and thus conserve energy. The bones of Thalassocnus species are heavier than other mammals’, supporting their return to the water. The younger species show increasingly adapted bone structure; the younger species show decreasing medullary lumen diameter, with T. carolomartini almost completely losing the medulla in its bones [3]. Thalassocnine also possessed longer shinbones than their terrestrial relatives. This modification, along with strong forelimbs, must have allowed them to propel themselves with a paddling movement. Their spines also saw significant modifications. Relatively small vertebrae are found behind the head, not allowing for strong muscles to hold the head. In the water the buoyancy combats gravity already, and therefore in an aquatic lifestyle strong neck muscles are unneeded for this purpose. Even though the structure of the tail vertebrae hint at strong musculature, this is not necessarily evidence that Thalassocnine used their tails to swim. This pattern is also seen in tree-dwelling animals with strong prehensile tails. [II]

text: Arundel stumbled upon the island while fishing recreationally for tuna in the Acadian fishing community of Wedgeport.  The island had been used as a seasonal fishing stop-over, and as a sheep pasture. In 1948, Arundel negotiated its purchase for $750 and constructed a stone building for him and his friends to use as a lodge during the sport fishing season. Legend has it that it was, in fact, while Arundel and his friends were engaged in an episode of rum drinking that they conceived, wrote, approved and published the Declaration of Independence of Outer Baldonia.  Reflecting the primacy of sport fishers such as Arundel in its leadership, the trappings of the state seem to have teemed with aquatic life.  The currency, for example, was called the Tunar.

text: Arundel stumbled upon the island while fishing recreationally for

text: tuna

text: in the

text: Acadian

text: fishing community of

text: Wedgeport

text: .  The island had been used as a seasonal fishing stop-over, and as a sheep pasture. In 1948, Arundel negotiated its purchase for $750 and constructed a stone building for him and his friends to use as a lodge during the sport fishing season. Legend has it that it was, in fact, while Arundel and his friends were engaged in an episode of rum drinking that they conceived, wrote, approved and published the Declaration of Independence of Outer Baldonia.  Reflecting the primacy of sport fishers such as Arundel in its leadership, the trappings of the state seem to have teemed with aquatic life.  The currency, for example, was called the Tunar.

text: Catching fish for the purpose of food or sport is known as fishing, while the organized effort by humans to catch fish is called a fishery. Fisheries are a huge global business and provide income for millions of people. The annual yield from all fisheries worldwide is about 154 million tons, with popular species including herring, cod, anchovy, tuna, flounder, and salmon. However, the term fishery is broadly applied, and includes more organisms than just fish, such as mollusks and crustaceans, which are often called "fish" when used as food.

text: Catching fish for the purpose of food or sport is known as

text: fishing

text: , while the organized effort by humans to catch fish is called a

text: fishery

text: . Fisheries are a huge global business and provide income for millions of people. The annual yield from all fisheries worldwide is about 154 million tons, with popular species including

text: herring

text: cod

text: anchovy

text: tuna

text: flounder

text: , and

text: salmon

text: . However, the term fishery is broadly applied, and includes more organisms than just fish, such as

text: mollusks

text: and

text: crustacean

text: s, which are often called "fish" when used as food.

text: Rough or coarse fish usually refers to fish that are not commonly eaten, not sought after for sporting reasons, or have become invasive species reducing the populations of desirable fish. They compete for forage fish with the more popular sport fish. They are often regarded as a nuisance, and are not usually protected by game laws. Forage fish generally are not considered rough or coarse fish because of their usefulness as bait.

text: George Poveromo is also producer to a line of how-to videos and DVDs regarding sport fishing. These educational videos are published under High Hook Incorporated and are hosted by Poveromo himself. The High Hook videos range from bottom-fishing to sailfish tactics and everything in between. These videos are the top-selling salt water fishing DVDs on the market.

text: George Poveromo is also producer to a line of how-to videos and DVDs regarding sport fishing. These educational videos are published under

text: High Hook Incorporated

text: and are hosted by Poveromo himself. The High Hook videos range from bottom-fishing to sailfish tactics and everything in between. These videos are the top-selling salt water fishing DVDs on the market.

text: Some of the fish and shellfish caught and eaten by the inhabitants of Horr's Island gave clues as to what time in the year they were caught. The three most common kinds of fish in the Horr's Island diet, catfish, threadfin herring and pinfish, were caught while immature.  The time of year when they were caught is indicated by the average size of a group of harvested fish. Bay scallops disappear from the area each winter, and new scallops start growing in the spring, so the size of the scallop shells also indicates the time of year when they were gathered. Finally, quahogs have seasonal bands in their shells, which can be used to determine what season, or even what month, the quahog was gathered.

text: Some of the fish and shellfish caught and eaten by the inhabitants of Horr's Island gave clues as to what time in the year they were caught. The three most common kinds of fish in the Horr's Island diet,

text: catfish

text: threadfin herring

text: and

text: pinfish

text: , were caught while immature.  The time of year when they were caught is indicated by the average size of a group of harvested fish. Bay scallops disappear from the area each winter, and new scallops start growing in the spring, so the size of the scallop shells also indicates the time of year when they were gathered. Finally, quahogs have seasonal bands in their shells, which can be used to determine what season, or even what month, the quahog was gathered.

text: Unlike the various Pacific salmon species which die after spawning (semelparous), the Atlantic salmon is iteroparous, which means the fish may recondition themselves and return to the sea to repeat the migration and spawning pattern several times, although most spawn only once or twice. Migration and spawning exact an enormous physiological toll on individuals, such that repeat spawners are the exception rather than the norm. Atlantic salmon show high diversity in age of maturity and may mature as parr, one- to five-sea-winter fish, and in rare instances, at older sea ages. This variety of ages can occur in the same population, constituting a ‘bet hedging’ strategy against variation in stream flows. So in a drought year, some fish of a given age will not return to spawn, allowing that generation other, wetter years in which to spawn.

text: Unlike the various Pacific salmon species which die after spawning (

text: semelparous

text: ), the Atlantic salmon is

text: iteroparous

text: , which means the fish may recondition themselves and return to the sea to repeat the migration and spawning pattern several times, although most spawn only once or twice. Migration and spawning exact an enormous physiological toll on individuals, such that repeat spawners are the exception rather than the norm. Atlantic salmon show high diversity in age of maturity and may mature as parr, one- to five-sea-winter fish, and in rare instances, at older sea ages. This variety of ages can occur in the same population, constituting a ‘

text: bet hedging

text: ’ strategy against variation in stream flows. So in a drought year, some fish of a given age will not return to spawn, allowing that generation other, wetter years in which to spawn.

text: Spawning takes place during early winter and late spring. The male's head becomes darker, and he selects a protected nest site, such as under a rock or ledge. After courtship, the female enters the nest, turns upside down, and deposits her eggs on the ceiling, where they adhere. Typically several females will deposit eggs in a nest, then the male fertilizes and guards them, fanning the eggs with his pectoral fins.

text: In order to select the best quality males and maximize their offspring survival rate, females will pool their eggs with other females into a single male’s territory and create a larger brood. Studies have shown that pooling to create larger broods serves to not only decrease predatory effects, but also increases paternal investment. By increasing brood size, predation rate per individual decreases as a result of dilution effects. Also, males with larger broods are less likely to cannibalize their broods. It has also been hypothesized that egg pooling is a simple imitation tactic by which females confirm the quality of the male. By copying the spawning behavior of other females, females can minimize the search costs of finding a good mate.

text: In order to select the best quality males and maximize their offspring survival rate, females will pool their eggs with other females into a single male’s territory and create a larger brood. Studies have shown that pooling to create larger

text: broods

text: serves to not only decrease

text: predator

text: y effects, but also increases paternal investment. By increasing brood size, predation rate per individual decreases as a result of dilution effects. Also, males with larger broods are less likely to cannibalize their broods. It has also been hypothesized that egg pooling is a simple imitation tactic by which females confirm the quality of the male. By copying the spawning behavior of other females, females can minimize the search costs of finding a good mate.

text: While the rules of abstinence generally only allow seafood, there are a few exceptions. In parts of South America, especially in Venezuela, capybara meat is popular during Lent and Holy Week; in response to a question posed by French settlers in Quebec in the 17th century, beaver was classified as an exception; and the Archbishop of New Orleans said that "alligator is considered in the fish family" in 2010. The legal basis for the classification of beaver as fish probably rests with the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas, which bases animal classification as much on habit as anatomy.

text: While the rules of abstinence generally only allow seafood, there are a few exceptions. In parts of South America, especially in

text: Venezuela

text: capybara

text: meat is popular during

text: Lent

text: and

text: Holy Week

text: ; in response to a question posed by French settlers in

text: Quebec

text: in the 17th century,

text: beaver

text: was classified as an exception; and the Archbishop of New Orleans said that "alligator is considered in the fish family" in 2010. The legal basis for the classification of beaver as fish probably rests with the

text: Summa Theologica

text: of

text: Thomas Aquinas

text: , which bases animal classification as much on habit as anatomy.

text: Although less prestigious than other animal meats, and often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days, seafood was the mainstay of many coastal populations. "Fish" to the medieval person was also a general name for anything not considered a proper land-living animal, including marine mammals such as whales and porpoises. Also included were the beaver, due to its scaly tail and considerable time spent in water, and barnacle geese, due to the belief that they developed underwater in the form of barnacles. Such foods were also considered appropriate for fast days, though rather contrived classification of barnacle geese as fish was not universally accepted. The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II examined barnacles and noted no evidence of any bird-like embryo in them, and the secretary of Leo of Rozmital wrote a very skeptical account of his reaction to being served barnacle goose at a fish-day dinner in 1456.

text: Although less prestigious than other animal meats, and often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days,

text: seafood

text: was the mainstay of many coastal populations. "Fish" to the medieval person was also a general name for anything not considered a proper land-living animal, including

text: marine mammal

text: s such as

text: whale

text: s and

text: porpoise

text: s. Also included were the

text: beaver

text: , due to its scaly tail and considerable time spent in water, and

text: barnacle geese

text: , due to the belief that they developed underwater in the form of barnacles. Such foods were also considered appropriate for fast days, though rather contrived classification of barnacle geese as fish was not universally accepted. The

text: Holy Roman Emperor

text: Frederick II

text: examined barnacles and noted no evidence of any bird-like embryo in them, and the secretary of

text: Leo of Rozmital

text: wrote a very skeptical account of his reaction to being served barnacle goose at a fish-day dinner in 1456.

text: Phthalates and BPA date back to the 1920s and 1930s. Phthalates have been applied as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) additives since 1926, but were also used for health care purposes as insect repellents and cercaricides. BPA is present in most aquatic environments, entering water systems through landfills and sewage treatment plant runoff allowing for bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms.  These endocrine disrupters are a large group of chemicals that enter into the aquatic environment through the manufacturing of various industrial and consumer products, agriculture and food/drug processing, waste water treatment plants and human wastes. Phthalate esters are common additives that soften and make PVC more flexible. It is used in many everyday items such as medical devices, packaging for fragrances and cosmetics, ropes and varnishes, in plastic used to wrap food, and shower curtains. These Phthalate esters have been found in areas of water, air, sediment,and in gulfs and rivers around the world, Giam et al. as cited by. Phalates and BPA affect reproduction in animal groups such as Molluscs, crustaceans, amphibians and fish. Most of these plasticizers affect hormone systems, and some phthalates have even larger pathways of disruption. Phthalates and BPA have been proven to affect development and reproduction in a variety of species. Disturbances include changes in the number of offspring produced and reduced hatching success. In amphibians for example, phthalates and BPA disrupt thyroid functioning which in turn impacts larval development. Molluscs, crustaceans and amphibians appear to be more responsive than fish, with most effects being induced in low concentration ranges with the exception of disrupted spermatogenesis in fish in the low range. A Phthalate referred to as diethyl phthalate (DEP) enters the aquatic environment through industries that manufacture cosmetics, plastics and many commercial products that pose hazards to aquatic organisms and human health. Through exposing an adult male common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) to LC50 doses it was evident that a bioaccumulation of DEP in testis, liver, brain, gills and muscle tissue was present. Fish exposed to 20 ppm of DEP became drowsy and discolored during the onset of the fourth week. Sources of DEP contamination and accumulation in humans include cosmetic products and dietary meat of fish, Persky et al. This DEP acts as a cosmetic ingredient and vehicle for fragrances, both which come in contact with the skin. Many countries around the world including India practice sewage fed fisheries where waste waters are used for the purpose of culturing fish. Endocrine disruption and a presence of phthalate residue is highly likely to be observable in these sewage fed fish. This is the case as waste water from various industries and garbage containing DEP are released into these waters. Through a DEP treatment with Cyprinus carpio, liver size was observed to increase and testis size decreased. In fish, muscle ALT and AST activities decreased as it was effected by DEP treatment.  Like many toxic chemicals DEP has been known to affect metabolic enzyme profiles and activities of phosphatases and transaminases, Ghorpade et al. as cited by. A decrease in immunity of M. rosenbergii after exposure to DEP was also noted. Given that biological effect concentrations for plasticizers used in the laboratory coincide with concentrations present in the environment, it seems that some wildlife species must be negatively impacted.

text: Phthalates

text: and

text: BPA

text: date back to the 1920s and 1930s. Phthalates have been applied as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) additives since 1926, but were also used for health care purposes as

text: insect repellent

text: s and

text: cercaricides

text: . BPA is present in most aquatic environments, entering water systems through

text: landfill

text: s and

text: sewage treatment plant

text: runoff

text: allowing for

text: bioaccumulation

text: in aquatic organisms.  These endocrine disrupters are a large group of chemicals that enter into the aquatic environment through the manufacturing of various industrial and consumer products, agriculture and food/drug processing, waste water treatment plants and human wastes. Phthalate esters are common additives that soften and make PVC more flexible. It is used in many everyday items such as medical devices, packaging for fragrances and cosmetics, ropes and varnishes, in plastic used to wrap food, and shower curtains. These Phthalate esters have been found in areas of water, air, sediment,and in gulfs and rivers around the world, Giam et al. as cited by. Phalates and BPA affect reproduction in animal groups such as Molluscs, crustaceans, amphibians and fish. Most of these plasticizers affect hormone systems, and some phthalates have even larger pathways of disruption. Phthalates and BPA have been proven to affect development and reproduction in a variety of species. Disturbances include changes in the number of offspring produced and reduced hatching success. In amphibians for example, phthalates and BPA disrupt thyroid functioning which in turn impacts larval development. Molluscs, crustaceans and amphibians appear to be more responsive than fish, with most effects being induced in low concentration ranges with the exception of disrupted

text: spermatogenesis

text: in fish in the low range. A Phthalate referred to as

text: diethyl phthalate

text: (DEP) enters the aquatic environment through industries that manufacture cosmetics, plastics and many commercial products that pose hazards to aquatic organisms and human health. Through exposing an adult male common Carp (Cyprinus carpio) to

text: doses it was evident that a bioaccumulation of DEP in testis, liver, brain, gills and muscle tissue was present. Fish exposed to 20 ppm of DEP became drowsy and discolored during the onset of the fourth week. Sources of DEP contamination and accumulation in humans include cosmetic products and dietary meat of fish, Persky et al. This DEP acts as a cosmetic ingredient and vehicle for fragrances, both which come in contact with the skin. Many countries around the world including India practice sewage fed fisheries where waste waters are used for the purpose of culturing fish. Endocrine disruption and a presence of phthalate residue is highly likely to be observable in these sewage fed fish. This is the case as waste water from various industries and garbage containing DEP are released into these waters. Through a DEP treatment with

text: Cyprinus carpio

text: , liver size was observed to increase and testis size decreased. In fish, muscle ALT and AST activities decreased as it was effected by DEP treatment.  Like many toxic chemicals DEP has been known to affect metabolic enzyme profiles and activities of phosphatases and transaminases, Ghorpade et al. as cited by. A decrease in immunity of

text: M. rosenbergii

text: after exposure to DEP was also noted. Given that biological effect concentrations for plasticizers used in the laboratory coincide with concentrations present in the environment, it seems that some wildlife species must be negatively impacted.

text: The process of cloning is a cost borne by the larva both in resources as well as in development time. Larvae have been observed to undergo this process when food is plentiful or temperature conditions are optimal. It has also been suggested that cloning may occur to make use of the tissues that are normally lost during metamorphosis. Recent research has shown that the larvae of some sand dollars clone themselves when they detect predators (by sensing dissolved fish mucus). Asexual reproduction produces many smaller larvae that escape better from planktivorous fish.

text: Diet: feeds on small sharks, bony fishes, cuttlefish, and crustaceans. Reproduction: are ovoviviparous.

text: Diet: feeds on small sharks, bony fishes, cuttlefish, and crustaceans. Reproduction: are

text: ovoviviparous

text: There were nine studies on the ecology of coral reef fishes carried out during the Tektite series:

text: There were nine studies on the

text: ecology

text: of

text: coral reef

text: fishes

text: carried out during the Tektite series:

text: In most animals organogenesis along with morphogenesis will result in a larva. The hatching of the larva, which must then undergo metamorphosis, marks the end of embryonic development.

text: In most animals organogenesis along with

text: morphogenesis

text: will result in a

text: larva

text: . The hatching of the larva, which must then undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: , marks the end of embryonic development.

text: The FDA, agreeing with the need to insure a vouchered and taxonomically validated reference is used, maintains the requirement that only validly authenticated standards be used to make regulatory decisions.  In order to help the industry comply with labeling requirements, FDA has worked with the international research effort The Fish Barcode of Life campaign "FISH-BOL" to catalog the world's fish and make the sequences publicly available.  The FDA states, "Once completed, the FISH-BOL database will enable a fast, accurate, and cost-effective system for molecular identification of the world's icthyofauna."  But, as of today, because FISH-BOL "is not currently searchable against only vouchered species with authoritative taxonomic identifications" this database cannot currently be used for regulatory compliance testing because "FDA will only make regulatory decisions based on identifications using adequately authenticated standards."  The BOL project a great research tool, but BOL is not designed to be a regulatory database.  "Anyone can put sequences in the BOL," says Jonathan Deeds, FDA research biologist and project head. "Most are good, but there are also a small number of guesses."  Thus, because Genbank and Fish Barcode of Life databases do not exclusively include only taxonomically validated references, they cannot be relied on for regulatory compliance testing in the US.

text: The FDA, agreeing with the need to insure a vouchered and taxonomically validated reference is used, maintains the requirement that only validly authenticated standards be used to make regulatory decisions.  In order to help the industry comply with labeling requirements, FDA has worked with the international research effort The Fish Barcode of Life campaign "

text: FISH-BOL

text: " to catalog the world's fish and make the sequences publicly available.  The FDA states, "Once completed, the FISH-BOL database will enable a fast, accurate, and cost-effective system for molecular identification of the world's icthyofauna."  But, as of today, because FISH-BOL "is not currently searchable against only vouchered species with authoritative taxonomic identifications" this database cannot currently be used for regulatory compliance testing because "FDA will only make regulatory decisions based on identifications using adequately authenticated standards."  The BOL project a great research tool, but BOL is not designed to be a regulatory database.  "Anyone can put sequences in the BOL," says Jonathan Deeds, FDA research biologist and project head. "Most are good, but there are also a small number of guesses."  Thus, because Genbank and Fish Barcode of Life databases do not exclusively include only taxonomically validated references, they cannot be relied on for regulatory compliance testing in the US.

text: Ouachita map turtles feed mainly on small aquatic animals such as shrimp, insects, molluscs, and fish. They also consume algae and aquatic plants.

text: Ouachita map turtles feed mainly on small

text: aquatic

text: animals such as

text: shrimp

text: insects

text: molluscs

text: , and

text: fish

text: . They also consume

text: algae

text: and

text: aquatic plants

text: The mangrove rivulus Kryptolebias marmoratus produces both eggs and sperm by meiosis and routinely reproduces by self-fertilization.  Each individual hermaphrodite normally fertilizes itself when an egg and sperm that it has produced by an internal organ unite inside the fish’s body.   In nature, this mode of reproduction can yield highly homozygous lines composed of individuals so genetically uniform as to be, in effect, identical to one another.  The capacity for selfing in these fishes has apparently persisted for at least several hundred thousand years.

text: The

text: mangrove rivulus

text: Kryptolebias marmoratus produces both eggs and sperm by

text: meiosis

text: and routinely reproduces by self-fertilization.  Each individual

text: hermaphrodite

text: normally fertilizes itself when an egg and sperm that it has produced by an internal organ unite inside the fish’s body.   In nature, this mode of reproduction can yield highly

text: homozygous

text: lines composed of individuals so genetically uniform as to be, in effect, identical to one another.  The capacity for selfing in these fishes has apparently persisted for at least several hundred thousand years.

text: Anglerfishes are fish of the teleost order Lophiiformes . They are bony fish named for their characteristic mode of predation, in which a fleshy growth from the fish's head (the esca or illicium) acts as a lure.

text: Anglerfishes are

text: fish

text: of the

text: teleost

text: order

text: Lophiiformes . They are

text: bony fish

text: named for their characteristic mode of

text: predation

text: , in which a fleshy growth from the fish's head (the esca or illicium) acts as a

text: lure

text: However, it is not always easy to know what is a noun.  For example, pez is a noun meaning "fish", but estar pez is a colloquial expression meaning to be "rubbish" or "useless" at a given activity.

text: This barrier has helped the farmers in Kuttanad - where farming is done below sea level. It has however also created ecological problems, primarily, the rampant propagation of the Water Hyacinth in fresh water. The backwaters which were abundant with fish and part of the staple food of the people of the region require a small amount of salt water for their breeding. The salt water barrier has caused deterioration of the catch of fish in the region and the fishermen are opposed to the bund as of 2005. The salt water barrier has also disrupted the harmony of the sea with the backwaters and has caused problems not foreseen before the salt water barrier like the omniprescence of the water weeds. Earlier the salt water tends to cleanse the backwaters but this does not happen any more leading to the pollution of the backwaters and the entire land nearby.

text: This barrier has helped the farmers in

text: Kuttanad

text: - where farming is done below sea level. It has however also created ecological problems, primarily, the rampant propagation of the Water Hyacinth in fresh water. The backwaters which were abundant with fish and part of the staple food of the people of the region require a small amount of salt water for their breeding. The salt water barrier has caused deterioration of the catch of fish in the region and the fishermen are opposed to the bund as of 2005. The salt water barrier has also disrupted the harmony of the sea with the backwaters and has caused problems not foreseen before the salt water barrier like the omniprescence of the water weeds. Earlier the salt water tends to cleanse the backwaters but this does not happen any more leading to the pollution of the backwaters and the entire land nearby.

text: Several social-economic factors including poverty, cultural practices, and competition among women who are involved in fish trade are often listed as variables fueling the sex for fish practice. There is no conclusive research that shows what promotes sex for fish practice, however, fishermen seem to be taking advantage of stiff competition between the women who trade in fish to demand sexual favors in exchange for the fish. The men or the trader who receives sexual favors would grant preferential sale and sale at reduced prices to these women

text: Aquatic insects are critical to the Sacramento perch's diet. This fish mostly feeds on chironomid midge larvae and pupae found on the bottom or in aquatic plants during winter months. During the summer months, this fish will mostly feed on plankton and other surface organisms. The Sacramento perch is an opportunistic species and will generally prey upon whatever is in abundance and have even been shown to eat mosquito larvae. Smaller perches mostly feed on small crustaceans and as they grow larger move on to aquatic insects and even other fish. This fish is most active at dawn and dusk, but can feed at any time of the day or night.

text: Aquatic insects are critical to the Sacramento perch's diet. This fish mostly feeds on

text: chironomid

text: midge larvae and pupae found on the bottom or in aquatic plants during winter months. During the summer months, this fish will mostly feed on

text: plankton

text: and other surface organisms. The Sacramento perch is an opportunistic species and will generally prey upon whatever is in abundance and have even been shown to eat

text: mosquito

text: larvae. Smaller perches mostly feed on small crustaceans and as they grow larger move on to aquatic insects and even other fish. This fish is most active at dawn and dusk, but can feed at any time of the day or night.

text: Milt is the seminal fluid of fish, mollusks, and certain other water-dwelling animals who reproduce by spraying this fluid which contains the sperm, onto roe (fish eggs).

text: Milt is the

text: seminal

text: fluid of

text: fish

text: mollusks

text: , and certain other water-dwelling animals who reproduce by spraying this fluid which contains the

text: sperm

text: , onto

text: roe

text: (fish eggs).

text: Since the Miocene era, species of Orestias have lived in relative isolation. Most of the aquatic regions in the Altiplano region are endorheic, meaning that they are closed off from drainage and do not let any water out. Thus, species of Orestias have been confined to their respective basins. Each group of fish is specifically adapted to the unique basin in which it lives and any alteration to the dynamics of the body of water would greatly impact the fish. Human introduction of foreign fishes to the Altiplano basins predictably had negative consequences. The alien species created competition and predated Orestias cuvieri, eventually leading to its extinction.

text: Since the

text: Miocene era

text: , species of Orestias have lived in relative isolation. Most of the aquatic regions in the Altiplano region are

text: endorheic

text: , meaning that they are closed off from drainage and do not let any water out. Thus, species of Orestias have been confined to their respective basins. Each group of fish is specifically adapted to the unique basin in which it lives and any alteration to the dynamics of the body of water would greatly impact the fish. Human introduction of foreign fishes to the Altiplano basins predictably had negative consequences. The alien species created competition and predated Orestias cuvieri, eventually leading to its extinction.

text: When a colony accidentally loses its queen, it is said to be "queenless". The workers realize that the queen is absent after as little as an hour, as her pheromones fade in the hive. The colony cannot survive without a fertile queen laying eggs to renew the population, so the workers select cells containing eggs aged less than three days and enlarge these cells dramatically to form "emergency queen cells". These appear similar to large peanut-like structures about an inch long that hang from the center or side of the brood combs. The developing larva in a queen cell is fed differently from an ordinary worker-bee; in addition to the normal honey and pollen, she receives a great deal of royal jelly, a special food secreted by young 'nurse bees' from the hypopharyngeal gland. This special food dramatically alters the growth and development of the larva so that, after metamorphosis and pupation, it emerges from the cell as a queen bee. The queen is the only bee in a colony which has fully developed ovaries, and she secretes a pheromone which suppresses the normal development of ovaries in all her workers.

text: The methods of spawning this fish in the aquarium is similar to spawning most other Corydoras species.  The spawning tank can be as small as 2.5 gallons (10 L), but at least a 5-gallon (20 L) tank is recommended with aged water, a sponge filter and some plants.  Fish should be conditioned with large amounts of live foods such as Tubifex and whiteworms, during which time the females will become noticeably plumper.  Since C. hastatus may spawn as a school, the whole group can be conditioned for spawning at the same time, and for best results, there should be at least two males for every female.

text: The methods of spawning this fish in the aquarium is similar to spawning most other Corydoras species.  The spawning tank can be as small as 2.5 gallons (10 L), but at least a 5-gallon (20 L) tank is recommended with aged water, a sponge filter and some plants.  Fish should be conditioned with large amounts of live foods such as

text: Tubifex

text: and

text: whiteworms

text: , during which time the females will become noticeably plumper.  Since C. hastatus may spawn as a school, the whole group can be conditioned for spawning at the same time, and for best results, there should be at least two males for every female.

text: Sites in Alaska (East Beringia) are where some of the earliest evidence has been found of Paleo-Indians, followed by archaeological sites in northern British Columbia, western Alberta and the Old Crow Flats region in the Yukon. The Paleo-Indian would eventually flourish all over the Americas. These peoples were spread over a wide geographical area; thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles and progress identifiable. This early Paleo-Indian period lithic reduction tool adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to  60 members of an extended family. Food would have been plentiful during the few warm months of the year. Lakes and rivers were teeming with many species of fish, birds and aquatic mammals. Nuts, berries and edible roots could be found in the forests and marshes. The fall would have been a busy time because foodstuffs would have to be stored and clothing made ready for the winter. During the winter, coastal fishing groups moved inland to hunt and trap fresh food and furs.

text: Sites in Alaska (East Beringia) are where some of the earliest evidence has been found of Paleo-Indians, followed by

entity_name: List of archaeological sites by continent and age

text: archaeological sites

text: in northern

text: British Columbia

text: , western

text: Alberta

text: and the

text: Old Crow Flats

text: region in the

text: Yukon

text: . The Paleo-Indian would eventually flourish all over the Americas. These peoples were spread over a wide geographical area; thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making

text: knapping

text: styles and progress identifiable. This early Paleo-Indian period

text: lithic reduction

text: tool adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to  60 members of an extended family. Food would have been plentiful during the few warm months of the year. Lakes and rivers were teeming with many species of fish, birds and aquatic mammals.

text: Nuts

text: berries

text: and edible

text: root

text: s could be found in the forests and

text: marshes

text: . The fall would have been a busy time because foodstuffs would have to be stored and

text: clothing

text: made ready for the winter. During the winter, coastal fishing groups moved inland to hunt and trap fresh food and furs.

text: Ethnoichthyological knowledge varies among cultures. Every cultural group has a different way of interacting with the fish species in their environment. Often, folk knowledge coincides with the ideas put forth in scientific literature. Those who work with fish, such as fishermen, possess a wide range of knowledge concerning the fish they have experience with. They understand things like the trophic relationships among native and exotic fish species, migratory patterns, and the habitat preferences of the most prized fishes. It has been established that fishermen have a good grasp on classification, and fish biology.  This knowledge can be used to improve fishery management strategies. Folk knowledge can be extremely important when expanding biological research.

text: In 2001 Fish and Game New Zealand started the high profile "dirty dairying" campaign to highlight the effect of pollution from dairy farming intensification on the ecological health of freshwater environments. As a reaction to this campaign Fonterra, the largest dairy company in New Zealand, along with a number of government agencies instigated the Dairying and Clean Streams Accord to address water pollution due to dairy farming. The aim of the Accord is to limit the access of stock to waterways.  Fonterra exports the majority of its produce, and encourages farmers to limit environmental impacts as a method of getting environmentally aware consumers to purchase their products. In a report released in October 2008 Fish and Game and Forest and Bird were highly critical of the Accord.

text: In 2001

text: Fish and Game New Zealand

text: started the high profile "

text: dirty dairying

text: " campaign to highlight the effect of pollution from dairy farming intensification on the

text: ecological health

text: of freshwater environments. As a reaction to this campaign

text: Fonterra

text: , the largest dairy company in New Zealand, along with a number of government agencies instigated the

text: Dairying and Clean Streams Accord

text: to address water pollution due to dairy farming. The aim of the Accord is to limit the access of stock to waterways.  Fonterra exports the majority of its produce, and encourages farmers to limit

text: environmental impacts

text: as a method of getting environmentally aware consumers to purchase their products. In a report released in October 2008 Fish and Game and Forest and Bird were highly critical of the Accord.

text: The body of a fish is denser than water, so fish must compensate for the difference or they will sink. Many bony fishes have an internal organ called a swim bladder, or gas bladder, that adjusts their buoyancy through manipulation of gases. In this way, fish can stay at the current water depth, or ascend or descend without having to waste energy in swimming. The bladder is only found in bony fishes. In the more primitive groups like some minnows, bichirs and lungfish, the bladder is open to the esophagus and double as a lung. It is often absent in fast swimming fishes such as the tuna and mackerel families. The condition of a bladder open to the esophagus is called physostome, the closed condition physoclist. In the latter, the gas content of the bladder is controlled through the rete mirabilis, a network of blood vessels effecting gas exchange between the bladder and the blood.

text: The body of a fish is denser than water, so fish must compensate for the difference or they will sink. Many

text: bony fish

text: es have an internal organ called a

text: swim bladder

text: , or gas bladder, that adjusts their buoyancy through manipulation of gases. In this way, fish can stay at the current water depth, or ascend or descend without having to waste energy in swimming. The bladder is only found in bony fishes. In the more primitive groups like some

text: minnows

text: bichir

text: s and

text: lungfish

text: , the bladder is open to the

text: esophagus

text: and double as a

text: lung

text: . It is often absent in fast swimming fishes such as the tuna and mackerel families. The condition of a bladder open to the esophagus is called

text: physostome

text: , the closed condition

text: physoclist

text: . In the latter, the gas content of the bladder is controlled through the

text: rete mirabilis

text: , a network of blood vessels effecting gas exchange between the bladder and the blood.

text: When fishing on rivers for game fish, i.e. Brown, Rainbow, Brook and Sea Trout, Salmon and in some cases Grayling (game status debated), artificial flies, small spinners and lures are a popular choice for many game anglers due to the way they intentionally mimic a fly or small fish on the surface and top layers of the water, enticing the fish into feeding as it sits among actual live flies and fish fry. Both floating and sinking flies and lures can be used to fish either on the surface or in the upper layers of the water. Usually, in summer months, a spinner or fly manoeuvred across the surface will bring about a take from a fish, due to the tendency of fish to move into the warmest part of the water, the surface and first layer (about 18 inches) of water below. When fishing a river for coarse fish species such as Chub, Barbel, Roach, Dace and Bream, the favourite hook baits tend to be maggot (white, red, and bronze), caster (maggot chrysalis), worm, cheese, pellets (halibut, trout, and carp), boilies (round balls made with fish meal, milk, and soya) and luncheon meat (pork roll and tinned chopped pork).

text: The Rabbis taught that once the Roman government forbade Jews to study the Torah. Pappus ben Judah found Rabbi Akiva publicly gathering people to study Torah and asked Akiva whether he did not fear the government. Akiva replied with a parable: A fox was once walking alongside of a river, and he saw fish swimming from one place to another. The fox asked the fish from what they fled. The fish replied that they fled from the nets cast by men. The fox invited the fish to come up onto the dry land, so that they could live together as the fox’s ancestors had lived with the fish’s ancestors. The fish replied that for an animal described as the cleverest of animals, the fox was rather foolish. For if the fish were afraid in the element in which they live, how much more would they fear in the element in which they would die. Akiva said that it was the same with Jews. If such was the Jews’ condition when they sat and studied Torah, of which  says, "that is your life and the length of your days," how much worse off would Jews be if they neglected the Torah! Soon afterwards, the Romans arrested and imprisoned Rabbi Akiva, and the Romans arrested Pappus ben Judah and imprisoned him next to Rabbi Akiva. Rabbi Akiva asked Pappus who had brought him there. Pappus replied that Rabbi Akiva was happy that he had been seized for occupying himself with the Torah. Pappus regretted that he had been seized for occupying himself with idle things. When the Romans took Rabbi Akiva out for execution, it was the hour for the recital of the Shema, and while they combed his flesh with iron combs, he was accepting upon himself the kingship of Heaven by reciting  ("Here, O Israel . . . ," Shema Yisrael . . .). His disciples asked him whether his devotion extended even to that point. He replied that all his days, he had been troubled by  "with all your soul," which he interpreted to mean, "even if God takes one's soul." Rabbi Akiva questioned when he would have the opportunity to fulfill this. Now that he had the opportunity, he asked his disciples, should he not fulfill it? He prolonged the word "One" (ehad) in  until he expired while saying it. A Heavenly voice went forth and proclaimed: Happy are you, Akiva, that your soul has departed with the word "One"! The ministering angels asked God: Such devotion to Torah, and such a reward? The angels argued that he should have received the reward of  "from them that die by Your hand, O Lord." God replied to the angels (in the continuation of ), "Their portion is in life," and a Heavenly voice proclaimed that Rabbi Akiva was destined for the life of the World to Come.

text: The Rabbis taught that once the

text: Roman

text: However, government action is not always necessary to manage reefs. When the community dependent on the resources provided by coral works together to save and restore the fish population, the results can be very good. The community managed reefs of Apo Island, located in the southern Philippines, known worldwide for its success. The waters around Apo Island are home to about 650 species of fish and 400 species of corals.  The waters of Apo Island were not always this full of life. Fishing is the major occupation on the island, and even those who do not fish, rely on the catch for their protein. So when a fisherman's catch began shortening, after years of unregulated fishing, it was very easy for them to resort to destructive methods of fishing, such as blast fishing and cyanide fishing, to get by. These methods almost led to the end of the already dwindling fish stocks. The community began, through education and widespread involvement, the process of making these practices socially unacceptable. People began patrolling the waters in a small area with the intention of allowing fish to flourish and repopulate and then spill over into areas that had been fished out. This informal establishment of a sanctuary was first met with a lot of resistance, eventually though, after seeing the obvious improvements, the island community and local council were able to formalize the sanctuary in 1985, three years after it started. This formalization extended the sanctuary to water surrounding the island up to 500 meters from the shore and declaring a portion a no-take fish sanctuary.

text: The threat of toxics bioaccumulation is especially high in sturgeon meat. Because of its eating habits, sturgeon accumulate toxins in their flesh as they feed. They feed on any sort of organic material found while scavenging; this includes raw sewage, dead fish, paper mill wastes, and plants sprayed by pesticides. Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds are unintentional byproducts of paper bleaching and pesticides. It is also one of the most commonly found toxics in fish populations. PCB is also found in fish. It is used as a plasticizer in paint, rubber, and plastic products. Before the government ceased its production in 1977, more than 1,500,000,000 pounds (680,000 tonnes) were produced. Methylmercury is one of the more commonly known toxics found in fish's flesh. Some have speculated that it is also the most dangerous. Sturgeon and other fish in the Columbia and Willamette Rivers have registered 0.05 to 0.50 parts per million. Although most accumulation in sturgeon happens in the liver, pancreas, and other organs, the toxics still accumulate in the edible flesh. The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife has issued warnings on all fish caught in the Willamette River. "Women of childbearing age, children under six, and people with liver and kidney damage should avoid eating fish from these waters. Healthy adults should eat no more than one eight ounce meal per month". Also for areas with high concentrations of PCBs, dioxins, and pesticides: "All persons should reduce or avoid eating fatty parts of fish. Exposure can be reduced by removing the skin and all fat, eggs, and internal organs".

text: The threat of toxics

text: bioaccumulation

text: is especially high in sturgeon meat. Because of its eating habits, sturgeon accumulate toxins in their flesh as they feed. They feed on any sort of organic material found while scavenging; this includes raw sewage, dead fish, paper mill wastes, and plants sprayed by

text: pesticide

text: s.

text: Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds

text: are unintentional byproducts of paper bleaching and pesticides. It is also one of the most commonly found toxics in fish populations.

text: PCB

text: is also found in fish. It is used as a

text: plasticizer

text: in paint, rubber, and plastic products. Before the government ceased its production in 1977, more than 1,500,000,000 pounds (680,000

text: tonne

text: s) were produced.

text: Methylmercury

text: is one of the more commonly known toxics found in fish's flesh. Some have speculated that it is also the most dangerous. Sturgeon and other fish in the Columbia and Willamette Rivers have registered 0.05 to 0.50 parts per million. Although most accumulation in sturgeon happens in the liver, pancreas, and other organs, the toxics still accumulate in the edible flesh. The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife has issued warnings on all fish caught in the Willamette River. "Women of childbearing age, children under six, and people with liver and kidney damage should avoid eating fish from these waters. Healthy adults should eat no more than one eight ounce meal per month". Also for areas with high concentrations of PCBs, dioxins, and pesticides: "All persons should reduce or avoid eating fatty parts of fish. Exposure can be reduced by removing the skin and all fat, eggs, and internal organs".

text: Fish have a lateral line system that detects pressure fluctuations in the water. Such pressure is non-detectable in air, but grooves for the lateral line sense organs were found on the skull of early tetrapods, suggesting either an aquatic or largely aquatic habitat. Modern amphibians, which are semi-aquatic, exhibit this feature whereas it has been retired by the higher vertebrates.

text: Fish have a

text: lateral line

text: system that detects

text: pressure

text: fluctuations in the water. Such pressure is non-detectable in air, but grooves for the lateral line sense organs were found on the skull of early tetrapods, suggesting either an aquatic or largely aquatic

text: habitat

text: . Modern amphibians, which are semi-aquatic, exhibit this feature whereas it has been retired by the

text: higher vertebrates

text: It was established on April 18, 2001 to protect a significant rainbow trout brood fishery. The park also contains mature forests of Lodgepole pine with some Engelmann spruce and other species of flora. It is not intended for public use except for viewing of fish spawning and other educational programs.

text: It was established on April 18, 2001 to protect a significant

text: rainbow trout

text: brood

text: fishery

text: . The park also contains mature forests of

text: Lodgepole pine

text: with some

text: Engelmann spruce

text: and other species of flora. It is not intended for public use except for viewing of fish spawning and other educational programs.

text: The next phase of biomineralisation does not commence until the competent veliger larva contacts an environmental cue that induces metamorphosis. The protoconch remains developmentally inert until the animal contacts a specific cue that initiates the process of metamorphosis.

text: The next phase of biomineralisation does not commence until the competent veliger larva contacts an environmental cue that induces metamorphosis. The protoconch remains developmentally inert until the animal contacts a specific cue that initiates the process of

text: metamorphosis

text: This information has led to the proposed implementation of a number of conservation and management strategies.  The same researchers, for example, have suggested pairing light reduction with dune restoration to improve hatchling orientation and success. In addition, researchers have used information on the sensory ecology of sea turtles to decrease their bycatch rate by fishermen. Bycatch is the term for non-target fish, turtles, or marine mammals that are incidentally captured by fishermen. Because researchers know that fishes and sea turtles differ in their responses to visual sensory cues, they have devised a baiting system that is non-detectable to fish, but less attractive or even repellant to sea turtles.  In this recent study, this method led to decreases in turtle bycatch while imposing no noticeable reduction on fishing yield.

text: After the larvae grow and mature, for at least one season (the larval period lasts about four months on the Pacific coast), they absorb their gills and metamorphose into terrestrial juveniles that roam the forest undergrowth. Metamorphosis has been reported as early as July at sea level, for A. m. croceum in October to November and even January. At higher elevations the larvae may overwinter, develop, and grow for an extra season before metamorphosing. In lakes at higher elevations, the larvae can reach sizes of  snout to vent length (SVL) at metamorphosis, but at lower elevations they develop faster and metamorphose when they reach  SVL.

text: After the larvae grow and mature, for at least one season (the larval period lasts about four months on the

text: Pacific coast

text: ), they absorb their gills and

text: metamorphose

text: into terrestrial juveniles that roam the forest

text: undergrowth

text: . Metamorphosis has been reported as early as July at sea level, for A. m. croceum in October to November and even January. At higher elevations the larvae may

text: overwinter

text: , develop, and grow for an extra season before metamorphosing. In lakes at higher elevations, the larvae can reach sizes of  snout to vent length (SVL) at metamorphosis, but at lower elevations they develop faster and metamorphose when they reach  SVL.

text: Puerto Deseado's economy is based on the fishing industry. There are several fish-processing plants by its coasts on "Avenida Costanera" and a high percentage of the population works on jobs related to industrial fishing such as stevedores, crane operators, fish cleaners and the like.

text: Cadgwith -Callinectes sapidus –Callum Roberts -Calypso (ship) -Canadian Senate Standing Committee on Fisheries and Oceans -Cape D'Aguilar Marine Reserve -Cape Islander -Capelin -Carp -Cast net -Casting (fishing) -Catch and release -Catch reporting -Catfish -Catskill Fly Fishing Center and Museum -Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute -Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science -Centre of Marine Resource Management -Cetacean bycatch -Chasse-marée -Chatham Rise -Chinese fishing nets -Chris Yates (fisherman) -Circle hook -Clam -Clam digging -Clouser Deep Minnow -Coarse fishing -Cobia -Coble -Cockle (bivalve) -Cod -Cod liver oil -Cod Wars -Coho salmon -Coleman National Fish Hatchery -Commercial fishing -Commercial fishing in Alaska -Commercial trawler -Common cockle -Common Fisheries Policy -Common periwinkle -Common snook -Conch -Concholepas concholepas -Connecticut River -Continental shelf -Continental shelf pump -Coral reef -Corf -Cormorant fishing -Couta -Crab -Crangon crangon -Crappie -Crayfish -CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research -Cul de canard -Cullercoats -Culture of Póvoa de Varzim -Currach -Cusk (fish) -Cutthroat trout -Cuttlefish -Cuttyhunk -Cyanide fishing

text: Cadgwith

text: Callinectes sapidus

text: Callum Roberts

text: Calypso (ship)

text: Canadian Senate Standing Committee on Fisheries and Oceans

text: Cape D'Aguilar Marine Reserve

text: Cape Islander

text: Capelin

text: Carp

text: Cast net

text: Casting (fishing)

text: Catch and release

text: Catch reporting

text: Catfish

text: Catskill Fly Fishing Center and Museum

entity_name: Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute

text: Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute

entity_name: Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science

text: Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science

text: Centre of Marine Resource Management

text: Cetacean bycatch

text: Chasse-marée

text: Chatham Rise

text: Chinese fishing nets

text: Chris Yates (fisherman)

text: Circle hook

text: Clam

text: Clam digging

text: Clouser Deep Minnow

text: Coarse fishing

text: Cobia

text: Coble

text: Cockle (bivalve)

text: Cod

text: Cod liver oil

text: Cod Wars

text: Coho salmon

text: Coleman National Fish Hatchery

text: Commercial fishing

text: Commercial fishing in Alaska

text: Commercial trawler

text: Common cockle

text: Common Fisheries Policy

text: Common periwinkle

text: Common snook

text: Conch

text: Concholepas concholepas

text: Connecticut River

text: Continental shelf

text: Continental shelf pump

text: Coral reef

text: Corf

text: Cormorant fishing

text: Couta

text: Crab

text: Crangon crangon

text: Crappie

text: Crayfish

text: CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research

text: Cul de canard

text: Cullercoats

text: Culture of Póvoa de Varzim

text: Currach

text: Cusk (fish)

text: Cutthroat trout

text: Cuttlefish

text: Cuttyhunk

text: Cyanide fishing

text: As the common name suggests, it is a highly aquatic species, adapting well to human-altered environments such as fish pools and rice paddies.

text: Breeding goldfish by the hobbyist is the process of selecting adult fish to reproduce, allowing them to reproduce and then raising the resulting offspring while continually removing fish that do not approach the desired pedigree. The process is described here in detail.

text: Goliathus larvae are somewhat unusual among cetoniine scarabs in that they have a greater need for high protein foods than do those of most other genera. Pellets of dry or soft dog or cat food (buried in the rearing substrate on a regular schedule) provide a suitable diet for Goliathus larvae in captivity. However, a substrate of somewhat moistened, decayed leaves and wood should still be provided in order to create a suitable medium for larval growth. The young stage larvae (1st instar) will eat some of this material. Even under optimum conditions, the larvae take a number of months to mature fully because of the great size they attain. They are capable of growing up to  in length, and reaching weights in excess of . When maximum size is reached, the larva constructs a rather thin walled, hardened cell of sandy soil in which it will undergo pupation and metamorphosis to the adult state. Once building of this cocoon is completed, the larva transforms to the pupal stage, which is an intermediate phase between the larval and adult stages. During the pupal duration, the insect's tissues are broken down and re-organized into the form of the adult beetle. Once metamorphosis is complete, the insect sheds its pupal skin and undergoes a period of hibernation as an adult beetle until the dry season ends. When the rains begin, the beetle breaks open its cocoon, locates a mate, and the entire life cycle starts over again. The adult beetles feed on materials rich in sugar, especially tree sap and fruit. Under captive conditions, adults can sometimes live for about a year after emerging from their pupal cells. Longevity in the wild is likely to be shorter on average due to factors such as predators and weather. The adult phase concentrates solely on reproduction, and once this function is performed, the time of the adult beetle is limited, as is true for the vast majority of other insect species.

text: Goliathus larvae are somewhat unusual among cetoniine scarabs in that they have a greater need for high

text: protein

text: foods than do those of most other genera. Pellets of dry or soft dog or cat food (buried in the rearing substrate on a regular schedule) provide a suitable diet for Goliathus larvae in captivity. However, a substrate of somewhat moistened, decayed leaves and wood should still be provided in order to create a suitable medium for larval growth. The young stage larvae (1st instar) will eat some of this material. Even under optimum conditions, the larvae take a number of months to mature fully because of the great size they attain. They are capable of growing up to  in length, and reaching weights in excess of . When maximum size is reached, the larva constructs a rather thin walled, hardened cell of sandy soil in which it will undergo

text: pupation

text: and metamorphosis to the adult state. Once building of this

text: cocoon

text: is completed, the larva transforms to the

text: pupa

text: l stage, which is an intermediate phase between the larval and adult stages. During the pupal duration, the insect's tissues are broken down and re-organized into the form of the adult beetle. Once metamorphosis is complete, the insect sheds its pupal skin and undergoes a period of hibernation as an adult beetle until the dry season ends. When the rains begin, the beetle breaks open its cocoon, locates a mate, and the entire life cycle starts over again. The adult beetles feed on materials rich in

text: sugar

text: , especially tree

text: sap

text: and fruit. Under captive conditions, adults can sometimes live for about a year after emerging from their pupal cells. Longevity in the wild is likely to be shorter on average due to factors such as predators and weather. The adult phase concentrates solely on reproduction, and once this function is performed, the time of the adult beetle is limited, as is true for the vast majority of other insect species.

text: While working at Yellowstone as a historian, Schullery helped to draw attention to the importance of issues involved in the history of the park movement in America, and how they overlapped with what was going on at the time. He often spoke about pressing issues that involved Yellowstone and alerted the public. His main goals were to write educational stories that would better inform people about the place he loves. In fact, one of his books in particular Mark of the Bear was written to support a movement protecting north american bears. Not only did his writing help spread knowledge about Yellowstone, but he also contributed many books about fly fishing which were commonly written including in-depth information with regard to the sport.  He wrote American Fly Fishing: A History which was intended to be a very informative story about the evolution of fly fishing. But the story itself actually included information with regard to different aspects of the sport. He included the use of certain flies, rods, reels and techniques. His writing style was both informative and educational yet fun and enjoyable. All in all, his writings about nature and fly fishing helped not only to expand public knowledge on the topics but also to spread the word about the sport and important issues altogether. He was definitely an influential person with regard to fly fishing and Yellowstone National Park.

text: Sockeye salmon are one of the many species of fish that are anadromous.  Individuals migrate to the same rivers in which they were born to reproduce.  These migrations happen around the same time every year, but Quinn et al. 2007 shows that sockeye salmon found in the waters of the Bristol Bay in Alaska have recently undergone directional selection on the timing of migration.  In this study two populations of sockeye salmon were observed (Egegik and Ugashik).  Data from 1969-2003 provided by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game were divided into five sets of seven years and plotted for average arrival to the fishery.  After analyzing the data it was determined that in both populations average migration date was earlier and was undergoing directional selection.  The Egegik population experienced stronger selection and shifted 4 days. Water temperature is thought to cause earlier migration date, but in this study there was no statistically significant correlation.  The paper suggests that fisheries can be a factor driving this selection because fishing occurs more in the later periods of migration (especially in the Egegik district), preventing those fish from reproducing.

text: Sockeye salmon

text: are one of the many species of fish that are

text: anadromous

text: .  Individuals migrate to the same rivers in which they were born to reproduce.  These migrations happen around the same time every year, but Quinn et al. 2007 shows that sockeye salmon found in the waters of the Bristol Bay in Alaska have recently undergone directional selection on the timing of migration.  In this study two populations of sockeye salmon were observed (Egegik and Ugashik).  Data from 1969-2003 provided by the

text: Alaska Department of Fish and Game

text: were divided into five sets of seven years and plotted for average arrival to the fishery.  After analyzing the data it was determined that in both populations average migration date was earlier and was undergoing directional selection.  The Egegik population experienced stronger selection and shifted 4 days. Water temperature is thought to cause earlier migration date, but in this study there was no statistically significant correlation.  The paper suggests that fisheries can be a factor driving this selection because fishing occurs more in the later periods of migration (especially in the Egegik district), preventing those fish from reproducing.

text: Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) are insects with an incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous). The aquatic larva or nymph hatches from an egg, and develops through eight to seventeen instars before leaving the water and emerging as the winged adult or imago.

text: Odonata

text: dragonflies

text: and

text: damselflies

text: ) are insects with an incomplete

text: metamorphosis

text: hemimetabolous

text: ). The aquatic

text: larva

text: or

text: nymph

text: hatches from an egg, and develops through eight to seventeen

text: instars

text: before leaving the water and emerging as the winged adult or

text: imago

text: The bigmouth buffalo is not listed as threatened or endangered in any region of its native or introduced distribution. There is a parasite that fingerlings are susceptible to, Lernea cyprinacae, but most are unaffected by the time they reach a length of 30 mm. They are anchor parasites that insert themselves between scale margins and fin insertions. The real problem is a secondary infection that may arise due to these parasites, the protozooan Epistylis and bacteria Flavobacterium columnare are both attached to serious parasite infestations. It has been reported that bigmouth hybridizes. The bigmouth has been seen to hybridize in the wild with smallmouth buffalo, and it is possible that some fish identified as black buffalo are indeed these hybrids. The hybridization does not seem to be negatively impacting their populations but makes it difficult to determine how many hybrids and how many black buffalo are actually in certain reservoirs and therefore difficult to manage for either species. There are currently no found specific management plans for the bigmouth buffalo either privately or governmentally funded. Bigmouth buffalo are seen as a commercial foodfish for the most part and do not seem to be in any danger of decreasing in population. They are very readily reproduced by hatcheries and if ever needed could be easily stocked.

text: This has led to an alternative classification, splitting the Osteichthyes into two full classes. Paradoxically, Sarcopterygii is under this scheme monophyletic, as it includes the tetrapods, making it a synonym of the clade Euteleostomi. Most bony fish belong to the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii).

text: This has led to an alternative classification, splitting the Osteichthyes into two full classes. Paradoxically, Sarcopterygii is under this scheme monophyletic, as it includes the tetrapods, making it a synonym of the clade

text: Euteleostomi

text: . Most bony fish belong to the ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii).

text: Through most of his life, Yury Romanenko was keen to underwater fishing and other aquatic activities. In space, he started composing and singing his own songs. After the Romanenko-Méndez flight and retirement of Romanenko in 1988, he and his family were invited to Cuba, where he was personally met by Fidel Castro. Knowing that Romanenko was partial to hunting and underwater fishing, Castro had organized a social tour and participated in the fishing, freediving with Romanenko to a 10-meter depth.

text: Much of current research is focused on how larvae, especially larval fish, navigate in the pelagic zone and ultimately find a place to settle. While larvae are very tiny and have limited complexity, they actually have very active and useful sensory systems. Fish can hear a range from about 100 to 1000 Hz and the ear is developed within the first two days of larval life. Sound is a useful tool for larvae because the ocean is not a quiet place. Coral reefs, for example, are quite noisy and likely provide a large stimulus for larvae looking to settle there. Olfaction, or the sense of smell, is also used by larvae, but on a smaller scale. Chemical signals that are detected through olfaciton have a limited lifetime in the ocean and do not travel long distances. Vision is used by larvae in two ways. The first is what is commonly thought of as vision, observing the immediate surroundings. This is useful for larvae in predator avoidance and prey detection but the limited visibility in some oceans and the small scale do not make this a useful tool for finding a settlement site. Studies have found that fish can detect polarized light and this is used to orient themselves in the water and can direct larval to settlement regions as a solar compass. It is likely that larvae use a combination of all these sensory systems when locating settlement sites. Although these sensory systems exist in larvae, they are highly reduced. Upon settlement or metamorphosis, there is large development in the sensitivity and proliferation of these systems. Understanding how larvae navigate the ocean has very useful implications for managing fisheries and marine protected areas.

text: As an adult, E. homei lives inside the body cavity of a sea cucumber. It enters and leaves the coelom through the anus, sometimes continues into the respiratory tree, and in one instance was found in the gut. Not much is known about the lifecycle of the fish, but it has a planktonic larval stage. Later, this larva settles on the seabed and searches for a sea cucumber host, in which it undergoes metamorphosis into a juvenile fish. Some competition among Encheliophis homei and another closely related fish Carapus boraborensis occurs for "ownership" of the host sea cucumber, and juveniles of  E. homei have been found among the stomach contents of C. boraborensis. Aggression usually takes the form of tail biting.

text: As an adult, E. homei lives inside the body cavity of a sea cucumber. It enters and leaves the coelom through the anus, sometimes continues into the respiratory tree, and in one instance was found in the gut. Not much is known about the lifecycle of the fish, but it has a

text: plankton

text: ic larval stage. Later, this larva settles on the seabed and searches for a sea cucumber host, in which it undergoes metamorphosis into a juvenile fish. Some competition among Encheliophis homei and another closely related fish

text: Carapus boraborensis

text: occurs for "ownership" of the host sea cucumber, and juveniles of  E. homei have been found among the stomach contents of C. boraborensis. Aggression usually takes the form of tail biting.

text: Spawning starts in February in the northern part of its range, and in March farther south. A female will mate with multiple males and can store sperm, yielding broods of eggs that have multiple fathers. Like other fish of its genus, this species is viviparous. The gravid female expels her whole brood at once, only during the night. The larva is between 4 and 5 millimeters long at birth. It still has a small bit of yolk or oil on its belly which is absorbed within a few days. It quickly develops its head spines. It has some pigmentation at birth in the form of melanophores and xanthophores and develops more as it grows.

text: Spawning

text: starts in February in the northern part of its range, and in March farther south. A female will mate with multiple males and can store sperm, yielding broods of

text: eggs

text: that have multiple fathers. Like other fish of its

text: genus

text: , this species is

text: viviparous

text: . The gravid female expels her whole brood at once, only during the night. The larva is between 4 and 5 millimeters long at birth. It still has a small bit of

text: yolk

text: or oil on its belly which is absorbed within a few days. It quickly develops its head spines. It has some

text: pigmentation

text: at birth in the form of

text: melanophores

text: and

text: xanthophores

text: and develops more as it grows.

text: Skipjack is the most fecund of the main commercial tunas, and its population is considered sustainable against its current consumption. Its fishing is still controversial due to the methodology, with rod and reel or fishery options being promoted as ecologically preferable.Purse seine methods are considered unsustainable by some authorities due to excess bycatch, although bycatch is said to be much reduced if fish aggregation devices are not used. These considerations have led to the availability of canned skipjack marked with the fishing method used to catch it.

text: Skipjack is the most

text: fecund

text: of the main commercial tunas, and its population is considered sustainable against its current consumption. Its fishing is still controversial due to the methodology, with rod and reel or fishery options being promoted as ecologically preferable.

text: Purse seine

text: methods are considered unsustainable by some authorities due to excess

text: bycatch

text: , although bycatch is said to be much reduced if

text: fish aggregation device

text: s are not used. These considerations have led to the availability of canned skipjack marked with the fishing method used to catch it.

text: Developmental processes are very evident during the process of metamorphosis. This occurs in various types of animal. Well known are the examples of the frog, which usually hatches as a tadpole and metamorphoses to an adult frog, and certain insects which hatch as a larva and then become remodeled to the adult form during a pupal stage.

text: Developmental processes are very evident during the process of

text: metamorphosis

text: . This occurs in various types of animal. Well known are the examples of the frog, which usually hatches as a tadpole and metamorphoses to an adult frog, and certain insects which hatch as a larva and then become remodeled to the adult form during a pupal stage.

text: In fish and amphibians there is only one inner membrane, the embryonic membrane. The amniote egg evolved new internal structures to accommodate gas exchange between the embryo and the atmosphere and to deal with wastes. After these structures developed, further adaption allowed amniotes to lay bigger eggs and in drier habitats. The evolution of larger eggs opened up for larger offspring and consequently larger adults, with those who adapted to a diet of fish and other aquatic animals getting bigger than the terrestrial tetrapods. Further growth for the latter, however, was limited by their position in the terrestrial food chain, which was restricted to level three and below, with only invertebrates occupying level two. Amniotes would eventually experience adaptive radiations when some species evolved the ability to digest plants and new ecological niches opened up, permitting larger body size for both herbivores, omnivores and predators.

text: In fish and amphibians there is only one inner membrane, the embryonic membrane. The amniote egg evolved new internal structures to accommodate gas exchange between the embryo and the atmosphere and to deal with wastes. After these structures developed, further adaption allowed amniotes to lay bigger eggs and in drier habitats. The evolution of larger eggs opened up for larger offspring and consequently larger adults, with those who adapted to a diet of fish and other aquatic animals getting bigger than the terrestrial tetrapods. Further growth for the latter, however, was limited by their position in the terrestrial

text: food chain

text: , which was restricted to

text: level three

text: and below, with only

text: invertebrate

text: s occupying level two. Amniotes would eventually experience

text: adaptive radiation

text: s when some species evolved the ability to digest plants and new

text: ecological niche

text: s opened up, permitting larger body size for both herbivores, omnivores and predators.

text: Boneless fish were initially intended to feed three groups: the elderly, hospital patients, and schoolchildren. It differs from an ordinary frozen fish fillet in that the content of a boneless fish pack looks just like a dressed fish. The product is cooked in the same manner as an ordinary fish.

text: As is typical of most bettas and gouramis, spawning involves a male building a bubble nest (a floating mat of saliva-coated air bubbles, often incorporating plant matter) and attracting a female to it. If the female accepts the male's advances, the fish will 'embrace' in open water, releasing both eggs and sperm into the water. The male gathers the fertilized eggs after each embrace, spitting them up into the bubble nest.  After spawning, the male has no further use for the female and may violently attack her (and any other fish that approaches the nest).  Once the fry hatch and have begun to swim freely, the male is best removed and the fry raised on infusoria or newly hatched brine shrimp.

text: As is typical of most bettas and gouramis,

text: spawning

text: involves a male building a

text: bubble nest

text: (a floating mat of

text: saliva

text: -coated air bubbles, often incorporating plant matter) and attracting a female to it. If the female accepts the male's advances, the fish will 'embrace' in open water, releasing both eggs and sperm into the water. The male gathers the fertilized

text: egg

text: s after each embrace, spitting them up into the bubble nest.  After spawning, the male has no further use for the female and may violently attack her (and any other fish that approaches the nest).  Once the fry hatch and have begun to swim freely, the male is best removed and the fry raised on

text: infusoria

text: or newly hatched

text: brine shrimp

text: At the feeding of the five thousand, a boy is brought to Jesus with "five small loaves and two fish". The question is asked, "But what are they, among so many?" Jesus multiplies the loaves and fish to feed the multitude. In Matthew 13:47-50, the Parable of Drawing in the Net, Jesus compares God's decision on who will go to heaven or to hell ("the fiery furnace") at the end of this world to fishers sorting out their catch, keeping the good fish and throwing the bad fish away. In John 21:11, it is related that the disciples fished all night but caught nothing. Jesus instructed them to cast the nets on the other side of the boat, and they drew in 153 fish. In Matthew 17:24-27, upon being asked if his Teacher pays the temple (or two-drachma) tax, Simon Peter answers yes. Christ tells Peter to go to the water and cast a line, saying that a coin sufficient for both of them will be found in the fish's mouth. Peter does this and finds the coin.

text: At the

text: feeding of the five thousand

text: , a boy is brought to Jesus with "five small loaves and two fish". The question is asked, "But what are they, among so many?" Jesus multiplies the loaves and fish to feed the multitude. In

text: Matthew 13

text: :47-50, the

text: Parable of Drawing in the Net

text: , Jesus compares God's decision on who will go to heaven or to hell ("the fiery furnace") at the end of this world to fishers sorting out their catch, keeping the good fish and throwing the bad fish away. In

text: John 21

text: :11, it is related that the disciples fished all night but caught nothing. Jesus instructed them to cast the nets on the other side of the boat, and

text: they drew in 153 fish

text: . In

text: Matthew 17

text: :24-27, upon being asked if his Teacher pays the temple (or two-drachma) tax, Simon Peter answers yes. Christ tells Peter to go to the water and cast a line, saying that a coin sufficient for both of them will be found in the fish's mouth. Peter does this and finds the coin.

text: Hovasaurus resembled a slender lizard, and was around  long, of which two thirds was taken up by its long tail. It was well adapted to an aquatic life, with the tail being laterally flattened like that of a sea snake. Some stones have been found in the abdomen of fossil Hovasaurus, indicating the creatures swallowed these for ballast, preventing them from floating to the surface when hunting fish.

text: Hovasaurus resembled a slender lizard, and was around  long, of which two thirds was taken up by its long tail. It was well adapted to an

text: aquatic

text: life, with the tail being laterally flattened like that of a

text: sea snake

text: . Some stones have been found in the abdomen of fossil Hovasaurus, indicating the creatures swallowed these for

text: ballast

text: , preventing them from floating to the surface when hunting fish.

text: When the slickline parts, this can create an expensive 'fishing' job. It is called fishing because you often have to try different 'fishing' tools until you get a 'bite', then you have to work the original tools downhole free, or cut off the slickline where they join the tools downhole so that you can pull the broken slickline back to surface and out of the way, in order to fish the stuck toolstring. Because of the downtime involved in 'fishing', meaning not being able to flow the oil/gas well, the client is losing money by lack of production and also the cost of the slickline unit to fish, and the cost of what is left in the hole if it is not fished out (in the oil/gas industry, if the cause of the fishing job was not the fault of the slickline company, the oil/gas company is usually responsible to pay for it, and it can be very expensive).

text: The holotype IVPP V12560 (Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Beijing) is an articulated skeleton measuring approximately  in length. The specimen is unique among all known ankylosaur fossils in the retention of the external mandibular fenestra. Antorbital fenestrae may also be present. It has relatively large teeth, including teeth in the praemaxilla ( primitive or possibly juvenile trait). The points on the tooth crown were unusually long and sharp, giving each tooth a fork-like shape. It had long feet, long lower legs, and long, sharp claws on the hands and feet, unlike the blunt claws of other ankylosaurians. All of these were initially interpreted as juvenile features, given the specimen's small size and lack of fusion between the spine and hip bones. However, information from a second specimen has led some scientists to conclude that the lack of hip fusion and long limbs and toes are in fact adaptations to an aquatic lifestyle. The large, fork-like teeth and sharp claws may have been adapted to catch fish and other small animals. Stomach contents recovered with the second L. paradoxus specimen show that fish formed part of the animal's diet. This indicates that Liaoningosaurus was either carnivorous or at least omnivorous, making it the first ornithischian known to science to have adapted to such a lifestyle.

text: The

text: holotype

entity_name: Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology

text: IVPP

text: V12560 (Institute of

text: Vertebrate

text: Paleontology

text: and

text: Paleoanthropology

text: Beijing

text: ) is an articulated skeleton measuring approximately  in length. The specimen is unique among all known ankylosaur fossils in the retention of the external

text: mandibular fenestra

text: Antorbital fenestra

text: e may also be present. It has relatively large teeth, including teeth in the praemaxilla ( primitive or possibly juvenile trait). The points on the tooth crown were unusually long and sharp, giving each tooth a fork-like shape. It had long feet, long lower legs, and long, sharp claws on the hands and feet, unlike the blunt claws of other ankylosaurians. All of these were initially interpreted as juvenile features, given the specimen's small size and lack of fusion between the spine and hip bones. However, information from a second specimen has led some scientists to conclude that the lack of hip fusion and long limbs and toes are in fact adaptations to an aquatic lifestyle. The large, fork-like teeth and sharp claws may have been adapted to catch fish and other small animals. Stomach contents recovered with the second L. paradoxus specimen show that fish formed part of the animal's diet. This indicates that Liaoningosaurus was either carnivorous or at least omnivorous, making it the first ornithischian known to science to have adapted to such a lifestyle.

text: The juvenile Haliotis asinina teloconch rapidly develops a uniform maroon colouration several weeks after metamorphosis, similar to the crustose coralline algae (CCA) that the larva has settled upon. At about 1 mm in size, further changes in the morphogenetic program of the mantle are reflected in the shell. Structurally, a pronounced series of ridges and valleys and a line of respiratory pores (tremata) have appeared. Furthermore, it is at this stage of development that the first recognisable tablets of nacre can be detected. Colourmetrically, the uniform maroon background is now interrupted by oscillations of a pale cream colour, and is punctuated by a pattern of dots (that only occur on ridges) which are blue when overlying a maroon field and orange when overlying a cream field. This shell pattern may enhance the juvenile's ability to camouflage on the heterogeneous background of the CCA they inhabit at this stage of development.

text: The juvenile Haliotis asinina teloconch rapidly develops a uniform maroon colouration several weeks after metamorphosis, similar to the crustose coralline algae (CCA) that the larva has settled upon. At about 1 mm in size, further changes in the morphogenetic program of the mantle are reflected in the shell. Structurally, a pronounced series of ridges and valleys and a line of respiratory pores (

text: tremata

text: ) have appeared. Furthermore, it is at this stage of development that the first recognisable tablets of nacre can be detected. Colourmetrically, the uniform maroon background is now interrupted by oscillations of a pale cream colour, and is punctuated by a pattern of dots (that only occur on ridges) which are blue when overlying a maroon field and orange when overlying a cream field. This shell pattern may enhance the juvenile's ability to camouflage on the heterogeneous background of the CCA they inhabit at this stage of development.

text: As with the inshore aquaculture of carnivorous fish, a large proportion of the feed comes from wild forage fish.  Except for a few countries, offshore aquaculture has focused predominantly on high value carnivorous fish.  If the industry attempts to expand with this focus then the supply of these wild fish will become ecologically unsustainable.

text: As with the inshore aquaculture of

text: carnivorous fish

text: , a large proportion of the feed comes from wild

text: forage fish

text: .  Except for a few countries, offshore aquaculture has focused predominantly on high value carnivorous fish.  If the industry attempts to expand with this focus then the supply of these

text: wild fish

text: will become ecologically unsustainable.

text: Fishing tackle can be contrasted with fishing techniques. Fishing tackle refers to the physical equipment that is used when fishing, whereas fishing techniques refers to the ways the tackle is used when fishing.

text: Fishing tackle can be contrasted with

text: fishing techniques

text: . Fishing tackle refers to the physical equipment that is used when fishing, whereas fishing techniques refers to the ways the tackle is used when fishing.

text: The mangrove killifish (Kryptolebias marmoratus) produces both eggs and sperm by meiosis and routinely reproduces by self-fertilisation. The capacity for selfing in these fishes has apparently persisted for at least several hundred thousand years. Each individual hermaphrodite normally fertilizes itself when an egg and sperm that it has produced by an internal organ unite inside the fish's body. In nature, this mode of reproduction can yield highly homozygous lines composed of individuals so genetically uniform as to be, in effect, identical to one another.  Although inbreeding, especially in the extreme form of self-fertilization, is ordinarily regarded as detrimental because it leads to expression of deleterious recessive alleles, self-fertilization does provide the benefit of fertilization assurance (reproductive assurance) at each generation.

text: The

text: mangrove killifish

text: (Kryptolebias marmoratus) produces both eggs and sperm by meiosis and routinely reproduces by

text: self-fertilisation

text: . The capacity for

text: selfing

text: in these fishes has apparently persisted for at least several hundred thousand years. Each individual

text: hermaphrodite

text: normally fertilizes itself when an egg and sperm that it has produced by an internal organ unite inside the fish's body. In nature, this mode of reproduction can yield highly homozygous lines composed of individuals so genetically uniform as to be, in effect, identical to one another.  Although inbreeding, especially in the extreme form of self-fertilization, is ordinarily regarded as detrimental because it leads to expression of deleterious recessive alleles, self-fertilization does provide the benefit of fertilization assurance (

text: reproductive assurance

text: ) at each generation.

text: The thick fur is reddish-brown on top of the head, dark roan brown on the body, and mottled white on the underbelly. The face is lighter in color than the body, and the muzzle and chin are white. Two prominent buff whitish streaks run on either side of the nose between the eyes. The ears are rounded. The eyes are unusually far forward and close together, compared with other cats, giving the felid improved stereoscopic vision. The teeth are adapted for gripping onto slippery prey, and the jaws are relatively powerful. These features help the flat-headed cat to catch and retain aquatic prey, to which it is at least as well adapted as the fishing cat. Legs are fairly short. Claws are retractable, but the covering sheaths are so reduced in size that about two-thirds of the claws are left protruding.

text: The thick fur is reddish-brown on top of the head, dark roan brown on the body, and mottled white on the underbelly. The face is lighter in color than the body, and the muzzle and chin are white. Two prominent buff whitish streaks run on either side of the nose between the eyes. The ears are rounded. The eyes are unusually far forward and close together, compared with other cats, giving the felid improved

text: stereoscopic vision

text: . The teeth are adapted for gripping onto slippery prey, and the jaws are relatively powerful. These features help the flat-headed cat to catch and retain aquatic prey, to which it is at least as well adapted as the

text: fishing cat

text: . Legs are fairly short. Claws are retractable, but the covering sheaths are so reduced in size that about two-thirds of the claws are left protruding.

text: Indohyus was a small chevrotain-like animal that lived about 48 million years ago in what is now the Kashmir. It belongs to the artiodactyl family Raoellidae, and is believed to be the closest sister group of Cetacea. Indohyus is identified as an artiodactyl because it has two trochlea hinges, a trait unique to artiodactyls. About the size of a raccoon or domestic cat, this herbivorous creature shared some traits of modern whales, most notably the involucrum, a bone growth pattern which is the diagnostic characteristic of any cetacean; this is not found in any other species. It also showed signs of adaptations to aquatic life, including dense limb bones that reduce buoyancy so that they could stay underwater, which are similar to the adaptations found in modern aquatic mammals such as the hippopotamus. This suggests a similar survival strategy to the African mousedeer or water chevrotain which, when threatened by a bird of prey, dives into water and hides beneath the surface for up to four minutes.

text: Indohyus was a small

text: chevrotain

text: -like animal that lived about 48 million years ago in what is now the

text: Kashmir

text: . It belongs to the artiodactyl family

text: Raoellidae

text: , and is believed to be the closest sister group of

text: Cetacea

text: . Indohyus is identified as an artiodactyl because it has two

text: trochlea hinges

text: , a trait unique to artiodactyls. About the size of a raccoon or domestic cat, this herbivorous creature shared some traits of modern whales, most notably the

text: involucrum

text: , a bone growth pattern which is the diagnostic characteristic of any cetacean; this is not found in any other species. It also showed signs of adaptations to aquatic life, including dense limb bones that reduce buoyancy so that they could stay underwater, which are similar to the adaptations found in modern

text: aquatic mammal

text: s such as the hippopotamus. This suggests a similar survival strategy to the African

text: mousedeer

text: or

text: water chevrotain

text: which, when threatened by a bird of prey, dives into water and hides beneath the surface for up to four minutes.

text: Visual systems are distance sensory systems which provide fish with data about location or objects at a distance without a need for the fish to directly touch them. Such distance sensing systems are important, because they allow communication with other fish, and provide information about the location of food and predators, and about avoiding obstacles or maintaining position in fish schools. For example, some schooling species have "schooling marks" on their sides, such as visually prominent stripes which provide reference marks and help adjacent fish judge their relative positions. But the visual system is not the only one that can perform such functions. Some schooling fish also have a lateral line running the length of their bodies. This lateral line enables the fish to sense changes in water pressure and turbulence adjacent to its body. Using this information, schooling fish can adjust their distance from adjacent fish if they come too close or stray too far.

text: Visual system

text: s are distance sensory systems which provide fish with data about location or objects at a distance without a need for the fish to directly touch them. Such distance sensing systems are important, because they allow communication with other fish, and provide information about the location of food and predators, and about avoiding obstacles or maintaining position in

text: fish schools

text: . For example, some schooling species have "schooling marks" on their sides, such as visually prominent stripes which provide reference marks and help adjacent fish judge their relative positions. But the visual system is not the only one that can perform such functions. Some schooling fish also have a

text: lateral line

text: running the length of their bodies. This lateral line enables the fish to sense changes in water pressure and turbulence adjacent to its body. Using this information, schooling fish can adjust their distance from adjacent fish if they come too close or stray too far.

text: The adults are found in pairs year round, perhaps suggesting a long-term monogamous bond. The pairs reproduce by rising up in the water, bringing their bellies close together, and release clouds of sperm and eggs. The female can release anywhere from 25 to 75 thousand eggs each evening and as many as ten million eggs during each spawning cycle. The eggs are transparent, buoyant, and pelagic, floating in the water column. They hatch after 15 to 20 hours into larvae that lack effective eyes, fins, or even a gut. The large yolk sac is absorbed after 48 hours, during which time the larvae develop normal characteristics of free swimming fish. Larvae are found in the water column and feed on plankton. The larvae grow rapidly and about 3–4 weeks after hatching the  long juvenile settles on the bottom.

text: Members of this tribe that are associated with a semi-aquatic mode of life, have developed several lifestyle adaptations.  For example, some species in the genera Chimarrogale, Nectogale, Neomys,  and Sorex have stiff hairs on the sides of their toes and feet, both on their fore and hind limbs.  These increase the surface area of the feet, assisting in locomotion during swimming.  In addition, species such as Neomys fodiens have developed an elongated tails with the hairs forming a keel-like shape that acts similar to a rudder when the animal is in the water.

text: Members of this tribe that are associated with a semi-aquatic mode of life, have developed several lifestyle adaptations.  For example, some species in the

text: genera

text: Chimarrogale

text: Nectogale

text: Neomys

text: ,  and

text: Sorex

text: have stiff hairs on the sides of their toes and feet, both on their fore and hind limbs.  These increase the surface area of the feet, assisting in locomotion during swimming.  In addition, species such as

text: Neomys fodiens

text: have developed an elongated tails with the hairs forming a keel-like shape that acts similar to a rudder when the animal is in the water.

text: Waders (footwear) -Wagenya -Walleye -Walther Herwig -Welaka National Fish Hatchery -Western rock lobster -Whaler -Whaling -Whelk -Whitby -Whitby Seafoods Ltd -White bass -White spot syndrome -White sturgeon -Whitebait -Whiteleg shrimp -Wild fisheries -Wolf Creek National Fish Hatchery -Woolly Bugger -Woolly Worm (imitation) -Work in Fishing Convention 2007 -World fish production -World fisheries -World Fishing Exhibition -World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers -World Ocean Day -WorldFish Center -Worm charming

text: Waders (footwear)

text: Wagenya

text: Walleye

text: Walther Herwig

text: Welaka National Fish Hatchery

text: Western rock lobster

text: Whaler

text: Whaling

text: Whelk

text: Whitby

text: Whitby Seafoods Ltd

text: White bass

text: White spot syndrome

text: White sturgeon

text: Whitebait

text: Whiteleg shrimp

text: Wild fisheries

text: Wolf Creek National Fish Hatchery

text: Woolly Bugger

text: Woolly Worm (imitation)

text: Work in Fishing Convention 2007

text: World fish production

text: World fisheries

text: World Fishing Exhibition

entity_name: World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers

text: World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers

text: World Ocean Day

text: WorldFish Center

text: Worm charming

text: Fishing is a popular activity. There are no public swimming areas on the shore of this lake and there are no public boat docks on the lake. One public park, Gilbert McQueen Park, is on the lake's southeast side. This park has only one sidewalk, which does not border Sunset Lake. The Take Me Fishing website provides no information on what types of fish are in this lake.

text: California sheephead populations vary spacially in reproductive potential and reproductive capacity, and these differences are correlated with the natural sea surface temperature gradient.  Fish in cooler waters may require less energy for growth and may be able to convert more energy into reproduction than fish at warmer sites. Population densities and sex ratios of hermaphroditic fishes are also intimately linked to ecological factors and human activities. Spatial and temporal changes in fishing pressure, coupled with environmental changes across populations over time, tend to affect the reproductive potential of each population of California sheephead.  Spatially separate populations of California sheephead vary in their sex ratios (number of females to number of males), in size of individuals at sex change, and in the sex ratio threshold.  Sheephead are also haremic spawners, meaning each male defends a group of females with which he breeds.

text: California sheephead populations vary spacially in reproductive potential and reproductive capacity, and these differences are correlated with the natural sea surface temperature gradient.  Fish in cooler waters may require less energy for growth and may be able to convert more energy into reproduction than fish at warmer sites. Population densities and sex ratios of

text: hermaphroditic

text: fishes are also intimately linked to ecological factors and human activities. Spatial and temporal changes in fishing pressure, coupled with environmental changes across populations over time, tend to affect the reproductive potential of each population of California sheephead.  Spatially separate populations of California sheephead vary in their sex ratios (number of females to number of males), in size of individuals at sex change, and in the sex ratio threshold.  Sheephead are also

text: haremic

text: spawners, meaning each male defends a group of females with which he breeds.

text: A famous example is the trait of breathing via gills in bony fish and cartilaginous fish. Bony fish are more closely related to terrestrial vertebrates, which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the sharks, rays, and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes" because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living vertebrates. But based on this shared trait, we cannot infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.

text: A famous example is the trait of breathing via

text: gills

text: in

text: bony fish

text: and

text: cartilaginous fish

text: . Bony fish are more closely related to

text: terrestrial vertebrates

text: , which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the

text: shark

text: s,

text: rays

text: , and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes" because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living

text: vertebrate

text: s. But based on this shared trait, we cannot infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.

text: The fish farm is a part of Haller Park. In 1971, The fish farming project started alongside the reforestation project. Rene Haller created a fish tank system. The purpose of the tank system was to give the fish a chance to swim in a constant current. A tilapia farm was also created in 1980 because of the success of the fish tanks. It produced 30–35 tons per year.

text: The fish farm is a part of Haller Park. In 1971, The fish farming project started alongside the reforestation project. Rene Haller created a fish tank system. The purpose of the tank system was to give the fish a chance to swim in a constant current. A

text: tilapia

text: farm was also created in 1980 because of the success of the fish tanks. It produced 30–35 tons per year.

text: Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-contaminated water. Pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream.

text: Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-contaminated water. Pesticide

text: surface runoff

text: into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream.

text: While live food fish trade can be very profitable for those involved, there are many dangerous aspects to it.  Through the use of illegal practices such as cyanide fishing, coral reefs and fish communities are put in grave danger.  The process of cyanide fishing involves dissolving crushed cyanide tablets and squirting this solution from a bottle toward the targeted fish on top of coral heads. Specifically, the cyanide kills coral polyps, symbiotic algae, and other coral reefs organisms that are necessary for maintaining the health of the coral reef.  These damages eventually deteriorate the coral reef and lead it into collapse of the entire coral reef ecosystem.  The effect on the targeted fish is disorientation and semi-paralysis.  After being squirted with cyanide, the fish are easy brought to the surface and kept alive in small, on-board containers.  Fishermen often understand that this practice is harmful and will offer locals a portion of the fish in order to continue fishing.  When ingested, small levels of cyanide accumulate in the system causing weakness of fingers and toes, failure of the thyroid gland and blurred vision.  Divers without experience may come in direct contact with cyanide, causing death.  Estimates show that since the 1960s, over a million kilograms of cyanide have been squirted into the coral reefs of the Philippines alone. The harm upon the reefs is coming full circle and having a social impact through the limited fish stocks.  As fish are depleted from these fishing techniques, the fishermen are having a more difficult time feeding themselves.

text: In 2008, biologists learned that sand dollar larvae clone themselves as a mechanism of self-defense. Cloning is an asexual reproductive mechanism, where the cost is borne by the larva both in resources as well as in development time. Larvae have been observed to undergo this process when food is plentiful or temperature conditions are optimal. It has also been suggested that cloning may occur to make use of the tissues that are normally lost during metamorphosis. Recent research has shown that the larvae of some sand dollars clone themselves when they detect predators (by sensing dissolved fish mucus). Larvae exposed to mucus from predatory fish respond to the threat by cloning themselves, thus doubling their numbers while effectively halving their size. The smaller larvae are better able to escape detection by fish, but may be more vulnerable to predation by smaller animals, such as pelagic and planktonic larval stages of crustaceans.

text: In 2008, biologists learned that sand dollar

text: larva

text: e

text: clone

text: themselves as a mechanism of self-defense. Cloning is an asexual reproductive mechanism, where the cost is borne by the larva both in resources as well as in development time. Larvae have been observed to undergo this process when food is plentiful or temperature conditions are optimal. It has also been suggested that cloning may occur to make use of the tissues that are normally lost during metamorphosis. Recent research has shown that the larvae of some sand dollars clone themselves when they detect predators (by sensing dissolved fish mucus). Larvae exposed to

text: mucus

text: from predatory

text: fish

text: respond to the threat by cloning themselves, thus doubling their numbers while effectively halving their size. The smaller larvae are better able to escape detection by fish, but may be more vulnerable to predation by smaller animals, such as pelagic and planktonic larval stages of

text: crustacean

text: s.

text: The philosophy behind tenkara fishing is in keeping things as simple as possible and this is reflected in the style of the flies most used in tenkara fishing. The flies tend to be tied with a minimum of material, usually only one feather and thread. This simplicity actually allows the flies to be tied streamside with no tools other than what the typical fly fisherman would carry while on the water although they are most often tied at a tying bench.

text: In 1991, Ning Labbish Chao and Gregory Prang founded Project Piaba in order to support the local fisheries and in concert with them, help protect the habitat of collected fishes. Because of the "gentle" way the fish are caught and the fact that most of the fish caught for the aquarium trade are short-lived and would naturally die out during the dry season, the ecological impact of catching the fish is considered minimal. The fish are also not caught by fish farmers during their breeding season. The cardinal tetra, especially, is considered a renewable resource. Project Piaba assesses the sustainability of the species farmed in the Rio Negro area by using the "F value" which estimates the portion of the catch from the total biomass.

text: In 1991, Ning Labbish Chao and Gregory Prang founded Project Piaba in order to support the local fisheries and in concert with them, help protect the habitat of collected fishes. Because of the "gentle" way the fish are caught and the fact that most of the fish caught for the aquarium trade are short-lived and would naturally die out during the dry season, the ecological impact of catching the fish is considered minimal. The fish are also not caught by fish farmers during their breeding season. The cardinal tetra, especially, is considered a

text: renewable resource

text: . Project Piaba assesses the sustainability of the species farmed in the Rio Negro area by using the "

text: F value

text: " which estimates the portion of the catch from the total biomass.

text: Salt marshes are important in preserving the brooding and nursery habitats of shellfish, fish, and insects.

text: Autotrophic organisms are producers that generate organic compounds from inorganic material. Algae use solar energy to generate biomass from carbon dioxide and are possibly the most important autotrophic organisms in aquatic environments. Of course, the more shallow the water, the greater the biomass contribution from rooted and floating vascular plants. These two sources combine to produce the extraordinary production of estuaries and wetlands, as this autotrophic biomass is converted into fish, birds, amphibians and other aquatic species.

text: Autotroph

text: ic organisms are producers that generate organic compounds from inorganic material. Algae use solar energy to generate biomass from carbon dioxide and are possibly the most important autotrophic organisms in aquatic environments. Of course, the more shallow the water, the greater the biomass contribution from rooted and floating vascular plants. These two sources combine to produce the extraordinary production of estuaries and wetlands, as this autotrophic biomass is converted into fish, birds, amphibians and other aquatic species.

text: The larva selects and settles on appropriate surfaces using receptors sensitive to light, orientation to gravity, and tactile stimuli. When its anterior end touches a surface, papillae (small, finger-like nervous projections) secrete an adhesive for attachment. Adhesive secretion prompts an irreversible metamorphosis:  various organs (such as the larval tail and fins) are lost while others rearrange to their adult positions, the pharynx enlarges, and organs called ampullae grow from the body to permanently attach the animal to the substratum. The siphons of the juvenile ascidian become orientated to optimise current flow through the feeding apparatus. Sexual maturity can be reached in as little as a few weeks. Since the larva is more advanced than its adult, this type of metamorphosis is called 'retrogressive metamorphosis'. This feature is a landmark for the 'theory of retrogressive metamorphosis or ascidian larva theory'; the true chordates are hypothesized to have evolved from sexually mature larvae.

text: The larva selects and settles on appropriate surfaces using receptors sensitive to light, orientation to gravity, and

text: tactile

text: stimuli. When its

text: anterior

text: end touches a surface,

text: papillae

text: (small, finger-like nervous projections)

text: secrete

text: an

text: adhesive

text: for attachment. Adhesive secretion prompts an irreversible

text: metamorphosis

text: :  various organs (such as the larval tail and fins) are lost while others rearrange to their adult positions, the

text: pharynx

text: enlarges, and organs called

text: ampullae

text: grow from the body to permanently attach the animal to the substratum. The siphons of the juvenile ascidian become orientated to optimise current flow through the feeding apparatus.

text: Sexual maturity

text: can be reached in as little as a few weeks. Since the larva is more advanced than its adult, this type of metamorphosis is called 'retrogressive metamorphosis'. This feature is a landmark for the 'theory of retrogressive metamorphosis or ascidian larva theory'; the true chordates are hypothesized to have evolved from sexually mature larvae.

text: Once the more complex mesonephros forms the pronephros undergoes apoptosis in amphibians. In fishes the nephron degenerates but the organ remains and becomes a component of the immune system.

text: Their reproductive habits are poorly studied; they are assumed to be nonguarding, pelagic spawners. True synchronous hermaphroditism with external fertilization is known in Evermannella indica and Odontostomops normalops, and the former species appears to spawn throughout the year. Sabertooth fish larvae are planktonic and have long snouts and oblong eyes before metamorphosis. Both larvae and juveniles remain at shallower depths of 50–100 m, descending to deeper water with age.

text: Their

text: reproductive

text: habits are poorly studied; they are assumed to be nonguarding, pelagic

text: spawn

text: ers. True synchronous

text: hermaphroditism

text: with external

text: fertilization

text: is known in

text: Evermannella indica

text: and

text: Odontostomops normalops

text: , and the former species appears to spawn throughout the year. Sabertooth fish

text: larvae

text: are

text: plankton

text: ic and have long snouts and oblong eyes before

text: metamorphosis

text: . Both larvae and juveniles remain at shallower depths of 50–100 m, descending to deeper water with age.

text: One problem that aquatic insects must overcome is how to get oxygen while they are under water. All animals require a source of oxygen to live. Insects draw air into their bodies through spiracles, holes found along the sides of the abdomen. These spiracles are connected to tracheal tubes where oxygen can be absorbed. All aquatic insects have become adapted to their environment with the specialization of these structures.

text: One problem that aquatic insects must overcome is how to get oxygen while they are under water. All animals require a source of

text: oxygen

text: to live. Insects draw

text: air

text: into their bodies through

text: spiracles

text: , holes found along the sides of the

text: abdomen

text: . These spiracles are connected to

text: tracheal

text: tubes where oxygen can be absorbed. All aquatic insects have become adapted to their environment with the specialization of these structures.

text: The Waikato River and its hydro lakes are home to at least 19 types of native fish and 10 types of introduced fish. The introduced species include rainbow and brown trout providing what has been called "the finest fly-fishing in the world". Other introduced species, like the carp and mosquitofish, have become major pests.

text: The Waikato River and its hydro lakes are home to at least 19 types of native fish and 10 types of introduced fish. The introduced species include

text: rainbow

text: and

text: brown trout

text: providing what has been called "the finest fly-fishing in the world". Other introduced species, like the

text: carp

text: and

text: mosquitofish

text: , have become major pests.

text: Spawning triggers allow a species of fish to synchronise their breeding, making it more probable that individual fish will find a mate. However, many fish do not respond to specific spawning triggers and will breed either constantly (e.g., guppies); at specific times of the year (e.g., grunion); or only at a certain point in their life cycle (e.g., eels).

text: Spawning triggers allow a species of fish to

text: synchronise

text: their breeding, making it more probable that individual fish will find a

text: mate

text: . However, many fish do not respond to specific spawning triggers and will breed either constantly (e.g.,

text: guppies

text: ); at specific times of the year (e.g.,

text: grunion

text: ); or only at a certain point in their life cycle (e.g.,

text: eel

text: s).

text: On anarchism, Fish says: "What sort of anarchist future would I like to see? There's no reason for a government-free society to be nothing but agrarian, no reason at all that it couldn't be industrial and space-faring."

text: Fisherman have different preferences about the equipment they use for bank fishing, but most agree with certain basics. Obviously fishing tackle is needed. Most bank fishing is performed with a rod, reel and lures or bait. Often two fishing rods are used. The bait can be changed on one rod while fishing continues with the other. Some fishermen bring a lidded container for the fish they catch which doubles as a seat. Other fishermen bring a stringer to hold the fish they catch. Catch and release fishermen don't need either of these. With growing technology some luxury equipment has been developed such as the fish finder that uses sonar or a camera to physically locate fish. This is typically reserved for boat fishing but can also be applied to bank fishing.

text: Fisherman have different preferences about the equipment they use for bank fishing, but most agree with certain basics. Obviously

text: fishing tackle

text: is needed. Most bank fishing is performed with a

text: rod

text: reel

text: and

text: lures

text: or

text: bait

text: . Often two fishing rods are used. The bait can be changed on one rod while fishing continues with the other. Some fishermen bring a lidded container for the fish they catch which doubles as a seat. Other fishermen bring a

text: stringer

text: to hold the fish they catch.

text: Catch and release

text: fishermen don't need either of these. With growing technology some luxury equipment has been developed such as the

text: fish finder

text: that uses

text: sonar

text: or a

text: camera

text: to physically locate fish. This is typically reserved for

text: boat fishing

text: but can also be applied to bank fishing.

text: Fish anatomy is the study of the form or morphology of fishes. It can be contrasted with fish physiology, which is the study of how the component parts of fish function together in the living fish. In practice, fish anatomy and fish physiology complement each other, the former dealing with the structure of a fish, its organs or component parts and how they are put together, such as might be observed on the dissecting table or under the microscope, and the latter dealing with how those components function together in living fish.

text: Fish anatomy is the study of the form or

text: morphology

text: of

text: fish

text: es. It can be contrasted with

text: fish physiology

text: , which is the study of how the component parts of

text: fish

text: function together in the living fish. In practice, fish

text: anatomy

text: and fish

text: physiology

text: complement each other, the former dealing with the structure of a fish, its organs or component parts and how they are put together, such as might be observed on the dissecting table or under the microscope, and the latter dealing with how those components function together in living fish.

text: Bichirs are predatory fish; in captivity they will take any live or dead animal that can be swallowed or broken apart and then swallowed.  Only its lack of speed prevents a bichir from emptying an aquarium of smaller fish; the pectoral fins only allow for slow cruising, and while it can achieve amazing bursts of speed, it cannot catch fish of average speed. Given enough time, any fish that can fit in the bichir's mouth will be eaten; this fish should not be kept with any other fish smaller than three inches. It will also bite fins of other fishes if it can.

text: Bichirs are

text: predatory

text: fish

text: ; in

text: captivity

text: they will take any live or dead animal that can be swallowed or broken apart and then swallowed.  Only its lack of speed prevents a bichir from emptying an

text: aquarium

text: of smaller fish; the pectoral fins only allow for slow cruising, and while it can achieve amazing bursts of speed, it cannot catch fish of average speed. Given enough time, any fish that can fit in the bichir's mouth will be eaten; this fish should not be kept with any other fish smaller than three inches. It will also bite fins of other fishes if it can.

text: Exports of fish commodities amounted to nearly $1.9 million in 2003. Lagoon and river fishing remain of primary importance; of an estimated catch of 41,900 tons in 2003, 30,000 tons were from inland waters. The production of fish steadily declined during the 1980s due to over fishing and ecological degradation, but started increasing by the mid-1990s. In 2003, fishery products accounted for 2.8% of agricultural exports.

text: The Anabantoidei are a suborder of perciform ray-finned freshwater fish distinguished by their possession of a lung-like labyrinth organ, which enables them to breathe air. The fish in the Anabantoidei suborder are known as anabantoids or labyrinth fish. Some labyrinth fish are important food fish, and many others, such as the Siamese fighting fish and paradise fish, are popular as aquarium fish.

text: The Anabantoidei are a suborder of

text: perciform

text: ray-finned

text: freshwater

text: fish

text: distinguished by their possession of a

text: lung

text: -like labyrinth organ, which enables them to breathe air. The fish in the Anabantoidei suborder are known as anabantoids or labyrinth fish. Some labyrinth fish are important food fish, and many others, such as the

text: Siamese fighting fish

text: and

text: paradise fish

text: , are popular as aquarium fish.

text: Dragonets are often mis-categorized as gobies or blennies by fish sellers. They are bottom-dwelling fish that constantly hunt tiny invertebrates for food. Most starve to death in a marine aquarium unless you provide a refugium or place for the invertebrates to reproduce safely without any fish being able to reach them.

text: Dragonets are often mis-categorized as gobies or blennies by fish sellers. They are bottom-dwelling fish that constantly hunt tiny invertebrates for food. Most starve to death in a marine aquarium unless you provide a

text: refugium

text: or place for the invertebrates to reproduce safely without any fish being able to reach them.

text: Metamorphosis (25-30% of development): Usually one day after hatching the larvae settle on the bottom and retract into the larval shell. During the process of metamorphosis, which does not take longer than 48 hours, the animals cast off their larval shell.

text: Most, if not all, species of bubble nesting fish continue parental care after construction of the floating bubble nest and spawning. After spawning the eggs either float up into the bubble nest, or (in the case of sinking eggs) are carried there, and subsequently lodged into the nest by one or both parents. Following this, the male protects the brood by chasing away the female (if not a species in which the female also guards the nest) and any other intruders, concentrating on the eggs in the nest, retrieving any eggs or fry that fall from the nest and keeping the nest in repair; only a handful of bubble nest makers (notably some snakeheads) have females participate in bubble nest maintenance. One or both parents will guard the eggs constantly until the fry hatch after 24–48 hours and be suspended from the nest. The newly hatched fry will then be tended by the parent fish until they are independent, which can take from a day to several weeks depending on the species.

text: Most, if not all, species of bubble nesting fish continue parental care after construction of the floating bubble nest and spawning. After

text: spawning

text: the eggs either float up into the bubble nest, or (in the case of sinking eggs) are carried there, and subsequently lodged into the nest by one or both parents. Following this, the male protects the brood by chasing away the female (if not a species in which the female also guards the nest) and any other intruders, concentrating on the eggs in the nest, retrieving any eggs or fry that fall from the nest and keeping the nest in repair; only a handful of bubble nest makers (notably some

text: snakeheads

text: ) have females participate in bubble nest maintenance. One or both parents will guard the eggs constantly until the

text: fry

text: hatch after 24–48 hours and be suspended from the nest. The newly hatched fry will then be tended by the parent fish until they are independent, which can take from a day to several weeks depending on the species.

text: In general, a major ecological issue with hydropower installations is their actual and perceived risk to aquatic life. It is claimed that a GHT spins slowly enough that fish can see it soon enough to swim around it. From preliminary tests in 2001, it was claimed that if a fish swims between the slowly moving turbine blades, the fish will not be harmed.  Also it would be difficult for a fish to become lodged or stuck in the turbine, because the open spaces between the blades are larger than even the largest fish living in a small river. A fish also would not be tumbled around in a vortex, because the GHT does not create a lot of turbulence, so small objects would be harmlessly swept through with the current.

text: In general, a major ecological issue with hydropower installations is their actual and perceived risk to aquatic life. It is claimed that a GHT spins slowly enough that fish can see it soon enough to swim around it. From preliminary tests in 2001, it was claimed that if a fish swims between the slowly moving turbine blades, the fish will not be harmed.  Also it would be difficult for a fish to become lodged or stuck in the turbine, because the open spaces between the blades are larger than even the largest fish living in a small river. A fish also would not be tumbled around in a

text: vortex

text: , because the GHT does not create a lot of turbulence, so small objects would be harmlessly swept through with the current.

text: The Resort is home to the Ruahatu Lagoon Sanctuary, a research facility and home to over 100 species of marine life. Marine biologist Oliver Martin conducts ongoing research, teaches the principles of conservation to guests on daily tours and grafts coral in effort to further the development of the lagoon. Marine life within the lagoon include such species as octopus, eagle ray, lizard fish, Picasso trumpet fish, soldier fish, fire fish, unicorn fish, spotted puffer fish, parrot fish, peacock damsel fish, clown fish, butterfly fish, sea urchin, anemone and shrimp. The lagoon sanctuary is maintained in partnership with the Pacific Eco-World Initiative, a non-profit organization.

text: The Resort is home to the Ruahatu Lagoon Sanctuary, a research facility and home to over 100 species of marine life.

text: Marine biologist

text: Oliver Martin conducts ongoing research, teaches the principles of conservation to guests on daily tours and grafts coral in effort to further the development of the lagoon. Marine life within the lagoon include such species as

text: octopus

text: eagle ray

text: lizard fish

text: , Picasso trumpet fish, soldier fish, fire fish, unicorn fish, spotted puffer fish,

text: parrot fish

text: , peacock damsel fish,

text: clown fish

text: butterfly fish

text: , sea urchin, anemone and shrimp. The lagoon sanctuary is maintained in partnership with the Pacific Eco-World Initiative, a non-profit organization.

text: Human activities have led to the loss of over 80 percent of suitable spawning habitat for fall-run Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in the Sacramento and San Joaquin River watersheds. Straightening of lower Marsh Creek for flood control steepened its gradient relative to its original meandering course, requiring construction of a six foot waterfall drop structure  in 1958 below Marsh Creek Dam (4 miles from the creek mouth). The drop structure and the Marsh Creek Reservoir dam (constructed in 1963) are complete barriers to anadromous fish migration.  Below the dam and above the drop structure barrier, there is suitable gravel quality, quantity, and vegetative cover to support Chinook salmon spawning. The presence of coastal rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus) has not been established in fish surveys of Marsh Creek above the drop structure. In December 2010, American Rivers constructed a $400,000 fish ladder that made passage of the drop structure possible for the first time in 52 years, enabling Chinook salmon and steelhead to potentially use the next  of stream channel, up to the Marsh Creek Dam, as well as the Sand Creek and Deer Creek tributaries. The Friends of Marsh Creek Watershed citizen salmon monitoring program had identified salmon congregating immediately below the drop structure barrier prior to construction of the fish ladder. On December 2, 2012, Chinook salmon were videotaped above the fish ladder between Balfour and Central Avenue.

text: Human activities have led to the loss of over 80 percent of suitable spawning habitat for fall-run

text: Chinook salmon

text: (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in the

text: Sacramento

text: and

text: San Joaquin River

text: watersheds. Straightening of lower Marsh Creek for flood control steepened its gradient relative to its original meandering course, requiring construction of a six foot waterfall drop structure  in 1958 below Marsh Creek Dam (4 miles from the creek mouth). The drop structure and the Marsh Creek Reservoir dam (constructed in 1963) are complete barriers to anadromous fish migration.  Below the dam and above the drop structure barrier, there is suitable gravel quality, quantity, and vegetative cover to support Chinook salmon spawning. The presence of

text: coastal rainbow trout

text: (Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus) has not been established in fish surveys of Marsh Creek above the drop structure. In December 2010, American Rivers constructed a $400,000 fish ladder that made passage of the drop structure possible for the first time in 52 years, enabling Chinook salmon and steelhead to potentially use the next  of stream channel, up to the Marsh Creek Dam, as well as the Sand Creek and Deer Creek tributaries. The Friends of Marsh Creek Watershed citizen salmon monitoring program had identified salmon congregating immediately below the drop structure barrier prior to construction of the fish ladder. On December 2, 2012, Chinook salmon were videotaped above the fish ladder between Balfour and Central Avenue.

text: If it is possible to find out what species of fish serves as the fish host for the larvae of the Carolina heelsplitters, then it will be possible to determine whether the fish host is endangered or over fished.

text: A unique form of insemination has been described in Corydoras aeneus. When these fish reproduce, the male will present his abdomen to the female. The female will attach her mouth to the male's genital opening, creating the well-known "T-position" many Corydoras exhibit during courtship. The female will then drink the sperm. The sperm rapidly moves through her intestines and is discharged together with her eggs into a pouch formed by her pelvic fins. The female can then swim away and deposit the pouch somewhere else alone. Because the T-position is exhibited in other species than just C. aeneus, it is likely that this behavior is common in the genus.

text: A unique form of insemination has been described in

text: Corydoras aeneus

text: . When these fish reproduce, the male will present his abdomen to the female. The female will attach her mouth to the male's genital opening, creating the well-known "T-position" many Corydoras exhibit during courtship. The female will then drink the

text: sperm

text: . The sperm rapidly moves through her intestines and is discharged together with her eggs into a pouch formed by her pelvic fins. The female can then swim away and deposit the pouch somewhere else alone. Because the T-position is exhibited in other species than just C. aeneus, it is likely that this behavior is common in the genus.

text: Most of the fishing grounds in Brunei are in proximity to the mangrove swamps of Brunei estuaries where there are abundant nutrients for fish to reproduce. Some rare marine species have been captured locally, like the recent blackish green toman caught by local fish enthusiasts by using modern fishing technology.

text: Most of the fishing grounds in

text: Brunei

text: are in proximity to the

text: mangrove swamps

text: of Brunei estuaries where there are abundant nutrients for fish to reproduce. Some rare marine species have been captured locally, like the recent blackish green

text: toman

text: caught by local fish enthusiasts by using modern fishing technology.

text: Although these classifications were originated for fishes, they are, in principle, applicable to any aquatic organism.

text: Guarders protect their eggs and offspring after spawning by practicing parental care (also called brood care). Parental care is an "investment by parents in offspring that increases the offsprings' chances of surviving (and hence reproducing). In fish, parental care can take a variety of forms including guarding, nest building, fanning, splashing, removal of dead eggs, retrieval of straying fry, external egg carrying, egg burying, moving eggs or young, ectodermal feeding, oral brooding, internal gestation, brood-pouch egg carrying, etc."

text: The group is traditionally a superclass, broken into three top-level groupings: Chondrichthyes, or the cartilaginous fish; Placodermi, an extinct clade of armored fish; and Teleostomi, which includes the familiar classes of bony fish, birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Some classification systems have used the term Amphirhina. It is a sister group of the jawless craniates Agnatha.

text: The group is traditionally a

text: superclass

text: , broken into three top-level groupings:

text: Chondrichthyes

text: , or the cartilaginous fish;

text: Placodermi

text: , an extinct

text: clade

text: of armored fish; and

text: Teleostomi

text: , which includes the familiar classes of

text: bony fish

text: bird

text: s,

text: mammal

text: s,

text: reptile

text: s, and

text: amphibian

text: s. Some classification systems have used the term

text: Amphirhina

text: . It is a sister group of the jawless craniates

text: Agnatha

text: Unlike in Minoan culture, fishing scenes are rarely represented in ancient Greek culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing. There is a wine cup, dating from c. 500 BC, that shows a boy crouched on a rock with a fishing-rod in his right hand and a basket in his left. In the water below there is a rounded object of the same material with an opening on the top. This has been identified as a fish-cage used for keeping live fish, or as a fish-trap. It is clearly not a net. This object is currently in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

text: Unlike in

text: Minoan

text: culture, fishing scenes are rarely represented in

text: ancient Greek

text: culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing. There is a

text: wine cup

text: , dating from c. 500 BC, that shows a boy crouched on a rock with a fishing-rod in his right hand and a basket in his left. In the water below there is a rounded object of the same material with an opening on the top. This has been identified as a fish-cage used for keeping live fish, or as a fish-trap. It is clearly not a net. This object is currently in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

text: Sardinella brasiliensis, (Brazilian sardinella or orangespot sardine) is a species of ray-finned fish in the genus Sardinella. S. brasilensis are extremely hard to distinguish from Sardinella aurita and are combined in most studies and catch estimates. They spawn in coastal areas during late spring and summer. The most dense spawning periods are in December and January. From 1973–1990 the catch in Venezuela was down from 228000 tons to 31000 tons. These fish are present in the Western Atlantic (including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, West Indies all the way down to Brazil

text: Sardinella brasiliensis, (Brazilian sardinella or orangespot sardine) is a species of

text: ray-finned fish

text: in the genus

text: Sardinella

text: . S. brasilensis are extremely hard to distinguish from

text: Sardinella aurita

text: and are combined in most studies and catch estimates. They

text: spawn

text: in coastal areas during late spring and summer. The most dense spawning periods are in December and January. From 1973–1990 the catch in Venezuela was down from 228000 tons to 31000 tons. These fish are present in the Western Atlantic (including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, West Indies all the way down to Brazil

text: The California Department of Fish and Game also maintains the Panoche Hills Ecological Reserve, an ecological reserve within the hills.

text: The

text: California Department of Fish and Game

text: also maintains the Panoche Hills Ecological Reserve, an

text: ecological reserve

text: within the hills.

text: The metanauplius of H. americanus is  long, transparent, with large eyes and a long spine projecting from its head. It quickly molts, and the next three stages are similar, but larger. These molts take 10–20 days, during which the planktonic larvae are vulnerable to predation; only 1 in 1,000 is thought to survive to the juvenile stage. To reach the fourth stage – the post-larva – the larva undergoes metamorphosis, and subsequently shows a much greater resemblance to the adult lobster, is around  long, and swims with its pleopods.

text: The metanauplius of H. americanus is  long, transparent, with large eyes and a long spine projecting from its head. It quickly molts, and the next three stages are similar, but larger. These molts take 10–20 days, during which the

text: plankton

text: ic larvae are vulnerable to predation; only 1 in 1,000 is thought to survive to the juvenile stage. To reach the fourth stage – the post-larva – the larva undergoes

text: metamorphosis

text: , and subsequently shows a much greater resemblance to the adult lobster, is around  long, and swims with its

text: pleopod

text: s.

text: Round whitefish are considered benthivores, feeding on benthos and plankton. In addition to the previous list, the generalized feeding pattern of the round-fish diet includes amphipods, gastropods, isopods, chironomid larvae and pupae, and various aquatic insects, such as spiny water flea (Bythotrephes longimarus). Round whitefish are stable generalized feeders due to the majority of their food are found in the deeper parts of the water. They are considered opportunistic feeders in that round-fish feed on the kind of prey is available. Among different populations, the main food source each group preys upon may differ from one another in relation to what kind of food is available. Other factors that influence food availability are location, neighboring species, and time of year. In different bodies of water at different times of the year, the kind and amount of prey change, and round-fish are adapted to be able to feed on what is seasonally available. This capability allows them to migrate periodically to and from spawning sites. Food availability is also influenced by the abundance of other species sharing and/or around the range of the round-fish. When species return to their non-spawning body of water after spawning and winter, round-fish diet consists of more of chironomids, isopods, and gastropods. During the migration to spawning sites, they mostly feed on spiny water fleas, black fly larvae, and other aquatic insects. These species do not feed during spawning, so it is important for them to increase their food intake to accumulate energy for storage to survive through spawning.

text: Round whitefish are considered benthivores, feeding on

text: benthos

text: and

text: plankton

text: . In addition to the previous list, the generalized feeding pattern of the round-fish diet includes

text: amphipods

text: gastropods

text: isopods

text: chironomid

text: larvae

text: and

text: pupa

text: e, and various aquatic insects, such as

text: spiny water flea

text: (Bythotrephes longimarus). Round whitefish are stable generalized feeders due to the majority of their food are found in the deeper parts of the water. They are considered opportunistic feeders in that round-fish feed on the kind of prey is available. Among different populations, the main food source each group preys upon may differ from one another in relation to what kind of food is available. Other factors that influence food availability are location, neighboring species, and time of year. In different bodies of water at different times of the year, the kind and amount of prey change, and round-fish are adapted to be able to feed on what is seasonally available. This capability allows them to migrate periodically to and from spawning sites. Food availability is also influenced by the abundance of other species sharing and/or around the range of the round-fish. When species return to their non-spawning body of water after spawning and winter, round-fish diet consists of more of chironomids, isopods, and gastropods. During the migration to spawning sites, they mostly feed on spiny water fleas,

text: black fly

text: larvae, and other aquatic insects. These species do not feed during spawning, so it is important for them to increase their food intake to accumulate energy for storage to survive through spawning.

text: The complex system of tidal channels delivers moisture and nourishment (oxygen and nutrients) throughout the habitat and providing food or pathway to food for fish and other organisms.

text: The complex system of

text: tidal channel

text: s delivers moisture and nourishment (

text: oxygen

text: and nutrients) throughout the habitat and providing food or pathway to food for fish and other organisms.

text: Fishing nets are meshes usually formed by knotting a relatively thin thread. Between 177 and 180 the Greek author Oppian wrote the Halieutica, a didactic poem about fishing. He described various means of fishing including the use of nets cast from boats, scoop nets held open by a hoop, and various traps  "which work while their masters sleep". Ancient fishing nets used threads made from leaves, plant stalk and cocoon silk. They could be rough in design and material but some designs were amazingly close to designs we use today (Parker 2002). Modern nets are usually made of artificial polyamides like nylon, although nets of organic polyamides such as wool or silk thread were common until recently and are still used.

text: Fishing nets are

text: mesh

text: es usually formed by

text: knot

text: ting a relatively thin thread. Between 177 and 180 the Greek author

text: Oppian

text: wrote the Halieutica, a didactic poem about fishing. He described various means of fishing including the use of nets cast from boats, scoop nets held open by a hoop, and various traps  "which work while their masters sleep". Ancient fishing nets used threads made from leaves, plant stalk and cocoon silk. They could be rough in design and material but some designs were amazingly close to designs we use today (Parker 2002). Modern nets are usually made of artificial

text: polyamide

text: s like

text: nylon

text: , although nets of organic polyamides such as

text: wool

text: or

text: silk

text: thread were common until recently and are still used.

text: There are many other environmental systems. Some species, such as some snails, practice sex change: adults start out male, then become female. In tropical clown fish, the dominant individual in a group becomes female while the other ones are male, and bluehead wrasses (Thalassoma bifasciatum) are the reverse. In the marine worm (Bonellia viridis), larvae become males if they make physical contact with a female, and females if they end up on the bare sea floor. This is triggered by the presence of a chemical produced by the females, bonellin. Some species, however, have no sex-determination system. Hermaphrodite species include the common earthworm and certain species of snails. A few species of fish, reptiles, and insects reproduce by parthenogenesis and are female altogether. There are some reptiles, such as the boa constrictor and Komodo dragon that can reproduce both sexually and asexually, depending on whether a mate is available.

text: There are many other environmental systems. Some species, such as some

text: snail

text: s, practice

text: sex change

text: : adults start out male, then become female. In tropical

text: clown fish

text: , the dominant individual in a group becomes female while the other ones are male, and bluehead wrasses (

text: Thalassoma bifasciatum

text: ) are the reverse. In the marine worm (

text: Bonellia viridis

text: ), larvae become males if they make physical contact with a female, and females if they end up on the bare sea floor. This is triggered by the presence of a chemical produced by the females,

text: bonellin

text: . Some species, however, have no sex-determination system. Hermaphrodite species include the common earthworm and certain species of snails. A few species of fish, reptiles, and insects reproduce by

text: parthenogenesis

text: and are female altogether. There are some reptiles, such as the

text: boa constrictor

text: and

text: Komodo dragon

text: that can reproduce both sexually and asexually, depending on whether a mate is available.

text: A major factor that contributed to the depletion of the cod stocks off the shores of Newfoundland was the introduction and proliferation of equipment and technology that increased the volume of landed fish. For centuries local fishermen used technology that limited the volume of their catch, the area they fished, and allowed them to target specific species and ages of fish. From the 1950s onwards, as was common in all industries at the time, new technology was introduced that allowed fishermen to trawl a larger area, fish to a deeper depth and for a longer time. By the 1960s, powerful trawlers from the Soviet Union and its satellite countries, Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, Japan, and Canada, equipped with radar, electronic navigation systems and sonar allowed crews to pursue fish with unparalleled success, and Canadian catches peaked in the late 1960s and early 1970s.These new technologies adversely affected the Northern Cod population in two important ways: by increasing the area and depth that was fished, the cod were being depleted to the point that the surviving fish were incapable of replenishing the stock lost each year; and secondly, the trawlers caught enormous amounts of non-commercial fish, which although economically unimportant, held huge ecological significance: incidental catch undermines the functioning of the ecosystem as a whole, depleting stocks of important predator and prey species. In the case of the Northern Cod, significant amounts of capelin – an important prey species for the cod – were caught as bycatch, further undermining the survival of the remaining cod stock.

text: A major factor that contributed to the depletion of the cod stocks off the shores of Newfoundland was the introduction and proliferation of equipment and technology that increased the volume of landed fish. For centuries local fishermen used technology that limited the volume of their catch, the area they fished, and allowed them to target specific species and ages of fish. From the 1950s onwards, as was common in all industries at the time, new technology was introduced that allowed fishermen to trawl a larger area, fish to a deeper depth and for a longer time. By the 1960s, powerful trawlers from the Soviet Union and its satellite countries, Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, Japan, and Canada, equipped with radar, electronic navigation systems and sonar allowed crews to pursue fish with unparalleled success, and Canadian catches peaked in the late 1960s and early 1970s.These new technologies adversely affected the Northern Cod population in two important ways: by increasing the area and depth that was fished, the cod were being depleted to the point that the surviving fish were incapable of replenishing the stock lost each year; and secondly, the trawlers caught enormous amounts of non-commercial fish, which although economically unimportant, held huge ecological significance: incidental catch undermines the functioning of the ecosystem as a whole, depleting stocks of important predator and prey species. In the case of the Northern Cod, significant amounts of

text: capelin

text: – an important prey species for the cod – were caught as bycatch, further undermining the survival of the remaining

text: cod

text: stock.

text: The development of a popular thermal swimming pool at the Cave and Basin eventually led to pollution of the dace's habitat. Deliberate introduction of mosquitofish in the 1920s was followed by various tropical fish (and aquarium plants) which reproduce year-round in the marsh, while the Banff longnose dace only spawned once a year. The exotic fish also out-competed the dace for food and preyed on unhatched eggs. The few remaining Banff longnose dace hybridized with the Eastern longnose dace from the nearby Bow River. In 1981 a research study showed that the habitat destruction and the introduction of the non-native fish threatened the dace. It is hypothesized that this Banff subspecies' unique genetic structure was irreversibly mixed with another subspecies (termed introgressive hybridization), and by 1986 it had disappeared and was declared extinct in 1987 by COSEWIC. Currently a study is underway to clarify the taxonomic classification of this putative subspecies.

text: The development of a popular thermal swimming pool at the

text: Cave and Basin

text: eventually led to pollution of the dace's habitat. Deliberate introduction of

text: mosquitofish

text: in the 1920s was followed by various tropical fish (and aquarium plants) which reproduce year-round in the marsh, while the Banff longnose dace only spawned once a year. The exotic fish also out-competed the dace for food and preyed on unhatched eggs. The few remaining Banff longnose dace hybridized with the Eastern longnose dace from the nearby Bow River. In 1981 a research study showed that the habitat destruction and the introduction of the non-native fish threatened the dace. It is hypothesized that this Banff subspecies' unique genetic structure was irreversibly mixed with another subspecies (termed introgressive hybridization), and by 1986 it had disappeared and was declared extinct in 1987 by

entity_name: Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada

text: COSEWIC

text: . Currently a study is underway to clarify the taxonomic classification of this putative subspecies.

text: Fishing is generally poor at Mowich Lake because the area is not stocked with fish and no habitat is provided for natural spawning.

text: Fishing

text: is generally poor at Mowich Lake because the area is not stocked with fish and no habitat is provided for natural

text: spawning

text: Keichousaurus, like all sauropterygians, was highly adapted to the aquatic environment.  individuals of this genus ranged up to 2.7 m in length, and had both long necks and long tails, with elongated, five-toed feet.  The pointed head and sharp teeth in this genus also indicate that they were fish-eaters.  Some recovered specimens feature an especially developed ulna suggesting they may have spent some time on land or in marshes.

text: Keichousaurus, like all sauropterygians, was highly adapted to the aquatic environment.  individuals of this genus ranged up to 2.7 m in length, and had both long necks and long tails, with elongated, five-toed feet.  The pointed head and sharp teeth in this genus also indicate that they were

text: fish

text: -eaters.  Some recovered specimens feature an especially developed

text: ulna

text: suggesting they may have spent some time on land or in marshes.

text: There is a deep relationship between the aggression in fish and the size of the regions owned by them. In a smaller territory, female fish often disappear before mating. Female fish are not bound to mate with a particular fish. If by chance a female get attracted to another male, she can dump the previous partner without any hesitation. In this situation, the ditched male fish become more aggressive to find their mates in order to reproduce. Their levels of aggression increase more when the rates of sneaking by rival males go up too. The sneaking males enter the nest and release their own sperm over the eggs of the breeding fish. The rival fish here are using alternative reproduction methods like parental, sneaker or satellite to avoid being hurt by breeding males. On the other hand, the breeding males have higher mating success and endure less looting of the eggs in large territories. Once the eggs have been gathered, the breeding males decrease their territories to protect their offspring from the predators during their parental phase. After the eggs have hatched, the males’ continue to show similar or more invasive behavior due to increased reproductive value of offspring and the awareness of newly hatched young fish against enemies.

text: There is a deep relationship between the aggression in fish and the size of the regions owned by them. In a smaller territory, female fish often disappear before mating. Female fish are not bound to mate with a particular fish. If by chance a female get attracted to another male, she can dump the previous partner without any hesitation. In this situation, the ditched male fish become more aggressive to find their mates in order to reproduce. Their levels of aggression increase more when the rates of sneaking by rival males go up too. The sneaking males enter the nest and release their own sperm over the eggs of the breeding fish. The rival fish here are using alternative reproduction methods like

text: parental

text: , sneaker or satellite to avoid being hurt by breeding males. On the other hand, the breeding males have higher mating success and endure less looting of the eggs in large territories. Once the eggs have been gathered, the breeding males decrease their territories to protect their offspring from the predators during their parental phase. After the eggs have hatched, the males’ continue to show similar or more invasive behavior due to increased reproductive value of offspring and the awareness of newly hatched young fish against enemies.

text: One night Sergei sees the disheveled Pasha looking in the cabin window watching him eat the fish. He signals to Pasha to come inside, and then invites him to sit down and have some fish. He says the Academic made it through the ice after all and will be there in three days. Pasha confesses that the fish has been contaminated. Sergei says nothing, but goes to vomit up the fish he has just eaten. Pasha checks the cupboard and sees Sergei has eaten all of the contaminated fish. Sergei returns and says only that they don't have to tell anyone what has happened.

text: The Bozeman National Fish Hatchery, now known as Bozeman Fish Technology Center, is located about  northeast of Bozeman, Montana, at the entrance to Bridger Canyon. There is also a National Fish Health Center on the southwest side of Bozeman, near Montana State University, about  away from the Fish Technology Center. Fish Technology Centers work with a wide variety of public and private partners to improve and conserve aquatic resources. Both the Fish Technology Center and the Fish Health Center are part of the National Fish Hatchery System, operated by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. There are seven Fish Technology Centers and nine Fish Health Centers in the United States. The Bozeman hatchery is the fourth oldest National Fish Hatchery. The hatchery was named to the National Register of Historic Places on January 6, 1983.

text: The Bozeman National Fish Hatchery, now known as Bozeman Fish Technology Center, is located about  northeast of

text: Bozeman, Montana

text: , at the entrance to

text: Bridger Canyon

text: . There is also a National Fish Health Center on the southwest side of Bozeman, near

text: Montana State University

text: , about  away from the Fish Technology Center. Fish Technology Centers work with a wide variety of public and private partners to improve and conserve aquatic resources. Both the Fish Technology Center and the Fish Health Center are part of the

text: National Fish Hatchery System

text: , operated by the

text: United States Fish and Wildlife Service

text: . There are seven Fish Technology Centers and nine Fish Health Centers in the United States. The Bozeman hatchery is the fourth oldest National Fish Hatchery. The hatchery was named to the

text: National Register of Historic Places

text: on January 6, 1983.

text: Monogamy occurs when one male mates with one female exclusively. This is also called pair spawning. Most fish are not monogamous, and when they are, they often alternate with non-monogamous behaviours. Monogamy can occur when feeding and breeding grounds are small, when it is difficult for fish to find partners, or when both sexes look after the young. Many tropical cichlids, which rear their young together in locations where they must fiercely defend against competitors and predators are monogamous. "In some pipefishes and seahorses, development of eggs takes a long time before the female can place them in the brood pouch of a male, where they are fertilized. While the male is pregnant, the female starts a new batch of eggs, which are ready at about the same time that the male gives birth to the young from the previous mating. This close timing of development promotes monogamy, especially if the likelihood of encountering another potential mate is low."

text: Monogamy

text: occurs when one male mates with one female exclusively. This is also called pair spawning. Most fish are not monogamous, and when they are, they often alternate with non-monogamous behaviours. Monogamy can occur when feeding and breeding grounds are small, when it is difficult for fish to find partners, or when both sexes look after the young. Many tropical

text: cichlid

text: s, which rear their young together in locations where they must fiercely defend against competitors and predators are monogamous. "In some

text: pipefish

text: es and

text: seahorse

text: s, development of eggs takes a long time before the female can place them in the brood pouch of a male, where they are fertilized. While the male is pregnant, the female starts a new batch of eggs, which are ready at about the same time that the male gives birth to the young from the previous mating. This close timing of development promotes monogamy, especially if the likelihood of encountering another potential mate is low."

text: The lake is a "managed lake", which means that natural ecological changes within the lake that do "not fit within the parameters set by man", are cause for remedial action to return to the goals of the management plan. Air compressors located at various points under the lake continually inject air through diffusers which aids the movement of water in a process called vertical mixing. This system of continual aeration enables the circulation of all water in the lake on a daily basis, and therefore creates an ecological balance and uniform appearance. The lake also contains fish and frogs, the former of which are regularly stocked by the Arizona State Department of Game and Fish, and is an attraction to ducks and various kinds of birds.

text: The Pantanal is an ecological paradise right in the heart of Brazil. It is the largest flooded lowland on the planet and the third largest environmental reserve in the world. Its ecological importance is immense, since it is home to one of the richest ecosystems ever found to date, with periodically flooded seasonal forests. It displays the largest concentration of neo-tropical fauna, including several endangered species – mammals, reptiles and fish – and it also serves as habitat for an enormous variety of native birds, as well as those migrating from other areas in the Americas. The Pantanal is one of the best places in Brazil for flora and fauna observation and for fishing – permitted only between March and October – due to its abundance of animals. It has a total area of 230,000 square kilometres, covering 12 townships in the States of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul. To the North, there are the Paracis, Azul and Roncador mountains. To the East, the Maracaju Mountain Range. To the South, the Dodoquena Mountain Range. And, to the West, the Paraguayan and Bolivian swamps. The Pantanal is so diverse that researchers subdivided it in sub-regions. Each "Pantanal" – North and South – has its own natural features, activities and ideal period for visitation.

text: The

text: Pantanal

text: is an ecological paradise right in the heart of Brazil. It is the largest flooded lowland on the

text: planet

text: and the third largest environmental reserve in the

text: world

text: . Its ecological importance is immense, since it is home to one of the richest

text: ecosystem

text: s ever found to date, with periodically flooded seasonal

text: forest

text: s. It displays the largest concentration of neo-tropical

text: fauna

text: , including several endangered species –

text: mammal

text: s,

text: reptile

text: s and

text: fish

text: – and it also serves as habitat for an enormous variety of native

text: bird

text: s, as well as those migrating from other areas in the

text: Americas

text: . The

text: Pantanal

text: is one of the best places in

text: Brazil

text: for

text: flora

text: and

text: fauna

text: observation and for fishing – permitted only between March and October – due to its abundance of

text: animal

text: s. It has a total area of 230,000 square kilometres, covering 12 townships in the States of

text: Mato Grosso

text: and Mato Grosso do Sul. To the North, there are the Paracis, Azul and Roncador

text: mountain

text: s. To the East, the Maracaju Mountain Range. To the South, the Dodoquena Mountain Range. And, to the West, the Paraguayan and Bolivian swamps. The Pantanal is so diverse that researchers subdivided it in sub-regions. Each "Pantanal" – North and South – has its own natural features, activities and ideal period for visitation.

text: An illustration of the alternative uses of "fei" may be found in the widely known "Happiness of Fish" dialogue in Zhuangzi (17, tr. Watson 1968:188-9). Huizi says "You're not a fish [子非魚] — how do you know what fish enjoy?" (denying that Zhuangzi is a member of the class of fish) and Zhuangzi replies "You're not I [子非我], so how do you know I don't know what fish enjoy?" (denying that the individuals Huizi and Zhuangzi are identical).

text: An illustration of the alternative uses of "fei" may be found in the widely known "Happiness of Fish" dialogue in

text: Zhuangzi

text: (17, tr. Watson 1968:188-9). Huizi says "You're not a fish [子非魚] — how do you know what fish enjoy?" (denying that Zhuangzi is a member of the class of fish) and Zhuangzi replies "You're not I [子非我], so how do you know I don't know what fish enjoy?" (denying that the individuals Huizi and Zhuangzi are identical).

text: Gillnets are designed to harvest a specific sized fish. For example, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife's 2010 Commercial Regulations had a  minimum mesh size restriction for Chinook, and a  minimum –  maximum for sockeye. Possible problems arising from this selective harvest are smaller reproducing adult fish, as well as the unexpected mortality of the fish which sustain injuries from the gillnet but are not retained in the fishery. Most salmon populations include several age classes, allowing for fish of different ages, and sizes, to reproduce with each other. A recent 2009 study looked at 59 years of catch and escapement data of Bristol Bay sockeye to determine age and size at maturity trends attributable to the selectivity of commercial gillnet harvests. The study found that the larger females (>550 mm) of all age classes were most susceptible to harvest. The study suggests that smaller, younger fish were more likely to successfully traverse the gillnet fishery and reproduce than the larger fish. The study also found that the average length of sockeye harvested from 1946–2005 was 8 mm larger than the sockeye who escaped the gillnet fishery to spawn, reducing the fecundity of the average female by 5%, or 104 eggs.

text: Gillnets are designed to harvest a specific sized fish. For example, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife's 2010 Commercial Regulations had a  minimum mesh size restriction for Chinook, and a  minimum –  maximum for sockeye. Possible problems arising from this selective harvest are smaller reproducing adult fish, as well as the unexpected mortality of the fish which sustain injuries from the gillnet but are not retained in the fishery. Most salmon populations include several age classes, allowing for fish of different ages, and sizes, to reproduce with each other. A recent 2009 study looked at 59 years of catch and escapement data of

text: Bristol Bay

text: sockeye to determine age and size at maturity trends attributable to the selectivity of commercial gillnet harvests. The study found that the larger females (>550 mm) of all age classes were most susceptible to harvest. The study suggests that smaller, younger fish were more likely to successfully traverse the gillnet fishery and reproduce than the larger fish. The study also found that the average length of sockeye harvested from 1946–2005 was 8 mm larger than the sockeye who escaped the gillnet fishery to spawn, reducing the fecundity of the average female by 5%, or 104 eggs.

text: Because fish are a taxonomically and morphologically diverse group, species vary in their trophic ecologies. In general, fish can be divided into four broad feeding categories: filter feeders, planktivores, piscivores and benthic feeders.

text: Because fish are a

text: taxonomically

text: and

text: morphologically

text: diverse group, species vary in their

text: trophic

text: ecologies. In general, fish can be divided into four broad feeding categories:

text: filter feeder

text: s, planktivores,

text: piscivore

text: s and

text: benthic

text: feeders.

text: Forage fish are sometimes referred to as bait fish or feeder fish. Bait fish is a term used particularly by recreational fishermen, although commercial fisherman also catch fish to bait longlines and traps. Forage fish is a fisheries term, and is used in the context of fisheries. Bait fish, by contrast, are fish that are caught by humans to use as bait for other fish. The terms overlap in the sense that most bait fish are also forage fish, and vice versa. Feeder fish is a term used particularly in the context of fish aquariums. It refers essentially to the same concept as forage fish, small fish that are eaten by larger fish, but the term is adapted to the particular requirements of working with fish in aquariums.

text: Forage fish are sometimes referred to as bait fish or feeder fish.

text: Bait fish

text: is a term used particularly by recreational fishermen, although commercial fisherman also catch fish to bait

text: longlines

text: and

text: traps

text: . Forage fish is a

text: fisheries

text: term, and is used in the context of fisheries. Bait fish, by contrast, are fish that are caught by humans to use as bait for other fish. The terms overlap in the sense that most bait fish are also forage fish, and vice versa.

text: Feeder fish

text: is a term used particularly in the context of fish

text: aquarium

text: s. It refers essentially to the same concept as forage fish, small fish that are eaten by larger fish, but the term is adapted to the particular requirements of working with fish in aquariums.

text: In our modern society almost all fish, including Atlantic Cod, are now produced through aquaculture. Aquaculture is defined as “the rearing (raising) of aquatic animals or the cultivation of aquatic plants for food”. The raising of Atlantic Cod starts with the selection of the best female stock breed. These fish are selected from previously grown market fish, located in off shore sea cages. They are selected based on weight; typically the heavier the fish the more eggs it can produce. The female fish are breed in onshore tank facilities and can produce 450,000 eggs per kg of body weight. After separating the females, the eggs are incubated in a temperature controlled tank for about 14 days until hatching. The baby cod or ‘larvae’ are then transferred to larval tanks. During this stage the larvae are feed yolk from a yolk sack for 3 to 4 days. After this period, once the larvae have grown large enough, they are fed tiny plank-tonic animals (ground plankton). Then after a duration of 35 to 40 days of being fed plank-tonic animals, the larvae should have undergo metamorphosis and are now considered fish. They are removed from the larval tanks and put into circular tanks in an onshore facility. They remain in this stage for 6 months or until they are 10 to 20 grams or centimeters in length.  After they have reached this, size a microchip is sometimes inserted into the fish to monitor growth and collect information. Finally the fish are taken to sea cage sites via industrial trucks and barges. In the sea cages the Cod will grow until they reach market weight which can take 24 to 36 months. During that period all fish are fed, and cage sites cleaned on a daily basis to maintain the healthiest standards.

text: In our modern society almost all fish, including Atlantic Cod, are now produced through

text: aquaculture

text: Fishing boats are generally small, often little more than  but up to  for a large tuna or whaling ship. Aboard a fish processing vessel, the catch can be made ready for market and sold more quickly once the ship makes port. Special purpose vessels have special gear. For example, trawlers have winches and arms, stern-trawlers have a rear ramp, and tuna seiners have skiffs. In 2004,  of fish were caught in the marine capture fishery. Anchoveta represented the largest single catch at .  That year, the top ten marine capture species also included Alaska pollock, Blue whiting, Skipjack tuna, Atlantic herring, Chub mackerel, Japanese anchovy, Chilean jack mackerel, Largehead hairtail, and Yellowfin tuna.  Other species including salmon, shrimp, lobster, clams, squid and crab, are also commercially fished. Modern commercial fishermen use many methods. One is fishing by nets, such as purse seine, beach seine, lift nets, gillnets, or entangling nets. Another is trawling, including bottom trawl. Hooks and lines are used in methods like long-line fishing and hand-line fishing. Another method is the use of fishing trap.

text: Fishing boats are generally small, often little more than  but up to  for a large tuna or

text: whaling ship

text: . Aboard a

text: fish processing vessel

text: , the catch can be made ready for market and sold more quickly once the ship makes port. Special purpose vessels have special gear. For example, trawlers have winches and arms, stern-trawlers have a rear ramp, and tuna seiners have skiffs. In 2004,  of fish were caught in the marine capture fishery.

text: Anchoveta

text: represented the largest single catch at .  That year, the top ten marine capture species also included

text: Alaska pollock

text: Blue whiting

text: Skipjack tuna

text: Atlantic herring

text: Chub mackerel

text: Japanese anchovy

text: Chilean jack mackerel

text: Largehead hairtail

text: , and

text: Yellowfin tuna

text: .  Other species including

text: salmon

text: shrimp

text: lobster

text: clam

text: s,

text: squid

text: and

text: crab

text: , are also commercially fished. Modern commercial fishermen use many methods. One is fishing by

text: nets

text: , such as

text: purse seine

text: , beach seine, lift nets,

text: gillnet

text: s, or entangling nets. Another is

text: trawl

text: ing, including

text: bottom trawl

text: Hooks

text: and lines are used in methods like

text: long-line fishing

text: and

text: hand-line fishing

text: . Another method is the use of

text: fishing trap

text: The scientific classification of acanthodians is still a subject of great dispute, due to the fact that they share qualities of both bony fish (osteichthyes) and cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes). A recent study has suggested that Acanthodes may have been, or closely related to an early common ancestor to all cartilaginous and bony fish, including humans. Acanthodian internal anatomy is primarily understood by Acanthodes bronni because it remains the only example preserved in substantial detail, central to which is an osensible osteichthyan braincase. For this reason, Acanthodes has become an indispensable component in early gnathostome phylogenies. Acanthodes is quantifiably closer to chondrichthyans than to osteichthyans. However, phylogenetic analysis places Acanthodes on the osteichthyan stem, as part of a well-resolved tree that also recovers acanthodians as stem chondrichthyans and stem gnathostomes. As such, perceived chondrichthyan features of the Acanthodes cranium represent shared primitive conditions for crown group gnathostomes. There has been increasingly detailed findings of early gnathostome evolution highlights ongoing and profound anatomical reorganization of vertebrate crania after the origin of jaws but before the divergence of living clades.

text: The scientific classification of acanthodians is still a subject of great dispute, due to the fact that they share qualities of both bony fish (

text: osteichthyes

text: ) and cartilaginous fish (

text: chondrichthyes

text: ). A recent study has suggested that Acanthodes may have been, or closely related to an early common ancestor to all

text: cartilaginous

text: and

text: bony fish

text: , including

text: humans

text: Acanthodian

text: internal anatomy is primarily understood by Acanthodes bronni because it remains the only example preserved in substantial detail, central to which is an osensible

text: osteichthyan

text: braincase. For this reason, Acanthodes has become an indispensable component in early gnathostome phylogenies. Acanthodes is quantifiably closer to

text: chondrichthyans

text: than to

text: osteichthyan

text: s. However, phylogenetic analysis places Acanthodes on the osteichthyan stem, as part of a well-resolved tree that also recovers acanthodians as stem chondrichthyans and stem

text: gnathostomes

text: . As such, perceived chondrichthyan features of the Acanthodes cranium represent shared primitive conditions for crown group gnathostomes. There has been increasingly detailed findings of early gnathostome evolution highlights ongoing and profound anatomical reorganization of vertebrate crania after the origin of

text: jaw

text: s but before the divergence of living clades.

text: Fishing seasons are set by countries or localities to indicate what kinds of fish may be caught during sport fishing (also known as angling) for a certain period of time. Fishing seasons are enforced to maintain ecological balance and to protect species of fish during their spawning period during which they are easier to catch.

text: Fishing seasons are set by countries or localities to indicate what kinds of fish may be caught during

text: sport fishing

text: (also known as angling) for a certain period of time. Fishing seasons are enforced to maintain ecological balance and to protect species of fish during their

text: spawning

text: period during which they are easier to catch.

text: Variations can depend on what type of fish is used; how finely chopped the fish is; the use of milk or water; the use of flour or boiled potatoes; the use of eggs, egg whites, or no eggs; the cooking method (boiling, frying, or baking); and the inclusion of other ingredients (for example, shrimp, bacon, herbs, or spices).

text: Discoveries in the United States have been reported in Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Idaho,Illinois,Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri,Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina,Texas, Utah,Washington,Wisconsin, and Wyoming.Some state wildlife authorities have advised home aquarists who wish to get rid of overgrown pacu to cut the heads off the fish and dispose of them as garbage. However, Habitattitude, a U.S. national initiative led by the Aquatic Nuisance Species (ANS) Task Force, recommends humanely disposing the fish through a veterinarian or pet retailer, returning them to retailers, or donating them to a local aquarium society, school, or aquatic business. Additionally, aquarium-raised fish can be eaten (see note in Food fish for cautions and instructions).

text: Discoveries in the

text: United States

text: have been reported in

text: Alabama

text: Arizona

text: Arkansas

text: California

text: Colorado

text: Florida

text: Georgia

text: Iowa

text: Idaho

text: Illinois

text: Indiana

text: Kentucky

text: Maine

text: Maryland

text: Massachusetts

text: Michigan

text: Minnesota

text: Missouri

text: Nebraska

text: New Hampshire

text: New Jersey

text: North Carolina

text: North Dakota

text: Ohio

text: Oklahoma

text: Pennsylvania

text: South Carolina

text: Texas

text: Utah

text: Washington

text: Wisconsin

text: , and

text: Wyoming

text: .Some state wildlife authorities have advised home aquarists who wish to get rid of overgrown pacu to cut the heads off the fish and dispose of them as

text: garbage

text: . However, Habitattitude, a U.S. national initiative led by the Aquatic Nuisance Species (ANS) Task Force, recommends humanely disposing the fish through a veterinarian or pet retailer, returning them to retailers, or donating them to a local aquarium society, school, or aquatic business. Additionally, aquarium-raised fish can be eaten (see

text: note

text: in

text: Food fish

text: for cautions and instructions).

text: Some fish, both bony fish (Osteichthyes) and jawless fish (Agnatha), undergo metamorphosis. Fish metamorphosis is typically under strong control by the thyroid hormone.

text: Some fish, both

text: bony fish (Osteichthyes)

text: and

text: jawless fish (Agnatha)

text: , undergo metamorphosis. Fish metamorphosis is typically under strong control by the thyroid hormone.

text: At least one stock of Atlantic herring spawns in every month of the year. Each spawns at a different time and place (spring, summer, autumn and winter herrings). Greenland populations spawn in  of water while North Sea (bank) herrings spawn at up to  in autumn. Eggs are laid on the sea bed, on rock, stones, gravel, sand or beds of algae.  "...the fish were darting rapidly about, and those who have opportunity to see the fish spawning in more shallow water ... state that both males and females are in constant motion, rubbing against one another and upon the bottom, apparently by pressure aiding in the discharge of the eggs and milt" (Moore at Cross Island, Maine).

text: At least one stock of Atlantic herring

text: spawn

text: s in every month of the year. Each spawns at a different time and place (spring, summer, autumn and winter herrings).

text: Greenland

text: populations spawn in  of water while North Sea (bank) herrings spawn at up to  in autumn. Eggs are laid on the sea bed, on rock, stones, gravel, sand or beds of

text: algae

text: .  "...the fish were darting rapidly about, and those who have opportunity to see the fish spawning in more shallow water ... state that both males and females are in constant motion, rubbing against one another and upon the bottom, apparently by pressure aiding in the discharge of the eggs and milt" (Moore at Cross Island, Maine).

text: K. marmoratus produces eggs and sperm by meiosis and routinely reproduces by self-fertilization.  Each individual hermaphrodite normally fertilizes itself when an egg and sperm that it has produced by an internal organ unite inside the fish’s body. In nature, this mode of reproduction can yield highly homozygous lines composed of individuals so genetically uniform as to be, in effect, identical to one another. The capacity for selfing in these fishes has apparently persisted for at least several hundred thousand years.  Meioses that lead to self-fertilization can reduce genetic fitness by causing inbreeding depression.  However, self-fertilization does provide the benefit of “fertilization assurance” (reproductive assurance) at each generation.  Meiosis can also provide the adaptive benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during formation of germ cells at each generation. This benefit may have prevented the evolutionary replacement of meiosis and selfing by a simpler type of clonal reproduction such as ameiotic or apomictic parthenogenesis.

text: According to an article in AAAS & Science, over 8 million sea turtles have died over the past twenty years due to injuries caused by being accidentally caught by fishing boats. Fisheries often use large-scale nets and hook systems that are indiscriminate and catch whatever comes along, be it sea turtle, dolphin, or even shark.  What is known as “bycatch” is a large contributor to sea turtle deaths, as seen in Baja California. Longline, trawl, and gillnet fishing are three types of fishing with the most sea turtle accidents.  Deaths occur often because of drowning, where the sea turtle was ensnared and could not come up for air. Another dangerous aspect of fishing that is common is when sea turtles inadvertently swallow sharp hooks, which can get stuck within the soft tissue of the throat and stomach, or damage vital organs and intestines.

text: According to an article in AAAS & Science, over 8 million sea turtles have died over the past twenty years due to injuries caused by being accidentally caught by fishing boats.

text: Fisheries

text: often use large-scale nets and hook systems that are indiscriminate and catch whatever comes along, be it sea turtle, dolphin, or even shark.  What is known as “

text: bycatch

text: ” is a large contributor to sea turtle deaths, as seen in

text: Baja California

text: Longline

text: trawl

text: , and

text: gillnet

text: fishing are three types of fishing with the most sea turtle accidents.  Deaths occur often because of drowning, where the sea turtle was ensnared and could not come up for air. Another dangerous aspect of fishing that is common is when sea turtles inadvertently swallow sharp hooks, which can get stuck within the soft tissue of the throat and stomach, or damage vital organs and intestines.

text: L. alexandri is a rarely imported aquarium fish. These fish require a sandy substrate and should not be maintained with fish that it can eat (a fish less than half of its size).

text: L. alexandri is a rarely imported

text: aquarium

text: fish. These fish require a sandy

text: substrate

text: and should not be maintained with fish that it can eat (a fish less than half of its size).

text: Disappearing river flows have significant ecological effects: when the river’s surface water disappears, so does the habitat for many aquatic plants and animals. In response to loss of surface water, aquatic invertebrates and fish must disperse, seek refuge in remnant aquatic habitats, or die. Aquatic plants, algae, and bacteria must form resting stages or die. The dry central reaches of the Selwyn River also constitute a significant barrier for dispersal of invertebrates and for fish migrating between Lake Ellesmere and the headwaters.

text: The fish was discovered in the 1980s in Montana's Bear Gulch area by Adelphi University palaeontologist Richard Lund, who has been exploring the limestone formations of the region since 1969.  The area was thought to be the location of a shallow bay. Fish remains are found throughout the area. Further examinations of the soft tissue pigments of these fossilized remains led to more information about the fish and information about its internal organs, including its reproductive system.

text: The fish was discovered in the 1980s in Montana's

text: Bear Gulch

text: area by

text: Adelphi University

text: palaeontologist

text: Richard Lund, who has been exploring the limestone formations of the region since 1969.  The area was thought to be the location of a shallow bay. Fish remains are found throughout the area. Further examinations of the soft tissue pigments of these fossilized remains led to more information about the fish and information about its internal organs, including its reproductive system.

text: The lateral line is a sense organ used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water. For example, fish can use their lateral line system to follow the vortices produced by fleeing prey. In most species, it consists of a line of receptors running along each side of the fish.

text: The

text: lateral line

text: is a sense organ used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water. For example, fish can use their lateral line system to follow the

text: vortices

text: produced by fleeing prey. In most species, it consists of a line of receptors running along each side of the fish.

text: Preparations such as jam, ice cream and desserts, and even sauces for fish preparations, based on the distinctively flavored resin of the tree pistachia lentiscus from which it is harvested, are among nationally known culinary specialties of Çeşme. The adjacent Greek island of Chios (sakız in Turkish is the name for both Chios and mastic resin) is the source of mastic resin. Some efforts to produce mastic resin in Çeşme,where ecological conditions are similar, were not continued. A number of efforts are being made to rehabilitate the potential presented by the mastic trees that presently grow in the wilderness, and to increase the number of cultivated trees, especially those planted by secondary-residence owners who grow them as a hobby activity. The fish is also abundant both in variety and quantity along Çeşme district's coastline.

text: Preparations such as

text: jam

text: ice cream

text: and desserts, and even sauces for fish preparations, based on the distinctively flavored

text: resin

text: of the tree pistachia lentiscus from which it is harvested, are among nationally known culinary specialties of Çeşme. The adjacent Greek island of Chios (sakız in Turkish is the name for both Chios and mastic resin) is the source of mastic resin. Some efforts to produce mastic resin in Çeşme,where ecological conditions are similar, were not continued. A number of efforts are being made to rehabilitate the potential presented by the mastic trees that presently grow in the wilderness, and to increase the number of cultivated trees, especially those planted by secondary-residence owners who grow them as a

text: hobby

text: activity. The fish is also abundant both in variety and quantity along Çeşme district's coastline.

text: Research centres at the college include Fish Quality Monitoring and Certification Centre and Maritech Research Centre. The main campus of FC&RI has 2 ha of Earthen fish ponds, 2.70 ha area of reservoir, 31 freshwater prawn farms, Freshwater prawn hatchery, Carp hatchery, Glass hose aquarium and Shrimp Raceway system, catfish farm and hatchery, ornamental fish rearing facility and cryopreservation unit. The shore laboratory campus houses the facilities of fish processing and fishing technology. They include fish processing hall, fish canning unit, value added products preparation unit, packaging machineries, separate microbiology, biochemistry and quality control laboratories, marine workshop, net mending facility, navigation tools and marine bio laboratory. There is a small outboard engine fishing craft for conducting fishing. The Maritech Research & Extension center has the facilities for the culture of marine finfishes and shrimps in ponds and cages. Other facilities include Fishing training cum research vessel (Dolphin), Recirculatory Research Complex, Tilapia Rearing Complex, Fish cryo lab, Electrofisher, Fish deboner, Epifluroscent microscope, Shimadzu HPLC, ELISA reader, Gas Chromatography, GPS system, Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer, Carbon analyser, Audio and Video Recording Room, PCR, Microbiology Laboratory, Virology Laboratory, Quality Control Laboratory, Value addition laboratory and Fish Engine Workshop.

text: The Dexter National Fish Hatchery & Technology Center is a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service facility dedicated to fish culture techniques for threatened and endangered fishes of the American Southwest. Located in Dexter, New Mexico, it is the only federal facility in the nation dedicated to studying and holding only threatened and endangered fish. Scientists at the Dexter facility perform life history studies and carefully analyze fish genetics while maintaining a refuge for 16 imperiled fish species.Dexter National Fish Hatchery was established in 1931, to satisfy demands for game fish throughout the Southwest. New laws brought changes to the hatchery in the 1970s.

text: The Dexter National Fish Hatchery & Technology Center is a

text: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

text: facility dedicated to fish culture techniques for threatened and

text: endangered

text: fishes of the American Southwest. Located in

text: Dexter, New Mexico

text: , it is the only federal facility in the nation dedicated to studying and holding only threatened and endangered fish. Scientists at the Dexter facility perform life history studies and carefully analyze fish genetics while maintaining a refuge for 16 imperiled fish species.Dexter National Fish Hatchery was established in 1931, to satisfy demands for game fish throughout the Southwest. New laws brought changes to the hatchery in the 1970s.

text: Primarily or exclusively aquatic animals have re-evolved from terrestrial tetrapods multiple times: examples include amphibians such as newts, reptiles such as crocodiles, sea turtles, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs, marine mammals such as whales, seals and otters, and birds such as penguins. Many species of snakes are also aquatic and live their entire lives in the water. Among invertebrates, a number of insect species have adaptations for aquatic life and locomotion. Examples of aquatic insects include dragonfly larvae, water boatmen, and diving beetles. There are also aquatic spiders, although they tend to prefer other modes of locomotion under water than swimming proper.

text: Primarily or exclusively aquatic animals have re-evolved from terrestrial tetrapods multiple times: examples include

text: amphibians

text: such as

text: newts

text: reptiles

text: such as

text: crocodile

text: s,

text: sea turtle

text: s,

text: ichthyosaur

text: s,

text: plesiosaurs

text: and

text: mosasaur

text: s,

text: marine mammal

text: s such as

text: whales

text: seals

text: and

text: otter

text: s, and

text: bird

text: s such as

text: penguin

text: s. Many species of

text: snakes

text: are also aquatic and live their entire lives in the water. Among invertebrates, a number of

text: insect

text: species have adaptations for aquatic life and locomotion. Examples of

text: aquatic insect

text: s include

text: dragonfly

text: larvae,

text: water boatmen

text: , and

text: diving beetle

text: s. There are also

text: aquatic spiders

text: , although they tend to prefer other modes of locomotion under water than swimming proper.

text: These fish exhibits a number of different cichlid spawning behaviors including cave spawning (most common) and open substrate spawning. Which method that is used seem to depend on the mood of the parents not on the availability of suitable spawning caves. They pair off with a dance in which the male swimming parallel to the female. The males can be really aggressive with a female that is not ready to spawn, to the point where he may kill her. The female will find a secluded shelter to lay many eggs such as a large crevice between rocks or a nest dug in the gravel.  The male will then fertilize the eggs and then ferociously protect them from any other fish which come near.

text: These fish exhibits a number of different cichlid spawning behaviors including cave spawning (most common) and open substrate spawning. Which method that is used seem to depend on the mood of the parents not on the availability of suitable spawning caves. They pair off with a dance in which the male swimming parallel to the female. The males can be really aggressive with a female that is not ready to spawn, to the point where he may kill her. The female will find a secluded shelter to lay many

text: egg

text: s such as a large crevice between rocks or a nest dug in the gravel.  The male will then fertilize the eggs and then ferociously protect them from any other fish which come near.

text: Tilapia and Nile perch are the commonest types of fish in Uganda. Other fish types include tilapia, spat, cat fish, Nile tilapia, silver fish.

text: Near the coast, breeding may take place twice a year in spring and early autumn, but at greater altitudes, mating takes place in midsummer. The male grasps the female with his jaws and wraps his tail round her while using his cloaca to deposit one or two spermatophores in her cloaca. She then lays about 30 large, yolky eggs, which are deposited in crevices and under stones, and she guards them until they hatch about 50 days later. The larvae (tadpoles) take about 9 months before they undergo metamorphosis and develop into juveniles.

text: Near the coast, breeding may take place twice a year in spring and early autumn, but at greater altitudes, mating takes place in midsummer. The male grasps the female with his jaws and wraps his tail round her while using his cloaca to deposit one or two

text: spermatophore

text: s in her

text: cloaca

text: . She then lays about 30 large, yolky eggs, which are deposited in crevices and under stones, and she guards them until they hatch about 50 days later. The larvae (tadpoles) take about 9 months before they undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: and develop into juveniles.

text: This bivalve extends its siphons to the surface of the sediment in which it is buried, and draws in water through one of them and expels it through the other. While the water is passing through the gills, phytoplankton and other organic food particles are filtered out. Individuals clams are either male or female, and breeding takes place mostly in summer by the liberation of gametes into the water. The resulting larvae drift with the currents as part of the plankton for about two weeks before settling on the seabed, undergoing metamorphosis and becoming juveniles known as "spat".

text: This bivalve extends its siphons to the surface of the sediment in which it is buried, and draws in water through one of them and expels it through the other. While the water is passing through the gills,

text: phytoplankton

text: and other organic food particles are filtered out. Individuals clams are either male or female, and breeding takes place mostly in summer by the liberation of gametes into the water. The resulting larvae drift with the currents as part of the

text: plankton

text: for about two weeks before settling on the seabed, undergoing

text: metamorphosis

text: and becoming juveniles known as "spat".

text: The buttercup lucine becomes sexually mature at a length of about . Spawning takes place all year round in Florida with peaks of activity in mid winter and mid summer. As in other bivalve molluscs, gametes are liberated into the sea and fertilisation is external. The eggs hatch into planktonic trochophore larvae which later develop into veliger larvae. After a period of further development, these settle on the seabed and undergo metamorphosis into juveniles.

text: The buttercup lucine becomes sexually mature at a length of about .

text: Spawning

text: takes place all year round in

text: Florida

text: with peaks of activity in mid winter and mid summer. As in other bivalve molluscs, gametes are liberated into the sea and fertilisation is external. The

text: eggs

text: hatch into

text: plankton

text: ic

text: trochophore

text: larva

text: e which later develop into

text: veliger

text: larvae. After a period of further development, these settle on the

text: seabed

text: and undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: into juveniles.

text: The anatomy of fish is often shaped by the physical characteristics of water, the medium in which fish live. Water is much denser than air, holds a relatively small amount of dissolved oxygen, and absorbs more light than air does. The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays which, with the exception of the caudal fins, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk. The heart has two chambers and pumps the blood through the respiratory surfaces of the gills and on round the body in a single circulatory loop. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure.

text: The anatomy of fish is often shaped by the physical characteristics of

text: water

text: , the medium in which fish live. Water is much

text: denser

text: than

text: air

text: , holds a relatively small amount of dissolved

text: oxygen

text: , and absorbs more light than air does. The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in

text: cartilaginous fish

text: , or bone in

text: bony fish

text: vertebra

text: limbs

text: fins

text: , are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays which, with the exception of the

text: caudal fin

text: gill

text: middle ear

text: lateral line

text: When spawning, female hides eggs inside Cristaria mussels and the male fertilizes them externally.  The pair do not guard the eggs.

text: When

text: spawning

text: , female hides

text: eggs

text: inside

text: Cristaria

text: mussels and the male fertilizes them externally.  The pair do not guard the eggs.

text: Larvae undergo metamorphosis and become filter-feeding zooids within 5–15 minutes of settlement.  A newly settled individual is called an oozoid and is the founding member of a new P. planum colony.  The oozoid is covered by a protective outer covering that it secretes.  This covering is called the tunic and is made of a cellulose material called tunicin.  Cellulose is, by the way, a highly unusual material for any animal ro secrete since it is normally produced by plants.  When an oozooid acquires sufficient size it undergoes a form of cloning called strobilation during which its body is pinched into 2 to 6 buds (also known as strobilae) which are still protected by the tunic. Each bud subsequently develops into a fully functional zooid by regeneration. When these daughter zooids get large enough they also undergo strobilation, and the colony increases in size as new zooids are produced.

text: Larvae undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: and become filter-feeding zooids within 5–15 minutes of settlement.  A newly settled individual is called an

text: oozoid

text: and is the founding member of a new P. planum colony.  The oozoid is covered by a protective outer covering that it secretes.  This covering is called the tunic and is made of a cellulose material called tunicin.  Cellulose is, by the way, a highly unusual material for any animal ro secrete since it is normally produced by plants.  When an oozooid acquires sufficient size it undergoes a form of cloning called strobilation during which its body is pinched into 2 to 6 buds (also known as strobilae) which are still protected by the tunic. Each bud subsequently develops into a fully functional zooid by regeneration. When these daughter zooids get large enough they also undergo strobilation, and the colony increases in size as new zooids are produced.

text: In the 19th Century, the national fish stocking system was a large need, and the national system of using fish hatcheries was started in the 1870s.

text: According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the world production in 2005 consisted of 93.2 million tonnes captured by commercial fishing in wild fisheries, plus 48.1 million tonnes produced by fish farms. In addition, 1.3 million tons of aquatic plants (seaweed etc.) were captured in wild fisheries and 14.8 million tons were produced by aquaculture. The number of individual fish caught in the wild has been estimated at 0.97-2.7 trillion per year (not counting fish farms or marine invertebrates).

text: According to the

text: Food and Agriculture Organization

text: (FAO), the

text: world production

text: in 2005 consisted of 93.2 million

text: tonne

text: s captured by

text: commercial fishing

text: in

text: wild fisheries

text: , plus 48.1 million tonnes produced by

text: fish farm

text: s. In addition, 1.3 million tons of

text: aquatic plants

text: seaweed

text: aquaculture

text: In the night after that stage, Hans Junkermann, riding for the Wiel's team, became ill. Junkermann was in seventh place in the general classification, and his team requested the start to be delayed by ten minutes, which the organisation allowed. After that stage, stage 14, had started, Junkermann quickly fell to the back, and had to give up. He was not the only one: twelve riders fell ill and said 'bad fish' was the cause. Tour doctor Pierre Dumas realized they had all been given the same drug by the same soigneur. Fourteen riders abandoned the Tour that day, including the former leader, Willy Schroeder, the 1960 winner Gastone Nencini and a future leader, Karl-Heinz Kunde. Jacques Goddet wrote that he suspected doping but nothing was proven – other than that none of the hotels had served fish the previous night. The newspapers ridiculed the riders, and this made the riders furious. They threatened to strike, but the journalist Jean Bobet, a former cyclist, was able to talk them into continuing, although Jean Bobet was one of the creators of film Vive Le Tour! which ridiculed the riders and their 'bad fish' explanation.

text: In the night after that stage,

text: Hans Junkermann

text: , riding for the Wiel's team, became ill. Junkermann was in seventh place in the general classification, and his team requested the start to be delayed by ten minutes, which the organisation allowed. After that stage, stage 14, had started, Junkermann quickly fell to the back, and had to give up. He was not the only one: twelve riders fell ill and said 'bad fish' was the cause. Tour doctor

text: Pierre Dumas

text: realized they had all been given the same drug by the same soigneur. Fourteen riders abandoned the Tour that day, including the former leader, Willy Schroeder, the 1960 winner Gastone Nencini and a future leader, Karl-Heinz Kunde. Jacques Goddet wrote that he suspected doping but nothing was proven – other than that none of the hotels had served fish the previous night. The newspapers ridiculed the riders, and this made the riders furious. They threatened to strike, but the journalist

text: Jean Bobet

text: , a former cyclist, was able to talk them into continuing, although Jean Bobet was one of the creators of film Vive Le Tour! which ridiculed the riders and their 'bad fish' explanation.

text: The firemouth cichlid (Thorichthys meeki) is a species of cichlid fish native to Central America. They occur in rivers of the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, south through Belize and into northern Guatemala. Their natural habitat is typically shallow, slow-moving, often turbid, water with a pH of 6.5 - 8.0.  It has also been reported to live in underground cave systems. As fish with a tropical distribution, firemouth cichlids live in warm water with a temperature range of 23–30 °C (75–86 °F). The common name, firemouth, is derived from the  bright orange-red colouration on the underside of the jaw. Males in particular flare out their gills, exposing their red throats, in a threat display designed to ward off male rivals from their territory. Like most cichlids, brood care is highly developed; this species is an egg-layer. Firemouth cichlids form monogamous pairs and spawn on flattened surfaces of rocks, leaves or submerged wood. Breeding males are primarily responsible for territorial defense, while females are more intensively involved in raising the fry, though both parents lead the fry in search of food. Firemouth cichlids are omnivorous and opportunistic in their feeding strategies. Their ability to protrude their jaw 6% standard length limits their diet to about 6% evasive prey.   Sexual dimorphism is present, though limited in this species. Males are generally larger, (up to 15 cm), than females with brighter and more red colouration around the throat, they also have more pointed dorsal and anal fins. Firemouths are suitable for community aquaria, though they may become aggressive to other members of its species during spawning.

text: The firemouth cichlid (Thorichthys meeki) is a species of

text: cichlid

text: fish native to

text: Central America

text: . They occur in rivers of the

text: Yucatán Peninsula

text: Mexico

text: , south through

text: Belize

text: and into northern

text: Guatemala

text: . Their natural habitat is typically shallow, slow-moving, often

text: turbid

text: , water with a

text: pH

text: of 6.5 - 8.0.  It has also been reported to live in underground cave systems. As fish with a tropical distribution, firemouth cichlids live in warm water with a temperature range of 23–30 °C (75–86 °F). The common name, firemouth, is derived from the  bright orange-red colouration on the underside of the jaw. Males in particular flare out their gills, exposing their red throats, in a threat display designed to ward off male rivals from their territory. Like most cichlids,

text: brood

text: care is highly developed; this species is an egg-layer. Firemouth cichlids form

text: monogamous

text: pairs and spawn on flattened surfaces of rocks, leaves or submerged wood. Breeding males are primarily responsible for territorial defense, while females are more intensively involved in raising the fry, though both parents lead the fry in search of food. Firemouth cichlids are omnivorous and opportunistic in their feeding strategies. Their ability to protrude their jaw 6% standard length limits their diet to about 6% evasive prey.   Sexual dimorphism is present, though limited in this species. Males are generally larger, (up to 15 cm), than females with brighter and more red colouration around the throat, they also have more pointed dorsal and anal fins. Firemouths are suitable for community aquaria, though they may become aggressive to other members of its species during spawning.

text: Gold and tin mining upriver are affecting the ecology of the region by destroying fish and bird habitat.

text: Many ancient fish had lung-like organs, and a few, such as the lungfish, still do. Some of these ancient "lunged" fish were the ancestors of tetrapods. However, in most recent fish species these organs evolved into the swim bladders, which help control buoyancy. Having no lung-like organs, modern amphibious fish and many fish in oxygen-poor water use other methods such as their gills or their skin to breathe air.  Amphibious fish may also have eyes adapted to allow them to see clearly in air, despite the density differences between air and water.

text: Many ancient fish had

text: lung

text: -like

text: organ

text: s, and a few, such as the

text: lungfish

text: , still do. Some of these ancient "lunged" fish were the

text: ancestor

text: s of

text: tetrapod

text: s. However, in most recent fish

text: species

text: these organs evolved into the

text: swim bladder

text: s, which help control

text: buoyancy

text: . Having no lung-like organs, modern amphibious fish and many fish in

text: oxygen

text: -poor water use other methods such as their

text: gill

text: s or their

text: skin

text: to breathe air.  Amphibious fish may also have

text: eyes

text: adapted to allow them to see clearly in air, despite the

text: density

text: differences between air and water.

text: The sexes are separate in Crassadoma gigantea and spawning takes place in the summer. The veliger larvae that develop from the eggs form part of the zooplankton for about 40 days before settling, undergoing metamorphosis and beginning to form a shell. Juveniles are free living, are able to swim and can attach themselves temporarily to the substrate by byssus threads. By the time they have grown to  in diameter they have usually cemented themselves to a hard surface and become sessile. Rock scallops can live for at least 20 years  but by about half way through their adult life, growth slows, and energy is concentrated into gamete production.

text: The sexes are separate in Crassadoma gigantea and

text: spawning

text: takes place in the summer. The

text: veliger

text: larva

text: e that develop from the

text: eggs

text: form part of the

text: zooplankton

text: for about 40 days before settling, undergoing

text: metamorphosis

text: and beginning to form a shell. Juveniles are free living, are able to swim and can attach themselves temporarily to the

text: substrate

text: by

text: byssus

text: threads. By the time they have grown to  in diameter they have usually cemented themselves to a hard surface and become

text: sessile

text: . Rock scallops can live for at least 20 years  but by about half way through their adult life, growth slows, and energy is concentrated into

text: gamete

text: production.

text: By the Upper Devonian period, the fin-limb transition as well as other skeletal changes such as gill arch reduction, opercular series loss, mid-line fin loss, and scale reduction were already completed in many aquatic organisms. As aquatic tetrapods began their transition to land, several skeletal changes are thought to have occurred to allow for movement and respiration on land. Some adaptations required to adjust to non-aquatic life include the movement and use of alternating limbs, the use of pelvic appendages as sturdy propulsors, and the use of a solid surface at the organism’s base to generate propulsive force required for walking.

text: By the

text: Upper Devonian

text: period, the fin-limb transition as well as other skeletal changes such as gill arch reduction, opercular series loss, mid-line fin loss, and scale reduction were already completed in many aquatic organisms. As aquatic tetrapods began their transition to land, several skeletal changes are thought to have occurred to allow for movement and respiration on land. Some adaptations required to adjust to non-aquatic life include the movement and use of alternating limbs, the use of pelvic appendages as sturdy propulsors, and the use of a solid surface at the organism’s base to generate propulsive force required for walking.

text: frequently investigate the extent to which species morphology is influenced by their ecology. Bony fishes

text: frequently investigate the extent to which species morphology is influenced by their ecology.

text: Bony fishes

text: Donax vittatus is dioecious, individuals being either male or female. Spawning takes place over the course of the spring and summer. Fertilisation is external and the eggs hatch into veliger larvae which become part of the zooplankton. After about 3 weeks these develop into pediveliger larvae which settle and undergo metamorphosis. The juveniles grow fast and mature within a year.

text: Donax vittatus is

text: dioecious

text: , individuals being either male or female. Spawning takes place over the course of the spring and summer. Fertilisation is external and the eggs hatch into

text: veliger

text: larva

text: e which become part of the

text: zooplankton

text: . After about 3 weeks these develop into pediveliger larvae which settle and undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: . The juveniles grow fast and mature within a year.

text: Tesseraspis is a Lowermost Devonian fish characteristic of the Traquairaspis Fish Zone.

text: Tesseraspis is a Lowermost Devonian fish characteristic of the

text: Traquairaspis

text: Fish Zone.

text: A particularly important research finding took place in 1950.   The previous year, on a visit to London Zoo, Lissmann had noticed that the African Knife fish (Gymnarchus) was able repeatedly to swim backwards at the same speed and with exactly he same corporeal dexterity around obstacles in its fish tank as when it swam forwards, while avoiding collision.   He inferred that the fish must have what in human terms would be seen as some form of "sixth sense", something which he also thought he detected in the Electric eel in another aquarium tank nearby:  he thought the phenomenon might well involve electricity.   Towards the end of 1949 Lissmann married, and as a wedding present from one friend he was given his own African Knife fish, which he now went on to study in his laboratory.   He placed the fish in a large fish tank into which he inserted electrodes.   With these he was indeed able to detect a naturally occurring electric current emanating from the fish, albeit a current far too weak to be felt by a person.   He then found ways to increase the current to a point where it could be measured with a conventional oscilloscope.   One story - not universally accepted - reports that the fish generated a measurably increased electrical charge when a student combed her hair beside the fish tank.   The fish died soon after this, but replacements were acquired, and working with his exceptionally capable research assistant Kenneth E Machin (1924-1988), whose PhD had covered radio-astronomy, Lissmann was able, through observation and measurement, to demonstrate that the variable electrical charge was produced by the Knife fish itself, and that the fish reacted to any change in the electric field around it, even when produced close to, but outside, the fish tank itself.   They were helped in their work by a perspex model of an African Knife fish constructed by Ken Machin, with two electrodes attached to it permitting the perspex fish to generate an electric field equivalent to that produced by the real fish.   Machin struggled and failed to produce for the perspex fish an intricate variability in the strength and shape of its magnetic field comparable to the produced by the real fish, but observations involving the perspex fish nevertheless provided a large additional amount of valuable data.  A key conclusion was that the  African Knife fish was using changes in resistance within the electric field with which it surrounded itself to detect changes in its surroundings, and was using the information to trigger appropriate behavioural responses.

text: A particularly important research finding took place in 1950.   The previous year, on a visit to

text: London Zoo

text: , Lissmann had noticed that the

text: African Knife fish (Gymnarchus)

text: was able repeatedly to swim backwards at the same speed and with exactly he same corporeal dexterity around obstacles in its fish tank as when it swam forwards, while avoiding collision.   He inferred that the fish must have what in human terms would be seen as some form of "sixth sense", something which he also thought he detected in the

text: Electric eel

text: in another aquarium tank nearby:  he thought the phenomenon might well involve electricity.   Towards the end of 1949 Lissmann married, and as a wedding present from one friend he was given his own

text: African Knife fish

text: , which he now went on to study in his laboratory.   He placed the fish in a large fish tank into which he inserted electrodes.   With these he was indeed able to detect a naturally occurring electric current emanating from the fish, albeit a current far too weak to be felt by a person.   He then found ways to increase the current to a point where it could be measured with a conventional

text: oscilloscope

text: .   One story - not universally accepted - reports that the fish generated a measurably increased electrical charge when a student combed her hair beside the fish tank.   The fish died soon after this, but replacements were acquired, and working with his exceptionally capable research assistant Kenneth E Machin (1924-1988), whose PhD had covered radio-astronomy, Lissmann was able, through observation and measurement, to demonstrate that the variable electrical charge was produced by the Knife fish itself, and that the fish reacted to any change in the electric field around it, even when produced close to, but outside, the fish tank itself.   They were helped in their work by a perspex model of an African Knife fish constructed by Ken Machin, with two electrodes attached to it permitting the perspex fish to generate an electric field equivalent to that produced by the real fish.   Machin struggled and failed to produce for the perspex fish an intricate variability in the strength and shape of its magnetic field comparable to the produced by the real fish, but observations involving the perspex fish nevertheless provided a large additional amount of valuable data.  A key conclusion was that the

text: African Knife fish

text: was using changes in resistance within the electric field with which it surrounded itself to detect changes in its surroundings, and was using the information to trigger appropriate behavioural responses.

text: Historically, more distantly related fish were placed in Chaetodon too, for resembling them in details – e.g. the common scat Scatophagus argus, which has a similar shape and size, as well as armored larvae like the Chaetodontidae – or simply because they are colorful, smallish, and unusually-looking – e.g. the quite unrelated paradise fish, as C. chinensis.

text: Historically, more distantly related fish were placed in Chaetodon too, for resembling them in details – e.g. the

text: common scat

text: Scatophagus argus, which has a similar shape and size, as well as armored larvae like the Chaetodontidae – or simply because they are colorful, smallish, and unusually-looking – e.g. the quite unrelated

text: paradise fish

text: , as C. chinensis.

text: Fish reproductive organs include testicles and ovaries. In most species, gonads are paired organs of similar size, which can be partially or totally fused. There may also be a range of secondary organs that increase reproductive fitness.

text: Fish reproductive organs include

text: testicle

text: s and

text: ovaries

text: . In most species, gonads are paired organs of similar size, which can be partially or totally fused. There may also be a range of secondary organs that increase reproductive fitness.

text: Throughout his lifetime Gronovius amassed an extensive collection of zoological and botanical specimens. He is especially remembered for his work in the field of ichthyology, where he played a significant role in the classification of fishes. In 1754 he published the treatise "Museum ichthyologicum", in which he described over 200 species of fish. He is also credited with developing a technique for preservation of fish skins. Today, a number of these preserved specimens are kept in the Natural History Museum in London.

text: Throughout his lifetime Gronovius amassed an extensive collection of

text: zoological

text: and botanical specimens. He is especially remembered for his work in the field of

text: ichthyology

text: , where he played a significant role in the classification of fishes. In 1754 he published the treatise "Museum ichthyologicum", in which he described over 200 species of fish. He is also credited with developing a technique for preservation of fish skins. Today, a number of these preserved specimens are kept in the

text: Natural History Museum

text: in

text: London

text: Humans in East Asia were consuming large amounts of freshwater fish around 40 000 years ago. Spearfishing with barbed harpoons along the coast was widespread by the Palaeolithic. Fish ponds surrounded Sumerian temples by 2 500 BC and a Chinese classical text credited to the 5th-century BC businessman Fan Li is the earliest known work on fish farming. A surviving fragment of Isidore of Charax's 1st-century Parthian itinerary describes locals freediving for pearls in the Persian Gulf, and Oppian's 2nd-century Halieutics relates the four main Greek and Roman fishing methods as hook-and-line, netting, passive traps, and trident. Traditional fishing boats operate in near-shore waters but, during the late Middle Ages and early Modern period, fishing on the open sea—particularly cod—became important to the economic and naval development of Northern Europe, New England, and Canada. Overfishing along the coasts of the North Sea spurred the development of deep-sea fishers such as the Brixham and otter trawlers, which might serve as motherships for longlining dories; in the 19th century, advances such as rail transport, canning, and refrigeration allowed fishing to become a full-fledged industry. Improvements in sonar during the world wars were adapted as fishfinders and, during the 1950s, great factory ships caught and processed as many fish in an hour as earlier trawlers had in a season. By the 1960s, the North Atlantic and North Pacific fisheries were close to maximal exploitation. After the catch from wild marine fisheries grew from 18 million metric tons (20 million tons) in 1950 to around 85 million metric tons ( million tons) by the late 1980s, it has remained essentially constant since. Chinese economic reform led to massive growth of its fishing production, from 7% of the world total in 1961 to 35% by 2010. Scientific studies of population dynamics and nationalization of formerly shared waters are both helping to cope with overexploitation but the success of modern commercial fishing has required major corrective actions: the collapse of the Grand Banks cod fishery to less than 1% of its historic levels required a complete moratorium by Canada in 1992 and China has enforced a zero-growth policy in its wild catch since 2000, redirecting its industry towards aquaculture; its annual months-long bans on fishing in disputed areas of the South China Sea is enforced over the protest of neighboring states.

text: Humans in

text: East Asia

text: were consuming large amounts of

text: freshwater fish

text: around 40 000 years ago.

text: Spearfishing

text: with barbed

text: harpoon

text: s along the coast was widespread by the

text: Palaeolithic

text: Fish pond

text: s surrounded

text: Sumer

text: ian temples by 2 500 BC and a

text: Chinese classic

text: al text credited to the 5th-century BC businessman

text: Fan Li

text: is the earliest known work on

text: fish farm

text: ing. A surviving fragment of

text: Isidore of Charax

text: 's 1st-century

text: Parthia

text: n itinerary describes locals

text: freediving

text: for

text: pearls

text: in the

text: Persian Gulf

text: , and

text: Oppian

text: 's 2nd-century Halieutics relates the four main Greek and Roman fishing methods as

text: hook

text: -and-

text: line

text: netting

text: passive traps

text: , and

text: trident

text: Traditional fishing boat

text: s operate in near-shore waters but, during the

text: late Middle Ages

text: and

text: early Modern period

text: , fishing on the open sea—particularly

text: cod

text: —became important to the economic and naval development of

text: Northern Europe

text: New England

text: , and Canada.

text: Overfishing

text: along the coasts of the

text: North Sea

text: spurred the development of deep-sea fishers such as the

text: Brixham

text: and

text: otter trawler

text: s, which might serve as

text: mothership

text: s for

text: longlining

text: dories

text: ; in the 19th century, advances such as

text: rail transport

text: canning

text: , and

text: refrigeration

text: allowed fishing to become a full-fledged

text: industry

text: . Improvements in

text: sonar

text: during the

text: world wars

text: were adapted as

text: fishfinder

text: s and, during the 1950s, great

text: factory ship

text: s caught and processed as many fish in an hour as earlier trawlers had in a season. By the 1960s, the

text: North Atlantic

text: and

text: North Pacific fisheries

text: were close to maximal exploitation. After the catch from

text: wild marine fisheries

text: grew from 18 million

text: metric ton

text: s (20 million

text: tons

text: ) in 1950 to around 85 million

text: metric ton

text: s ( million

text: ton

text: s) by the late 1980s, it has remained essentially constant since.

text: Chinese economic reform

text: led to massive growth of its

text: fishing production

text: , from 7% of the world total in 1961 to 35% by 2010. Scientific studies of

text: population dynamics

text: and

text: nationalization

text: of formerly

text: shared waters

text: are both helping to cope with

text: overexploitation

text: but the success of modern

text: commercial fishing

text: has required major corrective actions: the

entity_name: Collapse of the Atlantic northwest cod fishery

text: collapse of the Grand Banks cod fishery

text: to less than 1% of its historic levels required a complete moratorium by Canada in 1992 and China has enforced a zero-growth policy in its wild catch since 2000, redirecting its industry towards

text: aquaculture

text: ; its annual months-long bans on fishing in disputed areas of the

text: South China Sea

text: is enforced over the protest of neighboring states.

text: The shared trait of breathing via gills in bony fish and cartilaginous fish is a famous example of symplesiomorphy. Bony fish are more closely related to terrestrial vertebrates, which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the sharks, rays, and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes" because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living vertebrates. But based on this shared trait, we cannot infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.

text: The shared trait of breathing via gills in bony fish and cartilaginous fish is a famous example of

text: symplesiomorphy

text: . Bony fish are more closely related to

text: terrestrial vertebrates

text: , which evolved out of a clade of bony fishes that breathe through their skin or lungs, than they are to the sharks, rays, and the other cartilaginous fish. Their kind of gill respiration is shared by the "fishes" because it was present in their common ancestor and lost in the other living vertebrates. But based on this shared trait, we cannot infer that bony fish are more closely related to sharks and rays than they are to terrestrial vertebrates.

text: Unlike most species of lamprey, the adults do not migrate to the sea and do not have a parasitic phase. Adult brook lamprey do not feed and in springtime spawn in gravel close to the soft sediment in which they were previously resident. Adult brook lamprey spawn in small groups and die soon after spawning. The eggs hatch within a few days, after which the young larvae bury themselves in soft sediment with only the mouth protruding. The young lampreys are blind filter feeders, feeding on detritus and other organic matter for three to five years before maturing. Metamorphosis begins in the third or fourth year and is complete after the maturation of the gonads. Eyes and suction disk also develops during this time, while the intestinal tract degenerates and loses its function. The full transformation can take up to a year.  Thus, these fish develop their teeth precisely when they are no longer able to eat. However, lampreys have been observed gripping stones with their teeth in order to build nests, showing that the teeth do in fact have a purpose.

text: Unlike most species of lamprey, the adults do not migrate to the sea and do not have a parasitic phase. Adult brook lamprey do not feed and in springtime spawn in gravel close to the soft sediment in which they were previously resident. Adult brook lamprey spawn in small groups and die soon after spawning. The eggs hatch within a few days, after which the young larvae bury themselves in soft sediment with only the mouth protruding. The young lampreys are blind filter feeders, feeding on detritus and other organic matter for three to five years before maturing. Metamorphosis begins in the third or fourth year and is complete after the maturation of the

text: gonad

text: s. Eyes and suction disk also develops during this time, while the

text: intestinal tract

text: degenerates and loses its function. The full transformation can take up to a year.  Thus, these fish develop their teeth precisely when they are no longer able to eat. However, lampreys have been observed gripping stones with their teeth in order to build nests, showing that the teeth do in fact have a purpose.

text: The spawning season for the white bass is mid-March to late May.  The optimal water temperatures are .   They are known to find their home spawning ground even if it is moved to a different part of the same lake. They often spawn in moving water in a tributary stream, but they will spawn in windswept lake shores. They spawn during daylight. Females release 242,000 to 933,000 eggs which stick to the surface of objects. Eggs are laid in clear, relatively shallow water on plants, submerged logs, gravel, or rocks. The parents move to deeper water and do not care for the young fish. The young fish live in shallow water for a while until they move to deeper water.

text: The spawning season for the white bass is mid-March to late May.  The optimal water temperatures are .   They are known to find their home spawning ground even if it is moved to a different part of the same lake. They often

text: spawn

text: in moving water in a

text: tributary

text: stream, but they will spawn in windswept lake shores. They spawn during daylight. Females release 242,000 to 933,000 eggs which stick to the surface of objects. Eggs are laid in clear, relatively shallow water on plants, submerged logs, gravel, or rocks. The parents move to deeper water and do not care for the young fish. The young fish live in shallow water for a while until they move to deeper water.

text: Epipelagic fish can be broadly divided into small forage fish and larger predator fish which feed on them. Forage fish school and filter feed on plankton. Most epipelagic fish have streamlined bodies capable of sustained cruising on migrations. In general, predatory and forage fish share the same morphological features. Predator fish are usually fusiform with large mouths, smooth bodies, and deeply forked tails. Many use vision to predate zooplankton or smaller fish, while others filter feed on plankton.

text: Epipelagic fish can be broadly divided into small

text: forage fish

text: and larger

text: predator fish

text: which feed on them. Forage fish

text: school

text: and

text: filter feed

text: on

text: plankton

text: . Most epipelagic fish have streamlined bodies capable of sustained cruising on

text: migrations

text: . In general, predatory and forage fish share the same

text: morphological

text: features. Predator fish are usually

text: fusiform

text: with large mouths, smooth bodies, and deeply forked tails. Many use vision to predate zooplankton or smaller fish, while others

text: filter feed

text: on

text: plankton

text: In recreational fishing terminology, the hookset (setting the hook or striking) is a motion made with a fishing rod in order to "set" a fish hook into the mouth of a fish once it has bitten a fishing lure or bait. That is, in order to secure the fish on the hook, a sharp motion is performed to push the barb of the hook into the fish's mouth, preferably in the corner. If this motion were not performed, while it is possible for a fish to set itself, the likelihood of successfully landing the fish is minimal since, without the barb of the hook secured, the fish could shake the hook out of its mouth. The motion is usually a sharp, sweeping motion of the rod, either upwards or to the side, depending on the orientation of the rod at the moment the fish bites. Some fishermen will perform several hooksets in quick succession to ensure that the fish is securely hooked, especially on fish with tough mouths such as some saltwater species. In contrast, anglers using circle hooks needn't set the hook, since the hook's design allows it to set itself when the angler reels in.

text: In

text: recreational fishing

text: terminology, the hookset (setting the hook or striking) is a motion made with a

text: fishing rod

text: in order to "set" a

text: fish hook

text: into the mouth of a fish once it has bitten a

text: fishing lure

text: or bait. That is, in order to secure the fish on the hook, a sharp motion is performed to push the barb of the hook into the fish's mouth, preferably in the corner. If this motion were not performed, while it is possible for a fish to set itself, the likelihood of successfully landing the fish is minimal since, without the barb of the hook secured, the fish could shake the hook out of its mouth. The motion is usually a sharp, sweeping motion of the rod, either upwards or to the side, depending on the orientation of the rod at the moment the fish bites. Some fishermen will perform several hooksets in quick succession to ensure that the fish is securely hooked, especially on fish with tough mouths such as some saltwater species. In contrast, anglers using

text: circle hook

text: s needn't set the hook, since the hook's design allows it to set itself when the angler reels in.

text: Fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into the open water column. Fish eggs typically have a diameter of about . The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae. They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens. The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis) to become juveniles. During this transition larvae  must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae.

text: Fish can produce high numbers of eggs which are often released into the open water column. Fish eggs typically have a diameter of about . The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called

text: larva

text: e. They are usually poorly formed, carry a large

text: yolk sac

text: (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens. The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed

text: metamorphosis

text: ) to become juveniles. During this transition larvae  must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on

text: zooplankton

text: prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae.

text: Most freshwater mussels reproduce by releasing their larvae, called glochidia, into the water, where they are then taken in by fish. The glochidia lodge in the gills or fins of the fish and develop into juvenile mussels encysted in the fish tissue. They then drop off the fish into the substrate. Little is known about how this species transfers its glochidia to fish hosts, but it may occur when the adult female is eaten by the fish. The fish host for this mussel species is the freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunniens).

text: Most freshwater mussels reproduce by releasing their larvae, called

text: glochidia

text: , into the water, where they are then taken in by fish. The glochidia lodge in the gills or fins of the fish and develop into juvenile mussels encysted in the fish tissue. They then drop off the fish into the substrate. Little is known about how this species transfers its glochidia to fish hosts, but it may occur when the adult female is eaten by the fish. The fish host for this mussel species is the

text: freshwater drum

text: (Aplodinotus grunniens).

text: Fully grown, these fish (and their warmer-water relative, the Patagonian toothfish, D. eleginoides) can grow to more than  in length and 135 kg in weight, twice as large as the next largest Antarctic fish. Being large, and consistent with the unstructured food webs of the ocean (i.e., big fish eat little fish regardless of identity, even eating their own offspring), the Antarctic toothfish has been characterized as a voracious predator. Furthermore, by being by far the largest midwater fish in the Southern Ocean, it is thought to fill the ecological role that sharks play in other oceans. Aiding in that role, the Antarctic toothfish is one of only five notothenioid species that, as  adults, are neutrally buoyant. This buoyancy is attained at 100–120 cm in length and enables them to spend time above the bottom without expending extra energy. Both bottom-dwelling and mid-water prey are therefore available to them. Most other notothenioid fish and the majority of all Antarctic fish, including smaller toothfish, are confined to the bottom. Coloring is black to olive brown, sometimes lighter on the undersides, with a mottled pattern on body and fins. Small fish blend in very well among the benthic sponges and corals. They have a broad head, an elongated body, long dorsal and anal fins, large pectoral fins and a rudder-like caudal fin. They typically move slowly, but are capable of speed bursts that can elude predatory seals.

text: Fully grown, these fish (and their warmer-water relative, the

text: Patagonian toothfish

text: , D. eleginoides) can grow to more than  in length and 135 kg in weight, twice as large as the next largest Antarctic fish. Being large, and consistent with the unstructured

text: food web

text: s of the ocean (i.e., big fish eat little fish regardless of identity, even eating their own offspring), the Antarctic toothfish has been characterized as a voracious predator. Furthermore, by being by far the largest midwater fish in the

text: Southern Ocean

text: , it is thought to fill the ecological role that

text: sharks

text: play in other oceans. Aiding in that role, the Antarctic toothfish is one of only five notothenioid species that, as  adults, are

text: neutrally buoyant

text: . This buoyancy is attained at 100–120 cm in length and enables them to spend time above the bottom without expending extra energy. Both bottom-dwelling and mid-water prey are therefore available to them. Most other notothenioid fish and the majority of all Antarctic fish, including smaller toothfish, are

text: confined to the bottom

text: . Coloring is black to olive brown, sometimes lighter on the undersides, with a mottled pattern on body and fins. Small fish blend in very well among the

text: benthic

text: sponge

text: s and

text: coral

text: s. They have a broad head, an elongated body, long

text: dorsal

text: and

text: anal fin

text: s, large

text: pectoral fin

text: s and a rudder-like

text: caudal fin

text: . They typically move slowly, but are capable of speed bursts that can elude predatory seals.

text: In several species of fish, inbreeding was found to decrease reproductive success.

text: Species of Lepidoptera undergo holometabolism or "complete metamorphosis". Their life cycle normally consists of an egg, a larva, a pupa, and an imago or adult. The larvae are commonly called caterpillars, and the pupae of moths encapsulated in silk are called cocoons, while the uncovered pupae of butterflies are called chrysalides.

text: Species of Lepidoptera undergo

text: holometabolism

text: or "complete metamorphosis". Their life cycle normally consists of an

text: egg

text: , a

text: larva

text: , a

text: pupa

text: , and an

text: imago

text: caterpillar

text: s, and the pupae of moths encapsulated in silk are called

text: cocoon

text: s, while the uncovered pupae of butterflies are called

text: chrysalides

text: The condition index in fish is a way to measure the overall health of a fish by comparing its weight with the typical weight of other fish of the same kind and of the same length. The condition index is its actual weight divided by its expected weight, times 100%.  A fish of normal weight has a condition index of 100 percent. So if a tarpon, for example, has a condition index of 104 percent, that would mean it is above the normal weight for an average tarpon of that length. If a tarpon has a condition index of 92 percent, that would mean that it is thinner, or below the normal weight of other tarpon that length. The condition index depends on how much a fish is eating compared to the energy it has to spend to live, migrate, reproduce, and do its other activities.  The condition index for fish is a simple measurement that can be used to provide important biological information that can then be used to make better management decisions.

text: The condition index in

text: fish

text: is a way to measure the overall health of a fish by comparing its weight with the typical weight of other fish of the same kind and of the same length. The condition index is its actual weight divided by its expected weight, times 100%.  A fish of normal weight has a condition index of 100 percent. So if a

text: tarpon

text: , for example, has a condition index of 104 percent, that would mean it is above the normal weight for an average tarpon of that length. If a tarpon has a condition index of 92 percent, that would mean that it is thinner, or below the normal weight of other tarpon that length. The condition index depends on how much a fish is eating compared to the energy it has to spend to live, migrate, reproduce, and do its other activities.  The condition index for fish is a simple measurement that can be used to provide important biological information that can then be used to make better management decisions.

text: Flying fish live in all of the oceans, particularly in tropical and warm subtropical waters. They are commonly found in the epipelagic zone. This area is the top layer of the ocean that extends 200 meters from the surface down. It is often known as the "sunlight zone" because it's where most of the visible light exists. Nearly all primary production, or photosynthesis, happens in this zone. Therefore, the vast majority of plants and animals inhabit this area and can vary from plankton to the sharks.  Although the epipelagic zone is an exceptional area for variety in life, it too has its drawbacks. Due to the vast variety of organisms it holds, there is high number of prey and predation relationships. Small organisms such as the flying fish are targets for larger organisms. They especially have a hard time escaping predators and surviving until they can reproduce, resulting in them having a lower fitness. Along with relationship difficulties, abiotic factors also play a part. Harsh ocean currents make it extremely difficult for small fish to survive in this habitat. Research suggests that difficult environmental factors in the flying fish's habitat have led to the evolution of modified fins. As a result, flying fish have undergone natural selection in which species gain unique traits to better adapt to their environments. By becoming airborne, flying fish outsmart their predators and environment. This increase of speed and maneuverability is a direct advantage to flying fish, and has given them leverage when compared to other species in their environment.

text: Flying fish live in all of the

text: oceans

text: , particularly in

text: tropical

text: and warm

text: subtropical

text: waters. They are commonly found in the

text: epipelagic zone

text: . This area is the top layer of the ocean that extends 200 meters from the surface down. It is often known as the "sunlight zone" because it's where most of the visible light exists. Nearly all primary production, or photosynthesis, happens in this zone. Therefore, the vast majority of plants and animals inhabit this area and can vary from plankton to the sharks.  Although the epipelagic zone is an exceptional area for variety in life, it too has its drawbacks. Due to the vast variety of organisms it holds, there is high number of prey and predation relationships. Small organisms such as the flying fish are targets for larger organisms. They especially have a hard time escaping predators and surviving until they can reproduce, resulting in them having a lower fitness. Along with relationship difficulties,

text: abiotic

text: factors also play a part. Harsh ocean currents make it extremely difficult for small fish to survive in this habitat. Research suggests that difficult environmental factors in the flying fish's habitat have led to the evolution of modified fins. As a result, flying fish have undergone natural selection in which species gain unique traits to better adapt to their environments. By becoming airborne, flying fish outsmart their predators and environment. This increase of speed and maneuverability is a direct advantage to flying fish, and has given them leverage when compared to other species in their environment.

text: Corculum cardissa is a hermaphrodite. Eggs are laid and the larvae develop with great rapidity. Within 24 hours of fertilisation, the veliger larvae have been observed to develop two valves and be swimming on the surface of the substrate. A day later, they had undergone metamorphosis and had settled on the bottom as juveniles, miniature versions of the adult bivalves.

text: Corculum cardissa is a

text: hermaphrodite

text: Eggs

text: are laid and the

text: larva

text: e develop with great rapidity. Within 24 hours of fertilisation, the

text: veliger

text: larvae have been observed to develop two valves and be swimming on the surface of the substrate. A day later, they had undergone

text: metamorphosis

text: and had settled on the bottom as juveniles, miniature versions of the adult bivalves.

text: Although they traditionally considered as Artisanal fishing, the methods used by the Coast Salish do not operate at a low scale level. It is estimated that "between 4 million and 12 million salmon would have been consumed annually, and this does not include fish harvested for trade, or for ceremonial purposes". The organization and sustainment of this fishing system was maintained through careful regulation of " timing and level of harvest".

text: Fish are able to quickly metabolize and eliminate PAHs, therefore tissue residue of parent PAH compounds will not provide adequate information on exposure to the organism. PAH exposure in fish has been associated with reproductive impairment, immune deficiency, and liver lesions as well as other health problems. In contrast, invertebrates do not metabolize and excrete PAHs as efficiently as fish, therefore an investigator can better understand location and temporal patterns of bioavailable PAHs through tissue residue of these invertebrates.

text: Fish are able to quickly metabolize and eliminate

text: PAHs

text: , therefore tissue residue of parent PAH compounds will not provide adequate information on exposure to the organism. PAH exposure in fish has been associated with reproductive impairment, immune deficiency, and liver lesions as well as other health problems. In contrast, invertebrates do not metabolize and excrete PAHs as efficiently as fish, therefore an investigator can better understand location and temporal patterns of bioavailable PAHs through tissue residue of these invertebrates.

text: The spearfish remora attaches itself with its disc to a host fish, with juveniles often attaching in the gill chambers. Host fish include the sailfish, the white marlin, the black marlin, the striped marlin and the swordfish; all these fish swim faster than does the remora, and it is not clear how the remora attaches to the host in the first place. The remora can move about the body surface of its host and is capable of short bursts of independent swimming. The diet includes parasitic copepods removed from the body of the host, but these do not seem to form such a large percentage of the diet of the spearfish remora as it does for the common remora (Remora remora). Although more than one remora can attach to a single host, it is not clear how remoras come together to breed.

text: The spearfish remora attaches itself with its disc to a host fish, with juveniles often attaching in the gill chambers. Host fish include the

text: sailfish

text: , the

text: white marlin

text: , the

text: black marlin

text: , the

text: striped marlin

text: and the

text: swordfish

text: ; all these fish swim faster than does the remora, and it is not clear how the remora attaches to the host in the first place. The remora can move about the body surface of its host and is capable of short bursts of independent swimming. The diet includes parasitic copepods removed from the body of the host, but these do not seem to form such a large percentage of the diet of the spearfish remora as it does for the

text: common remora

text: (Remora remora). Although more than one remora can attach to a single host, it is not clear how remoras come together to breed.

text: Southern black bream become sexually mature at different ages throughout their range, with Western and South Australian fish maturing by two to three years of age, while Victorian fish mature at five years. There is also a difference in maturation age between the sexes, as females generally mature one year later than males.The timing of spawning is also variable over the species range, with fish in Western Australia able to spawn from July to November, South Australian fish spawning between November and January and Victorian fish in October to November. Reproducing fish migrate into the upper reaches of rivers and streams, where they shed their eggs, with each fish producing up to three million per season. The eggs are small and pelagic, hatching two days or so after fertilisation.The young bream spend the next four years of their lives living in rivers, estuaries and parts of the coastline, often seen schooling over seagrass beds in shallow reaches of estuaries. It is when they reach five years in age that fish living in the marine environment move offshore to deeper reefs, returning to the rivers to spawn, as they cannot complete their life cycle in the ocean. Southern black bream are known to live to 29 years of age.

text: Southern black bream become

text: sexually mature

text: at different ages throughout their range, with Western and South Australian fish maturing by two to three years of age, while Victorian fish mature at five years. There is also a difference in maturation age between the sexes, as females generally mature one year later than males.The timing of

text: spawn

text: ing is also variable over the species range, with fish in Western Australia able to spawn from July to November, South Australian fish spawning between November and January and Victorian fish in October to November. Reproducing fish migrate into the upper reaches of rivers and streams, where they shed their

text: egg

text: s, with each fish producing up to three million per season. The eggs are small and pelagic, hatching two days or so after

text: fertilisation

text: .The young bream spend the next four years of their lives living in rivers, estuaries and parts of the coastline, often seen schooling over

text: seagrass

text: beds in shallow reaches of estuaries. It is when they reach five years in age that fish living in the marine environment move offshore to deeper reefs, returning to the rivers to spawn, as they cannot complete their

text: life cycle

text: in the ocean. Southern black bream are known to live to 29 years of age.

text: A significant number of the residents of Kodimunai do jobs related to fishing. This includes deep sea fishing, shallow water fishing, fishing from the shore (known as karamadi in the local language), fishing with mechanized boats, exporting fish, etc. Many of them work in a number of other fields like medicine, education, engineering, trading, cargo shipping, etc. However, there is no noticeable local industry except for fishing. even most of the people discovered the passion towards fishing. of course they contribute certain percentage to Indian GDP even though it is not recognized. soon kodimunai is going to be thrived in economy comparing to other villages. kodimunai do have reliable sources like fishing, thodu and some local stocks which made this village incomparable with other places of kanyakumari. proud to say 80% of the people having high standard of living like USA.

text: Fishes of the World by Joseph S. Nelson is a standard reference for fish systematics. Now in its fifth edition (2016), the work is a comprehensive overview of the diversity and classification of the 30,000-plus fish species known to science.

text: Fishes of the World by

text: Joseph S. Nelson

text: is a standard reference for

text: fish

text: systematics

text: . Now in its fifth edition (2016), the work is a comprehensive overview of the diversity and classification of the 30,000-plus fish

text: species

text: known to science.

text: It is also generally accepted that fish are exposed to increased Dactylogyrus infections during their spawning period.

text: Adult warpaint shiners are a pelagic freshwater fish found in rubble and gravel riffles and the pools of fast creeks with high clarity.  They prefer cool, clear, and small to medium sized rivers and streams with rocky substrates.  The warpaint shiner is an insectivore. During the spring the warpaint shiner uses its large terminal mouth to primarily feed on aquatic insect larva from the order Ephemeroptera, such as mayfly nymphs. During the summer warpaint shiners feed mostly terrestrial insects, taken at the surface belonging to the orders Hymenoptera and Coleoptera.  Largemouth bass and smallmouth bass are the two primary predators of the warpaint shiner. Associates of the warpaint shiner include the saffron shiner and the river chub. These small forage fish are often found together in small schools. Warpaint shiners have been observed spawning over the circular nests of the river chub.  The warpaint shiner's dependence on clear running water and a rocky substrate to spawn successfully makes it susceptible to the slowing or stopping of rivers and streams by dams and the siltation resulting from river bank destabilization due to farming operations and land development.

text: Adult warpaint shiners are a

text: pelagic

text: freshwater fish found in rubble and gravel

text: riffle

text: s and the pools of fast creeks with high clarity.  They prefer cool, clear, and small to medium sized rivers and streams with rocky

text: substrate

text: s.  The warpaint shiner is an

text: insectivore

text: . During the spring the warpaint shiner uses its large terminal mouth to primarily feed on aquatic insect larva from the order

text: Ephemeroptera

text: , such as

text: mayfly

text: nymph

text: s. During the summer warpaint shiners feed mostly terrestrial insects, taken at the surface belonging to the orders

text: Hymenoptera

text: and

text: Coleoptera

text: Largemouth bass

text: and

text: smallmouth bass

text: are the two primary predators of the warpaint shiner. Associates of the warpaint shiner include the

text: saffron shiner

text: and the

text: river chub

text: . These small

text: forage fish

text: are often found together in small

text: schools

text: . Warpaint shiners have been observed

text: spawning

text: over the circular nests of the river chub.  The warpaint shiner's dependence on clear running water and a rocky substrate to spawn successfully makes it susceptible to the slowing or stopping of rivers and streams by dams and the siltation resulting from river bank destabilization due to farming operations and land development.

text: The river darter spawns from February to May. River darters are brood hiders; they do not guard their eggs. After they have laid their eggs they do not provide parental care. Females bury their fertilized eggs in gravel depressions in areas of slow current. These gravel depressions are called redds. River darter eggs are able to tolerate temperatures between 13-26* Celsius. Some reports indicate upstream migration of river darters during the spring. After spawning the fish may move downstream to reach overwintering habitats. The newly hatched larvae may drift downstream as well, and as they grow the darters shift into faster water habitats of mature darters.

text: The river darter spawns from February to May. River darters are brood hiders; they do not guard their eggs. After they have laid their eggs they do not provide parental care. Females bury their fertilized eggs in gravel depressions in areas of slow current. These gravel depressions are called

text: redds

text: . River darter eggs are able to tolerate temperatures between 13-26* Celsius. Some reports indicate upstream migration of river darters during the spring. After spawning the fish may move downstream to reach overwintering habitats. The newly hatched larvae may drift downstream as well, and as they grow the darters shift into faster water habitats of mature darters.

text: Slot limits are put in action to help protect certain fish in given area. They generally require anglers to release captured fish if they fall within a given size range, allowing anglers to keep only smaller or larger fish. Slot Limits vary from lake to lake depending on what local officials believe would produce the best outcome for managing fish populations.

text: Slot limit

text: s are put in action to help protect certain fish in given area. They generally require anglers to release captured fish if they fall within a given size range, allowing anglers to keep only smaller or larger fish. Slot Limits vary from lake to lake depending on what local officials believe would produce the best outcome for managing fish populations.

text: The most basic molluscan larva is a trochophore, which is planktonic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia around its "equator" to sweep food into the mouth, which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach, which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through the anus. New tissue grows in the bands of mesoderm in the interior, so the apical tuft and anus are pushed further apart as the animal grows. The trochophore stage is often succeeded by a veliger stage in which the prototroch, the "equatorial" band of cilia nearest the apical tuft, develops into the velum ("veil"), a pair of cilia-bearing lobes with which the larva swims. Eventually, the larva sinks to the seafloor and metamorphoses into the adult form. While metamorphosis is the usual state in molluscs, the cephalopods differ in exhibiting direct development: the hatchling is a 'miniaturized' form of the adult.

text: The most basic molluscan

text: larva

text: is a

text: trochophore

text: , which is

text: plankton

text: ic and feeds on floating food particles by using the two bands of cilia around its "equator" to sweep food into the mouth, which uses more cilia to drive them into the stomach, which uses further cilia to expel undigested remains through the anus. New tissue grows in the bands of

text: mesoderm

text: in the interior, so the apical tuft and anus are pushed further apart as the animal grows. The trochophore stage is often succeeded by a

text: veliger

text: stage in which the

text: prototroch

text: , the "equatorial" band of cilia nearest the apical tuft, develops into the velum ("veil"), a pair of cilia-bearing lobes with which the larva swims. Eventually, the larva sinks to the seafloor and

text: metamorphoses

text: into the adult form. While metamorphosis is the usual state in molluscs, the cephalopods differ in exhibiting direct development: the hatchling is a 'miniaturized' form of the adult.

text: The sexes are separate in Mulinia lateralis. The female produces up to 2 million eggs at a time, and fertilisation is external. The veliger larvae disperse as part of the zooplankton and take from 1 to 3 weeks to develop into the pediveliger stage, whereupon they settle and undergo metamorphosis. The juveniles grow fast and are sexually mature within 2 months.

text: The sexes are separate in Mulinia lateralis. The female produces up to 2 million eggs at a time, and fertilisation is external. The

text: veliger

text: larvae disperse as part of the

text: zooplankton

text: and take from 1 to 3 weeks to develop into the pediveliger stage, whereupon they settle and undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: . The juveniles grow fast and are sexually mature within 2 months.

text: The water activity, a, in a fish is defined as the ratio of the water vapour pressure in the flesh of the fish to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature and pressure. It ranges between 0 and 1, and is a parameter that measures how available the water is in the flesh of the fish. Available water is necessary for the microbial and enzymatic reactions involved in spoilage. There are a number of techniques that have been or are used to tie up the available water or remove it by reducing the a. Traditionally, techniques such as drying, salting and smoking have been used, and have been used for thousands of years. These techniques can be very simple, for example, by using solar drying. In more recent times, freeze-drying, water-binding humectants, and fully automated equipment with temperature and humidity control have been added. Often a combination of these techniques is used.

text: The

text: water activity

text: water vapour

text: drying

text: salting

text: and

text: smoking

text: have been used, and have been used for thousands of years. These techniques can be very simple, for example, by using solar drying. In more recent times,

text: freeze-drying

text: , water-binding

text: humectant

text: You are catching the fish one by one with a fishing rod. You have decided to catch n fish. You are determined to catch exactly n fish regardless of how long time it may take. You are stopping after you have caught n fish even if you can see more fish that are tempting you.

text: The monk went home full of anger. Filled with anger at the fish, he made a wooden effigy of a fish head. When he recalled his adversity, he beat the fish head with a wooden hammer. To his surprise, each time he beat the wooden fish, the fish opened its mouth and vomited a character. He became so happy that, when he had time, he always beat the fish. A few years later, he had got back from the wooden fish's mouth what he had lost to the flood.

text: The monk went home full of anger. Filled with anger at the fish, he made a wooden effigy of a fish head. When he recalled his adversity, he beat the fish head with a wooden hammer. To his surprise, each time he beat the wooden fish, the fish opened its mouth and vomited a

text: character

text: . He became so happy that, when he had time, he always beat the fish. A few years later, he had got back from the wooden fish's mouth what he had lost to the flood.

text: Ostracoderms ("shell-skinned") are the armored jawless fishes of the Paleozoic. The term does not often appear in classifications today because it is paraphyletic or polyphyletic, and has no phylogenetic meaning. However, the term is still used as an informal way of loosely grouping together the armored jawless fishes.

text: Ostracoderms ("shell-skinned") are the

text: armored

text: jawless fish

text: es of the

text: Paleozoic

text: paraphyletic

text: or

text: polyphyletic

text: , and has no phylogenetic meaning. However, the term is still used as an informal way of loosely grouping together the armored jawless fishes.

text: Most fish are ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change, though some of the large active swimmers like white shark and tuna can hold a higher core temperature. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. They can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams (e.g., char and gudgeon) to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans (e.g., gulpers and anglerfish). With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any other group of vertebrates.

text: Most fish are

text: ectotherm

text: ic ("cold-blooded"), allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change, though some of the large active swimmers like

text: white shark

text: and

text: tuna

text: can hold a higher

text: core temperature

text: . Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. They can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams (e.g.,

text: char

text: and

text: gudgeon

text: ) to the

text: abyssal

text: and even

text: hadal

text: depths of the deepest oceans (e.g.,

text: gulper

text: s and

text: anglerfish

text: ). With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any other group of vertebrates.

text: Historically, the woundfin also occupied the lower Colorado River from the Virgin to Yuma, Arizona, and the Gila River from Yuma to its confluence with the Salt River, but habitat destruction through water development (including eight major dams which alter flow) and the introduction of several species (particularly the red shiner (Cyprinella lutrensis), which competes for food and is known to prey upon the woundfin's eggs and young) have led to its extirpation in these regions as well as a decline in population in the Virgin River. Since 1970, the woundfin has been listed as an endangered species. Other listings include "Vulnerable" on the IUCN Red List and "Critically Imperiled" (the most critical classification) by NatureServe. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service lists the population status as "declining."The Dexter National Fish Hatchery in Dexter, New Mexico studies the woundfin in an effort to help conserve the species, and has successfully spawned the fish in captivity. However, efforts to transplant the species into other rivers and creeks have failed due to reproduction not taking place.On July 11, 2007, approximately 50 woundfin were released into the Hassayampa River near Wickenburg, Arizona. The hatchery-raised fish were from wild Virgin River stock. The only wild population of the species is in the Virgin River.An aggressive program to eradicate red shiner from the Virgin River in Utah has all but removed red shiner from reaches previously dominated by red shiner.  Fish barriers have been erected to prevent re-colonization by red shiner, and has allowed the reintroduction of hatchery raised woundfin.  Several thousand of hatchery-raised woundfin were released in the fall of 2007 and 2008.  With red shiner no longer a threat, low flows and high temperatures are the biggest threats still facing wounfin.Another minnow, the Virgin River chub (Gila seminuda), has much of the same range as the woundfin and thus faces the same threats of extinction, particularly competition from the red shiner and a decrease in water quality as the result of agricultural runoff.

text: Historically, the woundfin also occupied the lower

text: Colorado River

text: from the Virgin to

text: Yuma, Arizona

text: , and the

text: Gila River

text: from Yuma to its confluence with the

text: Salt River

text: , but habitat destruction through water development (including eight major dams which alter flow) and the

text: introduction

text: of several species (particularly the

text: red shiner

text: (Cyprinella lutrensis), which competes for food and is known to prey upon the woundfin's eggs and young) have led to its

text: extirpation

text: in these regions as well as a decline in population in the Virgin River. Since 1970, the woundfin has been listed as an

text: endangered species

text: . Other listings include "Vulnerable" on the

text: IUCN Red List

text: and "Critically Imperiled" (the most critical classification) by

text: NatureServe

text: . The

text: United States Fish and Wildlife Service

text: lists the population status as "declining."The

entity_name: Dexter National Fish Hatchery & Technology Center

text: Dexter National Fish Hatchery

text: in

text: Dexter, New Mexico

text: studies the woundfin in an effort to help conserve the species, and has successfully

text: spawned

text: the fish in

text: captivity

text: . However, efforts to transplant the species into other rivers and creeks have failed due to reproduction not taking place.On July 11, 2007, approximately 50 woundfin were released into the Hassayampa River near Wickenburg, Arizona. The hatchery-raised fish were from wild Virgin River stock. The only wild population of the species is in the Virgin River.An aggressive program to eradicate red shiner from the Virgin River in Utah has all but removed red shiner from reaches previously dominated by red shiner.  Fish barriers have been erected to prevent re-colonization by red shiner, and has allowed the reintroduction of hatchery raised woundfin.  Several thousand of hatchery-raised woundfin were released in the fall of 2007 and 2008.  With red shiner no longer a threat, low flows and high temperatures are the biggest threats still facing wounfin.Another minnow, the

text: Virgin River chub

text: (Gila seminuda), has much of the same range as the woundfin and thus faces the same threats of extinction, particularly competition from the red shiner and a decrease in water quality as the result of agricultural runoff.

text: For many years the abattoirs located here were discharging large amounts of untreated waste into the Manukau Harbour. This had had a detrimential effect on the ecology of the harbour which at the turn of the 20th century had been a popular and attractive place to swim, sail, fish and gather shell fish. For most of the middle of the 20th century it was a health hazard and its shell-fish a probable source of food poisoning. Since the freezing works were fully closed in 1981,  the water quality has improved greatly.

text: There have been a number of studies done using this species of water bug. Food web and habitat studies have used B. flumineum as the predation pressure for tadpoles and observed the difference between vegetated areas and non vegetated ares when looking at the survival rate of tadpoles. They found that the tadpoles survived better in highly vegetated area even though those areas tended to have more predators in them. Other studies used B. flumineum as a predation pressure on snails to see if they would change their susceptibility though ontogeny. and as a stress inducer on amphibians to see if that would make them more susceptible to disease. The other main area of research done using this species was on factors that influence paternal care. Crowl and Alexander studied the potential costs of males brooding, specifically if brooding effected their ability to forage for food. They did get results that suggested that brooding males could not catch faster prey such as small fish as well as females or non brooding males could and thus it does have a foraging effect. Gilg and Kruse wanted to test if reproduction decreased life span and they chose B. flumineum because both the female and male have relatively high costs of reproduction. The females require a lot of energy to make such large eggs and then the males spend energy brooding eggs and are more exposed to predators. They did find statistically significant differences between the life spans of virgin and breeding in both males and females.

text: There have been a number of studies done using this species of water bug.

text: Food web

text: and habitat studies have used B. flumineum as the predation pressure for tadpoles and observed the difference between vegetated areas and non vegetated ares when looking at the survival rate of tadpoles. They found that the tadpoles survived better in highly vegetated area even though those areas tended to have more predators in them. Other studies used B. flumineum as a predation pressure on snails to see if they would change their susceptibility though

text: ontogeny

text: . and as a stress inducer on amphibians to see if that would make them more susceptible to disease. The other main area of research done using this species was on factors that influence paternal care. Crowl and Alexander studied the potential costs of males brooding, specifically if brooding effected their ability to forage for food. They did get results that suggested that brooding males could not catch faster prey such as small fish as well as females or non brooding males could and thus it does have a foraging effect. Gilg and Kruse wanted to test if reproduction decreased life span and they chose B. flumineum because both the female and male have relatively high costs of reproduction. The females require a lot of energy to make such large eggs and then the males spend energy brooding eggs and are more exposed to predators. They did find statistically significant differences between the life spans of virgin and breeding in both males and females.

text: Very long migrations are part of the golden perch's ecology, particularly preceding spawning.  Adult fish have been recorded migrating more than 1,000 km when flood conditions allow passage over weirs and other man-made obstructions.  Smaller migrations are important in the ecology of juvenile fish.  The evidence suggests that before European settlement, vast shoals of golden perch roamed the entire lowland and slope reaches of the Murray-Darling River system, unimpeded. Thus, the gradual loss of fish passage through the numerous dams, weirs, locks, and other barriers (estimated at 4,000 in the Murray-Darling system) now present has had severe impacts on the species.  Some major weirs have been remediated to provide fish passage, however.

text: The Fisheries Section of the Patrick Center conducts research into the ecology, conservation, and management of lotic and estuarine fishes. Studies may range from the analysis of fish tissues for contaminants, monitoring fish populations for environmental assessments, to investigating the life histories of individual species. Recent and ongoing work include, glass eel (the larvae of freshwater or American eels) recruitment in the Delaware River basin, the ecology and genetics of bridal shiner (a fish that's endangered in Pennsylvania), and the impacts of flow management (dam releases) in the Upper Delaware River to native and introduced fish populations.

text: The Fisheries Section of the Patrick Center conducts research into the ecology,

text: conservation

text: , and

text: management

text: of

text: lotic

text: and

text: estuarine fish

text: es. Studies may range from the analysis of fish tissues for contaminants, monitoring fish populations for environmental assessments, to investigating the life histories of individual species. Recent and ongoing work include, glass eel (the larvae of freshwater or

text: American eel

text: s) recruitment in the Delaware River basin, the ecology and genetics of bridal shiner (a fish that's endangered in Pennsylvania), and the impacts of flow management (

text: dam releases

text: ) in the Upper

text: Delaware River

text: to native and

text: introduced fish

text: populations.

text: Pelagic fisheries are fisheries for pelagic fish, that is, for fish that are offshore in the open ocean, such as small schooling forage fish, sometimes called bait fish, and larger fish who prey on them, such as tuna and ocean sharks.

text: Pelagic fisheries are

text: fisheries

text: for

text: pelagic

text: fish, that is, for fish that are offshore in the open ocean, such as small

text: schooling

text: forage fish

text: , sometimes called

text: bait fish

text: , and larger fish who prey on them, such as

text: tuna

text: and ocean sharks.

text: The rising population results in increased demand on fish stocks, which are under stress; although the creation of the Funafuti Conservation Area has provided a fishing exclusion area that helps sustain fish populations across the Funafuti lagoon. Population pressure on the resources of Funafuti and in-adequation sanitation systems have resulted in pollution. The Waste Operations and Services Act 2009 provides the legal framework for the waste management and pollution control projects funded by the European Union that are directed to organic waste composting in eco-sanitation systems.  Plastic waste is also a problem as much imported food and other commodities is supplied in plastic containers or packaging.

text: The rising population results in increased demand on fish stocks, which are under stress; although the creation of the

text: Funafuti Conservation Area

text: has provided a fishing exclusion area that helps sustain fish populations across the Funafuti lagoon. Population pressure on the resources of Funafuti and in-adequation sanitation systems have resulted in pollution. The Waste Operations and Services Act 2009 provides the legal framework for the waste management and pollution control projects funded by the European Union that are directed to organic waste composting in eco-sanitation systems.  Plastic waste is also a problem as much imported food and other commodities is supplied in plastic containers or packaging.

text: In many respects its body structure resembled that of the much later plesiosaurs, but it was not as well adapted to an aquatic environment. It is thought that one branch of the nothosaurs may have evolved into plesiosaurs such as Liopleurodon, a short-necked plesiosaur that grew up to , and the long-necked Cryptoclidus, a fish eater with a neck as long as .

text: In many respects its body structure resembled that of the much later

text: plesiosaur

text: s, but it was not as well adapted to an aquatic environment. It is thought that one branch of the nothosaurs may have evolved into plesiosaurs such as

text: Liopleurodon

text: , a short-necked plesiosaur that grew up to , and the long-necked

text: Cryptoclidus

text: , a fish eater with a neck as long as .

text: Adult fish typically reach sexual maturity at one year and spawning is triggered by changes in day length and temperature. Unless landlocked within a lake, the common galaxias spawns mainly in autumn during spring tides in the tidally-influenced reaches of rivers and streams  however there is evidence of spawning in winter and spring. The eggs are laid en masse amongst flooded riparian vegetation by females. Male fish then release sperm into the water and the eggs are fertilized externally.

text: Adult fish typically reach sexual maturity at one year and spawning is triggered by changes in day length and temperature. Unless landlocked within a lake, the common galaxias

text: spawns

text: mainly in autumn during

text: spring tide

text: s in the tidally-influenced reaches of rivers and streams  however there is evidence of spawning in winter and spring. The eggs are laid en masse amongst flooded

text: riparian

text: vegetation by females. Male fish then release

text: sperm

text: into the water and the eggs are fertilized externally.

text: Coded wire tags are used to track groups or individual fish for research and fishery management purposes. Commonly tagged species are coho, chinook, steelhead, chum, sockeye, and pink salmon. In Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California, the adipose fin is removed from CWT tagged salmon as a visual indicator of the presence of the tag. However, in Washington the adipose fin is removed from nearly all hatchery salmon in mass marking programs to distinguish them from wild fish. In order to study the impacts of mark selective fisheries, where marked hatchery salmon are selected by fisheries rather than unmarked wild fish, some fish receive what is called a double index tag. In double index tagging, some hatchery fish are tagged with a CWT but do not have their adipose fin clipped. This means that the adipose fin clip cannot always be depended on as an indicator that a tag is there, since some fish with adipose fin clips will not actually have tags, and some fish with intact adipose fins will have tags. In places where mass marking or double index tagging is practiced, an electronic detector such as a wand or tunnel must be used to determine if a tag is present so the snout can be dissected to read the tag. Electronic tag detection is used in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Alaska and California depend on the adipose fin clip to indicate the presence of a tag.

text: Coded wire tags are used to track groups or individual fish for research and fishery management purposes. Commonly tagged species are

text: coho

text: chinook

text: steelhead

text: chum

text: sockeye

text: , and

text: pink salmon

text: . In

text: Alaska

text: British Columbia

text: Washington

text: Oregon

text: , and

text: California

text: , the adipose fin is removed from CWT tagged salmon as a visual indicator of the presence of the tag. However, in Washington the adipose fin is removed from nearly all hatchery salmon in mass marking programs to distinguish them from wild fish. In order to study the impacts of mark selective fisheries, where marked hatchery salmon are selected by fisheries rather than unmarked wild fish, some fish receive what is called a double index tag. In double index tagging, some hatchery fish are tagged with a CWT but do not have their adipose fin clipped. This means that the adipose fin clip cannot always be depended on as an indicator that a tag is there, since some fish with adipose fin clips will not actually have tags, and some fish with intact adipose fins will have tags. In places where mass marking or double index tagging is practiced, an electronic detector such as a wand or tunnel must be used to determine if a tag is present so the snout can be dissected to read the tag. Electronic tag detection is used in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Alaska and California depend on the adipose fin clip to indicate the presence of a tag.

text: All salmonids spawn in fresh water, but in many cases, the fish spend most of their lives at sea, returning to the rivers only to reproduce. This lifecycle is described as anadromous. They are slender fish, with rounded scales and forked tails.

text: anadromous

text: . They are slender fish, with rounded scales and forked tails.

text: Though common in southeastern Australia, its numbers sharply declined in the 1980s, due to the introduction of predatory fish, lack of food, and changing water levels, which interfered with the fish's breeding. The fish was thought to be extinct, but a small number were found in the lower part of the Murray–Darling basin in 2002. In an effort to increase the fish's abundance, the New South Wales Department of Primary Industries instituted a captive-breeding program, in hopes of eventually releasing the more "genetically variable" fish into the wild, where they can reproduce with the remaining wild populations and recover from their previous population decline by "recover[ing] genetic variation".

text: Though common in southeastern Australia, its numbers sharply declined in the 1980s, due to the introduction of predatory fish, lack of food, and changing water levels, which interfered with the fish's breeding. The fish was thought to be extinct, but a small number were found in the lower part of the Murray–Darling basin in 2002. In an effort to increase the fish's abundance, the

entity_name: Department of Primary Industries (New South Wales)

text: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries

text: instituted a

text: captive-breeding

text: program, in hopes of eventually releasing the more "genetically variable" fish into the wild, where they can reproduce with the remaining wild populations and recover from their previous population decline by "recover[ing] genetic variation".

text: Philipp's research examines genetics, reproduction, and spatial ecology of fishes, and the effects of fisheries interactions on these dynamics in North America and the Caribbean. His early research examined centrarchid population genetics, gene expression, reproductive physiology,  and strategies,  heritability of fish behaviour, and life history strategies.

text: Philipp's research examines genetics,

text: reproduction

text: , and

text: spatial ecology

text: of fishes, and the effects of

text: fisheries

text: interactions on these dynamics in

text: North America

text: and the

text: Caribbean

text: . His early research examined

text: centrarchid

text: population genetics, gene expression, reproductive physiology,  and strategies,  heritability of fish behaviour, and life history strategies.

text: The first transgenic fish were produced in China in 1985. As of 2013, approximately 50 species of fish have been subject to genetic modification.   This has resulted in more than 400 fish/trait combinations.  Most of the modifications have been conducted on food species, such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), tilapia (genus) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio).

text: The first transgenic fish were produced in China in 1985. As of 2013, approximately 50 species of fish have been subject to genetic modification.   This has resulted in more than 400 fish/trait combinations.  Most of the modifications have been conducted on food species, such as

text: Atlantic salmon

text: (Salmo salar),

text: tilapia

text: (genus) and

text: common carp

text: (Cyprinus carpio).

text: The Federation of Irish Fishermen (FIF) is the umbrella organization for the three main Fish Producing Organizations (FPOs) in Ireland. It consists of The Irish Fish Producers Organization Ltd (IFPO), The Irish South and West Fish Producers Organisation Ltd.(IS&WFPO), and The Killybegs Fishermen's Organisation Ltd (KFO). Currently, the FIF represents over 90% of the Irish fishing fleet.

text: The Federation of Irish Fishermen (FIF) is the umbrella organization for the three main Fish Producing Organizations (FPOs) in

text: Ireland

text: . It consists of The Irish Fish Producers Organization Ltd (IFPO), The Irish South and West Fish Producers Organisation Ltd.(IS&WFPO), and The Killybegs Fishermen's Organisation Ltd (KFO). Currently, the FIF represents over 90% of the Irish fishing fleet.

text: Scientists participating in ICCAT carry out studies on biometry, fisheries ecology, and oceanography, focusing on the effects of fishing on tuna stock abundance. They also collect and analyse fisheries statistics which are relative to conditions the management of resources. ICCAT is also involved in work on data for other fish species that are caught during tuna fishing ("bycatch" - principally sharks) in the Atlantic and surrounding area, and which are not investigated by another international fishery organization.

text: Scientists participating in ICCAT carry out studies on

text: biometry

text: fisheries ecology

text: , and

text: oceanography

text: , focusing on the effects of fishing on tuna stock abundance. They also collect and analyse fisheries statistics which are relative to conditions the management of resources. ICCAT is also involved in work on data for other fish species that are caught during tuna fishing ("

text: bycatch

text: " - principally sharks) in the Atlantic and surrounding area, and which are not investigated by another international fishery organization.

text: Filefish spawn at bottom sites prepared and guarded by the males; both he and the female may guard the brood, or the male alone, depending on the species. The young filefish are pelagic; that is, they frequent open water. Sargassum provides a safe retreat for many species, both fish and weed being at the current's mercy. Juvenile filefish are at risk from predation by tuna and dolphinfish.

text: Filefish spawn at bottom sites prepared and guarded by the males; both he and the female may guard the brood, or the male alone, depending on the species. The young filefish are

text: pelagic

text: ; that is, they frequent open water. Sargassum provides a safe retreat for many species, both fish and weed being at the current's mercy. Juvenile filefish are at risk from predation by

text: tuna

text: and

text: dolphinfish

text: Fresh water creates a hypotonic environment for aquatic organisms. This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with gill membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some protists accomplish this using contractile vacuoles, while freshwater fish excrete excess water via the kidney. Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their osmotic balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity, diadromous fish have the ability to migrate between fresh water and saline water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled. The eel (Anguilla anguilla) uses the hormone prolactin, while in salmon (Salmo salar) the hormone cortisol plays a key role during this process.

text: Fresh water creates a

text: hypotonic

text: environment for aquatic organisms. This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with

text: gill

text: membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some

text: protist

text: s accomplish this using

text: contractile vacuole

text: s, while

text: freshwater fish

text: excrete excess water via the

text: kidney

text: . Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their

text: osmotic

text: balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity,

text: diadromous

text: fish

text: have the ability to

text: migrate

text: between fresh water and

text: saline

text: water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled. The

text: eel

text: Anguilla anguilla

text: ) uses the

text: hormone

text: prolactin

text: , while in

text: salmon

text: (Salmo salar) the hormone

text: cortisol

text: plays a key role during this process.

text: Prior to the mid-1990s, the population was fished for snapper bait with annual catches of around four tonnes (approx 4,000 cuttlefish). During the 1995 and 1996 spawning seasons, commercial fishing of the spawning grounds harvested around 200 tonnes annually. Over exploitation was recognised after 245 tonnes was harvested in 1997, leading to 50% of the grounds being closed to commercial fishing in 1998. Despite half of the grounds being closed, commercial fishers took 109 tonnes in 1998 (approximately half of the estimated biomass) before dropping to 3.7 tonnes in 1999. The catch data for 2000 to 2005 has not been released for confidentiality reasons. Surveys indicated that the cuttlefish biomass remained stable from 1998 to 2001. A further survey in 2005 revealed a 34% decrease in biomass since 2001 that was attributed to natural variability and illegal fishing during the peak spawning period. The closure was subsequently expanded to the entire spawning grounds and anecdotal observations suggested increased numbers in 2006 and 2007, however, a new survey in 2008 found the biomass had decreased a further 17%.

text: Prior to the mid-1990s, the population was fished for

text: snapper

text: bait with annual catches of around four tonnes (approx 4,000 cuttlefish). During the 1995 and 1996 spawning seasons, commercial fishing of the spawning grounds harvested around 200 tonnes annually. Over exploitation was recognised after 245 tonnes was harvested in 1997, leading to 50% of the grounds being closed to commercial fishing in 1998. Despite half of the grounds being closed, commercial fishers took 109 tonnes in 1998 (approximately half of the estimated biomass) before dropping to 3.7 tonnes in 1999. The catch data for 2000 to 2005 has not been released for confidentiality reasons. Surveys indicated that the cuttlefish biomass remained stable from 1998 to 2001. A further survey in 2005 revealed a 34% decrease in biomass since 2001 that was attributed to natural variability and illegal fishing during the peak spawning period. The closure was subsequently expanded to the entire spawning grounds and anecdotal observations suggested increased numbers in 2006 and 2007, however, a new survey in 2008 found the biomass had decreased a further 17%.

text: Spinnerbaits attract predatory fish primarily by activating a special sense organ called the lateral line system through the spinning blade. The Lateral line system enables fish to "touch" and ‘feel’ objects at a distance. Most fish have well-developed sense of touch and can feel the slightest change of water flow around it as a series of vibrations which may warn fish of approaching dangers or indicate the location of prey.

text: Spinnerbaits attract predatory fish primarily by activating a special sense organ called the

text: lateral line system

text: through the spinning blade. The Lateral line system enables fish to "touch" and ‘feel’ objects at a distance. Most fish have well-developed sense of touch and can feel the slightest change of water flow around it as a series of vibrations which may warn fish of approaching dangers or indicate the location of prey.

text: The female develops a brood patch of bare skin and plays the main part in incubating the eggs. The male helps, but can only cover the eggs rather than truly incubate them. The female spends the night incubating during this period, while the male roosts near the nest. Eggs hatch at the same time, after a short incubation period lasting 11–14 days, and exceptionally for as many as 17 or as few as 9. The length of the incubation period decreases as ambient temperature increases later in the breeding season.

text: The female develops a

text: brood patch

text: of bare skin and plays the main part in

text: incubating

text: the eggs. The male helps, but can only cover the eggs rather than truly incubate them. The female spends the night incubating during this period, while the male roosts near the nest. Eggs hatch at the same time, after a short incubation period lasting 11–14 days, and exceptionally for as many as 17 or as few as 9. The length of the incubation period decreases as ambient temperature increases later in the breeding season.

text: Interpretive communities are a theoretical concept stemming from reader-response criticism and publicized by Stanley Fish although it was in use in other fields and may be found as early as 1964 in the "Historical News and Notices" of the Tennessee Historical Quarterly (p. 98) and also, and again before Fish's usage, in Richard Crouter's 1974 "H. Reinhold Neibuhr and Stoicism" in The Journal of Religious Ethics .They appeared in an article by Fish in 1976 entitled "Interpreting the Variorum". Fish's theory states that a text does not have meaning outside of a set of cultural assumptions regarding both what the characters mean and how they should be interpreted. This cultural context often includes authorial intent, though it is not limited to it. Fish claims that we as individuals interpret texts because each of us is part of an interpretive community that gives us a particular way of reading a text. Furthermore, he claims, we cannot know whether someone is a part of our interpretive community or not, because any act of communication that we could engage in to tell whether we are part of the same interpretive community would have to be interpreted. That is, because we cannot escape our interpretive community, we can never really know its limits.

text: Interpretive communities are a theoretical concept stemming from

text: reader-response criticism

text: and publicized by

text: Stanley Fish

text: although it was in use in other fields and may be found as early as 1964 in the "Historical News and Notices" of the Tennessee Historical Quarterly (p. 98) and also, and again before Fish's usage, in Richard Crouter's 1974 "H. Reinhold Neibuhr and Stoicism" in The Journal of Religious Ethics .They appeared in an article by Fish in 1976 entitled "Interpreting the Variorum". Fish's theory states that a text does not have meaning outside of a set of cultural assumptions regarding both what the characters mean and how they should be interpreted. This cultural context often includes

text: authorial intent

text: , though it is not limited to it. Fish claims that we as individuals interpret texts because each of us is part of an interpretive community that gives us a particular way of reading a text. Furthermore, he claims, we cannot know whether someone is a part of our interpretive community or not, because any act of communication that we could engage in to tell whether we are part of the same interpretive community would have to be interpreted. That is, because we cannot escape our interpretive community, we can never really know its limits.

text: Today there are around 120 inhabitants who mostly live off fishing, or the small agriculture of the island.  There is only one restaurant on the island and the menu depends greatly on what fish the local fishermen have caught, or what food supplies the hydrofoil brings.

text: Today there are around 120 inhabitants who mostly live off

text: fishing

text: , or the small agriculture of the island.  There is only one restaurant on the island and the menu depends greatly on what fish the local fishermen have caught, or what food supplies the

text: hydrofoil

text: brings.

text: Atlantic cod are a shoaling species and move in large, size-structured aggregations. Larger fish act as scouts and lead the shoal's direction, particularly during postspawning migrations inshore for feeding. Cod actively feed during migration and changes in shoal structure occur when food is encountered. Shoals are generally thought to be relatively leaderless, with all fish having equal status and an equal distribution of resources and benefits.  However, some studies suggest that leading fish gain certain feeding benefits. One study of a migrating Atlantic cod shoal showed significant variability in feeding habits based on size and position in the shoal. Larger scouts consumed a more variable, higher quantity of food, while trailing fish had less variable diets and consumed less food. Fish distribution throughout the shoal seems to be dictated by fish size, and ultimately, the smaller lagging fish likely benefit from shoaling because they are more successful in feeding in the shoal than they would be if migrating individually, due to social facilitation.

text: Atlantic cod are a

text: shoaling

text: species and move in large, size-structured aggregations. Larger fish act as scouts and lead the shoal's direction, particularly during post

text: spawning

text: migrations

text: inshore for feeding. Cod actively feed during migration and changes in shoal structure occur when food is encountered. Shoals are generally thought to be relatively leaderless, with all fish having equal status and an equal distribution of resources and benefits.  However, some studies suggest that leading fish gain certain feeding benefits. One study of a migrating Atlantic cod shoal showed significant variability in feeding habits based on size and position in the shoal. Larger scouts consumed a more variable, higher quantity of food, while trailing fish had less variable diets and consumed less food. Fish distribution throughout the shoal seems to be dictated by fish size, and ultimately, the smaller lagging fish likely benefit from shoaling because they are more successful in feeding in the shoal than they would be if migrating individually, due to social facilitation.

text: These fish can be found in densely vegetated areas, places with woody debris, and underneath banks in root masses. Debris in deep water with undercut banks and slow inside flows are used more by this species. The area where the perch reside is dependent on their size, with medium to large perch occupying places that were more structurally complex than small ones.  They are known to congregate in these areas to avoid predation from piscivorous birds, otters, or mink. The pirate perch has nocturnal feeding habits; their diet consists of live mosquito larva, amphipods, glass shrimp, meal worms, small fish, dragonfly and stonefly larvae, and earthworms.

text: The incremental alterations in navigation and shipbuilding throughout the Renaissance marked the commencement of a new epoch in ichthyology. The Renaissance culminated with the era of exploration and colonization, and upon the cosmopolitan interest in navigation came the specialization in naturalism. Georg Marcgrave of Saxony composed the Naturalis Brasilae in 1648. This document contained a description of 100 species of fish indigenous to the Brazilian coastline. In 1686, John Ray and Francis Willughby collaboratively published Historia Piscium, a scientific manuscript containing 420 species of fish, 178 of these newly discovered. The fish contained within this informative literature were arranged in a provisional system of classification.

text: The incremental alterations in navigation and shipbuilding throughout the Renaissance marked the commencement of a new epoch in ichthyology. The Renaissance culminated with the era of exploration and colonization, and upon the cosmopolitan interest in navigation came the specialization in naturalism.

text: Georg Marcgrave

text: of

text: Saxony

text: composed the Naturalis Brasilae in 1648. This document contained a description of 100 species of fish indigenous to the

text: Brazil

text: ian coastline. In 1686,

text: John Ray

text: and

text: Francis Willughby

text: collaboratively published

text: Historia Piscium

text: , a scientific manuscript containing 420 species of fish, 178 of these newly discovered. The fish contained within this informative literature were arranged in a provisional system of classification.

text: It is sometimes found in aggregations of closely packed individuals. This may be linked to breeding activities but at other times it has no known cause. Breeding takes place at various times of the year in different parts of its range. In Bermuda the spawning period is short and seems to be related to the phase of the moon. Eggs and sperm are liberated into the water column and fertilisation is external. The larvae are planktonic and are known as pluteus larvae. They pass through several developmental stages before undergoing metamorphosis into juvenile urchins.

text: It is sometimes found in aggregations of closely packed individuals. This may be linked to breeding activities but at other times it has no known cause. Breeding takes place at various times of the year in different parts of its range. In Bermuda the spawning period is short and seems to be related to the phase of the moon. Eggs and sperm are liberated into the

text: water column

text: and fertilisation is external. The larvae are

text: plankton

text: ic and are known as

text: pluteus larvae

text: . They pass through several developmental stages before undergoing

text: metamorphosis

text: into juvenile urchins.

text: Thalassocnus is an extinct genus of apparently semiaquatic (for the geologically oldest species) or fully aquatic (for the geologically most recent species) marine sloth from the Miocene and Pliocene of South America. Fossils found to date have been from the coast of Peru and Chile. They were apparently grazers of sea grass and seaweed. The various species of this genus provides the best-documented case of gradual adaptation to a secondarily aquatic lifestyle. This is documented both at the morphological level, such as a progressive flattening of the radius,  and at the microanatomical level, which shows a progressive increase in thickness (pachyostosis) and compactness (osteosclerosis) of the long limb bones and ribs, providing ballast. They may have used their powerful claws to anchor themselves to the sea floor to facilitate feeding, similar to the behavior of the marine iguana.

text: Thalassocnus is an extinct genus of apparently

text: semiaquatic

text: (for the geologically oldest species) or fully aquatic (for the geologically most recent species) marine

text: sloth

text: from the

text: Miocene

text: and

text: Pliocene

text: of

text: South America

text: . Fossils found to date have been from the coast of

text: Peru

text: and

text: Chile

text: . They were apparently grazers of sea grass and seaweed. The various species of this genus provides the best-documented case of gradual adaptation to a secondarily aquatic lifestyle. This is documented both at the morphological level, such as a progressive flattening of the radius,  and at the microanatomical level, which shows a progressive increase in thickness (

text: pachyostosis

text: ) and compactness (

text: osteosclerosis

text: ) of the long limb bones and ribs, providing ballast. They may have used their powerful claws to anchor themselves to the sea floor to facilitate feeding, similar to the behavior of the

text: marine iguana

text: A fishing line is a cord used or made for angling. Important parameters of a fishing line are its length, material, and weight (thicker lines are more visible to fish). Factors that may determine what line an angler chooses for a given fishing environment include breaking strength, knot strength, UV resistance, castability, limpness, stretch, abrasion resistance, and visibility. Most modern lines are made from nylon or silk.

text: A fishing line is a cord used or made for

text: angling

text: . Important parameters of a fishing line are its length, material, and weight (thicker lines are more visible to fish). Factors that may determine what line an angler chooses for a given fishing environment include

text: breaking strength

text: , knot strength, UV resistance, castability, limpness, stretch, abrasion resistance, and visibility. Most modern lines are made from nylon or silk.

text: Okenia zoobotryon lays egg masses on the surface of its host. These are flat, gelatinous ribbons attached by one edge to the underlying surface. The eggs are enclosed in capsules and hatch after about five days, developing into veliger larvae that soon begin to feed on microalgae and are planktonic. They settle in about eight days, being attracted to Zoobotryon verticillatum by chemical cues, and undergo metamorphosis into juveniles within twenty-four hours of settlement.

text: Okenia zoobotryon lays egg masses on the surface of its host. These are flat, gelatinous ribbons attached by one edge to the underlying surface. The eggs are enclosed in capsules and hatch after about five days, developing into

text: veliger

text: larvae that soon begin to feed on

text: microalgae

text: and are

text: plankton

text: ic. They settle in about eight days, being attracted to

text: Zoobotryon verticillatum

text: by chemical cues, and undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: into

text: juveniles

text: within twenty-four hours of settlement.

text: Diglipur Tehsil is endowed with vast and varied fisheries resources in term of species diversity of fish, ornamental fish, shell fish and molluse. Large proportion of population is involved in fishing and allied activities for their income. There are 514 registered fishing boats in operation which provide livelihood for 1200 active fisherman families. Besides marine fishery, people of Diglipur are also involved in culturing freshwater fish with more than 700 available ponds. Majority of people are non vegetarian eater and relish fish and shell fish cuisine as preferred dish. Department of fisheries works for the welfare and development of fisherman and fish farmers and sustainable fisheries & aquaculture as a whole.

text: Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) recycle water by circulating it through filters to remove fish waste and food and then recirculating it back into the tanks.  This saves water and the waste gathered can be used in compost or, in some cases, could even be treated and used on land. While RAS was developed with freshwater fish in mind, scientist associated with the Agricultural Research Service have found a way to rear saltwater fish using RAS in low-salinity waters. Although saltwater fish are raised in off-shore cages or caught with nets in water that typically has a salinity of 35 parts per thousand (ppt), scientists were able to produce healthy pompano, a saltwater fish, in tanks with a salinity of only 5 ppt. Commercializing low-salinity RAS are predicted to have positive environmental and economical effects. Unwanted nutrients from the fish food would not be added to the ocean and the risk of transmitting diseases between wild and farm-raised fish would greatly be reduced. The price of expensive saltwater fish, such as the pompano and combia used in the experiments, would be reduced. However, before any of this can be done researchers must study every aspect of the fish's lifecycle, including the amount of ammonia and nitrate the fish will tolerate in the water, what to feed the fish during each stage of its lifecycle, the stocking rate that will produce the healthiest fish, etc.

text: Recirculating aquaculture systems

text: (RAS) recycle water by circulating it through filters to remove fish waste and food and then recirculating it back into the tanks.  This saves water and the waste gathered can be used in

text: compost

text: or, in some cases, could even be treated and used on land. While RAS was developed with freshwater fish in mind, scientist associated with the

text: Agricultural Research Service

text: have found a way to rear saltwater fish using RAS in low-salinity waters. Although saltwater fish are raised in off-shore cages or caught with nets in water that typically has a salinity of 35

text: parts per thousand

text: (ppt), scientists were able to produce healthy pompano, a saltwater fish, in tanks with a salinity of only 5 ppt. Commercializing low-salinity RAS are predicted to have positive environmental and economical effects. Unwanted nutrients from the fish food would not be added to the ocean and the risk of transmitting diseases between wild and farm-raised fish would greatly be reduced. The price of expensive saltwater fish, such as the pompano and combia used in the experiments, would be reduced. However, before any of this can be done researchers must study every aspect of the fish's lifecycle, including the amount of ammonia and nitrate the fish will tolerate in the water, what to feed the fish during each stage of its lifecycle, the

text: stocking rate

text: that will produce the healthiest fish, etc.

text: In gymnotiforms, electrocytes differ between wave-type and pulse-type electric fishes. In wave-type fishes, electrocytes are in a tubular form. In pulse fish the electrocytes tend to be flattened disks. The electocytes also form columns, but unlike the shorter size of electric organ in mormyrids, gymnotiforms have long electric organs that extend throughout almost the entire longitudinal body length. Also different from the stalk system in mormyrids, stalks in gymnotiforms only make one type of innervation at the posterior side of electrocyte. Pulse-type gymnotifoms generally show a higher complexity than the wave-type fishes. For instance, their electrocytes can be either cylindrical or drum-shaped with stalks innervating from either posterior or anterior side. Another important difference is that, unlike mormyrids or wave-type gymnotiforms, electrocytes of pulse-type gymnotiforms are not homogenous along the long electric organ that traverses the fish body. Different parts of the electric organs of some gymnotoiforms are innervated differently or may have different cellular firing properties.

text: Paradise fish are fairly combative, harassing and attacking each other, as well as potentially killing small fish. During a fight, the paradise fish will often change its color, usually displaying dark blue lateral lines on the sides of their bodies; extend its fins; and spread out its operculum. Paradise fish are more likely to show aggressive behavior towards other paradise fish than to fish of a different species. Acts of aggression tend to increase as the distance to the fish's home increases. In the wild, they are predators, eating insects, invertebrates, and fish fry. The popularity of this species has waned in recent decades as much more colorful (and often less pugnacious) species of gouramis have become widely available to hobbyists. This species is one of the few fish that can change its color (lighter or darker) in response to stimuli. It also appears that paradise fish are capable of learning through a type of restrictive process. Most forms of active teaching seem to hinder the paradise fish's ability to learn.

text: Paradise fish are fairly combative, harassing and attacking each other, as well as potentially killing small fish. During a fight, the paradise fish will often change its color, usually displaying dark blue lateral lines on the sides of their bodies; extend its fins; and spread out its

text: operculum

text: . Paradise fish are more likely to show aggressive behavior towards other paradise fish than to fish of a different species. Acts of aggression tend to increase as the distance to the fish's home increases. In the wild, they are

text: predator

text: s, eating

text: insect

text: s,

text: invertebrate

text: s, and

text: fish fry

text: . The popularity of this species has waned in recent decades as much more colorful (and often less pugnacious) species of

text: gourami

text: s have become widely available to hobbyists. This species is one of the few fish that can change its color (lighter or darker) in response to stimuli. It also appears that paradise fish are capable of learning through a type of restrictive process. Most forms of active teaching seem to hinder the paradise fish's ability to learn.

text: Neuroethological study has provided strong evidence for the existence of a system which adheres to an anti-Hebbian learning rule. Research on the mormyrid electric fish has demonstrated that the electrosensory lateral-line lobe (ELL) receives sensory input from knollenorgans (electroreceptive sensory organs) which utilize a self-generated electrical discharge (called an EOD; electric organ discharge) to extract information from the environment about objects in close proximity to the fish.

text: Neuroethological study has provided strong evidence for the existence of a system which adheres to an anti-

text: Hebbian learning

text: rule. Research on the mormyrid electric fish has demonstrated that the

text: electrosensory lateral-line lobe

text: (ELL) receives sensory input from

text: knollenorgan

text: s (electroreceptive sensory organs) which utilize a self-generated electrical discharge (called an EOD; electric organ discharge) to extract information from the environment about objects in close proximity to the fish.

text: Little is known of the snail's feeding habits, but they are believed to feed on other mollusks, ascidians ("sea squirts"), and more rarely, sea urchins.The species also holds the record for longest larval development period of any marine invertebrate, able to delay metamorphosis for over 4 years until presented with appropriate habitat. Under laboratory conditions, the larvae showed no signs of senescence at that point. According to some authorities, four years is long enough to drift completely across the Pacific Ocean.

text: Little is known of the snail's feeding habits, but they are believed to feed on other

text: mollusks

text: ascidians

text: ("sea squirts"), and more rarely,

text: sea urchin

text: s.The species also holds the record for longest larval development period of any marine invertebrate, able to delay metamorphosis for over 4 years until presented with appropriate habitat. Under laboratory conditions, the larvae showed no signs of

text: senescence

text: at that point. According to some authorities, four years is long enough to drift completely across the

text: Pacific Ocean

text: E. H. Carr in his 1961 volume What is History? argues that the inherent biases from the gathering of facts makes the objective truth of any historical perspective idealistic and impossible. Facts are, "like fish in the Ocean," of which we may only happen to catch a few, only an indication of what is below the surface. Even a dragnet cannot tell us for certain what it would be like to live below the Ocean's surface. Even if we do not discard any facts (or fish) presented, we will always miss the majority; the site of our fishing, the methods undertaken, the weather and even luck play a vital role in what we will catch. Additionally, the composition of history is inevitably made up by the compilation of many different biases of fact finding - all compounded over time. He concludes that for a historian to attempt a more objective method, one must accept that history can only aspire to a conversation of the present with the past - and that one's methods of fact gathering should be openly examined.  Historical truth and facts therefore change over time, and reflect only the present consensus (if that).

text: E. H. Carr

text: in his 1961 volume

text: What is History?

text: argues that the inherent biases from the gathering of facts makes the objective truth of any historical

text: perspective

text: idealistic

text: and impossible. Facts are, "like fish in the Ocean," of which we may only happen to catch a few, only an indication of what is below the surface. Even a dragnet cannot tell us for certain what it would be like to live below the Ocean's surface. Even if we do not discard any facts (or fish) presented, we will always miss the majority; the site of our fishing, the methods undertaken, the weather and even luck play a vital role in what we will catch. Additionally, the composition of history is inevitably made up by the compilation of many different biases of fact finding - all compounded over time. He concludes that for a historian to attempt a more objective method, one must accept that history can only aspire to a conversation of the present with the past - and that one's methods of fact gathering should be openly examined.  Historical truth and facts therefore change over time, and reflect only the present consensus (if that).

text: Commercial fishing is the main industry in Cordova. Half of all households in Cordova have at least one person involved in commercial fishing or processing. The fishing fleet mainly fishes the Prince William Sound and Copper River Delta area. There are various fisheries in the area, the most economically important of which is the salmon fishery. All Pacific salmon species except for the cherry salmon are caught. Fishermen use either a purse seine, drift gillnet, or set gillnet to catch the fish. All fisheries are regulated by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. The fisheries in Alaska have a limited entry permit system. The first fish processing plant near Cordova opened in 1887. In 2009 there were 159 purse seine, 511 drift gilnet, and 27 set gillnet permits fished in the Prince William Sound and Copper River Delta area. Wild fish stocks are augmented by hatcheries where fish are produced and released as fingerlings into rivers.  Eventually they migrate to the ocean where they grow to breeding age and then return as adults to be caught by the fishermen or to spawn.

text: Commercial fishing

text: is the main industry in Cordova. Half of all households in Cordova have at least one person involved in commercial fishing or processing. The fishing fleet mainly fishes the Prince William Sound and Copper River Delta area. There are various fisheries in the area, the most economically important of which is the

text: salmon

text: fishery. All Pacific salmon species except for the

text: cherry salmon

text: are caught. Fishermen use either a

text: purse seine

text: , drift

text: gillnet

text: , or set gillnet to catch the fish. All fisheries are regulated by the

text: Alaska Department of Fish and Game

text: . The fisheries in Alaska have a

text: limited entry permit system

text: . The first fish processing plant near Cordova opened in 1887. In 2009 there were 159 purse seine, 511 drift gilnet, and 27 set gillnet permits fished in the Prince William Sound and Copper River Delta area. Wild fish stocks are augmented by

text: hatcheries

text: where fish are produced and released as fingerlings into rivers.  Eventually they migrate to the ocean where they grow to breeding age and then return as adults to be caught by the fishermen or to spawn.

text: Because of the natural whitewater habitats of these fish, which makes natural observation difficult, most observations of the behavior of this fish is largely known from study of fish in aquaria. Natural history and reproduction of this fish are not well known. When inactive, these fish often swim in a vertical posture, probably to help blend into stems of reeds and other aquatic plants; when active, they swim in a normal, horizontal manner. They may use this camouflage either to hide from predators or as part of ambush predation. These fish feed on fish and crustaceans, and as adults are largely piscivorous. Sorubim species have been observed in captivity to excavate a small pit as a nest and even to guard freshly hatched young (unfortunately, none of these young survived).

text: Because of the natural whitewater habitats of these fish, which makes natural observation difficult, most observations of the behavior of this fish is largely known from study of fish in

text: aquaria

text: . Natural history and reproduction of this fish are not well known. When inactive, these fish often swim in a vertical posture, probably to help blend into stems of reeds and other aquatic plants; when active, they swim in a normal, horizontal manner. They may use this camouflage either to hide from predators or as part of

text: ambush predation

text: . These fish feed on fish and crustaceans, and as adults are largely

text: piscivorous

text: . Sorubim species have been observed in captivity to excavate a small pit as a nest and even to guard freshly hatched young (unfortunately, none of these young survived).

text: Two friends, Ted Caplow  (an ecological engineer) and Andy Danylchuk (a fish ecologist) are concerned by how little consumers know about the farm-raised fish they buy. They decide to investigate the state of aquaculture by sailing around Turkey, a country known for its rich tradition in fishing, but transitioning to aquaculture.

text: Two friends, Ted Caplow  (an

text: ecological engineer

text: ) and Andy Danylchuk (a

text: fish ecologist

text: ) are concerned by how little consumers know about the farm-raised fish they buy. They decide to investigate the state of aquaculture by sailing around

text: Turkey

text: , a country known for its rich tradition in fishing, but transitioning to aquaculture.

text: Several animal groups have undergone aquatic adaptation, going from being purely terrestrial animals to living at least part of the time in water. The adaptations in early speciation tend to develop as the animal ventures into water in order to find available food. As successive generations spend more time in the water, natural selection causes the acquisition of more adaptations. Animals of later generations may spend the majority of their life in the water, coming ashore for mating. Finally, fully adapted animals may take to mating and birthing in water.

text: Several

text: animal

text: groups have undergone aquatic adaptation, going from being purely terrestrial animals to living at least part of the time in water. The

text: adaptation

text: s in early speciation tend to develop as the animal ventures into water in order to find available food. As successive generations spend more time in the water,

text: natural selection

text: causes the acquisition of more adaptations. Animals of later generations may spend the majority of their life in the water, coming ashore for mating. Finally, fully adapted animals may take to mating and birthing in water.

text: The first broods were formed by the Overmind, with the direction of each brood being delegated to a cerebrate. A brood was engineered for a specific function, which impacted its numerical strength and the diversity of its strains. The Terrans gave the Great War broods reporting names based on beasts found in Earth mythology. The Command Wing broods were responsible for defending the Overmind and searching for new species for assimilation. These broods did not engage in front-line combat unless necessary. The Command Wing included the Tiamat Brood, Baelrog Brood, and Fenris Brood. The Attack Wing broods were the Swarm's front-line forces, meant to conquer and occupy worlds. The wing's primary broods were amongst the largest in the Swarm. The Attack Wing included the Garm Brood, Jormungand Brood, and Surtur Brood.

text: The first broods were formed by the

text: Overmind

text: , with the direction of each brood being delegated to a

text: cerebrate

text: . A brood was engineered for a specific function, which impacted its numerical strength and the diversity of its strains. The

text: Terrans

text: gave the Great War broods reporting names based on beasts found in

text: Earth

text: mythology. The Command Wing broods were responsible for defending the

text: Overmind

text: and searching for new species for assimilation. These broods did not engage in front-line combat unless necessary. The Command Wing included the

text: Tiamat Brood

text: Baelrog Brood

text: , and

text: Fenris Brood

text: . The Attack Wing broods were the Swarm's front-line forces, meant to conquer and occupy worlds. The wing's primary broods were amongst the largest in the Swarm. The Attack Wing included the

text: Garm Brood

text: Jormungand Brood

text: , and

text: Surtur Brood

text: Later, during the fourth century BC, another Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) attempted a comprehensive classification of animals which included systematic descriptions of many marine species, and particularly species found in the Mediterranean Sea. These pioneering works include History of Animals, a general biology of animals, Parts of Animals, a comparative anatomy and physiology of animals, and Generation of Animals, on developmental biology. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on catfish, electric fish (Torpedo) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on cephalopods, namely, Octopus, Sepia (cuttlefish) and the paper nautilus (Argonauta argo). His description of the hectocotyl arm, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of a group he called Selachē (selachians). He gave accurate descriptions of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark Mustelus mustelus. His classification of living things contains elements which were still in use in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called "animals with blood" and "animals without blood" (he did not know that complex invertebrates do make use of hemoglobin, but of a different kind from vertebrates). He divided animals with blood into live-bearing (mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ("animals without blood") he divided into insects, crustacea (further divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs).

text: Later, during the fourth century BC, another Greek philosopher

text: Aristotle

text: (384–322 BC) attempted a comprehensive

text: classification

text: of animals which included systematic descriptions of many marine species, and particularly species found in the Mediterranean Sea. These pioneering works include

text: History of Animals

text: , a general biology of animals,

text: Parts of Animals

text: , a comparative

text: anatomy

text: and

text: physiology

text: of animals, and

text: Generation of Animals

text: , on developmental biology. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on

text: Lesbos

text: and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on

text: catfish

text: electric fish

text: Torpedo

text: ) and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on

text: cephalopod

text: s, namely, Octopus, Sepia (

text: cuttlefish

text: ) and the paper nautilus (

text: Argonauta argo

text: ). His description of the

text: hectocotyl arm

text: , used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the 19th century. He separated aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of a group he called Selachē (

text: selachians

text: ). He gave accurate descriptions of the

text: ovoviviparous

text: embryological development of the

text: hound shark

text: Mustelus mustelus

text: . His classification of living things contains elements which were still in use in the 19th century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called "animals with blood" and "animals without blood" (he did not know that complex invertebrates do make use of

text: hemoglobin

text: , but of a different kind from vertebrates). He divided animals with blood into live-bearing (mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ("animals without blood") he divided into insects, crustacea (further divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs).

text: The bluefin trevally displays a remarkable array of hunting techniques, ranging from midwater attacks to ambush and taking advantage of larger forage fish. The species is reported to hunt during the day, particularly at dawn and dusk in most locations; however it is known to be a nocturnal feeder in South Africa. The bluefin trevally hunts both as a solitary individual and in groups of up to 20, with most fish preferring an individual approach. In groups, these fish will rush their prey, and disperse the school, allowing for isolated individuals to be picked out and eaten, much in the way the related species, giant trevally have been observed to do in captivity. In some cases, only one individual in a group will attack the prey school. Where the prey is schooling reef fishes, once the prey school has been attacked, the trevally chases down the prey as they scatter back to cover in the corals, often colliding with coral as they attempt to snatch a fish.  While hunting in midwater, fish swim both against and with the tide, although significantly more fish hunt when swimming with the tide (i.e. 'downstream'), suggesting some mechanical advantage is gained when hunting in this mode. Another method of attack is ambush; in this mode the trevally change their colour to a dark pigmentation state and hide behind large coral lumps close to where the aggregations (often spawning reef fish) occur. Once the prey is close enough to the hiding spot, the fish ram the base of the school, before chasing down individual fish. These dark fish in ambush mode vigorously drive away any other bluefin trevally that stray too close to the aggregation. Ambushes have also been observed on small midwater planktivorous fishes are moving to or from the shelter of the reef. In many cases, the species uses changes in the depth of the reef such as ledges to conceal its ambush attacks. Bluefin trevally also enter lagoons as the tide rises to hunt small baitfish in the shallow confines, leaving as the tide falls. The species is also known to follow large rays, sharks and other foraging fish such as goatfish and wrasse around sandy substrates, waiting to pounce on any disturbed crustaceans or fish which are flushed out by the larger fish.

text: The bluefin trevally displays a remarkable array of hunting techniques, ranging from midwater attacks to ambush and taking advantage of larger

text: forage fish

text: . The species is reported to hunt during the day, particularly at

text: dawn

text: and

text: dusk

text: in most locations; however it is known to be a

text: nocturnal

text: feeder in South Africa. The bluefin trevally hunts both as a solitary individual and in groups of up to 20, with most fish preferring an individual approach. In groups, these fish will rush their prey, and disperse the school, allowing for isolated individuals to be picked out and eaten, much in the way the related species, giant trevally have been observed to do in captivity. In some cases, only one individual in a group will attack the prey school. Where the prey is schooling

text: reef fishes

text: , once the prey school has been attacked, the trevally chases down the prey as they scatter back to cover in the corals, often colliding with coral as they attempt to snatch a fish.  While hunting in midwater, fish swim both against and with the

text: tide

text: , although significantly more fish hunt when swimming with the tide (i.e. 'downstream'), suggesting some mechanical advantage is gained when hunting in this mode. Another method of attack is

text: ambush

text: ; in this mode the trevally change their colour to a dark

text: pigmentation

text: state and hide behind large coral lumps close to where the aggregations (often spawning reef fish) occur. Once the prey is close enough to the hiding spot, the fish ram the base of the school, before chasing down individual fish. These dark fish in ambush mode vigorously drive away any other bluefin trevally that stray too close to the aggregation. Ambushes have also been observed on small midwater planktivorous fishes are moving to or from the shelter of the reef. In many cases, the species uses changes in the depth of the reef such as ledges to conceal its ambush attacks. Bluefin trevally also enter lagoons as the tide rises to hunt small

text: baitfish

text: in the shallow confines, leaving as the tide falls. The species is also known to follow large

text: rays

text: shark

text: s and other foraging fish such as

text: goatfish

text: and

text: wrasse

text: around sandy substrates, waiting to pounce on any disturbed crustaceans or fish which are flushed out by the larger fish.

text: The final extinction of the Caribbean monk seal was triggered by two main factors. The most visible factor, contributing to the Caribbean monk seals demise, was the nonstop hunting and killing, of the seals, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to obtain the oil held within their blubber.   The insatiable demand for seal products in the Caribbean encouraged hunters to slaughter the Caribbean monk seals by the hundreds. The Caribbean monk seals’ docile nature and lacking flight instinct in the presence of humans made it very easy for anyone who wanted to kill one to do so.   The second factor was the over fishing of the reefs that sustained the Caribbean monk seal population. With no fish or mollusks to feed on, the seals that were not killed by hunters for oil died of starvation or simply did not reproduce as a result of an absence of food.  Surprisingly little was done towards attempting to save the Caribbean monk seal; by the time it was placed on the endangered species list in 1967 it was likely already extinct.

text: The research institute conducts researches on breeding and testing of fish and shellfish, fish disease control, marine resources, ecological surveys, fishery scientific research, development of aquatic food products and fishery consultations.

text: Upon hatching, the gilled larva are about 10 mm long, and remain in slow-moving pools, or less frequently, hiding in crevices between rocks and boulders in swift-flowing streams. The larvae do not begin feeding until their yolk sacs are reabsorbed, at which point they begin to feed on benthic invertebrates by prowling the bottom of the stream. Typical prey items for northern two-lined salamander larvae include chironomid larvae and other dipteran larvae, stonefly larvae, cladocera, and copepods. Predators of the larvae are many, such as fish, crayfish, and other salamander larvae, such as the larger northern spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus). The larval period of E. bislineata is variable depending on latitude. In the southern portion of their range, such as New York, metamorphosis occurs at 50 mm total length or two years old, while further north, such as in Quebec and likely Ontario, metamorphosis takes place at nearly 70 mm total length, or three years old. The larvae over-winter in deeper pools not prone to freezing.

text: The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called larvae. They are usually poorly formed, carry a large yolk sac (for nourishment) and are very different in appearance from juvenile and adult specimens. The larval period in oviparous fish is relatively short (usually only several weeks), and larvae rapidly grow and change appearance and structure (a process termed metamorphosis) to become juveniles. During this transition larvae  must switch from their yolk sac to feeding on zooplankton prey, a process which depends on typically inadequate zooplankton density, starving many larvae.

text: The newly hatched young of oviparous fish are called

text: larva

text: yolk sac

text: metamorphosis

text: zooplankton

text: The totoaba can grow up to two metres in length and 100 kg in weight. Their diet consists of finned fish and crustaceans. Individuals may live up to fifteen years, but sexual maturity is usually not reached until the fish are six or seven years old. As totoaba spawn only once a year, population growth is slow, with a minimum population doubling time of four-and-a-half to fifteen years. The totoaba spawn in the Colorado River delta, which also serves as a nursery for the young fish.

text: The totoaba can grow up to two metres in length and 100

text: kg

text: in weight. Their diet consists of

text: finned fish

text: and

text: crustacean

text: s. Individuals may live up to fifteen years, but sexual maturity is usually not reached until the fish are six or seven years old. As totoaba

text: spawn

text: only once a year, population growth is slow, with a minimum population

text: doubling time

text: of four-and-a-half to fifteen years. The totoaba spawn in the

text: Colorado River

text: delta

text: , which also serves as a nursery for the young fish.

text: Little is known about predation specifically on cyclostomes although it is likely that they are preyed upon by the nudibranchs (sea-slugs), pycnogonids (sea-spiders), echinoids and fishes which consume other marine bryozoans.  Little is known about the reproductive ecology of cyclostomes.  Sperm are known to be released from the tips of the tentacles, as in other bryozoans, but fertilization of eggs has never been observed.  It is unclear if each gonozooid broods a single or multiple clutches of larvae, whether one or more clones of polyembryonous larvae are present per gonozooid, and what is the duration of the brooding period.

text: Little is known about predation specifically on cyclostomes although it is likely that they are preyed upon by the

text: nudibranch

text: s (sea-slugs),

text: pycnogonid

text: s (sea-spiders),

text: echinoid

text: s and fishes which consume other marine bryozoans.  Little is known about the reproductive ecology of cyclostomes.  Sperm are known to be released from the tips of the tentacles, as in other bryozoans, but

text: fertilization

text: of eggs has never been observed.  It is unclear if each gonozooid broods a single or multiple clutches of larvae, whether one or more clones of polyembryonous larvae are present per gonozooid, and what is the duration of the brooding period.

text: The Fish Marketing Organization (F.M.O) is a self- financed, non-profit-making organization which provides marketing services for fishermen and fish retailers at the Aberdeen floating village. F.M.O's income derives from the commission on sales and surplus earnings.  F.M.O's earnings are used to improve the facilities of the Aberdeen Floating Village.Wholesale fish markets operated by the F.M.O are located along the Aberdeen Promenade. Every morning the fish market is crowded with fishermen, fish sellers and buyers.

text: The Fish Marketing Organization (F.M.O) is a self- financed, non-profit-making organization which provides marketing services for fishermen and fish retailers at the Aberdeen floating village. F.M.O's income derives from the commission on sales and surplus earnings.  F.M.O's earnings are used to improve the facilities of the Aberdeen Floating Village.Wholesale fish markets operated by the F.M.O are located along the

text: Aberdeen Promenade

text: . Every morning the fish market is crowded with fishermen, fish sellers and buyers.

text: The waters surrounding Scotland are some of the richest in Europe. Fishing is an economic mainstay in parts of the North East of Scotland and along the west coast, with important fish markets in places such as Aberdeen and Mallaig. Fish and shellfish such as herring, crab, lobster, haddock and cod are landed at ports such as Peterhead, the biggest white fish port in Europe, Fraserburgh, the biggest shellfish port in Europe, Stornoway, Lerwick and Oban. There has been a large scale decrease in employment in the fishing industry within Scotland, due initially to the sacrifice of national fishing rights to the EEC on the UK's accession to the Common Market in the 1970s, and latterly to the historically low abundances of commercially valuable fish in the North Sea and parts of the North Atlantic. To rebuild stocks the EU's Common Fisheries Policy places restrictions on the total tonnage of catch that can be landed, on the days at sea allowed and on fishing gear that can be deployed. These measures have so far been unsuccessful.

text: The waters surrounding Scotland are some of the richest in Europe. Fishing is an economic mainstay in parts of the North East of Scotland and along the west coast, with important fish markets in places such as

text: Aberdeen

text: and

text: Mallaig

text: . Fish and shellfish such as

text: herring

text: , crab,

text: lobster

text: haddock

text: and

text: cod

text: are landed at ports such as

text: Peterhead

text: , the biggest white fish port in Europe,

text: Fraserburgh

text: , the biggest shellfish port in Europe,

text: Stornoway

text: Lerwick

text: and

text: Oban

text: . There has been a large scale decrease in employment in the fishing industry within Scotland, due initially to the sacrifice of national fishing rights to the EEC on the UK's accession to the Common Market in the 1970s, and latterly to the historically low abundances of commercially valuable fish in the

text: North Sea

text: and parts of the North Atlantic. To rebuild stocks the EU's

text: Common Fisheries Policy

text: places restrictions on the total tonnage of catch that can be landed, on the days at sea allowed and on fishing gear that can be deployed. These measures have so far been unsuccessful.

text: The organization's recommendations focus on the North American market, suggesting what seafood is a green "Best Choice," yellow "Good Alternative," or a red "Avoid." The "Avoid" category is for seafood which is overfished or fished or farmed in ways that harm other marine life or the environment. Health alerts for fish with high levels of contaminants (e.g. mercury, dioxins, PCBs) are also noted, although they may appear in any category.

text: The organization's recommendations focus on the North American market, suggesting what seafood is a green "Best Choice," yellow "Good Alternative," or a red "Avoid." The "Avoid" category is for seafood which is overfished or fished or farmed in ways that harm other marine life or the environment. Health alerts for fish with high levels of contaminants (e.g. mercury, dioxins,

text: PCB

text: s) are also noted, although they may appear in any category.

text: Within the fish, both intracellular and extracellular stages reproduce in its cartilage by asexual endogeny, meaning new cells grow from within old cells.  The final stage within the fish is the creation of the myxospore, which is formed by sporogony.  They are released into the environment when the fish decomposes or is eaten.  Some recent research indicates some fish may expel viable myxospores while still alive.

text: Within the fish, both intracellular and extracellular stages reproduce in its cartilage by asexual

text: endogeny

text: , meaning new cells grow from within old cells.  The final stage within the fish is the creation of the myxospore, which is formed by

text: sporogony

text: .  They are released into the environment when the fish decomposes or is eaten.  Some recent research indicates some fish may expel viable myxospores while still alive.

text: In February 2014, a study from University of South Florida researchers showed the possibility that subsurface oil particles from Deepwater Horizon had traveled underwater as far south as Sanibel, Florida and reached the West Florida Shelf.  Computer models showed the possibility of subsurface currents delivering oil to the surface in an upwelling off the Florida Shelf. Fish along the way were found to have diseased livers from filtering hydrocarbons chemically similar to oil from Deepwater Horizon, causing them immune system problems. The team concluded: "the transport of subsurface hydrocarbons...is both plausible and consistent with the observed distribution of fish lesions, fish liver chemistry and other chemical and ecological evidence."

text: In February 2014, a study from University of South Florida researchers showed the possibility that subsurface oil particles from Deepwater Horizon had traveled underwater as far south as

text: Sanibel, Florida

text: and reached the West Florida Shelf.  Computer models showed the possibility of subsurface currents delivering oil to the surface in an upwelling off the Florida Shelf. Fish along the way were found to have diseased livers from filtering hydrocarbons chemically similar to oil from Deepwater Horizon, causing them immune system problems. The team concluded: "the transport of subsurface hydrocarbons...is both plausible and consistent with the observed distribution of fish lesions, fish liver chemistry and other chemical and ecological evidence."

text: The availability of plankton for food diminishes rapidly with depth. At 1000 metres, the biomass of plankton is typically about 1 percent of that at the surface, and at 5000 metres about 0.01 percent. Given there is no sunlight, energy enters deep water zones as organic matter. There are three main ways this happens. Firstly, organic matter can move into the zone from the continental landmass, for example, through currents that carry the matter down rivers, then plume along the continental shelf and finally spill down the continental slope. Other matter enters as particulate matter raining down from the overhead water column in the form of marine snow, or as sinking overhead plant material such as eelgrass, or as "large particles" such as dead fish and whales sinking to the bottom. A third way energy can arrive is through fish, such as vertically migrating mesopelagic fishes that can enter into the demersal zone as they ascend or descend. The demersal fish and invertebrates consume organic matter that does arrive, break it down and recycle it. A consequence of these energy delivery mechanisms is that the abundance of demersal fish and invertebrates gradually decrease as the distance from continental shorelines increases.

text: The availability of plankton for food diminishes rapidly with depth. At 1000 metres, the biomass of plankton is typically about 1 percent of that at the surface, and at 5000 metres about 0.01 percent. Given there is no sunlight, energy enters deep water zones as organic matter. There are three main ways this happens. Firstly, organic matter can move into the zone from the continental landmass, for example, through currents that carry the matter down rivers, then plume along the continental shelf and finally spill down the continental slope. Other matter enters as particulate matter raining down from the overhead water column in the form of

text: marine snow

text: , or as sinking overhead plant material such as

text: eelgrass

text: , or as "large particles" such as dead fish and whales sinking to the bottom. A third way energy can arrive is through fish, such as vertically migrating mesopelagic fishes that can enter into the demersal zone as they ascend or descend. The demersal fish and invertebrates consume organic matter that does arrive, break it down and recycle it. A consequence of these energy delivery mechanisms is that the abundance of demersal fish and invertebrates gradually decrease as the distance from continental shorelines increases.

text: For many years the abattoirs located here were discharging large amounts of untreated waste into Manukau Harbour. This had had a detrimental effect on the ecology of the harbour which at the turn of the 20th century had been a popular and attractive place to swim, sail, fish and gather shell fish. For most of the middle of the 20th century it was a health hazard and its shell-fish a probable source of food poisoning. Since the freezing works disappeared the water quality has improved greatly.

text: For many years the

text: abattoir

text: s located here were discharging large amounts of untreated waste into Manukau Harbour. This had had a detrimental effect on the ecology of the harbour which at the turn of the 20th century had been a popular and attractive place to swim, sail, fish and gather shell fish. For most of the middle of the 20th century it was a health hazard and its shell-fish a probable source of food poisoning. Since the freezing works disappeared the water quality has improved greatly.

text: Hydrophilus acuminatus can reach a length of . The basic color of the body is dark brown or black. These beetles have streamlined bodies and heads adapted for aquatic life, but they are not powerful swimmers. When they dive they carry a bubble of air under their elytra, while the body is covered by fine hairs trapping a layer of air. Adults are mainly vegetarian, feeding on aquatic plants, but larvae are carnivorous, feeding on tadpoles, snails and small fishes.

text: The James River Fishing Pier is a privately managed saltwater fishing pier. It utilizes what remains of the old, 2-lane James River Bridge. It is popular year-round with local fishermen.  There is a charge to fish this pier, currently $8.50 for adults and $6 for children.

text: Thai fish organs sour soup () is a food of southern Thailand. It is a curry with fish kidney. Some areas add coconut milk into the Thai fish organs sour soup, such as Yala.

text: Thai fish organs sour soup () is a food of southern Thailand. It is a curry with fish kidney. Some areas add

text: coconut milk

text: into the Thai fish organs sour soup, such as

text: Yala

text: Some species have also become important as laboratory animals. Cichlids and poecilids are especially important for studies on learning, mating, and social behavior. Hobbyists also keep and observe many fishes not otherwise studied, and thereby provide valuable ecological and behavioral data.

text: Some species have also become important as laboratory animals. Cichlids and

text: poecilids

text: are especially important for studies on learning, mating, and social behavior. Hobbyists also keep and observe many fishes not otherwise studied, and thereby provide valuable ecological and behavioral data.

text: In zoology, the term division is applied to an optional rank subordinate to the infraclass and superordinate to the cohort. A widely used classification (e.g. Carroll 1988) recognises teleost fishes as a Division Teleostei within Class Actinopterygii (the ray-finned fishes). Less commonly (as in Milner 1988), living tetrapods are ranked as Divisions Amphibia and Amniota within the clade of vertebrates with fleshy limbs (Sarcopterygii).

text: In

text: zoology

text: , the term division is applied to an optional rank subordinate to the

text: infraclass

text: and superordinate to the

text: cohort

text: . A widely used classification (e.g. Carroll 1988) recognises

text: teleost

text: fishes as a Division Teleostei within Class

text: Actinopterygii

text: (the ray-finned fishes). Less commonly (as in Milner 1988), living

text: tetrapods

text: are ranked as Divisions

text: Amphibia

text: and

text: Amniota

text: within the

text: clade

text: of vertebrates with fleshy limbs (

text: Sarcopterygii

text: As the fish population dwindles, fishermen who depend on their captures for their livelihood are keeping smaller specimens, often not mature and which therefore have had no time to reproduce.

text: The fish reproduces through spawning. They are believed to spawn in early spring or late winter.

text: The fish reproduces through

text: spawning

text: . They are believed to spawn in early

text: spring

text: or late

text: winter

text: Pachyosteosclerosis is a combination of thickening (pachyostosis) and densification (osteosclerosis) of bones. It makes bones more heavy, but also more fragile. The condition often occurs in aquatic vertebrates, especially those living in shallow waters, creating ballast as an adaptation for maintaining neutral buoyancy and horizontal trim. It is in no way pathological. To resist roll, it frequently is found especially in ventral bones, whereas concentration near the lungs helps in maintaining trim.Examples of animals showing pachyosteosclerosis are seacows (dugongs and manatees), the extinct Plesiosauria and Mesosauria and extinct aquatic sloths.

text: Pachyosteosclerosis is a combination of thickening (

text: pachyostosis

text: ) and densification (

text: osteosclerosis

text: ) of bones. It makes bones more heavy, but also more fragile. The condition often occurs in aquatic

text: vertebrates

text: , especially those living in shallow waters, creating

text: ballast

text: as an adaptation for maintaining neutral

text: buoyancy

text: and horizontal

text: trim

text: . It is in no way pathological. To resist

text: roll

text: , it frequently is found especially in ventral bones, whereas concentration near the lungs helps in maintaining

text: trim

text: .Examples of animals showing pachyosteosclerosis are seacows (

text: dugongs

text: and

text: manatee

text: s), the extinct

text: Plesiosauria

text: and

text: Mesosauria

text: and extinct

text: aquatic sloths

text: Bowls and boxes are the next to follow, forming a hotel with a ballroom inside.  Two electric eels swim by and form the marquee "Holly" and "wood" above the entrance and begin blinking on and off.  Two other fish enter with flashlights on forming spotlights, as seen in front of hotels and theaters with big events and movie premiers in Hollywood that were common at the time.  Two other fish have bowler hats drop on them, and as they turn toward the camera, acquire a likeness of Laurel and Hardy, and they swim into the Hotel.  Another fish steps into some large shoes, and impersonates a Greta Garbo character and she says, "I want to be alone", a line in the 1932 classic Garbo movie "Grand Hotel".  Another fish swallows an hourglass lamp and takes on the likeness of Mae West, complete with jewels and parasol, utters, "Come up and see me sometime" as she steps into the Hollywood Legion Stadium to watch a boxing match.  There are two boxing fish fighting on the keys of a typewriter in the stadium, and as the carriage comes to the end of the line, the typewriter's ding is heard, and each fish backs into his own corner, and another fish pushes the carriage back to the beginning of a new line.  The keys spell out what is happening in the fight.

text: The Caddo madtom (Noturus taylori) is a species of fish in the Ictaluridae family endemic to the United States. N. taylori was named in honor of William Ralph Taylor, U.S. National Museum, in recognition of his contributions to the knowledge of catfishes. They average 2 to 4 in long and weigh no more than few ounces. N. taylori species have small to tiny or fragmented ranges, but are mostly found in the Caddo, Ouachita, and Little Missouri Rivers in southwestern Arkansas. Ecological studies indicate that dam and bridge construction poses barriers to dispersal and migration of fish in the Ouachita Highlands. IUCNredlist.org states that better information is needed on life history, reproductive biology, and ecology of the Caddo madtom.<ref>NatureServe 2013. Noturus taylori. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.1.

text: The Caddo madtom (Noturus taylori) is a species of

text: fish

text: in the

text: Ictaluridae

text: family

text: endemic

text: to the

text: United States

text: . N. taylori was named in honor of William Ralph Taylor, U.S. National Museum, in recognition of his contributions to the knowledge of catfishes. They average 2 to 4 in long and weigh no more than few ounces. N. taylori species have small to tiny or fragmented ranges, but are mostly found in the Caddo, Ouachita, and Little Missouri Rivers in southwestern Arkansas. Ecological studies indicate that dam and bridge construction poses barriers to dispersal and migration of fish in the Ouachita Highlands. IUCNredlist.org states that better information is needed on life history, reproductive biology, and ecology of the Caddo madtom.<ref>NatureServe 2013. Noturus taylori. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.1.

text: G. lacustris females are usually significantly larger than the males and the egg production rate is limited by the amount of food resources that are available to the female; the more food there is the more eggs the female lays. The adult water striders emerge around April and May. It is around this time that females lay eggs where the eggs undergo a process that takes about 12 to 14 days to develop before they are able to hatch. Hatching doesn't necessarily follow the eggs when their development is complete; hatching heavily depends on the temperature that the egg is exposed to in its environment. After hatching, G. lacustris go through another separate development process known as incomplete metamorphosis. In this process, the larvae or nymphs progress through a series of moults which basically are stages known as instars. There are five instars in the developmental process, with each one progressively longer than the last. The incomplete metamorphosis process usually lasts about 24 to 30 days for larvae to become an adult. G. lacutris males prolong their mating in the presence of other males because they are guarding their female against harassment from the other males. It was found that males influence the duration of copulation while the females influence the copulation frequency.

text: G. lacustris females are usually significantly

text: larger than the males

text: and the

text: egg

text: production rate is limited by the amount of food resources that are available to the female; the more food there is the more eggs the female lays. The adult water striders emerge around April and May. It is around this time that females lay eggs where the eggs undergo a process that takes about 12 to 14 days to develop before they are able to hatch. Hatching doesn't necessarily follow the eggs when their development is complete; hatching heavily depends on the

text: temperature

text: that the egg is exposed to in its environment. After hatching, G. lacustris go through another separate development process known as

text: incomplete metamorphosis

text: . In this process, the

text: larva

text: e or

text: nymphs

text: progress through a series of

text: moults

text: which basically are stages known as

text: instar

text: s. There are five instars in the developmental process, with each one progressively longer than the last. The incomplete metamorphosis process usually lasts about 24 to 30 days for larvae to become an adult. G. lacutris males prolong their mating in the presence of other males because they are guarding their female against harassment from the other males. It was found that males influence the duration of

text: copulation

text: while the females influence the copulation frequency.

text: The  is a fish hatchery on the Quinault Reservation, operated by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the National Fish Hatchery System. It is on the Moclips Highway, about  southwest of its intersection with US 101 ().

text: The  is a

text: fish hatchery

text: on the Quinault Reservation, operated by the

text: United States Fish and Wildlife Service

text: as part of the

text: National Fish Hatchery System

text: . It is on the Moclips Highway, about  southwest of its intersection with US 101 ().

text: Broodfish from these species are purposely reared at the Center for spawning. Each year the Center will spawn over 350 pairs of the broodfish using the induced spawning method. These pairs will produce over 3.5 million eggs. This count does not include those that will spawn naturally in the earthen ponds. Fish from each spawn will be taken and held at the station for future broodstock, ensuring genetic diversity. Different pairs of each species are spawned each year, discouraging spawning of the same fish year after year.

text: According to EssentialAlbania.com, “Being an ecological city, Shengjin Albania offers some of the best fishing grounds that ensure that there is a balance between the rate of fishing and the frequent of fishing so that to ensure that there is no too much loss of fish from the sea. They respect the fact that the fish need to breed in order to maintain their population.”

text: After several years in freshwater habitats, the larvae undergo a metamorphosis that allows young post metamorphic lampreys to migrate to the sea or lakes and start the hematophagous feeding. Some individuals can start the hematophagous feeding in the river before migrating to the sea, where sea lampreys prey on a wide variety of fish.

text: After several years in freshwater habitats, the larvae undergo a metamorphosis that allows young post metamorphic lampreys to migrate to the sea or lakes and start the

text: hematophagous

text: feeding. Some individuals can start the hematophagous feeding in the river before migrating to the sea, where sea lampreys prey on a wide variety of fish.

text: Piracema (from tupi "pirá", fish + "sema", exit) is the name given to the period of the year when fish within the Paraguay River drainage basin―which includes the Pantanal region in the Brazilian states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul―reproduce.

text: Piracema (from

text: tupi

text: "pirá", fish + "sema", exit) is the name given to the period of the year when

text: fish

text: within the

text: Paraguay River

text: drainage basin

text: ―which includes the

text: Pantanal

text: region in the

text: Brazil

text: ian states of

text: Mato Grosso

text: and

text: Mato Grosso do Sul

text: ―reproduce.

text: The Anguillidae are a family of ray-finned fish that contains the freshwater eels. The nineteen species and six subspecies in this family are all in the genus Anguilla. They are elongated fish with snake-like bodies, their long dorsal,  caudal and anal fins forming a continuous fringe. They are catadromous fish, spending their adult lives in fresh water but migrating to the ocean to spawn. Eels are an important food fish and some species are now farm-raised but not bred in captivity. Many populations in the wild are now threatened and Seafood Watch recommend consumers avoid eating anguillid eels.

text: The Anguillidae are a

text: family

text: of

text: ray-finned fish

text: that contains the freshwater eels. The nineteen species and six subspecies in this family are all in the genus Anguilla. They are elongated fish with snake-like bodies, their long dorsal,  caudal and anal fins forming a continuous fringe. They are

text: catadromous

text: fish, spending their adult lives in fresh water but migrating to the ocean to

text: spawn

text: . Eels are an important food fish and some species are now

text: farm-raised

text: but not bred in captivity. Many populations in the wild are now threatened and

text: Seafood Watch

text: recommend consumers avoid eating anguillid eels.

text: B. H. Fisher -Bag limits -Bait Act -Bait fish -Bamboo fly rod -Bangladesh Marine Fisheries Academy -Bank fishing -Banks dory -Basa fish -Basnig -Bass Anglers Sportsman Society -Bass boat -Bass Festival -Bass fishing -Bassmaster Classic -Bay mud -Bayou La Batre, Alabama -Beach casting -Bennett Spring State Park -Benthic zone -Benthos -Bering Sea Arbitration -Best Angler ESPY Award -Bibliography of fly fishing -Big Hole River -Big-game fishing -Billingsgate Fish Market -Bioeconomics -Bioluminescence -Biomass (ecology) -Bite alarm -Blast fishing -Blast fishing -Blue cod -Blue grenadier -Blue mussel -Bluefish -Bobs Farm, New South Wales -Boilie -Bombarda -Bonefish -Bottom feeder -Bottom fishing -Bottom trawling -Bowfishing -Braided fishing line -Brixham -Broodstock -Brook trout -Brown trout -Bruno Hofer -Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (Philippines) -Busan Cooperative Fish Market -Büsum -By-catch

text: B. H. Fisher

text: Bag limits

text: Bait Act

text: Bait fish

text: Bamboo fly rod

text: Bangladesh Marine Fisheries Academy

text: Bank fishing

text: Banks dory

text: Basa fish

text: Basnig

text: Bass Anglers Sportsman Society

text: Bass boat

text: Bass Festival

text: Bass fishing

text: Bassmaster Classic

text: Bay mud

text: Bayou La Batre, Alabama

text: Beach casting

text: Bennett Spring State Park

text: Benthic zone

text: Benthos

text: Bering Sea Arbitration

text: Best Angler ESPY Award

text: Bibliography of fly fishing

text: Big Hole River

text: Big-game fishing

text: Billingsgate Fish Market

text: Bioeconomics

text: Bioluminescence

text: Biomass (ecology)

text: Bite alarm

text: Blast fishing

text: Blast fishing

text: Blue cod

text: Blue grenadier

text: Blue mussel

text: Bluefish

text: Bobs Farm, New South Wales

text: Boilie

text: Bombarda

text: Bonefish

text: Bottom feeder

text: Bottom fishing

text: Bottom trawling

text: Bowfishing

text: Braided fishing line

text: Brixham

text: Broodstock

text: Brook trout

text: Brown trout

text: Bruno Hofer

entity_name: Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

text: Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (Philippines)

text: Busan Cooperative Fish Market

text: Büsum

text: By-catch

text: Water temperature determines the two most basic aquarium classifications: tropical versus cold water. Most fish and plant species tolerate only a limited temperature range; tropical aquaria, with an average temperature of about , are much more common. Cold water aquaria are for fish that are better suited to a cooler environment. More important than the range is consistency; most organisms are not accustomed to sudden changes in temperatures, which can cause shock and lead to disease. Water temperature can be regulated with a thermostat and heater (or cooler).

text: Water

text: temperature

text: determines the two most basic aquarium classifications:

text: tropical

text: versus

text: cold water

text: . Most fish and plant species tolerate only a limited temperature range; tropical aquaria, with an average temperature of about , are much more common. Cold water aquaria are for fish that are better suited to a cooler environment. More important than the range is consistency; most organisms are not accustomed to sudden changes in temperatures, which can cause shock and lead to disease. Water temperature can be regulated with a

text: thermostat

text: and heater (or cooler).

text: The commonest species of fish in the water courses of the Pampa de Achala are the rainbow trout, arroyo trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), Astyanax fasciatus (), and . Indiscriminate fishing has caused the loss of numerous species throughout the region (and indeed the entire province). The rivers and arroyos are perpetually being re-stocked with salmon, with the intention of maintaining the ecology. Regrettably the goal can never be reached, as secret fishing is constant and difficult to control, and has caused the loss of very many species. As at September 2009, all fishing in all locations throughout the province is forbidden during the hours of darkness.

text: The commonest species of fish in the water courses of the Pampa de Achala are the

text: rainbow trout

text: , arroyo trout (

text: Salvelinus fontinalis

text: Astyanax fasciatus

text: (), and . Indiscriminate fishing has caused the loss of numerous species throughout the region (and indeed the entire province). The rivers and

text: arroyos

text: are perpetually being re-stocked with salmon, with the intention of maintaining the ecology. Regrettably the goal can never be reached, as secret fishing is constant and difficult to control, and has caused the loss of very many species. As at September 2009, all fishing in all locations throughout the province is forbidden during the hours of darkness.

text: F. grandis is an egg-laying fish, and uses the soft muddy bottoms of saltwater or brackish ecosystems to lay eggs. They are known as an "annual" fish because their lifecycle, from birth to mating and ultimately death usually does not exceed one year. One adaptation that has allowed F. grandis to survive so efficiently is the versatile nature of their eggs. The eggs not only protect the developing embryo, but also prevents them from drying out and hindering the development of the inlaid fish. The egg's shell is sensitive to dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide present within the water that can initiate hatching. This internal form of evolution is compromised when anthropomorphic effects disrupt the aquatic ecology in which they are laid.

text: The Lagunitas Creek Watershed  is home to the largest remaining wild run of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in Central California. These coho are part of the "Central California Coast Evolutionarily Significant Unit," or CCC ESU, and are listed as "endangered" at both the state and federal level. Significant efforts to protect and restore these fish have been underway in the Watershed since the 1980s. Fifty-percent of historical salmon habitat is now behind dams. Strong efforts are also being made to protect and restore undammed, headwater reaches of this Watershed in the San Geronimo Valley, where upwards of 40% of the Lagunitas Creek salmon spawn each year and where as much as 1/3 of the juvenile salmon (or fry) spend their entire freshwater lives. Roy's Dam on San Geronimo Creek was built in the 1920s to supply water to a ranch. It was an obstacle for coho salmon and steelhead trout trying access to the habitat upstream of the dam for spawning. It was decided to lower the dam instead of completely removing it because of the large amount of sediment that had accumulated behind the dam. This re-opened critical spawning habitat no longer available on other Lagunitas Creek tributaries.  The Salmon Protection and Watershed Network ([1]) leads winter tours for the public to learn about and view these spawning salmon, and also leads year-round opportunities for the public to get involved in stream restoration, monitoring spawning and smolt outmigration, juvenile fish rescue and relocation in the summer, and advocacy and policy development.

text: The Lagunitas Creek Watershed  is home to the largest remaining wild run of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in Central California. These coho are part of the "Central California Coast

text: Evolutionarily Significant Unit

text: ," or CCC ESU, and are listed as "endangered" at both the state and federal level. Significant efforts to protect and restore these fish have been underway in the Watershed since the 1980s. Fifty-percent of historical salmon habitat is now behind dams. Strong efforts are also being made to protect and restore undammed, headwater reaches of this Watershed in the San Geronimo Valley, where upwards of 40% of the Lagunitas Creek salmon spawn each year and where as much as 1/3 of the juvenile salmon (or fry) spend their entire freshwater lives. Roy's Dam on San Geronimo Creek was built in the 1920s to supply water to a ranch. It was an obstacle for

text: coho salmon

text: and

text: steelhead trout

text: trying access to the

text: habitat

text: upstream of the dam for

text: spawning

text: . It was decided to lower the dam instead of completely removing it because of the large amount of

text: sediment

text: that had accumulated behind the dam. This re-opened critical spawning habitat no longer available on other Lagunitas Creek tributaries.  The Salmon Protection and Watershed Network ([1]) leads winter tours for the public to learn about and view these spawning salmon, and also leads year-round opportunities for the public to get involved in stream restoration, monitoring spawning and smolt outmigration, juvenile fish rescue and relocation in the summer, and advocacy and policy development.

text: The classification used within the Historia Piscium was further developed by Carl Linnaeus, the "father of modern taxonomy". His taxonomic approach became the systematic approach to the study of organisms, including fish. Linnaeus was a professor at the University of Uppsala and an eminent botanist; however, one of his colleagues, Peter Artedi, earned the title "father of ichthyology" through his indispensable advancements. Artedi contributed to Linnaeus's refinement of the principles of taxonomy. Furthermore, he recognized  five additional orders of fish: Malacopterygii, Acanthopterygii, Branchiostegi, Chondropterygii, and Plagiuri. Artedi developed standard methods for making counts and measurements of anatomical features that are modernly exploited. Another associate of Linnaeus, Albertus Seba, was a prosperous pharmacist from Amsterdam. Seba assembled a cabinet, or collection, of fish. He invited Artedi to utilize this assortment of fish; unfortunately, in 1735, Artedi fell into an Amsterdam canal and drowned at the age of 30.

text: The classification used within the Historia Piscium was further developed by

text: Carl Linnaeus

text: , the "father of modern taxonomy". His

text: taxonomic

text: approach became the systematic approach to the study of organisms, including fish. Linnaeus was a professor at the

text: University of Uppsala

text: and an eminent

text: botanist

text: ; however, one of his colleagues,

text: Peter Artedi

text: , earned the title "father of ichthyology" through his indispensable advancements. Artedi contributed to Linnaeus's refinement of the principles of taxonomy. Furthermore, he recognized  five additional

text: orders

text: of fish: Malacopterygii, Acanthopterygii, Branchiostegi, Chondropterygii, and

text: Plagiuri

text: . Artedi developed standard methods for making counts and measurements of anatomical features that are modernly exploited. Another associate of Linnaeus,

text: Albertus Seba

text: , was a prosperous

text: pharmacist

text: from

text: Amsterdam

text: . Seba assembled a cabinet, or collection, of fish. He invited Artedi to utilize this assortment of fish; unfortunately, in 1735, Artedi fell into an Amsterdam canal and drowned at the age of 30.

text: Since these fish live in a warm water environment they can reproduce all year long. Each group of fish consists of a breeding pair and 0–4 non-breeders. Within each group there is a size-based hierarchy: the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit protandry, meaning each fish is born male, but will only change to female if the sole breeding female dies. If the female dies, the breeding male changes sex, becomes the breeding female and the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male. The spawning process is correlated with the lunar cycle. At night time the moon maintains a higher level of alertness in A. percula and this increases the interaction with the males and females. Before spawning, the male attracts the female via courting behaviour. These courting actions include extending their fins, biting the female and chasing her. The males also swim rapidly in an upward and downward motion to attract the females. The nest site is also important for the survival of the eggs. Depending on the size of the female spawn about 400–1500 eggs per cycle. The expected tenure of breeding females is approximately 12 years and is relatively long for a fish of its size, but is characteristic of other reef fish.

text: Since these fish live in a warm water environment they can reproduce all year long. Each group of fish consists of a breeding pair and 0–4 non-breeders. Within each group there is a size-based hierarchy: the female is largest, the breeding male is second largest, and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends. They exhibit

text: protandry

text: , meaning each fish is born male, but will only change to female if the sole breeding female dies. If the female dies, the breeding male changes sex, becomes the breeding female and the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male. The spawning process is correlated with the lunar cycle. At night time the moon maintains a higher level of alertness in A. percula and this increases the interaction with the males and females. Before spawning, the male attracts the female via courting behaviour. These courting actions include extending their fins, biting the female and chasing her. The males also swim rapidly in an upward and downward motion to attract the females. The nest site is also important for the survival of the eggs. Depending on the size of the female spawn about 400–1500 eggs per cycle. The expected tenure of breeding females is approximately 12 years and is relatively long for a fish of its size, but is characteristic of other

text: reef

text: fish.

text: Vinciguerria lucetia is an epipelagic and mesopelagic species. It is oviparous, the eggs and larvae drifting as part of the plankton. The photophores appear during the course of metamorphosis from larval to juvenile fish; these may be involved in camouflage, species or sexual identification or prey attraction. This fish feed on copepods, krill and sergestid shrimps, crustaceans which also tend to make diel vertical migrations.

text: Vinciguerria lucetia is an

text: epipelagic

text: and

text: mesopelagic

text: species. It is

text: oviparous

text: , the eggs and larvae drifting as part of the

text: plankton

text: . The photophores appear during the course of

text: metamorphosis

text: from larval to juvenile fish; these may be involved in camouflage, species or sexual identification or prey attraction. This fish feed on

text: copepod

text: s,

text: krill

text: and

text: sergestid shrimps

text: , crustaceans which also tend to make diel vertical migrations.

text: The species of fish usually sold as feeder fish are invariably some of the easiest fish for fishkeepers to rear and breed, such as goldfish and guppies. Typically, these species are tolerant of overcrowding and have a high fecundity and rapid growth rate. This makes it easy for fish farmers, retailers, and hobbyists to maintain large populations of these fish that can be sold at a much more affordable price than the more delicate ornamental fish that require better conditions.

text: The species of fish usually sold as feeder fish are invariably some of the easiest fish for

text: fishkeepers

text: to rear and breed, such as

text: goldfish

text: and

text: guppies

text: . Typically, these species are tolerant of overcrowding and have a high

text: fecundity

text: and rapid growth rate. This makes it easy for fish farmers, retailers, and hobbyists to maintain large populations of these fish that can be sold at a much more affordable price than the more delicate ornamental fish that require better conditions.

text: The sexes are separate in Listriolobus pelodes. The gonads are located beside the anal vesicles and liberate gametes into the coelum or body cavity. Here they mature and are then stored in the nephridia before being liberated into the sea in the late winter or spring. After fertilisation, the eggs hatch into planktonic trochophore larvae. After  several developmental stages over a period of about six months, the larvae settle on the seabed and undergo metamorphosis into juvenile spoon worms. They seem to be attracted to settle in areas of fine, nutrient-rich sediment but the mechanism for this discrimination is unclear. The juveniles become sexually mature in another six to twelve months.

text: The sexes are separate in Listriolobus pelodes. The

text: gonad

text: s are located beside the anal vesicles and liberate

text: gamete

text: s into the

text: coelum

text: or body cavity. Here they mature and are then stored in the

text: nephridia

text: before being liberated into the sea in the late winter or spring. After fertilisation, the

text: eggs

text: hatch into

text: plankton

text: ic

text: trochophore

text: larva

text: e. After  several developmental stages over a period of about six months, the larvae settle on the seabed and undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: into juvenile spoon worms. They seem to be attracted to settle in areas of fine, nutrient-rich sediment but the mechanism for this discrimination is unclear. The juveniles become sexually mature in another six to twelve months.

text: The National Fishing Heritage Centre in Grimsby displays how the fishing industry in England once was. also in Grimsby is the Sea Fish Industry Authority (SeaFish) which promotes the consumption of fish, and conducts research for the fishing and fish-processing industry.

text: The

text: National Fishing Heritage Centre

text: in

text: Grimsby

text: displays how the fishing industry in England once was. also in Grimsby is the

text: Sea Fish Industry Authority

text: (SeaFish) which promotes the consumption of fish, and conducts research for the fishing and fish-processing industry.

text: These birds feed mainly by diving or dabbling. They eat aquatic plants with some molluscs, aquatic insects and small fish. They often feed at night, and will upend (dabble) for food as well as the more characteristic diving.

text: These birds feed mainly by diving or dabbling. They eat

text: aquatic plants

text: with some

text: molluscs

text: aquatic insects

text: and small fish. They often feed at night, and will upend (dabble) for food as well as the more characteristic diving.

text: Evidence for cultural transmission has also been shown in wild fish populations. Scientists Helfman and Schultz conducted translocation experiments with French grunts (Haemulon flavolineatum) where they took fish native to a specific schooling site and transported them to other sites. In this species of fish, the organism uses distinct, traditional migration routes to travel to schooling sites on coral reefs. These routes persisted past one generation and so by relocating the fish to different sites, Helfman and Schultz wanted to see if the new fish could relearn that sites' migration route from the resident fish.  Indeed this is what they found: that the newcomers quickly learned the traditional routes and schooling sites. But when residents were removed under similar situations, the new fish did not use the traditional route and instead use new routes, suggesting that the behavior could not be transmitted once the opportunity for learning was no longer there.

text: Evidence for cultural transmission has also been shown in wild fish populations. Scientists Helfman and Schultz conducted translocation experiments with

text: French grunt

text: s (Haemulon flavolineatum) where they took fish native to a specific schooling site and transported them to other sites. In this species of fish, the organism uses distinct, traditional migration routes to travel to schooling sites on coral reefs. These routes persisted past one generation and so by relocating the fish to different sites, Helfman and Schultz wanted to see if the new fish could relearn that sites' migration route from the resident fish.  Indeed this is what they found: that the newcomers quickly learned the traditional routes and schooling sites. But when residents were removed under similar situations, the new fish did not use the traditional route and instead use new routes, suggesting that the behavior could not be transmitted once the opportunity for learning was no longer there.

text: The Nile tilapia has recently been discovered in a small stream in central Arkansas. This invasive species may harm the other aquatic life present in this stream within the next few years, depending on how quickly it is able to reproduce and how adapted it is to competition with other aquatic vertebrates. Evidence supports the possibility that the Nile tilapia has established a strong breeding ground and will eventually endanger other fish species, possibly competitively exclude them.

text: The female constructs a depression in a location in the stream bed, sometimes referred to as a "redd", where groundwater percolates upward through the gravel. One or more males approach the female, fertilizing the eggs as the female expresses them. A majority of spawnings involve peripheral males which directly influences the number of eggs that survive into adulthood. In general, the larger the number of peripheral males present, the more likely the eggs will be cannibalized. The eggs are slightly denser than water. The female then buries the eggs in a small gravel mound; they hatch in 95 to 100 days.

text: The female constructs a depression in a location in the

text: stream bed

text: , sometimes referred to as a "redd", where

text: groundwater

text: percolates upward through the gravel. One or more males approach the female, fertilizing the eggs as the female expresses them. A majority of spawnings involve peripheral males which directly influences the number of eggs that survive into adulthood. In general, the larger the number of peripheral males present, the more likely the eggs will be cannibalized. The eggs are slightly denser than water. The female then buries the eggs in a small gravel mound; they hatch in 95 to 100 days.

text: Cleaner wrasse are the best-known of the cleaner fish. They live in a cleaning symbiosis with larger, often predatory fish, grooming them and benefiting by feeding on what they remove. "Client" fish congregate at wrasse "cleaning stations" and wait for the cleaner fish to remove gnathiid parasites, even swimming into their open mouths and gill cavities.

text: Cleaner wrasse are the best-known of the

text: cleaner fish

text: . They live in a

text: cleaning symbiosis

text: with larger, often predatory fish, grooming them and benefiting by feeding on what they remove. "Client" fish congregate at wrasse "

text: cleaning station

text: s" and wait for the cleaner fish to remove

text: gnathiid

text: parasites, even swimming into their open mouths and gill cavities.

text: Aquatic plants are used to give the freshwater aquarium a natural appearance, oxygenate the water, and provide habitat for fish, especially fry (babies) and for invertebrates. Some aquarium fish and invertebrates also eat live plants. Hobbyists use aquatic plants for aquascaping, of several aesthetic styles.

text: Aquatic plant

text: s are used to give the

text: freshwater aquarium

text: a natural appearance, oxygenate the

text: water

text: , and provide

text: habitat

text: for

text: fish

text: , especially

text: fry

text: (babies) and for

text: invertebrate

text: s. Some aquarium fish and invertebrates also eat live plants. Hobbyists use aquatic plants for

text: aquascaping

text: , of several aesthetic styles.

text: The River Why is an adaptation of the 1983 Sierra Club novel by David James Duncan. The coming-of-age tale centers on a young man named Augustine "Gus" Orviston (Zach Gilford) and his quest for an elusive rainbow trout, which is a metaphor for the man's internal search for self-knowledge. Amber Heard plays his love interest, a tomboy fly-fisher named Eddy. It starts out with Gus, a discontented city-dweller, fresh out of school. Living with his father, a man who literally has a bible on fly-fishing and his mother, a just as avid non-fly fisherman, Gus and his rather quiet little brother, deal with a lot of heated debates from his parents. They also hear the story of how both parents fishing for the same prized Rainbow Trout led to them falling in love constantly. After a day in the city where Gus catches a glimpse of the tom-boy Eddy at a fishing demonstration,  he ends the night storming out and burning the prized family trout after a heated argument with his parents. Feeling it is time for a change, Gus drives out to the best fishing grounds he can find and obtains an old shack to stay in. He wakes up the next morning with one goal: fish all day and every day. This works out quite well for Gus as he also manages to get extra food from the sociable neighbors and their band of children who trade him fresh produce for the occasional fishing lesson.  Everything is working well for Gus until he comes across a dead fisherman upriver. Unsure of what to do, Gus loads him into his boat and drags him and a water-filled boat back to land. Although the exhausted Gus is fine physically, he is in an emotional turmoil. Although he is living an idyllic lifestyle and has complete freedom, he feels empty and confused. Although Gus, like the majority of humans had faced and known about death before, this was his first awakening to it. Gus is unsure of what to do until he meets a philosophic man, Titus, who talks to him about other goals and philosophies in life. Although Gus is still having a relatively hard time, he manages to start to rebuild himself emotionally. One day, while walking along the river-bank, he sees Eddy skinny-dipping and fishing. Amazed at the sight, but wanting to be decent, Gus quickly puts down his things and runs the other way. He whistles to signify he is coming, giving Eddy the chance to cover up. He and Eddy manage to lead a very awkward conversation with Gus not knowing what to say, and Eddy seeing his things and leaving. Gus keeps her fish and fishing pole until she can get it back and walks home pleasantly surprised. The next day, he helps a rather terrible fisherman and newspaper editor catch his fish. This man is so impressed that he writes an intriguing article about mysterious fisherman, Augustine (Gus) Orviston. Gus also has him include his personal information so Eddy can come get her stuff. Gus is starting to get a lot of fame and fortune from people coming to visit and get fishing advice from this "amazing Augustine." Gus is doing better keeping busy, but he is still having a hard time making sense of everything. Then, Eddy comes back. Gus lets her stay at his house, but this quickly leads to them discovering their feelings for each other. Although this is a rather innocent relationship, it is also believable to have in "real life." This culminates to Eddy catching a salmon to Gus's disbelief, but telling him that it is his job to tire the salmon out and catch it. Gus spends all night catching this fish, and showing an amazing level of passion while he does so. But, when Gus catches the fish, he decides to let it go. He then finds Eddy and they consummate their relationship. And although he displays a truly inspiring level of passion for fishing, he shows even more care and devotion to Eddy, which she returns wholeheartedly. A few days later, Eddy wanders off while Gus is fixing the house. Gus follows her soon after and finds her fishing with his family. The story culminates with Gus forgiving his parents and finding what he was searching for all along; happiness and purpose.

text: The River Why is an adaptation of the 1983 Sierra Club novel by David James Duncan. The coming-of-age tale centers on a young man named Augustine "Gus" Orviston (

text: Zach Gilford

text: ) and his quest for an elusive rainbow trout, which is a metaphor for the man's internal search for self-knowledge.

text: Amber Heard

text: Another method of rock fishing is using bait fish. The bait fish may be bought from a store, or the angler can catch them himself. Bait fish can be used either whole or cut up into pieces. The size and type of bait fish used will vary depending what species is being targeted.

text: Another method of rock fishing is using

text: bait fish

text: . The bait fish may be bought from a store, or the angler can catch them himself. Bait fish can be used either whole or cut up into pieces. The size and type of bait fish used will vary depending what species is being targeted.

text: The Lake has moderate to dense growth of macrophytes of all types. The littoral zone of the lake is reported to be rich in periphytic biota associated with macrophytes. Diatoms, protozoans and rotifers which are also associated with macrophytes are found in the lake. Many aquatic insect larvae and adults, molluscs, cladocerans and the fish Danio aequipinnatus, Rasbora daniconius and Gambusia affinis are reported. Rainbow trout and common carp are the main fish found in the lake. The fish yield as per past records was 5.3 kg/ha/year. Recently two new species of diatom was found in this lake.

text: The Lake has moderate to dense growth of

text: macrophyte

text: s of all types. The

text: littoral zone

text: of the lake is reported to be rich in periphytic

text: biota

text: associated with macrophytes.

text: Diatoms

text: protozoans

text: and

text: rotifers

text: which are also associated with macrophytes are found in the lake. Many aquatic insect

text: larva

text: e and adults,

text: molluscs

text: cladocerans

text: and the fish

text: Danio aequipinnatus

text: Rasbora

text: daniconius and

text: Gambusia affinis

text: are reported. Rainbow

text: trout

text: and

text: common carp

text: are the main fish found in the lake. The fish yield as per past records was 5.3 kg/ha/year. Recently two new species of diatom was found in this lake.

text: Sama-Bajau fishermen are often associated with illegal and destructive practices, like blast fishing, cyanide fishing, coral mining, and cutting down mangrove trees. It is believed that the Sama-Bajau resort to these activities mainly due to sedentarisation brought about by the restrictions imposed on their nomadic culture by modern nation states. With their now limited territories, they have little alternative means of competing with better-equipped land-based and commercial fishermen, and earn enough to feed their families.  The Indonesian government and certain non-governmental organisations, have launched several programs for providing alternative sustainable livelihood projects for Sama-Bajau to discourage these practices (such as the use of fish aggregating devices instead of explosives). Medical health centres (puskesmas) and schools have also been built even for stilt-house Sama-Bajau communities. Similar programs have also been implemented in the Philippines.

text: Sama-Bajau fishermen are often associated with illegal and destructive practices, like

text: blast fishing

text: cyanide fishing

text: coral mining

text: , and cutting down

text: mangrove tree

text: s. It is believed that the Sama-Bajau resort to these activities mainly due to

text: sedentarisation

text: brought about by the restrictions imposed on their nomadic culture by modern

text: nation state

text: s. With their now limited territories, they have little alternative means of competing with better-equipped land-based and commercial fishermen, and earn enough to feed their families.  The Indonesian government and certain

text: non-governmental organisation

text: s, have launched several programs for providing alternative sustainable livelihood projects for Sama-Bajau to discourage these practices (such as the use of

text: fish aggregating device

text: s instead of explosives). Medical health centres (puskesmas) and schools have also been built even for stilt-house Sama-Bajau communities. Similar programs have also been implemented in the Philippines.

text: The cycle begins as arthropods become intermediate hosts by ingesting the parasite eggs. Oncospheral larvae are released from the eggs and use hooks and secreted enzymes to penetrate the gut of the beetles and enter the haemocoel. In the haemocoel the larvae undergo complete cellular reorganization (i.e. metamorphosis), transforming into cysticercoid larvae in approximately 7–10 days. The larvae can remain in the cysticercoid stage in the beetle as long as the lifespan of the adult beetle (up to 3 years), although any age-related decrease in viability has not been studied.  When ingested, the eggs develop into cysticercoids. Rodents can become infected when they eat arthropods, such as flour beetles (Tribolium ssp). Humans, especially children, can ingest the arthropods as well and therefore become infected via the same mechanism. Rodents, especially rats, are definitive hosts and natural reservoirs of H. microstoma. As the definitive host (rats) eats an infected arthropod, cysticercoids present in the body cavity transform into the adult worm.  Juvenile worms establish in the bile duct of mice after approximately 3 days movement within the upper gastrointestinal tract. Once established in the bile duct, the worms then mature sexually and begin producing eggs within approximately 1 week.Eggs are released with mouse faeces and thus dispersal is passive - through the movement and defecation of mice. Adult worm infections in mice held under laboratory conditions persist for 6–12 months.

text: The cycle begins as

text: arthropods

text: become intermediate hosts by ingesting the parasite eggs. Oncospheral larvae are released from the eggs and use hooks and secreted enzymes to penetrate the gut of the beetles and enter the haemocoel. In the haemocoel the larvae undergo complete cellular reorganization (i.e. metamorphosis), transforming into

text: cysticercoid

text: larvae in approximately 7–10 days. The larvae can remain in the cysticercoid stage in the beetle as long as the lifespan of the adult beetle (up to 3 years), although any age-related decrease in viability has not been studied.  When ingested, the eggs develop into cysticercoids. Rodents can become infected when they eat arthropods, such as flour beetles (

text: Tribolium

text: ssp). Humans, especially children, can ingest the arthropods as well and therefore become infected via the same mechanism. Rodents, especially rats, are definitive hosts and natural reservoirs of H. microstoma. As the definitive host (rats) eats an infected arthropod, cysticercoids present in the body cavity transform into the adult worm.  Juvenile worms establish in the bile duct of mice after approximately 3 days movement within the upper

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: . Once established in the bile duct, the worms then mature sexually and begin producing eggs within approximately 1 week.Eggs are released with mouse faeces and thus dispersal is passive - through the movement and defecation of mice. Adult worm infections in mice held under laboratory conditions persist for 6–12 months.

text: Eventually, Austin was contacted by Paul Heyman of Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW), who had managed him in WCW. Heyman hired Austin to do in-ring interviews, as he still had not recovered from his injury enough to wrestle. While in ECW, Austin used the platform to develop his future "Stone Cold" persona as well as a series of vignettes running down WCW in general and Bischoff in particular, most memorably in several promos that mocked his then-status as Nitro host by introducing Monday NyQuil, where he was joined by "Bongo" (a set of drums, meant to represent Steve "Mongo" McMichael) in promoting the show "where the big boys play with each other". Also, several wrestlers credited ECW as the place where Austin developed his microphone skills. Austin credits Paul Heyman as the man who taught him how to cut a promo.

text: Eventually, Austin was contacted by

text: Paul Heyman

text: of

text: Extreme Championship Wrestling

text: (ECW), who had managed him in WCW. Heyman hired Austin to do in-ring interviews, as he still had not recovered from his injury enough to wrestle. While in ECW, Austin used the platform to develop his future "Stone Cold" persona as well as a series of vignettes running down WCW in general and Bischoff in particular, most memorably in several promos that mocked his then-status as

text: Nitro

text: host by introducing Monday

text: NyQuil

text: , where he was joined by "Bongo" (a set of drums, meant to represent

text: Steve "Mongo" McMichael

text: ) in promoting the show "where the big boys play with each other". Also, several wrestlers credited ECW as the place where Austin developed his microphone skills. Austin credits Paul Heyman as the man who taught him how to cut a promo.

text: The irregularity of English spelling is largely an artifact of how the language developed.English is a West Germanic language with substantial influences and additional vocabulary from Latin, Greek, and French, among others. Imported words usually follow the spelling patterns of their language of origin. Advanced English phonics instruction includes studying words according to their origin, and how to determine the correct spelling of a word using its language of origin.

text: The irregularity of English spelling is largely an artifact of how the language developed.English is a

text: West Germanic

text: language with substantial influences and additional vocabulary from

text: Latin

text: Greek

text: , and

text: French

text: , among others. Imported words usually follow the spelling patterns of their language of origin. Advanced English phonics instruction includes studying words according to their origin, and how to determine the correct spelling of a word using its language of origin.

text: The school's mascot was formerly the Rebels, but was changed to the Patriots by the student council in 1973 (in contradiction to the student vote for the nickname "Hedgehogs").

text: Joy Lamason (15 December 1915 – 16 February 2012) was a New Zealand cricketer. She played in four Test matches between 1948 and 1954.

text: Joy Lamason (15 December 1915 – 16 February 2012) was a New Zealand

text: cricket

text: er. She played in four

text: Test matches

text: between 1948 and 1954.

text: Mandelbaum was a member of the New York State Senate (14th D.) from 1933 to 1936, sitting in the 156th, 157th, 158th and 159th New York State Legislature.

text: Mandelbaum was a member of the

text: New York State Senate

text: (14th D.) from 1933 to 1936, sitting in the

text: and

text: 159th New York State Legislature

text: Flowing water carries nutrients from the surface into the caves, which nourishes aquatic life adapted to the lightless environment. The caves are home to an endemic blind cyprinid fish, Caecobarbus geertsii, listed as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List. The caves are relatively unknown scientifically, and may be home to other endemic fish and invertebrate species.

text: Flowing water carries nutrients from the surface into the caves, which nourishes aquatic life adapted to the lightless environment. The caves are home to an

text: endemic

text: blind

text: cyprinid

text: fish,

text: Caecobarbus geertsii

text: , listed as

text: vulnerable

text: in the

text: IUCN Red List

text: . The caves are relatively unknown scientifically, and may be home to other endemic fish and invertebrate species.

text: Many aquatic animals feed extensively on aufwuchs. The mbuna cichlids from Lake Malawi are particularly well known examples of fish adapted for feeding on aufwuchs. Examples include Labeotropheus trewavasae and Pseudotropheus zebra. They have scraper-like teeth that allow them to rasp the aufwuchs from rocks. In marine communities, aufwuchs food sources are important for animals such as limpets and sea urchins.

text: Many aquatic animals feed extensively on aufwuchs. The

text: mbuna

text: cichlid

text: s from

text: Lake Malawi

text: are particularly well known examples of fish adapted for feeding on aufwuchs. Examples include

text: Labeotropheus trewavasae

text: and

text: Pseudotropheus zebra

text: . They have scraper-like teeth that allow them to rasp the aufwuchs from rocks. In marine communities, aufwuchs food sources are important for animals such as

text: limpet

text: s and

text: sea urchin

text: s.

text: Thousands of fish tanks were dug up effectively converting the lake into a mere drain. This had great impact in terms of pollution, leading to difficulty in getting drinking water for the local people. This is in addition to the loss of ecological diversity and intrusion of sea water into the land masses and its fallout in terms of adverse influence on the rainfall pattern in this region.  This imbalance has an adverse effect on the thousands of acres of crop in the upper reaches of sanctuary in view of stoppages water flow into the sea because of obstruction by bunds of the fish tanks that appeared illegally.

text: He was born at Bledeln, a village in the present-day district of Hildesheim, near Hanover. He was educated at Göttingen and Berlin, where he was a student of the Brothers Grimm. From 1862 to 1865, he was professor in Göttingen, and in 1865 he became professor of comparative philology at Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia). One of his students there was Nikolai Anderson. From 1869 to 1899 he was the president of the Learned Estonian Society. In 1898 he again accepted a chair at Göttingen. He died in Göttingen.

text: He was born at

text: Bledeln

text: , a village in the present-day

text: district of Hildesheim

text: , near

text: Hanover

text: . He was educated at

text: Göttingen

text: and

text: Berlin

text: , where he was a student of the

text: Brothers Grimm

text: . From 1862 to 1865, he was professor in Göttingen, and in 1865 he became professor of comparative philology at

text: Dorpat

text: (now Tartu, Estonia). One of his students there was

text: Nikolai Anderson

text: . From 1869 to 1899 he was the president of the

text: Learned Estonian Society

text: . In 1898 he again accepted a chair at Göttingen. He died in

text: Göttingen

text: The Hill School, focusing on undergraduate business education, is an important addition to the programs and research focus of the Faculty of Business Administration at the U of R.

text: Died.| rowspan=3 nowrap | March 4, 1909 –

text: The Albanians, dwelling in provinces controlled by the Ottoman Empire, objected to what they considered a significant loss of their territory to Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro and realized they would have to organize nationally to attract the assistance of foreign powers seeking to neutralize Russia's influence in the region. The implications of the treaty led to the formation of the League of Prizren.

text: The

text: Albania

text: ns, dwelling in provinces controlled by the Ottoman Empire, objected to what they considered a significant loss of their territory to Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro and realized they would have to organize nationally to attract the assistance of foreign powers seeking to neutralize Russia's influence in the region. The implications of the treaty led to the formation of the

text: League of Prizren

text: Cisco FabricPath is a proprietary implementation of TRILL that utilizes the TRILL control plane (including IS-IS for Layer 2), but a non-interoperable data plane.

text: Pascal also allows functions and procedures to be passed as parameters to functions or procedures:

text: Individuals of Annachlamys flabellata  become mature when they reach about  in length. They seem to exhibit partial protandric sex reversal in that smaller individuals are mostly males but females predominate among larger individuals. Nevertheless, some small females do exist as do some large males. In lagoons in New Caledonia with little thermal variation, spawning takes place at intervals throughout the year but the maximum spawning period occurs in the summer from November to March. Other than this, spawning exhibits no correlation to sea temperature variations, changes in salinity and the phases of the moon. In mature individuals, the male gonads are cream coloured and the female gonads bright red. When ripe they are enlarged and visible in the live animal where they obscure the view of the animal's digestive tract. The eggs are fertilised externally and the initial trochophore larvae soon develop into veliger larvae which form part of the zooplankton and disperse with the currents. After some weeks, these settle and undergo metamorphosis before becoming juveniles.

text: Individuals of Annachlamys flabellata  become mature when they reach about  in length. They seem to exhibit partial

text: protandric sex reversal

text: in that smaller individuals are mostly males but females predominate among larger individuals. Nevertheless, some small females do exist as do some large males. In lagoons in

text: New Caledonia

text: with little thermal variation, spawning takes place at intervals throughout the year but the maximum spawning period occurs in the summer from November to March. Other than this, spawning exhibits no correlation to sea temperature variations, changes in salinity and the phases of the moon. In mature individuals, the male gonads are cream coloured and the female gonads bright red. When ripe they are enlarged and visible in the live animal where they obscure the view of the animal's digestive tract. The

text: eggs

text: are fertilised externally and the initial

text: trochophore

text: larva

text: e soon develop into

text: veliger

text: larvae which form part of the

text: zooplankton

text: and disperse with the currents. After some weeks, these settle and undergo

text: metamorphosis

text: before becoming juveniles.

text: In September 2012, Moloney became the AFL's first free agent, when he announced that he would leave the Melbourne Football Club. On 10 October 2012, he agreed to accept an offer from the Brisbane Lions.

text: In September 2012, Moloney became the AFL's first free agent, when he announced that he would leave the Melbourne Football Club. On 10 October 2012, he agreed to accept an offer from the

text: Brisbane Lions

text: Peter Frampton covered the song on his 1977 album I'm in You.

text: Peter Frampton

text: covered the song on his 1977 album

text: I'm in You

text: The University has faced challenges in the 10 years of welcoming students but it has turned itself around in recent years. News articles highlighting its progress: The University enrolled its largest class of undergraduate students in its history for fall 2016. The University has not raised its tuition in four years.The University reaffirmed its accreditation.University on Solid Financial Ground!10 Year Anniversary Events Highlight Bright Future!University Helps Attract New Businesses to Downtown!University launches Adult Degree Programs in Management & eBusiness, Digital Marketing, and Business Analytics.Market-Facing Majors Hit Spotlight.

text: Compared to eagle owls of similar length, fish owls tend to be even shorter in tail length and even heavier in build, have relatively larger wings (the tawny and Blakiston's being particularly chunky in shape), have considerably longer legs, and have a rough texture to the bottom of their toes. At least the latter two features are clear adaptations to aid these owls in capturing fish. Diurnal raptors who feed largely on fish have similar, if not identical, rough texture under their toes, which helps these birds grasp slippery fish. Unlike diurnal raptors who capture fish such as the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) as compared to most terrestrial raptors, the fish owls have large, powerful, and curved talons and a longitudinal sharp keel sitting under the middle claw with all having sharp cutting edges that are very much like those of eagle owls. Also, unlike fish-eating diurnal raptors will not submerge any part of their body while hunting, preferring only to put their feet into the water, although fish owls will hunt on foot, wading into the shallows. Unlike most owls, the feathers of fish owls are not soft to the touch and they lack the comb and hair-like fringes to the primaries, which allow other owls to fly silently in order to ambush their prey. Due to the lack of these feather-specializations, fish owl wing beats make sounds. The lack of a deep facial disc in fish owls is another indication of the unimportance of sound relative to vision in these owls, as facial disc depth (as well as inner ear size) are directly related to how important sound is to an owl's hunting behavior. Similar adaptations, such as unwillingness to submerge beyond their legs and lack of sound-muffling feathers are also seen in the African fishing owls, which do not seem to be directly related. Tawny fish owls are around the same size as the brown fish owl in terms of linear dimensions. The tawny is  long from bill to tail. However, studies have revealed the tawny is surprisingly rather heavier on average than the brown fish owl and, less surprising, is considerably heavier than an eagle owl of comparable length. Six adult tawny fish owls were found to weigh an average of , with a reported range of , and are thus one of the heaviest living owl species. Only the Blakiston's fish owl and a majority of races of Eurasian eagle owl (B. bubo) are heavier on average. The maximum (not average) weight of Verreaux's eagle owls (B. lacteus) and snowy owls (B. scandiacus) are also higher but those species have far larger sample sizes of body mass. In terms of standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is , the tarsus is  and the bill is . Compared to the brown fish owl, the tawny averages of similar tail length, is larger in size by average wing length and bill size and slightly smaller in tarsal length.

text: eagle owl

text: of comparable length. Six adult tawny fish owls were found to weigh an average of , with a reported range of , and are thus one of the heaviest living owl species. Only the Blakiston's fish owl and a majority of races of

text: Eurasian eagle owl

text: (B. bubo) are heavier on average. The maximum (not average) weight of

text: Verreaux's eagle owl

text: s (B. lacteus) and

text: snowy owl

text: s (B. scandiacus) are also higher but those species have far larger sample sizes of body mass. In terms of standard measurements, the

text: wing chord

text: is , the

text: tail

text: is , the

text: tarsus

text: is  and the

text: bill

text: is . Compared to the brown fish owl, the tawny averages of similar tail length, is larger in size by average wing length and bill size and slightly smaller in tarsal length.

text: (Fernand Leglaive)

text: (Fernand Leglaive)

text: The Miracle is a small dinghy sailboat popularized in the United Kingdom, and designed by Jack Holt — one of the last for the well-known designer. Holt brought sailing to the masses in the 1960s with his famous Mirror dinghy, and continued to produce designs such as the Enterprise, GP14, Cadet, Hornet, Pacer, Solo, and Streaker — many of which went on to become hugely successful dinghy classes.

text: The Miracle is a small

text: dinghy

text: sailboat

text: popularized in the

text: United Kingdom

text: , and designed by

text: Jack Holt

text: — one of the last for the well-known designer. Holt brought sailing to the masses in the 1960s with his famous

text: Mirror dinghy

text: , and continued to produce designs such as the Enterprise, GP14, Cadet, Hornet, Pacer, Solo, and Streaker — many of which went on to become hugely successful dinghy classes.

text: Tuesday, November 16, 19:00

text: Tuesday, November 16, 19:00

text: He has also appeared in four television productions including the television series:

text: He has also appeared in four television productions including the

text: television series

text: On 1 July 2011, while playing in a charity match for amateur side VfR Regensburg, Eckstein had a heart failure and fell into a coma. He was transferred to the University hospital at Regensburg, where his situation was stabilised. The incident is thought to not have caused any permanent damage to his body.

text: On 1 July 2011, while playing in a charity match for amateur side VfR Regensburg, Eckstein had a heart failure and fell into a coma. He was transferred to the University hospital at

text: Regensburg

text: , where his situation was stabilised. The incident is thought to not have caused any permanent damage to his body.

text: The R382 is a Regional Route in South Africa. From the N7 at Steinkopf, the route heads west through the Aninaus Pass to reach Port Nolloth on the west coast, where the route ends.

text: The R382 is a

text: Regional Route

text: in

text: South Africa

text: . From the

text: at

text: Steinkopf

text: , the route heads west through the Aninaus Pass to reach

text: Port Nolloth

text: on the west coast, where the route ends.

text: cylindrical coordinate system. Here the notation for Bessel functions follows the German convention, to be consistent with the original notation used by Sommerfeld. The function

text: cylindrical coordinate system

text: . Here the notation for Bessel functions follows the German convention, to be consistent with the original notation used by Sommerfeld. The function

text: A philological classification for Franco-Provençal published by Stanford University (Ruhlen, 1987, pp. 325–326) is as follows:

text: A philological classification for Franco-Provençal published by

text: Stanford University

text: (Ruhlen, 1987, pp. 325–326) is as follows:

text: The resulting middlegame is largely determined by how Black decides to counteract in the centre. The traditional break is to play e7–e5, but the alternative pawn break, c7–c5, even as a sacrifice has received more attention recently. After 5.f3, the main continuation is 5...0-0 6.Be3, although the popularity of the Sämisch Gambit (6...c5) has led many White players to explore 6.Nge2 and 6.Bg5 instead. After 6.Be3, Black has a wide choice of lines.

text: The resulting

text: middlegame

text: is largely determined by how Black decides to counteract in the centre. The traditional break is to play e7–e5, but the alternative pawn break, c7–c5, even as a

text: sacrifice

text: has received more attention recently. After 5.f3, the main continuation is 5...0-0 6.Be3, although the popularity of the Sämisch Gambit (6...c5) has led many White players to explore 6.Nge2 and 6.Bg5 instead. After 6.Be3, Black has a wide choice of lines.

text: Macau Light Rail Transit is located at the Avenida Wai Long, Airport Station is close to Macau International Airport. In addition, the seamless connection between the Station and the footbridge allows passengers to access the Airport and the hotels nearby.

text: Macau Light Rail Transit

text: is located at the Avenida Wai Long, Airport Station is close to Macau International Airport. In addition, the seamless connection between the Station and the footbridge allows passengers to access the Airport and the hotels nearby.

text: The Argentiniformes are an order of ray-finned fish whose distinctness was recognized only fairly recently. In former times, they were included in the Osmeriformes (typical smelt and allies) as suborder Argentinoidei. That term refers only to the suborder of marine smelts and barreleyes in the classification used here, with the slickheads and allies being the Alepocephaloidei. These suborders were treated as superfamilies Argentinoidea and Alepocephaloidea, respectively, when the present group was still included in the Osmeriformes.

text: The Argentiniformes are an

text: order

text: of

text: ray-finned fish

text: whose distinctness was recognized only fairly recently. In former times, they were included in the

text: Osmeriformes

text: (typical

text: smelt

text: and allies) as

text: suborder

text: Argentinoidei. That term refers only to the suborder of marine smelts and

text: barreleye

text: s in the classification used here, with the

text: slickhead

text: s and allies being the Alepocephaloidei. These suborders were treated as

text: superfamilies

text: Argentinoidea and Alepocephaloidea, respectively, when the present group was still included in the Osmeriformes.

text: Thomas and the White House Peace Vigil inspired U.S. House of Representatives Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton to introduce the Nuclear Disarmament and Economic Conversion Act, that would require the United States to disable and dismantle its nuclear weapons when all other nations possessing nuclear weapons do likewise. The Congresswoman has been introducing a version of the bill since 1994.

text: Thomas and the White House Peace Vigil inspired U.S. House of Representatives

entity_name: Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives

text: Delegate

text: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: to introduce the Nuclear Disarmament and Economic Conversion Act, that would require the United States to disable and dismantle its nuclear weapons when all other nations possessing nuclear weapons do likewise. The Congresswoman has been introducing a version of the bill since 1994.

text: December 1993: Tenants say the reputation of the flats has been tarred by vandalism, muggings and fears of fire.

text: Ranebennur Blackbuck Sanctuary was declared a wildlife sanctuary on the 17th of June 1974 to protect Blackbucks.

text: Secretary - Theresa Maher,  Jobing.com

text: Secretary - Theresa Maher,  Jobing.com

text: Geneva's "L'horloge fleurie" was created in 1955 as a symbol of the city's watchmakers and dedication to nature. Its second hand is the longest in the world at 2.50 meters. It is situated at the western edge of the Jardin Anglais. Usually, around 6500 flowers and shrubs are used as decoration for this clock. The decoration is changed each time the seasons of the year change.

text: Geneva's "L'horloge fleurie" was created in 1955 as a symbol of the city's watchmakers and dedication to nature. Its second hand is the longest in the world at 2.50 meters. It is situated at the western edge of the

text: Jardin Anglais

text: . Usually, around 6500 flowers and shrubs are used as decoration for this clock. The decoration is changed each time the seasons of the year change.

text: It was located at Mission Vieja, near Rancho San Pascual and Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, in the San Gabriel Valley.

text: It was located at Mission Vieja, near

text: Rancho San Pascual

text: and

text: Mission San Gabriel Arcángel

text: , in the

text: San Gabriel Valley

text: Trampolene's first gig of 2016 was at Brixton Jamm on 6 February.

text: From 16 November 1942 through May 1943, B-17s struck shipping in the Mediterranean Sea as well as airfields, docks, harbors, and marshalling yards in North Africa, Southern France, Sardinia, Sicily, and the southern Italian mainland in a campaign to cut supply lines to German forces in North Africa. Helped force the capitulation of Pantelleria Island in June 1943. Bombed in preparation for and in support of the invasions of Sicily and southern Italy in the summer and fall of 1943.

text: Steelhead are raised in many countries throughout the world. Since the 1950s production has grown exponentially, particularly in Europe and recently in Chile. Worldwide, in 2007, 604,695 tonnes of farmed Steelhead were harvested with a value of $2.59 billion. The largest producer is Chile. In Chile and Norway, the ocean cage production of steelhead has expanded to supply export markets. Inland production of rainbow trout to supply domestic markets has increased strongly in countries such as Italy, France, Germany, Denmark, and Spain. Other significant producing countries include the United States, Iran, Germany, and the UK. Rainbow trout, including juvenile steelhead in fresh water, routinely feed on larval, pupal and adult forms of aquatic insects (typically caddisflies, stoneflies, mayflies and aquatic diptera).  They also eat fish eggs and adult forms of terrestrial insects (typically ants, beetles, grasshoppers and crickets) that fall into the water. Other prey include small fish up to one-third of their length, crayfish, shrimp, and other crustaceans. As rainbow trout grow, the proportion of fish consumed increases in most populations. Some lake-dwelling forms may become planktonic feeders. In rivers and streams populated with other salmonid species, rainbow trout eat varied fish eggs, including those of salmon, brown and cutthroat trout, mountain whitefish and the eggs of other rainbow trout. Rainbows also consume decomposing flesh from carcasses of other fish.  Adult steelhead in the ocean feed primarily on other fish, squid and amphipods. Cultured steelhead are fed a diet formulated to closely resemble their natural diet that includes fish meal, fish oil, vitamins and minerals, and the carotenoid Asthaxanthin for pigmentation.

text: Steelhead are raised in many countries throughout the world. Since the 1950s production has grown exponentially, particularly in Europe and recently in Chile. Worldwide, in 2007, 604,695 tonnes of farmed Steelhead were harvested with a value of $2.59 billion. The largest producer is Chile. In Chile and Norway, the ocean cage production of steelhead has expanded to supply export markets. Inland production of rainbow trout to supply domestic markets has increased strongly in countries such as Italy, France, Germany, Denmark, and Spain. Other significant producing countries include the United States,

text: Iran

text: , Germany, and the UK. Rainbow trout, including juvenile steelhead in fresh water, routinely feed on

text: larva

text: l,

text: pupa

text: l and adult forms of aquatic insects (typically

text: caddisflies

text: stoneflies

text: mayflies

text: and aquatic

text: diptera

text: ).  They also eat fish eggs and adult forms of terrestrial insects (typically ants, beetles, grasshoppers and crickets) that fall into the water. Other prey include small fish up to one-third of their length,

text: crayfish

text: , shrimp, and other

text: crustacean

text: s. As rainbow trout grow, the proportion of fish consumed increases in most populations. Some lake-dwelling forms may become

text: plankton

text: ic feeders. In rivers and streams populated with other salmonid species, rainbow trout eat varied fish eggs, including those of salmon, brown and cutthroat trout,

text: mountain whitefish

text: and the eggs of other rainbow trout. Rainbows also consume decomposing flesh from carcasses of other fish.  Adult steelhead in the ocean feed primarily on other fish,

text: squid

text: and

text: amphipods

text: . Cultured steelhead are fed a diet formulated to closely resemble their natural diet that includes fish meal, fish oil, vitamins and minerals, and the carotenoid Asthaxanthin for pigmentation.

text: Dale Frances Bozzio (née Consalvi; born March 2, 1955) is an American rock and pop vocalist. She is best known as co-founder and lead singer of the '80s new wave band Missing Persons and also known for her work with Frank Zappa. While with Zappa, she performed significant roles in two of his major works, Joe's Garage (1979) and Thing-Fish (1984). In her solo career, Bozzio has released four albums and one EP so far.

text: Dale Frances Bozzio (née Consalvi; born March 2, 1955) is an American

text: rock

text: and

text: pop

text: vocalist

text: . She is best known as co-founder and

text: lead singer

text: of the '80s

text: new wave

text: band

text: Missing Persons

text: and also known for her work with

text: Frank Zappa

text: . While with Zappa, she performed significant roles in two of his major works,

text: Joe's Garage

text: (1979) and

text: Thing-Fish

text: (1984). In her solo career, Bozzio has released four albums and one

text: EP

text: so far.

text: Chegdomyn () is an urban locality (a work settlement) and the administrative center of Verkhnebureinsky District of Khabarovsk Krai, Russia. Population:

text: Chegdomyn () is an

text: urban locality

text: (a

text: work settlement

text: ) and the

text: administrative center

text: of

text: Verkhnebureinsky District

text: of

text: Khabarovsk Krai

text: Russia

text: . Population:

text: Sebastian was born to a Jewish family in Brăila. After finishing his secondary studies, Sebastian went on to study law in Bucharest, but was soon attracted to the literary life and the exciting ideas of the new generation of Romanian intellectuals, as epitomized by the literary group Criterion which included such luminaries as Emil Cioran, Mircea Eliade and Eugène Ionesco. Sebastian published several novels, including Accidentul ("The Accident") and Oraşul cu salcâmi ("The Acacia Tree City"), heavily influenced by French novelists such as Marcel Proust and Jules Renard.

text: Sebastian was born to a

text: Jewish

text: family in

text: Brăila

text: . After finishing his secondary studies, Sebastian went on to study law in Bucharest, but was soon attracted to the literary life and the exciting ideas of the new generation of Romanian intellectuals, as epitomized by the literary group

text: Criterion

text: which included such luminaries as

text: Emil Cioran

text: Mircea Eliade

text: and

text: Eugène Ionesco

text: . Sebastian published several

text: novel

text: s, including Accidentul ("The Accident") and Oraşul cu salcâmi ("The Acacia Tree City"), heavily influenced by

text: French

text: novelists such as

text: Marcel Proust

text: and

text: Jules Renard

text: The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has looked at peer-reviewed studies and has come to the conclusion that risky behaviors which could lead to life-threatening situations are directly correlated with the consumption of caffeinated alcoholic beverages.

text: The US

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA) has looked at peer-reviewed studies and has come to the conclusion that risky behaviors which could lead to life-threatening situations are directly correlated with the consumption of caffeinated alcoholic beverages.

text: SEC22B has been shown to interact with syntaxin 18.

text: . This code, which is based on an example by Berstel, is an example of a code which is not uniquely decodable, since the string

text: The tournament, organized by the All Japan Intercollegiate Basketball Federation and Asahi Shimbun, takes place in December at Yoyogi National Gymnasium

text: The tournament, organized by the

text: All Japan Intercollegiate Basketball Federation

text: and

text: Asahi Shimbun

text: , takes place in December at

text: Yoyogi National Gymnasium

text: David Peel (19 June 1920 – 4 September 1981) was an English film and television actor.

text: David Peel (19 June 1920 – 4 September 1981) was an

text: English

text: film and television actor.

text: Edmonton's draft picks at the 1986 NHL Entry Draft

text: Edmonton's draft picks at the

text: 1986 NHL Entry Draft

text: For vector spaces over an algebraically closed field F, semi-simplicity of a matrix is equivalent to diagonalizability. This is because such an operator always has an eigenvector; if it is, in addition, semi-simple, then it has a complementary invariant hyperplane, which itself has an eigenvector, and thus by induction is diagonalizable. Conversely, diagonalizable operators are easily seen to be semi-simple, as invariant subspaces are direct sums of eigenspaces, and any basis for this space can be extended to an eigenbasis.

text: For vector spaces over an

text: algebraically closed

text: field F, semi-simplicity of a matrix is equivalent to

text: diagonalizability

text: . This is because such an operator always has an eigenvector; if it is, in addition, semi-simple, then it has a complementary invariant

text: hyperplane

text: , which itself has an eigenvector, and thus by induction is diagonalizable. Conversely, diagonalizable operators are easily seen to be semi-simple, as invariant subspaces are direct sums of eigenspaces, and any basis for this space can be extended to an eigenbasis.

text: In the late nineteenth century the town was "one of the finest harbours in east Asia, though still only a fishing-village."

text: The diet of the mottled skate consists of shrimps, cephalopods, bony fishes, and crabs. It is oviparous, with females producing egg capsules almost year-round. With the similar big skate (R. binoculata), it is one of only two skate species that regularly places multiple embryos (up to five) into a single egg case. The mottled skate is valued for food in South Korea and Japan. It is subject to heavy fishing, both intentional and otherwise, throughout its range, and its population has declined substantially since the 1980s. As a result, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed it as Vulnerable.

text: The diet of the mottled skate consists of

text: shrimp

text: s,

text: cephalopod

text: s,

text: bony fish

text: es, and

text: crab

text: s. It is

text: oviparous

text: , with females producing

text: egg capsules

text: almost year-round. With the similar

text: big skate

text: (R. binoculata), it is one of only two skate species that regularly places multiple

text: embryo

text: s (up to five) into a single egg case. The mottled skate is valued for food in

text: South Korea

text: and Japan. It is subject to heavy fishing, both intentional and otherwise, throughout its range, and its population has declined substantially since the 1980s. As a result, the

text: (IUCN) has assessed it as

text: Vulnerable

text: Throughout "A Fish Called Selma", it is hinted that Troy engages in strange sexual activity. The writers initially did not know what the "unsavory" sexual preference would be, but eventually decided on a fish fetish, a suggestion from executive producer James L. Brooks, since it was "so perverted and strange, that it was over the top". At the episode's table reading, a female staff member demanded the line, "from now on she's smoking for two", be removed from the script; however, her request was denied. On the walls of the Pimento Grove restaurant, the animators placed caricatures of every single guest star who had appeared on the show up to that point, as well as pictures of the fictional celebrities of the show.

text: Throughout "A Fish Called Selma", it is hinted that Troy engages in strange sexual activity. The writers initially did not know what the "unsavory" sexual preference would be, but eventually decided on a fish fetish, a suggestion from executive producer

text: James L. Brooks

text: , since it was "so perverted and strange, that it was over the top". At the episode's

text: table reading

text: , a female staff member demanded the line, "from now on she's smoking for two", be removed from the script; however, her request was denied. On the walls of the Pimento Grove restaurant, the animators placed caricatures of every single guest star who had appeared on the show up to that point, as well as pictures of the fictional celebrities of the show.

text: Forage fish are small fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Typical ocean forage fish are small, filter-feeding fish such as herring, anchovies and menhaden. Forage fish compensate for their small size by forming schools. Some swim in synchronised grids with their mouths open so they can efficiently filter feed on plankton. These schools can become huge, moving along coastlines and migrating across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated food resources for the great marine predators.

text: Forage fish

text: are small fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish,

text: seabird

text: s and

text: marine mammal

text: s. Typical ocean forage fish are small,

text: filter-feeding

text: fish such as

text: herring

text: anchovies

text: and

text: menhaden

text: . Forage fish compensate for their small size by forming schools. Some swim in synchronised grids with their mouths open so they can efficiently filter feed on

text: plankton

text: . These schools can become huge, moving along coastlines and

text: migrating

text: across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated food resources for the great marine predators.

text: Kuo-toa have scaly, bipedal bodies with fish-like heads.

text: Migrations involves the fish  moving from one part of a water body to another on a regular basis. Some particular types of migration are anadromous, in which adult fish live in the sea and migrate into fresh water to spawn, and catadromous, in which adult fish live in fresh water and migrate into salt water to spawn.

text: Migrations involves the fish  moving from one part of a water body to another on a regular basis. Some particular types of migration are anadromous, in which adult fish live in the sea and migrate into fresh water to

text: spawn

text: , and catadromous, in which adult fish live in fresh water and migrate into salt water to spawn.

text: From cysts, brine shrimp nauplii can readily to be used to feed to fish and crustacean larvae just after one-day incubation. Instar I (the nauplii that just hatched and with large yolk reserves in their body) and instar II nauplii (the nauplii after first moult and with functional digestive tracts) are more widely used in aquaculture, for the reasons they are easy for operation, nutrients rich, and of small size which makes them suitable for feeding fish and crustacean larvae live or after drying.

text: From cysts, brine shrimp nauplii can readily to be used to feed to fish and crustacean larvae just after one-day

text: incubation

text: Instar

text: I (the nauplii that just hatched and with large yolk reserves in their body) and instar II nauplii (the nauplii after first moult and with functional digestive tracts) are more widely used in aquaculture, for the reasons they are easy for operation, nutrients rich, and of small size which makes them suitable for feeding fish and crustacean larvae live or after drying.

text: The diet of the lake chub is varied: zooplankton, insects, aquatic insect larvae, and algae. The largest individuals can capture small fishes. The lake chub itself can be eaten by large predatory fishes and is therefore suitable as bait for fishing.

text: The diet of the lake chub is varied:

text: zooplankton

text: , insects, aquatic insect larvae, and algae. The largest individuals can capture small fishes. The lake chub itself can be eaten by large predatory fishes and is therefore suitable as bait for fishing.

text: The most studied trace and isotopic signatures are strontium due to the same charge and similar ionic radius to calcium; however, scientists can study multiple trace elements within an otolith to discriminate more specific signatures.  A common tool used to measure trace elements in an otolith is a laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer.  This tool can measure a variety of trace elements simultaneously.  A secondary ion mass spectrometer can also be used.  This instrument can allow for greater chemical resolution but can only measure one trace element at a time. The hope of this research is to provide scientists with valuable information on where fish have traveled.  Combined with otolith annuli, scientists can add how old fish were when they traveled through different water bodies.  All this information can be used to determine fish life cycles so that fisheries scientists can make better informed decisions about fish stocks.

text: The most studied trace and isotopic signatures are

text: strontium

text: due to the same charge and similar

text: ionic radius

text: to

text: calcium

text: ; however, scientists can study multiple trace elements within an otolith to discriminate more specific signatures.  A common tool used to measure trace elements in an otolith is a

entity_name: Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

text: laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer

text: .  This tool can measure a variety of trace elements simultaneously.  A secondary ion mass spectrometer can also be used.  This instrument can allow for greater chemical resolution but can only measure one trace element at a time. The hope of this research is to provide scientists with valuable information on where fish have traveled.  Combined with otolith annuli, scientists can add how old fish were when they traveled through different water bodies.  All this information can be used to determine fish life cycles so that fisheries scientists can make better informed decisions about fish stocks.

text: Matsyasana (; ; IAST: Matsyāsana) or Fish Pose is an asana.

text: Matsyasana (; ;

entity_name: International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration

text: IAST

text: : Matsyāsana) or Fish Pose is an

text: asana