text: Although in former literature a height around 7,320 m was traditionally given, the mountain is more likely to be around 7,150 m high. The Russian military 1:100,000 topographical map shows a height of 7,120 m. The currently most accurate map of the region probably is that in the series of "Maps of Snow Mountains in China", which gives a height of 7,147 m. On this map the pass connecting to Gasherbrum III is 6,493 m high (654 m prominence).

text: "EX1201" was the first expedition of the 2012 field season for NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. The primary objective of this shakedown cruise was to operationally test the vessel, its systems, and all mission equipment. A secondary objective of the expedition was to use the ship’s technologically advanced multibeam sonar to map three Northeast and Mid-Atlantic canyon areas in support of the benthic habitat identification and management efforts of NOAA's Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NEFSC).After departing its homeport of Davisville, Rhode Island, on February 14, Okeanos Explorer proceeded offshore to Veatch Canyon where a sonar patch test was conducted to ensure the proper calibration of the vessel’s multibeam echosounder. As part of successful patch test operations, approximately 280 square kilometers of Veatch Canyon were bathymetrically mapped, including the majority of the first priority area identified by NEFSC.  Later in the cruise, focused survey operations conducted at Block, Ryan, and McMaster Canyons mapped approximately 900 square kilometers of seafloor, including 65 percent of the second NEFSC priority area.Focused mapping operations at Hendrickson, Toms, and Berkeley Canyons covered approximately 1,400 square kilometers of seafloor. Finally, focused mapping operations at Hendrickson, Toms, and Berkeley Canyons covered approximately 1400 square kilometers of seafloor, including 85 percent of the third NEFSC priority area.While transiting along the continental shelf break between focused mapping areas, multibeam, single beam, and sub-bottom sonar data was collected, adding to the seafloor mapping coverage established on Okeanos Explorer cruise EX1106. In addition to successful shakedown testing and mapping operations, EX1201 also yielded a number of positive educational outcomes. During the cruise, two graduate interns were trained in seafloor mapping operations as part of the Okeanos Explorer internship program. Additionally, approximately 50 high school students, educators, and local media toured the vessel and learned about its mission at the conclusion of the expedition, in Charleston, South Carolina.

method: UNH-qee

method: Bert-DRMMTKS

text: Villa del Sol is located northwest of the center of Cameron County at  (26.191502, -97.576620). It is on Texas State Highway 345, encompassing an area shown as "Lantana" on federal topographic maps. TX 345 leads southwest  to the center of San Benito.

text: Villa del Sol is located northwest of the center of Cameron County at  (26.191502, -97.576620). It is on

entity_name: Texas State Highway 345

text: Texas State Highway 345

text: , encompassing an area shown as "Lantana" on federal topographic maps. TX 345 leads southwest  to the center of

entity_name: San Benito, Texas

text: San Benito

method: ICT-DRMMTKS

text: This method can be used to estimate the depth of the magnetic materials beneath the earth. The magnetic data is processed by the spectral methods such as Fourier transforms. The FFT algorithm makes the spectral analysis of signals fast, easy and efficient.The FFT computations can be performed in the machines which allow us to perform contour mapping. The upward continuation method attenuates the wave number anomalies associated with the shallow magnetic sources. Thus the signal components contain the information about the objects situated deep beneath the earth.

text: This method can be used to estimate the depth of the magnetic materials beneath the earth. The magnetic data is processed by the spectral methods such as Fourier transforms. The FFT algorithm makes the spectral analysis of signals fast, easy and efficient.The FFT computations can be performed in the machines which allow us to perform

entity_name: Contour line

text: contour mapping.

text: The upward continuation method attenuates the wave number anomalies associated with the shallow magnetic sources. Thus the signal components contain the information about the objects situated deep beneath the earth.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: An isopycnal is a line connecting points of a specific density or potential density. Isopycnals are often displayed graphically to help visualize "layers" of water in the ocean or gasses in the atmosphere in a similar manner to how contour lines are used in topographic maps to help visualize topography.

text: An isopycnal is a line connecting points of a specific

entity_name: Density

text: density

text: or

entity_name: Potential density

text: potential density

text: . Isopycnals are often displayed graphically to help visualize "layers" of water in the ocean or gasses in the atmosphere in a similar manner to how

text: contour lines

text: are used in topographic maps to help visualize

entity_name: Topography

text: topography

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: A topographic map is the ordered projection of a sensory surface, like the retina or the skin, or an effector system, like the musculature, to one or more structures of the central nervous system.  Topographic maps can be found in all sensory systems and in many motor systems.

text: A topographic map is the ordered projection of a sensory surface, like the retina or the skin, or an effector system, like the musculature, to one or more structures of the

entity_name: Central nervous system

text: central nervous system

text: .  Topographic maps can be found in all

entity_name: Sensory system

text: sensory system

text: s and in many

entity_name: Motor system

text: motor system

text: s.

text: USGS topographical maps show a common  elevation contour line running throughout a ridge along old Hwy 90 (Old Spanish Trail) on the western edge of the city. It was primarily this area which did not see the surge inundation of Hurricane Katrina.

text: USGS topographical maps show a common  elevation contour line running throughout a ridge along old Hwy 90 (

entity_name: Old Spanish Trail (auto trail)

text: Old Spanish Trail

text: ) on the western edge of the city. It was primarily this area which did not see the surge inundation of Hurricane Katrina.

text: The Coordinates provided above were taken from the most current satellite photographs(Google Earth Pro) and as such represent the most accurate representation of the location of the boundary peak. Topographic maps of this area are dated (see USGS Historical Topographic maps) and do not provide the accuracy of the Global Positioning System that recent Satellite photographs have. Boundary Peaks 87-91 and 112-117 are not actually summits, but monuments (survey markers) placed by the USGS Geodetic Survey.

text: The Coordinates provided above were taken from the most current satellite photographs(Google Earth Pro) and as such represent the most accurate representation of the location of the boundary peak. Topographic maps of this area are dated (see

entity_name: Geospatial summary of the High Peaks/Summits of the Juneau Icefield

entity_section: USGS Historical Topographic Maps for the Juneau Icefield area

text: USGS Historical Topographic maps

text: ) and do not provide the accuracy of the

entity_name: Global Positioning System

text: Global Positioning System

text: that recent Satellite photographs have. Boundary Peaks 87-91 and 112-117 are not actually summits, but monuments (

entity_name: Survey marker

text: survey marker

text: s) placed by the

entity_name: U.S. National Geodetic Survey

text: USGS Geodetic Survey

text: The ring-like nature of this feature was first observed by Thomas A. Edsall in 1990. It was first mapped in detail as part of a bathymetric map of Lake Ontario that was compiled from historic data sets by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) National Geophysical Data Center, the NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, and the Canadian Hydrographic Service. Based on this bathymetric map and field investigations, it was first proposed that Charity Creek Crater is an impact crater in 2001. In November 2010 and May 2011, high-resolution bathymetric and acoustic backscatter data were collected from the area of Charity Shoal and a 1 by 1 m grid model of its bathymetry was assembled by the Canadian Hydrographic Service. In July 2012, detailed magnetic and bathymetric surveys were conducted across a  area over Charity Shoal.

text: The ring-like nature of this feature was first observed by Thomas A. Edsall in 1990. It was first mapped in detail as part of a bathymetric map of Lake Ontario that was compiled from historic data sets by the

entity_name: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

text: ’s (NOAA)

entity_name: National Geophysical Data Center

text: National Geophysical Data Center

text: , the NOAA

entity_name: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory

text: Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory

text: , and the

entity_name: Canadian Hydrographic Service

text: Canadian Hydrographic Service

text: . Based on this bathymetric map and field investigations, it was first proposed that Charity Creek Crater is an impact crater in 2001. In November 2010 and May 2011, high-resolution

entity_name: Bathymetry

text: bathymetric

text: and acoustic backscatter data were collected from the area of Charity Shoal and a 1 by 1 m grid model of its

text: bathymetry

text: was assembled by the Canadian Hydrographic Service. In July 2012, detailed

entity_name: Magnetic anomaly

text: magnetic

text: and bathymetric surveys were conducted across a  area over Charity Shoal.

text: TERCOM – Terrain Contour Matching. A digital representation of an area of terrain is mapped based on digital terrain elevation data or stereo imagery. This map is then inserted into a TLAM mission which is then loaded onto the missile. When the missile is in flight it compares the stored map data with radar altimeter data collected as the missile overflies the map. Based on comparison results the missile's inertial navigation system is updated and the missile corrects its course. TERCOM was based on, and was a significant improvement on, "Fingerprint," a technology developed in 1964 for the SLAM.

entity_name: TERCOM

text: TERCOM

text: – Terrain Contour Matching. A digital representation of an area of terrain is mapped based on digital terrain elevation data or stereo imagery. This map is then inserted into a TLAM mission which is then loaded onto the missile. When the missile is in flight it compares the stored map data with radar altimeter data collected as the missile overflies the map. Based on comparison results the missile's inertial navigation system is updated and the missile corrects its course. TERCOM was based on, and was a significant improvement on, "Fingerprint," a technology developed in 1964 for the

entity_name: Supersonic Low Altitude Missile

text: SLAM

text: In the 1970s, the Hawaiian seafloor was mapped using ship-based sonar. Computed SYNBAPS (Synthetic Bathymetric Profiling System) data filled holes between the ship-based sonar bathymetric measurements. From 1994 to 1998 the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) mapped Hawaii in detail and studied its ocean floor, making it one of the world's best-studied marine features. The JAMSTEC project, a collaboration with USGS and other agencies, utilized manned submersibles, remotely operated underwater vehicles, dredge samples, and core samples. The Simrad EM300 multibeam  side-scanning sonar system collected bathymetry and backscatter data.

text: In the 1970s, the Hawaiian seafloor was mapped using ship-based

entity_name: Sonar

text: sonar

text: . Computed SYNBAPS (Synthetic Bathymetric Profiling System) data filled holes between the ship-based sonar

text: bathymetric

text: measurements. From 1994 to 1998 the

entity_name: Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology

text: Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology

text: (JAMSTEC) mapped Hawaii in detail and studied its ocean floor, making it one of the world's best-studied marine features. The JAMSTEC project, a collaboration with USGS and other agencies, utilized manned

entity_name: Submersible

text: submersibles

entity_name: Remotely operated underwater vehicle

text: remotely operated underwater vehicle

text: s,

entity_name: Dredging

text: dredge sample

text: s, and

entity_name: Core sample

text: core sample

text: s. The Simrad EM300 multibeam

entity_name: Side-scan sonar

text: side-scanning sonar

text: system collected bathymetry and

entity_name: Backscatter

text: backscatter

text: data.

text: Topographic maps show the shape of Earth’s surface by using contour lines, the lines on the map that join points of equal elevation. They are among the most well-known symbols on modern maps as they are self-explanatory and accurately represent their phenomena. They make it possible to the depict height, depth, and even slope. Contour lines will be closer together or spaced apart to show the steepness of the area. If the line is spaced closer together, it means that there is a steeper slope. If they are farther apart, the area has a low slope. An area of low slope generally uses contour intervals of 10 feet or less. Areas that contain mountain or other high slope can use an interval of 100 feet.

entity_name: Topographic map

text: Topographic map

text: s show the shape of Earth’s surface by using

text: contour line

text: s, the lines on the map that join points of equal elevation. They are among the most well-known symbols on modern maps as they are self-explanatory and accurately represent their phenomena. They make it possible to the depict height, depth, and even

entity_name: Slope

text: slope

text: . Contour lines will be closer together or spaced apart to show the steepness of the area. If the line is spaced closer together, it means that there is a steeper slope. If they are farther apart, the area has a low slope. An area of low slope generally uses

text: contour interval

text: s of 10 feet or less. Areas that contain mountain or other high slope can use an interval of 100 feet.

text: In 1890, Peano discovered a continuous curve, now called the Peano curve, that passes through every point of the unit square (). His purpose was to construct a continuous mapping from the unit interval  onto the unit square. Peano was motivated by Georg Cantor's earlier counterintuitive result that the infinite number of points in a unit interval is the same cardinality as the infinite number of points in any finite-dimensional manifold, such as the unit square.  The problem Peano solved was whether such a mapping could be continuous; i.e., a curve that fills a space. Peano's solution does not set up a continuous one-to-one correspondence between the unit interval and the unit square, and indeed such a correspondence does not exist (see below).

text: In 1890,

entity_name: Giuseppe Peano

text: Peano

text: discovered a continuous curve, now called the

entity_name: Peano curve

text: Peano curve

text: , that passes through every point of the unit square (). His purpose was to construct a

entity_name: Continuous function

text: continuous mapping

text: from the

entity_name: Unit interval

text: unit interval

text: onto the

entity_name: Unit square

text: unit square

text: . Peano was motivated by

entity_name: Georg Cantor

text: Georg Cantor

text: 's earlier counterintuitive result that the infinite number of points in a unit interval is the same

entity_name: Cardinality

text: cardinality

text: as the infinite number of points in any finite-dimensional

entity_name: Manifold

text: manifold

text: , such as the unit square.  The problem Peano solved was whether such a mapping could be continuous; i.e., a curve that fills a space. Peano's solution does not set up a continuous

entity_name: Bijection

text: one-to-one correspondence

text: between the unit interval and the unit square, and indeed such a correspondence does not exist (see below).

text: Detailed military surveys in Britain (beginning in the late eighteenth century) were called Ordnance Surveys, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps. The earliest scientific surveys in France were called the Cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations. The term "topographic surveys" appears to be American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the “Topographical Bureau of the Army,” formed during the War of 1812, which became the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1838. After the work of national mapping was assumed by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1878, the term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard.

text: Detailed military surveys in

entity_name: Great Britain

text: Britain

text: (beginning in the late eighteenth century) were called

entity_name: Ordnance Survey

text: Ordnance Survey

text: s, and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps. The earliest scientific surveys in France were called the

entity_name: French cartography

text: Cassini maps

text: after the family who produced them over four generations. The term "topographic surveys" appears to be American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the “Topographical Bureau of the Army,” formed during the

entity_name: War of 1812

text: War of 1812

text: , which became the

entity_name: Corps of Topographical Engineers

text: Corps of Topographical Engineers

text: in 1838. After the work of national mapping was assumed by the

entity_name: United States Geological Survey

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: in 1878, the term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard.

text: The African superswell is a region including the Southern and Eastern African plateaus and the Southeastern Atlantic basin where exceptional tectonic uplift has occurred, resulting in terrain much higher than its surroundings. The average elevation of cratons is about 400–500 meters above sea level. Southern Africa exceeds these elevations by more than 500 m, and stands at over 1 km above sea level. The Southern and Eastern African plateaus show similar uplift histories, allowing them to be considered as one topographic unit. When considered this way, the swell is one of the largest topographic anomalies observed on any continent, and spans an area of over 10 million km. Uplift extends beyond the continents into the Atlantic ocean, where extremely shallow ocean depths are visible through bathymetric survey.  The region can indeed be considered as one large swell because the bathymetric anomaly to the southwest of Africa is on the same order as the topographic anomaly of the plateaus (approximately 500 m).

text: The African superswell is a region including the Southern and

entity_name: East African Plateau

text: Eastern African

text: plateaus and the Southeastern Atlantic basin where exceptional

entity_name: Tectonic uplift

text: tectonic uplift

text: has occurred, resulting in

entity_name: Terrain

text: terrain

text: much higher than its surroundings. The average elevation of

entity_name: Craton

text: craton

text: s is about 400–500 meters above sea level. Southern Africa exceeds these elevations by more than 500 m, and stands at over 1 km above

entity_name: Sea level

text: sea level

text: . The Southern and Eastern African plateaus show similar uplift histories, allowing them to be considered as one

text: topographic

text: unit. When considered this way, the swell is one of the largest topographic anomalies observed on any continent, and spans an area of over 10 million km. Uplift extends beyond the continents into the Atlantic ocean, where extremely shallow ocean depths are visible through

text: bathymetric

text: survey.  The region can indeed be considered as one large swell because the bathymetric anomaly to the southwest of Africa is on the same order as the topographic anomaly of the plateaus (approximately 500 m).

text: The National Map is a significant contribution to the National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI) and currently is being transformed to better serve the geospatial community by providing high quality, integrated geospatial data and improved products and services including new generation digital topographic maps. In addition, the National Map is foundational to implementation of the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) Geospatial Modernization Blueprint.

text: The National Map is a significant contribution to the

entity_name: OMB Circular A-16

text: National Spatial Data Infrastructure

text: (NSDI) and currently is being transformed to better serve the

entity_name: Geographic data and information

text: geospatial

text: community by providing high quality, integrated geospatial data and improved products and services including new generation digital

text: topographic map

text: s. In addition, the National Map is foundational to implementation of the

entity_name: United States Department of the Interior

text: U.S. Department of the Interior

text: (DOI) Geospatial Modernization Blueprint.

text: The Geographic Names Information System lists two sets of coordinates for the Swalley Canal. One is at   in the Bend quadrant of the United States Geological Survey topographic map. The other is at  in the Tumalo quadrant.

text: The

entity_name: Geographic Names Information System

text: Geographic Names Information System

text: lists two sets of coordinates for the Swalley Canal. One is at   in the Bend quadrant of the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: topographic map. The other is at  in the Tumalo quadrant.

text: As described above, topographic maps occur when spatial relationships are maintained between neuronal populations and their target fields in another tissue. This is a major feature of nervous system organization, particular in sensory systems. The neurobiologist Roger Sperry proposed a prescient model for topographic mapping mediated by what he called molecular "tags." The relative amounts of these tags would vary in gradients across both tissues. We now think of these tags as ligands (cues) and their axonal receptors. Perhaps the best understood class of tags are the Ephrin ligands and their receptors, the Ephs.

text: As described above, topographic maps occur when spatial relationships are maintained between neuronal populations and their target fields in another tissue. This is a major feature of nervous system organization, particular in sensory systems. The neurobiologist

entity_name: Roger Wolcott Sperry

text: Roger Sperry

text: proposed a prescient model for topographic mapping mediated by what he called molecular "tags." The relative amounts of these tags would vary in gradients across both tissues. We now think of these tags as ligands (cues) and their axonal receptors. Perhaps the best understood class of tags are the Ephrin ligands and their receptors, the Ephs.

text: , at each material point in the body at that time. However, numerical analysis and analytical methods allow only for the calculation of the stress tensor at a certain number of discrete material points. To graphically represent in two dimensions this partial picture of the stress field different sets of contour lines can be used:

text: , at each material point in the body at that time. However, numerical analysis and analytical methods allow only for the calculation of the stress tensor at a certain number of discrete material points. To graphically represent in two dimensions this partial picture of the stress field different sets of

text: contour lines

text: can be used:

text: The ship was contracted to conduct a bathymetric survey in the southern Indian Ocean during the search for Malaysia Airlines Flight 370. The survey was needed to produce a bathymetric map of the sea floor of the search area, which was previously poorly mapped and largely uncharted and mountainous, before a phase of the search using a towed side-scan sonar vehicle and autonomous underwater vehicles which need to operate close to the seafloor. In August, it was announced that Fugro had been awarded the contract for that phase of the search and that Fugro Equator and sister ship Fugro Discovery would conduct the search (with some assistance from Malaysian & Chinese naval vessels).

text: The ship was contracted to conduct a bathymetric survey in the southern Indian Ocean during the search for

text: Malaysia Airlines Flight 370

text: . The survey was needed to produce a bathymetric map of the sea floor of the search area, which was previously poorly mapped and largely uncharted and mountainous, before a phase of the search using a towed side-scan sonar vehicle and

text: autonomous underwater vehicle

text: s which need to operate close to the seafloor. In August, it was announced that Fugro had been awarded the contract for that phase of the search and that Fugro Equator and sister ship Fugro Discovery would conduct the search (with some assistance from Malaysian & Chinese naval vessels).

text: By noting the corresponding compass vector, walking along the contour one can line up a hand held compass aligning the expected direction, and eye-balling the line of contour's estimated level, move up or down along the bearing faster— to closely locate a desired point (planned point) along the hillside. Pragmatically, this can be 'good enough' for rough project landscaping, such as timber clear cutting the work site of a structure like a bridge abutment or connecting ramps. The approximation can then be refined by transit and other surveyor tools to construct on target.

text: By noting the corresponding compass vector, walking along the contour one can line up a hand held compass aligning the expected direction, and eye-balling the line of contour's estimated level, move up or down along the bearing faster— to closely locate a desired point (planned point) along the hillside. Pragmatically, this can be 'good enough' for rough project landscaping, such as timber clear cutting the work site of a structure like a

text: bridge

text: abutment

text: or connecting ramps. The approximation can then be refined by transit and other surveyor tools to construct on target.

text: Obsolete maps, especially of the 19th century, are often named Topographic Atlases, because their small-sized sheets were also bound into atlases.  An example of such a map series is the Topographic Atlas of the Kingdom of Hanover and the Duchy of Brunswick.

text: Obsolete maps, especially of the 19th century, are often named Topographic Atlases, because their small-sized sheets were also bound into atlases.  An example of such a map series is the

text: Topographic Atlas of the Kingdom of Hanover and the Duchy of Brunswick

text: The fringes in the image above are out-of-plane fringes. The plate has been rotated about a vertical axis and the fringes represent contours of constant displacement.  The contour interval is about 0.3μm since a He-Ne laser was used in the system. As with many interferometric techniques, it is not possible to identify the zero-order fringe without additional information from the system.

text: The fringes in the image above are out-of-plane fringes. The plate has been rotated about a vertical axis and the fringes represent contours of constant displacement.  The contour interval is about 0.3μm since a

text: He-Ne laser

text: was used in the system. As with many interferometric techniques, it is not possible to identify the zero-order fringe without additional information from the system.

text: While High Peak is not among the highest Catskill peaks, because of its distance from other major peaks it ranks fourth in topographic prominence, after Slide Mountain, Hunter Mountain and Black Dome. High Peak's summit rises 1,775 feet (541 m) from the lowest elevation contour line that encircles it.

text: While High Peak is not among the highest Catskill peaks, because of its distance from other major peaks it ranks fourth in

text: topographic prominence

text: , after

entity_name: Slide Mountain (Ulster County, New York)

text: Slide Mountain

text: Hunter Mountain

text: and

text: Black Dome

text: . High Peak's summit rises 1,775 feet (541 m) from the lowest elevation

text: contour line

text: that encircles it.

text: The disastrous flood of the Fraser River in 1948 nearly changed the Clearwater River and Wells Gray Park forever. In November 1947, the Federal Minister of Public Works proposed the creation of a joint federal-provincial committee to study the Fraser’s water resources. The flood made this project all the more urgent and, in late 1948, the Dominion-Provincial Board, Fraser River Basin was established to report on power generation, fisheries, flood control, water supply and recreation. Between 1949 and 1954, the committee of ten collected basic data and filled in the gaps in other government studies. No report was produced, but, in 1953, 12 detailed maps of the Clearwater River between Hemp Creek and the North Thompson River were published. These had a scale of 1 inch = 500 feet and a contour interval of 20 feet. Over 50 years later, these sheets are still the most detailed and accurate topographic maps available of the lower Clearwater, although they are out-of-date regarding human developments.

text: The disastrous

text: flood

text: of the

text: Fraser River

text: in 1948 nearly changed the Clearwater River and Wells Gray Park forever. In November 1947, the Federal Minister of Public Works proposed the creation of a joint federal-provincial committee to study the Fraser’s water resources. The flood made this project all the more urgent and, in late 1948, the Dominion-Provincial Board, Fraser River Basin was established to report on power generation, fisheries, flood control, water supply and recreation. Between 1949 and 1954, the committee of ten collected basic data and filled in the gaps in other government studies. No report was produced, but, in 1953, 12 detailed maps of the Clearwater River between Hemp Creek and the North Thompson River were published. These had a scale of 1 inch = 500 feet and a contour interval of 20 feet. Over 50 years later, these sheets are still the most detailed and accurate topographic maps available of the lower Clearwater, although they are out-of-date regarding human developments.

text: The biological and geochemical manifestations of seepage leads to distinct bathymetrical features including positive relief mounds, pinnacles, mud volcanoes and negative relief pockmarks. These features can be detected by multibeam sonar and then sampled by navigated piston coring. Spec and proprietary multibeam seep mapping and core geochemistry by Texas A&M University’s Geochemical & Environmental Research Group and later TDI Brooks demonstrated thermogenic charge in deepwater Angola and deepwater Nigeria leading to an aggressive exploration program by a number of oil companies and subsequent discoveries. The emphasis on, and marketplace acceptance of, multibeam mapping combined with navigated coring as an improvement over grid-based approaches to geochemical exploration is attributed to AOA Geophysics Inc.

text: The biological and geochemical manifestations of seepage leads to distinct bathymetrical features including positive relief mounds, pinnacles,

text: mud volcano

text: es and negative relief

text: pockmark

text: s. These features can be detected by multibeam sonar and then sampled by navigated piston coring. Spec and proprietary multibeam

text: seep

text: mapping and core geochemistry by Texas A&M University’s Geochemical & Environmental Research Group and later TDI Brooks demonstrated thermogenic charge in deepwater

text: Angola

text: and deepwater

text: Nigeria

text: leading to an aggressive exploration program by a number of oil companies and subsequent discoveries. The emphasis on, and marketplace acceptance of, multibeam mapping combined with navigated coring as an improvement over grid-based approaches to geochemical exploration is attributed to AOA Geophysics Inc.

text: where the contour must not enclose any of the points

text: A topographical map of Auckland which Kinder drew is now held in the Hocken Library in Dunedin.

text: A topographical map of Auckland which Kinder drew is now held in the

text: Hocken Library

text: in

text: Dunedin

text: By the 17th century, private map collections were often the basis for public map collections. As early as 1571, for example, the Court Library in Munich, Bavaria, (now the Bavarian State Library) became the owner of the Fugger collection.  In 1823, the British Museum in London acquired the King's Library, which had been inherited and greatly enlarged by George III of the United Kingdom, and donated to the Museum by his heir, George IV of the United Kingdom.  The King's Library included a collection of approximately 50,000 maps, plans and views, which are now housed at the British Library and known as the King's Topographical Collection.

text: By the 17th century,

text: private

text: map collections were often the basis for public map collections. As early as 1571, for example, the Court Library in

text: Munich

text: Bavaria

text: , (now the

text: Bavarian State Library

text: ) became the owner of the

text: Fugger

text: collection.  In 1823, the

text: British Museum

text: in

text: London

text: acquired the

text: King's Library

text: , which had been inherited and greatly enlarged by

text: George III of the United Kingdom

text: , and donated to the Museum by his heir,

text: George IV of the United Kingdom

text: .  The King's Library included a collection of approximately 50,000 maps, plans and views, which are now housed at the

text: British Library

text: and known as the King's Topographical Collection.

text: Some high end keyboards such as the Kinesis Advantage contoured keyboard allow users total flexibility to reprogram keyboard mappings at the hardware level.

text: Some high end keyboards such as the

text: Kinesis Advantage contoured keyboard

text: allow users total flexibility to reprogram keyboard mappings at the hardware level.

text: Wilson Ridge () is a prominent razorback ridge 6 nautical miles (11 km) north of Mount Harding in the Grove Mountains. Mapped by ANARE (Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions) from air photos, 1956-60. Named by Antarctic Names Committee of Australia (ANCA) for R.R. Wilson, topographic draftsman, Division of National Mapping, Australian Dept. of National Development, who has contributed substantially to the compilation of Antarctic maps.

text: Wilson Ridge () is a prominent razorback ridge 6 nautical miles (11 km) north of

text: Mount Harding

text: in the

text: Grove Mountains

text: . Mapped by ANARE (

entity_name: Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions

text: Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions

text: ) from air photos, 1956-60. Named by

entity_name: Australian Antarctic Names and Medals Committee

text: Antarctic Names Committee of Australia

text: (ANCA) for

text: R.R. Wilson

text: , topographic draftsman, Division of

text: National Mapping

text: Australian Dept

text: . of

text: National Development

text: , who has contributed substantially to the compilation of Antarctic maps.

text: Let Δh be the uniform interval of altitude between contours on the contour map, and let Δx be the distance between two contours.  Then

text: The National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) was established by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) to conduct a nationwide inventory of U.S. wetlands to provide biologists and others with information on the distribution and type of wetlands to aid in conservation efforts. To do this, the NWI developed a wetland classification system (Cowardin et al. 1979) that is now the official FWS wetland classification system and the Federal standard for wetland classification (adopted by the Federal Geographic Data Committee on July 29, 1996: 61 Federal Register 39465). The NWI also developed techniques for mapping and recording the inventory findings. The NWI relies on trained image analysts to identify and classify wetlands and deepwater habitats from aerial imagery. NWI started mapping wetlands at a small scale (1:250,000 map which covers an area the size of 128-1:24,000 USGS topographic maps or approximately 7,400 square miles). Eventually, large-scale (1:24K scale) maps became the standard product delivered by NWI. As computerized mapping and geospatial technology evolved,  NWI discontinued production of paper maps in favor of distributing  data via online "mapping tools" where information can be viewed and downloaded. Today, FWS serves its data  via an on-line data discovery "Wetlands Mapper". GIS users can access wetlands data through an online wetland mapping service or download data for various applications (maps, data analyses, and reports). The techniques used by  NWI have recently been adopted by the Federal Geographic Data Committee as the federal wetland mapping standard (FGDC Wetlands Subcommittee 2009). This standard applies to all federal grants involving wetland mapping to insure the data  can be added to the Wetlands Layer of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure. NWI also produces national wetlands status and trends reports required by the United States Congress.

text: The National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) was established by the

text: United States Fish and Wildlife Service

text: (FWS) to conduct a nationwide inventory of U.S. wetlands to provide biologists and others with information on the distribution and type of wetlands to aid in conservation efforts. To do this, the NWI developed a wetland classification system (Cowardin et al. 1979) that is now the official FWS wetland classification system and the Federal standard for wetland classification (adopted by the

text: Federal Geographic Data Committee

text: United States Congress

text: Generally contour plots of 2D spectra are oriented with rising axes from left to right and top to down. Other orientations are possible, but interpretation has to be adapted accordingly.

text: In 1910, the Map Reproduction Plant was given warehouse space at Ft. McNair, to accommodate the map reproduction unit of the Corps of Engineers. Ultimately named the Central Map Reproduction unit, it incorporated a lithographic school and 18 assigned military personnel. After World War I, this would be renamed the Engineer Reproduction Plant. The ERP was noted for experimentation on cartographic and photolithographic processes and media. They also experimentation in aerial photogrammetry.A number of US Geological Survey employees were assigned to the US Army Corps of Engineers 29th Engineers, a map organization, during World War I. Major G.S. Smith commanded part of the 29th Engineers, a map making and topographical unit, with 53 officers and 146 men transferred from the US Geological Survey. Thirteen additional USGS topographers were assigned to the Coast Artillery of the US Army as "orienteur officers." When the 2nd Brigade of Coast Artillery was formed, the military made a similar request for more USGS personnel, but the order was denied as these men were needed for the US Army Corps of Engineers.

text: In 1910, the

text: Map Reproduction Plant

text: was given warehouse space at

text: Ft. McNair

text: , to accommodate the map reproduction unit of the Corps of Engineers. Ultimately named the

text: Central Map Reproduction

text: unit, it incorporated a

text: lithographic

text: school and 18 assigned military personnel. After World War I, this would be renamed the

text: Engineer Reproduction Plant

text: . The ERP was noted for experimentation on cartographic and

text: photolithographic processes

text: and media. They also experimentation in aerial

text: photogrammetry

text: .A number of

text: US Geological Survey

text: employees were assigned to the US

text: Army Corps of Engineers

text: 29th Engineers, a map organization, during World War I. Major

text: G.S. Smith

text: commanded part of the 29th Engineers, a map making and topographical unit, with 53 officers and 146 men transferred from the US Geological Survey. Thirteen additional USGS

text: topographers

text: were assigned to the

text: Coast Artillery of the US Army

text: as "orienteur officers." When the

text: 2nd Brigade of Coast Artillery

text: was formed, the military made a similar request for more USGS personnel, but the order was denied as these men were needed for the US Army Corps of Engineers.

text: The South Burying Ground occupies a roughly rectangular  on the west side of Winchester Street, a short way south of Massachusetts Route 9 in Newton Highlands.  The cemetery's primary topographical features are two knolls, which flank the main entrance.  The street-facing front and parts of the sides of the cemetery are lined by a stone wall that is probably of 19th century origin.  A chain link fence is mounted on the wall, and encircles the rest of the property.  The main entrance is secured by a chain-link gate.  The cemetery has no paved lanes, although early 20th century maps show a rectilinear grid of them.

text: The South Burying Ground occupies a roughly rectangular  on the west side of Winchester Street, a short way south of

text: Massachusetts Route 9

text: in Newton Highlands.  The cemetery's primary topographical features are two knolls, which flank the main entrance.  The street-facing front and parts of the sides of the cemetery are lined by a stone wall that is probably of 19th century origin.  A chain link fence is mounted on the wall, and encircles the rest of the property.  The main entrance is secured by a chain-link gate.  The cemetery has no paved lanes, although early 20th century maps show a rectilinear grid of them.

text: Charles Logasa was born in Davenport, Iowa, United States, on  July 14, 1883 to Sephardic Jewish parents and Ukrainian immigrants. His father was Seth Moses Logasa. He had two sisters, Jeanie Deana Bogen née Logasa, and Hannah Logasa He came with his parents to Omaha, Nebraska between the ages of three and five years old.   As a boy he became a pupil of J. Laurie Wallace who was a pupil of Thomas Eakins. As a young man he studied drafting and engineering and around 1905 was employed as a draftsman for the City of Omaha in the Engineer's Office drawing maps.  At the age of 22 he turned to oil painting. About 1910 or 1911 he left Omaha. He entered the service of the United States Geological Survey as a topographic draftsman in Washington D. C.  Logasa continued his art education with Messer and Brooke as a part-time student at the Corcoran College of Art and Design. In 1913 he took a year's leave of absence from his duties as topographic draftsman for the United States Geological Survey and went to Paris where he entered the Acadamie Julien studying under Paul Laurens.

text: Charles Logasa was born in Davenport, Iowa, United States, on  July 14, 1883 to

text: Sephardic

text: Jewish parents and Ukrainian immigrants. His father was Seth Moses Logasa. He had two sisters, Jeanie Deana Bogen née Logasa, and

text: Hannah Logasa

text: He came with his parents to Omaha, Nebraska between the ages of three and five years old.   As a boy he became a pupil of

text: J. Laurie Wallace

text: who was a pupil of

text: Thomas Eakins

text: . As a young man he studied drafting and engineering and around 1905 was employed as a draftsman for the City of Omaha in the Engineer's Office drawing maps.  At the age of 22 he turned to oil painting. About 1910 or 1911 he left Omaha. He entered the service of the United States Geological Survey as a topographic draftsman in Washington D. C.  Logasa continued his art education with Messer and Brooke as a part-time student at the

text: Corcoran College of Art and Design

text: . In 1913 he took a year's leave of absence from his duties as topographic draftsman for the United States Geological Survey and went to Paris where he entered the

text: Acadamie Julien

text: studying under

text: Paul Laurens

text: The first phase of the programme was set up in 2006, with an initial grant of £7.2 million from the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). The funding was split into two with £4.1 million used by Teignbridge to deliver, Bathymetric and Topographic, Hydrographic surveys and £3.1 million managed by the Environment Agency to deliver Aerial photography, LiDAR and Ecological mapping. Phase 2 of the programme commenced in 2011 with 100% DEFRA funding, and will run until 2016. Phase 2 of the Programme is solely managed by Teignbridge District Council.

text: The first phase of the programme was set up in 2006, with an initial grant of £7.2 million from the

entity_name: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

text: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs

text: (DEFRA). The funding was split into two with £4.1 million used by

text: Teignbridge

text: to deliver,

text: Bathymetric

text: and

text: Topographic

text: Hydrographic surveys

text: and £3.1 million managed by the

text: Environment Agency

text: to deliver

text: Aerial photography

text: LiDAR

text: and Ecological mapping. Phase 2 of the programme commenced in 2011 with 100% DEFRA funding, and will run until 2016. Phase 2 of the Programme is solely managed by Teignbridge District Council.

text: A contour line (also isoline, isopleth, or isarithm) of a function of two variables is a  curve along which the function has a constant value. It is a cross-section of the three-dimensional graph of the function f(x, y) parallel to the x, y plane. In cartography, a contour line (often just called a "contour") joins points of equal elevation (height) above a given level, such as mean sea level. A contour map is a map illustrated with contour lines, for example a topographic map, which thus shows valleys and hills, and the steepness of slopes. The contour interval of a contour map is the difference in elevation between successive contour lines.

text: A contour line (also isoline, isopleth, or isarithm) of a

text: function

text: of two variables is a

text: curve

text: along which the function has a constant value. It is a

text: cross-section

text: of the

text: three-dimensional graph

text: of the function f(x, y) parallel to the x, y plane. In

text: cartography

text: , a contour line (often just called a "contour") joins points of equal

text: elevation

text: (height) above a given level, such as

text: mean sea level

text: . A contour map is a

text: map

text: illustrated with contour lines, for example a

text: topographic map

text: , which thus shows valleys and hills, and the steepness of slopes. The contour interval of a contour map is the difference in elevation between successive contour lines.

text: From 1870, a map series in the 1:25,000 scale of the original Dufour Map images was published under the official name Topographic Atlas of Switzerland (German: Topographischer Atlas der Schweiz), and also known as the Siegfried Atlas or Siegfried Map (German: Siegfriedkarte; French: Carte Siegfried).

text: From 1870, a map series in the 1:25,000 scale of the original Dufour Map images was published under the official name

text: Topographic Atlas of Switzerland

text: (German: Topographischer Atlas der Schweiz), and also known as the Siegfried Atlas or

text: Siegfried Map

text: (German: Siegfriedkarte; French: Carte Siegfried).

text: Finally, many height indications on these maps are from quite old measurements, while glacier and firn melt has decreased the height of both peaks and key cols, sometimes quite dramatically. For example, in 1930, glacier-capped Cima Tosa was the highest mountain of the Brenta Dolomites at 3,173 m, but now is around 3,140 m high and some 10 m lower than its rocky neighbor Cima Brenta (3,151 m). Most maps and guides still report Cima Tosa's old height. On the other hand, in the 1930s, when the current Italian 1:25.000 topographic map of the region was created, the Passo del Vannino, northwest of the Ofenhorn, was covered by the Lebendun glacier and was measured to be 2,754 m, while the much more recent Swisstopo map shows it to be bare and 2,717 m high. This is the key col for Corno di Ban (3,028 m), which, thanks to the retreat of the glacier, now appears on the list with a prominence of 311 m.

text: Finally, many height indications on these maps are from quite old measurements, while glacier and

text: firn

text: melt has decreased the height of both peaks and key cols, sometimes quite dramatically. For example, in 1930, glacier-capped

text: Cima Tosa

text: was the highest mountain of the

text: Brenta Dolomites

text: at 3,173 m, but now is around 3,140 m high and some 10 m lower than its rocky neighbor

text: Cima Brenta

text: (3,151 m). Most maps and guides still report Cima Tosa's old height. On the other hand, in the 1930s, when the current Italian 1:25.000 topographic map of the region was created, the Passo del Vannino, northwest of the

text: Ofenhorn

text: , was covered by the Lebendun glacier and was measured to be 2,754 m, while the much more recent Swisstopo map shows it to be bare and 2,717 m high. This is the key col for

text: Corno di Ban

text: (3,028 m), which, thanks to the retreat of the glacier, now appears on the list with a prominence of 311 m.

text: For 113 years of colonisation after the arrival of the First Fleet, much of the mapping of Australia, mainly for exploration, settlement and development, was supervised and conducted by naval and military officers. These officers included the well known explorers and surveyors: Captain Matthew Flinders, Royal Navy; Lieutenant William Dawes (Royal Marines officer), (New South Wales); Lieutenant Philip Parker King, Royal Navy (mainly Tasmania, Western Australia and Northern Territory), Lieutenant John Oxley, Royal Navy, (New South Wales); Lieutenant Colonel Sir Thomas Mitchell (New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland); Captain Charles Sturt (New South Wales and South Australia); Lieutenant John Septimus Roe, Royal Navy (Western Australia), and Colonel William Light (South Australia). After 100 years of settlement some topographic maps had been produced for both public and private use but only a few maps were of any real military utility. The colonial part-time Defence Forces prepared small-area training manoeuvre maps and some colonies had produced small systematic topographic surveys for defence of the main ports of trade and commerce in the 1880s and 1890s. That is not to say that the need for topographic mapping was not a government and public concern but there were only minor attempts to allocate appropriate public resources.

text: For 113 years of colonisation after the arrival of the First Fleet, much of the mapping of Australia, mainly for exploration, settlement and development, was supervised and conducted by naval and military officers. These officers included the well known explorers and surveyors: Captain

text: Matthew Flinders

text: , Royal Navy; Lieutenant

text: William Dawes (Royal Marines officer)

text: , (New South Wales); Lieutenant

text: Philip Parker King

text: , Royal Navy (mainly Tasmania, Western Australia and Northern Territory), Lieutenant

text: John Oxley

text: , Royal Navy, (New South Wales); Lieutenant Colonel Sir

text: Thomas Mitchell

text: (New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland); Captain

text: Charles Sturt

text: (New South Wales and South Australia); Lieutenant

text: John Septimus Roe

text: , Royal Navy (Western Australia), and Colonel

text: William Light

text: (South Australia). After 100 years of settlement some topographic maps had been produced for both public and private use but only a few maps were of any real military utility. The colonial part-time Defence Forces prepared small-area training manoeuvre maps and some colonies had produced small systematic topographic surveys for defence of the main ports of trade and commerce in the 1880s and 1890s. That is not to say that the need for topographic mapping was not a government and public concern but there were only minor attempts to allocate appropriate public resources.

text: Switzerland has had its current boundaries since 1815, but maps of the Old Swiss Confederacy were drawn since the 16th century. The first topographical survey on a federal level began in 1809, resulting in the Topographic Map of Switzerland (German: Topographische Karte der Schweiz) or Dufour Map (German: Dufourkarte; French: Carte Dufour). From 1869 to 1901, this map was replaced by the Topographic Atlas of Switzerland (German: Topographischer Atlas der Schweiz) or Siegfried Map (German: Siegfriedkarte; French: Carte Siegfried).

text: Switzerland

text: has had its current boundaries since 1815, but maps of the

text: Old Swiss Confederacy

text: were drawn since the 16th century. The first topographical survey on a federal level began in 1809, resulting in the

text: Topographic Map of Switzerland

text: German

text: : Topographische Karte der Schweiz) or

text: Dufour Map

text: (German: Dufourkarte;

text: French

text: : Carte Dufour). From 1869 to 1901, this map was replaced by the

text: Topographic Atlas of Switzerland

text: (German: Topographischer Atlas der Schweiz) or

text: Siegfried Map

text: inside the contour

text: inside the contour

text: Dutch Topographic map of Boxtel (place), March 2014.

text: Topographic maps have multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic planning or large-scale architecture; earth sciences and many other geographic disciplines; mining and other earth-based endeavours; civil engineering and recreational uses such as hiking and orienteering.

text: Topographic maps have multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic

text: planning

text: or large-scale

text: architecture

text: earth sciences

text: and many other

text: geographic

text: disciplines;

text: mining

text: and other earth-based endeavours;

text: civil engineering

text: and recreational uses such as

text: hiking

text: and

text: orienteering

text: Of course, to determine differences in elevation between two points, the contour interval, or distance in altitude between two adjacent contour lines, must be known, and this is given at the bottom of the map. Usually contour intervals are consistent throughout a map, but there are exceptions. Sometimes intermediate contours are present in flatter areas; these can be dashed or dotted lines at half the noted contour interval. When contours are used with hypsometric tints on a small-scale map that includes mountains and flatter low-lying areas, it is common to have smaller intervals at lower elevations so that detail is shown in all areas. Conversely, for an island which consists of a plateau surrounded by steep cliffs, it is possible to use smaller intervals as the height increases.

text: TopoQuest is a free web mapping service built on open source software that provides internet-based topographic maps for most of the United States.

text: TopoQuest is a free

text: web mapping

text: service built on

text: open source

text: software that provides internet-based

text: topographic maps

text: for most of the

text: United States

text: The Kloppstert is a hill, roughly 553 metres high, in the southwestern Harz in Lower Saxony, Germany. In the topographical map printed in 1978 it can only be made out with difficulty that the third letter is an o and the penultimate one an r. Unfortunately a contour line runs over the letter r so that it looks like a p. In the digitalised  1:25,000 topographic map, the hill is wrongly named as the Klappstept.

text: The Kloppstert is a hill, roughly 553 metres high, in the southwestern

text: Harz

text: in

text: Lower Saxony

text: Germany

text: . In the topographical map printed in 1978 it can only be made out with difficulty that the third letter is an o and the penultimate one an r. Unfortunately a contour line runs over the letter r so that it looks like a p. In the digitalised  1:25,000 topographic map, the hill is wrongly named as the Klappstept.

text: Dutch Topographic map of Dronten (town), March 2014.

text: U.S. Forest Service maps, Bureau of Land Management maps, and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 1-24,000 scale topographic hard copy maps or topographic software such as National Geographic TOPO! are recommended for planning and on-trail use. A trail map is available for digital download in seventy-six separate PDF files at the Idaho Parks and Recreation Department Web site (see links section below). The link below does not lead to the PDF files but they can be found by searching the Idaho Parks and Recreation Web site.

text: Based on the survey, some 150 geographical features were mapped for the first time and a new 1:100000 topographic map of the two islands was published in 2005.  Data from the topographic survey Tangra 2004/05 was used also in the 2008 Bulgarian map of Livingston, Greenwich, Robert, Snow, and Smith Islands.

text: Based on the survey, some 150 geographical features were mapped for the first time and a new 1:100000

text: topographic map

text: of the two islands was published in 2005.  Data from the topographic survey Tangra 2004/05 was used also in the 2008 Bulgarian map of Livingston, Greenwich,

text: Robert

text: Snow

text: , and

text: Smith

text: Islands.

text: Björn Gunnlaugsson (25 September 1788 – 17 March 1876) was an Icelandic mathematician and cartographer. For the Icelandic Literary Society, he surveyed the country from 1831 to 1843. The results of his work were published in a topographic map of Iceland at a scale of 1:480,000 on four sheets. It was the first complete map of Iceland and, although generally dated to 1844, was not completed until 1848. It was published under the direction of Olaf Nikolas Olsen in Copenhagen. In 1849, a smaller edition on one sheet at a scale of 1:960,000 appeared. For his survey work, Björn received the Order of the Dannebrog in 1846 and the French Légion d'honneur in 1859.

text: Björn Gunnlaugsson (25 September 1788 – 17 March 1876) was an

text: Iceland

text: ic

text: mathematician

text: and

text: cartographer

text: . For the

text: Icelandic Literary Society

text: , he surveyed the country from 1831 to 1843. The results of his work were published in a

text: topographic

text: map of Iceland at a scale of 1:480,000 on four sheets. It was the first complete map of Iceland and, although generally dated to 1844, was not completed until 1848. It was published under the direction of

text: Olaf Nikolas Olsen

text: in

text: Copenhagen

text: . In 1849, a smaller edition on one sheet at a scale of 1:960,000 appeared. For his survey work, Björn received the

text: Order of the Dannebrog

text: in 1846 and the French

text: Légion d'honneur

text: in 1859.

text: Topographic maps for Taiwan had long been kept as confidential information due to security concerns. It has only been recently made available to public from the National Land Surveying and Mapping Center, the government agency responsible for surveying and publishing various maps. Topographic maps of up to 1:25,000 is now available in digital and printed format.

text: The Wei (220–265) and Jin Dynasty (265–420) cartographer and official Pei Xiu (224–271) was the first in China to describe in full the geometric grid reference for maps that allowed for precise measurements using a graduated scale, as well as topographical elevation. However, map-making in China had existed since at least the 4th century BC with the Qin state maps found in Gansu in 1986. Pinpointed accuracy of the winding courses of rivers and familiarity with scaled distance had been known since the Qin and Han Dynasty, respectively, as evidenced by their existing maps, while the use of a rectangular grid had been known in China since the Han as well. Historian Howard Nelson states that, although the accounts of Zhang Heng's work in cartography are somewhat vague and sketchy, there is ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular grid reference from the maps of Zhang Heng. Rafe de Crespigny asserts that it was Zhang who established the rectangular grid system in Chinese cartography. Needham points out that the title of his book Flying Bird Calendar may have been a mistake, and that the book is more accurately entitled Bird's Eye Map. Historian Florian C. Reiter notes that Zhang's narrative "Guitian fu" contains a phrase about applauding the maps and documents of Confucius of the Zhou Dynasty, which Reiter suggests places maps (tu) on a same level of importance with documents (shu). It is documented that a physical geography map was first presented by Zhang Heng in 116 AD, called a Ti Hsing Thu.

text: The

text: Wei

text: (220–265) and

text: Jin Dynasty

text: cartographer

text: and official

text: Pei Xiu

text: (224–271) was the first in China to describe in full the geometric

text: grid reference

text: for maps that allowed for precise measurements

text: using a graduated scale

text: , as well as topographical

text: elevation

text: . However, map-making in China had existed since at least the 4th century BC with the

text: Qin state

text: maps found in

text: Gansu

text: in 1986. Pinpointed accuracy of the winding courses of rivers and familiarity with scaled distance had been known since the

text: Qin

text: and Han Dynasty, respectively, as evidenced by their existing maps, while the use of a rectangular

text: grid

text: had been known in China since the Han as well. Historian Howard Nelson states that, although the accounts of Zhang Heng's work in cartography are somewhat vague and sketchy, there is ample written evidence that Pei Xiu derived the use of the rectangular grid reference from the maps of Zhang Heng. Rafe de Crespigny asserts that it was Zhang who established the rectangular grid system in Chinese cartography. Needham points out that the title of his book Flying Bird Calendar may have been a mistake, and that the book is more accurately entitled Bird's Eye Map. Historian Florian C. Reiter notes that Zhang's narrative "Guitian fu" contains a phrase about applauding the maps and documents of

text: Confucius

text: of the Zhou Dynasty, which Reiter suggests places maps (tu) on a same level of importance with documents (shu). It is documented that a physical geography map was first presented by Zhang Heng in 116 AD, called a Ti Hsing Thu.

text: The first officer appointed to the position Lieutenant Survey Section RAE (Permanent) was Lieutenant William Lawrence Whitham, a licensed surveyor from South Australia, having been highly recommended by the Surveyor-General South Australia. He assumed his appointment on 1 July 1910 at which time there were seven members of the Section. All men were professional surveyors and draftsman. CMF officers of the AIC in the Military District Headquarters supervised the work of the Section. In 1912 the Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia State Governments each agreed to loan a Lands Department Survey Officer to the Survey Section RAE for two years to supervise the work of the Section in each State. Each Survey Officer was a militia officer in the AIC. The Section was divided into two sub-sections and employed in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia producing scale 1 inch to 1 mile military maps ('1 mile' map) mainly of areas around cities and key infrastructure. By mid-1913 the Section had completed topographic field sheets by plane-tabling for eight maps around Newcastle, Melbourne and Canberra. The initial method of using parish plans to position the topographic detail was soon found to be inadequate and a geodetic subsection was established in 1914 to provide surveys by geodetic triangulation as spatial frameworks for the field sheets produced by the topographers. The triangulation work started at Werribee south-west of Melbourne and proceeded west along the coast to Warrnambool. This work included the 1860 Geodetic Survey of Victoria where appropriate – much of which was produced by Royal Engineer officers. The AIC was disbanded in 1914 but the work of the Survey Section continued under the supervision and control of the Intelligence Section of the General Staff under the general direction of the Chief of the General Staff (CGS).

text: CARLA was a customized software program conceived by Beverly Willis and written in house by a Harvard Graduate School of Design student, Jochen Eigen, designed to analyze prospective land parcels for their development potential as large-scale multi-unit complexes. Jochen Eigen wrote the programming scripts that directed CARLA as the managing software to interface a variety of planning unit concepts with a mapping program that could then process a variety of planning proposals against the site’s fixed fields of relevant data. The data was extracted from traditional analog topographical maps soil analysis, and marketing information.

text: CARLA was a customized software program conceived by

text: Beverly Willis

text: and written in house by a

text: Harvard Graduate School of Design

text: student, Jochen Eigen, designed to analyze prospective land parcels for their development potential as large-scale multi-unit complexes. Jochen Eigen wrote the programming scripts that directed CARLA as the managing software to interface a variety of planning unit concepts with a mapping program that could then process a variety of planning proposals against the site’s fixed fields of relevant data. The data was extracted from traditional analog topographical maps soil analysis, and marketing information.

text: Cartographers use a projection to project the curved surface of the earth onto a flat surface. This generates a grid that is used as a base for national topographic mapping. The projection introduces a distortion so that grid north differs from true north; magnetic north is a natural feature that differs from both. As an example: at 52° 35' N 1° 10' E (approx 7 km west of Norwich, England) true north is 2° 33' west of grid north, and magnetic north is about 7° west of grid north. Magnetic north varies continually and in this example (1986) was reducing by about ½° in four years. Orienteering maps are printed using magnetic north and this requires an adjustment to be made to the base map.

text: Cartographers use a

text: projection

text: to project the curved surface of the earth onto a flat surface. This generates a grid that is used as a base for national topographic mapping. The projection introduces a distortion so that grid north differs from true north; magnetic north is a natural feature that differs from both. As an example: at 52° 35' N 1° 10' E (approx 7 km west of Norwich, England) true north is 2° 33' west of grid north, and magnetic north is about 7° west of grid north. Magnetic north varies continually and in this example (1986) was reducing by about ½° in four years. Orienteering maps are printed using magnetic north and this requires an adjustment to be made to the base map.

text: The topographic map revealed in the olfactory system differs in quality from the orderly representation inherent in the retinotopic, tonotopic, or somatotopic sensory maps.  Olfactory neurons differ from one another by the nature of the receptor that they possess. However, the olfactory sensory neurons to which olfactory bulb neurons are connected are also distributed across the receptor sheet (the olfactory epithelium) depending on their chemical preferences. Locations on the olfactory epithelium and the olfactory bulb are correlated  so, as with other sensory systems, the topographic map in the brain is linked to the structure of the peripheral organ. This principle is called rhinotopy.

text: The GNIS database consistently reports the peak elevation lower than the referenced USGS and/or USFS topographic maps. The topographic maps also report lower elevations than selected GPS measurements conducted by personnel of the Juneau Icefield Research Program, but not to the degree of the GNIS Database.

text: The

text: GNIS

text: database consistently reports the peak elevation lower than the referenced

text: USGS

text: and/or

text: USFS

text: topographic maps. The topographic maps also report lower elevations than selected

text: GPS

text: measurements conducted by personnel of the

text: Juneau Icefield Research Program

text: , but not to the degree of the

text: GNIS

text: Database.

text: RADARSAT-2 is a follow-on to RADARSAT-1 which mission terminated in April 2013. It has the same orbit (798 km altitude sun-synchronous orbit with 6 p.m. ascending node and 6 a.m. descending node). Some of the orbit characteristics are 24 days repeat cycle (=343 orbits), 14.29 orbits per day, each orbit being 100.75 minutes duration. It is filling a wide variety of application, including sea ice mapping and ship routing, iceberg detection, agricultural crop monitoring, marine surveillance for ship and pollution detection, terrestrial defence surveillance and target identification, geological mapping, mine monitoring, land use mapping, wetlands mapping, topographic mapping.

text: RADARSAT-2 is a follow-on to

text: which mission terminated in April 2013. It has the same orbit (798 km altitude

text: sun-synchronous orbit

text: with 6 p.m. ascending node and 6 a.m. descending node). Some of the orbit characteristics are 24 days repeat cycle (=343 orbits), 14.29 orbits per day, each orbit being 100.75 minutes duration. It is filling a wide variety of application, including sea ice mapping and ship routing, iceberg detection, agricultural crop monitoring, marine surveillance for ship and pollution detection, terrestrial defence surveillance and target identification, geological mapping, mine monitoring, land use mapping, wetlands mapping, topographic mapping.

text: The work of the Commission is supported by geographical information and mapping resulting from topographic surveys in Antarctica, such as the 1995/96 survey in Livingston Island, and the topographic survey Tangra 2004/05. Field work carried out during the latter survey has been noted by Discovery Channel as a timeline event in Antarctic exploration.

text: The work of the Commission is supported by

text: geographical information

text: and

text: mapping

text: resulting from

text: topographic

text: surveys

text: in Antarctica, such as the 1995/96 survey in

text: Livingston Island

text: , and the topographic survey

text: Tangra 2004/05

text: . Field work carried out during the latter survey has been noted by

text: Discovery Channel

text: as a timeline event in Antarctic exploration.

text: Belt is located just to the west of the village of Hippolytushoef. It is named after the small hill ("bult") that it lies on. It is not named on recent topographical maps, where it is considered to be a part of Hippolytushoef.

text: Belt is located just to the west of the village of

text: Hippolytushoef

text: . It is named after the small hill ("bult") that it lies on. It is not named on recent topographical maps, where it is considered to be a part of Hippolytushoef.

text: is the angle which the side makes with North or South directions (the instruments used in traversing include Total Station or Theodolite with stand, Compass with stand, ranging rods and measuring tape). Then in next step RL (reduced level) of each station is determined with reference to permanent benchmark (the instruments used to determine reduced level include Auto Level with stand and Levelling Staff). Then RL of different points keeping specified spacing between them with reference to each station is determined. The points having same RL are joined to form contour lines and thus a topographic map of an area is prepared using AutoCAD or with the help of plane table survey.

text: is the angle which the side makes with North or South directions (the instruments used in traversing include Total Station or Theodolite with stand, Compass with stand, ranging rods and measuring tape). Then in next step

text: RL

text: (reduced level) of each station is determined with reference to permanent

text: benchmark

text: (the instruments used to determine reduced level include Auto Level with stand and Levelling Staff). Then RL of different points keeping specified spacing between them with reference to each station is determined. The points having same RL are joined to form

text: contour lines

text: and thus a topographic map of an area is prepared using AutoCAD or with the help of plane table survey.

text: The traditional set of Vicmap Topographic maps consist of approximately 850 1:25000 and 1:50000 hardcopy topographic map sheets printed and made available for sale to the general public. These map sheets cover 80% of Victoria. Most of the mapsheets are single format at a scale of 1:25000. Less inhabited areas of the state are covered by double format 1:25000 and 1:50000 mapsheets. All of these maps were produced using traditional cartographic methods, with the majority being last updated in the 1970s and 1980s.

text: The contour of the interpolant on an individual triangle is a line segment (it is an interval on the intersection of two planes). The equation for the line can be found, however the points where the line crosses the edges of the triangle are the endpoints of the line segment.

text: The computer graphic information reports were represented either in the form of topographical site perspectives, contour maps or as a sequence of numeric values organized within a template matrix that allowed the architect to identify the optimal relationships and planning concept. This work then became the basis for presentation materials that were used to introduce the client/developer to the proposed designs.

text: Official references are the NOAA Coastal pilot, NOAA nautical charts, and USGS topographic maps.<ref name="usgs_topo">USGS topographic maps, 1:24,000 scale, listed from west to east (in a row), then north to south:

text: Official references are the

text: NOAA

text: Coastal pilot, NOAA

text: nautical chart

text: s, and

text: USGS

text: topographic maps.<ref name="usgs_topo">USGS topographic maps, 1:24,000 scale, listed from west to east (in a row), then north to south:

text: Because the M tidal constituent dominates in most locations, the stage or phase of a tide, denoted by the time in hours after high water, is a useful concept. Tidal stage is also measured in degrees, with 360° per tidal cycle. Lines of constant tidal phase are called cotidal lines, which are analogous to contour lines of constant altitude on topographical maps. High water is reached simultaneously along the cotidal lines extending from the coast out into the ocean, and cotidal lines (and hence tidal phases) advance along the coast. Semi-diurnal and long phase constituents are measured from high water, diurnal from maximum flood tide. This and the discussion that follows is precisely true only for a single tidal constituent.

text: Because the M tidal constituent dominates in most locations, the stage or phase of a tide, denoted by the time in hours after high water, is a useful concept. Tidal stage is also measured in degrees, with 360° per tidal cycle. Lines of constant tidal phase are called cotidal lines, which are analogous to

text: contour lines

text: of constant altitude on

text: topographical maps

text: . High water is reached simultaneously along the cotidal lines extending from the coast out into the ocean, and cotidal lines (and hence tidal phases) advance along the coast. Semi-diurnal and long phase constituents are measured from high water, diurnal from maximum flood tide. This and the discussion that follows is precisely true only for a single tidal constituent.

text: The landmark scientific expedition (December 1872 – May 1876) of the British Royal Navy survey ship HMS Challenger yielded a tremendous amount of bathymetric data, much of which has been confirmed by subsequent researchers. Bathymetric data obtained during the course of the Challenger expedition enabled scientists to draw maps, which provided a rough outline of certain major submarine terrain features, such as the edge of the continental shelves and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This discontinuous set of data points was obtained by the simple technique of taking soundings by lowering long lines from the ship to the seabed.

text: The landmark scientific

text: expedition

text: (December 1872 – May 1876) of the British

text: Royal Navy

text: survey ship

text: HMS Challenger

text: yielded a tremendous amount of

text: bathymetric

text: data, much of which has been confirmed by subsequent researchers. Bathymetric data obtained during the course of the Challenger expedition enabled scientists to draw maps, which provided a rough outline of certain major submarine terrain features, such as the edge of the

text: continental shelves

text: and the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: . This discontinuous set of data points was obtained by the simple technique of taking

text: soundings

text: by lowering long lines from the ship to the seabed.

text: Contour lines are also used to display non-geographic information in economics. Indifference curves (as shown at left) are used to show bundles of goods to which a person would assign equal utility. An isoquant (in the image at right) is a curve of equal production quantity for alternative combinations of input usages, and an isocost curve (also in the image at right) shows alternative usages having equal production costs.

text: Contour lines are also used to display non-geographic information in economics.

text: Indifference curves

text: (as shown at left) are used to show bundles of goods to which a person would assign equal utility. An

text: isoquant

text: (in the image at right) is a curve of equal production quantity for alternative combinations of

text: input usages

text: , and an

text: isocost curve

text: (also in the image at right) shows alternative usages having equal production costs.

text: along the contour

text: along the contour

text: Contour lines (or isohypses) are isolines showing equal elevation. This is the most common way of numerically showing elevation, and is familiar from topographic maps.

text: Contour lines (or isohypses) are isolines showing equal elevation. This is the most common way of numerically showing elevation, and is familiar from

text: topographic map

text: s.

text: This map is derived from GTOPO30 data that describes the elevation of Earth's terrain at intervals of 30 arcseconds (approximately 1 km).  It uses color and shading instead of contour lines to indicate elevation.

text: This map is derived from

text: data that describes the elevation of Earth's terrain at intervals of 30 arcseconds (approximately 1 km).  It uses color and shading instead of contour lines to indicate elevation.

text: The composition ψφ is an order-preserving map from the interval [a ∧ b, b] to itself which also satisfies the inequality ψ(φ(x)) = (x ∨ a) ∧ b ≥ x. The example shows that this inequality can be strict in general. In a modular lattice, however, equality holds. Since the dual of a modular lattice is again modular, φψ is also the identity on [a, a ∨ b], and therefore the two maps φ and ψ are isomorphisms between these two intervals. This result is sometimes called the diamond isomorphism theorem for modular lattices. A lattice is modular if and only if the diamond isomorphism theorem holds for every pair of elements.

text: When the AIF members returned to Australia in 1919 they were discharged and most were re-appointed to the Survey Section RAE (Permanent) or the Australian Survey Corps (Permanent). Military reorganisation after World War I, and the general reduction in military capability, saw the numbers reduced to fourteen all ranks. In 1920 the Corps was suspended and reverted, in title, to the Survey Section, RAE (Permanent). Mapping continued, mainly the '1 mile' maps, albeit at a reduced rate consistent with the allocated resources, with priority given to areas around Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne. By 1929 the Section had produced fifty-four '1 mile' maps including five revised maps. Technical developments provided for improved efficiencies. These included use of single photographs and strips of air photographs to supplement ground surveys by plane-table for topographic detail. The first military map produced with a significant component of aerial photography flown by the Royal Australian Air Force was the Albury '1 mile' map published in 1933. Compilation of this map highlighted inconsistencies in State triangulation systems and once again demonstrated the need for a national geodetic survey which had been identified by colonial survey officers in the 1890s.

text: On a user pays basis it produces geospatial products such as topographic maps and satellite imagery. It is also a major contributor to the Australian Government's free, open data collections such as data.gov.au.

text: On a

text: user pays

text: basis it produces geospatial products such as

text: topographic maps

text: and

text: satellite imagery

text: . It is also a major contributor to the Australian Government's free, open data collections such as data.gov.au.

text: Selecting a model for a shape of the Earth involves choosing between the advantages and disadvantages of a sphere versus an ellipsoid. Spherical models are useful for small-scale maps such as world atlases and globes, since the error at that scale is not usually noticeable or important enough to justify using the more complicated ellipsoid. The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct topographic maps and for other large- and medium-scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface. Auxiliary latitudes are often employed in projecting the ellipsoid.

text: Selecting a model for a shape of the Earth involves choosing between the advantages and disadvantages of a sphere versus an ellipsoid. Spherical models are useful for small-scale maps such as world atlases and globes, since the error at that scale is not usually noticeable or important enough to justify using the more complicated ellipsoid. The ellipsoidal model is commonly used to construct

text: topographic map

text: s and for other large- and medium-scale maps that need to accurately depict the land surface.

text: Auxiliary latitudes

text: are often employed in projecting the ellipsoid.

text: Snow cover is frequently shown as a contour-line map.

text: Snow

text: cover is frequently shown as a contour-line map.

text: Petermann was responsible for drawing most of the maps in the first few years of the journal. His strength was in the analysis and evaluation of all sources available. As such one can say that the indication ‘Originalkarte’ (original map) in many titles was well earned, for few slavishly copied what explorers or other experts had sketched. German geographers, like Hermann Wagner (1840–1929), claimed that in other geographical journals explorer's maps were just copied instead of having them evaluated by cartographers first. Maps based on recent exploration reports were always, when possible, complemented with route maps from previous expeditions. He did not like to infer or extrapolate from the sources, for that might give inaccurate measurements, so many of his maps show large blank spaces. How right he was in this respect was demonstrated in 1911 when Julien Thoulet drafted bathymetric maps for the territory of France. In these four maps he draws hypothetical isobaths, which are based on respectively 15, 31, 154, and 308 altitude measurements per  for France and the adjacent territories. (A reasonable amount of measuring points for precipitation and temperature maps would be 1,500 and 600 per 100,000 km² respectively to create acceptable isoline maps for these phenomena). These give schematic negative relief maps, which hardly even approximate the true relief of the territory. Thoulet wanted to show that the few bathymetric measurements available for the vast oceans would only vaguely approximate the true relief of the ocean floors. Petermann must have had the same idea intuitively for his exploratory maps. He was keen, however, to introduce spot heights and spot depths in the maps he drafted in order that others could benefit from them.

text: Petermann was responsible for drawing most of the maps in the first few years of the journal. His strength was in the analysis and evaluation of all sources available. As such one can say that the indication ‘Originalkarte’ (original map) in many titles was well earned, for few slavishly copied what explorers or other experts had sketched. German geographers, like

text: Hermann Wagner

text: (1840–1929), claimed that in other geographical journals explorer's maps were just copied instead of having them evaluated by cartographers first. Maps based on recent exploration reports were always, when possible, complemented with route maps from previous expeditions. He did not like to infer or extrapolate from the sources, for that might give inaccurate measurements, so many of his maps show large blank spaces. How right he was in this respect was demonstrated in 1911 when

text: Julien Thoulet

text: drafted bathymetric maps for the territory of France. In these four maps he draws hypothetical isobaths, which are based on respectively 15, 31, 154, and 308 altitude measurements per  for France and the adjacent territories. (A reasonable amount of measuring points for precipitation and temperature maps would be 1,500 and 600 per 100,000 km² respectively to create acceptable isoline maps for these phenomena). These give schematic negative relief maps, which hardly even approximate the true relief of the territory. Thoulet wanted to show that the few bathymetric measurements available for the vast oceans would only vaguely approximate the true relief of the ocean floors. Petermann must have had the same idea intuitively for his exploratory maps. He was keen, however, to introduce spot heights and spot depths in the maps he drafted in order that others could benefit from them.

text: is the "contour length" or

text: is the "contour length" or

text: Fort Sumner was razed in 1953. There are a few visible remains of Battery Bailey in Westmoreland Hills Park, which can be seen from the adjacent Capital Crescent Trail. Part of the site was acquired by the Army Map Service (AMS) early in World War II and renamed Fort Sumner. The AMS was renamed US Army Topographic Command in 1968 and merged into the Defense Mapping Agency in 1972, at which time the site was renamed Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center. The Defense Mapping Agency and its successors, the National Imagery and Mapping Agency and the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, occupied the site until the early 2010s. The residential area that was built over Fort Sumner has a plaque about the fort at Sangamore Road and West Path Way, and portions of it are named "Fort Sumner Hills" and "Sumner Village".

text: Fort Sumner was razed in 1953. There are a few visible remains of Battery Bailey in Westmoreland Hills Park, which can be seen from the adjacent

text: Capital Crescent Trail

text: . Part of the site was acquired by the

text: Army Map Service

text: (AMS) early in

text: World War II

text: and renamed Fort Sumner. The AMS was renamed US Army Topographic Command in 1968 and merged into the

text: Defense Mapping Agency

text: in 1972, at which time the site was renamed Defense Mapping Agency Topographic Center. The

text: Defense Mapping Agency

text: and its successors, the

text: National Imagery and Mapping Agency

text: and the

text: National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

text: , occupied the site until the early 2010s. The residential area that was built over Fort Sumner has a plaque about the fort at Sangamore Road and West Path Way, and portions of it are named "Fort Sumner Hills" and "Sumner Village".

text: Flintstone is included in the Fort Oglethorpe Quad of topographical maps published by the United States Geological Services.

text: The peak is located at  which is 940 m north of Maystora Peak,  1.22 km northeast of Razgrad Peak, 1.18 km east by north of Terter Peak, 2.87 km east of the highest point of Oborishte Ridge, 4.1 km south of Ferrer Point, 590 m west of Momchil Peak, 2 km west-northwest of the summit of Viskyar Ridge and 3.32 km northwest of Sartorius Point.  British mapping in 1968, Bulgarian topographic survey Tangra 2004/05 and mapping in 2009.

text: The peak is located at  which is 940 m north of

text: Maystora Peak

text: ,  1.22 km northeast of

text: Razgrad Peak

text: , 1.18 km east by north of

text: Terter Peak

text: , 2.87 km east of the highest point of

text: Oborishte Ridge

text: , 4.1 km south of

text: Ferrer Point

text: , 590 m west of

text: Momchil Peak

text: , 2 km west-northwest of the summit of

text: Viskyar Ridge

text: and 3.32 km northwest of

text: Sartorius Point

text: .  British mapping in 1968, Bulgarian topographic survey

text: Tangra 2004/05

text: and mapping in 2009.

text: From the 16th and 17th centuries, several examples survive of maps focused on cultural information. Gridlines are not used on either Yu Shi's Gujin xingsheng zhi tu (1555) or Zhang Huang's Tushu bian (1613); instead, illustrations and annotations show mythical places, exotic foreign peoples, administrative changes and the deeds of historic and legendary heroes. Also in the 17th century, an edition of a possible Tang Dynasty map shows clear topographical contour lines. Although topographic features were part of maps in China for centuries, a Fujian county official Ye Chunji (1532–1595) was the first to base county maps using on-site topographical surveying and observations.

text: From the 16th and 17th centuries, several examples survive of maps focused on cultural information. Gridlines are not used on either

text: Yu Shi

text: 's

text: Gujin xingsheng zhi tu

text: (1555) or

text: Zhang Huang

text: 's

text: Tushu bian

text: (1613); instead, illustrations and annotations show mythical places, exotic foreign peoples, administrative changes and the deeds of historic and legendary heroes. Also in the 17th century, an edition of a possible Tang Dynasty map shows clear topographical

text: contour lines

text: . Although

text: topographic

text: features were part of maps in China for centuries, a

text: Fujian

text: county official

text: Ye Chunji

text: (1532–1595) was the first to base county maps using on-site topographical

text: surveying

text: and observations.

text: [[File:Lake Superior bathymetry map.png|thumb|240px|Lake Superior bathymetric map. The deepest point, roughly off its southeastern shore, is marked with "×". The deep trenches in its eastern part may have originated from tunnel valleys.]]

text: [[File:Lake Superior bathymetry map.png|thumb|240px|Lake Superior

text: bathymetric map

text: . The deepest point, roughly off its southeastern shore, is marked with "×". The deep trenches in its eastern part may have originated from

text: tunnel valley

text: s.]]

text: Line weight is simply the darkness or thickness of the line used.  This choice is made based upon the least intrusive form of contours that enable the reader to decipher the background information in the map itself.  If there is little or no content on the base map, the contour lines may be drawn with relatively heavy thickness.  Also, for many forms of contours such as topographic maps, it is common to vary the line weight and/or color, so that a different line characteristic occurs for certain numerical values. For example, in the topographic map above, the even hundred foot elevations are shown in a different weight from the twenty foot intervals.

text: Line weight is simply the darkness or thickness of the line used.  This choice is made based upon the least intrusive form of contours that enable the reader to decipher the background information in the map itself.  If there is little or no content on the base map, the contour lines may be drawn with relatively heavy thickness.  Also, for many forms of contours such as topographic maps, it is common to vary the line weight and/or color, so that a different line characteristic occurs for certain numerical values. For example, in the

text: topographic

text: map above, the even hundred foot elevations are shown in a different weight from the twenty foot intervals.

text: TopoZone was one of the first topographic mapping site on the web, providing visitors with free viewing and printing of the full set of United States Geological Survey topographic maps covering the entire United States. The maps are produced by the USGS, which encourages the distribution of their maps through business partners.  TopoZone offered aerial photographs from the USGS and street maps from the United States Census Bureau.  In 2007 complete coverage of Canada was added, using the topographic map series produced by Natural Resources Canada.

text: TopoZone was one of the first topographic mapping site on the web, providing visitors with free viewing and printing of the full set of

text: United States Geological Survey

text: topographic maps

text: covering the entire

text: United States

text: . The maps are produced by the

text: USGS

text: , which encourages the distribution of their maps through business partners.  TopoZone offered aerial photographs from the

text: USGS

text: and street maps from the

text: United States Census Bureau

text: .  In 2007 complete coverage of

text: Canada

text: was added, using the topographic map series produced by

text: Natural Resources Canada

text: He was a native of Guangdong province and served as a county official of Huian County in Fujian province. Although topographic features were part of maps in China for centuries, Ye was the first to base county maps on on-site topographical surveying and observations. His career was sidelined for seventeen years after he became a victim of political vengeance. He came up with a model of county commerce with goods of greatest, great, and lesser importance—the latter being non-subsistence surplus goods that could be traded out of the county for commercial profit.

text: He was a native of

text: Guangdong

text: province and served as a county official of Huian County in

text: Fujian

text: province. Although

text: topographic

text: features were part of

text: maps in China for centuries

text: , Ye was the first to base county maps on on-site topographical

text: surveying

text: and observations. His career was sidelined for seventeen years after he became a victim of political vengeance. He came up with a model of county commerce with goods of greatest, great, and lesser importance—the latter being non-subsistence surplus goods that could be traded out of the county for commercial profit.

text: AMS was redesignated the U.S. Army Topographic Command (USATC) on September 1, 1968 and continued as an independent organization until 1972, when it was merged into the new Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) and redesignated as the DMA Topographic Center (DMATC).

text: AMS was redesignated the U.S.

text: Army Topographic Command

text: (USATC) on September 1, 1968 and continued as an independent organization until 1972, when it was merged into the new

text: Defense Mapping Agency

text: (DMA) and redesignated as the DMA Topographic Center (DMATC).

text: There are also eight township roads in Poyntelle. Three of them are entirely located within the village: Czapnik Road (designated Township Road 571, or T571), which connects to both Cribbs and South Preston; Poyntelle Road (T722), which connects to Crosstown, Cribbs, and South Preston; and Lake Lorain Road (T729; referred to as "Lorain Road" on the United States Geological Survey (USGS)  Orson Quadrangle topographic map, which includes Poyntelle), which connects to just Crosstown. The other five cross into other villages: Paluch Road (T567; the USGS map says "Poluch Road"), which connects to Cribbs; Clark Road (T579), which connects to Crosstown; Dix Road (T594; referred to as "North Road" on the PennDOT General Highway Map for Wayne County), which connects to Paluch; Spruce Lake Road (T688), which connects to Crosstown and Clark; and O & W Road (T727; the USGS map says "Old State Road"), which connects to Cribbs and Poyntelle. Like many township roads in the state, Paluch, Czapnik, Clark, Dix, Spruce Lake, Poyntelle, O & W, and Lake Lorain are all unpaved.

text: There are also eight

text: township roads

text: in Poyntelle. Three of them are entirely located within the village: Czapnik Road (designated Township Road 571, or T571), which connects to both Cribbs and South Preston; Poyntelle Road (T722), which connects to Crosstown, Cribbs, and South Preston; and Lake Lorain Road (T729; referred to as "Lorain Road" on the

text: United States Geological Survey (USGS)

text: Orson

text: Quadrangle

text: topographic

text: map, which includes Poyntelle), which connects to just Crosstown. The other five cross into other villages: Paluch Road (T567; the USGS map says "Poluch Road"), which connects to Cribbs; Clark Road (T579), which connects to Crosstown; Dix Road (T594; referred to as "North Road" on the PennDOT General Highway Map for Wayne County), which connects to Paluch; Spruce Lake Road (T688), which connects to Crosstown and Clark; and O & W Road (T727; the USGS map says "Old State Road"), which connects to Cribbs and Poyntelle. Like many township roads in the state, Paluch, Czapnik, Clark, Dix, Spruce Lake, Poyntelle, O & W, and Lake Lorain are all

text: unpaved

text: Given a set of intervals I = {I, I, ... , I}, let OPT(I) be any optimal solution of the interval scheduling problem, and let EFT(I) be the solution of the earliest finishing time algorithm. For any interval J ∈ OPT(I), define h(J) as the interval J' ∈ EFT(I) that intersects J with the earliest finishing time amongst all intervals in EFT(I) intersecting J.  To show that the earliest finish time algorithm is optimal using the charging argument, h must be shown to be a one-to-one function mapping intervals in OPT(I) to those in EFT(I). Suppose J is an arbitrary interval in OPT(I).

text: The database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited. Variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier. The database never removes an entry, "except in cases of obvious duplication."

text: Numerical marking is the manner of denoting the arithmetical values of contour lines.  This can be done by placing numbers along some of the contour lines, typically using interpolation for intervening lines. Alternatively a map key can be produced associating the contours with their values.

text: Numerical marking is the manner of denoting the

text: arithmetic

text: al values of contour lines.  This can be done by placing numbers along some of the contour lines, typically using

text: interpolation

text: for intervening lines. Alternatively a map key can be produced associating the contours with their values.

text: Older relief maps often show heights above the old reference planes. Current maps by the federal survey authorities are based on NHN. At the beginning of 2013 most of the federal states (except Berlin, Thuringia and Saxony-Anhalt) had complete coverage by the new digital topographic mapping at 1:25,000 scale (DTK). Not all the maps have appeared in print yet. On the DTK25 maps, NHN is used for elevations, however, on the DTK25-V scanned topographic maps Höhennull (HN) and Normalnull (NN) are still being used.

text: Older

text: relief map

text: s often show heights above the old reference planes. Current maps by the federal survey authorities are based on NHN. At the beginning of 2013 most of the federal states (except Berlin, Thuringia and Saxony-Anhalt) had complete coverage by the new digital topographic mapping at 1:25,000 scale (DTK). Not all the maps have appeared in print yet. On the DTK25 maps, NHN is used for elevations, however, on the DTK25-V scanned topographic maps

text: Höhennull

text: (HN) and

text: Normalnull

text: (NN) are still being used.

text: The USGS produces several national series of topographic maps which vary in scale and extent, with some wide gaps in coverage, notably the complete absence of 1:50,000 scale topographic maps or their equivalent. The largest (both in terms of scale and quantity) and best-known topographic series is the 7.5-minute, 1:24,000 scale, quadrangle, a non-metric scale virtually unique to the United States. Each of these maps covers an area bounded by two lines of latitude and two lines of longitude spaced 7.5 minutes apart. Nearly 57,000 individual maps in this series cover the 48 contiguous states, Hawaii, U.S. territories, and areas of Alaska near Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Prudhoe Bay. The area covered by each map varies with the latitude of its represented location due to convergence of the meridians. At lower latitudes, near 30° north, a 7.5-minute quadrangle contains an area of about . At 49° north latitude,  are contained within a quadrangle of that size. As a unique non-metric map scale, the 1:24,000 scale naturally requires a separate and specialized romer scale for plotting map positions. In recent years, budget constraints have forced the USGS to rely on donations of time by civilian volunteers in an attempt to update its 7.5-minute topographic map series, and USGS stated outright in 2000 that the program was to be phased out in favor of The National Map (not to be confused with the National Atlas of the United States produced by the Department of the Interior, one of whose bureaus is USGS).

text: The USGS produces several national series of

text: topographic maps

text: which vary in

text: scale

text: and extent, with some wide gaps in coverage, notably the complete absence of 1:50,000 scale topographic maps or their equivalent. The largest (both in terms of scale and quantity) and best-known topographic series is the 7.5-minute, 1:24,000 scale,

text: quadrangle

text: , a non-metric scale virtually unique to the United States. Each of these maps covers an area bounded by two lines of

text: latitude

text: and two lines of

text: longitude

text: spaced 7.5

text: minutes

text: apart. Nearly 57,000 individual maps in this series cover the

text: 48 contiguous states

text: Hawaii

text: U.S. territories

text: , and areas of

text: Alaska

text: near Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Prudhoe Bay. The area covered by each map varies with the latitude of its represented location due to convergence of the meridians. At lower latitudes, near 30° north, a 7.5-minute quadrangle contains an area of about . At 49° north latitude,  are contained within a quadrangle of that size. As a unique non-metric map scale, the 1:24,000 scale naturally requires a separate and specialized

text: romer

text: scale for plotting map positions. In recent years, budget constraints have forced the USGS to rely on donations of time by civilian volunteers in an attempt to update its 7.5-minute topographic map series, and USGS stated outright in 2000 that the program was to be phased out in favor of

text: The National Map

text: (not to be confused with the

text: National Atlas of the United States

text: produced by the

text: Department of the Interior

text: , one of whose bureaus is USGS).

text: Stratigraphic contour lines may be used to illustrate the surface of a selected stratum illustrating the subsurface topographic trends of the strata. Isopach maps detail the variations in thickness of stratigraphic units. It is not always possible to properly show this when the strata are extremely fractured, mixed, in some discontinuities, or where they are otherwise disturbed.

text: Stratigraphic

text: contour line

text: s may be used to illustrate the surface of a selected

text: stratum

text: illustrating the subsurface

text: topographic

text: trends of the strata.

text: Isopach map

text: s detail the variations in thickness of stratigraphic units. It is not always possible to properly show this when the strata are extremely fractured, mixed, in some discontinuities, or where they are otherwise disturbed.

text: The United States Geological Survey (USGS), a civilian federal agency, produces several national series of topographic maps which vary in scale and extent, with some wide gaps in coverage, notably the complete absence of 1:50,000 scale topographic maps or their equivalent. The largest (both in terms of scale and quantity) and best-known topographic series is the 7.5-minute or 1:24,000 quadrangle. This scale is unique to the United States, where nearly every other developed nation has introduced a metric 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 large scale topo map.  The USGS also publishes 1:100,000 maps covering 30 minutes latitude by one degree longitude, 1:250,000 covering one by two degrees, and state maps at 1:500,000 with California, Michigan and Montana needing two sheets while Texas has four. Alaska is mapped on a single sheet, at scales ranging from 1:1,584,000 to 1:12,000,000.

text: The

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS), a civilian federal agency, produces several national series of topographic maps which vary in scale and extent, with some wide gaps in coverage, notably the complete absence of 1:50,000 scale topographic maps or their equivalent. The largest (both in terms of scale and quantity) and best-known topographic series is the 7.5-minute or 1:24,000

text: quadrangle

text: . This scale is unique to the United States, where nearly every other developed nation has introduced a metric 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 large scale topo map.  The USGS also publishes 1:100,000 maps covering 30 minutes latitude by one degree longitude, 1:250,000 covering one by two degrees, and state maps at 1:500,000 with

text: California

text: Michigan

text: and

text: Montana

text: needing two sheets while

text: Texas

text: has four.

text: Alaska

text: is mapped on a single sheet, at scales ranging from 1:1,584,000 to 1:12,000,000.

text: In the earliest days, contoured electron density maps were hand drawn on large plastic sheets.  Sometimes, bingo chips were placed on the plastic sheets where atoms were interpreted to be.

text: In the earliest days, contoured electron density maps were hand drawn on large plastic sheets.  Sometimes,

text: bingo chip

text: s were placed on the plastic sheets where atoms were interpreted to be.

text: To maximize readability of contour maps, there are several design choices available to the map creator, principally line weight, line color, line type and method of numerical marking.

text: To maximize readability of contour maps, there are several design choices available to the map creator, principally line weight, line

text: color

text: , line type and method of numerical marking.

text: In the early days of orienteering, competitors used whatever maps were available; these were typically topographic maps from the national mapping agency. While national mapping agencies update their topographic maps on a regular basis, they are usually not sufficiently up to date for orienteering purposes. Gradually, specially drawn maps have been provided to meet the specific requirements of orienteering.

text: Since 1991, the peninsula has been investigated by the team of ETH Zürich geologically and cartographically.  From this, a topographical map of the entire peninsula at a scale of 1:25,000 was made.  An interactive 3D map was created and is on the World Wide Web. Also a rich photographic archive with about 10.000 color slides has been produced (see links below).

text: Since 1991, the peninsula has been investigated by the team of

text: ETH Zürich

text: geologically and cartographically.  From this, a topographical map of the entire peninsula at a scale of 1:25,000 was made.  An interactive 3D map was created and is on the World Wide Web. Also a rich photographic archive with about 10.000 color slides has been produced (see links below).

text: The United States Geological Survey's (USGS) most recent topographic maps identify the tip of the peninsula that contains Fort McNair as "Greenleaf Point". The USGS maps also identify a lesser point to the northeast of Greenleaf Point as "Buzzard Point". (James Creek, which was excavated in the 19th century to become a branch of the [now defunct] Washington City Canal, once separated these two points. Its name persists in the present day James Creek Marina, located between the two named points. In early days, James Creek was also known as St. James Creek.)

text: The

text: United States Geological Survey

text: 's (USGS) most recent topographic maps identify the tip of the peninsula that contains Fort McNair as "Greenleaf Point". The USGS maps also identify a lesser point to the northeast of Greenleaf Point as "Buzzard Point". (James Creek, which was excavated in the 19th century to become a branch of the [now defunct]

text: Washington City Canal

text: , once separated these two points. Its name persists in the present day

text: James Creek Marina

text: , located between the two named points. In early days, James Creek was also known as St. James Creek.)

text: Many of the features will be shown by straight, curved, dashed, or solid lines. They may also be colored to represent different classes of information. The typical color standard for topographic maps depicts contours in brown, bodies of water in blue, boundaries in black, and grids and roads in red. Topographic maps may use different colors to represent area features. Most topographic maps will use green for vegetation or national parks and wildlife management areas. They will also use blue for rivers, lakes, or other bodies of water. Red may also be used to represent areas of significant importance.

text: Many of the features will be shown by straight, curved, dashed, or solid lines. They may also be colored to represent different classes of information. The typical color standard for topographic maps depicts contours in brown, bodies of water in blue, boundaries in black, and grids and roads in red. Topographic maps may use different colors to represent

text: area features

text: . Most topographic maps will use green for vegetation or national parks and wildlife management areas. They will also use blue for rivers, lakes, or other bodies of water. Red may also be used to represent areas of significant importance.

text: When maps with contour lines became common, the idea spread to other applications. Perhaps the latest to develop are air quality and noise pollution contour maps, which first appeared in the US, in approximately 1970, largely as a result of national legislation requiring spatial delineation of these parameters. In 2007, Pictometry International was the first to allow users to dynamically generate elevation contour lines to be laid over oblique images.

text: When maps with contour lines became common, the idea spread to other applications. Perhaps the latest to develop are

text: air quality

text: and

text: noise pollution

text: contour maps, which first appeared in the

text: US

text: , in approximately 1970, largely as a result of national legislation requiring spatial delineation of these parameters. In 2007,

text: Pictometry International

text: was the first to allow users to dynamically generate elevation contour lines to be laid over oblique images.

text: In many locations within the brain, adjacent neurons have receptive fields that include slightly different, but overlapping portions of the visual field. The position of the center of these receptive fields forms an orderly sampling mosaic that covers a portion of the visual field. Because of this orderly arrangement, which emerges from the spatial specificity of connections between neurons in different parts of the visual system, cells in each structure can be seen as contributing to a map of the visual field (also called a retinotopic map, or a visuotopic map). Retinotopic maps are a particular case of topographic organization. Many brain structures that are responsive to visual input, including much of the visual cortex and visual nuclei of the brain stem (such as the superior colliculus) and thalamus (such as the lateral geniculate nucleus and the pulvinar), are organized into retinotopic maps, also called visual field maps.

text: In many locations within the brain, adjacent

text: neuron

text: s have

text: receptive fields

text: that include slightly different, but overlapping portions of the

text: visual field

text: . The position of the center of these receptive fields forms an orderly sampling mosaic that covers a portion of the visual field. Because of this orderly arrangement, which emerges from the spatial specificity of connections between neurons in different parts of the visual system, cells in each structure can be seen as contributing to a map of the visual field (also called a retinotopic map, or a visuotopic map). Retinotopic maps are a particular case of

text: topographic

text: organization. Many brain structures that are responsive to visual input, including much of the

text: visual cortex

text: and visual

text: nuclei

text: of the

text: brain stem

text: (such as the

text: superior colliculus

text: ) and

text: thalamus

text: (such as the

text: lateral geniculate nucleus

text: and the

text: pulvinar

text: ), are organized into retinotopic maps, also called visual field maps.

text: These large-scale maps are the basis for maps at smaller scales.  Maps at scales 1:4,000,000 or smaller are exported by  Cartographic Publishing House, Beijing while larger-scale maps are restricted as state secrets, and prohibited from publishing by legislation, all except Hong Kong and Macau.  China's topographic maps follow the international system of subdivision with 1:100,000 maps spanning 30 minutes longitude by 20 minutes latitude.

text: These large-scale maps are the basis for maps at smaller scales.  Maps at scales 1:4,000,000 or smaller are exported by  Cartographic Publishing House, Beijing while larger-scale maps are restricted as state secrets, and prohibited from publishing by legislation, all except Hong Kong and Macau.  China's topographic maps follow the

text: international system of subdivision

text: with 1:100,000 maps spanning 30 minutes longitude by 20 minutes latitude.

text: This route can be traced on topographical maps overprinted with the ancient route, in G. Castellve, J.-B. Compsa, J. Kotarba and A. Pezin, eds. Voies romaines du Rhône à l'Èbre: Via Domitia et Via Augusta (DAF 61) Paris 1997.

text: Topographic maps are based on the Ordnance Survey Oxford Cartographers. The most commonly used Map projection is that of Eckert (the Pseudo-cylindrical projection). The show also uses satellite imagery from Google Earth and the first use was in the episode named: "Nigeria, rich state poor country."

text: Topographic maps are based on the Ordnance Survey Oxford Cartographers. The most commonly used

text: Map projection

text: is that of Eckert (the

text: Pseudo-cylindrical projection

text: ). The show also uses satellite imagery from

text: Google Earth

text: and the first use was in the episode named: "

text: Nigeria

text: , rich state poor country."

text: A topographic profile is a cross sectional view along a line drawn through a portion of a topographic map.  In other words, if you could slice through a portion of the earth, pull away one portion, and  look at it from the side, the surface would be a topographic profile.

text: A topographic profile is a

text: cross sectional

text: view along a line drawn through a portion of a

text: topographic map

text: .  In other words, if you could slice through a portion of the earth, pull away one portion, and  look at it from the side, the surface would be a topographic profile.

text: A number of people mapped and commented on the region before the loss of the terraces. Dr Ferdinand von Hochstetter carried out a topographic and geological survey of the Lake Rotomahana area in 1859, producing his Geographic and Geological survey. This gave enough data to form the first map of the area and to suggest how the terraces had been formed.

text: About half of the region was beyond the terminator during the three Mariner 10 encounters and hence not visible. The entire mapped area was covered by near-vertical photography from the second encounter, and the eastern part, from longitude 15° to about 110°, was covered by oblique photography from the first encounter. No third-encounter images were acquired. The entire visible area may be viewed stereoscopically by combining images from the first and second encounters taken at different viewing angles or by combining second-encounter images of the same area taken at different viewing angles. These combinations provided excellent qualitative control of topographic relief and a good quantitative photogrammetric base. However, sun-elevation angles of the images are limited to less than 25°, and image resolutions are no higher than about 0.5 km per picture element. Therefore, the south polar geologic map reflects mostly large-scale processes and topographic information, whereas other mercurian quadrangle maps benefit from greater albedo discrimination and, in some cases, higher resolution.

text: About half of the region was beyond the

text: terminator

text: during the three

text: Mariner 10

text: encounters and hence not visible. The entire mapped area was covered by near-vertical photography from the second encounter, and the eastern part, from longitude 15° to about 110°, was covered by oblique photography from the first encounter. No third-encounter images were acquired. The entire visible area may be viewed

text: stereoscopically

text: by combining images from the first and second encounters taken at different viewing angles or by combining second-encounter images of the same area taken at different viewing angles. These combinations provided excellent qualitative control of topographic relief and a good quantitative photogrammetric base. However, sun-elevation angles of the images are limited to less than 25°, and image resolutions are no higher than about 0.5 km per picture element. Therefore, the south polar

text: geologic map

text: reflects mostly large-scale processes and topographic information, whereas other mercurian quadrangle maps benefit from greater

text: albedo

text: discrimination and, in some cases, higher resolution.

text: Such maps are used in town planning, in the insurance industry, and by individuals who want to avoid moving into a home at risk of flooding or to know how to protect their property. FIRMs are used to set rates of insurance against risk of flood and whether buildings are insurable at all against flood.  It is similar to a topographic map, but is designed to show floodplains. Towns and municipalities use FIRMs to plan zoning areas.  Most places will not allow construction in a flood way.

text: Such maps are used in

text: town planning

text: , in the insurance industry, and by individuals who want to avoid moving into a home at risk of flooding or to know how to protect their property. FIRMs are used to set rates of insurance against risk of flood and whether buildings are insurable at all against flood.  It is similar to a

text: topographic

text: map, but is designed to show floodplains. Towns and municipalities use FIRMs to plan zoning areas.  Most places will not allow construction in a flood way.

text: The name was noted by the United States Geological Survey on 1948 and 1962 topographical maps of the Juneau area, but it was removed prior to the latter edition's publication.  It later appeared on a 1997 USGS map.  It was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on March 31, 1981.

text: The name was noted by the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: on 1948 and 1962 topographical maps of the Juneau area, but it was removed prior to the latter edition's publication.  It later appeared on a 1997 USGS map.  It was entered into the

text: Geographic Names Information System

text: on March 31, 1981.

text: An interval may overlap the center point of several nodes in the tree. Since each node stores the intervals that overlap it, with all intervals completely to the left of its center point in the left subtree, similarly for the right subtree, it follows that each interval is stored in the node closest to the root from the set of nodes whose center point it overlaps.

text: Topographic map image of Arnhem (city), September 2014.

text: The geologic map of Georgia (a state within the United States) is a special-purpose map made to show geological features. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by colors or symbols to indicate where they are exposed at the surface. Structural features such as faults and shear zones are also shown. Since the first national geological map, in 1809, there have been numerous maps which included the geology of Georgia. The first Georgia specific geologic map was created in 1825. The most recent state-produced geologic map of Georgia, by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources is 1:500,000 scale, and was created in 1976 by the department's Georgia Geological Survey. It was generated from a base map produced by the United States Geological Survey. The state geologist and Director of the Geological Survey of Georgia was Sam M. Pickering, Jr. Since 1976, several geological maps of Georgia, featuring the state's five distinct geologic regions, have been produced by the federal government.

text: The geologic map of Georgia (a state within the United States) is a special-purpose

text: map

text: made to show

text: geological

text: features.

text: Rock

text: units or

text: geologic strata

text: are shown by colors or symbols to indicate where they are exposed at the surface. Structural features such as

text: faults

text: and

text: shear zones

text: are also shown. Since the first national geological map, in 1809, there have been numerous maps which included the geology of Georgia. The first Georgia specific geologic map was created in 1825. The most recent state-produced geologic map of Georgia, by the

text: Georgia Department of Natural Resources

text: is 1:500,000 scale, and was created in 1976 by the department's Georgia Geological Survey. It was generated from a base map produced by the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: . The state geologist and Director of the Geological Survey of Georgia was Sam M. Pickering, Jr. Since 1976, several geological maps of Georgia, featuring the state's five distinct geologic regions, have been produced by the federal government.

text: In addition to the seven maps on wooden blocks found at Tomb 1 of Fangmatan, a fragment of a paper map (5.6 × 2.6 cm) was found on the chest of the occupant of Tomb 5 of Fangmatan in 1986. This tomb is dated to the early Western Han dynasty, so the map dates to the early 2nd century BC. The map shows topographic features such as mountains, waterways and roads, and is believed to cover the Qin state of the Warring States period.

text: In addition to the seven maps on wooden blocks found at Tomb 1 of Fangmatan, a fragment of a paper map (5.6 × 2.6 cm) was found on the chest of the occupant of Tomb 5 of Fangmatan in 1986. This tomb is dated to the early

text: Western Han dynasty

text: , so the map dates to the early 2nd century BC. The map shows topographic features such as mountains, waterways and roads, and is believed to cover the

text: Qin state

text: of the Warring States period.

text: This phenomenon is also inherent in calculating the sound levels from aircraft noise, so that an accurate determination of topographic features may be understood.  In that way one can produce sound level isopleths, or contour maps, which faithfully depict outcomes over variable terrain.

text: This phenomenon is also inherent in calculating the sound levels from

text: aircraft noise

text: , so that an accurate determination of topographic features may be understood.  In that way one can produce sound level

text: isopleth

text: s, or contour maps, which faithfully depict outcomes over variable terrain.

text: High-resolution surface textures are available for most solar system bodies, including Virtual Textures with complete coverage up to 32768 pixels wide (1.25 km/pixel at the Earth's equator), with selected coverage at higher resolutions. This allows very close views of the Earth, Mars, and the Moon. Many 3D models of historical and existing spacecraft are available flying in reasonably accurate trajectories, from Sputnik 1 and Voyager 2 to the Hubble Space Telescope and International Space Station, as are extended data plots for stars (2 million with correct spatial coordinates). DSOs (nebulae, galaxies, open clusters, etc.), as well as catalogues of thousands of asteroids and comets, and more than 96,000 locations on the Earth can be drawn by the program. Add-ons also include extensive space objects such as red and blue supergiants, red and brown dwarfs, neutron stars, spinning pulsars, rotating black holes with accretion disks, protostars, star nursery nebula, supernova and planetary nebulae, galactic redshifts, geological planetary displays (e.g. 3D interiors, topographic and bathymetric maps, ice age simulations), planetary aurorae, rotating magnetic fields, animated solar flares and prominences, 3D craters and mountains, and historic collision events. All can be visited via the Celestia travel interface. All stages in the life cycle of stars are available, from protostar to black dwarf.

text: High-resolution surface textures are available for most solar system bodies, including Virtual Textures with complete coverage up to 32768 pixels wide (1.25 km/pixel at the Earth's equator), with selected coverage at higher resolutions. This allows very close views of the Earth, Mars, and the Moon. Many 3D models of historical and existing spacecraft are available flying in reasonably accurate trajectories, from

text: Sputnik 1

text: and

text: Voyager 2

text: to the

text: Hubble Space Telescope

text: and

text: International Space Station

text: , as are extended

text: data plot

text: s for stars (2 million with correct spatial coordinates).

text: DSO

text: s (nebulae, galaxies,

text: open cluster

text: s, etc.), as well as catalogues of thousands of asteroids and comets, and more than 96,000 locations on the Earth can be drawn by the program. Add-ons also include extensive space objects such as red and blue supergiants, red and brown dwarfs, neutron stars, spinning pulsars, rotating black holes with accretion disks, protostars, star nursery nebula, supernova and planetary nebulae, galactic redshifts, geological planetary displays (e.g. 3D interiors, topographic and

text: bathymetric

text: maps, ice age simulations),

text: planetary aurorae

text: , rotating magnetic fields, animated

text: solar flare

text: s and

text: prominence

text: s, 3D craters and mountains, and historic collision events. All can be visited via the Celestia travel interface. All stages in the life cycle of stars are available, from

text: protostar

text: to

text: black dwarf

text: Topographic map of the municipality of Alphen-Chaam, Sept. 2014.

text: Today, topographic maps are prepared using photogrammetric interpretation of aerial photography, lidar and other Remote sensing techniques. Older topographic maps were prepared using traditional surveying instruments.

text: Today, topographic maps are prepared using

text: photogrammetric

text: interpretation of

text: aerial photography

text: lidar

text: and other

text: Remote sensing

text: techniques. Older topographic maps were prepared using traditional

text: surveying

text: instruments.

text: The self-organizing map (SOM, also called Kohonen map) and its probabilistic variant generative topographic mapping (GTM) use a point representation in the embedded space to form a latent variable model based on a non-linear mapping from the embedded space to the high-dimensional space. These techniques are related to work on density networks, which also are based around the same probabilistic model.

text: The

text: self-organizing map

text: (SOM, also called Kohonen map) and its probabilistic variant

text: generative topographic mapping

text: (GTM) use a point representation in the embedded space to form a

text: latent variable model

text: based on a non-linear mapping from the embedded space to the high-dimensional space. These techniques are related to work on

text: density networks

text: , which also are based around the same probabilistic model.

text: The Commission published the first Bulgarian topographic map of Livingston Island and Greenwich Island in 2005, and jointly with the Military Topographic Service of the Bulgarian Army, the first detailed topographic map of Smith Island in 2008.

text: The Commission published the first Bulgarian topographic map of

text: Livingston Island

text: and

text: Greenwich Island

text: in 2005, and jointly with the Military Topographic Service of the Bulgarian Army, the first detailed topographic map of

text: Smith Island

text: in 2008.

text: His art career was interrupted when he entered into the United States Army in 1941. He did not paint again until he returned to New Mexico in 1945.  In the U.S. Army, he worked with topographic maps.

text: All elevations use the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88), the currently accepted vertical control datum for United States, Canada and Mexico. Elevations are from the National Geodetic Survey when available. Others are from the United States Geological Survey topographic maps when available. Elevations followed by a plus sign (+) were interpolated using topographic map contour lines. The true elevation is between that shown and the elevation plus forty feet since the relevant topographic maps all use 40-foot contours.

text: All elevations use the

text: North American Vertical Datum of 1988

text: (NAVD88), the currently accepted vertical control datum for United States, Canada and Mexico. Elevations are from the

text: National Geodetic Survey

text: when available. Others are from the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: topographic maps

text: when available. Elevations followed by a plus sign (+) were interpolated using topographic map

text: contour lines

text: . The true elevation is between that shown and the elevation plus forty feet since the relevant topographic maps all use 40-foot contours.

text: Sacca Sessola loosely translated as "Scoop Bag" (also not correctly named as "Isola delle Rose" or "Island of Roses" by the hotel which is located in that area, for unnecessary marketing reasons: it is not a name recognized by the Venetians, and on topographical maps) is an island in the Venetian Lagoon, northern Italy.

text: Sacca Sessola loosely translated as "Scoop Bag" (also not correctly named as "Isola delle Rose" or "Island of Roses" by the hotel which is located in that area, for unnecessary marketing reasons: it is not a name recognized by the Venetians, and on topographical maps) is an island in the

text: Venetian Lagoon

text: , northern

text: Italy

text: On maps produced by Swisstopo, the color of the contour lines is used to indicate the type of ground: black for bare rock and scree, blue for ice and underwater contours, brown for earth-covered ground.

text: On maps produced by

text: Swisstopo

text: , the color of the contour lines is used to indicate the type of ground: black for bare rock and

text: scree

text: , blue for ice and underwater contours, brown for earth-covered ground.

text: We fix the interpolation nodes x, ..., x and an interval [a, b] containing all the interpolation nodes. The process of interpolation maps the function f to a polynomial p. This defines a mapping X from the space C([a, b]) of all continuous functions on [a, b] to itself. The map X is linear and it is a projection on the subspace  of polynomials of degree  or less.

text: We fix the interpolation nodes x, ..., x and an

text: interval

text: [a, b] containing all the interpolation nodes. The process of interpolation maps the function f to a polynomial p. This defines a mapping X from the space C([a, b]) of all continuous functions on [a, b] to itself. The map X is linear and it is a

text: projection

text: on the subspace  of polynomials of degree  or less.

text: The Survey has provided orthoimagery and digital topographic data derived from lidar through the PAMAP program. The Survey provides oil and gas well information through PA*IRIS. BTGS participates in federally funded StateMap program to produce 1:24000 geological maps.

text: The spatial data used in the new maps is Vicmap Topographic data, which includes Vicmap Digital Framework Datasets along with other key government datasets. Vicmap data is the authoritative spatial data for the State of Victoria and is the foundation of Victoria's primary mapping and geographic information systems. The features depicted in Vicmap Topographic maps include both natural features, such as watercourses, contours, cliffs and tree cover, and constructed features, such as drains, gates, roads and shipwrecks. The traditional 1:25,000 printed topographic maps have been used as a benchmark for the new Vicmap Topographic products. Hence the new series replicates the features and associated symbology as depicted on the old maps.

text: Aerial photography is used in cartography (particularly in photogrammetric surveys, which are often the basis for topographic maps), land-use planning, archaeology, movie production, environmental studies, power line inspection, surveillance, commercial advertising, conveyancing, and artistic projects. An example of how aerial photography is used in the field of archaeology is the mapping project done at the site Angkor Borei in Cambodia from 1995-1996. Using aerial photography, archaeologists were able to identify archaeological features, including 112 water features (reservoirs, artificially constructed pools and natural ponds) within the walled site of Angkor Borei. In the United States, aerial photographs are used in many Phase I Environmental Site Assessments for property analysis.

text: Aerial photography is used in

text: cartography

text: (particularly in

text: photogrammetric

text: surveys

text: , which are often the basis for

text: topographic maps

text: ), land-use planning,

text: archaeology

text: movie production

text: environmental

text: studies,

text: power line

text: inspection,

text: surveillance

text: , commercial advertising,

text: conveyancing

text: , and artistic projects. An example of how aerial photography is used in the field of archaeology is the mapping project done at the site Angkor Borei in Cambodia from 1995-1996. Using aerial photography, archaeologists were able to identify archaeological features, including 112 water features (reservoirs, artificially constructed pools and natural ponds) within the walled site of Angkor Borei. In the United States, aerial photographs are used in many

text: Phase I Environmental Site Assessment

text: s for property analysis.

text: Lyddan Island is an ice-covered island located at the southwestern extremity of the Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf, separating it from the Brunt Ice Shelf, about  off the Princess Martha Coast of Antarctica. It is about  long and has three narrow arms in the form of a trefoil. It was discovered and plotted by W.R. MacDonald on November 5, 1967, in the course of a U.S. Navy Squadron VXE-6 reconnaissance flight over the coast in LC-130 aircraft, and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Robert H. Lyddan, Chief Topographic Engineer of the United States Geological Survey, who had been active in the planning and supervision of Antarctic mapping operations since the 1950s.

text: Lyddan Island is an ice-covered island located at the southwestern extremity of the

text: Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf

text: , separating it from the

text: Brunt Ice Shelf

text: , about  off the

text: Princess Martha Coast

text: of Antarctica. It is about  long and has three narrow arms in the form of a trefoil. It was discovered and plotted by

text: W.R. MacDonald

text: on November 5, 1967, in the course of a U.S. Navy Squadron

text: reconnaissance flight over the coast in

text: aircraft, and was named by the

text: Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names

text: for

text: Robert H. Lyddan

text: , Chief Topographic Engineer of the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: , who had been active in the planning and supervision of Antarctic mapping operations since the 1950s.

text: The earliest geologic map of the modern era is the 1771 "Map of Part of Auvergne, or figures of, The Current of Lava in which Prisms, Balls, Etc. are Made from Basalt.  To be used with Mr. Demarest's theories of this hard basalt.  Engraved by Messr. Pasumot and Daily, Geological Engineers of the King."  This map is based on Nicolas Desmarest's 1768 detailed study of the geology and eruptive history of the Auvergne volcanoes and a comparison with the columns of the Giant's Causeway of Ireland.  He identified both landmarks as features of extinct volcanoes.  The 1798 report was incorporated in the 1771 (French) Royal Academy of Science compendium.

text: The earliest geologic map of the modern era is the 1771 "Map of Part of Auvergne, or figures of, The Current of Lava in which Prisms, Balls, Etc. are Made from Basalt.  To be used with Mr. Demarest's theories of this hard basalt.  Engraved by Messr. Pasumot and Daily, Geological Engineers of the King."  This map is based on

text: Nicolas Desmarest

text: 's 1768 detailed study of the geology and eruptive history of the

text: Auvergne

text: volcanoes and a comparison with the columns of the

text: Giant's Causeway

text: of Ireland.  He identified both landmarks as features of extinct volcanoes.  The 1798 report was incorporated in the 1771 (French) Royal Academy of Science compendium.

text: Existing topographic survey maps, because of their comprehensive and encyclopedic coverage, form the basis for much derived topographic work. Digital Elevation Models, for example, have often been created not from new remote sensing data but from existing paper topographic maps. Many government and private publishers use the artwork (especially the contour lines) from existing topographic map sheets as the basis for their own specialized or updated topographic maps.

text: Labels are a critical component of elevation maps. A properly labeled contour map helps the reader to quickly interpret the shape of the terrain. If numbers are placed close to each other, it means that the terrain is steep. Labels should be placed along a slightly curved line "pointing" to the summit or nadir, from several directions if possible, making the visual identification of the summit or nadir easy. Contour labels can be oriented so a reader is facing uphill when reading the label.

text: Labels

text: are a critical component of elevation maps. A properly labeled contour map helps the reader to quickly interpret the shape of the terrain. If numbers are placed close to each other, it means that the terrain is steep. Labels should be placed along a slightly curved line "pointing" to the summit or nadir, from several directions if possible, making the visual identification of the summit or nadir easy. Contour labels can be oriented so a reader is facing uphill when reading the label.

text: These maps are much more detailed than general-purpose topographic maps, and incorporate a standard symbology that is designed to be useful to anyone, regardless of native language. In addition to indicating the topography of the terrain with contour lines, orienteering maps also show forest density, water features, clearings, trails and roads, earthen banks and rock walls, ditches, wells and pits, fences and power lines, buildings, boulders, and other features of the terrain. Orienteering maps are 1:15 000 or 1:10 000 scale.

text: These maps are much more detailed than general-purpose topographic maps, and incorporate a standard symbology that is designed to be useful to anyone, regardless of native language. In addition to indicating the

text: topography

text: of the terrain with contour lines, orienteering maps also show forest density, water features, clearings, trails and roads, earthen banks and rock walls, ditches, wells and pits, fences and power lines, buildings, boulders, and other features of the terrain. Orienteering maps are 1:15 000 or 1:10 000

text: scale

text: Topographic map of the former municipality of Bergambacht, 2013.

text: The map sheets have been produced in several different versions: topographic maps, tourist maps, special maps (for aerospace, geology, etc.). They are now also available on electronic media.  The topographic maps have been published in the following scale series:

text: The map sheets have been produced in several different versions: topographic maps, tourist maps, special maps (for aerospace, geology, etc.). They are now also available on electronic media.  The topographic maps have been published in the following

text: scale series

text: Topographical disorientation, also known as topographical agnosia and topographagnosia, is the inability to orient oneself in one's surroundings as a result of focal brain damage. This disability may result from the inability to make use of selective spatial information (e.g., environmental landmarks) or to orient by means of specific cognitive strategies such as the ability to form a mental representation of the environment, also known as a cognitive map.  It may be part of a syndrome known as visuospatial dysgnosia.

text: Topographical disorientation, also known as topographical agnosia and topographagnosia, is the inability to orient oneself in one's surroundings as a result of

text: focal brain damage

text: . This disability may result from the inability to make use of selective spatial information (e.g., environmental landmarks) or to orient by means of specific cognitive strategies such as the ability to form a mental representation of the environment, also known as a

text: cognitive map

text: .  It may be part of a syndrome known as

text: visuospatial dysgnosia

text: Dutch Topographic map of the island of Schouwen-Duiveland, as per Sept. 2014.

text: The distribution of pyroclastic ash depends largely on the direction of wind at intermediate and high altitudes between approximately 4.5 – 13 km. The general trend of pyroclastic dispersal is shown using isopachs (which are analogous to topographic map contours though they illustrate lines of equal thickness rather than elevation) and show the dispersal as elongated with wind direction.

text: The distribution of pyroclastic ash depends largely on the direction of

text: wind

text: at intermediate and high altitudes between approximately 4.5 – 13 km. The general trend of pyroclastic dispersal is shown using

text: isopachs

text: (which are analogous to

text: topographic map

text: contours though they illustrate lines of equal thickness rather than elevation) and show the dispersal as elongated with wind direction.

text: Topographic mapping should not be confused with geologic mapping. The latter is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface, rather than with identifiable surface features.

text: Topographic mapping should not be confused with

text: geologic map

text: ping. The latter is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface, rather than with identifiable surface features.

text: Hydrography, mostly for reasons of safety, adopted a number of conventions that have affected its portrayal of the data on nautical charts. For example, hydrographic charts are designed to portray what is safe for navigation, and therefore will usually tend to maintain least depths and occasionally de-emphasize the actual submarine topography that would be portrayed on bathymetric charts. The former are the mariner's tools to avoid accident. The latter are best representations of the actual seabed, as in a topographic map, for scientific and other purposes. Trends in hydrographic practice since c. 2003–2005 have led to a narrowing of this difference, with many more hydrographic offices maintaining "best observed" databases, and then making navigationally "safe" products as required.  This has been coupled with a preference for multi-use surveys, so that the same data collected for nautical charting purposes can also be used for bathymetric portrayal.

text: Hydrography, mostly for reasons of safety, adopted a number of conventions that have affected its portrayal of the data on nautical charts. For example, hydrographic charts are designed to portray what is safe for navigation, and therefore will usually tend to maintain least

text: depth

text: s and occasionally de-emphasize the actual submarine

text: topography

text: that would be portrayed on

text: bathymetric chart

text: s. The former are the

text: mariner

text: 's tools to avoid accident. The latter are best representations of the actual seabed, as in a topographic map, for scientific and other purposes. Trends in hydrographic practice since c. 2003–2005 have led to a narrowing of this difference, with many more

entity_name: List of Members of the International Hydrographic Organization

text: hydrographic offices

text: maintaining "best observed" databases, and then making navigationally "safe" products as required.  This has been coupled with a preference for multi-use surveys, so that the same data collected for nautical charting purposes can also be used for bathymetric portrayal.

text: Dutch Topographic map of Zaltbommel (municipality), Sept. 2014

text: Dutch Topographic map of the municipality of Sittard-Geleen, 2013.

text: Once Williams came to Murray to make his proposal in 1923, Murray and his partner, Henry Flood, Jr., pored over topographic maps of the region and worked on estimates. It looked as if they might be able to generate enormous power at very low cost. It was said that here, as Murray looked over a topographic map of the Saluda River Valley, his eyes glanced at the  contour line. He followed the line as it meandered through the valley and noticed that the contour did not touch a railroad, and its highest elevation was never less than 40 feet (12 m) below the divide separating the Saluda Valley from the neighboring Broad River Valley. After winding around the valley of the Saluda for nearly 300 miles (500 km), about 10 miles (15 km) west of Columbia its position the north side of the valley approached within 8,000 feet (2.4 km) of its position on the south side. Murray realized that a dam across such an expanse would be ideal for power development. He visited South Carolina to investigate.

text: Dutch topographic map of Veldhoven (town), Dec. 2013

text: Although virtually the entire terrestrial surface of Earth has been mapped at scale 1:1,000,000, medium and large-scale mapping has been accomplished intensively in some countries and much less in others. Nevertheless, national mapping programs listed below are only a partial selection. Several commercial vendors supply international topographic map series.

text: For neurons, it is metabolically costly to make long connections, and the trade-off of connection distance is time.  Thus, it is good design to group neurons together that are to be highly interconnected.  Multiple topographic maps is a feature that is advantageous because it allows maps of different sizes that would accommodate varying levels of acuity and details in signals.  A more detailed map has more neurons that would take up more area than a more global map, which would require fewer connections.

text: For

text: neurons

text: , it is metabolically costly to make long connections, and the trade-off of connection distance is time.  Thus, it is good design to group neurons together that are to be highly interconnected.  Multiple topographic maps is a feature that is advantageous because it allows maps of different sizes that would accommodate varying levels of acuity and details in signals.  A more detailed map has more neurons that would take up more area than a more global map, which would require fewer connections.

text: Mr. Gerald Fitzgerald, Chief of the Topographic Branch of the US Geological Survey, said, "Do you have a copy of USGS Bulletin 657? that your father wrote? You must obtain a copy! That bulletin laid the groundwork for the entire field of photogrammetric surveying and map-making!"

text: 12 individual islets are named on detailed topographical maps:

text: However, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief (contours) is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small-scale maps showing relief are commonly (and erroneously, in the technical sense) called "topographic".

text: Relevant topographic maps for the track are available from the NSW Department of Lands, maps Katoomba (8930-1S), Hampton (8930-4S) and Jenolan (8930-3N) cover the entirety of the track.  Or Download and print the full map set on the PDF from wildwalks

text: Relevant

text: topographic maps

text: for the track are available from the NSW Department of Lands, maps Katoomba (8930-1S), Hampton (8930-4S) and Jenolan (8930-3N) cover the entirety of the track.  Or Download and print the full map set on the PDF from wildwalks

text: Mexican topographic maps and United States Geological Survey (USGS) maps of the region disagree on the name of an adjacent range lying to the southeast of the Tinajas Altas Mountains. In the United States this small range is referred to as the Sierra de la Lechuguilla, but in Mexico they are called the Sierra Tinajas Altas which would suggest that they are a longer extension of the Tinajas Altas Mountains into Mexico. The two ranges, however, share no surface connection so they are not the same. The Sierra de la Lechuguilla/Sierra Tinajas Altas range are instead on a parallel alignment to the southeast of the Tinajas Altas Mountains proper.

text: Mexican topographic maps and

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS) maps of the region disagree on the name of an adjacent range lying to the southeast of the Tinajas Altas Mountains. In the United States this small range is referred to as the

text: Sierra de la Lechuguilla

text: , but in Mexico they are called the Sierra Tinajas Altas which would suggest that they are a longer extension of the Tinajas Altas Mountains into Mexico. The two ranges, however, share no surface connection so they are not the same. The Sierra de la Lechuguilla/Sierra Tinajas Altas range are instead on a parallel alignment to the southeast of the Tinajas Altas Mountains proper.

text: In the 1670s, Cassini began work on a project to create a topographic map of France, using Gemma Frisius's technique of triangulation. The project was continued by his son Jacques Cassini and eventually finished by his grandson César-François Cassini de Thury and published as the Carte de Cassini in 1789 or 1793. It was the first topographic map of an entire country.

text: In the 1670s, Cassini began work on a project to create a

text: topographic

text: map of France, using

text: Gemma Frisius

text: 's technique of

text: triangulation

text: . The project was continued by his son

text: Jacques Cassini

text: and eventually finished by his grandson

text: César-François Cassini de Thury

text: and published as the Carte de Cassini in 1789 or 1793. It was the

text: first topographic map of an entire country

text: In 1933 during the Sixteenth International Geological Congress, an excursion took attendees into the Grand Canyon.  The geologists afterwards signed their names to a panoramic view of the canyon and sent it to Matthes with the message "We have been using your maps and have marveled at them.  There are no other such topographic maps in all the world."

text: In 1933 during the Sixteenth

entity_name: International Union of Geological Sciences

text: International Geological Congress

text: , an excursion took attendees into the Grand Canyon.  The geologists afterwards signed their names to a

text: panoramic view

text: of the canyon and sent it to Matthes with the message "We have been using your maps and have marveled at them.  There are no other such topographic maps in all the world."

text: Vicmap Topographic Map Series is a series of topographic maps covering the State of Victoria, Australia. Created and maintained by the State of Victoria, the map series is currently in a transition phase, with traditional Vicmap Topographic maps being gradually replaced with a new map series.

text: Vicmap Topographic Map Series is a

text: series of topographic maps

text: covering the State of

text: Victoria, Australia

text: . Created and maintained by the State of Victoria, the

text: map series

text: is currently in a transition phase, with traditional Vicmap Topographic maps being gradually replaced with a new map series.

text: The words isoline and isarithm (ἀριθμός arithmos "number") are general terms covering all types of contour line.  The word isogram (γράμμα gramma "writing or drawing") was proposed by Francis Galton in 1889 as a convenient generic designation for lines indicating equality of some physical condition or quantity; but it commonly refers to a word without a repeated letter.

text: The words isoline and isarithm (ἀριθμός arithmos "number") are general terms covering all types of contour line.  The word isogram (γράμμα gramma "writing or drawing") was proposed by

text: Francis Galton

text: in 1889 as a convenient generic designation for lines indicating equality of some physical condition or quantity; but it commonly refers to a

text: word without a repeated letter

text: The first "decent" map of California and Oregon were drawn by Captain John C. Frémont of the U.S. Army's Corps of Topographical Engineers, and his topographers and cartographers in about 1848. Fremont and his men, led by his guide and former trapper Kit Carson, made extensive expeditions starting in 1844 over parts of California and Oregon including the important Humboldt River and Old Spanish Trail routes. They made numerous topographical measurements of longitude, latitude and elevation as well as cartographic sketches of the observable surroundings. His map, although in error in minor ways, was the best map available in 1848.  John C. Frémont gave the Great Salt Lake, Humboldt River, Pyramid Lake, Carson River, Walker River, Old Spanish Trail etc. their current names. The Truckee River (called the Salmon-Trout River by Fremont) in California and Nevada was mapped. Lake Tahoe is shown but left unnamed. The major rivers in California are shown, presumably given the names used by the trappers and Mexican and foreign settlers there. The Humboldt was named (after the great explorer Alexander von Humboldt). Fremont and his topographers/cartographers did not have time (it would take literally decades of work to do this) to make extensive explorations of the entire Sierra Nevada range or Great Basin. Details of the Sierra Nevada and Great Basin concerning the best passes or possible emigrant routes for wagons would be explored and discovered from about 1846 to 1859 by numerous other explorers.

text: The first "decent" map of California and Oregon were drawn by Captain

text: John C. Frémont

text: of the

text: U.S. Army's Corps of Topographical Engineers

text: , and his

text: topographer

text: s and

text: cartographers

text: in about 1848. Fremont and his men, led by his guide and former trapper

text: Kit Carson

text: , made extensive expeditions starting in 1844 over parts of California and Oregon including the important

text: Humboldt River

text: and

text: Old Spanish Trail

text: routes. They made numerous topographical measurements of longitude, latitude and elevation as well as cartographic sketches of the observable surroundings. His map, although in error in minor ways, was the best map available in 1848.  John C. Frémont gave the

text: Great Salt Lake

text: Humboldt River

text: Pyramid Lake

text: Carson River

text: Walker River

text: Old Spanish Trail

text: etc. their current names. The

text: Truckee River

text: (called the Salmon-Trout River by Fremont) in California and Nevada was mapped.

text: Lake Tahoe

text: is shown but left unnamed. The major rivers in California are shown, presumably given the names used by the trappers and Mexican and foreign settlers there. The Humboldt was named (after the great explorer

text: Alexander von Humboldt

text: ). Fremont and his topographers/cartographers did not have time (it would take literally decades of work to do this) to make extensive explorations of the entire Sierra Nevada range or

text: Great Basin

text: . Details of the Sierra Nevada and Great Basin concerning the best passes or possible emigrant routes for wagons would be explored and discovered from about 1846 to 1859 by numerous other explorers.

text: The National Land Survey of Finland produces the Topographic Database (accuracy 1:5000-1:10 000) and publishes topographic maps of Finland at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. In addition topographics maps can be viewed by using a free map service MapSite.

text: The National Land Survey of Finland produces the Topographic Database (accuracy 1:5000-1:10 000) and publishes topographic maps of

text: Finland

text: at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. In addition topographics maps can be viewed by using a free map service MapSite.

text: Microsoft Research Maps or MSR Maps was a free online repository of public domain aerial imagery and topographic maps provided by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). The site is a collaboration between Microsoft Research (MSR), Bing Maps, and the USGS. It has been in operation since June 1998. It had 30,000 to 50,000 visitors per day as of January 2010. The site was renamed in 2010, prior to which it had been known as TerraServer-USA (formerly Microsoft TerraServer).

text: Microsoft Research Maps or MSR Maps was a free online repository of

text: public domain

text: aerial imagery

text: and

text: topographic maps

text: provided by the

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: (USGS). The site is a collaboration between

text: Microsoft Research

text: (MSR),

text: Bing Maps

text: , and the USGS. It has been in operation since June 1998. It had 30,000 to 50,000 visitors per day as of January 2010. The site was renamed in 2010, prior to which it had been known as TerraServer-USA (formerly Microsoft TerraServer).

text: The Map & GIS Library is located in Room 202 of the Sterling C. Evans Library. The collection consists of over 250,000 individual sheet maps, 3,000 atlases and gazetteers, and 1000 CD/DVDs, including worldwide coverage of topographic and geological maps, GIS datasets. The collection also includes travel maps and guides. The Library offer GIS assistance for those seeking data and support. They also provide assistance to all colleges and agencies associated with Texas A&M, as well as members of the local community.

text: While not officially "topographic" maps, the national surveys of other nations share many of the same features, and so they are often called "topographic maps."

text: Topographic maps are also commonly called contour maps or topo maps. In the United States, where the primary national series is organized by a strict 7.5-minute grid, they are often called topo quads or quadrangles.

text: The NDL has a collection of approximately 440,000 maps of Japan and other countries, including the topographical, geological, and hydrological maps and charts dating back to the early Meiji Period (1868–1912) and topographical maps of foreign countries.

text: The NDL has a collection of approximately 440,000 maps of Japan and other countries, including the topographical, geological, and hydrological maps and charts dating back to the early

text: Meiji Period

text: (1868–1912) and topographical maps of foreign countries.

text: The National Map is the official replacement for the USGS topographic map program.

text: The National Map is the official replacement for the

text: USGS topographic map program

text: Even though, in places, hydrographic survey data may be collected in sufficient detail to portray bottom topography in some areas, hydrographic charts only show depth information relevant for safe navigation and should not be considered as a product that accurately portrays the actual shape of the bottom.  The soundings selected from the raw source depth data for placement on the nautical chart are selected for safe navigation and are biased to show predominately the shallowest depths that relate to safe navigation. For instance, if there is a deep area that can not be reached because it is surrounded by shallow water, the deep area may not be shown. The color filled areas that show different ranges of shallow water are not the equivalent of contours on a topographic map since they are often drawn seaward of the actual shallowest depth portrayed. A bathymetric chart does show marine topology accurately. Details covering the above limitations can be found in Part 1 of Bowditch's American Practical Navigator. Another concept that affects safe navigation is the sparsity of detailed depth data from high resolution sonar systems.  In more remote areas, the only available depth information has been collected with lead lines. This collection method drops a weighted line to the bottom at intervals and records the depth, often from a rowboat or sail boat. There is no data between soundings or between sounding lines to guarantee that there is not a hazard such as a wreck or a coral head waiting there to ruin a sailor's day. Often, the navigation of the collecting boat does not match today's GPS navigational accuracies. The hydrographic chart will use the best data available and will caveat its nature in a caution note or in the legend of the chart.

text: Even though, in places, hydrographic survey data may be collected in sufficient detail to portray bottom topography in some areas,

text: hydrographic chart

text: s only show depth information relevant for safe navigation and should not be considered as a product that accurately portrays the actual shape of the bottom.  The soundings selected from the raw source depth data for placement on the nautical chart are selected for safe navigation and are biased to show predominately the shallowest depths that relate to safe navigation. For instance, if there is a deep area that can not be reached because it is surrounded by shallow water, the deep area may not be shown. The color filled areas that show different ranges of shallow water are not the equivalent of contours on a topographic map since they are often drawn seaward of the actual shallowest depth portrayed. A bathymetric chart does show marine topology accurately. Details covering the above limitations can be found in Part 1 of

text: Bowditch's American Practical Navigator

text: . Another concept that affects safe navigation is the sparsity of detailed depth data from high resolution sonar systems.  In more remote areas, the only available depth information has been collected with lead lines. This collection method drops a weighted line to the bottom at intervals and records the depth, often from a rowboat or sail boat. There is no data between soundings or between sounding lines to guarantee that there is not a hazard such as a wreck or a coral head waiting there to ruin a sailor's day. Often, the navigation of the collecting boat does not match today's GPS navigational accuracies. The hydrographic chart will use the best data available and will caveat its nature in a caution note or in the legend of the chart.

text: As of 1974, according to the Geographical Survey Institute, Kunrei-shiki was used for topographical maps while Modified Hepburn was used for geological maps and aeronautical charts.

text: As of 1974, according to the

entity_name: Geospatial Information Authority of Japan

text: Geographical Survey Institute

text: , Kunrei-shiki was used for topographical maps while Modified Hepburn was used for geological maps and aeronautical charts.

text: The characteristics of AV maps are their large scale (usually 1:25,000), high accuracy and great wealth of terrain detail in the high mountains (rock, rubble, glaciers, etc.). The contour interval is a maximum of 20 metres. The mountaineer should therefore be able to orient himself well using Alpine Club maps, both on the marked trails or in open terrain, i.e. away from the marked routes. In addition, the map sheets are divided in a way suitable for climbers and hikers with overlapping map sheets and a focus on the high mountain regions. Map names and height information (spot heights) are more densely printed than in other comparable maps.

text: The characteristics of AV maps are their large scale (usually 1:25,000), high accuracy and great wealth of terrain detail in the high mountains (rock, rubble, glaciers, etc.). The

text: contour interval

text: is a maximum of 20 metres. The

text: mountaineer

text: should therefore be able to orient himself well using Alpine Club maps, both on the marked trails or in open terrain, i.e. away from the marked routes. In addition, the map sheets are divided in a way suitable for climbers and hikers with overlapping map sheets and a focus on the high mountain regions. Map names and height information (spot heights) are more densely printed than in other comparable maps.

text: Most commonly contour lines are drawn in plan view, or as an observer in space would view the Earth's surface: ordinary map form. However, some parameters can often be displayed in profile view showing a vertical profile of the parameter mapped. Some of the most common parameters mapped in profile are air pollutant concentrations and sound levels.  In each of those cases it may be important to analyze (air pollutant concentrations or sound levels) at varying heights so as to determine the air quality or noise health effects on people at different elevations, for example, living on different floor levels of an urban apartment.  In actuality, both plan and profile view contour maps are used in air pollution and noise pollution studies.

text: Most commonly contour lines are drawn in plan view, or as an observer in space would view the Earth's surface: ordinary map form. However, some parameters can often be displayed in profile view showing a vertical profile of the parameter mapped. Some of the most common parameters mapped in profile are

text: air pollutant concentrations

text: and

text: sound level

text: s.  In each of those cases it may be important to analyze (air pollutant concentrations or sound levels) at varying heights so as to determine the air quality or

text: noise health effects

text: on people at different elevations, for example, living on different floor levels of an urban apartment.  In actuality, both plan and profile view contour maps are used in

text: air pollution

text: and

text: noise pollution

text: studies.

text: The game's terrain texture maps were made with satellite images rendered at four square meters per pixel, the highest resolution used in a flight simulator at that time. Artist Karen Wolff designed the terrain by combining large topographic maps into a "mosaic", which recreated the elevations and depressions of the Seattle area. The satellite imagery was layered over the resultant polygonal mesh. Real elevation data was also used for the eight lower-resolution Western American states outside of the Seattle area. Budget concerns and the storage limitations of the CD-ROM format prevented the team from rendering the entire United States, despite fan demand. The 3D objects that move across the terrain were created by Yoosun Cho, who used numerous photography books for inspiration. Flight Unlimited IIIs object editor let her set these objects to "move once along the path, back and forth or cycle". The weather system, co-designed by James, generates, moves and disperses weather fronts based on real-time calculations of atmospheric conditions such as humidity and orographic lift.

text: The game's terrain

text: texture maps

text: were made with

text: satellite images

text: rendered at four

text: square meters per pixel

text: , the highest resolution used in a flight simulator at that time. Artist Karen Wolff designed the terrain by combining large

text: topographic map

text: s into a "mosaic", which recreated the elevations and depressions of the Seattle area. The satellite imagery was layered over the resultant polygonal mesh. Real elevation data was also used for the eight lower-resolution Western American states outside of the Seattle area. Budget concerns and the

text: storage

text: limitations of the

text: CD-ROM

text: format prevented the team from rendering the entire United States, despite fan demand. The 3D objects that move across the terrain were created by Yoosun Cho, who used numerous photography books for inspiration. Flight Unlimited IIIs object editor let her set these objects to "move once along the path, back and forth or cycle". The weather system, co-designed by James, generates, moves and disperses

text: weather front

text: s based on real-time calculations of atmospheric conditions such as

text: humidity

text: and

text: orographic lift

text: Line type refers to whether the basic contour line is solid, dashed, dotted or broken in some other pattern to create the desired effect.  Dotted or dashed lines are often used when the underlying base map conveys very important (or difficult to read) information.  Broken line types are used when the location of the contour line is inferred.

text: Brief history: A need for a geological map of France goes back in time to a decree promulgated by Napoleon III, dated the First of October 1868, which established the "Service de la carte géologique de la France et des topographies souterraines" (English: The geologic map of France and groundwater topography service). The earliest geologic maps date back to 1664 (by ) and 1746 (by Jean-Étienne Guettard). Since 1794, the Corps des mines have been responsible for drawing up geological maps. Jean Baptiste Julien d'Omalius d'Halloy sketched the geology of the Parisian basin and it environs in 1816, scaling the map at 1/800 000. Ours-Pierre-Armand Petit-Dufrénoy and Jean-Baptiste Élie de Beaumont, who were both mining engineers, were charged with the task of drawing up the first French geological map in 1841, using a scale of  1 / 500 000.

text: Brief history: A need for a geological map of France goes back in time to a decree promulgated by

text: Napoleon III

text: , dated the First of October 1868, which established the "Service de la carte géologique de la France et des topographies souterraines" (English: The geologic map of France and groundwater topography service). The earliest geologic maps date back to 1664 (by ) and 1746 (by

text: Jean-Étienne Guettard

text: ). Since 1794, the

text: Corps des mines

text: have been responsible for drawing up geological maps.

text: Jean Baptiste Julien d'Omalius d'Halloy

text: sketched the geology of the Parisian basin and it environs in 1816, scaling the map at 1/800 000.

text: Ours-Pierre-Armand Petit-Dufrénoy

text: and

text: Jean-Baptiste Élie de Beaumont

text: , who were both mining engineers, were charged with the task of drawing up the first French geological map in 1841, using a scale of  1 / 500 000.

text: There were several U.S. government-sponsored explorers who explored part of the Oregon Trail and wrote extensively about their explorations. Captain Benjamin Bonneville on his expedition of 1832 to 1834 explored much of the Oregon trail and brought wagons up the Platte, North Platte, Sweetwater route across South Pass to the Green River in Wyoming. He explored most of Idaho and the Oregon Trail to the Columbia. The account of his explorations in the west was published by Washington Irving in 1838.). John C. Frémont of the U.S. Army's Corps of Topographical Engineers and his guide Kit Carson led three expeditions from 1842 to 1846 over parts of California and Oregon. His explorations were written up by him and his wife Jessie Benton Frémont and were widely published. The first "decent" map of California and Oregon were drawn by Frémont and his topographers and cartographers in about 1848.

text: There were several U.S. government-sponsored explorers who explored part of the Oregon Trail and wrote extensively about their explorations. Captain

text: Benjamin Bonneville

text: on his expedition of 1832 to 1834 explored much of the Oregon trail and brought wagons up the Platte, North Platte, Sweetwater route across South Pass to the Green River in Wyoming. He explored most of Idaho and the Oregon Trail to the Columbia. The account of his explorations in the west was published by

text: Washington Irving

text: in 1838.).

text: John C. Frémont

text: of the

text: and his guide Kit Carson led three expeditions from 1842 to 1846 over parts of California and Oregon. His explorations were written up by him and his wife

text: Jessie Benton Frémont

text: and were widely published. The first "decent" map of California and Oregon were drawn by Frémont and his

text: topographer

text: s and

text: cartographers

text: in about 1848.

text: Topographic map of Vlissingen (city), Sept. 2014

text: Besides being a topographic map of surprisingly modern aspect, the Turin Papyrus is also a geological map (the earliest known) because it accurately shows the local distribution of different rock types (with black and pink hills), the lithologically diverse wadi gravels (with brown, green and white dots), and it contains information on quarrying and mining. The draughtsman clearly and carefully distributed distinctive features in accordance with the reality of a particular area, adding clarity by the use of legends and contrasting colors. In this respect, the Turin Papyrus may be regarded as the earliest known Geographic Information System.<ref>McMahon, David M., "The Turin Papyrus Map The Oldest Known Map with Geological Significance", Earth Sciences History 11 no. 1 (1992): 9-12.

text: Besides being a

text: topographic map

text: of surprisingly modern aspect, the Turin Papyrus is also a

text: geological map

text: (the earliest known) because it accurately shows the local distribution of different rock types (with black and pink hills), the

text: lithologically

text: diverse wadi

text: gravel

text: s (with brown, green and white dots), and it contains information on quarrying and mining. The draughtsman clearly and carefully distributed distinctive features in accordance with the reality of a particular area, adding clarity by the use of legends and contrasting colors. In this respect, the Turin Papyrus may be regarded as the earliest known

text: Geographic Information System

text: .<ref>McMahon, David M., "The Turin Papyrus Map The Oldest Known Map with Geological Significance", Earth Sciences History 11 no. 1 (1992): 9-12.

text: The whole north western corner of Ardnamurchan contains a complex of underground volcanic structures, often described, perhaps inaccurately, as a caldera. It is in fact known that the structure of the north-western corner of the Ardnamurchan peninsula is due to a lopolith (previously interpreted as a ring dyke) which has been exposed at the surface. Evidence for a lopolith is seen in rock exposures in the area which show plagioclase crystals aligned towards the centre of the complex, an alignment caused by magmatic flow within a lopolith. Relatively small areas of lava that were ejected onto the surface are found in some parts of the peninsula. At least seven other similar complexes of the same tectonic episode are dotted up the west coast of Britain, and these are popular sites for many university geological training courses. Geological research is continuing in the area. The sub-concentric rings of the volcanic complex can easily be seen in satellite photographs and topographic maps, though they are less obvious on the ground.

text: The whole north western corner of Ardnamurchan contains a complex of underground volcanic structures, often described, perhaps inaccurately, as a

text: caldera

text: . It is in fact known that the structure of the north-western corner of the Ardnamurchan peninsula is due to a

text: lopolith

text: (previously interpreted as a ring dyke) which has been exposed at the surface. Evidence for a lopolith is seen in rock exposures in the area which show plagioclase crystals aligned towards the centre of the complex, an alignment caused by magmatic flow within a lopolith. Relatively small areas of lava that were ejected onto the surface are found in some parts of the peninsula. At least seven other similar complexes of the same tectonic episode are dotted up the west coast of Britain, and these are popular sites for many university geological training courses. Geological research is continuing in the area. The sub-concentric rings of the volcanic complex can easily be seen in satellite photographs and topographic maps, though they are less obvious on the ground.

text: Land forms are shown using contour lines with a contour interval of 5 metres. Additional symbols are provided to show e.g. earth bank, knoll, depression, small depression, pit, broken ground etc.

text: Land forms are shown using

text: contour line

text: s with a contour interval of 5 metres. Additional symbols are provided to show e.g. earth bank,

text: knoll

text: depression

text: , small depression, pit, broken ground etc.

text: Messent Peak () is one of the Bristly Peaks, rising to about  just west of Brodie Peak and  southwest of Mount Castro in the central Antarctic Peninsula. It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1977 for David R. Messent, a geodesist at the U.S. Army Topographic Command (later the Defense Mapping Agency, Hydrographic/Topographic Center), Palmer Station, winter party 1969.

text: Messent Peak () is one of the

text: Bristly Peaks

text: , rising to about  just west of

text: Brodie Peak

text: and  southwest of

text: Mount Castro

text: in the central

text: Antarctic Peninsula

text: . It was named by the

text: Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names

text: in 1977 for

text: David R. Messent

text: , a geodesist at the U.S. Army Topographic Command (later the

text: Defense Mapping Agency

text: , Hydrographic/Topographic Center),

text: Palmer Station

text: , winter party 1969.

text: The Nyquist contour mapped through the function

text: As they evolved, topographic map series became a national resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure and resource exploitation. In the United States, the national map-making function which had been shared by both the Army Corps of Engineers and the Department of the Interior migrated to the newly created United States Geological Survey in 1879, where it has remained since.

text: As they evolved, topographic map series became a national resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure and resource exploitation. In the United States, the national map-making function which had been shared by both the

text: Army Corps of Engineers

text: and the

text: Department of the Interior

text: migrated to the newly created

text: United States Geological Survey

text: in 1879, where it has remained since.

text: The idea of lines that join points of equal value was rediscovered several times.  In 1701, Edmond Halley used such lines (isogons) on a chart of magnetic variation.  The Dutch engineer Nicholas Cruquius drew the bed of the river Merwede with lines of equal depth (isobaths) at intervals of 1 fathom in 1727, and Philippe Buache used them at 10-fathom intervals on a chart of the English Channel that was prepared in 1737 and published in 1752.  Such lines were used to describe a land surface (contour lines) in a map of the Duchy of Modena and Reggio by Domenico Vandelli in 1746, and they were studied theoretically by Ducarla in 1771, and Charles Hutton used them in the Schiehallion experiment.  In 1791, a map of France by J. L. Dupain-Triel used contour lines at 20-metre intervals, hachures, spot-heights and a vertical section.  In 1801, the chief of the Corps of Engineers, Haxo, used contour lines at the larger scale of 1:500 on a plan of his projects for Rocca d'Aufo.

text: The idea of lines that join points of equal value was rediscovered several times.  In 1701,

text: Edmond Halley

text: used such lines (isogons) on a chart of magnetic variation.  The

text: Dutch

text: engineer

text: Nicholas Cruquius

text: drew the bed of the river

text: Merwede

text: with lines of equal depth (isobaths) at intervals of 1

text: fathom

text: in 1727, and

text: Philippe Buache

text: used them at 10-fathom intervals on a chart of the

text: English Channel

text: that was prepared in 1737 and published in 1752.  Such lines were used to describe a land surface (contour lines) in a map of the Duchy of Modena and Reggio by Domenico Vandelli in 1746, and they were studied theoretically by Ducarla in 1771, and

text: Charles Hutton

text: used them in the

text: Schiehallion experiment

text: .  In 1791, a map of

text: France

text: by J. L. Dupain-Triel used contour lines at 20-metre intervals, hachures, spot-heights and a vertical section.  In 1801, the chief of the Corps of Engineers,

text: Haxo

text: , used contour lines at the larger scale of 1:500 on a plan of his projects for Rocca d'Aufo.

text: The program originally allowed volunteers to collect geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) via GPS receivers. The data was entered in spreadsheet format or in ESRI shapefiles and submitted via e-mail to the USGS National Geospatial Technical Operations Center(s) in Denver, Colorado, and Rolla, Missouri. During the registration process, prospective volunteers submitted a list of the 7.5 minute quadrangle maps on which they wished to work. Once accepted into the project, volunteers received their assignment and 1:24,000 scale topographic map of their quad. While there was no deadline for completing maps, the project's administrators preferred volunteers to submit coordinates for all structures in the quad no more than one year after beginning work.

text: The program originally allowed volunteers to collect

text: geographic coordinates

text: latitude

text: and

text: longitude

text: ) via

text: GPS

text: receivers. The data was entered in

text: spreadsheet

text: format or in

text: ESRI

text: shapefile

text: s and submitted via e-mail to the USGS National Geospatial Technical Operations Center(s) in

text: Denver, Colorado

text: , and

text: Rolla, Missouri

text: . During the registration process, prospective volunteers submitted a list of the 7.5 minute

text: quadrangle

text: maps on which they wished to work. Once accepted into the project, volunteers received their assignment and 1:24,000 scale

text: topographic map

text: of their quad. While there was no deadline for completing maps, the project's administrators preferred volunteers to submit coordinates for all structures in the quad no more than one year after beginning work.

text: Anticyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of anticyclonic circulation in the atmosphere. It is the opposite of anticyclolysis, and has a cyclonic equivalent—cyclogenesis.  Anticyclones are alternatively referred to as high pressure systems.  High pressure areas form due to downward motion through the troposphere, the atmospheric layer where weather occurs.  Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.  On weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as confluence, or converging height lines near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere.  On weather maps, high pressure centers are associated with the letter H.  On constant pressure upper level charts, it is located within the highest height line contour.

text: Anticyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of

text: anticyclonic circulation

text: in the atmosphere. It is the opposite of

text: anticyclolysis

text: , and has a cyclonic equivalent—

text: cyclogenesis

text: .  Anticyclones are alternatively referred to as

text: high pressure systems

text: .  High pressure areas form due to downward motion through the

text: troposphere

text: , the

text: atmospheric

text: layer where

text: weather

text: occurs.  Preferred areas within a

text: synoptic

text: flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs.  On weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as

text: confluence

text: , or converging height lines near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere.  On weather maps, high pressure centers are associated with the letter H.  On constant pressure upper level charts, it is located within the highest height line contour.

text: The gap's midpoint is located at , which is 1.07 km west of Kuzman Knoll, 2.39 km northwest of Zograf Peak, 3.76 km north of Mount Friesland, 2.64 km east-northeast of Pliska Peak, 3.79 km east of Burdick Peak, 2.49 km south-southeast of Mount Bowles and 1.53 km south of Montana Bluff.  British mapping in 1968 and Spanish in 1991, Bulgarian topographic surveys in 1995/96 and 2004/05, and mapping in 1996, 2005 and 2009.

text: The gap's midpoint is located at , which is 1.07 km west of

text: Kuzman Knoll

text: , 2.39 km northwest of

text: Zograf Peak

text: , 3.76 km north of

text: Mount Friesland

text: , 2.64 km east-northeast of

text: Pliska Peak

text: , 3.79 km east of

text: Burdick Peak

text: , 2.49 km south-southeast of

text: Mount Bowles

text: and 1.53 km south of

text: Montana Bluff

text: .  British mapping in 1968 and Spanish in 1991, Bulgarian topographic surveys in 1995/96 and

text: , and mapping in 1996, 2005 and 2009.

text: A topographical map is the main type of map used to depict elevation, often through use of contour lines.In a Geographic Information System (GIS), digital elevation models (DEM) are commonly used to represent the surface (topography) of a place, through a raster (grid) dataset of elevations.  Digital terrain models are another way to represent terrain in GIS.

text: A

text: topographical map

text: is the main type of

text: map

text: used to depict elevation, often through use of

text: contour line

text: s.In a

text: Geographic Information System

text: (GIS),

text: digital elevation model

text: s (DEM) are commonly used to represent the surface (topography) of a place, through a

text: raster

text: (grid) dataset of elevations.

text: Digital terrain model

text: s are another way to represent terrain in GIS.

text: The peak is located at  which is 890 m east of Castillo Nunatak, 4.66 km east-southeast of Sinemorets Hill, 2.36 km south-southwest of Burdick Peak, 2.48 km west-southwest of Pliska Peak, 4.96 km west-northwest of Mount Friesland, 4.63 km north-northwest of Stambolov Crag and 3.21 km northeast of Napier Peak.  British mapping in 1968, Spanish in 1991, and Bulgarian topographic survey in 1995/96 and mapping in 1996, 2005 and 2009.

text: The peak is located at  which is 890 m east of Castillo Nunatak, 4.66 km east-southeast of

text: Sinemorets Hill

text: , 2.36 km south-southwest of

text: Burdick Peak

text: , 2.48 km west-southwest of

text: Pliska Peak

text: , 4.96 km west-northwest of

text: Mount Friesland

text: , 4.63 km north-northwest of

text: Stambolov Crag

text: and 3.21 km northeast of

text: Napier Peak

text: .  British mapping in 1968, Spanish in 1991, and Bulgarian topographic survey in 1995/96 and mapping in 1996, 2005 and 2009.

text: The following are lists of mountains in New Zealand ordered by height. Names, heights, topographic prominence and isolation, and coordinates were extracted from the official Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) Topo50 topographic maps at the interactive topographic map of New Zealand site.

text: The following are lists of mountains in

text: New Zealand

text: ordered by height. Names, heights, topographic

text: prominence

text: and

text: isolation

text: , and coordinates were extracted from the official

text: Land Information New Zealand

text: (LINZ) Topo50 topographic maps at the interactive topographic map of New Zealand site.

text: The Land Registry Kadaster (formerly Topografische Dienst) collects, processes and provides topographical information of the entire Dutch territory. The history of the Land Registry goes back to the year 1815, that year was commissioned to create a large map, known as Map of Krayenhoff. Around 1836 they began printing the topographic map on a scale of 1: 50,000, followed in 1865 by the topographic map on a scale of 1: 25,000. In 1951 began the start of production of the topographic map on a scale of 1: 10,000. From various reorganizations arose in 1932 the Topografische Dienst as national mapping agency of the Netherlands, since January 2004 housed within the Land Registry Kadaster.

text: The Land Registry

text: Kadaster

text: (formerly Topografische Dienst) collects, processes and provides topographical information of the entire Dutch territory. The history of the Land Registry goes back to the year 1815, that year was commissioned to create a large map, known as Map of Krayenhoff. Around 1836 they began printing the topographic map on a scale of 1: 50,000, followed in 1865 by the topographic map on a scale of 1: 25,000. In 1951 began the start of production of the topographic map on a scale of 1: 10,000. From various reorganizations arose in 1932 the Topografische Dienst as

text: national mapping agency

text: of the Netherlands, since January 2004 housed within the Land Registry Kadaster.

text: Matthes believed topographers should not merely draw lines but also study the geology of the land forms to produce relevant maps.  To that end, Matthes wrote his first scientific publication during the winter of 1899 entitled Glacial Sculpture of the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming which served as a standard reference and in which Matthes applied the first usage of the term "nivation".  His geologic writing was not a customary effort for topographers and his descriptive style was critiqued by the USGS but the popularity of his narratives continues today.

text: Matthes believed topographers should not merely draw lines but also study the geology of the land forms to produce relevant maps.  To that end, Matthes wrote his first scientific publication during the winter of 1899 entitled Glacial Sculpture of the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming which served as a standard reference and in which Matthes applied the first usage of the term "

text: nivation

text: ".  His geologic writing was not a customary effort for topographers and his descriptive style was critiqued by the USGS but the popularity of his narratives continues today.

text: A note about methodology: when using a topographic map to determine prominence, one often has to estimate the height of the key col (and sometimes, the height of the peak as well) based on the contour lines. Assume for simplicity that only the col elevation is uncertain. There are three simple choices.  The pessimistic, or clean prominence, assumes that the col is as high as it can be, i.e., its elevation is that of the higher contour line nearest the saddle. This gives a lower bound on the possible prominence of the peak, ignoring map error; inaccuracies in mapping lead to further uncertainties and a larger error bound.  Optimistic prominence assumes that the col is as low as possible, yielding an upper bound value for the prominence. Midrange or mean prominence uses the mean of these two values. Mean prominence is sometimes referred to as rise. In Britain, where topographic mapping is more detailed than in many countries, it is customary to use a fourth method: interpolated prominence. The true prominence is estimated by visualising the three dimensional surface in the neighborhood of the col and interpolating between the enclosing contours.

text: A note about methodology: when using a

text: topographic map

text: For Waipiata topographic info see Map 260 H42 Waipiata - LINZ

text: A variety of techniques have been used to establish the topographic maps in the brain.  The existence of topographical maps was shown early by electrical stimulation of the cortex, tracing patterns of epileptic seizures, stimulation sequences, and impairments due to lesions.  Details in the maps came later through microelectrode stimulation and recording techniques became commonly used in demonstrating somatotopic maps and later in the auditory and visual systems, both cortically and in subcortical structures such as the colliculi and geniculate nuclei of the thalamus.  Single-cell recording, Transcranial magnetic stimulation(TMS), electrical stimulation of the cortex, and Functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI) are some of the techniques used to study maps in the brain.  Many of the existing topographic maps have been further studied or refined using fMRI.  For example, Hubel and Wiesel originally studied the retinotopic maps in the primary visual cortex using single-cell recording.  Recently, however, imaging of the retinotopic map in the cortex and in sub-cortical areas, such as the lateral geniculate nucleus, have been improved using the fMRI technique.

text: A variety of techniques have been used to establish the topographic maps in the brain.  The existence of topographical maps was shown early by electrical stimulation of the cortex, tracing patterns of epileptic seizures, stimulation sequences, and impairments due to lesions.  Details in the maps came later through

text: microelectrode

text: stimulation and recording techniques became commonly used in demonstrating somatotopic maps and later in the auditory and visual systems, both cortically and in subcortical structures such as the

text: colliculi

text: and

text: geniculate nuclei

text: of the

text: thalamus

text: Single-cell recording

text: Transcranial magnetic stimulation

text: (TMS), electrical stimulation of the cortex, and

text: Functional magnetic resonance imaging

text: (fMRI) are some of the techniques used to study maps in the brain.  Many of the existing topographic maps have been further studied or refined using fMRI.  For example,

text: Hubel

text: and

text: Wiesel

text: originally studied the retinotopic maps in the primary visual cortex using single-cell recording.  Recently, however, imaging of the retinotopic map in the cortex and in sub-cortical areas, such as the lateral geniculate nucleus, have been improved using the fMRI technique.

text: The YJ-22 is a LACM (land-attack cruise missile) development of the anti-ship C-802 with a 400 km range, and possible Satellite guidance/terrain mapping guidance currently said to be under development, Initial Operational Capability was expected after 2005. This 135-kilometer range system would be the first Chinese cruise missile to incorporate BeiDou Navigation Satellite System-assisted navigation. Satellite-aided guidance could be augmented by terrain contour matching TERCOM (Terrain Contour Matching) guidance. Some sources believe BeiDou-aided navigation could result in cruise missiles like the YJ-22 to achieve accuracies of up to 10 meters.

text: The YJ-22 is a LACM (land-attack

text: cruise missile

text: ) development of the anti-ship

text: with a 400 km range, and possible

text: Satellite guidance

text: terrain mapping

text: guidance currently said to be under development,

text: Initial Operational Capability

text: was expected after 2005. This 135-kilometer range system would be the first Chinese cruise missile to incorporate

text: BeiDou Navigation Satellite System

text: -assisted navigation. Satellite-aided guidance could be augmented by terrain contour matching

text: TERCOM

text: (Terrain Contour Matching) guidance. Some sources believe BeiDou-aided navigation could result in cruise missiles like the YJ-22 to achieve accuracies of up to 10 meters.

text: This is a list of highest points in the U.S. state of Arizona, in alphabetical order by county. Elevations are from USGS 1:24,000 scale topographic quadrangle maps. Elevations followed by a plus sign (+) are minimal values. The contour interval is shown after the (+).

text: This is a list of highest points in the U.S. state of

text: Arizona

text: , in alphabetical order by county. Elevations are from USGS 1:24,000 scale topographic quadrangle maps. Elevations followed by a plus sign (+) are minimal values. The contour interval is shown after the (+).

text: In the United Kingdom the term geological map is used. The UK and Isle of Man have been extensively mapped by the British Geological Survey (BGS) since 1835; a separate Geological Survey of Northern Ireland (drawing on BGS staff) has operated since 1947.

text: In the

text: United Kingdom

text: the term geological map is used. The UK and

text: Isle of Man

text: have been extensively mapped by the

text: British Geological Survey

text: (BGS) since 1835; a separate Geological Survey of Northern Ireland (drawing on BGS staff) has operated since 1947.

text: The equirectangular projection (also called the equidistant cylindrical projection, geographic projection, or la carte parallélogrammatique projection, and which includes the special case of the plate carrée projection or geographic projection) is a simple map projection attributed to Marinus of Tyre, who Ptolemy claims invented the projection about AD 100. The projection maps meridians to vertical straight lines of constant spacing (for meridional intervals of constant spacing), and circles of latitude to horizontal straight lines of constant spacing (for constant intervals of parallels). The projection is neither equal area nor conformal. Because of the distortions introduced by this projection, it has little use in navigation or cadastral mapping and finds its main use in thematic mapping. In particular, the plate carrée has become a standard for global raster datasets, such as Celestia and NASA World Wind, because of the particularly simple relationship between the position of an image pixel on the map and its corresponding geographic location on Earth.

text: The equirectangular projection (also called the equidistant cylindrical projection, geographic projection, or la carte parallélogrammatique projection, and which includes the special case of the plate carrée projection or geographic projection) is a simple

text: map projection

text: attributed to

text: Marinus of Tyre

text: , who

text: Ptolemy

text: claims invented the projection about AD 100. The projection maps

text: meridians

text: to vertical straight lines of constant spacing (for

text: meridional

text: intervals of constant spacing), and

text: circles of latitude

text: to horizontal straight lines of constant spacing (for constant intervals of

text: parallels

text: ). The projection is neither equal area nor

text: conformal

text: . Because of the distortions introduced by this projection, it has little use in

text: navigation

text: or

text: cadastral

text: mapping and finds its main use in

text: thematic map

text: ping. In particular, the plate carrée has become a standard for global

text: raster datasets

text: , such as

text: Celestia

text: and

text: NASA World Wind

text: , because of the particularly simple relationship between the position of an

text: image pixel

text: on the map and its corresponding geographic location on Earth.

text: In discussing pollution, density maps can be very useful in indicating sources and areas of greatest contamination. Contour maps are especially useful for diffuse forms or scales of pollution. Acid precipitation is indicated on maps with isoplats.  Some of the most widespread applications of environmental science contour maps involve mapping of environmental noise (where lines of equal sound pressure level are denoted isobels), air pollution, soil contamination, thermal pollution and groundwater contamination.  By contour planting and contour ploughing, the rate of water runoff and thus soil erosion can be substantially reduced; this is especially important in riparian zones.

text: In discussing pollution, density maps can be very useful in indicating sources and areas of greatest contamination. Contour maps are especially useful for diffuse forms or scales of pollution. Acid precipitation is indicated on maps with isoplats.  Some of the most widespread applications of environmental science contour maps involve mapping of

text: environmental noise

text: (where lines of equal sound pressure level are denoted isobels),

text: air pollution

text: soil contamination

text: thermal pollution

text: and

text: groundwater

text: contamination.  By

text: contour planting

text: and

text: contour ploughing

text: , the rate of

text: water runoff

text: and thus

text: soil erosion

text: can be substantially reduced; this is especially important in

text: riparian

text: zones.

text: Topographic maps for general use are available at 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 from the Hellenic Military Geographical Service (HMGS). They use a national projection system called EGSA'87, which is a Transverse Mercatorial Projection mapping Gre    ece in one zone. A few areas are also available at 1:25,000. Some private firms sell topographic maps of national parks based on HMGS topography.

text: Topographic maps for general use are available at 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 from the

text: Hellenic Military Geographical Service

text: (HMGS). They use a national projection system called EGSA'87, which is a Transverse Mercatorial Projection mapping Gre    ece in one zone. A few areas are also available at 1:25,000. Some private firms sell topographic maps of national parks based on HMGS topography.

text: Dutch Topographic map of Ommen, June 2015

text: Topographic map of North Versailles and surrounding area

text: The product of the calculations is usually a set of isopleths or mapped contour lines either in plan view or cross sectional view.  Typically these might be stated as concentrations of carbon monoxide, total reactive hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, particulate or benzene.  The air quality scientist  can run the model successively to study techniques of reducing adverse air pollutant concentrations (for example, by redesigning roadway geometry, altering speed controls or limiting certain types of trucks).  The model is frequently utilized in an Environmental Impact Statement involving a major new roadway or land use change which will induce new vehicular traffic.

text: The product of the calculations is usually a set of isopleths or mapped

text: contour lines

text: either in

text: plan view

text: or

text: cross sectional

text: view.  Typically these might be stated as concentrations of

text: carbon monoxide

text: , total reactive

text: hydrocarbons

text: oxides of nitrogen

text: particulate

text: or

text: benzene

text: .  The air quality scientist  can run the model successively to study techniques of reducing adverse

text: air pollutant concentrations

text: (for example, by redesigning roadway geometry, altering speed controls or limiting certain types of trucks).  The model is frequently utilized in an

text: Environmental Impact Statement

text: involving a major new roadway or land use change which will induce new vehicular traffic.

text: The highest point in Clark County, Washington, is Sturgeon Rock, a basalt outcrop that lies on the county line just west of the Silver Star summit.  For many years an error on United States Geological Survey topographical maps has misnamed a broad wooded peak lower on the ridge near the Tarbell Trail as Sturgeon Rock.

text: The highest point in

text: Clark County, Washington

text: , is Sturgeon Rock, a

text: basalt

text: outcrop that lies on the county line just west of the Silver Star summit.  For many years an error on

text: United States Geological Survey

text: topographical

text: maps

text: has misnamed a broad wooded peak lower on the ridge near the Tarbell Trail as Sturgeon Rock.

text: The Institute was transferred to the Ministry of Interior in 1960 and expanded its operations to include some basic cartographic activities and extended research.  The organisation had benefited from the ]United States Point Four Programme of financial aid until it was discontinued in 1962, at which time the country entered into an agreement with the United States for the U.S. Army Map Service, later known as Topographic Command (Topocom), to produce base maps of the country.  The topographic surveying was provided by soldiers from the 64th Engineer Battalion, 29th Engineer Company, and the project was known as the Ethiopia-United States Mapping Mission.  Using the survey data from the Mapping Mission, The Army Map Service/Topocom completed the photogrammetric map compilation and cartographic map finishing operations.  The resulting 1:250,000-scale base maps of the country and 1:50,000-scale maps of special interest areas served as the impetus for the Institute to begin its cartographic map maintenance and distribution programme.  The organisation was placed under a Director General with two Directors and seventy employees, and was reorganized into three subdivisions:  Photogrammetry, Cartography and Photo Laboratory.  The Institute was reorganized again in 1980 and was renamed the Ethiopian Mapping Authority.

text: The Institute was transferred to the Ministry of Interior in 1960 and expanded its operations to include some basic cartographic activities and extended research.  The organisation had benefited from the ]

text: United States

text: Point Four Programme of financial aid until it was discontinued in 1962, at which time the country entered into an agreement with the United States for the

text: U.S. Army Map Service

text: , later known as Topographic Command (Topocom), to produce base maps of the country.  The

text: topographic surveying

text: was provided by soldiers from the 64th Engineer Battalion, 29th Engineer Company, and the project was known as the

entity_name: Ethiopia – United States Mapping Mission

text: Ethiopia-United States Mapping Mission

text: .  Using the survey data from the Mapping Mission, The Army Map Service/Topocom completed the photogrammetric map compilation and cartographic map finishing operations.  The resulting 1:250,000-scale base maps of the country and 1:50,000-scale maps of special interest areas served as the impetus for the Institute to begin its cartographic map maintenance and distribution programme.  The organisation was placed under a Director General with two Directors and seventy employees, and was reorganized into three subdivisions:

text: Photogrammetry

text: Cartography

text: and Photo Laboratory.  The Institute was reorganized again in 1980 and was renamed the Ethiopian Mapping Authority.

text: In the United States, the FDA has approved LASIK for age 18 and over. More importantly the patient's eye prescription should be stable for at least one year prior to surgery.The patient may be examined with pupillary dilation and education given prior to the procedure. Before the surgery, the patient's corneas are examined with a pachymeter to determine their thickness, and with a topographer, or corneal topography machine, to measure their surface contour. Using low-power lasers, a topographer creates a topographic map of the cornea. The procedure is contraindicated if the topographer finds difficulties such as keratoconus The preparatory process also detects astigmatism and other irregularities in the shape of the cornea. Using this information, the surgeon calculates the amount and the location of corneal tissue to be removed. The patient is prescribed and self-administers an antibiotic beforehand to minimize the risk of infection after the procedure and is sometimes offered a short acting oral sedative medication as a pre-medication. Prior to the procedure, anaesthetic eye drops are instilled. Factors that may rule out LASIK for some patients include large pupils, thin corneas and extremely dry eyes.

text: In the United States, the FDA has approved LASIK for age 18 and over. More importantly the patient's eye prescription should be stable for at least one year prior to surgery.The patient may be examined with pupillary dilation and education given prior to the procedure. Before the surgery, the patient's

text: cornea

text: s are examined with a

text: pachymeter

text: to determine their thickness, and with a topographer, or corneal topography machine, to measure their surface contour. Using low-power

text: laser

text: s, a topographer creates a

text: topographic map

text: of the cornea. The procedure is contraindicated if the topographer finds difficulties such as

text: keratoconus

text: The preparatory process also detects

text: astigmatism

text: and other irregularities in the shape of the cornea. Using this information, the surgeon calculates the amount and the location of corneal tissue to be removed. The patient is prescribed and self-administers an antibiotic beforehand to minimize the risk of infection after the procedure and is sometimes offered a short acting oral sedative medication as a pre-medication. Prior to the procedure, anaesthetic eye drops are instilled. Factors that may rule out LASIK for some patients include large pupils, thin corneas and extremely dry eyes.

text: [[File:Lake Michigan bathymetry map.png|thumb|Lake Michigan bathymetric map. The deepest point is marked with "×".]]

text: [[File:Lake Michigan bathymetry map.png|thumb|Lake Michigan

text: bathymetric

text: map. The deepest point is marked with "×".]]

text: where R may be calculated from the width W of the map by R = . For example, on a map with R = 1 the values of y = 0, 1, 2, 3 correspond to latitudes of φ = 0°, 50°, 75°, 84° and therefore the successive intervals of 1 cm on the map correspond to latitude intervals on the globe of 50°, 25°, 9° and distances of 5,560 km, 2,780 km, and 1,000 km on the Earth.

text: The Ordnance Survey (OS) produces topographic map series covering the United Kingdom at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales. The 1:25,000 scale is known as the "Explorer" series, and include an "OL" (Outdoor Leisure) sub-series for areas of special interest to hikers and walkers. It replaced the "Pathfinder" series, which was less colourful and covered a smaller area on each map. The 1:50,000 scale is known as the "Landranger" and carries a distinctive pink cover. More detailed mapping as fine as 1:10,000 covers some parts of the country. The 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales are easily coordinated with standard romer scales on currently available compasses and plotting tools. The Ordnance Survey maintains a mapping database from which they can print specialist maps at virtually any scale.

text: The

text: Ordnance Survey

text: (OS) produces topographic map series covering the

text: United Kingdom

text: at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales. The 1:25,000 scale is known as the "Explorer" series, and include an "OL" (Outdoor Leisure) sub-series for areas of special interest to hikers and walkers. It replaced the "Pathfinder" series, which was less colourful and covered a smaller area on each map. The 1:50,000 scale is known as the "Landranger" and carries a distinctive pink cover. More detailed mapping as fine as 1:10,000 covers some parts of the country. The 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales are easily coordinated with standard

text: romer

text: scales on currently available compasses and plotting tools. The Ordnance Survey maintains a mapping database from which they can print specialist maps at virtually any scale.

text: However, on a contour map, the gradient is inversely proportional to Δx, which is not similar to force F: altitude on a contour map is not exactly a two-dimensional potential field.  The magnitudes of forces are different, but the directions of the forces are the same on a contour map as well as on the hilly region of the Earth's surface represented by the contour map.

text: Tourist mapping was first published by the Ordnance Survey in England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping (1:100,000, 100 ft intervals, DOS 522). West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990 (1:75,000, 100 metre contour intervals, inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and 50 metre contour interval). In the last few years, numerous other maps have become available of various qualities.

text: Tourist mapping was first published by the

text: Ordnance Survey

text: in England in 1989 based on the original DOS mapping (1:100,000, 100 ft intervals, DOS 522). West Col Productions produced a map with tourist information in 1990 (1:75,000, 100 metre contour intervals, inset maps of Kibo and Mawenzi on 1:20,000 and 1:30,000 scales respectively and 50 metre contour interval). In the last few years, numerous other maps have become available of various qualities.

text: In 1856, Henry Darwin Rogers created a similar map of the geology of the U.S. and British North America. There was a short description of the geologic map of the U.S. by Charles Henry Hitchcock in 1872, which had small-scale geological maps included. Hitchcock and William P. Blake published a general geologic map of the U.S. in R.W. Raymond’s Statistics of mines and mining. In 1874, they published a geological map of the U.S. and territories in the U.S. Census 9th Statistical Atlas. Hitchcock and Blake published a summary of this map in the Geological Magazine in 1873. Gray’s geological map of the U.S. was published in the National Atlas special edition at a scale of about 1 inch to 300 miles in 1876 and reprinted in 1886 by the American Institute of Mining Engineers. A geological map of the U.S. east of the Rocky Mountains was produced at the scale of 1 inch to 105.5 miles by Frank H. Bradley. In the 1880s several geological maps of the U.S. were produced. William John McGee offered a detailed description for the U.S. Geological Survey in 1884. In 1887, Hitchcock produced a geological map of the U.S. and parts of Canada that was at the scale of 1 inch to 200 miles, with a review of the various maps of the U.S. that accompanied the geological map of the U.S. In 1895, McGee and J.B. Tolbert produced a 1:15,000,000 scale map of the geology of the U.S.

text: In 1856,

text: Henry Darwin Rogers

text: created a similar map of the geology of the U.S. and British North America. There was a short description of the geologic map of the U.S. by

text: Charles Henry Hitchcock

text: in 1872, which had small-scale geological maps included. Hitchcock and

text: William P. Blake

text: published a general geologic map of the U.S. in R.W. Raymond’s Statistics of mines and mining. In 1874, they published a geological map of the U.S. and territories in the U.S. Census 9th Statistical Atlas. Hitchcock and Blake published a summary of this map in the Geological Magazine in 1873. Gray’s geological map of the U.S. was published in the National Atlas special edition at a scale of about 1 inch to 300 miles in 1876 and reprinted in 1886 by the

entity_name: American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers

text: American Institute of Mining Engineers

text: . A geological map of the U.S. east of the

text: Rocky Mountains

text: was produced at the scale of 1 inch to 105.5 miles by

text: Frank H. Bradley

text: . In the 1880s several geological maps of the U.S. were produced.

text: William John McGee

text: offered a detailed description for the

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: in 1884. In 1887, Hitchcock produced a geological map of the U.S. and parts of Canada that was at the scale of 1 inch to 200 miles, with a review of the various maps of the U.S. that accompanied the geological map of the U.S. In 1895, McGee and J.B. Tolbert produced a 1:15,000,000 scale map of the geology of the U.S.

text: More recently, geologic mapping has been undertaken by the Georgia Geological Survey through the STATEMAP project. This project was funded from the National Geologic Mapping Act of 1992. This federal act was for the purpose of producing geologic maps that for 2 decades had been drastically curtailed.  It was recognized that “geologic maps are the primary data base for virtually all applied and basic earth-science applications”. This act provided 50% of the funds needed, whereas each state that wanted to participate supplied the other 50% of the funding to complete these various mapping projects. Ultimately this project was to be a part of the National Map and the subsequent databases generated by the various state and national mapping projects.

text: The Libre Map Project was started by Jared Benedict and around 100 additional individuals contributing money to purchase (or "liberate") a full set of 1:24K scale USGS topographic maps in Digital raster graphic form. The map files were then hosted by archive.org to ensure the map data will continue to be freely available to everyone indefinitely. 56,000 maps in Digital raster graphic form were acquired on DVDs for $1600 to make the data available. Additional data made available through the project includes SVG boundary files for every US state, Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (Tiger)/Line 2003 vector map data, and the USGS GeoNames database.

text: The Libre Map Project was started by Jared Benedict and around 100 additional individuals contributing money to purchase (or "liberate") a full set of 1:24K scale

text: USGS

text: topographic maps

text: in

text: Digital raster graphic

text: form. The map files were then hosted by

text: archive.org

text: to ensure the map data will continue to be freely available to everyone indefinitely. 56,000 maps in

text: Digital raster graphic

text: form were acquired on DVDs for $1600 to make the data available. Additional data made available through the project includes

text: SVG

text: boundary files for every US state,

entity_name: Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing

text: Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing

text: (Tiger)/Line 2003 vector map data, and the

text: USGS

text: GeoNames

text: database.

text: It is ranked 42d in elevation on the list of 48 White Mountains four-thousand footers. On the original 1931 list of 4000-footers, it was ranked 26th, with an elevation of 4,116 feet, although the 1931 topographic map shows it as 4,060 feet. The 1987 USGS topographic map indicates it is 4,043, while the elevation recorded in the USGS Geographic Names Information System is 4,019 ft.

text: It is ranked 42d in elevation on the list of 48

text: White Mountains

text: four-thousand footers

text: . On the original 1931 list of 4000-footers, it was ranked 26th, with an elevation of 4,116 feet, although the 1931 topographic map shows it as 4,060 feet. The 1987 USGS topographic map indicates it is 4,043, while the elevation recorded in the USGS Geographic Names Information System is 4,019 ft.

text: A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose map made to show geological features. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by color or symbols to indicate where they are exposed at the surface. Bedding planes and structural features such as faults, folds, foliations, and lineations are shown with strike and dip or trend and plunge symbols which give these features' three-dimensional orientations.

text: A geologic map or geological map is a special-purpose

text: map

text: made to show

text: geological

text: features.

text: Rock

text: units or

text: geologic strata

text: are shown by color or symbols to indicate where they are exposed at the surface.

text: Bedding planes

text: and structural features such as

text: faults

text: folds

text: foliations

text: , and

text: lineations

text: are shown with

text: strike and dip

text: or

text: trend and plunge

text: symbols which give these features' three-dimensional orientations.

text: Commencing in 1954, the Corps was again involved in surveys and mapping the New Guinea area, initially in cooperation with the United States Army Map Service for two years, and again as solely an Australian force from the early 1960s.  The 1956 survey (Project Cutlass) of ship-to-shore triangulation included a 300 kilometre theodolite and chain traverse on New Ireland. From 1962 the Corps resumed geodetic surveys as part of the National Geodetic Survey, linking to the global US HIRAN survey and the high order Division of National Mapping traverse and triangulation through the PNG highlands. There was a continuous Survey Corps presence in Papua New Guinea (PNG) from 1971 to 1995, with 8th Field Survey Squadron raised in PNG and based at Popondetta, Wewak and Port Moresby for geodetic surveys, topographic surveys, map compilation, field completion of compiled maps, to support the Papua New Guinea Defence Force and to provide advice to PNG National Mapping Bureau. During this period the Corps completed the national/defence mapping programme of scale 1:100,000 topographic maps covering the entire country, the derived 1:250,000 Joint Operations Graphic – Ground and Air charts, large scale military city orthophotomaps and participated with the Royal Australian Navy in beach surveys of most of the coastline. In the 1970s up to 60% of the Corps' capability was engaged on PNG surveys and mapping. This mapping programme was based on high altitude (40,000 feet) air photography, acquired by the Royal Australian Air Force using Canberra bombers fitted with Wild RC10 mapping cameras (Operation Skai Piksa), supported by Survey Corps surveyors and photogrammetrists to plan the photography requirements and for quality control to ensure that the photography met the high technical standards for the subsequent mapping processes.

text: Commencing in 1954, the Corps was again involved in surveys and mapping the New Guinea area, initially in cooperation with the United States

text: Army Map Service

text: for two years, and again as solely an Australian force from the early 1960s.  The 1956 survey (Project Cutlass) of ship-to-shore triangulation included a 300 kilometre theodolite and chain traverse on New Ireland. From 1962 the Corps resumed geodetic surveys as part of the National Geodetic Survey, linking to the global US HIRAN survey and the high order Division of National Mapping traverse and triangulation through the PNG highlands. There was a continuous Survey Corps presence in Papua New Guinea (PNG) from 1971 to 1995, with 8th Field Survey Squadron raised in PNG and based at

text: Popondetta

text: Wewak

text: and

text: Port Moresby

text: for geodetic surveys, topographic surveys, map compilation, field completion of compiled maps, to support the Papua New Guinea Defence Force and to provide advice to PNG National Mapping Bureau. During this period the Corps completed the national/defence mapping programme of scale 1:100,000 topographic maps covering the entire country, the derived 1:250,000 Joint Operations Graphic – Ground and Air charts, large scale military city orthophotomaps and participated with the Royal Australian Navy in beach surveys of most of the coastline. In the 1970s up to 60% of the Corps' capability was engaged on PNG surveys and mapping. This mapping programme was based on high altitude (40,000 feet) air photography, acquired by the Royal Australian Air Force using

text: Canberra bombers

text: fitted with Wild RC10 mapping cameras (Operation Skai Piksa), supported by Survey Corps surveyors and photogrammetrists to plan the photography requirements and for quality control to ensure that the photography met the high technical standards for the subsequent mapping processes.

text: The sensory areas are the cortical areas that receive and process information from the senses. Parts of the cortex that receive sensory inputs from the thalamus are called primary sensory areas. The senses of vision, audition, and touch are served by the primary visual cortex, primary auditory cortex and primary somatosensory cortex respectively. In general, the two hemispheres receive information from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body. For example, the right primary somatosensory cortex receives information from the left limbs, and the right visual cortex receives information from the left visual field. The organization of sensory maps in the cortex reflects that of the corresponding sensing organ, in what is known as a topographic map. Neighboring points in the primary visual cortex, for example, correspond to neighboring points in the retina. This topographic map is called a retinotopic map. In the same way, there exists a tonotopic map in the primary auditory cortex and a somatotopic map in the primary sensory cortex. This last topographic map of the body onto the posterior central gyrus has been illustrated as a deformed human representation, the somatosensory homunculus, where the size of different body parts reflects the relative density of their innervation. Areas with lots of sensory innervation, such as the fingertips and the lips, require more cortical area to process finer sensation.

text: The sensory areas are the

text: cortical area

text: s that receive and process information from the

text: senses

text: . Parts of the cortex that receive sensory inputs from the

text: thalamus

text: are called primary sensory areas. The senses of vision, audition, and touch are served by the primary

text: visual cortex

text: , primary

text: auditory cortex

text: and primary

text: somatosensory cortex

text: respectively. In general, the two hemispheres receive information from the opposite (contralateral) side of the

text: body

text: . For example, the right primary somatosensory cortex receives information from the left limbs, and the right visual cortex receives information from the left visual

text: field

text: . The organization of sensory maps in the cortex reflects that of the corresponding sensing organ, in what is known as a

text: topographic map

text: . Neighboring points in the primary

text: visual cortex

text: , for example, correspond to neighboring points in the

text: retina

text: . This

text: topographic map

text: is called a

text: retinotopic map

text: . In the same way, there exists a

text: tonotopic map

text: in the primary auditory cortex and a

text: somatotopic map

text: in the primary sensory cortex. This last topographic map of the body onto the

text: posterior central gyrus

text: has been illustrated as a deformed human representation, the somatosensory

text: homunculus

text: , where the size of different body parts reflects the relative density of their innervation. Areas with lots of sensory innervation, such as the fingertips and the lips, require more cortical area to process finer sensation.

text: Most 18th and early 19th century national surveys did not record relief across the entire area of coverage, calculating only spot elevations at survey points. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographical survey maps included contour representation of relief, and so maps that show relief, especially with exact representation of elevation, came to be called topographic maps (or "topo" maps) in the United States, and the usage has spread internationally.

text: Most 18th and early 19th century national

text: surveys

text: did not record relief across the entire area of coverage, calculating only spot elevations at survey points. The

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS) topographical survey maps included contour representation of relief, and so maps that show relief, especially with exact representation of elevation, came to be called topographic maps (or "topo" maps) in the

text: United States

text: , and the usage has spread internationally.

text: The Institut Géographique National (IGN) produces topographic maps of France at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. In addition, topographic maps are freely accessible online, through the Géoportail website.

text: The

text: Institut Géographique National

text: (IGN) produces topographic maps of

text: France

text: at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. In addition, topographic maps are freely accessible online, through the

text: Géoportail

text: website.

text: Dutch Topographic map of De Marne, June 2015

text: Starting with a topographic map, one can cut out successive layers from some sheet material, with edges following the contour lines on the map. These may be assembled in a stack to obtain a rough approximation of the terrain. This method is commonly used as the base for architectural models, and is usually done without vertical exaggeration. For models of landforms, the stack can then be smoothed by filling with some material. This model may be used directly, or for greater durability a mold may be made from it. This mold may then be used to produce a plaster model.

text: Starting with a

text: topographic map

text: , one can cut out successive layers from some sheet material, with edges following the

text: contour line

text: s on the map. These may be assembled in a stack to obtain a rough approximation of the terrain. This method is commonly used as the base for architectural models, and is usually done without

text: vertical exaggeration

text: . For models of landforms, the stack can then be smoothed by filling with some material. This model may be used directly, or for greater durability a mold may be made from it. This mold may then be used to produce a plaster model.

text: Though the French service has sometimes been described as a competitor or rival to Google Maps, it is different from Google's mapping service (launched one year before in February 2005), since they have different objectives. Geoportail makes some unusual cartographic sources available, such as the renowned 18th-century Cassini maps and the Napoléonic-period Minutes État-Major, in addition to IGN road maps, administrative maps, topographic maps, cadastral and building surveys, public service utility maps, transportation maps, hydrographic maps, atmospheric and weather maps, geological maps, land use maps, maps of cultural sites, and much more.  All maps and aerial photographs at Geoportail may be combined and viewed in transparent layers controlled by the user. The highest resolution of aerial photography, in general, is higher than what is available at Google Maps. Place names are identified and searchable for smallest villages and physical locations, beyond what is found on similar sites.

text: Though the French service has sometimes been described as a competitor or rival to

text: Google Maps

text: , it is different from

text: Google

text: 's mapping service (launched one year before in February 2005), since they have different objectives. Geoportail makes some unusual cartographic sources available, such as the renowned 18th-century

text: Cassini maps

text: and the Napoléonic-period Minutes État-Major, in addition to IGN road maps, administrative maps, topographic maps, cadastral and building surveys, public service utility maps, transportation maps, hydrographic maps, atmospheric and weather maps, geological maps, land use maps, maps of cultural sites, and much more.  All maps and aerial photographs at Geoportail may be combined and viewed in transparent layers controlled by the user. The highest resolution of aerial photography, in general, is higher than what is available at Google Maps. Place names are identified and searchable for smallest villages and physical locations, beyond what is found on similar sites.

text: Orienteering maps of an area of () in 1:10.000 and 1:15.000, contour interval 5 m.

text: The Department of Lands is the government agency responsible for surveying and publishing topographic maps of Hong Kong. Commonly used maps such as the HM20C series (1:20,000) are reviewed and updated every year or two. Very large scale (1:600 in Urban area and the 1:1,000 HM1C series for all of HK) topographic maps are also available to public for various uses.

text: At right is "The very earliest rendition of a bathymetric map of an oceanic basin. Matthew Fontaine Maury published this map in 1853 in Explanations and Sailing Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current Charts."

text: At right is "The very earliest rendition of a bathymetric map of an oceanic basin.

text: Matthew Fontaine Maury

text: published this map in 1853 in Explanations and Sailing Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current Charts."

text: On the 1935 topographic map, the "Upper Ammonoosuc Trail" crossed Kilkenny along Priscilla Brook and through the pass from the Keenan Brook area of Randolph, north of Pliny Mountain. This trail has since been abandoned, although a 2002 atlas of New Hampshire shows a "Priscilla Brook Trail" in the same location.

text: On the 1935 topographic map, the "Upper Ammonoosuc Trail" crossed Kilkenny along Priscilla Brook and through the pass from the Keenan Brook area of

text: Randolph

text: , north of Pliny Mountain. This trail has since been abandoned, although a 2002 atlas of New Hampshire shows a "Priscilla Brook Trail" in the same location.

text: This field of geoscience and planetary science is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief but also natural and artificial features, and even local history and culture. This meaning is less common in the United States, where topographic maps with elevation contours have made "topography" synonymous with relief. The older sense of topography as the study of place still has currency in Europe.

text: This field of

text: geoscience

text: and

text: planetary science

text: is concerned with local detail in general, including not only

text: relief

text: but also

text: natural

text: and

text: artificial

text: features, and even

text: local history

text: and

text: culture

text: . This meaning is less common in the

text: United States

text: , where topographic maps with

text: elevation

text: contours have made "topography" synonymous with relief. The older sense of topography as the study of place still has currency in

text: Europe

text: On topographic maps woods and forests are generally depicted in a soft green colour. Their edges are - like other features - usually determined from aerial photographs, but sometimes also by terrestrial survey. However, they only represent a snapshot in time because almost all woods have a tendency to spread or to gradually fill clearings. In addition, working out the exact edge of the wood or forest may be difficult where it transitions into scrub or bushes or the trees thin out slowly. Differences of opinion here often involved several tens of metres. In addition, many cartographers prefer to show even small islands of trees, while others – depending on the scale of the map – prefer more general, continuous lines to demarcate the forest or woodland edges.

text: On

text: topographic map

text: s woods and forests are generally depicted in a soft green colour. Their edges are - like other features - usually determined from

text: aerial photograph

text: s, but sometimes also by

text: terrestrial

text: survey

text: . However, they only represent a snapshot in time because almost all woods have a tendency to spread or to gradually fill

text: clearing

text: s. In addition, working out the exact edge of the wood or forest may be difficult where it transitions into

text: scrub

text: or

text: bush

text: es or the trees thin out slowly. Differences of opinion here often involved several tens of metres. In addition, many

text: cartographer

text: s prefer to show even small islands of trees, while others – depending on the

text: scale

text: of the map – prefer

text: more general

text: , continuous lines to demarcate the forest or woodland edges.

text: OpenStreetMap (OSM), a citizen-led spatial data collection website, was founded by Steve Coast in 2004 (see right for OSM home page). Data are collected from diverse public domain sources; of which GPS tracks are the most important, collected by volunteers with GPS receivers.  As of 10 January 2011 there were 340,522 registered OSM users, who had uploaded 2.121 billion GPS points onto the website. The process of map creation explicitly relies upon sharing and participation; consequently, every registered OSM user can edit any part of the map. Moreover, 'map parties' - social events which aim to fill gaps in coverage, help foster a community ethos. In short, the grassroots OSM project can be seen to represent a paradigm shift in who creates and shares geographic information - from the state, to society. However, rather than countering the state-dominated cartographic project, some commentators have affirmed that OSM merely replicates the 'old' socio-economic order. For instance, Haklay affirmed that OSM users in the United Kingdom tend not to map council estates; consequently, middle-class areas are disproportionately mapped. Thus, in opposition to notions that OSM is a radical cartographic counter-culture, are contentions that OSM "simply recreates a mirror copy of existing topographic mapping".

text: OpenStreetMap

text: (OSM), a citizen-led spatial data collection website, was founded by

text: Steve Coast

text: in 2004 (see right for OSM home page). Data are collected from diverse public domain sources; of which

text: GPS

text: tracks are the most important, collected by volunteers with GPS receivers.  As of 10 January 2011 there were 340,522 registered OSM users, who had uploaded 2.121 billion GPS points onto the website. The process of map creation explicitly relies upon sharing and participation; consequently, every registered OSM user can edit any part of the map. Moreover, 'map parties' - social events which aim to fill gaps in coverage, help foster a community ethos. In short, the

text: grassroots

text: OSM project can be seen to represent a

text: paradigm shift

text: in who creates and shares geographic information - from the state, to society. However, rather than countering the state-dominated cartographic project, some commentators have affirmed that OSM merely replicates the 'old' socio-economic order. For instance, Haklay affirmed that OSM users in the United Kingdom tend not to map council estates; consequently, middle-class areas are disproportionately mapped. Thus, in opposition to notions that OSM is a radical cartographic counter-culture, are contentions that OSM "simply recreates a mirror copy of existing

text: topographic mapping

text: All elevations use the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88), the currently accepted vertical control datum for United States, Canada and Mexico. Elevations are from the National Geodetic Survey (NGS) when available. Others are from the United States Geological Survey topographic maps when available. These can be found on the Peakbagger.com web pages. Elevations followed by a plus sign (+) were interpolated by the compiler using topographic map contour lines. The true elevation is between that shown and the elevation plus the contour line interval which is forty feet in most instances. Elevations from the NGS are rounded to the nearest whole number.

text: All elevations use the

text: North American Vertical Datum of 1988

text: National Geodetic Survey

text: (NGS) when available. Others are from the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: topographic maps

text: when available. These can be found on the Peakbagger.com web pages. Elevations followed by a plus sign (+) were interpolated by the compiler using topographic map

text: contour lines

text: . The true elevation is between that shown and the elevation plus the contour line interval which is forty feet in most instances. Elevations from the NGS are rounded to the nearest whole number.

text: In the 14th century, the mountain was recorded as the Blauwen or Blawen. Matthäus Merian's Topographia Sueviae in the mid-17th century calls it the Hoche Blawen ("High Blawen"). The parish boundary plan of the first Baden state survey of 1769/1770 distinguishes between the Hoch Blauen ("High Blauen") and the Hinter Blauen ("Posterior Blauen"), a  sub-peak,  north-northeast of the main summit. As the Blauen M[ons] the mountain is shown on the Black Forest map owned by St. Blaise Abbey dating to the year 1788. And in 1845 in the Topographischen Atlas ueber das Grossherzogtum Baden ("Topographic Atlas of the Grand Duchy of Baden") it is called the Blauen, as in other geographical publications of the 19th century. In addition in 19th century travel literature the name Hochblauen occurs frequently, sometimes with the explanation that this is to distinguish it from the Zeller Blauen,  away. In fact, the name Hochblauen was normal for the latter on as shown on topographic maps of the time, while the mountain near Badenweiler can still be found on maps today as the Blauen.

text: In the 14th century, the mountain was recorded as the Blauwen or Blawen.

text: Matthäus Merian

text: 's

text: Topographia Sueviae

text: in the mid-17th century calls it the Hoche Blawen ("High Blawen"). The parish boundary plan of the first Baden state survey of 1769/1770 distinguishes between the Hoch Blauen ("High Blauen") and the Hinter Blauen ("Posterior Blauen"), a  sub-peak,  north-northeast of the main summit. As the Blauen M[ons] the mountain is shown on the Black Forest map owned by

text: St. Blaise Abbey

text: dating to the year 1788. And in 1845 in the Topographischen Atlas ueber das Grossherzogtum Baden ("Topographic Atlas of the Grand Duchy of Baden") it is called the Blauen, as in other geographical publications of the 19th century. In addition in 19th century travel literature the name Hochblauen occurs frequently, sometimes with the explanation that this is to distinguish it from the

text: Zeller Blauen

text: ,  away. In fact, the name Hochblauen was normal for the latter on as shown on topographic maps of the time, while the mountain near Badenweiler can still be found on maps today as the Blauen.

text: Shortly after statehood, the California state government appointed its first State Geologist and began commissioning geologic surveys of their own.  The state appointed John B. Trask to the position of State Geologist and he served from 1850 to 1856.  He compiled a report entitled "On the Geology of the Sierra Nevada, or California Range."The second State Geologist, Josiah Whitney, served from 1860 to 1873.  Whitney organized the first comprehensive survey of California and the first complete topographic maps of the state were completed under him.  Mount Whitney, the tallest peak in California is named after him, a testament to his legacy.The State Mining Bureau was established in 1880, and the position of State Geologist was changed to State Mineralogist.  In 1891, the first state geologic map showing eight color stratigraphic regions was published. The second geologic map of the state was published in 1916 and shows twenty one stratigraphic regions.The State Mining Bureau was renamed the Division of Mines and Geology in 1862.  Its pseudonym, the California Geologic Survey, was established in January 2002.

text: Shortly after statehood, the California state government appointed its first State Geologist and began commissioning geologic surveys of their own.  The state appointed John B. Trask to the position of State Geologist and he served from 1850 to 1856.  He compiled a report entitled "On the Geology of the Sierra Nevada, or California Range."The second State Geologist,

text: Josiah Whitney

text: , served from 1860 to 1873.  Whitney organized the first comprehensive survey of California and the first complete topographic maps of the state were completed under him.  Mount Whitney, the tallest peak in California is named after him, a testament to his legacy.The State Mining Bureau was established in 1880, and the position of State Geologist was changed to State Mineralogist.  In 1891, the first state

text: geologic map

text: showing eight color stratigraphic regions was published. The second geologic map of the state was published in 1916 and shows twenty one stratigraphic regions.The State Mining Bureau was renamed the Division of Mines and Geology in 1862.  Its pseudonym, the California Geologic Survey, was established in January 2002.

text: Digital geologic mapping is the process by which geological features  are observed, analyzed, and recorded in the field and displayed in real-time on a computer or personal digital assistant (PDA). The primary function of this emerging technology is to produce spatially referenced geologic maps that can be utilized and updated while conducting field work.

text: Digital geologic mapping is the process by which

text: geological features

text: are observed, analyzed, and recorded in the field and displayed in real-time on a computer or

text: personal digital assistant

text: PDA

text: ). The primary function of this

text: emerging technology

text: is to produce

text: spatially referenced

text: geologic maps

text: that can be utilized and updated while conducting

text: field work

text: Topographic map of Barendrecht (town), Sept. 2014

text: The Centre for Topographic Information produces topographic maps of Canada at scales of 1:50,000 and 1:250,000. They are known as the National Topographic System (NTS). A government proposal to discontinue publishing of all hardcopy or paper topographic maps in favor of digital-only mapping data was shelved in 2005 after intense public opposition.

text: The Centre for Topographic Information produces topographic maps of

text: Canada

text: at scales of 1:50,000 and 1:250,000. They are known as the

text: National Topographic System

text: (NTS). A government proposal to discontinue publishing of all hardcopy or paper topographic maps in favor of digital-only mapping data was shelved in 2005 after intense public opposition.

text: Good contour on the map can be described as the viewer’s ability to continue the line throughout the map. The figure is formed by a contour or outline (as opposed to an isometric contour line), the common boundary between the figure and ground, usually through a brightness contrast. If a figure is not separated entirely from the ground, a simple black contour line can be drawn around the figure enclosing it and thus differentiating it from the ground.

text: Good contour on the map can be described as the viewer’s ability to continue the line throughout the map. The figure is formed by a contour or outline (as opposed to an isometric

text: contour line

text: ), the common boundary between the figure and ground, usually through a brightness contrast. If a figure is not separated entirely from the ground, a simple black contour line can be drawn around the figure enclosing it and thus differentiating it from the ground.

text: The National Topographic System or NTS () is the system used by Natural Resources Canada for providing general purpose topographic maps of the country. NTS maps are available in a variety of scales, the standard being 1/50,000 and 1/250,000 scales. The maps provide details on landforms and terrain, lakes and rivers, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features. These maps are currently used by all levels of government and industry for forest fire and flood control (as well as other environmental issues), depiction of crop areas, right-of-way, real estate planning, development of natural resources and highway planning.

text: The National Topographic System or NTS () is the system used by

text: Natural Resources

text: Canada

text: for providing general purpose

text: topographic

text: map

text: s of the country. NTS maps are available in a variety of scales, the standard being 1/50,000 and 1/250,000 scales. The maps provide details on landforms and

text: terrain

text: lake

text: s and

text: river

text: s, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features. These maps are currently used by all levels of government and industry for forest fire and flood control (as well as other environmental issues), depiction of crop areas, right-of-way, real estate planning, development of natural resources and highway planning.

text: Manual labeling of contour maps is a time-consuming process, however, there are a few software systems that can do the job automatically and in accordance with cartographic conventions, called automatic label placement.

text: Manual labeling of contour maps is a time-consuming process, however, there are a few software systems that can do the job automatically and in accordance with cartographic conventions, called

text: automatic label placement

text: The contour line of the surface

text: The contour line of the surface

text: Mount Pocaterra is a rocky formation was named after the Pocaterra Creek in the same region. The Pocaterra creek receives its name due to the Italian and Venezuelan descent family of businessman. The area was heavily explored and controlled by Venezuelan explorer and businessman Edgar Pocaterra. It is located in the Elk Range in Alberta.This peak is located on the crest of the ridge, about 1.5 km north of Mount Tyrwhitt. It is not labelled on the 1:50,000 map. On the map, this is a long, thin ridge-like peak running north-south. and joined to the lower Mount Tyrwhitt. The peak is reportedly a double summit, with the north summit slightly higher. (On the 1:50,000 map there is no contour shown for the double summit).

text: Mount Pocaterra is a rocky formation was named after the Pocaterra Creek in the same region. The Pocaterra creek receives its name due to the Italian and Venezuelan descent family of businessman. The area was heavily explored and controlled by Venezuelan explorer and businessman Edgar Pocaterra. It is located in the Elk Range in

text: Alberta

text: .This peak is located on the crest of the ridge, about 1.5 km north of Mount Tyrwhitt. It is not labelled on the 1:50,000 map. On the map, this is a long, thin ridge-like peak running north-south. and joined to the lower Mount Tyrwhitt. The peak is reportedly a

text: double summit

text: , with the north summit slightly higher. (On the 1:50,000 map there is no contour shown for the

text: double summit

text: At Sellersville the former station at Main Street and Walnut Street is now a dental office. It served as a police station in the late 1950s. The Quakertown station at the northwest corner of Main and Broad has a mural on a back wall depicting one of the LVT's 1000 Series Liberty Bell Limited former Cincinnati and Lake Erie high speed interurbans. The house-like two story Hatfield station is now the Trolley Station cafe. Inside this cafe there are photographs of LVT cars, LVT locations, and a 1938 schedule of operations. South of this building, part of the former LVT right-of-way, including an original 1916 culvert, is a paved walking and biking trail called the Liberty Bell Trail. Some of the former LVT right of way is visible from satellite as a faint scar across the countryside north of Quakertown. The DeLorme Company's "Pennsylvania Atlas and Gazetteer Topographic Maps" book shows "old railroad grades" as a faint dashed red line on their maps. There is a dashed line shown running from Quakertown to Center Valley at present day Route 309; LVT periodically ran adjacent to PA Route 309.

text: At

text: Sellersville

text: the former station at Main Street and Walnut Street is now a dental office. It served as a police station in the late 1950s. The

text: Quakertown

text: station at the northwest corner of Main and Broad has a mural on a back wall depicting one of the LVT's 1000 Series Liberty Bell Limited former Cincinnati and Lake Erie high speed interurbans. The house-like two story

text: Hatfield

text: station is now the Trolley Station cafe. Inside this cafe there are photographs of LVT cars, LVT locations, and a 1938 schedule of operations. South of this building, part of the former LVT right-of-way, including an original 1916 culvert, is a

text: paved walking and biking trail

text: called the

text: Liberty Bell Trail

text: . Some of the former LVT right of way is visible from satellite as a faint scar across the countryside north of Quakertown. The DeLorme Company's "Pennsylvania Atlas and Gazetteer Topographic Maps" book shows "old railroad grades" as a faint dashed red line on their maps. There is a dashed line shown running from Quakertown to Center Valley at present day

text: Route 309

text: ; LVT periodically ran adjacent to PA Route 309.

text: When referring to geographic features such as mountains on a topographic map, variations in elevation are shown by contour lines. The elevation of a mountain denotes the highest point or summit and is typically illustrated as a small circle on a topographic map with the AMSL height shown in metres, feet or both.

text: When referring to

text: geographic

text: features such as mountains on a

text: topographic map

text: , variations in elevation are shown by

text: contour line

text: s. The elevation of a mountain denotes the highest point or summit and is typically illustrated as a small circle on a topographic map with the AMSL

text: height

text: shown in metres, feet or both.

text: It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with isopleth or contour lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the viability of water power potential as a renewable energy source. Similarly, GIS can be used to compare other renewable energy resources to find the best geographic potential for a region.

text: It is difficult to relate

text: wetlands

text: maps to

text: rainfall

text: amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with

text: isopleth

text: or

text: contour line

text: s that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the viability of

text: water power

text: potential as a

text: renewable energy

text: source. Similarly, GIS can be used to compare other

text: renewable energy

text: resources to find the best geographic potential for a region.

text: Arndt, J.E., Schenke, H.W., Jakobsson, M., Nitsche, F.O., Buys, G., Goleby, B., Rebesco, M., Bohoyo, F., Hong, J., Black, J. and Greku, R et al.  2013. The International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean (IBCSO) Version 1.0—A new bathymetric compilation covering circum‐Antarctic waters.Geophysical Research Letters, 40(12), pp. 3111–3117.

text: With the advent of the Second World War aviation, field surveys began giving way to photogrammetry, photo interpretation, and geodesy. During wartime, it became increasingly possible to compile maps with minimal field work. Out of this emerged AMS, which absorbed the existing ERP in May 1942. It was located at the Dalecarlia Site (including buildings now named for John C. Frémont and Charles H. Ruth) on MacArthur Blvd., just outside Washington, D.C., in Montgomery County, Maryland, and adjacent to the Dalecarlia Reservoir. AMS was designated as an Engineer field activity, effective July 1, 1942, by General Order 22, OCE, June 19, 1942. The Army Map Service also combined many of the Army's remaining geographic intelligence organizations and the Engineer Technical Intelligence Division. AMS was redesignated the U.S. Army Topographic Command (USATC) on September 1, 1968, and continued as an independent organization until 1972, when it was merged into the new Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) and redesignated as the DMA Topographic Center (DMATC) (see below).

text: With the advent of the

text: Second World War

text: aviation, field surveys began giving way to

text: photogrammetry

entity_name: Aerial photographic and satellite image interpretation

text: photo interpretation

text: , and

text: geodesy

text: . During wartime, it became increasingly possible to compile maps with minimal field work. Out of this emerged AMS, which absorbed the existing ERP in May 1942. It was located at the Dalecarlia Site (including buildings now named for

text: John C. Frémont

text: and

text: Charles H. Ruth

text: ) on MacArthur Blvd., just outside Washington, D.C., in Montgomery County, Maryland, and adjacent to the

text: Dalecarlia Reservoir

text: . AMS was designated as an Engineer field activity, effective July 1, 1942, by General Order 22, OCE, June 19, 1942. The

text: Army Map Service

text: also combined many of the Army's remaining geographic intelligence organizations and the Engineer Technical Intelligence Division. AMS was redesignated the U.S. Army Topographic Command (USATC) on September 1, 1968, and continued as an independent organization until 1972, when it was merged into the new Defense Mapping Agency (DMA) and redesignated as the DMA Topographic Center (DMATC) (see below).

text: The brand produces lines with names such as "Bod-a-Bing!" and "Hide & Sleek". In 2009, Spanx launched a deluxe collection called "Haute Contour" that included items such as a lace thong with waist reinforcements and color options like pink. Following the release, Blakely explained: "I said, 'Let's make it beautiful ... like shapewear in disguise,'"

text: At the beginning of the twentieth century mapping the seafloor was a very difficult task. The mapping of the sea floor started by using sound waves which were contoured into isobaths and early bathymetric charts of shelf topography provided the first insight into seafloor morphology. Due to horizontal positional accuracy and imprecise depth lead to mapping mistakes. It wasn't until the mid-twenties though, that the first achievements in visualizing the sea and ocean floors was made, when Marie Tharp, working alongside with Bruce Charles Heezen created the first three-dimensional physiographic map of the world's ocean basins in 1997.

text: At the beginning of the twentieth century mapping the seafloor was a very difficult task. The mapping of the sea floor started by using

text: sound waves

text: which were contoured into

text: isobaths

text: and early bathymetric charts of shelf topography provided the first insight into seafloor morphology. Due to horizontal positional accuracy and imprecise depth lead to mapping mistakes. It wasn't until the mid-twenties though, that the first achievements in visualizing the sea and ocean floors was made, when

text: Marie Tharp

text: , working alongside with

text: Bruce Charles Heezen

text: created the first three-dimensional physiographic map of the world's ocean basins in 1997.

text: An old stalkers' path from the ruined cottage should guide the climber to a point just below a ridge at about 650 metres. The path was well built in its time but some sections have become wet and slippery. On gaining the ridge, turn left and follow the ridge to the 894 m triangulation point. The ridge becomes steep near the top but the steepest section can be bypassed. Contrary to the implication of the 1:50,000 Landranger map, several websites and the 1990 edition of the Scottish Mountaineering Club publication The Corbetts and other Scottish Hills, the true summit lies about 600 metres to the north west of the triangulation point. List tickers should therefore turn right along the main ridge of the range and continue for about 600 metres to the main summit, which is not shown on any map. About 300 m further along the ridge is an 881 m summit, which is shown on topographic maps.

text: An old stalkers' path from the ruined cottage should guide the climber to a point just below a ridge at about 650 metres. The path was well built in its time but some sections have become wet and slippery. On gaining the ridge, turn left and follow the ridge to the 894 m triangulation point. The ridge becomes steep near the top but the steepest section can be bypassed. Contrary to the implication of the 1:50,000 Landranger map, several websites and the 1990 edition of the

text: Scottish Mountaineering Club

text: publication The Corbetts and other Scottish Hills, the true summit lies about 600 metres to the north west of the triangulation point. List tickers should therefore turn right along the main ridge of the range and continue for about 600 metres to the main summit, which is not shown on any map. About 300 m further along the ridge is an 881 m summit, which is shown on topographic maps.

text: In economics, contour lines can be used to describe features which vary quantitatively over space. An isochrone shows lines of equivalent drive time or travel time to a given location and is used in the generation of isochrone maps. An isotim shows equivalent transport costs from the source of a raw material, and an isodapane shows equivalent cost of travel time.

text: In

text: economics

text: , contour lines can be used to describe features which vary quantitatively over space. An

text: isochrone

text: shows lines of equivalent drive time or travel time to a given location and is used in the generation of

text: isochrone map

text: s. An isotim shows equivalent transport costs from the source of a raw material, and an

text: isodapane

text: shows equivalent cost of travel time.

text: Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines. Contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude (isohypse). In other words, every point on the marked line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level.

text: Topographic maps conventionally show

text: topography

text: , or land contours, by means of

text: contour line

text: s. Contour lines are

text: curve

text: s that connect contiguous points of the same

text: altitude

text: isohypse

text: ). In other words, every point on the marked line of 100 m

text: elevation

text: is 100 m above mean sea level.

text: These maps may be thought of as a mapping of the surface of the body onto the brain structure. Phrased another way, topographic maps are organized in the neural system in a manner that is a projection of the sensory surface onto the brain. This means that the organization in the periphery mirrors the order of the information processing in the brain. This organization can be somatotopic, as in the tactile sense of touch, or tonotopic, as in the ear, and the retinotopic map which is laid out in the brain as the cells are arranged on the retina.

text: In 1809, still under the Napoleonic Act of Mediation, the first topographical surveys of Switzerland took place on a confederate, military level. They took place in the north-eastern area and were led by Hans Conrad Finsler. Measurements in the alpine region started in the period of Restauration, in 1825, with triangulations by Antoine-Joseph Buchwalder. This work would be finished in 1837 by Johannes Eschmann. Directly hereafter, at New Year 1838, the Topographical Bureau (Eidgenössisches Topographisches Bureau) is founded in Carouge, Geneve by Guillaume Henri Dufour. This bureau publishes its first map the same year, the Carte topographique du Canton de Genève. Topographic surveys also start in the alpine regions of Switzerland. This has its first results in 1845, a year later than planned, when a map scaled 1:100.000 is published. This is the start of the so-called Dufour Map. The topographic surveys finish in 1862. To honour Dufour, the Swiss government decides to rename the highest peak on the Dufour Map from Höchste Spitze to Dufourspitze: it still carries that name today. In 1863, the SAC published a 1:50.000 map of the region Tödi, based on unpublished survey material. A year later, the last page of the Dufour Map is published, and one year later still, Dufour retires and Hermann Siegfried becomes the Chief op the Topographical Bureau.

text: In 1809, still under the Napoleonic

text: Act of Mediation

text: , the first topographical surveys of

text: Switzerland

text: took place on a confederate, military level. They took place in the north-eastern area and were led by

text: Hans Conrad Finsler

text: . Measurements in the alpine region started in the period of

entity_name: Restoration and Regeneration in Switzerland

text: Restauration

text: , in 1825, with triangulations by

text: Antoine-Joseph Buchwalder

text: . This work would be finished in 1837 by

text: Johannes Eschmann

text: . Directly hereafter, at New Year 1838, the Topographical Bureau (Eidgenössisches Topographisches Bureau) is founded in

text: Carouge

text: Geneve

text: by

text: Guillaume Henri Dufour

text: . This bureau publishes its first map the same year, the Carte topographique du Canton de Genève. Topographic surveys also start in the alpine regions of Switzerland. This has its first results in 1845, a year later than planned, when a map scaled 1:100.000 is published. This is the start of the so-called Dufour Map. The topographic surveys finish in 1862. To honour

text: Dufour

text: , the Swiss government decides to rename the highest peak on the Dufour Map from Höchste Spitze to

text: Dufourspitze

text: : it still carries that name today. In 1863, the

text: SAC

text: published a 1:50.000 map of the region

text: Tödi

text: , based on unpublished survey material. A year later, the last page of the Dufour Map is published, and one year later still, Dufour retires and

text: Hermann Siegfried

text: becomes the Chief op the Topographical Bureau.

text: Consider, for purposes of illustration, a mountainous landscape M.  If f is the function M → R sending each point to its elevation, then the inverse image of a point in R (a level set) is a contour line.  Each connected component of a contour line is either a point, a simple closed curve, or a closed curve with a double point.  Contour lines may also have points of higher order (triple points, etc.), but these are unstable and may be removed by a slight deformation of the landscape.  Double points in contour lines occur at saddle points, or passes.  Saddle points are points where the surrounding landscape curves up in one direction and down in the other.

text: Consider, for purposes of illustration, a mountainous landscape M.  If f is the

text: function

text: M → R sending each

text: point

text: to its elevation, then the

text: inverse image

text: of a point in R (a

text: level set

text: ) is a

text: contour line

text: .  Each connected component of a contour line is either a point, a simple

text: closed curve

text: , or a closed curve with a

text: double point

text: .  Contour lines may also have points of higher order (triple points, etc.), but these are unstable and may be removed by a slight deformation of the landscape.  Double points in contour lines occur at

text: saddle points

text: , or passes.  Saddle points are points where the surrounding landscape curves up in one direction and down in the other.

text: The only sighting referenced shows a date of 1926. The topographic data supplied by the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO), however, shows a sea depth of . It is therefore likely that this 1926 report is an error, and that Filippo Reef is a phantom island, and that therefore any maps showing it are relying on the 1926 report and are also in error.

text: The only sighting referenced shows a date of 1926. The topographic data supplied by the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO), however, shows a sea depth of . It is therefore likely that this 1926 report is an error, and that Filippo Reef is a

text: phantom island

text: , and that therefore any maps showing it are relying on the 1926 report and are also in error.

text: Vischer was born in Wenns (Tyrol).  Despite his clerical vocation, geography and topographical surveys were Vischer's true calling. On behalf of nobility and clergy he compiled maps and created engravings and drawings of more than 1000 cities, castles, manors, abbeys and cloisters in the regions of Lower Austria, Upper Austria, Upper Styria, Lower Styria, Moravia and Hungary. In most cases Vischer's engravings are amongst the oldest preserved depections of these structures. He is regarded as one of the most important Austrian cartographers and topographers of his time.  He died, aged 58, in Linz (Upper Austria).

text: Vischer was born in

text: Wenns

text: Tyrol

text: ).  Despite his clerical vocation,

text: geography

text: and

text: topographical surveys

text: were Vischer's true calling. On behalf of

text: nobility

text: and clergy he compiled maps and created engravings and drawings of more than 1000 cities, castles, manors, abbeys and cloisters in the regions of

text: Lower Austria

text: Upper Austria

text: Upper Styria

text: Lower Styria

text: Moravia

text: and

text: Hungary

text: . In most cases Vischer's

text: engravings

text: are amongst the oldest preserved depections of these structures. He is regarded as one of the most important Austrian

text: cartographers

text: and topographers of his time.  He died, aged 58, in

text: Linz

text: Upper Austria

text: Alfred H. Brooks also complimented Major Bagley in his preface to his USGS Bulletin: "The plate camera has heen used for many years in topographic surveying in the United States and Canada, as well as in many European coimtries, and since 1910 J. W. Bagley, a topographic engineer of the United States Geological Survey, has been employing the panoramic film camera in conjunction with the plane table in surveys in Alaska. Mr. Bagley has devised some new instruments and methods and has proved conclusively that the panoramic camera is extremely valuable in certain kinds of topographic work. Some of the results of his phototopographic surveys are presented in the maps accompanying this bulletin. These maps give conclusive evidence of the refinements that are made possible by the use of that instrument. The methods and instruments here described have thus far been used only in Alaska, but they promise to have a wider appUcation in topographic surveys; hence this bulletin has been prepared. As the camera is used in conjunction with the plane table the bulletin includes also a brief account of the uses of the plane table. Mr. Bagley shows clearly that the field cost of surveys made by the use of the panoramic camera and plane table is far lower than that of surveys made by the plane table alone, and though the compilation of the field data in the office is more laborious the final cost of the completed map is nevertheless lower. The methods here described are especially applicable to regions where the field season is short, the field cost high, and the climatic conditions adverse to topographic work."

text: The theory of standard probability spaces was started by von Neumann in 1932 and shaped by Vladimir Rokhlin in 1940. Rokhlin showed that the unit interval endowed with the Lebesgue measure has important advantages over general probability spaces, yet can be effectively substituted for many of these in probability theory. The dimension of the unit interval is not an obstacle, as was clear already to Norbert Wiener. He constructed the Wiener process (also called Brownian motion) in the form of a measurable map from the unit interval to the space of continuous functions.

text: The theory of standard probability spaces was started by

text: von Neumann

text: in 1932 and shaped by

text: Vladimir Rokhlin

text: in 1940. Rokhlin showed that the

text: unit interval

text: endowed with the

text: Lebesgue measure

text: has important advantages over general probability spaces, yet can be effectively substituted for many of these in probability theory. The dimension of the unit interval is not an obstacle, as was clear already to

text: Norbert Wiener

text: . He constructed the

text: Wiener process

text: (also called

text: Brownian motion

text: ) in the form of a

text: measurable

text: map

text: from the unit interval to the

text: space of continuous functions

text: Whiting conducted hydrographic and bathymetric surveys involving nautical charting and ocean mapping, primarily along the United States East Coast and United States Gulf Coast and off territories of the United States in the Caribbean. She also imaged historical wrecks like that of the United States Navy monitor  and was used for oceanography, fisheries research, and homeland security surveys. During her 39-year career, her operations took her from as far north as Duluth, Minnesota, to as far south as Honduras in Central America.

text: Whiting conducted

text: hydrographic

text: and

text: bathymetric

text: surveys involving nautical charting and ocean mapping, primarily along the

text: United States East Coast

text: and

text: United States Gulf Coast

text: and off

text: territories of the United States

text: in the

text: Caribbean

text: . She also imaged historical wrecks like that of the

text: United States Navy

text: monitor

text: and was used for

text: oceanography

text: fisheries

text: research, and

text: homeland security

text: surveys. During her 39-year career, her operations took her from as far north as

text: Duluth

text: Minnesota

text: , to as far south as

text: Honduras

text: in

text: Central America

text: TERCOM, for "terrain contour matching", uses altitude maps of the strip of land from the launch site to the target, and compares them with information from a radar altimeter on board. More sophisticated TERCOM systems allow the missile to fly a complex route over a full 3D map, instead of flying directly to the target. TERCOM is the typical system for cruise missile guidance, but is being supplanted by GPS systems and by DSMAC, Digital Scene-Matching Area Correlator, which employs a camera to view an area of land, digitizes the view, and compares it to stored scenes in an onboard computer to guide the missile to its target.

text: TERCOM

text: , for "terrain contour matching", uses altitude maps of the strip of land from the launch site to the target, and compares them with information from a

text: radar altimeter

text: on board. More sophisticated TERCOM systems allow the missile to fly a complex route over a full 3D map, instead of flying directly to the target. TERCOM is the typical system for

text: cruise missile

text: guidance, but is being supplanted by

text: GPS

text: systems and by

text: DSMAC

text: , Digital Scene-Matching Area Correlator, which employs a camera to view an area of land, digitizes the view, and compares it to stored scenes in an onboard computer to guide the missile to its target.

text: GEBCO operates under the joint auspices of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO.  Its work is done by an international group of experts in seafloor mapping who develop a range of bathymetric data sets and data products.

text: GEBCO operates under the joint auspices of the

text: International Hydrographic Organization

text: (IHO). and the

text: Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission

text: (IOC) of UNESCO.  Its work is done by an international group of experts in seafloor mapping who develop a range of bathymetric data sets and data products.

text: Charles H. Ruth (1889–1949) was considered the founding father of the Army Map Service. Ruth was first commanding officer of the Army Engineer Reproduction Plant (ERP).  Prior to 1917 the Army Corps of Engineers compiled and drafted maps. Reproduction was accomplished by the Department of the Interior or commercial facilities. The ERP was the predecessor organization to the Army Map Service, Army Topographic Command, Defense Mapping Agency and now National Geospatial Intelligence Agency.

text: Charles H. Ruth (1889–1949) was considered the founding father of the

text: Army Map Service

text: . Ruth was first commanding officer of the Army

text: Engineer Reproduction Plant

text: (ERP).  Prior to 1917 the

text: Army Corps of Engineers

text: compiled and drafted maps. Reproduction was accomplished by the

text: Department of the Interior

text: or commercial facilities. The ERP was the predecessor organization to the Army Map Service,

text: Army Topographic Command

text: Defense Mapping Agency

text: and now

text: National Geospatial Intelligence Agency

text: Although originally GEBCO published paper contour charts, today it has moved into the digital age and collects digital depths of the ocean from wherever they are available. GEBCO provides a range of bathymetric data sets and data products, including:

text: Although originally GEBCO published paper

text: contour charts

text: , today it has moved into the digital age and collects digital depths of the ocean from wherever they are available. GEBCO provides a range of bathymetric data sets and data products, including:

text: File:Occator topograpy Dawn CERES Oct 2015.jpg|<center>Topographic map

text: Maps of the world or large areas are often either 'political' or 'physical'. The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial borders; the purpose of the physical is to show features of geography such as mountains, soil type or land use including infrastructure such as roads, railroads and buildings. Topographic maps show elevations and relief with contour lines or shading. Geological maps show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock, fault lines, and subsurface structures.Maps that depict the surface of the Earth also use a projection, a way of translating the three-dimensional real surface of the geoid to a two-dimensional picture. Perhaps the best-known world-map projection is the Mercator projection, originally designed as a form of nautical chart.Aeroplane pilots use aeronautical charts based on a Lambert conformal conic projection, in which a cone is laid over the section of the earth to be mapped. The cone intersects the sphere (the earth) at one or two parallels which are chosen as standard lines. This allows the pilots to plot a great-circle route approximation on a flat, two-dimensional chart.

text: Maps of the world or large areas are often either 'political' or 'physical'. The most important purpose of the political map is to show territorial

text: border

text: s; the purpose of the physical is to show features of

text: geography

text: such as mountains, soil type or land use including infrastructure such as roads, railroads and buildings.

text: Topographic map

text: s show

text: elevation

text: s and

text: relief

text: with

text: contour line

text: s or shading.

text: Geological map

text: s show not only the physical surface, but characteristics of the underlying rock,

text: fault

text: lines, and subsurface structures.Maps that depict the surface of the Earth also use a

text: projection

text: , a way of translating the three-dimensional real surface of the

text: geoid

text: to a two-dimensional picture. Perhaps the best-known world-map projection is the

text: Mercator projection

text: , originally designed as a form of

text: nautical chart

text: .Aeroplane pilots use

text: aeronautical chart

text: s based on a

text: Lambert conformal conic projection

text: , in which a cone is laid over the section of the earth to be mapped. The cone intersects the sphere (the earth) at one or two parallels which are chosen as standard lines. This allows the pilots to plot a great-circle route approximation on a flat, two-dimensional chart.

text: The data used to make bathymetric maps today typically comes from an echosounder (sonar) mounted beneath or over the side of a boat, "pinging" a beam of sound downward at the seafloor or from remote sensing LIDAR or LADAR systems. The amount of time it takes for the sound or light to travel through the water, bounce off the seafloor, and return to the sounder informs the equipment of the distance to the seafloor. LIDAR/LADAR surveys are usually conducted by airborne systems.

text: The data used to make bathymetric maps today typically comes from an echosounder (

text: sonar

text: ) mounted beneath or over the side of a boat, "pinging" a beam of sound downward at the seafloor or from remote sensing

text: LIDAR

text: or LADAR systems. The amount of time it takes for the sound or light to travel through the water, bounce off the seafloor, and return to the sounder informs the equipment of the distance to the seafloor. LIDAR/LADAR surveys are usually conducted by airborne systems.

text: The Army Map Service of the US Army Corps of Engineers, was the premier map making agency of the US Department of Defense from 1941–68. The major task of the Army Map Service (AMS) was the compilation, publication and distribution of military topographic maps and related products required by the Armed Forces of the United States. The AMS was also involved in the preparation of extraterrestrial maps of satellite and planetary bodies; the preparation of national intelligence studies; the establishment of world geodetic control networks by both satellite and conventional triangulation methods; and the logistic military planning of Corps of Engineer items. Another major responsibility of the AMS is to maintain the largest geodetic and topographic data libraries for the Department of Defense.

text: The Army Map Service of the US Army Corps of Engineers, was the premier map making agency of the

text: US Department of Defense

text: from 1941–68. The major task of the Army Map Service (AMS) was the compilation, publication and distribution of military topographic maps and related products required by the Armed Forces of the United States. The AMS was also involved in the preparation of extraterrestrial maps of satellite and planetary bodies; the preparation of national intelligence studies; the establishment of world geodetic control networks by both satellite and conventional triangulation methods; and the logistic military planning of Corps of Engineer items. Another major responsibility of the AMS is to maintain the largest

text: geodetic

text: and topographic data libraries for the Department of Defense.

text: Mount Geier () is the dominant, largely snow-covered peak in the northern part of Schirmacher Massif, near the east coast of Palmer Land, Antarctica. It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in 1974, and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Frederick J. Geier, a topographic engineer with the USGS geological and mapping party to Lassiter Coast, 1969–70.

text: Mount Geier () is the dominant, largely snow-covered peak in the northern part of

text: Schirmacher Massif

text: , near the east coast of

text: Palmer Land

text: , Antarctica. It was mapped by the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS) in 1974, and named by the

text: Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names

text: for

text: Frederick J. Geier

text: , a topographic engineer with the USGS geological and mapping party to

text: Lassiter Coast

text: , 1969–70.

text: Bathymetric charts can also be converted to bathymetric profiles.

text: Bathymetric charts can also be converted to

text: bathymetric profiles

text: In addition to location information maps may also be used to portray contour lines indicating constant values of  elevation, temperature, rainfall, etc.

text: In addition to location information maps may also be used to portray

text: contour line

text: s indicating constant values of

text: elevation

text: temperature

text: rain

text: fall, etc.

text: The General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) is a publicly available bathymetric chart of the world's oceans. The project was conceived with the aim of preparing a global series of charts showing the general shape of the seafloor. Over the years it has become a reference map of the bathymetry of the world’s oceans for scientists and others.

text: The General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) is a publicly available

text: bathymetric chart

text: of the world's

text: ocean

text: s. The project was conceived with the aim of preparing a global series of charts showing the general shape of the seafloor. Over the years it has become a reference map of the bathymetry of the world’s oceans for scientists and others.

text: The peak is distinguished by the name Dufourspitze (in German, lit. Dufour Peak; , ). This replaced the former name Höchste Spitze () that was indicated on the Swiss maps before the Federal Council, on January 28, 1863, decided to rename the mountain in honor of Guillaume-Henri Dufour. Dufour was a Swiss engineer, topographer, co-founder of the Red Cross and army general who led the Sonderbund campaign. This decision followed the completion of the Dufour Map, a series of military topographical maps created under the command of Dufour.

text: The peak is distinguished by the name Dufourspitze (in

text: German

text: , lit. Dufour Peak; , ). This replaced the former name Höchste Spitze () that was indicated on the Swiss maps before the

text: Federal Council

text: , on January 28, 1863, decided to rename the mountain in honor of

text: Guillaume-Henri Dufour

text: . Dufour was a Swiss engineer, topographer, co-founder of the

entity_name: International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement

text: Red Cross

text: and army general who led the

text: Sonderbund

text: campaign. This decision followed the completion of the

text: Dufour Map

text: , a series of military topographical maps created under the command of Dufour.

text: The State Bureau of Surveying and Cartography compiles topographic maps at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales.  It is reported that these maps are accurate and attractively printed in seven colors, and that successive editions show progressive improvement in accuracy.

text: Typical applications include the  Contour lines on topographic maps or the generation of isobars for weather maps.

text: Typical applications include the

text: Contour lines

text: on topographic maps or the generation of isobars for weather maps.

text: Since 1903, five separate editions of paper, bathymetric contour charts covering the whole world have been produced. GEBCO is now maintained in digital form as the GEBCO Digital Atlas.

text: The government of Morocco published accurate topographical maps of the region in 1968, including contours, peaks, and some of the paths and springs. This can be purchased from the Division de Cartographie in major Moroccan cities. The Ayachi region is covered by the maps of the Midelt and Er-Rich districts.

text: The government of Morocco published accurate topographical maps of the region in 1968, including contours, peaks, and some of the paths and springs. This can be purchased from the Division de Cartographie in major Moroccan cities. The Ayachi region is covered by the maps of the

text: Midelt

text: and

text: Er-Rich

text: districts.

text: The highest point in the park, according to a U.S. Geological Survey topographical map, is a peak  in elevation nearly due west of the southern cinder cone, standing above the eastern edge of the east fork of Snow Canyon.

text: The highest point in the park, according to a

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: topographical map, is a peak  in elevation nearly due west of the southern cinder cone, standing above the eastern edge of the east fork of Snow Canyon.

text: Water levels or pressures can be contoured similar to elevation on topographic maps. Contour maps often show “bulls-eyes” around pumped wells that represent the cones of depression. In huge municipal wells, these cones of depression often can extend many miles from the pumped well. For many domestic wells, the cones of depression often are too small to even show up on such maps. Again, this really depends on the rate of pumping and the aquifer material.

text: Water levels or pressures can be contoured similar to elevation on

text: topographic map

text: s.

text: Contour map

text: s often show “bulls-eyes” around pumped wells that represent the cones of depression. In huge municipal wells, these cones of depression often can extend many miles from the pumped well. For many domestic wells, the cones of depression often are too small to even show up on such maps. Again, this really depends on the rate of pumping and the

text: aquifer

text: material.

text: Panagyurishte Nunatak is located at , which is 2.8 km south of Crutch Peaks, 3.4 km west-southwest of Sevtopolis Peak, and 1.38 km northeast of Kerseblept Nunatak (Bulgarian topographic survey Tangra 2004/05 and mapping in 2009).

text: Panagyurishte Nunatak is located at , which is 2.8 km south of

text: Crutch Peaks

text: , 3.4 km west-southwest of

text: Sevtopolis Peak

text: , and 1.38 km northeast of

text: Kerseblept Nunatak

text: (Bulgarian topographic survey

text: Tangra 2004/05

text: and mapping in 2009).

text: Users can browse and search topographically-shaded street maps for many cities worldwide. Maps include certain points of interest built-in, such as metro stations, stadiums, hospitals, and other facilities. It is also possible to browse public user-created points of interest. Searches can cover public collections, businesses or types of business, locations, or people. Five street map views are available: Road View, Aerial View, Bird’s Eye View, StreetSide View, and 3D View.

text: Users can browse and search topographically-shaded

text: street map

text: s for many cities worldwide. Maps include certain points of interest built-in, such as metro stations, stadiums, hospitals, and other facilities. It is also possible to browse public user-created points of interest. Searches can cover public collections, businesses or types of business, locations, or people. Five street map views are available: Road View, Aerial View, Bird’s Eye View, StreetSide View, and 3D View.

text: Dutch Topographic map of Heerhugowaard (town), March 2014.

text: Dutch Topographic map of the municipality of Peel en Maas, June 2015

text: The -high Calmont summit lies 293.1 metres above the Moselle, on which the lowest contour line on topographic maps is . It is also an average of about 270 metres above Bremm. Around 215 metres east-northeast of the summit is a spot height of .

text: The -high Calmont summit lies 293.1 metres above the Moselle, on which the lowest

text: contour line

text: on

text: topographic map

text: s is . It is also an average of about 270 metres above Bremm. Around 215 metres east-northeast of the summit is a

text: spot height

text: of .

text: Nicolas F. Shi is an artist in Washington, D.C. He is best known for paintings that create an illusion of depth through contour lines like those on a topographic map, with the space between adjacent ones of the contour lines being filled by a single color.

text: Nicolas F. Shi is an

text: artist

text: in

text: Washington, D.C.

text: He is best known for

text: painting

text: s that create an illusion of depth through

text: contour line

text: s like those on a

text: topographic map

text: , with the space between adjacent ones of the contour lines being filled by a single color.

text: A user can enter different kinds of data in map form into a GIS to begin their analysis, such as United States Geological Survey (USGS) digital line graph data, contour lines, elevation maps, topographic maps, geologic maps, and satellite imagery.  A user can also convert digital information into forms that a GIS can identify and utilize, such as census tabular data or Microsoft Excel files.  Users can easily capture digital data in a GIS.  If the data is not digital, then users will need to employ various techniques to capture the data, such as digitizing maps by hand-tracing with a computer mouse, utilizing a digitizing tablet to collect feature coordinates, using electronic scanners, or uploading Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates.

text: A user can enter different kinds of data in map form into a GIS to begin their analysis, such as

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS) digital line graph data, contour lines, elevation maps,

text: topographic map

text: s,

text: geologic maps

text: , and satellite imagery.  A user can also convert digital information into forms that a GIS can identify and utilize, such as census tabular data or Microsoft Excel files.  Users can easily capture digital data in a GIS.  If the data is not digital, then users will need to employ various techniques to capture the data, such as digitizing maps by hand-tracing with a computer mouse, utilizing a

text: digitizing tablet

text: to collect feature coordinates, using electronic scanners, or uploading

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) coordinates.

text: Bathymetric data obtained during the course of the expedition (December 1872 – May 1876) of the British Royal Navy survey ship HMS Challenger enabled scientists to draw maps, which provided a rough outline of certain major submarine terrain features, such as the edge of the continental shelves and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This discontinuous set of data points was obtained by the simple technique of taking soundings by lowering long lines from the ship to the seabed. Among the many discoveries of the Challenger expedition was the identification of the Challenger Deep. This depression, located at the southern end of the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands group, is the deepest surveyed point of the World Ocean. The Challenger scientists made the first recordings of its depth on 23 March 1875 at station 225. The reported depth was 4,475 fathoms (8184 meters) based on two separate soundings.

text: Bathymetric

text: data obtained during the course of the

text: expedition

text: Royal Navy

text: survey ship

text: HMS Challenger

text: enabled scientists to draw maps, which provided a rough outline of certain major

entity_name: List of submarine topographical features

text: submarine terrain features

text: , such as the edge of the

text: continental shelves

text: and the

text: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

text: soundings

text: by lowering long lines from the ship to the

text: seabed

text: . Among the many discoveries of the Challenger expedition was the identification of the Challenger Deep. This depression, located at the southern end of the

text: Mariana Trench

text: near the

text: Mariana Islands

text: group, is the deepest

text: surveyed

text: point of the

text: World Ocean

text: . The Challenger scientists made the first recordings of its depth on 23 March 1875 at station 225. The reported depth was 4,475

text: fathom

text: s (8184 meters) based on two separate soundings.

text: The elevations listed below are those officially described on the list (based on USGS topographic map contours), and may not be the actual elevations of those peaks, although they are usually accurate to within 50 feet.

text: Meteorological contour lines are based on generalization from the point data received from weather stations. Weather stations are seldom exactly positioned at a contour line (when they are, this indicates a measurement precisely equal to the value of the contour). Instead, lines are drawn to best approximate the locations of exact values, based on the scattered information points available.

text: Meteorological contour lines are based on

text: generalization

text: from the point data received from

text: weather station

text: s. Weather stations are seldom exactly positioned at a contour line (when they are, this indicates a measurement precisely equal to the value of the contour). Instead, lines are drawn to best approximate the locations of exact values, based on the scattered information points available.

text: Dutch Topographic map of the municipality of Wijk bij Duurstede, 2013.

text: Within the 20th Century there were three statewide geological maps produced prior to the 1976 map.  The first was a 1 inch to 15 mile map produced by S.W. McCallie in 1908. In 1939, George Willis Stose et al. produced a 1:500,000 scale map that was published by the Georgia Geologic Survey and the United States Geological Survey. This map was reprinted in 1960 by the U.S. Geological Survey.  The third map was published in 1968 by the Geological Survey of Georgia.  This map was produced by J.W. Smith and M.S. Green, a 1:2,500,000 scale map.

text: Stargaze in Sandnes is a 14-minute film combining communal and geologic memory, past and future, utopia and dystopia, employing topographical maps, 3D animation, and old family films provided by the people of Sandnes, Norway. This project was funded by Norway’s KinoKino Art center and the Norwegian Arts Council.

text: Stargaze in Sandnes is a 14-minute film combining communal and geologic memory, past and future, utopia and dystopia, employing topographical maps, 3D animation, and old family films provided by the people of Sandnes,

text: Norway

text: . This project was funded by Norway’s KinoKino Art center and the Norwegian Arts Council.

text: A contour line of constant salinity is called an isohaline – or sometimes isohale.

text: A

text: contour line

text: of constant salinity is called an isohaline – or sometimes isohale.

text: Overlying the Semilir Formation is a 200 to 500 m thick sequence of massive, resistant, monomict andesitic volcanic breccias, crystal-rich sandstones and minor lava flows of the Nglanggran Formation. The breccia beds are 1 to 10 m thick and can be mapped for several kilometres. Interbedded crystal-rich sand- stones are much thinner. The breccias are both clast- and matrix-supported with angular fragments commonly 2 to 75 cm across with some blocks up to 3 m. Fragment imbrication within the breccias records diverging west and southwest flow from a source in the northeast part of the Batu Agung Escarpment. There is no evidence of any marine influence, and we interpret the Nglanggran Formation as terrestrial deposits formed by sector or repeated dome collapse, marking the end of arc activity in the Southern Mountains. The top and base of the Nglanggran Formation forms topographic breaks in slope, because the andesitic breccias are much more resistant than the underlying and overlying units, and the feature and the formation can be easily mapped across the area over a distance of 46 km.

text: Overlying the Semilir Formation is a 200 to 500 m thick sequence of massive, resistant, monomict andesitic volcanic breccias, crystal-rich sandstones and minor lava flows of the Nglanggran Formation. The breccia beds are 1 to 10 m thick and can be mapped for several kilometres. Interbedded crystal-rich sand- stones are much thinner. The breccias are both clast- and

text: matrix

text: -supported with angular fragments commonly 2 to 75 cm across with some blocks up to 3 m. Fragment imbrication within the breccias records diverging west and southwest flow from a source in the northeast part of the Batu Agung Escarpment. There is no evidence of any marine influence, and we interpret the Nglanggran Formation as terrestrial deposits formed by sector or repeated dome collapse, marking the end of arc activity in the Southern Mountains. The top and base of the Nglanggran Formation forms topographic breaks in slope, because the andesitic breccias are much more resistant than the underlying and overlying units, and the feature and the formation can be easily mapped across the area over a distance of 46 km.

text: Generalstabens Topografiske Afdeling () was the cartographic, topographic and general maps department of the Danish army from 1842 to 1928. It supplied both government and civilian organizations with accurate maps of Denmark.

text: Generalstabens Topografiske Afdeling () was the

text: cartographic

text: topographic

text: and general maps department of the

text: Danish army

text: from 1842 to 1928. It supplied both government and civilian organizations with accurate maps of Denmark.

text: Engineers on both sides performed many tasks essential to every campaign. Engineers trained at West Point were at a premium; thus, many civil engineers, commissioned as volunteers, supplemented the work being done by engineer officers. The Confederates, in particular, relied on civilian expertise because many of their trained engineer officers sought line duties. State or even local civil engineers planned and supervised much of the work done on local fortifications.In the prewar US Army, the Corps of Engineers contained a handful of staff officers and one company of trained engineer troops. This cadre expanded to a four-company Regular engineer battalion. Congress also created a single company of topographic engineers, which joined the Regular battalion when the engineer bureaus merged in 1863. In addition, several volunteer pioneer regiments, some containing up to 2,000 men, supported the various field armies. The Confederate Corps of Engineers, formed as a small staff and one company of sappers, miners, and pontoniers in 1861, grew more slowly and generally relied on details and contract labor rather than established units with trained engineers and craftsmen.Engineer missions for both sides included construction of fortifications; repair and construction of roads, bridges, and, in some cases, railroads; demolition; limited construction of obstacles; and construction or reduction of siege works. The Federal Topographic Engineers, a separate prewar bureau, performed reconnaissance and produced maps. The Confederates, however, never separated these functions in creating their Corps of Engineers. Experience during the first year of the war convinced the Federals that all engineer functions should be merged under a single corps because qualified engineer officers tended to perform all related functions. As a result, the Federals also merged the Topographic Engineers into their Corps of Engineers in March 1863.Bridging assets included wagon-mounted pontoon trains that carried either wooden or canvas-covered pontoon boats. Using this equipment, trained engineer troops could bridge even large rivers in a matter of hours. The most remarkable pontoon bridge of the war was the 2,200-foot-long bridge built by the Army of the Potomac engineers in 1864 over the James River at the culmination of the Overland Campaign. It was one of over three dozen pontoon bridges built in support of campaigns in the east that year. In 1862, the Confederates began developing pontoon trains after they had observed their effectiveness.Both sides in every campaign of the war traveled over roads and bridges built or repaired by their engineers. Federal engineers also helped clear waterways by dredging, removing trees, or digging canals. Fixed fortifications laid out under engineer supervision played critical roles in the Vicksburg campaign and in actions around Richmond and Petersburg. Engineers also supervised the siege works attempting to reduce those fortifications.While the Federal engineer effort expanded in both men and materiel as the war progressed, the Confederate efforts continued to be hampered by major problems. The relatively small number of organized engineer units available forced Confederate engineers to rely heavily on details or contract labor. Finding adequate manpower, however, was often difficult because of competing demands for it. Local slave owners were reluctant to provide labor details when slave labor was crucial to their economic survival. Despite congressional authorization to conscript 20,000 slaves as a labor force, state and local opposition continually hindered efforts to draft slave labor. Another related problem concerned the value of Confederate currency. Engineer efforts required huge sums for men and materiel, yet initial authorizations were small, and although congressional appropriations grew later in the war, inflation greatly reduced effective purchasing power. A final problem was the simple shortage of iron resources, which severely limited the Confederates’ ability to increase railroad mileage or even produce iron tools.In 1861, maps for both sides were also in short supply; for many areas in the interior, maps were nonexistent. As the war progressed, the Federals developed a highly sophisticated mapping capability. Federal topographic engineers performed personal reconnaissance to develop base maps, reproduce them by several processes, and distribute them to field commanders. Photography, lithographic presses, and eventually photochemical processes gave the Federals the ability to reproduce maps quickly. Western armies, which usually operated far from base cities, carried equipment in their army headquarters to reproduce maps during campaigns. By 1864, annual map production exceeded 21,000 copies. Confederate topographic work never approached the Federal effort in quantity. Confederate topographers initially used tracing paper to reproduce maps. Not until 1864 did the use of photographic methods become widespread in the South. However, the South had a large advantage in the quality of its maps in the eastern theater in the 1864 campaign. In particular, the Confederates were fighting on their own terrain (Virginia) where many officers knew the ground. In addition, prior to the war, Virginia had produced county maps of the state that proved to be a great advantage for Lee’s army.

text: Starting in the early 1930s, single-beam sounders were used to make bathymetry maps. Today, multibeam echosounders (MBES) are typically used, which use hundreds of very narrow adjacent beams arranged in a fan-like swath of typically 90 to 170 degrees across.  The tightly packed array of narrow individual beams provides very high angular resolution and accuracy.  In general a wide swath, which is depth dependent, allows a boat to map more seafloor in less time than a single-beam echosounder by making fewer passes.  The beams update many times per second (typically 0.1-50 Hz depending on water depth), allowing faster boat speed while maintaining 100% coverage of the seafloor.  Attitude sensors allow for the correction of the boat's roll and pitch on the ocean surface, and a gyrocompass provides accurate heading information to correct for vessel yaw.  (Most modern MBES systems use an integrated motion-sensor and position system that measures yaw as well as the other dynamics and position.)  A boat-mounted Global Positioning System (GPS) (or other Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)) positions the soundings with respect to the surface of the earth.  Sound speed profiles (speed of sound in water as a function of depth) of the water column correct for refraction or "ray-bending" of the sound waves owing to non-uniform water column characteristics such as temperature, conductivity, and pressure.  A computer system processes all the data, correcting for all of the above factors as well as for the angle of each individual beam.  The resulting sounding measurements are then processed either manually, semi-automatically or automatically (in limited circumstances) to produce a map of the area.   a number of different outputs are generated, including a sub-set of the original measurements that satisfy some conditions (e.g., most representative likely soundings, shallowest in a region, etc.) or integrated Digital Terrain Models (DTM) (e.g., a regular or irregular grid of points connected into a surface). Historically, selection of measurements was more common in hydrographic applications while DTM construction was used for engineering surveys, geology, flow modeling, etc.  Since ca. 2003-2005, DTMs have become more accepted in hydrographic practice.

text: Starting in the early 1930s, single-beam sounders were used to make bathymetry maps. Today,

text: multibeam echosounder

text: s (MBES) are typically used, which use hundreds of very narrow adjacent beams arranged in a fan-like

text: swath

text: of typically 90 to 170 degrees across.  The tightly packed array of narrow individual beams provides very high

text: angular resolution

text: and accuracy.  In general a wide swath, which is depth dependent, allows a boat to map more seafloor in less time than a single-beam echosounder by making fewer passes.  The beams update many times per second (typically 0.1-50

text: Hz

text: depending on water depth), allowing faster boat speed while maintaining 100% coverage of the seafloor.  Attitude sensors allow for the correction of the boat's

text: roll and pitch

text: on the ocean surface, and a gyrocompass provides accurate heading information to correct for vessel

text: yaw

text: .  (Most modern MBES systems use an integrated motion-sensor and position system that measures yaw as well as the other dynamics and position.)  A boat-mounted

text: Global Positioning System

text: (GPS) (or other Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)) positions the soundings with respect to the surface of the earth.  Sound speed profiles (speed of sound in water as a function of depth) of the water column correct for refraction or "ray-bending" of the sound waves owing to non-uniform water column characteristics such as temperature, conductivity, and pressure.  A computer system processes all the data, correcting for all of the above factors as well as for the angle of each individual beam.  The resulting sounding measurements are then processed either manually, semi-automatically or automatically (in limited circumstances) to produce a map of the area.   a number of different outputs are generated, including a sub-set of the original measurements that satisfy some conditions (e.g., most representative likely soundings, shallowest in a region, etc.) or integrated

text: Digital Terrain Models

text: (DTM) (e.g., a regular or irregular grid of points connected into a surface). Historically, selection of measurements was more common in

text: hydrographic

text: applications while DTM construction was used for engineering surveys, geology, flow modeling, etc.  Since ca. 2003-2005, DTMs have become more accepted in hydrographic practice.

text: This process of grouping was done by He surface exposure dating and Ar/Ar dating. The new morphologic dating methods suggest that cinder cone formation in the Potrillo volcanic field may have occurred at different intervals and that the field may be currently developing new cinder cones. The cinder cone slope distribution in the Potrillo volcanic field suggests that volcanism occurred at different time intervals. In addition, trend line analysis provides a powerful and useful tool for predicting cinder cone ages in the Potrillo volcanic field. This area has arid climate & cone degradation is a product of mechanical weathering.	The age-angle relationship is quantitatively modeled by diffusion equations, like Comparison of He to Ar/Ar, and by overlapping DRG digital elevation models, digital topographic maps DEM. The formula angle = tan(height/radius) was used to obtain the angles. The overall comparison of all groups in the south west region extending from New Mexico to Mexico are used for the dating and comparison of age but the climate, and terrain conditions are looked to see the weathering conditions.

text: This process of grouping was done by He surface exposure dating and

text: Ar

text: /Ar dating. The new morphologic dating methods suggest that cinder cone formation in the Potrillo volcanic field may have occurred at different intervals and that the field may be currently developing new cinder cones. The cinder cone slope distribution in the Potrillo volcanic field suggests that volcanism occurred at different time intervals. In addition, trend line analysis provides a powerful and useful tool for predicting cinder cone ages in the Potrillo volcanic field. This area has arid climate & cone degradation is a product of mechanical weathering.	The age-angle relationship is quantitatively modeled by diffusion equations, like Comparison of He to Ar/Ar, and by overlapping

text: DRG

text: digital elevation models, digital topographic maps

text: DEM

text: . The formula angle = tan(height/radius) was used to obtain the angles. The overall comparison of all groups in the south west region extending from New Mexico to Mexico are used for the dating and comparison of age but the climate, and terrain conditions are looked to see the weathering conditions.

text: In the real world there are six cardinal directions not involved with geography which are north, south, east, west, up and down. In this context, up and down relate to elevation, altitude, or possibly depth (if water is involved). The topographic map is a special case of cartography in which the elevation is indicated on the map, typically via contour lines.

text: In the real world there are six cardinal directions not involved with geography which are

text: north

text: south

text: east

text: west

text: , up and down. In this context, up and down relate to

text: elevation

text: altitude

text: , or possibly depth (if water is involved). The

text: topographic map

text: is a special case of cartography in which the elevation is indicated on the map, typically via

text: contour line

text: s.

text: Some universities and secondary educators are integrating digital geologic mapping into class work. For example, The GeoPad project  describes the combination of technology, teaching field geology, and geologic mapping in programs such as Bowling Green State University’s geology field camp. At Urbino University (Italy) :it:Università di Urbino, Field Digital Mapping Techniques are integrated in Earth and Environmental Sciences courses since 2006  .The MapTeach program is designed to provide hands-on digital mapping for middle and high school students. The SPLINT  project in the UK is using the BGS field mapping system as part of their teaching curriculum

text: Some universities and

text: secondary educators

text: are integrating digital geologic mapping into class work. For example, The GeoPad project  describes the combination of technology, teaching field geology, and geologic mapping in programs such as

text: Bowling Green State University

text: ’s geology field camp. At Urbino University (Italy)

text: :it:Università di Urbino

text: , Field Digital Mapping Techniques are integrated in Earth and Environmental Sciences courses since 2006  .The MapTeach program is designed to provide hands-on digital mapping for middle and high school students. The SPLINT  project in the UK is using the BGS field mapping system as part of their teaching curriculum

text: Cleveland Salter Rockwell (November 24, 1837 – March 22, 1907) was an American topographical engineer, cartographer, military officer, investor, and landscape painter.  He spent his professional career as a survey engineer in the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.  Rockwell conducted numerous coastal surveys and mapped harbors and river systems on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States.  He also surveyed areas in South America.  During the American Civil War, Rockwell served as a captain in the Union Army.  After retiring from the Coastal Survey, he became a successful investor and landscape painter.  Today, Cleveland Rockwell’s topographical maps are important historical documents and his art work is well known in the Pacific Northwest.

text: Cleveland Salter Rockwell (November 24, 1837 – March 22, 1907) was an

text: American

text: topographical engineer

text: cartographer

text: military officer

text: investor

text: , and

text: landscape painter

text: .  He spent his professional career as a survey engineer in the

text: United States Coast and Geodetic Survey

text: .  Rockwell conducted numerous coastal surveys and mapped harbors and river systems on the

text: Atlantic

text: and

text: Pacific

text: coasts of the

text: United States

text: .  He also surveyed areas in South America.  During the

text: American Civil War

text: , Rockwell served as a captain in the

text: Union Army

text: .  After retiring from the Coastal Survey, he became a successful investor and landscape painter.  Today, Cleveland Rockwell’s topographical maps are important historical documents and his art work is well known in the

text: Pacific Northwest

text: The general function of the tectal system is to direct behavioral responses toward specific points in egocentric ("body-centered") space.  Each layer contains a topographic map of the surrounding world in retinotopic coordinates, and activation of neurons at a particular point in the map evokes a response directed toward the corresponding point in space.  In primates, the superior colliculus has been studied mainly with respect to its role in directing eye movements.  Visual input from the retina, or "command" input from the cerebral cortex, create a "bump" of activity in the tectal map, which, if strong enough, induces a saccadic eye movement.  Even in primates, however, the superior colliculus is also involved in generating spatially directed head turns, arm-reaching movements, and shifts in attention that do not involve any overt movements. In other species, the tectum is involved in a wide range of responses, including whole-body turns in walking rats, swimming fishes, or flying birds; tongue-strikes toward prey in frogs; fang-strikes in snakes; etc.

text: The general function of the tectal system is to direct behavioral responses toward specific points in egocentric ("body-centered") space.  Each layer contains a

text: topographic map

text: of the surrounding world in

text: retinotopic

text: coordinates, and activation of neurons at a particular point in the map evokes a response directed toward the corresponding point in space.  In primates, the superior colliculus has been studied mainly with respect to its role in directing eye movements.  Visual input from the retina, or "command" input from the cerebral cortex, create a "bump" of activity in the tectal map, which, if strong enough, induces a

text: saccadic eye movement

text: .  Even in primates, however, the superior colliculus is also involved in generating spatially directed head turns, arm-reaching movements, and shifts in attention that do not involve any overt movements. In other species, the tectum is involved in a wide range of responses, including whole-body turns in walking rats, swimming fishes, or flying birds; tongue-strikes toward prey in frogs; fang-strikes in snakes; etc.

text: HMGS produces and supplies topographic maps of various scales that cover the whole country and occasionally parts of neighbouring countries. It should be emphasised that not all maps noted below are available to public, since part of them is confidential and available only upon approval of HMGS. Although not a state monopoly and not very famous among hikers, certainly HMGS maps have a much wider coverage in small scales than commercial leisure maps. The maps used the Hellenic Geodetic Reference System 1987 (HGRS87 or ΕΓΣΑ'87) which specifies a Transverse Mercatorial Projection mapping Greece in one zone.

text: HMGS produces and supplies topographic maps of various scales that cover the whole country and occasionally parts of neighbouring countries. It should be emphasised that not all maps noted below are available to public, since part of them is confidential and available only upon approval of HMGS. Although not a state monopoly and not very famous among hikers, certainly HMGS maps have a much wider coverage in small scales than commercial leisure maps. The maps used the

text: Hellenic Geodetic Reference System 1987

text: (HGRS87 or ΕΓΣΑ'87) which specifies a Transverse Mercatorial Projection mapping Greece in one zone.

text: Responsibility for the Topographic Map Archive was formally transferred to the USGS Library in Reston, Virginia, in March 2003. The Archive includes each U.S. state and territory, in all scales, editions and various printings. With coverage dating from the 1880s when the USGS began publishing standard topographic quadrangles; the Archive is the most complete collection of USGS topographic maps.

text: Bill Kent, in his 1978 book Data and Reality, compared a data model to a map of a territory, emphasizing that in the real world, "highways are not painted red, rivers don't have county lines running down the middle, and you can't see contour lines on a mountain". In contrast to other researchers who tried to create models that were mathematically clean and elegant, Kent emphasized the essential messiness of the real world, and the task of the data modeller to create order out of chaos without excessively distorting the truth.

text: Various geological data are rendered as contour maps in structural geology, sedimentology, stratigraphy and economic geology. Contour maps are used to show the below ground surface of geologic strata, fault surfaces (especially low angle thrust faults) and unconformities. Isopach maps use isopachs (lines of equal thickness) to illustrate variations in thickness of geologic units.

text: Various

text: geological

text: data are rendered as contour maps in

text: structural geology

text: sedimentology

text: stratigraphy

text: and

text: economic geology

text: . Contour maps are used to show the below ground surface of geologic

text: strata

text: fault

text: surfaces (especially low angle

text: thrust fault

text: s) and

text: unconformities

text: Isopach map

text: s use isopachs (lines of equal thickness) to illustrate variations in thickness of geologic units.

text: Professor Casti elaborated the theory of cartographic semiosis in 1998, when she also published her first theoretical book L’ordine del mondo e la sua rappresentazione, translated into English in 2005 under the title Reality as Representation. The semiotics of cartography and the generation of meaning. Casti’s theory lies within the fold of the research area called “postmodern cartography” inaugurated by John B. Harley in 1989 and developed in the first decade of the 21st century  with contributions by Emanuela Casti, Jeremy Crampton, Martin Dodge, Rob Kitchin, John Pickles, Denis Wood. The underlying assumption of postmodern research is a questioning of the objectivity and neutrality of maps, and more specifically a questioning of the scientific nature of Euclidean metrics. Accordingly, maps are not seen as straightforward “mirrors of reality”, but rather as  instruments through which reality is shaped. Casti’s key contribution lies in having embraced this initial assumption as a springboard for articulating a theory able to investigate the construction and the communicative mechanisms of maps. By shifting the focus of interest from maps as tools for mediating territory to maps as operators which actively affect the range of activities one can implement on territories, Casti’s theory earmarked the areas in which action is needed in order to take control of the communicative outcomes of mapping.  Assuming a symbiosis between territory and mapping, Casti conclusively defines maps as complex denonational acts, on the basis of which individuals  appropriate territory intellectually and symbolically order the world.  Maps should be taken as instances of a “metasemiosis" - or “second-level semiosis”, for even though they are based on territorial semiosis they also deploy signs, names, symbols which convey messages and meanings quite independently of the intentions of those who first produced them. Maps, Casti insists, are endowed with self-reference, which produces its own messages and may well lead an interpreter to read the world through the framework of theory and to advance entirely conjectural propositions as if they were facts (in this regard, Casti speaks of iconization). Casti rereads the theoretical framework of Charles Morris, whereby signs in communication become  sign vehicles activated  by an interpreter, to show a cartographic semiosis based on icons (a key feature of maps) and analyzed in light of three aspects: in the encoding of signs (semantics); in the syntax that connects icons and develops  their meanings in a reticular dimension; in the pragmatic sphere, when maps become the objects of interpretation as well as key models for socially relevant patterns of behavior. Within such theoretical framework, maps become sophisticated instruments capable of suggesting and envisioning strategies of production, use and mediatization of territory to their interpreters. According to Casti, this network provides not only the platform for an interpretation of cartographic documents, but also for actual experimenting with maps, now tailored to the changing needs of society; maps that are designed to envisage a topological space, as Casti’s second theoretical book makes clear (Cartografia critica, translated in English as: Reflexive Cartography, 2015). Professor Casti explores the transition from a topographic mapping, created by government agencies, to open cartography, collaboratively produced by the people (and linked to a new idea of Chorography). The latter has the potential to become a highly workable concept, to be used as an operator for assisting citizens in thinking and designing their own living space and in understanding the current world. Specifically, Casti argues that, by virtue of its highly interactive features, new digital mapping (specifically WebGIS) opens up new scenarios, and poses cybercartography as a privileged discipline for recovering and promoting the social significance of territory in all its forms  (landscape and environment).

text: Professor Casti elaborated the theory of cartographic semiosis in 1998, when she also published her first theoretical book L’ordine del mondo e la sua rappresentazione, translated into English in 2005 under the title Reality as Representation. The semiotics of cartography and the generation of meaning. Casti’s theory lies within the fold of the research area called “postmodern cartography” inaugurated by

text: John B. Harley

text: in 1989 and developed in the first decade of the 21st century  with contributions by Emanuela Casti, Jeremy Crampton, Martin Dodge, Rob Kitchin,

text: John Pickles

text: Denis Wood

text: Charles Morris

text: WebGIS

text: ) opens up new scenarios, and poses cybercartography as a privileged discipline for recovering and promoting the social significance of territory in all its forms  (landscape and environment).

text: The ability of Eph/ephrin signaling to direct migrating axons along Eph/ephrin expression gradients is evidenced in the formation of the retinotopic map in the visual system, with graded expression levels of both Eph receptors and ephrin ligands leading to the development of a resolved neuronal map (for a more detailed description of Eph/ephrin signaling see "Formation of the Retinotopic Map" in ephrin). Further studies then showed the role of Eph’s in topographic mapping in other regions of the central nervous system, such as learning and memory via the formation of projections between the septum and hippocampus.

text: The ability of Eph/ephrin signaling to direct migrating axons along Eph/ephrin expression gradients is evidenced in the formation of the

text: retinotopic map

text: in the visual system, with graded expression levels of both Eph receptors and ephrin ligands leading to the development of a resolved neuronal map (for a more detailed description of Eph/ephrin signaling see "Formation of the Retinotopic Map" in

text: ephrin

text: ). Further studies then showed the role of Eph’s in topographic mapping in other regions of the central nervous system, such as learning and memory via the formation of projections between the septum and hippocampus.

text: Crater deposits are mapped stratigraphically according to a morphologic degradation sequence devised by N. J. Trask (McCauley and others, 1981). This method assumes that (1) all craters of a given size range initially resemble fresh craters and (2) degrees of impact erosion are constant for all craters within a morphologically defined sequence. Although these conditions hold generally, degradation may be accelerated locally by adjacent impact events and flooding by plains materials and, rarely, may be decelerated by structural rejuvenation of topographic elements of craters. Thus, the stratigraphic significance of crater morphology is only approximate. By analogy with lunar materials, all mapped crater materials are thought to be of impact origin. Only craters larger than 30 km in diameter are mapped.

text: Napoleon Bonaparte consulted the maps and subsequently used his topographical knowledge in his military campaigns.

text: Napoleon Bonaparte

text: consulted the maps and subsequently used his topographical knowledge in his military campaigns.

text: The visual system refers to the part of the central nervous system that allows an organism to see.  It interprets information from visible light to build a representation of the world.  The ganglion cells of the retina project in an orderly fashion to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus and from there to the primary visual cortex(V1); adjacent spots on the retina are represented by adjacent neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus and the primary visual cortex.  This projection pattern has been termed topography. There are many types of topographic maps in the visual cortices, including retinotopic maps, occular dominance maps and orientation maps. Retinotopic maps are the easiest to understand in terms of topography. Retinotopic maps are those in which the image on the retina is maintained in the cortices (V1 and the LGN). In other words, if  a specific region of the cortices was damaged that individual would then have a blind spot in the real world, they would not be able to see the bit of the world that corresponded to the retina damage. Orientation maps are also topographic. In these maps there are cells which have a preference to a certain orientation, the maximum firing rate of the cell will be achieved at that preference. As the orientation is moved away from the firing rate will drop. An orientation map is topographic because neighboring neural tissues have similar orientation preferences.

text: The

text: visual system

text: refers to the part of the

text: central nervous system

text: that allows an organism to see.  It interprets information from visible light to build a representation of the world.  The ganglion cells of the

text: retina

text: project in an orderly fashion to the

text: lateral geniculate nucleus

text: of the

text: thalamus

text: and from there to the primary

text: visual cortex

text: Raster-based stacked surfaces depict the surface of each buried geologic unit, and can accommodate data on lateral variations of physical properties. In this example from Soller and others (1999), the upper surface of each buried geologic unit was represented in raster format as an ArcInfo Grid file. The middle grid is the uppermost surface of an economically important aquifer, the Mahomet Sand, which fills a pre- and inter-glacial valley carved into the bedrock surface. Each geologic unit in raster format can be managed in the data model, in a manner not dissimilar from that shown for the stack-unit map. The Mahomet Sand is continuous in this area, and represents one occurrence of this unit in the data model. Each raster, or pixel, on the Mahomet Sand surface has a set of map coordinates that are recorded in a GIS (in the data model bin that is labeled “Pixel coordinates”, which is the raster corollary of the “Geometry” bin for vector map data). Each pixel can have a unique set of descriptive information, such as surface elevation, unit thickness, lithology, transmissivity, etc.).

text: lithology

text: , transmissivity, etc.).

text: In later years at the Gavilan Plateau, there was a small mining settlement of primarily Spanish speaking miners called Gavilan.  Some English-speaking miners of the 1880s called it Cedar Flat.  Subsequently in 1891 M. C. Westbrook and Associates, leased most of the mining area planning a town site at the mines called Westbrook.  Shortly afterward it was sold to the Gavilan Mining and Milling Company for a period of ten years.  The old town and its mines became known as the Gavilan Mine that can be seen on the 1898 Elsinore, California Quadrangle, U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey Topographic Map.

text: In later years at the Gavilan Plateau, there was a small mining settlement of primarily Spanish speaking miners called

text: Gavilan

text: .  Some English-speaking miners of the 1880s called it Cedar Flat.  Subsequently in 1891 M. C. Westbrook and Associates, leased most of the mining area planning a town site at the mines called Westbrook.  Shortly afterward it was sold to the Gavilan Mining and Milling Company for a period of ten years.  The old town and its mines became known as the Gavilan Mine that can be seen on the 1898 Elsinore, California Quadrangle, U. S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey Topographic Map.

text: Source data for the table below came from topographic maps created by the United States Geological Survey and published on-line by TopoQuest, and from the Atlas of Oregon; the Oregon Atlas and Gazetteer; two federally produced geographic information system (GIS) datasets—the National Hydrography Dataset and the National Watershed Boundary Dataset—and other sources as noted. In the table, total lengths are given in miles (mi) and kilometers (km), and elevations are in feet (ft) and meters (m).

text: Source data for the table below came from

text: topographic map

text: s created by the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: and published on-line by

text: TopoQuest

text: , and from the Atlas of Oregon; the Oregon Atlas and Gazetteer; two federally produced

text: geographic information system

text: (GIS) datasets—the National Hydrography Dataset and the National Watershed Boundary Dataset—and other sources as noted. In the table, total lengths are given in miles (mi) and kilometers (km), and elevations are in feet (ft) and meters (m).

text: After a competition was held by Dr. Patricia Fryer, her doctoral student Sam Hulme, and Linda Tatreau to rename the HMRG Deep, the new name of Sirena Deep was chosen. Students from Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands ages 18 and younger competed, with the winning name being suggested by Jermaine Sanders (aged 16) and John Meno (aged 14). The new name references to the Philippine legends of the sirenas, which are a mix of mermaids and sirens. The new name will now appear on geologic and bathymetric maps.

text: After a competition was held by Dr. Patricia Fryer, her doctoral student Sam Hulme, and Linda Tatreau to rename the HMRG Deep, the new name of Sirena Deep was chosen. Students from Guam and the

text: Northern Mariana Islands

text: ages 18 and younger competed, with the winning name being suggested by Jermaine Sanders (aged 16) and John Meno (aged 14). The new name references to the

text: Philippine

text: legends of the

text: sirenas

text: , which are a mix of

text: mermaid

text: s and

text: sirens

text: . The new name will now appear on

text: geologic

text: and

text: bathymetric

text: maps.

text: Depth, measured with a depth sounder or lead line, can be used to identify a bathymetric contour or crossing point. Similarly, elevation can be used to confirm a geographic contour or crossing point. Measurement of depth and altitude allow vessels and aircraft navigators to confirm clear passage over obstructions.

text: Depth, measured with a

text: depth sounder

text: or

text: lead line

text: , can be used to identify a

text: bathymetric

text: contour or crossing point. Similarly, elevation can be used to confirm a

text: geographic

text: contour or crossing point. Measurement of depth and altitude allow vessels and aircraft navigators to confirm clear passage over obstructions.

text: The ridge midpoint is located at  (UK Directorate of Overseas Surveys mapping in 1968, Bulgarian mapping in 2005 and 2009 from topographic surveys in 1995/96 and 2004/05).

text: The ridge midpoint is located at  (UK

text: Directorate of Overseas Surveys

text: mapping in 1968, Bulgarian mapping in 2005 and 2009 from topographic surveys in 1995/96 and 2004/05).

text: In its contemporary definition, topographic mapping shows relief. In the United States, USGS topographic maps show relief using contour lines. The USGS calls maps based on topographic surveys, but without contours, "planimetric maps."

text: In its contemporary definition, topographic mapping shows relief. In the United States,

text: USGS

text: topographic maps show relief using

text: contour lines

text: . The USGS calls maps based on topographic surveys, but without contours, "planimetric maps."

text: Willard Drake Johnson (1860-1917) was an American glaciologist, topographer, cartographer, hydrographer, geologist, geographer, and ethnologist. His career began under the tutelage of Grove Karl Gilbert on the Lake Bonneville survey. In 1882 he joined US Geological Survey under John Wesley Powell. From 1882 until 1896 he was in the topographic portion of the survey. In 1888 he co-founded the National Geographic Society. From 1888 until 1890 he surveyed the Arkansas River in Colorado. In 1891 he became the chief of the California, where he co-founded the Sierra Club and became a good friend of John Muir. In 1895 Johnson went on an expedition to Sonora, where he studied the Seri Indians. In 1897 he joined the Water Resources Branch of the US Geological Survey, where he worked in Oklahoma. From 1904 until 1905 he worked in Utah and the Sierra Nevada, where he studied glacial geology. After that he worked for the US Forest Service in Portland, Oregon until 1916. He worked in the Grand Canyon until his death there on February 13, 1917.

text: Willard Drake Johnson (1860-1917) was an

text: American

text: glaciologist

text: topographer

text: cartographer

text: hydrographer

text: geologist

text: geographer

text: , and

text: ethnologist

text: . His career began under the tutelage of

text: Grove Karl Gilbert

text: on the

text: Lake Bonneville

text: survey. In 1882 he joined

text: US Geological Survey

text: under

text: John Wesley Powell

text: . From 1882 until 1896 he was in the topographic portion of the survey. In 1888 he co-founded the

text: National Geographic Society

text: . From 1888 until 1890 he surveyed the

text: Arkansas River

text: in

text: Colorado

text: . In 1891 he became the chief of the

text: California

text: , where he co-founded the

text: Sierra Club

text: and became a good friend of

text: John Muir

text: . In 1895 Johnson went on an expedition to

text: Sonora

text: , where he studied the Seri Indians. In 1897 he joined the Water Resources Branch of the US Geological Survey, where he worked in

text: Oklahoma

text: . From 1904 until 1905 he worked in

text: Utah

text: and the

text: Sierra Nevada

text: , where he studied

text: glacial geology

text: . After that he worked for the

text: US Forest Service

text: in

text: Portland, Oregon

text: until 1916. He worked in the

text: Grand Canyon

text: until his death there on February 13, 1917.

text: Data is derived from U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) topographical maps and the USGS National Map.

text: Data is derived from

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: (USGS)

text: topographical map

text: s and the USGS National Map.

text: The stereoplotter serves an important need of allowing aerial photos to become the base for contours and elevation maps. In the United States the largest use of topographic maps is the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The USGS has cataloged all of the territory of the United States and has produced topographic sheets for all of it. The sheets are most often used as 7.5' maps. This means there is 7.5' (0.125 degree) latitude by 7.5' (0.125 degree) longitude.

text: The stereoplotter serves an important need of allowing aerial photos to become the base for

text: contour

text: s and

text: elevation

text: maps. In the United States the largest use of topographic maps is the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS). The USGS has cataloged all of the territory of the United States and has produced topographic sheets for all of it. The sheets are most often used as 7.5' maps. This means there is 7.5' (0.125 degree)

text: latitude

text: by 7.5' (0.125 degree)

text: longitude

text: The bay and the adjacent residential area are named after Whakataki Karehana, a Ngati Toa chief who lived in the area in the 1890s. The name was assigned to the area by the Hutt County Council in 1923. The name Karehana Bay has been depicted in maps and survey plans since 1952 and Karehana Bay (suburb) was first named as a separate suburb from Plimmerton in Department of Lands and Survey maps in 1965. It continues to appear in Land Information New Zealand topographical maps, along with the bay. However, in 2011 the New Zealand Geographic Board accepted a Porirua City Council proposal to amalgamate the recorded names of "Karehana Bay" and "Plimmerton" under the official name "Plimmerton".

text: A new work field presented itself in 1863 as the newly established Swiss Alpine Club decided to issue yearbooks including maps. Many of these tour maps were engraved by Leuzinger and hence almost all volumes contained work by his hand. Because the tour maps were often based on the original geodesic recording by the Federal Topographical Bureau (Eidgenössisches Topographisches Bureau), Leuzinger developed a close relationship with this organisation, in particular with Colonel Hermann Siegfried. When in 1868 the Federal Parliament (Bundesversammlung) decided to issue a new Topographic Atlas of Switzerland, Siegfried commissioned Leuzinger to do the difficult engravings of the mountains – based on the original maps of Dufour and Siegfried himself. Leuzinger then made no less than 117 monochrome engravings for which he was lauded both in Switzerland and abroad. He also made many other maps, partly in copper engraving, partly in chromolithography, highlights being some maps of Switzerland, maps of the Canton of Neuchâtel Canton of Bern and Canton of Aargau, special maps of Central Switzerland, Bernese Oberland, Grindelwald area and the mountain Rigi as well as a large map of France.

text: A new work field presented itself in 1863 as the newly established

text: Swiss Alpine Club

text: decided to issue yearbooks including maps. Many of these tour maps were engraved by Leuzinger and hence almost all volumes contained work by his hand. Because the tour maps were often based on the original

text: geodesic recording

text: by the Federal Topographical Bureau (Eidgenössisches Topographisches Bureau), Leuzinger developed a close relationship with this organisation, in particular with Colonel Hermann Siegfried. When in 1868 the Federal Parliament (Bundesversammlung) decided to issue a new

text: Topographic Atlas of Switzerland

text: , Siegfried commissioned Leuzinger to do the difficult engravings of the mountains – based on the original maps of

text: Dufour

text: and Siegfried himself. Leuzinger then made no less than 117

text: monochrome

text: engravings for which he was lauded both in Switzerland and abroad. He also made many other maps, partly in

text: copper engraving

text: , partly in

text: chromolithography

text: , highlights being some maps of

text: Switzerland

text: , maps of the

text: Canton of Neuchâtel

text: Canton of Bern

text: and

text: Canton of Aargau

text: , special maps of Central Switzerland,

text: Bernese Oberland

text: Grindelwald

text: area and the mountain

text: Rigi

text: as well as a large map of

text: France

text: Apart from showing just contour lines, topographic maps also use a lot of map symbols to represent its features. Features are represented by using point, line, and area symbols. Individual features, such as houses, are shown as point symbols like a small dot or square. However, a cluster of houses or neighborhood can be shown as a shaded area or polygon. Areas of importance or landmarks may receive special symbols that represent what they are. For instance, a church may be symbolized as a picture of a little church or cross or the town hall may have a special color or symbol.

text: Apart from showing just

text: contour lines

text: topographic maps

text: also use a lot of map symbols to represent its features. Features are represented by using point, line, and area symbols. Individual features, such as houses, are shown as point symbols like a small dot or square. However, a cluster of houses or neighborhood can be shown as a shaded area or polygon. Areas of importance or

text: landmarks

text: may receive special symbols that represent what they are. For instance, a

text: church

text: may be symbolized as a picture of a little church or

text: cross

text: or the

text: town hall

text: may have a special color or symbol.

text: Dr. Wilder Penfield, a neurosurgeon, was one of the first to map the cortical maps of the human brain.  When performing brain surgeries on conscious patients, Penfield would touch either a patient’s sensory or motor brain map, located on the cerebral cortex, with an electric probe to determine if a patient could notice either a specific sensation or movement in a particular area on their body.  Penfield also discovered that the sensory or motor maps were topographical; areas of the body adjacent to one another would likely be adjacent on the cortical maps.

text: Dr. Wilder Penfield

text: , a neurosurgeon, was one of the first to map the

text: cortical map

text: s of the human brain.  When performing brain surgeries on conscious patients, Penfield would touch either a patient’s sensory or motor brain map, located on the

text: cerebral cortex

text: , with an electric probe to determine if a patient could notice either a specific sensation or movement in a particular area on their body.  Penfield also discovered that the sensory or motor maps were topographical; areas of the body adjacent to one another would likely be adjacent on the cortical maps.

text: A digital raster graphic (DRG) is a digital image resulting from scanning a paper USGS topographic map for use on a computer.  DRGs created by USGS are typically scanned at 250 dpi and saved as a TIFF.  The raster image usually includes the original border information, referred to as the "map collar".  The map file is UTM projected and georeferenced to the surface of the earth.  DRG's are regularly used in GIS applications. DRGs were first produced in 1995.

text: A digital raster graphic (DRG) is a

text: digital image

text: resulting from scanning a paper

text: USGS

text: topographic map

text: for use on a computer.  DRGs created by USGS are typically scanned at 250

text: dpi

text: and saved as a

text: TIFF

text: .  The

text: raster

text: image usually includes the original border information, referred to as the "map collar".  The map file is

entity_name: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system

text: UTM

text: projected

text: and

text: georeference

text: d to the surface of the earth.  DRG's are regularly used in

text: GIS

text: applications. DRGs were first produced in 1995.

text: "Contour line" is the most common usage in cartography, but isobath for underwater depths on bathymetric maps and isohypse for elevations are also used.

text: "Contour line" is the most common usage in

text: cartography

text: , but

text: isobath

text: for underwater depths on

text: bathymetric

text: maps and isohypse for elevations are also used.

text: As discussed by Amos and Beaman, the bathymetry of the Zenith Plateau is very poorly mapped. Precise ocean floor depth data from bathymetric surveys, which used modern acoustic echosounders, across this undersea plateau are lacking. Transects across it by older, less precise singlebeam echosounder are few and insufficient to provide bathymetric data of significant detail. The bulk of the mapping is based upon coarse interpretation of satellite altimetry data in which the ocean floor bathymetry is inferred from measured variations in the elevation of the overlying sea surface.

text: In the United States, geologic maps are usually superimposed over a topographic map (and at times over other base maps) with the addition of a color mask with letter symbols to represent the kind of geologic unit.  The color mask denotes the exposure of the immediate bedrock, even if obscured by soil or other cover.  Each area of color denotes a geologic unit or particular rock formation (as more information is gathered new geologic units may be defined).  However, in areas where the bedrock is overlain by a significantly thick unconsolidated burden of till, terrace sediments, loess deposits, or other important feature, these are shown instead. Stratigraphic contour lines, fault lines, strike and dip symbols, are represented with various symbols as indicated by the map key. Whereas topographic maps are produced by the United States Geological Survey in conjunction with the states, geologic maps are usually produced by the individual states.  There are almost no geologic map resources for some states, while a few states, such as Kentucky and Georgia, are extensively mapped geologically. Technically A map that uses colors.

text: In the

text: United States

text: , geologic maps are usually superimposed over a

text: topographic map

text: (and at times over other base maps) with the addition of a color mask with letter symbols to represent the kind of

text: geologic unit

text: .  The color mask denotes the exposure of the immediate

text: bedrock

text: , even if obscured by soil or other cover.  Each area of color denotes a geologic unit or particular

text: rock

text: formation (as more information is gathered new geologic units may be defined).  However, in areas where the bedrock is overlain by a significantly thick

text: unconsolidated

text: burden of

text: till

text: terrace sediments

text: loess

text: deposits, or other important feature, these are shown instead.

text: Stratigraphic

text: contour lines,

text: fault

text: lines, strike and dip symbols, are represented with various symbols as indicated by the map key. Whereas topographic maps are produced by the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: in conjunction with the states, geologic maps are usually produced by the individual

text: states

text: .  There are almost no geologic map resources for some states, while a few states, such as

text: Kentucky

text: and

text: Georgia

text: , are extensively mapped geologically. Technically A map that uses colors.

text: Most current Garmin devices can display its current location on a map. The maps are vector-based and stored in the built-in memory or loaded from additional flash media. The built-in (or 'basemap') displays all country borders and major cities. Garmin offers different maps for purchase, including detailed road maps, topographic maps and nautical maps.  Non-commercial maps are also available and can be displayed on most Garmin GPS devices.

text: From the beginning of the United States, Georgia geology has been included in maps produced for the entire country. The first geological map of the U.S. was produced in 1809 by William Maclure. In 1807, Maclure undertook the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. He traversed and mapped nearly every state in the Union. During the rigorous two-year period of his survey, he crossed and recrossed the Allegheny Mountains some 50 times. The results of his unaided endeavor were submitted to the American Philosophical Society in a memoir entitled Observations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map, together with the nation's first geological map, which were published in the Society's journal Transactions, This precedes William Smith's geological map of England by six years, although Smith's map was constructed using a different classification of rocks. Several reports used Maclure’s geological map to accompany their description of the geology of the U.S. (Beaujour, 1814 and Marcou, 1858). In 1816, within an elementary treatise of mineralogy and geology, Parker Cleaveland produced a geological map of the U.S. In 1843, Charles Moxon produced a small-scale geologic map of the U.S., where Ami Boué produced a geological structure map of the globe. In 1853, Marcou produced a geological map of the U.S. and the British provinces of North America.

text: From the beginning of the United States, Georgia geology has been included in maps produced for the entire country. The first geological map of the U.S. was produced in 1809 by

text: William Maclure

text: . In 1807, Maclure undertook the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. He traversed and mapped nearly every state in the Union. During the rigorous two-year period of his survey, he crossed and recrossed the

text: Allegheny Mountains

text: some 50 times. The results of his unaided endeavor were submitted to the

text: American Philosophical Society

text: in a memoir entitled Observations on the Geology of the United States explanatory of a Geological Map, together with the nation's first geological map, which were published in the Society's journal Transactions, This precedes

text: William Smith

text: 's geological map of England by six years, although Smith's map was constructed using a different classification of rocks. Several reports used Maclure’s geological map to accompany their description of the geology of the U.S. (

text: Beaujour

text: , 1814 and

text: Marcou

text: , 1858). In 1816, within an elementary treatise of mineralogy and geology,

text: Parker Cleaveland

text: produced a geological map of the U.S. In 1843, Charles Moxon produced a small-scale geologic map of the U.S., where

text: Ami Boué

text: produced a geological structure map of the globe. In 1853, Marcou produced a geological map of the U.S. and the British provinces of North America.

text: On topographic maps, stream gradient can be easily approximated if the scale of the map and the contour intervals are known. Contour lines form a V-shape on the map, pointing upstream. By counting the number of lines that cross a certain segment of a stream, multiplying this by the contour interval, and dividing that quantity by the length of the stream segment, one obtains an approximation to the stream gradient.

text: On

text: topographic map

text: s, stream

text: gradient

text: can be easily approximated if the scale of the map and the contour intervals are known.

text: Contour lines

text: form a V-shape on the map, pointing upstream. By counting the number of lines that cross a certain segment of a stream, multiplying this by the contour interval, and dividing that quantity by the length of the stream segment, one obtains an approximation to the stream gradient.

text: Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols. Topographic maps show the shape of land surface with contour lines or with shaded relief.

text: Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols.

text: Topographic map

text: s show the shape of land surface with

text: contour line

text: s or with

text: shaded relief

text: Bezetha (), also called by Josephus the New City was a suburb of Jerusalem, north and north-west of the Temple, built opposite the tower Antonia (now in proximity to the Convent of the Sisters of Zion, Ecce Homo, on Via Dolorosa Street) and extending as far as Herod's Gate westward and beyond. Originally, this part of the city was outside the area enclosed by the second wall, but during the reign of Agrippa I, had been enclosed by the newer third wall. In Josephus' time, the hill on which Bezetha was built could be distinguished by its elevation in relation to the tower of Antonia, which was built in the intermediate valley below (partly dug on purpose), between Bezetha and the north side of the Temple Mount. Topographical maps still show the contours in elevation.

text: Bezetha (), also called by

text: Josephus

text: the New City was a suburb of

text: Jerusalem

text: , north and north-west of the

text: Temple

text: , built opposite the

text: tower Antonia

text: (now in proximity to the

text: Convent of the Sisters of Zion

text: , Ecce Homo, on Via Dolorosa Street) and extending as far as

text: Herod's Gate

text: westward and beyond. Originally, this part of the city was outside the area enclosed by the second wall, but during the reign of

text: Agrippa I

text: , had been enclosed by the newer third wall. In

text: Josephus

text: ' time, the hill on which Bezetha was built could be distinguished by its elevation in relation to the tower of Antonia, which was built in the intermediate valley below (partly dug on purpose), between Bezetha and the north side of the Temple Mount. Topographical maps still show the contours in elevation.

text: A geological map of the Bristol Coalfield, on a scale of four inches to the mile, was Sanders's major work; it was begun in 1835 and finished in 1862, when it was published. It covered an area of 720 square miles, and was laid down from his own surveys. The preparatory topographical map was made under his care and at his own expense, by collating about one hundred parish maps on different scales.

text: A geological map of the

text: Bristol Coalfield

text: , on a scale of four inches to the mile, was Sanders's major work; it was begun in 1835 and finished in 1862, when it was published. It covered an area of 720 square miles, and was laid down from his own surveys. The preparatory topographical map was made under his care and at his own expense, by collating about one hundred parish maps on different scales.

text: Petermann started in y.lpotsdam at 7 August 1839. The education with Berghaus could be called scientifically cartographic, comprising mathematical geography (map projection and grids), physical geography (meteorology, hydrology and geology) and political geography (knowledge of borders and administratpive division of European states especially). Physical training was more aimed at surveying, drafting and engraving. Berghaus’s pupils learned only the rudiments of surveying, even less than he himself had learned: their work in this area can be seen in the plan of Potsdam (''Neüster Plan von der Königlichen Residenzstadt Potsdam'' / nach trigonometrischen Vermessungen, so wie geo- und hydrometrischen Aufnahmen ausgearbeitet in der Geographischen Kunstschule zu Potsdam unter der Leitung ihres Direktors, des Professors Dr. Heinrich Berghaus. 1845). They were not topographers and only used topography as published in the large-scale maps of that era as a general basis for their later, more generalized works. They were taught more to draft and engrave middle-scale geographic maps of states, continents etc., or their parts (e.g. the map of upper- and middle-Italy in 1847 for Stielers Handatlas, which was based on Attilio Zuccagni-Orlandini's 1844 topographic map in nearly 100 sheets), small-scale generalized school maps, and especially applied geography and cartography as shown in their collaboration on the ''Physikalischer Atlas'' and the maritime atlas. During their study lithography, though not cutting as fine a portrayal as copper engraving, was on the rise because it was much cheaper. Though some experiments were made by Berghaus, e.g. for geological maps, by mixing copper engraving for the line- and other features and lithography for coloured polygons, there was no technology which could replace the exquisite expression copper engravings could reach. So the students mainly learned this art. Only at the end of his life Petermann became more enthusiastic for lithography, which had advanced by then. Up to and including the 10th edition of the Stieler Handatlas (1920–1925) the Perthes institute, where he worked from 1854 onwards, used copperplate engravings as the basis for its maps. All some 460 copperplates of this edition are currently preserved in the Perthes collections in Gotha.

text: Petermann started in y.lpotsdam at 7 August 1839. The education with Berghaus could be called scientifically cartographic, comprising mathematical geography (

text: map projection

text: and

text: grids

text: ), physical geography (

text: meteorology

text: hydrology

text: and

text: geology

text: ) and

text: political geography

text: (knowledge of borders and administratpive division of European states especially). Physical training was more aimed at surveying, drafting and engraving. Berghaus’s pupils learned only the rudiments of surveying, even less than he himself had learned: their work in this area can be seen in the plan of Potsdam (''Neüster Plan von der Königlichen Residenzstadt Potsdam'' / nach trigonometrischen Vermessungen, so wie geo- und hydrometrischen Aufnahmen ausgearbeitet in der Geographischen Kunstschule zu Potsdam unter der Leitung ihres Direktors, des Professors Dr. Heinrich Berghaus. 1845). They were not topographers and only used topography as published in the large-scale maps of that era as a general basis for their later, more generalized works. They were taught more to draft and engrave middle-scale geographic maps of states, continents etc., or their parts (e.g. the map of upper- and middle-Italy in 1847 for

text: Stielers Handatlas

text: , which was based on

text: Attilio Zuccagni-Orlandini

text: 's 1844 topographic map in nearly 100 sheets), small-scale generalized school maps, and especially applied geography and cartography as shown in their collaboration on the ''Physikalischer Atlas'' and the maritime atlas. During their study

text: lithography

text: , though not cutting as fine a portrayal as

text: copper engraving

text: , was on the rise because it was much cheaper. Though some experiments were made by Berghaus, e.g. for geological maps, by mixing copper engraving for the line- and other features and lithography for coloured

text: polygon

text: s, there was no technology which could replace the exquisite expression copper engravings could reach. So the students mainly learned this art. Only at the end of his life Petermann became more enthusiastic for lithography, which had advanced by then. Up to and including the 10th edition of the Stieler Handatlas (1920–1925) the

text: Perthes

text: institute, where he worked from 1854 onwards, used copperplate engravings as the basis for its maps. All some 460 copperplates of this edition are currently preserved in the Perthes collections in Gotha.

text: The farms still exist, and are still called Dingen; but they are no longer considered to be a separate settlement on the newest topographical map of the area.

text: Data processing and imaging convert raw numeric data into interpretable maps. Data processing usually involves the removal of statistical outliers and noise, and interpolation of data points. Statistical filters may be designed to enhance features of interest (based on size, strength, orientation, or other criteria), or suppress obscuring modern or natural phenomena. Inverse modeling of archaeological features from observed data is becoming increasingly important. Processed data are typically rendered as images, as contour maps, or in false relief. When geophysical data are rendered graphically, the interpreter can more intuitively recognize cultural and natural patterns and visualize the physical phenomena causing the detected anomalies.

text: Data processing and imaging convert raw numeric data into interpretable maps. Data processing usually involves the removal of statistical outliers and noise, and interpolation of data points. Statistical filters may be designed to enhance features of interest (based on size, strength, orientation, or other criteria), or suppress obscuring modern or natural phenomena.

text: Inverse modeling

text: of archaeological features from observed data is becoming increasingly important. Processed data are typically rendered as images, as contour maps, or in false relief. When geophysical data are rendered graphically, the interpreter can more intuitively recognize cultural and natural patterns and visualize the physical phenomena causing the detected anomalies.

text: Dutch Topographic map of Huizen (town), March 2014.

text: The countryside (which in Switzerland is mostly hilly or mountainous) is depicted on the Dufour Map with hachures, which makes it appear especially vivid.  Relief and elevation differences under the surface of lakes were symbolized by contours.  This so-called "Swiss style" depiction received much praise, and earned the Topographic Bureau several international awards.

text: The countryside (which in Switzerland is mostly hilly or mountainous) is depicted on the Dufour Map with

text: hachures

text: , which makes it appear especially vivid.  Relief and elevation differences under the surface of lakes were symbolized by

text: contours

text: .  This so-called "Swiss style" depiction received much praise, and earned the Topographic Bureau several international awards.

text: Timothy Pont (c. 1565–1614) was a Scottish cartographer and topographer, the first to produce a detailed map of Scotland.  Pont's maps are among the earliest surviving to show a European country in minute detail, from an actual survey.

text: Timothy Pont (c. 1565–1614) was a Scottish

text: cartographer

text: and

text: topographer

text: , the first to produce a detailed map of Scotland.  Pont's maps are among the earliest surviving to show a European country in minute detail, from an actual survey.

text: Maps of the New World had been produced since the 16th century.  The history of cartography of the United States of America begins in the 18th century, after the declared independence of the Thirteen original colonies on July 4, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783). Later, Samuel Augustus Mitchell published a map of the United States in 1867.  The National Program for Topographic Mapping was initiated in 1884 by the United States Geological Survey.

text: Maps of the

text: New World

text: had been produced since the 16th century.  The history of

text: cartography

text: of the

text: United States of America

text: begins in the 18th century, after the declared independence of the

text: Thirteen original colonies

text: on

text: July 4, 1776

text: , during the

text: American Revolutionary War

text: (1775-1783). Later,

text: Samuel Augustus Mitchell

text: published a map of the United States in 1867.  The National Program for Topographic Mapping was initiated in 1884 by the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: The Ethiopia-United States Mapping Mission was a mission of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 64th Engineer Battalion, 29th Engineer Company and U.S. Army Map Service, later U.S. Army Topographic Command (TOPOCOM), Special Foreign Activity during the Cold War in the 1960s to survey and map the entire country of Ethiopia, then under the rule of Emperor Haile Selassie I.  Aviation support for the Army Map Service was primarily provided by the 572nd Engineer Platoon (Topographic Aviation) and civilian pilots under contract, along with some early support from the U.S. Air Force and Ethiopian Airlines.  Battalion Headquarters was located in Leghorn (Livorno), Italy, and the Mapping Mission itself was headquartered in Addis Ababa, the nation's centrally located capital.

text: The Ethiopia-United States Mapping Mission was a mission of the U.S. Army

text: Corps of Engineers

text: , 64th Engineer Battalion, 29th Engineer Company and

text: U.S. Army Map Service

text: , later U.S. Army Topographic Command (TOPOCOM), Special Foreign Activity during the

text: Cold War

text: in the 1960s to survey and map the entire country of Ethiopia, then under the rule of Emperor

text: Haile Selassie I

text: .  Aviation support for the

text: Army Map Service

text: was primarily provided by the 572nd Engineer Platoon (Topographic Aviation) and civilian pilots under contract, along with some early support from the

text: U.S. Air Force

text: and

text: Ethiopian Airlines

text: .  Battalion Headquarters was located in Leghorn (

text: Livorno

text: Italy

text: , and the Mapping Mission itself was headquartered in

text: Addis Ababa

text: , the nation's centrally located capital.

text: OLA will scan the surface of Bennu at specific intervals in the mission to rapidly map the entire surface of the asteroid to achieve its primary objective of producing local and global topographic maps. The data collected by OLA will also be used to develop a control network relative to the center of mass of the asteroid and to enhance and refine gravitational studies of Bennu.

text: There are several rules to note when interpreting terrain contour lines:

text: Herbert Gouverneur Ogden (1846-1906) was an American geographer, topographer, civil engineer, and cartographer. Ogden was born on April 4, 1846, in New York. In 1863 he joined the US Coast and Geodetic Survey, where he originally worked on the defenses of Washington DC during the American Civil War. The following year he went to map the coast of North Carolina for the Union Navy. In 1865 he went on an expedition to Nicaragua, and in 1870 to Panama and the Darien. He marriedn in Brooklyn, in 1872, and co-founded the National Geographic Society in 1888. In 1893 he mapped the Alaska-Canada border. He was a vice-president of the National Geographic Society.

text: Herbert Gouverneur Ogden (1846-1906) was an

text: American

text: geographer

text: topographer

text: civil engineer

text: , and

text: cartographer

text: . Ogden was born on April 4, 1846, in

text: New York

text: . In 1863 he joined the

text: US Coast and Geodetic Survey

text: , where he originally worked on the defenses of

text: Washington DC

text: during the

text: American Civil War

text: . The following year he went to map the coast of

text: North Carolina

text: for the

text: Union Navy

text: . In 1865 he went on an expedition to

text: Nicaragua

text: , and in 1870 to

text: Panama

text: and the

text: Darien

text: . He marriedn in

text: Brooklyn

text: , in 1872, and co-founded the

text: National Geographic Society

text: in 1888. In 1893 he mapped the

text: Alaska

text: Canada

text: border. He was a vice-president of the National Geographic Society.

text: The site of Liverpool Landing, located near present-day Lake Havasu City, was submerged under Lake Havasu in the 1930s.  The location of Liverpool Landing can be seen on the March 1911, Parker,  Arizona, U. S. Geological Survey Topographic Map.

text: The site of Liverpool Landing, located near present-day

text: Lake Havasu City

text: , was submerged under

text: Lake Havasu

text: in the 1930s.  The location of Liverpool Landing can be seen on the March 1911, Parker,  Arizona, U. S. Geological Survey Topographic Map.

text: Koebe's uniformization theorem for planar Riemann surfaces implies the uniformization theorem for simply connected Riemann surface. Indeed, the slit domain is either the whole Riemann sphere; or the Riemann sphere less a point, so the complex plane after applying a Möbius transformation to move the point to infinity; or the Riemann sphere less a closed interval parallel to the real axis. After applying a Möbius transformation, the closed interval can be mapped to [–1,1]. It is therefore conformally equivalent to the unit disk, since the conformal mapping g(z) = (z + z)/2  maps the unit disk onto C \ [−1,1].

text: Koebe's uniformization theorem for planar Riemann surfaces implies the

text: uniformization theorem

text: for simply connected Riemann surface. Indeed, the slit domain is either the whole Riemann sphere; or the Riemann sphere less a point, so the complex plane after applying a Möbius transformation to move the point to infinity; or the Riemann sphere less a closed interval parallel to the real axis. After applying a Möbius transformation, the closed interval can be mapped to [–1,1]. It is therefore conformally equivalent to the unit disk, since the conformal mapping g(z) = (z + z)/2  maps the unit disk onto C \ [−1,1].

text: Mountain passes make use of a gap, saddle or col (also sometimes a notch, the low point in a ridge). A topographic saddle is analogous to the mathematical concept of a saddle surface, with a saddle point marking the highest point between two valleys and the lowest point along a ridge. On a topographic map, passes are characterized by contour lines with an hourglass shape, which indicates a low spot between two higher points.

text: Mountain passes make use of a

text: gap

text: saddle

text: or

text: col

text: (also sometimes a

text: notch

text: , the low point in a ridge). A topographic saddle is analogous to the mathematical concept of a

text: saddle surface

text: , with a

text: saddle point

text: marking the highest point between two valleys and the lowest point along a ridge. On a

text: topographic map

text: , passes are characterized by

text: contour lines

text: with an hourglass shape, which indicates a low spot between two higher points.

text: The base map can be a topographic map made for other purposes e.g. mapping from the National Mapping Agency, or a photogrammetric plot produced from an aerial survey.

text: The base map can be a

text: topographic map

text: made for other purposes e.g. mapping from the National Mapping Agency, or a

text: photogrammetric

text: plot produced from an

text: aerial survey

text: Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of both lines on a map describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes. The configuration of these contours allows map readers to infer relative gradient of a parameter and estimate that parameter at specific places. Contour lines may be either traced on a visible three-dimensional model of the surface, as when a photogrammetrist viewing a stereo-model plots elevation contours, or interpolated from estimated surface elevations, as when a computer program threads contours through a network of observation points of area centroids. In the latter case, the method of interpolation affects the reliability of individual isolines and their portrayal of slope, pits and peaks.

text: Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of both lines on a

text: map

text: describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes. The configuration of these contours allows map readers to infer relative gradient of a parameter and estimate that parameter at specific places. Contour lines may be either traced on a visible three-dimensional model of the

text: surface

text: , as when a photogrammetrist viewing a stereo-model plots elevation contours, or interpolated from estimated surface

text: elevations

text: , as when a computer program threads contours through a network of observation points of area centroids. In the latter case, the method of

text: interpolation

text: affects the reliability of individual isolines and their portrayal of

text: slope

text: , pits and peaks.

text: In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example, the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The government of the UK produces the classic 1:50,000 (replacing the older 1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey" maps of the entire UK and with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail. Many private mapping companies have also produce thematic map series.

text: In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example, the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The government of the UK produces the classic 1:50,000 (replacing the older 1 inch to 1 mile) "

text: Ordnance Survey

text: " maps of the entire UK and with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail. Many private mapping companies have also produce thematic map series.

text: Dutch Topographic map of the municipality of Zederik, Sept. 2014.

text: Topographic map of the municipality of Wageningen, July 2013

text: The NMIG (National Mapping Information Group) of Geoscience Australia is the Australian Government's national mapping agency. It provides topographic maps and data to meet the needs of the sustainable development of the nation. The Office of Spatial Data Management provides an online free map service MapConnect. These topographic maps of scales 1:250,000 and 1:100,000 are available in printed form from the Sales Centre. 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 maps are produced in conjunction with the Department of Defence.

text: The NMIG (National Mapping Information Group) of

text: Geoscience Australia

text: is the Australian Government's national mapping agency. It provides topographic maps and data to meet the needs of the sustainable development of the nation. The Office of Spatial Data Management provides an online free map service MapConnect. These topographic maps of scales 1:250,000 and 1:100,000 are available in printed form from the Sales Centre. 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 maps are produced in conjunction with the

text: Department of Defence

text: In geography, the word isopleth (from πλῆθος or plethos, meaning 'quantity') is used for contour lines that depict a variable which cannot be measured at a point, but which instead must be calculated from data collected over an area. An example is population density, which can be calculated by dividing the population of a census district by the surface area of that district. Each calculated value is presumed to be the value of the variable at the centre of the area, and isopleths can then be drawn by a process of interpolation. The idea of an isopleth map can be compared with that of a choropleth map.

text: In geography, the word isopleth (from πλῆθος or plethos, meaning 'quantity') is used for contour lines that depict a variable which cannot be measured at a point, but which instead must be calculated from data collected over an area. An example is

text: population density

text: , which can be calculated by dividing the population of a

text: census district

text: by the surface area of that district. Each calculated value is presumed to be the value of the variable at the centre of the area, and isopleths can then be drawn by a process of

text: interpolation

text: . The idea of an isopleth map can be compared with that of a

text: choropleth map

text: The fieldwork is typically culminated in analysis of the data and the preparation of an engineering geologic report, geotechnical report or design brief, fault hazard or seismic hazard report, geophysical report, ground water resource report or hydrogeologic report. The engineering geology report can also be prepared in conjunction with a geotechnical report, but commonly provides the same geotechnical analysis and design recommendations that would be presented in a geotechnical report. An engineering geology report describes the objectives, methodology, references cited, tests performed, findings and recommendations for development and detailed design of engineering works. Engineering geologists also provide geologic data on topographic maps, aerial photographs, geologic maps, Geographic Information System (GIS) maps, or other map bases.

text: The fieldwork is typically culminated in analysis of the data and the preparation of an engineering geologic report, geotechnical report or design brief, fault hazard or seismic hazard report, geophysical report,

text: ground water

text: resource report or

text: hydrogeologic

text: report. The engineering geology report can also be prepared in conjunction with a geotechnical report, but commonly provides the same geotechnical analysis and design recommendations that would be presented in a geotechnical report. An engineering geology report describes the objectives, methodology, references cited, tests performed, findings and recommendations for development and detailed design of engineering works. Engineering geologists also provide geologic data on topographic maps, aerial photographs, geologic maps,

text: Geographic Information System

text: (GIS) maps, or other map bases.

text: Since 2000, graphical images of scanned geological base maps using a scale of 1/50 000 has been a subject for national harmonization and is freely available to the public on the  site. This map can be seen as planar projections of intersection of geological formations with surface topography. The intersection geometry and the geological characteristics of the formations allow for an extrapolation of the volumes of rocks in three dimensions with depths that vary with the scale and density of the data, along with the degree of information. Pictures of the subsoil are often accompanied by very complex interpretations which rules took more than a century and a half to set: from the appearance of the first geological maps at the beginning of the nineteenth century, notably Georges Cuvier and 's cartography of the tertiary basins of Paris.

text: Since 2000, graphical images of scanned geological base maps using a scale of 1/50 000 has been a subject for national harmonization and is freely available to the public on the  site. This map can be seen as

text: planar projection

text: s of intersection of geological formations with

text: surface topography

text: . The intersection geometry and the geological characteristics of the formations allow for an extrapolation of the volumes of rocks in

text: three dimension

text: s with depths that vary with the scale and density of the data, along with the degree of information. Pictures of the subsoil are often accompanied by very complex interpretations which rules took more than a century and a half to set: from the appearance of the first geological maps at the beginning of the nineteenth century, notably

text: Georges Cuvier

text: and 's cartography of the

text: tertiary basin

text: s of Paris.

text: The Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1904) traced the frontier between Bolivia and Chile along the Sairecabur chain. Disagreements between the topographic maps in the two countries mean that the naming of the mountains is often confusing. Escalante is also known as Apagado.

text: The

text: Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1904)

text: traced the frontier between Bolivia and Chile along the Sairecabur chain. Disagreements between the topographic maps in the two countries mean that the naming of the mountains is often confusing. Escalante is also known as Apagado.

text: For a continuous function g defined in an open neighborhood of Γ and taking values in L(X), the contour integral ∫g is defined in the same way as for the scalar case. One can parametrize each γ ∈ Γ by a real interval [a, b], and the integral is the limit of the Riemann sums obtained from ever-finer partitions of [a, b]. The Riemann sums converge in the uniform operator topology.  We define

text: For a continuous function g defined in an open neighborhood of Γ and taking values in L(X), the contour integral ∫g is defined in the same way as for the scalar case. One can parametrize each γ ∈ Γ by a real interval [a, b], and the integral is the limit of the

text: Riemann sums

text: obtained from ever-finer partitions of [a, b]. The Riemann sums converge in the

text: uniform operator topology

text: .  We define

text: The basis for the introduction of Saxon post milestones was the cartographic work of the pastor, Adam Friedrich Zürner, from Skassa. Zürner had prepared a map of Großenhain, which attracted the attention of Augustus the Strong. After further cartographic work, the prince elector gave him the task on 12 April 1713 of: "increasingly recording districts, including the lordships, manor estates, towns, villages and the like, on geographic maps" (original: "Aemter samt denen darinnen befindlichen Herrschaften, Rittergütern, Städten, Dörfern und dergleichen mehr in mappas geographicas bringen"). This entailed the topographic survey of Electoral Saxony. It covered, in addition to the heartland, the electoral Saxon parts of the counties of Henneberg and Mansfeld, the Schönburg estates, the estates of the Albertine branches of Saxe-Merseburg, Saxe-Weissenfels and Saxe-Zeitz as well as the two Lusatias.

text: The basis for the introduction of Saxon post milestones was the

text: cartographic

text: work of the pastor,

text: Adam Friedrich Zürner

text: , from

text: Skassa

text: . Zürner had prepared a map of

text: Großenhain

text: , which attracted the attention of Augustus the Strong. After further cartographic work, the prince elector gave him the task on 12 April 1713 of: "increasingly recording districts, including the lordships, manor estates, towns, villages and the like, on geographic maps" (original: "Aemter samt denen darinnen befindlichen Herrschaften, Rittergütern, Städten, Dörfern und dergleichen mehr in mappas geographicas bringen"). This entailed the

text: topographic

text: survey of Electoral Saxony. It covered, in addition to the heartland, the electoral Saxon parts of the counties of

text: Henneberg

text: and

text: Mansfeld

text: , the

text: Schönburg

text: estates, the estates of the

text: Albertine

text: branches of

text: Saxe-Merseburg

text: Saxe-Weissenfels

text: and

text: Saxe-Zeitz

text: as well as the two

text: Lusatia

text: s.

text: An 18th-century map and print seller, who worked in London from about 1714, producing some of the best and attractive maps of the century. A recurring feature of Bowen's work, evident even on the early road maps, was his habit of filling every corner and space of the map with jottings and footnotes, both historical and topographical.

text: All mountain heights and prominences on the list are from the largest-scale maps available.However, heights often conflict on different topographic maps, even when created by the same cartographic institution. For example, the Fletschhorn is indicated to be 3993, 3982, and 3984.5 m high on the 1:100,000, 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 Swisstopo map, respectively. The (rounded) elevation of the latter map is used in this table.Also, the deepest points in connecting ridges are not always survey points with spot elevations, so that heights have to be estimated from contour lines. For example, maps often provide heights for the place where a route passes over a ridge rather than for the lowest point of that pass.

text: All mountain heights and prominences on the list are from the largest-

text: scale

text: maps available.However, heights often conflict on different topographic maps, even when created by the same cartographic institution. For example, the

text: Fletschhorn

text: is indicated to be 3993, 3982, and 3984.5 m high on the 1:100,000, 1:50,000 and 1:25,000

text: Swisstopo map

text: , respectively. The (rounded) elevation of the latter map is used in this table.Also, the deepest points in connecting ridges are not always survey points with spot elevations, so that heights have to be estimated from contour lines. For example, maps often provide heights for the place where a route passes over a ridge rather than for the lowest point of that pass.

text: Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys. Performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of topography, showing a variety of elevations and landforms. This is in contrast to older cadastral surveys, which primarily show property and governmental boundaries. The first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the Carte géométrique de la France, was completed in 1789. The Great Trigonometric Survey of India, started by the East India Company in 1802, then taken over by the British Raj after 1857 was notable as a successful effort on a larger scale and for accurately determining heights of Himalayan peaks from viewpoints over one hundred miles distant.

text: Topographic maps are based on

text: topographical survey

text: s. Performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of

text: topography

text: , showing a variety of elevations and landforms. This is in contrast to older

text: cadastral survey

text: s, which primarily show property and governmental boundaries. The first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the Carte géométrique de la France, was completed in 1789. The

text: Great Trigonometric Survey

text: of India, started by the

text: East India Company

text: in 1802, then taken over by the

text: British Raj

text: after 1857 was notable as a successful effort on a larger scale and for accurately determining heights of Himalayan peaks from viewpoints over one hundred miles distant.

text: • Capture and management of geodetic, geological and topographic data (organising the establishment of geodetic networks, organising geological mapping, mapping of the Estonian territory, providing national topographic data and maps to the society)

text: Working lines are difficult to see on a conventional turbine map because the speed lines bunch up. One trick is to replot the map, with the y-axis being the multiple of flow and corrected speed. This separates the speed lines, enabling working lines (and efficiency contours) to be cross-plotted and clearly seen.

text: Working lines are difficult to see on a conventional turbine map because the speed lines bunch up. One trick is to replot the map, with the y-axis being the multiple of flow and corrected speed. This separates the speed lines, enabling working lines (and efficiency contours) to be

text: cross-plot

text: ted and clearly seen.

text: Consecutively in order of appearance: The sheets are numbered consecutively as each is published. Thus, it is not possible to determine the sheets neighbouring a particular sheet without a current sheet index. Nor is it always possible to indicate on a sheet's map surround the numbers of adjacent sheets, as the date of publication of forthcoming sheets (and therefore thei place in the numbering system) may not yet be known. This system is therefore suitable only for small maps, or those in an irregular sheet division (as in tourist maps published by the private sector), and is seldom now used for modern official map series. Example: Geological Atlas of Switzerland (1:25,000).

text: The line of greatest slope has practical significance in map reading. On the terrain it is often far more discernible, even intuitively obvious, rather than accurately picking out the consistent height level on what is likely the undulating uneven ground along the ground represented on the contour line.  But knowing that a greatest slope vector is orthogonal to the contour line, one can readily deduce the direction of the contour lines from the line of greatest slope.  The extent and overall direction of the contour line to a map scale can only be found on the topographic map.

text: In developing a digital topographic database for a GIS, topographical maps are the main source, and aerial photography and satellite imagery are extra sources for collecting data and identifying attributes which can be mapped in layers over a location facsimile of scale. The scale of a map and geographical rendering area representation type are very important aspects since the information content depends mainly on the scale set and resulting locatability of the map's representations. In order to digitize a map, the map has to be checked within theoretical dimensions, then scanned into a raster format, and resulting raster data has to be given a theoretical dimension by a rubber sheeting/warping technology process.

text: In developing a digital topographic database for a GIS,

text: topographical map

text: s are the main source, and

text: aerial photography

text: and

text: satellite imagery

text: are extra sources for collecting data and identifying attributes which can be mapped in layers over a location facsimile of scale. The scale of a map and geographical rendering area representation type are very important aspects since the information content depends mainly on the scale set and resulting locatability of the map's representations. In order to digitize a map, the map has to be checked within theoretical dimensions, then scanned into a raster format, and resulting raster data has to be given a theoretical dimension by a

text: rubber

text: sheeting/warping technology process.

text: Dutch topographic map of Etten-Leur (town), March 2014

text: Worldwide, depths between 100 and 10,000 m are shown in a blue colour scale of 23 steps, together with depth shading. At higher zoom levels depth contours are also displayed. The data is given through cooperation with GEBCO and its bathymetric GEBCO_08-database.

text: Worldwide, depths between 100 and 10,000 m are shown in a blue colour scale of 23 steps, together with depth shading. At higher zoom levels

text: depth contours

text: are also displayed. The data is given through cooperation with

text: GEBCO

text: and its bathymetric GEBCO_08-database.

text: Initially, Crook proposed that the new post be named Camp Wood.  However, in a formal dispatch dated August 28, 1867, Major General Henry W. Halleck, commander of the Military Department of the Pacific, disapproved naming the post Camp Wood and suggested retaining the name Camp Warner.  The soldiers assigned to the post called it Fort Warner to distinguish it from the original Camp Warner, which was only  away. While the Army never officially designated it as a fort, the post became widely known as Fort Warner.  Today, most modern maps, including United States Geological Survey topographical maps, identify the site as Fort Warner.

text: Initially, Crook proposed that the new post be named Camp Wood.  However, in a formal dispatch dated August 28, 1867, Major General

text: Henry W. Halleck

text: , commander of the

text: Military Department of the Pacific

text: , disapproved naming the post Camp Wood and suggested retaining the name Camp Warner.  The soldiers assigned to the post called it Fort Warner to distinguish it from the original Camp Warner, which was only  away. While the Army never officially designated it as a fort, the post became widely known as Fort Warner.  Today, most modern maps, including

text: United States Geological Survey

text: topographical map

text: s, identify the site as Fort Warner.

text: East View Geospatial (EVG), formerly East View Cartographic (EVC), is a leading provider of authoritative worldwide maps, rare geospatial data and geographic information systems (GIS) services. EVG's holdings include all types of geospatial data including vector & raster data, digital elevation models (DEM), satellite & aerial imagery, topographic maps, nautical & aeronautical charts, geological maps, bathymetric data and atlases. EVG has a complete geospatial production staff offering numerous geospatial and imagery processing and production services including feature extraction, georeferencing, digital data conversion, consulting and translation. With its unparalleled acquisition and production capabilities, EVG has built a long history meeting the varied needs of a wide range of customers from around the globe.

text: East View Geospatial (EVG), formerly East View Cartographic (EVC), is a leading provider of authoritative worldwide maps, rare geospatial data and

text: geographic information systems

text: (GIS) services. EVG's holdings include all types of geospatial data including vector & raster data,

text: digital elevation model

text: s (DEM), satellite & aerial imagery, topographic maps, nautical & aeronautical charts, geological maps, bathymetric data and atlases. EVG has a complete geospatial production staff offering numerous geospatial and imagery processing and production services including feature extraction, georeferencing, digital data conversion, consulting and translation. With its unparalleled acquisition and production capabilities, EVG has built a long history meeting the varied needs of a wide range of customers from around the globe.

text: Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain, the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms. This is also known as geomorphometry. In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form (DEM). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of techniques, including contour lines, hypsometric tints, and relief shading.

text: Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or

text: terrain

text: , the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific

text: landform

text: s. This is also known as

text: geomorphometry

text: . In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form (

text: DEM

text: ). It is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a

text: map

text: by a

text: variety of techniques

text: , including

text: contour line

text: s,

text: hypsometric tints

text: , and

text: relief shading

text: ^Elevations estimated from topographic maps.

text: In cartography, the contour interval is the elevation difference between adjacent contour lines. The contour interval should be the same over a single map. When calculated as a ratio against the map scale, a sense of the hilliness of the terrain can be derived.

text: Dutch Topographic map of Den Helder (town), March 2014.

text: More generally, a contour line for a function of two variables is a curve connecting points where the function has the same particular value. The gradient of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines. When the lines are close together the magnitude of the gradient is large: the variation is steep. A level set is a generalization of a contour line for functions of any number of variables.

text: More generally, a contour line for a function of two variables is a curve connecting points where the function has the same particular value. The

text: gradient

text: of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines. When the lines are close together the magnitude of the gradient is large: the variation is steep. A

text: level set

text: is a generalization of a contour line for functions of any number of variables.

text: A geological survey is the systematic investigation of the geology beneath a given piece of ground for the purpose of creating a geological map or model. Geological surveying employs techniques from the traditional walk-over survey, studying outcrops and landforms, to intrusive methods, such as hand augering and machine-driven boreholes, to the use of geophysical techniques and remote sensing methods, such as aerial photography and satellite imagery.  Such surveys may be undertaken by state, province, or national geological survey organizations to maintain the geological inventory and advance the knowledge of geosciences for the benefit of the nation.A geological survey map typically superimposes the surveyed extent and boundaries of geological units on a topographic map, together with information at points (such as measurements of orientation of bedding planes) and lines (such as the intersection of faults with the land surface). The maps and reports created by geological survey organisations generally aim for geographic continuity and completeness in establishing the spatial patterns of near-surface rock units. The map may include cross sections to illustrate the three-dimensional interpretation. Subsurface geological and geophysical maps, providing limited coverage of deeper geology (known, for example, from drilling for oil or gas), are maintained internally by major oil companies and regulators. Some geological survey organisations have collaborated with them to include subsurface geology in their systematic surveys, for example, the Geological Atlas of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. Subsurface maps typically depict the three-dimensional form of geological surfaces by means of contours and cross sections. Computer-based models are increasingly used to provide more comprehensive information storage and greater flexibility of presentation.In the United States, the 50 state surveys are coordinated by the Association of American State Geologists.

text: A geological survey is the systematic investigation of the geology beneath a given piece of ground for the purpose of creating a

text: geological map

text: or

text: model

text: . Geological surveying employs techniques from the traditional walk-over survey, studying

text: outcrop

text: s and

text: landforms

text: , to intrusive methods, such as hand augering and machine-driven

text: borehole

text: s, to the use of

text: geophysical

text: techniques and

text: remote sensing

text: methods, such as

text: aerial photography

text: and

text: satellite imagery

text: .  Such surveys may be undertaken by state, province, or national geological survey organizations to maintain the geological

text: inventory

text: and advance the knowledge of

text: geosciences

text: for the benefit of the nation.A geological survey map typically superimposes the surveyed extent and boundaries of geological units on a topographic map, together with information at points (such as measurements of orientation of bedding planes) and lines (such as the intersection of faults with the land surface). The maps and reports created by geological survey organisations generally aim for geographic continuity and completeness in establishing the spatial patterns of near-surface rock units. The map may include

text: cross sections

text: to illustrate the three-dimensional interpretation. Subsurface geological and geophysical maps, providing limited coverage of deeper geology (known, for example, from drilling for oil or gas), are maintained internally by major oil companies and regulators. Some geological survey organisations have collaborated with them to include subsurface geology in their systematic surveys, for example, the Geological Atlas of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. Subsurface maps typically depict the three-dimensional form of geological surfaces by means of contours and cross sections. Computer-based models are increasingly used to provide more comprehensive information storage and greater flexibility of presentation.In the United States, the 50 state surveys are coordinated by the

text: Association of American State Geologists

text: All departments which require topographic maps make their request to SGP and many are permanently registered with it for mapping and aerial photographs procurement. The SOP performs these functions under the auspices of the Ministry of Defence (MOD). Organisationally, the SOP is overseen by the Surveyor General (SG) who is a direct military appointee and a senior uniformed officer. The SG reports directly to the Secretary of Defence. Under the SG are two Deputy SG’s (I and II) who manage the operational departments of the agency and a Senior Technical Advisor. These departments are divided into Regional Directorates for Topographic Mapping including the Northern region centred in Peshawar, Eastern region (Lahore), Western region (Quetta) and finally, the Southern region in Karachi. Responsibility for fields surveys and the maintenance/update of topographic maps are sub-divided according to these geographic areas.

text: Dutch Topographic map of Haaksbergen (town), June 2014.

text: The first official map to use the geographical name Bürgenstock was the so-called “Siegfriedkarte” Siegfried Map, whose publication, started by the Federal Topographic Bureau under Hermann Siegfried, continued from 1870 until 1926. The name Bürgenstock appears on sheet 377 of the Siegfried Map and dates back to 1896.

text: The first official map to use the geographical name Bürgenstock was the so-called “Siegfriedkarte”

text: Siegfried Map

text: , whose publication, started by the

text: Federal Topographic Bureau

text: under Hermann Siegfried, continued from 1870 until 1926. The name Bürgenstock appears on sheet 377 of the Siegfried Map and dates back to 1896.

text: The watershed of North Fork Tangascootack Creek has an area of . The creek is shown on the Farrandsville topographical map of the United States Geological Survey.

text: The watershed of North Fork Tangascootack Creek has an area of . The creek is shown on the Farrandsville

text: topographical map

text: of the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: In this article, the topographic map values were used to report elevation above MSL, unless a more accurate GPS measurement was available.

text: In this article, the topographic map values were used to report elevation above

text: MSL

text: , unless a more accurate GPS measurement was available.

text: This map was the culmination of a major cooperative project of the early Geological Society, who had established a Committee of Maps in April 1809, led by Greenough. Members of the society out in the provinces of England and Wales submitted details of local rocks and strata which were collated by Greenough, entered in his notebooks and plotted on a topographical map. Greenough was an inductivist in the Baconian tradition, so he eschewed 'theory' and systematically collected information and details with the aim of discovering the distribution of rocks. Greenough received assistance in the collection of his geological facts chiefly from William Buckland, Reverend W. D. Conybeare, Henry Warburton, and Thomas Webster, and amongst others from Henry Thomas De la Beche, John Farey, the Rev. J. Hailstone, David Mushet, Thomas Biddle and Arthur Aikin.

text: This map was the culmination of a major cooperative project of the early Geological Society, who had established a Committee of Maps in April 1809, led by Greenough. Members of the society out in the provinces of England and Wales submitted details of local rocks and strata which were collated by Greenough, entered in his notebooks and plotted on a topographical map. Greenough was an

text: inductivist

text: in the

text: Baconian

text: tradition, so he eschewed 'theory' and systematically collected information and details with the aim of discovering the distribution of rocks. Greenough received assistance in the collection of his geological facts chiefly from

text: William Buckland

text: Reverend W. D. Conybeare

text: Henry Warburton

text: , and

text: Thomas Webster

text: , and amongst others from

text: Henry Thomas De la Beche

text: John Farey

text: , the

text: Rev. J. Hailstone

text: David Mushet

text: , Thomas Biddle and

text: Arthur Aikin

text: Dutch Topographic map of the municipality of West Maas en Waal, 2013.

text: Polish topographic maps published by WIG were highly regarded in pre-war Europe and should have increased the combat effectiveness of the Polish armed forces.  However, to help keep their wartime deployment locations secret most combat units were not issued the needed topographic maps in peacetime. Instead, the maps were to be delivered only after mobilization started, a few days before the outbreak of war. During the German invasion in September 1939 the wartime map distribution system broke down due to unexpectedly rapid German advance, and Polish units often lacked detailed topographic maps of the areas in which they were fighting.

text: The main (atlas) volume contains 102 color topographic maps, covering territory from the British Isles and the Azores and eastward to Afghanistan and western China. The size of the volume is 33 x 48 cm. A 45-page gazeteer is also included in the atlas volume. The atlas is accompanied by a map-by-map directory on CD-ROM, in PDF format, including a search index. The map-by-map directory is also available in print as a two-volume, 1,500 page edition.

text: The main (atlas) volume contains 102 color topographic maps, covering territory from the

text: British Isles

text: and the

text: Azores

text: and eastward to

text: Afghanistan

text: and western

text: China

text: . The size of the volume is 33 x 48 cm. A 45-page

text: gazeteer

text: is also included in the atlas volume. The atlas is accompanied by a map-by-map directory on CD-ROM, in

text: PDF

text: format, including a search index. The map-by-map directory is also available in print as a two-volume, 1,500 page edition.

text: In order for a solar map to be made, two main types of data must be collected. Those two types of data include Meteorological Data and Topographical Data. The Meteorological data is used in calculations pertaining to Solar Energy. Such measurements of this type of data include the measurements of the position of the sun, overall atmospheric conditions, latitude, and shading. Topographical data on the other hand, is used in illustrating the amount of area exposed to a certain degree of radiation from the sun or in calculations that present how much area of a physical object is experiencing direct contact with the sun's rays. In some cases, Financial Data may also be collected to be presented on a solar map. When this happens, that means that the solar map would appear online for a certain city. The reasons why financial data is collected and presented on these solar maps is to encourage a certain productive behavior among citizens.

text: Page Bluff () is a bluff rising to about 1,250 m at the east end of Crescent Scarp in northern Palmer Land. Photographed from the air by United States Antarctic Service (USAS), 1940, and surveyed by Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS), 1958. Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in 1977 after John H. Page, geodesist, U.S. Army Topographic Command (later Defense Mapping Agency, Hydrographic/Topographic Center), Scientific Leader, Palmer Station, winter party 1969.

text: Page Bluff () is a bluff rising to about 1,250 m at the east end of

text: Crescent Scarp

text: in northern

text: Palmer Land

text: . Photographed from the air by

text: United States Antarctic Service

text: (USAS), 1940, and surveyed by

text: Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey

text: (FIDS), 1958. Named by

text: Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names

text: (US-ACAN) in 1977 after

text: John H. Page

text: , geodesist,

text: U.S. Army Topographic Command

text: (later

text: Defense Mapping Agency

text: , Hydrographic/

text: Topographic Center

text: Scientific Leader

text: Palmer Station

text: , winter party 1969.

text: A first draft of the geological map was presented to the Geological Society as early as 1812, but there was dissatisfaction with the quality of the engraving of the topographical map, resulting in the base map not being ready until 1814. In 1815, William Smith published his famous geological map and when Greenough finally published his map five years later it was clear he was heavily indebted to Smith's work in delineating strata (although not acknowledged and thus plagiarized until the 1865 edition); nevertheless Greenough's map contained more geological detail and was better cartographically. Smith had relied on a theory about the linear arrangement of strata identified by characteristic fossils to extrapolate from his observations (Smith himself was indebted to John Strachey's theory of strata for his ideas), and so was able to map out the distribution of strata across the country. Greenough, on the other hand, did not go by theory, and it was probably this aversion that delayed the preparation of his map.

text: A first draft of the geological map was presented to the Geological Society as early as 1812, but there was dissatisfaction with the quality of the engraving of the topographical map, resulting in the base map not being ready until 1814. In 1815,

text: William Smith

text: published his famous geological map and when Greenough finally published his map five years later it was clear he was heavily indebted to Smith's work in delineating strata (although not acknowledged and thus plagiarized until the 1865 edition); nevertheless Greenough's map contained more geological detail and was better cartographically. Smith had relied on a theory about the linear arrangement of strata identified by characteristic fossils to extrapolate from his observations (Smith himself was indebted to

text: John Strachey

text: 's theory of strata for his ideas), and so was able to map out the distribution of strata across the country. Greenough, on the other hand, did not go by theory, and it was probably this aversion that delayed the preparation of his map.

text: Contours are one of several common methods used to denote elevation or altitude and depth on maps. From these contours, a sense of the general terrain can be determined. They are used at a variety of scales, from large-scale engineering drawings and architectural plans, through topographic maps and bathymetric charts, up to continental-scale maps.

text: Contours are one of several

text: common methods

text: used to denote

text: elevation

text: or

text: altitude

text: and depth on

text: maps

text: . From these contours, a sense of the general

text: terrain

text: can be determined. They are used at a variety of scales, from large-scale engineering drawings and architectural plans, through

text: topographic maps

text: and

text: bathymetric charts

text: , up to continental-scale maps.

text: National Topographic System MapsCanadian Topographic Maps 92G/7,  2002;   Edition: 6Canadian Topographic Maps 92-G/7, 2009;   Edition: 07 version: 01Canadian Topographic Maps 92-G/7, 2010;   Edition: 07 version: 02These maps are free to download in the numerous formats provided from the federal government.

text: Prospectivity mapping, also known as mineral prospectivity mapping or mineral potential mapping, defines a process used to make better use of mineral exploration data.  Geological and geophysical datasets, such as  lithological, structural and topographical maps, aeromagnetic, gravity and radiometric imagery are the typical datasets used in the construction of prospectivity maps.

text: Prospectivity mapping, also known as mineral prospectivity mapping or mineral potential mapping, defines a process used to make better use of

text: mineral exploration

text: data.  Geological and geophysical datasets, such as

text: lithological

text: , structural and topographical maps, aeromagnetic,

text: gravity

text: and radiometric imagery are the typical datasets used in the construction of prospectivity maps.

text: Dutch Topographic map of Purmerend (town), as of March 2014.

text: In an ideal case, the joining of a bathymetric chart and topographic map of the same scale and projection of the same geographic area would be seamless. The only difference would be that the values begin increasing after crossing the zero at the designated sea level datum. Thus the topographic map's mountains have the greatest values while the bathymetric chart's greatest depths have the greatest values. Simply put, the bathymetric chart is intended to show the land if overlying waters were removed in exactly the same manner as the topographic map.

text: In an ideal case, the joining of a bathymetric chart and topographic map of the same

text: scale

text: and

text: projection

text: of the same geographic area would be seamless. The only difference would be that the values begin increasing after crossing the zero at the designated

text: sea level

text: datum

text: . Thus the topographic map's

text: mountain

text: s have the greatest values while the bathymetric chart's greatest depths have the greatest values. Simply put, the bathymetric chart is intended to show the land if overlying waters were removed in exactly the same manner as the topographic map.

text: Meteorological contour maps may present collected data such as actual air pressure at a given time, or generalized data such as average pressure over a period of time, or forecast data such as predicted air pressure at some point in the future

text: Meteorological contour maps

text: may present collected data such as actual air pressure at a given time, or generalized data such as average pressure over a period of time, or forecast data such as predicted air pressure at some point in the future

text: OCTA Chapters work closely with National Trails System partners to help interpret and sustain the quality of outdoor recreation experiences along these trail corridors. For example, OCTA's guide to Mapping Emigrant Trails (MET Manual)   became the National Park Service's benchmark protocol for GPS-assisted topographical mapping along other historic and scenic trails.

text: OCTA Chapters work closely with

text: National Trails System

text: partners to help interpret and sustain the quality of outdoor recreation experiences along these trail corridors. For example, OCTA's guide to Mapping Emigrant Trails (MET Manual)   became the

text: National Park Service

text: 's benchmark protocol for

text: GPS

text: -assisted

text: topographical map

text: ping along other historic and scenic trails.

text: An effectively designed map is one in which the intended message is clearly communicated to the map user. By employing the concept of figure–ground, a viewer can easily distinguish between the main figure on a map and the background information. Several concepts that are key to developing good figure–ground in any cartographic design are differentiation, closed form, centrality, articulation and good contour. In addition, by considering the intended intellectual hierarchy, or the order of importance of each map element, the author can develop a visual hierarchy on the map that corresponds appropriately.

text: An effectively designed

text: map

text: is one in which the intended message is clearly communicated to the map user. By employing the concept of

text: figure–ground

text: , a viewer can easily distinguish between the main figure on a map and the background information. Several concepts that are key to developing good figure–ground in any cartographic design are differentiation, closed form, centrality, articulation and good contour. In addition, by considering the intended intellectual hierarchy, or the order of importance of each map element, the author can develop a

text: visual hierarchy

text: on the map that corresponds appropriately.

text: The SOB possesses the rights to all aerial photographs and other topographic maps of Bangladesh. They undertake geodetic, topographical and aerial surveys from time to time and keep records of basic geodetic and levelling networks. Topomaps are prepared, updated and verified by ground surveys. The SOB's regular responsibilities include revising and upgrading the topographic basemaps drawn on 1:50,000 scale.

text: The SOB possesses the rights to all aerial photographs and other topographic maps of Bangladesh. They undertake

text: geodetic

text: , topographical and aerial surveys from time to time and keep records of basic geodetic and levelling networks. Topomaps are prepared, updated and verified by ground surveys. The SOB's regular responsibilities include revising and upgrading the topographic basemaps drawn on 1:50,000 scale.

text: Another 19th century example of thematic maps, according to Friendly (2008), was the earliest known choropleth map in 1826 created by Charles Dupin. Based on this work Louis-Leger Gauthier (1815–1881) developed the population contour map, a map that shows the population density by contours or isolines.

text: Another 19th century example of thematic maps, according to Friendly (2008), was the earliest known

text: choropleth map

text: in 1826 created by

text: Charles Dupin

text: . Based on this work

text: Louis-Leger Gauthier

text: (1815–1881) developed the population

text: contour map

text: , a map that shows the

text: population density

text: by contours or

text: isolines

text: Pictorial maps (also known as illustrated maps, panoramic maps, perspective maps, bird’s-eye view maps, and geopictorial maps) depict a given territory with a more artistic rather than technical style. It is a type of map in contrast to road map, atlas, or topographic map. The cartography can be a sophisticated 3-D perspective landscape or a simple map graphic enlivened with illustrations of buildings, people and animals. They can feature all sorts of varied topics like historical events, legendary figures or local agricultural products and cover anything from an entire continent to a college campus. Drawn by specialized artists and illustrators, pictorial maps are a rich, centuries-old tradition and a diverse art form that ranges from cartoon maps on restaurant placemats to treasured art prints in museums.

text: Pictorial maps (also known as illustrated maps, panoramic maps, perspective maps, bird’s-eye view maps, and geopictorial maps) depict a given territory with a more artistic rather than technical style. It is a type of map in contrast to

text: road map

text: atlas

text: , or

text: topographic map

text: . The

text: cartography

text: can be a sophisticated 3-D perspective landscape or a simple map graphic enlivened with illustrations of buildings, people and animals. They can feature all sorts of varied topics like historical events, legendary figures or local agricultural products and cover anything from an entire continent to a college campus. Drawn by specialized artists and illustrators, pictorial maps are a rich, centuries-old tradition and a diverse art form that ranges from cartoon maps on restaurant placemats to treasured art prints in museums.

text: Vanin Bay on the Strait of Tartary was named after a topographer who worked in a team that prepared maps of the coast in 1874. Vanino was established in 1907.

text: Vanin Bay on the

text: Strait of Tartary

text: was named after a topographer who worked in a team that prepared maps of the coast in 1874. Vanino was established in 1907.

text: Detailed, accurate topographic maps have long been a military priority.  They are currently produced by the Military-topographic service of armed forces of the Russian Federation ().  Military topographic mapping departments held other titles in the Russian Empire since 1793 and in the Soviet Union where these maps also came to be used for internal control and economic development.

text: Detailed, accurate topographic maps have long been a military priority.  They are currently produced by the Military-topographic service of armed forces of the Russian Federation ().  Military topographic mapping departments held other titles in the

text: Russian Empire

text: since 1793 and in the

text: Soviet Union

text: where these maps also came to be used for

text: internal control

text: and

text: economic development

text: The Science Library, in the F.W. Olin Science Center, houses books, journals, videos, and topographic maps that support programs in the natural sciences, computer science, and mathematics.

text: The first geological map of the U.S. was produced in 1809 by William Maclure. In 1807, Maclure undertook the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. He traversed and mapped nearly every state in the Union. During the rigorous two-year period of his survey, he crossed and recrossed the Allegheny Mountains some 50 times. Maclure's map shows the distribution of five classes of rock in what are now only the eastern states of the present-day US.

text: The first geological map of the U.S. was produced in 1809 by

text: William Maclure

text: Allegheny Mountains

text: some 50 times. Maclure's map shows the distribution of five classes of rock in what are now only the eastern states of the present-day US.

text: "Freedom from dependence upon ground surveys was forecast during World War I, when Major James W. Bagley, a former civilian employee of the US Geological Survey and a pioneer in American photo-mapping, brought his recently invented tri-lens camera to France. Bagley's camera took one vertical and two oblique photographs and in that way produced a much larger picture than a single lens camera previously used. Study of these photographs enabled topographic engineers to overprint the site of enemy trenches and gun emplacements on existing base maps."

text: The maps are superimposed over a topographic map base produced by Ordnance Survey (OS), and use symbols to represent fault lines, strike and dip or geological units, boreholes etc. Colors are used to represent different geological units. Explanatory booklets (memoirs) are produced for many sheets at the 1:50,000 scale.

text: The maps are superimposed over a topographic map base produced by

text: Ordnance Survey

text: (OS), and use symbols to represent fault lines, strike and dip or geological units,

text: borehole

text: s etc. Colors are used to represent different geological units. Explanatory booklets (memoirs) are produced for many sheets at the 1:50,000 scale.

text: Most of the maps are of the scale 1:1,000,000 or 1:500,000. However, the environs of the three greater centers (Athens, Rome, Byzantium-Constantinople) are presented in 1:150,000. Some remote regions, where Greeks and Romans mostly explored and traded rather than settled (i.e. Baltic, Arabia, East Africa, India, Sri Lanka), are of the scale 1:5,000,000. Due to the nature of the base maps used for the background and time–cost restrictions, elevation lines (contours) were left in feet except for the 1:150,000 maps where they are in meters. The projection of the maps is Lambert Conformal Conic. Again due to time and cost restrictions, geo-referencing of the maps was left as a future separate project.

text: Most of the maps are of the scale 1:1,000,000 or 1:500,000. However, the environs of the three greater centers (

text: Athens

text: Rome

text: Byzantium

text: Constantinople

text: ) are presented in 1:150,000. Some remote regions, where Greeks and Romans mostly explored and traded rather than settled (i.e.

text: Baltic

text: Arabia

text: East Africa

text: India

text: Sri Lanka

text: ), are of the scale 1:5,000,000. Due to the nature of the base maps used for the background and time–cost restrictions, elevation lines (contours) were left in feet except for the 1:150,000 maps where they are in meters. The

text: projection

text: of the maps is

text: Lambert Conformal Conic

text: . Again due to time and cost restrictions,

text: geo-referencing

text: of the maps was left as a future separate project.

text: In the geosciences, especially seismic data analysis, these plots also called f–k plot, in which energy density within a given time interval is contoured on a frequency-versus-wavenumber basis.  They are used to examine the direction and apparent velocity of seismic waves and in velocity filter design.

text: In the

text: geoscience

text: s, especially seismic data analysis, these plots also called f–k plot, in which energy density within a given time interval is contoured on a frequency-versus-wavenumber basis.  They are used to examine the direction and apparent velocity of seismic waves and in

text: velocity filter

text: design.

text: Elevations are measured in three steps, that include first measuring the interior orientation, then the relative orientation, and finally the absolute orientation. Interior orientation photographs are placed in relation to the center of the stereoplotter by aligning the fixed standard of reference points for measurement to corresponding points on the photograph. The focal length of the camera is also set. With relative orientation the angle of orientation of the camera relative to the place where the photos were the stereo-photo is taken programmed in the stereoplotter. This allows the effects of parallax (distortion of the final stereo-photo) to be reduced. In absolute orientation, the ground coordinates of a position are used to scale the model. You can use this to get the x, y, or z coordinates of any position on the stereo photographs. This information can be used for the construction of  contour lines for topographic maps.

text: Elevations are measured in three steps, that include first measuring the interior orientation, then the relative orientation, and finally the absolute orientation. Interior orientation photographs are placed in relation to the center of the stereoplotter by aligning the fixed standard of reference points for measurement to corresponding points on the photograph. The focal length of the camera is also set. With relative orientation the angle of orientation of the camera relative to the place where the photos were the stereo-photo is taken programmed in the stereoplotter. This allows the effects of parallax (distortion of the final stereo-photo) to be reduced. In absolute orientation, the ground coordinates of a position are used to scale the model. You can use this to get the x, y, or z coordinates of any position on the stereo photographs. This information can be used for the construction of

text: contour line

text: s for topographic maps.

text: Survey township, sometimes called Congressional township, as used by the United States Public Land Survey System, refers to a square unit of land, that is nominally six (U.S. Survey) miles (~9.7 km) on a side. Each 36-square-mile (~93 km) township is divided into 36 one-square-mile (~2.6 km) sections, that can be further subdivided for sale, and each section covers a nominal . The townships are referenced by a numbering system that locates the township in relation to a principal meridian (north-south) and a base line (east-west). For example, Township 2 North, Range 4 East is the 4th township east of the principal meridian and the 2nd township north of the base line. Township (exterior) lines were originally surveyed and platted by the US General Land Office using contracted private survey crews. Later survey crews subdivided the townships into sections (interior) lines. Virtually all lands covered by this system were sold according to these boundaries. They are marked on the U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps.

text: Survey township, sometimes called Congressional township, as used by the

text: United States

text: Public Land Survey System

text: , refers to a square

text: unit

text: of land, that is nominally six (U.S. Survey)

text: mile

text: s (~9.7 km) on a side. Each 36-square-mile (~93 km) township is divided into 36 one-square-mile (~2.6 km)

text: sections

text: , that can be further subdivided for sale, and each section covers a nominal . The townships are referenced by a numbering system that locates the township in relation to a

text: principal meridian

text: (north-south) and a

text: base line

text: (east-west). For example, Township 2 North, Range 4 East is the 4th township east of the principal meridian and the 2nd township north of the base line. Township (exterior) lines were originally surveyed and platted by the US

text: General Land Office

text: using contracted private survey crews. Later survey crews subdivided the townships into sections (interior) lines. Virtually all lands covered by this system were sold according to these boundaries. They are marked on the

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: topographic map

text: s.

text: Although it is usually indicated simply as Olona on topographic and road maps, it may be called either Olona inferiore (Lower Olona) or Olona meridionale (Southern Olona) for better distinction with the northern Olona.

text: The next-smallest topographic series, in terms of scale, is the 1:100,000 series. These maps are bounded by two lines of longitude and two lines of latitude. However, in this series, the lines of latitude are spaced 30 minutes apart and the lines of longitude are spaced 60 minutes, which is the source of another name for these maps; the 30 x 60-minute quadrangle series. Each of these quadrangles covers the area contained within 32 maps in the 7.5-minute series. The 1:100,000 scale series is unusual in that it employs the Metric system primarily. One centimeter on the map represents one kilometer of distance on the ground. Contour intervals, spot elevations, and horizontal distances are also specified in meters.

text: The next-smallest topographic series, in terms of scale, is the 1:100,000 series. These maps are bounded by two lines of longitude and two lines of latitude. However, in this series, the lines of latitude are spaced 30 minutes apart and the lines of longitude are spaced 60 minutes, which is the source of another name for these maps; the 30 x 60-minute quadrangle series. Each of these quadrangles covers the area contained within 32 maps in the 7.5-minute series. The 1:100,000 scale series is unusual in that it employs the

text: Metric system

text: primarily. One centimeter on the map represents one kilometer of distance on the ground.

text: Contour interval

text: s, spot elevations, and horizontal distances are also specified in meters.

text: Geometry was essential to surveying and cartography. The earliest extant Chinese maps date to the 4th century BCE, yet it was not until the time of Pei Xiu (224–271) that topographical elevation, a formal rectangular grid system, and use of a standard graduated scale of distances was applied to terrain maps. Following a long tradition, Shen Kuo created a raised-relief map, while his other maps featured a uniform graduated scale of 1:900,000. A  squared map of 1137—carved into a stone block—followed a uniform grid scale of 100 li for each gridded square, and accurately mapped the outline of the coasts and river systems of China, extending all the way to India. Furthermore, the world's oldest known terrain map in printed form comes from the edited encyclopedia of Yang Jia in 1155, which displayed western China without the formal grid system that was characteristic of more professionally made Chinese maps. Although gazetteers had existed since 52 CE during the Han dynasty and gazetteers accompanied by illustrative maps (Chinese: tujing) since the Sui dynasty, the illustrated gazetteer became much more common in the Song dynasty, when the foremost concern was for illustrative gazetteers to serve political, administrative, and military purposes.

text: Geometry

text: was essential to

text: surveying

text: and

text: cartography

text: . The

text: earliest extant Chinese maps

text: date to the 4th century BCE, yet it was not until the time of

text: Pei Xiu

text: (224–271) that topographical

text: elevation

text: , a formal

text: rectangular grid

text: system, and use of a standard graduated scale of distances was applied to terrain maps.

text: Following a long tradition

text: , Shen Kuo created a

text: raised-relief map

text: , while his other maps featured a uniform graduated scale of 1:900,000. A  squared map of 1137—carved into a stone block—followed a uniform grid scale of 100 li for each gridded square, and accurately mapped the outline of the coasts and river systems of China, extending all the way to India. Furthermore, the world's oldest known terrain map in printed form comes from the edited encyclopedia of Yang Jia in 1155, which displayed western China without the formal grid system that was characteristic of more professionally made Chinese maps. Although

text: gazetteer

text: s had existed since 52 CE during the Han dynasty and gazetteers accompanied by illustrative maps (Chinese: tujing) since the Sui dynasty, the illustrated gazetteer became much more common in the Song dynasty, when the foremost concern was for illustrative gazetteers to serve political, administrative, and military purposes.

text: In cartography, he is also credited with one of the earliest (if not the first) thematic map to use contour linesto display a non-geographic variable on map--- a contour map of the population of Paris in 1874.

text: In

text: cartography

text: , he is also credited with one of the earliest (if not the first)

text: thematic map

text: to use

text: contour line

text: sto display a non-geographic variable on map--- a contour map of the population of Paris in 1874.

text: An isogon (from γωνία or gonia, meaning 'angle') is a contour line for a variable which measures direction.  In meteorology and in geomagnetics, the term isogon has specific meanings which are described below.  An isocline (from κλίνειν or klinein, meaning 'to lean or slope') is a line joining points with equal slope.  In population dynamics and in geomagnetics, the terms isocline and isoclinic line have specific meanings which are described below.

text: An isogon (from γωνία or gonia, meaning 'angle') is a contour line for a variable which measures direction.  In meteorology and in geomagnetics, the term isogon has specific meanings which are described below.  An

text: isocline

text: (from κλίνειν or klinein, meaning 'to lean or slope') is a line joining points with equal slope.  In population dynamics and in geomagnetics, the terms isocline and isoclinic line have specific meanings which are described below.

text: Bordering the site on its western side is Highway 41; on other sides are low-scale, modern-era residential and commercial neighborhoods. In spite of this encroachment, the cemetery has preserved its original pastoral tranquility. The site selected for the cemetery was, according to a contemporary newspaper account, a “hillock, a wilderness of underbrush and briars, and called at that with a mantle of loess, underlain by sandstone." A 1927 topographical map showing the cemetery tract depicted the land of the original 1852 purchase as gradually ascending on the south from the floodplain level of 390 feet to a height of 430 feet. On the north end, there was a sharp drop-off. In profile, as viewed particularly from the east, the contour of the hill looked like the back of a two-humped Bactrian camel with a central Erosional vale. The early burials took place on the southern slope, close to the ridge. Today, interment sites not only blanket the entire prominence, but also cover the flat lands at the foot of the hill on three sides. Although the Cemetery comprises 175 acres, less than 120 have been platted and made available for interments. A tract of about 55 acres across the northern part of the Cemetery bordering Morgan Avenue has been farm-leased.

text: Bordering the site on its western side is

text: Highway 41

text: Survey Camp is an army tradition that was discontinued in the later part of twentieth century but was reinstated in 2002 across the universities of the world with a whole new structure. It is the civil engineering training course for two weeks usually after completion  four semesters of bachelor of technology that consists of 8 days working in the field and 6 days of map preparation in the computer lab. Experts say that survey camp provides necessary foundation for civil engineers. Each day in the course there are at least 8 hours of working in the field. Students are divided into groups and they get out with practising surveyors and use their equipment out in the field. A camp incharge teacher appoints group leaders for each group; the leaders are responsible for all the works of his particular group and the equipment. In the computer lab, students learn applications such as AutoCAD and Carlson Survey. The students use these programs to take data collected from the field to develop topographic maps of the particular area. The basic aim of the survey camp is to know various works carried out in the industrial field by surveying, which includes determining the topography of particular area with the help of survey work, map study and reconnaissance work. The methods used for surveying are traversing, levelling and contouring

text: Survey Camp is an army tradition that was discontinued in the later part of twentieth century but was reinstated in 2002 across the universities of the world with a whole new structure. It is the

text: civil engineering

text: training course for two weeks usually after completion  four semesters of

text: bachelor of technology

text: that consists of 8 days working in the field and 6 days of map preparation in the

text: computer lab

text: . Experts say that survey camp provides necessary foundation for

text: civil engineer

text: s. Each day in the course there are at least 8 hours of working in the field. Students are divided into groups and they get out with practising

text: surveyors

text: and use their equipment out in the field. A camp incharge teacher appoints group leaders for each group; the leaders are responsible for all the works of his particular group and the equipment. In the computer lab, students learn

text: applications

text: such as

text: AutoCAD

text: and Carlson Survey. The students use these programs to take data collected from the field to develop

text: topographic maps

text: of the particular area. The basic aim of the survey camp is to know various works carried out in the industrial field by

text: surveying

text: , which includes determining the

text: topography

text: of particular area with the help of survey work, map study and reconnaissance work. The methods used for surveying are

text: traversing

text: levelling

text: and

text: contouring

text: Wilson evidently intended for the Bryan Mountains to extend even farther to the north and south than what was eventually recorded on USGS maps of the area. In Wilson's geologic map of Yuma County published in 1933, the Bryan's are depicted as including what are now considered the southern third of the Mohawk Mountains to the north of the present-day Bryan's. The map shows a series of outlying hills to the south and southwest as part of the Bryan's as well. For some unexplained reason, the surveyors of the Army Map Service and the USGS eventually depicted a much less expansive version of the range when the first 15-minute topographic maps of the area were produced in the mid-1960s, and that depiction has carried over to more recent USGS maps produced today.

text: Wilson evidently intended for the Bryan Mountains to extend even farther to the north and south than what was eventually recorded on USGS maps of the area. In Wilson's geologic map of Yuma County published in 1933, the Bryan's are depicted as including what are now considered the southern third of the Mohawk Mountains to the north of the present-day Bryan's. The map shows a series of outlying hills to the south and southwest as part of the Bryan's as well. For some unexplained reason, the surveyors of the

text: Army Map Service

text: and the USGS eventually depicted a much less expansive version of the range when the first 15-minute topographic maps of the area were produced in the mid-1960s, and that depiction has carried over to more recent USGS maps produced today.

text: In 1945 the National Mapping Council (NMC) of Australia, comprising Commonwealth and State authorities, was formed to coordinate survey and mapping activities after the Second World War. Despite the huge wartime mapping achievements of producing 224 '4 mile' strategic maps and 397 '1 mile' tactical maps, there was much to be done for a basic coverage of reliable topographic maps for national development and defence. In 1947 a National Mapping Section in the Department of Interior was established and together with the Survey Corps commenced work on the 1954 Cabinet approved general purpose national topographic map programme, initially the '4 mile' map then soon after scale 1:250,000 maps (series R502).  Army agreed that when not required for solely military purposes, Survey Corps units would be available to work in the Defence priority areas in the Government approved national survey and topographic mapping programmes. This programme involved control surveys by astronomical fixes and traverse by electro-magnetic distance measurement and all aspects of map compilation from aerial photography, final cartography and map printing.  The Corps' geodetic surveys were integrated with other Commonwealth and State Government surveys to create the NMC sponsored Australian Geodetic Datum 1966 (AGD66)  and the associated Australian Map Grid 1966 (AMG66) of Australia and Papua New Guinea and the Australian Height Datum 1971 (AHD71). By 1968 the Corps had completed its commitment of about half of the 540 series R502 maps and it then embarked on the Defence priority part of the 1965 Cabinet endorsed national programme of general purpose scale 1:100,000 topographic maps. This programme required densification of the national geodetic and height networks with mapping quality control surveys of Cape York, Gulf of Carpentaria, northern Northern Territory and north-west Western Australia using mainly airborne electromagnetic distance measurement systems (Aerodist). The Corps completed its commitment of 862 of these maps in 1982.

text: We fix the interpolation nodes x, ..., x and an interval [a, b] containing all the interpolation nodes. The process of interpolation maps the function f to a polynomial p. This defines a mapping X from the space C([a, b]) of all continuous functions on [a, b] to itself. The map X is linear and it is a projection on the subspace Π of polynomials of degree n or less.

text: We fix the interpolation nodes x, ..., x and an interval [a, b] containing all the interpolation nodes. The process of interpolation maps the function f to a polynomial p. This defines a mapping X from the space C([a, b]) of all continuous functions on [a, b] to itself. The map X is linear and it is a

text: projection

text: on the subspace Π of polynomials of degree n or less.

text: Some of the earliest maps of the White Mountains were produced as tourist maps and not topographical maps. One of the first two tourist maps of the mountains was that produced by Franklin Leavitt, a self-taught artist born near Lancaster, New Hampshire in 1824. Leavitt's hand-drawn map, today in the collection of Harvard University, is largely folk art, but does convey some of the region's features. Leavitt drew several versions of his map, beginning in 1852. The fourth version, printed in 1871, was printed at Boston and carried a retail price of one dollar. Other early maps of the region were drawn by H. Conant and by Harvard astronomer George Phillips Bond, who published the first topographical map of the region in 1853.

text: Some of the earliest maps of the White Mountains were produced as tourist maps and not topographical maps. One of the first two tourist maps of the mountains was that produced by Franklin Leavitt, a self-taught artist born near

text: Lancaster, New Hampshire

text: in 1824. Leavitt's hand-drawn map, today in the collection of

text: Harvard University

text: , is largely

text: folk art

text: , but does convey some of the region's features. Leavitt drew several versions of his map, beginning in 1852. The fourth version, printed in 1871, was printed at Boston and carried a retail price of one dollar. Other early maps of the region were drawn by H. Conant and by

text: Harvard

text: astronomer

text: George Phillips Bond

text: , who published the first topographical map of the region in 1853.

text: Grid north is a navigational term referring to the direction northwards along the grid lines of a map projection.  It is contrasted with true north (the direction of the North Pole) and magnetic north (the direction in which a compass needle points). Many topographic maps, including those of the United States Geological Survey and Great Britain's Ordnance Survey, indicate the difference between grid north, true north, and magnetic north.

text: Grid north is a

text: navigation

text: al term referring to the direction northwards along the grid lines of a

text: map projection

text: .  It is contrasted with

text: true north

text: (the direction of the

text: North Pole

text: ) and

text: magnetic north

text: (the direction in which a compass needle points). Many

text: topographic map

text: s, including those of the

text: United States Geological Survey

text: and Great Britain's

text: Ordnance Survey

text: , indicate the difference between grid north, true north, and magnetic north.

text: La Via Latina, a road that was strategically advantageous in the military history of Rome, leads to the Algidus Mons mountain pass. Dionysius of Halicarnassus claimed that a town was founded on the mountain (Dion. Halic. x. 21, xi. 3), but this has not been verified by modern scholarship. Although an extensive fortification lines the Maschio d'Ariano (the hill to the south of the Via Latina), this particular structure was entirely medieval, and therefore did not exist during the time period described by Dionysius. However, some historical topographers have mistakenly included it on maps meant to illustrate Italy during the Western Roman Empire.

text: La

text: Via Latina

text: , a road that was strategically advantageous in the

text: military history of Rome

text: , leads to the Algidus Mons

text: mountain pass

text: Dionysius of Halicarnassus

text: claimed that a

text: town

text: was founded on the mountain (Dion. Halic. x. 21, xi. 3), but this has not been verified by modern scholarship. Although an extensive fortification lines the Maschio d'Ariano (the hill to the south of the Via Latina), this particular structure was entirely

text: medieval

text: , and therefore did not exist during the time period described by Dionysius. However, some historical

text: topographers

text: have mistakenly included it on

text: map

text: s meant to illustrate Italy during the

text: Western Roman Empire

text: A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including (especially in the 20th and 21st centuries) the use of contour lines showing elevation. Terrain or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see Cartographic relief depiction).

text: A

text: topographic map

text: is primarily concerned with the

text: topographic

text: description of a place, including (especially in the 20th and 21st centuries) the use of

text: contour line

text: s showing elevation.

text: Terrain

text: or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see

text: Cartographic relief depiction

text: Most nations of any significant size now have several topographic map series of coordinated scales (scale series). Examples of such series are the German Topographic maps of 1:25.000 scale (TK25) to 1:1,000,000 scale (TK1000). In Germany, the federal States have responsibility for the production and updating of the map series up to and including 1:100,000 scale, and for larger scales the responsibility rests with the Federal Office of Land Surveying. The small scale map series are edited by the Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy.

text: Most nations of any significant size now have several

text: topographic map

text: series of coordinated scales (scale series). Examples of such series are the German Topographic maps of 1:25.000 scale (TK25) to 1:1,000,000 scale (TK1000). In Germany, the federal States have responsibility for the production and updating of the map series up to and including 1:100,000 scale, and for larger scales the responsibility rests with the Federal Office of Land Surveying. The small scale map series are edited by the

text: Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy

text: Local governments can augment their initiatives promoting Open Data in Canada by contributing their geographic data and community maps through the program, to be integrated into a World Topographic Map in Esri's ArcGIS Online portal.  Other Canadian municipalities that have joined the program include St. Albert, Alberta; Nanaimo, British Columbia; Kamloops, British Columbia;  Surrey, British Columbia;  District of Oak Bay, British Columbia; Township of Langley, British Columbia; Moncton, New Brunswick;  Fredericton, New Brunswick; and St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador.

text: Local governments can augment their initiatives promoting

text: Open Data in Canada

text: by contributing their geographic data and community maps through the program, to be integrated into a World Topographic Map in Esri's ArcGIS Online portal.  Other Canadian municipalities that have joined the program include

text: St. Albert, Alberta

text: Nanaimo

text: , British Columbia;

text: Kamloops

text: , British Columbia;

text: Surrey, British Columbia

text: ;  District of

text: Oak Bay

text: , British Columbia; Township of

entity_name: Langley, British Columbia (district municipality)

text: Langley, British Columbia

text: Moncton

text: , New Brunswick;

text: Fredericton

text: , New Brunswick; and

text: St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador

text: Land Information New Zealand is the government agency responsible for providing up-to-date topographic mapping. LINZ topographic maps cover all of New Zealand, offshore islands, some Pacific Islands and the Ross Sea Region. The standard issue NZTopo map series was published September 2009 at 1:50,000 (NZTopo50), and 1:250,000 (NZTopo250). Vector data from the New Zealand Topographic Database (NZTopo) is also available.

text: Tirth Pat () is a religious map and topographical rendering used in Śvētāmbara Jainism religion for representing places of pilgrimage (Tirtha). Tirth Pat is different than the conventional map making and is not drawn to scale. Tirth Pat is not indicative of distances, elevation, topography and direction and is solely used for evocation of Jain pilgrimages (Tirthas). It is believed in Jainism that mere viewing of a Tirth Pat earns merit for a devotee.

text: Tirth Pat () is a religious map and

text: topographical

text: rendering used in

text: Śvētāmbara Jainism

text: religion for representing places of

text: pilgrimage

text: Tirtha

text: ). Tirth Pat is different than the conventional

text: map

text: making and is not drawn to

text: scale

text: . Tirth Pat is not indicative of distances, elevation, topography and direction and is solely used for

text: evocation

text: of

text: Jain

text: pilgrimage

text: s (

text: Tirtha

text: s). It is believed in Jainism that mere viewing of a Tirth Pat earns merit for a devotee.

text: and U.S. topographic maps label similarly.<ref>

text: A bathymetric chart is the submerged equivalent of an above-water topographic map. Bathymetric charts are designed to present accurate, measurable description and visual presentation of the submerged terrain.

text: A bathymetric chart is the submerged equivalent of an above-water

text: topographic map

text: . Bathymetric charts are designed to present accurate, measurable description and visual presentation of the submerged terrain.

text: Dutch topographic map of the municipality of Uithoorn, June 2015

text: 2012: In January 2012, Healy escorted the Russian-flagged freighter Renda through pack ice to deliver an emergency supply of fuel to Nome, Alaska. Such a winter delivery had never been attempted before because the ice floes are  thick during the winter season. The resupply was vital to the city, and was the first-ever winter fuel delivery from the water in Western Alaska. Over the course of Arctic West Summer 2012 (AWS12), Healy travelled over 18,000 nautical miles and conducted 687 science casts. Healy also added 25% more data to the bathymetric mapping project of the extended continental shelf through multibeam sonar bottom-mapping.   This data was collected in support of the delineation of the American and Canadian continental shelves.

text: 2012: In January 2012, Healy escorted the Russian-flagged freighter

text: Renda

text: through pack ice to deliver an emergency supply of fuel to

text: Nome, Alaska

text: . Such a winter delivery had never been attempted before because the ice floes are  thick during the winter season. The resupply was vital to the city, and was the first-ever winter fuel delivery from the water in Western Alaska. Over the course of Arctic West Summer 2012 (AWS12), Healy travelled over 18,000 nautical miles and conducted 687 science casts. Healy also added 25% more data to the bathymetric mapping project of the extended continental shelf through multibeam sonar bottom-mapping.   This data was collected in support of the delineation of the American and Canadian continental shelves.

text: Natural Resources Canada provides this description of topographic maps:Other authors define topographic maps by contrasting them with another type of map; they are distinguished from smaller-scale "chorographic maps" that cover large regions, "planimetric maps" that do not show elevations, and "thematic maps" that focus on specific topics.

text: Natural Resources Canada

text: provides this description of topographic maps:Other authors define topographic maps by contrasting them with another type of map; they are distinguished from smaller-scale "

text: chorographic

text: maps" that cover large regions, "

text: planimetric

text: maps" that do not show elevations, and "

text: thematic map

text: s" that focus on specific topics.

text: Other information is required to be on the printed map although the presentation is not specified, e.g. scale, contour interval and scale bar. Good practice requires information such as date of survey, survey scale, copyright information, and proper credit for the people who produced the map (surveyor, cartographer).

text: Topographic map of the municipality of Albrandswaard, Sept. 2014.

text: A comparison of the topographical map prepared for General John G. Barnard Chief Engineer, Army of the Potomac,  and a topographical map of modern Washington pinpoints the location at the 4900 block of 30th Place. Using the contour of Fort Kearny drawn by Robert Knox Sneden in 1862, the position of the fort can be readily determined.

text: A comparison of the topographical map prepared for

text: General John G. Barnard

text: Chief Engineer, Army of the Potomac,  and a topographical map of modern Washington pinpoints the location at the 4900 block of 30th Place. Using the contour of Fort Kearny drawn by Robert Knox Sneden in 1862, the position of the fort can be readily determined.

text: The official name usage for the falls is confusing as most maps produced by the Government of the Province of Nova Scotia and by many tourist groups use either of the two spellings starting with a "U", sometimes using both spellings in the same document, yet the only official name that appears in either Government of Nova Scotia or Government of Canada, Canadian Geographical Names Data Base (CGNDB) is the "Easach Ban" spelling.  The "Easach Ban" spelling is the only version used on Government of Canada topographical maps.

text: The official name usage for the falls is confusing as most maps produced by the Government of the Province of Nova Scotia and by many tourist groups use either of the two spellings starting with a "U", sometimes using both spellings in the same document, yet the only official name that appears in either Government of Nova Scotia or Government of Canada,

text: Canadian Geographical Names Data Base (CGNDB)

text: is the "Easach Ban" spelling.  The "Easach Ban" spelling is the only version used on Government of Canada topographical maps.

text: Like linear probing, it uses one hash value as a starting point and then repeatedly steps forward an interval until the desired value is located, an empty location is reached, or the entire table has been searched; but this interval is decided using a second, independent hash function (hence the name double hashing). Unlike linear probing and quadratic probing, the interval depends on the data, so that even values mapping to the same location have different bucket sequences; this minimizes repeated collisions and the effects of clustering.

text: Like

text: linear probing

text: , it uses one hash value as a starting point and then repeatedly steps forward an interval until the desired value is located, an empty location is reached, or the entire table has been searched; but this interval is decided using a second, independent hash function (hence the name double hashing). Unlike

text: linear probing

text: and

text: quadratic probing

text: , the interval depends on the data, so that even values mapping to the same location have different bucket sequences; this minimizes repeated collisions and the effects of clustering.

text: The hamlet is no longer named on the newest topographical map of the area,.

text: origin. So the switching function is like a topographic map with a contour of constant height along which trajectories are forced to move.

text: origin. So the switching function is like a

text: topographic map

text: with a contour of constant height along which trajectories are forced to move.

text: The Military Geographic Service is a unit of the Bulgarian Armed Forces responsible for meeting the obligations of the Bulgarian Ministry of Defense in the field of cartography and geographic information.  This includes the mapping and production of topographic maps of 1:25000 and lesser scale, maintaining the national geodetic network, and providing topographic and geographic data, digital products and information to the Armed Forces, government institutions and private users.  According to the 2006 Law of Geodesy and Cartography, the areas subject to such mapping comprise the country’s territory as well as the area of the Bulgarian base in Antarctica.

text: The Military Geographic Service is a unit of the

text: Bulgarian Armed Forces

text: responsible for meeting the obligations of the

text: Bulgaria

text: n

text: Ministry of Defense

text: in the field of

text: cartography

text: and

text: geographic information

text: .  This includes the mapping and production of

text: topographic map

text: s of 1:25000 and lesser

text: scale

text: , maintaining the national

text: geodetic network

text: , and providing

text: topographic

text: and

text: geographic

text: data, digital products and information to the Armed Forces, government institutions and private users.  According to the 2006 Law of Geodesy and Cartography, the areas subject to such mapping comprise the country’s territory as well as the area of the

text: Bulgarian base

text: in

text: Antarctica

text: On December 17, 2010, a topographic map of the Moon based on data gathered by the LOLA instrument was released to the public. This is the most accurate topographic map of the Moon to date.  It will continue to be updated as more data is acquired.

text: Dutch Topographic map of Goes (town), Sept. 2014.

text: Apart from either end, the border generally followed a ridge line throughout its length, rising to almost 2,500 metres in the Fifth Division. In the First Division, there were some roads, including a continuous road from Kuching to Brunei and around to Sandakan on the east coast of Sabah. There were no roads in the Fourth and Fifth Divisions or the Interior Residency, and in Third Division, there was only the coast road, which was some 150 miles from the border. Mapping was generally poor, as British maps of the country showed very little topographic detail. Indonesian maps were worse; veterans recall "a single black and white sheet for all of Kalimantan torn from a school text book" in 1964.

text: In 1809, the first topographical surveys of Switzerland took place on a confederate, military level. They took place in the north-eastern area and were led by Hans Conrad Finsler. Measurements in the alpine region started in 1825 with triangulations by Antoine-Joseph Buchwalder. This work would be finished in 1837 by Johannes Eschmann. At New Year 1838, the Topographical Bureau (Eidgenössisches Topographisches Bureau) was founded in Carouge, Geneve by Guillaume Henri Dufour. This bureau published its first map the same year, the Carte topographique du Canton de Genève. Topographic surveys also started in the alpine regions of Switzerland. These had their first results in 1845, a year later than planned, when a map scaled 1:100.000 was published. This was the start of what are termed Dufourkarten (Dufour's Maps). The topographic survey finished in 1862. To honour Dufour, the Swiss government decided to rename the highest peak on the Dufourkarten from Höchste Spitze to Dufourspitze: it still carries that name today. In 1863, the SAC published a 1:50.000 map of the region Tödi, based on unpublished survey material. A year later, the last map of the Dufourkarten was published, and the following year, Dufour retired and Hermann Siegfried became Chief of the Topographical Bureau.

text: In 1809, the first topographical surveys of

text: Switzerland

text: took place on a

text: confederate

text: , military level. They took place in the north-eastern area and were led by

text: Hans Conrad Finsler

text: . Measurements in the alpine region started in 1825 with triangulations by

text: Antoine-Joseph Buchwalder

text: Johannes Eschmann

text: . At New Year 1838, the Topographical Bureau (Eidgenössisches Topographisches Bureau) was founded in

text: Carouge

text: Geneve

text: by

text: Guillaume Henri Dufour

text: . This bureau published its first map the same year, the Carte topographique du Canton de Genève. Topographic surveys also started in the alpine regions of Switzerland. These had their first results in 1845, a year later than planned, when a map scaled 1:100.000 was published. This was the start of what are termed Dufourkarten (Dufour's Maps). The topographic survey finished in 1862. To honour

text: Dufour

text: , the Swiss government decided to rename the highest peak on the Dufourkarten from Höchste Spitze to

text: Dufourspitze

text: SAC

text: published a 1:50.000 map of the region

text: Tödi

text: , based on unpublished survey material. A year later, the last map of the Dufourkarten was published, and the following year, Dufour retired and

text: Hermann Siegfried

text: became Chief of the Topographical Bureau.

text: Since every geologic mapping project covers an area with unique lithologies and complexities, and every geologist has a unique style of mapping, no software is perfect for digital geologic mapping out of the box. The geologist can choose to either modify their mapping style to the available software, or modify the software to their mapping style, which may require extensive  programming. As of 2009, available geologic mapping software requires some degree of customization for a given geologic mapping project. Some digital-mapping geologists/programmers have chosen to highly customize or extend ESRI's ArcGIS instead. At digital field data capture meetings such as at the British Geological Survey in 2002  some organisations agreed to share development experiences, and some software systems are now available to download for free.

text: Since every geologic mapping project covers an area with unique

text: lithologies

text: and complexities, and every geologist has a unique style of mapping, no software is perfect for digital geologic mapping out of the box. The geologist can choose to either modify their mapping style to the available software, or modify the software to their mapping style, which may require extensive  programming. As of 2009, available geologic mapping software requires some degree of customization for a given geologic mapping project. Some digital-mapping geologists/programmers have chosen to highly customize or extend

text: ESRI

text: 's

text: ArcGIS

text: instead. At digital field data capture meetings such as at the British Geological Survey in 2002  some organisations agreed to share development experiences, and some software systems are now available to download for free.

text: The Topographic Atlas of Switzerland (German: Topographischer Atlas der Schweiz), also known as the Siegfried Atlas or Siegfried Map (German: Siegfriedkarte; French: Carte Siegfried) is an official map series of Switzerland.  Its publication was begun by the Federal Topographic Bureau under Hermann Siegfried, and continued from 1870 to 1922. During this period the individual maps were drawn by different lithographers, including Walter Hauenstein, Georg Christian von Hoven and Rudolf Leuzinger. Since it is, in today's parlance, not strictly an atlas but a map series, map historians now describe it only by the expression Siegfried Map.

text: The Topographic Atlas of Switzerland (

text: German

text: : Topographischer Atlas der Schweiz), also known as the Siegfried Atlas or Siegfried Map (German: Siegfriedkarte;

text: French

text: : Carte Siegfried) is an official

text: map series

text: of

text: Switzerland

text: .  Its publication was begun by the

text: Federal Topographic Bureau

text: under

text: Hermann Siegfried

text: , and continued from 1870 to 1922. During this period the individual maps were drawn by different lithographers, including

text: Walter Hauenstein

text: Georg Christian von Hoven

text: and

text: Rudolf Leuzinger

text: . Since it is, in today's parlance, not strictly an

text: atlas

text: but a map series,

text: map historians

text: now describe it only by the expression Siegfried Map.

text: The geological maps provides information to the general public on the nature of the rocks and geological faults which can be found in the subsoil of a region or a country.

text: The geological maps provides information to the general public on the nature of the rocks and

text: geological fault

text: s which can be found in the subsoil of a region or a country.

text: He succeeded to his father’s official position in 1756 and continued the hereditary surveying operations. In 1744, he began the construction of a great topographical map of France, one of the landmarks in the history of cartography. Completed by his son Jean-Dominique,  and published by the Académie des Sciences from 1744 to 1793, its 180 plates are known as the Cassini map (fr).

text: He succeeded to his father’s official position in 1756 and continued the hereditary surveying operations. In 1744, he began the construction of a great

text: topographical

text: map of France, one of the landmarks in the history of

text: cartography

text: . Completed by his son

text: Jean-Dominique,

text: and published by the

text: Académie des Sciences

text: from 1744 to 1793, its 180 plates are known as the

text: Cassini map

text: fr

text: "Inadequate topographic intelligence could result in troops encountering impenetrable terrain, amphibious assaults landing on impassable beaches, or airborne assaults dropping into water. The U.S. Army's plan to provide photographic mapping support to advancing troops illustrates topographical intelligence's importance to the Western Allies. Further, the British developed the Inter-Service Topographic Department (ISTD) in October 1940.  The ISTD responded to the British topographical intelligence shortage before the April 1940 German invasion of Norway. In fact, the paucity of topographical intelligence on Norway resulted in Royal Air Force Bomber Command pilots relying on 1912 revised Baedeker's guides—commonly used by foreign travelers— for navigation when attacking airfields in Norway. This lack of intelligence also caused Royal Navy carrier pilots to rely on contourless Admiralty charts during their attack on Narvik's port.  Later, the topographical intelligence produced by the ISTD proved invaluable to the Royal Navy midget submarine attack and the Royal Navy torpedo aircraft attack during September 1942 and late 1944, respectively, on the German battleship Tirpitz based in Norway. It was also invaluable during the November 1942 Allied North African landings, and the St. Nazaire commando raid in March 1942.  In tribute to the ISTD's effectiveness, the department received compliments from General Dwight D. Eisenhower for its support to the allied landings in French North Africa."

text: "Inadequate topographic intelligence could result in troops encountering impenetrable terrain, amphibious assaults landing on impassable beaches, or airborne assaults dropping into water. The U.S. Army's plan to provide photographic mapping support to advancing troops illustrates topographical intelligence's importance to the Western Allies. Further, the British developed the Inter-Service Topographic Department (ISTD) in October 1940.  The ISTD responded to the British topographical intelligence shortage before the April 1940 German invasion of Norway. In fact, the paucity of topographical intelligence on Norway resulted in Royal Air Force Bomber Command pilots relying on 1912 revised

text: Baedeker

text: 's guides—commonly used by foreign travelers— for navigation when attacking airfields in Norway. This lack of intelligence also caused Royal Navy carrier pilots to rely on contourless

text: Admiralty chart

text: s during their attack on

text: Narvik

text: 's port.  Later, the topographical intelligence produced by the ISTD proved invaluable to the Royal Navy midget submarine attack and the Royal Navy torpedo aircraft attack during September 1942 and late 1944, respectively, on the

text: German battleship Tirpitz

text: based in Norway. It was also invaluable during the November 1942 Allied North African landings, and the

text: St. Nazaire

text: commando raid in March 1942.  In tribute to the ISTD's effectiveness, the department received compliments from General

text: Dwight D. Eisenhower

text: for its support to the allied landings in French North Africa."

text: Not only does constructing a topographic profile aid in understanding topographic maps, it is very useful for geologists when analyzing numerous problems.

text: Not only does constructing a topographic profile aid in understanding topographic maps, it is very useful for

text: geologists

text: when analyzing numerous problems.

text: The Forney Ridge Trail is shown on the following 1:24,000-scale topographic maps published by the National Park Service:

text: Traditional terrestrial soil mapping is conducted by a soil scientist trained to understand the interaction of soil-forming processes and soil-landscape relations. Mapping soils involves field work traversing the landscape and digging many holes to observe and classify the soil in various locations. Subaqueous soil mapping is performed in much the same way, except the mapper is in water. Instead of topographic maps and aerial photographs, subaqueous soil mapping uses bathymetric maps to identify underwater landscapes and landforms (a glossary of subaqueous landforms is available at: Glossary of Subaqueous Soil Landscape Terms). Shovels are replaced by augers with extendable shafts, and special tools such as peat corers and the vibracore to obtain soil samples.

text: Contour lines are often given specific names beginning "iso-" () according to the nature of the variable being mapped, although in many usages the phrase "contour line" is most commonly used. Specific names are most common in meteorology, where multiple maps with different variables may be viewed simultaneously. The prefix "iso-" can be replaced with "isallo-" to specify a contour line connecting points where a variable changes at the same rate during a given time period.

text: The oil and gas industry uses AUVs to make detailed maps of the seafloor before they start building subsea infrastructure; pipelines and sub sea completions can be installed in the most cost effective manner with minimum disruption to the environment. The AUV allows survey companies to conduct precise surveys of areas where traditional bathymetric surveys would be less effective or too costly. Also, post-lay pipe surveys are now possible.

text: The use of the T-3A cameras, when mounted side by side, produced a field of about 400 square miles. From the provisional maps prepared from the planimetric maps, multiplex operators determined elevations and filled in contours by stereocomparagraph. This technique allowed an Army topographic battalion to produce maps of over 100 square miles of contour maps a day, a vital improvement in marking and targeting the modern battlefield.

text: The use of the T-3A cameras, when mounted side by side, produced a field of about 400 square miles. From the provisional maps prepared from the

text: planimetric map

text: s,

text: multiplex

text: operators determined elevations and filled in contours by

text: stereocomparagraph

text: . This technique allowed an Army topographic battalion to produce maps of over 100 square miles of

text: contour map

text: s a day, a vital improvement in marking and targeting the modern battlefield.

text: It is technically very difficult, and it would be highly impractical, to print, e.g., the National Map of Switzerland on a single sheet at a scale of 1:25.000 (that particular map would be about  high and  wide).  For that reason, map series are issued and preserved in loose-leaf form. In extreme cases, a map series can include thousands of sheets. Probably the greatest map series ever created is the 1:25,000 topographic map of the Soviet Union, with about 300,000 sheets, completed in 1987.

text: In modern mapping, a topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines, but historically using a variety of methods. Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is typically published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line connecting places of equal elevation.

text: In modern mapping, a topographic map is a type of

text: map

text: characterized by large-

text: scale

text: detail and quantitative representation of

text: relief

text: , usually using

text: contour line

text: s, but historically using a

text: variety of methods

text: . Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is typically published as a

text: map series

text: , made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line connecting places of equal elevation.

text: TopoQuest started adding Canadian 1:50K scale topographic maps in July 2008, and USGS 1:100K and 1:250K scale topographic maps in March 2009.

text: This is a list of all the United States Supreme Court cases from volume 485 of the United States Reports:

text: This is a list of all the

text: United States Supreme Court

text: cases from volume 485 of the

text: United States Reports

text: There have been a host of geological maps of the U.S. produced in the 20th century. Bailey Willis produced a geological map of the U.S. in 1906. George W. Stose produced a 1:2,500,000 scale map in 1932, and a 1:500,000 scale map together with R.W. Smith in 1939. A.K. Lobeck produced a Geologic map of the United States (with text on the reverse side) in 1941 Those are just a few that have been produced. The most recent map being produced is the National Map that is a cooperative project.

text: There have been a host of geological maps of the U.S. produced in the 20th century.

text: Bailey Willis

text: produced a geological map of the U.S. in 1906. George W. Stose produced a 1:2,500,000 scale map in 1932, and a 1:500,000 scale map together with R.W. Smith in 1939.

text: A.K. Lobeck

text: produced a Geologic map of the United States (with text on the reverse side) in 1941 Those are just a few that have been produced. The most recent map being produced is the National Map that is a cooperative project.

text: For flat counties with multiple points, county highpointing is more akin to  geocaching than peak bagging, since logically only one of the points is the highpoint, and the rest are not.  In this case the number of virtual 'caches' is largely an artifact of the size of the contour interval (for a given area, the larger the contour interval, the more 'possible' highpoints there will be).  For instance suppose the two highest points in a county are 101 feet and 106 feet above sea level, and that neither has a spot elevation on the map.  If the region is mapped with 5-foot contours, there will be only 1 "highpoint".  However, if the region is mapped with 10-foot contours, there will be two "highpoints", and county highpointers will be required to visit both points to claim the county.

text: For flat counties with multiple points, county highpointing is more akin to

text: geocaching

text: than

text: peak bagging

text: , since logically only one of the points is the highpoint, and the rest are not.  In this case the number of virtual 'caches' is largely an artifact of the size of the contour interval (for a given area, the larger the contour interval, the more 'possible' highpoints there will be).  For instance suppose the two highest points in a county are 101 feet and 106 feet above sea level, and that neither has a spot elevation on the map.  If the region is mapped with 5-foot contours, there will be only 1 "highpoint".  However, if the region is mapped with 10-foot contours, there will be two "highpoints", and county highpointers will be required to visit both points to claim the county.

text: Mount Jefferson is a mountain in the U.S. state of Montana, and is one of the many 10,000+ ft peaks in the Tobacco Root Mountains. The mountain is located in Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest. (There is also another Mount Jefferson in Montana, further south, on the Idaho/Montana border.) Hollowtop Mountain is an adjacent, taller peak less than .75 miles (1.2 km) to the north. Over the years, the two summits have had numerous names and elevations recorded on various maps. According to U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps, Mount Jefferson is , while Hollowtop Mountain to the north is .

text: Mount Jefferson is a

text: mountain

text: in the

text: U.S. state

text: of

text: Montana

text: , and is one of the many 10,000+ ft peaks in the

text: Tobacco Root Mountains

text: . The mountain is located in

text: Beaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest

text: . (There is also another

text: Mount Jefferson

text: in Montana, further south, on the Idaho/Montana border.)

text: Hollowtop Mountain

text: is an adjacent, taller peak less than .75 miles (1.2 km) to the north. Over the years, the two summits have had numerous names and elevations recorded on various maps. According to

text: U.S. Geological Survey

text: topographic maps, Mount Jefferson is , while Hollowtop Mountain to the north is .

text: Marjan Podobnik, head of the "Institute 25 June" () (an organization that "preserves the national heritage") and the president of the Slovenian National Alliance in the SPP, published a new map in May 2007 in which the borders of Slovenia go deeply into current Croatian territory and the whole Piran Bay belongs to Slovenia. Podobnik, also known for his suggestions to hold a referendum in Slovenia on whether Croatia should enter the EU, stated for Globus magazine that "the map is logical because on the day of 25 June 1991 Slovenia had possession over the whole Piran Bay and unlimited access to international waters". Croatia's president Stipe Mesić stated: "Our friends in Slovenia can draw whatever maps they want, as part of Slovenia they can even encompass Helsinki and Reykjavík, that's of no interest to me".

text: Marjan Podobnik

text: , head of the "Institute 25 June" () (an organization that "preserves the national heritage") and the president of the Slovenian National Alliance in the SPP, published a new map in May 2007 in which the borders of Slovenia go deeply into current Croatian territory and the whole

text: Piran Bay

text: belongs to Slovenia. Podobnik, also known for his suggestions to hold a referendum in Slovenia on whether Croatia should enter the EU, stated for Globus magazine that "the map is logical because on the day of 25 June 1991 Slovenia had possession over the whole Piran Bay and unlimited access to international waters". Croatia's president

text: Stipe Mesić

text: stated: "Our friends in Slovenia can draw whatever maps they want, as part of Slovenia they can even encompass

text: Helsinki

text: and

text: Reykjavík

text: , that's of no interest to me".