text: During the 1950s, memory research began investigating interference theory. This refers to the idea that forgetting occurs because the recall of certain items interferes with the recall of other items. Throughout the 1950s, researchers provided some of the earliest evidence that the prior existence of old memories makes it harder to recall newer memories and he dubbed this effect "proactive interference." During the same time, researchers began investigating negative transfer.  Negative transfer concerns itself with a detrimental effect of prior experience on the learning of a new task, whereas proactive interference relates to a negative effect of prior interference on the recall of a second task.

text: During the 1950s, memory research began investigating

entity_name: Interference theory

text: interference theory

text: . This refers to the idea that forgetting occurs because the recall of certain items interferes with the recall of other items. Throughout the 1950s, researchers provided some of the earliest evidence that the prior existence of old memories makes it harder to recall newer memories and he dubbed this effect "proactive interference." During the same time, researchers began investigating negative transfer.  Negative transfer concerns itself with a detrimental effect of prior experience on the learning of a new task, whereas proactive interference relates to a negative effect of prior interference on the recall of a second task.

text: On February 17, Ohka, as the 2009 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into a tournament to determine the inaugural Wave Single Champion and defeated rival Misaki Ohata in her semifinal match. On March 17, Ohka defeated Kana in the finals to win the tournament and become the inaugural Wave Single Champion. Ohka made her first successful title defense on April 21 against Yuu Yamagata. On July 15, Ohka became a double champion in Wave, when she and Hikaru Shida defeated Triple Tails.S (Kana and Mio Shirai) for the Wave Tag Team Championship. However, after a reign of only a month, Shidarezakura lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Yoko Hatanaka (Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa) in their first defense on August 15. On August 25, Ohka made her second successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against rival and winner of the 2013 Catch the Wave, Misaki Ohata. From September 1 to October 6, Ohka took part in the 2013 Dual Shock Wave tournament, where she teamed with Kana under the team name Giann's. The team made it all the way to the finals of the tournament, before losing to Las Aventureras (Ayako Hamada and Yuu Yamagata) in a three-way match, which also included Muscle Venus (Hikaru Shida and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On October 30, Ohka made her third successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Tomoka Nakagawa, avenging a loss suffered during the 2013 Dual Shock Wave. On November 20, Ohka combined her two tag teams with Hikaru Shida and Kana to form a trio named Shidare Giann's for a 6-Person Tag Tournament. In their first round Two Out of Three Falls match, the three defeated Urayama Arrows (Natsuki Urabe, Rina Yamashita and Yako Fujigasaki). On November 27, Shidare Giann's was eliminated from the tournament in a semifinal submission match by Revolucion Yoko Hatanaka (Gami, Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa). On December 15, Ohka made her fourth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Shuu Shibutani. Following Gami's retirement from professional wrestling at the end of 2013, Ohka became the new official representative of Wave. Ohka made her fifth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship on January 26, 2014, when she wrestled Misaki Ohata to a thirty-minute time limit draw. On March 2, Ohka made her sixth successful defense against JWP representative Kayoko Haruyama as part of a storyline rivalry between the two promotions. Ohka's seventh successful title defense took place on April 20, when she defeated Hikaru Shida. From May 5 to June 22, Ohka took part in the round-robin portion of the 2014 Catch the Wave tournament, winning her block with a record of three wins, two draws and one loss, suffered against Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 27, Ohka was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Misaki Ohata. On August 24, Ohka's seventeen-month reign as the Wave Single Champion came to an end, when she lost the title to the 2014 Catch the Wave winner Hikaru Shida in her eighth defense.

text: On February 17, Ohka, as the 2009 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into a

entity_name: Wave Single Championship

entity_section: Regina di Wave tournament

text: tournament

text: to determine the inaugural

text: Wave Single Champion

text: and defeated rival Misaki Ohata in her semifinal match. On March 17, Ohka defeated Kana in the finals to win the tournament and become the inaugural Wave Single Champion. Ohka made her first successful title defense on April 21 against Yuu Yamagata. On July 15, Ohka became a double champion in Wave, when she and Hikaru Shida defeated Triple Tails.S (Kana and Mio Shirai) for the Wave Tag Team Championship. However, after a reign of only a month, Shidarezakura lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Yoko Hatanaka (Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa) in their first defense on August 15. On August 25, Ohka made her second successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against rival and winner of the

entity_name: Catch the Wave

text: 2013 Catch the Wave

text: , Misaki Ohata. From September 1 to October 6, Ohka took part in the

entity_name: Dual Shock Wave

text: 2013 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament, where she teamed with Kana under the team name Giann's. The team made it all the way to the finals of the tournament, before losing to Las Aventureras (Ayako Hamada and Yuu Yamagata) in a three-way match, which also included Muscle Venus (Hikaru Shida and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On October 30, Ohka made her third successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Tomoka Nakagawa, avenging a loss suffered during the 2013 Dual Shock Wave. On November 20, Ohka combined her two tag teams with Hikaru Shida and Kana to form a trio named Shidare Giann's for a 6-Person Tag Tournament. In their first round Two Out of Three Falls match, the three defeated Urayama Arrows (Natsuki Urabe, Rina Yamashita and Yako Fujigasaki). On November 27, Shidare Giann's was eliminated from the tournament in a semifinal

entity_name: Professional wrestling match types

entity_section: Variations of singles matches

text: submission match

text: by Revolucion Yoko Hatanaka (Gami, Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa). On December 15, Ohka made her fourth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship against Shuu Shibutani. Following Gami's retirement from professional wrestling at the end of 2013, Ohka became the new official representative of Wave. Ohka made her fifth successful defense of the Wave Single Championship on January 26, 2014, when she wrestled Misaki Ohata to a thirty-minute time limit draw. On March 2, Ohka made her sixth successful defense against JWP representative Kayoko Haruyama as part of a storyline rivalry between the two promotions. Ohka's seventh successful title defense took place on April 20, when she defeated Hikaru Shida. From May 5 to June 22, Ohka took part in the round-robin portion of the

text: 2014 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, winning her block with a record of three wins, two draws and one loss, suffered against Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 27, Ohka was eliminated from the tournament in the semifinals by Misaki Ohata. On August 24, Ohka's seventeen-month reign as the Wave Single Champion came to an end, when she lost the title to the 2014 Catch the Wave winner Hikaru Shida in her eighth defense.

text: The two separate waves will arrive at a point with the same phase, and hence undergo constructive interference, if and only if this path difference is equal to any integer value of the wavelength, i.e.

text: The two separate waves will arrive at a point with the same

entity_name: Phase (waves)

text: phase

text: , and hence undergo

entity_name: Interference (wave propagation)

text: constructive interference

text: , if and only if this path difference is equal to any integer value of the

entity_name: Wavelength

text: wavelength

text: , i.e.

text: P-waves are a type of elastic wave, and are one of the two main types of elastic body waves, called seismic waves in seismology, that travel through a continuum and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a seismograph. The continuum is made up of gases (as sound waves), liquids, or solids, including the Earth. P-waves can be produced by earthquakes and recorded by seismographs. The name P-wave can stand for either pressure wave  as it is formed from alternating compressions and rarefactions or primary wave, as it has the highest velocity and is therefore the first wave to be recorded.

text: P-waves are a type of

entity_name: Linear elasticity

entity_section: Elastic wave

text: elastic wave

text: , and are one of the two main types of elastic

entity_name: Seismic wave

text: body waves

text: , called

text: seismic waves

text: in seismology, that travel through a

entity_name: Continuum mechanics

text: continuum

text: and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a seismograph. The

entity_name: Continuum (measurement)

text: continuum

text: is made up of

entity_name: Gas

text: gas

text: es (as

entity_name: Sound

text: sound

text: waves), liquids, or solids, including the

entity_name: Earth

text: Earth

text: . P-waves can be produced by

entity_name: Earthquake

text: earthquakes

text: and recorded by

entity_name: Seismometer

text: seismographs

text: . The name P-wave can stand for either pressure wave  as it is formed from alternating

entity_name: Compression (physics)

text: compression

text: s and

entity_name: Rarefaction

text: rarefaction

text: s or primary wave, as it has the highest velocity and is therefore the first wave to be recorded.

text: A simple version of the quantum eraser can be described as follows: Rather than splitting one photon or its probability wave between two slits, the photon is subjected to a beam splitter. If one thinks in terms of a stream of photons being randomly directed by such a beam splitter to go down two paths that are kept from interaction, it would seem that no photon can then interfere with any other or with itself.

text: A simple version of the quantum eraser can be described as follows: Rather than splitting one photon or its probability wave between two slits, the photon is subjected to a

entity_name: Beam splitter

text: beam splitter

text: . If one thinks in terms of a stream of photons being randomly directed by such a beam splitter to go down two paths that are kept from interaction, it would seem that no photon can then interfere with any other or with itself.

text: The optical mechanisms by which the non-pigmented stromal components influence eye color are complex, and many erroneous statements exist in the literature. Simple selective absorption and reflection by biological molecules (hemoglobin in the blood vessels, collagen in the vessel and stroma) is the most important element. Rayleigh scattering and Tyndall scattering, (which also happen in the sky) and diffraction also occur. Raman scattering, and constructive interference, as in the feathers of birds, do not contribute to the color of the human eye, but interference phenomena are important in the brilliantly colored iris pigment cells (iridophores) in many animals. Interference effects can occur at both molecular and light microscopic scales, and are often associated (in melanin-bearing cells) with quasi-crystalline formations which enhance the optical effects. Interference is recognised by characteristic dependence of color on the angle of view, as seen in eyespots of some butterfly wings, although the chemical components remain the same.White babies are usually born blue-eyed since there is no pigment in the stroma, and appear blue due to scattering and selective absorption from the posterior epithelium. If melanin is deposited substantially, there will be brown or black color, if not, they will remain blue or gray.

text: The optical mechanisms by which the non-pigmented stromal components influence eye color are complex, and many erroneous statements exist in the literature. Simple selective absorption and reflection by biological molecules (

entity_name: Hemoglobin

text: hemoglobin

text: in the blood vessels,

entity_name: Collagen

text: collagen

text: in the vessel and stroma) is the most important element.

entity_name: Rayleigh scattering

text: Rayleigh scattering

text: and

entity_name: Tyndall effect

text: Tyndall scattering

text: , (which also happen in the sky) and

entity_name: Diffraction

text: diffraction

text: also occur.

entity_name: Raman scattering

text: Raman scattering

text: , and constructive

text: interference

text: , as in the feathers of birds, do not contribute to the color of the human eye, but interference phenomena are important in the brilliantly colored iris pigment cells (

entity_name: Chromatophore

text: iridophore

text: s) in many animals. Interference effects can occur at both molecular and light microscopic scales, and are often associated (in melanin-bearing cells) with quasi-crystalline formations which enhance the optical effects. Interference is recognised by characteristic dependence of color on the angle of view, as seen in

entity_name: Eyespot (mimicry)

text: eyespot

text: s of some

entity_name: Butterfly

text: butterfly

entity_name: Wing

text: wing

text: s, although the chemical components remain the same.White babies are usually born blue-eyed since there is no pigment in the stroma, and appear blue due to scattering and selective absorption from the posterior epithelium. If melanin is deposited substantially, there will be brown or black color, if not, they will remain blue or gray.

text: Multipath interference is a phenomenon in the physics of waves whereby a wave from a source travels to a detector via two or more paths and, under the right condition, the two (or more) components of the wave interfere.  Multipath interference is a common cause of "ghosting" in analog television broadcasts.

text: Multipath interference is a phenomenon in the physics of

entity_name: Wave

text: wave

text: s whereby a wave from a source travels to a detector via two or more paths and, under the right condition, the two (or more) components of the wave

text: interfere

text: .  Multipath interference is a common cause of "

entity_name: Ghosting (television)

text: ghosting

text: " in analog television broadcasts.

text: In physics, a surface wave is a mechanical wave that propagates along the interface between differing media, usually as a gravity wave between two fluids with different densities.  A surface wave can also be an elastic (or a seismic) wave, such as with a Rayleigh or Love wave. It can also be an electromagnetic wave guided by a refractive index gradient, or along an interface between two media having different dielectric constants. In radio transmission, a ground wave is a surface wave that propagates close to the surface of the Earth.

text: In

entity_name: Physics

text: physics

text: , a surface wave is a

entity_name: Mechanical wave

text: mechanical wave

text: that propagates along the

entity_name: Interface (matter)

text: interface

text: between differing media, usually as a

entity_name: Gravity wave

text: gravity wave

text: between two

entity_name: Fluid

text: fluid

text: s with different densities.  A surface wave can also be an elastic (or a

text: seismic

text: ) wave, such as with a

entity_name: Rayleigh wave

text: Rayleigh

text: or

entity_name: Love wave

text: Love

text: wave. It can also be an

entity_name: Electromagnetic radiation

text: electromagnetic wave

text: guided by a

entity_name: Refractive index

text: refractive index

entity_name: Gradient

text: gradient

text: , or along an interface between two media having different dielectric constants. In

entity_name: Radio

text: radio

entity_name: Transmission (telecommunications)

text: transmission

text: , a ground wave is a surface wave that propagates close to the surface of the

text: Earth

text: Even in urban areas, which usually have strong cellular signals throughout, there are often dead zones caused by destructive interference of waves which have taken different paths (caused by the signal bouncing off buildings etc.). These usually have an area of a few blocks and will usually only affect one of the two frequency ranges used by cell phones. This is because the different wavelengths of the different frequencies interfere destructively at different points. Directional antennas are very helpful at overcoming this since they can be placed at points of constructive interference and aligned so as not to receive the destructive signal. See Multipath interference for more details.

text: Even in urban areas, which usually have strong cellular signals throughout, there are often

entity_name: Mobile phone signal

entity_section: Dead zones

text: dead zone

text: s caused by

text: destructive interference

text: of waves which have taken different paths (caused by the signal bouncing off buildings etc.). These usually have an area of a few blocks and will usually only affect one of the two frequency ranges used by cell phones. This is because the different wavelengths of the different frequencies interfere destructively at different points.

entity_name: Directional antenna

text: Directional antenna

text: s are very helpful at overcoming this since they can be placed at points of

text: constructive interference

text: and aligned so as not to receive the destructive signal. See

entity_name: Multipath interference

text: Multipath interference

text: for more details.

method: UNH-qee

text: The case established the standard  personnel must meet before limiting students' freedom of expression in secondary schools. As representatives of the state, school administrators can censor, restrain or publish school-sponsored student expression if it interferes with the requirements of school discipline, interferes with students' rights, interferes with academic propriety, generates health or welfare concerns, or is deemed obscene or vulgar. This extends to theatrical productions, public speeches in an assembly environment, and publications produces as part of curricular activity, such as a student newspaper. The majority termed these reasons "legitimate pedagogical concerns."

text: Continuous-wave radar is a type of radar system where a known stable frequency continuous-wave radio energy is transmitted and then received from any reflecting objects. Continuous-wave (CW) radar uses Doppler, which renders the radar immune to interference from large stationary objects and slow moving clutter.

text: Continuous-wave radar is a type of

entity_name: Radar

text: radar

text: system where a known stable frequency

entity_name: Continuous wave

text: continuous-wave

text: radio

text: energy is transmitted and then received from any reflecting objects. Continuous-wave (CW) radar uses

entity_name: Doppler radar

text: Doppler

text: , which renders the radar immune to interference from large stationary objects and slow moving

entity_name: Clutter (radar)

text: clutter

text: Standing waves are also observed in physical media such as strings and columns of air. Any waves traveling along the medium will reflect back when they reach the end. This effect is most noticeable in musical instruments where, at various multiples of a vibrating string or air column's natural frequency, a standing wave is created, allowing harmonics to be identified. Nodes occur at fixed ends and anti-nodes at open ends. If fixed at only one end, only odd-numbered harmonics are available. At the open end of a pipe the anti-node will not be exactly at the end as it is altered by its contact with the air and so end correction is used to place it exactly. The density of a string will affect the frequency at which harmonics will be produced; the greater the density the lower the frequency needs to be to produce a standing wave of the same harmonic.

text: Standing waves are also observed in physical media such as strings and columns of air. Any waves traveling along the medium will reflect back when they reach the end. This effect is most noticeable in musical instruments where, at various multiples of a

entity_name: String vibration

text: vibrating string

text: or

entity_name: Acoustic resonance

entity_section: Resonance of a tube of air

text: air column

text: 's

entity_name: Natural frequency

text: natural frequency

text: , a standing wave is created, allowing

entity_name: Harmonic

text: harmonics

text: to be identified. Nodes occur at fixed ends and anti-nodes at open ends. If fixed at only one end, only odd-numbered harmonics are available. At the open end of a pipe the anti-node will not be exactly at the end as it is altered by its contact with the air and so

entity_name: End correction

text: end correction

text: is used to place it exactly. The density of a string will affect the frequency at which harmonics will be produced; the greater the density the lower the frequency needs to be to produce a standing wave of the same harmonic.

text: Shock waves are not conventional sound waves; a shock wave takes the form of a very sharp change in the gas properties.  Shock waves in air are heard as a loud "crack" or "snap" noise. Over longer distances, a shock wave can change from a nonlinear wave into a linear wave, degenerating into a conventional sound wave as it heats the air and loses energy. The sound wave is heard as the familiar "thud" or "thump" of a sonic boom, commonly created by the supersonic flight of aircraft.

text: Shock waves are not conventional sound waves; a shock wave takes the form of a very sharp change in the gas properties.  Shock waves in air are heard as a loud "crack" or "snap" noise. Over longer distances, a shock wave can change from a nonlinear wave into a linear wave, degenerating into a conventional sound wave as it heats the air and loses energy. The sound wave is heard as the familiar "thud" or "thump" of a

entity_name: Sonic boom

text: sonic boom

text: , commonly created by the

entity_name: Supersonic speed

text: supersonic

text: flight of aircraft.

text: The appearance of thin films and coatings is directly affected by interference effects. Antireflective coatings use destructive interference to reduce the reflectivity of the surfaces they coat, and can be used to minimise glare and unwanted reflections. The simplest case is a single layer with thickness one-fourth the wavelength of incident light. The reflected wave from the top of the film and the reflected wave from the film/material interface are then exactly 180° out of phase, causing destructive interference. The waves are only exactly out of phase for one wavelength, which would typically be chosen to be near the centre of the visible spectrum, around 550 nm. More complex designs using multiple layers can achieve low reflectivity over a broad band, or extremely low reflectivity at a single wavelength.

text: The appearance of

entity_name: Thin-film optics

text: thin films and coatings

text: is directly affected by interference effects.

entity_name: Anti-reflective coating

text: Antireflective coating

text: s use destructive interference to reduce the reflectivity of the surfaces they coat, and can be used to minimise glare and unwanted reflections. The simplest case is a single layer with thickness one-fourth the wavelength of incident light. The reflected wave from the top of the film and the reflected wave from the film/material interface are then exactly 180° out of phase, causing destructive interference. The waves are only exactly out of phase for one wavelength, which would typically be chosen to be near the centre of the visible spectrum, around 550 nm. More complex designs using multiple layers can achieve low reflectivity over a broad band, or extremely low reflectivity at a single wavelength.

text: Natural 'wedge' style constructive interference can however occur on any type of surf break, provided the local wave dynamics are favorable.

text: Damage to skeletal muscle may take various forms. Crush and other physical injuries cause damage to muscle cells directly or interfere with blood supply, while non-physical causes interfere with muscle cell metabolism. When damaged, muscle tissue rapidly fills with fluid from the bloodstream, including sodium ions. The swelling itself may lead to destruction of muscle cells, but those cells that survive are subject to various disruptions that lead to rise in intracellular calcium ions; the accumulation of calcium outside the sarcoplasmic reticulum leads to continuous muscle contraction and depletion of ATP, the main carrier of energy in the cell. ATP depletion can itself lead to uncontrolled calcium influx. The persistent contraction of the muscle cell leads to breakdown of intracellular proteins and disintegration of the cell.

text: Damage to skeletal muscle may take various forms. Crush and other physical injuries cause damage to

text: muscle cells

text: directly or interfere with blood supply, while non-physical causes interfere with muscle cell

text: metabolism

text: . When damaged, muscle tissue rapidly fills with fluid from the bloodstream, including

text: sodium ions

text: . The swelling itself may lead to destruction of muscle cells, but those cells that survive are subject to various disruptions that lead to rise in intracellular calcium ions; the accumulation of calcium outside the

text: sarcoplasmic reticulum

text: leads to continuous

text: muscle contraction

text: and depletion of

text: ATP

text: , the main carrier of energy in the cell. ATP depletion can itself lead to uncontrolled calcium influx. The persistent contraction of the muscle cell leads to breakdown of intracellular proteins and disintegration of the cell.

text: Individual oscillations in the Sun are damped so that they die out within a few periods. However, interference between these localised waves produces global standing waves, also known as normal modes. Analysis of these overlapping modes constitutes the discipline of global helioseismology.

text: Individual oscillations in the Sun are

text: damped

text: so that they die out within a few periods. However, interference between these localised waves produces global

text: standing waves

text: , also known as

text: normal modes

text: . Analysis of these overlapping modes constitutes the discipline of global helioseismology.

text: A Lecher line is a pair of parallel uninsulated wires or rods held a precise distance apart.  The separation is not critical but should be a small fraction of the wavelength; it ranges from less than a centimeter to over 10 cm.  The length of the wires depends on the wavelength involved; lines used for measurement are generally several wavelengths long.     The uniform spacing of the wires makes them a transmission line, conducting radio waves at a constant speed very close to the speed of light.    One end of the rods is connected to the source of RF power, such as the output of a radio transmitter.  At the other end the rods are connected together with a conductive bar between them.  This short circuiting termination reflects the waves.   The waves reflected from the short-circuited end interfere with the outgoing waves, creating a sinusoidal standing wave of voltage and current on the line.  The voltage goes to zero at nodes located at multiples of half a wavelength from the end, with maxima called antinodes located midway between the nodes.  Therefore the wavelength λ can be determined by finding the location of two successive nodes (or antinodes) and measuring the distance between them, and multiplying by two.    The frequency f of the waves can be calculated from the wavelength and the speed of the waves, which is the speed of light c:

text: A Lecher line is a pair of parallel uninsulated wires or rods held a precise distance apart.  The separation is not critical but should be a small fraction of the wavelength; it ranges from less than a centimeter to over 10 cm.  The length of the wires depends on the

text: wavelength

text: involved; lines used for measurement are generally several wavelengths long.     The uniform spacing of the wires makes them a

text: transmission line

text: , conducting radio waves at a constant speed very close to the

text: speed of light

text: .    One end of the rods is connected to the source of

text: RF

text: power, such as the output of a

text: radio transmitter

text: .  At the other end the rods are connected together with a conductive bar between them.  This

text: short circuit

text: ing termination reflects the waves.   The waves reflected from the short-circuited end

text: interfere

text: with the outgoing waves, creating a sinusoidal

text: standing wave

text: of voltage and current on the line.  The voltage goes to zero at

text: node

text: s located at multiples of half a wavelength from the end, with maxima called

text: antinode

text: s located midway between the nodes.  Therefore the wavelength λ can be determined by finding the location of two successive nodes (or antinodes) and measuring the distance between them, and multiplying by two.    The

text: frequency

text: f of the waves can be calculated from the wavelength and the speed of the waves, which is the

text: speed of light

text: c:

text: It is sometimes desirable for several waves of the same frequency and amplitude to sum to zero (that is, interfere destructively, cancel). This is the principle behind, for example, 3-phase power and the diffraction grating.  In both of these cases, the result is achieved by uniform spacing of the phases.

text: It is sometimes desirable for several waves of the same frequency and amplitude to sum to zero (that is, interfere destructively, cancel). This is the principle behind, for example,

text: 3-phase power

text: and the

text: diffraction grating

text: .  In both of these cases, the result is achieved by uniform spacing of the phases.

text: An important version of this experiment involves single particles (or waves—for consistency, they are called particles here). Sending particles through a double-slit apparatus one at a time results in single particles appearing on the screen, as expected. Remarkably, however, an interference pattern emerges when these particles are allowed to build up one by one (see the adjacent image). This demonstrates the wave-particle duality, which states that all matter exhibits both wave and particle properties: the particle is measured as a single pulse at a single position, while the wave describes the probability of absorbing the particle at a specific place of the detector. This phenomenon has been shown to occur with photons, electrons, atoms and even some molecules, including buckyballs. So experiments with electrons add confirmatory evidence to the view that electrons, protons, neutrons, and even larger entities that are ordinarily called particles nevertheless have their own wave nature and even their own specific frequencies.

text: An important version of this experiment involves single particles (or waves—for consistency, they are called particles here). Sending particles through a double-slit apparatus one at a time results in single particles appearing on the screen, as expected. Remarkably, however, an interference pattern emerges when these particles are allowed to build up one by one (see the adjacent image). This demonstrates the

text: wave-particle duality

text: , which states that all matter exhibits both wave and particle properties: the particle is measured as a single pulse at a single position, while the wave describes the

text: probability

text: of absorbing the particle at a specific place of the detector. This phenomenon has been shown to occur with photons, electrons, atoms and even some molecules, including

text: buckyballs

text: . So experiments with electrons add confirmatory evidence to the view that electrons, protons, neutrons, and even larger entities that are ordinarily called particles nevertheless have their own wave nature and even their own specific frequencies.

text: In the example of three waves, the phase difference between the first and the last wave was 240 degrees, while for two waves destructive interference happens at 180 degrees.  In the limit of many waves, the phasors must form a circle for destructive interference, so that the first phasor is nearly parallel with the last.  This means that for many sources, destructive interference happens when the first and last wave differ by 360 degrees, a full wavelength

text: Morpho butterfly wings contain microstructures that create its coloring effect through structural coloration rather than pigmentation.  Incident light waves are reflected at specific wavelengths to create vibrant colors due to multilayer interference, diffraction, thin film interference, and scattering properties.  The scales of these butterflies consist of microstructures such as ridges, cross-ribs, ridge-lamellae, and microribs that have been shown to be responsible for coloration. The structural color has been simply explained as the interference due to alternating layers of cuticle and air using a model of multilayer interference. The same principles behind the coloration of soap bubbles apply to butterfly wings. The color of butterfly wings is due to multiple instances of constructive interference from structures such as this. The photonic microstructure of butterfly wings can be replicated through biomorphic mineralization to yield similar properties.  The photonic microstructures can be replicated using metal oxides or metal alkoxides such as titanium sulfate (TiSO), zirconium oxide (ZrO), and aluminium oxide (AlO).  An alternative method of vapor-phase oxidation of SiH4 on the template surface was found to preserve delicate structural features of the microstructure. A display technology ("Mirasol") based on the reflective properties of Morpho butterfly wings was commercialized by Qualcomm in 2007.  The technology uses Interferometric Modulation to reflect light so only the desired color is visible in each individual pixel of the display.

text: Morpho

text: butterfly wings contain microstructures that create its coloring effect through

text: structural coloration

text: rather than

text: pigment

text: ation.  Incident light waves are reflected at specific wavelengths to create vibrant colors due to multilayer interference, diffraction, thin film interference, and scattering properties.  The scales of these butterflies consist of microstructures such as ridges, cross-ribs, ridge-lamellae, and microribs that have been shown to be responsible for coloration. The structural color has been simply explained as the interference due to alternating layers of cuticle and air using a model of

text: multilayer interference

text: . The same principles behind the coloration of

text: soap bubble

text: s apply to butterfly wings. The color of butterfly wings is due to multiple instances of constructive

text: interference

text: from structures such as this. The photonic microstructure of butterfly wings can be replicated through biomorphic mineralization to yield similar properties.  The photonic microstructures can be replicated using metal oxides or metal alkoxides such as titanium sulfate (TiSO),

text: zirconium oxide

text: (ZrO), and

text: aluminium oxide

text: (AlO).  An alternative method of vapor-phase oxidation of SiH4 on the template surface was found to preserve delicate structural features of the microstructure. A display technology ("Mirasol") based on the reflective properties of

text: Morpho

text: butterfly

text: wings was commercialized by

text: Qualcomm

text: in 2007.  The technology uses

text: Interferometric Modulation

text: to reflect light so only the desired color is visible in each individual pixel of the display.

text: One example of a quantum interference phenomenon that arises from superposition is the double-slit experiment. The photon state is a superposition of two different states, one of which corresponds to the photon having passed through the left slit, and the other corresponding to passage through the right slit. The relative phase of those two states has a value which depends on the distance from each of the two slits. Depending on what that phase is, the interference is constructive at some locations and destructive in others, creating the interference pattern. By the analogy with coherence in other wave phenomena, a superposed state can be referred to as a coherent superposition.

text: One example of a quantum interference phenomenon that arises from superposition is the

text: double-slit experiment

text: . The

text: photon

text: state is a superposition of two different states, one of which corresponds to the photon having passed through the left slit, and the other corresponding to passage through the right slit. The relative phase of those two states has a value which depends on the distance from each of the two slits. Depending on what that phase is, the interference is constructive at some locations and destructive in others, creating the interference pattern. By the analogy with

text: coherence

text: in other wave phenomena, a superposed state can be referred to as a coherent superposition.

text: Interference theory refers to the idea that when the learning of something new causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition between the two. This essentially states that memory's information may become confused or combined with other information during encoding, resulting in the distortion or disruption of memories.  In nature, the interfering items are said to originate from an overstimulating environment. Interference theory exists in three branches: Proactive, Retroactive and Output. Retroactive and Proactive inhibition each referring in contrast to the other. Retroactive interference is when new information (memories) interferes with older information. On the other hand, proactive interference is when old information interferes with the retrieval of new information. This is sometimes thought to occur especially when memories are similar.  Output Interference occurs when the initial act of recalling specific information interferes with the retrieval of the original information. This theory shows an astonishing contradiction: an extremely intelligent individual is expected to forget more hastily than one who has a slow mentality. For this reason, an intelligent individual has stored up more memory in his mind which will cause interferences and impair their ability to recall specific information.  Based off current research, testing interference has only been carried out by recalling from a list of words rather than using situation from daily lives, thus it's hard to generalize the findings for this theory.

text: Interference theory

text: A thin film is a layer of material with thickness in the sub-nanometer to micron range. As light strikes the surface of a film it is either transmitted or reflected at the upper surface. Light that is transmitted reaches the bottom surface and may once again be transmitted or reflected. The Fresnel equations provide a quantitative description of how much of the light will be transmitted or reflected at an interface. The light reflected from the upper and lower surfaces will interfere. The degree of constructive or destructive interference between the two light waves depends on the difference in their phase. This difference in turn depends on the thickness of the film layer, the refractive index of the film, and the angle of incidence of the original wave on the film. Additionally, a phase shift of 180° or

text: A

text: thin film

text: is a layer of material with thickness in the sub-

text: nanometer

text: to

text: micron

text: range. As light strikes the surface of a film it is either transmitted or reflected at the upper surface. Light that is transmitted reaches the bottom surface and may once again be transmitted or reflected. The

text: Fresnel equations

text: provide a quantitative description of how much of the light will be transmitted or reflected at an interface. The light reflected from the upper and lower surfaces will interfere. The degree of constructive or destructive

text: interference

text: between the two light waves depends on the difference in their phase. This difference in turn depends on the thickness of the film layer, the refractive index of the film, and the angle of incidence of the original wave on the film. Additionally, a phase shift of 180° or

text: Wave phenomena in nature have been investigated for centuries, some being some of the most controverted themes in the history of science, and so the case is with the wave nature of light. In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton described light through a corpuscular theory. The English physicist Thomas Young later contrasted Newton's theories in the 18th century and established the scientific basis upon which rest the wave theories. At the end of the 19th century, at the peak of the Second Industrial Revolution, the creation of electricity as the technology of the era offered a new contribution to the wave theories. This advance allowed Franz Melde to recognize the phenomena of wave interference and the creation of standing waves. Later, the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in his study of the wave nature of light succeeded in expressing waves and the electromagnetic spectrum in a mathematical formula.

text: Wave phenomena in nature have been investigated for centuries, some being some of the most controverted themes in the

text: history of science

text: , and so the case is with the wave nature of

text: light

text: . In the 17th century,

text: Sir Isaac Newton

text: described light through a corpuscular theory. The

text: English

text: physicist

text: Thomas Young

text: later contrasted Newton's theories in the 18th century and established the scientific basis upon which rest the wave theories. At the end of the 19th century, at the peak of the

text: Second Industrial Revolution

text: , the creation of

text: electricity

text: as the technology of the era offered a new contribution to the wave theories. This advance allowed Franz Melde to recognize the phenomena of wave interference and the creation of standing waves. Later, the Scottish physicist

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: in his study of the wave nature of light succeeded in expressing waves and the

text: electromagnetic spectrum

text: in a mathematical formula.

text: A force/acceleration acting on an elastically deformable mass will affect a deformation which depends on its stiffness and the acceleration applied. If the change of this force is slow, the jerk is small, and the propagation of this deformation through the body may be considered instantaneously compared to the change in acceleration. The distorted body acts as if it were in a quasi-static regime. It is the common thread that only a changing force, i.e. a non-zero jerk, can cause mechanical (or on a charged particle: electromagnetic) waves to be radiated. So for non-zero to high jerk a shock wave and its propagation through the body is to be considered. The left picture shows the propagation of a deformation as a compressional, plane wave through an elastically deformable material. For angular jerk the deformation waves are arranged circularly and cause shear stress as shown in the adjacent picture, which also might cause other modes of vibration. As usual with waves, one has to consider their reflections along all boundaries and the emerging interference patterns, i.e. destructive as well as constructive interference, which may lead to exceeding boundaries of structural integrity. As a rough estimate the deformation waves result in vibrations of the whole device and, generally, vibrations cause noise, wear, and, especially in resonance cases, even disruption.

text: A force/acceleration acting on an elastically deformable mass will affect a

text: deformation

text: which depends on its

text: stiffness

text: and the acceleration applied. If the change of this force is slow, the jerk is small, and the propagation of this deformation through the body may be considered instantaneously compared to the change in acceleration. The distorted body acts as if it were in a

text: quasi-static regime

text: . It is the common thread that only a changing force, i.e. a non-zero jerk, can cause mechanical (or on a charged particle: electromagnetic) waves to be radiated. So for non-zero to high jerk a

text: shock wave

text: and its

text: propagation

text: through the body is to be considered. The left picture shows the propagation of a deformation as a compressional,

text: plane wave

text: through an elastically deformable material. For angular jerk the deformation waves are arranged

text: circularly

text: and cause

text: shear stress

text: as shown in the adjacent picture, which also might cause other

text: modes

text: of vibration. As usual with waves, one has to consider their reflections along all boundaries and the emerging

text: interference patterns

text: , i.e. destructive as well as constructive interference, which may lead to exceeding boundaries of

text: structural integrity

text: . As a rough estimate the deformation waves result in

text: vibration

text: s of the whole device and, generally, vibrations cause noise, wear, and, especially in resonance cases, even disruption.

text: Since the Huygens–Fresnel principle states that every point of a wavefront is associated with the production of a new disturbance, it is possible for a wavefront to interfere with itself constructively or destructively at different locations producing bright and dark fringes in regular and predictable patterns. Interferometry is the science of measuring these patterns, usually as a means of making precise determinations of distances or angular resolutions. The Michelson interferometer was a famous instrument which used interference effects to accurately measure the speed of light.

text: Since the

text: Huygens–Fresnel principle

text: states that every point of a wavefront is associated with the production of a new disturbance, it is possible for a wavefront to interfere with itself constructively or destructively at different locations producing bright and dark fringes in regular and predictable patterns.

text: Interferometry

text: is the science of measuring these patterns, usually as a means of making precise determinations of distances or

text: angular resolution

text: s. The

text: Michelson interferometer

text: was a famous instrument which used interference effects to accurately measure the speed of light.

text: When the source of the waves is moving towards the observer, each successive wave crest is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".  Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".

text: When the source of the waves is moving towards the observer, each successive wave

text: crest

text: is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrival of successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the waves "bunch together".  Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is then increased, so the waves "spread out".

text: Stimuli in Stroop paradigms can be divided into 3 groups: neutral, congruent and incongruent. Neutral stimuli are those stimuli in which only the text (similarly to stimuli 1 of Stroop's experiment), or color (similarly to stimuli 3 of Stroop's experiment) are displayed. Congruent stimuli are those in which the ink color and the word refer to the same color (for example the word "pink" written in pink). Incongruent stimuli are those in which ink color and word differ. Three experimental findings are recurrently found in Stroop experiments. A first finding is semantic interference, which states that naming the ink color of neutral stimuli (e.g. when the ink color and word do not interfere with each other) is faster than in incongruent conditions. It is called semantic interference since it is usually accepted that the relationship in meaning between ink color and word is at the root of the interference. The second finding, semantic facilitation, explains the finding that naming the ink of congruent stimuli is faster (e.g. when the ink color and the word match) than when neutral stimuli are present (e.g. stimulus 3; when only a coloured square is shown). The third finding is that both semantic interference and facilitation disappear when the task consists of reading the word instead of naming the ink. It has been sometimes called Stroop asynchrony, and has been explained by a reduced automatization when naming colors compared to reading words.

text: The word "burmashaving" is used in Canada to describe politicians holding signs and waving to traffic by the side of the road, a common sight during election campaigns. One of the first to use the phrase was Nova Scotia Progressive Conservative premier John Buchanan, who would stand at the end of a long line of party signs and wave to morning traffic.

text: The word "burmashaving" is used in

text: Canada

text: to describe politicians holding signs and waving to traffic by the side of the road, a common sight during election campaigns. One of the first to use the phrase was

text: Nova Scotia

entity_name: Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia

text: Progressive Conservative

text: premier

text: John Buchanan

text: , who would stand at the end of a long line of party signs and wave to morning traffic.

text: Interference between X-ray beams can form an X-ray standing wave (XSW) field. Because of the short wavelength of X-rays (less than 1 nanometer), this phenomenon can be exploited for measuring atomic-scale events at material surfaces. The XSW is generated in the region where an X-ray beam interferes with a diffracted beam from a nearly perfect single crystal surface or a reflection from an X-ray mirror. By tuning the crystal geometry or X-ray wavelength, the XSW can be translated in space, causing a shift in the X-ray fluorescence or photoelectron yield from the atoms near the surface. This shift can be analyzed to pinpoint the location of a particular atomic species relative to the underlying crystal structure or mirror surface. The XSW method has been used to clarify the atomic-scale details of dopants in semiconductors, atomic and molecular adsorption on surfaces, and chemical transformations involved in catalysis.

text: Interference between

text: X-ray

text: beams can form an

text: X-ray standing wave

text: (XSW) field. Because of the short wavelength of X-rays (less than 1 nanometer), this phenomenon can be exploited for measuring atomic-scale events at material

text: surfaces

text: . The XSW is generated in the region where an X-ray beam interferes with a

text: diffracted

text: beam from a nearly perfect

text: single crystal

text: surface or a reflection from an

text: X-ray mirror

text: . By tuning the crystal geometry or X-ray wavelength, the XSW can be translated in space, causing a shift in the

text: X-ray fluorescence

text: or

text: photoelectron

text: yield from the atoms near the surface. This shift can be analyzed to pinpoint the location of a particular atomic species relative to the underlying

text: crystal structure

text: or mirror surface. The XSW method has been used to clarify the atomic-scale details of

text: dopants

text: in semiconductors, atomic and molecular

text: adsorption

text: on surfaces, and chemical transformations involved in

text: catalysis

text: Diffraction from a three-dimensional periodic structure such as atoms in a crystal is called Bragg diffraction.It is similar to what occurs when waves are scattered from a diffraction grating. Bragg diffraction is a consequence of interference between waves reflecting from different crystal planes.The condition of constructive interference is given by Bragg's law:

text: Diffraction from a three-dimensional periodic structure such as atoms in a crystal is called

text: Bragg diffraction

text: .It is similar to what occurs when waves are scattered from a

text: diffraction grating

text: . Bragg diffraction is a consequence of interference between waves reflecting from different crystal planes.The condition of constructive interference is given by Bragg's law:

text: The closest method to the digital holographic interference microscopy is the digital holographic microscopy. The both method solve the same problem of micro-object 3D imaging. Both method use the reference wave to obtain phase information.The digital holographic interference microscopy is more "optical" method. This makes this method more obvious and precise, it uses clear and simple numerical algorithms.The digital holographic microscopy is more "digital" method. It is not so obvious; application of complicated approximate numerical algorithms does not allow reaching the optical accuracy.

text: The closest method to the digital holographic interference microscopy is the

text: digital holographic microscopy

text: . The both method solve the same problem of micro-object 3D imaging. Both method use the reference wave to obtain phase information.The digital holographic interference microscopy is more "optical" method. This makes this method more obvious and precise, it uses clear and simple numerical algorithms.The digital holographic microscopy is more "digital" method. It is not so obvious; application of complicated approximate numerical algorithms does not allow reaching the optical accuracy.

text: The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characterized by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction, from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously in 1665. Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory (1638–1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first diffraction grating. In 1803 Thomas Young did his famous experiment observing interference from two closely spaced slits in his double slit interferometer. Explaining his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves. Augustin-Jean Fresnel did more definitive studies and calculations of diffraction, published in 1815 and 1818, and thereby gave great support to the wave theory of light that had been advanced by Christiaan Huygens and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's particle theory.

text: The effects of

text: diffraction

text: of light were first carefully observed and characterized by

text: Francesco Maria Grimaldi

text: , who also coined the term diffraction, from the Latin diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously in 1665.

text: Isaac Newton

text: studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion of light rays.

text: James Gregory

text: (1638–1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused by a bird feather, which was effectively the first

text: diffraction grating

text: . In 1803

text: Thomas Young

text: did his famous experiment observing interference from two closely spaced slits in his

text: double slit interferometer

text: . Explaining his results by interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced that light must propagate as waves.

text: Augustin-Jean Fresnel

text: did more definitive studies and calculations of diffraction, published in 1815 and 1818, and thereby gave great support to the wave theory of light that had been advanced by

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's particle theory.

text: The sum of two counter-propagating waves (of equal amplitude and frequency) creates a standing wave.  Standing waves commonly arise when a boundary blocks further propagation of the wave, thus causing wave reflection, and therefore introducing a counter-propagating wave.  For example, when a violin string is displaced, transverse waves propagate out to where the string is held in place at the bridge and the nut, where the waves are reflected back.  At the bridge and nut, the two opposed waves are in antiphase and cancel each other, producing a node. Halfway between two nodes there is an antinode, where the two counter-propagating waves enhance each other maximally. There is no net propagation of energy over time.

text: The sum of two counter-propagating waves (of equal amplitude and frequency) creates a standing wave.  Standing waves commonly arise when a boundary blocks further propagation of the wave, thus causing wave reflection, and therefore introducing a counter-propagating wave.  For example, when a

text: violin

text: string is displaced, transverse waves propagate out to where the string is held in place at the

text: bridge

text: and the

text: nut

text: , where the waves are reflected back.  At the bridge and nut, the two opposed waves are in

text: antiphase

text: and cancel each other, producing a

text: node

text: . Halfway between two nodes there is an

text: antinode

text: , where the two counter-propagating waves enhance each other maximally. There is no net

text: propagation of energy

text: over time.

text: Almost periodic function – Amplitude modulation – Amplitude – Beat – Chaos theory – Cyclic group – Diffraction – Doppler effect – Eigenstate – Eigenvalue – Fibonacci sequence – Fourier series – Frequency domain – Frequency spectrum – Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) – Harmonic oscillator – Huygens–Fresnel principle – Longitudinal wave – Mechanical wave – Navier–Stokes equations – Partial differential equation – Periodic function – Permutation – Phase (waves) – Physics of music – Power spectrum – Signal – Sine wave – Spectrum of an operator – Translational symmetry – Transverse wave – Wave equation – Wave–particle duality – Wave – Waveform

text: Almost periodic function

text: Amplitude modulation

text: Amplitude

text: Beat

text: Chaos theory

text: Cyclic group

text: Diffraction

text: Doppler effect

text: Eigenstate

text: Eigenvalue

text: Fibonacci sequence

text: Fourier series

text: Frequency domain

text: Frequency spectrum

text: Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)

text: Harmonic oscillator

text: Huygens–Fresnel principle

text: Longitudinal wave

text: Mechanical wave

text: Navier–Stokes equations

text: Partial differential equation

text: Periodic function

text: Permutation

text: Phase (waves)

text: Physics of music

text: Power spectrum

text: Signal

text: Sine wave

text: Spectrum of an operator

text: Translational symmetry

text: Transverse wave

text: Wave equation

text: Wave–particle duality

text: Wave

text: Waveform

text: Flexural wave modes have sinusoidal variation in their displacement pattern around the circumference, in integer values ranging from 1 to Infinity. Active focusing involves the transmission of multiple flexural wave modes, with time and amplitude corrections applied, in such a way that a circumferential node from each wave mode will arrive at the target position at the same time, the same circumferential position and with the same phase, causing constructive interference. At other circumferential positions the circumferential nodes of the flexural wave modes will arrive out of phase with each other and will interfere destructively. Adjusting the excitation conditions can rotate this focal spot around the pipes circumference. Comparing the response from different circumferential positions can allow the operator to more accurately predict the circumferential position and extent of a defect.

text: At the same time, the dendritic network is extremely complex, able to receive 100,000 to 200,000 inputs in a single tree, due to the large amount of branching and the many dendritic spines protruding from the branches. Furthermore, synaptic hyperpolarization and depolarization remains somewhat isolated due to the resistance from the narrow dendritic spine stalk, allowing a polarization to spread without much interruption to the other spines. This spread is further aided intracellularly by the microtubules and extracellularly by glial cells. These polarizations act as waves in the synaptodendritic network, and the existence of multiple waves at once gives rise to interference patterns.

text: At the same time, the dendritic network is extremely complex, able to receive 100,000 to 200,000 inputs in a single tree, due to the large amount of branching and the many dendritic spines protruding from the branches. Furthermore, synaptic

text: hyperpolarization

text: and

text: depolarization

text: remains somewhat isolated due to the resistance from the narrow dendritic spine stalk, allowing a polarization to spread without much interruption to the other spines. This spread is further aided intracellularly by the

text: microtubules

text: and extracellularly by

text: glial cells

text: . These polarizations act as waves in the synaptodendritic network, and the existence of multiple waves at once gives rise to interference patterns.

text: In optics two beams of light are said to interfere coherently, when the phase difference between their waves is constant; if this phase difference is random or changing the beams are incoherent.

text: A standing wave is a special kind of wave that can occur in a resonator. In a resonator superposition of the incident and reflective wave occurs, causing a standing wave. Pressure and particle velocity are 90 degrees out of phase in a standing wave.

text: A

text: standing wave

text: is a special kind of wave that can occur in a

text: resonator

text: . In a resonator

text: superposition

text: of the incident and reflective wave occurs, causing a standing wave. Pressure and particle velocity are 90 degrees out of phase in a standing wave.

text: Photons, like all quantum objects, exhibit wave-like and particle-like properties. Their dual wave–particle nature can be difficult to visualize. The photon displays clearly wave-like phenomena such as diffraction and interference on the length scale of its wavelength. For example, a single photon passing through a double-slit experiment exhibits interference phenomena but only if no measure was made at the slit. A single photon passing through a double-slit experiment lands on the screen with a probability distribution given by its interference pattern determined by Maxwell's equations. However, experiments confirm that the photon is not a short pulse of electromagnetic radiation; it does not spread out as it propagates, nor does it divide when it encounters a beam splitter. Rather, the photon seems to be a point-like particle since it is absorbed or emitted as a whole by arbitrarily small systems, systems much smaller than its wavelength, such as an atomic nucleus (≈10 m across) or even the point-like electron. Nevertheless, the photon is not a point-like particle whose trajectory is shaped probabilistically by the electromagnetic field, as conceived by Einstein and others; that hypothesis was also refuted by the photon-correlation experiments cited above. According to our present understanding, the electromagnetic field itself is produced by photons, which in turn result from a local gauge symmetry and the laws of quantum field theory (see the Second quantization and Gauge boson sections below).

text: Photons, like all quantum objects, exhibit wave-like and particle-like properties. Their dual wave–particle nature can be difficult to visualize. The photon displays clearly wave-like phenomena such as

text: diffraction

text: and

text: interference

text: on the length scale of its wavelength. For example, a single photon passing through a

text: double-slit experiment

text: exhibits interference phenomena but only if no measure was made at the slit. A single photon passing through a double-slit experiment lands on the screen with a

text: probability distribution

text: given by its interference pattern determined by

text: Maxwell's equations

text: . However, experiments confirm that the photon is not a short pulse of electromagnetic radiation; it does not spread out as it propagates, nor does it divide when it encounters a

text: beam splitter

text: . Rather, the photon seems to be a

text: point-like particle

text: since it is absorbed or emitted as a whole by arbitrarily small systems, systems much smaller than its wavelength, such as an atomic nucleus (≈10 m across) or even the point-like

text: electron

text: . Nevertheless, the photon is not a point-like particle whose trajectory is shaped probabilistically by the

text: electromagnetic field

text: , as conceived by

text: Einstein

text: and others; that hypothesis was also refuted by the photon-correlation experiments cited above. According to our present understanding, the electromagnetic field itself is produced by photons, which in turn result from a local

text: gauge symmetry

text: and the laws of

text: quantum field theory

text: (see the

text: Second quantization

text: and

text: Gauge boson

text: sections below).

text: Classically, Fermat's principle can be considered as a mathematical consequence of Huygens' principle. Indeed, of all secondary waves (along all possible paths) the waves with the extrema (stationary) paths contribute most due to constructive interference. Suppose that light waves propagate from A to B by all possible routes AB, unrestricted initially by rules of geometrical or physical optics. The various optical paths AB will vary by amounts greatly in excess of one wavelength, and so the waves arriving at B will have a large range of phases and will tend to interfere destructively. But if there is a shortest route AB, and the optical path varies smoothly through it, then a considerable number of neighboring routes close to AB will have optical paths differing from AB by second-order amounts only and will therefore interfere constructively. Waves along and close to this shortest route will thus dominate and AB will be the route along which the light is seen to travel.

text: Classically, Fermat's principle can be considered as a mathematical consequence of

text: Huygens' principle

text: . Indeed, of all secondary waves (along all possible paths) the waves with the extrema (stationary) paths contribute most due to constructive interference. Suppose that light waves propagate from A to B by all possible routes AB, unrestricted initially by rules of geometrical or physical optics. The various optical paths AB will vary by amounts greatly in excess of one wavelength, and so the waves arriving at B will have a large range of phases and will tend to interfere destructively. But if there is a shortest route AB, and the optical path varies smoothly through it, then a considerable number of neighboring routes close to AB will have optical paths differing from AB by second-order amounts only and will therefore interfere constructively. Waves along and close to this shortest route will thus dominate and AB will be the route along which the light is seen to travel.

text: In optics a ray is an idealized model of light, obtained by choosing a line that is perpendicular to the wavefronts of the actual light, and that points in the direction of energy flow.  Rays are used to model the propagation of light through an optical system, by dividing the real light field up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of ray tracing. This allows even very complex optical systems to be analyzed mathematically or simulated by computer.  Ray tracing uses approximate solutions to Maxwell's equations that are valid as long as the light waves propagate through and around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the light's wavelength.  Ray theory does not describe phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which require wave theory (involving the relative phase of the rays).

text: In

text: optics

text: a ray is an idealized model of

text: light

text: , obtained by choosing a line that is perpendicular to the

text: wavefront

text: s of the actual light, and that points in the direction of energy flow.  Rays are used to model the

text: propagation of light

text: through an optical system, by dividing the real

text: light field

text: up into discrete rays that can be computationally propagated through the system by the techniques of

text: ray tracing

text: . This allows even very complex optical systems to be analyzed mathematically or simulated by computer.  Ray tracing uses approximate solutions to

text: Maxwell's equations

text: that are valid as long as the

text: light wave

text: s propagate through and around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the light's

text: wavelength

text: .  Ray theory does not describe phenomena such as

text: interference

text: and

text: diffraction

text: , which require

text: wave theory

text: (involving the relative

text: phase

text: of the rays).

text: equals one, the two waves are in phase and they interfere constructively. When it is zero, they are out of phase and interfere destructively. Beats occur also in more complex sounds, or in sounds of different volumes, though calculating them mathematically is not so easy.

text: equals one, the two waves are in phase and they

text: interfere

text: constructively. When it is zero, they are out of phase and interfere destructively. Beats occur also in more complex sounds, or in sounds of different volumes, though calculating them mathematically is not so easy.

text: The case began when AMS filed a complaint in California state court against Kevin Gagnon, doing business as Mister Computer, two of his employees, and Gagnon’s new company, National Marketing Technologies, alleging, among other things, misappropriation of trade secrets and conversion. Gagnon removed the case to federal court and then filed counterclaims, alleging copyright infringement, unfair competition under California law, misappropriation of trade secrets, interference with contractual relations, intentional interference with prospective business advantage, and negligent interference with prospective business advantage, and seeking accounting and declaratory relief declaring Gagnon the copyright owner of the programs.

text: The case began when AMS filed a complaint in California state court against Kevin Gagnon,

text: doing business as

text: Mister Computer, two of his employees, and Gagnon’s new company, National Marketing Technologies, alleging, among other things, misappropriation of trade secrets and conversion. Gagnon removed the case to federal court and then filed counterclaims, alleging copyright infringement, unfair competition under California law, misappropriation of trade secrets, interference with contractual relations, intentional interference with prospective business advantage, and negligent interference with prospective business advantage, and seeking accounting and declaratory relief declaring Gagnon the copyright owner of the programs.

text: Standing waves can be mechanically induced into solid medium using resonance.  One easy to understand example is two people shaking either end of a jump rope.  If they shake in sync, the rope will form a regular pattern with nodes and antinodes and appear to be stationary, hence the name standing wave.  Similarly a cantilever beam can have a standing wave imposed on it by applying a base excitation. In this case the free end moves the greatest distance laterally compared to any location along the beam.  Such a device can be used as a sensor to track changes in frequency or phase of the resonance of the fiber. One application is as a measurement device for dimensional metrology.

text: Standing waves can be mechanically induced into solid medium using resonance.  One easy to understand example is two people shaking either end of a jump rope.  If they shake in sync, the rope will form a regular pattern with nodes and antinodes and appear to be stationary, hence the name standing wave.  Similarly a cantilever beam can have a standing wave imposed on it by applying a base excitation. In this case the free end moves the greatest distance laterally compared to any location along the beam.  Such a device can be used as a

text: sensor

text: to track changes in

text: frequency

text: or

text: phase

text: of the resonance of the fiber. One application is as a measurement device for

text: dimensional metrology

text: A point source produces a spherical wave.  If the light from two point sources overlaps, the interference pattern maps out the way in which the phase difference between the two waves varies in space. This depends on the wavelength and on the separation of the point sources.  The figure to the right shows interference between two spherical waves.  The wavelength increases from top to bottom, and the distance between the sources increases from left to right.

text: A

text: point source

text: produces a spherical wave.  If the light from two point sources overlaps, the interference pattern maps out the way in which the phase difference between the two waves varies in space. This depends on the wavelength and on the separation of the point sources.  The figure to the right shows interference between two spherical waves.  The wavelength increases from top to bottom, and the distance between the sources increases from left to right.

text: The formation of a mach stem is one example of constructive interference. Whenever a blast wave reflects off of a surface, such as a building wall or the inside of a vehicle, different reflected waves can interact with each other to cause an increase in pressure at a certain point (constructive interference) or a decrease (destructive interference). In this way the interaction of blast waves is similar to that of sound waves or water waves.

text: High-reflection (HR) coatings work the opposite way to antireflection coatings. The general idea is usually based on the periodic layer system composed from two materials, one with a high index, such as zinc sulfide (n=2.32) or titanium dioxide (n=2.4) and low index material, such as magnesium fluoride (n=1.38) or silicon dioxide (n=1.49). This periodic system significantly enhances the reflectivity of the surface in the certain wavelength range called band-stop, whose width is determined by the ratio of the two used indices only (for quarter-wave system), while the maximum reflectivity is increasing nearly up to 100% with a number of layers in the stack. The thicknesses of the layers are generally quarter-wave (then they yield to the broadest high reflection band in compare to the non-quarter-wave systems composed from the same materials), this time designed such that reflected beams constructively interfere with one another to maximize reflection and minimize transmission. The best of these coatings built-up from deposited dielectric lossless materials on the perfect smooth surfaces can reach reflectivities greater than 99.999% (over a fairly narrow range of wavelengths). Common HR coatings can achieve 99.9% reflectivity over a broad wavelength range (tens of nanometers in the visible spectrum range).

text: High-reflection (HR) coatings work the opposite way to antireflection coatings. The general idea is usually based on the periodic layer system composed from two materials, one with a high index, such as

text: zinc sulfide

text: (n=2.32) or

text: titanium dioxide

text: (n=2.4) and low index material, such as

text: magnesium fluoride

text: (n=1.38) or

text: silicon dioxide

text: (n=1.49). This periodic system significantly enhances the reflectivity of the surface in the certain wavelength range called

text: band-stop

text: , whose width is determined by the ratio of the two used indices only (for quarter-wave system), while the maximum reflectivity is increasing nearly up to 100% with a number of layers in the stack. The thicknesses of the layers are generally quarter-wave (then they yield to the broadest high reflection band in compare to the non-quarter-wave systems composed from the same materials), this time designed such that reflected beams constructively interfere with one another to maximize reflection and minimize transmission. The best of these coatings built-up from deposited dielectric lossless materials on the perfect smooth surfaces can reach reflectivities greater than 99.999% (over a fairly narrow range of wavelengths). Common HR coatings can achieve 99.9% reflectivity over a broad wavelength range (tens of nanometers in the visible spectrum range).

text: The more common standing edge waves are subharmonic and these can have a wave period twice that of the incoming wave. This produces a far more complex system of waves as by the time the incoming wave has completed one cycle from peak to trough, the standing edge waves have done two. So what started as the peak of a standing edge wave within the trough of the incoming wave will change to a trough before the incoming wave has changed so what was initially being given a boost in height now experiences a drop.  Essentially what this means is that there are a regularly spaced series of peaks and troughs along the length on the incoming wave that are caused by its interaction with the standing edge waves and it is these that caused the development of beach cusps.

text: The more common standing edge waves are

text: subharmonic

text: and these can have a wave period twice that of the incoming wave. This produces a far more complex system of waves as by the time the incoming wave has completed one cycle from peak to trough, the standing edge waves have done two. So what started as the peak of a standing edge wave within the trough of the incoming wave will change to a trough before the incoming wave has changed so what was initially being given a boost in height now experiences a drop.  Essentially what this means is that there are a regularly spaced series of peaks and troughs along the length on the incoming wave that are caused by its interaction with the standing edge waves and it is these that caused the development of beach cusps.

text: Sonnet 64 is a great example of why people always say "You should never let your past interfere with your present". Barret argues that sonnet 64 "provides an example of past-oriented natural habitats that might interfere with the productive considerations of the future". In other words, because the speaker is letting the past overwhelm his thoughts, he therefore cannot think positively about the future due to past habits or tendencies. Unlike some of the other sonnets addressed to the young man, sonnet 64 moves toward a feeling of the lover's exposure to the risk of being destroyed. Barret also argues that the phonetic play between ruminate and ruinate is as she says an "underscore a relationship inherent in the poem’s logic", "Each quatrain of the sonnet open with the same construction — "When I have seen" — yet these statements are never met with a summational "then", so the temporal ambiguity the phrase creates the remains unresolved: Does the speaker gesture toward repeated past actions ('in the instances that I have seen') or forward to a causational limit point ('once I have seen')?". When we read the lines that pertain to the waves and the shore, "at times the waves are winning against the shore, and then at times the shore is winning against the waves", the speaker almost speaks in a tone of confidence and determination to not let time control his life. Although when he goes to say Time will take my love away we begin to get a sense of uncertainty within the speaker. This uncertainty within the speaker is described by Barret when she argues "The sonnet registers temporal matters in personal terms; the couplet never corrects the poem's grammatically obscured engagement with time, but instead introduces a paralyzing temporal collapse: the present moment becomes overwhelmed by an anticipation of future loss—an extreme version of 'I miss you already.'.... The ruin/ruminate pairing bespeaks a suspicion of an imagined time spent looking back".

text: and constructive interference occurs at the Laue condition:

text: Some engines convert heat from noncombustive processes into mechanical work, for example a nuclear power plant uses the heat from the nuclear reaction to produce steam and drive a steam engine, or a gas turbine in a rocket engine may be driven by decomposing hydrogen peroxide. Apart from the different energy source, the engine is often engineered much the same as an internal or external combustion engine. Another group of noncombustive engines includes thermoacoustic heat engines (sometimes called "TA engines") which are thermoacoustic devices which use high-amplitude sound waves to pump heat from one place to another, or conversely use a heat difference to induce high-amplitude sound waves. In general, thermoacoustic engines can be divided into standing wave and travelling wave devices.

text: Some engines convert heat from noncombustive processes into mechanical work, for example a nuclear power plant uses the heat from the nuclear reaction to produce steam and drive a steam engine, or a gas turbine in a rocket engine may be driven by decomposing

text: hydrogen peroxide

text: . Apart from the different energy source, the engine is often engineered much the same as an internal or external combustion engine. Another group of noncombustive engines includes

text: thermoacoustic heat engine

text: s (sometimes called "TA engines") which are thermoacoustic devices which use high-amplitude sound waves to pump heat from one place to another, or conversely use a heat difference to induce high-amplitude sound waves. In general, thermoacoustic engines can be divided into standing wave and travelling wave devices.

text: SFN transmission can be considered as a severe form of multipath propagation. The radio receiver receives several echoes of the same signal, and the constructive or destructive interference among these echoes (also known as self-interference) may result in fading. This is problematic especially in wideband communication and high-data rate digital communications, since the fading in that case is frequency-selective (as opposed to flat fading), and since the time spreading of the echoes may result in intersymbol interference (ISI). Fading and ISI can be avoided by means of diversity schemes and equalization filters.

text: SFN transmission can be considered as a severe form of

text: multipath propagation

text: . The radio receiver receives several echoes of the same signal, and the constructive or destructive

text: interference

text: among these echoes (also known as self-interference) may result in

text: fading

text: . This is problematic especially in

text: wideband

text: communication and high-data rate digital communications, since the fading in that case is frequency-selective (as opposed to flat fading), and since the time spreading of the echoes may result in

text: intersymbol interference

text: (ISI). Fading and ISI can be avoided by means of

text: diversity scheme

text: s and

text: equalization filter

text: s.

text: The quintessential example of wave–particle complementarity in the laboratory is the double slit. The crux of the complementary behavior is the question: "What information exists – embedded in the constituents of the universe – that can reveal the history of the signal particles as they pass through the double slit?" If information exists (even if it is not measured by a conscious observer) that reveals "which slit" each particle traversed, then each particle will exhibit no wave interference with the other slit. This is the particle-like behavior. But if no information exists about which slit – so that no conscious observer, no matter how well equipped, will ever be able to determine which slit each particle traverses – then the signal particles will interfere with themselves as if they traveled through both slits at the same time, as a wave. This is the wave-like behavior. These behaviors are complementary, according to the Englert–Greenberger duality relation, because when one behavior is observed the other is absent. Both behaviors can be observed at the same time, but each only as lesser manifestations of their full behavior (as determined by the duality relation). This superposition of complementary behaviors exists whenever there is partial "which slit" information. While there is some contention to the duality relation, and thus complementarity itself, the contrary position is not accepted by mainstream physics. Double slit experiments with single photons show clearly that photons are particles at the same time as they are waves. The Photons impact the screen where they are detected in points and when enough points have accumulated the wave aspect is clearly visible. Also the particle and wave aspect is seen at the same time in photons that are stationary.

text: The quintessential example of wave–particle complementarity in the laboratory is the

text: double slit

text: . The crux of the complementary behavior is the question: "What information exists – embedded in the constituents of the universe – that can reveal the history of the signal particles as they pass through the double slit?" If information exists (even if it

text: is not measured by a conscious observer

text: ) that reveals "which slit" each particle traversed, then each particle will exhibit no wave interference with the other slit. This is the particle-like behavior. But if no information exists about which slit – so that no conscious observer, no matter how well equipped, will ever be able to determine which slit each particle traverses – then the signal particles will interfere with themselves as if they traveled through both slits at the same time, as a wave. This is the wave-like behavior. These behaviors are complementary, according to the

text: Englert–Greenberger duality relation

text: , because when one behavior is observed the other is absent. Both behaviors can be observed at the same time, but each only as lesser manifestations of their full behavior (as determined by the duality relation). This superposition of complementary behaviors exists whenever there is partial "which slit" information. While there is some contention to the duality relation, and thus complementarity itself, the

text: contrary position

text: is not accepted by mainstream physics. Double slit experiments with single photons show clearly that photons are particles at the same time as they are waves. The Photons impact the screen where they are detected in points and when enough points have accumulated the wave aspect is clearly visible. Also the particle and wave aspect is seen at the same time in photons that are stationary.

text: The power of the courts to interfere in labour disputes is through the injunction and punishment thereunder for contempt of court. It is a principle of law that when there are interferences, actual or threatened, with property or with rights of a pecuniary nature, and the common or statute law offers no adequate and immediate remedy for the prevention of injury, a court of equity may interpose and issue its order or injunction as to what must or must not be done, a violation of which writ gives the court which issued it the power to punish for contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted to frequently for the indirect protection of employees and of employers.

text: The power of the courts to interfere in labour disputes is through the

text: injunction

text: and punishment thereunder for contempt of court. It is a principle of law that when there are interferences, actual or threatened, with property or with rights of a pecuniary nature, and the common or statute law offers no adequate and immediate remedy for the prevention of injury, a court of

text: equity

text: may interpose and issue its order or injunction as to what must or must not be done, a violation of which

text: writ

text: gives the court which issued it the power to punish for contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted to frequently for the indirect protection of employees and of employers.

text: Spatial coherence describes the correlation (or predictable relationship) between waves at different points in space, either lateral or longitudinal. Temporal coherence describes the correlation between waves observed at different moments in time. Both are observed in the Michelson–Morley experiment and Young's interference experiment. Once the fringes are obtained in the Michelson interferometer, when one of the mirrors is moved away gradually, the time for the beam to travel increases and the fringes become dull and finally are lost, showing temporal coherence. Similarly, if in a double-slit experiment, the space between the two slits is increased, the coherence dies gradually and finally the fringes disappear, showing spatial coherence.  In both cases, the fringe amplitude slowly disappears, as the path difference increases past the coherence length.

text: Spatial coherence describes the correlation (or predictable relationship) between waves at different points in space, either lateral or longitudinal. Temporal coherence describes the correlation between waves observed at different moments in time. Both are observed in the

text: Michelson–Morley experiment

text: and

text: Young's interference experiment

text: . Once the fringes are obtained in the

text: Michelson interferometer

text: , when one of the mirrors is moved away gradually, the time for the beam to travel increases and the fringes become dull and finally are lost, showing temporal coherence. Similarly, if in a

text: double-slit experiment

text: , the space between the two slits is increased, the coherence dies gradually and finally the fringes disappear, showing spatial coherence.  In both cases, the fringe amplitude slowly disappears, as the path difference increases past the coherence length.

text: An acoustic travelling wave can be reflected by a solid surface. If a travelling wave is reflected, the reflected wave can interfere with the incident wave causing a standing wave in the near field. As a consequence, the local pressure in the near field is doubled, and the particle velocity becomes zero.

text: An acoustic travelling wave can be

text: reflected

text: by a solid surface. If a travelling wave is reflected, the reflected wave can interfere with the incident wave causing a standing wave in the

text: near field

text: . As a consequence, the local pressure in the near field is doubled, and the particle velocity becomes zero.

text: In most antennas, the radiation from the different parts of the antenna interferes at some angles.  This results in zero radiation at certain angles where the radio waves from the different parts arrive out of phase,  and  local maxima of radiation at other angles where the radio waves arrive in phase.  Therefore the radiation plot of most antennas shows a pattern of maxima called "lobes" at various angles, separated by "nulls" at which the radiation goes to zero.

text: In most antennas, the radiation from the different parts of the antenna

text: interferes

text: at some angles.  This results in zero radiation at certain angles where the radio waves from the different parts arrive

text: out of phase

text: ,  and

text: local maxima

text: of radiation at other angles where the radio waves arrive

text: in phase

text: .  Therefore the radiation plot of most antennas shows a pattern of maxima called "lobes" at various angles, separated by "

text: s" at which the radiation goes to zero.

text: Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference, when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information and proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information.  Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate learning of new information.  Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as French – this phenomenon is known as positive transfer.

text: Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is

text: retroactive interference

text: , when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information and proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information.  Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate learning of new information.  Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as French – this phenomenon is known as positive transfer.

text: The sum of ground wave and first hop wave displays an interference pattern with interference minima if the difference between the ray paths of ground and first sky wave is half a wavelength (or a phase difference of 180°). The last interference minimum on the ground (z = 0) between the ground wave and the first sky wave is at a horizontal  distance of

text: Green Bank is in the United States National Radio Quiet Zone, which is coordinated by NRAO for protection of the Green Bank site as well as the Sugar Grove, West Virginia monitoring site operated by the NSA.  The zone consists of a  piece of land where fixed transmitters must coordinate their emissions before a license is granted.  The land was set aside by the Federal Communications Commission in 1958.  No fixed radio transmitters are allowed within the area closest to the telescope.  All other fixed radio transmitters including TV and radio towers inside the zone are required to transmit such that interference at the antennas is minimized by methods including limited power and using highly directional antennas.  With the advent of wireless technology and microprocessors in everything from cameras to cars, it is difficult to keep the sites free of radio interference.  To aid in limiting outside interference, the area surrounding the Green Bank observatory was at one time planted with pines characterized by needles of a certain length to block electromagnetic interference at the wavelengths used by the observatory.  At one point, the observatory faced the problem of North American flying squirrels tagged with US Fish & Wildlife Service telemetry transmitters.  Electric fences, electric blankets, faulty automobile electronics, and other radio wave emitters have caused great trouble for the astronomers in Green Bank.  All vehicles on the premises are powered by diesel motors to minimize interference by ignition systems.

text: Green Bank is in the

text: United States National Radio Quiet Zone

text: , which is coordinated by NRAO for protection of the Green Bank site as well as the

text: Sugar Grove, West Virginia

text: monitoring site operated by the

text: NSA

text: .  The zone consists of a  piece of land where fixed transmitters must coordinate their emissions before a license is granted.  The land was set aside by the

text: Federal Communications Commission

text: in 1958.  No fixed radio transmitters are allowed within the area closest to the telescope.  All other fixed radio transmitters including TV and radio towers inside the zone are required to transmit such that interference at the antennas is minimized by methods including limited power and using highly directional antennas.  With the advent of

text: wireless

text: technology and microprocessors in everything from cameras to cars, it is difficult to keep the sites free of radio interference.  To aid in limiting outside interference, the area surrounding the Green Bank observatory was at one time planted with pines characterized by needles of a certain length to block electromagnetic interference at the wavelengths used by the observatory.  At one point, the observatory faced the problem of

text: North American flying squirrels

text: tagged with

text: US Fish & Wildlife Service

text: telemetry transmitters.  Electric fences, electric blankets, faulty automobile electronics, and other radio wave emitters have caused great trouble for the astronomers in Green Bank.  All vehicles on the premises are powered by diesel motors to minimize interference by ignition systems.

text: In the fall of 1922, Taylor and Leo C. Young were conducting communication experiments at the Aircraft Radio Laboratory when they noticed that a wooden ship in the Potomac River was interfering with their signals; in effect, they had demonstrated the first continuous wave (CW) interference detector.  The next year the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) was founded and Taylor became head of its Radio Division. In the early 1930s, the idea of pulsing a transmitter to provide both detection and range measurement occurred to Taylor and Young, as it had to German and British scientists. Taylor instructed an assistant, Robert Morris Page to construct a working prototype; this was demonstrated in December 1934, detecting an airplane at a distance of one mile. By 1937, his team had developed a practical shipboard radar that became known as CXAM radar - a technology very similar to that of Britain's Chain Home radar system.

text: In the fall of 1922, Taylor and

text: Leo C. Young

text: were conducting communication experiments at the Aircraft Radio Laboratory when they noticed that a wooden ship in the Potomac River was interfering with their signals; in effect, they had demonstrated the first continuous wave (CW) interference detector.  The next year the

text: U.S. Naval Research Laboratory

text: (NRL) was founded and Taylor became head of its Radio Division. In the early 1930s, the idea of pulsing a transmitter to provide both detection and range measurement occurred to Taylor and Young, as it had to German and British scientists. Taylor instructed an assistant,

text: Robert Morris Page

text: to construct a working prototype; this was demonstrated in December 1934, detecting an airplane at a distance of one mile. By 1937, his team had developed a practical shipboard radar that became known as

text: CXAM radar

text: - a technology very similar to that of Britain's

text: Chain Home

text: radar system.

text: . A plane wave impinges on a site, and a spherical wave exits it. The outgoing wave from the crystal is determined by the constructive interference of the waves from the sites. Advances to this theory involve the inclusion of higher-order terms in the total scattering matrix

text: Scanning near-field ultrasound holography combines atomic force acoustic microscopy and ultrasonic force microscopy. Two transducers producing high frequencies are used. Usually frequency is higher than the resonant frequency of the cantilever. One transducer is placed below the sample and the other attached to the cantilever.  The cantilever can be called as SPM acoustic antenna which senses the interference of acoustic waves sent by the transducers. The interference of these waves forms surface acoustic standing waves. The wave's frequencies are slightly different. The perturbations to phase and amplitude of the surface acoustic standing wave are locally monitored by the antenna via the lock-in approach and the SPM electronic module. This electronic module was developed by Shekhawat and Dravid. It was implemented with a radio frequency (RF) lock in approach.

text: Scanning near-field ultrasound holography combines

text: atomic force acoustic microscopy

text: and

text: ultrasonic force microscopy

text: . Two

text: transducers

text: producing high frequencies are used. Usually frequency is higher than the

text: resonant frequency

text: of the cantilever. One transducer is placed below the sample and the other attached to the cantilever.  The cantilever can be called as SPM

text: acoustic

text: antenna which senses the interference of acoustic waves sent by the transducers. The interference of these waves forms surface acoustic

text: standing waves

text: . The wave's

text: frequencies

text: are slightly different. The

text: perturbations

text: to

text: phase

text: and

text: amplitude

text: of the surface acoustic standing wave are locally monitored by the antenna via the lock-in approach and the SPM electronic module. This electronic module was developed by Shekhawat and Dravid. It was implemented with a

text: radio frequency

text: (RF) lock in approach.

text: The blast wind at sea level may exceed one thousand km/h, or ~300 m/s, approaching the speed of sound in air. The range for blast effects increases with the explosive yield of the weapon and also depends on the burst altitude. Contrary to what one might expect from geometry, the blast range is not maximal for surface or low altitude blasts but increases with altitude up to an "optimum burst altitude" and then decreases rapidly for higher altitudes. This is due to the nonlinear behaviour of shock waves. When the blast wave from an air burst reaches the ground it is reflected. Below a certain reflection angle the reflected wave and the direct wave merge and form a reinforced horizontal wave, this is known as the 'Mach stem' (named after Ernst Mach) and is a form of constructive interference. This constructive interference is the phenomenon responsible for the bumps or 'knees' in the above overpressure range graph.

text: The blast wind at sea level may exceed one thousand km/h, or ~300 m/s, approaching the

text: speed of sound

text: in air. The range for blast effects increases with the explosive yield of the weapon and also depends on the burst altitude. Contrary to what one might expect from geometry, the blast range is not maximal for surface or low altitude blasts but increases with altitude up to an "optimum burst altitude" and then decreases rapidly for higher altitudes. This is due to the nonlinear behaviour of shock waves. When the blast wave from an air burst reaches the ground it is reflected. Below a certain reflection angle the reflected wave and the direct wave merge and form a reinforced horizontal wave, this is known as the 'Mach stem' (named after

text: Ernst Mach

text: ) and is a form of

text: constructive interference

text: . This constructive interference is the phenomenon responsible for the bumps or 'knees' in the above overpressure range graph.

text: Trespass to goods is defined as "wrongful physical interference with goods that are in the possession of another". It is covered not only by the common law, but also by the Torts (Interference with Goods) Act 1977, which was written to clear up the confusing rules on trespass to goods which had evolved over the centuries. It is similar to the tort of conversion, which covers the interference with goods in a way which is inconsistent with the rights of the owner. "Physical interference" is usually the taking or destroying of goods, but can be as minor as touching or moving them in the right circumstances. In Kirk v Gregory, the defendant moved jewellery from one room to another, where it was stolen. The deceased owner's executor successfully sued her for trespass to goods. Goods cover almost any physical object, including animals, as in Slater v Swann, but not organs, as in AB & Ors v Leeds Teaching Hospital NHS Trust. "Possession" has the standard legal meaning, referring to the claimant's right to use, control or deal with the item. This can include owners, but also bailees.

text: Trespass to goods is defined as "wrongful physical interference with goods that are in the possession of another". It is covered not only by the common law, but also by the

entity_name: Torts (Interference with Goods) Act 1977

text: Torts (Interference with Goods) Act 1977

text: , which was written to clear up the confusing rules on trespass to goods which had evolved over the centuries. It is similar to the tort of

text: conversion

text: , which covers the interference with goods in a way which is inconsistent with the rights of the owner. "Physical interference" is usually the taking or destroying of goods, but can be as minor as touching or moving them in the right circumstances. In

text: Kirk v Gregory

text: , the defendant moved jewellery from one room to another, where it was stolen. The deceased owner's executor successfully sued her for trespass to goods. Goods cover almost any physical object, including animals, as in

text: Slater v Swann

text: , but not organs, as in

text: AB & Ors v Leeds Teaching Hospital NHS Trust

text: . "Possession" has the standard legal meaning, referring to the claimant's right to use, control or deal with the item. This can include owners, but also

text: bailee

text: s.

text: In physics, the wavelength of a sinusoidal wave is the spatial period of the wave—the distance over which the wave's shape repeats, and thus the inverse of the spatial frequency. It is usually determined by considering the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same phase, such as crests, troughs, or zero crossings and is a characteristic of both traveling waves and standing waves, as well as other spatial wave patterns. Wavelength is commonly designated by the Greek letter lambda (λ). The concept can also be applied to periodic waves of non-sinusoidal shape. The term wavelength is also sometimes applied to modulated waves, and to the sinusoidal envelopes of modulated waves or waves formed by interference of several sinusoids.

text: In

text: physics

text: , the wavelength of a

text: sinusoidal wave

text: is the spatial period of the wave—the distance over which the wave's shape repeats, and thus the

text: inverse

text: of the

text: spatial frequency

text: . It is usually determined by considering the distance between consecutive corresponding points of the same

text: phase

text: , such as crests, troughs, or

text: zero crossing

text: s and is a characteristic of both traveling waves and

text: standing wave

text: s, as well as other spatial wave patterns. Wavelength is commonly designated by the

text: Greek letter

text: lambda

text: (λ). The concept can also be applied to periodic waves of non-sinusoidal shape. The term wavelength is also sometimes applied to

text: modulated

text: waves, and to the sinusoidal

text: envelopes

text: of modulated waves or waves formed by

text: interference

text: of several sinusoids.

text: A standing wave is an undulatory motion that stays in one place.  A sinusoidal standing wave includes stationary points of no motion, called nodes, and the wavelength is twice the distance between nodes.

text: A

text: standing wave

text: is an undulatory motion that stays in one place.  A sinusoidal standing wave includes stationary points of no motion, called

text: nodes

text: , and the wavelength is twice the distance between nodes.

text: Holographic phase-contrast method is the holographic interference microscopy technique for phase micro-object visualization that converts the phase shifts inserted by the micro-object to the wave of light passed through it into intensity changes in the image. The method is based on the holographic addition (constructive interference) or holographic subtraction (destructive interference) of the “empty” wave reconstructed from the hologram, and the object wave disturbed by the phase micro-objects under study. The image can be considered as interferogram in interference fringes of infinite width.

text: Holographic phase-contrast method is the holographic interference microscopy technique for phase micro-object visualization that converts the

text: phase shifts

text: inserted by the micro-object to the

text: wave

text: of light passed through it into intensity changes in the image. The method is based on the holographic addition (

text: constructive interference

text: ) or holographic subtraction (

text: destructive interference

text: ) of the “empty”

text: wave

text: reconstructed from the

text: hologram

text: , and the object wave disturbed by the phase micro-objects under study. The image can be considered as

text: interferogram

text: in interference fringes of infinite width.

text: We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted light by the following reasoning. The light from a source located at the top edge of the slit interferes destructively with a source located at the middle of the slit, when the path difference between them is equal to λ/2. Similarly, the source just below the top of the slit will interfere destructively with the source located just below the middle of the slit at the same angle. We can continue this reasoning along the entire height of the slit to conclude that the condition for destructive interference for the entire slit is the same as the condition for destructive interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half the width of the slit. The path difference is given by

text: The interaction of two trains of surface waves of different frequencies and directions generates wave groups. For wave propagating almost in the same direction, this gives the usual sets of waves that travel at the group speed, which is slower than phase speed of water waves (see animation). For typical ocean waves with a period around 10 seconds, this group speed is close to 10 m/s.

text: The interaction of two trains of

text: surface waves

text: of different frequencies and directions generates

text: wave group

text: s. For wave propagating almost in the same direction, this gives the usual sets of waves that travel at the group speed, which is slower than phase speed of water waves (see animation). For typical ocean waves with a period around 10 seconds, this

text: group speed

text: is close to 10 m/s.

text: Acoustic waves are longitudinal waves that exhibit phenomena like diffraction, reflection and interference. Sound waves however don't have any polarization since they oscillate along the same direction as they move.

text: Acoustic waves are longitudinal waves that exhibit phenomena like

text: diffraction

text: reflection

text: and

text: interference

text: . Sound waves however don't have any

text: polarization

text: since they oscillate along the same direction as they move.

text: In the holographic interference method the images appear as the result of the interference of two object waves passed the same path through the microscope optical system but in different points of time: the reconstructed from the hologram “empty” object wave, and the object wave disturbed by the phase micro-objects under study. The hologram of the "empty" object wave is recorded using a reference beam, and it is used as an optical element of the holographic interference microscope.In the dependence on conditions of the interference two methods of the holographic interference microscopy can be realized: the holographic phase-contrast method and the holographic interference-contrast method. In the first case, the phase shifts inserted by the phase micro-object into the light wave passing through it are converted into intensity changes in its image; and in the second case – into deviations of interference fringes.

text: in the case of wave subtraction in the dark interference fringe (waves are antiphased):

text: in the case of wave subtraction in the dark

text: interference fringe

text: (waves are antiphased):

text: Interferometry makes use of the wave superposition principle to combine waves in a way that will cause the result of their combination to extract information from those instantaneous wave fronts. This works because when two waves combine, the resulting pattern is determined by the phase difference between the two waves—waves that are in phase will undergo constructive interference while waves that are out of phase will undergo destructive interference. While white light interferometry is not new, combining old interferometry techniques with modern electronics, computers, and software has produced extremely powerful measurement tools. Yuri Denisyuk and Emmett Leith, have done much in the area of white light holography and interferometry. Currently, most interferometry is performed using a laser as the light source. The primary reason for this is that the long coherence length of laser light makes it easy to obtain interference fringes and interferometer path lengths no longer have to be matched as they do if a short coherence length white light source is used. For an interferometer to be a true white light achromatic interferometer two conditions need to be satisfied.First, the position of the zero order interference fringe must be independent of wavelength. Second, the spacing of the interference fringes must be independent of wavelength. That is, the position of allinterference fringes, independent of order number, is independent of wavelength. Generally, in a white light interferometer only the first condition is satisfied and we do not have a truly achromaticinterferometer.  Even though there are a number of different interferometer techniques, three are most prevalent:

text: Interferometry makes use of the wave superposition principle to combine waves in a way that will cause the result of their combination to extract information from those instantaneous wave fronts. This works because when two waves combine, the resulting pattern is determined by the

text: phase

text: Bohr's response was to illustrate Einstein's idea more clearly using the diagram in Figure C. (Figure C shows a fixed screen S that is bolted down. Then try to imagine one that can slide up or down along a rod instead of a fixed bolt.) Bohr observes that extremely precise knowledge of any (potential) vertical motion of the screen is an essential presupposition in Einstein's argument. In fact, if its velocity in the direction X before the passage of the particle is not known with a precision substantially greater than that induced by the recoil (that is, if it were already moving vertically with an unknown and greater velocity than that which it derives as a consequence of the contact with the particle), then the determination of its motion after the passage of the particle would not give the information we seek. However, Bohr continues, an extremely precise determination of the velocity of the screen, when one applies the principle of indeterminacy, implies an inevitable imprecision of its position in the direction X.  Before the process even begins, the screen would therefore occupy an indeterminate position at least to a certain extent (defined by the formalism). Now consider, for example, the point d in figure A, where the interference is destructive. It is obvious that any displacement of the first screen would make the lengths of the two paths, a–b–d and a–c–d, different from those indicated in the figure. If the difference between the two paths varies by half a wavelength, at point d there will be constructive rather than destructive interference.  The ideal experiment must average over all the possible positions of the screen S, and, for every position, there corresponds, for a certain fixed point F, a different type of interference, from the perfectly destructive to the perfectly constructive. The effect of this averaging is that the pattern of interference on the screen F will be uniformly grey. Once more, our attempt to evidence the corpuscular aspects in S has destroyed the possibility of interference in F, which depends crucially on the wave aspects.

text: (1969) Robert Weber &. M. H. S., "Nuclear Linewidth Measurements of 55Mn In Antiferromagnetic CsMnF3 and RbMnF3." Solid State Communications 7: 619-622.	(1968) Tannenwald, P. E. & Robert Weber, "Comments on Standing Spin-Wave Resonance in 'Flash-Evaporated' Permally Films." Physical Review Letters 20(17): 918-919.	(1968) "Magnon-Phonon Coupling in Metallic Films." The Physical Review 169(2): 451-456.	(1968) "Observation of Magnetoelastic Coupling by Spin-Wave Resonance." Journal of Applied Physics 39(2 (Part I)): 491.	(1968) "Spin-Wave Resonance." IEEE Transactions on Magnetics Mag-4(1): 28-31.

text: Those very short waves with would-be shock wave angles below 33° lack a mechanism to reinforce their amplitudes through constructive interference and are usually seen as small ripples on top of the interior transverse waves.

text: Those very short waves with would-be shock wave angles below 33° lack a mechanism to reinforce their amplitudes through

text: constructive interference

text: and are usually seen as small ripples on top of the interior transverse waves.

text: Jetty and groyne style waves are known for often exhibiting constructive interference between different incoming waves to produce a significantly larger, 'wedging' style of wave, due to the unusual extension of obstruction that juts out significantly from the shore, and which wave shape is often favored by surfers. This is an example of a human influence which actually may improve a wave's shape and quality for surfing, however in other cases the effect for surfing may be negative.

text: Cable modem –Cable television –Caesium standard –Call collision –Call set-up time –Call-second –Capacitive coupling –Capacitor –Capture effect –Carbon nanotube –Card standards –Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection –Carrier shift –Carrier system –Carrier wave –Carrier-to-receiver noise density –Carson bandwidth rule –Cassegrain antenna –Category 5 cable –Cathode ray tube –Central processing unit –Chadless tape –Channel –Channel noise level –Channel reliability –Character-count integrity –Characteristic impedance –Charge-coupled device –Chemical vapor deposition –Chirp –Chroma subsampling –Circuit breaker –Circuit noise level –Circuit reliability –Circuit restoration –Circuit switching –Circular polarization –Circulator –Citizens' band radio –Cladding –Clapp oscillator –Clean room –Clear channel –Clearing –Clipping –Clock gating –Clock signal –Closed waveguide –Closed-circuit television –CMOS –Coaxial cable –Co-channel interference –Code division multiple access –Code word –Coherence length –Coherence time –Coherence –Coherent differential phase-shift keying –Coherer –Coilgun –Collinear antenna array –Collinear antenna array –Collins Radio –Colpitts oscillator –Combat-net radio –Combinational logic –Combined distribution frame –Common base –Common battery –Common collector –Common control –Common emitter –Commonality –Common-mode interference –Communications center –Communications satellite –Communications security –Communications system engineering –Communications system –Communications-electronics –Compact audio cassette –Compatible sideband transmission –Composite image filter -Composite video –Compulsator –Computer –Concentrator –Conditioning equipment –Conducted interference –Conduction band –Conductive coupling –Connections per circuit hour –Conservation of radiance –Constant k filter -Content delivery –Contention –Continuous Fourier transform –Continuous operation –Continuous wave –Convolution –Copper –Cord circuit –Corner reflector –Cosmic noise –Costas loop –Coulomb's law –Counter (digital) –Coupling –Covert channel –Covert listening device –CPU design –CQD –C-QUAM –Critical frequency –Cross product –Crossbar switch –Crosstalk –Crystal filter –Crystal radio receiver –Current –Current bias –Current-to-voltage converter –Cutback technique –Cutoff frequency –Cutoff wavelength

text: Cable modem

text: Cable television

text: Caesium standard

text: Call collision

text: Call set-up time

text: Call-second

text: Capacitive coupling

text: Capacitor

text: Capture effect

text: Carbon nanotube

text: Card standards

entity_name: Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection

text: Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection

text: Carrier shift

text: Carrier system

text: Carrier wave

text: Carrier-to-receiver noise density

text: Carson bandwidth rule

text: Cassegrain antenna

text: Category 5 cable

text: Cathode ray tube

text: Central processing unit

text: Chadless tape

text: Channel

text: Channel noise level

text: Channel reliability

text: Character-count integrity

text: Characteristic impedance

text: Charge-coupled device

text: Chemical vapor deposition

text: Chirp

text: Chroma subsampling

text: Circuit breaker

text: Circuit noise level

text: Circuit reliability

text: Circuit restoration

text: Circuit switching

text: Circular polarization

text: Circulator

text: Citizens' band radio

text: Cladding

text: Clapp oscillator

text: Clean room

text: Clear channel

text: Clearing

text: Clipping

text: Clock gating

text: Clock signal

text: Closed waveguide

text: Closed-circuit television

text: CMOS

text: Coaxial cable

text: Co-channel interference

text: Code division multiple access

text: Code word

text: Coherence length

text: Coherence time

text: Coherence

text: Coherent differential phase-shift keying

text: Coherer

text: Coilgun

text: Collinear antenna array

text: Collinear antenna array

text: Collins Radio

text: Colpitts oscillator

text: Combat-net radio

text: Combinational logic

text: Combined distribution frame

text: Common base

text: Common battery

text: Common collector

text: Common control

text: Common emitter

text: Commonality

text: Common-mode interference

text: Communications center

text: Communications satellite

text: Communications security

text: Communications system engineering

text: Communications system

text: Communications-electronics

text: Compact audio cassette

text: Compatible sideband transmission

text: Composite image filter

text: Composite video

text: Compulsator

text: Computer

text: Concentrator

text: Conditioning equipment

text: Conducted interference

text: Conduction band

text: Conductive coupling

text: Connections per circuit hour

text: Conservation of radiance

text: Constant k filter

text: Content delivery

text: Contention

text: Continuous Fourier transform

text: Continuous operation

text: Continuous wave

text: Convolution

text: Copper

text: Cord circuit

text: Corner reflector

text: Cosmic noise

text: Costas loop

text: Coulomb's law

text: Counter (digital)

text: Coupling

text: Covert channel

text: Covert listening device

text: CPU design

text: CQD

text: C-QUAM

text: Critical frequency

text: Cross product

text: Crossbar switch

text: Crosstalk

text: Crystal filter

text: Crystal radio receiver

text: Current

text: Current bias

text: Current-to-voltage converter

text: Cutback technique

text: Cutoff frequency

text: Cutoff wavelength

text: , the condition for constructive interference and hence diffraction of scattered electron waves is given by the Laue condition

text: , the condition for constructive interference and hence diffraction of scattered electron waves is given by the

text: Laue condition

text: The elements are given the correct lengths and spacings so that the radio waves radiated by the driven element and those reradiated by the parasitic elements all arrive at the front of the antenna in phase, so they superpose and add, increasing signal strength in the forward direction.   In other words, the crest of the forward wave from the reflector element reaches the driven element just as the crest of the wave is emitted from that element.  These waves reach the first director element just as the crest of the wave is emitted from that element, and so on.  The waves in the reverse direction interfere destructively, cancelling out, so the signal strength radiated in the reverse direction is small.  Thus the antenna radiates a unidirectional beam of radio waves from the front (director end) of the antenna.

text: The elements are given the correct lengths and spacings so that the radio waves radiated by the driven element and those reradiated by the parasitic elements all arrive at the front of the antenna in phase, so they superpose and add, increasing signal strength in the forward direction.   In other words, the crest of the forward wave from the reflector element reaches the driven element just as the crest of the wave is emitted from that element.  These waves reach the first director element just as the crest of the wave is emitted from that element, and so on.  The waves in the reverse direction

text: interfere destructively

text: , cancelling out, so the signal strength radiated in the reverse direction is small.  Thus the antenna radiates a unidirectional beam of radio waves from the front (director end) of the antenna.

text: On the piano string, waves reflect from both ends. The superposition of reflecting waves results in a standing wave pattern, but only for wavelengths  2L, L, L/2, ...  2L/n}}, where  is the length of the string. Therefore, the only frequencies produced on a single string are  nv/(2L)}}. Timbre is largely determined by the content of these harmonics. Different instruments have different harmonic content for the same pitch. A real string vibrates at harmonics that are not perfect multiples of the fundamental. This results in a little inharmonicity, which gives richness to the tone but causes significant tuning challenges throughout the compass of the instrument.

text: On the piano string, waves reflect from both ends. The

text: superposition

text: of reflecting waves results in a standing wave pattern, but only for wavelengths  2L, L, L/2, ...  2L/n}}, where  is the length of the string. Therefore, the only frequencies produced on a single string are  nv/(2L)}}. Timbre is largely determined by the content of these harmonics. Different instruments have different harmonic content for the same pitch. A real string vibrates at harmonics that are not perfect multiples of the fundamental. This results in a little

text: inharmonicity

text: , which gives richness to the tone but causes significant tuning challenges throughout the compass of the instrument.

text: Foundations or group of foundations are important components of the structure through which the superficial structural loads are transmitted to the underlying foundation soil or bed on which the foundations are laid. The structural loads are transmitted to the foundation soil safely such that neither the foundation fail nor the foundation soil fails either in shear or in excessive settlement. The foundations are basically designed based on two criterion namely Bearing Capacity and Settlement criterion. Many classical theories have been postulated for the isolated foundations by many pioneers like Terzhagi (1943), Meyerhoff (1963), Hansen (1970) and Vesic (1973). In general as per the Terzaghi (1943), when an isolated shallow foundation is loaded, the stress or the failure zone in the foundation soil extends in horizontal direction on either side of the footing to about twice the width of the footing and in vertical downward direction to about three times the width of the footing. Unless until the stress or failure zone of individual footings do not interfere, the individual footings behave as an isolated footing. However, in many a situations such as lack of construction space, structural restrictions, rapid urbanization, architecture of the building, structures close to each other etc. In such situations the foundations or group of foundations may be placed close to each other. In such cases the stress isobars or the failure zone of closely spaced isolated footings may interfere with each other leading to the phenomenon called Interference. Owing to the phenomenon of footing interference, the failure mechanism, load-settlement, bearing capacity, settlement, rotational characteristics etc. of an isolated footing may be altered and therefore the classical theories as postulated in the literature for isolated footings cannot be applied. Due to interference the stress isobars of individual interacting footings coalesce to form a single isobar of larger dimensions altering the characteristic behavior of an isolated footing. Therefore, the study of interference of closely spaced footings is one of the significant practical importances.

text: Foundations

text: or group of foundations are important components of the structure through which the superficial structural loads are transmitted to the underlying foundation soil or bed on which the foundations are laid. The structural loads are transmitted to the foundation soil safely such that neither the foundation fail nor the foundation soil fails either in

text: shear

text: or in excessive settlement. The foundations are basically designed based on two criterion namely Bearing Capacity and Settlement criterion. Many classical theories have been postulated for the isolated foundations by many pioneers like

text: Terzhagi

text: A standing wave is a continuous form of normal mode. In a standing wave, all the space elements (i.e. (x, y, z) coordinates) are oscillating in the same frequency and in phase (reaching the equilibrium point together), but each has a different amplitude.

text: A

text: standing wave

text: is a continuous form of normal mode. In a standing wave, all the space elements (i.e. (x, y, z) coordinates) are oscillating in the same

text: frequency

text: and in

text: phase

text: (reaching the

text: equilibrium

text: point together), but each has a different amplitude.

text: Multiple methods have been developed to increase absorption by reducing the number of incident photons being reflected away from the cell surface. An additional anti-reflective coating can cause destructive interference within the cell by modulating the refractive index of the surface coating. Destructive interference eliminates the reflective wave, causing all incident light to enter the cell.

text: Multiple methods have been developed to increase absorption by reducing the number of incident photons being reflected away from the cell surface. An additional anti-reflective coating can cause destructive interference within the cell by modulating the

text: refractive index

text: of the surface coating. Destructive interference eliminates the reflective wave, causing all incident light to enter the cell.

text: At the passage through the two slits of the second screen S, the wave aspects of the process become essential. In fact, it is precisely the interference between the two terms of the quantum superposition corresponding to states in which the particle is localized in one of the two slits which implies that the particle is "guided" preferably into the zones of constructive interference and cannot end up in a point in the zones of destructive interference (in which the wave function is nullified). It is also important to note that any experiment designed to evidence the "corpuscular" aspects of the process at the passage of the screen S (which, in this case, reduces to the determination of which slit the particle has passed through) inevitably destroys the wave aspects, implies the disappearance of the interference figure and the emergence of two concentrated spots of diffraction which confirm our knowledge of the trajectory followed by the particle.

text: At the passage through the two slits of the second screen S, the wave aspects of the process become essential. In fact, it is precisely the interference between the two terms of the

text: quantum superposition

text: corresponding to states in which the particle is localized in one of the two slits which implies that the particle is "guided" preferably into the zones of constructive interference and cannot end up in a point in the zones of destructive interference (in which the wave function is nullified). It is also important to note that any experiment designed to evidence the "

text: corpuscular

text: " aspects of the process at the passage of the screen S (which, in this case, reduces to the determination of which slit the particle has passed through) inevitably destroys the wave aspects, implies the disappearance of the interference figure and the emergence of two concentrated spots of diffraction which confirm our knowledge of the trajectory followed by the particle.

text: Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference. An example of interference caused by EMR is electromagnetic interference (EMI) or as it is more commonly known as, radio-frequency interference (RFI).  Additionally, multiple polarization signals can be combined (i.e. interfered) to form new states of polarization, which is known as parallel polarization state generation.

text: Interference is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern. If the fields have components in the same direction, they constructively interfere, while opposite directions cause destructive interference. An example of interference caused by EMR is

text: electromagnetic interference

text: (EMI) or as it is more commonly known as,

text: radio-frequency interference

text: (RFI).  Additionally, multiple polarization signals can be combined (i.e. interfered) to form new states of polarization, which is known as

text: parallel polarization state generation

text: NRAO is the operator of the world's largest fully steerable radio telescope, the Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope, which stands near Green Bank, West Virginia. The observatory contains several other telescopes, among them the  telescope that utilizes an equatorial mount uncommon for radio telescopes, three  telescopes forming the Green Bank Interferometer, a  telescope used by school groups and organizations for small scale research, a fixed radio 'horn' built to observe the radio source Cassiopeia A, as well as a reproduction of the original antenna built by Karl Jansky while he worked for Bell Labs to detect the interference that was discovered to be previously unknown natural radio waves emitted by the universe.

text: NRAO is the operator of the world's largest fully steerable

text: radio telescope

text: , the Robert C. Byrd

text: Green Bank Telescope

text: , which stands near

text: Green Bank, West Virginia

text: . The observatory contains several other telescopes, among them the  telescope that utilizes an

text: equatorial mount

text: uncommon for radio telescopes, three  telescopes forming the

text: Green Bank Interferometer

text: , a  telescope used by school groups and organizations for small scale research, a fixed radio '

text: horn

text: ' built to observe the radio source Cassiopeia A, as well as a reproduction of the original antenna built by

text: Karl Jansky

text: while he worked for Bell Labs to detect the

text: interference

text: that was discovered to be previously unknown natural

text: radio waves

text: emitted by the universe.

text: The video featured images of news reporters standing in front of the Flemish Parliament, while Flemish separatists waved the flag of Flanders behind them. Off to the side, Francophone and Belgian nationalists were waving Belgian flags. The report also featured footage of King Albert and Queen Paola getting on a military jet to Congo, a former Belgian colony.

text: The video featured images of news reporters standing in front of the

text: Flemish Parliament

text: , while Flemish separatists waved the

text: flag of Flanders

text: behind them. Off to the side, Francophone and Belgian nationalists were waving Belgian flags. The report also featured footage of

text: King Albert

text: and

text: Queen Paola

text: getting on a military jet to

text: Congo

text: , a former Belgian colony.

text: Interference will be constructive if the optical path difference is equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength of light,

text: Electron wake is the disturbance left after a high-energy charged particle passesthrough condensed matter or plasma. Ions passing through can introduce periodic oscillations in the crystal lattice or plasma wave with the characteristic frequency of the crystal or plasma frequency. Interactions of the field created by these oscillations with the charged particle field alternate from constructive interference to destructive interference, producing alternating waves of electric field and displacement. The frequency of the wake field is determined by the nature of the penetrated matter, and the period of the wake field is directly proportional to the speed of the incoming charged particle. The amplitude of the first wake wave is the most important, as it produces a braking force on the charged particle, eventually slowing it down. Wake fields also can capture and guide lightweight ions or positrons in the direction perpendicular to the wake. The larger the speed of the original charged particle, the larger the angle between the initial particle's velocity and the captured ion's velocity.

text: Electron wake is the disturbance left after a high-energy

text: charged particle

text: passesthrough condensed matter or

text: plasma

text: Ions

text: passing through can introduce periodic oscillations in the

text: crystal lattice

text: or

text: plasma wave

text: with the

text: characteristic frequency

text: of the

text: crystal

text: or

text: plasma frequency

text: . Interactions of the field created by these oscillations with the charged particle field alternate from

text: constructive interference

text: to

text: destructive interference

text: , producing alternating waves of electric field and displacement. The frequency of the wake field is determined by the nature of the penetrated matter, and the period of the wake field is directly proportional to the speed of the incoming charged particle. The amplitude of the first wake wave is the most important, as it produces a braking force on the charged particle, eventually slowing it down. Wake fields also can capture and guide lightweight ions or positrons in the direction perpendicular to the wake. The larger the speed of the original charged particle, the larger the angle between the initial particle's velocity and the captured ion's velocity.

text: When interfering, two waves can add together to create a wave of greater amplitude than either one (constructive interference) or subtract from each other to create a wave of lesser amplitude than either one (destructive interference), depending on their relative phase. Two waves are said to be coherent if they have a constant relative phase. The amount of coherence can readily be measured by the interference visibility, which looks at the size of the interference fringes relative to the input waves (as the phase offset is varied); a precise mathematical definition of the degree of coherence is given by means of correlation functions.

text: When interfering, two waves can add together to create a wave of greater amplitude than either one (

text: constructive interference

text: ) or subtract from each other to create a wave of lesser amplitude than either one (

text: destructive interference

text: ), depending on their relative

text: phase

text: . Two waves are said to be coherent if they have a constant relative phase. The amount of coherence can readily be measured by the

text: interference visibility

text: , which looks at the size of the interference fringes relative to the input waves (as the phase offset is varied); a precise mathematical definition of the

text: degree of coherence

text: is given by means of correlation functions.

text: For centuries, scientists had debated between two possible theories of light: was it a wave or did it instead comprise a stream of tiny particles?  By the 19th century, the debate was generally considered to have been settled in favour of the wave theory, as it was able to explain observed effects such as refraction, diffraction, interference and polarization. James Clerk Maxwell had shown that electricity, magnetism and light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon: the electromagnetic field. Maxwell's equations, which are the complete set of laws of classical electromagnetism, describe light as waves: a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favour of the wave theory, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great skepticism. Eventually, however, the photon model became favoured. One of the most significant pieces of evidence in its favour was its ability to explain several puzzling properties of the photoelectric effect, described in the following section. Nonetheless, the wave analogy remained indispensable for helping to understand other characteristics of light: diffraction, refraction and interference.

text: For centuries, scientists had debated between two possible theories of light: was it a

text: wave

text: or did it instead comprise a

text: stream of tiny particles

text: ?  By the 19th century, the debate was generally considered to have been settled in favour of the wave theory, as it was able to explain observed effects such as

text: refraction

text: diffraction

text: interference

text: and

text: polarization

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: had shown that electricity, magnetism and light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon: the

text: electromagnetic field

text: Maxwell's equations

text: , which are the complete set of laws of

text: classical electromagnetism

text: , describe light as waves: a combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Because of the preponderance of evidence in favour of the wave theory, Einstein's ideas were met initially with great skepticism. Eventually, however, the photon model became favoured. One of the most significant pieces of evidence in its favour was its ability to explain several puzzling properties of the

text: photoelectric effect

text: , described in the following section. Nonetheless, the wave analogy remained indispensable for helping to understand other characteristics of light:

text: diffraction

text: refraction

text: and

text: interference

text: Rogue waves are an open water phenomenon, in which winds, currents, non-linear phenomena such as solitons, and other circumstances cause a wave to briefly form that is far larger than the "average" large occurring wave (the significant wave height or 'SWH') of that time and place. The basic underlying physics that makes phenomena such as rogue waves possible is that different waves can travel at different speeds, and so they can "pile up" in certain circumstances - known as "constructive interference". (In deep ocean the speed of a gravity wave is proportional to the square root of its wavelength—the distance peak-to-peak.) However other situations can also give rise to rogue waves, particularly situations where non-linear effects or instability effects can cause energy to move between waves and be concentrated in one or very few extremely large waves before returning to "normal" conditions.

text: Rogue waves are an open water phenomenon, in which

text: wind

text: s,

text: currents

text: non-linear

text: phenomena such as

text: soliton

text: s, and other circumstances cause a wave to briefly form that is far larger than the "average" large occurring wave (the

text: significant wave height

text: or 'SWH') of that time and place. The basic underlying physics that makes phenomena such as rogue waves possible is that different waves can travel at different speeds, and so they can "pile up" in certain circumstances - known as "

text: constructive interference

text: ". (In deep ocean the speed of a

text: gravity wave

text: is proportional to the square root of its wavelength—the distance peak-to-peak.) However other situations can also give rise to rogue waves, particularly situations where

text: non-linear effects

text: or instability effects can cause energy to move between waves and be concentrated in one or very few extremely large waves before returning to "normal" conditions.

text: The amount by which such oscillators are out of phase with each other can be expressed in degrees from 0° to 360°, or in radians from 0 to 2π. If the phase difference is 180 degrees (π radians), then the two oscillators are said to be in antiphase. If two interacting waves meet at a point where they are in antiphase, then destructive interference will occur. It is common for waves of electromagnetic (light, RF), acoustic (sound) or other energy to become superposed in their transmission medium.  When that happens, the phase difference determines whether they reinforce or weaken each other.  Complete cancellation is possible for waves with equal amplitudes.

text: The amount by which such oscillators are out of phase with each other can be expressed in

text: degrees

text: from 0° to 360°, or in

text: radian

text: s from 0 to 2π. If the phase difference is 180 degrees (π radians), then the two oscillators are said to be in antiphase. If two interacting

text: wave

text: s meet at a point where they are in antiphase, then destructive

text: interference

text: will occur. It is common for waves of electromagnetic (light, RF), acoustic (sound) or other energy to become superposed in their transmission medium.  When that happens, the phase difference determines whether they reinforce or weaken each other.  Complete cancellation is possible for waves with equal amplitudes.

text: In physics, a standing wave – also known as a stationary wave – is a wave in a medium in which each point on the axis of the wave has an associated constant amplitude.  The locations at which the amplitude is minimum are called nodes, and the locations where the amplitude is maximum are called antinodes.

text: In

text: physics

text: , a standing wave – also known as a stationary wave – is a

text: wave

text: in a medium in which each point on the axis of the wave has an associated constant

text: amplitude

text: .  The locations at which the amplitude is minimum are called

text: node

text: s, and the locations where the amplitude is maximum are called

text: antinode

text: s.

text: Elastodynamics is the study of elastic waves and involves linear elasticity with variation in time.  An elastic wave is a type of mechanical wave that propagates in elastic or viscoelastic materials.  The elasticity of the material provides the restoring force of the wave.  When they occur in the Earth as the result of an earthquake or other disturbance, elastic waves are usually called seismic waves.

text: Elastodynamics is the study of elastic waves and involves linear elasticity with variation in time.  An elastic wave is a type of

text: mechanical wave

text: that propagates in elastic or

text: viscoelastic

text: materials.  The elasticity of the material provides the restoring

text: force

text: of the wave.  When they occur in the

text: Earth

text: as the result of an

text: earthquake

text: or other disturbance, elastic waves are usually called

text: seismic wave

text: s.

text: Interference is the addition of two or more waves that results in a new wave pattern. Interference of sound waves can be observed when two loudspeakers transmit the same signal. At certain locations constructive interference occurs, doubling the local sound pressure. And at other locations destructive interference occurs, causing a local sound pressure of zero pascals.

text: Interference

text: is the addition of two or more waves that results in a new wave pattern. Interference of sound waves can be observed when two loudspeakers transmit the same signal. At certain locations constructive interference occurs, doubling the local sound pressure. And at other locations destructive interference occurs, causing a local sound pressure of zero pascals.

text: The interference phenomenon in optics occurs as a result of the wave propagation of light. When light of a given wavelength is reflected back upon itself by a mirror, standing waves are generated, much as the ripples resulting from a stone dropped into still water create standing waves when reflected back by a surface such as the wall of a pool. In the case of ordinary incoherent light, the standing waves are distinct only within a microscopically thin volume of space next to the reflecting surface.

text: The

text: interference phenomenon

text: in optics occurs as a result of the

text: wave propagation

text: of

text: light

text: . When light of a given wavelength is reflected back upon itself by a mirror,

text: standing wave

text: s are generated, much as the ripples resulting from a stone dropped into still water create standing waves when reflected back by a surface such as the wall of a pool. In the case of ordinary

text: incoherent

text: light, the standing waves are distinct only within a microscopically thin volume of space next to the reflecting surface.

text: The device he designed, later known as a Michelson interferometer, sent yellow light from a sodium flame (for alignment), or white light (for the actual observations), through a half-silvered mirror that was used to split it into two beams traveling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams traveled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle by small mirrors. They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive and destructive interference whose transverse displacement would depend on the relative time it takes light to transit the longitudinal vs. the transverse arms. If the Earth is traveling through an aether medium, a beam reflecting back and forth parallel to the flow of aether would take longer than a beam reflecting perpendicular to the aether because the time gained from traveling downwind is less than that lost traveling upwind. Michelson expected that the Earth's motion would produce a fringe shift equal to 0.04 fringes—that is, of the separation between areas of the same intensity. He did not observe the expected shift; the greatest average deviation that he measured (in the northwest direction) was only 0.018 fringes; most of his measurements were much less. His conclusion was that Fresnel's hypothesis of a stationary aether with partial aether dragging would have to be rejected, and thus he confirmed Stokes' hypothesis of complete aether dragging.

text: The device he designed, later known as a

text: Michelson interferometer

text: , sent

text: yellow

text: light from a

text: sodium

text: flame (for alignment), or

text: white

text: light (for the actual observations), through a

text: half-silvered mirror

text: that was used to split it into two beams traveling at right angles to one another. After leaving the splitter, the beams traveled out to the ends of long arms where they were reflected back into the middle by small mirrors. They then recombined on the far side of the splitter in an eyepiece, producing a pattern of constructive and destructive

text: interference

text: whose transverse displacement would depend on the relative time it takes light to transit the longitudinal vs. the transverse arms. If the Earth is traveling through an aether medium, a beam reflecting back and forth parallel to the flow of aether would take longer than a beam reflecting perpendicular to the aether because the time gained from traveling downwind is less than that lost traveling upwind. Michelson expected that the Earth's motion would produce a

text: fringe shift

text: equal to 0.04 fringes—that is, of the separation between areas of the same intensity. He did not observe the expected shift; the greatest average deviation that he measured (in the northwest direction) was only 0.018 fringes; most of his measurements were much less. His conclusion was that Fresnel's hypothesis of a stationary aether with partial aether dragging would have to be rejected, and thus he confirmed Stokes' hypothesis of complete aether dragging.

text: The notion of path difference and constructive or destructive interference used above for the double-slit experiment applies as well to the display of a single slit of light intercepted on a screen. The main result of this interference is to spread out the light from the narrow slit into a broader image on the screen. This distribution of wave energy is called diffraction.

text: The notion of path difference and constructive or destructive interference used above for the double-slit experiment applies as well to the display of a single slit of light intercepted on a screen. The main result of this interference is to spread out the light from the narrow slit into a broader image on the screen. This distribution of wave energy is called

text: diffraction

text: In the absence of nonlinear effects, the superposition principle can be used to predict the shape of interacting waveforms through the simple addition of the disturbances. This interaction of waves to produce a resulting pattern is generally termed "interference" and can result in a variety of outcomes. If two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are in phase, both the wave crests and wave troughs align. This results in constructive interference and an increase in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a brightening of the waveform in that location. Alternatively, if the two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are out of phase, then the wave crests will align with wave troughs and vice versa. This results in destructive interference and a decrease in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a dimming of the waveform at that location. See below for an illustration of this effect.

text: In the absence of

text: nonlinear

text: effects, the

text: superposition principle

text: can be used to predict the shape of interacting waveforms through the simple addition of the disturbances. This interaction of waves to produce a resulting pattern is generally termed "interference" and can result in a variety of outcomes. If two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are in

text: phase

text: , both the wave crests and wave troughs align. This results in

text: constructive interference

text: and an increase in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a brightening of the waveform in that location. Alternatively, if the two waves of the same wavelength and frequency are out of phase, then the wave crests will align with wave troughs and vice versa. This results in

text: destructive interference

text: and a decrease in the amplitude of the wave, which for light is associated with a dimming of the waveform at that location. See below for an illustration of this effect.

text: The most common form of dipole is two straight rods or wires oriented end to end on the same axis, with the feedline connected to the two adjacent ends.  This is the simplest type of antenna from a theoretical point of view.  Dipoles are resonant antennas, meaning that the elements serve as resonators, with standing waves of radio current flowing back and forth between their ends.   So the length of the dipole elements is determined by the wavelength of the radio waves used.  The most common form is the half-wave dipole, in which each of the two rod elements is approximately 1/4 wavelength long, so the whole antenna is a half-wavelength long.  The radiation pattern of a vertical dipole is omnidirectional; it radiates equal power in all azimuthal directions perpendicular to the axis of the antenna.  For a half-wave dipole the radiation is maximum, 2.15 dBi perpendicular to the antenna axis, falling monotonically with elevation angle to zero on the axis, off the ends of the antenna.

text: The most common form of dipole is two straight rods or wires oriented end to end on the same axis, with the feedline connected to the two adjacent ends.  This is the simplest type of antenna from a theoretical point of view.  Dipoles are

text: resonant antennas

text: , meaning that the elements serve as

text: resonator

text: s, with

text: standing wave

text: s of radio current flowing back and forth between their ends.   So the length of the dipole elements is determined by the

text: wavelength

text: of the radio waves used.  The most common form is the half-wave dipole, in which each of the two rod elements is approximately 1/4 wavelength long, so the whole antenna is a half-wavelength long.  The

text: radiation pattern

text: of a vertical dipole is

text: omnidirectional

text: ; it radiates equal power in all

text: azimuth

text: al directions perpendicular to the axis of the antenna.  For a half-wave dipole the radiation is maximum, 2.15 dBi perpendicular to the antenna axis, falling monotonically with elevation angle to zero on the axis, off the ends of the antenna.

text: Penguins are vulnerable to interference by humans, especially while they are ashore during molt or nesting periods. In 1949, penguins on Phillip Island in Victoria became victims of human cruelty, with some kicked and others thrown off a cliff and shot at. These acts of cruelty prompted the state government to fence off the rookeries. More recent examples of destructive interference can be found at Granite island, where in 1994 a penguin chick was taken from a burrow and abandoned on the mainland, a burrow containing penguin chicks was trampled and litter was discarded down active burrows. In 1998, two incidents in six months resulted in penguin deaths. The latter, which occurred in May, saw 13 penguins apparently kicked to death. In March 2016, two little penguins were kicked and attacked by humans during separate incidents at the St Kilda colony, Victoria.

text: Further reduction is possible by using multiple coating layers, designed such that reflections from the surfaces undergo maximal destructive interference. One way to do this is to add a second quarter-wave thick higher-index layer between the low-index layer and the substrate. The reflection from all three interfaces produces destructive interference and anti-reflection. Other techniques use varying thicknesses of the coatings. By using two or more layers, each of a material chosen to give the best possible match of the desired refractive index and dispersion, broadband anti-reflection coatings covering the visible range (400–700 nm) with maximal reflectivities of less than 0.5% are commonly achievable.

text: Further reduction is possible by using multiple coating layers, designed such that reflections from the surfaces undergo maximal destructive interference. One way to do this is to add a second quarter-wave thick higher-index layer between the low-index layer and the substrate. The reflection from all three interfaces produces destructive interference and anti-reflection. Other techniques use varying thicknesses of the coatings. By using two or more layers, each of a material chosen to give the best possible match of the desired refractive index and

text: dispersion

text: , broadband anti-reflection coatings covering the

text: visible range

text: (400–700 nm) with maximal reflectivities of less than 0.5% are commonly achievable.

text: Alfredsson's goal was initially waved off by referees because the puck went in off his skate, appearing to have been kicked in. The NBC broadcasters thought the goal would be waved off. But the officials reviewing the goal ruled that there was no kicking motion and allowed the goal to stand, tying the game once again. NHL rules allow the redirection of a puck with the foot, as long as no kicking motion is involved, and this was the ruling.

text: Free oscillations of the Earth are standing waves, the result of interference between two surface waves traveling in opposite directions. Interference of Rayleigh waves results in spheroidal oscillation S while interference of Love waves gives toroidal oscillation T. The modes of oscillations are specified by three numbers, e.g.,  S, where l is the angular order number (or spherical harmonic degree, see Spherical harmonics for more details). The number m is the azimuthal order number. It may take on 2l+1 values from -l to +l. The number n is the radial order number. It means the wave with n zero crossings in radius. For spherically symmetric Earth the period for given n and l does not depend on m.

text: Free oscillations of the Earth are

text: standing wave

text: s, the result of interference between two surface waves traveling in opposite directions. Interference of Rayleigh waves results in spheroidal oscillation S while interference of Love waves gives toroidal oscillation T. The modes of oscillations are specified by three numbers, e.g.,  S, where l is the angular order number (or spherical harmonic degree, see

text: Spherical harmonics

text: for more details). The number m is the azimuthal order number. It may take on 2l+1 values from -l to +l. The number n is the radial order number. It means the wave with n zero crossings in radius. For spherically symmetric Earth the period for given n and l does not depend on m.

text: Instead of using the concept of multiple beam interference that gratings produce, the two rays may simply interfere. By recording the intensity of two such co-linearly at some fixed point and changing their relative phase one obtains an intensity spectrum as a function of path length difference.  One can show that this is equivalent to a Fourier transformed spectrum as a function of frequency. The highest recordable frequency of such a spectrum is dependent on the minimum step size chosen in the scan and the frequency resolution (i.e. how well a certain wave can be defined in terms of its frequency) depends on the maximum path length difference achieved. The latter feature allows a much more compact design for achieving high resolution than for a grating spectrometer because x-ray wavelengths are small compared to attainable path length differences.

text: To optimize the effectiveness of STED, the destructive interference in the center of the focal spot needs to be as close to perfect as possible.  That imposes certain constraints on the optics that can be used.

text: The "standing wave" or "sheet wave" type of artificial wave was developed in the 1980s by American real estate attorney Tom Lochtefeld who was a partner in the development of Raging Waters water parks in San Dimas, San Jose and Salt Lake City.

text: The "standing wave" or "sheet wave" type of artificial wave was developed in the 1980s by

text: American

text: real estate attorney Tom Lochtefeld who was a partner in the development of

text: Raging Waters

text: water parks in San Dimas, San Jose and Salt Lake City.

text: As far as seismic and acoustic waves are concerned, the motion of ocean waves in deep water is, to the leading order, equivalent to a pressure applied at the sea surface. This pressure is nearly equal to the water density times the wave orbital velocity squared. Because of this square, it is not the amplitude of the individual wave trains that matter (red and black lines in the figures) but the amplitude of the sum, the wave groups (blue line in figures).

text: As far as seismic and acoustic waves are concerned, the motion of ocean waves in deep water is, to the

text: leading order

text: , equivalent to a pressure applied at the sea surface. This pressure is nearly equal to the water density times the wave

text: orbital velocity

text: squared. Because of this square, it is not the amplitude of the individual wave trains that matter (red and black lines in the figures) but the amplitude of the sum, the wave groups (blue line in figures).

text: On January 13, 2013, Shirai received her first shot at the Oz Academy Openweight Championship in a match, where she was defeated by the defending champion, fellow Seikigun member Chikayo Nagashima. On January 30, Shirai entered a tournament contested for the vacant Triangle Ribbon Championship, defeating Aoi Kizuki and Hikaru Shida in her first round three-way match. On February 11, Shirai was defeated in the finals of the tournament by Miyako Matsumoto in a three-way match, which also included Tsukasa Fujimoto. On February 13, Shirai and Ken Ohka entered a storyline in Union Pro, where the two were forced out of the promotion, after Ohka was defeated by Keisuke Ishii in a "Loser Leaves Union match". However, the two reappeared at the end of event, now working under balaclavas and the ring names "Nazo Fukumen A" and "Nazo Fukumen B" in order to be able to continue working for the promotion. Shirai and Ohka were later joined by several other Union Pro wrestlers under Nazo Fukumen masks, including Shota as Nazo Fukumen C, Gabai-Ji-chan as Nazo Fukumen G, Kengo Mashimo as Nazo Fukumen K, Seiya Morohashi as Nazo Fukumen M, and Hiroshi Fukuda as Nazo Fukumen P. On February 17, Shirai entered the Wave Single Championship tournament as a late replacement for an injured Ayumi Kurihara, but was eliminated in her semifinal match by Kana. On February 24, Triple Tails.S held its first self-produced event in nine months, which saw Shirai and Kana wrestle Arisa Nakajima and Ayako Hamada in a main event tag team match. On March 29, Shirai, along with Hiroshi Fukuda, was named the official commentator for Union Pro's internet broadcasts. On April 5, Shirai made her in-ring debut as Nazo Fukumen B, unsuccessfully challenging Kaori Yoneyama for the Union Fly to Everywhere (FTE) World Championship, despite outside interference from Nazo Fukumen A and Nazo Fukumen P. On April 21, Shirai and Kana defeated Misaki Ohata and Tsukasa Fujimoto to win the Wave Tag Team Championship, bringing Triple Tails.S its first title. On June 9, Shirai picked up a major win by pinning the reigning JWP Openweight Champion Arisa Nakajima during the 2013 Catch the Wave tournament. Despite the win, Shirai failed to advance from her round-robin block, finishing with a record of three wins and three losses. On July 7, Shirai and Kana made their first successful defense of the Wave Tag Team Championship against Kyusei Sakura Hirota and Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 12, the White Tails stable produced their final event before the group's dissolution, during which Shirai defeated the soon-to-retire Ayumi Kurihara in a singles match. Three days later, Shirai and Kana lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Shidarezakura (Hikaru Shida and Yumi Ohka) in their second defense.

text: On January 13, 2013, Shirai received her first shot at the Oz Academy Openweight Championship in a match, where she was defeated by the defending champion, fellow Seikigun member

text: Chikayo Nagashima

text: . On January 30, Shirai entered a tournament contested for the

entity_name: Glossary of professional wrestling terms

text: vacant

text: Triangle Ribbon Championship

text: , defeating Aoi Kizuki and Hikaru Shida in her first round three-way match. On February 11, Shirai was defeated in the finals of the tournament by Miyako Matsumoto in a three-way match, which also included Tsukasa Fujimoto. On February 13, Shirai and Ken Ohka entered a storyline in Union Pro, where the two were forced out of the promotion, after Ohka was defeated by Keisuke Ishii in a "

text: Loser Leaves Union match

text: ". However, the two reappeared at the end of event, now working under

text: balaclavas

text: and the ring names "Nazo Fukumen A" and "Nazo Fukumen B" in order to be able to continue working for the promotion. Shirai and Ohka were later joined by several other Union Pro wrestlers under Nazo Fukumen masks, including Shota as Nazo Fukumen C,

text: Gabai-Ji-chan

text: as Nazo Fukumen G,

text: Kengo Mashimo

text: as Nazo Fukumen K, Seiya Morohashi as Nazo Fukumen M, and Hiroshi Fukuda as Nazo Fukumen P. On February 17, Shirai entered the

text: Wave Single Championship

text: tournament

text: as a late replacement for an injured Ayumi Kurihara, but was eliminated in her semifinal match by Kana. On February 24, Triple Tails.S held its first self-produced event in nine months, which saw Shirai and Kana wrestle

text: Arisa Nakajima

text: and Ayako Hamada in a main event tag team match. On March 29, Shirai, along with Hiroshi Fukuda, was named the official commentator for Union Pro's internet broadcasts. On April 5, Shirai made her in-ring debut as Nazo Fukumen B, unsuccessfully challenging

text: Kaori Yoneyama

text: for the Union Fly to Everywhere (FTE) World Championship, despite outside interference from Nazo Fukumen A and Nazo Fukumen P. On April 21, Shirai and Kana defeated Misaki Ohata and Tsukasa Fujimoto to win the

text: Wave Tag Team Championship

text: , bringing Triple Tails.S its first title. On June 9, Shirai picked up a major win by pinning the reigning

text: JWP Openweight Champion

text: Arisa Nakajima during the

text: 2013 Catch the Wave

text: tournament. Despite the win, Shirai failed to advance from her round-robin block, finishing with a record of three wins and three losses. On July 7, Shirai and Kana made their first successful defense of the Wave Tag Team Championship against Kyusei Sakura Hirota and Tsukasa Fujimoto. On July 12, the White Tails stable produced their final event before the group's dissolution, during which Shirai defeated the soon-to-retire Ayumi Kurihara in a singles match. Three days later, Shirai and Kana lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Shidarezakura (Hikaru Shida and Yumi Ohka) in their second defense.

text: The general form of a standing wave is:

text: The general form of a standing wave is:

text: In physics, interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude. Interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same frequency. Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic, surface water waves or matter waves.

text: In

text: physics

text: , interference is a phenomenon in which two

text: wave

text: s

text: superpose

text: to form a resultant wave of greater, lower, or the same

text: amplitude

text: . Interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or

text: coherent

text: with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same

text: frequency

text: . Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example,

text: light

text: radio

text: acoustic

text: surface water wave

text: s or

text: matter wave

text: s.

text: The corpuscular theory was largely developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Newton's theory was predominant for more than 100 years and took precedence over Huygens' wave front theory, partly because of Newton’s great prestige. When the corpuscular theory failed to adequately explain the diffraction, interference and polarization of light it was abandoned in favour of Huygens' wave theory.  To some extent, Newton's corpuscular (particle) theory of light re-emerged in the 20th century, as light phenomenon is currently explained as particle and wave.

text: The corpuscular theory was largely developed by

text: Sir Isaac Newton

text: . Newton's theory was predominant for more than 100 years and took precedence over

text: Huygens'

text: wave front theory, partly because of Newton’s great prestige. When the corpuscular theory failed to adequately explain the

text: diffraction

text: interference

text: and

text: polarization

text: of light it was abandoned in favour of Huygens' wave theory.  To some extent, Newton's corpuscular (particle) theory of light re-emerged in the 20th century, as light phenomenon is currently explained as particle and wave.

text: 2. Criminal ContemptUnder Section 2(c) of the Contempt of Courts Act of 1971, criminal contempt has been defined as the publication (whether by words, spoken or written, or by signs, or by visible representation, or otherwise) of any matter or the doing of any other act whatsoever which:(i) Scandalises or tends to scandalise, or lowers or tends to lower the authority of, any court, or(ii) Prejudices, or interferes or tends to interfere with the due course of any judicial proceeding, or(iii) Interferes or tends to interfere with, or obstructs or tends to obstruct, the administration of justice in any other manner. (a) 'High Court' means the high court for a state or a union territory and includes the court of the judicial commissioner in any union territory.

text: After returning to Japan from the United States in 2011, Hamada began working for Pro Wrestling Wave, where she aligned herself with the villainous Black Dahlia stable. On July 2, 2012, Hamada signed a contract to officially make Wave her new home promotion. On October 6, 2013, Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata won the 2013 Dual Shock Wave tournament. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata defeated the Classic Gals (Cherry and Shuu Shibutani) to win the Wave Tag Team Championship, Hamada's first title in Wave. After a reign of 270 days, the longest in the title's history, Hamada and Yamagata lost the title to Yankii Nichokenju (Isami Kodaka and Yuko Miyamoto) on July 27, 2014. They regained the title from Revolucion Amandla (Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa) on October 29. On February 11, 2015, Hamada became a double champion, when she defeated Hikaru Shida for the Wave Single Championship. On March 15, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Mio Shirai and Misaki Ohata. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata won the Wave Tag Team Championship for the third time, when they defeated Kayoko Haruyama and Tsubasa Kuragaki in the finals of the 2015 Dual Shock Wave tournament. On December 27, Hamada lost the Wave Single Championship to her tag team partner Yuu Yamagata. On August 7, 2016, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Misaki Ohata and Ryo Mizunami.

text: After returning to Japan from the

text: United States

text: in 2011, Hamada began working for

text: Pro Wrestling Wave

text: , where she aligned herself with the

text: villainous

text: Black Dahlia

text: stable

text: . On July 2, 2012, Hamada signed a contract to officially make Wave her new home promotion. On October 6, 2013, Hamada and her Las Aventureras tag team partner Yuu Yamagata won the

text: 2013 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata defeated the Classic Gals (Cherry and

text: Shuu Shibutani

text: ) to win the

text: Wave Tag Team Championship

text: , Hamada's first title in Wave. After a reign of 270 days, the longest in the title's history, Hamada and Yamagata lost the title to

text: Yankii Nichokenju

text: Isami Kodaka

text: and

text: Yuko Miyamoto

text: ) on July 27, 2014. They regained the title from Revolucion Amandla (

text: Kyoko Kimura

text: and Tomoka Nakagawa) on October 29. On February 11, 2015, Hamada became a double champion, when she defeated

text: Hikaru Shida

text: for the

text: Wave Single Championship

text: . On March 15, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Mio Shirai and Misaki Ohata. On October 30, Hamada and Yamagata won the Wave Tag Team Championship for the third time, when they defeated

text: Kayoko Haruyama

text: and

text: Tsubasa Kuragaki

text: in the finals of the

text: 2015 Dual Shock Wave

text: tournament. On December 27, Hamada lost the Wave Single Championship to her tag team partner Yuu Yamagata. On August 7, 2016, Hamada and Yamagata lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Misaki Ohata and Ryo Mizunami.

text: The idea for a photoionization microscope that could image the wave-function of an atom stemmed out of an experiment proposed by Demakov and colleagues in the early 1980s. The researchers suggested that electron waves could be imaged when interacting with a static electric field as long as the de Broglie Wavelength of these electrons was large enough. It was not until 1996 that anything resembling the microscopy images proposed by Demakov and colleagues came to fruition. In 1996 a team of French researchers developed the first photo detachment microscope. The development of this microscope allowed for a direct observation of the oscillatory structure of a wave function to become possible. Photodetachment is the removal of electrons from an atom using interactions with photons or other particles. Photodetachment microscopy made it possible to image the spatial distribution of the ejected electron. The microscope developed in 1996 was the first to image photodetachment rings of a negative Bromine (Br-) ion. These images revealed interference between two electron waves on their way to the detector.

text: The idea for a photoionization microscope that could image the wave-function of an atom stemmed out of an experiment proposed by Demakov and colleagues in the early 1980s. The researchers suggested that electron waves could be imaged when interacting with a static electric field as long as the

text: de Broglie Wavelength

text: of these electrons was large enough. It was not until 1996 that anything resembling the microscopy images proposed by Demakov and colleagues came to fruition. In 1996 a team of French researchers developed the first photo detachment microscope. The development of this microscope allowed for a direct observation of the oscillatory structure of a wave function to become possible. Photodetachment is the removal of electrons from an atom using interactions with photons or other particles. Photodetachment microscopy made it possible to image the spatial distribution of the ejected electron. The microscope developed in 1996 was the first to image photodetachment rings of a negative Bromine (Br-) ion. These images revealed interference between two electron waves on their way to the detector.

text: The sound wave has reflections at the walls, floor and ceiling of the room. The incident wave then has interference with the reflected one. This action creates standing waves that generate nodes and high pressure zones.

text: The sound wave has reflections at the walls, floor and ceiling of the room. The incident wave then has interference with the reflected one. This action creates

text: standing wave

text: s that generate nodes and high pressure zones.

text: In linear optical interferometers (like the Mach-Zehnder interferometer, Michelson interferometer, and Sagnac interferometer), interference manifests itself as intensity oscillations over time or space, also called fringes. Under these circumstances, the interferometric visibility is also known as the "Michelson visibility"  or the "fringe visibility." For this type of interference, the sum of the intensities (powers) of the two interfering waves equals the average intensity over a given time or space domain. The visibility is written as:

text: In linear optical

text: interferometer

text: s (like the

text: Mach-Zehnder interferometer

text: Michelson interferometer

text: , and

text: Sagnac interferometer

text: ), interference manifests itself as

text: intensity

text: oscillations

text: over time or space, also called

text: fringes

text: . Under these circumstances, the interferometric visibility is also known as the "Michelson visibility"  or the "fringe visibility." For this type of interference, the sum of the intensities (powers) of the two interfering waves equals the average intensity over a given time or space domain. The visibility is written as:

text: DRM can deliver FM-comparable sound quality on frequencies below 30 MHz (long wave, medium wave and short wave), which allow for very-long-distance signal propagation. The modes for these lower frequencies are often collectively known under the term "DRM30". In the VHF bands, the term "DRM+" is used. DRM+ is able to use available broadcast spectra between 30 and 300 MHz; generally this means band I (47 to 68 MHz), band II (87.5 to 108 MHz) and band III (174 to 230 MHz). DRM has been designed to be able to re-use portions of existing analogue transmitter facilities such as antennas, feeders, and, especially for DRM30, the transmitters themselves, avoiding major new investment. DRM is robust against the fading and interference which often plague conventional broadcasting in these frequency ranges.

text: DRM can deliver

text: FM

text: -comparable sound quality on frequencies below 30 MHz (

text: long wave

text: medium wave

text: and

text: short wave

text: ), which allow for very-long-distance signal propagation. The modes for these lower frequencies are often collectively known under the term "DRM30". In the VHF bands, the term "DRM+" is used. DRM+ is able to use available broadcast spectra between 30 and 300 MHz; generally this means band I (47 to 68 MHz), band II (87.5 to 108 MHz) and band III (174 to 230 MHz). DRM has been designed to be able to re-use portions of existing analogue

text: transmitter

text: facilities such as antennas, feeders, and, especially for DRM30, the transmitters themselves, avoiding major new investment. DRM is robust against the fading and interference which often plague conventional broadcasting in these frequency ranges.

text: The pilot wave model, originally developed by Louis de Broglie and further developed by David Bohm into the hidden variable theory proposes that there is no duality, but rather a system exhibits both particle properties and wave properties simultaneously, and particles are guided, in a deterministic fashion, by the pilot wave (or its "quantum potential") which will direct them to areas of constructive interference in preference to areas of destructive interference. This idea is held by a significant minority within the physics community.

text: The

text: pilot wave

text: model, originally developed by

text: Louis de Broglie

text: and further developed by

text: David Bohm

text: into the

text: hidden variable theory

text: proposes that there is no duality, but rather a system exhibits both particle properties and wave properties simultaneously, and particles are guided, in a

text: deterministic

text: fashion, by the pilot wave (or its "

text: quantum potential

text: ") which will direct them to areas of

text: constructive interference

text: in preference to areas of

text: destructive interference

text: . This idea is held by a significant minority within the physics community.

text: Holographic interference-contrast method is the holographic interference microscopy technique for phase micro-object visualization that converts the phase shifts inserted by the micro-object to the passed light wave light into deviations of interference fringes in its image. A certain angle is introduced between the “empty” wave and the wave disturbed by the phase micro-objects so the system of straight interference fringes is obtained, which are deviated in the image of the micro-object. The image can be considered as an interferogram in the fringes of finite width. The deviation

text: Holographic interference-contrast method is the holographic interference microscopy technique for phase micro-object visualization that converts the

text: phase shifts

text: inserted by the micro-object to the passed light wave light into deviations of interference fringes in its image. A certain angle is introduced between the “empty”

text: wave

text: and the wave disturbed by the phase micro-objects so the system of straight interference fringes is obtained, which are deviated in the image of the micro-object. The image can be considered as an

text: interferogram

text: in the fringes of finite width. The deviation

text: The technology works by probing an optical stationary wave, or the sum of the standing waves in the case of polychromatic light, created by a light to be analyzed. In a SWIFTS linear configuration (true Lippman configuration), the stationary wave is created by a single-mode waveguide ended by a fixed mirror. The stationary wave is regularly sampled on one side of a waveguide using nano-scattering dots. These dots are located in the evanescent field. These nanodots are characterized by an optical index difference with the medium in which the evanescent field is located. The light is then scattered around an axis perpendicular to the waveguide. For each dot, this scattered light is detected by a pixel aligned with this axis. The intensity detected is therefore proportional to the intensity inside the waveguide at the exact location of the dot. This results in a linear image of the interferogram. No moving parts are used. A mathematical function known as a Lippmann transform, similar to a Fourier transform, is then applied to this linear image and gives the spectrum of the light.

text: The technology works by probing an optical

text: stationary wave

text: , or the sum of the

text: standing waves

text: in the case of polychromatic light, created by a light to be analyzed. In a SWIFTS linear configuration (true Lippman configuration), the

text: stationary wave

text: is created by a single-mode

text: waveguide

text: ended by a fixed mirror. The

text: stationary wave

text: is regularly sampled on one side of a

text: waveguide

text: using nano-scattering dots. These dots are located in the

text: evanescent field

text: . These nanodots are characterized by an optical index difference with the medium in which the evanescent field is located. The light is then scattered around an axis perpendicular to the

text: waveguide

text: . For each dot, this scattered light is detected by a pixel aligned with this axis. The intensity detected is therefore proportional to the intensity inside the

text: waveguide

text: at the exact location of the dot. This results in a linear image of the

text: interferogram

text: . No moving parts are used. A mathematical function known as a Lippmann transform, similar to a

text: Fourier transform

text: , is then applied to this linear image and gives the

text: spectrum

text: of the light.

text: The SZA is not a single telescope, but an array of 8 telescopes operating together as an interferometer. An interferometer does not detect light in quite the same way as an ordinary telescope, by measuring the total power collected by a single dish; instead, it looks at differences between the light falling on pairs of telescopes. Like water waves, light waves can interfere with each other, producing a complex pattern of intensity enhancements where the waves constructively interfere, and nulls where they destructively interfere.

text: The SZA is not a single telescope, but an array of 8 telescopes operating together as an

text: interferometer

text: . An interferometer does not detect light in quite the same way as an ordinary telescope, by measuring the total power collected by a single dish; instead, it looks at differences between the light falling on pairs of telescopes. Like water waves, light waves can interfere with each other, producing a complex pattern of intensity enhancements where the waves constructively interfere, and nulls where they destructively interfere.

text: In physical optics, light is considered to propagate as a wave. This model predicts phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which are not explained by geometric optics. The speed of light waves in air is approximately 3.0×10 m/s (exactly 299,792,458 m/s in vacuum). The wavelength of visible light waves varies between 400 and 700 nm, but the term "light" is also often applied to infrared (0.7–300 μm) and ultraviolet radiation (10–400 nm).

text: In physical optics, light is considered to propagate as a

text: wave

text: . This model predicts phenomena such as

text: interference

text: and

text: diffraction

text: , which are not explained by geometric optics. The

text: speed of light

text: waves in

text: air

text: is approximately 3.0×10 m/s (exactly 299,792,458 m/s in

text: vacuum

text: ). The

text: wavelength

text: of visible light waves varies between 400 and 700 nm, but the term "light" is also often applied to

text: infrared

text: (0.7–300 μm) and

text: ultraviolet

text: radiation (10–400 nm).

text: Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). However, later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction. Today's quantum mechanics, photons, and the idea of wave–particle duality bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.

text: Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). However, later physicists favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for the

text: interference

text: patterns and the general phenomenon of

text: diffraction

text: . Today's

text: quantum mechanics

text: photons

text: , and the idea of

text: wave–particle duality

text: bear only a minor resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.

text: :This page is about the geology/optical mineralogy term.  For general information about interference, see Interference (wave propagation) or Interference patterns.

text: :This page is about the geology/optical mineralogy term.  For general information about interference, see

text: Interference (wave propagation)

text: or

text: Interference pattern

text: s.

text: Interferometry makes use of the principle of superposition to combine waves in a way that will cause the result of their combination to have some meaningful property that is diagnostic of the original state of the waves. This works because when two waves with the same frequency combine, the resulting intensity pattern is determined by the phase difference between the two waves—waves that are in phase will undergo constructive interference while waves that are out of phase will undergo destructive interference. Waves which are not completely in phase nor completely out of phase will have an intermediate intensity pattern, which can be used to determine their relative phase difference. Most interferometers use light or some other form of electromagnetic wave.

text: Interferometry makes use of the principle of superposition to combine waves in a way that will cause the result of their combination to have some meaningful property that is diagnostic of the original state of the waves. This works because when two waves with the same

text: frequency

text: combine, the resulting intensity pattern is determined by the

text: phase

text: difference between the two waves—waves that are in phase will undergo constructive interference while waves that are out of phase will undergo destructive interference. Waves which are not completely in phase nor completely out of phase will have an intermediate intensity pattern, which can be used to determine their relative phase difference. Most interferometers use

text: light

text: or some other form of

text: electromagnetic wave

text: In physics, interference is the meeting of two correlated waves and either increasing or lowering the net amplitude, depending on whether it is constructive or destructive interference. If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave at the same point then the crests interfere constructively and the resultant crest wave amplitude is increased; forming a much more powerful wave than either of the beginning waves. Similarly two troughs make a trough of increased amplitude. If a crest of a wave meets a trough of another wave then they interfere destructively, and the overall amplitude is decreased; thus making a wave that is much smaller than either of the parent waves.

text: Early in the second quarter, while in the red zone, Montana threw an interception to Corey Trim, who returned it for an 82-yard touchdown, giving ULL a 21–0 lead. Devin Powell subsequently replaced Montana. After each team went three-and-out, Tulane scored its first points, a 1-yard touchdown run by Orleans Darkwa that culminated a 9-play, 71 yard drive that encapsulated 4:43. ULL got the ball back, however Broadway threw an interception, setting up Tulane. On their first play, Powell threw a 49-yard pass to Ryan Grant who, amidst double coverage and despite a pass interference penalty, leaped and made the catch. After a pass interference penalty, Darkwa ran for a 7-yard touchdown, pulling the Green Wave within seven points. Not wanting to turn the ball over, the Ragin' Cajuns rushed on each play of their drive to get into the half, at which the score was 21–14, Louisiana-Lafayette.

text: Mt. Sermitsiaq, the mountain in the very back of the coat, is the civic symbol of Nuuk, and the red siminar, with bright gold windows and a weather cock, which stands in the middle of the coat; the yellow paddle, also known as the "kayak paddle" symbolizes the agriculture of the indigenous peoples of Greenland, which were known to hunt sea creatures and fish; most importantly, it also symbolizes that Nuuk is the true power of Greenland.The blue and white waves, which are collected in three sets, growing larger as they get to the red siminar, and both represent two different things. The blue waves represent the sea fjord near Nuuk, and the white waves represent the ice at sea.

text: Mt. Sermitsiaq, the mountain in the very back of the coat, is the civic symbol of Nuuk, and the red siminar, with bright gold windows and a weather cock, which stands in the middle of the coat; the yellow paddle, also known as the "kayak paddle" symbolizes the agriculture of the indigenous peoples of

text: Greenland

text: , which were known to hunt sea creatures and fish; most importantly, it also symbolizes that Nuuk is the true power of Greenland.The blue and white waves, which are collected in three sets, growing larger as they get to the red siminar, and both represent two different things. The blue waves represent the sea

text: fjord

text: near Nuuk, and the white waves represent the

text: ice

text: at

text: sea

text: A simple form of interference pattern is obtained if two plane waves of the same frequency intersect at an angle. Interference is essentially an energy redistribution process. The energy which is lost at the destructive interference is regained at the constructive interference.One wave is travelling horizontally, and the other is travelling downwards at an angle θ to the first wave.  Assuming that the two waves are in phase at the point B, then the relative phase changes along the x-axis. The phase difference at the point A is given by

text: A simple form of interference pattern is obtained if two

text: plane wave

text: s of the same frequency intersect at an angle. Interference is essentially an energy redistribution process. The energy which is lost at the destructive interference is regained at the constructive interference.One wave is travelling horizontally, and the other is travelling downwards at an angle θ to the first wave.  Assuming that the two waves are in phase at the point B, then the relative phase changes along the x-axis. The phase difference at the point A is given by

text: One difficulty with this concept is that light incoming from the target star would diffract around the disc and constructively interfere along the central axis. Thus the starlight would still be easily visible, making planet detection impossible. This concept was first famously theorized by Siméon Poisson in order to disprove the wave theory of light, as he thought the existence of a bright spot at the center of the shadow to be nonsensical. However Dominique Arago experimentally verified the existence of the spot of Arago. Fortunately this effect can be negated by specifically shaping the occulter. By adding specially shaped petals to the outer edge of the disc, the spot of Arago will disappear, allowing the suppression of the star's light.

text: One difficulty with this concept is that light incoming from the target star would

text: diffract

text: around the disc and constructively interfere along the central axis. Thus the starlight would still be easily visible, making planet detection impossible. This concept was first famously theorized by

text: Siméon Poisson

text: in order to disprove the wave theory of light, as he thought the existence of a bright spot at the center of the shadow to be nonsensical. However

text: Dominique Arago

text: experimentally verified the existence of the

text: spot of Arago

text: . Fortunately this effect can be negated by specifically shaping the occulter. By adding specially shaped petals to the outer edge of the disc, the spot of Arago will disappear, allowing the suppression of the star's light.

text: Quasi-peak detectors play an important role in electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing of electronic equipment, where allowed levels of electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio frequency interference (RFI), are given with reference to measurement by a specified quasi-peak detector. This was originally done because the quasi-peak detector was believed to better indicate the subjective annoyance level experienced by a listener hearing impulsive interference to an AM radio station. Over time standards incorporating quasi-peak detectors as the measurement device were extended to frequencies up to 1 GHz, although there may not be any justification beyond previous practice for using the quasi-peak detector to measure interference to signals other than AM radio. The quasi-peak detector parameters to be used for EMC testing vary with frequency . Both CISPR and the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC)   limit EMI at frequencies above 1 GHz with reference to an average-power detector, rather than quasi-peak detector.

text: Quasi-peak detectors play an important role in

text: electromagnetic compatibility

text: (EMC) testing of electronic equipment, where allowed levels of

text: electromagnetic interference

text: (EMI), also called radio frequency interference (RFI), are given with reference to measurement by a specified quasi-peak detector. This was originally done because the quasi-peak detector was believed to better indicate the subjective annoyance level experienced by a listener hearing impulsive interference to an

text: AM

text: radio station. Over time standards incorporating quasi-peak detectors as the measurement device were extended to frequencies up to 1

text: GHz

text: , although there may not be any justification beyond previous practice for using the quasi-peak detector to measure interference to signals other than

text: AM

text: radio. The quasi-peak detector parameters to be used for

text: EMC

text: testing vary with frequency . Both

text: CISPR

text: and the U.S.

text: Federal Communications Commission

text: (FCC)   limit

text: EMI

text: at frequencies above 1

text: GHz

text: with reference to an average-power detector, rather than quasi-peak detector.

text: A surfer who has already taken off or obtained possession of a wave maintains this position until the end of their ride. If another surfer takes off on the inside of this surfer then this person does not obtain priority and is considered to be snaking. If this surfer does not hurt the other surfers ride then both people can be scored based. If the judges determine that the snaking did interfere then the person will be penalized.Interference penalties are called by the judges and must have a majority to be declared an actual penalty. Interferences are shown as triangles on the score cards in various different ways depending on when or where in the heat they were made. If three or more waves are being scored then one wave will be dropped off the score card. If only the top two waves are being scored then 50% of the second best scored wave will be taken off. If a surfer has more than one then 50% of the best waves score will be taken off also. The surfer who has been interfered with will be allowed an additional wave to their maximum as long as it is within the time limit. If a surfer interferes more than twice in a heat then they must leave the competition area.

text: A surfer who has already taken off or obtained possession of a

text: wave

text: A square wave is  a non-sinusoidal periodic waveform (which can be represented as an infinite summation of sinusoidal waves),  in which the amplitude alternates at a steady frequency between fixed minimum and maximum values, with the same duration at minimum and maximum. The transition between minimum to maximum is instantaneous for an ideal square wave; this is not realizable in physical systems. Square waves are often encountered in electronics and signal processing. Its stochastic counterpart is a two-state trajectory. A similar but not necessarily symmetric wave, with arbitrary durations at minimum and maximum, is called a pulse wave (of which the square wave is a special case).

text: A square wave is  a

text: non-sinusoidal periodic waveform

text: (which can be represented as an infinite summation of sinusoidal waves),  in which the amplitude alternates at a steady

text: frequency

text: between fixed minimum and maximum values, with the same duration at minimum and maximum. The transition between minimum to maximum is instantaneous for an ideal square wave; this is not realizable in physical systems. Square waves are often encountered in

text: electronics

text: and

text: signal processing

text: . Its stochastic counterpart is a

text: two-state trajectory

text: . A similar but not necessarily symmetric wave, with arbitrary durations at minimum and maximum, is called a

text: pulse wave

text: (of which the square wave is a special case).

text: Constructive interference occurs when the waves are in phase, and destructive interference when they are half a cycle out of phase.  Thus, an interference fringe pattern is produced, where the separation of the maxima is

text: By comparing this equation with the definition of a reciprocal lattice vector, we see that constructive interference occurs if

text: A nuller is an optical tool used to block a strong source so that fainter signals near that source can be observed. An example of a nuller is being employed on the Keck Interferometer. This causes the light from a star to destructively interfere, effectively cancelling the star's image. As a result, the faint light from a ring of dust orbiting the star can then be detected. This project is part of a scientific effort to detect and observe nearby planets.

text: A nuller is an optical tool used to block a strong source so that fainter signals near that source can be observed. An example of a nuller is being employed on the

text: Keck Interferometer

text: . This causes the

text: light

text: from a

text: star

text: to destructively

text: interfere

text: , effectively cancelling the star's

text: image

text: . As a result, the faint light from a ring of dust

text: orbiting

text: the star can then be detected. This project is part of a scientific effort to detect and observe nearby

text: planet

text: s.

text: Sampling is repeated in the same location for the next transmit pulse, and the sample taken (at the same distance) with the first pulse is rotated 180 degrees and added to the second sample. This is called destructive interference.

text: Sampling is repeated in the same location for the next transmit pulse, and the sample taken (at the same distance) with the first pulse is rotated 180 degrees and added to the second sample. This is called

entity_section: Constructive and destructive interference

text: destructive interference

text: These are formed from the action of fast flowing water over an uneven river or creek bed. The dynamics are very specific and not many naturally occurring surfable standing river waves are known, but examples include on the Zambesi river and near Munich, Germany.

text: Alternatively, Snell's law can be derived using interference of all possible paths of light wave from source to observer—it results in destructive interference everywhere except extrema of phase (where interference is constructive)—which become actual paths.

text: For a better understanding of the process, it is necessary to understand interference and diffraction. Interference occurs when one or more wavefronts are superimposed. Diffraction occurs whenever a wavefront encounters an object. The process of producing a holographic reconstruction is explained below purely in terms of interference and diffraction. It is somewhat simplified but is accurate enough to provide an understanding of how the holographic process works.

text: For a better understanding of the process, it is necessary to understand

text: interference

text: and

text: diffraction

text: . Interference occurs when one or more

text: wavefronts

text: are superimposed.

text: Diffraction

text: occurs whenever a wavefront encounters an object. The process of producing a holographic reconstruction is explained below purely in terms of interference and diffraction. It is somewhat simplified but is accurate enough to provide an understanding of how the holographic process works.

text: Another theory of motivated forgetting is interference theory, which posits that subsequent learning can interfere with and degrade a person’s memories. This theory was tested by giving participants ten nonsense syllables. Some of the participants then slept after viewing the syllables, while the other participants carried on their day as usual. The results of this experiment showed that people who stayed awake had a poor recall of the syllables, while the sleeping participants remembered the syllables better. This could have occurred due to the fact that the sleeping subjects had no interference during the experiment, while the other subjects did. There are two types of interference; proactive interference and retroactive interference. Proactive interference occurs when you are unable to learn a new task due to the interference of an old task that has already been learned. Research has been done to show that students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience interference. Retroactive interference occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task.

text: Another theory of motivated forgetting is interference theory, which posits that subsequent learning can interfere with and degrade a person’s memories. This theory was tested by giving participants ten nonsense syllables. Some of the participants then slept after viewing the syllables, while the other participants carried on their day as usual. The results of this experiment showed that people who stayed awake had a poor recall of the syllables, while the sleeping participants remembered the syllables better. This could have occurred due to the fact that the sleeping subjects had no interference during the experiment, while the other subjects did. There are two types of interference;

text: proactive interference

text: and

text: retroactive interference

text: . Proactive interference occurs when you are unable to learn a new task due to the interference of an old task that has already been learned. Research has been done to show that students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience interference. Retroactive interference occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task.

text: A standing wave, also known as a stationary wave, is a wave that remains in a constant position. This phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the opposite direction to the wave, or it can arise in a stationary medium as a result of interference between two waves traveling in opposite directions.

text: A standing wave, also known as a stationary wave, is a wave that remains in a constant position. This phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the opposite direction to the wave, or it can arise in a stationary medium as a result of

text: interference

text: between two waves traveling in opposite directions.

text: When the slotted line is terminated with a precision matching load there is no variation in the detected power along the line, other than a very small decrease due to losses in the line.  However, when this is replaced by a device under test (DUT) which is not perfectly matched to the line there will be a reflection back towards the source.  This causes a standing wave to be set up on the line with periodic maxima and minima (collectively, extrema) due to alternating constructive and destructive interference.  These extrema are found by moving the probe back and forth along the line and the level at that point can then be measured on the meter.

text: When the slotted line is terminated with a precision matching load there is no variation in the detected power along the line, other than a very small decrease due to losses in the line.  However, when this is replaced by a

text: device under test

text: (DUT) which is not perfectly matched to the line there will be a

entity_name: Reflections of signals on conducting lines

text: reflection back towards the source

text: .  This causes a

text: standing wave

text: to be set up on the line with periodic

text: maxima and minima

text: (collectively, extrema) due to alternating constructive and destructive

text: interference

text: .  These extrema are found by moving the probe back and forth along the line and the level at that point can then be measured on the meter.

text: Observations from the Earth's surface are limited to wavelengths that can pass through the atmosphere. At low frequencies, or long wavelengths, transmission is limited by the ionosphere, which reflects waves with frequencies less than its characteristic plasma frequency. Water vapor interferes with radio astronomy at higher frequencies, which has led to building radio observatories that conduct observations at millimeter wavelengths at very high and dry sites, in order to minimize the water vapor content in the line of sight. Finally, transmitting devices on earth may cause radio-frequency interference. Because of this, many radio observatories are built at remote places.

text: Observations from the

text: Earth

text: 's surface are limited to wavelengths that can pass through the atmosphere. At low frequencies, or long wavelengths, transmission is limited by the

text: ionosphere

text: , which reflects waves with frequencies less than its characteristic

text: plasma frequency

text: Water

text: vapor

text: interferes with radio astronomy at higher frequencies, which has led to building radio observatories that conduct observations at

text: millimeter

text: wavelengths at very high and dry sites, in order to minimize the water vapor content in the line of sight. Finally, transmitting devices on earth may cause

text: radio-frequency interference

text: . Because of this, many radio observatories are built at remote places.

text: X-ray interference is the addition (superposition) of two or more X-ray waves that results in a new wave pattern. X-ray interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same frequency.

text: X-ray

text: interference

text: is the addition (

text: superposition

text: ) of two or more X-ray

text: wave

text: s that results in a new wave pattern. X-ray interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or

text: coherent

text: frequency

text: The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates primarily as a pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.

text: The central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical acoustics. In

text: fluid

text: s, sound propagates primarily as a

text: pressure wave

text: . In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including

text: longitudinal waves

text: transverse waves

text: and

text: surface waves

text: Newton (test plate) interferometry is frequently used in the optical industry for testing the  quality of surfaces as they are being shaped and figured. Fig. 13 shows photos of reference flats being used to check two test flats at different stages of completion, showing the different patterns of interference fringes. The reference flats are resting with their bottom surfaces in contact with the test flats, and they are illuminated by a monochromatic light source. The light waves reflected from both surfaces interfere, resulting in a pattern of bright and dark bands. The surface in the left photo is nearly flat, indicated by a pattern of straight parallel interference fringes at equal intervals. The surface in the right photo is uneven, resulting in a pattern of curved fringes. Each pair of adjacent fringes represents a difference in surface elevation of half a wavelength of the light used, so differences in elevation can be measured by counting the fringes. The flatness of the surfaces can be measured to millionths of an inch by this method. To determine whether the surface being tested is concave or convex with respect to the reference optical flat, any of several procedures may be adopted. One can observe how the fringes are displaced when one presses gently on the top flat. If one observes the fringes in white light, the sequence of colors becomes familiar with experience and aids in interpretation. Finally one may compare the appearance of the fringes as one moves ones head from a normal to an oblique viewing position. These sorts of maneuvers, while common in the optical shop, are not suitable in a formal testing environment. When the flats are ready for sale, they will typically be mounted in a Fizeau interferometer for formal testing and certification.

text: The second factor to determine a laser's emission frequencies is the optical cavity (or resonant cavity) of the laser. In the simplest case, this consists of two plane (flat) mirrors facing each other, surrounding the gain medium of the laser (this arrangement is known as a Fabry–Pérot cavity). Since light is a wave, when bouncing between the mirrors of the cavity, the light will constructively and destructively interfere with itself, leading to the formation of standing waves or modes between the mirrors.  These standing waves form a discrete set of frequencies, known as the longitudinal modes of the cavity. These modes are the only frequencies of light which are self-regenerating and allowed to oscillate by the resonant cavity; all other frequencies of light are suppressed by destructive interference. For a simple plane-mirror cavity, the allowed modes are those for which the separation distance of the mirrors L is an exact multiple of half the wavelength of the light λ, such that  qλ/2}}, where q is an integer known as the mode order.

text: The second factor to determine a laser's emission frequencies is the

text: optical cavity

text: (or resonant cavity) of the laser. In the simplest case, this consists of two plane (flat)

text: mirror

text: s facing each other, surrounding the gain medium of the laser (this arrangement is known as a

text: Fabry–Pérot

text: cavity). Since light is a

text: wave

text: , when bouncing between the mirrors of the cavity, the light will constructively and destructively

text: interfere

text: with itself, leading to the formation of

text: standing wave

text: s or

text: modes

text: between the mirrors.  These standing waves form a discrete set of frequencies, known as the

text: longitudinal mode

text: s of the cavity. These modes are the only frequencies of light which are self-regenerating and allowed to oscillate by the resonant cavity; all other frequencies of light are suppressed by destructive interference. For a simple plane-mirror cavity, the allowed modes are those for which the separation distance of the mirrors L is an exact multiple of half the wavelength of the light λ, such that  qλ/2}}, where q is an integer known as the mode order.

text: One key advantage of transmission lines is their ability to conduct the back wave behind the transducer more effectively away from it – reducing the chance for reflected energy permeating back through the diaphragm out of phase with the primary signal. Not all transmission lines designs do this effectively. Most offset transmission line speakers place a reflective wall fairly close behind the transducer within the enclosure – posing a problem for internal reflections emanating back through the transducer diaphragm. Older descriptions explained the design in terms of "impedance mismatch", or pressure waves "reflected" back into the enclosure; these descriptions are now considered outdated and inaccurate as technically the transmission line works through selective production of standing waves and constructive and destructive interference (see below).

text: One key advantage of transmission lines is their ability to conduct the back wave behind the transducer more effectively away from it – reducing the chance for reflected energy permeating back through the diaphragm out of phase with the primary signal. Not all transmission lines designs do this effectively. Most offset transmission line speakers place a reflective wall fairly close behind the transducer within the enclosure – posing a problem for internal reflections emanating back through the transducer diaphragm. Older descriptions explained the design in terms of "impedance mismatch", or pressure waves "reflected" back into the enclosure; these descriptions are now considered outdated and inaccurate as technically the transmission line works through selective production of

text: standing wave

text: s and

text: constructive

text: and

text: destructive

text: interference

text: (see below).

text: In physics, this sort of addition occurs when sinusoids interfere with each other, constructively or destructively.  The static vector concept provides useful insight into questions like this: "What phase difference would be required between three identical sinusoids for perfect cancellation?" In this case, simply imagine taking three vectors of equal length and placing them head to tail such that the last head matches up with the first tail.  Clearly, the shape which satisfies these conditions is an equilateral triangle, so the angle between each phasor to the next is 120° (2π/3 radians), or one third of a wavelength /. So the phase difference between each wave must also be 120°, as is the case in three-phase power

text: In physics, this sort of addition occurs when sinusoids

text: interfere

text: with each other, constructively or destructively.  The static vector concept provides useful insight into questions like this: "What phase difference would be required between three identical sinusoids for perfect cancellation?" In this case, simply imagine taking three vectors of equal length and placing them head to tail such that the last head matches up with the first tail.  Clearly, the shape which satisfies these conditions is an equilateral

text: triangle

text: , so the angle between each phasor to the next is 120° (2π/3 radians), or one third of a wavelength /. So the phase difference between each wave must also be 120°, as is the case in

text: three-phase power

text: The signalman continues to tell the traveller that the "spectre" came back a week ago and has appeared in fits and starts always by the light at the tunnel and always gesturing with one arm across its face and the other waved in warning. Now frustrated the signalman states that he has no rest or peace for it and that it calls him for minutes together in an agonized shout of "Below There, Look Out, Look Out" as well a standing there waving and ringing his bell.

text: Wagenfeld’s Diplom thesis (Masters of Science equivalent) was for a project carried out at the Fritz-Haber-Institute under supervision of Professor Molière (“Untersuchung über die Feinstrukturen der Elektronenbeugungsreflexe durchstrahlter Mikrokristalle“ / Investigation of the fine structures in electron diffraction patterns of irradiated microcrystals). The Institute recommended Wagenfeld turn this thesis into his PhD.  Wagenfeld did so, and in 1958 was awarded the degree Dr. rer. nat. (Experimental Physics) for the inaugural dissertation “Interferenzbrechung von Elektronenwellen in durchstrahlten Mikrokristallen bei simultaner Anregung mehrerer Interferenzen” (Interference diffraction of electron waves in irradiated microcrystals with simultaneous excitation of multiple interferences).

text: Wagenfeld’s Diplom thesis (Masters of Science equivalent) was for a project carried out at the Fritz-Haber-Institute under supervision of Professor Molière (“Untersuchung über die Feinstrukturen der Elektronenbeugungsreflexe durchstrahlter Mikrokristalle“ / Investigation of the fine structures in

text: electron diffraction

text: patterns of irradiated microcrystals). The Institute recommended Wagenfeld turn this thesis into his

text: PhD

text: .  Wagenfeld did so, and in 1958 was awarded the degree Dr. rer. nat. (Experimental Physics) for the inaugural dissertation “Interferenzbrechung von Elektronenwellen in durchstrahlten Mikrokristallen bei simultaner Anregung mehrerer Interferenzen” (Interference diffraction of electron waves in irradiated microcrystals with simultaneous excitation of multiple interferences).

text: It is not possible in practice to have a true plane wave because it would have to fill all space; only a plane wave of infinite extent will propagate as a plane wave.  However, many waves are approximately plane waves in a localized region of space. For example, a localized source such as an antenna produces a field that is approximately a plane wave far from the antenna in its far-field region.   Similarly, if the length scales are much longer than the wave’s wavelength, as is often the case for light in the field of optics, one can treat the waves as light rays which correspond locally to plane waves.__TOC__

text: It is not possible in practice to have a true plane wave because it would have to fill all space; only a plane wave of infinite extent will propagate as a plane wave.  However, many

text: wave

text: s are approximately plane waves in a localized region of space. For example, a localized source such as an

text: antenna

text: produces a field that is approximately a plane wave far from the antenna in its

text: far-field region

text: .   Similarly, if the

text: length scale

text: s are much longer than the wave’s wavelength, as is often the case for light in the field of

text: optics

text: , one can treat the waves as

text: light rays

text: which correspond locally to plane waves.__TOC__

text: In a constructive trust the defendant breaches a duty owed to the plaintiff. The most common such breach is a breach of fiduciary duty. A controversial example is the case of Attorney-General for Hong Kong v Reid, in which a senior prosecutor took bribes not to prosecute certain offenders. With the bribe money, he purchased property in New Zealand. His employer, the Attorney-General, sought a declaration that the property was held on constructive trust for it, on the basis of breach of fiduciary duty.  The Privy Council awarded a constructive trust.  The case is different from Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver, because there was no interference with a profit-making opportunity that properly belonged to the prosecutor.

text: In a constructive trust the

text: defendant

text: breaches a duty owed to the

text: plaintiff

text: . The most common such breach is a breach of

text: fiduciary duty

text: . A controversial example is the case of

text: Attorney-General for Hong Kong v Reid

text: , in which a senior

text: prosecutor

text: took bribes not to prosecute certain offenders. With the bribe money, he purchased property in

text: New Zealand

text: . His employer, the

text: Attorney-General

text: , sought a declaration that the property was held on constructive trust for it, on the basis of breach of fiduciary duty.  The

text: Privy Council

text: awarded a constructive trust.  The case is different from

text: Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver

text: , because there was no interference with a profit-making opportunity that properly belonged to the prosecutor.

text: In Lippmann's method a glass plate was coated with a "grainless" (ultra fine grain) colour-sensitive film using the Albumen Process containing potassium bromide, dried, sensitized in the silver bath, washed, flowed with cyanine solution, dried and then brought into optical contact with a reflection surface; the back of the plate is then flowed in a plate holder of special form with pure mercury and exposed in the camera through the glass side of the plate, so that the light rays which strike the transparent light-sensitive film, are reflected in themselves and create interference phenomena of stationary waves. The standing waves cause exposure of the emulsion in diffraction patterns. The developed and fixated diffraction patterns constitute a Bragg condition in which diffuse, white light is scattered in a specular fashion and undergo constructive interference in accordance to Bragg's law. The result is an image having very similar colours as the original using a black & white photographic process.

text: In Lippmann's method a glass plate was coated with a "grainless" (ultra fine grain) colour-sensitive film using the

text: Albumen Process

text: containing

text: potassium bromide

text: , dried, sensitized in the silver bath, washed, flowed with cyanine solution, dried and then brought into optical contact with a reflection surface; the back of the plate is then flowed in a plate holder of special form with pure

text: mercury

text: and exposed in the camera through the glass side of the plate, so that the light rays which strike the transparent light-sensitive film, are reflected in themselves and create interference phenomena of

text: stationary waves

text: . The standing waves cause exposure of the emulsion in diffraction patterns. The developed and fixated diffraction patterns constitute a

text: Bragg condition

text: in which diffuse, white light is scattered in a specular fashion and undergo constructive interference in accordance to Bragg's law. The result is an image having very similar colours as the original using a black & white photographic process.

text: Interference can be produced by the use of two dippers that are attached to the main ripple bar. In the diagrams below on the left the light areas represent crests of waves, the black areas represent troughs. Notice the grey areas: they are areas of destructive interference where the waves from the two sources cancel one another out. To the right is a photograph of two-point interference generated in a circular ripple tank.

text: One of the main causes for the pathology of lead is that it interferes with the activity of an essential enzyme called delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase, or ALAD (see image of the enzyme structure), which is important in the biosynthesis of heme, the cofactor found in hemoglobin. Lead also inhibits the enzyme ferrochelatase, another enzyme involved in the formation of heme. Ferrochelatase catalyzes the joining of protoporphyrin and Fe to form heme. Lead's interference with heme synthesis results in production of zinc protoporphyrin and the development of anemia. Another effect of lead's interference with heme synthesis is the buildup of heme precursors, such as aminolevulinic acid, which may be directly or indirectly harmful to neurons.

text: One of the main causes for the pathology of lead is that it interferes with the activity of an essential enzyme called

text: delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase

text: , or ALAD (see image of the enzyme structure), which is important in the biosynthesis of

text: heme

text: , the cofactor found in

text: hemoglobin

text: . Lead also inhibits the enzyme

text: ferrochelatase

text: , another enzyme involved in the formation of heme. Ferrochelatase catalyzes the joining of

text: protoporphyrin

text: and

text: Fe

text: to form heme. Lead's interference with heme synthesis results in production of

text: zinc protoporphyrin

text: and the development of

text: anemia

text: . Another effect of lead's interference with heme synthesis is the buildup of heme precursors, such as

text: aminolevulinic acid

text: , which may be directly or indirectly harmful to neurons.

text: Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference between the waves is an even multiple of π (180°) (a multiple of 2π, 360°), whereas destructive interference occurs when the difference is an odd multiple of π. If the difference between the phases is intermediate between these two extremes, then the magnitude of the displacement of the summed waves lies between the minimum and maximum values.

text: Constructive interference occurs when the

text: phase

text: difference between the waves is an even multiple of π (180°) (a multiple of 2π, 360°), whereas destructive interference occurs when the difference is an odd multiple of π. If the difference between the phases is intermediate between these two extremes, then the magnitude of the displacement of the summed waves lies between the minimum and maximum values.

text: When two waves having the same amplitude and frequency, and traveling in opposite directions, superpose each other, then a standing wave pattern is created. Note that, on a plucked string, the interfering waves are the waves reflected from the fixed end points of the string. Therefore, standing waves occur only at certain frequencies, which are referred to as resonant frequencies and are composed of a fundamental frequency and its higher harmonics. The resonant frequencies of a string are determined by the length between the fixed ends and the tension of the string.

text: When two waves having the same amplitude and frequency, and traveling in opposite directions,

text: superpose

text: each other, then a

text: standing wave

text: pattern is created. Note that, on a plucked string, the interfering waves are the waves reflected from the fixed end points of the string. Therefore, standing waves occur only at certain frequencies, which are referred to as resonant frequencies and are composed of a fundamental frequency and its higher harmonics. The resonant frequencies of a string are determined by the length between the fixed ends and the

text: tension

text: of the string.

text: One easy example to understand standing waves is two people shaking either end of a jump rope.  If they shake in sync the rope can form a regular pattern of waves oscillating up and down, with stationary points along the rope where the rope is almost still (nodes) and points where the arc of the rope is maximum (antinodes)

text: One easy example to understand standing waves is two people shaking either end of a

text: jump rope

text: .  If they shake in sync the rope can form a regular pattern of waves oscillating up and down, with stationary points along the rope where the rope is almost still (nodes) and points where the arc of the rope is maximum (antinodes)

text: There are two types of body waves, Pressure waves or Primary waves (P-waves) and Shear or Secondary waves (S-waves). P-waves are longitudinal waves that involve compression and expansion in the direction that the wave is moving and are always the first waves to appear on a seismogram as they are the fastest moving waves through solids. S-waves are transverse waves that move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. S-waves are slower than P-waves. Therefore, they appear later than P-waves on a seismogram. Fluids cannot support perpendicular motion, so S-waves only travel in solids.

text: There are two types of body waves, Pressure waves or Primary waves (

text: P-wave

text: s) and

text: Shear

text: or Secondary waves (

text: S-wave

text: s).

text: P-wave

text: s are

text: longitudinal wave

text: s that involve

text: compression

text: and

text: expansion

text: in the direction that the wave is moving and are always the first waves to appear on a

text: seismogram

text: as they are the fastest moving waves through solids.

text: S-waves

text: are

text: transverse wave

text: s that move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. S-waves are slower than P-waves. Therefore, they appear later than P-waves on a seismogram. Fluids cannot support perpendicular motion, so S-waves only travel in solids.

text: Polarization (also polarisation) is a parameter applying to waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillation. Electromagnetic waves such as light exhibit multiple polarizations, as do many other types of waves such as gravitational waves and sound waves in solids. On the other hand, sound waves in a gas or liquid only oscillate in the wave's direction of propagation, and the oscillation of ocean waves is always in the vertical direction. In these cases one doesn't normally speak of "polarization" since the oscillation's direction is not in question.

text: Polarization (

entity_name: American and British English spelling differences

text: also

text: polarisation) is a parameter applying to

text: wave

text: s that specifies the geometrical orientation of the

text: oscillation

text: Electromagnetic wave

text: s such as

text: light

text: exhibit multiple polarizations, as do many other types of waves such as

text: gravitational wave

text: s and sound waves in solids. On the other hand,

text: sound wave

text: s in a gas or liquid only

text: oscillate in the wave's direction of propagation

text: , and the oscillation of

text: ocean waves

text: is always in the vertical direction. In these cases one doesn't normally speak of "polarization" since the oscillation's direction is not in question.

text: This is one of the most robust interference phenomena that survives multiple scattering, and it is regarded as an aspect of a quantum mechanical phenomenon known as weak localization (Akkermans et al. 1986). In weak localization, interference of the direct and reverse paths leads to a net reduction of light transport in the forward direction. This phenomenon is typical of any coherent wave which is multiple scattered. It is typically discussed for light waves, for which it is similar to the weak localization phenomenon for electrons in disordered (semi)conductors and often seen as the precursor to Anderson (or strong) localization of light. Weak localization of light can be detected since it is manifested as an enhancement of light intensity in the backscattering direction. This substantial enhancement is called the cone of coherent backscattering.

text: This is one of the most robust

text: interference

text: phenomena that survives multiple scattering, and it is regarded as an aspect of a

text: quantum mechanical

text: phenomenon known as

text: weak localization

text: (Akkermans et al. 1986). In weak localization, interference of the direct and reverse paths leads to a net reduction of light transport in the forward direction. This phenomenon is typical of any coherent wave which is multiple scattered. It is typically discussed for light waves, for which it is similar to the weak localization phenomenon for electrons in disordered (semi)conductors and often seen as the precursor to

text: Anderson

text: (or strong) localization of light. Weak localization of light can be detected since it is manifested as an enhancement of light intensity in the backscattering direction. This substantial enhancement is called the cone of coherent backscattering.

text: Crucial to the intuition and simple analysis of the properties of the zig-zag product is the view of expanders as functions which act as “entropy wave” propagators — they transform probability distributions in which entropy is concentrated in one area to distributions where that concentration is dissipated. In these terms, the graph product affords the constructive interference of two such waves.

text: An adaptive beamforming system relies on principals of wave propagation and phase relationships. See Constructive interference, and Beamforming. Using the principles of superimposing waves, a higher or lower amplitude wave is created (e.g. by delaying and weighting the signal received). The adaptive beamforming system dynamically adapts in order to maximize or minimize a desired parameter, such as Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio.

text: An adaptive beamforming system relies on principals of wave propagation and phase relationships. See

text: Constructive interference

text: , and

text: Beamforming

text: . Using the principles of superimposing waves, a higher or lower amplitude wave is created (e.g. by delaying and weighting the signal received). The adaptive beamforming system dynamically adapts in order to maximize or minimize a desired parameter, such as

text: Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio

text: In 1953, WAVE-TV moved to VHF channel 3, due to signal interference issues with fellow NBC affiliate WLWT in Cincinnati. WAVE-TV made history again in 1954 as it became the first station in Louisville to broadcast programming in color; viewers were treated to a vivid image of the new NBC Peacock logo. In 1959, having long since outgrown its original studio facility on East Broadway (which now houses the Louisville offices for Metro United Way), WAVE-TV moved into its current downtown facility at 725 South Floyd Street. Three years later, channel 3 became the first station in the region to transmit live, locally produced programming in color; by 1966, it was the only Kentucky station that processed its own news footage on color film. In 1969, WAVE-TV became the first station in the market to employ a certified television meteorologist (Tom Wills) and operate its own weather-forecasting system.

text: In 1953, WAVE-TV moved to VHF channel 3, due to signal interference issues with fellow NBC affiliate

text: WLWT

text: in

text: Cincinnati

text: . WAVE-TV made history again in 1954 as it became the first station in Louisville to broadcast programming in color; viewers were treated to a vivid image of the new NBC Peacock logo. In 1959, having long since outgrown its original studio facility on East Broadway (which now houses the Louisville offices for Metro

text: United Way

text: ), WAVE-TV moved into its current downtown facility at 725 South Floyd Street. Three years later, channel 3 became the first station in the region to transmit live, locally produced programming in color; by 1966, it was the only Kentucky station that processed its own news footage on color film. In 1969, WAVE-TV became the first station in the market to employ a certified television meteorologist (Tom Wills) and operate its own weather-forecasting system.

text: Where d is the distance between the two slits. When the two waves are in phase, i.e. the path difference is equal to an integral number of wavelengths, the summed amplitude, and therefore the summed intensity is maximum, and when they are in anti-phase, i.e. the path difference is equal to half a wavelength, one and a half wavelengths, etc., then the two waves cancel and the summed intensity is zero.  This effect is known as interference.  The interference fringe maxima occur at angles

text: Where d is the distance between the two slits. When the two waves are in phase, i.e. the path difference is equal to an integral number of wavelengths, the summed amplitude, and therefore the summed intensity is maximum, and when they are in anti-phase, i.e. the path difference is equal to half a wavelength, one and a half wavelengths, etc., then the two waves cancel and the summed intensity is zero.  This effect is known as

text: interference

text: .  The interference fringe maxima occur at angles

text: A surfer can also be found guilty of interference if they catch more than their maximum number of waves in a heat and that this takes away from the other competitors ability to catch waves. A competitor is also not allowed to interfere with another competitor’s paddling and maneuvering for a wave.

text: A surfer can also be found guilty of interference if they catch more than their maximum number of waves in a heat and that this takes away from the other competitors ability to catch waves. A competitor is also not allowed to interfere with another competitor’s

text: paddling

text: and maneuvering for a wave.

text: A dramatic series of experiments emphasizing the action of gravity in relation to wave–particle duality was conducted in the 1970s using the neutron interferometer. Neutrons, one of the components of the atomic nucleus, provide much of the mass of a nucleus and thus of ordinary matter. In the neutron interferometer, they act as quantum-mechanical waves directly subject to the force of gravity. While the results were not surprising since gravity was known to act on everything, including light (see tests of general relativity and the Pound–Rebka falling photon experiment), the self-interference of the quantum mechanical wave of a massive fermion in a gravitational field had never been experimentally confirmed before.

text: A dramatic series of experiments emphasizing the action of

text: gravity

text: in relation to wave–particle duality was conducted in the 1970s using the

text: neutron interferometer

text: . Neutrons, one of the components of the

text: atomic nucleus

text: , provide much of the mass of a nucleus and thus of ordinary matter. In the neutron interferometer, they act as quantum-mechanical waves directly subject to the force of gravity. While the results were not surprising since gravity was known to act on everything, including light (see

text: tests of general relativity

text: and the

text: Pound–Rebka falling photon experiment

text: ), the self-interference of the quantum mechanical wave of a massive fermion in a gravitational field had never been experimentally confirmed before.

text: Bragg diffraction occurs when radiation, with wavelength comparable to atomic spacings, is scattered in a specular fashion by the atoms of a crystalline system, and undergoes constructive interference. For a crystalline solid, the waves are scattered from lattice planes separated by the interplanar distance d.  When the scattered waves interfere constructively, they remain in phase since the difference between the path lengths of the two waves is equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength.  The path difference between two waves undergoing interference is given by 2dsinθ, where θ is the scattering angle (see figure on the right).  The effect of the constructive or destructive interference intensifies because of the cumulative effect of reflection in successive crystallographic planes of the crystalline lattice (as described by Miller notation). This leads to Bragg's law, which describes the condition on θ for the constructive interference to be at its strongest:

text: Bragg diffraction occurs when radiation, with wavelength comparable to atomic spacings, is scattered in a

text: specular

text: fashion by the atoms of a crystalline system, and undergoes constructive interference. For a crystalline solid, the waves are scattered from lattice planes separated by the interplanar distance d.  When the scattered waves

text: interfere

text: constructively, they remain in phase since the difference between the path lengths of the two waves is equal to an

text: integer

text: multiple of the wavelength.  The path difference between two waves undergoing interference is given by 2dsinθ, where θ is the scattering angle (see figure on the right).  The effect of the constructive or destructive interference intensifies because of the cumulative effect of reflection in successive

text: crystallographic planes

text: of the crystalline lattice (as described by

text: Miller notation

text: ). This leads to Bragg's law, which describes the condition on θ for the constructive interference to be at its strongest:

text: The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse.  As a result, the receiver sees the superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a different path.  Each signal copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay and phase shift while travelling from the source to the receiver.  This can result in either constructive or destructive interference, amplifying or attenuating the signal power seen at the receiver.  Strong destructive interference is frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication due to a severe drop in the channel signal-to-noise ratio.

text: The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse.  As a result, the receiver sees the

text: superposition

text: of multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a different path.  Each signal copy will experience differences in

text: attenuation

text: delay

text: and

text: phase shift

text: while travelling from the source to the receiver.  This can result in either constructive or destructive interference, amplifying or attenuating the signal power seen at the receiver.  Strong destructive interference is frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication due to a severe drop in the channel

text: signal-to-noise ratio

text: The brain is the organ most sensitive to lead exposure. Lead is able to pass through the endothelial cells at the blood brain barrier because it can substitute for calcium ions and be uptaken by Calcium-ATPase pumps. Lead poisoning interferes with the normal development of a child's brain and nervous system; therefore children are at greater risk of lead neurotoxicity than adults are. In a child's developing brain, lead interferes with synapse formation  in the cerebral cortex, neurochemical development (including that of neurotransmitters), and organization of ion channels. It causes loss of neurons' myelin sheaths, reduces numbers of neurons, interferes with neurotransmission, and decreases neuronal growth.

text: The brain is the organ most sensitive to lead exposure. Lead is able to pass through the endothelial cells at the

text: blood brain barrier

text: because it can substitute for

text: calcium ions

text: and be uptaken by Calcium-ATPase pumps. Lead poisoning interferes with the normal development of a child's brain and nervous system; therefore children are at greater risk of lead

text: neurotoxicity

text: than adults are. In a child's developing brain, lead interferes with

text: synapse

text: formation  in the

text: cerebral cortex

text: neurochemical

text: development (including that of neurotransmitters), and organization of

text: ion channel

text: s. It causes loss of neurons'

text: myelin

text: sheaths, reduces numbers of neurons, interferes with neurotransmission, and decreases neuronal growth.

text: The standing wave forms with this desired pattern at the design frequency, f, and antennas are normally designed to be this size. However, feeding that element with 3f (whose wavelength is  that of f) will also lead to a standing wave pattern. Thus, an antenna element is also resonant when its length is  of a wavelength. This is true for all odd multiples of  wavelength. This allows some flexibility of design in terms of antenna lengths and feed points. Antennas used in such a fashion are known to be harmonically operated.

text: At some points along the line the forward and reflected waves interfere constructively, exactly in phase, with the resulting amplitude

text: At some points along the line the forward and reflected waves

text: interfere

text: constructively, exactly in phase, with the resulting amplitude

text: During his career, Wickens authored or coauthored over 100 published articles. These varied in nature from experimental to theoretical. In his early career, Wickens focused on classical conditioning.  In 1938 he authored several articles about the transference of conditioned excitation and conditioned inhibition in muscle groups, emphasizing the functional rather than muscular character of the conditioned response. For the next few decades, Wickens continued to focus on stimuli and responses, though generalization and perceptual factors were increasingly considered. For the next few decades, Wickens continued to focus on stimuli and responses, though generalization and perceptual factors were increasingly considered.	Later in his career, Wickens explored the development of verbal learning and memory research. With his graduate student, Jack Newton, Wickens observed retroactive interference, the occurrence of recent information interfering with past information, in an A-B/C-D paradigm, sometimes referred to as the Wickens paradigm or PI paradigm. Wickens continued to explore the concept of retroactive interference until prompted by the research of David Born and Charles Allen concerning proactive interference, the occurrence of past information interfering with recent information. In 1971, he coauthored an article with Judith Goggin on the interplay of proactive inhibition, short-term memory, and bilingual abilities. Continuing his interest in proactive interference, Wickens studied proactive interference buildup, demonstrating semantic coding in short term memory.

text: During his career, Wickens authored or coauthored over 100 published articles. These varied in nature from experimental to theoretical. In his early career, Wickens focused on classical conditioning.  In 1938 he authored several articles about the transference of conditioned excitation and conditioned inhibition in muscle groups, emphasizing the functional rather than muscular character of the

text: conditioned response

text: . For the next few decades, Wickens continued to focus on stimuli and responses, though generalization and perceptual factors were increasingly considered. For the next few decades, Wickens continued to focus on stimuli and responses, though generalization and perceptual factors were increasingly considered.	Later in his career, Wickens explored the development of verbal learning and memory research. With his graduate student, Jack Newton, Wickens observed

text: retroactive interference

text: , the occurrence of recent information interfering with past information, in an A-B/C-D paradigm, sometimes referred to as the Wickens paradigm or PI paradigm. Wickens continued to explore the concept of retroactive interference until prompted by the research of David Born and Charles Allen concerning proactive interference, the occurrence of past information interfering with recent information. In 1971, he coauthored an article with Judith Goggin on the interplay of proactive inhibition,

text: short-term memory

text: , and bilingual abilities. Continuing his interest in proactive interference, Wickens studied proactive interference buildup, demonstrating semantic coding in short term memory.

text: A surfer who has already taken off or obtained possession of a wave maintains this position until the end of their ride. If another surfer takes off on the inside of this surfer, then this person does not obtain priority and is considered to be snaking. If this surfer does not hurt the other surfers ride, then both people can be scored based. If the judges determine that the snaking did interfere then the person will be penalized. Interference penalties are called by the judges and must have a majority to be declared an actual penalty. Interference are shown as triangles on the score cards in various different ways depending on when or where in the heat they were made. If three or more waves are being scored than one wave will be dropped off the score card. If only the top two waves are being scored, then 50% of the second best-scored wave will be taken off. If a surfer has more than one then 50% of the best waves score will be taken off also. The surfer who has been interfered with will be allowed an additional wave to their maximum as long as it is within the time limit. If a surfer interferes more than twice in a heat then they must leave the competition area.

text: wave

text: Medium waves can also reflect off charged particle layers in the ionosphere and return to Earth at much greater distances; this is called the skywave.  At night, especially in winter months and at times of low solar activity, the ionospheric D layer virtually disappears. When this happens, MF radio waves can easily be received many hundreds or even thousands of miles away as the signal will be reflected by the higher F layer. This can allow very long-distance broadcasting, but can also interfere with distant local stations.  Due to the limited number of available channels in the MW broadcast band, the same frequencies are re-allocated to different broadcasting stations several hundred miles apart.  On nights of good skywave propagation, the skywave signals of distant station may interfere with the signals of local stations on the same frequency.  In North America, the  North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement (NARBA) sets aside certain channels for nighttime use over extended service areas via skywave by a few specially licensed AM broadcasting stations.  These channels are called clear channels, and they are required to broadcast at higher powers of 10 to 50 kW.

text: Medium waves can also reflect off charged particle layers in the

text: ionosphere

text: and return to Earth at much greater distances; this is called the

text: skywave

text: .  At night, especially in winter months and at times of low solar activity, the ionospheric

text: D layer

text: virtually disappears. When this happens, MF radio waves can easily be received many hundreds or even thousands of miles away as the signal will be reflected by the higher

text: F layer

text: . This can allow very long-distance broadcasting, but can also interfere with distant local stations.  Due to the limited number of available channels in the MW broadcast band, the same frequencies are re-allocated to different broadcasting stations several hundred miles apart.  On nights of good skywave propagation, the skywave signals of distant station may interfere with the signals of local stations on the same frequency.  In North America, the

entity_name: North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement

text: North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement

text: (NARBA) sets aside certain channels for nighttime use over extended service areas via skywave by a few specially licensed AM broadcasting stations.  These channels are called

text: clear channels

text: , and they are required to broadcast at higher powers of 10 to 50 kW.

text: Many modern fluorescence microscopy techniques also require a rigidly-supported planar surface. Evanescent field methods such as total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) can offer extremely sensitive measurement of analyte binding and bilayer optical properties but can only function when the sample is supported on specialized optically functional materials. Another class of methods applicable only to supported bilayers is those based on optical interference such as fluorescence interference contrast microscopy (FLIC) and reflection interference contrast microscopy (RICM) or interferometric scattering microscopy (iSCAT). When the bilayer is supported on top of a reflective surface, variations in intensity due to destructive interference from this interface can be used to calculate with angstrom accuracy the position of fluorophores within the bilayer. Both evanescent and interference techniques offer sub-wavelength resolution in only one dimension (z, or vertical). In many cases, this resolution is all that is needed. After all, bilayers are very small only in one dimension. Laterally, a bilayer can extend for many micrometres or even millimeters. But certain phenomena like dynamic phase rearrangement do occur in bilayers on a lateral sub-micrometre lengthscale. A promising approach to studying these structures is near field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM). Like AFM, NSOM relies on the scanning of a micromachined tip to give a highly localized signal. But unlike AFM, NSOM uses an optical rather than physical interaction with the sample, potentially perturbing delicate structures to a lesser extent.

text: Many modern fluorescence microscopy techniques also require a rigidly-supported planar surface.

text: Evanescent field

text: methods such as

entity_name: Total internal reflection fluorescence microscope

text: total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy

text: (TIRF) and

text: surface plasmon resonance

text: (SPR) can offer extremely sensitive measurement of analyte binding and bilayer optical properties but can only function when the sample is supported on specialized optically functional materials. Another class of methods applicable only to supported bilayers is those based on optical interference such as fluorescence interference contrast microscopy (FLIC) and reflection interference contrast microscopy (RICM) or

text: interferometric scattering microscopy

text: (iSCAT). When the bilayer is supported on top of a reflective surface, variations in intensity due to destructive interference from this interface can be used to calculate with angstrom accuracy the position of fluorophores within the bilayer. Both evanescent and interference techniques offer sub-wavelength resolution in only one dimension (z, or vertical). In many cases, this resolution is all that is needed. After all, bilayers are very small only in one dimension. Laterally, a bilayer can extend for many micrometres or even millimeters. But certain phenomena like dynamic phase rearrangement do occur in bilayers on a lateral sub-micrometre lengthscale. A promising approach to studying these structures is

text: near field scanning optical microscopy

text: (NSOM). Like AFM, NSOM relies on the scanning of a micromachined tip to give a highly localized signal. But unlike AFM, NSOM uses an optical rather than physical interaction with the sample, potentially perturbing delicate structures to a lesser extent.

text: Thomas Young's double slit interferometer in 1803 demonstrated interference fringes when two small holes were illuminated by light from another small hole which was illuminated by sunlight.  Young was able to estimate the wavelength of different colours in the spectrum from the spacing of the fringes.  The experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light. In quantum mechanics, this experiment is considered to demonstrate the inseparability of the wave and particle natures of light and other quantum particles (wave–particle duality). Richard Feynman was fond of saying that all of quantum mechanics can be gleaned from carefully thinking through the implications of this single experiment.

text: Thomas Young

text: 's double slit interferometer in 1803 demonstrated interference fringes when two small holes were illuminated by light from another small hole which was illuminated by sunlight.  Young was able to estimate the wavelength of different colours in the spectrum from the spacing of the fringes.  The experiment played a major role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light. In quantum mechanics, this experiment is considered to demonstrate the inseparability of the wave and particle natures of light and other quantum particles (

text: wave–particle duality

text: Richard Feynman

text: was fond of saying that all of quantum mechanics can be gleaned from carefully thinking through the implications of this single experiment.

text: The optimal working point of an interferometric detector of gravitational waves is slightly detuned from the "dark fringe", a configuration in which the two laser beams recombined on the beam splitter interfere in a destructive way: almost no light is detected at the output port. Calculations show that the detector sensitivity scales as

text: Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.

text: Electrons, like other particles, have properties of both a

text: particle and a wave

text: . The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional

text: standing wave

text: —a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an

text: atomic orbital

text: , a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or

text: quantized

text: ) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.

text: Unlike other wire antennas such as dipole or monopole antennas which act as resonators, with the radio currents traveling in both directions along the element, bouncing back and forth between the ends as standing waves, the Beverage antenna is a traveling wave antenna; the radio frequency current travels in one direction along the wire, in the same direction as the radio waves.  The lack of resonance gives it a wider bandwidth than resonant antennas.  It receives vertically polarized radio waves, but unlike other vertically polarized antennas it is suspended close to the ground, and requires some resistance in the ground to work.

text: Unlike other wire antennas such as

text: dipole

text: or

text: monopole antenna

text: s which act as

text: resonators

text: , with the radio currents traveling in both directions along the element, bouncing back and forth between the ends as

text: standing wave

text: s, the Beverage antenna is a

text: traveling wave antenna

text: ; the radio frequency current travels in one direction along the wire, in the same direction as the radio waves.  The lack of resonance gives it a wider

text: bandwidth

text: than

text: resonant

text: antennas.  It receives

text: vertically polarized

text: radio waves, but unlike other vertically polarized antennas it is suspended close to the ground, and requires some

text: resistance

text: in the ground to work.

text: To achieve behavioral stability in the face of interference, strongly activated task sets are needed. However, strongly activated task sets should also be particularly difficult to eliminate. Consequently, task sets persist over time and interfere proactively with the establishment of new task set configurations (see proactive interference). This residual activation of task sets in memory from the recent performance of a task can contribute to automatic influences on performing a new task beyond voluntary control. For example, it has been proposed that less-practiced tasks require more support in memory which will result in greater task set inertia and thus can be expected to produce more proactive interference resulting in larger switch costs when switching away from the less-practiced task. Future research must determine whether active or passive processes overcome task-set inertia.

text: To achieve behavioral stability in the face of interference, strongly activated task sets are needed. However, strongly activated task sets should also be particularly difficult to eliminate. Consequently, task sets persist over time and interfere proactively with the establishment of new task set configurations (see

text: proactive interference

text: ). This residual activation of task sets in memory from the recent performance of a task can contribute to automatic influences on performing a new task beyond voluntary control. For example, it has been proposed that less-practiced tasks require more support in memory which will result in greater task set inertia and thus can be expected to produce more proactive interference resulting in larger switch costs when switching away from the less-practiced task. Future research must determine whether active or passive processes overcome task-set inertia.

text: Like in seismology, ground vibrations are associated with different types of elastic waves propagating through the ground. These are surface waves, mostly Rayleigh waves, and bulk longitudinal waves and transverse waves (or shear waves) propagating into the ground depth. Typical frequency range for environmental ground vibrations is 1 – 200 Hz. Waves of lower frequencies (below 1 Hz) are usually called microseisms, and they are normally associated with natural phenomenae, e.g. water waves in the oceans. Environmental ground vibrations generated by rail and road traffic may cause annoyance to residents of nearby buildings both directly and via generated structure-borne interior noise. Very strong ground vibrations, e.g. generated by heavy lorries on bumped roads, may even cause structural damage to very close buildings. Magnitudes of ground vibrations are usually described in terms of particle vibration velocity (in mm/s or m/s). Sometimes they are also described in decibels (relative to the reference particle velocity of 10 m/s). Typical values of ground vibration particle velocity associated with vehicles passing over traffic calming road humps are in the range of 0.1 – 2 mm/s. Magnitudes of ground vibrations that are considered to be able to cause structural damage to buildings are above 10–20 mm/s.

text: Like in seismology, ground vibrations are associated with different types of

text: elastic waves

text: propagating through the ground. These are

text: surface waves

text: , mostly

text: Rayleigh waves

text: , and bulk

text: longitudinal waves

text: and

text: transverse waves

text: (or shear waves) propagating into the ground depth. Typical frequency range for environmental ground vibrations is 1 – 200 Hz. Waves of lower frequencies (below 1 Hz) are usually called

text: microseism

text: s, and they are normally associated with natural phenomenae, e.g.

text: water waves

text: in the oceans. Environmental ground vibrations generated by rail and road traffic may cause annoyance to residents of nearby buildings both directly and via generated structure-borne interior noise. Very strong ground vibrations, e.g. generated by heavy lorries on bumped roads, may even cause structural damage to very close buildings. Magnitudes of ground vibrations are usually described in terms of particle vibration velocity (in mm/s or m/s). Sometimes they are also described in

text: decibel

text: s (relative to the reference particle velocity of 10 m/s). Typical values of ground vibration particle velocity associated with vehicles passing over traffic calming road humps are in the range of 0.1 – 2 mm/s. Magnitudes of ground vibrations that are considered to be able to cause structural damage to buildings are above 10–20 mm/s.

text: A certain rate of rotation induces a small difference between the time it takes light to traverse the ring in the two directions according to the Sagnac effect. This introduces a tiny separation between the frequencies of the counter-propagating beams, a motion of the standing wave pattern within the ring, and thus a beat pattern when those two beams are interfered outside the ring. Therefore, the net shift of that interference pattern follows the rotation of the unit in the plane of the ring.

text: A certain rate of rotation induces a small difference between the time it takes light to traverse the ring in the two directions according to the

text: Sagnac effect

text: . This introduces a tiny separation between the frequencies of the counter-propagating beams, a motion of the

text: standing wave

text: pattern within the ring, and thus a beat pattern when those two beams are interfered outside the ring. Therefore, the net shift of that interference pattern follows the rotation of the unit in the plane of the ring.

text: Finding the optimal weighted MMSE precoding is difficult, leading to approximate approaches where the weights are selected heuristically. A common approach is to concentrate on either the numerator or the denominator of the mentioned ratio; that is, maximum ratio transmission (MRT) and zero-forcing (ZF) precoding. MRT only maximizes the signal gain at the intended user. MRT is close-to-optimal in noise-limited systems, where the inter-user interference is negligible compared to the noise. ZF precoding aims at nulling the inter-user interference, at the expense of losing some signal gain. ZF precoding can achieve performance close to the sum capacity when the number of users is large or the system is interference-limited (i.e., the noise is weak compared to the interference). A balance between MRT and ZF is obtained by the so-called regularized zero-forcing (also known as signal-to-leakage-and-interference ratio (SLNR) beamforming and transmit Wiener filtering) All of these heuristic approaches can also be applied to receivers that have multiple antennas.

text: Finding the optimal weighted MMSE precoding is difficult, leading to approximate approaches where the weights are selected heuristically. A common approach is to concentrate on either the numerator or the denominator of the mentioned ratio; that is, maximum ratio transmission (MRT) and

text: zero-forcing

text: (ZF) precoding. MRT only maximizes the signal gain at the intended user. MRT is close-to-optimal in noise-limited systems, where the inter-user interference is negligible compared to the noise. ZF precoding aims at nulling the inter-user interference, at the expense of losing some signal gain. ZF precoding can achieve performance close to the sum capacity when the number of users is large or the system is interference-limited (i.e., the noise is weak compared to the interference). A balance between MRT and ZF is obtained by the so-called regularized zero-forcing (also known as signal-to-leakage-and-interference ratio (SLNR) beamforming and transmit Wiener filtering) All of these heuristic approaches can also be applied to receivers that have multiple antennas.

text: Conversely, waves are destructive if the period between the wave crests is short.  Sediment that remains in suspension when the following wave crest arrives will not be able to settle and compact and will be more susceptible to erosion by longshore currents and receding tides.

text: where Δ is the induced retardation, C is the stress-optic coefficient, t is the specimen thickness, λ is the vacuum wavelength, and σ and σ are the first and second principal stresses, respectively. The retardation changes the polarization of transmitted light. The polariscope combines the different polarization states of light waves before and after passing the specimen. Due to optical interference of the two waves, a fringe pattern is revealed. The number of fringe order N is denoted as

text: where Δ is the induced retardation, C is the stress-optic coefficient, t is the specimen thickness, λ is the vacuum wavelength, and σ and σ are the first and second principal stresses, respectively. The retardation changes the polarization of transmitted light. The polariscope combines the different polarization states of light waves before and after passing the specimen. Due to optical

text: interference

text: of the two waves, a fringe pattern is revealed. The number of fringe order N is denoted as

text: . Expressed in wavelengths, the number of wavelengths along a classical orbit must be an integer. This is the condition for constructive interference, and it explained the reason for quantized orbits—the matter waves make standing waves only at discrete frequencies, at discrete energies.

text: . Expressed in wavelengths, the number of wavelengths along a classical orbit must be an integer. This is the condition for constructive interference, and it explained the reason for quantized orbits—the matter waves make

text: standing waves

text: only at discrete frequencies, at discrete energies.

text: .It then happens that at a certain instant, there exists a spatial region (which moves over time) in which the contributions of the various fields of the superposition add up constructively. Nonetheless, according to a precise mathematical theorem, as we move far away from this region, the phases of the various fields, at any specified point, are distributed causally and destructive interference is produced. The region in which the wave has non-zero amplitude is therefore spatially limited. It is easy to demonstrate that, if the wave has a spatial extension equal to

text: .It then happens that at a certain instant, there exists a spatial region (which moves over time) in which the contributions of the various fields of the superposition add up constructively. Nonetheless, according to a precise mathematical theorem, as we move far away from this region, the

text: phase

text: s of the various fields, at any specified point, are distributed causally and destructive interference is produced. The region in which the wave has non-zero amplitude is therefore spatially limited. It is easy to demonstrate that, if the wave has a spatial extension equal to

text: Eigenstates with different masses propagate at different speeds.  The heavier ones lag behind while the lighter ones pull ahead.  Since the mass eigenstates are combinations of flavor eigenstates, this difference in speed causes interference between the corresponding flavor components of each mass eigenstate.  Constructive interference causes it to be possible to observe a neutrino created with a given flavor to change its flavor during its propagation.  The probability that a neutrino originally of flavor α will later be observed as having flavor β is

text: Eigenstates with different masses propagate at different speeds.  The heavier ones lag behind while the lighter ones pull ahead.  Since the mass eigenstates are combinations of flavor eigenstates, this difference in speed causes interference between the corresponding flavor components of each mass eigenstate.  Constructive

text: interference

text: causes it to be possible to observe a neutrino created with a given flavor to change its flavor during its propagation.  The probability that a neutrino originally of flavor α will later be observed as having flavor β is

text: Z-Wave uses the Part 15 unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical  (ISM) band. It operates at 868.42 MHz in Europe, at 908.42 MHz in the U.S. and Canada but uses other frequencies in other countries depending on their regulations. This band competes with some cordless telephones and other consumer electronics devices, but avoids interference with Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and other systems that operate on the crowded  band. The lower layers, MAC and PHY, are described by ITU-T G.9959 and fully backwards compatible. The Z-Wave transceiver chips are supplied by Sigma Designs and Mitsumi. Output power is 1 mW or 0 dBm.

text: Z-Wave uses the Part 15 unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical  (

text: ISM

text: ) band. It operates at 868.42 MHz in Europe, at 908.42 MHz in the U.S. and Canada but uses other frequencies in other countries depending on their regulations. This band competes with some

text: cordless telephone

text: s and other consumer electronics devices, but avoids interference with

text: Wi-Fi

text: Bluetooth

text: and other systems that operate on the crowded  band. The lower layers, MAC and PHY, are described by

text: ITU-T

text: G.9959 and fully backwards compatible. The Z-Wave transceiver chips are supplied by Sigma Designs and

text: Mitsumi

text: . Output power is 1 mW or 0 dBm.

text: Ocean surface waves are oscillations caused by the friction from air moving across the surface of the water. This friction transfers energy and forms surface waves in the water perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The top of a wave is known as its crest and its foot as its trough; the distance between two crests is the wavelength. These waves are mechanical: as they approach, the water molecules at a given point rise up and, as they pass, the water molecules go down, tracing a roughly circular path. The energy is passed across the surface and does not represent a horizontal motion of the water itself. The sea state of the ocean is determined by the size of these waves, which—on the open ocean—depends upon the wind speed and the fetch, the distance over which the wind blows upon the water. The smallest waves are called ripples. As strong and prolonged winds push against ripples' raised crests, larger and more irregular waves form, which known as seas. These waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are traveling nearly matches the speed of the wind and, over time, they naturally separate into long, powerful waves with a common direction and wavelength. These swells are particularly common in the Roaring Forties of the Southern Hemisphere where the wind blows continuously. When the wind dies down, ripples easily disappear owing to water's surface tension, but seas and swells are only slowly reduced by gravity and destructive interference from other waves. Constructive interference, however, can also cause individual rogue waves much higher than normal. Most waves are less than  high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height; offshore construction such as wind farms and oil platforms use these measurements in computing the hundred-year wave they are designed against. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above .

text: Ocean surface waves

text: are oscillations caused by the

text: friction

text: from

text: air

text: moving across the surface of the water. This friction transfers

text: energy

text: and forms

text: surface wave

text: s in the water perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The top of a wave is known as its

text: crest

text: and its foot as its

text: trough

text: ; the distance between two crests is the

text: wavelength

text: . These waves are

text: mechanical

text: : as they approach, the water molecules at a given point rise up and, as they pass, the water molecules go down, tracing a roughly circular path. The energy is passed across the surface and does not represent a horizontal motion of the water itself. The

text: sea state

text: of the ocean is determined by the size of these waves, which—on the

text: open ocean

text: —depends upon the

text: wind speed

text: and the

text: fetch

text: , the distance over which the wind blows upon the water. The smallest waves are called

text: ripples

text: . As strong and prolonged winds push against ripples' raised crests, larger and more irregular waves form, which known as

text: seas

text: . These waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are traveling nearly matches the speed of the wind and, over time, they naturally separate into long, powerful waves with a common direction and wavelength. These

text: swells

text: are particularly common in the

text: Roaring Forties

text: of the Southern Hemisphere where the wind blows continuously. When the wind dies down, ripples easily disappear owing to water's

text: surface tension

text: , but seas and swells are only slowly

text: reduced by gravity

text: and

text: destructive interference

text: from other waves.

text: Constructive interference

text: , however, can also cause individual

text: rogue wave

text: s much higher than normal. Most waves are less than  high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height;

text: offshore construction

text: such as

text: wind farms

text: and

text: oil platform

text: s use these measurements in computing the

text: hundred-year wave

text: they are designed against. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above .

text: Standing waves were first discovered by Franz Melde, who coined the term "standing wave" around 1860. Melde generated parametric oscillations in a string by employing a tuning fork to periodically vary the tension at twice the resonance frequency of the string.

text: Standing waves were first discovered by

text: Franz Melde

text: , who coined the term "standing wave" around 1860. Melde generated parametric oscillations in a string by employing a tuning fork to periodically vary the tension at twice the resonance frequency of the string.

text: When non-trustees interfere with the workings of an express trust to such an extent as to harm it, they can be deemed to be "constructive trustees", or trustees de son tort. In Mara v Browne, Smith LJ stated that "if one, not being a trustee and not having authority from a trustee, takes upon himself to intermeddle with trust matters or to do acts characteristic of the office of trustee, he may therefore make himself what is called in law trustee of his own wrong - ie, a trustee de son tort, or, as it is also termed, a constructive trustee". For someone to be made a constructive trustee, they must have had the property in their possession or control before the application, and have acted in a dishonest or reckless way. If found liable, the constructive trust will be held to account personally to repay any loss suffered by the trust fund, and will be responsible for maintaining that trust property in his possession.

text: When non-trustees interfere with the workings of an express trust to such an extent as to harm it, they can be deemed to be "constructive trustees", or trustees

text: de son tort

text: . In

text: Mara v Browne

text: Smith LJ

text: stated that "if one, not being a trustee and not having authority from a trustee, takes upon himself to intermeddle with trust matters or to do acts characteristic of the office of trustee, he may therefore make himself what is called in law trustee of his own wrong - ie, a trustee de son tort, or, as it is also termed, a constructive trustee". For someone to be made a constructive trustee, they must have had the property in their possession or control before the application, and have acted in a dishonest or reckless way. If found liable, the constructive trust will be held to account personally to repay any loss suffered by the trust fund, and will be responsible for maintaining that trust property in his possession.

text: The engine driver tells the traveller that as they came around the bend he saw the signalman standing on the line, when he did not heed the whistle the driver shut it off and called out to him. The traveller gravely asks what the driver said. Turning around standing in front of the red light the driver tells him that he called "Hallo, Below There, Look Out" and that he waved to him, one hand covering his face and the other waved in warning, all the while shouting "Look Out, Look Out, For God Sake Clear The Way".

text: To start with, Virgo is a Michelson interferometer whose mirrors are suspended. A laser is divided into two beams by a Beam splitter tilted by 45 degrees. The two beams propagate in the two perpendicular arms of the interferometer, are reflected by mirrors located at the end of the arms and recombine on the beam splitter, generating interferences which are detected by a photodiode. An incoming gravitational wave changes the optical path of the laser beams in the arms, which then changes the interference pattern recorded by the photodiode.

text: To start with, Virgo is a

text: Michelson interferometer

text: whose mirrors are suspended. A

text: laser

text: is divided into two beams by a

text: Beam splitter

text: tilted by 45 degrees. The two beams propagate in the two perpendicular arms of the interferometer, are reflected by mirrors located at the end of the arms and recombine on the beam splitter, generating

text: interferences

text: which are detected by a

text: photodiode

text: . An incoming gravitational wave changes the optical path of the laser beams in the arms, which then changes the interference pattern recorded by the photodiode.

text: Consider a tube closed at both ends. Interference can occur between two waves traveling in opposite directions at certain frequencies. The interference causes resonance creating a standing wave. Resonance only occurs at certain frequencies called resonance frequencies, and these are mainly determined by the length of the resonator.

text: Consider a tube closed at both ends. Interference can occur between two waves traveling in opposite directions at certain frequencies. The interference causes

text: resonance

text: creating a standing wave. Resonance only occurs at certain frequencies called resonance frequencies, and these are mainly determined by the length of the resonator.

text: In physics, there are two definitions for "path length."  The first is defined as the total distance an object travels.  Unlike displacement, which is the total distance an object travels from a starting point, path length is the total distance travelled, regardless of where it travelled.  The second is synonymous with wavelength and is used in calculating constructive and destructive interference of waves.

text: In physics, there are two definitions for "path length."  The first is defined as the total distance an object travels.  Unlike displacement, which is the total distance an object travels from a starting point, path length is the total distance travelled, regardless of where it travelled.  The second is synonymous with

text: wavelength

text: and is used in calculating constructive and destructive interference of

text: waves

text: Interference is the process by which two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of greater or less amplitude. Interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other. In constructive interference, the two waves are of the same phase interfere in a way such that the resultant amplitude will be equal to the sum of the individual amplitudes. As the light in an optical ring resonator completes multiple circuits around the ring component, it will interfere with the other light still in the loop. As such, assuming there are no losses in the system such as those due to absorption, evanescence, or imperfect coupling and the resonance condition is met, the intensity of the light emitted from a ring resonator will be equal to the intensity of the light fed into the system.

text: Interference is the process by which two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of greater or less amplitude. Interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other. In constructive interference, the two waves are of the same phase interfere in a way such that the resultant amplitude will be equal to the sum of the individual amplitudes. As the light in an optical ring resonator completes multiple circuits around the ring component, it will interfere with the other light still in the loop. As such, assuming there are no losses in the system such as those due to absorption,

text: evanescence

text: , or imperfect coupling and the resonance condition is met, the intensity of the light emitted from a ring resonator will be equal to the intensity of the light fed into the system.

text: At low temperatures and voltages, unscattered and untrapped electrons contributing to the current have a certain energy/momentum/wavelength called Fermi energy/momentum/wavelength. Much like in a waveguide, the transverse confinement in the quantum point contact results in a "quantization" of the transverse motion—the transverse motion cannot vary continuously, but has to be one of a series of discrete modes. The waveguide analogy is applicable as long as coherence is not lost through scattering, e.g., by a defect or trapping site. The electron wave can only pass through the constriction if it interferes constructively, which for a given width of constriction, only happens for a certain number of modes

text: At low temperatures and voltages, unscattered and untrapped electrons contributing to the current have a certain energy/momentum/wavelength called Fermi energy/momentum/wavelength. Much like in a

text: waveguide

text: , the transverse confinement in the quantum point contact results in a "quantization" of the transverse motion—the transverse motion cannot vary continuously, but has to be one of a series of discrete modes. The waveguide analogy is applicable as long as coherence is not lost through scattering, e.g., by a defect or trapping site. The electron wave can only pass through the constriction if it interferes constructively, which for a given width of constriction, only happens for a certain number of modes

text: It has been demonstrated that recall will be lower when consumers have afterwards seen an ad for a competing brand in the same product class. Exposure to later similar advertisements does not cause interference for consumers when brands are rated on purchasing likelihood. This shows that information processing objective can moderate the effects of interference of competitive advertising. Competitive brand advertising not only interferes with consumer recall of advertising in the past but also interferes with learning new distinctive brand information in the future.

text: It has been demonstrated that recall will be lower when consumers have afterwards seen an ad for a competing brand in the same product class. Exposure to later similar advertisements does not cause interference for consumers when brands are rated on purchasing likelihood. This shows that

text: information processing

text: objective can moderate the effects of interference of competitive advertising. Competitive brand advertising not only interferes with consumer recall of advertising in the past but also interferes with learning new distinctive brand information in the future.

text: The effect of the bulbous bow can be explained using the concept of destructive interference of waves (see graphic):A conventionally shaped bow (#2 lower left) causes bow wave forms (#4). A bulb alone (#1 top left) forces the water to flow up and over it forming a trough (#3). Thus, if a bulb is added to a conventional bow at the proper position (#1 right), the bulb trough coincides with the crest of the bow wave, and the two cancel out, reducing the vessel's wake. While inducing another wave stream saps energy from the ship, canceling out the second wave stream at the bow changes the pressure distribution along the hull, thereby reducing wave resistance. The effect that pressure distribution has on a surface is known as the form effect.

text: The effect of the bulbous bow can be explained using the concept of

text: destructive interference

text: of waves (see graphic):A conventionally shaped bow (#2 lower left) causes

text: bow wave

text: forms (#4). A bulb alone (#1 top left) forces the water to flow up and over it forming a trough (#3). Thus, if a bulb is added to a conventional bow at the proper position (#1 right), the bulb trough coincides with the crest of the bow wave, and the two cancel out, reducing the vessel's

text: wake

text: . While inducing another wave stream saps energy from the ship, canceling out the second wave stream at the bow changes the pressure distribution along the hull, thereby reducing wave resistance. The effect that pressure distribution has on a surface is known as the

text: form effect

text: The phenomenon of interference between waves is based on this idea. When two or more waves traverse the same space, the net amplitude at each point is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. In some cases, such as in noise-cancelling headphones, the summed variation has a smaller amplitude than the component variations; this is called destructive interference. In other cases, such as in Line Array, the summed variation will have a bigger amplitude than any of the components individually; this is called constructive interference.

text: The phenomenon of

text: interference

text: between waves is based on this idea. When two or more waves traverse the same space, the net amplitude at each point is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. In some cases, such as in

text: noise-cancelling headphone

text: s, the summed variation has a smaller

text: amplitude

text: than the component variations; this is called destructive interference. In other cases, such as in

text: Line Array

text: , the summed variation will have a bigger amplitude than any of the components individually; this is called constructive interference.

text: When applied to problems of electromagnetic radiation, ray tracing often relies on approximate solutions to Maxwell's equations that are valid as long as the light waves propagate through and around objects whose dimensions are much greater than the light's wavelength.  Ray theory does not describe phenomena such as interference and diffraction, which require wave theory (involving the phase of the wave).

text: When applied to problems of

text: electromagnetic radiation

text: , ray tracing often relies on approximate solutions to

text: Maxwell's equations

text: that are valid as long as the

text: light wave

text: wavelength

text: interference

text: and

text: diffraction

text: , which require

text: wave theory

text: (involving the

text: phase

text: of the wave).

text: Since the protocol is open, anyone can become a wave provider and share waves with others. Like email, communication is possible regardless of provider. For instance, organizations can operate as wave providers for their members, an individual can run a private wave server for a single user or family members, and an Internet service provider can run a wave service as another Internet service for its users as a supplement to email, IM, FTP, etc. In this model, Google Wave is one of many wave providers.

text: Since the protocol is open, anyone can become a wave provider and share waves with others. Like

text: email

text: , communication is possible regardless of provider. For instance, organizations can operate as wave providers for their members, an individual can run a private wave server for a single user or family members, and an Internet service provider can run a wave service as another Internet service for its users as a supplement to email,

text: IM

text: FTP

text: , etc. In this model, Google Wave is one of many wave providers.

text: In practice, losses in the transmission line and other components mean that a perfect reflection and a pure standing wave are never achieved.  The result is a partial standing wave, which is a superposition of a standing wave and a traveling wave.  The degree to which the wave resembles either a pure standing wave or a pure traveling wave is measured by the standing wave ratio (SWR).

text: In practice, losses in the transmission line and other components mean that a perfect reflection and a pure standing wave are never achieved.  The result is a partial standing wave, which is a superposition of a standing wave and a traveling wave.  The degree to which the wave resembles either a pure standing wave or a pure traveling wave is measured by the

text: standing wave ratio

text: (SWR).

text: The BOLD effect is based on the fact that when neuronal activity is increased in one part of the brain, there is also an increased amount of cerebral blood flow to that area which is the basis of haemodynamic response. This increase in blood flow produces an increase in the ratio of oxygenated hemoglobin relative to deoxygenated hemoglobin in that specific area. The difference in magnetic properties of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin is what allows fMRI imaging to produce an effective map of which neurons are active and which are not. In short, deoxygenated hemoglobin is paramagnetic while oxygenated hemoglobin is diamagnetic. Diamagnetic blood (oxyhemoglobin) interferes with the magnetic resonance (MR) signal less and this leads to an improved MR signal in that area of increased neuronal activity. However, Paramagnetic blood (deoxyhemoglobin) makes the local magnetic field inhomogenous. This has the effect of dephasing the signal emitted in this domain, causing destructive interference in the observed MR signal. Therefore, greater amounts of deoxyhemoglobin lead to less signal.  Neuronal activity ultimately leads to an increase in local MR signaling corresponding to a decrease in the concentration of deoxyhemoglobin.

text: The BOLD effect is based on the fact that when neuronal activity is increased in one part of the brain, there is also an increased amount of cerebral blood flow to that area which is the basis of haemodynamic response. This increase in blood flow produces an increase in the ratio of

text: oxygenated

text: hemoglobin

text: relative to deoxygenated hemoglobin in that specific area. The difference in

text: magnetic properties

text: of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin is what allows fMRI imaging to produce an effective map of which neurons are active and which are not. In short, deoxygenated hemoglobin is

text: paramagnetic

text: while oxygenated hemoglobin is

text: diamagnetic

text: . Diamagnetic blood (

text: oxyhemoglobin

text: ) interferes with the

text: magnetic resonance

text: (MR) signal less and this leads to an improved MR signal in that area of increased neuronal activity. However, Paramagnetic blood (deoxyhemoglobin) makes the local magnetic field inhomogenous. This has the effect of dephasing the signal emitted in this domain, causing destructive interference in the observed MR signal. Therefore, greater amounts of deoxyhemoglobin lead to less signal.  Neuronal activity ultimately leads to an increase in local MR signaling corresponding to a decrease in the concentration of deoxyhemoglobin.

text: One of the earliest uses of copper nanoparticles was to color glass and ceramics during the ninth century in Mesopotamia. This was done by creating a glaze with copper and silver salts and applying it to clay pottery. When the pottery was baked at high temperatures in reducing conditions, the metal ions migrated to the outer part of the glaze and were reduced to metals. The end result was a double layer of metal nanoparticles with a small amount of glaze in between them. When the finished pottery was exposed to light, the light would penetrate and reflect off the first layer. The light penetrating the first layer would reflect off the second layer of nanoparticles and cause interference effects with light reflecting off the first layer, creating a luster effect that results from both constructive and destructive interference.

text: One of the earliest uses of copper nanoparticles was to color glass and

text: ceramics

text: during the ninth century in

text: Mesopotamia

text: . This was done by creating a glaze with copper and silver salts and applying it to clay pottery. When the pottery was baked at high temperatures in reducing conditions, the metal ions migrated to the outer part of the glaze and were reduced to metals. The end result was a double layer of metal nanoparticles with a small amount of glaze in between them. When the finished pottery was exposed to light, the light would penetrate and reflect off the first layer. The light penetrating the first layer would reflect off the second layer of nanoparticles and cause

text: interference

text: effects with light reflecting off the first layer, creating a luster effect that results from both constructive and destructive interference.

text: The physical reason for a lobe to form is the fact that at any point that is at a position unequal from both drivers, at certain frequencies (i.e., wavelengths) and depending on d and relative difference between the distances to the listening position, the wavefronts from each driver will interfere constructively or destructively. This constructive or destructive interference happens due to the relative phases of the waves from each driver as they reach the listening position.

text: The physical reason for a lobe to form is the fact that at any point that is at a position unequal from both drivers, at certain frequencies (i.e., wavelengths) and depending on d and relative difference between the distances to the listening position, the wavefronts from each driver will

text: interfere

text: constructively or destructively. This constructive or destructive interference happens due to the relative

text: phases

text: of the waves from each driver as they reach the listening position.

text: Standing waves result when two sinusoidal wave trains of the same frequency are moving in opposite directions in the same space and interfere with each other.  They occur when waves are reflected at a boundary, such as sound waves reflected from a wall or electromagnetic waves reflected from the end of a transmission line, and particularly when waves are confined in a resonator at resonance, bouncing back and forth between two boundaries, such as in an organ pipe or guitar string.

text: Standing wave

text: s result when two

text: sinusoidal wave

text: trains of the same

text: frequency

text: are moving in opposite directions in the same space and

text: interfere

text: with each other.  They occur when waves are reflected at a boundary, such as

text: sound wave

text: s reflected from a wall or

text: electromagnetic wave

text: s reflected from the end of a

text: transmission line

text: , and particularly when waves are confined in a

text: resonator

text: at

text: resonance

text: , bouncing back and forth between two boundaries, such as in an

text: organ pipe

text: or

text: guitar string

text: These requirements are inter-related, and it is essential to understand the nature of optical interference to see this. Interference is the variation in intensity which can occur when two light waves are superimposed. The intensity of the maxima exceeds the sum of the individual intensities of the two beams, and the intensity at the minima is less than this and may be zero. The interference pattern maps the relative phase between the two waves, and any change in the relative phases causes the interference pattern to move across the field of view. If the relative phase of the two waves changes by one cycle, then the pattern drifts by one whole fringe. One phase cycle corresponds to a change in the relative distances travelled by the two beams of one wavelength. Since the wavelength of light is of the order of 0.5 μm, it can be seen that very small changes in the optical paths travelled by either of the beams in the holographic recording system lead to movement of the interference pattern which is the holographic recording. Such changes can be caused by relative movements of any of the optical components or the object itself, and also by local changes in air-temperature. It is essential that any such changes are significantly less than the wavelength of light if a clear well-defined recording of the interference is to be created.

text: These requirements are inter-related, and it is essential to understand the nature of optical interference to see this.

text: Interference

text: is the variation in

text: intensity

text: which can occur when two

text: light waves

text: Shapiro et al. (1994)  suggested that an interference model may better explain the attentional blink effects than the inhibition model. In this model, the attentional blink is thought to take place because of an out of place item which is selected out of the series because of the interference within the items in the series. Shapiro proposes that the amount of interference increases or decreases with the length of the series.

text: The lobes can be viewed as standing wave interference patterns between the two counter rotating, ring resonant travelling wave "" and "" modes, with the projection of the orbital onto the xy plane having a resonant "" wavelengths around the circumference. Though rarely depicted the travelling wave solutions can be viewed as rotating banded tori, with the bands representing phase information. For each  there are two standing wave solutions  and . For the case where  the orbital is vertical, counter rotating information is unknown, and the orbital is z-axis symmetric. For the case where  there are no counter rotating modes.  There are only radial modes and the shape is spherically symmetric.  For any given , the smaller  is, the more radial nodes there are.  Loosely speaking n is energy,  is analogous to eccentricity, and  is orientation.  For the record, in the classical case, a ring resonant travelling wave, for example in a circular transmission line, unless actively forced, will spontaneously decay into a ring resonant standing wave because reflections will build up over time at even the smallest imperfection or discontinuity.

text: The lobes can be viewed as

text: standing wave

text: interference

text: patterns between the two counter rotating, ring resonant

text: travelling wave

text: "" and "" modes, with the projection of the orbital onto the xy plane having a resonant "" wavelengths around the circumference. Though rarely depicted the travelling wave solutions can be viewed as rotating banded tori, with the bands representing phase information. For each  there are two standing wave solutions  and . For the case where  the orbital is vertical, counter rotating information is unknown, and the orbital is z-axis symmetric. For the case where  there are no counter rotating modes.  There are only radial modes and the shape is spherically symmetric.  For any given , the smaller  is, the more radial nodes there are.  Loosely speaking n is energy,  is analogous to

text: eccentricity

text: , and  is orientation.  For the record, in the classical case, a ring resonant travelling wave, for example in a circular transmission line, unless actively forced, will spontaneously decay into a ring resonant standing wave because reflections will build up over time at even the smallest imperfection or discontinuity.

text: Interference can also be seen in everyday phenomena such as iridescence and structural coloration.  For example, the colours seen in a soap bubble arise from interference of light reflecting off the front and back surfaces of the thin soap film.  Depending on the thickness of the film, different colours interfere constructively and destructively.

text: Interference can also be seen in everyday phenomena such as

text: iridescence

text: and

text: structural coloration

text: .  For example, the colours seen in a soap bubble arise from interference of light reflecting off the front and back surfaces of the thin soap film.  Depending on the thickness of the film, different colours interfere constructively and destructively.

text: The CATR is used for microwave and millimeter wave frequencies where the 2 D/λ far-field distance is large, such as with high-gain reflector antennas.  The size of the range that is required can be much less than the size required for a full-size far-field anechoic chamber, although the cost of fabrication of the specially-designed CATR reflector can be expensive due to the need to ensure precision of the reflecting surface (typically less than λ/100 RMS surface accuracy) and to specially treat the edge of the reflector to avoid diffracted waves which can interfere with the desired beam pattern.

text: The CATR is used for

text: microwave

text: and

text: millimeter wave

text: frequencies where the 2 D/λ far-field distance is large, such as with high-gain reflector antennas.  The size of the range that is required can be much less than the size required for a full-size far-field anechoic chamber, although the cost of fabrication of the specially-designed CATR reflector can be expensive due to the need to ensure precision of the reflecting surface (typically less than λ/100 RMS surface accuracy) and to specially treat the edge of the reflector to avoid diffracted waves which can interfere with the desired beam pattern.

text: Many of the soil moisture measuring instruments are based on the principle of Amplitude Domain Reflectometry (ADR). This method measures the electrical impedance. Electromagnetic waves traveling along Transmission Line (TL) enter in soil medium whose impedance is different from TL a part of the energy is reflected back to transmitter. The reflected wave interferes with incident wave and produces a standing wave along the TL, this changes the amplitude of wave along the TL. The impedance can be measured from difference in amplitude. The impedance has two components: electrical conductivity and dielectric constant. The effect of conductivity can be minimized by selecting an appropriate frequency.

text: Many of the soil moisture measuring instruments are based on the principle of Amplitude Domain Reflectometry (ADR). This method measures the electrical impedance. Electromagnetic waves traveling along

text: Transmission Line

text: (TL) enter in soil medium whose impedance is different from TL a part of the energy is reflected back to transmitter. The reflected wave interferes with incident wave and produces a standing wave along the TL, this changes the amplitude of wave along the TL. The impedance can be measured from difference in amplitude. The impedance has two components: electrical conductivity and dielectric constant. The effect of conductivity can be minimized by selecting an appropriate frequency.

text: For the application of lens design, two special cases of wave interference are important to account for. In a focal point, rays from a point light source meet again and may constructively or destructively interfere with each other. Within a very small region near this point, incoming light may be approximated by plane waves which inherit their direction from the rays. The optical path length from the light source is used to compute the phase. The derivative of the position of the ray in the focal region on the source position is used to obtain the width of the ray, and from that the amplitude of the plane wave. The result is the point spread function, whose Fourier transform is the optical transfer function. From this, the Strehl ratio can also be calculated.

text: For the application of lens design, two special cases of wave interference are important to account for. In a

text: focal point

text: , rays from a point light source meet again and may constructively or destructively interfere with each other. Within a very small region near this point, incoming light may be approximated by plane waves which inherit their direction from the rays. The

text: optical path length

text: from the light source is used to compute the

text: phase

text: . The

text: derivative

text: of the position of the ray in the focal region on the source position is used to obtain the width of the ray, and from that the

text: amplitude

text: of the plane wave. The result is the

text: point spread function

text: , whose

text: Fourier transform

text: is the

text: optical transfer function

text: . From this, the

text: Strehl ratio

text: can also be calculated.

text: If only two planes of atoms were diffracting, as shown in the pictures, then the transition from constructive to destructive interference would be gradual as a function of angle, with gentle maxima at the Bragg angles. However, since many atomic planes are interfering in real materials, very sharp peaks surrounded by mostly destructive interference result.

text: If only two planes of atoms were diffracting, as shown in the pictures, then the transition from constructive to destructive interference would be gradual as a function of angle, with gentle

text: maxima

text: at the Bragg angles. However, since many atomic planes are interfering in real materials, very sharp peaks surrounded by mostly destructive interference result.

text: A planar nanocavity consists of an absorptive semiconductive film no more than a few nanometers thick over a metal film also a few nanometers thick.  Incident light is absorbed and reflected off of both layers, the absorbed light then resonates between the two interfaces, transmitting some light back at after each cycle. Germanium is commonly used for the absorptive layer, while gold, aluminum, and aluminum oxide are used as alternatives as well.  Planar nanocavities are commonly used for thin film interference, which occurs when incident light waves reflected by the upper and lower boundaries of a thin film interfere with one another forming a new wave. An example of this is the colorful patterns produced by thin layers of oil on a surface. The difference in colors is due to minute differences in the distance reflected light travels whether it reflects from the top or bottom boundary of the oil layer. This difference is called the optical path difference, the difference in distance between the top and bottom reflection paths, which can be calculated with equation 2:

text: In most theories up to the eighteenth century, light was pictured as being made up of particles. Since particle models cannot easily account for the refraction, diffraction and birefringence of light, wave theories of light were proposed by René Descartes (1637), Robert Hooke (1665), and Christiaan Huygens (1678); however, particle models remained dominant, chiefly due to the influence of Isaac Newton. In the early nineteenth century, Thomas Young and August Fresnel clearly demonstrated the interference and diffraction of light and by 1850 wave models were generally accepted. In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell's prediction that light was an electromagnetic wave—which was confirmed experimentally in 1888 by Heinrich Hertz's detection of radio waves—seemed to be the final blow to particle models of light.

text: In most theories up to the eighteenth century, light was pictured as being made up of particles. Since

text: particle

text: models cannot easily account for the

text: refraction

text: diffraction

text: and

text: birefringence

text: of light, wave theories of light were proposed by

text: René Descartes

text: Robert Hooke

text: (1665), and

text: Christiaan Huygens

text: (1678); however, particle models remained dominant, chiefly due to the influence of

text: Isaac Newton

text: . In the early nineteenth century,

text: Thomas Young

text: and

text: August Fresnel

text: clearly demonstrated the

text: interference

text: and diffraction of light and by 1850 wave models were generally accepted. In 1865,

text: James Clerk Maxwell

text: 's

text: prediction

text: that light was an electromagnetic wave—which was confirmed experimentally in 1888 by

text: Heinrich Hertz

text: 's detection of

text: radio waves

text: —seemed to be the final blow to particle models of light.

text: Stokes' wave theory, when using a low order of the perturbation expansion (e.g. up to second, third or fifth order), is valid for non-linear waves on intermediate and deep water, that is for wavelengths (λ) not large as compared with the mean depth (h). In shallow water, the low-order Stokes expansion breaks down (gives unrealistic results) for appreciable wave amplitude (as compared to the depth). Then, Boussinesq approximations are more appropriate. Further approximations on Boussinesq-type (multi-directional) wave equations lead – for one-way wave propagation – to the Korteweg–de Vries equation or the Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation. Like (near) exact Stokes-wave solutions, these two equations have solitary wave (soliton) solutions, besides periodic-wave solutions known as cnoidal waves.

text: Stokes' wave theory, when using a low order of the perturbation expansion (e.g. up to second, third or fifth order), is valid for non-linear waves on intermediate and deep water, that is for

text: wavelength

text: s (λ) not large as compared with the mean depth (h). In

text: shallow water

text: , the low-order Stokes expansion breaks down (gives unrealistic results) for appreciable wave amplitude (as compared to the depth). Then,

text: Boussinesq approximation

text: s are more appropriate. Further approximations on Boussinesq-type (multi-directional) wave equations lead – for one-way wave propagation – to the

text: Korteweg–de Vries equation

text: or the

text: Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation

text: . Like (near) exact Stokes-wave solutions, these two equations have

text: solitary wave

text: soliton

text: ) solutions, besides periodic-wave solutions known as

text: cnoidal wave

text: s.

text: The Snow Stadium (Stadio della neve) was constructed  from Cortina, and hosted all of the cross-country events. Two grandstands were constructed to accommodate 6,000 people. Three types of cross-country courses were constructed: one of , three of , and four of . Some of these courses went through the bobsleigh run. As a result, a bridge had to be constructed so events occurring in the two venues would not interfere with each other.

text: The Snow Stadium (

text: Stadio della neve

text: ) was constructed  from Cortina, and hosted all of the cross-country events. Two grandstands were constructed to accommodate 6,000 people. Three types of cross-country courses were constructed: one of , three of , and four of . Some of these courses went through the

text: bobsleigh

text: run. As a result, a bridge had to be constructed so events occurring in the two venues would not interfere with each other.

text: Kana had made some appearances for Pro Wrestling Wave in 2008, but did not start working regularly for the promotion until the end of 2010, when NEO Japan Ladies Pro Wrestling folded. On July 24, 2011, Kana defeated Ayumi Kurihara in the finals to win the 2011 Catch the Wave tournament. On October 30, Kana and Kurihara defeated Ran Yu-Yu and Toshie Uematsu to win the Dual Shock Wave 2011 tournament and become the first ever Wave Tag Team Champions. While a tag team champion with Kurihara, Kana also regularly teamed with Mio Shirai as Triple Tails.S and on February 1, 2012, Kurihara, Mika Iida and Shuu Shibutani were made official members of Triple Tails. Four days later, Kana and Kurihara lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Ran Yu-Yu and Toshie Uematsu. On March 6, the new incarnation of Triple Tails was named White Tails, in reference to Wave's top villainous alliance, Black Dahlia. On November 27, Kana defeated Yumi Ohka in a singles match, after which she declared herself the new "ace" of Wave. On February 17, Kana, as the 2011 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into the Wave Single Championship tournament, defeating Mio Shirai in her semifinal match. On March 17, Kana was defeated in the finals of the tournament by Yumi Ohka.

text: Kana had made some appearances for Pro Wrestling Wave in 2008, but did not start working regularly for the promotion until the end of 2010, when NEO Japan Ladies Pro Wrestling folded. On July 24, 2011, Kana defeated Ayumi Kurihara in the finals to win the

text: 2011 Catch the Wave

text: tournament. On October 30, Kana and Kurihara defeated

text: Ran Yu-Yu

text: and

text: Toshie Uematsu

text: to win the

text: Dual Shock Wave 2011

text: tournament and become the first ever

text: Wave Tag Team Champions

text: . While a tag team champion with Kurihara, Kana also regularly teamed with

text: Mio Shirai

text: as Triple Tails.S and on February 1, 2012, Kurihara, Mika Iida and

text: Shuu Shibutani

text: were made official members of Triple Tails. Four days later, Kana and Kurihara lost the Wave Tag Team Championship to Ran Yu-Yu and Toshie Uematsu. On March 6, the new incarnation of Triple Tails was named White Tails, in reference to Wave's top

text: villainous

text: alliance, Black Dahlia. On November 27, Kana defeated

text: Yumi Ohka

text: in a singles match, after which she declared herself the new "

text: ace

text: " of Wave. On February 17, Kana, as the 2011 Catch the Wave winner, was granted entrance into the

text: Wave Single Championship

text: tournament

text: , defeating Mio Shirai in her semifinal match. On March 17, Kana was defeated in the finals of the tournament by Yumi Ohka.

text: The optical lattice is formed by six intersecting laser beams, which generate an interference pattern. The beams are arranged as standing waves along three orthogonal directions. This results in an array of optical dipole traps where atoms are stored in the intensity maxima of the interference pattern.

text: The optical lattice is formed by six intersecting

text: laser

text: beams, which generate an

text: interference

text: pattern. The beams are arranged as

text: standing wave

text: s along three

text: orthogonal

text: directions. This results in an array of

text: optical dipole traps

text: where

text: atom

text: s are stored in the

text: intensity

text: maxima of the interference pattern.

text: In nonlinear optics it is possible to reverse the destructive interference of so-called inhomogeneously broadened systems which contain a distribution of uncoupled subsystems with different resonance frequencies.For example, let us consider a four-wave-mixing experiment in which the first short laser pulse excites all transitions at

text: Surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology uses ultrasonic waves that pass over the touchscreen panel. When the panel is touched, a portion of the wave is absorbed. This change in the ultrasonic waves registers the position of the touch event and sends this information to the controller for processing. Surface acoustic wave touchscreen panels can be damaged by outside elements. Contaminants on the surface can also interfere with the functionality of the touchscreen.

text: Surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology uses

text: ultrasonic

text: waves that pass over the touchscreen panel. When the panel is touched, a portion of the wave is absorbed. This change in the ultrasonic waves registers the position of the touch event and sends this information to the

text: controller

text: for processing. Surface acoustic wave touchscreen panels can be damaged by outside elements. Contaminants on the surface can also interfere with the functionality of the touchscreen.

text: In 1817, Young had proposed a small transverse component to light, while yet retaining a far larger longitudinal component. Fresnel, by the year 1821, was able to show by mathematical methods that polarization could be explained only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever. He proposed the aether drag hypothesis to explain a lack of variation in astronomical observations. His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi on interference. This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomenon of interference in accordance with the wave theory.

text: In 1817, Young had proposed a small transverse component to light, while yet retaining a far larger longitudinal component. Fresnel, by the year 1821, was able to show by mathematical methods that

text: polarization

text: could be explained only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever. He proposed the

text: aether drag hypothesis

text: to explain a lack of variation in astronomical observations. His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of

text: F. M. Grimaldi

text: on

text: interference

text: . This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomenon of interference in accordance with the wave theory.

text: Iridescence caused by thin-film interference is a commonly observed phenomenon in nature, being found in a variety of plants and animals. One of the first known studies of this phenomenon was conducted by Robert Hooke in 1665. In Micrographia, Hooke postulated that the iridescence in peacock feathers was caused by thin, alternating layers of plate and air. In 1704, Isaac Newton stated in his book, Opticks, that the iridescence in a peacock feather was due to the fact that the transparent layers in the feather were so thin. In 1801, Thomas Young provided the first explanation of constructive and destructive interference. Young's contribution went largely unnoticed until the work of Augustin Fresnel. In 1816, Fresnel helped to establish the wave theory of light. However, very little explanation could be made of the iridescence until the 1870s, when James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz helped to explain the electromagnetic nature of light. After the invention of the Fabry–Perot interferometer, in 1899, the mechanisms of thin-film interference could be demonstrated on a larger scale.

text: Iridescence

text: caused by thin-film interference is a commonly observed phenomenon in nature, being found in a variety of plants and animals. One of the first known studies of this phenomenon was conducted by

text: Robert Hooke

text: in 1665. In

text: Micrographia

text: , Hooke postulated that the iridescence in

text: peacock

text: feathers was caused by thin, alternating layers of plate and air. In 1704,

text: Isaac Newton

text: stated in his book,

text: Opticks

text: , that the iridescence in a peacock feather was due to the fact that the transparent layers in the feather were so thin. In 1801,

text: Thomas Young

text: provided the first explanation of constructive and destructive interference. Young's contribution went largely unnoticed until the work of

text: Augustin Fresnel

text: . In 1816, Fresnel helped to establish the wave theory of light. However, very little explanation could be made of the iridescence until the 1870s, when

text: James Maxwell

text: and

text: Heinrich Hertz

text: helped to explain

entity_section: Electromagnetic theory as explanation for all types of visible light and all EM radiation

text: the electromagnetic nature of light

text: . After the invention of the

text: Fabry–Perot interferometer

text: , in 1899, the mechanisms of thin-film interference could be demonstrated on a larger scale.

text: The total phase difference is derived from the sum of both the path difference and the initial phase difference (if the X-ray waves are generated from two or more different sources). It can then be concluded whether the X-ray waves reaching a point are in phase (constructive interference) or out of phase (destructive interference).

text: Physically, standing waves are formed by the interference (superposition) of waves and their reflections (although one may also say the opposite; that a moving wave is a superposition of standing waves). The geometric shape of the medium determines what would be the interference pattern, thus determines the ƒ(x, y, z) form of the standing wave. This space-dependence is called a normal mode.

text: Physically, standing waves are formed by the

text: interference

text: (superposition) of waves and their reflections (although one may also say the opposite; that a moving wave is a

text: superposition

text: of standing waves). The geometric shape of the medium determines what would be the interference pattern, thus determines the ƒ(x, y, z) form of the standing wave. This space-dependence is called a normal mode.

text: If N is an integer number, then constructive interference will occur, this means a maximum signal will be achieved at the receiving end. If N is an odd integer number of half wavelengths, then destructive interference will occur and a minimum signal will be received. Let us assume we are receiving a maximum signal for a given wavelength λ. If we start to change λ, this is the process called frequency modulation, N will no longer be a whole number and destructive interference will start to occur, meaning the signal will start to fade.  Now we keep changing λ until a maximum signal is once again received. The means that for our new value λ’, our new value N’ is also an integer number. If we have lengthened λ then we know that N’ is one less than N. Thus:

text: Once generated, electromagnetic waves travel through space either directly, or have their path altered by reflection, refraction or diffraction. The intensity of the waves diminishes due to geometric dispersion (the inverse-square law); some energy may also be absorbed by the intervening medium in some cases. Noise will generally alter the desired signal; this electromagnetic interference comes from natural sources, as well as from artificial sources such as other transmitters and accidental radiators. Noise is also produced at every step due to the inherent properties of the devices used. If the magnitude of the noise is large enough, the desired signal will no longer be discernible; the signal-to-noise ratio is the fundamental limit to the range of radio communications.

text: Once generated, electromagnetic waves travel through space either directly, or have their path altered by

text: reflection

text: refraction

text: or

text: diffraction

text: . The intensity of the waves diminishes due to geometric dispersion (the

text: inverse-square law

text: ); some energy may also be absorbed by the intervening medium in some cases.

text: Noise

text: will generally alter the desired signal; this

text: electromagnetic interference

text: comes from natural sources, as well as from artificial sources such as other transmitters and accidental radiators. Noise is also produced at every step due to the inherent properties of the devices used. If the magnitude of the noise is large enough, the desired signal will no longer be discernible; the

text: signal-to-noise ratio

text: is the fundamental limit to the range of radio communications.

text: A classical analog to the HOM effect occurs when two coherent states (e.g. laser beams) interfere at the beamsplitter. If the states have a rapidly varying phase difference (i.e. faster than the integration time of the detectors) then a dip will be observed in the coincidence rate equal to one half the average coincidence count at long delays (Nevertheless, it can be further reduced with a proper discriminating trigger level applied to the signal.). Consequently, to prove that destructive interference is two-photon quantum interference rather than a classical effect, the HOM dip must be lower than one half.

text: A classical analog to the HOM effect occurs when two

text: coherent state

text: s (e.g. laser beams) interfere at the beamsplitter. If the states have a rapidly varying phase difference (i.e. faster than the integration time of the detectors) then a dip will be observed in the coincidence rate equal to one half the average coincidence count at long delays (Nevertheless, it can be further reduced with a proper discriminating trigger level applied to the signal.). Consequently, to prove that destructive interference is two-photon quantum interference rather than a classical effect, the HOM dip must be lower than one half.

text: The principle of superposition of waves states that when two or more propagating waves of same type are incident on the same point, the resultant amplitude at that point is equal to the vector sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave of the same frequency at the same point, then the amplitude is the sum of the individual amplitudes—this is constructive interference. If a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave, then the amplitude is equal to the difference in the individual amplitudes—this is known as destructive interference.

text: The

text: principle of superposition of waves

text: states that when two or more propagating waves of same type are incident on the same point, the resultant

text: amplitude

text: at that point is equal to the

text: vector sum

text: of the amplitudes of the individual waves. If a

text: crest

text: of a wave meets a crest of another wave of the same frequency at the same point, then the amplitude is the sum of the individual amplitudes—this is constructive interference. If a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave, then the amplitude is equal to the difference in the individual amplitudes—this is known as destructive interference.

text: The long-wave frequency used was 200 kilohertz until 1 February 1988 when it was changed to 198 kilohertz, and the power is currently 500 kilowatts. The carrier frequency is controlled by a rubidium atomic frequency standard in the transmitter building, enabling the transmission to be used as an off-air frequency standard. For long-wave, a T-aerial is used, which is suspended between two  guyed steel lattice radio masts, which stand  apart from each other. There are also two guyed mast radiators at the site, which are used for transmitting AM medium-wave radio programmes on 693 kilohertz, 1053 kilohertz and 1215 kilohertz.

text: The long-wave frequency used was 200 kilohertz until 1 February 1988 when it was changed to 198 kilohertz, and the power is currently 500 kilowatts. The carrier frequency is controlled by a

text: rubidium

text: atomic frequency standard

text: in the transmitter building, enabling the transmission to be used as an off-air frequency standard. For long-wave, a

text: T-aerial

text: is used, which is suspended between two  guyed steel lattice

text: radio masts

text: , which stand  apart from each other. There are also two guyed

text: mast radiator

text: s at the site, which are used for transmitting AM medium-wave radio programmes on 693 kilohertz, 1053 kilohertz and 1215 kilohertz.

text: Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit. It is defined as the bending of light around the corners of an obstacle or aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle. In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described as the interference of waves according to the Huygens–Fresnel principle. These characteristic behaviors are exhibited when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is comparable in size to its wavelength. Similar effects occur when a light wave travels through a medium with a varying refractive index, or when a sound wave travels through a medium with varying acoustic impedance. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as visible light, X-rays and radio waves.

text: Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit. It is defined as the bending of light around the corners of an obstacle or aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle. In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described as the

text: interference

text: of waves according to the

text: Huygens–Fresnel principle

text: . These characteristic behaviors are exhibited when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit that is comparable in size to its

text: wavelength

text: . Similar effects occur when a light wave travels through a medium with a varying

text: refractive index

text: , or when a

text: sound wave

text: travels through a medium with varying

text: acoustic impedance

text: . Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves,

text: water waves

text: , and

text: electromagnetic waves

text: such as

text: visible light

text: X-ray

text: s and

text: radio waves

text: Attenuation causes the reflected wave to decrease in power as distance from the reflective material increases. As the power of the reflective wave decreases compared to the power of the incident wave, interference also decreases. And as interference decreases, so does the phase difference between sound pressure and particle velocity. At a large enough distance from the reflective material, there is no interference left anymore. At this distance one can speak of the far field.

text: Attenuation causes the reflected wave to decrease in power as distance from the reflective material increases. As the power of the reflective wave decreases compared to the power of the incident wave, interference also decreases. And as interference decreases, so does the phase difference between sound pressure and particle velocity. At a large enough distance from the reflective material, there is no interference left anymore. At this distance one can speak of the

text: far field

text: Similarly to surface waves, internal waves change as they approach the shore. As the ratio of wave amplitude to water depth becomes such that the wave “feels the bottom,” water at the base of the wave slows down due to friction with the sea floor. This causes the wave to become asymmetrical and the face of the wave to steepen, and finally the wave will break, propagating forward as an internal bore. Internal waves are often formed as tides pass over a shelf break. The largest of these waves are generated during springtides and those of sufficient magnitude break and progress across the shelf as bores. These bores are evidenced by rapid, step-like changes in temperature and salinity with depth, the abrupt onset of upslope flows near the bottom and packets of high frequency internal waves following the fronts of the bores.

text: Similarly to surface waves, internal waves change as they approach the shore. As the ratio of wave amplitude to water depth becomes such that the wave “feels the bottom,” water at the base of the wave slows down due to friction with the sea floor. This causes the wave to become asymmetrical and the face of the wave to steepen, and finally the wave will break, propagating forward as an internal bore. Internal waves are often formed as tides pass over a shelf break. The largest of these waves are generated during

text: springtides

text: and those of sufficient magnitude break and progress across the shelf as bores. These bores are evidenced by rapid, step-like changes in temperature and salinity with depth, the abrupt onset of upslope flows near the bottom and packets of high frequency internal waves following the fronts of the bores.

text: Sound is a pressure wave, which consists of alternating periods of compression and rarefaction. A noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same amplitude but with inverted phase (also known as antiphase) to the original sound. The waves combine to form a new wave, in a process called interference, and effectively cancel each other out – an effect which is called destructive interference.

text: Sound is a

text: pressure wave

text: , which consists of alternating periods of

text: compression

text: and

text: rarefaction

text: . A noise-cancellation speaker emits a sound wave with the same

text: amplitude

text: but with inverted phase (also known as

text: antiphase

text: ) to the original sound. The waves combine to form a new wave, in a process called

text: interference

text: , and effectively cancel each other out – an effect which is called

text: destructive interference

text: There are two types of seismic "ocean waves". The primary waves are generated in shallow waters by direct water wave-land interaction and have the same period as the water waves (10 to 16 seconds). The more powerful secondary waves are generated by the superposition of ocean waves of equal period traveling in opposite directions, thus generating standing gravity waves – with an associated pressure oscillation at half the period, which is not diminishing with depth. The theory for microseism generation by standing waves was provided by Michael Longuet-Higgins in 1950, after in 1941 Pierre Bernard suggested this relation with standing waves on the basis of observations.

text: There are two types of seismic "ocean waves". The primary waves are generated in shallow waters by direct water wave-land interaction and have the same period as the water waves (10 to 16 seconds). The more powerful secondary waves are generated by the superposition of ocean waves of equal period traveling in opposite directions, thus generating standing gravity waves – with an associated pressure oscillation at half the period, which is not diminishing with depth. The theory for microseism generation by standing waves was provided by

text: Michael Longuet-Higgins

text: in 1950, after in 1941 Pierre Bernard suggested this relation with standing waves on the basis of observations.

text: Quantum decoherence is the loss of quantum coherence. In quantum mechanics, particles such as electrons behave like waves and are described by a wavefunction. These waves can interfere, leading to the peculiar behaviour of quantum particles. As long as there exists a definite phase relation between different states, the system is said to be coherent. This coherence is a fundamental property of quantum mechanics, and is necessary for the function of quantum computers. However, when a quantum system is not perfectly isolated, but in contact with its surrounding, the coherence decays with time, a process called quantum decoherence. As a result of this process, the quantum behaviour is lost.Decoherence was first introduced in 1970 by the German physicist H. Dieter Zeh and has been a subject of active research since the 1980s.

text: Quantum decoherence is the loss of

text: quantum coherence

text: . In

text: quantum mechanics

text: particles

text: such as

text: electrons

text: behave like waves and are described by a

text: wavefunction

text: . These waves can interfere, leading to the peculiar behaviour of quantum particles. As long as there exists a definite phase relation between different states, the system is said to be coherent. This coherence is a fundamental property of quantum mechanics, and is necessary for the function of quantum computers. However, when a quantum system is not perfectly isolated, but in contact with its surrounding, the coherence decays with time, a process called quantum decoherence. As a result of this process, the quantum behaviour is lost.Decoherence was first introduced in 1970 by the German physicist

text: H. Dieter Zeh

text: and has been a subject of active research since the 1980s.

text: The development of antibiotic resistance in particular stems from the drugs targeting only specific bacterial molecules (almost always proteins). Because the drug is so specific, any mutation in these molecules will interfere with or negate its destructive effect, resulting in antibiotic resistance. Furthermore there is mounting concern over the abuse of antibiotics in the farming of livestock, which in the European Union alone accounts for three times the volume dispensed to humans – leading to development of super-resistant bacteria.

text: The development of antibiotic resistance in particular stems from the drugs targeting only specific bacterial molecules (almost always proteins). Because the drug is so specific, any mutation in these molecules will interfere with or negate its destructive effect, resulting in antibiotic resistance. Furthermore there is mounting concern over the abuse of antibiotics in the farming of livestock, which in the

text: European Union

text: alone accounts for three times the volume dispensed to humans – leading to development of super-resistant bacteria.

text: The coherence of two waves expresses how well correlated the waves are as quantified by the cross-correlation function. The cross-correlation quantifies the ability to predict the phase of the second wave by knowing the phase of the first. As an example, consider two waves perfectly correlated for all times. At any time, phase difference will be constant. If, when combined, they exhibit perfect constructive interference, perfect destructive interference, or something in-between but with constant phase difference, then it follows that they are perfectly coherent. As will be discussed below, the second wave need not be a separate entity. It could be the first wave at a different time or position. In this case, the measure of correlation is the autocorrelation function (sometimes called self-coherence). Degree of correlation involves correlation functions.

text: The coherence of two waves expresses how well correlated the waves are as quantified by the

text: cross-correlation

text: function. The cross-correlation quantifies the ability to predict the phase of the second wave by knowing the phase of the first. As an example, consider two waves perfectly correlated for all times. At any time, phase difference will be constant. If, when combined, they exhibit perfect constructive interference, perfect destructive interference, or something in-between but with constant phase difference, then it follows that they are perfectly coherent. As will be discussed below, the second wave need not be a separate entity. It could be the first wave at a different time or position. In this case, the measure of correlation is the

text: autocorrelation

text: function (sometimes called self-coherence). Degree of correlation involves correlation functions.

text: Practical antireflection coatings rely on an intermediate layer not only for its direct reduction of reflection coefficient, but also use the interference effect of a thin layer. If the layer's thickness is controlled precisely such that it is exactly one-quarter of the wavelength of the light (a quarter-wave coating), the reflections from the front and back sides of the thin layer will destructively interfere and cancel each other.

text: Practical antireflection coatings rely on an intermediate layer not only for its direct reduction of reflection coefficient, but also use the

text: interference

text: effect of a thin layer. If the layer's thickness is controlled precisely such that it is exactly one-quarter of the wavelength of the light (a quarter-wave coating), the reflections from the front and back sides of the thin layer will destructively interfere and cancel each other.

text: Synchrotron X-ray tomography can employ phase contrast imaging to enable imaging of the interior surfaces of objects. In this context, phase contrast imaging is used to enhance the contrast that would normally be possible from conventional radiographic imaging. A difference in the refractive index between a detail and its surroundings causes a phase shift between the light wave that travels through the detail and that which travels outside the detail. An interference pattern results, marking out the detail.

text: After Heaviside's attempts to generalize Maxwell's equations, Heaviside came to the conclusion that electromagnetic waves were not to be found as longitudinal waves in "free space" or homogeneous media. But Maxwell's equations do lead to the appearance of longitudinal waves under some circumstances, for example, in plasma waves or guided waves. Basically distinct from the "free-space" waves, such as those studied by Hertz in his UHF experiments, are Zenneck waves. The longitudinal modes of a resonant cavity are the particular standing wave patterns formed by waves confined in a cavity. The longitudinal modes correspond to those wavelengths of the wave which are reinforced by constructive interference after many reflections from the cavity's reflecting surfaces. Recently, Haifeng Wang et al. proposed a method that can generate a longitudinal electromagnetic (light) wave in free space, and this wave can propagate without divergence for a few wavelengths.

text: After

text: Heaviside

text: 's attempts to generalize

text: Maxwell's equations

text: , Heaviside came to the conclusion that electromagnetic waves were not to be found as longitudinal waves in "

text: free space

text: " or homogeneous media. But Maxwell's equations do lead to the appearance of longitudinal waves under some circumstances, for example, in

text: plasma waves

text: or

text: guided waves

text: . Basically distinct from the "free-space" waves, such as those studied by Hertz in his UHF experiments, are

text: Zenneck wave

text: s. The longitudinal modes of a

text: resonant cavity

text: are the particular standing wave patterns formed by waves confined in a cavity. The longitudinal modes correspond to those wavelengths of the wave which are reinforced by constructive interference after many reflections from the cavity's reflecting surfaces. Recently, Haifeng Wang et al. proposed a method that can generate a longitudinal electromagnetic (light) wave in free space, and this wave can propagate without divergence for a few wavelengths.

text: Interference is nothing more than the addition, in the mathematical sense, of wave functions. A single wave can interfere with itself, but this is still an addition of two waves (see Young's slits experiment). Constructive or destructive interferences are limit cases, and two waves always interfere, even if the result of the addition is complicated or not remarkable.

text: Interference is nothing more than the addition, in the mathematical sense, of wave functions. A single wave can interfere with itself, but this is still an addition of two waves (see

text: Young's slits experiment

text: ). Constructive or destructive interferences are limit cases, and two waves always interfere, even if the result of the addition is complicated or not remarkable.

text: Internal waves, also called internal gravity waves, go by many other names depending upon the fluid stratification, generation mechanism, amplitude, and influence of external forces. If propagating horizontally along an interface where the density rapidly decreases with height, they are specifically called interfacial (internal) waves. If the interfacial waves are large amplitude they are called internal solitary waves or internal solitons. If moving vertically through the atmosphere where substantial changes in air density influences their dynamics, they are called anelastic (internal) waves. If generated by flow over topography, they are called Lee waves or mountain waves. If the mountain waves break aloft, they can result in strong warm winds at the ground known as Chinook winds (in North America) or Foehn winds (in Europe). If generated in the ocean by tidal flow over submarine ridges or the continental shelf, they are called internal tides. If they evolve slowly compared to the Earth's rotational frequency so that their dynamics are influenced by the Coriolis effect, they are called inertia gravity waves or, simply, inertial waves. Internal waves are usually distinguished from Rossby waves, which are influenced by the change of Coriolis frequency with latitude.

text: Internal waves, also called internal gravity waves, go by many other names depending upon the fluid stratification, generation mechanism, amplitude, and influence of external forces. If propagating horizontally along an interface where the density rapidly decreases with height, they are specifically called interfacial (internal) waves. If the interfacial waves are large amplitude they are called internal solitary waves or internal

text: soliton

text: s. If moving vertically through the atmosphere where substantial changes in air density influences their dynamics, they are called anelastic (internal) waves. If generated by flow over topography, they are called

text: Lee waves

text: or

text: mountain waves

text: . If the mountain waves break aloft, they can result in strong warm winds at the ground known as

text: Chinook winds

text: (in North America) or

text: Foehn

text: winds (in Europe). If generated in the ocean by tidal flow over submarine ridges or the continental shelf, they are called internal tides. If they evolve slowly compared to the Earth's rotational frequency so that their dynamics are influenced by the

text: Coriolis effect

text: , they are called

text: inertia gravity waves

text: or, simply,

text: inertial waves

text: . Internal waves are usually distinguished from

text: Rossby wave

text: s, which are influenced by the change of

text: Coriolis frequency

text: with latitude.

text: Light waves have crests and troughs. The highest point of a wave is the crest, and the lowest part of the wave is a trough. Sometimes more than one of these waves can interfere with each other - the crests and the troughs line up. This is called light interference. When light waves interfere with each other, this can make many colors. An example of this is the colors in soap bubbles.

text: Light waves have crests and troughs. The highest point of a wave is the crest, and the lowest part of the wave is a trough. Sometimes more than one of these waves can

text: interfere

text: with each other - the crests and the troughs line up. This is called light interference. When light waves interfere with each other, this can make many colors. An example of this is the colors in soap bubbles.

text: The method can be realized as the method of holographic addition and subtraction in an interference fringe. A small angle is introduced between the interfering waves so that the period of resulting system of interference fringes significantly exceeds the size of the images. The conditions for the waves to be antiphased or in-phased (holographic subtraction or addition) are automatically created within a dark and bright interference fringes, correspondingly.

text: The method can be realized as the method of holographic addition and subtraction in an

text: interference fringe

text: . A small angle is introduced between the interfering waves so that the

text: period

text: of resulting system of interference fringes significantly exceeds the size of the images. The conditions for the waves to be antiphased or in-phased (holographic subtraction or addition) are automatically created within a dark and bright interference fringes, correspondingly.

text: Sensory dissonance and its two perceptual manifestations (beating and roughness) are both closely related to a sound signal's amplitude fluctuations. Amplitude fluctuations describe variations in the maximum value (amplitude) of sound signals relative to a reference point and are the result of wave interference. The interference principle states that the combined amplitude of two or more vibrations (waves) at any given time may be larger (constructive interference) or smaller (destructive interference) than the amplitude of the individual vibrations (waves), depending on their phase relationship. In the case of two or more waves with different frequencies, their periodically changing phase relationship results in periodic alterations between constructive and destructive interference, giving rise to the phenomenon of amplitude fluctuations.

text: Sensory dissonance and its two perceptual manifestations (

text: beating

text: and roughness) are both closely related to a sound signal's amplitude fluctuations. Amplitude fluctuations describe variations in the maximum value (amplitude) of sound signals relative to a reference point and are the result of

text: wave interference

text: . The interference principle states that the combined amplitude of two or more vibrations (waves) at any given time may be larger (constructive interference) or smaller (destructive interference) than the amplitude of the individual vibrations (waves), depending on their phase relationship. In the case of two or more waves with different frequencies, their periodically changing phase relationship results in periodic alterations between constructive and destructive interference, giving rise to the phenomenon of amplitude fluctuations.

text: Constructive interference in thin films can create strong reflection of light in a range of wavelengths, which can be narrow or broad depending on the design of the coating. These films are used to make dielectric mirrors, interference filters, heat reflectors, and filters for colour separation in colour television cameras. This interference effect is also what causes the colourful rainbow patterns seen in oil slicks.

text: Constructive interference in thin films can create strong reflection of light in a range of wavelengths, which can be narrow or broad depending on the design of the coating. These films are used to make

text: dielectric mirror

text: s,

text: interference filter

text: s,

text: heat reflector

text: s, and filters for colour separation in

text: colour television

text: cameras. This interference effect is also what causes the colourful rainbow patterns seen in oil slicks.

text: Standing waves are found in wind musical instruments.  Wind instruments consist of a tube which acts as an acoustic transmission line in which standing waves are set up.  Open ended tubes must have zero air pressure change at the end of the tube so this point is a pressure null.  Closed tubes must have zero air velocity at the end of the tube so this point is a velocity null.  There may further nulls along the tube depending on the vibration mode that has been set up by the instrument player.  Higher modes have more nulls.

text: Standing waves are found in wind musical instruments.  Wind instruments consist of a tube which acts as an acoustic transmission line in which standing waves are set up.  Open ended tubes must have zero air pressure change at the end of the tube so this point is a pressure null.  Closed tubes must have zero air velocity at the end of the tube so this point is a velocity null.  There may further nulls along the tube depending on the

text: vibration mode

text: that has been set up by the instrument player.  Higher modes have more nulls.

text: . The imaginary part is usually ignored, however it signifies "reactive power" such as the interference due to a standing wave or the near field of an antenna. In a single electromagnetic plane wave (rather than a standing wave which can be described as two such waves travelling in opposite directions), E and H are exactly in phase, so

text: . The imaginary part is usually ignored, however it signifies "reactive power" such as the interference due to a

text: standing wave

text: or the

text: near field

text: of an antenna. In a single electromagnetic

text: plane wave

text: (rather than a standing wave which can be described as two such waves travelling in opposite directions), E and H are exactly in phase, so

text: Melde's experiment is a scientific experiment carried out in 1859 by the German physicist Franz Melde on the standing waves produced in a tense cable originally set oscillating by a tuning fork, later improved with connection to an electric vibrator. This experiment, "a lecture-room standby", attempted to demonstrate that mechanical waves undergo interference phenomena. In the experiment, mechanical waves traveled in opposite directions form immobile points, called nodes. These waves were called standing waves by Melde since the position of the nodes and loops (points where the cord vibrated) stayed static.

text: Melde's experiment is a scientific experiment carried out in 1859 by the

text: German

text: physicist

text: Franz Melde

text: on the

text: standing wave

text: s produced in a tense cable originally set oscillating by a

text: tuning fork

text: , later improved with connection to an

text: electric vibrator

text: . This experiment, "a lecture-room standby", attempted to demonstrate that mechanical waves undergo interference phenomena. In the experiment, mechanical waves traveled in opposite directions form immobile points, called

text: node

text: s. These waves were called standing waves by Melde since the position of the nodes and loops (points where the cord vibrated) stayed static.

text: The court’s decision that the search engine provider has no obligation to monitor the predictions generated by a software beforehand and is only responsible if he becomes aware of the violation by the predictions corresponds with previous judgements of the court on the “Stoererhaftung” (interferer’s liability) of a host provider for content that third parties posted on the host provider’s website. However, due to the fact that these previous judgements discussed the liability for third party content, others stated that the fact that the court’s autocomplete judgement is based on Google being an interferer (“Störer”) within the “Stoererhaftung” (interferer’s liability) – and not a perpetrator – contradicts the court’s statement that the predictions have to be seen as Google’s own content.

text: Multipath causes multipath interference including constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal. Destructive interference causes fading. Where the magnitudes of the signals arriving by the various paths have a distribution known as the Rayleigh distribution, this is known as Rayleigh fading. Where one component (often, but not necessarily, a line of sight component) dominates, a Rician distribution provides a more accurate model, and this is known as Rician fading.

text: Multipath causes

text: multipath interference

text: including constructive and destructive

text: interference

text: , and

text: phase shifting

text: of the signal. Destructive interference causes

text: fading

text: . Where the magnitudes of the signals arriving by the various paths have a distribution known as the

text: Rayleigh distribution

text: , this is known as

text: Rayleigh fading

text: . Where one component (often, but not necessarily, a

text: line of sight

text: component) dominates, a

text: Rician distribution

text: provides a more accurate model, and this is known as

text: Rician fading

text: The typical phase difference giving rise to the interference is very small, very rarely being larger than 90° (a quarter of the wavelength). This is due to the similarity of refractive index of most samples and the media they are in: for example, a cell in water only has a refractive index difference of around 0.05. This small phase difference is important for the correct function of DIC, since if the phase difference at the joint between two substances is too large then the phase difference could reach 180° (half a wavelength), resulting in complete destructive interference and an anomalous dark region; if the phase difference reached 360° (a full wavelength), it would produce complete constructive interference, creating an anomalous bright region.

text: , scattered waves interfere constructively when the above condition holds simultaneously for all values of

text: When the crests and troughs of two sine waves of equal amplitude and frequency intersect or collide, while being in phase with each other, the result is called constructive interference and the magnitudes double (above and below the line). When in antiphase – 180° out of phase – the result is destructive interference: the resulting wave is the undisturbed line having zero amplitude.

text: When the crests and troughs of two

text: sine wave

text: s of equal

text: amplitude

text: and

text: frequency

text: intersect or collide, while being in

text: phase

text: with each other, the result is called

text: constructive interference

text: and the magnitudes double (above and below the line). When in

text: antiphase

text: – 180° out of phase – the result is

text: destructive interference

text: : the resulting wave is the undisturbed line having zero

text: amplitude

text: There was a serious disagreement in the field of electron microscopy of inorganic compounds; while some have claimed that "the phase information is present in EM images" others have the opposite view that "the phase information is lost in EM images". The reason for these opposite views is that the word "phase" has been used with different meanings in the two communities of physicists and crystallographers. The physicists are more concerned about the "electron wave phase" - the phase of a wave moving through the sample during exposure by the electrons. This wave has a wavelength of about 0.02-0.03 Ångström (depending on the accelerating voltage of the electron microscope). Its phase is related to the phase of the undiffracted direct electron beam. The crystallographers, on the other hand, mean the "crystallographic structure factor phase" when they simply say "phase". This phase is the phase of standing waves of potential in the crystal (very similar to the electron density measured in X-ray crystallography). Each of these waves have their specific wavelength, called d-value for distance between so-called Bragg planes of low/high potential. These d-values range from the unit cell dimensions to the resolution limit of the electron microscope, i.e. typically from 10 or 20 Ångströms down to 1 or 2 Ångströms. Their phases are related to a fixed point in the crystal, defined in relation to the symmetry elements of that crystal. The crystallographic phases are a property of the crystal, so they exist also outside the electron microscope. The electron waves vanish if the microscope is switched off. In order to determine a crystal structure, it is necessary to know the crystallographic structure factors, but not to know the electron wave phases. A more detailed discussion how (crystallographic structure factor) phases link with the phases of the electron wave can be found in.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zou|first1=X|title=On the phase problem in electron microscopy: the relationship between structure factors, exit waves, and HREM images|journal=Microscopy Research and Technique|volume=46|issue=3|pages=202–19|year=1999|pmid=10420175|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0029(19990801)46:3

text: Multipath interference (distortion of a signal because it takes many different paths to the receiver with various phase shift and various polarisation shift) is a problem in narrowband technology. It also affects UWB transmissions, but according to the Shannon-Hartley theorem and the variety of geometries applying to various frequencies the ability to compensate is enhanced. Multipath causes fading, and wave interference is destructive. Some UWB systems use "rake" receiver techniques to recover multipath-generated copies of the original pulse to improve a receiver's performance. Other UWB systems use channel-equalization techniques to achieve the same purpose. Narrowband receivers may use similar techniques, but are limited due to the different resolution capabilities of narrowband systems.

text: Multipath interference

text: (distortion of a signal because it takes many different paths to the receiver with various phase shift and various polarisation shift) is a problem in narrowband technology. It also affects UWB transmissions, but according to the Shannon-Hartley theorem and the variety of geometries applying to various frequencies the ability to compensate is enhanced. Multipath causes fading, and wave interference is destructive. Some UWB systems use "rake" receiver techniques to recover multipath-generated copies of the original pulse to improve a receiver's performance. Other UWB systems use channel-equalization techniques to achieve the same purpose. Narrowband receivers may use similar techniques, but are limited due to the different resolution capabilities of narrowband systems.

text: If the incident light is broadband, or white, such as light from the sun, interference patterns appear as colorful bands. Different wavelengths of light create constructive interference for different film thicknesses. Different regions of the film appear in different colors depending on the local film thickness.

text: After being sidelined for over a year, Shibutani returned to Pro Wrestling Wave on August 28, 2011, losing to Akino in her return match. On September 4, Shibutani and Cherry entered the 2011 Dual Shock Wave tournament as the "Classic Gals", but were eliminated in their first round match by Ayumi Kurihara and Kana, who went on to win the entire tournament. On October 27, Shibutani represented Wave in Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling's Joshi Puroresu Dantai Taikou Flash tournament, a single-elimination tournament, where different joshi promotions battled each other. In their first round match, Team Wave, which also Gami, Moeka Haruhi, Toshie Uematsu and Yumi Ohka, was defeated by Team JWP of Command Bolshoi, Hanako Nakamori, Kaori Yoneyama, Kayoko Haruyama and Leon. Shibutani finished off 2011 with a big singles win over Yumi Ohka on December 11 with her new finishing maneuver, later named Time Machine ni Notte ("Ride the Time Machine"). On January 4 at Wave's first event of 2012, Shibutani picked up another big singles win over Wave Tag Team Champion Ayumi Kurihara. On February 1, Shibutani, Kurihara and Mika Iida came together with Kana and Mio Shirai to form the White Tails stable, named in reference to Wave's top villainous alliance, Black Dahlia. On April 30, Shibutani took part in Toshie Uematsu's retirement match, a tag team match, where she and Moeka Haruhi were defeated by Uematsu and Ran Yu-Yu. On May 16, Shibutani entered the 2012 Catch the Wave tournament, taking part in a round-robin block made up members of White Tails. In her opening match of the tournament, Shibutani was defeated by Ayumi Kurihara. In her second match on May 29, Shibutani wrestled Kana to a fifteen-minute time limit draw. On June 17, Shibutani wrestled her second time limit draw of the tournament with guest White Tails member, Wrestling New Classic (WNC) representative Syuri. Shibutani finished her tournament on July 1 with a win over Mio Shirai, failing to advance from the block. On July 16, Shibutani and Shirai unsuccessfully challenged Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa for the Wave Tag Team Championship in a three-way elimination match, which also included the team of Moeka Haruhi and Yuu Yamagata. On September 1, Shibutani made her first appearance for Ice Ribbon in four and a half years, defeating Miyako Matsumoto in a singles match. On September 23 at Ribbon no Kishitachi 2012, Shibutani took part in a three-way match, where Hailey Hatred defeated Neko Nitta to capture the Triangle Ribbon Championship. Two days later, Shibutani entered the 2012 Dual Shock Wave tournament alongside Syuri. After wins over Shidarezakura (Hikaru Shida and Yumi Ohka) and 1st Impact (Makoto and Moeka Haruhi), and a loss against Kurigohan (Ayumi Kurihara and Mika Iida), Shibutani and Syuri finished tied at the top of their block with Shida and Ohka. On November 16, Shibutani and Syuri defeated Shida and Ohka in a playoff match to advance to the finals of the tournament, where, later that same day, they were defeated by Makkurokorosuke (Misaki Ohata and Tsukasa Fujimoto). On June 10, Shibutani made her debut for Wrestling New Classic, teaming with Yuu Yamagata in a "Wave offer match", where they were defeated by Gami and Moeka Haruhi. From May to July 2013, Shibutani took part in the 2013 Catch the Wave tournament, where she finished her round-robin block with a record of three wins and three losses, advancing to the knockout stage after defeating Cherry, Hikaru Shida and Mio Shirai in a playoff match on June 28. On July 15, Shibutani was defeated in the first round of the knockout stage by JWP Joshi Puroresu representative Arisa Nakajima. She, however, claimed third spot in the tournament by defeating Syuri, Tomoka Nakagawa and Yuu Yamagata in a four-way elimination match later that same event.

text: After being sidelined for over a year, Shibutani returned to Pro Wrestling Wave on August 28, 2011, losing to Akino in her return match. On September 4, Shibutani and Cherry entered the

text: 2011 Dual Shock Wave tournament

text: as the "Classic Gals", but were eliminated in their first round match by Ayumi Kurihara and Kana, who went on to win the entire tournament. On October 27, Shibutani represented Wave in

text: Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling

text: 's Joshi Puroresu Dantai Taikou Flash tournament, a single-elimination tournament, where different

text: joshi

text: promotions battled each other. In their first round match, Team Wave, which also Gami, Moeka Haruhi,

text: Toshie Uematsu

text: and Yumi Ohka, was defeated by Team JWP of Command Bolshoi, Hanako Nakamori,

text: Kaori Yoneyama

text: Kayoko Haruyama

text: and

text: Leon

text: . Shibutani finished off 2011 with a big singles win over Yumi Ohka on December 11 with her new finishing maneuver, later named Time Machine ni Notte ("Ride the Time Machine"). On January 4 at Wave's first event of 2012, Shibutani picked up another big singles win over

text: Wave Tag Team Champion

text: Ayumi Kurihara. On February 1, Shibutani, Kurihara and Mika Iida came together with Kana and Mio Shirai to form the White Tails

text: stable

text: , named in reference to Wave's top

text: villainous

text: alliance, Black Dahlia. On April 30, Shibutani took part in Toshie Uematsu's retirement match, a tag team match, where she and Moeka Haruhi were defeated by Uematsu and

text: Ran Yu-Yu

text: . On May 16, Shibutani entered the

text: 2012 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, taking part in a round-robin block made up members of White Tails. In her opening match of the tournament, Shibutani was defeated by Ayumi Kurihara. In her second match on May 29, Shibutani wrestled Kana to a fifteen-minute time limit draw. On June 17, Shibutani wrestled her second time limit draw of the tournament with guest White Tails member,

text: Wrestling New Classic

text: (WNC) representative

text: Syuri

text: . Shibutani finished her tournament on July 1 with a win over Mio Shirai, failing to advance from the block. On July 16, Shibutani and Shirai unsuccessfully challenged Gami and Tomoka Nakagawa for the Wave Tag Team Championship in a three-way elimination match, which also included the team of Moeka Haruhi and Yuu Yamagata. On September 1, Shibutani made her first appearance for Ice Ribbon in four and a half years, defeating

text: Miyako Matsumoto

text: in a singles match. On September 23 at Ribbon no Kishitachi 2012, Shibutani took part in a three-way match, where

text: Hailey Hatred

text: defeated Neko Nitta to capture the

text: Triangle Ribbon Championship

text: . Two days later, Shibutani entered the

text: 2012 Dual Shock Wave tournament

text: alongside Syuri. After wins over Shidarezakura (

text: Hikaru Shida

text: and Yumi Ohka) and 1st Impact (Makoto and Moeka Haruhi), and a loss against Kurigohan (Ayumi Kurihara and Mika Iida), Shibutani and Syuri finished tied at the top of their block with Shida and Ohka. On November 16, Shibutani and Syuri defeated Shida and Ohka in a playoff match to advance to the finals of the tournament, where, later that same day, they were defeated by Makkurokorosuke (Misaki Ohata and

text: Tsukasa Fujimoto

text: ). On June 10, Shibutani made her debut for Wrestling New Classic, teaming with Yuu Yamagata in a "Wave offer match", where they were defeated by Gami and Moeka Haruhi. From May to July 2013, Shibutani took part in the

text: 2013 Catch the Wave

text: tournament, where she finished her round-robin block with a record of three wins and three losses, advancing to the knockout stage after defeating Cherry, Hikaru Shida and Mio Shirai in a playoff match on June 28. On July 15, Shibutani was defeated in the first round of the knockout stage by JWP Joshi Puroresu representative Arisa Nakajima. She, however, claimed third spot in the tournament by defeating Syuri, Tomoka Nakagawa and Yuu Yamagata in a four-way elimination match later that same event.

text: the wave becomes a travelling wave moving leftwards. A standing wave can be obtained  by

text: the wave becomes a travelling wave moving leftwards. A

text: standing wave

text: can be obtained  by

text: "Waves" is a song by Dutch singer Mr Probz. It was initially released as a stand-alone digital single on 26 April 2013, becoming a top ten hit in the Netherlands.

text: "Waves" is a song by Dutch singer

text: Mr Probz

text: . It was initially released as a stand-alone

text: digital

text: single on 26 April 2013, becoming a top ten hit in the Netherlands.

text: The mathematical properties of the Fibonacci word and related topics are well researched and readily applied in such studies. The elements of a Fibonacci crystal structure are arranged in one or more spatial dimensions according to the sequence given by the Fibonacci word. The Fourier transform of such arrangements consists of discrete values, which is the defining property for crystals. In an algebraic form the sequence is expressed with a matrix whose eigenvalues are Pisot numbers. This feature  guarantees that its Fourier transform is discrete.  Material waves with appropriate length would interfere constructively when interacting with a Fibonacci structured physical system. For instance, when submitted to X-rays, a Fibonacci quasicrystal would produce Bragg peaks.  Other features describing media behaviour such as damping, transmitivity, etc. can be evidenced on Fibonacci models.

text: The mathematical properties of the

text: Fibonacci word

text: and related topics are well researched and readily applied in such studies. The elements of a Fibonacci crystal structure are arranged in one or more spatial dimensions according to the sequence given by the Fibonacci word. The

text: Fourier transform

text: of such arrangements consists of discrete values, which is the defining property for crystals. In an algebraic form the sequence is expressed with a matrix whose eigenvalues are

text: Pisot numbers

text: . This feature  guarantees that its Fourier transform is discrete.  Material waves with appropriate length would interfere constructively when interacting with a Fibonacci structured physical system. For instance, when submitted to

text: X-ray

text: s, a Fibonacci quasicrystal would produce

text: Bragg peak

text: s.  Other features describing media behaviour such as damping, transmitivity, etc. can be evidenced on Fibonacci models.

text: The light was obtained from a carbon arc light, entering the darkroom through a slit.  Then it was filtered through a prism, discarding most of the red side of the spectrum.  An achromatic lens focused an 8mm-wide, slightly converging light beam.  220mm after the lens, the light hit a polished silver mirror perpendicularly.  Monochromatic light would result in a uniform wavelength, hence a regular standing waves pattern, parallel to the mirror's surface.  Wiener's orthochromatic film was transparently thin, about 20 nm, measured by interference, which is much less than the wavelength (the sodium doublet is at about 589 nm).  It was laid on the mirror, over an equally thin slice of gel.  That way, by applying pressure on one side of the film only, Wiener could slightly tilt it so as to make it traverse several standing waves.  The standing waves were revealed by exposing the film for 20~35 minutes, after development and printing.

text: The light was obtained from a carbon arc light, entering the darkroom through a slit.  Then it was filtered through a prism, discarding most of the red side of the spectrum.  An achromatic lens focused an 8mm-wide, slightly converging light beam.  220mm after the lens, the light hit a polished silver mirror perpendicularly.  Monochromatic light would result in a uniform wavelength, hence a regular standing waves pattern, parallel to the mirror's surface.  Wiener's

text: orthochromatic

text: film was transparently thin, about 20 nm, measured by interference, which is much less than the wavelength (the sodium doublet is at about 589 nm).  It was laid on the mirror, over an equally thin slice of gel.  That way, by applying pressure on one side of the film only, Wiener could slightly tilt it so as to make it traverse several standing waves.  The standing waves were revealed by exposing the film for 20~35 minutes, after development and printing.

text: Most CDW's in metallic crystals form due to the wave-like nature of electrons - a manifestation of quantum mechanical wave-particle duality - causing the  electronic charge density to become spatially modulated, i.e., to form periodic "bumps" in charge.  This standing wave affects each electronic wave function, and is created by combining electron states, or wavefunctions, of opposite momenta. The effect is somewhat analogous to the standing wave in a guitar string, which can be viewed as the combination of two interfering, traveling waves moving in opposite directions (see interference (wave propagation)).

text: Most CDW's in metallic crystals form due to the wave-like nature of electrons - a manifestation of quantum mechanical

text: wave-particle duality

text: - causing the  electronic charge density to become spatially modulated, i.e., to form periodic "bumps" in charge.  This

text: standing wave

text: affects each electronic

text: wave function

text: , and is created by combining electron states, or wavefunctions, of opposite momenta. The effect is somewhat analogous to the standing wave in a guitar string, which can be viewed as the combination of two interfering, traveling waves moving in opposite directions (see

text: interference (wave propagation)

text: Waves that encounter each other combine through superposition to create a new wave called an interference pattern. Important interference patterns occur for waves that are in phase.

text: Waves that encounter each other combine through

text: superposition

text: to create a new wave called an

text: interference pattern

text: . Important interference patterns occur for waves that are in

text: phase

text: Retroactive interference encourages incidental forgetting, in which the newly learned information impairs the retrieval of previously learned knowledge, especially for similar and related information. For example, if you have already learned about proactive interference and recently learned new information about retroactive interference, the knowledge you learned about retroactive interference has the tendency to impede the retrieval of the knowledge of proactive interference.

text: Retroactive interference encourages incidental forgetting, in which the newly learned information impairs the retrieval of previously learned knowledge, especially for similar and related information. For example, if you have already learned about

text: proactive interference

text: and recently learned new information about retroactive interference, the knowledge you learned about retroactive interference has the tendency to impede the retrieval of the knowledge of proactive interference.

text: Temporal coherence is the measure of the average correlation between the value of a wave and itself delayed by τ, at any pair of times. Temporal coherence tells us how monochromatic a source is. In other words, it characterizes how well a wave can interfere with itself at a different time. The delay over which the phase or amplitude wanders by a significant amount (and hence the correlation decreases by significant amount) is defined as the coherence time τ. At a delay of τ=0 the degree of coherence is perfect, whereas it drops significantly as the delay passes τ=τ. The coherence length L is defined as the distance the wave travels in time τ.

text: Temporal coherence is the measure of the average correlation between the value of a wave and itself delayed by τ, at any pair of times. Temporal coherence tells us how monochromatic a source is. In other words, it characterizes how well a wave can interfere with itself at a different time. The delay over which the phase or amplitude wanders by a significant amount (and hence the correlation decreases by significant amount) is defined as the

text: coherence time

text: τ. At a delay of τ=0 the degree of coherence is perfect, whereas it drops significantly as the delay passes τ=τ. The

text: coherence length

text: L is defined as the distance the wave travels in time τ.

text: Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and how the wave interacts with the environment. This interaction can be described as either a diffraction, interference or a reflection or a mix of the three. If several media are present, a refraction can also occur. Transduction processes are also of special importance to acoustics.

text: Acoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and how the wave interacts with the environment. This interaction can be described as either a

text: diffraction

text: interference

text: or a

text: reflection

text: or a mix of the three. If several

text: media

text: are present, a

text: refraction

text: can also occur. Transduction processes are also of special importance to acoustics.

text: An optical flat is an optical-grade piece of glass lapped and polished to be extremely flat on one or both sides, usually within a few millionths of an inch (about 25 nanometres). They are used with a monochromatic light to determine the flatness of other optical surfaces by interference. When an optical flat is placed on another surface and illuminated,  the light waves reflect off both the bottom surface of the flat and the surface it is resting on. This causes a phenomenon similar to thin-film interference. The reflected waves interfere, creating a pattern of interference fringes visible as light and dark bands.   The spacing between the fringes is smaller where the gap is changing more rapidly, indicating a departure from flatness in one of the two surfaces, in a similar way to the contour lines on a map.  A flat surface is indicated by a pattern of straight, parallel fringes with equal spacing, while other patterns indicate uneven surfaces.  Two adjacent fringes indicate a difference in elevation of one-half wavelength of the light used, so by counting the fringes differences in elevation of the surface can be measured to millionths of an inch.

text: An optical flat is an optical-grade piece of glass

text: lapped

text: and

text: polished

text: to be extremely flat on one or both sides, usually within a few millionths of an inch (about 25 nanometres). They are used with a

text: monochromatic light

text: to determine the flatness of other optical surfaces by

text: interference

text: . When an optical flat is placed on another surface and illuminated,  the light waves reflect off both the bottom surface of the flat and the surface it is resting on. This causes a phenomenon similar to

text: thin-film interference

text: . The reflected waves interfere, creating a pattern of

text: interference fringe

text: s visible as light and dark bands.   The spacing between the fringes is smaller where the gap is changing more rapidly, indicating a departure from flatness in one of the two surfaces, in a similar way to the contour lines on a map.  A flat surface is indicated by a pattern of straight, parallel fringes with equal spacing, while other patterns indicate uneven surfaces.  Two adjacent fringes indicate a difference in elevation of one-half

text: wavelength

text: of the light used, so by counting the fringes differences in elevation of the surface can be measured to millionths of an inch.

text: The diffracted electrons interfere constructively at specific angles according to the crystal structure and spacing of the atoms at the sample surface and the wavelength of the incident electrons. Some of the electron waves created by constructive interference collide with the detector, creating specific diffraction patterns according to the surface features of the sample. Users characterize the crystallography of the sample surface through analysis of the diffraction patterns. Figure 2 shows a RHEED pattern.

text: Basket interference, or goaltending is a violation charged when a player illegally interferes with a shot. This violation is incurred when a player touches the ball on its downward trajectory to the basket, unless it is obvious that the ball has no chance of entering the basket, if a player touches the ball while it is in the rim, or in the area extended upwards from the basket, or if a player reaches through the basket to interfere with the shot. When a defensive player is charged with goaltending, the basket is awarded. If an offensive player commits the infraction, the basket is cancelled. In either case possession of the ball is turned over to the defensive team.

text: To be able to create or move heat, work must be done, and the acoustic power provides this work. When a stack is placed inside a resonator a pressure drop occurs. Interference between the incoming and reflected wave is now imperfect since there is a difference in amplitude causing the standing wave to travel little, giving the wave acoustic power.

text: While the Drude model of electrical conductivity makes excellent predictions about the nature of electrons conducting in metals, it can be furthered by using quantum tunnelling to explain the nature of the electron's collisions. When a free electron wave packet encounters a long array of uniformly spaced barriers the reflected part of the wave packet interferes uniformly with the transmitted one between all barriers so that there are cases of 100% transmission. The theory predicts that if positively charged nuclei form a perfectly rectangular array, electrons will tunnel through the metal as free electrons, leading to an extremely high conductance, and that impurities in the metal will disrupt it significantly.

text: While the

text: Drude model

text: of

text: electrical conductivity

text: makes excellent predictions about the nature of electrons conducting in metals, it can be furthered by using quantum tunnelling to explain the nature of the electron's collisions. When a free electron wave packet encounters a long array of uniformly spaced

text: barriers

text: the reflected part of the wave packet interferes uniformly with the transmitted one between all barriers so that there are cases of 100% transmission. The theory predicts that if positively charged nuclei form a perfectly rectangular array, electrons will tunnel through the metal as free electrons, leading to an extremely high

text: conductance

text: , and that impurities in the metal will disrupt it significantly.

text: A similar process occurs upon scattering neutron waves from the nuclei or by a coherent spin interaction with an unpaired electron. These re-emitted wave fields interfere with each other either constructively or destructively (overlapping waves either add up together to produce stronger peaks or are subtracted from each other to some degree), producing a diffraction pattern on a detector or film.  The resulting wave interference pattern is the basis of diffraction analysis. This analysis is called Bragg diffraction.

text: A similar

text: process

text: occurs upon

text: scattering

text: neutron waves from the

text: nuclei

text: or by a

text: coherent

text: spin

text: interaction with an unpaired

text: electron

text: . These re-emitted wave fields

text: interfere

text: with each other either constructively or destructively (overlapping waves either add up together to produce stronger peaks or are subtracted from each other to some degree), producing a diffraction pattern on a detector or film.  The resulting wave interference

text: pattern

text: is the basis of

text: diffraction

text: analysis. This analysis is called Bragg diffraction.

text: Thin-film interference is a natural phenomenon in which light waves reflected by the upper and lower boundaries of a thin film interfere with one another, either enhancing or reducing the reflected light. When the thickness of the film is an odd multiple of one quarter-wavelength of the light on it, the reflected waves from both surfaces interfere to cancel each other. Since the wave cannot be reflected, it is completely transmitted instead. When the thickness is a multiple of a half-wavelength of the light, the two reflected waves reinforce each other, increasing the reflection and reducing the transmission.  Thus when white light, which consists of a range of wavelengths, is incident on the film, certain wavelengths (colors) are intensified while others are attenuated.  Thin-film interference explains the multiple colors seen in light reflected from soap bubbles and oil films on water.  It also is the mechanism behind the action of antireflection coatings used on glasses and camera lenses.

text: Thin-film interference is a natural phenomenon in which

text: light wave

text: s reflected by the upper and lower boundaries of a

text: thin film

text: interfere

text: with one another, either enhancing or reducing the reflected light. When the thickness of the film is an odd multiple of one quarter-

text: wavelength

text: of the light on it, the reflected waves from both surfaces interfere to cancel each other. Since the wave cannot be reflected, it is completely transmitted instead. When the thickness is a multiple of a half-wavelength of the light, the two reflected waves reinforce each other, increasing the reflection and reducing the transmission.  Thus when white light, which consists of a range of wavelengths, is incident on the film, certain wavelengths (colors) are intensified while others are

text: attenuated

text: .  Thin-film interference explains the multiple colors seen in light reflected from soap bubbles and oil films on water.  It also is the mechanism behind the action of

text: antireflection coating

text: s used on glasses and camera lenses.

text: Thus in order to determine the pattern produced by diffraction, the phase and the amplitude of each of the wavelets is calculated. That is, at each point in space we must determine the distance to each of the simple sources on the incoming wavefront. If the distance to each of the simple sources differs by an integer number of wavelengths, all the wavelets will be in phase, resulting in constructive interference. If the distance to each source is an integer plus one half of a wavelength, there will be complete destructive interference. Usually, it is sufficient to determine these minima and maxima to explain the observed diffraction effects.

text: The main disadvantage is relatively complex construction that leads to higher manufacturing and servicing costs. Another cited disadvantage is the inability or relative complexity of adding a double-locking tremolo to the guitar, as the routing for cavities would interfere with deeply set neck.

text: The main disadvantage is relatively complex construction that leads to higher manufacturing and servicing costs. Another cited disadvantage is the inability or relative complexity of adding a

text: double-locking tremolo

text: to the guitar, as the routing for cavities would interfere with deeply set neck.

text: Noise cancellation generators for active noise control are a relatively modern innovation. A microphone is used to pick up the sound that is then analyzed by a computer; then, sound waves with opposite polarity (180° phase at all frequencies) are output through a speaker, causing destructive interference and cancelling much of the noise.

text: Noise cancellation generators for

text: active noise control

text: are a relatively modern innovation. A microphone is used to pick up the sound that is then analyzed by a computer; then, sound waves with opposite polarity (180° phase at all frequencies) are output through a speaker, causing

text: destructive interference

text: and cancelling much of the noise.

text: The interaction of the waves on a viewing surface alternates between constructive interference and destructive interference causing alternating lines of dark and light. In the example of a Michelson Interferometer, a single fringe represents one wavelength of the source light and is measured from the center of one bright line to the center of the next. The physical width of a fringe is governed by the difference in the angles of incidence of the component beams of light, but regardless of a fringe's physical width, it still represents a single wavelength of light.

text: The interaction of the waves on a viewing surface alternates between constructive

text: interference

text: and destructive interference causing alternating lines of dark and light. In the example of a Michelson Interferometer, a single fringe represents one wavelength of the source light and is measured from the center of one bright line to the center of the next. The physical width of a fringe is governed by the difference in the angles of incidence of the component beams of light, but regardless of a fringe's physical width, it still represents a single wavelength of light.

text: An acousto-optic modulator (AOM), also called a Bragg cell, uses the acousto-optic effect to diffract and shift the frequency of light using sound waves (usually at radio-frequency).  They are used in lasers for Q-switching, telecommunications for signal modulation, and in spectroscopy for frequency control.  A piezoelectric transducer is attached to a material such as glass. An oscillating electric signal drives the transducer to vibrate, which creates sound waves in the material.  These can be thought of as moving periodic planes of expansion and compression that change the index of refraction.  Incoming light scatters (see Brillouin scattering) off the resulting periodic index modulation and interference occurs similar to Bragg diffraction.  The interaction can be thought of as a three-wave mixing process resulting in Sum-frequency generation or Difference-frequency generation between phonons and photons.

text: An acousto-optic modulator (AOM), also called a Bragg cell, uses the

text: acousto-optic effect

text: to

text: diffract

text: and shift the frequency of light using

text: sound wave

text: s (usually at

text: radio-frequency

text: ).  They are used in

text: laser

text: s for

text: Q-switching

text: , telecommunications for signal

text: modulation

text: , and in

text: spectroscopy

text: for frequency control.  A

text: piezoelectric transducer

text: is attached to a material such as glass. An oscillating electric signal drives the transducer to vibrate, which creates sound waves in the material.  These can be thought of as moving periodic planes of expansion and compression that change the

text: index of refraction

text: .  Incoming light scatters (see

text: Brillouin scattering

text: ) off the resulting periodic index modulation and interference occurs similar to

text: Bragg diffraction

text: .  The interaction can be thought of as a

text: three-wave mixing process

text: resulting in

text: Sum-frequency generation

text: or

text: Difference-frequency generation

text: between

text: phonon

text: s and

text: photon

text: s.

text: This phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the opposite direction to the wave, or it can arise in a stationary medium as a result of interference between two waves traveling in opposite directions. The most common cause of standing waves is the phenomenon of resonance, in which standing waves occur inside a resonator due to interference between waves reflected back and forth at the resonator's resonant frequency.

text: This phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the opposite direction to the wave, or it can arise in a stationary medium as a result of

text: interference

text: between two waves traveling in opposite directions. The most common cause of standing waves is the phenomenon of

text: resonance

text: , in which standing waves occur inside a

text: resonator

text: due to interference between waves reflected back and forth at the resonator's

text: resonant frequency

text: In physics and engineering, a ripple tank is a shallow glass tank of water used in schools and colleges to demonstrate the basic properties of waves. It is a specialized form of a wave tank. The ripple tank is usually illuminated from above, so that the light shines through the water. Some small ripple tanks fit onto the top of an overhead projector, i.e. they are illuminated from below. The ripples on the water show up as shadows on the screen underneath the tank. All the basic properties of waves, including reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction, can be demonstrated.

text: In

text: physics

text: and

text: engineering

text: , a ripple tank is a shallow glass tank of water used in schools and colleges to demonstrate the basic properties of

text: wave

text: s. It is a specialized form of a

text: wave tank

text: . The

text: ripple

text: tank is usually illuminated from above, so that the light shines through the water. Some small ripple tanks fit onto the top of an

text: overhead projector

text: , i.e. they are illuminated from below. The ripples on the water show up as

text: shadow

text: s on the screen underneath the tank. All the basic properties of waves, including

text: reflection

text: refraction

text: interference

text: and

text: diffraction

text: , can be demonstrated.

text: Localized wave packets, "bursts" of wave action where each wave packet travels as a unit, find application in many fields of physics. A wave packet has an envelope that describes the overall amplitude of the wave; within the envelope, the distance between adjacent peaks or troughs is sometimes called a local wavelength. An example is shown in the figure. In general, the envelope of the wave packet moves at a different speed than the constituent waves.

text: Localized

text: wave packet

text: s, "bursts" of wave action where each wave packet travels as a unit, find application in many fields of physics. A wave packet has an envelope that describes the overall amplitude of the wave; within the envelope, the distance between adjacent peaks or troughs is sometimes called a local wavelength. An example is shown in the figure. In general, the envelope of the wave packet moves at a different speed than the constituent waves.

text: Most optical phenomena can be accounted for using the classical electromagnetic description of light. Complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are, however, often difficult to apply in practice. Practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most common of these, geometric optics, treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass through or reflect from surfaces. Physical optics is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the ray-based model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that light waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation.

text: Most optical phenomena can be accounted for using the

text: classical electromagnetic

text: description of light. Complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are, however, often difficult to apply in practice. Practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most common of these,

text: geometric optics

text: , treats light as a collection of

text: ray

text: s that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass through or reflect from surfaces.

text: Physical optics

text: is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes

text: wave

text: effects such as

text: diffraction

text: and

text: interference

text: that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the ray-based model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that light waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation.

text: The interferometer is aligned so that the interference is constructive at C and destructive at D. If the bomb is a dud, it does not affect the split wave, and photons will only ever be detected at C. If a live bomb is placed in the lower path, it blocks this route and so destroys the interference pattern, and the photon will have a 50% chance of being detected in either detector (but never both). Note that even if the live bomb does not actually detect the photon, it still performs a measurement of whether the photon travels along that path (a negative-result measurement, in this case), and therefore still guarantees that the photon only travels along the upper path.

text: The interferometer is aligned so that the interference is constructive at C and destructive at D. If the bomb is a dud, it does not affect the split wave, and photons will only ever be detected at C. If a live bomb is placed in the lower path, it blocks this route and so destroys the interference pattern, and the photon will have a 50% chance of being detected in either detector (but never both). Note that even if the live bomb does not actually detect the photon, it still performs a measurement of whether the photon travels along that path (a

text: negative-result measurement

text: , in this case), and therefore still guarantees that the photon only travels along the upper path.

text: A longitudinal mode of a resonant cavity is a particular standing wave pattern formed by waves confined in the cavity. The longitudinal modes correspond to the wavelengths of the wave which are reinforced by constructive interference after many reflections from the cavity's reflecting surfaces. All other wavelengths are suppressed by destructive interference.

text: A longitudinal mode of a

text: resonant cavity

text: is a particular

text: standing wave

text: pattern formed by

text: wave

text: s confined in the cavity. The longitudinal modes correspond to the

text: wavelength

text: s of the wave which are reinforced by constructive

text: interference

text: after many reflections from the cavity's reflecting surfaces. All other wavelengths are suppressed by destructive interference.

text: Rather than using constructive and destructive interference, horns achieve directionality by reflecting sound into a specified coverage pattern. In a properly designed line array system, that pattern should closely match the low-frequency directional characteristic of the array. If the array's vertical dispersion is 60 degrees and there are 12 boxes, then each horn would need to have 5 degree vertical coverage. (Narrow vertical coverage has the benefit that it minimizes multiple arrivals, which would harm intelligibility.) If this is achieved, then the wave guide elements can be integrated into the line array and, with proper equalization and crossovers, the beam from the high frequencies and the constructive interference of the low frequencies can be made to align so that the resulting arrayed system provides consistent coverage.

text: As the term goes on for ever to higher and higher frequencies the square wave contains harmonics of the fundamental which go on upwards in frequency for ever, these harmonics are responsible for much of the interference created by computers. A modern PC is a device which is operating in the VHF/UHF frequency range using square waves. As the cases on many computers are not perfect shields, some of this radio frequency energy can leak out and cause interference to radio (and sometimes TV) reception.

text: As the term goes on for ever to higher and higher frequencies the square wave contains harmonics of the fundamental which go on upwards in frequency for ever, these harmonics are responsible for much of the interference created by

text: computer

text: s. A modern PC is a device which is operating in the

text: VHF

text: UHF

text: frequency range using

text: square wave

text: s. As the cases on many computers are not perfect shields, some of this radio frequency energy can leak out and cause interference to radio (and sometimes TV) reception.

text: In quantum mechanics, all objects have wave-like properties (see de Broglie waves). For instance, in Young's double-slit experiment electrons can be used in the place of light waves. Each electron's wave-function goes through both slits, and hence has two separate split-beams that contribute to the intensity pattern on a screen. According to standard wave theory these two contributions give rise to an intensity pattern of bright bands due to constructive interference, interlaced with dark bands due to destructive interference, on a downstream screen. This ability to interfere and diffract is related to coherence (classical or quantum) of the waves produced at both slits. The association of an electron with a wave is unique to quantum theory.

text: In

text: quantum mechanics

text: , all objects have wave-like properties (see

text: de Broglie wave

text: s). For instance, in Young's

text: double-slit experiment

text: electrons can be used in the place of light waves. Each electron's wave-function goes through both slits, and hence has two separate split-beams that contribute to the intensity pattern on a screen. According to standard wave theory these two contributions give rise to an intensity pattern of bright bands due to constructive interference, interlaced with dark bands due to destructive interference, on a downstream screen. This ability to interfere and diffract is related to coherence (classical or quantum) of the waves produced at both slits. The association of an electron with a wave is unique to quantum theory.

text: The waves are most often generated with a mechanical wavemaker, although there are also wind–wave flumes with (additional) wave generation by an air flow over the water – with the flume closed above by a roof above the free surface. The wavemaker frequently consists of a translating or rotating rigid wave board. Modern wavemakers are computer controlled, and can generate besides periodic waves also random waves, solitary waves, wave groups or even tsunami-like wave motion. The wavemaker is at one end of the wave flume, and at the other end is the construction being tested, or a wave absorber (a beach or special wave absorbing constructions).

text: The waves are most often generated with a mechanical wavemaker, although there are also wind–wave flumes with (additional) wave generation by an air flow over the water – with the flume closed above by a roof above the free surface. The wavemaker frequently consists of a translating or rotating rigid wave board. Modern wavemakers are computer controlled, and can generate besides

text: periodic

text: waves also

text: random wave

text: s,

text: solitary wave

text: s,

text: wave group

text: s or even

text: tsunami

text: -like wave motion. The wavemaker is at one end of the wave flume, and at the other end is the construction being tested, or a wave absorber (a beach or special wave absorbing constructions).

text: Each degree of a pattern in a financial market has a name. Practitioners use symbols for each wave to indicate both function and degree—numbers for motive waves, letters for corrective waves (shown in the highest of the three idealized series of wave structures or degrees). Degrees are relative; they are defined by form, not by absolute size or duration. Waves of the same degree may be of very different size and/or duration.

text: Given that the slot critical dimension (distance between the high-index slabs or strips) is comparable to the exponential decay length of the fundamental eigenmode of the guided-wave structure, the resulting E-field normal to the high-index-contrast interfaces is enhanced in the slot and remains high across it. The power density in the slot is much higher than that in the high-index regions. Since wave propagation is due to total internal reflection, there is no interference effect involved and the slot-structure exhibits very low wavelength sensitivity.

text: Given that the slot critical dimension (distance between the high-index slabs or strips) is comparable to the

text: exponential decay

text: length of the fundamental

text: eigenmode

text: of the guided-wave structure, the resulting E-field normal to the high-index-contrast interfaces is enhanced in the slot and remains high across it. The power density in the slot is much higher than that in the high-index regions. Since wave propagation is due to total internal reflection, there is no interference effect involved and the slot-structure exhibits very low wavelength sensitivity.

text: An experiment performed in 1987  produced results that demonstrated that information could be obtained regarding which path a particle had taken without destroying the interference altogether. This showed the effect of measurements that disturbed the particles in transit to a lesser degree and thereby influenced the interference pattern only to a comparable extent. In other words, if one does not insist that the method used to determine which slit each photon passes through be completely reliable, one can still detect a (degraded) interference pattern.

text: Acoustical wall and ceiling panels can be constructed of many different materials and finishes. The ideal acoustical panels are those without a face or finish material that interferes with the acoustical infill or substrate.  Fabric covered panels are one way to maximize the acoustical absorption. The finish material is used to cover over the acoustical substrate. Mineral fiber board, or Micore, is a commonly used acoustical substrate. Finish materials often consist of fabric, wood or metal. Fabric can be wrapped around substrates to create what is referred to as a "pre-fabricated panel" if laid onto a wall, and require no modifications. Such fabrics are generally acoustically 'transparent, meaning that they do not impede a sound wave.

text: In elastodynamics, Love waves, named after Augustus Edward Hough Love, are horizontally polarized surface waves. The Love wave is a result of the interference of many shear waves (S–waves) guided by an elastic layer, which is welded to an elastic half space on one side while bordering a vacuum on the other side. In seismology, Love waves (also known as Q waves (Quer: German for lateral)) are surface seismic waves that cause horizontal shifting of the Earth during an earthquake. Augustus Edward Hough Love predicted the existence of Love waves mathematically in 1911.  They form a distinct class, different from other types of seismic waves, such as P-waves and S-waves (both body waves), or Rayleigh waves (another type of surface wave).  Love waves travel with a lower velocity than P- or S- waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves. These waves are observed only when there is a low velocity layer overlying a high velocity layer/ sub–layers.

text: In

text: elastodynamics

text: , Love waves, named after

text: Augustus Edward Hough Love

text: , are horizontally

text: polarized

text: surface wave

text: s. The Love wave is a result of the

text: interference

text: of many

text: shear wave

text: s (S–waves) guided by an elastic layer, which is welded to an elastic half space on one side while bordering a vacuum on the other side. In

text: seismology

text: , Love waves (also known as Q waves (Quer: German for lateral)) are

text: surface

text: seismic wave

text: s that cause horizontal shifting of the Earth during an

text: earthquake

text: . Augustus Edward Hough Love predicted the existence of Love waves mathematically in 1911.  They form a distinct class, different from other types of

text: seismic wave

text: s, such as

text: P-wave

text: s and

text: S-wave

text: s (both

text: body wave

text: s), or

text: Rayleigh waves

text: (another type of surface wave).  Love waves travel with a lower velocity than P- or S- waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves. These waves are observed only when there is a low velocity layer overlying a high velocity layer/ sub–layers.

text: In the United States, legislative authority to erect a bridge is necessary in three cases: first, when toll is demanded for its use—the right to take toll being a franchise which cannot be claimed without express grant from the state; second, when the state owns the bed of the stream over which the bridge extends, as is the case in all public or navigable streams; third, when the structure interferes or threatens to interfere with navigation. In the last case the authority of state governments is subject to the power given to Congress by the Federal Constitution to “regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states.” (Art. I., §8.) The states may authorize bridges over navigable streams, and may regulate their size, form, and manner of construction. Until Congress intervenes in such cases the power of the states is unlimited. When it does intervene, however, its will is supreme, and its legislation, within the limits of the constitutional grant, overrides that of any state. A bridge constructed over a navigable river in accordance with an act of Congress is a lawful structure, however much it may interfere with the public right of navigation.

text: In the

text: United States

text: , legislative authority to erect a bridge is necessary in three cases: first, when toll is demanded for its use—the right to take toll being a

text: franchise

text: which cannot be claimed without express grant from the

text: state

text: ; second, when the state owns the bed of the stream over which the bridge extends, as is the case in all public or navigable streams; third, when the structure interferes or threatens to interfere with navigation. In the last case the authority of state governments is subject to the power given to

text: Congress

text: by the

text: Federal Constitution

text: to “regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states.” (Art. I., §8.) The states may authorize bridges over navigable streams, and may regulate their size, form, and manner of construction. Until Congress intervenes in such cases the power of the states is unlimited. When it does intervene, however, its will is supreme, and its legislation, within the limits of the constitutional grant, overrides that of any state. A bridge constructed over a navigable river in accordance with an act of Congress is a lawful structure, however much it may interfere with the public right of

text: navigation

text: Where incident light is monochromatic in nature, interference patterns appear as light and dark bands. Light bands correspond to regions at which constructive interference is occurring between the reflected waves and dark bands correspond to destructive interference regions. As the thickness of the film varies from one location to another, the interference may change from constructive to destructive. A good example of this phenomenon, termed "Newton's rings," demonstrates the interference pattern that results when light is reflected from a spherical surface adjacent to a flat surface. Concentric rings are viewed when the surface is illuminated with monochromatic light.

text: Where incident light is

text: monochromatic

text: in nature, interference patterns appear as light and dark bands. Light bands correspond to regions at which constructive interference is occurring between the reflected waves and dark bands correspond to destructive interference regions. As the thickness of the film varies from one location to another, the interference may change from constructive to destructive. A good example of this phenomenon, termed "

text: Newton's rings

text: ," demonstrates the interference pattern that results when light is reflected from a spherical surface adjacent to a flat surface. Concentric rings are viewed when the surface is illuminated with monochromatic light.

text: In one dimension, two waves with the same frequency, wavelength and amplitude traveling in opposite directions will interfere and produce a standing wave or stationary wave. For example: a wave traveling to the right along a taut string held stationary at its right end will reflect back in the other direction along the string, and the two waves will superpose to produce a standing wave. The reflected wave has to have the same amplitude and frequency as the incoming wave. The phenomenon can be demonstrated mathematically by deriving the equation for the sum of two oppositely moving waves:

text: The QRS complex is a name for the combination of three of the graphical deflections seen on a typical electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG). It is usually the central and most visually obvious part of the tracing. It corresponds to the depolarization of the right and left ventricles of the human heart. In adults, it normally lasts 0.06–0.10 s; in children and during physical activity, it may be shorter. The Q, R, and S waves occur in rapid succession, do not all appear in all leads, and reflect a single event, and thus are usually considered together. A Q wave is any downward deflection after the P wave. An R wave follows as an upward deflection, and the S wave is any downward deflection after the R wave.  The T wave follows the S wave, and in some cases an additional U wave follows the T wave.

text: The QRS complex is a name for the combination of three of the graphical deflections seen on a typical

text: electrocardiogram (EKG or ECG)

text: . It is usually the central and most visually obvious part of the tracing. It corresponds to the

text: depolarization

text: of the right and left

text: ventricles

text: of the

text: human heart

text: . In adults, it normally lasts 0.06–0.10 s; in children and during physical activity, it may be shorter. The Q, R, and S waves occur in rapid succession, do not all appear in all leads, and reflect a single event, and thus are usually considered together. A Q wave is any downward deflection after the

text: P wave

text: . An R wave follows as an upward deflection, and the S wave is any downward deflection after the R wave.  The

text: T wave

text: follows the S wave, and in some cases an additional

text: U wave

text: follows the T wave.

text: The school is situated between residential and industrial areas in Long Island City, Queens. The main entrance for all students, staff, and visitors is located on the corner of 38th Street and 47th Avenue. LaGuardia Community College is six blocks to the west, Aviation High School is one block to the west, and Queens Boulevard is one block to the north.

text: The school is situated between residential and industrial areas in

text: Long Island City, Queens

text: . The main entrance for all students, staff, and visitors is located on the corner of 38th Street and 47th Avenue.

text: LaGuardia Community College

text: is six blocks to the west,

entity_name: Aviation Career & Technical Education High School

text: Aviation High School

text: is one block to the west, and

text: Queens Boulevard

text: is one block to the north.

text: All of SR 618 runs through the southwestern portion of Washington County.  This highway is not included as a part of the National Highway System (NHS).  The NHS is a system of routes deemed to be most important for the economy, mobility and defense of the country.

text: All of SR 618 runs through the southwestern portion of

text: Washington County

text: .  This highway is not included as a part of the

text: National Highway System

text: (NHS).  The NHS is a system of routes deemed to be most important for the economy, mobility and defense of the country.

text: Michael F. Armstrong (born in 1932) is an American lawyer.

text: When, however, wave amplitudes are not very small (for surface waves: when the fluid surface is inclined by more than few degrees) waves with different frequencies start to interact. That leads to an excitation of waves with frequencies and wavelengths in wide intervals, not necessarily in resonance with an external source. It can be observed in the experiments with a high amplitude of shaking that initially the waves appear which are in resonance. Thereafter both longer and shorter waves appear as a result of wave interaction. The appearance of shorter waves is referred to as a direct cascade while longer waves are part of an inverse cascade of wave turbulence.

text: When, however, wave amplitudes are not very small (for surface waves: when the fluid surface is inclined by more than few degrees) waves with different frequencies start to

text: interact

text: . That leads to an excitation of waves with frequencies and wavelengths in wide intervals, not necessarily in resonance with an external source. It can be observed in the experiments with a high amplitude of shaking that initially the waves appear which are in

text: resonance

text: . Thereafter both longer and shorter waves appear as a result of wave interaction. The appearance of shorter waves is referred to as a direct cascade while longer waves are part of an

text: inverse cascade

text: of wave turbulence.

text: Corbet's involvement in regional and local affairs only increased with time. From 1573 to 1578 he was Shropshire's commissioner in matters as diverse as oyer and terminer, a key function in managing the judicial system, for sewers, and for the survey of tanneries. When Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex, a key territorial magnate in the region, died in 1576, his will appointed Corbet one of a group of officials to act as feoffees of his estates.

text: Corbet's involvement in regional and local affairs only increased with time. From 1573 to 1578 he was Shropshire's commissioner in matters as diverse as

text: oyer and terminer

text: , a key function in managing the judicial system, for

text: sewers

text: , and for the survey of

text: tanneries

text: . When

text: Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex

text: , a key territorial magnate in the region, died in 1576, his will appointed Corbet one of a group of officials to act as

text: feoffee

text: s of his estates.

text: In response, Octavian increased the personal attacks against Antony, but the Senate and people of Rome were not convinced. Octavian’s chance came when Antony married Cleopatra in 32 BC before he divorced Octavia. That action combined with information that Antony was planning to establish a second Senate in Alexandria created the perfect environment for Octavian to strip Antony of his power.

text: In response, Octavian increased the personal attacks against Antony, but the

text: Senate and people of Rome

text: were not convinced. Octavian’s chance came when Antony married Cleopatra in 32 BC before he divorced Octavia. That action combined with information that Antony was planning to establish a second Senate in Alexandria created the perfect environment for Octavian to strip Antony of his power.

text: Vsevolod Aksenov (); 1902 - 1960) - was a Soviet theater actor, master of artistic expression. Honored Artist of the RSFSR (1947). Winner of the Stalin Prize of the first degree (1948).

text: Standing waves were first discovered by Franz Melde, who coined the term "standing wave" (German: stehende Welle or Stehwelle) around 1860.

text: Standing waves were first discovered by

text: Franz Melde

text: , who coined the term "standing wave" (German: stehende Welle or Stehwelle) around 1860.

text: The hospital originally opened in 1832 taking only patients from the Bristol area, and expanding to outside Bristol in 1850. At the time of its closure, the hospital covered Bristol and North Somerset unitary authorities.

text: The hospital originally opened in 1832 taking only patients from the Bristol area, and expanding to outside Bristol in 1850. At the time of its closure, the hospital covered Bristol and

text: North Somerset

text: unitary authorities

text: Pulsipher has played the past few winters for Puerto Rico and the Caribbean league while continuing to play in the independent leagues as well as the Mexican League. He started the 2010 season the pitcher/pitching coach for the GBL's Yuma Scorpions. Pulsipher returned to playing midseason, rejoining the Atlantic League pitching for the Somerset Patriots and re-signed with the Patriots for the 2011 season.

text: Pulsipher has played the past few winters for Puerto Rico and the Caribbean league while continuing to play in the independent leagues as well as the

text: Mexican League

text: . He started the 2010 season the pitcher/pitching coach for the GBL's

text: Yuma Scorpions

text: . Pulsipher returned to playing midseason, rejoining the Atlantic League pitching for the

text: Somerset Patriots

text: and re-signed with the Patriots for the 2011 season.

text: Like its parent compound, PEA, and isomer, amphetamine, NMPEA is a potent agonist of human TAAR1.  It has comparable pharmacodynamic and toxicodynamic properties to that of phenethylamine, amphetamine, and other methylphenethylamines in rats.

text: Like its parent compound, PEA, and isomer,

text: amphetamine

text: , NMPEA is a potent

text: agonist

text: of human

text: .  It has comparable

text: pharmacodynamic

text: and

text: toxicodynamic

text: properties to that of phenethylamine, amphetamine, and other

text: methylphenethylamine

text: s in rats.

text: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy is a book on economics (and in other levels, on sociology and history) by Joseph Schumpeter, arguably the most (or one of the most) famous, debated and important book by Schumpeter, and one of the most famous, debated and important books on social theory, social sciences and economics, in which he deals with capitalism, socialism and creative destruction. First published in 1942, it is largely unmathematical compared with neoclassical works, focusing on the unexpected, rapid spurts of entrepreneur-driven growth instead of static models.

text: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy is a book on economics (and in other levels, on sociology and history) by

text: Joseph Schumpeter

text: , arguably the most (or one of the most) famous, debated and important book by Schumpeter, and one of the most famous, debated and important books on

text: social theory

text: , social sciences and economics, in which he deals with

text: capitalism

text: socialism

text: and

text: creative destruction

text: . First published in 1942, it is largely unmathematical compared with

text: neoclassical

text: works, focusing on the unexpected, rapid spurts of entrepreneur-driven growth instead of static models.

text: CRC is headquartered in Warminster, Pennsylvania, and markets products through subsidiaries in the United States, Australia, Germany, Belgium, United Kingdom and New Zealand.

text: CRC is headquartered in

entity_name: Warminster Township, Bucks County, Pennsylvania

text: Warminster, Pennsylvania

text: , and markets products through subsidiaries in the United States, Australia, Germany, Belgium, United Kingdom and New Zealand.

text: Theobaldia annulata

text: Theobaldia annulata

text: The SB-33 is a small Italian minimum metal blast type anti-personnel mine formerly manufactured by Misar, that entered service in 1977. The SB-33 can be emplaced by hand or scattered using the helicopter mounted SY-AT system.

text: The SB-33 is a small

text: Italian

text: minimum metal

text: blast type

text: anti-personnel mine

text: formerly manufactured by

text: Misar

text: , that entered service in 1977. The SB-33 can be emplaced by hand or scattered using the helicopter mounted SY-AT system.

text: Community services are provided by the California Valley Community Service District (CSD). This includes road maintenance and limited trash service.  The Community Center includes a fire station, small library, and community assembly hall.  The address is 13084 Soda Lake Road, on the south side of Soda Lake Road, approximately  south of Highway 58, in the village of California Valley.

text: The first county council elections were held on 6 April 1899, and the first business of their inaugural meetings being the appointment of additional members. The triennial elections were postponed in 1914 on the outbreak of World War I.

text: The first county council elections were held on 6 April 1899, and the first business of their inaugural meetings being the appointment of additional members. The triennial elections were postponed in 1914 on the outbreak of

text: World War I

text: Pedro Chacón (1526 in Toledo – 1581 in Rome) was a Spanish mathematician and theologian.

text: Pedro Chacón (1526 in

text: Toledo

text: – 1581 in

text: Rome

text: ) was a Spanish mathematician and theologian.

text: The Babylonian Talmud (b.Sanhedrin 89a) accepts that the scene literally occurred in heaven. Against this Judah Halevi (Kuzari 3.73) considered the "prophecy" to be an example of the prophet's own rhetoric. Judah Halevi is followed by David Kimhi who argues that "prophecy is true by definition", and therefore Micaiah himself presented the vivid scene, using poetic dramatization to frighten and convince Ahab - "not that he saw these things, nor did he hear them."

text: The

text: Babylonian Talmud

text: (b.Sanhedrin 89a) accepts that the scene literally occurred in heaven. Against this

text: Judah Halevi

text: (Kuzari 3.73) considered the "prophecy" to be an example of the prophet's own

text: rhetoric

text: . Judah Halevi is followed by

text: David Kimhi

text: who argues that "prophecy is true by definition", and therefore Micaiah himself presented the vivid scene, using poetic dramatization to frighten and convince Ahab - "not that he saw these things, nor did he hear them."

text: Here is a list of compositions with their original titles by Paul Wachs:

text: The member states of the union are members; however the Council Regulation establishing it provided that other states may become members of it by means of agreements concluded between them and the EU.

text: The

text: member states

text: of the union are members; however the Council Regulation establishing it provided that other states may become members of it by means of agreements concluded between them and the EU.

text: Australian Music Online has an Alexa traffic rating of 430,350, with a rank of 19,854 for Australian internet users.

text: Australian Music Online has an

text: Alexa

text: traffic rating of 430,350, with a rank of 19,854 for Australian internet users.

text: where ∗ stands for the periodic convolution and

text: where ∗ stands for the periodic

text: convolution

text: and

text: th band and the positron wave function

text: th band and the positron wave function

text: Wave Monkey

text: Wave Monkey

text: Normalizing the wave function to unity:

text: Normalizing

text: the wave function to unity: