text: Neural drug delivery is the next step beyond the basic addition of growth factors to nerve guidance conduits. Drug delivery systems allow the rate of growth factor release to be regulated over time, which is critical for creating an environment more closely representative of in vivo development environments. Delivery systems can have many different uses; however, the emphasis of the discussion here will be on the need for drug delivery systems in nervous system injuries.

text: Neural drug delivery is the next step beyond the basic addition of

entity_name: Growth factor

text: growth factors

text: to

entity_name: Nerve guidance conduit

text: nerve guidance conduits

entity_name: Route of administration

text: Drug delivery systems

text: allow the rate of growth factor release to be regulated over time, which is critical for creating an environment more closely representative of in vivo development environments. Delivery systems can have many different uses; however, the emphasis of the discussion here will be on the need for drug delivery systems in

entity_name: Nerve injury

text: nervous system injuries

method: dangnt-nlp

text: The nervous system contains two main categories or types of cells: neurons and glial cells.

text: The nervous system contains two main categories or types of cells:

entity_name: Neuron

text: neuron

text: s and

entity_name: Neuroglia

text: glial cell

text: s.

text: The dentate gyrus (DG) is the innermost section of the hippocampal formation.  The dentate gyrus consists of three layers: molecular, granular, and polymorphic. Granule neurons, which are the most prominent type of DG cells, are mainly found in the molecular layer.  These granule cells are the major source of input of the hippocampal formation, receiving most of their information from layer II of the entorhinal cortex, via the perforant pathway.  Information from the DG is directed to the pyramidal cells of CA3 through mossy fibres.  Neurons within the DG are famous for being one of two nervous system areas capable of neurogenesis, the growth or development of nervous tissue.

text: The

entity_name: Dentate gyrus

text: dentate gyrus

text: (DG) is the innermost section of the hippocampal formation.  The dentate gyrus consists of three layers: molecular, granular, and polymorphic. Granule neurons, which are the most prominent type of DG cells, are mainly found in the molecular layer.  These granule cells are the major source of input of the hippocampal formation, receiving most of their information from layer II of the entorhinal cortex, via the

entity_name: Perforant path

text: perforant pathway

text: .  Information from the DG is directed to the pyramidal cells of CA3 through

entity_name: Mossy fiber (hippocampus)

text: mossy fibres

text: .  Neurons within the DG are famous for being one of two nervous system areas capable of

entity_name: Neurogenesis

text: neurogenesis

text: , the growth or development of nervous tissue.

text: The two areas of the spinal cord most commonly injured are the cervical spine (C1-C7) and the lumbar spine (L1-L5). (The notation C1, C7, L1, L5 refer to the location of a specific vertebra in either the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar region of the spine.)  Spinal cord injury can also be non-traumatic and caused by disease (transverse myelitis, polio, spina bifida, Friedreich's ataxia, spinal cord tumor, spinal stenosis etc.)

text: The two areas of the spinal cord most commonly injured are the

entity_name: Cervical vertebrae

text: cervical spine

text: (C1-C7) and the

entity_name: Lumbar vertebrae

text: lumbar spine

text: (L1-L5). (The notation C1, C7, L1, L5 refer to the location of a specific

entity_name: Vertebra

text: vertebra

text: in either the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar region of the spine.)  Spinal cord injury can also be non-traumatic and caused by disease (

entity_name: Transverse myelitis

text: transverse myelitis

entity_name: Poliomyelitis

text: polio

entity_name: Spina bifida

text: spina bifida

entity_name: Friedreich's ataxia

text: Friedreich's ataxia

entity_name: Spinal tumor

text: spinal cord tumor

entity_name: Spinal stenosis

text: spinal stenosis

text: etc.)

text: Tripartite synapse refers to the functional integration and physical proximity of the presynaptic membrane, postsynaptic membrane, and their intimate association with surrounding glia as well as the combined contributions of these three synaptic components to the production of activity at the chemical synapse. Tripartite synapses occur at a number of locations in the central nervous system with astrocytes and may also exist with Muller glia of retinal ganglion cells and Schwann cells at the neuromuscular junction. The term was first introduced in the late 1990s to account for a growing body of evidence that glia are not merely passive neuronal support cells but, instead, play an active role in the integration of synaptic information through bidirectional communication with the neuronal components of the synapse as mediated by neurotransmitters and gliotransmitters.

text: Tripartite synapse refers to the functional integration and physical proximity of the presynaptic membrane, postsynaptic membrane, and their intimate association with surrounding

text: glia

text: as well as the combined contributions of these three synaptic components to the production of activity at the

entity_name: Chemical synapse

text: chemical synapse

text: . Tripartite synapses occur at a number of locations in the

entity_name: Central nervous system

text: central nervous system

text: with

entity_name: Astrocyte

text: astrocyte

text: s and may also exist with

entity_name: Muller glia

text: Muller glia

text: of

entity_name: Retinal ganglion cell

text: retinal ganglion cell

text: s and

entity_name: Schwann cell

text: Schwann cell

text: s at the

entity_name: Neuromuscular junction

text: neuromuscular junction

text: . The term was first introduced in the late 1990s to account for a growing body of evidence that glia are not merely passive neuronal support cells but, instead, play an active role in the integration of synaptic information through bidirectional communication with the

text: neuron

text: al components of the

entity_name: Synapse

text: synapse

text: as mediated by

entity_name: Neurotransmitter

text: neurotransmitter

text: s and

entity_name: Gliotransmitter

text: gliotransmitter

text: s.

method: UNH-ecn

text: Drugs diffuse through capillary walls in the same manner as endogenous molecules. One of the most important examples of this is drug diffusion across the blood brain barrier. The blood brain barrier consists of a bed of continuous capillaries. Typically only small hydrophobic molecules are able to diffuse across the blood brain barrier. This makes it very difficult to get drugs into the brain without invasively administering them directly into the brain. One possible solution is the utilization of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are synthesized to encapsulate a target drug. The surface of the nanoparticle, if not already hydrophobic, may have polymers attached to the surface to adjust the current polarity. Ligands can also be attached to the surface of a nanoparticle to target certain receptors located within the brain. Once the nanoparticle is through the blood brain barrier it releases the drug into the brain. A specific example of this solution is the delivery of anti-HIV drugs to the central nervous system by TAT-conjugated nanoparticles.

text: Drugs diffuse through capillary walls in the same manner as endogenous molecules. One of the most important examples of this is drug diffusion across the

entity_name: Blood–brain barrier

text: blood brain barrier

text: . The blood brain barrier consists of a bed of continuous capillaries. Typically only small hydrophobic molecules are able to diffuse across the blood brain barrier. This makes it very difficult to get drugs into the brain without invasively administering them directly into the brain. One possible solution is the utilization of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles are synthesized to encapsulate a target drug. The surface of the nanoparticle, if not already hydrophobic, may have polymers attached to the surface to adjust the current polarity. Ligands can also be attached to the surface of a nanoparticle to target certain receptors located within the brain. Once the nanoparticle is through the blood brain barrier it releases the drug into the brain. A specific example of this solution is the delivery of anti-HIV drugs to the central nervous system by TAT-conjugated nanoparticles.

text: Acetylcholine has functions both in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and in the central nervous system (CNS) as a neuromodulator. In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine activates muscles, and is a major neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system.

text: Acetylcholine has functions both in the

entity_name: Peripheral nervous system

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) and in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) as a

entity_name: Neuromodulation

text: neuromodulator

text: . In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine activates muscles, and is a major neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: The sympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of norepinephrine in the reaction.

text: The sympathetic nervous system originates in the

entity_name: Spinal cord

text: spinal cord

text: and its main function is to activate the physiological changes that occur during the fight-or-flight response. This component of the autonomic nervous system utilizes and activates the release of

entity_name: Norepinephrine

text: norepinephrine

text: in the reaction.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system has been said to promote a "rest and digest" response, promotes calming of the nerves return to regular function, and enhancing digestion. Functions of nerves within the parasympathetic nervous system include:

text: GBMs usually form in the cerebral white matter, grow quickly, and can become very large before producing symptoms. Less than 10% form more slowly following degeneration of low-grade astrocytoma or anaplastic astrocytoma. These are called secondary GBMs and are more common in younger patients (mean age 45 versus 62 years). The tumor may extend into the meninges or ventricular wall, leading to high protein content in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (> 100 mg/dL), as well as an occasional pleocytosis of 10 to 100 cells, mostly lymphocytes. Malignant cells carried in the CSF may spread (rarely) to the spinal cord or cause meningeal gliomatosis. However, metastasis of GBM beyond the central nervous system is extremely unusual. About 50% of GBMs occupy more than one lobe of a hemisphere or are bilateral. Tumors of this type usually arise from the cerebrum and may rarely exhibit the classic infiltration across the corpus callosum, producing a butterfly (bilateral) glioma.

text: GBMs usually form in the cerebral white matter, grow quickly, and can become very large before producing symptoms. Less than 10% form more slowly following degeneration of

entity_name: Fibrillary astrocytoma

text: low-grade astrocytoma

text: or

entity_name: Anaplastic astrocytoma

text: anaplastic astrocytoma

text: . These are called secondary GBMs and are more common in younger patients (mean age 45 versus 62 years). The tumor may extend into the meninges or

entity_name: Ventricular system

text: ventricular

text: wall, leading to high protein content in the

entity_name: Cerebrospinal fluid

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF) (> 100 mg/dL), as well as an occasional

entity_name: Pleocytosis

text: pleocytosis

text: of 10 to 100 cells, mostly

entity_name: Lymphocyte

text: lymphocyte

text: s.

entity_name: Malignancy

text: Malignant

text: cells carried in the CSF may spread (rarely) to the

text: spinal cord

text: or cause meningeal gliomatosis. However,

entity_name: Metastasis

text: metastasis

text: of GBM beyond the

text: central nervous system

text: is extremely unusual. About 50% of GBMs occupy more than one lobe of a hemisphere or are bilateral. Tumors of this type usually arise from the

entity_name: Cerebrum

text: cerebrum

text: and may rarely exhibit the classic infiltration across the

entity_name: Corpus callosum

text: corpus callosum

text: , producing a butterfly (bilateral)

entity_name: Glioma

text: glioma

method: UNH-qee

text: Neurons exist in a number of different shapes and sizes and can be classified by their morphology and function. The anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type I cells can be further divided by where the cell body or soma is located. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons, consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by the myelin sheath. Around the cell body is a branching dendritic tree that receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching terminals (axon terminal) that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron.

text: Neurons exist in a number of different shapes and sizes and can be classified by their morphology and function. The anatomist

entity_name: Camillo Golgi

text: Camillo Golgi

text: grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type I cells can be further divided by where the cell body or soma is located. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal

entity_name: Motor neuron

text: motor neurons

text: , consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by the

entity_name: Myelin

text: myelin sheath

text: . Around the cell body is a branching dendritic tree that receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching terminals (

entity_name: Axon terminal

text: axon terminal

text: ) that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the

text: synaptic cleft

text: between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron.

text: Quercus laurifolia is a tree growing to  (rarely to ) tall, with a large, circular crown. The leaves are broad lanceolate,  long and  broad, and unlobed (very rarely three-lobed) with an entire margin and a bristle tip; they typically fall just as the new leaves start to emerge in spring. The acorns, borne in a shallow cup, are hemispherical,  long, green, maturing blackish-brown about 18 months after pollination. Despite their bitter kernel, they are eaten by deer, squirrels and birds. Acorn production is often heavy, enhancing the species' value for wildlife.

text: Quercus laurifolia is a

text: tree

text: growing to  (rarely to ) tall, with a large, circular crown. The

text: leaves

text: are broad lanceolate,  long and  broad, and unlobed (very rarely three-lobed) with an entire margin and a bristle tip; they typically fall just as the new leaves start to emerge in spring. The

text: acorn

text: s, borne in a shallow cup, are hemispherical,  long, green, maturing blackish-brown about 18 months after pollination. Despite their bitter kernel, they are eaten by deer, squirrels and birds. Acorn production is often heavy, enhancing the species' value for wildlife.

text: Cholinergic nerves play an important role in the normal function of the central nervous, endrocrine, neuromuscular, immunological, and respiratory system. As all cholinergic fibers contain high concentrations of ACh and AChE at their terminals, inhibition of AChE can impair their function. So exposure to azinphosmethyl, whereas it inhibits AChEs, may disturb a lot of important systems and may have various effects.In the autonomic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine leads to the overstimulation of muscarinic receptors of the parasympathetic nervous system. This can affect exocrine glands (increased salivation, perspiration, lacrimation), the respiratory system (excessive bronchial secretions, tightness of the chest, and wheezing), the gastrointestinal tract (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), the eyes (miosis, blurred vision) and the cardiovascular system (decrease in blood pressure, and bradycardia). Overstimulation of the nicotinic receptors in the para- or sympathic nervous system may also cause adverse effects on the cardiovascular system, such as pallor, tachycardia and increased blood pressure. In the somatic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine may cause muscle fasciculation, paralysis, cramps, and flaccig or rigid tone. Overstimulation of the nerves in the central nervous system, specifically in the brain, may result in drowsiness, mental confusion and lethargy. More severe effects on the central nervous system include a state of coma without reflexes, cyanosis and depression of the respiratory centers. Thus the inhibition of the enzyme AChE may have a lot of different effects.

text: Cholinergic nerves play an important role in the normal function of the central nervous, endrocrine, neuromuscular, immunological, and respiratory system. As all cholinergic fibers contain high concentrations of ACh and AChE at their terminals, inhibition of AChE can impair their function. So exposure to azinphosmethyl, whereas it inhibits AChEs, may disturb a lot of important systems and may have various effects.In the autonomic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine leads to the overstimulation of muscarinic receptors of the parasympathetic nervous system. This can affect exocrine glands (increased

text: salivation

text: perspiration

text: lacrimation

text: ), the respiratory system (excessive

text: bronchial

text: secretions, tightness of the chest, and wheezing), the gastrointestinal tract (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea), the eyes (

text: miosis

text: , blurred vision) and the cardiovascular system (decrease in blood pressure, and

text: bradycardia

text: ). Overstimulation of the nicotinic receptors in the para- or sympathic nervous system may also cause adverse effects on the cardiovascular system, such as pallor, tachycardia and increased blood pressure. In the somatic nervous system, accumulation of acetylcholine may cause muscle fasciculation, paralysis, cramps, and

text: flaccig

text: or rigid tone. Overstimulation of the nerves in the central nervous system, specifically in the brain, may result in drowsiness, mental confusion and lethargy. More severe effects on the central nervous system include a state of coma without reflexes, cyanosis and depression of the respiratory centers. Thus the inhibition of the enzyme AChE may have a lot of different effects.

text: Multiple sclerosis is a disease that demyelinates the nerves of the central nervous system, leading to deteriorated bodily function. The underlying pathologies are mostly unknown and not understood. It is hypothesized by many that the demyelination in multiple sclerosis lesions leads to axonal transection and ultimately axonal degeneration. This axon death could potentially be the cause of the irreversible effects of multiple sclerosis. Using what is known about the axotomy response, doctors and researchers are looking to implement neuro-protective rehabilitation to patients suffering in the early stages of multiple sclerosis in order to prevent the disease from running its course and causing irreversible disability. These rehabilitations would include the utilization of trophic factors to aid in neuron survival and maintenance of synapsing function.

text: Multiple sclerosis

text: is a disease that

text: demyelinates

text: the nerves of the central nervous system, leading to deteriorated bodily function. The underlying pathologies are mostly unknown and not understood. It is hypothesized by many that the demyelination in multiple sclerosis lesions leads to axonal transection and ultimately axonal degeneration. This axon death could potentially be the cause of the irreversible effects of multiple sclerosis. Using what is known about the axotomy response, doctors and researchers are looking to implement neuro-protective rehabilitation to patients suffering in the early stages of multiple sclerosis in order to prevent the disease from running its course and causing irreversible disability. These rehabilitations would include the utilization of trophic factors to aid in neuron survival and maintenance of synapsing function.

text: In 1942, the motor-transportable divisions in North Africa were upgraded to become "North African" type motorised divisions.  In spite of the upgrade, these divisions were still not fully motorized.  The divisions tended to rely primarily on non-divisional sources for transportation and were, therefore, only part-time motor-transportable.

text: In 1942, the motor-transportable divisions in

text: North Africa

text: were upgraded to become "North African" type motorised divisions.  In spite of the upgrade, these divisions were still not fully motorized.  The divisions tended to rely primarily on non-divisional sources for transportation and were, therefore, only part-time motor-transportable.

text: An adrenergic nerve fibre is a neuron for which the neurotransmitter is either adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline or dopamine. These neurotransmitters are released at a location known as the synapse, which is a junction point between the axon of one nerve cell and the dendrite of another. The neurotransmitters are first released from the axon and then bind to the receptor site on the dendrite. Adrenergic nerve terminals are found in the secondary neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, one of two deviations of the autonomic nervous system which is responsible for your fight-or-flight response. This system increases heart rate, slows digestion, dilates pupils, and also controls the secretion of apocrine sweat glands in the dermal layer of skin, in addition to other responses.

text: An adrenergic nerve fibre is a

text: neuron

text: for which the

text: neurotransmitter

text: is either

text: adrenaline

text: (epinephrine), noradrenaline or dopamine. These neurotransmitters are released at a location known as the

text: synapse

text: , which is a junction point between the

text: axon

text: of one nerve cell and the

text: dendrite

text: of another. The neurotransmitters are first released from the axon and then bind to the receptor site on the dendrite. Adrenergic nerve terminals are found in the secondary neurons of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , one of two deviations of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: which is responsible for your

text: fight-or-flight response

text: . This system increases

text: heart rate

text: , slows

text: digestion

text: , dilates pupils, and also controls the secretion of apocrine sweat glands in the dermal layer of skin, in addition to other responses.

text: The study of the nervous system can be done at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. At the molecular level, the basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions. The morphology, molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.

text: The study of the nervous system can be done at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. At the molecular level, the basic questions addressed in

text: molecular neuroscience

text: include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how

text: axons

text: form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from

text: molecular biology

text: and

text: genetics

text: are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions. The

text: morphology

text: , molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.

text: While the field of neurorehabilitation is relatively new, many therapies are controversial, and while some are considered cutting edge technology, there may be little research to support whether or not helpful progress is the result. Neurorehabilitation is the culmination of many different fields to provide the best care and education for patients with injuries or diseases affecting their nervous system.

text: Liepmann is remembered for his pioneer work involving cerebral localization of function. From anatomical studies, he postulated that planned or commanded actions were controlled in the parietal lobe of the brain's dominant hemisphere, and not in the frontal lobe. He conducted extensive research of a disorder he called apraxia, a term that he introduced in 1900. Apraxia is described as the inability to coordinate voluntary muscular movements that is symptomatic of some central nervous system disorders and injuries and not due to muscle weakness. Liepmann believed that damage in the parietal lobe prevented activation of learned sequences of actions that are necessary to produce desired results on command. As a result of his studies, he divided apraxia into three types:

text: Liepmann is remembered for his pioneer work involving

text: cerebral

text: localization of function. From

text: anatomical

text: studies, he postulated that planned or commanded actions were controlled in the

text: parietal lobe

text: of the brain's dominant hemisphere, and not in the

text: frontal lobe

text: . He conducted extensive research of a disorder he called

text: apraxia

text: , a term that he introduced in 1900. Apraxia is described as the inability to coordinate voluntary muscular movements that is symptomatic of some

text: central nervous system

text: disorders and injuries and not due to muscle weakness. Liepmann believed that damage in the parietal lobe prevented activation of learned sequences of actions that are necessary to produce desired results on command. As a result of his studies, he divided apraxia into three types:

text: Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and stroke, and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The boundaries between these specialties have been blurring recently as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. Brain imaging also enables objective, biological insights into mental illness, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and help assess patient progress over time.

text: Neurology

text: psychiatry

text: neurosurgery

text: psychosurgery

text: anesthesiology

text: and

text: pain medicine

text: neuropathology

text: neuroradiology

text: ophthalmology

text: otolaryngology

text: clinical neurophysiology

text: addiction medicine

text: , and

text: sleep medicine

text: are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: (ALS) and

text: stroke

text: , and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on

text: affective

text: , behavioral,

text: cognitive

text: , and

text: perceptual

text: disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The boundaries between these specialties have been blurring recently as they are all influenced by

text: basic research

text: in neuroscience.

text: Brain imaging

text: also enables objective, biological insights into mental illness, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and help assess patient progress over time.

text: Many factors may affect the rate of hippocampal neurogenesis.  Exercise and an enriched environment have been shown to promote the survival of neurons and the successful integration of newborn cells into the existing hippocampus. Another factor is central nervous system injury since neurogenesis occurs after cerebral ischemia, epileptic seizures, and bacterial meningitis. On the other hand, conditions such as chronic stress and aging can result in a decreased neuronal proliferation.Circulating factors within the blood may reduce neurogenesis. In healthy aging humans, the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid levels of certain chemokines are elevated. In a mouse model, plasma levels of these chemokines correlate with reduced neurogenesis, suggesting that neurogenesis may be modulated by certain global age-dependent systemic changes. These chemokines include CCL11, CCL2 and CCL12, which are highly localized on mouse and human chromosomes, implicating a genetic locus in aging.

text: Many factors may affect the rate of hippocampal neurogenesis.

text: Exercise

text: and an

text: enriched environment

text: have been shown to promote the survival of neurons and the successful integration of newborn cells into the existing hippocampus. Another factor is

text: central nervous system

text: injury since neurogenesis occurs after

text: cerebral ischemia

text: epileptic seizure

text: s, and

text: bacterial meningitis

text: . On the other hand, conditions such as

text: chronic stress

text: and

text: aging

text: can result in a decreased neuronal proliferation.Circulating factors within the blood may reduce neurogenesis. In healthy aging humans, the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid levels of certain chemokines are elevated. In a mouse model, plasma levels of these chemokines correlate with reduced neurogenesis, suggesting that neurogenesis may be modulated by certain global age-dependent systemic changes. These chemokines include

text: and

text: , which are highly localized on mouse and human chromosomes, implicating a genetic locus in aging.

text: Pyramidal neurons (pyramidal cells) are a type of neuron found in areas of the brain including the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and the amygdala.  Pyramidal neurons are the primary excitation units of the mammalian prefrontal cortex and the corticospinal tract.  Pyramidal neurons were first discovered and studied by Santiago Ramón y Cajal.  Since then, studies on pyramidal neurons have focused on topics ranging from neuroplasticity to cognition.

text: Pyramidal neurons (pyramidal cells) are a type of

text: neuron

text: found in areas of the brain including the

text: cerebral cortex

text: , the

text: hippocampus

text: , and the

text: amygdala

text: .  Pyramidal neurons are the primary excitation units of the mammalian

text: prefrontal cortex

text: and the

text: corticospinal tract

text: .  Pyramidal neurons were first discovered and studied by

text: Santiago Ramón y Cajal

text: .  Since then, studies on pyramidal neurons have focused on topics ranging from

text: neuroplasticity

text: to

text: cognition

text: Insensitivity to pain may also result from abnormalities in the nervous system. This is usually the result of acquired damage to the nerves, such as spinal cord injury, diabetes mellitus (diabetic neuropathy), or leprosy in countries where that disease is prevalent. These individuals are at risk of tissue damage and infection due to undiscovered injuries. People with diabetes-related nerve damage, for instance, sustain poorly-healing foot ulcers as a result of decreased sensation.

text: Insensitivity to pain may also result from abnormalities in the

text: nervous system

text: . This is usually the result of

text: acquired

text: damage to the nerves, such as

text: spinal cord injury

text: diabetes mellitus

text: diabetic neuropathy

text: ), or

text: leprosy

text: in countries where that disease is prevalent. These individuals are at risk of tissue damage and infection due to undiscovered injuries. People with diabetes-related nerve damage, for instance, sustain poorly-healing foot ulcers as a result of decreased sensation.

text: In humans, Robo1 is expressed generally throughout the central nervous system.  Robo2 is enriched in most regions of the adult and fetal brain, as well as in the adult ovary. Intermediate expression of Robo2 is seen in the fetal liver and adult lung, kidney, spleen, testes, and spinal cord. Robo3/Rig1 is found in the hindbrain and spinal cord. Robo4 is expressed in the heart, liver, lungs, kidney, muscle, small intestine, endothelial cells, and largely in the placenta.

text: Expressed in simplified terms, Yuasa's scheme of the body consists in four systems: sensory-motor awareness (somesthesis, much like the sensory-motor apparatus of Bergson or the sensory-motor circuit of Merleau-Ponty), kinaesthetic awareness (kinesthesis), emotion-instinct (governing the autonomic nervous system) and an unconscious 'quasi-body' (exemplidied in the ki-energy flow through the body's meridians).

text: Expressed in simplified terms, Yuasa's scheme of the body consists in four systems: sensory-motor awareness (

text: somesthesis

text: , much like the sensory-motor apparatus of

text: Bergson

text: or the sensory-motor circuit of Merleau-Ponty), kinaesthetic awareness (

text: kinesthesis

text: ), emotion-instinct (governing the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: ) and an unconscious 'quasi-body' (exemplidied in the

text: ki

text: -energy flow through the body's meridians).

text: A sensory unit is a single afferent neuron with all its receptor endings.It is the smallest unit of sensory response.

text: A sensory unit is a single

text: afferent neuron

text: with all its

text: receptor

text: endings.It is the smallest unit of sensory response.

text: Each neuron connects with numerous other neurons, receiving numerous impulses from them. Summation is the adding together of these impulses at the axon hillock. If the neuron only gets excitatory impulses, it will generate an action potential. If instead the neuron gets as many inhibitory as excitatory impulses, the inhibition cancels out the excitation and the nerve impulse will stop there. Action potential generation is proportionate to the probability and pattern of neurotransmitter release, and to postsynaptic receptor sensitization.

text: One of the major health threats presented from the over consumption of these high mercury levels is the development of learning disabilities and developmental problems in children. This is the result of over mercury exposure after birth, and/or over consumption of high mercury levels of the mother during pregnancy. The high concern is because mercury can be passed between the pregnant mother through the placenta to the unborn fetus. The form that mercury that is being consumed is Methylmercury, which the federal government has classified as a neurotoxin, which is described as a poisonous substance that attacks the nervous system, and impairs the function of the nerve and nerve tissue. Even small amounts of this neurotoxin can cause brain and nervous system development problems. The effects of this utero (before birth in the uterus) transfer can also take between a number of months or even years before sighs appear, making it difficult to trace back. The forms that methylmercury exposure will show itself is that the child will have shorter attention spans, poor fine motor skills, slow language development, visual-spacial abilities (like drawing), and memory. A mothers exposure and consumption of methylmercury prior to pregnancy can also be just as serious as exposure during pregnancy, because methylmercury is slowly excreted from the body, sometimes taking months to fully leave an individuals system. This can greatly effect the fetuses development, as many important developmental stages of the nervous systems and brain occur during the first two months of pregnancy. Health experts suspect that children are more susceptible to methylmercury then adults, because they eat more food relative to there total body weight causing a higher contamination percentage. It has been concluded that 60,000 children born each year are at risk for neuro-developmnetal effects, due to in utero exposure to methylmercury.

text: A topographic map is the ordered projection of a sensory surface, like the retina or the skin, or an effector system, like the musculature, to one or more structures of the central nervous system.  Topographic maps can be found in all sensory systems and in many motor systems.

text: A topographic map is the ordered projection of a sensory surface, like the retina or the skin, or an effector system, like the musculature, to one or more structures of the

text: central nervous system

text: .  Topographic maps can be found in all

text: sensory system

text: s and in many

text: motor system

text: s.

text: In many English speaking countries neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. In contrast, there are a number of independent university chairs in neuropathology and even institutes of neuropathology in German speaking countries due to a different historical background.  A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist is a consultant for other physicians.  If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken and sent to the neuropathologist, who examines it using a microscope or certain molecular methods to make a definitive diagnosis.

text: In many English speaking countries neuropathology is considered a subfield of

text: anatomical pathology

text: . In contrast, there are a number of independent university chairs in neuropathology and even institutes of neuropathology in German speaking countries due to a different historical background.  A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist is a consultant for other physicians.  If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a

text: biopsy

text: of

text: nervous tissue

text: is taken and sent to the neuropathologist, who examines it using a microscope or certain molecular methods to make a definitive diagnosis.

text: The initial evaluation of a patient with a newly diagnosed tumor of the nervous system is a critical step toward appropriate management and patient care. The most important portions of the initial evaluation are a detailed history and a thorough examination. This process serves to identify the extent and nature of neurological deficit, provides diagnostic clues, can help disclose a source of metastasis, or may identify a genetic process associated with a primary central nervous system tumor.

text: In order to reconcile the observed hypnotic phenomena “with the known laws of nervous action” (p. 153), and without elaborating on mechanism, Carpenter identified a new psycho-physiological reflex activity — in addition to the already identified excito-motor (which was responsible for breathing, swallowing, etc.), and the sensori-motor (which was responsible for startle responses, etc.) — that of “the ideo-motor principle of action”. At the conclusion of his paper, Carpenter briefly noted that his proposed ideo-motor principle of action, specifically created to explain Braid's hypnotism, could also explain other activities involving objectively psychosomatic responses, such as the movements of divining rods:

text: In order to reconcile the observed hypnotic phenomena “with the known laws of nervous action” (p. 153), and without elaborating on mechanism, Carpenter identified a new psycho-physiological

text: reflex activity

text: — in addition to the already identified excito-motor (which was responsible for breathing, swallowing, etc.), and the sensori-motor (which was responsible for startle responses, etc.) — that of “the ideo-motor principle of action”. At the conclusion of his paper, Carpenter briefly noted that his proposed ideo-motor principle of action, specifically created to explain Braid's hypnotism, could also explain other activities involving objectively psychosomatic responses, such as the movements of divining rods:

text: Baroreceptors are present in the auricles of the heart and vena cavae, but the most sensitive baroreceptors are in the carotid sinuses and aortic arch. While the carotid sinus baroreceptor axons travel within the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), the aortic arch baroreceptor axons travel within the vagus nerve (CN X). Baroreceptor activity travels along these nerves directly into the central nervous system to contact neurons within the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) in the brainstem. Baroreceptor information flows from these NTS neurons to both parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons within the brainstem.

text: Baroreceptors are present in the auricles of the

text: heart

text: and

text: vena cavae

text: , but the most sensitive baroreceptors are in the

text: carotid sinus

text: es and

text: aortic arch

text: . While the

text: carotid sinus

text: baroreceptor

text: axons travel within the

text: glossopharyngeal nerve

text: (CN IX), the aortic arch baroreceptor axons travel within the

text: vagus nerve

text: (CN X). Baroreceptor activity travels along these nerves directly into the central nervous system to contact neurons within the

text: nucleus of the solitary tract

text: (NTS) in the brainstem. Baroreceptor information flows from these NTS neurons to both parasympathetic and sympathetic neurons within the brainstem.

text: Neurogenetics studies the role of genetics in the development and function of the nervous system. It considers neural characteristics as phenotypes (i.e. manifestations, measurable or not, of the genetic make-up of an individual), and is mainly based on the observation that the nervous systems of individuals, even of those belonging to the same species, may not be identical. As the name implies, it draws aspects from both the studies of neuroscience and genetics, focusing in particular how the genetic code an organism carries affects its expressed traits. Mutations in this genetic sequence can have a wide range of effects on the quality of life of the individual. Neurological diseases, behavior and personality are all aspects of man studied in the context of neurogenetics. The field of neurogenetics emerged in the mid to late 1900s with advances closely following advancements made in available technology. Currently neurogenetics is the center of much research utilizing the cutting edge of research techniques.

text: Neurogenetics studies the role of

text: genetics

text: in the development and function of the

text: nervous system

text: . It considers neural characteristics as

text: phenotype

text: s (i.e. manifestations, measurable or not, of the genetic make-up of an individual), and is mainly based on the observation that the nervous systems of individuals, even of those belonging to the same

text: species

text: , may not be identical. As the name implies, it draws aspects from both the studies of

text: neuroscience

text: and genetics, focusing in particular how the genetic code an organism carries affects its expressed

text: traits

text: Mutation

text: s in this genetic sequence can have a wide range of effects on the quality of life of the individual. Neurological diseases, behavior and personality are all aspects of man studied in the context of neurogenetics. The field of neurogenetics emerged in the mid to late 1900s with advances closely following advancements made in available technology. Currently neurogenetics is the center of much research utilizing the cutting edge of research techniques.

text: Spinal cord injuries have many causes, and result in a high comorbidity.  In other words, victims of spinal cord injuries tend to develop many other health problems due to the importance of the spine in the central nervous system. SCI has a prevalence of up to 55 per million people in the United States alone while approximately 10,000 new cases occur annually. Car crashes are the highest contributor while violence and recreational activities are causes as well.  While spinal cord injury is a broad and widely-encompassing term, root stimulators may be used for many instances of SCIs. For example, certain cases of spinal cord injuries may sever key nerves necessary to maintain bladder and bowel control.  The severance is often the cause of neurogenic bowel dysfunction. Similarly, spinal cord injuries can potentially cause a loss of motor control in lower limbs, such as with paraplegic and tetraplegic patients.  Stimulators, in turn, may be used to stimulate the muscle and treat motor control loss in order to regain function in the limbs.

text: Spinal cord injuries have many causes, and result in a high

text: comorbidity

text: .  In other words, victims of spinal cord injuries tend to develop many other health problems due to the importance of the spine in the

text: central nervous system

text: . SCI has a prevalence of up to 55 per million people in the United States alone while approximately 10,000 new cases occur annually. Car crashes are the highest contributor while violence and recreational activities are causes as well.  While spinal cord injury is a broad and widely-encompassing term, root stimulators may be used for many instances of SCIs. For example, certain cases of spinal cord injuries may sever key nerves necessary to maintain bladder and bowel control.  The severance is often the cause of neurogenic bowel dysfunction. Similarly, spinal cord injuries can potentially cause a loss of motor control in lower limbs, such as with paraplegic and tetraplegic patients.  Stimulators, in turn, may be used to stimulate the muscle and treat motor control loss in order to regain function in the limbs.

text: Kelly continued to work in his studio on Brandywine Street in Philadelphia teaching small classes to gain some income.  Kelly’s study of the masters in the Louvre collection resulted in great admiration for the Renaissance painter Leonardo Da Vinci.  His influence is evident in Kelly’s notebooks of this time which are full of drawings for World War II battlements and weaponry which echo DaVinci’s drawings for the mechanisms of war.  He also shared Leonardo’s fascination with science and the underlying dynamics of how things work.  His interest of the nervous system and sensory aspects of human anatomy would later come important components of his abstract figures of the 1950s and '60s.

text: Kelly continued to work in his studio on Brandywine Street in Philadelphia teaching small classes to gain some income.  Kelly’s study of the masters in the Louvre collection resulted in great admiration for the Renaissance painter

text: Leonardo Da Vinci

text: .  His influence is evident in Kelly’s notebooks of this time which are full of drawings for

text: World War II

text: battlements and weaponry which echo DaVinci’s drawings for the mechanisms of war.  He also shared Leonardo’s fascination with science and the underlying dynamics of how things work.  His interest of the nervous system and sensory aspects of human anatomy would later come important components of his abstract figures of the 1950s and '60s.

text: The model is derived from the architecture of the brain and nervous system. Systems 3-2-1 are identified with the ancient brain or autonomic nervous system. System 4 embodies cognition and conversation. System 5, the higher brain functions, include introspection and decision making.

text: The model is derived from the architecture of the brain and nervous system. Systems 3-2-1 are identified with the ancient brain or

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . System 4 embodies cognition and conversation. System 5, the higher brain functions, include introspection and decision making.

text: Another commonly used neuromodulation treatment developed in the 1980s is deep brain stimulation, which may be used to help limit symptoms of movement disorder in Parkinson's disease, dystonia, or essential tremor. It was approved in 2010 in Europe for the treatment of certain types of severe epilepsy. DBS also has shown promise, although still in research, for medically intractable psychiatric syndromes of depression, obsessive compulsive disorders, intractable rage, dementia, and morbid obesity. It has also shown promise for Tourette syndrome, torticollis, and tardive dyskinesia. DBS therapy, unlike spinal cord stimulation, has a variety of central nervous system targets, depending on the target pathology. For Parkinson's disease central nervous system targets include the subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus interna, and the ventral intermidus nucleus of the thalamus. Dystonias are often treated by implants targeting globus pallidus interna, or less often, parts of the ventral thalamic group. The anterior thalamus is the target for epilepsy.

text: Another commonly used neuromodulation treatment developed in the 1980s is

text: deep brain stimulation

text: , which may be used to help limit symptoms of movement disorder in

text: Parkinson's disease

text: dystonia

text: , or

text: essential tremor

text: . It was approved in 2010 in Europe for the treatment of certain types of severe epilepsy. DBS also has shown promise, although still in research, for medically intractable psychiatric syndromes of depression, obsessive compulsive disorders, intractable rage, dementia, and morbid obesity. It has also shown promise for Tourette syndrome, torticollis, and tardive dyskinesia. DBS therapy, unlike spinal cord stimulation, has a variety of central nervous system targets, depending on the target pathology. For Parkinson's disease central nervous system targets include the subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus interna, and the ventral intermidus nucleus of the thalamus. Dystonias are often treated by implants targeting globus pallidus interna, or less often, parts of the ventral thalamic group. The anterior thalamus is the target for epilepsy.

text: Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids during pregnancy is critical to fetal development. They are required during the prenatal period for the formation of synapses and cell membranes.  These processes are also essential in postnatal human development for injury response of the central nervous system and retinal stimulation.

text: Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids during pregnancy is critical to fetal development. They are required during the prenatal period for the formation of

text: synapses

text: and cell membranes.  These processes are also essential in postnatal human development for injury response of the

text: central nervous system

text: and retinal stimulation.

text: Dysautonomia may be due to inherited or degenerative neurologic diseases (primary dysautonomia) or it may occur due to injury of the autonomic nervous system from an acquired disorder (secondary dysautonomia). The most common causes of dysautonomia include:In the sympathetic nervous system predominant dysautonomia is common along with fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, and interstitial cystitis, raising the possibility that such dysautonomia could be their common clustering underlying pathogenesis.

text: Dysautonomia may be due to

text: inherited

text: or degenerative

text: neurologic diseases

text: (primary dysautonomia) or it may occur due to injury of the autonomic nervous system from an acquired disorder (secondary dysautonomia). The most common causes of dysautonomia include:In the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: predominant dysautonomia is common along with

text: fibromyalgia

text: chronic fatigue syndrome

text: irritable bowel syndrome

text: , and

text: interstitial cystitis

text: , raising the possibility that such dysautonomia could be their common clustering underlying pathogenesis.

text: Whiplash is the term commonly used to describe hyperflexion and hyperextension, and is one of the most common nonfatal car crash injuries. More than one million whiplash injuries occur each year due to car crashes. This is an estimate because not all cases of whiplash are reported. In a given year, an estimated 3.8 people per 1000 experience whiplash symptoms. "Freeman and co-investigators estimated that 6.2% of the US population have late whiplash syndrome". The majority of cases occur in patients in their late fourth decade. Unless a cervical strain has occurred with additional brain or spinal cord trauma mortality is rare.

text: The word “glia” illustrates the original belief among scientists that these cells play a passive role in neural signaling, being responsible only for neuronal structure and support within the brain.  Glial cells cannot produce action potentials and therefore were not suspected as playing an important and active communicative role in the central nervous system, because synaptic transmission between neurons is initiated with an action potential.  However, research shows that these cells express excitability with changes in the intracellular concentrations of Ca.  Gliotransmission occurs because of the ability of glial cells to induce excitability with variations in Ca concentrations.  Changes in the concentration of Ca correlate with currents from NMDA receptor-mediated neurons which are measured in neighboring neurons of the ventrobasal (VB) thalamus.  Because glial cells greatly outnumber neurons in the brain, accounting for over 70% of all cells in the central nervous system, gliotransmitters released by astrocytes have the potential to be very influential and important within the central nervous system, as well as within other neural systems throughout the body.  These cells do not simply carry functions of structural support, but can also take part in cell-to-cell communication with neurons, microglia, and other astrocytes by receiving inputs, organizing information, and sending out chemical signals.  The Ca signal from the astrocyte may also participate in controlling blood flow in the brain.

text: Hilmar Bading is noted for his work on neuronal calcium signaling and gene regulation in the nervous system. He identified calcium as the principal second messenger in the coupling of neuronal activity to gene expression and characterized the processes that mediate the dialogue between the synapse and the nucleus. His work highlighted the spatial aspects of calcium signals and in particular the importance of nuclear calcium in governing activity-dependent gene expression and adaptations in the nervous system that include memory formation and acquired neuroprotection. The discovery of toxic signaling by extrasynaptic NMDA receptors that antagonizes gene regulation by synaptic activity and causes neuronal dysfunction and cell death contributed to the understanding of neurodegenerative disorders including Huntington’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

text: Hilmar Bading is noted for his work on neuronal

text: calcium signaling

text: and

text: gene regulation

text: in the

text: nervous system

text: . He identified calcium as the principal second messenger in the coupling of neuronal activity to gene expression and characterized the processes that mediate the dialogue between the synapse and the nucleus. His work highlighted the spatial aspects of

text: calcium signals

text: and in particular the importance of

text: nuclear calcium

text: in governing activity-dependent gene expression and adaptations in the nervous system that include

text: memory formation

text: and

text: acquired neuroprotection

text: . The discovery of toxic signaling by extrasynaptic

text: NMDA receptor

text: s that antagonizes gene regulation by synaptic activity and causes neuronal dysfunction and

text: cell death

text: contributed to the understanding of

text: neurodegenerative disorders

text: including

text: Huntington’s disease

text: Alzheimer’s disease

text: , and

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: (ALS).

text: The outermost layer of the meninges, the dura mater, is closely associated with the arachnoid mater which in turn is loosely connected to the innermost layer, the pia mater. The meninges divide the spinal canal into the epidural space and the  subarachnoid space. The pia mater is closely attached to the spinal cord. A subdural space is generally only present due to trauma and/or pathological situations. The subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains the vessels that supply the spinal cord, namely the anterior spinal artery and the paired posterior spinal arteries, accompanied by corresponding spinal veins. The anterior and posterior spinal arteries form anastomoses known as the vasocorona of the spinal cord and these supply nutrients to the canal. The epidural space contains loose fatty tissue, and a network of large, thin-walled blood vessels called the internal vertebral venous plexuses.

text: The outermost layer of the

text: meninges

text: , the

text: dura mater

text: , is closely associated with the

text: arachnoid mater

text: which in turn is loosely connected to the innermost layer, the

text: pia mater

text: . The meninges divide the spinal canal into the

text: epidural space

text: and the

text: subarachnoid space

text: . The

text: pia mater

text: is closely attached to the

text: spinal cord

text: . A

text: subdural space

text: is generally only present due to trauma and/or pathological situations. The

text: subarachnoid space

text: is filled with

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: and contains the vessels that supply the

text: spinal cord

text: , namely the

text: anterior spinal artery

text: and the paired

text: posterior spinal arteries

text: , accompanied by corresponding

text: spinal veins

text: . The anterior and posterior spinal arteries form

text: anastomoses

text: known as the vasocorona of the spinal cord and these supply nutrients to the canal. The

text: epidural space

text: contains loose fatty tissue, and a network of large, thin-walled blood vessels called the

text: internal vertebral venous plexuses

text: In resume, there seems to be a differential requirement for glia depending on neuronal type, where follower cells require their existence for survival. This has implications in the previous understandings of central nervous system formation, implying an asymmetry in neuronal patterning. Once the first longitudinal fascicles are formed, follower neurons can cross the midline and fasciculate with pioneer axons, being regulated by longitudinal glia. This differential neuron dependence on glia provides the means for axon guidance through neuronal survival.

text: The nervous system is composed by a net of interconnected neurons beneath the epidermis, without any concentration of neurons forming ganglia or nerve cords.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: is composed by a net of interconnected

text: neuron

text: s beneath the epidermis, without any concentration of neurons forming ganglia or nerve cords.

text: Human nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which comprises the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprising the nerve fibers that branch off from the spinal cord to all parts of the body. Both parts of the nervous system are actively involved in communicating signals between various parts of the body to ensure the smooth and efficient transfer of information that controls and coordinates the movement of muscles, and regulates organ functions. Neurons, which form the elemental unit of the nervous system, receive messages from their dendrites, relay the information as an electrical signal down the axon and releases chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters, thus converting the electrical signal into a chemical signal.

text: Human nervous system consists of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), which comprises the brain and spinal cord, and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) comprising the nerve fibers that branch off from the spinal cord to all parts of the body. Both parts of the nervous system are actively involved in communicating signals between various parts of the body to ensure the smooth and efficient transfer of information that controls and coordinates the movement of muscles, and regulates organ functions.

text: Neurons

text: , which form the elemental unit of the nervous system, receive messages from their

text: dendrite

text: s, relay the information as an electrical signal down the

text: axon

text: and releases chemical messengers known as

text: neurotransmitter

text: s, thus converting the electrical signal into a chemical signal.

text: Although the exact mechanism is unclear, p11 protein has shown to be essential in the regulation of serotonin signaling in the brain.  Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT), is a neurotransmitter found in the central and peripheral nervous systems.  It is involved in mechanisms responsible for memory formation and learning, but is most known for its role in the regulation muscle contraction, appetite, sleep, and mood.  Varying levels of serotonin found in the brain are associated with the development of mood disorders, such as clinical depression.  P11 interacts with the serotonin receptor proteins, 5-HT receptors such as 5-HT, modulating the receptor signal transduction pathways activated by the binding of serotonin.  P11 also recruits the cell surface expression of the 5-HT receptor, increasing its concentration at the synapse.  This results in more rapid serotonin-dependent activities.  5-HT is involved in the regulation of kinase activity in the central nervous system, phosphorylating target proteins, and facilitating endosomal activities.  P11 is coexpressed with 5-HT mRNA and its protein in parts of the brain associated with depression, suggesting that their functions are linked and influence mood.

text: Although the exact mechanism is unclear, p11 protein has shown to be essential in the regulation of serotonin signaling in the brain.  Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT), is a neurotransmitter found in the central and peripheral nervous systems.  It is involved in mechanisms responsible for memory formation and learning, but is most known for its role in the regulation muscle contraction, appetite, sleep, and mood.  Varying levels of serotonin found in the brain are associated with the development of mood disorders, such as clinical depression.  P11 interacts with the serotonin receptor proteins,

text: 5-HT receptor

text: s such as

text: , modulating the receptor signal transduction pathways activated by the binding of serotonin.  P11 also recruits the cell surface expression of the

text: receptor, increasing its concentration at the synapse.  This results in more rapid serotonin-dependent activities.  5-HT is involved in the regulation of kinase activity in the central nervous system, phosphorylating target proteins, and facilitating endosomal activities.  P11 is coexpressed with 5-HT mRNA and its protein in parts of the brain associated with depression, suggesting that their functions are linked and influence mood.

text: A gap junction located in neurons is often referred to as an electrical synapse. The electrical synapse was discovered using electrical measurements before the gap junction structure was described. Electrical synapses are present throughout the central nervous system and have been studied specifically in the neocortex, hippocampus, vestibular nucleus, thalamic reticular nucleus, locus coeruleus, inferior olivary nucleus, mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal nerve, Ventral Tegmental Area, olfactory bulb, retina and spinal cord of vertebrates.

text: A gap junction located in neurons is often referred to as an

text: electrical synapse

text: . The electrical synapse was discovered using electrical measurements before the gap junction structure was described. Electrical synapses are present throughout the central nervous system and have been studied specifically in the

text: neocortex

text: hippocampus

text: vestibular nucleus

text: thalamic reticular nucleus

text: locus coeruleus

text: inferior olivary nucleus

text: , mesencephalic nucleus of the

text: trigeminal nerve

text: Ventral Tegmental Area

text: olfactory bulb

text: retina

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: of

text: vertebrate

text: s.

text: The nervous system derives its name from nerves, which are cylindrical bundles of fibers (the axons of neurons), that emanate from the brain and spinal cord, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Nerves are large enough to have been recognized by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, but their internal structure was not understood until it became possible to examine them using a microscope. "It is difficult to believe that until approximately year 1900 it was not known that neurons are the basic units of the brain (Santiago Ramón y Cajal). Equally surprising is the fact that the concept of chemical transmission in the brain was not known until around 1930 (Henry Hallett Dale) and (Otto Loewi). We began to understand the basic electrical phenomenon that neurons use in order to communicate among themselves, the action potential, in the decade of 1950 (Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley and John Eccles). It was in the decade of 1960 that we became aware of how basic neuronal networks code stimuli and thus basic concepts are possible (David H. Hubel, and Torsten Wiesel). The molecular revolution swept across US universities in the decade of 1980. It was in the decade of 1990 that molecular mechanisms of behavioral phenomena became widely known (Eric Richard Kandel)." A microscopic examination shows that nerves consist primarily of axons, along with different membranes that wrap around them and segregate them into fascicles. The neurons that give rise to nerves do not lie entirely within the nerves themselves—their cell bodies reside within the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral ganglia.

text: The nervous system derives its name from nerves, which are cylindrical bundles of fibers (the

text: axon

text: s of

text: neuron

text: s), that emanate from the brain and

text: spinal cord

text: , and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Nerves are large enough to have been recognized by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, but their internal structure was not understood until it became possible to examine them using a microscope. "It is difficult to believe that until approximately year 1900 it was not known that neurons are the basic units of the brain (

text: Santiago Ramón y Cajal

text: ). Equally surprising is the fact that the concept of chemical transmission in the brain was not known until around 1930 (

text: Henry Hallett Dale

text: ) and (

text: Otto Loewi

text: ). We began to understand the basic electrical phenomenon that neurons use in order to communicate among themselves, the action potential, in the decade of 1950 (

text: Alan Lloyd Hodgkin

text: Andrew Huxley

text: and

text: John Eccles

text: ). It was in the decade of 1960 that we became aware of how basic neuronal networks code stimuli and thus basic concepts are possible (

text: David H. Hubel

text: , and

text: Torsten Wiesel

text: ). The molecular revolution swept across US universities in the decade of 1980. It was in the decade of 1990 that molecular mechanisms of behavioral phenomena became widely known (

text: Eric Richard Kandel

text: )." A microscopic examination shows that nerves consist primarily of axons, along with different membranes that wrap around them and segregate them into

text: fascicles

text: . The neurons that give rise to nerves do not lie entirely within the nerves themselves—their cell bodies reside within the brain, spinal cord, or peripheral ganglia.

text: The agent responsible for CWD (and other TSEs, such as scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy) is PRNP which is highly conserved among mammals and has been found and sequenced in deer. It is a prion, an abnormal form of a normal protein, known as prion protein (PrP), most commonly found in the central nervous system (CNS), and is capable of spreading to the peripheral nervous system (PNS), thus infecting meat, or muscle, of deer and elk. The abnormal PrP infects the host animal by promoting conversion of normal cellular prion protein (PrP) to the abnormal prion form (PrP or PrP). The build-up of PrP in the brain is associated with widespread neurodegeneration.

text: The agent responsible for CWD (and other TSEs, such as

text: scrapie

text: and

text: bovine spongiform encephalopathy

text: ) is

text: PRNP

text: which is highly conserved among mammals and has been found and sequenced in deer. It is a

text: prion

text: , an abnormal form of a normal

text: protein

text: , known as prion protein (PrP), most commonly found in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), and is capable of spreading to the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), thus infecting meat, or muscle, of deer and elk. The abnormal PrP infects the host animal by promoting conversion of normal cellular prion protein (PrP) to the abnormal prion form (PrP or PrP). The build-up of PrP in the brain is associated with widespread

text: neurodegeneration

text: A ganglionic blocker (or ganglioplegic) is a type of medication that inhibits transmission between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons in the Autonomic Nervous System, often by acting as a nicotinic receptor antagonist. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are found on skeletal muscle, but also within the route of transmission for the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system (which together comprise the autonomic nervous system). More specifically, nicotinic receptors are found within the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system, allowing outgoing signals to be transmitted from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cells. Thus, for example, blocking nicotinic acetylcholine receptors blocks both sympathetic (excitatory) and parasympathetic (calming) stimulation of the heart. The nicotinic antagonist hexamethonium,, for example, does this by blocking the transmission of outgoing signals across the autonomic ganglia at the postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.

text: A ganglionic blocker (or ganglioplegic) is a type of medication that inhibits transmission between

text: preganglionic

text: and

text: postganglionic

text: neurons in the

text: Autonomic Nervous System

text: , often by acting as a

text: nicotinic receptor antagonist

text: . Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are found on skeletal muscle, but also within the route of transmission for the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system (which together comprise the autonomic nervous system). More specifically, nicotinic receptors are found within the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system, allowing outgoing signals to be transmitted from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cells. Thus, for example, blocking nicotinic acetylcholine receptors blocks both sympathetic (excitatory) and parasympathetic (calming) stimulation of the heart. The nicotinic antagonist hexamethonium,, for example, does this by blocking the transmission of outgoing signals across the autonomic ganglia at the postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.

text: In Drosophila, proneural genes are first expressed in quiescent ectodermal cells that have both epidermal and neuronal potential. Proneural activity results in the selection of progenitors that are committed to a neural fate but remain multipotent, with sense organ progenitors giving rise to neurons, glia and other non-neuronal cell types. Additionally, some neuroblasts of the central nervous system also generate both neurons and glia. Progenitors of the peripheral and central nervous system only begin to divide after proneural gene expression has subsided.

text: In Drosophila, proneural genes are first expressed in quiescent

text: ectoderm

text: al cells that have both epidermal and neuronal potential. Proneural activity results in the selection of progenitors that are committed to a neural fate but remain

text: multipotent

text: , with sense organ progenitors giving rise to

text: neuron

text: s,

text: glia

text: and other non-neuronal cell types. Additionally, some

text: neuroblast

text: s of the

text: central nervous system

text: also generate both

text: neuron

text: s and

text: glia

text: . Progenitors of the

text: peripheral

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: only begin to divide after proneural gene expression has subsided.

text: nAChRs are cholinergic receptors found in the central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous systems (PNS) and skeletal muscles, these receptors are ligand-gated ion channels with binding sites for acetylcholine and other molecules.  When ACh or other agonists bind to the receptors it stabilizes the open state of the ion channel allowing influx of cations such as potassium, calcium and sodium ions.  The nAChRs are made up by different subunits which determine the quaternary structure of the receptor, those subunits are α subunits (α1−α10), β subunits (β1−β4), one δ subunits, one γ subunit and one ε subunit.  nAChRs can be either heteromeric or homomeric.  The heteromeric receptors found in the central nervous system are made up by two α subunits and three β subunits with the binding site at the interface of α and the adjacent subunit. These receptors contain two binding sites per receptor and have different affinity for chemicals based on the composition of subunits. Both binding sites work together and thus, both sites need to be occupied with a nAChR agonist so that channel activation can take place. nAChRs containing α2−α6 and β2−β4 subunits have been shown to have higher affinity for ACh than other receptors.  Homomeric receptors contain 5 identical subunits, they have 5 binding sites located at the interface between two adjacent subunits. In the year 2000 two homomeric receptors had been identified in humans, the α7 and α8 receptors.

text: nAChRs are

text: cholinergic

text: receptors found in the central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous systems (PNS) and skeletal muscles, these receptors are ligand-gated ion channels with binding sites for acetylcholine and other molecules.  When ACh or other agonists bind to the receptors it stabilizes the open state of the ion channel allowing influx of cations such as potassium, calcium and sodium ions.  The nAChRs are made up by different subunits which determine the

text: quaternary structure

text: of the receptor, those subunits are α subunits (α1−α10), β subunits (β1−β4), one δ subunits, one γ subunit and one ε subunit.  nAChRs can be either

text: heteromer

text: ic or

text: homomeric

text: .  The heteromeric receptors found in the central nervous system are made up by two α subunits and three β subunits with the binding site at the interface of α and the adjacent subunit. These receptors contain two binding sites per receptor and have different affinity for chemicals based on the composition of subunits. Both binding sites work together and thus, both sites need to be occupied with a nAChR agonist so that channel activation can take place. nAChRs containing α2−α6 and β2−β4 subunits have been shown to have higher affinity for ACh than other receptors.  Homomeric receptors contain 5 identical subunits, they have 5 binding sites located at the interface between two adjacent subunits. In the year 2000 two homomeric receptors had been identified in humans, the α7 and α8 receptors.

text: The optic nerve is the second of twelve paired cranial nerves and is technically part of the central nervous system, rather than the peripheral nervous system because it is derived from an out-pouching of the diencephalon (optic stalks) during embryonic development. As a consequence, the fibers of the optic nerve are covered with myelin produced by oligodendrocytes, rather than Schwann cells of the peripheral nervous system, and are encased within the meninges. Peripheral neuropathies like Guillain–Barré syndrome do not affect the optic nerve. However, most typically the optic nerve is grouped with the other eleven cranial nerves and considered to be part of the peripheral nervous system.

text: The optic nerve is the second of twelve paired

text: cranial nerve

text: s and is technically part of the

text: central nervous system

text: , rather than the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: because it is derived from an out-pouching of the

text: diencephalon

text: optic stalks

text: ) during embryonic development. As a consequence, the fibers of the optic nerve are covered with myelin produced by

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s, rather than

text: Schwann cell

text: s of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , and are encased within the

text: meninges

text: . Peripheral neuropathies like

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: do not affect the optic nerve. However, most typically the optic nerve is grouped with the other eleven cranial nerves and considered to be part of the peripheral nervous system.

text: Neuroinflammation is widely regarded as chronic, as opposed to acute, inflammation of the central nervous system. Acute inflammation usually follows injury to the central nervous system immediately, and is characterized by inflammatory molecules, endothelial cell activation, platelet deposition, and tissue edema.  Chronic inflammation is the sustained activation of glial cells and recruitment of other immune cells into the brain. It is chronic inflammation that is typically associated with neurodegenerative diseases. Common causes of chronic neuroinflammation include:

text: Neuroinflammation is widely regarded as chronic, as opposed to acute, inflammation of the

text: central nervous system

text: . Acute inflammation usually follows injury to the central nervous system immediately, and is characterized by inflammatory molecules,

text: endothelial cell

text: activation,

text: platelet

text: deposition, and tissue

text: edema

text: .  Chronic inflammation is the sustained activation of glial cells and recruitment of other immune cells into the brain. It is chronic inflammation that is typically associated with

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: . Common causes of chronic neuroinflammation include:

text: Hordenine (N,N-dimethyltyramine) is an alkaloid of the phenethylamine class that occurs naturally in a variety of plants, taking its name from one of the most common, barley (Hordeum species). Chemically, hordenine is the N-methyl derivative of N-methyltyramine, and the N,N-dimethyl derivative of the well-known biogenic amine tyramine, from which it is biosynthetically derived and with which it shares some pharmacological properties (see below). Currently, hordenine is widely sold as an ingredient of nutritional supplements, with the claims that it is a stimulant of the central nervous system, and has the ability to promote weight loss by enhancing metabolism. In experimental animals, given sufficiently large doses parenterally (i.e. by injection), hordenine does produce an increase in blood pressure, as well as other disturbances of the cardio-vascular, respiratory and nervous systems. These effects are generally not reproduced by oral administration of the drug in test animals, and there are virtually no scientific reports of the effects of hordenine in human beings. More detailed discussions of hordenine pharmacology and toxicology are given below this section.

text: Hordenine (N,N-dimethyltyramine) is an

text: alkaloid

text: of the

text: phenethylamine

text: class that occurs naturally in a variety of plants, taking its name from one of the most common,

text: barley

text: (Hordeum species). Chemically, hordenine is the N-methyl

text: derivative

text: of

text: N-methyltyramine

text: , and the N,N-dimethyl derivative of the well-known

text: biogenic amine

text: tyramine

text: , from which it is biosynthetically derived and with which it shares some pharmacological properties (see below). Currently, hordenine is widely sold as an ingredient of nutritional supplements, with the claims that it is a stimulant of the central nervous system, and has the ability to promote weight loss by enhancing metabolism. In experimental animals, given sufficiently large doses parenterally (i.e. by injection), hordenine does produce an increase in blood pressure, as well as other disturbances of the cardio-vascular, respiratory and nervous systems. These effects are generally not reproduced by oral administration of the drug in test animals, and there are virtually no scientific reports of the effects of hordenine in human beings. More detailed discussions of hordenine pharmacology and toxicology are given below this section.

text: While gliotransmitters can be released from any glial cell, including oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglia, they are primarily released from astrocytes. Astrocytes rely on gap junctions for coupling, and are star-like in shape, which allows them to come into contact with many other synapses in various regions of the brain.  Their structure also makes them capable of bidirectional signaling.  It is estimated that astrocytes can make contact with over 100,000 synapses, allowing them to play an essential role in synaptic transmission.   While gliotransmission primarily occurs between astrocytes and neurons, gliotransmission is not limited to these two cell types.  Besides the central nervous system, gliotransmission also occurs among motor nerve terminals and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system.  Another occurrence of gliotransmission takes place between glial cells in the retina, called Müller cells, and retinal neurons.

text: While gliotransmitters can be released from any glial cell, including

text: oligodendrocytes

text: astrocytes

text: , and

text: microglia

text: , they are primarily released from astrocytes. Astrocytes rely on

text: gap junction

text: s for coupling, and are star-like in shape, which allows them to come into contact with many other synapses in various regions of the brain.  Their structure also makes them capable of bidirectional signaling.  It is estimated that astrocytes can make contact with over 100,000 synapses, allowing them to play an essential role in synaptic transmission.   While gliotransmission primarily occurs between astrocytes and neurons, gliotransmission is not limited to these two cell types.  Besides the central nervous system, gliotransmission also occurs among motor nerve terminals and

text: Schwann cells

text: in the peripheral nervous system.  Another occurrence of gliotransmission takes place between glial cells in the retina, called

text: Müller cells

text: , and retinal neurons.

text: Action potential --Acetylcholine --Acetylcholinesterase --Aging and memory --Albert Einstein's brain --Brain --Central nervous system (CNS) --Dendrite --Dopamine --Glial cell --Human brain --Long-term potentiation --Nervous system --Neurite --Neuron --Neuroplasticity --Neuroscience --Neurotransmitter --Sensory neuroscience --Synapse --Synaptic plasticity

text: Action potential

text: Acetylcholine

text: Acetylcholinesterase

text: Aging and memory

text: Albert Einstein's brain

text: Brain

text: Central nervous system (CNS)

text: Dendrite

text: Dopamine

text: Glial cell

text: Human brain

text: Long-term potentiation

text: Nervous system

text: Neurite

text: Neuron

text: Neuroplasticity

text: Neuroscience

text: Neurotransmitter

text: Sensory neuroscience

text: Synapse

text: Synaptic plasticity

text: Synapses can be classified by the type of cellular structures serving as the pre- and post-synaptic components. The vast majority of synapses in the mammalian nervous system are classical axo-dendritic synapses (axon synapsing upon a dendrite), however a variety of other arrangements exist. These include but are not limited to axo-axonic, dendro-dendritic, axo-secretory, somato-dendritic, dendro-somatic, and somato-somatic synapses.

text: The neuron is the main functional cell of the brain and nervous system, consisting of a cell body (soma), a tail or long nerve fiber (axon), and projections of the cell body called dendrites. The axons travel in tracts or clusters throughout the brain, providing extensive interconnections between brain areas.

text: The

text: neuron

text: is the main functional

text: cell

text: of the

text: brain

text: and

text: nervous system

text: , consisting of a cell body (soma), a tail or long nerve fiber (

text: axon

text: ), and projections of the cell body called

text: dendrite

text: s. The axons travel in tracts or clusters throughout the brain, providing extensive interconnections between brain areas.

text: Neuromodulation is the physiological process by which a given neuron uses one or more chemicals to regulate diverse populations of neurons. This is in contrast to classical synaptic transmission, in which one presynaptic neuron directly influences a single postsynaptic partner. Neuromodulators secreted by a small group of neurons diffuse through large areas of the nervous system, affecting multiple neurons. Major neuromodulators in the central nervous system include dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, histamine, and norepinephrine.

text: Neuromodulation is the

text: physiological

text: process by which a given neuron uses one or more chemicals to regulate diverse populations of

text: neuron

text: s. This is in contrast to classical

text: synaptic transmission

text: , in which one presynaptic neuron directly influences a single postsynaptic partner. Neuromodulators secreted by a small group of neurons diffuse through large areas of the nervous system, affecting multiple neurons. Major neuromodulators in the central nervous system include

text: dopamine

text: serotonin

text: acetylcholine

text: histamine

text: , and

text: norepinephrine

text: The sympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in the lateral grey column from T1 to L2/3. These cell bodies are "GVE" (general visceral efferent) neurons and are the preganglionic neurons. There are several locations upon which preganglionic neurons can synapse for their postganglionic neurons:

text: The sympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in the

text: lateral grey column

text: from T1 to L2/3. These cell bodies are "GVE" (general visceral efferent) neurons and are the preganglionic neurons. There are several locations upon which preganglionic neurons can synapse for their postganglionic neurons:

text: Physical damage to the spinal cord may result in loss of sensation or movement.  If an injury to the spine produces nothing worse than swelling, the symptoms may be transient, but if nerve fibers in the spine are actually destroyed, the loss of function is usually permanent.  Experimental studies have shown that spinal nerve fibers attempt to regrow in the same way as nerve fibers, but in the spinal cord, tissue destruction usually produces scar tissue that cannot be penetrated by the regrowing nerves.

text: Physical damage to the spinal cord may result in

text: loss of sensation or movement

text: .  If an injury to the spine produces nothing worse than swelling, the symptoms may be transient, but if nerve fibers in the spine are actually destroyed, the loss of function is usually permanent.  Experimental studies have shown that spinal nerve fibers attempt to regrow in the same way as nerve fibers, but in the spinal cord, tissue destruction usually produces scar tissue that cannot be penetrated by the regrowing nerves.

text: The afferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, which transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system (or CNS), are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as the efferent fibers are.  Instead, autonomic sensory information is conducted by general visceral afferent fibers.

text: The afferent fibers of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , which transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system (or CNS), are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as the efferent fibers are.  Instead, autonomic sensory information is conducted by

text: general visceral afferent fibers

text: Neurons begin to form early, but most of them become structural rather than active nerve cells.  The brain generally forms from the inside-out, especially in the case of the neocortex.  The difficulties arising from this are readily apparent, as each successive layer of cells must travel through the previous layer to reach its destination.  Therefore, nervous tissue develops ladders made of radial glial cells that neurons climb, through the previous layers, to reach their proper destination. Some destinations, such as the cerebral cortex, even have "placeholder" neurons that travel up the ladder to form a structure;  when the final neurons germinate, they find a correct placeholder and then the placeholder cell dies.

text: Neuron

text: s begin to form early, but most of them become structural rather than active nerve cells.  The brain generally forms from the inside-out, especially in the case of the

text: neocortex

text: .  The difficulties arising from this are readily apparent, as each successive layer of cells must travel through the previous layer to reach its destination.  Therefore, nervous tissue develops ladders made of

text: radial glial cells

text: that neurons climb, through the previous layers, to reach their proper destination. Some destinations, such as the

text: cerebral cortex

text: , even have "placeholder" neurons that travel up the ladder to form a structure;  when the final neurons germinate, they find a correct placeholder and then the placeholder cell dies.

text: Although the ANS is also known as the visceral nervous system, the ANS is only connected with the motor side. Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction with the somatic nervous system which provides voluntary control.

text: Although the ANS is also known as the visceral nervous system, the ANS is only connected with the motor side. Most autonomous functions are involuntary but they can often work in conjunction with the

text: somatic nervous system

text: which provides voluntary control.

text: Why does one want to model the brain and neural network? Although highly sophisticated computer systems have been developed and used in all walks of life, they are nowhere close to the human system in hardware and software capabilities. So, scientists have been at work to understand the human operation system and try to simulate its functionalities. In order to accomplish this, one needs to model its components and functions and validate its performance with real life. Computational models of a well simulated nervous system enable learning the nervous system and apply it to real life problem solutions.

text: His thesis, pain in the disease of the central nervous system, concluded in 1936, and was prefaced by Jean Lhermitte, for whom he would become assistant in the Laboratory of the anatomy of the nervous system from 1938 to 1946. A member of the French Resistance during the war, he passed the aggregation examination and was appointed professor of neurology and psychiatry.

text: His thesis, pain in the disease of the central nervous system, concluded in 1936, and was prefaced by

text: Jean Lhermitte

text: , for whom he would become assistant in the Laboratory of the anatomy of the nervous system from 1938 to 1946. A member of the

text: French Resistance

text: during the war, he passed the aggregation examination and was appointed professor of neurology and psychiatry.

text: In mid-2008 the division, under a new commander, Sergey Ryzhkov, replaced some of its former cadre units with higher-readiness units. A regiment arrived from Sergeevka and two regiments of constant readiness from Kamen-Rybolov (438th Motor Rifle Regiment?) on the western shore of Khanka Lake, and Ussuriysk (the 231st Motor Rifle Regiment). These changes effectively made the division a motor rifle formation though its designation was still that of a static defence formation.

text: In mid-2008 the division, under a new commander, Sergey Ryzhkov, replaced some of its former cadre units with higher-readiness units. A regiment arrived from

text: Sergeevka

text: and two regiments of constant readiness from

text: Kamen-Rybolov

text: (438th Motor Rifle Regiment?) on the western shore of

text: Khanka Lake

text: , and

text: Ussuriysk

text: (the 231st Motor Rifle Regiment). These changes effectively made the division a motor rifle formation though its designation was still that of a static defence formation.

text: Pia mater ( or ), often referred to as simply the pia, is the delicate innermost layer of the meninges, the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Pia mater is medieval Latin meaning "tender mother". The other two meningeal membranes are the dura mater and the arachnoid mater. Both the pia and arachnoid mater are derivatives of the neural crest while the dura is derived from embryonic mesoderm. Pia mater is a thin fibrous tissue that is impermeable to fluid. This allows the pia mater to enclose cerebrospinal fluid. By containing this fluid the pia mater works with the other meningeal layers to protect and cushion the brain. The pia mater allows blood vessels to pass through and nourish the brain.  The perivascular space created between blood vessels and pia mater functions as a lymphatic system for the brain. When the pia mater becomes irritated and inflamed the result is meningitis.

text: Pia mater ( or ), often referred to as simply the pia, is the delicate innermost layer of the

text: meninges

text: , the membranes surrounding the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . Pia mater is medieval Latin meaning "tender mother". The other two meningeal membranes are the

text: dura mater

text: and the

text: arachnoid mater

text: . Both the pia and arachnoid mater are derivatives of the

text: neural crest

text: while the dura is derived from embryonic

text: mesoderm

text: . Pia mater is a thin

text: fibrous tissue

text: that is impermeable to fluid. This allows the pia mater to enclose

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: . By containing this fluid the pia mater works with the other meningeal layers to protect and cushion the brain. The pia mater allows blood vessels to pass through and nourish the brain.  The

text: perivascular space

text: created between blood vessels and pia mater functions as a

text: lymphatic system

text: for the brain. When the pia mater becomes irritated and inflamed the result is

text: meningitis

text: The specific causes of neurological problems vary, but can include genetic disorders, congenital abnormalities or disorders, infections, lifestyle or environmental health problems including malnutrition, and brain injury, spinal cord injury or nerve injury. The problem may start in another body system that interacts with the nervous system. For example, cerebrovascular disorders involve brain injury due to problems with the blood vessels (cardiovascular system) supplying the brain; autoimmune disorders involve damage caused by the body's own immune system; lysosomal storage diseases such as Niemann-Pick disease can lead to neurological deterioration.

text: The specific causes of neurological problems vary, but can include

text: genetic disorder

text: s,

text: congenital abnormalities

text: or

text: disorders

text: infections

text: lifestyle

text: or

text: environmental health

text: problems including

text: malnutrition

text: , and

text: brain injury

text: spinal cord injury

text: or

text: nerve injury

text: . The problem may start in another

text: body system

text: that interacts with the nervous system. For example,

text: cerebrovascular disorders

text: involve brain injury due to problems with the

text: blood vessels

text: cardiovascular system

text: ) supplying the brain;

text: autoimmune

text: disorders involve damage caused by the body's own

text: immune system

text: lysosomal storage diseases

text: such as

text: Niemann-Pick disease

text: can lead to neurological deterioration.

text: Neurodegenerative diseases are a heterogenous group of complex disorders linked by the degeneration of neurons in either the peripheral nervous system or the central nervous system. Their underlying causes are extremely variable and complicated by various genetic and/or environmental factors. These diseases cause progressive deterioration of the neuron resulting in decreased signal transduction and in some cases even neuronal death. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) diseases may be further categorized by the type of nerve cell (motor, sensory, or both) affected by the disorder. Effective treatment of these diseases is often prevented by lack of understanding of the underlying molecular and genetic pathology. Epigenetic therapy is being investigated as a method of correcting the expression levels of misregulated genes in neurodegenerative diseases.

text: Neurodegenerative disease

text: s are a heterogenous group of complex disorders linked by the degeneration of

text: neuron

text: s in either the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: or the

text: central nervous system

text: . Their underlying causes are extremely variable and complicated by various genetic and/or environmental factors. These diseases cause progressive deterioration of the neuron resulting in decreased

text: signal transduction

text: and in some cases even neuronal death. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) diseases may be further categorized by the type of nerve cell (

text: motor

text: sensory

text: , or both) affected by the disorder. Effective treatment of these diseases is often prevented by lack of understanding of the underlying molecular and genetic pathology.

text: Epigenetic therapy

text: is being investigated as a method of correcting the expression levels of misregulated genes in neurodegenerative diseases.

text: Broadly defined, the gut-brain axis includes the central nervous system, neuroendocrine and neuroimmune systems including the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis), sympathetic and parasympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system including the enteric nervous system, the vagus nerve, and the gut microbiota.

text: Broadly defined, the gut-brain axis includes the

text: central nervous system

text: , neuroendocrine and neuroimmune systems including the

text: hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis

text: (HPA axis), sympathetic and parasympathetic arms of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: including the

text: enteric nervous system

text: , the

text: vagus nerve

text: , and the gut

text: microbiota

text: Early founding members included Carl Geiger and Bill Viola, who helped build the cable system. In 1972, Synapse began operating in Watson Hall. A color three-camera television studio was built. Visiting artists who recorded material at the studio included members of The Firesign Theatre. Operations were managed by Gail Waldron, Bob Burns and Lance Wisniewski. Synapse recorded music concerts and prominent speakers on campus. Synapse had a portable system which was used to record the feelings of inmates at Attica Prison following the Attica prison riot.

text: Early founding members included

text: Carl Geiger

text: and

text: Bill Viola

text: , who helped build the cable system. In 1972, Synapse began operating in

text: Watson Hall

text: . A color three-camera television studio was built. Visiting artists who recorded material at the studio included members of The

text: Firesign Theatre

text: . Operations were managed by

text: Gail Waldron

text: Bob Burns

text: and

text: Lance Wisniewski

text: . Synapse recorded music concerts and prominent speakers on campus. Synapse had a portable system which was used to record the feelings of inmates at

text: Attica Prison

text: following the Attica

text: prison riot

text: Physiological mechanisms or neuroregeneration may include remyelination, generation of new neurons, glia, axons, myelin or synapses. Neuroregeneration differs between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially, the extent and speed.

text: Physiological mechanisms or

text: neuroregeneration

text: may include

text: remyelination

text: , generation of new

text: neuron

text: s,

text: glia

text: axon

text: s,

text: myelin

text: or

text: synapse

text: s. Neuroregeneration differs between the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) and the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially, the extent and speed.

text: A parasympatholytic agent is a substance or activity that reduces the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. (The parasympathetic nervous system is often colloquially described as the "Feed and Breed" or "Rest and Digest" portion of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic nervous system becomes strongly engaged during or after a meal and during times when the body is at rest.)

text: A parasympatholytic agent is a substance or activity that reduces the activity of the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: . (The parasympathetic nervous system is often colloquially described as the "Feed and Breed" or "Rest and Digest" portion of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . The parasympathetic nervous system becomes strongly engaged during or after a meal and during times when the body is at rest.)

text: Glial scar formation is induced following damage to the nervous system. In the central nervous system, this glial scar formation significantly inhibits nerve regeneration, which leads to a loss of function. Several families of molecules are released that promote and drive glial scar formation. For instance, transforming growth factors B-1 and -2, interleukins, and cytokines play a role in the initiation of scar formation. The accumulation of reactive astrocytes at the site of injury and the up regulation of molecules that are inhibitory for neurite outgrowth contribute to the failure of neuroregeneration. The up-regulated molecules alter the composition of the extracellular matrix in a way that has been shown to inhibit neurite outgrowth extension. This scar formation involves several cell types and families of molecules.

text: In 1877 an English physiologist Edward Schäfer described the absence of connections between the nerve elements in the mantles of the jellyfish. The Norwegian zoologist Fridtjof Nansen also reported in 1887 that he found no connections between the processes of the ganglion cells of aquatic animals in his doctoral research (The Structure and Combination of Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System). By the late 1880s, serious opposition to the reticular theory began to emerge. Wilhelm His in Leipzig studied the embryological development of the central nervous system and concluded that his observations were consistent with the classic cell theory (that nerve cells were individual cells), and not the reticular theory. In 1891, another German anatomist Wilhelm Waldeyer also supported the theory by stating that the nervous system, as other tissues, was composed of cells, which he named "neurons." Using the very same Golgi's technique, Ramón y Cajal confirmed that discrete neurons did exist, thereby strengthening the concept of the growing neuron doctrine. Golgi, however, never accepted these new findings, and a controversy and rivalry between the two scientists lasted even after they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906. The Nobel award is even dubbed as creating the "storm center of histological controversy". Ramón y Cajal even commented that: "What a cruel irony of fate of pair, like Siamese twins united by the shoulders, scientific adversaries of such contrasting character!".

text: In 1877 an English physiologist

text: Edward Schäfer

text: described the absence of connections between the nerve elements in the mantles of the

text: jellyfish

text: . The Norwegian zoologist

text: Fridtjof Nansen

text: also reported in 1887 that he found no connections between the processes of the

text: ganglion cells

text: of aquatic animals in his doctoral research (The Structure and Combination of Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System). By the late 1880s, serious opposition to the reticular theory began to emerge. Wilhelm His in

text: Leipzig

text: studied the embryological development of the central nervous system and concluded that his observations were consistent with the classic

text: cell theory

text: (that nerve cells were individual cells), and not the reticular theory. In 1891, another German anatomist

entity_name: Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz

text: Wilhelm Waldeyer

text: also supported the theory by stating that the nervous system, as other tissues, was composed of cells, which he named "

text: neurons

text: ." Using the very same Golgi's technique, Ramón y Cajal confirmed that discrete neurons did exist, thereby strengthening the concept of the growing neuron doctrine. Golgi, however, never accepted these new findings, and a controversy and rivalry between the two scientists lasted even after they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906. The Nobel award is even dubbed as creating the "storm center of histological controversy". Ramón y Cajal even commented that: "What a cruel irony of fate of pair, like

text: Siamese twins

text: united by the shoulders, scientific adversaries of such contrasting character!".

text: Mutations in human PHOX2B cause a rare disease of the visceral nervous system (dysautonomia): congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (associated with respiratory arrests during sleep and, occasionally, wakefulness), Hirschsprung's disease (partial agenesis of the enteric nervous system), ROHHAD, and tumours of the sympathetic ganglia.In most people, Exon 3 of the gene contains a sequence of 20 polyalanine repeats. An increase in the number of repeats is associated with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. There may also be other pathogenic mutations further along the gene.

text: Mutations in human PHOX2B cause a rare disease of the visceral nervous system (dysautonomia):

text: congenital central hypoventilation syndrome

text: (associated with respiratory arrests during sleep and, occasionally, wakefulness),

text: Hirschsprung's disease

text: (partial agenesis of the

text: enteric nervous system

text: ROHHAD

text: , and tumours of the

text: sympathetic ganglia

text: .In most people, Exon 3 of the gene contains a sequence of 20 polyalanine repeats. An increase in the number of repeats is associated with congenital central hypoventilation syndrome. There may also be other pathogenic mutations further along the gene.

text: Foerster's student years occurred in a time when neurology was starting to develop independently from internal medicine and psychiatry under the influence of, among others, Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893), Wilhelm Heinrich Erb, William Richard Gowers (1845-1912) and particularly Karl Wernicke, who became well known by his direction toward functional localization approaches. By cooperating with Wernike, Foerster's great interest on the anatomy of the central nervous system was excited.  The two researchers published together in 1903 an anatomical atlas of the brain (Atlas des Gehirns). At the time, the several schools of neurology were focused essentially on to diagnosis; because achieving an effective therapy was hardly possible. It was Foerster who took forward the idea of using physical therapy as a new way of treating patients with neurological disturbances. From this work arose his theoretical interest on the disturbances of motor coordination in the execution of movements: this resulted in the topic of his dissertation in 1902, a work which attained a great actuality in connection with the systematic introduction of rehabilitation medicine into neurology.  The involvement of spinal reflexes in the genesis of muscular spasticity suggested its possible treatment by surgical interruption of the sensory branch of the thoracic and lumbar nerves (rhizotomy), and Foerster developed in 1908 an operation to cut the posterior sensory root in order to alleviate spasticity.

text: Foerster's student years occurred in a time when neurology was starting to develop independently from

text: internal medicine

text: and

text: psychiatry

text: under the influence of, among others,

text: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: Wilhelm Heinrich Erb

text: William Richard Gowers

text: (1845-1912) and particularly Karl Wernicke, who became well known by his direction toward functional localization approaches. By cooperating with Wernike, Foerster's great interest on the

text: anatomy

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: was excited.  The two researchers published together in 1903 an anatomical atlas of the brain (Atlas des Gehirns). At the time, the several schools of neurology were focused essentially on to

text: diagnosis

text: ; because achieving an effective therapy was hardly possible. It was Foerster who took forward the idea of using physical therapy as a new way of treating patients with neurological disturbances. From this work arose his theoretical interest on the disturbances of

text: motor coordination

text: in the execution of movements: this resulted in the topic of his dissertation in 1902, a work which attained a great actuality in connection with the systematic introduction of

text: rehabilitation medicine

text: into neurology.  The involvement of

text: spinal reflex

text: es in the genesis of muscular

text: spasticity

text: suggested its possible treatment by surgical interruption of the sensory branch of the thoracic and lumbar nerves (

text: rhizotomy

text: ), and Foerster developed in 1908 an operation to cut the posterior sensory root in order to alleviate spasticity.

text: Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) typically has a high level of expression in Schwann cells associated with nerves that are healthy, but in response to nerve injury CNTF expression decreases in Schwann cells distal to the injury site and remains relatively low unless the injured axon begins to regrow. CNTF has numerous trophic roles in motor neurons in the peripheral nervous system including the prevention of atrophy of dennervated tissue and the prevention of degeneration and death of motor neurons after nerve injury. (frostick)  In sciatic motor neurons both CNTF receptor mRNA expression and CNTF receptor is increased after injury for a prolonged time frame compared to the short time frame in the central nervous system suggesting a role for CNTF in nerve regeneration.

text: Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) typically has a high level of expression in Schwann cells associated with nerves that are healthy, but in response to nerve injury CNTF expression decreases in Schwann cells distal to the injury site and remains relatively low unless the injured axon begins to regrow. CNTF has numerous trophic roles in

text: motor neuron

text: s in the peripheral nervous system including the prevention of atrophy of dennervated tissue and the prevention of degeneration and death of motor neurons after nerve injury. (frostick)  In sciatic motor neurons both CNTF receptor mRNA expression and CNTF receptor is increased after injury for a prolonged time frame compared to the short time frame in the central nervous system suggesting a role for CNTF in nerve regeneration.

text: The most susceptible individuals are elderly frail individuals, or persons who are dehydrated from hot environments or inadequate fluid intake. More serious orthostatic hypotension is often the result of certain commonly prescribed medications such as diuretics, β-adrenergic blockers, other anti-hypertensives (including vasodilators), and nitroglycerin. In a small percentage of cases, the cause of orthostatic hypotensive faints is structural damage to the autonomic nervous system due to systemic diseases (e.g., amyloidosis or diabetes) or in neurological diseases (e.g., Parkinson's disease).

text: The most susceptible individuals are elderly frail individuals, or persons who are dehydrated from hot environments or inadequate fluid intake. More serious orthostatic hypotension is often the result of certain commonly prescribed medications such as diuretics,

text: β-adrenergic blockers

text: , other anti-hypertensives (including vasodilators), and

text: nitroglycerin

text: . In a small percentage of cases, the cause of orthostatic hypotensive faints is structural damage to the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: due to systemic diseases (e.g.,

text: amyloidosis

text: or diabetes) or in neurological diseases (e.g., Parkinson's disease).

text: In the 1950s electron microscopy finally confirmed the existence of individual neurons in the central nervous system, and the existence of gaps in between neurons called synapse. The reticular theory was finally put to rest.

text: In the 1950s

text: electron microscopy

text: finally confirmed the existence of individual neurons in the central nervous system, and the existence of gaps in between neurons called

text: synapse

text: . The reticular theory was finally put to rest.

text: Neurons form elaborate networks through which nerve impulses (action potentials) travel. Each neuron has as many as 15,000 connections with other neurons. Neurons do not touch each other (except in the case of an electrical synapse through a gap junction); instead, neurons interact at close contact points called synapses. A neuron transports its information by way of an action potential. When the nerve impulse arrives at the synapse, it may cause the release of neurotransmitters, which influence another (postsynaptic) neuron. The postsynaptic neuron may receive inputs from many additional neurons, both excitatory and inhibitory. The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed, and if the net effect is inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to "fire" (i.e., generate an action potential), and if the net effect is excitatory, the neuron will be more likely to fire. How likely a neuron is to fire depends on how far its membrane potential is from the threshold potential, the voltage at which an action potential is triggered because enough voltage-dependent sodium channels are activated so that the net inward sodium current exceeds all outward currents. Excitatory inputs bring a neuron closer to threshold, while inhibitory inputs bring the neuron farther from threshold. An action potential is an "all-or-none" event; neurons whose membranes have not reached threshold will not fire, while those that do must fire. Once the action potential is initiated (traditionally at the axon hillock), it will propagate along the axon, leading to release of neurotransmitters at the synaptic bouton to pass along information to yet another adjacent neuron.

text: Neurons form elaborate networks through which nerve impulses (action potentials) travel. Each neuron has as many as 15,000 connections with other neurons. Neurons do not touch each other (except in the case of an

text: electrical synapse

text: through a

text: gap junction

text: ); instead, neurons interact at close contact points called synapses. A neuron transports its information by way of an action potential. When the nerve impulse arrives at the synapse, it may cause the release of neurotransmitters, which influence another (postsynaptic) neuron. The postsynaptic neuron may receive inputs from many additional neurons, both excitatory and inhibitory. The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed, and if the net effect is inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to "fire" (i.e., generate an action potential), and if the net effect is excitatory, the neuron will be more likely to fire. How likely a neuron is to fire depends on how far its

text: membrane potential

text: is from the

text: threshold potential

text: , the voltage at which an action potential is triggered because enough voltage-dependent

text: sodium channel

text: s are activated so that the net inward sodium current exceeds all outward currents. Excitatory inputs bring a neuron closer to threshold, while inhibitory inputs bring the neuron farther from threshold. An action potential is an "all-or-none" event; neurons whose membranes have not reached threshold will not fire, while those that do must fire. Once the action potential is initiated (traditionally at the

text: axon hillock

text: ), it will propagate along the axon, leading to release of neurotransmitters at the

text: synaptic bouton

text: to pass along information to yet another adjacent neuron.

text: The reflexogenic pathway activates the parasympathetic nervous system in response to the sensation of touch. It is mediated by a reflex arc that goes to the spinal cord (not to the brain) and is served by the sacral segments of the spinal cord at S2–S4.  A woman with a spinal cord lesion above T11 may not be able to experience psychogenic vaginal lubrication, but may still have reflex lubrication if her sacral segments are uninjured. Likewise, although a man's ability to get a psychogenic erection when mentally aroused may be impaired after a higher-level SCI, he may still be able to get a reflex or "spontaneous" erection. These erections may result in the absence of psychological arousal when the penis is touched or brushed, e.g. by clothing, but they do not last long and are generally lost when the stimulus is removed. Reflex erections may increase in frequency after SCI, due to the loss of inhibitory input from the brain that would suppress the response in an uninjured man. Conversely, an injury below the S1 level impairs reflex erections but not psychogenic erections. People who have some preservation of sensation in the dermatomes at the S4 and S5 levels and display a bulbocavernosus reflex (contraction of the pelvic floor in response to pressure on the clitoris or glans penis) are usually able to experience reflex erections or lubrication. Like other reflexes, reflexive sexual responses may be lost immediately after injury but return over time as the individual recovers from spinal shock.

text: The reflexogenic pathway activates the parasympathetic nervous system in response to the sensation of touch. It is mediated by a reflex arc that goes to the spinal cord (not to the brain) and is served by the sacral segments of the spinal cord at

text: .  A woman with a spinal cord lesion above T11 may not be able to experience psychogenic vaginal lubrication, but may still have reflex lubrication if her sacral segments are uninjured. Likewise, although a man's ability to get a psychogenic erection when mentally aroused may be impaired after a higher-level SCI, he may still be able to get a reflex or "spontaneous" erection. These erections may result in the absence of psychological arousal when the penis is touched or brushed, e.g. by clothing, but they do not last long and are generally lost when the stimulus is removed. Reflex erections may increase in frequency after SCI, due to the loss of inhibitory input from the brain that would suppress the response in an uninjured man. Conversely, an injury below the S1 level impairs reflex erections but not psychogenic erections. People who have some preservation of sensation in the dermatomes at the S4 and S5 levels and display a

text: bulbocavernosus reflex

text: (contraction of the pelvic floor in response to pressure on the clitoris or

text: glans penis

text: ) are usually able to experience reflex erections or lubrication. Like other reflexes, reflexive sexual responses may be lost immediately after injury but return over time as the individual recovers from

text: spinal shock

text: Cathinone has been found to stimulate the release of dopamine and inhibit the reuptake of epinephrine, norepinephrine and serotonin in the central nervous system (CNS). These neurotransmitters are all considered monoamines and share the general structure of an aromatic ring and an amine group attached by a two-carbon separator. Because cathinone is a hydrophobic molecule, it can easily cross cell membranes and other barriers, including the blood-brain barrier. This property allows it to interact with the monoamine transporters in the synaptic cleft between neurons. Cathinone induces the release of dopamine from brain striatal preparations that are prelabelled either with dopamine or its precursors.

text: Cathinone has been found to stimulate the release of

text: dopamine

text: and inhibit the reuptake of

text: epinephrine

text: norepinephrine

text: and

text: serotonin

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS). These

text: neurotransmitters

text: are all considered

text: monoamine

text: s and share the general structure of an

text: aromatic ring

text: and an

text: amine

text: group attached by a two-carbon separator. Because cathinone is a

text: hydrophobic

text: molecule, it can easily cross cell membranes and other barriers, including the

text: blood-brain barrier

text: . This property allows it to interact with the monoamine transporters in the

text: synaptic cleft

text: between

text: neurons

text: . Cathinone induces the release of

text: dopamine

text: from brain striatal preparations that are prelabelled either with dopamine or its precursors.

text: In organisms of radial symmetry nerve nets serve for the nervous system. There is no brain or centralised head region, and instead there are interconnected neurons spread out in nerve nets. These are found in Cnidaria, Ctenophora and Echinodermata.

text: In organisms of

text: radial symmetry

text: nerve net

text: s serve for the nervous system. There is no brain or centralised head region, and instead there are interconnected neurons spread out in nerve nets. These are found in

text: Cnidaria

text: Ctenophora

text: and

text: Echinodermata

text: A neuron is called identified if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has exactly one neuron with the same set of properties.  In vertebrate nervous systems, very few neurons are "identified" in this sense. Researchers believe humans have none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique.

text: The spinal cord is divided into five sections: the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions. The level of injury determines the extent of paralysis and/or loss of sensation. No two injuries are alike.

text: On March 14, 1942, the General Assembly abolished the existing Division of Motor Vehicles and created two separate agencies: The Division of Motor Vehicles and the Department of State Police. The act called for a position of superintendent for the State Police and a commissioner for the Division of Motor Vehicles. Major C. W. Woodson Jr. was officially appointed as superintendent for the State Police.

text: Functional weakness is weakness of an arm or leg due to the nervous system not working properly. It is not caused by damage or disease of the nervous system. Patients with functional weakness experience symptoms of limb weakness which can be disabling and frightening such as problems walking or a ‘heaviness’ down one side, dropping things or a feeling that a limb just doesn’t feel normal or ‘part of them’.  Functional weakness may also be described as 'dissociative motor disorder' and less helpfully as "conversion disorder."

text: Functional weakness is weakness of an arm or leg due to the nervous system not working properly. It is not caused by damage or disease of the nervous system. Patients with functional weakness experience symptoms of limb weakness which can be disabling and frightening such as problems walking or a ‘heaviness’ down one side, dropping things or a feeling that a limb just doesn’t feel normal or ‘part of them’.  Functional weakness may also be described as 'dissociative motor disorder' and less helpfully as "

text: conversion disorder

text: Combining dextromethorphan with other serotonergic drugs could possibly cause serotonin toxicity, an excess of serotonergic activity in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).

text: Combining dextromethorphan with other

text: serotonergic

text: drugs could possibly cause

text: serotonin toxicity

text: , an excess of serotonergic activity in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS).

text: Spinal cord injuries can be caused by trauma to the spinal column (stretching, bruising, applying pressure, severing, laceration, etc.).  The vertebral bones or intervertebral disks can shatter, causing the spinal cord to be punctured by a sharp fragment of bone. Usually, victims of spinal cord injuries will suffer loss of feeling in certain parts of their body. In milder cases, a victim might only suffer loss of hand or foot function. More severe injuries may result in paraplegia, tetraplegia (also known as quadriplegia), or full body paralysis below the site of injury to the spinal cord.

text: Spinal cord injuries can be caused by trauma to the spinal column (stretching, bruising, applying pressure, severing, laceration, etc.).  The vertebral bones or

text: intervertebral disk

text: s can shatter, causing the spinal cord to be punctured by a sharp fragment of

text: bone

text: . Usually, victims of spinal cord injuries will suffer loss of feeling in certain parts of their body. In milder cases, a victim might only suffer loss of

text: hand

text: or foot function. More severe injuries may result in

text: paraplegia

text: tetraplegia

text: (also known as quadriplegia), or full body

text: paralysis

text: below the site of injury to the spinal cord.

text: They have a neurogenic heart, which have rhythmic depolarization that is responsible for initiating heart beats. Heartbeats originate in nervous tissue; innervated muscle cells cause the heart to contract when stimulated by nerve impulses. The cardiac ganglion, which consists of nine neurones, attaches to the dorsal wall of the heart. The anterior neurons innervate the heart, whereas the other posterior neurons make synpaptic contact with those anterior neurones. The posterior neuron acts as the pacemaker, but also functions as the cellular oscillator and the central pattern generator. This posterior neuron produces a train of impulses, which excites the other posterior neurones. The heart contracts when the posterior neurones activate the five anterior neurones, which send impulses to the muscle cells. This is how the Frank–Starling mechanism works within crustaceans. The Frank–Starling mechanism refers to the vitally important intrinsic control of the heart; mainly the stretching of the cardiac muscle tends to increase the force of its contraction by an effect at the cellular level. This mechanism is important as it allows the organism to match its output of blood with its input of blood. Because of the stretching between beats, the Frank–Starling mechanism allows the heart to then naturally contract more forcefully, allowing greater flow of blood, which results in the matched heart output to the increased blood received. The Frank–Starling mechanism is a little different in crustaceans, as it involves the cardiac ganglion as described previously. The stretching of the heart induces the ganglion to fire more regularly and powerfully.

text: They have a neurogenic heart, which have rhythmic

text: depolarization

text: that is responsible for initiating heart beats. Heartbeats originate in nervous tissue; innervated muscle cells cause the heart to contract when stimulated by nerve impulses. The cardiac ganglion, which consists of nine neurones, attaches to the dorsal wall of the heart. The anterior neurons innervate the heart, whereas the other posterior neurons make synpaptic contact with those anterior neurones. The posterior neuron acts as the pacemaker, but also functions as the cellular oscillator and the central pattern generator. This posterior

text: neuron

text: produces a train of impulses, which excites the other posterior neurones. The heart contracts when the posterior neurones activate the five anterior neurones, which send impulses to the muscle cells. This is how the

text: Frank–Starling mechanism

text: works within crustaceans. The Frank–Starling mechanism refers to the vitally important intrinsic control of the heart; mainly the stretching of the cardiac muscle tends to increase the force of its contraction by an effect at the cellular level. This mechanism is important as it allows the organism to match its output of blood with its input of blood. Because of the stretching between beats, the Frank–Starling mechanism allows the heart to then naturally contract more forcefully, allowing greater flow of blood, which results in the matched heart output to the increased blood received. The Frank–Starling mechanism is a little different in crustaceans, as it involves the cardiac ganglion as described previously. The stretching of the heart induces the ganglion to fire more regularly and powerfully.

text: A motor nerve is a nerve that carries command information out of the central nervous system (CNS) and toward effectors (muscles or glands) that will execute the commands. It is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of efferent nerve fibers (the axons of motor neurons) in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). These fibers link processing circuits in the CNS to the body parts that will carry out the CNS's decisions (conscious and unconscious). Motor nerves are often paired with sensory nerves, which are bundles of afferent nerve fibers that travel from the PNS to the CNS.

text: A motor nerve is a

text: nerve

text: that carries command information out of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and toward effectors (

text: muscle

text: s or

text: gland

text: s) that will execute the commands. It is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of

text: efferent nerve fiber

text: s (the

text: axon

text: s of

text: motor neuron

text: s) in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). These fibers link processing circuits in the CNS to the body parts that will carry out the CNS's decisions (conscious and unconscious). Motor nerves are often paired with

text: sensory nerve

text: s, which are bundles of

text: afferent nerve fiber

text: s that travel from the PNS to the CNS.

text: In addition to the selectivity of splice variants, the levels of neuroligins, neurexins, and other interacting proteins present on the pre- and postsynaptic membranes influence the differentiation and balance of synapses. As synapses form during synaptogenesis, they differentiate into one of two categories: excitatory or inhibitory. Excitatory synapses have increased probability of firing an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron and are often glutamatergic, or synapses in which the neurotransmitter glutamate is released. Inhibitory synapses have decreased probability of firing an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron and are often GABAergic, in which the neurotransmitter GABA is released. Especially during early development, neurons must receive an appropriate balance of excitatory vs. inhibitory synaptic input, referred to as the E/I ratio. In fact, an imbalance in the E/I ratio is thought to be involved in autistic spectrum disorders.

text: In addition to the selectivity of splice variants, the levels of neuroligins, neurexins, and other interacting proteins present on the pre- and postsynaptic membranes influence the differentiation and balance of synapses. As synapses form during

text: synaptogenesis

text: , they differentiate into one of two categories: excitatory or inhibitory.

text: Excitatory synapse

text: s have increased probability of firing an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron and are often

text: glutamatergic

text: , or synapses in which the neurotransmitter glutamate is released.

text: Inhibitory synapses

text: have decreased probability of firing an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron and are often

text: GABAergic

text: , in which the neurotransmitter GABA is released. Especially during early development, neurons must receive an appropriate balance of excitatory vs. inhibitory synaptic input, referred to as the E/I ratio. In fact, an imbalance in the E/I ratio is thought to be involved in autistic spectrum disorders.

text: The cervical ganglia are paravertebral ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system. Preganglionic nerves from the thoracic spinal cord enter into the cervical ganglions and synapse with its postganglionic fibers or nerves.  The cervical ganglion has three paravertebral ganglia:

text: The cervical ganglia are

text: paravertebral ganglia

text: of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: Preganglionic

text: nerves from the thoracic spinal cord enter into the cervical ganglions and synapse with its postganglionic fibers or nerves.  The cervical ganglion has three

text: paravertebral ganglia

text: The disease used to be classified as a "neurocristopathy", or disease of the neural crest because part of the autonomic nervous system (such as sympathetic ganglia) derives from the neural crest. However, this denomination is no longer favored because essential neurons of the autonomic nervous system, including those that underlie the defining symptom of the disease (respiratory arrests), are derived from the neural tube (the medulla), not from the neural crest, although such mixed embryological origins are also true for most other neurocristopathies.

text: The disease used to be classified as a "

text: neurocristopathy

text: ", or disease of the

text: neural crest

text: because part of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (such as sympathetic ganglia) derives from the neural crest. However, this denomination is no longer favored because essential neurons of the autonomic nervous system, including those that underlie the defining symptom of the disease (respiratory arrests), are derived from the

text: neural tube

text: (the

text: medulla

text: ), not from the neural crest, although such mixed embryological origins are also true for most other neurocristopathies.

text: In vertebrates, the enteric nervous system  includes efferent neurons, afferent neurons, and interneurons, all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of carrying reflexes in the absence of CNS input.  The sensory neurons report on mechanical and chemical conditions.  Through intestinal muscles, the motor neurons control peristalsis and churning of intestinal contents.  Other neurons control the secretion of enzymes.  The enteric nervous system also makes use of more than 30 neurotransmitters, most of which are identical to the ones found in CNS, such as acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin. More than 90% of the body's serotonin lies in the gut, as well as about 50% of the body's dopamine and the dual function of these neurotransmitters is an active part of gut-brain research.

text: In vertebrates, the enteric nervous system  includes

text: efferent neurons

text: afferent neuron

text: s, and

text: interneurons

text: , all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of carrying reflexes in the absence of CNS input.  The sensory neurons report on mechanical and chemical conditions.  Through intestinal muscles, the motor neurons control

text: peristalsis

text: and churning of intestinal contents.  Other neurons control the secretion of

text: enzymes

text: .  The enteric nervous system also makes use of more than 30

text: neurotransmitters

text: , most of which are identical to the ones found in CNS, such as

text: acetylcholine

text: dopamine

text: , and

text: serotonin

text: . More than 90% of the body's serotonin lies in the gut, as well as about 50% of the body's dopamine and the dual function of these neurotransmitters is an active part of gut-brain research.

text: Ganglioglioma is a rare, slow-growing primary central nervous system (CNS) tumor which most frequently occurs in the temporal lobes of children and young adults.

text: Synaptic transmission can be changed by previous activity. These changes are called synaptic plasticity and may result in either a decrease in the efficacy of the synapse, called depression,  or an increase in efficacy, called potentiation. These changes can either be long-term or short-term. Forms of short-term plasticity include synaptic fatigue or depression and synaptic augmentation. Forms of long-term plasticity include long-term depression and long-term potentiation. Synaptic plasticity can be either homosynaptic (occurring at a single synapse) or heterosynaptic (occurring at multiple synapses).

text: Synaptic transmission can be changed by previous activity. These changes are called synaptic plasticity and may result in either a decrease in the efficacy of the synapse, called depression,  or an increase in efficacy, called potentiation. These changes can either be long-term or short-term. Forms of

text: short-term plasticity

text: include

text: synaptic fatigue

text: or depression and

text: synaptic augmentation

text: . Forms of

text: long-term plasticity

text: include

text: long-term depression

text: and

text: long-term potentiation

text: . Synaptic plasticity can be either homosynaptic (occurring at a single synapse) or heterosynaptic (occurring at multiple synapses).

text: The spinal cord has a shape that is compressed dorso-ventrally, giving it an elliptical shape. The cord has grooves in the dorsal and ventral sides. The posterior median sulcus is the groove in the dorsal side, and the anterior median fissure is the groove in the ventral side.

text: The spinal cord has a shape that is compressed dorso-ventrally, giving it an

text: elliptical

text: shape. The cord has grooves in the dorsal and ventral sides. The

text: posterior median sulcus

text: is the groove in the dorsal side, and the

text: anterior median fissure

text: is the groove in the ventral side.

text: Cell types: Neurons in the nucleus accumbens are mostly medium spiny neurons (MSNs) containing mainly D1-type (i.e., DRD1 and DRD5) or D2-type (i.e., DRD2, DRD3, and DRD4) dopamine receptors.   A subpopulation of MSNs contain both D1-type and D2-type receptors, with approximately 40% of striatal MSNs expressing both DRD1 and DRD2 mRNA.  Mixed type NAcc MSNs with both D1-type and D2-type receptors are mostly confined in the NAcc shell. The neurons in the shell, as compared to the core, have a lower density of dendritic spines, less terminal segments, and less branch segments than those in the core. The shell neurons project to the subcommissural part of the ventral pallidum as well as the ventral tegmental area and to extensive areas in the hypothalamus and extended amygdala.

text: Cell types: Neurons in the nucleus accumbens are mostly

text: medium spiny neuron

text: s (MSNs) containing mainly

text: (i.e.,

text: and

text: ) or

text: (i.e.,

text: , and

text: dopamine receptor

text: s.   A subpopulation of MSNs contain both D1-type and D2-type receptors, with approximately 40% of striatal MSNs expressing both

text: and

text: mRNA.  Mixed type NAcc MSNs with both D1-type and D2-type receptors are mostly confined in the NAcc shell. The neurons in the shell, as compared to the core, have a lower density of

text: dendritic spine

text: s, less terminal segments, and less branch segments than those in the core. The shell neurons project to the subcommissural part of the

text: ventral pallidum

text: as well as the ventral tegmental area and to extensive areas in the

text: hypothalamus

text: and

text: extended amygdala

text: In sitting volleyball, a 0.8 meter-wide net is set at 1.15 meters high for men and 1.05 meters high for women. The court is 10 x 6 meters with a 2-meter attack line. Players must have at least one buttock in contact with the floor whenever they make contact with the ball. It is also possible to block the serve and jousts are generally replayed.Athletes with the following disabilities are eligible to compete in sitting volleyball: athletes with amputations, spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, brain injuries and stroke. There are no athlete classifications by disability.

text: In sitting volleyball, a 0.8 meter-wide net is set at 1.15 meters high for men and 1.05 meters high for women. The court is 10 x 6 meters with a 2-meter attack line. Players must have at least one buttock in contact with the floor whenever they make contact with the ball. It is also possible to block the serve and jousts are generally replayed.Athletes with the following disabilities are eligible to compete in sitting volleyball: athletes with

text: amputations

text: spinal cord injuries

text: cerebral palsy

text: brain injuries

text: and

text: stroke

text: . There are no athlete classifications by disability.

text: In 1969, company Honeywell introduced its first Multics system, a symmetric multiprocessor system capable of running up to eight processors in parallel. C.mmp, a 1970s multi-processor project at Carnegie Mellon University, was among the first multiprocessors with more than a few processors. The first bus-connected multiprocessor with snooping caches was the Synapse N+1 in 1984."

text: In 1969, company

text: Honeywell

text: introduced its first Multics system, a symmetric multiprocessor system capable of running up to eight processors in parallel.

text: C.mmp

text: , a 1970s multi-processor project at

text: Carnegie Mellon University

text: , was among the first multiprocessors with more than a few processors. The first bus-connected multiprocessor with snooping caches was the

text: Synapse N+1

text: in 1984."

text: Samandarin was the first in the family of compounds to be isolated. In 1899, Faust purified samandarin as a crystalline sulfate salt by killing the salamanders with chloroform, mincing their corpses, and performing a number of acid-base extractions. In 1926, the pharmacology of samandarin was further examined by Gessner who administered the poison to animals and dissected their corpses. He determined that the poison primarily affected the central nervous system and spinal cord.

text: Samandarin was the first in the family of compounds to be isolated. In 1899, Faust purified samandarin as a

text: crystalline

text: sulfate

text: salt

text: by killing the salamanders with

text: chloroform

text: , mincing their corpses, and performing a number of

text: acid-base extraction

text: s. In 1926, the

text: pharmacology

text: of samandarin was further examined by Gessner who administered the poison to animals and

text: dissected

text: their corpses. He determined that the poison primarily affected the

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: Nissl staining uses aniline basic dyes to intensely stain the acidic polyribosomes in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, which is abundant in neurons. This allows researchers to distinguish between different cell types (such as neurons and glia), and neuronal shapes and sizes, in various regions of the nervous system cytoarchitecture.

text: Nissl staining

text: uses aniline basic dyes to intensely stain the acidic polyribosomes in the

text: rough endoplasmic reticulum

text: , which is abundant in neurons. This allows researchers to distinguish between different cell types (such as neurons and

text: glia

text: ), and neuronal shapes and sizes, in various regions of the nervous system

text: cytoarchitecture

text: The main manifestations of carbon monoxide poisoning develop in the organ systems most dependent on oxygen use, the central nervous system and the heart. The initial symptoms of acute carbon monoxide poisoning include headache, nausea, malaise, and fatigue. These symptoms are often mistaken for a virus such as influenza or other illnesses such as food poisoning or gastroenteritis. Headache is the most common symptom of acute carbon monoxide poisoning; it is often described as dull, frontal, and continuous. Increasing exposure produces cardiac abnormalities including fast heart rate, low blood pressure, and cardiac arrhythmia; central nervous system symptoms include delirium, hallucinations, dizziness, unsteady gait, confusion, seizures, central nervous system depression, unconsciousness, respiratory arrest, and death. Less common symptoms of acute carbon monoxide poisoning include myocardial ischemia, atrial fibrillation, pneumonia, pulmonary edema, high blood sugar, lactic acidosis, muscle necrosis, acute kidney failure, skin lesions, and visual and auditory problems.

text: The main manifestations of carbon monoxide poisoning develop in the organ systems most dependent on oxygen use, the

text: central nervous system

text: and the

text: heart

text: . The initial symptoms of acute carbon monoxide poisoning include

text: headache

text: nausea

text: malaise

text: , and

text: fatigue

text: . These symptoms are often mistaken for a virus such as

text: influenza

text: or other illnesses such as

text: food poisoning

text: or

text: gastroenteritis

text: . Headache is the most common symptom of acute carbon monoxide poisoning; it is often described as dull, frontal, and continuous. Increasing exposure produces cardiac abnormalities including

text: fast heart rate

text: low blood pressure

text: , and

text: cardiac arrhythmia

text: central nervous system

text: symptoms include

text: delirium

text: hallucination

text: s,

text: dizziness

text: unsteady gait

text: confusion

text: seizures

text: central nervous system depression

text: unconsciousness

text: respiratory arrest

text: , and

text: death

text: . Less common symptoms of acute carbon monoxide poisoning include

text: myocardial ischemia

text: atrial fibrillation

text: pneumonia

text: pulmonary edema

text: high blood sugar

text: lactic acidosis

text: muscle necrosis

text: acute kidney failure

text: skin lesion

text: s, and visual and auditory problems.

text: Cocaine acts as a stimulant, whereas heroin/morphine acts as a depressant. Co-administration is meant to provide an intense rush of euphoria with a high that is supposed to combine the effects of both drugs, while hoping to reduce the negative effects, such as anxiety, hypertension, palpitations and other common side effects of stimulants and sedation/drowsiness from the depressant. While this is somewhat effective, as one drug (the CNS stimulant) triggers the sympathetic nervous system and the other (the CNS depressant) triggers the parasympathetic nervous system, the two systems that regulate the fight-or-flight and rest-and-digest responses, respectively, and simultaneous activity of the two pathways is what normally keeps one's body in natural homeostasis, there is an imperfect overlap in the effects of stimulants and depressants. Additionally, by suppressing the typical negative side-effects of the two drugs, the user may falsely believe they have a higher tolerance, or that they are less intoxicated than they actually are. This can cause users to misjudge the intake of one or both of the drugs, sometimes fatally.

text: Cocaine acts as a

text: stimulant

text: , whereas heroin/morphine acts as a

text: depressant

text: . Co-administration is meant to provide an intense

text: rush

text: of

text: euphoria

text: with a high that is supposed to combine the effects of both drugs, while hoping to reduce the negative effects, such as

text: anxiety

text: , hypertension, palpitations and other common side effects of stimulants and

text: sedation

text: /drowsiness from the depressant. While this is somewhat effective, as one drug (the CNS stimulant) triggers the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the other (the CNS depressant) triggers the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: , the two systems that regulate the

text: fight-or-flight

text: and

text: rest-and-digest

text: responses, respectively, and simultaneous activity of the two pathways is what normally keeps one's body in natural homeostasis, there is an imperfect overlap in the effects of stimulants and depressants. Additionally, by suppressing the typical negative side-effects of the two drugs, the user may falsely believe they have a higher tolerance, or that they are less intoxicated than they actually are. This can cause users to misjudge the intake of one or both of the drugs, sometimes fatally.

text: Two types of lipid rafts have been proposed: planar lipid rafts (also referred to as non-caveolar, or glycolipid, rafts) and caveolae. Planar rafts are defined as being continuous with the plane of the plasma membrane (not invaginated) and by their lack of distinguishing morphological features. Caveolae, on the other hand, are flask shaped invaginations of the plasma membrane that contain caveolin proteins and are the most readily-observed structures in lipid rafts. Caveolins are widely expressed in the brain, micro-vessels of the nervous system, endothelial cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, dorsal root ganglia and hippocampal neurons. Planar rafts contain flotillin proteins and are found in neurons where caveolae are absent. Both types have similar lipid composition (enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids). Flotillin and caveolins have the ability to recruit signaling molecules into lipid rafts, thus playing an important role in neurotransmitter signal transduction. It has been proposed that these microdomains spatially organize signaling molecules  to promote kinetically favorable interactions which are necessary for signal transduction. Conversely, these microdomains can also separate signaling molecules, inhibiting interactions and dampening signaling responses.

text: Two types of lipid rafts have been proposed: planar lipid rafts (also referred to as non-caveolar, or glycolipid, rafts) and caveolae. Planar rafts are defined as being continuous with the plane of the plasma membrane (not invaginated) and by their lack of distinguishing morphological features. Caveolae, on the other hand, are flask shaped invaginations of the plasma membrane that contain

text: caveolin

text: proteins and are the most readily-observed structures in lipid rafts. Caveolins are widely expressed in the brain, micro-vessels of the nervous system, endothelial cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, dorsal root ganglia and hippocampal neurons. Planar rafts contain flotillin proteins and are found in neurons where caveolae are absent. Both types have similar lipid composition (enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids). Flotillin and caveolins have the ability to recruit signaling molecules into lipid rafts, thus playing an important role in neurotransmitter signal transduction. It has been proposed that these microdomains spatially organize signaling molecules  to promote kinetically favorable interactions which are necessary for signal transduction. Conversely, these microdomains can also separate signaling molecules, inhibiting interactions and dampening signaling responses.

text: However, experimental studies of electrophysiology, beginning in the early 20th century and reaching high productivity by the 1940s, showed that the nervous system contains many mechanisms for generating patterns of activity intrinsically, without requiring an external stimulus.  Neurons were found to be capable of producing regular sequences of action potentials, or sequences of bursts, even in complete isolation.  When intrinsically active neurons are connected to each other in complex circuits, the possibilities for generating intricate temporal patterns become far more extensive.  A modern conception views the function of the nervous system partly in terms of stimulus-response chains, and partly in terms of intrinsically generated activity patterns—both types of activity interact with each other to generate the full repertoire of behavior.

text: However, experimental studies of

text: electrophysiology

text: , beginning in the early 20th century and reaching high productivity by the 1940s, showed that the nervous system contains many mechanisms for generating patterns of activity intrinsically, without requiring an external stimulus.  Neurons were found to be capable of producing regular sequences of action potentials, or sequences of bursts, even in complete isolation.  When intrinsically active neurons are connected to each other in complex circuits, the possibilities for generating intricate temporal patterns become far more extensive.  A modern conception views the function of the nervous system partly in terms of stimulus-response chains, and partly in terms of intrinsically generated activity patterns—both types of activity interact with each other to generate the full repertoire of behavior.

text: In June 1886 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society   and in 1891 delivered their Croonian Lecture, jointly with his brother-in-law Francis Gotch, on the subject of the mammalian nervous system. In 1894 he won their Royal Medal for his investigations relating to the physiology of the nervous system, and of the thyroid gland, and to their applications to the treatment of disease.

text: In June 1886 he was elected a

text: Fellow of the Royal Society

text: and in 1891 delivered their

text: Croonian Lecture

text: , jointly with his brother-in-law

text: Francis Gotch

text: , on the subject of the mammalian nervous system. In 1894 he won their

text: Royal Medal

text: for his investigations relating to the physiology of the nervous system, and of the thyroid gland, and to their applications to the treatment of disease.

text: MedStar NRH is fully accredited by both the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations JCAHO, and the Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities CARF, earning an impressive fourteen CARF commendations in the 2007 accreditation survey.  CARF is a private, not-for-profit organization that promotes quality rehabilitation services. Their standards are reviewed annually and new ones are developed to keep pace with changing conditions and current consumer needs. NRH has received a three-year accreditation from CARF, and its Spinal Cord Injury, Stroke and Brain Injury programs are the regions only CARF accredited specialty programs.

text: MedStar NRH is fully accredited by both the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations

text: JCAHO

text: , and the Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities

entity_name: Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities

text: CARF

text: , earning an impressive fourteen CARF commendations in the 2007 accreditation survey.  CARF is a private, not-for-profit organization that promotes quality rehabilitation services. Their standards are reviewed annually and new ones are developed to keep pace with changing conditions and current consumer needs. NRH has received a three-year accreditation from CARF, and its

text: Spinal Cord Injury

text: Stroke

text: and Brain Injury programs are the regions only CARF accredited specialty programs.

text: An increase in sympathetic nervous system stimulation causes the heart rate to increase, both by the direct action of sympathetic nerve fibers on the heart and by causing the endocrine system to release hormones such as epinephrine (adrenaline), which have a similar effect.  Increased sympathetic stimulation is usually due to physical or psychological stress.  This is the basis for the so-called fight-or-flight response, but such stimulation can also be induced by stimulants such as ephedrine, amphetamines or cocaine.  Certain endocrine disorders such as pheochromocytoma can also cause epinephrine release and can result in tachycardia independent of nervous system stimulation. Hyperthyroidism can also cause tachycardia. The upper limit of normal rate for sinus tachycardia is thought to be 220 bpm minus age.

text: An increase in

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: stimulation causes the heart rate to increase, both by the direct action of

text: sympathetic nerve

text: fibers on the heart and by causing the

text: endocrine

text: system to release

text: hormone

text: s such as

text: epinephrine (adrenaline)

text: , which have a similar effect.  Increased sympathetic stimulation is usually due to physical or psychological stress.  This is the basis for the so-called

text: fight-or-flight response

text: , but such stimulation can also be induced by

text: stimulant

text: s such as

text: ephedrine

text: amphetamines

text: or

text: cocaine

text: .  Certain

text: endocrine disorders

text: such as

text: pheochromocytoma

text: can also cause epinephrine release and can result in tachycardia independent of nervous system stimulation.

text: Hyperthyroidism

text: can also cause tachycardia. The upper limit of normal rate for sinus tachycardia is thought to be 220 bpm minus age.

text: Chronic diseases of age have been saluted as prime candidates for parabiotic research because of the potential to conjoin an older animal with a younger animal. This process could be used to research cardiovascular disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease. As animals age, their oligodendrocytes reduce in efficiency, resulting in decreased myelination, causing negative effects on the central nervous system (CNS). Julia Ruckh and fellow researchers have used parabiosis to study remyelination from adult stem cells to see if conjoining young with older mice could reverse or delay this process. In the experiment, the two mice were conjoined and demyelination was induced via injection into the older mice. The experiment determined that factors from the younger mice reversed CNS demyelination in older mice by revitalizing the oligodendrocytes. The monocytes from the younger mice also enhanced the ability of the older mice to clear myelin debris because the young monocytes can clear lipids from myelin sheaths more effectively than older monocytes. The conjoining of the two animals reversed the effects of age on the myelination cells. The ability of the young mouse’s cells was unaffected. Enhanced immunity from the younger mouse also promoted the general health of the older mouse in each pair. The results of this experiment could lead to therapy processes for people with demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis.

text: Chronic diseases of age have been saluted as prime candidates for parabiotic research because of the potential to conjoin an older animal with a younger animal. This process could be used to research cardiovascular disease, diabetes, osteoarthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease. As animals age, their

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s reduce in efficiency, resulting in decreased myelination, causing negative effects on the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS). Julia Ruckh and fellow researchers have used parabiosis to study

text: remyelination

text: from adult stem cells to see if conjoining young with older mice could reverse or delay this process. In the experiment, the two mice were conjoined and demyelination was induced via injection into the older mice. The experiment determined that factors from the younger mice reversed CNS demyelination in older mice by revitalizing the oligodendrocytes. The

text: monocyte

text: s from the younger mice also enhanced the ability of the older mice to clear myelin debris because the young monocytes can clear lipids from myelin sheaths more effectively than older monocytes. The conjoining of the two animals reversed the effects of age on the myelination cells. The ability of the young mouse’s cells was unaffected. Enhanced immunity from the younger mouse also promoted the general health of the older mouse in each pair. The results of this experiment could lead to therapy processes for people with demyelinating diseases like multiple sclerosis.

text: Many experiments have been conducted in attempts to create a general model for the mechanical tolerance of neurons within the Central Nervous System (CNS). One such in vitro model has found that CNS neurons have a lower threshold for stress and strain loads than Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) neurons.

text: Many experiments have been conducted in attempts to create a general model for the mechanical tolerance of neurons within the

text: Central Nervous System

text: (CNS). One such in vitro model has found that CNS neurons have a lower threshold for

text: stress

text: and

text: strain

text: loads than

text: Peripheral Nervous System

text: (PNS) neurons.

text: In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), a cluster of cell bodies of neurons (homologous to a CNS nucleus) is called a ganglion. The fascicles of nerve fibers in the PNS (homologous to CNS tracts) are called nerves.

text: In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), a cluster of cell bodies of neurons (homologous to a CNS nucleus) is called a

text: ganglion

text: . The fascicles of nerve fibers in the PNS (homologous to CNS tracts) are called

text: nerve

text: s.

text: Additionally, HIV-1-infected patients often suffer from myelin degeneration in the central nervous system. These patients have elevated levels of sulfatide in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and anti-sulfatide antibodies in the serum. Elevated levels of anti-sulfatide antibodies can cause demyelination. This is caused by the binding of the anti-sulfatide antibodies to the surface of the myelin sheath and/or the surface of Schwann Cells, which then activates a complete cascade of demyelination. Also, advanced stage AIDS patients can develop Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS). Guillain–Barré syndrome is classified as an acute autoimmune polyneuropathy, which specifically affects the peripheral nervous system of the infected patient. Experimentation has shown that anti-sulfatide autoimmune antibodies may contribute to the development of Guillain–Barré syndrome in AIDS patients as well as the development of peripheral nervous system injury in HIV-1 infected patients.

text: Additionally, HIV-1-infected patients often suffer from myelin degeneration in the

text: central nervous system

text: . These patients have elevated levels of sulfatide in the

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF) and anti-sulfatide antibodies in the

text: serum

text: . Elevated levels of anti-sulfatide antibodies can cause

text: demyelination

text: . This is caused by the binding of the anti-sulfatide antibodies to the surface of the

text: myelin sheath

text: and/or the surface of

text: Schwann Cells

text: , which then activates a complete cascade of demyelination. Also, advanced stage

text: AIDS

text: patients can develop

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: (GBS). Guillain–Barré syndrome is classified as an acute

text: autoimmune

text: polyneuropathy

text: , which specifically affects the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: of the infected patient. Experimentation has shown that anti-sulfatide autoimmune antibodies may contribute to the development of Guillain–Barré syndrome in

text: AIDS

text: patients as well as the development of

text: peripheral nervous system

text: injury in HIV-1 infected patients.

text: Space neuroscience is the scientific study of the central nervous system (CNS) functions during spaceflight. Living systems can integrate the inputs from the senses to navigate in their environment and to coordinate posture, locomotion, and eye movements. Gravity has a fundamental role in controlling these functions. In weightlessness during spaceflight, integrating the sensory inputs and coordinating motor responses is harder to do because gravity is no longer sensed during free-fall. For example, the otolith organs of the vestibular system no longer signal head tilt relative to gravity when standing. However, they can still sense head translation during body motion. Ambiguities and changes in how the gravitational input is processed can lead to potential errors in perception, which affects spatial orientation and mental representation. Dysfunctions of the vestibular system are common during and immediately after spaceflight, such as space motion sickness in orbit and balance disorders after return to Earth.

text: Space neuroscience is the scientific study of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) functions during

text: spaceflight

text: Living systems

text: can integrate the inputs from the

text: senses

text: to navigate in their environment and to coordinate

text: posture

text: locomotion

text: , and

text: eye movements

text: Gravity

text: has a fundamental role in controlling these functions. In

text: weightlessness

text: during spaceflight, integrating the sensory inputs and coordinating motor responses is harder to do because gravity is no longer sensed during

text: free-fall

text: . For example, the

text: otolith

text: organs of the

text: vestibular system

text: no longer signal head tilt relative to gravity when

text: standing

text: . However, they can still sense head translation during body motion. Ambiguities and changes in how the gravitational input is processed can lead to potential errors in

text: perception

text: , which affects

text: spatial orientation

text: and

text: mental representation

text: . Dysfunctions of the

text: vestibular system

text: are common during and immediately after spaceflight, such as

text: space motion sickness

text: in orbit and

text: balance disorder

text: s after return to Earth.

text: In anatomy and neurophysiology, this is the finding that the anterior spinal nerve roots contain only motor fibers and posterior roots only sensory fibers and that nerve impulses are conducted in only one direction in each case. The nature and the physiology of the phenomena were described independently by the British anatomical scientist Sir Charles Bell and the French physiologist François Magendie, later confirmed by the German physiologist Johannes Peter Müller.

text: In

text: anatomy

text: and

text: neurophysiology

text: , this is the finding that the anterior

text: spinal nerve

text: roots contain only

text: motor fiber

text: s and posterior roots only

text: sensory fiber

text: s and that nerve impulses are conducted in only one direction in each case. The nature and the physiology of the phenomena were described independently by the British anatomical scientist

text: Sir Charles Bell

text: and the French physiologist

text: François Magendie

text: , later confirmed by the German physiologist

text: Johannes Peter Müller

text: The olfactory nerve () is typically considered the first cranial nerve, or simply CN I. It contains the afferent nerve fibers of the olfactory receptor neurons,  transmitting nerve impulses about odors to the central nervous system, where they are perceived by the sense of smell (olfaction). Derived from the embryonic nasal placode, the olfactory nerve is somewhat unique among cranial nerves because it is capable of some regeneration if damaged. The olfactory nerve is sensory in nature and originates on the olfactory mucosa in the upper part of the nasal cavity. From the olfactory mucosa, the nerve (actually many small nerve fascicles) travels up through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone to reach the surface of the brain.  Here the fascicles enter the olfactory bulb and synapse there; from the bulbs (one on each side) the olfactory information is transmitted into the brain via the olfactory tract. The fascicles of the olfactory nerve are not visible on a cadaver brain because they are severed upon removal.

text: The olfactory nerve () is typically considered the first

text: cranial nerve

text: , or simply CN I. It contains the

text: afferent nerve fiber

text: s of the

text: olfactory receptor neuron

text: s,  transmitting

text: nerve impulse

text: s about

text: odor

text: s to the

text: central nervous system

text: , where they are

text: perceived

text: by the sense of smell (

text: olfaction

text: ). Derived from the

text: embryo

text: nic

text: nasal placode

text: , the olfactory nerve is somewhat unique among cranial nerves because it is capable of some regeneration if damaged. The olfactory nerve is sensory in nature and originates on the

text: olfactory mucosa

text: in the upper part of the

text: nasal cavity

text: . From the olfactory mucosa, the nerve (actually many small nerve fascicles) travels up through the

text: cribriform plate

text: of the

text: ethmoid bone

text: to reach the surface of the brain.  Here the fascicles enter the olfactory bulb and synapse there; from the bulbs (one on each side) the olfactory information is transmitted into the brain via the olfactory tract. The fascicles of the olfactory nerve are not visible on a cadaver brain because they are severed upon removal.

text: Neuromechanical simulation enables investigators to explore the dynamical relationships between the brain, the body, and the world in ways that are difficult or impossible through experiment alone. This is done by producing biologically realistic models of the neural networks that control behavior, while also simulating the physics that controls the environment in which an animal is situated. Interactions with the simulated world can then be fed back to the virtual nervous system using models of sensory systems. This provides feedback similar to what the real animal would encounter, and makes it possible to close the sensory-motor feedback loop to study the dynamic relationship between nervous function and behavior. This relationship is crucial to understanding how nervous systems work.

text: Multiple sclerosis is among the most common neurological disorders in young adults and it consists in the destructions and damage of the central nervous system (CNS) myelin due to persistent inflammation in the brain and spinal cord. This demyelination is shown to cause mitochondrial dysfunction in axons, leading to their degeneration. These damages disrupt the ability and capacity of the CNS to communicate, causing, therefore, a wide range of symptoms including physical, mental and even psychiatric ones. The best way of re-myelination is encouraging the differentiation of endogenous adult precursor cells into mature oligodendrocytes in the injured regions. These precursor cells are called oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). It is known that in early stages of MS re-myelination can be achieved successfully and efficiently whereas it cannot in late and progressive stages. Regarding Lingo-1, we know that its signaling pathway is a negative regulator of OPCs differentiation, as well as Notch's and Wnt's.

text: Multiple sclerosis

text: is among the most common neurological disorders in young adults and it consists in the destructions and damage of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) myelin due to persistent inflammation in the brain and spinal cord. This demyelination is shown to cause mitochondrial dysfunction in axons, leading to their degeneration. These damages disrupt the ability and capacity of the CNS to communicate, causing, therefore, a wide range of symptoms including physical, mental and even psychiatric ones. The best way of re-myelination is encouraging the differentiation of endogenous adult precursor cells into mature

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s in the injured regions. These precursor cells are called oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). It is known that in early stages of MS re-myelination can be achieved successfully and efficiently whereas it cannot in late and progressive stages. Regarding Lingo-1, we know that its signaling pathway is a negative regulator of OPCs differentiation, as well as Notch's and Wnt's.

text: A peripheral nervous system branches out from the nerve cord to innervate the various systems. The front end of the nerve tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles: The prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain), further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed eyes form around outgrowths from the midbrain, except in hagfish, though this may be a secondary loss. The forebrain is well developed and subdivided in most tetrapods, while the midbrain dominate in many fish and some salamanders. Vesicles of the forebrain are usually paired, giving rise to hemispheres like the cerebral hemispheres in mammals.

text: A

text: peripheral nervous system

text: branches out from the nerve cord to innervate the various systems. The front end of the nerve tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the

text: central canal of spinal cord

text: into three primary brain vesicles: The

text: prosencephalon

text: (forebrain),

text: mesencephalon

text: (midbrain) and

text: rhombencephalon

text: (hindbrain), further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed

text: eye

text: s form around outgrowths from the midbrain, except in

text: hagfish

text: , though this may be a secondary loss. The forebrain is well developed and subdivided in most

text: tetrapod

text: s, while the midbrain dominate in many

text: fish

text: and some

text: salamander

text: s. Vesicles of the forebrain are usually paired, giving rise to hemispheres like the

text: cerebral hemisphere

text: s in

text: mammals

text: Second-generation H-antihistamines are newer drugs that are much more selective for peripheral H receptors as opposed to the central nervous system H receptors and cholinergic receptors. This selectivity significantly reduces the occurrence of adverse drug reactions, such as sedation, while still providing effective relief of allergic conditions.The reason for their peripheral selectivity is that most of these compounds are zwitterionic at physiological pH (around pH 7.4). As such, they are very polar, meaning that they do not cross the blood–brain barrier and act mainly outside the central nervous system.

text: Second-generation H-antihistamines are newer drugs that are much more selective for peripheral H receptors as opposed to the

text: central nervous system

text: H receptors and cholinergic receptors. This selectivity significantly reduces the occurrence of adverse drug reactions, such as sedation, while still providing effective relief of allergic conditions.The reason for their peripheral selectivity is that most of these compounds are

text: zwitterion

text: ic at physiological pH (around pH 7.4). As such, they are very polar, meaning that they do not cross the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: and act mainly outside the central nervous system.

text: Spontaneous generation and propagation of waves is seen elsewhere in developing circuits. Similar synchronized spontaneous activity early in development has been seen in neurons of the hippocampus, spinal cord, and auditory nuclei.Patterned activity shaping neuronal connections and control of synaptic efficiency in multiple systems including the retina are important for understanding interaction between presynaptic and postsynaptic cells that create precise connections essential to the function of the nervous system.

text: Spontaneous generation and propagation of waves is seen elsewhere in developing circuits. Similar synchronized spontaneous activity early in development has been seen in neurons of the

text: hippocampus

text: spinal cord

text: , and auditory nuclei.Patterned activity shaping neuronal connections and control of synaptic efficiency in multiple systems including the retina are important for understanding interaction between

text: presynaptic

text: and

text: postsynaptic

text: cells that create precise connections essential to the function of the nervous system.

text: Relating glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity back to Huntington's disease, increased insulin release and beta cell proliferation by a GLP-1 agonist, Ex-4, helps combat the damage done by mutant htt in peripheral tissues. Htt aggregation decreases beta cell mass and thus impairs insulin release and increases blood glucose levels. Disruption of glycemic homeostasis then affects nutrient availability to neurons and alters neuron function contributing to neurodegeneration and motor problems seen in Huntington's disease. The health of the nervous system is related to metabolic health, thus a diabetes medication as a Huntington's disease treatment is a potential treatment. Ex-4 easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and GLP-1 and Ex-4 have been shown to act on neurons in the brain by exerting neuroprotective actions.

text: Relating glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity back to Huntington's disease, increased insulin release and beta cell proliferation by a GLP-1 agonist, Ex-4, helps combat the damage done by mutant

text: htt

text: in peripheral tissues. Htt aggregation decreases beta cell mass and thus impairs insulin release and increases blood glucose levels. Disruption of glycemic homeostasis then affects nutrient availability to neurons and alters neuron function contributing to neurodegeneration and motor problems seen in Huntington's disease. The health of the nervous system is related to metabolic health, thus a diabetes medication as a Huntington's disease treatment is a potential treatment. Ex-4 easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and GLP-1 and Ex-4 have been shown to act on neurons in the brain by exerting neuroprotective actions.

text: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged. This damage disrupts the ability of parts of the nervous system to communicate, resulting in a range of signs and symptoms, including physical, mental, and sometimes psychiatric problems. Specific symptoms can include double vision, blindness in one eye, muscle weakness, trouble with sensation, or trouble with coordination. MS takes several forms, with new symptoms either occurring in isolated attacks (relapsing forms) or building up over time (progressive forms). Between attacks, symptoms may disappear completely; however, permanent neurological problems often remain, especially as the disease advances.

text: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a

text: demyelinating disease

text: in which the

text: insulating covers

text: of

text: nerve cells

text: in the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: are damaged. This damage disrupts the ability of parts of the nervous system to communicate, resulting in a range of

text: signs

text: and

text: symptom

text: s, including physical,

entity_name: Disabilities affecting intellectual abilities

text: mental

text: , and sometimes psychiatric problems. Specific symptoms can include double vision,

text: blindness

text: in one eye, muscle weakness, trouble with

text: sensation

text: , or trouble with coordination. MS takes several forms, with new symptoms either occurring in isolated attacks (relapsing forms) or building up over time (progressive forms). Between attacks, symptoms may disappear completely; however, permanent neurological problems often remain, especially as the disease advances.

text: A key element to successfully understanding the nervous system is the integration of neuroscience with information sciences. The field that studies the nervous system, neuroscience, has responded to the fantastic challenge of understanding how our brain works with the use of the most sophisticated technologies, from studies on the genome to those on brain imaging of behaviour in humans and other species, under different functional states, and at all intervening analytical levels. This effort has resulted in large quantities of data, which are ever increasing at higher levels of complexity. The data produced are heterogeneous, coming from different levels of study and modalities of analysis. To rise to this challenge of integration, and to ensure efficient and maximum use of these data, it is now necessary to develop and create these shared resources: (i) neuroscience data and knowledge databases; (ii) analytical and modelling tools; and (iii) computational models. This challenge is being met through the merging of neurosciences with information science – the field of Neuroinformatics.

text: Neurocritical care or neurointensive care is a branch of medicine that emerged in the 1980s and deals with life-threatening diseases of the nervous system, which are those that involve the brain, spinal cord and nerves.  The doctors who practice this type of medicine are called neurointensivists, and can have medical training in many fields, including neurology, anesthesiology, emergency medicine, or neurosurgery.  Common diseases treated in neurointensive care units include strokes, ruptured aneurysms, brain and spinal cord injury from trauma, seizures (especially those that last for a long period of time- status epilepticus, and/or involve trauma to the patient, i.e., due to a stroke or a fall), swelling of the brain (intracranial edema), infections of the brain (encephalitis) and the brain's or spine's meninges (meningitis), brain tumors (especially malignant cases; with neurological oncology), and weakness of the muscles required to breathe (such as the diaphragm).  Besides dealing with critical illness of the nervous system, neurointensivists also treat the medical complications that may occur in their patients, including those of the heart, lung, kidneys, or any other body system, including treatment of infections.  Most neurocritical care units are a collaborative effort between neurointensivists, neurosurgeons, neurologists, radiologists, pharmacists, physician extenders (such as nurse practitioners or physician's assistants), critical care nurses, respiratory therapists, rehabilitation therapists, and social workers who all work together in order to provide coordinated care for the critically ill neurologic patient.  The Neurocritical Care Society was founded in 2002 in San Francisco, California to promote quality patient care, professional collaboration, research, training, education and advocacy with the goal of improving outcomes for patients with life-threatening neurologic diseases.  In 2003, the Society first met officially in Phoenix, Arizona.  Thomas P. Bleck MD was the first president.

text: Neurocritical care or neurointensive care is a branch of

text: medicine

text: that emerged in the 1980s and deals with life-threatening diseases of the

text: nervous system

text: , which are those that involve the brain, spinal cord and nerves.  The doctors who practice this type of medicine are called neurointensivists, and can have medical training in many fields, including neurology, anesthesiology, emergency medicine, or neurosurgery.  Common diseases treated in neurointensive care units include

text: strokes

text: , ruptured

text: aneurysms

text: , brain and

text: spinal cord injury

text: from trauma,

text: seizure

text: s (especially those that last for a long period of time-

text: status epilepticus

text: , and/or involve trauma to the patient, i.e., due to a stroke or a fall), swelling of the brain (

text: intracranial edema

text: ), infections of the brain (

text: encephalitis

text: ) and the brain's or spine's meninges (

text: meningitis

text: brain tumor

text: s (especially malignant cases; with neurological

text: oncology

text: ), and weakness of the muscles required to breathe (such as the

text: diaphragm

text: ).  Besides dealing with critical illness of the nervous system, neurointensivists also treat the medical complications that may occur in their patients, including those of the heart, lung, kidneys, or any other body system, including treatment of infections.  Most neurocritical care units are a collaborative effort between neurointensivists,

text: neurosurgeons

text: neurologists

text: radiologists

text: pharmacists

text: , physician extenders (such as nurse practitioners or physician's assistants), critical care nurses, respiratory therapists, rehabilitation therapists, and social workers who all work together in order to provide coordinated care for the critically ill neurologic patient.  The Neurocritical Care Society was founded in 2002 in

text: San Francisco, California

text: to promote quality patient care, professional collaboration, research, training, education and advocacy with the goal of improving outcomes for patients with life-threatening neurologic diseases.  In 2003, the Society first met officially in

text: Phoenix, Arizona

text: .  Thomas P. Bleck MD was the first president.

text: People afflicted by this disease also experience a loss of neurons. Loss of neurons is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. Due to the generally non-regenerative nature of neuronal cells in the adult central nervous system, this results in an irreversible and fatal process of neurodegeneration. There is also the presence of several movement related disorders including chorea, dystonia and bradykinesia, one of the more incapacitating ones includes Truncal spasms.

text: Motor control – comprises the activities carried out by the nervous system that organize the musculoskeletal system to create coordinated movements and skilled actions.

text: Motor control

text: – comprises the activities carried out by the nervous system that organize the musculoskeletal system to create coordinated movements and skilled actions.

text: In general, neuroregeneration can occur in the peripheral nervous system but is much rarer and more difficult to assist in the central nervous system (brain or spinal cord). However, in neural development in humans, areas of the brain can learn to compensate for other damaged areas, and may increase in size and complexity and even change function, just as someone who loses a sense may gain increased acuity in another sense - a process termed neuroplasticity.

text: In general,

text: neuroregeneration

text: can occur in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: but is much rarer and more difficult to assist in the

text: central nervous system

text: (brain or spinal cord). However, in

entity_name: Development of the nervous system in humans

text: neural development in humans

text: , areas of the brain can learn to compensate for other damaged areas, and may increase in size and complexity and even change function, just as someone who loses a sense may gain increased acuity in another sense - a process termed

text: neuroplasticity

text: A dystenoid nervous system is an arrangement of ganglia in the anterior region of some molluscs in which the cerebral and pleural ganglia are situated closer to each other than they are in those molluscs with the more archaic hypoathroid nervous system but still farther apart than those animals with an evolutionarily more recent epiathroid nervous system.

text: A dystenoid nervous system is an arrangement of

text: ganglia

text: in the anterior region of some

text: mollusc

text: s in which the cerebral and pleural ganglia are situated closer to each other than they are in those molluscs with the more archaic

text: hypoathroid

text: nervous system but still farther apart than those animals with an evolutionarily more recent

text: epiathroid

text: nervous system.

text: The spinal pia mater closely follows and encloses the curves of the spinal cord, and is attached to it through a connection to the anterior fissure.  The pia mater attaches to the dura mater through 21 pairs of denticulate ligaments that pass through the arachnoid mater and dura mater of the spinal cord. These denticular ligaments help to anchor the spinal cord and prevent side to side movement, providing stability. The membrane in this area is much thicker than the cranial pia mater, due to the two-layer composition of the pia membrane.  The outer layer, which is made up of mostly connective tissue, is responsible for this thickness.  Between the two layers are spaces which exchange information with the subarachnoid cavity as well as blood vessels.  At the point where the pia mater reaches the conus medullaris or medullary cone at the end of the spinal cord, the membrane extends as a thin filament called the filum terminale or terminal filum, contained within the lumbar cistern.  This filament eventually blends with the dura mater and extends as far as the coccyx, or tailbone.  It then fuses with the periosteum, a membrane found at the surface of all bones, and forms the coccygeal ligament. There it is called the central ligament and assists with movements of the trunk of the body.

text: The spinal pia mater closely follows and encloses the curves of the

text: spinal cord

text: , and is attached to it through a connection to the

text: anterior fissure

text: .  The pia mater attaches to the

text: dura mater

text: through 21 pairs of

text: denticulate ligaments

text: that pass through the

text: arachnoid mater

text: and dura mater of the spinal cord. These denticular ligaments help to anchor the spinal cord and prevent side to side movement, providing stability. The membrane in this area is much thicker than the cranial pia mater, due to the two-layer composition of the pia membrane.  The outer layer, which is made up of mostly connective tissue, is responsible for this thickness.  Between the two layers are spaces which exchange information with the subarachnoid cavity as well as blood vessels.  At the point where the pia mater reaches the

text: conus medullaris

text: or medullary cone at the end of the spinal cord, the membrane extends as a thin filament called the

text: filum terminale

text: or terminal filum, contained within the lumbar

text: cistern

text: .  This filament eventually blends with the dura mater and extends as far as the

text: coccyx

text: , or tailbone.  It then fuses with the

text: periosteum

text: , a membrane found at the surface of all bones, and forms the coccygeal ligament. There it is called the central ligament and assists with movements of the trunk of the body.

text: The central feature of the new realism was a rejection of the epistemological dualism of John Locke and of older forms of realism. The group maintained that, when one is conscious of, or knows, an object, it is an error to say that the object in itself and our knowledge of the object are two distinct facts. If we know a particular cow is black, is the blackness on that cow or in the observer's mind? Holt wrote; "That color out there is the thing in consciousness selected for such inclusion by the nervous system's specific response," Consciousness is not physically identical with the nervous system: it is "out there" with the cow, all throughout the field of sight (and smell, and hearing) and identical with the set of facts it knows at any moment. The nervous system is merely a system of selection.

text: The central feature of the new realism was a rejection of the

text: epistemological

text: dualism

text: of

text: John Locke

text: and of older forms of realism. The group maintained that, when one is conscious of, or knows, an object, it is an error to say that the object in itself and our knowledge of the object are two distinct facts. If we know a particular cow is black, is the blackness on that cow or in the observer's mind? Holt wrote; "That color out there is the thing in

text: consciousness

text: selected for such inclusion by the

text: nervous system

text: 's specific response," Consciousness is not physically identical with the

text: nervous system

text: : it is "out there" with the cow, all throughout the field of sight (and smell, and hearing) and identical with the set of facts it knows at any moment. The nervous system is merely a system of selection.

text: Pavlov looked at the balance between excitation and inhibition and determined that there were different types of nervous systems. These observations were made about dogs, but Pavlov believed that they could be generalized to humans as well. The different types of nervous systems were categorized by Pavlov into strong and weak nervous systems with different sub-types under the strong type. These different types of systems were categorized based on the strength of excitation or inhibition in the system of the observed individual. Those individuals with weak nervous systems were thought by Pavlov "to have limited adaptive abilities," while strong nervous systems were more adaptable.

text: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a viral infectious disease involving the central nervous system. The disease most often manifests as meningitis, encephalitis, or meningoencephalitis. Although TBE is most commonly recognized as a neurological disorder, mild fever can also occur. Long-lasting or permanent neuropsychiatric sequelae are observed in 10 to 20% of infected patients.

text: Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is a

text: viral

text: infectious disease

text: involving the

text: central nervous system

text: . The disease most often manifests as

text: meningitis

text: encephalitis

text: , or

text: meningoencephalitis

text: . Although TBE is most commonly recognized as a

text: neurological disorder

text: , mild fever can also occur. Long-lasting or permanent neuropsychiatric

text: sequela

text: e are observed in 10 to 20% of infected patients.

text: The striatum is unique because it lacks the glutamate-related neurons found throughout most of the brain. Instead, it is categorized by a high concentration of a special type of GABA related inhibiting cell known as the medium spiny neuron. The two parallel pathways previously mentioned travel to and from the striatum and are made up of these same special medium spiny neurons. These neurons are all sensitive to different neurotransmitters and contain a variety of corresponding receptors including dopamine receptors (DRD1, DRD2), Muscarinic receptors (M4) and Adenosine receptors (A2A). Separate interneurons are known to communicate with striatal spiny neurons in the presence of the somatic nervous system neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

text: The striatum is unique because it lacks the

text: glutamate

text: -related neurons found throughout most of the brain. Instead, it is categorized by a high concentration of a special type of

text: GABA

text: related inhibiting cell known as the

text: medium spiny neuron

text: . The two parallel pathways previously mentioned travel to and from the striatum and are made up of these same special medium spiny neurons. These neurons are all sensitive to different neurotransmitters and contain a variety of corresponding receptors including dopamine receptors (

text: Muscarinic receptors

text: (M4) and

text: Adenosine receptors

text: (A2A). Separate interneurons are known to communicate with striatal spiny neurons in the presence of the

text: somatic nervous system

text: neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: A hippocampus prosthesis  is a type of cognitive prosthesis (a prosthesis implanted into the nervous system in order to improve or replace the function of damaged brain tissue). Prosthetic devices replace normal function of a damaged body part; this can be simply a structural replacement (e.g. reconstructive surgery or glass eye) or a rudimentary, functional replacement (e.g. a pegleg or hook).  However, prosthetics involving the brain have some special categories and requirements.  "Input" prosthetics, such as retinal or cochlear implant, supply signals to the brain that the patient eventually learns to interpret as sight or sound.  "Output" prosthetics use brain signals to drive a bionic arm, hand or computer device, and require considerable training during which the patient learns to generate the desired action via their thoughts.  Both of these types of prosthetics rely on the plasticity of the brain to adapt to the requirement of the prosthesis, thus allowing the user to "learn" the use of his new body part.  A cognitive or "brain-to-brain" prosthesis involves neither learned input nor output signals, but the native signals used normally by the area of the brain to be replaced (or supported).  Thus, such a device must be able to fully replace the function of a small section of the nervous system - using that section′s normal mode of operation. In order to achieve this, developers require a deep understanding of the functioning of the nervous system. The scope of design must include a reliable mathematical model as well as the technology in order to properly manufacture and install a cognitive prosthesis. The primary goal of an artificial hippocampus is to provide a cure for Alzheimer's disease and other hippocampus—related problems. To do so, the prosthesis  has to be able to receive information directly from the brain, analyze the information and give an appropriate output to the cerebral cortex; in other words, it must behave just like a natural hippocampus.  At the same time, the artificial organ must be completely autonomous, since any exterior power source will greatly increase the risk of infection.

text: A hippocampus prosthesis  is a type of

text: cognitive prosthesis

text: (a prosthesis implanted into the nervous system in order to improve or replace the function of damaged brain tissue). Prosthetic devices replace normal function of a damaged body part; this can be simply a structural replacement (e.g. reconstructive surgery or glass eye) or a rudimentary, functional replacement (e.g. a pegleg or hook).  However, prosthetics involving the brain have some special categories and requirements.  "Input" prosthetics, such as retinal or

text: cochlear implant

text: , supply signals to the brain that the patient eventually learns to interpret as sight or sound.  "Output" prosthetics use brain signals to drive a

text: bionic

text: arm, hand or computer device, and require considerable training during which the patient learns to generate the desired action via their thoughts.  Both of these types of prosthetics rely on the plasticity of the brain to adapt to the requirement of the prosthesis, thus allowing the user to "learn" the use of his new body part.  A cognitive or "brain-to-brain" prosthesis involves neither learned input nor output signals, but the native signals used normally by the area of the brain to be replaced (or supported).  Thus, such a device must be able to fully replace the function of a small section of the nervous system - using that section′s normal mode of operation. In order to achieve this, developers require a deep understanding of the functioning of the nervous system. The scope of design must include a reliable mathematical model as well as the technology in order to properly manufacture and install a cognitive prosthesis. The primary goal of an artificial hippocampus is to provide a cure for Alzheimer's disease and other hippocampus—related problems. To do so, the prosthesis  has to be able to receive information directly from the brain, analyze the information and give an appropriate output to the cerebral cortex; in other words, it must behave just like a natural hippocampus.  At the same time, the artificial organ must be completely autonomous, since any exterior power source will greatly increase the risk of infection.

text: The three main systems affected by ethylene glycol poisoning are the central nervous system, metabolic processes, and the kidneys. The central nervous system is affected early in the course of poisoning as the result of a direct action of ethylene glycol. Similar to ethanol, it causes intoxication, followed by drowsiness or coma. Seizures may occur due to a direct effect. The toxic mechanism of ethylene glycol poisoning is mainly due to the metabolites of ethylene glycol. Initially it is metabolized by alcohol dehydrogenase to glycolaldehyde, which is then oxidized to glycolic acid.  The increase in metabolites may cause encephalopathy or cerebral edema. The metabolic effects occur 12 to 36 hours post ingestion, causing primarily metabolic acidosis which is due mainly to accumulated glycolic acid. Additionally, as a side effect of the first two steps of metabolism, an increase in the blood concentration of lactic acid occurs contributing to lactic acidosis. The formation of acid metabolites also causes inhibition of other metabolic pathways, such as oxidative phosphorylation.

text: The three main systems affected by ethylene glycol poisoning are the

text: central nervous system

text: metabolic

text: processes, and the

text: kidney

text: s. The central nervous system is affected early in the course of poisoning as the result of a direct action of ethylene glycol. Similar to

text: ethanol

text: , it causes intoxication, followed by

text: drowsiness

text: or

text: coma

text: Seizure

text: s may occur due to a direct effect. The toxic mechanism of ethylene glycol poisoning is mainly due to the metabolites of ethylene glycol. Initially it is

text: metabolized

text: by

text: alcohol dehydrogenase

text: to

text: glycolaldehyde

text: , which is then oxidized to

text: glycolic acid

text: .  The increase in metabolites may cause

text: encephalopathy

text: or

text: cerebral edema

text: . The metabolic effects occur 12 to 36 hours post ingestion, causing primarily

text: metabolic acidosis

text: which is due mainly to accumulated glycolic acid. Additionally, as a side effect of the first two steps of metabolism, an increase in the blood concentration of

text: lactic acid

text: occurs contributing to

text: lactic acidosis

text: . The formation of acid metabolites also causes inhibition of other

text: metabolic pathway

text: s, such as

text: oxidative phosphorylation

text: Neuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input (neurotransmitters released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules (hormones) to the blood. In this way they bring about an integration between the nervous system and the endocrine system, a process known as neuroendocrine integration. An example of a neuroendocrine cell is a cell of the adrenal medulla (innermost part of the adrenal gland), which releases adrenaline to the blood. The adrenal medullary cells are controlled by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. These cells are modified postganglionic neurons. Autonomic nerve fibers lead directly to them from the central nervous system. The adrenal medullary hormones are kept in vesicles much in the same way neurotransmitters are kept in neuronal vesicles. Hormonal effects can last up to ten times longer than those of neurotransmitters. Sympathetic nerve fiber impulses stimulate the release of adrenal medullary hormones. In this way the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and the medullary secretions function together.

text: Neuroendocrine cells are cells that receive neuronal input (

text: neurotransmitter

text: s released by nerve cells or neurosecretory cells) and, as a consequence of this input, release message molecules (

text: hormones

text: ) to the blood. In this way they bring about an integration between the

text: nervous system

text: and the

text: endocrine system

text: , a process known as neuroendocrine integration. An example of a neuroendocrine cell is a cell of the

text: adrenal medulla

text: (innermost part of the

text: adrenal gland

text: ), which releases

text: adrenaline

text: to the blood. The adrenal medullary cells are controlled by the

text: sympathetic division

text: of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . These cells are modified

text: postganglionic neuron

text: s. Autonomic nerve fibers lead directly to them from the central nervous system. The adrenal medullary hormones are kept in vesicles much in the same way neurotransmitters are kept in neuronal vesicles. Hormonal effects can last up to ten times longer than those of neurotransmitters. Sympathetic

text: nerve

text: fiber impulses stimulate the release of adrenal medullary hormones. In this way the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system and the medullary secretions function together.

text: The enteric nervous system is one of the main divisions of the nervous system and is the main focus of neurogastroenterology.  The enteric nervous system refers to the entire system of neurons that govern the gastrointestinal system.  It is capable of operating independently of the brain and spinal cord, but does rely on innervation from the autonomic nervous system via the vagus nerve and prevertebral ganglia in healthy subjects.  However, studies have shown that the system is operable with a severed vagus nerve.  The neurons of the enteric nervous system control the motor functions of the system, in addition to the secretion of gastrointestinal enzymes.  These neurons communicate through many neurotransmitters similar to the CNS, including acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin.  The large presence of serotonin and dopamine in the gut are key areas of research for neurogastroenterologists.

text: The enteric nervous system is one of the main divisions of the

text: nervous system

text: and is the main focus of neurogastroenterology.  The enteric nervous system refers to the entire system of neurons that govern the gastrointestinal system.  It is capable of operating independently of the brain and spinal cord, but does rely on innervation from the autonomic nervous system via the

text: vagus nerve

text: and

text: prevertebral ganglia

text: in healthy subjects.  However, studies have shown that the system is operable with a severed vagus nerve.  The neurons of the enteric nervous system control the motor functions of the system, in addition to the secretion of gastrointestinal enzymes.  These neurons communicate through many

text: neurotransmitters

text: similar to the CNS, including

text: acetylcholine

text: dopamine

text: , and

text: serotonin

text: .  The large presence of serotonin and dopamine in the

text: gut

text: are key areas of research for neurogastroenterologists.

text: Trimetaphan camsilate (INN) or trimethaphan camsylate (USAN), trade name Arfonad, is a drug that counteracts cholinergic transmission at the ganglion type of nicotinic receptors of the autonomic ganglia and therefore blocks both the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.  It acts as a non-depolarizing competitive antagonist at the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, is short-acting, and is given intravenously.

text: Trimetaphan camsilate (

text: INN

text: ) or trimethaphan camsylate (

text: USAN

text: ), trade name Arfonad, is a drug that counteracts

text: cholinergic

text: transmission at the

text: ganglion type

text: of

text: nicotinic receptor

text: s of the

text: autonomic ganglia

text: and therefore blocks both the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: .  It acts as a non-depolarizing

text: competitive antagonist

text: at the nicotinic

text: acetylcholine

text: receptor, is short-acting, and is given intravenously.

text: Similar to the paravertebral ganglia, the prevertebral ganglia are the nodules where preganglionic neurons synapse with their postganglionic counterparts. The nerves that synapse in the prevertebral ganglia innervate the pelvic viscera. Some of the targets present in the pelvic viscera include the enteric nervous system, as well as the renal system, bladder, and any other organs present in the abdomen.

text: Similar to the

text: paravertebral ganglia

text: , the prevertebral ganglia are the nodules where

text: preganglionic neurons

text: synapse with their

text: postganglionic

text: counterparts. The nerves that synapse in the prevertebral ganglia innervate the pelvic viscera. Some of the targets present in the pelvic viscera include the

text: enteric nervous system

text: , as well as the renal system, bladder, and any other organs present in the abdomen.

text: A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception.

text: A

text: sensory system

text: is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception.

text: Granulomatous meningoencephalitis (GME) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) of dogs and, rarely, cats. It is a form of meningoencephalitis.  GME is likely second only to encephalitis caused by canine distemper virus as the most common cause of inflammatory disease of the canine CNS.  The disease is more common in female toy dogs of young and middle age.  It has a rapid onset.  The lesions of GME exist mainly in the white matter of the cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum, and spinal cord.  The cause is only known to be noninfectious and is considered at this time to be idiopathic.  Because lesions resemble those seen in allergic meningoencephalitis, GME is thought to have an immune-mediated cause, but it is also thought that the disease may be based on an abnormal response to an infectious agent.  One study searched for viral DNA from canine herpesvirus, canine adenovirus, and canine parvovirus in brain tissue from dogs with GME, necrotizing meningoencephalitis, and necrotizing leukoencephalitis (see below for the latter two conditions), but failed to find any.

text: Granulomatous meningoencephalitis (GME) is an inflammatory disease of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) of

text: dog

text: s and, rarely,

text: cat

text: s. It is a form of

text: meningoencephalitis

text: .  GME is likely second only to

text: encephalitis

text: caused by

text: canine distemper virus

text: as the most common cause of inflammatory disease of the canine CNS.  The disease is more common in female toy dogs of young and middle age.  It has a rapid onset.  The lesions of GME exist mainly in the

text: white matter

text: of the

text: cerebrum

text: brainstem

text: cerebellum

text: , and

text: spinal cord

text: .  The cause is only known to be noninfectious and is considered at this time to be

text: idiopathic

text: .  Because lesions resemble those seen in allergic meningoencephalitis, GME is thought to have an

text: immune-mediated

text: cause, but it is also thought that the disease may be based on an abnormal response to an infectious agent.  One study searched for viral

text: DNA

text: from

text: canine herpesvirus

text: canine adenovirus

text: , and

text: canine parvovirus

text: in brain tissue from dogs with GME, necrotizing meningoencephalitis, and necrotizing leukoencephalitis (see below for the latter two conditions), but failed to find any.

text: Bilaterians can be divided, based on events that occur very early in embryonic development, into two groups (superphyla) called protostomes and deuterostomes.  Deuterostomes include vertebrates as well as echinoderms, hemichordates (mainly acorn worms), and Xenoturbellidans. Protostomes, the more diverse group, include arthropods, molluscs, and numerous types of worms.  There is a basic difference between the two groups in the placement of the nervous system within the body:  protostomes possess a nerve cord on the ventral (usually bottom) side of the body, whereas in deuterostomes the nerve cord is on the dorsal (usually top) side.  In fact, numerous aspects of the body are inverted between the two groups, including the expression patterns of several genes that show dorsal-to-ventral gradients.  Most anatomists now consider that the bodies of protostomes and deuterostomes are "flipped over" with respect to each other, a hypothesis that was first proposed by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire for insects in comparison to vertebrates.  Thus insects, for example, have nerve cords that run along the ventral midline of the body, while all vertebrates have spinal cords that run along the dorsal midline.

text: Bilaterians can be divided, based on events that occur very early in embryonic development, into two groups (

text: superphyla

text: ) called

text: protostomes

text: and

text: deuterostome

text: s.  Deuterostomes include vertebrates as well as

text: echinoderm

text: s,

text: hemichordates

text: (mainly acorn worms), and

text: Xenoturbellida

text: ns. Protostomes, the more diverse group, include

text: arthropod

text: s,

text: mollusc

text: s, and numerous types of worms.  There is a basic difference between the two groups in the placement of the nervous system within the body:  protostomes possess a nerve cord on the ventral (usually bottom) side of the body, whereas in deuterostomes the nerve cord is on the dorsal (usually top) side.  In fact, numerous aspects of the body are inverted between the two groups, including the expression patterns of several genes that show dorsal-to-ventral gradients.  Most anatomists now consider that the bodies of protostomes and deuterostomes are "flipped over" with respect to each other, a hypothesis that was first proposed by

text: Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

text: for insects in comparison to vertebrates.  Thus insects, for example, have nerve cords that run along the ventral midline of the body, while all vertebrates have spinal cords that run along the dorsal midline.

text: Multiple sclerosis is the most common disabling neurological disease of young adults. It is characterized by demyelination and neurodegeneration, which contribute to the common symptoms of cognitive deficits, limb weakness, and fatigue. In multiple sclerosis, inflammatory cytokines disrupt the blood–brain barrier and allow for the migration of peripheral immune cells into the central nervous system. When they have migrated into the central nervous system, B cells and plasma cells produce antibodies against the myelin sheath that insulates neurons, degrading the myelin and slowing conduction in the neurons. Additionally, T cells may enter through the blood–brain barrier, be activated by local antigen presenting cells, and attack the myelin sheath. This has the same effect of degrading the myelin and slowing conduction. As in other neurodegenerative diseases, activated microglia produce inflammatory cytokines that contribute to widespread inflammation. It has been shown that inhibiting microglia decreases the severity of multiple sclerosis.

text: Multiple sclerosis

text: is the most common disabling neurological disease of young adults. It is characterized by

text: demyelination

text: and

text: neurodegeneration

text: , which contribute to the common symptoms of cognitive deficits, limb weakness, and fatigue. In multiple sclerosis, inflammatory

text: cytokines

text: disrupt the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: and allow for the migration of peripheral immune cells into the

text: central nervous system

text: . When they have migrated into the

text: central nervous system

text: B cells

text: and

text: plasma cells

text: produce

text: antibodies

text: against the

text: myelin sheath

text: that insulates neurons, degrading the myelin and slowing conduction in the neurons. Additionally,

text: T cells

text: may enter through the blood–brain barrier, be activated by local

text: antigen presenting cells

text: , and attack the myelin sheath. This has the same effect of degrading the myelin and slowing conduction. As in other neurodegenerative diseases, activated

text: microglia

text: produce inflammatory cytokines that contribute to widespread inflammation. It has been shown that inhibiting microglia decreases the severity of multiple sclerosis.

text: Peripheral nerve damage is categorized in the Seddon classification based on the extent of damage to both the nerve and the surrounding connective tissue since the nervous system is characterized by the dependence of neurons on their supporting glia. Unlike in the central nervous system, regeneration in the peripheral nervous system is possible. The processes that occur in peripheral regeneration can be divided into the following major events: Wallerian degeneration, axon regeneration/growth, and nerve reinnervation. The events that occur in peripheral regeneration occur with respect to the axis of the nerve injury. The proximal stump refers to the end of the injured neuron that is still attached to the neuron cell body; it is the part that regenerates. The distal stump refers to the end of the injured neuron that is still attached to the end of the axon; it is the part that will degenerate but remains the area that the regenerating axon grows toward. The study of peripheral nerve injury began during the American Civil War and has expanded to not only include extensive characterization of the processes and factors that contribute to nerve regeneration and reinnervation, but also determine therapies that enhance nerve regeneration such as biological conduits and the administration of growth-promoting molecules.

text: Peripheral nerve damage is categorized in the

text: Seddon classification

text: based on the extent of damage to both the

text: nerve

text: and the surrounding

text: connective tissue

text: since the

text: nervous system

text: is characterized by the dependence of neurons on their supporting glia. Unlike in the

text: central nervous system

text: , regeneration in the peripheral nervous system is possible. The processes that occur in peripheral regeneration can be divided into the following major events:

text: Wallerian degeneration

text: , axon regeneration/growth, and nerve reinnervation. The events that occur in peripheral regeneration occur with respect to the axis of the nerve injury. The proximal stump refers to the end of the injured neuron that is still attached to the neuron

text: cell body

text: ; it is the part that regenerates. The distal stump refers to the end of the injured neuron that is still attached to the end of the axon; it is the part that will degenerate but remains the area that the regenerating axon grows toward. The study of peripheral nerve injury began during the

text: American Civil War

text: and has expanded to not only include extensive characterization of the processes and factors that contribute to nerve regeneration and reinnervation, but also determine therapies that enhance nerve regeneration such as biological conduits and the administration of growth-promoting molecules.

text: At the cellular level, the nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell, called the neuron, also known as a "nerve cell". Neurons have special structures that allow them to send signals rapidly and precisely to other cells. They send these signals in the form of electrochemical waves traveling along thin fibers called axons, which cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released at junctions called synapses. A cell that receives a synaptic signal from a neuron may be excited, inhibited, or otherwise modulated. The connections between neurons can form neural circuits and also neural networks that generate an organism's perception of the world and determine its behavior. Along with neurons, the nervous system contains other specialized cells called glial cells (or simply glia), which provide structural and metabolic support.

text: At the cellular level, the nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell, called the

text: neuron

text: , also known as a "nerve cell". Neurons have special structures that allow them to send signals rapidly and precisely to other cells. They send these signals in the form of electrochemical waves traveling along thin fibers called

text: axon

text: s, which cause chemicals called

text: neurotransmitter

text: s to be released at junctions called

text: synapse

text: s. A cell that receives a synaptic signal from a neuron may be excited, inhibited, or otherwise modulated. The connections between neurons can form neural circuits and also

text: neural networks

text: that generate an organism's perception of the world and determine its behavior. Along with neurons, the nervous system contains other specialized cells called

text: glial cell

text: s (or simply glia), which provide structural and metabolic support.

text: 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-PGJ2, Δ12-PGJ2, PGJ2 and, in fewer studies, PGA2 and PGA1 inhibit the inflammatory response and tissue damage that follow experimentally-induced pancreatitis; glomerulonephritis; arthritis; spinal cord, brain, and lung injury; injury due to ischemia in the heart, brain, kidney, and gut; and stress-induced central nervous system trauma.

text: 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-PGJ2, Δ12-PGJ2, PGJ2 and, in fewer studies, PGA2 and PGA1 inhibit the inflammatory response and tissue damage that follow experimentally-induced

text: pancreatitis

text: glomerulonephritis

text: arthritis

text: ; spinal cord, brain, and lung injury; injury due to

text: ischemia

text: in the heart, brain, kidney, and gut; and stress-induced central nervous system trauma.

text: The eye pathology is limited to the retinal ganglion cell layer especially the maculopapillary bundle. Degeneration is evident from the retinal ganglion cell bodies to the axonal pathways leading to the lateral geniculate nuclei. Experimental evidence reveals impaired glutamate transport and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) causing apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells. Also, experiments suggest that normal non LHON affected retinal ganglion cells produce less of the potent superoxide radical than other normal central nervous system neurons. Viral vector experiments which augment superoxide dismutase 2 in LHON cybrids or LHON animal models or use of exogenous glutathione in LHON cybrids have been shown to rescue LHON affected retinal ganglion cells from apoptotic death. These experiments may in part explain the death of LHON affected retinal ganglion cells in preference to other central nervous system neurons which also carry LHON affected mitochondria.

text: The eye pathology is limited to the retinal ganglion cell layer especially the maculopapillary bundle. Degeneration is evident from the retinal ganglion cell bodies to the axonal pathways leading to the

text: lateral geniculate nuclei

text: . Experimental evidence reveals impaired glutamate transport and increased

text: reactive oxygen species

text: (ROS) causing

text: apoptosis

text: of retinal ganglion cells. Also, experiments suggest that normal non LHON affected retinal ganglion cells produce less of the potent

text: superoxide

text: radical

text: than other normal central nervous system neurons. Viral vector experiments which augment

text: superoxide dismutase

text: 2 in LHON

text: cybrids

text: or LHON animal models or use of exogenous

text: glutathione

text: in LHON cybrids have been shown to rescue LHON affected retinal ganglion cells from apoptotic death. These experiments may in part explain the death of LHON affected retinal ganglion cells in preference to other central nervous system neurons which also carry LHON affected mitochondria.

text: Familial dysautonomia (FD), sometimes called Riley–Day syndrome and hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type III (HSAN-III), is a disorder of the autonomic nervous system which affects the development and survival of sensory, sympathetic and some parasympathetic neurons in the autonomic and sensory nervous system resulting in variable symptoms, including insensitivity to pain, inability to produce tears, poor growth, and labile blood pressure (episodic hypertension and postural hypotension). People with FD have frequent vomiting crises, pneumonia, problems with speech and movement, difficulty swallowing, inappropriate perception of heat, pain, and taste, as well as unstable blood pressure and gastrointestinal dysmotility. FD does not affect intelligence. Originally reported by Conrad Milton Riley and Richard Lawrence Day in 1949, FD is one example of a group of disorders known as hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies (HSAN). All HSAN are characterized by widespread sensory dysfunction and variable autonomic dysfunction caused by incomplete development of sensory and autonomic neurons. The disorders are believed to be genetically distinct from each other.

text: Familial dysautonomia (FD), sometimes called Riley–Day syndrome and

entity_name: Hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy

text: hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy

text: type III (HSAN-III), is a disorder of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: which affects the development and survival of sensory, sympathetic and some parasympathetic

text: neurons

text: in the autonomic and sensory

text: nervous system

text: resulting in variable symptoms, including

text: insensitivity to pain

text: , inability to produce tears, poor growth, and labile blood pressure (episodic hypertension and postural hypotension). People with FD have frequent vomiting crises, pneumonia, problems with speech and movement, difficulty swallowing, inappropriate perception of heat, pain, and taste, as well as unstable blood pressure and gastrointestinal dysmotility. FD does not affect intelligence. Originally reported by Conrad Milton Riley and Richard Lawrence Day in 1949, FD is one example of a group of disorders known as hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies (

text: HSAN

text: ). All HSAN are characterized by widespread sensory dysfunction and variable autonomic dysfunction caused by incomplete development of sensory and autonomic neurons. The disorders are believed to be genetically distinct from each other.

text: The vomiting act encompasses three types of outputs initiated by the chemoreceptor trigger zone: Motor, parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), and sympathetic nervous system (SNS). They are as follows:

text: The vomiting act encompasses three types of outputs initiated by the chemoreceptor trigger zone: Motor,

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: (PNS), and

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: (SNS). They are as follows:

text: Nature Reviews Neurology is a peer-reviewed journal for neurologists. The journal was renamed from Nature Clinical Practice Neurology in April 2009. It covers research developments and clinical practice. Coverage includes prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease or impaired function of the central and peripheral nervous systems, including neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative, and neuropsychiatric disorders.

text: Nature Reviews Neurology is a

text: peer-reviewed

text: journal for

text: neurologists

text: . The journal was renamed from Nature Clinical Practice Neurology in April 2009. It covers research developments and clinical practice. Coverage includes prevention,

text: diagnosis

text: and treatment of

text: disease

text: or impaired function of the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: s, including

text: neurodevelopmental

text: neurodegenerative

text: , and

text: neuropsychiatric disorder

text: s.

text: Neurons and glial cells work in conjunction to combat intruding pathogens and injury. Chemokines play a prominent role as a mediator between neuron-glial cell communication since both cell types express chemokine receptors. For example, the chemokine fractalkine has been implicated in communication between microglia and dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons in the spinal cord. Fractalkine has been associated with hypersensitivity to pain when injected in vivo, and has been found to upregulate inflammatory mediating molecules. Glial cells can effectively recognize pathogens in both the central nervous system and in peripheral tissues. When glial cells recognize foreign pathogens through the use of cytokine and chemokine signaling, they are able to relay this information to the CNS. The result is an increase in depressive symptoms. Chronic activation of glial cells however leads to neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation.

text: Neurons and glial cells work in conjunction to combat intruding pathogens and injury.

text: Chemokine

text: s play a prominent role as a mediator between neuron-glial cell communication since both cell types express chemokine receptors. For example, the chemokine

text: fractalkine

text: has been implicated in communication between

text: microglia

text: and

text: dorsal root ganglion

text: (DRG) neurons in the spinal cord. Fractalkine has been associated with hypersensitivity to pain when injected

text: in vivo

text: , and has been found to upregulate inflammatory mediating molecules. Glial cells can effectively recognize pathogens in both the central nervous system and in peripheral tissues. When glial cells recognize foreign pathogens through the use of cytokine and chemokine signaling, they are able to relay this information to the CNS. The result is an increase in depressive symptoms. Chronic activation of glial cells however leads to

text: neurodegeneration

text: and

text: neuroinflammation

text: By using a variety of sense receptors, plants sense light, gravity, temperature, humidity, chemical substances, chemical gradients, reorientation, magnetic fields, infections, tissue damage and mechanical pressure. The absence of a nervous system notwithstanding, plants interpret and respond to these stimuli by a variety of hormonal and cell-to-cell communication pathways that result in movement, morphological changes and physiological state alterations at the organism level, that is, result in plant behavior. Such physiological and cognitive functions are generally not believed to give rise to mental phenomena or qualia, however, as these are typically considered the product of nervous system activity. The emergence of mental phenomena from the activity of systems  functionally or computationally analogous to that of nervous systems is, however, a hypothetical possibility explored by some schools of thought in the philosophy of mind field, such as functionalism and computationalism.

text: Congenital amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia (CAMT) is a rare inherited disorder. The primary manifestations are thrombocytopenia and megakaryocytopenia, i.e. low numbers of platelets and megakaryocytes. There is an absence of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow with no associated physical abnormalities. The cause for this disorder appears to be a mutation in the gene for the TPO receptor, c-mpl, despite high levels of serum TPO. In addition, there may be abnormalities with the central nervous system including the cerebrum and cerebellum that could cause symptoms. The primary treatment for CAMT is bone marrow transplantation.

text: Congenital amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia

text: (CAMT) is a rare

text: inherited

text: disorder. The primary manifestations are

text: thrombocytopenia

text: and

text: megakaryocytopenia

text: i.e.

text: low numbers of platelets and megakaryocytes. There is an absence of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow with no associated physical abnormalities. The cause for this disorder appears to be a mutation in the gene for the TPO receptor, c-mpl, despite high levels of serum TPO. In addition, there may be abnormalities with the

text: central nervous system

text: including the

text: cerebrum

text: and

text: cerebellum

text: that could cause symptoms. The primary treatment for CAMT is

text: bone marrow transplantation

text: Alternating hemiplegia refers to a form of hemiplegia that has an ipsilateral and contralateral presentation in different parts of the body. The disorder is characterized by recurrent episodes of paralysis on one side of the body. There are multiple forms of alternating hemiplegia, Weber's syndrome, middle alternating hemiplegia, and inferior alternating hemiplegia.  This type of syndrome can result from a unilateral lesion in the brainstem affecting both upper motor neurons and lower motor neurons.  The muscles that would receive signals from these damaged upper motor neurons result in spastic paralysis.  With a lesion in the brainstem, this affects the majority of limb and trunk muscles on the contralateral side due to the upper motor neurons decussation after the brainstem.  The cranial nerves and cranial nerve nuclei are also located in the brainstem making them susceptible to damage from a brainstem lesion.  Cranial nerves III (Oculomotor), VI (Abducens), and XII (Hypoglossal) are most often associated with this syndrome given their close proximity with the pyramidal tract, the location which upper motor neurons are in on their way to the spinal cord.  Damages to these structures produce the ipsilateral presentation of paralysis or palsy due to the lack of cranial nerve decussation (aside from the trochlear nerve) before innervating their target muscles. The paralysis may be brief or it may last for several days, many times the episodes will resolve after sleep. Some common symptoms of alternating hemiplegia are mental impairment, gait and balance difficulties, excessive sweating and changes in body temperature.

text: Alternating hemiplegia refers to a form of

text: hemiplegia

text: that has an ipsilateral and contralateral presentation in different parts of the body. The disorder is characterized by recurrent episodes of

text: paralysis

text: on one side of the body. There are multiple forms of alternating hemiplegia, Weber's syndrome, middle alternating hemiplegia, and inferior alternating hemiplegia.  This type of syndrome can result from a unilateral lesion in the

text: brainstem

text: affecting both

text: upper motor neuron

text: s and

text: lower motor neuron

text: s.  The muscles that would receive signals from these damaged upper motor neurons result in spastic paralysis.  With a

text: lesion

text: in the brainstem, this affects the majority of limb and trunk muscles on the contralateral side due to the upper motor neurons

text: decussation

text: after the brainstem.  The

text: cranial nerves

text: and

text: cranial nerve nuclei

text: are also located in the brainstem making them susceptible to damage from a brainstem lesion.  Cranial nerves

text: III (Oculomotor)

text: VI (Abducens)

text: , and

text: XII (Hypoglossal)

text: are most often associated with this syndrome given their close proximity with the

text: pyramidal tract

text: , the location which upper motor neurons are in on their way to the spinal cord.  Damages to these structures produce the ipsilateral presentation of paralysis or palsy due to the lack of cranial nerve decussation (aside from the

text: trochlear nerve

text: ) before innervating their target muscles. The paralysis may be brief or it may last for several days, many times the episodes will resolve after sleep. Some common symptoms of alternating hemiplegia are mental impairment, gait and balance difficulties, excessive sweating and changes in body temperature.

text: Netrin-3 is different from other netrins. While expressed during development of the peripheral nervous system in the motor, sensory and sympathetic neurons, it is very limited in the central nervous system. Studies with netrin-3 have noticed a reduced ability to bind with DCC when compared with netrin-1. This suggests that it mainly operates through other receptors.

text: According to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the risk from mercury by eating fish and shellfish is not a health concern for most people. However, certain seafood might contain levels of mercury that may cause harm to an unborn baby (and especially its brain development and nervous system). In a young child, high levels of mercury can interfere with the development of the nervous system. The FDA provides three recommendations for young children, pregnant women, and women of child-bearing age:

text: According to the

text: US Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA), the risk from mercury by eating fish and shellfish is not a health concern for most people. However, certain seafood might contain levels of mercury that may cause harm to an unborn baby (and especially its brain development and nervous system). In a young child, high levels of mercury can interfere with the development of the nervous system. The FDA provides three recommendations for young children, pregnant women, and women of child-bearing age:

text: The enteric nervous system is one of the main divisions of the nervous system and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal system; it has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the central nervous system (CNS) through the parasympathetic (e.g., via the vagus nerve) and sympathetic (e.g., via the prevertebral ganglia) nervous systems.  However, vertebrate studies show that when the vagus nerve is severed, the enteric nervous system continues to function.

text: The

text: enteric nervous system

text: is one of the main divisions of the

text: nervous system

text: and consists of a mesh-like system of

text: neuron

text: s that governs the function of the

text: gastrointestinal system

text: ; it has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) through the

text: parasympathetic

text: (e.g., via the

text: vagus nerve

text: ) and

text: sympathetic

text: (e.g., via the

text: prevertebral ganglia

text: ) nervous systems.  However,

text: vertebrate

text: studies show that when the

text: vagus nerve

text: is severed, the enteric nervous system continues to function.

text: Jellyfish, comb jellies, and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system.  In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth.  The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons, which pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals; motor neurons, which can activate contractions of the body wall; and intermediate neurons, which detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and, in response, send signals to groups of motor neurons.  In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete ganglia.

text: Jellyfish

text: comb jellies

text: , and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system.  In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth.  The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons, which pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals; motor neurons, which can activate contractions of the body wall; and intermediate neurons, which detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and, in response, send signals to groups of motor neurons.  In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete

text: ganglia

text: Neuropharmacology is a very broad region of science that encompasses many aspects of the nervous system from single neuron manipulation to entire areas of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. To better understand the basis behind drug development, one must first understand how neurons communicate with one another. This article will focus on both behavioral and molecular neuropharmacology; the major receptors, ion channels, and neurotransmitters manipulated through drug action and how people with a neurological disorder benefit from this drug action.

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "fight or flight" response, indicated by accelerated pulse and respiration rates, pupil dilation, and a general feeling of anxiety and hyper-awareness.  This is caused by the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands. the norepinephrine and epinephrine strike the beta receptors of the heart in order to feed the heart sympathetic nerve fibers to increase the strength of heart muscle contraction. as a result more blood is being circulated increasing the heart rate and respiratory rate. The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates the skeletal system and muscular system in an effort to pump more blood to those areas to handle the acute stress. simultaneously the sympathetic nervous system inhibits the digestive system and the urinary system in order to optimize blood flow to the heart, lungs, and skeletal muscles. this plays a role in the alarm reaction stage. The para-sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "rest and digest" response, indicated by reduced heart and respiration rates, and more obviously by a temporary loss of consciousness if the system is fired at a rapid rate. The parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the digestive system and urinary system in order to send more blood to those systems to increase the process of digestion. In order to do this, it must inhibit the cardiovascular system and respiratory system in an effort to optimize blood flow to the digestive tract causing low heart and respiratory rates. parasympathetic plays no role in acute stress response (VanPutte Regan Russo 2014).

text: The autonomic nervous system controls all automatic functions in the body and contains two subsections within it that aids in response to an acute stress reaction. These two subunits are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic response is colloquially known as the "

text: fight or flight

text: Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles and/or their nervous control. In general, problems with nervous control can cause spasticity or paralysis, depending on the location and nature of the problem. A large proportion of neurological disorders, ranging from cerebrovascular accident (stroke) and Parkinson's disease to Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, can lead to problems with movement or motor coordination.

text: Neuromuscular disease

text: s are those that affect the muscles and/or their nervous control. In general, problems with nervous control can cause spasticity or

text: paralysis

text: , depending on the location and nature of the problem. A large proportion of

text: neurological disorder

text: s, ranging from

text: cerebrovascular accident

text: (stroke) and

text: Parkinson's disease

text: to

text: Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

text: , can lead to problems with movement or

text: motor coordination

text: Neurons are interconnected in complex arrangements, and use electrochemical signals and neurotransmitter chemicals to transmit impulses from one neuron to the next; axon terminals are separated from neighboring neurons by a small gap called a synapse, across which impulses are sent. The axon terminal, and the neuron from which it comes, is sometimes referred to as the "presynaptic" neuron.

text: Neurons are interconnected in complex arrangements, and use electrochemical signals and

text: neurotransmitter

text: chemicals to transmit impulses from one neuron to the next; axon terminals are separated from neighboring neurons by a small gap called a

text: synapse

text: , across which impulses are sent. The axon terminal, and the neuron from which it comes, is sometimes referred to as the "presynaptic" neuron.

text: Sir Charles Scott Sherrington  (27 November 1857 – 4 March 1952) was an English neurophysiologist, histologist, bacteriologist, and a pathologist, Nobel laureate and president of the Royal Society in the early 1920s. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian, in 1932 for their work on the functions of neurons. Prior to the work of Sherrington and Adrian, it was widely accepted that reflexes occurred as isolated activity within a reflex arc. Sherrington received the prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activation and demonstrated reciprocal innervation of muscles (Sherrington's law). Through his seminal 1906 publication, The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, he had effectively laid to rest the theory that the nervous system, including the brain, can be understood as a single interlinking network. His alternative explanation of synaptic communication between neurons helped shape our understanding of the central nervous system.

text: Sir Charles Scott Sherrington  (27 November 1857 – 4 March 1952) was an English

text: neurophysiologist

text: histologist

text: bacteriologist

text: , and a

text: pathologist

text: Nobel laureate

text: and president of the

text: Royal Society

text: in the early 1920s. He received the

text: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

text: with

text: Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian

text: , in 1932 for their work on the functions of

text: neuron

text: s. Prior to the work of Sherrington and Adrian, it was widely accepted that

text: reflex

text: es occurred as isolated activity within a

text: reflex arc

text: . Sherrington received the prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activation and demonstrated reciprocal innervation of muscles (

entity_name: Sherrington's law of reciprocal innervation

text: Sherrington's law

text: ). Through his seminal 1906 publication, The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, he had effectively laid to rest the theory that the nervous system, including the brain, can be understood as a

text: single interlinking network

text: . His alternative explanation of

text: synaptic

text: communication between neurons helped shape our understanding of the

text: central nervous system

text: In order to reduce the number of musculoskeletal DOFs upon which the nervous system must operate, it has been proposed that the nervous system controls muscle synergies, or groups of co-activated muscles, rather than individual muscles. Specifically, a muscle synergy has been defined as "a vector specifying a pattern of relative muscle activation; absolute activation of each synergy is thought to be modulated by a single neural command signal."  Multiple muscles are contained within each synergy at fixed ratios of co-activation, and multiple synergies can contain the same muscle. It has been proposed that muscle synergies emerge from an interaction between constraints and properties of the nervous and musculoskeletal systems. This organization may require less computational effort for the nervous system than individual muscle control because fewer synergies are needed to explain a behavior than individual muscles. Furthermore, it has been proposed that synergies themselves may change as behaviors are learned and/or optimized. However, synergies may also be innate to some degree, as suggested by postural responses of humans at very young ages.

text: In order to reduce the number of

text: musculoskeletal

text: DOFs upon which the nervous system must operate, it has been proposed that the nervous system controls muscle synergies, or groups of co-activated muscles, rather than individual muscles. Specifically, a muscle synergy has been defined as "a vector specifying a pattern of relative muscle activation; absolute activation of each synergy is thought to be modulated by a single neural command signal."  Multiple muscles are contained within each synergy at fixed ratios of co-activation, and multiple synergies can contain the same muscle. It has been proposed that muscle synergies emerge from an interaction between constraints and properties of the nervous and musculoskeletal systems. This organization may require less computational effort for the nervous system than individual muscle control because fewer synergies are needed to explain a behavior than individual muscles. Furthermore, it has been proposed that synergies themselves may change as behaviors are learned and/or optimized. However, synergies may also be

text: innate

text: to some degree, as suggested by postural responses of humans at very young ages.

text: The concept of neuronal self-avoidance emerged about 40 years ago. The pioneer studies were performed in the leech, focusing on the central nervous system and developing mechanosensory neurons. Leeches from two species: Hirudo medicinalis and Haementeria ghilianii, remained the main organism for the study of the question of neuronal self-recognition and self-avoidance. In this animal, the repeating segmental pattern of the nervous system along with the fact that neurons are relatively few in number, and many are large enough to be  recognized allowed the experimental study of the general problem of neuronal specificity.In 1968, through the mapping of mechanoreceptor axonal receptive fields in H. medicilalis, Nicholls and Baylor revealed distinct types of boundaries between axons from the same or different types of neurons, and also between individual neurons. They observed that receptive fields were subdivided into discrete areas, innervated by the different branches of a single cell. These boundaries, unlike those between adjacent fields of different cells, were abrupt showing nearly no overlap. The authors then suggested a mechanism for the spatial arrangement of axons in which "a fiber might repel other branches more strongly if they arise from the same cell than if they come from a homologue, and not at all if they come from a cell with a different modality".In 1976, Yau confirmed their findings and proposed that the branches of a cell recognized each other, therefore avoiding to grow into the same territory and establishing the discrete areas that Nicholls and Baylor observed. It was then clear that mechanosensory neurons, in leech, show self-avoidance: with the repulsion between branches originating from the same cell, but they did not showed class-avoidance, meaning that branches from the same type of neurons could overlap.

text: Another cause of paresthesia may be direct damage to the nerves themselves, i.e., neuropathy, which itself can stem from injury or infection such as frostbite or Lyme disease, or may be indicative of a current neurological disorder. Neuropathy is also a side effect of some chemotherapies (see Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy). Benzodiazepine withdrawal may also cause paresthesia as the drug removal leaves the GABA receptors stripped bare and possibly malformed. Chronic paresthesia can sometimes be symptomatic of serious conditions, such as a transient ischemic attack, or autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis  or lupus erythematosus.  Exposure to environmental toxins, chemicals used in water treatment and fluoroquinolones can also cause paresthesia. Stroke survivors and those with Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) may experience paresthesia from damage to the central nervous system.

text: Another cause of paresthesia may be direct damage to the nerves themselves, i.e.,

text: neuropathy

text: , which itself can stem from

text: injury

text: or infection such as

text: frostbite

text: or

text: Lyme disease

text: , or may be indicative of a current neurological disorder. Neuropathy is also a side effect of some chemotherapies (see

text: Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy

text: ). Benzodiazepine withdrawal may also cause paresthesia as the drug removal leaves the

text: GABA receptors

text: stripped bare and possibly malformed. Chronic paresthesia can sometimes be symptomatic of serious conditions, such as a

text: transient ischemic attack

text: , or

text: autoimmune disease

text: s such as

text: multiple sclerosis

text: or

text: lupus erythematosus

text: .  Exposure to environmental toxins, chemicals used in water treatment and

text: fluoroquinolones

text: can also cause paresthesia. Stroke survivors and those with Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) may experience paresthesia from damage to the central nervous system.

text: Sulfotep (O,O,O',O'-Tetraethyldithiopyrophosphate) is a pesticide commonly used in greenhouses as a fumigative agent. The substance is also known as TEDP, Dithione, Dithiophos and many others. Sulfotep belongs to the class of chemicals named organophosphates. It has a cholinergic effect, involving depression of the cholinesterase activity of the peripheral and central nervous system.  The transduction of signals is disturbed at the synapses that make use of acetylcholine.

text: Sulfotep (O,O,O',O'-Tetraethyldithiopyrophosphate) is a pesticide commonly used in greenhouses as a fumigative agent. The substance is also known as TEDP, Dithione, Dithiophos and many others. Sulfotep belongs to the class of chemicals named

text: organophosphate

text: s. It has a

text: cholinergic

text: effect, involving depression of the cholinesterase activity of the peripheral and central nervous system.  The transduction of signals is disturbed at the synapses that make use of acetylcholine.

text: The synapses in the outer plexiform layer are between the rod cell endings or cone cell branched foot plates and horizontal cells. Unlike in most systems, rod and cone cells release neurotransmitters when not receiving a light signal.

text: The synapses in the outer plexiform layer are between the

text: rod cell

text: endings or

text: cone cell

text: branched foot plates and horizontal cells. Unlike in most systems, rod and cone cells release

text: neurotransmitter

text: s when not receiving a light signal.

text: The next phase of T. regenti infection is represented by schistosomula migration in the central nervous system. This is accompanied by serious neurological malfunctions in birds that suffer from leg paralysis and balance disorders. At this stage, schistosomula feed on nervous tissue as demonstrated by detection of oligodendrocytes and neurons in the lumen of parasite’s intestine. A cysteine peptidase cathepsin B1 of T. regenti (TrCB1) localised in intestines of migrating schistosomula is capable of myelin basic protein degradation, thus probably serving for nervous tissue digestion. Nonetheless, the nervous tissue ingestion has likely only a minor pathogenic effect on the host central nervous tissue. This is underpinned by observations of leg paralysis only in immunocompromised hosts, whereas in experiments with immunocompetent mouse strains, the infected animals did not reveal any neurological disorders. The neurological symptoms originate probably in mechanical damage of the nervous tissue leading to dystrophic or even necrotic changes of neurons and axonal injury. The cause of it is large migrating schistosomula (approximately 340×80 μm) which are not destroyed by proper immune response.

text: The next phase of T. regenti infection is represented by schistosomula migration in the central nervous system. This is accompanied by serious neurological malfunctions in birds that suffer from leg paralysis and balance disorders. At this stage, schistosomula feed on nervous tissue as demonstrated by detection of oligodendrocytes and neurons in the lumen of parasite’s intestine. A cysteine peptidase

text: cathepsin

text: B1 of T. regenti (TrCB1) localised in intestines of migrating schistosomula is capable of

text: myelin basic protein

text: degradation, thus probably serving for nervous tissue digestion. Nonetheless, the nervous tissue ingestion has likely only a minor pathogenic effect on the host central nervous tissue. This is underpinned by observations of leg paralysis only in immunocompromised hosts, whereas in experiments with immunocompetent mouse strains, the infected animals did not reveal any neurological disorders. The neurological symptoms originate probably in mechanical damage of the nervous tissue leading to dystrophic or even necrotic changes of neurons and axonal injury. The cause of it is large migrating schistosomula (approximately 340×80 μm) which are not destroyed by proper immune response.

text: Peripheral nervous system

text: Peripheral nervous system

text: The hallmark symptom of SS is a generalized dryness, typically including dry mouth and keratoconjunctivitis sicca (dry eyes), part of what are known as sicca symptoms. Sicca syndrome also incorporates vaginal dryness and chronic bronchitis. SS may cause skin, nose, and vaginal dryness, and may affect other organs of the body, including the muscles (myositis), kidneys, blood vessels, lungs, liver, biliary system, pancreas, peripheral nervous system (distal axonal sensorimotor neuropathy or small fiber peripheral neuropathy) and brain. Some patients have gastric issues such as GERD, achlorhydria and/or gastroparesis, and chronic pain with accompanying fatigue and brain fog.

text: The hallmark symptom of SS is a generalized

text: dryness

text: , typically including

text: dry mouth

text: and keratoconjunctivitis sicca (

text: dry eyes

text: ), part of what are known as sicca symptoms. Sicca syndrome also incorporates

text: vaginal dryness

text: and chronic

text: bronchitis

text: . SS may cause

text: skin

text: nose

text: , and vaginal dryness, and may affect other organs of the body, including the muscles (

text: myositis

text: kidney

text: s,

text: blood vessel

text: s,

text: lung

text: s,

text: liver

text: biliary system

text: pancreas

text: peripheral nervous system

text: distal

text: axonal

text: sensorimotor

text: neuropathy

text: or

text: small fiber peripheral neuropathy

text: ) and

text: brain

text: . Some patients have

text: gastric

text: issues such as

text: GERD

text: achlorhydria

text: and/or

text: gastroparesis

text: , and chronic pain with accompanying fatigue and

text: brain fog

text: In the Yunani system, the root is used as a tonic for the liver and brain; effective against bronchitis, piles, lumbago, toothache, and boils of the scalp; it also is said to lessen inflammation and heal fractures. The root is said to be fragrant, bitter and useful in rheumatism and allied disorders, in which it is prescribed in a variety of forms. It is also used in the composition of several medicated oils for external application in rheumatism and diseases of the nervous system. In Chota Nagpur, the leaves are pounded into a paste and then applied to the body during fever. A compound decoction of this root is  administered in cases of Hemiplegia as some Indian physicians consider it useful in rheumatism and all nervous diseases. The leaves are pounded and the paste is applied to the body to bring down fever; the juice is dropped in the ear for the treatment of Otitis media and other inflammatory conditions. The roots are used in Dyspepsia, Bronchitis, Rheumatism, and also in fever; they are reported to possess antibacterial and anti-tubercular properties. The herb is also used for Sciatica. The leaves are used by the Santhal girls for making anklets.

text: In the

text: Yunani

text: system, the root is used as a tonic for the liver and brain; effective against bronchitis, piles, lumbago, toothache, and boils of the scalp; it also is said to lessen inflammation and heal fractures. The root is said to be fragrant, bitter and useful in rheumatism and allied disorders, in which it is prescribed in a variety of forms. It is also used in the composition of several medicated oils for external application in rheumatism and diseases of the nervous system. In Chota

text: Nagpur

text: , the leaves are pounded into a paste and then applied to the body during fever. A compound decoction of this root is  administered in cases of

text: Hemiplegia

text: as some Indian physicians consider it useful in rheumatism and all nervous diseases. The leaves are pounded and the paste is applied to the body to bring down fever; the juice is dropped in the ear for the treatment of

text: Otitis media

text: and other inflammatory conditions. The roots are used in

text: Dyspepsia

text: Bronchitis

text: Rheumatism

text: , and also in fever; they are reported to possess antibacterial and anti-tubercular properties. The herb is also used for

text: Sciatica

text: . The leaves are used by the

text: Santhal

text: girls for making anklets.

text: Central nervous system diseases, also known as central nervous system disorders, are a group of neurological disorders that affect the structure or function of either the spinal cord or brain, which collectively form the central nervous system (CNS).

text: Central nervous system diseases, also known as central nervous system disorders, are a group of

text: neurological disorder

text: s that affect the structure or function of either the

text: spinal cord

text: or

text: brain

text: , which collectively form the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS).

text: Neurons whose cell bodies lie in the spiral ganglion are strung along the bony core of the cochlea, and send fibers (axons) into the central nervous system (CNS). These bipolar neurons are the first neurons in the auditory system to fire an action potential, and supply all of the brain's auditory input. Their dendrites make synaptic contact with the base of hair cells, and their axons are bundled together to form the auditory portion of eighth cranial nerve.  The number of neurons in the spiral ganglion is estimated to be about 35,000–50,000.

text: Neurons

text: whose

text: cell bodies

text: lie in the spiral ganglion are strung along the bony core of the cochlea, and send fibers (

text: axon

text: s) into the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS). These

text: bipolar

text: neurons are the first neurons in the

text: auditory system

text: to fire an action potential, and supply all of the brain's auditory input. Their

text: dendrites

text: make

text: synaptic

text: contact with the base of

text: hair cell

text: s, and their

text: axon

text: s are bundled together to form the auditory portion of

text: eighth cranial nerve

text: .  The number of neurons in the spiral ganglion is estimated to be about 35,000–50,000.

text: Studies of motor behavior focus on the adaptive and feedback properties of the nervous system in motor control. The motor system has been shown to adapt to changes in its mechanical environment on relatively short timescales while simultaneously producing smooth movements; these studies investigate how this remarkable feedback takes place. Such studies investigate which variables the nervous system controls, which variables are less tightly controlled, and how this control is implemented. Common paradigms of study include voluntary reaching tasks and perturbations of standing balance in humans.

text: Studies of motor behavior focus on the

text: adaptive

text: and

text: feedback

text: properties of the nervous system in motor control. The motor system has been shown to adapt to changes in its

text: mechanical

text: environment on relatively short timescales while simultaneously producing smooth movements; these studies investigate how this remarkable feedback takes place. Such studies investigate which

text: variables

text: the nervous system controls, which variables are less tightly controlled, and how this control is implemented. Common paradigms of study include voluntary reaching tasks and perturbations of standing balance in humans.

text: The nervous system in vertebrates is made up of two major types of cells – neuroglial cells and neurons. Hundreds of different types of neurons exist in humans, with varying functions – some of them process external stimuli; others generate a response to stimuli; others organize in centralized structures (brain, spinal ganglia) that are responsible for cognition, perception, and regulation of motor functions. Neurons in these centralized locations tend to organize in giant networks and communicate extensively with each other. Prior to the availability of expression arrays and DNA sequencing methodologies, researchers sought to understand the cellular behaviour of neurons (including synapse formation

text: The nervous system in vertebrates is made up of two major types of cells –

text: neuroglial cells

text: and

text: neuron

text: s. Hundreds of different types of neurons exist in humans, with varying functions – some of them process external stimuli; others generate a response to stimuli; others organize in centralized structures (

text: brain

text: spinal ganglia

text: ) that are responsible for cognition, perception, and regulation of motor functions. Neurons in these centralized locations tend to organize in giant networks and communicate extensively with each other. Prior to the availability of

text: expression arrays

text: and

text: DNA sequencing methodologies

text: , researchers sought to understand the cellular behaviour of neurons (including

text: synapse formation

text: Brooks' own recent work has taken the opposite direction to that proposed by Von Neumann in the quotations "theorists who select the human nervous system as their model are unrealistically picking 'the most complicated object under the sun,' and that there is little advantage in selecting instead the ant, since any nervous system at all exhibits exceptional complexity."

text: In the nervous system, Rhazes stated that nerves had motor or sensory functions, describing 7 cranial and 31 spinal cord nerves. He assigned a numerical order to the cranial nerves from the optic to the hypoglossal nerves. He classified the spinal nerves into 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 3 sacral, and 3 coccygeal nerves. He used this to link clinical signs of injury to the corresponding location of lesions in the nervous system.

text: In the

text: nervous system

text: , Rhazes stated that

text: nerve

text: s had

text: motor

text: or

text: sensory

text: functions, describing 7

text: cranial

text: and 31

text: spinal cord nerve

text: s. He assigned a numerical order to the cranial nerves from the

text: optic

text: to the

text: hypoglossal nerve

text: s. He classified the spinal nerves into 8

text: cervical

text: , 12

text: thoracic

text: , 5

text: lumbar

text: , 3

text: sacral

text: , and 3 coccygeal nerves. He used this to link clinical signs of injury to the corresponding location of lesions in the nervous system.

text: The next step led to the central nervous system. It was taken by Marthe Vogt, a refugee from Germany who at that time worked with John Henry Gaddum in the Institute of Pharmacology of the University of Edinburgh. ″The presence of noradrenaline and adrenaline in the brain has been demonstrated by von Euler (1946) and Holtz (1950). These substances were supposed, undoubtedly correctly, to occur in the cerebral vasomotor <= vasoconstrictor> nerves. The present work is concerned with the question whether these sympathomimetic amines, besides their role as transmitters at vasomotor endings, play a part in the function of the central nervous tissue itself. In this paper, these amines will be referred to as sympathin, since they were found invariably to occur together, with noradrenaline representing the major component, as is characteristic for the transmitter of the peripheral sympathetic system.″ Vogt created a detailed map of noradrenaline in the dog brain. Its uneven distribution, not reflecting the distribution of vasomotor nerves, and its persistence after removal of the superior cervical ganglia made it ″tempting to assign to the cerebral sympathin a transmitter role like that which we assign to the sympathin found in the sympathetic ganglia and their postganglionic fibres.″ Her assignment was confirmed, the finishing touch being the visualization of the noradrenaline as well as adrenaline and (see below) dopamine pathways in the central nervous system with the formaldehyde fluorescence method developed by Nils-Åke Hillarp (1916–1965) and Bengt Falck (born 1927) in Sweden and by immunochemistry techniques.

text: The next step led to the central nervous system. It was taken by

text: Marthe Vogt

text: , a refugee from Germany who at that time worked with

text: John Henry Gaddum

text: in the Institute of Pharmacology of the

text: University of Edinburgh

text: . ″The presence of noradrenaline and adrenaline in the brain has been demonstrated by von Euler (1946) and Holtz (1950). These substances were supposed, undoubtedly correctly, to occur in the cerebral vasomotor <= vasoconstrictor> nerves. The present work is concerned with the question whether these

text: sympathomimetic amines

text: , besides their role as transmitters at vasomotor endings, play a part in the function of the central nervous tissue itself. In this paper, these amines will be referred to as sympathin, since they were found invariably to occur together, with noradrenaline representing the major component, as is characteristic for the transmitter of the peripheral sympathetic system.″ Vogt created a detailed map of noradrenaline in the dog brain. Its uneven distribution, not reflecting the distribution of vasomotor nerves, and its persistence after removal of the

text: superior cervical ganglia

text: made it ″tempting to assign to the cerebral sympathin a transmitter role like that which we assign to the sympathin found in the sympathetic ganglia and their postganglionic fibres.″ Her assignment was confirmed, the finishing touch being the visualization of the noradrenaline as well as adrenaline and (see below) dopamine pathways in the central nervous system with the

text: formaldehyde

text: fluorescence

text: method developed by

text: Nils-Åke Hillarp

text: (1916–1965) and

text: Bengt Falck

text: (born 1927) in Sweden and by

text: immunochemistry

text: techniques.

text: The function of nervous tissue is to form the communication network of the nervous system by conducting electric signals across tissue. In the CNS, grey matter, which contains the synapses, is important for information processing. White matter, containing myelinated axons, connects and facilitates nerve impulse between grey matter areas in the CNS.In the PNS, the ganglion tissue, containing the cell bodies and dendrites, contain relay points for nerve tissue impulses. The nerve tissue, containing myelinated axons bundles, carry action potential/nerve impulses.

text: The function of nervous tissue is to form the communication network of the

text: nervous system

text: by conducting electric signals across tissue. In the CNS, grey matter, which contains the

text: synapses

text: , is important for information processing. White matter, containing myelinated axons, connects and facilitates nerve impulse between grey matter areas in the CNS.In the PNS, the ganglion tissue, containing the cell bodies and dendrites, contain relay points for

text: nerve tissue

text: impulses. The nerve tissue, containing myelinated axons bundles, carry action potential/nerve impulses.

text: Toxicity:  leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, anemia, GI disturbances, stomatitis, conjunctivitis, pneumonitis, fever, and dermatitis, palmar-plantar erythrodysesthesia.  Rarely, myelopathy has been reported after high dose or frequent intrathecal Ara-C administration.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Watterson J, Toogood I, Nieder M | title = Excessive spinal cord toxicity from intensive central nervous system-directed therapies| journal = Cancer| volume = 74| issue = 11| pages = 3034–41| date=December 1994| pmid = 7954266| doi = 10.1002/1097-0142(19941201)74:11

text: Toxicity:

text: leukopenia

text: , thrombocytopenia,

text: anemia

text: , GI disturbances,

text: stomatitis

text: conjunctivitis

text: pneumonitis

text: fever

text: , and

text: dermatitis

text: palmar-plantar erythrodysesthesia

text: .  Rarely,

text: myelopathy

text: has been reported after high dose or frequent

text: intrathecal

text: Ara-C administration.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Watterson J, Toogood I, Nieder M | title = Excessive spinal cord toxicity from intensive central nervous system-directed therapies| journal = Cancer| volume = 74| issue = 11| pages = 3034–41| date=December 1994| pmid = 7954266| doi = 10.1002/1097-0142(19941201)74:11

text: Multivesicular release (MVR) occurs at Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses when P is elevated by facilitation and that MVR may be a phenomenon common to many synapses throughout the central nervous system.

text: Multivesicular release (MVR) occurs at Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses when P is elevated by

text: facilitation

text: and that MVR may be a phenomenon common to many synapses throughout the

text: central nervous system

text: Desensitization of the postsynaptic receptors is a decrease in response to the same neurotransmitter stimulus. It means that the strength of a synapse may in effect diminish as a train of action potentials arrive in rapid succession – a phenomenon that gives rise to the so-called frequency dependence of synapses. The nervous system exploits this property for computational purposes, and can tune its synapses through such means as phosphorylation of the proteins involved.

text: Desensitization of the postsynaptic receptors is a decrease in response to the same neurotransmitter stimulus. It means that the strength of a synapse may in effect diminish as a train of action potentials arrive in rapid succession – a phenomenon that gives rise to the so-called frequency dependence of synapses. The nervous system exploits this property for computational purposes, and can tune its synapses through such means as

text: phosphorylation

text: of the proteins involved.

text: Rehabilitation psychologist work with a wide variety of people. Clients may have a variety of physical, sensory, neurocognitive, behavioral, emotional, and/or developmental disabilities. They may also work with people who have been diagnosed with spinal cord injuries, brain injuries, strokes and other problems that can come along with aging, amputations, neuromuscular disorders, chronic pain, cancer, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, and limb weakness. Some work with people who have developmental disorders such as mental retardation or autism. Psychiatric disability, substance abuse, impairments in sensory functions might also be something a rehabilitation psychologist might work with.

text: One prominent characteristic of many neurons is excitability. Neurons generate electrical impulses or changes in voltage of two types: graded potentials and action potentials. Graded potentials occur when the membrane potential depolarizes and hyperpolarizes in a graded fashion relative to the amount of stimulus that is applied to the neuron. An action potential on the other hand is an all-or-none electrical impulse. Despite being slower than graded potentials, action potentials have the advantage of traveling long distances in axons with little or no decrement. Much of the current knowledge of action potentials comes from squid axon experiments by Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Sir Andrew Huxley.

text: One prominent characteristic of many neurons is excitability. Neurons generate electrical impulses or changes in voltage of two types: graded potentials and action potentials. Graded potentials occur when the membrane potential depolarizes and hyperpolarizes in a graded fashion relative to the amount of stimulus that is applied to the neuron. An action potential on the other hand is an all-or-none electrical impulse. Despite being slower than graded potentials, action potentials have the advantage of traveling long distances in axons with little or no decrement. Much of the current knowledge of action potentials comes from squid axon experiments by

text: Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin

text: and

text: Sir Andrew Huxley

text: In the central nervous system, CB receptors influence neuronal excitability, reducing the incoming synaptic input.This mechanism, known as presynaptic inhibition, occurs when a postsynaptic neuron releases endocannabinoids in retrograde transmission, which then bind to cannabinoid receptors on the presynaptic terminal. CB receptors then reduce the amount of neurotransmitter released, so that subsequent excitation in the presynaptic neuron results in diminished effects on the postsynaptic neuron. It is likely that presynaptic inhibition uses many of the same ion channel mechanisms listed above, although recent evidence has shown that CB receptors can also regulate neurotransmitter release by a non-ion channel mechanism, i.e. through Gi/o-mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase and protein kinase A.Direct effects of CB receptors on membrane excitability have been reported, and strongly impact the firing of cortical neurons.A series of behavioral experiments demonstrated that NMDAR, an ionotropic glutamate receptor, and the metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) work in concert with CB to induce analgesia in mice, although the mechanism underlying this effect is unclear.

text: In the

text: central nervous system

text: , CB receptors influence neuronal excitability, reducing the incoming synaptic input.This mechanism, known as

text: presynaptic inhibition

text: , occurs when a postsynaptic neuron releases endocannabinoids in retrograde transmission, which then bind to cannabinoid receptors on the presynaptic terminal. CB receptors then reduce the amount of neurotransmitter released, so that subsequent excitation in the presynaptic neuron results in diminished effects on the postsynaptic neuron. It is likely that presynaptic inhibition uses many of the same ion channel mechanisms listed above, although recent evidence has shown that CB receptors can also regulate neurotransmitter release by a non-ion channel mechanism, i.e. through Gi/o-mediated inhibition of

text: adenylyl cyclase

text: and

text: protein kinase A

text: .Direct effects of CB receptors on membrane excitability have been reported, and strongly impact the firing of cortical neurons.A series of behavioral experiments demonstrated that

text: NMDAR

text: , an ionotropic

text: glutamate receptor

text: , and the

text: metabotropic glutamate receptor

text: s (mGluRs) work in concert with CB to induce

text: analgesia

text: in mice, although the mechanism underlying this effect is unclear.

text: Integration of all sensory modalities occurs when multimodal neurons receive sensory information which overlaps with different modalities. Multimodal neurons are found in the superior colliculus; they respond to the versatility of various sensory inputs. The multimodal neurons lead to change of behavior and assist in analyzing behavior responses to certain stimulus. Information from two or more senses is encountered. Multimodal perception is not limited to one area of the brain: many brain regions are activated when sensory information is perceived from the environment. In fact, the hypothesis of having a centralized multisensory region is receiving continually more speculation, as several regions previously uninvestigated are now considered multimodal. The reasons behind this are currently being investigated by several research groups, but it is now understood to approach these issues from a decentralized theoretical perspective. Moreover, several labs using invertebrate model organisms will provide invaluable information to the community as these are more easily studied and are considered to have decentralized nervous systems.

text: 1. Central nervous system (impairing normal ventilation):

text: Central nervous system

text: (impairing normal ventilation):

text: Spinal cord injury:

text: Spinal cord injury:

text: with cartilaginous discs between each vertebral body. The spinal cord sits within the cervical part of the vertebral column. The spinal column carries nerves that carry sensory and motor information from the brain down to the rest of the body. From top to bottom the cervical spine is gently curved in convex-forward fashion.

text: with

text: cartilaginous discs

text: between each vertebral body. The spinal cord sits within the cervical part of the vertebral column. The spinal column carries nerves that carry sensory and motor information from the

text: brain

text: down to the rest of the body. From top to bottom the cervical spine is gently curved in convex-forward fashion.

text: The integration of the sensory and motor systems allows an animal to take sensory information and use it to make useful motor actions. Additionally, outputs from the motor system can be used to modify the sensory system's response to future stimuli. To be useful it is necessary that sensory-motor integration be a flexible process because the properties of the world and ourselves change over time. Flexible sensorimotor integration would allow an animal the ability to correct for errors and be useful in multiple situations. To produce the desired flexibility it's probable that nervous systems employ the use of internal models and efference copies.

text: The integration of the sensory and motor systems allows an animal to take

text: sensory information

text: and use it to make useful motor actions. Additionally, outputs from the motor system can be used to modify the sensory system's response to future stimuli. To be useful it is necessary that sensory-motor integration be a

text: flexible

text: process because the properties of the world and ourselves change over time. Flexible sensorimotor integration would allow an animal the ability to correct for errors and be useful in multiple situations. To produce the desired flexibility it's probable that

text: nervous system

text: s employ the use of

text: internal models

text: and

text: efference copies

text: Glial cells (named from the Greek for "glue") are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system. In the human brain, it is estimated that the total number of glia roughly equals the number of neurons, although the proportions vary in different brain areas.  Among the most important functions of glial cells are to support neurons and hold them in place; to supply nutrients to neurons; to insulate neurons electrically; to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons; and to provide guidance cues directing the axons of neurons to their targets.  A very important type of glial cell (oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system, and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system) generates layers of a fatty substance called myelin that wraps around axons and provides electrical insulation which allows them to transmit action potentials much more rapidly and efficiently. Recent findings indicate that glial cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, serve as important resident immune cells within the central nervous system.

text: Glial cell

text: s (named from the Greek for "glue") are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain

text: homeostasis

text: , form

text: myelin

text: , and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system. In the

text: human brain

text: , it is estimated that the total number of glia roughly equals the number of neurons, although the proportions vary in different brain areas.  Among the most important functions of glial cells are to support neurons and hold them in place; to supply nutrients to neurons; to insulate neurons electrically; to destroy

text: pathogen

text: s and remove dead neurons; and to provide guidance cues directing the axons of neurons to their targets.  A very important type of glial cell (

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s in the central nervous system, and

text: Schwann cell

text: s in the peripheral nervous system) generates layers of a fatty substance called

text: myelin

text: that wraps around axons and provides electrical insulation which allows them to transmit action potentials much more rapidly and efficiently. Recent findings indicate that glial cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, serve as important resident immune cells within the central nervous system.

text: Chemical synapses are biological junctions through which neurons' signals can be exchanged to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form circuits within the central nervous system. They are crucial to the biological computations that underlie perception and thought. They allow the nervous system to connect to and control other systems of the body.

text: Chemical synapses are biological junctions through which

text: neuron

text: s' signals can be exchanged to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in

text: muscle

text: s or

text: gland

text: s. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form circuits within the

text: central nervous system

text: . They are crucial to the biological computations that underlie perception and thought. They allow the nervous system to connect to and control other systems of the body.

text: The main concern is neurotoxicity, which in most mammalian species may manifest as central nervous system depression, and consequent ataxia, as might be expected from potentiation of inhibitory GABA-ergic synapses.

text: The main concern is neurotoxicity, which in most mammalian species may manifest as

text: central nervous system depression

text: , and consequent

text: ataxia

text: , as might be expected from potentiation of inhibitory GABA-ergic synapses.

text: In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron. Some authors generalize this concept to include the communication from a neuron to any other cell type, such as to a motor cell, although such non-neuronal contacts may be referred to as junctions (a historically older term).  Santiago Ramón y Cajal proposed that neurons are not continuous throughout the body, yet still communicate with each other, an idea known as the neuron doctrine. Synapses (at least chemical synapses) are stabilized in position by synaptic adhesion molecules (SAMs) projecting from both the pre- and post-synaptic neuron and sticking together where they overlap; SAMs may also assist in the generation and functioning of synapses.

text: In the

text: nervous system

text: , a synapse is a structure that permits a

text: neuron

text: (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron. Some authors generalize this concept to include the communication from a neuron to any other cell type, such as to a motor cell, although such non-neuronal contacts may be referred to as

text: junctions

text: (a historically older term).

text: Santiago Ramón y Cajal

text: proposed that neurons are not continuous throughout the body, yet still communicate with each other, an idea known as the

text: neuron doctrine

text: . Synapses (at least chemical synapses) are stabilized in position by synaptic adhesion molecules (SAMs) projecting from both the pre- and post-synaptic neuron and sticking together where they overlap; SAMs may also assist in the generation and functioning of synapses.

text: Similar to growth cone guidance, synapse formation is cued by UNC-5 through a UNC-6 gradient that repels the dorsal axon migration. Dendritic filopodia extend from the dendritic shaft during synaptogenesis and appear as though they are reaching out for a presynaptic axon. Despite the appearance of attaching to an axon, cell signaling is still required for complete synaptic formation. An experiment was performed to determine the role of UNC-5 in axonal growth after spinal cord injury. The netrin is expressed by neurons in the corticospinal and rubrospinal projections, and by intrinsic neurons of the spinal cord both before and after the injury. When testing in vitro UNC-5 receptor bodies are taken from the spinal cord to neutralize netrin-1 in myelin. This increases the neurite outgrowth from UNC-5 expressing spinal motor neurons.

text: Similar to growth cone guidance,

text: synapse

text: formation is cued by UNC-5 through a UNC-6 gradient that repels the dorsal

text: axon

text: migration. Dendritic

text: filopodia

text: extend from the

text: dendritic

text: shaft during synaptogenesis and appear as though they are reaching out for a

text: presynaptic

text: axon. Despite the appearance of attaching to an axon, cell signaling is still required for complete synaptic formation. An experiment was performed to determine the role of UNC-5 in axonal growth after spinal cord injury. The

text: netrin

text: is expressed by

text: neuron

text: s in the corticospinal and rubrospinal projections, and by intrinsic

text: neuron

text: s of the

text: spinal cord

text: both before and after the injury. When testing

text: in vitro

text: UNC-5 receptor bodies are taken from the

text: spinal cord

text: to neutralize netrin-1 in myelin. This increases the neurite outgrowth from UNC-5 expressing spinal

text: motor neuron

text: s.

text: From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of spinal nerves (sometimes segmental nerves). The nerves connect the spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc. and allow for the transmission of efferent motor as well as afferent sensory signals and stimuli. This allows for voluntary and involuntary motions of muscles, as well as the perception of senses.All in all 31 spinal nerves project from the brain stem, some forming plexa as they branch out, such as the brachial plexa, sacral plexa etc. Each spinal nerve will carry both sensory and motor signals, but the nerves synapse at different regions of the spinal cord, either from the periphery to sensory relay neurons that relay the information to the CNS or from the CNS to motor neurons, which relay the information out.

text: From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of

text: spinal

text: nerve

text: s (sometimes segmental nerves). The nerves connect the spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc. and allow for the transmission of

text: efferent

text: motor as well as

text: afferent sensory signals

text: and stimuli. This allows for voluntary and involuntary motions of muscles, as well as the perception of senses.All in all 31 spinal nerves project from the brain stem, some forming plexa as they branch out, such as the

text: brachial plexa

text: sacral plexa

text: etc. Each spinal nerve will carry both sensory and motor signals, but the nerves synapse at different regions of the spinal cord, either from the periphery to sensory relay neurons that relay the information to the CNS or from the CNS to motor neurons, which relay the information out.

text: Central nervous system toxoplasmosis (outside the neonatal period)

text: Central nervous system

text: toxoplasmosis

text: (outside the neonatal period)

text: In the peripheral nervous system, the myelin sheath of each axon in a nerve is wrapped in a delicate protective sheath known as the endoneurium. Within the nerve, axons targeting the same anatomical location bundled together into groups known as fascicles, each surrounded by another protective sheath known as the perineurium.  Several fascicles may be in turn bundled together with a blood supply and fatty tissue within yet another sheath, the epineurium. This grouping structure is analogous to the muscular organization system of epimysium, perimysium and endomysium.

text: In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , the myelin sheath of each axon in a nerve is wrapped in a delicate protective sheath known as the

text: endoneurium

text: . Within the nerve, axons targeting the same anatomical location bundled together into groups known as

text: fascicles

text: , each surrounded by another protective sheath known as the perineurium.  Several fascicles may be in turn bundled together with a

text: blood supply

text: and

text: fatty tissue

text: within yet another sheath, the

text: epineurium

text: . This grouping structure is analogous to the muscular organization system of

text: epimysium

text: perimysium

text: and

text: endomysium

text: Electrical stimulation of the scalp can produce an electric current within the brain that activates the motor pathways of the pyramidal tracts.  This technique is known as transcranial electrical motor potential (TcMEP) monitoring.  This technique effectively evaluates the motor pathways in the central nervous system during surgeries which place these structures at risk.  These motor pathways, including the lateral corticospinal tract, are located in the lateral and ventral funiculi of the spinal cord.  Since the ventral and dorsal spinal cord have separate blood supply with very limited collateral flow, an anterior cord syndrome (paralysis or paresis with some preserved sensory function) is a possible surgical sequela, so it is important to have monitoring specific to the motor tracts as well as dorsal column monitoring.

text: Joints are controlled by two opposing sets of muscles called extensors and flexors that must work in synchrony to allow proper and desired movement.  When a muscle spindle is stretched and the stretch reflex is activated, the opposing muscle group must be inhibited to prevent from working against the agonist muscle. The spinal interneuron called Ia inhibitory interneuron is responsible for this inhibition of the antagonist muscle. The Ia afferent of the muscle spindle enters the spinal cord, and one branch synapses on to the alpha motor neuron that causes the agonist muscle to contract. Thus, it results in creating the behavioral reflex. At the same time, the other branch of the Ia afferent synapses on to the Ia inhibitory interneuron, which in turn synapses the alpha motor neuron of the antagonist muscle. Since Ia interneuron is inhibitory, it prevents the opposing alpha motor neuron from firing. Thus, it prevents the antagonist muscle from contracting. Without having this system of reciprocal inhibition, both groups of muscles may contract at the same time and work against each other. This results in spending a greater amount of energy as well. In addition, the reciprocal inhibition is important for mechanism underlying voluntary movement. When the antagonist muscle relaxes during movement, this increases efficiency and speed. This prevents moving muscles from working against the contraction force of antagonist muscles. Thus, during voluntary movement, the Ia inhibitory interneurons are used to coordinate muscle contraction. Further, the Ia inhibitory interneurons allow the higher centers to coordinate commands sent to the two muscles working opposite of each other at a single joint via a single command. The interneuron receives the input command from the corticospinal descending axons in such a way that the descending signal, which activates the contraction of one muscle, causes relaxation of the other muscles.

text: Joints are controlled by two opposing sets of muscles called

text: extensors

text: and

text: flexors

text: that must work in synchrony to allow proper and desired movement.  When a

text: muscle spindle

text: is stretched and the

text: stretch reflex

text: is activated, the opposing muscle group must be inhibited to prevent from working against the agonist muscle. The spinal interneuron called Ia inhibitory interneuron is responsible for this inhibition of the antagonist muscle. The Ia afferent of the muscle spindle enters the spinal cord, and one branch

text: synapses

text: on to the alpha motor neuron that causes the agonist muscle to contract. Thus, it results in creating the behavioral reflex. At the same time, the other branch of the Ia afferent

text: synapses

text: on to the Ia inhibitory interneuron, which in turn synapses the

text: alpha motor neuron

text: of the antagonist muscle. Since Ia interneuron is inhibitory, it prevents the opposing alpha motor neuron from firing. Thus, it prevents the antagonist muscle from contracting. Without having this system of

text: reciprocal inhibition

text: , both groups of muscles may contract at the same time and work against each other. This results in spending a greater amount of energy as well. In addition, the reciprocal inhibition is important for mechanism underlying voluntary movement. When the antagonist muscle relaxes during movement, this increases efficiency and speed. This prevents moving muscles from working against the contraction force of antagonist muscles. Thus, during voluntary movement, the Ia inhibitory interneurons are used to coordinate muscle contraction. Further, the Ia inhibitory interneurons allow the higher centers to coordinate commands sent to the two muscles working opposite of each other at a single joint via a single command. The interneuron receives the input command from the

text: corticospinal descending axons

text: in such a way that the descending signal, which activates the contraction of one muscle, causes relaxation of the other muscles.

text: In a "complete" spinal injury, all functions below the injured area are lost, whether or not the spinal cord is severed.  An "incomplete" spinal cord injury involves preservation of motor or sensory function below the level of injury in the spinal cord.  To be classed as incomplete, there must be some preservation of sensation or motion in the areas innervated by S4 to S5, e.g. voluntary external anal sphincter contraction. The nerves in this area are connected to the very lowest region of the spinal cord, and retaining sensation and function in these parts of the body indicates that the spinal cord is only partially damaged.  Incomplete injury by definition includes a phenomenon known as sacral sparing: some degree of sensation is preserved in the sacral dermatomes, even though sensation may be more impaired in other, higher dermatomes below the level of the lesion. Sacral sparing has been attributed to the fact that the sacral spinal pathways are not as likely as the other spinal pathways to become compressed after injury due to the lamination of fibers within the spinal cord.

text: In a "complete" spinal injury, all functions below the injured area are lost, whether or not the spinal cord is severed.  An "incomplete" spinal cord injury involves preservation of motor or sensory function below the level of injury in the spinal cord.  To be classed as incomplete, there must be some preservation of sensation or motion in the areas innervated by S4 to S5, e.g. voluntary

text: external anal sphincter

text: contraction. The nerves in this area are connected to the very lowest region of the spinal cord, and retaining sensation and function in these parts of the body indicates that the spinal cord is only partially damaged.  Incomplete injury by definition includes a phenomenon known as sacral sparing: some degree of sensation is preserved in the sacral dermatomes, even though sensation may be more impaired in other, higher dermatomes below the level of the lesion. Sacral sparing has been attributed to the fact that the sacral spinal pathways are not as likely as the other spinal pathways to become compressed after injury due to the lamination of fibers within the spinal cord.

text: Myelopathy describes any neurologic deficit related to the spinal cord. When due to trauma, it is known as (acute) spinal cord injury. When inflammatory, it is known as myelitis. Disease that is vascular in nature is known as vascular myelopathy. The most common form of myelopathy in human, cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM), is caused by arthritic changes (spondylosis) of the cervical spine, which result in narrowing of the spinal canal (spinal stenosis) ultimately causing compression of the spinal cord.  In Asian populations, spinal cord compression often occurs due to a different, inflammatory process affecting the posterior longitudinal ligament.

text: Myelopathy describes any neurologic deficit related to the

text: spinal cord

text: . When due to

text: trauma

text: , it is known as (acute)

text: spinal cord injury

text: . When inflammatory, it is known as

text: myelitis

text: . Disease that is vascular in nature is known as

text: vascular myelopathy

text: . The most common form of myelopathy in human, cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM), is caused by arthritic changes (

text: spondylosis

text: ) of the

text: cervical spine

text: , which result in narrowing of the spinal canal (

text: spinal stenosis

text: ) ultimately causing compression of the spinal cord.  In Asian populations, spinal cord compression often occurs due to a different, inflammatory process affecting the

text: posterior longitudinal ligament

text: A peripheral nerve interface is the bridge between the peripheral nervous system and a computer interface which serves as a bi‐directional information transducer recording and sending signals between the human body and a machine processor. Interfaces to the nervous system usually take the form of electrodes for stimulation and recording, though chemical stimulation and sensing are possible. Research in this area is focused on developing peripheral nerve interfaces for the restoration of function following disease or injury to minimize associated losses. Peripheral nerve interfaces also enable electrical stimulation and recording of the peripheral nervous system to study the form and function of the peripheral nervous system. Many researchers also focus in the area of neuroprosthesis, linking the human nervous system to bionics in order to mimic natural sensorimotor control and function. Successful implantation of peripheral nerve interfaces depend on a number of factors which include appropriate indication,  perioperative testing, differentiated planning, and functional training. Typically microelectrode devices are implanted adjacent to, around or within the nerve trunk to establish contact with the peripheral nervous system. Different approaches may be used depending on the type of signal desired and attainable.

text: A peripheral nerve interface is the bridge between the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and a

text: computer interface

text: which serves as a bi‐directional information

text: transducer

text: recording and sending signals between the human body and a

text: machine processor

text: . Interfaces to the nervous system usually take the form of electrodes for stimulation and recording, though chemical stimulation and sensing are possible. Research in this area is focused on developing peripheral nerve interfaces for the restoration of function following disease or injury to minimize associated losses. Peripheral nerve interfaces also enable electrical stimulation and recording of the peripheral nervous system to study the form and function of the peripheral nervous system. Many researchers also focus in the area of

text: neuroprosthesis

text: , linking the human nervous system to

text: bionics

text: in order to mimic natural

text: sensorimotor control

text: and function. Successful implantation of peripheral nerve interfaces depend on a number of factors which include appropriate

text: indication

text: perioperative testing

text: differentiated planning

text: , and functional training. Typically

text: microelectrode

text: devices are implanted adjacent to, around or within the nerve trunk to establish contact with the peripheral nervous system. Different approaches may be used depending on the type of signal desired and attainable.

text: The vertebrate cerebrum (brain) is formed by two cerebral hemispheres that are separated by a groove, the medial longitudinal fissure. The brain can thus be described as being divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres. Each of these hemispheres has an outer layer of grey matter, the cerebral cortex, that is supported by an inner layer of white matter. In eutherian (placental) mammals, the hemispheres are linked by the corpus callosum, a very large bundle of nerve fibers. Smaller commissures, including the anterior commissure, the posterior commissure and the fornix, also join the hemispheres and these are also present in other vertebrates. These commissures transfer information between the two hemispheres to coordinate localized functions.

text: The

text: vertebrate

text: cerebrum

text: brain

text: ) is formed by two cerebral hemispheres that are separated by a groove, the

text: medial longitudinal fissure

text: . The brain can thus be described as being divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres. Each of these hemispheres has an outer layer of

text: grey matter

text: , the

text: cerebral cortex

text: , that is supported by an inner layer of

text: white matter

text: . In

text: eutherian

text: (placental) mammals, the hemispheres are linked by the

text: corpus callosum

text: , a very large bundle of

text: nerve fibers

text: . Smaller commissures, including the

text: anterior commissure

text: , the

text: posterior commissure

text: and the

text: fornix

text: , also join the hemispheres and these are also present in other vertebrates. These commissures transfer information between the two hemispheres to coordinate localized functions.

text: The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single hollow nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles, is unique to vertebrates. All invertebrates with well-developed brains, such as insects, spiders and squids, have a ventral rather than dorsal system of ganglions, with a split brain stem running on each side of the mouth or gut.

text: The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single hollow nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles, is unique to vertebrates. All

text: invertebrates

text: with well-developed brains, such as

text: insects

text: spiders

text: and

text: squid

text: s, have a ventral rather than dorsal system of

text: ganglion

text: s, with a split

text: brain stem

text: running on each side of the mouth or gut.

text: Neurons do not touch each other (except in the case of an electrical synapse through a gap junction); instead, neurons interact at contact points called synapses: a junction within two nerve cells, consisting of a miniature gap which impulses pass by a neurotransmitter. A neuron transports its information by way of a nerve impulse called an action potential. When an action potential arrives at the synapse's presynaptic terminal button, it may stimulate the release of neurotransmitters. These neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft to bind onto the receptors of the postsynaptic membrane and influence another cell, either in an inhibitory or excitatory way. The next neuron may be connected to many more neurons, and if the total of excitatory influences minus inhibitory influences is great enough, it will also "fire". That is to say, it will create a new action potential at its axon hillock, releasing neurotransmitters and passing on the information to yet another neighboring neuron.

text: The cerebrum is a large part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex (of the two cerebral hemispheres), as well as several subcortical structures, including the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb. In humans, the cerebrum is the uppermost region of the central nervous system. The telencephalon is the embryonic structure from which the cerebrum develops prenatally. In mammals, the dorsal telencephalon, or pallium, develops into the cerebral cortex, and the ventral telencephalon, or subpallium, becomes the basal ganglia. The cerebrum is also divided into approximately symmetric left and right cerebral hemispheres.

text: The cerebrum is a large part of the

text: brain

text: containing the

text: cerebral cortex

text: (of the two

text: cerebral hemispheres

text: ), as well as several subcortical structures, including the

text: hippocampus

text: basal ganglia

text: , and

text: olfactory bulb

text: . In humans, the cerebrum is the uppermost region of the

text: central nervous system

text: . The telencephalon is the

text: embryo

text: nic structure from which the cerebrum

text: develops prenatally

text: . In mammals, the

text: dorsal

text: telencephalon, or

text: pallium

text: , develops into the

text: cerebral cortex

text: , and the

text: ventral

text: telencephalon, or

text: subpallium

text: , becomes the

text: basal ganglia

text: . The cerebrum is also divided into approximately symmetric

text: left and right cerebral hemispheres.

text: Motor disorders are disorders of the nervous system that cause abnormal and involuntary movements. They can result from damage to the motor system.

text: Motor disorders are disorders of the

text: nervous system

text: that cause abnormal and involuntary movements. They can result from damage to the

text: motor system

text: The first full length medical study of the condition was John Eric Erichsen's classic book, On Railway and Other Injuries of the Nervous System. For this reason, railway spine is often known as "Erichsen's disease".

text: The first full length medical study of the condition was

text: John Eric Erichsen

text: 's classic book, On Railway and Other Injuries of the Nervous System. For this reason, railway spine is often known as "Erichsen's disease".

text: He co-edited the standard work, Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System, with Sir William Gowers, and also published Paralysis and other Nervous Diseases of Childhood and Early Life in 1905.

text: He co-edited the standard work, Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System, with

text: Sir William Gowers

text: , and also published Paralysis and other Nervous Diseases of Childhood and Early Life in 1905.

text: Pharmacological activities include antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, analgesic, anti-infertility and central nervous system depressant activity.

text: Pharmacological activities include

text: antiinflammatory

text: hepatoprotective

text: anticancer

text: antidiabetic

text: antioxidant

text: antibacterial

text: antifungal

text: analgesic

text: , anti-infertility and

text: central nervous system

text: depressant

text: activity.

text: The endoneurium contains a liquid known as endoneurial fluid, which contains little protein. In the peripheral nervous system the endoneurial fluid is notionally equivalent to cerebro-spinal fluid in the central nervous system. Peripheral nerve injuries commonly release increased amounts of endoneurial fluid into surrounding tissues; these can be detected by magnetic resonance neurography, thereby assisting in locating injuries to peripheral nerves.

text: The endoneurium contains a liquid known as

text: endoneurial fluid

text: , which contains little

text: protein

text: . In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: the endoneurial fluid is notionally equivalent to

text: cerebro-spinal fluid

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: . Peripheral nerve injuries commonly release increased amounts of endoneurial fluid into surrounding tissues; these can be detected by

text: magnetic resonance neurography

text: , thereby assisting in locating injuries to peripheral nerves.

text: Similar symptoms are observed in animal models.  They are associated with a degeneration of the peripheral nervous system (and eventually the central nervous system), starting with the distal portions of the longer and wider nerve axons.

text: Similar symptoms are observed in animal models.  They are associated with a degeneration of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (and eventually the

text: central nervous system

text: ), starting with the distal portions of the longer and wider nerve

text: axon

text: s.

text: The alpha-2 (α) adrenergic receptor (or adrenoceptor) is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) associated with the G heterotrimeric G-protein. It consists of three highly homologous subtypes, including α-, α-, and α-adrenergic. Some species other than humans express a fourth α-adrenergic receptor as well. Catecholamines like norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) signal through the α-adrenergic receptor in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

text: The alpha-2 (α) adrenergic receptor (or adrenoceptor) is a

text: G protein-coupled receptor

text: (GPCR) associated with the

text: G

text: heterotrimeric G-protein

text: . It consists of three highly homologous subtypes, including

text: α-

text: α-

text: , and

text: α-adrenergic

text: . Some species other than humans express a fourth α-adrenergic receptor as well.

text: Catecholamine

text: s like

text: norepinephrine

text: (noradrenaline) and

text: epinephrine

text: (adrenaline) signal through the α-adrenergic receptor in the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: s.

text: The frog has a highly developed nervous system that consists of a brain, spinal cord and nerves. Many parts of the frog's brain correspond with those of humans. It consists of two olfactory lobes, two cerebral hemispheres, a pineal body, two optic lobes, a cerebellum and a medulla oblongata. Muscular coordination and posture are controlled by the cerebellum, and the medulla oblongata regulates respiration, digestion and other automatic functions. The relative size of the cerebrum in frogs is much smaller than it is in humans. Frogs have ten pairs of cranial nerves which pass information from the outside directly to the brain, and ten pairs of spinal nerves which pass information from the extremities to the brain through the spinal cord.  By contrast, all amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) have twelve pairs of cranial nerves.

text: The frog has a highly developed nervous system that consists of a brain, spinal cord and nerves. Many parts of the frog's brain correspond with those of humans. It consists of two olfactory lobes, two cerebral hemispheres, a pineal body, two optic lobes, a cerebellum and a medulla oblongata. Muscular coordination and posture are controlled by the

text: cerebellum

text: , and the

text: medulla oblongata

text: regulates respiration, digestion and other automatic functions. The relative size of the

text: cerebrum

text: in frogs is much smaller than it is in humans. Frogs have ten pairs of

text: cranial nerves

text: which pass information from the outside directly to the brain, and ten pairs of

text: spinal nerves

text: which pass information from the extremities to the brain through the spinal cord.  By contrast, all

text: amniotes

text: (mammals, birds and reptiles) have twelve pairs of cranial nerves.

text: At the onset of this condition, fluid outside the cells has an excessively low amount of solutes, such as sodium (hyponatremia) and other electrolytes, in comparison to fluid inside the cells, causing the fluid to move into the cells to balance its concentration. This causes the cells to swell. In the brain, this swelling increases intracranial pressure (ICP), which leads to the first observable symptoms of water intoxication: headache, personality changes, changes in behavior, confusion, irritability, and drowsiness. These are sometimes followed by difficulty breathing during exertion, muscle weakness & pain, twitching, or cramping, nausea, vomiting, thirst, and a dulled ability to perceive and interpret sensory information. As the condition persists, papillary and vital signs may result including bradycardia and widened pulse pressure. The cells in the brain may swell to the point where blood flow is interrupted resulting in cerebral edema. Swollen brain cells may also apply pressure to the brain stem causing central nervous system dysfunction. Both cerebral edema and interference with the central nervous system are dangerous and could result in seizures, brain damage, coma or death.

text: At the onset of this condition, fluid outside the cells has an excessively low amount of solutes, such as

text: sodium

text: hyponatremia

text: ) and other

text: electrolyte

text: s, in comparison to fluid inside the cells, causing the fluid to move into the cells to balance its concentration. This causes the cells to swell. In the brain, this swelling increases

text: intracranial pressure

text: (ICP), which leads to the first observable symptoms of water intoxication: headache, personality changes, changes in behavior, confusion, irritability, and drowsiness. These are sometimes followed by difficulty breathing during exertion, muscle weakness & pain, twitching, or cramping, nausea, vomiting, thirst, and a dulled ability to perceive and interpret sensory information. As the condition persists, papillary and vital signs may result including

text: bradycardia

text: and widened

text: pulse pressure

text: . The cells in the brain may swell to the point where blood flow is interrupted resulting in

text: cerebral edema

text: . Swollen brain cells may also apply

text: pressure to the brain stem

text: causing central nervous system dysfunction. Both cerebral edema and interference with the central nervous system are dangerous and could result in seizures, brain damage, coma or death.

text: One factor that is thought to be related to spasticity is the stretch reflex. This reflex is important in coordinating normal movements in which muscles are contracted and relaxed and in keeping the muscle from stretching too far. Although the end result of spasticity is problems with the muscles, spasticity is actually caused by an injury to a part of the central nervous system (the brain or spinal cord) that controls voluntary movements. The damage causes a change in the balance of signals between the nervous system and the muscles. This imbalance leads to increased activity (excitability) in the muscles.  Receptors in the muscles receive messages from the nervous system, which sense the amount of stretch in the muscle and sends that signal to the brain.  The brain responds by sending a message back to reverse the stretch by contracting or shortening.

text: "Although a neuron requires energy, its main function is to receive signals and to send them out that is, to handle information." --- this words by Francis Crick point at the necessity to describe neuronal functioning in terms of processing of abstract signals  The two abstract concepts, namely, the "coincidence detector" and "temporal integrator" are offered in this course, .The first one expects that a neuron fires a spike if a number of input impulses are received at the same time. In the temporal integrator concept a neuron fires a spike after receiving a number of input impulses distributed in time.Each of the two takes into account some features of real neurons since it is known that a realistic neuron can displayboth coincidence detector and temporal integrator modes of activity depending on the stimulation applied,.At the same time, it is known that a neuron together with excitatory impulses receives also inhibitory stimulation.A natural development of the two above mentioned concepts could be a concept which endows inhibition with its own signal processing role.

text: "Although a neuron requires energy, its main function is to receive signals and to send them out that is, to handle information." --- this words by

text: Francis Crick

text: point at the necessity to describe neuronal functioning in terms of processing of abstract signals  The two abstract concepts, namely, the "coincidence detector" and "temporal integrator" are offered in this course, .The first one expects that a neuron fires a spike if a number of input impulses are received at the same time. In the temporal integrator concept a neuron fires a spike after receiving a number of input impulses distributed in time.Each of the two takes into account some features of real neurons since it is known that a realistic neuron can displayboth coincidence detector and temporal integrator modes of activity depending on the stimulation applied,.At the same time, it is known that a neuron together with excitatory impulses receives also inhibitory stimulation.A natural development of the two above mentioned concepts could be a concept which endows inhibition with its own signal processing role.

text: If the cancer has central nervous system involvement, or with meningeal disease, intrathecal chemotherapy may be administered.

text: If the cancer has

text: central nervous system

text: involvement, or with meningeal disease,

text: intrathecal

text: chemotherapy may be administered.

text: The type of fiber (type I vs Type II) is controlled by the nervous system. The brain is the central information center that sent out the signal to the nerves, that the nerves control and connect the motor units. For two different motor units present, the body adopt it with two different nerves to control them. Fast twitch motor units are controlled by fast-twitch nerves while Slow twitch motor units are controlled by slow twitch nerves.

text: The type of fiber (type I vs Type II) is controlled by the

text: nervous system

text: . The

text: brain

text: is the central information center that sent out the signal to the nerves, that the nerves control and connect the motor units. For two different motor units present, the body adopt it with two different nerves to control them. Fast twitch motor units are controlled by fast-twitch nerves while Slow twitch motor units are controlled by slow twitch nerves.

text: Although halteres are always synchronized with the movements of the wings, the phase at which they oscillate differs between species. Brachyceran flies (short-antennaed) oscillate their halteres almost exactly opposite their wings (180 degrees). More ancient suborders such as the Nematecerans (long-antennaed flies), which for example include crane flies and mosquitoes, exhibit a variety of wing-haltere phasing. These observed differences in wing-haltere coordination suggest that differences in sensory neuron output also exist between species. This means that the decoding mechanisms used by the central nervous system to interpret such movements and produce adequate motor output probably also vary depending on phylogeny.

text: Although halteres are always synchronized with the movements of the wings, the phase at which they oscillate differs between species.

text: Brachycera

text: n flies (short-antennaed) oscillate their halteres almost exactly opposite their wings (180 degrees). More ancient suborders such as the

text: Nematecerans

text: (long-antennaed flies), which for example include crane flies and mosquitoes, exhibit a variety of wing-haltere phasing. These observed differences in wing-haltere coordination suggest that differences in sensory neuron output also exist between species. This means that the decoding mechanisms used by the

text: central nervous system

text: to interpret such movements and produce adequate motor output probably also vary depending on

text: phylogeny

text: Central nervous system toxicity was first described by Paul Bert in 1878. He showed that oxygen was toxic to insects, arachnids, myriapods, molluscs, earthworms, fungi, germinating seeds, birds, and other animals. Central nervous system toxicity may be referred to as the "Paul Bert effect".

text: Central nervous system toxicity was first described by

text: Paul Bert

text: in 1878. He showed that oxygen was toxic to insects,

text: arachnids

text: myriapods

text: , molluscs, earthworms, fungi, germinating seeds, birds, and other animals. Central nervous system toxicity may be referred to as the "Paul Bert effect".

text: In the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS), there are three major segments with distinct morphological and developmental characteristics namely - prosomeric, rhombomeric, and spinal. Even though other groups of organisms in the protostome taxa, the compartmentalization of the vertebrate brain into segments along the anterior – posterior axis (AP- axis) is a characteristic feature of the group. The peripheral nervous system segmentation is highly influenced by the metameric mesodermal somites. The morphogenic rearrangement of somites into dermamyotome formed from the dorsal part of the somite and sclerotome happens while maintaining the segmental pattern. Dermamyotome, which retains the epithelial properties of its origin, forms the dermis and skeletal muscle, while sclerotome gives rise to the vertebral column and ribs. The selective outgrowth of motor and sensory axons through the anterior sclerotome of the somites forms the fundamental reason behind the observed nervous system segmentation in the spinal nerves. As a matter of fact, the molecular differences within each somite has a profound influence on the movement of the neural crest cell, motor axon, and sensory axon as there are attractive and inhibitory cues involved in the development of these structures. Molecules such as butyrlcholinesterase, tenascin and the M7412 antigen that have restricted expression in the anterior sclerotome of somite have been shown to have minimal effect on segmentation. In addition, the lack of involvement of molecules such as ﬁbronectin and laminin which are widely expressed in the somite in the process of segmentation suggests that the role of the anterior sclerotome of somite on the PNS segmentation is very minimal. However, the segmentation observed in the PNS follows from the selectively expressed molecules such as T-cadherin, 48 and 55 K peanut lectin (PNA) binding proteins and proteoglycans such as collagen IX, versican, and a proteoglycan that binds cytotactin in the posterior sclerotome of the somites. These molecules exert their strong influence on the segmentation pattern by restricting the outgrowth from the region. As a matter of fact, these inhibitory chemicals expressed in the posterior sclerotome forms the basis of the segmentation pattern observed in the vertebrate nervous system. In short, the segmental arrangement of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) seen in vertebrates derives from the division of the sclerotomes into anterior and posterior parts.

text: T-cadherin

text: , 48 and 55 K peanut lectin (PNA) binding proteins and

text: proteoglycans

text: such as collagen IX,

text: versican

text: , and a proteoglycan that binds cytotactin in the posterior sclerotome of the somites. These molecules exert their strong influence on the segmentation pattern by restricting the outgrowth from the region. As a matter of fact, these inhibitory chemicals expressed in the posterior sclerotome forms the basis of the segmentation pattern observed in the vertebrate nervous system. In short, the segmental arrangement of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) seen in vertebrates derives from the division of the sclerotomes into anterior and posterior parts.

text: Neural stem cells are more specialized than ESCs because they generate only neural cells (neurons or glial cells). During embryonic development of vertebrates, NSCs of the central nervous system (CNS) are called radial glial cells (RGCs), and reside in a transient zone called the ventricular zone (VZ).  Neurons are generated in large numbers by NSCs during a specific period of embryonic development through the process of neurogenesis, and continue to be generated in adult life in restricted regions of the adult brain.  Adult NSCs differentiate into new neurons within the adult subventricular zone (SVZ), a remnant of the embryonic germinal neuroepithelium, as well as the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus.

text: Neural stem cells are more specialized than ESCs because they generate only neural cells (

text: neurons

text: or

text: glial cells

text: ). During embryonic development of vertebrates, NSCs of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) are called

text: radial glial cells

text: (RGCs), and reside in a transient zone called the

text: ventricular zone

text: (VZ).  Neurons are generated in large numbers by NSCs during a specific period of embryonic development through the process of

text: neurogenesis

text: , and continue to be generated in adult life in restricted regions of the adult brain.  Adult NSCs differentiate into new neurons within the adult

text: subventricular zone

text: (SVZ), a remnant of the embryonic germinal

text: neuroepithelium

text: , as well as the

text: dentate gyrus

text: of the

text: hippocampus

text: The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of the main divisions of the nervous system and consists of a mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal system. It is now usually referred to as separate from the autonomic nervous system since it has its own independent reflex activity.

text: The enteric nervous system (ENS) or intrinsic nervous system is one of the main divisions of the

text: nervous system

text: and consists of a mesh-like system of

text: neuron

text: s that governs the function of the

text: gastrointestinal system

text: . It is now usually referred to as separate from the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: since it has its own independent reflex activity.

text: In the short run, they are essential for adaptation, maintenance of homeostasis, and survival “allostasis”. Yet, over longer time intervals, when called upon frequently, the resulting “allostatic load” exacts a cost that can accelerate disease processes. Allostatic load can be measured in physiological systems as chemical imbalances in autonomic nervous system, central nervous system, neuroendocrine, and immune system activity as well as perturbations in the diurnal rhythms, and, in some cases, plasticity changes to brain structures.

text: In the short run, they are essential for adaptation, maintenance of homeostasis, and survival “

text: allostasis

text: ”. Yet, over longer time intervals, when called upon frequently, the resulting “allostatic load” exacts a cost that can accelerate disease processes. Allostatic load can be measured in physiological systems as chemical imbalances in

text: autonomic nervous system

text: central nervous system

text: , neuroendocrine, and

text: immune system

text: activity as well as perturbations in the diurnal rhythms, and, in some cases, plasticity changes to brain structures.

text: The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS). The spinal cord begins at the occipital bone and extends down to the space between the first and second lumbar vertebrae; it does not extend the entire length of the vertebral column. It is around  in men and around  long in women.  Also, the spinal cord has a varying width, ranging from  thick in the cervical and lumbar regions to  thick in the thoracic area. The enclosing bony vertebral column protects the relatively shorter spinal cord. The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body but also contains neural circuits that can independently control numerous reflexes and central pattern generators.The spinal cord has three major functions:as a conduit for motor information, which travels down the spinal cord, as a conduit for sensory information in the reverse direction, and finally as a center for coordinating certain reflexes.

text: The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of

text: nervous tissue

text: and

text: support cells

text: that extends from the

text: medulla oblongata

text: in the

text: brainstem

text: to the

text: lumbar

text: region of the

text: vertebral column

text: . The brain and spinal cord together make up the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS). The spinal cord begins at the

text: occipital bone

text: and extends down to the space between the first and second

text: lumbar vertebrae

text: ; it does not extend the entire length of the

text: vertebral column

text: . It is around  in men and around  long in women.  Also, the spinal cord has a varying width, ranging from  thick in the cervical and lumbar regions to  thick in the thoracic area. The enclosing bony

text: vertebral column

text: protects the relatively shorter spinal cord. The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of neural signals between the

text: brain

text: and the rest of the body but also contains

text: neural circuit

text: s that can independently control numerous

text: reflex

text: es and

text: central pattern generator

text: s.The spinal cord has three major functions:as a conduit for motor information, which travels down the spinal cord, as a conduit for sensory information in the reverse direction, and finally as a center for coordinating certain reflexes.

text: There is much evidence for a brief memory buffer, as distinct from the long term store. The phonological loop seems to be connected to activation in the left hemisphere, more specifically the temporal lobe. The visio-spatial sketchpad  activates different areas depending on task difficulty; less intense tasks seem to activate in the occipital lobe, whereas more complex tasks appear in the parietal lobe. The central executive is still a mystery, although it would seem to be more or less located in the frontal lobes of the brain. The episodic buffer seems to be in both hemispheres (bilateral) with activations in both the frontal and temporal lobes, and even the left portion of the hippocampus. In terms of genetics, the gene ROBO1 has been associated with phonological buffer integrity or length.

text: There is much evidence for a brief memory buffer, as distinct from the long term store. The phonological loop seems to be connected to activation in the left hemisphere, more specifically the temporal lobe. The visio-spatial sketchpad  activates different areas depending on task difficulty; less intense tasks seem to activate in the occipital lobe, whereas more complex tasks appear in the parietal lobe. The central executive is still a mystery, although it would seem to be more or less located in the frontal lobes of the brain. The episodic buffer seems to be in both hemispheres (bilateral) with activations in both the frontal and temporal lobes, and even the left portion of the hippocampus. In terms of genetics, the gene

text: has been associated with phonological buffer integrity or length.

text: The superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) is an association fiber tract that is composed of four separate components.  It is present in both hemispheres and can be found lateral to the centrum ovale and connects the frontal, occipital, parietal, and temporal lobes.  These bundles of axon tracts pass from the frontal lobe through the operculum to the posterior end of the lateral sulcus where they either radiate to and synapse on neurons in the occipital lobe or turn downward and forward around the putamen and then radiate to and synapse on neurons in anterior portions of the temporal lobe.

text: The superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) is an

text: association fiber

text: tract

text: that is composed of four separate components.  It is present in both

text: hemispheres

text: and can be found

text: lateral

text: to the

text: centrum ovale

text: and connects the

text: frontal

text: occipital

text: parietal

text: , and

text: temporal lobe

text: s.  These bundles of axon tracts pass from the frontal lobe through the

text: operculum

text: to the posterior end of the

text: lateral sulcus

text: where they either radiate to and synapse on neurons in the occipital lobe or turn downward and forward around the

text: putamen

text: and then radiate to and synapse on neurons in anterior portions of the temporal lobe.

text: In order to enable fast and efficient transduction of electrical signals in the nervous system, certain neuronal axons are covered with myelin sheaths. Myelin is a multilamellar membrane that enwraps the axon in segments separated by intervals known as nodes of Ranvier. It is produced by specialized cells: Schwann cells exclusively in the peripheral nervous system, and oligodendrocytes exclusively in the central nervous system. Myelin sheath reduces membrane capacitance and increases membrane resistance in the inter-node intervals, thus allowing a fast, saltatory movement of action potentials from node to node. Myelination is found mainly in vertebrates, but an analogous system has been discovered in a few invertebrates, such as some species of shrimp. Not all neurons in vertebrates are myelinated; for example, axons of the neurons comprising the autonomous nervous system are not, in general, myelinated.

text: In order to enable fast and efficient transduction of electrical signals in the nervous system, certain neuronal axons are covered with

text: myelin

text: sheaths. Myelin is a multilamellar membrane that enwraps the axon in segments separated by intervals known as

text: nodes of Ranvier

text: . It is produced by specialized cells:

text: Schwann cell

text: s exclusively in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , and

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s exclusively in the

text: central nervous system

text: . Myelin sheath reduces membrane capacitance and increases membrane resistance in the inter-node intervals, thus allowing a fast, saltatory movement of action potentials from node to node. Myelination is found mainly in

text: vertebrate

text: s, but an analogous system has been discovered in a few invertebrates, such as some species of

text: shrimp

text: . Not all neurons in vertebrates are myelinated; for example, axons of the neurons comprising the autonomous nervous system are not, in general, myelinated.

text: T-type calcium channels are low-voltage activated calcium channels that open during membrane depolarization. These channels aid in mediating calcium influx into cells after an action potential or depolarizing signal. The entry of calcium into various cells has many different physiological responses associated with it. Within cardiac and smooth muscle cells voltage-gated calcium channel activation initiates contraction directly by allowing the cytosolic concentration to increase. Not only are T-type calcium channels known to be present within cardiac and smooth muscle, but also are present in many neuronal cells within the central nervous system. Different experimental studies within the 1970s allowed for the distinction of T-type calcium channels (transient opening calcium channels) from the already well-known L-type calcium channels (Long-Lasting calcium channels). The new T-type channels were much different from the L-type calcium channels due to their ability to be activated by more negative membrane potentials, had small single channel conductance, and also were unresponsive to calcium antagonist drugs that were present. These distinct calcium channels are generally located within the brain, peripheral nervous system, heart, smooth muscle, bone, and endocrine system.

text: T-type calcium channels are low-voltage activated calcium channels that open during membrane

text: depolarization

text: . These channels aid in mediating calcium influx into cells after an action potential or depolarizing signal. The entry of calcium into various cells has many different physiological responses associated with it. Within cardiac and smooth muscle cells voltage-gated calcium channel activation initiates contraction directly by allowing the cytosolic concentration to increase. Not only are T-type calcium channels known to be present within cardiac and smooth muscle, but also are present in many neuronal cells within the central nervous system. Different experimental studies within the 1970s allowed for the distinction of T-type calcium channels (transient opening calcium channels) from the already well-known

text: L-type calcium channels

text: (Long-Lasting calcium channels). The new T-type channels were much different from the L-type calcium channels due to their ability to be activated by more negative membrane potentials, had small single channel conductance, and also were unresponsive to calcium antagonist drugs that were present. These distinct calcium channels are generally located within the brain, peripheral nervous system, heart, smooth muscle, bone, and endocrine system.

text: General visceral motor neurons (visceral motor neurons for short) which indirectly innervate cardiac muscle and smooth muscles of the viscera ( the muscles of the arteries): they synapse onto neurons located in ganglia of the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic), located in the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which themselves directly innervate visceral muscles (and also some gland cells).

text: General visceral motor neurons (visceral motor neurons for short) which indirectly innervate

text: cardiac muscle

text: and

text: smooth muscles

text: of the

text: viscera

text: ( the muscles of the

text: arteries

text: ): they

text: synapse

text: onto neurons located in

text: ganglia

text: of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: sympathetic

text: and

text: parasympathetic

text: ), located in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), which themselves directly innervate visceral muscles (and also some gland cells).

text: Assistive devices such as wheelchairs have a substantial effect on the quality of life of the patient, and careful selection is important.  Teaching the patient how to transfer from different positions, such as from a wheelchair into bed, is an important part of therapy, and devices such as sliding transfer boards and grab bars can assist in these tasks.  Individuals who are able to transfer independently from their wheelchair to the driver's seat using a sliding transfer board may be able to return to driving in an adapted vehicle. Complete independence with driving also requires the ability to load and unload one's wheelchair from the vehicle. In addition to acquiring skills such as wheelchair transfers, individuals with a spinal cord injury can greatly benefit from exercise reconditioning. In the majority of cases, spinal cord injury leaves the lower limbs either entirely paralyzed, or with insufficient strength, endurance, or motor control to support safe and effective physical training. Therefore, most exercise training employs the use of arm crank ergometry, wheelchair ergometry, and swimming. In one study, subjects with traumatic spinal cord injury participated in a progressive exercise training program, which involved arm ergometry and resistance training.  Subjects in the exercise group experienced significant increases in strength for almost all muscle groups when compared to the control group. Exercisers also reported less stress, fewer depressive symptoms, greater satisfaction with physical functioning, less pain, and better quality of life. Physical therapists are able to provide a variety of exercise interventions,  including, passive range of motion exercises, upper body wheeling (arm crank ergometry), functional electrical stimulation, and electrically stimulated resistance exercises all of which can improve arterial function in those living with SCI. Physical therapists can improve the quality of life of individuals with spinal cord injury by developing exercise programs that are tailored to meet individual patient needs. Adapted physical activity equipment can also be used to allow for sport participation: for example, sit-skiis can be used by individuals with a spinal cord injury for cross-country or downhill skiing.

text: Assistive device

text: passive range of motion exercises

text: , upper body wheeling (arm crank ergometry),

text: functional electrical stimulation

text: , and electrically stimulated resistance exercises all of which can improve arterial function in those living with SCI. Physical therapists can improve the quality of life of individuals with spinal cord injury by developing exercise programs that are tailored to meet individual patient needs. Adapted physical activity equipment can also be used to allow for sport participation: for example, sit-skiis can be used by individuals with a spinal cord injury for cross-country or downhill skiing.

text: Many organs and tissues in the body can recover after injury without intervention. Unfortunately, some cells of the central nervous system are so specialized that they cannot divide and create new cells. As a result, recovery from a brain or spinal cord injury is extremely difficult.

text: s. The sensory nervous system transmits signals from senses such as taste and touch (including fine touch and gross touch) to the spinal cord and brain. The autonomic nervous system is a 'self-regulating' system which influences the function of organs over which we have little or no voluntary control, such as the digestive system.

text: s. The sensory nervous system transmits signals from senses such as

text: taste

text: and touch (including fine touch and gross touch) to the spinal cord and brain. The autonomic nervous system is a 'self-regulating' system which influences the function of organs over which we have little or no voluntary control, such as the

text: digestive system

text: One example is again neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, which release noradrenaline, which, in addition, generates an inhibitory effect on presynaptic terminals of neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system.

text: One example is again neurons of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , which release

text: noradrenaline

text: , which, in addition, generates an inhibitory effect on presynaptic terminals of neurons of the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: Codman products provide for the surgical treatment of neurological and central nervous system disorders through products such as hydrocephalic shunt valve systems, implantable drug pumps and micro-surgical instrumentations.

text: Calponin 3 was found in stress fibers of skin fibroblasts and myofibroblasts during wound healing. Cnn3 knockdown in primary fibroblasts impaired stress fiber formation, resulting in decreased cell motility and contractile ability.> Calponin 3 in the brain has a potential function in regulating actin filaments during neuronal remodeling. Calponin 3 was also found in dendritic spines of adult hippocampal neurons to regulate dendritic spine plasticity. While mice with systemic knockout of Cnn1 or Cnn2, or both Cnn1 and Cnn2 survive to adulthood and fertile, systemic knockout of calponin 3 in mice results in embryonic and neonatal lethality due to defect in the development of central nervous system. CNN3 was found in the trophoblasts of human placenta and plays a role of negative regulator of trophoblast fusion. Knockdown or dissociation of calponin 3 from cytoskeleton in response to PKC phosphorylation promoted fusion of trophoblasts.

text: Schwann cells are involved in many important aspects of peripheral nerve biology—the conduction of nervous impulses along axons, nerve development and regeneration, trophic support for neurons, production of the nerve extracellular matrix, modulation of neuromuscular synaptic activity, and presentation of antigens to T-lymphocytes.

text: Schwann cells are involved in many important aspects of peripheral

text: nerve

text: biology—the conduction of

text: nervous impulses

text: along

text: axon

text: s, nerve development and

text: regeneration

text: , trophic support for

text: neuron

text: s, production of the nerve extracellular matrix, modulation of neuromuscular synaptic activity, and presentation of

text: antigen

text: s to

text: T-lymphocytes

text: An idealized description of neuron is as follows: a neuron has a cell body with two kinds of branches: dendrites and an axon. It receives input signals from other neurons via dendrites, integrates (sums) them and generates its own (electric) output signal which is sent to outside neurons via axon. The points of electric contact between neurons are called synapses.

text: An idealized description of

text: neuron

text: is as follows: a neuron has a cell body with two kinds of branches:

text: dendrites

text: and an

text: axon

text: . It receives input signals from other neurons via dendrites, integrates (sums) them and generates its own (electric) output signal which is sent to outside neurons via axon. The points of electric contact between neurons are called

text: synapses

text: Spinal Cord Injury

text: Spinal Cord Injury

text: Regeneration of the central nervous system is much poorer than the peripheral nervous system and does not show the same capacity to regenerate itself. This is primarily due to the multifaceted nature of spinal cord injury. The multifaceted nature of spinal cord injuries presents a major challenge to therapeutic development however, as primary mechanical trauma to the cord induces secondary injury consisting of a complex cascade of molecular events that lead to the loss of the conductive myelin sheath (myelin degeneration) and the formation of an inhibitory glial scar.

text: Neurotransmission can also occur through electrical synapses.  Due to the direct connection between excitable cells in the form of gap junctions, an action potential can be transmitted directly from one cell to the next in either direction. The free flow of ions between cells enables rapid non-chemical-mediated transmission. Rectifying channels ensure that action potentials move only in one direction through an electrical synapse. Electrical synapses are found in all nervous systems, including the human brain, although they are a distinct minority.

text: Neurotransmission can also occur through

text: electrical synapse

text: s.  Due to the direct connection between excitable cells in the form of

text: gap junction

text: s, an action potential can be transmitted directly from one cell to the next in either direction. The free flow of ions between cells enables rapid non-chemical-mediated transmission. Rectifying channels ensure that action potentials move only in one direction through an electrical synapse. Electrical synapses are found in all nervous systems, including the human brain, although they are a distinct minority.

text: The theoretical basis of Burckhardt's action rested on three propositions. The first was that mental illness had a physical basis and that disordered minds were merely a reflection of disordered brains. Next, the associationist viewpoint of nerve functioning which conceived the nervous system as operating according to the following threefold division of labor: an input (or sensory or afferent) system, a connecting system which processed information and an output (or efferent or motor) system. The final assumption of Buckhardt's was that the brain was modular which meant that each mental module or mental faculty could be linked to a specific location in the brain. In accordance with such a viewpoint, Buckhardt postulated that lesions in specific areas of the brain might impact behavior in a specific manner. In other words, he thought that by cutting the connecting system, or second association state of brain's system of communication troubling symptoms might be alleviated without compromising either the nervous system's input or output systems. The procedure was aimed at relieving symptoms, not at curing a given mental disease. Thus, he wrote in 1891:

text: The theoretical basis of Burckhardt's action rested on three propositions. The first was that mental illness had a physical basis and that disordered minds were merely a reflection of disordered brains. Next, the

text: associationist

text: viewpoint of nerve functioning which conceived the nervous system as operating according to the following threefold division of labor: an input (or sensory or

text: afferent

text: ) system, a connecting system which processed information and an output (or

text: efferent

text: or motor) system. The final assumption of Buckhardt's was that the brain was modular which meant that each mental module or mental faculty could be linked to a specific location in the brain. In accordance with such a viewpoint, Buckhardt postulated that

text: lesions

text: in specific areas of the brain might impact behavior in a specific manner. In other words, he thought that by cutting the connecting system, or second association state of brain's system of communication troubling symptoms might be alleviated without compromising either the nervous system's input or output systems. The procedure was aimed at relieving symptoms, not at curing a given mental disease. Thus, he wrote in 1891:

text: Most myoclonus is caused by a disturbance of the central nervous system. Some are from peripheral nervous system injury. Studies suggest several locations in the brain are involved in myoclonus. One is in the brainstem, close to structures that are responsible for the startle response, an automatic reaction to an unexpected stimulus involving rapid muscle contraction.

text: Most myoclonus is caused by a disturbance of the

text: central nervous system

text: . Some are from

text: peripheral nervous system

text: injury. Studies suggest several locations in the brain are involved in myoclonus. One is in the

text: brainstem

text: , close to structures that are responsible for the

text: startle response

text: , an automatic reaction to an unexpected stimulus involving rapid muscle contraction.

text: Group C nerve fibers are one of three classes of nerve fiber in the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The C group fibers are unmyelinated and have a small diameter and low conduction velocity. They include Postganglionic fibers in the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and nerve fibers at the dorsal roots (IV fiber). These fibers carry sensory information.

text: Group C nerve fibers are one of three classes of

text: nerve fiber

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . The C group fibers are unmyelinated and have a small diameter and low conduction velocity. They include

text: Postganglionic fibers

text: in the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and nerve fibers at the

text: dorsal roots

text: (IV fiber). These fibers carry sensory information.

text: The formation of a nerve tract follows several basic rules. Studies of invertebrate and vertebrate nervous systems demonstrated that the initial nerve tracts are formed by the pioneer axons of pioneer neurons. These axons follow a reproducible pathway, stop at intermediate targets, and branch axons at certain choice points, in the process of targeting their final destination. This principle is illustrated by CNS extending axons of sensory neurons in insects.

text: The formation of a nerve tract follows several basic rules. Studies of invertebrate and vertebrate nervous systems demonstrated that the initial nerve tracts are formed by the

text: pioneer axon

text: s of

text: pioneer neuron

text: s. These axons follow a reproducible pathway, stop at intermediate targets, and branch axons at certain choice points, in the process of targeting their final destination. This principle is illustrated by CNS extending axons of sensory neurons in insects.

text: Approximately half of savants are autistic; the other half often have some form of central nervous system injury or disease.It is estimated that 10% of those with autism have some form of savant abilities.

text: Approximately half of savants are

text: autistic

text: ; the other half often have some form of

text: central nervous system

text: injury or disease.It is estimated that 10% of those with autism have some form of savant abilities.

text: Another major class of cells found in the nervous system are glial cells. These cells are only recently beginning to receive attention from neurobiologists for being involved not just in nourishment and support of neurons, but also in modulating synapses. For example, Schwann cells, which are a type of glial cell found in the peripheral nervous system, modulate synaptic connections between presynaptic terminals of motor neuron endplates and muscle fibers at neuromuscular junctions.

text: Betz cells (also known as pyramidal cells of Betz) are giant pyramidal cells (neurons) located within the fifth layer of the grey matter in the primary motor cortex. They are named after Ukrainian scientist Vladimir Betz, who described them in his work published in 1874. These neurons are the largest in the central nervous system, sometimes reaching 100 μm in diameter. Betz cells are upper motor neurons that send their axons down to the spinal cord via the corticospinal tract, where in humans they synapse directly with anterior horn cells, which in turn synapse directly with their target muscles. While Betz cells have one apical dendrite typical of pyramidal neurons, they have more primary dendritic shafts, which can branch out at almost any point from the soma (cell body). These perisomatic (around the cell body) and basal dendrites project into all cortical layers, but most of their horizontal branches/arbors populate layers V and VI, some reaching down into the white matter. According to one study, Betz cells represent about 10% of the total pyramidal cell population in layer Vb of the human primary motor cortex.

text: Betz cells (also known as pyramidal cells of Betz) are giant

text: pyramidal cells

text: neurons

text: ) located within the fifth layer of the

text: grey matter

text: in the

text: primary motor cortex

text: . They are named after Ukrainian scientist

text: Vladimir Betz

text: , who described them in his work published in 1874. These neurons are the largest in the

text: central nervous system

text: , sometimes reaching 100

text: μm

text: in diameter. Betz cells are

text: upper motor neuron

text: s that send their

text: axon

text: s down to the

text: spinal cord

text: via the

text: corticospinal

text: tract, where in

text: human

text: s they

text: synapse

text: directly with

text: anterior horn

text: cells

text: , which in turn synapse directly with their target

text: muscle

text: s. While Betz cells have one apical dendrite typical of pyramidal neurons, they have more primary dendritic shafts, which can branch out at almost any point from the

text: soma

text: (cell body). These perisomatic (around the cell body) and

text: basal dendrite

text: s project into all cortical layers, but most of their horizontal branches/arbors populate layers V and VI, some reaching down into the

text: white matter

text: . According to one study, Betz cells represent about 10% of the total pyramidal cell population in layer Vb of the human primary motor cortex.

text: One of the most important roles of glutaminase is found in the axonal terminals of neurons in the central nervous system.  Glutamate is the most abundantly used excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS.  After being released into the synapse for neurotransmission, glutamate is rapidly taken up by nearby astrocytes, which convert it to glutamine.  This glutamine is then supplied to the presynaptic terminals of the neurons, where glutaminases convert it back to glutamate for loading into synaptic vesicles.  Although both "kidney-type" (GLS1) and "liver-type" (GLS2) glutaminases are expressed in brain, GLS2 has been reported to exist only in cellular nuclei in CNS neurons.

text: One of the most important roles of glutaminase is found in the axonal terminals of

text: neurons

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: .  Glutamate is the most abundantly used excitatory

text: neurotransmitter

text: in the CNS.  After being released into the synapse for neurotransmission, glutamate is rapidly taken up by nearby

text: astrocytes

text: , which convert it to glutamine.  This glutamine is then supplied to the presynaptic terminals of the neurons, where glutaminases convert it back to glutamate for loading into

text: synaptic vesicles

text: .  Although both "kidney-type" (GLS1) and "liver-type" (GLS2) glutaminases are expressed in brain, GLS2 has been reported to exist only in cellular nuclei in CNS neurons.

text: What is important for understanding the functions of the nervous system is how the message is coded and transported by the action potential in the neuron. There are two theories on how the signal that is being propagated is coded in the spikes as to whether it is pulse code or rate code. In the former, it is the time delay of the first spike from the time of stimulus as seen by the postsynaptic receiver that determines the coding. In the rate code, it is average rate of the spike that influences the coding. It is not certain as to which is really the actual physiological phenomenon in each case. However, both cases can be modeled computationally and the parameters varied to match the experimental result. The pulse mode is more complex to model and numerous detailed neuron models and population models are described by Gerstner and Kistler in Parts I and II of Gerstner, W., & Kistler, W. (2002) and Chapter 8 of Sterratt, D., Graham, B., Gillies, A., & Willshaw, D. (2011). Another important characteristic associated with SR model is the spike-time-dependent-plasticity. It is based on Hebb’s postulate on plasticity of synapse, which states that “the neurons that fire together wire together.” This causes the synapse to be a long-term potentiation (LTP) or long-term depression (LTD). The former is the strengthening of the synapse between two neurons if the postsynaptic spike temporally follows immediately after the presynaptic spike. Latter is the case if it is reverse, i.e., the presynaptic spike occurs after the postsynaptic spike. Gerstner, W. & Kistler, W. (2002) in Chapter 10 and Sterratt, D., Graham, B., Gillies, A., & Willshaw, D. (2011) in Chapter 7 discuss the various models related to Hebbian models on plasticity and coding.

text: In humans, the spinal cord stops growing in infancy and the end of the spinal cord is about the level of the third lumbar vertebra, or L3, at birth. Because the bones of the vertebral column continue to grow, by about 12 months of age, the end of the cord reaches its permanent position at the level of L1 or L2 (closer to the head). However, due to normal anatomical variations, the final cord end position may occur anywhere from T12 twelfth thoracic vertebra (T12) to L3. Individual spinal nerve roots arise from the cord as they do closer to the head, but as the differential growth occurs, the top end of the nerve stays attached to the spinal cord while the lower end of the nerve exits the spinal column at its proper level. This results in a "bundle"-like structure of nerve fibers that extends caudally from the end of the spinal cord, gradually declining in number further down as individual pairs leave the spinal column.

text: In humans, the spinal cord stops growing in infancy and the end of the spinal cord is about the level of the third

text: lumbar vertebra

text: , or L3, at birth. Because the bones of the

text: vertebral column

text: continue to grow, by about 12 months of age, the end of the cord reaches its permanent position at the level of L1 or L2 (closer to the head). However, due to normal anatomical variations, the final cord end position may occur anywhere from T12 twelfth

text: thoracic vertebra

text: (T12) to L3. Individual spinal nerve roots arise from the cord as they do closer to the head, but as the differential growth occurs, the top end of the nerve stays attached to the spinal cord while the lower end of the nerve exits the spinal column at its proper level. This results in a "bundle"-like structure of nerve fibers that extends caudally from the end of the spinal cord, gradually declining in number further down as individual pairs leave the spinal column.

text: In 1928, Ernst Scharrer hypothesized that neurosecretory neurons in the hypothalamus of teleost fish, Phoxinus laevis, had secretory activity similar to that of endocrine gland cells. As more became known about neurosecretory cells, the difference between the actions of nerve communication and endocrine hormone release become less clear. Like the average neuron, these cells conduct electrical impulses along the axon but unlike theses neurons, neurosecretion produces neurohormones that are released into the body’s circulation. Combining the properties of the nervous and endocrine, these cells have the capacity to affect nerves through chemical messengers. Neurosecretion is a broad area of study and must be further observed to be better understood.

text: Polydendrocytes (also known as NG2 cells, NG2 glia, or oligodendrocyte progenitor cells) are process-bearing glial cells (neuroglia) in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) that are identified by the expression of the NG2 chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (CSPG4)  and the alpha receptor for platelet-derived growth factor (PDGFRA).  They are distinct from other cell populations such as neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and neural stem cells and are recognized as the fourth major glial cell type in the mammalian CNS.  Studies have implicated polydendrocytes in many cellular and physiological processes.  Polydendrocytes in the postnatal mouse CNS and those grown in culture generate oligodendrocytes, and thus they are often equated with oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs).  Under some culture conditions, polydendrocytes give rise to astrocytes.  A subpopulation of polydendrocytes in the gray matter of the embryonic CNS also generates protoplasmic astrocytes.  In addition, polydendrocytes express receptors for various neurotransmitters and undergo membrane depolarization when they receive synaptic inputs from neurons.

text: Polydendrocytes (also known as NG2 cells,

text: NG2 glia

text: , or

text: oligodendrocyte progenitor

text: cells) are process-bearing glial cells (

text: neuroglia

text: ) in the mammalian

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) that are identified by the expression of the NG2 chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (

text: )  and the alpha receptor for platelet-derived growth factor (

text: PDGFRA

text: ).  They are distinct from other cell populations such as

text: neurons

text: astrocytes

text: oligodendrocytes

text: microglia

text: , and

text: neural stem cells

text: and are recognized as the fourth major glial cell type in the mammalian CNS.  Studies have implicated polydendrocytes in many cellular and physiological processes.  Polydendrocytes in the postnatal mouse CNS and those grown in culture generate

text: oligodendrocytes

text: , and thus they are often equated with

text: oligodendrocyte progenitor

text: cells (OPCs).  Under some culture conditions, polydendrocytes give rise to

text: astrocytes

text: .  A subpopulation of polydendrocytes in the

text: gray matter

text: of the embryonic CNS also generates

text: protoplasmic astrocytes

text: .  In addition, polydendrocytes express receptors for various

text: neurotransmitters

text: and undergo membrane

text: depolarization

text: when they receive synaptic inputs from neurons.

text: Intention tremors are known to be very difficult to treat with pharmacotherapy and drugs. Although there is no established pharmacological treatment for an intention tremor, several drugs have been found to have positive effects on intention tremors and are used as treatment by many health professionals. Isoniazid, buspirone hydrochloride, glutethimide, carbamazepine, clonazepam, topiramate, zofran, propranolol and primidone have all seen moderate results in treating intention tremor and can be prescribed treatments. Isoniazid inhibits γ-aminobutyric acid-aminotransferase, which the first step in enzymatic breakdown of GABA, thus increasing GABA, the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. This causes a reduction in cerebellar ataxias. Another neurotransmitter targeted by drugs that has been found to alleviate intention tremors is serotonin. The agonist buspirone hydrochloride, which decreases serotonin's function in the central nervous system, has been viewed as an effective treatment of intention tremors.

text: Intention tremors are known to be very difficult to treat with

text: pharmacotherapy

text: and

text: drug

text: s. Although there is no established pharmacological treatment for an intention tremor, several drugs have been found to have positive effects on intention tremors and are used as treatment by many health professionals.

text: Isoniazid

text: buspirone hydrochloride

text: glutethimide

text: carbamazepine

text: clonazepam

text: topiramate

text: zofran

text: propranolol

text: and

text: primidone

text: have all seen moderate results in treating intention tremor and can be prescribed treatments.

text: Isoniazid

text: inhibits γ-aminobutyric

text: acid

text: aminotransferase

text: , which the first step in enzymatic breakdown of

text: GABA

text: , thus increasing GABA, the major inhibitory

text: neurotransmitter

text: in the central nervous system. This causes a reduction in cerebellar

text: ataxia

text: s. Another neurotransmitter targeted by drugs that has been found to alleviate intention tremors is

text: serotonin

text: . The agonist

text: buspirone hydrochloride

text: , which decreases serotonin's function in the central nervous system, has been viewed as an effective treatment of intention tremors.

text: Autosomal Recessive Spastic Ataxia of the Charlevoix-Saguenay (ARSACS) is a hereditary progressive neurological disorder that primarily affects people from the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean and Charlevoix regions of Quebec or descendants of native settlers in this region. This disorder has also been demonstrated in people from various other countries including India. It is characterized by degeneration of the spinal cord and progressive damage of the peripheral nerves.  The disorder is caused by a gene mutation on chromosome 13 (SACS) of the 22 chromosomes that determine characteristics that are not related to sex.  This is an autosomal recessive disorder, meaning that both parents must be carriers of the gene in order to have a 25% chance of their child having the disorder at each pregnancy.  Mutations of the gene is usually a deletion or replacement of a nucleotide in the SACS gene. The mutation of the SACS gene causes the production of an unstable, poorly functioning SACSIN protein.  It is unclear as to how this mutation affects the central nervous system (CNS) and skeletal muscles presenting in the signs and symptoms of ARSACS.

text: Autosomal Recessive Spastic Ataxia of the Charlevoix-Saguenay (ARSACS) is a hereditary progressive neurological disorder that primarily affects people from the

text: Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean

text: and

text: Charlevoix

text: regions of

text: Quebec

text: or descendants of native settlers in this region. This disorder has also been demonstrated in people from various other countries including India. It is characterized by degeneration of the spinal cord and progressive damage of the peripheral nerves.  The disorder is caused by a gene mutation on chromosome 13 (SACS) of the 22 chromosomes that determine characteristics that are not related to sex.  This is an

text: autosomal recessive disorder

text: , meaning that both parents must be carriers of the gene in order to have a 25% chance of their child having the disorder at each pregnancy.  Mutations of the gene is usually a deletion or replacement of a nucleotide in the SACS gene. The mutation of the SACS gene causes the production of an unstable, poorly functioning SACSIN protein.  It is unclear as to how this mutation affects the central nervous system (CNS) and skeletal muscles presenting in the signs and symptoms of ARSACS.

text: As actions of the war turned to favour the Allies, the division prepared for active service in the Australian territory of New Guinea. In early 1943, the 13th Bde was detached and the 2nd Brigade became part of the division until August 1943. When the 8th Brigade was transferred to the 5th Division in North Queensland in September 1943, for service in New Guinea, the 3rd Motor Brigade joined the division.

text: As actions of the war turned to favour the Allies, the division prepared for active service in the Australian

text: territory of New Guinea

text: . In early 1943, the 13th Bde was detached and the 2nd Brigade became part of the division until August 1943. When the 8th Brigade was transferred to the

text: 5th Division

text: in North Queensland in September 1943, for service in New Guinea, the 3rd Motor Brigade joined the division.

text: The Drakh also grow parasitic extensions of their being, known as Keepers, on their bodies. The Keepers are partially sentient creatures resembling a large, flesh-covered nervous system with protruding legs that also function as probosci to insert and innervate the nervous systems of other beings. The Keepers function as remote control systems for the Drakh's conscripted servants; they attach a Keeper to a host organism as a means of controlling and monitoring the person through telepathic relay. This control, however, can be neutralized through the consumption of large quantities of certain chemicals, such as alcohol. A Keeper is primarily a passive agent that merely monitors and relays information, but is also capable of direct control and neurological interference such as pain induction, paralysis, or physical violence. In their conscious state, a Keeper is invisible. A Keeper can never be fully removed from the host; the internal segments will break away from the outer shell and regenerate the full body from inside. A Keeper can only be destroyed by killing the Drakh from which it was spawned.

text: Information from the sensory receptors in the head enters CNS through cranial nerves. Information from receptors below the head enters the spinal cord and passes towards the brain through the 31 spinal cord nerves. The sensory information traveling through the spinal cord follows well-defined pathways. The nervous system codes the differences among the sensations in terms of which cells are active.

text: Information from the sensory receptors in the head enters CNS through

text: cranial nerves

text: . Information from receptors below the head enters the spinal cord and passes towards the brain through the 31 spinal cord nerves. The sensory information traveling through the spinal cord follows well-defined pathways. The nervous system codes the differences among the sensations in terms of which cells are active.

text: Jellyfish, comb jellies, and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system.  In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth.  The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons that pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals, motor neurons that can activate contractions of the body wall, and intermediate neurons that detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and send signals to groups of motor neurons as a result.  In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete ganglia.

text: Jellyfish

text: comb jellies

text: , and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system.  In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth.  The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons that pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals, motor neurons that can activate contractions of the body wall, and intermediate neurons that detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and send signals to groups of motor neurons as a result.  In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete

text: ganglia

text: Chaetomium atrobrunneum is a  darkly pigmented mould affiliated with the fungal division, Ascomycota. This species is predominantly saprotrophic, although it has been known to infect animals including humans, showing a proclivity for the tissues of the central nervous system. Chaetomium atrobrunneum was described in 1949 from a mouldy military mattress cover obtained from the island of Guadalcanal.

text: Chaetomium atrobrunneum is a  darkly pigmented mould affiliated with the fungal division,

text: Ascomycota

text: . This species is predominantly saprotrophic, although it has been known to infect animals including humans, showing a proclivity for the tissues of the central nervous system. Chaetomium atrobrunneum was described in 1949 from a mouldy military mattress cover obtained from the island of

text: Guadalcanal

text: Nerve fibres of the parasympathetic nervous system arise from the central nervous system. Specific nerves include several cranial nerves, specifically the oculomotor nerve, facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, and vagus nerve. Three spinal nerves in the sacrum (S2-4), commonly referred to as the pelvic splanchnic nerves, also act as parasympathetic nerves.

text: Nerve

text: fibres of the parasympathetic nervous system arise from the

text: central nervous system

text: . Specific nerves include several

text: cranial nerves

text: , specifically the

text: oculomotor nerve

text: facial nerve

text: glossopharyngeal nerve

text: , and

text: vagus nerve

text: . Three

text: spinal nerve

text: s in the

text: sacrum

text: (S2-4), commonly referred to as the

text: pelvic splanchnic nerves

text: , also act as parasympathetic nerves.

text: Netrin-1 is found in the floor plate and neuroepithelial cells of the ventral region of the spinal cord, as well as other locations in the nervous system including the somatic mesoderm, pancreas and cardiac muscle. Its main role is in axonal guidance, neuronal migration and morphogenesis of different branching structures. Mice with mutations in the netrin-1 gene were observed to be lacking in forebrain and spinal cord commissural axons.

text: is found in the floor plate and

text: neuroepithelial cells

text: of the ventral region of the spinal cord, as well as other locations in the nervous system including the

text: somatic mesoderm

text: , pancreas and cardiac muscle. Its main role is in axonal guidance,

text: neuronal migration

text: and

text: morphogenesis

text: of different branching structures. Mice with mutations in the netrin-1 gene were observed to be lacking in forebrain and spinal cord commissural axons.

text: SPINAL CORD is the monthly publication of the International Spinal Cord Society.

text: The Redlich–Obersteiner's zone, also known as the root entry zone, is a boundary between the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The Redlich–Obersteiner's zone is located at the point of entry of either between cranial nerves and the brain or spinal nerves and the spinal cord. This narrow zone is identified visually where there is a transition regarding myelin production.

text: The Redlich–Obersteiner's zone, also known as the root entry zone, is a boundary between the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). The Redlich–Obersteiner's zone is located at the point of entry of either between cranial nerves and the brain or spinal nerves and the

text: spinal cord

text: . This narrow zone is identified visually where there is a transition regarding myelin production.

text: Research has shown that abnormal expression of otoferlin, a ribbon synapse associated protein, impairs exocytosis of ribbon-bound vesicles in auditory inner hair cells. Otoferlin displays similar functional characteristics to synaptotagmin, a synapse associated protein important for mediating exocytosis in many other synapses (such as those in the central nervous system). Impaired hearing in mice has been shown to be associated with disrupted expression of otoferlin.

text: Research has shown that abnormal expression of

text: otoferlin

text: , a ribbon synapse associated protein, impairs exocytosis of ribbon-bound vesicles in auditory inner hair cells. Otoferlin displays similar functional characteristics to

text: synaptotagmin

text: , a synapse associated protein important for mediating exocytosis in many other synapses (such as those in the

text: central nervous system

text: ). Impaired hearing in mice has been shown to be associated with disrupted expression of otoferlin.

text: After 16 years as an industry consultant, Civille founded Sensory Spectrum, Inc. on April 1, 1986. Sensory Spectrum, Inc. specializes in understanding the sensory-consumer and product understanding experience for the consumer product goods (CPG) industry, academia and government. This approach links advanced sensory methods to consumer research and product development and improvement with the latest statistical analysis procedures to provide business and technical solutions for precise decision making.

text: After 16 years as an industry consultant, Civille founded Sensory Spectrum, Inc. on April 1, 1986. Sensory Spectrum, Inc. specializes in understanding the sensory-consumer and product understanding experience for the consumer product goods (CPG) industry, academia and government. This approach links advanced sensory methods to consumer research and product development and improvement with the latest

text: statistical analysis

text: procedures to provide business and technical solutions for precise

text: decision making

text: From the beginning of the war, some infantry divisions were theoretically fully mechanized and were designated as motor-transportable divisions.  Again, in practice, few units had the full complement of motor vehicles.  Other than being transported by motor vehicle, these divisions were organized like a standard infantry division, with two exceptions.  Motor-transportable divisions had a larger complement of mortars and they did not have a MVSN Legion.

text: From the beginning of the war, some infantry divisions were theoretically fully mechanized and were designated as motor-transportable divisions.  Again, in practice, few units had the full complement of motor vehicles.  Other than being transported by motor vehicle, these divisions were organized like a standard infantry division, with two exceptions.  Motor-transportable divisions had a larger complement of mortars and they did not have a

text: MVSN

text: Legion.

text: Insults to neurons in the central nervous system caused by infection, trauma, ischemia, stroke, autoimmune responses, or other neurodegenerative diseases may cause reactive astrocytes.

text: Insults to neurons in the

text: central nervous system

text: caused by infection, trauma, ischemia, stroke, autoimmune responses, or other neurodegenerative diseases may cause reactive astrocytes.

text: In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species — including all vertebrates — the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. The majority of the approximately 20–25,000 genes belonging to the human genome are expressed specifically in the brain. Due to the plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life. Thus the challenge of making sense of all this complexity is formidable.

text: In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the

text: central nervous system

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: ), and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . In many species — including all vertebrates — the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The

text: human brain

text: alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. The majority of the approximately 20–25,000 genes belonging to the human genome are expressed specifically in the brain. Due to the

text: plasticity

text: of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life. Thus the challenge of making sense of all this complexity is formidable.

text: The division appears to have been reorganised as the 32nd Separate Motor Rifle Brigade, formed from the 228th Motor Rifle Regiment (possibly at Shilov) as part of the Russian Ground Forces' reorganisation in early 2009.

text: The affected infant tends to be short, with a disproportionately large head.  The fetal head of Infants born with iniencephaly are hyperextended while the foramen magnum is enlarged and opens through the widened pedicles.  The defective neural arches directly into the upper cervical reach of the spinal canal, causing the formation of a common cavity between most of the spinal cord and the brain. The skin of the anterior chest is connected directly to the face, bypassing the formation of a neck, while the scalp is directly connected to the skin of the back.  Because of this, those born with this anomaly either have a highly shortened neck or no neck at all. This causes extreme retroflexion, or backward bending, of the head in a "star-gazing" fashion.  The spine is severely distorted as well along with significant shortening due to marked lordosis. The vertebrae, especially cervical, are fused together in abnormal shapes and their numbers are reduced.  The spinal cord is almost always defective while the ventricular system is often dilated and the cortex is thinned.  Sometimes, in the case of iniencephaly apertus, an encephalocele (sac-like protrusions of the brain through an opening in the cranium) forms.

text: The affected infant tends to be short, with a disproportionately large head.  The fetal head of Infants born with iniencephaly are hyperextended while the

text: foramen magnum

text: is enlarged and opens through the widened

text: pedicles

text: .  The defective neural arches directly into the upper cervical reach of the

text: spinal canal

text: , causing the formation of a common cavity between most of the

text: spinal cord

text: and the

text: brain

text: . The skin of the anterior chest is connected directly to the face, bypassing the formation of a neck, while the scalp is directly connected to the skin of the back.  Because of this, those born with this anomaly either have a highly shortened neck or no neck at all. This causes extreme retroflexion, or backward bending, of the head in a "star-gazing" fashion.  The spine is severely distorted as well along with significant shortening due to marked

text: lordosis

text: . The vertebrae, especially cervical, are fused together in abnormal shapes and their numbers are reduced.  The spinal cord is almost always defective while the

text: ventricular system

text: is often dilated and the

text: cortex

text: is thinned.  Sometimes, in the case of iniencephaly apertus, an

text: encephalocele

text: (sac-like protrusions of the brain through an opening in the cranium) forms.

text: Surgery of the peripheral nervous system is also possible, and includes the very common procedures of carpal tunnel decompression and peripheral nerve transposition. Numerous other types of nerve entrapment conditions and other problems with the peripheral nervous system are treated as well.

text: Proctolin is not considered a classical neurotransmitter as in many systems where it is present it does not change the postsynaptic conductance. It is believed proctolin is a neurohormone in crustaceans and in some insects. More frequently, proctolin is referred to as a neuromodulator. This is because all proctolinergic systems change the way impulses are transmitted across a synapse, using proctolin as a cotransmitter, often with a more common neurotransmitter such as glutamate.

text: Proctolin is not considered a classical

text: neurotransmitter

text: as in many systems where it is present it does not change the postsynaptic conductance. It is believed proctolin is a

text: neurohormone

text: in crustaceans and in some insects. More frequently, proctolin is referred to as a

text: neuromodulator

text: . This is because all proctolinergic systems change the way impulses are transmitted across a

text: synapse

text: , using proctolin as a

text: cotransmitter

text: , often with a more common neurotransmitter such as

text: glutamate

text: The parasympathetic nervous system (usually abbreviated PSNS, not PNS, to avoid confusion with the peripheral nervous system [PNS]) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the sympathetic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion and defecation. Its action is described as being complementary to that of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system (usually abbreviated PSNS, not PNS, to avoid confusion with the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: [PNS]) is one of the two divisions of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , the other being the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: . The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. The parasympathetic system is responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur when the body is at rest, especially after eating, including

text: sexual arousal

text: salivation

text: lacrimation

text: (tears),

text: urination

text: digestion

text: and

text: defecation

text: . Its action is described as being complementary to that of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the

text: fight-or-flight response

text: Ionotropic glutamate receptors, by definition, are ligand-gated nonselective cation channels that allow the flow of K, Na and sometimes Ca in response to glutamate binding. (In C. elegans and Drosophila, invertebrate-specific subunits enable the flow of negative chloride ions rather than cations.) Upon binding, the agonist will stimulate direct action of the central pore of the receptor, an ion channel, allowing ion flow and causing excitatory postsynaptic current (EPSC). This current is depolarizing and, if enough glutamate receptors are activated, may trigger an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. All produce excitatory postsynaptic current, but the speed and duration of the current is different for each type. NMDA receptors have an internal binding site for an Mg ion, creating a voltage-dependent block, which is removed by outward flow of positive current. Since the block must be removed by outward current flow, NMDA receptors rely on the EPSC produced by AMPA receptors to open. NMDA receptors are permeable to Ca, which is an important cation in the nervous system and has been linked to gene regulation. The flow of Ca through NMDA receptors is thought to cause both long-term potentiation (LTP, of synapse efficacy) and long-term depression (LTD) by transducing signaling cascades and regulating gene expression.

text: Ionotropic glutamate receptors, by definition, are ligand-gated nonselective

text: cation

text: channels that allow the flow of K, Na and sometimes Ca in response to glutamate binding. (In

text: C. elegans

text: and

text: Drosophila

text: , invertebrate-specific subunits enable the flow of negative

text: chloride

text: ions rather than cations.) Upon binding, the agonist will stimulate direct action of the central pore of the receptor, an ion channel, allowing ion flow and causing excitatory postsynaptic current (EPSC). This current is depolarizing and, if enough glutamate receptors are activated, may trigger an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. All produce excitatory postsynaptic current, but the speed and duration of the current is different for each type. NMDA receptors have an internal binding site for an Mg ion, creating a voltage-dependent block, which is removed by outward flow of positive current. Since the block must be removed by outward current flow, NMDA receptors rely on the EPSC produced by AMPA receptors to open. NMDA receptors are permeable to Ca, which is an important cation in the nervous system and has been linked to gene regulation. The flow of Ca through NMDA receptors is thought to cause both

text: long-term potentiation (LTP, of synapse efficacy)

text: and

text: long-term depression (LTD)

text: by transducing signaling cascades and regulating gene expression.

text: Neurons are the basic functional unit of the brain and process and transmit information through signals. Many different types of neurons can be identified based on their function, such as sensory neurons or motor neurons. Each responds to specific stimuli and sends respective and appropriate chemical signals to other neurons. The basic structure of a neuron is shown here on the right and consists of a nucleus that contains genetic information; the cell body, or the soma, which is equipped with dendritic branches that mostly receive the incoming inputs from other neurons; a long, thin axon that bears axon terminals which carry the output information to other neurons. The dendrites and axons are interfaced through a small connection called a synapse. This component of the neuron contains a variety of chemical messengers and proteins that allow for the transmission of information. It is the variety of proteins and affect of the signal that fundamentally lead to the plasticity feature.

text: Neuron

text: s are the basic functional unit of the brain and process and transmit information through signals. Many different types of neurons can be identified based on their function, such as sensory neurons or

text: motor neurons

text: . Each responds to specific stimuli and sends respective and appropriate chemical signals to other neurons. The basic structure of a neuron is shown here on the right and consists of a

text: nucleus

text: that contains genetic information; the cell body, or the

text: soma

text: , which is equipped with dendritic branches that mostly receive the incoming inputs from other neurons; a long, thin

text: axon

text: that bears

text: axon terminal

text: s which carry the output information to other neurons. The dendrites and axons are interfaced through a small connection called a

text: synapse

text: . This component of the neuron contains a variety of chemical messengers and proteins that allow for the transmission of information. It is the variety of proteins and affect of the signal that fundamentally lead to the

text: plasticity

text: feature.

text: The mammalian central nervous system (CNS) is derived from the ectoderm—the outermost tissue layer—of the embryo.  In the third week of human development the neuroectoderm appears and forms the neural plate along the dorsal side of the embryo.  The neural plate is the source of the majority of neurons and glial cells of the CNS.  A groove forms along the long axis of the neural plate and, by week four of development, the neural plate wraps in on itself to give rise to the neural tube, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). As the embryo develops, the anterior part of the neural tube forms a series of bulges called vesicles, which become the primary anatomical regions of the brain: the forebrain (prosencephalon), midbrain (mesencephalon), and hindbrain (rhombencephalon).  These simple, early vesicles enlarge and further divide into the telencephalon (future cerebral cortex and basal ganglia), diencephalon (future thalamus and hypothalamus), mesencephalon (future colliculi), metencephalon (future pons and cerebellum), and myelencephalon (future medulla).  The CSF-filled central chamber is continuous from the telencephalon to the spinal cord, and constitutes the developing ventricular system of the CNS.  Because the neural tube gives rise to the brain and spinal cord any mutations at this stage in development can lead to lethal deformities like anencephaly or lifelong disabilities like spina bifida.  During this time, the walls of the neural tube contain neural stem cells, which drive brain growth as they divide many times.  Gradually some of the cells stop dividing and differentiate into neurons and glial cells, which are the main cellular components of the CNS. The newly generated neurons migrate to different parts of the developing brain to self-organize into different brain structures. Once the neurons have reached their regional positions, they extend axons and dendrites, which allow them to communicate with other neurons via synapses. Synaptic communication between neurons leads to the establishment of functional neural circuits that mediate sensory and motor processing, and underlie behavior.

text: The

text: mammalian

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) is derived from the

text: ectoderm

text: —the outermost tissue layer—of the embryo.  In the third week of human development the

text: neuroectoderm

text: appears and forms the

text: neural plate

text: along the dorsal side of the embryo.  The neural plate is the source of the majority of neurons and glial cells of the CNS.  A groove forms along the long axis of the neural plate and, by week four of development, the neural plate wraps in on itself to give rise to the

text: neural tube

text: , which is filled with

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF). As the embryo develops, the anterior part of the neural tube forms a series of bulges called vesicles, which become the primary anatomical regions of the brain: the

text: forebrain

text: prosencephalon

text: midbrain

text: mesencephalon

text: ), and

text: hindbrain

text: rhombencephalon

text: ).  These simple, early vesicles enlarge and further divide into the

text: telencephalon

text: (future

text: cerebral cortex

text: and

text: basal ganglia

text: diencephalon

text: (future

text: thalamus

text: and

text: hypothalamus

text: mesencephalon

text: (future

text: colliculi

text: metencephalon

text: (future

text: pons

text: and

text: cerebellum

text: ), and

text: myelencephalon

text: (future

text: medulla

text: ).  The CSF-filled central chamber is continuous from the telencephalon to the spinal cord, and constitutes the developing

text: ventricular system

text: of the CNS.  Because the neural tube gives rise to the brain and spinal cord any mutations at this stage in development can lead to lethal deformities like

text: anencephaly

text: or lifelong disabilities like

text: spina bifida

text: .  During this time, the walls of the neural tube contain

text: neural stem cells

text: , which drive brain growth as they divide many times.  Gradually some of the cells stop dividing and differentiate into

text: neurons

text: and

text: glial cells

text: , which are the main cellular components of the CNS. The newly generated neurons migrate to different parts of the developing brain to self-organize into different brain structures. Once the neurons have reached their regional positions, they extend

text: axons

text: and

text: dendrites

text: , which allow them to communicate with other neurons via

text: synapses

text: . Synaptic communication between neurons leads to the establishment of functional neural circuits that mediate sensory and motor processing, and underlie behavior.

text: After the sensory nerves are exposed, each sensory nerve root is divided into 3-5 rootlets. Each rootlet is tested with electromyography, which records electrical patterns in muscles. Rootlets are ranked from 1 (mild) to 4 (severe) for spasticity. The severely abnormal rootlets are cut. This technique is repeated for rootlets between spinal nerves L2 and S2. Half of the L1 dorsal root fibers are cut without EMG testing.

text: In adults, PTPrho protein is exclusively expressed in the central nervous system and localizes to synapses between neurons.  Over-expression of wild-type and catalytically inactive mutant forms of PTPrho result in an increase in the number of excitatory and inhibitory synapses in cultured neurons in vitro. Knock-down of PTPrho expression decreases the number of synapses in cultured neurons.  PTPrho interacts in cis with the extracellular domains of neuroligins and neurexins at synapses.  PTPrho is phosphorylated on tyrosine 912 in the wedge region of its first catalytic domain by Fyn tyrosine kinase.  Phosphorylation at this site attenuates synapse formation in cultured neurons.  When PTPrho is phosphorylated by Fyn, PTPrho appears to form homophilic multimerizations, likely in cis, which appear to decrease PTPrho association with neuroligins and neurexins.  The reduction of cis interactions with neuroligins and neurexons is hypothesized to ultimately lead to the reduction in synapse formation.

text: In adults, PTPrho protein is exclusively expressed in the central nervous system and localizes to

text: synapses

text: between neurons.  Over-expression of wild-type and catalytically inactive mutant forms of PTPrho result in an increase in the number of excitatory and inhibitory synapses in cultured neurons in vitro. Knock-down of PTPrho expression decreases the number of synapses in cultured neurons.  PTPrho interacts in cis with the extracellular domains of

text: neuroligins

text: and

text: neurexins

text: at synapses.  PTPrho is phosphorylated on tyrosine 912 in the wedge region of its first catalytic domain by

text: Fyn tyrosine kinase

text: .  Phosphorylation at this site attenuates synapse formation in cultured neurons.  When PTPrho is phosphorylated by Fyn, PTPrho appears to form homophilic multimerizations, likely in cis, which appear to decrease PTPrho association with neuroligins and neurexins.  The reduction of cis interactions with neuroligins and neurexons is hypothesized to ultimately lead to the reduction in synapse formation.

text: Though receptors and stimuli are varied, most extrinsic stimuli first generate localized graded potentials in the neurons associated with the specific sensory organ or tissue. In the nervous system, internal and external stimuli can elicit two different categories of responses: an excitatory response, normally in the form of an action potential, and an inhibitory response. When a neuron is stimulated by an excitatory impulse, neuronal dendrites are bound by neurotransmitters which cause the cell to become permeable to a specific type of ion; the type of neurotransmitter determines to which ion the neurotransmitter will become permeable. In excitatory postsynaptic potentials, an excitatory response is generated. This is caused by an excitatory neurotransmitter, normally glutamate binding to a neuron's dendrites, causing an influx of sodium ions through channels located near the binding site.

text: Though receptors and stimuli are varied, most extrinsic stimuli first generate localized graded potentials in the neurons associated with the specific sensory organ or tissue. In the

text: nervous system

text: , internal and external stimuli can elicit two different categories of responses: an excitatory response, normally in the form of an

text: action potential

text: , and an inhibitory response. When a

text: neuron

text: is stimulated by an excitatory impulse, neuronal

text: dendrite

text: s are bound by

text: neurotransmitter

text: s which cause the cell to become permeable to a specific type of ion; the type of neurotransmitter determines to which ion the neurotransmitter will become permeable. In

text: excitatory postsynaptic potential

text: s, an excitatory response is generated. This is caused by an excitatory neurotransmitter, normally

text: glutamate

text: binding to a neuron's dendrites, causing an influx of sodium ions through channels located near the binding site.

text: Medical graphology is probably the most controversial branch of handwriting analysis. Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this article but an examination of factors pertaining to motor control. Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, pressure, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents. The study of these phenomena is a by-product of researchers investigating motor control processes and the interaction of nervous, anatomical, and biomechanical systems of the body.

text: Medical graphology is probably the most controversial branch of handwriting analysis. Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this article but an examination of factors pertaining to

text: motor control

text: . Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, pressure, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents. The study of these phenomena is a by-product of researchers investigating motor control processes and the interaction of nervous, anatomical, and biomechanical systems of the body.

text: The meninges comprise three membranes that, together with the cerebrospinal fluid, enclose and protect the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system). The pia mater is a very delicate impermeable membrane that firmly adheres to the surface of the brain, following all the minor contours. The arachnoid mater (so named because of its spider-web-like appearance) is a loosely fitting sac on top of the pia mater. The subarachnoid space separates the arachnoid and pia mater membranes and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The outermost membrane, the dura mater, is a thick durable membrane, which is attached to both the arachnoid membrane and the skull.

text: The meninges comprise three membranes that, together with the

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: , enclose and protect the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: (the

text: central nervous system

text: ). The

text: pia mater

text: is a very delicate impermeable membrane that firmly adheres to the surface of the brain, following all the minor contours. The

text: arachnoid mater

text: (so named because of its spider-web-like appearance) is a loosely fitting sac on top of the pia mater. The

text: subarachnoid space

text: separates the arachnoid and pia mater membranes and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The outermost membrane, the

text: dura mater

text: , is a thick durable membrane, which is attached to both the arachnoid membrane and the skull.

text: The Drosophila CNS is composed of two brain hemispheres and the ventral ganglion. Each hemisphere is composed of a laterally located Optic lobe (OL) and a medially located, generic Cerebrum (CB). At the end of embryonic development neuroblasts become quiescent, but re-enter their cell cycles during later specific larval stages. The most complex structures in the insect/Drasophila brain, the central complex and the mushroom bodies, are responsible for associative learning and memory and do form during post-embryonic development. Each OL is generated from three neuroepithelia called LPC(laminar precursor cells), OPC(outer proliferation center, and IPC(inner proliferation center). The OPC and IPC becomes asymmetric. Most of the development of the OL occurs at the end of the larval stage. Prospero plays a different role in post embryonic neurogenesis than it did in the embryonic phase. Prospero is post-embryonically upregulated in order to promote neurons to exit the cell cycle, after GMCs differentiate during the embryogenesis Prospero is nearly undectectable.

text: The Drosophila CNS is composed of two brain hemispheres and the ventral ganglion. Each hemisphere is composed of a laterally located Optic lobe (OL) and a medially located, generic Cerebrum (CB). At the end of

text: embryonic development

text: neuroblast

text: s become quiescent, but re-enter their cell cycles during later specific larval stages. The most complex structures in the insect/Drasophila brain, the central complex and the mushroom bodies, are responsible for associative learning and memory and do form during post-embryonic development. Each OL is generated from three neuroepithelia called LPC(laminar precursor cells), OPC(outer proliferation center, and IPC(inner proliferation center). The OPC and IPC becomes asymmetric. Most of the development of the OL occurs at the end of the larval stage. Prospero plays a different role in post embryonic

text: neurogenesis

text: than it did in the embryonic phase. Prospero is post-embryonically upregulated in order to promote

text: neurons

text: to exit the cell cycle, after GMCs differentiate during the embryogenesis Prospero is nearly undectectable.

text: Sensory Discovery Center: Sensory Spectrum is a global leader in the generation of high-quality sensory information. As a leader in the field of sensory and consumer science, Sensory Spectrum and its Discovery Center located in downtown Kannapolis, adjacent to the NC Research Campus, provide custom designed studies to companies that define and quantify consumers’ interactions with the sensory properties of products to integrate sensory properties to develop, position and improve products.

text: Muscle relaxation and paralysis can theoretically occur by interrupting function at several sites, including the central nervous system, myelinated somatic nerves, unmyelinated motor nerve terminals, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, the motor end plate, and the muscle membrane or contractile apparatus. Most neuromuscular blockers function by blocking transmission at the end plate of the neuromuscular junction. Normally, a nerve impulse arrives at the motor nerve terminal, initiating an influx of calcium ions, which causes the exocytosis of synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine. Acetylcholine then diffuses across the synaptic cleft. It may be hydrolysed by acetylcholine esterase (AchE) or bind to the nicotinic receptors located on the motor end plate. The binding of two acetylcholine molecules results in a conformational change in the receptor that opens the sodium-potassium channel of the nicotinic receptor. This allows  and  ions to enter the cell and  ions to leave the cell, causing a depolarization of the end plate, resulting in muscle contraction. Following depolarization, the acetylcholine molecules are then removed from the end plate region and enzymatically hydrolysed by acetylcholinesterase.

text: Muscle relaxation and paralysis can theoretically occur by interrupting function at several sites, including the

text: central nervous system

text: myelin

text: ated somatic nerves, unmyelinated motor nerve terminals,

text: nicotinic acetylcholine receptor

text: s, the motor end plate, and the muscle membrane or contractile apparatus. Most neuromuscular blockers function by blocking transmission at the end plate of the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: . Normally, a nerve impulse arrives at the motor nerve terminal, initiating an influx of

text: calcium

text: ions, which causes the

text: exocytosis

text: of

text: synaptic vesicles

text: containing

text: acetylcholine

text: . Acetylcholine then diffuses across the synaptic cleft. It may be hydrolysed by

text: acetylcholine esterase

text: (AchE) or bind to the nicotinic receptors located on the motor end plate. The binding of two acetylcholine molecules results in a

text: conformational change

text: in the receptor that opens the sodium-potassium channel of the nicotinic receptor. This allows  and  ions to enter the cell and  ions to leave the cell, causing a depolarization of the end plate, resulting in muscle contraction. Following depolarization, the acetylcholine molecules are then removed from the end plate region and enzymatically hydrolysed by acetylcholinesterase.

text: Network of human nervous system comprises nodes (for example, neurons) that are connected by links (for example, synapses). The connectivity may be viewed anatomically, functionally, or electrophysiologically. These are presented in several Wikipedia articles that include Connectionism (a.k.a. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)), Biological neural network, Artificial neural network (a.k.a. Neural network), Computational neuroscience, as well as in several books by Ascoli, G. A. (2002), Sterratt, D., Graham, B., Gillies, A., & Willshaw, D. (2011), Gerstner, W., & Kistler, W. (2002), and Rumelhart, J. L., McClelland, J. L., and PDP Research Group (1986) among others. The focus of this article is a comprehensive view of modeling a neural network (technically neuronal network based on neuron model). Once an approach based on the perspective and connectivity is chosen, the models are developed at microscopic (ion and neuron), mesoscopic (functional or population), or macroscopic (system) levels. Computational modeling refers to models that are developed using computing tools.

text: Network of human nervous system comprises nodes (for example, neurons) that are connected by links (for example, synapses). The connectivity may be viewed anatomically, functionally, or electrophysiologically. These are presented in several Wikipedia articles that include

text: Connectionism

text: (a.k.a.

text: Parallel Distributed Processing

text: (PDP)),

text: Biological neural network

text: Artificial neural network

text: (a.k.a.

text: Neural network

text: Computational neuroscience

text: , as well as in several books by Ascoli, G. A. (2002), Sterratt, D., Graham, B., Gillies, A., & Willshaw, D. (2011), Gerstner, W., & Kistler, W. (2002), and Rumelhart, J. L., McClelland, J. L., and PDP Research Group (1986) among others. The focus of this article is a comprehensive view of modeling a neural network (technically neuronal network based on neuron model). Once an approach based on the perspective and connectivity is chosen, the models are developed at microscopic (ion and neuron), mesoscopic (functional or population), or macroscopic (system) levels. Computational modeling refers to models that are developed using computing tools.

text: The ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which bathes and cushions the brain and spinal cord within their bony confines. CSF is produced by modified ependymal cells of the choroid plexus found in all components of the ventricular system except for the cerebral aqueduct and the posterior and anterior horns of the lateral ventricles. CSF flows from the lateral ventricles via the foramina of Monro into the third ventricle, and then the fourth ventricle via the cerebral aqueduct in the brainstem. From the fourth ventricle it can pass into the central canal of the spinal cord or into the cisterns of the subarachnoid space via three small foramina: the central foramen of Magendie and the two lateral foramina of Luschka.

text: The ventricles are filled with

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF) which bathes and cushions the brain and

text: spinal cord

text: within their bony confines. CSF is produced by modified

text: ependymal cell

text: s of the

text: choroid plexus

text: found in all components of the ventricular system except for the

text: cerebral aqueduct

text: and the

text: posterior

text: and

text: anterior horns

text: of the lateral ventricles. CSF flows from the lateral ventricles via the

text: foramina of Monro

text: into the

text: third ventricle

text: , and then the

text: fourth ventricle

text: via the

text: cerebral aqueduct

text: in the

text: brainstem

text: . From the fourth ventricle it can pass into the

text: central canal

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: or into the cisterns of the

text: subarachnoid space

text: via three small foramina: the central

text: foramen of Magendie

text: and the two lateral

text: foramina of Luschka

text: Henry Dorsett Case is a low-level hustler in the dystopian underworld of Chiba City, Japan. Once a talented computer hacker, Case was caught stealing from his employer. As punishment for his theft, Case's central nervous system was damaged with a mycotoxin, leaving him unable to access the global computer network in cyberspace, a virtual reality dataspace called the "matrix".  Case is unemployable, suicidal, and apparently at the top of the hit list of a drug lord named Wage. Case is saved by Molly Millions, an augmented "street samurai" and mercenary for a shadowy ex-military officer named Armitage, who offers to cure Case in exchange for his services as a hacker. Case jumps at the chance to regain his life as a "console cowboy," but neither Case nor Molly knows what Armitage is really planning. Case's nervous system is repaired using new technology that Armitage offers the clinic as payment, but he soon learns from Armitage that sacs of the poison that first crippled him have been placed in his blood vessels as well. Armitage promises Case that if he completes his work in time, the sacs will be removed; otherwise they will dissolve, disabling him again. He also has Case's pancreas replaced and new tissue grafted into his liver, leaving Case incapable of metabolizing cocaine or amphetamines and apparently ending his drug addiction.

text: Henry Dorsett Case is a low-level hustler in the

text: dystopia

text: n

text: underworld

text: of

text: Chiba City

text: , Japan. Once a talented

text: computer hacker

text: , Case was caught stealing from his employer. As punishment for his theft, Case's

text: central nervous system

text: was damaged with a

text: mycotoxin

text: , leaving him unable to access the

text: global computer network

text: in

text: cyberspace

text: , a

text: virtual reality

text: dataspace

text: called the "

text: matrix

text: ".  Case is unemployable, suicidal, and apparently at the top of the hit list of a drug lord named Wage. Case is saved by

text: Molly Millions

text: , an augmented "street samurai" and mercenary for a shadowy ex-military officer named Armitage, who offers to cure Case in exchange for his services as a hacker. Case jumps at the chance to regain his life as a "console cowboy," but neither Case nor Molly knows what Armitage is really planning. Case's nervous system is repaired using new technology that Armitage offers the clinic as payment, but he soon learns from Armitage that sacs of the poison that first crippled him have been placed in his blood vessels as well. Armitage promises Case that if he completes his work in time, the sacs will be removed; otherwise they will dissolve, disabling him again. He also has Case's

text: pancreas

text: replaced and new tissue grafted into his liver, leaving Case incapable of metabolizing

text: cocaine

text: or

text: amphetamines

text: and apparently ending his drug addiction.

text: Neurodevelopment in the adult nervous system includes mechanisms such as remyelination, generation of new neurons, glia, axons, myelin or synapses. Neuroregeneration differs between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially, the extent and speed.

text: Neurodevelopment in the adult nervous system includes mechanisms such as

text: remyelination

text: , generation of new

text: neuron

text: s,

text: glia

text: axon

text: s,

text: myelin

text: or

text: synapse

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) and the

text: central nervous system

text: Neuromorphology (from Greek νεῦρον, neuron, "nerve"; μορφή, morphé, “form”; -λογία, -logia, “study of”) is the study of nervous system form, shape, and structure. The study involves looking at a particular part of the nervous system from a molecular and cellular level and connecting it to a physiological and  anatomical point of view. The field also explores the communications and interactions within and between each specialized section of the nervous system.Morphology is distinct from morphogenesis. Morphology is the study of the shape and structure of biological organisms, while morphogenesis is the study of the biological development of the shape and structure of organisms. Therefore, neuromorphology focuses on the specifics of the structure of the nervous system and not the process by which the structure was developed. Neuromorphology and morphogenesis, while two different entities, are nonetheless closely linked.

text: Neuromorphology (from Greek νεῦρον, neuron, "nerve"; μορφή, morphé, “form”; -λογία, -logia, “study of”) is the study of

text: nervous system

text: form, shape, and structure. The study involves looking at a particular part of the nervous system from a

text: molecular

text: and

text: cellular

text: level and connecting it to a

text: physiological

text: and

text: anatomical

text: point of view. The field also explores the communications and interactions within and between each specialized section of the nervous system.

text: Morphology

text: is distinct from

text: morphogenesis

text: . Morphology is the study of the shape and structure of biological organisms, while morphogenesis is the study of the biological development of the shape and structure of organisms. Therefore, neuromorphology focuses on the specifics of the structure of the nervous system and not the process by which the structure was developed. Neuromorphology and morphogenesis, while two different entities, are nonetheless closely linked.

text: Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that affect the function of the central nervous system, altering perception, mood or consciousness. They include  alcohol, a depressant (and a stimulant in small quantities), and the stimulants nicotine and caffeine. These three are the most widely consumed psychoactive drugs worldwide and are also considered as recreational drugs since they are used for pleasure rather than medicinal purposes. Other recreational drugs include hallucinogens, opiates and amphetamines and some of these are also used in spiritual or religious settings.  Some drugs can cause addiction  and all drugs can have side effects. Excessive use of stimulants can promote stimulant psychosis. Many  recreational drugs are illicit and international treaties such as the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs exist for the purpose of their prohibition.

text: Psychoactive drug

text: s are chemical substances that affect the function of the

text: central nervous system

text: , altering

text: perception

text: mood

text: or

text: consciousness

text: . They include

text: alcohol

text: , a

text: depressant

text: (and a stimulant in small quantities), and the

text: stimulant

text: s

text: nicotine

text: and

text: caffeine

text: . These three are the most widely consumed psychoactive drugs worldwide and are also considered as

text: recreational drugs

text: since they are used for pleasure rather than medicinal purposes. Other recreational drugs include

text: hallucinogen

text: s,

text: opiate

text: s and

text: amphetamine

text: s and some of these are also used in spiritual or religious settings.  Some drugs can cause

text: addiction

text: and all drugs can have

text: side effect

text: s. Excessive use of stimulants can promote

text: stimulant psychosis

text: . Many  recreational drugs are

text: illicit

text: and international treaties such as the

text: Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

text: exist for the purpose of their

text: prohibition

text: Tank divisions later reorganised as motor rifle divisions include the 2nd/32nd/66th, which finally became the 277th Motor Rifle Division, and the 61st/13th, which became the 13th Motor Rifle Division in 1957.

text: Tank divisions later reorganised as motor rifle divisions include the 2nd/32nd/66th, which finally became the

text: 277th Motor Rifle Division

text: , and the 61st/13th, which became the

text: 13th Motor Rifle Division

text: in 1957.

text: Both the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system may be involved. Emboli to the brain may cause stroke-like episodes, headache and episodes of loss of vision in one eye (known as amaurosis fugax). Emboli to the eye can be seen by ophthalmoscopy and are known as plaques of Hollenhorst. Emboli to the spinal cord may cause paraparesis (decreased power in the legs) or cauda equina syndrome, a group of symptoms due to loss of function of the distal part of the spinal cord - loss of control over the bladder, rectum and skin sensation around the anus. If the blood supply to a single nerve is interrupted by an embolus, the result is loss of function in the muscles supplied by that nerve; this phenomenon is called a mononeuropathy.

text: Both the

text: central nervous system

text: (brain and

text: spinal cord

text: ) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: may be involved. Emboli to the brain may cause

text: stroke

text: -like episodes,

text: headache

text: and episodes of loss of vision in one eye (known as

text: amaurosis fugax

text: ). Emboli to the eye can be seen by

text: ophthalmoscopy

text: and are known as

text: plaques of Hollenhorst

text: . Emboli to the spinal cord may cause

text: paraparesis

text: (decreased power in the legs) or

text: cauda equina syndrome

text: , a group of symptoms due to loss of function of the distal part of the spinal cord - loss of control over the

text: bladder

text: rectum

text: and skin sensation around the anus. If the blood supply to a single nerve is interrupted by an embolus, the result is loss of function in the muscles supplied by that nerve; this phenomenon is called a

text: mononeuropathy

text: Patients with schizophrenia may have some gray matter volume loss in both hemispheres of the brain. The most significant losses are typically in the left thalamus and right caudate, and this loss extends into the cerebrum, parahippocampal gyrus, and the hippocampus. There are increases in the temporal and parietal lobes, along with the anterior cerebellum. When patients with schizophrenia are compared to healthy participants, there is a decrease in gray matter volume in prefrontal and temporal regions.  The only region in which the volume increases for gray matter is within the right cerebellum, an area that contributes to the cognitive, affective, perceptual, and other deficits seen in schizophrenia.

text: Patients with schizophrenia may have some gray matter volume loss in both hemispheres of the brain. The most significant losses are typically in the left

text: thalamus

text: and right

text: caudate

text: , and this loss extends into the

text: cerebrum

text: parahippocampal gyrus

text: , and the

text: hippocampus

text: . There are increases in the

text: temporal

text: and

text: parietal

text: lobes, along with the

text: anterior

text: cerebellum. When patients with schizophrenia are compared to healthy participants, there is a decrease in gray matter volume in

text: prefrontal

text: and temporal regions.  The only region in which the volume increases for gray matter is within the right

text: cerebellum

text: , an area that contributes to the

text: cognitive

text: affective

text: perceptual

text: , and other deficits seen in schizophrenia.

text: The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell—the neuron (sometimes called "neurone" or "nerve cell").  Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number of ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells via synapses, which are membrane-to-membrane junctions containing molecular machinery that allows rapid transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical.  Many types of neuron possess an axon, a protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make thousands of synaptic contacts.  Axons frequently travel through the body in bundles called nerves.

text: The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell—the

text: neuron

text: (sometimes called "neurone" or "nerve cell").  Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number of ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells via

text: synapse

text: s, which are membrane-to-membrane junctions containing molecular machinery that allows rapid transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical.  Many types of neuron possess an

text: axon

text: , a protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make thousands of synaptic contacts.  Axons frequently travel through the body in bundles called nerves.

text: An insect’s sensory, motor and physiological processes are controlled by the central nervous system along with the endocrine system. Being the principal division of the nervous system, it consists of a brain, a ventral nerve cord and a subesophageal ganglion. This is connected to the brain by two nerves, extending around each side of the oesophagus.

text: An insect’s sensory,

text: motor

text: and physiological processes are controlled by the

text: central nervous system

text: along with the

text: endocrine system

text: . Being the principal division of the nervous system, it consists of a

text: brain

text: , a

text: ventral nerve cord

text: and a

text: subesophageal ganglion

text: . This is connected to the brain by two nerves, extending around each side of the

text: oesophagus

text: The upper two fossae are triangular and lodge the occipital lobes of the cerebrum; the lower two are quadrilateral and accommodate the hemispheres of the cerebellum.

text: The upper two fossae are triangular and lodge the

text: occipital lobe

text: s of the

text: cerebrum

text: ; the lower two are quadrilateral and accommodate the hemispheres of the

text: cerebellum

text: A more recent hypothesis propose that the central nervous system does not eliminate the redundant degrees of freedom, but instead it uses all of them to ensure flexible and stable performance of motor tasks. The central nervous system makes use of this abundance from the redundant systems instead of restricting them like previously hypothesized. Uncontrolled Manifold (UCM) Hypothesis provides a way to quantify the muscle synergy. This hypothesis defines "synergy" a little differently from that stated above; a synergy represents an organization of elemental variables (degrees of freedom) that stabilizes an important performance variable. Elemental variable is the smallest sensible variable that can be used to describe a system of interest at a selected level of analysis, and a performance variable refers to the potentially important variables produced by the system as a whole. For example, in multi-joint reaching task, the angles and the positions of certain joints are the elemental variables, and the performance variables are the endpoint coordinates of the hand.

text: A more recent hypothesis propose that the

text: central nervous system

text: does not eliminate the redundant

text: degrees of freedom

text: , but instead it uses all of them to ensure flexible and stable performance of motor tasks. The

text: central nervous system

text: makes use of this abundance from the redundant systems instead of restricting them like previously hypothesized. Uncontrolled Manifold (UCM) Hypothesis provides a way to quantify the muscle synergy. This hypothesis defines "synergy" a little differently from that stated above; a synergy represents an organization of elemental variables (degrees of freedom) that stabilizes an important performance variable. Elemental variable is the smallest sensible variable that can be used to describe a system of interest at a selected level of analysis, and a performance variable refers to the potentially important variables produced by the system as a whole. For example, in multi-joint reaching task, the angles and the positions of certain joints are the elemental variables, and the performance variables are the endpoint coordinates of the hand.

text: Para-Nordic skiing is governed by the International Paralympic Committee, Nordic Skiing.The United States Deaf Ski and Snowboard Association is in charge of deaf classification for competitors in the United States.  In the United States, the sport is governed by Disabled Sports USA for skiers with functional mobility, and governed by the United States Association of Blind Athletes (USABA) for skiers with vision impairment, while Special Olympics governs the sport and classification for people with intellectual disabilities. Disabled Sports USA developed its own classification system for sit skiing that is not used internationally. They use a three group classification system, with Group 1 skiers including T5 to T10 spinal cord injuries, Group 2  including all other skiers with disabilities below T10 and Group 3 including all spinal cord disabilities above T10.

text: Para-Nordic skiing is governed by the International Paralympic Committee, Nordic Skiing.The

text: United States Deaf Ski and Snowboard Association

text: is in charge of deaf classification for competitors in the United States.  In the United States, the sport is governed by

text: Disabled Sports USA

text: for skiers with functional mobility, and governed by the

entity_name: United States Association of Blind Athletes

text: United States Association of Blind Athletes

text: (USABA) for skiers with vision impairment, while

text: Special Olympics

text: governs the sport and classification for people with intellectual disabilities. Disabled Sports USA developed its own classification system for

text: sit skiing

text: that is not used internationally. They use a three group classification system, with Group 1 skiers including T5 to T10 spinal cord injuries, Group 2  including all other skiers with disabilities below T10 and Group 3 including all spinal cord disabilities above T10.

text: The lobes of the brain were originally a purely anatomical classification, but have been shown also to be related to different brain functions. The telencephalon (cerebrum), the largest portion of the human brain, is divided into lobes, but so is the cerebellum. If not specified, the expression "lobes of the brain" refers to the telencephalon.

text: The lobes of the brain were originally a purely anatomical classification, but have been shown also to be related to different

text: brain

text: functions. The

text: telencephalon

text: (cerebrum), the largest portion of the

text: human brain

text: , is divided into lobes, but so is the

text: cerebellum

text: . If not specified, the expression "lobes of the brain" refers to the telencephalon.

text: Neuroborreliosis is a disorder of the central nervous system caused by infection with a spirochete of the genus Borrelia. The microbiological progression of the disease is similar to that of neurosyphilis, another spirochetal infection.

text: Neuroborreliosis is a disorder of the

text: central nervous system

text: caused by infection with a

text: spirochete

text: of the genus

text: Borrelia

text: . The microbiological progression of the disease is similar to that of

text: neurosyphilis

text: , another spirochetal infection.

text: The lateral sulcus divides both the frontal lobe and parietal lobe above from the temporal lobe below.  It is in both hemispheres of the brain but is longer in the left hemisphere in most people. The lateral sulcus is one of the earliest-developing sulci of the human brain. It first appears around the fourteenth gestational week.

text: The lateral sulcus divides both the

text: frontal lobe

text: and

text: parietal lobe

text: above from the

text: temporal lobe

text: below.  It is in both

text: hemispheres of the brain

text: but is longer in the left hemisphere in most people. The lateral

text: sulcus

text: is one of the earliest-developing sulci of the human brain. It first appears around the fourteenth gestational week.

text: In more recent studies the Zebrafish ennui mutation was identified from mutagenesis identification for defects in early behaviour. Homozygous ennui embryo swam more slowly than the wild-type but gained normal swimming as it aged. When tested, the motor output of the central nervous system following mechano-sensory stimulation was normal in ennui, which means that the reaction-time and reaction-style was normal to the wild-types and the motoneuron were not affected. The synaptic current at the neuromuscular junction was significantly reduced in ennui which means that the neuromuscular junction was affected. The acetylcholine recpetor were significantly reduced in the adult ennui in size as well as localization at the myotome segment borders of fast-twitch muscles. Genetic mosaic analysis revealed that ennui is necessary cell autonomously in muscle fibers for normal synaptic localization of acetylcholine receptors. Also, ennui is very important for agrin function. Ennui is very important in nerve-dependent acetylcholine clustering and the stability of axon growth.

text: In more recent studies the

text: Zebrafish

text: ennui mutation was identified from mutagenesis identification for defects in early behaviour. Homozygous ennui embryo swam more slowly than the wild-type but gained normal swimming as it aged. When tested, the motor output of the

text: central nervous system

text: following mechano-sensory stimulation was normal in ennui, which means that the reaction-time and reaction-style was normal to the wild-types and the

text: motoneuron

text: were not affected. The synaptic current at the neuromuscular junction was significantly reduced in ennui which means that the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: was affected. The

text: acetylcholine recpetor

text: were significantly reduced in the adult ennui in size as well as localization at the

text: myotome

text: segment borders of fast-twitch muscles.

text: Genetic mosaic

text: analysis revealed that ennui is necessary cell autonomously in muscle fibers for normal synaptic localization of acetylcholine receptors. Also, ennui is very important for

text: agrin

text: function. Ennui is very important in nerve-dependent acetylcholine clustering and the stability of axon growth.

text: There are two types of myelin the first is ogliodendrocyte- Myelin which can be found in the mammalian Central Nervous System (CNS) and the second is Schwann cells which are found in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). Myelination of axons by these Schwann cells are essential for normal nerve function. Peripheral nerves rely on communication between axons and Schwaan cells.

text: The afferent leg of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for conveying sensory information to the brain, primarily from the sense organs like the skin. In the muscles, the muscle spindles convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception, the perception of body awareness. More easily demonstrated than explained, proprioception is the "unconscious" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. This can be demonstrated by anyone closing their eyes and waving their hand around. Assuming proper proprioceptive function, at no time will the person lose awareness of where the hand actually is, even though it is not being detected by any of the other senses.

text: The

text: afferent

text: leg of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for conveying sensory information to the brain, primarily from the sense organs like the skin. In the muscles, the

text: muscle spindle

text: s convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The

text: sense

text: of where our bodies are in space is called

text: proprioception

text: , the perception of body awareness. More easily demonstrated than explained, proprioception is the "unconscious" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. This can be demonstrated by anyone closing their eyes and waving their hand around. Assuming proper proprioceptive function, at no time will the person lose awareness of where the hand actually is, even though it is not being detected by any of the other senses.

text: In 2002, under the heading Project Cyborg, a British scientist, Kevin Warwick, had an array of 100 electrodes fired into his nervous system in order to link his nervous system into the internet. With this in place he successfully carried out a series of experiments including extending his nervous system over the internet to control a robotic hand, a loudspeaker and amplifier. This is a form of extended sensory input and the first direct electronic communication between the nervous systems of two humans.

text: In 2002, under the heading Project Cyborg, a British scientist,

text: Kevin Warwick

text: , had an array of 100 electrodes fired into his nervous system in order to link his nervous system into the internet. With this in place he successfully carried out a series of experiments including extending his nervous system over the internet to control a robotic hand, a loudspeaker and amplifier. This is a form of extended sensory input and the first direct electronic communication between the nervous systems of two humans.

text: The distinguishing characteristic of a behavioral neuroscience experiment is that either the independent variable of the experiment is biological, or some dependent variable is biological. In other words, the nervous system of the organism under study is permanently or temporarily altered, or some aspect of the nervous system is measured (usually to be related to a behavioral variable).

text: The distinguishing characteristic of a behavioral neuroscience experiment is that either the

text: independent variable

text: of the experiment is biological, or some

text: dependent variable

text: is biological. In other words, the

text: nervous system

text: of the organism under study is permanently or temporarily altered, or some aspect of the nervous system is measured (usually to be related to a behavioral variable).

text: A neuroectodermal tumor is a tumor of the central or peripheral nervous system.

text: A neuroectodermal tumor is a

text: tumor

text: of the

text: central

text: or

text: peripheral nervous system

text: The nerve impulse is characterised by a great influx of sodium ions through channels in the neuron's cell membrane followed by an efflux of potassium ions through other channels. The neuron is unable to fire again for a short time (known as the refractory period), which is mediated by another potassium channel. The flow through these ion channels is governed by a "gate" which is opened by either a voltage change or a chemical messenger known as a ligand (such as a neurotransmitter). These channels are another target for anticonvulsant drugs.

text: The nerve impulse is characterised by a great influx of sodium ions through

text: channels

text: in the neuron's

text: cell membrane

text: followed by an efflux of potassium ions through other channels. The neuron is unable to fire again for a short time (known as the

text: refractory period

text: ), which is mediated by another

text: potassium channel

text: . The flow through these

text: ion channel

text: s is governed by a "gate" which is opened by either a voltage change or a

text: chemical messenger

text: known as a

text: ligand

text: (such as a neurotransmitter). These channels are another target for anticonvulsant drugs.

text: Comprised 298th Tank Regiment (Gyuzhdek/Гюждек), 139th Motor Rifle Regiment (Kusary), and 135th (with BTR) and 140th Motor Rifle Regiments (with BMP), both based in Baku.

text: Comprised 298th Tank Regiment (Gyuzhdek/Гюждек), 139th Motor Rifle Regiment (

text: Kusary

text: ), and 135th (with BTR) and 140th Motor Rifle Regiments (with BMP), both based in Baku.

text: Conversely, α-adrenoceptor antagonists block the pain reducing effects of  when given directly to the spinal cord, but not when applied directly to the brain. Indeed, α-adrenoceptor knockout mice or animals depleted in norepinephrine are nearly completely resistant to the antinociceptive effects of . Apparently -induced release of endogenous opioids causes disinhibition of brain stem noradrenergic neurons, which release norepinephrine into the spinal cord and inhibit pain signalling. Exactly how  causes the release of endogenous opioid peptides is still uncertain.

text: Conversely,

text: α-adrenoceptor

text: antagonists block the pain reducing effects of  when given directly to the spinal cord, but not when applied directly to the brain. Indeed,

text: α-adrenoceptor

text: knockout mice or animals depleted in

text: norepinephrine

text: are nearly completely resistant to the antinociceptive effects of . Apparently -induced release of endogenous opioids causes disinhibition of

text: brain stem

text: noradrenergic neurons, which release

text: norepinephrine

text: into the spinal cord and inhibit pain signalling. Exactly how  causes the release of endogenous opioid peptides is still uncertain.

text: Despite their naming, glia function more as partners to neurons than as "glue".They are also crucial in the development of the nervous system and in processes such as synaptic plasticity and synaptogenesis. Glia have a role in the regulation of repair of neurons after injury. In the central nervous system (CNS), glia suppress repair. Glial cells known as astrocytes enlarge and proliferate to form a scar and produce inhibitory molecules that inhibit regrowth of a damaged or severed axon. In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), glial cells known as Schwann cells promote repair. After axonal injury, Schwann cells regress to an earlier developmental state to encourage regrowth of the axon. This difference between the CNS and the PNS, raises hopes for the regeneration of nervous tissue in the CNS. For example, a spinal cord may be able to be repaired following injury or severance. Schwann cells are also known as neuri-lemmocytes.  These cells envelop nerve fibers of the PNS by winding repeatedly around a nerve fiber with the nucleus inside of it.  This process creates a myelin sheath, which not only aids in conductivity but also assists in the regeneration of damaged fibers.

text: Despite their naming, glia function more as partners to neurons than as "glue".They are also crucial in the development of the nervous system and in processes such as

text: synaptic plasticity

text: and

text: synaptogenesis

text: . Glia have a role in the regulation of repair of neurons after injury. In the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), glia suppress repair. Glial cells known as

text: astrocytes

text: enlarge and proliferate to form a scar and produce inhibitory molecules that inhibit regrowth of a damaged or severed axon. In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), glial cells known as

text: Schwann cell

text: s promote repair. After axonal injury, Schwann cells regress to an earlier developmental state to encourage regrowth of the axon. This difference between the CNS and the PNS, raises hopes for the regeneration of nervous tissue in the CNS. For example, a spinal cord may be able to be repaired following injury or severance. Schwann cells are also known as neuri-lemmocytes.  These cells envelop nerve fibers of the PNS by winding repeatedly around a nerve fiber with the nucleus inside of it.  This process creates a myelin sheath, which not only aids in conductivity but also assists in the regeneration of damaged fibers.

text: A neurological examination is the assessment of sensory neuron and motor responses, especially reflexes, to determine whether the nervous system is impaired. This typically includes a physical examination and a review of the patient's medical history, but not deeper investigation such as neuroimaging. It can be used both as a screening tool and as an investigative tool, the former of which when examining the patient when there is no expected neurological deficit and the latter of which when examining a patient where you do expect to find abnormalities. If a problem is found either in an investigative or screening process then further tests can be carried out to focus on a particular aspect of the nervous system (such as lumbar punctures and blood tests).

text: A neurological examination is the assessment of

text: sensory neuron

text: and

text: motor

text: responses, especially

text: reflex

text: es, to determine whether the

text: nervous system

text: is impaired. This typically includes a

text: physical examination

text: and a review of the patient's

text: medical history

text: , but not deeper investigation such as

text: neuroimaging

text: . It can be used both as a screening tool and as an investigative tool, the former of which when examining the patient when there is no expected neurological deficit and the latter of which when examining a patient where you do expect to find abnormalities. If a problem is found either in an investigative or screening process then further tests can be carried out to focus on a particular aspect of the nervous system (such as

text: lumbar puncture

text: s and

text: blood test

text: s).

text: Insects have a complex nervous system which incorporates a variety of internal physiological information as well as external sensory information. As in the case of vertebrates, the basic component is the neuron or nerve cell. This is made up of a dendrite with two projections that receive stimuli and an axon, which transmits information to another neuron or organ, like a muscle. As for vertebrates, chemicals (neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine) are released at synapses.

text: Insects have a complex

text: nervous system

text: which incorporates a variety of internal physiological information as well as external sensory information. As in the case of vertebrates, the basic component is the

text: neuron

text: or nerve cell. This is made up of a dendrite with two projections that receive stimuli and an

text: axon

text: , which transmits information to another neuron or organ, like a

text: muscle

text: . As for vertebrates, chemicals (

text: neurotransmitters

text: such as

text: acetylcholine

text: and

text: dopamine

text: ) are released at

text: synapses

text: There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:Cervical enlargement - corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves, which innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord segments from about C4 to T1. The vertebral levels of the enlargement are roughly the same (C4 to T1).Lumbosacral enlargement - corresponds to the lumbosacral plexus nerves, which innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal cord segments from L2 to S3 and is found about the vertebral levels of T9 to T12.

text: Although Lashley (1933) first formulated the motor equivalence problem, it was Bernstein who articulated the DOF problem in its current form. In Bernstein's formulation, the problem results from infinite redundancy, yet flexibility between movements; thus, the nervous system apparently must choose a particular motor solution every time it acts.  In Bernstein's formulation, a single muscle never acts in isolation. Rather, large numbers of "nervous centres" cooperate in order to make a whole movement possible. Nervous impulses from different parts of the CNS may converge on the periphery in combination to produce a movement; however, there is great difficulty for scientists in understanding and coordinating the facts linking impulses to a movement. Bernstein's rational understanding of movement and prediction of motor learning via what we now call "plasticity" was revolutionary for his time.

text: Although

text: Lashley

text: (1933) first formulated the motor equivalence problem, it was Bernstein who articulated the DOF problem in its current form. In Bernstein's formulation, the problem results from infinite redundancy, yet flexibility between movements; thus, the nervous system apparently must choose a particular motor solution every time it acts.  In Bernstein's formulation, a single muscle never acts in isolation. Rather, large numbers of "nervous centres" cooperate in order to make a whole movement possible. Nervous impulses from different parts of the

text: CNS

text: may converge on the

text: periphery

text: in combination to produce a movement; however, there is great difficulty for scientists in understanding and coordinating the facts linking impulses to a movement. Bernstein's rational understanding of movement and prediction of

text: motor learning

text: via what we now call "plasticity" was revolutionary for his time.

text: When structural impairments are not observable or do not exist, neurological impairments are assessed. In the context of FASD, neurological impairments are caused by prenatal alcohol exposure which causes general neurological damage to the central nervous system (CNS), the peripheral nervous system, or the autonomic nervous system. A determination of a neurological problem must be made by a trained physician, and must not be due to a postnatal insult, such as a high fever, concussion, traumatic brain injury, etc.

text: When structural impairments are not observable or do not exist, neurological impairments are assessed. In the context of FASD,

text: neurological impairments

text: are caused by prenatal alcohol exposure which causes general neurological damage to the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , or the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . A determination of a neurological problem must be made by a trained physician, and must not be due to a postnatal insult, such as a high

text: fever

text: concussion

text: traumatic brain injury

text: , etc.

text: There are three poles of the hemispheres named as the occipital (at the back), the frontal and at the front of the temporal lobe the temporal.

text: There are three

text: poles

text: of the hemispheres named as the

text: occipital

text: (at the back), the

text: frontal

text: and at the front of the

text: temporal lobe

text: the temporal.

text: Antidepressants can also induce the appearance of akathisia, due to increased serotonin signalling within the central nervous system. This also explains why serotonin antagonists are often a very effective treatment.The 2006 UK study by Healy et al. observed that akathisia is often miscoded in antidepressant clinical trials as "agitation, emotional lability, and hyperkinesis (overactivity)". The study further points out that misdiagnosis of akathisia as simple motor restlessness occurs, but that this is more properly classed as dyskinesia.

text: Antidepressant

text: s can also induce the appearance of akathisia, due to increased serotonin signalling within the

text: central nervous system

text: . This also explains why

text: serotonin antagonist

text: s are often a very effective treatment.The 2006 UK study by Healy et al. observed that akathisia is often miscoded in antidepressant clinical trials as "agitation,

text: emotional lability

text: , and hyperkinesis (overactivity)". The study further points out that misdiagnosis of akathisia as simple

text: motor restlessness

text: occurs, but that this is more properly classed as

text: dyskinesia

text: The growing axons also rely on transient neuronal structures such as guideposts, during pathfinding. In the mouse visual system, proper optic chiasm formation depends on a V-shaped structure of transient neurons that intersect with specialized radial glia at the midline of the chiasm. The chiasm axons grow along and around this structure but do not invade it. Another example is the subplate in the developing cerebral cortex that consists of transient neuronal layer under the subventricular zone and serves as a guidepost for axons entering permanent cortical layers.  The subplate is similar to the chiasmatic neurons in that these cell groups disappear (or transit into other cell types) as the brain matures. These ﬁndings indicate that transitory cell populations can serve an important guidance role even though they have no function in the mature nervous system.

text: The growing axons also rely on transient neuronal structures such as guideposts, during pathfinding. In the mouse

text: visual system

text: , proper

text: optic chiasm

text: formation depends on a V-shaped structure of transient neurons that intersect with specialized radial glia at the midline of the chiasm. The chiasm axons grow along and around this structure but do not invade it. Another example is the subplate in the developing

text: cerebral cortex

text: that consists of transient neuronal layer under the

text: subventricular zone

text: and serves as a guidepost for axons entering permanent cortical layers.  The subplate is similar to the chiasmatic neurons in that these cell groups disappear (or transit into other cell types) as the brain matures. These ﬁndings indicate that transitory cell populations can serve an important guidance role even though they have no function in the mature nervous system.

text: Astrocytes, a kind of glial cell, are the primary support cells of the brain and spinal cord. They make and secrete proteins called neurotrophic factors, which assist in the maintenance of nerve cells in the central nervous system. They also break down and remove proteins or chemicals that might be harmful to neurons (for example, glutamate, a neurotransmitter that in excess causes cells to become overexcited and die by a process called excitotoxicity).

text: Injuries to the spinal cord interfere with electrical signals between the brain and the muscles, resulting in paralysis below the level of injury. Restoration of limb function as well as regulation of organ function are the main application of FES, although FES is also used for treatment of pain, pressure, sore prevention, etc. Some examples of FES applications involve the use of Neuroprostheses that allow the people with paraplegia to walk, stand, restore hand grasp function in people with quadriplegia, or restore bowel and bladder function. High intensity FES of the quadriceps muscles allows patients with complete lower motor neuron lesion to increase their muscle mass, muscle fiber diameter, improve ultrastructural organization of contractile material, increase of force output during electrical stimulation and perform FES assisted stand-up exercises.

text: Injuries to the spinal cord interfere with electrical signals between the brain and the muscles, resulting in paralysis below the level of injury. Restoration of limb function as well as regulation of organ function are the main application of FES, although FES is also used for treatment of pain, pressure, sore prevention, etc. Some examples of FES applications involve the use of

text: Neuroprostheses

text: that allow the people with

text: paraplegia

text: to walk, stand, restore hand grasp function in people with

text: quadriplegia

text: , or restore bowel and bladder function. High intensity FES of the quadriceps muscles allows patients with complete lower motor neuron lesion to increase their muscle mass, muscle fiber diameter, improve ultrastructural organization of contractile material, increase of force output during electrical stimulation and perform FES assisted stand-up exercises.

text: When an organism normally moves in one direction, it inevitably has a front or head end. This end encounters the environment before the rest of the body as the organism moves along, so sensory organs such as eyes tend to be clustered there, and similarly it is the likely site for a mouth as food is encountered. A distinct head, with sense organs connected to a central nervous system, therefore (on this view) tends to develop (cephalization). Given a direction of travel which creates a front/back difference, and gravity which creates a dorsal/ventral difference, left and right are unavoidably distinguished, so a bilaterally symmetric body plan is widespread and found in most animal phyla. Bilateral symmetry also permits streamlining to reduce drag, and on a traditional view in zoology facilitates locomotion. However, in the Cnidaria, different symmetries exist, and bilateral symmetry is not necessarily aligned with the direction of locomotion, so another mechanism such as internal transport may be needed to explain the origin of bilateral symmetry in animals.

text: When an organism normally moves in one direction, it inevitably has a front or head end. This end encounters the environment before the rest of the body as the organism moves along, so sensory organs such as eyes tend to be clustered there, and similarly it is the likely site for a mouth as food is encountered. A distinct head, with sense organs connected to a

text: central nervous system

text: , therefore (on this view) tends to develop (

text: cephalization

text: ). Given a direction of travel which creates a front/back difference, and

text: gravity

text: which creates a dorsal/ventral difference, left and right are unavoidably distinguished, so a bilaterally symmetric

text: body plan

text: is widespread and found in most animal phyla. Bilateral symmetry also permits

text: streamlining

text: to reduce

text: drag

text: , and on a traditional view in zoology facilitates locomotion. However, in the

text: Cnidaria

text: , different symmetries exist, and bilateral symmetry is not necessarily aligned with the direction of locomotion, so another mechanism such as internal transport may be needed to explain the origin of bilateral symmetry in animals.

text: At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called hormones into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this "broadcast" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides "point-to-point" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.

text: At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called

text: hormone

text: s into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this "broadcast" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides "point-to-point" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.

text: Neurocytoma (or neuroepithelioma) is a type of nervous system tumor which is primarily derived from nervous tissue. This is in contrast to the gliomas (such as oligodendroglioma), which are derived from glial cells, which are not derived from nervous tissue.

text: Neurocytoma (or neuroepithelioma) is a type of nervous system tumor which is primarily derived from

text: nervous tissue

text: . This is in contrast to the

text: glioma

text: s (such as

text: oligodendroglioma

text: ), which are derived from

text: glial cell

text: s, which are not derived from nervous tissue.

text: Central nervous system imaging: Central nervous system abnormalities, such as cortical or subependymal tubers and astrocytomas, are common in patients with TSC, including those with TSC-LAM, but are not found in women with S-LAM. Moss and associates reported that women with S-LAM and TSC-LAM may have an increased incidence of meningioma, but the significance of that finding has been challenged.

text: Central nervous system imaging: Central nervous system abnormalities, such as

text: cortical

text: or subependymal tubers and

text: astrocytomas

text: , are common in patients with TSC, including those with TSC-LAM, but are not found in women with S-LAM. Moss and associates reported that women with S-LAM and TSC-LAM may have an increased incidence of meningioma, but the significance of that finding has been challenged.

text: Central nervous system problems such as hallucinations or confusion have been observed in rare cases, attributed mostly to overdosage.  Such properties have been attributed to hydroxyzine in several cases, particularly in patients treated for neuropsychological disorders, as well as in cases where overdoses have been observed. While there are reports of the "hallucinogenic" or "hypnotic" properties of hydroxyzine, several clinical data trials have not reported such side effects from the sole consumption of hydroxyzine, but rather, have described its overall calming effect described through the stimulation of areas within the formatio reticularis. The hallucinogenic or hypnotic properties have been described as being an additional effect from overall central nervous system suppression by other CNS agents, such as lithium or ethanol.

text: Central nervous system problems such as hallucinations or confusion have been observed in rare cases, attributed mostly to overdosage.  Such properties have been attributed to hydroxyzine in several cases, particularly in patients treated for neuropsychological disorders, as well as in cases where overdoses have been observed. While there are reports of the "hallucinogenic" or "hypnotic" properties of hydroxyzine, several clinical data trials have not reported such side effects from the sole consumption of hydroxyzine, but rather, have described its overall calming effect described through the stimulation of areas within the

text: formatio reticularis

text: . The hallucinogenic or hypnotic properties have been described as being an additional effect from overall

text: central nervous system

text: suppression by other CNS agents, such as

text: lithium

text: or

text: ethanol

text: Because ganglionic blockers block both the parasympathetic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system, the effect of these drugs depends upon the dominant tone in the organ system.

text: Because ganglionic blockers block both the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: and

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , the effect of these drugs depends upon the dominant tone in the organ system.

text: In octopuses, the large optic lobes and the arms' nervous system are located outside the brain complex. The optic lobes contain 120 to 180 million neurons and the nervous system of the arms contains two-thirds of the total 500 million neurons in the nervous system.

text: Oligodendroglial tumors manifest in glial cells, which are responsible for supporting and protecting nerve cells in the brain. The tumor develops over oligodendrocytes and is usually found in the cerebrum around the frontal or temporal lobes. The tumors can either grow slowly in a well-differentiated manner delaying the onset of symptoms, or they can grow rapidly to form an anaplastic oligodendroglioma. The symptoms for this type of tumor include headaches and visual problems. Additionally, blockage of ventricles could cause buildup of cerebral spinal fluid resulting in swelling around the tumor. The location of the tumor may also affect the symptoms since frontal lobe tumors can cause gradual mood or personality changes while temporal lobe tumors result in coordination and speech problems.

text: Oligodendroglial tumors

text: manifest in glial cells, which are responsible for supporting and protecting nerve cells in the brain. The tumor develops over

text: oligodendrocytes

text: and is usually found in the

text: cerebrum

text: around the

text: frontal

text: or

text: temporal

text: lobes. The tumors can either grow slowly in a well-differentiated manner delaying the onset of symptoms, or they can grow rapidly to form an

text: anaplastic

text: oligodendroglioma

text: . The symptoms for this type of tumor include headaches and visual problems. Additionally, blockage of ventricles could cause buildup of

text: cerebral spinal fluid

text: resulting in swelling around the tumor. The location of the tumor may also affect the symptoms since frontal lobe tumors can cause gradual mood or personality changes while temporal lobe tumors result in coordination and speech problems.

text: Nerve impulses, which serve as a typical example of autowaves in an active medium with recovery, were studied as far back as 1850 by Hermann von Helmholtz. The properties of nerve impulses that are typical for the simplest self-wave solutions (universal shape and amplitude, independent of the initial conditions, and annihilation under collisions) were ascertained in the 1920s and 1930s.

text: Nerve impulses, which serve as a typical example of autowaves in an active medium with recovery, were studied as far back as 1850 by

text: Hermann von Helmholtz

text: . The properties of nerve impulses that are typical for the simplest self-wave solutions (universal shape and amplitude, independent of the initial conditions, and annihilation under collisions) were ascertained in the 1920s and 1930s.

text: Nambudripad claims that the central nervous system and associated sensory systems have the ability to detect the "electromagnetic signatures" of all molecules, with the central nervous system either reacting or not reacting to a particular substance. Reaction to a neutral substance is called a sensitivity. In medical science, the reaction may be so extreme as to be called an allergy. In NAET such reaction is said to manifest itself as an energy disturbance or blockage in the flow of life force qi along meridians. In stark contrast to the conventional western understanding of allergies, Nambudripad characterizes an allergy as a condition caused by these "repulsive electromagnetic fields between an individual and the object (allergen)". Allergens may be any of a wide variety of substances, as well as more abstract notions such as emotions and colors. The cumulative effects of these energy disturbances are said to give rise to a variety of health disorders, with Nambudripad suggesting that "95 percent of human ailments arise from some sort of allergy". The theory of NAET proposes that these allergies can be eliminated by addressing the energy blockages through the use of acupuncture or acupressure. These principles are well established in Eastern medicine, which follows a different paradigm from that of western medicine.

text: Nambudripad claims that the

text: central nervous system

text: and associated sensory systems have the ability to detect the "electromagnetic signatures" of all molecules, with the central nervous system either reacting or not reacting to a particular substance. Reaction to a neutral substance is called a sensitivity. In medical science, the reaction may be so extreme as to be called an allergy. In NAET such reaction is said to manifest itself as an energy disturbance or blockage in the flow of life force

text: qi

text: along

text: meridians

text: . In stark contrast to the conventional western understanding of allergies, Nambudripad characterizes an allergy as a condition caused by these "repulsive electromagnetic fields between an individual and the object (allergen)". Allergens may be any of a wide variety of substances, as well as more abstract notions such as emotions and colors. The cumulative effects of these energy disturbances are said to give rise to a variety of health disorders, with Nambudripad suggesting that "95 percent of human ailments arise from some sort of allergy". The theory of NAET proposes that these allergies can be eliminated by addressing the energy blockages through the use of acupuncture or acupressure. These principles are well established in Eastern medicine, which follows a different paradigm from that of western medicine.

text: In 2009, as part of the Russian Ground Forces' transition to brigades, the division appears to have been reorganised as the 59th Separate Motor Rifle Brigade at (Sergeevka, Primorsky Krai), from the main body of the division, equipped with BMPs, and the 60th Separate Motor Rifle Brigade (п. Lipovtsy, Primorsky Krai), from the 218th Tank Regiment of the division, also equipped with BMPs.

text: In 2009, as part of the

text: Russian Ground Forces

text: ' transition to brigades, the division appears to have been reorganised as the 59th Separate Motor Rifle Brigade at (Sergeevka,

text: Primorsky Krai

text: ), from the main body of the division, equipped with BMPs, and the 60th Separate Motor Rifle Brigade (п.

text: Lipovtsy

text: Primorsky Krai

text: ), from the 218th Tank Regiment of the division, also equipped with BMPs.

text: Axon terminals (also called synaptic boutons) are distal terminations of the branches of an axon. An axon nerve fiber is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that conducts electrical impulses (called "action potentials") away from the neuron's cell body, or soma, in order to transmit those impulses to other neurons.

text: Axon terminals (also called synaptic boutons) are distal terminations of the branches of an

text: axon

text: . An axon nerve fiber is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or

text: neuron

text: , that conducts

text: electrical impulses

text: (called "action potentials") away from the neuron's

text: cell body

text: , or soma, in order to transmit those impulses to other neurons.

text: Neurogerontology:Hasan and Glees (1972) proposed a new hypothesis for the genesis of neuronal lipofusin. In the internationally acclaimed monograph Neurobiology of Aging. This hypothesis has been extensively discussed as follows: "....It was concluded that the degeneration of mitochondria must result in a disturbance of normal metabolic pathway leading to an accumulation of fatty acids, which, presumably would be directly involved in the genesis of lipofuscin pigment." Regarding the mode of dissolution of neuronal lipofuscin, Glees (1975) states: "The mode of dissolution and removal of lipofuscin in the central nervous system was studied ultrastructurally for the first time by Hasan et al. in senile guinea pigs treated up to 56 days with centrophenoxine (80 mg/kg i.m.)." Also, evidence for the participation of capillary endothelium in the removal of altered lipofuscin was provided by Hasan and coworkers.

text: The inhibitory glycine receptor mediates postsynaptic inhibition in the spinal cord and other regions of the central nervous system. It is a pentameric receptor composed of alpha and beta subunits. The GLRB gene encodes the beta subunit of the receptor.

text: The inhibitory

text: glycine receptor

text: mediates

text: postsynaptic

text: inhibition in the spinal cord and other regions of the central nervous system. It is a pentameric receptor composed of alpha and beta subunits. The

text: GLRB

text: gene encodes the beta subunit of the receptor.

text: Chlorphentermine acts as a highly selective serotonin releasing agent (SRA).<ref name="pmid11071707">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, Romero DV, Rice KC, Carroll FI, etal | title=Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin. | journal=Synapse | year= 2001 | volume= 39 | issue= 1 | pages= 32–41 | pmid=11071707 | doi=10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1

text: Chlorphentermine acts as a highly selective

text: serotonin releasing agent

text: (SRA).<ref name="pmid11071707">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, Romero DV, Rice KC, Carroll FI, etal | title=Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin. | journal=Synapse | year= 2001 | volume= 39 | issue= 1 | pages= 32–41 | pmid=11071707 | doi=10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1

text: The motor division of the vagus nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic medulla oblongata, while the sensory division originates from the cranial neural crest.

text: The

text: motor

text: division of the vagus nerve is derived from the

text: basal plate

text: of the

text: embryo

text: nic

text: medulla oblongata

text: , while the

text: sensory

text: division originates from the

text: cranial neural crest

text: Edward Charles Spitzka (November 10, 1852 – January 13, 1914) was an eminent late-19th century alienist, neurologist, and anatomist. Dr. Spitzka was the author of the landmark psychiatric manual "Treatise on Insanity,. Its Classification, Diagnosis and Treatment," published in 1883. He pioneered studies of the anatomy of the human nervous system, and discovered the interoptic lobes of saurians in the human brain.

text: Edward Charles Spitzka (November 10, 1852 – January 13, 1914) was an eminent late-19th century

text: alienist

text: neurologist

text: , and

text: anatomist

text: . Dr. Spitzka was the author of the landmark psychiatric manual "Treatise on Insanity,. Its Classification, Diagnosis and Treatment," published in 1883. He pioneered studies of the anatomy of the human nervous system, and discovered the interoptic lobes of saurians in the human brain.

text: The spinal cord contains multiple tracts to transmit different information. Specialized neurons carry messages from the skin, muscles, joints and internal organs to the spinal cord about pain, temperature, touch, vibration, and proprioception (or spatial orientation). These messages are then relayed to the brain along an ascending pathway, for example the spinothalamic tract. These pathways are in different locations in the spinal cord, so an injury might not affect them in the same way or to the same degree.

text: In the adult central nervous system, versican is found in perineuronal nets, where it may stabilize synaptic connections.  Versican can also inhibit nervous system regeneration and axonal growth following an injury to the central nervous system.

text: In the adult central nervous system, versican is found in

text: perineuronal net

text: s, where it may stabilize synaptic connections.  Versican can also inhibit nervous system regeneration and axonal growth following an injury to the central nervous system.

text: These are complex and specialized cells. However, the improved understanding of cellular evolution achieved over the last several years has revealed that even the most sophisticated and unique properties of nerve cells represent an adaptation of basic functions observed in all eukaryotic cells, including unicellular organisms. Thus, cellular neurobiology has become an important chapter of cell biology. Studies of neurons greatly capitalize on progress in fundamental cell biology. Conversely, research on specialized features of neurons is producing major fall-outs in other areas of biology. Projects of cellular neurobiology in the department focus on mechanisms in membrane traffic at the synapse, on the development and maintenance of cell polarity and on the mechanisms responsible for the heterogeneous distribution of organelles and macromolecules within the neuronal cytoplasm. Formation and plasticity of synapses are also investigated. In the tradition of the department, questions in these fields are approached in a multidisciplinary fashion using genetics, protein and lipid biochemistry, molecular biology and state of the art light and electron microscopy imaging techniques. Experimental systems include mouse models, cultured neurons, large model synapses, isolated synaptic preparations and cell free systems. Special emphasis is placed on interfaces between this basic research and disease.

text: This differentiates the central nervous system from the peripheral nervous system, which consists of neurons, axons and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the central and peripheral nervous system respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves. Axons in the central nervous system are often very short (barely a few millimeters) and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves do. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1m in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed.

text: This differentiates the central nervous system from the peripheral nervous system, which consists of neurons, axons and

text: Schwann cells

text: . Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the central and peripheral nervous system respectively. Both act to add

text: myelin

text: sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves. Axons in the central nervous system are often very short (barely a few millimeters) and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves do. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1m in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed.

text: Spinal cord injury

text: Spinal cord injury

text: While many approaches to defining butoh—as with any performative tradition—will focus on formalism or semantic layers, another approach is to focus on physical technique. While butoh does not have a codified classical technique rigidly adhered to within an authoritative controlled lineage, Hijikata Tatsumi did have a substantive methodical body of movement techniques called Butoh Fu. Butoh Fu can be described as a series of cues largely based on incorporating visualizations that directly affect the nervous system, producing qualities of movement that are then used to construct the form and expression of the dance. This mode of engaging the nervous system directly has much in common with other mimetic techniques to be found in the history of dance, such as Lecoq's range of nervous system qualities, Decroux's rhythm and density within movement, and Zeami Motokiyo's qualitative descriptions for character types.

text: While many approaches to defining butoh—as with any performative tradition—will focus on formalism or semantic layers, another approach is to focus on physical technique. While butoh does not have a codified classical technique rigidly adhered to within an authoritative controlled lineage, Hijikata Tatsumi did have a substantive methodical body of movement techniques called Butoh Fu. Butoh Fu can be described as a series of cues largely based on incorporating visualizations that directly affect the nervous system, producing qualities of movement that are then used to construct the form and expression of the dance. This mode of engaging the nervous system directly has much in common with other mimetic techniques to be found in the history of dance, such as

entity_name: L'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq

text: Lecoq

text: 's range of nervous system qualities,

text: Decroux

text: 's rhythm and density within movement, and Zeami Motokiyo's qualitative descriptions for character types.

text: It appears that paruresis involves a tightening of the sphincter and/or bladder neck due to a sympathetic nervous system response. The adrenaline rush that produces the involuntary nervous system response probably has peripheral and central nervous system involvement. The internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle tissue) or the external urethral sphincter (striated muscle), levator ani (especially the pubococcygeus) muscle area, or some combination of the above, may be involved. It is possible that there is an inhibition of the detrusor command through a reflex pathway as well. The pontine micturition center (Barrington's nucleus) also may be involved, as its inhibition results in relaxation of the detrusor and prevents the relaxation of the internal sphincter.

text: It appears that paruresis involves a tightening of the sphincter and/or bladder neck due to a

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: response. The

text: adrenaline

text: rush that produces the

text: involuntary nervous system

text: response probably has

text: peripheral

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: involvement. The

text: internal urethral sphincter

text: smooth muscle

text: tissue) or the

text: external urethral sphincter

text: striated muscle

text: levator ani

text: (especially the

text: pubococcygeus

text: ) muscle area, or some combination of the above, may be involved. It is possible that there is an inhibition of the

text: detrusor

text: command through a

text: reflex pathway

text: as well. The

text: pontine

text: micturition

text: center (

text: Barrington's nucleus

text: ) also may be involved, as its inhibition results in relaxation of the detrusor and prevents the relaxation of the internal sphincter.

text: Peripherin is widely expressed in the cell body and axons of neurons in the peripheral nervous system. These include small-sized root ganglion neurons, lower motor neurons, sensory and motor neurons of the cranial nerves, and autonomic neurons in ganglia and the enteric nervous system. It is also expressed in the CNS in a small set of brain stem and spinal cord neurons that have projections toward peripheral structures. Some of these structures include the hypothalamic magnocellular nuclei, pontine cholinergic nuclei, some cerebellar nuclei, and scattered neurons in the cerebral cortex. They can also be found in the ventral horn neurons and in the cholinergic laterodorsal tegmentum (LDT) and pedunculopontine tegmentum (PPT) nuclei.

text: Peripherin is widely expressed in the cell body and axons of neurons in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . These include small-sized root ganglion neurons, lower

text: motor neurons

text: , sensory and motor neurons of the

text: cranial nerves

text: , and autonomic neurons in ganglia and the enteric nervous system. It is also expressed in the CNS in a small set of brain stem and spinal cord neurons that have projections toward peripheral structures. Some of these structures include the hypothalamic magnocellular nuclei, pontine cholinergic nuclei, some cerebellar nuclei, and scattered neurons in the cerebral cortex. They can also be found in the

text: ventral horn

text: neurons and in the cholinergic laterodorsal tegmentum (LDT) and pedunculopontine tegmentum (PPT) nuclei.

text: Electrical synapses are more common in the central nervous system than previously thought. Thus, rather than functioning as individual units, in some parts of the brain large ensembles of neurons may be active simultaneously to process neural information.  Electrical synapses are formed by gap junctions that allow molecules to directly pass between neurons, creating a cytoplasm-to-cytoplasm connection.

text: "This is a unique glimpse into what the ancestral nervous system looked like," said study co-author Javier Ortega-Hernández. "It’s the most complete example of a central nervous system from the Cambrian period."

text: The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and medulla and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to homeostasis after the fight or flight response. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system originates in the spinal cord and

text: medulla

text: and works in concert with the sympathetic nervous system. Its main function is to activate the "rest and digest" response and return the body to

text: homeostasis

text: after the fight or flight response. This system utilizes and activates the release of the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: The integration of the sensory feedback signals and central motor commands at several levels of the central nervous system plays a critical role in controlling movement. Research on cat's spinal cord has shown that at the spinal cord level sensory afferents and descending motor pathways converge onto common spinal interneurons. Human studies since the 1970s have documented how this integration of motor commands and sensory feedback signals is used to control muscle activity during movement.  During locomotion, the sum of convergent inputs from the central pattern generator (CPG), sensory feedback, descending commands and other intrinsic properties turned on by different neuromodulators give rise to the activity of the interneurons.  Further, this interneuronal activity was either recorded directly or inferred from the modulation of response in their postsynaptic targets, most often motoneurons. The most efficient way to gate sensory signals in reflex pathways is to control the firing level of interneurons. For example, during locomotion, the interneuronal activity is modulated via excitation or inhibition depending on the reflex pathways. Thus, different patterns of interneuronal activity will determine which pathways are open, blocked, or modulated.

text: The integration of the sensory feedback

text: signals

text: and central motor commands at several levels of the

text: central nervous system

text: plays a critical role in controlling movement. Research on cat's spinal cord has shown that at the spinal cord level

text: sensory afferents

text: and descending

text: motor pathways

text: converge onto common spinal interneurons. Human studies since the 1970s have documented how this integration of motor commands and sensory feedback signals is used to control

text: muscle activity

text: during movement.  During locomotion, the sum of convergent inputs from the central pattern generator (

text: CPG

text: ), sensory feedback, descending commands and other intrinsic properties turned on by different

text: neuromodulators

text: give rise to the activity of the interneurons.  Further, this interneuronal activity was either recorded directly or inferred from the modulation of response in their postsynaptic targets, most often motoneurons. The most efficient way to gate sensory signals in reflex pathways is to control the firing level of interneurons. For example, during locomotion, the interneuronal activity is modulated via excitation or inhibition depending on the reflex pathways. Thus, different patterns of interneuronal activity will determine which pathways are open, blocked, or modulated.

text: Synaptic signaling, an integral part of nervous system activity, occurs between neurons and target cells.  These target cells can also be neurons or other cell types (i.e. muscle or gland cells).  Protocadherins, a member of the cadherin family, mediate the adhesion of neurons to their target cells at synapses otherwise known as synaptic junctions.  In order to for communication to occur between a neuron and its target cell, a wave of depolarization travels the length of the neuron and causes neurotransmitters to be released into the synaptic junction.  These neurotransmitters bind and activate receptors on the post-synaptic neuron thereby transmitting the signal to the target cell.  Thus, a post-synaptic membrane belongs to the membrane receiving the signal, while a pre-synaptic membrane is the source of the neurotransmitter.  In a neuromuscular junction, a synapse is formed between a motor neuron and muscle fibers.  In vertebrates, acetylcholine released from the motor neuron acts as a neurotransmitter which depolarizes the muscle fiber and causes muscle contraction.  A neuron’s ability to receive and integrate simultaneous signals from the environment and other neurons allows for complex animal behavior.

text: Synaptic signal

text: ing, an integral part of

text: nervous system

text: activity, occurs between

text: neurons

text: and target cells.  These target cells can also be neurons or other cell types (i.e.

text: muscle

text: or

text: gland

text: cells).

text: Protocadherin

text: s, a member of the

text: cadherin

text: family, mediate the adhesion of neurons to their target cells at

text: synapses

text: otherwise known as synaptic junctions.  In order to for communication to occur between a neuron and its target cell, a

text: wave of depolarization

text: travels the length of the neuron and causes

text: neurotransmitters

text: to be

text: released

text: into the synaptic junction.  These neurotransmitters bind and activate

text: receptors

text: on the post-synaptic neuron thereby transmitting the signal to the target cell.  Thus, a

text: post-synaptic membrane

text: belongs to the membrane receiving the signal, while a

text: pre-synaptic membrane

text: is the source of the neurotransmitter.  In a

text: neuromuscular junction

text: , a synapse is formed between a

text: motor neuron

text: and

text: muscle fibers

text: .  In

text: vertebrates

text: acetylcholine

text: released from the motor neuron acts as a neurotransmitter which depolarizes the muscle fiber and causes

text: muscle contraction

text: .  A neuron’s ability to receive and integrate simultaneous signals from the environment and other neurons allows for complex

text: animal

text: behavior

text: Neurons are known as excitable cells because on its surface membrane there are an abundance of proteins known as ion-channels that allow small charged particles to pass in and out of the cell. The structure of the neuron allows chemical information to be received by its dendrites, propagated through the perikaryon (cell body) and down its axon, and eventually passing on to other neurons through its axon terminal.

text: Neurons are known as excitable cells because on its surface membrane there are an abundance of proteins known as ion-channels that allow small charged particles to pass in and out of the cell. The structure of the neuron allows chemical information to be received by its

text: dendrites

text: , propagated through the

text: perikaryon

text: (cell body) and down its

text: axon

text: , and eventually passing on to other neurons through its

text: axon terminal

text: Pearce Bailey (1865–1922) was an American neurologist and psychiatrist, educated at Princeton and Columbia Universities. He became a consultant in several New York hospitals and with Collins and Frankel founded the Neurological Institute. He was also appointed an associate professor of neurology in Columbia. On the entry of the United States into World War I, he was appointed chief of the division of neurology and psychiatry in the United States army with the rank of colonel. He perfected a system for weeding out "mental defectives" which is said to have been used as a model by the Allies. His major literary efforts comprised a translation of Golobievski's Atlas and Epitome of Diseases Caused by Accident (1900) and a monograph Accident and Injury; Relation to the Nervous System (1906), which was later expanded into Diseases of the Nervous System Resulting from Accident and Injury, a valuable work for the medical world. At the time of his death, Bailey was chairman of the New York State Committee for Mental Defectives.

text: Pearce Bailey (1865–1922) was an

text: American

text: neurologist

text: and

text: psychiatrist

text: , educated at

text: Princeton

text: and

text: Columbia

text: Universities. He became a consultant in several

text: New York

text: hospitals and with

text: Collins

text: and Frankel founded the

text: Neurological Institute

text: . He was also appointed an associate professor of neurology in Columbia. On the entry of the United States into

text: World War I

text: , he was appointed chief of the division of neurology and psychiatry in the United States army with the rank of colonel. He perfected a system for weeding out "mental defectives" which is said to have been used as a model by the Allies. His major literary efforts comprised a translation of Golobievski's Atlas and Epitome of Diseases Caused by Accident (1900) and a

text: monograph

text: Accident and Injury; Relation to the Nervous System (1906), which was later expanded into Diseases of the Nervous System Resulting from Accident and Injury, a valuable work for the medical world. At the time of his death, Bailey was chairman of the

text: New York State Committee for Mental Defectives

text: The crinoid nervous system is divided into three parts, with numerous connections between them. The uppermost portion is the only one homologous with the nervous systems of other echinoderms. It consists of a central nerve ring surrounding the mouth, and radial nerves branching into the arms. Below this lies a second nerve ring, giving off two brachial nerves into each arm. Both of these sets of nerves are sensory in nature, with the lower set supplying the pinnules and tube feet. The third portion of the nervous system lies below the other two, and is responsible for motor action. This is centred on a mass of neural tissue near the base of the calyx, and provides a single nerve to each arm and a number of nerves to the stalk.

text: The crinoid nervous system is divided into three parts, with numerous connections between them. The uppermost portion is the only one

text: homologous

text: with the nervous systems of other echinoderms. It consists of a central nerve ring surrounding the mouth, and radial nerves branching into the arms. Below this lies a second nerve ring, giving off two brachial nerves into each arm. Both of these sets of nerves are sensory in nature, with the lower set supplying the pinnules and tube feet. The third portion of the nervous system lies below the other two, and is responsible for motor action. This is centred on a mass of neural tissue near the base of the calyx, and provides a single nerve to each arm and a number of nerves to the stalk.

text: Grey matter refers to unmyelinated neurons and other cells of the central nervous system. It is present in the brain, brainstem and cerebellum, and present throughout the spinal cord.

text: Grey matter refers to unmyelinated neurons and other cells of the

text: central nervous system

text: . It is present in the

text: brain

text: brainstem

text: and

text: cerebellum

text: , and present throughout the

text: spinal cord

text: An action potential (or nerve impulse) is a transient alteration of the transmembrane voltage (or membrane potential) across the membrane in an excitable cell generated by the activity of voltage-gated ion channels embedded in the membrane. The best known action potentials are pulse-like waves that travel along the axons of neurons.

text: An

text: action potential

text: (or nerve impulse) is a transient alteration of the transmembrane voltage (or membrane potential) across the membrane in an excitable cell generated by the activity of voltage-gated ion channels embedded in the membrane. The best known action potentials are pulse-like waves that travel along the axons of neurons.

text: Thus, other FASD conditions are partial expressions of FAS. However, these other FASD conditions may create disabilities similar to FAS if the key area of central nervous system damage shows clinical deficits in two or more of ten domains of brain functioning. Essentially, even though growth deficiency and/or FAS facial features may be mild or nonexistent in other FASD conditions, yet clinically significant brain damage of the central nervous system is present. In these other FASD conditions, an individual may be at greater risk for adverse outcomes because brain damage is present without associated visual cues of poor growth or the "FAS face" that might ordinarily trigger an FASD evaluation. Such individuals may be misdiagnosed with primary mental health disorders such as ADHD or oppositional defiance disorder without appreciation that brain damage is the underlying cause of these disorders, which requires a different treatment paradigm than typical mental health disorders. While other FASD conditions may not yet be included as an ICD or DSM-IV-TR diagnosis, they nonetheless pose significant impairment in functional behavior because of underlying brain damage.

text: Thus, other FASD conditions are partial expressions of FAS. However, these other FASD conditions may create disabilities similar to FAS if the key area of central nervous system damage shows clinical deficits in two or more of

text: ten domains of brain functioning

text: . Essentially, even though growth deficiency and/or FAS facial features may be mild or nonexistent in other FASD conditions, yet clinically significant brain damage of the central nervous system is present. In these other FASD conditions, an individual may be at greater risk for adverse outcomes because brain damage is present without associated visual cues of poor growth or the "FAS face" that might ordinarily trigger an FASD evaluation. Such individuals may be misdiagnosed with primary

text: mental health disorders

text: such as

entity_name: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

text: ADHD

text: or

text: oppositional defiance disorder

text: without appreciation that brain damage is the underlying cause of these disorders, which requires a different treatment paradigm than typical mental health disorders. While other FASD conditions may not yet be included as an

entity_name: International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems

text: ICD

text: or

entity_name: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

text: DSM-IV-TR

text: diagnosis, they nonetheless pose significant impairment in

text: functional behavior

text: because of underlying brain damage.

text: In addition, the spindle also has a motor efferent innervation carried by gamma motor neurons, which is used by the nervous system to modify the spindle's sensitivity.

text: In addition, the spindle also has a motor efferent innervation carried by

text: gamma motor neuron

text: s, which is used by the nervous system to modify the spindle's sensitivity.

text: Studies focusing on nerve tissue indicate that GPR17 is: a) highly expressed in precursors to mature oligodendrocytes but not expressed in mature oligodendrocytes, suggesting that GPR17 must be down-regulated in order for precursor cells to proceed to terminal oligodendrocyte differentiation; b) activated by uridine, Uridine diphosphate (UDP) and UDP-glucose to stimulate outward K+ channels and the aforementioned maturation responses in oligodenrocyte precursor cells; c) also activated by LTC4 and LTD4; d) more highly expressed in central nervous system (CNS) tissues of animal models undergoing ischemia, Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, and focal demyelination as well as in the CNS tissues of humans suffering brain damage due to ischemia, trauma, and multiple sclerosis; e) expressed in injured neurons and associated with the rapid death and clearance of these neurons in a model of mouse spinal cord crush injury; f) acts to reduce the extent of spinal cord injury in the latter model based on the increased extent of injury in GPR17-depleted mice; and g) acts to reduce inflammation, elevate hippocampus neurogenesis, and improve learning and memory in a rat model of age-related cognitive impairment based on the effects of the GPR17 antagonist, montelukast, as well as of GPR17 depletion. The studies suggest that GPR17 is a sensor of damage in the CNS and participates in the resolution of this damage by clearing and/or promoting the re-myelination of injured neurons caused by a variety of insults perhaps including old age.

text: Studies focusing on nerve tissue indicate that GPR17 is: a) highly expressed in precursors to mature

text: oligodendrocytes

text: but not expressed in mature oligodendrocytes, suggesting that GPR17 must be down-regulated in order for precursor cells to proceed to terminal oligodendrocyte differentiation; b) activated by

text: uridine

text: Uridine diphosphate

text: (UDP) and

text: UDP-glucose

text: to stimulate outward

text: K+ channel

text: s and the aforementioned maturation responses in oligodenrocyte precursor cells; c) also activated by LTC4 and LTD4; d) more highly expressed in

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) tissues of animal models undergoing

text: ischemia

text: Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

text: , and focal

text: demyelination

text: as well as in the CNS tissues of humans suffering brain damage due to

text: ischemia

text: , trauma, and

text: multiple sclerosis

text: ; e) expressed in injured neurons and associated with the rapid death and clearance of these neurons in a model of mouse spinal cord crush injury; f) acts to reduce the extent of spinal cord injury in the latter model based on the increased extent of injury in GPR17-depleted mice; and g) acts to reduce inflammation, elevate

text: hippocampus

text: neurogenesis, and improve learning and memory in a rat model of age-related cognitive impairment based on the effects of the GPR17 antagonist, montelukast, as well as of GPR17 depletion. The studies suggest that GPR17 is a sensor of damage in the CNS and participates in the resolution of this damage by clearing and/or promoting the re-myelination of injured neurons caused by a variety of insults perhaps including old age.

text: The sympathetic nervous system is predominantly controlled by the right side of the brain (focused upon the insular cortex), while the left side predominantely controls the parasympathetic nervous system. The cerebral cortex in rodents shows lateral specialization in its regulation of immunity with immunosuppression being controlled by the right hemisphere, and immunopotention by the left one. Humans show similar lateral specialized control of the immune system from the evidence of strokes, surgery to control epilepsy, and the application of TMS.

text: The sympathetic nervous system is predominantly controlled by the right side of the brain (focused upon the insular cortex), while the left side predominantely controls the parasympathetic nervous system. The cerebral cortex in rodents shows

text: lateral specialization

text: in its regulation of immunity with immunosuppression being controlled by the right hemisphere, and immunopotention by the left one. Humans show similar lateral specialized control of the immune system from the evidence of

text: stroke

text: s, surgery to control

text: epilepsy

text: , and the application of

text: TMS

text: As a medical graduate student in Paris, Loye attempted to confirm the observations of Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard on the nervous system. Brown-Séquard had argued that all motor activity rested in the brain and operated through the nervous system alone. To observe the importance of the brain in the activity of the body, Loye constructed a guillotine in the laboratory of the Sorbonne and decapitated several hundred dogs and other animals, recording the extent of each animal's movement after decapitation. Through these experiments, Loye concluded that the loss of complete consciousness and brain death occurred immediately after decapitation, but various parts of the body, such as the heart, continued to work for several minutes as a reflex action. This confirmed the less-refined observations of Jean Baptiste Vincent Laborde who had experimented upon decapitated human heads in the early 1880s.

text: As a medical graduate student in

text: Paris

text: , Loye attempted to confirm the observations of

text: Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard

text: on the nervous system. Brown-Séquard had argued that all motor activity rested in the brain and operated through the nervous system alone. To observe the importance of the brain in the activity of the body, Loye constructed a

text: guillotine

text: in the laboratory of the Sorbonne and decapitated several hundred

text: dog

text: s and other animals, recording the extent of each animal's movement after

text: decapitation

text: . Through these experiments, Loye concluded that the loss of complete

text: consciousness

text: and brain

text: death

text: occurred immediately after decapitation, but various parts of the body, such as the

text: heart

text: , continued to work for several minutes as a

text: reflex action

text: . This confirmed the less-refined observations of

text: Jean Baptiste Vincent Laborde

text: who had experimented upon decapitated human heads in the early 1880s.

text: Neurons are cells with specialized features that allow them to receive and facilitate nerve impulses, or action potentials, across their membrane to the next neuron. They possess a large cell body (soma,perikaryon,cyton), with cell projections called dendrites and an axon. Dendrites are thin, branching projections that receive electrochemical signaling (neurotransmitters) to create a change in voltage in the cell. Axons are long projections that carry the action potential away from the cell body toward the next neuron. The bulb-like end of the axon, called the axon terminal, is separated from the dendrite of the following neuron by a small gap called a synaptic cleft. When the action potential travels to the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released across the synapse and bind to the post-synaptic receptors, continuing the nerve impulse.

text: Neurons are cells with specialized features that allow them to receive and facilitate nerve impulses, or

text: action potential

text: s, across their membrane to the next neuron. They possess a large cell body (

text: soma,perikaryon,cyton

text: ), with cell projections called

text: dendrite

text: s and an

text: axon

text: . Dendrites are thin, branching projections that receive electrochemical signaling (

text: neurotransmitters

text: ) to create a change in voltage in the cell. Axons are long projections that carry the action potential away from the cell body toward the next neuron. The bulb-like end of the axon, called the

text: axon terminal

text: , is separated from the dendrite of the following neuron by a small gap called a

text: synaptic cleft

text: . When the action potential travels to the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released across the synapse and bind to the

text: post-synaptic receptors

text: , continuing the nerve impulse.

text: CCL2 is involved in the neuroinflammatory processes that takes place in the various diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), which are characterized by neuronal degeneration. CCL2 expression in glial cells is increased in epilepsy, brain ischemia Alzheimer’s disease experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), and traumatic brain injury.

text: CCL2 is involved in the neuroinflammatory processes that takes place in the various diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), which are characterized by neuronal degeneration. CCL2 expression in

text: glial cells

text: is increased in epilepsy, brain ischemia Alzheimer’s disease

text: experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

text: (EAE), and

text: traumatic brain injury

text: These groups were studying the responses of large pyramidal projection neurons to GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. GABA is typically released by small interneurons in many regions of the brain, where its job is to inhibit the activity of primary neurons, such as the CA1 pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus or the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum.  Activation of GABA receptors on these cells, whether they are ionotropic or metabotropic, typically results in the influx of chloride ions into that target cell.  This build-up of negative charge from the chloride ions results in the hyperpolarization of the target cell, making it less likely to fire an action potential.  Accordingly, any ionic current that hyperpolarizes a cell is called an inhibitory current.

text: These groups were studying the responses of large pyramidal projection neurons to

text: GABA

text: , the main inhibitory

text: neurotransmitter

text: in the central nervous system.

text: GABA

text: is typically released by small

text: interneurons

text: in many regions of the brain, where its job is to inhibit the activity of primary neurons, such as the CA1 pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus or the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum.  Activation of GABA receptors on these cells, whether they are

text: ionotropic

text: or

text: metabotropic

text: , typically results in the influx of chloride ions into that target cell.  This build-up of negative charge from the chloride ions results in the

text: hyperpolarization

text: of the target cell, making it less likely to fire an

text: action potential

text: .  Accordingly, any ionic current that hyperpolarizes a cell is called an inhibitory current.

text: P. brasiliensis causes a disease known as paracoccidioidomycosis characterized by slow, progressive granulomatous changes in the head mucosa, notably the nose and sinuses or the skin. Uncommonly, the disease affects the lymphatic system, the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal tract, or the skeletal system. Due to the high proportion of cases affecting the oral mucosa,  these tissues were originally thought to be the primary route of entry of fungus. However, strong evidence now indicates  the respiratory tract is the chief point of entry and P. brasiliensis lung lesions occur in nearly a third of progressive cases. The disease is not contagious.Paracoccidioidomycosis is more frequently seen in adult males than females. The hormone estrogen is thought to inhibit the transformation of the mycelial to the yeast form, as supported by in vitro experimental data, and this factor may account for the relative resistance of women to infection.

text: P. brasiliensis causes a disease known as

text: paracoccidioidomycosis

text: characterized by slow, progressive granulomatous changes in the head mucosa, notably the nose and sinuses or the skin. Uncommonly, the disease affects the lymphatic system, the central nervous system, the gastrointestinal tract, or the skeletal system. Due to the high proportion of cases affecting the oral mucosa,  these tissues were originally thought to be the primary route of entry of fungus. However, strong evidence now indicates  the respiratory tract is the chief point of entry and P. brasiliensis lung lesions occur in nearly a third of progressive cases. The disease is not contagious.Paracoccidioidomycosis is more frequently seen in adult males than females. The hormone

text: estrogen

text: is thought to inhibit the transformation of the mycelial to the yeast form, as supported by in vitro experimental data, and this factor may account for the relative resistance of women to infection.

text: There are also many non-medical doctors, those with PhD degrees in subjects such as biology and chemistry, who study and research the nervous system. Working in labs in universities, hospitals, and private companies, these neuroscientists perform clinical and laboratory experiments and tests in order to learn more about the nervous system and find cures or new treatments for diseases and disorders.

text: There are also many non-medical doctors, those with

text: PhD

text: degrees in subjects such as biology and chemistry, who study and research the nervous system. Working in labs in universities, hospitals, and private companies, these neuroscientists perform clinical and laboratory experiments and tests in order to learn more about the nervous system and find cures or new treatments for diseases and disorders.

text: BRN3A (POU4F1) is a class IV POU domain-containing transcription factor highly expressed in the developing peripheral sensory nervous system (dorsal root ganglia, trigeminal ganglion, and hindbrain sensory ganglia), certain regions of the central nervous system, retinal neurons called ganglion cells, and in cells of the B- and T-lymphocytic lineages.

text: BRN3A (POU4F1) is a class IV

text: POU domain

text: -containing

text: transcription factor

text: highly expressed in the developing peripheral sensory nervous system (dorsal root ganglia, trigeminal ganglion, and hindbrain sensory ganglia), certain regions of the central nervous system, retinal neurons called ganglion cells, and in cells of the B- and T-lymphocytic lineages.

text: Glial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia (Greek γλία and γλοία "glue"; pronounced in English as either  or ), are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems. In the central nervous system, glial cells include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells and microglia, and in the peripheral nervous system glial cells include Schwann cells and satellite cells.

text: Glial cells, sometimes called neuroglia or simply glia (

text: Greek

text: γλία and γλοία "glue"; pronounced in English as either  or ), are non-

text: neuron

text: al

text: cells

text: that maintain

text: homeostasis

text: , form

text: myelin

text: , and provide support and protection for

text: neuron

text: s in the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: s. In the central nervous system, glial cells include

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s,

text: astrocyte

text: s,

text: ependymal cell

text: s and

text: microglia

text: , and in the peripheral nervous system glial cells include

text: Schwann cell

text: s and

text: satellite cells

text: Synaptic scaling serves to maintain the strengths of synapses relative to each other, lowering amplitudes of small excitatory postsynaptic potentials in response to continual excitation and raising them after prolonged blockage or inhibition. This effect occurs gradually over hours or days, by changing the numbers of NMDA receptors at the synapse (Pérez-Otaño and Ehlers, 2005).  Metaplasticity varies the threshold level at which plasticity occurs, allowing integrated responses to synaptic activity spaced over time and preventing saturated states of LTP and LTD.  Since LTP and LTD (long-term depression) rely on the influx of Ca through NMDA channels, metaplasticity may be due to changes in NMDA receptors, altered calcium buffering, altered states of kinases or phosphatases and a priming of protein synthesis machinery. Synaptic scaling is a primary mechanism by which a neuron to be selective to its varying inputs.The neuronal circuitry affected by LTP/LTD and modified by scaling and metaplasticity leads to reverberatory neural circuit development and regulation in a Hebbian manner which is manifested as memory, whereas the changes in neural circuitry, which begin at the level of the synapse, are an integral part in the ability of an organism to learn.

text: Synaptic scaling serves to maintain the strengths of synapses relative to each other, lowering amplitudes of small excitatory

text: postsynaptic potential

text: s in response to continual excitation and raising them after prolonged blockage or inhibition. This effect occurs gradually over hours or days, by changing the numbers of

text: NMDA receptor

text: s at the synapse (Pérez-Otaño and Ehlers, 2005).

text: Metaplasticity

text: varies the threshold level at which plasticity occurs, allowing integrated responses to synaptic activity spaced over time and preventing saturated states of LTP and LTD.  Since LTP and LTD (

text: long-term depression

text: ) rely on the influx of

text: Ca

text: through NMDA channels, metaplasticity may be due to changes in NMDA receptors, altered calcium buffering, altered states of kinases or phosphatases and a priming of protein synthesis machinery. Synaptic scaling is a primary mechanism by which a neuron to be selective to its varying inputs.The neuronal circuitry affected by LTP/LTD and modified by scaling and metaplasticity leads to reverberatory neural circuit development and regulation in a Hebbian manner which is manifested as memory, whereas the changes in neural circuitry, which begin at the level of the synapse, are an integral part in the ability of an organism to learn.

text: Individuals who suffer from chronic pain experience prolonged pain at sites that may have been previously injured, yet are otherwise currently healthy. This phenomenon is related to neuroplasticity due to a maladaptive reorganization of the nervous system, both peripherally and centrally. During the period of tissue damage, noxious stimuli and inflammation cause an elevation of nociceptive input from the periphery to the central nervous system. Prolonged nociception from the periphery then elicits a neuroplastic response at the cortical level to change its somatotopic organization for the painful site, inducing central sensitization. For instance, individuals experiencing complex regional pain syndrome demonstrate a diminished cortical somatotopic representation of the hand contralaterally as well as a decreased spacing between the hand and the mouth. Additionally, chronic pain has been reported to significantly reduce the volume of grey matter in the brain globally, and more specifically at the prefrontal cortex and right thalamus. However, following treatment, these abnormalities in cortical reorganization and grey matter volume are resolved, as well as their symptoms. Similar results have been reported for phantom limb pain, chronic low back pain and carpal tunnel syndrome.

text: Individuals who suffer from chronic pain experience prolonged pain at sites that may have been previously injured, yet are otherwise currently healthy. This phenomenon is related to neuroplasticity due to a maladaptive reorganization of the nervous system, both peripherally and centrally. During the period of tissue damage,

text: noxious stimuli

text: and

text: inflammation

text: cause an elevation of nociceptive input from the periphery to the central nervous system. Prolonged

text: nociception

text: from the periphery then elicits a neuroplastic response at the cortical level to change its

text: somatotopic organization

text: for the painful site, inducing

text: central sensitization

text: . For instance, individuals experiencing

text: complex regional pain syndrome

text: demonstrate a diminished cortical somatotopic representation of the hand contralaterally as well as a decreased spacing between the hand and the mouth. Additionally, chronic pain has been reported to significantly reduce the volume of

text: grey matter

text: in the brain globally, and more specifically at the

text: prefrontal cortex

text: and right

text: thalamus

text: . However, following treatment, these abnormalities in cortical reorganization and grey matter volume are resolved, as well as their symptoms. Similar results have been reported for phantom limb pain,

text: chronic low back pain

text: and

text: carpal tunnel syndrome

text: There are four motor rifle brigades whose designations are not known, and the 17th Air Assault Brigade at Fergana, the former Soviet Airborne Forces' 387th Airborne Training Regiment. Motorized brigades are located around Bukhara, Samarqand, Termez, Nukus, and Andijan.

text: There are four motor rifle brigades whose designations are not known, and the 17th Air Assault Brigade at

text: Fergana

text: , the former

text: Soviet Airborne Forces

text: ' 387th Airborne Training Regiment. Motorized brigades are located around

text: Bukhara

text: Samarqand

text: Termez

text: Nukus

text: , and

text: Andijan

text: The central nervous system of vertebrates is based on a hollow nerve cord running along the length of the animal. Of particular importance and unique to vertebrates is the presence of neural crest cells. These are progenitors of stem cells, and critical to coordinating the functions of cellular components. Neural crest cells migrate through the body from the nerve cord during development, and initiate the formation of neural ganglia and structures such as the jaws and skull.

text: The

text: central nervous system

text: of vertebrates is based on a hollow

text: nerve cord

text: running along the length of the animal. Of particular importance and unique to vertebrates is the presence of

text: neural crest

text: cells. These are progenitors of

text: stem cell

text: s, and critical to coordinating the functions of cellular components. Neural crest cells migrate through the body from the

text: nerve cord

text: during development, and initiate the formation of

text: neural ganglia

text: and structures such as the jaws and skull.

text: The neuroadaptive processes involved in tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal mechanisms implicate both the GABAergic and the glutamatergic systems. Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system; roughly one-quarter to one-third of synapses use GABA. GABA mediates the influx of chloride ions through ligand-gated chloride channels called GABA receptors. When chloride enters the nerve cell, the cell membrane potential hyperpolarizes thereby inhibiting depolarization, or reduction in the firing rate of the post-synaptic nerve cell. Benzodiazepine potentiates the action of GABA, by binding a site between the α and γ subunits of the 5-subunit receptor thereby increasing the frequency of the GABA-gated chloride channel opening in the presence of GABA.

text: The neuroadaptive processes involved in tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal mechanisms implicate both the GABAergic and the glutamatergic systems.

text: Gamma-Aminobutyric acid

text: GABA

text: ) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system; roughly one-quarter to one-third of synapses use GABA. GABA mediates the influx of chloride ions through

text: ligand-gated chloride channel

text: s called

text: GABA

text: receptors. When chloride enters the nerve cell, the cell membrane potential hyperpolarizes thereby inhibiting depolarization, or reduction in the firing rate of the post-synaptic nerve cell. Benzodiazepine potentiates the action of GABA, by binding a site between the α and γ subunits of the 5-subunit receptor thereby increasing the frequency of the GABA-gated chloride channel opening in the presence of GABA.

text: The dentate nucleus is a cluster of neurons, or nerve cells, in the central nervous system that has a dentate – tooth-like or serrated – edge. It located within the deep white matter of each cerebellar hemisphere, and it is the largest single structure linking the cerebellum to the rest of the brain. It is the largest and most lateral, or farthest from the midline, of the four pairs of deep cerebellar nuclei, the others being the fastigial nucleus and the globose and emboliform nuclei which together are referred to as the interposed nucleus. The dentate nucleus is responsible for the planning, initiation and control of voluntary movements. The dorsal (towards the back of the body) region of the dentate nucleus contains output channels involved in motor function, which is the movement of skeletal muscle, while the ventral (towards the belly or front of the body) region contains output channels involved in nonmotor function, such as conscious thought and visuospatial function.

text: The dentate nucleus is a cluster of neurons, or nerve cells, in the central nervous system that has a dentate – tooth-like or serrated – edge. It located within the deep

text: white matter

text: of each

text: cerebellar hemisphere

text: , and it is the largest single structure linking the

text: cerebellum

text: to the rest of the brain. It is the largest and most lateral, or farthest from the midline, of the four pairs of

text: deep cerebellar nuclei

text: , the others being the

text: fastigial

text: nucleus and the globose and emboliform nuclei which together are referred to as the

text: interposed nucleus

text: . The dentate nucleus is responsible for the planning, initiation and control of voluntary movements. The dorsal (towards the back of the body) region of the dentate nucleus contains output channels involved in motor function, which is the movement of

text: skeletal muscle

text: , while the ventral (towards the belly or front of the body) region contains output channels involved in nonmotor function, such as conscious thought and visuospatial function.

text: Brand has provided this “plain English” explanation of her work: “One of the goals of research in neurobiology is to repair or regenerate neurons after damage to the brain or spinal cord. Before we can understand how to repair the nervous system, however, we must first learn how the nervous system is put together. Of all the tissues and organs in the human body the nervous system is the most intricate and complex, consisting of more than one trillion neurons. These neurons make precise connections with each other to form functional networks that can transmit information at amazing speed over considerable distances.

text: The spinal cord is continuous with the caudal portion of the medulla, running from the base of the skull to the body of the first lumbar vertebra. It does not run the full length of the vertebral column in adults. It is made of 31 segments that each contain sensory nerve root and motor nerve root. The first cervical segment is usually very small and may be absent in most individuals. Nerve roots merge into 31 bilaterally symmetric pairs of spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system is made up of these spinal roots, nerves, and ganglia.

text: The spinal cord is continuous with the caudal portion of the medulla, running from the base of the

text: skull

text: to the body of the first lumbar vertebra. It does not run the full length of the vertebral column in adults. It is made of 31 segments that each contain sensory nerve root and motor nerve root. The first cervical segment is usually very small and may be absent in most individuals. Nerve roots merge into 31 bilaterally symmetric pairs of spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system is made up of these spinal roots, nerves, and ganglia.

text: In low doses, methamphetamine can cause an elevated mood and increase alertness, concentration, and energy in fatigued individuals. At higher doses, it can induce psychosis, rhabdomyolysis, and cerebral hemorrhage. Methamphetamine is known to have a high potential for abuse and addiction. Recreational use of methamphetamine may result in psychosis or lead to post-withdrawal syndrome, a withdrawal syndrome that can persist for months beyond the typical withdrawal period. Unlike amphetamine and cocaine, methamphetamine is neurotoxic to humans, damaging both dopamine and serotonin neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). Entirely opposite to the long-term use of amphetamine, there is evidence that methamphetamine causes brain damage from long-term use in humans; this damage includes adverse changes in brain structure and function, such as reductions in gray matter volume in several brain regions and adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity.

text: In low doses, methamphetamine can cause an

text: elevated mood

text: and increase alertness, concentration, and energy in fatigued individuals. At higher doses, it can induce

text: psychosis

text: rhabdomyolysis

text: , and

text: cerebral hemorrhage

text: . Methamphetamine is known to have a high potential for

text: abuse

text: and

text: addiction

text: . Recreational use of methamphetamine may result in psychosis or lead to

text: post-withdrawal syndrome

text: , a withdrawal syndrome that can persist for months beyond the typical withdrawal period. Unlike

text: amphetamine

text: and

text: cocaine

text: , methamphetamine is

text: neurotoxic

text: to humans, damaging both

text: dopamine

text: and

text: serotonin

text: neurons in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS). Entirely opposite to the long-term use of amphetamine, there is evidence that methamphetamine causes brain damage from long-term use in humans; this damage includes adverse changes in brain structure and function, such as reductions in

text: gray matter

text: volume in several brain regions and adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity.

text: Neuroscientists focus primarily on the study and research of the nervous system. The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord and nerve cells. Studies of the nervous system may focus on the cellular level, as in studies of the ion channels, or instead may focus on broader aspects of nervous system function as in behavioral studies. A significant portion of nervous system studies is devoted to understanding the diseases that affect the nervous system, like multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Lou Gehrig's. Research commonly occurs in private, government and public research institutions and universities.

text: Neuroscientists focus primarily on the study and research of the

text: nervous system

text: . The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord and

text: nerve

text: cells. Studies of the nervous system may focus on the cellular level, as in studies of the

text: ion channel

text: s, or instead may focus on broader aspects of nervous system function as in behavioral studies. A significant portion of nervous system studies is devoted to understanding the diseases that affect the nervous system, like

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Alzheimer's

text: Parkinson's

text: , and

text: Lou Gehrig's

text: . Research commonly occurs in private, government and public research institutions and universities.

text: All animals more advanced than sponges have nervous systems. However, even sponges, unicellular animals, and non-animals such as slime molds have cell-to-cell signalling mechanisms that are precursors to those of neurons. In radially symmetric animals such as the jellyfish and hydra, the nervous system consists of a nerve net, a diffuse network of isolated cells. In bilaterian animals, which make up the great majority of existing species, the nervous system has a common structure that originated early in the Ediacaran period, over 550 million years ago.

text: All animals more advanced than sponges have nervous systems. However, even sponges, unicellular animals, and non-animals such as slime molds have cell-to-cell signalling mechanisms that are precursors to those of neurons. In radially symmetric animals such as the jellyfish and hydra, the nervous system consists of a

text: nerve net

text: , a diffuse network of isolated cells. In

text: bilateria

text: n animals, which make up the great majority of existing species, the nervous system has a common structure that originated early in the

text: Ediacaran

text: period, over 550 million years ago.

text: Myelitis involves the infection or the inflammation of the white matter or gray matter of the spinal cord which is a part of the central nervous system that acts as a bridge between the brain and the rest of the body. During an inflammatory response in the spinal cord, the myelin and axon may be damaged causing symptoms such as paralysis and sensory loss. Myelitis is classified to several categories depending on the area or the cause of the lesion; however, people often refer to any inflammatory attack on the spinal cord as transverse myelitis.

text: Myelitis involves the infection or the inflammation of the

text: white matter

text: or

text: gray matter

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: which is a part of the central nervous system that acts as a bridge between the brain and the rest of the body. During an inflammatory response in the spinal cord, the

text: myelin

text: and

text: axon

text: may be damaged causing symptoms such as paralysis and sensory loss. Myelitis is classified to several categories depending on the area or the cause of the lesion; however, people often refer to any inflammatory attack on the spinal cord as transverse myelitis.

text: An example is the endogenous drug acetylcholine (ACh).  ACh is used by the parasympathetic nervous system to activate muscarinic receptors and by the neuromuscular system to activate nicotinic receptors.  However, the compounds muscarine and nicotine can each preferentially interact one of the two receptor types, allowing them to activate only one of the two systems where ACh itself would activate both.

text: An example is the

text: endogenous

text: drug acetylcholine (ACh).  ACh is used by the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: to activate muscarinic receptors and by the neuromuscular system to activate nicotinic receptors.  However, the compounds muscarine and nicotine can each preferentially interact one of the two receptor types, allowing them to activate only one of the two systems where ACh itself would activate both.

text: This criteria is typically validated through biopsy of the cutaneous lesions and imaging of the central nervous system. It is important to establish that the cutaneous lesions are benign. If not, then the melanocytic deposits in the central nervous system may be the result of metastasis of cutaneous melanoma and not neurocutaneous melanosis.

text: This criteria is typically validated through

text: biopsy

text: of the cutaneous lesions and imaging of the central nervous system. It is important to establish that the cutaneous lesions are benign. If not, then the melanocytic deposits in the central nervous system may be the result of metastasis of cutaneous melanoma and not neurocutaneous melanosis.

text: Nervous system: The central nervous system closely resembles that of Atys cylindrica.

text: Nervous system

text: : The

text: central nervous system

text: closely resembles that of

text: Atys cylindrica

text: Other causes include medication side effects and various disease processes. The use of stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines which can result in urinary retention, and the use of CNS depressants and other psychoactive drugs can also lead to urinary retention and constipation thus leading to autonomic dysreflexia when in use over an extended period of time. Guillain–Barré syndrome is a demyelinating disease that can result in peripheral paralysis and can progress to encompass autonomic functions, leading to a loss of normal respiratory, bladder and bowel function resulting in autonomic dysreflexia. Severe head trauma and other brain injuries can instigate autonomic dysreflexia at the central nervous system by interfering with the reception of the signal that brings the urge to void the bladder and bowels and with the voluntary ability to micturate and defecate.Other causal theories for autonomic dysreflexia include  noxious stimuli, or painful stimuli arising from the peripheral sensory neurons. These stimuli are interrupted in their journey to the brain due to a transection of the spine result in a paradoxical stimulation of autonomic pathways of the autonomic nervous system.

text: Other causes include medication side effects and various disease processes. The use of stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines which can result in urinary retention, and the use of CNS depressants and other psychoactive drugs can also lead to urinary retention and constipation thus leading to autonomic dysreflexia when in use over an extended period of time.

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: is a demyelinating disease that can result in peripheral paralysis and can progress to encompass autonomic functions, leading to a loss of normal respiratory, bladder and bowel function resulting in autonomic dysreflexia. Severe head trauma and other brain injuries can instigate autonomic dysreflexia at the

text: central nervous system

text: by interfering with the reception of the signal that brings the urge to void the bladder and bowels and with the voluntary ability to micturate and defecate.Other causal theories for autonomic dysreflexia include

text: noxious stimuli

text: , or painful stimuli arising from the peripheral sensory neurons. These stimuli are interrupted in their journey to the brain due to a

text: transection

text: of the spine result in a paradoxical stimulation of autonomic pathways of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: In nutrigenomics, nutrients are seen as signals that tell a specific cell in the body about the diet. The nutrients are detected by a sensor system in the cell. Such a sensory system works like sensory ecology whereby the cell obtains information through the signal, the nutrient, about its environment, which is the diet. The sensory system that interprets information from nutrients about the dietary environment include transcription factors together with many additional proteins. Once the nutrient interacts with such a sensory system, it changes gene expression and metabolite production in accordance with the level of nutrient it senses. As a result, different diets should elicit different patterns of gene expression and metabolite production. Nutrigenomics seeks to describe the patterns of these effects which have been referred to as dietary signatures. Such dietary signatures are examined in specific cells, tissues and organisms and in this way the manner by which nutrition influences homeostasis is investigated. Genes which are affected by differing levels of nutrients need first to be identified and then their regulation is studied. Differences in this regulation as a result of differences in genes between individuals are also studied.

text: In nutrigenomics, nutrients are seen as

text: signals

text: that tell a specific

text: cell

text: in the body about the

text: diet

text: . The nutrients are detected by a sensor system in the cell. Such a sensory system works like

text: sensory ecology

text: whereby the cell obtains information through the signal, the nutrient, about its environment, which is the

text: diet

text: . The sensory system that interprets information from nutrients about the dietary environment include

text: transcription factors

text: together with many additional proteins. Once the nutrient interacts with such a sensory system, it changes

text: gene expression

text: and metabolite production in accordance with the level of nutrient it senses. As a result, different diets should elicit different patterns of

text: gene expression

text: and metabolite production. Nutrigenomics seeks to describe the patterns of these effects which have been referred to as dietary signatures. Such dietary signatures are examined in specific cells, tissues and organisms and in this way the manner by which nutrition influences

text: homeostasis

text: is investigated. Genes which are affected by differing levels of nutrients need first to be identified and then their

text: regulation

text: is studied. Differences in this regulation as a result of differences in genes between individuals are also studied.

text: The enteric nervous system has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the central nervous system (CNS) through the parasympathetic (e.g., via the vagus nerve) and sympathetic (e.g., via the prevertebral ganglia) nervous systems.  However, vertebrate studies show that when the vagus nerve is severed, the enteric nervous system continues to function.

text: The enteric nervous system has been described as a "second brain" for several reasons. The enteric nervous system can operate autonomously. It normally communicates with the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) through the

text: parasympathetic

text: (e.g., via the

text: vagus nerve

text: ) and

text: sympathetic

text: (e.g., via the

text: prevertebral ganglia

text: ) nervous systems.  However,

text: vertebrate

text: studies show that when the

text: vagus nerve

text: Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the homeostasis disrupted by the presence of the drug (see also, neuroplasticity). Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter can increase the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter or the receptors themselves may become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is called sensitization. Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter may cause a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to play a role in drug dependence and addiction. Physical dependence on antidepressants or anxiolytics may result in worse depression or anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, because clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder) is often referred to simply as depression, antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for patients who are depressed, but not clinically depressed.

text: Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of

text: neurons

text: , as the nervous system tries to re-establish the

text: homeostasis

text: disrupted by the presence of the drug (see also,

text: neuroplasticity

text: ). Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter can increase the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter or the receptors themselves may become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is called

text: sensitization

text: . Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter may cause a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called

text: desensitization

text: or

text: tolerance

text: . Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to play a role in drug dependence and addiction.

text: Physical dependence

text: on antidepressants or anxiolytics may result in worse depression or anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, because

text: clinical depression

text: (also called

text: major depressive disorder

text: ) is often referred to simply as

text: depression

text: , antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for patients who are depressed, but not clinically depressed.

text: Patients with an advanced case may present some or none of the symptoms associated with general cases of vertebral osteomyelitis. When the osteomyelitis is isolated in the back, as it is in vertebral osteomyelitis, the patient will report muscle spasms coming from the back, but may not report experiencing any fevers. Symptomatic signs vary in each patient and depend on the severity of the case. Neurologic deficiency characterizes advanced, threatening cases of the disease. On average, 40% of patients with an advanced case of vertebral osteomyelitis experience some type of neurological deficiency; this is a sign that the infection has been progressing for some time. In advanced cases, the untreated infection will attack the nervous system through the spinal cord which runs parallel to the vertebral column, placing the patient at risk for paralysis of the extremities. Additionally, loss of the ability to move is a trademark symptom of neurologic problems in advanced cases of vertebral osteomyelitis. Any further signs of neurological deficit signal an advanced case of vertebral osteomyelitis that requires immediate intervention to prevent further threat to the spinal cord.

text: Patients with an advanced case may present some or none of the symptoms associated with general cases of vertebral osteomyelitis. When the osteomyelitis is isolated in the back, as it is in vertebral osteomyelitis, the patient will report muscle spasms coming from the back, but may not report experiencing any fevers. Symptomatic signs vary in each patient and depend on the severity of the case. Neurologic deficiency characterizes advanced, threatening cases of the disease. On average, 40% of patients with an advanced case of vertebral osteomyelitis experience some type of neurological deficiency; this is a sign that the infection has been progressing for some time. In advanced cases, the untreated infection will attack the nervous system through the spinal cord which runs parallel to the vertebral column, placing the patient at risk for paralysis of the extremities. Additionally, loss of the ability to move is a trademark symptom of neurologic problems in advanced cases of vertebral osteomyelitis. Any further signs of

entity_name: Functional neurological symptom disorder

text: neurological deficit

text: signal an advanced case of vertebral osteomyelitis that requires immediate intervention to prevent further threat to the spinal cord.

text: Astroblastoma is a rare glial tumor derived from the astroblast, a type of cell that closely resembles spongioblastoma and astrocytes. Astroblastoma cells are most likely found in the supratentorial region of the brain that houses the cerebrum, an area responsible for all voluntary movements in the body.  It also occurs significantly in the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, and temporal lobe, areas where movement, language creation, memory perception, and environmental surroundings are expressed.  These tumors can be present in major brain areas not associated with the main cerebral hemispheres, including the cerebellum, optic nerve, cauda equina, hypothalamus, and brain stem.

text: Astroblastoma is a rare glial

text: tumor

text: derived from the astroblast, a type of cell that closely resembles

text: spongioblastoma

text: and

text: astrocytes

text: . Astroblastoma cells are most likely found in the supratentorial region of the brain that houses the

text: cerebrum

text: , an area responsible for all voluntary movements in the body.  It also occurs significantly in the

text: frontal lobe

text: parietal lobe

text: , and

text: temporal lobe

text: , areas where movement, language creation, memory perception, and environmental surroundings are expressed.  These tumors can be present in major brain areas not associated with the main cerebral hemispheres, including the

text: cerebellum

text: optic nerve

text: cauda equina

text: hypothalamus

text: , and

text: brain stem

text: Lymnaea stagnalis has a relatively simple central nervous system (CNS) consisting of a total of ~20,000 neurons, many of them individually identifiable, organized in a ring of interconnected ganglia. Most neurons of the Lymnaea stagnalis central nervous system are large in size (diameter: up to ~100 μm), thus allowing electrophysiological dissection of neuronal networks that has yielded profound insights in the working mechanisms of neuronal networks controlling relatively simple behaviors such as feeding, respiration, locomotion, and reproduction. Studies using the central nervous system of Lymnaea stagnalis as a model organism have also identified novel cellular and molecular mechanisms in neuronal regeneration, synapse formation, synaptic plasticity, learning and memory formation, the neurobiology of development and aging, the modulatory role of neuropeptides, and adaptive responses to hypoxic stress.

text: Lymnaea stagnalis has a relatively simple central

text: nervous system

text: (CNS) consisting of a total of ~20,000

text: neuron

text: s, many of them individually identifiable, organized in a ring of interconnected ganglia. Most neurons of the Lymnaea stagnalis central nervous system are large in size (diameter: up to ~100 μm), thus allowing electrophysiological dissection of neuronal networks that has yielded profound insights in the working mechanisms of neuronal networks controlling relatively simple behaviors such as feeding, respiration, locomotion, and reproduction. Studies using the central nervous system of Lymnaea stagnalis as a

text: model organism

text: have also identified novel cellular and molecular mechanisms in neuronal regeneration, synapse formation, synaptic plasticity, learning and memory formation, the neurobiology of development and aging, the modulatory role of

text: neuropeptide

text: s, and adaptive responses to

text: hypoxic

text: stress.

text: When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and danger receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the central nervous system. The sensory neuron then synapses with interneurons that connect to motor neurons. Some of these send motor impulses to the flexors that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so flexion is not inhibited. This is referred to as reciprocal innervation.

text: When a person touches a hot object and withdraws their hand from it without actively thinking about it, the heat stimulates

text: temperature

text: and

text: danger receptors

text: in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that travels to the

text: central nervous system

text: . The sensory neuron then

text: synapse

text: s with

text: interneuron

text: s that connect to motor

text: neuron

text: s. Some of these send motor impulses to the

text: flexor

text: s that lead to the muscles in the arm to contract, while some motor neurons send inhibitory impulses to the extensors so

text: flexion

text: is not inhibited. This is referred to as

text: reciprocal innervation

text: The neuraxis or sometimes neuroaxis is the axis of the central nervous system. It denotes the direction in which the central nervous system lies. During embryological development, the neuraxis is bent by various flexures, contributing to the mature structure of the brain and spinal cord.

text: The neuraxis or sometimes neuroaxis is the axis of the

text: central nervous system

text: . It denotes the direction in which the central nervous system lies. During embryological development, the neuraxis is bent by various flexures, contributing to the mature structure of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: Electrical synapses are present throughout the central nervous system and have been studied specifically in the neocortex, hippocampus, thalamic reticular nucleus, locus coeruleus, inferior olivary nucleus, mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal nerve, olfactory bulb, retina, and spinal cord of vertebrates.

text: Electrical synapses are present throughout the central nervous system and have been studied specifically in the neocortex, hippocampus, thalamic reticular nucleus, locus coeruleus, inferior olivary nucleus, mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal nerve, olfactory bulb, retina, and spinal cord of

text: vertebrate

text: s.

text: Soviet organization led to different tactics between the "light" and "heavy" varieties of mechanized infantry. In the Soviet Army, a first-line "Motor Rifle" division from the 1970s onward usually had two regiments equipped with the wheeled BTR-60 APC and one with the tracked BMP-1 IFV. The "light" regiments were intended to make dismounted attacks on the division's flanks, while the BMP-equipped "heavy" regiment remained mounted and supported the division's tank regiment on the main axis of advance. Both types of infantry regiment nevertheless were officially titled "Motor Rifle" units.

text: Soviet organization led to different tactics between the "light" and "heavy" varieties of mechanized infantry. In the Soviet Army, a first-line "Motor Rifle" division from the 1970s onward usually had two regiments equipped with the wheeled

text: APC and one with the tracked BMP-1 IFV. The "light" regiments were intended to make dismounted attacks on the division's flanks, while the BMP-equipped "heavy" regiment remained mounted and supported the division's tank regiment on the main axis of advance. Both types of infantry regiment nevertheless were officially titled "Motor Rifle" units.

text: While their cell bodies are found in the central nervous system (CNS), α motor neurons are also considered part of the somatic nervous system—a branch of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)—because their axons extend into the periphery to innervate skeletal muscles.

text: While their

text: cell bodies

text: are found in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), α motor neurons are also considered part of the

text: somatic nervous system

text: —a branch of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS)—because their

text: axon

text: s extend into the periphery to innervate

text: skeletal muscle

text: s.

text: Since there is a broad range of functions performed by different types of neurons in diverse parts of the nervous system, there is a wide variety in the size, shape, and electrochemical properties of neurons.  Neurons can be found in different shapes and sizes and can be classified based upon their morphology.  The Italian scientist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into type I and type II cells.  Golgi I neurons have long axons that can move signals over long distances, such as in Purkinje cells, whereas Golgi II neurons generally have shorter axons, such as granule cells, or are anoxonic.

text: Since there is a broad range of functions performed by different types of neurons in diverse parts of the nervous system, there is a wide variety in the size, shape, and

text: electrochemical

text: properties of neurons.  Neurons can be found in different shapes and sizes and can be classified based upon their morphology.  The Italian scientist

text: Camillo Golgi

text: grouped neurons into type I and type II cells.

text: Golgi I

text: neurons have long axons that can move signals over long distances, such as in

text: Purkinje cells

text: , whereas

text: Golgi II

text: neurons generally have shorter axons, such as

text: granule cell

text: s, or are anoxonic.

text: The female insect nervous system affects many of the processes involved in sperm storage. The nervous system may signal for muscular contractions, fluid absorption, and hormone release, all of which aid in moving the sperm into the storage organs.  When the nervous system of female fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) was replaced with a masculinized nervous system through genetic manipulation, sperm storage was affected suggesting that the female nervous system is unique and required to store sperm properly.

text: The female

text: insect nervous system

text: affects many of the processes involved in sperm storage. The nervous system may signal for

text: muscular contractions

text: , fluid absorption, and

text: hormone

text: release, all of which aid in moving the sperm into the storage organs.  When the nervous system of female fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) was replaced with a masculinized nervous system through genetic manipulation, sperm storage was affected suggesting that the female nervous system is unique and required to store sperm properly.

text: The cause of spasticity is not really known, but there are several theories.  In general, spasticity develops when an imbalance occurs in the excitatory and inhibitory input to α motor neurons caused by damage to the spinal cord and/or central nervous system.  The damage causes a change in the balance of signals between the nervous system and the muscles, leading to increased excitability in  muscles.

text: According to an article in Psychological Bulletin, EEG activity slows as a result of meditation. The human nervous system is composed of a parasympathetic system, which slows heart rate, breathing and other involuntary motor functions, and a sympathetic system, which arouses the body, preparing it for vigorous activity. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) has written, "It is thought that some types of meditation might work by reducing activity in the sympathetic nervous system and increasing activity in the parasympathetic nervous system," or equivalently, that meditation produces a reduction in arousal and increase in relaxation.

text: According to an article in Psychological Bulletin, EEG activity slows as a result of meditation. The human nervous system is composed of a parasympathetic system, which slows heart rate, breathing and other involuntary motor functions, and a sympathetic system, which arouses the body, preparing it for vigorous activity. The

text: National Institutes of Health (NIH)

text: has written, "It is thought that some types of meditation might work by reducing activity in the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and increasing activity in the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: ," or equivalently, that meditation produces a reduction in arousal and increase in relaxation.

text: The spinal cord is made from part of the neural tube during development. There are four stages of the spinal cord that arises from the nueral tube: The neural plate, neural fold, neural tube, and the spinal cord. Neural differentiation occurs within the spinal cord portion of the tube. As the neural tube begins to develop, the notochord begins to secrete a factor known as Sonic hedgehog or SHH. As a result, the floor plate then also begins to secrete SHH, and this will induce the basal plate to develop motor neurons. During the maturation of the neural tube, its lateral walls thicken and form a longtitudinal groove called the sulcus limitans. This exends the length of the spinal cord into dorsal and ventral portions as well. Meanwhile, the overlying ectoderm secretes bone morphogenetic protein (BMP). This induces the roof plate to begin to secrete BMP, which will induce the alar plate to develop sensory neurons.  Dorsal root ganglion neurons differentiate from neural crest progenitors. As the dorsal and ventral column cells proliferate, the lumen of the neural tube narrows to form the small central canal of the spinal cord.  The alar plate and the basal plate are separated by the sulcus limitans.  Additionally, the floor plate also secretes netrins. The netrins act as chemoattractants to decussation of pain and temperature sensory neurons in the alar plate across the anterior white commissure, where they then ascend towards the thalamus. Following the closure of the caudal neuropore and formation of the brain's ventricles that contain the choroid plexus tissue, the central canal of the caudal spinal cord is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

text: The spinal cord is made from part of the

text: neural tube

text: during development. There are four stages of the spinal cord that arises from the nueral tube: The neural plate, neural fold, neural tube, and the spinal cord. Neural differentiation occurs within the spinal cord portion of the tube. As the neural tube begins to develop, the

text: notochord

text: begins to secrete a factor known as

text: Sonic hedgehog

text: or SHH. As a result, the

text: floor plate

text: then also begins to secrete SHH, and this will induce the basal plate to develop

text: motor neurons

text: . During the maturation of the neural tube, its lateral walls thicken and form a longtitudinal groove called the sulcus limitans. This exends the length of the spinal cord into dorsal and ventral portions as well. Meanwhile, the overlying

text: ectoderm

text: secretes

text: bone morphogenetic protein

text: (BMP). This induces the

text: roof plate

text: to begin to secrete BMP, which will induce the

text: alar plate

text: to develop

text: sensory neurons

text: .  Dorsal root ganglion neurons differentiate from neural crest progenitors. As the dorsal and ventral column cells proliferate, the lumen of the neural tube narrows to form the small central canal of the spinal cord.  The alar plate and the basal plate are separated by the

text: sulcus limitans

text: .  Additionally, the floor plate also secretes

text: netrin

text: s. The netrins act as chemoattractants to

text: decussation

text: of pain and temperature sensory neurons in the alar plate across the anterior white commissure, where they then ascend towards the

text: thalamus

text: . Following the closure of the caudal neuropore and formation of the brain's ventricles that contain the choroid plexus tissue, the central canal of the caudal spinal cord is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

text: Neurotoxins inhibit neuron control over ion concentrations across the cell membrane, or communication between neurons across a synapse. Local pathology of neurotoxin exposure often includes neuron excitotoxicity or apoptosis but can also include glial cell damage. Macroscopic manifestations of neurotoxin exposure can include widespread central nervous system damage such as intellectual disability, persistent memory impairments, epilepsy, and dementia. Additionally, neurotoxin-mediated peripheral nervous system damage such as neuropathy or myopathy is common. Support has been shown for a number of treatments aimed at attenuating neurotoxin-mediated injury, such as antioxidant and antitoxin administration.

text: Neurotoxins inhibit

text: neuron

text: control over

text: ion

text: concentrations across the

text: cell

text: membrane, or communication between neurons across a

text: synapse

text: . Local

text: pathology

text: of neurotoxin exposure often includes neuron

text: excitotoxicity

text: or

text: apoptosis

text: but can also include

text: glial cell

text: damage. Macroscopic manifestations of neurotoxin exposure can include widespread

text: central nervous system

text: damage such as

text: intellectual disability

text: , persistent

text: memory

text: impairments,

text: epilepsy

text: , and

text: dementia

text: . Additionally, neurotoxin-mediated

text: peripheral nervous system

text: damage such as

text: neuropathy

text: or

text: myopathy

text: is common. Support has been shown for a number of treatments aimed at attenuating neurotoxin-mediated injury, such as

text: antioxidant

text: and

text: antitoxin

text: administration.

text: Her most cited scientific paper, "Evidence for the existence of monoamine-containing neurons in the central nervous system," was cited over 5,500 times as of 2013.

text: A neuron (  or  , also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. These signals between neurons occur via synapses,  specialized connections with other cells. Neurons can connect to each other to form neural networks. Neurons are the core components of the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and of the ganglia of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Specialized types of neurons include: sensory neurons which respond to touch, sound, light and all other stimuli affecting the cells of the sensory organs that then send signals to the  spinal cord and brain, motor neurons that receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to cause muscle contractions and affect glandular outputs, and interneurons which connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain, or spinal cord in neural networks.

text: A neuron (  or  , also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an

text: electrically

text: excitable

text: cell

text: that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. These signals between neurons occur via

text: synapse

text: s,  specialized connections with other cells. Neurons can connect to each other to form

text: neural networks

text: . Neurons are the core components of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), and of the

text: ganglia

text: of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). Specialized types of neurons include:

text: sensory neuron

text: s which respond to touch, sound, light and all other stimuli affecting the cells of the

text: sensory organs

text: that then send signals to the  spinal cord and brain,

text: motor neuron

text: s that receive signals from the brain and spinal cord to cause

text: muscle contraction

text: s and affect

text: glandular output

text: s, and

text: interneuron

text: s which connect neurons to other neurons within the same region of the brain, or spinal cord in neural networks.

text: Here four options are available to the fibres: (1) they can run up the chain and synapse, (2) they can synapse at the level of entry, (3) they can pass straight through and synapse elsewhere - such as in the case of T5-12 (the splanchnic nerves), or (4) they can enter the chain and descend to synapse.  It is this ability to move superiorly and inferiorly along the chain that results in the mass response to the sympathetic nervous system.  A preganglionic fibre may synapse to 15-20 postganglionic fibres.

text: Before Denny-Brown, researchers such as Lange, Dide, Lenz, and McFie and associates proposed that the brain's right hemisphere controls a specific function in spatial perception, explaining why damage to the parieto-occipital lobe of the right hemisphere results in the loss of spatial perception. In his article, Denny-Brown alternately proposes that lesions of the parieto-occipital lobe cause errors in spatial summation, not spatial perception. By using a case study, he argues that amorphosynthesis actually may result from lesions of either side of the parietal lobe, depending on the patient’s dominant hemisphere. He further argues that lesions in the dominant lobe cause both amorphosynthesis and agnosia – the agnosia just obscures the amorphosynthesis.

text: Before Denny-Brown, researchers such as Lange, Dide, Lenz, and McFie and associates proposed that the brain's

text: right hemisphere

text: controls a specific function in spatial perception, explaining why damage to the parieto-occipital lobe of the right hemisphere results in the loss of spatial

text: perception

text: . In his article, Denny-Brown alternately proposes that lesions of the parieto-occipital lobe cause errors in

text: spatial summation

text: , not spatial perception. By using a case study, he argues that amorphosynthesis actually may result from lesions of either side of the parietal lobe, depending on the patient’s dominant hemisphere. He further argues that lesions in the dominant lobe cause both amorphosynthesis and agnosia – the agnosia just obscures the amorphosynthesis.

text: The nervous and immune systems have many interactions that dictate overall body health.  The nervous system is under constant monitoring from both the adaptive and innate immune system.  Throughout development and adult life, the immune system detects and responds to changes in cell identity and neural connectivity.  Deregulation of both adaptive and acquired immune responses, impairment of crosstalk between these two systems, as well as alterations in the deployment of innate immune mechanisms can predispose the central nervous system (CNS) to autoimmunity and neurodegeneration.  Other evidence has shown that development and deployment of the innate and acquired immune systems in response to stressors on functional integrity of cellular and systemic level and the evolution of autoimmunity are mediated by epigenetic mechanisms.    Autoimmunity has been increasingly linked to targeted deregulation of epigenetic mechanisms, and therefore, use of epigenetic therapeutic agents may help reverse complex pathogenic processes.  Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one type of neuroimmunological disorder that affects many people.  MS features CNS inflammation, immune-mediated demyelination and neurodegeneration, and may represent an emerging class of epigenetic disorders.

text: The nervous and immune systems have many interactions that dictate overall body health.  The nervous system is under constant monitoring from both the

text: adaptive

text: and

text: innate immune system

text: .  Throughout development and adult life, the immune system detects and responds to changes in

text: cell identity

text: and neural connectivity.  Deregulation of both adaptive and acquired immune responses, impairment of crosstalk between these two systems, as well as alterations in the deployment of innate immune mechanisms can predispose the central nervous system (CNS) to autoimmunity and neurodegeneration.  Other evidence has shown that development and deployment of the innate and acquired immune systems in response to stressors on functional integrity of cellular and systemic level and the evolution of autoimmunity are mediated by

text: epigenetic mechanisms

text: .    Autoimmunity has been increasingly linked to targeted deregulation of epigenetic mechanisms, and therefore, use of epigenetic therapeutic agents may help reverse complex pathogenic processes.

text: Multiple sclerosis

text: (MS) is one type of neuroimmunological disorder that affects many people.  MS features CNS inflammation, immune-mediated demyelination and neurodegeneration, and may represent an emerging class of epigenetic disorders.

text: Synapse formation is crucial for the mammalian CNS (central nervous system) to function correctly. Retinal photoreceptors finish at the axon terminal which forms a specialized structure, the ribbon synapse, which specifically connects photoreceptor synaptic terminals with bipolar and horizontal cell terminals in the outer plexiform layer (OPL) of the retina.It is clear that Pikachurin, an extracellular matrix–like retinal protein, is localized to the synaptic cleft in the photoreceptor ribbon synapse. It is demonstrated that with a lack of Pikachurin, there is an improper apposition of the bipolar cell dendritic tips to the photoreceptor ribbon synapses, resulting in alterations in synaptic signal transmission and visual function. The function of Pikachurin remains unknown, but it is a fact that pikachurin is critically involved in the normal photoreceptor ribbon synapse formation and also in physiological functions of visual perception.

text: Synapse

text: formation is crucial for the mammalian CNS (

text: central nervous system

text: ) to function correctly. Retinal photoreceptors finish at the axon terminal which forms a specialized structure, the ribbon synapse, which specifically connects photoreceptor synaptic terminals with bipolar and horizontal cell terminals in the

text: outer plexiform layer

text: (OPL) of the retina.It is clear that Pikachurin, an extracellular matrix–like retinal protein, is localized to the synaptic cleft in the photoreceptor ribbon synapse. It is demonstrated that with a lack of Pikachurin, there is an improper apposition of the

text: bipolar cell

text: dendritic tips to the photoreceptor

text: ribbon synapse

text: s, resulting in alterations in synaptic signal transmission and visual function. The function of Pikachurin remains unknown, but it is a fact that pikachurin is critically involved in the normal photoreceptor ribbon synapse formation and also in physiological functions of visual perception.

text: Phonagnosia is the auditory equivalent of prosopagnosia. Unlike Prosopagnosia, investigations of phonagnosia have not been extensively pursued. Phonagnosia was first described by a study by Van Lancker and Cantor in 1982. The subjects in this study were asked to identify which of four names or faces matched a specific famous voice. The subjects could not complete the task. Since then, there have been a couple studies done on patients with phonagnosia. The clinical and radiologic findings with computerized tomographic scans cat scan in these cases suggest that recognition of familiar voices is impaired by damage to the inferior and parietal regions of the right hemisphere while voice discrimination is impaired by temporal lobe damage of either hemisphere. These studies have also shown evidence for a double dissociation between voice recognition and voice discrimination. Some patients will perform normally on the discrimination tasks but poorly on the recognition tasks; whereas the other patients will perform normally on the recognition tasks but poorly on the discrimination tasks. Patients did not perform poorly on both tasks.

text: Phonagnosia is the auditory equivalent of

text: prosopagnosia

text: . Unlike Prosopagnosia, investigations of phonagnosia have not been extensively pursued. Phonagnosia was first described by a study by Van Lancker and Cantor in 1982. The subjects in this study were asked to identify which of four names or faces matched a specific famous voice. The subjects could not complete the task. Since then, there have been a couple studies done on patients with phonagnosia. The clinical and radiologic findings with computerized tomographic scans

text: cat scan

text: in these cases suggest that recognition of familiar voices is impaired by damage to the inferior and parietal regions of the right hemisphere while voice discrimination is impaired by temporal lobe damage of either hemisphere. These studies have also shown evidence for a

text: double dissociation

text: between voice recognition and voice discrimination. Some patients will perform normally on the discrimination tasks but poorly on the recognition tasks; whereas the other patients will perform normally on the recognition tasks but poorly on the discrimination tasks. Patients did not perform poorly on both tasks.

text: Lead affects the peripheral nervous system (especially motor nerves) and the central nervous system. Peripheral nervous system effects are more prominent in adults and central nervous system effects are more prominent in children. Lead causes the axons of nerve cells to degenerate and lose their myelin coats.

text: Lead affects the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (especially

text: motor nerve

text: s) and the

text: central nervous system

text: . Peripheral nervous system effects are more prominent in adults and central nervous system effects are more prominent in children. Lead causes the

text: axon

text: s of

text: nerve cells

text: to degenerate and lose their

text: myelin

text: coats.

text: All species equipped with multiple sensory systems, utilize them in an integrative manner to achieve action and perception. However, in most species, especially higher mammals and humans, the ability to integrate develops in parallel with physical and cognitive maturity. Children until certain ages do not show mature integration patterns. Classically, two opposing views that are principally modern manifestations of the nativist/empiricist dichotomy have been put forth. The integration (empiricist) view states that at birth, sensory modalities are not at all connected. Hence, it is only through active exploration that plastic changes can occur in the nervous system to initiate holistic perceptions and actions. Conversely, the differentiation (nativist) perspective asserts that the young nervous system is highly interconnected; and that during development, modalities are gradually differentiated as relevant connections are rehearsed and the irrelevant are discarded.

text: The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the parasympathetic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's fight-or-flight response. It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain homeostasis. The sympathetic nervous system is described as being complementary to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "rest-and-digest" or "Feed and breed".

text: The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is one of the two main divisions of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , the other being the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: . The autonomic nervous system functions to regulate the body's unconscious actions. The sympathetic nervous system's primary process is to stimulate the body's

text: fight-or-flight response

text: . It is, however, constantly active at a basic level to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: . The sympathetic nervous system is described as being complementary to the parasympathetic nervous system which stimulates the body to "rest-and-digest" or "Feed and breed".

text: Tafamidis functions by kinetic stabilization of the correctly folded tetrameric form of the transthyretin (TTR) protein. In patients with FAP, this protein dissociates in a process that is rate limiting for aggregation including amyloid fibril formation, causing failure of the autonomic nervous system and/or the peripheral nervous system (neurodegeneration) initially and later failure of the heart. Kinetic Stabilization of tetrameric transthyretin in familial amyloid polyneuropathy patients provides the first pharmacologic evidence that the process of amyloid fibril formation causes this disease, as treatment with tafamidis dramatically slows the process of amyloid fibril formation and the degeneration of post-mitotic tissue. Sixty % of the patients enrolled in the initial clinical trial have the same or an improved neurologic impairment score after six years of taking tafamidis, whereas 30% of the patients progress at a rate ≤ 1/5 of that predicted by the natural history. Importantly, all of the V30M FAP patients remain stage 1 patients after 6 years on tafamidis out of four stages of disease progression. [Data presented orally by Professor Coelho in Brazil in 2013]

text: Tafamidis functions by kinetic stabilization of the correctly folded

text: tetrameric

text: form of the

text: transthyretin

text: (TTR) protein. In patients with FAP, this protein dissociates in a process that is rate limiting for aggregation including

text: amyloid

text: fibril formation, causing failure of the autonomic nervous system and/or the peripheral nervous system (

text: neurodegeneration

text: ) initially and later failure of the heart. Kinetic Stabilization of tetrameric transthyretin in familial amyloid polyneuropathy patients provides the first pharmacologic evidence that the process of amyloid fibril formation causes this disease, as treatment with tafamidis dramatically slows the process of amyloid fibril formation and the degeneration of post-mitotic tissue. Sixty % of the patients enrolled in the initial clinical trial have the same or an improved neurologic impairment score after six years of taking tafamidis, whereas 30% of the patients progress at a rate ≤ 1/5 of that predicted by the natural history. Importantly, all of the V30M FAP patients remain stage 1 patients after 6 years on tafamidis out of four stages of disease progression. [Data presented orally by Professor Coelho in Brazil in 2013]

text: The term parasympatholytic typically refers to the effect of a drug, although some poisons act to block the parasympathetic nervous system as well. Most drugs with parasympatholytic properties are anticholinergics.

text: The term parasympatholytic typically refers to the effect of a

text: drug

text: , although some

text: poison

text: s act to block the parasympathetic nervous system as well. Most drugs with parasympatholytic properties are

text: anticholinergic

text: s.

text: Published in 1992, The Nervous System comprises nine essays. Michael Taussig sets out on a journey to explore and describe various forces that shape and mold our present society. He tries to explore the process through which we commodify the state and in that way transfer the power to it. Taussig attempts to show how the state uses forces such as violence or media control to consolidate its power over the people. He argues that we live in a state of emergency, citing Walter Benjamin, that is not ‘an exception but the rule.’ To show the universality of the nervous system he takes his reader through the heights of Machu Picchu, the world of Cuna shamans, and the pale world of New York’s hospital system.

text: Published in 1992, The Nervous System comprises nine essays. Michael Taussig sets out on a journey to explore and describe various forces that shape and mold our present society. He tries to explore the process through which we commodify the state and in that way transfer the power to it. Taussig attempts to show how the state uses forces such as violence or media control to consolidate its power over the people. He argues that we live in a state of emergency, citing

text: Walter Benjamin

text: , that is not ‘an exception but the rule.’ To show the universality of the nervous system he takes his reader through the heights of

text: Machu Picchu

text: , the world of Cuna shamans, and the pale world of New York’s hospital system.

text: Stratton went on to become a first-generation experimentalist in psychology. Wundt's lab in Leipzig, with experimental programs bringing together the fields of evolutionary biology, sensory physiology and nervous-system studies, was a part of the career of most of the first generation. It was the exposure there, added to the graduate work at Yale, that influenced Stratton into becoming a psychologist. It was there that he started his binocular vision experiments as well. In these experiments, he found himself adapting to the new perception of the environment over a few days, after inverting the images his eyes saw on a regular basis. For this, he wore a set of glasses inverting images both upside-down and left-right. Stratton wore these glasses over his right eye and covered the left with a patch during the day, and slept blindfolded at night. Initial movement was clumsy, but adjusting to the new environment took only a few days.

text: Stratton went on to become a first-generation experimentalist in psychology. Wundt's lab in Leipzig, with experimental programs bringing together the fields of

text: evolutionary biology

text: , sensory physiology and nervous-system studies, was a part of the career of most of the first generation. It was the exposure there, added to the graduate work at Yale, that influenced Stratton into becoming a psychologist. It was there that he started his binocular vision experiments as well. In these experiments, he found himself adapting to the new perception of the environment over a few days, after inverting the images his eyes saw on a regular basis. For this, he wore a set of glasses inverting images both upside-down and left-right. Stratton wore these glasses over his right eye and covered the left with a patch during the day, and slept blindfolded at night. Initial movement was clumsy, but adjusting to the new environment took only a few days.

text: Glutamate release occurs not only at excitatory synapses, but is also known to occur after neuronal damage or ischemic insult. Thus, activity-dependent downregulation may be the underlying mechanism by which KCC2 downregulation occurs following central nervous system injury.

text: The enteric nervous system consists of some 500 million neurons (including the various types of Dogiel cells), one two-hundredth of the number of neurons in the brain, five times as many as the one hundred million neurons in the spinal cord, and about 2/3 of the whole nervous system of a cat. The enteric nervous system is embedded in the lining of the gastrointestinal system, beginning in the esophagus and extending down to the anus.

text: The enteric nervous system consists of some 500 million

text: neuron

text: s (including the various types of

text: Dogiel cells

text: ), one two-hundredth of the number of neurons in the

text: brain

text: , five times as many as the one hundred million neurons in the spinal cord, and about 2/3 of the

text: whole nervous system of a cat

text: . The enteric nervous system is embedded in the lining of the

text: gastrointestinal system

text: , beginning in the esophagus and extending down to the anus.

text: The afferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, which transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system, are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as the efferent fibers are.  Instead, autonomic sensory information is conducted by general visceral afferent fibers.

text: The afferent fibers of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , which transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system, are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as the efferent fibers are.  Instead, autonomic sensory information is conducted by

text: general visceral afferent fibers

text: Subarachnoid hemorrhage is an extremely serious condition in which a neural membrane is breached and the brain itself is compromised. The onset is sudden, described as "the worst headache of one's life," and many grave symptoms follow. Adrenergic storm is often present among these symptoms, and is responsible for some of the dangers, both long-term and short, of subarachnoid hemhorrhage adrenergic storm, through a complex cascade of processes starting with the movement of subarachnoid blood into the brain. Apparently, as the intracranial pressure increases, the brain is squeezed and catecholamines are forced out of their vesicles into the synapses and extracellular space.  An alternative explanation that has been proposed is that this increased in intracranial pressure transduces through the brain parenchyma through to the blood vessels producing a loss in effective cerebral perfusion.  This triggers the sympathetic nervous system to secrete more norepinepherine and epinepherine increasing blood pressure and heart rate to dangerous levels to maintain cerebral perfusion.

text: Subarachnoid hemorrhage

text: is an extremely serious condition in which a neural membrane is breached and the brain itself is compromised. The onset is sudden, described as "the worst headache of one's life," and many grave symptoms follow. Adrenergic storm is often present among these symptoms, and is responsible for some of the dangers, both long-term and short, of subarachnoid hemhorrhage adrenergic storm, through a complex cascade of processes starting with the movement of subarachnoid blood into the brain. Apparently, as the

text: intracranial pressure

text: increases, the brain is squeezed and catecholamines are forced out of their vesicles into the synapses and extracellular space.  An alternative explanation that has been proposed is that this increased in intracranial pressure transduces through the brain parenchyma through to the blood vessels producing a loss in effective cerebral perfusion.  This triggers the sympathetic nervous system to secrete more norepinepherine and epinepherine increasing blood pressure and heart rate to dangerous levels to maintain cerebral perfusion.

text: Reference : WHO pathology of tumours of central nervous system-2007

text: An anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous system. Anticholinergics inhibit parasympathetic nerve impulses by selectively blocking the binding of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to its receptor in nerve cells. The nerve fibers of the parasympathetic system are responsible for the involuntary movement of smooth muscles present in the gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, lungs, and many other parts of the body. Anticholinergics are divided into three categories in accordance with their specific targets in the central and/or peripheral nervous system: antimuscarinic agents, ganglionic blockers, and neuromuscular blockers.

text: An anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the

text: neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: in the

text: central

text: and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . Anticholinergics inhibit

text: parasympathetic

text: nerve impulses by selectively blocking the binding of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to its receptor in

text: nerve cell

text: s. The

text: nerve fiber

text: s of the parasympathetic system are responsible for the

text: involuntary movement

text: of smooth muscles present in the

text: gastrointestinal tract

text: urinary tract

text: lungs

text: , and many other parts of the body. Anticholinergics are divided into three categories in accordance with their specific targets in the central and/or peripheral nervous system:

text: antimuscarinic

text: agents,

text: ganglionic blockers

text: , and

text: neuromuscular blockers

text: Tethering may also develop after spinal cord injury. Scar tissue can block the flow of fluids around the spinal cord. Fluid pressure may cause cysts to form in the spinal cord, a condition called syringomyelia. This can lead to additional loss of movement or feeling, or the onset of pain or autonomic nervous system symptoms.

text: Tethering may also develop after spinal cord injury. Scar tissue can block the flow of fluids around the spinal cord. Fluid pressure may cause cysts to form in the spinal cord, a condition called

text: syringomyelia

text: . This can lead to additional loss of movement or feeling, or the onset of pain or

text: autonomic nervous system

text: symptoms.

text: Together with the other component of the autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body's internal organs. Reaction to stress—as in the flight-or-fight response—is thought to counteract the parasympathetic system, which generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest. The comprehensive functions of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are not so straightforward, but this is a useful rule of thumb.

text: Together with the other component of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body's internal organs. Reaction to

text: stress

text: —as in the flight-or-fight response—is thought to counteract the

text: parasympathetic system

text: , which generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest. The comprehensive functions of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are not so straightforward, but this is a useful rule of thumb.

text: There are many central nervous system diseases and conditions, including infections of the central nervous system such as encephalitis and poliomyelitis, early-onset neurological disorders including ADHD and autism, late-onset neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and essential tremor, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, genetic disorders such as Krabbe's disease and Huntington's disease, as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and adrenoleukodystrophy. Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when malignant, can have very high mortality rates.

text: There are many central nervous system diseases and conditions, including

entity_name: List of infections of the central nervous system

text: infections

text: of the central nervous system such as

text: encephalitis

text: and

text: poliomyelitis

text: , early-onset

text: neurological disorders

text: including

text: ADHD

text: and

text: autism

text: , late-onset

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: such as

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: Parkinson's disease

text: , and

text: essential tremor

text: autoimmune

text: and inflammatory diseases such as

text: multiple sclerosis

text: and

text: acute disseminated encephalomyelitis

text: , genetic disorders such as

text: Krabbe's disease

text: and

text: Huntington's disease

text: , as well as

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: and

text: adrenoleukodystrophy

text: . Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when

text: malignant

text: , can have very high mortality rates.

text: The effect of potassium nitrite on the nervous system, brain, spinal cord, pulse, arterial blood pressure, and respiration of healthy human volunteers was noted, as was the variability between individuals. The most significant observation was that even a small dose of <0.5 grains (≈30 mg) given by mouth caused, at first, an increase in arterial blood pressure, followed by a moderate decrease. With larger doses, pronounced hypotension ensued. They also noted that potassium nitrite, however administered, had a profound effect on the appearance and oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. They compared the biological action of potassium nitrite with that of amyl and ethyl nitrites and concluded that the similarity of action depends on the conversion of organic nitrites to nitrous acid.

text: The effect of potassium nitrite on the nervous system, brain, spinal cord, pulse, arterial blood pressure, and respiration of healthy human volunteers was noted, as was the variability between individuals. The most significant observation was that even a small dose of <0.5 grains (≈30 mg) given by mouth caused, at first, an increase in arterial

text: blood pressure

text: , followed by a moderate decrease. With larger doses, pronounced

text: hypotension

text: ensued. They also noted that potassium nitrite, however administered, had a profound effect on the appearance and oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. They compared the biological action of potassium nitrite with that of amyl and ethyl nitrites and concluded that the similarity of action depends on the conversion of organic nitrites to

text: nitrous acid

text: Nervous system involvement may be seen with acidosis and occurs more often with respiratory acidosis than with metabolic acidosis. Signs and symptoms that may be seen in acidosis include headaches, confusion, feeling tired, tremors, sleepiness, flapping tremor, and dysfunction of the cerebrum of the brain which may progress to coma if there is no intervention.

text: Nervous system

text: involvement may be seen with acidosis and occurs more often with respiratory acidosis than with metabolic acidosis. Signs and symptoms that may be seen in acidosis include

text: headache

text: s, confusion,

text: feeling tired

text: tremor

text: s,

text: sleepiness

text: flapping tremor

text: , and dysfunction of the

text: cerebrum

text: of the brain which may progress to coma if there is no intervention.

text: For a generic neuron the stimuli are excitatory impulses. Normally, more than single input impulse is necessary for exciting neuron up to the level when it fires and emits an output impulse.Let the neuron receives

text: The central nervous system is protected by major physical and chemical barriers.  Physically, the brain and spinal cord are surrounded by tough meningeal membranes, and enclosed in the bones of the skull and spinal vertebrae, which combine to form a strong physical shield.  Chemically, the brain and spinal cord are isolated by the so-called blood–brain barrier, which prevents most types of chemicals from moving from the bloodstream into the interior of the CNS.  These protections make the CNS less susceptible in many ways than the PNS; the flip side, however, is that damage to the CNS tends to have more serious consequences.

text: The central nervous system is protected by major physical and chemical barriers.  Physically, the brain and spinal cord are surrounded by tough

text: meningeal

text: membranes, and enclosed in the bones of the

text: skull

text: and spinal

text: vertebrae

text: , which combine to form a strong physical shield.  Chemically, the brain and spinal cord are isolated by the so-called

text: blood–brain barrier

text: , which prevents most types of chemicals from moving from the bloodstream into the interior of the CNS.  These protections make the CNS less susceptible in many ways than the PNS; the flip side, however, is that damage to the CNS tends to have more serious consequences.

text: As of 2011, research is focused on the two-way communication between neurons and glial cells.  Communication between these two types of cells allows for axonal conduction, synaptic transmission, as well as the processing of information to regulate and better control the processes of the central nervous system. The various forms of communication include neurotransmission, ion fluxes and signaling molecules. As recently as 2002, new information on the process of neuron-glia communication was published by R. Douglas Fields and Beth Stevens-Graham. They used advanced imaging methods to explain that the ion channels seen in glial cells did not contribute to action potentials but rather allowed the glia to determine the level of neuronal activity within proximity. Glial cells were determined to communicate with one another solely with chemical signals and even had specialized glial-glial and neuron-glial neurotransmitter signaling systems. Additionally, neurons were found to release chemical messengers in extrasynaptic regions, suggesting that the neuron-glial relationship includes functions beyond synaptic transmission. Glia have been known to assist in synapse formation, regulating synapse strength, and information processing as mentioned above.  The process for adenosine triphospahte (ATP), glutamate, and other chemical messenger release from glia is debated and is seen as a direction for future research.

text: As of 2011, research is focused on the two-way communication between neurons and glial cells.  Communication between these two types of cells allows for axonal conduction, synaptic transmission, as well as the processing of information to regulate and better control the processes of the central nervous system. The various forms of communication include

text: neurotransmission

text: , ion fluxes and

text: signaling molecules

text: . As recently as 2002, new information on the process of neuron-glia communication was published by R. Douglas Fields and Beth Stevens-Graham. They used advanced imaging methods to explain that the

text: ion channel

text: s seen in glial cells did not contribute to

text: action potential

text: s but rather allowed the glia to determine the level of neuronal activity within proximity. Glial cells were determined to communicate with one another solely with chemical signals and even had specialized glial-glial and neuron-glial neurotransmitter signaling systems. Additionally, neurons were found to release chemical messengers in extrasynaptic regions, suggesting that the neuron-glial relationship includes functions beyond synaptic transmission. Glia have been known to assist in

text: synapse

text: formation, regulating synapse strength, and information processing as mentioned above.  The process for

text: adenosine triphospahte (ATP)

text: glutamate

text: , and other chemical messenger release from glia is debated and is seen as a direction for future research.

text: It functions as the center of sensory perception, memory, thoughts and judgement; the cerebrum also functions as the center of voluntary motor activities

text: An electroneurogram is a method used to visualize directly recorded electrical activity of neurons in the central nervous system (brain, spinal cord) or the peripheral nervous system (nerves, ganglions). The acronym ENG is often used. An electroneurogram is similar to an electromyogram (EMG), but the latter is used to visualize muscular activity. An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a particular type of electroneurogram in which several electrodes are placed around the head and the general activity of the brain is recorded, without having very high resolution to distinguish between the activity of different groups of neurons.

text: An electroneurogram is a method used to visualize directly recorded electrical activity of

text: neuron

text: s in the

text: central nervous system

text: (brain, spinal cord) or the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (nerves, ganglions). The acronym ENG is often used. An electroneurogram is similar to an

text: electromyogram

text: (EMG), but the latter is used to visualize muscular activity. An

text: electroencephalogram

text: (EEG) is a particular type of electroneurogram in which several

text: electrode

text: s are placed around the head and the general activity of the brain is recorded, without having very high resolution to distinguish between the activity of different groups of

text: neuron

text: s.

text: The sensory nervous system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory  information.  A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception.  Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, auditory (hearing), somatic sensation (touch), gustatory (taste), olfaction (smell) and vestibular (balance/movement).  In short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind where we interpret the information, creating our perception of the world around us.

text: The sensory nervous system is a part of the

text: nervous system

text: responsible for processing

text: sensory

text: information.  A sensory system consists of

text: sensory receptor

text: s,

text: neural pathway

text: s, and parts of the

text: brain

text: involved in sensory perception.  Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for

text: vision

text: auditory

text: (hearing),

text: somatic sensation

text: (touch),

text: gustatory

text: (taste),

text: olfaction

text: (smell) and

text: vestibular

text: (balance/movement).  In short, senses are

text: transducers

text: from the physical world to the realm of the mind where we interpret the information, creating our

text: perception

text: of the world around us.

text: The Drosophila external sensory organ is a sensory structure in the peripheral nervous system that consists of four cells; a neuron, a sheath cell that surrounds the dendrite, and hair and socket cells, which are considered the “outer” support cells.  All four cell fates are descendants of the sensory organ precursor (SOP) cell.  In response to the proper cues, SOPs first divide into two secondary precursor cells. The posterior daughter cell is called the pIIa cell and the anterior daughter cell is called the pIIb. The pIIa cell divides to produce a bristle cell and a socket cell, while the pIIb cell divides to produce a neuron and a glial cell. The asymmetric division of the SOP into daughter cells with distinct fates is dependent upon the distribution of Numb.  Numb is distributed uniformly in the cytoplasm until mitotic division, when it is selectively localized to the anterior pole of the cell. Thus, Numb is selectively segregated into the pIIb daughter cell upon division of the SOP.

text: The Drosophila external sensory organ is a sensory structure in the peripheral nervous system that consists of four cells; a neuron, a sheath cell that surrounds the dendrite, and hair and socket cells, which are considered the “outer” support cells.  All four cell fates are descendants of the sensory organ precursor (SOP) cell.  In response to the proper cues, SOPs first divide into two secondary precursor cells. The posterior daughter cell is called the pIIa cell and the anterior daughter cell is called the pIIb. The pIIa cell divides to produce a bristle cell and a socket cell, while the pIIb cell divides to produce a neuron and a glial cell. The asymmetric division of the SOP into daughter cells with distinct fates is dependent upon the distribution of Numb.  Numb is distributed uniformly in the

text: cytoplasm

text: until mitotic division, when it is selectively localized to the anterior pole of the cell. Thus, Numb is selectively segregated into the pIIb daughter cell upon division of the SOP.

text: Nervous system lipomas are rare congenital benign tumors of the central nervous system, mostly located in the medial line and especially in the corpus callosum. Generally, patients with these lipomas present with strokes. However, patients with the Pai syndrome don’t. That is why it is suggested that isolated nervous system lipomas have a different embryological origin than the lipomas present in the Pai syndrome. The treatment of CNS lipomas mainly consists of observation and follow up.

text: Even in the nervous system of a single species such as humans, hundreds of different types of neurons exist, with a wide variety of morphologies and functions.  These include sensory neurons that transmute physical stimuli such as light and sound into neural signals, and motor neurons that transmute neural signals into activation of muscles or glands; however in many species the great majority of neurons participate in the formation of centralized structures (the brain and ganglia) and they receive all of their input from other neurons and send their output to other neurons.

text: Even in the nervous system of a single species such as humans, hundreds of different types of neurons exist, with a wide variety of morphologies and functions.  These include

text: sensory neuron

text: s that transmute physical stimuli such as light and sound into neural signals, and

text: motor neuron

text: s that transmute neural signals into activation of muscles or glands; however in many species the great majority of neurons participate in the formation of centralized structures (the brain and ganglia) and they receive all of their input from other neurons and send their output to other neurons.

text: This consists of motor neuron axons that branch out to the muscles from the ganglia of the central nervous system, parts of the sympathetic nervous system and the sensory neurons of the cuticular sense organs that receive chemical, thermal, mechanical or visual stimuli from the insects environment. The sympathetic nervous system includes nerves and the ganglia that innervate the gut both posteriorly and anteriorly, some endocrine organs, the spiracles of the tracheal system and the reproductive organs.

text: This consists of

text: motor neuron

text: axons

text: that branch out to the muscles from the ganglia of the central nervous system, parts of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: sensory neurons

text: of the cuticular sense organs that receive chemical, thermal, mechanical or visual stimuli from the insects environment. The sympathetic nervous system includes nerves and the ganglia that innervate the gut both posteriorly and anteriorly, some endocrine organs, the

text: spiracles

text: of the tracheal system and the reproductive organs.

text: Choline acetyltransferase (commonly abbreviated as ChAT, but sometimes CAT) is a transferase enzyme responsible for the synthesis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. ChAT catalyzes the transfer of an acetyl group from the coenzyme, acetyl-CoA, to choline yielding acetylcholine (ACh). ChAT is found in high concentration in cholinergic neurons, both in the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). As with most of nerve terminal proteins, ChAT is produced in the body of the neuron and is transported to the nerve terminal, where its concentration is highest. Presence of ChAT in a nerve cell classifies this cell as a "cholinergic" neuron. In humans, the choline acetyltransferase enzyme is encoded by the CHAT gene.

text: Choline acetyltransferase (commonly abbreviated as ChAT, but sometimes CAT) is a

text: transferase

text: enzyme

text: responsible for the synthesis of the

text: neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: . ChAT catalyzes the transfer of an

text: acetyl

text: group from the

text: coenzyme

text: acetyl-CoA

text: , to

text: choline

text: yielding acetylcholine (ACh). ChAT is found in high concentration in

text: cholinergic

text: neurons

text: , both in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). As with most of nerve terminal proteins, ChAT is produced in the body of the

text: neuron

text: and is transported to the

text: nerve terminal

text: , where its concentration is highest. Presence of ChAT in a nerve cell classifies this cell as a "cholinergic" neuron. In humans, the choline acetyltransferase enzyme is encoded by the CHAT

text: gene

text: Research into zygotes of Drosophila have indicated that several segment polarity genes are vital for segmentation involved in neuroblast formation and differentiation of cell into their neuroblast identity; thereby, developing the central nervous system. Research on the loss-of-function mutations in these genes of Drosophila suggests that segment polarity genes interactions are also responsible for neuroblast division, affecting the quantity of neuroblasts as well as their specificity.

text: Even at resting levels of blood pressure, arterial baroreceptor discharge activates NTS neurons. Some of these NTS neurons are tonically activated by this resting blood pressure and thus activate excitatory fibers to the nucleus ambiguus and Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve to regulate the parasympathetic nervous system. These parasympathetic neurons send axons to the heart and parasympathetic activity  slows cardiac pacemaking and thus heart rate. This parasympathetic activity is further increased during conditions of elevated blood pressure.  Note that the parasympathetic nervous system is primarily directed toward the heart.

text: Even at resting levels of blood pressure, arterial baroreceptor discharge activates NTS neurons. Some of these NTS neurons are tonically activated by this resting blood pressure and thus activate excitatory fibers to the nucleus ambiguus and

text: Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve

text: to regulate the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: . These parasympathetic neurons send axons to the heart and parasympathetic activity  slows cardiac pacemaking and thus heart rate. This parasympathetic activity is further increased during conditions of elevated blood pressure.  Note that the parasympathetic nervous system is primarily directed toward the heart.

text: Wallerian degeneration occurs after axonal injury in both the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS).  It occurs in the axon stump distal to a site of injury and usually begins within 24–36 hours of a lesion.  Prior to degeneration, distal axon stumps tend to remain electrically excitable.  After injury, the axonal skeleton disintegrates, and the axonal membrane breaks apart. The axonal degeneration is followed by degradation of the  myelin sheath and infiltration by macrophages.  The macrophages, accompanied by Schwann cells, serve to clear the debris from the degeneration.

text: Wallerian degeneration occurs after axonal injury in both the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) and

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS).  It occurs in the axon stump distal to a site of injury and usually begins within 24–36 hours of a lesion.  Prior to degeneration, distal axon stumps tend to remain electrically excitable.  After injury, the axonal skeleton disintegrates, and the axonal membrane breaks apart. The axonal degeneration is followed by degradation of the

text: myelin sheath

text: and infiltration by

text: macrophage

text: s.  The macrophages, accompanied by

text: Schwann cells

text: , serve to clear the debris from the degeneration.

text: Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction—in other words, it is the chemical that motor neurons of the nervous system release in order to activate muscles.  This property means that drugs that affect cholinergic systems can have very dangerous effects ranging from paralysis to convulsions. Acetylcholine is also used as a neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system, both as an internal transmitter for the sympathetic nervous system and as the final product released by the parasympathetic nervous system.

text: Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter used at the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: —in other words, it is the chemical that

text: motor neuron

text: s of the nervous system release in order to activate muscles.  This property means that drugs that affect cholinergic systems can have very dangerous effects ranging from paralysis to convulsions. Acetylcholine is also used as a neurotransmitter in the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , both as an internal transmitter for the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and as the final product released by the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: Richard T. Johnson was a physician and scientist at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. Johnson was a faculty member in the Department of Neurology since its inception in 1969 and was the former head of the department. His research into the effects of viruses on the central nervous system has been published in over 300 scientific articles, and Johnson was both a journal and book editor and the author of an influential textbook, Viral Infections of the Nervous System.

text: Richard T. Johnson was a physician and scientist at the

text: Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine

text: . Johnson was a faculty member in the Department of Neurology since its inception in 1969 and was the former head of the department. His research into the effects of viruses on the

text: central nervous system

text: has been published in over 300 scientific articles, and Johnson was both a journal and book editor and the author of an influential textbook, Viral Infections of the Nervous System.

text: Andrea Battison and colleagues proposed KCl for euthanasia of the American lobster. The researchers injected KCl solution in order to fill with potassium ions (K) the hemolymph sinus that holds the lobster's ventral nerve cord and the region around its supraesophageal ganglion. In normal circumstances, neurons maintain a negative membrane potential and have a high intracellular K concentration. When KCl is injected into hemolymph, extracellular K increases and begins to enter the neurons to restore equilibrium. This depolarizes the neurons and generates an action potential. Subsequent repolarization is blocked by the high intracellular K, so the nervous system fails, and transmission of adverse sensory information is prevented. The potassium then triggers cardiac arrest within 40–90 seconds, in both warm and cold environments.

text: Andrea Battison and colleagues proposed KCl for euthanasia of the

text: American lobster

text: . The researchers injected KCl solution in order to fill with potassium ions (K) the hemolymph sinus that holds the lobster's

text: ventral nerve cord

text: and the region around its

text: supraesophageal ganglion

text: . In normal circumstances, neurons maintain a negative

text: membrane potential

text: and have a high intracellular K concentration. When KCl is injected into hemolymph, extracellular K increases and begins to enter the neurons to restore equilibrium. This depolarizes the neurons and generates an

text: action potential

text: . Subsequent repolarization is blocked by the high intracellular K, so the nervous system fails, and transmission of adverse sensory information is prevented. The potassium then triggers cardiac arrest within 40–90 seconds, in both warm and cold environments.

text: Nerves in the peripheral nervous system spread out to various parts of the body, including muscle fibers. A muscle fiber and the motor neuron to which it is connected. The spot at which the motor neuron attaches to the muscle fiber is known as the neuromuscular junction. When muscles receive information from internal or external stimuli, muscle fibers are stimulated by their respective motor neuron. Impulses are passed from the central nervous system down neurons until they reach the motor neuron, which releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) into the neuromuscular junction. ACh binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the surface of the muscle cell and opens ion channels, allowing sodium ions to flow into the cell and potassium ions to flow out; this ion movement causes a depolarization, which allows for the release of calcium ions within the cell. Calcium ions bind to proteins within the muscle cell to allow for muscle contraction; the ultimate consequence of a stimulus.

text: Nerves in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: spread out to various parts of the body, including

text: muscle fiber

text: s. A muscle fiber and the

text: motor neuron

text: to which it is connected. The spot at which the motor neuron attaches to the muscle fiber is known as the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: . When muscles receive information from internal or external stimuli, muscle fibers are stimulated by their respective motor neuron. Impulses are passed from the

text: central nervous system

text: down neurons until they reach the motor neuron, which releases the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: (ACh) into the neuromuscular junction. ACh binds to

text: nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

text: on the surface of the muscle cell and opens ion channels, allowing sodium ions to flow into the cell and potassium ions to flow out; this ion movement causes a depolarization, which allows for the release of calcium ions within the cell. Calcium ions bind to proteins within the muscle cell to allow for muscle contraction; the ultimate consequence of a stimulus.

text: In the second half of the 19th century, many motifs of the nervous system were identified such as the neuron doctrine and brain localization, which related to the neuron being the basic unit of the nervous system and functional localisation in the brain, respectively. These would become tenets of the fledgling neuroscience and would support further understanding of the visual system.

text: In the second half of the 19th century, many motifs of the

text: nervous system

text: were identified such as the

text: neuron doctrine

text: and brain localization, which related to the

text: neuron

text: being the basic unit of the nervous system and

text: functional localisation in the brain

text: , respectively. These would become tenets of the fledgling

text: neuroscience

text: and would support further understanding of the visual system.

text: The flocculonodular lobe (vestibulocerebellum) is a lobe of the cerebellum consisting of the nodule and the flocculus. The two flocculi are connected to the midline structure called the nodulus by thin pedicles. It is placed on the anteroinferior surface of cerebellum.

text: The flocculonodular lobe (

text: vestibulocerebellum

text: ) is a lobe of the

text: cerebellum

text: consisting of the

text: nodule

text: and the

text: flocculus

text: . The two flocculi are connected to the midline structure called the nodulus by thin

text: pedicles

text: . It is placed on the anteroinferior surface of cerebellum.

text: Neuro: of or having to do with the nervous system. Nervous System: An organ system that coordinates the activities of muscles, monitors organs, constructs and processes data received from the senses and initiates actions. The human nervous system coordinates the functions of itself and all organ systems including but not limited to the cardiovascular system, respiratory system, skin, digestive system, immune system, hormonal, metabolic, musculoskeletal, endocrine system, blood and reproductive system. Optimal function of the organism as a whole depends upon the proper function of the nervous system.

text: Neuro: of or having to do with the nervous system.

text: Nervous System

text: : An

text: organ

text: system that

text: coordinate

text: s the activities of muscles, monitors organs, constructs and processes data received from the senses and initiates actions. The human nervous system coordinates the functions of itself and all organ systems including but not limited to the

text: cardiovascular system

text: respiratory system

text: skin

text: digestive system

text: immune system

text: , hormonal, metabolic, musculoskeletal,

text: endocrine system

text: , blood and

text: reproductive system

text: . Optimal function of the organism as a whole depends upon the proper function of the nervous system.

text: In March 1957, rifle divisions were reformed into motor-rifle divisions:2nd Rifle Corps was re-formed into 2nd Army Corps;On 17 May 1957, the 56th Rifle Division became the 56th Motor-Rifle Division (in this case the 357th Rifle Regiment was renamed as the 390th Rifle Regiment);41st Rifle Red Banner Division was renamed the 41st Motor-Rifle Red Banner Division;

text: In March 1957, rifle divisions were reformed into motor-rifle divisions:2nd Rifle Corps was re-formed into 2nd Army Corps;On 17 May 1957, the 56th Rifle Division became the

text: 56th Motor-Rifle Division

text: (in this case the 357th Rifle Regiment was renamed as the 390th Rifle Regiment);41st Rifle Red Banner Division was renamed the

text: 41st Motor-Rifle Red Banner Division

text: The demyelinating diseases of the peripheral nervous system include:

text: The demyelinating diseases of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: include:

text: A receptors are coupled to G proteins which activate adenylate cyclase and some voltage gated Ca channels. A receptors are located in dopamine rich brain regions. A receptor mRNA was found in the same neurons as the dopamine receptor D within the dorsal striatum, nucleus accumbens and tuberculum olfactorium. A receptors are not found in neurons that express the dopamine receptor D receptors and Substance P. Within the striatum, part of the basal ganglia, activation of A receptors by adenosine increases GABA release, an inhibitory neurotransmitter. When caffeine binds to the receptor, less inhibitory neurotransmitter is released, supporting caffeine’s role as a central nervous system stimulant.

text: A receptors are coupled to G proteins which activate

text: adenylate cyclase

text: and some

text: voltage gated Ca channels

text: . A receptors are located in

text: dopamine

text: rich brain regions. A receptor mRNA was found in the same neurons as the dopamine receptor

text: D

text: within the

text: dorsal striatum

text: nucleus accumbens

text: and

text: tuberculum olfactorium

text: . A receptors are not found in neurons that express the dopamine receptor

text: D

text: receptors and

text: Substance P

text: . Within the striatum, part of the basal ganglia, activation of A receptors by adenosine increases

text: GABA

text: release, an inhibitory neurotransmitter. When caffeine binds to the receptor, less inhibitory neurotransmitter is released, supporting caffeine’s role as a central nervous system stimulant.

text: In 1963, Hodgkin with Huxley, won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on the basis of nerve "action potentials," the electrical impulses which enable the activity of an organism to be coordinated by a central nervous system. Hodgkin and Huxley shared the prize that year with John Eccles, who was cited for his research on synapses.Worldwide use of this new microelectrode spread rapidly after this  and has subsequently proven to be one of the most important devices applied to the study of cellular physiology.The microelectrode in use today is essentially the same as this, except that it usually contains a concentrated salt solution, and is commonly referred to as the glass capillary.In 1950 Gerard was nominated for the Nobel Prize for helping to develop the microelectrode as used in Electrophysiology.

text: In 1963, Hodgkin with Huxley, won the

text: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

text: for their work on the basis of nerve "

text: action potential

text: s," the electrical impulses which enable the activity of an organism to be coordinated by a

text: central nervous system

text: . Hodgkin and Huxley shared the prize that year with

text: John Eccles

text: , who was cited for his research on

text: synapse

text: s.Worldwide use of this new microelectrode spread rapidly after this  and has subsequently proven to be one of the most important devices applied to the study of cellular physiology.The microelectrode in use today is essentially the same as this, except that it usually contains a concentrated salt solution, and is commonly referred to as the glass capillary.In 1950 Gerard was nominated for the

text: Nobel Prize

text: for helping to develop the

text: microelectrode

text: as used in

text: Electrophysiology

text: The difference between BCIs and neuroprosthetics is mostly in how the terms are used: neuroprosthetics typically connect the nervous system to a device, whereas BCIs usually connect the brain (or nervous system) with a computer system. Practical neuroprosthetics can be linked to any part of the nervous system—for example, peripheral nerves—while the term "BCI" usually designates a narrower class of systems which interface with the central nervous system.

text: AIF1 is a protein that exists in the cytoplasm, and it is highly evolutionarily conserved. It is also possibly identical to three other proteins, Iba-1, MRF-1 (microglia response factor) and daintain. However complete functional profiles of all three proteins and how they overlap is unknown. IBA1 is a 17-kDa EF hand protein that is specifically expressed in macrophages / microglia and is upregulated during the activation of these cells. Iba1 expression is up-regulated in microglia following nerve injury, central nervous system ischemia, and several other brain diseases.

text: AIF1 is a protein that exists in the

text: cytoplasm

text: , and it is highly evolutionarily conserved. It is also possibly identical to three other proteins, Iba-1, MRF-1 (microglia response factor) and daintain. However complete functional profiles of all three proteins and how they overlap is unknown. IBA1 is a 17-

text: kDa

text: EF hand

text: protein that is specifically expressed in

text: macrophage

text: s /

text: microglia

text: and is upregulated during the activation of these cells. Iba1 expression is up-regulated in microglia following nerve injury, central nervous system ischemia, and several other brain diseases.

text: Stuttering can also have its roots in development. Many toddlers and preschool age children stutter as they are learning to talk, and although many parents worry about it, most of these children will outgrow the stuttering and will have normal speech as they get older. Since most of these children do not stutter as adults, this normal stage of speech development is usually referred to as pseudo-stuttering or as a normal disfluency. As children learn to talk, they may repeat certain sounds, stumble on or mispronounce words, hesitate between words, substitute sounds for each other, and be unable to express some sounds. Children with a normal disfluency usually have brief repetitions of certain sounds, syllables or short words, however, the stuttering usually comes and goes and is most noticeable when a child is excited, stressed or overly tired. Stuttering is also believed to be caused by neurophysiology. Neurogenic stuttering is a type of fluency disorder in which a person has difficulty in producing speech in a normal, smooth fashion. Individuals with fluency disorders may have speech that sounds fragmented or halting, with frequent interruptions and difficulty producing words without effort or struggle. Neurogenic stuttering typically appears following some sort of injury or disease to the central nervous system. Injuries to the brain and spinal cord, including cortex, subcortex, cerebellar, and even the neural pathway regions.

text: Anti-CASPR2 nervous system manifestations: Patients with anti-CASPIR2 antibodies develop symptoms from the CNS and/or the peripheral nervous system. The classic presentation is with Morvan’s syndrome, a disease with the features of neuromyotonia (i.e. peripheral hyperexcetability) and limbic encephalitis. Other patients present with isolated neuromyotonia or limbic encephalitis.

text: Generally, there are no scientifically established "norms" for appropriate levels or "balances" of different neurotransmitters. It is in most cases pragmatically impossible to even measure levels of neurotransmitters in a brain or body at any distinct moments in time. However, alterations or disruptions to neurotransmitter systems have been associated with many diseases or disorders, or associated with the drugs that seem to be able to help treat symptoms of disorders. These include Parkinson's, depression and SSRI antidepressant drugs, insomnia, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and nervous system stimulant drugs, anxiety and sedating drugs, memory loss, dramatic changes in weight and addictions. They all involve amino acids which form neurotransmitters. The acids are made up of protein and without a sufficient amount of this then cells are not structured properly; therefore not functioning properly. Chronic physical or emotional stress can be a contributor to neurotransmitter system changes. Genetics also plays a role in neurotransmitter activities.  Scientists are trying to supplement medication by changing the diets of some patients instead; adding amino acids into the body. Medications that directly react with serotonin and norepinephrine are prescribed to patients with problems such as depression and anxiety -- though the notion that there is much solid medical evidence to support such interventions has been widely criticized.

text: Generally, there are no scientifically established "norms" for appropriate levels or "balances" of different neurotransmitters. It is in most cases pragmatically impossible to even measure levels of neurotransmitters in a brain or body at any distinct moments in time. However, alterations or disruptions to neurotransmitter systems have been associated with many diseases or disorders, or associated with the drugs that seem to be able to help treat symptoms of disorders. These include Parkinson's, depression and SSRI antidepressant drugs, insomnia, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and nervous system stimulant drugs, anxiety and sedating drugs, memory loss, dramatic changes in weight and addictions. They all involve amino acids which form neurotransmitters. The acids are made up of protein and without a sufficient amount of this then cells are not structured properly; therefore not functioning properly. Chronic physical or emotional stress can be a contributor to neurotransmitter system changes. Genetics also plays a role in neurotransmitter activities.  Scientists are trying to supplement medication by changing the diets of some patients instead; adding amino acids into the body. Medications that directly react with

text: serotonin

text: and

text: norepinephrine

text: are prescribed to patients with problems such as depression and anxiety -- though the notion that there is much solid medical evidence to support such interventions has been widely criticized.

text: The human cerebral cortex is a thick layer of neural tissue that covers the two cerebral hemispheres that make up most of the brain. This layer is folded in a way that increases the amount of surface area that can fit into the volume available. The pattern of folds is similar across individuals but shows many small variations. The cortex is divided into four lobes – the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. (Some classification systems also include a limbic lobe and treat the insular cortex as a lobe.) Within each lobe are numerous cortical areas, each associated with a particular function, including vision, motor control, and language. The left and right hemispheres are broadly similar in shape, and most cortical areas are replicated on both sides. Some areas, though, show strong lateralization, particularly areas that are involved in language. In most people, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, with the right hemisphere playing only a minor role. There are other functions, such as visual-spatial ability, for which the right hemisphere is usually dominant.

text: The human cerebral cortex is a thick layer of

text: neural tissue

text: that covers the two

text: cerebral hemisphere

text: s that make up most of the brain. This layer is folded in a way that increases the amount of surface area that can fit into the volume available. The

text: pattern of folds

text: is similar across individuals but shows many small variations. The cortex is divided into four

text: lobes

text: – the

text: frontal lobe

text: parietal lobe

text: temporal lobe

text: , and

text: occipital lobe

text: . (Some classification systems also include a

text: limbic lobe

text: and treat the

text: insular cortex

text: as a lobe.) Within each lobe are numerous cortical areas, each associated with a particular function, including vision,

text: motor control

text: , and

text: language

text: . The left and right hemispheres are broadly similar in shape, and most cortical areas are replicated on both sides. Some areas, though, show strong

text: lateralization

text: , particularly areas that are involved in language. In most people, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, with the right hemisphere playing only a minor role. There are other functions, such as

text: visual-spatial ability

text: , for which the right hemisphere is usually dominant.

text: Chronic oral exposure in animals affects the liver, the kidney, the spleen, the adrenal and thyroid glands, the central nervous system, and the immune system.  Toxaphene stimulates the central nervous system by antagonizing neurons leading to hyperpolarization of neurons and increased neuronal activity.

text: The twenty-one qualifying conditions are: AIDS/HIV, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), cancer, chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), Crohn's disease, epilepsy (or other seizure disorder), fibromyalgia, glaucoma, hepatitis C, inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, "pain that is either chronic and severe or intractable," Parkinson's disease, post-traumatic stress disorder, sickle cell anemia, spinal cord disease or injury, Tourette's syndrome, traumatic brain injury, ulcerative colitis, and "any other disease or condition added by the state medical board."

text: The twenty-one qualifying conditions are:

text: AIDS/HIV

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: (ALS),

text: cancer

text: chronic traumatic encephalopathy

text: (CTE),

text: Crohn's disease

text: epilepsy

text: (or other

text: seizure disorder

text: fibromyalgia

text: glaucoma

text: hepatitis C

text: inflammatory bowel disease

text: multiple sclerosis

text: , "pain that is either

text: chronic

text: and severe or intractable,"

text: Parkinson's disease

text: post-traumatic stress disorder

text: sickle cell anemia

text: spinal cord disease

text: or

text: injury

text: Tourette's syndrome

text: traumatic brain injury

text: ulcerative colitis

text: , and "any other disease or condition added by the state medical board."

text: Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada disease (VKH), also known as Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome and uveomeningitis syndrome, is a multisystem disease of presumed autoimmune  cause, that affects pigmented tissues, which have melanin. The most significant manifestation is bilateral, diffuse uveitis, which affects the eye. VKH may variably also involve the inner ear with effects on hearing, the skin, and the meninges of the central nervous system.

text: Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada disease (VKH), also known as Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome and uveomeningitis syndrome, is a multisystem disease of presumed

text: autoimmune

text: cause, that affects pigmented tissues, which have

text: melanin

text: . The most significant manifestation is bilateral, diffuse

text: uveitis

text: , which affects the eye. VKH may variably also involve the

text: inner ear

text: with effects on hearing, the skin, and the

text: meninges

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: Sponges do not have a nervous system, but even they apparently make use of glutamate for cell-to-cell signalling.  Sponges possess glutamate receptors of the metabotropic type, and application of glutamate to a sponge can trigger a sort of whole-body "sneeze" response that sponges use to rid themselves of contaminants. The genome of Trichoplax, a primitive blob-like organism that also has no nervous system, contains numerous glutamate receptors of the G-protein-coupled type, but their function is not known.

text: Sponge

text: s do not have a nervous system, but even they apparently make use of glutamate for cell-to-cell signalling.  Sponges possess glutamate receptors of the metabotropic type, and application of glutamate to a sponge can trigger a sort of whole-body "sneeze" response that sponges use to rid themselves of contaminants. The genome of

text: Trichoplax

text: , a primitive blob-like organism that also has no nervous system, contains numerous glutamate receptors of the G-protein-coupled type, but their function is not known.

text: A motor neuron (or motoneuron) is a nerve cell (neuron) whose cell body is located in the spinal cord and whose fiber (axon) projects outside the spinal cord to directly or indirectly control effector organs, mainly muscles and glands.  Motor neurons' axons are efferent nerve fibers that carry signals from the spinal cord to the effectors to produce effects. Types of motor neurons are alpha motor neurons, beta motor neurons, and gamma motor neurons.

text: A motor neuron (or motoneuron) is a nerve cell (

text: neuron

text: ) whose

text: cell body

text: is located in the spinal cord and whose fiber (

text: axon

text: ) projects outside the

text: spinal cord

text: to directly or indirectly control effector organs, mainly

text: muscle

text: s and

text: gland

text: s.  Motor neurons' axons are

text: efferent nerve fiber

text: s that carry signals from the

text: spinal cord

text: to the effectors to produce effects. Types of motor neurons are

text: alpha motor neuron

text: s,

text: beta motor neuron

text: s, and

text: gamma motor neuron

text: s.

text: Numerous secondary medical problems are associated with catastrophic spinal cord injury. These include cardiovascular complications, such as deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, orthostatic hypotension, bradycardia, autonomic dysreflexia, altered thermoregulation, and changes to cardiac function as a result of injury to the sympathetic nervous system.

text: Numerous secondary medical problems are associated with catastrophic spinal cord injury. These include cardiovascular complications, such as

text: deep vein thrombosis

text: pulmonary embolism

text: orthostatic hypotension

text: bradycardia

text: autonomic dysreflexia

text: , altered

text: thermoregulation

text: , and changes to cardiac function as a result of injury to the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: Helenium pinnatifidum is an perennial herb up to  tall, with small wings running down the sides of the stems. Leaves are pinnatifid, meaning deeply divided into many small parts. One plant generally produces only 1-3 hemispherical flower heads, about  across. Each head can have 800 or more minuscule disc flowers  across, each yellow toward the bottom but yellow-brown toward the tip. There are also 13-34 yellow ray flowers, each with three prominent lobes at the tip.

text: Helenium pinnatifidum is an perennial herb up to  tall, with small wings running down the sides of the stems.

text: Leaves are pinnatifid

text: , meaning deeply divided into many small parts. One plant generally produces only 1-3 hemispherical

text: flower heads

text: , about  across. Each head can have 800 or more minuscule

text: disc flowers

text: across, each yellow toward the bottom but yellow-brown toward the tip. There are also 13-34 yellow

text: ray flowers

text: , each with three prominent lobes at the tip.

text: “Neurons are produced by multipotent precursors called stem cells. Neural stem cells divide in a self-renewing manner, generating daughter cells that give rise to different types of neurons. The aim of our work is to identify the genes that direct the different behaviours of cells in the developing nervous system. When we identify the genes that specify the characteristic behaviours of each of the different cell types in the nervous system, it may become possible to manipulate them in such a way as to induce stem cells to become neurons at will, or induce neurons to regenerate.”

text: There are also differences in the structure of and in specific areas of the brain. On average, the SDN has been repeatedly found to be considerably larger in males than in females. The volume of the SDN was 2.2 times as large in males as in females. On average, the BSTc is twice as large in men as in women. On average, the INAH-3 is significantly larger in males than in females regardless of age. Two studies found that men have larger parietal lobes, an area responsible for sensory input including spatial sense and navigation; though, another study failed to find any statistically significant difference. At the same time, females have larger Wernicke's and Broca's areas, areas responsible for language processing. Studies using MRI scanning have shown that the auditory and language-related regions in the left hemisphere are proportionally expanded in females versus in males. Conversely, the primary visual, and visuo-spatial association areas of the parietal lobes are proportionally larger in males. The corpus callous is located at the sagittal divide and is the primary commissure in the human brain. It connects the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, which allows them to communicate with each other.  With respect to language, males predominantly use their left hemisphere but females use both their right and left hemispheres. The right hemisphere controls emotion, so using the right hemisphere adds more prosody to speech. In males, the corpus callosum is larger than females.  However, the splenium and the isthmus subregions of the corpus callosum are larger in females. The genu subregion is larger in males. These subregions may serve as the basis for sex differences in language. However, a 1997 meta-study concluded that there is no relative size difference, and that the larger corpus callosum in males is due to generally larger brains in males on average.In total and on average, females have a higher percentage of grey matter in comparison to males, and males a higher percentage of white matter. However, some researchers maintain that as males have larger brains on average than females, when adjusted for total brain volume, the grey matter differences between sexes is small or nonexistent. Thus, the percentage of grey matter appears to be more related to brain size than it is to gender.

text: There are also differences in the structure of and in specific areas of the brain. On average, the

text: SDN

text: has been repeatedly found to be considerably larger in males than in females. The volume of the SDN was 2.2 times as large in males as in females. On average, the

entity_section: Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST)

text: BSTc

text: is twice as large in men as in women. On average, the

text: is significantly larger in males than in females regardless of age. Two studies found that men have larger

text: parietal lobe

text: s, an area responsible for sensory input including spatial sense and navigation; though, another study failed to find any statistically significant difference. At the same time, females have larger

text: Wernicke's

text: and

text: Broca's area

text: s, areas responsible for language processing. Studies using

text: MRI

text: scanning have shown that the auditory and language-related regions in the left hemisphere are proportionally expanded in females versus in males. Conversely, the primary visual, and visuo-spatial association areas of the parietal lobes are proportionally larger in males. The corpus callous is located at the sagittal divide and is the primary

text: commissure

text: in the human brain. It connects the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, which allows them to communicate with each other.  With respect to language, males predominantly use their left hemisphere but females use both their right and left hemispheres. The right hemisphere controls emotion, so using the right hemisphere adds more prosody to speech. In males, the corpus callosum is larger than females.  However, the splenium and the isthmus subregions of the corpus callosum are larger in females. The genu subregion is larger in males. These subregions may serve as the basis for sex differences in language. However, a 1997 meta-study concluded that there is no relative size difference, and that the larger corpus callosum in males is due to generally larger brains in males on average.In total and on average, females have a higher percentage of

text: grey matter

text: in comparison to males, and males a higher percentage of

text: white matter

text: . However, some researchers maintain that as males have larger brains on average than females, when adjusted for total brain volume, the grey matter differences between sexes is small or nonexistent. Thus, the percentage of grey matter appears to be more related to brain size than it is to gender.

text: During embryonic development these inner cell mass cells continuously divide and become more specialized.  For example, a portion of the ectoderm in the dorsal part of the embryo specializes as 'neurectoderm', which will become the future central nervous system.  Later in development, neurulation causes the neurectoderm to form the neural tube.  At the neural tube stage, the anterior portion undergoes encephalization to generate or 'pattern' the basic form of the brain.  At this stage of development, the principal cell type of the CNS is considered a neural stem cell.  These neural stem cells are pluripotent, as they can generate a large diversity of many different neuron types, each with unique gene expression, morphological, and functional characteristics.  The process of generating neurons from stem cells is called neurogenesis.  One prominent example of a neural stem cell is the radial glial cell, so named because it has a distinctive bipolar morphology with highly elongated processes spanning the thickness of the neural tube wall, and because historically it shared some glial characteristics, most notably the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP).  The radial glial cell is the primary neural stem cell of the developing vertebrate CNS, and its cell body resides in the ventricular zone, adjacent to the developing ventricular system.  Neural stem cells are committed to the neuronal lineages (neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes), and thus their potency is restricted.

text: During embryonic development these inner cell mass cells continuously divide and become more specialized.  For example, a portion of the ectoderm in the dorsal part of the embryo specializes as '

text: neurectoderm

text: ', which will become the future

text: central nervous system

text: .  Later in development,

text: neurulation

text: causes the neurectoderm to form the

text: neural tube

text: .  At the neural tube stage, the anterior portion undergoes

text: encephalization

text: to generate or 'pattern' the basic form of the brain.  At this stage of development, the principal cell type of the CNS is considered a

text: neural stem cell

text: .  These neural stem cells are pluripotent, as they can generate a large diversity of many different neuron types, each with unique gene expression, morphological, and functional characteristics.  The process of generating neurons from stem cells is called

text: neurogenesis

text: .  One prominent example of a neural stem cell is the

text: radial glial cell

text: , so named because it has a distinctive bipolar morphology with highly elongated processes spanning the thickness of the neural tube wall, and because historically it shared some

text: glial

text: characteristics, most notably the expression of

text: glial fibrillary acidic protein

text: (GFAP).  The radial glial cell is the primary neural stem cell of the developing

text: vertebrate

text: CNS, and its cell body resides in the

text: ventricular zone

text: , adjacent to the developing

text: ventricular system

text: .  Neural stem cells are committed to the neuronal lineages (

text: neuron

text: s,

text: astrocyte

text: s, and

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s), and thus their potency is restricted.

text: Drinking more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine. Long-term alcohol abuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including cirrhosis of the liver, pancreatitis, epilepsy, polyneuropathy, alcoholic dementia, heart disease, nutritional deficiencies, peptic ulcers and sexual dysfunction, and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, alcoholic liver disease, and cancer. Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting a propensity to bone fractures.

text: Drinking more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease,

text: high blood pressure

text: atrial fibrillation

text: , and

text: stroke

text: . Risk is greater in younger people due to

text: binge drinking

text: which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine. Long-term alcohol abuse can cause a number of physical symptoms, including

text: cirrhosis

text: of the liver,

text: pancreatitis

text: epilepsy

text: polyneuropathy

text: alcoholic dementia

text: , heart disease, nutritional deficiencies,

text: peptic ulcers

text: and

text: sexual dysfunction

text: , and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing

text: cardiovascular disease

text: malabsorption

text: alcoholic liver disease

text: , and

text: cancer

text: . Damage to the

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting a propensity to bone fractures.

text: These conflicting findings could be the result of the differences in patient selection for the studies.  In the first set of results the patients were older and had large portions of their frontal lobes completely removed, whereas in the second set, patients were younger and had smaller areas of damage without tissue removed.  Older participants have an increased risk of cognitive aging and declines in prefrontal gray matter. The brain is highly interconnected and rarely structures work completely independently of other areas.  It is reasonable to conclude that the Supervisory Attentional System, located in the frontal lobes, works together with processes in other areas of the brain.  Thus, patients with portions of their frontal lobes removed will have systems completely blocked from functioning properly.  In contrast, patients with dysfunctional intact lesions may provide connections for other components of the system to remain functioning.  Additionally, areas of the brain connected to the dysfunctional component may have demonstrated neuronal plasticity to incorporate some of the impaired functions into their own processes.

text: Neurogenomics is the study of how the genome of an organism influences the development and function of its nervous system. This field intends to unite functional genomics and neurobiology in order to understand the nervous system as a whole from a genomic perspective.

text: Neurogenomics is the study of how the genome of an organism influences the development and function of its nervous system. This field intends to unite

text: functional genomics

text: and

text: neurobiology

text: in order to understand the nervous system as a whole from a genomic perspective.

text: Thin neurons and axons require less metabolic expense to produce and carry action potentials, but thicker axons convey impulses more rapidly. To minimize metabolic expense while maintaining rapid conduction, many neurons have insulating sheaths of myelin around their axons. The sheaths are formed by glial cells: oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. The sheath enables action potentials to travel faster than in unmyelinated axons of the same diameter, whilst using less energy. The myelin sheath in peripheral nerves normally runs along the axon in sections about 1 mm long, punctuated by unsheathed nodes of Ranvier, which contain a high density of voltage-gated ion channels. Multiple sclerosis is a neurological disorder that results from demyelination of axons in the central nervous system.

text: Thin neurons and axons require less

text: metabolic

text: expense to produce and carry action potentials, but thicker axons convey impulses more rapidly. To minimize metabolic expense while maintaining rapid conduction, many neurons have insulating sheaths of

text: myelin

text: around their axons. The sheaths are formed by

text: glia

text: l cells:

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s in the central nervous system and

text: Schwann cell

text: s in the peripheral nervous system. The sheath enables action potentials to travel

text: faster

text: than in unmyelinated axons of the same diameter, whilst using less energy. The myelin sheath in peripheral nerves normally runs along the axon in sections about 1 mm long, punctuated by unsheathed

text: nodes of Ranvier

text: , which contain a high density of voltage-gated ion channels.

text: Multiple sclerosis

text: is a neurological disorder that results from demyelination of axons in the central nervous system.

text: Sensory, Inc. was founded in 1994, originally as Sensory Circuits, by Forrest Mozer, Mike Mozer and Todd Mozer. The three had also co-founded ESS Technology years earlier. In 1999 Sensory acquired Fluent Speech Technologies, which was formed and started by a group of professors out of the Oregon Graduate Institute (formerly OGI, now OHSU). Fluent Speech Technologies developed high performance embedded speech engines, the technology from this acquisition is now the core technology used throughout Sensory’s chip and software line.

text: Sensory, Inc. was founded in 1994, originally as Sensory Circuits, by

text: Forrest Mozer

text: , Mike Mozer and Todd Mozer. The three had also co-founded

text: ESS Technology

text: years earlier. In 1999 Sensory acquired Fluent Speech Technologies, which was formed and started by a group of professors out of the Oregon Graduate Institute (formerly OGI, now OHSU). Fluent Speech Technologies developed high performance embedded speech engines, the technology from this acquisition is now the core technology used throughout Sensory’s chip and software line.

text: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, or nAChRs, are neuron receptor proteins that respond to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Nicotinic receptors also respond to drugs, including the nicotinic receptor agonist nicotine. They are found in the central nervous system of humans, and also play two important roles in the peripheral nervous system: (1) they transmit outgoing signals from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cells within the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, and (2) they are the receptors found on skeletal muscle that receive acetylcholine released to signal for muscular contraction. Nicotinic receptors are also found in other creatures. In insects, the cholinergic system is limited to the central nervous system.

text: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, or nAChRs, are neuron receptor proteins that respond to the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: . Nicotinic receptors also respond to drugs, including the nicotinic receptor agonist

text: nicotine

text: . They are found in the central nervous system of humans, and also play two important roles in the peripheral nervous system: (1) they transmit outgoing signals from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic cells within the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, and (2) they are the receptors found on skeletal muscle that receive acetylcholine released to signal for muscular contraction. Nicotinic receptors are also found in other creatures. In

text: insect

text: s, the

text: cholinergic

text: system is limited to the

text: central nervous system

text: and neuronal development and regionalization in the human nervous system) in terms of the underlying molecular biology and biochemistry, without any understanding of the influence of a neuron’s genome on its development and behaviour. As our understanding of the genome has expanded, the role of networks of gene interactions in the maintenance of neuronal function and behaviour has garnered interest in the neuroscience research community. Neurogenomics allows scientists to study the nervous system of organisms in the context of these underlying regulatory and transcriptional networks. This approach is distinct from neurogenetics, which emphasizes the role of single genes without a network-interaction context when studying the nervous system.

text: and neuronal development and regionalization in the human nervous system) in terms of the underlying molecular biology and biochemistry, without any understanding of the influence of a neuron’s genome on its development and behaviour. As our understanding of the genome has expanded, the role of networks of gene interactions in the maintenance of neuronal function and behaviour has garnered interest in the

text: neuroscience

text: research community. Neurogenomics allows scientists to study the nervous system of organisms in the context of these underlying regulatory and transcriptional networks. This approach is distinct from

text: neurogenetics

text: , which emphasizes the role of single genes without a network-interaction context when studying the nervous system.

text: The central nervous system consists of a brain and paired ventral nerve cords that connect to the brain and run along the length of the body. The brain is a ring of four ganglia, masses of nerve cells, positioned round the rhynchocoel near its front end – while the brains of most protostome invertebrates encircle the foregut. Most nemertean species have just one pair of nerve cords, many species have additional paired cords, and some species also have a dorsal cord. In some species the cords lie within the skin, but in most they are deeper, inside the muscle layers. The central nervous system is often red or pink because it contains hemoglobin. This stores oxygen for peak activity or when the animal experiences anoxia, for example while burrowing in oxygen-free sediments.

text: The

text: central nervous system

text: consists of a

text: brain

text: and paired

text: ventral nerve cord

text: s that connect to the brain and run along the length of the body. The

text: brain

text: is a

text: ring

text: of four

text: ganglia

text: , masses of nerve cells, positioned round the rhynchocoel near its front end – while the brains of most

text: protostome

text: invertebrates encircle the foregut. Most nemertean species have just one pair of nerve cords, many species have additional paired cords, and some species also have a dorsal cord. In some species the cords lie within the skin, but in most they are deeper, inside the muscle layers. The central nervous system is often red or pink because it contains

text: hemoglobin

text: . This stores

text: oxygen

text: for peak activity or when the animal experiences

text: anoxia

text: , for example while

text: burrowing

text: in oxygen-free

text: sediment

text: s.

text: Although stimulus-response mechanisms are the easiest to understand, the nervous system is also capable of controlling the body in ways that do not require an external stimulus, by means of internally generated rhythms of activity. Because of the variety of voltage-sensitive ion channels that can be embedded in the membrane of a neuron, many types of neurons are capable, even in isolation, of generating rhythmic sequences of action potentials, or rhythmic alternations between high-rate bursting and quiescence. When neurons that are intrinsically rhythmic are connected to each other by excitatory or inhibitory synapses, the resulting networks are capable of a wide variety of dynamical behaviors, including attractor dynamics, periodicity, and even chaos.  A network of neurons that uses its internal structure to generate temporally structured output, without requiring a corresponding temporally structured stimulus, is called a central pattern generator.

text: Although stimulus-response mechanisms are the easiest to understand, the nervous system is also capable of controlling the body in ways that do not require an external stimulus, by means of internally generated rhythms of activity. Because of the variety of voltage-sensitive ion channels that can be embedded in the membrane of a neuron, many types of neurons are capable, even in isolation, of generating rhythmic sequences of action potentials, or rhythmic alternations between high-rate bursting and quiescence. When neurons that are intrinsically rhythmic are connected to each other by excitatory or inhibitory synapses, the resulting networks are capable of a wide variety of dynamical behaviors, including

text: attractor

text: dynamics, periodicity, and even

text: chaos

text: .  A network of neurons that uses its internal structure to generate temporally structured output, without requiring a corresponding temporally structured stimulus, is called a

text: central pattern generator

text: Glutamate is a proteinogenic amino acid and neurotransmitter, though it is perhaps publicly best known in its sodium salt form: monosodium glutamate (MSG).  It is also a flavor on its own, producing the umami or savory flavor found in many fermented foods such as cheese.  As an amino acid it acts as a source of fuel for various cellular functions and as a neurotransmitter. Glutamate operates as an excitatory neurotransmitter and is released when a nerve impulse excites a glutamate producing cell.  This in turn binds to neurons with glutamate receptors, stimulating them.

text: Glutamate

text: is a

text: proteinogenic amino acid

text: and neurotransmitter, though it is perhaps publicly best known in its

text: sodium

text: salt

text: form:

text: monosodium glutamate

text: (MSG).  It is also a

text: flavor

text: on its own, producing the

text: umami

text: or savory flavor found in many

text: fermented

text: foods such as

text: cheese

text: .  As an amino acid it acts as a source of fuel for various cellular functions and as a neurotransmitter. Glutamate operates as an

text: excitatory neurotransmitter

text: and is released when a nerve impulse excites a glutamate producing cell.  This in turn binds to neurons with glutamate receptors, stimulating them.

text: Caltha dioneaefolia often growing in dense clusters over considerable areas, with thick rhizomes. The stems may be four to ten cm long and are densely branched. Its shiny, thick and fleshy leaves consist of a broad and long leafstalk, about half as wide and up to three times as long as the blade. The blade itself consists of two parts which are approximately identical in shape, but not in size. The larger, lower part is folded over its mid vein, about ½ cm long, ovate or almost circular, split into left and right lobes, and concave. The smaller, upper or inner part, which is often referred to as appendages, also consists of two ovate lobes of about 3 mm long. All four lobes have an entire margin which carries teeth-like hairs that are bent slightly inwards for the large lobes and outward for the small appendages. Each pair so resembles a trapleaf of the carnivorous Venus flytrap Dionaea muscipula. The leaf surface however harbors neither glands, nor trigger hairs, and hence must be concluded that C. dioneaefolia is not a carnivorous plant like the Venus flytrap. The appendages are homologous with the ears at the base of the leafblade of Northern Hemisphere Caltha species.The actinomorphic solitary flowers of about 1 cm across have five spreading, egg-shaped, yellow sepals, with about nine parallel veins on a short peduncle of about ½–1 cm, making it appear seated in the hart of the rosette of leaves. There are usually seven stamens. The two or three ovaries each contain two to five ovules. There are forty eight chromosomes (2n=48).

text: Caltha dioneaefolia often growing in dense clusters over considerable areas, with thick

text: rhizome

text: s. The stems may be four to ten cm long and are densely branched. Its shiny, thick and fleshy leaves consist of a broad and long

text: leafstalk

text: , about half as wide and up to three times as long as the blade. The blade itself consists of two parts which are approximately identical in shape, but not in size. The larger, lower part is folded over its mid vein, about ½ cm long, ovate or almost circular, split into left and right lobes, and concave. The smaller, upper or inner part, which is often referred to as appendages, also consists of two ovate lobes of about 3 mm long. All four lobes have an entire margin which carries teeth-like hairs that are bent slightly inwards for the large lobes and outward for the small appendages. Each pair so resembles a trapleaf of the carnivorous

text: Venus flytrap

text: Dionaea muscipula. The leaf surface however harbors neither glands, nor trigger hairs, and hence must be concluded that C. dioneaefolia is not a carnivorous plant like the Venus flytrap. The appendages are

text: homologous

text: with the ears at the base of the leafblade of Northern Hemisphere Caltha species.The

text: actinomorphic

text: solitary flowers of about 1 cm across have five spreading, egg-shaped, yellow

text: sepal

text: s, with about nine parallel veins on a short

text: peduncle

text: of about ½–1 cm, making it appear seated in the hart of the rosette of leaves. There are usually seven stamens. The two or three ovaries each contain two to five

text: ovule

text: s. There are forty eight chromosomes (2n=48).

text: Rabies is a deadly viral disease of the central nervous system. In almost all cases, the virus is passed on through the bite, contact with infected saliva, nervous tissues, open wounds or the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth of an infected animal. Like all other animals, if bats get infected with this disease, they will die. (Bat conservation)

text: Rabies is a deadly viral disease of the

text: central nervous system

text: . In almost all cases, the virus is passed on through the bite, contact with infected saliva, nervous tissues, open wounds or the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and mouth of an infected animal. Like all other animals, if bats get infected with this disease, they will die. (Bat conservation)

text: Biologist Stephen Jay Gould has noted that if one looks at vertebrates with very low encephalization quotients, their brains are slightly less massive than their spinal cords. Theoretically, intelligence might correlate with the absolute amount of brain an animal has after subtracting the weight of the spinal cord from the brain. This formula is useless for invertebrates because they do not have spinal cords or, in some cases, central nervous systems.

text: Biologist

text: Stephen Jay Gould

text: has noted that if one looks at vertebrates with very low encephalization quotients, their brains are slightly less massive than their spinal cords. Theoretically, intelligence might correlate with the absolute amount of brain an animal has after subtracting the weight of the spinal cord from the brain. This formula is useless for invertebrates because they do not have spinal cords or, in some cases, central nervous systems.

text: The meninges (, singular: meninx ( or ), from , adjectival: meningeal ) are the three membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord. In mammals, the meninges are the dura mater, the arachnoid mater, and the pia mater. Cerebrospinal fluid is located in the subarachnoid space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous system.

text: The meninges (, singular: meninx ( or ), from , adjectival: meningeal ) are the three

text: membrane

text: s that envelop the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . In mammals, the meninges are the

text: dura mater

text: , the

text: arachnoid mater

text: , and the

text: pia mater

text: Cerebrospinal fluid

text: is located in the

text: subarachnoid space

text: between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater. The primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous system.

text: Neuropathic itch can originate at any point along the afferent pathway as a result of damage of the nervous system. They could include diseases or disorders in the central nervous system or peripheral nervous system. Examples of neuropathic itch in origin are notalgia paresthetica, brachioradial pruritus, brain tumors, multiple sclerosis, peripheral neuropathy, and nerve irritation.

text: Neuropathic itch can originate at any point along the afferent pathway as a result of damage of the

text: nervous system

text: . They could include diseases or disorders in the

text: central nervous system

text: or

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . Examples of neuropathic itch in origin are notalgia paresthetica,

text: brachioradial pruritus

text: brain tumors

text: multiple sclerosis

text: peripheral neuropathy

text: , and

text: nerve irritation

text: The anterior division gives off branches to the four main muscles of mastication and a buccal branch which is sensory to the cheek. The posterior division gives off three main sensory branches, the auriculotemporal, lingual and inferior alveolar nerves and motor fibres to supply mylohyoid and the anterior belly of the digastric muscle.

text: The anterior division gives off branches to the four main

text: muscles of mastication

text: and a

text: buccal branch

text: which is sensory to the cheek. The posterior division gives off three main sensory branches, the

text: auriculotemporal

text: lingual

text: and

text: inferior alveolar

text: nerves and motor fibres to supply

text: mylohyoid

text: and the

text: anterior belly of the digastric muscle

text: The interactions between follower and pioneer axons can be of two types: isotypic, when the axons are from the same neuronal type; and heterotypic, when the axons are from different neuronal types and have different origins and targets. In the development of complex vertebrate nervous systems, axons usually have the same origin and target, so they can be guided by isotypic interactions.It has been assumed that pioneer neurons have an important role in guiding follower axons, being essential for them to reach their targets. However, the results about this role of pioneer neurons in specifying the projection path of follower axons are conflicting, once that some studies have been showing that pioneer neurons are not required or only facilitate the extending along follower neurons’ normal path. For example, studies in C. elegans and Drosophila developing embryos showed that the correct outgrowth of follower neurons is not dependent on pioneer neurons, instead they probably only give further cues to make sure that each axon is in the right axon tract. There is even a study in zebrafish with results showing that, when pioneer axons are eliminated, they can be replaced by follower axons, which since then behave like pioneer ones. On the other hand, in invertebrates, pioneer neurons seem to have a central role in guiding follower neurons to their targets, because their removal leads to errors in follower neurons’ pathfinding.

text: The interactions between follower and pioneer axons can be of two types: isotypic, when the axons are from the same neuronal type; and heterotypic, when the axons are from different neuronal types and have different origins and targets. In the development of complex vertebrate

text: nervous systems

text: , axons usually have the same origin and target, so they can be guided by isotypic interactions.It has been assumed that pioneer neurons have an important role in guiding follower axons, being essential for them to reach their targets. However, the results about this role of pioneer neurons in specifying the projection path of follower axons are conflicting, once that some studies have been showing that pioneer neurons are not required or only facilitate the extending along follower neurons’ normal path. For example, studies in

text: C. elegans

text: and

text: Drosophila

text: developing

text: embryos

text: showed that the correct outgrowth of follower neurons is not dependent on pioneer neurons, instead they probably only give further cues to make sure that each axon is in the right axon tract. There is even a study in

text: zebrafish

text: with results showing that, when pioneer axons are eliminated, they can be replaced by follower axons, which since then behave like pioneer ones. On the other hand, in

text: invertebrates

text: , pioneer neurons seem to have a central role in guiding follower neurons to their targets, because their removal leads to errors in follower neurons’ pathfinding.

text: Tetraplegia is caused by damage to the brain or the spinal cord at a high level C1–C7—in particular, spinal cord injuries secondary to an injury to the cervical spine. The injury, which is known as a lesion, causes victims to lose partial or total function of all four limbs, meaning the arms and the legs. Tetraplegia is defined in many ways; C1–C4 usually affects arm movement more so than a C5–C7 injury; however, all tetraplegics have or have had some kind of finger dysfunction. So, it is not uncommon to have a tetraplegic with fully functional arms but no nervous control of their fingers and thumbs.

text: Tetraplegia is caused by damage to the

text: brain

text: or the

text: spinal cord

text: at a high level C1–C7—in particular, spinal cord injuries secondary to an injury to the

text: cervical spine

text: . The injury, which is known as a

text: lesion

text: , causes victims to lose partial or total function of all four limbs, meaning the arms and the legs. Tetraplegia is defined in many ways; C1–C4 usually affects arm movement more so than a C5–C7 injury; however, all tetraplegics have or have had some kind of finger dysfunction. So, it is not uncommon to have a tetraplegic with fully functional arms but no nervous control of their fingers and thumbs.

text: The clinical manifestations of tetanus are caused when tetanus toxin blocks inhibitory impulses, by interfering with the release of neurotransmitters, including glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid. These inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit the alpha motor neurons. With diminished inhibition, the resting firing rate of the alpha motor neuron increases, producing rigidity, unopposed muscle contraction and spasm. Characteristic features are risus sardonicus (a rigid smile), trismus (commonly known as "lock-jaw"), and opisthotonus (rigid, arched back). Seizures may occur, and the autonomic nervous system may also be affected. Tetanospasmin appears to prevent the release of neurotransmitters by selectively cleaving a component of synaptic vesicles called synaptobrevin II. Loss of inhibition also affects preganglionic sympathetic neurons in the lateral gray matter of the spinal cord and produces sympathetic hyperactivity and high circulating catecholamine levels. Hypertension and tachycardia alternating with hypotension and bradycardia may develop.

text: The clinical manifestations of tetanus are caused when tetanus toxin blocks inhibitory impulses, by interfering with the release of

text: neurotransmitter

text: s, including

text: glycine

text: and

text: gamma-aminobutyric acid

text: . These inhibitory neurotransmitters inhibit the

text: alpha motor neuron

text: s. With diminished inhibition, the resting firing rate of the alpha motor neuron increases, producing rigidity, unopposed muscle contraction and spasm. Characteristic features are

text: risus sardonicus

text: (a rigid smile),

text: trismus

text: (commonly known as "lock-jaw"), and

text: opisthotonus

text: (rigid, arched back).

text: Seizures

text: may occur, and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: may also be affected. Tetanospasmin appears to prevent the release of neurotransmitters by selectively cleaving a component of synaptic vesicles called

text: synaptobrevin

text: II. Loss of inhibition also affects preganglionic sympathetic neurons in the lateral

text: gray matter

text: of the spinal cord and produces sympathetic hyperactivity and high circulating

text: catecholamine

text: levels.

text: Hypertension

text: and

text: tachycardia

text: alternating with

text: hypotension

text: and

text: bradycardia

text: may develop.

text: Liks scallops, Spondylus spp. have multiple eyes around the edges of their shells, and have relatively well-developed nervous systems.  Their nervous ganglia are concentrated in the visceral region, with recognisable optic lobes connected to the eyes.

text: Liks scallops, Spondylus spp. have multiple eyes around the edges of their shells, and have relatively well-developed

text: nervous system

text: s.  Their nervous

text: ganglia

text: are concentrated in the

text: viscera

text: l region, with recognisable

text: optic lobes

text: connected to the eyes.

text: A much smaller number of people are insensitive to pain due to an inborn abnormality of the nervous system, known as "congenital insensitivity to pain". Children with this condition incur carelessly-repeated damage to their tongues, eyes, joints, skin, and muscles. Some die before adulthood, and others have a reduced life expectancy. Most people with congenital insensitivity to pain have one of five hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies (which includes familial dysautonomia and congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis). These conditions feature decreased sensitivity to pain together with other neurological abnormalities, particularly of the autonomic nervous system. A very rare syndrome with isolated congenital insensitivity to pain has been linked with mutations in the SCN9A gene, which codes for a sodium channel (Na1.7) necessary in conducting pain nerve stimuli.

text: A much smaller number of people are insensitive to pain due to an inborn abnormality of the nervous system, known as "

text: congenital insensitivity to pain

text: ". Children with this condition incur carelessly-repeated damage to their tongues, eyes, joints, skin, and muscles. Some die before adulthood, and others have a reduced life expectancy. Most people with congenital insensitivity to pain have one of five

text: hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies

text: (which includes

text: familial dysautonomia

text: and

entity_name: Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis

text: congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis

text: ). These conditions feature decreased sensitivity to pain together with other neurological abnormalities, particularly of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . A very rare syndrome with isolated congenital insensitivity to pain has been linked with mutations in the

text: gene, which codes for a sodium channel (

text: ) necessary in conducting pain nerve stimuli.

text: Due to advances in MRI, this neurological disorder has been characterized more successfully in more recent years. MRI can aid in the detection of injured brain tissue; however, the severity and extent of the damage demonstrated by imaging does not always reflect patient clinical status. Toxic leukoencephalopathy encompasses the degeneration of white matter tracts devoted to higher cerebral function; however, white matter can appear normal until the disease has progressed more intensely. Toxic leukoencephalopathy-related damage to central nervous system (CNS) white matter, typically of the periventricular nucleus, and other structures in the brain is often bilateral and symmetric. Heroin-induced leukoencephalopathy often involves damage to cerebellar white matter, posterior cerebral white matter, posterior limb of internal capsule, and cerebellar peduncles.  The occipital lobe is typically most affected though the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes have shown involvement as well. Other toxins have been shown to extend damage to other structures of the brain, including the hippocampus, dorsal medulla, and brainstem.

text: Due to advances in MRI, this neurological disorder has been characterized more successfully in more recent years. MRI can aid in the detection of injured brain tissue; however, the severity and extent of the damage demonstrated by imaging does not always reflect patient clinical status. Toxic leukoencephalopathy encompasses the degeneration of white matter tracts devoted to higher cerebral function; however, white matter can appear normal until the disease has progressed more intensely. Toxic leukoencephalopathy-related damage to

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) white matter, typically of the periventricular nucleus, and other structures in the brain is often bilateral and symmetric. Heroin-induced leukoencephalopathy often involves damage to

text: cerebellar

text: white matter, posterior

text: cerebral

text: white matter,

text: posterior limb of internal capsule

text: , and

text: cerebellar peduncles

text: .  The

text: occipital lobe

text: is typically most affected though the

text: frontal

text: parietal

text: , and

text: temporal lobe

text: s have shown involvement as well. Other toxins have been shown to extend damage to other structures of the brain, including the

text: hippocampus

text: , dorsal

text: medulla

text: , and

text: brainstem

text: Experiments on Hebbian synapse modification mechanisms at the central nervous system synapses of vertebrates are much more difficult to control than are experiments with the relatively simple peripheral nervous system synapses studied in marine invertebrates. Much of the work on long-lasting synaptic changes between vertebrate neurons (such as long-term potentiation) involves the use of non-physiological experimental stimulation of brain cells. However, some of the physiologically relevant synapse modification mechanisms that have been studied in vertebrate brains do seem to be examples of Hebbian processes. One such study reviews results from experiments that indicate that long-lasting changes in synaptic strengths can be induced by physiologically relevant synaptic activity working through both Hebbian and non-Hebbian mechanisms.

text: Experiments on Hebbian synapse modification mechanisms at the

text: central nervous system

text: synapses of

text: vertebrate

text: s are much more difficult to control than are experiments with the relatively simple

text: peripheral nervous system

text: synapses studied in marine invertebrates. Much of the work on long-lasting synaptic changes between vertebrate neurons (such as

text: long-term potentiation

text: ) involves the use of non-physiological experimental stimulation of brain cells. However, some of the physiologically relevant synapse modification mechanisms that have been studied in vertebrate brains do seem to be examples of Hebbian processes. One such study reviews results from experiments that indicate that long-lasting changes in synaptic strengths can be induced by physiologically relevant synaptic activity working through both Hebbian and non-Hebbian mechanisms.

text: Adrenergic fibres innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, visceral glands, and various central nervous system structures and sense organs. Their function is enhancing, compared to the inhibiting action of the cholinergic fibres of the parasympathetic system. Peripheral adrenergic neurons integrate signals from other nerves of the central nervous system and peripheral sense organs. An adrenergic nerve impulse is triggered when one nerve fires repeatedly or when several nerves fire simultaneously which can cause an additive effect leading to a greater stimulus. Adrenergic neurons, in particular the α2 autorecptors found in the brain, are also involved in sexual behavior and in the control of appetite.

text: Adrenergic fibres innervate

text: smooth muscle

text: cardiac muscle

text: , visceral glands, and various

text: central nervous system

text: structures and sense organs. Their function is enhancing, compared to the inhibiting action of the cholinergic fibres of the

text: parasympathetic system

text: . Peripheral adrenergic neurons integrate signals from other nerves of the central nervous system and peripheral sense organs. An adrenergic nerve impulse is triggered when one nerve fires repeatedly or when several nerves fire simultaneously which can cause an additive effect leading to a greater stimulus. Adrenergic neurons, in particular the α2 autorecptors found in the brain, are also involved in sexual behavior and in the control of appetite.

text: MLD is directly caused by a deficiency of the enzyme arylsulfatase A (ARSA) and is characterized by enzyme activity in leukocytes that is less than 10% of normal controls.  However, assay of the ARSA enzyme activity alone is not sufficient for diagnosis; ARSA pseudodeficiency, which is characterized by enzyme activity that is 5~20% of normal controls does not cause MLD.  Without this enzyme, sulfatides build up in many tissues of the body, eventually destroying the myelin sheath of the nervous system. The myelin sheath is a fatty covering that protects nerve fibers. Without it, the nerves in the brain (central nervous system - CNS) and the peripheral nerves (peripheral nervous system - PNS) which control, among other things the muscles related to mobility, cease to function properly.

text: MLD is directly caused by a deficiency of the enzyme

text: arylsulfatase A

text: (ARSA) and is characterized by enzyme activity in leukocytes that is less than 10% of normal controls.  However, assay of the ARSA enzyme activity alone is not sufficient for diagnosis; ARSA pseudodeficiency, which is characterized by enzyme activity that is 5~20% of normal controls does not cause MLD.  Without this enzyme,

text: sulfatide

text: s build up in many tissues of the body, eventually destroying the myelin sheath of the nervous system. The myelin sheath is a fatty covering that protects nerve fibers. Without it, the nerves in the brain (central nervous system - CNS) and the peripheral nerves (peripheral nervous system - PNS) which control, among other things the muscles related to mobility, cease to function properly.

text: The lateral spinothalamic tract (or lateral spinothalamic fasciculus), which is a part of the anterolateral system, is a bundle of sensory axons ascending through the white matter of the spinal cord, carrying sensory information to the brain. It carries pain,fine touch and temperature sensory information (protopathic sensation) to the thalamus. It is composed primarily of fast-conducting, sparsely myelinated A delta fibers and slow-conducting, unmyelinated C  fibers. These are secondary sensory neurons which have already synapsed with the primary sensory neurons of the peripheral nervous system in the posterior horn of the spinal cord (one of the three grey columns).

text: The lateral spinothalamic tract (or lateral spinothalamic fasciculus), which is a part of the

text: anterolateral system

text: , is a bundle of

text: sensory

text: axon

text: s ascending through the white matter of the

text: spinal cord

text: , carrying sensory information to the

text: brain

text: . It carries pain,fine touch and temperature sensory information (

text: protopathic sensation

text: ) to the

text: thalamus

text: . It is composed primarily of fast-conducting, sparsely

text: myelinated

text: A delta fiber

text: s and slow-conducting, unmyelinated

text: C  fibers

text: . These are secondary sensory neurons which have already

text: synapse

text: d with the primary

text: sensory neuron

text: s of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: in the

text: posterior horn of the spinal cord

text: (one of the three

text: grey column

text: s).

text: Often information can be viewed as a type of input to an organism or system. Inputs are of two kinds; some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or system (energy) by themselves. In his book  Sensory Ecology Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function.

text: Often information can be viewed as a type of input to an

text: organism

text: or

text: system

text: . Inputs are of two kinds; some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or system (

text: energy

text: ) by themselves. In his book  Sensory Ecology Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or system. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function.

text: Sahaja Yoga believes that in addition to our physical body there is a subtle body composed of nadis (channels) and chakras (energy centres). There is no biomedical evidence of chakras. Psychoanalyst Sudhir Kakar writes that Nirmala Srivastava's additions to this widespread traditional 'tantric' model include giving it a scientific, neurological veneer, an elaboration of the health aspects and an introduction of notions of traditional Christian morality. Nirmala Srivastava equates the Sushumna nadi with the parasympathetic nervous system, the Ida nadi with the left and the Pingala nadi with the right sides of the sympathetic nervous system.

text: Sahaja Yoga believes that in addition to our physical body there is a

text: subtle body

text: composed of

text: nadis

text: (channels) and

text: chakras

text: (energy centres). There is no biomedical evidence of chakras. Psychoanalyst Sudhir Kakar writes that

text: Nirmala Srivastava

text: 's additions to this widespread traditional '

text: tantric

text: ' model include giving it a scientific, neurological veneer, an elaboration of the health aspects and an introduction of notions of traditional Christian morality. Nirmala Srivastava equates the Sushumna

text: nadi

text: with the parasympathetic nervous system, the Ida nadi with the left and the Pingala nadi with the right sides of the sympathetic nervous system.

text: The nervous system of vertebrates (including humans) is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

text: The nervous system of

text: vertebrate

text: s (including humans) is divided into the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS).

text: The concepts of "disease" and "injury" are central to the medical model. In general, "disease" or "injury" refer to some deviation from normal body functioning that has undesirable consequences for the affected individual. An important aspect of the medical model is that it regards signs (objective indicators such as an elevated temperature) and symptoms (subjective feelings of distress expressed by the patient) as indicative of an underlying physical abnormality (pathology) within the individual. According to the medical model, medical treatment, wherever possible, should be directed at the underlying pathology in an attempt to correct the abnormality and cure the disease. In regard to many mental illnesses, for example, the assumption is that the cause of the disorder lies in abnormalities within the affected individual’s brain (specially their brain neurochemistry). That carries the implicit conclusion that disordered behaviors are not learned but are spontaneously generated by the disordered brain. According to the medical model, for treatment (such as drugs), to be effective, it should be directed as closely as possible at correcting the theorized chemical imbalance in the mentally ill person’s brain.

text: In the pages of The Thunderbolts, Dr. Henry Pym has expressed the view that the Man-Thing is sentient, though difficult to communicate with. For example, he once rescued an infant and left the child with a doctor (which would require an understanding of the function of a doctor and the ability to navigate to a specific address). He is shown to understand concepts such as how to ring a doorbell, how to put an arm in a sling, and even how to flip an auto-destruct switch. The change in Man-Thing's intellect can partly be explained by fact that its brain, sensory organs, and central nervous system are now organized in a completely different fashion than a human; for instance, Man-Thing's auditory receptors are in his forehead. Regardless of what level of humanity the creature still possesses, it can discern when a person's motivations are evil, which causes it pain and motivates it to lash out.

text: In the pages of

text: The Thunderbolts

text: Dr. Henry Pym

text: has expressed the view that the Man-Thing is sentient, though difficult to communicate with. For example, he once rescued an infant and left the child with a doctor (which would require an understanding of the function of a doctor and the ability to navigate to a specific address). He is shown to understand concepts such as how to ring a doorbell, how to put an arm in a sling, and even how to flip an auto-destruct switch. The change in Man-Thing's intellect can partly be explained by fact that its brain, sensory organs, and central nervous system are now organized in a completely different fashion than a human; for instance, Man-Thing's auditory receptors are in his forehead. Regardless of what level of humanity the creature still possesses, it can discern when a person's motivations are evil, which causes it pain and motivates it to lash out.

text: The nervous system of one very small worm, the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, has been mapped out down to the synaptic level. Every neuron and its cellular lineage has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is sexually dimorphic; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and hermaphrodites, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In C. elegans, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons.

text: The nervous system of one very small worm, the

text: roundworm

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: , has been mapped out down to the synaptic level. Every neuron and its

text: cellular lineage

text: has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is

text: sexually dimorphic

text: ; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and

text: hermaphrodites

text: , have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In C. elegans, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons.

text: Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system. At chemical synapses, glutamate is stored in vesicles. Nerve impulses trigger release of glutamate from the presynaptic cell. Glutamate acts on ionotropic and metabotropic (G-protein coupled) receptors.  In the opposing postsynaptic cell, glutamate receptors, such as the NMDA receptor or the AMPA receptor, bind glutamate and are activated. Because of its role in synaptic plasticity, glutamate is involved in cognitive functions such as  learning and memory in the brain.  The form of plasticity known as long-term potentiation takes place at glutamatergic synapses in the hippocampus, neocortex, and other parts of the brain. Glutamate works not only as a point-to-point transmitter, but also through spill-over synaptic crosstalk between synapses in which summation of glutamate released from a neighboring synapse creates extrasynaptic signaling/volume transmission.  In addition, glutamate plays important roles in the regulation of growth cones and synaptogenesis during brain development as originally described by Mark Mattson.

text: Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory

text: neurotransmitter

text: in the vertebrate

text: nervous system

text: . At

text: chemical synapses

text: , glutamate is stored in

text: vesicles

text: Nerve impulses

text: trigger release of glutamate from the presynaptic cell. Glutamate acts on ionotropic and metabotropic (G-protein coupled) receptors.  In the opposing postsynaptic cell,

text: glutamate receptors

text: , such as the

text: NMDA receptor

text: or the

text: AMPA receptor

text: , bind glutamate and are activated. Because of its role in

text: synaptic plasticity

text: , glutamate is involved in cognitive functions such as

text: learning

text: and

text: memory

text: in the brain.  The form of plasticity known as

text: long-term potentiation

text: takes place at glutamatergic synapses in the

text: hippocampus

text: neocortex

text: , and other parts of the brain. Glutamate works not only as a point-to-point transmitter, but also through spill-over synaptic crosstalk between synapses in which summation of glutamate released from a neighboring synapse creates extrasynaptic signaling/

text: volume transmission

text: .  In addition, glutamate plays important roles in the regulation of

text: growth cones

text: and

text: synaptogenesis

text: during brain development as originally described by

text: Mark Mattson

text: Colbert's monograph on Sebecus included a description of the brain, Eustachian tubes, and jaw musculature. Details of these soft tissues were inferred from characteristics of the skull and endocasts, or molds of its interior. The deep snout of Sebecus makes the shape of its brain somewhat different from those of living crocodiles, although its structure is the same. The olfactory bulb is elongate and makes up a significant portion of the brain. The cerebrum is narrow and long in comparison to crocodilians, and tapers toward the olfactory bulb. The temporal lobes are somewhat smaller than those of living crocodilians. Colbert interpreted the smaller cerebrum of Sebecus as a sign of primitiveness, with an evolutionary trend toward larger brain size in crocodilians. Hans C. E. Larsson performed a 2001 study of the endocranial anatomy of the dinosaur Carcharodontosaurus saharicus, comparing the ratio of its cerebrum to its total brain volume to the ratios of other prehistoric reptiles. Larsson found that Sebecus and Allosaurus fragilis had similar ratios to C. saharicus, falling within the 95% confidence range characterizing living reptile species.

text: Colbert's monograph on Sebecus included a description of the brain,

text: Eustachian tube

text: s, and jaw musculature. Details of these soft tissues were inferred from characteristics of the skull and

text: endocast

text: s, or molds of its interior. The deep snout of Sebecus makes the shape of its brain somewhat different from those of living crocodiles, although its structure is the same. The

text: olfactory bulb

text: is elongate and makes up a significant portion of the brain. The

text: cerebrum

text: is narrow and long in comparison to crocodilians, and tapers toward the olfactory bulb. The

text: temporal lobe

text: s are somewhat smaller than those of living crocodilians. Colbert interpreted the smaller cerebrum of Sebecus as a sign of primitiveness, with an evolutionary trend toward larger brain size in crocodilians. Hans C. E. Larsson performed a 2001 study of the endocranial anatomy of the dinosaur

text: Carcharodontosaurus saharicus

text: , comparing the ratio of its cerebrum to its total brain volume to the ratios of other prehistoric reptiles. Larsson found that Sebecus and

text: Allosaurus fragilis

text: had similar ratios to C. saharicus, falling within the 95% confidence range characterizing living reptile species.

text: In the sympathetic nervous system and other components of the peripheral nervous system, these synapses are made at sites called ganglia. The cell that sends its fiber is called a preganglionic cell, while the cell whose fiber leaves the ganglion is called a postganglionic cell. As mentioned previously, the preganglionic cells of the sympathetic nervous system are located between the first thoracic segment and third lumbar segments of the spinal cord. Postganglionic cells have their cell bodies in the ganglia and send their axons to target organs or glands.

text: In the sympathetic nervous system and other components of the peripheral nervous system, these synapses are made at sites called ganglia. The cell that sends its fiber is called a preganglionic cell, while the cell whose fiber leaves the ganglion is called a

text: postganglionic

text: cell. As mentioned previously, the preganglionic cells of the sympathetic nervous system are located between the first thoracic segment and third lumbar segments of the spinal cord. Postganglionic cells have their cell bodies in the ganglia and send their axons to target organs or glands.

text: Phantasmidine is a nicotinic agonist that acts at acetylcholine receptors. It mimics the effects of acetylcholine on the body’s neuronal-based nervous systems (both the central nervous system [CNS] and the peripheral nervous system [PNS]) and the muscle-based nervous system (the somatic nervous system).

text: Phantasmidine is a

text: nicotinic agonist

text: that acts at acetylcholine receptors. It mimics the effects of acetylcholine on the body’s neuronal-based nervous systems (both the

text: central nervous system

text: [CNS] and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: [PNS]) and the muscle-based nervous system (the

text: somatic nervous system

text: Neuropharmacology did not appear in the scientific field until, in the early part of the 20th century, scientists were able to figureout a basic understanding of the nervous system and how nerves communicate between one another. Before this discovery, there were drugs that had been found that demonstrated some type of influence on the nervous system. In the 1930s, French scientists began working with a compound called phenothiazine in the hope of synthesizing a drug that would be able to combat malaria. Though this drug showed very little hope in the use against malaria-infected individuals, it was found to have sedative effects along with what appeared to be beneficial effects toward patients with Parkinson’s disease. This black box method, wherein an investigator would administer a drug and examine the response without knowing how to relate drug action to patient response, was the main approach to this field, until, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, scientists were able to identify specific neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine (involved in the constriction of blood vessels and the increase in heart rate and blood pressure), dopamine (the chemical whose shortage is involved in Parkinson’s disease), and serotonin (soon to be recognized as deeply connected to depression). In the 1950s, scientists also became better able to measure levels of specific neurochemicals in the body and thus correlate these levels with behavior. The invention of the voltage clamp in 1949 allowed for the study of ion channels and the nerve action potential. These two major historical events in neuropharmacology allowed scientists not only to study how information is transferred from one neuron to another but also to study how a neuron processes this information within itself.

text: Neuropharmacology did not appear in the scientific field until, in the early part of the 20th century, scientists were able to figureout a basic understanding of the nervous system and how nerves communicate between one another. Before this discovery, there were drugs that had been found that demonstrated some type of influence on the nervous system. In the 1930s, French scientists began working with a compound called phenothiazine in the hope of synthesizing a drug that would be able to combat malaria. Though this drug showed very little hope in the use against malaria-infected individuals, it was found to have sedative effects along with what appeared to be beneficial effects toward patients with Parkinson’s disease. This black box method, wherein an investigator would administer a drug and examine the response without knowing how to relate drug action to patient response, was the main approach to this field, until, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, scientists were able to identify specific neurotransmitters, such as

text: norepinephrine

text: (involved in the constriction of blood vessels and the increase in heart rate and blood pressure),

text: dopamine

text: (the chemical whose shortage is involved in Parkinson’s disease), and

text: serotonin

text: (soon to be recognized as deeply connected to depression). In the 1950s, scientists also became better able to measure levels of specific neurochemicals in the body and thus correlate these levels with behavior. The invention of the

text: voltage clamp

text: in 1949 allowed for the study of ion channels and the nerve

text: action potential

text: . These two major historical events in neuropharmacology allowed scientists not only to study how information is transferred from one neuron to another but also to study how a neuron processes this information within itself.

text: The somatic nervous system (SoNS or voluntary nervous system) is the part of the peripheral nervous system associated with skeletal muscle voluntary control of body movements. The SoNS consists of afferent nerves and efferent nerves. Afferent nerves are responsible for relaying sensation from the body to the  central nervous system (CNS); efferent nerves are responsible for sending out commands from the CNS to the body, stimulating muscle contraction; they include all the non-sensory neurons connected with skeletal muscles and skin. The a- of afferent and the e- of efferent correspond to the prefixes ad- (to, toward) and ex- (out of).

text: The somatic nervous system (SoNS or voluntary nervous system) is the part of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: associated with

text: skeletal muscle

text: voluntary

text: control of body movements. The SoNS consists of

text: afferent nerves

text: and

text: efferent nerve

text: s. Afferent nerves are responsible for relaying sensation from the body to the  central nervous system (CNS); efferent nerves are responsible for sending out commands from the CNS to the body, stimulating

text: muscle contraction

text: ; they include all the non-sensory

text: neuron

text: s connected with skeletal

text: muscle

text: s and

text: skin

text: . The a- of afferent and the e- of efferent correspond to the

text: prefix

text: es ad- (to, toward) and ex- (out of).

text: The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (everything else).  The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system (voluntary processes) and the autonomic nervous system (involuntary processes). The autonomic nervous system is divided into the parasympathetic nervous system (normal functioning) and the sympathetic nervous system (emergency functioning). The lateral grey column mediates the functions of the sympathetic nervous system.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: is divided into the

text: central nervous system

text: (brain and spinal cord) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (everything else).  The peripheral nervous system is divided into the

text: somatic nervous system

text: (voluntary processes) and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (involuntary processes). The autonomic nervous system is divided into the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: (normal functioning) and the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: (emergency functioning). The lateral grey column mediates the functions of the sympathetic nervous system.

text: The pontine flexure is a bend in the axis of the embryological central nervous system (the neuraxis). This flexure marks the junction between the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The division of the rhombencephalon (the early hindbrain) into the metencephalon and the myelencephalon occurs at the 7th week of development. In the mature brain, the metencephalon forms the pons and cerebellum, whilst the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata.

text: The pontine flexure is a bend in the axis of the embryological central nervous system (the

text: neuraxis

text: ). This flexure marks the junction between the

text: metencephalon

text: and the

text: myelencephalon

text: . The division of the

text: rhombencephalon

text: (the early hindbrain) into the

text: metencephalon

text: and the

text: myelencephalon

text: occurs at the 7th week of development. In the mature brain, the

text: metencephalon

text: forms the

text: pons

text: and

text: cerebellum

text: , whilst the

text: myelencephalon

text: forms the

text: medulla oblongata

text: An electrical synapse is an electrically conductive link between two abutting neurons that is formed at a narrow gap between the pre- and postsynaptic cells, known as a gap junction. At gap junctions, cells approach within about 3.5 nm of each other, rather than the 20 to 40 nm distance that separates cells at chemical synapses. As opposed to chemical synapses, the postsynaptic potential in electrical synapses is not caused by the opening of ion channels by chemical transmitters, but rather by direct electrical coupling between both neurons. Electrical synapses are faster than chemical synapses. Electrical synapses are found throughout the nervous system, including in the retina, the reticular nucleus of the thalamus, the neocortex, and in the hippocampus. While chemical synapses are found between both excitatory and inhibitory neurons, electrical synapses are most commonly found between smaller local inhibitory neurons.  Electrical synapses can exist between two axons, two dendrites, or between an axon and a dendrite.  In some cases electrical synapses can be found within the same terminal of a chemical synapse, as in Mauthner cells.

text: An

text: electrical synapse

text: is an electrically

text: conductive

text: link between two abutting

text: neuron

text: s that is formed at a narrow gap between the pre- and postsynaptic

text: cell

text: s, known as a

text: gap junction

text: . At gap junctions, cells approach within about 3.5

text: nm

text: of each other, rather than the 20 to 40 nm distance that separates cells at chemical synapses. As opposed to chemical synapses, the postsynaptic potential in electrical synapses is not caused by the opening of ion channels by chemical transmitters, but rather by direct electrical coupling between both neurons. Electrical synapses are faster than chemical synapses. Electrical synapses are found throughout the nervous system, including in the

text: retina

text: , the

text: reticular nucleus of the thalamus

text: , the

text: neocortex

text: , and in the

text: hippocampus

text: . While chemical synapses are found between both excitatory and inhibitory neurons, electrical synapses are most commonly found between smaller local inhibitory neurons.  Electrical synapses can exist between two axons, two dendrites, or between an axon and a dendrite.  In some cases electrical synapses can be found within the same terminal of a chemical synapse, as in

text: Mauthner cells

text: In neuroscience, the threshold potential is the critical level to which a membrane potential must be depolarized to initiate an action potential. Threshold potentials are necessary to regulate and propagate signaling in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

text: In

text: neuroscience

text: , the threshold potential is the critical level to which a

text: membrane potential

text: must be

text: depolarized

text: to initiate an

text: action potential

text: . Threshold potentials are necessary to regulate and propagate signaling in both the central nervous system (

text: CNS

text: ) and the peripheral nervous system (

text: PNS

text: Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles and/or their direct nervous system control, problems with central  nervous control can cause either spasticity or some degree of paralysis (from both lower and upper motor neuron disorders), depending on the location and the nature of the problem. Some examples of central disorders include cerebrovascular accident, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, Huntington's disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. Spinal muscular atrophies are disorders of lower motor neuron while amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a mixed upper and lower motor neuron condition.

text: Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles and/or their direct

text: nervous system

text: control, problems with central  nervous control can cause either

text: spasticity

text: or some degree of

text: paralysis

text: (from both lower and upper motor neuron disorders), depending on the location and the nature of the problem. Some examples of central disorders include

text: cerebrovascular accident

text: Parkinson's disease

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Huntington's disease

text: and

text: Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease

text: Spinal muscular atrophies

text: are disorders of

text: lower motor neuron

text: while

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: is a mixed upper and lower motor neuron condition.

text: An antagonist is a chemical that acts within the body to reduce the physiological activity of another chemical substance (as an opiate); especially one that opposes the action on the nervous system of a drug or a substance occurring naturally in the body by combining with and blocking its nervous receptor.

text: Synapse is the outreach team of YSM. Synapse regularly hosts competitions, conferences and events that are usually targeted at, but not limited to, children and teenagers, to cultivate and support interests in science and journalism.

text: The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the most well-characterized synapse in that it provides a simple and accessible structure that allows for easy manipulation and observation. The synapse itself is composed of three cells: the motor neuron, the myofiber, and the Schwann cell. In a normally functioning synapse, a signal will cause the motor neuron to depolarize, by releasing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). Acetylcholine travels across the synaptic cleft where it reaches acetylcholine receptors (AChR) on the plasma membrane of the myofiber, the sarcolemma. As the AChRs open ion channels, the membrane depolarizes, causing muscle contraction. The entire synapse is covered ina myelin sheath provided by the Schwann cell to insulate and encapsulate the junction.Another important part of the neuromuscular system and central nervous system are the astrocytes. While originally they were thought to have only functioned as support for the neurons, they play an important role in functional plasticity of synapses.

text: The

text: neuromuscular junction

text: (NMJ) is the most well-characterized synapse in that it provides a simple and accessible structure that allows for easy manipulation and observation. The synapse itself is composed of three cells: the

text: motor neuron

text: , the

text: myofiber

text: , and the

text: Schwann cell

text: . In a normally functioning synapse, a signal will cause the motor neuron to depolarize, by releasing the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: (ACh). Acetylcholine travels across the synaptic cleft where it reaches acetylcholine receptors (AChR) on the

text: plasma membrane

text: of the myofiber, the

text: sarcolemma

text: . As the AChRs open

text: ion channel

text: s, the membrane depolarizes, causing muscle contraction. The entire synapse is covered ina

text: myelin sheath

text: provided by the Schwann cell to insulate and encapsulate the junction.Another important part of the neuromuscular system and central nervous system are the

text: astrocyte

text: s. While originally they were thought to have only functioned as support for the neurons, they play an important role in functional plasticity of synapses.

text: The deployment component allows the export of a system made in Synapse to a single .NET component. The system in the development environment is downscaled so that it only contains the minimal necessary requirements for execution and then compiled into an assembly. This assembly can then be used in any .NET framework or .NET Compact Framework application. The latter allows the deployment to embedded devices.

text: The deployment component allows the export of a system made in Synapse to a single

text: .NET

text: component. The system in the development environment is downscaled so that it only contains the minimal necessary requirements for execution and then compiled into an

text: assembly

text: . This assembly can then be used in any

text: .NET

text: framework or

text: .NET Compact Framework

text: application. The latter allows the deployment to

text: embedded devices

text: Hillarp's research on the terminal fiber system of the autonomic nervous system was of significant importance, as was his work on the mechanics of nerve impulse transmission. Perhaps his most important research was with Bengt Falck, as they together developed the widely known Falck-Hillarp fluorescence method. This method made it possible to transform certain monoamines, specifically serotonin (5-hydroxitryptamine) and the three cathecolamines dopamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline to fluorescent substances that could be detected on the cellular level by fluorescence microscopy. By this method Hillarp and Falck could demonstrate the presence of these monoamines in the central as well as the peripheral nervous system with great precision and susceptibility. This became the first, and also the conclusive, evidence of the function of monoamines as interneuronal signal substances (transmitters). Accordingly, it was not  Arvid Carlsson who had discovered that dopamine is a signal substance in the central nervous system, as stated by the Nobel Committee at the Karolinska Institute in a press release in 2000. They had based their opinion on reports published by Carlsson and co-workers in 1957–1958. However, Carlsson, Falck and Hillarp published a study in 1962, which was based on the Falck-Hillarp fluorescence method on the cellular location of noradrenaline and dopamine in the brain, showing that noradrenaline is located in nerve cells (neurons) and functions as a transmitter. However, they could not ultimately define the cell type that harbors dopamine and were thus not able to state with certainty that dopamine is a transmitter. Obviously, if Carlsson had discovered this in 1957–1958, it would have been referred to and extensively discussed in the Carlsson-Falck-Hillarp publication in 1962. Both Hillarp, at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm and Falck, at the Medical Faculty, University of Lund, had several research assistants, who studied various aspects of transmitters, using the Falck-Hillarp fluorescence method,and it was not long before these two groups had established that dopamine is, indeed, a transmitter.

text: Hillarp's research on the terminal fiber system of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: was of significant importance, as was his work on the mechanics of nerve impulse transmission. Perhaps his most important research was with

text: Bengt Falck

text: , as they together developed the widely known Falck-Hillarp fluorescence method. This method made it possible to transform certain monoamines, specifically

text: serotonin

text: (5-hydroxitryptamine) and the three cathecolamines

text: dopamine

text: noradrenaline

text: adrenaline

text: to fluorescent substances that could be detected on the cellular level by

text: fluorescence microscopy

text: . By this method Hillarp and Falck could demonstrate the presence of these monoamines in the central as well as the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: with great precision and susceptibility. This became the first, and also the conclusive, evidence of the function of monoamines as interneuronal signal substances (transmitters). Accordingly, it was not

text: Arvid Carlsson

text: who had discovered that dopamine is a signal substance in the central nervous system, as stated by the

text: Nobel Committee

text: at the Karolinska Institute in a press release in 2000. They had based their opinion on reports published by Carlsson and co-workers in 1957–1958. However, Carlsson, Falck and Hillarp published a study in 1962, which was based on the

text: Falck-Hillarp fluorescence method

text: on the cellular location of noradrenaline and dopamine in the brain, showing that noradrenaline is located in nerve cells (neurons) and functions as a transmitter. However, they could not ultimately define the cell type that harbors dopamine and were thus not able to state with certainty that dopamine is a transmitter. Obviously, if Carlsson had discovered this in 1957–1958, it would have been referred to and extensively discussed in the Carlsson-Falck-Hillarp publication in 1962. Both Hillarp, at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm and Falck, at the Medical Faculty, University of Lund, had several research assistants, who studied various aspects of transmitters, using the

text: Falck-Hillarp fluorescence method

text: ,and it was not long before these two groups had established that dopamine is, indeed, a transmitter.

text: On returning to England he chose the medical profession, to which his elder brother and grandfather belonged, and studied at Guy’s Hospital, and St Thomas' Hospital. Having obtained the diploma of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries, he began practice at Pimlico, living with his mother. He became devoted to microscopical research on the brain and nervous system, and applying a new method, and proceeding with extreme care and thoroughness, he established many new facts of structure which had important bearings on the physiology and pathology of the nervous system. His first paper, ‘Researches into the Structure of the Spinal Cord,’ was received by the Royal Society on 15 October 1850, and published in their ‘Transactions’ for 1851. It was illustrated, like many of his subsequent papers, by extremely accurate and valuable drawings by himself, and these have been subsequently reproduced in numerous works. Few men have ever done so much original work while occupied with general medical practice, as his successive papers in the Royal Society’s ‘Transactions’ and ‘Proceedings; the ‘Medico-Chirurgical’ transactions,’ the ‘Journal of the Microscopical Society.'

text: On returning to England he chose the medical profession, to which his elder brother and grandfather belonged, and studied at

text: Guy’s Hospital

text: , and

text: St Thomas' Hospital

text: . Having obtained the diploma of the

text: Worshipful Society of Apothecaries

text: , he began practice at Pimlico, living with his mother. He became devoted to microscopical research on the brain and nervous system, and applying a new method, and proceeding with extreme care and thoroughness, he established many new facts of structure which had important bearings on the physiology and pathology of the nervous system. His first paper, ‘Researches into the Structure of the Spinal Cord,’ was received by the

text: Royal Society

text: on 15 October 1850, and published in their ‘Transactions’ for 1851. It was illustrated, like many of his subsequent papers, by extremely accurate and valuable drawings by himself, and these have been subsequently reproduced in numerous works. Few men have ever done so much original work while occupied with general medical practice, as his successive papers in the Royal Society’s ‘Transactions’ and ‘Proceedings; the ‘Medico-Chirurgical’ transactions,’ the ‘Journal of the Microscopical Society.'

text: Operant conditioning is considered a form of associative learning. Because operant conditioning involves intricate interaction between an action and a stimulus (in this case food) it is closely associated with the acquisition of compulsive behavior. The Aplysia species serve as an ideal model system for the physical studying of food-reward learning, due to “the neuronal components of parts of its ganglionic nervous system that are responsible for the generation of feeding movements.” As a result, Aplysia has been used in associative learning studies to derive certain aspects of feeding and operant conditioning in the context of compulsive behavior.

text: Operant conditioning

text: is considered a form of associative

text: learning

text: . Because operant conditioning involves intricate interaction between an action and a stimulus (in this case food) it is closely associated with the acquisition of compulsive behavior. The Aplysia species serve as an ideal model system for the physical studying of food-reward learning, due to “the neuronal components of parts of its ganglionic nervous system that are responsible for the generation of feeding movements.” As a result, Aplysia has been used in associative learning studies to derive certain aspects of feeding and operant conditioning in the context of compulsive behavior.

text: The majority of the time, the real limit to athletes' performance is the number of motor units their nervous systems can recruit in the short period of time and the amount of forces (size of the muscle fibers) provided of those motor units. The performance is rarely affected by the type of muscle fiber (slow twitch or fast) that constructed to motor units. The nervous system determines the degree of motor unit activated in sport-like activities.

text: The central nervous system is better protected than any other system or organ in the body. Its main line of defense is the bones of the skull and spinal column, which create a hard physical barrier to injury. Below the bones is a space filled with cerebrospinal fluid that provides shock absorbance. Unfortunately, this protection can be a double-edged sword. When an injury to the CNS occurs, the soft tissue of the brain and cord swells, causing pressure because of the confined space. The swelling makes the injury worse unless it is rapidly relieved. Fractured bones can lead to further damage and the possibility of infection.

text: Behaviourists also rejected the method of introspection but criticized functionalism because it was not based on controlled experiments and its theories provided little predictive ability. B.F. Skinner was a developer of behaviourism. He did not think that considering how the mind affects behaviour was worthwhile, for he considered behaviour simply as a learned response to an external stimulus. Yet, such behaviourist concepts tend to deny the human capacity for random, unpredictable, sentient decision-making, further blocking the functionalist concept that human behaviour is an active process driven by the individual. Perhaps, a combination of both the functionalist and behaviourist perspectives provides scientists with the most empirical value, but, even so, it remains philosophically (and physiologically) difficult to integrate the two concepts without raising further questions about human behaviour. For instance, consider the interrelationship between three elements: the human environment, the human autonomic nervous system (our fight or flight muscle responses), and the human somatic nervous system (our voluntary muscle control). The behaviourist perspective explains a mixture of both types of muscle behaviour, whereas the functionalist perspective resides mostly in the somatic nervous system. It can be argued that all behavioural origins begin within the nervous system, prompting all scientists of human behaviour to possess basic physiological understandings, something very well understood by the functionalist founder William James.

text: Behaviourist

text: s also rejected the method of introspection but criticized functionalism because it was not based on controlled experiments and its theories provided little predictive ability.

text: B.F. Skinner

text: was a developer of behaviourism. He did not think that considering how the mind affects behaviour was worthwhile, for he considered behaviour simply as a learned response to an external stimulus. Yet, such behaviourist concepts tend to deny the human capacity for random, unpredictable, sentient decision-making, further blocking the functionalist concept that human behaviour is an active process driven by the individual. Perhaps, a combination of both the functionalist and behaviourist perspectives provides scientists with the most empirical value, but, even so, it remains philosophically (and physiologically) difficult to integrate the two concepts without raising further questions about human behaviour. For instance, consider the interrelationship between three elements: the human environment, the human autonomic nervous system (our fight or flight muscle responses), and the human somatic nervous system (our voluntary muscle control). The behaviourist perspective explains a mixture of both types of muscle behaviour, whereas the functionalist perspective resides mostly in the somatic nervous system. It can be argued that all behavioural origins begin within the nervous system, prompting all scientists of human behaviour to possess basic physiological understandings, something very well understood by the functionalist founder William James.

text: Lesions are often classified by their tissue type or location. For example, a "skin lesion" or a "brain lesion" are named for the tissue they are found in. If there is an added significance to regions within the tissue - such as in neural injuries where different locations correspond to different neurological deficits - they are further classified by location. For example, a lesion in the central nervous system is called a central lesion, and a peripheral lesion is one located in the peripheral nervous system. A myocardial lesion results from damage to the heart muscle, and a coronary lesion is a subtype that specifically describes a lesion in the coronary arteries. Coronary lesions are then further classified by the side of the heart that is affected, and diameter of the artery in which they form.

text: Lesions are often classified by their tissue type or location. For example, a "

text: skin lesion

text: " or a "

text: brain lesion

text: " are named for the tissue they are found in. If there is an added significance to regions within the tissue - such as in neural injuries where different locations correspond to different neurological deficits - they are further classified by location. For example, a lesion in the

text: central nervous system

text: is called a central lesion, and a

text: peripheral lesion

text: is one located in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . A

text: myocardial lesion

text: results from damage to the heart muscle, and a coronary lesion is a subtype that specifically describes a lesion in the

text: coronary arteries

text: . Coronary lesions are then further classified by the side of the heart that is affected, and diameter of the artery in which they form.

text: Connectograms are circular, with the left half depicting the left hemisphere and the right half depicting the right hemisphere. The hemispheres are further broken down into frontal lobe, insular cortex, limbic lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, subcortical structures, and cerebellum. At the bottom the brain stem is also represented between the two hemispheres. Within these lobes, each cortical area is labeled with an abbreviation and assigned its own color, which can be used to designate these same cortical regions in other figures, such as the parcellated brain surfaces in the adjacent image, so that the reader can find the corresponding cortical areas on a geometrically accurate surface and see exactly how disparate the connected regions may be. Inside the cortical surface ring, the concentric circles each represent different attributes of the corresponding cortical regions. In order from outermost to innermost, these metric rings represent the grey matter volume, surface area, cortical thickness, curvature, and degree of connectivity (the relative proportion of fibers initiating or terminating in the region compared to the whole brain). Inside these circles, lines connect regions that are found to be structurally connected. The relative density (number of fibers) of these connections is reflected in the opacity of the lines, so that one can easily compare various connections and their structural importance. The fractional anisotropy of each connection is reflected in its color.

text: Connectograms are circular, with the left half depicting the left hemisphere and the right half depicting the right hemisphere. The hemispheres are further broken down into

text: frontal lobe

text: insular cortex

text: limbic lobe

text: temporal lobe

text: parietal lobe

text: occipital lobe

text: , subcortical structures, and

text: cerebellum

text: . At the bottom the brain stem is also represented between the two hemispheres. Within these lobes, each cortical area is labeled with an abbreviation and assigned its own color, which can be used to designate these same cortical regions in other figures, such as the parcellated brain surfaces in the adjacent image, so that the reader can find the corresponding cortical areas on a geometrically accurate surface and see exactly how disparate the connected regions may be. Inside the cortical surface ring, the concentric circles each represent different attributes of the corresponding cortical regions. In order from outermost to innermost, these metric rings represent the

text: grey matter

text: volume,

text: surface area

text: , cortical thickness, curvature, and degree of connectivity (the relative proportion of fibers initiating or terminating in the region compared to the whole brain). Inside these circles, lines connect regions that are found to be structurally connected. The relative density (number of fibers) of these connections is reflected in the opacity of the lines, so that one can easily compare various connections and their structural importance. The

text: fractional anisotropy

text: of each connection is reflected in its color.

text: The M-cell is a model system in the field of Neuroethology. The M-cell system has served for detailed neurophysiological and histological investigations of synaptic transmission and synaptic plasticity. Studies by Donald Faber and Henri Korn helped to establish the one vesicle hypothesis of synaptic transmission in the CNS. Other important research topics that have been investigated in the M-cell system include studies by Yoichi Oda and colleagues on inhibitory long-term potentiation and auditory conditioning of the startle response, and studies by Alberto Pereda and colleagues on plasticity of electrical synapses. Other research topics investigated in the M-cell system include studies of spinal neural networks and neural regeneration by Joe Fetcho and colleagues, as well as underwater sound localization, and the biophysics of computation in single neurons.

text: The M-cell is a model system in the field of

text: Neuroethology

text: . The M-cell system has served for detailed

text: neurophysiological

text: and

text: histological

text: investigations of

text: synaptic transmission

text: and

text: synaptic plasticity

text: . Studies by

text: Donald Faber

text: and

text: Henri Korn

text: helped to establish the one

text: vesicle

text: hypothesis of

text: synaptic transmission

text: in the

text: CNS

text: . Other important research topics that have been investigated in the M-cell system include studies by

text: Yoichi Oda

text: and colleagues on inhibitory

text: long-term potentiation

text: and

text: auditory

text: conditioning

text: of the startle response, and studies by

text: Alberto Pereda

text: and colleagues on plasticity of

text: electrical synapse

text: s. Other research topics investigated in the M-cell system include studies of

text: spinal

text: neural networks and neural regeneration by

text: Joe Fetcho

text: and colleagues, as well as underwater

text: sound localization

text: , and the biophysics of computation in single neurons.

text: The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as the optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres. Previously it was considered only a "relay station", but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach cerebral hemispheres (neocortex).

text: The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as the optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres. Previously it was considered only a "relay station", but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach cerebral hemispheres (

text: neocortex

text: The digestive system has a complex system of motility and secretion regulation which is vital for proper function. This task is accomplished via a system of long reflexes from the central nervous system (CNS), short reflexes from the enteric nervous system (ENS) and reflexes from GI peptides working in harmony with each other.

text: The digestive system has a complex system of motility and secretion regulation which is vital for proper function. This task is accomplished via a system of long reflexes from the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), short reflexes from the

text: enteric nervous system

text: (ENS) and reflexes from GI

text: peptides

text: working in harmony with each other.

text: While conducting research into the (afferent) sensory nervous system with evoked potentials, Sgro also began to investigate devices and techniques to determine the state of the (efferent) motor nervous system using TMS with the goal of more effective detection of sub-clinical diseases and increased sensitivity of the motor system during intra-operative patient monitoring. Sgro  and his associates studied the theoretical and practical issues involved in the design of a high magnetic field strength and rapid transcranial magnetic stimulator which could exceed the historical safety limit of electrical brain stimulation (40 uC/cm2/phase at a stimulation rate of 20 to 50 Hertz over several hours).  These studies resulted in the construction of a rapid high magnetic field strength device   which was suitable for safety studies.  The safety of  TMS in rats with a maximal field strength of 3.4 Tesla at 8 Herz for 20 minutes or 10uC/cm2/phase was demonstrated in Sgro

text: While conducting research into the (afferent)

text: sensory nervous system

text: with evoked potentials, Sgro also began to investigate devices and techniques to determine the state of the (efferent)

text: motor nervous system

text: using

text: TMS

text: with the goal of more effective detection of sub-clinical diseases and increased sensitivity of the motor system during intra-operative patient monitoring. Sgro  and his associates studied the theoretical and practical issues involved in the design of a high magnetic field strength and rapid transcranial magnetic stimulator which could exceed the historical safety limit of

text: electrical brain stimulation

text: (40 uC/cm2/phase at a stimulation rate of 20 to 50 Hertz over several hours).  These studies resulted in the construction of a rapid high magnetic field strength device   which was suitable for safety studies.  The safety of  TMS in rats with a maximal field strength of 3.4

text: Tesla

text: at 8 Herz for 20 minutes or 10uC/cm2/phase was demonstrated in Sgro

text: It extends from T1 to L2, and contains the autonomic motor neurons that give rise to the preganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system, (preganglionic sympathetic general visceral efferents).

text: It extends from T1 to L2, and contains the autonomic

text: motor neuron

text: s that give rise to the

text: preganglionic fibers

text: of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , (preganglionic sympathetic

text: general visceral efferent

text: s).

text: Rostrally to the spinal cord lies the brain.The brain makes up the largest portion of the central nervous system, and is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the nervous system. The brain is the major functional unit of the central nervous system. While the spinal cord has certain processing ability such as that of spinal locomotion and can process reflexes, the brain is the major processing unit of the nervous system.

text: Rostrally to the spinal cord lies the brain.The brain makes up the largest portion of the central nervous system, and is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the nervous system. The brain is the major functional unit of the central nervous system. While the spinal cord has certain processing ability such as that of

text: spinal locomotion

text: and can process

text: reflex

text: es, the brain is the major processing unit of the nervous system.

text: The black reaction consisted in fixing silver chromate particles to the neurilemma (the neuron membrane) by reacting silver nitrate with potassium dichromate. This resulted in a stark black deposit on the soma as well as on the axon and all dendrites, providing an exceedingly clear and well-contrasted picture of neuron against a yellow background. The ability to visualize separate neurons led to the eventual acceptance of the neuron doctrine. However, Golgi himself was led to a conviction that nervous system is a single network, not of separate cells; the notion called "reticular theory." He supported this discredited theory even in his Nobel lecture.

text: The black reaction consisted in fixing

text: silver chromate

text: particles to the

text: neurilemma

text: (the neuron membrane) by reacting

text: silver nitrate

text: with

text: potassium dichromate

text: . This resulted in a stark black deposit on the

text: soma

text: as well as on the

text: axon

text: and all

text: dendrites

text: , providing an exceedingly clear and well-contrasted picture of

text: neuron

text: against a yellow background. The ability to visualize separate neurons led to the eventual acceptance of the

text: neuron doctrine

text: . However, Golgi himself was led to a conviction that nervous system is a single network, not of separate cells; the notion called "

text: reticular theory

text: ." He supported this

text: discredited theory

text: even in his Nobel lecture.

text: Dr. Barth A. Green MD FACS is the co-founder with Dr. Art Fournier of Project Medishare for Haiti and professor and chairman of the Department of Neurological Surgery at the University of Miami. Dr. Green specializes in spinal cord injury and is a co-founder with the Buonicontis of one of the world's largest spinal cord injury research center's The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis. His areas of interest include translational research for Spinal Cord Injury including cellular transplantation and neural tissue protection,especially as it applies to mild hypothermia.Also the surgical management of spinal cord injury and diseases, including spinal cord tumors, myelopathy, tethered spinal cords, Chiari 1 Malformation and syringomyelia.

text: Dr. Barth A. Green MD FACS is the co-founder with Dr. Art Fournier of Project Medishare for

text: Haiti

text: and professor and chairman of the Department of Neurological Surgery at the

text: University of Miami

text: . Dr. Green specializes in

text: spinal cord injury

text: and is a co-founder with the

text: Buonicontis

text: of one of the world's largest spinal cord injury research center's

text: The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis

text: . His areas of interest include

text: translational research

text: for Spinal Cord Injury including cellular transplantation and neural tissue protection,especially as it applies to mild

text: hypothermia

text: .Also the surgical management of spinal cord injury and diseases, including

text: spinal cord tumors

text: myelopathy

text: tethered spinal cords

text: Chiari 1 Malformation

text: and

text: syringomyelia

text: The nervous system is divided into two subsections: the CNS and the PNS. The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord, while the PNS consists of nerves that originate from the brain and spinal cord and innervate the rest of the body.

text: In humans, the spinal cord comprises a major part of the central nervous system (CNS). Along with the brain, it develops from the dorsal nerve cord in the embryonic stage. The spinal cord consists of such segmental enlargements called ganglia. These ganglia form the basis for the peripheral nervous system’s (PNS) sensory and motor neurons that innervate various parts of the body. The vertebral segmentation is a process that forms a distinctive feature of the group. At first, somites form as a spherical epithelial structure with a central lumen lined by radially arranged cells. Structures such as mesenchymal sclerotome which later develop as the vertebral column along with notochord, and dermomyotome which further divides to form two types of cells, develop from these somites. The sequential epithelialization of the mesodermal mesenchymal rods lead to the formation of somites and the vertebrae originate from these structures. In higher vertebrates such as humans, the segmental plates are laid down during the process of gastrulation and the segmental plates appear on both sides of the mid-line neural epithelium. Later, the process of neurulation occurs in the mid-line and the segmental plates proceed to the side of the neural tube and notochord. Even though mitotic cell divisions create more cells within these plates, the length of the plates is maintained constant. Although intercellular connections mechanisms such as gap junctions and tight junctions are formed in the cells of the segmental plates, tight junctions are not involved in large network of cells as observed commonly in mature epithelium. A cell-cell adhesion chemical, namely calcium dependent N-cadherin, is present at varying concentrations in the anterior and posterior parts as it is expressed at a higher concentration in the anterior portion of the segmental plate and at lower concentration at the posterior part. During segmentation, the concentration of N-cadherin increases at the apical portion of the cell surface. Later, the ventromedial part of the somite is dis-aggregated from the sclerotome after a measurable loss of immunoreactivity of N-cadherin in this region. The observed change in the concentration of this chemical exemplifies the role of the mediatory molecular mechanism in the cell-cell adhesion during the formation of somites.

text: In humans, the spinal cord comprises a major part of the central nervous system (CNS). Along with the brain, it develops from the dorsal nerve cord in the embryonic stage. The spinal cord consists of such segmental enlargements called ganglia. These ganglia form the basis for the peripheral nervous system’s (PNS) sensory and motor neurons that innervate various parts of the body. The vertebral segmentation is a process that forms a distinctive feature of the group. At first, somites form as a spherical epithelial structure with a central lumen lined by radially arranged cells. Structures such as mesenchymal

text: sclerotome

text: which later develop as the vertebral column along with

text: notochord

text: , and dermomyotome which further divides to form two types of cells, develop from these

text: somites

text: . The sequential epithelialization of the mesodermal mesenchymal rods lead to the formation of somites and the vertebrae originate from these structures. In higher vertebrates such as humans, the segmental plates are laid down during the process of

text: gastrulation

text: and the segmental plates appear on both sides of the mid-line neural epithelium. Later, the process of neurulation occurs in the mid-line and the segmental plates proceed to the side of the neural tube and notochord. Even though mitotic cell divisions create more cells within these plates, the length of the plates is maintained constant. Although intercellular connections mechanisms such as

text: gap junctions

text: and

text: tight junctions

text: are formed in the cells of the segmental plates, tight junctions are not involved in large network of cells as observed commonly in mature epithelium. A cell-cell adhesion chemical, namely calcium dependent

text: N-cadherin

text: , is present at varying concentrations in the anterior and posterior parts as it is expressed at a higher concentration in the anterior portion of the segmental plate and at lower concentration at the posterior part. During segmentation, the concentration of N-cadherin increases at the apical portion of the cell surface. Later, the ventromedial part of the somite is dis-aggregated from the sclerotome after a measurable loss of immunoreactivity of N-cadherin in this region. The observed change in the concentration of this chemical exemplifies the role of the mediatory molecular mechanism in the cell-cell adhesion during the formation of somites.

text: The calyx of Held has become a popular model system within the field of neurobiology. The presence of this synapse in the mammalian nervous system has allowed for direct research within a mammalian model and the large size increases the ease of electrophysiological recording. For these reasons it has been popular in understanding transmitter release.

text: The calyx of Held has become a popular

text: model system

text: within the field of neurobiology. The presence of this synapse in the mammalian nervous system has allowed for direct research within a mammalian model and the large size increases the ease of

text: electrophysiological

text: recording. For these reasons it has been popular in understanding transmitter release.

text: As discussed, stem cells are used to treat degenerative diseases. One form of a degenerative disease that can occur in the brain as well as throughout the body is an autoimmune disease. Autoimmune diseases cause the body to "attack" its own cells and therefore destroys those cells as well as whatever functional purpose those cells have or contribute to. One form of an autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system is multiple sclerosis. In this disease the body attacks the glial cells that form myelin coats around the axons on neurons. This causes the nervous system to essentially "short circuit" and pass information very slowly. Stem cells therapy has been used to try to cure some of the damage caused by the body in MS. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation has been used to try and cure MS patients by essentially "reprogramming" their immune system. The main risk encountered with this form of treatment is the possibility of rejection of the stem cells. If the hematopoetic stem cells can be harvested from the individual, risk of rejection is much lower. But, there can be the risk of those cells being programmed to induce MS. However, if the tissue is donated from another individual there is high risk of rejection leading to possibly fatal toxicity in the recipient's body. Considering that there are fairly good treatments for MS, the use of stem cells in this case may have a higher cost than the benefits they produce. However, as research continues perhaps stem cells will truly become a viable treatment for MS as well as other autoimmune diseases.

text: As discussed, stem cells are used to treat degenerative diseases. One form of a degenerative disease that can occur in the brain as well as throughout the body is an

text: autoimmune disease

text: . Autoimmune diseases cause the body to "attack" its own cells and therefore destroys those cells as well as whatever functional purpose those cells have or contribute to. One form of an autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system is

text: multiple sclerosis

text: . In this disease the body attacks the

text: glial cells

text: that form myelin coats around the axons on neurons. This causes the nervous system to essentially "short circuit" and pass information very slowly. Stem cells therapy has been used to try to cure some of the damage caused by the body in MS.

text: Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

text: has been used to try and cure MS patients by essentially "reprogramming" their immune system. The main risk encountered with this form of treatment is the possibility of rejection of the stem cells. If the hematopoetic stem cells can be harvested from the individual, risk of rejection is much lower. But, there can be the risk of those cells being programmed to induce MS. However, if the tissue is donated from another individual there is high risk of rejection leading to possibly fatal toxicity in the recipient's body. Considering that there are fairly good treatments for MS, the use of stem cells in this case may have a higher cost than the benefits they produce. However, as research continues perhaps stem cells will truly become a viable treatment for MS as well as other autoimmune diseases.

text: In contrast to Greek thought regarding the sanctity of the human body, the Egyptians had been embalming their dead for centuries, and went about the systematic study of the human body. During the Hellenistic period, Herophilus of Chalcedon (c.335/330–280/250 BC) and Erasistratus of Ceos (c. 300–240 BC) made fundamental contributions not only to brain and nervous systems' anatomy and physiology, but to many other fields of the bio-sciences. Herophilus not only distinguished the cerebrum and the cerebellum, but provided the first clear description of the ventricles. Erasistratus used practical application by experimenting on the living brain. Their works are now mostly lost, and we know about their achievements due mostly to secondary sources. Some of their discoveries had to be re-discovered a millennium after their death.

text: In contrast to Greek thought regarding the sanctity of the human body, the Egyptians had been embalming their dead for centuries, and went about the systematic study of the human body. During the Hellenistic period,

text: Herophilus

text: of Chalcedon (c.335/330–280/250 BC) and

text: Erasistratus

text: of Ceos (c. 300–240 BC) made fundamental contributions not only to brain and nervous systems' anatomy and physiology, but to many other fields of the bio-sciences. Herophilus not only distinguished the

text: cerebrum

text: and the

text: cerebellum

text: , but provided the first clear description of the

text: ventricles

text: . Erasistratus used practical application by experimenting on the living brain. Their works are now mostly lost, and we know about their achievements due mostly to secondary sources. Some of their discoveries had to be re-discovered a millennium after their death.

text: Peripherin is a type III Intermediate filament (IF) protein expressed mainly in neurons of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). It is also found in neurons of the central nervous system (CNS) that have projections toward peripheral structures, such as spinal motor neurons. Its size, structure, and sequence/location of protein motifs is similar to other type III IF proteins such as desmin, vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). Like these proteins, peripherin can self-assemble to form homopolymeric filamentous networks (networks formed from peripherin protein dimers), but it can also heteropolymerize with neurofilaments in several neuronal types. This protein in humans is encoded by the PRPH gene. Peripherin is thought to play a role in neurite elongation during development and axonal regeneration after injury, but its exact function is unknown. It is also associated with some of the major neuropathologies that characterize amyotropic lateral sclerosis (ALS), but despite extensive research into how neurofilaments and peripherin contribute to ALS, their role in this disease is still unidentified.

text: Peripherin is a type III

text: Intermediate filament

text: (IF) protein expressed mainly in neurons of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). It is also found in neurons of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) that have projections toward peripheral structures, such as spinal motor neurons. Its size, structure, and sequence/location of protein motifs is similar to other type III IF proteins such as

text: desmin

text: vimentin

text: and

text: glial fibrillary acidic protein

text: (GFAP). Like these proteins, peripherin can self-assemble to form homopolymeric filamentous networks (networks formed from peripherin

text: protein dimer

text: s), but it can also heteropolymerize with

text: neurofilaments

text: in several neuronal types. This

text: protein

text: in humans is encoded by the PRPH

text: gene

text: . Peripherin is thought to play a role in neurite elongation during development and axonal regeneration after injury, but its exact function is unknown. It is also associated with some of the major neuropathologies that characterize

text: amyotropic lateral sclerosis

text: (ALS), but despite extensive research into how neurofilaments and peripherin contribute to ALS, their role in this disease is still unidentified.

text: The sympathoadrenal system is a physiological connection between the sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla and is crucial in an organism’s physiological response to outside stimuli. When the body receives sensory information, the sympathetic nervous system sends a signal to preganglionic nerve fibers, which activate the adrenal medulla through acetylcholine. Once activated, norepinephrine and epinephrine are released directly into the blood by postganglionic nerve fibers where they act as the bodily mechanism for “fight or flight” responses. Because of this, the sympathoadrenal system plays a large role in maintaining glucose levels, sodium levels, blood pressure, and various other metabolic pathways that couple with bodily responses to the environment. During numerous diseased states, such as hypoglycemia or even stress, the body’s metabolic processes are skewed. The sympathoadrenal system works to return the body to homeostasis through the activation or inactivation of the adrenal gland. However, more severe disorders of the sympathoadrenal system such as phaeochromocytoma (a tumor on the adrenal medulla) can affect the body’s ability to maintain a homeostatic state. In such cases, curative agents such as adrenergic agonists and antagonists are used to modify epinephrine and norepinephrine levels released by the adrenal medulla.

text: The sympathoadrenal system is a physiological connection between the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: adrenal medulla

text: and is crucial in an organism’s physiological response to outside stimuli. When the body receives sensory information, the sympathetic nervous system sends a signal to

text: preganglionic nerve fibers

text: , which activate the adrenal medulla through

text: acetylcholine

text: . Once activated,

text: norepinephrine

text: and

text: epinephrine

text: are released directly into the blood by

text: postganglionic nerve fibers

text: where they act as the bodily mechanism for “

text: fight or flight

text: ” responses. Because of this, the sympathoadrenal system plays a large role in maintaining glucose levels, sodium levels, blood pressure, and various other metabolic pathways that couple with bodily responses to the environment. During numerous diseased states, such as

text: hypoglycemia

text: or even stress, the body’s metabolic processes are skewed. The sympathoadrenal system works to return the body to

text: homeostasis

text: through the activation or inactivation of the

text: adrenal gland

text: . However, more severe disorders of the sympathoadrenal system such as

text: phaeochromocytoma

text: (a tumor on the adrenal medulla) can affect the body’s ability to maintain a homeostatic state. In such cases, curative agents such as

text: adrenergic agonist

text: s and

text: antagonists

text: are used to modify epinephrine and norepinephrine levels released by the

text: adrenal medulla

text: For information about the composition of animal nervous systems, see nervous system. For information about the typical structure of the human nervous system, see human brain or peripheral nervous system. This article discusses information pertinent to the study of neuroanatomy.

text: For information about the composition of animal nervous systems, see

text: nervous system

text: . For information about the typical structure of the human nervous system, see

text: human brain

text: or

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . This article discusses information pertinent to the study of neuroanatomy.

text: At the organ level, the nervous system is composed of brain regions, such as the hippocampus in mammals or the mushroom bodies of the fruit fly. These regions are often modular and serve a particular role within the general pathways of the nervous system. For example, the hippocampus is critical for forming memories. The nervous system also contains nerves, which are bundles of fibers that originate from the brain and spinal cord, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Nerves are made primarily of the axons of neurons, along with a variety of membranes that wrap around and segregate them into nerve fascicles.

text: At the organ level, the nervous system is composed of brain regions, such as the

text: hippocampus

text: in mammals or the mushroom bodies of the

text: fruit fly

text: . These regions are often modular and serve a particular role within the general pathways of the nervous system. For example, the hippocampus is critical for forming memories. The nervous system also contains

text: nerves

text: , which are bundles of fibers that originate from the brain and spinal cord, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Nerves are made primarily of the

text: axons

text: of neurons, along with a variety of membranes that wrap around and segregate them into

text: nerve fascicle

text: s.

text: Sensory neurons are  nerves that transmit sensory information (sight, sound, feeling, etc.).  They are activated by sensory input, and send projections to other elements of the nervous system, ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain or spinal cord.In complex organisms, when stimulation of a peripheral sensory neuron (a first-order sensory neuron) sensory receptor exceeds a set level of intensity, an electrical impulse travels down the nerve fiber to the central nervous system, where it may activate a motor neuron or another sensory neuron (a second- or third-order neuron), or both. In less complex organisms, such as the hydra, sensory neurons transmit data to motor neurons or ganglia. Different types of receptor respond to different kinds of stimulus.

text: Sensory neurons are

text: nerves

text: that transmit sensory information (sight, sound, feeling, etc.).  They are activated by sensory input, and send projections to other elements of the

text: nervous system

text: , ultimately conveying sensory information to the brain or spinal cord.In complex organisms, when stimulation of a

text: peripheral

text: sensory neuron (a first-order sensory neuron) sensory

text: receptor

text: exceeds a set level of intensity, an electrical impulse travels down the

text: nerve fiber

text: to the

text: central nervous system

text: , where it may activate a

text: motor neuron

text: or another sensory neuron (a second- or third-order neuron), or both. In less complex organisms, such as the

text: hydra

text: , sensory neurons transmit data to motor neurons or

text: ganglia

text: . Different types of receptor respond to different kinds of stimulus.

text: In the nervous system there is a "closed loop" system of sensation, decision, and reactions. This process is carried out through the activity of afferent neurons, interneurons, and efferent motor neurons.

text: In the nervous system there is a "closed loop" system of sensation, decision, and reactions. This process is carried out through the activity of afferent neurons,

text: interneuron

text: s, and

text: efferent motor neuron

text: s.

text: It was formerly used to treat disorders, such as chronic hypertension, of the peripheral nervous system, which is innervated only by the sympathetic nervous system. The non-specificity of this treatment led to discontinuing its use.

text: It was formerly used to treat disorders, such as chronic

text: hypertension

text: , of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , which is innervated only by the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: . The non-specificity of this treatment led to discontinuing its use.

text: Two other components related to the frontal lobes contribute to the social behavior of a witzelsucht patient. Previous studies have established a connection with the right hemisphere and emotional responsiveness. The specific anatomical location is still unclear, but it was shown that the right frontal operculum was most relevant in emotional gesturing. This, combined with the dissociation between cognitive and affective stimuli can explain why patients show no reaction to humor. Personality and drawing on past experiences have been shown to influence humor processing and appreciation. A person may remember past experiences in their own life in order to fully understand a joke in the current context. This remembering of personally experienced events is considered episodic memory, which is processed within the frontal lobes. Additionally, this inability to remember past experiences could also cause a person to forget what is socially appropriate; which could explain why witzelsucht patients sometimes say hypersexual comments in public.

text: Two other components related to the frontal lobes contribute to the social behavior of a witzelsucht patient. Previous studies have established a connection with the right hemisphere and emotional responsiveness. The specific anatomical location is still unclear, but it was shown that the right frontal operculum was most relevant in emotional gesturing. This, combined with the dissociation between cognitive and affective stimuli can explain why patients show no reaction to humor. Personality and drawing on past experiences have been shown to influence humor processing and appreciation. A person may remember past experiences in their own life in order to fully understand a joke in the current context. This remembering of personally experienced events is considered

text: episodic memory

text: , which is processed within the frontal lobes. Additionally, this inability to remember past experiences could also cause a person to forget what is socially appropriate; which could explain why witzelsucht patients sometimes say hypersexual comments in public.

text: Morphine is a pain medication of the opiate type which is found naturally in a number of plants and animals. It acts directly on the central nervous system (CNS) to decrease the feeling of pain. It can be taken for both acute pain and chronic pain. Morphine is frequently used for pain from myocardial infarction and during labour. It can be given by mouth, by injection into a muscle, by injecting under the skin, intravenously, into the space around the spinal cord, or rectally. Maximum effect is around 20 min when given intravenously and 60 min when given by mouth while duration of effect is between three and seven hours. Long-acting formulations also exist.

text: Morphine is a

text: pain medication

text: of the

text: opiate

text: type which is found naturally in a number of plants and animals. It acts directly on the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) to decrease the feeling of pain. It can be taken for both

text: acute pain

text: and

text: chronic pain

text: . Morphine is frequently used for pain from

text: myocardial infarction

text: and during

text: labour

text: . It can be given by mouth, by

text: injection into a muscle

text: , by

text: injecting under the skin

text: intravenously

text: , into the space around the

text: spinal cord

text: , or

text: rectally

text: . Maximum effect is around 20 min when given intravenously and 60 min when given by mouth while duration of effect is between three and seven hours. Long-acting formulations also exist.

text: A second question is whether autopoiesis can provide a bridge between these concepts. Thompson discusses this issue from the standpoint of enactivism. An autopoietic cell actively relates to its environment. Its sensory responses trigger motor behavior governed by autopoiesis, and this behavior (it is claimed) is a simplified version of a nervous system behavior. The further claim is that real-time interactions like this require attention, and an implication of attention is awareness.

text: A second question is whether autopoiesis can provide a bridge between these concepts. Thompson discusses this issue from the standpoint of

text: enactivism

text: . An autopoietic cell actively relates to its environment. Its sensory responses trigger motor behavior governed by autopoiesis, and this behavior (it is claimed) is a simplified version of a nervous system behavior. The further claim is that real-time interactions like this require attention, and an implication of attention is awareness.

text: The PNS can be divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can be divided into the parasympathetic, sympathetic, and enteric nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system regulates the “fight or flight” responses. The parasympathetic nervous system regulates the “rest and digest” responses. The enteric nervous system innervates the viscera (gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and gall bladder). The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that send sensory information to the central nervous system and motor nerve fibers that project to skeletal muscle. The somatic nervous system engages in voluntary reactions, and the autonomic nervous system engages in involuntary reactions.

text: EMA401 is a new drug under development for the treatment of peripheral neuropathic pain. It was recently established as a potential drug option for patients suffering pain caused by postherpetic neuralgia. It may also be useful for treating various types of chronic neuropathic pains caused by lesions and other diseases affecting the somatosensory system in addition to postherpetic neuralgia. EMA401 has been implicated in alleviating pains associated with a host of neural abnormalities, ranging from excessive nerve sprouting due to damaged nerve caused by shingles, diabetes, osteoarthritis, HIV and chemotherapy. EMA401 is a competitive antagonist of angiotensin II type 2 receptor (ATR) being developed by the Australian biotechnology company Spinifex Pharmaceuticals. It is the S-enantiomer form of the racemate drug EMA400. Analgesic treatments currently available for pain disorders are unsuited for severe chronic neuropathic pains. EMA401 is more effective and has virtually no central nervous system side effects in comparison to current drugs for pain relief, such as Neurotin and Lyrica. Pain pathways of the other functional systems have major molecular and mechanistic differences compared to pain pathways of the peripheral nervous system. EMA401 target proteins, angiotensin II type 2 receptors, are extremely important for nociception within the peripheral nervous system and less so for nociception within other functional systems. EMA401 is the first drug on the market that targets angiotensin II type 2 receptors (ATR) with high affinity but has a low affinity for angiotensin II type 1 receptors. Angiotensin II receptor antagonists that have existed in the pharmaceutical market have had higher affinities for angiotensin II type 1 receptors (ATR) over type 2 receptors. ATR are not involved with nociception. ATR antagonists have been mostly used for the treatment of hypertension.

text: EMA401 is a new drug under development for the treatment of

text: peripheral neuropathic pain

text: . It was recently established as a potential drug option for patients suffering pain caused by

text: postherpetic neuralgia

text: . It may also be useful for treating various types of chronic neuropathic pains caused by lesions and other diseases affecting the

text: somatosensory system

text: in addition to postherpetic neuralgia. EMA401 has been implicated in alleviating pains associated with a host of neural abnormalities, ranging from excessive nerve sprouting due to damaged nerve caused by shingles, diabetes, osteoarthritis, HIV and chemotherapy. EMA401 is a

text: competitive antagonist

text: of

text: angiotensin II

text: type 2 receptor (ATR) being developed by the Australian biotechnology company Spinifex Pharmaceuticals. It is the S-enantiomer form of the

text: racemate

text: drug EMA400.

text: Analgesic treatments

text: currently available for pain disorders are unsuited for severe chronic neuropathic pains. EMA401 is more effective and has virtually no

text: central nervous system

text: side effects in comparison to current drugs for pain relief, such as Neurotin and Lyrica.

text: Pain

text: pathways of the other functional systems have major molecular and mechanistic differences compared to pain pathways of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . EMA401 target proteins, angiotensin II type 2 receptors, are extremely important for

text: nociception

text: within the peripheral nervous system and less so for nociception within other functional systems. EMA401 is the first drug on the market that targets angiotensin II type 2 receptors (ATR) with high affinity but has a low affinity for angiotensin II type 1 receptors. Angiotensin II receptor antagonists that have existed in the pharmaceutical market have had higher affinities for angiotensin II type 1 receptors (ATR) over type 2 receptors. ATR are not involved with nociception. ATR antagonists have been mostly used for the treatment of hypertension.

text: As stem cell transplantation is becoming a more prevalent means of treating traumatic spinal cord damage, many processes between the start and end result need to be addressed and made more efficient. By labeling OEG, these cells can be tracked by a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) device when being dispersed in the central nervous system A recent study made use of a novel type of micron-sized particles of iron oxide (MPIO) to label and track these transport-mediated cells via MRI. The experiment resulted in an OEC labeling efficiency of more than 90% with an MPIO incubation time as short as 6 hours, without affecting cell proliferation, migration and viability. MPIOs have also been successfully transplanted into the vitreous body of adult rat eyes, providing the first detailed protocol for efficient and safe MPIO labeling of OEG for their non-invasive MRI tracking in real time for use in studies of central nervous system repair and axonal regeneration.

text: As stem cell transplantation is becoming a more prevalent means of treating traumatic spinal cord damage, many processes between the start and end result need to be addressed and made more efficient. By labeling OEG, these cells can be tracked by a

text: magnetic resonance imaging

text: (MRI) device when being dispersed in the central nervous system A recent study made use of a novel type of

text: micron-sized particles of iron oxide

text: (MPIO) to label and track these transport-mediated cells via MRI. The experiment resulted in an OEC labeling efficiency of more than 90% with an MPIO

text: incubation

text: time as short as 6 hours, without affecting

text: cell proliferation

text: , migration and viability. MPIOs have also been successfully transplanted into the

text: vitreous

text: body of adult rat eyes, providing the first detailed protocol for efficient and safe MPIO labeling of OEG for their non-invasive MRI tracking in real time for use in studies of central nervous system repair and axonal regeneration.

text: The CSF occupies the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater) and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. It constitutes the content of the ventricles, cisterns, and sulci of the brain, as well as the central canal of the spinal cord.

text: The CSF occupies the

text: subarachnoid space

text: (between the

text: arachnoid mater

text: and the

text: pia mater

text: ) and the

text: ventricular system

text: around and inside the brain and

text: spinal cord

text: . It constitutes the content of the

text: ventricles

text: cisterns

text: , and

text: sulci

text: of the brain, as well as the

text: central canal

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: Fear and the Nervous System is the eponymous debut album by Fear and the Nervous System, released  on September 18, 2012.

text: Fear and the Nervous System is the

text: eponymous

text: debut album by

text: Fear and the Nervous System

text: , released  on September 18, 2012.

text: The drug is administered directly to the central nervous system using intrathecal injection once every 3–4 months.

text: The drug is administered directly to the

text: central nervous system

text: using

text: intrathecal

text: injection once every 3–4 months.

text: The presence of a nervous system is essential for an animal to be able to experience nociception or pain. However, other physiological capacities are also required such as opioid sensitivity and central modulation of responses by analgesics.  Enkephalin and α-endorphin-like substances have been found in earthworms.  Injections of naloxone (an opioid antagonist) inhibit the escape responses of earthworms.  This indicates that opioid substances play a role in sensory modulation, similar to that found in many vertebrates.

text: The presence of a nervous system is essential for an animal to be able to experience

text: nociception

text: or

text: pain

text: . However, other physiological capacities are also required such as opioid sensitivity and central modulation of responses by analgesics.

text: Enkephalin

text: and

text: α-endorphin

text: -like substances have been found in earthworms.  Injections of

text: naloxone

text: (an opioid antagonist) inhibit the escape responses of earthworms.  This indicates that opioid substances play a role in sensory modulation, similar to that found in many vertebrates.

text: There are three main types of neurons; multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar. Multipolar neurons, such as the one shown in the image, are composed of one axon and many dendritic trees. Pyramidal cells are multipolar cortical neurons with pyramid shaped cell bodies and large dendrites called apical dendrites that extend to the surface of the cortex. Bipolar neurons have one axon and one dendritic tree at opposing ends of the cell body. Unipolar neurons have a stalk that extends from the cell body that separates into two branches with one containing the dendrites and the other with the terminal buttons. Unipolar dendrites are used to detect sensory stimuli such as touch or temperature.

text: Each cerebral hemisphere has an outer layer of cerebral cortex which is of grey matter and in the interior of the cerebral hemispheres is an inner layer or core of white matter known as the centrum ovale.The interior portion of the hemispheres of the cerebrum includes the lateral ventricles, the basal nuclei, and the white matter.

text: Each cerebral hemisphere has an outer layer of

text: cerebral cortex

text: which is of

text: grey matter

text: and in the interior of the cerebral hemispheres is an inner layer or core of

text: white matter

text: known as the centrum ovale.The interior portion of the hemispheres of the

text: cerebrum

text: includes the

text: lateral ventricle

text: s, the

text: basal nuclei

text: , and the white matter.

text: The spinal cord transmits sensory reception from the peripheral nervous system. It also conducts motor information to the body's skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves along the spinal cord, all of which consist of both sensory and motor neurons. The spinal cord is protected by vertebrae and connects the peripheral nervous system to the brain, and it acts as a "minor" coordinating center.

text: The spinal cord transmits sensory reception from the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . It also conducts motor information to the body's

text: skeletal muscles

text: cardiac muscles

text: smooth muscles

text: , and

text: glands

text: . There are 31 pairs of

text: spinal nerves

text: along the spinal cord, all of which consist of both sensory and motor

text: neuron

text: s. The spinal cord is protected by

text: vertebra

text: e and connects the peripheral nervous system to the brain, and it acts as a "minor" coordinating center.

text: Due to its plug in-based design, the usage of Synapse can be very general. Synapse is based on the Microsoft .NET framework and all Synapse components are also .NET components. Although Peltarion has yet to release an official API for the Synapse platform, user made components are emerging, some of them being original, demonstrating the openness of the platform.

text: Due to its plug in-based design, the usage of Synapse can be very general. Synapse is based on the

text: Microsoft .NET

text: framework and all Synapse components are also .NET components. Although Peltarion has yet to release an official

text: API

text: for the Synapse platform, user made components are emerging, some of them being original, demonstrating the openness of the platform.

text: In October 2009, Shaffer explained that he would not be doing vocals on the new Fear and the Nervous System album because he's not "very good at singing".  It was later announced that Steve Krolikowski of Repeater would be handling vocal duties. On June 29, 2011 the song "Choking Victim" was released for free download from the official Fear and the Nervous System website.

text: In October 2009, Shaffer explained that he would not be doing vocals on the new Fear and the Nervous System album because he's not "very good at singing".  It was later announced that Steve Krolikowski of

text: Repeater

text: would be handling vocal duties. On June 29, 2011 the song "Choking Victim" was released for free download from the official Fear and the Nervous System website.

text: Multiple sclerosis, briefly MS, is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS). The immune system attacks the CNS which leads to demyelination. Myelin forms a layer, the myelin sheath, around the axons and neurons. When this sheath is damaged the transport of action potentials will no longer work effectively. The cause of this disease is still unknown but there is a possible chance that the disease is induced or worsened by viral infection. It appears to be that cobra venoms such as cobratoxin have an ‘antiviral, immunomodultory and a neuromodulatory activity’. These properties make it a suitable candidate for a study in subjects with MS and contribute to the disease process. Clinical studies showed that when a chemical detoxification step is employed, the medication has minimal side effects. Modified cobratoxin is thus a possible therapy for MS.

text: In the developing vertebrate embryo, the neural tube is subdivided into four unseparated sections which then develop further into distinct regions of the central nervous system; these are the prosencephalon (forebrain), the mesencephalon (midbrain) the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) and the spinal cord. The prosencephalon develops further into the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The dorsal telencephalon gives rise to the pallium (cerebral cortex in mammals and reptiles) and the ventral telencephalon generates the basal ganglia. The diencephalon develops into the thalamus and hypothalamus, including the optic vesicles (future retina). The dorsal telencephalon then forms two lateral telencephalic vesicles, separated by the midline, which develop into the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Birds and fish have a dorsal telencephalon, like all vertebrates, but it is generally unlayered and therefore not considered a cerebral cortex. Only a layered cytoarchitecture can be considered a cortex.

text: In the developing vertebrate

text: embryo

text: , the

text: neural tube

text: is subdivided into four unseparated sections which then develop further into distinct regions of the central nervous system; these are the

text: prosencephalon

text: forebrain

text: ), the

text: mesencephalon

text: midbrain

text: ) the

text: rhombencephalon

text: hindbrain

text: ) and the

text: spinal cord

text: . The prosencephalon develops further into the

text: telencephalon

text: and the

text: diencephalon

text: . The dorsal telencephalon gives rise to the pallium (cerebral cortex in mammals and reptiles) and the ventral telencephalon generates the

text: basal ganglia

text: . The diencephalon develops into the

text: thalamus

text: and

text: hypothalamus

text: , including the

text: optic vesicles

text: (future

text: retina

text: ). The dorsal telencephalon then forms two lateral telencephalic vesicles, separated by the midline, which develop into the left and right

text: cerebral hemispheres

text: . Birds and fish have a dorsal telencephalon, like all vertebrates, but it is generally unlayered and therefore not considered a cerebral cortex. Only a layered cytoarchitecture can be considered a cortex.

text: Notably, the earliest known instance of the term neuron was in 1884, when Wilder used the word to describe the cerebrospinal axis (also known as the Central Nervous System).  The term was popularized, and given its more modern meaning, by Heinrich Waldeyer in 1891.

text: Notably, the earliest known instance of the term

text: neuron

text: was in 1884, when Wilder used the word to describe the cerebrospinal axis (also known as the

text: Central Nervous System

text: ).  The term was popularized, and given its more modern meaning, by

text: Heinrich Waldeyer

text: in 1891.

text: Most cases of LKS do not have a known cause.  Occasionally, the condition may be induced secondary to other diagnoses such as low-grade brain tumors, closed-head injury, neurocysticercosis, and demyelinating disease.  Central Nervous System vasculitis may be associated with this condition as well.

text: Most cases of LKS do not have a known cause.  Occasionally, the condition may be induced secondary to other diagnoses such as low-grade brain tumors, closed-head injury,

text: neurocysticercosis

text: , and

text: demyelinating disease

text: .  Central Nervous System vasculitis may be associated with this condition as well.

text: Sugar addiction has been examined in laboratory rats and it develops in the same way that drug addiction develops. Eating sugary foods causes the brain to release natural chemicals called opioids and dopamine in the limbic system. Tasty food can activate opioid receptors in the ventral tegmental area and thereby stimulate cells that release dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). The brain recognizes the intense pleasure derived from the dopamine and opioids release and learns to crave more sugar. Dependence is created through these natural rewards, the sugary treats, and the opioid and dopamine released into the synapses of the mesolimbic system. The hippocampus, the insula and the caudate activate when rats crave sugar, which are the same areas that become active when drug addicts crave the drug. Sugar is good because its provides energy but when the body becomes dependent on the sugar intake and the nervous system goes through a change somatic signs of withdrawal begin to appear like chattering teeth, forepaw tremors and head shakes when sugar is not ingested.  Morphine tolerance, a measure of addiction, was observed in rats and their tolerance on Morphine was attributed to environmental cues and the systemic effects of the drug. Morphine tolerance does not depend merely on the frequency of pharmacological stimulation, but rather on both the number of pairings of a drug-predictive cue with the systemic effects of the drug. Rats became significantly more tolerant to morphine when they had been exposed to a paired administration than those rats that were not administered morphine along with a drug-predictive cue.

text: Sugar addiction

text: has been examined in

text: laboratory rats

text: and it develops in the same way that

text: drug addiction

text: develops. Eating sugary foods causes the brain to release natural chemicals called

text: opioids

text: and

text: dopamine

text: in the

text: limbic system

text: . Tasty food can activate opioid receptors in the

text: ventral tegmental area

text: and thereby stimulate cells that release dopamine in the

text: nucleus accumbens

text: (NAc). The brain recognizes the intense pleasure derived from the dopamine and opioids release and learns to crave more sugar. Dependence is created through these natural rewards, the sugary treats, and the opioid and dopamine released into the synapses of the

text: mesolimbic system

text: . The hippocampus, the

text: insula

text: and the

text: caudate

text: activate when rats crave sugar, which are the same areas that become active when drug addicts crave the drug. Sugar is good because its provides energy but when the body becomes dependent on the sugar intake and the

text: nervous system

text: goes through a change somatic signs of

text: withdrawal

text: begin to appear like chattering teeth, forepaw tremors and head shakes when sugar is not ingested.

text: Morphine

text: tolerance, a measure of addiction, was observed in rats and their tolerance on Morphine was attributed to environmental cues and the systemic effects of the drug. Morphine tolerance does not depend merely on the frequency of pharmacological stimulation, but rather on both the number of pairings of a drug-predictive cue with the systemic effects of the drug. Rats became significantly more tolerant to morphine when they had been exposed to a paired administration than those rats that were not administered morphine along with a drug-predictive cue.

text: A neurogenic placode is an area of thickening of the epithelium in the embryonic head ectoderm layer that gives rise to neurons and other structures of the sensory nervous system.

text: A neurogenic placode is an area of thickening of the

text: epithelium

text: in the

text: embryo

text: nic head

text: ectoderm

text: layer that gives rise to neurons and other structures of the sensory nervous system.

text: Meningitis inflames and breaks down any protective membrane and cells surrounding the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of the nervous system. Bacterial meningitis is normally caused by a bacterial infection that enters the bloodstream and enters the blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier consists of tight junctions. These tight junctions help to enclose endothelial cells that line the brain capillaries. Only certain water-soluble substances can move across the blood-brain barrier, while lipid-soluble substances can easily move across the blood-brain barrier. However, when any form of bacteria gets through to the blood-brain barrier, a bacterial infection can result in the cerebrospinal fluid.

text: Meningitis

text: inflames and breaks down any protective

text: membrane

text: and cells surrounding the

text: brain

text: spinal cord

text: , and other parts of the

text: nervous system

text: Bacterial meningitis

text: is normally caused by a bacterial infection that enters the bloodstream and enters the

text: blood-brain barrier

text: . The blood-brain barrier consists of tight junctions. These tight junctions help to enclose

text: endothelial cells

text: that line the

text: brain capillaries

text: . Only certain water-soluble substances can move across the blood-brain barrier, while lipid-soluble substances can easily move across the blood-brain barrier. However, when any form of bacteria gets through to the blood-brain barrier, a bacterial infection can result in the

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: The anti-TB drugs that are most useful for the treatment of Central nervous system TB are:

text: Sulfatide, also known as 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide, SM4, or sulfated galactocerebroside, is a class of sulfolipids, specifically a class of sulfoglycolipids, which are glycolipids that contain a sulfate group. Sulfatide is synthesized primarily starting in the endoplasmic reticulum and ending in the Golgi apparatus where ceramide is converted to galactocerebroside and later sulfated to make sulfatide. Of all of the galactolipids that are found in the myelin sheath, one fifth of them are sulfatide. Sulfatide is primarily found on the extracellular leaflet of the myelin plasma membrane produced by the oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and in the Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. However, sulfatide is also present on the extracellular leaflet of the plasma membrane of many cells in eukaryotic organisms.

text: Sulfatide, also known as 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide, SM4, or sulfated galactocerebroside, is a class of

text: sulfolipid

text: s, specifically a class of sulfoglycolipids, which are

text: glycolipids

text: that contain a

text: sulfate

text: group. Sulfatide is synthesized primarily starting in the

text: endoplasmic reticulum

text: and ending in the

text: Golgi apparatus

text: where

text: ceramide

text: is converted to

text: galactocerebroside

text: and later sulfated to make sulfatide. Of all of the

text: galactolipid

text: s that are found in the

text: myelin sheath

text: , one fifth of them are sulfatide. Sulfatide is primarily found on the extracellular leaflet of the

text: myelin

text: plasma membrane

text: produced by the

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s in the

text: central nervous system

text: and in the

text: Schwann cell

text: s in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . However, sulfatide is also present on the extracellular leaflet of the plasma membrane of many cells in

text: eukaryotic

text: organisms.

text: Although neurons generally follow a basic morphological pattern (consisting of the tree-like dendritic arbor, a cell body, and an axonal output), the number of pre-and post-synaptic elements are unique to every neuron and are central to understanding their complex neural function.

text: In the development of the central nervous system, the decision of a neuron to cross or not cross the midline is critical.  In vertebrates, this choice is mediated by the floor plate, and enables the embryo to develop successful left and right body halves with respect to nervous tissue.  For example, while ipsilateral neurons do not cross the midline, commissural neurons cross the midline forming a single commissure.  These particular neurons develop in the dorsal region of the neural tube and travel ventrally toward the floor plate.  Upon reaching the floor plate, commissural neurons cross through the structure to emerge on the opposite side of the neural tube, whereupon they project anteriorly or posteriorly within the tube.

text: The spinal cord plays a critical role in transferring stress response neural impulses from the brain to the rest of the body. In addition to the neuroendocrine blood hormone signaling system initiated by the hypothalamus, the spinal cord communicates with the rest of the body by innervating the peripheral nervous system. Certain nerves that belong to the sympathetic branch of the central nervous system exit the spinal cord and stimulate peripheral nerves, which in turn engage the body's major organs and muscles in a fight-or-flight manner.

text: The

text: spinal cord

text: plays a critical role in transferring stress response neural impulses from the brain to the rest of the body. In addition to the

text: neuroendocrine

text: blood hormone signaling system initiated by the hypothalamus, the spinal cord communicates with the rest of the body by innervating the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . Certain nerves that belong to the sympathetic branch of the central nervous system exit the spinal cord and stimulate peripheral nerves, which in turn engage the body's major

text: organs

text: and

text: muscles

text: in a

text: fight-or-flight

text: manner.

text: The pia mater of the spinal cord has a pair of denticulate ligaments (one on each side of the spinal cord) with 21 attachments per side which attach it to the arachnoid and dura mater. Named for their tooth-like appearance, the denticulate ligaments are traditionally believed to provide stability for the spinal cord against motion within the vertebral column.  Fortunately, from a clinical standpoint, denticulate ligaments do not play a significant role in lumbar spinal stenosis when compared to issues such as disc herniations, facet hypertrophy, shape of spinal canal, size of spinal canal, ligamentum flavum hypertrophy, or degenerative joint disease resulting in bony osteophyte formation. There are schools of thought that the anterior and posterior nerve roots are affected by abnormal tensions in the denticulate ligaments.

text: The

text: pia mater

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: has a pair of denticulate

text: ligament

text: s (one on each side of the spinal cord) with 21 attachments per side which attach it to the

text: arachnoid

text: and dura mater. Named for their tooth-like appearance, the denticulate ligaments are traditionally believed to provide stability for the spinal cord against motion within the

text: vertebral column

text: .  Fortunately, from a clinical standpoint, denticulate ligaments do not play a significant role in

text: lumbar spinal stenosis

text: when compared to issues such as disc herniations, facet hypertrophy, shape of spinal canal, size of spinal canal, ligamentum flavum hypertrophy, or degenerative joint disease resulting in bony osteophyte formation. There are schools of thought that the anterior and posterior nerve roots are affected by abnormal tensions in the denticulate ligaments.

text: The most common side effect of crying is feeling a lump in the throat of the crier, otherwise known as a globus sensation. Although many things can cause a globus sensation, the one experienced in crying is a response to the stress experienced by the sympathetic nervous system. When an animal is threatened by some form of danger, the sympathetic nervous system triggers several processes to allow the animal to fight or flee. This includes shutting down unnecessary body functions, such as digestion, and increasing blood flow and oxygen to necessary muscles. When an individual experiences emotions such as sorrow, the sympathetic nervous system still responds in this way. Another function increased by the sympathetic nervous system is breathing, which includes opening the throat in order to increase air flow. This is done by expanding the glottis, which allows more air to pass through. As an individual is undergoing this sympathetic response, eventually the parasympathetic nervous system attempts to undo the response by decreasing high stress activities and increasing recuperative processes, which includes running digestion. This involves swallowing, a process which requires closing the fully expanded glottis to prevent food from entering the larynx. The glottis, however, attempts to remain open as an individual cries. This fight to close the glottis creates a sensation that feels like a lump in the individual's throat.

text: The most common

text: side effect

text: of crying is feeling a lump in the throat of the crier, otherwise known as a

text: globus sensation

text: . Although many things can cause a globus sensation, the one experienced in crying is a response to the stress experienced by the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: . When an animal is threatened by some form of danger, the sympathetic nervous system triggers several processes to allow the animal to

text: fight or flee

text: . This includes shutting down unnecessary body functions, such as digestion, and increasing blood flow and oxygen to necessary muscles. When an individual experiences emotions such as sorrow, the sympathetic nervous system still responds in this way. Another function increased by the sympathetic nervous system is breathing, which includes opening the throat in order to increase air flow. This is done by expanding the

text: glottis

text: , which allows more air to pass through. As an individual is undergoing this sympathetic response, eventually the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: attempts to undo the response by decreasing high stress activities and increasing recuperative processes, which includes running digestion. This involves swallowing, a process which requires closing the fully expanded glottis to prevent food from entering the

text: larynx

text: . The glottis, however, attempts to remain open as an individual cries. This fight to close the glottis creates a sensation that feels like a lump in the individual's throat.

text: Standard reuptake inhibitors are believed to act simply as competitive substrates that work by binding directly to the plasmalemma transporter of the neurotransmitter in question. They occupy the transporter in place of the respective neurotransmitter and competitively block it from being transported from the nerve terminal or synapse into the pre-synaptic neuron. With high enough doses, occupation becomes as much as 80–90%. At this level of inhibition, the transporter will be considerably less efficient at removing excess neurotransmitter from the synapse and this causes a substantial increase in the extracellular concentrations of the neurotransmitter and therefore an increase in overall neurotransmission.

text: Standard reuptake inhibitors are believed to act simply as

text: competitive

text: substrate

text: s that work by

text: binding

text: directly to the

text: plasmalemma

text: transporter

text: of the

text: neurotransmitter

text: in question. They

text: occupy

text: the

text: transporter

text: in place of the respective

text: neurotransmitter

text: and

text: competitively

text: block

text: it from being

text: transported

text: from the

text: nerve terminal

text: or

text: synapse

text: into the

text: pre-synaptic

text: neuron

text: . With high enough doses,

text: occupation

text: becomes as much as 80–90%. At this level of inhibition, the

text: transporter

text: will be considerably less efficient at removing excess

text: neurotransmitter

text: from the

text: synapse

text: and this causes a substantial increase in the

text: extracellular

text: concentration

text: s of the

text: neurotransmitter

text: and therefore an increase in overall

text: neurotransmission

text: The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex mesh of structural proteins called neurofilaments, which are assembled into larger neurofibrils. Some neurons also contain pigment granules, such as neuromelanin (a brownish-black pigment that is byproduct of synthesis of catecholamines), and lipofuscin (a yellowish-brown pigment), both of which accumulate with age. Other structural proteins that are important for neuronal function are actin and the tubulin of microtubules. Actin is predominately found at the tips of axons and dendrites during neuronal development.

text: The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex mesh of structural proteins called

text: neurofilament

text: s, which are assembled into larger neurofibrils. Some neurons also contain pigment granules, such as

text: neuromelanin

text: (a brownish-black pigment that is byproduct of synthesis of

text: catecholamine

text: s), and

text: lipofuscin

text: (a yellowish-brown pigment), both of which accumulate with age. Other structural proteins that are important for neuronal function are

text: actin

text: and the

text: tubulin

text: of

text: microtubule

text: s. Actin is predominately found at the tips of axons and dendrites during neuronal development.

text: Further studies supported the latter notion. The mutations have been shown in vitro to facilitate substrate promiscuity of SPT. Mutant SPT mediates the condensation not only of its normal substrate serine, but also of alanine or glycine, with palmitoyl-coenzyme A. The reactions lead to the formation of two aberrant sphingolipid metabolites 1-deoxy-sphinganine and 1-deoxymethyl-sphinganine, respectively. As the metabolites lack a hydroxyl group that is required for their further conversion and degradation, they accumulate inside the cell.  The metabolites have been shown to be more toxic to sensory neurons than to motor neurons. They accumulate in the peripheral nervous system where HSAN manifest, but not in the central nervous system in mice bearing a HSAN IA-associated mutation. Furthermore, serine-enriched diet reduced the levels of the metabolites and improved sensory and motor performance of the mice. A small-scale clinical trial also showed similar results. These studies demonstrated that an altered substrate selectivity of the mutant SPT is the key to the pathophysiology of HSAN IA.

text: Further studies supported the latter notion. The mutations have been shown in vitro to facilitate substrate promiscuity of SPT. Mutant SPT mediates the condensation not only of its normal substrate

text: serine

text: , but also of

text: alanine

text: or

text: glycine

text: , with

text: palmitoyl-coenzyme A

text: . The reactions lead to the formation of two aberrant sphingolipid

text: metabolite

text: s 1-deoxy-sphinganine and 1-deoxymethyl-sphinganine, respectively. As the metabolites lack a

text: hydroxyl group

text: that is required for their further conversion and degradation, they accumulate inside the cell.  The metabolites have been shown to be more toxic to sensory neurons than to motor neurons. They accumulate in the peripheral nervous system where HSAN manifest, but not in the

text: central nervous system

text: in mice bearing a HSAN IA-associated mutation. Furthermore, serine-enriched diet reduced the levels of the metabolites and improved sensory and motor performance of the mice. A small-scale

text: clinical trial

text: also showed similar results. These studies demonstrated that an altered substrate selectivity of the mutant SPT is the key to the

text: pathophysiology

text: of HSAN IA.

text: The emergence of nervous systems has been linked to the evolution of voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels. The Nav channels allow for communication between cells over long distances through the propagation of action potentials, whereas voltage-gated (Cav) calcium channels allow for unmodulated intercellular signaling. It has been hypothesized that Nav channels differentiated from Cav channels either at the emergence of nervous systems or before the emergence of multicellular organisms, although the origin of Nav channels in history remains unknown. Porifera either came about as a result of the divergence with Cnidaria and Ctenophora or they  lost the function of the gene encoding Nav channels. As a result, Porifera contain Cav channels which allows for intercellular signaling, but they lack Nav channels which provide for the conductance of action potentials in nerve nets.

text: The emergence of nervous systems has been linked to the evolution of

text: voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels

text: . The Nav channels allow for communication between cells over long distances through the propagation of action potentials, whereas

text: voltage-gated (Cav) calcium channels

text: allow for unmodulated intercellular signaling. It has been hypothesized that Nav channels differentiated from Cav channels either at the emergence of nervous systems or before the emergence of multicellular organisms, although the origin of Nav channels in history remains unknown. Porifera either came about as a result of the divergence with Cnidaria and Ctenophora or they  lost the function of the gene encoding Nav channels. As a result, Porifera contain Cav channels which allows for intercellular signaling, but they lack Nav channels which provide for the conductance of action potentials in nerve nets.

text: Neurons may be packed to form structures such as the brain of vertebrates or the neural ganglions of insects.

text: Neurons may be packed to form structures such as the

text: brain

text: of

text: vertebrate

text: s or the

text: neural ganglions

text: of

text: insect

text: s.

text: Between 1956 and 1957, a decision was made to convert all rifle and mechanized divisions into motor rifle divisions and a requirement for a new transport vehicle was drawn up.

text: Neurons lack molecules necessary to present viral peptides on the surface to killer cells, which means they provide a safe house for viruses to replicate. Once viruses get in neurons they can persist for the hosts lifetime and can influence the factors that disturb the function of neurons and the homeostasis of the nervous system, leading to nervous system diseases.

text: Prior to movement, an animal's current sensory state is used to generate a motor command. To generate a motor command, first, the current sensory state is compared to the desired or target state. Then, the nervous system transforms the sensory coordinates into the motor system's coordinates, and the motor system generates the necessary commands to move the muscles so that the target state is reached.

text: The sensory ganglia are directly correspondent to dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves and are known as cranial sensory ganglia. Sensory ganglia exist for nerves with sensory function: V, VII, VIII, IX, X. There are also parasympathetic ganglia, which are part of the autonomic nervous system for cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X.

text: The sensory ganglia are directly correspondent to

text: dorsal root ganglia

text: of spinal nerves and are known as

text: cranial sensory ganglia

text: . Sensory ganglia exist for nerves with sensory function: V, VII, VIII, IX, X. There are also

text: parasympathetic

text: ganglia, which are part of the autonomic nervous system for cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X.

text: The vagus nerve ( ), historically cited as the pneumogastric nerve, is the tenth cranial nerve or CN X, and interfaces with parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs and digestive tract. The vagus nerves are paired; however, they are normally referred to in the singular. It is the longest nerve of the autonomic nervous system in the human body.

text: The vagus nerve ( ),

text: historically

text: cited as the pneumogastric nerve, is the tenth

text: cranial nerve

text: or CN X, and interfaces with

text: parasympathetic

text: control of the

text: heart

text: , lungs and

text: digestive tract

text: . The vagus nerves are paired; however, they are normally referred to in the singular. It is the longest nerve of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: in the

text: human body

text: The normal function of the sympathoadrenal system is to help the body regulate responses to environmental stimuli. These stimuli travel through the sympathetic nervous system by means of preganglionic nerve fibers that emerge from the thoracic spinal chord. Since both the sympathetic nerve fibers and adrenal medulla are part of the central nervous system (CNS), electrical impulses carried by the nervous system are converted to a chemical response in the adrenal gland. Chromaffin cells contained in the adrenal medulla act as postganglionic nerve fibers that release this chemical response into the blood as circulating messenger. The sympathoadrenal system can activate and discharge chemical messengers as a single unit to activate an organism’s “fight or flight” response. This “sympathoadrenal discharge” causes an increase in heart rate, cardiac output, blood pressure, and glucose levels. These sympathoadrenal functions show the combined responses of the central nervous system on a multitude of external stimuli.

text: The normal function of the sympathoadrenal system is to help the body regulate responses to environmental stimuli. These stimuli travel through the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: by means of

text: preganglionic nerve fibers

text: that emerge from the

text: thoracic spinal chord

text: . Since both the sympathetic nerve fibers and adrenal medulla are part of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), electrical impulses carried by the nervous system are converted to a chemical response in the adrenal gland.

text: Chromaffin cell

text: s contained in the adrenal medulla act as

text: postganglionic nerve fibers

text: that release this chemical response into the blood as circulating messenger. The sympathoadrenal system can activate and discharge chemical messengers as a single unit to activate an organism’s “fight or flight” response. This “sympathoadrenal discharge” causes an increase in heart rate, cardiac output, blood pressure, and glucose levels. These sympathoadrenal functions show the combined responses of the central nervous system on a multitude of external stimuli.

text: Synapses are essential to neuronal function: neurons are cells that are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so.  At a synapse, the plasma membrane of the signal-passing neuron (the presynaptic neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of the target (postsynaptic) cell.  Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of molecular machinery that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process.  In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an axon and the postsynaptic part is located on a dendrite or soma. Astrocytes also exchange information with the synaptic neurons, responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating neurotransmission.

text: Synapses are essential to neuronal function: neurons are cells that are specialized to pass signals to individual target cells, and synapses are the means by which they do so.  At a synapse, the

text: plasma membrane

text: of the signal-passing neuron (the presynaptic neuron) comes into close apposition with the membrane of the target (postsynaptic) cell.  Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic sites contain extensive arrays of

text: molecular machinery

text: that link the two membranes together and carry out the signaling process.  In many synapses, the presynaptic part is located on an

text: axon

text: and the postsynaptic part is located on a

text: dendrite

text: or

text: soma

text: Astrocyte

text: s also exchange information with the synaptic neurons, responding to synaptic activity and, in turn, regulating

text: neurotransmission

text: There are two antidotes that are frequently used in the hospital setting and these are Naloxone and Flumazenil. Naloxone is an opioid antagonist and reverses the central nervous depressive effects seen in opioid overdose. In the setting of a colonoscopy, Naloxone is rarely administered but when it is administered, its half life is shorter than some common opioid agonists. Therefore, the patient may still exhibit central nervous system depression after Naloxone has been cleared. Typically, Naloxone is administered in short intervals with relatively small doses in order to prevent the occurrence of withdrawal, pain, and sympathetic nervous system activation. Flumazenil is a benzodiazepine antagonists and blocks the binding of benzodiazepines to GABAa. Similarly to Naloxone, Flumazenil has a short half life, and this needs to be taken into account because the patient may exhibit central nervous depression after the antidote has been cleared. Benzodiazepines are used in the treatment of seizures and subsequently, the administration of Flumazenil may result in seizures. Therefore, slow administration of Flumazenil is necessary to prevent the occurrence of a seizure. These agents are rarely used in the setting of a colonoscopy as 98.8% of colonoscopies use sedatives but only 0.8% of them result in the administration of one of these antidotes. Even if they are rarely used in colonoscopies they are important in preventing the patient from entering a coma or developing respiratory depression when sedatives are not properly dosed. Outside of the colonoscopy setting, these agents are used for other procedures and in the case of drug overdose.

text: The anterograde and retrograde tracing techniques allow the detailed assessment of neuronal connections from a single population of neurons to their various targets throughout the nervous system. These techniques allow the "mapping" of connections between neurons in a particular structure (e.g. the eye) and the target neurons in the brain. Much of what is currently known about connectional neuroanatomy was discovered through the use of the anterograde and retrograde tracing techniques.

text: The anterograde and retrograde tracing techniques allow the detailed assessment of neuronal connections from a single population of neurons to their various targets throughout the

text: nervous system

text: . These techniques allow the "mapping" of connections between neurons in a particular structure (e.g. the

text: eye

text: ) and the target neurons in the

text: brain

text: . Much of what is currently known about connectional

text: neuroanatomy

text: was discovered through the use of the anterograde and retrograde tracing techniques.

text: Na1.7 is a sodium ion channel that in humans is encoded by the SCN9A gene. It is usually expressed at high levels in two types of neurons, the nociceptive (pain) neurons at dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and trigeminal ganglion, and sympathetic ganglion neurons, which are part of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system.

text: Na1.7 is a

text: sodium ion channel

text: that in humans is encoded by the SCN9A gene. It is usually expressed at high levels in two types of

text: neuron

text: s, the nociceptive (pain) neurons at

text: dorsal root ganglion

text: (DRG) and

text: trigeminal ganglion

text: , and

text: sympathetic ganglion

text: neurons, which are part of the

text: autonomic

text: (involuntary) nervous system.

text: The only scientifically proven and biologically possible way to guarantee instant incapacitation is through destruction of the central nervous system or brain. This will usually cease all motor-related and voluntary actions. If the central nervous system is not damaged or destroyed, there will be no immediate incapacitation. To allow room for error, since a central nervous system hit is very unlikely, most people use expanding ammunition. This will increase the odds of striking a part of the central nervous system, and cause faster blood loss.

text: The only scientifically proven and biologically possible way to guarantee instant incapacitation is through destruction of the

text: central nervous system

text: or

text: brain

text: . This will usually cease all motor-related and voluntary actions. If the central nervous system is not damaged or destroyed, there will be no immediate incapacitation. To allow room for error, since a central nervous system hit is very unlikely, most people use expanding ammunition. This will increase the odds of striking a part of the central nervous system, and cause faster blood loss.

text: Learning about PCD in various species is essential in understanding the evolutionary basis and reason for apoptosis in development of the nervous system. During the development of the invertebrate nervous system, PCD plays different roles in different species. The similarity of the asymmetric cell death mechanism in the nematode and the leech indicates that PCD may have an evolutionary significance in the development of the nervous system. In the nematode, PCD occurs in the first hour of development leading to the elimination of 12% of non-gonadal cells including neuronal lineages. Cell death in arthropods occurs first in the nervous system when ectoderm cells differentiate and one daughter cell becomes a neuroblast and the other undergoes apoptosis. Furthermore, sex targeted cell death leads to different neuronal innervation of specific organs in males and females. In Drosophila, PCD is essential in segmentation and specification during development.

text: Learning about PCD in various species is essential in understanding the evolutionary basis and reason for apoptosis in development of the nervous system. During the development of the

text: invertebrate

text: nervous system, PCD plays different roles in different species. The similarity of the asymmetric cell death mechanism in the

text: nematode

text: and the

text: leech

text: indicates that PCD may have an evolutionary significance in the development of the nervous system. In the nematode, PCD occurs in the first hour of development leading to the elimination of 12% of non-gonadal cells including neuronal lineages. Cell death in

text: arthropods

text: occurs first in the nervous system when

text: ectoderm

text: cells differentiate and one daughter cell becomes a

text: neuroblast

text: and the other undergoes apoptosis. Furthermore, sex targeted cell death leads to different neuronal innervation of specific organs in males and females. In

text: Drosophila

text: , PCD is essential in segmentation and specification during development.

text: SCI can also be of a nontraumatic origin. Nontraumatic lesions cause anywhere from 30 to 80% of all SCI; the percentage varies by locale, influenced by efforts to prevent trauma. Developed countries have higher percentages of SCI due to degenerative conditions and tumors than developing countries.  In developed countries, the most common cause of nontraumatic SCI is degenerative diseases, followed by tumors; in many developing countries the leading cause is infection such as HIV and tuberculosis. SCI may occur in intervertebral disc disease, and spinal cord vascular disease. Spontaneous bleeding can occur within or outside of the protective membranes that line the cord, and intervertebral disks can herniate. Damage can result from dysfunction of the blood vessels, as in arteriovenous malformation, or when a blood clot becomes lodged in a blood vessel and cuts off blood supply to the cord. When systemic blood pressure drops, blood flow to the spinal cord may be reduced, potentially causing a loss of sensation and voluntary movement in the areas supplied by the affected level of the spinal cord. Congenital conditions and tumors that compress the cord can also cause SCI, as can vertebral spondylosis and ischemia. Multiple sclerosis is a disease that can damage the spinal cord, as can infectious or inflammatory conditions such as tuberculosis, herpes zoster or herpes simplex, meningitis, myelitis, and syphilis.

text: SCI can also be of a nontraumatic origin. Nontraumatic lesions cause anywhere from 30 to 80% of all SCI; the percentage varies by locale, influenced by efforts to prevent trauma. Developed countries have higher percentages of SCI due to degenerative conditions and tumors than developing countries.  In developed countries, the most common cause of nontraumatic SCI is degenerative diseases, followed by tumors; in many developing countries the leading cause is infection such as

text: HIV

text: and tuberculosis. SCI may occur in intervertebral disc disease, and spinal cord vascular disease. Spontaneous bleeding can occur within or outside of the protective membranes that line the cord, and

text: intervertebral disk

text: s can herniate. Damage can result from dysfunction of the blood vessels, as in

text: arteriovenous malformation

text: , or when a blood clot becomes lodged in a blood vessel and cuts off blood supply to the cord. When systemic blood pressure drops, blood flow to the spinal cord may be reduced, potentially causing a loss of sensation and voluntary movement in the areas supplied by the affected level of the spinal cord. Congenital conditions and

text: tumor

text: s that compress the cord can also cause SCI, as can vertebral

text: spondylosis

text: and

text: ischemia

text: Multiple sclerosis

text: is a disease that can damage the spinal cord, as can infectious or inflammatory conditions such as

text: tuberculosis

text: herpes zoster

text: or

text: herpes simplex

text: meningitis

text: myelitis

text: , and

text: syphilis

text: Proprioceptors are receptors located in your muscles, tendons, joints and the inner ear, which send signals to the brain regarding the body's position. An example of a "popular" proprioceptor often mentioned by aircraft pilots, is the "seat of the pants". In other words, these sensors present a picture to your brain as to where you are in space as external forces act on your body. Proprioceptors respond to stimuli generated by muscle movement and muscle tension. Signals generated by exteroceptors and proprioceptors are carried by sensory neurons or nerves and are called electrochemical signals. When a neuron receives such a signal, it sends it on to an adjacent neuron through a bridge called a synapse. A synapse "sparks" the impulse between neurons through electrical and chemical means. These sensory signals are processed by the brain and spinal cord, which then respond with motor signals that travel along motor nerves. Motor neurons, with their special fibres, carry these signals to muscles, which are instructed to either contract or relax.

text: Although it is recognized that the sympathetic nervous system plays an expendable role in vasodilation, it is only one of the mechanisms by which vasodilation can be accomplished.  The spinal cord has both vasodilation and vasoconstriction nerves.  The neurons that control vascular vasodilation originate in the hypothalamus. Some sympathetic stimulation of arterioles in skeletal muscle is mediated by epinephrine acting on β-adrenergic receptors of arteriolar smooth muscle, which would be mediated by cAMP pathways, as discussed above.  However, it has been shown that knocking out this sympathetic stimulation plays little or no role in whether skeletal muscle is able to receive sufficient oxygen even at high levels of exertion, so it is believed that this particular method of vasodilation is of little importance to human physiology.

text: Although it is recognized that the sympathetic nervous system plays an expendable role in vasodilation, it is only one of the mechanisms by which vasodilation can be accomplished.  The spinal cord has both vasodilation and

text: vasoconstriction

text: nerves.  The neurons that control vascular vasodilation originate in the hypothalamus. Some sympathetic stimulation of arterioles in skeletal muscle is mediated by epinephrine acting on β-adrenergic receptors of arteriolar smooth muscle, which would be mediated by cAMP pathways, as discussed above.  However, it has been shown that knocking out this sympathetic stimulation plays little or no role in whether skeletal muscle is able to receive sufficient oxygen even at high levels of exertion, so it is believed that this particular method of vasodilation is of little importance to human physiology.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the nervous system that consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord.  The main function of the PNS is to connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the limbs and organs, essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the bone of spine and skull, or by the blood–brain barrier, which leaves it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is mainly divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.  In the somatic nervous system, the cranial nerves are part of the PNS with the exception of cranial nerve II, the optic nerve, along with the retina. The second cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract of the diencephalon. Cranial nerve ganglia originate in the CNS. However, the remaining ten cranial nerve axons extend beyond the brain and are therefore considered part of the PNS. The Autonomic nervous system is an involuntary control of smooth muscle. The connection between CNS and organs allows the system to be in two different functional states: sympathetic and parasympathetic.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the part of the

text: nervous system

text: that consists of the nerves and

text: ganglia

text: outside of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: .  The main function of the PNS is to connect the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) to the limbs and organs, essentially serving as a communication relay going back and forth between the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the

text: bone

text: of spine and skull, or by the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: , which leaves it exposed to

text: toxin

text: s and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is mainly divided into the

text: somatic nervous system

text: and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: .  In the somatic nervous system, the

text: cranial nerve

text: s are part of the PNS with the exception of cranial nerve II, the optic nerve, along with the retina. The second cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract of the diencephalon. Cranial nerve ganglia originate in the CNS. However, the remaining ten cranial nerve

text: axons

text: extend beyond the brain and are therefore considered part of the PNS. The Autonomic nervous system is an involuntary control of smooth muscle. The connection between CNS and organs allows the system to be in two different functional states:

text: sympathetic

text: and

text: parasympathetic

text: When myelomalacia occurs, the damage done to the spinal cord may range from minimal to extensive. The spinal cord and the brain work together, making them the key components of the central nervous system. Damage to this system affects specific functions of the body, primarily relating to the function of muscles. The areas most commonly injured include the cervical vertebrae (C1-C7), and the lumbar spine (L1-L5).

text: When myelomalacia occurs, the damage done to the spinal cord may range from minimal to extensive. The spinal cord and the brain work together, making them the key components of the central nervous system. Damage to this system affects specific functions of the body, primarily relating to the function of muscles. The areas most commonly injured include the

text: cervical vertebrae

text: (C1-C7), and the

text: lumbar spine

text: The neuropeptide FF receptors are members of the G-protein coupled receptor superfamily of integral membrane proteins which bind the pain modulatory neuropeptides AF and FF. The Neuropeptide FF receptor family is a member of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily containing two subtypes, NPFF1 and NPFF2, which exhibit a high affinity for Neuropeptide FF (NPFF) peptides. NPFF1 is broadly distributed in the central nervous system with the highest levels found in the limbic system and the hypothalamus. NPFF2 is present in high density, particularly in mammals in the superficial layers of the spinal cord where it is involved in nociception and modulation of opioid functions These receptors participate to the modulation of opioid receptor function in the brain and spinal cord, and can either reduce or increase opioid receptor function depending which tissue they are released in, reflecting a complex role for neuropeptide FF in pain responses.

text: The neuropeptide FF receptors are members of the

text: G-protein coupled receptor

text: superfamily of integral membrane proteins which bind the pain modulatory

text: neuropeptide

text: s AF and FF. The Neuropeptide FF receptor family is a member of the G protein-coupled receptor superfamily containing two subtypes, NPFF1 and NPFF2, which exhibit a high affinity for Neuropeptide FF (NPFF) peptides. NPFF1 is broadly distributed in the central nervous system with the highest levels found in the limbic system and the hypothalamus. NPFF2 is present in high density, particularly in mammals in the superficial layers of the spinal cord where it is involved in nociception and modulation of opioid functions These receptors participate to the modulation of

text: opioid receptor

text: function in the brain and spinal cord, and can either reduce or increase opioid receptor function depending which tissue they are released in, reflecting a complex role for neuropeptide FF in pain responses.

text: During embryonic neurodevelopment, synapse elimination and axonal pruning are critical to ensure normal functioning of the central and peripheral nervous system. Studies have suggested that Sema3A/Neuropilin 2 (Npn2) interactions mediate synapse elimination and axonal pruning, as demonstrated by Sema3A/Npn2 loss-of-function studies in mice. The attractive cues mediated by Semaphorins are not well understood at the moment; however, protein kinase focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and MAP Kinase (MAPK) have been implicated in mediating downstream attractive signaling upon Semaphorin receptor stimulation.

text: During embryonic neurodevelopment, synapse elimination and axonal pruning are critical to ensure normal functioning of the central and peripheral nervous system. Studies have suggested that Sema3A/Neuropilin 2 (Npn2) interactions mediate synapse elimination and axonal pruning, as demonstrated by Sema3A/Npn2 loss-of-function studies in mice. The attractive cues mediated by Semaphorins are not well understood at the moment; however, protein kinase

text: focal adhesion kinase

text: (FAK) and

text: MAP Kinase

text: (MAPK) have been implicated in mediating downstream attractive signaling upon Semaphorin receptor stimulation.

text: In order of degree of severity, injury to a nerve can be described as neurapraxia, axonotmesis, or neurotmesis.Concussion is considered a mild form of diffuse axonal injury. The dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited neurological disorders that affect both peripheral and central neurons.

text: In order of degree of severity, injury to a nerve can be described as

text: neurapraxia

text: axonotmesis

text: , or

text: neurotmesis

text: Concussion

text: is considered a mild form of

text: diffuse axonal injury

text: . The dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited neurological disorders that affect both peripheral and central neurons.

text: Since deltamethrin is a neurotoxin, it temporarily attacks the nervous system of any animal with which it comes into contact. Skin contact can lead to tingling or reddening of the skin local to the application. If taken in through the eyes or mouth, a common symptom is facial paraesthesia, which can feel like many different abnormal sensations, including burning, partial numbness, "pins and needles", skin crawling, etc. There are no reports indicating that chronic intoxication from pyrethroid insecticides causes motor neuron damage or motor neuron disease.

text: Since deltamethrin is a

text: neurotoxin

text: , it temporarily attacks the nervous system of any animal with which it comes into contact. Skin contact can lead to tingling or reddening of the skin local to the application. If taken in through the eyes or mouth, a common symptom is facial

text: paraesthesia

text: , which can feel like many different abnormal sensations, including burning, partial numbness, "pins and needles", skin crawling, etc. There are no reports indicating that chronic intoxication from pyrethroid insecticides causes motor neuron damage or

text: motor neuron disease

text: Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. The sympathetic system is often considered the "fight or flight" system, while the parasympathetic system is often considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system.

text: Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. But this opposition is better termed complementary in nature rather than antagonistic. For an analogy, one may think of the sympathetic division as the accelerator and the parasympathetic division as the brake. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. The sympathetic system is often considered the "

text: fight or flight

text: " system, while the parasympathetic system is often considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system.

text: The anterior end of the hemisphere is named the frontal pole. (See also frontal lobe.)

text: The anterior end of the hemisphere is named the frontal pole. (See also

text: frontal lobe

text: In the peripheral nervous system, an efferent nerve fiber is the nerve fiber (axon) of an efferent neuron (motor neuron). It is a long process (projection) extending far from the neuron's body that carries nerve impulses away from the central nervous system toward the peripheral effector organs (mainly muscles and glands). The opposite direction of neural activity is afferent conduction.

text: In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , an efferent nerve fiber is the nerve fiber (

text: axon

text: ) of an efferent neuron (

text: motor neuron

text: ). It is a long process (projection) extending far from the

text: neuron's body

text: that carries

text: nerve impulses

text: away from the

text: central nervous system

text: toward the peripheral effector organs (mainly

text: muscle

text: s and

text: gland

text: s). The opposite direction of neural activity is

text: afferent

text: conduction.

text: CGRP is produced in both peripheral and central neurons. It is a potent peptide vasodilator and can function in the transmission of pain. In the spinal cord, the function and expression of CGRP may differ depending on the location of synthesis. CGRP is derived mainly from the cell bodies of motor neurons when synthesized in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and may contribute to the regeneration of nervous tissue after injury. Conversely, CGRP is derived from dorsal root ganglion when synthesized in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and may be linked to the transmission of pain. In the trigeminal vascular system, the cell bodies on the trigeminal ganglion are the main source of CGRP. CGRP is thought to play a role in cardiovascular homeostasis and nociception.

text: CGRP is produced in both peripheral and central

text: neurons

text: . It is a potent peptide

text: vasodilator

text: and can function in the transmission of pain. In the spinal cord, the function and expression of CGRP may differ depending on the location of synthesis. CGRP is derived mainly from the cell bodies of motor neurons when synthesized in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and may contribute to the regeneration of nervous tissue after injury. Conversely, CGRP is derived from dorsal root ganglion when synthesized in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and may be linked to the transmission of pain. In the trigeminal vascular system, the cell bodies on the

text: trigeminal ganglion

text: are the main source of CGRP. CGRP is thought to play a role in cardiovascular homeostasis and

text: nociception

text: In the presence of mechanical stimulation, erection is initiated by the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) with minimal input from the central nervous system. Parasympathetic branches extend from the sacral plexus into the arteries supplying the erectile tissue; upon stimulation, these nerve branches release acetylcholine, which, in turn causes release of nitric oxide from endothelial cells in the trabecular arteries. Nitric oxide diffuses to the smooth muscle of the arteries (called trabecular smooth muscle), acting as a vasodilating agent.       The arteries dilate, filling the corpora spongiosum and cavernosa with blood.  The ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles also compress the veins of the corpora cavernosa, limiting the venous drainage of blood. Erection subsides when parasympathetic stimulation is discontinued; baseline stimulation from the sympathetic division of the ANS causes constriction of the penile arteries, forcing blood out of the erectile tissue.

text: In the presence of mechanical stimulation, erection is initiated by the

text: parasympathetic

text: division of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (ANS) with minimal input from the

text: central nervous system

text: . Parasympathetic branches extend from the

text: sacral plexus

text: into the

text: arteries

text: supplying the erectile tissue; upon stimulation, these nerve branches release

text: acetylcholine

text: , which, in turn causes release of

text: nitric oxide

text: from

text: endothelial cell

text: s in the

entity_name: Trabeculae of corpora cavernosa of penis

text: trabecular

text: arteries. Nitric oxide diffuses to the

text: smooth muscle

text: of the arteries (called trabecular smooth muscle), acting as a

text: vasodilating

text: agent.       The arteries dilate, filling the corpora spongiosum and cavernosa with blood.  The

text: ischiocavernosus

text: and

text: bulbospongiosus

text: muscles also compress the veins of the corpora cavernosa, limiting the venous drainage of blood. Erection subsides when parasympathetic stimulation is discontinued; baseline stimulation from the

text: sympathetic division

text: of the ANS causes constriction of the penile arteries, forcing blood out of the erectile tissue.

text: A biological neuron model, also known as a spiking neuron model, is a mathematical description of the properties of certain cells in the nervous system that generate sharp electrical potentials across their cell membrane, roughly one millisecond in duration, as shown in Fig. 1.   Spiking neurons are known to be a major signaling unit of the nervous system, and for this reason characterizing their operation is of great importance. It is worth noting that not all the cells of the nervous system produce the type of spike that define the scope of the spiking neuron models. For example, cochlear hair cells, retinal receptor cells, and retinal bipolar cells do not spike. Furthermore, many cells in the nervous system are not classified as neurons but instead are classified as glia.

text: A biological neuron model, also known as a spiking neuron model, is a mathematical description of the properties of certain cells in the nervous system that generate sharp electrical potentials

text: across their cell membrane

text: , roughly one millisecond in duration, as shown in Fig. 1.   Spiking neurons are known to be a major signaling unit of the

text: nervous system

text: , and for this reason characterizing their operation is of great importance. It is worth noting that not all the cells of the nervous system produce the type of spike that define the scope of the spiking neuron models. For example, cochlear hair cells, retinal receptor cells, and

text: retinal bipolar cell

text: s do not spike. Furthermore, many cells in the nervous system are not classified as neurons but instead are classified as

text: glia

text: A neuron is called identified if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has one and only one neuron with the same set of properties.  In vertebrate nervous systems very few neurons are "identified" in this sense—in humans, there are believed to be none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique.

text: Fish brains are divided into several regions. At the front are the olfactory lobes, a pair of structures that receive and process signals from the nostrils via the two olfactory nerves. The olfactory lobes are very large in fish that hunt primarily by smell, such as hagfish, sharks, and catfish. Behind the olfactory lobes is the two-lobed telencephalon, the structural equivalent to the cerebrum in higher vertebrates. In fish the telencephalon is concerned mostly with olfaction. Together these structures form the forebrain.

text: Fish brains are divided into several regions. At the front are the

text: olfactory lobes

text: , a pair of structures that receive and process signals from the

text: nostril

text: s via the two

text: olfactory nerve

text: s. The olfactory lobes are very large in fish that hunt primarily by smell, such as hagfish, sharks, and catfish. Behind the olfactory lobes is the two-lobed

text: telencephalon

text: , the structural equivalent to the

text: cerebrum

text: in

text: higher vertebrates

text: . In fish the telencephalon is concerned mostly with

text: olfaction

text: . Together these structures form the forebrain.

text: The autonomic nervous system has two branches: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system is often considered the "fight or flight" system, while the parasympathetic nervous system is often considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system. In many cases, both of these systems have "opposite" actions where one system activates a physiological response and the other inhibits it. An older simplification of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems as "excitory" and "inhibitory" was overturned due to the many exceptions found. A more modern characterization is that the sympathetic nervous system is a "quick response mobilizing system" and the parasympathetic is a "more slowly activated dampening system", but even this has exceptions, such as in sexual arousal and orgasm, wherein both play a role.

text: The autonomic nervous system has two branches: the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: . The sympathetic nervous system is often considered the "

text: fight or flight

text: " system, while the parasympathetic nervous system is often considered the "rest and digest" or "feed and breed" system. In many cases, both of these systems have "opposite" actions where one system activates a physiological response and the other inhibits it. An older simplification of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems as "excitory" and "inhibitory" was overturned due to the many exceptions found. A more modern characterization is that the sympathetic nervous system is a "quick response mobilizing system" and the parasympathetic is a "more slowly activated

text: dampening

text: system", but even this has exceptions, such as in

text: sexual arousal

text: and

text: orgasm

text: , wherein both play a role.

text: Cardiovascular systems are regulated by the autonomic nervous systems, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.  A distinct balance between these two systems is crucial for the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease.  Chronic stress has been widely studied on its effects of the body resulting in an elevated heart rate (HR), reduced HR variability, elevated sympathetic tone, and intensified cardiovascular activity.  Consequently, stress promotes an autonomic imbalance in favor of the sympathetic nervous system.  The activation of the sympathetic nervous system contributes to endothelial dysfunction, hypertension, atherosclerosis, insulin resistance, and increased incidence of arrhythmias.   An imbalance in the autonomic nervous system has been documented in mood disorders; It is commonly regarded as a mediator between mood disorders and cardiovascular disorders.

text: Cardiovascular systems are regulated by the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: s, which includes the sympathetic and

text: parasympathetic nervous systems

text: .  A distinct balance between these two systems is crucial for the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease.

text: Chronic stress

text: has been widely studied on its effects of the body resulting in an elevated heart rate (HR), reduced HR variability, elevated sympathetic tone, and intensified cardiovascular activity.  Consequently, stress promotes an autonomic imbalance in favor of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: .  The activation of the sympathetic nervous system contributes to

text: endothelial

text: dysfunction,

text: hypertension

text: atherosclerosis

text: , insulin resistance, and increased incidence of arrhythmias.   An imbalance in the autonomic nervous system has been documented in mood disorders; It is commonly regarded as a mediator between mood disorders and cardiovascular disorders.

text: Addiction, or what is sometimes referred to as psychological dependence, includes people misusing or craving the drug not to relieve withdrawal symptoms, but to experience its euphoric or intoxicating effects. It is important to distinguish between addiction and drug abuse of benzodiazepines and normal physical dependence on benzodiazepines. The increased GABA inhibition caused by benzodiazepines is counteracted by the body's development of tolerance to the drug's effects; the development of tolerance occurs as a result of neuroadaptations, which result in decreased GABA inhibition and increased excitability of the glutamate system; these adaptations occur as a result of the body trying to overcome the central nervous system depressant effects of the drug to restore homeostasis. When benzodiazepines are stopped, these neuroadaptations are "unmasked" leading to hyper-excitability of the nervous system and the appearance of withdrawal symptoms.

text: Addiction, or what is sometimes referred to as psychological dependence, includes people misusing or craving the drug not to relieve withdrawal symptoms, but to experience its euphoric or intoxicating effects. It is important to distinguish between

text: addiction

text: and

text: drug abuse

text: of benzodiazepines and normal

text: physical dependence

text: on benzodiazepines. The increased

text: GABA inhibition

text: caused by benzodiazepines is counteracted by the body's development of

text: tolerance

text: to the drug's effects; the development of tolerance occurs as a result of neuroadaptations, which result in decreased GABA inhibition and increased excitability of the glutamate system; these adaptations occur as a result of the body trying to overcome the central nervous system depressant effects of the drug to restore

text: homeostasis

text: . When benzodiazepines are stopped, these neuroadaptations are "unmasked" leading to hyper-excitability of the nervous system and the appearance of withdrawal symptoms.

text: A study published in 2016, suggests that all sacral autonomic output may be sympathetic; indicating that the rectum, bladder and reproductive organs may only be innervated by the sympathetic nervous system. This suggestion is based on detailed analysis of 15 phenotypic and ontogenetic factors differentiating sympathetic from parasympathetic neurons in the mouse. Assuming that the reported findings most likely applies to other mammals as well, this novel perspective suggests a simplified, bipartite architecture of the autonomic nervous system, in which the parasympathetic nervous system receives input from cranial nerves exclusively and the sympathetic nervous system from thoracic to sacral spinal nerves.

text: Sympathomimetic drugs (also known as adrenergic drugs and adrenergic amines) are stimulant compounds which mimic the effects of endogenous agonists of the sympathetic nervous system.  The primary endogenous agonists of the sympathetic nervous system are the catecholamines (i.e., epinephrine [adrenaline], norepinephrine [noradrenaline], and dopamine), which function as both neurotransmitters and hormones. Sympathomimetic drugs are used to treat cardiac arrest and low blood pressure, or even delay premature labor, among other things.

text: Sympathomimetic drugs (also known as adrenergic drugs and adrenergic amines) are stimulant compounds which mimic the effects of

text: endogenous

text: agonists of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: .  The primary endogenous agonists of the sympathetic nervous system are the

text: catecholamines

text: (i.e.,

text: epinephrine

text: [adrenaline],

text: norepinephrine

text: [noradrenaline], and

text: dopamine

text: ), which function as both

text: neurotransmitter

text: s and

text: hormone

text: s. Sympathomimetic drugs are used to treat

text: cardiac arrest

text: and low

text: blood pressure

text: , or even delay

text: premature labor

text: , among other things.

text: Although the brain and spinal cord are surrounded by tough membranes, enclosed in the bones of the skull and spinal vertebrae, and chemically isolated by the so-called blood–brain barrier, they are very susceptible if compromised. Nerves tend to lie deep under the skin but can still become exposed to damage. Individual neurons, and the neural networks and nerves into which they form, are susceptible to electrochemical and structural disruption. Neuroregeneration may occur in the peripheral nervous system and thus overcome or work around injuries to some extent, it is thought to be rare in the brain and spinal cord.

text: Although the brain and spinal cord are surrounded by tough

text: membranes

text: , enclosed in the bones of the

text: skull

text: and spinal

text: vertebrae

text: , and chemically isolated by the so-called

text: blood–brain barrier

text: , they are very susceptible if compromised.

text: Nerve

text: s tend to lie deep under the skin but can still become exposed to damage. Individual

text: neurons

text: , and the

text: neural networks

text: and nerves into which they form, are susceptible to electrochemical and structural disruption.

text: Neuroregeneration

text: may occur in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and thus overcome or work around injuries to some extent, it is thought to be rare in the brain and spinal cord.

text: Glial cells are necessary for supporting the growth and maintenance of neurons in the peripheral and central nervous system. Most glial cells are specific to either the peripheral or central nervous system. Schwann cells are located in the peripheral nervous system where they myelinate the axons of neurons. Astrocytes are specific to the central nervous system; they provide nutrients, physical support, and insulation for neurons. They also form the blood brain barrier. Olfactory ensheathing cells, however, cross the CNS-PNS boundary, because they guide olfactory receptor neurons from the PNS to the CNS.

text: Glial cells

text: are necessary for supporting the growth and maintenance of neurons in the peripheral and central nervous system. Most glial cells are specific to either the peripheral or central nervous system. Schwann cells are located in the peripheral nervous system where they myelinate the axons of neurons. Astrocytes are specific to the central nervous system; they provide nutrients, physical support, and insulation for neurons. They also form the blood brain barrier. Olfactory ensheathing cells, however, cross the CNS-PNS boundary, because they guide olfactory receptor neurons from the PNS to the CNS.

text: The central nervous system coordinates all neural and motor functions. In vertebrates, it consists of the brain and spinal cord, but in arthropods it consists of a condensed brain and a chain-like series of interconnected masses of nervous tissue called ganglia that resemble a string of beads. Like modern arthropods, C. kunmingensis had a nerve cord, analogous to a spinal cord in vertebrates, running throughout its body, with each one of the bead-like ganglia controlling a single pair of walking legs. Closer examination of the exceptionally preserved ganglia revealed dozens of spindly fibers, each measuring about five thousandths of a millimeter in length. "These delicate fibers displayed a highly regular distribution pattern, and so we wanted to figure out if they were made of the same material as the ganglia that form the nerve cord," according to Ortega-Hernández. "Using fluorescence microscopy, we confirmed that the fibers were in fact individual nerves, fossilized as carbon films, offering an unprecedented level of detail. These fossils greatly improve our understanding of how the nervous system evolved." For Ortega-Hernández and his colleagues, a key question is what this discovery tells us about the evolution of early animals, since the nervous system contains so much information. Further analysis revealed that some aspects of the nervous system in C. kunmingensis appear to be structured similar to that of modern priapulids (penis worms) and onychophorans (velvet worms), with regularly-spaced nerves coming out from the ventral nerve cord. In contrast, these dozens of nerves have been lost independently in the tardigrades (water bears) and modern arthropods, suggesting that simplification played an important role in the evolution of the nervous system.

text: The

text: central nervous system

text: coordinates all neural and motor functions. In vertebrates, it consists of the brain and spinal cord, but in arthropods it consists of a condensed brain and a chain-like series of interconnected masses of nervous tissue called

text: ganglia

text: that resemble a string of beads. Like modern arthropods, C. kunmingensis had a nerve cord, analogous to a spinal cord in vertebrates, running throughout its body, with each one of the bead-like ganglia controlling a single pair of walking legs. Closer examination of the exceptionally preserved ganglia revealed dozens of spindly fibers, each measuring about five thousandths of a millimeter in length. "These delicate fibers displayed a highly regular distribution pattern, and so we wanted to figure out if they were made of the same material as the ganglia that form the nerve cord," according to Ortega-Hernández. "Using

text: fluorescence microscopy

text: , we confirmed that the fibers were in fact individual nerves, fossilized as

text: carbon film

text: s, offering an unprecedented level of detail. These fossils greatly improve our understanding of how the nervous system evolved." For Ortega-Hernández and his colleagues, a key question is what this discovery tells us about the evolution of early animals, since the nervous system contains so much information. Further analysis revealed that some aspects of the nervous system in C. kunmingensis appear to be structured similar to that of modern

text: priapulid

text: s (penis worms) and

text: onychophoran

text: s (velvet worms), with regularly-spaced nerves coming out from the ventral nerve cord. In contrast, these dozens of nerves have been lost independently in the

text: tardigrade

text: s (water bears) and modern

text: arthropod

text: s, suggesting that simplification played an important role in the evolution of the nervous system.

text: Itch is induced by mechanical, chemical, thermal, or electrical stimuli of sensory receptors in the peripheral nervous system, or by psychological prompts.  The receptors that are responsible for the sensation of itch caused by environmental stimuli are found within the upper layers of the skin. Once stimulated, usually by histamine within the body, a signal is sent though the peripheral nervous system to the brain (thalamus), where the information is processed and the command for the bodily response is issued. Itch can also originate as a result of damage to the nervous system (central or peripheral) or in response to the presence of excess opioids.

text: Itch is induced by mechanical, chemical, thermal, or electrical stimuli of sensory receptors in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , or by psychological prompts.  The receptors that are responsible for the sensation of itch caused by environmental stimuli are found within the

text: upper layers

text: of the skin. Once stimulated, usually by histamine within the body, a signal is sent though the peripheral nervous system to the brain (

text: thalamus

text: ), where the information is processed and the command for the bodily response is issued. Itch can also originate as a result of damage to the nervous system (central or peripheral) or in response to the presence of excess

text: opioid

text: s.

text: The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter than the length of the bony spinal column. The human spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum and continues through to the conus medullaris near the second lumbar vertebra, terminating in a fibrous extension known as the filum terminale.

text: When the injury involves the spinal cord, the flow of messages between the brain and the rest of the body is interrupted or broken. The interruption results in a decrease or loss in motor function, sensation, or both below the level of injury and will also affect the bowel, bladder, and sexual function.

text: When the injury involves the

text: spinal cord

text: , the flow of messages between the

text: brain

text: and the rest of the body is interrupted or broken. The interruption results in a decrease or loss in motor function,

text: sensation

text: , or both below the level of injury and will also affect the

text: bowel

text: bladder

text: , and

text: sexual function

text: Paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity (PSH) is a syndrome that causes episodes of increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system can manifest as increased heart rate, increased respiration, increased blood pressure, diaphoresis, and hyperthermia.Previously, this syndrome has been identified as general dysautonomia but now is considered a specific form of it. It has also been referred to as paroxysmal sympathetic instability with dystonia, or PAID, and sympathetic storm. Recently, however, studies have adopted the name paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity to ensure specificity. PSH is observed more in younger patients than older ones. It is also seen more commonly in men than women. There is no known reason why this is the case, although it is suspected pathophysiological links may exist. In patients surviving traumatic brain injury, the occurrence of these episodes is one in every three. PSH can also be associated with severe anoxia, subarachnoid and intracerebral hemorrhage, and hydrocephalus.

text: Paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity (PSH) is a syndrome that causes episodes of increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system can manifest as increased heart rate, increased respiration, increased blood pressure,

text: diaphoresis

text: , and

text: hyperthermia

text: .Previously, this syndrome has been identified as general

text: dysautonomia

text: but now is considered a specific form of it. It has also been referred to as paroxysmal sympathetic instability with

text: dystonia

text: , or PAID, and sympathetic storm. Recently, however, studies have adopted the name paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity to ensure specificity. PSH is observed more in younger patients than older ones. It is also seen more commonly in men than women. There is no known reason why this is the case, although it is suspected pathophysiological links may exist. In patients surviving traumatic brain injury, the occurrence of these episodes is one in every three. PSH can also be associated with severe

text: anoxia

text: subarachnoid

text: and

text: intracerebral

text: hemorrhage, and

text: hydrocephalus

text: At the end of the 1920s he moved on to study Biology at Hamburg University.   Next he worked under Jakob von Uexküll at the Hamburg Institute for Environmental Research.  He received his doctorate in 1932 for work on the Siamese fighting fish.  In 1933 he was sent with a travel bursary to the Hungarian Scientific Academy's biological research station at Lake Balaton.   While he was there Germany underwent significant régime change.   Lissmann rejected a government requirement that he should disseminate Nazi propaganda and instead chose to relocate again.   He made his was to India.   Here he obtained a stipendium from the recently established Academic Assistance Council which enabled him to travel to Great Britain and to obtain, in 1934, a post in the Research Department of the Cambridge University Zoological Institute, headed up by James Gray.   The focus of his research during his early Cambridge years was on the interplay between the movements sequencing, the sensory organs and the nervous systems of animals.

text: At the end of the 1920s he moved on to study

text: Biology

text: at

text: Hamburg University

text: .   Next he worked under

text: Jakob von Uexküll

text: at the Hamburg Institute for Environmental Research.  He received his doctorate in 1932 for work on the

text: Siamese fighting fish

text: .  In 1933 he was sent with a travel bursary to the Hungarian Scientific Academy's biological research station at

text: Lake Balaton

text: .   While he was there

text: Germany

text: underwent significant

text: régime change

text: .   Lissmann rejected a government requirement that he should disseminate

text: Nazi

text: propaganda and instead chose to relocate again.   He made his was to

entity_name: Presidencies and provinces of British India

text: India

text: .   Here he obtained a stipendium from the recently established

text: Academic Assistance Council

text: which enabled him to travel to

text: Great Britain

text: and to obtain, in 1934, a post in the Research Department of the Cambridge University Zoological Institute, headed up by

text: James Gray

text: .   The focus of his research during his early Cambridge years was on the interplay between the movements sequencing, the sensory organs and the nervous systems of animals.

text: Metaplasticity is a term originally coined by W.C. Abraham and M.F. Bear to refer to the plasticity of synaptic plasticity. Until that time synaptic plasticity had referred to the plastic nature of individual synapses. However this new form referred to the plasticity of the plasticity itself, thus the term meta-plasticity. The idea is that the synapse's previous history of activity determines its current plasticity. This may play a role in some of the underlying mechanisms thought to be important in memory and learning such as Long-term potentiation (LTP), Long-term Depression (LTD) and so forth. These mechanisms depend on current synaptic "state", as set by ongoing extrinsic influences such as the level of synaptic inhibition, the activity of modulatory afferents such as catecholamines, and the pool of hormones affecting the synapses under study. Recently, it has become clear that the prior history of synaptic activity is an additional variable that influences the synaptic state, and thereby the degree, of LTP or LTD produced by a given experimental protocol. In a sense, then, synaptic plasticity is governed by an activity-dependent plasticity of the synaptic state; such plasticity of synaptic plasticity has been termed metaplasticity. There is little known about metaplasticity, and there is much research currently underway on the subject, despite its difficulty of study, because of its theoretical importance in brain and cognitive science. Most research of this type is done via cultured hippocampus cells or hippocampal slices.

text: Metaplasticity is a term originally coined by W.C. Abraham and M.F. Bear to refer to the

text: plasticity

text: of

text: synaptic plasticity

text: . Until that time synaptic plasticity had referred to the plastic nature of individual

text: synapse

text: s. However this new form referred to the plasticity of the plasticity itself, thus the term meta-plasticity. The idea is that the synapse's previous history of activity determines its current plasticity. This may play a role in some of the underlying mechanisms thought to be important in

text: memory

text: and

text: learning

text: such as

text: Long-term potentiation

text: (LTP),

text: Long-term Depression

text: (LTD) and so forth. These mechanisms depend on current synaptic "state", as set by ongoing extrinsic influences such as the level of

text: synaptic inhibition

text: , the activity of modulatory afferents such as

text: catecholamine

text: s, and the pool of

text: hormone

text: s affecting the synapses under study. Recently, it has become clear that the prior history of synaptic activity is an additional variable that influences the synaptic state, and thereby the degree, of LTP or LTD produced by a given experimental protocol. In a sense, then, synaptic plasticity is governed by an activity-dependent plasticity of the synaptic state; such plasticity of synaptic plasticity has been termed metaplasticity. There is little known about metaplasticity, and there is much research currently underway on the subject, despite its difficulty of study, because of its theoretical importance in brain and cognitive science. Most research of this type is done via

text: cultured

text: hippocampus

text: cells or hippocampal slices.

text: There are upper motor neurons and lower motor neurons, with the cell type described above being a lower motor neuron. Upper motor neurons are cortico-spinal interneurons that arise from the motor cortex and descend to the spinal cord where they activate the lower motor neurons through synapses. The term 'motor neuron' is usually restricted to the efferent neurons that actually innervate muscles (the lower motor neurons).

text: There are

text: upper motor neuron

text: s and

text: lower motor neuron

text: s, with the cell type described above being a lower motor neuron. Upper motor neurons are cortico-spinal interneurons that arise from the motor cortex and descend to the spinal cord where they activate the lower motor neurons through

text: synapse

text: s. The term 'motor neuron' is usually restricted to the efferent neurons that actually innervate muscles (the lower motor neurons).

text: Stress causes alterations of cerebral circulation, increasing blood flow in the supramarginal gyrus and angular gyrus of the parietal lobe, the frontal lobe, and the superior temporal gyrus of the left hemisphere. Also, an increase in cardiac activity and change in the tonus of the heart vessels occurs, which is an elementary indication of stress development. In patients with normal stress, an adaptive fight-or-flight response is usually triggered by sympathetic nervous system activation. Hypokinesia patients experience these typical stress symptoms on a regular basis because of damage to the basal ganglia system. Therefore, when a hypokinesia victim is under stress, he or she does not display a typical fight-or-flight response, placing the patient under greater danger from potentially harmful stimuli.  Low-impact exercise, elimination of drug and alcohol use, and regular meditation can help to restore normal stress responses in hypokinesia patients.

text: Stress causes alterations of

text: cerebral circulation

text: , increasing blood flow in the

text: supramarginal gyrus

text: and

text: angular gyrus

text: of the

text: parietal lobe

text: , the

text: frontal lobe

text: , and the

text: superior temporal gyrus

text: of the left hemisphere. Also, an increase in cardiac activity and change in the tonus of the heart vessels occurs, which is an elementary indication of stress development. In patients with normal stress, an adaptive

text: fight-or-flight response

text: is usually triggered by

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: activation. Hypokinesia patients experience these typical stress symptoms on a regular basis because of damage to the basal ganglia system. Therefore, when a hypokinesia victim is under stress, he or she does not display a typical fight-or-flight response, placing the patient under greater danger from potentially harmful stimuli.  Low-impact exercise, elimination of drug and alcohol use, and regular meditation can help to restore normal stress responses in hypokinesia patients.

text: The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary responses to regulate physiological functions. The brain and spinal cord from central nervous system are connected with organs that have smooth muscle, such as the heart, bladder, and other cardiac, exocrine, and endocrine related organs, by ganglionic neurons. The most notable physiological effects from autonomic activity are pupil constriction and dilation, and salivation of saliva. The autonomic nervous system is always activated, but is either in the sympathetic or parasympathetic state. Depending on the situation, one state can overshadow the other, resulting in a release of different kinds of neurotransmitters. There is a lesser known division of the autonomic nervous system known as the enteric nervous system. Located only around the digestive tract, this system allows for local control without input from the sympathetic or the parasympathetic branches, though it can still receive and respond to signals from the rest of the body. The enteric system is responsible for various functions related to gastrointestinal system.

text: The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: controls involuntary responses to regulate physiological functions. The brain and spinal cord from

text: central nervous system

text: are connected with organs that have smooth muscle, such as the heart, bladder, and other cardiac, exocrine, and endocrine related organs, by ganglionic neurons. The most notable physiological effects from autonomic activity are pupil constriction and dilation, and salivation of saliva. The autonomic nervous system is always activated, but is either in the sympathetic or parasympathetic state. Depending on the situation, one state can overshadow the other, resulting in a release of different kinds of

text: neurotransmitters

text: . There is a lesser known division of the autonomic nervous system known as the

text: enteric nervous system

text: . Located only around the digestive tract, this system allows for local control without input from the sympathetic or the parasympathetic branches, though it can still receive and respond to signals from the rest of the body. The enteric system is responsible for various functions related to gastrointestinal system.

text: A sensory nerve/neuron is a nerve that carries sensory information toward the central nervous system (CNS). It is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of afferent nerve fibers (the axons of sensory neurons) in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). These fibers link sensory receptors on the body surface or in the tissues to relevant processing circuits in the CNS. Sensory nerves are often paired with motor nerves, which are bundles of efferent nerve fibers that travel from the CNS to the PNS. Stimuli cause nerve impulses in the receptors and alter the potentials, which is known as sensory transduction.

text: A sensory nerve/neuron is a

text: nerve

text: that carries

text: sensory

text: information toward the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS). It is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of

text: afferent nerve fiber

text: s (the

text: axon

text: s of

text: sensory neuron

text: s) in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). These fibers link

text: sensory receptor

text: s on the body surface or in the

text: tissues

text: to relevant processing circuits in the CNS. Sensory nerves are often paired with

text: motor nerves

text: , which are bundles of

text: efferent nerve fiber

text: s that travel from the CNS to the PNS. Stimuli cause

text: nerve impulse

text: s in the receptors and alter the potentials, which is known as

text: sensory transduction

text: The peripheral nervous system has centers at which pain stimuli can be regulated. Some areas in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord that are involved in receiving pain stimuli from Aδ and C fibers, called laminae, also receive input from Aβ fibers. The nonnociceptive fibers indirectly inhibit the effects of the pain fibers, 'closing a gate' to the transmission of their stimuli.  In other parts of the laminae, pain fibers also inhibit the effects of nonnociceptive fibers, 'opening the gate'.This presynaptic inhibition of the dorsal nerve endings can occur through specific types of GABA receptors (not through the α1 GABA receptor and not through the activation of glycine receptors which are also absent from these types of terminals). Thus certain GABA receptor subtypes but not glycine receptors can presynaptically regulate nociception and pain transmission.

text: The

text: peripheral nervous system

text: has centers at which pain stimuli can be regulated. Some areas in the

text: dorsal horn

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: that are involved in receiving pain stimuli from Aδ and C fibers, called

text: lamina

text: e, also receive input from Aβ fibers. The nonnociceptive fibers indirectly inhibit the effects of the pain fibers, 'closing a gate' to the transmission of their stimuli.  In other parts of the laminae, pain fibers also inhibit the effects of nonnociceptive fibers, 'opening the gate'.This presynaptic inhibition of the dorsal nerve endings can occur through specific types of

text: GABA receptors

text: (not through the α1

text: GABA receptor

text: and not through the activation of

text: glycine receptor

text: s which are also absent from these types of terminals). Thus certain

text: GABA receptor

text: subtypes but not

text: glycine receptor

text: s can presynaptically regulate

text: nociception

text: and

text: pain

text: transmission.

text: Neurons are cells that are specialized to receive, propagate, and transmit electrochemical impulses. In the human brain alone, there are over eighty billion neurons. Neurons are diverse with respect to morphology and function. Thus, not all neurons correspond to the stereotypical motor neuron with dendrites and myelinated axons that conduct action potentials. Some neurons such as photoreceptor cells, for example, do not have myelinated axons that conduct action potentials. Other unipolar neurons found in invertebrates do not even have distinguishing processes such as dendrites. Moreover, the distinctions based on function between neurons and other cells such as cardiac and muscle cells are not helpful. Thus, the fundamental difference between a neuron and a nonneuronal cell is a matter of degree.

text: Neurons

text: are cells that are specialized to receive, propagate, and transmit electrochemical impulses. In the human brain alone, there are over eighty billion neurons. Neurons are diverse with respect to morphology and function. Thus, not all neurons correspond to the stereotypical motor neuron with

text: dendrites

text: and myelinated axons that conduct action potentials. Some neurons such as

text: photoreceptor cell

text: s, for example, do not have myelinated axons that conduct action potentials. Other unipolar neurons found in invertebrates do not even have distinguishing processes such as dendrites. Moreover, the distinctions based on function between neurons and other cells such as cardiac and muscle cells are not helpful. Thus, the fundamental difference between a neuron and a nonneuronal cell is a matter of degree.

text: Practical applications, once the science has progressed, are countless but one especially remarkable would be neuroprosthetics that integrate seamlessly into the human organisms, by replicating and all layers of sensorial information from and to the surrogate organ. The demands of such a converter would be to preprocess the information and translate it via a synaptic bridge into information that is well adapted to the nervous system of the individual organism.

text: Practical applications, once the science has progressed, are countless but one especially remarkable would be

text: neuroprosthetics

text: that integrate seamlessly into the human organisms, by replicating and all layers of sensorial information from and to the surrogate organ. The demands of such a converter would be to preprocess the information and translate it via a synaptic bridge into information that is well adapted to the nervous system of the individual organism.

text: An increase in blood pressure can be caused by increased cardiac output, increased total peripheral resistance, or both.The baroreceptors in the carotid sinus sense this increase in blood pressure and relay the information to the cardiovascular centres in the medulla oblongata. In order to maintain homeostasis, the cardiovascular centres activate the parasympathetic nervous system. Via the vagus nerve, the parasympathetic nervous system stimulates neurons that release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) at synapses with cardiac muscle cells. Acetylcholine then binds to M muscarinic receptors, causing the decrease in heart rate that is referred to as reflex bradycardia.

text: An increase in blood pressure can be caused by increased cardiac output, increased total peripheral resistance, or both.The

text: baroreceptor

text: s in the

text: carotid sinus

text: sense this increase in blood pressure and relay the information to the

text: cardiovascular centre

text: s in the

text: medulla oblongata

text: . In order to maintain

text: homeostasis

text: , the cardiovascular centres activate the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: . Via the

text: vagus nerve

text: , the parasympathetic nervous system stimulates neurons that release the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: (ACh) at synapses with

text: cardiac muscle cells

text: . Acetylcholine then binds to

text: M muscarinic receptors

text: , causing the decrease in heart rate that is referred to as reflex bradycardia.

text: A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of axons (nerve fibers, the long and slender projections of neurons) in the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses that are transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral organs.

text: A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of

text: axon

text: s (nerve fibers, the long and slender projections of

text: neuron

text: s) in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . A nerve provides a common pathway for the

text: electrochemical

text: nerve impulse

text: s that are transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral organs.

text: For a description of catastrophic injuries that do not apply to the central nervous system, see Major trauma.

text: For a description of catastrophic injuries that do not apply to the central nervous system, see

text: Major trauma

text: Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes damage to nerve roots and fibers that carry messages to and from the brain. Spinal cord injuries can result from physical trauma, tumors, developmental disorders or a number of different diseases. In 1995, Christopher Reeve, known for his role in all three Superman movies, was thrown from his horse and landed headfirst into a fence shattering his first and second vertebrae. Reeve’s cervical spinal injury paralyzed him from the neck down. Reeve sought the aid of Dr. John McDonald, who was working at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri. After extensive activity-based therapies, Reeve was able to wiggle his toes and move a couple of fingers. Christopher Reeve died in 2004, however his achievements shined light on everyone affected by spinal cord injuries. Dr. McDonald left St. Louis and officially opened the International Center for Spinal Cord Injury (ICSCI) at Kennedy Krieger Institute on June 14, 2005. ICSCI is one of the first centers to have a focus specifically on children with chronic spinal cord injuries and paralysis. The center utilizes innovative activity-based therapies such as FES cycling, aquatic therapy, and partial weight supported walking to help patients regain sensation and feeling in their bodies. The center combines clinical research with a focus on restoration and rehabilitation for children and adults with chronic paralysis.

text: Spinal cord injury

text: (SCI) causes damage to nerve roots and fibers that carry messages to and from the brain. Spinal cord injuries can result from physical trauma, tumors, developmental disorders or a number of different diseases. In 1995,

text: Christopher Reeve

text: , known for his role in all three

text: Superman movies

text: , was thrown from his horse and landed headfirst into a fence shattering his first and second vertebrae. Reeve’s cervical spinal injury paralyzed him from the neck down. Reeve sought the aid of Dr. John McDonald, who was working at

text: Washington University

text: in

text: St. Louis, Missouri

text: . After extensive activity-based therapies, Reeve was able to wiggle his toes and move a couple of fingers. Christopher Reeve died in 2004, however his achievements shined light on everyone affected by spinal cord injuries. Dr. McDonald left St. Louis and officially opened the International Center for Spinal Cord Injury (ICSCI) at Kennedy Krieger Institute on June 14, 2005. ICSCI is one of the first centers to have a focus specifically on children with chronic spinal cord injuries and paralysis. The center utilizes innovative activity-based therapies such as

text: FES

text: cycling,

text: aquatic therapy

text: , and partial

text: weight supported walking

text: to help patients regain sensation and feeling in their bodies. The center combines clinical research with a focus on restoration and rehabilitation for children and adults with chronic paralysis.

text: In 1991 the Division was withdrawn back to Gusev in the Kaliningrad Oblast. The Division was reorganised as a cadre strength formation, as part of the third-line reserves of the Russian Ground Forces.  In 2002, it became the 79th Separate Motor Rifle Brigade ().

text: In 1991 the Division was withdrawn back to

text: Gusev

text: in the

text: Kaliningrad Oblast

text: . The Division was reorganised as a

text: cadre

text: strength formation, as part of the third-line reserves of the

text: Russian Ground Forces

text: .  In 2002, it became the 79th Separate Motor Rifle Brigade ().

text: The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) receives its circadian information from the suprachiasmatic nucleus and senses leptin and other feeding cues, but it is also very possible that it contains its own feeding-entrained oscillator (FEO). This still has yet to be proven in vitro. The DMH sends information to the ventrolateral preoptic area, locus coeruleus, and orexin neurons in order to aid in the regulation of wakefulness. The DMH is also involved in the regulation of hypothalamic outflow to the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems. Almost all major nuclei and areas of the hypothalamus feed information to the DMH. The inhibition of neuronal activation using muscimol in the DMH inhibited 85% of heart rate response and 68% of blood pressure response to air stress. This displays that the DMH also plays a role in the increase of heart rate and blood pressure as cardiovascular responses to stress. The DMH is also a part of the pathway corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) takes when it is secreted by the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, and it is involved in the flow from the sympathetic nervous system to the adrenal gland.

text: The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) receives its circadian information from the suprachiasmatic nucleus and senses leptin and other feeding cues, but it is also very possible that it contains its own feeding-entrained oscillator (FEO). This still has yet to be proven in vitro. The DMH sends information to the ventrolateral preoptic area,

text: locus coeruleus

text: , and

text: orexin

text: neurons in order to aid in the regulation of wakefulness. The DMH is also involved in the regulation of hypothalamic outflow to the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems. Almost all major nuclei and areas of the hypothalamus feed information to the DMH. The inhibition of neuronal activation using muscimol in the DMH inhibited 85% of heart rate response and 68% of blood pressure response to air stress. This displays that the DMH also plays a role in the increase of heart rate and blood pressure as cardiovascular responses to stress. The DMH is also a part of the pathway corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) takes when it is secreted by the

text: paraventricular nucleus

text: of the hypothalamus, and it is involved in the flow from the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: to the

text: adrenal gland

text: EPM is treatable, but irreversible damage to the nervous system is possible. It is important to identify the disease as early as possible and begin treatment with antiprotozoal drugs. There are currently three FDA approved treatments available in the US: ReBalance (sulfadiazine and pyrimethamine), Marquis (ponazuril), and Protazil (diclazuril). These drugs minimize the infection but do not kill the parasite. The use of anti-inflammatory agents such as Banamine, corticosteroids, or phenylbutazone are often used to help reduce inflammation and limit further damage to the CNS.  Antioxidants, such as vitamin E may help promote the restoration of nervous tissue. Response to treatment is often variable, and treatment may be expensive. Recently, antiprotozoal treatments that kill the parasite and clear the infection have shown promise.  The inflammatory component is thought responsible for the symptoms of EPM; anti inflammatory drugs that target the IL-6 pathway have been particularly effective at reversing symptoms.

text: EPM is treatable, but irreversible damage to the nervous system is possible. It is important to identify the disease as early as possible and begin treatment with antiprotozoal drugs. There are currently three FDA approved treatments available in the US: ReBalance (

text: sulfadiazine

text: and

text: pyrimethamine

text: ), Marquis (

text: ponazuril

text: ), and Protazil (

text: diclazuril

text: ). These drugs minimize the infection but do not kill the parasite. The use of anti-inflammatory agents such as Banamine, corticosteroids, or phenylbutazone are often used to help reduce inflammation and limit further damage to the CNS.  Antioxidants, such as vitamin E may help promote the restoration of nervous tissue. Response to treatment is often variable, and treatment may be expensive. Recently, antiprotozoal treatments that kill the parasite and clear the infection have shown promise.  The inflammatory component is thought responsible for the symptoms of EPM; anti inflammatory drugs that target the IL-6 pathway have been particularly effective at reversing symptoms.

text: The photoplethysmogram (PPG) measurement made at a peripheral site, such as the finger, ear or forehead represents the volume of blood in the vessel at the site of measurement. The PPG signal consists of pulses that reflect the change in vascular blood volume with each cardiac beat. Beat-to-beat fluctuations, known as photoplethysmogram variability (PPGV) are found in the signal baseline and amplitude which reflects various physiological influences such as respiration and regulation of vascular tone by the sympathetic nervous system.

text: The

text: photoplethysmogram

text: (PPG) measurement made at a peripheral site, such as the finger, ear or forehead represents the volume of blood in the vessel at the site of measurement. The PPG signal consists of pulses that reflect the change in vascular blood volume with each

text: cardiac

text: beat. Beat-to-beat fluctuations, known as photoplethysmogram variability (PPGV) are found in the signal baseline and

text: amplitude

text: which reflects various physiological influences such as

text: respiration

text: and regulation of vascular tone by the sympathetic nervous system.

text: Upper motor neurons travel in several pathways through the central nervous system (CNS):

text: Upper motor neurons travel in several pathways through the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS):

text: While the more specific underlying causes of leukodystrophy are dependent upon the type, there are, however, common pathophysiological patterns that can be seen amongst all types. First and foremost, leukodystrophy is a neurodegenerative disease that is always the result of both impairment and maintenance of myelin sheaths surrounding neuronal axons in the central nervous system as the result of a genetic mutation. Myelin is a fatty white substance that acts as an electrical insulator and coats axons in order to speed up impulses (i.e. action potentials) traveling down the axon. Thus, the natural result of a loss of this substance is decreased efficiency in impulse propagation.  As myelin is produced by oligodendrocytes (a type of glial cell) in the central nervous system, an easy place to look for the cause is a mutation or malfunctioning of these cells and in other glial cells.

text: While the more specific underlying causes of leukodystrophy are dependent upon the type, there are, however, common pathophysiological patterns that can be seen amongst all types. First and foremost, leukodystrophy is a neurodegenerative disease that is always the result of both impairment and maintenance of

text: myelin

text: sheaths surrounding neuronal

text: axons

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: as the result of a

text: genetic mutation

text: . Myelin is a fatty white substance that acts as an

text: electrical insulator

text: and coats axons in order to speed up impulses (i.e.

text: action potentials

text: ) traveling down the axon. Thus, the natural result of a loss of this substance is decreased efficiency in impulse propagation.  As myelin is produced by

text: oligodendrocytes

text: (a type of

text: glial cell

text: ) in the central nervous system, an easy place to look for the cause is a

text: mutation

text: or malfunctioning of these cells and in other glial cells.

text: The eponymous Obersteiner–Redlich line is named after him, along with Emil Redlich (1866–1930). This zone is where the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system meet, as well as the place where Schwann cells meet oligodendroglia cells.

text: The eponymous

text: Obersteiner–Redlich line

text: is named after him, along with

text: Emil Redlich

text: (1866–1930). This zone is where the

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: meet, as well as the place where

text: Schwann cells

text: meet

text: oligodendroglia cells

text: The demyelination and scarring of axons in the neurons of the nervous system can affect their conduction properties and seriously harm the normal communication of the brain with the rest of the body. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disease that causes this deterioration of the myelin sheath. There isn't a unique test to diagnose MS and several studies must be combined to determine the presence of this disease. However, visual evoked potentials do play a role in the whole diagnostic process.

text: The

text: demyelination

text: and

text: scarring

text: of

text: axons

text: in the neurons of the

text: nervous system

text: can affect their

text: conduction properties

text: and seriously harm the normal communication of the brain with the rest of the body.

text: Multiple sclerosis

text: (MS) is a disease that causes this deterioration of the

text: myelin sheath

text: . There isn't a unique test to diagnose MS and several studies must be combined to determine the presence of this disease. However, visual evoked potentials do play a role in the whole diagnostic process.

text: The belt and parabelt areas of the right hemisphere are involved in processing rhythm. When individuals are preparing to tap out a rhythm of regular intervals (1:2 or 1:3) the left frontal cortex, left parietal cortex, and right cerebellum are all activated.  With more difficult rhythms such as a 1:2.5, more areas in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum are involved. EEG recordings have also shown a relationship between brain electrical activity and rhythm perception. Snyder and Large (2005) performed a study examining rhythm perception in human subjects, finding that activity in the gamma band (20 – 60 Hz) corresponds to the beats in a simple rhythm. Two types of gamma activity were found by Snyder & Large: induced gamma activity, and evoked gamma activity. Evoked gamma activity was found after the onset of each tone in the rhythm; this activity was found to be phase-locked (peaks and troughs were directly related to the exact onset of the tone) and did not appear when a gap (missed beat) was present in the rhythm. Induced gamma activity, which was not found to be phase-locked, was also found to correspond with each beat. However, induced gamma activity did not subside when a gap was present in the rhythm, indicating that induced gamma activity may possibly serve as a sort of internal metronome independent of auditory input. The motor and auditory areas are located in the cerebrum of the brain.  The motor area processes the rhythm of the music (Dean, 2013).  The motor area of the brain is located in the parietal lobe. The parietal lobe also deals with orientation, recognition, and perception.

text: The belt and parabelt areas of the right hemisphere are involved in processing

text: rhythm

text: . When individuals are preparing to tap out a rhythm of regular intervals (1:2 or 1:3) the left

text: frontal cortex

text: , left

text: parietal cortex

text: , and right

text: cerebellum

text: are all activated.  With more difficult rhythms such as a 1:2.5, more areas in the cerebral cortex and cerebellum are involved.

text: EEG

text: recordings have also shown a relationship between brain electrical activity and rhythm perception. Snyder and Large (2005) performed a study examining rhythm perception in human subjects, finding that activity in the

text: gamma band

text: (20 – 60 Hz) corresponds to the

text: beats

text: in a simple rhythm. Two types of gamma activity were found by Snyder & Large: induced gamma activity, and

text: evoked

text: gamma activity. Evoked gamma activity was found after the onset of each tone in the rhythm; this activity was found to be phase-locked (peaks and troughs were directly related to the exact onset of the tone) and did not appear when a gap (missed beat) was present in the rhythm. Induced gamma activity, which was not found to be phase-locked, was also found to correspond with each beat. However, induced gamma activity did not subside when a gap was present in the rhythm, indicating that induced gamma activity may possibly serve as a sort of internal metronome independent of auditory input. The motor and auditory areas are located in the cerebrum of the brain.  The motor area processes the rhythm of the music (Dean, 2013).  The motor area of the brain is located in the parietal lobe. The parietal lobe also deals with orientation, recognition, and perception.

text: The autonomic nervous system is unique in that it requires a sequential two-neuron efferent pathway; the preganglionic neuron must first synapse onto a postganglionic neuron before innervating the target organ. The preganglionic, or first, neuron will begin at the “outflow” and will synapse at the postganglionic, or second, neuron’s cell body. The postganglionic neuron will then synapse at the target organ.

text: A December 2015 study in the journal Drug Testing and Analysis argued that meldonium "demonstrates an increase in endurance performance of athletes, improved rehabilitation after exercise, protection against stress, and enhanced activations of central nervous system (CNS) functions".  It is opposing to steroids in the sense that instead of making the athlete emotionally unstable and readily irritable, it keeps them in an elevated state of mind and keeps their emotions in a happier state.  When referring to central nervous system enhancements, it better activates the neurons in the CNS.  This improves the messaging system throughout the body and,  therefore, can decrease (improve) reaction time for an athlete.

text: A December 2015 study in the journal

text: Drug Testing and Analysis

text: argued that meldonium "demonstrates an increase in endurance performance of athletes, improved rehabilitation after exercise, protection against stress, and enhanced activations of central nervous system (CNS) functions".  It is opposing to steroids in the sense that instead of making the athlete emotionally unstable and readily irritable, it keeps them in an elevated state of mind and keeps their emotions in a happier state.  When referring to central nervous system enhancements, it better activates the neurons in the CNS.  This improves the messaging system throughout the body and,  therefore, can decrease (improve) reaction time for an athlete.

text: Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system, and the neural mechanisms through which they influence behavior. There are two main branches of neuropharmacology: behavioral and molecular. Behavioral neuropharmacology focuses on the study of how drugs affect human behavior (neuropsychopharmacology), including the study of how drug dependence and addiction affect the human brain. Molecular neuropharmacology involves the study of neurons and their neurochemical interactions, with the overall goal of developing drugs that have beneficial effects on neurological function. Both of these fields are closely connected, since both are concerned with the interactions of neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, neurohormones, neuromodulators, enzymes, second messengers, co-transporters, ion channels, and receptor proteins in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Studying these interactions, researchers are developing drugs to treat many different neurological disorders, including pain, neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, psychological disorders, addiction, and many others.

text: Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system, and the neural mechanisms through which they influence behavior. There are two main branches of neuropharmacology: behavioral and molecular. Behavioral neuropharmacology focuses on the study of how drugs affect human behavior (

text: neuropsychopharmacology

text: ), including the study of how drug dependence and

text: addiction

text: affect the

text: human brain

text: . Molecular neuropharmacology involves the study of neurons and their

text: neurochemical

text: interactions, with the overall goal of developing drugs that have beneficial effects on neurological function. Both of these fields are closely connected, since both are concerned with the interactions of

text: neurotransmitters

text: neuropeptides

text: neurohormones

text: neuromodulators

text: enzymes

text: second messengers

text: co-transporters

text: ion channels

text: , and

text: receptor proteins

text: in the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: s. Studying these interactions, researchers are developing drugs to treat many different neurological disorders, including

text: pain

text: , neurodegenerative diseases such as

text: Parkinson's disease

text: and

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: , psychological disorders, addiction, and many others.

text: Itch can originate in the peripheral nervous system (dermal or neuropathic) or in the central nervous system (neuropathic, neurogenic, or psychogenic).

text: Itch can originate in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: dermal

text: or

text: neuropathic

text: ) or in the

text: central nervous system

text: (neuropathic,

text: neurogenic

text: , or

text: psychogenic

text: Ganglia of the peripheral autonomic nervous system are commonly used to study synaptic connections. These ganglia are studied as synaptic connections show many similarities to the central nervous system (CNS) and are also relatively accessible. They are easier to study than the CNS since they have the ability to regrow, which neurons in the CNS do not have. The SCG is frequently used in these studies being one of the larger ganglia. Today, neuroscientists are studying topics on the SCG such as survival and neurite outgrowth of SCG neurons, neuroendocrine aspects of the SCG, and structure and pathways of the SCG. These studies are usually performed on rats, guinea-pigs, and rabbits.

text: The spinal cord can be anatomically divided into 31 spinal segments based on the origins of the spinal nerves. Each segment of the spinal cord is associated with a pair of ganglia, called dorsal root ganglia, which are situated just outside the spinal cord. These ganglia contain cell bodies of sensory neurons. Axons of these sensory neurons travel into the spinal cord via the dorsal roots.

text: The spinal cord can be anatomically divided into 31 spinal segments based on the origins of the spinal nerves. Each segment of the spinal cord is associated with a pair of ganglia, called

text: dorsal root ganglia

text: , which are situated just outside the spinal cord. These ganglia contain cell bodies of sensory neurons. Axons of these sensory neurons travel into the spinal cord via the dorsal roots.

text: These large humanoids are encased in heavy armor most of the time, which serves as their exoskeleton. Their nervous and ciculatory systems make them extremely resilient. Their nervous system is composed of thousands of clusters allowing them to regenerate limbs and pull nearby limbs back onto their bodies.  This unusual nervous system gives them Jedi-like reflexes. They also lack a central heart. They have an advanced vascular system that circulates blood. They lack vital organs making them nearly invulnerable to attack. These odd nervous and circulatory systems may be the cause of their astonishingly long lifespans. There were some Gen'Dai reported to have lived for more than 4000 years.

text: These large humanoids are encased in heavy armor most of the time, which serves as their exoskeleton. Their nervous and ciculatory systems make them extremely resilient. Their nervous system is composed of thousands of clusters allowing them to regenerate limbs and pull nearby limbs back onto their bodies.  This unusual nervous system gives them

text: Jedi

text: -like reflexes. They also lack a central heart. They have an advanced vascular system that circulates blood. They lack vital organs making them nearly invulnerable to attack. These odd nervous and circulatory systems may be the cause of their astonishingly long lifespans. There were some Gen'Dai reported to have lived for more than 4000 years.

text: In the human nervous system nicotinic cholinergic signals are extended throughout the system, where the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) plays a key role in activating ligand-gated ion channels. The cholinergic system is a vital nervous pathway, where cholinergic neurons synthesize, store and release the neurotransmitter ACh. The main receptors that convert the ACh messages are the cholinergic muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, neuronal and muscular nAChRs. When looking back at evolutionary history, ACh is considered to be the oldest transmitter molecule and became present before the nervous cell. In the nervous system cholinergic stimulation mediated through nAChRs controls pathways such as release of transmitters and cell sensitivity, which can influence physiological activity including sleep, anxiety, processing of pain and cognitive functions.

text: In the human

text: nervous system

text: nicotinic cholinergic signals are extended throughout the system, where the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) plays a key role in activating

text: ligand-gated ion channel

text: s. The cholinergic system is a vital nervous pathway, where cholinergic neurons synthesize, store and release the neurotransmitter ACh. The main receptors that convert the ACh messages are the cholinergic

text: muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

text: , neuronal and muscular nAChRs. When looking back at evolutionary history, ACh is considered to be the oldest transmitter molecule and became present before the nervous cell. In the nervous system cholinergic stimulation mediated through nAChRs controls pathways such as release of transmitters and cell sensitivity, which can influence physiological activity including sleep, anxiety, processing of pain and cognitive functions.

text: Gliogenesis results in the formation of non-neuronal glia populations derived from multipotent neural stem cells. In this capacity, glial cells provide multiple functions to both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Subsequent differentiation of glial cell populations results in function-specialized glial lineages. Glial cell-derived astrocytes are specialized lineages responsible for modulating the chemical environment by altering ion gradients and neurotransmitter transduction. Similarly derived, oligodendrocytes produce myelin, which insulates axons to facilitate electric signal transduction. Finally, microglial cells are derived from glial precursors and carry-out macrophage like properties to remove cellular and foreign debris within the central nervous system ref. Functions of glial-derived cell lineages are reviewed by Baumann and Hauw. Gliogenesis itself, and differentiation of glial-derived lineages are activated upon stimulation of specific signaling cascades. Similarly, inhibition of these pathways is controlled by distinct signaling cascades that control proliferation and differentiation. Thus, elaborate intracellular-mechanisms based on environmental signals are present to regulate the formation of these cells. As regulation is much more known in the CNS, its mechanisms and components will be focused on here. Understanding the mechanisms in which gliogenesis is regulated provides the potential to harness the ability to control the fate of glial cells and, consequently, the ability to reverse neurodegenerative diseases.

text: Gliogenesis results in the formation of non-neuronal

text: glia

text: populations derived from

text: multipotent

text: neural stem cells. In this capacity, glial cells provide multiple functions to both the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). Subsequent

text: differentiation

text: of glial cell populations results in function-specialized glial lineages. Glial cell-derived

text: astrocytes

text: are specialized lineages responsible for modulating the chemical environment by altering

text: ion gradients

text: and

text: neurotransmitter

text: transduction. Similarly derived,

text: oligodendrocytes

text: produce

text: myelin

text: , which insulates

text: axon

text: s to facilitate electric signal transduction. Finally,

text: microglial cells

text: are derived from glial precursors and carry-out

text: macrophage

text: like properties to remove cellular and foreign debris within the central nervous system ref. Functions of glial-derived cell lineages are reviewed by Baumann and Hauw. Gliogenesis itself, and differentiation of glial-derived lineages are activated upon stimulation of specific signaling cascades. Similarly, inhibition of these pathways is controlled by distinct signaling cascades that control proliferation and differentiation. Thus, elaborate intracellular-mechanisms based on environmental signals are present to regulate the formation of these cells. As regulation is much more known in the CNS, its mechanisms and components will be focused on here. Understanding the mechanisms in which gliogenesis is regulated provides the potential to harness the ability to control the fate of glial cells and, consequently, the ability to reverse

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: Non-spiking neurons are neurons that are located in the central and peripheral nervous systems and function as intermediary relays for sensory-motor neurons. They do not exhibit the characteristic spiking behavior of action potential generating neurons.

text: Non-spiking neurons are

text: neuron

text: s that are located in the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: s and function as intermediary relays for sensory-motor neurons. They do not exhibit the characteristic spiking behavior of

text: action potential

text: generating neurons.

text: Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous Greek anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and Erasistratus. These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for medical research. They also conducted vivisections on the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was considered taboo until the Renaissance – Herophilus was recognized as the first person to perform systematic dissections. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls then veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus’s knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the course of disease. Erasistratus accurately described the structure of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum  During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins – the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons  and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. It was Herophilus who made the point that damage to motor nerves induced paralysis. Herophilus named the meninges and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle  Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves.

text: Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Two of the most famous Greek anatomists and physiologists of the third century were

text: Herophilus

text: and

text: Erasistratus

text: . These two physicians helped pioneer human

text: dissection

text: for medical research. They also conducted

text: vivisection

text: Caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several known mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system.

text: Caffeine is a

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS)

text: stimulant

text: of the

text: methylxanthine

text: class

text: . It is the world's most widely consumed

text: psychoactive drug

text: . Unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several known

text: mechanisms of action

text: to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it reversibly blocks the action of

text: adenosine

text: on its receptor and consequently prevents the onset of drowsiness induced by adenosine. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: Erythropoietin mutants R103-E and S100-E (though S100 in Epo doesn't exist) has been reported to be non-erythropoietin but retain the neuroprotective function. Epo with R103 mutation is a potent inhibitor of wild type Epo from binding to its receptor. Though, the viral vector expressed R103-E Epo mutant was shown to be inhibitory to the progression / development of nervous tissue damage in many models, it is not shown to recover the nervous tissue post damage. Given the associated risks, it would be foolish to administer / express Mutant as a preventive measure from neuronal injury. Hence, from a medical or commercial point of view, safe and feasible neuro-protective Epo mutants are not possible.

text: Sympathetic nerves arise from near the middle of the spinal cord in the intermediolateral nucleus of the lateral grey column, beginning at the first thoracic vertebra of the vertebral column and are thought to extend to the second or third lumbar vertebra. Because its cells begin in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, the sympathetic nervous system is said to have a thoracolumbar outflow. Axons of these nerves leave the spinal cord through the anterior root.  They pass near the spinal (sensory) ganglion, where they enter the anterior rami of the spinal nerves. However, unlike somatic innervation, they quickly separate out through white rami connectors (so called from the shiny white sheaths of myelin around each axon) that connect to either the paravertebral (which lie near the vertebral column) or prevertebral (which lie near the aortic bifurcation) ganglia extending alongside the spinal column.

text: Sympathetic nerves arise from near the middle of the

text: spinal cord

text: in the

text: intermediolateral nucleus

text: of the

text: lateral grey column

text: , beginning at the first

text: thoracic

text: vertebra

text: of the

text: vertebral column

text: and are thought to extend to the second or third

text: lumbar

text: vertebra. Because its cells begin in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, the sympathetic nervous system is said to have a thoracolumbar outflow.

text: Axon

text: s of these nerves leave the spinal cord through the

text: anterior root

text: .  They pass near the spinal (sensory) ganglion, where they enter the anterior rami of the spinal nerves. However, unlike somatic innervation, they quickly separate out through

text: white rami

text: connectors (so called from the shiny white sheaths of

text: myelin

text: around each axon) that connect to either the paravertebral (which lie near the vertebral column) or prevertebral (which lie near the aortic bifurcation)

text: ganglia

text: extending alongside the spinal column.

text: A typical neuron is divided into three parts: the soma or cell body, dendrites, and axon. The soma is usually compact; the axon and dendrites are filaments that extrude from it. Dendrites typically branch profusely, getting thinner with each branching, and extending their farthest branches a few hundred micrometers from the soma. The axon leaves the soma at a swelling called the axon hillock, and can extend for great distances, giving rise to hundreds of branches. Unlike dendrites, an axon usually maintains the same diameter as it extends. The soma may give rise to numerous dendrites, but never to more than one axon. Synaptic signals from other neurons are received by the soma and dendrites; signals to other neurons are transmitted by the axon. A typical synapse, then, is a contact between the axon of one neuron and a dendrite or soma of another. Synaptic signals may be excitatory or inhibitory. If the net excitation received by a neuron over a short period of time is large enough, the neuron generates a brief pulse called an action potential, which originates at the soma and propagates rapidly along the axon, activating synapses onto other neurons as it goes.

text: A typical neuron is divided into three parts: the soma or cell body, dendrites, and axon. The soma is usually compact; the axon and dendrites are filaments that extrude from it. Dendrites typically branch profusely, getting thinner with each branching, and extending their farthest branches a few hundred micrometers from the soma. The axon leaves the soma at a swelling called the

text: axon hillock

text: , and can extend for great distances, giving rise to hundreds of branches. Unlike dendrites, an axon usually maintains the same diameter as it extends. The soma may give rise to numerous dendrites, but never to more than one axon. Synaptic signals from other neurons are received by the soma and dendrites; signals to other neurons are transmitted by the axon. A typical synapse, then, is a contact between the axon of one neuron and a dendrite or soma of another. Synaptic signals may be

text: excitatory

text: or

text: inhibitory

text: . If the net excitation received by a neuron over a short period of time is large enough, the neuron generates a brief pulse called an action potential, which originates at the soma and propagates rapidly along the axon, activating synapses onto other neurons as it goes.

text: There is currently no treatment or cure for MLD. Children with advanced juvenile or adult onset and late infantile patients displaying symptoms receive treatment limited to pain and symptom management.  Presymptomatic late infantile MLD patients, as well as those with juvenile or adult MLD that are either presymptomatic or displaying mild to moderate symptoms, have the option of bone marrow transplantation (including stem cell transplantation), which is under investigation to see if it may slow down progression of the disease or stop its progression in the central nervous system. However, results in the peripheral nervous system have been less dramatic, and the long-term results of these therapies have been mixed. Recent success has involved stem cells being taken from the bone marrow of children with the disorder and infecting the cells with a retro-virus, replacing the stem cells mutated gene with the repaired gene before re-injecting it back into the patient where they multiplied. The children by the age of five where all in good condition and going to kindergarten when normally by this age, children with the disease can not even speak.

text: There is currently no treatment or cure for MLD. Children with advanced juvenile or adult onset and late infantile patients displaying symptoms receive treatment limited to pain and symptom management.  Presymptomatic late infantile MLD patients, as well as those with juvenile or adult MLD that are either presymptomatic or displaying mild to moderate symptoms, have the option of

text: bone marrow transplantation

text: (including

text: stem cell transplantation

text: ), which is under investigation to see if it may slow down progression of the disease or stop its progression in the central nervous system. However, results in the peripheral nervous system have been less dramatic, and the long-term results of these therapies have been mixed. Recent success has involved stem cells being taken from the bone marrow of children with the disorder and infecting the cells with a retro-virus, replacing the stem cells mutated gene with the repaired gene before re-injecting it back into the patient where they multiplied. The children by the age of five where all in good condition and going to kindergarten when normally by this age, children with the disease can not even speak.

text: The olfactory bulb, responsible for the sense of smell, takes up a large area of the cerebrum in most vertebrates. However, in humans, this part of the brain is much smaller and lies underneath the frontal lobe. The olfactory sensory system is unique since the neurons in the olfactory bulb send their axons directly to the olfactory cortex, rather than to the thalamus first. Damage to the olfactory bulb results in a loss of olfaction (the sense of smell).

text: The

text: olfactory bulb

text: , responsible for the sense of smell, takes up a large area of the cerebrum in most vertebrates. However, in humans, this part of the brain is much smaller and lies underneath the frontal lobe. The olfactory sensory system is unique since the neurons in the olfactory bulb send their axons directly to the

text: olfactory cortex

text: , rather than to the

text: thalamus

text: first. Damage to the olfactory bulb results in a loss of

text: olfaction

text: (the sense of smell).

text: There are two types of axons occurring in the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system: unmyelinated and myelinated axons. Myelin is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of glial cells: Schwann cells ensheathing peripheral neurons and oligodendrocytes insulating those of the central nervous system. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as nodes of Ranvier occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltatory conduction. Demyelination of axons causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease multiple sclerosis.

text: There are two types of axons occurring in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and the central nervous system:

text: unmyelinated

text: and

text: myelinated

text: axons.

text: Myelin

text: is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of

text: glial cells

text: Schwann cell

text: s ensheathing

text: peripheral

text: neurons and

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s insulating those of the

text: central nervous system

text: . Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as

text: nodes of Ranvier

text: occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called

text: saltatory conduction

text: . Demyelination of axons causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Unlike the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the central nervous system, including the brain, contains many interneurons. In the neocortex (making up about 80% of the human brain), approximately 20-30% of neurons are interneurons. Interneurons in the CNS are primarily inhibitory, and use the neurotransmitter GABA or glycine. However, excitatory interneurons using glutamate in the CNS also exist, as do interneurons releasing neuromodulators like acetylcholine.

text: Unlike the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), the central nervous system, including the

text: brain

text: , contains many interneurons. In the neocortex (making up about 80% of the human brain), approximately 20-30% of neurons are interneurons. Interneurons in the CNS are primarily

text: inhibitory

text: , and use the neurotransmitter

text: GABA

text: or

text: glycine

text: . However, excitatory interneurons using

text: glutamate

text: in the CNS also exist, as do interneurons releasing

text: neuromodulators

text: like

text: acetylcholine

text: In 1975, Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen, at the University of Rochester, advanced PNI with their demonstration of classic conditioning of immune function, and they subsequently coined the term "psychoneuroimmunology". Ader was investigating how long conditioned responses (in the sense of Pavlov's conditioning of dogs to drool when they heard a bell ring) might last in laboratory rats. To condition the rats, he used a combination of saccharin-laced water (the conditioned stimulus) and the drug Cytoxan, which unconditionally induces nausea and taste aversion and suppression of immune function. Ader was surprised to discover that after conditioning, just feeding the rats saccharin-laced water was associated with the death of some animals and he proposed that they had been immunosuppressed after receiving the conditioned stimulus. Ader (a psychologist) and Cohen (an immunologist) directly tested this hypothesis by deliberately immunizing conditioned and unconditioned animals, exposing these and other control groups to the conditioned taste stimulus, and then measuring the amount of antibody produced.  The highly reproducible results revealed that conditioned rats exposed to the conditioned stimulus were indeed immuno suppressed. In other words, a signal via the nervous system (taste) was affecting immune function. This was one of the first scientific experiments that demonstrated that the nervous system can affect the immune system.

text: In 1975,

text: Robert Ader

text: and

text: Nicholas Cohen

text: , at the

text: University of Rochester

text: , advanced PNI with their demonstration of

text: classic conditioning

text: of immune function, and they subsequently coined the term "psychoneuroimmunology". Ader was investigating how long conditioned responses (in the sense of

text: Pavlov

text: 's conditioning of dogs to drool when they heard a bell ring) might last in laboratory rats. To condition the rats, he used a combination of

text: saccharin

text: -laced water (the conditioned stimulus) and the drug

text: Cytoxan

text: , which unconditionally induces

text: nausea and taste aversion

text: and suppression of immune function. Ader was surprised to discover that after conditioning, just feeding the rats saccharin-laced water was associated with the death of some animals and he proposed that they had been immunosuppressed after receiving the conditioned stimulus. Ader (a psychologist) and Cohen (an immunologist) directly tested this hypothesis by deliberately immunizing conditioned and unconditioned animals, exposing these and other control groups to the conditioned taste stimulus, and then measuring the amount of antibody produced.  The highly reproducible results revealed that conditioned rats exposed to the conditioned stimulus were indeed immuno suppressed. In other words, a signal via the nervous system (taste) was affecting immune function. This was one of the first scientific experiments that demonstrated that the nervous system can affect the immune system.

text: The nerve tissue that lies outside of the central nervous system is collectively known as the peripheral nervous system. This system can be further divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous system. The autonomic system can be referred to as the involuntary component that regulates bodily organs and mechanisms, such as digestion and respiration. The somatic system is responsible for relaying messages back and forth from the brain to various parts of the body, whether it is taking in sensory stimuli and sending it to the brain or sending messages from the brain in order for muscles to contract and relax.

text: The nerve tissue that lies outside of the central nervous system is collectively known as the peripheral nervous system. This system can be further divided into the

text: autonomic

text: and

text: somatic nervous system

text: . The autonomic system can be referred to as the involuntary component that regulates bodily organs and mechanisms, such as digestion and respiration. The somatic system is responsible for relaying messages back and forth from the brain to various parts of the body, whether it is taking in sensory stimuli and sending it to the brain or sending messages from the brain in order for muscles to contract and relax.

text: Brain regions identified as highly expressing Lingo-1 transcripts have also been heavily implicated in both neurological and psychiatric disorders such as spinal cord injury, traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson’s disease, essential tremor (ET), Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy and glaucoma (central nervous system diseases); as well as stress and panic disorders, schizophrenia, amnesia, etc. The role of Lingo-1 in these neurological disorders consists on its inhibitory role in neurite outgrowth, oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination, making it difficult for the nervous system to regenerate the injured areas, whether these injuries come from endogenous or exogenous processes.

text: Brain regions identified as highly expressing Lingo-1 transcripts have also been heavily implicated in both neurological and psychiatric disorders such as

text: spinal cord injury

text: traumatic brain injury

text: multiple sclerosis

text: (MS),

text: Parkinson’s disease

text: essential tremor

text: (ET),

text: Alzheimer’s disease

text: epilepsy

text: and

text: glaucoma

text: (central nervous system diseases); as well as stress and panic disorders,

text: schizophrenia

text: amnesia

text: , etc. The role of Lingo-1 in these neurological disorders consists on its inhibitory role in neurite outgrowth, oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination, making it difficult for the nervous system to regenerate the injured areas, whether these injuries come from endogenous or exogenous processes.

text: Anesthesia is the combination of the endpoints (discussed above) which are reached by drugs acting on different but overlapping sites in the central nervous system.  General anesthesia (as opposed to sedation or regional anesthesia) has three main goals: lack of movement (paralysis), unconsciousness, and blunting of the stress response.  In the early days of anesthesia, anesthetics could reliably achieve the first two, allowing surgeons to perform necessary procedures, but many patients died because the extremes of blood pressure and pulse caused by the surgical insult were ultimately harmful.  Eventually, the need for blunting of the surgical stress response was identified by Harvey Cushing, who injected local anesthetic prior to hernia repairs. This led to the development of other drugs that could blunt the response leading to lower surgical mortality rates.

text: Anesthesia is the combination of the endpoints (discussed above) which are reached by drugs acting on different but overlapping sites in the

text: central nervous system

text: .  General anesthesia (as opposed to sedation or regional anesthesia) has three main goals: lack of movement (

text: paralysis

text: unconsciousness

text: , and blunting of the

text: stress response

text: .  In the early days of anesthesia, anesthetics could reliably achieve the first two, allowing surgeons to perform necessary procedures, but many patients died because the extremes of blood pressure and pulse caused by the surgical insult were ultimately harmful.  Eventually, the need for blunting of the

text: surgical stress

text: response was identified by

text: Harvey Cushing

text: , who injected local anesthetic prior to

text: hernia repair

text: s. This led to the development of other drugs that could blunt the response leading to lower surgical

text: mortality rate

text: s.

text: Poliovirus is an enterovirus. Infection occurs via the fecal–oral route, meaning that one ingests the virus and viral replication occurs in the alimentary tract. Virus is shed in the feces of infected individuals. In 95% of cases only a primary, transient presence of viremia (virus in the bloodstream) occurs, and the poliovirus infection is asymptomatic. In about 5% of cases, the virus spreads and replicates in other sites such as brown fat, reticuloendothelial tissue, and muscle. The sustained viral replication causes secondary viremia and leads to the development of minor symptoms such as fever, headache, and sore throat. Paralytic poliomyelitis occurs in less than 1% of poliovirus infections. Paralytic disease occurs when the virus enters the central nervous system (CNS) and replicates in motor neurons within the spinal cord, brain stem, or motor cortex, resulting in the selective destruction of motor neurons leading to temporary or permanent paralysis. In rare cases, paralytic poliomyelitis leads to respiratory arrest and death. In cases of paralytic disease, muscle pain and spasms are frequently observed prior to onset of weakness and paralysis. Paralysis typically persists  from days to weeks prior to recovery.

text: Poliovirus is an

text: enterovirus

text: . Infection occurs via the

text: fecal–oral route

text: , meaning that one ingests the virus and viral replication occurs in the

text: alimentary tract

text: . Virus is shed in the feces of infected individuals. In 95% of cases only a primary, transient presence of

text: viremia

text: (virus in the bloodstream) occurs, and the poliovirus infection is

text: asymptomatic

text: . In about 5% of cases, the virus spreads and replicates in other sites such as

text: brown fat

text: reticuloendothelial

text: tissue, and

text: muscle

text: . The sustained viral replication causes secondary viremia and leads to the development of minor symptoms such as fever, headache, and sore throat. Paralytic poliomyelitis occurs in less than 1% of poliovirus infections. Paralytic disease occurs when the virus enters the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and replicates in

text: motor neuron

text: s within the

text: spinal cord

text: brain stem

text: , or

text: motor cortex

text: , resulting in the selective destruction of motor neurons leading to temporary or permanent

text: paralysis

text: . In rare cases, paralytic poliomyelitis leads to

text: respiratory arrest

text: and death. In cases of paralytic disease, muscle pain and spasms are frequently observed prior to onset of weakness and paralysis. Paralysis typically persists  from days to weeks prior to recovery.

text: On 12 September 1992 the division was reorganised as the 131st Separate Motor Rifle order of Kutuzov and Red Star Brigade of the 67th Army Corps, North Caucasus Military District (). The brigade participated in the First Chechen War of 1994–96, including the New Year 1995 assault on Grozniy during the combat for the railway terminal where it suffered severe casualties in dead and wounded following an ambush by superior enemy numbers. The battle for Grozny cost 157 casualties, including 24 officers (including Colonel Savin), one warrant officer () and 60 NCOs and soldiers killed and 12 officers, one warrant officer and 59 NCOs and soldiers missing (presumed dead). The brigade also lost 22 T-72 tanks, 45 BMP-2s, and 37 cars and trucks. although other sources give higher losses attributed to the 81st Motor Rife Regiment which participated in the operation. The brigade was forced to withdraw from combat, was surrounded, and forced to abandon all of its equipment, with the personnel escaping individually or in small groups. From March 1995 the brigade participates in the Gudermes operation. In all the brigade suffered 1,282 casualties during the campaign.

text: On 12 September 1992 the division was reorganised as the 131st Separate Motor Rifle order of Kutuzov and Red Star Brigade of the 67th Army Corps,

text: North Caucasus Military District

text: (). The brigade participated in the

text: First Chechen War

text: of 1994–96, including the

text: New Year 1995 assault on Grozniy

text: during the combat for the railway terminal where it suffered severe casualties in dead and wounded following an ambush by superior enemy numbers. The battle for

text: Grozny

text: cost 157 casualties, including 24 officers (including Colonel Savin), one warrant officer () and 60 NCOs and soldiers killed and 12 officers, one warrant officer and 59 NCOs and soldiers missing (presumed dead). The brigade also lost 22 T-72 tanks, 45 BMP-2s, and 37 cars and trucks. although other sources give higher losses attributed to the

text: 81st Motor Rife Regiment

text: which participated in the operation. The brigade was forced to withdraw from combat, was surrounded, and forced to abandon all of its equipment, with the personnel escaping individually or in small groups. From March 1995 the brigade participates in the Gudermes operation. In all the brigade suffered 1,282 casualties during the campaign.

text: The axons of dorsal root ganglion neurons are known as afferents. In the peripheral nervous system, afferents refer to the axons that relay sensory information into the central nervous system (i.e. the brain and the spinal cord). These neurons are of the pseudo-unipolar type, meaning they have an axon with two branches that act as a single axon, often referred to as a distal process and a proximal process.

text: The

text: axons

text: of dorsal root ganglion neurons are known as

text: afferents

text: . In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , afferents refer to the axons that relay sensory information into the

text: central nervous system

text: (i.e. the

text: brain

text: and the

text: spinal cord

text: ). These neurons are of the

text: pseudo-unipolar

text: type, meaning they have an axon with two branches that act as a single axon, often referred to as a distal process and a proximal process.

text: In 1928, Murphy lost the use of his leg. A house doctor diagnosed him with "a touch of rheumatism" which took him two weeks to recover from. Murphy began to experience muscle spasms in his anus, and in his lower abdomen in 1972, and soon had trouble urinating. He was then diagnosed with an anal fissure, meaning of a slight break in the muscle. After a few years of symptoms, he visited a neurologist and was diagnosed with a benign but slowly growing tumor in the upper part of his spinal cord. Within two years his central nervous system was severely damaged, and lost control of most bodily functions.

text: In 1928, Murphy lost the use of his leg. A house doctor diagnosed him with "a touch of

text: rheumatism

text: " which took him two weeks to recover from. Murphy began to experience muscle spasms in his anus, and in his lower abdomen in 1972, and soon had trouble urinating. He was then diagnosed with an anal fissure, meaning of a slight break in the muscle. After a few years of symptoms, he visited a

text: neurologist

text: and was diagnosed with a benign but slowly growing tumor in the upper part of his

text: spinal cord

text: . Within two years his

text: central nervous system

text: was severely damaged, and lost control of most bodily functions.

text: Nervous systems are found in most multicellular animals, but vary greatly in complexity. The only multicellular animals that have no nervous system at all are sponges, placozoans, and mesozoans, which have very simple body plans. The nervous systems of the radially symmetric organisms ctenophores (comb jellies) and cnidarians (which include anemones, hydras, corals and jellyfish) consist of a diffuse nerve net. All other animal species, with the exception of a few types of worm, have a nervous system containing a brain, a central cord (or two cords running in parallel), and nerves radiating from the brain and central cord. The size of the nervous system ranges from a few hundred cells in the simplest worms, to around 300 billion cells in African elephants.

text: Nervous systems are found in most multicellular animals, but vary greatly in complexity. The only multicellular animals that have no nervous system at all are

text: sponge

text: s,

text: placozoa

text: ns, and

text: mesozoa

text: ns, which have very simple body plans. The nervous systems of the

text: radially symmetric

text: organisms

text: ctenophores

text: (comb jellies) and

text: cnidarians

text: (which include

text: anemones

text: hydras

text: corals

text: and

text: jellyfish

text: ) consist of a diffuse

text: nerve net

text: . All other animal species, with the exception of a few types of worm, have a nervous system containing a brain, a central cord (or two cords running in

text: parallel

text: ), and nerves radiating from the brain and central cord. The size of the nervous system ranges from a few hundred cells in the simplest worms, to around 300 billion cells in African elephants.

text: Other animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of cold-blooded animals change color swiftly, to camouflage themselves. These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.

text: Other animals have alternative self-protection methods. Some species of

text: cold-blooded

text: animals

text: change color

text: swiftly, to camouflage themselves. These responses are triggered by the sympathetic nervous system, but, in order to fit the model of fight or flight, the idea of flight must be broadened to include escaping capture either in a physical or sensory way. Thus, flight can be disappearing to another location or just disappearing in place. And often both fight and flight are combined in a given situation.

text: Paralysis occurs when communication between the brain and spinal cord fails. This can result from injury to neurons in the brain (a stroke), or in the spinal cord. Trauma to the spinal cord affects only the areas below the level of injury. On the other hand, poliomyelitis (a viral infection) or Lou Gehrig's disease (ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) can affect neurons in the entire spinal cord.

text: Stress can have many profound effects on the human biological systems.  Biology primarily attempts to explain major concepts of stress using a stimulus-response paradigm, broadly comparable to how a psychobiological sensory system operates. The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) plays a crucial role in the body's stress-related mechanisms. Whether one should interpret these mechanisms as the body's response to a stressor or embody the act of stress itself is part of the ambiguity in defining what exactly stress is. Nevertheless, the central nervous system works closely with the body's endocrine system to regulate these mechanisms. The sympathetic nervous system becomes primarily active during a stress response, regulating many of the body's physiological functions in ways that ought to make an organism more adaptive to its environment. Below there follows a brief biological background of  neuroanatomy and neurochemistry and how they relate to stress.

text: Stress can have many profound effects on the human biological systems.  Biology primarily attempts to explain major concepts of stress using a stimulus-response paradigm, broadly comparable to how a

text: psychobiological

text: sensory system operates. The

text: central nervous system

text: (brain and spinal cord) plays a crucial role in the body's stress-related mechanisms. Whether one should interpret these mechanisms as the body's response to a

text: stressor

text: or embody the act of stress itself is part of the ambiguity in defining what exactly stress is. Nevertheless, the central nervous system works closely with the body's

text: endocrine system

text: to regulate these mechanisms. The

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: becomes primarily active during a

text: stress response

text: , regulating many of the body's

text: physiological

text: functions in ways that ought to make an organism more

text: adaptive

text: to its environment. Below there follows a brief biological background of

text: neuroanatomy

text: and

text: neurochemistry

text: and how they relate to stress.

text: A burst lobe is an intracranial hemorrhage affecting a brain lobe (part of the cerebral hemispheres) and characterized by an intracerebral hemorrhage in continuity with a subdural hemorrhage.

text: A burst lobe is an

text: intracranial hemorrhage

text: affecting a

text: brain

text: lobe

text: (part of the

text: cerebral hemisphere

text: s) and characterized by an

text: intracerebral hemorrhage

text: in continuity with a

text: subdural hemorrhage

text: In the nervous system there is a "closed loop" system of sensation, decision, and reactions. This process is carried out through the activity of afferent neurons (sensory neurons), interneurons, and efferent neurons (motor neurons).

text: In the nervous system there is a "closed loop" system of sensation, decision, and reactions. This process is carried out through the activity of afferent neurons (sensory neurons),

text: interneuron

text: s, and efferent neurons (

text: motor neuron

text: s).

text: The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an all-or-none response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. Greater intensity of stimulation does not produce a stronger signal but can produce a higher frequency of firing. There are different types of receptor response to stimulus, slowly adapting or tonic receptors respond to steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing. These tonic receptors most often respond to increased intensity of stimulus by increasing their firing frequency, usually as a power function of stimulus plotted against impulses per second. This can be likened to an intrinsic property of light where to get greater intensity of a specific frequency (color) there have to be more photons, as the photons can't become "stronger" for a specific frequency.

text: The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an

text: all-or-none

text: response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. Greater intensity of stimulation does not produce a stronger signal but can produce a higher frequency of firing. There are different types of receptor response to stimulus, slowly adapting or tonic receptors respond to steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing. These tonic receptors most often respond to increased intensity of stimulus by increasing their firing frequency, usually as a power function of stimulus plotted against impulses per second. This can be likened to an intrinsic property of light where to get greater intensity of a specific frequency (color) there have to be more photons, as the photons can't become "stronger" for a specific frequency.

text: The nervous system segmentation confers several developmental advantages to the vertebrate body as humans possess a body plan that is bilaterally segmented at the nervous system level. The segmentation is involved at all levels of the human nervous system with increasing level of complexity in the innervation from the brain to limbs. The presence of conserved features in various species of animals serves as a strong point to the nervous system’s origin from a common ancestor. Also, the neural segments form the basic building block of the human nervous system and these sub units possess their own level of autonomy in both the singular and collective sense. The segments that compose the nervous system, although initially similar in their composition, are later modified by gene expression patterns that are specific to them. Segmental pattern in human beings can be observed clearly during early developmental phase.

text: Spiders paralyze prey with neurotoxic venom of some sort. A few have a venom that cross reacts with mammalian nervous system, though the specific manner in which the nervous system is attacked varies from spider to spider. When motor neurons are excited the symptoms include muscle spasms, cramps, and twitching. When autonomic nerves are involved sweating, drooling, gooseflesh. In the extreme unstable blood pressure and heart rate can result.

text: Spiders paralyze prey with

text: neurotoxic

text: venom of some sort. A few have a venom that cross reacts with mammalian nervous system, though the specific manner in which the

text: nervous system

text: is attacked varies from spider to spider. When motor neurons are excited the symptoms include muscle spasms, cramps, and twitching. When autonomic nerves are involved sweating, drooling, gooseflesh. In the extreme unstable blood pressure and heart rate can result.

text: Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide which acts as an insect neurotoxin and belongs to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of insects, with much lower toxicity to mammals. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system. Specifically, it causes a blockage of the nicotinergic neuronal pathway. By blocking nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, imidacloprid prevents acetylcholine from transmitting impulses between nerves, resulting in the insect's paralysis and eventual death. It is effective on contact and via stomach action. Because imidacloprid binds much more strongly to insect neuron receptors than to mammal neuron receptors, this insecticide is more toxic to insects than to mammals.

text: Imidacloprid is a systemic

text: insecticide

text: which acts as an

text: insect

text: neurotoxin

text: and belongs to a class of chemicals called the

text: neonicotinoids

text: which act on the

text: central nervous system

text: of insects, with much lower toxicity to mammals. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system. Specifically, it causes a blockage of the

text: nicotinergic

text: neuronal pathway. By blocking

text: nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

text: , imidacloprid prevents

text: acetylcholine

text: from

text: transmitting

text: impulses between nerves, resulting in the insect's paralysis and eventual death. It is effective on contact and via stomach action. Because imidacloprid binds much more strongly to insect neuron

text: receptors

text: than to mammal neuron receptors, this

text: insecticide

text: is more toxic to insects than to mammals.

text: Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.

text: Peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) – nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.

text: The earthworm's nervous system has three parts: the central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system.

text: The earthworm's nervous system has three parts: the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS),

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: William Kenneth Livingston advanced a summation theory in 1943, proposing that high intensity signals, arriving at the spinal cord from damage to nerve or tissue, set up a reverberating, self-exciting loop of activity in a pool of interneurons, and once a threshold of activity is crossed, these interneurons then activate "transmission" cells which carry the signal to the brain's pain mechanism; that the reverberating interneuron activity also spreads to other spinal cord cells that trigger a sympathetic nervous system and somatic motor system response; and these responses, as well as fear and other emotions elicited by pain, feed into and perpetuate the reverberating interneuron activity. A similar proposal was made by RW Gerard in 1951, who proposed also that intense peripheral nerve signalling may cause temporary failure of inhibition in spinal cord neurons, allowing them to fire as synchronized pools, with signal volleys strong enough to activate the pain mechanism.

text: William Kenneth Livingston advanced a summation theory in 1943, proposing that high intensity signals, arriving at the spinal cord from damage to nerve or tissue, set up a reverberating, self-exciting loop of activity in a pool of

text: interneurons

text: , and once a threshold of activity is crossed, these interneurons then activate "transmission" cells which carry the signal to the brain's pain mechanism; that the reverberating interneuron activity also spreads to other spinal cord cells that trigger a sympathetic nervous system and somatic motor system response; and these responses, as well as fear and other emotions elicited by pain, feed into and perpetuate the reverberating interneuron activity. A similar proposal was made by RW Gerard in 1951, who proposed also that intense peripheral nerve signalling may cause temporary failure of inhibition in spinal cord neurons, allowing them to fire as synchronized pools, with signal volleys strong enough to activate the pain mechanism.

text: The CNS is protected by the cranium, vertebral column, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid. The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. The spinal cord and the brain stem are joined at the base of the cranium at the foramen magnum. Most of the functions of the head and neck are directly influenced by the brain and transmitted to the PNS via the cranial nerves and spinal nerves of the cervical portion of the spine.

text: The CNS is protected by the

text: cranium

text: vertebral column

text: meninges

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: . The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. The spinal cord and the

text: brain stem

text: are joined at the base of the cranium at the

text: foramen magnum

text: . Most of the functions of the head and neck are directly influenced by the brain and transmitted to the PNS via the cranial nerves and spinal nerves of the cervical portion of the spine.

text: Other heavy metals noted for their potentially hazardous nature, usually as toxic environmental pollutants, include manganese (central nervous system damage); cobalt and nickel (carcinogens); copper, zinc, selenium and silver (endocrine disruption, congenital disorders, or general toxic effects in fish, plants, birds, or other aquatic organisms); tin, as organotin (central nervous system damage); antimony (a suspected carcinogen); and thallium (central nervous system damage).

text: Other heavy metals noted for their potentially hazardous nature, usually as toxic environmental pollutants, include manganese (central nervous system damage); cobalt and

text: nickel

text: (carcinogens); copper, zinc, selenium and

text: silver

text: endocrine

text: disruption,

text: congenital disorder

text: s, or general toxic effects in fish, plants, birds, or other aquatic organisms); tin, as

text: organotin

text: (central nervous system damage); antimony (a suspected carcinogen); and

text: thallium

text: (central nervous system damage).

text: Indirect acting parasympathomimetic drugs may be either reversible cholinesterase inhibitors, irreversible cholinesterase inhibitors or drugs that promote ACh release or anti-adrenergics. The latter inhibits the antagonistic system, the sympathetic nervous system.

text: Indirect acting parasympathomimetic drugs may be either reversible cholinesterase inhibitors, irreversible cholinesterase inhibitors or drugs that promote ACh release or

text: anti-adrenergic

text: s. The latter inhibits the antagonistic system, the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: Replacement:In the original book, the 3Rs were restricted, arbitrarily, to vertebrates.  Russell and Burch discussed the possibility of suffering with reference to sentience.  They used the term "replacement technique" for any scientific method using non-sentient material to replace methods which use conscious living vertebrates. This non-sentient material included higher plants, microorganisms, and the more degenerate metazoan endoparasites which, they argued, had nervous and sensory systems that were almost atrophied.  They acknowledged that the arbitrary exclusion of invertebrates meant that in several contexts, these species could be considered as possible replacements for vertebrate subjects; they termed this "comparative substitution".  Russell and Burch also considered levels of replacement. In "relative replacement", animals are still required, though during an experiment they are exposed, probably or certainly, to no distress at all.  In "absolute replacement", animals are not required at all at any stage.

text: Replacement:In the original book, the 3Rs were restricted, arbitrarily, to vertebrates.  Russell and Burch discussed the possibility of suffering with reference to

text: sentience

text: .  They used the term "replacement technique" for any scientific method using non-sentient material to replace methods which use conscious living vertebrates. This non-sentient material included higher plants, microorganisms, and the more degenerate

text: metazoan

text: endoparasites

text: which, they argued, had nervous and sensory systems that were almost atrophied.  They acknowledged that the arbitrary exclusion of invertebrates meant that in several contexts, these species could be considered as possible replacements for vertebrate subjects; they termed this "comparative substitution".  Russell and Burch also considered levels of replacement. In "relative replacement", animals are still required, though during an experiment they are exposed, probably or certainly, to no distress at all.  In "absolute replacement", animals are not required at all at any stage.

text: The VGKC complex is composed of Kv1 subunits and other proteins that are tightly complexed with the Kv1 subunits in the nerve membrane. They are widely expressed in the nervous system, particularly at the juxtaparanodes of the nodes of Ranvier, at peripheral motor nerve, and perhaps sensory terminals, and in central synapses. Because opening of the VGKC following each action potential leads to repolarization of the membrane, VGKCs regulate neuronal activity throughout the nervous system.

text: Synapses may be described as symmetric or asymmetric. When examined under an electron microscope, asymmetric synapses are characterized by rounded vesicles in the presynaptic cell, and a prominent postsynaptic density. Asymmetric synapses are typically excitatory. Symmetric synapses in contrast have flattened or elongated vesicles, and do not contain a prominent postsynaptic density. Symmetric synapses are typically inhibitory.

text: 10. Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma

text: Central nervous system fatigue is a key component in preventing peripheral muscle injury. The brain has numerous receptors, such as osmoreceptors, to track dehydration, nutrition, and body temperature. With that information as well as peripheral muscle fatigue information, the brain can reduce the quantity of motor commands sent from the central nervous system. This is crucial in order to protect the homeostasis of the body and to keep it in a proper physiological state capable of full recovery. The reduction of motor commands sent from the brain increases the amount of perceived effort an individual experiences. By forcing the body through a higher perceived intensity, the individual becomes more likely to cease exercise by means of exhaustion. Perceived effort is greatly influenced by the intensity  of corollary discharge from the motor cortex that affects the primary somatosensory cortex.  Endurance athletes learn to listen to their body. Protecting organs from potentially dangerous core temperatures and nutritional lows is an important brain function. Central nervous system fatigue alerts the athlete when physiological conditions are not optimal so either rest or refueling can occur. It is important to avoid hyperthermia and dehydration, as they are detrimental to athletic performance and can be fatal.

text: Central nervous system fatigue is a key component in preventing peripheral muscle injury. The brain has numerous receptors, such as

text: osmoreceptors

text: , to track

text: dehydration

text: nutrition

text: , and

text: body temperature

text: . With that information as well as peripheral muscle fatigue information, the brain can reduce the quantity of motor commands sent from the central nervous system. This is crucial in order to protect the

text: homeostasis

text: of the body and to keep it in a proper physiological state capable of full recovery. The reduction of motor commands sent from the brain increases the amount of perceived effort an individual experiences. By forcing the body through a higher perceived intensity, the individual becomes more likely to cease exercise by means of exhaustion. Perceived effort is greatly influenced by the intensity  of corollary discharge from the

text: motor cortex

text: that affects the

text: primary somatosensory cortex

text: .  Endurance athletes learn to listen to their body. Protecting organs from potentially dangerous core temperatures and nutritional lows is an important brain function. Central nervous system fatigue alerts the athlete when physiological conditions are not optimal so either rest or refueling can occur. It is important to avoid

text: hyperthermia

text: and

text: dehydration

text: , as they are detrimental to athletic performance and can be fatal.

text: Nutritional deficiency may be the cause of a genuine optic neuropathy, sometimes associated with involvement of the peripheral nervous system, called peripheral neuropathy. Loss of vision is usually bilateral, painless, chronic, insidious and slowly progressive. Most often, they present as a non-specific retrobulbar optic neuropathy. Patients may notice that colors are not as vivid or bright as before and that the color red is washed out. This normally occurs in both eyes at the same time and is not associated with any eye pain. They might initially notice a blur or fog, followed by a drop in vision. While vision loss may be rapid, progression to blindness is unusual. These patients tend to have blind spots in the center of their vision with preserved peripheral vision. In most cases, the pupils continue to respond normally to light.

text: Nutritional deficiency may be the cause of a genuine optic neuropathy, sometimes associated with involvement of the peripheral nervous system, called

text: peripheral neuropathy

text: . Loss of vision is usually bilateral, painless, chronic, insidious and slowly progressive. Most often, they present as a non-specific

text: retrobulbar

text: optic neuropathy. Patients may notice that colors are not as vivid or bright as before and that the color red is washed out. This normally occurs in both eyes at the same time and is not associated with any eye pain. They might initially notice a blur or fog, followed by a drop in vision. While vision loss may be rapid, progression to blindness is unusual. These patients tend to have blind spots in the center of their vision with preserved peripheral vision. In most cases, the

text: pupil

text: s continue to respond normally to light.

text: There is no effective treatment or antidote for ciguatera poisoning. The mainstay of treatment is supportive care. There is some evidence that calcium channel blockers like nifedipine and verapamil are effective in treating some of the symptoms that remain after the initial sickness passes, such as poor circulation and shooting pains through the chest. These symptoms are due to the cramping of arterial walls caused by maitotoxin Ciguatoxin lowers the threshold for opening voltage-gated sodium channels in synapses of the nervous system. Opening a sodium channel causes depolarization, which could sequentially cause paralysis, heart contraction, and changing the senses of hearing and cold. Some medications such as amitriptyline may reduce some symptoms, such as fatigue and paresthesia, although benefit does not occur in every case. Steroids and vitamin supplements support the body's recovery rather than directly reducing toxin effects.

text: There is no effective treatment or antidote for ciguatera poisoning. The mainstay of treatment is supportive care. There is some evidence that

text: calcium channel blockers

text: like

text: nifedipine

text: and

text: verapamil

text: are effective in treating some of the symptoms that remain after the initial sickness passes, such as poor circulation and shooting pains through the chest. These symptoms are due to the cramping of

text: arterial

text: walls caused by

text: maitotoxin

text: Ciguatoxin lowers the threshold for opening

text: voltage-gated sodium channel

text: s in

text: synapse

text: s of the

text: nervous system

text: . Opening a sodium channel causes depolarization, which could sequentially cause paralysis, heart contraction, and changing the senses of hearing and cold. Some medications such as

text: amitriptyline

text: may reduce some symptoms, such as

text: fatigue

text: and

text: paresthesia

text: , although benefit does not occur in every case.

text: Steroids

text: and

text: vitamin

text: supplements support the body's recovery rather than directly reducing toxin effects.

text: The area is underlain by bedrock of Silurian age. This rock is dolomite. Preglacial erosion the surface of the bedrock created an irregular surface, allows the glacial drift to vary in depth over short distances. Some areas are underlain by bedrock near the surface, in other areas it can be  deep. Some hills are solely glacial drift; others may be entirely of limestone.The water comes from the melting ‘Valparaiso glacier’, the glacier that deposited first the Manhattan moraine, part of the Valparaiso morainic system and the Valparaiso moraines to the northeast. The melt-water came from three glacial lobes of the Laurentide ice sheet. In addition to the melt-water from the Michigan lobe in the Michigan basin, melt-water came from the Huron-Erie lobe to the east in the Maumee valley in Ohio and from the Sturgis Lobe coming out of Michigan across northeast Indiana. The water backed up behind the Marseilles moraine  forming a series of lakes.  In the Morris basin was Lake Wauponsee, which reached east up the Kankakee valley into Indiana, It flowed south into the Iroquois River  into Lake Watseka over the divide (Chatsworth ridge of the Marseilles morainic system, to the Vermillion River valley past Pontiac. The volume of water was blocked at the gap in the Farm Ridge moraine, a unit of the Bloomington morainic system near  LaSalle.  This blockage created Lake Ottawa between Farm Ridge and the Marseilles moraine in the Illinois Valley, and between the Lake Pontiac between the Cropsey (unit of the Bloomington morainic system, and Marseilles moraines in the Vermilion Valley.

text: The area is underlain by bedrock of

text: Silurian

text: age. This rock is

text: dolomite

text: . Preglacial erosion the surface of the bedrock created an irregular surface, allows the glacial drift to vary in depth over short distances. Some areas are underlain by bedrock near the surface, in other areas it can be  deep. Some hills are solely glacial drift; others may be entirely of limestone.The water comes from the melting ‘Valparaiso glacier’, the glacier that deposited first the Manhattan moraine, part of the

text: Valparaiso morainic system

text: and the Valparaiso moraines to the northeast. The melt-water came from three glacial lobes of the

text: Laurentide ice sheet

text: . In addition to the melt-water from the Michigan lobe in the

text: Michigan basin

text: , melt-water came from the Huron-Erie lobe to the east in the

text: Maumee valley

text: in

text: Ohio

text: and from the Sturgis Lobe coming out of

text: Michigan

text: across northeast Indiana. The water backed up behind the

text: Marseilles moraine

text: forming a series of

text: lakes

text: .  In the Morris basin was

text: Lake Wauponsee

text: , which reached east up the Kankakee valley into Indiana, It flowed south into the

text: Iroquois River

text: into

text: Lake Watseka

text: over the divide (Chatsworth ridge of the Marseilles morainic system, to the

text: Vermillion River valley

text: past

text: Pontiac

text: . The volume of water was blocked at the gap in the Farm Ridge moraine, a unit of the

text: Bloomington morainic system

text: near

text: LaSalle

text: .  This blockage created

text: Lake Ottawa

text: between Farm Ridge and the Marseilles moraine in the

text: Illinois Valley

text: , and between the

text: Lake Pontiac

text: between the Cropsey (unit of the

text: Bloomington morainic system

text: , and Marseilles moraines in the Vermilion Valley.

text: Synapse is the Boston University Undergraduate Science Magazine and is published online every semester. The "Science" focus is on many disciplines ranging from life sciences to physical sciences, engineering to mathematics, and finance to economics. The magazine is peer and faculty reviewed, and is advertised with routine, campus-wide distribution of pamphlets highlighting featured articles. Synapse was first published in the spring of 2009 and continues to publish articles each semester.

text: A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma), dendrites, and an axon. The term neurite is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly in its undifferentiated stage. Dendrites are thin structures that arise from the cell body, often extending for hundreds of micrometres and branching multiple times, giving rise to a complex "dendritic tree". An axon (also called a nerve fiber when myelinated) is a special cellular extension (process) that arises from the cell body at a site called the axon hillock and travels for a distance, as far as 1 meter in humans or even more in other species. Nerve fibers are often bundled into fascicles, and in the peripheral nervous system, bundles of fascicles make up nerves (like strands of wire make up cables). The cell body of a neuron frequently gives rise to multiple dendrites, but never to more than one axon, although the axon may branch hundreds of times before it terminates. At the majority of synapses, signals are sent from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. There are, however, many exceptions to these rules: for example, neurons can lack dendrites, or have no axon, and synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.

text: A typical neuron consists of a cell body (

text: soma

text: dendrite

text: s, and an

text: axon

text: . The term

text: neurite

text: is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly in its

text: undifferentiated

text: stage. Dendrites are thin structures that arise from the cell body, often extending for hundreds of micrometres and branching multiple times, giving rise to a complex "dendritic tree". An axon (also called a

text: nerve fiber

text: when

text: myelin

text: ated) is a special cellular extension (process) that arises from the cell body at a site called the

text: axon hillock

text: and travels for a distance, as far as 1 meter in humans or even more in other species. Nerve fibers are often bundled into

text: fascicle

text: s, and in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , bundles of fascicles make up

text: nerve

text: s (like strands of wire make up cables). The cell body of a neuron frequently gives rise to multiple dendrites, but never to more than one axon, although the axon may branch hundreds of times before it terminates. At the majority of synapses, signals are sent from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. There are, however, many exceptions to these rules: for example, neurons can lack dendrites, or have no axon, and synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.

text: Synapse Product Development is a new product development (NPD), product design, and technology development consultancy company headquartered in Seattle, Washington, USA, with offices in San Francisco, California and Hong Kong. Synapse offers complete product development consulting from prototype to new product introduction and high-volume manufacturing. Synapse provides electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, software engineering, RF design, program management and global sourcing services. Synapse was co-founded in 2001 by Scott Bright and current CEO, Ross Collins. It is a privately held company.

text: Synapse Product Development is a

text: new product development (NPD)

text: product design

text: , and

text: technology development

text: consultancy

text: company headquartered in

text: Seattle, Washington

text: , USA, with offices in

text: San Francisco

text: California

text: and

text: Hong Kong

text: . Synapse offers complete

text: product development

text: consulting from

text: prototype

text: to

text: new product introduction

text: and

text: high-volume manufacturing

text: . Synapse provides

text: electrical engineering

text: mechanical engineering

text: software engineering

text: RF design

text: program management

text: and

text: global sourcing

text: services. Synapse was co-founded in 2001 by Scott Bright and current CEO, Ross Collins. It is a privately held company.

text: The central nervous system (CNS) of fish contains a spinal cord, medulla oblongata, and the brain, divided into telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon and cerebellum.

text: The central nervous system (CNS) of fish contains a

text: spinal cord

text: medulla oblongata

text: , and the

text: brain

text: , divided into

text: telencephalon

text: diencephalon

text: mesencephalon

text: and

text: cerebellum

text: Althaus moved to London, where as an assistant to Robert Bentley Todd he carried out the treatment of patients at King's College Hospital using electricity. In 1866, he was largely responsible for creating the Hospital for Epilepsy and Paralysis. This facility in Regent's Park later became the Maida Vale Hospital for Nervous Diseases and it is now part of National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery. In 1877, Althaus unsuccessfully tried to rename the disease multiple sclerosis "Charcot's disease" after the disease's first descriptor, Jean-Martin Charcot. He gave two lectures on spinal cord sclerosis in 1884 and noted that the meaning of the term "sclerosis" varied from country to country.

text: Althaus moved to London, where as an assistant to

text: Robert Bentley Todd

text: he carried out the treatment of patients at

text: King's College Hospital

text: using electricity. In 1866, he was largely responsible for creating the

text: Hospital for Epilepsy and Paralysis

text: . This facility in

text: Regent's Park

text: later became the

entity_name: National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery

text: Maida Vale Hospital for Nervous Diseases

text: and it is now part of

text: National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery

text: . In 1877, Althaus unsuccessfully tried to rename the disease

text: multiple sclerosis

text: "Charcot's disease" after the disease's first descriptor,

text: Jean-Martin Charcot

text: . He gave two lectures on spinal cord sclerosis in 1884 and noted that the meaning of the term "sclerosis" varied from country to country.

text: Neuroprotection refers to the relative preservation of neuronal structure and/or function. In the case of an ongoing insult (a neurodegenerative insult) the relative preservation of neuronal integrity implies a reduction in the rate of neuronal loss over time, which can be expressed as a differential equation.  It is a widely explored treatment option for many central nervous system (CNS) disorders including neurodegenerative diseases, stroke, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, and acute management of neurotoxin consumption (i.e. methamphetamine overdoses). Neuroprotection aims to prevent or slow disease progression and secondary injuries by halting or at least slowing the loss of neurons.   Despite differences in symptoms or injuries associated with CNS disorders, many of the mechanisms behind neurodegeneration are the same.  Common mechanisms include increased levels in oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, excitotoxicity, inflammatory changes, iron accumulation, and protein aggregation.  Of these mechanisms, neuroprotective treatments often target oxidative stress and excitotoxicity—both of which are highly associated with CNS disorders.  Not only can oxidative stress and excitotoxicity trigger neuron cell death but when combined they have synergistic effects that cause even more degradation than on their own.  Thus limiting excitotoxicity and oxidative stress is a very important aspect of neuroprotection.  Common neuroprotective treatments are glutamate antagonists and antioxidants, which aim to limit excitotoxicity and oxidative stress respectively.

text: Neuroprotection refers to the relative preservation of neuronal structure and/or function. In the case of an ongoing insult (a neurodegenerative insult) the relative preservation of neuronal integrity implies a reduction in the rate of neuronal loss over time, which can be expressed as a differential equation.  It is a widely explored treatment option for many

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) disorders including

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: stroke

text: traumatic brain injury

text: spinal cord injury

text: , and acute management of neurotoxin consumption (i.e.

text: methamphetamine

text: overdoses). Neuroprotection aims to prevent or slow disease progression and secondary injuries by halting or at least slowing the loss of

text: neurons

text: .   Despite differences in symptoms or injuries associated with

text: CNS disorders

text: , many of the mechanisms behind neurodegeneration are the same.  Common mechanisms include increased levels in oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, excitotoxicity, inflammatory changes, iron accumulation, and protein aggregation.  Of these mechanisms, neuroprotective treatments often target oxidative stress and excitotoxicity—both of which are highly associated with

text: CNS disorders

text: .  Not only can oxidative stress and excitotoxicity trigger neuron cell death but when combined they have synergistic effects that cause even more degradation than on their own.  Thus limiting excitotoxicity and oxidative stress is a very important aspect of neuroprotection.  Common neuroprotective treatments are glutamate antagonists and antioxidants, which aim to limit excitotoxicity and oxidative stress respectively.

text: Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a highly active interdisciplinary science that collaborates with many other fields. The scope of neuroscience has broadened recently to include molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, and medical aspects of the nervous system. Theoretical studies of neural networks are being complemented with techniques for imaging sensory and motor tasks in the brain.According to a 2008 paper, neuroscience explanations of psychological phenomena currently have a "seductive allure", and "seem to generate more public interest" than explanations which do not contain neuroscientific information. They found that subjects who were not neuroscience experts "judged that explanations with logically irrelevant neuroscience information were more satisfying than explanations without.

text: Neuroscience

text: is the scientific study of the

text: nervous system

text: . It is a highly active

text: interdisciplinary

text: science that collaborates with many other fields. The scope of neuroscience has broadened recently to include

text: molecular

text: cellular

text: developmental

text: structural

text: functional

text: evolutionary

text: computational

text: , and

text: medical

text: aspects of the nervous system. Theoretical studies of

text: neural network

text: s are being complemented with techniques for

text: imaging

text: sensory and motor tasks in the

text: brain

text: .According to a 2008 paper, neuroscience explanations of psychological phenomena currently have a "seductive allure", and "seem to generate more public interest" than explanations which do not contain neuroscientific information. They found that subjects who were not neuroscience experts "judged that explanations with logically irrelevant neuroscience information were more satisfying than explanations without.

text: Brittle stars use their arms for locomotion. They do not, like sea stars, depend on tube feet, which are mere sensory tentacles without suction. Brittle stars move fairly rapidly by wriggling their arms which are highly flexible and enable the animals to make either snake-like or rowing movements.  However, they tend to attach themselves to the sea floor or to sponges or cnidarians, such as coral.  They move as if they were bilaterally symmetrical, with an arbitrary leg selected as the symmetry axis and the other four used in propulsion. The axial leg may be facing or trailing the direction of motion, and due to the radially symmetrical nervous system, can be changed whenever a change in direction is necessary.

text: The cerebrum directs the conscious or volitional motor functions of the body. These functions originate within the primary motor cortex and other frontal lobe motor areas where actions are planned. Upper motor neurons in the primary motor cortex send their axons to the brainstem and spinal cord to synapse on the lower motor neurons, which innervate the muscles. Damage to motor areas of cortex can lead to certain types of motor neuron disease. This kind of damage results in loss of muscular power and precision rather than total paralysis.

text: The cerebrum directs the conscious or volitional motor functions of the body. These functions originate within the

text: primary motor cortex

text: and other frontal lobe motor areas where actions are planned.

text: Upper motor neuron

text: s in the primary motor cortex send their

text: axon

text: s to the brainstem and spinal cord to

text: synapse

text: on the

text: lower motor neurons

text: , which innervate the muscles. Damage to motor areas of cortex can lead to certain types of

text: motor neuron disease

text: . This kind of damage results in loss of muscular power and precision rather than total

text: paralysis

text: Excitotoxicity may be involved in spinal cord injury, stroke, traumatic brain injury, hearing loss (through noise overexposure or ototoxicity), and in neurodegenerative diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson's disease, alcoholism or alcohol withdrawal and especially over-rapid benzodiazepine withdrawal, and also Huntington's disease. Other common conditions that cause excessive glutamate concentrations around neurons are hypoglycemia. Blood sugars are the primary glutamate removal method from inter-synaptic spaces at the NMDA and AMPA receptor site. Persons in excitotoxic shock must never fall into hypoglycemia. Patients should be given 5% glucose (dextrose) IV drip during excitotoxic shock to avoid a dangerous build up of glutamate around NMDA and AMPA neurons. When 5% glucose (dextrose) IV drip is not available high levels of fructose are given orally. Treatment is administered during the acute stages of excitotoxic shock along with glutamate antagonists. Dehydration should be avoided as this also contributes to the concentrations of glutamate in the inter-synaptic cleft and "status epilepticus can also be triggered by a build up of glutamate around inter-synaptic neurons".

text: Excitotoxicity may be involved in

text: spinal cord injury

text: stroke

text: traumatic brain injury

text: hearing loss

text: (through

text: noise overexposure

text: or

text: ototoxicity

text: ), and in

text: neurodegenerative disease

text: s of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) such as

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: (ALS),

text: Parkinson's disease

text: alcoholism

text: or

text: alcohol withdrawal

text: and especially over-rapid

text: benzodiazepine withdrawal

text: , and also

text: Huntington's disease

text: . Other common conditions that cause excessive glutamate concentrations around neurons are

text: hypoglycemia

text: . Blood sugars are the primary glutamate removal method from inter-synaptic spaces at the NMDA and AMPA receptor site. Persons in excitotoxic shock must never fall into hypoglycemia. Patients should be given 5% glucose (dextrose) IV drip during excitotoxic shock to avoid a dangerous build up of glutamate around NMDA and AMPA neurons. When 5% glucose (dextrose) IV drip is not available high levels of fructose are given orally. Treatment is administered during the acute stages of excitotoxic shock along with glutamate antagonists. Dehydration should be avoided as this also contributes to the concentrations of glutamate in the inter-synaptic cleft and "status epilepticus can also be triggered by a build up of glutamate around inter-synaptic neurons".

text: The mechanism of aspirin's analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties was unknown through the drug's heyday in the early- to mid-twentieth century; Heinrich Dreser's explanation, widely accepted since the drug was first brought to market, was that aspirin relieved pain by acting on the central nervous system.  In 1958 Harry Collier, a biochemist in the London laboratory of pharmaceutical company Parke Davis, began investigating the relationship between kinins and the effects of aspirin.  In tests on guinea pigs, Collier found that aspirin, if given beforehand, inhibited the bronchoconstriction effects of bradykinin.  He found that cutting the guinea pigs' vagus nerve did not affect the action of bradykinin or the inhibitory effect of aspirin—evidence that aspirin worked locally to combat pain and inflammation, rather than on the central nervous system.  In 1963, Collier began working with University of London pharmacology graduate student Priscilla Piper to determine the precise mechanism of aspirin's effects.  However, it was difficult to pin down the precise biochemical goings-on in live research animals, and in vitro tests on removed animal tissues did not behave like in vivo tests.

text: The mechanism of aspirin's analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties was unknown through the drug's heyday in the early- to mid-twentieth century;

text: Heinrich Dreser

text: 's explanation, widely accepted since the drug was first brought to market, was that aspirin relieved pain by acting on the

text: central nervous system

text: .  In 1958 Harry Collier, a biochemist in the London laboratory of pharmaceutical company

text: Parke Davis

text: , began investigating the relationship between

text: kinins

text: and the effects of aspirin.  In tests on

text: guinea pig

text: s, Collier found that aspirin, if given beforehand, inhibited the

text: bronchoconstriction

text: effects of

text: bradykinin

text: .  He found that cutting the guinea pigs'

text: vagus nerve

text: did not affect the action of bradykinin or the inhibitory effect of aspirin—evidence that aspirin worked locally to combat pain and inflammation, rather than on the central nervous system.  In 1963, Collier began working with

text: University of London

text: pharmacology graduate student Priscilla Piper to determine the precise mechanism of aspirin's effects.  However, it was difficult to pin down the precise biochemical goings-on in live research animals, and

text: in vitro

text: tests on removed animal tissues did not behave like

text: in vivo

text: tests.

text: To get a rough idea of where the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is, recall that the left and right hemispheres of the brain are separated [by the longitudinal cerebral fissure].   Now imagine you could take your hand and starting at the anterior brain (where your forehead is) insert it into this gap until you reached the insula (a structure that is beneath the frontal lobe).  Your palm would be touching a part of the prefrontal cortex, which is in the front part of the brain and the lower part of your palm would be touching the ventral medial prefrontal cortex.

text: To get a rough idea of where the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is, recall that the left and right hemispheres of the brain are separated [by the

text: longitudinal cerebral fissure

text: ].   Now imagine you could take your hand and starting at the anterior brain (where your forehead is) insert it into this gap until you reached the

text: insula

text: (a structure that is beneath the frontal lobe).  Your palm would be touching a part of the prefrontal cortex, which is in the front part of the brain and the lower part of your palm would be touching the ventral medial prefrontal cortex.

text: The cell bodies of somatic sensory afferent fibers lie in ganglia throughout the spine. These neurons are responsible for relaying information about the body to the central nervous system. Neurons residing in ganglia of the head and body supply the central nervous system with information about the aforementioned external stimuli occurring to the body. Pseudounipolar cell bodies are located in the dorsal root ganglia.

text: The cell bodies of somatic sensory afferent fibers lie in ganglia throughout the spine. These neurons are responsible for relaying information about the body to the central nervous system. Neurons residing in ganglia of the head and body supply the central nervous system with information about the aforementioned external stimuli occurring to the body.

text: Pseudounipolar

text: cell bodies are located in the

text: dorsal root ganglia

text: SyNAPSE is a backronym standing for Systems of Neuromorphic Adaptive Plastic Scalable Electronics. The name alludes to synapses, the junctions between biological neurons. The program is being undertaken by HRL Laboratories (HRL), Hewlett-Packard, and IBM Research.  In November 2008, IBM and its collaborators were awarded $4.9 million in funding from DARPA while HRL and its collaborators were awarded $5.9 million in funding from DARPA.  For the next phase of the project, DARPA added $16.1 million more to the IBM effort while HRL received an additional $10.7 million. In 2011, DARPA added $21 million more to the IBM project. and an additional $17.9 million to the HRL project. The SyNAPSE team for IBM is led by Dharmendra Modha, manager of IBM's cognitive computing initiative. The SyNAPSE team for HRL is led by Narayan Srinivasa, manager of HRL's Center for Neural and Emergent Systems.

text: SyNAPSE is a

text: backronym

text: standing for Systems of Neuromorphic Adaptive Plastic Scalable Electronics. The name alludes to

text: synapse

text: s, the junctions between biological neurons. The program is being undertaken by

text: HRL Laboratories

text: (HRL),

text: Hewlett-Packard

text: , and

text: IBM Research

text: .  In November 2008, IBM and its collaborators were awarded $4.9 million in funding from DARPA while HRL and its collaborators were awarded $5.9 million in funding from DARPA.  For the next phase of the project, DARPA added $16.1 million more to the IBM effort while HRL received an additional $10.7 million. In 2011, DARPA added $21 million more to the IBM project. and an additional $17.9 million to the HRL project. The SyNAPSE team for IBM is led by

text: Dharmendra Modha

text: , manager of IBM's cognitive computing initiative. The SyNAPSE team for HRL is led by Narayan Srinivasa, manager of HRL's Center for Neural and Emergent Systems.

text: Neurogenic shock can result from severe central nervous system damage (brain injury, cervical or high thoracic spinal cord). In more simple terms: the trauma causes a sudden loss of background sympathetic stimulation to the blood vessels. This causes them to relax (vasodilation) resulting in a sudden decrease in blood pressure (secondary to a decrease in peripheral vascular resistance).

text: Neurogenic shock can result from severe central

text: nervous system

text: damage (

text: brain injury

text: cervical

text: or high

text: thoracic

text: spinal cord

text: ). In more simple terms: the trauma causes a sudden loss of background

text: sympathetic

text: stimulation to the blood vessels. This causes them to relax (

text: vasodilation

text: ) resulting in a sudden decrease in blood pressure (secondary to a decrease in

text: peripheral vascular resistance

text: In vertebrates, the enteric nervous system  includes efferent neurons, afferent neurons, and interneurons, all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of carrying reflexes and acting as an integrating center in the absence of CNS input.  The sensory neurons report on mechanical and chemical conditions.  Through intestinal muscles, the motor neurons control peristalsis and churning of intestinal contents.  Other neurons control the secretion of enzymes.  The enteric nervous system also makes use of more than 30 neurotransmitters, most of which are identical to the ones found in CNS, such as acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin. More than 90% of the body's serotonin lies in the gut, as well as about 50% of the body's dopamine, which is currently being studied to further our understanding of its utility in the brain.

text: efferent neurons

text: afferent neuron

text: s, and

text: interneurons

text: , all of which make the enteric nervous system capable of carrying reflexes and acting as an

text: integrating center

text: in the absence of CNS input.  The sensory neurons report on mechanical and chemical conditions.  Through intestinal muscles, the motor neurons control

text: peristalsis

text: enzymes

text: neurotransmitters

text: acetylcholine

text: dopamine

text: , and

text: serotonin

text: . More than 90% of the body's serotonin lies in the gut, as well as about 50% of the body's dopamine, which is currently being studied to further our understanding of its utility in the brain.

text: Along with the similar 2-iodomorphine as well as iodinated analogs of dihydromorphine, dihydrocodeine, heroin, and the fluorinated, chlorinated, and brominated analogues of this series, this change may not impact the activity of the drug to a notable extent but 1- and 2-iodomorphine are used in pharmacological, neurological, metabolic, and endocrine research as it allows the tagging of morphine with iodine-131 or iodine-129.  Such research was important in the discovery of opioid receptors in the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and other tissues in humans, mammals, birds, and some reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, and arthropods.

text: Along with the similar

text: as well as iodinated analogs of

text: dihydromorphine

text: dihydrocodeine

text: heroin

text: , and the fluorinated, chlorinated, and brominated analogues of this series, this change may not impact the activity of the drug to a notable extent but 1- and 2-iodomorphine are used in pharmacological, neurological, metabolic, and endocrine research as it allows the tagging of morphine with

text: or

text: .  Such research was important in the discovery of

text: opioid receptors

text: in the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and other tissues in humans, mammals, birds, and some reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, and arthropods.

text: Chemical receptors for glutamate fall into three major classes, known as AMPA receptors, NMDA receptors, and metabotropic glutamate receptors.  Many synapses use multiple types of glutamate receptors. AMPA receptors are ionotropic receptors specialized for fast excitation:  in many synapses they produce excitatory electrical responses in their targets a fraction of a millisecond after being stimulated.  NMDA receptors are also ionotropic, but they differ from AMPA receptors in being permeable, when activated, to calcium.  Their properties make them particularly important for learning and memory. Metabotropic receptors act through second messenger systems to create slow, sustained effects on their targets.  A fourth class, known as kainate receptors, are similar in many respects to AMPA receptors, but much less abundant.

text: Chemical receptors for glutamate fall into three major classes, known as

text: AMPA receptor

text: s,

text: NMDA receptor

text: s, and

text: metabotropic glutamate receptor

text: s.  Many synapses use multiple types of glutamate receptors. AMPA receptors are

text: ionotropic receptor

text: s specialized for fast excitation:  in many synapses they produce excitatory electrical responses in their targets a fraction of a millisecond after being stimulated.  NMDA receptors are also ionotropic, but they differ from AMPA receptors in being permeable, when activated, to calcium.  Their properties make them particularly important for learning and memory. Metabotropic receptors act through

text: second messenger system

text: s to create slow, sustained effects on their targets.  A fourth class, known as

text: kainate receptor

text: s, are similar in many respects to AMPA receptors, but much less abundant.

text: Because humans are adapted to survive, the "most important" movements tend to be reflexes -- pain or defensive reflexes needed to be carried out in very short time scales in order for ancient humans to survive their harsh environment. Most of our movements, though, are voluntary; voluntary control had historically been under-emphasized or even disregarded altogether. Bernstein saw voluntary movements as structured around a "motor problem" where the nervous system needed two factors to act: a full and complete perception of reality, as accomplished by multisensory integration, and objectivity of perception through constant and correct recognition of signals by the nervous system. Only with both may the nervous system choose an appropriate motor solution.

text: Because humans are adapted to survive, the "most important" movements tend to be

text: reflex

text: es --

text: pain

text: or defensive reflexes needed to be carried out in very short time scales in order for ancient humans to survive their harsh environment. Most of our movements, though, are voluntary; voluntary control had historically been under-emphasized or even disregarded altogether. Bernstein saw voluntary movements as structured around a "motor problem" where the nervous system needed two factors to act: a full and complete perception of reality, as accomplished by

text: multisensory integration

text: , and objectivity of perception through constant and correct recognition of

text: signals

text: by the nervous system. Only with both may the nervous system choose an appropriate motor solution.

text: Henricia sanguinolenta has no brain, but has a nervous system. The sea star has no capacity for planning. The nervous system has two parts. They are motor system and the sensory system which are interconnected by neurons. The motor system is responsible for movement and functioning and the sensory system is responsible for controlling the sensory organs. Both of these systems run up and down the arms, and around the disc.

text: Henricia sanguinolenta has no brain, but has a

text: nervous system

text: . The sea star has no capacity for planning. The nervous system has two parts. They are motor system and the sensory system which are interconnected by

text: neurons

text: . The motor system is responsible for movement and functioning and the sensory system is responsible for controlling the sensory organs. Both of these systems run up and down the arms, and around the disc.

text: Nervous tissue is composed of neurons, also called nerve cells, and neuroglial cells. Typically, nervous tissue is categorized into four types of tissue. In the central nervous system (CNS), the tissue types found are grey matter and white matter. In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), the tissue types are nerves and ganglia. The tissue is categorized by its neuronal and neuroglial components.

text: Nervous tissue is composed of

text: neurons

text: , also called nerve cells, and

text: neuroglial cells

text: . Typically, nervous tissue is categorized into four types of tissue. In the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), the tissue types found are

text: grey matter

text: and

text: white matter

text: . In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), the tissue types are

text: nerve

text: s and

text: ganglia

text: . The tissue is categorized by its neuronal and neuroglial components.

text: While the boundary between the lobes, the central sulcus, is easy to locate on the lateral surface of the cerebral hemispheres, this boundary is often discerned in a cytoarchetectonic manner in cases where the central sulcus is not visible on the medial surface.

text: While the boundary between the lobes, the

text: central sulcus

text: , is easy to locate on the lateral surface of the cerebral hemispheres, this boundary is often discerned in a

text: cytoarchetectonic

text: manner in cases where the central sulcus is not visible on the medial surface.

text: Nociceptive pain is immediate pain felt as a result of injury inflicted upon tissue. Neuropathic pain, in contrast, is long-lasting pain that develops when the peripheral and the central nervous system are sensitized following injury to these systems. Neuropathic pain may be continuous pain, spontaneous, or pain caused by hypersensitivity to non-nociceptive levels of stimulus.Angiotensin II (AngII) is an octapeptide that regulates blood pressure, controls water fluid balance, and pain perception. It activates two membrane bound G protein-coupled receptors: angiotensin II type 1 receptors (ATR) and angiotensin II type 2 receptors (ATR). AgnII co-localization with substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide implies its role in nociception. ATR, the receptor mainly responsible for AngII's effect on the pain mechanisms within the nervous system, is expressed in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG), as well as human trigeminal ganglia. These receptors are locally produced inside DRG neurons, implying the presence of an intrinsic angiotensinergic system. Injured nerves and painful neuromas show higher ATR expression compared to normal undamaged nerves. AngII contributes to neuropathic pain by potentiating neuronal pathways that signal pain when AngII activates ATR expressed on pain detecting neurons. AngII potentiates neuronal pathways by increasing neurite length and density in DRG neurons. AngII potentiates neuronal pathways by sensitizing nociceptors as well. Nociceptor sensitization suggests a decreased thresholds for activation of nociceptors. ATR activation increases kinase levels in DRG neurons, such as levels of PKA, PKC and MAPK, via G protein-coupled receptor-activated second messenger pathways. These phosphorylating enzymes sensitize major voltage-gated ion channels found on DRG neurons. Sensitization increases neuronal excitation following receptor channel activation. EMA401 antagonized human ATR with a Ki of 5.4 nM, IC of 39 nM and a Hill coefficient of 1.3. EMA401 alleviates pain and provides relief by blocking the AngII induced potentiation.

text: Nociceptive pain is immediate pain felt as a result of injury inflicted upon tissue.

text: Neuropathic pain

text: , in contrast, is long-lasting pain that develops when the peripheral and the central nervous system are sensitized following injury to these systems. Neuropathic pain may be continuous pain, spontaneous, or pain caused by hypersensitivity to non-nociceptive levels of stimulus.

text: Angiotensin II

text: A central nervous system cyst is a cyst that primarily presents in the tissue of the central nervous system.

text: A central nervous system cyst is a

text: cyst

text: that primarily presents in the tissue of the

text: central nervous system

text: The degree of asymmetry between right and left hemispheres is a point of interest to most paleoneurologists because it could be linked to handedness or language development of the specimen. Asymmetries occur due to hemispherical specialization and are observed in both a qualitative and quantitative manner. The unevenness of the hemispheres, known as a petalia, is characterized by a lobe that is wider and/or protruding beyond the contralateral lobe. For example, a right-handed person typically has larger left occipital lobe and right frontal lobes than the contralateral lobes. Petalias also occur due to specialization in the communication centers of the frontal cortex of the brain in modern humans. Petalias in the occipital lobe are easier to detect than those in the frontal lobe. Certain asymmetries have been documented on Homo erectus specimens such as the Homo redolfensis specimen from 1.8 million years ago that resemble the same asymmetries from modern humans. Some gorillas have shown strong petalias, but they are not found in combination with other petalias as is almost always the case in humans. Scientists use the presence of petalias to show sophistication, but they are not a definitive indicator of evolution toward a more human brain.

text: The degree of asymmetry between right and left hemispheres is a point of interest to most paleoneurologists because it could be linked to

text: handedness

text: or language development of the specimen. Asymmetries occur due to

text: hemispherical

text: specialization and are observed in both a qualitative and quantitative manner. The unevenness of the hemispheres, known as a petalia, is characterized by a lobe that is wider and/or protruding beyond the contralateral lobe. For example, a right-handed person typically has larger left occipital lobe and right frontal lobes than the contralateral lobes. Petalias also occur due to specialization in the

text: communication centers

text: of the

text: frontal cortex

text: of the brain in modern humans. Petalias in the occipital lobe are easier to detect than those in the frontal lobe. Certain asymmetries have been documented on Homo erectus specimens such as the Homo redolfensis specimen from 1.8 million years ago that resemble the same asymmetries from modern humans. Some gorillas have shown strong petalias, but they are not found in combination with other petalias as is almost always the case in humans. Scientists use the presence of petalias to show sophistication, but they are not a definitive indicator of evolution toward a more human brain.

text: Neurogenic shock is caused by the loss of vascular tone normally supported by the sympathetic nervous system due to injury to the central nervous system especially spinal cord injury. Rupture of a hollow organ, with subsequent evacuation of contents in the peritoneal cavity could also determine neurogenic shock, a subtype of distributive shock. This happens due to the widespread peritoneal irritation by the ruptured viscus contents, as in peptic ulcer perforation, with consequent strong vagal activation, and generalized, extensive peripheral vasodilatation and bradicardia.

text: Neurogenic shock

text: is caused by the loss of vascular

text: tone

text: normally supported by the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: due to injury to the central nervous system especially

text: spinal cord injury

text: . Rupture of a hollow organ, with subsequent evacuation of contents in the peritoneal cavity could also determine neurogenic shock, a subtype of distributive shock. This happens due to the widespread peritoneal irritation by the ruptured viscus contents, as in peptic ulcer perforation, with consequent strong vagal activation, and generalized, extensive peripheral vasodilatation and bradicardia.

text: Basic physiology is studied, mostly endocrinology and the hormonal influence of primary and secondary sexual characteristics. It is taught that there are three fundamental nervous systems, the cerebrospinal nervous system, grand sympathetic nervous system, and the Parasympathetic nervous system. These nervous systems are referred to as the "Three Brains" or three centers of the intellectual animal, and are named Intellectual Center, the Emotional Center, and the Motor-Instinctual-Sexual Center. Each center is studied in relation to the types of energies or "occult hydrogens" that animate them, the frequency at which each center operates (sexual center being the fastest, then emotional, then intellectual), and how psychological aggregates form and act within each center: psychological aggregates that are expressed through the intellect one way and through the emotions in a different way, etc.

text: Basic

text: physiology

text: is studied, mostly

text: endocrinology

text: and the

text: hormonal

text: influence of primary and

text: secondary sexual characteristics

text: . It is taught that there are three fundamental

text: nervous systems

text: , the

text: cerebrospinal nervous system

text: grand sympathetic nervous system

text: , and the

text: Parasympathetic nervous system

text: . These nervous systems are referred to as the "Three Brains" or three centers of the intellectual animal, and are named Intellectual Center, the Emotional Center, and the Motor-Instinctual-Sexual Center. Each center is studied in relation to the types of energies or "occult hydrogens" that animate them, the frequency at which each center operates (sexual center being the fastest, then emotional, then intellectual), and how psychological aggregates form and act within each center: psychological aggregates that are expressed through the intellect one way and through the emotions in a different way, etc.

text: The US Food and Drug Administration's Peripheral and Central Nervous System Drugs Advisory Committee rejected the drug in June 2012, in a 13-4 vote. The committee stated that there was not enough evidence supporting efficacy of the drug, and requested additional clinical trials.

text: The US

text: Food and Drug Administration

text: 's Peripheral and Central Nervous System Drugs Advisory Committee rejected the drug in June 2012, in a 13-4 vote. The committee stated that there was not enough evidence supporting efficacy of the drug, and requested additional clinical trials.

text: Stimulants are drugs that usually act on the central nervous system to modulate mental function and behavior, increasing an individual's sense of excitement and decreasing the sensation of fatigue.  In the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances, stimulants are the second largest class after the anabolic steroids.  Examples of well known stimulants include caffeine, cocaine, amphetamine, modafinil, and ephedrine. Caffeine, although a stimulant has not been banned by the International Olympic Committee or the World Anti Doping Agency since 2004.

text: Stimulants are drugs that usually act on the central nervous system to modulate mental function and behavior, increasing an individual's sense of excitement and decreasing the sensation of fatigue.  In the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances, stimulants are the second largest class after the anabolic steroids.  Examples of well known stimulants include

text: caffeine

text: cocaine

text: amphetamine

text: modafinil

text: , and

text: ephedrine

text: . Caffeine, although a stimulant has not been banned by the International Olympic Committee or the World Anti Doping Agency since 2004.

text: The epidural space is the space inside the bony spinal canal but just outside the dura mater ("dura"). In contact with the inner surface of the dura is another membrane called the arachnoid mater ("arachnoid"). The cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the spinal cord is contained by the arachnoid mater. In adults, the spinal cord terminates around the level of the disc between L1 and L2 (in neonates it extends to L3 but can reach as low as L4), below which lies a bundle of nerves known as the cauda equina ("horse's tail"). Hence, lumbar epidural injections carry a low risk of injuring the spinal cord.

text: The epidural space is the space inside the bony

text: spinal canal

text: but just outside the

text: dura mater

text: ("dura"). In contact with the inner surface of the dura is another membrane called the

text: arachnoid mater

text: ("arachnoid"). The cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds the

text: spinal cord

text: is contained by the arachnoid mater. In adults, the spinal cord terminates around the level of the disc between L1 and L2 (in neonates it extends to L3 but can reach as low as L4), below which lies a bundle of nerves known as the

text: cauda equina

text: ("horse's tail"). Hence, lumbar epidural injections carry a low risk of injuring the spinal cord.

text: The parasympathetic aspect of the facial nerve controls secretion of the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands, the lacrimal gland, and the glands associated with the nasal cavity. The preganglionic fibers originate within the CNS in the superior salivatory nucleus and leave as the intermediate nerve (which some consider a separate cranial nerve altogether) to connect with the facial nerve just distal (further out) to it surfacing the central nervous system. Just after the facial nerve geniculate ganglion (general sensory ganglion) in the temporal bone, the facial nerve gives off two separate parasympathetic nerves. The first is the greater petrosal nerve and the second is the chorda tympani. The greater petrosal nerve travels through the middle ear and eventually combines with the deep petrosal nerve (sympathetic fibers) to form the nerve of the pterygoid canal. The parasympathetic fibers of the nerve of the pterygoid canal synapse at the pterygopalatine ganglion, which is closely associated with the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V). The postganglionic parasympathetic fibers leave the pterygopalatine ganglion in several directions. One division leaves on the zygomatic division of CN V and travels on a communicating branch to unite with the lacrimal nerve (branch of the ophthalmic nerve of CN V) before synapsing at the lacrimal gland. These parasympathetic to the lacrimal gland control tear production.

text: The parasympathetic aspect of the

text: facial nerve

text: controls secretion of the sublingual and submandibular

text: salivary glands

text: , the

text: lacrimal gland

text: , and the glands associated with the nasal cavity. The preganglionic fibers originate within the CNS in the superior salivatory nucleus and leave as the

text: intermediate nerve

text: (which some consider a separate cranial nerve altogether) to connect with the

text: facial nerve

text: just distal (further out) to it surfacing the central nervous system. Just after the facial nerve

text: geniculate ganglion

text: (general sensory ganglion) in the

text: temporal bone

text: , the facial nerve gives off two separate parasympathetic nerves. The first is the

text: greater petrosal nerve

text: and the second is the

text: chorda tympani

text: . The greater petrosal nerve travels through the middle ear and eventually combines with the deep petrosal nerve (sympathetic fibers) to form the nerve of the

text: pterygoid canal

text: . The parasympathetic fibers of the nerve of the pterygoid canal synapse at the

text: pterygopalatine ganglion

text: , which is closely associated with the maxillary division of the

text: trigeminal nerve

text: (CN V). The postganglionic parasympathetic fibers leave the pterygopalatine ganglion in several directions. One division leaves on the

text: zygomatic

text: division of CN V and travels on a communicating branch to unite with the lacrimal nerve (branch of the ophthalmic nerve of CN V) before synapsing at the lacrimal gland. These parasympathetic to the lacrimal gland control tear production.

text: The acute porphyrias are acute intermittent porphyria (AIP), variegate porphyria (VP), amino levulinic acid dehydratase deficiency (ALAD) and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). These diseases primarily affect the nervous system, resulting in episodic crises known as acute attacks. The major symptom of an acute attack is abdominal pain, often accompanied by vomiting, hypertension (elevated blood pressure), and tachycardia (an abnormally rapid heart rate). The most severe episodes may involve neurological complications: typically motor neuropathy (severe dysfunction of the peripheral nerves that innervate muscle), which leads to muscle weakness and potentially to quadriplegia (paralysis of all four limbs) and central nervous system symptoms such as seizures and coma. Occasionally, there may be short-lived psychiatric symptoms such as anxiety, confusion, hallucinations, and, very rarely, overt psychosis. All these symptoms resolve once the acute attack passes. Porphyria is not a cause of chronic psychiatric illness, though an association with anxiety and depression has been suggested.

text: The acute porphyrias are

text: acute intermittent porphyria

text: (AIP),

text: variegate porphyria

text: (VP),

text: amino levulinic acid dehydratase deficiency

text: (ALAD) and

text: hereditary coproporphyria

text: (HCP). These diseases primarily affect the

text: nervous system

text: , resulting in episodic crises known as acute attacks. The major symptom of an acute attack is

text: abdominal pain

text: , often accompanied by

text: vomiting

text: hypertension

text: (elevated blood pressure), and

text: tachycardia

text: (an abnormally rapid heart rate). The most severe episodes may involve neurological complications: typically motor neuropathy (severe dysfunction of the peripheral nerves that innervate muscle), which leads to muscle weakness and potentially to

text: quadriplegia

text: (paralysis of all four limbs) and

text: central nervous system

text: symptoms such as

text: seizure

text: s and

text: coma

text: . Occasionally, there may be short-lived psychiatric symptoms such as anxiety, confusion,

text: hallucination

text: s, and, very rarely, overt psychosis. All these symptoms resolve once the acute attack passes. Porphyria is not a cause of chronic psychiatric illness, though an association with anxiety and depression has been suggested.

text: His early work Very Nervous System (1982–1991) is acknowledged as a pioneering work of interactive art, translating physical gestures into real-time interactive sound environments. Very Nervous System was presented at the Venice Biennale in 1986.

text: His early work Very Nervous System (1982–1991) is acknowledged as a pioneering work of

text: interactive art

text: , translating physical gestures into real-time interactive sound environments. Very Nervous System was presented at the

text: Venice Biennale

text: in 1986.

text: In 1935, however, Lewis and Pickering were studying patients with palsy of the median nerve when they discovered that skin wrinkling did not occur in the areas of the patients' skin normally innervated by the damaged nerve.  This suggested that the nervous system plays an essential role in wrinkling, so the phenomenon could not be entirely explained simply by water absorption. Recent research shows that wrinkling is related to vasoconstriction. Water probably initiates the wrinkling process by altering the balance of electrolytes in the skin as it diffuses into the hands and soles via their many sweat ducts. This could alter the stability of the membranes of the many neurons that synapse on the many blood vessels underneath skin, causing them to fire more rapidly.  Increased neuronal firing causes blood vessels to constrict, decreasing the amount of fluid underneath the skin.  This decrease in fluid would cause a decrease in tension, causing the skin to become wrinkly.

text: In 1935, however, Lewis and Pickering were studying patients with

text: palsy

text: of the

text: median nerve

text: when they discovered that skin wrinkling did not occur in the areas of the patients' skin normally innervated by the damaged nerve.  This suggested that the nervous system plays an essential role in wrinkling, so the phenomenon could not be entirely explained simply by water absorption. Recent research shows that wrinkling is related to

text: vasoconstriction

text: . Water probably initiates the wrinkling process by altering the balance of

text: electrolytes

text: in the skin as it diffuses into the hands and soles via their many sweat ducts. This could alter the stability of the membranes of the many neurons that synapse on the many blood vessels underneath skin, causing them to fire more rapidly.  Increased neuronal firing causes blood vessels to constrict, decreasing the amount of fluid underneath the skin.  This decrease in fluid would cause a decrease in tension, causing the skin to become wrinkly.

text: Congenital anomalies of the nervous system include neural tube defects such as spina bifida, meningocele, meningomyelocele, encephalocele and anencephaly. Other congenital anomalies of the nervous system include the Arnold-Chiari malformation, the Dandy-Walker malformation, hydrocephalus, microencephaly, megalencephaly, lissencephaly, polymicrogyria, holoprosencephaly, and agenesis of the corpus callosum.

text: Congenital anomalies of the nervous system include

text: neural tube defects

text: such as

text: spina bifida

text: meningocele

text: meningomyelocele

text: encephalocele

text: and

text: anencephaly

text: . Other congenital anomalies of the nervous system include the

text: Arnold-Chiari malformation

text: , the

text: Dandy-Walker malformation

text: hydrocephalus

text: microencephaly

text: megalencephaly

text: lissencephaly

text: polymicrogyria

text: holoprosencephaly

text: , and

text: agenesis of the corpus callosum

text: A general paradigm for understanding motor control, optimal control has been defined as "optimizing motor control for a given aspect of task performance," or as a way to minimize a certain "cost" associated with a movement. This "cost function" may be different depending on the task-goal; for example, minimum energy expenditure might be a task-variable associated with locomotion, while precise trajectory and positional control could be a task-variable associated with reaching for an object. Furthermore, the cost function may be quite complex (for instance, it may be a functional instead of function) and be also related to the representations in the internal space. For example, the speech produced by biomechanical tongue models (BTM), controlled by the internal model which minimizes the length of the path traveled in the internal space under the constraints related to the executed task (e.g., quality of speech, stiffness of tongue), was found to be quite realistic. In essence, the goal of optimal control is to "reduce degrees of freedom in a principled way." Two key components of all optimal control systems are: a "state estimator" which tells the nervous system about what it is doing, including afferent sensory feedback and an efferent copy of the motor command; and adjustable feedback gains based on task goals. A component of these adjustable gains might be a "minimum intervention principle" where the nervous system only performs selective error correction rather than heavily modulating the entirety of a movement.

text: A general paradigm for understanding motor control, optimal control has been defined as "optimizing motor control for a given aspect of task performance," or as a way to minimize a certain "cost" associated with a movement. This "cost function" may be different depending on the task-goal; for example, minimum

text: energy expenditure

text: might be a task-variable associated with

text: locomotion

text: , while precise trajectory and positional control could be a task-variable associated with reaching for an object. Furthermore, the cost function may be quite complex (for instance, it may be a functional instead of function) and be also related to the representations in the

text: internal space

text: . For example, the speech produced by biomechanical tongue models (BTM), controlled by the internal model which minimizes the length of the path traveled in the internal space under the constraints related to the executed task (e.g., quality of speech, stiffness of tongue), was found to be quite realistic. In essence, the goal of optimal control is to "reduce degrees of freedom in a principled way." Two key components of all optimal control systems are: a "state estimator" which tells the nervous system about what it is doing, including afferent sensory feedback and an

text: efferent copy

text: of the motor command; and adjustable

text: feedback gains

text: based on task goals. A component of these adjustable gains might be a "minimum intervention principle" where the nervous system only performs selective error correction rather than heavily modulating the entirety of a movement.

text: The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous system, and includes the brain and spinal cord.

text: The

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous system, and includes the brain and spinal cord.

text: The nervous system is composed of a central nervous system (CNS), brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), cranial nerves and spinal nerves. The CNS is located within the dorsal cavity, and the PNS extends through the ventral cavity. The central nervous system provides control and coordination of all eleven body systems and utilizes the endocrine system to form hormone chemical messengers that transport through the blood to influence the activity of individual cells of the body and their associated tissues, organs and systems.

text: The nervous system is composed of a

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS),

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: , and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS),

text: cranial nerves

text: and

text: spinal nerves

text: . The CNS is located within the

text: dorsal cavity

text: , and the PNS extends through the

text: ventral cavity

text: . The central nervous system provides control and coordination of all eleven body systems and utilizes the

text: endocrine system

text: to form

text: hormone

text: chemical messengers that transport through the blood to influence the activity of individual cells of the body and their associated tissues, organs and systems.

text: Segmentation is a crucial patterning process that is involved in the development of both the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. In the central nervous system, segmentation is involved in the patterning of the neuronal population. Added to that, segmentation guides the developing axons and contribute to the development of the peripheral nervous system. In bilateral animals, the fundamental body plan involves the left and right sides as mirror images to each other with a hollow tube of gut cavity from mouth to anus along with a nerve cord with a structure named ganglion for each segment of the body. In fact, most evolutionary evidences point to the postulate that segmentation is an independent evolutionary event that arose multiple times and that the cellular and molecular pathways of segmentation might show differences in different contexts due to this fact.

text: Segmentation is a crucial patterning process that is involved in the development of both the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. In the central nervous system, segmentation is involved in the patterning of the neuronal population. Added to that, segmentation guides the developing axons and contribute to the development of the peripheral nervous system. In bilateral animals, the fundamental body plan involves the left and right sides as mirror images to each other with a hollow tube of gut cavity from mouth to anus along with a nerve cord with a structure named

text: ganglion

text: for each segment of the body. In fact, most evolutionary evidences point to the postulate that segmentation is an independent evolutionary event that arose multiple times and that the cellular and molecular pathways of segmentation might show differences in different contexts due to this fact.

text: In the context of psychophysiological research, vagal tone (and specifically its influence on heart rate) represents an index for the functional state of the entire parasympathetic nervous system.  Heart rate is normally controlled by multiple centers in the brainstem; one of these centers, the nucleus ambiguus, increases parasympathetic nervous system input to the heart via the vagus nerve. Vagal tone decreases heart rate by inhibiting the firing rate of the sinoatrial node (S-A node, the usual natural pacemaker tissue of the heart).  The absolute level of cardiac vagal activity or vagal tone appears to result from the excitatory drive from peripheral baroreceptors. In animals, cardiac vagal activity disappears at very low pressures or if the afferent nerves are cut.  Thus, a major determinant of resting heart rate is the beat to beat activation of the arterial baroreflex with each cardiac cycle.Cardiac vagal tone has been treated as a physiologic substrate of regulation of emotion and arousal.

text: In the context of psychophysiological research, vagal tone (and specifically its influence on heart rate) represents an index for the functional state of the entire parasympathetic nervous system.  Heart rate is normally controlled by multiple centers in the brainstem; one of these centers, the

text: nucleus ambiguus

text: , increases parasympathetic nervous system input to the heart via the vagus nerve. Vagal tone decreases heart rate by inhibiting the firing rate of the

text: sinoatrial node

text: (S-A node, the usual

text: natural pacemaker tissue

text: of the heart).  The absolute level of cardiac vagal activity or vagal tone appears to result from the excitatory drive from peripheral baroreceptors. In animals, cardiac vagal activity disappears at very low pressures or if the afferent nerves are cut.  Thus, a major determinant of resting heart rate is the beat to beat activation of the arterial baroreflex with each cardiac cycle.Cardiac vagal tone has been treated as a physiologic substrate of regulation of emotion and arousal.

text: Given its prevalence in cell membranes, cholesterol is highly involved in certain transport processes. It may influence the function of ion channels and other membrane transporters. For example, cholesterol is necessary for the ligand binding activity of the serotonin receptor. In addition, it appears to be very important in exocytosis. Cholesterol modulates the properties of the membrane (such as membrane curvature), and may regulate the fusion of vesicles with the cell membrane. It may also facilitate the recruitment of complexes necessary for exocytosis. Given that neurons rely heavily on exoctyosis for the transmission of impulses, cholesterol is a very important part of the nervous system.

text: Given its prevalence in cell membranes, cholesterol is highly involved in certain

text: transport

text: processes. It may influence the function of

text: ion channel

text: s and other membrane transporters. For example, cholesterol is necessary for the

text: ligand

text: binding activity of the

text: serotonin

text: receptor

text: . In addition, it appears to be very important in

text: exocytosis

text: . Cholesterol modulates the properties of the membrane (such as membrane curvature), and may regulate the fusion of

text: vesicles

text: with the cell membrane. It may also facilitate the recruitment of complexes necessary for exocytosis. Given that

text: neuron

text: s rely heavily on exoctyosis for the transmission of

text: impulses

text: , cholesterol is a very important part of the

text: nervous system

text: In individuals affected by SMA, the SMN1 gene is mutated in such a way that it is unable to correctly code the SMN protein - due to either a deletion occurring at exon 7 or to other point mutations (frequently resulting in the functional conversion of the SMN1 sequence into SMN2). All patients, however, retain at least one copy of the SMN2 gene (with most having 2-4 of them) which still codes small amounts of SMN protein - around 10-20% of the normal level - allowing some neurons to survive. In the long run, however, reduced availability of the SMN protein results in gradual death of motor neuron cells in the anterior horn of spinal cord and the brain. Muscles that depend on these motor neurons for neural input now have decreased innervation (also called denervation), and therefore have decreased input from the central nervous system (CNS). Denervated skeletal muscle is more difficult for the body to control. Decreased impulse transmission through the motor neurons leads to decreased contractile activity of the denervated muscle. Consequently, denervated muscles undergo progressive atrophy.

text: In individuals affected by SMA, the SMN1 gene is

text: mutated

text: in such a way that it is unable to correctly code the SMN protein - due to either a

text: deletion

text: occurring at

text: exon

text: 7 or to other

text: point mutations

text: (frequently resulting in the functional conversion of the SMN1 sequence into SMN2). All patients, however, retain at least one copy of the SMN2 gene (with most having 2-4 of them) which still codes small amounts of SMN protein - around 10-20% of the normal level - allowing some neurons to survive. In the long run, however, reduced availability of the SMN protein results in gradual death of motor neuron cells in the

text: anterior horn of spinal cord

text: and the brain. Muscles that depend on these motor neurons for neural input now have decreased innervation (also called denervation), and therefore have decreased input from the central nervous system (CNS). Denervated skeletal muscle is more difficult for the body to control. Decreased impulse transmission through the motor neurons leads to decreased contractile activity of the denervated muscle. Consequently, denervated muscles undergo progressive

text: atrophy

text: The division has been slated for disbandment in 2009, with two brigades being created from its existing subunits.  Each brigade will include about 7,500 personnel with one mounted on BMP-3 tracked vehicles while the other using BTR-80 and BTR-90 wheeled vehicles. The two brigades, according to Warfare.ru, are the 5th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade in the Moscow Military District, and the 8th Separate Guards Mountain Motor Rifle Brigade in Chechniya.

text: The division has been slated for disbandment in 2009, with two brigades being created from its existing subunits.  Each brigade will include about 7,500 personnel with one mounted on

text: tracked vehicles while the other using

text: and

text: wheeled vehicles. The two brigades, according to Warfare.ru, are the 5th Separate Guards Motor Rifle Brigade in the Moscow Military District, and the

text: 8th Separate Guards Mountain Motor Rifle Brigade

text: in

text: Chechniya

text: The central nervous system (CNS) controls most functions of the body and mind. It consists of two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over body movement. Like a central computer, it interprets information from our eyes (sight), ears (sound), nose (smell), tongue (taste) and skin (touch), as well as from internal organs such as the stomach. It controls all voluntary movement, such as speech and walking, and involuntary movement like blinking and breathing. It is the core of our thoughts, perceptions and emotions.

text: Eyes are organs of the visual system.  They provide organisms vision, the ability to process visual detail, as well as enabling several photo response functions that are independent of vision. Eyes detect light and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in neurons. In higher organisms, the eye is a complex optical system which collects light from the surrounding environment, regulates its intensity through a diaphragm, focuses it through an adjustable assembly of lenses to form an image, converts this image into a set of electrical signals, and transmits these signals to the brain through complex neural pathways that connect the eye via the optic nerve to the visual cortex and other areas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of animal species possess a complex optical system. Image-resolving eyes are present in molluscs, chordates and arthropods.

text: Eyes are

text: organs

text: of the

text: visual system

text: .  They provide organisms

text: vision

text: , the ability to process visual detail, as well as enabling several photo response functions that are independent of vision. Eyes detect

text: light

text: and convert it into electro-chemical impulses in

text: neurons

text: . In higher organisms, the eye is a complex

text: optical

text: system which collects light from the surrounding environment, regulates its intensity through a

text: diaphragm

text: focuses

text: it through an adjustable assembly of

text: lenses

text: to form an image, converts this image into a set of electrical signals, and transmits these signals to the

text: brain

text: through complex neural pathways that connect the eye via the

text: optic nerve

text: to the

text: visual cortex

text: and other areas of the brain. Eyes with resolving power have come in ten fundamentally different forms, and 96% of

text: animal

text: species possess a complex optical system. Image-resolving eyes are present in

text: molluscs

text: chordates

text: and

text: arthropods

text: Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930s by Kenneth S. Cole and Howard J. Curtis. German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify and characterize the axon initial segment. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading the formulation of the Hodgkin–Huxley model. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulas detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the Nodes of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons, describing their functionality. Erlanger and Gasser earlier developed the classification system for peripheral nerve fibers, based on axonal conduction velocity, myelination, fiber size etc.Even recently our understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced, and now includes many details about individual ion channels.

text: Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930s by

text: Kenneth S. Cole

text: and

text: Howard J. Curtis

text: . German anatomist

text: Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters

text: is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify and characterize the axon initial segment.

text: Alan Hodgkin

text: and

text: Andrew Huxley

text: also employed the

text: squid giant axon

text: (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the

text: action potential

text: , leading the formulation of the

text: Hodgkin–Huxley model

text: . Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the

text: Nobel Prize

text: for this work in 1963. The formulas detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the Nodes of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons, describing their functionality. Erlanger and Gasser earlier developed the classification system for peripheral nerve fibers, based on axonal conduction velocity,

text: myelin

text: ation, fiber size etc.Even recently our understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced, and now includes many details about individual

text: ion channel

text: s.

text: During the increase in ICP, both the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system are activated. In the first stage of the reflex, sympathetic nervous system stimulation is much greater than parasympathetic stimulation.The sympathetic response activates alpha-1 adrenergic receptors, causing constriction of the body's arteries. This constriction raises the total resistance of blood flow, elevating blood pressure to high levels, which is known as  hypertension. The body's induced hypertension is an attempt to restore blood flow to the ischemic brain. The sympathetic stimulation also increases the rate of heart contractions and cardiac output.  Increased heart rate is also known as tachycardia. This combined with hypertension is the first stage of the Cushing reflex.

text: During the increase in ICP, both the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: are activated. In the first stage of the reflex, sympathetic nervous system stimulation is much greater than parasympathetic stimulation.The sympathetic response activates

text: alpha-1 adrenergic receptor

text: s, causing constriction of the body's

text: arteries

text: . This constriction raises the total resistance of blood flow, elevating blood pressure to high levels, which is known as

text: hypertension

text: . The body's induced hypertension is an attempt to restore blood flow to the ischemic brain. The sympathetic stimulation also increases the rate of heart

text: contractions

text: and

text: cardiac output

text: .  Increased heart rate is also known as

text: tachycardia

text: . This combined with hypertension is the first stage of the Cushing reflex.

text: The disease tends to be gradually progressive. Symptoms such as weakness, ataxia, and dragging of the toes start in the rear legs. Dogs often have a crouching stance with a downward flexed neck. The disease progresses to the front legs, but the symptoms are less severe. Neck pain is sometimes seen. Symptoms are usually gradual in onset, but may progress rapidly following trauma. X-rays may show misaligned vertebrae and narrow disk spaces, but it is not as effective as a myelogram, which reveals stenosis of the vertebral canal. Magnetic resonance imaging has been shown to be more effective at showing the location, nature, and severity of spinal cord compression than a myelogram. Treatment is either medical to control the symptoms, usually with corticosteroids and cage rest, or surgical to correct the spinal cord compression. The prognosis is guarded in either case. Surgery may fully correct the problem, but it is technically difficult and relapses may occur. Types of surgery include ventral decompression of the spinal cord (ventral slot technique), dorsal decompression, and vertebral stabilization. One study showed no significant advantage to any of the common spinal cord decompression procedures. Another study showed that electroacupuncture may be a successful treatment for Wobbler disease.  A new surgical treatment using a proprietary medical device has been deveolped for dogs with disc-associated wobbler disease.  It implants an artificial disc (cervical arthroplasty) in place of the affected disc space.

text: The disease tends to be gradually progressive. Symptoms such as weakness,

text: ataxia

text: , and dragging of the toes start in the rear legs. Dogs often have a crouching stance with a downward flexed neck. The disease progresses to the front legs, but the symptoms are less severe. Neck pain is sometimes seen. Symptoms are usually gradual in onset, but may progress rapidly following trauma.

text: X-ray

text: s may show misaligned vertebrae and narrow disk spaces, but it is not as effective as a

text: myelogram

text: , which reveals stenosis of the vertebral canal.

text: Magnetic resonance imaging

text: has been shown to be more effective at showing the location, nature, and severity of spinal cord compression than a myelogram. Treatment is either medical to control the symptoms, usually with

text: corticosteroid

text: s and cage rest, or surgical to correct the spinal cord compression. The

text: prognosis

text: is guarded in either case. Surgery may fully correct the problem, but it is technically difficult and relapses may occur. Types of surgery include

text: ventral

text: decompression of the spinal cord (

text: ventral slot

text: technique), dorsal decompression, and vertebral stabilization. One study showed no significant advantage to any of the common spinal cord decompression procedures. Another study showed that

text: electroacupuncture

text: may be a successful treatment for Wobbler disease.  A new surgical treatment using a proprietary

text: medical device

text: has been deveolped for dogs with disc-associated wobbler disease.  It implants an artificial disc (cervical arthroplasty) in place of the affected disc space.

text: A Golgi II or Golgi type II neuron is a neuron having either no axon or else a short axon that does not send branches out of the gray matter of the central nervous system.

text: A Golgi II or Golgi type II

text: neuron

text: is a neuron having either no axon or else a short

text: axon

text: that does not send branches out of the

text: gray matter

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: A special case of a chemical synapse is the neuromuscular junction, in which the axon of a motor neuron terminates on a muscle fiber. In such cases, the released neurotransmitter is acetylcholine, which binds to the acetylcholine receptor, an integral membrane protein in the membrane (the sarcolemma) of the muscle fiber.  However, the acetylcholine does not remain bound; rather, it dissociates and is hydrolyzed by the enzyme, acetylcholinesterase, located in the synapse. This enzyme quickly reduces the stimulus to the muscle, which allows the degree and timing of muscular contraction to be regulated delicately. Some poisons inactivate acetylcholinesterase to prevent this control, such as the nerve agents sarin and tabun, and the insecticides diazinon and malathion.

text: A special case of a chemical synapse is the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: , in which the

text: axon

text: of a

text: motor neuron

text: terminates on a

text: muscle fiber

text: . In such cases, the released neurotransmitter is

text: acetylcholine

text: , which binds to the acetylcholine receptor, an integral membrane protein in the membrane (the

text: sarcolemma

text: ) of the muscle fiber.  However, the acetylcholine does not remain bound; rather, it dissociates and is

text: hydrolyzed

text: by the enzyme,

text: acetylcholinesterase

text: , located in the synapse. This enzyme quickly reduces the stimulus to the muscle, which allows the degree and timing of muscular contraction to be regulated delicately. Some poisons inactivate acetylcholinesterase to prevent this control, such as the

text: nerve agent

text: s

text: sarin

text: and

text: tabun

text: , and the insecticides

text: diazinon

text: and

text: malathion

text: CCK is found extensively throughout the central nervous system, with high concentrations found in the limbic system. CCK is synthesized as a 115 amino acid preprohormone, that is then converted into multiple isoforms. The predominant form of CCK in the central nervous system is the sulfated octapeptide, CCK-8S.

text: CCK is found extensively throughout the

text: central nervous system

text: , with high concentrations found in the

text: limbic system

text: . CCK is synthesized as a 115 amino acid

text: preprohormone

text: , that is then converted into multiple

text: isoforms

text: . The predominant form of CCK in the central nervous system is the

text: sulfated

text: octapeptide

text: , CCK-8S.

text: The cerebral cortex is nearly symmetrical with left and right hemispheres that are approximate mirror images of each other. Each hemisphere is conventionally divided into four "lobes", the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. With one exception, this division into lobes does not derive from the structure of the cortex, though the lobes are named after the bones of the skull that overlie them, the frontal bone, parietal bone, temporal bone, and occipital bone. The borders between lobes lie beneath the sutures that link the skull bones together. The exception is the border between the frontal and parietal lobes, which lies behind the corresponding suture; instead it follows the anatomical boundary of the central sulcus, a deep fold in the brain's structure where the primary somatosensory cortex and primary motor cortex meet.

text: The cerebral cortex is nearly symmetrical with left and right hemispheres that are approximate mirror images of each other. Each hemisphere is conventionally divided into

text: four "lobes"

text: , the

text: frontal lobe

text: parietal lobe

text: occipital lobe

text: , and

text: temporal lobe

text: . With one exception, this division into lobes does not derive from the structure of the cortex, though the lobes are named after the bones of the skull that overlie them, the frontal bone, parietal bone, temporal bone, and occipital bone. The borders between lobes lie beneath the

text: sutures

text: that link the skull bones together. The exception is the border between the frontal and parietal lobes, which lies behind the corresponding suture; instead it follows the anatomical boundary of the

text: central sulcus

text: , a deep fold in the brain's structure where the primary somatosensory cortex and primary motor cortex meet.

text: The symptoms appear 12 hours after consumption and may include vomiting, dizziness, a burning sensation in the throat, headache, abdominal pain, and occasionally diarrhea. After roughly two days, the mucous membranes of the mouth and throat become swollen, and swallowing is sometimes difficult. The papillae of the tip of the edges of the tongue swell and may remain enlarged for two months. Drowsiness may occur early. The patient may respond when spoken to but rapidly falls asleep again. Other nervous system signs may be present. The severity of the condition can vary depending upon the amount of meat consumed. Mild cases show mouth and throat symptoms while in severe cases central nervous system signs are always present. The patient may remain unconscious for a week or more. The mortality rate in cases which develop central nervous system signs is very high.

text: For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the diencephalon (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the myelencephalon (which will contain the medulla oblongata). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions.

text: For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of

text: ectoderm

text: running along the midline of the back is

text: induced

text: to become the

text: neural plate

text: , the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the

text: neural groove

text: , and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the

text: neural tube

text: , a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the

text: forebrain

text: midbrain

text: , and

text: hindbrain

text: . At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the

text: telencephalon

text: (which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the

text: diencephalon

text: (which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the

text: metencephalon

text: (which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the

text: myelencephalon

text: (which will contain the

text: medulla oblongata

text: ). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions.

text: RORα, RORβ, and RORγ are all transcriptional activators recognizing ROR-response elements. ROR-alpha is expressed in a variety of cell types and is involved in regulating several aspects of development, inflammatory responses, and lymphocyte development. The RORα isoforms (RORα1 through RORα3) arise via alternative RNA processing, with RORα2 and RORα3 sharing an amino-terminal region different from RORα1. In contrast to RORα, RORβ is expressed in Central Nervous System (CNS) tissues involved in processing sensory information and in generating circadian rhythms while RORγ is critical in lymph node organogenesis and thymopoeisis.

text: RORα,

text: RORβ

text: , and RORγ are all transcriptional activators recognizing ROR-response elements. ROR-alpha is expressed in a variety of cell types and is involved in regulating several aspects of development,

text: inflammatory

text: responses, and

text: lymphocyte

text: development. The RORα isoforms (RORα1 through RORα3) arise via alternative RNA processing, with RORα2 and RORα3 sharing an amino-terminal region different from RORα1. In contrast to RORα, RORβ is expressed in

text: Central Nervous System

text: (CNS) tissues involved in processing sensory information and in generating

text: circadian rhythms

text: while RORγ is critical in

text: lymph node

text: organogenesis

text: and

text: thymopoeisis

text: The specific myelin damage resulting from B deficiency, even in the presence of adequate folate and methionine, is more specifically and clearly a vitamin deficiency problem. It has been connected to B most directly by reactions related to MUT, which is absolutely required to convert methylmalonyl coenzyme A into succinyl coenzyme A. Failure of this second reaction to occur results in elevated levels of MMA, a myelin destabilizer. Excessive MMA will prevent normal fatty acid synthesis, or it will be incorporated into fatty acid itself rather than normal malonic acid. If this abnormal fatty acid subsequently is incorporated into myelin, the resulting myelin will be too fragile, and demyelination will occur. Although the precise mechanism(s) are not known with certainty, the result is subacute combined degeneration of central nervous system and spinal cord. Whatever the cause, it is known that B deficiency causes neuropathies, even if folic acid is present in good supply, and therefore anemia is not present.

text: The specific myelin damage resulting from B deficiency, even in the presence of adequate folate and methionine, is more specifically and clearly a vitamin deficiency problem. It has been connected to B most directly by reactions related to MUT, which is absolutely required to convert methylmalonyl coenzyme A into succinyl coenzyme A. Failure of this second reaction to occur results in elevated levels of MMA, a myelin destabilizer. Excessive MMA will prevent normal fatty acid synthesis, or it will be incorporated into fatty acid itself rather than normal malonic acid. If this abnormal fatty acid subsequently is incorporated into myelin, the resulting myelin will be too fragile, and demyelination will occur. Although the precise mechanism(s) are not known with certainty, the result is subacute combined degeneration of central nervous system and spinal cord. Whatever the cause, it is known that B deficiency causes

text: neuropathies

text: , even if folic acid is present in good supply, and therefore anemia is not present.

text: NRIs are commonly used in the treatment of conditions like ADHD and narcolepsy due to their psychostimulant effects and in obesity due to their appetite suppressant effects. They are also frequently used as antidepressants for the treatment of major depressive disorder, anxiety and panic disorder. Additionally, many drugs of abuse such as cocaine and methylphenidate possess NRI activity, though it is important to mention that NRIs without combined dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI) properties are not significantly rewarding and hence are considered to have a negligible abuse potential. However, norepinephrine has been implicated as acting synergistically with dopamine when actions on the two neurotransmitters are combined (e.g., in the case of NDRIs) to produce rewarding effects in psychostimulant drugs of abuse.<ref name="pmid11071707">{{cite journal  |vauthors=Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, etal | title = Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin | journal = Synapse | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 32–41 |date=January 2001 | pmid = 11071707 | doi = 10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1

text: NRIs are commonly used in the treatment of conditions like

text: ADHD

text: and

text: narcolepsy

text: due to their

text: psychostimulant

text: effects and in

text: obesity

text: due to their

text: appetite suppressant

text: effects. They are also frequently used as antidepressants for the treatment of

text: major depressive disorder

text: anxiety

text: and

text: panic disorder

text: . Additionally, many

text: drugs of abuse

text: such as

text: cocaine

text: and

text: methylphenidate

text: possess NRI activity, though it is important to mention that NRIs without combined

text: dopamine reuptake inhibitor

text: (DRI) properties are not significantly rewarding and hence are considered to have a negligible

text: abuse potential

text: . However, norepinephrine has been implicated as acting synergistically with dopamine when actions on the two neurotransmitters are combined (e.g., in the case of

text: NDRI

text: s) to produce rewarding effects in psychostimulant drugs of abuse.<ref name="pmid11071707">{{cite journal  |vauthors=Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, etal | title = Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin | journal = Synapse | volume = 39 | issue = 1 | pages = 32–41 |date=January 2001 | pmid = 11071707 | doi = 10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1

text: The limbic lobe is an arc-shaped region of cortex on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere of the mammalian brain, consisting of parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. The term is ambiguous, with some authors including the paraterminal gyrus, the subcallosal area, the cingulate gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the dentate gyrus, the hippocampus and the subiculum; while the Terminologia Anatomica includes the cingulate sulcus, the cingulate gyrus, the isthmus of cingulate gyrus, the fasciolar gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the parahippocampal sulcus, the dentate gyrus, the fimbrodentate sulcus, the fimbria of hippocampus, the collateral sulcus, and the rhinal sulcus, and omits the hippocampus.

text: The limbic lobe is an arc-shaped region of

text: cortex

text: on the medial surface of each

text: cerebral hemisphere

text: of the mammalian brain, consisting of parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. The term is ambiguous, with some authors including the

text: paraterminal gyrus

text: , the

text: subcallosal area

text: , the

text: cingulate gyrus

text: , the

text: parahippocampal gyrus

text: , the

text: dentate gyrus

text: , the

text: hippocampus

text: and the

text: subiculum

text: ; while the

text: Terminologia Anatomica

text: includes the

text: cingulate sulcus

text: , the cingulate gyrus, the

text: isthmus of cingulate gyrus

text: , the

text: fasciolar gyrus

text: , the parahippocampal gyrus, the parahippocampal sulcus, the

text: dentate gyrus

text: , the fimbrodentate sulcus, the

text: fimbria of hippocampus

text: , the

text: collateral sulcus

text: , and the

text: rhinal sulcus

text: , and omits the hippocampus.

text: The three main characteristics of MS are the formation of lesions in the central nervous system (also called plaques), inflammation, and the destruction of myelin sheaths of neurons. These features interact in a complex and not yet fully understood manner to produce the breakdown of nerve tissue and in turn the signs and symptoms of the disease. Additionally, MS is believed to be an immune-mediated disorder that develops from an interaction of the individual's genetics and as yet unidentified environmental causes. Damage is believed to be caused, at least in part, by attack on the nervous system by a person's own immune system.

text: The three main characteristics of MS are the formation of lesions in the

text: central nervous system

text: (also called plaques), inflammation, and the destruction of

text: myelin sheath

text: s of neurons. These features interact in a complex and not yet fully understood manner to produce the breakdown of nerve tissue and in turn the signs and symptoms of the disease. Additionally, MS is believed to be an

text: immune-mediated

text: disorder that develops from an interaction of the individual's genetics and as yet unidentified environmental causes. Damage is believed to be caused, at least in part, by attack on the nervous system by a person's own immune system.

text: A  class of medication, the "vaptan" drugs, act by directly blocking the action of vasopressin at its receptors (V, V and V). These receptors have a variety of functions, with the V and V receptors are expressed peripherally and involved in the modulation of blood pressure and kidney function respectively, while the V and V receptors are expressed in the central nervous system. V is expressed in many regions of the brain, and has been linked to a variety of social behaviors in humans and animals.

text: A  class of medication, the "vaptan" drugs, act by directly blocking the action of vasopressin at its

text: receptor

text: s (

text: V

text: V

text: and

text: V

text: ). These receptors have a variety of functions, with the V and V receptors are expressed peripherally and involved in the modulation of blood pressure and kidney function respectively, while the V and V receptors are expressed in the central nervous system. V is expressed in many regions of the brain, and has been linked to a variety of social behaviors in humans and animals.

text: A neuron (also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an excitable cell in the nervous system that processes and transmits information by electrochemical signaling. Neurons are the core components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord, and the peripheral nerves. A number of specialized types of neurons exist: sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light and numerous other stimuli affecting cells of the sensory organs that then send signals to the spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions and affect glands. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to stimuli, and communicate the presence of stimuli to the central nervous system, which processes that information and sends responses to other parts of the body for action. Neurons do not go through mitosis, and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed, although astrocytes have been observed to turn into neurons as they are sometimes pluripotent.

text: A neuron (also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an excitable

text: cell

text: in the

text: nervous system

text: that processes and transmits information by electrochemical

text: signaling

text: brain

text: , the

text: vertebrate

text: spinal cord

text: , the

text: invertebrate

text: ventral nerve cord

text: , and the peripheral nerves. A number of specialized types of neurons exist: sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light and numerous other stimuli affecting cells of the

text: sensory organs

text: that then send signals to the spinal cord and brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause

text: muscle contraction

text: s and affect

text: gland

text: s.

text: Interneuron

text: s connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Neurons respond to

text: stimuli

text: , and communicate the presence of stimuli to the central nervous system, which processes that information and sends responses to other parts of the body for action. Neurons do not go through

text: mitosis

text: , and usually cannot be replaced after being destroyed, although

text: astrocytes

text: have been observed to turn into neurons as they are sometimes

text: pluripotent

text: Brain injury will commonly be accompanied by acute swelling, which impairs function in brain tissue that remains alive. Resolution of swelling is an important factor for the individual's function to improve. The greatest factor in functional recovery after brain injury comes from the brain's ability to learn, called neuroplasticity. After injury, neuroplasticity allows intact areas of the brain to adapt and attempt to compensate for damaged parts of the brain. Although axons and the peripheral nervous system in the developing brain can regenerate, they cannot in the adult brain. This is partly because of factors produced by cells in the brain that inhibit this regeneration. Dendrites, however, will develop from intact axons, as part of the neuroplasticity process. After severe brain injury, improvement in function related to neuroplasticity is unlikely to occur without help from health professionals skilled in rehabilitation.  Recent studies have found collagen is extensively distributed throughout the brain and may be essential in protecting the brain against degeneration such as that in Alzheimers

text: Brain injury

text: will commonly be accompanied by acute swelling, which impairs function in brain tissue that remains alive. Resolution of swelling is an important factor for the individual's function to improve. The greatest factor in functional recovery after brain injury comes from the brain's ability to learn, called

text: neuroplasticity

text: . After injury, neuroplasticity allows intact areas of the brain to adapt and attempt to compensate for damaged parts of the brain. Although

text: axon

text: s and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: in the developing brain can regenerate, they cannot in the adult brain. This is partly because of factors produced by cells in the brain that inhibit this regeneration.

text: Dendrite

text: s, however, will develop from intact axons, as part of the neuroplasticity process. After severe brain injury, improvement in function related to neuroplasticity is unlikely to occur without help from health professionals skilled in

text: rehabilitation

text: .  Recent studies have found collagen is extensively distributed throughout the brain and may be essential in protecting the brain against degeneration such as that in Alzheimers

text: The nervous system of one very small roundworm, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, has been completely mapped out in a connectome including its synapses. Every neuron and its cellular lineage has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is sexually dimorphic; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and female hermaphrodites, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In C. elegans, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons.

text: The nervous system of one very small roundworm, the

text: nematode

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: , has been completely mapped out in a

text: connectome

text: including its synapses. Every neuron and its

text: cellular lineage

text: sexually dimorphic

text: ; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and female

text: hermaphrodites

text: Another causative factor may be an undetected urinary tract infection. The difficulty in assessing this may be complicated with the usage of indwelling or suprapubic catheters.  When a painful stimulus occurs, as when voiding is interrupted or a bowel obstruction occurs, nerve impulses are sent to the brain via the spinal cord.  However, in spinal cord transection, these impulses are unable to travel past the injury.  This results in a spinal cord reflex to the autonomic nervous system in response to pain.  In patients with spinal cord transection, types of stimulation that are tolerated by healthy people create an excessive response from the person's nervous system.

text: Diseases of the peripheral nervous system can be specific to one or more nerves, or affect the system as a whole.

text: Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is divided in white and gray matter. This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of axons and oligodendrocytes, while the gray matter consists of neurons and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of glial cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the central nervous system. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during neurogenesis such as bergmann glia, while others such as microglia are a specialized form of macrophage, involved in the immune system of the brain as well as the clearance of various metabolites from the brain tissue. Astrocytes may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the capillaries of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing gliosis, a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons.

text: Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the central nervous system and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . The central nervous system is divided in

text: white

text: and

text: gray matter

text: . This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of

text: axon

text: s and

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s, while the gray matter consists of

text: neuron

text: s and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of

text: glia

text: l cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the central nervous system. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during

text: neurogenesis

text: such as

text: bergmann glia

text: , while others such as

text: microglia

text: are a specialized form of

text: macrophage

text: , involved in the

text: immune system

text: of the brain as well as the clearance of various

text: metabolites

text: from the

text: brain tissue

text: Astrocytes

text: may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the

text: capillaries

text: of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing

text: gliosis

text: , a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons.

text: The tracts that connect cortical areas within the same hemisphere are called association tracts. Long association fibers connect different lobes of a hemisphere to each other whereas short association fibers connect different gyri within a single lobe. Among their roles, association tracts link perceptual and memory centers of the brain.

text: The tracts that connect cortical areas within the same hemisphere are called

text: association tracts

text: . Long association fibers connect different lobes of a hemisphere to each other whereas short association fibers connect different gyri within a single lobe. Among their roles, association tracts link perceptual and memory centers of the brain.

text: This fluid circulates through the brain and spinal cord, and it is produced in the choroid plexuses. The meninges consists of three connective tissues that cover the spinal cord and brain. They are lined with vertebral cavities, which is used as protection for the central nervous system. When the cerebrospinal fluid is infected, the meninges become inflamed and can start to deteriorate. This inflammation of the membranes causes meningitis.

text: This fluid circulates through the brain and spinal cord, and it is produced in the

text: choroid plexuses

text: . The

text: meninges

text: consists of three connective tissues that cover the spinal cord and brain. They are lined with

text: vertebral cavities

text: , which is used as protection for the

text: central nervous system

text: . When the cerebrospinal fluid is infected, the meninges become inflamed and can start to deteriorate. This inflammation of the membranes causes

text: meningitis

text: Research in 2004 has shown that synapses do not strengthen or weaken on a sliding scale. There are discrete states that synapses move between. These states are active, silent, recently silent, potentiated, and depressed. The states which they can move to are dependent on the state that they are in at the moment. Thus, the future state is determined by the state gained by previous activity. For instance, silent (but not recently silent) synapses can be converted to active via the insertion of AMPARs in the postsynaptic membrane. Active synapses can move to either potentiated or depressed via LTP or LTD respectively. Prolonged low-frequency stimulation (5 Hz, the method used to induce LTD) can move an active synapse to depressed and then silent. However, synapses that have just become active cannot be depressed or silenced. Thus there is state-machine-like behavior at the synapse when it comes to transitions. However, the states themselves can have varying degrees of intensity. One active-state synapse can be stronger than another active-state synapse. This is, in theory, how you can have a strong memory vs. a weak memory. The strong memories are the ones with very heavily populated active synapses, while weak memories may still be active but poorly populated with AMPARs. The same research has shown that NMDA receptors themselves, once thought to be the control mechanism behind AMPA receptor organization, can be regulated by synaptic activity. This regulation of the regulation mechanism itself adds another layer of complexity to the biology of the brain.

text: Research in 2004 has shown that synapses do not strengthen or weaken on a sliding scale. There are discrete states that synapses move between. These states are active,

text: silent

text: , recently silent, potentiated, and depressed. The states which they can move to are dependent on the state that they are in at the moment. Thus, the future state is determined by the state gained by previous activity. For instance, silent (but not recently silent) synapses can be converted to active via the insertion of AMPARs in the postsynaptic membrane. Active synapses can move to either potentiated or depressed via

text: LTP

text: or

text: LTD

text: respectively. Prolonged low-frequency stimulation (5 Hz, the method used to induce LTD) can move an active synapse to depressed and then silent. However, synapses that have just become active cannot be depressed or silenced. Thus there is state-machine-like behavior at the synapse when it comes to transitions. However, the states themselves can have varying degrees of intensity. One active-state synapse can be stronger than another active-state synapse. This is, in theory, how you can have a strong memory vs. a weak memory. The strong memories are the ones with very heavily populated active synapses, while weak memories may still be active but poorly populated with AMPARs. The same research has shown that NMDA receptors themselves, once thought to be the control mechanism behind AMPA receptor organization, can be regulated by synaptic activity. This regulation of the regulation mechanism itself adds another layer of complexity to the biology of the brain.

text: Based on the surface appearance, three lobes can be distinguished within the cerebellum: the anterior lobe (above the primary fissure), the posterior lobe (below the primary fissure), and the flocculonodular lobe (below the posterior fissure). These lobes divide the cerebellum from rostral to caudal (in humans, top to bottom). In terms of function, however, there is a more important distinction along the medial-to-lateral dimension. Leaving out the flocculonodular lobe, which has distinct connections and functions, the cerebellum can be parsed functionally into a medial sector called the spinocerebellum and a larger lateral sector called the cerebrocerebellum. A narrow strip of protruding tissue along the midline is called the cerebellar vermis. (Vermis is Latin for "worm".)

text: Based on the surface appearance, three lobes can be distinguished within the cerebellum: the

text: anterior lobe

text: (above the

text: primary fissure

text: ), the

text: posterior lobe

text: (below the primary fissure), and the

text: flocculonodular lobe

text: (below the posterior fissure). These lobes divide the cerebellum from rostral to caudal (in humans, top to bottom). In terms of function, however, there is a more important distinction along the medial-to-lateral dimension. Leaving out the flocculonodular lobe, which has distinct connections and functions, the cerebellum can be parsed functionally into a medial sector called the

text: spinocerebellum

text: and a larger lateral sector called the

text: cerebrocerebellum

text: . A narrow strip of protruding tissue along the midline is called the

text: cerebellar vermis

text: . (Vermis is Latin for "worm".)

text: In the Central Nervous System:

text: In the Central Nervous System:

text: The fundamental unit of chemical neurotransmission is due to the "quantal release event", which is due to the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane, which provides for release of the encapsulated neurotransmitter from the synapse.  Sulzer and colleagues reported the first direct recordings of quantal neurotransmitter release from brain synapses using an electrochemistry technique known as amperometry using microelectrodes in an approach previously used by Mark Wightman, a chemist at the University of North Carolina, to measure release of adrenaline from adrenal chromaffin cells.

text: The fundamental unit of chemical

text: neurotransmission

text: is due to the "quantal release event", which is due to the fusion of

text: synaptic vesicles

text: with the plasma membrane, which provides for release of the encapsulated neurotransmitter from the synapse.  Sulzer and colleagues reported the first direct recordings of quantal neurotransmitter release from brain synapses using an

text: electrochemistry

text: technique known as

text: amperometry

text: using microelectrodes in an approach previously used by

text: Mark Wightman

text: , a chemist at the

text: University of North Carolina

text: , to measure release of

text: adrenaline

text: from adrenal

text: chromaffin cells

text: The cerebrum of cerebral hemispheres make up the largest visual portion of the human brain. Various structures combine forming the cerebral hemispheres, among others, the cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus. The hemispheres together control a large portion of the functions of the human brain such as emotion, memory, perception and motor functions. Apart from this the cerebral hemispheres stand for the cognitive capabilities of the brain.

text: The injured spinal cord is an “altered” spinal cord. After a SCI, supraspinal and spinal sources of control of movement differ substantially from that which existed prior to the injury, thus resulting in an altered spinal cord. The automaticity of posture and locomotion emerge from the interactions between peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS) to work in synergy, each system having intrinsic activation and inhibition patterns that can generate coordinated motor outputs.

text: Krembil scientists are at work on a diverse array of human healthcare questions within multiple research programs.  At the Krembil, neuroscientists explore the function of the nervous system as they develop treatments for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, spinal cord injuries, cerebral ischemia (stroke), vascular brain malformations, aneurysms, brain tumours and pain disorders.  Krembil is also home to the Vision Science Research Program, a joint UHN/University of Toronto Program. This research is directed into the following areas: molecular genetics of blinding eye diseases with brain disorders; treatment and biophysics of glaucoma; eye movement control mechanisms; neuronal damage; retinal degeneration and diabetic retinopathy.  Arthritis and associated rheumatological degenerative diseases are the focus of the researchers in the musculoskeletal research program at the Krembil as part of the UHN Arthritis and Autoimmunity Research Centre. Their investigations are aimed at revealing the causes of, and generating therapies for, these autoimmune and orthopaedic ailments.

text: In human genetics, the GRIA2 gene is located on chromosome 4q32-q33. The gene product is the ionotropic AMPA glutamate receptor 2 ( also known as Glur2 or GlurB). The protein belongs to a family of ligand-activated glutamate receptors that are sensitive to alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA). Glutamate receptors function as the main excitatory neurotransmitter at many synapses in the central nervous system. L-glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, binds to the Gria2 resulting in a conformational change. This leads to the opening of the channel converting the chemical signal to an electrical impulse. AMPA receptors (AMPAR) are composed of four subunits, designated as GluR1 (GRIA1), GluR2 (GRIA2), GluR3 (GRIA3), and GluR4(GRIA4) which combine to form tetramers. They are usually heterotrimeric but can be homodimeric. Each AMPAR has four sites to which an agonist (such as L-glutamate) can bind, one for each subunit.[5]

text: In human

text: genetics

text: , the GRIA2

text: gene

text: is located on

text: chromosome

text: 4q32-q33. The

text: gene product

text: is the

text: ionotropic

text: AMPA

text: glutamate receptor

text: 2 ( also known as Glur2 or GlurB). The

text: protein

text: belongs to a family of

text: ligand

text: -activated

text: glutamate

text: receptors

text: that are sensitive to alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole

text: propionate

text: (AMPA). Glutamate receptors function as the main excitatory

text: neurotransmitter

text: at many

text: synapse

text: s in the

text: central nervous system

text: L-glutamate

text: , an excitatory neurotransmitter, binds to the Gria2 resulting in a conformational change. This leads to the opening of the channel converting the

text: chemical signal

text: to an

text: electrical impulse

text: . AMPA receptors (AMPAR) are composed of four subunits, designated as GluR1 (GRIA1), GluR2 (GRIA2), GluR3 (GRIA3), and GluR4(GRIA4) which combine to form

text: tetramer

text: s. They are usually

text: heterotrimeric

text: but can be

text: homodimeric

text: . Each AMPAR has four sites to which an

text: agonist

text: (such as L-glutamate) can bind, one for each subunit.[5]

text: Neuroscience has a unique perspective in that it can be applied in a broad range of disciplines, and thus the fields neuroscientists work in vary. Neuroscientists may study topics from the large hemispheres of the brain to neurotransmitters and synapses occurring in neurons at a micro-level. Some fields that combine psychology and neurology include cognitive neuroscience, and behaviorial neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscientists study the human consciousness, specifically the brain, and how it can be seen through a lens of biological and chemical processes.  Behaviorial neuroscience encompasses the whole nervous system, environment and the brain how these areas show us aspects of motivation, learning, and motor skills along with many others.

text: Neuroscience

text: has a unique perspective in that it can be applied in a broad range of disciplines, and thus the fields neuroscientists work in vary. Neuroscientists may study topics from the large hemispheres of the brain to neurotransmitters and synapses occurring in neurons at a micro-level. Some fields that combine psychology and neurology include

text: cognitive neuroscience

text: , and behaviorial neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscientists study the human

text: consciousness

text: , specifically the brain, and how it can be seen through a lens of biological and chemical processes.  Behaviorial neuroscience encompasses the whole nervous system, environment and the brain how these areas show us aspects of motivation, learning, and motor skills along with many others.

text: The spinal cord is protected by three layers of tissue, called spinal meninges, that surround the canal. The dura mater is the outermost layer, and it forms a tough protective coating. Between the dura mater and the surrounding bone of the vertebrae is a space called the epidural space. The epidural space is filled with adipose tissue, and it contains a network of blood vessels. The arachnoid mater is the middle protective layer. Its name comes from the fact that the tissue has a spiderweb-like appearance. The space between the arachnoid and the underlying pia mater is called the subarachnoid space. The subarachnoid space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The medical procedure known as a lumbar puncture (or "spinal tap") involves use of a needle to withdraw cerebrospinal fluid from the subarachnoid space, usually from the lumbar region of the spine. The pia mater is the innermost protective layer. It is very delicate and it is tightly associated with the surface of the spinal cord. The cord is stabilized within the dura mater by the connecting denticulate ligaments, which extend from the enveloping pia mater laterally between the dorsal and ventral roots. The dural sac ends at the vertebral level of the second sacral vertebra.

text: Slower degeneration of the distal segment than that which occurs in the peripheral nervous system also contributes to the inhibitory environment because inhibitory myelin and axonal debris are not cleared away as quickly. All these factors contribute to the formation of what is known as a glial scar, which axons cannot grow across. The proximal segment attempts to regenerate after injury, but its growth is hindered by the environment. It is important to note that central nervous system axons have been proven to regrow in permissive environments; therefore, the primary problem to central nervous system axonal regeneration is crossing or eliminating the inhibitory lesion site.

text: Slower degeneration of the distal segment than that which occurs in the peripheral nervous system also contributes to the inhibitory environment because inhibitory myelin and axonal debris are not cleared away as quickly. All these factors contribute to the formation of what is known as a

text: glial scar

text: , which axons cannot grow across. The proximal segment attempts to regenerate after injury, but its growth is hindered by the environment. It is important to note that central nervous system axons have been proven to regrow in permissive environments; therefore, the primary problem to central nervous system axonal regeneration is crossing or eliminating the inhibitory lesion site.

text: Anterior cord syndrome, due to damage to the front portion of the spinal cord or reduction in the blood supply from the anterior spinal artery, can be caused by fractures or dislocations of vertebrae or herniated disks. Below the level of injury, motor function, pain sensation, and temperature sensation are lost, while sense of touch and proprioception (sense of position in space) remain intact. These differences are due to the relative locations of the spinal tracts responsible for each type of function.

text: Anterior cord syndrome

text: , due to damage to the front portion of the spinal cord or reduction in the blood supply from the

text: anterior spinal artery

text: , can be caused by fractures or dislocations of vertebrae or herniated disks. Below the level of injury, motor function, pain sensation, and temperature sensation are lost, while sense of touch and

text: proprioception

text: (sense of position in space) remain intact. These differences are due to the relative locations of the spinal tracts responsible for each type of function.

text: The epoxy eicostrienoic acids (or EETs) — and, presumably, the epoxy eicosatetraenoic acids — have vasodilating actions on heart, kidney, and other blood vessels as well as on the kidney's reabsorption of sodium and water, and act to reduce blood pressure and ischemic and other injuries to the heart, brain, and other tissues; they may also act to reduce inflammation, promote the growth and metastasis of certain tumors, promote the growth of new blood vessels, in the central nervous system regulate the release of neuropeptide hormones, and in the peripheral nervous system inhibit or reduce pain perception.

text: The epoxy eicostrienoic acids (or EETs) — and, presumably, the epoxy eicosatetraenoic acids — have vasodilating actions on heart, kidney, and other blood vessels as well as on the kidney's reabsorption of sodium and water, and act to reduce blood pressure and ischemic and other injuries to the heart, brain, and other tissues; they may also act to reduce inflammation, promote the growth and metastasis of certain tumors, promote the growth of new blood vessels, in the central nervous system regulate the release of

text: neuropeptide

text: hormones, and in the peripheral nervous system inhibit or reduce pain perception.

text: The etiology of this disease is unknown.  Recent research has shown that a mutation in the SOD1 gene is a risk factor for developing degenerative myelopathy in several breeds.  Mutations in SOD1 are also associated with familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease) in people. More than 100 SOD1 gene mutations are involved in human familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and the pathologic spinal lesions of ALS are similar to those of canine DM, making canine DM a potentially useful animal model of ALS.  .Known causes of spinal cord dysfunction should be excluded before accepting the diagnosis of degenerative myelopathy;  disc disease (protrusions) or spinal cord tumors can cause compression of the spinal cord with similar signs to degenerative myelopathy.

text: The

text: etiology

text: of this disease is unknown.  Recent research has shown that a mutation in the SOD1 gene is a risk factor for developing degenerative myelopathy in several breeds.  Mutations in SOD1 are also associated with familial

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: (Lou Gehrig's disease) in people. More than 100 SOD1 gene mutations are involved in human familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and the pathologic spinal lesions of ALS are similar to those of canine DM, making canine DM a potentially useful animal model of ALS.  .Known causes of spinal cord dysfunction should be excluded before accepting the diagnosis of degenerative myelopathy;  disc disease (protrusions) or spinal cord tumors can cause compression of the spinal cord with similar signs to degenerative myelopathy.

text: The CNS can be divided into the brain and spinal cord. The CNS processes many different kinds of incoming sensory information. It is also the source of thoughts, emotions, and memories. Most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the CNS. The spinal cord and spinal nerves contribute to homeostasis by providing quick reflexive responses to many stimuli. The spinal cord is the pathway for sensory input to the brain and motor output from the brain. The brain is responsible for integrating most sensory information and coordinating body function, both consciously and unconsciously.

text: Telencephalization is the process by which the brain, during very early stages of development, begins to be regulated by the more complex processes of the forebrain (mainly the telencephalon) rather than the more basic, or primitive neural centers as is observed in early development of the neural tube [1]. This intricate phenomenon is initiated by the asymmetrical division of progenitor cells, which not only gives rise to neuronal cells of the central nervous system, but also to glial cells [2].

text: Telencephalization is the process by which the brain, during very early stages of development, begins to be regulated by the more complex processes of the

text: forebrain

text: (mainly the telencephalon) rather than the more basic, or primitive neural centers as is observed in early development of the

text: neural tube

text: [1]. This intricate phenomenon is initiated by the asymmetrical division of

text: progenitor cell

text: s, which not only gives rise to neuronal cells of the

text: central nervous system

text: , but also to

text: glial cells

text: Nansen did not resume formal studies at the university. Instead, on Collett's recommendation, he accepted a post as curator in the zoological department of the Bergen Museum. He was to spend the next six years of his life there—apart from a six-month sabbatical tour of Europe—working and studying with leading figures such as Gerhard Armauer Hansen, the discoverer of the leprosy bacillus, and Daniel Cornelius Danielssen, the museum's director who had turned it from a backwater collection into a centre of scientific research and education. Nansen's chosen area of study was the then relatively unexplored field of neuroanatomy, specifically the central nervous system of lower marine creatures.   Before leaving for his sabbatical in February 1886 he published a paper summarising his research to date, in which he stated that "anastomoses or unions between the different ganglion cells" could not be demonstrated with certainty. This unorthodox view, confirmed by the simultaneous researches of the embryologist Wilhelm His and the psychiatrist August Forel. Nansen is considered the first Norwegian defender of the neuron theory, originally proposed by Santiago Ramon y Cajal. His subsequent paper, The Structure and Combination of Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System, published in 1887, became his doctoral thesis.

text: Nansen did not resume formal studies at the university. Instead, on Collett's recommendation, he accepted a post as curator in the zoological department of the

text: Bergen Museum

text: . He was to spend the next six years of his life there—apart from a six-month

text: sabbatical

text: tour of Europe—working and studying with leading figures such as

text: Gerhard Armauer Hansen

text: , the discoverer of the

text: leprosy

text: bacillus, and

text: Daniel Cornelius Danielssen

text: , the museum's director who had turned it from a backwater collection into a centre of scientific research and education. Nansen's chosen area of study was the then relatively unexplored field of

text: neuroanatomy

text: , specifically the central nervous system of lower marine creatures.   Before leaving for his sabbatical in February 1886 he published a paper summarising his research to date, in which he stated that "anastomoses or unions between the different ganglion cells" could not be demonstrated with certainty. This unorthodox view, confirmed by the simultaneous researches of the embryologist

text: Wilhelm His

text: and the psychiatrist

text: August Forel

text: . Nansen is considered the first Norwegian defender of the neuron theory, originally proposed by

text: Santiago Ramon y Cajal

text: . His subsequent paper, The Structure and Combination of Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System, published in 1887, became his doctoral thesis.

text: The first extending axons in a pathway interact closely with immature glia cells. In the forming corpus callosum of vertebrates, primitive glia cells first migrate to the ependymal zones of hemispheres and the dorsal septum wall to form a transient structure that the pioneer axons of the callosal fibers use to extend. The signaling between glia and neurons in the developing nervous system is reciprocal. For instance, in the fly visual system, axons of photoreceptors require glia to exit the eye stalk whereas glia cells rely on signals from neurons to migrate back along axons.

text: The first extending axons in a pathway interact closely with immature glia cells. In the forming

text: corpus callosum

text: of vertebrates, primitive glia cells first migrate to the ependymal zones of hemispheres and the dorsal septum wall to form a transient structure that the pioneer axons of the

text: callosal

text: fibers use to extend. The signaling between glia and neurons in the developing nervous system is reciprocal. For instance, in the fly visual system, axons of photoreceptors require glia to exit the eye stalk whereas glia cells rely on signals from neurons to migrate back along axons.

text: Dysarthrias are classified in multiple ways based on the presentation of symptoms. Specific dysarthrias include spastic (resulting from bilateral damage to the upper motor neuron), flaccid (resulting from bilateral or unilateral damage to the lower motor neuron), ataxic (resulting from damage to cerebellum), unilateral upper motor neuron (presenting milder symptoms than bilateral UMN damage), hyperkinetic and hypokinetic (resulting from damage to parts of the basal ganglia, such as in Huntington's disease or Parkinsonism), and the mixed dysarthrias (where symptoms of more than one type of dysarthria are present). The majority of dysarthric patients are diagnosed as having 'mixed' dysarthria, as neural damage resulting in dysarthria is rarely contained to one part of the nervous system — for example, multiple strokes, traumatic brain injury, and some kinds of degenerative illnesses (such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) usually damage many different sectors of the nervous system.

text: Dysarthrias are classified in multiple ways based on the presentation of symptoms. Specific dysarthrias include

text: spastic

text: (resulting from bilateral damage to the

text: upper motor neuron

text: flaccid

text: (resulting from bilateral or unilateral damage to the

text: lower motor neuron

text: ataxic

text: (resulting from damage to cerebellum), unilateral

text: upper motor neuron

text: (presenting milder symptoms than bilateral UMN damage), hyperkinetic and hypokinetic (resulting from damage to parts of the

text: basal ganglia

text: , such as in Huntington's disease or

text: Parkinsonism

text: ), and the mixed dysarthrias (where symptoms of more than one type of dysarthria are present). The majority of dysarthric patients are diagnosed as having 'mixed' dysarthria, as neural damage resulting in dysarthria is rarely contained to one part of the nervous system — for example, multiple strokes,

text: traumatic brain injury

text: , and some kinds of degenerative illnesses (such as

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: ) usually damage many different sectors of the nervous system.

text: There are several types of adrenergic receptors which are identified by their differing sensitivities to various drugs. Neurons in the central nervous system contain α1- and α2-adrenergic receptors and β1- and β2-adrenergic receptors. All four kinds of receptors are also found in the various organs of the body aside from the brain. They are responsible for the effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine when they act as hormones outside the central nervous system. In the brain, all autoreceptors appear to be of the α2 type. (The drug idazoxan blocks α2 autoreceptors and hence acts as an agonist.) All adrenergic receptors are metabotropic, coupled to G proteins that control the production of second messengers. Adrenergic receptors can produce both excitatory and inhibitory effects. In general, the behavioral effects of the release of norepinephrine are excitatory. In the brain the α1 receptors produce a slow depolarizing (excitatory) effect on the postsynaptic membrane, while α2 receptors produce a slow hyperpolarization (inhibitory) effect. Both types of β receptors increase the responsiveness of the postsynaptic neuron to its excitatory inputs, which presumably related to the role this neurotransmitter plays in vigilance.

text: There are several types of adrenergic receptors which are identified by their differing sensitivities to various drugs. Neurons in the central nervous system contain α1- and α2-adrenergic receptors and β1- and β2-adrenergic receptors. All four kinds of receptors are also found in the various organs of the body aside from the brain. They are responsible for the effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine when they act as hormones outside the central nervous system. In the brain, all autoreceptors appear to be of the α2 type. (The drug idazoxan blocks α2 autoreceptors and hence acts as an agonist.) All adrenergic receptors are metabotropic, coupled to

text: G proteins

text: that control the production of second messengers. Adrenergic receptors can produce both excitatory and inhibitory effects. In general, the behavioral effects of the release of norepinephrine are excitatory. In the brain the α1 receptors produce a slow depolarizing (excitatory) effect on the postsynaptic membrane, while α2 receptors produce a slow hyperpolarization (inhibitory) effect. Both types of β receptors increase the responsiveness of the postsynaptic neuron to its excitatory inputs, which presumably related to the role this neurotransmitter plays in vigilance.

text: In autopsy cases, it has been shown that white matter abnormalities are relatively confined to the cerebrum while avoiding the cerebellum and many of the major fiber tracts of the nervous system. The exception is the corticospinal tracts(pyramidal tracts) in the brainstem and sometimes spinal cord.

text: In autopsy cases, it has been shown that white matter abnormalities are relatively confined to the

text: cerebrum

text: while avoiding the

text: cerebellum

text: and many of the major fiber tracts of the nervous system. The exception is the

text: corticospinal tracts

text: (pyramidal tracts) in the

text: brainstem

text: and sometimes

text: spinal cord

text: In boa constrictors, the first signs may include off and on regurgitation, and some develop head tremors. Dysecdysis (abnormal shedding) may occur. Some develop chronic regurgitation and anorexia [lack of appetite or refusal to feed]. However, not all infected snakes may regurgitate. Boas lose weight and may develop clogged nares (nostrils), stomatitis or secondary pneumonia. The disease can rapidly progress to produce nervous system disorders, such as disorientation, corkscrewing of the head and neck, holding the head in abnormal and unnatural positions, rolling onto the back or stargazing. Stomatitis, pneumonia, undifferentiated cutaneous sarcomas, lymphoproliferative disorders, and leukemia have all been observed in affected specimens. Burmese pythons generally show signs of central nervous system disease without manifestation of other clinical signs and regurgitation is not seen in Burmese pythons, only in boas. These are symptoms similar to those seen in specimens infected by Chlamydia–specifically Chlamydophila psittaci, the so-called parrot's disease.

text: In boa constrictors, the first signs may include off and on regurgitation, and some develop head tremors. Dysecdysis (abnormal shedding) may occur. Some develop chronic regurgitation and anorexia [lack of appetite or refusal to feed]. However, not all infected snakes may regurgitate. Boas lose weight and may develop clogged nares (nostrils), stomatitis or secondary pneumonia. The disease can rapidly progress to produce nervous system disorders, such as disorientation, corkscrewing of the head and neck, holding the head in abnormal and unnatural positions, rolling onto the back or stargazing. Stomatitis, pneumonia, undifferentiated cutaneous sarcomas, lymphoproliferative disorders, and leukemia have all been observed in affected specimens. Burmese pythons generally show signs of central nervous system disease without manifestation of other clinical signs and regurgitation is not seen in Burmese pythons, only in boas. These are symptoms similar to those seen in specimens infected by

text: Chlamydia

text: –specifically

text: Chlamydophila psittaci

text: , the so-called parrot's disease.

text: Serving the purpose of weight-saving, as seen in other sauropods, many of the vertebrae were hollowed out, or pneumatic; that is, the vertebrae were riddled with passages and cavities for an intricate system of air sacs connected to the lungs. This feature was little understood at the time Camarasaurus was discovered, but its structure was the inspiration for the creature's name, meaning "chambered lizard". The neck and counterbalancing tail were shorter than usual for a sauropod of this size. Camarasaurus, like certain other sauropods, had an enlargement of the spinal cord near the hips. Palaeontologists originally believed this to be a second brain, perhaps necessary to co-ordinate such a huge creature. Indeed, while it would have been an area of intensive nervous system—probably reflex, or automatic—activity, it was not, however, a brain; and such enlargements are frequently found to some degree in vertebrate animals.

text: Serving the purpose of weight-saving, as seen in other sauropods, many of the vertebrae were hollowed out, or pneumatic; that is, the vertebrae were riddled with passages and cavities for an intricate system of air sacs connected to the lungs. This feature was little understood at the time Camarasaurus was discovered, but its structure was the inspiration for the creature's name, meaning "chambered lizard". The neck and counterbalancing tail were shorter than usual for a sauropod of this size. Camarasaurus, like certain other sauropods, had an enlargement of the

text: spinal cord

text: near the hips.

text: Palaeontologist

text: s originally believed this to be a second

text: brain

text: , perhaps necessary to co-ordinate such a huge creature. Indeed, while it would have been an area of intensive nervous system—probably reflex, or automatic—activity, it was not, however, a brain; and such enlargements are frequently found to some degree in vertebrate animals.

text: Metachromatic leukodystrophy, also known as MLD, is a recessive lysosomal storage disorder. It is believed to be caused by a deficiency in arylsulfatase A. Arylsulfatase A is a lysosomal sulfatase that is able to hydrolyze the 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide and 3-O-sulfolactosylceramide. Both 3-O-sulfolactosylceramide and 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide can be located mainly in the central nervous system as well as in the peripheral nervous system. When lacking the lysosomal enzyme or mutations in the gene coding for saposin B occur, this can lead to the accumulation of lysosomal sulfatide, which then develops into metachromatic leukodystrophy.

text: Metachromatic leukodystrophy

text: , also known as MLD, is a

text: recessive

text: lysosomal storage disorder

text: . It is believed to be caused by a deficiency in

text: arylsulfatase A

text: . Arylsulfatase A is a

text: lysosomal

text: sulfatase

text: that is able to hydrolyze the 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide and 3-O-sulfolactosylceramide. Both 3-O-sulfolactosylceramide and 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide can be located mainly in the

text: central nervous system

text: as well as in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . When lacking the lysosomal enzyme or

text: mutations

text: in the gene coding for saposin B occur, this can lead to the accumulation of

text: lysosomal sulfatide

text: , which then develops into

text: metachromatic leukodystrophy

text: HSAN ID is caused by heterozygous missense mutations in the ATL1 gene which encodes atlastin-1. Atlastin-1 is a member of the dynamin/Mx/guanylate-binding protein superfamily of large GTPases. The enzyme contains an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retention moiety, indicating that it functions predominantly in the organelle. It is highly expressed in the mammalian central nervous system and is enriched in the hippocampus and pyramidal neurons. However, information on the expression of the gene in the peripheral nervous system is still lacking.

text: HSAN ID is caused by heterozygous missense mutations in the ATL1 gene which encodes

text: . Atlastin-1 is a member of the dynamin/Mx/guanylate-binding protein

text: superfamily

text: of large

text: GTPase

text: s. The enzyme contains an

text: endoplasmic reticulum

text: (ER) retention moiety, indicating that it functions predominantly in the organelle. It is highly expressed in the mammalian central nervous system and is enriched in the

text: hippocampus

text: and

text: pyramidal neurons

text: . However, information on the expression of the gene in the peripheral nervous system is still lacking.

text: A motor signal from the central nervous system (CNS) to the periphery is called an efference, and a copy of this signal is called an efference copy. Sensory information coming from sensory receptors in the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system is called afference. On a similar basis, nerves into the nervous system are afferent nerves and ones out are termed efferent nerves.

text: A motor signal from the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) to the periphery is called an efference, and a copy of this signal is called an efference copy. Sensory information coming from

text: sensory receptors

text: in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: to the central nervous system is called afference. On a similar basis, nerves into the nervous system are

text: afferent nerve

text: s and ones out are termed

text: efferent nerve

text: s.

text: The nervous system is large, and the brain is a solid neural mass without ganglia. The nervous system is reduced in complexity and enlarged in size compared to other neomphaline taxa. As is typical of gastropods, the nervous system is composed of an anterior oesophageal nerve ring and two pairs of longitudinal nerve cords, the ventral pair innervating the foot and the dorsal pair forming a twist via streptoneury. The frontal part of the oesophageal nerve ring is large, connecting two lateral swellings. The huge fused neural mass is directly adjacent to, and passes through, the oeosophageal gland, where the bacteria are housed. There are large tentacular nerves projecting into the cephalic tentacles. The sensory organs of the scaly-foot gastropod include statocysts surrounded by the oesophageal gland, each statocyst with a single statolith. There are also sensory ctenidial bursicles on the tip of the gill filaments; these are known to be present in most vetigastropods, and are present some neomphalines.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: is large, and the brain is a solid neural mass without ganglia. The nervous system is reduced in complexity and enlarged in size compared to other neomphaline taxa. As is typical of gastropods, the nervous system is composed of an anterior oesophageal nerve ring and two pairs of longitudinal nerve cords, the ventral pair innervating the foot and the dorsal pair forming a twist via

text: streptoneury

text: . The frontal part of the oesophageal nerve ring is large, connecting two lateral swellings. The huge fused neural mass is directly adjacent to, and passes through, the oeosophageal gland, where the bacteria are housed. There are large tentacular nerves projecting into the cephalic tentacles. The

text: sensory organs

text: of the scaly-foot gastropod include

text: statocyst

text: s surrounded by the oesophageal gland, each statocyst with a single

text: statolith

text: . There are also sensory ctenidial bursicles on the tip of the gill filaments; these are known to be present in most vetigastropods, and are present some neomphalines.

text: The muscle synergy hypothesis is based on the assumption that the central nervous system controls muscle groups independently rather than individual muscles.  The muscle synergy hypothesis presents motor control as a three-tiered hierarchy.  In tier one, a motor task vector is created by the central nervous system.  The central nervous system then transforms the muscle vector to act upon a group of muscle synergies in tier two.  Then in tier three, muscle synergies define a specific ratio of the motor task for each muscle and assign it to its respective muscle to act upon the joint to perform the motor task.

text: Autonomic neuropathy  is a form of polyneuropathy that affects the non-voluntary, non-sensory nervous system (i.e., the autonomic nervous system), affecting mostly the internal organs such as the bladder muscles, the cardiovascular system, the digestive tract, and the genital organs. These nerves are not under a person's conscious control and function automatically. Autonomic nerve fibers form large collections in the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis outside the spinal cord. They have connections with the spinal cord and ultimately the brain, however. Most commonly autonomic neuropathy is seen in persons with long-standing diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2. In most—but not all—cases, autonomic neuropathy occurs alongside other forms of neuropathy, such as sensory neuropathy.

text: Autonomic neuropathy  is a form of polyneuropathy that affects the non-voluntary, non-sensory

text: nervous system

text: (i.e., the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: ), affecting mostly the internal organs such as the

text: bladder

text: muscles, the

text: cardiovascular system

text: , the

text: digestive tract

text: , and the

text: genital

text: organs. These nerves are not under a person's conscious control and function automatically. Autonomic nerve fibers form large collections in the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis outside the

text: spinal cord

text: . They have connections with the spinal cord and ultimately the brain, however. Most commonly autonomic neuropathy is seen in persons with long-standing

text: diabetes mellitus

text: type 1 and 2. In most—but not all—cases, autonomic neuropathy occurs alongside other forms of neuropathy, such as sensory neuropathy.

text: Tetanospasmin released in the wound is absorbed into the circulation and reaches the ends of motor neurons all over the body. The toxin acts at several sites within the central nervous system, including nerve terminals, the spinal cord, and brain, and within the sympathetic nervous system. By binding to peripheral motor neuron terminals, the toxin enters the nerve axons, and is transported across synaptic junctions to the nerve-cell body in the brain stem and spinal cord by retrograde intraneuronal transport, until it reaches the central nervous system, where it rapidly binds to gangliosides at the presynaptic membrane of inhibitory motor nerve endings.

text: Tetanospasmin released in the wound is absorbed into the circulation and reaches the ends of motor neurons all over the body. The toxin acts at several sites within the

text: central nervous system

text: , including

text: nerve

text: terminals, the

text: spinal cord

text: , and

text: brain

text: , and within the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: . By binding to peripheral motor neuron terminals, the toxin enters the nerve axons, and is transported across

text: synaptic junctions

text: to the nerve-cell body in the brain stem and spinal cord by

text: retrograde intraneuronal transport

text: , until it reaches the central nervous system, where it rapidly binds to

text: ganglioside

text: s at the presynaptic membrane of inhibitory motor nerve endings.

text: Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard studied the anatomy and physiology of the spinal cord. He described this injury after observing spinal cord trauma which happened to farmers while cutting sugar cane in Mauritius.French physician, Paul Loye, attempted to confirm Brown-Séquard's observations on the nervous system by experimentation with decapitation of dogs and other animals and recording the extent of each animal's movement after decapitation.

text: Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard studied the anatomy and physiology of the spinal cord. He described this injury after observing spinal cord trauma which happened to farmers while cutting sugar cane in Mauritius.French physician,

text: Paul Loye

text: , attempted to confirm Brown-Séquard's observations on the nervous system by experimentation with decapitation of dogs and other animals and recording the extent of each animal's movement after decapitation.

text: It grows to 3-7 m tall, with usually unbranched stems 2 cm diameter bearing a rosette of large leaves at the top (superficially similar to a palm crown). The leaves are carried on 40-60 cm petioles, the leaf blade orbicular, 30-50 cm across, deeply palmately lobed with 5-11 primary lobes, the central lobes larger and Y-forked near the end. It spreads extensively by sprouts from the root system underground. The inflorescence is a large panicle of hemispherical to globular umbels near the end of the stem. The flowers have 4 or 5 small white petals. The fruit is a small drupe.

text: It grows to 3-7 m tall, with usually unbranched stems 2 cm diameter bearing a rosette of large

text: leaves

text: at the top (superficially similar to a

text: palm

text: crown). The leaves are carried on 40-60 cm petioles, the leaf blade orbicular, 30-50 cm across, deeply palmately lobed with 5-11 primary lobes, the central lobes larger and Y-forked near the end. It spreads extensively by sprouts from the

text: root

text: system underground. The

text: inflorescence

text: is a large

text: panicle

text: of hemispherical to globular

text: umbel

text: s near the end of the stem. The

text: flowers

text: have 4 or 5 small white petals. The

text: fruit

text: is a small

text: drupe

text: Gravitational neuromorphology studies the effects of altered gravity on the architecture of the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems. This subfield aims to expand the current understanding of the adaptive capabilities of nervous systems, and specifically examines how environmental effects can alter nervous system structure and function. In this case environmental manipulations generally include exposing neurons to either hypergravity or microgravity. It is a subset of gravitational biology.

text: Gravitational neuromorphology studies the effects of altered

text: gravity

text: on the architecture of the

text: central

text: peripheral

text: , and

text: autonomic nervous system

text: s. This subfield aims to expand the current understanding of the adaptive capabilities of nervous systems, and specifically examines how environmental effects can alter nervous system structure and function. In this case environmental manipulations generally include exposing neurons to either

text: hypergravity

text: or

text: microgravity

text: . It is a subset of

text: gravitational biology

text: Symptoms include weakness and numbness of the limbs, deficits in sensation and motor skills, dysfunctional sphincter activities, and dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system. Symptoms typically develop over the course of hours or days and may progress after weeks. Sensory symptoms of transverse myelitis may include a sensation of pins and needles traveling up from the feet. Back pain can occur at the level of the inflamed segment of the spinal cord. The degree and type of sensory loss will depend upon the extent of the involvement of the various sensory tracts, but there is often a "sensory level" (at the sensory segmental level of the spinal cord below which sensation to pain or light touch is impaired).  Motor weakness occurs due to involvement of the pyramidal tracts and mainly affects the muscles that flex the legs and extend the arms. Involvement of the autonomic nervous system is common and frequently leads to impaired function of the bladder and bowel and can also lead to episodes of high blood pressure.

text: Symptoms include weakness and numbness of the limbs, deficits in sensation and motor skills, dysfunctional sphincter activities, and dysfunction of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . Symptoms typically develop over the course of hours or days and may progress after weeks. Sensory symptoms of transverse myelitis may include a sensation of

text: pins and needles

text: traveling up from the feet. Back pain can occur at the level of the inflamed segment of the spinal cord. The degree and type of sensory loss will depend upon the extent of the involvement of the various sensory tracts, but there is often a "sensory level" (at the

text: sensory segmental level

text: of the spinal cord below which sensation to pain or light touch is impaired).  Motor weakness occurs due to involvement of the

text: pyramidal tracts

text: and mainly affects the muscles that

text: flex the legs

text: and

text: extend the arms

text: . Involvement of the autonomic nervous system is common and frequently leads to impaired function of the bladder and bowel and can also lead to episodes of

text: high blood pressure

text: It was intended to form an armoured division in the plans for 1940, 1941 and 1942. However, the Indian armoured formations suffered from a lack of equipment. The shortage of tanks in 1940 was reflected in the organisation of 31st Armoured Division, which first had one armoured and two motor brigades. At the end of 1940, this was changed to two armoured and one motor brigade. When the 3rd Indian Motor Brigade was sent to Egypt, the British armoured division organisation of two armoured brigades and a Support group was adopted.

text: It was intended to form an armoured division in the plans for 1940, 1941 and 1942. However, the Indian armoured formations suffered from a lack of equipment. The shortage of tanks in 1940 was reflected in the organisation of 31st Armoured Division, which first had one armoured and two motor brigades. At the end of 1940, this was changed to two armoured and one motor brigade. When the

text: 3rd Indian Motor Brigade

text: was sent to Egypt, the British armoured division organisation of two armoured brigades and a Support group was adopted.

text: Dichotic listening tests can also be used as lateralized speech assessment task. Neuropsychologists have used this test to explore the role of singular neuroanatomical structures in speech perception and language asymmetry. For example, Hugdahl et al. (2003), investigated dichotic listening performance and frontal lobe function in left and right lesioned frontal lobe nonaphasiac patients compared to healthy controls. In the study, all groups were exposed to 36 dichotic trials with pairs of CV syllables and each patient was asked to state which syllable he or she heard best. As expected, the right lesioned patients showed a right ear advantage like the healthy control group but the left hemisphere lesioned patients displayed impairment when compared to both the right lesioned patients and control group. From this study, researchers concluded "dichotic listening as into a neuronal circuitry which also involves the frontal lobes, and that this may be a critical aspect of speech perception." Similarly, Westerhausen and Hugdahl (2008) analyzed the role of the corpus callosum in dichotic listening and speech perception. After reviewing many studies, it was concluded that "...dichotic listening should be considered a test of functional inter-hemispheric interaction and connectivity, besides being a test of lateralized temporal lobe language function" and "the corpus callosum is critically involved in the top-down attentional control of dichotic listening performance, thus having a critical role in auditory laterality."

text: Dichotic listening tests can also be used as lateralized speech assessment task. Neuropsychologists have used this test to explore the role of singular neuroanatomical structures in

text: speech perception

text: and language asymmetry. For example, Hugdahl et al. (2003), investigated dichotic listening performance and

text: frontal lobe

text: function in left and right lesioned frontal lobe nonaphasiac patients compared to healthy controls. In the study, all groups were exposed to 36 dichotic trials with pairs of CV syllables and each patient was asked to state which syllable he or she heard best. As expected, the right lesioned patients showed a right ear advantage like the healthy control group but the left hemisphere lesioned patients displayed impairment when compared to both the right lesioned patients and control group. From this study, researchers concluded "dichotic listening as into a neuronal circuitry which also involves the frontal lobes, and that this may be a critical aspect of speech perception." Similarly, Westerhausen and Hugdahl (2008) analyzed the role of the

text: corpus callosum

text: in dichotic listening and speech perception. After reviewing many studies, it was concluded that "...dichotic listening should be considered a test of functional inter-hemispheric interaction and connectivity, besides being a test of lateralized temporal lobe language function" and "the corpus callosum is critically involved in the top-down attentional control of dichotic listening performance, thus having a critical role in auditory laterality."

text: In addition to roles in mediating cell survival, studies by Mark Mattson and others have shown that NF-κB has diverse functions in the nervous system including roles in plasticity, learning, and memory. In addition to stimuli that activate NF-κB in other tissues, NF-κB in the nervous system can be activated by Growth Factors (BDNF, NGF) and synaptic transmission such as glutamate.  These activators of NF-κB in the nervous system all converge upon the IKK complex and the canonical pathway.

text: In addition to roles in mediating cell survival, studies by

text: Mark Mattson

text: and others have shown that NF-κB has diverse functions in the

text: nervous system

text: including roles in

text: plasticity

text: , learning, and memory. In addition to stimuli that activate NF-κB in other tissues, NF-κB in the nervous system can be activated by Growth Factors (

text: BDNF

text: NGF

text: ) and synaptic transmission such as

text: glutamate

text: .  These activators of NF-κB in the nervous system all converge upon the IKK complex and the canonical pathway.

text: The peripheral nervous system includes the spinal and cranial nerves. Of specific relevance is the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). The ANS regulates glands and other internal organs (visceral structures). Visceral structures control involuntary physiological activities and behavior. Psychophysiological economics researchers directly measure the sympathetic nervous system  as a person responds to stressor within the environment.

text: The peripheral nervous system includes the spinal and cranial nerves. Of specific relevance is the

text: Autonomic Nervous System

text: (ANS). The ANS regulates glands and other internal organs (visceral structures). Visceral structures control involuntary physiological activities and behavior. Psychophysiological economics researchers directly measure the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: as a person responds to

text: stressor

text: within the environment.

text: The cerebrum is made up of the two cerebral hemispheres and their cortices, (the outer layers of grey matter), and the underlying regions of white matter. Its subcortical structures include the hippocampus, basal ganglia and olfactory bulb. The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres, separated from each other by a deep fissure called the longitudinal fissure.

text: The cerebrum is made up of the two cerebral hemispheres and their

text: cortices

text: , (the outer layers of

text: grey matter

text: ), and the underlying regions of

text: white matter

text: . Its subcortical structures include the hippocampus, basal ganglia and olfactory bulb. The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres, separated from each other by a deep fissure called the

text: longitudinal fissure

text: A comprehensive understanding of which nerve impulses correspond to which sensations, and which motor impulses correspond to which muscle contractions will be required. This will allow the correct sensations in the user, and actions in the virtual reality to occur. The Blue Brain Project is the current, most promising research with the idea of understanding how the brain works by building very large scale computer models.

text: A comprehensive understanding of which nerve impulses correspond to which sensations, and which motor impulses correspond to which muscle contractions will be required. This will allow the correct sensations in the user, and actions in the virtual reality to occur. The

text: Blue Brain Project

text: is the current, most promising research with the idea of understanding how the brain works by building very large scale computer models.

text: In 1950, with Horst Mittelstaedt, Holst demonstrated the "Reafference Principle" (Das Reafferenzprinzip) concerning how an organism is able to separate reafferent (self-generated) sensory stimuli from exafferent (externally generated) sensory stimuli. This concept largely dealt with interactive processes between the central nervous system and its periphery.

text: In 1950, with

text: Horst Mittelstaedt

text: , Holst demonstrated the "Reafference Principle" (Das Reafferenzprinzip) concerning how an organism is able to separate

text: reafferent

text: (self-generated) sensory stimuli from exafferent (externally generated) sensory stimuli. This concept largely dealt with interactive processes between the central nervous system and its periphery.

text: Consider that the nervous system in animals is a form of hybrid computer.  Signals pass across the synapses from one nerve cell to the next as discrete (digital) packets of chemicals, which are then summed within the nerve cell in an analog fashion by building an electro-chemical potential until its threshold is reached, whereupon it discharges and sends out a series of digital packets to the next nerve cell. The advantages are at least threefold: noise within the system is minimized (and tends not to be additive), no common grounding system is required, and there is minimal degradation of the signal even if there are substantial differences in activity of the cells along a path (only the signal delays tend to vary).  The individual nerve cells are analogous to analog computers; the synapses are analogous to digital computers.

text: Consider that the

text: nervous system

text: in animals is a form of hybrid computer.  Signals pass across the

text: synapses

text: from one

text: nerve cell

text: to the next as discrete (digital) packets of chemicals, which are then summed within the nerve cell in an analog fashion by building an electro-chemical potential until its

text: threshold

text: is reached, whereupon it discharges and sends out a series of digital packets to the next nerve cell. The advantages are at least threefold: noise within the system is minimized (and tends not to be additive), no common grounding system is required, and there is minimal degradation of the signal even if there are substantial differences in activity of the cells along a path (only the signal delays tend to vary).  The individual nerve cells are analogous to analog computers; the synapses are analogous to digital computers.

text: In the adult rat central nervous system (CNS), plexin A4 was present in neurons and fibers throughout the brain and spinal cord, including neocortex, hippocampus, lateral hypothalamus, red nucleus, facial nucleus, and the mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus. Fibers expressed Plexin A4 in the lateral septum, nucleus accumbens, several thalamic nuclei, substantia nigra pars reticulata, zona incerta, pontine reticular formation, as well as in several cranial nerve nuclei. Plexin A4 has been found in dorsal and, to a greater extent, ventral horns of the spinal cord. Both motor neurons and interneurons in the ventral horn express Plexin A4. Motor axons exiting via the ventral roots and the ascending and descending white matter tracts express Plexin A4. In dorsal root ganglia, Plexin A4 is expressed in the neuronal cell bodies as well as the central and peripheral processes of those cells.

text: In the adult rat

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), plexin A4 was present in neurons and fibers throughout the brain and spinal cord, including

text: neocortex

text: hippocampus

text: lateral hypothalamus

text: red nucleus

text: facial nucleus

text: , and the

entity_name: Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve

text: mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus

text: . Fibers expressed Plexin A4 in the

text: lateral septum

text: nucleus accumbens

text: , several

text: thalamic nuclei

text: substantia nigra pars reticulata

text: zona incerta

text: pontine reticular formation

text: , as well as in several

text: cranial nerve nuclei

text: . Plexin A4 has been found in

text: dorsal

text: and, to a greater extent,

text: ventral horns

text: of the spinal cord. Both

text: motor neurons

text: and

text: interneurons

text: in the ventral horn express Plexin A4. Motor axons exiting via the

text: ventral roots

text: and the ascending and descending

text: white matter

text: tracts express Plexin A4. In

text: dorsal root ganglia

text: , Plexin A4 is expressed in the

text: neuronal cell bodies

text: as well as the central and peripheral processes of those cells.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a collective term for the nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.  The large majority of the axon bundles called nerves are considered to belong to the PNS, even when the cell bodies of the neurons to which they belong reside within the brain or spinal cord.  The PNS is divided into somatic and visceral parts.  The somatic part consists of the nerves that innervate the skin, joints, and muscles.  The cell bodies of somatic sensory neurons lie in dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord.  The visceral part, also known as the autonomic nervous system, contains neurons that innervate the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands.  The autonomic nervous system itself consists of two parts: the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.  Some authors also include sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the periphery (for senses such as hearing) as part of the PNS; others, however, omit them.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a collective term for the nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS.  The large majority of the axon bundles called nerves are considered to belong to the PNS, even when the cell bodies of the neurons to which they belong reside within the brain or spinal cord.  The PNS is divided into

text: somatic

text: and

text: visceral

text: parts.  The somatic part consists of the nerves that innervate the skin, joints, and muscles.  The cell bodies of somatic sensory neurons lie in

text: dorsal root ganglia

text: of the spinal cord.  The visceral part, also known as the autonomic nervous system, contains neurons that innervate the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands.  The autonomic nervous system itself consists of two parts: the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: .  Some authors also include sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the periphery (for senses such as hearing) as part of the PNS; others, however, omit them.

text: Depending on local tissue concentrations of local anesthetics, excitatory or depressant effects on the central nervous system may occur. Initial symptoms suggest some form of central nervous system excitation such as a ringing in the ears (tinnitus), a metallic taste in the mouth, or tingling or numbness of the mouth. As the concentration rises, a relatively selective depression of inhibitory neurons results in cerebral excitation, which may lead to more advanced symptoms include motor twitching in the periphery followed by grand mal seizures. A profound depression of brain functions occurs at higher concentrations which may lead to coma, respiratory arrest, and death. Such tissue concentrations may be due to very high plasma levels after intravenous injection of a large dose. Another possibility is direct exposure of the central nervous system through the cerebrospinal fluid, i.e., overdose in spinal anesthesia or accidental injection into the subarachnoid space in epidural anesthesia.

text: Depending on local tissue concentrations of local anesthetics, excitatory or depressant effects on the central nervous system may occur. Initial symptoms suggest some form of central nervous system excitation such as a ringing in the ears (

text: tinnitus

text: ), a metallic taste in the mouth, or tingling or numbness of the mouth. As the concentration rises, a relatively selective depression of inhibitory neurons results in cerebral excitation, which may lead to more advanced symptoms include motor twitching in the periphery followed by grand mal seizures. A profound depression of brain functions occurs at higher concentrations which may lead to

text: coma

text: respiratory arrest

text: , and death. Such tissue concentrations may be due to very high plasma levels after intravenous injection of a large dose. Another possibility is direct exposure of the central nervous system through the cerebrospinal fluid, i.e., overdose in spinal anesthesia or accidental injection into the subarachnoid space in epidural anesthesia.

text: Synapses are functional connections between neurons, or between neurons and other types of cells.  A typical neuron gives rise to several thousand synapses, although there are some types that make far fewer.  Most synapses connect axons to dendrites, but there are also other types of connections, including axon-to-cell-body, axon-to-axon, and dendrite-to-dendrite. Synapses are generally too small to be recognizable using a light microscope except as points where the membranes of two cells appear to touch, but their cellular elements can be visualized clearly using an electron microscope.

text: Synapses are functional connections between neurons, or between neurons and other types of cells.  A typical neuron gives rise to several thousand synapses, although there are some types that make far fewer.  Most synapses connect

text: axon

text: s to

text: dendrite

text: s, but there are also other types of connections, including axon-to-cell-body, axon-to-axon, and

text: dendrite-to-dendrite

text: . Synapses are generally too small to be recognizable using a

text: light microscope

text: except as points where the membranes of two cells appear to touch, but their cellular elements can be visualized clearly using an

text: electron microscope

text: There is scientific support for the concept of a temperature set point - that is, maintenance of an optimal temperature for the metabolic processes that life depends on.  Nervous activity in the preoptic-anterior hypothalamus of the brain triggers heat losing (sweating, etc.) or heat generating (shivering and muscle contraction, etc.) activities through stimulation of the autonomic nervous system. The pre-optic anterior hypothalamus has been shown to contain warm sensitive, cool sensitive, and temperature insensitive neurons, to determine the body's temperature setpoint.  As the temperature that these neurons are exposed to rises above 37 °C, the rate of electrical discharge of the warm-sensitive neurons increases progressively.  Cold-sensitive neurons increase their rate of electrical discharge progressively below 37 °C.

text: There is scientific support for the concept of a temperature set point - that is, maintenance of an optimal temperature for the metabolic processes that life depends on.  Nervous activity in the

text: preoptic-anterior hypothalamus

text: of the brain triggers heat losing (sweating, etc.) or heat generating (shivering and muscle contraction, etc.) activities through stimulation of the autonomic nervous system. The pre-optic anterior hypothalamus has been shown to contain warm sensitive, cool sensitive, and temperature insensitive neurons, to determine the body's temperature setpoint.  As the temperature that these neurons are exposed to rises above 37 °C, the rate of electrical discharge of the warm-sensitive neurons increases progressively.  Cold-sensitive neurons increase their rate of electrical discharge progressively below 37 °C.

text: The ‘doctrine of specific nervous energies’ states that particular nervous pathway activation causes various sensory modalities. Sensory receptor classification with respect to function suggest that different sensory modalities are governed by separate receptor classes. Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) ion channels introduce the idea that the expression of specific “molecular sensors” govern sensitivity to certain stimuli. Researchers believe that the ability of various somatosensory receptor neurons to respond to specific stimuli is a result of “combinational expression” of various ion channels in each specific neuronal class. Transduction channels work in their specific environment and should be treated as such. TRP channels play a significant role in mechanosensation. There are seven TRP subfamilies: TRPC, TRPM, TRPV, TRPN, TRPA, TRPP, and TRPML. Some of these TRP channels respond to membrane lipid tension, including TRPY and TRPC1. Others respond directly to mechanical force, such as TRPN, TRPA1, and TRPV. Others are activated by a second messenger, such as TRPV4. The TRPA subfamily plays a significant role in thermosensation. For example, TRPA1 is thought to respond to noxious cold and mechanosensation. The cytoplasmic content of each of these differs significantly, leading researchers to doubt that the cytoplasm is the core of mechanosensation.

text: The ‘doctrine of specific nervous energies’ states that particular nervous pathway activation causes various sensory modalities. Sensory receptor classification with respect to function suggest that different sensory modalities are governed by separate receptor classes.

text: Transient Receptor Potential

text: (TRP)

text: ion channels

text: introduce the idea that the expression of specific “molecular sensors” govern sensitivity to certain stimuli. Researchers believe that the ability of various somatosensory receptor neurons to respond to specific stimuli is a result of “combinational expression” of various ion channels in each specific neuronal class. Transduction channels work in their specific environment and should be treated as such. TRP channels play a significant role in mechanosensation. There are seven TRP subfamilies: TRPC, TRPM, TRPV, TRPN, TRPA, TRPP, and TRPML. Some of these TRP channels respond to membrane lipid tension, including TRPY and TRPC1. Others respond directly to mechanical force, such as TRPN, TRPA1, and TRPV. Others are activated by a second messenger, such as TRPV4. The TRPA subfamily plays a significant role in thermosensation. For example, TRPA1 is thought to respond to noxious cold and mechanosensation. The cytoplasmic content of each of these differs significantly, leading researchers to doubt that the cytoplasm is the core of mechanosensation.

text: Dopaminergic Neurons are the most abundant type of neuron in the Substantia Nigra, a part of the brain that has much to do with motor control/learning. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter which is used to activate motor neurons in the brain (central nervous system). The activated motor neurons then transmit their signals, via action potential, to motor neurons in the legs to allow control for walking (Peripheral Nervous System). However, when a significant percentage of the motor neurons die (about %50-%60), this decreases up to %80 of the dopamine levels which inhibits the ability for neurons to generate and transmit a signal. This transmission inhibition ultimately causes Parkinsonian Gait with symptoms such as hunched and slowed walking or tremors.

text: Dopaminergic Neurons are the most abundant type of neuron in the

text: Substantia Nigra

text: , a part of the brain that has much to do with motor control/learning.

text: Dopamine

text: is a

text: neurotransmitter

text: which is used to activate

text: motor neuron

text: s in the brain (

text: central nervous system

text: ). The activated motor neurons then transmit their signals, via

text: action potential

text: , to motor neurons in the legs to allow control for walking (

text: Peripheral Nervous System

text: ). However, when a significant percentage of the motor neurons die (about %50-%60), this decreases up to %80 of the dopamine levels which inhibits the ability for neurons to generate and transmit a signal. This transmission inhibition ultimately causes

text: Parkinsonian Gait

text: with symptoms such as hunched and slowed walking or tremors.

text: The leading causes of mortality for all age groups are cerebrovascular diseases (11.6%); ischemic heart disease (9.9%); immunity disorders (7.1%); diseases of the respiratory system (6.8%); diseases of pulmonary circulation and other forms of heart disease (6.6%); endocrine and metabolic diseases (5.5%); diseases of other parts of the Digestive System (5.2%); violence (5.1%); certain condition originating in the prenatal period (4.3%); and hypertensive diseases (3.9%). The ten leading causes of morbidity for all age groups are, in decreasing order: malaria; acute respiratory infections; symptoms, signs and ill defined or unknown conditions; hypertension; accident and injuries; acute diarrhoeal disease; diabetes mellitus; worm infestation; rheumatic arthritis; and mental and nervous disorders.

text: Cerebral atrophy is a common feature of many of the diseases that affect the brain. Atrophy of any tissue means a decrement in the size of the cell, which can be due to progressive loss of cytoplasmic proteins. In brain tissue, atrophy describes a loss of neurons and the connections between them. Atrophy can be generalized, which means that all of the brain has shrunk; or it can be focal,   affecting only a limited area of the brain and resulting in a decrease of the functions that area of the brain controls. If the cerebral hemispheres (the two lobes of the brain that form the cerebrum) are affected, conscious thought and voluntary processes may be impaired.

text: Cerebral atrophy is a common feature of many of the

text: diseases that affect the brain

text: Atrophy

text: of any tissue means a decrement in the size of the cell, which can be due to progressive loss of cytoplasmic proteins. In brain tissue, atrophy describes a loss of

text: neuron

text: s and the connections between them. Atrophy can be generalized, which means that all of the brain has shrunk; or it can be focal,   affecting only a limited area of the brain and resulting in a decrease of the functions that area of the brain controls. If the

text: cerebral hemispheres

text: (the two lobes of the brain that form the

text: cerebrum

text: ) are affected, conscious thought and voluntary processes may be impaired.

text: A stimulant is a drug that stimulates the central nervous system, increasing arousal, attention and endurance. Stimulants are used in psychiatry to treat attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. Because the medications can be addictive, patients with a history of drug abuse are typically monitored closely or treated with a non-stimulant.

text: Tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT)  is a compound that functionally reduces inhibitory transmissions in the nervous system resulting in muscular tetany. TeNT is similar to BTX, and is in fact highly similar in structure and origin; both belonging to the same category of clostridial neurotoxins. Like BTX, TeNT inhibits inter-neuron communication by means of vesicular neurotransmitter (NT) release. One notable difference between the two compounds is that while BTX inhibits muscular contractions, TeNT induces them. Though both toxins inhibit vesicle release at neuron synapses, the reason for this different manifestation is that BTX functions mainly in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) while TeNT is largely active in the central nervous system (CNS). This is a result of TeNT migration through motor neurons to the inhibitory neurons of the spinal cord after entering through endocytosis. This results in a loss of function in inhibitory neurons within the CNS resulting in systemic muscular contractions. Similar to the prognosis of a lethal dose of BTX, TeNT leads to paralysis and subsequent suffocation.

text: Tetanus neurotoxin

text: (TeNT)  is a compound that functionally reduces inhibitory transmissions in the nervous system resulting in muscular tetany. TeNT is similar to BTX, and is in fact highly similar in structure and origin; both belonging to the same category of

text: clostridial neurotoxins

text: . Like BTX, TeNT inhibits inter-neuron communication by means of vesicular neurotransmitter (NT) release. One notable difference between the two compounds is that while BTX inhibits

text: muscular contractions

text: , TeNT induces them. Though both toxins inhibit vesicle release at neuron synapses, the reason for this different manifestation is that BTX functions mainly in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) while TeNT is largely active in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS). This is a result of TeNT migration through

text: motor neuron

text: s to the

text: inhibitory neurons

text: of the spinal cord after entering through

text: endocytosis

text: . This results in a loss of function in inhibitory neurons within the CNS resulting in systemic

text: muscular contractions

text: . Similar to the

text: prognosis

text: of a lethal dose of BTX, TeNT leads to paralysis and subsequent

text: suffocation

text: The site of synapse is found in the inferior mesenteric ganglion and the postsynaptic fibers innervate the smooth muscle and glands of the pelvic viscera and hindgut.

text: The site of

text: synapse

text: is found in the

text: inferior mesenteric ganglion

text: and the postsynaptic fibers innervate the

text: smooth muscle

text: and

text: glands

text: of the pelvic viscera and

text: hindgut

text: The motor system is the part of the central nervous system that is involved with movement. It consists of the pyramidal and extrapyramidal system.

text: The motor system is the part of the

text: central nervous system

text: that is involved with movement. It consists of the

text: pyramidal

text: and

text: extrapyramidal system

text: This is a small annual herb with a trailing or somewhat upright stem coated thinly in woolly fibers. The leaves are up to about 4 centimeters long and have wavy edges. The inflorescences at the end of stem branches bear small hemispheric flower heads. Each head is wrapped in phyllaries with black glandular hairs and has a center of glandular yellow disc florets. There are also yellow ray florets but they are so small they are nearly invisible. Each is about half a millimeter long and has a minutely lobed tip.

text: This is a small annual herb with a trailing or somewhat upright stem coated thinly in woolly fibers. The leaves are up to about 4 centimeters long and have wavy edges. The

text: inflorescence

text: s at the end of stem branches bear small hemispheric

text: flower heads

text: . Each head is wrapped in

text: phyllaries

text: with black glandular hairs and has a center of glandular yellow disc florets. There are also yellow ray florets but they are so small they are nearly invisible. Each is about half a millimeter long and has a minutely lobed tip.

text: The organization was founded in 1970 as Synapse, an offshoot of the Syracuse University Light Work Community Darkrooms. Synapse operated as a student and community video center, working as an adjunct to the academic programs at Syracuse University. Synapse was conceived as a center for experimental video productions using the "portable" video equipment that was just becoming available in the early 1970s. By current standards, the "portable" equipment would be considered ludicrously heavy and bulky, and barely portable at all.

text: The organization was founded in 1970 as Synapse, an offshoot of the Syracuse University Light Work Community Darkrooms. Synapse operated as a student and community video center, working as an adjunct to the academic programs at

text: Syracuse University

text: . Synapse was conceived as a center for experimental video productions using the "portable" video equipment that was just becoming available in the early 1970s. By current standards, the "portable" equipment would be considered ludicrously heavy and bulky, and barely portable at all.

text: Synapse is a component-based development environment for neural networks and adaptive systems. Created by Peltarion, Synapse allows data mining, statistical analysis, visualization, preprocessing, design and training of neural networks and adaptive systems and the deployment of them. It utilizes a plug-in based architecture making it a general platform for signal processing. The first version of the product was released in May 2006.

text: Synapse is a component-based

text: development environment

text: for

text: neural network

text: s and

text: adaptive system

text: s. Created by

text: Peltarion

text: , Synapse allows

text: data mining

text: statistical analysis

text: visualization

text: preprocessing

text: design

text: and training of neural networks and adaptive systems and the

text: deployment

text: of them. It utilizes a

text: plug-in

text: based

text: architecture

text: making it a general platform for

text: signal processing

text: . The first version of the product was released in May 2006.

text: A neurotropic virus is said to be neuroinvasive if it is capable of accessing or entering the nervous system and neurovirulent if it is capable of causing disease within the nervous system. Both terms are often applied to central nervous system infections, although some neurotropic viruses are highly neuroinvasive for the peripheral nervous system (i.e. herpes simplex virus). Important neuroinvasive viruses include poliovirus, which is highly neurovirulent but weakly neuroinvasive, and rabies virus, which is highly neurovirulent but requires tissue trauma (often resulting from an animal bite) to become neuroinvasive. Using these definitions, herpes simplex virus is highly neuroinvasive for the peripheral nervous system and rarely neuroinvasive for the central nervous system, but in the latter case may cause herpesviral encephalitis and is therefore considered highly neurovirulent. Many arthropod-borne neurotropic viruses, like West Nile virus, spread to the brain primarily via the blood system by crossing the blood-brain barrier in what is called hematogenous dissemination.

text: A neurotropic virus is said to be neuroinvasive if it is capable of accessing or entering the

text: nervous system

text: and neurovirulent if it is capable of causing disease within the nervous system. Both terms are often applied to

text: central nervous system

text: infections, although some neurotropic viruses are highly neuroinvasive for the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (i.e.

text: herpes simplex virus

text: ). Important neuroinvasive viruses include

text: poliovirus

text: , which is highly neurovirulent but weakly neuroinvasive, and

text: rabies virus

text: , which is highly neurovirulent but requires tissue trauma (often resulting from an animal bite) to become neuroinvasive. Using these definitions, herpes simplex virus is highly neuroinvasive for the peripheral nervous system and rarely neuroinvasive for the central nervous system, but in the latter case may cause

text: herpesviral encephalitis

text: and is therefore considered highly neurovirulent. Many

text: arthropod-borne

text: neurotropic viruses, like

text: West Nile virus

text: , spread to the brain primarily via the

text: blood system

text: by crossing the

text: blood-brain barrier

text: in what is called

text: hematogenous dissemination

text: Each site has a letter to identify the lobe and a number to identify the hemisphere location. The letters F, T, C, P and O stand for frontal, temporal, central, parietal, and occipital lobes, respectively. (Note that there exists no central lobe; the "C" letter is used only for identification purposes.) Even numbers (2,4,6,8) refer to electrode positions on the right hemisphere, whereas odd numbers (1,3,5,7) refer to those on the left hemisphere. A "z" (zero) refers to an electrode placed on the midline. In addition to these combinations, the letter codes A, Pg and Fp identify the earlobes, nasopharyngeal and frontal polar sites respectively.

text: Each site has a letter to identify the lobe and a number to identify the hemisphere location. The letters F, T, C, P and O stand for

text: frontal

text: temporal

text: , central,

text: parietal

text: , and

text: occipital

text: lobes, respectively. (Note that there exists no central lobe; the "C" letter is used only for identification purposes.) Even numbers (2,4,6,8) refer to electrode positions on the right hemisphere, whereas odd numbers (1,3,5,7) refer to those on the left hemisphere. A "z" (zero) refers to an electrode placed on the midline. In addition to these combinations, the letter codes A, Pg and Fp identify the earlobes,

text: nasopharyngeal

text: and frontal polar sites respectively.

text: Sensory information flows from whisker follicles to barrel cortex via the trigeminal nerve nuclei and the thalamus. Barrel like divisions can be seen in some, but not all parts of the trigeminal nuclei (where they are called barrelets) and the thalamus (where they are called barreloids). The trigeminal nerve carries afferent fibres from the follicles into the brainstem where they connect to neurons in four different trigeminal nerve nuclei: principal, interpolar, oral, and caudal. Projections from the trigeminal nuclei to the thalamus are split into pathways designated lemniscal, extralemniscal, and paralemniscal. In the lemniscal pathway, axons from the principal trigeminal nucleus cross over the midline and project to “barreloids” in the thalamus, specifically in the dorsomedial section of the ventroposterior medial nucleus (VPMdm). Neurons in VPMdm project mainly to barrels in layer 4 of primary somatosensory cortex (S1). In the extralemniscal pathway, neurons of the interpolar nucleus project to the ventrolateral section of the ventroposterior medial nucleus (VPMvl). Neurons in VPMvl project to septa between the barrels and to secondary somatosensory cortex (S2). The paralemniscal pathway runs from the interpolar trigeminal nucleus via posterior nucleus (POm) of the thalamus to S2 and to diffuse targets in barrel cortex especially layer 5. Each pathway also has secondary projections to other layers within barrel cortex and other regions of cortex, including motor cortex. These different pathways are thought to transmit different modalities of sensory information from the whisker.

text: Sensory information flows from whisker follicles to barrel cortex via the

text: trigeminal nerve nuclei

text: and the thalamus. Barrel like divisions can be seen in some, but not all parts of the trigeminal nuclei (where they are called barrelets) and the thalamus (where they are called barreloids). The

text: trigeminal nerve

text: carries afferent fibres from the follicles into the brainstem where they connect to neurons in four different trigeminal nerve nuclei: principal, interpolar, oral, and caudal. Projections from the trigeminal nuclei to the thalamus are split into pathways designated lemniscal, extralemniscal, and paralemniscal. In the lemniscal pathway, axons from the principal trigeminal nucleus cross over the midline and project to “barreloids” in the thalamus, specifically in the dorsomedial section of the ventroposterior medial nucleus (VPMdm). Neurons in VPMdm project mainly to barrels in layer 4 of primary somatosensory cortex (S1). In the extralemniscal pathway, neurons of the interpolar nucleus project to the ventrolateral section of the ventroposterior medial nucleus (VPMvl). Neurons in VPMvl project to septa between the barrels and to

text: secondary somatosensory cortex

text: (S2). The paralemniscal pathway runs from the interpolar trigeminal nucleus via posterior nucleus (POm) of the thalamus to S2 and to diffuse targets in barrel cortex especially layer 5. Each pathway also has secondary projections to other layers within barrel cortex and other regions of cortex, including motor cortex. These different pathways are thought to transmit different modalities of sensory information from the whisker.

text: Nervous tissue or Nerve tissue is the main tissue component of the two parts of the nervous system; the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity. It is composed of neurons, or nerve cells, which receive and transmit impulses, and  neuroglia, also known as glial cells or more commonly as just glia (from the Greek, meaning glue), which assist the propagation of the nerve impulse as well as providing nutrients to the neuron.

text: Nervous tissue or Nerve tissue is the main

text: tissue

text: component of the two parts of the

text: nervous system

text: ; the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity. It is composed of

text: neuron

text: s, or nerve cells, which receive and transmit impulses, and

text: neuroglia

text: , also known as glial cells or more commonly as just glia (from the Greek, meaning glue), which assist the propagation of the

text: nerve impulse

text: as well as providing

text: nutrients

text: to the neuron.

text: The complement system is also becoming increasingly implicated in diseases of the central nervous system such as Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative conditions such as spinal cord injuries.

text: The complement system is also becoming increasingly implicated in diseases of the central nervous system such as

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: and other neurodegenerative conditions such as spinal cord injuries.

text: The synaptojanin family comprises proteins that are key players in the synaptic vesicle recovery at the synapse. In general, vesicles containing neurotransmitters fuse with the presynaptic cell in order to release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. It is the release of neurotransmitters that allows neuron to neuron communication in the nervous system. The recovery of the vesicle is referred to as endocytosis and is important to reset the presynaptic cell with new neurotransmitter.

text: The synaptojanin family comprises proteins that are key players in the synaptic vesicle recovery at the

text: synapse

text: . In general, vesicles containing

text: neurotransmitters

text: fuse with the presynaptic cell in order to release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. It is the release of neurotransmitters that allows neuron to neuron communication in the nervous system. The recovery of the vesicle is referred to as endocytosis and is important to reset the presynaptic cell with new neurotransmitter.

text: A common de-wormer that is effective against Habronema is ivermectin. Common brand names for ivermectin include: Zimecterin, Rotation 1, and Eqvalan. The indications for ivermectin are the disposal of the parasites: Large strongyles, small strongyles, stomach worm (Habronema, and Trichostrongylus), adult pinworms, adult safaris, neck threadworms, and bots. Ivermectin works by disrupting the flow of a chemical called GABA. GABA is a neuromuscular chemical that is found naturally throughout the body. The disruption of the GABA in a parasite causes paralysis in the parasites, and death soon follows. In mammals GABA is only found in the central nervous system, (brain and spinal cord) and is protected from the ivermectin.

text: A common de-wormer that is effective against Habronema is

text: ivermectin

text: . Common brand names for ivermectin include:

text: Zimecterin

text: Rotation 1

text: , and

text: Eqvalan

text: . The indications for ivermectin are the disposal of the parasites: Large

text: strongyle

text: s, small strongyles,

text: stomach worm

text: (Habronema, and

text: Trichostrongylus

text: ), adult

text: pinworms

text: , adult

text: safari

text: s, neck

text: threadworms

text: , and

text: bots

text: . Ivermectin works by disrupting the flow of a chemical called

text: GABA

text: . GABA is a

text: neuromuscular

text: chemical

text: that is found naturally throughout the body. The disruption of the GABA in a parasite causes

text: paralysis

text: in the parasites, and death soon follows. In

text: mammals

text: GABA is only found in the

text: central nervous system

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: ) and is protected from the ivermectin.

text: In 1844 Foville published Traité complet de l'anatomie, de la physiologie et de la pathologie du système nerveux cérébro-spinal on the anatomy of the nervous system of the spinal cord, regarded as one of the best works on the subject prior to the invention of the microscope.

text: In 1844 Foville published Traité complet de l'anatomie, de la physiologie et de la pathologie du système nerveux cérébro-spinal on the anatomy of the

text: nervous system

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: , regarded as one of the best works on the subject prior to the invention of the

text: microscope

text: Ian Anthony Meinertzhagen (born 1944, in Kent, United Kingdom) is a Canadian neurobiologist, a University Research Professor at Dalhousie University, in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Senior Fellow at the Janelia Research Campus of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Ashburn, Virginia.  He is a graduate of the Universities of Aberdeen (BSc) and St. Andrews (PhD, DSc) and undertook postdoctoral work at the Australian National University and Harvard University.  His research has pioneered studies on simple nervous systems of invertebrate species, especially the  Drosophila visual system and the diminutive chordate nervous system of the ascidian tadpole larva,. He has examined structurally identified circuits of neurons, their functional anatomy, their origins in both ontogeny and evolution, and their plasticity in adult animals.  He has been closely associated with the newly designated field of connectomics in .

text: Ian Anthony Meinertzhagen (born 1944, in

text: Kent

text: United Kingdom

text: ) is a

text: Canadian

text: neurobiologist

text: , a University Research Professor at

text: Dalhousie University

text: , in Halifax, Nova Scotia and Senior Fellow at the Janelia Research Campus of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute in Ashburn, Virginia.  He is a graduate of the Universities of Aberdeen (BSc) and St. Andrews (PhD, DSc) and undertook postdoctoral work at the

text: Australian National University

text: and

text: Harvard University

text: .  His research has pioneered studies on simple nervous systems of invertebrate species, especially the  Drosophila visual system and the diminutive chordate nervous system of the ascidian tadpole larva,. He has examined structurally identified circuits of neurons, their functional anatomy, their origins in both ontogeny and evolution, and their plasticity in adult animals.  He has been closely associated with the newly designated field of connectomics in .

text: The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain, retina, and spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of all the nerves outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system is made up of "afferent" neurons, which bring sensory information from the sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the muscles. The autonomic nervous system also has two subdivisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic, which are important for regulating the body's basic internal organ functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, like somatic nerves, contain afferent and efferent fibers.

text: The vertebrate nervous system is divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems. The

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) consists of the

text: brain

text: retina

text: , and

text: spinal cord

text: , while the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) is made up of all the nerves outside of the CNS that connect it to the rest of the body. The PNS is further subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. The

text: somatic nervous system

text: is made up of "afferent" neurons, which bring sensory information from the sense organs to the CNS, and "efferent" neurons, which carry motor instructions out to the muscles. The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: also has two subdivisions, the

text: sympathetic

text: and the

text: parasympathetic

text: , which are important for regulating the body's basic internal organ functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion, and salivation. Autonomic nerves, like somatic nerves, contain afferent and efferent fibers.

text: Spinal cord injury is damage to the spinal cord that causes changes in its function, either temporary or permanent.

text: Spinal cord injury

text: is damage to the

text: spinal cord

text: that causes changes in its function, either temporary or permanent.

text: The other lobes, representing unwanted radiation in other directions, are called "side lobes".  The side lobe in the opposite direction (180°) from the main lobe is called the "back lobe". Usually it refers to a minor lobe thatoccupies the hemisphere in a direction opposite to that of the major (main) lobe.

text: The other lobes, representing unwanted radiation in other directions, are called "

text: side lobe

text: s".  The side lobe in the opposite direction (180°) from the main lobe is called the "back lobe". Usually it refers to a minor lobe thatoccupies the hemisphere in a direction opposite to that of the major (main) lobe.

text: Different mechanisms regulate PCD in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) versus the central nervous system (CNS). In the PNS, innervation of the target is proportional to the amount of the target-released neurotrophic factors NGF and NT3. Expression of neurotrophin receptors, TrkA and TrkC, is sufficient to induce apoptosis in the absence of their ligands. Therefore, it is speculated that PCD in the PNS is dependent on the release of neurotrophic factors and thus follows the concept of the neurotrophic theory.

text: Different mechanisms regulate PCD in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) versus the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS). In the PNS, innervation of the target is proportional to the amount of the target-released neurotrophic factors NGF and

text: . Expression of neurotrophin receptors,

text: TrkA

text: and

text: TrkC

text: , is sufficient to induce

text: apoptosis

text: in the absence of their

text: ligands

text: . Therefore, it is speculated that PCD in the PNS is dependent on the release of neurotrophic factors and thus follows the concept of the neurotrophic theory.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is divided into the somatic nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system. However, it is the somatic nervous system, responsible for body movement and the reception of external stimuli, which allows one to understand how cutaneous innervation is made possible by the action of specific sensory fibers located on the skin, as well as the distinct pathways they take to the central nervous system. The skin, which is part of the integumentary system, plays an important role in the somatic nervous system because it contains a range of nerve endings that react to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury.

text: The

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) is divided into the

text: somatic nervous system

text: , the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , and the

text: enteric nervous system

text: . However, it is the somatic nervous system, responsible for body movement and the reception of external stimuli, which allows one to understand how cutaneous innervation is made possible by the action of specific

text: sensory fibers

text: located on the

text: skin

text: , as well as the distinct pathways they take to the central nervous system. The skin, which is part of the

text: integumentary system

text: , plays an important role in the somatic nervous system because it contains a range of

text: nerve endings

text: that react to heat and cold, touch, pressure, vibration, and tissue injury.

text: Two pairs of cranial nerves; the olfactory nerves and the optic nerves are often considered structures of the central nervous system. This is because they do not synapse first on peripheral ganglia, but directly on central nervous neurons. The olfactory epithelium is significant in that it consists of central nervous tissue expressed in direct contact to the environment, allowing for administration of certain pharmaceuticals and drugs.

text: Two pairs of cranial nerves; the

text: olfactory nerve

text: s and the

text: optic nerve

text: s are often considered structures of the central nervous system. This is because they do not synapse first on peripheral ganglia, but directly on central nervous neurons. The olfactory epithelium is significant in that it consists of central nervous tissue expressed in direct contact to the environment, allowing for administration of certain pharmaceuticals and drugs.

text: In all spinal muscular atrophies, the primary feature is muscle weakness accompanied by atrophy of muscle. This is the result of denervation, or loss of the signal to contract that is transmitted by the motor neurons in the spinal cord. The signal is normally transmitted from the spinal cord to muscle via the motor neuron's axon, but in spinal muscular atrophies either the entire motor neuron or the motor neuron's axon loses the ability to transmit signals to muscles.

text: In all spinal muscular atrophies, the primary feature is muscle weakness accompanied by

text: atrophy

text: of muscle. This is the result of

text: denervation

text: , or loss of the signal to contract that is transmitted by the

text: motor neuron

text: s in the

text: spinal cord

text: . The signal is normally transmitted from the spinal cord to muscle via the motor neuron's

text: axon

text: , but in spinal muscular atrophies either the entire motor neuron or the motor neuron's axon loses the ability to transmit signals to muscles.

text: In the adult nervous system, CRMP expression is significantly downregulated and limited in areas associated with brain plasticity, neurogenesis, or regeneration.  CRMP1 mRNA is mainly expressed in Purkinje cells of the cerebellum.  Among the five members of the CRMP family, CRMP-2 is the most highly expressed in the adult brain, especially in post-mitotic neurons of the olfactory system, cerebellum, and hippocampus.   CRMP-3 mRNA is only expressed in the granular layer of the cerebellum, inferior olive, and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus.  CRMP-4 is the least expressed protein of CRMP family and its expression is restricted to the olfactory bulb, hippocampus, and the internal granule layer (IGL) of the cerebellum.  Lastly, CRMP-5 is expressed not only in post-mitotic neurons of the olfactory bulb, olfactory epithelium, and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, but also in peripheral nerve axons and sensory neurons.  Other families of CRMP also appear in peripheral tissues.  Expression of CRMPs-1, -4, and -5 in the adult testis is detected only in the cell spermatid stage and CRMP-2 mRNA is found in lung tissue of the fetal mouse and adult human.

text: In the adult

text: nervous system

text: , CRMP expression is significantly downregulated and limited in areas associated with brain

text: plasticity

text: neurogenesis

text: , or regeneration.  CRMP1 mRNA is mainly expressed in

text: Purkinje cells

text: of the

text: cerebellum

text: .  Among the five members of the CRMP family, CRMP-2 is the most highly expressed in the adult brain, especially in post-mitotic

text: neurons

text: of the

text: olfactory system

text: cerebellum

text: , and

text: hippocampus

text: .   CRMP-3 mRNA is only expressed in the granular layer of the

text: cerebellum

text: inferior olive

text: , and

text: dentate gyrus

text: of the

text: hippocampus

text: .  CRMP-4 is the least expressed protein of CRMP family and its expression is restricted to the

text: olfactory bulb

text: hippocampus

text: , and the internal granule layer (IGL) of the

text: cerebellum

text: .  Lastly, CRMP-5 is expressed not only in post-mitotic

text: neurons

text: of the

text: olfactory bulb

text: olfactory epithelium

text: , and

text: dentate gyrus

text: of the

text: hippocampus

text: , but also in

text: peripheral

text: nerve axons and

text: sensory neurons

text: .  Other families of CRMP also appear in

text: peripheral

text: tissues.  Expression of CRMPs-1, -4, and -5 in the adult

text: testis

text: is detected only in the cell spermatid stage and CRMP-2 mRNA is found in

text: lung

text: tissue of the fetal mouse and adult human.

text: Commissural tracts connect corresponding cortical areas in the two hemispheres. They cross from one cerebral hemisphere to the other through bridges called commissures. The great majority of commissural tracts pass through the corpus callosum. A few tracts pass through the much smaller anterior and posterior commissures. Commissural tracts enable the left and right sides of the cerebrum to communicate with each other.

text: Commissural tracts

text: connect corresponding cortical areas in the two hemispheres. They cross from one cerebral hemisphere to the other through bridges called commissures. The great majority of commissural tracts pass through the corpus callosum. A few tracts pass through the much smaller anterior and posterior commissures. Commissural tracts enable the left and right sides of the cerebrum to communicate with each other.

text: The signs within the central nervous system include a localized involuntary twitching of muscles or groups of muscles, seizures often distinguished by salivation, and jaw movements commonly described as "chewing gum fits", or more appropriately as "distemper myoclonus". As the condition progresses, the seizures worsen and advance to grand mal convulsions followed by death of the animal. The animal may also show signs of sensitivity to light, incoordination, circling, increased sensitivity to sensory stimuli such as pain or touch, and deterioration of motor capabilities. Less commonly, they may lead to blindness and paralysis. The length of the systemic disease may be as short as 10 days, or the start of neurological signs may not come until several weeks or months later. Those few that survive usually have a small tic or twitch of varying levels of severity. With time, this tic will usually diminish somewhat in its severity.

text: The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is equipped to process stress in three main areas: the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the prefrontal cortex. Each of these areas is densely packed with stress corticosteroid receptors which process the intensity of physical and psychological stressors acting upon the body through a process of hormone reception. There are two types of corticosteroid receptors: mineralocorticoid receptors and glucocorticoid receptors. The mineralocorticoid receptors (MR) have an extremely high affinity for cortisol. This means that they are at least partially stimulated at all times and therefore are entirely activated almost immediately when a true stressor is disrupting the homeostasis of the body. The second type of receptor, glucocorticoid receptors (GR), have a low affinity for cortisol and only begin to become activated as the sensation of stress reaches its peak intensity on the brain.

text: The

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is equipped to process stress in three main areas: the

text: amygdala

text: , the

text: hippocampus

text: , and the

text: prefrontal cortex

text: . Each of these areas is densely packed with stress

text: corticosteroid

text: receptors which process the intensity of physical and psychological stressors acting upon the body through a process of hormone reception. There are two types of corticosteroid receptors: mineralocorticoid receptors and glucocorticoid receptors. The

text: mineralocorticoid receptor

text: s (MR) have an extremely high affinity for

text: cortisol

text: . This means that they are at least partially stimulated at all times and therefore are entirely activated almost immediately when a true stressor is disrupting the homeostasis of the body. The second type of receptor,

text: glucocorticoid receptor

text: s (GR), have a low affinity for cortisol and only begin to become activated as the sensation of stress reaches its peak intensity on the brain.

text: Programmed cell death can be reduced or eliminated in the developing nervous system by the targeted deletion of pro-apoptotic genes or by the overexpression of anti-apoptotic genes. The absence or reduction of PCD can cause serious anatomical malformations but can also result in minimal consequences depending on the gene targeted, neuronal population, and stage of development. Excess progenitor cell proliferation that leads to gross brain abnormalities is often lethal, as seen in caspase-3 or caspase-9 knockout mice which develop exencephaly in the forebrain. The brainstem, spinal cord, and peripheral ganglia of these mice develop normally, however, suggesting that the involvement of caspases in PCD during development depends on the brain region and cell type. Knockout or inhibition of apoptotic protease activating factor 1 (APAF1), also results in malformations and increased embryonic lethality. Manipulation of apoptosis regulator proteins Bcl-2 and Bax (overexpression of Bcl-2 or deletion of Bax) produces an increase in the number of neurons in certain regions of the nervous system such as the retina, trigeminal nucleus, cerebellum, and spinal cord.<ref name=Zanjani>{{cite journal|last=Zanjani|first=HS|title=Increased cerebellar Purkinje cell numbers in mice overexpressing a human bcl-2 transgene|journal=Journal of Computational Neurology|year=1996|volume=374|pages=332–341|doi=10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19961021)374:3

text: Programmed cell death can be reduced or eliminated in the developing nervous system by the targeted deletion of pro-apoptotic genes or by the overexpression of anti-apoptotic genes. The absence or reduction of PCD can cause serious anatomical malformations but can also result in minimal consequences depending on the gene targeted, neuronal population, and stage of development. Excess progenitor cell proliferation that leads to gross brain abnormalities is often lethal, as seen in

text: or

text: knockout mice

text: which develop

text: exencephaly

text: in the

text: forebrain

text: . The brainstem, spinal cord, and peripheral ganglia of these mice develop normally, however, suggesting that the involvement of

text: caspases

text: in PCD during development depends on the brain region and cell type. Knockout or inhibition of apoptotic protease activating factor 1 (

text: ), also results in malformations and increased embryonic lethality. Manipulation of apoptosis regulator proteins

text: and Bax (overexpression of Bcl-2 or deletion of Bax) produces an increase in the number of neurons in certain regions of the nervous system such as the

text: retina

text: trigeminal nucleus

text: , cerebellum, and spinal cord.<ref name=Zanjani>{{cite journal|last=Zanjani|first=HS|title=Increased cerebellar Purkinje cell numbers in mice overexpressing a human bcl-2 transgene|journal=Journal of Computational Neurology|year=1996|volume=374|pages=332–341|doi=10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19961021)374:3

text: Neurotoxicity is toxicity in the nervous system. It occurs when exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances, which are called neurotoxins, alters the normal activity of the nervous system in such a way as to cause damage to nervous tissue. This can eventually disrupt or even kill neurons, key cells that transmit and process signals in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurotoxicity can result from exposure to substances used in chemotherapy, radiation treatment, drug therapies, certain drug abuse, and organ transplants, as well as exposure to heavy metals, certain foods and food additives, pesticides, industrial and/or cleaning solvents, cosmetics, and some naturally occurring substances. Symptoms may appear immediately after exposure or be delayed. They may include limb weakness or numbness, loss of memory, vision, and/or intellect, uncontrollable obsessive and/or compulsive behaviors, delusions, headache, cognitive and behavioral problems and sexual dysfunction. Individuals with certain disorders may be especially vulnerable to neurotoxins.

text: Neurotoxicity is

text: toxicity

text: in the

text: nervous system

text: . It occurs when exposure to natural or artificial toxic substances, which are called

text: neurotoxin

text: s, alters the normal activity of the nervous system in such a way as to cause damage to nervous tissue. This can eventually disrupt or even kill

text: neuron

text: s, key cells that transmit and process signals in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. Neurotoxicity can result from exposure to substances used in

text: chemotherapy

text: radiation treatment

text: drug therapies

text: , certain

text: drug abuse

text: , and

text: organ transplant

text: s, as well as exposure to

text: heavy metals

text: , certain

text: food

text: s and

text: food additive

text: s,

text: pesticide

text: s, industrial and/or cleaning

text: solvent

text: s,

text: cosmetics

text: , and some naturally occurring substances. Symptoms may appear immediately after exposure or be delayed. They may include limb weakness or numbness, loss of memory, vision, and/or intellect, uncontrollable obsessive and/or compulsive behaviors, delusions, headache, cognitive and behavioral problems and sexual dysfunction. Individuals with certain disorders may be especially vulnerable to neurotoxins.

text: The primary purpose of a neural interface is to enable two-way exchange of information with the nervous system for a sustained period of time to enable effective and high density stimulation and recording. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is responsible for relaying information from the brain and spinal cord to the extremities of the body and back. The function of a peripheral nerve interface is to assist the nervous system when peripheral nerve function is compromised. To supplement the roles of the nervous system, interfaces need to augment motor function as well as discern sensory information. The feasibility of peripheral nerve stimulation to achieve a desired motor output has been demonstrated and is one of the major driving forces for this area of research.  Information throughout the nervous system is exchanged primarily through action potentials. These signals occur at varying numbers and intervals dependent on both the neuroanatomical and neurochemical make up of the individual and localized region. Information may be either introduced or read out by inducing or recovering action potentials from the body. Successful development and implementation of a peripheral nerve interface would allow for both the introduction of information to the nervous system, and extraction information from the nervous system.

text: The primary purpose of a

text: neural interface

text: is to enable two-way exchange of information with the nervous system for a sustained period of time to enable effective and high density stimulation and recording. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is responsible for relaying information from the brain and spinal cord to the extremities of the body and back. The function of a peripheral nerve interface is to assist the nervous system when peripheral nerve function is compromised. To supplement the roles of the nervous system, interfaces need to augment motor function as well as discern sensory information. The feasibility of peripheral nerve stimulation to achieve a desired motor output has been demonstrated and is one of the major driving forces for this area of research.  Information throughout the nervous system is exchanged primarily through

text: action potential

text: s. These signals occur at varying numbers and intervals dependent on both the

text: neuroanatomical

text: and

text: neurochemical

text: make up of the individual and localized region. Information may be either introduced or read out by inducing or recovering action potentials from the body. Successful development and implementation of a peripheral nerve interface would allow for both the introduction of information to the nervous system, and extraction information from the nervous system.

text: In neuroanatomy, a nucleus (plural form: nuclei) is a cluster of  cell bodies of neurons in the central nervous system, located deep within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem. The neurons in one nucleus usually have roughly similar connections and functions. Nuclei are connected to other nuclei by tracts, the bundles (fascicles) of axons (nerve fibers) extending from the cell bodies. A nucleus is one of the two most common forms of nerve cell organization, the other being layered structures such as the cerebral cortex or cerebellar cortex. In anatomical sections, a nucleus shows up as a region of gray matter, often bordered by white matter.  The vertebrate brain contains hundreds of distinguishable nuclei, varying widely in shape and size.  A nucleus may itself have a complex internal structure, with multiple types of neurons arranged in clumps (subnuclei) or layers.

text: In

text: neuroanatomy

text: , a nucleus (plural form: nuclei) is a cluster of

text: cell bodies

text: of

text: neuron

text: s in the

text: central nervous system

text: , located deep within the

text: cerebral hemisphere

text: s and

text: brainstem

text: . The neurons in one nucleus usually have roughly similar connections and functions. Nuclei are connected to other nuclei by

text: tracts

text: , the bundles (fascicles) of

text: axon

text: s (nerve fibers) extending from the cell bodies. A nucleus is one of the two most common forms of nerve cell organization, the other being layered structures such as the

text: cerebral cortex

text: or

text: cerebellar cortex

text: . In anatomical sections, a nucleus shows up as a region of

text: gray matter

text: , often bordered by

text: white matter

text: .  The

text: vertebrate

text: brain contains hundreds of distinguishable nuclei, varying widely in shape and size.  A nucleus may itself have a complex internal structure, with multiple types of neurons arranged in clumps (subnuclei) or layers.

text: A neuron (also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an excitable cell in the nervous system that processes and transmits information by electrochemical signaling. Neurons are the core components of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

text: A

text: neuron

text: (also known as a neurone or nerve cell) is an excitable cell in the nervous system that processes and transmits information by electrochemical signaling. Neurons are the core components of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

text: P2X receptors are expressed in cells from a wide variety of animal tissues. On presynaptic and postsynaptic nerve terminals and glial cells throughout the central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, P2X receptors have been shown to modulate synaptic transmission. Furthermore, P2X receptors are able to initiate contraction in cells of the heart muscle, skeletal muscle, and various smooth muscle tissues, including that of the vasculature, vas deferens and urinary bladder. P2X receptors are also expressed on leukocytes, including lymphocytes and macrophages, and are present on blood platelets. There is some degree of subtype specificity as to which P2X receptor subtypes are expressed on specific cell types, with P2X receptors being particularly prominent in smooth muscle cells, and P2X being widespread throughout the autonomic nervous system. However, such trends are very general and there is considerable overlap in subunit distribution, with most cell types expressing more than one subunits. For example, P2X and P2X subunits are commonly found co-expressed in sensory neurons, where they often co-assemble into functional P2X receptors.

text: P2X receptors are expressed in cells from a wide variety of animal

text: tissues

text: . On presynaptic and postsynaptic

text: nerve terminals

text: and

text: glial

text: cells throughout the

text: central

text: peripheral

text: and

text: autonomic

text: nervous systems, P2X receptors have been shown to modulate

text: synaptic transmission

text: . Furthermore, P2X receptors are able to initiate

text: contraction

text: in cells of the

text: heart muscle

text: skeletal muscle

text: , and various

text: smooth muscle

text: tissues, including that of the

text: vasculature

text: vas deferens

text: and

text: urinary bladder

text: . P2X receptors are also expressed on

text: leukocytes

text: , including lymphocytes and macrophages, and are present on blood

text: platelet

text: s. There is some degree of subtype specificity as to which P2X receptor subtypes are expressed on specific cell types, with P2X receptors being particularly prominent in smooth muscle cells, and P2X being widespread throughout the autonomic nervous system. However, such trends are very general and there is considerable overlap in subunit distribution, with most cell types expressing more than one subunits. For example, P2X and P2X subunits are commonly found co-expressed in

text: sensory neuron

text: s, where they often co-assemble into functional P2X receptors.

text: The spinal cord is divided into 31 segments, located between the vertebrae. Each segment is defined by a posterior root entering it and an anterior root exiting it. Each of these roots is the end of a spinal nerve connecting the spinal cord to the body. The vertebral column is divided into four groups of vertebrae: (from top to bottom) cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral.

text: The

text: spinal cord

text: is divided into 31 segments, located between the

text: vertebrae

text: . Each segment is defined by a

text: posterior root

text: entering it and an

text: anterior root

text: exiting it. Each of these roots is the end of a spinal nerve connecting the spinal cord to the body. The

text: vertebral column

text: is divided into four groups of vertebrae: (from top to bottom)

text: cervical

text: thoracic

text: lumbar

text: , and

text: sacral

text: PTPmu is expressed in the developing brain and retina.  A brain cell, or neuron, has a cell body that contains the nucleus and two types of extensions or processes that grow out from the cell body, the dendrites and axons.  Dendrites generally receive input from other neurons, while axons send output to adjacent neurons. These processes are called neurites when grown ‘’in vitro’’ on tissue culture plates, because it is not clear whether they are dendrites or axons. ‘’In vitro’’ growth studies are useful for evaluating the mechanisms that neurons use to grow and function.  A neurite outgrowth assay is a type of experiment where neurons are placed on different adhesive substrates on tissue culture plates.  A neurite outgrowth assay is meant to mimic how neurons grow inside the body. During development of the nervous system, neuronal axons reach their often-distant targets by reacting to different substrates in their environment, so-called guidance cues, that are attractive, repulsive or simply permissive, meaning these substrates pull axons toward them, away from them, or act in a way that allows growth, respectively. When PTPmu is applied to a dish as an ‘’in vitro’’ substrate, it promotes neurite outgrowth.   PTPmu also acts as a guidance cue during development of the nervous system, by repelling neurites of the temporal neural retina, while permitting growth of neurites from the nasal neural retina.  Expression of PTPmu protein capable of dephosphorylating tyrosine residues is required for mediating both nasal neurite outgrowth and temporal neurite repulsion.  By blocking the expression of PTPmu protein with antisense technology, or by expressing catalytically inactive mutants of PTPmu (molecules of PTPmu that can not dephosphorylate their target proteins) in the developing retina, it was shown that PTPmu is required for the development of the neural retina.

text: The basic structural unit of the neural network is connectivity of one neuron to another via an active junction, called synapse. Neurons of widely divergent characteristics are connected to each other via synapses, whose characteristics are also of diverse chemical and electrical properties. In presenting a comprehensive view of all possible modeling of the brain and neural network, an approach is to organize the material based on the characteristics of the networks and the goals that need to be accomplished. The latter could be either for understanding the brain and the nervous system better or to apply the knowledge gained from the total or partial nervous system to real world applications such as artificial intelligence, Neuroethics or improvements in medical science for society.

text: The basic structural unit of the neural network is connectivity of one neuron to another via an active junction, called synapse. Neurons of widely divergent characteristics are connected to each other via synapses, whose characteristics are also of diverse chemical and electrical properties. In presenting a comprehensive view of all possible modeling of the brain and neural network, an approach is to organize the material based on the characteristics of the networks and the goals that need to be accomplished. The latter could be either for understanding the brain and the nervous system better or to apply the knowledge gained from the total or partial nervous system to real world applications such as

text: artificial intelligence

text: Neuroethics

text: or improvements in medical science for society.

text: Sympathetic motor neurons control the emission phase of ejaculation reflex, and expulsion phase is executed by somatic and autonomic motor neurons. These motor neurons are located in the thoracolumbar and lumbosacral spinal cord and are activated in a coordinated manner when sufficient sensory input to reach the ejaculatory threshold has entered the central nervous system.

text: Sympathetic motor neurons control the emission phase of ejaculation reflex, and expulsion phase is executed by somatic and autonomic motor neurons. These motor neurons are located in the thoracolumbar and lumbosacral

text: spinal cord

text: and are activated in a coordinated manner when sufficient sensory input to reach the ejaculatory threshold has entered the

text: central nervous system

text: Studies done by De Pietri Tonelli and Kawase-Koga have shown conditional knockout of Dicer, an enzyme largely used for miRNA synthesis, in mouse neocortex resulted in reduced cortical size, increased neuronal apoptosis, and deficient corticol layering. Neuroepithelial cells and neuroprogenitor cells were not affected until E.14, at which point they also underwent apoptosis. This doesn't show which miRNAs were responsible for the varying factors affected, but it does show that there is a stage-specific requirement for miRNA expression in cortical development. miR-124, the most abundant microRNA in the central nervous system, controls the lineage progression of subventricular zone neural progenitor cells into neuroblasts by suppressing protein production by targeting Sox9. Another major microRNA player is miR-9/9*. In embryonic neurogenesis miR-9 has been shown to regulate neuronal differentiation and self-renewal. Ectopic expression of miR-9 in the developing mouse cortex led to premature neuronal differentiation and disrupted the migration of new neurons through targeting Foxg1.

text: Studies done by De Pietri Tonelli and Kawase-Koga have shown

text: conditional knockout

text: of

text: Dicer

text: , an enzyme largely used for miRNA synthesis, in mouse

text: neocortex

text: resulted in reduced cortical size, increased neuronal apoptosis, and deficient corticol layering. Neuroepithelial cells and neuroprogenitor cells were not affected until E.14, at which point they also underwent apoptosis. This doesn't show which miRNAs were responsible for the varying factors affected, but it does show that there is a stage-specific requirement for miRNA expression in cortical development.

text: , the most abundant microRNA in the central nervous system, controls the lineage progression of

text: subventricular zone

text: neural progenitor cells into neuroblasts by suppressing protein production by targeting Sox9. Another major microRNA player is

text: . In embryonic neurogenesis miR-9 has been shown to regulate neuronal differentiation and self-renewal. Ectopic expression of miR-9 in the developing mouse cortex led to premature neuronal differentiation and disrupted the migration of new neurons through targeting Foxg1.

text: With an increase in technology and our understanding of the nervous system, the development of drugs will continue to rise with an increase in drug sensitivity and specificity. Structure-activity relationship or SARs is a major area of research within neuropharmacology that tries to modify the effect or the potency (i.e., activity) of bioactive chemical compounds by modifying their chemical structure.

text: With an increase in technology and our understanding of the nervous system, the development of drugs will continue to rise with an increase in drug

text: sensitivity and specificity

text: Structure-activity relationship

text: or SARs is a major area of research within neuropharmacology that tries to modify the effect or the potency (i.e., activity) of bioactive chemical compounds by modifying their chemical structure.

text: Genes to Cognition (G2C) is a neuroscience research programme that studies genes, the brain and behaviour in an integrated manner. It is engaged in a large-scale investigation of the function of molecules found at the synapse.  This is mainly focused on proteins that interact with the NMDA receptor, a receptor for the neurotransmitter, glutamate, which is required for processes of synaptic plasticity such as long-term potentiation (LTP).  One key discovery that led to the G2C project was the characterization of a group of proteins that interact with this receptor, called the "NMDA Receptor Complex (NRC)" and the observation that dysfunctions of many of these proteins are characteristic of numerous diseases of the nervous system. The NRC contains 185 proteins, 48 of which have so far been implicated in 54 human nervous system disorders.  The molecular evolution of the NRC is also an active area of research, and it has been shown that an increase in the complexity of these signaling proteins at synapses has evolved alongside the enhanced cognitive capacities of humans and other higher vertebrates.

text: Genes to Cognition (G2C) is a

text: neuroscience

text: research programme that studies

text: gene

text: s, the

text: brain

text: and

text: behaviour

text: in an integrated manner. It is engaged in a large-scale investigation of the function of molecules found at the

text: synapse

text: .  This is mainly focused on proteins that interact with the

text: NMDA receptor

text: , a receptor for the

text: neurotransmitter

text: glutamate

text: , which is required for processes of

text: synaptic plasticity

text: such as

text: long-term potentiation (LTP)

text: .  One key discovery that led to the G2C project was the characterization of a group of proteins that interact with this receptor, called the "NMDA Receptor Complex (NRC)" and the observation that dysfunctions of many of these proteins are characteristic of numerous diseases of the nervous system. The NRC contains 185 proteins, 48 of which have so far been implicated in 54 human nervous system disorders.  The

text: molecular evolution

text: of the NRC is also an active area of research, and it has been shown that an increase in the complexity of these signaling proteins at synapses has evolved alongside the enhanced cognitive capacities of humans and other higher vertebrates.

text: Functions of the nervous system are sensory input, integration, control of muscles and glands, homeostasis, and mental activity.

text: Functions of the nervous system are

text: sensory

text: input, integration, control of

text: muscle

text: s and

text: gland

text: s,

text: homeostasis

text: , and

text: mental activity

text: Neurons are the cells that transmit information in an animal's nervous system so that it can sense stimuli from its environment and behave accordingly. Not all animals have neurons; Trichoplax and sponges lack nerve cells altogether.

text: Neuron

text: s are the

text: cells

text: that transmit

text: information

text: in an

text: animal

text: 's

text: nervous system

text: so that it can

text: sense

text: stimuli

text: from its environment and

text: behave

text: accordingly. Not all animals have neurons;

text: Trichoplax

text: and

text: sponge

text: s lack

text: nerve cell

text: s altogether.

text: The methods of anesthesia can be divided into pharmacological and physical methods.  Acceptable pharmacological methods include injected drugs and gases that first depress the central nervous system and then cardiovascular activity.  Acceptable physical methods must first cause rapid loss of consciousness by disrupting the central nervous system.  The most common methods are discussed here, but there are other acceptable methods used in different situations.

text: Voice disorders can be divided into 2 broad categories: organic and functional. The distinction between these broad classes stems from their etiology, whereby organic dysphonia results from some sort of physiological change in one of the subsystems of speech (for voice, usually respiration, laryngeal anatomy, and/or other parts of the vocal tract are affected). Conversely, functional dysphonia refers to hoarseness resulting from vocal use (i.e. overuse/abuse). Furthermore, according to ASHA, organic dysphonia can be subdivided into structural and neurogenic; neurogenic dysphonia is defined as impacted functioning of the vocal structure due to a neurological problem (in the central nervous system or peripheral nervous system); in contrast, structural dysphonia is defined as impacted functioning of the vocal mechanism that is caused by some sort of physical change (e.g. a lesion on the vocal folds). Notably, an additional subcategory of functional dysphonia recognized by professionals is psychogenic dysphonia, which can be defined as a type of voice disorder that has no known cause and can be presumed to be a product of some sort of psychological stressors in one’s environment. It is important to note that these types are not mutually exclusive and much overlap occurs. For example, Muscle Tension Dysphonia (MTD) has been found to be a result of many different etiological factors including the following: MTD in the presence of an organic pathology (i.e. organic type), MTD stemming from vocal use (i.e. functional type), and MTD as a result of personality and/or psychological factors (i.e. psychogenic type).

text: Voice disorders can be divided into 2 broad categories: organic and functional. The distinction between these broad classes stems from their etiology, whereby organic dysphonia results from some sort of physiological change in one of the subsystems of speech (for voice, usually respiration, laryngeal anatomy, and/or other parts of the vocal tract are affected). Conversely, functional dysphonia refers to hoarseness resulting from vocal use (i.e. overuse/abuse). Furthermore, according to

text: ASHA

text: , organic dysphonia can be subdivided into structural and neurogenic; neurogenic dysphonia is defined as impacted functioning of the vocal structure due to a neurological problem (in the

text: central nervous system

text: or

text: peripheral nervous system

text: ); in contrast, structural dysphonia is defined as impacted functioning of the vocal mechanism that is caused by some sort of physical change (e.g. a lesion on the vocal folds). Notably, an additional subcategory of functional dysphonia recognized by professionals is psychogenic dysphonia, which can be defined as a type of voice disorder that has no known cause and can be presumed to be a product of some sort of psychological stressors in one’s environment. It is important to note that these types are not mutually exclusive and much overlap occurs. For example,

text: Muscle Tension Dysphonia

text: (MTD) has been found to be a result of many different etiological factors including the following: MTD in the presence of an organic pathology (i.e. organic type), MTD stemming from vocal use (i.e. functional type), and MTD as a result of personality and/or psychological factors (i.e. psychogenic type).

text: Motor adaptation is a form of motor learning, described as a process of acquiring and restoring movement skills. The Central nervous system adapt to environmental forces, in order to eliminate kinematic errors.

text: Motor adaptation is a form of

text: motor learning

text: , described as a process of acquiring and restoring movement skills. The

text: Central nervous system

text: adapt to environmental forces, in order to eliminate kinematic errors.

text: The cause for this disorder appears to be a mutation in the gene for the TPO receptor, c-mpl, despite high levels of serum TPO. In addition, there may be abnormalities with the central nervous system including the cerebrum and cerebellum which could cause symptoms.

text: The cause for this disorder appears to be a mutation in the gene for the TPO receptor, c-mpl, despite high levels of serum TPO. In addition, there may be abnormalities with the

text: central nervous system

text: including the

text: cerebrum

text: and

text: cerebellum

text: which could cause symptoms.

text: Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal were jointly awarded "in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system". However, their interpretation of discoveries were directly in opposition. Much as Golgi made significant contributions to the techniques in the study of nervous system in terms of actual structure, he made a completely erroneous conclusion that nervous system is nothing but a single continuous network, the notion called reticular theory. On the other hand, Ramón y Cajal described nervous system as composed of interlinking nerve cells or neurons as suggested by a theory called the neuron doctrine. Golgi strongly advocated the reticular theory such that even his Nobel lecture was a direct attack on Cajal's work and the neuron doctrine, and even depicted a diagram of continuous network which he claimed was "an exact reproduction after life". Therefore, recognising a work on wrong conclusion is inappropriate. The controversy and rivalry between the two scientists lasted even after the award of the Nobel Prize. The award is even dubbed as creating the "storm center of histological controversy". Cajal even commented that: "What a cruel irony of fate of pair, like Siamese twins united by the shoulders, scientific adversaries of such contrasting character!". The neuron doctrine turned out to be a more correct description, and Golgi was proved wrong with the development of electron microscopy in the 1950s by which it was clearly demonstrated that neurons are individual cells in the nervous system, and that they are interconnected through gaps called synapses. Recent studies suggest that there are notable exceptions. Electrical synapses are more common in the central nervous system than previously thought. Thus, rather than functioning as individual units, in some parts of the brain large ensembles of neurons may be active simultaneously to process neural information.

text: Camillo Golgi

text: and

text: Santiago Ramón y Cajal

text: were jointly awarded "in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system". However, their interpretation of discoveries were directly in opposition. Much as Golgi made significant contributions to the techniques in the study of nervous system in terms of actual structure, he made a completely erroneous conclusion that nervous system is nothing but a single continuous network, the notion called

text: reticular theory

text: . On the other hand, Ramón y Cajal described nervous system as composed of interlinking nerve cells or

text: neuron

text: s as suggested by a theory called the

text: neuron doctrine

text: . Golgi strongly advocated the reticular theory such that even his Nobel lecture was a direct attack on Cajal's work and the neuron doctrine, and even depicted a diagram of continuous network which he claimed was "an exact reproduction after life". Therefore, recognising a work on wrong conclusion is inappropriate. The controversy and rivalry between the two scientists lasted even after the award of the Nobel Prize. The award is even dubbed as creating the "storm center of histological controversy". Cajal even commented that: "What a cruel irony of fate of pair, like

text: Siamese twins

text: united by the shoulders, scientific adversaries of such contrasting character!". The neuron doctrine turned out to be a more correct description, and Golgi was proved wrong with the development of

text: electron microscopy

text: in the 1950s by which it was clearly demonstrated that neurons are individual cells in the nervous system, and that they are interconnected through gaps called

text: synapse

text: s. Recent studies suggest that there are notable exceptions. Electrical synapses are more common in the central nervous system than previously thought. Thus, rather than functioning as individual units, in some parts of the brain large ensembles of neurons may be active simultaneously to process neural information.

text: Drugs can influence behavior by altering neurotransmitter activity. For instance, drugs can decrease the rate of synthesis of neurotransmitters by affecting the synthetic enzyme(s) for that neurotransmitter. When neurotransmitter syntheses are blocked, the amount of neurotransmitters available for release becomes substantially lower, resulting in a decrease in neurotransmitter activity. Some drugs block or stimulate the release of specific neurotransmitters.  Alternatively, drugs can prevent neurotransmitter storage in synaptic vesicles by causing the synaptic vesicle membranes to leak. Drugs that prevent a neurotransmitter from binding to its receptor are called receptor antagonists. For example, drugs used to treat patients with schizophrenia such as haloperidol, chlorpromazine, and clozapine are antagonists at receptors in the brain for dopamine. Other drugs act by binding to a receptor and mimicking the normal neurotransmitter. Such drugs are called receptor agonists. An example of a receptor agonist is Valium, a benzodiazepine that mimics effects of the endogenous neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to decrease anxiety. Other drugs interfere with the deactivation of a neurotransmitter after it has been released, thereby prolonging the action of a neurotransmitter. This can be accomplished by blocking re-uptake or inhibiting degradative enzymes. Lastly, drugs can also prevent an action potential from occurring, blocking neuronal activity throughout the central and peripheral nervous system. Drugs such as tetrodotoxin that block neural activity are typically lethal.

text: Drugs can influence behavior by altering neurotransmitter activity. For instance, drugs can decrease the rate of synthesis of neurotransmitters by affecting the synthetic enzyme(s) for that neurotransmitter. When neurotransmitter syntheses are blocked, the amount of neurotransmitters available for release becomes substantially lower, resulting in a decrease in neurotransmitter activity. Some drugs block or stimulate the release of specific neurotransmitters.  Alternatively, drugs can prevent neurotransmitter storage in synaptic vesicles by causing the synaptic vesicle membranes to leak. Drugs that prevent a neurotransmitter from binding to its receptor are called

text: receptor antagonist

text: s. For example, drugs used to treat patients with schizophrenia such as haloperidol, chlorpromazine, and clozapine are antagonists at receptors in the brain for dopamine. Other drugs act by binding to a receptor and mimicking the normal neurotransmitter. Such drugs are called receptor

text: agonist

text: s. An example of a receptor agonist is Valium, a benzodiazepine that mimics effects of the endogenous neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to decrease anxiety. Other drugs interfere with the deactivation of a neurotransmitter after it has been released, thereby prolonging the action of a neurotransmitter. This can be accomplished by blocking re-uptake or inhibiting degradative enzymes. Lastly, drugs can also prevent an action potential from occurring, blocking neuronal activity throughout the central and peripheral

text: nervous system

text: . Drugs such as tetrodotoxin that block neural activity are typically lethal.

text: Nicholls is best known for his research in the field of neurobiology. In invertebrate and mammalian nervous systems he studied synaptic transmission as well as the problem of why neurons in the brain and spinal cord fail to regenerate after injury. For his studies he developed a new type of mammalian central nervous system (CNS) preparation which allowed the investigation of mechanisms involved in neurite outgrowth and CNS regeneration.  In recent years he has started to study how the rhythm of respiration is generated by the nervous system. Additionally, he authored the book From Neuron to Brain, which is already in its fifth edition.

text: Nicholls is best known for his research in the field of neurobiology. In

text: invertebrate

text: and

text: mammalian nervous systems

text: he studied

text: synaptic transmission

text: as well as the problem of why

text: neurons

text: in the brain and

text: spinal cord

text: fail to regenerate after injury. For his studies he developed a new type of mammalian

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) preparation which allowed the investigation of mechanisms involved in

text: neurite

text: outgrowth and CNS regeneration.  In recent years he has started to study how the

text: rhythm of respiration

text: is generated by the nervous system. Additionally, he authored the book From Neuron to Brain, which is already in its fifth edition.

text: The extent of the injury is also important.  A complete severing of the spinal cord will result in complete loss of function from that vertebra down.  A partial severing or even bruising of the spinal cord results in varying degrees of mixed function and paralysis. A common misconception with tetraplegia is that the victim cannot move legs, arms or any of the major function; this is often not the case. Some individuals with tetraplegia can walk and use their hands, as though they did not have a spinal cord injury, while others may use wheelchairs and they can still have function of their arms and mild finger movement; again, that varies on the spinal cord damage.

text: Flatau dealt with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the brain; treatment of muscle diseases, child neurology, peripheral nerve surgery, anatomy of the nervous system, histopathology of the nerve tissue, experimental oncology, neurophysiology, nervous system pathophysiology. Scientific career Edward Flatau is described in number of works. The most comprehensive are biographies written in Polish by his pupil and subsequent professor of neurology in the post-war Poland Eugeniusz Herman. Other Polish publications include Besides these contributions there are several written in English and GermanA good source of information is the Jubilee Book of Edward Flatau (written in German, French and Polish), published during his lifetime, which contains contributions from his scientific collaborators as well as a bibliography and biography written by his student  Maurycy Bornsztajn. In 1937 Warszawskie Czasopismo Lekarskie published special edition devoted to Flatau contributed mostly by his pupils.

text: Flatau dealt with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the brain; treatment of muscle diseases, child neurology, peripheral nerve surgery, anatomy of the nervous system, histopathology of the nerve tissue, experimental oncology, neurophysiology, nervous system pathophysiology. Scientific career Edward Flatau is described in number of works. The most comprehensive are biographies written in Polish by his pupil and subsequent professor of neurology in the post-war Poland

text: Eugeniusz Herman

text: . Other Polish publications include Besides these contributions there are several written in English and GermanA good source of information is the Jubilee Book of Edward Flatau (written in German, French and Polish), published during his lifetime, which contains contributions from his scientific collaborators as well as a bibliography and biography written by his student

text: Maurycy Bornsztajn

text: . In 1937

text: Warszawskie Czasopismo Lekarskie

text: published special edition devoted to Flatau contributed mostly by his pupils.

text: Although the text was written over 40 years ago, the topics covered in the text are quite similar to those that would be covered in a contemporary voice textbook, which shows how much further along the study of phoniatry was compared to other subdivisions of Speech Language Pathology at the time. For example, topics covered in this text included: speech acoustics, observational methods, treatment of laryngeal electromyography, physiology of respiration and voice production, genetic factors in voice, development of voice throughout the lifespan, professional voice, voice therapy; pathology of the larynx, nodules, asymetries, genetic defects of voice and laryngeal web, sulcus glottides, voice related endocrine problems, the effects of peripheral nerve lesions, the sympathetic nervous system; laryngeal myopathy, central lesions of the nervous system, laryngeal trauma, cordectomy, joint disorders, alaryngeal voice, vasomotor effects on vocal fold function, functional dysphonias, contact ulcers, ventricular voice, and psychogenic voice disorders.

text: Although the text was written over 40 years ago, the topics covered in the text are quite similar to those that would be covered in a contemporary voice textbook, which shows how much further along the study of

text: phoniatry

text: was compared to other subdivisions of

text: Speech Language Pathology

text: at the time. For example, topics covered in this text included:

text: speech

text: acoustics

text: observational methods

text: , treatment of

text: laryngeal electromyography

text: , physiology of

text: respiration

text: and voice production,

text: genetic

text: factors in voice, development of voice throughout the lifespan, professional voice,

text: voice therapy

text: ; pathology of the

text: larynx

text: nodules

text: asymetries

text: , genetic defects of voice and

text: laryngeal web

text: sulcus glottides

text: , voice related

text: endocrine

text: problems, the effects of

text: peripheral nerve lesions

text: , the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: laryngeal myopathy

text: , central lesions of the nervous system,

text: laryngeal trauma

text: cordectomy

text: joint disorder

text: s,

text: alaryngeal voice

text: vasomotor effect

text: s on vocal fold function,

text: functional dysphonias

text: contact ulcer

text: s,

text: ventricular voice

text: , and

text: psychogenic voice disorder

text: s.

text: Spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak syndrome (SCSFLS) is a medical condition in which the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) held in and around a human brain and spinal cord leaks out of the surrounding protective sac, the dura, for no apparent reason. The dura, a tough, inflexible tissue, is the outermost of the three layers of the meninges, the system of meninges surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

text: Spontaneous cerebrospinal fluid leak syndrome (SCSFLS) is a medical condition in which the

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF) held in and around a human brain and spinal cord leaks out of the surrounding protective sac, the

text: dura

text: , for no apparent reason. The dura, a tough, inflexible tissue, is the outermost of the three layers of the

text: meninges

text: , the system of

text: meninges

text: surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration accepted Valeant's New Drug Application for retigabine on December 30, 2009. The FDA Peripheral and Central Nervous System Drugs Advisory Committee met on August 11, 2010 to discuss the process and unanimously recommended approval of Potiga for the intended indication (add-on treatment of partial seizures in adults). However, the possibility of urinary retention as an adverse effect was considered a significant concern, and the panel's members recommended that some sort of monitoring strategy be used to identify patients at risk of bladder dysfunction. Potiga was approved by the FDA on June 10, 2010, but did not become available on the U.S. market until it had been scheduled by the Drug Enforcement Administration.

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration accepted Valeant's

text: New Drug Application

text: for retigabine on December 30, 2009. The FDA Peripheral and Central Nervous System Drugs Advisory Committee met on August 11, 2010 to discuss the process and unanimously recommended approval of Potiga for the intended indication (add-on treatment of partial seizures in adults). However, the possibility of

text: urinary retention

text: as an adverse effect was considered a significant concern, and the panel's members recommended that some sort of monitoring strategy be used to identify patients at risk of bladder dysfunction. Potiga was approved by the FDA on June 10, 2010, but did not become available on the U.S. market until it had been

text: scheduled

text: by the

text: Drug Enforcement Administration

text: Neuroregeneration refers to the regrowth or repair of nervous tissues, cells or cell products. Such mechanisms may include generation of new neurons, glia, axons, myelin, or synapses. Neuroregeneration differs between the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially the extent and speed. When an axon is damaged, the distal segment undergoes Wallerian degeneration, losing its myelin sheath. The proximal segment can either die by apoptosis or undergo the chromatolytic reaction, which is an attempt at repair. In the CNS, synaptic stripping occurs as glial foot processes invade the dead synapse.

text: Neuroregeneration refers to the regrowth or repair of

text: nervous tissue

text: s,

text: cells

text: or cell products. Such mechanisms may include generation of new

text: neuron

text: s,

text: glia

text: axon

text: s,

text: myelin

text: , or

text: synapse

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) and the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) by the functional mechanisms and especially the extent and speed. When an axon is damaged, the distal segment undergoes

text: Wallerian degeneration

text: , losing its

text: myelin

text: sheath. The proximal segment can either die by

text: apoptosis

text: or undergo the

text: chromatolytic reaction

text: , which is an attempt at repair. In the CNS, synaptic stripping occurs as glial foot processes invade the dead synapse.

text: The cerebral hemisphere is long, oval and flat, lacking the inflated appearance present in monotremes, multituberculates and therians. The cerebrum is neither expanded anteriorly to overlap the posterior part of the olfactory lobe, nor is it hemispherical. It is similar to that of multituberculates in that it has a large, roughly triangular bulge, now thought to be the superior cistern. The midbrain was apparently exposed to the dorsal side of the brain as with many other non-therian mammals.

text: The cerebral hemisphere is long, oval and flat, lacking the inflated appearance present in

text: monotremes

text: multituberculates

text: and

text: theria

text: ns. The

text: cerebrum

text: is neither expanded anteriorly to overlap the posterior part of the olfactory lobe, nor is it hemispherical. It is similar to that of multituberculates in that it has a large, roughly triangular bulge, now thought to be the

text: superior cistern

text: . The midbrain was apparently exposed to the dorsal side of the brain as with many other non-

text: theria

text: n mammals.

text: It normally takes 0.4 – 0.6 seconds for the nervous system to activate available muscle motor units to contract, the same length of time demonstrating maximum strength or force. However, vertical jump activity only takes 0.2 seconds to perform. Therefore, the factor of determining the performance  is within 0.2 seconds, how many available muscle motor units can be recruited for contraction, yet how much fast-twitch fibers in the body. as the result, an athlete lacking fast twitch fibers has better control of nervous system that recruited all the fast-twitch fibers in the body, the athlete tends to have superior performance in comparison to the athlete with less control of nervous system while having greater number of fast twitch fibers.

text: The Human sensory system consists of the following sub-systems:

text: In his quest to go beyond a descriptive account of the nervous system, Bullock studied many different and unrelated, species. He believed that this “comparative approach” would reveal both general principles of the nervous system, and offer insights into which nervous system properties (anatomical, physiological, and chemical) were relevant to observed differences in species-specific traits, as well as which specific traits were relevant to observed differences in nervous systems. His resulting discoveries helped explain various properties of nervous systems. In one influential review he wrote, “Comparative neuroscience is likely to reach insights so novel as to constitute revolutions in understanding the structure, functions, ontogeny, and evolution of nervous systems. […] Without due consideration of the neural and behavioral correlates of differences between higher taxa and between closely related families, species, sexes , and stages, we cannot expect to understand nervous systems or ourselves”.

text: Common adverse effects of clarithromycin in the central nervous system include dizziness, headaches.  Rarely, it can cause ototoxicity, delirium and mania.

text: Common adverse effects of clarithromycin in the central nervous system include dizziness, headaches.  Rarely, it can cause

text: ototoxicity

text: , delirium and mania.

text: Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, including the biological features of the cells involved, and how they communicate. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called neuroendocrine integration, to regulate the physiological processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the hypothalamus, controls secretion of pituitary gland hormones, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.

text: Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interaction between the

text: nervous system

text: and the

text: endocrine system

text: , including the biological features of the cells involved, and how they communicate. The nervous and endocrine systems often act together in a process called

text: neuroendocrine integration

text: , to regulate the

text: physiological

text: processes of the human body. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the

text: hypothalamus

text: , controls secretion of

text: pituitary gland

text: hormone

text: s, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.

text: Schwann cells are the cells in the peripheral nervous system that create and maintain myelin sheaths on neurons.  These are the glial cells of the peripheral nervous system and are located around the axons that they serve.  Damage to these cells result in degeneration of the myelin sheath and inevitably lead to problems in communication for the nervous system.

text: Schwann cells

text: are the cells in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: that create and maintain myelin sheaths on neurons.  These are the

text: glial cell

text: s of the peripheral nervous system and are located around the axons that they serve.  Damage to these cells result in degeneration of the myelin sheath and inevitably lead to problems in communication for the nervous system.

text: Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a biological system or body system. The functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the neuroendocrine system. The same is true for the musculoskeletal system because of the relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems.

text: Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific body function form an organ system, also called a

text: biological system

text: or body system. The functions of organ systems often share significant overlap. For instance, the

text: nervous

text: and

text: endocrine system

text: both operate via a shared organ, the

text: hypothalamus

text: . For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the

text: neuroendocrine system

text: . The same is true for the

text: musculoskeletal system

text: because of the relationship between the

text: muscular

text: and

text: skeletal

text: systems.

text: No interactions have been demonstrated in vivo. The manufacturer notes some potential pharmacological interactions with opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, ethanol (alcohol), and other drugs that depress the central nervous system. ACE inhibitors may enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Pregabalin. Antidiabetic Agents (Thiazolidinedione): Pregabalin may enhance the fluid-retaining effect of Antidiabetic Agents (Thiazolidinedione).

text: No interactions have been demonstrated

text: in vivo

text: . The manufacturer notes some potential pharmacological interactions with

text: opioids

text: benzodiazepines

text: barbiturates

text: ethanol

text: (alcohol), and other drugs that depress the central nervous system. ACE inhibitors may enhance the adverse/toxic effect of Pregabalin. Antidiabetic Agents (Thiazolidinedione): Pregabalin may enhance the fluid-retaining effect of Antidiabetic Agents (Thiazolidinedione).

text: In the autonomic nervous system, fibers from the CNS to the ganglion are known as preganglionic fibers. All preganglionic fibers, whether they are in the sympathetic division or in the parasympathetic division, are  cholinergic (that is, these fibers use acetylcholine as their neurotransmitter) and can be either unmyelinated or myelinated.

text: In the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , fibers from the

text: CNS

text: to the

text: ganglion

text: are known as preganglionic fibers. All preganglionic fibers, whether they are in the

text: sympathetic division

text: or in the

text: parasympathetic division

text: , are

text: cholinergic

text: (that is, these fibers use

text: acetylcholine

text: as their

text: neurotransmitter

text: ) and can be either unmyelinated or

text: myelin

text: ated.

text: The general visceral afferent fibers (GVA) conduct sensory impulses (usually pain or reflex sensations) from the viscera, glands, and blood vessels to the central nervous system.  They are considered to be part of the autonomic nervous system.  However, unlike the efferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, the afferent fibers are not classified as either sympathetic or parasympathetic.

text: The general visceral afferent fibers (GVA) conduct sensory impulses (usually pain or reflex sensations) from the

text: viscera

text: , glands, and blood vessels to the central nervous system.  They are considered to be part of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: .  However, unlike the efferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, the afferent fibers are not classified as either

text: sympathetic

text: or

text: parasympathetic

text: Impulses between neurons are transmitted by the release of neurotransmitters at the junction between the two cells, a region called a synapse. This release is effected by exocytosis at the presynaptic terminal. A vesicle full of transmitter, acetylcholine (for example), in the presynaptic terminal fuses with its neighbouring plasma membrane and thereby releases a burst of acetylcholine into the synaptic space. The acetylcholine is rapidly degraded here, but before this happens it activates acetylcholine receptors on the postsynaptic terminal and triggers an electrical impulse in that cell. The membrane added to the presynaptic terminal is recovered by endocytosis and recycled to form fresh vesicles full of neurotransmitter, ready for another cycle of postsynaptic excitation.

text: Impulses between

text: neurons

text: are transmitted by the release of

text: neurotransmitters

text: at the junction between the two cells, a region called a synapse. This release is effected by exocytosis at the

text: presynaptic terminal

text: . A vesicle full of transmitter,

text: acetylcholine

text: (for example), in the presynaptic terminal fuses with its neighbouring plasma membrane and thereby releases a burst of acetylcholine into the synaptic space. The acetylcholine is rapidly degraded here, but before this happens it activates

text: acetylcholine receptors

text: on the

text: postsynaptic terminal

text: and triggers an electrical impulse in that cell. The membrane added to the presynaptic terminal is recovered by endocytosis and recycled to form fresh vesicles full of neurotransmitter, ready for another cycle of postsynaptic excitation.

text: The nervous system is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles, birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish. It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving pain.  The brain consists of equal parts, cerebrum, midbrain and cerebellum. Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the medulla oblongata controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration. The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The pineal body, known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in hibernation and aestivation in amphibians.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The amphibian brain is less well developed than that of reptiles, birds and mammals but is similar in morphology and function to that of a fish. It is believed amphibians are capable of perceiving

text: pain

text: .  The brain consists of equal parts,

text: cerebrum

text: midbrain

text: and

text: cerebellum

text: . Various parts of the cerebrum process sensory input, such as smell in the olfactory lobe and sight in the optic lobe, and it is additionally the centre of behaviour and learning. The cerebellum is the center of muscular coordination and the

text: medulla oblongata

text: controls some organ functions including heartbeat and respiration. The brain sends signals through the spinal cord and nerves to regulate activity in the rest of the body. The

text: pineal body

text: , known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in

text: hibernation

text: and

text: aestivation

text: in amphibians.

text: Three notable bases for resilience, self-confidence, self-esteem and self-concept, all have roots in three different nervous systems—respectively, the somatic nervous system, the autonomic nervous system and the central nervous system.

text: Three notable bases for resilience, self-confidence, self-esteem and self-concept, all have roots in three different nervous systems—respectively, the

text: somatic nervous system

text: , the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: and the

text: central nervous system

text: There has been a significant amount of research into the pre-synaptic cytomatrix protein Bassoon, which is a multi-domain scaffolding protein universally expressed at synapses in the central nervous system. Mutations in Bassoon have been shown to result in decreased synaptic transmission. However, the underlying mechanisms behind this observed phenomenon are not fully understood and are currently being investigated. It has been observed that in the retina of Bassoon-mutant mice, photoreceptor ribbon synapses are not anchored to pre-synaptic active zones during photoreceptor synaptogenesis. The photoreceptor ribbon synapses are observed to be free floating in the cytoplasm of the photoreceptor terminals. These observations have led to the conclusion that Bassoon plays a critical role in the formation of the photoreceptor ribbon synapse.

text: Groups of neurons that project elsewhere within the central nervous system include:

text: Groups of neurons that project elsewhere within the

text: central nervous system

text: include:

text: To achieve the goals of anesthesia, drugs act on different but interconnected parts of the nervous system. Hypnosis, for instance, is generated through actions on the nuclei in the brain and is similar to the activation of sleep.  The effect is to make people less aware and less reactive to noxious stimuli.

text: To achieve the goals of anesthesia, drugs act on different but interconnected parts of the nervous system. Hypnosis, for instance, is generated through actions on the

text: nuclei in the brain

text: and is similar to the activation of

text: sleep

text: .  The effect is to make people less

text: aware

text: and less reactive to

text: noxious stimuli

text: In the animal kingdom, there is a gradation in the nervous complexity, taking examples from the marine sponges that lack neurons, intestinal worms with ~ 300 neurons or humans with ~ 86 billion. While the existence of neurons is not sufficient to demonstrate the existence of sentience in an animal, it is a necessary condition, without neurons there is no place where it can happen (and the fewer the neurons, the lower the maximum capacity of intelligence an organism).

text: See also: Parasympathetic nervous system and Sympathetic nervous system

text: See also:

text: Parasympathetic nervous system

text: and

text: Sympathetic nervous system

text: In the visual system, retinal, technically called retinene or "retinaldehyde", is a light-sensitive molecule found in the rods and cones of the retina.  Retinal is the fundamental structure involved in the transduction of light into visual signals, i.e. nerve impulses in the ocular system of the central nervous system.  In the presence of light, the retinal molecule changes configuration and as a result a nerve impulse is generated.

text: In the visual system, retinal, technically called

text: retinene

text: or "retinaldehyde", is a light-sensitive molecule found in the rods and cones of the

text: retina

text: .  Retinal is the fundamental structure involved in the transduction of

text: light

text: into visual signals, i.e. nerve impulses in the ocular system of the

text: central nervous system

text: .  In the presence of light, the retinal molecule changes configuration and as a result a nerve impulse is generated.

text: Fish brains are divided into several regions. At the front are the olfactory lobes, a pair of structures that receive and process signals from the nostrils via the two olfactory nerves. Similar to the way humans smell chemicals in the air, fish smell chemicals in the water by tasting them. The olfactory lobes are very large in fish that hunt primarily by smell, such as hagfish, sharks, and catfish. Behind the olfactory lobes is the two-lobed telencephalon, the structural equivalent to the cerebrum in higher vertebrates. In fish the telencephalon is concerned mostly with olfaction. Together these structures form the forebrain.

text: olfactory lobes

text: nostril

text: s via the two

text: olfactory nerve

text: s. Similar to the way humans smell chemicals in the air, fish smell chemicals in the water by tasting them. The olfactory lobes are very large in fish that hunt primarily by smell, such as hagfish, sharks, and catfish. Behind the olfactory lobes is the two-lobed

text: telencephalon

text: , the structural equivalent to the

text: cerebrum

text: in higher vertebrates. In fish the telencephalon is concerned mostly with

text: olfaction

text: . Together these structures form the

text: forebrain

text: Muscles signals stimulated by neurological impulses are collected using electromyography (EMG).  These muscle signals are indicative of neural activity.  In certain instances, EMG data can be indicative of neuroplasticity and learning of motor tasks.   The muscular system, specifically skeletal muscle, creates movement around bone joints, and the central nervous system is imperative in directing skeletal muscles in motor movements.

text: Muscles signals stimulated by neurological impulses are collected using

text: electromyography

text: (EMG).  These muscle signals are indicative of neural activity.  In certain instances, EMG data can be indicative of

text: neuroplasticity

text: and learning of motor tasks.   The muscular system, specifically skeletal muscle, creates movement around bone joints, and the

text: central nervous system

text: is imperative in directing skeletal muscles in motor movements.

text: The neocortex is derived embryonically from the dorsal telencephalon, which is the rostral part of the forebrain. The neocortex is divided, into regions demarcated by the cranial sutures in the skull above, into frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, which perform different functions. For example, the occipital lobe contains the primary visual cortex, and the temporal lobe contains the primary auditory cortex. Further subdivisions or areas of neocortex are responsible for more specific cognitive processes. In humans, the frontal lobe contains areas devoted to abilities that are enhanced in or unique to our species, such as complex language processing localized to the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (Broca's area). In humans and other primates, social and emotional processing is localized to the orbitofrontal cortex.  (See Cerebral cortex and Cerebrum.)

text: The neocortex is derived embryonically from the dorsal

text: telencephalon

text: , which is the

text: rostral

text: part of the

text: forebrain

text: . The neocortex is divided, into regions demarcated by the cranial sutures in the skull above, into

text: frontal

text: parietal

text: occipital

text: , and

text: temporal

text: lobes, which perform different functions. For example, the occipital lobe contains the

text: primary visual cortex

text: , and the temporal lobe contains the

text: primary auditory cortex

text: . Further subdivisions or areas of neocortex are responsible for more specific cognitive processes. In humans, the

text: frontal lobe

text: contains areas devoted to abilities that are enhanced in or unique to our species, such as complex language processing localized to the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (

text: Broca's area

text: ). In humans and other primates, social and emotional processing is localized to the

text: orbitofrontal cortex

text: .  (See

text: Cerebral cortex

text: and

text: Cerebrum

text: A neuron is called identified if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has one and only one neuron with the same set of properties.  In vertebrate nervous systems very few neurons are "identified" in this sense—in humans, there are believed to be none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique.  In the roundworm C. elegans, whose nervous system is the most thoroughly described of any animal's, every neuron in the body is uniquely identifiable, with the same location and the same connections in every individual worm.  One notable consequence of this fact is that the form of the C. elegans nervous system is completely specified by the genome, with no experience-dependent plasticity.

text: A neuron is called identified if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has one and only one neuron with the same set of properties.  In vertebrate nervous systems very few neurons are "identified" in this sense—in humans, there are believed to be none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique.  In the roundworm

text: C. elegans

text: , whose nervous system is the most thoroughly described of any animal's, every neuron in the body is uniquely identifiable, with the same location and the same connections in every individual worm.  One notable consequence of this fact is that the form of the C. elegans nervous system is completely specified by the genome, with no experience-dependent plasticity.

text: The reduction of the amplitude of startle reflects the ability of the nervous system to temporarily adapt to a strong sensory stimulus when a preceding weaker signal is given to warn the organism. PPI is detected in numerous species ranging from mice to human. Although the extent of the adaptation affects numerous systems, the most comfortable to measure are the muscular reactions, which are normally diminished as a result of the nervous inhibition.

text: The first prickle protein was identified in Drosophila as a planar cell polarity protein. Vertebrate prickle-1 was first found as a rat protein that binds to a transcription factor, neuron-restrictive silencer factor (NRSF). It was then recognized that other vertebrates including mice and humans have two genes that are related to Drosophila prickle. Mouse prickle-2 was found to be expressed in mature neurons of the brain along with mouse homologs of Drosophila planar polarity genes flamingo and dischevelled. Prickle interacts with flamingo to regulate sensory axon advance at the transition between the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. Also, Prickle1 interacts with RE1-silencing transcription factor (REST) by transporting REST out of the nucleus. REST turns off several critical genes in neurons by binding to particular regions of DNA in the nucleus.Prickle is recruited to the cell surface membrane by strabismus, another planar cell polarity protein. In the developing Drosophila wing, prickle becomes concentrated at the proximal side of cells. Prickle can compete with the ankyrin-repeat protein Diego for a binding site on Dishevelled.

text: The first prickle

text: protein

text: was identified in

text: Drosophila

text: as a

text: planar cell polarity

text: protein. Vertebrate prickle-1 was first found as a

text: rat

text: protein that binds to a

text: transcription factor

text: , neuron-restrictive silencer factor (NRSF). It was then recognized that other vertebrates including

text: mice

text: and

text: human

text: s have two genes that are related to Drosophila prickle. Mouse prickle-2 was found to be expressed in mature

text: neuron

text: s of the

text: brain

text: along with mouse homologs of Drosophila planar polarity genes

text: flamingo

text: and dischevelled. Prickle interacts with flamingo to regulate sensory axon advance at the transition between the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. Also, Prickle1 interacts with RE1-silencing transcription factor (REST) by transporting REST out of the nucleus. REST turns off several critical genes in neurons by binding to particular regions of DNA in the nucleus.Prickle is recruited to the

text: cell

text: surface

text: membrane

text: by

text: strabismus

text: , another planar cell polarity protein. In the developing Drosophila wing, prickle becomes concentrated at the proximal side of cells. Prickle can compete with the ankyrin-repeat protein Diego for a binding site on Dishevelled.

text: Synapse also supports clustered deployments, with support for load balancing, throttling and caching over clustered deployments. The integration with an external Registry/Repository allows Synapse to use externally defined resources for mediation, as well as store its configuration into an externally managed Registry/Repository for SOA Governance. Synapse can be easily extended with custom Java extensions or POJO classes, or via Apache BFS scripting languages such as Javascript, Ruby, Groovy etc. Synapse ships with over 50 samples that can be executed out of the box.

text: Synapse also supports clustered deployments, with support for load balancing, throttling and caching over clustered deployments. The integration with an external Registry/Repository allows Synapse to use externally defined resources for mediation, as well as store its configuration into an externally managed Registry/Repository for

text: SOA Governance

text: . Synapse can be easily extended with custom Java extensions or POJO classes, or via Apache BFS scripting languages such as Javascript, Ruby, Groovy etc. Synapse ships with over 50 samples that can be executed out of the box.

text: Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. Traditionally, neuroscience is recognized as a branch of biology. However, it is currently an interdisciplinary science that collaborates with other fields such as chemistry, cognitive science, computer science, engineering, linguistics, mathematics, medicine (including neurology), genetics, and allied disciplines including philosophy, physics, and psychology. It also exerts influence on other fields, such as neuroeducation, neuroethics,  and neurolaw. The term neurobiology is often used interchangeably with the term neuroscience, although the former refers specifically to the biology of the nervous system, whereas the latter refers to the entire science of the nervous system, including elements of psychology as well as the purely physical sciences.

text: Neuroscience is the

text: scientific study

text: of the

text: nervous system

text: . Traditionally, neuroscience is recognized as a branch of

text: biology

text: . However, it is currently an

text: interdisciplinary

text: science that collaborates with other fields such as

text: chemistry

text: cognitive science

text: computer science

text: engineering

text: linguistics

text: mathematics

text: medicine

text: (including

text: neurology

text: genetics

text: , and

text: allied disciplines

text: including

text: philosophy

text: physics

text: , and

text: psychology

text: . It also exerts influence on other fields, such as

text: neuroeducation

text: neuroethics

text: ,  and

text: neurolaw

text: . The term neurobiology is often used interchangeably with the term neuroscience, although the former refers specifically to the biology of the nervous system, whereas the latter refers to the entire science of the nervous system, including elements of psychology as well as the purely physical sciences.

text: Peyton Westlake (Arnold Vosloo), still searching for the key to creating a permanent liquid-skin formula to repair his burned face and hands, is approached by Dr. Bridget Thorne (Darlanne Fluegel), one of the physicians who saved Westlake's life following his brutal attack at the hands of Robert G. Durant. Thorne claims that she wants to help Westlake discover the key to his liquid skin, and also repair his nervous system, allowing him to regain some of his sensory loss. Using a laboratory set-up Thorne has, Westlake is finally able to devise a small amount of permanent liquid skin, which does not break down in sunlight as his other samples have.

text: Peyton Westlake (

text: Arnold Vosloo

text: ), still searching for the key to creating a permanent liquid-skin formula to repair his burned face and hands, is approached by Dr. Bridget Thorne (

text: Darlanne Fluegel

text: ), one of the physicians who saved Westlake's life following his

text: brutal attack at the hands of Robert G. Durant

text: . Thorne claims that she wants to help Westlake discover the key to his liquid skin, and also repair his nervous system, allowing him to regain some of his sensory loss. Using a laboratory set-up Thorne has, Westlake is finally able to devise a small amount of permanent liquid skin, which does not break down in sunlight as his other samples have.

text: In the peripheral nervous system OEG are dispersed within the olfactory epithelium and the olfactory nerve. In the central nervous system, OEG are found within the outer two layers of the olfactory bulb. During development, primitive olfactory neurons extend their axons from the olfactory placode, through the mesenchyme, towards the telencephalic vesicle. After reaching the telencephalic vesicle, a small layer of cells and axons cover the vesicle. Olfactory axons invade the basal lamina of the glia limitans and the olfactory bulb to create the olfactory nerve and glomerular layers. A fraction of the epithelial migrating precursors give rise to olfactory ensheathing glia that inhabit the olfactory nerve and glomerular layers. OEG and astrocytes interact with each other to form a new glia limitans.  OEG are distinct from other glia in their developmental origin for they are present in the peripheral nervous system as well as the central nervous system. They also form on bundles of olfactory sensory neuron axons in a manner distinct from myelination.

text: In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: OEG are dispersed within the

text: olfactory epithelium

text: and the

text: olfactory nerve

text: . In the

text: central nervous system

text: , OEG are found within the outer two layers of the

text: olfactory bulb

text: . During development, primitive olfactory neurons extend their axons from the

text: olfactory placode

text: , through the

text: mesenchyme

text: , towards the telencephalic vesicle. After reaching the

text: telencephalic vesicle

text: , a small layer of cells and axons cover the vesicle. Olfactory axons invade the

text: basal lamina

text: of the

text: glia limitans

text: and the

text: olfactory bulb

text: to create the olfactory nerve and

text: glomerular layer

text: s. A fraction of the epithelial migrating precursors give rise to olfactory ensheathing glia that inhabit the olfactory nerve and glomerular layers. OEG and

text: astrocytes

text: interact with each other to form a new

text: glia limitans

text: .  OEG are distinct from other glia in their developmental origin for they are present in the peripheral nervous system as well as the central nervous system. They also form on bundles of olfactory sensory neuron axons in a manner distinct from

text: myelination

text: The numb gene protein product controls binary cell fate decisions in the peripheral and central nervous systems of both invertebrates and mammals during neurogenesis.  During cell division, Numb is asymmetrically localized to one end of the progenitor cell and subsequently segregates to only one daughter cell where it intrinsically determines cell fate.  Numb protein signaling plays a key role in binary cell fate decisions following asymmetric cell divisions.  One daughter cell, generally that receiving the Numb, is able to adopt a neuronal fate and innervate the developing nervous system. The other daughter cell becomes a progenitor cell to fill the lost role of the parent cell and maintain proliferation.  In addition to its role in proliferation and differentiation, Numb has also been shown to play a role in tumorigenesis and the response of neural progenitors to chemotactic cues during migration.

text: The numb gene protein product controls binary cell fate decisions in the peripheral and central nervous systems of both invertebrates and mammals during

text: neurogenesis

text: .  During cell division, Numb is asymmetrically localized to one end of the progenitor cell and subsequently segregates to only one daughter cell where it intrinsically determines cell fate.  Numb protein signaling plays a key role in binary cell fate decisions following

text: asymmetric cell division

text: s.  One daughter cell, generally that receiving the Numb, is able to adopt a neuronal fate and innervate the developing nervous system. The other daughter cell becomes a progenitor cell to fill the lost role of the parent cell and maintain proliferation.  In addition to its role in proliferation and differentiation, Numb has also been shown to play a role in tumorigenesis and the response of neural progenitors to chemotactic cues during migration.

text: The brain develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages. It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages, to a complex array of areas and connections. Neurons are created in special zones that contain stem cells, and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations. Once neurons have positioned themselves, their axons sprout and navigate through the brain, branching and extending as they go, until the tips reach their targets and form synaptic connections. In a number of parts of the nervous system, neurons and synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages, and then the unneeded ones are pruned away.

text: The brain develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages. It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages, to a complex array of areas and connections. Neurons are created in special zones that contain

text: stem cell

text: s, and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations. Once neurons have positioned themselves, their axons sprout and navigate through the brain, branching and extending as they go, until the tips reach their targets and form synaptic connections. In a number of parts of the nervous system, neurons and synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages, and then the unneeded ones are pruned away.

text: On the twenty-first day after conception for the human embryo, the neural tube develops, which ultimately becomes the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). Throughout a period of a few short days, the neural tube becomes closed off and three chambers develop towards the anterior portion of the neural tube [2]. These chambers are known as the ventricles, and the tissue that surrounds them constitutes the three major sections of the brain: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The telencephalon, the embryonic structure from which the mature cerebrum develops, resides in the forebrain.

text: On the twenty-first day after conception for the human embryo, the neural tube develops, which ultimately becomes the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). Throughout a period of a few short days, the neural tube becomes closed off and three chambers develop towards the anterior portion of the neural tube [2]. These chambers are known as the

text: ventricle

text: s, and the tissue that surrounds them constitutes the three major sections of the brain: the forebrain,

text: midbrain

text: , and

text: hindbrain

text: . The telencephalon, the

text: embryo

text: nic structure from which the mature

text: cerebrum

text: develops, resides in the forebrain.

text: The different kinds of sensory stimuli that are picked up by sensory neurons are grouped into two categories: epicritic and protopathic.

text: Transverse myelitis is a neurological condition in which the spinal cord is inflamed. The inflammation damages nerve fibers, and causes them to lose their myelin coating leading to decreased electrical conductivity in the central nervous system.  Transverse implies that the inflammation extends across the entire width of the spinal cord. Partial transverse myelitis and partial myelitis are terms used to define inflammation of the spinal cord that affects part of the width of the spinal cord.

text: Transverse myelitis is a

text: neurological

text: condition in which the

text: spinal cord

text: is

text: inflamed

text: . The inflammation damages

text: nerve fibers

text: , and causes them to

text: lose their myelin coating

text: leading to decreased

text: electrical conductivity

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: .  Transverse implies that the inflammation extends across the entire width of the spinal cord. Partial transverse myelitis and partial myelitis are terms used to define inflammation of the spinal cord that affects part of the width of the spinal cord.

text: Although highly heritable, genetic correlates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been difficult to pinpoint. In 2009, CAG researchers identified copy number variants as a potential cause of the disorder. CNVs are relatively large segments of chromosomes where the DNA has been deleted, duplicated, or rearranged. The group found 222 CNVs that were more common in individuals with ADHD than in unrelated healthy individuals. These CNVs tended to concentrate in areas that had previously been associated with other neurodevelopmental disorders including autism, schizophrenia and Tourette syndrome. They also tended to occur at or near genes known to be important for learning, synapse transmission, and nervous system development. This paper was one of the first to pinpoint CNVs as a genetic cause of ADHD and was important in identifying previously unassociated genes.

text: Although highly heritable, genetic correlates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (

text: ADHD

text: ) have been difficult to pinpoint. In 2009, CAG researchers identified

text: copy number variants

text: as a potential cause of the disorder. CNVs are relatively large segments of chromosomes where the DNA has been deleted, duplicated, or rearranged. The group found 222 CNVs that were more common in individuals with ADHD than in unrelated healthy individuals. These CNVs tended to concentrate in areas that had previously been associated with other neurodevelopmental disorders including autism, schizophrenia and

text: Tourette syndrome

text: . They also tended to occur at or near genes known to be important for learning, synapse transmission, and nervous system development. This paper was one of the first to pinpoint CNVs as a genetic cause of ADHD and was important in identifying previously unassociated genes.

text: Demyelination is the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves, and is the hallmark of some neurodegenerative autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, neuromyelitis optica, transverse myelitis, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, Guillain–Barré syndrome, central pontine myelinosis, inherited demyelinating diseases such as leukodystrophy, and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.  Sufferers of pernicious anaemia can also suffer nerve damage if the condition is not diagnosed quickly.  Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord secondary to pernicious anaemia can lead to slight peripheral nerve damage to severe damage to the central nervous system, affecting speech, balance, and cognitive awareness.  When myelin degrades, conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually withers. A more serious case of myelin deterioration is called Canavan disease.

text: Demyelination is the loss of the myelin sheath insulating the nerves, and is the hallmark of some

text: neurodegenerative

text: autoimmune

text: diseases, including

text: multiple sclerosis

text: acute disseminated encephalomyelitis

text: neuromyelitis optica

text: transverse myelitis

entity_name: Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy

text: chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: central pontine myelinosis

text: , inherited demyelinating diseases such as

text: leukodystrophy

text: , and

text: Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease

text: .  Sufferers of

text: pernicious anaemia

text: can also suffer nerve damage if the condition is not diagnosed quickly.

entity_name: Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord

text: Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord

text: secondary to

text: pernicious anaemia

text: can lead to slight peripheral nerve damage to severe damage to the central nervous system, affecting speech, balance, and

text: cognitive

text: awareness.  When myelin degrades, conduction of signals along the nerve can be impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually withers. A more serious case of myelin deterioration is called

text: Canavan disease

text: B. burgdorferi can spread throughout the body during the course of the disease, and has been found in the skin, heart, joints, peripheral nervous system, and central nervous system. Many of the signs and symptoms of Lyme disease are a consequence of the immune response to the spirochete in those tissues.

text: The vertebrate nervous system can also be divided into areas called grey matter ("gray matter" in American spelling) and white matter.  Grey matter (which is only grey in preserved tissue, and is better described as pink or light brown in living tissue) contains a high proportion of cell bodies of neurons.  White matter is composed mainly of myelinated axons, and takes its color from the myelin.  White matter includes all of the nerves, and much of the interior of the brain and spinal cord.  Grey matter is found in clusters of neurons in the brain and spinal cord, and in cortical layers that line their surfaces.  There is an anatomical convention that a cluster of neurons in the brain or spinal cord is called a nucleus, whereas a cluster of neurons in the periphery is called a ganglion.  There are, however, a few exceptions to this rule, notably including the part of the forebrain called the basal ganglia.

text: The vertebrate nervous system can also be divided into areas called

text: grey matter

text: ("gray matter" in American spelling) and

text: white matter

text: .  Grey matter (which is only grey in preserved tissue, and is better described as pink or light brown in living tissue) contains a high proportion of cell bodies of neurons.  White matter is composed mainly of

text: myelin

text: ated axons, and takes its color from the myelin.  White matter includes all of the nerves, and much of the interior of the brain and spinal cord.  Grey matter is found in clusters of neurons in the brain and spinal cord, and in cortical layers that line their surfaces.  There is an anatomical convention that a cluster of neurons in the brain or spinal cord is called a

text: nucleus

text: , whereas a cluster of neurons in the periphery is called a

text: ganglion

text: .  There are, however, a few exceptions to this rule, notably including the part of the forebrain called the

text: basal ganglia

text: Two catecholamines, norepinephrine and dopamine, act as neuromodulators in the central nervous system and as hormones in the blood circulation. The catecholamine norepinephrine is a neuromodulator of the peripheral sympathetic nervous system but is also present in the blood (mostly through "spillover" from the synapses of the sympathetic system).

text: Two catecholamines,

text: norepinephrine

text: and

text: dopamine

text: , act as

text: neuromodulators

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: and as hormones in the blood circulation. The catecholamine

text: norepinephrine

text: is a neuromodulator of the peripheral sympathetic nervous system but is also present in the blood (mostly through "spillover" from the

text: synapse

text: s of the sympathetic system).

text: Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that results due to the death of dopamine producing cells within the central nervous system.  Because of the death of these cells, less dopamine is available within the brain, resulting in tremors and other side effects within motor functions.  The reason for the deaths of these cells is a topic of current research, with some theories suggesting a contribution of oxidative stress due to free radicals and inflammation.  Currently, there are no treatments to cure Parkinson’s disease, yet a variety of treatment options are available to alleviate the symptoms including medication and dietary changes.

text: The right hemisphere hypothesis asserts that the right hemisphere of the neocortical structures is specialized for the expression and perception of emotion. The Right hemisphere has been linked with mental strategies that are nonverbal, synthetic, integrative, holistic, and Gestalt which makes it ideal for processing emotion. The right hemisphere is more in touch with subcortical systems of autonomic arousal and attention as demonstrated in patients that have increased spatial neglect when damage is associated to the right brain as opposed to the left brain. Right hemisphere pathologies have also been linked with abnormal patterns of autonomic nervous system responses. These findings would help signify the relationship of the subcortical brain regions to the right hemisphere as having a strong connection.

text: Arterial baroreceptors are stretch receptors that are stimulated by distortion of the arterial wall when pressure changes. The baroreceptors can identify the changes in both the average blood pressure or the rate of change in pressure with each arterial pulse. Action potentials triggered in the baroreceptor ending are then directly conducted to the brainstem where central terminations (synapses) transmit this information to neurons within the solitary nucleus. Reflex responses from such baroreceptor activity can trigger increases or decreases in the heart rate. Arterial baroreceptor sensory endings are simple, splayed nerve endings that lie in the tunica adventitia of the artery. An increase in the mean arterial pressure increases depolarization of these sensory endings, which results in action potentials. These action potentials are conducted to the solitary nucleus in the central nervous system by axons and have a reflex effect on the cardiovascular system through autonomic neurons. Hormone secretions that target the heart and blood vessels are affected by the stimulation of baroreceptors.

text: Arterial baroreceptors are stretch receptors that are stimulated by distortion of the arterial wall when pressure changes. The baroreceptors can identify the changes in both the average blood pressure or the rate of change in pressure with each arterial pulse. Action potentials triggered in the baroreceptor ending are then directly conducted to the brainstem where central terminations (synapses) transmit this information to neurons within the

text: solitary nucleus

text: . Reflex responses from such baroreceptor activity can trigger increases or decreases in the heart rate. Arterial baroreceptor sensory endings are simple, splayed nerve endings that lie in the

text: tunica adventitia

text: of the artery. An increase in the mean arterial pressure increases

text: depolarization

text: of these sensory endings, which results in

text: action potentials

text: . These action potentials are conducted to the solitary nucleus in the central nervous system by

text: axons

text: and have a reflex effect on the cardiovascular system through

text: autonomic

text: neurons.

text: Hormone

text: secretions that target the heart and blood vessels are affected by the stimulation of baroreceptors.

text: A queen caste does not exist in Diacamma. Unique to this genus, all workers emerge from cocoons with a pair of tiny innervated thoracic appendages ("gemmae") that are homologous with wings. Mutilation leads to a permanent change in lifetime trajectory, because workers lacking gemmae never mate. This is unlike other queenless ants where workers establish a dominance hierarchy to regulate reproduction. In Diacamma only one worker retains her gemmae in each colony, she is the gamergate (mated egglaying worker), and she bites off the gemmae of newly emerged workers. Mutilation causes the degeneration of the neuronal connections between the sensory hairs on the gemma's surface and the central nervous system, and this may explain the irreversibility of modifications in individual behaviour.

text: A

text: queen

text: caste does not exist in Diacamma. Unique to this genus, all workers emerge from cocoons with a pair of tiny innervated thoracic appendages ("gemmae") that are homologous with wings. Mutilation leads to a permanent change in lifetime trajectory, because workers lacking gemmae never mate. This is unlike other queenless ants where workers establish a dominance hierarchy to regulate reproduction. In Diacamma only one worker retains her gemmae in each

text: colony

text: , she is the

text: gamergate

text: (mated egglaying worker), and she bites off the gemmae of newly emerged workers. Mutilation causes the degeneration of the neuronal connections between the sensory hairs on the gemma's surface and the

text: central nervous system

text: , and this may explain the irreversibility of modifications in individual behaviour.

text: The autonomic nervous system controls a wide range of involuntary and unconscious body functions.  Its main branches are the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.  Broadly speaking, the function of the sympathetic nervous system is to mobilize the body for action:  the slogan often used for it is fight-or-flight. The function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to put the body in a state conducive to rest, regeneration, digestion, and reproduction:  it is sometimes described using the slogans "rest and digest" or "feed and breed".  Both branches use acetylcholine, but in different ways.

text: The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: controls a wide range of involuntary and unconscious body functions.  Its main branches are the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: .  Broadly speaking, the function of the sympathetic nervous system is to mobilize the body for action:  the slogan often used for it is

text: fight-or-flight

text: . The function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to put the body in a state conducive to rest, regeneration, digestion, and reproduction:  it is sometimes described using the slogans "rest and digest" or "feed and breed".  Both branches use acetylcholine, but in different ways.

text: Cancer of the nervous system is common in domestic canids, and includes primary neoplasia of the peripheral nervous system, primary neoplasia of the central nervous system and various metastatic cancers.  Some of the most common of the central nervous system tumors are several types of primary (originating from brain tissue) canine brain tumors.  Examples of these include: meningiomas, astrocytomas, glioblastomas, oligodendriomas, choroid plexus papillomas, and pituitary adenomas.  Breeds predisposed to brain tumors include: Boxer Dog, Pug, English Bull Dog, Boston Terrier, and Golden Retrievers.

text: Cancer of the

text: nervous system

text: is common in domestic canids, and includes primary neoplasia of the peripheral nervous system, primary neoplasia of the central nervous system and various

text: metastatic

text: cancers.  Some of the most common of the central nervous system tumors are several types of primary (originating from brain tissue) canine brain tumors.  Examples of these include: meningiomas, astrocytomas, glioblastomas, oligodendriomas, choroid plexus papillomas, and pituitary adenomas.  Breeds predisposed to brain tumors include: Boxer Dog, Pug, English Bull Dog, Boston Terrier, and Golden Retrievers.

text: The neuron doctrine is the now fundamental idea that neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. The theory was put forward by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the late 19th century. It held that neurons are discrete cells (not connected in a meshwork), acting as metabolically distinct units.

text: The Department of Neurogenetics, led by Klaus-Armin Nave, uses transgenic techniques, natural and engineered mouse mutants and the tools of molecular and cellular biology to study neural development and the pathomechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases. A major focus of their research is on neuron-glia interactions that result in the assembly of myelin in the nervous system. Neuronal processes (axons) exhibit signaling molecules that are recognized by Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes. These highly specialized glial cells wrap and electrically insulate axons in the peripheral and central nervous system, respectively. Myelin allows the fast propagation of electrical impulses, but glial cells are also required for axonal maintenance. This line of research helps us to understand the molecular mechanisms of human neurological diseases in which genetic mutations cause myelin loss and defects of motor and cognitive function.

text: The Department of Neurogenetics, led by Klaus-Armin Nave, uses transgenic techniques, natural and engineered mouse mutants and the tools of

text: molecular

text: and

text: cellular biology

text: to study neural development and the

text: pathomechanisms

text: of

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: . A major focus of their research is on

text: neuron

text: glia

text: interactions that result in the assembly of

text: myelin

text: in the

text: nervous system

text: . Neuronal processes (axons) exhibit signaling molecules that are recognized by

text: Schwann cells

text: and

text: oligodendrocytes

text: . These highly specialized glial cells wrap and electrically insulate

text: axons

text: in the

text: peripheral

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: , respectively. Myelin allows the fast propagation of electrical impulses, but glial cells are also required for axonal maintenance. This line of research helps us to understand the molecular mechanisms of

text: human neurological diseases

text: in which genetic mutations cause myelin loss and defects of

text: motor

text: and

text: cognitive function

text: David Shannahoff-Khalsa first published scientific papers in the Journal of Organic Chemistry (1973), Cancer Research (1974), and Biochemistry (1978), when his scientific career started in 1970 at the Salk Institute for Biological Sciences in La Jolla with his work in the field of nucleic acid chemistry and biochemistry on unique chemical substitutions in nucleosides, nucleotides, and polynucleotides as potential anti-viral and anti-cancer agents. He later changed fields and started work on concepts and techniques from yogic medicine in 1976 while at The Salk, demonstrating how the nasal cycle is tightly coupled to the ultradian rhythm of alternating cerebral hemispheric activity (Werntz DA, Bickford RG, Bloom FE, Shannahoff-Khalsa DS, Alternating Cerebral Hemispheric Activity and the Lateralization of Autonomic Nervous Function. Human Neurobiology, 1983, 2:39-43), and on the yogic technique called unilateral forced nostril breathing (UFNB) where they demonstrated via EEG the selective hemispheric stimulation by (UFNB)(Werntz DA, Bickford RG, Shannahoff-Khalsa DS, Selective Hemispheric Stimulation by Unilateral Forced Nostril Breathing, Human Neurobiology, (1987), 6:165-171). He later wrote reviews on these topics (Shannahoff-Khalsa DS, The Ultradian Rhythm of Alternating Cerebral Hemispheric Activity, International Journal of Neuroscience, 1993, 70:285-298, Shannahoff-Khalsa DS, Lateralized Rhythms of the Central and Autonomic Nervous Systems, International Journal of Psychophysiology, 1991, 11:225-251, and again in "Selective Unilateral Autonomic Activation: Implications for Psychiatry" (a review article), CNS Spectrums: The International Journal of Neuropsychiatric Medicine, 12(8), pp. 625–634, Aug 2007, and most recently in Shannahoff-Khalsa in Psychophysiological States: The Ultradian Dynamics of Mind-Body Interactions, In the series “International Review of Neurobiology,” Academic Press (Elsevier Scientific Publications), vol 80, pps. 1-249, 2008 His scientific publications include a total of 56 articles as of 2013.

text: Neuroproteomics is the study of the protein complexes and species that make up the nervous system.  These proteins interact to make the neurons connect in such a way to create the intricacies that nervous system is known for.  Neuroproteomics is a complex field that has a long way to go in terms of profiling the entire neuronal proteome.  It is a relatively recent field that has many applications in therapy and science.So far, only small subsets of the neuronal proteome have been mapped, and then only when applied to the proteins involved in the synapse.

text: Neuroproteomics is the study of the

text: protein

text: complexes and species that make up the

text: nervous system

text: .  These proteins interact to make the neurons connect in such a way to create the intricacies that nervous system is known for.  Neuroproteomics is a complex field that has a long way to go in terms of profiling the entire neuronal proteome.  It is a relatively recent field that has many applications in therapy and science.So far, only small subsets of the neuronal proteome have been mapped, and then only when applied to the proteins involved in the synapse.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system has many neighboring fibers that respond to different stimuli. When one stimulus activates multiple nerve fibers of the parasympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic generalization is occurring. There is a possibility that sensory input from the eyes could travel to the neurons in the cortex that interpret such signals, but neighboring neurons which are involved in sneezing are also activated, due to the generalization. This could lead to a sneeze in response to a stimulus other than nasal irritation.

text: The

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: has many neighboring fibers that respond to different stimuli. When one stimulus activates multiple nerve fibers of the parasympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic generalization is occurring. There is a possibility that sensory input from the eyes could travel to the

text: neuron

text: s in the cortex that interpret such signals, but neighboring neurons which are involved in sneezing are also activated, due to the generalization. This could lead to a sneeze in response to a stimulus other than nasal irritation.

text: In 1988 the division comprised the 170th Tank Regiment, 44th Guards Motor Rifle Regiment, 47th Guards Motor Rifle Regiment, 50th Guards Motor Rifle Regiment, 43rd Guards Artillery Regiment, and 59th Anti-Aircraft Rocket Regiment, plus smaller units.

text: Drugs affecting the central nervous system include: Psychedelics, hypnotics, anaesthetics, antipsychotics, eugeroics, antidepressants (including tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, lithium salts, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)), antiemetics, Anticonvulsants/antiepileptics, anxiolytics, barbiturates, movement disorder (e.g., Parkinson's disease) drugs, stimulants (including amphetamines), benzodiazepines, cyclopyrrolones, dopamine antagonists, antihistamines, cholinergics, anticholinergics, emetics, cannabinoids, and 5-HT (serotonin) antagonists.

text: Drugs affecting the

text: central nervous system

text: include:

text: Psychedelics

text: hypnotic

text: s,

text: anaesthetics

text: antipsychotic

text: s,

text: eugeroic

text: s,

text: antidepressant

text: s (including

text: tricyclic antidepressant

text: s,

text: monoamine oxidase inhibitor

text: s,

text: lithium salts

text: , and

text: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

text: s (SSRIs)),

text: antiemetic

text: s,

text: Anticonvulsant

text: s/antiepileptics,

text: anxiolytic

text: s,

text: barbiturate

text: s, movement disorder (e.g.,

text: Parkinson's disease

text: ) drugs,

text: stimulant

text: s (including

text: amphetamine

text: s),

text: benzodiazepine

text: s,

text: cyclopyrrolones

text: dopamine antagonist

text: s,

text: antihistamines

text: cholinergic

text: s,

text: anticholinergic

text: s,

text: emetic

text: s,

text: cannabinoid

text: s, and

text: 5-HT (serotonin) antagonists

text: As with similar substances with a sedative-hypnotic mechanism, such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines, withdrawal from alcohol dependence can be fatal if it is not properly managed. Alcohol's primary effect is the increase in stimulation of the GABA receptor, promoting central nervous system depression. With repeated heavy consumption of alcohol, these receptors are desensitized and reduced in number, resulting in tolerance and physical dependence. When alcohol consumption is stopped too abruptly, the person's nervous system suffers from uncontrolled synapse firing. This can result in symptoms that include anxiety, life-threatening seizures, delirium tremens, hallucinations, shakes and possible heart failure. Other neurotransmitter systems are also involved, especially dopamine, NMDA and glutamate.

text: As with similar substances with a sedative-hypnotic mechanism, such as

text: barbiturates

text: and

text: benzodiazepines

text: , withdrawal from alcohol dependence can be fatal if it is not properly managed. Alcohol's primary effect is the increase in stimulation of the

text: GABA receptor

text: , promoting

text: central nervous system

text: depression. With repeated heavy consumption of alcohol, these receptors are desensitized and reduced in number, resulting in

text: tolerance

text: and

text: physical dependence

text: . When alcohol consumption is stopped too abruptly, the person's nervous system suffers from uncontrolled

text: synapse

text: firing. This can result in symptoms that include

text: anxiety

text: , life-threatening

text: seizure

text: s,

text: delirium tremens

text: , hallucinations, shakes and possible

text: heart failure

text: . Other neurotransmitter systems are also involved, especially

text: dopamine

text: NMDA

text: and

text: glutamate

text: The study of inhibitory transmission is limited in the pyramidal neurons and their modulators because the large number of excitatory synapses has overshadowed physiological studies of the inhibitory neurons. The structure of inhibitory synapses on apical dendrites may not be as plastic as the excitatory synapses on these neurons. There is difficulty in differentiating the excitatory and inhibitory synapses using the electrophysiological recordings in many experiments. The excitatory synapses and their patterns are by comparison to the inhibitory system rather uniform in type and properties. The inhibitory system, by contrast, possess several (10) different types of synapses originating from specifically differentiated cells and are much more difficult to track. There is insufficient information to precisely distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory pathways contributing to the alterations in neurotransmitter expression and cell structure changes.

text: Peripheral neurons receive input from the central nervous system and innervate the muscles. In turn, muscles generate forces which actuate joints. Getting the pieces to work together is a challenging problem for the motor system and how this problem is resolved is an active area of study in motor control research.

text: For the body to keep moving properly and with finesse, the nervous system has to have a constant input of sensory data  coming from areas such as the muscles and joints. In order to receive a continuous stream of sensory data, the body has developed special sensory receptors called proprioceptors.  Muscle spindles are a type of proprioceptor, and they are found inside the muscle itself. They lie parallel with the contractile fibers. This gives them the ability to monitor muscle length with precision.

text: For the body to keep moving properly and with finesse, the

text: nervous system

text: has to have a constant input of sensory data  coming from areas such as the muscles and

text: joints

text: . In order to receive a continuous stream of sensory data, the body has developed special

text: sensory receptor

text: s called

text: proprioceptors

text: .  Muscle spindles are a type of proprioceptor, and they are found inside the muscle itself. They lie parallel with the contractile fibers. This gives them the ability to monitor muscle length with precision.

text: Fibres from the ventral motor cortex travel with the corticospinal tract through the internal capsule, but terminate in a number of locations in the midbrain (cortico-mesencephalic tract), pons (Corticopontine tract), and medulla oblongata (cortico-bulbar tract).  The upper motor neurons of the corticobulbar tract synapse with interneurons or directly with the lower motor neurons located in the motor cranial nerve nuclei, namely oculomotor, trochlear, motor nucleus of the trigeminal nerve, abducens, facial nerve and accessory and in the nucleus ambiguus to the hypoglossal, vagus and accessory nerves.  These nuclei are supplied by nerves from both sides of the brain, with the exception of the parts of the facial nerve that control muscles of the lower face. These muscles are only innervated by nerves from the contralateral (opposite) side of the cortex.

text: Fibres from the

text: ventral

text: motor cortex

text: travel with the corticospinal tract through the internal capsule, but terminate in a number of locations in the

text: midbrain

text: cortico-mesencephalic tract

text: pons

text: Corticopontine tract

text: ), and

text: medulla oblongata

text: cortico-bulbar tract

text: ).  The

text: upper motor neuron

text: s of the corticobulbar tract synapse with interneurons or directly with the lower motor neurons located in the motor

text: cranial nerve nuclei

text: , namely

text: oculomotor

text: trochlear

text: , motor nucleus of the

text: trigeminal nerve

text: abducens

text: facial nerve

text: and

text: accessory

text: and in the

text: nucleus ambiguus

text: to the

text: hypoglossal

text: vagus

text: and

text: accessory nerve

text: s.  These nuclei are supplied by nerves from both sides of the brain, with the exception of the parts of the facial nerve that control muscles of the lower face. These muscles are only innervated by nerves from the contralateral (opposite) side of the cortex.

text: The human spinal cord is divided into 31 different segments.  At every segment, right and left pairs of spinal nerves (mixed; sensory and motor) form. Six to eight motor nerve rootlets branch out of right and left ventro lateral sulci in a very orderly manner.  Nerve rootlets combine to form nerve roots. Likewise, sensory nerve rootlets form off right and left dorsal lateral sulci and form sensory nerve roots. The ventral (motor) and dorsal (sensory) roots combine to form spinal nerves (mixed; motor and sensory), one on each side of the spinal cord.  Spinal nerves, with the exception of C1 and C2, form inside intervertebral foramen (IVF).  Note that at each spinal segment, the border between the central and peripheral nervous system can be observed.  Rootlets are a part of the peripheral nervous system.  The spinal cord is a long, slender cable of nerve tissue which extends lengthwise through the vertebrae of the spinal column.  At the upper end it connects with the brain through an opening in the floor of the skull.  It extends downward almost to the level of the hips.  It is well protected by the vertebrae, whose bony processes join together to form a canal within which the spinal cord is located.

text: The human spinal cord is divided into 31 different segments.  At every segment, right and left pairs of spinal nerves (mixed; sensory and motor) form. Six to eight motor nerve rootlets branch out of right and left ventro lateral sulci in a very orderly manner.  Nerve rootlets combine to form nerve roots. Likewise, sensory nerve rootlets form off right and left dorsal lateral sulci and form sensory nerve roots. The ventral (motor) and dorsal (sensory) roots combine to form

text: spinal nerve

text: s (mixed; motor and sensory), one on each side of the spinal cord.  Spinal nerves, with the exception of C1 and C2, form inside

text: intervertebral foramen

text: (IVF).  Note that at each spinal segment, the border between the central and peripheral nervous system can be observed.  Rootlets are a part of the peripheral nervous system.  The spinal cord is a long, slender cable of nerve tissue which extends lengthwise through the vertebrae of the spinal column.  At the upper end it connects with the brain through an opening in the floor of the skull.  It extends downward almost to the level of the hips.  It is well protected by the vertebrae, whose bony processes join together to form a canal within which the spinal cord is located.

text: The lateral grey column plays an important role in the sympathetic division of the visceral (autonomic) motor system. Neuron cell bodies in the lateral column send their axons to synapse on sympathetic ganglia that innervate autonomic and pelvic organs; in fact, all preganglionic neurons in the sympathetic nervous system originate in the lateral grey column. Neurons in the upper and middle thoracic segments control sympathetic activity in organs in the head and thorax, while neurons in the lower thoracic and upper lumbar segments control abdominal and pelvic organs and targets in the lower extremities.

text: The lateral grey column plays an important role in the

text: sympathetic division

text: of the visceral (autonomic) motor system. Neuron cell bodies in the lateral column send their axons to synapse on sympathetic ganglia that innervate autonomic and pelvic organs; in fact, all

text: preganglionic neurons

text: in the sympathetic nervous system originate in the lateral grey column. Neurons in the upper and middle thoracic segments control sympathetic activity in organs in the head and thorax, while neurons in the lower thoracic and upper lumbar segments control abdominal and pelvic organs and targets in the lower extremities.

text: Several hypotheses have been put forward about the meaning of The Creation of Adams highly original composition, many of them taking Michelangelo's well-documented expertise in human anatomy as their starting point. In 1990, an Anderson, Indiana physician, Frank  Meshberger, noted in the Journal of the American Medical Association that the background figures and shapes portrayed behind the figure of God appeared to be an anatomically accurate picture of the human brain. On close examination, borders in the painting correlate with major sulci of the cerebrum in the inner and outer surface of the brain, the brain stem, the frontal lobe, the basilar artery, the pituitary gland and the optic chiasm.

text: Several hypotheses have been put forward about the meaning of The Creation of Adams highly original composition, many of them taking Michelangelo's well-documented expertise in human anatomy as their starting point. In 1990, an

text: Anderson, Indiana

text: physician

text: , Frank  Meshberger, noted in the

text: Journal of the American Medical Association

text: that the background figures and shapes portrayed behind the figure of God appeared to be an anatomically accurate picture of the

text: human brain

text: . On close examination, borders in the painting correlate with major

text: sulci

text: of the

text: cerebrum

text: in the inner and outer surface of the brain, the

text: brain stem

text: , the

text: frontal lobe

text: , the basilar artery, the

text: pituitary gland

text: and the

text: optic chiasm

text: Class 3 semaphorins have an important function after traumatic central nervous system injuries, such as spinal cord injury.  They regulate neuronal and non-neuronal cells associated with the traumatic injury due to their presence in the scar tissue. Class 3 semaphorins modulate axonal regrowth, re-vascularisation, re-myelination and the immune response after central nervous system trauma.

text: Class 3 semaphorins have an important function after traumatic

text: central nervous system

text: injuries, such as

text: spinal cord injury

text: .  They regulate neuronal and non-neuronal cells associated with the traumatic injury due to their presence in the scar tissue. Class 3 semaphorins modulate

text: axon

text: al regrowth,

text: re-vascularisation

text: re-myelination

text: and the

text: immune response

text: after central nervous system trauma.

text: The spinocerebellum receives proprioception input from the dorsal columns of the spinal cord (including the spinocerebellar tract) and from the trigeminal nerve, as well as from visual and auditory systems. It sends fibers to deep cerebellar nuclei that, in turn, project to both the cerebral cortex and the brain stem, thus providing modulation of descending motor systems. This region comprises the vermis and intermediate parts of the cerebellar hemispheres. Sensory information from the periphery and from the primary motor and somatosensory cortex terminate in this region. Purkinje cells of the vermis project to the fastigial nucleus, controlling the axial and proximal musculature involved in the execution of limb movements. Purkinje cells in the intermediate zone of the spinocerebellum project to the interposed nuclei, which control the distal musculature components of the descending motor pathways needed for limb movement. Both of these nuclei include projections to the motor cortex in the cerebrum.

text: The spinocerebellum receives

text: proprioception

text: input from the dorsal columns of the

text: spinal cord

text: (including the

text: spinocerebellar tract

text: ) and from the

text: trigeminal nerve

text: , as well as from visual and

text: auditory

text: systems. It sends fibers to deep

text: cerebellar nuclei

text: that, in turn, project to both the

text: cerebral cortex

text: and the

text: brain stem

text: , thus providing modulation of descending motor systems. This region comprises the vermis and intermediate parts of the cerebellar hemispheres. Sensory information from the periphery and from the

text: primary motor

text: and

text: somatosensory cortex

text: terminate in this region.

text: Purkinje cells

text: of the vermis project to the

text: fastigial nucleus

text: , controlling the

text: axial

text: and

text: proximal

text: musculature involved in the execution of limb movements.

text: Purkinje

text: cells in the intermediate zone of the spinocerebellum project to the interposed nuclei, which control the distal musculature components of the

text: descending motor pathways

text: needed for limb movement. Both of these nuclei include projections to the

text: motor cortex

text: in the

text: cerebrum

text: Alpha (α) motor neurons (also called alpha motoneurons), are large, multipolar lower motor neurons of the brainstem and spinal cord. They innervate extrafusal muscle fibers of skeletal muscle and are directly responsible for initiating their contraction. Alpha motor neurons are distinct from gamma motor neurons, which innervate intrafusal muscle fibers of muscle spindles.

text: Alpha (α) motor neurons (also called alpha motoneurons), are large, multipolar

text: lower motor neuron

text: s of the

text: brainstem

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . They innervate

text: extrafusal muscle fiber

text: s of

text: skeletal muscle

text: and are directly responsible for initiating their

text: contraction

text: . Alpha motor neurons are distinct from

text: gamma motor neuron

text: s, which innervate

text: intrafusal muscle fiber

text: s of

text: muscle spindle

text: s.

text: Sponges have no cells connected to each other by synaptic junctions, that is, no neurons, and therefore no nervous system. They do, however, have homologs of many genes that play key roles in synaptic function. Recent studies have shown that sponge cells express a group of proteins that cluster together to form a structure resembling a postsynaptic density (the signal-receiving part of a synapse). However, the function of this structure is currently unclear. Although sponge cells do not show synaptic transmission, they do communicate with each other via calcium waves and other impulses, which mediate some simple actions such as whole-body contraction.

text: Sponge

text: s have no cells connected to each other by

text: synaptic junctions

text: , that is, no neurons, and therefore no nervous system. They do, however, have

text: homologs

text: of many genes that play key roles in synaptic function. Recent studies have shown that sponge cells express a group of proteins that cluster together to form a structure resembling a

text: postsynaptic density

text: (the signal-receiving part of a synapse). However, the function of this structure is currently unclear. Although sponge cells do not show synaptic transmission, they do communicate with each other via calcium waves and other impulses, which mediate some simple actions such as whole-body contraction.

text: Stem cell transplantation has been identified as another possible therapy for axonal regeneration in the central nervous system by delivering these cells directly to the site of the spinal cord injury. Both OEG and neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) have been successfully transplanted in the central nervous system of adult rats and have had either positive or neutral results as a method of neurogenesis and axonal regeneration; however, neither method has been shown to have long term beneficial effects, as cell survival is usually less than 1% after transplantation. The inability of these cells to sustain after transplantation is a result of inflammation, the inability of a sufficient matrix to thrive and create a uniform population of cells, or the migratory response of the cells needed to fully repair the site of the injury. Another current issue with the survival of the cells is utilizing the proper biomaterials to deliver them to the site of the injury.

text: Stem cell transplantation

text: has been identified as another possible therapy for axonal regeneration in the central nervous system by delivering these cells directly to the site of the spinal cord injury. Both OEG and neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) have been successfully transplanted in the central nervous system of adult rats and have had either positive or neutral results as a method of neurogenesis and axonal regeneration; however, neither method has been shown to have long term beneficial effects, as cell survival is usually less than 1% after transplantation. The inability of these cells to sustain after transplantation is a result of

text: inflammation

text: , the inability of a sufficient matrix to thrive and create a uniform population of cells, or the migratory response of the cells needed to fully repair the site of the injury. Another current issue with the survival of the cells is utilizing the proper

text: biomaterial

text: s to deliver them to the site of the injury.

text: Perisynaptic schwann cells (also known as Terminal schwann cells or Teloglia) are Neuroglia found at the Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) with known functions in synaptic transmission, synaptogenesis, and nerve regeneration. These cells share a common ancestor with both Myelinating and Non-Myelinating Schwann Cells called  Neural Crest cells. Perisynaptic Schwann Cells (PSCs) contribute to the tripartite synapse organization in combination with the pre-synaptic nerve and the post-synaptic muscle fiber. PSCs are considered to be the glial component of the Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) and have a similar functionality to that of Astrocytes in the Central Nervous System. The characteristics of PSCs are based on both external synaptic properties  and internal glial properties, where the internal characteristics of PSCs develop based on the associated synapse, for example: the PSCs of a fast-twitch muscle fiber differ from the PSCs of a slow-twitch muscle fiber even when removed from their natural synaptic environment. PSCs of fast-twitch muscle fibers have higher Calcium levels in response to synapse innervation when compared to slow-twitch PSCs. This balance between external and internal influences creates a range of PSCs that are present in the many Neuromuscular Junctions of the Peripheral Nervous System.

text: Perisynaptic schwann cells (also known as Terminal schwann cells or Teloglia) are

text: Neuroglia

text: found at the

text: Neuromuscular junction

text: (NMJ) with known functions in synaptic transmission,

text: synaptogenesis

text: , and nerve regeneration. These cells share a common ancestor with both Myelinating and Non-Myelinating Schwann Cells called

text: Neural Crest cells

text: . Perisynaptic Schwann Cells (PSCs) contribute to the tripartite synapse organization in combination with the pre-synaptic nerve and the post-synaptic muscle fiber. PSCs are considered to be the glial component of the Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) and have a similar functionality to that of

text: Astrocyte

text: s in the

text: Central Nervous System

text: . The characteristics of PSCs are based on both external synaptic properties  and internal glial properties, where the internal characteristics of PSCs develop based on the associated synapse, for example: the PSCs of a fast-twitch muscle fiber differ from the PSCs of a slow-twitch muscle fiber even when removed from their natural synaptic environment. PSCs of fast-twitch muscle fibers have higher Calcium levels in response to synapse innervation when compared to slow-twitch PSCs. This balance between external and internal influences creates a range of PSCs that are present in the many Neuromuscular Junctions of the

text: Peripheral Nervous System

text: In addition to completeness of injury, the location of damage on the spinal cord influences how much sexual function is retained or regained after injury. Injuries can occur in the cervical (neck), thoracic (back), lumbar (lower back), or sacral (pelvic) levels. Between each pair of vertebrae, spinal nerves branch off of the spinal cord and carry information to and from specific parts of the body. The location of injury to the spinal cord maps to the body, and the area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve is called a dermatome. All dermatomes below the level of injury to the spinal cord may lose sensation.

text: In addition to completeness of injury, the location of damage on the spinal cord influences how much sexual function is retained or regained after injury. Injuries can occur in the

text: cervical

text: (neck),

text: thoracic

text: (back),

text: lumbar

text: (lower back), or

text: sacral

text: (pelvic) levels. Between each pair of vertebrae,

text: spinal nerve

text: s branch off of the spinal cord and carry information to and from specific parts of the body. The location of injury to the spinal cord maps to the body, and the area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve is called a

text: dermatome

text: . All dermatomes below the level of injury to the spinal cord may lose sensation.

text: Similarly, Paul Broca's 1861 post mortem study of an aphasic patient, known as "Tan" after the only word which he could speak, showed that an area of the left frontal lobe was damaged. As Tan was unable to produce speech but could still understand it, Broca argued that this area might be specialised for speech production and that language skills might be localized to this cortical area. Broca did a similar study on another patient, Lelong, a few weeks later. Lelong, like Tan, could understand speech but could only repeat the same 5 words. After examining his brain, Broca noticed that Lelong had a lesion in approximately the same area as his patient Tan. [7] He also noticed that in the more than 25 patients he examined with aphasia, they all had lesions to the left frontal lobe but there was no damage to the right hemisphere of the brain. From this he concluded that the function of speech was probably localized in the inferior frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere of the brain, an area now known as Broca's area.

text: Similarly,

text: Paul Broca

text: 's 1861

text: post mortem

text: study of an

text: aphasic

text: patient, known as "Tan" after the only word which he could speak, showed that an area of the left

text: frontal lobe

text: was damaged. As Tan was unable to produce speech but could still understand it, Broca argued that this area might be specialised for speech production and that

text: language

text: skills might be localized to this

text: cortical

text: area. Broca did a similar study on another patient, Lelong, a few weeks later. Lelong, like Tan, could understand speech but could only repeat the same 5 words. After examining his brain, Broca noticed that Lelong had a lesion in approximately the same area as his patient Tan. [7] He also noticed that in the more than 25 patients he examined with

text: aphasia

text: , they all had lesions to the left frontal lobe but there was no damage to the right hemisphere of the brain. From this he concluded that the function of speech was probably localized in the inferior frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere of the brain, an area now known as Broca's area.

text: As part of the nervous system, oligodendrocytes are closely related to nerve cells, and, like all other glial cells, oligodendrocytes provide a supporting role for neurons as well as trophic support by the production of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), or insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). In addition, the nervous system of mammals depends crucially on myelin sheaths, which reduce ion leakage and decrease the capacitance of the cell membrane. Myelin also increases impulse speed, as saltatory propagation of action potentials occurs at the nodes of Ranvier in between Schwann cells (of the PNS) and oligodendrocytes (of the CNS).  Furthermore, impulse speed of myelinated axons increases linearly with the axon diameter, whereas the impulse speed of unmyelinated cells increases only with the square root of the diameter. The insulation must be proportional to the diameter of the fiber inside. The optimal ratio of axon diameter divided by the total fiber diameter (which includes the myelin) is 0.6.

text: As part of the

text: nervous system

text: , oligodendrocytes are closely related to nerve cells, and, like all other

text: glial cell

text: s, oligodendrocytes provide a supporting role for neurons as well as trophic support by the production of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), or insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1). In addition, the nervous system of mammals depends crucially on myelin sheaths, which reduce ion leakage and decrease the capacitance of the

text: cell membrane

text: . Myelin also increases impulse speed, as

text: saltatory propagation

text: of

text: action potential

text: s occurs at the

text: nodes of Ranvier

text: in between

text: Schwann cells

text: (of the

text: PNS

text: ) and oligodendrocytes (of the

text: CNS

text: ).  Furthermore, impulse speed of myelinated axons increases linearly with the axon diameter, whereas the impulse speed of unmyelinated cells increases only with the square root of the diameter. The insulation must be proportional to the diameter of the fiber inside. The optimal ratio of axon diameter divided by the total fiber diameter (which includes the myelin) is 0.6.

text: Astrocytes (Astro from Greek astron = star and cyte from Greek "kyttaron" = cell), also known collectively as astroglia, are characteristic star-shaped glial cells in the brain and spinal cord. The proportion of astrocytes in the brain is not well defined. Depending on the counting technique used, studies have found that the astrocyte proportion varies by region and ranges from 20% to 40% of all glia. They perform many functions, including biochemical support of endothelial cells that form the blood–brain barrier, provision of nutrients to the nervous tissue, maintenance of extracellular ion balance, and a role in the repair and scarring process of the brain and spinal cord following traumatic injuries.

text: Astrocytes (Astro from Greek astron = star and cyte from Greek "kyttaron" = cell), also known collectively as astroglia, are characteristic star-shaped

text: glial

text: cells

text: in the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . The proportion of astrocytes in the brain is not well defined. Depending on the counting technique used, studies have found that the astrocyte proportion varies by region and ranges from 20% to 40% of all

text: glia

text: . They perform many functions, including biochemical support of

text: endothelial cell

text: s that form the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: , provision of nutrients to the nervous tissue, maintenance of extracellular ion balance, and a role in the repair and scarring process of the brain and spinal cord following traumatic injuries.

text: Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia. In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system. The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal organs, including the stomach.

text: Nervous tissue

text: is composed of many nerve cells known as

text: neuron

text: s which transmit information. In some slow-moving

text: radially symmetrical

text: marine animals such as

text: ctenophore

text: s and

text: cnidarian

text: s (including

text: sea anemone

text: s and

text: jellyfish

text: ), the nerves form a

text: nerve net

text: , but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as

text: chemoreceptor

text: s and

text: photoreceptors

text: are found in groups and send messages along

text: neural networks

text: to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in

text: ganglia

text: . In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a

text: central nervous system

text: (brain and spinal cord) and a

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . The latter consists of

text: sensory nerves

text: that transmit information from sense organs and

text: motor nerves

text: that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the

text: somatic nervous system

text: which conveys sensation and controls

text: voluntary muscle

text: , and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: which involuntarily controls

text: smooth muscle

text: , certain glands and internal organs, including the

text: stomach

text: The pruning that is associated with learning is known as small-scale axon terminal arbor pruning. Axons extend short axon terminal arbors toward neurons within a target area. Certain terminal arbors are pruned by competition. The selection of the pruned terminal arbors follow the "use it or lose it" principle seen in synaptic plasticity. This means synapses that are frequently used have strong connections while the rarely used synapses are eliminated. Examples seen in vertebrate include pruning of axon terminals in the neuromuscular junction in the peripheral nervous system and the pruning of climbing fiber inputs to the cerebellum in the central nervous system.

text: The pruning that is associated with learning is known as small-scale axon terminal arbor pruning. Axons extend short axon terminal arbors toward neurons within a target area. Certain terminal arbors are pruned by competition. The selection of the pruned terminal arbors follow the "use it or lose it" principle seen in

text: synaptic plasticity

text: . This means synapses that are frequently used have strong connections while the rarely used synapses are eliminated. Examples seen in vertebrate include pruning of axon terminals in the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and the pruning of

text: climbing fiber

text: inputs to the cerebellum in the

text: central nervous system

text: CB receptors are mainly expressed on T cells of the immune system, on macrophages and B cells, and in hematopoietic cells. They also have a function in keratinocytes. They are also expressed on peripheral nerve terminals. These receptors play a role in antinociception, or the relief of pain. In the brain, they are mainly expressed by microglial cells, where their role remains unclear. While the most likely cellular targets and executors of the CB receptor-mediated effects of endocannabinoids or synthetic agonists are the immune and immune-derived cells (e.g. leukocytes, various populations of T and B lymphocytes, monocytes/macrophages, dendritic cells, mast cells, microglia in the brain, Kupffer cells in the liver, etc.), the number of other potential cellular targets is expanding, now including endothelial and smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts of various origins, cardiomyocytes, and certain neuronal elements of the peripheral or central nervous systems.

text: CB

text: receptors are mainly expressed on

text: T cell

text: s of the

text: immune system

text: , on

text: macrophage

text: s and

text: B cell

text: s, and in

text: hematopoietic cells

text: . They also have a function in

text: keratinocyte

text: s. They are also expressed on peripheral

text: nerve

text: terminals. These receptors play a role in

text: antinociception

text: , or the relief of

text: pain

text: . In the brain, they are mainly expressed by

text: microglial cells

text: , where their role remains unclear. While the most likely cellular targets and executors of the CB receptor-mediated effects of endocannabinoids or synthetic agonists are the immune and immune-derived cells (e.g. leukocytes, various populations of T and B lymphocytes, monocytes/macrophages, dendritic cells, mast cells, microglia in the brain, Kupffer cells in the liver, etc.), the number of other potential cellular targets is expanding, now including endothelial and smooth muscle cells, fibroblasts of various origins, cardiomyocytes, and certain neuronal elements of the peripheral or central nervous systems.

text: AnimatLab allows users to develop models of varied levels of detail due to the types of models available. Neurons may be simple firing rate models, integrate-and-fire models, or Hodgkin–Huxley models. Plugins for other neuron models can be written and used. Hill-type muscles, motors, or servos can be used to actuate joints. Adapters between neurons and actuators are used to generate forces. Adapters between mechanical components (joints, body segments, muscles, etc.) provide feedback to the control system. Stimuli, such as voltage clamps, current clamps, and velocity clamps (for joints) can be added to design experiments. Data can be recorded from virtually every component of the system, and viewed in graphs or exported as a comma separated values file, making analysis easy. In addition, the user interface is entirely graphical, making it easy for beginners to use.

text: AnimatLab allows users to develop models of varied levels of detail due to the types of models available. Neurons may be simple firing rate models,

text: integrate-and-fire model

text: s, or

text: Hodgkin–Huxley model

text: s. Plugins for other neuron models can be written and used.

text: Hill-type muscles

text: , motors, or

text: servos

text: can be used to actuate joints. Adapters between neurons and actuators are used to generate forces. Adapters between mechanical components (joints, body segments, muscles, etc.) provide feedback to the control system. Stimuli, such as

text: voltage clamp

text: s,

text: current clamp

text: s, and velocity clamps (for joints) can be added to design experiments. Data can be recorded from virtually every component of the system, and viewed in graphs or exported as a

text: comma separated values

text: file, making analysis easy. In addition, the user interface is entirely graphical, making it easy for beginners to use.

text: The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing, and serves many aspects of communication and controls various  systems and functions. The special senses consist of vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The eyes, ears, tongue, and nose gather information about the body's environment.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: consists of the

text: central nervous system

text: (the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: ) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: consists of the

text: nerves

text: and

text: ganglia

text: outside of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, memory, and sensory processing, and serves many aspects of communication and controls various  systems and functions. The

text: special senses

text: consist of

text: vision

text: hearing

text: taste

text: , and

text: smell

text: . The

text: eyes

text: ear

text: s,

text: tongue

text: , and

text: nose

text: gather information about the body's environment.

text: Some types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites. No neuron ever has more than one axon; however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other.  Most axons branch, in some cases very profusely.

text: Harmine has been found to increase EAAT2 glutamate pump expression in central nervous system, therefore reducing glutamate toxicity.

text: Harmine has been found to increase

text: glutamate pump expression in central nervous system, therefore reducing

text: glutamate toxicity

text: At a more integrative level, the primary function of the nervous system is to control the body. It does this by extracting information from the environment using sensory receptors, sending signals that encode this information into the central nervous system, processing the information to determine an appropriate response, and sending output signals to muscles or glands to activate the response. The evolution of a complex nervous system has made it possible for various animal species to have advanced perception abilities such as vision, complex social interactions, rapid coordination of organ systems, and integrated processing of concurrent signals. In humans, the sophistication of the nervous system makes it possible to have language, abstract representation of concepts, transmission of culture, and many other features of human society that would not exist without the human brain.

text: There is considerable variation in the size and shape of the cerebellum in different vertebrate species. It is generally largest in cartilaginous and bony fish, birds, and mammals, but somewhat smaller in reptiles. The large paired and convoluted lobes found in humans are typical of mammals, but the cerebellum is generally a single median lobe in other groups, and is either smooth or only slightly grooved. In mammals, the neocerebellum is the major part of the cerebellum by mass, but in other vertebrates, it is typically the spinocerebellum.

text: There is considerable variation in the size and shape of the cerebellum in different vertebrate species. It is generally largest in

text: cartilaginous

text: and

text: bony fish

text: , birds, and mammals, but somewhat smaller in reptiles. The large paired and convoluted lobes found in humans are typical of mammals, but the cerebellum is generally a single median lobe in other groups, and is either smooth or only slightly grooved. In mammals, the neocerebellum is the major part of the cerebellum by mass, but in other vertebrates, it is typically the spinocerebellum.

text: In medicine these proteins are useful and are used as a mitogen to trigger T-lymphocyte cell division and to activate latent HIV-1 from human peripheral lymphocytes. In neuroscience, anterograde tracing is a research method that uses the protein product phytohaemagglutinin PHA-L as a molecular tracer that can be taken up by the cell and transported across the synapse into the next cell thereby tracing the path of axonal projections and relative connections that nerve impulses travel beginning with the source located at the perikaryon (cell body or soma) and through the presynaptic part located on neuron's efferent axon all the way to the point of termination at the efferent synapse which then provides input to another neuron.

text: In medicine these proteins are useful and are used as a

text: mitogen

text: to trigger T-lymphocyte cell division and to activate latent

text: HIV

text: -1 from human peripheral

text: lymphocyte

text: s. In

text: neuroscience

text: anterograde tracing

text: is a research method that uses the protein product phytohaemagglutinin PHA-L as a molecular tracer that can be taken up by the cell and transported across the synapse into the next cell thereby tracing the path of axonal projections and relative connections that nerve impulses travel beginning with the source located at the

text: perikaryon

text: (cell body or soma) and through the presynaptic part located on

text: neuron

text: 's

text: efferent

text: axon

text: all the way to the point of termination at the efferent synapse which then provides input to another neuron.

text: Rudolf Nieuwenhuys, M.D., PhD (born 11 June 1927, Amsterdam) is a Dutch neuroanatomist, Emeritus Professor of Neuroanatomy at The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. He is recognised for his contribution to the field of comparative neuroanatomy. Professor Nieuwenhuys graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Amsterdam in 1955 and in 1960 obtained a PhD at the same institute with the dissertation Het Telencephalon der Actinopterygii. He is author of important works in neuroanatomy including The Central Nervous System Of The Vertebrates and The Human Central Nervous System.

text: Rudolf Nieuwenhuys, M.D., PhD (born 11 June 1927,

text: Amsterdam

text: ) is a Dutch neuroanatomist, Emeritus Professor of Neuroanatomy at The Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. He is recognised for his contribution to the field of comparative neuroanatomy. Professor Nieuwenhuys graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Amsterdam in 1955 and in 1960 obtained a PhD at the same institute with the dissertation Het Telencephalon der Actinopterygii. He is author of important works in neuroanatomy including The Central Nervous System Of The Vertebrates and The Human Central Nervous System.

text: The neuron cell has three components – dendrites, soma, and axon as shown in Figure 1. Dendrites, which have the shape of a tree with branches, called arbor, receive the message from other neurons with which the neuron is connected via synapses. The action potential received by each dendrite from the synapse is called the postsynaptic potential. The cumulative sum of the postsynaptic potentials is fed to the soma. The ionic components of the fluid inside and outside maintain the cell membrane at a resting potential of about 65 millivolts. When the cumulative postsynaptic potential exceeds the resting potential, an action potential is generated by the cell body or soma and propagated along the axon. The axon may have one or more terminals and these terminals transmit neurotransmitters to the synapses with which the neuron is connected. Depending on the stimulus received by the dendrites, soma may generate one or more well-separated action potentials or spike train. If the stimulus drives the membrane to a positive potential, it is an excitatory neuron; and if it drives the resting potential further in the negative direction, it is an inhibitory neuron.

text: The central nervous system consists of the two major structures: the brain and spinal cord.The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and lies caudally to the brain, and is protected by the vertebra. The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, continues through or starting below the foramen magnum, and terminates roughly level with the first or second lumbar vertebra, occupying the upper sections of the vertebral canal.

text: The central nervous system consists of the two major structures: the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: .The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and lies

text: caudally

text: to the brain, and is protected by the

text: vertebra

text: . The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, continues through or starting below the

text: foramen magnum

text: , and terminates roughly level with the first or second

text: lumbar vertebra

text: , occupying the upper sections of the

text: vertebral canal

text: The nervous system of gastropods includes the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. The central nervous system consist of ganglia connected by nerve cells. It includes paired ganglia: the cerebral ganglia, pedal ganglia, osphradial ganglia, pleural ganglia, parietal ganglia and the visceral ganglia. There are sometimes also buccal ganglia.

text: The nervous system of gastropods includes the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and the

text: central nervous system

text: . The central nervous system consist of

text: ganglia

text: connected by nerve cells. It includes paired ganglia: the cerebral ganglia, pedal ganglia, osphradial ganglia, pleural ganglia, parietal ganglia and the visceral ganglia. There are sometimes also buccal ganglia.

text: A neuron is a specialized type of cell found in the bodies of all eumetozoans. Only sponges and a few other simpler animals lack neurons. The features that define a neuron are electrical excitability and the presence of synapses, which are complex membrane junctions that transmit signals to other cells. The body's neurons, plus the glial cells that give them structural and metabolic support, together constitute the nervous system. In vertebrates, the majority of neurons belong to the central nervous system, but some reside in peripheral ganglia, and many sensory neurons are situated in sensory organs such as the retina and cochlea.

text: A neuron is a specialized type of cell found in the bodies of all

text: eumetozoa

text: ns. Only

text: sponge

text: s and a few other simpler animals lack neurons. The features that define a neuron are electrical excitability and the presence of synapses, which are complex membrane junctions that transmit signals to other cells. The body's neurons, plus the glial cells that give them structural and metabolic support, together constitute the nervous system. In vertebrates, the majority of neurons belong to the

text: central nervous system

text: , but some reside in peripheral

text: ganglia

text: , and many sensory neurons are situated in sensory organs such as the

text: retina

text: and

text: cochlea

text: Somatic motor neurons are  the alpha efferent neurons, beta efferent neurons, and gamma efferent neurons. They are called efferent to indicate the flow of information from the central nervous system (CNS) to the periphery.

text: Somatic motor neurons are  the alpha efferent neurons, beta efferent neurons, and gamma efferent neurons. They are called

text: efferent

text: to indicate the flow of information from the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) to the

text: periphery

text: Because channels underlie the nerve impulse and because "transmitter-activated" channels mediate conduction across the synapses, channels are especially prominent components of the nervous system. Indeed, numerous toxins that organisms have evolved for shutting down the nervous systems of predators and prey (e.g., the venoms produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, fish, bees, sea snails, and others) work by modulating ion channel conductance and/or kinetics. In addition, ion channels are key components in a wide variety of biological processes that involve rapid changes in cells, such as cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle contraction, epithelial transport of nutrients and ions, T-cell activation and pancreatic beta-cell insulin release. In the search for new drugs, ion channels are a frequent target.

text: Because channels underlie the

text: nerve impulse

text: and because "transmitter-activated" channels mediate conduction across the

text: synapse

text: s, channels are especially prominent components of the

text: nervous system

text: . Indeed,

text: numerous toxins

text: that organisms have evolved for shutting down the nervous systems of predators and prey (e.g., the venoms produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, fish, bees, sea snails, and others) work by modulating ion channel conductance and/or kinetics. In addition, ion channels are key components in a wide variety of biological processes that involve rapid changes in cells, such as

text: cardiac

text: skeletal

text: , and

text: smooth muscle

text: contraction

text: epithelial

text: transport of nutrients and ions,

text: T-cell

text: activation and

text: pancreatic

text: beta-cell

text: insulin

text: release. In the search for new drugs, ion channels are a frequent target.

text: Paralysis is most often caused by damage in the nervous system, especially the spinal cord. Other major causes are stroke, trauma with nerve injury, poliomyelitis, cerebral palsy, peripheral neuropathy, Parkinson's disease, ALS, botulism, spina bifida, multiple sclerosis, and Guillain–Barré syndrome. Temporary paralysis occurs during REM sleep, and dysregulation of this system can lead to episodes of waking paralysis. Drugs that interfere with nerve function, such as curare, can also cause paralysis.

text: Paralysis is most often caused by damage in the

text: nervous system

text: , especially the

text: spinal cord

text: . Other major causes are

text: stroke

text: trauma

text: with

text: nerve injury

text: poliomyelitis

text: cerebral palsy

text: peripheral neuropathy

text: Parkinson's disease

text: ALS

text: botulism

text: spina bifida

text: multiple sclerosis

text: , and

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: . Temporary paralysis occurs during

text: REM sleep

text: , and dysregulation of this system can lead to episodes of

text: waking paralysis

text: . Drugs that interfere with

text: nerve function

text: , such as

text: curare

text: , can also cause paralysis.

text: For those studying neural based diseases, NAAG is one of the three most prevalent neurotransmitters found in the central nervous system and when it catylizes the reaction to produce glutamate it is also producing another neurotransmitter. Glutamate is a common and abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; however, if there is too much glutamate transmission, this can kill or at least damage neurons and has been implicated in many neurological diseases and disorders therefore the balance that NAAG peptidase contributes to is quite important.

text: Sadistic personality disorder -Sadomasochism -Safety in numbers -Sander illusion -Sapience -Scale (social sciences) -Schadenfreude -Schedules of reinforcement -Schema (psychology) -Schizoaffective disorder -Schizoid personality disorder -Schizophrenia -Schizophrenics Anonymous -Schizophreniform disorder -Schizotypal personality disorder -Scholastic Aptitude Test -School phobia -School refusal -Science and Consciousness Review -Scientific control -Seasonal affective disorder -Secondary gain -Security blanket -Selective abstraction -Selective distortion -Self-actualization -Self-awareness -Self-concept -Self-consciousness -Self-criticism -Self-deception -Self-defeating personality disorder -Self-determination theory -Self-disclosure -Self-efficacy -Self-esteem -Self-esteem functions -Self-help -Self-injury -Self-knowledge -Self-loathing -Self-monitoring -Self-parenting -Self-perception theory -Self-pity -Self-punishment -Self-realization -Self-regulated learning -Self (Jung) -Self (psychology) -Self actualization -Self control -Self efficacy -Self-esteem -Self handicapping -Self propaganda -Self psychology -Self serving bias -Selfishness -Semantic dementia -Semantic dyslexia -Semantic memory -Semantics -Senile dementia -Senile plaques -Sensation (psychology) -Sense of time -Sensitivity (human) -Sensory adaptation -Sensory gating -Sensory memory -Sensory neuroscience -Sensory preconditioning -Sensory threshold -Sentience -Separation anxiety disorder -Serial position effect -Serial sevens -Sex-reassignment surgery -Sexual arousal disorders -Sexual arousal -Sexual aversion disorder -Sexual desire -Sexual deviation -Sexual disorders -Sexual dysfunction -Sexual fetishism -Sexual masochism -Sexual orientation -Sexual response cycle -Sexual sadism -human sexuality -Shadow (psychology) -Shame -Shaping (psychology) -Shell shock -Shock value -Short term memory -Shyness -Sibling -Siege mentality -Sigmund Freud Archives -Silva Method -Similarity (psychology) -Simon effect -Simplicity theory -Simulated consciousness -Simulated pregnancy -Simulation heuristic -Sitophobia -Situational awareness -Six Thinking Hats -Size-weight illusion -Skinner box -Sleep-learning -Sluggish cognitive tempo -Sluggishly progressing schizophrenia -Smart mob -Social anxiety -Social anxiety disorder -Social cognition -Social desirability -Social disruption -Social distance -Social distance scale -Social facilitation -Social group -Social influence -Social inhibition -Social interaction -Social learning theory -Social loafing -Social neuroscience -Social norm -Social proof -Social psychology (psychology) -Social psychology (sociology) -Social rejection -Social rhythm therapy -Social role -Social skills -Social statistics -Social status -Social stigma -Social support -Socialization -Society of Mind theory -Socioeconomic status -Sociometry -Socionics -Sociosexual orientation -Sodomy -Solitary confinement -Soma -Somatization disorder -Somatoform disorder -Somatotherapy -Somatotype and constitutional psychology -Spatial empathy -Spatial memory -Spatial-temporal reasoning -Speaker recognition -Specific phobia -Specific social phobia -Speech act -Speech perception -Speed reading -Spiral dynamics -splitting (psychology) -Spontaneous recovery -Sport psychology -Stage fright -Stage theory -Stages of faith development -Stanford-Binet -State-dependent learning -State-dependent memory -Steppingstone theory -Stereotypes -Stereotypic movement disorder -Stigmatic/eligibilic paraphilia -Stimming -Stimulus generalization -Stir crazy (condition) -Stockholm syndrome -Storage (memory) -Strategic planning -Stream of consciousness (psychology) -Stress (medicine) -Stress management -Stressor -Structural communication -Structural ritualization theory -Structuralism -Structure-agency debate -Structured interview -Study Skills -Subjective reality -Sublimation (psychology) -Subliminal advertising -Subliminal perception -Submission -Substance-related disorder -Substance abuse -Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration -Substance dependence -Substance intoxication -Substance-related disorder -Subvocalization -Suffering -Suicidal ideation -Suicide -Suicide treatment -Suicide watch -Suicidology -Superego -Superficial charm -Superiority complex -Superman complex -Superordinate goals -Surprise (emotion) -Swept-plane display -Sycophancy -Syllogism -Sylvia Plath effect -Symbolic violence -Sympathy -Sympathetic nervous system -Synesthesia -Synectics -Systematic desensitization -Systems psychology -Systems intelligence -Systems thinking

text: Sadistic personality disorder

text: Sadomasochism

text: Safety in numbers

text: Sander illusion

text: Sapience

text: Scale (social sciences)

text: Schadenfreude

text: Schedules of reinforcement

text: Schema (psychology)

text: Schizoaffective disorder

text: Schizoid personality disorder

text: Schizophrenia

text: Schizophrenics Anonymous

text: Schizophreniform disorder

text: Schizotypal personality disorder

text: Scholastic Aptitude Test

text: School phobia

text: School refusal

text: Science and Consciousness Review

text: Scientific control

text: Seasonal affective disorder

text: Secondary gain

text: Security blanket

text: Selective abstraction

text: Selective distortion

text: Self-actualization

text: Self-awareness

text: Self-concept

text: Self-consciousness

text: Self-criticism

text: Self-deception

text: Self-defeating personality disorder

text: Self-determination theory

text: Self-disclosure

text: Self-efficacy

text: Self-esteem

text: Self-esteem functions

text: Self-help

text: Self-injury

text: Self-knowledge

text: Self-loathing

text: Self-monitoring

text: Self-parenting

text: Self-perception theory

text: Self-pity

text: Self-punishment

text: Self-realization

text: Self-regulated learning

text: Self (Jung)

text: Self (psychology)

text: Self actualization

text: Self control

text: Self efficacy

text: Self-esteem

text: Self handicapping

text: Self propaganda

text: Self psychology

text: Self serving bias

text: Selfishness

text: Semantic dementia

text: Semantic dyslexia

text: Semantic memory

text: Semantics

text: Senile dementia

text: Senile plaques

text: Sensation (psychology)

text: Sense of time

text: Sensitivity (human)

text: Sensory adaptation

text: Sensory gating

text: Sensory memory

text: Sensory neuroscience

text: Sensory preconditioning

text: Sensory threshold

text: Sentience

text: Separation anxiety disorder

text: Serial position effect

text: Serial sevens

text: Sex-reassignment surgery

text: Sexual arousal disorders

text: Sexual arousal

text: Sexual aversion disorder

text: Sexual desire

text: Sexual deviation

text: Sexual disorders

text: Sexual dysfunction

text: Sexual fetishism

text: Sexual masochism

text: Sexual orientation

text: Sexual response cycle

text: Sexual sadism

text: human sexuality

text: Shadow (psychology)

text: Shame

text: Shaping (psychology)

text: Shell shock

text: Shock value

text: Short term memory

text: Shyness

text: Sibling

text: Siege mentality

text: Sigmund Freud Archives

text: Silva Method

text: Similarity (psychology)

text: Simon effect

text: Simplicity theory

text: Simulated consciousness

text: Simulated pregnancy

text: Simulation heuristic

text: Sitophobia

text: Situational awareness

text: Six Thinking Hats

text: Size-weight illusion

text: Skinner box

text: Sleep-learning

text: Sluggish cognitive tempo

text: Sluggishly progressing schizophrenia

text: Smart mob

text: Social anxiety

text: Social anxiety disorder

text: Social cognition

text: Social desirability

text: Social disruption

text: Social distance

text: Social distance scale

text: Social facilitation

text: Social group

text: Social influence

text: Social inhibition

text: Social interaction

text: Social learning theory

text: Social loafing

text: Social neuroscience

text: Social norm

text: Social proof

text: Social psychology (psychology)

text: Social psychology (sociology)

text: Social rejection

text: Social rhythm therapy

text: Social role

text: Social skills

text: Social statistics

text: Social status

text: Social stigma

text: Social support

text: Socialization

text: Society of Mind theory

text: Socioeconomic status

text: Sociometry

text: Socionics

text: Sociosexual orientation

text: Sodomy

text: Solitary confinement

text: Soma

text: Somatization disorder

text: Somatoform disorder

text: Somatotherapy

entity_name: Somatotype and constitutional psychology

text: Somatotype and constitutional psychology

text: Spatial empathy

text: Spatial memory

text: Spatial-temporal reasoning

text: Speaker recognition

text: Specific phobia

text: Specific social phobia

text: Speech act

text: Speech perception

text: Speed reading

text: Spiral dynamics

text: splitting (psychology)

text: Spontaneous recovery

text: Sport psychology

text: Stage fright

text: Stage theory

text: Stages of faith development

text: Stanford-Binet

text: State-dependent learning

text: State-dependent memory

text: Steppingstone theory

text: Stereotypes

text: Stereotypic movement disorder

text: Stigmatic/eligibilic paraphilia

text: Stimming

text: Stimulus generalization

text: Stir crazy (condition)

text: Stockholm syndrome

text: Storage (memory)

text: Strategic planning

text: Stream of consciousness (psychology)

text: Stress (medicine)

text: Stress management

text: Stressor

text: Structural communication

text: Structural ritualization theory

text: Structuralism

text: Structure-agency debate

text: Structured interview

text: Study Skills

text: Subjective reality

text: Sublimation (psychology)

text: Subliminal advertising

text: Subliminal perception

text: Submission

text: Substance-related disorder

text: Substance abuse

entity_name: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

text: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

text: Substance dependence

text: Substance intoxication

text: Substance-related disorder

text: Subvocalization

text: Suffering

text: Suicidal ideation

text: Suicide

text: Suicide treatment

text: Suicide watch

text: Suicidology

text: Superego

text: Superficial charm

text: Superiority complex

text: Superman complex

text: Superordinate goals

text: Surprise (emotion)

text: Swept-plane display

text: Sycophancy

text: Syllogism

text: Sylvia Plath effect

text: Symbolic violence

text: Sympathy

text: Sympathetic nervous system

text: Synesthesia

text: Synectics

text: Systematic desensitization

text: Systems psychology

text: Systems intelligence

text: Systems thinking

text: Finally, the very nature of the DOF problem poses questions. For example, does the nervous system really have difficulty in choosing from DOFs, or is the abundance of DOFs necessary for evolutionary survival? In very extreme movements, humans may exhaust the limits of their DOFs—in these cases, the nervous system only has one choice. Therefore, DOFs are not always infinite. Bernstein has suggested that our vast number of DOFs allow motor learning to take place, wherein the nervous system "explores" the set of possible motor solutions before settling on an optimal solution (learning to walk and ride a bike, for example). Finally, additional DOFs allow patients with brain or spinal cord injury to often retain movement while relying on a reduced set of biomechanical DOFs.  Therefore, the "degrees of freedom problem" may be a misnomer and is better understood as the "motor equivalence problem" with redundant DOFs offering an evolutionary solution to this problem.

text: Finally, the very nature of the DOF problem poses questions. For example, does the nervous system really have difficulty in choosing from DOFs, or is the abundance of DOFs necessary for

text: evolution

text: ary survival? In very extreme movements, humans may exhaust the limits of their DOFs—in these cases, the nervous system only has one choice. Therefore, DOFs are not always infinite. Bernstein has suggested that our vast number of DOFs allow

text: motor learning

text: to take place, wherein the nervous system "explores" the set of possible motor solutions before settling on an

text: optimal

text: solution (learning to walk and ride a bike, for example). Finally, additional DOFs allow patients with brain or

text: spinal cord injury

text: to often retain movement while relying on a reduced set of

text: biomechanical

text: DOFs.  Therefore, the "degrees of freedom problem" may be a misnomer and is better understood as the "motor equivalence problem" with redundant DOFs offering an evolutionary solution to this problem.

text: The vertebral column surrounds the spinal cord which travels within the spinal canal, formed from a central hole within each vertebra. The spinal cord is part of the central nervous system that supplies nerves and receives information from the peripheral nervous system within the body. The spinal cord consists of grey and white matter and a central cavity, the central canal. Adjacent to each vertebra emerge spinal nerves. The spinal nerves provide sympathetic nervous supply to the body, with nerves emerging forming the sympathetic trunk and the splanchnic nerves.

text: The vertebral column surrounds the spinal cord which travels within the

text: spinal canal

text: , formed from a central hole within each

text: vertebra

text: . The spinal cord is part of the

text: central nervous system

text: that supplies nerves and receives information from the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: within the body. The spinal cord consists of

text: grey

text: and

text: white matter

text: and a central cavity, the

text: central canal

text: . Adjacent to each vertebra emerge

text: spinal nerve

text: s. The spinal nerves provide

text: sympathetic nervous supply

text: to the body, with nerves emerging forming the

text: sympathetic trunk

text: and the

text: splanchnic nerve

text: s.

text: In somatosensory transduction, the afferent neurons transmit messages through synapses in the dorsal column nuclei, where second-order neurons send the signal to the thalamus and synapse with third-order neurons in the ventrobasal complex. The third-order neurons then send the signal to the somatosensory cortex.

text: In

text: somatosensory

text: transduction

text: , the

text: afferent neuron

text: s transmit messages through

text: synapse

text: s in the

text: dorsal column nuclei

text: , where second-order neurons send the signal to the

text: thalamus

text: and synapse with third-order neurons in the

text: ventrobasal complex

text: . The third-order neurons then send the signal to the

text: somatosensory cortex

text: Sensory information collected by the peripheral nervous system is transmitted to specific areas of the primary somatosensory area in the parietal cortex according to its origin on any given part of the body. For each neuron in the primary somatosensory area, there is a corresponding region of the skin that is stimulated or inhibited by that neuron. The regions that correspond to a location on the somatosensory cortex are mapped by a homonculus. This corresponding region of the skin is referred to as the neuron's receptive field. The most sensitive regions of the body have the greatest representation in any given cortical area, but they also have the smallest receptive fields. The lips, tongue, and fingers are examples of this phenomenon. Each receptive field is composed of two regions: a central excitatory region and a peripheral inhibitory region. One entire receptive field can overlap with other receptive fields, making it difficult to differentiate between stimulation locations, but lateral inhibition helps to reduce that overlap. When an area of the skin is touched, the central excitatory region activates and the peripheral region is inhibited, creating a contrast in sensation and allowing sensory precision. The person can then pinpoint exactly which part of the skin is being touched. In the face of inhibition, only the neurons that are most stimulated and least inhibited will fire, so the firing pattern tends to concentrate at stimulus peaks. This ability becomes less precise as stimulation moves from areas with small receptive fields to larger receptive fields, e.g. moving from the fingertips to the forearm to the upper arm.

text: Sensory information collected by the peripheral nervous system is transmitted to specific areas of the primary

text: somatosensory

text: area in the

text: parietal cortex

text: according to its origin on any given part of the body. For each neuron in the primary somatosensory area, there is a corresponding region of the skin that is stimulated or inhibited by that neuron. The regions that correspond to a location on the somatosensory cortex are mapped by a

text: homonculus

text: . This corresponding region of the skin is referred to as the neuron's

text: receptive field

text: . The most sensitive regions of the body have the greatest representation in any given cortical area, but they also have the smallest receptive fields. The lips, tongue, and fingers are examples of this phenomenon. Each receptive field is composed of two regions: a central excitatory region and a peripheral inhibitory region. One entire receptive field can overlap with other receptive fields, making it difficult to differentiate between stimulation locations, but lateral inhibition helps to reduce that overlap. When an area of the skin is touched, the central excitatory region activates and the peripheral region is inhibited, creating a contrast in sensation and allowing sensory precision. The person can then pinpoint exactly which part of the skin is being touched. In the face of inhibition, only the neurons that are most stimulated and least inhibited will fire, so the firing pattern tends to concentrate at stimulus peaks. This ability becomes less precise as stimulation moves from areas with small receptive fields to larger receptive fields, e.g. moving from the fingertips to the forearm to the upper arm.

text: In the essay "Bligh's Bounty", Stephen Jay Gould noted that if one looks at vertebrates with very low encephalization quotient, their brains are slightly less massive than their spinal cords. Theoretically, intelligence might correlate with the absolute amount of brain an animal has after subtracting the weight of the spinal cord from the brain. This formula is useless for invertebrates because they do not have spinal cords, or in some cases, central nervous systems.

text: In the essay "Bligh's Bounty",

text: Stephen Jay Gould

text: noted that if one looks at vertebrates with very low encephalization quotient, their brains are slightly less massive than their spinal cords. Theoretically, intelligence might correlate with the absolute amount of brain an animal has after subtracting the weight of the spinal cord from the brain. This formula is useless for invertebrates because they do not have spinal cords, or in some cases, central nervous systems.

text: SyNAPSE is a DARPA program that aims to develop electronic neuromorphic machine technology that scales to biological levels.  More simply stated, it is an attempt to build a new kind of cognitive computer with similar form, function, and architecture to the mammalian brain.  Such artificial brains would be used in robots whose intelligence would scale with the size of the neural system in terms of total number of neurons and synapses and their connectivity.

text: SyNAPSE is a

text: DARPA

text: program that aims to develop electronic

text: neuromorphic

text: machine technology that scales to biological levels.  More simply stated, it is an attempt to build a new kind of

text: cognitive computer

text: with similar form, function, and architecture to the

text: mammalian brain

text: .  Such

text: artificial brain

text: s would be used in robots whose

text: intelligence

text: would scale with the size of the neural system in terms of total number of neurons and synapses and their connectivity.

text: The expression of ASIC1a is high in both the central nervous system and in the sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia. ASIC1b is only expressed in sensory neurons. Expression of ASIC1a in the central nervous system relates to the involvement of ASIC1a in higher brain functions, such as learning, memory and fear conditioning. Expression of ASIC1a and ASIC1b in sensory neurons relates to their involvement in nociception and taste.

text: The expression of ASIC1a is high in both the

text: central nervous system

text: and in the

text: sensory neurons

text: of the dorsal root ganglia. ASIC1b is only expressed in sensory neurons. Expression of ASIC1a in the central nervous system relates to the involvement of ASIC1a in higher brain functions, such as learning, memory and fear conditioning. Expression of ASIC1a and ASIC1b in sensory neurons relates to their involvement in

text: nociception

text: and taste.

text: How do axons and dendrites form during development? How do axons know where to target and how to reach these targets? How do neurons migrate to the proper position in the central and peripheral systems?  How do synapses form? We know from molecular biology that distinct parts of the nervous system release distinct chemical cues, from growth factors to hormones that modulate and influence the growth and development of functional connections between neurons.

text: How do

text: axons

text: and

text: dendrites

text: form during development? How do axons know where to target and how to reach these targets? How do neurons migrate to the proper position in the central and peripheral systems?  How do synapses form? We know from

text: molecular biology

text: that distinct parts of the nervous system release distinct chemical cues, from

text: growth factors

text: to

text: hormones

text: that modulate and influence the growth and development of functional connections between neurons.

text: During these years Brand has performed work on nervous-system development that the Royal Society has described as “pioneering.” According to the Royal Society, her study of the fruit fly's embryonic nervous system “has led to new insights into the biology of neural stem cells, and the ability of neurons to regenerate after damage.” Moreover, Brand “identified a novel role for a key regulator in cell division in controlling the strength of neuronal connections,” which “could help uncover new drug targets in the search for treatments for neural disorders such as Parkinson's and Huntington's disease.” As one source explains, “Brand is looking for stem cells in adult fruit flies' brains and trying to understand how genes are regulated throughout life. The aim of the work is to learn how to control cells to produce the right neuron at the right place at the right time. One protein, known by the name Prospero, is responsible for regulating stem cells to produce cells which produce neurons. Without the Prospero protein, tumours result.

text: The hallmark of the mammalian cerebellum is an expansion of the lateral lobes, whose main interactions are with the neocortex. As monkeys evolved into great apes, the expansion of the lateral lobes continued, in tandem with the expansion of the frontal lobes of the neocortex. In ancestral hominids, and in Homo sapiens until the middle Pleistocene period, the cerebellum continued to expand, but the frontal lobes expanded more rapidly. The most recent period of human evolution, however, may actually have been associated with an increase in the relative size of the cerebellum, as the neocortex reduced its size somewhat while the cerebellum expanded. The size of the human cerebellum, compared to the rest of the brain, has been increasing in size while the cerebrum decreased in size  With both the development and implementation of motor tasks, visual-spatial skills and learning taking place in the cerebellum, the growth of the cerebellum is thought to have some form of correlation to greater human cognitive abilities. The lateral hemispheres of the cerebellum are now 2.7 times greater in both humans and apes than they are in monkeys. These changes in the cerebellum size cannot be explained by greater muscle mass. They show that either the development of the cerebellum is tightly linked to that of the rest of the brain or that neural activities taking place in the cerebellum were important during Hominidae evolution. Due to the cerebellum's role in cognitive functions, the increase in its size may have played a role in cognitive expansion.

text: The hallmark of the mammalian cerebellum is an expansion of the lateral lobes, whose main interactions are with the neocortex. As monkeys evolved into great apes, the expansion of the lateral lobes continued, in tandem with the expansion of the frontal lobes of the neocortex. In ancestral hominids, and in

text: Homo sapiens

text: until the middle

text: Pleistocene

text: period, the cerebellum continued to expand, but the frontal lobes expanded more rapidly. The most recent period of human evolution, however, may actually have been associated with an increase in the relative size of the cerebellum, as the neocortex reduced its size somewhat while the cerebellum expanded. The size of the human cerebellum, compared to the rest of the brain, has been increasing in size while the cerebrum decreased in size  With both the development and implementation of motor tasks, visual-spatial skills and learning taking place in the cerebellum, the growth of the cerebellum is thought to have some form of correlation to greater human cognitive abilities. The lateral hemispheres of the cerebellum are now 2.7 times greater in both humans and apes than they are in monkeys. These changes in the cerebellum size cannot be explained by greater muscle mass. They show that either the development of the cerebellum is tightly linked to that of the rest of the brain or that neural activities taking place in the cerebellum were important during

text: Hominidae

text: evolution. Due to the cerebellum's role in cognitive functions, the increase in its size may have played a role in cognitive expansion.

text: The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a component of the peripheral nervous system and is made up of two branches: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). The SNS controls the more active responses such as increasing heart rate and blood pressure. The PNS slows down the heart rate and aids in digestion,for example. Symptoms typically arise from abnormal responses of either the sympathetic or parasympathetic systems based on situation or environment.

text: The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (ANS) is a component of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and is made up of two branches: the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: (SNS) and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: (PNS). The SNS controls the more active responses such as increasing heart rate and blood pressure. The PNS slows down the heart rate and aids in digestion,for example. Symptoms typically arise from abnormal responses of either the sympathetic or parasympathetic systems based on situation or environment.

text: On gross inspection, three lobes can be distinguished in the cerebellum: the flocculonodular lobe, the anterior lobe (rostral to the "primary fissure"), and the posterior lobe (dorsal to the "primary fissure"). The latter two can be further divided in a midline cerebellar vermis and lateral cerebellar hemispheres.

text: On gross inspection, three lobes can be distinguished in the cerebellum: the

text: flocculonodular lobe

text: , the

text: anterior lobe

text: (rostral to the "primary fissure"), and the

text: posterior lobe

text: (dorsal to the "primary fissure"). The latter two can be further divided in a midline

text: cerebellar vermis

text: and lateral cerebellar hemispheres.

text: CART is an anorectic peptide and is widely expressed in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, particularly concentrated in the hypothalamus. CART is outside of the nervous system also expressed in pituitary endocrine cells, adrenomedullary cells, islet somatostatin cells, and in rat antral gastrin cells. Other structures and pathways associated with CART expression include the mesolimbic pathway (linking the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens) and amygdala.

text: CART is an

text: anorectic

text: peptide and is widely expressed in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, particularly concentrated in the

text: hypothalamus

text: . CART is outside of the nervous system also expressed in

text: pituitary

text: endocrine cells,

text: adrenomedullary

text: cells, islet

text: somatostatin

text: cells, and in rat antral

text: gastrin

text: cells. Other structures and pathways associated with CART expression include the

text: mesolimbic pathway

text: (linking the

text: ventral tegmental area

text: to the

text: nucleus accumbens

text: ) and

text: amygdala

text: GABAA receptors are ligand-gated ion channels. GABA (γ-amino butyric acid) being its endogenous ligand, is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in central nervous system. When activated, it facilitates Cl- flow into the neuron, decrease the potential inside neuron, creating hyperpolarization effect. GABAA receptors occur in all organisms that have a nervous system. To a limited extent the receptors can be found in non-neuronal tissues. Due to their wide distribution within the nervous system of mammals they play a role in virtually all brain functions.

text: GABAA receptors

text: are

text: ligand-gated ion channels

text: . GABA (

text: γ-amino butyric acid

text: ) being its endogenous ligand, is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in

text: central nervous system

text: . When activated, it facilitates Cl- flow into the neuron, decrease the potential inside neuron, creating hyperpolarization effect. GABAA receptors occur in all organisms that have a nervous system. To a limited extent the receptors can be found in non-neuronal tissues. Due to their wide distribution within the nervous system of mammals they play a role in virtually all brain functions.

text: Temazepam, similar to other benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic drugs, causes impairments in body balance and standing steadiness in individuals who wake up at night or the next morning. Falls and hip fractures are frequently reported. The combination with alcohol increases these impairments. Partial but incomplete tolerance develops to these impairments. The smallest possible effective dose should be used in elderly or very ill patients, as a risk of apnea and/or cardiac arrest exists. This risk is increased when temazepam is given concomitantly with other drugs that depress the central nervous system (CNS).

text: Temazepam, similar to other benzodiazepines and

text: nonbenzodiazepine

text: hypnotic drugs, causes impairments in body balance and standing steadiness in individuals who wake up at night or the next morning. Falls and hip fractures are frequently reported. The combination with alcohol increases these impairments. Partial but incomplete tolerance develops to these impairments. The smallest possible effective dose should be used in elderly or very ill patients, as a risk of

text: apnea

text: and/or

text: cardiac arrest

text: exists. This risk is increased when temazepam is given concomitantly with other drugs that depress the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS).

text: The critical lesion site responsible for the syndrome has been debated for more than a decade. Different criterion was used to identify extinction in their patient samples, which lead to inconsistencies in the critical lesion sites reported across studies. Recent studies have used measures such as ERPs and fMRI and it is believed that the parietal lobe mediates the internal representation of both body and space. They found that in their sample, a cortical lesion was almost always found in the right parietal angula gyrus region. Patients typically showed damage to the inferior parietal areas of the brain. There can also be preserved function in the superior parietal lobe, even with inferior parietal damage. Parietal regions include some neurons with ipsilateral receptive fields, so that while the representation within one hemisphere emphasizes contralateral space overall, some ipsilateral representation is present also. More specifically, the number of left-hemisphere neurons with visual receptive fields at a particular location decreases monotonically as one considers increasingly peripheral locations in the left visual field, and vice versa in the right hemisphere. This might go some way towards explaining why extinction is more severe after right-hemisphere lesions in people, leaving the patient with just the steep gradient of the intact left hemisphere.

text: The critical lesion site responsible for the syndrome has been debated for more than a decade. Different criterion was used to identify extinction in their patient samples, which lead to inconsistencies in the critical lesion sites reported across studies. Recent studies have used measures such as ERPs and

text: fMRI

text: and it is believed that the parietal lobe mediates the internal representation of both body and space. They found that in their sample, a cortical lesion was almost always found in the right parietal angula gyrus region. Patients typically showed damage to the inferior parietal areas of the brain. There can also be preserved function in the superior parietal lobe, even with inferior parietal damage. Parietal regions include some neurons with

text: ipsilateral

text: receptive fields, so that while the representation within one hemisphere emphasizes contralateral space overall, some ipsilateral representation is present also. More specifically, the number of left-hemisphere neurons with visual receptive fields at a particular location decreases monotonically as one considers increasingly peripheral locations in the left visual field, and vice versa in the right hemisphere. This might go some way towards explaining why extinction is more severe after right-hemisphere lesions in people, leaving the patient with just the steep gradient of the intact left hemisphere.

text: Acquiring motor patterns is the most primal learning process in animal development – in evolution and maturation. The primacy of the learning process led to the development of instincts. The primary instinct in any encounter with a new environment of forces is to overcome and adjust in order to achieve results. In the process of adjustment – learning of new motor patterns is gradually achieved.Adaptation is sometimes viewed as a process in which the nervous system learns to predict and cancel effects of a novel environment, returning movements to near baseline (unperturbed) conditions. During motor adaptation the nervous system constantly uses error information to improve future movements.

text: The psychological basis for TRT stems from the fact that the brain exhibits a high level of plasticity. In turn, this allows it to adjust to any sensory signals as long as they do not lead to negative effects. TRT is imputed to work by interfering with the neural activity causing the tinnitus at its source, in order to prevent it from spreading to other nervous systems such as the limbic and autonomic nervous systems.

text: Neuregulins or neuroregulins are a family of four structurally related proteins that are part of the EGF family of proteins. These proteins have been shown to have diverse functions in the development of the nervous system and play multiple essential roles in vertebrate embryogenesis including: cardiac development, Schwann cell and oligodendrocyte differentiation, some aspects of neuronal development, as well as the formation of neuromuscular synapses.

text: Neuregulins or neuroregulins are a family of four structurally related proteins that are part of the

text: EGF family

text: of proteins. These proteins have been shown to have diverse functions in the development of the

text: nervous system

text: and play multiple essential roles in vertebrate

text: embryogenesis

text: including:

text: cardiac

text: development,

text: Schwann cell

text: and

text: oligodendrocyte

text: differentiation, some aspects of neuronal development, as well as the formation of

text: neuromuscular

text: synapses

text: The division gained the honorifics 'Roslavl Red Banner' during the war, was seemingly renamed the 58th Motor Rifle Division around 1957. Michael Holm's research indicates the division comprised the 160 Motor Rifle Regiment (73806) - Kazandzhike (BMP-1), the 161 Motor Rifle Regiment (73884) - Kyzyl-Arvat (BTR-60), the 162 Motor Rifle Regiment (14142) - Nebit-Dag (trucks), and the 231 Tank Regiment (61631) - Kazandzhike (T-55), plus artillery and the other normal units of a motor rifle division. Carey Schofield's Inside the Soviet Army, Headline, 1991, p.117, says the division's regiments in 1989 were 254 strong (MRR BTR), 256 strong (MRR BMP) and 210 (tank regiment), and was under the command of Acting Commander Colonel Mishin.

text: The fusimotor system is a system by which the central nervous system controls muscle spindle sensitivity. It consists of muscle spindles along with fusimotor neurons - beta motor neurons and gamma motor neurons. Because beta motor neurons innervate extrafusal as well as intrafusal muscle fibers, they are more specifically named skeletofusimotor neurons. Gamma motor neurons are the efferent (sending signals away from the central nervous system) part of the fusimotor system, whereas muscle spindles are the afferent part, as they send signals relaying information from muscles toward the spinal cord and brain.

text: The fusimotor system is a system by which the central nervous system controls muscle spindle sensitivity. It consists of muscle spindles along with fusimotor neurons - beta motor neurons and gamma motor neurons. Because beta motor neurons innervate extrafusal as well as intrafusal muscle fibers, they are more specifically named skeletofusimotor neurons. Gamma motor neurons are the

text: efferent

text: (sending signals away from the central nervous system) part of the fusimotor system, whereas muscle spindles are the

text: afferent

text: part, as they send signals relaying information from muscles toward the spinal cord and brain.

text: In ray-finned fishes the structure is somewhat different. The inner surfaces of the lateral and ventral regions of the cerebrum bulge up into the ventricles; these include both the basal nuclei and the various parts of the pallium and may be complex in structure, especially in teleosts. The dorsal surface of the cerebrum is membranous, and does not contain any nervous tissue.

text: In

text: ray-finned fish

text: es the structure is somewhat different. The inner surfaces of the lateral and ventral regions of the cerebrum bulge up into the

text: ventricles

text: ; these include both the basal nuclei and the various parts of the pallium and may be complex in structure, especially in

text: teleost

text: s. The dorsal surface of the cerebrum is membranous, and does not contain any

text: nervous tissue

text: The study of the nervous system dates back to ancient Egypt but only in the ninetieth century it became more detailed. With the invention of the microscope and a technique of staining developed by Camillo Golgi, it was possible to study individual neurons. This scientist started to impregnate nervous tissue with metal, as silver. The reaction consists in fixing particles of silver chromate to the neurilemma, and resulted in a stark black deposit in the soma, axon and dendrites of the neuron. Thus, it was possible to identify different types of neurons, as Golgi Cell, Golgi I and Golgi II.In 1885 there was a German medical researcher called Franz Nissl who developed another staining technique now known by Nissl staining. This technique is slightly different from Golgi staining since it stains the cell body and the endoplasmic reticulum.In 1887, a Spanish scientist called Santiago Ramon y Cajal learned the staining technique with Golgi and started his famous work of neuroanatomy.  With this technique he made an extensive study of several areas of the brain and in different species. He also described very precisely the purkinje cells, the chick cerebellum and the neuronal circuit of the rodent hippocampus.In 1941 Dr. Albert Coons used for the first time a revolutionary technique that uses the principle of antibodies binding specifically to antigens in the tissues. He created an immunoflorescent technique for labelling the antibodies.  This technique continues to be widely used in neuroscience studies for identifying different structures. The most important neural markers used nowadays are the GFAB, Nestin, NeuroD antibodies and others. For the past years there are still creating new neural markers for immunocytochemistry or/and immunohistochemistry.In 1953 Heinrich Klüver invented a new staining technique called, Luxol Fast Blue stain or LFB, and with this technique it’s possible to detect demyelination in the central nervous system. Myelin sheath will be stained blue, but other structures will be stained as well.The next revolutionary technique was invented in 1969 by an American scientist called Joseph G. Gall. This technique is called in situ Hybridization and it is used in a large variety of studies but mainly used in developmental biology. With this technique it is possible to mark some genes expressed in determined areas of the animal. In neurobiology, it's very useful for understanding the formation of the nervous system.

text: The study of the nervous system dates back to ancient Egypt but only in the ninetieth century it became more detailed. With the invention of the microscope and a technique of staining developed by

text: Camillo Golgi

text: , it was possible to study individual neurons. This scientist started to impregnate nervous tissue with metal, as silver. The reaction consists in fixing particles of silver chromate to the

text: neurilemma

text: , and resulted in a stark black deposit in the soma, axon and dendrites of the neuron. Thus, it was possible to identify different types of neurons, as

text: Golgi Cell

text: Golgi I

text: and

text: Golgi II

text: .In 1885 there was a German medical researcher called

text: Franz Nissl

text: who developed another staining technique now known by

text: Nissl staining

text: . This technique is slightly different from Golgi staining since it stains the cell body and the endoplasmic reticulum.In 1887, a Spanish scientist called

text: Santiago Ramon y Cajal

text: learned the staining technique with Golgi and started his famous work of

text: neuroanatomy

text: .  With this technique he made an extensive study of several areas of the brain and in different species. He also described very precisely the

text: purkinje cells

text: , the chick

text: cerebellum

text: and the neuronal circuit of the rodent

text: hippocampus

text: .In 1941 Dr.

text: Albert Coons

text: used for the first time a revolutionary technique that uses the principle of

text: antibodies

text: binding specifically to

text: antigens

text: in the tissues. He created an immunoflorescent technique for labelling the antibodies.  This technique continues to be widely used in neuroscience studies for identifying different structures. The most important neural markers used nowadays are the GFAB, Nestin,

text: NeuroD

text: antibodies and others. For the past years there are still creating new neural markers for

text: immunocytochemistry

text: or/and

text: immunohistochemistry

text: .In 1953

text: Heinrich Klüver

text: invented a new staining technique called,

text: Luxol Fast Blue stain

text: or LFB, and with this technique it’s possible to detect

text: demyelination

text: in the central nervous system.

text: Myelin sheath

text: will be stained blue, but other structures will be

text: stained

text: as well.The next revolutionary technique was invented in 1969 by an American scientist called

text: Joseph G. Gall

text: . This technique is called

text: in situ Hybridization

text: and it is used in a large variety of studies but mainly used in developmental biology. With this technique it is possible to mark some genes expressed in determined areas of the animal. In

text: neurobiology

text: , it's very useful for understanding the formation of the nervous system.

text: The stomatogastric ganglion (STG) is a much-studied ganglion (collection of neurons) found in arthropods and studied extensively in decapod crustaceans. It is part of the stomatogastric nervous system.

text: The stomatogastric ganglion (STG) is a much-studied

text: ganglion

text: (collection of

text: neuron

text: s) found in

text: arthropods

text: and studied extensively in

text: decapod

text: crustacean

text: s. It is part of the

text: stomatogastric nervous system

text: An internal model is a theoretical model used by a nervous system to predict the environmental changes that result from a motor action. The assumption is that the nervous system has an internal representation of how a motor apparatus, the part of the body that will be moved, behaves in an environment. Internal models can be classified as either a forward model or an inverse model.

text: The transient receptor potential channel (TRP) superfamily, which includes the menthol (TRPM8) and capsaicin receptors (TRPV1), serve a variety of functions in the peripheral and central nervous systems. In the peripheral nervous system, TRPs respond to stimuli from temperature, pressure, inflammatory agents, and receptor activation. Central nervous system roles of the receptors include neurite outgrowth, receptor signaling, and excitoxic cell death resulting from noxious stimuli.

text: The

text: transient receptor potential channel

text: (TRP) superfamily, which includes the menthol (TRPM8) and

text: capsaicin

text: receptors (

text: ), serve a variety of functions in the

text: peripheral

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: s. In the peripheral nervous system, TRPs respond to stimuli from

text: temperature

text: pressure

text: inflammatory agents

text: , and

text: receptor

text: activation. Central nervous system roles of the receptors include neurite outgrowth, receptor signaling, and excitoxic cell death resulting from noxious stimuli.

text: In an interview with Antic, Wolosenko agreed that 1982's Shamus was the beginning of Synapse's reputation for quality products. Other high quality, better advertised games followed in 1982-3. These include Necromancer, Rainbow Walker, Blue Max, Fort Apocalypse, Alley Cat, and The Pharaoh's Curse. It was during this period that the company branched out and started supporting other systems, especially the Commodore 64, which became a major platform. Many of Synapse's games made their way to the UK as part of the initial wave of U.S. Gold-distributed imports (under the "Synsoft" imprint). Some were also converted to run on the more popular UK home computers, such as the Sinclair ZX Spectrum.

text: In an interview with

text: Antic

text: , Wolosenko agreed that 1982's

text: Shamus

text: was the beginning of Synapse's reputation for quality products. Other high quality, better advertised games followed in 1982-3. These include

text: Necromancer

text: Rainbow Walker

text: Blue Max

text: Fort Apocalypse

text: Alley Cat

text: , and

text: The Pharaoh's Curse

text: . It was during this period that the company branched out and started supporting other systems, especially the

text: Commodore 64

text: , which became a major platform. Many of Synapse's games made their way to the UK as part of the initial wave of

text: U.S. Gold

text: -distributed imports (under the "Synsoft" imprint). Some were also converted to run on the more popular UK

text: home computer

text: s, such as the

text: Sinclair ZX Spectrum

text: C fibers are one class of nerve fiber found in the nerves of the somatic sensory system. They are afferent fibers, conveying input signals from the periphery to the central nervous system.

text: C fibers are one class of

text: nerve fiber

text: found in the

text: nerves

text: of the

text: somatic sensory system

text: . They are

text: afferent fibers

text: , conveying input signals from the

text: periphery

text: to the central nervous system.

text: The cephalic end of the neural groove exhibits several dilatations that, when the tube is shut, assume the form of three vesicles; these constitute the three primary cerebral vesicles, and correspond, respectively, to the future 'fore-brain' (prosencephalon), 'midbrain' (mesencephalon), and 'hind-brain' (rhombencephalon) (Fig. 18). The walls of the vesicles are developed into the nervous tissue and neuroglia of the brain, and their cavities are modified to form its ventricles. The remainder of the tube forms the spinal cord (medulla spinalis); from its ectodermal wall the nervous and neuroglial elements of the spinal cord are developed, while the cavity persists as the central canal.

text: The

text: cephalic

text: end of the neural groove exhibits several dilatations that, when the tube is shut, assume the form of three vesicles; these constitute the three primary

text: cerebral vesicles

text: , and correspond, respectively, to the future 'fore-brain' (

text: prosencephalon

text: midbrain

text: ' (mesencephalon), and 'hind-brain' (

text: rhombencephalon

text: ) (Fig. 18). The walls of the vesicles are developed into the nervous tissue and neuroglia of the brain, and their cavities are modified to form its ventricles. The remainder of the tube forms the

text: spinal cord

text: (medulla spinalis); from its ectodermal wall the nervous and neuroglial elements of the spinal cord are developed, while the cavity persists as the

text: central canal

text: Dopamine exerts its effects by binding to and activating cell surface receptors. In mammals, five subtypes of dopamine receptors have been identified, labeled from D1 to D5.  All of them function as metabotropic, G protein-coupled receptors, meaning that they exert their effects via a complex second messenger system. These receptors can be divided into two families, known as D1-like and D2-like. For receptors located on neurons in the nervous system, the ultimate effect of D1-like activation (D1 and D5) can be excitation (via opening of sodium channels) or inhibition (via opening of potassium channels); the ultimate effect of D2-like activation (D2, D3, and D4) is usually inhibition of the target neuron. Consequently, it is incorrect to describe dopamine itself as either excitatory or inhibitory: its effect on a target neuron depends on which types of receptors are present on the membrane of that neuron and on the internal responses of that neuron to the second messenger cAMP. D1 receptors are the most numerous dopamine receptors in the human nervous system; D2 receptors are next; D3, D4, and D5 receptors are present at significantly lower levels.

text: Dopamine exerts its effects by binding to and activating

text: cell surface receptor

text: s. In mammals, five subtypes of

text: dopamine receptor

text: s have been identified, labeled from D1 to D5.  All of them function as

text: metabotropic

text: G protein-coupled receptor

text: s, meaning that they exert their effects via a complex

text: second messenger system

text: . These receptors can be divided into two families, known as

text: and

text: . For receptors located on neurons in the nervous system, the ultimate effect of D1-like activation (D1 and D5) can be excitation (via opening of

text: sodium channel

text: s) or inhibition (via opening of

text: potassium channel

text: s); the ultimate effect of D2-like activation (D2, D3, and D4) is usually inhibition of the target neuron. Consequently, it is incorrect to describe dopamine itself as either excitatory or inhibitory: its effect on a target neuron depends on which types of receptors are present on the membrane of that neuron and on the internal responses of that neuron to the second messenger

text: cAMP

text: . D1 receptors are the most numerous dopamine receptors in the human nervous system; D2 receptors are next; D3, D4, and D5 receptors are present at significantly lower levels.

text: Shanet is a Life Trustee and Treasurer of the Grass Foundation, a member of the Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives, and a member of the Council of the New York Hall of Science. She has been a member of the National Advisory Council of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), a Chairman of the Committee for Brain Science of the National Research Council, and a member of the Research Council's Advisory Committee for USSR and Eastern Europe. She has been a scientific adviser for voluntary health organizations concerned with central nervous system injury, such as the National Spinal Cord Injury Foundation and Paralyzed Veterans of America. The National Spinal Cord Injury Foundation twice awarded her its L.W. Freeman Award of Merit, and in 1982, she received an award from the New York Metropolitan Chapter of American Women in Science as an outstanding woman scientist. She has been honored with a number of awards for excellence in teaching given by Weill Cornell Medical College. She has been a member of the Society for Neuroscience since its start and served as a member of its Council from 1972 to 1976, as treasurer from 1977 to 1980 and as president from 1985 to 1986. Shanet received Women in Neuroscience's 2003 Mika Salpeter Lifetime Achievement Award. The Mika Salpeter Lifetime Achievement Award, honors an individual with outstanding career achievements in neuroscience, who has also significantly promoted the professional advancement of women within the field.

text: Shanet is a Life Trustee and Treasurer of the Grass Foundation, a member of the

text: Dana Alliance for Brain Initiatives

text: , and a member of the Council of the New York Hall of Science. She has been a member of the National Advisory Council of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), a Chairman of the Committee for Brain Science of the National Research Council, and a member of the Research Council's Advisory Committee for USSR and Eastern Europe. She has been a scientific adviser for voluntary health organizations concerned with central nervous system injury, such as the National Spinal Cord Injury Foundation and Paralyzed Veterans of America. The National Spinal Cord Injury Foundation twice awarded her its L.W. Freeman Award of Merit, and in 1982, she received an award from the New York Metropolitan Chapter of American Women in Science as an outstanding woman scientist. She has been honored with a number of awards for excellence in teaching given by Weill Cornell Medical College. She has been a member of the Society for Neuroscience since its start and served as a member of its Council from 1972 to 1976, as treasurer from 1977 to 1980 and as president from 1985 to 1986. Shanet received Women in Neuroscience's 2003 Mika Salpeter Lifetime Achievement Award. The Mika Salpeter Lifetime Achievement Award, honors an individual with outstanding career achievements in neuroscience, who has also significantly promoted the professional advancement of women within the field.

text: As in the sympathetic nervous system, efferent parasympathetic nerve signals are carried from the central nervous system to their targets by a system of two neurons.  The first neuron in this pathway is referred to as the preganglionic or presynaptic neuron.  Its cell body sits in the central nervous system and its axon usually extends to synapse with the dendrites of a postganglionic neuron somewhere else in the body. The axons of presynaptic parasympathetic neurons are usually long, extending from the CNS into a ganglion that is either very close to or embedded in their target organ.  As a result, the postsynaptic parasympathetic nerve fibers are very short.

text: As in the sympathetic nervous system,

text: efferent

text: parasympathetic nerve signals are carried from the central nervous system to their targets by a system of two

text: neuron

text: s.  The first neuron in this pathway is referred to as the

text: preganglionic

text: or presynaptic neuron.  Its cell body sits in the central nervous system and its axon usually extends to synapse with the dendrites of a

text: postganglionic neuron

text: somewhere else in the body. The axons of presynaptic parasympathetic neurons are usually long, extending from the CNS into a ganglion that is either very close to or embedded in their target organ.  As a result, the postsynaptic parasympathetic nerve fibers are very short.

text: The soma (pl. somata or somas), perikaryon (pl. perikarya), cyton, or "cell body" is the bulbous, non-process portion of a neuron or other brain cell type, containing the cell nucleus. The word "soma" comes from the Greek σῶμα, meaning "body". Although it is often used to refer to neurons, it can also refer to other cell types as well, including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia. There are many different specialized types of neurons, and their sizes vary from as small as about 5 micrometres to over 10 millimetre for some of the smallest and largest neurons of invertebrates, respectively.

text: The soma (pl. somata or somas), perikaryon (pl. perikarya), cyton, or "

text: cell

text: body" is the bulbous, non-process portion of a

text: neuron

text: or other brain cell type, containing the

text: cell nucleus

text: . The word "soma" comes from the

text: Greek

text: σῶμα

text: , meaning "body". Although it is often used to refer to neurons, it can also refer to other cell types as well, including

text: astrocytes

text: oligodendrocytes

text: , and

text: microglia

text: . There are many different specialized types of neurons, and their sizes vary from as small as about 5

text: micrometre

text: s to over 10 millimetre for some of the smallest and largest neurons of

text: invertebrate

text: s, respectively.

text: Nervous system injuries affect over 90,000 people every year. It is estimated that spinal cord injuries alone affect 10,000 each year. As a result of this high incidence of neurological injuries, nerve regeneration and repair, a subfield of neural tissue engineering, is becoming a rapidly growing field dedicated to the discovery of new ways to recover nerve functionality after injury. The nervous system is divided into two parts: the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which consists of cranial and spinal nerves along with their associated ganglia. While the peripheral nervous system has an intrinsic ability for repair and regeneration, the central nervous system is, for the most part, incapable of self-repair and regeneration. There is currently no treatment for recovering human nerve function after injury to the central nervous system. In addition, multiple attempts at nerve re-growth across the PNS-CNS transition have not been successful. There is simply not enough knowledge about regeneration in the central nervous system. In addition, although the peripheral nervous system has the capability for regeneration, much research still needs to be done to optimize the environment for maximum regrowth potential. Neuroregeneration is important clinically, as it is part of the pathogenesis of many diseases, including multiple sclerosis.

text: Nervous system injuries

text: affect over 90,000 people every year. It is estimated that

text: spinal cord injuries

text: alone affect 10,000 each year. As a result of this high incidence of neurological injuries, nerve

text: regeneration

text: and repair, a subfield of

text: neural tissue engineering

text: , is becoming a rapidly growing field dedicated to the discovery of new ways to recover nerve functionality after injury. The nervous system is divided into two parts: the

text: central nervous system

text: , which consists of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: , and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , which consists of

text: cranial

text: and

text: spinal nerve

text: s along with their associated

text: ganglia

text: . While the peripheral nervous system has an intrinsic ability for repair and regeneration, the central nervous system is, for the most part, incapable of self-repair and regeneration. There is currently no treatment for recovering human nerve function after injury to the central nervous system. In addition, multiple attempts at nerve re-growth across the PNS-CNS transition have not been successful. There is simply not enough knowledge about regeneration in the central nervous system. In addition, although the peripheral nervous system has the capability for regeneration, much research still needs to be done to optimize the environment for maximum regrowth potential. Neuroregeneration is important clinically, as it is part of the

text: pathogenesis

text: of many diseases, including

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Chlorobenzilate is a pesticide that is not currently used in the USA or Europe.  It was originally developed by Ciba-Geigy and introduced in 1952. It was used as an acaricide against mites on citrus trees, including deciduous fruit trees. It has been detected as a residue on tomatoes found in Japanese markets in 2005. It is a non-systemic pesticide that works through contact and as a neurotoxin: it disrupts the functioning of the nervous system.

text: Chlorobenzilate is a

text: pesticide

text: that is not currently used in the USA or Europe.  It was originally developed by

text: Ciba-Geigy

text: and introduced in 1952. It was used as an

text: acaricide

text: against

text: mite

text: s on citrus trees, including deciduous fruit trees. It has been detected as a residue on tomatoes found in Japanese markets in 2005. It is a non-systemic pesticide that works through contact and as a

text: neurotoxin

text: : it disrupts the functioning of the nervous system.

text: 1998: Dr. Evan Snyder clones the first neural stem cells from the human central nervous system, offering the possibility of cell replacement and gene therapies for patients with neurodegenerative disease, neural injury or paralysis.

text: 1998: Dr. Evan Snyder clones the first neural

text: stem cells

text: from the human central nervous system, offering the possibility of cell replacement and gene therapies for patients with

text: neurodegenerative disease

text: , neural injury or

text: paralysis

text: Terminologia Anatomica (1998) divides cerebrum into 6 lobes.

text: Terminologia Anatomica

text: (1998) divides cerebrum into 6 lobes.

text: The benzodiazepine class of drugs also interact with peripheral benzodiazepine receptors. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors are present in peripheral nervous system tissues, glial cells, and to a lesser extent the central nervous system. These peripheral receptors are not structurally related or coupled to GABA receptors. They modulate the immune system and are involved in the body response to injury. Benzodiazepines also function as weak adenosine reuptake inhibitors. It has been suggested that some of their anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant effects may be in part mediated by this action.

text: The benzodiazepine class of drugs also interact with

text: peripheral benzodiazepine receptors

text: . Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors are present in

text: peripheral nervous system

text: tissues,

text: glial cells

text: , and to a lesser extent the central nervous system. These peripheral receptors are not structurally related or coupled to GABA receptors. They modulate the

text: immune system

text: and are involved in the body response to injury. Benzodiazepines also function as weak

text: adenosine reuptake inhibitor

text: s. It has been suggested that some of their anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant effects may be in part mediated by this action.

text: The basic route of nerve signals within the efferent somatic nervous system involves a sequence that begins in the upper cell bodies of motor neurons (upper motor neurons) within the precentral gyrus (which approximates the primary motor cortex).  Stimuli from the precentral gyrus are transmitted from upper motor neurons and down the corticospinal tract, via axons to control skeletal (voluntary) muscles.  These stimuli are conveyed from upper motor neurons through the ventral horn of the spinal cord, and across synapses to be received by the sensory receptors of alpha motor neurons (large lower motor neurons) of the brainstem and spinal cord.

text: The basic route of

text: nerve signal

text: s within the

text: efferent

text: somatic nervous system involves a sequence that begins in the upper

text: cell bodies

text: of

text: motor neuron

text: s (

text: upper motor neuron

text: s) within the

text: precentral gyrus

text: (which approximates the

text: primary motor cortex

text: ).  Stimuli from the precentral gyrus are transmitted from upper motor neurons and down the

text: corticospinal tract

text: , via

text: axon

text: s to control skeletal (voluntary) muscles.  These stimuli are conveyed from upper motor neurons through the

text: ventral horn

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: , and across

text: synapse

text: s to be received by the

text: sensory receptor

text: s of

text: alpha motor neurons

text: (large

text: lower motor neuron

text: s) of the

text: brainstem

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: Synapse Group, Inc. is a multichannel marketing company.  Synapse is also the largest consumer magazine distributor in the United States, with access to over 700 magazine titles from all the major publishers (including Hearst Corporation, Condé Nast Publications, Meredith Corporation, and Time Inc.).  Synapse attracts subscribers for these publications by working through a number of non-traditional marketing channels, including credit card issuers, catalog companies, and airline frequent-flyer programs.Synapse receives universally negative reviews from customers on websites such as Yelp and Better Business Bureau, and has been criticized for their unethical business practices by several reputable publications, including the New York Times.

text: Synapse Group, Inc. is a

text: multichannel marketing

text: company.  Synapse is also the largest consumer

text: magazine

text: distributor in the United States, with access to over 700 magazine titles from all the major publishers (including

text: Hearst Corporation

text: Condé Nast Publications

text: Meredith Corporation

text: , and

text: Time Inc.

text: ).  Synapse attracts subscribers for these publications by working through a number of non-traditional marketing channels, including credit card issuers, catalog companies, and airline frequent-flyer programs.Synapse receives universally negative reviews from customers on websites such as Yelp and Better Business Bureau, and has been criticized for their unethical business practices by several reputable publications, including the New York Times.

text: The cerebral hemispheres (the cerebrum) form the largest part of the human brain and are situated above other brain structures. They are covered with a cortical layer (the cerebral cortex) which has a convoluted topography. Underneath the cerebrum lies the brainstem, resembling a stalk on which the cerebrum is attached. At the rear of the brain, beneath the cerebrum and behind the brainstem, is the cerebellum, a structure with a horizontally furrowed surface, the cerebellar cortex, that makes it look different from any other brain area. The same structures are present in other mammals, although they vary considerably in relative size. As a rule, the smaller the cerebrum, the less convoluted the cortex. The cortex of a rat or mouse is almost perfectly smooth. The cortex of a dolphin or whale, on the other hand, is more convoluted than the cortex of a human.

text: The cerebral hemispheres (the

text: cerebrum

text: ) form the largest part of the human brain and are situated above other brain structures. They are covered with a cortical layer (the cerebral cortex) which has a convoluted topography. Underneath the cerebrum lies the

text: brainstem

text: , resembling a stalk on which the cerebrum is attached. At the rear of the brain, beneath the cerebrum and behind the brainstem, is the cerebellum, a structure with a horizontally furrowed surface, the cerebellar cortex, that makes it look different from any other brain area. The same structures are present in other mammals, although they vary considerably in relative size. As a rule, the smaller the cerebrum, the less convoluted the cortex. The cortex of a rat or mouse is almost perfectly smooth. The cortex of a dolphin or whale, on the other hand, is more convoluted than the cortex of a human.

text: The nervous system is the system of neurons, or nerve cells, that relay electrical signals through the brain and body. A nerve cell receives signals from other nerve cells through tree-branch-like extensions called dendrites and passes signals on through a long extension called an axon (or nerve fiber). Synapses are places where one cell's axon passes information to another cell's dendrite by sending chemicals called neurotransmitters across a small gap called a synaptic cleft. Synapses occur in various locations, including ganglia (singular: ganglion), which are masses of nerve cell bodies.   Preganglionic nerve cells in the sympathetic nervous system (all of which come from the lateral grey column), use the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, while postganglionic sympathetic nerve cells use norepinephrine. Grey matter in the brain and spinal cord is any accumulation of cell bodies and neuropil (neuropil is tissue rich in nerve cell bodies and dendrites).  White matter consists of axon tracts (groups of axons) and commissures (axon tracts that cross the brain's midline).

text: The

text: nervous system

text: is the system of

text: neurons

text: , or nerve cells, that relay electrical signals through the brain and body. A nerve cell receives signals from other nerve cells through tree-branch-like extensions called

text: dendrites

text: and passes signals on through a long extension called an

text: axon

text: (or nerve fiber).

text: Synapses

text: are places where one cell's axon passes information to another cell's dendrite by sending chemicals called

text: neurotransmitters

text: across a small gap called a

text: synaptic cleft

text: . Synapses occur in various locations, including

text: ganglia

text: (singular: ganglion), which are masses of nerve cell bodies.   Preganglionic nerve cells in the sympathetic nervous system (all of which come from the lateral grey column), use the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: , while postganglionic sympathetic nerve cells use

text: norepinephrine

text: Grey matter

text: in the brain and spinal cord is any accumulation of cell bodies and

text: neuropil

text: (neuropil is tissue rich in nerve cell bodies and dendrites).

text: White matter

text: consists of axon tracts (groups of axons) and

text: commissures

text: (axon tracts that cross the brain's midline).

text: FES devices take advantage of this property to electrically activate nerve cells, which then may go on to activate muscles or other nerves. However, special care must be taken in designing safe FES devices, as passing electric current through tissue can lead to adverse effects such as decrease in excitability or cell death. This may be due to thermal damage, electroporation of the cell membrane, toxic products from electrochemical reactions at the electrode surface, or overexcitation of the targeted neutrons or muscles. Typically FES is concerned with stimulation of neurons and nerves. In some applications, FES can be used to directly stimulate muscles, if their peripheral nerves have been severed or damaged (i.e., denervated muscles). However, the majority of the FES systems used today stimulate the nerves or the points where the junction occurs between the nerve and the muscle. The stimulated nerve bundle includes motor nerves (efferent nerves—descending nerves from the central nervous system to muscles) and sensory nerves (afferent nerves—ascending nerves from sensory organs to the central nervous system).

text: FES devices take advantage of this property to electrically activate nerve cells, which then may go on to activate muscles or other nerves. However, special care must be taken in designing safe FES devices, as passing electric current through tissue can lead to adverse effects such as decrease in excitability or cell death. This may be due to thermal damage, electroporation of the cell membrane, toxic products from electrochemical reactions at the electrode surface, or overexcitation of the targeted neutrons or muscles. Typically FES is concerned with stimulation of neurons and

text: nerve

text: s. In some applications, FES can be used to directly stimulate

text: muscle

text: s, if their

text: peripheral nerves

text: have been severed or damaged (i.e., denervated muscles). However, the majority of the FES systems used today stimulate the nerves or the points where the junction occurs between the nerve and the muscle. The stimulated nerve bundle includes motor nerves (efferent nerves—descending nerves from the

text: central nervous system

text: to muscles) and sensory nerves (afferent nerves—ascending nerves from sensory organs to the central nervous system).

text: A goal of spinal cord injury research is to promote neuroregeneration, reconnection of damaged neural circuits.  The nerves in the spine are a tissue that requires a stem cell population to regenerate. In 2012 a Polish fireman Darek Fidyka, with paraplegia of the spinal cord, underwent a procedure, which involved extracting olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) from Fidyka's olfactory bulbs, and injecting these stem cells, in vivo, into the site of the previous injury. Fidyka eventually gained feeling, movement and sensation in his limbs, especially on the side where the stem cells were injected; he also reported gaining sexual function. Fidyka can now drive and can now walk some distance aided by a frame. He is believed to be the first person in the world to recover sensory function from a complete severing of the spinal nerves.

text: A goal of

text: spinal cord injury research

text: is to promote

text: neuroregeneration

text: , reconnection of damaged neural circuits.  The nerves in the spine are a tissue that requires a stem cell population to regenerate. In 2012 a Polish fireman

text: Darek Fidyka

text: , with

text: paraplegia

text: of the spinal cord, underwent a procedure, which involved extracting

text: olfactory ensheathing cell

text: s (OECs) from Fidyka's

text: olfactory bulb

text: s, and injecting these stem cells, in vivo, into the site of the previous injury. Fidyka eventually gained feeling, movement and sensation in his limbs, especially on the side where the stem cells were injected; he also reported gaining sexual function. Fidyka can now drive and can now walk some distance aided by a frame. He is believed to be the first person in the world to recover sensory function from a complete severing of the spinal nerves.

text: An axotomy is the cutting or otherwise severing of an axon. Derived from axo- (=axon) and -tomy (=surgery). This type of denervation is often used in experimental studies on neuronal physiology and neuronal death or survival as a method to better understand nervous system diseases.

text: An axotomy is the cutting or otherwise severing of an

text: axon

text: . Derived from axo- (=axon) and -tomy (=surgery). This type of

text: denervation

text: is often used in experimental studies on

text: neuron

text: al physiology and neuronal death or survival as a method to better understand

entity_name: ICD-10 Chapter VI: Diseases of the nervous system

text: nervous system diseases

text: Central and peripheral are terms that are closely related to concepts such as proximal and distal, but they are so widely applicable that in many respects their flexibility makes them hard to define. Loosely speaking, they distinguish near and far, inside and out, or even organs of vital importance such as heart and lungs, from peripheral organs such as fingers, that undoubtedly may be important, but which it may not be life-threatening to dispense with. Examples of the application of the terms are the distinction between central- and peripheral nervous systems, and between peripheral blood vessels and the central circulatory organs, such as the heart and major vessels. The terms also can apply to large and complex molecules such as proteins, where central amino acid residues are protected from antibodies or the like, but peripheral residues are important in docking and other interactions. Other examples include Central and peripheral circadian clocks, and central versus peripheral vision.

text: Central and peripheral are terms that are closely related to concepts such as proximal and distal, but they are so widely applicable that in many respects their flexibility makes them hard to define. Loosely speaking, they distinguish near and far, inside and out, or even organs of vital importance such as heart and lungs, from peripheral organs such as fingers, that undoubtedly may be important, but which it may not be life-threatening to dispense with. Examples of the application of the terms are the distinction between

text: central-

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: s, and between peripheral blood vessels and the central circulatory organs, such as the heart and major vessels. The terms also can apply to large and complex molecules such as proteins, where central amino acid

text: residues

text: are protected from antibodies or the like, but peripheral residues are important in docking and other interactions. Other examples include Central and peripheral circadian clocks, and central versus peripheral vision.

text: Histamine H receptors are expressed in the central nervous system and to a lesser extent the peripheral nervous system, where they act as autoreceptors in presynaptic histaminergic neurons, and also control histamine turnover by feedback inhibition of histamine synthesis and release. The H receptor has also been shown to presynaptically inhibit the release of a number of other neurotransmitters (i.e. it acts as an inhibitory heteroreceptor) including, but probably not limited to dopamine, GABA, acetylcholine, noradrenaline, histamine and serotonin.

text: Histamine H receptors are expressed in the

text: central nervous system

text: and to a lesser extent the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , where they act as

text: autoreceptor

text: s in presynaptic

text: histamine

text: rgic

text: neuron

text: s, and also control

text: histamine

text: turnover by feedback inhibition of histamine synthesis and release. The H receptor has also been shown to presynaptically inhibit the release of a number of other

text: neurotransmitters

text: (i.e. it acts as an inhibitory heteroreceptor) including, but probably not limited to

text: dopamine

text: GABA

text: acetylcholine

text: noradrenaline

text: histamine

text: and

text: serotonin

text: The nervous system can be described as a control system that interconnects the other body systems. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, and other nerve tissues throughout the body. The system's primary function is to react to internal and external stimuli in the human body. It uses electrical and chemical signals to send out responses to different parts of the body, and it is made up of the nerve cells also called neurons. Through the system, messages are transmitted to body tissues such as a muscle. There are two major subdivisions in the nervous system known as the central and peripheral nervous system.

text: The

text: nervous system

text: can be described as a control system that interconnects the other body systems. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, and other nerve tissues throughout the body. The system's primary function is to react to internal and external stimuli in the human body. It uses electrical and chemical signals to send out responses to different parts of the body, and it is made up of the nerve cells also called neurons. Through the system, messages are transmitted to body tissues such as a muscle. There are two major subdivisions in the nervous system known as the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: The brain is composed of a network of neurons that transmit signals by propagating nerve impulses. The propagation of this impulse from one neuron's synapse to another is typically controlled by neurotransmitters, though there are also electrical pathways between some neurons. Neurotransmitters can inhibit impulse firing (primarily done by γ-aminobutyric acid, or GABA) or they can excite the neuron into firing (primarily done by glutamate). A neuron that releases inhibitory neurotransmitters from its terminals is called an inhibitory neuron, while one that releases excitatory neurotransmitters is an excitatory neuron. When the normal balance between inhibition and excitation is significantly disrupted in all or part of the brain, a seizure can occur. The GABA system is an important target for anticonvulsant drugs, since seizures may be discouraged by increasing GABA synthesis, decreasing its breakdown, or enhancing its effect on neurons.

text: The brain is composed of a network of

text: neurons that transmit signals

text: by propagating

text: nerve impulse

text: s. The propagation of this impulse from one neuron's

text: synapse

text: to another is typically controlled by

text: neurotransmitter

text: s, though there are also

text: electrical pathways

text: between some neurons. Neurotransmitters can inhibit impulse firing (primarily done by

text: γ-aminobutyric acid

text: , or GABA) or they can excite the neuron into firing (primarily done by

text: glutamate

text: ). A neuron that releases inhibitory neurotransmitters from its terminals is called an inhibitory neuron, while one that releases excitatory neurotransmitters is an excitatory neuron. When the normal balance between inhibition and excitation is significantly disrupted in all or part of the brain, a seizure can occur. The GABA system is an important target for anticonvulsant drugs, since seizures may be discouraged by increasing GABA synthesis, decreasing its breakdown, or enhancing its effect on neurons.

text: Congenital stationary night blindness is an ophthalmologic disorder in horses which is present at birth (congenital), non-progressive (stationary) and affects the animal's vision in conditions of low lighting. Horses with CSNB may be hesitant to enter dimly-lit places - such as indoor arenas, dark stalls, or trailers - and be apprehensive when in such conditions, which may interfere with handling or riding. CSNB is usually diagnosed based on the owner's observations, but some horses have visibly abnormal eyes: poorly aligned eyes (dorsomedial strabismus) or involuntary eye movement (nystagmus). The condition can be confirmed using electroretinography, from which a "negative ERG" indicates CSNB. While the retina is a normal shape, the nerve signal triggered when light reaches rod cells does not reach the brain. Rod cells in the retina are connected to bipolar cells, which transmit the nerve impulse to the next set of neurons. It is thought that these cells fail to undergo the basic chemical reaction for nerve impulse transmission, which involves shuttling of calcium (Ca).

text: Congenital stationary

text: night blindness

text: is an

text: ophthalmologic disorder

text: in horses which is present at birth (congenital), non-progressive (stationary) and affects the animal's vision in conditions of low lighting. Horses with CSNB may be hesitant to enter dimly-lit places - such as indoor arenas, dark stalls, or trailers - and be apprehensive when in such conditions, which may interfere with handling or riding. CSNB is usually diagnosed based on the owner's observations, but some horses have visibly abnormal eyes: poorly aligned eyes (dorsomedial strabismus) or involuntary eye movement (nystagmus). The condition can be confirmed using

text: electroretinography

text: , from which a "negative ERG" indicates CSNB. While the retina is a normal shape, the nerve signal triggered when light reaches

text: rod cells

text: does not reach the brain. Rod cells in the retina are connected to

text: bipolar cells

text: , which transmit the nerve impulse to the next set of neurons. It is thought that these cells fail to undergo the basic chemical reaction for nerve impulse transmission, which involves shuttling of

text: calcium

text: (Ca).

text: In 1977, Synapse left Watson Theatre, leaving behind the color production studio and campus cable system. Synapse forged an association with the S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications, with which it shared its production equipment and studio facilities, and continued one of its functions as an independent production house for experimental video, allowing access to the community and to video artists, as well as producing some of its own productions.

text: In 1977, Synapse left Watson Theatre, leaving behind the color production studio and campus cable system. Synapse forged an association with the

entity_name: S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications

text: S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications

text: , with which it shared its production equipment and studio facilities, and continued one of its functions as an independent production house for experimental video, allowing access to the community and to video artists, as well as producing some of its own productions.

text: Messages that the body uses to influence thoughts, senses, movements, and survival are directed by nerve impulses transmitted across brain tissue and to the rest of the body.  Neurons are the basic functional unit of the nervous system and are highly specialized cells that are capable of sending these signals that operate high and low level functions needed for survival and quality of life.  Neurons have special electro-chemical properties that allow them to process information and then transmit that information to other cells.  Neuronal activity is dependent upon neural membrane potential and the changes that occur along and across it.  A constant voltage, known as the membrane potential, is normally maintained by certain concentrations of specific ions across neuronal membranes. Disruptions or variations in this voltage create an imbalance, or polarization, across the membrane.  Depolarization of the membrane past its threshold potential generates an action potential, which is the main source of signal transmission, known as neurotransmission of the nervous system.  An action potential results in a cascade of ion flux down and across an axonal membrane, creating an effective voltage spike train or "electrical signal" which can transmit further electrical changes in other cells.  Signals can be generated by electrical, chemical, magnetic, optical, and other forms of stimuli that influence the flow of charges, and thus voltage levels across neural membranes(He 2005).

text: Messages that the body uses to influence thoughts, senses, movements, and survival are directed by nerve impulses transmitted across brain tissue and to the rest of the body.

text: Neuron

text: s are the basic functional unit of the nervous system and are highly specialized cells that are capable of sending these signals that operate high and low level functions needed for survival and quality of life.  Neurons have special electro-chemical properties that allow them to process information and then transmit that information to other cells.  Neuronal activity is dependent upon neural membrane potential and the changes that occur along and across it.  A constant voltage, known as the

text: membrane potential

text: , is normally maintained by certain concentrations of specific ions across neuronal membranes. Disruptions or variations in this voltage create an imbalance, or polarization, across the membrane.

text: Depolarization

text: of the membrane past its

text: threshold potential

text: generates an action potential, which is the main source of signal transmission, known as

text: neurotransmission

text: of the nervous system.  An

text: action potential

text: results in a cascade of ion flux down and across an axonal membrane, creating an effective voltage spike train or "electrical signal" which can transmit further electrical changes in other cells.  Signals can be generated by electrical, chemical, magnetic, optical, and other forms of stimuli that influence the flow of charges, and thus voltage levels across neural membranes(He 2005).

text: The nerve net is the simplest form of a nervous system found in multicellular organisms. Unlike central nervous systems, where neurons are typically grouped together, neurons found in nerve nets are found spread apart. This nervous system allows cnidarians to respond to physical contact. They can detect food and other chemicals in a rudimentary way. While the nerve net allows the organism to respond to its environment, it does not serve as a means by which the organism can detect the source of the stimulus. For this reason, simple animals with nerve nets, such as Hydra, will typically produce the same motor output in response to contact with a stimulus regardless of the point of contact.

text: The nerve net is the simplest form of a nervous system found in multicellular organisms. Unlike central nervous systems, where neurons are typically grouped together, neurons found in nerve nets are found spread apart. This nervous system allows

text: cnidarian

text: s to respond to physical contact. They can detect food and other chemicals in a rudimentary way. While the nerve net allows the organism to respond to its environment, it does not serve as a means by which the organism can detect the source of the

text: stimulus

text: . For this reason, simple animals with nerve nets, such as

text: Hydra

text: , will typically produce the same motor output in response to contact with a stimulus regardless of the point of contact.

text: The parietal lobes of the brain are largely involved in attention. Lesions to this region of the brain in humans result in difficulty or inability to attend to events that are contralateral to the lesioned hemisphere. Those with lesions to the posterior parietal lobe have little to no difficulty shifting attention to and from stimuli appearing in the space ipsilateral to the lesioned hemisphere. However, they do display a slowed response in shifting their focus of current attention to events and stimuli appearing contralateral to the lesioned hemisphere.

text: The

text: parietal lobe

text: s of the brain are largely involved in

text: attention

text: Lesion

text: s to this region of the brain in humans result in difficulty or inability to attend to events that are

text: contralateral

text: to the lesioned

text: hemisphere

text: . Those with lesions to the posterior parietal lobe have little to no difficulty shifting attention to and from

text: stimuli

text: appearing in the space

text: ipsilateral

text: to the lesioned hemisphere. However, they do display a slowed response in shifting their focus of current attention to events and stimuli appearing contralateral to the lesioned hemisphere.

text: Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system.  The nervous system is divided into two sub-systems: the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system.

text: Neuroscience is the study of the

text: nervous system

text: .  The nervous system is divided into two sub-systems: the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and the central nervous system.

text: Bones may be broken around the foramen magnum, the hole in the base of the skull through which the spinal cord exits and becomes the brain stem, creating the risk that blood vessels and nerves exiting the hole may be damaged.

text: Bones may be broken around the

text: foramen magnum

text: , the hole in the base of the skull through which the

text: spinal cord

text: exits and becomes the

text: brain stem

text: , creating the risk that blood vessels and nerves exiting the hole may be damaged.

text: The nervous system is the part of an animal's body that coordinates its actions and transmits signals to and from different parts of its body. Nervous tissue first arose in wormlike organisms about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrate species it consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or axons, that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called motor or efferent nerves, while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called sensory or afferent. Most nerves serve both functions and are called mixed nerves. The PNS is divided into a) somatic and b) autonomic nervous system, and c) the enteric nervous system. Somatic nerves mediate voluntary movement. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The enteric nervous system functions to control the gastrointestinal system. Both autonomic and enteric nervous systems function involuntarily. Nerves that exit from the cranium are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.

text: The nervous system is the part of an

text: animal

text: 's body that coordinates its actions and transmits signals to and from different parts of its body.

text: Nervous tissue

text: first arose in

text: wormlike organisms

text: about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrate species it consists of two main parts, the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). The CNS contains the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . The PNS consists mainly of

text: nerve

text: s, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers or

text: axon

text: s, that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called motor or efferent nerves, while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called sensory or afferent. Most nerves serve both functions and are called mixed nerves. The PNS is divided into a) somatic and b) autonomic nervous system, and c) the enteric nervous system. Somatic nerves mediate voluntary movement. The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: is further subdivided into the

text: sympathetic

text: and the

text: parasympathetic

text: nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The

text: enteric nervous system

text: functions to control the

text: gastrointestinal

text: system. Both autonomic and enteric nervous systems function involuntarily. Nerves that exit from the cranium are called

text: cranial nerves

text: while those exiting from the spinal cord are called

text: spinal nerves

text: There are many different ways to treat sensory overload.  One way to reduce this tension is to participate in occupational therapy; however, there are many ways for people with symptoms to reduce it themselves.  Being able to identify one's own triggers of sensory overload can help reduce, eliminate, or avoid them. Most often the quickest way to ease sensory overload symptoms is to remove oneself from the situation.  Deep pressure against the skin combined with proprioceptive input that stimulates the receptors in the joints and ligaments often calms the nervous system. Reducing sensory input such as eliminating distressing sounds and lowering the lights can help. Calming, focusing music works for some. If a quick break does not relieve the problem, an extended rest is advised. People with sensory processing issues may benefit from a sensory diet of activities and accommodations designed to prevent sensory overload and retrain the brain to process sensory input more typically. It is important in situations of sensory overload to calm oneself and return to a normal level.

text: There are many different ways to treat sensory overload.  One way to reduce this tension is to participate in

text: occupational therapy

text: ; however, there are many ways for people with symptoms to reduce it themselves.  Being able to identify one's own triggers of sensory overload can help reduce, eliminate, or avoid them. Most often the quickest way to ease sensory overload symptoms is to remove oneself from the situation.  Deep pressure against the skin combined with proprioceptive input that stimulates the receptors in the joints and ligaments often calms the nervous system. Reducing sensory input such as eliminating distressing sounds and lowering the lights can help. Calming, focusing music works for some. If a quick break does not relieve the problem, an extended rest is advised. People with

text: sensory processing

text: issues may benefit from a sensory diet of activities and accommodations designed to prevent sensory overload and retrain the brain to process sensory input more typically. It is important in situations of sensory overload to calm oneself and return to a normal level.

text: Research by Melnick found that the most common way that polio was spread was by fecal contamination, usually by soiled hands, and that the poliovirus could survive for extended periods in sewage. Other viruses, such as hepatitis, were also found in sewage, leading to improved purification standards. Higher levels of the polio virus were found in sewage during the summer, at the same time of year that the outbreaks of the disease were at their most severe, which John R. Paul observed "spoke loudly in favor of the idea that polio viruses circulate widely in the population and environment only during epidemic seasons". Together with Dorothy Horstmann, Melnick published the results of a study that showed that polio could be transmitted by flies, though they were not the primary vector for the disease. He was among the first to discover that the polio virus belonged to a larger class now known as the enteroviruses — a form of virus that could enter the central nervous system under certain conditions — and was among those who discovered that polio and other enteroviruses only rarely invade the central nervous system.

text: Research by Melnick found that the most common way that polio was spread was by fecal contamination, usually by soiled hands, and that the

text: poliovirus

text: could survive for extended periods in sewage. Other viruses, such as

text: hepatitis

text: , were also found in sewage, leading to improved purification standards. Higher levels of the polio virus were found in sewage during the summer, at the same time of year that the outbreaks of the disease were at their most severe, which John R. Paul observed "spoke loudly in favor of the idea that polio viruses circulate widely in the population and environment only during epidemic seasons". Together with

text: Dorothy Horstmann

text: , Melnick published the results of a study that showed that polio could be transmitted by flies, though they were not the primary vector for the disease. He was among the first to discover that the polio virus belonged to a larger class now known as the

text: enterovirus

text: es — a form of virus that could enter the

text: central nervous system

text: under certain conditions — and was among those who discovered that polio and other enteroviruses only rarely invade the central nervous system.

text: Nerve injury is injury to nervous tissue. There is no single classification system that can describe all the many variations of nerve injury. Most systems attempt to correlate the degree of injury with symptoms, pathology and prognosis. In 1941, Seddon introduced a classification of nerve injuries based on three main types of nerve fiber injury and whether there is continuity of the nerve.

text: Nerve injury is

text: injury

text: to

text: nervous tissue

text: . There is no single classification system that can describe all the many variations of nerve injury. Most systems attempt to correlate the degree of injury with symptoms, pathology and prognosis. In 1941,

text: Seddon

text: introduced a classification of nerve injuries based on three main types of nerve fiber injury and whether there is continuity of the

text: nerve

text: -serine site. Apart from central nervous system,

text: From the point of entry, the virus is neurotropic, traveling quickly along the neural pathways into the central nervous system. The virus usually first infects muscle cells close to the site of infection, where they are able to replicate without being 'noticed' by the host's immune system. Once enough virus has been replicated, they begin to bind to acetyl choline receptors (p75NR) at the neuromuscular junction. The virus then travels through the nerve cell axon via retrograde transport, as its P protein interacts with dynein, a protein present in the cytoplasm of nerve cells. Once the virus reaches the cell body it travels rapidly to the Central Nervous System (CNS), replicating in motor neurons and eventually reaching the brain. After the brain is infected, the virus travels centrifugally to the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, eventually migrating to the salivary glands, where it is ready to be transmitted to the next host.

text: From the point of entry, the virus is

text: neurotropic

text: , traveling quickly along the neural pathways into the

text: central nervous system

text: . The virus usually first infects muscle cells close to the site of infection, where they are able to replicate without being 'noticed' by the host's immune system. Once enough virus has been replicated, they begin to bind to acetyl choline receptors (p75NR) at the neuromuscular junction. The virus then travels through the nerve cell axon via retrograde transport, as its P protein interacts with dynein, a protein present in the cytoplasm of nerve cells. Once the virus reaches the cell body it travels rapidly to the Central Nervous System (CNS), replicating in motor neurons and eventually reaching the brain. After the brain is infected, the virus travels centrifugally to the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, eventually migrating to the salivary glands, where it is ready to be transmitted to the next host.

text: The 520 million-year-old fossilized nervous system is the most complete example of its type and could help unravel how the nervous system evolved in early animals.

text: Mitral cells are neurons that are part of the olfactory system.  They are located in the olfactory bulb in the mammalian central nervous system. They receive information from the axons of olfactory receptor neurons, forming synapses in neuropils called glomeruli.  Axons of the mitral cells transfer information to a number of areas in the brain, including the piriform cortex, entorhinal cortex, and amygdala. Mitral cells receive excitatory input from olfactory sensory neurons and external tufted cells on their primary dendrites, whereas inhibitory input arises either from granule cells onto their lateral dendrites and soma or from periglomerular cells onto their dendritic tuft. Mitral cells together with tufted cells form an obligatory relay for all olfactory information entering from the olfactory nerve. Mitral cell output is not a passive reflection of their input from the olfactory nerve. In mice, each mitral cell sends a single primary dendrite into a glomerulus receiving input from a population of olfactory sensory neurons expressing identical olfactory receptor proteins, yet the odor responsiveness of the 20-40 mitral cells connected to a single glomerulus (called sister mitral cells) is not identical to the tuning curve of the input cells, and also differs between sister mitral cells. The exact type of processing that mitral cells perform with their inputs still a matter of controversy. One prominent hypothesis is the notion that mitral cells transform the strength of olfactory input into a timing code, where odor concentration is encoded in the phase of mitral cell firing relative to the sniff cycle. A second (not necessarily exclusive) hypothesis is the idea of decorrelation in the olfactory bulb network, where the olfactory bulb network acts as a dynamical system whose action over time increases some (abstract) measure of distance between representations of highly similar odorants. Support for the second hypothesis comes primarily from research in zebrafish (where mitral and tufted cells cannot be distinguished).

text: Mitral cells are

text: neuron

text: s that are part of the

text: olfactory system

text: .  They are located in the

text: olfactory bulb

text: in the

text: mammal

text: ian

text: central nervous system

text: . They receive information from the

text: axon

text: s of

text: olfactory receptor neurons

text: , forming

text: synapse

text: s in

text: neuropil

text: s called

text: glomeruli

text: Axon

text: s of the mitral cells transfer information to a number of areas in the

text: brain

text: , including the

text: piriform cortex

text: entorhinal cortex

text: , and

text: amygdala

text: . Mitral cells receive excitatory input from olfactory sensory neurons and external

text: tufted cell

text: The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is so named because it integrates information it receives from, and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish—and it contains the majority of the nervous system. Many consider the retina and the optic nerve (2nd cranial nerve), as well as the olfactory nerves (1st) and olfactory epithelium as parts of the CNS, synapsing directly on brain tissue without intermediate ganglia. Following this classification the olfactory epithelium is the only central nervous tissue in direct contact with the environment, which opens up for therapeutic treatments. The CNS is contained within the dorsal body cavity, with the brain housed in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in the spinal canal. In vertebrates, the brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae, both enclosed in the meninges.

text: The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the

text: nervous system

text: consisting of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . The central nervous system is so named because it integrates information it receives from, and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of

text: bilaterally symmetric animals

text: —that is, all multicellular animals except

text: sponge

text: s and

text: radially symmetric animals

text: such as

text: jellyfish

text: —and it contains the majority of the nervous system. Many consider the

text: retina

text: and the

text: optic nerve

text: cranial nerve

text: ), as well as the

text: olfactory nerves

text: (1st) and

text: olfactory epithelium

text: as parts of the CNS, synapsing directly on brain tissue without intermediate

text: ganglia

text: . Following this classification the

text: olfactory epithelium

text: is the only central nervous tissue in direct contact with the environment, which opens up for

text: therapeutic

text: treatments. The CNS is contained within the

text: dorsal body cavity

text: , with the

text: brain

text: housed in the

text: cranial cavity

text: and the spinal cord in the

text: spinal canal

text: . In vertebrates, the brain is protected by the

text: skull

text: , while the spinal cord is protected by the

text: vertebrae

text: , both enclosed in the

text: meninges

text: The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic division emerges from the spinal cord in the thoracic and lumbar areas, terminating around L2-3. The parasympathetic division has craniosacral “outflow”, meaning that the neurons begin at the cranial nerves (specifically the oculomotor nerve, facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve and vagus nerve) and sacral (S2-S4) spinal cord.

text: The autonomic nervous system is divided into the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: . The sympathetic division emerges from the

text: spinal cord

text: in the

text: thoracic

text: and

text: lumbar

text: areas, terminating around L2-3. The parasympathetic division has craniosacral “outflow”, meaning that the neurons begin at the

text: cranial nerve

text: s (specifically the

text: oculomotor nerve

text: facial nerve

text: glossopharyngeal nerve

text: and

text: vagus nerve

text: ) and

text: sacral

text: (S2-S4) spinal cord.

text: Nervous system disease refers to a general class of medical conditions affecting the nervous system.

text: Nervous system disease refers to a general class of

text: medical condition

text: s affecting the

text: nervous system

text: A nerve net consists of interconnected neurons lacking a brain or any form of cephalization.  While organisms with bilateral body symmetry are normally associated with a central nervous system, organisms with radial symmetry are associated with nerve nets. Nerve nets can be found in members of the Cnidaria, Ctenophora, and Echinodermata phyla, all of which are found in marine environments. Nerve nets can provide animals with the ability to sense objects through the use of the sensory neurons within the nerve net.

text: A nerve net consists of interconnected

text: neuron

text: s lacking a

text: brain

text: or any form of

text: cephalization

text: .  While organisms with

text: bilateral body symmetry

text: are normally associated with a

text: central nervous system

text: , organisms with

text: radial symmetry

text: are associated with nerve nets. Nerve nets can be found in members of the

text: Cnidaria

text: Ctenophora

text: , and

text: Echinodermata

text: phyla

text: , all of which are found in

text: marine

text: environments. Nerve nets can provide animals with the ability to sense objects through the use of the sensory neurons within the nerve net.

text: In Central and South America, the most common incidence of chronic megacolon is that observed in about 20% of patients affected with Chagas disease. Chagas is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, a flagellate protozoan transmitted by the feces of a hematophagous insect, the assassin bug, when it feeds. Chagas can also be acquired congenitally, through blood transfusion or organ transplant, and rarely through contaminated food (for example garapa). There are several theories on how megacolon (and also megaesophagus) develops in Chagas disease. The  Austrian-Brazilian physician and pathologist Fritz Köberle was the first to propose the neurogenic hypothesis based on the documented destruction of the Auerbach's plexus in the walls of the intestinal tracts of Chagas patients. In this, the destruction of the autonomic nervous system innervation of the colon leads to a loss of the normal smooth muscle tone of the wall and subsequent gradual dilation. His research proved that, by extensively quantifying the number of neurons of the autonomic nervous system in the Auerbach's plexus, that:

text: In

text: Central

text: and

text: South America

text: , the most common incidence of chronic megacolon is that observed in about 20% of patients affected with

text: Chagas disease

text: . Chagas is caused by

text: Trypanosoma cruzi

text: , a flagellate

text: protozoan

text: transmitted by the feces of a

text: hematophagous

text: insect

text: , the

text: assassin bug

text: , when it feeds. Chagas can also be acquired congenitally, through

text: blood transfusion

text: or organ transplant, and rarely through contaminated food (for example

text: garapa

text: ). There are several theories on how megacolon (and also

text: megaesophagus

text: ) develops in Chagas disease. The

text: Austrian

text: Brazilian

text: physician

text: and

text: pathologist

text: Fritz Köberle

text: was the first to propose the neurogenic hypothesis based on the documented destruction of the Auerbach's plexus in the walls of the intestinal tracts of Chagas patients. In this, the destruction of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: innervation of the colon leads to a loss of the normal

text: smooth muscle

text: tone of the wall and subsequent gradual dilation. His research proved that, by extensively quantifying the number of neurons of the autonomic nervous system in the Auerbach's plexus, that:

text: Chemoreception is important for the detection of food, habitat, conspecifics including mates, and predators. For example, the emissions of a predator's food source, such as odors or pheromones, may be in the air or on a surface where the food source has been. Cells in the head, usually the air passages or mouth, have chemical receptors on their surface that change when in contact with the emissions.  It passes in either chemical or electrochemical form to the central processor, the brain or spinal cord. The resulting output from the CNS (central nervous system) makes body actions that will engage the food and enhance survival.

text: Chemoreception is important for the detection of food, habitat, conspecifics including mates, and predators. For example, the emissions of a predator's food source, such as

text: odor

text: s or

text: pheromone

text: s, may be in the air or on a surface where the food source has been. Cells in the head, usually the air passages or mouth, have chemical receptors on their surface that change when in contact with the emissions.  It passes in either chemical or electrochemical form to the central processor, the

text: brain

text: or

text: spinal cord

text: . The resulting output from the CNS (

text: central nervous system

text: ) makes body actions that will engage the food and enhance survival.

text: A landmark development came from Camillo Golgi who invented a silver staining technique in 1873 which he called la reazione nera (black reaction), but more popularly known as Golgi stain or Golgi method, in his honour. Using this technique nerve cells with their highly branched dendrites and axon could be clearly visualised against a yellow background. Unfortunately Golgi described the nervous system as a continuous single network, in support of a notion called reticular theory. It was reasonable at the time because under light microscope the nerve cells are merely a mesh of single thread. Santiago Ramón y Cajal started investigating nervous system in 1887 using Golgi stain. In the first issue of the Revista Trimestral de Histología Normal y Patológica (May, 1888) Cajal reported that the nerve cells were not continuous in the brain of birds. Cajal's discovery was the decisive evidence for the discontinuity of nervous system and the presence of large number of individual nerve cells. Golgi and Cajal were jointly awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, that resulted in a lasting conflicting ideas and controversies between the two scientists. The matter was finally resolved in 1950s with the development of electron microscopy by which it was unambiguously demonstrated that nerve cells were individual cells interconnected through synapses to form a nervous system, thereby validating the neuron theory.

text: A landmark development came from Camillo Golgi who invented a

text: silver staining

text: technique in 1873 which he called la reazione nera (

text: black reaction

text: ), but more popularly known as Golgi stain or Golgi method, in his honour. Using this technique nerve cells with their highly branched dendrites and axon could be clearly visualised against a yellow background. Unfortunately Golgi described the nervous system as a continuous single network, in support of a notion called

text: reticular theory

text: . It was reasonable at the time because under light microscope the nerve cells are merely a mesh of single thread. Santiago Ramón y Cajal started investigating nervous system in 1887 using Golgi stain. In the first issue of the Revista Trimestral de Histología Normal y Patológica (May, 1888) Cajal reported that the nerve cells were not continuous in the brain of birds. Cajal's discovery was the decisive evidence for the discontinuity of nervous system and the presence of large number of individual nerve cells. Golgi and Cajal were jointly awarded the 1906

text: Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine

text: , that resulted in a lasting conflicting ideas and

text: controversies

text: between the two scientists. The matter was finally resolved in 1950s with the development of electron microscopy by which it was unambiguously demonstrated that nerve cells were individual cells interconnected through

text: synapses

text: to form a nervous system, thereby validating the neuron theory.

text: The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter as compared to the length of the vertebral column. The human spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum and continues through to the conus medullaris near the second lumbar vertebra, terminating in a fibrous extension known as the filum terminale.

text: The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter as compared to the length of the vertebral column. The human spinal cord extends from the

text: foramen magnum

text: and continues through to the

text: conus medullaris

text: near the second

text: lumbar vertebra

text: , terminating in a fibrous extension known as the

text: filum terminale

text: Peripheral expression of cannabinoid receptors led researchers to investigate the role of cannabinoids in the autonomic nervous system. Research found that the CB receptor is expressed presynaptically by motor neurons that innervate visceral organs. Cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of electric potentials results in a reduction in noradrenaline release from sympathetic nervous system nerves. Other studies have found similar effects in endocannabinoid regulation of intestinal motility, including the innervation of smooth muscles associated with the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.

text: Peripheral expression of cannabinoid receptors led researchers to investigate the role of cannabinoids in the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . Research found that the CB receptor is expressed presynaptically by motor neurons that innervate visceral organs. Cannabinoid-mediated inhibition of electric potentials results in a reduction in noradrenaline release from

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: nerves. Other studies have found similar effects in endocannabinoid regulation of intestinal motility, including the innervation of smooth muscles associated with the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.

text: The cognitive dysfunction involves impairments of nervous systems managing intellectual functions such as thinking, reasoning, planning, and remembering. Communicational dysfunction involves impairments of nervous systems handling communication abilities such as speech, language, and auditory processing.

text: The DWNB consists of the Dean-Woodcock Sensory-Motor Battery (DWSMB) (Dean & Woodcock, 2003c), the Dean-Woodcock Structured Neuropsychological Interview (Dean & Woodcock, 2003d), and the Dean-Woodcock Emotional Status Examination (Dean & Woodcock, 2003a). When the DWNAS is used with the Woodcock Johnson III (WJ III) (Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001), or the Bateria III Woodcock-Muñoz (Bateria III) (Muñoz-Sandoval, Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2004), a profile of an individual’s sensory, motor, emotional, cognitive, and academic functioning is obtained.

text: The DWNB consists of the

text: Dean-Woodcock Sensory-Motor Battery

text: (DWSMB) (Dean & Woodcock, 2003c), the

text: Dean-Woodcock Structured Neuropsychological Interview

text: (Dean & Woodcock, 2003d), and the

text: Dean-Woodcock Emotional Status Examination

text: (Dean & Woodcock, 2003a). When the DWNAS is used with the

text: Woodcock Johnson III

text: (WJ III) (Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2001), or the

text: Bateria III Woodcock-Muñoz

text: (Bateria III) (Muñoz-Sandoval, Woodcock, McGrew, & Mather, 2004), a profile of an individual’s sensory, motor, emotional, cognitive, and academic functioning is obtained.

text: Enterochromaffin (EC) cells (also known as Kulchitsky cells), discovered by Nikolai Kulchitsky of Karazin Kharkiv National University. They are a type of enteroendocrine and neuroendocrine cell.  They reside alongside epithelium lining the lumen of the digestive tract and play a crucial role in gastrointestinal regulation, particularly intestinal motility and secretion. EC cells modulate neuron signalling in the enteric nervous system (ENS) via the secretion of the neurotransmitter serotonin and other peptides. As enteric afferent and efferent nerves do not protrude into the intestinal lumen EC cells act as a form of sensory transduction. Serotonin in the ENS acts in synergy with other digestive hormones to regulate sensory and motor gastrointestinal reflexes. EC cells respond to both chemical and neurological stimuli. They are also reactive to mechanosensation and can be stimulated by a bolus moving through the bowel. Upon activation, EC cells release serotonin to act upon serotonin receptors on ENS neurons. Dependent on concentration, serotonin can then modulate peristaltic contraction and secretion through activation of smooth muscle and glands respectively.

text: Enterochromaffin (EC) cells (also known as Kulchitsky cells), discovered by Nikolai Kulchitsky of

text: Karazin Kharkiv National University

text: . They are a type of

text: enteroendocrine

text: and

text: neuroendocrine cell

text: .  They reside alongside

text: epithelium

text: lining the lumen of the digestive tract and play a crucial role in gastrointestinal regulation, particularly intestinal motility and secretion. EC cells modulate

text: neuron

text: signalling in the

text: enteric nervous system

text: (ENS) via the secretion of the neurotransmitter

text: serotonin

text: and other peptides. As enteric afferent and efferent nerves do not protrude into the intestinal lumen EC cells act as a form of sensory transduction.

text: Serotonin

text: in the ENS acts in synergy with other digestive hormones to regulate sensory and motor gastrointestinal reflexes. EC cells respond to both chemical and neurological stimuli. They are also reactive to mechanosensation and can be stimulated by a bolus moving through the bowel. Upon activation, EC cells release

text: serotonin

text: to act upon serotonin receptors on ENS neurons. Dependent on concentration,

text: serotonin

text: can then modulate peristaltic contraction and secretion through activation of

text: smooth muscle

text: and glands respectively.

text: Baxter translated Rindfleisch's Pathological Histology for the New Sydenham Society; prepared the fourth edition of Garrod's Essentials of Materia Medica; and made some valuable experiments on "The Action of the Chinchona Alkaloids and their Congeners on Bacteria and Colourless Blood Corpuscles" described in the Practitioner (1873). He also drew up an able "Report on the Experimental Study of certain Disinfectants" printed in the Privy Council Reports (1875); and contributed a remarkable article to the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review in 1877 on the vaso-motor nervous system. His minor writings include a series of physiological notes which he contributed to the Academy for many years.

text: Baxter translated Rindfleisch's Pathological Histology for the New Sydenham Society; prepared the fourth edition of Garrod's Essentials of Materia Medica; and made some valuable experiments on "The Action of the Chinchona Alkaloids and their Congeners on Bacteria and Colourless Blood Corpuscles" described in the Practitioner (1873). He also drew up an able "Report on the Experimental Study of certain Disinfectants" printed in the Privy Council Reports (1875); and contributed a remarkable article to the British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review in 1877 on the

text: vaso-motor nervous system

text: . His minor writings include a series of physiological notes which he contributed to the Academy for many years.

text: The most considered method would be to induce the sensations that made up the virtual reality in the nervous system directly. In functionalism/conventional biology we interact with consensus reality through the nervous system. Thus we receive all input from all the senses as nerve impulses.It gives your neurons a feeling of heightened sensation. It would involve the user receiving inputs as artificially stimulated nerve impulses, the system would receive the CNS outputs (natural nerve impulses) and process them allowing the user to interact with the virtual reality. Natural impulses between the body and central nervous system would need to be prevented. This could be done by blocking out natural impulses using nanorobots which attach themselves to the brain wiring, whilst receiving the digital impulses of which describe the virtual world, which could then be sent into the wiring of the brain. A feedback system between the user and the computer which stores the information would also be needed. Considering how much information would be required for such a system, it is likely that it would be based on hypothetical forms of computer technology.

text: The most considered method would be to induce the sensations that made up the

text: virtual reality

text: in the

text: nervous system

text: directly. In

text: functionalism

text: /conventional

text: biology

text: we interact with

text: consensus reality

text: through the

text: nervous system

text: . Thus we receive all input from all the senses as nerve impulses.It gives your neurons a feeling of heightened sensation. It would involve the user receiving inputs as artificially stimulated

text: nerve

text: impulses, the system would receive the CNS outputs (natural nerve impulses) and process them allowing the user to interact with the

text: virtual reality

text: . Natural impulses between the body and

text: central nervous system

text: would need to be prevented. This could be done by blocking out natural impulses using nanorobots which attach themselves to the brain wiring, whilst receiving the digital impulses of which describe the virtual world, which could then be sent into the wiring of the brain. A

text: feedback

text: system between the user and the computer which stores the information would also be needed. Considering how much information would be required for such a system, it is likely that it would be based on hypothetical forms of computer technology.

text: A large number of neurological disorders have been described as listed. These can affect the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system and the muscular system.

text: A large number of neurological disorders have been described as

entity_name: List of neurological conditions and disorders

text: listed

text: . These can affect the central nervous system (

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: ), the peripheral nervous system, the autonomic nervous system and the

text: muscular system

text: As neurotoxins are compounds which adversely affect the nervous system, a number of mechanisms through which they function are through the inhibition of neuron cellular processes. These inhibited processes can range from membrane depolarization mechanisms to inter-neuron communication. By inhibiting the ability for neurons to perform their expected intracellular functions, or pass a signal to a neighboring cell, neurotoxins can induce systemic nervous system arrest as in the case of botulinum toxin, or even nervous tissue death. The time required for the onset of symptoms upon neurotoxin exposure can vary between different toxins, being on the order of hours for botulinum toxin and years for lead.

text: As neurotoxins are compounds which adversely affect the nervous system, a number of mechanisms through which they function are through the inhibition of neuron cellular processes. These inhibited processes can range from membrane depolarization mechanisms to

text: inter-neuron communication

text: . By inhibiting the ability for neurons to perform their expected intracellular functions, or pass a signal to a neighboring cell, neurotoxins can induce systemic nervous system arrest as in the case of

text: botulinum toxin

text: , or even nervous tissue death. The time required for the onset of symptoms upon neurotoxin exposure can vary between different toxins, being on the order of hours for botulinum toxin and years for lead.

text: Pleiotrophin was initially recognized as a neurite outgrowth-promoting factor present in rat brain around birth and as a mitogen toward fibroblasts isolated from bovine uterus tissue. Together with midkine these growth-factors constitute a family of (developmentally regulated) secreted heparin-binding proteins now known as the neurite growth-promoting factor (NEGF) family.  During embryonic and early postnatal development, pleiotrophin is expressed in the central and peripheral nervous system and also in several non-neural tissues, notably lung, kidney, gut and bone.  Pleiotrophin is also expressed by several tumor cells and is thought to be involved in tumor angiogenesis. In the adult central nervous system, pleiotrophin is expressed in an activity-dependent manner in the hippocampus where it can suppress long term potentiation induction. Pleiotrophin expression is low in other areas of the adult brain, but it can be induced by ischemic insults. or targeted neuronal damaged in the entorhinal cortex or in the substantia nigra pars compacta.

text: Pleiotrophin was initially recognized as a neurite outgrowth-promoting factor present in rat brain around birth and as a mitogen toward fibroblasts isolated from bovine uterus tissue. Together with

text: midkine

text: these growth-factors constitute a family of (developmentally regulated) secreted heparin-binding proteins now known as the neurite growth-promoting factor (NEGF) family.  During

text: embryonic

text: and early postnatal development, pleiotrophin is expressed in the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral

text: nervous system

text: and also in several non-neural

text: tissues

text: , notably

text: lung

text: kidney

text: gut

text: and

text: bone

text: .  Pleiotrophin is also expressed by several

text: tumor

text: cells and is thought to be involved in tumor

text: angiogenesis

text: . In the adult

text: central nervous system

text: , pleiotrophin is expressed in an activity-dependent manner in the

text: hippocampus

text: where it can suppress

text: long term potentiation

text: induction. Pleiotrophin expression is low in other areas of the adult

text: brain

text: , but it can be induced by

text: ischemic

text: insults. or targeted neuronal damaged in the

text: entorhinal cortex

text: or in the

text: substantia nigra pars compacta

text: In sensory transduction, the afferent nerves transmit through a series of synapses in the central nervous system, first in the spinal cord or trigeminal nucleus, depending on the dermatomic area concerned. One pathway then proceeds to the ventrobasal portion of the thalamus, and then on to the somatosensory cortex.

text: In

text: sensory transduction

text: , the

text: afferent nerve

text: s transmit through a series of

text: synapse

text: s in the

text: central nervous system

text: , first in the

text: spinal cord

text: or

text: trigeminal nucleus

text: , depending on the

text: dermatomic area

text: concerned. One pathway then proceeds to the ventrobasal portion of the

text: thalamus

text: , and then on to the

text: somatosensory cortex

text: The musculature of the short-beaked echidna has a number of unusual aspects. The panniculus carnosus, an enormous muscle just beneath the skin, covers the entire body. By contraction of various parts of the panniculus carnosus, the short-beaked echidna can change shape, the most characteristic shape change being achieved by rolling itself into a ball when threatened, so protecting its belly and presenting a defensive array of sharp spines. It has one of the shortest spinal cords of any mammal, extending only as far as the thorax. Whereas the human spinal cord ends at the first or second lumbar vertebra, for the echidna it occurs at the seventh thoracic vertebra. The shorter spinal cord is thought to allow flexibility to enable wrapping into a ball.

text: The

text: musculature

text: of the short-beaked echidna has a number of unusual aspects. The

text: panniculus carnosus

text: , an enormous muscle just beneath the skin, covers the entire body. By contraction of various parts of the panniculus carnosus, the short-beaked echidna can change shape, the most characteristic shape change being achieved by rolling itself into a ball when threatened, so protecting its belly and presenting a defensive array of sharp spines. It has one of the shortest

text: spinal cord

text: s of any mammal, extending only as far as the

text: thorax

text: . Whereas the human spinal cord ends at the first or second lumbar vertebra, for the echidna it occurs at the seventh thoracic vertebra. The shorter spinal cord is thought to allow flexibility to enable wrapping into a ball.

text: The nervous system comprises networks made up of neurons and synapses connected to and controlling tissues as well as impacting human thoughts and behavior. In modeling neural networks of the nervous system one has to consider many factors. The brain and the neural network should be considered as an integrated and self-contained firmware system that includes hardware (organs), software (programs), memory (short term and long term), database (centralized and distributed), and a complex network of active elements (such as neurons, synapses, and tissues) and passive elements (such as parts of visual and auditory system) that carry information within and in-and-out of the body.

text: The nerve dysfunction in Guillain–Barré syndrome is caused by an immune attack on the nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system and their support structures. The nerve cells have their body (the soma) in the spinal cord and a long projection (the axon) that carries electrical nerve impulses to the neuromuscular junction where the impulse is transferred to the muscle. Axons are wrapped in a sheath of Schwann cells that contain myelin. Between Schwann cells are gaps (nodes of Ranvier) where the axon is exposed. Different types of Guillain–Barré syndrome feature different types of immune attack. The demyelinating variant (AIDP, see below) features damage to the myelin sheath by white blood cells (T lymphocytes and macrophages); this process is preceded by activation of a group of blood proteins known as complement. In contrast, the axonal variant is mediated by IgG antibodies and complement against the cell membrane covering the axon without direct lymphocyte involvement.

text: The nerve dysfunction in Guillain–Barré syndrome is caused by an immune attack on the nerve cells of the peripheral nervous system and their support structures. The nerve cells have their body (the soma) in the

text: spinal cord

text: and a long projection (the

text: axon

text: ) that carries

text: electrical nerve impulses

text: to the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: where the impulse is transferred to the muscle. Axons are wrapped in a sheath of

text: Schwann cell

text: s that contain

text: myelin

text: . Between Schwann cells are gaps (

text: nodes of Ranvier

text: ) where the axon is exposed. Different types of Guillain–Barré syndrome feature different types of immune attack. The demyelinating variant (AIDP, see below) features damage to the myelin sheath by

text: white blood cell

text: s (

text: T lymphocytes

text: and

text: macrophage

text: s); this process is preceded by activation of a group of blood proteins known as

text: complement

text: . In contrast, the axonal variant is mediated by

text: IgG antibodies

text: and complement against the

text: cell membrane covering the axon

text: without direct lymphocyte involvement.

text: At the systems level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory. In other words, they address how these neural circuits function and the mechanisms through which behaviors are generated. For example, systems level analysis addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does vision work? How do songbirds learn new songs and bats localize with ultrasound? How does the somatosensory system process tactile information? The related fields of neuroethology and neuropsychology address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and human behaviors. Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine and immune systems, respectively. Despite many advancements, the way networks of neurons produce complex cognitions and behaviors is still poorly understood.

text: At the systems level, the questions addressed in

text: systems neuroscience

text: include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as

text: reflex

text: es,

text: multisensory integration

text: motor coordination

text: circadian rhythm

text: s,

text: emotional responses

text: learning

text: , and

text: memory

text: . In other words, they address how these neural circuits function and the mechanisms through which behaviors are generated. For example, systems level analysis addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does

text: vision

text: work? How do

text: songbirds

text: learn new songs and

text: bat

text: s localize with

text: ultrasound

text: ? How does the

text: somatosensory system

text: process tactile information? The related fields of

text: neuroethology

text: and

text: neuropsychology

text: address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific

text: animal

text: and

text: human

text: behaviors.

text: Neuroendocrinology

text: and

text: psychoneuroimmunology

text: examine interactions between the nervous system and the

text: endocrine

text: and

text: immune

text: systems, respectively. Despite many advancements, the way

text: networks of neurons

text: produce complex

text: cognition

text: s and behaviors is still poorly understood.

text: The myenteric plexus functions as a part of the enteric nervous system (digestive system). The enteric nervous system can and does function autonomously, but normal digestive function requires communication links between this intrinsic system and the central nervous system. The ENS contains sensory receptors, primary afferent neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. The events that are controlled, at least in part, by the ENS are multiple and include motor activity, secretion, absorption, blood flow, and interaction with other organs such as the gallbladder or pancreas. These links take the form of parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers that connect either the central and enteric nervous systems or connect the central nervous system directly with the digestive tract. Through these cross connections, the gut can provide sensory information to the CNS, and the CNS can affect gastrointestinal function. Connection to the central nervous system also means that signals from outside of the digestive system can be relayed to the digestive system: for instance, the sight of appealing food stimulates secretion in the stomach.

text: The somatosensory system is spread through all major parts of a mammal's body (and other vertebrates).  It consists both of sensory receptors and sensory (afferent) neurons in the periphery (skin, muscle and organs for example), to deeper neurons within the central nervous system.

text: The somatosensory system is spread through all major parts of a

text: mammal

text: 's body (and other

text: vertebrates

text: ).  It consists both of

text: sensory receptors

text: and sensory (

text: afferent

text: neuron

text: s in the periphery (skin, muscle and organs for example), to deeper neurons within the

text: central nervous system

text: Prochaska described the "sensorium commune" as the core mechanism of the reflex. It involved the spinal cord, medulla oblongata and the basal ganglia, and had the abililty to reflect sensory impressions into the motor nervous system by definite laws unique to itself, and also independent of consciousness. Prochaska demonstrated that reflex worked without a brain, but could not work without a spinal cord, and summarized that voluntary behavior was a brain function, while reflex was spinal-based.

text: Prochaska described the "sensorium commune" as the core mechanism of the reflex. It involved the

text: spinal cord

text: medulla oblongata

text: and the

text: basal ganglia

text: , and had the abililty to reflect sensory impressions into the motor nervous system by definite laws unique to itself, and also independent of

text: consciousness

text: . Prochaska demonstrated that reflex worked without a

text: brain

text: , but could not work without a spinal cord, and summarized that voluntary behavior was a brain function, while reflex was spinal-based.

text: 3β-Methoxypregnenolone (developmental code name MAP-4343), or pregnenolone 3β-methyl ether, also known as 3β-methoxypregn-5-en-20-one, is a synthetic neuroactive steroid and derivative of pregnenolone. It interacts with microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) in a similar manner to pregnenolone and is under development for potential clinical use for indications such as the treatment of brain and spinal cord injury and depressive disorders.

text: 3β-Methoxypregnenolone (developmental code name MAP-4343), or pregnenolone 3β-methyl ether, also known as 3β-methoxypregn-5-en-20-one, is a

text: synthetic

text: neuroactive steroid

text: and

text: derivative

text: of

text: pregnenolone

text: . It interacts with

text: microtubule-associated protein 2

text: (MAP2) in a similar manner to pregnenolone and is under development for potential clinical use for indications such as the treatment of

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord injury

text: and

text: depressive disorder

text: s.

text: In order to minimise the confounding influence of external factors, patients undergoing infrared thermographic testing must conform to special restrictions regarding the use of certain vasoconstrictors (namely, nicotine and caffeine), skin lotions, physical therapy, and other diagnostic procedures in the days prior to testing. Patients may also be required to discontinue certain pain medications and sympathetic blockers. After a patient arrives at a thermographic laboratory, he or she is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in a 16–20 °C, draft-free, steady-state room wearing a loose fitting cotton hospital gown for approximately twenty minutes. A technician then takes infrared images of both the patient's affected and unaffected limbs, as well as reference images of other parts of the patient's body, including his or her face, upper back, and lower back. After capturing a set of baseline images, some labs further require the patient to undergo cold-water autonomic-functional-stress-testing to evaluate the function of his or her autonomic nervous system's peripheral vasoconstrictor reflex. This is performed by placing a patient's unaffected limb in a cold water bath (approximately 20 °C) for five minutes while collecting images. In a normal, intact, functioning autonomic nervous system, a patient's affected extremity will become colder. Conversely, warming of an affected extremity may indicate a disruption of the body's normal thermoregulatory vasoconstrictor function, which may sometimes indicate underlying CRPS.

text: In order to minimise the confounding influence of external factors, patients undergoing infrared thermographic testing must conform to special restrictions regarding the use of certain

text: vasoconstrictors

text: (namely,

text: nicotine

text: and

text: caffeine

text: ), skin lotions, physical therapy, and other diagnostic procedures in the days prior to testing. Patients may also be required to discontinue certain pain medications and sympathetic blockers. After a patient arrives at a thermographic laboratory, he or she is allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in a 16–20 °C, draft-free, steady-state room wearing a loose fitting cotton hospital gown for approximately twenty minutes. A technician then takes infrared images of both the patient's affected and unaffected limbs, as well as reference images of other parts of the patient's body, including his or her face, upper back, and lower back. After capturing a set of baseline images, some labs further require the patient to undergo cold-water autonomic-functional-stress-testing to evaluate the function of his or her

text: autonomic nervous system

text: 's peripheral vasoconstrictor reflex. This is performed by placing a patient's unaffected limb in a cold water bath (approximately 20 °C) for five minutes while collecting images. In a normal, intact, functioning autonomic nervous system, a patient's affected extremity will become colder. Conversely, warming of an affected extremity may indicate a disruption of the body's normal thermoregulatory vasoconstrictor function, which may sometimes indicate underlying CRPS.

text: In the human nervous system the temporopontine fibers, a component of the corticopontine tract are lateral to the cerebrospinal fibers; they originate in the temporal lobe and end in the nuclei pontis.

text: In the human nervous system the temporopontine fibers, a component of the

text: corticopontine tract

text: are lateral to the

text: cerebrospinal fibers

text: ; they originate in the

text: temporal lobe

text: and end in the

text: nuclei pontis

text: Murray Barr published two books, The Human Nervous System and A Century of Medicine at Western. "The Human Nervous System" was used as the primary neuroanatomy textbook by medical students for several years.

text: There are several types of glutamatergic ion channels in the central nervous system including AMPA, kainic acid and N-methyl--aspartic acid (NMDA) channels. In the synapse, these receptors serve very different purposes. AMPA can be used experimentally to distinguish the activity of one receptor from the other in order to understand their differing functions. AMPA generates fast excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP). AMPA activates AMPA receptors that are non-selective cationic channels allowing the passage of Na and K and therefore have an equilibrium potential near 0 mV.

text: There are several types of glutamatergic ion channels in the central nervous system including AMPA,

text: kainic acid

text: and

text: N-methyl--aspartic acid

text: (NMDA) channels. In the

text: synapse

text: , these receptors serve very different purposes. AMPA can be used experimentally to distinguish the activity of one receptor from the other in order to understand their differing functions. AMPA generates fast

text: excitatory postsynaptic potential

text: s (EPSP). AMPA activates AMPA receptors that are non-selective cationic channels allowing the passage of Na and K and therefore have an

text: equilibrium potential

text: near 0 mV.

text: Neuromodulation aims to treat disease or injury by employing medical device technologies that would enhance or suppress activity of the nervous system with the delivery of pharmaceutical agents, electrical signals, or other forms of energy stimulus to re-establish balance in impaired regions of the brain.  Researchers in this field face the challenge of linking advances in understanding neural signals to advancements in technologies delivering and analyzing these signals with increased sensitivity, biocompatibility, and viability in closed loops schemes in the brain such that new treatments and clinical applications can be created to treat those suffering from neural damage of various kinds (Potter 2012). Neuromodulator devices can correct nervous system dysfunction related to Parkinson's disease, dystonia, tremor, Tourette's, chronic pain, OCD, severe depression, and eventually epilepsy (Potter 2012). Neuromodulation is appealing as treatment for varying defects because it focuses in on treating highly specific regions of the brain only, contrasting that of systemic treatments that can have side effects on the body.  Neuromodulator stimulators such as microelectrode arrays can stimulate and record brain function and with further improvements are meant to become adjustable and responsive delivery devices for drugs and other stimuli (2012a).

text: Neuromodulation

text: aims to treat disease or injury by employing medical device technologies that would enhance or suppress activity of the nervous system with the delivery of pharmaceutical agents, electrical signals, or other forms of energy stimulus to re-establish balance in impaired regions of the brain.  Researchers in this field face the challenge of linking advances in understanding neural signals to advancements in technologies delivering and analyzing these signals with increased sensitivity, biocompatibility, and viability in closed loops schemes in the brain such that new treatments and clinical applications can be created to treat those suffering from neural damage of various kinds (Potter 2012). Neuromodulator devices can correct nervous system dysfunction related to Parkinson's disease, dystonia, tremor, Tourette's, chronic pain, OCD, severe depression, and eventually epilepsy (Potter 2012). Neuromodulation is appealing as treatment for varying defects because it focuses in on treating highly specific regions of the brain only, contrasting that of systemic treatments that can have side effects on the body.  Neuromodulator stimulators such as microelectrode arrays can stimulate and record brain function and with further improvements are meant to become adjustable and responsive delivery devices for drugs and other stimuli (2012a).

text: The complexity of the central nervous system makes the formation of the right connections between brain and spinal cord cells very difficult. It is a huge challenge for scientists to recreate the central nervous system as it existed before the injury. Cells called neurons connect with one another to send and receive messages into the brain and spinal cord. Many neurons working together are responsible for every decision made, every emotion or sensation felt, and every action taken. As many as 10,000 different subtypes of neurons have been identified, each specialized to send and receive certain types of information.

text: The central nervous system functions to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others and to receive feedback. Malfunction of the nervous system can occur as a result of genetic defects, physical damage due to trauma or toxicity, infection or simply of ageing. The medical specialty of neurology studies disorders of the nervous system and looks for interventions that can prevent or treat them.  In the peripheral nervous system, the most common problem is the failure of nerve conduction, which can be due to different causes including diabetic neuropathy and demyelinating disorders such as multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

text: The central nervous system functions to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others and to receive feedback. Malfunction of the nervous system can occur as a result of genetic defects, physical damage due to trauma or toxicity, infection or simply of ageing. The medical specialty of

text: neurology

text: studies disorders of the nervous system and looks for interventions that can prevent or treat them.  In the peripheral nervous system, the most common problem is the failure of nerve conduction, which can be due to different causes including

text: diabetic neuropathy

text: and demyelinating disorders such as

text: multiple sclerosis

text: and

text: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

text: NYCC’s Research Center is located in the Academic II Building, where the College currently operates four designated research laboratories: the Pathophysiology/Biochemistry Laboratory, the Motor Systems Physiology (Biodynamics) Laboratory, the Autonomic Nervous System Physiology (Biodynamics) Laboratory, and the Foot Levelers Biomechanics Research Laboratory. These laboratories are equipped with state-of-the-art instrumentation to extend our knowledge in such areas as the physiology of spinal manipulation, etiology and pathogenesis of musculoskeletal pain disorders, and the effects of chiropractic treatments on gait, posture, and human performance. In addition, they offer a unique opportunity for students to integrate cutting-edge research into their clinical education. Also in this building is the interactive video-teleconferencing center, where advanced technology gives the College the capability to extend its classroom instruction electronically to and from the chiropractic health centers and the main campus.

text: The locus coeruleus (LC) and the paraventricular nucleus in afflicted cats have been found to possess higher levels of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity, suggesting that these brain sites may be areas of high catecholamine synthesis. Consistent with this, elevated levels of catecholamines have been  found in afflicted cats both at rest and during high stress situations as well. 	Desensitization of α2-adrenoceptors found in the LC, spinal cord, and bladder mucosa have been found in felines with FIC.  α2-adrenoceptors normally regulate the flow of blood to the bladder and inhibit catecholamine release and pain perception to the brain. Chronic stimulation yields desensitized receptors and may lead to potent inflammatory responses in FIC felines.  	Felines with FIC also have abnormalities in corticotropin stimulation and larger adrenal medullary areas, suggesting that they are susceptible to over stimulation to the sympathetic nervous system.

text: The

text: locus coeruleus

text: (LC) and the

text: paraventricular nucleus

text: in afflicted cats have been found to possess higher levels of

text: tyrosine hydroxylase

text: immunoreactivity, suggesting that these brain sites may be areas of high

text: catecholamine

text: synthesis. Consistent with this, elevated levels of catecholamines have been  found in afflicted cats both at rest and during high stress situations as well. 	Desensitization of α2-adrenoceptors found in the LC, spinal cord, and bladder mucosa have been found in felines with FIC.  α2-adrenoceptors normally regulate the flow of blood to the bladder and inhibit catecholamine release and pain perception to the brain. Chronic stimulation yields desensitized receptors and may lead to potent inflammatory responses in FIC felines.  	Felines with FIC also have abnormalities in

text: corticotropin

text: stimulation and larger adrenal medullary areas, suggesting that they are susceptible to over stimulation to the sympathetic nervous system.

text: The Rexed laminae comprise a system of ten layers of grey matter (I-X), identified in the early 1950s by Bror Rexed to label portions of the grey columns of the spinal cord.

text: The Rexed laminae comprise a system of ten layers of

text: grey matter

text: (I-X), identified in the early 1950s by

text: Bror Rexed

text: to label portions of the

text: grey column

text: s of the

text: spinal cord

text: In the most primitive vertebrates, the hagfishes and lampreys, the cerebrum is a relatively simple structure receiving nerve impulses from the olfactory bulb. In cartilaginous and lobe-finned fishes and also in amphibians, a more complex structure is present, with the cerebrum being divided into three distinct regions. The lowermost (or ventral) region forms the basal nuclei, and contains fibres connecting the rest of the cerebrum to the thalamus. Above this, and forming the lateral part of the cerebrum, is the paleopallium, while the uppermost (or dorsal) part is referred to as the archipallium. The cerebrum remains largely devoted to olfactory sensation in these animals, in contrast to its much wider range of functions in amniotes.

text: In the most primitive vertebrates, the

text: hagfish

text: es and

text: lamprey

text: s, the cerebrum is a relatively simple structure receiving

text: nerve impulses

text: from the

text: olfactory bulb

text: . In

text: cartilaginous

text: and

text: lobe-finned fish

text: es and also in

text: amphibian

text: s, a more complex structure is present, with the cerebrum being divided into three distinct regions. The lowermost (or ventral) region forms the

text: basal nuclei

text: , and contains fibres connecting the rest of the cerebrum to the

text: thalamus

text: . Above this, and forming the lateral part of the cerebrum, is the paleopallium, while the uppermost (or dorsal) part is referred to as the archipallium. The cerebrum remains largely devoted to olfactory sensation in these animals, in contrast to its much wider range of functions in

text: amniote

text: s.

text: Sherrington introduced the terms neuron and synapse and published the Integrative Action of the Nervous System in 1906.

text: Sherrington

text: introduced the terms

text: neuron

text: and

text: synapse

text: and published the Integrative Action of the Nervous System in 1906.

text: Sensory information from the face and body is processed by parallel pathways in the central nervous system. The motor division of the trigeminal nerve derives from the basal plate of the embryonic pons, and the sensory division originates in the cranial neural crest.

text: Sensory information from the face and body is processed by parallel pathways in the central nervous system. The motor division of the trigeminal nerve derives from the

text: basal plate

text: of the

text: embryo

text: nic

text: pons

text: , and the sensory division originates in the

text: cranial neural crest

text: A central nervous system viral disease is a viral infection that affects the central nervous system.

text: A central nervous system viral disease is a

text: viral infection

text: that affects the

text: central nervous system

text: Neuroimmunology is a field combining neuroscience, the study of the nervous system, and immunology, the study of the immune system.  Neuroimmunologists seek to better understand the interactions of these two complex systems during development, homeostasis, and response to injuries.  A long-term goal of this rapidly developing research area is to further develop our understanding of the pathology of certain neurological diseases, some of which have no clear etiology. In doing so, neuroimmunology contributes to development of new pharmacological treatments for several neurological conditions.  Many types of interactions involve both the nervous and immune systems including the physiological functioning of the two systems in health and disease, malfunction of either and or both systems that leads to disorders, and the physical, chemical, and environmental stressors that affect the two systems on a daily basis.

text: Neuroimmunology is a field combining

text: neuroscience

text: , the study of the

text: nervous system

text: , and

text: immunology

text: , the study of the

text: immune system

text: .  Neuroimmunologists seek to better understand the interactions of these two complex systems during development, homeostasis, and response to injuries.  A long-term goal of this rapidly developing research area is to further develop our understanding of the pathology of certain neurological

text: diseases

text: , some of which have no clear

text: etiology

text: . In doing so, neuroimmunology contributes to development of new pharmacological treatments for several neurological conditions.  Many types of interactions involve both the nervous and immune systems including the

text: physiological

text: functioning of the two systems in

text: health

text: and disease, malfunction of either and or both systems that leads to disorders, and the physical, chemical, and environmental stressors that affect the two systems on a daily basis.

text: A nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (known as nerve impulses or action potentials) carried by the individual neurons that make up the nerve. These impulses are extremely fast, with some myelinated neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s. The impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a synapse, the message is converted from electrical to chemical and then back to electrical.

text: A nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (known as

text: nerve impulse

text: s or

text: action potential

text: s) carried by the individual neurons that make up the nerve. These impulses are extremely fast, with some

text: myelinated

text: neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s. The impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a

text: synapse

text: , the message is converted from

text: electrical

text: to

text: chemical

text: and then back to electrical.

text: In 1945, the division arrived in the Stavropol Military District and was stationed in Vladikavkaz.  In May–June 1946, the division was reorganised into the 11th Separate Rifle Brigade. All battalions of the brigade were stationed in Ordzhonikidze (which became Vladikavkaz in 1990). On 1 July 1949 the 11th Separate Rifle Brigade was reorganised as the 19th Mountain Rifle Division, 12th Mountain Corps. On May 31, 1954, the 19th Mountain Division was renamed the 19th Rifle Division. In March 1957 the 19th Rifle Division was reorganized as the 92nd Motor Rifle Division. According to the USSR Minister of Defense Order No. 00147 of November 17, 1964, in order to preserve the martial traditions, the 92nd Motor Rifle Division was renamed the 19th Motor Rifle Division. Thus in 1965 it became again the 19th Motor Rifle Division.

text: In 1945, the division arrived in the

text: Stavropol Military District

text: and was stationed in

text: Vladikavkaz

text: .  In May–June 1946, the division was reorganised into the 11th Separate Rifle Brigade. All battalions of the brigade were stationed in

text: Ordzhonikidze

text: (which became Vladikavkaz in 1990). On 1 July 1949 the 11th Separate Rifle Brigade was reorganised as the 19th Mountain Rifle Division,

text: 12th Mountain Corps

text: . On May 31, 1954, the 19th Mountain Division was renamed the 19th Rifle Division. In March 1957 the 19th Rifle Division was reorganized as the 92nd Motor Rifle Division. According to the USSR Minister of Defense Order No. 00147 of November 17, 1964, in order to preserve the martial traditions, the 92nd Motor Rifle Division was renamed the 19th Motor Rifle Division. Thus in 1965 it became again the 19th Motor Rifle Division.

text: The ENS is capable of autonomous functions such as the coordination of reflexes; although it receives considerable innervation from the autonomic nervous system, it can and does operate independently of the brain and the spinal cord.  Its study is the focus of neurogastroenterology.

text: The ENS is capable of autonomous functions such as the coordination of

text: reflex

text: es; although it receives considerable innervation from the autonomic nervous system, it can and does operate independently of the brain and the spinal cord.  Its study is the focus of

text: neurogastroenterology

text: The brains of many molluscs and insects also contain substantial numbers of identified neurons.  In vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic Mauthner cells of fish.  Every fish has two Mauthner cells, located in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right.  Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes.  The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response:  within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a C-shape, then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward.  Functionally this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish.  Mauthner cells are not the only identified neurons in fish—there are about 20 more types, including pairs of "Mauthner cell analogs" in each spinal segmental nucleus.  Although a Mauthner cell is capable of bringing about an escape response individually, in the context of ordinary behavior other types of cells usually contribute to shaping the amplitude and direction of the response.

text: The brains of many molluscs and insects also contain substantial numbers of identified neurons.  In vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic

text: Mauthner cell

text: s of fish.  Every fish has two Mauthner cells, located in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right.  Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it goes.  The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response:  within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a

text: C-shape

text: , then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward.  Functionally this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish.  Mauthner cells are not the only identified neurons in fish—there are about 20 more types, including pairs of "Mauthner cell analogs" in each spinal segmental nucleus.  Although a Mauthner cell is capable of bringing about an escape response individually, in the context of ordinary behavior other types of cells usually contribute to shaping the amplitude and direction of the response.

text: The term has a variety of meanings in several fields. In political science, centralisation refers to the concentration of a government's power – both geographically and politically – into a centralised government. In neuroscience, centralisation refers to the evolutionary trend of the nervous system to be partitioned into a central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. In business studies, centralisation and decentralisation refer to where decisions are made in the chain of command.

text: The term has a variety of meanings in several fields. In

text: political science

text: , centralisation refers to the concentration of a

text: government

text: 's power – both geographically and politically – into a

text: centralised government

text: . In

text: neuroscience

text: , centralisation refers to the evolutionary trend of the

text: nervous system

text: to be partitioned into a

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . In

text: business studies

text: , centralisation and

text: decentralisation

text: refer to where decisions are made in the

text: chain of command

text: Dendritic filopodia may be the site of synapses in certain regions of the nervous system. In some neuronal cell types, such as in rat retinal ganglion cells, dendritic spines are not present, suggesting that in these cases, synaptogenesis occurs primarily on dendritic shafts or on filopodia themselves. Filopodia may synapse with neighboring axons both along the length of the filopodium and at the tip. Synaptic activity on dendritic filopodia may alter their morphology, or induce their transformation into dendritic spines (see transformation into spines.)

text: Dendritic filopodia may be the site of

text: synapse

text: s in certain regions of the nervous system. In some neuronal cell types, such as in rat retinal ganglion cells,

text: dendritic spine

text: s are not present, suggesting that in these cases, synaptogenesis occurs primarily on dendritic shafts or on filopodia themselves. Filopodia may synapse with neighboring

text: axon

text: s both along the length of the filopodium and at the tip. Synaptic activity on dendritic filopodia may alter their morphology, or induce their transformation into dendritic spines (see

text: transformation into spines

text: Cells comprising the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified as nervous (or neural) tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissues form the brain and spinal cord. In the peripheral nervous system, neural tissues forms the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, inclusive of the motor neurons.

text: Cells comprising the

text: central nervous system

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: are classified as nervous (or neural) tissue. In the central nervous system, neural tissues form the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . In the peripheral nervous system, neural tissues forms the

text: cranial nerves

text: and

text: spinal nerve

text: s, inclusive of the

text: motor neuron

text: s.

text: Neurons form elaborate networks through which nerve impulses—action potentials—travel. Each neuron has as many as 15,000 connections with neighboring neurons.

text: Neurons form elaborate networks through which nerve impulses—

text: action potential

text: s—travel. Each neuron has as many as 15,000 connections with neighboring neurons.

text: Devices which support the function of autonomous nervous system include the implant for bladder control. In the somatic nervous system attempts to aid conscious control of movement include Functional electrical stimulation and the lumbar anterior root stimulator.

text: Devices which support the function of

text: autonomous nervous system

text: include the

text: implant for bladder control

text: . In the somatic nervous system attempts to aid conscious control of movement include

text: Functional electrical stimulation

text: and the

text: lumbar anterior root stimulator

text: A progressive decline in central nervous system function leads to a loss of proprioception, balance and overall motor coordination, as well as a reduction in eye–hand coordination, reaction time and an unsteady gait. These degenerative changes are often accompanied by osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease), which leads to a reduction in the range of motion of the head, neck and extremities. Furthermore, elderly people frequently take multiple medications for control of various diseases and conditions. The side effects of some of these medications may either predispose to injury, or may cause a minor trauma to result in a much more severe condition. For example, a person taking warfarin (Coumadin) and/or clopidogrel (Plavix) may experience a life-threatening intracranial hemorrhage after sustaining a relatively minor closed head injury, as a result of the defect in the hemostatic mechanism caused by such medications. The combined effects of these changes greatly predisposes elderly people to traumatic injury. Both the incidence of falls and the severity of associated complications increase with advancing age.

text: A progressive decline in

text: central nervous system

text: function leads to a loss of

text: proprioception

text: balance

text: and overall

text: motor coordination

text: , as well as a reduction in

text: eye–hand coordination

text: reaction time

text: and an unsteady

text: gait

text: . These degenerative changes are often accompanied by

text: osteoarthritis

text: (degenerative joint disease), which leads to a reduction in the

text: range of motion

text: of the head, neck and extremities. Furthermore, elderly people frequently take multiple

text: medications

text: for control of various diseases and conditions. The side effects of some of these medications may either predispose to injury, or may cause a minor trauma to result in a much more severe condition. For example, a person taking

text: warfarin

text: (Coumadin) and/or

text: clopidogrel

text: (Plavix) may experience a life-threatening

text: intracranial hemorrhage

text: after sustaining a relatively minor

text: closed head injury

text: , as a result of the defect in the

text: hemostatic mechanism

text: caused by such medications. The combined effects of these changes greatly predisposes elderly people to traumatic injury. Both the incidence of falls and the severity of associated complications increase with advancing age.

text: Central nervous system lesions occur occasionally. Cerebral granulomatous disease may be caused by S. japonicum eggs in the brain. Communities in China affected by S. japonicum have been found to have rates of seizures eight times higher than baseline. Similarly, granulomatous lesions from S. mansoni and S. haematobium eggs in the spinal cord can lead to transverse myelitis with flaccid paraplegia. Eggs are thought to travel to the central nervous system via embolization.

text: Central nervous system

text: lesions occur occasionally. Cerebral granulomatous disease may be caused by S. japonicum eggs in the

text: brain

text: . Communities in China affected by S. japonicum have been found to have rates of

text: seizures

text: eight times higher than baseline. Similarly, granulomatous lesions from S. mansoni and S. haematobium eggs in the

text: spinal cord

text: can lead to

text: transverse myelitis

text: with flaccid

text: paraplegia

text: . Eggs are thought to travel to the central nervous system via

text: embolization

text: The efferent leg of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for conveying commands to the muscles and glands, and is ultimately responsible for voluntary movement.  Nerves move muscles in response to voluntary and autonomic (involuntary) signals from the brain. Deep muscles, superficial muscles, muscles of the face and internal muscles all correspond with dedicated regions in the primary motor cortex of the brain, directly anterior to the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes.

text: The

text: efferent

text: leg of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: is responsible for conveying commands to the muscles and glands, and is ultimately responsible for voluntary movement.

text: Nerve

text: s move muscles in response to

text: voluntary

text: and

text: autonomic

text: (involuntary) signals from the

text: brain

text: . Deep muscles, superficial muscles,

text: muscles of the face

text: and internal muscles all correspond with dedicated regions in the primary motor cortex of the

text: brain

text: , directly anterior to the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes.

text: Improved functional neuroimaging is paving the way for better understanding, assessment, and management of many neurologic and neuro-ophthalmologic conditions. As our understanding of neuroscience evolves, neuro-ophthalmologists are becoming increasingly better at treatment, rather than only diagnosis, and novel therapies are emerging to treat traditionally vision-devastating disease. For example, clinical trials began in February 2014 to use gene therapy to treat Leber hereditary optic neuropathy, which is one of the first uses of gene therapy in the central nervous system. Progress has also been made in understanding retinal ganglion cell regeneration and in re-establishing synaptic connections from the optic nerve to the brain, more than in other regions of the central nervous system. One of the goals of the National Institutes of Health is to use the visual system as a window to understand neural plasticity and regenerative medicine in the central nervous system, an area of neuroscience that has a promising future and is intimately intertwined with neuro-ophthalmology.

text: Improved

text: functional neuroimaging

text: is paving the way for better understanding, assessment, and management of many neurologic and neuro-ophthalmologic conditions. As our understanding of

text: neuroscience

text: evolves, neuro-ophthalmologists are becoming increasingly better at treatment, rather than only

text: diagnosis

text: , and novel therapies are emerging to treat traditionally vision-devastating disease. For example, clinical trials began in February 2014 to use

text: gene therapy

text: to treat

text: Leber hereditary optic neuropathy

text: , which is one of the first uses of

text: gene therapy

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: . Progress has also been made in understanding

text: retinal ganglion cell

text: regeneration and in re-establishing

text: synaptic connections

text: from the

text: optic nerve

text: to the

text: brain

text: , more than in other regions of the

text: central nervous system

text: . One of the goals of the

text: National Institutes of Health

text: is to use the

text: visual system

text: as a window to understand

text: neural plasticity

text: and

text: regenerative medicine

text: in the

text: central nervous system

text: , an area of

text: neuroscience

text: that has a promising future and is intimately intertwined with neuro-ophthalmology.

text: The development cycle in Synapse is based on the canonical data mining cycle. A notable difference however is that in Synapse that cycle is not linear, but supports an iterative approach where the user can freely move between the steps. Synapse features four different operating modes that make up the development cycle.

text: The development cycle in Synapse is based on the canonical

text: data mining

text: cycle. A notable difference however is that in Synapse that cycle is not

text: linear

text: , but supports an

text: iterative

text: approach where the user can freely move between the steps. Synapse features four different operating modes that make up the development cycle.

text: The WNK1/HSN2 isoforms are expressed in the sensory parts of the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system which are associated with the transmission of sensory and nociceptive signals. These parts include satellite cells, Schwann cells, and sensory neurons. The novel protein product of the isoform is more plentiful in sensory neurons than motor neurons. It is proposed that this gene product may play a role in the development and/or maintenance of peripheral sensory neurons or their supporting Schwann cells.

text: The WNK1/HSN2 isoforms are expressed in the sensory parts of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: which are associated with the transmission of sensory and

text: nociceptive

text: signals. These parts include

text: satellite cells

text: Schwann cell

text: s, and

text: sensory neuron

text: s. The novel protein product of the isoform is more plentiful in sensory neurons than

text: motor neuron

text: s. It is proposed that this gene product may play a role in the development and/or maintenance of peripheral sensory neurons or their supporting Schwann cells.

text: Phentermine has some similarity in its pharmacodynamics with its parent compound, amphetamine, as they both are TAAR1 agonists, where the activation of TAAR1 in monoamine neurons facilitates the efflux or, release into the synapse, of these neurochemicals; at clinically relevant doses, phentermine primarily acts as a releasing agent of norepinephrine in neurons, although, to a lesser extent, it releases dopamine and serotonin into synapses as well.<ref name="Rothman">{{cite journal  |vauthors=Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, etal |title=Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they dopamine and serotonin |journal=Synapse |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=32–41 |date=January 2001 |pmid=11071707 |doi=10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1

text: Phentermine has some similarity in its

text: pharmacodynamics

text: with its parent compound,

text: amphetamine

text: , as they both are

text: TAAR1 agonist

text: s, where the activation of TAAR1 in

text: monoamine

text: neurons facilitates the efflux or, release into the synapse, of these neurochemicals; at clinically relevant doses, phentermine primarily acts as a

text: releasing agent

text: of

text: norepinephrine

text: in

text: neuron

text: s, although, to a lesser extent, it releases

text: dopamine

text: and

text: serotonin

text: into synapses as well.<ref name="Rothman">{{cite journal  |vauthors=Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, etal |title=Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they dopamine and serotonin |journal=Synapse |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=32–41 |date=January 2001 |pmid=11071707 |doi=10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1

text: At a schematic level, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are both organized in essentially the same way:  preganglionic neurons in the central nervous system send projections to neurons located in autonomic ganglia; these neurons then send output projections to virtually every tissue of the body.  In both branches the internal connections—the projections from the central nervous system to the autonomic ganglia—use acetylcholine as neurotransmitter, and the receptors it activates are of the nicotinic type.  In the parasympathetic nervous system the output connections—the projections from ganglion neurons to tissues that don't belong to the nervous system—also release acetylcholine, acting on muscarinic receptors. In the sympathetic nervous system the output connections mainly release noradrenaline, although acetylcholine is released at a few points, such as the sudomotor innervation of the sweat glands.

text: At a schematic level, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are both organized in essentially the same way:  preganglionic neurons in the central nervous system send projections to neurons located in autonomic ganglia; these neurons then send output projections to virtually every tissue of the body.  In both branches the internal connections—the projections from the central nervous system to the autonomic ganglia—use acetylcholine as neurotransmitter, and the receptors it activates are of the nicotinic type.  In the parasympathetic nervous system the output connections—the projections from ganglion neurons to tissues that don't belong to the nervous system—also release acetylcholine, acting on muscarinic receptors. In the sympathetic nervous system the output connections mainly release

text: noradrenaline

text: , although acetylcholine is released at a few points, such as the

text: sudomotor

text: innervation of the sweat glands.

text: Neurological disorders can be categorized according to the primary location affected, the primary type of dysfunction involved, or the primary type of cause. The broadest division is between central nervous system disorders and peripheral nervous system disorders. The Merck Manual lists brain, spinal cord and nerve disorders in the following overlapping categories:

text: Neurological disorders can be categorized according to the primary location affected, the primary type of dysfunction involved, or the primary type of cause. The broadest division is between

text: central nervous system disorders

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system disorders

text: . The

text: Merck Manual

text: lists brain, spinal cord and nerve disorders in the following overlapping categories:

text: A parasympathomimetic drug, sometimes called a cholinomimetic drug, is a substance that stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS). These chemicals are also called cholinergic drugs because acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter used by the PSNS. Chemicals in this family can act either directly by stimulating the nicotinic or muscarinic receptors (thus mimicking acetylcholine), or indirectly by inhibiting cholinesterase, promoting acetylcholine release, or other mechanisms.

text: A parasympathomimetic drug, sometimes called a cholinomimetic drug, is a substance that stimulates the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: (PSNS). These chemicals are also called

text: cholinergic

text: drugs because

text: acetylcholine

text: (ACh) is the

text: neurotransmitter

text: used by the PSNS. Chemicals in this family can act either directly by stimulating the

text: nicotinic

text: or

text: muscarinic

text: receptors (thus mimicking acetylcholine), or indirectly by inhibiting

text: cholinesterase

text: , promoting acetylcholine release, or other mechanisms.

text: Next two very similar neuropathies were ruled out. Guillain–Barré syndrome (GBS) induces an acute autoimmune response which affects the Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. GBS is usually triggered by an infection that causes weakness and tingling that may lead to muscle loss. This condition may be life-threatening if muscle atrophy ascends to affect the pulmonary or cardiac systems. So far, no infectious agents have been found that relate to the current disease, progressive infammatory neuropathy. They looked at chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP) which is characterized by progressive weakness and sensory impairment in the arms and legs. Damage occurs to the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system. As doctors at the Mayo Clinic were beginning to note, the problem they were seeing in progressive inflammatory neuropathy was occurring in the spinal nerve roots.

text: Next two very similar

text: neuropathies

text: were ruled out.

text: Guillain–Barré syndrome

text: (GBS) induces an acute

text: autoimmune

text: response which affects the

text: Schwann cell

text: s in the peripheral nervous system. GBS is usually triggered by an infection that causes weakness and tingling that may lead to muscle loss. This condition may be life-threatening if muscle

text: atrophy

text: ascends to affect the pulmonary or cardiac systems. So far, no infectious agents have been found that relate to the current disease, progressive infammatory neuropathy. They looked at

text: (CIDP) which is characterized by progressive weakness and sensory impairment in the arms and legs. Damage occurs to the

text: myelin

text: sheath in the peripheral nervous system. As doctors at the Mayo Clinic were beginning to note, the problem they were seeing in progressive inflammatory neuropathy was occurring in the spinal nerve roots.

text: The peripheral autonomic nervous system, central nervous system and the heart are the main systems that are affected following overdose. Initial or mild symptoms typically develop within 2 hours and include tachycardia, drowsiness, a dry mouth, nausea and vomiting, urinary retention, confusion, agitation, and headache. More severe complications include hypotension, cardiac rhythm disturbances, hallucinations, and seizures. Electrocardiogram (ECG) abnormalities are frequent and a wide variety of cardiac dysrhythmias can occur, the most common being sinus tachycardia and intraventricular conduction delay resulting in prolongation of the QRS complex and the PR/QT intervals. Seizures, cardiac dysrhythmias, and apnea are the most important life-threatening complications.

text: The peripheral

text: autonomic nervous system

text: central nervous system

text: and the

text: heart

text: are the main systems that are affected following overdose. Initial or mild symptoms typically develop within 2 hours and include

text: tachycardia

text: drowsiness

text: , a dry mouth,

text: nausea

text: and

text: vomiting

text: , urinary retention, confusion, agitation, and

text: headache

text: . More severe complications include

text: hypotension

text: , cardiac rhythm disturbances,

text: hallucinations

text: , and

text: seizures

text: Electrocardiogram

text: (ECG) abnormalities are frequent and a wide variety of

text: cardiac dysrhythmias

text: can occur, the most common being sinus tachycardia and intraventricular conduction delay resulting in prolongation of the

text: QRS complex

text: and the

text: PR

text: QT interval

text: s. Seizures, cardiac dysrhythmias, and apnea are the most important life-threatening complications.

text: The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the control center of the body and contains millions of neural connections. This organ is responsible for sending and receiving messages from the body and its environment. Each part of the brain is specialized for different aspects of the human being. For example, the temporal lobe has a major role in vision and audition, whereas the frontal lobe is significant for motor function and problem solving. The spinal cord is attached to the brain and serves as the main connector of nerves and the brain.

text: The central nervous system is composed of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . The brain is the control center of the body and contains millions of neural connections. This organ is responsible for sending and receiving messages from the body and its environment. Each part of the brain is specialized for different aspects of the human being. For example, the temporal lobe has a major role in vision and audition, whereas the frontal lobe is significant for motor function and problem solving. The spinal cord is attached to the brain and serves as the main connector of nerves and the brain.

text: The temporal lobe is one of the four major lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain of mammals. The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain.

text: The temporal lobe is one of the four

text: major lobes

text: of the

text: cerebral cortex

text: in the

text: brain

text: of

text: mammal

text: s. The temporal lobe is located beneath the

text: lateral fissure

text: on both

text: cerebral hemisphere

text: s of the mammalian

text: brain

text: The axon reflex (or the flare response) is the response stimulated by peripheral nerves of the body that travels away from the nerve cell body and branches to stimulate target organs. Reflex's are single reactions that respond to a stimulus making up the building blocks of the overall signaling in the body's nervous system. Neurons are the excitable cells that process and transmit these reflex signals through their axons, dendrites, and cell bodies. Axons directly facilitate intercellular communication projecting from the neuronal cell body to other neurons, local muscle tissue, glands and arterioles. In the axon reflex, signaling starts in the middle of the axon at the stimulation site and transmits signals directly to the effector organ skipping both an integration center and a chemical synapse present in the spinal cord reflex. The impulse is limited to a single bifurcated axon, or a neuron whose axon branches into two divisions and does not cause a general response to surrounding tissue.

text: The axon reflex (or the flare response) is the response stimulated by peripheral nerves of the body that travels away from the nerve cell body and branches to stimulate target organs.

text: Reflex

text: 's are single reactions that respond to a stimulus making up the building blocks of the overall signaling in the body's nervous system.

text: Neuron

text: s are the excitable cells that process and transmit these reflex signals through their axons, dendrites, and cell bodies.

text: Axon

text: s directly facilitate

text: intercellular communication

text: projecting from the neuronal cell body to other neurons, local muscle tissue, glands and arterioles. In the axon reflex, signaling starts in the middle of the axon at the stimulation site and transmits signals directly to the effector organ skipping both an integration center and a chemical synapse present in the spinal cord reflex. The impulse is limited to a single bifurcated axon, or a neuron whose axon branches into two divisions and does not cause a general response to surrounding tissue.

text: The neuroimmune system is a system of structures and processes involving the biochemical and electrophysiological interactions between the nervous system and immune system which protect neurons from pathogens. It serves to protect neurons against disease by maintaining selectively permeable barriers (e.g., the blood–brain barrier and blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier), mediating neuroinflammation and wound healing in damaged neurons, and mobilizing host defenses against pathogens.

text: The neuroimmune system is a system of structures and processes involving the

text: biochemical

text: and

text: electrophysiological

text: interactions between the

text: nervous system

text: and

text: immune system

text: which protect

text: neuron

text: s from

text: pathogen

text: s. It serves to protect neurons against disease by maintaining selectively permeable barriers (e.g., the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: and

text: blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier

text: ), mediating

text: neuroinflammation

text: and

text: wound healing

text: in damaged neurons, and mobilizing host defenses against pathogens.

text: RR&D's areas of emphasis are broad and expansive, encompassing basic scientific research that has strong implications for translation into clinical practice, as well as rehabilitation strategies, interventions, and techniques, including prosthetic devices and the reintegration of Veterans into all facets of civilian life. Specific research areas include, but are not limited to, prosthetics, orthotics, orthopedics, musculoskeletal disorders, rehabilitation engineering, chronic disease, dementias and psychiatric disorders, sensory systems, communication disorders, spinal cord injury and dysfunction regeneration and restoration, neurological dysfunction, traumatic brain injury, vocational rehabilitation, disabilities as a consequence of aging, and rehabilitation outcomes.

text: RR&D's areas of emphasis are broad and expansive, encompassing basic scientific research that has strong implications for translation into clinical practice, as well as rehabilitation strategies, interventions, and techniques, including prosthetic devices and the reintegration of Veterans into all facets of civilian life. Specific research areas include, but are not limited to,

text: prosthetics

text: orthotics

text: orthopedics

text: musculoskeletal disorders

text: rehabilitation engineering

text: chronic disease

text: dementias

text: and

text: psychiatric disorders

text: sensory systems

text: communication disorders

text: spinal cord injury

text: and dysfunction regeneration and restoration, neurological dysfunction,

text: traumatic brain injury

text: , vocational rehabilitation, disabilities as a consequence of aging, and rehabilitation outcomes.

text: Hitzig is remembered for his work concerning the interaction between electric current and the brain. In 1870, Hitzig, assisted by anatomist Gustav Fritsch (1837–1927), applied electricity via a thin probe to the exposed cerebral cortex of a dog without anesthesia. They performed these studies at the home of Fritsch because the University of Berlin would not allow such experimentation in their laboratories. What Hitzig and Fritsch had discovered is that electrical stimulation of different areas of the cerebrum caused involuntary muscular contractions of specific parts of the dog's body. They identified the brain's "motor strip", a vertical strip of brain tissue on the cerebrum in the back of the frontal lobe, which controls different muscles in the body. In 1870, Hitzig published his findings in an essay called Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns (On the Electrical Excitability of the Cerebrum). This experimentation was considered the first time anyone had done any localized study regarding the brain and electric current.

text: Hitzig is remembered for his work concerning the interaction between electric current and the

text: brain

text: . In 1870, Hitzig, assisted by

text: anatomist

text: Gustav Fritsch

text: (1837–1927), applied electricity via a thin probe to the exposed

text: cerebral cortex

text: of a dog without

text: anesthesia

text: . They performed these studies at the home of Fritsch because the

text: University of Berlin

text: would not allow such experimentation in their laboratories. What Hitzig and Fritsch had discovered is that electrical stimulation of different areas of the

text: cerebrum

text: caused involuntary muscular contractions of specific parts of the dog's body. They identified the brain's "motor strip", a vertical strip of brain tissue on the

text: cerebrum

text: in the back of the

text: frontal lobe

text: , which controls different muscles in the body. In 1870, Hitzig published his findings in an essay called Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns (On the Electrical Excitability of the Cerebrum). This experimentation was considered the first time anyone had done any localized study regarding the brain and electric current.

text: Drug abuse makes central nervous system (CNS) effects, which produce changes in mood, levels of awareness or perceptions and sensations. Most of these drugs also alter systems other than the CNS. Some of these are often thought of as being abused. Some drugs appear to be more likely to lead to uncontrolled use than others.

text: Drug abuse makes

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) effects, which produce changes in

text: mood

text: , levels of awareness or perceptions and sensations. Most of these drugs also alter systems other than the CNS. Some of these are often thought of as being abused. Some drugs appear to be more likely to lead to uncontrolled use than others.

text: Historically, for many years the predominant view of the function of the nervous system was as a stimulus-response associator.  In this conception, neural processing begins with stimuli that activate sensory neurons, producing signals that propagate through chains of connections in the spinal cord and brain, giving rise eventually to activation of motor neurons and thereby to muscle contraction, i.e., to overt responses.  Descartes believed that all of the behaviors of animals, and most of the behaviors of humans, could be explained in terms of stimulus-response circuits, although he also believed that higher cognitive functions such as language were not capable of being explained mechanistically.  Charles Sherrington, in his influential 1906 book The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, developed the concept of stimulus-response mechanisms in much more detail, and Behaviorism, the school of thought that dominated Psychology through the middle of the 20th century, attempted to explain every aspect of human behavior in stimulus-response terms.

text: Historically, for many years the predominant view of the function of the nervous system was as a stimulus-response associator.  In this conception, neural processing begins with stimuli that activate sensory neurons, producing signals that propagate through chains of connections in the spinal cord and brain, giving rise eventually to activation of motor neurons and thereby to muscle contraction, i.e., to overt responses.  Descartes believed that all of the behaviors of animals, and most of the behaviors of humans, could be explained in terms of stimulus-response circuits, although he also believed that higher cognitive functions such as language were not capable of being explained mechanistically.

text: Charles Sherrington

text: , in his influential 1906 book The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, developed the concept of stimulus-response mechanisms in much more detail, and

text: Behaviorism

text: , the school of thought that dominated

text: Psychology

text: through the middle of the 20th century, attempted to explain every aspect of human behavior in stimulus-response terms.

text: GABA receptors (GABAR) are metabotropic transmembrane receptors for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) that are linked via G-proteins to potassium channels. The changing potassium concentrations hyperpolarize the cell at the end of an action potential.The reversal potential of the GABA-mediated IPSP is -100 mV, which is much more hyperpolarized than the GABA IPSP.  GABA receptors are found in the central as well as in the autonomic division of the peripheral nervous system.

text: GABA receptors (GABAR) are

text: metabotropic

text: transmembrane receptor

text: s for

text: gamma-aminobutyric acid

text: (GABA) that are linked via

text: G-protein

text: s to

text: potassium

text: channels. The changing potassium concentrations hyperpolarize the cell at the end of an action potential.The reversal potential of the GABA-mediated IPSP is -100 mV, which is much more hyperpolarized than the

text: GABA

text: IPSP.  GABA receptors are found in the

text: central

text: as well as in the

text: autonomic

text: division of the

text: peripheral

text: nervous system

text: The formation of the nervous system is one of the most crucial events in the developing embryo.  Specifically, the differentiation of stem cell precursors into specialized neurons gives rise to the formation of synapses and neural circuits, which is key to the principle of plasticity.  During this pivotal point in development, consequent developmental processes like the differentiation and specialization of neurons are highly sensitive to exogenous and endogenous factors.  For example, in utero exposure to nicotine has been linked to adverse effects such as severe physical and cognitive deficits as a result of impeding the normal activation of acetylcholine receptors.  In a recent study, the connection between such nicotine exposure and prenatal development was assessed.  It was determined that nicotine exposure in early development can have a lasting and encompassing effect on neuronal structures, underlying the behavioral and cognitive defects observed in exposed humans and animals.  Additionally, by disrupting proper synaptic function through nicotine exposure, the overall circuit may become less sensitive and responsive to stimuli, resulting in compensatory developmental plasticity.  It is for this reason that exposure to various environmental factors during developmental periods can cause profound effects on subsequent neural functioning.

text: The formation of the nervous system is one of the most crucial events in the developing embryo.  Specifically, the

text: differentiation

text: of stem cell precursors into specialized neurons gives rise to the formation of synapses and neural circuits, which is key to the principle of plasticity.  During this pivotal point in development, consequent developmental processes like the differentiation and specialization of neurons are highly sensitive to exogenous and endogenous factors.  For example, in utero exposure to nicotine has been linked to adverse effects such as severe physical and cognitive deficits as a result of impeding the normal activation of acetylcholine receptors.  In a recent study, the connection between such nicotine exposure and prenatal development was assessed.  It was determined that nicotine exposure in early development can have a lasting and encompassing effect on neuronal structures, underlying the behavioral and cognitive defects observed in exposed humans and animals.  Additionally, by disrupting proper synaptic function through nicotine exposure, the overall circuit may become less sensitive and responsive to stimuli, resulting in compensatory developmental plasticity.  It is for this reason that exposure to various environmental factors during developmental periods can cause profound effects on subsequent neural functioning.

text: Psychoactive drugs interact with particular target sites or receptors found in the nervous system to induce widespread changes in physiological or psychological functions. The specific interaction between drugs and their receptors is referred to as "drug action", and the widespread changes in physiological or psychological function is referred to as "drug effect". These drugs may originate from natural sources such as plants and animals, or from artificial sources such as chemical synthesis in the laboratory.

text: Psychoactive drugs interact with particular target sites or receptors found in the

text: nervous system

text: to induce widespread changes in physiological or psychological functions. The specific interaction between drugs and their receptors is referred to as "

text: drug action

text: ", and the widespread changes in physiological or psychological function is referred to as "

text: drug effect

text: ". These drugs may originate from natural sources such as plants and animals, or from artificial sources such as

text: chemical synthesis

text: in the laboratory.

text: The peripheral nervous system has the ability to regrow cut nerves. Motor axons preferentially reinnervate motor pathways. The tendency of motor axons to reinnervate motor pathways instead of cutaneous pathways is influenced by a number of factors in the PNS system. Some factors include Schwann cell characteristics, neurotrophic factors, and nerve branch size. These factors influence the pathway preference of the motor neuron.The different nervous systems are illustrated in the image displayed on the right. Preferential motor reinnervation is a tendency that is specifically seen in the peripheral nervous system, which is illustrated in the photos of the bottom of the system shown.

text: The peripheral nervous system has the ability to regrow cut nerves.

text: Motor axons

text: preferentially reinnervate

text: motor pathways

text: . The tendency of motor axons to reinnervate motor pathways instead of

text: cutaneous pathways

text: is influenced by a number of factors in the PNS system. Some factors include

text: Schwann cell

text: characteristics,

text: neurotrophic factors

text: , and nerve branch size. These factors influence the pathway preference of the motor neuron.The different nervous systems are illustrated in the image displayed on the right. Preferential motor reinnervation is a tendency that is specifically seen in the peripheral nervous system, which is illustrated in the photos of the bottom of the system shown.

text: Little is known about the overall structure of emulators. It could operate like a search glossary with a very large associative memory of input-output sequences. Under this system, the emulator receives a motor command input, finds the closest matching input from its database, and then sends the associated output in that sequence. The other model is an articulated emulator. This model requires that for each significant sensor of the human musculoskeletal system there is a group of neurons with a parallel firing frequency within the emulator. These groups of neurons would receive the same input as that being sent to their corresponding part of the musculoskeletal system. For example, when raising one’s hand signals will be sent to neurons responsible for wrist, elbow, and shoulder angles and arm angular inertia.

text: Little is known about the overall structure of emulators. It could operate like a search glossary with a very large associative memory of input-output sequences. Under this system, the emulator receives a motor command input, finds the closest matching input from its database, and then sends the associated output in that sequence. The other model is an articulated emulator. This model requires that for each significant sensor of the

text: human musculoskeletal system

text: there is a group of neurons with a parallel firing frequency within the emulator. These groups of neurons would receive the same input as that being sent to their corresponding part of the musculoskeletal system. For example, when raising one’s hand signals will be sent to neurons responsible for wrist, elbow, and shoulder angles and arm angular inertia.

text: The only definitive diagnostic test in the early acute stage is a bone scan, which will show hetertopic ossification 7 – 10 days earlier than an x-ray.  The three-phase bone scan may be the most sensitive method of detecting early heterotopic bone formation.  However, an abnormality detected in the early phase may not progress to the formation of. heterotopic bone.  Another finding, often misinterpreted as early heterotopic bone formation, is an increased (early) uptake around the knees or the ankles in a patient with a very recent spinal cord injury.  It is not clear exactly what this means, because these patients do not develop heterotopic bone formation.  It has been hypothesized that this may be related to the autonomic nervous system and its control over circulation.

text: The only definitive diagnostic test in the early acute stage is a

text: bone scan

text: , which will show hetertopic ossification 7 – 10 days earlier than an x-ray.  The three-phase bone scan may be the most sensitive method of detecting early heterotopic bone formation.  However, an abnormality detected in the early phase may not progress to the formation of. heterotopic bone.  Another finding, often misinterpreted as early heterotopic bone formation, is an increased (early) uptake around the knees or the ankles in a patient with a very recent spinal cord injury.  It is not clear exactly what this means, because these patients do not develop heterotopic bone formation.  It has been hypothesized that this may be related to the autonomic nervous system and its control over circulation.

text: The segmentation pattern observed in the spinal nerves is in fact governed by the somatic mesoderm. In the embryonic stages of higher vertebrates including humans, the segmentation of these spinal nerves follows the directions from both the anterior (A, cranial) and posterior (P, caudal) sections of the somite mesoderm. The segmentation pattern observed in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) derives itself from the paraxial mesoderm. The paraxial mesoderm is arranged along the sides of the notochord and neural tube as repetitive structures called somites. In fact, somites are one of the first embryonic structures to display segmentation. Structures associated with the peripheral nervous system (PNS) such as dorsal root ganglia (DRG) develop a segmental alignment with the somites. In fact, the axons from the developing embryo neurons work under the direction of a variety of long-range and short-range cues. These cues are responsible for the determination of the trajectory of the neuron, and the mechanism of their development. Axons can follow various mechanisms including attractive/permissive or repulsive /inhibitory pathways of development. The confinement of the axons arising from the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), the neural crest cells and the motor neurons from ventral neural tube to the anterior portion of the mesodermal somite is a striking feature in higher vertebrates.

text: The groups of Alexander Gottschalk and Ernst Bamberg (with Georg Nagel taking the experimental lead) demonstrated that ChR2, if expressed in specific neurons or muscle cells, can evoke predictable behaviors, i.e. can control the nervous system of an intact animal, in this case the invertebrate C. elegans. This was the first using ChR2 to steer the behavior of an animal in an optogenetic experiment, rendering a genetically specified cell type subject to optical remote control. Although both aspects had been illustrated earlier that year by another group, the Miesenböck lab, deploying the indirectly light-gated ion channel P2X2, it was henceforth microbial opsins like channelrhodopsin that dominated the field of genetically targeted remote control of excitable cells, due to the power, speed, targetability, ease of use, and temporal precision of direct optical activation, not requiring any external chemical compound such as caged ligands.

text: The groups of Alexander Gottschalk and Ernst Bamberg (with Georg Nagel taking the experimental lead) demonstrated that ChR2, if expressed in specific neurons or muscle cells, can evoke predictable behaviors, i.e. can control the nervous system of an intact animal, in this case the invertebrate

text: C. elegans

text: . This was the first using ChR2 to steer the behavior of an animal in an optogenetic experiment, rendering a genetically specified cell type subject to optical remote control. Although both aspects had been illustrated earlier that year by another group, the

text: Miesenböck

text: lab, deploying the indirectly light-gated ion channel P2X2, it was henceforth microbial opsins like channelrhodopsin that dominated the field of genetically targeted remote control of excitable cells, due to the power, speed, targetability, ease of use, and temporal precision of direct optical activation, not requiring any external chemical compound such as caged ligands.

text: In 1866 he wrote a short story, combining physiological and psychological problems, entitled "The Case of George Dedlow", in the Atlantic Monthly. From that point onward, Mitchell, as a writer, divided his attention between professional and literary pursuits. In the former field, he produced monographs on rattlesnake venom, on intellectual hygiene, on injuries to the nerves, on neurasthenia, on nervous diseases of women, on the effects of gunshot wounds upon the nervous system, and on the relations between nurse, physician, and patient; while in the latter, he wrote juvenile stories, several volumes of respectable verse (The Hill of Stones and Other Poems was published in 1883 by Houghton, Mifflin and Co.); he also wrote prose fiction of varying merit, which nonetheless gave him a leading place among the American authors of the close of the 19th century. His historical novels, Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker (1897), The Adventures of François (1898), The Youth of Washington (1904) and The Red City (1909), take high rank in this branch of fiction.

text: In 1866 he wrote a short story, combining physiological and psychological problems, entitled "The Case of George Dedlow", in the

text: Atlantic Monthly

text: . From that point onward, Mitchell, as a writer, divided his attention between professional and literary pursuits. In the former field, he produced monographs on

text: rattlesnake

text: venom

text: , on intellectual

text: hygiene

text: , on injuries to the

text: nerve

text: s, on

text: neurasthenia

text: , on nervous diseases of women, on the effects of gunshot wounds upon the nervous system, and on the relations between nurse, physician, and patient; while in the latter, he wrote juvenile stories, several volumes of respectable

text: verse

text: (The Hill of Stones and Other Poems was published in 1883 by

text: Houghton, Mifflin and Co.

text: ); he also wrote prose fiction of varying merit, which nonetheless gave him a leading place among the American authors of the close of the 19th century. His historical novels, Hugh Wynne,

text: Free Quaker

text: (1897), The Adventures of François (1898), The Youth of Washington (1904) and

text: The Red City

text: (1909), take high rank in this branch of fiction.

text: Neurogenic shock is a distributive type of shock resulting in low blood pressure, occasionally with a slowed heart rate, that is attributed to the disruption of the autonomic pathways within the spinal cord.  It can occur after damage to the central nervous system such as spinal cord injury. Low blood pressure occurs due to decreased systemic vascular resistance resulting in pooling of blood within the extremities lacking sympathetic tone. The slowed heart rate results from unopposed vagal activity and has been found to be exacerbated by hypoxia and endobronchial suction.Neurogenic shock can be a potentially devastating complication, leading to organ dysfunction and death if not promptly recognized and treated. It is not to be confused with spinal shock, which is not circulatory in nature.

text: Neurogenic shock is a

text: distributive

text: type of

text: shock

text: resulting in

text: low blood pressure

text: , occasionally with a

text: slowed heart rate

text: , that is attributed to the disruption of the

text: autonomic

text: pathways within the spinal cord.  It can occur after damage to the

text: central nervous system

text: such as

text: spinal cord injury

text: . Low blood pressure occurs due to decreased

text: systemic vascular resistance

text: resulting in pooling of blood within the extremities lacking

text: sympathetic tone

text: . The slowed heart rate results from unopposed

text: vagal

text: activity and has been found to be exacerbated by

text: hypoxia

text: and endobronchial suction.Neurogenic shock can be a potentially devastating complication, leading to

text: organ dysfunction

text: and death if not promptly recognized and treated. It is not to be confused with

text: spinal shock

text: , which is not circulatory in nature.

text: Although the question of how the nervous system selects which particular degrees of freedom (DOFs) to use in a movement may be a problem to scientists, the abundance of DOFs is almost certainly an advantage to the mammalian and the invertebrate nervous systems. The human body has redundant anatomical DOFs (at muscles and joints), redundant kinematic DOFs (movements can have different trajectories, velocities, and accelerations and yet achieve the same goal), and redundant neurophysiological DOFs (multiple motoneurons synapsing on the same muscle, and vice versa). How the nervous system "chooses" a subset of these near-infinite DOFs is an overarching difficulty in understanding motor control and motor learning.

text: Although the question of how the

text: nervous system

text: selects which particular

text: degrees of freedom

text: (DOFs) to use in a movement may be a problem to scientists, the abundance of DOFs is almost certainly an advantage to the

text: mammal

text: ian and the

text: invertebrate

text: nervous system

text: s. The human body has redundant

text: anatomical

text: DOFs (at

text: muscle

text: s and

text: joint

text: s), redundant

text: kinematic

text: DOFs (movements can have different trajectories, velocities, and accelerations and yet achieve the same goal), and redundant

text: neurophysiological

text: DOFs (multiple

text: motoneurons

text: synapsing

text: on the same muscle, and vice versa). How the nervous system "chooses" a subset of these near-infinite DOFs is an overarching difficulty in understanding

text: motor control

text: and

text: motor learning

text: Dysautonomia is a term for a group of diseases that include postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS), multiple system atrophy, autonomic failure, and autonomic neuropathy. In these conditions the autonomic nervous system (ANS) does not work properly. Dysautonomia is most often a type of neuropathy affecting the nerves that carry information from the brain and spinal cord to the heart, bladder, intestines, sweat glands, pupils, and blood vessels; although it has many causes, not all of which classify as neuropathic.

text: Dysautonomia is a term for a group of diseases that include

entity_name: Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome

text: postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome

text: (POTS),

text: multiple system atrophy

text: , autonomic failure, and

text: autonomic neuropathy

text: . In these conditions the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: (ANS) does not work properly. Dysautonomia is most often a type of

text: neuropathy

text: affecting the nerves that carry information from the brain and spinal cord to the

text: heart

text: bladder

text: intestines

text: sweat glands

text: pupils

text: , and blood vessels; although it has many causes, not all of which classify as neuropathic.

text: The lobes rest on the tentorium cerebelli, a process of dura mater that separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum. They are structurally isolated in their respective cerebral hemispheres by the separation of the cerebral fissure. At the front edge of the occipital are several lateral occipital gyri, which are separated by lateral occipital sulcus.

text: The lobes rest on the

text: tentorium cerebelli

text: , a process of

text: dura mater

text: that separates the cerebrum from the

text: cerebellum

text: . They are structurally isolated in their respective cerebral hemispheres by the separation of the

text: cerebral fissure

text: . At the front edge of the occipital are several lateral

text: occipital gyri

text: , which are separated by

text: lateral occipital sulcus

text: Within the brain, the autonomic nervous system is regulated by the hypothalamus. Autonomic functions include control of respiration, cardiac regulation (the cardiac control center), vasomotor activity (the vasomotor center), and certain reflex actions such as coughing, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting. Those are then subdivided into other areas and are also linked to ANS subsystems and nervous systems external to the brain. The hypothalamus, just above the brain stem, acts as an integrator for autonomic functions, receiving ANS regulatory input from the limbic system to do so.

text: Within the brain, the autonomic nervous system is regulated by the

text: hypothalamus

text: . Autonomic functions include

text: control of respiration

text: cardiac regulation

text: (the cardiac control center),

text: vasomotor

text: activity (the

text: vasomotor center

text: ), and certain

text: reflex actions

text: such as

text: coughing

text: sneezing

text: swallowing

text: and

text: vomiting

text: . Those are then subdivided into other areas and are also linked to ANS subsystems and

text: nervous system

text: s external to the brain. The

text: hypothalamus

text: , just above the

text: brain stem

text: , acts as an integrator for autonomic functions, receiving ANS

text: regulatory

text: input from the

text: limbic system

text: to do so.

text: Human nervous system – the part of the human body that coordinates a person's voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of the body. The human nervous system consists of two main parts, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are long fibers that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS includes motor neurons, mediating voluntary movement, the autonomic nervous system, comprising the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system and regulating involuntary functions, and the enteric nervous system, a semi-independent part of the nervous system whose function is to control the gastrointestinal system.

text: Human nervous system

text: – the part of the

text: human body

text: that coordinates a person's voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals between different parts of the body. The human nervous system consists of two main parts, the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS). The CNS contains the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: . The PNS consists mainly of

text: nerve

text: s, which are long fibers that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. The PNS includes

text: motor neuron

text: s, mediating voluntary movement, the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , comprising the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: and regulating involuntary functions, and the

text: enteric nervous system

text: , a semi-independent part of the nervous system whose function is to control the gastrointestinal system.

text: REST/NRSF is an important silencer element that binds to regulatory regions to control the expression of certain proteins involved in neural functions. The mechanistic actions of huntingtin are still not fully understood, but a correlation between Htt and REST/NRSF exists in HD development. By attaching to the REST/NRSF, the mutated huntingtin protein inhibits the action of the silencer element, and retains it in the cytosol. Thus, REST/NRSF cannot enter the nucleus and bind to the 21 base-pair RE-1/NRSE regulatory element. An adequate repression of specific target genes are of fundamental importance, as many are involved in the proper development of neuronal receptors, neurotransmitters, synaptic vesicle proteins, and channel proteins. A deficiency in the proper development of these proteins can cause the neural dysfunctions seen in Huntington's disease. In addition to the lack of repression due to the inactive REST/NRSF, mutated huntingtin protein can also decrease the transcription of the brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) gene. BDNF influences the survival and development of neurons in the central nervous system as well as the peripheral nervous system. This abnormal repression occurs when the RE1/NRSE region within the BDNF promoter region is activated by the binding of REST/NRSF, which leads to the lack of transcription of the BDNF gene.  Hence, the anomalous repression of the BDNF protein suggests a significant impact in Huntington's disease.

text: REST/NRSF is an important silencer element that binds to regulatory regions to control the expression of certain proteins involved in neural functions. The mechanistic actions of huntingtin are still not fully understood, but a correlation between Htt and REST/NRSF exists in HD development. By attaching to the REST/NRSF, the mutated huntingtin protein inhibits the action of the silencer element, and retains it in the cytosol. Thus, REST/NRSF cannot enter the nucleus and bind to the 21 base-pair RE-1/NRSE regulatory element. An adequate repression of specific target genes are of fundamental importance, as many are involved in the proper development of neuronal receptors,

text: neurotransmitters

text: , synaptic vesicle proteins, and channel proteins. A deficiency in the proper development of these proteins can cause the neural dysfunctions seen in Huntington's disease. In addition to the lack of repression due to the inactive REST/NRSF, mutated huntingtin protein can also decrease the transcription of the

text: brain-derived neurotropic factor

text: (BDNF) gene. BDNF influences the survival and development of neurons in the central nervous system as well as the peripheral nervous system. This abnormal repression occurs when the RE1/NRSE region within the BDNF promoter region is activated by the binding of REST/NRSF, which leads to the lack of transcription of the BDNF gene.  Hence, the anomalous repression of the BDNF protein suggests a significant impact in Huntington's disease.

text: The AT receptor mediates the major cardiovascular effects of angiotensin II. Effects include vasoconstriction, aldosterone synthesis and secretion, increased vasopressin secretion, cardiac hypertrophy, augmentation of peripheral noradrenergic activity, vascular smooth muscle cells proliferation, decreased renal blood flow, renal renin inhibition, renal tubular sodium reuptake, modulation of central sympathetic nervous system activity, cardiac contractility, central osmocontrol and extracellular matrix formation.

text: The AT receptor mediates the major cardiovascular effects of angiotensin II. Effects include

text: vasoconstriction

text: aldosterone

text: synthesis and secretion, increased

text: vasopressin

text: secretion,

text: cardiac

text: hypertrophy

text: , augmentation of peripheral

text: noradrenergic activity

text: vascular

text: smooth muscle

text: cells proliferation, decreased

text: renal

text: blood flow, renal

text: renin

text: inhibition, renal tubular

text: sodium

text: reuptake, modulation of central

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: activity, cardiac contractility, central

text: osmocontrol

text: and

text: extracellular matrix

text: formation.

text: The teniae coli are regulated by the sacral nerves of the spinal cord, which are under control of the parasympathetic nervous system.

text: The teniae coli are regulated by the

text: sacral nerves

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: , which are under control of the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: In vertebrates, the first sign of the nervous system is the appearance of a thin strip of cells along the center of the back, called the neural plate.  The inner portion of the neural plate (along the midline) is destined to become the central nervous system (CNS), the outer portion the peripheral nervous system (PNS).  As development proceeds, a fold called the neural groove appears along the midline.  This fold deepens, and then closes up at the top.  At this point the future CNS appears as a cylindrical structure called the neural tube, whereas the future PNS appears as two strips of tissue called the neural crest, running lengthwise above the neural tube.  The sequence of stages from neural plate to neural tube and neural crest is known as neurulation.

text: In vertebrates, the first sign of the nervous system is the appearance of a thin strip of cells along the center of the back, called the

text: neural plate

text: .  The inner portion of the neural plate (along the midline) is destined to become the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), the outer portion the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS).  As development proceeds, a fold called the

text: neural groove

text: appears along the midline.  This fold deepens, and then closes up at the top.  At this point the future CNS appears as a cylindrical structure called the

text: neural tube

text: , whereas the future PNS appears as two strips of tissue called the

text: neural crest

text: , running lengthwise above the neural tube.  The sequence of stages from neural plate to neural tube and neural crest is known as

text: neurulation

text: It is also known to have an impact on DNA growth, and interfere with the human nervous system.

text: Spinal injury and spinal cord injury results when the body is exposed to forces greater than body parts can withstand. Force in amounts that can cause such damage commonly result from events such as auto crashes, falls from heights, falls, crashes and blows associated with sport and recreation, contact with an unmovable object or surface when diving, or from penetration by gunshot or sharp objects.

text: Compared to chemical synapses, electrical synapses conduct nerve impulses faster, but, unlike chemical synapses, they lack gain—the signal in the postsynaptic neuron is the same or smaller than that of the originating neuron. Electrical synapses are often found in neural systems that require the fastest possible response, such as defensive reflexes. An important characteristic of electrical synapses is that they are mostly bidirectional (allow impulse transmission in either direction).

text: Compared to

text: chemical synapse

text: s, electrical synapses conduct

text: nerve impulse

text: s faster, but, unlike chemical synapses, they lack

text: gain

text: —the signal in the postsynaptic neuron is the same or smaller than that of the originating neuron. Electrical synapses are often found in neural systems that require the fastest possible response, such as defensive reflexes. An important characteristic of electrical synapses is that they are mostly bidirectional (allow impulse transmission in either direction).

text: GENESIS (The GEneral NEural SImulation System)  is a simulation environment for constructing realistic models of neurobiological systems at many levels of scale including: sub-cellular processes, individual neurons, networks of neurons, and neuronal systems. These simulations are “computer-based implementations of models whose primary objective is to capture what is known of the anatomical structure and physiological characteristics of the neural system of interest”.  GENESIS is intended to quantify the physical framework of the nervous system in a way that allows for easy understanding of the physical structure of the nerves in question. “At present only GENESIS allows parallelized modeling of single neurons and networks on multiple-instruction-multiple-data parallel computers.” Development of GENESIS software spread from its home at Caltech to labs at the University of Texas at San Antonio, the University of Antwerp, the National Centre for Biological Sciences in Bangalore, the University of Colorado, the Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center, the San Diego Supercomputer Center, and Emory University.

text: GENESIS (The GEneral NEural SImulation System)  is a simulation environment for constructing realistic models of neurobiological systems at many levels of scale including: sub-cellular processes, individual neurons, networks of neurons, and neuronal systems. These simulations are “computer-based implementations of models whose primary objective is to capture what is known of the anatomical structure and physiological characteristics of the neural system of interest”.  GENESIS is intended to quantify the physical framework of the nervous system in a way that allows for easy understanding of the physical structure of the nerves in question. “At present only GENESIS allows parallelized modeling of single neurons and networks on multiple-instruction-multiple-data parallel computers.” Development of GENESIS software spread from its home at Caltech to labs at the

text: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: , the

text: University of Antwerp

text: , the

text: National Centre for Biological Sciences

text: in Bangalore, the

text: University of Colorado

text: , the

text: Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center

text: , the

text: San Diego Supercomputer Center

text: , and

text: Emory University

text: The most basic model of a neuron consists of an input with some synaptic weight vector and an activation function or transfer function inside the neuron determining output. This is the basic structure used in artificial neurons, which in a neural network often looks like

text: The most basic model of a neuron consists of an input with some

text: synaptic weight

text: vector and an

text: activation function

text: or

text: transfer function

text: inside the neuron determining output. This is the basic structure used in artificial neurons, which in a

text: neural network

text: often looks like

text: Established in 1997, Neurocare has raised more than £1.3 million to buy equipment that enhances the services the department provides. In the past it has funded equipment for patients with head injuries, brain tumours, strokes and cancers of the nervous system. It also buys specialist items for patients with neurological illnesses such as motor neurone disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and Parkinson's disease.

text: Established in 1997, Neurocare has raised more than £1.3 million to buy equipment that enhances the services the department provides. In the past it has funded equipment for patients with head injuries,

text: brain tumour

text: s,

text: stroke

text: s and

text: cancer

text: s of the

text: nervous system

text: . It also buys specialist items for patients with neurological illnesses such as

text: motor neurone disease

text: multiple sclerosis

text: epilepsy

text: , and

text: Parkinson's disease

text: Following his graduation in electrical engineering in 1963, and the beginning of his postgraduate research in biology, Bennett discovered that the accepted paradigm of nearly 50 years, that there are only two transmitters, noradrenaline and acetylcholine, was incorrect there being at least two other transmitters. These non-adrenergic and non-cholinergic (NANC) transmitters act on smooth muscle cells, they generate action potentials due to the influx of calcium ions, the first to be identified. In the succeeding years Bennett and his colleagues elucidated how NANC transmission, involving purines, neuropeptides and nitric oxide, is affected. In 1972 he discovered that lesioned nerve terminals are precisely reconstituted at the same site on a striated muscle cell, indicating the existence of synapse formation molecules on muscle cells. In 2001 Bennett and colleagues showed that once a nerve terminal is established the glial ensheathing cells can guide the formation of new synapses on mature muscle cells in a matter of minutes. In 2007 he observed that  microglial cells of the brain can conduct calcium waves that are mediated by the release of NANC transmitters (purines), opening up the study of the interaction of the immune and nervous systems at the level of the synapse.

text: Following his graduation in electrical engineering in 1963, and the beginning of his postgraduate research in biology, Bennett discovered that the accepted paradigm of nearly 50 years, that there are only two

text: transmitters

text: noradrenaline

text: and

text: acetylcholine

text: , was incorrect there being at least two other transmitters. These non-adrenergic and non-cholinergic (NANC) transmitters act on

text: smooth muscle cells

text: , they generate

text: action potentials

text: due to the influx of calcium ions, the first to be identified. In the succeeding years Bennett and his colleagues elucidated how NANC transmission, involving

text: purines

text: neuropeptides

text: and nitric oxide, is affected. In 1972 he discovered that lesioned nerve terminals are precisely reconstituted at the same site on a striated muscle cell, indicating the existence of synapse formation molecules on muscle cells. In 2001 Bennett and colleagues showed that once a nerve terminal is established the glial ensheathing cells can guide the formation of new synapses on mature muscle cells in a matter of minutes. In 2007 he observed that  microglial cells of the brain can conduct calcium waves that are mediated by the release of NANC transmitters (purines), opening up the study of the interaction of the immune and nervous systems at the level of the synapse.

text: The largest single sensory feature is the aboral organ (at the opposite end from the mouth). Its main component is a statocyst, a balance sensor consisting of a statolith, a tiny grain of calcium carbonate, supported on four bundles of cilia, called "balancers", that sense its orientation. The statocyst is protected by a transparent dome made of long, immobile cilia. A ctenophore does not automatically try to keep the statolith resting equally on all the balancers. Instead its response is determined by the animal's "mood", in other words the overall state of the nervous system. For example, if a ctenophore with trailing tentacles captures prey, it will often put some comb rows into reverse, spinning the mouth towards the prey.

text: The largest single sensory feature is the

text: aboral

text: organ (at the opposite end from the mouth). Its main component is a

text: statocyst

text: , a balance sensor consisting of a statolith, a tiny grain of calcium carbonate, supported on four bundles of

text: cilia

text: , called "balancers", that sense its orientation. The statocyst is protected by a transparent dome made of long, immobile cilia. A ctenophore does not automatically try to keep the statolith resting equally on all the balancers. Instead its response is determined by the animal's "mood", in other words the overall state of the nervous system. For example, if a ctenophore with trailing tentacles captures prey, it will often put some comb rows into reverse, spinning the mouth towards the prey.

text: The cardiovascular system is regulated by the autonomic nervous system, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.  A distinct balance between these systems is crucial for the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease.  An imbalance can be caused by hormone levels, lifestyle, environmental stressors, and injuries.

text: The cardiovascular system is regulated by the autonomic nervous system, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.  A distinct balance between these systems is crucial for the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease.  An imbalance can be caused by

text: hormone

text: levels, lifestyle, environmental stressors, and injuries.

text: Surgery may be needed to stabilize the neck and relieve pressure on the spinal cord. A variety of surgeries are available depending on the injury. Surgery to remove a damaged intervertebral disc may be done to relieve pressure on the spinal cord. The discs are cushions between the vertebrae. After the disc is removed, the vertebrae may be fused together to provide stability. Metal plates, screws, or wires may be needed to hold vertebrae or pieces in place.

text: Surgery may be needed to stabilize the neck and relieve pressure on the spinal cord. A variety of surgeries are available depending on the injury. Surgery to remove a damaged

text: intervertebral disc

text: may be done to relieve pressure on the spinal cord. The discs are cushions between the vertebrae. After the disc is removed, the vertebrae may be fused together to provide stability. Metal plates, screws, or wires may be needed to hold vertebrae or pieces in place.

text: Blood pressure is continuously regulated by the autonomic nervous system, using an elaborate network of receptors, nerves, and hormones to balance the effects of the sympathetic nervous system, which tends to raise blood pressure, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which lowers it. The vast and rapid compensation abilities of the autonomic nervous system allow normal individuals to maintain an acceptable blood pressure over a wide range of activities and in many disease states.

text: Blood pressure is continuously regulated by the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , using an elaborate network of

text: receptors

text: nerve

text: s, and

text: hormone

text: s to balance the effects of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , which tends to raise blood pressure, and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: , which lowers it. The vast and rapid compensation abilities of the autonomic nervous system allow normal individuals to maintain an acceptable blood pressure over a wide range of activities and in many disease states.

text: Voltage-gated sodium channels are proteins found in the membrane of neurons. When electrically activated, they allow the movement of sodium ions across a plasma membrane. These channels are responsible for propagation of electrical signals in nerve cells. Voltage-gated sodium channels can be divided into two subunits: alpha and beta. A variety of alpha subunit voltage-gated sodium channels have been identified. Voltage-gated sodium channels found in mammals can be divided into three types: Nav1.x, Nav2.x, and Nav3.x. Nav1.x sodium channels are associated with the central nervous system. Nav1.1, Nav2.2, and Nav1.6 are three isoforms of the voltage-gated sodium channels that are present at high levels in the central nervous system of an adult rat brain. These channels have been well documented in the axonal membrane of the central nervous system. Nav1.2 has been primarily identified in unmyelinated axons while high concentrations of Nav1.6 have been observed at nodes of Ranvier of axons. Nav1.6 has been identified in the dendrites of hippocampal CA1 neurons that generate dendritic spikes; the density of Nav1.6 in these neurons is 35-80 times lower than in the initial segments of axons.

text: Voltage-gated sodium channels are

text: proteins

text: found in the membrane of neurons. When electrically activated, they allow the movement of sodium ions across a

text: plasma membrane

text: . These channels are responsible for propagation of electrical signals in nerve cells. Voltage-gated sodium channels can be divided into two subunits: alpha and beta. A variety of alpha subunit voltage-gated sodium channels have been identified. Voltage-gated sodium channels found in mammals can be divided into three types: Nav1.x, Nav2.x, and Nav3.x. Nav1.x sodium channels are associated with the

text: central nervous system

text: . Nav1.1, Nav2.2, and Nav1.6 are three

text: isoforms

text: of the voltage-gated sodium channels that are present at high levels in the central nervous system of an adult rat brain. These channels have been well documented in the axonal membrane of the central nervous system. Nav1.2 has been primarily identified in unmyelinated axons while high concentrations of Nav1.6 have been observed at

text: nodes of Ranvier

text: of axons. Nav1.6 has been identified in the dendrites of hippocampal CA1 neurons that generate dendritic spikes; the density of Nav1.6 in these neurons is 35-80 times lower than in the initial segments of axons.

text: In a paper published in the January 2010 issue of Science, an international team of researchers announced that devil facial tumour disease likely originated in the Schwann cells of a single devil. Schwann cells are found in the peripheral nervous system, and produce myelin and other proteins essential for the functions of nerve cells in the peripheral nervous system. The researchers sampled 25 tumours and found that the tumours were genetically identical. Using deep sequencing technology, they then profiled the tumours' transcriptome, the set of genes that are active in tumours. The transcriptomes closely matched those of Schwann cells, revealing high activity in many of the genes coding for myelin basic protein production. Several specific markers were identified by the team, including the MBP and PRX genes, which may enable veterinarians to more easily distinguish DFTD from other types of cancer, and may eventually help identify a genetic pathway that can be targeted to treat it.

text: In a paper published in the January 2010 issue of

text: Science

text: , an international team of researchers announced that devil facial tumour disease likely originated in the

text: Schwann cell

text: s of a single devil. Schwann cells are found in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , and produce

text: myelin

text: and other proteins essential for the functions of nerve cells in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: . The researchers sampled 25 tumours and found that the tumours were genetically identical. Using

text: deep sequencing

text: technology, they then profiled the tumours'

text: transcriptome

text: , the set of genes that are

text: active

text: in tumours. The transcriptomes closely matched those of Schwann cells, revealing high activity in many of the genes coding for

text: myelin basic protein

text: production. Several specific markers were identified by the team, including the MBP and PRX genes, which may enable veterinarians to more easily distinguish DFTD from other types of cancer, and may eventually help identify a genetic pathway that can be targeted to treat it.

text: Spinal cord injuries are most often caused by physical trauma. Forces involved can be hyperflexion (forward movement of the head); hyperextension (backward movement); lateral stress (sideways movement); rotation (twisting of the head); compression (force along the axis of the spine downward from the head or upward from the pelvis); or distraction (pulling apart of the vertebrae). Traumatic SCI can result in contusion, compression, or stretch injury.

text: Spinal cord injuries are most often caused by

text: physical trauma

text: . Forces involved can be

text: hyperflexion

text: (forward movement of the head);

text: hyperextension

text: (backward movement); lateral stress (sideways movement);

text: rotation

text: (twisting of the head); compression (force along the axis of the spine downward from the head or upward from the pelvis); or

text: distraction

text: (pulling apart of the vertebrae). Traumatic SCI can result in

text: contusion

text: compression

text: , or stretch injury.

text: TRPV1 is also expressed at high levels in the central nervous system and has been proposed as a target for treatment not only of pain but also for other conditions such as anxiety.Furthermore, TRPV1 appears to mediate long-term synaptic depression (LTD) in the hippocampus. LTD has been linked to a decrease in the ability to make new memories, unlike its opposite long-term potentiation (LTP), which aids in memory formation. A dynamic pattern of LTD and LTP occurring at many synapses provides a code for memory formation. Long-term depression and subsequent pruning of synapses with reduced activity is an important aspect of memory formation. In rat brain slices, activation of TRPV1 with  heat or capsaicin induced LTD while capsazepine blocked capsaicin's ability to induce LTD.  In the brainstem (solitary tract nucleus), TRPV1 controls the asynchronous and spontaneous release of glutamate from unmyelinated cranial visceral afferents - release processes that are active at normal temperatures and hence quite distinct from TRPV1 responses in painful heat. Hence, there may be therapeutic potential in modulating TRPV1 in the central nervous system, perhaps as a treatment for epilepsy (TRPV1 is already a target in the peripheral nervous system for pain relief).

text: TRPV1 is also expressed at high levels in the

text: central nervous system

text: and has been proposed as a target for treatment not only of pain but also for other conditions such as

text: anxiety

text: .Furthermore, TRPV1 appears to mediate long-term synaptic depression (LTD) in the

text: hippocampus

text: . LTD has been linked to a decrease in the ability to make new memories, unlike its opposite

text: long-term potentiation

text: (LTP), which aids in memory formation. A dynamic pattern of LTD and LTP occurring at many synapses provides a code for memory formation. Long-term depression and subsequent pruning of synapses with reduced activity is an important aspect of memory formation. In rat brain slices, activation of TRPV1 with  heat or capsaicin induced LTD while capsazepine blocked capsaicin's ability to induce LTD.  In the brainstem (solitary tract nucleus), TRPV1 controls the asynchronous and spontaneous release of glutamate from unmyelinated cranial visceral afferents - release processes that are active at normal temperatures and hence quite distinct from TRPV1 responses in painful heat. Hence, there may be therapeutic potential in modulating TRPV1 in the central nervous system, perhaps as a treatment for epilepsy (TRPV1 is already a target in the peripheral nervous system for pain relief).

text: Neurology (from , neuron, and the suffix-λογία -logia "study of") is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the central and peripheral nervous system (and its subdivisions, the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system); including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle. Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, which is the scientific study of the nervous system.

text: Neurology (from , neuron, and the suffix-λογία

text: -logia

text: "study of") is a branch of

text: medicine

text: dealing with

text: disorders of the nervous system

text: . Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the

text: central

text: and

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (and its subdivisions, the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: and the

text: somatic nervous system

text: ); including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle. Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of

text: neuroscience

text: , which is the scientific study of the

text: nervous system

text: Neural oscillations are observed throughout the central nervous system at all levels, and include spike trains, local field potentials and large-scale oscillations which can be measured by electroencephalography (EEG). In general, oscillations can be characterized by their frequency, amplitude and phase. These signal properties can be extracted from neural recordings using time-frequency analysis. In large-scale oscillations, amplitude changes are considered to result from changes in synchronization within a neural ensemble, also referred to as local synchronization. In addition to local synchronization, oscillatory activity of distant neural structures (single neurons or neural ensembles) can synchronize. Neural oscillations and synchronization have been linked to many cognitive functions such as information transfer, perception, motor control and memory.

text: Neural oscillations are observed throughout the central nervous system at all levels, and include

text: spike trains

text: local field potentials

text: and large-scale

text: oscillation

text: s which can be measured by

text: electroencephalography

text: (EEG). In general, oscillations can be characterized by their

text: frequency

text: amplitude

text: and

text: phase

text: . These signal properties can be extracted from neural recordings using

text: time-frequency analysis

text: . In large-scale oscillations, amplitude changes are considered to result from changes in synchronization within a

text: neural ensemble

text: , also referred to as local synchronization. In addition to local synchronization, oscillatory activity of distant neural structures (single neurons or neural ensembles) can synchronize. Neural oscillations and synchronization have been linked to many cognitive functions such as information transfer, perception, motor control and memory.

text: Research done at the Medical School of University of Pennsylvania found substantial differences in brain connectivity between males and females in 2013. The study examined 949 individuals (521 females and 428 males) of ages between 8 and 22. Overall, male brains showed better connectivity from back to front and within hemispheres, while female brains showed more connectivity between left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum. In contrast to connectivity to the cerebrum, in the cerebellum, the part of the brain that plays a major role in motor task, males showed higher inter-hemispheric connectivity while females showed higher intra-hemispheric connectivity. The differences were more pronounced in people aged 14 or older.

text: Research done at the Medical School of

text: University of Pennsylvania

text: found substantial differences in brain connectivity between males and females in 2013. The study examined 949 individuals (521 females and 428 males) of ages between 8 and 22. Overall, male brains showed better connectivity from back to front and within

text: hemisphere

text: s, while female brains showed more connectivity between left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum. In contrast to connectivity to the

text: cerebrum

text: , in the

text: cerebellum

text: , the part of the brain that plays a major role in motor task, males showed higher inter-hemispheric connectivity while females showed higher intra-hemispheric connectivity. The differences were more pronounced in people aged 14 or older.

text: The gene NRG1 codes for neuregulin 1, a growth factor which is crucial to the development of the nervous system, and to neurotransmission and formation of synapses in adults. NRG1 and the gene for the receptor to which neuregulin 1 binds, ERBB4, have been tested as possible animal models of schizophrenia. While mice which have two copies of (are homozygous for) a knocked out version of NRG1 do not survive, viable animal models have been developed using heterozygous or partial knockout. One such mouse model is the heterozygous removal of the EGF-like domain on neuregulin 1, these models are called Nrg1(ΔEGF) mice. Nrg1(ΔEGF) mice have been shown to have social interaction problems, reduced prepulse of inhibition and larger spontaneous locomotion. Other neuregulin 1 models include the heterozygous removal of the transmembrane domain (Nrg1(ΔTM) mice) and the immunoglobulin domain (Nrg1(ΔIg) mice). Nrg1(ΔTM) mice display hyperactivity in various conditions, an effect which is reduced by the atypical antipsychotic clozapine.

text: The gene NRG1 codes for

text: neuregulin 1

text: , a

text: growth factor

text: which is crucial to the development of the nervous system, and to

text: neurotransmission

text: and

text: formation of synapses

text: in adults. NRG1 and the gene for the

text: receptor

text: to which neuregulin 1 binds,

text: , have been tested as possible animal models of schizophrenia. While mice which have two copies of (are

text: homozygous

text: for) a knocked out version of NRG1 do not survive, viable animal models have been developed using

text: heterozygous

text: or partial knockout. One such mouse model is the heterozygous removal of the

text: EGF-like domain

text: on neuregulin 1, these models are called Nrg1(ΔEGF) mice. Nrg1(ΔEGF) mice have been shown to have social interaction problems, reduced prepulse of inhibition and larger spontaneous locomotion. Other neuregulin 1 models include the heterozygous removal of the

text: transmembrane domain

text: (Nrg1(ΔTM) mice) and the

text: immunoglobulin

text: domain (Nrg1(ΔIg) mice). Nrg1(ΔTM) mice display hyperactivity in various conditions, an effect which is reduced by the atypical antipsychotic

text: clozapine

text: Grey matter (or gray matter) is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and myelinated as well as unmyelinated axons), glial cells (astroglia and oligodendrocytes), synapses, and capillaries. Grey matter is distinguished from white matter, in that it contains numerous cell bodies and relatively few myelinated axons, while white matter contains relatively very few cell bodies and is composed chiefly of long-range myelinated axon tracts. The colour difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue, grey matter actually has a very light grey colour with yellowish or pinkish hues, which come from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies.

text: Grey matter (or gray matter) is a major component of the

text: central nervous system

text: , consisting of

text: neuron

text: al

text: cell bodies

text: neuropil

text: dendrites

text: and

text: myelinated as well as unmyelinated

text: axons

text: glial cell

text: s (

text: astroglia

text: and

text: oligodendrocytes

text: synapse

text: s, and

text: capillaries

text: . Grey matter is distinguished from

text: white matter

text: , in that it contains numerous cell bodies and relatively few myelinated axons, while white matter contains relatively very few cell bodies and is composed chiefly of long-range myelinated axon tracts. The colour difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue, grey matter actually has a very light grey colour with yellowish or pinkish hues, which come from

text: capillary

text: blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies.

text: Hereditary sensory neuropathy, type II also known as HSN2 is a protein which in humans in encoded by the HSN2. It is a single-exon ORF, and a nervous system-specific exon of the WNK1 gene.  HSN2 is as an alternatively spliced exon of WNK1 and this selectively occurs in nervous tissues, resulting in WNK1/HSN2 nervous system isoforms.

text: Hereditary sensory neuropathy, type II also known as HSN2 is a

text: protein

text: which in humans in encoded by the HSN2. It is a single-

text: exon

text: ORF

text: , and a nervous system-specific exon of the

text: gene.  HSN2 is as an alternatively spliced exon of WNK1 and this selectively occurs in nervous tissues, resulting in WNK1/HSN2

text: nervous system

text: isoform

text: s.

text: BDNF acts on certain neurons of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system, helping to support the survival of existing neurons, and encourage the growth and differentiation of new neurons and synapses.  In the brain, it is active in the hippocampus, cortex, and basal forebrain—areas vital to learning, memory, and higher thinking. It is also expressed in the retina, motor neurons, the kidneys, saliva, and the prostate.

text: BDNF acts on certain

text: neuron

text: s of the

text: central nervous system

text: and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , helping to support the survival of existing neurons, and encourage the growth and

text: differentiation

text: of new neurons and

text: synapse

text: s.  In the brain, it is active in the

text: hippocampus

text: cortex

text: , and

text: basal forebrain

text: —areas vital to

text: learning

text: memory

text: , and higher thinking. It is also expressed in the retina, motor neurons, the kidneys, saliva, and the prostate.

text: Network construction is graphical, with neurons dragged and dropped into a network and synapses drawn between them. When a synapse is drawn, the user specifies what type to use. Both spiking and nonspiking chemical synapses, as well as electrical synapses, are available. Both short-term (through facilitation) and long term (Hebbian) learning mechanisms are available, greatly increasing the capability of the nervous systems constructed.

text: Network construction is graphical, with neurons dragged and dropped into a network and synapses drawn between them. When a synapse is drawn, the user specifies what type to use. Both spiking and nonspiking

text: chemical synapses

text: , as well as

text: electrical synapse

text: s, are available. Both short-term (through

text: facilitation

text: ) and long term (

text: Hebbian

text: ) learning mechanisms are available, greatly increasing the capability of the nervous systems constructed.

text: It is possible to arrange a radar so the lobes are not being moved in the broadcaster, only the receiver. To do this, one adds a second antenna with the rotating lobe for reception only, a system known as COSRO, for Conical Scan on Receive Only (compare to LORO, a similar system used against lobe switching radars). Although this denied lobing frequency information to the jammer in the aircraft, it was still possible to simply send out random spikes  and thereby confuse the tracking system (or operator). This technique, called SSW for Swept Square Wave, doesn't protect the aircraft with the same sort of effectiveness as inverse gain, but is better than nothing and often fairly effective.

text: It is possible to arrange a radar so the lobes are not being moved in the broadcaster, only the receiver. To do this, one adds a second antenna with the rotating lobe for reception only, a system known as COSRO, for Conical Scan on Receive Only (compare to LORO, a similar system used against

text: lobe switching

text: radars). Although this denied lobing frequency information to the jammer in the aircraft, it was still possible to simply send out random spikes  and thereby confuse the tracking system (or operator). This technique, called SSW for Swept Square Wave, doesn't protect the aircraft with the same sort of effectiveness as inverse gain, but is better than nothing and often fairly effective.

text: There are three layers to the cerebellar cortex; from outer to inner layer, these are the molecular, Purkinje, and granular layers. The function of the cerebellar cortex is essentially to modulate information flowing through the deep nuclei. The microcircuitry of the cerebellum is schematized in Figure 5. Mossy and climbing fibers carry sensorimotor information into the deep nuclei, which in turn pass it on to various premotor areas, thus regulating the gain and timing of motor actions. Mossy and climbing fibers also feed this information into the cerebellar cortex, which performs various computations, resulting in the regulation of Purkinje cell firing. Purkinje neurons feed back into the deep nuclei via a potent inhibitory synapse. This synapse regulates the extent to which mossy and climbing fibers activate the deep nuclei, and thus control the ultimate effect of the cerebellum on motor function. The synaptic strength of almost every synapse in the cerebellar cortex has been shown to undergo synaptic plasticity. This allows the circuitry of the cerebellar cortex to continuously adjust and fine-tune the output of the cerebellum, forming the basis of some types of motor learning and coordination. Each layer in the cerebellar cortex contains the various cell types that comprise this circuitry.

text: There are three layers to the cerebellar cortex; from outer to inner layer, these are the molecular, Purkinje, and granular layers. The function of the cerebellar cortex is essentially to modulate information flowing through the deep nuclei. The microcircuitry of the cerebellum is schematized in Figure 5.

text: Mossy

text: and

text: climbing fiber

text: s carry sensorimotor information into the deep nuclei, which in turn pass it on to various premotor areas, thus regulating the

text: gain

text: and timing of motor actions. Mossy and climbing fibers also feed this information into the cerebellar cortex, which performs various computations, resulting in the regulation of Purkinje cell firing. Purkinje neurons feed back into the deep nuclei via a potent inhibitory

text: synapse

text: . This synapse regulates the extent to which mossy and climbing fibers activate the deep nuclei, and thus control the ultimate effect of the cerebellum on motor function. The synaptic strength of almost every synapse in the cerebellar cortex has been shown to undergo

text: synaptic plasticity

text: . This allows the circuitry of the cerebellar cortex to continuously adjust and fine-tune the output of the cerebellum, forming the basis of some types of motor learning and coordination. Each layer in the cerebellar cortex contains the various cell types that comprise this circuitry.

text: Everyone has a natural set point for their ability to experience stress. For some people, this is a very high threshold, whereas other people can become overwhelmed very quickly.  Emotional pain activates the same regions of the brain as physical pain, so this can be a significantly intolerable state for some people. Some of this is environmental and some of this is due to physiological differences in responding. The autonomic nervous system is composed of two components: the sympathetic nervous system controls arousal and physical activation (i. e. the fight-or-flight response) and the parasympathetic nervous system controls physical processes that are automatic (e.g., saliva production). The sympathetic nervous system innervates (i.e., is physically connected to and regulates) many parts of the body involved in stress responses. Studies of adolescents have shown that adolescents who self-injure have greater physiological reactivity (i.e., skin conductance) to stress than adolescents who do not self-injure. This stress response persists over time, staying constant or even increasing in self-injuring adolescents, but gradually decreases in adolescents who do not self-injure.

text: Everyone has a natural set point for their ability to experience stress. For some people, this is a very high threshold, whereas other people can become overwhelmed very quickly.  Emotional pain activates the same regions of the brain as physical pain, so this can be a significantly intolerable state for some people. Some of this is environmental and some of this is due to physiological differences in responding. The

text: autonomic nervous system

text: is composed of two components: the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: controls arousal and physical activation (i. e. the

text: fight-or-flight response

text: ) and the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: controls physical processes that are automatic (e.g., saliva production). The sympathetic nervous system innervates (i.e., is physically connected to and regulates) many parts of the body involved in stress responses. Studies of adolescents have shown that adolescents who self-injure have greater physiological reactivity (i.e., skin conductance) to stress than adolescents who do not self-injure. This stress response persists over time, staying constant or even increasing in self-injuring adolescents, but gradually decreases in adolescents who do not self-injure.

text: Sensoriality makes possible the meaning of the need and defense.  But, it is not more or less affective.  Because the affectivity which is fuzzy and vague cannot be divided into degrees, sensoriality is instead more or less representative.

text: A synaptopathy is a disease of the brain, spinal cord or peripheral nervous system relating to the dysfunction of synapses. This can arise as a result of a mutation in a gene encoding a synaptic protein such as an ion channel, neurotransmitter receptor, or a protein involved in neurotransmitter release. It can also arise as a result of an autoantibody targeting a synaptic protein. Synaptopathies caused by ion channel mutations are also known as synaptic channelopathies. An example is Episodic Ataxia. Myasthenia gravis is an example of an autoimmune synaptopathy. Some toxins also affect synaptic function. Tetanus toxin and botulinum toxin affect neurotransmitter release. Tetanus toxin can enter the body via a wound, and botulinum toxin can be  ingested or administered therapeutically to alleviate dystonia or as cosmetic treatment.

text: A synaptopathy is a disease of the

text: brain

text: spinal cord

text: or

text: peripheral nervous system

text: relating to the dysfunction of

text: synapses

text: . This can arise as a result of a mutation in a gene encoding a synaptic protein such as an

text: ion channel

text: neurotransmitter receptor

text: , or a protein involved in

text: neurotransmitter release

text: . It can also arise as a result of an

text: autoantibody

text: targeting a synaptic protein. Synaptopathies caused by

text: ion channel

text: mutations are also known as synaptic

text: channelopathies

text: . An example is

text: Episodic Ataxia

text: Myasthenia gravis

text: is an example of an

text: autoimmune

text: synaptopathy. Some toxins also affect synaptic function. Tetanus toxin and botulinum toxin affect neurotransmitter release. Tetanus toxin can enter the body via a wound, and botulinum toxin can be  ingested or administered therapeutically to alleviate dystonia or as cosmetic treatment.

text: The peripheral nervous system is divided into somatic nervous system, sensory nervous systems, and autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control, and transmits signals from the brain to end organs such as muscle

text: The peripheral nervous system is divided into somatic nervous system, sensory nervous systems, and autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control, and transmits signals from the brain to end organs such as

text: muscle

text: Several types of axon pathways have been extensively studied in model systems to further understand the mechanisms of axon guidance. Perhaps the two most prominent of these are commissures and topographic maps. Commissures are sites where axons cross the midline from one side of the nervous system to the other. Topographic maps are systems in which groups of neurons in one tissue project their axons to another tissue in an organized arrangement such that spatial relationships are maintained; i.e. adjacent neurons will innervate adjacent regions of the target tissue.

text: Vertebrates are the only chordate group to exhibit a proper brain. A slight swelling of the anterior end of the dorsal nerve cord is found in the lancelet, though it lacks the eyes and other complex sense organs comparable to those of vertebrates. Other chordates do not show any trends towards cephalisation. The central nervous system is based on a hollow nerve tube running along the length of the animal, from which the peripheral nervous system branches out to innervate the various systems. The front end of the nerve tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles: The prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain), further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed eyes form around outgrows from the midbrain, except in hagfish, though this may be a secondary loss. The forebrain is well developed and subdivided in most tetrapods, while the midbrain dominate in many fish and some salamanders. Vesicles of the forebrain are usually paired, giving rise to hemispheres like the cerebral hemispheres in mammals. The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single, hollow ventral nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles is unique to vertebrates.

text: Vertebrates are the only

text: chordate

text: group to exhibit a proper

text: brain

text: . A slight swelling of the anterior end of the

text: dorsal nerve cord

text: is found in the

text: lancelet

text: , though it lacks the eyes and other complex sense organs comparable to those of vertebrates. Other chordates do not show any trends towards cephalisation. The

text: central nervous system

text: is based on a hollow nerve tube running along the length of the animal, from which the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: branches out to innervate the various systems. The front end of the nerve tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the

text: central canal of spinal cord

text: into three primary brain vesicles: The

text: prosencephalon

text: (forebrain),

text: mesencephalon

text: (midbrain) and

text: rhombencephalon

text: eye

text: s form around outgrows from the midbrain, except in

text: hagfish

text: tetrapod

text: s, while the midbrain dominate in many

text: fish

text: and some

text: salamander

text: cerebral hemisphere

text: s in

text: mammals

text: . The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single, hollow

text: ventral nerve cord

text: topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles is unique to vertebrates.

text: The central nervous system (CNS) works with the peripheral nervous system in cutaneous innervation. The CNS is responsible for processing the information it receives from the cutaneous nerves that detect a given stimulus, and then identifying the kind of sensory inputs which project to a specific region of the primary somatosensory cortex.

text: The

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) works with the peripheral nervous system in cutaneous innervation. The CNS is responsible for processing the information it receives from the

text: cutaneous nerves

text: that detect a given stimulus, and then identifying the kind of sensory inputs which project to a specific region of the

text: primary somatosensory cortex

text: Cyclobuxine falls under the following classes of toxins: inflammatory, cytotoxic, neurotoxic. Cytotoxins can interfere with important cellular functions by targeting biological membranes (which control the import and export of metabolites and ions in cells), several enzymes and proteins as well as DNA/RNA and related processes. Neurotoxins can affect important ion channels of neuronal cells, such as Na+, K+ and Ca2+ channels by either permanent activation or inhibition. Both inhibition and activation block the transduction of neuronal signals and thereby prohibit the activity of the central nervous system as well as neuromuscular signaling.

text: Cyclobuxine falls under the following classes of toxins:

text: inflammatory

text: cytotoxic

text: , neurotoxic. Cytotoxins can interfere with important cellular functions by targeting biological membranes (which control the import and export of metabolites and ions in cells), several enzymes and proteins as well as DNA/RNA and related processes. Neurotoxins can affect important ion channels of neuronal cells, such as Na+, K+ and Ca2+ channels by either permanent activation or inhibition. Both inhibition and activation block the transduction of neuronal signals and thereby prohibit the activity of the

text: central nervous system

text: as well as neuromuscular signaling.

text: Phosphodiesterase 4 is a member of the phosphodiesterase family of proteins that cleave phosphodiester bonds. This is an important step in degrading cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), a major intracellular signaling molecule; conversely, blocking PDE4 will increase cAMP. Increased intracellular cAMP levels in neurons has been previously shown to induce axonal growth. In 2004, Nikulina et al. showed that administration of rolipram, a PDE4 inhibitor, can increase cAMP levels in neurons after spinal cord injury. This is partially possible because rolipram is sufficiently small to pass through the blood–brain barrier and immediately begin to catalyze reactions in neurons. 10 day administration of rolipram in spinal cord injured rodents resulted in considerable axonal growth associated with a reduction in glial scarring at 2 weeks post-injury. The mechanism for this reduction in glial scarring is currently unknown, but possible mechanisms include axonal extensions that physically prevent reactive astrocytes from proliferating, as well as chemical signaling events to reduce reactive astrogliosis.

text: Phosphodiesterase 4 is a member of the

text: phosphodiesterase

text: family of proteins that cleave

text: phosphodiester

text: bonds. This is an important step in degrading

text: cyclic adenosine monophosphate

text: (cAMP), a major intracellular signaling molecule; conversely, blocking PDE4 will increase cAMP. Increased intracellular cAMP levels in neurons has been previously shown to induce axonal growth. In 2004, Nikulina et al. showed that administration of

text: rolipram

text: , a PDE4 inhibitor, can increase cAMP levels in neurons after

text: spinal cord injury

text: . This is partially possible because rolipram is sufficiently small to pass through the

text: blood–brain barrier

text: and immediately begin to catalyze reactions in neurons. 10 day administration of rolipram in spinal cord injured rodents resulted in considerable axonal growth associated with a reduction in glial scarring at 2 weeks post-injury. The mechanism for this reduction in glial scarring is currently unknown, but possible mechanisms include axonal extensions that physically prevent reactive astrocytes from proliferating, as well as chemical signaling events to reduce reactive astrogliosis.

text: Colpocephaly is a cephalic disorder involving the disproportionate enlargement of the occipital horns of the lateral ventricles and is usually diagnosed early after birth due to seizures. It is a nonspecific finding and is associated with multiple neurological syndromes, including agenesis of the corpus callosum, Chiari malformation, lissencephaly, and microcephaly. Although the exact cause of colpocephaly is not known yet, it is commonly believed to occur as a result of neuronal migration disorders during early brain development, intrauterine disturbances, perinatal injuries, and other central nervous system disorders.  Individuals with colpocephaly have various degrees of motor disabilities, visual defects, spasticity, and moderate to severe intellectual disability.No specific treatment for colpocephaly exists, but patients may undergo certain treatments to improve their motor function or intellectual disability.

text: Colpocephaly is a

text: cephalic disorder

text: involving the disproportionate enlargement of the

text: occipital horns

text: of the

text: lateral ventricles

text: and is usually diagnosed early after birth due to

text: seizures

text: . It is a nonspecific finding and is associated with multiple

text: neurological syndromes

text: , including

text: agenesis of the corpus callosum

text: Chiari malformation

text: lissencephaly

text: , and

text: microcephaly

text: . Although the exact cause of colpocephaly is not known yet, it is commonly believed to occur as a result of

text: neuronal migration disorders

text: during early brain development,

text: intrauterine

text: disturbances, perinatal injuries, and other

text: central nervous system

text: disorders.  Individuals with colpocephaly have various degrees of motor disabilities, visual defects,

text: spasticity

text: , and moderate to severe

text: intellectual disability

text: .No specific treatment for colpocephaly exists, but patients may undergo certain treatments to improve their motor function or intellectual disability.

text: The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) is a part of the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH). It conducts and funds research on brain and nervous system disorders and has a budget of just over US$1.5 billion. The mission of NINDS is "to reduce the burden of neurological disease—a burden borne by every age group, every segment of society, and people all over the world". NINDS has established two major branches for research: an extramural branch that funds studies outside the NIH, and an intramural branch that funds research inside the NIH. Most of NINDS' budget goes to fund extramural research. NINDS' basic science research focuses on studies of the fundamental biology of the brain and nervous system, genetics, neurodegeneration, learning and memory, motor control, brain repair, and synapses. NINDS also funds clinical research related to diseases and disorders of the brain and nervous system, e.g. AIDS, Alzheimer disease, epilepsy, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson disease, spinal cord injury, stroke, and traumatic brain injury.

text: The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) is a part of the U.S.

text: National Institutes of Health

text: (NIH). It conducts and funds research on

text: brain

text: and

text: nervous system

text: disorders and has a budget of just over US$1.5 billion. The mission of NINDS is "to reduce the burden of neurological disease—a burden borne by every age group, every segment of society, and people all over the world". NINDS has established two major branches for research: an extramural branch that funds studies outside the NIH, and an intramural branch that funds research inside the NIH. Most of NINDS' budget goes to fund extramural research. NINDS' basic science research focuses on studies of the fundamental biology of the brain and nervous system,

text: genetics

text: , neurodegeneration, learning and memory, motor control, brain repair, and

text: synapses

text: . NINDS also funds clinical research related to diseases and disorders of the brain and nervous system, e.g.

text: AIDS

text: Alzheimer disease

text: epilepsy

text: muscular dystrophy

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Parkinson disease

text: spinal cord

text: injury,

text: stroke

text: , and

text: traumatic brain injury

text: Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system.

text: Neuropharmacology

text: is the study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system.

text: The structure and branching of a neuron's dendrites, as well as the availability and variation of voltage-gated ion conductance, strongly influences how the neuron integrates the input from other neurons. This integration is both temporal, involving the summation of stimuli that arrive in rapid succession, as well as spatial, entailing the aggregation of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from separate branches.

text: The structure and branching of a neuron's dendrites, as well as the availability and variation of

text: voltage-gated ion conductance

text: , strongly influences how the neuron integrates the input from other neurons. This integration is both temporal, involving the summation of stimuli that arrive in rapid succession, as well as spatial, entailing the aggregation of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from separate branches.

text: Neurological injury due to damage in the central or peripheral nervous system may result in weakness, paralysis, or a lack of coordination of the motor-speech system, producing dysarthria. These effects in turn hinder control over the tongue, throat, lips or lungs; for example, swallowing problems (dysphagia) are also often present in those with dysarthria.

text: Neurological injury due to damage in the

text: central

text: or

text: peripheral nervous system

text: may result in weakness, paralysis, or a lack of coordination of the motor-speech system, producing dysarthria. These effects in turn hinder control over the tongue, throat, lips or lungs; for example, swallowing problems (

text: dysphagia

text: ) are also often present in those with dysarthria.

text: Non-shivering thermogenesis is regulated mainly by thyroid hormone and the sympathetic nervous system.  Some hormones, such as norepinephrine and leptin, may stimulate thermogenesis by activating the sympathetic nervous system.  Rising insulin levels after eating may be responsible for diet-induced thermogenesis (thermic effect of food).

text: Non-shivering thermogenesis is regulated mainly by

text: thyroid hormone

text: and the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: .  Some hormones, such as

text: norepinephrine

text: and

text: leptin

text: , may stimulate thermogenesis by activating the sympathetic nervous system.  Rising

text: insulin

text: levels after eating may be responsible for diet-induced thermogenesis (

text: thermic effect of food

text: Traumatic spinal cord damage causes a permanent loss of motor and sensory functions in the central nervous system, termed paraplegia or tetraplegia based on the site of the injury. Other detrimental effects may take place in the respiratory system and renal system as a result of the injury. Unlike the peripheral nervous system, the central nervous system is unable to regenerate damaged axons, so its synaptic connections are lost forever. Current treatment is limited and the primary potential methods are either controversial or noneffective. Studies dating back to the 1990s have begun researching the olfactory system of mammals, rats in particular, to gain a greater understanding of axonal regeneration and neurogenesis, and the possible implementation of these cells at the site of the spinal cord injury. Transplantation of OEG into the spinal cord has become a possible therapy for spinal cord damage and other neural diseases in animal models. Several recent studies have reported that preventing OEG inhibition will present a uniform population of cells in the spinal cord, creating an environment in which damaged axons can be repaired.  In October 2014, the Polish firefighter Darek Fidyka became the first paraplegic patient to regain mobility after OEG transplantation.

text: Traumatic spinal cord damage

text: causes a permanent loss of motor and sensory functions in the central nervous system, termed

text: paraplegia

text: or

text: tetraplegia

text: based on the site of the injury. Other detrimental effects may take place in the

text: respiratory system

text: and

text: renal system

text: as a result of the injury. Unlike the peripheral nervous system, the central nervous system is unable to regenerate damaged axons, so its synaptic connections are lost forever. Current treatment is limited and the primary potential methods are either controversial or noneffective. Studies dating back to the 1990s have begun researching the olfactory system of mammals, rats in particular, to gain a greater understanding of axonal regeneration and

text: neurogenesis

text: , and the possible implementation of these cells at the site of the spinal cord injury. Transplantation of OEG into the spinal cord has become a possible therapy for spinal cord damage and other neural diseases in animal models. Several recent studies have reported that preventing OEG inhibition will present a uniform population of cells in the spinal cord, creating an environment in which damaged axons can be repaired.  In October 2014, the Polish firefighter

text: Darek Fidyka

text: became the first paraplegic patient to regain mobility after OEG transplantation.

text: Arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, have a nervous system made up of a series of ganglia, connected by a ventral nerve cord made up of two parallel connectives running along the length of the belly. Typically, each body segment has one ganglion on each side, though some ganglia are fused to form the brain and other large ganglia.  The head segment contains the brain, also known as the supraesophageal ganglion. In the insect nervous system, the brain is anatomically divided into the protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum. Immediately behind the brain is the subesophageal ganglion, which is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia.  It controls the mouthparts, the salivary glands and certain muscles.  Many arthropods have well-developed sensory organs, including compound eyes for vision and antennae for olfaction and pheromone sensation. The sensory information from these organs is processed by the brain.

text: Arthropod

text: s, such as

text: insect

text: s and

text: crustacean

text: s, have a nervous system made up of a series of

text: ganglia

text: , connected by a

text: ventral nerve cord

text: made up of two parallel connectives running along the length of the

text: belly

text: . Typically, each body segment has one

text: ganglion

text: on each side, though some ganglia are fused to form the brain and other large ganglia.  The head segment contains the brain, also known as the

text: supraesophageal ganglion

text: . In the

text: insect nervous system

text: , the brain is anatomically divided into the

text: protocerebrum

text: deutocerebrum

text: , and

text: tritocerebrum

text: . Immediately behind the brain is the

text: subesophageal ganglion

text: , which is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia.  It controls the

text: mouthparts

text: , the

text: salivary glands

text: and certain

text: muscle

text: s.  Many arthropods have well-developed

text: sensory

text: organs, including

text: compound eye

text: s for vision and

text: antennae

text: for

text: olfaction

text: and

text: pheromone

text: sensation. The sensory information from these organs is processed by the brain.

text: The accelerans nerves are the nerves responsible for speed up heart rate, resulting in an increased bloodflow. These nerve fibers are part of the autonomic nervous system.

text: The accelerans nerves are the

text: nerve

text: s responsible for speed up

text: heart rate

text: , resulting in an increased

text: bloodflow

text: . These nerve fibers are part of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: At the tissue level, the nervous system is composed of neurons, glial cells, and extracellular matrix. Both neurons and glial cells come in many types (see, for example, the nervous system section of the list of distinct cell types in the adult human body). Neurons are the information-processing cells of the nervous system: they sense our environment, communicate with each other via electrical signals and chemicals called neurotransmitters across synapses, and produce our memories, thoughts and movements. Glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce myelin, and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons. Some glial cells (astrocytes) can even propagate intercellular calcium waves over long distances in response to stimulation, and release gliotransmitters in response to changes in calcium concentration. The extracellular matrix also provides support on the molecular level for the brain's cells.

text: At the tissue level, the nervous system is composed of

text: neurons

text: glial cells

text: , and

text: extracellular matrix

text: . Both neurons and glial cells come in many types (see, for example, the nervous system section of the

entity_name: List of distinct cell types in the adult human body

text: list of distinct cell types in the adult human body

text: ). Neurons are the information-processing cells of the nervous system: they sense our environment, communicate with each other via electrical signals and chemicals called neurotransmitters across

text: synapse

text: s, and produce our memories, thoughts and movements. Glial cells maintain homeostasis, produce

text: myelin

text: , and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons. Some glial cells (

text: astrocytes

text: ) can even propagate intercellular

text: calcium waves

text: over long distances in response to stimulation, and release

text: gliotransmitter

text: s in response to changes in calcium concentration. The

text: extracellular matrix

text: also provides support on the molecular level for the brain's cells.

text: In mammals, nociceptors are sensory neurons  that are found in any area of the body that can sense noxious stimuli either externally or internally.   External examples are in tissues such as skin (cutaneous nociceptors), cornea and mucosa. Internal nociceptors are in a variety of organs, such as the muscle, joint, bladder, gut and continuing along the digestive tract. The cell bodies of these neurons are located in either the dorsal root ganglia or the trigeminal ganglia. The trigeminal ganglia are specialized nerves for the face, whereas the dorsal root ganglia associate with the rest of the body. The axons extend into the peripheral nervous system and terminate in branches to form receptive fields.

text: In mammals, nociceptors are sensory

text: neuron

text: s  that are found in any area of the body that can sense noxious stimuli either externally or internally.   External examples are in

text: tissue

text: s such as

text: skin

text: cutaneous nociceptor

text: s),

text: cornea

text: and

text: mucosa

text: . Internal nociceptors are in a variety of organs, such as the

text: muscle

text: joint

text: bladder

text: gut

text: and continuing along the digestive tract. The cell bodies of these neurons are located in either the

text: dorsal root ganglia

text: or the

text: trigeminal

text: ganglia. The trigeminal ganglia are specialized nerves for the face, whereas the dorsal root ganglia associate with the rest of the body. The axons extend into the peripheral nervous system and terminate in branches to form receptive fields.

text: "Space Invader" Bonus Dub Album (by Central Nervous System)

text: Restorative neurology is a branch of neurology dedicated to improve functions of the impaired nervous system through selective structural or functional modification of abnormal neurocontrol according to underlying mechanisms and clinically unrecognized residual functions.  It is applied in a wide range of disorders of the nervous system, including upper motor neuron dysfunctions like spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis and acquired brain injury including stroke, and neuromuscular diseases as well as for control of pain and spasticity. Instead of applying a reconstructive neurobiological approach, i.e. structural modifications, restorative neurology relies on improving residual function.

text: Restorative neurology is a branch of

text: neurology

text: dedicated to improve functions of the impaired

text: nervous system

text: through selective structural or functional modification of abnormal neurocontrol according to underlying mechanisms and clinically unrecognized residual functions.  It is applied in a wide range of disorders of the nervous system, including

text: upper motor neuron dysfunctions

text: like

text: spinal cord injury

text: cerebral palsy

text: multiple sclerosis

text: and

text: acquired brain injury

text: including

text: stroke

text: , and

text: neuromuscular disease

text: s as well as for control of

text: pain

text: and

text: spasticity

text: . Instead of applying a reconstructive

text: neurobiological

text: approach, i.e. structural modifications, restorative neurology relies on improving residual function.

text: Unlike peripheral nervous system injury, injury to the central nervous system is not followed by extensive regeneration. It is limited by the inhibitory influences of the glial and extracellular environment. The hostile, non-permissive growth environment is, in part, created by the migration of myelin-associated inhibitors, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursors, and microglia. The environment within the CNS, especially following trauma, counteracts the repair of myelin and neurons. Growth factors are not expressed or re-expressed; for instance, the extracellular matrix is lacking laminins. Glial scars rapidly form, and the glia actually produce factors that inhibit remyelination and axon repair; for instance, NOGO and NI-35. The axons themselves also lose the potential for growth with age, due to a decrease in GAP 43 expression.

text: Unlike peripheral nervous system injury, injury to the central nervous system is not followed by extensive regeneration. It is limited by the inhibitory influences of the glial and

text: extracellular

text: environment. The hostile, non-permissive growth environment is, in part, created by the migration of myelin-associated inhibitors, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursors, and microglia. The environment within the CNS, especially following trauma, counteracts the repair of myelin and neurons.

text: Growth factors

text: are not expressed or re-expressed; for instance, the extracellular matrix is lacking

text: laminin

text: s.

text: Glial scar

text: s rapidly form, and the glia actually produce factors that inhibit remyelination and axon repair; for instance, NOGO and NI-35. The axons themselves also lose the potential for growth with age, due to a decrease in

text: GAP 43

text: expression.

text: The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of two subsystems: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. When a physical stressor acts upon the body the sensory-somatic nervous system is triggered through stimulation of the body's sensory nerves. The signal acts as a nerve impulse and travels through the body in a process of electrical cell-to-cell communication until it reaches the autonomic nervous system. Activation of the autonomic nervous system immediately triggers a series of involuntary chemical responses throughout the body.  Preganglionic neurons release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). This stimulates postganglionic neurons which release noradrenaline. The noradrenaline flows directly into the bloodstream ensuring that all cells in the body's nervous and endocrine systems have been activated even in areas which the ganglionic neurons are unable to reach.

text: The

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS) consists of two subsystems: the

text: somatic nervous system

text: and the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . When a physical stressor acts upon the body the sensory-somatic nervous system is triggered through stimulation of the body's

text: sensory nerves

text: . The signal acts as a nerve impulse and travels through the body in a process of electrical cell-to-cell communication until it reaches the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: . Activation of the autonomic nervous system immediately triggers a series of involuntary chemical responses throughout the body.

text: Preganglionic neurons

text: release the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: (ACh). This stimulates

text: postganglionic neurons

text: which release

text: noradrenaline

text: . The noradrenaline flows directly into the bloodstream ensuring that all cells in the body's nervous and endocrine systems have been activated even in areas which the ganglionic neurons are unable to reach.

text: The peripheral nervous system is then composed of three sub-systems: the somatic nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the visceral nervous system.  The autonomic nervous system is also broken down into the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system.  The nervous system responsible for voluntary motion, including lower limb motion, is the somatic nervous system.  Though the somatic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system, motion also involves use of elements of the central nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord.

text: The peripheral nervous system is then composed of three sub-systems: the

text: somatic nervous system

text: , the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: , and the

text: visceral nervous system

text: .  The autonomic nervous system is also broken down into the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: , and the

text: enteric nervous system

text: .  The nervous system responsible for voluntary motion, including lower limb motion, is the

text: somatic nervous system

text: .  Though the somatic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system, motion also involves use of elements of the central nervous system: the

text: brain

text: and the

text: spinal cord

text: Although diverse, insects are quite indifferent in overall design, internally and externally. The insect is made up of three main body regions (tagmata), the head, thorax and abdomen.The head comprises six fused segments with compound eyes, ocelli, antennae and mouthparts, which differ according to the insect’s particular diet, e.g. grinding, sucking, lapping and chewing. The thorax is made up of three segments: the pro, meso and meta thorax, each supporting a pair of legs which may also differ, depending on function, e.g. jumping, digging, swimming and running. Usually the middle and the last segment of the thorax have paired wings. The abdomen generally comprises eleven segments and contains the digestive and reproductive organs.A general overview of the internal structure and physiology of the insect is presented, including digestive, circulatory, respiratory, muscular, endocrine and nervous systems, as well as sensory organs, temperature control, flight and molting.

text: Although diverse, insects are quite indifferent in overall design, internally and externally. The

text: insect

text: is made up of three main body regions (tagmata), the head, thorax and abdomen.The head comprises six fused segments with

text: compound eyes

text: ocelli

text: antennae

text: and mouthparts, which differ according to the insect’s particular diet, e.g. grinding, sucking, lapping and chewing. The thorax is made up of three segments: the pro, meso and meta thorax, each supporting a pair of legs which may also differ, depending on function, e.g. jumping, digging, swimming and running. Usually the middle and the last segment of the thorax have paired wings. The abdomen generally comprises eleven segments and contains the digestive and reproductive organs.A general overview of the internal structure and

text: physiology

text: of the insect is presented, including digestive, circulatory, respiratory, muscular, endocrine and nervous systems, as well as

text: sensory organs

text: , temperature control, flight and

text: molting

text: Multimodal perception is the ability of the mammalian nervous system to combine all of the different inputs of the sensory system to result in an enhanced detection or identification of a particular stimulus. Combinations of all sensory modalities are done in cases where a single sensory modality results in ambiguous and incomplete result.

text: Multimodal perception is the ability of the mammalian nervous system to combine all of the different inputs of the

text: sensory system

text: to result in an enhanced detection or identification of a particular stimulus. Combinations of all sensory modalities are done in cases where a single sensory modality results in ambiguous and incomplete result.

text: Dural ectasia, the weakening of the connective tissue of the dural sac encasing the spinal cord, can result in a loss of quality of life. It can be present for a long time without producing any noticeable symptoms. Symptoms that can occur are lower back pain, leg pain, abdominal pain, other neurological symptoms in the lower extremities, or headachessymptoms which usually diminish when lying flat. On X-ray however dural ectasia is not often visible in the early stages. A worsening of symptoms might warrant an MRI of the lower spine. Dural ectasia that has progressed to this stage would appear in an MRI as a dilated pouch wearing away at the lumbar vertebrae. Other spinal issues associated with Marfan syndrome include degenerative disc disease, spinal cysts and dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system.

text: Dural ectasia

text: , the weakening of the connective tissue of the dural sac encasing the

text: spinal cord

text: , can result in a loss of

text: quality of life

text: . It can be present for a long time without producing any noticeable symptoms. Symptoms that can occur are lower back pain, leg pain, abdominal pain, other neurological symptoms in the lower extremities, or headachessymptoms which usually diminish when lying flat. On

text: X-ray

text: however dural ectasia is not often visible in the early stages. A worsening of symptoms might warrant an

text: MRI

text: of the lower spine. Dural ectasia that has progressed to this stage would appear in an MRI as a dilated pouch wearing away at the

text: lumbar vertebrae

text: . Other spinal issues associated with Marfan syndrome include

text: degenerative disc disease

text: , spinal

text: cyst

text: s and

text: dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system

text: The central nervous system consists of parts that are encased by the bones of the skull and spinal column: the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is found outside those bones and consists of the nerves and most of the sensory organs.

text: The central nervous system consists of parts that are encased by the bones of the skull and spinal column: the brain and spinal cord. The

text: peripheral nervous system

text: is found outside those bones and consists of the nerves and most of the sensory organs.

text: In the central nervous system, the analogous structures are known as tracts.  Neurons are sometimes called nerve cells, though this term is potentially misleading since many neurons do not form nerves, and nerves also include non-neuronal Schwann cells that coat the axons in myelin.

text: In the

text: central nervous system

text: , the analogous structures are known as

text: tracts

text: .  Neurons are sometimes called nerve cells, though this term is potentially misleading since many neurons do not form nerves, and nerves also include non-neuronal

text: Schwann cells

text: that coat the axons in

text: myelin

text: Demyelinating diseases can be divided in those affecting the central nervous system and those presents in the peripheral nervous system, presenting different demyelination conditions. They can also be divided by other criteria in inflammatory and non-inflammatory, according to the presence or lack of inflammation, and finally, a division can also be made depending on the underlying reason for demyelination in myelinoclastic (myelin is attacked by an external substance) and leukodystrophic (myelin degenerates without attacks)

text: Demyelinating diseases can be divided in those affecting the

text: central nervous system

text: and those presents in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , presenting different

entity_name: Lesional demyelinations of the central nervous system

text: demyelination conditions

text: . They can also be divided by other criteria in

text: inflammatory

text: and non-inflammatory, according to the presence or lack of inflammation, and finally, a division can also be made depending on the underlying reason for demyelination in myelinoclastic (myelin is attacked by an external substance) and leukodystrophic (myelin degenerates without attacks)

text: The medulla oblongata connects the higher levels of the brain to the spinal cord, and is responsible for several functions of the autonomous nervous system which include:

text: The medulla oblongata connects the higher levels of the

text: brain

text: to the

text: spinal cord

text: , and is responsible for several functions of the

text: autonomous nervous system

text: which include:

text: The enzyme inhibited by Benzerazide, catalyzes many different decarboxylations. The same effect of concentrating the conversion of l-dopa into dopamine to the central nervous system can be achieved with the following decarboxylations being confined to the central nervous system:

text: The

text: enzyme

text: inhibited by Benzerazide, catalyzes many different decarboxylations. The same effect of concentrating the conversion of l-dopa into dopamine to the central nervous system can be achieved with the following decarboxylations being confined to the central nervous system:

text: He is coauthor (with Richard Luchsinger) of the textbook "Voice - Speech - Language". A previous version of this work had been published in German in 1949.Although the text was now written several decades ago, the topics covered are quite similar to those in a contemporary voice textbook, which shows how advanced the study of phoniatry was compared to other subdivisions of Speech Language Pathology at the time. For example, topics covered in this text include: speech acoustics, observational methods, treatment of laryngeal electromyography, physiology of respiration and voice production, genetic factors in voice, development of voice throughout the lifespan, professional voice, voice therapy; pathology of the larynx, nodules, asymetries, genetic defects of voice and laryngeal web, sulcus glottides, voice related endocrine problems, the effects of peripheral nerve lesions, the sympathetic nervous system; laryngeal myopathy, central lesions of the nervous system, laryngeal trauma, cordectomy, joint disorders, alaryngeal voice, vasomotor effects on vocal fold function, functional dysphonias, contact ulcers, ventricular voice, and psychogenic voice disorders.

text: He is coauthor (with

text: Richard Luchsinger

text: ) of the textbook "Voice - Speech - Language". A previous version of this work had been published in German in 1949.Although the text was now written several decades ago, the topics covered are quite similar to those in a contemporary voice textbook, which shows how advanced the study of

text: phoniatry

text: was compared to other subdivisions of

text: Speech Language Pathology

text: at the time. For example, topics covered in this text include:

text: speech

text: acoustics

text: observational methods

text: , treatment of

text: laryngeal electromyography

text: , physiology of

text: respiration

text: and voice production,

text: genetic

text: voice therapy

text: ; pathology of the

text: larynx

text: nodules

text: asymetries

text: , genetic defects of voice and

text: laryngeal web

text: sulcus glottides

text: , voice related

text: endocrine

text: problems, the effects of

text: peripheral nerve lesions

text: , the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: laryngeal myopathy

text: laryngeal trauma

text: cordectomy

text: joint disorder

text: s,

text: alaryngeal voice

text: vasomotor effect

text: s on vocal fold function,

text: functional dysphonias

text: contact ulcer

text: s,

text: ventricular voice

text: , and

text: psychogenic voice disorder

text: s.

text: This protein is expressed in the mammalian nervous system and plays a significant role in the development and function of nerve cells. C/EBPβ plays a role in neuronal differentiation, in learning, in memory processes, in glial and neuronal cell functions, and in neurotrophic factor expression.

text: This protein is expressed in the mammalian

text: nervous system

text: and plays a significant role in the development and function of

text: nerve cells

text: . C/EBPβ plays a role in neuronal differentiation, in learning, in memory processes, in

text: glial

text: and neuronal cell functions, and in neurotrophic factor expression.

text: The Sensory-Motor Systems Lab (SMS Lab) was founded in 2006 and joined IRIS in 2007. The research of the Sensory-Motor Systems Lab focuses on the study of human sensory-motor control, the design of novel mechatronic devices, and the investigation and optimisation of human-machine interaction. The main application area is the field of rehabilitation. Further applications are within sports, fitness, and medical education. Example projects include the arm therapy robot, ARMin, and the M Lab.

text: Analyses of cat brains have shown they are divided into many areas with specialized tasks that are extremely interconnected and share sensory information in a kind of hub-and-spoke network, with a large number of specialized hubs and many alternate paths between them. This exchange of sensory information allows the brain to construct a complex perception of the real world and to react to and manipulate its environment.

text: Analyses of cat brains have shown they are divided into many areas with specialized tasks that are extremely interconnected and share sensory information in a kind of

text: hub-and-spoke network

text: , with a large number of specialized hubs and many alternate paths between them. This exchange of sensory information allows the brain to construct a complex perception of the real world and to react to and manipulate its environment.

text: Amphetamine are the largest group of stimulants. Amphetamine was first used in the 1930s as a drug to treat various medical conditions such as narcolepsy and depression. However, during World War II, amphetamine was given to soldiers to keep them awake and alert. Soon, it leads to athletes abusing it to gain an advance. Usage of stimulants, such as amphetamine, can lead to death. In 1960, Danish cyclist Kurt Enemar Jensen died from amphetamine use during the Summer Olympics, and British cyclist Tommy Simpson died during the 1967 Tour de France with alcohol and amphetamines in his system. Amphetamines manipulate the levels of certain neurotransmitters in the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

text: Amphetamine

text: are the largest group of stimulants. Amphetamine was first used in the 1930s as a drug to treat various medical conditions such as

text: narcolepsy

text: and

text: depression

text: . However, during

text: World War II

text: , amphetamine was given to soldiers to keep them awake and alert. Soon, it leads to athletes abusing it to gain an advance. Usage of stimulants, such as amphetamine, can lead to death. In 1960, Danish cyclist

text: Kurt Enemar Jensen

text: died from amphetamine use during the

text: Summer Olympics

text: , and British cyclist

text: Tommy Simpson

text: died during the

text: 1967 Tour de France

text: with alcohol and amphetamines in his system. Amphetamines manipulate the levels of certain neurotransmitters in the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS) and the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: (PNS).

text: The fundamental questions addressed in cellular neuroscience include the mechanisms of how neurons process signals physiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites – thin extensions from a neuronal cell body, consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials) – and somas (the cell bodies of the neurons containing the nucleus), and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Another major area of neuroscience is directed at investigations of the development of the nervous system. These questions include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, neural stem cells, differentiation of neurons and glia, neuronal migration, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions, and synapse formation.

text: The fundamental questions addressed in

text: cellular neuroscience

text: include the mechanisms of how neurons process

text: signals

text: physiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites – thin extensions from a neuronal

text: cell body

text: , consisting of

text: dendrite

text: s (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and

text: axon

text: s (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called

text: action potential

text: s) – and somas (the cell bodies of the neurons containing the nucleus), and how

text: neurotransmitter

text: s and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Another major area of neuroscience is directed at investigations of the

text: development

text: of the nervous system. These questions include the

text: patterning and regionalization

text: of the nervous system, neural

text: stem cell

text: s,

text: differentiation

text: of neurons and glia,

text: neuronal migration

text: , axonal and dendritic development,

text: trophic interactions

text: , and

text: synapse formation

text: Some people with a spinal cord injury are able to "transfer their orgasm" using sexual energy to any part of the body that has sensation.  For example, Rafe Biggs acquired a spinal cord injury in 2004.  Through his work with a sexologist he discovered during a massage that when his thumb was being massaged; it felt very similar to his penis.  It was through this experience that he learned that he could transfer his orgasm, using tantric energy, to his penis.  Kenneth Ray Stubbs also has a spinal cord injury and is able to use tantric bodywork to obtain an "orgasmic feeling".  If a person is able to use sexual energy correctly then they would be able to experience an orgasm in any part of the body that is capable of feeling sensation.

text: The anterograde and retrograde tracing techniques allow the detailed descriptions of neuronal projections from a single neuron or a defined population of neurons to their various targets throughout the nervous system. These techniques allow the "mapping" of connections between neurons in a particular structure (e.g. the eye) and the target neurons in the brain. Much of what is currently known about connectional neuroanatomy was discovered through the use of the anterograde and retrograde tracing techniques.

text: The anterograde and retrograde tracing techniques allow the detailed descriptions of neuronal projections from a single neuron or a defined population of neurons to their various targets throughout the

text: nervous system

text: eye

text: ) and the target neurons in the brain. Much of what is currently known about connectional

text: neuroanatomy

text: Located in the temporal lobe, the primary olfactory cortex is the primary receptive area for olfaction, or smell.  Unique to the olfactory and gustatory systems, at least in mammals, is the implementation of both peripheral and central mechanisms of action.  The peripheral mechanisms involve olfactory receptor neurons which transduce a chemical signal along the olfactory nerve, which terminates in the olfactory bulb. The chemo-receptors involved in olfactory nervous cascade involve using G-protein receptors to send their chemical signals down said cascade. The central mechanisms include the convergence of olfactory nerve axons into glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, where the signal is then transmitted to the anterior olfactory nucleus, the piriform cortex, the medial amygdala, and the entorhinal cortex, all of which make up the primary olfactory cortex.

text: Located in the temporal lobe, the

text: primary olfactory cortex

text: is the primary receptive area for

text: olfaction

text: , or smell.  Unique to the olfactory and gustatory systems, at least in

text: mammals

text: , is the implementation of both

text: peripheral

text: and

text: central

text: mechanisms of action.  The peripheral mechanisms involve

text: olfactory receptor neurons

text: which

text: transduce

text: a chemical signal along the

text: olfactory nerve

text: , which terminates in the

text: olfactory bulb

text: . The chemo-receptors involved in olfactory nervous cascade involve using G-protein receptors to send their chemical signals down said cascade. The central mechanisms include the convergence of olfactory nerve

text: axon

text: s into

text: glomeruli

text: in the olfactory bulb, where the signal is then transmitted to the

text: anterior olfactory nucleus

text: , the

text: piriform cortex

text: , the medial

text: amygdala

text: , and the

text: entorhinal cortex

text: , all of which make up the primary olfactory cortex.

text: In the human body a stimulus refers to a form of energy which elicits a physiological or psychological action or response. Sensory receptors are the structures in the body which change the stimulus from one form of energy to another. This can mean changing the presence of a chemical, sound wave, source of heat, or touch to the skin into an electrical action potential which can be understood by the brain, the body’s control center. Sensory receptors are modified ends of sensory neurons; modified to deal with specific types of stimulus, thus there are many different types of sensory receptors in the body. The neuron is the primary component of the nervous system, which transmits messages from sensory receptors all over the body.

text: In the human body a

text: stimulus

text: refers to a form of energy which elicits a physiological or psychological action or response.

text: Sensory receptors

text: are the structures in the body which change the stimulus from one form of energy to another. This can mean changing the presence of a chemical, sound wave, source of heat, or touch to the skin into an electrical

text: action potential

text: which can be understood by the brain, the body’s control center. Sensory receptors are modified ends of sensory

text: neurons

text: ; modified to deal with specific types of stimulus, thus there are many different types of sensory receptors in the body. The neuron is the primary component of the nervous system, which transmits messages from sensory receptors all over the body.

text: Local anesthetics can block almost every nerve between the peripheral nerve endings and the central nervous system. The most peripheral technique is topical anesthesia to the skin or other body surface. Small and large peripheral nerves can be anesthetized individually (peripheral nerve block) or in anatomic nerve bundles (plexus anesthesia). Spinal anesthesia and epidural anesthesia merge into the central nervous system.

text: In the peripheral nervous system, an afferent nerve fiber is the axon of an afferent sensory neuron. It is a long process extending far from the nerve cell body that carries nerve impulses from sensory receptors or sense organs toward the central nervous system. The opposite direction of neural activity is efferent conduction.

text: In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , an afferent nerve fiber is the

text: axon

text: of an

text: afferent sensory neuron

text: . It is a long

text: process

text: extending far from the

text: nerve cell body

text: that carries

text: nerve impulses

text: from

text: sensory receptor

text: s or sense organs toward the

text: central nervous system

text: . The opposite direction of neural activity is

text: efferent

text: conduction.

text: Species with complex nervous systems (esp. mammals), in addition to acting based on instinct and basic sensory stimuli, need to learn how to engage in certain activities. Because of the ways in which their nervous systems develop, they are frequently adept at learning certain behaviors at specific times in their lives.

text: Species with complex nervous systems (esp.

text: mammals

text: ), in addition to acting based on

text: instinct

text: and basic sensory stimuli, need to learn how to engage in certain activities. Because of the ways in which their nervous systems develop, they are frequently adept at learning certain behaviors at specific times in their lives.

text: There are disturbances in sensory nerves and motor nerves and dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system at the level of the lesion or below. Therefore, the signs and symptoms depend on the area of spine involved:

text: There are disturbances in

text: sensory nerve

text: s and

text: motor nerve

text: s and dysfunction of the

text: autonomic nervous system

text: at the level of the lesion or below. Therefore, the signs and symptoms depend on the area of spine involved:

text: The scientific study of the nervous system has increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. This has allowed neuroscientists to study the nervous system in all its aspects:  how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed. For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single neuron. Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude long thin filaments of protoplasm called axons, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other.

text: The

text: scientific study

text: of the nervous system has increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in

text: molecular biology

text: electrophysiology

text: , and

text: computational neuroscience

text: . This has allowed neuroscientists to study the

text: nervous system

text: in all its aspects:  how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed. For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single

text: neuron

text: . Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called

text: synapse

text: s, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude long thin filaments of protoplasm called

text: axon

text: s, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other.

text: The main cause of fatigue in chronic fatigue syndrome most likely lies in the central nervous system. A defect in one of its components could cause a greater requirement of input to result in sustained force. It has been shown that with very high motivation, subjects with chronic fatigue can exert force effectively. Further investigation into central nervous system fatigue may result in medical applications.

text: In vertebrates, nicotinic receptors are broadly classified into two subtypes based on their primary sites of expression: muscle-type nicotinic receptors (N1) primarily for somatic motor neurons; and neuronal-type nicotinic receptors (N2) primarily for autonomic nervous system.

text: In general, the word choline refers to the various quaternary ammonium salts containing the N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium cation. Found in most animal tissues, choline is a primary component of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine and functions with inositol as a basic constituent of lecithin. It prevents fat deposits in the liver and facilitates the movement of fats into the cells. The richest sources of choline are liver, kidney, brain, wheat germ, brewer's yeast, and egg yolk. Neurologically, cholinergic is the abbreviated term referring to acetylcholine.  The parasympathetic nervous system, which uses acetylcholine almost exclusively to send its messages, is said to be almost entirely cholinergic. Neuromuscular junctions, preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, the basal forebrain, and brain stem complexes are also cholinergic. In addition, the receptor for the merocrine sweat glands are also cholinergic, since acetylcholine is released from postganglionic sympathetic neurons.

text: In general, the word

text: choline

text: refers to the various

text: quaternary ammonium salts

text: containing the

text: N,N,N-trimethylethanolammonium

text: cation

text: . Found in most animal tissues, choline is a primary component of the

text: neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: and functions with

text: inositol

text: as a basic constituent of

text: lecithin

text: . It prevents fat deposits in the liver and facilitates the movement of fats into the cells. The richest sources of choline are liver, kidney, brain, wheat germ, brewer's yeast, and egg yolk. Neurologically, cholinergic is the abbreviated term referring to

text: acetylcholine

text: .  The

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: , which uses acetylcholine almost exclusively to send its messages, is said to be almost entirely cholinergic. Neuromuscular junctions, preganglionic neurons of the

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: , the

text: basal forebrain

text: , and brain stem complexes are also cholinergic. In addition, the receptor for the merocrine sweat glands are also cholinergic, since acetylcholine is released from postganglionic sympathetic neurons.

text: The flowers are scented and arranged in rounded groups, each flower on a stalk  long. The floral cup is hemispherical in shape, about  long and there is a swelling beneath each sepal. The sepals are spreading, deep pink but fade to white as they age. They are  long, have 4-6 long, long, thin lobes and two hairy appendages. The petals are a similar colour to the sepals,  long, erect and more or less round with small teeth on their outer edge. The style is  long, with hairs near the tip. Flowering time is from October to early January.

text: The flowers are scented and arranged in rounded groups, each flower on a stalk  long. The

text: floral cup

text: is

text: hemispherical

text: in shape, about  long and there is a swelling beneath each

text: sepal

text: . The sepals are spreading, deep pink but fade to white as they age. They are  long, have 4-6 long, long, thin lobes and two hairy

text: appendage

text: s. The

text: petal

text: s are a similar colour to the sepals,  long, erect and more or less round with small teeth on their outer edge. The

text: style

text: is  long, with hairs near the tip. Flowering time is from October to early January.

text: The cerebrum is divided by the medial longitudinal fissure into two cerebral hemispheres, the right and the left. The right hemisphere controls and processes signals from the left side of the body, while the left hemisphere controls and processes signals from the right side of the body. There is a strong but not complete bilateral symmetry between the hemispheres. The lateralization of brain function looks at the known and possible differences between the two.

text: The cerebrum is divided by the

text: medial longitudinal fissure

text: into two

text: cerebral hemispheres

text: , the right and the left. The right hemisphere controls and processes signals from the left side of the body, while the left hemisphere controls and processes signals from the right side of the body. There is a strong but not complete

text: bilateral symmetry

text: between the hemispheres. The

text: lateralization of brain function

text: looks at the known and possible differences between the two.

text: Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. A useful mnemonic to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system is SSLUDD (sexual arousal, salivation, lacrimation, urination, digestion and defecation).

text: Sympathetic

text: and parasympathetic divisions typically function in opposition to each other. The sympathetic division typically functions in actions requiring quick responses. The parasympathetic division functions with actions that do not require immediate reaction. A useful mnemonic to summarize the functions of the parasympathetic nervous system is SSLUDD (

text: sexual arousal

text: saliva

text: tion,

text: lacrimation

text: urination

text: digestion

text: and

text: defecation

text: In addition to scaffold material and physical cues, biological cues can also be incorporated into a bioartificial nerve conduit in the form of cells. In the nervous system there are many different cell types that help support the growth and maintenance of neurons. These cells are collectively termed glial cells. Glial cells have been investigated in an attempt to understand the mechanisms behind their abilities to promote axon regeneration. Three types of glial cells are discussed: Schwann cells, astrocytes, and olfactory ensheathing cells. In addition to glial cells, stem cells also have potential benefit for repair and regeneration because many are able to differentiate into neurons or glial cells. This article briefly discusses the use of adult, transdifferentiated mesenchymal, ectomesenchymal, neural and neural progenitor stem cells.

text: Mangostin is a natural xanthonoid, a type of organic compound isolated from various parts of the mangosteen tree (Garcinia mangostana).  It is a yellow crystalline solid with a xanthone core structure. Mangostin and a variety of other xanthones from mangosteen have been investigated for biological properties including antioxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities.  There are no positive correlations found as a result of this study.  In animal studies, mangostin has been found to be a central nervous system depressant which causes sedation, decreased motor activity, and ptosis.

text: Mangostin is a natural

text: xanthonoid

text: , a type of organic compound isolated from various parts of the

text: mangosteen

text: tree (Garcinia mangostana).  It is a yellow crystalline solid with a xanthone core structure. Mangostin and a variety of other xanthones from mangosteen have been investigated for biological properties including

text: antioxidant

text: , anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities.  There are no positive correlations found as a result of this study.  In animal studies, mangostin has been found to be a

text: central nervous system

text: depressant which causes

text: sedation

text: , decreased motor activity, and

text: ptosis

text: Sensory Stimulation Therapy is a developing technique aimed at recovering sensory loss after strokes and restoring losses from ageing. It has not been proven that sensory stimulation therapy can actually improve brain plasticity, nor cognitive function. The paradigm of brain plasticity marked a fundamental change in the way that the brain is understood, and considered for future therapies. SS takes advantage of this paradigm and the senses are presented with simple stimulation to cause changes inside the brain. In this particular situation a section of skin is stimulated either through electrical or physical means. Signals are sent through the peripheral nervous system to the somatosensory cortex. These signals are then the impetus for changes inside the brain. It has been shown that the adjustment of frequency in this technique can be used to induce either Long Term Potentiation or Long Term Depression. In the case of LTP as much as 30 years of sensory loss has been shown to be recoverable in relatively short time periods. SS has been paired with Use Dependant Plasticity training systems and it has been shown that enhanced recovery is produced from the combination. One of the striking advantages of this technique is that it is not necessary for the participant to pay attention to the stimulus in order to gain benefit from the therapy. This technique opens many interesting doors for future therapies. A potential challenge for this technique is that there is little transfer of gains from one section of skin to another.

text: Changes in neural oscillations, demonstrable through electroencephalogram (EEG) measurements, are precipitated by listening to music, which can modulate autonomic arousal ergotropically and trophotropically, increasing and decreasing arousal respectively. Musical auditory stimulation has also  been demonstrated to improve immune function, facilitate relaxation, improve mood, and contribute to the alleviation of stress. These findings have contributed to the development of neurologic music therapy, which uses music and song as an active and receptive intervention, to contribute to the treatment and management of disorders characterized by impairment to parts of the brain and central nervous system, including stroke, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, cerebral palsy, Alzheimer's disease, and autism.

text: Changes in neural oscillations, demonstrable through

text: electroencephalogram

text: (EEG) measurements, are precipitated by listening to music, which can modulate

text: autonomic

text: arousal

text: ergotropically and trophotropically, increasing and decreasing

text: arousal

text: respectively. Musical

text: auditory stimulation

text: has also  been demonstrated to improve

text: immune function

text: , facilitate

text: relaxation

text: , improve

text: mood

text: , and contribute to the alleviation of

text: stress

text: . These findings have contributed to the development of

text: neurologic music therapy

text: , which uses music and song as an active and receptive intervention, to contribute to the treatment and management of disorders characterized by impairment to parts of the

text: brain

text: and

text: central nervous system

text: , including

text: stroke

text: traumatic brain injury

text: Parkinson's disease

text: Huntington's disease

text: cerebral palsy

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: , and

text: autism

text: Chiari-like malformation (CM) is the most common cause of foramen magnum obstruction and syringomyelia in dogs. Syringomyelia (SM) is a disease of the spinal cord typified by fluid filled cavities, or syrinxes, within the spinal cord substance. The disease is caused by the obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), in the nervous system. A situation of high pressure in the spinal cord compared to low pressure outside, leads to fluid accumulation, which eventually forms cavities. CM is a condition characterized by the mismatch of size between the brain and the skull. The skull is too small causing part of the brain to descend out of the skull through the opening at its base, crowding the spinal cord. The cause of CM is not yet fully understood. CM is rare in most breeds but reportedly has become very widespread in the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel and the Griffon Bruxellois (Brussels Griffon).  Some researchers estimate that as many as 95% of CKCSs may have CM. It is worldwide in scope and not limited to any country, breeding line, or kennel, and experts report that it is believed to be inherited in the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel. CM is so widespread in the Cavalier that it may be an inherent part of the CKCS's breed standard. This disease not only affects thousands of dogs, but a similar condition affects over three hundred thousand children yearly. Therefore, canines are an appropriate model for the treatment of the human condition.

text: Chiari-like malformation (CM) is the most common cause of

text: foramen magnum

text: obstruction and

text: syringomyelia

text: in dogs. Syringomyelia (SM) is a disease of the

text: spinal cord

text: typified by fluid filled cavities, or

text: syrinxes

text: , within the spinal cord substance. The disease is caused by the obstruction of

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: (CSF), in the nervous system. A situation of high pressure in the spinal cord compared to low pressure outside, leads to fluid accumulation, which eventually forms cavities. CM is a condition characterized by the mismatch of size between the brain and the skull. The skull is too small causing part of the brain to descend out of the skull through the opening at its base, crowding the spinal cord. The cause of CM is not yet fully understood. CM is rare in most breeds but reportedly has become very widespread in the

text: Cavalier King Charles Spaniel

text: and the

text: Griffon Bruxellois

text: (Brussels Griffon).  Some researchers estimate that as many as 95% of CKCSs may have CM. It is worldwide in scope and not limited to any country, breeding line, or kennel, and experts report that it is believed to be inherited in the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel. CM is so widespread in the Cavalier that it may be an inherent part of the CKCS's breed standard. This disease not only affects thousands of dogs, but a similar

text: condition

text: affects over three hundred thousand children yearly. Therefore, canines are an appropriate model for the treatment of the human condition.

text: A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, somatic sensation (touch), taste and olfaction (smell). It has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality. In short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind.

text: A sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing

text: sensory

text: information. A sensory system consists of

text: sensory receptor

text: s,

text: neural pathway

text: s, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. Commonly recognized sensory systems are those for

text: vision

text: hearing

text: somatic sensation

text: (touch),

text: taste

text: and

text: olfaction

text: (smell). It has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality. In short, senses are

text: transducers

text: from the physical world to the realm of the mind.

text: "Some important areas of NINDS basic research include: biology of the cells of the nervous system, brain and nervous system development, genetics of the brain, cognition and behavior, neurodegeneration, brain plasticity and repair, neural signaling, learning and memory, motor control and integration, sensory function, and neural channels, synapses, and circuits."

text: "Some important areas of NINDS basic research include:

text: biology

text: of the cells of the nervous system, brain and nervous system development,

text: genetics

text: of the brain,

text: cognition

text: and behavior, neurodegeneration, brain plasticity and repair, neural signaling, learning and memory, motor control and integration, sensory function, and neural channels, synapses, and circuits."

text: Injuries to the spinal cord are classified as quadriplegia or paraplegia depending on the location of damage to the spinal cord, also known as the severity of the injury.

text: Injuries to the spinal cord are classified as

text: quadriplegia

text: or

text: paraplegia

text: depending on the location of damage to the spinal cord, also known as the severity of the injury.

text: Recreational drug use is the use of a drug (legal, controlled, or illegal) with the primary intention of altering the state of consciousness through alteration of the central nervous system in order to create positive emotions and feelings. The hallucinogen LSD is a psychoactive drug commonly used as a recreational drug.

text: Recreational drug use

text: is the use of a drug (legal, controlled, or illegal) with the primary intention of

text: altering the state of consciousness

text: through alteration of the central nervous system in order to create positive emotions and feelings. The hallucinogen

text: LSD

text: is a psychoactive drug commonly used as a recreational drug.

text: Acid-Sensing Ion Channels (ASICs) are neuronal voltage-insensitive sodium channels activated by extracellular protons. ASIC proteins are a subfamily of the ENaC/Deg superfamily of ion channels. In mammalian genomes, the ASIC is encoded by five genes, ASIC1, ASIC2, ASIC3, ASIC4, and ASIC5. These genes have splice variants that encode for several isoforms that are marked by a suffix. For example, two major products of ASIC1 gene are called as ASIC1a and ASIC1b. ASICs are trimeric and can be made up of different combinations of subunits. ASIC2b is non-functional on its own but modulates channel activity when participating in heteromultimers. ASIC4 has no known function. All ASICs are expressed in the peripheral nervous system while ASIC1a, 2a, 2b, 3 and 4 are expressed in the central nervous system. ASICs are Na permeable with ASIC1a showing low Ca permeability.

text: Acid-Sensing Ion Channels (ASICs) are neuronal voltage-insensitive sodium channels activated by extracellular protons. ASIC proteins are a subfamily of the

text: ENaC

text: /Deg superfamily of

text: ion channels

text: . In mammalian genomes, the ASIC is encoded by five genes,

text: , and

text: . These genes have

text: splice variant

text: s that encode for several isoforms that are marked by a suffix. For example, two major products of ASIC1 gene are called as ASIC1a and ASIC1b. ASICs are trimeric and can be made up of different combinations of subunits. ASIC2b is non-functional on its own but modulates channel activity when participating in heteromultimers. ASIC4 has no known function. All ASICs are expressed in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: while ASIC1a, 2a, 2b, 3 and 4 are expressed in the

text: central nervous system

text: . ASICs are Na permeable with ASIC1a showing low Ca permeability.

text: He published the Handbook on Diseases of the Nervous System in 1898.

text: GABA receptors occur in all organisms that have a nervous system. To a limited extent the receptors can be found in non-neuronal tissues. Due to their wide distribution within the nervous system of mammals they play a role in virtually all brain functions.

text: During the development of the vertebrate nervous system, many neurons become redundant (because they have died, failed to connect to target cells, etc.) and are eliminated. At the same time, developing neurons send out axon outgrowths that contact their target cells. Such cells control their degree of innervation (the number of axon connections) by the secretion of various specific neurotrophic factors that are essential for neuron survival. One of these is nerve growth factor (NGF or beta-NGF), a vertebrate protein that stimulates division and differentiation of sympathetic and embryonic sensory neurons. NGF is mostly found outside the central nervous system (CNS), but slight traces have been detected in adult CNS tissues, although a physiological role for this is unknown. It has also been found in several snake venoms.

text: During the development of the vertebrate nervous system, many neurons become redundant (because they have died, failed to connect to target cells, etc.) and are eliminated. At the same time, developing neurons send out

text: axon

text: outgrowths that contact their target cells. Such cells control their degree of innervation (the number of axon connections) by the secretion of various specific neurotrophic factors that are essential for neuron survival. One of these is

text: nerve growth factor

text: (NGF or beta-NGF), a vertebrate protein that stimulates division and differentiation of

text: sympathetic

text: and embryonic sensory neurons. NGF is mostly found outside the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), but slight traces have been detected in adult CNS tissues, although a physiological role for this is unknown. It has also been found in several snake venoms.

text: Superficial hemosiderosis of the central nervous system is a disease of the brain resulting from chronic iron deposition in neuronal tissues associated with cerebrospinal fluid. This occurs via the deposition of hemosiderin in neuronal tissue, and is associated with neuronal loss, gliosis, and demyelination of neuronal cells. This disease was first discovered in 1908 by R.C. Hamill after performing an autopsy. Detection of this disease was largely post-mortem until the advent of MRI technology, which made diagnosis far easier. Superficial siderosis is largely considered a rare disease, with less than 270 total reported cases in scientific literature as of 2006, and affects people of a wide range of ages with men being approximately three times more frequently affected than women. The number of reported cases of superficial siderosis has increased with advances in MRI technology, but it remains a rare disease.

text: Superficial

text: hemosiderosis

text: of the central nervous system is a disease of the brain resulting from chronic iron deposition in neuronal tissues associated with

text: cerebrospinal fluid

text: . This occurs via the deposition of

text: hemosiderin

text: in neuronal tissue, and is associated with neuronal loss,

text: gliosis

text: , and

text: demyelination

text: of neuronal cells. This disease was first discovered in 1908 by R.C. Hamill after performing an autopsy. Detection of this disease was largely post-mortem until the advent of MRI technology, which made diagnosis far easier. Superficial siderosis is largely considered a rare disease, with less than 270 total reported cases in scientific literature as of 2006, and affects people of a wide range of ages with men being approximately three times more frequently affected than women. The number of reported cases of superficial siderosis has increased with advances in

text: MRI

text: technology, but it remains a rare disease.

text: Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain and ⁄ or spinal cord is the best modality for evaluation when the lesion is suspected to be localized to the central nervous system.

text: Magnetic resonance imaging

text: of the brain and ⁄ or spinal cord is the best modality for evaluation when the lesion is suspected to be localized to the

text: central nervous system

text: Neuroepithelial cells are the "stem cells" of the nervous system, deriving from actual stem cells in several different stages of neural development. These neural stem cells then differentiate further into multiple types of cells, like neurons, astrocytes and other glial cells. They appear during embryonic development of the neural tube as well as in adult neurogenesis in specific areas of the central nervous system. They are also associated with several neurodegenerative diseases. These cells have often been called neuroblasts in an effort to delineate them as precursors to neurons and glial cells.

text: Neuroepithelial cells are the "stem cells" of the nervous system, deriving from actual

text: stem cells

text: in several different stages of neural development. These neural stem cells then differentiate further into multiple types of cells, like

text: neuron

text: s,

text: astrocyte

text: s and other

text: glial cell

text: s. They appear during embryonic development of the

text: neural tube

text: as well as in adult

text: neurogenesis

text: in specific areas of the

text: central nervous system

text: . They are also associated with several

text: neurodegenerative disease

text: s. These cells have often been called

text: neuroblast

text: s in an effort to delineate them as precursors to neurons and glial cells.

text: The brain is small and simple in some species, such as the  nematode worm, where the body plan is quite simple: a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a ganglion) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The nematode  Caenorhabditis elegans has been studied because of its importance in genetics. In the early 1970s, Sydney Brenner chose it as a model system for studying the way that genes control development, including neuronal development.  One advantage of working with this worm is that  the nervous system of the hermaphrodite contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm. Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed every section under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, to map out every neuron and synapse in the entire body, to give a complete connectome of the nematode.  Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information has been used to enable a multitude of studies that would not have been possible without it.

text: The brain is small and simple in some species, such as the

text: nematode

text: worm, where the body plan is quite simple: a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a

text: ganglion

text: ) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The nematode

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: has been studied because of its importance in genetics. In the early 1970s,

text: Sydney Brenner

text: chose it as a model system for studying the way that genes control development, including neuronal development.  One advantage of working with this worm is that  the nervous system of the

text: hermaphrodite

text: contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm. Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed every section under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, to map out every neuron and synapse in the entire body, to give a complete

text: connectome

text: of the nematode.  Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information has been used to enable a multitude of studies that would not have been possible without it.

text: Glia retain the ability to undergo cell division in adulthood, whereas most neurons cannot. The view is based on the general deficiency of the mature nervous system in replacing neurons after an injury, such as a stroke or trauma, while very often there is a profound proliferation of glia, or gliosis near or at the site of damage. However, detailed studies found no evidence that 'mature' glia, such as astrocytes or oligodendrocytes, retain the ability of mitosis. Only the resident oligodendrocyte precursor cells seem to keep this ability after the nervous system matures. On the other hand, there are a few regions in the mature nervous system, such as the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the subventricular zone, where generation of new neurons can be observed.

text: Glia retain the ability to undergo cell division in adulthood, whereas most neurons cannot. The view is based on the general deficiency of the mature nervous system in replacing neurons after an injury, such as a

text: stroke

text: or trauma, while very often there is a profound proliferation of glia, or

text: gliosis

text: near or at the site of damage. However, detailed studies found no evidence that 'mature' glia, such as astrocytes or

text: oligodendrocyte

text: s, retain the ability of mitosis. Only the resident

text: oligodendrocyte precursor cell

text: s seem to keep this ability after the nervous system matures. On the other hand, there are a few regions in the mature nervous system, such as the

text: dentate gyrus

text: of the

text: hippocampus

text: and the

text: subventricular zone

text: , where generation of new neurons can be observed.

text: Many metal contaminants enter the watershed due to motor vehicles and impervious surfaces near rivers and streams. Results from experiments analyzing the effects of metal contaminants on fish discovered an increase in cadmium, lead, and nickel in the gill tissue. Studies on copper and other metals demonstrate toxicity to fish due its ability to influence ionoregulation. The copper competes with other cations for the binding site on the gill of fish, and mortality may result with high enough concentrations of copper binding to these sites (see Biotic Ligand Model). Dissolved copper can also affect the olfactory nervous system in fish, by directly influencing the sensory neurons in the olfactory epithelium. This results in a reduction of olfactory senses, increasing the vulnerability of the fish to predation, as they are no longer able to use chemical cues to locate and avoid predators. These olfactory neurotoxic effects may also influence the salmons ability to navigate and find adequate streams for spawning.

text: Many metal contaminants enter the watershed due to motor vehicles and impervious surfaces near rivers and streams. Results from experiments analyzing the effects of metal contaminants on fish discovered an increase in cadmium, lead, and nickel in the gill tissue. Studies on copper and other metals demonstrate toxicity to fish due its ability to influence ionoregulation. The copper competes with other

text: cations

text: for the binding site on the gill of fish, and mortality may result with high enough concentrations of copper binding to these sites (see

text: Biotic Ligand Model

text: ). Dissolved copper can also affect the olfactory nervous system in fish, by directly influencing the sensory neurons in the olfactory epithelium. This results in a reduction of

text: olfactory

text: senses, increasing the vulnerability of the fish to predation, as they are no longer able to use chemical cues to locate and avoid predators. These olfactory neurotoxic effects may also influence the salmons ability to navigate and find adequate streams for spawning.

text: A system on a module (SOM) is a Board level circuit that integrates a system function in a single module. This is analogous to a system as referred to in the life sciences as in the human body - digestive-system, and nervous system that go to form functional humans or organisms. The organism being an equivalent of a computer, robot, automotive etc. It may integrate digital and analog functions on a single board.  A typical application is in the area of embedded systems. Unlike a Single Board computer, SOM serves a special function like a SoC. The device integrated on the SOM typically requires a high level of interconnection for reasons such as speed, timing, bus-width etc., in a highly integrated module. There are benefits in building an SOM, as for SoC, one notable result is to reduce the cost of the base board or the main PCB.  A major advantage of SOM is design-reuse and that it can be integrated into many embedded computer applications.

text: A system on a module (SOM) is a Board level circuit that integrates a system function in a single module. This is analogous to a system as referred to in the life sciences as in the human body - digestive-system, and nervous system that go to form functional humans or organisms. The organism being an equivalent of a computer,

text: robot

text: automotive

text: etc. It may integrate digital and analog functions on a single board.  A typical application is in the area of

text: embedded systems

text: . Unlike a Single Board computer, SOM serves a special function like a

text: SoC

text: . The device integrated on the SOM typically requires a high level of interconnection for reasons such as speed, timing, bus-width etc., in a highly integrated module. There are benefits in building an SOM, as for SoC, one notable result is to reduce the cost of the base board or the main PCB.  A major advantage of SOM is design-reuse and that it can be integrated into many embedded computer applications.

text: Meningohydroencephalocoele (AmE: meningohydroencephalocele) is a form of meningocele (AmE) - a developmental abnormality of the central nervous system.

text: Meningohydroencephalocoele (

text: AmE

text: : meningohydroencephalocele) is a form of

text: meningocele

text: AmE

text: ) - a

text: developmental abnormality

text: of the central nervous system.

text: Even people with complete SCI, in whom the spinal cord cannot transmit any messages past the level of the lesion, can achieve orgasm.  In 1960, in one of the earliest studies to look at orgasm and SCI, the term phantom orgasm was coined to describe women's perception of orgasmic sensations despite SCI—but subsequent studies have suggested the experience is not merely psychological. Men with complete SCI report sexual sensations at the time of ejaculation, accompanied by physical signs normally found at orgasm, such as increased blood pressure.  Women can experience orgasm with vibration to the cervix regardless of level or completeness of injury; the sensation is the same as uninjured women experience.The peripheral nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system that carry messages to the brain (afferent nerve fibers) may explain why people with complete SCI feel sexual and climactic sensations. One proposed explanation for orgasm in women despite complete SCI is that the vagus nerve bypasses the spinal cord and carries sensory information from the genitals directly to the brain. Women with complete injuries can achieve sexual arousal and orgasm through stimulation of the clitoris, cervix, or vagina, which are each innervated by different nerve pathways, which suggests that even if SCI interferes with one area, function might be preserved in others. In both injured and uninjured people, the brain is responsible for the way sensations of climax are perceived: the qualitative experiences associated with climax are modulated by the brain, rather than a specific area of the body.

text: Even people with complete SCI, in whom the spinal cord cannot transmit any messages past the level of the lesion, can achieve orgasm.  In 1960, in one of the earliest studies to look at orgasm and SCI, the term phantom orgasm was coined to describe women's perception of orgasmic sensations despite SCI—but subsequent studies have suggested the experience is not merely psychological. Men with complete SCI report sexual sensations at the time of ejaculation, accompanied by physical signs normally found at orgasm, such as increased blood pressure.  Women can experience orgasm with vibration to the

text: cervix

text: regardless of level or completeness of injury; the sensation is the same as uninjured women experience.The

text: peripheral

text: nerves of the

text: parasympathetic nervous system

text: that carry messages to the brain (

text: afferent nerve fiber

text: s) may explain why people with complete SCI feel sexual and climactic sensations. One proposed explanation for orgasm in women despite complete SCI is that the

text: vagus nerve

text: bypasses the spinal cord and carries sensory information from the genitals directly to the brain. Women with complete injuries can achieve sexual arousal and orgasm through stimulation of the clitoris, cervix, or vagina, which are each innervated by different nerve pathways, which suggests that even if SCI interferes with one area, function might be preserved in others. In both injured and uninjured people, the brain is responsible for the way sensations of climax are perceived: the qualitative experiences associated with climax are modulated by the brain, rather than a specific area of the body.

text: While the interpretation of the rotation signals from the semicircular canals is straightforward, the interpretation of otolith signals is more difficult: since gravity is equivalent to a constant linear acceleration, one somehow has to distinguish otolith signals that are caused by linear movements from those caused by gravity. Humans can do that quite well, but the neural mechanisms underlying this separation are not yet fully understood. Humans can sense head tilting and linear acceleration even in dark environments because of the orientation of two groups of hair cell bundles on either side of the striola.  Hair cells on opposite sides move with mirror symmetry, so when one side is moved, the other is inhibited.  The opposing effects caused by a tilt of the head cause differential sensory inputs from the hair cell bundles allow humans to tell which way the head is tilting, Sensory information is then sent to the brain, which can respond with appropriate corrective actions to the nervous and muscular systems to ensure that balance and awareness are maintained.

text: While the interpretation of the rotation signals from the semicircular canals is straightforward, the interpretation of otolith signals is more difficult: since gravity is equivalent to a constant linear acceleration, one somehow has to distinguish otolith signals that are caused by linear movements from those caused by gravity. Humans can do that quite well, but the neural mechanisms underlying this separation are not yet fully understood. Humans can sense head tilting and linear acceleration even in dark environments because of the orientation of two groups of hair cell bundles on either side of the

text: striola

text: .  Hair cells on opposite sides move with mirror symmetry, so when one side is moved, the other is inhibited.  The opposing effects caused by a tilt of the head cause differential sensory inputs from the hair cell bundles allow humans to tell which way the head is tilting, Sensory information is then sent to the brain, which can respond with appropriate corrective actions to the nervous and muscular systems to ensure that balance and awareness are maintained.

text: The mechanism responsible for sensitization of the central nervous system at the level of the spinal cord is different from the one in the thalamus. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and its receptor are the molecules that seem to be responsible for the sensitization of neurons in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord. Macrophages and lymphocytes infiltrate the spinal cord, for example, because of injury, and release TNF-alpha and other pro-inflammatory molecules.  TNF-alpha then binds to the TNF receptors expressed on nociceptors, activating the MAPK/NF-kappa B pathways. This leads to the production of more TNF-alpha, its release, and binding to the receptors on the cells that released it (autocrine signalling). This mechanism also explains the perpetuation of sensitization and thus allodynia. TNF-alpha might also increase the number of AMPA receptors, and decrease the numbers of GABA receptors on the membrane of nociceptors, both of which could change the nociceptors in a way that allows for their easier activation.  Another outcome of the increased TNF-alpha is the release of PGE, with a mechanism and effect similar to the ones in the thalamus.

text: The mechanism responsible for sensitization of the central nervous system at the level of the spinal cord is different from the one in the thalamus.

text: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha

text: (TNF-alpha) and its receptor are the molecules that seem to be responsible for the sensitization of neurons in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord. Macrophages and

text: lymphocyte

text: s infiltrate the spinal cord, for example, because of injury, and release TNF-alpha and other pro-inflammatory molecules.  TNF-alpha then binds to the TNF receptors expressed on nociceptors, activating the

text: MAPK

text: NF-kappa B

text: pathways. This leads to the production of more TNF-alpha, its release, and binding to the receptors on the cells that released it (

text: autocrine signalling

text: ). This mechanism also explains the perpetuation of sensitization and thus allodynia. TNF-alpha might also increase the number of

text: AMPA receptor

text: s, and decrease the numbers of

text: GABA receptor

text: s on the membrane of nociceptors, both of which could change the nociceptors in a way that allows for their easier activation.  Another outcome of the increased TNF-alpha is the release of PGE, with a mechanism and effect similar to the ones in the thalamus.

text: Spiking neurons and non-spiking neurons are usually integrated into the same neural network, but they possess specific characteristics. The major difference between these two neuron types is the manner in which encoded information is propagated along a length to the central nervous system or to some locus of interneurons, such as a neuromuscular junction. Non-spiking neurons propagate messages without eliciting an action potential. This is most likely due to the chemical composition of the membranes of the non-spiking neurons. They lack protein channels for sodium and are more sensitive to certain neurotransmitters. They function by propagating graded potentials and serve to modulate some neuromuscular junctions. Spiking neurons are noted as traditional action potential generating neurons.

text: The use of stem cells to repair or replace damaged brain tissue is a new and exciting avenue of research. A neural stem cell is a special kind of cell that can multiply and give rise to other more specialized cell types. These cells are found in adult neural tissue and normally develop into several different cell types found within the central nervous system. NINDS researchers are investigating the ability of stem cells to develop into neurotransmitter-producing neurons, specifically dopamine-producing cells. Researchers are also looking at the power of stem cells to develop into oligodendrocytes, a type of brain cell that produces myelin, the fatty sheath that surrounds and insulates axons. One study in mice has shown that bone marrow stem cells can develop into neurons, demonstrating that neural stem cells are not the only type of stem cell that could be beneficial in the treatment of brain and nervous system disorders. At the moment, stem cell research for TBI is in its infancy, but future research may lead to advances for treatment and rehabilitation.

text: Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy and stereotyped organization of nervous systems. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems, and thus we can make much more precise statements about their neuroanatomy. In vertebrates, the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the brain and spinal cord (together called the central nervous system, or CNS) and the routes of the nerves that connect to the rest of the body (known as the peripheral nervous system, or PNS). The delineation of distinct structures and regions of the nervous system has been critical in investigating how it works. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or "lesions" to specific brain areas affects behavior or other neural functions.

text: Neuroanatomy is the study of the

text: anatomy

text: and stereotyped organization of

text: nervous system

text: s. In contrast to animals with

text: radial symmetry

text: , whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with

text: bilateral symmetry

text: have segregated, defined nervous systems, and thus we can make much more precise statements about their neuroanatomy. In

text: vertebrates

text: , the nervous system is segregated into the internal structure of the

text: brain

text: and

text: spinal cord

text: (together called the

text: central nervous system

text: , or CNS) and the routes of the nerves that connect to the rest of the body (known as the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , or PNS). The delineation of distinct structures and regions of the nervous system has been critical in investigating how it works. For example, much of what neuroscientists have learned comes from observing how damage or "lesions" to specific brain areas affects

text: behavior

text: or other neural functions.

text: Neurology is the medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. It deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems.

text: Neurology

text: is the medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. It deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems.

text: On July 29, 1977, H.F., a 51-year-old teacher, was attempting to remove a casserole dish from her new 600-watt microwave oven. The oven signaled the end of the heating cycle, but the light and the cooking blower were on. During retrieval of the dish, she inserted two thirds of her bare forearms into the oven, for a total time of about five seconds. The oven was still operating. She felt "hot pulsating sensation" and burning in fingers and fingernails and a sensation of "needles" over the exposed areas. Jabbing pain, swelling, and red-orange discoloration of dorsal sides of both hands and forearms appeared shortly afterwards. The next day she sought medical help. Since then, she has undergone treatment with oral and topical cortisone, Grenz rays, ultrasound, and later acupuncture, without relief. Symptoms persisted, including high sensitivity to radiant heat (sun, desk lamp, etc.) and growing intolerance to pressure of clothes and to touch in hands and forearms. Neurological examinations in 1980 and 1981 did not yield a definite diagnosis. Neuronal latencies were within norm. Electromyography discovered denervation in the median nerve, ulnar nerve, and radial nerve on both arms. Severe reduction of number of sweat glands in the finger pulps, in comparison with a random control, was also found. The injury was determined to be caused by the full power of the magnetron; the pulsating sensation was caused either by the stirrer (a mechanical mirror distributing the microwave beam across the oven space to prevent formation of hot and cold spots), or by the arterial pulsation in combination with increased nerve sensitivity. Damage to the A beta fibers, A delta fibers, and group C nerve fibers was the cause of the burning sensation. The increased hypersensitivity to radiant heat is caused by the damage to the A beta, A delta, and polymodal nociceptors (the group C fibers); this damage is induced by a single-time overheating of the skin to 48.5-50 °C, and the resulting sensitivity persists for a long time. Degeneration of the alpha motor neurons is also caused by the exposure to heat and radiation. Most of the major nerve trunks were not affected. Damage to the A beta fibers (located in the skin), discovered by the two-point discrimination test, is permanent; the Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner corpuscles, and Merkel nerve endings, which degenerated after denervation, do not regenerate. The sympathetic nervous system was involved as well; the reduction in active sweat glands was caused by destruction of their innervation, the initial edema and reddening was also caused by sympathetic nerve damage.

text: On July 29, 1977, H.F., a 51-year-old teacher, was attempting to remove a

text: casserole

text: dish from her new 600-watt microwave oven. The oven signaled the end of the heating cycle, but the light and the cooking blower were on. During retrieval of the dish, she inserted two thirds of her bare forearms into the oven, for a total time of about five seconds. The oven was still operating. She felt "hot pulsating sensation" and burning in fingers and fingernails and a sensation of "

text: needles

text: " over the exposed areas. Jabbing pain, swelling, and red-orange discoloration of dorsal sides of both hands and forearms appeared shortly afterwards. The next day she sought medical help. Since then, she has undergone treatment with oral and topical

text: cortisone

text: Grenz rays

text: , ultrasound, and later acupuncture, without relief. Symptoms persisted, including high sensitivity to radiant heat (sun, desk lamp, etc.) and growing intolerance to pressure of clothes and to touch in hands and forearms. Neurological examinations in 1980 and 1981 did not yield a definite diagnosis. Neuronal latencies were within norm. Electromyography discovered denervation in the

text: median nerve

text: ulnar nerve

text: , and

text: radial nerve

text: on both arms. Severe reduction of number of

text: sweat gland

text: s in the finger pulps, in comparison with a random control, was also found. The injury was determined to be caused by the full power of the magnetron; the pulsating sensation was caused either by the stirrer (a mechanical mirror distributing the microwave beam across the oven space to prevent formation of hot and cold spots), or by the arterial pulsation in combination with increased nerve sensitivity. Damage to the

text: A beta fiber

text: s,

text: A delta fiber

text: s, and

text: group C nerve fiber

text: s was the cause of the burning sensation. The increased hypersensitivity to radiant heat is caused by the damage to the A beta, A delta, and polymodal

text: nociceptor

text: s (the group C fibers); this damage is induced by a single-time overheating of the skin to 48.5-50 °C, and the resulting sensitivity persists for a long time. Degeneration of the

text: alpha motor neuron

text: s is also caused by the exposure to heat and radiation. Most of the major nerve trunks were not affected. Damage to the A beta fibers (located in the skin), discovered by the

text: two-point discrimination

text: test, is permanent; the

text: Pacinian corpuscle

text: s,

text: Meissner corpuscle

text: s, and

text: Merkel nerve ending

text: s, which degenerated after denervation, do not regenerate. The

text: sympathetic nervous system

text: was involved as well; the reduction in active sweat glands was caused by destruction of their innervation, the initial edema and reddening was also caused by sympathetic nerve damage.

text: Its lateral portions roof in the orbital cavities and support the frontal lobes of the cerebrum; they are convex and marked by depressions for the brain convolutions, and grooves for branches of the meningeal vessels.

text: Its lateral portions roof in the orbital cavities and support the frontal lobes of the

text: cerebrum

text: ; they are convex and marked by depressions for the brain convolutions, and grooves for branches of the meningeal vessels.

text: Hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies (HMSN) is a name sometimes given to a group of different neuropathies which are all characterized by their impact upon both afferent and efferent neural communication. HMSN are characterised by atypical neural development and degradation of neural tissue. The two common forms of HMSN are either hypertrophic demyelinated nerves or complete atrophy of neural tissue. Hypertrophic condition causes neural stiffness and a demyelination of nerves in the peripheral nervous system, and atrophy causes the breakdown of axons and neural cell bodies. In these disorders, a patient experiences progressive muscle atrophy and sensory neuropathy of the extremities.

text: Hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies (HMSN) is a name sometimes given to a group of different

text: neuropathies

text: which are all characterized by their impact upon both

text: afferent

text: and

text: efferent

text: neural

text: communication. HMSN are characterised by atypical neural development and degradation of

text: neural tissue

text: . The two common forms of HMSN are either hypertrophic demyelinated nerves or complete atrophy of neural tissue. Hypertrophic condition causes neural stiffness and a

text: demyelination

text: of nerves in the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , and atrophy causes the breakdown of

text: axon

text: s and

text: neural cell

text: bodies. In these disorders, a patient experiences progressive

text: muscle atrophy

text: and sensory neuropathy of the

text: extremities

text: Physical fatigue, or muscle fatigue, is the temporary physical inability of a muscle to perform optimally. The onset of muscle fatigue during physical activity is gradual, and depends upon an individual's level of physical fitness, and also upon other factors, such as sleep deprivation and overall health. It can be reversed by rest. Physical fatigue can be caused by a lack of energy in the muscle, by a decrease of the efficiency of the neuromuscular junction or by a reduction of the drive originating from the central nervous system. The central component of fatigue is triggered by an increase of the level of serotonin in the central nervous system.  During motor activity, serotonin released in synapses that contact motoneurons promotes muscle contraction. During high level of motor activity, the amount of serotonin released increases and a spillover occurs. Serotonin binds to extrasynaptic receptors located on the axon initial segment of motoneurons with the result that nerve impulse initiation and thereby muscle contraction are inhibited.

text: Physical fatigue, or muscle fatigue, is the temporary physical inability of a muscle to perform optimally. The onset of muscle fatigue during physical activity is gradual, and depends upon an individual's level of physical fitness, and also upon other factors, such as

text: sleep deprivation

text: and overall health. It can be reversed by rest. Physical fatigue can be caused by a lack of energy in the muscle, by a decrease of the efficiency of the neuromuscular junction or by a reduction of the drive originating from the central nervous system. The central component of fatigue is triggered by an increase of the level of

text: serotonin

text: in the central nervous system.  During motor activity, serotonin released in synapses that contact

text: motoneurons

text: promotes muscle contraction. During high level of motor activity, the amount of

text: serotonin

text: released increases and a spillover occurs.

text: Serotonin

text: binds to extrasynaptic receptors located on the

text: axon

text: initial segment of

text: motoneurons

text: with the result that

text: nerve impulse

text: initiation and thereby muscle contraction are inhibited.

text: P2X receptors are ligand-gated ion channels, whereas the P1 and P2Y receptors are G protein-coupled receptors. These ligand-gated ion channels are nonselective cation channels responsible for mediating excitatory postsynaptic responses, similar to nicotinic and ionotropic glutamate receptors. P2X receptors are distinct from the rest of the widely known ligand-gated ion channels, as the genetic encoding of these particular channels indicates the presence of only two transmembrane domains within the channels. These receptors are greatly distributed in neurons and glial cells throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. P2X receptors mediate a large variety of responses including fast transmission at central synapses, contraction of smooth muscle cells, platelet aggregation, macrophage activation, and apoptosis. Moreover, these receptors have been implicated in integrating functional activity between neurons, glial, and vascular cells in the central nervous system, thereby mediating the effects of neural activity during development, neurodegeneration, inflammation, and cancer.

text: P2X receptors are

text: ligand-gated ion channel

text: s, whereas the P1 and P2Y receptors are

text: G protein-coupled receptor

text: s. These ligand-gated ion channels are nonselective cation channels responsible for mediating excitatory postsynaptic responses, similar to

text: nicotinic

text: and

text: ionotropic glutamate receptor

text: s. P2X receptors are distinct from the rest of the widely known ligand-gated ion channels, as the genetic encoding of these particular channels indicates the presence of only two transmembrane domains within the channels. These receptors are greatly distributed in

text: neuron

text: s and

text: glial

text: cells throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. P2X receptors mediate a large variety of responses including fast transmission at central synapses, contraction of smooth muscle cells,

text: platelet

text: aggregation,

text: macrophage

text: activation, and

text: apoptosis

text: . Moreover, these receptors have been implicated in integrating functional activity between neurons, glial, and vascular cells in the central nervous system, thereby mediating the effects of neural activity during development, neurodegeneration, inflammation, and cancer.

text: Atropine's actions on the parasympathetic nervous system inhibit salivary and mucus glands. The drug may also inhibit sweating via the sympathetic nervous system.  This can be useful in treating hyperhidrosis, and can prevent the death rattle of dying patients. Even though atropine has not been officially indicated for either of these purposes by the FDA, it has been used by physicians for these purposes.

text: Atropine's actions on the parasympathetic nervous system inhibit salivary and mucus glands. The drug may also inhibit sweating via the sympathetic nervous system.  This can be useful in treating

text: hyperhidrosis

text: , and can prevent the

text: death rattle

text: of dying patients. Even though atropine has not been officially indicated for either of these purposes by the FDA, it has been used by physicians for these purposes.

text: Olfactory ensheathing glia (OEG), also known as olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) or olfactory ensheathing glial cells, are a type of macroglia (radial glia) found in the nervous system. They are also known as olfactory Schwann cells because they ensheath the non-myelinated axons of olfactory neurons in a similar way to which Schwann cells ensheath non-myelinated peripheral neurons.  They also share the property of assisting axonal regeneration. OEG are capable of phagocytosing axonal debris in vivo, and in vitro they phagocytose bacteria. Olfactory glia that express LYZ are thought to play an important role in immunoprotection in the mucosa, where neurons are directly exposed to the external environment. OEG have been tested successfully in experimental axonal regeneration in adult rats with traumatic spinal cord damage, and clinical trials are currently being conducted to obtain more information on spinal cord injuries and other neurodegenerative diseases.

text: Olfactory ensheathing glia (OEG), also known as olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) or olfactory ensheathing glial cells, are a type of

text: macroglia

text: radial glia

text: ) found in the

text: nervous system

text: . They are also known as olfactory

text: Schwann cell

text: s because they ensheath the non-myelinated axons of olfactory neurons in a similar way to which

text: Schwann cell

text: s ensheath non-myelinated peripheral neurons.  They also share the property of assisting axonal regeneration. OEG are capable of

text: phagocytosing

text: axonal debris

text: in vivo

text: , and

text: in vitro

text: they phagocytose bacteria. Olfactory glia that express

text: LYZ

text: are thought to play an important role in

text: immunoprotection

text: in the

text: mucosa

text: , where

text: neuron

text: s are directly exposed to the external environment. OEG have been tested successfully in experimental axonal regeneration in adult rats with

text: traumatic spinal cord damage

text: , and

text: clinical trial

text: s are currently being conducted to obtain more information on spinal cord injuries and other

text: neurodegenerative

text: diseases.

text: Parkinson's disease (PD) is a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system.  Most people with PD have idiopathic Parkinson's disease (having no specific known cause). A small proportion of cases, however, can be attributed to known genetic factors. Other factors such as environmental toxins, herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides, have been associated with the risk of developing PD, but no causal relationships have been proven.

text: Parkinson's disease

text: (PD) is a

text: degenerative disorder

text: of the

text: central nervous system

text: .  Most people with PD have

text: idiopathic

text: Parkinson's disease (having no specific known cause). A small proportion of cases, however, can be attributed to known

text: genetic

text: factors. Other factors such as environmental toxins, herbicides, pesticides, and fungicides, have been associated with the risk of developing PD, but no causal relationships have been proven.

text: Astereognosis is the failure to identify or recognize objects by palpation in the absence of visual or auditory information, even though tactile, proprioceptive, and thermal sensations may be unaffected. It may be caused by disease of the sensory cortex or posterior columns. People suffering from Alzheimer's disease show a reduction in stereognosis. Astereognosis can be caused by damage to the posterior association areas of the parietal, temporal, or occipital lobes, or the postcentral gyrus of either hemisphere. For other types of dementia, stereognosis does not appear to decline.

text: Astereognosis

text: is the failure to identify or recognize objects by palpation in the absence of visual or auditory information, even though tactile, proprioceptive, and thermal sensations may be unaffected. It may be caused by disease of the

text: sensory cortex

text: or posterior columns. People suffering from

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: show a reduction in stereognosis. Astereognosis can be caused by damage to the posterior association areas of the parietal, temporal, or occipital lobes, or the postcentral gyrus of either hemisphere. For other types of

text: dementia

text: , stereognosis does not appear to decline.

text: Arachnoiditis is an inflammatory condition of the arachnoid mater or 'arachnoid', one of the membranes known as meninges that surround and protect the nerves of the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. The arachnoid can become inflamed because of adverse reactions to chemicals, infection from bacteria or viruses, as the result of direct injury to the spine, chronic compression of spinal nerves, complications from spinal surgery or other invasive spinal procedures, or the accidental intrathecal injection of steroids intended for the epidural space. Inflammation can sometimes lead to the formation of scar tissue and adhesion that can make the spinal nerves "stick" together, a condition where such tissue develops in and between the leptomeninges. The condition can be extremely painful, especially when progressing to adhesive arachnoiditis. Another form of the condition is arachnoiditis ossificans, in which the arachnoid becomes ossified, or turns to bone, and is thought to be a late-stage complication of the adhesive form of arachnoiditis.

text: Arachnoiditis is an

text: inflammatory

text: condition of the

text: arachnoid mater

text: or 'arachnoid', one of the

text: membranes

text: known as

text: meninges

text: that surround and protect the

text: nerve

text: s of the central nervous system, including the brain and

text: spinal cord

text: . The arachnoid can become inflamed because of adverse reactions to chemicals, infection from

text: bacteria

text: or

text: viruses

text: , as the result of direct injury to the spine, chronic compression of spinal nerves, complications from spinal surgery or other invasive spinal procedures, or the accidental

text: intrathecal

text: injection of steroids intended for the epidural space. Inflammation can sometimes lead to the formation of

text: scar

text: tissue and adhesion that can make the spinal nerves "stick" together, a condition where such tissue develops in and between the

text: leptomeninges

text: . The condition can be extremely painful, especially when progressing to adhesive arachnoiditis. Another form of the condition is arachnoiditis ossificans, in which the arachnoid becomes

text: ossified

text: , or turns to bone, and is thought to be a late-stage complication of the adhesive form of arachnoiditis.

text: A plethora of recent evidence suggests the linkage between schizophrenia and BDNF.  Given that BDNF is critical for the survival of central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) neurons and synaptogenesis during and even after development, BDNF alterations may play a role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia.  BDNF has been found within many areas of the brain and plays an important role is supporting the formation of memories.  It has been shown that BDNF mRNA levels are decreased in cortical layers IV and V of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic patients, an area that is known to be involved with working memory.  Since schizophrenic patients often suffer from impairments in working memory, and BDNF mRNA levels have been shown to be decreased in the DLPFC of schizophrenic patients, it is highly likely that BDNF plays some role in the etiology of this neurodevelopmental disorder of the CNS.

text: A plethora of recent evidence suggests the linkage between

text: schizophrenia

text: and BDNF.  Given that BDNF is critical for the survival of central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) neurons and

text: synaptogenesis

text: during and even after development, BDNF alterations may play a role in the pathogenesis of

text: schizophrenia

text: .  BDNF has been found within many areas of the brain and plays an important role is supporting the formation of memories.  It has been shown that BDNF mRNA levels are decreased in cortical layers IV and V of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic patients, an area that is known to be involved with working memory.  Since schizophrenic patients often suffer from impairments in working memory, and BDNF mRNA levels have been shown to be decreased in the DLPFC of schizophrenic patients, it is highly likely that BDNF plays some role in the etiology of this neurodevelopmental disorder of the CNS.

text: A pair of amateur chemists and bootleggers, Harry Gross and Max Reisman, worked to develop an alternative adulterant that would pass the tests, but still be somewhat palatable. They sought advice from a professor at MIT who did not realize it was meant for internal consumption. They settled on a plasticizer, tri-o-tolyl phosphate (also known as tri-ortho cresyl phosphate, TOCP, or Tricresyl phosphate), that was able to pass the Treasury Department's tests but preserved Jake's drinkability. TOCP was originally thought to be non-toxic; however, it was later determined to be a neurotoxin that causes axonal damage to the nerve cells in the nervous system of human beings, especially those located in the spinal cord. The resulting type of paralysis is now referred to as organophosphate-induced delayed neuropathy, or OPIDN.

text: A pair of amateur chemists and bootleggers, Harry Gross and Max Reisman, worked to develop an alternative adulterant that would pass the tests, but still be somewhat palatable. They sought advice from a professor at

text: MIT

text: who did not realize it was meant for internal consumption. They settled on a

text: plasticizer

text: tri-o-tolyl phosphate

text: (also known as tri-ortho cresyl phosphate, TOCP, or

text: Tricresyl phosphate

text: ), that was able to pass the Treasury Department's tests but preserved Jake's drinkability. TOCP was originally thought to be non-toxic; however, it was later determined to be a neurotoxin that causes axonal damage to the nerve cells in the

text: nervous system

text: of human beings, especially those located in the

text: spinal cord

text: . The resulting type of paralysis is now referred to as

text: organophosphate-induced delayed neuropathy

text: , or OPIDN.

text: A spinal cord injury (SCI) is damage to the spinal cord that causes changes in its function, either temporary or permanent. These changes translate into loss of muscle function, sensation, or autonomic function in parts of the body served by the spinal cord below the level of the lesion. Injuries can occur at any level of the spinal cord and can be classified as complete injury, a total loss of sensation and muscle function, or incomplete, meaning some nervous signals are able to travel past the injured area of the cord.  Depending on the location and severity of damage along the spinal cord, the symptoms can vary widely, from pain or numbness to paralysis to incontinence.  The prognosis also ranges widely, from full recovery in rare cases to permanent tetraplegia (also called quadriplegia) in  injuries at the level of the neck, and paraplegia in lower injuries. Complications that can occur in the short and long term after injury include muscle atrophy, pressure sores, infections, and respiratory problems.

text: A spinal cord injury (SCI) is damage to the

text: spinal cord

text: that causes changes in its function, either temporary or permanent. These changes translate into loss of muscle function,

text: sensation

text: , or

text: autonomic

text: function in parts of the body served by the spinal cord below the level of the

text: lesion

text: . Injuries can occur at any level of the spinal cord and can be classified as complete injury, a total loss of sensation and muscle function, or incomplete, meaning some nervous signals are able to travel past the injured area of the cord.  Depending on the location and severity of damage along the spinal cord, the symptoms can vary widely, from pain or numbness to

text: paralysis

text: to

text: incontinence

text: .  The

text: prognosis

text: also ranges widely, from full recovery in rare cases to permanent

text: tetraplegia

text: (also called quadriplegia) in  injuries at the level of the neck, and

text: paraplegia

text: in lower injuries. Complications that can occur in the short and long term after injury include muscle

text: atrophy

text: pressure sore

text: s, infections, and respiratory problems.

text: Neural engineering and rehabilitation applies neuroscience and engineering to investigating peripheral and central nervous system function and to finding clinical solutions to problems created by brain damage or malfunction. Engineering applied to neuroregeneration focuses on engineering devices and materials that facilitate the growth of neurons for specific applications such as the regeneration of peripheral nerve injury, the regeneration of the spinal cord tissue for spinal cord injury, and the regeneration of retinal tissue. Genetic engineering and tissue engineering are areas developing scaffolds for spinal cord to regrow across thus helping neurological problems (Potter 2012, Schmidt & Leach 2003).

text: Neural engineering and rehabilitation applies neuroscience and engineering to investigating peripheral and central nervous system function and to finding clinical solutions to problems created by brain damage or malfunction. Engineering applied to

text: neuroregeneration

text: focuses on engineering devices and materials that facilitate the growth of neurons for specific applications such as the regeneration of peripheral nerve injury, the regeneration of the spinal cord tissue for spinal cord injury, and the regeneration of retinal tissue.

text: Genetic engineering

text: and

text: tissue engineering

text: are areas developing scaffolds for spinal cord to regrow across thus helping neurological problems (Potter 2012, Schmidt & Leach 2003).

text: Neurons are electrically excitable cells composed, in general, of one or more dendrites, a single soma, a single axon and one or more axon terminals. Dendrites are cellular projections whose primary function is to receive synaptic signals. Their protrusions, or spines, are designed to capture the neurotransmitters released by the presynaptic neuron. They have a high concentration of ligand-gated ion channels. These spines have a thin neck connecting a bulbous protrusion to the dendrite. This ensures that changes occurring inside the spine are less likely to affect the neighboring spines. The dendritic spine can, with rare exception (see LTP), act as an independent unit. The dendrites extend from the soma, which houses the nucleus, and many of the "normal" eukaryotic organelles. Unlike the spines, the surface of the soma is populated by voltage activated ion channels. These channels help transmit the signals generated by the dendrites. Emerging out from the soma is the axon hillock. This region is characterized by having a very high concentration of voltage-activated sodium channels. In general, it is considered to be the spike initiation zone for action potentials. Multiple signals generated at the spines, and transmitted by the soma all converge here. Immediately after the axon hillock is the axon. This is a thin tubular protrusion traveling away from the soma. The axon is insulated by a myelin sheath. Myelin is composed of either Schwann cells (in the peripheral nervous system) or oligodendrocytes (in the central nervous system), both of which are types of glial cells. Although glial cells are not involved with the transmission of electrical signals, they communicate and provide important biochemical support to neurons. To be specific, myelin wraps multiple times around the axonal segment, forming a thick fatty layer that prevents ions from entering or escaping the axon. This insulation prevents significant signal decay as well as ensuring faster signal speed. This insulation, however, has the restriction that no channels can be present on the surface of the axon. There are, therefore, regularly spaced patches of membrane, which have no insulation. These nodes of Ranvier can be considered to be "mini axon hillocks", as their purpose is to boost the signal in order to prevent significant signal decay. At the furthest end, the axon loses its insulation and begins to branch into several axon terminals. These presynaptic terminals, or synaptic boutons, are a specialized area within the axon of the presynaptic cell that contains neurotransmitters enclosed in small membrane-bound spheres called synaptic vesicles.

text: Neurons are electrically excitable cells composed, in general, of one or more dendrites, a single

text: soma

text: , a single axon and one or more

text: axon terminal

text: s. Dendrites are cellular projections whose primary function is to receive synaptic signals. Their protrusions, or

text: spines

text: , are designed to capture the neurotransmitters released by the presynaptic neuron. They have a high concentration of

text: ligand-gated ion channel

text: s. These spines have a thin neck connecting a bulbous protrusion to the dendrite. This ensures that changes occurring inside the spine are less likely to affect the neighboring spines. The dendritic spine can, with rare exception (see

text: LTP

text: ), act as an independent unit. The dendrites extend from the soma, which houses the

text: nucleus

text: , and many of the "normal"

text: eukaryotic

text: organelles. Unlike the spines, the surface of the soma is populated by voltage activated ion channels. These channels help transmit the signals generated by the dendrites. Emerging out from the soma is the

text: axon hillock

text: . This region is characterized by having a very high concentration of voltage-activated sodium channels. In general, it is considered to be the spike initiation zone for action potentials. Multiple signals generated at the spines, and transmitted by the soma all converge here. Immediately after the axon hillock is the axon. This is a thin tubular protrusion traveling away from the soma. The axon is insulated by a

text: myelin

text: sheath. Myelin is composed of either

text: Schwann cells

text: (in the peripheral nervous system) or

text: oligodendrocytes

text: (in the central nervous system), both of which are types of

text: glial cells

text: . Although glial cells are not involved with the transmission of electrical signals, they communicate and provide important biochemical support to neurons. To be specific, myelin wraps multiple times around the axonal segment, forming a thick fatty layer that prevents ions from entering or escaping the axon. This insulation prevents significant signal decay as well as ensuring faster signal speed. This insulation, however, has the restriction that no channels can be present on the surface of the axon. There are, therefore, regularly spaced patches of membrane, which have no insulation. These

text: nodes of Ranvier

text: can be considered to be "mini axon hillocks", as their purpose is to boost the signal in order to prevent significant signal decay. At the furthest end, the axon loses its insulation and begins to branch into several

text: axon terminal

text: s. These presynaptic terminals, or synaptic boutons, are a specialized area within the axon of the presynaptic cell that contains

text: neurotransmitters

text: enclosed in small membrane-bound spheres called

text: synaptic vesicle

text: s.

text: TRPV1 is a nonselective cation channel that may be activated by a wide variety of exogenous and endogenous physical and chemical stimuli. The best-known activators of TRPV1 are: temperature greater than ; acidic conditions; capsaicin, the irritating compound in hot chili peppers; and allyl isothiocyanate, the pungent compound in mustard and wasabi. The activation of TRPV1 leads to a painful, burning sensation. Its endogenous activators include: low pH (acidic conditions), the endocannabinoid anandamide, N-oleyl-dopamine, and N-arachidonoyl-dopamine. TRPV1 receptors are found mainly in the nociceptive neurons of the peripheral nervous system, but they have also been described in many other tissues, including the central nervous system.  TRPV1 is involved in the transmission and modulation of pain (nociception), as well as the integration of diverse painful stimuli.

text: TRPV1 is a nonselective

text: cation

text: channel that may be activated by a wide variety of

text: exogenous

text: and

text: endogenous

text: physical and chemical stimuli. The best-known activators of TRPV1 are: temperature greater than ; acidic conditions;

text: capsaicin

text: , the irritating compound in hot chili peppers; and

text: allyl isothiocyanate

text: , the pungent compound in mustard and wasabi. The activation of TRPV1 leads to a painful, burning sensation. Its endogenous activators include: low

text: pH

text: (acidic conditions), the

text: endocannabinoid

text: anandamide

text: , N-oleyl-dopamine, and

text: N-arachidonoyl-dopamine

text: . TRPV1 receptors are found mainly in the

text: nociceptive

text: neurons

text: of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , but they have also been described in many other tissues, including the

text: central nervous system

text: .  TRPV1 is involved in the transmission and modulation of

text: pain

text: nociception

text: ), as well as the integration of diverse painful stimuli.

text: Synapse: The Electronic Music Magazine was a bi-monthly American magazine about synthesizers and electronic music published March 1976 to June 1979.  During an era when commercial synthesizers were still pretty new and mostly DIY, Synapse was notable for its high production values, interviews with famous musicians, and articles by well-known writers.

text: Synapse: The Electronic Music Magazine was a bi-monthly American magazine about

text: synthesizer

text: s and

text: electronic music

text: published March 1976 to June 1979.  During an era when commercial synthesizers were still pretty new and mostly

text: DIY

text: , Synapse was notable for its high production values, interviews with famous musicians, and articles by well-known writers.

text: The magnitude of the action potential set up in any single nerve fiber is independent of the strength of the exciting stimulus, provided the latter is adequate. An electrical stimulus below threshold strength fails to elicit a propagated spike potential. If it is of threshold strength or over, a spike (a nervous impulse) of maximum magnitude is set up. Either the single fiber does not respond with spike production, or it responds to the utmost of its ability under the conditions at the moment. This property of the single nerve fiber is termed the all-or-none relationship. This relationship holds only for the unit of tissue; for nervous tissue the unit is the nerve cell, for skeletal muscle the unit is the individual muscle fiber and for the heart the unit is the entire auricles or the entire ventricles.

text: The magnitude of the

text: action potential

text: set up in any single

text: nerve fiber

text: is independent of the strength of the exciting stimulus, provided the latter is adequate. An

text: electrical stimulus

text: below threshold strength fails to elicit a propagated spike potential. If it is of threshold strength or over, a spike (a nervous impulse) of maximum magnitude is set up. Either the single fiber does not respond with spike production, or it responds to the utmost of its ability under the conditions at the moment. This property of the single nerve fiber is termed the all-or-none relationship. This relationship holds only for the unit of

text: tissue

text: ; for

text: nervous tissue

text: the unit is the

text: nerve cell

text: , for

text: skeletal muscle

text: the unit is the individual muscle fiber and for the heart the unit is the entire

text: auricles

text: or the entire

text: ventricle

text: s.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system uses chiefly acetylcholine (ACh) as its neurotransmitter, although peptides (such as cholecystokinin) can be used. The ACh acts on two types of receptors, the muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors. Most transmissions occur in two stages: When stimulated, the preganglionic neuron releases ACh at the ganglion, which acts on nicotinic receptors of postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic neuron then releases ACh to stimulate the muscarinic receptors of the target organ.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system uses chiefly

text: acetylcholine

text: (ACh) as its

text: neurotransmitter

text: , although

text: peptides

text: (such as

text: cholecystokinin

text: ) can be used. The ACh acts on two types of receptors, the

text: muscarinic

text: and

text: nicotinic

text: cholinergic

text: receptors. Most transmissions occur in two stages: When stimulated, the

text: preganglionic

text: neuron releases ACh at the ganglion, which acts on nicotinic receptors of

text: postganglionic

text: neurons. The postganglionic neuron then releases ACh to stimulate the muscarinic receptors of the target organ.

text: In 2007, Zuo received a Sloan Research Fellowship from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation for her work on glia-neuron communication. The award includes a $45,000 grant towards unrestricted research which used modern imaging techniques and molecular manipulation to better study the ways that glia and neurons interact and influence memory and learning in the human brain. Also in 2007, Zuo received a $200,000 award from the Ellison Medical Foundation and the American Federation for Aging Research (AFAR). This award, given out over four years of research, supported her work looking into one of "the simplest synapse in the nervous system, the neuromuscular junction" and how it is affected by the aging process. Zuo received another $200,000 grant from the Dana Foundation to fund a research project which will study how the brain changes after a stroke and during rehabilitation. She was also a 2015 National Award finalist for the Blavatnik Awards for Young Scientists.

text: In 2007, Zuo received a

text: Sloan Research Fellowship

text: from the

text: Alfred P. Sloan Foundation

text: for her work on

text: glia

text: neuron

text: communication. The award includes a $45,000 grant towards unrestricted research which used modern imaging techniques and molecular manipulation to better study the ways that glia and neurons interact and influence

text: memory

text: and learning in the

text: human brain

text: . Also in 2007, Zuo received a $200,000 award from the

text: Ellison Medical Foundation

text: and the

text: American Federation for Aging Research

text: (AFAR). This award, given out over four years of research, supported her work looking into one of "the simplest

text: synapse

text: in the

text: nervous system

text: , the

text: neuromuscular junction

text: " and how it is affected by the aging process. Zuo received another $200,000 grant from the

text: Dana Foundation

text: to fund a research project which will study how the brain changes after a

text: stroke

text: and during rehabilitation. She was also a 2015 National Award finalist for the

text: Blavatnik Awards for Young Scientists

text: The Wisconsin Legislature created Chapter 110 on September 1, 1939 to have the Motor Vehicle Department. That department had three divisions: Registration and Licensing, Highway Safety Promotion and Inspection and Enforcement. The Inspection and Enforcement division had inspectors who enforced the state motor carrier regulations and the state motor vehicle code. That division eventually became known as the Wisconsin State Patrol.

text: The committee recommended that all benzodiazepine treatment be withdrawn gradually and recommended that benzodiazepine treatment be used only in carefully selected patients and that therapy be limited to short-term use only. It was noted in the review that alcohol can potentiate the central nervous system-depressant effects of benzodiazepines and should be avoided. The central nervous system-depressant effects of benzodiazepines may make driving or operating machinery dangerous, and the elderly are more prone to these adverse effects. High single doses or repeated low doses have been reported to produce hypotonia, poor sucking, and hypothermia in the neonate, and irregularities in the fetal heart. The committee recommended that benzodiazepines be avoided in lactation.

text: The committee recommended that all benzodiazepine treatment be withdrawn gradually and recommended that benzodiazepine treatment be used only in carefully selected patients and that therapy be limited to short-term use only. It was noted in the review that alcohol can potentiate the

text: central nervous system

text: -depressant effects of benzodiazepines and should be avoided. The central nervous system-depressant effects of benzodiazepines may make driving or operating machinery dangerous, and the elderly are more prone to these adverse effects. High single doses or repeated low doses have been reported to produce

text: hypotonia

text: , poor sucking, and

text: hypothermia

text: in the

text: neonate

text: , and irregularities in the

text: fetal

text: heart. The committee recommended that benzodiazepines be avoided in

text: lactation

text: The myelin sheath is a multi-layered membrane, unique to the nervous system, that functions as an insulator to greatly increase the velocity of axonal impulse conduction. The P0 glycoprotein, absent in the central nervous system, is a major component of the myelin sheath in peripheral nerves. It comprises a large extracellular N-terminal domain, a single transmembrane region, and a smaller positively charged intracellular domain. It is postulated that P0 is a structural element in the formation and stabilisation of peripheral nerve myelin, holding its characteristic coil structure together by the interaction of its positively charged domain with acidic lipids in the cytoplasmic face of the opposed bilayer, and by interaction between hydrophobic globular `heads' of adjacent extracellular domains.

text: The

text: myelin sheath

text: is a multi-layered membrane, unique to the nervous system, that functions as an insulator to greatly increase the velocity of axonal impulse conduction. The P0 glycoprotein, absent in the central nervous system, is a major component of the

text: myelin

text: sheath in

text: peripheral

text: nerve

text: s. It comprises a large

text: extracellular

text: N-terminal domain, a single

text: transmembrane

text: region, and a smaller positively charged

text: intracellular

text: domain

text: . It is postulated that P0 is a

text: structural element

text: in the formation and stabilisation of peripheral nerve myelin, holding its characteristic coil

text: structure

text: together by the interaction of its positively charged domain with

text: acidic

text: lipids

text: in the

text: cytoplasm

text: ic face of the opposed bilayer, and by interaction between

text: hydrophobic

text: globular `heads' of adjacent extracellular

text: domains

text: Distinct skeletal muscles are controlled by groups of individual motor units. Such motor units are made up of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers that it innervates. Motor neurons are located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and the brainstem. These neurons innervate skeletal muscle fibers through the propagation of action potentials down their axons (through ventral roots and cranial nerves), and they stimulate skeletal muscle fibers at neuromuscular junctions where they synapse with the motor end plates of muscle fibers. In humans, these axons can be as long as one meter. Motor neurons themselves fall into three main classes: alpha-motor neurons control extrafusal muscle fibers, meaning that they innervate skeletal muscles leading to movement; gamma-motor neurons innervate intrafusal muscle fibers, controlling the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch; beta-motor neurons are capable of synapsing on either type of muscle fiber. Alpha-motor neurons can further be divided into three separate subclasses, distinguished according to the contractile properties of the motor units that they form: fast-twitch fatigable (FF), fast-twitch fatigue-resistant (FR), and slow-twitch fatigue-resistant (S). The composition of a motor pool may consist of multiple classes and subclasses of motor neurons.

text: Distinct

text: skeletal muscles

text: are controlled by groups of individual

text: motor units

text: . Such motor units are made up of a single

text: motor neuron

text: and the muscle fibers that it innervates. Motor neurons are located in the

text: ventral horn

text: of the

text: spinal cord

text: and the

text: brainstem

text: . These neurons innervate skeletal muscle fibers through the propagation of

text: action potentials

text: down their

text: axons

text: (through

text: ventral roots

text: and

text: cranial nerves

text: ), and they stimulate skeletal muscle fibers at

text: neuromuscular junctions

text: where they

text: synapse

text: with the

text: motor end plate

text: s of muscle fibers. In humans, these axons can be as long as one meter. Motor neurons themselves fall into three main classes:

text: alpha-motor neurons

text: control

text: extrafusal muscle fibers

text: , meaning that they innervate skeletal muscles leading to movement;

text: gamma-motor neurons

text: innervate

text: intrafusal muscle fibers

text: , controlling the sensitivity of

text: muscle spindles

text: to stretch;

text: beta-motor neurons

text: are capable of synapsing on either type of muscle fiber. Alpha-motor neurons can further be divided into three separate subclasses, distinguished according to the contractile properties of the motor units that they form: fast-twitch fatigable (FF), fast-twitch fatigue-resistant (FR), and slow-twitch fatigue-resistant (S). The composition of a motor pool may consist of multiple classes and subclasses of motor neurons.

text: Cholinergic systems are implicated in numerous neurologic functions. Alteration in some cholinergic neurons may account for the disturbances of Alzheimer disease. The protein encoded by this gene synthesizes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine acts at two classes of receptors in the central nervous system – muscarinic and nicotinic – which are each implicated in different physiological responses. The role of acetylcholine at the nicotinic receptor is still under investigation. It is likely implicated in the reward/reinforcement pathways, as indicated by the addictive nature of nicotine, which also binds to the nicotinic receptor. The muscarinic action of acetylcholine in the CNS is implicated in learning and memory. The loss of cholinergic innervation in the neocortex has been associated with memory loss, as is evidenced in advanced cases of Alzheimer's disease. In the peripheral nervous system, cholinergic neurons are implicated in the control of visceral functions such as, but not limited to, cardiac muscle contraction and gastrointestinal tract function.

text: Cholinergic

text: systems are implicated in numerous neurologic functions. Alteration in some cholinergic neurons may account for the disturbances of

text: Alzheimer disease

text: . The protein encoded by this gene synthesizes the neurotransmitter

text: acetylcholine

text: . Acetylcholine acts at two classes of receptors in the

text: central nervous system

text: muscarinic

text: and

text: nicotinic

text: – which are each implicated in different physiological responses. The role of acetylcholine at the nicotinic receptor is still under investigation. It is likely implicated in the reward/reinforcement pathways, as indicated by the addictive nature of

text: nicotine

text: , which also binds to the nicotinic receptor. The muscarinic action of acetylcholine in the CNS is implicated in learning and memory. The loss of cholinergic innervation in the

text: neocortex

text: has been associated with memory loss, as is evidenced in advanced cases of Alzheimer's disease. In the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: , cholinergic neurons are implicated in the control of visceral functions such as, but not limited to, cardiac muscle contraction and gastrointestinal tract function.

text: On September 8, 2014, AED president Brian McGuire published a letter to the editor in USA Today in response to the newspaper's then-recent editorial "Calif. drought bares national lessons". In his letter, McGuire compared the crisis of a drought to the broader crisis of funding national infrastructure projects. Specifically, McGuire urged the protection of what is called "state revolving funds," which amounted to $2.35 billion for sewage and drinking water projects. McGuire wrote, "You rightly observed that 'unlike an earthquake or a tornado, a drought is a slowly unfolding disaster.' I find that imagery very powerful because the broader crisis faced by our nation's infrastructure has been just that."

text: On September 8, 2014, AED president Brian McGuire published a letter to the editor in USA Today in response to the newspaper's then-recent editorial "Calif. drought bares national lessons". In his letter, McGuire compared the crisis of a drought to the broader crisis of funding national infrastructure projects. Specifically, McGuire urged the protection of what is called "

text: state revolving funds

text: ," which amounted to $2.35 billion for sewage and drinking water projects. McGuire wrote, "You rightly observed that 'unlike an earthquake or a tornado, a drought is a slowly unfolding disaster.' I find that imagery very powerful because the broader crisis faced by our nation's infrastructure has been just that."

text: As a songwriter he wrote the Top 40 single Somebody Who Loves Me for the Dutch artist Jeronimo van Ballegoijen (known as Jeronimo) and produced another song Unheard on his album. He also co-wrote Movie Star for Canadian teen star Carson Lueders. As an artist he produced, wrote and released singles with Tiffany Alvord - Our Balloons, Sandra Cires - Riki Raka  and the Canadian twin sisters Carmen and Camille - Little Bit Of Love. His music videos reached several million unique views on YouTube and were on MTV, Viva, Bild.de  and Mc Donald's TV.

text: As a songwriter he wrote the Top 40 single Somebody Who Loves Me for the Dutch artist

text: Jeronimo van Ballegoijen

text: (known as Jeronimo) and produced another song Unheard on his album. He also co-wrote Movie Star for Canadian teen star Carson Lueders. As an artist he produced, wrote and released singles with

text: Tiffany Alvord

text: - Our Balloons, Sandra Cires - Riki Raka  and the Canadian twin sisters

text: Carmen and Camille

text: - Little Bit Of Love. His music videos reached several million unique views on YouTube and were on MTV, Viva, Bild.de  and Mc Donald's TV.

text: Arzu, Su's best friend. Girl with a continuous struggle between loyalty and envy to her best friend. Arzu's mother is very beautiful woman but it only hurts Arzu, causing her to have low self-esteem. In fact, she always is on the verge of nervous breakdown.

text: Arzu, Su's best friend. Girl with a continuous struggle between loyalty and envy to her best friend. Arzu's mother is very beautiful woman but it only hurts Arzu, causing her to have low self-esteem. In fact, she always is on the verge of

text: nervous breakdown

text: Focal seizures (also called partial seizures and localized seizures) are seizures which affect initially only one hemisphere of the brain. The brain is divided into two hemispheres, each consisting of four lobes – the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes. In partial seizures the seizure is generated in and affects just one part of the brain – the whole hemisphere or part of a lobe. Symptoms will vary according to where the seizure occurs.  In the frontal lobe symptoms may include a wave-like sensation in the head; in the temporal lobe, a feeling of déjà vu; in the parietal lobe, a numbness or tingling; and in the occipital lobe, visual disturbance or hallucination.

text: Focal seizures (also called partial seizures and localized seizures) are

text: seizure

text: s which affect initially only one hemisphere of the brain. The brain is divided into

text: two hemispheres

text: , each consisting of

text: four lobes

text: – the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes. In partial seizures the seizure is generated in and affects just one part of the brain – the whole hemisphere or part of a lobe. Symptoms will vary according to where the seizure occurs.  In the

text: frontal lobe

text: symptoms may include a wave-like sensation in the head; in the

text: temporal lobe

text: , a feeling of

text: déjà vu

text: ; in the

text: parietal lobe

text: , a numbness or tingling; and in the

text: occipital lobe

text: , visual disturbance or hallucination.

text: CAR is strongly expressed in the developing central nervous system where it is thought to mediate neurite outgrowth. In contrast,expression of CAR is undetectable in the adult nervous system.

text: CAR is strongly expressed in the developing central nervous system where it is thought to mediate

text: neurite

text: outgrowth. In contrast,expression of CAR is undetectable in the adult nervous system.

text: In the UK general election 2010, the Liberal Democrats increased their share of the vote, but lost seats. One of their aims was to see the UK rejoining ERM II and eventually joining the euro, but when a coalition was formed between the Liberal Democrats and the Conservatives, the Liberal Democrats agreed that the UK would not join the euro during this term of government.

text: In the

text: UK general election 2010

text: , the

text: Liberal Democrats

text: increased their share of the vote, but lost seats. One of their aims was to see the UK rejoining

text: ERM II

text: and eventually joining the euro, but when a coalition was formed between the Liberal Democrats and the

text: Conservatives

text: , the Liberal Democrats agreed that the UK would not join the euro during this term of government.

text: The parasympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in one of two locations: the brainstem (Cranial Nerves III, VII, IX, X) or the sacral spinal cord (S2, S3, S4).  These are the preganglionic neurons, which synapse with postganglionic neurons in these locations:

text: The parasympathetic nervous system consists of cells with bodies in one of two locations: the

text: brainstem

text: (Cranial Nerves III, VII, IX, X) or the sacral spinal cord (S2, S3, S4).  These are the preganglionic neurons, which synapse with postganglionic neurons in these locations:

text: Hamlin and Tafolla married and had two children together.  Their son, Joey Tafolla, is well known Jag Panzer guitarist. In 1963, Hamlin retired from singing to spend time with her family.

text: Dr. Abbass is an Elected Member of the Royal Society of Medicine.  In 2001, Dr. Abbass was awarded The Association of Chairs of Psychiatry of Canada Education Award for Excellence in Education.  In 2013, Dr. Abbass was Awarded the Douglas Utting Award in Montreal, Canada, in the "Canadian Providing Outstanding Contributions" category, for the recognition and treatment of depression. He was awarded the designation "Distinguished Professor of 2016" by the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) Department of Psychiatry. He is a visiting Professor of Psychotherapy at the Tavistock in London, UK and university of Derby, UK.

text: Dr. Abbass is an Elected Member of the Royal Society of Medicine.  In 2001, Dr. Abbass was awarded The Association of Chairs of Psychiatry of Canada Education Award for Excellence in Education.  In 2013, Dr. Abbass was Awarded the Douglas Utting Award in

text: Montreal, Canada

text: , in the "Canadian Providing Outstanding Contributions" category, for the recognition and treatment of

text: depression

text: . He was awarded the designation "Distinguished Professor of 2016" by the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) Department of Psychiatry. He is a visiting Professor of Psychotherapy at the Tavistock in London, UK and university of Derby, UK.

text: The majority of neuropsychological studies available have suggested that the medial temporal lobes are the most important system in the pathophysiology of PTA. However, there is little research done on this topic, and as new research is done, more information should come forth concerning  functionality in these areas in PTA patients. One MRI study showed that a long duration of PTA was correlated with damage in the hemispheric and central areas, regardless of whether the duration of the coma  was relatively short. In patients who had a longer coma duration,  deeper lesions in the central area were observed without extensive damage to the hemispheric area.

text: The spinal cord is the highway for communication between the body and the brain. When the spinal cord is injured, the exchange of information between the brain and other parts of the body is disrupted.

text: The tetanus toxin initially binds to peripheral nerve terminals. It is transported within the axon and across synaptic junctions until it reaches the central nervous system. There it becomes rapidly fixed to gangliosides at the presynaptic inhibitory motor nerve endings, and is taken up into the axon by endocytosis. The effect of the toxin is to block the release of inhibitory neurotransmitters glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) across the synaptic cleft, which is required to check the nervous impulse. If nervous impulses cannot be checked by normal inhibitory mechanisms, the generalized muscular spasms characteristic of tetanus are produced. The toxin appears to act by selective cleavage of a protein component of synaptic vesicles, synaptobrevin II, and this prevents the release of neurotransmitters by the cells.

text: The tetanus toxin initially binds to peripheral

text: nerve

text: terminals. It is transported within the

text: axon

text: and across synaptic junctions until it reaches the

text: central nervous system

text: . There it becomes rapidly fixed to

text: ganglioside

text: s at the presynaptic inhibitory

text: motor nerve

text: endings, and is taken up into the axon by

text: endocytosis

text: . The effect of the toxin is to block the release of inhibitory

text: neurotransmitters

text: glycine

text: and

text: gamma-aminobutyric acid

text: (GABA) across the

text: synaptic cleft

text: , which is required to check the nervous impulse. If nervous impulses cannot be checked by normal inhibitory mechanisms, the generalized muscular spasms characteristic of tetanus are produced. The toxin appears to act by selective cleavage of a

text: protein

text: component of

text: synaptic vesicles

text: , synaptobrevin II, and this prevents the release of neurotransmitters by the cells.

text: The lake is fed from Eyehill Creek on the south end, as well as many small springtime meltwater tributaries.  The lake overflows to the north into the Battle River, although this has only happened once since European settlers first arrived in the area (approximately 1905).  Lake levels were relatively constant until 1980, and have been declining rapidly since then, approximately one meter every six years.  Less annual snowfall is blamed for most of this trend, and there is also heavier utilization of the Eyehill Creek system by urban, industrial, and agricultural users.

text: Prior to the 1930s, individual doctors had infrequently experimented with novel surgical operations on the brains of those deemed insane. Most notably in 1888, the Swiss psychiatrist, Gottlieb Burckhardt, initiated what is commonly considered the first systematic attempt at modern human psychosurgery. He operated on six chronic patients under his care at the Swiss Préfargier Asylum, removing sections of their cerebral cortex. Burckhardt's decision to operate was informed by three pervasive views on the nature of mental illness and its relationship to the brain. First, the belief that mental illness was organic in nature, and reflected an underlying brain pathology; next, that the nervous system was organized according to an associationist model comprising an input or afferent system (a sensory center), a connecting system where information processing took place (an association center), and an output or efferent system (a motor centre); and, finally, a modular conception of the brain whereby discrete mental faculties were connected to specific regions of the brain. Burckhardt's hypothesis was that by deliberately creating lesions in regions of the brain identified as association centres a transformation in behaviour might ensue. According to his model, those mentally ill might experience "excitations abnormal in quality, quantity and intensity" in the sensory regions of the brain and this abnormal stimulation would then be transmitted to the motor regions giving rise to mental pathology. He reasoned, however, that removing material from either of the sensory or motor zones could give rise to "grave functional disturbance". Instead, by targeting the association centres and creating a "ditch" around the motor region of the temporal lobe, he hoped to break their lines of communication and thus alleviate both mental symptoms and the experience of mental distress.

text: Prior to the 1930s, individual doctors had infrequently experimented with novel surgical operations on the brains of those deemed insane. Most notably in 1888, the Swiss psychiatrist,

text: Gottlieb Burckhardt

text: , initiated what is commonly considered the first systematic attempt at modern human

text: psychosurgery

text: . He operated on six chronic patients under his care at the Swiss Préfargier Asylum, removing sections of their

text: cerebral cortex

text: . Burckhardt's decision to operate was informed by three pervasive views on the nature of mental illness and its relationship to the brain. First, the belief that mental illness was organic in nature, and reflected an underlying brain pathology; next, that the nervous system was organized according to an

text: associationist

text: model comprising an input or

text: afferent system

text: (a sensory center), a connecting system where information processing took place (an association center), and an output or

text: efferent

text: system (a motor centre); and, finally, a modular conception of the brain whereby discrete mental faculties were connected to specific regions of the brain. Burckhardt's hypothesis was that by deliberately creating

text: lesion

text: s in regions of the brain identified as association centres a transformation in behaviour might ensue. According to his model, those mentally ill might experience "excitations abnormal in quality, quantity and intensity" in the sensory regions of the brain and this abnormal stimulation would then be transmitted to the motor regions giving rise to

text: mental pathology

text: . He reasoned, however, that removing material from either of the sensory or motor zones could give rise to "grave functional disturbance". Instead, by targeting the association centres and creating a "ditch" around the motor region of the

text: temporal lobe

text: , he hoped to break their lines of communication and thus alleviate both mental symptoms and the experience of mental distress.

text: Třeštice lies approximately  south-west of Jihlava and  south-east of Prague.

text: Třeštice lies approximately  south-west of

text: Jihlava

text: and  south-east of

text: Prague

text: Ferster (1961) was the first researcher to posit a behavior analytic theory for autism. Ferster's model saw autism as a by-product of social interactions between parent and child. Ferster presented an analysis of how a variety of contingencies of reinforcement between parent and child during early childhood might establish and strengthen a repertoire of behaviors typically seen in children diagnosed with autism. A similar model was proposed by Drash and Tutor (1993), who developed the contingency-shaped or behavioral incompatibility theory of autism. They identified at least six reinforcement paradigms that may contribute to significant deficiencies in verbal behavior typically characteristic of children diagnosed as austistic. They proposed that each of these paradigms may also create a repertoire of avoidance responses that could contribute to the establishment of a repertoire of behavior that would be incompatible with the acquisition of age-appropriate verbal behavior.More recent models attribute autism to neurological and sensory models that are overly worked and subsequently produce the autistic repertoire. Lovaas and Smith (1989) proposed that children with autism have a mismatch between their nervous systems and the environment, while Bijou and Ghezzi (1999) proposed a behavioral interference theory. However, both the environmental mismatch model and the inference model were recently reviewed, and new evidence shows support for the notion that the development of autistic behaviors are due to escape and avoidance of certain types of sensory stimuli. However, most behavioral models of autism remain largely speculative due to limited research efforts.

text: Ferster (1961) was the first researcher to posit a behavior analytic theory for

text: autism

text: . Ferster's model saw autism as a by-product of social interactions between parent and child. Ferster presented an analysis of how a variety of contingencies of reinforcement between parent and child during early childhood might establish and strengthen a repertoire of behaviors typically seen in children diagnosed with autism. A similar model was proposed by Drash and Tutor (1993), who developed the contingency-shaped or behavioral incompatibility theory of autism. They identified at least six

text: reinforcement

text: paradigms that may contribute to significant deficiencies in verbal behavior typically characteristic of children diagnosed as austistic. They proposed that each of these paradigms may also create a repertoire of avoidance responses that could contribute to the establishment of a repertoire of behavior that would be incompatible with the acquisition of age-appropriate verbal behavior.More recent models attribute

text: autism

text: to neurological and sensory models that are overly worked and subsequently produce the autistic repertoire. Lovaas and Smith (1989) proposed that children with autism have a mismatch between their nervous systems and the environment, while Bijou and Ghezzi (1999) proposed a behavioral interference theory. However, both the environmental mismatch model and the inference model were recently reviewed, and new evidence shows support for the notion that the development of autistic behaviors are due to escape and avoidance of certain types of sensory stimuli. However, most behavioral models of autism remain largely speculative due to limited research efforts.

text: The human body has a master clock in the SCN and also peripheral oscillators in tissues. The SCN's role is to send signals to peripheral oscillators, which synchronise them for physiological functions. The SCN responds to light information sent from the retina. It is hypothesised that peripheral oscillators respond to internal signals such as hormones, food intake, and "nervous stimuli".

text: The human body has a master clock in the SCN and also peripheral oscillators in tissues. The SCN's role is to send signals to peripheral oscillators, which synchronise them for physiological functions. The SCN responds to light information sent from the

text: retina

text: . It is hypothesised that peripheral oscillators respond to internal signals such as hormones, food intake, and "nervous stimuli".

text: Neurons are remarkable among the cells of the body in their ability to propagate signals rapidly over large distances. They do this by generating characteristic electrical pulses called action potentials: voltage spikes that can travel down nerve fibers. Sensory neurons change their activities by firing sequences of action potentials in various temporal patterns, with the presence of external sensory stimuli, such as light, sound, taste, smell and touch. It is known that information about the stimulus is encoded in this pattern of action potentials and transmitted into and around the brain.

text: Neurons are remarkable among the

text: cells

text: of the body in their ability to propagate signals rapidly over large distances. They do this by generating characteristic electrical pulses called

text: action potentials

text: : voltage spikes that can travel down nerve fibers. Sensory neurons change their activities by firing sequences of action potentials in various temporal patterns, with the presence of external sensory stimuli, such as

text: light

text: sound

text: taste

text: smell

text: and

text: touch

text: . It is known that information about the stimulus is encoded in this pattern of action potentials and transmitted into and around the brain.

text: Burma–Thailand

text: Burma–Thailand

text: The presence of neurocognitive deficits alone is not usually considered sufficient evidence of neurotoxicity, as many substances may impair neurocognitive performance without resulting in the death of neurons. This may be due to the direct action of the substance, with the impairment and neurocognitive deficits being temporary, and resolving when the substance is metabolised from the body. In some cases the level or exposure-time may be critical, with some substances only becoming neurotoxic in certain doses or time periods. Some of the most common naturally occurring brain toxins that lead to neurotoxicity as a result of excessive dosage are beta amyloid (Aβ), glutamate and oxygen radicals. When present in high concentrations they can lead to neurotoxicity and death (apoptosis). Some of the symptoms that result from cell death include loss of motor control, cognitive deterioration and autonomic nervous system dysfunction. Additionally, neurotoxicity has been found to be a major cause of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD).

text: The presence of

text: neurocognitive deficit

text: s alone is not usually considered sufficient evidence of neurotoxicity, as many substances may impair

text: neurocognitive

text: performance without resulting in the death of neurons. This may be due to the direct action of the substance, with the impairment and neurocognitive deficits being temporary, and resolving when the substance is

text: metabolised

text: from the body. In some cases the level or exposure-time may be critical, with some substances only becoming neurotoxic in certain doses or time periods. Some of the most common naturally occurring brain toxins that lead to neurotoxicity as a result of excessive dosage are

text: beta amyloid

text: (Aβ),

text: glutamate

text: and

text: oxygen radicals

text: . When present in high concentrations they can lead to neurotoxicity and death (

text: apoptosis

text: ). Some of the symptoms that result from cell death include loss of motor control, cognitive deterioration and autonomic nervous system dysfunction. Additionally, neurotoxicity has been found to be a major cause of

text: neurodegenerative diseases

text: such as

text: Alzheimer's disease

text: (AD).

text: Dysdiadochokinesia is a feature of cerebellar ataxia and may be the result of lesions to either the cerebellar hemispheres or the frontal lobe (of the cerebrum), it can also be a combination of both. It is thought to be caused by the inability to switch on and switch off antagonising muscle groups in a coordinated fashion due to hypotonia, secondary to the central lesion.

text: Dysdiadochokinesia is a feature of

text: cerebellar ataxia

text: and may be the result of lesions to either the

text: cerebellar

text: hemispheres or the

text: frontal lobe

text: (of the

text: cerebrum

text: ), it can also be a combination of both. It is thought to be caused by the inability to switch on and switch off antagonising muscle groups in a coordinated fashion due to

text: hypotonia

text: , secondary to the central lesion.

text: Acclimatisation is the process by which the nervous system fails to respond to a stimulus, as a result of the repeated stimulation of a transmission across a synapse. Acclimatisation is believed to occur when the synaptic knob of the presynaptic neurone runs out of vesicles containing neurotransmitters due to overuse over a short period of time.A synapse that has undergone acclimatisation is said to be fatigued.

text: Acclimatisation is the process by which the nervous system fails to respond to a stimulus, as a result of the repeated stimulation of a transmission across a synapse. Acclimatisation is believed to occur when the

text: synaptic knob

text: of the presynaptic neurone runs out of

text: vesicles

text: containing neurotransmitters due to overuse over a short period of time.A synapse that has undergone acclimatisation is said to be

text: fatigued

text: All vertebrates share similarities in body structure; they all have a skeleton, a nervous system, a circulatory system, a digestive system and excretory system. Similar to humans, non-human animals also have a sensory system. The sensory system is responsible for the basic five senses from touch to tasting. Most of the physiological and biochemical responses found in animals are found in humans. Neurophysiologists have not found any fundamental difference between the structure and function of neurons and synapse between humans and other animals.

text: "Primary" Central Nervous System (CNS) vasculitis is said to be present if there is no underlying cause. The exact mechanism of the primary disease is unknown, but the fundamental mechanism of all vasculitides is auto-immune. Other possible causes of cerebral vasculitis are infections, systemic auto-immune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheumatoid arthritis, medications and drugs (amphetamine, cocaine and heroin), some forms of cancer (lymphomas, leukemia and lung cancer) and other forms of systemic vasculitis such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis, polyarteritis nodosa or Behçet's disease. It may imitate, and is in turn imitated by, a number of other diseases that affect the blood vessels of the brain diffusely such as fibromuscular dysplasia and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura.

text: "Primary" Central Nervous System (CNS) vasculitis is said to be present if there is no underlying cause. The exact mechanism of the primary disease is unknown, but the fundamental mechanism of all vasculitides is

text: auto-immune

text: . Other possible causes of cerebral vasculitis are

text: infection

text: s, systemic auto-immune diseases such as

text: systemic lupus erythematosus

text: (SLE) and

text: rheumatoid arthritis

text: medication

text: s and

text: drugs

text: amphetamine

text: cocaine

text: and

text: heroin

text: ), some forms of

text: cancer

text: lymphoma

text: s,

text: leukemia

text: and

text: lung cancer

text: ) and other forms of systemic vasculitis such as

text: granulomatosis with polyangiitis

text: polyarteritis nodosa

text: or

text: Behçet's disease

text: . It may imitate, and is in turn imitated by, a number of other diseases that affect the blood vessels of the brain diffusely such as

text: fibromuscular dysplasia

text: and

text: thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura

text: BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (BIOTECHNOLOGY) (HONS): The Biotechnology industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world today, and is expected to contribute 5% of Malaysia’s GDP by the year 2020.This is a multidisciplinary field that harnesses biological processes to create and improve products for the betterment of society. It is also expected to play a key role in solving current world problems such as food security, disease, environmental degradation, and climate change.The Bachelor of Science (Biotechnology) (Hons) program provides an overview of the biotechnology industry and common techniques used in R&D. Graduates are trained to fuse their technical expertise with a keen understanding of this fast-paced industry.

text: In the central nervous system, glia develop from the ventricular zone of the neural tube. These glia include the oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, and astrocytes. In the peripheral nervous system, glia derive from the neural crest. These PNS glia include Schwann cells in nerves and satellite glial cells in ganglia.

text: Neurourology concerns

text: nervous system

text: urination

text: multiple sclerosis

text: Parkinson's disease

text: , and

text: spinal cord injury

text: urinary incontinence

text: detrusor

text: overactivity,

text: urinary retention

text: , and

text: detrusor sphincter dyssynergia

text: Urodynamic studies

text: neuromodulation

text: interstitial cystitis

text: The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the peripheral nervous system that influences the function of internal organs. The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. This system is the primary mechanism in control of the fight-or-flight response and the freeze-and-dissociate response.

text: The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a division of the

text: peripheral nervous system

text: that influences the function of

text: internal organs

text: . The autonomic nervous system is a control system that acts largely unconsciously and regulates bodily functions such as the

text: heart rate

text: digestion

text: respiratory rate

text: pupillary response

text: urination

text: , and

text: sexual arousal

text: . This system is the primary mechanism in control of the

text: fight-or-flight response

text: and the freeze-and-dissociate response.

text: In addition to pituitary tumors, tumors in various locations in the central nervous system may cause depressive symptoms and be misdiagnosed as depression.

text: In addition to pituitary tumors, tumors in various locations in the

text: central nervous system

text: may cause depressive symptoms and be misdiagnosed as depression.

text: Camillo Golgi was born in July 1843 in the village of Corteno, in the province of Brescia (Lombardy), Italy. The village is now named Corteno Golgi in his honour. His father was a physician and district medical officer. Golgi studied at the University of Pavia, where he worked in the experimental pathology laboratory under Giulio Bizzozero, who elucidated the properties of bone marrow. He graduated in 1865. He spent much of his career studying the central nervous system. Tissue staining techniques in the later half of the 19th century were inadequate for studying nervous tissue. While working as chief medical officer in a psychiatric hospital, he experimented with metal impregnation of nervous tissue, using mainly silver (silver staining). He discovered a method of staining nervous tissue that would stain a limited number of cells at random in their entirety. This enabled him to view the paths of nerve cells in the brain for the first time. He called his discovery the "black reaction" (in Italian, reazione nera), which later received his name (Golgi's method or Golgi stain). The reason for the random staining is still not understood.

text: Camillo Golgi was born in July 1843 in the village of

text: Corteno

text: , in the

text: province of Brescia

text: Lombardy

text: ), Italy. The village is now named Corteno Golgi in his honour. His father was a physician and district medical officer. Golgi studied at the

text: University of Pavia

text: , where he worked in the experimental

text: pathology

text: laboratory under

text: Giulio Bizzozero

text: , who elucidated the properties of

text: bone marrow

text: . He graduated in 1865. He spent much of his career studying the

text: central nervous system

text: Tissue staining techniques

text: in the later half of the 19th century were inadequate for studying

text: nervous tissue

text: . While working as chief medical officer in a

text: psychiatric hospital

text: , he experimented with metal impregnation of nervous tissue, using mainly

text: silver

text: silver staining

text: ). He discovered a method of staining nervous tissue that would stain a limited number of cells at random in their entirety. This enabled him to view the paths of nerve cells in the brain for the first time. He called his discovery the "

text: black reaction

text: " (in Italian, reazione nera), which later received his name (

text: Golgi's method

text: or Golgi stain). The reason for the random staining is still not understood.