text: In biology, "worm" refers to an obsolete taxon, vermes, used by Carolus Linnaeus and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck for all non-arthropod invertebrate animals, now seen to be paraphyletic. The name stems from the Old English word wyrm. Most animals called "worms" are invertebrates, but the term is also used for the amphibian caecilians and the slow worm Anguis, a legless burrowing lizard. Invertebrate animals commonly called "worms" include annelids (earthworms and marine polychaete or bristle worms), nematodes (roundworms), platyhelminthes (flatworms), marine nemertean worms ("bootlace worms"), marine Chaetognatha (arrow worms), priapulid worms, and insect larvae such as grubs and maggots.

text: In biology, "worm" refers to an obsolete

entity_name: Taxon

text: taxon

entity_name: Vermes

text: vermes

text: , used by

entity_name: Carl Linnaeus

text: Carolus Linnaeus

text: and

entity_name: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

text: for all non-

entity_name: Arthropod

text: arthropod

entity_name: Invertebrate

text: invertebrate

entity_name: Animal

text: animal

text: s, now seen to be

entity_name: Paraphyly

text: paraphyletic

text: . The name stems from the

entity_name: Old English

text: Old English

text: word

text: wyrm

text: . Most animals called "worms" are

text: invertebrate

text: s, but the term is also used for the

entity_name: Amphibian

text: amphibian

entity_name: Caecilian

text: caecilian

text: s and the

entity_name: Anguis fragilis

text: slow worm

entity_name: Anguis

text: Anguis

text: , a legless burrowing

entity_name: Lizard

text: lizard

text: . Invertebrate animals commonly called "worms" include

entity_name: Annelid

text: annelid

text: s (

entity_name: Earthworm

text: earthworm

text: s and marine

entity_name: Polychaete

text: polychaete

text: or bristle worms),

entity_name: Nematode

text: nematode

text: s (

text: roundworm

text: s),

entity_name: Flatworm

text: platyhelminthes

text: flatworm

text: s), marine

entity_name: Nemertea

text: nemertea

text: n worms ("

entity_name: Lineus longissimus

text: bootlace worm

text: s"), marine

entity_name: Chaetognatha

text: Chaetognatha

text: arrow worm

text: s),

entity_name: Priapulida

text: priapulid worms

text: , and

entity_name: Insect

text: insect

entity_name: Larva

text: larva

text: e such as grubs and

entity_name: Maggot

text: maggot

text: s.

text: Males increase reproductive success by migrating to a spawning area. The male then initiates building a spawning site to draw in females in the surrounding area. This most likely occurs in small pits with small pebbles to protect the area where eggs are laid. Once females enter, the male wraps around her pectoral fin and body, fertilization occurs, and the female leaves. Around 25-30 eggs are released each fertilization cycle. Often, these reproductive cycles occur in communal nesting sites, where the male controls the territory and protects it from intruders.

method: dangnt-nlp

text: Heteroderinae is a subfamily of roundworms.

text: Heteroderinae is a

entity_name: Subfamily

text: subfamily

text: of

text: roundworm

text: s.

method: UNH-tfidf-stem

method: UNH-tfidf-ptsim

method: UNH-tfidf-lem

text: Racing stripe flatworm, orange-band flatworm, orange tipped flatworm.

method: UvABottomUpChangeOrder

text: - EcoAuto- Eco-capitalist- Ecocentrism- Ecocide- Ecocities- Ecocomposition- Ecocriticism- Eco-defense- Ecodriving- EcoDuro- Eco-efficiency- Eco-evolution- Ecofascism- Ecofeminism- Ecoforestry- Ecohydrology- Eco-industrial park- Ecoinformatics- Ecolabel- Ecologic Foundation- Ecological anthropology- Ecological burial- Ecological crisis- Ecological economics- Ecological effects of biodiversity- Ecological effects of transgenic plants- Ecological energetics- Ecological engineering- Ecological footprint- Ecological funeral- Ecological genetics- Ecological Genetics (book)- Ecological health- Ecological humanities- Ecological imperialism- Ecological Intelligent Design- Ecological land classification- Ecological modernization- Ecological psychology- Ecological sanitation- Ecological Society of America- Ecological wisdom- Ecology- Ecology (journal)- Ecology Functional Groups- Ecology movement- Eco-marathon- Economic vegetarianism- Economics of biodiversity- Economics of global warming- Ecophagy- Ecopsychology- EcoQuest- Ecoregion- Ecoregion conservation status- Ecoregions in Australia- Ecoregions in India- Ecoregions in the Philippines- Ecoregions of Japan- Ecoregions of Madagascar- Ecoregions of New Zealand- ECOS- Eco-san- Ecosophy- Ecosphere (education)- Ecosystem diversity- Ecosystem ecology- Ecosystem engineer- Ecosystem services- Ecosystem valuation- Ecotage- Ecotage!- Ecotax- Eco-terrorism- Ecotone- Ecotope- Ecotopia- Ecotourism- Ecotoxicology- Ecotype- Ecovillage- Ecovillage Training Center- Eco-warrior- Ecozone

entity_name: EcoAuto

text: EcoAuto

entity_name: Eco-capitalism

text: Eco-capitalist

entity_name: Ecocentrism

text: Ecocentrism

entity_name: Ecocide

text: Ecocide

entity_name: Sustainable city

text: Ecocities

entity_name: Ecocomposition

text: Ecocomposition

entity_name: Ecocriticism

text: Ecocriticism

entity_name: Ecodefense

text: Eco-defense

entity_name: Energy-efficient driving

text: Ecodriving

entity_name: EcoDuro

text: EcoDuro

entity_name: Eco-efficiency

text: Eco-efficiency

entity_name: Evolutionary ecology

text: Eco-evolution

entity_name: Ecofascism

text: Ecofascism

entity_name: Ecofeminism

text: Ecofeminism

entity_name: Ecoforestry

text: Ecoforestry

entity_name: Ecohydrology

text: Ecohydrology

entity_name: Eco-industrial park

text: Eco-industrial park

entity_name: Ecoinformatics

text: Ecoinformatics

entity_name: Ecolabel

text: Ecolabel

text: Ecologic Foundation

entity_name: Ecological anthropology

text: Ecological anthropology

entity_name: Promession

text: Ecological burial

entity_name: Ecological crisis

text: Ecological crisis

entity_name: Ecological economics

text: Ecological economics

entity_name: Ecological effects of biodiversity

text: Ecological effects of biodiversity

entity_name: Genetically modified food controversies

text: Ecological effects of transgenic plants

entity_name: Ecological energetics

text: Ecological energetics

entity_name: Ecological engineering

text: Ecological engineering

text: Ecological footprint

text: Ecological funeral

text: Ecological genetics

text: Ecological Genetics (book)

text: Ecological health

text: Ecological humanities

text: Ecological imperialism

text: Ecological Intelligent Design

text: Ecological land classification

text: Ecological modernization

text: Ecological psychology

text: Ecological sanitation

text: Ecological Society of America

text: Ecological wisdom

text: Ecology

text: Ecology (journal)

text: Ecology Functional Groups

text: Ecology movement

text: Eco-marathon

text: Economic vegetarianism

text: Economics of biodiversity

text: Economics of global warming

text: Ecophagy

text: Ecopsychology

text: EcoQuest

text: Ecoregion

text: Ecoregion conservation status

text: Ecoregions in Australia

text: Ecoregions in India

text: Ecoregions in the Philippines

text: Ecoregions of Japan

text: Ecoregions of Madagascar

text: Ecoregions of New Zealand

text: ECOS

text: Eco-san

text: Ecosophy

text: Ecosphere (education)

text: Ecosystem diversity

text: Ecosystem ecology

text: Ecosystem engineer

text: Ecosystem services

text: Ecosystem valuation

text: Ecotage

text: Ecotage!

text: Ecotax

text: Eco-terrorism

text: Ecotone

text: Ecotope

text: Ecotopia

text: Ecotourism

text: Ecotoxicology

text: Ecotype

text: Ecovillage

text: Ecovillage Training Center

text: Eco-warrior

text: Ecozone

text: Geoplanidae is a family of flatworms known commonly as land planarians or land flatworms.

text: Geoplanidae is a family of

text: flatworm

text: s known commonly as land planarians or land flatworms.

text: Two colored flatworms have a simultaneous hermaphrodite that displays hypodermic insemination. Hypodermic insemination is reproductive mode of some organisms whereby gametes are passed to a mate by puncturing the body wall and injecting gametes.

text: The species is known to serve as host for at least 51 species of parasites, most of which are roundworms (nematodes), flatworms (digeneans) and tapeworms (cestodes) carried internally; a single species of louse is its only known external parasite. It is also known to sometimes carry significant populations of diatoms (microscopic phytoplankton) on its contour feathers. The red-throated loon is susceptible to avian influenza and Type E botulism, and is regularly killed by the ingestion of neurotoxins produced by "red tide" algal blooms. During a 2007 bloom, large numbers of the birds also died of hypothermia, after their plumages became matted by a protein byproduct of the algae, which reduced the insulating properties of their feathers.

text: The species is known to serve as host for at least 51 species of

text: parasites

text: , most of which are

text: roundworms

text: (nematodes),

text: flatworms

text: (digeneans) and

text: tapeworms

text: (cestodes) carried internally; a single species of

text: louse

text: is its only known external parasite. It is also known to sometimes carry significant populations of

text: diatom

text: s (microscopic phytoplankton) on its contour feathers. The red-throated loon is susceptible to

text: avian influenza

text: and Type E

text: botulism

text: , and is regularly killed by the ingestion of

text: neurotoxin

text: s produced by "

text: red tide

text: " algal blooms. During a 2007

text: bloom

text: , large numbers of the birds also died of

text: hypothermia

text: , after their plumages became matted by a protein byproduct of the

text: algae

text: , which reduced the insulating properties of their feathers.

text: Reproduction is by budding, where the cell undergoes longitudinal fission and only one daughter keeps the stalk. The free daughter becomes a telotroch, which swims until it finds suitable substrate to fix and develop its own stalk. They reproduce by fission, which is also known as cell division. They are also capable of reproducing by conjugation, a form of sexual reproduction where two individuals attach at the oral groove and exchange DNA.

text: Reproduction is by

text: budding

text: , where the cell undergoes longitudinal fission and only one daughter keeps the stalk. The free daughter becomes a

text: telotroch

text: , which swims until it finds suitable substrate to fix and develop its own stalk. They reproduce by fission, which is also known as cell division. They are also capable of reproducing by conjugation, a form of sexual reproduction where two individuals attach at the oral groove and exchange

text: DNA

text: These flatworms are benthic and diurnals. Because of their aposematic colors, they have no fear to crawl around to feed. "Pseudoceros lindae" feeds on various colonial ascidians.

text: These flatworms are

text: benthic

text: and diurnals. Because of their aposematic colors, they have no fear to crawl around to feed. "Pseudoceros lindae" feeds on various colonial ascidians.

text: The reasons for the decline are not yet entirely understood, but are believed to involve a combination of factors. The first reason is a parasite, the raccoon roundworm, Baylisascaris procyonis, which is almost always fatal to woodrats. Raccoons easily adapt to environmental change, and have thrived in the traditional woodrat habitat, increasing infection by the parasite, which enters woodrats because they eat the plant and seed material in raccoon feces. Another frequently cited cause is near total loss of American chestnuts caused by chestnut blight and of defoliation of oaks by an invasion of gypsy moths (lowering available supplies of acorns for woodrats). Increased competition for acorns with overabundant white-tailed deer, and increasing populations of black bear and turkey may also have a negative impact on woodrat survival.  Predation by great horned owls has also been cited. Finally, increased human encroachment causes fragmentation and destruction of the woodrats' habitat.

text: The reasons for the decline are not yet entirely understood, but are believed to involve a combination of factors. The first reason is a parasite, the raccoon roundworm,

text: Baylisascaris

text: procyonis, which is almost always fatal to woodrats. Raccoons easily adapt to environmental change, and have thrived in the traditional woodrat habitat, increasing infection by the parasite, which enters woodrats because they eat the plant and seed material in raccoon feces. Another frequently cited cause is near total loss of

text: American chestnut

text: s caused by

text: chestnut blight

text: and of defoliation of

text: oak

text: s by an invasion of

text: gypsy moth

text: s (lowering available supplies of acorns for woodrats). Increased competition for acorns with overabundant white-tailed deer, and increasing populations of black bear and turkey may also have a negative impact on woodrat survival.  Predation by

text: great horned owl

text: s has also been cited. Finally, increased human encroachment causes fragmentation and destruction of the woodrats' habitat.

text: The test also has a genetic component to it. Instead of struggling, some strains of mice will attempt to climb their own tail in order to escape. Since this doesn’t measure immobility due to stress, these mice should not be used. Other strains of mice will respond differently to antidepressants. Since different responses can be observed it affects how reproducible the model is. This raises the question; if the results aren't the same within a species then how can they be predictive for all humans?

text: At a club, Kris (Amy Seimetz) is tasered and kidnapped by the Thief. He drugs her with a strange capsule, inducing a sort of hypnotic susceptibility, which causes an extremely suggestible mental state that the Thief then exploits. He uses an elaborate set of distractions, such as getting her to create a paper chain where each link features a transcription from the book Walden, in order to distract her while performing his mind control. He eventually manipulates her to liquidate her home equity and steals a valuable collection of rare coins. Through hypnotic suggestion, Kris is prevented from consuming solid foods. She is only allowed to drink small portions of water at regulated intervals, which she is compelled to perceive as extremely refreshing and delicious. The capsule administered to Kris contains a live larva found among the leaves of the Thief's special, blue-tinged orchid flowers—a larva that presumably is infected with a roundworm that subsequently infects Kris's system. She is released from her suspension of hunger by the Thief, presumably to trigger the onset of roundworm growth. Kris binges ravenously and falls asleep in soiled clothes. She awakes in her home to find one of several large roundworms visibly crawling under her skin. She unsuccessfully attempts to remove them by using a kitchen knife.

text: At a club, Kris (

text: Amy Seimetz

text: ) is

text: taser

text: ed and kidnapped by the Thief. He drugs her with a strange capsule, inducing a sort of

text: hypnotic susceptibility

text: , which causes an extremely

text: suggestible

text: mental state that the Thief then exploits. He uses an elaborate set of distractions, such as getting her to create a paper chain where each link features a transcription from the book

text: Walden

text: , in order to distract her while performing his mind control. He eventually manipulates her to liquidate her

text: home equity

text: and steals a valuable collection of rare coins. Through hypnotic suggestion, Kris is prevented from consuming solid foods. She is only allowed to drink small portions of water at regulated intervals, which she is compelled to perceive as extremely refreshing and delicious. The capsule administered to Kris contains a live larva found among the leaves of the Thief's special, blue-tinged orchid flowers—a larva that presumably is infected with a

text: roundworm

text: that subsequently infects Kris's system. She is released from her suspension of hunger by the Thief, presumably to trigger the onset of roundworm growth. Kris binges ravenously and falls asleep in soiled clothes. She awakes in her home to find one of several large roundworms visibly crawling under her skin. She unsuccessfully attempts to remove them by using a kitchen knife.

text: Opecoelata is a suborder of flatworm.

text: Opecoelata is a

text: suborder

text: of

text: flatworm

text: Different types of FNE can be rapidly adapting, intermediate adapting, or slowly adapting. A delta type II fibers are fast-adapting while A delta type I and C fibers are slowly adapting.

text: Different types of FNE can be

text: rapidly adapting

text: intermediate adapting

text: , or

text: slowly adapting

text: A delta

text: type II fibers are fast-adapting while A delta type I and C fibers are slowly adapting.

text: The female reproductive system is composed of two embryological segments: the urogenital sinus and the paramesonephric ducts. The two are conjoined at the sinus tubercle. Paramesonephric ducts are present on the embryo of both sexes.  Only in females do they develop into reproductive organs. They degenerate in males of certain species, but the adjoining mesonephric ducts develop into male reproductive organs. The sex based differences in the contributions of the paramesonephric ducts to reproductive organs is based on the presence, and degree of presence, of Müllerian inhibiting factor.

text: The female reproductive system is composed of two embryological segments: the urogenital sinus and the paramesonephric ducts. The two are conjoined at the

text: sinus tubercle

text: . Paramesonephric ducts are present on the embryo of both sexes.  Only in females do they develop into reproductive organs. They degenerate in males of certain species, but the adjoining

text: mesonephric duct

text: s develop into male reproductive organs. The sex based differences in the contributions of the paramesonephric ducts to reproductive organs is based on the presence, and degree of presence, of

text: Müllerian inhibiting factor

text: Adenophorea or Aphasmidia was a class of nematodes (roundworms). It has been by and large abandoned by modern taxonomy, because there is strong evidence for it being a motley paraphyletic group of unrelated lineages of roundworms.

text: Adenophorea or Aphasmidia was a class of

text: nematode

text: s (roundworms). It has been by and large abandoned by modern

text: taxonomy

text: , because there is strong evidence for it being a motley

text: paraphyletic

text: group of unrelated lineages of roundworms.

text: The hydra and the planarian flatworm have long served as model organisms for their highly adaptive regenerative capabilities.<ref name="Sánchez00">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(200006)22:6

text: The

text: hydra

text: and the

text: planarian

text: flatworm have long served as model organisms for their highly

text: adaptive

text: regenerative capabilities.<ref name="Sánchez00">{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(200006)22:6

text: A. conchicola has a large ventral opisthaptor that extends most of its body's length, which is divided into sections called alveoli or loculi. It also possesses a longitudinal septum, a horizontal layer of muscle and connective tissue that separates the dorsal and ventral compartments of the body.The tegument is similar to that of other parasitic flatworms.

text: A. conchicola has a large ventral

text: opisthaptor

text: that extends most of its body's length, which is divided into sections called

text: alveoli

text: or

text: loculi

text: . It also possesses a longitudinal

text: septum

text: , a horizontal layer of muscle and connective tissue that separates the

text: dorsal

text: and

text: ventral

text: compartments of the body.The

text: tegument

text: is similar to that of other parasitic

text: flatworm

text: s.

text: This fish is host to a number of recorded parasites, including the monogenean flatworms Gyrodactylus rivularae and G. gobioninum, several trematode flatworms of the genus Diplostomum, and the tapeworm Khawia abbottinae.

text: This fish is host to a number of recorded

text: parasites

text: , including the

text: monogenea

text: n

text: flatworm

text: s

text: Gyrodactylus rivularae

text: and

text: G. gobioninum

text: , several

text: trematode

text: flatworms of the genus

text: Diplostomum

text: , and the

text: tapeworm

text: Khawia abbottinae

text: Like other flatworms, Monogenea have no true body cavity (coelom). They have a simple digestive system consisting of a mouth opening with a muscular pharynx and an intestine with no terminal opening (anus).  Generally, they also are hermaphroditic with functional reproductive organs of both sexes occurring in one individual. Most species are oviparous but a few are viviparous. Monogenea are Platyhelminthes and therefore are among the lowest invertebrates to possess three embryonic germ layers—endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.  In addition, they have a head region that contains concentrated sense organs and nervous tissue (brain).

text: Like other flatworms, Monogenea have no true

text: body cavity

text: (coelom). They have a simple digestive system consisting of a mouth opening with a muscular

text: pharynx

text: and an intestine with no terminal opening (

text: anus

text: ).  Generally, they also are

text: hermaphroditic

text: with functional reproductive organs of both sexes occurring in one individual. Most species are oviparous but a few are viviparous. Monogenea are Platyhelminthes and therefore are among the lowest invertebrates to possess three embryonic germ layers—endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.  In addition, they have a head region that contains concentrated sense organs and nervous tissue (brain).

text: Stenostomidae are a family of the flatworm order Catenulida.

text: Stenostomidae are a

text: family

text: of the

text: flatworm

text: order

text: Catenulida

text: Pseudophyllid cestodes (order pseudophyllidea) are a kind of flatworm with multiple "segments" (proglottids) and two bothria or "sucking grooves" as adults. Proglottids are identifiably pseudophyllid as the genital pore and uterine pore are located on the mid-ventral surface, and the ovary is bilobed ("dumbbell-shaped").

text: Pseudophyllid

text: cestode

text: s (

text: order

text: pseudophyllidea) are a kind of

text: flatworm

text: with multiple "segments" (

text: proglottid

text: s) and two

text: bothria

text: or "sucking grooves" as adults. Proglottids are identifiably pseudophyllid as the genital pore and uterine pore are located on the mid-

text: ventral

text: surface, and the

text: ovary

text: is bilobed ("

text: dumbbell

text: -shaped").

text: Soil-transmitted helminthiasis is a neglected tropical disease as a result of infection of intestinal parasites such as roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides), whipworm (Trichuris trichiura), hookworms (Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus), and pinworm/threadworm (Strongyloides stercoralis). Most prevalent in the impoverished tropical and subtropical regions of Subsaharan Africa, Latin America, Southeast Asia and China, where sanitation and hygiene are poor, the disease is an enormous burden on humanity, amounting to 135,000 deaths every year, and persistent infection of more than two billion people. The long-term impact is even worse. In these regions, the disease is the single most debilitating cause of intellectual and physical retardation. Thus it remains a relentless factor of backwardness in socio-economic and human development.

text: Soil-transmitted helminthiasis

text: is a

text: neglected tropical disease

text: as a result of infection of

text: intestinal parasite

text: s such as roundworm (

text: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: ), whipworm (

text: Trichuris trichiura

text: ), hookworms (

text: Ancylostoma duodenale

text: and

text: Necator americanus

text: ), and pinworm/threadworm (

text: Strongyloides stercoralis

text: ). Most prevalent in the impoverished

text: tropical

text: and

text: subtropical

text: regions of

text: Subsaharan Africa

text: Latin America

text: Southeast Asia

text: and

text: China

text: , where

text: sanitation

text: and

text: hygiene

text: are poor, the disease is an enormous burden on humanity, amounting to 135,000 deaths every year, and persistent infection of more than two billion people. The long-term impact is even worse. In these regions, the disease is the single most debilitating cause of

text: intellectual

text: and

text: physical retardation

text: . Thus it remains a relentless factor of backwardness in

text: socio-economic

text: and

text: human development

text: Fine-lined flatworm.

text: Fine-lined flatworm.

text: Studies of the parasite load carried by the fish reveal it may be infested with the digenean flatworms Aponurus laguncula and Ectenurus virgulus, the monogenean flatworm Pseudaxine trachuri, a Corynosoma worm, many larval nematodes, the tapeworm Grillotia carvajalregorum, and several copepods, such as Caligus mutabilis, Lernanthropus trachuri, and Tuxophorus caligodes.

text: Studies of the

text: parasite

text: load carried by the fish reveal it may be infested with the

text: digenean flatworms

text: Aponurus laguncula

text: and

text: Ectenurus virgulus

text: , the

text: monogenean flatworm

text: Pseudaxine trachuri

text: , a

text: Corynosoma

text: worm

text: , many larval

text: nematodes

text: , the

text: tapeworm

text: Grillotia carvajalregorum

text: , and several copepods, such as

text: Caligus mutabilis

text: Lernanthropus trachuri

text: , and

text: Tuxophorus caligodes

text: Among the 93 species which are found to threaten the natural local biodiversity, are bacteria, macroalgae, microalgae, pseudofungi, fungi, mosses, vascular plants, comb jellies, flatworms, roundworms, crustaceans, arachnids, insects, snails, bivalves, tunicates, fishes and mammals.

text: Among the 93 species which are found to threaten the natural local

text: biodiversity

text: , are

text: bacteria

text: macroalgae

text: microalgae

text: pseudofungi

text: fungi

text: moss

text: es,

text: vascular plant

text: s,

text: comb jellies

text: flatworm

text: s,

text: roundworm

text: s,

text: crustacean

text: s,

text: arachnid

text: s,

text: insect

text: s,

text: snail

text: s,

text: bivalves

text: tunicate

text: s,

text: fish

text: es and

text: mammal

text: s.

text: Over half of all known flatworm species are parasitic, and some do enormous harm to humans and their livestock. Schistosomiasis, caused by one genus of trematodes, is the second-most devastating of all human diseases caused by parasites, surpassed only by malaria. Neurocysticercosis, which arises when larvae of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium penetrate the central nervous system, is the major cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide. The threat of platyhelminth parasites to humans in developed countries is rising because of the popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods, and imports of food from high-risk areas. In less developed countries, people often cannot afford the fuel required to cook food thoroughly, and poorly designed water-supply and irrigation projects increase the dangers presented by poor sanitation and unhygienic farming.

text: Over half of all known flatworm species are

text: parasitic

text: , and some do enormous harm to humans and their livestock.

text: Schistosomiasis

text: , caused by one

text: genus

text: of trematodes, is the second-most devastating of all human diseases caused by parasites, surpassed only by

text: malaria

text: Neurocysticercosis

text: , which arises when larvae of the pork tapeworm

text: Taenia solium

text: penetrate the

text: central nervous system

text: , is the major cause of acquired

text: epilepsy

text: worldwide. The threat of platyhelminth parasites to humans in developed countries is rising because of the popularity of raw or lightly cooked foods, and imports of food from high-risk areas. In less developed countries, people often cannot afford the fuel required to cook food thoroughly, and poorly designed water-supply and

text: irrigation

text: projects increase the dangers presented by poor sanitation and unhygienic farming.

text: Orsak flatworm.

text: Orsak flatworm.

text: Only a few roundworm eggs are necessary to cause larva migrans in the human child or adult.  However, visceral larva migrans seems to affect children aged 1–4 more often while ocular larva migrans more frequently affects children aged 7–8.  Between 4.6% and 23% of U.S. children have been infected with the dog roundworm egg.  This number is much  higher in other parts of the world, such as Colombia, where up to 81% of children have been infected.

text: There are numerous clinical signs when dealing with Feline Roundworm. Some clinical signs that can be detected easily are vomiting, decreased appetite, and poor growth (VCAHospitals.com 2013).  Like many diseases, changes in behavior can also attribute as a symptom of any individuals infected with roundworms.  The decreased appetite will result in individuals appear scrawny, mangy, and sickly. The poor growth and decreased appetite is exceptionally detrimental to kittens, as the appetite loss and poor growth will ultimately lead to mortality since this time of growth for kittens is very important. The mortality of kittens will lead to continual decrease of the population as there will be fewer kittens to replace adult mortality. Additional clinical signs that can be identified at closer examination include pot bellied appearance, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea (VCAHospitals.com 2013). Those with a small number of worms, however, may not show the clinical signs of being infected with worms (VCAHospitals.com 2013) resulting in it being hard to determine if individuals have roundworms.

text: Soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH) is a type of helminth infection (helminthiasis) caused by different species of roundworms. It is caused specifically by those worms which are transmitted through soil contaminated with faecal matter and are therefore called soil-transmitted helminths. Three types of soil-transmitted helminthiasis can be distinguished: ascariasis, hookworm disease and trichuriasis. These three types of infection are therefore caused by the large roundworm A. lumbricoides; the hookworms Necator americanus or Ancyclostoma duodenale; and by the whipworm Trichuris trichiura respectively.

text: Soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH) is a type of

text: helminth infection

text: (helminthiasis) caused by different species of

text: roundworms

text: . It is caused specifically by those worms which are transmitted through soil contaminated with faecal matter and are therefore called

text: soil-transmitted helminths

text: . Three types of soil-transmitted helminthiasis can be distinguished:

text: ascariasis

text: hookworm disease

text: and

text: trichuriasis

text: . These three types of infection are therefore caused by the large roundworm

text: A. lumbricoides

text: ; the hookworms

text: Necator americanus

text: or

text: Ancyclostoma duodenale

text: ; and by the whipworm

text: Trichuris trichiura

text: respectively.

text: During the day, flatworms can be found resting on the surface of soil underneath objects in close contact with the ground. They may also be found beneath the soil surface hunting for earthworms.

text: Dopamine has also consistently been shown to play a role in reward learning, in all animal groups. As in all vertebrates – invertebrates such as roundworms, flatworms, molluscs and common fruit flies can all be trained to repeat an action if it is consistently followed by an increase in dopamine levels.

text: Dopamine has also consistently been shown to play a role in reward learning, in all animal groups. As in all

text: vertebrate

text: s –

text: invertebrate

text: s such as

text: roundworms

text: flatworm

text: s,

text: mollusc

text: s and

text: common fruit flies

text: can all be trained to repeat an action if it is consistently followed by an increase in dopamine levels.

text: The common moorhen is one of the birds (the other is the Eurasian coot, Fulica atra) from which the cyclocoelid flatworm parasite Cyclocoelum mutabile was first described. The bird is also parasitised by the moorhen flea, Dasypsyllus gallinulae.

text: The common moorhen is one of the birds (the other is the

text: Eurasian coot

text: , Fulica atra) from which the

text: cyclocoelid

text: flatworm

text: parasite

text: Cyclocoelum mutabile was first described. The bird is also parasitised by the

text: moorhen flea

text: , Dasypsyllus gallinulae.

text: Parasites can also be aggressive mimics, though the situation is somewhat different from those outlined previously. Some predators have a feature that draws prey; parasites can also mimic their host's natural prey, but are eaten themselves, a pathway into their host. Leucochloridium, a genus of flatworm, matures in the digestive system of songbirds, their eggs then passing out of the bird via the feces. They are then taken up by Succinea, a terrestrial snail. The eggs develop in this intermediate host, and then must find a suitable bird to mature in. Since the host birds do not eat snails, the sporocyst has another strategy to reach its host's intestine. They are brightly colored and move in a pulsating fashion. A sporocyst-sac pulsates in the snail's eye stalks, coming to resemble an irresistible meal for a songbird. In this way, it can bridge the gap between hosts, allowing it to complete its life cycle. A nematode (Myrmeconema neotropicum) changes the colour of the abdomen of workers of the canopy ant Cephalotes atratus to make it appear like the ripe fruits of Hyeronima alchorneoides. It also changes the behaviour of the ant so that the gaster (rear part) is held raised. This presumably increases the chances of the ant being eaten by birds. The droppings of birds are collected by other ants and fed to their brood, thereby helping to spread the nematode.

text: Parasites can also be aggressive mimics, though the situation is somewhat different from those outlined previously. Some predators have a feature that draws prey; parasites can also mimic their host's natural prey, but are eaten themselves, a pathway into their host.

text: Leucochloridium

text: , a genus of

text: flatworm

text: , matures in the digestive system of

text: songbird

text: s, their eggs then passing out of the bird via the

text: feces

text: . They are then taken up by

text: Succinea

text: , a terrestrial snail. The eggs develop in this

text: intermediate host

text: , and then must find a suitable bird to mature in. Since the host birds do not eat snails, the

text: sporocyst

text: has another strategy to reach its host's intestine. They are brightly colored and move in a pulsating fashion. A sporocyst-sac pulsates in the snail's eye stalks, coming to resemble an irresistible meal for a songbird. In this way, it can bridge the gap between hosts, allowing it to complete its life cycle. A nematode (

text: Myrmeconema neotropicum

text: ) changes the colour of the abdomen of workers of the canopy ant Cephalotes atratus to make it appear like the ripe fruits of Hyeronima alchorneoides. It also changes the behaviour of the ant so that the

text: gaster

text: (rear part) is held raised. This presumably increases the chances of the ant being eaten by birds. The droppings of birds are collected by other ants and fed to their brood, thereby helping to spread the nematode.

text: This Duanchu shizhai pin chapter (23/7b-8b) explains that the present Nine Worms does not refer to the intestinal weichong 胃蟲 "stomach worms", huichong 蛔蟲 "coiling worm; roundworm", or cun baichong 寸白蟲 "inch-long white worm; nematode", and says the supposed six TB worms are "six kinds" of parasites, but the next chapter (24/20a-21b) says they are "six stages/generations" of reproduction. Daoist priests allegedly cured tuberculosis through drugs, acupuncture, and burning fulu "supernatural talismans/charms". Burning magic talismans would cause the TB patient to cough, which was considered an effective treatment.

text: This Duanchu shizhai pin chapter (23/7b-8b) explains that the present Nine Worms does not refer to the intestinal weichong 胃蟲 "stomach worms", huichong 蛔蟲 "coiling worm;

text: roundworm

text: ", or cun baichong 寸白蟲 "inch-long white worm;

text: nematode

text: ", and says the supposed six TB worms are "six kinds" of parasites, but the next chapter (24/20a-21b) says they are "six stages/generations" of reproduction. Daoist priests allegedly cured tuberculosis through drugs, acupuncture, and burning

text: fulu

text: "supernatural talismans/charms". Burning magic talismans would cause the TB patient to cough, which was considered an effective treatment.

text: Temnocephala lamothei is a species of flatworm in the family Temnocephalidae.

text: Temnocephala lamothei is a species of

text: flatworm

text: in the family

text: Temnocephalidae

text: Pseudoceros scriptus  is a marine flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family. This species is commonly known as the script flatworm.

text: Pseudoceros scriptus  is a marine

text: flatworm

text: species

text: that belongs to the

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: family. This species is

text: commonly

text: known as the script flatworm.

text: The Strigeoidea are a superfamily of flatworms, belonging to the large group Digenea. Many species are endoparasites.

text: The Strigeoidea are a

text: superfamily

text: of

text: flatworm

text: s, belonging to the large group

text: Digenea

text: . Many species are

text: endoparasite

text: s.

text: Like flatworms they have a ciliated epidermis, but in contrast to flatworms, they have one cilium per cell. The cilia allow the worms to glide along in the water between sand grains, although they also use muscles, allowing the body to twist or contract, for movement.

text: Like flatworms they have a

text: cilia

text: ted

text: epidermis

text: , but in contrast to flatworms, they have one cilium per cell. The cilia allow the worms to glide along in the water between sand grains, although they also use muscles, allowing the body to twist or contract, for movement.

text: They reproduce both sexually and asexually. Vegetative offshoots emerge from the root system. Seed set occurs in early spring around March.

text: The discovery of the flatworm is attributed to Mamkaev in the year 1965.

text: ' nests, parasitic mites have been found to infest their larvae. It has also been found that some species have adapted to mimic Trigona fuscipennis nests in order to capatalize on the specie's known aggression. Trigona necrophaga, in particular, mimics the nest structure of T. fuscipennis by having a similar large-scooped nest entrance. However, T. necrophaga are not aggressive.

text: The study of phage ecology reflects established scientific disciplines in ecological studies in scope, the most obvious being general ecology. Accordingly, phage ecology is treated under the following heads "organismal" ecology, population ecology, community ecology, and ecosystem ecology. Phage ecology also may be considered (though mostly less well formally explored) from perspectives of phage behavioral ecology, evolutionary ecology, functional ecology, landscape ecology, mathematical ecology, molecular ecology, physiological ecology (or ecophysiology), and spatial ecology. Phage ecology additionally draws (extensively) from microbiology, particularly in terms of environmental microbiology, but also from an enormous catalog (90 years) of study of phage and phage-bacterial interactions in terms of their physiology and, especially, their molecular biology.

text: The study of phage ecology reflects established scientific disciplines in ecological studies in scope, the most obvious being general

text: ecology

text: . Accordingly, phage ecology is treated under the following heads

text: "organismal" ecology

text: population ecology

text: community ecology

text: , and

text: ecosystem ecology

text: . Phage ecology also may be considered (though mostly less well formally explored) from perspectives of phage

text: behavioral ecology

text: evolutionary ecology

text: functional ecology

text: landscape ecology

text: , mathematical ecology,

text: molecular ecology

text: , physiological ecology (or ecophysiology), and

text: spatial ecology

text: . Phage ecology additionally draws (extensively) from

text: microbiology

text: , particularly in terms of

text: environmental microbiology

text: , but also from an enormous catalog (90 years) of study of

text: phage

text: and phage-bacterial interactions in terms of their

text: physiology

text: and, especially, their

text: molecular biology

text: Dactylogyridae is a family of flatworm.

text: Dactylogyridae is a family of

text: flatworm

text: Examples in animals are more common in non-vertebrates such as flatworms, leeches, and brine shrimp. Within vertebrates, examples of stable polyploidy include the salmonids and many cyprinids (i.e. carp). Some fish have as many as 400 chromosomes. Polyploidy also occurs commonly in amphibians; for example the biomedically-important Xenopus genus contains many different species with as many as 12 sets of chromosomes (dodecaploid). Polyploid lizards are also quite common, but are sterile and must reproduce by parthenogenesis. Polyploid mole salamanders (mostly triploids) are all female and reproduce by kleptogenesis, "stealing" spermatophores from diploid males of related species to trigger egg development but not incorporating the males' DNA into the offspring. While mammalian liver cells are polyploid, rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, but most often result in prenatal death.

text: Examples in animals are more common in non-vertebrates such as

text: flatworm

text: s,

text: leech

text: es, and

text: brine shrimp

text: . Within vertebrates, examples of stable polyploidy include the

text: salmonids

text: and many

text: cyprinids

text: (i.e.

text: carp

text: ). Some fish have as many as 400 chromosomes. Polyploidy also occurs commonly in amphibians; for example the biomedically-important

text: Xenopus

text: genus contains many different species with as many as 12 sets of chromosomes (dodecaploid). Polyploid lizards are also quite common, but are sterile and must reproduce by

text: parthenogenesis

text: . Polyploid

text: mole salamanders

text: (mostly triploids) are all female and reproduce by

text: kleptogenesis

text: , "stealing"

text: spermatophore

text: s from diploid males of related species to trigger egg development but not incorporating the males' DNA into the offspring. While mammalian liver cells are polyploid, rare instances of polyploid

text: mammals

text: are known, but most often result in

text: prenatal

text: death.

text: The first brood of workers emerges between May and July. It takes about nine to fourteen days for eggs to develop, though eggs in smaller nests and that are laid later in the season take much longer to develop: about thirteen to eighteen days for larva to develop, about thirteen days for pupa to develop, and about a total of six to eight weeks for an egg to develop into an adult. Reproductive wasps emerge later in August or September.

text: The first crucial step in understanding the life cycle of the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides was demonstrated by Grassi in a grotesque self-experimentation. To solve a century-old puzzle of how infection of roundworm is transmitted from one host to another, he ingested the roundworm eggs on 30 August 1879. He had obtained the eggs from a human corpse, which was heavily infected, upon autopsy on 10 October 1878. After twenty-two days, he found fresh eggs in his faeces. Thus proving that the roundworm is transmitted through direct ingestion from contaminated source.

text: The first crucial step in understanding the life cycle of the roundworm

text: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: was demonstrated by Grassi in a grotesque self-experimentation. To solve a century-old puzzle of how infection of roundworm is transmitted from one host to another, he ingested the roundworm eggs on 30 August 1879. He had obtained the eggs from a human corpse, which was heavily infected, upon autopsy on 10 October 1878. After twenty-two days, he found fresh eggs in his faeces. Thus proving that the roundworm is transmitted through direct

text: ingestion

text: from contaminated source.

text: As eusocial animals, only the breeding pair within a colony is capable of reproduction. Non-reproductive individuals are not truly sterile, however, and become capable of reproduction if they establish a colony of their own. The reproductive systems of non-reproductive females are underdeveloped, with small, unvascularised uteri and tiny ovaries that contain undeveloped germ cells, but which are incapable of ovulation. Non-reproductive males have smaller testes than their reproductive counterparts and produce little, if any, viable sperm. The non-reproductive status of other adults is maintained by the presence of the breeding female. While her removal causes previously non-reproductive females to become fully fertile, they will only mate with unrelated males, thus avoiding incest within the colony.

text: As eusocial animals, only the breeding pair within a colony is capable of reproduction. Non-reproductive individuals are not truly sterile, however, and become capable of reproduction if they establish a colony of their own. The reproductive systems of non-reproductive females are underdeveloped, with small, unvascularised

text: uteri

text: and tiny ovaries that contain undeveloped

text: germ cell

text: s, but which are incapable of

text: ovulation

text: . Non-reproductive males have smaller

text: testes

text: than their reproductive counterparts and produce little, if any, viable sperm. The non-reproductive status of other adults is maintained by the presence of the breeding female. While her removal causes previously non-reproductive females to become fully fertile, they will only mate with unrelated males, thus avoiding incest within the colony.

text: Schistosomiasis (bilharzia) is a parasitic disease caused by the parasitic flatworm trematodes. Moreover, more than 80 percent of the 200 million people worldwide who have schistosomiasis live in sub-Saharan Africa. Infections often occur in contaminated water where freshwater snails release larval forms of the parasite. After penetrating the skin and eventually traveling to the intestines or the urinary tract, the parasite lays eggs and infects those organs. It damages the intestines, bladder, and other organs and can lead to anemia and protein-energy deficiency. Along with malaria, schistosomiasis is one of the most important parasitic co-factors aiding in HIV transmission. Epidemiological data shows schistosome-endemic areas coincide with areas of high HIV prevalence, suggesting that parasitic infections such as schistosomiasis increase risk of HIV transmission.

text: Schistosomiasis

text: (bilharzia) is a parasitic disease caused by the parasitic flatworm

text: trematodes

text: . Moreover, more than 80 percent of the 200 million people worldwide who have schistosomiasis live in sub-Saharan Africa. Infections often occur in contaminated water where freshwater snails release larval forms of the parasite. After penetrating the skin and eventually traveling to the intestines or the urinary tract, the parasite lays eggs and infects those organs. It damages the

text: intestines

text: bladder

text: , and other organs and can lead to anemia and protein-energy deficiency. Along with malaria, schistosomiasis is one of the most important parasitic co-factors aiding in HIV transmission. Epidemiological data shows schistosome-endemic areas coincide with areas of high HIV prevalence, suggesting that parasitic infections such as schistosomiasis increase risk of HIV transmission.

text: Cryptocelidae is a family of flatworms.

text: Cryptocelidae is a family of

text: flatworm

text: s.

text: Parascaris equorum is a species of ascarid that is the equine roundworm. Amongst horse owners, the parasites are colloquially called "Ascarids".  This is a host-specific helminth intestinal parasite that can infect horses, donkeys, and zebras. It cannot infect humans or other animals. It is yellow-white in color, and females can become as large as  in length. Found worldwide, P. equorum is one of the most difficult equine parasites to kill, requiring larger doses of more powerful anthelmintic medications than are needed for other equine parasites.

text: Parascaris equorum is a species of

text: ascarid

text: that is the

text: equine

text: roundworm

text: . Amongst horse owners, the parasites are colloquially called "Ascarids".  This is a host-specific

text: helminth

text: intestinal parasite

text: that can infect

text: horse

text: s,

text: donkey

text: s, and

text: zebra

text: s. It cannot infect humans or other animals. It is yellow-white in color, and females can become as large as  in length. Found worldwide, P. equorum is one of the most difficult equine parasites to kill, requiring larger doses of more powerful

text: anthelmintic

text: medications than are needed for other equine parasites.

text: The infection of these roundworms typically causes no symptoms but may sometimes cause a mild dermatitis of the thorax and shoulders. M. streptocerca infections fortunately do not cause any nodules, skin disease, or ocular infections like that of Onchocerca volvulus. Due to the absence of nodules, differentiating between M. streptocerca  and O. volvulvus infections are easier to diagnose.

text: The females of this species are capable of reproducing using parthenogenesis (that is, without males).

text: The females of this species are capable of reproducing using

text: parthenogenesis

text: (that is, without males).

text: Baylisascaris is a genus of roundworms that infect more than fifty animal species.

text: Baylisascaris is a

text: genus

text: of

text: roundworm

text: s that infect more than fifty animal

text: species

text: Raw meats may also contain harmful parasites. As with bacteria, these parasites are destroyed during the heat processing of cooking meat or manufacturing pet foods. Some raw diet recipes call for freezing meat before serving it, which greatly reduces (but does not necessarily eliminate) extant parasites. According to a former European Union directive, freezing fish at -20 °C (-4 °F) for 24 hours kills parasites. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends freezing at -35 °C (-31 °F) for 15 hours, or at -20 °C (-4 °F) for 7 days. The most common parasites in fish are roundworms from the family Anisakidae and fish tapeworm. While freezing pork at -15 °C (5 °F) for 20 days will kill any Trichinella spiralis worm, trichinosis is rare in countries with well established meat inspection programs, with cases of trichinosis in humans in the United States mostly coming from consumption of raw or undercooked wild game. Trichinella species in wildlife are resistant to freezing. In dogs and cats symptoms of trichinellosis would include mild gastrointestinal upset (vomiting and diarrhea) and in rare cases, muscle pain and muscle stiffness.

text: Raw meats may also contain harmful parasites. As with bacteria, these parasites are destroyed during the heat processing of cooking meat or manufacturing pet foods. Some raw diet recipes call for freezing meat before serving it, which greatly reduces (but does not necessarily eliminate) extant parasites. According to a former

text: European Union

text: directive, freezing fish at -20 °C (-4 °F) for 24 hours kills parasites. The

text: U.S. Food and Drug Administration

text: (FDA) recommends freezing at -35 °C (-31 °F) for 15 hours, or at -20 °C (-4 °F) for 7 days. The most common parasites in fish are

text: roundworms

text: from the

text: family

text: Anisakidae

text: and

text: fish tapeworm

text: . While freezing

text: pork

text: at -15 °C (5 °F) for 20 days will kill any

text: Trichinella spiralis

text: worm,

text: trichinosis

text: is rare in countries with well established meat inspection programs, with cases of trichinosis in humans in the United States mostly coming from consumption of raw or undercooked

text: wild game

text: . Trichinella species in wildlife are resistant to freezing. In dogs and cats symptoms of trichinellosis would include mild

text: gastrointestinal

text: upset (

text: vomiting

text: and

text: diarrhea

text: ) and in rare cases,

text: muscle pain

text: and muscle stiffness.

text: Kuda Haa is a dramatic pinnacle, or thila, dive, which is widely considered one of the highlights of diving in the Maldives.  Diving at Kuda Haa is at its best when the currents are not strong, when it is easy to navigate between the two parts of the pinnacle.  Marine life to be expected at Kuda Haa is diverse and plentiful, including many macro species, including nudibranchs, flatworms, leaf fish and frogfish.

text: Kuda Haa is a dramatic pinnacle, or thila, dive, which is widely considered one of the highlights of diving in the Maldives.  Diving at Kuda Haa is at its best when the currents are not strong, when it is easy to navigate between the two parts of the pinnacle.  Marine life to be expected at Kuda Haa is diverse and plentiful, including many macro species, including

text: nudibranchs

text: flatworms

text: , leaf fish and

text: frogfish

text: When excluding internal parasites, free living species in terrestrial environments are represented by the following ten phyla:  Flatworms (Planarians), Nemertea (ribbon worms), Nematoda (roundworms), Rotifers, Tardigrada (water bears), Onychophora (velvet worms), Arthropods, mollusks (gastropods: land snails and slugs), Annelida and Chordata (tetrapods). Roundworms, tardigrades, and rotifers are microscopic animals that require a film of water to live in, and are not considered truly terrestrial. Flatworms, ribbon worms, velvet worms and annelids all depend on more or less moist habitats, as do the Arthropods centipedes and millipedes. The three remaining phyla, Arthropods, Mollusks and Chordates, all contain species that have adapted totally to dry terrestrial environments, and contain species that have no aquatic phase in their life cycles.

text: When excluding internal

text: parasite

text: s, free living species in terrestrial environments are represented by the following ten phyla:

text: Flatworm

text: s (

text: Planarian

text: s),

text: Nemertea

text: (ribbon worms),

text: Nematoda

text: (roundworms),

text: Rotifer

text: s,

text: Tardigrada

text: (water bears), Onychophora (

text: velvet worms

text: Arthropod

text: s,

text: mollusks

text: gastropods

text: land snail

text: s and

text: slug

text: s),

text: Annelida

text: and

text: Chordata

text: tetrapods

text: ). Roundworms, tardigrades, and rotifers are microscopic animals that require a film of water to live in, and are not considered truly terrestrial. Flatworms, ribbon worms, velvet worms and annelids all depend on more or less moist habitats, as do the Arthropods

text: centipede

text: s and

text: millipede

text: s. The three remaining phyla, Arthropods, Mollusks and Chordates, all contain species that have adapted totally to dry terrestrial environments, and contain species that have no aquatic phase in their life cycles.

text: Reproduction is parthenogenic in the most common form. Under stress, the eggs can develop into females.  Females lay eggs that develop into (genetically identical) males; or else, if the female is fertilized by a male, her eggs then develop into females.

text: Fasciola hepatica, also known as the  common liver fluke or sheep liver fluke, is a parasitic trematode (fluke or flatworm, a type of helminth) of the class Trematoda, phylum Platyhelminthes. It infects the livers of various mammals, including humans. The disease caused by the fluke is called fasciolosis or fascioliasis, which is a type of helminthiasis and has been classified as a neglected tropical disease. Fasciolosis is currently classified as a plant/food-borne trematode infection, often acquired through eating the parasite metacercariae encysted on plants. F. hepatica which is distributed worldwide has been known as an important parasite of sheep and cattle for many years and causes great economic losses to these livestock species, up to £23 million in the UK alone. Because of its size and economic importance, it has been the subject of many scientific investigations and may be the best-known of any trematode species. F. hepatica's closest relative is Fasciola gigantica. These two flukes are sister species; they share many morphological features and can mate with each other.

text: Fasciola hepatica, also known as the  common liver fluke or sheep liver fluke, is a

text: parasitic

text: trematode (fluke or

text: flatworm

text: , a type of

text: helminth

text: ) of the

text: class

text: Trematoda

text: phylum

text: Platyhelminthes

text: . It infects the livers of various

text: mammal

text: s, including humans. The disease caused by the

text: fluke

text: is called

text: fasciolosis

text: or fascioliasis, which is a type of

text: helminthiasis

text: and has been classified as a

text: neglected tropical disease

text: Fasciolosis

text: is currently classified as a plant/food-borne

text: trematode

text: infection, often acquired through eating the

text: parasite

text: metacercariae

text: encysted on plants. F. hepatica which is distributed worldwide has been known as an important parasite of sheep and cattle for many years and causes great economic losses to these livestock species, up to £23 million in the UK alone. Because of its size and economic importance, it has been the subject of many scientific investigations and may be the best-known of any trematode species. F. hepatica's closest relative is

text: Fasciola gigantica

text: . These two

text: flukes

text: are sister species; they share many

text: morphological features

text: and can mate with each other.

text: Humans are incidental hosts of this roundworm, and may become infected through ingestion of larvae in raw or undercooked snails or other vectors, or from contaminated water and vegetables. The larvae are then transported via the blood to the central nervous system (CNS), where they are the most common cause of eosinophilic meningitis, a serious condition that can lead to death or permanent brain and nerve damage. Angiostrongyliasis is an infection of increasing public health importance as globalization contributes to the geographic spread of the disease.

text: Humans are incidental hosts of this roundworm, and may become infected through ingestion of larvae in raw or undercooked snails or other vectors, or from contaminated water and vegetables. The larvae are then transported via the blood to the

text: central nervous system

text: (CNS), where they are the most common cause of

text: eosinophilic meningitis

text: , a serious condition that can lead to death or permanent brain and nerve damage. Angiostrongyliasis is an infection of increasing public health importance as

text: globalization

text: contributes to the geographic spread of the disease.

text: The annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms. They also have parapodia for locomotion. Most textbooks still use the traditional division into polychaetes (almost all marine), oligochaetes (which include earthworms) and leech-like species. Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes. In addition, the Pogonophora, Echiura and Sipuncula, previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes. Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa, a "super-phylum" of protostomes that also includes molluscs, brachiopods, flatworms and nemerteans.

text: The annelids are

text: bilaterally symmetrical

text: triploblastic

text: coelom

text: ate, invertebrate organisms. They also have

text: parapodia

text: for locomotion. Most textbooks still use the traditional division into

text: polychaete

text: s (almost all marine),

text: oligochaete

text: s (which include earthworms) and

text: leech

text: -like species. Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes. In addition, the

text: Pogonophora

text: Echiura

text: and

text: Sipuncula

text: , previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes. Annelids are considered members of the

text: Lophotrochozoa

text: , a "super-phylum" of

text: protostome

text: s that also includes

text: mollusc

text: s,

text: brachiopod

text: s,

text: flatworm

text: s and

text: nemertean

text: s.

text: Capitimitta is a genus of flatworm.

text: Capitimitta is a

text: genus

text: of

text: flatworm

text: Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph and the anamorph. Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules.

text: Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the

text: life cycle

text: of a species, the

text: teleomorph

text: and the

text: anamorph

text: . Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing

text: propagule

text: s.

text: Nematodes (roundworms) constitute a further worm phylum with tubular digestive systems and an opening at both ends. Over 25,000 nematode species have been described, of which more than half are parasitic. It has been estimated another million remain undescribed. They are ubiquitous in marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts. They are found in every part of the earth's lithosphere, from the top of mountains to the bottom of oceanic trenches. By count they represent 90% of all animals on the ocean floor. Their numerical dominance, often exceeding a million individuals per square meter and accounting for about 80% of all individual animals on earth, their diversity of life cycles, and their presence at various trophic levels point at an important role in many ecosystems.

text: Nematode

text: s (roundworms) constitute a further worm phylum with tubular

text: digestive system

text: s and an opening at both ends. Over 25,000 nematode species have been described, of which more than half are parasitic. It has been estimated another million remain undescribed. They are ubiquitous in marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts. They are found in every part of the earth's

text: lithosphere

text: , from the top of mountains to the bottom of

text: oceanic trench

text: es. By count they represent 90% of all animals on the

text: ocean floor

text: . Their numerical dominance, often exceeding a million individuals per square meter and accounting for about 80% of all individual animals on earth, their diversity of life cycles, and their presence at various trophic levels point at an important role in many ecosystems.

text: A number of different joystick adapters have been constructed for use with the C64. The Classical Games / Protovision adapter is by far supported by the largest number of games. While building instructions are available for most of the adapters, a few adapters are also available commercially. The adapters are also emulated in some of the C64 emulators.

text: A number of different joystick adapters have been constructed for use with the C64. The Classical Games / Protovision adapter is by far supported by the largest number of games. While building instructions are available for most of the adapters, a few adapters are also available commercially. The adapters are also emulated in some of the

text: C64 emulators

text: The species survives the winter in the adult stage, and adults are of two forms. The form that overwinters before reproducing has dark undersides of the wings, resembling a dead leaf, a perfect camouflage throughout the winter. The majority of the offspring have this dark form.

text: Reproduction involves the production of egg capsules of about 8 mm in length. The capsules are shiny, flexible and cherry red in colour at first and later darken to black after several days. After an unknown incubation period, several pale, tiny flatworms hatch out of the brittle capsule. One egg capsule is produced at a time with the bulge clearly visible in the dorsum of the adult worm.

text: Kristine French is an Australian plant biologist who is a Professor at the University of Wollongong, where she has directed the Janet Cosh Herbarium since 1992. She is known for researching the ecology of weeds, studying urban ecology and "endangered species and forest ecology." French has published in the Journal of Ecology, Biological Conservation, Global Change Biology, Landscape and Urban Planning, Austral Ecology, the Journal of Applied Ecology, Oecologia, Landscape Ecology, Ecological Modelling, Wildlife Research, and others.

text: Kristine French is an

text: Australian

text: plant biologist

text: who is a Professor at the

text: University of Wollongong

text: , where she has directed the Janet Cosh Herbarium since 1992. She is known for researching the

text: ecology

text: of

text: weed

text: s, studying

text: urban ecology

text: and "endangered species and

text: forest ecology

text: ." French has published in the

text: Journal of Ecology

text: Biological Conservation

text: Global Change Biology

text: Landscape and Urban Planning

text: Austral Ecology

text: , the

text: Journal of Applied Ecology

text: Oecologia

text: , Landscape Ecology, Ecological Modelling, Wildlife Research, and others.

text: Grassi was the first to demonstrate the life cycle of human dwarf tapeworm Taenia nana, and that this tapeworm does not require an intermediate host, contrary to popular belief. He was the first to demonstrate the direct life cycle of the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides by self-experimentation. He described canine filarial worm Dipetalonema reconditum, and demonstrated the parasite life cycle in fleas, Pulex irritans. He invented the genus of threadworms Strongyloides. He named the spider Koenenia mirabilis in 1885 after his wife, Maria Koenen. He pioneered the foundation of pest control for phylloxera of grapes.

text: Grassi was the first to demonstrate the life cycle of human dwarf tapeworm

text: Taenia nana

text: , and that this tapeworm does not require an

text: intermediate host

text: , contrary to popular belief. He was the first to demonstrate the direct life cycle of the roundworm

text: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: by

text: self-experimentation

text: . He described

text: canine

text: filarial worm

text: Dipetalonema reconditum, and demonstrated the parasite life cycle in fleas,

text: Pulex irritans

text: . He invented the genus of threadworms

text: Strongyloides

text: . He named the spider Koenenia mirabilis in 1885 after his wife, Maria Koenen. He pioneered the foundation of

text: pest control

text: for phylloxera of grapes.

text: Ocular larva migrans (OLM) is rare compared with VLM.<ref name="merckvetmanual">The Merck Veterinary Manual. “Roundworm.” 2008. 26 Jan. 2009

text: Parasitic roundworms such as species of Ascaridia and Heterakis possess a single sucker at the posterior end of the body, just in front of anus, hence is often called preanal sucker. Only the male roundworms have them, and are used for attachment to female during mating. The sucker is a protruding cuticle and circular in shape.

text: Parasitic roundworms such as species of

text: Ascaridia

text: and

text: Heterakis

text: possess a single sucker at the posterior end of the body, just in front of anus, hence is often called preanal sucker. Only the male roundworms have them, and are used for attachment to female during mating. The sucker is a protruding cuticle and circular in shape.

text: According to more recent analyses, in the development of nemertean embryos, ectomesoderm (outer part of the mesoderm, which is the layer in which most of the internal organs are built) is derived from cells labelled 3a and 3b, and endomesoderm (inner part of the mesoderm) is derived from the 4d cell. Some of the ectomesoderm in annelids, echiurans and molluscs is derived from cells 3a and 3b, while the ectomesoderm of polyclad flatworms is derived from the 2b cell and acoel flatworms produce no ectomesoderm. In nemerteans the space between the epidermis and the gut is mainly primarily by well-developed muscles embedded in noncellular connective tissue. This structure is similar to that found in larger flatworms such as polyclads and triclads, but a similar structure of body-wall muscles embedded in noncellular connective tissue is widespread among the Spiralia (animals in which the early cell divisions make a spiral pattern) such as sipunculans, echiurans and many annelids.

text: According to more recent analyses, in the development of nemertean embryos, ectomesoderm (outer part of the mesoderm, which is the layer in which most of the internal organs are built) is derived from cells labelled 3a and 3b, and endomesoderm (inner part of the mesoderm) is derived from the 4d cell. Some of the ectomesoderm in

text: annelids

text: echiuran

text: s and

text: mollusc

text: s is derived from cells 3a and 3b, while the ectomesoderm of

text: polyclad

text: flatworm

text: s is derived from the 2b cell and

text: acoel

text: flatworms produce no ectomesoderm. In nemerteans the space between the epidermis and the gut is mainly primarily by well-developed muscles embedded in noncellular

text: connective tissue

text: . This structure is similar to that found in larger flatworms such as

text: polyclad

text: s and

text: triclad

text: s, but a similar structure of body-wall muscles embedded in noncellular connective tissue is widespread among the

text: Spiralia

text: (animals in which the early cell divisions make a spiral pattern) such as

text: sipuncula

text: ns,

text: echiura

text: ns and many annelids.

text: The resulting behavior of the flatworm is a case of aggressive mimicry, where the parasite vaguely resembles the food of the host. This gains the parasite entry into the host's body; this is unlike most other cases of aggressive mimicry, in which only a part of the host resembles the target's prey and the mimic itself then eats the duped animal.

text: The resulting behavior of the flatworm is a case of

text: aggressive mimicry

text: , where the parasite vaguely resembles the food of the host. This gains the parasite entry into the host's body; this is unlike most other cases of aggressive mimicry, in which only a part of the host resembles the target's prey and the mimic itself then eats the duped animal.

text: The Javan slow loris will eat fruit, lizards, eggs, and chocolate seeds.  It is also known to eat the gum of trees of the genus Albizia, in the legume family, Fabaceae, as well as from the palm genus Arenga (family Arecaceae).  Javan slow lorises are seen alone or in pairs and are sometimes found sleeping in groups.  Instead of sleeping in nest holes, they sleep curled up on branches. Like other slow lorises, the Javan slow loris has a distinctive call that resembles a high-frequency whistle. The species is a host for the parasitic flatworm, Phaneropsolus oviforme.

text: The Javan slow loris will eat fruit, lizards, eggs, and chocolate seeds.  It is also known to eat the

text: gum

text: of trees of the genus

text: Albizia

text: , in the

text: legume

text: family,

text: Fabaceae

text: , as well as from the palm genus

text: Arenga

text: (family

text: Arecaceae

text: ).  Javan slow lorises are seen alone or in pairs and are sometimes found sleeping in groups.  Instead of sleeping in nest holes, they sleep curled up on branches. Like other slow lorises, the Javan slow loris has a distinctive call that resembles a high-frequency whistle. The species is a host for the parasitic

text: flatworm

text: Phaneropsolus oviforme

text: Ascopariidae is a family of flatworms.

text: Ascopariidae is a family of flatworms.

text: These flatworms are benthic and diurnal. Because of their aposematic colors, they have no fear to crawl around to feed. Pseudoceros ferrugineus feeds on various colonial ascidians.

text: These flatworms are

text: benthic

text: and

text: diurnal

text: . Because of their

text: aposematic

text: colors, they have no fear to crawl around to feed. Pseudoceros ferrugineus feeds on various colonial

text: ascidian

text: s.

text: In Trichinella spiralis, the roundworm that causes trichinosis, a host has both reproductive adults in its digestive tract and immature juveniles in its muscles, and is therefore considered both an intermediate host and a definitive host.

text: In Trichinella spiralis, the

text: roundworm

text: that causes

text: trichinosis

text: , a host has both reproductive adults in its digestive tract and immature juveniles in its

text: muscle

text: s, and is therefore considered both an intermediate host and a definitive host.

text: A prominent predator is the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) that eats the virgin queens during nuptial flight due to their high percentage of fat. Echidnas do not consume Iridomyrmex ants all year; instead, they usually attack nests during August to October, which is when the winged females and males, known as alates emerge from their nest. Queens will also face more threats during nuptial flight or after; birds such as currawongs, magpies and ravens, attracted by recently excavated soil, will dig out nests shortly after the queens have founded their colonies. Parasitic flatworms in the class Cestoda are known to infect Iridomyrmex.

text: A prominent predator is the

text: short-beaked echidna

text: (Tachyglossus aculeatus) that eats the virgin queens during nuptial flight due to their high percentage of fat. Echidnas do not consume Iridomyrmex ants all year; instead, they usually attack nests during August to October, which is when the winged females and males, known as

text: alate

text: s emerge from their nest. Queens will also face more threats during nuptial flight or after; birds such as

text: currawong

text: s,

text: magpies

text: and

text: ravens

text: , attracted by recently excavated soil, will dig out nests shortly after the queens have founded their colonies. Parasitic flatworms in the class

text: Cestoda

text: are known to infect Iridomyrmex.

text: Nematoida is a grouping of animals, including the roundworms and horsehair worms.

text: Nematoida is a

text: grouping

text: of

text: animal

text: s, including the

text: roundworms

text: and

text: horsehair worms

text: Radiology– Rare disease– Rejuvenation (aging)– Reproductive endocrinology and infertility– Reproductive health– Reproductive medicine– Rheumatology– Rural health– Rural health clinic

text: Radiology

text: Rare disease

text: Rejuvenation (aging)

entity_name: Reproductive endocrinology and infertility

text: Reproductive endocrinology and infertility

text: Reproductive health

text: Reproductive medicine

text: Rheumatology

text: Rural health

text: Rural health clinic

text: Clamps, the main attachment structure of the parasitic Polyopisthocotylean monogenean flatworms, are composed of various sclerites and associated musculature, located on a posterior organ, the haptor. Clamps are specialized structures attached to the host fish, generally to its gill.

text: Clamps

text: , the main attachment structure of the parasitic

text: Polyopisthocotylea

text: n

text: monogenea

text: n flatworms, are composed of various sclerites and associated musculature, located on a posterior organ, the

text: haptor

text: . Clamps are specialized structures attached to the host fish, generally to its gill.

text: Rohde was the first who supplied quantitative evidence for the enormous species diversity of marine parasites in tropical (coral reef) waters, and for differences in latitudinal gradients between endo- and ectoparasites. His hypothesis of effective evolutionary time was an important stimulus for the development of the metabolic theory of ecology. His work on the phylogeny of Platyhelminthes provided evidence that the Neodermata (major groups of parasitic Platyhelminthes) have split early off the other flatworm groups. His demonstration of the great number and variety of sensory receptors and of the great complexity of nervous systems in some parasitic flatworms is convincing evidence that sacculinization (reduction in complexity) of parasites is not a general phenomenon. Rohde's work on the ecology of marine parasites has shown that most parasites live in largely non-saturated niche space, i.e., that most niches are vacant; proceeding from these findings, he concluded that equilibrium conditions in animal communities are the exception rather than the rule (discussed in detail in his book Nonequilibrium Ecology).

text: Rohde was the first who supplied quantitative evidence for the enormous species diversity of marine

text: parasites

text: in tropical (coral reef) waters, and for differences in

entity_name: Latitudinal gradients in species diversity

text: latitudinal gradients

text: between endo- and ectoparasites. His

text: hypothesis of effective evolutionary time

text: was an important stimulus for the development of the

text: metabolic theory of ecology

text: . His work on the

text: phylogeny

text: of

text: Platyhelminthes

text: provided evidence that the Neodermata (major groups of parasitic

text: Platyhelminthes

text: ) have split early off the other

text: flatworm

text: groups. His demonstration of the great number and variety of sensory receptors and of the great complexity of nervous systems in some parasitic

text: flatworms

text: is convincing evidence that sacculinization (reduction in complexity) of

text: parasites

text: is not a general phenomenon. Rohde's work on the ecology of marine

text: parasites

text: has shown that most

text: parasites

text: live in largely non-saturated niche space, i.e., that most niches are vacant; proceeding from these findings, he concluded that equilibrium conditions in animal communities are the exception rather than the rule (discussed in detail in his book Nonequilibrium Ecology).

text: Dignetic flatworm species require more than one host to complete a full life cycle.  Bucephalus polymorphus requires three hosts.  Dreissena polymorpha, a small freshwater mussel, is the first intermediate host parasitized by the hatching miracidium.  Within the visceral mass of Dreissena, the miracidium transforms into a mother (primary) sporocyst.  Asexual reproduction produces many daughter (secondary) sporocysts which are called cecariacysts, that eventually release cercariae. Unlike most digenetic trematodes, Bucephalus Polymorphus lacks a redial stage and thus emerges as a cecaria directly from the sporocyst stage. Rapid proliferation of sporocysts results in a knotted white mass of tubules, which is found primarily in the gonads of the mussel.  Released from the infected mussels, cercariae attach to fish (second intermediate host), encyst, and transforms into metacercariae.  The third (definitive) hosts are predatory fish that consume the infected foraging fish. It has been shown experimentally that cercarial emergence exhibits a circadian rhythm of shedding with a peak in the dark period of a light:dark 12:12 h photoperiod.

text: Dignetic flatworm species require more than one host to complete a full life cycle.  Bucephalus polymorphus requires three hosts.

text: Dreissena polymorpha

text: , a small freshwater mussel, is the first intermediate host parasitized by the hatching

text: miracidium

text: .  Within the visceral mass of

text: Dreissena

text: , the miracidium transforms into a mother (primary)

text: sporocyst

text: Asexual reproduction

text: produces many daughter (secondary) sporocysts which are called cecariacysts, that eventually release

text: cercariae

text: . Unlike most digenetic trematodes, Bucephalus Polymorphus lacks a redial stage and thus emerges as a cecaria directly from the sporocyst stage. Rapid proliferation of sporocysts results in a knotted white mass of tubules, which is found primarily in the gonads of the mussel.  Released from the infected mussels, cercariae attach to fish (second intermediate host), encyst, and transforms into metacercariae.  The third (definitive) hosts are predatory fish that consume the infected foraging fish. It has been shown experimentally that cercarial emergence exhibits a

text: circadian rhythm

text: of shedding with a peak in the dark period of a light:dark 12:12 h photoperiod.

text: :  This article is about drugs to treat roundworm infections. See acaricides for pesticides that kill mites.

text: :  This article is about drugs to treat roundworm infections. See

text: acaricide

text: s for pesticides that kill mites.

text: The New Zealand flatworm is an invasive species in Europe, feeding there almost exclusively on earthworms. This degrades soil quality. European earthworm predators are reluctant to eat it although cases of frogs and beetle larvae consuming flatworms have been recorded. It has been seen in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and the Faroe Islands. It might have arrived in the early 1960s, being first recorded in Belfast in 1963. The New Zealand flatworm is easily transported accidentally in plant pots in adult or egg form. They tend to be common in garden centres and may have arrived in the UK with exotic plants.

text: The New Zealand flatworm is an

text: invasive species

text: in

text: Europe

text: , feeding there almost exclusively on

text: earthworms

text: . This degrades

text: soil

text: quality. European earthworm predators are reluctant to eat it although cases of frogs and beetle larvae consuming flatworms have been recorded. It has been seen in

text: England

text: Scotland

text: Northern Ireland

text: and the

text: Faroe Islands

text: . It might have arrived in the early 1960s, being first recorded in

text: Belfast

text: in 1963. The New Zealand flatworm is easily transported accidentally in plant pots in adult or egg form. They tend to be common in garden centres and may have arrived in the UK with exotic plants.

text: In the 1950s and 1960s James McConnell conducted experiments on flatworms to measure how long it took them to learn a maze. McConnell trained a group of flatworms to move around a maze and then chopped them into small pieces and fed them to an untrained group of worms. The untrained group learned to complete the maze faster compared to other worms that had not been fed the trained worms. McConnell believed the experiment indicated a form of cellular memory. It was later shown that the training involved stressing the worms with electric shocks to avoid mistakes in the maze. This kind of stress releases hormones that stay in the body. Similar experiments with mice being trained in a maze and being fed to untrained mice also showed improved learning.

text: In the 1950s and 1960s

text: James McConnell

text: conducted experiments on

text: flatworm

text: s to measure how long it took them to learn a maze. McConnell trained a group of flatworms to move around a maze and then chopped them into small pieces and fed them to an untrained group of worms. The untrained group learned to complete the maze faster compared to other worms that had not been fed the trained worms. McConnell believed the experiment indicated a form of cellular memory. It was later shown that the training involved stressing the worms with electric shocks to avoid mistakes in the maze. This kind of stress releases hormones that stay in the body. Similar experiments with mice being trained in a maze and being fed to untrained mice also showed improved learning.

text: Roundworms absorb the nutrients from the animal, which can interfere with digestion and can also damage the lining of the intestine. Animals may not show any outward symptoms of roundworms at all, or in other, usually more severe cases, animals may have diarrhea, vomiting, loss of appetite, experience thinning, dull coats, and in puppies or kittens, can develop distended abdomens, or "pot-belly" appearance.

text: Upon infection with H. polygyrus, innate and adaptive host immune responses are generated to prevent the establishment of the parasite in the gut. A strong wound healing immune response (Th2-type) associated with intestinal pathology is mounted. Similar to other roundworm infections Th2 immunity focuses on eliminating the parasite or confining it to minimize host damage.

text: Upon infection with H. polygyrus,

text: innate

text: and

text: adaptive

text: host immune responses are generated to prevent the establishment of the parasite in the gut. A strong wound healing immune response (

text: -type) associated with intestinal pathology is mounted. Similar to other roundworm infections Th2 immunity focuses on eliminating the parasite or confining it to minimize host damage.

text: Trypanorhyncha is an order of cestode, a type of flatworm.

text: Trypanorhyncha is an

text: order

text: of

text: cestode

text: , a type of

text: flatworm

text: In October 1834, he entered as a student at St Bartholomew's Hospital, in London. Here he is noted to have described the first journal club. Medical students in those days were left very much to themselves; there was no close supervision of their work, but Paget probably gained rather than lost by having to fight his own way. He swept the board of prizes in 1835, and again in 1836; in his first winter session, he discovered the pathogen for trichinosis, a parasitic disease caused by Trichinella spiralis, a minute roundworm that infests the muscles of the human body, and which is usually acquired by eating infected pork. In May 1836, he passed his examination at the Royal College of Surgeons, and became qualified to practice. The next seven years (1836–1843) were spent in London lodgings, and were a time of poverty, for he made only 15 pounds a year by practice, and his father, having failed in business, could not give him any help. He managed to keep himself by writing for the medical journals, and preparing the catalogues of the hospital museum and of the pathological museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. In 1836, he had been made curator of the hospital museum, and in 1838, demonstrator of morbid anatomy at the hospital, but his advancement there was hindered by the privileges of the hospital apprentices, and because he had been too poor to afford a house-surgeoncy, or even a dressership.

text: In October 1834, he entered as a student at

text: St Bartholomew's Hospital

text: , in London. Here he is noted to have described the first

text: journal club

text: . Medical students in those days were left very much to themselves; there was no close supervision of their work, but Paget probably gained rather than lost by having to fight his own way. He swept the board of prizes in 1835, and again in 1836; in his first winter session, he discovered the

text: pathogen

text: for

text: trichinosis

text: , a

text: parasitic disease

text: caused by Trichinella spiralis, a minute

text: roundworm

text: that infests the

text: muscle

text: s of the human body, and which is usually acquired by eating infected pork. In May 1836, he passed his examination at the

text: Royal College of Surgeons

text: , and became qualified to practice. The next seven years (1836–1843) were spent in London lodgings, and were a time of poverty, for he made only 15 pounds a year by practice, and his father, having failed in business, could not give him any help. He managed to keep himself by writing for the medical journals, and preparing the catalogues of the hospital museum and of the

text: pathological

text: museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. In 1836, he had been made curator of the hospital museum, and in 1838, demonstrator of morbid

text: anatomy

text: at the hospital, but his advancement there was hindered by the privileges of the hospital apprentices, and because he had been too poor to afford a house-surgeoncy, or even a dressership.

text: Niridazole is a schistosomicide. It is used to treat schistosomiasis, the helmintic disease caused by certain flatworms (trematodes) from the genus Schistosoma (formerly Bilharzia). It is also known by its trade name Ambilhar. It is usually is given as tablets.

text: Niridazole is a

entity_name: List of drugs used to treat schistosomiasis

text: schistosomicide

text: . It is used to treat

text: schistosomiasis

text: , the helmintic disease caused by certain flatworms (

text: trematode

text: s) from the genus

text: Schistosoma

text: (formerly Bilharzia). It is also known by its trade name Ambilhar. It is usually is given as tablets.

text: Baracktrema obamai is likely an ancestor of the parasitic flatworms that cause schistosomiasis. It infects the lungs of host turtles, but is not currently known to infect humans. Baracktrema obamai is classified as a parasitic flatworm.

text: Baracktrema obamai is likely an ancestor of the parasitic flatworms that cause schistosomiasis. It infects the lungs of host turtles, but is not currently known to infect humans. Baracktrema obamai is classified as a

text: parasitic

text: flatworm

text: Unfortunately, little research has been done as far as identifying the roundworm in wild felid populations. There are some detection methods that have been used in order to help identify roundworm infestation.  Possible detection methods for discovering feline roundworm include noting changes in behavior.  The change in behavior can be identified through from eyewitness accounts.  As change in behavior can include a lack of fear towards humans, eyewitness accounts can be imperative for identifying round worm.  Although, detecting the individuals, never mind the infected ones, may prove to be a challenge. Felids especially are hard to detect for roundworm as they are naturally loners by nature (with the exception of the lion, who forms prides) and are cryptic by nature (Umich.edu 2013).Another method to help determine the possibility of roundworm infection is transect studies. The studies implement individuals walking along transects and spotting animals and noting for any unusual behavior within animals of populations.  The transect studies, however, need suspicion of infection in order to be implemented. To that end, many DNR (Department of Natural Resources) and other wildlife organizations (such as the US Geological Survey) allow people to provide information regarding suspicion of infection (USGS.gov 2013). These organizations will then have people fill out a sheet detailing the mortality event.

text: Platydemus manokwari, also known as the New Guinea flatworm, is a large predatory land flatworm that has become an invasive species in many countries.

text: Platydemus manokwari

text: , also known as the New Guinea flatworm, is a large

text: predatory

text: land flatworm

text: that has become an

text: invasive species

text: in many countries.

text: At least two species in the genus Dugesia, flatworms in the Turbellaria sub-division of the phylum Platyhelminthes, include polyploid individuals that reproduce by parthenogenesis. This type of parthenogenesis requires mating, but the sperm does not contribute to the genetics of the offspring (the parthenogenesis is pseudogamous, alternatively referred to as gynogenetic). A complex cycle of matings between diploid sexual and polyploid parthenogenetic individuals produces new parthenogenetic lines.

text: At least two species in the genus

text: Dugesia

text: , flatworms in the

text: Turbellaria

text: sub-division of the

text: phylum

text: Platyhelminthes

text: , include

text: polyploid

text: individuals that reproduce by parthenogenesis. This type of parthenogenesis requires mating, but the

text: sperm

text: does not contribute to the genetics of the offspring (the parthenogenesis is

text: pseudogamous

text: , alternatively referred to as gynogenetic). A complex cycle of matings between diploid sexual and polyploid parthenogenetic individuals produces new parthenogenetic lines.

text: Cacatuocotyle is a genus of flatworm.

text: Cacatuocotyle is a

text: genus

text: of

text: flatworm

text: The development time from egg to adult is about 40 days. M. scutellaris workers have an average life expectancy of only 31 days while reproductive workers have an average life expectancy of 110 days, 3.5 times longer than a normal worker. The long life expectancy of reproductive workers is most likely linked to the fact that they do not carry out risky or energetically costly tasks such as foraging like normal workers. The queen has the longest life expectancy of around 175 days.

text: Nemertines resemble flatworms and possess a long protrusible proboscis. Balanoglossus shows similarity with nemertine in burrowing and feeding habits. The proboscis of nemertines is compared with proboscis of Balanoglossus. These similarities are superficial as the proboscis of Balanoglossus.is not protrusible as in nemertines. The Balanoglossus. also does not have lateral nerve cord of nemertines.

text: Several parasites have been isolated from the hartebeest. These parasites regularly alternate between hartebeest and gazelles or wildebeest. Hartebeest can be infected with theileriosis due to Rhipicephalus evertsi and Theileria species. South of the Sahara, common parasites include Loewioestrus variolosus, Gedoelstia cristata and G. hassleri. The latter two species can cause serious diseases such as encephalitis. However, parasites are not always harmful – 252 larvae were found in the head of one Zambian individual without any pathogenicity. Nematodes, cestodes, paramphistomes; and the roundworm Setaria labiatopapillosa have also been isolated from the hartebeest. In 1931, a red hartebeest in Gobabis (southwestern Africa) was infected with long, thin worms. These were named Longistrongylus meyeri after their collector, T. Meyer.

text: Several

text: parasite

text: s have been isolated from the hartebeest. These parasites regularly alternate between hartebeest and gazelles or wildebeest. Hartebeest can be infected with

text: theileriosis

text: due to

text: Rhipicephalus evertsi

text: and

text: Theileria

text: species. South of the

text: Sahara

text: , common parasites include

text: Loewioestrus variolosus

text: Gedoelstia cristata

text: and

text: G. hassleri

text: . The latter two species can cause serious diseases such as

text: encephalitis

text: . However, parasites are not always harmful – 252

text: larvae

text: were found in the head of one Zambian individual without any

text: pathogenicity

text: Nematode

text: s,

text: cestode

text: s,

text: paramphistome

text: s; and the

text: roundworm

text: Setaria labiatopapillosa

text: have also been isolated from the hartebeest. In 1931, a red hartebeest in

text: Gobabis

text: (southwestern Africa) was infected with long, thin worms. These were named

text: Longistrongylus meyeri

text: after their collector, T. Meyer.

text: When it comes to the fossil record, soft-bodied and minuscule invertebrates—such as hydras, jellies, flatworms, hairworms, nematodes, ribbon worms, rotifers and roundworms -- are infrequently fossilized. As a result, paleontologists and other fossil hunters must often rely on trace fossils,  microfossils, or chemofossil residue when scouting for these prehistoric creatures.

text: When it comes to the fossil record, soft-bodied and minuscule invertebrates—such as

text: hydras

text: jelli

text: es,

text: flatworm

text: s,

text: hairworm

text: s,

text: nematode

text: s,

text: ribbon worm

text: s,

text: rotifer

text: s and

text: roundworm

text: s -- are infrequently

text: fossilized

text: . As a result,

text: paleontologist

text: s and other

text: fossil hunter

text: s must often rely on

text: trace fossil

text: s,

text: microfossil

text: s, or

text: chemofossil

text: residue when scouting for these prehistoric creatures.

text: Jackals in southwestern Tajikistan have been recorded to carry 16 species of parasitic cestodes, roundworms and acanthocephalans, these being Sparganum mansoni, Diphyllobothrium mansonoides, Taenia hydatigena, T. pisiformis, T. ovis, Hydatigera taeniaeformis, Diphylidium caninum, Mesocestoides lineatus, Ancylostoma caninum, Uncinaria stenocephala, Dioctophyma renale, Toxocara canis, Toxascaris leonina, Dracunculus medinensis, Filariata and Macracanthorhynchus catulinum. Jackals infected with D. medinensis can infect water bodies with their eggs, and cause dracunculiasis in people who drink from them. Jackals may also play a large part in spreading coenurosis in sheep and cattle, and canine distemper in dogs. During July 2006, a jackal in Romania was found to be carrying Trichinella britovi. Jackals consuming fish and molluscs can be infected with metagonimiasis, which was recently diagnosed in a male jackal from northeastern Italy.

text: Jackals in southwestern Tajikistan have been recorded to carry 16 species of parasitic

text: cestode

text: s,

text: roundworm

text: s and

text: acanthocephala

text: ns, these being

text: Sparganum mansoni

text: Diphyllobothrium mansonoides

text: , Taenia hydatigena,

text: T. pisiformis

text: , T. ovis,

text: Hydatigera taeniaeformis

text: , Diphylidium caninum, Mesocestoides lineatus,

text: Ancylostoma caninum

text: Uncinaria stenocephala

text: Dioctophyma renale

text: Toxocara canis

text: Toxascaris leonina

text: Dracunculus medinensis

text: , Filariata and Macracanthorhynchus catulinum. Jackals infected with D. medinensis can infect water bodies with their eggs, and cause

text: dracunculiasis

text: in people who drink from them. Jackals may also play a large part in spreading coenurosis in sheep and cattle, and

text: canine distemper

text: in dogs. During July 2006, a jackal in Romania was found to be carrying

text: Trichinella britovi

text: . Jackals consuming fish and molluscs can be infected with

text: metagonimiasis

text: , which was recently diagnosed in a male jackal from northeastern Italy.

text: Pseudoceros ferrugineus, the Fuchsia flatworm, is a marine flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.

text: Pseudoceros ferrugineus, the Fuchsia flatworm, is a marine

text: flatworm

text: species

text: that belongs to the

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: family.

text: Meat from other animals, such as beef, lamb, chicken, goat, or turkey, may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon, and may even be referred to as "bacon". Such use is common in areas with significant Jewish and Muslim populations, both of which prohibit the consumption of pigs. The USDA defines bacon as "the cured belly of a swine carcass"; other cuts and characteristics must be separately qualified (e.g., "smoked pork loin bacon"). For safety, bacon may be treated to prevent trichinosis, caused by Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm which can be destroyed by heating, freezing, drying, or smoking.

text: Meat from other animals, such as

text: beef

text: lamb

text: chicken

text: goat

text: , or

text: turkey

text: , may also be cut, cured, or otherwise prepared to resemble bacon, and may even be referred to as "bacon". Such use is common in areas with significant

text: Jewish

text: and

text: Muslim

text: populations, both of which prohibit the consumption of pigs. The

text: USDA

text: defines bacon as "the cured belly of a swine carcass"; other cuts and characteristics must be separately qualified (e.g., "smoked pork loin bacon"). For safety, bacon may be treated to prevent

text: trichinosis

text: , caused by

text: Trichinella

text: , a parasitic

text: roundworm

text: which can be destroyed by heating, freezing, drying, or smoking.

text: One genus of mites, Demodex, has adapted to infesting the hair follicles of its hosts. These mites remain external to the true outer layer of the skin (the epidermis) which also lines the tube of the hair follicle. However, the mites appear to be deep within the skin in the sense of being below the general outer surface of the host. The mites fit in the narrow space between the hair and the tube of the follicle. They may also crawl out onto the general epidermal surface of their host. Transmission of these mites from host to host occurs during close contact when young animals are suckled. Demodex mites are morphologically adapted to this constricted habitat: microscopic, worm shaped, and with very short legs. The mites feed on cells of the epidermal lining of the hair follicle. Many species of mammals, including humans, are readily infested with these mites, but typically the density of infestation is very low, and the mites can be more commensal than parasitic.

text: One genus of mites,

text: Demodex

text: , has adapted to infesting the

text: hair follicles

text: commensal

text: than parasitic.

text: Amputation is the removal of a limb by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventative surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, amputation of the hands, feet or other body parts is or was used as a form of punishment for people who committed crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment. Unlike some non-mammalian animals (such as lizards that shed their tails, salamanders that can regrow many missing body parts, and hydras, flatworms, and starfish that can regrow entire bodies from small fragments), once removed, human extremities do not grow back, unlike portions of some organs, such as the liver. A transplant or a prosthesis are the only options for recovering the loss.

text: Amputation is the removal of a limb by

text: trauma

text: medical illness

text: , or

text: surgery

text: . As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as

text: malignancy

text: or

text: gangrene

text: . In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventative surgery for such problems. A special case is that of

text: congenital amputation

text: , a

text: congenital disorder

text: , where

text: fetal

text: limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, amputation of the hands, feet or other body parts is or was used as a form of

text: punishment

text: for people who committed crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment. Unlike some non-mammalian animals (such as

text: lizard

text: s that shed their tails,

text: salamanders

text: that can regrow many missing body parts, and

text: hydras

text: flatworm

text: s, and

text: starfish

text: that can regrow entire bodies from small fragments), once removed, human extremities do not grow back, unlike portions of some organs, such as the

text: liver

text: . A

text: transplant

text: or a

text: prosthesis

text: are the only options for recovering the loss.

text: Pseudoceros susanae is a marine flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.

text: Pseudoceros susanae is a marine

text: flatworm

text: species that belongs to the

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: family.

text: In the 2013 comic continuation of The X-Files called Season 10 two stories—"Hosts", part one and two—continued on the story of "The Host" almost twenty years later after the events of this episode. According to the comics, the Flukeman escaped and travelled to Martha's Vineyard where it began to multiply, abducting multiple beach-goers. The Flukeman and his offspring were nearly all killed, however, by local sheriff Michael Simmons (who later told the agents in "Hosts, Part 2" that his real name was Mikhail Simonov and he served as one of the Soviet Army's liquidators during the Chernobyl disaster). In addition, "Hosts, Part 2" expanded upon the backstory of the Flukeman, revealing that he was a Soviet liquidator named Gregory, who, after being locked in a sewerage tanker truck in Chernobyl, mutated into the original Flukeman after he was exposed to irradiated cooling water from the still-burning Reactor No. 4 and to flatworms in the sewerage tank.

text: In the 2013 comic continuation of The X-Files called

text: Season 10

text: two stories—"Hosts", part one and two—continued on the story of "The Host" almost twenty years later after the events of this episode. According to the comics, the Flukeman escaped and travelled to

text: Martha's Vineyard

text: where it began to multiply, abducting multiple beach-goers. The Flukeman and his offspring were nearly all killed, however, by local sheriff Michael Simmons (who later told the agents in "Hosts, Part 2" that his real name was Mikhail Simonov and he served as one of the

text: Soviet Army's liquidators

text: during the Chernobyl disaster). In addition, "Hosts, Part 2" expanded upon the backstory of the Flukeman, revealing that he was a Soviet liquidator named Gregory, who, after being locked in a sewerage tanker truck in Chernobyl, mutated into the original Flukeman after he was exposed to irradiated cooling water from the still-burning Reactor No. 4 and to flatworms in the sewerage tank.

text: Occasionally there can be an obstruction by large numbers of roundworms. This is most commonly seen in young horses as a result of a very heavy infestation of Parascaris equorum that can subsequently cause a blockage and rupture of the small intestine. Rarely, dead worms will be seen in reflux. Deworming heavily infected horses may cause a severe immune reaction to the dead worms, which can damage the intestinal wall and cause a fatal peritonitis. Veterinarians often treat horses with suspected heavy worm burdens with corticosteroids to reduce the inflammatory response to the dead worms.  Blockages of the small intestine, particularly the ileum, can occur with Parascaris equorum and may well require colic surgery to remove them manually. Large roundworm infestations are often the result of a poor deworming program. Horses develop immunity to parascarids between 6 months age and one year and so this condition is rare in adult horses. Prognosis is fair unless the foal experiences hypovolemia and septic shock, with a survival rate of 33%.

text: Occasionally there can be an obstruction by large numbers of

text: roundworm

text: s. This is most commonly seen in young horses as a result of a very heavy infestation of Parascaris equorum that can subsequently cause a blockage and rupture of the

text: small intestine

text: . Rarely, dead worms will be seen in reflux.

text: Deworming

text: heavily infected horses may cause a severe immune reaction to the dead worms, which can damage the intestinal wall and cause a fatal

text: peritonitis

text: . Veterinarians often treat horses with suspected heavy worm burdens with

text: corticosteroid

text: s to reduce the

text: inflammatory

text: response to the dead worms.  Blockages of the small intestine, particularly the

text: ileum

text: , can occur with Parascaris equorum and may well require colic surgery to remove them manually. Large roundworm infestations are often the result of a poor deworming program. Horses develop immunity to parascarids between 6 months age and one year and so this condition is rare in adult horses. Prognosis is fair unless the foal experiences hypovolemia and septic shock, with a survival rate of 33%.

text: In 2006, a pig was engineered to produce omega-3 fatty acids through the expression of a roundworm gene.

text: In 2006, a pig was engineered to produce

text: omega-3 fatty acid

text: s through the expression of a

text: roundworm

text: gene.

text: Classification is controversial. Traditionally, dicyemids have been grouped with the Orthonectida in the Mesozoa; however, molecular phylogenies indicate that dicyemids may be more closely related to the roundworms.

text: Classification is controversial. Traditionally, dicyemids have been grouped with the

text: Orthonectida

text: in the

text: Mesozoa

text: ; however, molecular phylogenies indicate that dicyemids may be more closely related to the

text: roundworms

text: Reproductively, they are dioecious, with the internal fertilization of eggs that are then laid in gelatinous strings. Adults have cylindrical gonads, opening into the cloaca. The larvae have rings of cuticular hooks and terminal stylets that are believed to be used to enter the hosts. Once inside the host, the larvae live inside the haemocoel and absorb nutrients directly through their skin. Development into the adult form takes weeks or months, and the larva moults several times as it grows in size.

text: Reproductively, they are

text: dioecious

text: , with the internal fertilization of eggs that are then laid in gelatinous strings. Adults have cylindrical

text: gonad

text: s, opening into the

text: cloaca

text: . The larvae have rings of cuticular hooks and terminal stylets that are believed to be used to enter the hosts. Once inside the host, the larvae live inside the

text: haemocoel

text: and absorb nutrients directly through their skin. Development into the adult form takes weeks or months, and the larva

text: moult

text: s several times as it grows in size.

text: Interestingly, although nematode-trapping fungus have been known since 1839, its predatory habit was first observed by Wilhelm Zopf as well. This recorded observation of Arthrobotrys oligospora’s behavior was attributed to him in 1888. This kind of fungi actively captures small worms, generally classified as nematodes or roundworms.

text: Interestingly, although

text: nematode-trapping fungus

text: have been known since 1839, its predatory habit was first observed by Wilhelm Zopf as well. This recorded observation of

text: Arthrobotrys oligospora

text: ’s behavior was attributed to him in 1888. This kind of fungi actively captures small worms, generally classified as

text: nematodes

text: or roundworms.

text: The roundworm family Trichuridae includes the type genus Trichuris and some less widely known members. They are (after the abolishment of the artificial "Adenophorea" assemblage) placed in subclass Dorylaimia of the class Enoplea; however, the former might be better treated as a class in its own right. That nonwithstanding, their order (Trichocephalida) has been known under alternate names in the past, namely Trichiurida.

text: The

text: roundworm

text: family

text: Trichuridae includes the

text: type genus

text: Trichuris

text: and some less widely known members. They are (after the abolishment of the artificial "

text: Adenophorea

text: " assemblage) placed in subclass

text: Dorylaimia

text: of the class

text: Enoplea

text: ; however, the former might be better treated as a class in its own right. That nonwithstanding, their order (

text: Trichocephalida

text: ) has been known under alternate names in the past, namely Trichiurida.

text: In the pulmonate marsh snail, Succinea putris, the parasitic flatworm Leucochloridium paradoxum prevents the snail from retracting its enlarged and parasitized eye stalk, causing birds, the final host of the flatworm, to be attracted to and consume these eye stalks.

text: In the pulmonate marsh snail,

text: Succinea putris

text: , the parasitic flatworm

text: Leucochloridium paradoxum

text: prevents the snail from retracting its enlarged and parasitized eye stalk, causing birds, the final host of the flatworm, to be attracted to and consume these eye stalks.

text: Planarian flatworms have both sexually and asexually reproducing types. Studies on genus Schmidtea mediterranea suggest these planarians appear to regenerate (i.e. heal) indefinitely, and asexual individuals have an "apparently limitless [telomere] regenerative capacity fueled by a population of highly proliferative adult stem cells". "Both asexual and sexual animals display age-related decline in telomere length; however, asexual animals are able to maintain telomere lengths somatically [ie during reproduction by fission or when regeneration is induced by amputation], whereas sexual animals restore telomeres by extension during sexual reproduction or during embryogenesis like other sexual species... homeostatic telomerase activity observed in both asexual and sexual animals is not sufficient to maintain telomere length, whereas the increased activity in regenerating asexuals is sufficient to renew telomere length... "

text: Planarian flatworms

text: have both sexually and asexually reproducing types. Studies on genus

text: Schmidtea mediterranea

text: Maiazoon orsaki is a marine flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.

text: Maiazoon orsaki is a marine

text: flatworm

text: species that belongs to the

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: family.

text: Plica plica harbors parasites such the digenea flatworm Mesocoelium monas and several nematodes, such as Oswaldocruzia vitti, Physalopteroides venancioi, Strongyluris oscari, and Physaloptera retusa. The protozoan Plasmodium guyannense was first described from this lizard in 1979.

text: Plica plica harbors

text: parasite

text: s such the

text: digenea

text: flatworm

text: Mesocoelium monas

text: and several

text: nematode

text: s, such as

text: Oswaldocruzia vitti

text: Physalopteroides venancioi

text: Strongyluris oscari

text: , and

text: Physaloptera retusa

text: . The

text: protozoa

text: n

text: Plasmodium guyannense

text: was first described from this lizard in 1979.

text: Code 14 differs from code 9 (the echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code) only by translating UAA to Tyr rather than STOP.  A study in 2000 has found no evidence that the codon UAA codes for Tyr in the flatworms but other opinions exist.  There are very few GenBank records that are translated with code 14 but a test translation shows that re-translating these records with code 9 can cause premature terminations.  More recently, UAA has been found to code for tyrosine in the nematodes Radopholus similis and Radopholus arabocoffeae.

text: Code 14 differs from code 9 (

entity_name: Echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code

text: the echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code

text: ) only by translating UAA to Tyr rather than STOP.  A study in 2000 has found no evidence that the codon UAA codes for Tyr in the flatworms but other opinions exist.  There are very few

text: GenBank

text: records that are translated with code 14 but a test translation shows that re-translating these records with code 9 can cause premature terminations.  More recently, UAA has been found to code for tyrosine in the nematodes

text: Radopholus similis

text: and

text: Radopholus arabocoffeae

text: Yungia is a genus of flatworms.

text: Yungia is a genus of

text: flatworms

text: Many small organisms such as rotifers, copepods and flatworms use such organs, but these are too small to produce usable images. Some larger organisms, such as scallops, also use reflector eyes. The scallop Pecten has up to 100 millimetre-scale reflector eyes fringing the edge of its shell. It detects moving objects as they pass successive lenses.

text: Many small organisms such as

text: rotifer

text: s, copepods and

text: flatworm

text: s use such organs, but these are too small to produce usable images. Some larger organisms, such as scallops, also use reflector eyes. The scallop

text: Pecten

text: has up to 100 millimetre-scale reflector eyes fringing the edge of its shell. It detects moving objects as they pass successive lenses.

text: Wuchereria bancrofti is a human parasitic roundworm that is the major cause of lymphatic filariasis. It is one of the three parasitic worms, together with Brugia malayi and B. timori, that infect the lymphatic system to cause lymphatic filariasis. These filarial worms are spread by a variety of mosquito vector species. W. bancrofti is the most prevalent of the three and affects over 120 million people, primarily in Central Africa and the Nile delta, South and Central America, the tropical regions of Asia including southern China, and the Pacific islands. If left untreated, the infection can develop into a chronic disease called elephantiasis.  In rare conditions it also causes tropical eosinophilia, an asthmatic disease. Limited treatment modalities exist and no vaccines have been developed.

text: Wuchereria bancrofti is a

text: human parasitic

text: roundworm

text: that is the major cause of

text: lymphatic filariasis

text: . It is one of the three parasitic worms, together with

text: Brugia malayi

text: and

text: B. timori

text: , that infect the lymphatic system to cause lymphatic filariasis. These filarial worms are spread by a variety of

text: mosquito

text: vector

text: species. W. bancrofti is the most prevalent of the three and affects over 120 million people, primarily in Central Africa and the Nile delta, South and Central America, the tropical regions of Asia including southern China, and the Pacific islands. If left untreated, the infection can develop into a chronic disease called

text: elephantiasis

text: .  In rare conditions it also causes

text: tropical eosinophilia

text: , an asthmatic disease. Limited treatment modalities exist and no

text: vaccine

text: s have been developed.

text: Hadži was perhaps most widely known for his unique theories of animal evolution. He devised a system of classification in which he divided the animal kingdom into six phyla: Protozoa, Parazoa, "Ameria" (animals with no segments), "Oligomeria" (animals with few segments), "Polymeria" (animals with many segments) and Chordata. His choice of characters important for classification was generally discredited by his contemporaries, and the system was never accepted by zoologists. However, due to its simplicity, the system was widely used in science education in former Yugoslavia. His other major theory was that of the origin of metazoa - he developed an existing hypothesis stating that the first multicellular animals resembling today's flatworms evolved from multinucleate ciliates in which cell nuclei became separated by cellular membranes. Again, the theory emphasized similarities of structure while disregarding other important characters, so it was never generally accepted.

text: Hadži was perhaps most widely known for his unique theories of animal evolution. He devised a system of classification in which he divided the animal kingdom into six

text: phyla

text: Protozoa

text: Parazoa

text: , "Ameria" (animals with no segments), "Oligomeria" (animals with few segments), "Polymeria" (animals with many segments) and

text: Chordata

text: . His choice of characters important for classification was generally discredited by his contemporaries, and the system was never accepted by zoologists. However, due to its simplicity, the system was widely used in science education in former Yugoslavia. His other major theory was that of the origin of metazoa - he developed an existing hypothesis stating that the first multicellular animals resembling today's

text: flatworms

text: evolved from

text: multinucleate

text: ciliate

text: s in which

text: cell nuclei

text: became separated by

text: cellular membrane

text: s. Again, the theory emphasized similarities of structure while disregarding other important characters, so it was never generally accepted.

text: Members of this class' bodies usually have annules, their amphids elaborate and spiral, and they all have three esophageal glands. They usually live in marine sediments, although they can live elsewhere. They have more sophisticated pharynxs than most roundworms.

text: Members of this class' bodies usually have annules, their

text: amphid

text: s elaborate and spiral, and they all have three

text: esophageal glands

text: . They usually live in marine sediments, although they can live elsewhere. They have more sophisticated

text: pharynx

text: s than most roundworms.

text: Monocotylidae is a family of flatworm.

text: Monocotylidae is a

text: family

text: of

text: flatworm

text: Parasitologist John Kinsella compared the endoparasites of marsh rice rats in a saltwater marsh at Cedar Key and a freshwater marsh at Paynes Prairie, both in Florida, in a 1988 study. He found a total of 45 species, a number unequaled in rodents. This may be related to the diverse habitats the rice rat uses and to its omnivorous diet; it eats a variety of animals which may serve as intermediate hosts of various parasites. The endoparasites in the saltwater marsh were dominated by trematodes (flukes), and those of the freshwater marsh by nematodes (roundworms). Endoparasites were found in the gastric mucosa (which lines the stomach), the cavity of the stomach, the small intestine, the cecum, the large intestine, the pancreatic duct, the bile ducts, the mucus of the liver, the pulmonary arteries, the abdominal cavity, and the pleural cavity. While the marsh rice rat harbors a number of host-specific species, such as the nematode Aonchotheca forresteri, other parasite species, such as the lone star tick (pictured), are shared with other mammals. Compared to the hispid cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus), Florida marsh rice rats usually harbor fewer individual ectoparasites of each species. Borrelia, the bacterium that causes Lyme disease, has been identified in some ticks that infect the marsh rice rat and it has been identified as a possible natural reservoir for Borrelia.

text: Parasitologist

text: John Kinsella compared the endoparasites of marsh rice rats in a saltwater marsh at

text: Cedar Key

text: and a freshwater marsh at

text: Paynes Prairie

text: , both in Florida, in a 1988 study. He found a total of 45 species, a number unequaled in rodents. This may be related to the diverse habitats the rice rat uses and to its

text: omnivorous

text: diet; it eats a variety of animals which may serve as

text: intermediate host

text: s of various parasites. The endoparasites in the saltwater marsh were dominated by

text: trematode

text: s (flukes), and those of the freshwater marsh by

text: nematode

text: s (roundworms). Endoparasites were found in the

text: gastric mucosa

text: (which lines the

text: stomach

text: ), the cavity of the stomach, the

text: small intestine

text: , the

text: cecum

text: , the

text: large intestine

text: , the

text: pancreatic duct

text: , the

text: bile duct

text: s, the mucus of the

text: liver

text: , the

text: pulmonary arteries

text: , the

text: abdominal cavity

text: , and the

text: pleural cavity

text: . While the marsh rice rat harbors a number of host-specific species, such as the

text: nematode

text: Aonchotheca forresteri

text: , other parasite species, such as the

text: lone star tick

text: (pictured), are shared with other mammals. Compared to the

text: hispid cotton rat

text: (Sigmodon hispidus), Florida marsh rice rats usually harbor fewer individual ectoparasites of each species.

text: Borrelia

text: , the

text: bacterium

text: that causes

text: Lyme disease

text: , has been identified in some

text: tick

text: s that infect the marsh rice rat and it has been identified as a possible

text: natural reservoir

text: for Borrelia.

text: A traditional approach to reconstructing the urbilaterian considers it as a "roundish flatworm" consisting of as few features as possible.  This concept of a very simple animal was abandoned when it was realised that the vast array of traits common to bilaterians would produce quite a complex animal, but has had a resurgence with the inclusion of a phylum of flatworms within the bilateria.

text: A traditional approach to reconstructing the urbilaterian considers it as a "roundish flatworm" consisting of as few features as possible.  This concept of a very simple animal was abandoned when it was realised that the vast array of traits common to bilaterians would produce quite a complex animal, but has had a resurgence with the inclusion of a phylum of

text: flatworms

text: within the bilateria.

text: Orchipedidae is a flatworm family in the sub order Echinostomata.

text: Orchipedidae is a flatworm family in the sub order

text: Echinostomata

text: B. kewense have rarely been observed using egg capsules as a primary method of reproduction. Asexual fragmentation is its main reproductive strategy in temperate regions and most individuals never develop sexual organs. Juveniles of this species, unlike B. adventitium, do not appear the same coloration as parents in their early days.

text: Microphallus turgidus is a widespread and locally common undescribed flatworm parasite in New Zealand lakes and streams. Multilocus allozyme genotype data show that Microphallus turgidus is a single outbred species with high levels of gene flow among South Island populations. Microphallus turgidus is commonly found in the abdominal muscles of grass shrimp.

text: Pseudopecoeloides is a genus of flatworm.

text: Pseudopecoeloides is a

text: genus

text: of

text: flatworm

text: Endoparasites known to infect wolves include protozoans and helminths (flukes, tapeworms, roundworms and thorny-headed worms). Of 30,000 protozoan species, only a few have been recorded to infect wolves: Isospora, Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, Babesia, and Giardia. Wolves may carry Neospora caninum, which is of particular concern to farmers, as the disease can be spread to livestock, with infected animals being 3–13 times more likely to miscarry than those not infected. Among flukes, the most common in North American wolves is Alaria, which infects small rodents and amphibians that are eaten by wolves. Upon reaching maturity, Alaria migrates to the wolf's intestine, but harms it little. Metorchis conjunctus, which enters wolves through eating fish, infects the wolf's liver or gall bladder, causing liver disease, inflammation of the pancreas, and emaciation. Most other fluke species reside in the wolf's intestine, though Paragonimus westermani lives in the lungs. Tapeworms are commonly found in wolves, as their primary hosts are ungulates, small mammals, and fish, which wolves feed upon. Tapeworms generally cause little harm in wolves, though this depends on the number and size of the parasites, and the sensitivity of the host. Symptoms often include constipation, toxic and allergic reactions, irritation of the intestinal mucosa, and malnutrition. Infections by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus in ungulate populations tend to increase in areas with high wolf densities, as wolves can shed Echinoccocus eggs in their feces onto grazing areas. Wolves can carry over 30 roundworm species, though most roundworm infections appear benign, depending on the number of worms and the age of the host. Ancylostoma caninum attaches itself on the intestinal wall to feed on the host's blood, and can cause hyperchromic anemia, emaciation, diarrhea, and possibly death. Toxocara canis, a hookworm known to infect wolf pups in utero, can cause intestinal irritation, bloating, vomiting, and diarrhea. Wolves may catch Dioctophyma renale from minks, which infects the kidneys, and can grow to lengths of 100 cm. D. renale causes the complete destruction of the kidney's functional tissue, and can be fatal if both kidneys are infected. Wolves can tolerate low levels of Dirofilaria immitis for many years without showing any ill effects, though high levels can kill wolves through cardiac enlargement and congestive hepatopathy. Wolves probably become infected with Trichinella spiralis by eating infected ungulates. Although T. spiralis isn't known to produce clinical signs in wolves, it can cause emaciation, salivation, and crippling muscle pains in dogs. Thorny-headed worms rarely infect wolves, though three species have been identified in Russian wolves: Nicolla skrjabini, Macrocantorhynchus catulinus, and Moniliformis moniliformis.

text: Endoparasites known to infect wolves include

text: protozoan

text: s and

text: helminth

text: s (

text: flukes

text: tapeworm

text: s,

text: roundworm

text: s and

text: thorny-headed worm

text: s). Of 30,000 protozoan species, only a few have been recorded to infect wolves:

text: Isospora

text: Toxoplasma

text: Sarcocystis

text: Babesia

text: , and

text: Giardia

text: . Wolves may carry

text: Neospora caninum

text: , which is of particular concern to farmers, as the disease can be spread to livestock, with infected animals being 3–13 times more likely to

text: miscarry

text: than those not infected. Among flukes, the most common in North American wolves is

text: Alaria

text: , which infects small rodents and amphibians that are eaten by wolves. Upon reaching maturity, Alaria migrates to the wolf's intestine, but harms it little.

text: Metorchis conjunctus

text: , which enters wolves through eating fish, infects the wolf's liver or gall bladder, causing

text: liver disease

text: , inflammation of the pancreas, and

text: emaciation

text: . Most other fluke species reside in the wolf's intestine, though

text: Paragonimus westermani

text: lives in the lungs. Tapeworms are commonly found in wolves, as their primary hosts are ungulates, small mammals, and fish, which wolves feed upon. Tapeworms generally cause little harm in wolves, though this depends on the number and size of the parasites, and the sensitivity of the host. Symptoms often include

text: constipation

text: , toxic and

text: allergic reaction

text: s, irritation of the

text: intestinal mucosa

text: , and

text: malnutrition

text: . Infections by the tapeworm

text: Echinococcus granulosus

text: in ungulate populations tend to increase in areas with high wolf densities, as wolves can shed Echinoccocus eggs in their feces onto grazing areas. Wolves can carry over 30 roundworm species, though most roundworm infections appear benign, depending on the number of worms and the age of the host.

text: Ancylostoma caninum

text: attaches itself on the intestinal wall to feed on the host's blood, and can cause

text: hyperchromic anemia

text: , emaciation,

text: diarrhea

text: , and possibly death.

text: Toxocara canis

text: , a

text: hookworm

text: known to infect wolf pups in utero, can cause intestinal irritation,

text: bloat

text: ing, vomiting, and diarrhea. Wolves may catch

text: Dioctophyma renale

text: from

text: minks

text: , which infects the kidneys, and can grow to lengths of 100 cm. D. renale causes the complete destruction of the kidney's functional tissue, and can be fatal if both kidneys are infected. Wolves can tolerate low levels of

text: Dirofilaria immitis

text: for many years without showing any ill effects, though high levels can kill wolves through cardiac enlargement and

text: congestive hepatopathy

text: . Wolves probably become infected with

text: Trichinella spiralis

text: by eating infected ungulates. Although T. spiralis isn't known to produce clinical signs in wolves, it can cause emaciation, salivation, and crippling muscle pains in dogs.

text: Thorny-headed worm

text: s rarely infect wolves, though three species have been identified in Russian wolves:

text: Nicolla skrjabini

text: , Macrocantorhynchus catulinus, and

text: Moniliformis moniliformis

text: The idea of various adaptive presentation techniques is to adapt the content of a page accessed by a particular user to current knowledge, goals, and other characteristics of the user. For example, a qualified user can be provided with more detailed and deep information while a novice can receive additional explanations. Adaptive text presentation is the most studied technology of hypermedia adaptation. There are a number of different techniques for adaptive text presentation.

text: A recent threat to earthworm populations in the UK is the New Zealand flatworm (Arthurdendyus triangulatus), which feeds upon earthworms but has no local natural predator itself. Sightings of the New Zealand flatworm have been mainly localised, but it has spread extensively since its introduction in 1960 through contaminated soil and plant pots. Any sightings of the flatworm should be reported to the Scottish Crop Research Institute, which is monitoring its spread.

text: A recent threat to earthworm populations in the

text: UK

text: is the

text: New Zealand flatworm

text: (Arthurdendyus triangulatus), which feeds upon earthworms but has no local natural predator itself. Sightings of the New Zealand flatworm have been mainly localised, but it has spread extensively since its introduction in 1960 through contaminated soil and plant pots. Any sightings of the flatworm should be reported to the

text: Scottish Crop Research Institute

text: , which is monitoring its spread.

text: Rather than a simple withdrawal reflex, the flatworm, Notoplana aticola, displays a locomotory escape behaviour following pin pricks to the posterior end. Touching the larvae of fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster, with a probe causes them to pause and move away from the stimulus, however, stronger mechanical stimulation evokes a more complex corkscrew-like rolling behaviour, i.e. the response is plastic. When a weak tactile stimulus is applied to the siphon of the sea-hare Aplysia californica, the animal rapidly withdraws the siphon between the parapodia. It is sometimes claimed this response is an involuntary reflex (e.g. see Aplysia gill and siphon withdrawal reflex), however, the complex learning associated with this response (see 'Learned Avoidance' below) suggests this view might be overly simplistic.

text: Rather than a simple withdrawal reflex, the

text: flatworm

text: , Notoplana aticola, displays a locomotory escape behaviour following pin pricks to the posterior end. Touching the larvae of fruit flies,

text: Drosophila melanogaster

text: , with a probe causes them to pause and move away from the stimulus, however, stronger mechanical stimulation evokes a more complex corkscrew-like rolling behaviour, i.e. the response is plastic. When a weak tactile stimulus is applied to the

text: siphon

text: of the sea-hare

text: Aplysia californica

text: , the animal rapidly withdraws the siphon between the

text: parapodia

text: . It is sometimes claimed this response is an involuntary reflex (e.g. see

entity_name: Aplysia gill and siphon withdrawal reflex

text: Aplysia gill and siphon withdrawal reflex

text: ), however, the complex learning associated with this response (see 'Learned Avoidance' below) suggests this view might be overly simplistic.

text: In the case of Ascaris lumbricoides (giant roundworm), which has been considered the most resistant and common helminth type, fertilized eggs deposited in soil are resistant to desiccation but are, at this stage of development, very sensitive to environmental temperatures: The reproduction of a fertilized egg within the eggshell develops at an environmental soil temperature about 25 °C which is lower than the body temperature of the host (i.e., 37 °C for humans).

text: In the case of

text: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: (giant roundworm), which has been considered the most resistant and common helminth type, fertilized eggs deposited in soil are resistant to desiccation but are, at this stage of development, very sensitive to environmental temperatures: The reproduction of a fertilized egg within the eggshell develops at an environmental soil temperature about 25 °C which is lower than the body temperature of the host (i.e., 37 °C for humans).

text: A case of vestigial organs was described in polyopisthocotylean Monogeneans (parasitic flatworms). These parasites usually have a posterior attachment organ with several clamps, which are sclerotised organs attaching the worm to the gill of the host fish. These clamps are extremely important for the survival of the parasite. In the family Protomicrocotylidae, species have either normal clamps, simplified clamps, or no clamps at all (in the genus Lethacotyle). After a comparative study of the relative surface of clamps in more than 100 Monogeneans, this has been interpreted as an evolutionary sequence leading to the loss of clamps. Coincidentally, other attachment structures (lateral flaps, transverse striations) have evolved in protomicrocotylids. Therefore, clamps in protomicrocotylids were considered vestigial organs.

text: A case of vestigial organs was described in

text: polyopisthocotylea

text: n

text: Monogenea

text: ns (

text: parasitic

text: flatworm

text: s). These parasites usually have a posterior attachment organ with several

text: clamps

text: , which are sclerotised organs attaching the worm to the gill of the

text: host

text: fish. These clamps are extremely important for the survival of the parasite. In the family

text: Protomicrocotylidae

text: , species have either normal clamps, simplified clamps, or no clamps at all (in the genus

text: Lethacotyle

text: ). After a comparative study of the relative surface of clamps in more than 100

text: Monogenea

text: ns, this has been interpreted as an evolutionary sequence leading to the loss of clamps. Coincidentally, other attachment structures (lateral flaps, transverse striations) have evolved in protomicrocotylids. Therefore,

text: clamps

text: in

text: protomicrocotylids

text: were considered vestigial organs.

text: This flatworm can reach a maximum size of 8 cm length .

text: This

text: flatworm

text: can reach a maximum size of 8 cm length .

text: A study in La Plata, Argentina shows the potential for planarians such as Girardia anceps, Mesostoma ehrenbergii, and Bothromesostoma evelinae to reduce populations of the mosquito species Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens. The experiment showed that G. anceps in particular can prey on all instars of both mosquito species and maintain a steady predation rate over time. The ability for these flatworms to live in artificial containers showed the potential of placing these species in popular mosquito breeding sites, which would ideally reduce the amount of mosquito-borne diseases.

text: A study in

text: La Plata

text: , Argentina shows the potential for planarians such as

text: Girardia

text: anceps, Mesostoma ehrenbergii, and Bothromesostoma evelinae to reduce populations of the mosquito species

text: Aedes aegypti

text: and

text: Culex pipiens

text: . The experiment showed that G. anceps in particular can prey on all

text: instars

text: of both mosquito species and maintain a steady predation rate over time. The ability for these flatworms to live in artificial containers showed the potential of placing these species in popular mosquito breeding sites, which would ideally reduce the amount of

text: mosquito-borne disease

text: s.

text: In 1996, he and his Spanish colleagues discovered that arthropods are monophyletic and that Tardigrade is their sister group. In the same year, he, with the same group of authors, suggested that metazoan species are polymorphistic after he studied flatworm groups such as Dugesia, Seriata, Tricladida and Turbellaria. In 1999, he proposed to include Cycliophora as a sister group of Syndermata.

text: In 1996, he and his Spanish colleagues discovered that

text: arthropod

text: s are monophyletic and that

text: Tardigrade

text: is their sister group. In the same year, he, with the same group of authors, suggested that

text: metazoan

text: species are

text: polymorphistic

text: after he studied

text: flatworm

text: groups such as

text: Dugesia

text: Seriata

text: Tricladida

text: and

text: Turbellaria

text: . In 1999, he proposed to include

text: Cycliophora

text: as a sister group of

text: Syndermata

text: Worms may also be called helminths, particularly in medical terminology when referring to parasitic worms, especially the Nematoda (roundworms) and Cestoda (tapeworms). Hence "helminthology" is the study of parasitic worms. When a human or an animal, such as a dog or horse, is said to "have worms", it means that it is infested with parasitic worms, typically roundworms or tapeworms. Deworming is a method to kill off the worms that have infected a human or animal by giving anthelmintic drugs.

text: Worms may also be called

text: helminth

text: s, particularly in

text: medical

text: terminology when referring to

text: parasitic worm

text: s, especially the

text: Nematoda

text: (roundworms) and

text: Cestoda

text: (tapeworms). Hence "

text: helminthology

text: " is the study of parasitic worms. When a human or an animal, such as a

text: dog

text: or horse, is said to "have worms", it means that it is infested with

text: parasitic worm

text: s, typically

text: roundworm

text: s or

text: tapeworm

text: s.

text: Deworming

text: is a method to kill off the worms that have infected a human or animal by giving

text: anthelmintic

text: drugs.

text: To honor his memory, a flatworm Rhipidocotyle johnstonei was named after James Johnstone.

text: To honor his memory, a

text: flatworm

text: Rhipidocotyle johnstonei was named after James Johnstone.

text: This flatworm consumes juvenile settling mussels and harpacticoid copepods. It also engages in a symbiosis with a diatom of the genus Lichmophora, which has also invaded the Gulf of Maine.

text: This flatworm consumes juvenile settling

text: mussel

text: s and harpacticoid

text: copepod

text: s. It also engages in a

text: symbiosis

text: with a

text: diatom

text: of the genus

text: Lichmophora

text: , which has also invaded the Gulf of Maine.

text: Pseudoceros monostichos  is a marine flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.

text: Pseudoceros monostichos  is a marine

text: flatworm

text: species

text: that belongs to the

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: family.

text: In nematodes (roundworms), spicules, or copulatory spicules, are needle-like mating structures found only in males.

text: In

text: nematode

text: s (roundworms), spicules, or copulatory spicules, are needle-like mating structures found only in males.

text: Ascaris lumbricoides, a roundworm, infects humans when an ingested fertilised egg becomes a larval worm (called rhabditiform larva) that penetrates the  wall of the duodenum and enters the blood stream. From there, it is carried to the liver and heart, and enters pulmonary circulation to break free in the alveoli, where it grows and molts. In three weeks, the larva passes from the respiratory system to be coughed up, swallowed, and thus returned to the small intestine, where it matures to an adult male or female worm. Fertilization can now occur and the female produces as many as 200,000 eggs per day for a year. These fertilized eggs become infectious after two weeks in soil; they can persist in soil for 10 years or more.

text: Ascaris lumbricoides, a roundworm, infects humans when an ingested fertilised egg becomes a

text: larval worm

text: (called

text: rhabditiform larva

text: ) that penetrates the  wall of the

text: duodenum

text: and enters the

text: blood stream

text: . From there, it is carried to the

text: liver

text: and

text: heart

text: , and enters

text: pulmonary circulation

text: to break free in the

text: alveoli

text: , where it grows and

text: molt

text: s. In three weeks, the

text: larva

text: passes from the

text: respiratory system

text: to be coughed up, swallowed, and thus returned to the

text: small intestine

text: , where it matures to an adult male or female worm.

text: Fertilization

text: can now occur and the female produces as many as 200,000 eggs per day for a year. These fertilized eggs become infectious after two weeks in soil; they can persist in soil for 10 years or more.

text: Under conditions of stress such as crowding and high temperature, L2 larvae of some free living nematodes such as Caenorhabditis elegans can switch development to the so-called dauer larva state, instead of going the normal molts into a reproductive adult. These dauer larvae are a stress-resistant, non-feeding, long-lived stage, enabling the animals to survive harsh conditions. On return to favorable conditions, the animal resumes reproductive development from L3 stage onwards.

text: Under conditions of stress such as crowding and high temperature, L2 larvae of some free living nematodes such as

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: can switch development to the so-called

text: dauer larva

text: state, instead of going the normal molts into a reproductive adult. These dauer larvae are a stress-resistant, non-feeding, long-lived stage, enabling the animals to survive harsh conditions. On return to favorable conditions, the animal resumes reproductive development from L3 stage onwards.

text: The dromedary is prone to trypanosomiasis, a disease caused by a parasite transmitted by the tsetse fly. The main symptoms are recurring fever, anaemia and weakness; the disease is typically fatal for the camel. Brucellosis is another prominent malady. In an observational study, the seroprevalence of this disease was generally low (2 to 5%) in nomadic or moderately free dromedaries, but it was higher (8 to 15%) in denser populations. Brucellosis is caused by different biotypes of Brucella abortus and B. melitensis. Other internal parasites include Fasciola gigantica (trematode), two types of  cestode (tapeworm) and various nematodes (roundworms). Among external parasites, Sarcoptes species cause sarcoptic mange. In a 2000 study in Jordan, 83% of the 32 camels studied tested positive for sarcoptic mange. In another study, dromedaries were found to have natural antibodies against the rinderpest and ovine rinderpest viruses.

text: The dromedary is prone to

text: trypanosomiasis

text: , a disease caused by a parasite transmitted by the

text: tsetse fly

text: . The main symptoms are recurring fever,

text: anaemia

text: and weakness; the disease is typically fatal for the camel.

text: Brucellosis

text: is another prominent malady. In an observational study, the

text: seroprevalence

text: of this disease was generally low (2 to 5%) in nomadic or moderately free dromedaries, but it was higher (8 to 15%) in denser populations. Brucellosis is caused by different

text: biotype

text: s of

text: Brucella abortus

text: and

text: B. melitensis

text: . Other internal parasites include

text: Fasciola gigantica

text: trematode

text: ), two types of

text: cestode

text: (tapeworm) and various

text: nematode

text: s (roundworms). Among external parasites,

text: Sarcoptes

text: species cause

text: sarcoptic mange

text: . In a 2000 study in

text: Jordan

text: , 83% of the 32 camels studied tested positive for sarcoptic mange. In another study, dromedaries were found to have natural

text: antibodies

text: against the

text: rinderpest

text: and

text: ovine rinderpest

text: viruses.

text: To name things, Hungarians also use micsoda (what-is-it), hogyhívják or hogyishívják (what-it's-called), miafene (what-the-heck), bigyó (thingie), miafasz ('what-the-fuck', literally 'what-the-dick').

text: The flatworms "fence" using extendable two-headed dagger-like stylets.  These stylets are pointed (and in some species hooked) in order to pierce their mate's epidermis and inject sperm into the haemocoel in an act known as intradermal hypodermic insemination, or traumatic insemination.  Pairs can either compete, with only one individual transferring sperm to the other, or the pair can transfer sperm bilaterally.  Both forms of sperm transfer can occur in the same species, depending on various factors.

text: The flatworms "

text: fence

text: " using extendable two-headed

text: dagger

text: -like stylets.  These stylets are pointed (and in some species hooked) in order to pierce their mate's epidermis and inject sperm into the

text: haemocoel

text: in an act known as intradermal hypodermic insemination, or

text: traumatic insemination

text: .  Pairs can either compete, with only one individual transferring sperm to the other, or the pair can transfer sperm bilaterally.  Both forms of sperm transfer can occur in the same species, depending on various factors.

text: Most trematodes have several distinct developmental stages. The motile cercaria larva is released by the first intermediate host, typically a snail, and parasitizes a second intermediate host, where it encysts into a metacercaria. Finally, the adult flatworm typically inhabits the alimentary system or other body cavity of a fish.

text: Most trematodes have

text: several distinct developmental stages

text: . The motile cercaria larva is released by the first intermediate host, typically a snail, and parasitizes a second intermediate host, where it encysts into a metacercaria. Finally, the adult flatworm typically inhabits the alimentary system or other body cavity of a fish.

text: Brugia timori is a human filarial parasitic nematode (roundworm) which causes the disease "Timor filariasis." While this disease was first described  in 1965, the identity of Brugia timori as the causative agent was not known until 1977.  In that same year, Anopheles barbirostris was shown to be its primary vector.

text: Brugia timori is a human

text: filarial

text: parasitic

text: nematode

text: (roundworm) which causes the disease "Timor

text: filariasis

text: ." While this disease was first described  in 1965, the identity of Brugia timori as the causative agent was not known until 1977.  In that same year, Anopheles barbirostris was shown to be its primary

text: vector

text: Digenea (Gr. Dis – double, Genos – race) is a subclass within the Platyhelminthes consisting of parasitic flatworms with a syncytial tegument and, usually, two suckers, one ventral and one oral. Adults are particularly common in the digestive tract, but occur throughout the organ systems of all classes of vertebrates. Once thought to be related to the Monogenea, it is now recognised that they are closest to the Aspidogastrea and that the Monogenea are more closely allied with the Cestoda. Around 6,000 species have been described to date.

text: Digenea (Gr. Dis – double, Genos – race) is a

text: subclass

text: within the

text: Platyhelminthes

text: consisting of

text: parasitic

text: flatworm

text: s with a

text: syncytial

text: tegument

text: and, usually, two suckers, one ventral and one oral. Adults are particularly common in the digestive tract, but occur throughout the organ systems of all classes of

text: vertebrates

text: . Once thought to be related to the

text: Monogenea

text: , it is now recognised that they are closest to the

text: Aspidogastrea

text: and that the Monogenea are more closely allied with the

text: Cestoda

text: . Around 6,000 species have been described to date.

text: Macrostomum lignano, like all other flatworms, is an unsegmented, soft-bodied bilaterian without body cavity, and no specialized circulatory or respiratory organs. Unlike many other flatworms, its body is not flattened but round in cross section, the diffusion of oxygen and nutrients to the different body parts being possible due to its small size (adults reach about 1.7 mm in length)

text: Macrostomum lignano, like all other

text: flatworm

text: s, is an

text: unsegmented

text: , soft-bodied

text: bilaterian

text: without

text: body cavity

text: , and no specialized

text: circulatory

text: or

text: respiratory

text: organ

text: s. Unlike many other flatworms, its body is not flattened but round in cross section, the

text: diffusion

text: of

text: oxygen

text: and nutrients to the different body parts being possible due to its small size (adults reach about 1.7 mm in length)

text: There is a physical difference between the two types as well. Mainland Grendels are prone to infestation by a brain parasite. Although it may be lethal (reproducing uncontrollably inside the Grendel's brain until their skull breaks open) it may also be symbiotic, enhancing the Grendels' intelligence in exchange for nutrition. This depends on when the infection occurs; during development, the symbiote and host are able to adapt to each other and produce heightened intelligence. Infestation after development is fatal, and the parasite is absent from the island.

text: There is a physical difference between the two types as well. Mainland Grendels are prone to infestation by a

text: brain parasite

text: . Although it may be lethal (reproducing uncontrollably inside the Grendel's brain until their skull breaks open) it may also be

text: symbiotic

text: , enhancing the Grendels' intelligence in exchange for nutrition. This depends on when the infection occurs; during development, the symbiote and host are able to adapt to each other and produce heightened intelligence. Infestation after development is fatal, and the parasite is absent from the island.

text: Boops boops are host to a wide variety of parasites, ranging from metazoans such as Digenean flatworms, Acanthocephalan spiny-headed worms, nematode roundworms, isopod and copepod crustaceans and Myxozoan cnidarians to the unicellular dinoflagellate Ichthyodinium chabelardi, a parasite that is lethal to eggs developing in ovaries. At least 67 metazoan parasite species have been reported from Boops boops, and their community structures are well studied by scientists. For example, in the aftermath of the 2002 Prestige oil spill the community of parasitic species inhabiting bogue caught off the coast of Spain was found to be noticeably altered.

text: Boops boops are host to a wide variety of parasites, ranging from metazoans such as

text: Digenea

text: n

text: flatworm

text: s,

text: Acanthocephala

text: n spiny-headed worms,

text: nematode

text: roundworms,

text: isopod

text: and

text: copepod

text: crustaceans and

text: Myxozoa

text: n

text: cnidaria

text: ns to the unicellular dinoflagellate

text: Ichthyodinium chabelardi

text: , a parasite that is lethal to eggs developing in ovaries. At least 67 metazoan parasite species have been reported from Boops boops, and their community structures are well studied by scientists. For example, in the aftermath of the 2002

text: Prestige oil spill

text: the community of parasitic species inhabiting bogue caught off the coast of Spain was found to be noticeably altered.

text: Fourteen species of terrestrial flatworms have been recorded in Britain and Ireland with five found on the Isles of Scilly. Only three or four of the fourteen species are native with two recorded on Tresco.

text: Spiritestis is a genus of flatworm.

text: Spiritestis is a

text: genus

text: of

text: flatworm

text: In this case, a museum requested a license to reproduce quotes whose authors could not be located. The Board denied the museum licenses on the basis that the quotes were not substantial parts of the greater work. Substantiality is to be determined qualitatively and quantitatively based on how much was copied, what specifically was reproduced and how central or essential the material was to the character first work. Further considerations include whether the public would be able to recognize the source of the copy and whether the copy would create a substitute to the first work, thereby jeopardizing its economic viability.

text: In this case, a

text: museum

text: requested a license to reproduce quotes whose authors could not be located. The Board denied the museum licenses on the basis that the quotes were not substantial parts of the greater work. Substantiality is to be determined qualitatively and quantitatively based on how much was copied, what specifically was reproduced and how central or essential the material was to the character first work. Further considerations include whether the public would be able to recognize the source of the copy and whether the copy would create a substitute to the first work, thereby jeopardizing its economic viability.

text: Adults range between  and  in length. Individual adult digeneans are of a single sex, and in some species, slender females live in enclosed grooves that run along the bodies of the males, and partially emerge to lay eggs. In all species, the adults have complex reproductive systems and can produce between 10,000 and 100,000 times as many eggs as a free-living flatworm. In addition, the intermediate stages that live in snails reproduce asexually.

text: The theory of cellularization, also known as Ciliate-acoel theory, is one of the theories explaining the origin of the metazoans. It was first based on Ernst Haeckel's assumption that the earliest animals derived from ciliate protozoans. Haeckel later abandoned this idea which is revived by Hadzi in 1953. According to the theory, a multinucleated unicellular ciliate ancestor would give rise to organisms similar to modern turbellarian flatworms by cellularization of the external layer. Recent molecular and morphologic data add increasing evidence against this view, and the alternative colonial theory, also proposed by Haeckel in the 1870s is gaining widespread acceptance.

text: The theory of cellularization, also known as Ciliate-acoel theory, is one of the theories explaining the origin of the

text: metazoan

text: s. It was first based on

text: Ernst Haeckel

text: 's assumption that the earliest animals derived from

text: ciliate

text: protozoan

text: s. Haeckel later abandoned this idea which is revived by Hadzi in 1953. According to the theory, a

text: multinucleated

text: unicellular ciliate ancestor would give rise to organisms similar to modern

text: turbellaria

text: n

text: flatworm

text: s by cellularization of the external layer. Recent molecular and morphologic data add increasing evidence against this view, and the alternative

text: colonial theory

text: , also proposed by Haeckel in the 1870s is gaining widespread acceptance.

text: Seed: anthelmintic for roundworm, threadworm

text: Seed

text: : anthelmintic for roundworm, threadworm

text: The Echinostomida are an order of flatworms, belonging to the large group Digenea.

text: The Echinostomida are an

text: order

text: of

text: flatworm

text: s, belonging to the large group

text: Digenea

text: Although the plot seems simple, almost trivial, "what's important is what's going on underneath: what the characters don't say, to each other or to themselves; what they are thinking, what they feel; the long secret history of their uprooted, once Spanish, family. The intensity of those subterranean moments is part of what has kept the novel from dating. Even now it feels startlingly contemporary in its acceptance of multiple forms of sexuality, its sharp focus on the nature of identity and the costs of exile, and its grasp of what we now label "dysfunctional families."

text: The reproductive systems develop progressively along the differentiated proglottids of the strobila region, with each proglottid developing one or two sets of sexual organs that differentiate at different times in a species-specific pattern, usually male-first. Thus, moving in the posterior direction of the continuously maturing proglottid chain, there are proglottids with mature male reproductive organs, then proglottids with mature female reproductive organs, and then proglottids with fertilized eggs in the uterus, a condition commonly referred to as "gravid."

text: The mandrel diameter and number of turns are chosen to eliminate certain modes in a reproducible way.  It is empirically observed that more than 5 full 360 degree wraps creates little additional loss, so 3 to 5 turns are commonly specified.  The mandrel diameter affects how far into the mode volume the modal unbinding occurs.  Experimentally, one plots the transmitted power from a wrapped fibre into which a uniform modal power distribution has been excited, as a function of mandrel diameter, maintaining a constant number of turns.  This reveals step-like reductions in transmitted power as the diameter decreases, where each step is the point at which the mandrel is beginning to affect the next-lower mode group. For best measurement reproducibility, one would select a diameter that is not near such a transition, although this may not be possible if measurements must be performed over a range of wavelengths.  Total mode volume in a fiber is a function of wavelength, so the mandrel diameter at which the mode group transitions occur will change with wavelength.

text: D. sylvestris is also affected by parasites that influence the individual. These include both fungi and roundworms. In particular, the fungus Paecilomyces farinosus and the mermithid roundworm, Pheromermis pachysoma are known to parasitize the tree wasp. P. farinosus most often infects wasps and nests after death and therefore does not majorly influence the health of the colony. P. pachysoma typically infects flies and other insects when the roundworm eggs are eaten. The parasites then hatch in the insects and infects the wasp when the infected insects are fed to the wasp larvae. These roundworms usually do not kill the infected wasp but grow in their abdomen and can cause sexuals to become sterile. This has a negative impact on the individual as they are not able to reproduce and pass their genes on to the next generation. However, this is not likely to have a major impact on the colony since most worker eggs are policed and the queens typically only have a single mate.

text: D. sylvestris is also affected by parasites that influence the individual. These include both fungi and roundworms. In particular, the fungus Paecilomyces farinosus and the

text: mermithid

text: roundworm

text: , Pheromermis pachysoma are known to parasitize the tree wasp. P. farinosus most often infects wasps and nests after death and therefore does not majorly influence the health of the colony. P. pachysoma typically infects flies and other insects when the roundworm eggs are eaten. The parasites then hatch in the insects and infects the wasp when the infected insects are fed to the wasp larvae. These roundworms usually do not kill the infected wasp but grow in their abdomen and can cause sexuals to become sterile. This has a negative impact on the individual as they are not able to reproduce and pass their genes on to the next generation. However, this is not likely to have a major impact on the colony since most worker eggs are policed and the queens typically only have a single mate.

text: Roundworms: Many skunks have died from roundworms. Baylisascaris columnaris is the species that infests skunks most commonly. Baylisascaris eggs can remain viable in the environment for many years, despite hot or freezing weather or certain harsh chemicals.

text: Roundworms: Many skunks have died from

text: roundworm

text: s.

text: Baylisascaris

text: columnaris is the species that infests skunks most commonly. Baylisascaris eggs can remain viable in the environment for many years, despite hot or freezing weather or certain harsh chemicals.

text: In the echidna, a primitive egg-laying mammal that has no REM sleep, there is a very enlarged frontal cortex. Crick and Mitchison argue that this excessive cortical development is necessary to store both adaptive memories and parasitic memories, which in more highly evolved animals are disposed of during REM sleep.

text: In the

text: echidna

text: , a primitive egg-laying mammal that has no

text: REM sleep

text: , there is a very enlarged frontal cortex. Crick and Mitchison argue that this excessive cortical development is necessary to store both

text: adaptive memories

text: and parasitic memories, which in more highly evolved animals are disposed of during REM sleep.

text: Pseudobiceros bedfordi, (common names Persian carpet flatworm and Bedford's flatworm) is a species of flatworm in the family Pseudocerotidae.

text: Pseudobiceros bedfordi, (common names Persian carpet flatworm and Bedford's flatworm) is a

text: species

text: of

text: flatworm

text: in the family

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: If one person says, this is what I meant by what I said,” and his friend agrees that was their understanding of what was meant. Then it can be generally agreed that is what was meant.

text: There is no clear consensus on the taxonomy of helminths; it is more of a commonly used term to describe certain worms with superficial similarities. These are flatworms (platyhelminthes), namely cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes), and roundworms or nemathelminths (nematodes) – both of these are parasitic worm types – and the annelida, which are not parasitic or at the most ectoparasites like the leeches.

text: There is no clear consensus on the taxonomy of helminths; it is more of a commonly used term to describe certain

text: worm

text: s with superficial similarities. These are

text: flatworm

text: s (platyhelminthes), namely

text: cestodes

text: (tapeworms) and

text: trematodes

text: (flukes), and roundworms or nemathelminths (

text: nematodes

text: ) – both of these are parasitic worm types – and the

text: annelida

text: , which are not parasitic or at the most

text: ectoparasites

text: like the

text: leeches

text: The song is about knowing what she wants in life, and telling other people what she wants. At the beginning of the song, she does not know what she wants, or what is going on.  However, all that changes at the middle, and she starts telling others what she wants, and what she knows.

text: Medicinal care, however, is also another method used in round worm studies; such as the experiment on managing raccoon roundworm done by Smyser et al. (2013) in which they implemented medical baiting. However, medicine is often expensive and the success of the baiting depends on if the infected individuals consume the bait.  Additionally, it can be costly (in time and resources) to check on baited areas.  Removal by hunting allows agencies to reduce costs and gives agencies a more improved chance of removing infected individuals.

text: Gnathostoma hispidum is a nematode (roundworm) that infects many vertebrate animals including humans. Infection of Gnathostoma hispidum, like many species of Gnathostoma causes the disease gnathostomiasis due to the migration of immature worms in the tissues.

text: Gnathostoma hispidum is a

text: nematode

text: (roundworm) that infects many

text: vertebrate

text: animal

text: s including

text: human

text: s. Infection of Gnathostoma hispidum, like many species of

text: Gnathostoma

text: causes the disease

text: gnathostomiasis

text: due to the migration of immature worms in the tissues.

text: Another phylum is Platyhelminthes, the flatworms. These were originally considered primitive, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors. Flatworms are acoelomates, lacking a body cavity, as are their closest relatives, the microscopic Gastrotricha. The Rotifera or rotifers, are common in aqueous environments. Invertebrates also include the Acanthocephala or spiny-headed worms, the Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa, and the Cycliophora.

text: Another phylum is

text: Platyhelminthes

text: , the flatworms. These were originally considered primitive, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors. Flatworms are

text: acoelomates

text: , lacking a body cavity, as are their closest relatives, the microscopic

text: Gastrotricha

text: . The

text: Rotifera

text: or rotifers, are common in aqueous environments. Invertebrates also include the

text: Acanthocephala

text: or spiny-headed worms, the

text: Gnathostomulida

text: Micrognathozoa

text: , and the

text: Cycliophora

text: Fascioloides is a genus of flatworm.

text: Fascioloides is a

text: genus

text: of

text: flatworm

text: Bucephalus polymorphus is a flatworm.  This species is within the Bucephalidae family of Digenea, which in turn is a subclass of Trematodes within the phylum Platyhelminthes (i.e. flatworm). It is characterized by having a mouth near the middle of its body, along with a sac-like gut.  The mouth opening is located in the centre of the ventral surface. THis is a specific body type of cecaria known as a gastrostome.

text: Bucephalus polymorphus is a

text: flatworm

text: .  This species is within the

text: Bucephalidae

text: family of

text: Digenea

text: , which in turn is a subclass of

text: Trematodes

text: within the phylum Platyhelminthes (i.e. flatworm). It is characterized by having a mouth near the middle of its body, along with a sac-like gut.  The mouth opening is located in the centre of the ventral surface. THis is a specific body type of cecaria known as a gastrostome.

text: Orthonectida are found in the body spaces of various marine invertebrates including tissue spaces, gonads, genitorespiratory bursae. This pathogen causes host castration of different species. Their actual phylogenetic position is uncertain, suggestions include as sister group to bilateral animals; as a relative of platyhelminthes and roundworms; as parasitic cnidarians similar to myxozoans and Polypodium hydriforme; and even as members of kingdom Protista, outside the animal kingdom.

text: Orthonectida are found in the body spaces of various marine invertebrates including tissue spaces, gonads, genitorespiratory bursae. This pathogen causes host castration of different species. Their actual phylogenetic position is uncertain, suggestions include as sister group to

text: bilateral animals

text: ; as a relative of

text: platyhelminthes

text: and

text: roundworm

text: s; as parasitic

text: cnidaria

text: ns similar to

text: myxozoan

text: s and

text: Polypodium hydriforme

text: ; and even as members of kingdom

text: Protista

text: , outside the animal kingdom.

text: 5 - How do distinctions and differences between security and insecurity form and reproduce in society?

text: Pseudoceros lindae, common name Linda's flatworm, is a marine Flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.

text: Pseudoceros lindae, common name Linda's flatworm, is a marine

text: Flatworm

text: species that belongs to the

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: family.

text: Rhabditophora (from rhabdito-, rhabdite + Greek -φορος [-phoros], bearer, i.e., "rhabdite bearers") is a class of flatworms. It includes all parasitic flatworms (clade Neodermata) and most free-living species that were previously grouped in the now obsolete class Turbellaria. Therefore, it contains the majority of species in the phylum Platyhelminthes, excluding only the catenulids, to which they appear to be the sister group.

text: Rhabditophora (from rhabdito-,

text: rhabdite

text: Greek

text: -φορος [-phoros], bearer, i.e., "rhabdite bearers") is a class of

text: flatworms

text: . It includes all

text: parasitic

text: flatworms (clade

text: Neodermata

text: ) and most free-living species that were previously grouped in the now obsolete class

text: Turbellaria

text: . Therefore, it contains the majority of species in the phylum

text: Platyhelminthes

text: , excluding only the

text: catenulids

text: , to which they appear to be the

text: sister group

text: Platyhelminthes (flatworms) and Nematoda (roundworms).

text: Platyhelminth

text: es (flatworms) and

text: Nematoda

text: (roundworms).

text: These flatworms are mainly predators of other invertebrates, which they hunt, attack and capture using physical force and the adhesive and digestive properties of their mucus. They lack water-retaining mechanisms and are therefore very sensitive to humidity variations of their environment.

text: Despite the many uses it saw, the condition of the temple is enough to let us imagine how it would have been originally. The columned portico towers above the podium, which is accessed via a front staircase, is in part reproduced copying the original elements found during its reconstruction. The columns are smooth, with the Corinthian capitals and entablature crowning the cella.

text: Despite the many uses it saw, the condition of the temple is enough to let us imagine how it would have been originally. The columned

text: portico

text: towers above the podium, which is accessed via a front staircase, is in part reproduced copying the original elements found during its reconstruction. The

text: column

text: s are smooth, with the

text: Corinthian

text: capitals and

text: entablature

text: crowning the

text: cella

text: Paropecoelus is a genus of flatworm.

text: Paropecoelus is a

text: genus

text: of

text: flatworm

text: Virchow worked out the life cycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis. Virchow noticed a mass of circular white flecks in the muscle of dog and human cadaver, similar to those described by Richard Owen in 1835. He confirmed through microscopic observation that the white particles were indeed the larvae of roundworms, being curled up in the muscle tissue. Rudolph Leukart found that these tiny worms could develop into adult roundworms in the intestine of a dog. He correctly asserted that these worms could also cause human helminthiasis. Virchow further demonstrated that if the infected meat is first heated to 137 °F for 10 minutes, the worms could not infect dogs or humans. He established that human infection occurs through contaminated pork. This directly led to the importance of meat inspection, which was first adopted in Berlin.

text: Virchow worked out the life cycle of a roundworm

text: Trichinella spiralis

text: . Virchow noticed a mass of circular white flecks in the muscle of dog and human cadaver, similar to those described by

text: Richard Owen

text: in 1835. He confirmed through microscopic observation that the white particles were indeed the larvae of roundworms, being curled up in the muscle tissue. Rudolph Leukart found that these tiny worms could develop into adult roundworms in the intestine of a dog. He correctly asserted that these worms could also cause human

text: helminthiasis

text: . Virchow further demonstrated that if the infected meat is first heated to 137 °F for 10 minutes, the worms could not infect dogs or humans. He established that human infection occurs through contaminated pork. This directly led to the importance of meat inspection, which was first adopted in Berlin.

text: Zooxanthellae are particularly associated with reef-building corals but they also inhabit other invertebrates and protists; their hosts include many sea anemones, jellyfish, nudibranchs, certain bivalve molluscs like the giant clam Tridacna, sponges and flatworms as well as some species of radiolarians and foraminiferans. Many different species of zooxanthellae are present in host organisms, each species with its own adaptive capabilities and degree of tolerance of varying environmental factors.

text: Zooxanthellae are particularly associated with reef-building

text: coral

text: s but they also inhabit other invertebrates and

text: protist

text: s; their hosts include many

text: sea anemone

text: s,

text: jellyfish

text: nudibranch

text: s, certain

text: bivalve molluscs

text: like the giant clam

text: Tridacna

text: sponge

text: s and

text: flatworm

text: s as well as some species of

text: radiolaria

text: ns and

text: foraminifera

text: ns. Many different species of zooxanthellae are present in host organisms, each species with its own adaptive capabilities and degree of tolerance of varying environmental factors.

text: Females of this species often undergo parthenogenesis. A male specimen was not noted until 2002. A few years later, a sexually reproducing strain was found.

text: Females of this species often undergo

text: parthenogenesis

text: . A male specimen was not noted until 2002. A few years later, a sexually reproducing strain was found.

text: As it seems, the Secernentea are indeed a natural group of closest relatives. But the "Adenophorea" appear to be a paraphyletic assemblage of roundworms simply retaining a good number of ancestral traits. The old Enoplia do not seem to be monophyletic either, but to contain two distinct lineages. The old group "Chromadoria" seem to be another paraphyletic assemblage, with the Monhysterida representing a very ancient minor group of nematodes. Among the Secernentea, the Diplogasteria may need to be united with the Rhabditia, while the Tylenchia might be paraphyletic with the Rhabditia.

text: As it seems, the

text: Secernentea

text: are indeed a natural group of closest relatives. But the "Adenophorea" appear to be a

text: paraphyletic

text: assemblage of roundworms simply retaining a good number of

text: ancestral traits

text: . The old

text: Enoplia

text: do not seem to be monophyletic either, but to contain two distinct lineages. The old group "

text: Chromadoria

text: " seem to be another paraphyletic assemblage, with the

text: Monhysterida

text: representing a very ancient minor group of nematodes. Among the Secernentea, the

text: Diplogasteria

text: may need to be united with the

text: Rhabditia

text: , while the Tylenchia might be paraphyletic with the Rhabditia.

text: Wayne Grey (Seann William Scott), a fireman trainee practicing in a shack in the desert near Glen Canyon, Arizona, sees a meteor strike his car and land in an underground cavern. College professor Ira Kane (David Duchovny) and his colleague, geology professor Harry Block (Orlando Jones), investigate, taking a sample of strange blue liquid that oozes from it. Ira discovers that it harbors extraterrestrial single-celled nitrogen-based organisms multiplying exponentially, condensing millions of years of evolution within a matter of hours. The next day, they take the science class to survey the meteor site and find it already surrounded by evolved oxygen-converting fungi and alien flatworms. Ira and Harry discover that the cells and organisms reproduce rapidly through mitosis after seeing one of the flatworms they collected in a jar split into another.

text: Wayne Grey (

text: Seann William Scott

text: ), a fireman trainee practicing in a shack in the desert near Glen Canyon, Arizona, sees a meteor strike his car and land in an underground cavern. College professor Ira Kane (

text: David Duchovny

text: ) and his colleague,

text: geology

text: professor Harry Block (

text: Orlando Jones

text: ), investigate, taking a sample of strange blue liquid that oozes from it. Ira discovers that it harbors

text: extraterrestrial

text: single-celled

text: nitrogen

text: -based organisms multiplying exponentially, condensing millions of years of

text: evolution

text: within a matter of hours. The next day, they take the science class to survey the meteor site and find it already surrounded by evolved oxygen-converting

text: fungi

text: and alien

text: flatworms

text: . Ira and Harry discover that the cells and organisms reproduce rapidly through

text: mitosis

text: after seeing one of the flatworms they collected in a jar split into another.

text: Penis fencing is a mating behaviour engaged in by certain species of flatworm, such as Pseudobiceros bedfordi. Species which engage in the practice are hermaphroditic, possessing both eggs and sperm-producing testes. The species "fence" using two-headed dagger-like penises which are pointed, and white in colour. One organism inseminates the other. The sperm is absorbed through pores in the skin, causing fertilisation.

text: Penis fencing

text: is a mating behaviour engaged in by certain species of

text: flatworm

text: , such as

text: Pseudobiceros bedfordi

text: . Species which engage in the practice are hermaphroditic, possessing both eggs and sperm-producing testes. The species "fence" using two-headed dagger-like penises which are pointed, and white in colour. One organism inseminates the other. The sperm is absorbed through pores in the skin, causing fertilisation.

text: The connectivity of the neural circuit for touch sensitivity of the simple C. elegans nematode (roundworm) was mapped in 1985, and partly simulated in 1993. Several software simulation models of the complete neural and muscular system, and to some extent the worm's physical environment, have been presented since 2004, and are in some cases available for downloading. However, we still lack understanding of how the neurons and the connections between them generate the surprisingly complex range of behaviors that are observed in this relatively simple organism.

text: The connectivity of the neural circuit for touch sensitivity of the simple

text: C. elegans

text: nematode (roundworm) was mapped in 1985, and partly simulated in 1993. Several software simulation models of the complete neural and muscular system, and to some extent the worm's physical environment, have been presented since 2004, and are in some cases available for downloading. However, we still lack understanding of how the neurons and the connections between them generate the surprisingly complex range of behaviors that are observed in this relatively simple organism.

text: Macrocotyla glandulosa, or the pink planarian, is a flatworm found only in the Devil's Icebox cave in Rock Bridge Memorial State Park in Boone County, Missouri, USA.

text: Macrocotyla glandulosa, or the pink planarian, is a

text: flatworm

text: found only in the Devil's Icebox cave in

text: Rock Bridge Memorial State Park

text: in

text: Boone County

text: Missouri

text: USA

text: The original release of the CD included a bonus DVD of performances from the Bowery Ballroom, including extended versions of some of the routines included on the CD along with exclusive performances and material, such as "Little Roundworm", a love ballad performed with Maya Rudolph.

text: The original release of the CD included a bonus

text: DVD

text: of performances from the Bowery Ballroom, including extended versions of some of the routines included on the CD along with exclusive performances and material, such as "Little Roundworm", a love ballad performed with Maya Rudolph.

text: Roundworms infect hundreds of millions of people. There is evidence that high intensities of worms in the intestines can affect mental performance, but a systematic review in 2000 and a 2009 update found that there was insufficient evidence to show that deworming treatments improve cognitive performance or school performance in children.

text: Roundworms

text: infect hundreds of millions of people. There is evidence that high intensities of worms in the intestines can affect mental performance, but a systematic review in 2000 and a 2009 update found that there was insufficient evidence to show that deworming treatments improve cognitive performance or school performance in children.

text: The three major worm species responsible for soil-transmitted helminthiasis are Ascaris (roundworms), Trichuris (whipworm), the hookworms Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale, and Strongyloides stercoralis.  There are 1.5 billion currently infected. Soil-transmitted heminthiasis occurs in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, China, and east Asia. The mortality risk is very low.  The most common symptoms are anemia, stunted growth, intestinal problems, lack of energy, and compromised physical and cognitive development. Infected children often fall behind in schooling. The severity of symptoms depends on the number of worms in the body.

text: The three major worm species responsible for

text: soil-transmitted helminthiasis

text: are

text: Ascaris

text: roundworm

text: s),

text: Trichuris

text: whipworm

text: ), the hookworms

text: Necator americanus

text: and

text: Ancylostoma duodenale

text: , and

text: Strongyloides stercoralis

text: .  There are 1.5 billion currently infected. Soil-transmitted heminthiasis occurs in sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, China, and east Asia. The mortality risk is very low.  The most common symptoms are anemia,

text: stunted growth

text: , intestinal problems, lack of energy, and compromised physical and cognitive development. Infected children often fall behind in schooling. The severity of symptoms depends on the number of worms in the body.

text: Toxocariasis is an illness of humans caused by larvae (immature worms) of either the dog roundworm (Toxocara canis), the cat roundworm (Toxocara cati) or the fox roundworm (Toxocara canis). Toxocariasis is often called visceral larva migrans (VLM). Depending on geographic location, degree of eosinophilia, eye and/or pulmonary signs the terms ocular larva migrans (OLM), Weingarten's disease, Frimodt-Møller's syndrome, and eosinophilic pseudoleukemia are applied to toxocariasis. Other terms sometimes or rarely used include nematode ophthalmitis, toxocaral disease, toxocarose, and covert toxocariasis.  This zoonotic, helminthic infection is a major cause of blindness and may provoke rheumatic, neurologic, or asthmatic symptoms.  Humans normally become infected by ingestion of embryonated eggs (each containing a fully developed larva, L2) from contaminated sources (soil, fresh or unwashed vegetables, or improperly cooked paratenic hosts).

text: Toxocariasis is an illness of humans caused by

text: larvae

text: (immature worms) of either the dog

text: roundworm

text: Toxocara canis

text: ), the cat roundworm (

text: Toxocara cati

text: ) or the fox roundworm (

text: Toxocara canis

text: ). Toxocariasis is often called visceral larva migrans (VLM). Depending on geographic location, degree of

text: eosinophilia

text: , eye and/or pulmonary signs the terms

text: ocular

text: larva migrans (OLM),

text: Weingarten's disease

text: Frimodt-Møller

text: 's syndrome, and eosinophilic pseudoleukemia are applied to toxocariasis. Other terms sometimes or rarely used include nematode ophthalmitis, toxocaral disease, toxocarose, and covert toxocariasis.  This

text: zoonotic

text: helminth

text: ic infection is a major cause of blindness and may provoke

text: rheumatic

text: neurologic

text: , or

text: asthmatic

text: symptoms.  Humans normally become infected by ingestion of embryonated eggs (each containing a fully developed

text: larva

text: , L2) from contaminated sources (soil, fresh or unwashed vegetables, or improperly cooked

text: paratenic

text: hosts).

text: A total of 51 species of parasitic worm have been recovered from the American white ibis, predominantly from the gastrointestinal system and particularly the small intestine. These include Cestoda (tapeworms), Acanthocephala (thorny headed worms), Nematoda (roundworms), Digenea and Spirurida. Several roundworm and spirurid species have been found in the lining of the gizzard. Nematodes are more prevalent in American white ibis from freshwater habitats, and cestodes more frequent in those from saltwater areas. One nematode found in adult birds, Skrjabinoclavia thapari, is borne in the fiddler crab as an intermediate host, while the thorny headed worm species Southwellina dimorpha is carried in crayfish and infests both adult and juvenile ibis.

text: A total of 51 species of

text: parasitic worm

text: have been recovered from the American white ibis, predominantly from the

text: gastrointestinal system

text: and particularly the

text: small intestine

text: . These include

text: Cestoda

text: (tapeworms),

text: Acanthocephala

text: (thorny headed worms),

text: Nematoda

text: (roundworms),

text: Digenea

text: and

text: Spirurida

text: . Several roundworm and spirurid species have been found in the lining of the

text: gizzard

text: . Nematodes are more prevalent in American white ibis from freshwater habitats, and cestodes more frequent in those from saltwater areas. One nematode found in adult birds,

text: Skrjabinoclavia thapari

text: , is borne in the fiddler crab as an

text: intermediate host

text: , while the thorny headed worm species

text: Southwellina dimorpha

text: is carried in crayfish and infests both adult and juvenile ibis.

text: The flatworm causes mass mortality among fingerling carp in fish-rearing ponds. Abnormal multiplication of cells in the gill epithelium interferes with carp's respiratory functions. The parasite is especially significant in the former Soviet Union, eastern and northern Europe, India, and Sri Lanka, where carp are bred for food.

text: The flatworm causes mass mortality among fingerling

text: carp

text: in fish-rearing ponds. Abnormal multiplication of cells in the gill epithelium interferes with carp's respiratory functions. The parasite is especially significant in the former

text: Soviet Union

text: , eastern and northern

text: Europe

text: India

text: , and

text: Sri Lanka

text: , where carp are bred for food.

text: In New Zealand, Deretrema philippae (=Limnoderetrema minutum) is known to parasitize the intestine (and possibly gall bladder) of the common galaxias. Similarly, the intestinal parasite Steganoderma szidati has been reported from this species' Argentinian population. These are digenean flatworms (Etchegoin et al. 2002).

text: In New Zealand,

text: Deretrema philippae

text: (=Limnoderetrema minutum) is known to

text: parasitize

text: the

text: intestine

text: (and possibly

text: gall bladder

text: ) of the common galaxias. Similarly, the

text: intestinal parasite

text: Steganoderma szidati

text: has been reported from this species' Argentinian population. These are

text: digenea

text: n

text: flatworm

text: s (Etchegoin et al. 2002).

text: Some of the most important bacterial diseases which affect raccoons are leptospirosis, listeriosis, tetanus, and tularemia. Although internal parasites weaken their immune systems, well-fed individuals can carry a great many roundworms in their digestive tracts without showing symptoms. The larvae of the Baylisascaris procyonis roundworm, which can be contained in the feces and seldom causes a severe illness in humans, can be ingested when cleaning raccoon latrines without wearing breathing protection.

text: Some of the most important

text: bacteria

text: l diseases which affect raccoons are

text: leptospirosis

text: listeriosis

text: tetanus

text: , and

text: tularemia

text: . Although internal

text: parasites

text: weaken their

text: immune system

text: s, well-fed individuals can carry a great many roundworms in their

text: digestive tracts

text: without showing symptoms. The larvae of the

text: Baylisascaris procyonis

text: roundworm, which can be contained in the feces and seldom causes a severe illness in humans, can be ingested when cleaning

text: raccoon latrine

text: s without wearing breathing protection.

text: It is important to obtain some indication about how generalizable the results are. While this is hard to check, one can look at the stability of the results. Are the results reliable and reproducible? There are two main ways of doing this:

text: Eustrongylidosis is caused by several species of roundworms. The nematodes are red, large, and easily noticeable and are characterized by the absence of a posterior sucker. These roundworms cause a high mortality rate in nesting egrets and other wading birds, including other coastal populations. The parasite was first detected in fish. The parasite is then transferred from the fish to the waterfowl when the bird is eating the fish. After consumption, the parasite perforates through the stomach lining often resulting in the death of the host.

text: Eustrongylidosis is caused by several species of

text: roundworm

text: s. The

text: nematode

text: s are red, large, and easily noticeable and are characterized by the absence of a posterior sucker. These roundworms cause a high mortality rate in nesting

text: egret

text: s and other

text: wading bird

text: s, including other coastal populations. The parasite was first detected in fish. The parasite is then transferred from the fish to the waterfowl when the bird is eating the fish. After consumption, the parasite perforates through the stomach lining often resulting in the death of the host.

text: The Plagiorchiida are a large order of flatworms (synonym is Echinostomida). They belong to the Digenea, a large subclass of flukes. This order contains relatively few significant parasites of humans.

text: The Plagiorchiida are a large

text: order

text: of

text: flatworm

text: s (synonym is

text: Echinostomida

text: ). They belong to the

text: Digenea

text: , a large

text: subclass

text: of

text: fluke

text: s. This order contains relatively few significant

text: parasite

text: s of humans.

text: Troglobites are obligatory cavernicoles, specialized for cave life. Some can leave caves for short periods, and may complete parts of their life cycles above ground, but cannot live their entire lives outside of a cave environment. Examples include chemotrophic bacteria, some species of flatworms, collembola, and cavefish.

text: Troglobites are obligatory cavernicoles, specialized for cave life. Some can leave caves for short periods, and may complete parts of their life cycles above ground, but cannot live their entire lives outside of a cave environment. Examples include chemotrophic bacteria, some species of

text: flatworms

text: collembola

text: , and

text: cavefish

text: Brugia malayi is a nematode (roundworm), one of the three causative agents of lymphatic filariasis in humans. Lymphatic filariasis, also known as elephantiasis, is a condition characterized by swelling of the lower limbs.  The two other filarial causes of lymphatic filariasis are Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia timori, which both differ from B. malayi morphologically, symptomatically, and in geographical extent.

text: Brugia malayi is a

text: nematode

text: (roundworm), one of the three causative agents of

text: lymphatic filariasis

text: in humans. Lymphatic filariasis, also known as

text: elephantiasis

text: , is a condition characterized by swelling of the lower limbs.  The two other filarial causes of lymphatic filariasis are

text: Wuchereria bancrofti

text: and

text: Brugia timori

text: , which both differ from B. malayi morphologically, symptomatically, and in geographical extent.

text: The order Ascaridida includes several families of parasitic roundworms with three "lips" on the anterior end. They were formerly placed in the subclass Rhabditia by some, but morphological and DNA sequence data rather unequivocally assign them to the Spiruria. The Oxyurida and Rhigonematida are occasionally placed in the Ascaridida as superfamily Oxyuroidea, but while they seem indeed to be Spiruria, they are not as close to Ascaris as such a treatment would place them.These "worms" contain a number of important parasites of humans and domestic animals.

text: The

text: order

text: Ascaridida includes several families of

text: parasitic

text: roundworms

text: with three "lips" on the anterior end. They were formerly placed in the

text: subclass

text: Rhabditia

text: by some, but morphological and

text: DNA sequence

text: data rather unequivocally assign them to the

text: Spiruria

text: . The

text: Oxyurida

text: and

text: Rhigonematida

text: are occasionally placed in the Ascaridida as

text: superfamily

text: Oxyuroidea, but while they seem indeed to be Spiruria, they are not as close to

text: Ascaris

text: as such a treatment would place them.These "

text: worm

text: s" contain a number of important

text: parasite

text: s of humans and

text: domestic animal

text: s.

text: Thysanozoon is a genus of polyclad flatworms belonging to the family Pseudocerotidae.

text: Thysanozoon is a genus of polyclad

text: flatworm

text: s belonging to the family

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: A protonephridium (proto = "first") is a network of dead-end tubules lacking internal openings found in the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea and Rotifera. The ends are called flame cells (if ciliated) or solenocytes (if flagellated); they function in osmoregulation and ionoregulation, respectively. The terminal cells are located at the blind end of the protonephridium. Each cell has one or more cilia and their beating inside the protonephridial tube creates an outward going current and hence a partial pressurization in the blind of the tube. Because of this, pressurization drives waste fluids from the inside of the animal, and they are pulled through small perforations in the terminal cells and into the protonephridium. The perforations in the terminal cell are large enough for small molecules to pass, but larger proteins are retained within the animal. From the bottom of the protonephridium the solutes are led through the tube, formed by the canal cells, and exits the animal from a small opening formed by the nephridiopore. Selective reabsorption of useful molecules by the canal cells occurs as the solutes pass down the tubule. Protonephridia are generally found in basal organisms such as flatworms. Protonephridia likely first arose as a way to cope with a hypotonic environment by removing excess water from the organism (osmoregulation). Their use as excretory and ionoregulatory structures likely arose secondarily.

text: A protonephridium (proto = "first") is a network of dead-end

text: tubule

text: s lacking internal openings found in the phyla

text: Platyhelminthes

text: Nemertea

text: and

text: Rotifera

text: . The ends are called

text: flame cell

text: s (if ciliated) or

text: solenocyte

text: s (if flagellated); they function in

text: osmoregulation

text: and

text: ionoregulation

text: , respectively. The terminal cells are located at the blind end of the protonephridium. Each cell has one or more

text: cilia

text: and their beating inside the protonephridial tube creates an outward going current and hence a partial

text: pressurization

text: in the blind of the tube. Because of this, pressurization drives

text: waste fluids

text: from the inside of the animal, and they are pulled through small perforations in the terminal cells and into the protonephridium. The perforations in the terminal cell are large enough for small

text: molecule

text: s to pass, but larger

text: protein

text: s are retained within the animal. From the bottom of the protonephridium the solutes are led through the tube, formed by the canal cells, and exits the animal from a small opening formed by the

text: nephridiopore

text: . Selective reabsorption of useful molecules by the canal cells occurs as the solutes pass down the tubule. Protonephridia are generally found in basal organisms such as

text: flatworm

text: s. Protonephridia likely first arose as a way to cope with a hypotonic environment by removing excess water from the organism (

text: osmoregulation

text: ). Their use as excretory and ionoregulatory structures likely arose secondarily.

text: These flatworms typically occur in teleost fishes as sexually reproducing adults. In their intermediate hosts, which include mollusks and at least one amphibian, they occur as asexually reproducing stages.

text: These flatworms typically occur in

text: teleost

text: fishes as sexually reproducing adults. In their intermediate hosts, which include

text: mollusks

text: and at least one

text: amphibian

text: , they occur as asexually reproducing stages.

text: Worms may also be called helminths, particularly in medical terminology when referring to parasitic worms, especially the Nematoda (roundworms) and Cestoda (tapeworms) which reside in the intestines of their host. When an animal or human is said to "have worms", it means that it is infested with parasitic worms, typically roundworms or tapeworms.

text: Worms may also be called

text: helminth

text: s, particularly in

text: medical

text: terminology when referring to

text: parasitic worm

text: s, especially the

text: Nematoda

text: (roundworms) and

text: Cestoda

text: (tapeworms) which reside in the

text: intestines

text: of their host. When an animal or human is said to "have worms", it means that it is infested with

text: parasitic worm

text: s, typically

text: roundworm

text: s or

text: tapeworm

text: s.

text: Efficient adaptive patterns are those in which specific adaptive behavior is displayed only in situations that require it ("activating situations"), whereas inefficient adaptive patterns are those in which adaptive behavior is inappropriate in the given situation. Inefficient adaptive patterns can be hyperadaptive, when adaptive operations are active in both activating and non-activating situations (as in mania), or hypoadaptive, when adaptive operations remain inactive in both types of situations (as in depression).

text: Efficient adaptive patterns are those in which specific adaptive behavior is displayed only in situations that require it ("activating situations"), whereas inefficient adaptive patterns are those in which adaptive behavior is inappropriate in the given situation. Inefficient adaptive patterns can be hyperadaptive, when adaptive operations are active in both activating and non-activating situations (as in

text: mania

text: ), or hypoadaptive, when adaptive operations remain inactive in both types of situations (as in

text: depression

text: Thysanozoon nigropapillosum is a species of polyclad flatworms belonging to the family Pseudocerotidae.  Some common names include gold-speckled flatworm, marine flatworm, yellow papillae flatworm, yellow-spotted flatworm, and yellow-spotted polyclad flatworm.

text: Thysanozoon nigropapillosum is a species of

text: polyclad flatworms

text: belonging to the family

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: .  Some common names include gold-speckled flatworm, marine flatworm, yellow papillae flatworm, yellow-spotted flatworm, and yellow-spotted polyclad flatworm.

text: Trichinosis, also called trichinellosis, or trichiniasis, is a parasitic disease caused by eating raw or undercooked pork infected with the larvae of a species of roundworm Trichinella spiralis, commonly called the trichina worm. Infection was once very common, but is now rare in the developed world. From 2002 to 2007, an annual average of 11 cases per year were reported in the United States; the majority were from consuming wild game or the source was unknown. The number of cases has decreased because of legislation prohibiting the feeding of raw meat garbage to hogs, increased commercial and home freezing of pork, and the public awareness of the danger of eating raw or undercooked pork or wild game products.

text: Trichinosis

text: , also called trichinellosis, or trichiniasis, is a

text: parasitic disease

text: caused by eating raw or undercooked pork infected with the

text: larva

text: e of a species of

text: roundworm

text: Trichinella spiralis

text: , commonly called the trichina worm. Infection was once very common, but is now rare in the

text: developed world

text: . From 2002 to 2007, an annual average of 11 cases per year were reported in the United States; the majority were from consuming wild game or the source was unknown. The number of cases has decreased because of legislation prohibiting the feeding of raw meat garbage to hogs, increased commercial and home freezing of pork, and the public awareness of the danger of eating raw or undercooked pork or wild game products.

text: The largest terrestrial species of this phylum of mostly parasites, commonly called flatworms, is the greenhouse planarian (Bipalium kewense). This planarian can reach a length of  and is quite massive for a flatworm.

text: The largest terrestrial species of this phylum of mostly

text: parasite

text: s, commonly called

text: flatworm

text: s, is the

text: greenhouse planarian

text: (Bipalium kewense). This planarian can reach a length of  and is quite massive for a flatworm.

text: Šivickis was born in a village in Šiluva parish in the Raseiniai region of central Lithuania. He finished three years of schooling at a Russian school in Šiluva in 1900 and started work on his father's farm. He was interested in Lithuanian folk traditions and was involved as a patriot in revolutionary activities of 1905. Hearing that he was on a list of people that the Tsarist government planned to arrest, he moved to the United States in 1906. There he took various jobs and enrolled at evening classes, studying over the next few years at seven different US universities. By 1920 he had graduated from the Natural Sciences Department of the University of Chicago and two years later received his doctorate, his thesis being on the subject of the regeneration of flatworms.

text: Šivickis was born in a village in

text: Šiluva

text: parish in the Raseiniai region of central Lithuania. He finished three years of schooling at a Russian school in Šiluva in 1900 and started work on his father's farm. He was interested in Lithuanian folk traditions and was involved as a patriot in revolutionary activities of 1905. Hearing that he was on a list of people that the Tsarist government planned to arrest, he moved to the United States in 1906. There he took various jobs and enrolled at evening classes, studying over the next few years at seven different US universities. By 1920 he had graduated from the Natural Sciences Department of the

text: University of Chicago

text: and two years later received his doctorate, his

text: thesis

text: being on the subject of the regeneration of

text: flatworms

text: Pregnant females give birth soon after arriving on a rookery, and copulation generally occurs one to two weeks after giving birth, but the fertilized egg does not become implanted in the uterus until the fall. Twins are rare. After a week or so of nursing without leaving the rookery, females begin to take progressively longer and more frequent foraging trips, leaving their pups behind, until at some point in late summer the mother and pup both leave the rookery. Reproductive males fast throughout the reproductive season, often without entering the water once from mid-May until August, when the structure of the reproductive rookeries begins to fall apart and most animals leave for the open seas and disperse throughout their range.

text: As we know it, the poem has eight verses of eight lines each, each verse concluding with a repetition of a four-line chorus. The existence of a chorus suggests that the poem may originally have been sung as a ballad. The version reproduced here is the one presented in Bloom's How to Read and Why.

text: The delayed sexual maturation of offspring in the presence of parents is another mechanism by which individuals avoid inbreeding. Delayed maturation scenarios can involve the removal of the original, opposite-sex parent, as is the case in female lions that exhibit estrus earlier following the replacement of their fathers with new males. Another form of delayed maturation involves parental presence that inhibits reproductive activity, such as in mature marmosets offspring that are reproductively suppressed in the presence of opposite sex parents and siblings in their social groups. Reproductive suppression occurs when sexually mature individuals in a group are prevented from reproducing due to behavioral or chemical stimuli from other group members that suppress breeding behavior. Social cues from the surrounding environment often dictate when reproductive activity is suppressed and involves interactions between same-sex adults. If the current conditions for reproduction are unfavorable, such as when presented with only inbreeding as a means to reproduce, individuals may increase their lifetime reproductive success by timing their reproductive attempts to occur during more favorable conditions. This can be achieved by individuals suppressing their reproductive activity in poor reproduction conditions.

text: The delayed

text: sexual maturation

text: of offspring in the presence of parents is another mechanism by which individuals avoid inbreeding. Delayed maturation scenarios can involve the removal of the original, opposite-sex parent, as is the case in female lions that exhibit

text: estrus

text: earlier following the replacement of their fathers with new males. Another form of delayed maturation involves parental presence that inhibits reproductive activity, such as in mature

text: marmoset

text: s offspring that are reproductively suppressed in the presence of opposite sex parents and siblings in their social groups. Reproductive suppression occurs when sexually mature individuals in a group are prevented from reproducing due to behavioral or chemical stimuli from other group members that suppress breeding behavior.

text: Social cue

text: s from the surrounding environment often dictate when reproductive activity is suppressed and involves interactions between same-sex adults. If the current conditions for reproduction are unfavorable, such as when presented with only inbreeding as a means to reproduce, individuals may increase their lifetime

text: reproductive success

text: by timing their reproductive attempts to occur during more favorable conditions. This can be achieved by individuals suppressing their reproductive activity in poor reproduction conditions.

text: The understanding of roundworm systematics and phylogeny as of 2002 is summarised below:

text: The understanding of roundworm systematics and

text: phylogeny

text: as of 2002 is summarised below:

text: Since late 1990s, triclabendazole became available as a generic drug, as patents expired in many countries. Many products were developed then. Among them, Trivantel 15,  a 15% triclabendazole suspension, was launched by Agrovet Market Animal Health in the early 2000s. In 2009, the first triclabendazole injectable solution (combined with ivermectin) was developed and launched, also by Agrovet Market Animal Health. The product, Fasiject Plus, a triclabendazole 36% and ivermectin 0.6% solution, is designed to treat infections by Fasciola hepatica (both immature and adult liver flukes), roundworms and ectoparasites, as well.

text: Since late 1990s, triclabendazole became available as a generic drug, as patents expired in many countries. Many products were developed then. Among them, Trivantel 15,  a 15% triclabendazole suspension, was launched by

text: Agrovet Market Animal Health

text: in the early 2000s. In 2009, the first triclabendazole injectable solution (combined with ivermectin) was developed and launched, also by Agrovet Market Animal Health. The product, Fasiject Plus, a triclabendazole 36% and

text: ivermectin

text: 0.6% solution, is designed to treat infections by

text: Fasciola hepatica

text: (both immature and adult

text: liver fluke

text: s),

text: roundworms

text: and ectoparasites, as well.

text: Except for a few phyla (i.e. flatworms and gnathostomulids), bilaterians have complete digestive tracts with a separate mouth and anus. Some bilaterians lack body cavities (acoelomates, i.e. Platyhelminthes, Gastrotricha and Gnathostomulida), while others display primary body cavities (deriving from the blastocoel, as pseudocoel) or secondary cavities (that appear de novo, for example the coelom).

text: Except for a few phyla (i.e.

text: flatworm

text: s and

text: gnathostomulid

text: s), bilaterians have complete

text: digestive tract

text: s with a separate

text: mouth

text: and

text: anus

text: . Some bilaterians lack body cavities (

text: acoelomates

text: , i.e.

text: Platyhelminthes

text: Gastrotricha

text: and

text: Gnathostomulid

text: a), while others display primary body cavities (deriving from the blastocoel, as

text: pseudocoel

text: ) or secondary cavities (that appear de novo, for example the

text: coelom

text: Several 2002 studies by Novartis demonstrate that milbemycin oxime/lufenuron compares favorably to some other treatments, such as the moxidectin injection.  The combination is considered effective in the elimination of fleas, and the prevention of infection from hookworm (Ancylostoma caninum), heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis), roundworms, whipworms (Trichuris vulpis), and ascarids (Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina). The USA FDA approval for Sentinel says "Concurrent use of insecticides may be necessary".  It is the concurrent use of Sentinel and nitenpyram (Capstar) that has an FDA-approved indication "to kill adult fleas".

text: Several 2002 studies by Novartis demonstrate that milbemycin oxime/lufenuron compares favorably to some other treatments, such as the

text: moxidectin

text: injection.  The combination is considered effective in the elimination of fleas, and the prevention of infection from

text: hookworm

text: (Ancylostoma caninum),

text: heartworm

text: (Dirofilaria immitis),

text: roundworm

text: s,

text: whipworm

text: s (Trichuris vulpis), and ascarids (

text: Toxocara canis

text: and

text: Toxascaris leonina

text: ). The USA FDA approval for Sentinel says "Concurrent use of insecticides may be necessary".  It is the concurrent use of Sentinel and

text: nitenpyram

text: (Capstar) that has an FDA-approved indication "to kill adult fleas".

text: Pratylenchinae is a family of nematodes or roundworms. It contains the subfamily  Pratylenchinae, as well as the subfamilies Hirschmanniellinae, Radopholinae, and Nacobbinae. Pratylenchinae are plant parasites.

text: Pratylenchinae is a family of

text: nematodes

text: or roundworms. It contains the subfamily  Pratylenchinae, as well as the subfamilies

text: Hirschmanniellinae

text: Radopholinae

text: , and

text: Nacobbinae

text: . Pratylenchinae are plant

text: parasites

text: Traditionally, fish that live all or part of their lives in fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites (see Sashimi article). Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world, particularly Southeast Asia. Fish that spend part of their life cycle in brackish or freshwater, like salmon are a particular problem. A study in Seattle, Washington showed that 100% of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people. In the same study farm raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.

text: Traditionally, fish that live all or part of their lives in

text: fresh water

text: were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites (see

text: Sashimi

text: article). Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world, particularly

text: Southeast Asia

text: . Fish that spend part of their life cycle in

text: brackish

text: or freshwater, like salmon are a particular problem. A study in

text: Seattle, Washington

text: showed that 100% of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people. In the same study farm raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.

text: The infective larvae are injected into the mammalian host, where they undergo third moulting. By this the size of the body is greatly enlarged. Full maturation into reproductive adults require about a year. The average lifespan of an adult is 1.5 years.

text: The final major group in which ICZs are found are various marine invertebrates. Three species of tunicate, one mollusk, one flatworm, and one sponge have been discovered in places ranging from Micronesia to New Zealand. Testing for further invertebrate production is ongoing by both genetic and phylum-based studies.

text: The final major group in which ICZs are found are various marine invertebrates. Three species of

text: tunicate

text: , one

text: mollusk

text: , one

text: flatworm

text: , and one

text: sponge

text: have been discovered in places ranging from Micronesia to New Zealand. Testing for further invertebrate production is ongoing by both genetic and phylum-based studies.

text: Dactylogyrus vastator is a hermaphroditic flatworm of class Monogenea. It is an ectoparasite of fish which infests the gills. It is problematic on fish farms. It is otherwise non-hazardous to humans.

text: Dactylogyrus vastator is a

text: hermaphroditic

text: flatworm

text: of class

text: Monogenea

text: . It is an

text: ectoparasite

text: of fish which infests the

text: gill

text: s. It is problematic on fish farms. It is otherwise non-hazardous to humans.

text: Pseudoceros goslineri, the Gosliner flatworm, is a marin Flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.

text: Pseudoceros goslineri, the Gosliner flatworm, is a marin

text: Flatworm

text: species

text: that belongs to the

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: family.

text: The term Coelomate means having a body cavity (coelom) containing the internal organs. Most of the phyla featured in the debate about the Cambrian explosion are coelomates: arthropods, annelid worms, molluscs, echinoderms, and chordates – the noncoelomate priapulids are an important exception. All known coelomate animals are triploblastic bilaterians, but some triploblastic bilaterian animals do not have a coelom – for example flatworms, whose organs are surrounded by unspecialized tissues.

text: The term

text: Coelomate

text: means having a body cavity (coelom) containing the internal organs. Most of the phyla featured in the debate about the Cambrian explosion are coelomates: arthropods,

text: annelid

text: worms, molluscs, echinoderms, and

text: chordate

text: s – the noncoelomate

text: priapulid

text: s are an important exception. All known coelomate animals are triploblastic bilaterians, but some triploblastic bilaterian animals do not have a coelom – for example

text: flatworm

text: s, whose organs are surrounded by

text: unspecialized tissues

text: The nervous system of one very small roundworm, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, has been completely mapped out in a connectome including its synapses. Every neuron and its cellular lineage has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is sexually dimorphic; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and female hermaphrodites, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In C. elegans, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons.

text: The nervous system of one very small roundworm, the

text: nematode

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: , has been completely mapped out in a

text: connectome

text: including its synapses. Every neuron and its

text: cellular lineage

text: has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is

text: sexually dimorphic

text: ; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and female

text: hermaphrodites

text: , have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In C. elegans, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons.

text: Redi was the first to describe ectoparasites in his Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degl'Insetti. His notable illustrations in the book are those relevant to ticks, including deer ticks and tiger ticks; it also contains the first depiction of the larva of Cephenemyiinae, the nasal flies of deer, as well as the sheep liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica). His next treatise in 1684 titled Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi (Observations on Living Animals, that are in Living Animals) recorded the descriptions and the illustrations of more than 100 parasites. In it he also differentiates the earthworm (generally regarded as a helminth) and Ascaris lumbricoides, the human roundworm. An important innovation from the book is his experiments in chemotherapy in which he employed the "control"', the basis of experimental design in modern biological research. Altogether he is known to have described some 180 species of parasites. Perhaps, his most significant observation was that parasites produce eggs and develop from them, which contradicted the prevailing opinion that they are produced spontaneously.

text: Redi was the first to describe

text: ectoparasites

text: in his Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degl'Insetti. His notable illustrations in the book are those relevant to

text: ticks

text: , including deer ticks and tiger ticks; it also contains the first depiction of the larva of

text: Cephenemyiinae

text: , the nasal flies of deer, as well as the sheep liver fluke (

text: Fasciola hepatica

text: ). His next

text: treatise

text: in 1684 titled Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi (Observations on Living Animals, that are in Living Animals) recorded the descriptions and the illustrations of more than 100 parasites. In it he also differentiates the

text: earthworm

text: (generally regarded as a

text: helminth

text: ) and

text: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: , the human roundworm. An important innovation from the book is his experiments in

text: chemotherapy

text: in which he employed the "

text: control

text: "', the basis of experimental design in modern biological research. Altogether he is known to have described some 180 species of parasites. Perhaps, his most significant observation was that parasites produce eggs and develop from them, which contradicted the prevailing opinion that they are produced spontaneously.

text: The Turn of the Screw has been the subject of numerous adaptations and reworkings in a variety of media, and these reworkings and adaptations have, themselves, been analysed in the academic literature on Henry James and neo-Victorian culture. It was adapted to an opera by Benjamin Britten, which premiered in 1954, and the opera has been filmed on numerous occasions. The novella was adapted as a ballet score (1980) by Luigi Zaninelli, and separately as a ballet (1999) by Will Tucket for the Royal Ballet. Harold Pinter directed The Innocents (1950), a Broadway play which was an adaptation of The Turn of the Screw, and a subsequent eponymous stage play, adapted by Rebecca Lenkiewicz was presented in a co-production with Hammer at the Almeida Theatre, London, in January 2013. A new musical theater adaptation of the story had its world premiere in the Washington DC area in February 2015.

text: The Turn of the Screw has been the subject of numerous adaptations and reworkings in a variety of media, and these reworkings and adaptations have, themselves, been analysed in the academic literature on Henry James and

text: neo-Victorian

text: culture. It was adapted to

text: an opera

text: by

text: Benjamin Britten

text: , which premiered in 1954, and the opera has been filmed on numerous occasions. The novella was adapted as a ballet score (1980) by

text: Luigi Zaninelli

text: , and separately as a ballet (1999) by Will Tucket for the

text: Royal Ballet

text: Harold Pinter

text: directed

text: The Innocents

text: (1950), a

text: Broadway

text: play which was an adaptation of The Turn of the Screw, and a subsequent eponymous stage play, adapted by

text: Rebecca Lenkiewicz

text: was presented in a co-production with

text: Hammer

text: at the

text: Almeida Theatre

text: , London, in January 2013. A new musical theater adaptation of the story had its world premiere in the Washington DC area in February 2015.

text: Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes). Their body cavity has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular pharynx leads to an extensively branched digestive system that facilitates direct diffusion of nutrients to all cells. The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism. Oxygen can diffuse from the surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.

text: Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including

text: flatworms

text: (phylum

text: Platyhelminthes

text: ). Their

text: body cavity

text: has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular

text: pharynx

text: leads to an extensively branched

text: digestive system

text: that facilitates direct

text: diffusion

text: of nutrients to all cells. The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism.

text: Oxygen

text: can diffuse from the surrounding

text: water

text: into the cells, and

text: carbon dioxide

text: can diffuse out. Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.

text: A genus of trematodes, Schistosoma, commonly known as blood-flukes, are parasitic flatworms responsible for a highly significant group of infections in humans termed schistosomiasis. Schistosomiasis is considered by the World Health Organization as the second most socioeconomically devastating parasitic disease, (after malaria), with hundreds of millions infected worldwide.

text: A

text: genus

text: of

text: trematodes

text: , Schistosoma, commonly known as blood-flukes, are

text: parasitic

text: flatworm

text: s responsible for a highly significant group of

text: infection

text: s in

text: human

text: s termed

text: schistosomiasis

text: . Schistosomiasis is considered by the

text: World Health Organization

text: as the second most socioeconomically devastating parasitic

text: disease

text: , (after

text: malaria

text: ), with hundreds of millions infected worldwide.

text: Before 1750, a large number of nematode observations were recorded, many by the notable great minds of ancient civilization. Hippocrates (ca. 420 B.C.), Aristotle (ca. 350 B.C.), Celsus (ca 10 B.C.), Galen (ca. 180 A.D.) and Redi (1684) all described nematodes parasitizing humans or other large animals and birds. Borellus (1653) was the first to observe and describe a free-living nematode, which he dubbed the "vinegar eel;" and Tyson (1683) used a crude microscope to describe the rough anatomy of the human intestinal roundworm, Ascaris lumbricoides.

text: Before 1750, a large number of nematode observations were recorded, many by the notable great minds of ancient civilization.

text: Hippocrates

text: (ca. 420 B.C.),

text: Aristotle

text: (ca. 350 B.C.), Celsus (ca 10 B.C.),

text: Galen

text: (ca. 180 A.D.) and Redi (1684) all described nematodes parasitizing humans or other large animals and birds. Borellus (1653) was the first to observe and describe a free-living nematode, which he dubbed the "vinegar eel;" and Tyson (1683) used a crude microscope to describe the rough anatomy of the human intestinal roundworm,

text: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876 by the German biologist Oscar Hertwig. It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by the Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden, in Ascaris roundworm eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was described only in 1890 by German biologist August Weismann, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained.  In 1911 the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan detected crossovers in meiosis in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which helped to establish that genetic traits are transmitted on chromosomes.

text: Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in

text: sea urchin

text: egg

text: s in 1876 by the German biologist

text: Oscar Hertwig

text: . It was described again in 1883, at the level of

text: chromosome

text: s, by the Belgian zoologist

text: Edouard Van Beneden

text: , in

text: Ascaris

text: roundworm eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was described only in 1890 by German biologist

text: August Weismann

text: , who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained.  In 1911 the

text: American

text: geneticist

text: Thomas Hunt Morgan

text: detected

text: crossovers

text: in meiosis in the fruit fly

text: Drosophila melanogaster

text: , which helped to establish that genetic traits are transmitted on chromosomes.

text: One has to distinguish fast adaptation from slow adaptation. Fast adaptation occurs immediately after stimulus presentation i.e., within 100s of milliseconds. Slow adaptive processes that take minutes, hours or even days. The two classes of neural adaptation may rely on very different physiological mechanisms.

text: In small-bodied marine invertebrates, the skin is the most important excretory organ. That is particularly true for acoelomate groups like cnidarians, flatworms and nemerteans, who have no body cavities and hence no body fluid that can be drained or purified by nephrons, which is the reason acoelomate animals are thread-like (nemertans), flat (flatworms) or only consist of a thin layer of cells around a gelatinous non-cellular interior (cnidarians).

text: In small-bodied marine invertebrates, the skin is the most important excretory organ. That is particularly true for

text: acoelomate

text: groups like

text: cnidaria

text: ns,

text: flatworm

text: s and

text: nemertea

text: ns, who have no body cavities and hence no body fluid that can be drained or purified by nephrons, which is the reason acoelomate animals are thread-like (nemertans), flat (flatworms) or only consist of a thin layer of cells around a gelatinous non-cellular interior (cnidarians).

text: Many species reproduce asexually by way of parthenogenesis, wherein females lay eggs without mating and males are absent or rare.

text: Many species reproduce asexually by way of

text: parthenogenesis

text: , wherein females lay eggs without mating and males are absent or rare.

text: Traditionally, fish that live all or part of their lives in fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites (see Sashimi article). Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world, particularly Southeast Asia. Fish that spend part of their life cycle in brackish or fresh water, like salmon, are a particular problem. A study in Seattle, Washington showed that 100% of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people. In the same study farm-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.

text: fresh water

text: Sashimi

text: Southeast Asia

text: brackish

text: or fresh water, like salmon, are a particular problem. A study in

text: Seattle, Washington

text: showed that 100% of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people. In the same study farm-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.

text: Macrostomum lignano  is a free-living, hermaphroditic flatworm. It is transparent and of small size (adults reaching about 1.7 mm), and is part of the intertidal sand meiofauna of the Adriatic Sea. Originally a model organism for research on developmental biology and the evolution of the bilaterian body plan,it has since expanded to other important fields of research such as sexual selection and sexual conflicts, ageing and the evolution of the bilaterian body plan, ecotoxicology, and, more recently, genomics.

text: Macrostomum lignano  is a

text: free-living

text: hermaphroditic

text: flatworm

text: . It is transparent and of small size (adults reaching about 1.7 mm), and is part of the

text: intertidal

text: sand meiofauna of the

text: Adriatic Sea

text: . Originally a model organism for research on

text: developmental biology

text: and the evolution of the

text: bilaterian

text: body plan

text: ,it has since expanded to other important fields of research such as

text: sexual selection

text: and

text: sexual conflict

text: s,

text: ageing

text: and the evolution of the

text: bilaterian

text: body plan

text: ecotoxicology

text: , and, more recently,

text: genomics

text: Studying this process is challenging, partly because anesthetising model organism also suspends axonal transport. So, watching it unfold is not easy. Her group, in collaboration, set up a microfluidic approach to study transport in roundworms. Through this approach, live worm is immobilised in a chip and axonal transport studied. Following this approach, her group is starting to uncover regulation of each of the various steps of axonal transport, such as fate of the motor protein that carries the cargo.

text: It is recommended to de-worm all puppies and kittens at 6 weeks and repeat treatment 2–4 weeks after the first treatment. T. leonina roundworm infections are treated with the same medication protocol as the T. canis or T. cati roundworm infections (see Toxocariasis). Therefore, when eggs are seen on a fecal flotation exam, or fecal swab, it is not necessary to determine which species is present. Roundworm infections are treated with medication, called "de-wormers", and includes such drugs as fenbendazole, pyrantel, milbemycin oxime, and piperazine.

text: It is recommended to de-worm all puppies and kittens at 6 weeks and repeat treatment 2–4 weeks after the first treatment. T. leonina roundworm infections are treated with the same medication protocol as the T. canis or T. cati roundworm infections (see

text: Toxocariasis

text: ). Therefore, when eggs are seen on a fecal flotation exam, or fecal swab, it is not necessary to determine which species is present. Roundworm infections are treated with medication, called "de-wormers", and includes such drugs as

text: fenbendazole

text: pyrantel

text: milbemycin oxime

text: , and

text: piperazine

text: These are excretory systems in phyla Platyhelminthes and are also called blind tubules. These tubules bear a tuft of cilia or flagellum. An organ of excretion in flatworms: a hollow cup-shaped cell containing a bunch of cilia or flagellum, whose movement draws in waste products and wafts them to the outside through a connecting tubule.

text: These are excretory systems in phyla

text: Platyhelminthes

text: and are also called blind tubules. These tubules bear a tuft of

text: cilia

text: or

text: flagellum

text: . An organ of excretion in flatworms: a hollow cup-shaped cell containing a bunch of cilia or flagellum, whose movement draws in waste products and wafts them to the outside through a connecting tubule.

text: In 1955, Robert Thompson and James V. McConnell conditioned planarian flatworms by pairing a bright light with an electric shock. After repeating this several times they took away the electric shock, and only exposed them to the bright light. The flatworms would react to the bright light as if they had been shocked. Thompson and McConnell found that if they cut the worm in two, and allowed both worms to regenerate each half would develop the light-shock reaction. In 1962, McConnell repeated the experiment, but instead of cutting the trained flatworms in two he ground them into small pieces and fed them to other flatworms.  He reported that the flatworms learned to associate the bright light with a shock much faster than flatworms who had not been fed trained worms.

text: In 1955, Robert Thompson and

text: James V. McConnell

text: conditioned

text: planarian flatworms by pairing a bright light with an electric shock. After repeating this several times they took away the electric shock, and only exposed them to the bright light. The flatworms would react to the bright light as if they had been shocked. Thompson and McConnell found that if they cut the worm in two, and allowed both worms to regenerate each half would develop the light-shock reaction. In 1962, McConnell repeated the experiment, but instead of cutting the trained flatworms in two he ground them into small pieces and fed them to other flatworms.  He reported that the flatworms learned to associate the bright light with a shock much faster than flatworms who had not been fed trained worms.

text: Acoelomorphs resemble flatworms in many respects, but have a simpler anatomy, not even having a gut. Like flatworms, they have no circulatory or respiratory systems, but they also lack an excretory system. They lack body cavities (acoelomate structure), a hindgut or an anus.

text: Traditionally, fish that spend at least part of their lives in brackish or fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi because of the possibility of parasites. For example, salmon, an anadromous fish, is not traditionally eaten straight out of the river. A study in Seattle, Washington, showed that all wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people, while farm-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.

text: Traditionally, fish that spend at least part of their lives in

text: brackish

text: or fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi because of the possibility of parasites. For example, salmon, an

text: anadromous

text: fish, is not traditionally eaten straight out of the river. A study in

text: Seattle, Washington

text: , showed that all wild salmon had

text: roundworm

text: larvae capable of infecting people, while farm-raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.

text: These lice have adaptations influenced by the anatomy of their hosts. Because some marine mammals, such as fur seals, have a layer of air trapped under their waterproof coats that insulates them against cold water, their lice actually live in a mostly dry, warm habitat. Other mammals have blubber for insulation, so their skin is in contact with the water; their lice parasites live in a cold aquatic environment.

text: These lice have adaptations influenced by the anatomy of their hosts. Because some marine mammals, such as

text: fur seal

text: s, have a layer of air trapped under their waterproof coats that insulates them against cold water, their lice actually live in a mostly dry, warm habitat. Other mammals have

text: blubber

text: for insulation, so their skin is in contact with the water; their lice parasites live in a cold aquatic environment.

text: Ascaricides are drugs to treat ascariasis that is caused by infections with parasitic nematodes (roundworms) of the genus Ascaris (giant intestinal roundworms). The large roundworm of pigs (Ascaris suum) typically infects pigs while Ascaris lumbricoides affects human populations, typically in sub-tropical and tropical areas with poor sanitation. Ascaricides belong to the group of drugs collectively called anthelmintics which expel parasitic worms (helminths) and other internal parasites from the body by either stunning or killing them and without causing significant damage to the host.

text: Ascaricides are

text: drug

text: s to treat

text: ascariasis

text: that is caused by infections with

text: parasitic

text: nematode

text: s (roundworms) of the genus

text: Ascaris

text: (giant intestinal roundworms). The

text: large roundworm of pigs

text: (Ascaris suum) typically infects

text: pigs

text: while

text: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: affects human populations, typically in sub-tropical and tropical areas with poor sanitation. Ascaricides belong to the group of drugs collectively called

text: anthelmintics

text: which expel parasitic worms (

text: helminths

text: ) and other internal parasites from the body by either stunning or killing them and without causing significant damage to the host.

text: Some species reproduce via parthenogenesis, with young emerging from unfertilized eggs, and males of the species have never even been observed.

text: Some species reproduce via

text: parthenogenesis

text: , with young emerging from unfertilized eggs, and males of the species have never even been observed.

text: Kersuc in zoology refers to specialised attachment organ of an animal. It acts as an adhesion device in parasitic worms, cephalopods, and certain fishes and bats. It is a muscular structure for suction on the host or substrate. In parasitic worms such as annelids, flatworms and roundworms, suckers are the organs of attachment to the host tissues. In tapeworms and flukes, they are parasitic adaptation for attachment on the internal tissues of the host, such as intestines and blood vessels. In roundworms they serve as attachment between individual particularly during mating. In annelids, a sucker can be both functional mouth and locomotory organ. The structure and number of suckers are often used as basic taxonomic diagnosis between different species, since they are unique in each species. In tapeworms there are two distinct classes of suckers, namely "bothridia" for true suckers, and "bothria" for false suckers. In digenetic flukes there are oral sucker at the mouth and ventral sucker (or acetabulum) posterior to the mouth. Roundworms have their sucker just in front of the anus, hence, is often called preanal sucker.

text: Kersuc in

text: zoology

text: refers to specialised attachment organ of an animal. It acts as an adhesion device in

text: parasitic worm

text: s,

text: cephalopods

text: , and certain

text: fishes

text: and

text: bats

text: . It is a

text: muscular

text: structure for

text: suction

text: on the

text: host

text: or substrate. In parasitic worms such as

text: annelids

text: flatworms

text: and

text: roundworms

text: , suckers are the organs of attachment to the host tissues. In

text: tapeworms

text: and

text: flukes

text: , they are

text: parasitic

text: adaptation for attachment on the internal tissues of the host, such as intestines and blood vessels. In roundworms they serve as attachment between individual particularly during

text: mating

text: . In annelids, a sucker can be both functional mouth and locomotory organ. The structure and number of suckers are often used as basic

text: taxonomic diagnosis

text: between different species, since they are unique in each species. In tapeworms there are two distinct classes of suckers, namely "bothridia" for true suckers, and "bothria" for false suckers. In

text: digenetic flukes

text: there are oral sucker at the mouth and ventral sucker (or acetabulum) posterior to the mouth. Roundworms have their sucker just in front of the anus, hence, is often called preanal sucker.

text: Pseudoceros laingensis  is a marin flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.

text: Pseudoceros laingensis  is a marin

text: flatworm

text: species

text: that belongs to the

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: family.

text: The pinworm (genus Enterobius) is a type of roundworm (nematode), and three species of pinworm have been identified with certainty. Humans are hosts only to Enterobius vermicularis (formerly Oxyurias vermicularis). Chimpanzees are host to Enterobius anthropopitheci, which is morphologically distinguishable from the human pinworm. Hugot (1983) claims another species affects humans, Enterobius gregorii, which is supposedly a sister species of E. vermicularis, and has a slightly smaller spicule (i.e., sexual organ). Its existence is controversial, however; Totkova et al. (2003) consider the evidence to be insufficient, and Hasegawa et al. (2006) contend that E. gregorii is a younger stage of E. vermicularis. Regardless of its status as a distinct species, E. gregorii is considered clinically identical to E. vermicularis.

text: The pinworm (genus Enterobius) is a type of

text: roundworm

text: (nematode), and three species of pinworm have been identified with certainty. Humans are hosts only to Enterobius vermicularis (formerly Oxyurias vermicularis).

text: Chimpanzee

text: s are host to Enterobius anthropopitheci, which is

text: morphologically

text: distinguishable from the human pinworm. Hugot (1983) claims another species affects humans, Enterobius gregorii, which is supposedly a

text: sister species

text: of E. vermicularis, and has a slightly smaller

text: spicule

text: (i.e., sexual organ). Its existence is controversial, however; Totkova et al. (2003) consider the evidence to be insufficient, and Hasegawa et al. (2006) contend that E. gregorii is a younger stage of E. vermicularis. Regardless of its status as a distinct species, E. gregorii is considered clinically identical to E. vermicularis.

text: The bright and contrasting colors serve as a warning for predators to not eat this inedible species. These flatworms feed exclusively on colonial ascidians. They are also cold blooded.

text: The bright and contrasting colors serve as a warning for

text: predators

text: to not eat this inedible species. These flatworms feed exclusively on colonial

text: ascidian

text: s. They are also cold blooded.

text: Platydemus manokwari, also known as the New Guinea flatworm, is a species of large predatory land flatworm.

text: Platydemus manokwari, also known as the New Guinea flatworm, is a species of large

text: predatory

text: land flatworm

text: Ascaris is a genus of parasitic nematode worms known as the "small intestinal roundworms", which is a type of helminth (parasitic worm). One species, Ascaris lumbricoides, affects humans and causes the disease ascariasis. Another species, Ascaris suum, typically infects pigs. Parascaris equorum, the equine roundworm, is also commonly called an "Ascarid".

text: Ascaris is a genus of

text: parasitic

text: nematode

text: worms known as the "small intestinal roundworms", which is a type of

text: helminth

text: (parasitic worm). One species,

text: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: , affects humans and causes the disease

text: ascariasis

text: . Another species,

text: Ascaris suum

text: , typically infects

text: pigs

text: Parascaris equorum

text: , the equine roundworm, is also commonly called an "Ascarid".

text: Ascaris suum, also known as large roundworm of pigs, is a parasitic nematode that causes ascariasis in pigs. While roundworms in pigs and humans are today considered as two species, A. suum and A. lumbricoides, with different hosts, cross infection between humans and pigs is possible, so researchers have argued they are the same species. Ascariasis is associated with contact to pigs and pig manure in Denmark.

text: Ascaris suum, also known as large roundworm of pigs, is a

text: parasitic

text: nematode

text: that causes

text: ascariasis

text: in

text: pig

text: s. While roundworms in pigs and humans are today considered as two species, A. suum and

text: A. lumbricoides

text: , with different hosts, cross infection between humans and pigs is possible, so researchers have argued they are the same species. Ascariasis is associated with contact to pigs and pig manure in Denmark.

text: In mating, the blennies form distinct pairs, and the females lay up to 7000 eggs in a sitting, which are then guarded in burrows by the males. Males are known to cannibalize dead eggs to prevent infection spread amongst the healthy eggs, although in smaller broods they have also been reported consuming living eggs. It is believed that this is due to limited feeding opportunities for the males during breeding, as a result of their restriction to the nests. FishBase considers the blennies to be of Low Vulnerability, with a reproductive doubling time of less than 15 months.

text: In mating, the blennies form distinct pairs, and the females lay up to 7000 eggs in a sitting, which are then guarded in burrows by the males. Males are known to

text: cannibalize

text: dead eggs to prevent infection spread amongst the healthy eggs, although in smaller broods they have also been reported consuming living eggs. It is believed that this is due to limited feeding opportunities for the males during breeding, as a result of their restriction to the nests.

text: FishBase

text: considers the blennies to be of Low Vulnerability, with a reproductive doubling time of less than 15 months.

text: Ascaris lumbricoides is the "giant roundworm" of humans, growing to a length of up to . It is one of several species of Ascaris. An ascarid nematode of the phylum Nematoda, it is the most common parasitic worm in humans. This organism is responsible for the disease ascariasis, a type of helminthiasis and one of the group of neglected tropical diseases. An estimated one-sixth of the human population is infected by A. lumbricoides or another roundworm. Ascariasis is prevalent worldwide, especially in tropical and subtropical countries.

text: Ascaris lumbricoides is the "giant roundworm" of

text: human

text: s, growing to a length of up to . It is one of several species of

text: Ascaris

text: . An

text: ascarid nematode

text: of the phylum

text: Nematoda

text: , it is the most common

text: parasitic worm

text: in humans. This organism is responsible for the disease

text: ascariasis

text: , a type of

text: helminthiasis

text: and one of the group of

text: neglected tropical diseases

text: . An estimated one-sixth of the human population is infected by A. lumbricoides or another

text: roundworm

text: . Ascariasis is prevalent worldwide, especially in

text: tropical

text: and

text: subtropical

text: countries.

text: Aside from the human brain, there are many other animals whose brains and nervous systems have received extensive study as model systems, including mice, zebrafish, fruit fly, and a species of roundworm called C. elegans. Each of these has its own advantages and disadvantages as a model system. For example, the C. elegans nervous system is extremely stereotyped from one individual worm to the next. This has allowed researchers using electron microscopy to map the paths and connections of all of the approximately 300 neurons in this species. The fruit fly is widely studied in part because its genetics is very well understood and easily manipulated. The mouse is used because, as a mammal, its brain is more similar in structure to our own (e.g., it has a six-layered cortex, yet its genes can be easily modified and its reproductive cycle is relatively fast.

text: Aside from the

text: human brain

text: , there are many other animals whose brains and nervous systems have received extensive study as

text: model system

text: s, including mice,

text: zebrafish

text: fruit fly

text: , and a species of roundworm called

text: C. elegans

text: . Each of these has its own advantages and disadvantages as a model system. For example, the C. elegans nervous system is extremely stereotyped from one individual worm to the next. This has allowed researchers using

text: electron microscopy

text: to map the paths and connections of all of the approximately 300 neurons in this species. The fruit fly is widely studied in part because its genetics is very well understood and easily manipulated. The mouse is used because, as a mammal, its brain is more similar in structure to our own (e.g., it has a six-layered

text: cortex

text: , yet its genes can be easily modified and its reproductive cycle is relatively fast.

text: The Rhabditida are an order of free-living, zooparasitic and phytoparasitic microbivorous nematodes (roundworms) living in soil.

text: The Rhabditida are an order of free-living, zooparasitic and phytoparasitic

text: microbivorous

text: nematode

text: s (roundworms) living in soil.

text: This flatworm's native range is eastern Australia and New Zealand. This species has however been accidentally introduced to the Balearic Islands, Argentina, France, and the USA (including California, Florida, Georgia, Texas, South Carolina and Iowa).

text: This flatworm's native range is eastern

text: Australia

text: and

text: New Zealand

text: . This species has however been accidentally introduced to the

text: Balearic Islands

text: Argentina

text: France

text: , and the USA (including California, Florida, Georgia, Texas, South Carolina and Iowa).

text: Pseudoceros is a genus of flatworms.

text: Pseudoceros is a genus of

text: flatworm

text: s.

text: Who seeks more than he needs, hinders himself from enjoying what he has. Seek what you need and give up what you need not. For in giving up what you don't need, you'll learn what you really do need.

text: Pseudoceros dimidiatus, the divided flatworm or tiger flatworm, is a species of flatworm in the genus Pseudoceros, belonging to the family Pseudocerotidae.

text: Pseudoceros dimidiatus, the divided flatworm or tiger flatworm, is a

text: species

text: of

text: flatworm

text: in the genus

text: Pseudoceros

text: , belonging to the family

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: In free-living species, development usually consists of four molts of the cuticle during growth. Different species feed on materials as varied as algae, fungi, small animals, fecal matter, dead organisms and living tissues. Free-living marine nematodes are important and abundant members of the meiobenthos. They play an important role in the decomposition process, aid in recycling of nutrients in marine environments, and are sensitive to changes in the environment caused by pollution. One roundworm of note, Caenorhabditis elegans, lives in the soil and has found much use as a model organism. C. elegans has had its entire genome sequenced, as well as the developmental fate of every cell determined, and every neuron mapped.

text: In free-living species, development usually consists of four molts of the cuticle during growth. Different species feed on materials as varied as

text: algae

text: fungi

text: , small animals, fecal matter, dead organisms and living tissues. Free-living marine nematodes are important and abundant members of the

text: meiobenthos

text: . They play an important role in the decomposition process, aid in recycling of nutrients in marine environments, and are sensitive to changes in the environment caused by pollution. One roundworm of note,

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: , lives in the soil and has found much use as a

text: model organism

text: . C. elegans has had its entire genome sequenced, as well as the developmental fate of every cell determined, and every neuron mapped.

text: Flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes) are the most primitive animals with bilateral symmetry. They also have a fairly advanced degree of cephalization, with sense organs (photosensory and chemosensory cells) and a brain concentrated at the anterior end. Consequently, scientists believe that cephalization characterized all bilaterally symmetrical animals from their origins. However, flatworms differ from more advanced animals in that their mouths are in the center of their bodies, not at the anterior end.

text: Flatworms (phylum

text: Platyhelminthes

text: ) are the most primitive animals with bilateral symmetry. They also have a fairly advanced degree of cephalization, with sense organs (photosensory and chemosensory cells) and a brain concentrated at the anterior end. Consequently, scientists believe that cephalization characterized all bilaterally symmetrical animals from their origins. However, flatworms differ from more advanced animals in that their mouths are in the center of their bodies, not at the anterior end.

text: The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, Plathelminthes, or platyhelminths (from the Greek πλατύ, platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meaning "worm") are a phylum of relatively simple bilaterian, unsegmented, soft-bodied invertebrates. Unlike other bilaterians, they are acoelomates (having no body cavity), and have no specialized circulatory and respiratory organs, which restricts them to having flattened shapes that allow oxygen and nutrients to pass through their bodies by diffusion. The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion (intake of nutrients) and egestion (removal of undigested wastes); as a result, the food cannot be processed continuously.

text: The flatworms, flat worms, Platyhelminthes, Plathelminthes, or platyhelminths (from the

text: Greek

text: πλατύ, platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root: ἑλμινθ-), helminth-, meaning "worm") are a

text: phylum

text: of relatively simple

text: bilaterian

text: unsegmented

text: , soft-bodied

text: invertebrate

text: s. Unlike other bilaterians, they are

text: acoelomate

text: s (having no

text: body cavity

text: ), and have no specialized

text: circulatory

text: and

text: respiratory

text: organ

text: s, which restricts them to having flattened shapes that allow

text: oxygen

text: and nutrients to pass through their bodies by

text: diffusion

text: . The digestive cavity has only one opening for both ingestion (intake of nutrients) and egestion (removal of undigested wastes); as a result, the food cannot be processed continuously.

text: Originally only early embryonic cells could be coaxed into changing their identity. Mature cells are resistant to changing their identity once they've committed to a specific kind. However, brief expression of a single transcription factor, the ELT-7 GATA factor, can convert the identity of fully differentiated, specialized non-endodermal cells of the pharynx into fully differentiated intestinal cells in intact larvae and adult roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans with no requirement for a dedifferentiated intermediate.

text: Originally only early embryonic cells could be coaxed into changing their identity. Mature cells are resistant to changing their identity once they've committed to a specific kind. However, brief expression of a single transcription factor, the ELT-7 GATA factor, can convert the identity of fully differentiated, specialized non-endodermal cells of the

text: pharynx

text: into fully differentiated intestinal cells in intact

text: larvae

text: and adult roundworm

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: with no requirement for a dedifferentiated intermediate.

text: Fossil records indicate that sexual reproduction has been occurring for at least one billion years.However, the reason for the initial evolution of sex, and the reason it has survived to the present are still matters of debate, there are many plausible theories. It appears that the ability to reproduce sexually has evolved independently in various species on many occasions. There are cases where it has also been lost, notably among the Fungi Imperfecti.The blacktip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus), flatworm (Dugesia tigrina) and some other species can reproduce either sexually or asexually depending on various conditions.

text: Fossil records indicate that sexual reproduction has been occurring for at least one billion years.However, the reason for the initial evolution of sex, and the reason it has survived to the present are still matters of debate, there are many plausible theories. It appears that the ability to reproduce sexually has evolved independently in various species on many occasions. There are cases where it has also been lost, notably among the

text: Fungi Imperfecti

text: .The

text: blacktip shark

text: (Carcharhinus limbatus),

text: flatworm

text: Dugesia tigrina

text: ) and some other species can reproduce either sexually or

text: asexually

text: depending on various conditions.

text: Eggs may be embryonated or unembryonated when passed by the female, meaning their fertilized eggs may not yet be developed. A few species are known to be ovoviviparous. The eggs are protected by an outer shell, secreted by the uterus. In free-living roundworms, the eggs hatch into larvae, which appear essentially identical to the adults, except for an underdeveloped reproductive system; in parasitic roundworms, the life cycle is often much more complicated.

text: Eggs may be

text: embryonated

text: or unembryonated when passed by the female, meaning their fertilized eggs may not yet be developed. A few species are known to be

text: ovoviviparous

text: . The eggs are protected by an outer shell, secreted by the uterus. In free-living roundworms, the eggs hatch into

text: larva

text: e, which appear essentially identical to the adults, except for an underdeveloped reproductive system; in parasitic roundworms, the life cycle is often much more complicated.

text: Tylenchoidea is a superfamily of roundworms. Its members are either plant parasites or detritivores.

text: Tylenchoidea is a

text: superfamily

text: of

text: roundworm

text: s. Its members are either plant

text: parasites

text: or

text: detritivore

text: s.

text: If one person says, “this is what I meant by what I said,” and his friend agrees that was their understanding of what was meant by their friend. Then it can be generally agreed that is what was meant.

text: The human whipworm (Trichuris trichiura or Trichocephalus trichiuris) is a round worm (a type of helminth) that causes trichuriasis (a type of helminthiasis which is one of the neglected tropical diseases) when it infects a human large intestine. It is commonly known as the whipworm which refers to the shape of the worm; it looks like a whip with wider "handles" at the posterior end.

text: The human whipworm (Trichuris trichiura or Trichocephalus trichiuris) is a

text: round worm

text: (a type of

text: helminth

text: ) that causes

text: trichuriasis

text: (a type of

text: helminthiasis

text: which is one of the

text: neglected tropical diseases

text: ) when it infects a human

text: large intestine

text: . It is commonly known as the whipworm which refers to the shape of the worm; it looks like a

text: whip

text: with wider "handles" at the posterior end.

text: The nematodes  or roundworms  constitute the phylum Nematoda. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Nematode species can be difficult to distinguish,  and although over 25,000 have been described, of which more than half are parasitic, the total number of nematode species has been estimated to be about 1 million. Nematodes are classified along with insects and other molting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa, and, unlike flatworms, have tubular digestive systems  with openings at both ends.

text: The nematodes  or roundworms  constitute the

text: phylum

text: Nematoda. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Nematode

text: species

text: can be difficult to distinguish,  and although over 25,000 have been described, of which more than half are

text: parasitic

text: , the total number of nematode species has been estimated to be about 1 million. Nematodes are classified along with insects and other molting animals in the clade

text: Ecdysozoa

text: , and, unlike flatworms, have tubular

text: digestive system

text: s  with openings at both ends.

text: They are free-living worms, found in both freshwater and marine environments. They are distinguished from other flatworms by the presence of four nerve cords and the fact that the ovary forms a single structure that both produces the ovum and nourishing yolk cells. In most other flatworms, yolk cells, where present at all, are typically formed in a gland derived from the ovary, but separate from it. Other diagnostic features of this order include the presence of a sharp stylet on the end of the penis, and a simple, unbranched, intestine.

text: They are free-living worms, found in both freshwater and marine environments. They are distinguished from other flatworms by the presence of four nerve cords and the fact that the ovary forms a single structure that both produces the

text: ovum

text: and nourishing

text: yolk

text: cells. In most other flatworms, yolk cells, where present at all, are typically formed in a gland derived from the ovary, but separate from it. Other diagnostic features of this order include the presence of a sharp

text: stylet

text: on the end of the penis, and a simple, unbranched, intestine.

text: Studies of introduced species can provide some of the best evidence for ecological fitting, because species invasions represent natural experiments testing how a new species fits into a community.  Invasion ecology teaches us that changes in geographic range can occur quickly, as is required by the Janzen model for ecological fitting, and ecological fitting provides an important mechanism whereby new species can fit into an existing community without adaptation.  These natural experiments have often shown that communities dominated by invasive species, such as those on Ascension Island, can be as diverse and complex as native communities. Additionally, phylogenetic studies show evidence for ecological fitting when lineages of the associated species do not correlate over evolutionary time; that is, if host-parasite or other interactions are as tightly coevolved as was previously believed, parasites should not be switching to unrelated hosts. This kind of host switching has been shown many times: in insect-plant relationships where oligophagy in locusts manifests itself on distantly related plants, plant-disperser relationships among Mediterranean birds, plant-pollinator relationships between hummingbirds and Heliconia flowers, and for parasite-host associations ranging from flatworms in frogs  to parasitic worms in primates  or in trout. Another study examined the time required for sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum, to accumulate diverse arthropod pest communities.  It determined that time did not influence pest species richness, indicating that host-parasite associations were forming in ecological, not evolutionary, time.

text: Studies of introduced species can provide some of the best evidence for ecological fitting, because species invasions represent natural experiments testing how a new species fits into a community.  Invasion ecology teaches us that changes in geographic range can occur quickly, as is required by the Janzen model for ecological fitting, and ecological fitting provides an important mechanism whereby new species can fit into an existing community without adaptation.  These natural experiments have often shown that communities dominated by invasive species, such as those on

text: Ascension Island

text: , can be as diverse and complex as native communities. Additionally,

text: phylogenetic

text: studies show evidence for ecological fitting when lineages of the associated species do not correlate over evolutionary time; that is, if host-parasite or other interactions are as tightly coevolved as was previously believed, parasites should not be switching to unrelated hosts. This kind of

text: host switch

text: ing has been shown many times: in insect-plant relationships where

text: oligophagy

text: in locusts manifests itself on distantly related plants, plant-disperser relationships among Mediterranean birds, plant-pollinator relationships between hummingbirds and

text: Heliconia

text: flowers, and for parasite-host associations ranging from

text: flatworms

text: in frogs  to parasitic worms in

text: primates

text: or in

text: trout

text: . Another study examined the time required for sugarcane,

text: Saccharum officinarum

text: , to accumulate diverse

text: arthropod

text: pest communities.  It determined that time did not influence pest species richness, indicating that host-parasite associations were forming in ecological, not evolutionary, time.

text: Pseudoceros bifurcus is a marine flatworm species that belongs to the Pseudocerotidae family.

text: Pseudoceros bifurcus is a marine

text: flatworm

text: species that belongs to the

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: family.

text: Eucestoda is the larger of the two subclasses of flatworms in the class Cestoda (the other subclass is Cestodaria). The Eucestoda are commonly referred to as tapeworms. Larvae are hexacanth, having six posterior hooks on the scolex (head), in contrast to the decacanth (ten-hooked) Cestodaria. All species of the Eucestoda are endoparasites of vertebrates, living in the digestive tract or related ducts. Examples are the pork tapeworm (Taenia solium, with a human definitive host and pigs as the secondary host) and Moniezia expansa, the definitive hosts of which are ruminants).

text: Eucestoda is the larger of the two

text: subclasses

text: of flatworms in the class

text: Cestoda

text: (the other subclass is

text: Cestodaria

text: ). The Eucestoda are commonly referred to as tapeworms. Larvae are

text: hexacanth

text: , having six posterior hooks on the

text: scolex

text: (head), in contrast to the decacanth (ten-hooked)

text: Cestodaria

text: . All species of the Eucestoda are

text: endoparasites

text: of vertebrates, living in the digestive tract or related ducts. Examples are the

text: pork tapeworm

text: (Taenia solium, with a human definitive

text: host

text: and pigs as the secondary host) and

text: Moniezia expansa

text: , the definitive hosts of which are

text: ruminant

text: s).

text: Skunks can be infested with roundworms for several weeks before eggs begin to be shed in feces. It is common for new skunks to have roundworms, which may be too early in development to be detected by fecal tests. Skunk experts agree that all new skunks need to be treated for roundworms, and that more than one treatment is needed. Diagnostic Parasitologist Matt Bolek recommends that "A deworming program should probably start at 7-8 weeks of age and deworm biweekly for 3-4 treatments".

text: Skunks can be infested with roundworms for several weeks before eggs begin to be shed in

text: feces

text: . It is common for new skunks to have roundworms, which may be too early in development to be detected by fecal tests. Skunk experts agree that all new skunks need to be treated for roundworms, and that more than one treatment is needed. Diagnostic Parasitologist Matt Bolek recommends that "A deworming program should probably start at 7-8 weeks of age and deworm biweekly for 3-4 treatments".

text: The frequency with which adults need to be treated for roundworms is controversial:

text: This flatworm is relatively large, about 40 to 65 mm in length and about 4–7 mm wide. Its body is however quite flat, being less than 2 mm in thickness. Both ends of the animal are pointed, but the head end is more pointed than the tail end. Near the tip of the head end are two eyes. The color of this animal is dark brown on the upper surface, with a lighter central line. The underside is pale grey.

text: Prevention of heartworm infection can be obtained through a number of veterinary drugs. The drugs approved for use in the US are ivermectin (sold under the brand names Heartgard, Iverhart, and several other generic versions), milbemycin (Interceptor Flavor Tabs and Sentinel Flavor Tabs) and moxidectin (ProHeart) administered as pills or chewable tablets. Moxidectin is also available in both a six-month and 12-month, sustained-release injection, ProHeart 6 or ProHeart 12, administered by veterinarians.  The injectable form of moxidectin was taken off the market in the United States due to safety concerns in 2004, but the FDA returned a newly formulated ProHeart 6 to the market in 2008. ProHeart 6 remains on the market in many other countries, including Canada and Japan. Its sister product, ProHeart 12, is used extensively in Australia and Asia as a 12-month injectable preventive.  Topical treatments are available, as well.  Advantage Multi (imidacloprid + moxidectin) Topical Solution, uses moxidectin for control and prevention of roundworms, hookworms, heartworms, and whipworms, as well as imidacloprid to kill adult fleas.  Selamectin (Revolution) is a topical preventive likewise administered monthly; it also controls fleas, ticks, and mites.

text: Prevention of heartworm infection can be obtained through a number of veterinary drugs. The drugs approved for use in the US are ivermectin (sold under the brand names

text: Heartgard

text: Iverhart

text: , and several other generic versions),

text: milbemycin

text: (Interceptor Flavor Tabs and

text: Sentinel Flavor Tabs

text: ) and

text: moxidectin

text: (ProHeart) administered as pills or chewable tablets. Moxidectin is also available in both a six-month and 12-month, sustained-release injection,

text: ProHeart 6

text: or

text: ProHeart 12

text: , administered by veterinarians.  The injectable form of moxidectin was taken off the market in the United States due to safety concerns in 2004, but the FDA returned a newly formulated ProHeart 6 to the market in 2008. ProHeart 6 remains on the market in many other countries, including Canada and Japan. Its sister product,

text: ProHeart 12

text: , is used extensively in Australia and Asia as a 12-month injectable preventive.  Topical treatments are available, as well.  Advantage Multi (imidacloprid + moxidectin) Topical Solution, uses moxidectin for control and prevention of

text: roundworm

text: s,

text: hookworm

text: s, heartworms, and

text: whipworm

text: s, as well as

text: imidacloprid

text: to kill adult

text: flea

text: s.

text: Selamectin

text: Revolution

text: ) is a topical preventive likewise administered monthly; it also controls fleas,

text: tick

text: s, and

text: mite

text: s.

text: There is little data on the longevity and mortality of the camas pocket gopher. It is presumably prey for carnivorous mammals, and its bones have been identified in regurgitated pellets of raptors such as the great horned owl.  Parasites include mites, lice, fleas, roundworms and flatworms.  The species' tougher skin may protect it from some fleas known to infest Botta's pocket gopher and the Mazama pocket gopher.  Mites known to parasitize the camas pocket gopher include Androlaelaps geomys and Echinonyssus femuralis.  Some authorities report Androlaelaps fahrenholzi as another parasitic mite, but a later publication did not report it. The chewing louse Geomydoecus oregonus has also been reported.

text: There is little data on the longevity and mortality of the camas pocket gopher. It is presumably prey for carnivorous mammals, and its bones have been identified in regurgitated pellets of raptors such as the

text: great horned owl

text: .  Parasites include mites, lice, fleas,

text: roundworms

text: and

text: flatworms

text: .  The species' tougher skin may protect it from some fleas known to infest Botta's pocket gopher and the Mazama pocket gopher.  Mites known to parasitize the camas pocket gopher include

text: Androlaelaps geomys

text: and

text: Echinonyssus femuralis

text: .  Some authorities report

text: Androlaelaps fahrenholzi

text: as another parasitic mite, but a later publication did not report it. The chewing louse

text: Geomydoecus oregonus

text: has also been reported.

text: Cyrtosomum penneri are roundworms of the family Atractidae that are found in the intestines or lungs of various vertebrate animals. They do not produce eggs; instead the adults produce larvae that are ready to infect as soon as they leave their mother's womb. C. penneri is found only in Mexico.

text: Cyrtosomum penneri are roundworms of the family

text: Atractidae

text: that are found in the intestines or lungs of various vertebrate animals. They do not produce eggs; instead the adults produce larvae that are ready to infect as soon as they leave their mother's womb. C. penneri is found only in

text: Mexico

text: Facemask issues notwithstanding, Arey often requires photographic evidence, or preferably a copy of the actual logo and stripe pattern, before adding a design to the website. Helmets that Arey is unable to illustrate are denoted by a blank helmet with a question mark or plus sign depending on how much information Arey requires to correctly illustrate it. In many instances, low-resolution scans of pictures illustrating helmet designs that Arey is unable to reproduce are included in a separate section.

text: Facemask issues notwithstanding, Arey often requires photographic evidence, or preferably a copy of the actual logo and stripe pattern, before adding a design to the website. Helmets that Arey is unable to illustrate are denoted by a blank helmet with a

text: question mark

text: or

text: plus sign

text: depending on how much information Arey requires to correctly illustrate it. In many instances, low-resolution scans of pictures illustrating helmet designs that Arey is unable to reproduce are included in a separate section.

text: Two-colored flatworms is considered to be very rare but with greater sampling effort could change their status.

text: The parasitic flatworms, which includes tapeworms, flukes and monogeneans, evolved from a single major lineage of free-living flatworm ancestors. The switch from a free-living to a parasitic lifestyle in the common ancestor of the parasitic flatworms involved a fundamental change in their tegument, which is found in all contemporary groups.Early-branching tapeworm groups are found in bony (e.g. teleost) and cartilaginous fishes (e.g. sharks and rays) and have entirely aquatic life cycles involving arthropod (e.g. copepods) first intermediate hosts and vertebrate (fish) final hosts. Tetrapod hosts (including mice and humans) were acquired later in tapeworm evolution and eventually part-aquatic life cycles led to the evolution of fully terrestrial life cycles, albeit still involving an arthropod  intermediate host and a vertebrate definitive host.Hymenolepis microstoma is a member of the Cyclophyllidea, one of the youngest and most species-rich group of tapeworms.

text: The parasitic

text: flatworms

text: , which includes

text: tapeworms

text: flukes

text: and

text: monogeneans

text: , evolved from a single major lineage of free-living flatworm ancestors. The switch from a free-living to a parasitic lifestyle in the common ancestor of the parasitic flatworms involved a fundamental change in their tegument, which is found in all contemporary groups.Early-branching tapeworm groups are found in bony (e.g.

text: teleost

text: ) and

text: cartilaginous fishes

text: (e.g.

text: shark

text: s and

text: rays

text: ) and have entirely aquatic life cycles involving arthropod (e.g.

text: copepod

text: s) first intermediate hosts and vertebrate (fish) final hosts.

text: Tetrapod

text: hosts (including mice and humans) were acquired later in tapeworm evolution and eventually part-aquatic life cycles led to the evolution of fully

text: terrestrial

text: life cycles, albeit still involving an arthropod  intermediate host and a vertebrate definitive host.Hymenolepis microstoma is a member of the Cyclophyllidea, one of the youngest and most species-rich group of tapeworms.

text: Opisthorchiida is an order of flatworms in the subclass Digenea.

text: Like all flatworms in the genus Pseudobiceros, they are hermaphroditic and have two penises. During mating, they fence with one another, using their penises, attempting to stab and inject sperm in their opponent, while avoiding being fertilized by their opponent. They are able to inseminate their opponent by injecting their sperm into any region of the other's body they are able to penetrate. After successfully injecting the other, the spermatozoa stream through their partner's body on their way to ovaries, where they will fertilize the eggs. The stream is visible through the body tissue of the worm, appearing as pale streaks, like lightning jags.

text: Like all flatworms in the genus Pseudobiceros, they are

text: hermaphroditic

text: and have two penises. During mating, they fence with one another, using their penises, attempting to stab and inject sperm in their opponent, while avoiding being fertilized by their opponent. They are able to inseminate their opponent by injecting their sperm into any region of the other's body they are able to penetrate. After successfully injecting the other, the spermatozoa stream through their partner's body on their way to ovaries, where they will fertilize the eggs. The stream is visible through the body tissue of the worm, appearing as pale streaks, like lightning jags.

text: Not being a true phylogenetic group, soft-bodied organism vary enormously in anatomy. Cnidarians and flatworms have a single opening to the gut and a diffuse nerve system. The roundworms, annelids, molluscs, the various lophoporate phyla and non-vertebrate chordates have a tubular gut open at both ends. While the majority of the soft-bodied animals typically don't have any kind of skeleton, some do, mainly in the form of stiff cuticulas (roundworms, water bears) or hydrostatic skeletons (annelids).

text: Not being a true

text: phylogenetic

text: group, soft-bodied organism vary enormously in anatomy.

text: Cnidarian

text: s and

text: flatworms

text: have a single opening to the gut and a diffuse

text: nerve system

text: . The

text: roundworms

text: annelids

text: molluscs

text: , the various

text: lophoporate

text: phyla

text: and non-vertebrate

text: chordates

text: have a tubular gut open at both ends. While the majority of the soft-bodied animals typically don't have any kind of skeleton, some do, mainly in the form of stiff

text: cuticula

text: s (roundworms,

text: water bears

text: ) or

text: hydrostatic skeleton

text: s (annelids).

text: The worms are spread by the bites of infected mosquitoes. Three types of worms are known to cause the disease: Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Brugia timori, with Wuchereria bancrofti being the most common. These worms damage the lymphatic system. The disease is diagnosed by microscopic examination of blood collected during the night. The blood is typically examined as a smear after being stained with Giemsa stain. Testing the blood for antibodies against the disease may also permit diagnosis. Other roundworms from the same family are responsible for river blindness.

text: The worms are spread by the bites of infected

text: mosquito

text: es. Three types of worms are known to cause the disease:

text: Wuchereria bancrofti

text: Brugia malayi

text: , and

text: Brugia timori

text: , with Wuchereria bancrofti being the most common. These worms damage the

text: lymphatic system

text: . The disease is diagnosed by

text: microscopic examination

text: of

text: blood

text: collected during the night. The blood is typically examined as a

text: smear

text: after being stained with

text: Giemsa stain

text: Testing the blood

text: for

text: antibodies

text: against the disease may also permit diagnosis. Other

text: roundworms

text: from the same family are responsible for

text: river blindness

text: Species in the genus Sphincterochila are arid-adapted (adapted to living in very dry conditions).

text: Species in the genus Sphincterochila are

text: arid

text: -adapted (adapted to living in very dry conditions).

text: Two colored flatworms is distributed in Indian River Lagoon, Bird Island, Bermuda, Bocas del Toro, Panama, Curaçao, Florida Keys, Santa Marta, Colombia, South Water Caye, and Belize. They prefer living in areas with coral rubble, which are full of life.

text: The roundworm C. elegans has one of the simplest nervous systems of any organism, with its hermaphrodite type having only 302 neurons. Furthermore, the structural connectome of these neurons is fully worked out. There are fewer than one thousand cells in the whole body of a C. elegans worm, each with a unique identifier and comprehensive supporting literature because C. elegans is a model organism. Being a model organism, the genome is fully known, along with many well characterized mutants readily available, a comprehensive literature of behavioural studies, etc. With so few neurons and new calcium 2 photon microscopy techniques it should soon be possible to record the complete neural activity of a living organism. By manipulating the neurons through optogenetic techniques, combined with the above recording capacities the project is in an unprecedented position to be able to fully characterize the neural dynamics of an entire organism.

text: The roundworm C. elegans has one of the simplest nervous systems of any organism, with its

text: hermaphrodite

text: type having only 302 neurons. Furthermore, the structural

text: connectome

text: of these neurons is fully worked out. There are fewer than one thousand cells in the whole body of a C. elegans worm, each with a unique identifier and comprehensive supporting literature because C. elegans is a

text: model organism

text: . Being a model organism, the genome is fully known, along with many well characterized mutants readily available, a comprehensive literature of behavioural studies, etc. With so few neurons and new calcium 2 photon microscopy techniques it should soon be possible to record the complete neural activity of a living organism. By manipulating the neurons through optogenetic techniques, combined with the above recording capacities the project is in an unprecedented position to be able to fully characterize the neural dynamics of an entire organism.

text: Two colored flatworms are predators. They prey on colonial ascidians.

text: Boritzer gained national critical acclaim after What is God? was published in 1989 although the book has caused controversy from religious fundamentalists for its universalist views. The other current books in the What is? series include 'What is Love?, What is Death?, What is Beautiful?, What is Funny?, What is Right?, What is Peace?, What is Money?, What is Dreaming?, What is a Friend?, What is True?, What is a Family?, What is a Feeling? The series is now also translated into 15 languages.

text: Boritzer gained national critical acclaim after What is God? was published in 1989 although the book has caused controversy from

text: religious fundamentalists

text: for its

text: universalist

text: views. The other current books in the What is? series include 'What is Love?, What is Death?, What is Beautiful?, What is Funny?, What is Right?, What is Peace?, What is Money?, What is Dreaming?, What is a Friend?, What is True?, What is a Family?, What is a Feeling? The series is now also translated into 15 languages.

text: Timeline of reproductive rights legislation, a chronological list of laws and legal decisions affecting human reproductive rights. Reproductive rights are a sub-set of human rights pertaining to issues of reproduction and reproductive health.  These rights may include some or all of the following: the right to legal or safe abortion, the right to birth control, the right to access quality reproductive healthcare, and the right to education and access in order to make reproductive choices free from coercion, discrimination, and violence. Reproductive rights may also include the right to receive education about contraception and sexually transmitted infections, and freedom from coerced sterilization, abortion, and contraception, and protection from gender-based practices such as female genital cutting (FGC) and male genital mutilation (MGM).

text: Timeline of reproductive rights legislation, a chronological list of laws and legal decisions affecting human

text: reproductive rights

text: . Reproductive rights are a sub-set of

text: human rights

text: pertaining to issues of

text: reproduction

text: and

text: reproductive health

text: .  These rights may include some or all of the following: the right to legal or safe

text: abortion

text: , the right to

text: birth control

text: , the right to access quality

text: reproductive health

text: care, and the right to

text: education and access

text: in order to make reproductive choices free from

text: coercion

text: discrimination

text: , and

text: violence

text: . Reproductive rights may also include the right to receive

text: education

text: about contraception and

text: sexually transmitted infections

text: , and freedom from

text: coerced sterilization

text: , abortion, and contraception, and protection from gender-based practices such as

text: female genital cutting

text: (FGC) and

text: male genital mutilation

text: (MGM).

text: abiogenesis – adaptation – adaptive mutation - adaptive radiation – allele – allele frequency – allopatric speciation – altruism – : anagenesis – anti-predator adaptation – Applications of evolution - aposematism – Archaeopteryx – aquatic adaptation – artificial selection – atavism

text: abiogenesis

text: adaptation

text: adaptive mutation

text: adaptive radiation

text: allele

text: allele frequency

text: allopatric speciation

text: altruism

text: : anagenesis

text: anti-predator adaptation

text: Applications of evolution

text: aposematism

text: Archaeopteryx

text: aquatic adaptation

text: artificial selection

text: atavism

text: The juvenile is a J1-J4, the J2 is what hatches out of the egg.  J4 stage is where sexual differentiation occurs. Adult males do not feed or have a stylet.  They are rare and not needed for reproduction.  Parthenogenic reproduction may be the rule. H. Mangiferae lays eggs in the soil once mating has occurred.

text: Having been expelled by the female, the acanthocephalan egg is released along with the feces of the host. For development to occur, the egg, containing the acanthor, needs to be ingested by an arthropod, usually a crustacean (there is one known life cycle which uses a mollusc as a first intermediate host). Inside the intermediate host, the acanthor is released from the egg and develops into an acanthella.  It then penetrates the gut wall, moves into the body cavity, encysts, and begins transformation into the infective cystacanth stage. This form has all the organs of the adult save the reproductive ones.

text: Having been expelled by the female, the acanthocephalan egg is released along with the feces of the host. For development to occur, the egg, containing the

text: acanthor

text: , needs to be ingested by an

text: arthropod

text: , usually a

text: crustacean

text: (there is one known life cycle which uses a

text: mollusc

text: as a first intermediate host). Inside the intermediate host, the acanthor is released from the egg and develops into an acanthella.  It then penetrates the gut wall, moves into the body cavity, encysts, and begins transformation into the infective

text: cystacanth

text: stage. This form has all the organs of the adult save the reproductive ones.

text: Oochoristica is a genus of flatworms.

text: Oochoristica is a

text: genus

text: of

text: flatworm

text: s.

text: Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone or spine (vertebral column), and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs (clams, oysters, octopuses, squid, snails); arthropods (millipedes, centipedes, insects, spiders, scorpions, crabs, lobsters, shrimp); annelids (earthworms, leeches), nematodes (filarial worms, hookworms), flatworms (tapeworms, liver flukes), cnidarians (jellyfish, sea anemones, corals), and sponges. The study of animals is called zoology.

text: Most known animal

text: phyla

text: appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the

text: Cambrian explosion

text: , about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates.

text: Vertebrate

text: s have a backbone or spine (

text: vertebral column

text: ), and amount to less than five percent of all described

text: animal species

text: . They include

text: fish

text: amphibians

text: reptiles

text: birds

text: and

text: mammals

text: . The remaining animals are the

text: invertebrate

text: s, which lack a backbone. These include

text: molluscs

text: clams

text: oysters

text: octopuses

text: squid

text: snails

text: arthropods

text: millipedes

text: centipedes

text: insects

text: spiders

text: scorpion

text: s,

text: crabs

text: lobsters

text: shrimp

text: annelids

text: earthworms

text: leeches

text: nematodes

text: filarial worms

text: hookworms

text: flatworms

text: tapeworms

text: liver flukes

text: cnidarians

text: jellyfish

text: sea anemone

text: s,

text: corals

text: ), and

text: sponges

text: . The study of animals is called

text: zoology

text: Fibrates have been shown to extend lifespan in the roundworm C. elegans.

text: Minimum information about a proteomics experiment (MIAPE) is a minimum information standard, created by the Proteomics Standards Initiative of the Human Proteome Organization, for reporting proteomics experiments. It is intended to specify all the information necessary to interpret the results of the experiment unambiguously and to potentially reproduce the experiment. While the MIAPE guidelines define the content required for compliant reports, it does not specify the format in which this data should be presented (which is left to the corresponding *ML format, also defined by PSI), nor does it define how to perform experiments.

text: Minimum information about a proteomics experiment (MIAPE) is a

text: minimum information standard

text: , created by the

text: Proteomics Standards Initiative

text: of the

text: Human Proteome Organization

text: , for reporting proteomics experiments. It is intended to specify all the information necessary to interpret the results of the experiment unambiguously and to potentially reproduce the experiment. While the MIAPE guidelines define the content required for compliant reports, it does not specify the format in which this data should be presented (which is left to the corresponding *ML format, also defined by

text: PSI

text: ), nor does it define how to perform experiments.

text: Haploporidae is a family of flatworm.

text: Haploporidae is a

text: family

text: of

text: flatworm

text: The Acoela or acoels are a class of small and simple invertebrates in the phylum Xenacoelomorpha that resemble flatworms. Historically they were treated as an order of turbellarian flatworms, but molecular phylogeny studies revealed them to be basal bilaterians.

text: The Acoela or acoels are a class of small and simple

text: invertebrate

text: s in the phylum

text: Xenacoelomorpha

text: that resemble

text: flatworm

text: s. Historically they were treated as an order of

text: turbellaria

text: n

text: flatworm

text: s, but molecular phylogeny studies revealed them to be basal

text: bilateria

text: ns.

text: The carpet flatworm (Thysanozoon brocchii) is a  polyclad flatworm in the family Pseudocerotidae.

text: The carpet flatworm (Thysanozoon brocchii) is a  polyclad

text: flatworm

text: in the

text: family

text: Pseudocerotidae

text: Humans can be infected by this roundworm, a condition called toxocariasis, just by stroking an infected dog's fur and accidentally ingesting infective eggs that may be present on the dog's fur. When humans ingest infective eggs, diseases like hepatomegaly, myocarditis, respiratory failure and vision problems can result depending on where the larva are deposited in the body. In humans, this parasite usually grows in the back of the eye, which can result in blindness, or in the liver or lungs. However, a 2004 study showed, of 15 infected dogs, only seven had eggs in their coats, and no more than one egg was found on each dog. Furthermore, only 4% of those eggs were infectious. Given the low concentration of fertile eggs on infected dogs' coats (less than 0.00186% per gram), it is plausible that such eggs were transferred to the dog's coat by contact with fecal deposites in the environment, making dog coats the passive transport host vehicle. However, although the risk of being infected by petting a dog is extremely limited, a single infected puppy can produce more than 100,000 roundworm eggs per gram of feces.

text: Humans can be infected by this roundworm, a condition called

text: toxocariasis

text: , just by stroking an infected dog's fur and accidentally ingesting infective eggs that may be present on the dog's fur. When humans ingest infective eggs, diseases like

text: hepatomegaly

text: myocarditis

text: , respiratory failure and vision problems can result depending on where the larva are deposited in the body. In humans, this parasite usually grows in the back of the eye, which can result in blindness, or in the liver or lungs. However, a 2004 study showed, of 15 infected dogs, only seven had eggs in their

text: coat

text: s, and no more than one egg was found on each dog. Furthermore, only 4% of those eggs were

text: infectious

text: . Given the low concentration of fertile eggs on infected dogs' coats (less than 0.00186% per gram), it is plausible that such eggs were transferred to the dog's coat by contact with fecal deposites in the environment, making dog coats the passive transport

text: host

text: vehicle. However, although the risk of being infected by petting a dog is extremely limited, a single infected puppy can produce more than 100,000 roundworm eggs per

text: gram

text: of

text: feces

text: A Virtual Network Adapter is the software-emulated virtual Ethernet adapter. A VPN Client can create several Virtual Network Adapters on the client computer. A VPN user can establish a VPN session between the Virtual Network Adapter and the destination Virtual Hub of the remote VPN Server. While the VPN session is established, the VPN user can communicate to the remote VPN network through the Virtual Network Adapter. Since the Virtual Network Adapter works as if it were the physical one, any applications or operating system components can be used without any modification.

text: In Germany—where the raccoon is called the Waschbär (literally, "wash-bear" or "washing bear") due to its habit of "dousing" food in water—two pairs of pet raccoons were released into the German countryside at the Edersee reservoir in the north of Hesse in April 1934 by a forester upon request of their owner, a poultry farmer. He released them two weeks before receiving permission from the Prussian hunting office to "enrich the fauna." Several prior attempts to introduce raccoons in Germany were not successful. A second population was established in eastern Germany in 1945 when 25 raccoons escaped from a fur farm at Wolfshagen, east of Berlin, after an air strike. The two populations are parasitologically distinguishable: 70% of the raccoons of the Hessian population are infected with the roundworm Baylisascaris procyonis, but none of the Brandenburgian population has the parasite. The estimated number of raccoons was 285 animals in the Hessian region in 1956, over 20,000 animals in the Hessian region in 1970 and between 200,000 and 400,000 animals in the whole of Germany in 2008. By 2012 it was estimated that Germany now had more than a million raccoons.

text: In Germany—where the raccoon is called the Waschbär (literally, "wash-bear" or "washing bear") due to its habit of "dousing" food in water—two pairs of pet raccoons were released into the German countryside at the

text: Edersee

text: reservoir in the north of

text: Hesse

text: in April 1934 by a forester upon request of their owner, a poultry farmer. He released them two weeks before receiving permission from the

text: Prussia

text: n hunting office to "enrich the

text: fauna

text: ." Several prior attempts to introduce raccoons in Germany were not successful. A second population was established in eastern Germany in 1945 when 25 raccoons escaped from a

text: fur farm

text: at Wolfshagen, east of Berlin, after an air strike. The two populations are parasitologically distinguishable: 70% of the raccoons of the Hessian population are infected with the

text: roundworm

text: Baylisascaris procyonis

text: , but none of the

text: Brandenburg

text: ian population has the parasite. The estimated number of raccoons was 285 animals in the Hessian region in 1956, over 20,000 animals in the Hessian region in 1970 and between 200,000 and 400,000 animals in the whole of Germany in 2008. By 2012 it was estimated that Germany now had more than a million raccoons.

text: Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected. In Great Britain, 24% of soil samples taken from public parks contained T. canis eggs. Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision. Dog feces can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.

text: Toxocara canis

text: (dog

text: roundworm

text: ) eggs in dog feces can cause

text: toxocariasis

text: . In the United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected. In Great Britain, 24% of soil samples taken from public parks contained T. canis eggs. Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision. Dog feces can also contain

text: hookworm

text: s that cause

text: cutaneous larva migrans

text: in humans.

text: During the summer time, sperm are released into the water and attracted to female reproductive structures by means of a chemical substance. Internal fertilization occurs in the female medusoids.The fertilized eggs develop into actinula. These larvae develop directly into a new polyp. Although the medusa are attached to the polyp, the life cycle resembles that of typical Cnidarian with the polyp reproducing asexually and the medusa producing egg and sperm.

text: Microlecithal eggs require minimal yolk mass. Such eggs are found in flatworms, roundworms, annelids, bivalves, echinoderms, the lancelet and in most marine arthropods. In anatomically simple animals, such as cnidarians and flatworms, the fetal development can be quite short, and even microlecithal eggs can undergo direct development. These small eggs can be produced in large numbers. In animals with high egg mortality, microlecithal eggs are the norm, as in bivalves and marine arthropods. However, the latter are more complex anatomically than e.g. flatworms, and the small microlecithal eggs do not allow full development. Instead, the eggs hatch into larvae, which may be markedly different from the adult animal.

text: Microlecithal eggs require minimal yolk mass. Such eggs are found in

text: flatworm

text: s,

text: roundworm

text: s,

text: annelid

text: s,

text: bivalve

text: s,

text: echinoderms

text: , the

text: lancelet

text: and in most marine

text: arthropod

text: s. In anatomically simple animals, such as cnidarians and flatworms, the fetal development can be quite short, and even microlecithal eggs can undergo direct development. These small eggs can be produced in large numbers. In animals with high egg mortality, microlecithal eggs are the norm, as in bivalves and marine arthropods. However, the latter are more complex anatomically than e.g. flatworms, and the small microlecithal eggs do not allow full development. Instead, the eggs hatch into

text: larva

text: e, which may be markedly different from the adult animal.

text: C. owczarzaki is of scientific interest because it is one of the closest unicellular relatives of multicellular animals. Its genome has recently been sequenced and shows several genes involved in metazoan multicellularity, such as integrins, metazoan transcription factors, and protein tyrosine kinases.  Moreover, it has relevance to human health because its host, the snail Biomphalaria glabrata, is also the intermediate host of the digenean flatworm Schistosoma mansoni, the causative agent of widespread schistosomiasis in humans. C. owczarzaki not only parasitizes the intermediate host of S. mansoni but also attacks and kills the sporocysts of the flatworm living inside the snail.

text: C. owczarzaki is of scientific interest because it is one of the closest unicellular relatives of multicellular animals. Its genome has recently been sequenced and shows several genes involved in metazoan multicellularity, such as integrins, metazoan transcription factors, and protein tyrosine kinases.  Moreover, it has relevance to human health because its host, the snail

text: Biomphalaria glabrata

text: , is also the intermediate host of the

text: digenea

text: n flatworm

text: Schistosoma mansoni

text: , the causative agent of widespread

text: schistosomiasis

text: in humans. C. owczarzaki not only parasitizes the intermediate host of S. mansoni but also attacks and kills the

text: sporocysts

text: of the flatworm living inside the snail.

text: Strongyloidiasis is a human parasitic disease caused by the nematode (roundworm) called Strongyloides stercoralis, or sometimes S. fülleborni which is a type of helminth. It belongs to a group of nematodes called roundworms. This intestinal worm can cause a number of symptoms in people, principally skin symptoms, abdominal pain, diarrhea and weight loss. In some people, particularly those who require corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive medication, Strongyloides can cause a hyperinfection syndrome that can lead to death if untreated. The diagnosis is made by blood and stool tests. The drug Ivermectin is widely used in the treatment of strongyloidiasis.

text: Strongyloidiasis is a

text: human parasitic disease

text: caused by the

text: nematode

text: (roundworm) called

text: Strongyloides stercoralis

text: , or sometimes S. fülleborni which is a type of

text: helminth

text: . It belongs to a group of

text: nematodes

text: called

text: roundworms

text: . This intestinal worm can cause a number of symptoms in people, principally skin symptoms,

text: abdominal pain

text: diarrhea

text: and

text: weight loss

text: . In some people, particularly those who require

text: corticosteroid

text: s or other immunosuppressive medication, Strongyloides can cause a hyperinfection syndrome that can lead to death if untreated. The diagnosis is made by blood and stool tests. The drug

text: Ivermectin

text: is widely used in the treatment of strongyloidiasis.

text: Pristionchus maxplancki is a species of diplogastrid nematode (roundworm).

text: Pristionchus maxplancki is a species of

text: diplogastrid

text: nematode

text: (roundworm).

text: 'Eurylepta leoparda', a cotylean polyclad flatworm, rolls up into a tube and enters 'C. willmeriana' through the oral aperture. It unrolls itself and ingests the branchial basket. It then either leaves the individual through a siphon or continues to feed on the remainder of the internal organs. Other flatworms and polychaetes have been found to eat 'C. willmeriana'. Very young 'C. willmeriana' are frequently overgrown during the winter by colonial ascidian 'Diplosoma madconaldi'. Diatom blooms in springtime sometimes smother adult 'C. willmeriana'.

text: This species eats flatworms and has a diurnal activity.

text: This species eats

text: flatworm

text: s and has a

text: diurnal activity

text: Pseudobiceros is a genus of flatworms. Like all flatworms, Pseudobiceros are hermaphrodites. This particular genus engages in penis fencing. When the "winner" touches its penis to the 'skin' of the other, insemination occurs, and the "loser" has to bear the burden of motherhood.

text: Pseudobiceros is a genus of

text: flatworm

text: s. Like all flatworms, Pseudobiceros are

text: hermaphrodite

text: s. This particular genus engages in

text: penis fencing

text: . When the "winner" touches its penis to the 'skin' of the other, insemination occurs, and the "loser" has to bear the burden of motherhood.

text: In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, a dent forms in one side of the early, spheroidal embryo. This dent, the blastopore, deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut. In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus, while the gut eventually tunnels through the embryo until it reaches the other side, forming an opening that becomes the mouth. It was originally thought that the blastopore of the protostomes formed the mouth, and the anus was formed second when the gut tunneled through the embryo. More recent research has shown that our understanding of protostome mouth formation is somewhat less secure than we had thought. Acoelomorpha, which form a sister group to the rest of the bilaterian animals, have a single mouth that leads into a blind gut (with no anus). The genes employed in the embryonic construction of the flatworm mouth are the same as those expressed for the protostome and deuterostome mouth, which suggests that the structures are equivalent homologous, and that the older ideas about protostome mouth formation were correct. An alternative way to develop two openings from the blastopore during gastrulation, called amphistomy, appears to exist in some animals, such as nematodes.

text: In animals at least as complex as an

text: earthworm

text: , a dent forms in one side of the early,

text: spheroidal

text: embryo

text: . This dent, the

text: blastopore

text: , deepens to become the

text: archenteron

text: , the first phase in the growth of the

text: gut

text: . In

text: deuterostome

text: s, the original dent becomes the anus, while the gut eventually tunnels through the embryo until it reaches the other side, forming an opening that becomes the mouth. It was originally thought that the blastopore of the

text: protostome

text: s formed the mouth, and the anus was formed second when the gut tunneled through the embryo. More recent research has shown that our understanding of protostome mouth formation is somewhat less secure than we had thought.

text: Acoelomorpha

text: , which form a sister group to the rest of the bilaterian animals, have a single mouth that leads into a blind gut (with no anus). The genes employed in the embryonic construction of the flatworm mouth are the same as those expressed for the protostome and deuterostome mouth, which suggests that the structures are equivalent

text: homologous

text: , and that the older ideas about

text: protostome

text: mouth formation were correct. An alternative way to develop two openings from the blastopore during

text: gastrulation

text: , called

text: amphistomy

text: , appears to exist in some animals, such as

text: nematode

text: s.

text: Intestinal parasites are extremely prevalent in tropical areas. These include hookworms, roundworms, and other amoebas. They can aggravate malnutrition by depleting essential nutrients through intestinal blood loss and chronic diarrhea. Chronic worm infections can further burden the immune system. At the same time, chronic worm infections can cause immune activation that increases susceptibility of HIV infection and vulnerability to HIV replication once infected.

text: Intestinal parasites

text: are extremely prevalent in tropical areas. These include

text: hookworms

text: roundworms

text: , and other

text: amoebas

text: . They can aggravate malnutrition by depleting essential nutrients through intestinal

text: blood loss

text: and chronic

text: diarrhea

text: . Chronic worm infections can further burden the immune system. At the same time, chronic worm infections can cause immune activation that increases susceptibility of HIV infection and vulnerability to HIV replication once infected.

text: Chameleons are parasitized by nematode worms, including threadworms (Filarioidea). Threadworms can be transmitted by biting insects such as ticks and mosquitoes. Other roundworms are transmitted through food contaminated with roundworm eggs; the larvae burrow through the wall of the intestine into the bloodstream.

text: Chameleons are

text: parasitized

text: by

text: nematode

text: worms, including threadworms (

text: Filarioidea

text: ). Threadworms can be transmitted by biting insects such as

text: ticks

text: and

text: mosquitoes

text: . Other roundworms are transmitted through food contaminated with roundworm eggs; the larvae burrow through the wall of the

text: intestine

text: into the bloodstream.

text: The echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code (translation table 9) is a genetic code used by the mitochondria of certain echinoderm and flatworm species.

text: The echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code (translation table 9) is a

text: genetic code

text: used by the

text: mitochondria

text: of certain

text: echinoderm

text: and

text: flatworm

text: species.

text: Raccoons may carry raccoon roundworms, an intestinal parasite. Woodrats may ingest the eggs of the roundworm while foraging at raccoon latrine areas. Larvae migrate to the brain, causing a lack of energy, loss of muscle control, and eventually death. The roundworm is a known mortality factor in woodrats in Indiana, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, with infection rates of around 75%.

text: Raccoons may carry

text: raccoon roundworm

text: s, an intestinal parasite. Woodrats may ingest the eggs of the roundworm while foraging at raccoon

text: latrine area

text: s. Larvae migrate to the brain, causing a lack of energy, loss of muscle control, and eventually death. The roundworm is a known mortality factor in woodrats in Indiana, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, with infection rates of around 75%.

text: Amakusaplana acroporae, the Acropora-eating flatworm or AEFW, is a species of free-living marine turbellarian flatworms in the genus Amakusaplana.

text: Amakusaplana acroporae, the Acropora-eating flatworm or AEFW, is a species of free-living marine turbellarian flatworms in the genus

text: Amakusaplana

text: A planarian is one of many  flatworms of the Turbellaria class. It is also the common name for a member of the genus Planaria within the family Planariidae. Sometimes it also refers to the genus Dugesia.

text: A planarian is one of many

text: flatworm

text: s of the

text: Turbellaria

text: class

text: . It is also the common name for a member of the genus

text: Planaria

text: within the family

text: Planariidae

text: . Sometimes it also refers to the genus

text: Dugesia

text: Ecology is a broad biological science and can be divided into many sub-disciplines using various criteria. Many of these fields overlap, complement and inform each other, and few of these disciplines exist in isolation.  For example, the population ecology of an organism is a consequence of its behavioral ecology and intimately tied to its community ecology. Methods from molecular ecology might inform the study of the population, and all kinds of data are modeled and analyzed using quantitative ecology techniques.

text: Ecology is a broad biological science and can be divided into many sub-disciplines using various criteria. Many of these fields overlap, complement and inform each other, and few of these disciplines exist in isolation.  For example, the

text: population ecology

text: of an organism is a consequence of its

text: behavioral ecology

text: and intimately tied to its

text: community ecology

text: . Methods from

text: molecular ecology

text: might inform the study of the population, and all kinds of data are modeled and analyzed using

text: quantitative ecology

text: techniques.

text: Diplogastridae, formerly Diplogasteridae, are a family of nematodes (roundworms) known from a wide range of habitats, often in commensal or parasitic associations with insects.

text: Diplogastridae, formerly Diplogasteridae, are a family of

text: nematodes

text: (roundworms) known from a wide range of habitats, often in

text: commensal

text: or

text: parasitic

text: associations with

text: insects

text: In roundworms, clam, tadpole and cancrid shrimps, androdioecy has evolved from dioecy. In these systems, hermaphrodites can only fertilize their own eggs (self-fertilize) and do not mate with other hermaphrodites. Males are the only means of outcrossing. Hermaphrodites may be beneficial in colonizing new habitats, because a single hermaphrodite can generate many other individuals. In the well-studied roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, males are very rare and only occur in populations that are in bad condition or stressed.

text: In roundworms, clam, tadpole and cancrid shrimps, androdioecy has evolved from dioecy. In these systems, hermaphrodites can only fertilize their own eggs (self-fertilize) and do not mate with other hermaphrodites. Males are the only means of

text: outcrossing

text: . Hermaphrodites may be beneficial in colonizing new habitats, because a single hermaphrodite can generate many other individuals. In the well-studied

text: roundworm

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: , males are very rare and only occur in populations that are in bad condition or stressed.

text: Another adaptation in parasitic females is that their first legs are armed with heavy, blade-like spines, and in some species the joints also are fused, stiffening them and increasing their effectiveness for harvesting host tissue. Once attached to the gills, the females use their first pair of legs to rasp off gill mucus and tissue and  move it forward towards the mouth.

text: Another adaptation in parasitic females is that their first legs are armed with heavy, blade-like spines, and in some species the joints also are fused, stiffening them and increasing their effectiveness for harvesting host

text: tissue

text: . Once attached to the gills, the females use their first pair of legs to rasp off gill

text: mucus

text: and tissue and  move it forward towards the mouth.

text: For organizations such as the DNR, reporting individuals that have been viewed (Wi.gov 2013) aids in the detection of individuals infected by roundworm. The contacted DNR will then proceed with the proper procedures to work on dealing with the possibility of roundworm infestation in the area. Many agencies use fecal matter testing and studies to identify the presence of parasites within a population.  Agencies take the fecal matter of a suspected population and test the contents for the presence of eggs or remains of adults. Many parasites often pass their eggs through the animal’s fecal matter and as Durant et al. (2012) stated, identification is paramount to reduce the chance of disease or mortality.  Soil samples (2012) around the fecal matter are also taken and tested in order to ensure that there is an active roundworm population. Road kill samples also prove to be a way to detect individuals who are infected with roundworm. This is due to animals often acting differently when diseased, as shown from canine distemper, which over time, causes changes in behavior such as losing the fear of humans, becoming unnaturally aggressive, and wandering aimlessly (Tn.gov 2013).  These samples can be recovered and then examine for the possibility of roundworm.

text: The story for the production is an adaptation of Mary Jane Holmes'  1856 novel Lena Rivers. The novel was very popular and reprinted numerous times by 1900. According to The Atlanta Constitution, the theater stage productions had recently been adapted for the old work in June 1910. Though newspapers records show the appearance of a stage adaptation by winter 1906. The writer of the adapted scenario is unknown, but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan. He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. The Thanhouser Company adaptation is the first film adaptation of the book.

text: The story for the production is an adaptation of

text: Mary Jane Holmes

text: '  1856 novel Lena Rivers. The novel was very popular and reprinted numerous times by 1900. According to The Atlanta Constitution, the theater stage productions had recently been adapted for the old work in June 1910. Though newspapers records show the appearance of a stage adaptation by winter 1906. The writer of the adapted scenario is unknown, but it was most likely

text: Lloyd Lonergan

text: . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by

text: The New York Evening World

text: while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions. The Thanhouser Company adaptation is the first film adaptation of the book.

text: <gallery>Pseudobiceros hancockanus.jpg|Marine flatworm,<br>Pseudobiceros gloriosusYellow papillae flatworm (Thysanozoon nigropapillosum).jpg|Yellow papillae flatworm,

text: <gallery>Pseudobiceros hancockanus.jpg|Marine flatworm,<br>

text: Pseudobiceros gloriosus

text: Yellow papillae flatworm (Thysanozoon nigropapillosum).jpg|Yellow papillae flatworm,

text: If the AMPK response to exercise is responsible in part for biochemical adaptations to training, how then can these adaptations to training be maintained if the AMPK response to exercise is being attenuated with training? It is hypothesized that these adaptive roles to training are maintained by AMPK activity and that the increases in AMPK activity in response to exercise in trained skeletal muscle have not yet been observed due to biochemical adaptations that the training itself stimulated in the muscle tissue to reduce the metabolic need for AMPK activation. In other words, due to previous adaptations to training, AMPK will not be activated, and further adaptation will not occur, until the intracellular ATP levels become depleted from an even higher intensity energy challenge than prior to those previous adaptations.

text: If the AMPK response to exercise is responsible in part for biochemical adaptations to training, how then can these adaptations to training be maintained if the AMPK response to exercise is being attenuated with training? It is hypothesized that these

text: adaptive

text: roles to training are maintained by AMPK activity and that the increases in AMPK activity in response to exercise in trained skeletal muscle have not yet been observed due to biochemical adaptations that the training itself stimulated in the

text: muscle tissue

text: to reduce the metabolic need for AMPK activation. In other words, due to previous adaptations to training, AMPK will not be activated, and further adaptation will not occur, until the intracellular ATP levels become depleted from an even higher intensity energy challenge than prior to those previous adaptations.

text: Parorchis acanthusi is a parasitic flatworm of the class Trematoda. It is a parasitic castrator of the common periwinkle Littorina littoria. The resulting decline in the numbers of that mollusc can lead to more ungrazed algae, with corresponding increases in invertebrate populations  and a greater diversity of smaller Littorina snails. The increased numbers of small prey items makes the affected rocky coasts more attractive to birds such as the purple sandpiper and Eurasian rock pipit.

text: Parorchis acanthusi is a

text: parasitic

text: flatworm

text: of the

text: class

text: Trematoda

text: . It is a

text: parasitic castrator

text: of the

text: common periwinkle

text: Littorina littoria. The resulting decline in the numbers of that

text: mollusc

text: can lead to more ungrazed

text: alga

text: e, with corresponding increases in

text: invertebrate

text: populations  and a greater diversity of smaller

text: Littorina

text: snails. The increased numbers of small prey items makes the affected rocky coasts more attractive to birds such as the

text: purple sandpiper

text: and

text: Eurasian rock pipit

text: Adult flatworms parasitize blood capillaries of either the mesenteries or plexus of the bladder, depending on the infecting species. They are unique among trematodes and any other flatworms in that they are dioecious with distinct sexual dimorphism between male and female. Thousands of eggs are released and reach either the bladder or the intestine (according to the infecting species), and these are then excreted in urine or feces to fresh water. Larvae must then pass through an intermediate snail host, before the next larval stage of the parasite emerges that can infect a new mammalian host by directly penetrating the skin.

text: Adult flatworms parasitize blood capillaries of either the mesenteries or plexus of the bladder, depending on the infecting species. They are unique among trematodes and any other flatworms in that they are

text: dioecious

text: with distinct

text: sexual dimorphism

text: between

text: male

text: and

text: female

text: . Thousands of eggs are released and reach either the bladder or the intestine (according to the infecting species), and these are then excreted in

text: urine

text: or

text: feces

text: to

text: fresh water

text: Larva

text: e must then pass through an intermediate snail

text: host

text: , before the next larval stage of the parasite emerges that can infect a new mammalian host by directly penetrating the skin.

text: The eggs of Limnoria lignorum are retained by the female in the brood pouch under her thorax. The eggs hatch directly into mancae, juveniles that are miniature versions of the adult, which means there is no free-living larval stage to aid dispersal of this species. It has been shown that the water temperature influences reproductive processes. Little tunnelling or reproduction takes place during the winter but activity starts earlier in the year and continues later, and the young develop more rapidly under the warmer conditions that exist near the exit of a water cooling system.

text: The eggs of Limnoria lignorum are retained by the female in the brood pouch under her thorax. The eggs hatch directly into

text: manca

text: e, juveniles that are miniature versions of the adult, which means there is no free-living larval stage to aid dispersal of this species. It has been shown that the water temperature influences reproductive processes. Little tunnelling or reproduction takes place during the winter but activity starts earlier in the year and continues later, and the young develop more rapidly under the warmer conditions that exist near the exit of a

text: water cooling system

text: Macroparasites are parasites that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye, in contrast to microparasites. They grow in one host but reproduce by infective stages outside this host. These generally include ticks, mites, helminths (nematodes, flatworms, etc.), and can be either external parasites (ectoparasitic) or internal parasites (endoparasitic). The most abundant macroparasite in humans is the nematode Ascaris lumbricoides which causes an infection called ascariasis. Macroparasites are also parasitic of many plant species and can be a significant agricultural pest.

text: Macroparasites are parasites that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye, in contrast to

text: microparasite

text: s. They grow in one

text: host

text: but reproduce by infective stages outside this host. These generally include

text: tick

text: s,

text: mite

text: s,

text: helminths

text: nematode

text: s,

text: flatworm

text: s, etc.), and can be either external parasites (

text: ectoparasitic

text: ) or internal parasites (

text: endoparasitic

text: ). The most abundant macroparasite in humans is the nematode

text: Ascaris lumbricoides

text: which causes an infection called

text: ascariasis

text: . Macroparasites are also parasitic of many plant species and can be a significant agricultural pest.

text: The first academic work on the theory of self-replicating computer programs was done in 1949 by John von Neumann who gave lectures at the University of Illinois about the "Theory and Organization of Complicated Automata". The work of von Neumann was later published as the "Theory of self-reproducing automata". In his essay von Neumann described how a computer program could be designed to reproduce itself.  Von Neumann's design for a self-reproducing computer program is considered the world's first computer virus, and he is considered to be the theoretical "father" of computer virology. In 1972, Veith Risak, directly building on von Neumann's work on self-replication, published his article "Selbstreproduzierende Automaten mit minimaler Informationsübertragung" (Self-reproducing automata with minimal information exchange). The article describes a fully functional virus written in assembler programming language for a SIEMENS 4004/35 computer system. In 1980 Jürgen Kraus wrote his diplom thesis "Selbstreproduktion bei Programmen" (Self-reproduction of programs) at the University of Dortmund. In his work Kraus postulated that computer programs can behave in a way similar to biological viruses.

text: The first academic work on the theory of self-replicating computer programs was done in 1949 by

text: John von Neumann

text: who gave lectures at the

entity_name: University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign

text: University of Illinois

text: about the "Theory and Organization of Complicated

text: Automata

text: ". The work of von Neumann was later published as the "Theory of self-reproducing automata". In his essay von Neumann described how a computer program could be designed to reproduce itself.  Von Neumann's design for a self-reproducing computer program is considered the world's first computer virus, and he is considered to be the theoretical "father" of computer virology. In 1972,

text: Veith Risak

text: , directly building on von Neumann's work on

text: self-replication

text: , published his article "Selbstreproduzierende Automaten mit minimaler Informationsübertragung" (Self-reproducing automata with minimal information exchange). The article describes a fully functional virus written in

text: assembler

text: programming language for a

text: SIEMENS 4004

text: /35 computer system. In 1980 Jürgen Kraus wrote his

text: diplom

text: thesis "Selbstreproduktion bei Programmen" (Self-reproduction of programs) at the

text: University of Dortmund

text: . In his work Kraus postulated that computer programs can behave in a way similar to biological viruses.

text: Camerata robusta is species of triclad flatworm. It is the only species in the genus Camerata.

text: Camerata robusta is species of

text: triclad

text: flatworm

text: . It is the only species in the genus Camerata.

text: Listowiidae is a family of flatworms.

text: Listowiidae is a

text: family

text: of

text: flatworm

text: s.

text: The Plagiorchiata are by far the largest suborder of plagiorchiidan flatworms. They belong to the Digenea, a large subclass of flukes. These parasites rarely if ever affect humans, but domestic animals may be severely affected bby some species. The Lancet Liver Fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum) is noted for its cercaria larva, which induces the intermediate host (certain ants) to suicidal behavior.

text: The Plagiorchiata are by far the largest

text: suborder

text: of

text: plagiorchiida

text: n

text: flatworm

text: s. They belong to the

text: Digenea

text: , a large

text: subclass

text: of

text: fluke

text: s. These

text: parasite

text: s rarely if ever affect humans, but

text: domestic animal

text: s may be severely affected bby some species. The

text: Lancet Liver Fluke

text: (Dicrocoelium dendriticum) is noted for its

text: cercaria

text: larva, which induces the

text: intermediate host

text: (certain

text: ant

text: s) to suicidal behavior.

text: Inanidrilus triangulatus is a species of annelid worm.

text: Inanidrilus triangulatus is a

text: species

text: of

text: annelid

text: worm.

text: The largest roundworm, Placentonema gigantissima, is a parasite found in the placentas of sperm whales which can reach up to  in length.

text: The largest

text: roundworm

text: Placentonema gigantissima

text: , is a

text: parasite

text: found in the

text: placenta

text: s of

text: sperm whale

text: s which can reach up to  in length.

text: The New Zealand flatworm (Arthurdendyus triangulatus) is a large land flatworm native to New Zealand. It can vary from 5 mm in length when hatched to approximately  in mature adults. The ventral surface of the flatworm is a pale buff colour while the dorsal surface is dark brown. Young flatworms vary in colour from white to pale orange and develop their adult colouration as they grow.

text: The New Zealand flatworm (Arthurdendyus triangulatus) is a large

text: land flatworm

text: native to

text: New Zealand

text: . It can vary from 5 mm in length when hatched to approximately  in mature adults. The ventral surface of the flatworm is a pale buff colour while the dorsal surface is dark brown. Young flatworms vary in colour from white to pale orange and develop their adult colouration as they grow.

text: The park was initially run by an honorary managing committee which included Schwendler and the famous botanist George King. The first Indian superintendent of the zoo was Ram Brahma Sanyal, who did much to improve the standing of the Alipore Zoo and achieved good captive breeding success in an era when such initiatives were rarely heard of. One such success story of the zoo was a live birth of the rare Sumatran rhinoceros in 1889. The next pregnancy in captivity occurred at the Cincinnati Zoo in 1997, but ended with a miscarriage. Cincinnati Zoo finally recorded a live birth in 2001. Alipore Zoo was a pioneer among zoos in the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century under Sanyal, who published the first handbook on captive animal keeping. The zoo had an unusually high scientific standard for its time, and the record of the Cladotaenia genus (Cohn, 1901) of parasites are based upon cestodes (flatworm) found in an Australian bird that died at the zoo.

text: The park was initially run by an honorary managing committee which included Schwendler and the famous botanist

text: George King

text: . The first Indian superintendent of the zoo was

text: Ram Brahma Sanyal

text: , who did much to improve the standing of the Alipore Zoo and achieved good

text: captive breeding

text: success in an era when such initiatives were rarely heard of. One such success story of the zoo was a live birth of the rare

text: Sumatran rhinoceros

text: in 1889. The next pregnancy in captivity occurred at the

text: Cincinnati Zoo

text: in 1997, but ended with a miscarriage. Cincinnati Zoo finally recorded a live birth in 2001. Alipore Zoo was a pioneer among zoos in the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century under Sanyal, who published the first handbook on captive animal keeping. The zoo had an unusually high scientific standard for its time, and the record of the Cladotaenia genus (Cohn, 1901) of parasites are based upon

text: cestodes

text: (flatworm) found in an Australian bird that died at the zoo.

text: Traditionally, fish that live all or part of their lives in fresh water were considered unsuitable for sashimi due to the possibility of parasites (see Sashimi article). Parasitic infections from freshwater fish are a serious problem in some parts of the world, particularly Southeast Asia. Fish that spend part of their life cycle in salt water, like salmon, can also be a problem. A study in Seattle, Washington showed that 100% of wild salmon had roundworm larvae capable of infecting people. In the same study farm raised salmon did not have any roundworm larvae.

text: fresh water

text: Sashimi

text: Southeast Asia

text: . Fish that spend part of their life cycle in salt water, like salmon, can also be a problem. A study in

text: Seattle, Washington

text: Sylvester Stallone has stated that Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot was the worst film he had ever starred in. In an interview with Ain't It Cool News, Stallone referred to it as "maybe one of the worst films in the entire solar system, including alien productions we’ve never seen", that "a flatworm could write a better script", and "in some countries – China, I believe – running [the movie] once a week on government television has lowered the birth rate to zero. If they ran it twice a week, I believe in twenty years China would be extinct."

text: Sylvester Stallone has stated that Stop! Or My Mom Will Shoot was the worst film he had ever starred in. In an interview with

text: Ain't It Cool News

text: , Stallone referred to it as "maybe one of the worst films in the entire solar system, including alien productions we’ve never seen", that "a

text: flatworm

text: could write a better script", and "in some countries – China, I believe – running [the movie] once a week on government television has lowered the birth rate to zero. If they ran it twice a week, I believe in twenty years China would be extinct."

text: Prolific breeders, pulmonate land snails inseminate each other in pairs to internally fertilize their ova via a reproductive opening on one side of the body, near the front, through which the outer reproductive organs are extruded so that exchange of sperm can take place. Fertilization then occurs and the eggs develop. Each brood may consist of up to 100 eggs.

text: Prolific breeders, pulmonate land snails

text: inseminate

text: each other in pairs to

text: internally fertilize

text: their ova via a reproductive opening on one side of the body, near the front, through which the outer reproductive organs are extruded so that exchange of sperm can take place. Fertilization then occurs and the eggs develop. Each brood may consist of up to 100

text: eggs

text: Animals like sponges and coral colonies naturally fragment and reproduce. Many species of annelids  and flat worms reproduce by this method.

text: Animals like

text: sponges

text: and

text: coral

text: colonies naturally fragment and reproduce. Many species of

text: annelids

text: and flat worms reproduce by this method.

text: In the roundworm, Caenorhabditis elegans, Sir-2.1 is used to denote the gene product most similar to yeast Sir2 in structure and activity.

text: In the roundworm,

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: , Sir-2.1 is used to denote the gene product most similar to yeast Sir2 in structure and activity.

text: Pulakos et al. developed a scale for adaptive performance based on their eight-dimension model. This scale, the Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI), contains 132 questions (15 – 18 questions per dimension).Another similar tool is the I-ADAPT measure (I-ADAPT-M) developed by Ployhart and Bliese, based on their I-ADAPT theory. They focused on adaptability as a personality-like trait which describes individual’s ability to adapt to organizational changes. Therefore, there is a difference between I-ADAPT-M and the JAI which measures adaptive performance as behaviors. The I-ADAPT-M also has eight dimensions (crisis adaptability, stress adaptability, creative adaptability, uncertain adaptability, learning adaptability, interpersonal adaptability, cultural adaptability, and physical adaptability), with 5 items for every dimension.

text: Pulakos et al. developed a scale for adaptive performance based on their eight-dimension model. This scale, the Job Adaptability Inventory (JAI), contains 132 questions (15 – 18 questions per dimension).Another similar tool is the I-ADAPT measure (I-ADAPT-M) developed by Ployhart and Bliese, based on their I-ADAPT theory. They focused on

text: adaptability

text: as a personality-like trait which describes individual’s ability to adapt to organizational changes. Therefore, there is a difference between I-ADAPT-M and the JAI which measures adaptive performance as behaviors. The I-ADAPT-M also has eight

text: dimension

text: s (crisis adaptability, stress adaptability, creative adaptability, uncertain adaptability, learning adaptability, interpersonal adaptability, cultural adaptability, and physical adaptability), with 5 items for every

text: dimension

text: The research of Karl Jansen has revealed how the effects of an NDE can be induced by ketamine. In 1996 he published a paper on the subject which concluded "mounting evidence suggests that the reproduction/induction of NDE's by ketamine is not simply an interesting coincidence... ketamine administered by intravenous injection, in appropriate dosage, is capable of reproducing all of the features of the NDE which have been commonly described in the most cited works in this field."

text: The research of Karl Jansen has revealed how the effects of an NDE can be induced by

text: ketamine

text: . In 1996 he published a paper on the subject which concluded "mounting evidence suggests that the reproduction/induction of NDE's by ketamine is not simply an interesting coincidence... ketamine administered by intravenous injection, in appropriate dosage, is capable of reproducing all of the features of the NDE which have been commonly described in the most cited works in this field."

text: Medications that are used to kill roundworms are called ascaricides. Those recommended by the World Health Organization for ascariasis are: albendazole, mebendazole, levamisole and pyrantel pamoate. Other effective agents include tribendimidine and nitazoxanide. Pyrantel pamoate may induce intestinal obstruction in a heavy worm load. Albendazole is contraindicated during pregnancy and children under two years of age. Thiabendazole may cause migration of the worm into the esophagus, so it is usually combined with piperazine.

text: Medications that are used to kill roundworms are called

text: ascaricide

text: s. Those recommended by the World Health Organization for ascariasis are:

text: albendazole

text: mebendazole

text: levamisole

text: and

text: pyrantel pamoate

text: . Other effective agents include

text: tribendimidine

text: and

text: nitazoxanide

text: Pyrantel pamoate

text: may induce intestinal obstruction in a heavy worm load. Albendazole is contraindicated during pregnancy and children under two years of age.

text: Thiabendazole

text: may cause migration of the worm into the

text: esophagus

text: , so it is usually combined with piperazine.

text: Methanolic extract of rhizome of C. comosa has been proven to kill the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans. The extract was purified to its active ingredients and it was found that some diphenylheptanoid compounds, such as 1,7-diphenyl-3-acetoxy-hept-trans-6-ene, can inhibit the motility of the roundworm.

text: Methanolic extract of rhizome of C. comosa has been proven to kill the roundworm

text: Caenorhabditis elegans

text: . The extract was purified to its active ingredients and it was found that some

text: diphenylheptanoid

text: compounds, such as 1,7-diphenyl-3-acetoxy-hept-trans-6-ene, can inhibit the

text: motility

text: of the roundworm.

text: This finding was further studied by comparing the behaviors and reproductive success of males exposed to a dynamic flock, consisting of changing individuals, with males exposed to a static group of individuals. The individuals that stayed with the same group (i.e., static flock) had a stable, predictable relationship between social behavior and reproductive success; the males that sang high amounts to females experienced the greatest reproductive success. The adult males that were exposed to a rotating roster of new individuals (i.e., dynamic flock) had an unpredictable relationship between social variables and reproductive success; these males were able to copulate using a much greater variety of social strategies. The males who lived in static flocks had high levels of consistency in their behaviors and reproductive success across multiple years, whereas the males in dynamic flocks experienced varying levels of dominance with other males, differing levels of singing to females, and differing levels of reproductive success.

text: What If? 2, subtitled More What If?: Eminent Historians Imagine What Might Have Been, is a collection of twenty-five essays dealing with counterfactual history. It was published by G.P. Putnam's Sons in 2001, ISBN 0-399-14795-0, and edited by Robert Cowley. It is the successor of What If? It was combined with the original What If? in The Collected What If?

text: What If? 2, subtitled More What If?: Eminent Historians Imagine What Might Have Been, is a collection of twenty-five

text: essay

text: s dealing with

text: counterfactual history

text: . It was published by

text: G.P. Putnam's Sons

text: in 2001, ISBN 0-399-14795-0, and edited by

text: Robert Cowley

text: . It is the successor of

text: What If?

text: It was combined with the original What If? in The Collected What If?

text: The Dolichomacrostomidae are a family of small basal free-living flatworms (Macrostomida, Turbellaria, Platyhelminthes), and members of the marine, but also brackish, meiobenthos. The name was coined by Reinhard M. Rieger (1971), who designated the Dolichomacrostomidae as a family within the taxon Macrostomida. There are currently about 40 named species in this family.

text: The Dolichomacrostomidae are a family of small basal free-living flatworms (

text: Macrostomida

text: Turbellaria

text: Platyhelminthes

text: ), and members of the marine, but also brackish,

text: meiobenthos

text: . The name was coined by Reinhard M. Rieger (1971), who designated the Dolichomacrostomidae as a family within the taxon

text: Macrostomida

text: . There are currently about 40 named species in this family.

text: The second and more common route to the small intestine is by direct ingestion of A. caninum by the host, but the subsequent process is identical in either case.  It is during this third stage of the larva that male or female reproductive organs become established.  Larvae of this stage have been shown to secrete a molecule (Ac-asp-2) related to venom allergens in response to host-specific signals; this is thought to have a possible role in helping with the infection process.  A third and final moulting occurs to give the mature form of A. caninum which then feeds on mucosa and blood of the small intestine wall.  The trigger of feeding is understood to be a receptor-mediated response, however the detail of this process has yet to be established.  Sexual reproduction also occurs in the intestine to give a further round of eggs to complete the cycle.   Females are thought to produce a pheromone which attracts males and are able to produce approximately 10,000 eggs per day.

text: The second and more common route to the small intestine is by direct

text: ingestion

text: of A. caninum by the host, but the subsequent process is identical in either case.  It is during this third stage of the larva that male or female reproductive organs become established.  Larvae of this stage have been shown to secrete a molecule (Ac-asp-2) related to

text: venom

text: allergens

text: in response to host-specific signals; this is thought to have a possible role in helping with the infection process.  A third and final moulting occurs to give the mature form of A. caninum which then feeds on mucosa and

text: blood

text: of the small intestine wall.  The trigger of feeding is understood to be a receptor-mediated response, however the detail of this process has yet to be established.  Sexual reproduction also occurs in the intestine to give a further round of eggs to complete the cycle.   Females are thought to produce a pheromone which attracts males and are able to produce approximately 10,000 eggs per day.

text: Two-colored flatworm (Pseudoceros bicolor) is a species of polycladid flatworms.

text: Two-colored flatworm (Pseudoceros bicolor) is a species of

text: polycladid

text: flatworms.

text: This occurs when the fossilization potential varies from group to group. Among-taxon megabiases include both static and dynamic distortions. A static megabias is constant through time. For example, flatworms have always had a poor record relative to mollusks because mollusks as a taxon are almost always biomineralizing, whereas flatworms are almost never biomineralizing.

text: In some multicellular animals (metazoans), offspring may develop as outgrowths of the mother. Animals that reproduce by budding include corals, some sponges, some acoel flatworms (e.g., Convolutriloba), and echinoderm larvae.

text: In some multicellular

text: animal

text: s (metazoans), offspring may develop as outgrowths of the mother. Animals that reproduce by budding include

text: coral

text: s, some

text: sponge

text: s, some acoel flatworms (e.g.,

text: Convolutriloba

text: ), and

text: echinoderm

text: larvae.

text: Born in England, he studied in Neuchâtel, Geneva, and in Paris, where he worked with Charles Joyeux. His book "Ecology of animal parasites" (1951) is considered a classic in the field. Baer published more than 250 articles, among them fundamental work on Temnocephalida (a kind of flatworm parasite) and on tapeworms.

text: Born in England, he studied in

text: Neuchâtel

text: Geneva

text: , and in

text: Paris

text: , where he worked with

text: Charles Joyeux

text: . His book "Ecology of animal parasites" (1951) is considered a classic in the field. Baer published more than 250 articles, among them fundamental work on

text: Temnocephalida

text: (a kind of

text: flatworm

text: parasite) and on

text: tapeworm

text: s.

text: Pseudocerotidae is a family of flatworms which includes the Bedford's flatworm.

text: Pseudocerotidae is a family of

text: flatworm

text: s which includes the

text: Bedford's flatworm

text: Earth Charter -Earth observation satellite -Earthscan -Eco hotels -Eco-cities -Eco-efficiency -Eco-industrial park -Eco-sufficiency -Ecoforestry -Ecolabel -Ecological deficit -Ecological economics -Ecological footprint -Ecological humanities -Ecological literacy -Ecological sanitation -Ecological threshold -Ecologically sustainable development -Ecosharing -Ecosystem -Ecotax -Ecotechnology -Ecotourism -Ecovillages -Electric vehicle -Emissions trading -Energy conservation -Energy content of biofuel -Energy crop -Energy density -Energy descent -Energy development -Energy economics -Efficient energy use -Energy Globe Award -Energy Policy Act of 2005 -Energy saving modules -Energy security -Environmental accounting -Environmental and social studies -Environmental archaeology -Environmental audits -Environmental benefits of vegetarianism -Environmental biotechnology -Environmental Change Network -Environmental chemistry -Environmental concerns with electricity generation -Environmental consulting -Environmental control system -Environmental defense -Environmental design -Environmental design and planning -Environmental disaster -Environmental determinism -Environmental economics -Environmental effects of fishing -Environmental effects on physiology -Environmental engineering -Environmental enterprise -Environmental ethics -Environmental factor -Environmental finance -Environmental geography -Environmental geology -Environmental gradient -Environmental hazard -Environmental health -Environmental impact assessment -Environmental impact report -Environmental Information Regulations 2004 -Environmental journalism -Environmental justice -Environmental law -Environmental Law Service -Environmental Life Force -Environmental management -Environmental management scheme -Environmental Measurements Laboratory -Environmental medicine -Environmental microbiology -Environmental Modeling Center -Environmental movement -Environmental movement in New Zealand -Environmental movement in the United States -Environmental planning -Environmental preservation -Environmental pricing reform -Environmental protection in Japan -Environmental psychology -Environmental Quality Improvement Act -Environmental racism -Environmental remediation -Environmental Research Letters -Environmental restoration -Environmental Risk Management Authority -Environmental science -Environmental security -Environmental skepticism -Environmental sociology -Environmental standard -Environmental studies -Environmental suit -Environmental Sustainability Index -Environmental technology -Environmental Technology Laboratory -Environmental Technology Verification Program -Environmental toxins and fetal development -Environmental transport association -Environmental vandalism -Environmental vegetarianism -Environmental, Safety and Health Communication -Environmentalism -EPA Sustainability -Epidemics -Ethanol fuel -Ethical consumerism -Eugenics -European Biofuels Technology Platform -

text: Earth Charter

text: Earth observation satellite

text: Earthscan

text: Eco hotels

text: Eco-cities

text: Eco-efficiency

text: Eco-industrial park

text: Eco-sufficiency

text: Ecoforestry

text: Ecolabel

text: Ecological deficit

text: Ecological economics

text: Ecological footprint

text: Ecological humanities

text: Ecological literacy

text: Ecological sanitation

text: Ecological threshold

text: Ecologically sustainable development

text: Ecosharing

text: Ecosystem

text: Ecotax

text: Ecotechnology

text: Ecotourism

text: Ecovillages

text: Electric vehicle

text: Emissions trading

text: Energy conservation

text: Energy content of biofuel

text: Energy crop

text: Energy density

text: Energy descent

text: Energy development

text: Energy economics

text: Efficient energy use

text: Energy Globe Award

text: Energy Policy Act of 2005

text: Energy saving modules

text: Energy security

text: Environmental accounting

text: Environmental and social studies

text: Environmental archaeology

text: Environmental audits

text: Environmental benefits of vegetarianism

text: Environmental biotechnology

text: Environmental Change Network

text: Environmental chemistry

entity_name: Environmental impact of electricity generation

text: Environmental concerns with electricity generation

text: Environmental consulting

text: Environmental control system

text: Environmental defense

text: Environmental design

text: Environmental design and planning

text: Environmental disaster

text: Environmental determinism

text: Environmental economics

text: Environmental effects of fishing

text: Environmental effects on physiology

text: Environmental engineering

text: Environmental enterprise

text: Environmental ethics

text: Environmental factor

text: Environmental finance

text: Environmental geography

text: Environmental geology

text: Environmental gradient

text: Environmental hazard

text: Environmental health

text: Environmental impact assessment

text: Environmental impact report

entity_name: Environmental Information Regulations 2004

text: Environmental Information Regulations 2004

text: Environmental journalism

text: Environmental justice

text: Environmental law

text: Environmental Law Service

text: Environmental Life Force

text: Environmental management

text: Environmental management scheme

text: Environmental Measurements Laboratory

text: Environmental medicine

text: Environmental microbiology

text: Environmental Modeling Center

text: Environmental movement

text: Environmental movement in New Zealand

entity_name: Environmental movement in the United States

text: Environmental movement in the United States

text: Environmental planning

text: Environmental preservation

text: Environmental pricing reform

text: Environmental protection in Japan

text: Environmental psychology

text: Environmental Quality Improvement Act

text: Environmental racism

text: Environmental remediation

text: Environmental Research Letters

text: Environmental restoration

text: Environmental Risk Management Authority

text: Environmental science

text: Environmental security

text: Environmental skepticism

text: Environmental sociology

text: Environmental standard

text: Environmental studies

text: Environmental suit

text: Environmental Sustainability Index

text: Environmental technology

text: Environmental Technology Laboratory

entity_name: Environmental Technology Verification Program

text: Environmental Technology Verification Program

entity_name: Environmental toxicants and fetal development

text: Environmental toxins and fetal development

text: Environmental transport association

text: Environmental vandalism

text: Environmental vegetarianism

text: Environmental, Safety and Health Communication

text: Environmentalism

text: EPA Sustainability

text: Epidemics

text: Ethanol fuel

text: Ethical consumerism

text: Eugenics

text: European Biofuels Technology Platform

text: The Catenulida are an order of turbellarian flatworms in the classical classification, or a class of flatworms in a phylogenetic approach. They are relatively small free-living flatworms, inhabiting freshwater and marine environments. There are about 100 species described worldwide, but the simple anatomy makes species distinction problematic.

text: The Catenulida are an order of

text: turbellaria

text: n

text: flatworms

text: in the classical classification, or a class of flatworms in a phylogenetic approach. They are relatively small free-living flatworms, inhabiting freshwater and marine environments. There are about 100 species described worldwide, but the simple anatomy makes species distinction problematic.

text: The journal has an international focus and presents original papers, methods, reviews and special topics. Papers focus on population ecology, plant-animal interactions, ecosystem ecology, community ecology, global change ecology, conservation ecology, behavioral ecology and physiological ecology.

text: The journal has an international focus and presents original papers, methods, reviews and special topics. Papers focus on

text: population ecology

text: , plant-animal interactions,

text: ecosystem ecology

text: community ecology

text: global change

text: ecology,

text: conservation ecology

text: behavioral ecology

text: and

text: physiological ecology

text: In flatworms, acetabulum is the ventral sucker situated towards the anterior part of the body, but behind the anterior oral sucker. It is composed of numerous spines for penetrating and gripping the host tissue. The location and structure of the acetabulum, and the pattern of the spine alignment are important diagnostic tool among trematode species.

text: In other words, like Lewis Carroll's Red Queen, sexual hosts are continually "running" (adapting) to "stay in one place" (resist parasites).

text: In other words, like

text: Lewis Carroll

text: 's Red Queen, sexual hosts are continually "running" (adapting) to "stay in one place" (resist parasites).

text: Verfaillie moved to the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven at the height of the controversy in 2008 but retained her position at the University of Minnesota. She has continued to defend her work and gave a list of publications that have proven the utility of MAPCs, albeit without addressing the criticisms of how the key parts of her work could not be reproduced by other labs. In 2007, she collaborated with Irving Weissman at Stanford University to demonstrate that MAPCs could produce blood cells although she did not address the key claims of her original 2002 paper.

text: Verfaillie moved to the

text: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

text: at the height of the controversy in 2008 but retained her position at the

text: University of Minnesota

text: . She has continued to defend her work and gave a list of publications that have proven the utility of MAPCs, albeit without addressing the criticisms of how the key parts of her work could not be reproduced by other labs. In 2007, she collaborated with Irving Weissman at

text: Stanford University

text: to demonstrate that MAPCs could produce blood cells although she did not address the key claims of her original 2002 paper.

text: English-language writings have conventionally treated nemertean as "primitive" acoelomate bilaterians that are most closely related to flatworms (Platyhelminthes). These pre-cladistics analyses emphasised as shared features: multiciliated (with multiple cilia per cell), glandular epidermis; rod-shaped secretory bodies or rhabdites; frontal glands or organs; protonephridia; and acoelomate body organization. However, multiciliated epidermal cells and epidermal gland cells are also found in Ctenophora, Echiura, Sipuncula, Annelida, Mollusca and other taxa. The rhabdites of nemertea have a different structure from those of flatworms at the microscopic scale. The frontal glands or organs of flatworms vary a lot in structure, and similar structures appear in small marine annelids and entoproct larvae. The protonephridia of nemertea and flatworms are different in structure, and in position – the flame cells of nemertea are usually in the walls of the fluid vessels and are served by "drains" from which the wastes exit by a small number of tubes through the skin, while the flame cells of flatworms are scattered throughout the body. Rigorous comparisons show no synapomorphies of nemertean and platyhelminth nephridia.

text: English-language writings have conventionally treated nemertean as "primitive" acoelomate bilaterians that are most closely related to flatworms (Platyhelminthes). These pre-

text: cladistics

text: analyses emphasised as shared features: multiciliated (with multiple cilia per cell), glandular epidermis; rod-shaped secretory bodies or rhabdites; frontal glands or organs;

text: protonephridia

text: ; and acoelomate body organization. However, multiciliated epidermal cells and epidermal gland cells are also found in

text: Ctenophora

text: Echiura

text: Sipuncula

text: Annelida

text: , Mollusca and other

text: taxa

text: . The rhabdites of nemertea have a different structure from those of flatworms at the microscopic scale. The frontal glands or organs of flatworms vary a lot in structure, and similar structures appear in small marine annelids and

text: entoproct

text: larvae. The protonephridia of nemertea and flatworms are different in structure, and in position – the

text: flame cell

text: s of nemertea are usually in the walls of the fluid vessels and are served by "drains" from which the wastes exit by a small number of tubes through the skin, while the flame cells of flatworms are scattered throughout the body. Rigorous comparisons show no synapomorphies of nemertean and platyhelminth nephridia.

text: The island used to have a large population of giant African land snails, introduced either deliberately as a food source, or accidentally by shipping, which became an agricultural pest. In the last few decades, its numbers have been substantially controlled by an introduced flatworm, Platydemus manokwari. Unfortunately, possibly due to the flatworm, the native tree-snails also became extinct.

text: The island used to have a large population of

text: giant African land snails

text: , introduced either deliberately as a food source, or accidentally by shipping, which became an agricultural pest. In the last few decades, its numbers have been substantially controlled by an introduced

text: flatworm

text: Platydemus manokwari

text: . Unfortunately, possibly due to the

text: flatworm

text: , the native tree-snails also became extinct.

text: The commutativity of H is needed to prove that  is again a group homomorphism.

text: Despite being drunk, Michinaga answered quickly with another poem:

text: One-term incumbent Larry Hogan is eligible for re-election.

text: One-term incumbent

text: Larry Hogan

text: is eligible for re-election.

text: Heather Alexander recorded "December of Cambreadth" for the compilation album Roundworm.

text: Thus, the readers are introduced to the novel's significant characters. Then a box of cypress wood was found among the relics, bearing the inscription: "Oh, stranger, who opens this, learn from the miracles." Alexander and his companions naturally opened it up, finding in it the report of Deinias and Derkyllis, which forms the main narrative of the novel.

text: Wise was a ruckman and joined Melbourne for the 1963 season. He played in their 1964 premiership side and finished his career with 40 senior games.

text: Moseley v International Rugby Writers XVSunday 27 November 1977

text: Goldring lives in Toronto, Canada with his wife and three daughters.

text: After the Second World War, her career was spent in the fleet reserve until May 1952, when she became part of the Second Training Squadron at Portland where she remained until 1956. In 1953, she took part in the Fleet Review to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.

text: After the

text: Second World War

text: , her career was spent in the fleet reserve until May 1952, when she became part of the Second Training Squadron at

text: Portland

text: where she remained until 1956. In 1953, she took part in the

text: Fleet Review

text: to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.

text: 10. Cool, Calm & Calculated - Part 2

text: 10. Cool, Calm & Calculated - Part 2

text: LA 81 proceeds north across US 190 and away from Lottie.  Now known as Charles Road, LA 81 begins to take a more winding route, closely following the remains of Bayou White.   later, LA 81 curves to the east and enters the northwest corner of Fordoche.  It ends shortly afterward at a second intersection with LA 77, the main highway through town.  To the north, LA 77 connects with LA 10 to Morganza.

text: LA 81 proceeds north across US 190 and away from Lottie.  Now known as Charles Road, LA 81 begins to take a more winding route, closely following the remains of

text: Bayou White

text: .   later, LA 81 curves to the east and enters the northwest corner of

text: Fordoche

text: .  It ends shortly afterward at a second intersection with LA 77, the main highway through town.  To the north, LA 77 connects with

text: LA 10

text: to

text: Morganza

text: He was knighted and raised to Vice Admiral of the Blue on the accession of William III and led the Blue Squadron in the rear division in the Battle of Beachy Head against the French on 10 July 1690.

text: He was knighted and raised to

text: Vice Admiral of the Blue

text: on the accession of

text: William III

text: and led the Blue Squadron in the rear division in the

text: Battle of Beachy Head

text: against the French on 10 July 1690.

text: Jorge Ferreira is the name of:

text: Jorge Ferreira is the name of:

text: Steinbukampen  is a mountain in the municipality of Lom, in Oppland, Norway.

text: Steinbukampen  is a mountain in the municipality of

text: Lom

text: , in

text: Oppland

text: Norway

text: , there were 31 students in Collonges who came from another municipality, while 54 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

text: NCUBE, Edson, Deputy Secretary, Dept of Administration,

text: Weil's wife died in 1990, followed by his son Jack B. in 2008.

text: Franz Burkard (died 1584 in Bonn) was a canon lawyer.

text: Franz Burkard (died 1584 in

text: Bonn

text: ) was a

text: canon lawyer

text: Lenya died in Manhattan of cancer in 1981, aged 83. She is buried next to Weill at Mount Repose Cemetery in Haverstraw, New York.

text: Lenya died in Manhattan of

text: cancer

text: in 1981, aged 83. She is buried next to Weill at Mount Repose Cemetery in

text: Haverstraw, New York

text: Paddy mails, generally considered as being workmen's trains, were operated by, or for many companies to transport their workers to their place of work or between their sites of work.

text: Since 2009 the family "Sobol" is equipped with the following powerplants:

text: Gandhi  defeated William Scott Hesse and Dick Jones in a three-way Republican primary on August 7, 2012, and defeated Democratic nominee Theodore "Ted" Ensley in the general election on November 6, 2012, by a margin of 6,472 to 5,425.

text: On 29 August 1976 a 14-foot sailing dinghy was driven into the side of the ferry by the outgoing tidal run following an engine failure. Although two of the occupants were pulled to safety the third occupant, a sixteen-year-old girl was unable to be pulled clear before the dinghy was pulled under the ferry by the current. She was able to free herself from the wrecked boat only to become trapped under the ferry in an air pocket beneath the bow ramp. She was subsequently rescued by her father, one of the dinghy crew who against advice, attached a rope around his waist and went under the ferry where he was able to locate the trapped girl, pulling her out and saving her life.

text: Residents of Haverford Township benefit from a wide range of school supported services, including Adult Evening School; the Golden Age Program, the Senior Citizen Prom and the Tax-Aide Program for senior citizens; and Delaware County Community College courses for all residents. Haverford, which is a member of the Delaware County Chamber of Commerce and the Main Line Chamber of Commerce, maintains partnerships with local universities and colleges, businesses, service organizations, realtors, community groups and senior citizen organizations. In 1989, the

text: Residents of Haverford Township benefit from a wide range of school supported services, including Adult Evening School; the Golden Age Program, the Senior Citizen Prom and the Tax-Aide Program for senior citizens; and

text: Delaware County Community College

text: courses for all residents. Haverford, which is a member of the Delaware County Chamber of Commerce and the Main Line Chamber of Commerce, maintains partnerships with local universities and colleges, businesses, service organizations, realtors, community groups and senior citizen organizations. In 1989, the

text: Johnson died in Los Angeles, California at the age of 78.

text: The church was built at the end of the 12th century in a Romanesque style. The oldest parts are the tower, nave and choir with apse. During the late Middle Ages a buttress was added to support the tower. During the second and third quarters of the 15th century the interior of the church was also vaulted. In the process, a set of Romanesque frescos were obstructed, so that half of the frescoes are visible above the vaulting. The church was expanded during the 1770s with an addition to its northern side. A new church porch and entrance was added to the western side of the tower in 1837. The church contains frescoes from three different periods: the first half of the 13th century, the 1770s and the late 19th century.

text: The church was built at the end of the 12th century in a

text: Romanesque

text: style. The oldest parts are the tower,

text: nave

text: and

text: choir

text: with

text: apse

text: . During the late

text: Middle Ages

text: a

text: buttress

text: was added to support the tower. During the second and third quarters of the 15th century the interior of the church was also vaulted. In the process, a set of

text: Romanesque

text: fresco

text: s were obstructed, so that half of the frescoes are visible above the vaulting. The church was expanded during the 1770s with an addition to its northern side. A new

text: church porch

text: and entrance was added to the western side of the tower in 1837. The church contains frescoes from three different periods: the first half of the 13th century, the 1770s and the late 19th century.

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that Shingletown had a population of 2,283. The population density was 92.4 people per square mile (35.7/km²). The racial makeup of Shingletown was 2,124 (93.0%) White, 5 (0.2%) African American, 49 (2.1%) Native American, 8 (0.4%) Asian, 1 (0.0%) Pacific Islander, 13 (0.6%) from other races, and 83 (3.6%) from two or more races.  Hispanic or Latino of any race were 86 persons (3.8%).

text: The

text: 2010 United States Census

text: reported that Shingletown had a population of 2,283. The

text: population density

text: was 92.4 people per square mile (35.7/km²). The racial makeup of Shingletown was 2,124 (93.0%)

entity_name: Race and ethnicity in the United States Census

text: White

text: , 5 (0.2%)

text: African American

text: , 49 (2.1%)

text: Native American

text: , 8 (0.4%)

text: Asian

text: , 1 (0.0%)

text: Pacific Islander

text: , 13 (0.6%) from

text: other races

text: , and 83 (3.6%) from two or more races.

text: Hispanic

text: or

text: Latino

text: of any race were 86 persons (3.8%).

text: In March 2014, the company opened The Epiphany Hotel in Palo Alto, CA.

text: In the 2013–14 season, Harney made a further 16 appearances for the under-18 side, scoring once, and made eight under-21 appearances, starting each game.

text: In the

text: 2013–14 season

text: , Harney made a further 16 appearances for the under-18 side, scoring once, and made eight under-21 appearances, starting each game.

text: Robert Evans (born 1930) is an American film producer.

text: Robert Evans

text: (born 1930) is an American film producer.

text: Rushworth has also been commissioned to create the official portrait of current Coast Guard Commandant Admiral Robert J. Papp, Jr..

text: Rushworth has also been commissioned to create the official portrait of current Coast Guard Commandant Admiral

text: Robert J. Papp, Jr.

text: Bert Kaempfert also released a version of the song.

text: Bert Kaempfert

text: also released a version of the song.

text: On May 29, 1914, the RMS Empress of Ireland sank in the Saint Lawrence River near this village, with a loss of more than 1,000 lives.

text: On May 29, 1914, the

text: RMS Empress of Ireland

text: sank in the Saint Lawrence River near this village, with a loss of more than 1,000 lives.

text: In May 2009, Brother duo Golf & Mike released their first-ever Chinese album in Malaysia entitled "Get Ready 2", including 2 Chinese tracks, 同班同學 (meaning Classmate) and Inspiration.

text: The film's art direction was by Ramón Rodríguez Granada.

text: The film's

text: art direction

text: was by

text: Ramón Rodríguez Granada

text: Maxim Vasilievich Balmochnykh (born March 7, 1979) is a Russian professional ice hockey winger who is currently an unrestricted free agent.

text: Maxim Vasilievich Balmochnykh (born March 7, 1979) is a

text: Russian

text: professional

text: ice hockey

text: winger

text: who is currently an unrestricted free agent.

text: In August 2016, he released the single "Free Lunch" to wide acclaim, and later confirmed his debut studio album's release date. After releasing two new tracks, "I Mean" and "Park", Rashad released his debut studio album, titled The Sun's Tirade, on September 2, 2016, to critical acclaim.

text: In August 2016, he released the single "Free Lunch" to wide acclaim, and later confirmed his debut studio album's release date. After releasing two new tracks, "I Mean" and "Park", Rashad released his debut studio album, titled

text: The Sun's Tirade

text: , on September 2, 2016, to critical acclaim.

text: After the election, political party distribution among the 9 directly elected seats is as follows:

text: Dolphins (Nature Watch)  (1999)

text: Dolphins (Nature Watch)  (1999)

text: His successor as Duke was Ferdinando, until then a cardinal at Rome with a reputation as a womaniser. The 16-year-old Camilla, now a great beauty and known to all as La bella Ardizzina, became the object of his attention: attentions which she resisted, however, to the point that he was first obliged to promise marriage in writing and then actually to marry her. The nuptials took place in secret on 19 February 1616 in the chapel of the Palazzo Ducale and Camilla became pregnant shortly afterwards.

text: His successor as Duke was Ferdinando, until then a cardinal at

text: Rome

text: with a reputation as a womaniser. The 16-year-old Camilla, now a great beauty and known to all as La bella Ardizzina, became the object of his attention: attentions which she resisted, however, to the point that he was first obliged to promise marriage in writing and then actually to marry her. The nuptials took place in secret on 19 February 1616 in the chapel of the

text: Palazzo Ducale

text: and Camilla became pregnant shortly afterwards.

text: (Title translations from the International edition)

text: David Pye may refer to:

text: David Pye may refer to:

text: Health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care.

text: Health geography

text: is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of

text: health

text: disease

text: , and

text: health care

text: Orchard Lake (West Bloomfield Twp.)

text: Orchard Lake

text: (West Bloomfield Twp.)

text: Running through Sagene District is the river Akerselva which has contributed in shaping the culture and history of the borough. Theriver has been exploited for energy, and along it for a thousand years, mills and turbines have been operating.The main street is called Vogts Street. and it's in Torshov. The tram goes down this street, which is the most busy street in the Sagene/Torshov borough. The street is highly urbanised with plenty of stores and coffee shops. Vogts gate is in the heart of Torshov.

text: Running through Sagene District is the river

text: Akerselva

text: which has contributed in shaping the culture and history of the borough. Theriver has been exploited for energy, and along it for a thousand years, mills and

text: turbine

text: s have been operating.The main street is called Vogts Street. and it's in Torshov. The tram goes down this street, which is the most busy street in the Sagene/Torshov borough. The street is highly urbanised with plenty of stores and coffee shops. Vogts gate is in the heart of Torshov.

text: In 2002, the Canadian Association of University Teachers established the Harry Crowe Foundation, a charitable organization that undertakes education and research on the role of post-secondary teaching and research in contemporary society.

text: Citation accompanying award of the Military Cross:

text: A Second XI T20 championship was launched in 2011.

text: David Campbell may refer to:

text: David Campbell may refer to:

text: She died in Bishop, California.

text: She died in

text: Bishop

text: , California.

text: The Liberals re-gained the seat from the Conservatives;

text: Racing wins 2-1 and stays in the Argentine First Division, while Belgrano does not get promoted and remains in Argentine Nacional B.

text: Racing

text: wins 2-1 and stays in the

text: Argentine First Division

text: , while

text: Belgrano

text: does not get promoted and remains in

text: Argentine Nacional B

text: Wind: Heat 1: -1.1 m/s m/s, Heat 2: -0.9 m/s, Heat 3: -1.9 m/s

text: There are two villages in the Kambagi gram panchayat: Kambagi, Hanamasagar and Madagunaki.

text: There are two villages in the Kambagi

text: gram panchayat

text: : Kambagi,

text: Hanamasagar

text: and Madagunaki.

text: The following are the football (soccer) events of the year 1971 throughout the world.

text: The following are the

text: football (soccer)

text: events of the year 1971 throughout the world.

text: Science described Press as "a 'major' yet largely unknown contributor to the field of immunology".

text: Science

text: described Press as "a 'major' yet largely unknown contributor to the field of immunology".

text: At club level Brolan won numerous county championship medals with Thurles Sarsfield's.

text: At club level Brolan won numerous

text: county championship

text: medals with

text: Thurles Sarsfield's

text: Experiments have shown that out of five other flatworm species, P. manokwari was by far the most efficient. In an experiment done by Isamu Okochi and colleagues, 5 different flatworm species (including P. manokwari) were kept in various storage units containing endemic snail species. Out of these five species, P. manokwari was the only species that had started to prey on the snail species within a day of introduction. Two of the other predatory flatworm species did prey on the snails, but their rates of predation were not consistent. This indicates that P. manokwari outcompetes other predatory flatworm species and consumes more endemic land species than other species. Furthermore, these data indicate that P. manokwari can begin consuming endemic land snails right after introduction. In other words, P. manokwari can adjust to a new environment fairly quickly and can even destroy fragile ecosystems quickly.

text: To meet the requirements of the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act, the RT established a Paratransit service in 1993, which is a door-to-door service for the disabled.

text: To meet the requirements of the 1990

text: Americans with Disabilities Act

text: , the RT established a

text: Paratransit

text: service in 1993, which is a door-to-door service for the disabled.

text: Gonzalez's role in the Colts offense diminished even further during the 2011 regular season. He played in only eight games and didn't catch a pass. He became an unrestricted free agent the following off-season.

text: 1) Tilak Ram colony  2) Uttranch Vihar

text: 1) Tilak Ram colony  2) Uttranch Vihar

text: is what we want to solve,

text: is what we want to solve,

text: The play takes place in 1934, in a hotel suite in Cleveland, Ohio. The two-room set has a sitting room with a sofa and chairs at right and a bedroom at left. A center "stage wall" divides the two rooms, with a door leading from one room to the other. (Throughout the play, the audience can see what's happening in both rooms at the same time.)

text: The play takes place in 1934, in a

text: hotel suite

text: in

text: Cleveland

text: Ohio

text: . The

text: two-room set

text: has a

text: sitting room

text: with a sofa and chairs at right and a bedroom at left. A center "stage wall" divides the two rooms, with a door leading from one room to the other. (Throughout the play, the audience can see what's happening in both rooms at the same time.)

text: Adapted from the Bob Hope Takes Risks liner notes.

text: Jennifer Schlecht - Senior Program Officer, Reproductive Health Program

text: According to Washington, no matter their specialty, all nurses must be able to build trusting relationships with their patients. When the nurses develop strong relationships between their patients they are able to obtain important information about them that may be helpful to diagnosing them. Also, family members that become involved in this relationship make it easier for the nurses to build these trusting relationships with the patients because the family members could ease any stress that could lead the patient to be timid. When a patient has a long-term illness, the good relationships built between the nurse and patient can improve the patient's quality of life.

text: Yasutaka Tsutsui wrote a short story parodying his own novel titled Scenario: Toki o Kakeru Shōjo in response to the film adaptation.

text: Tantaré Ecological Reserve is an ecological reserve in Quebec, Canada. It was established on March 1, 1978.

text: Tantaré Ecological Reserve is an ecological reserve in

text: Quebec

text: Canada

text: . It was established on March 1, 1978.

text: An adaptation by Christine U'Ren was performed by Bella Union Theatre Company at the Berkeley City Club in Berkeley, California, in July 2009.

text: In the US it has been the position of state mental health commissioners that many people who are living independently should be placed in intensive treatment, as described in a mid-1980s article in the "Community Mental Health Journal. The authors held that only 12 of 3,068 individuals should be living independently (p. 199) based on their model predictions. In contrast, the continuum model has been critiqued as restrictive of rights, facility-based, and restrictive of community participation  resulting in a US Supreme Court decision recognizing the most integrated setting (Consortium of Citizens with Disabilities, 2012).

text: It is briefly sung by the Earl of Gurney during his sanity examination in the play The Ruling Class and its 1972 film adaptation.

text: It is briefly sung by the Earl of Gurney during his sanity examination in the play

text: The Ruling Class

text: and

text: its 1972 film adaptation

text: In traditional medicinal texts, Platyhelminthes are divided into Turbellaria, which are mostly non-parasitic animals such as planarians, and three entirely parasitic groups: Cestoda, Trematoda and Monogenea; however, since the turbellarians have since been proven not to be monophyletic, this classification is now deprecated. Free-living flatworms are mostly predators, and live in water or in shaded, humid terrestrial environments, such as leaf litter. Cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes) have complex life-cycles, with mature stages that live as parasites in the digestive systems of fish or land vertebrates, and intermediate stages that infest secondary hosts. The eggs of trematodes are excreted from their main hosts, whereas adult cestodes generate vast numbers of hermaphroditic, segment-like proglottids that detach when mature, are excreted, and then release eggs. Unlike the other parasitic groups, the monogeneans are external parasites infesting aquatic animals, and their larvae metamorphose into the adult form after attaching to a suitable host.

text: In traditional medicinal texts, Platyhelminthes are divided into

text: Turbellaria

text: , which are mostly non-

text: parasitic

text: animals such as

text: planarian

text: s, and three entirely parasitic groups:

text: Cestoda

text: Trematoda

text: and

text: Monogenea

text: ; however, since the turbellarians have since been proven not to be

text: monophyletic

text: , this classification is now deprecated. Free-living flatworms are mostly predators, and live in water or in shaded, humid terrestrial environments, such as

text: leaf litter

text: . Cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes) have complex life-cycles, with mature stages that live as parasites in the digestive systems of fish or land

text: vertebrate

text: s, and intermediate stages that infest secondary hosts. The eggs of trematodes are excreted from their main hosts, whereas adult cestodes generate vast numbers of

text: hermaphroditic

text: , segment-like

text: proglottid

text: s that detach when mature, are excreted, and then release eggs. Unlike the other parasitic groups, the monogeneans are external parasites infesting aquatic animals, and their larvae metamorphose into the adult form after attaching to a suitable host.

text: New Jersey's Division of Fish and Wildlife's Endangered and Nongame Species Program supported research by Kathleen LoGiudice. She developed a drug to be distributed through bait that the raccoons would eat, disrupting the growth and shedding of the roundworm parasite for about three weeks, effectively reducing the deposition of roundworm eggs near woodrat nesting sites, therefore reducing the threat of the parasite in woodrats.

text: Some examples of ecosystems that are rich in diversity are:

text: Zürich itself has adapted the bear theme in the "Teddy-Summer" in 2005.